






LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 


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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 


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NT 


JOHNSONS 

N E W 


UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA: 

A 

SCIENTIFIC AND POPULAR 

TEEASUEY 


OF 


USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 


ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS, PLANS, AND ENGRAVINGS. 


EDITORS-IN-CHIEF. 

FREDERICK A. P. BARNARD, S.T.D., LL.D., L.H.D., M.N.A.S., 

PRESIDENT OF COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK; 

ARNOLD GUYOT, Ph. D., LL.D., M.N.A.S., 

PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY. 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS. 


Martin B. Anderson, LL.D., 

President of the University of Rochester, N. Y.; 

John (t. Barnard, A. M., LL.D., M. N.A.S., 

Col. U. S. Engineers, Bvt. Major-Gen. U. S. A. 

Chas. F. Chandler, Ph.D., M.D., LL.D., M.N.A.S. 

Prof. Anal. Chem., School of Mines, Columbia College 

Aaron L. Chapin, S. T. D., 

President of Beloit College, Wisconsin 

Henry Drisler, LL.D., 

Jay Professor of Greek, Columbia College 

Theodore W. Dwight, LL.D., 

Professor of Municipal Law, Columbia College 
Octavius B. Frothingham, A.M., 

Pastor Third Unitarian Society, N. Y. City 

Horace Greeley, LL.D., 

Founder of the New York Tribune 

William T. Harris, A.M., LL.D., 

Ed. of The Journal of Speculative Phil., St. Louis, Mo. 

Roswell D. Hitchcock, S. T. D., LL.D., 

Washburne Prof, of Ch. Hist., Union Theo. Sem., N. Y. 


Charles P. Krauth, S. T. D., 

Vice-Provost of the University of Penn. 

George P. Marsh, LL.D., 

Envoy Extr. and Minis. Plenipo. of the U. S. at Rome, Italy 

John S. Newberry, M.D., LL.D., M.N.A.S., 

Prof, of Geology and Palaeontology, Columbia College 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N., 

Commodore, in charge of Signal Bureau, Navy Dept. 

Willard Parker, M. D., LL.D., 

Professor of Surgery, Columbia College, Med. Dept. 

Julius H. Seelye, S. T.D., 

Prof. Mental and Moral Phil., Amherst College, Mass. 

Alexander H. Stephens, LL.D., 

Of Georgia, Member 43d Congress, U. S. A. 

Abel Stevens, A.M., LL.D., 

Editor of The Methodist, New York 

Thomas O. Summers, S. T. D., LL.D., 

Professor of Syst. Theol., Vanderbilt Univ., Tenn. 

William P. Trowbridge, A.M., M.N.A.S., 

Higgin Prof, of Dynamical Eng’ing, Yale College, Conn. 


Theodore D. Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D., 

Ex-President of Yale College, New Haven. 


ASSISTANT EDITORS. 

Linus P. Brockett, A. M., M. D., Charles W. Greene, A.M., M.D., 

Clemens Petersen, A.M. 


WITH NUMEROUS CONTRIBUTIONS FROM WRITERS OF DISTINGUISHED EMINENCE IN EVERY DEPARTMENT 
OF LETTERS AND SCIENCE IN THE UNTTED STATES AND IN EUROPE. 


Complete itr (fierce Uolumcs. 


VOLUME I 

A.-U. 



A 


NEW YORK: 

,T. JOHNSON & SO 1ST, 

11 GREAT JONES STREET (Near Broadway). 

W. I). CUMMINGS, PITTSBURG, PA. 

M DOCCLXX V. 





















































A£S 

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Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year One Thousand Eight Hundred and Seventy-four, 
by A. J. JOHNSON, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 




electrotypep by 
Westcott & Thomson, 
Philadelphia. 


printed by 

S. W. Green, 18 Jacob Street, 

New York. 


paper manufactured by 
The Seymour Paper Company, 
New York. 


BOUND BY 

.Tames Somerville, 
New York. 

































the great philanthropist and public educa¬ 
tor—whom, only to know was to love—this 
Universal Cyclopedia, which he planned and 
assisted in editing in part, is reverently dedi¬ 
cated by his devoted friend and household 

companion, THE PUBLISHER. 








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Publisher’s Announcement. 


« 


With profound gratitude to the American people for the unprecedented favor heretofore ex¬ 
tended to him—a favor which has manifested itself in the purchase of more than half a million 
copies of his previous publications—the Publisher now takes pleasure in laying before the same 
generous public the entirely new and very elaborate work herewith presented, entitled Johnson’s 
New Universal Cyclopaedia. In doing this he respectfully solicits the continuance, of the 
liberal patronage which has been thus far bestowed on him, and which he has endeavored to 
deserve by faithfully laboring to meet the intellectual wants of an enlightened and cultivated 
people. He does not claim perfection for this work, though it has been prepared without regard 
to labor or expense. Still, whatever imperfections the critical eye may discover in it, no one 
who gives it a candid examination can fail to concede that it possesses, in many important par¬ 
ticulars, such a superiority over any other encyclopaedia yet published as must make it invaluable, 
if not indispensable, to the scholar, the man of business, and the general reader. 

To explain the principles which have governed the preparation of this work belongs properly 
to the province of the Editors. The Publisher may, nevertheless, be permitted to observe, that 
in bringing together the vast amount of material here accumulated, recourse has been had to 
every accessible source of authentic information. -The most recent publications, not only in Eng¬ 
lish, but in all the leading languages of the continent of Europe (particularly the German, French, 
and Italian), have been constantly consulted. And in order to guard against the possibility of 
being betrayed into error by relying too implicitly on printed authorities, all articles compiled from 
such sources have been subjected to the scrutiny of accomplished critics in the departments of 
knowledge to which they severally belong. A very important feature in the plan, moreover, which 
has been systematically pursued throughout, has been to place all the most important subjects 
in the hands of living authorities of distinguished eminence, to be originally treated expressly 
for this work. Each of the articles thus specially prepared is attested by the signature of its 
author; and, immediately following this Announcement, a list of the many eminent writers who 
have been already thus engaged is given in full. 

The original suggestion of this work is due to the late Hon. Horace Greeley, LL.D., for more 
than ten years the intimate friend of the undersigned, and for the last two years or more of his life 
a member of his family. It has been dedicated to his memory, therefore, not only in testimony 
to the warm personal regard which, during this long period, he won to himself by his many kindly 
traits of character; but also in just recognition of his early participation in the preparation of the 
work itself, and of the fact that it may, without impropriety, be said to owe to him its existence. 

As an indefatigable laborer and prolific writer for the daily press (to say nothing of the more 
permanent monuments of literary industry which he created in the course of a long and “ busy 
life ”), dealing constantly with topics of immediate and stirring interest in the political, industrial, 
and social world, where the whole force of an argument or trustworthiness of a conclusion must 
depend constantly on the correctness of the assumed premises, Mr. Greeley had long felt the need 
of a comprehensive book of general reference better adapted to his needs, and to the needs of all 
active workers like himself, than any then in existence. His experience taught him that the 
existing encyclopaedias, all of which have their merits, fail to meet the wants of the class of busy 
and practical men to which he belonged, for several reasons. In the first place, they are generally 
too voluminous: occupying a whole shelf in a library, instead of a corner of a writing-table, they 
cannot be consulted without disarrangement, loss of time, and serious inconvenience. 'Secondly, # 
since many of their articles have much the form of treatises, the important facts in them of which 
the busy man is in need are spread over a large surface, and can only be found by a search 
involving vexatious delay. And thirdly, in respect to accuracy of statement and freshness of 













VI 


PUBLISHER’S ANNOUNCEMENT. 


information, these works are very unequal. Even in the new editions of the most approved ency¬ 
clopaedias—editions professedly rewritten throughout—errors of long standing continue in many 
instances to be perpetuated, and statistical and scientific statements which belong to a period 
long passed by are often presented. 

The busy man’s cj^clopaedia, according to Mr. Greeley, should be something different in every 
one of the particulars here specified. It should be, first of all, a table-book: that with him was 
a sine qua non. It should, furthermore, be pre-eminently a book of facts, and to a very limited 
extent, if at all, a volume of discussions or of critical opinions. Finally, it should be severely 
and uniformly accurate; and should be brought up, in every article, to the actual state of 
knowledge at the date of publication. With Mr. Greeley, to perceive a mode in which the 
world might be benefited was to feel an irrepressible desire to secure the benefit. In many 
earnest conversations, two years or more before the end of his useful life, he urged upon the 
undersigned himself to undertake the publication of a work of such a character as is here briefly 
outlined; promising to contribute personally a large share of the literary labor which the prep¬ 
aration of the work woulc^ require. The magnitude of the pecuniary responsibility involved in so 
vast an enterprise prevented an immediate acquiescence in this proposal; and it was only after it 
had been repeatedly presented that the undersigned finally yielded to these pressing solicitations, 
and consented to assume the heavy burden. Some of the words used by the zealous originator 
and early advocate of the scheme, in the conversations above referred to, are still remembered; 
and now that he has passed away for ever, they may perhaps be read with interest, as illustrating 
his peculiarities of expression in earnest social intercourse with his daily associates. The decis¬ 
ion of the undersigned to comply in this matter with the wishes of his distinguished friend was 
reached during a drive with Mr. Greeley in the Central Park of New York City in December, 1870 ; 
and in the course of that memorable drive, Mr. Greeley said, emphatically, “ I want just three 
books constantly at my elbow when I am writing: Johnson's Family Atlas of the World, Webster's Dic¬ 
tionary, and an Encyclopaedia of not more than four volumes—three would be better; and this book 
should have every general article abridged as much as possible, or, as they say in Vermont, ‘ boiled 
down.’ ” In another explanation of his views as to the kind of condensation to be given to the 
work, he said, “ I don’t care upon whose shoulders Humboldt’s cloak may have fallen, or if he 
had one, even; but I simply want to know when and where he was born, what he did, and when 
he died. The rest would be good for nothing except to lumber up the book. The lives and labors 
of men are the best kind of history, and the history that is needed; but lengthy dissertations upon 
them in a book of reference would be misplaced.” 

The preparation of the work having been resolved on, and Mr. Greeley having promised it 
from the beginning the aid of his counsel and his pen, it might naturally have been anticipated 
that he would cheerfully assume, or perhaps claim as due to him of right, the position of its 
Editor-in-chief. This, however, would have been impracticable with him, considering the nume¬ 
rous and absorbing duties already pressing upon him; which did not prevent him, however, from 
allowing his name to be placed as that of an associate on the editorial staff. He gave to the 
matter probably as much thought as if he had been in the chief direction, but he had not time to 
attend in person to the practical execution of the working plans. As soon as the proper literary 
assistance could be secured, repeated consultations took place between the Editors and the Pub¬ 
lisher in the private room of Mr. Greeley at the residence of the undersigned in this city; and in 
these conferences he unfolded his views in so lucid and masterly a manner as strongly to impress 
all who heard him with admiration of his comprehensive grasp of the subject, and to convince 
them of his own wonderful fitness to contribute personally to the successful execution of the 
scheme. 

Before the business arrangements for prosecuting the work had been actually completed, it 
occurred to the undersigned that there might be some advantage in transferring the responsibility 
of the publication to some other well-known publishing house in this city or elsewhere; reserving 
only to himself the task of managing the sale. Messrs. Charles Scribner & Co. of New York, and 
afterwards Messrs. James R. Osgood & Co. of Boston, were applied to, but without success; for 
while, on other accounts, they were not indisposed to regard the proposition favorably, they hesi¬ 
tated to stake upon a single enterprise so large an amount of capital as seemed likely to be 
required to carry out this work with the thoroughness contemplated. This caused, however, only 
a temporary delay. After having put his hand to the plough, the undersigned had at no time 
the idea of looking back; and when it became evident that, if the work was to be carried through, 
the entire responsibility must rest upon himself alone, he came to the deliberate conclusion 
that his shoulders were broad enough to bear it. In point of fact, however, the cost of the 
publication has proved even more serious than was at first anticipated. The design from the 
beginning having been to make a good book, no other consideration has been at any time allowed 
to interfere for a moment with it. The circle of eminent contributors has been constantly 
extending; and it is believed that no similar work has ever been produced in this country, or 
elsewhere, in which the literary labor of preparation has been more liberally compensated. At 
















PUBLISHER’S ANNOUNCEMENT. 


this very time arrangements are nearly completed by the Editors, by means of which the future 
volumes of the work will be enriched by a largely increased number of articles from distinguished 
foreign contributors; and some of these articles have already been received. Judging from the 
experience of the past, it is a reasonable estimate to say that the complete work will involve an 
outlay which cannot fall much below $200,000, and may materially exceed that large sum. 

The active labor of preparing the work was vigorously set on foot as early as the spring of 1871, 
under the direction, at first, of two editors only, but with an able and thoroughly competent staff 
of regular writers, and the promised aid of many eminent special contributors. Mr. Greeley entered 
upon that part of the task which he had chosen for himself with even more than his wonted 
enthusiasm; and notwithstanding the multiplicity of his cares and the endless demands upon his 
time, his proper department never dragged so long as he was able to hold a pen. Even in the 
midst of the excitements which followed his nomination to the presidency in 1872, and under the 
oppressive heats of one of the most exhausting seasons ever known, he prepared the elaborate 
article on the “ Confederate States,” which will be found in this volume—an article which was 
probably the last important literary production of his life. In putting this, which proved to be 
his final contribution to the present work, into the hands of the undersigned, he remarked, with 
that simplicity which was his most striking characteristic, “ I hope it will be acceptable, for I 
have done my best to tell the truth, and not to offend the people of either the North or the South.” 

As the work advanced, and its magnitude began to be more fully appreciated by its conductors, 
the principle of the division of labor which had guided its execution from the beginning was 
brought more distinctly out, and made more efficacious, by enlarging the editorial corps, and 
incorporating into it men not only thoroughly competent to direct the several departments of 
which they assumed the charge, but known to be so by the public. Time also was given to such 
of these gentlemen as had not been engnged until after some progress had been made in preparing 
the electrotype plates, to revise thoroughly all of the work which had thus been put into shape, 
and to propose additions or emendations with the most perfect freedom; and all the suggestions 
of improvement made by them were unhesitatingly adopted without regard to expense. This has 
to some degree retarded the appearance of the volume, which it had been originally designed to 
lay before the public some time in 1878; but the Publisher has the satisfaction of believing that 
the delay thus occasioned has been vastly more than compensated, in having secured for the work 
the careful scrutiny and approval of the body of able and distinguished men -whose names appear 
on the title-page as Editors and Associate Editors. It is not without a feeling of natural pride 
that the Publisher calls public attention to the galaxy of talent there exhibited ; each depart¬ 
mental editor having been engaged in consequence of the honorable eminence already achieved 
by him in some one of the many paths of letters or science. No name has been included in the 
list merely to give an adventitious lustre to the book. All are the names of active workers, and 
they are placed there to give the public a secure guaranty of the trustworthiness of the varied 
information which these volumes embrace. 

There remains, in conclusion, one pleasant duty to discharge, that of making public and hon¬ 
orable mention of the efficient services rendered by those whose superior practical skill has 
clothed the work of the literary laborers in its visible garb; among whom should be named 
Mr. L. F. Thomas of Philadelphia, Pa., who read the proofs ; Messrs. Westcott & Thomson of the 
same city, who set up the type and made the plates; Messrs. Redman & Kenny of New York, 
who prepared nearly all the graphic illustrations ; Mr. C. X. Craig, who engraved the maps; and 
Messrs. T. W. Baker and F. S. Jones, who in a variety of ways have lent most valuable aid in 
furthering this colossal undertaking. 

The first volume of the work is now before the public, who will be able to judge for themselves 
how nearly it approaches to that ideal of excellence which should be the object of all human 
effort, but which no human effort can be expected ever completely to attain. One merit it may 
nevertheless claim, which is not likely to be disputed—that, having been prepared under the 
supervision of an editorial corps in which every section of the country and every leading religious 
denomination is represented, no shadow of political prejudice, or taint of sectional jealousy, or 
trace of sectarian bitterness, will be found to disfigure its pages. 

With these preliminary observations, which the occasion seemed to require, the undersigned 
has now only to make his best obeisance to the public and retire behind the scene; confident that 
the verdict which will presently be pronounced upon the fruit of so much care and labor and out¬ 
lay as have been lavished on this work, will be as favorable as it is certain to be just, and as it must 
be final. 

Faithfully, 

A. J. JOHNSON, 

Publisher of Atlases, Maps, and Books. 


11 Great Jones Street, New York 
( near Broadway), 

June, 1874. 


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PREFACE. 


When a new book of general reference is presented for the first time to the public, it 
becomes its originators to state the reasons which have induced them to undertake the 
labor of its preparation, and to explain the principles which have guided them in the 
performance of their task. There are many encyclopaedias already in existence, from the 
merits of which the present Editors are by no means disposed to detract. They, like most 
men whose lives are'given to study, have made much use of works of this description, 
and have learned by experience to appreciate their value. But the same experience has 
taught them that there are certain particulars in which all the works of this class with 
which they are acquainted are more or less unsatisfactory. 

In explanation of what is here meant, it must be premised that no cyclopaedia, however 
it may be named, can be, in the strictest sense, universal, and that therefore every such 
work must sometimes fail to respond to the demands of the inquirer. The misfortune is, 
that the particulars as to which these works are thus occasionally disappointing are too 
often precisely those on which information is most frequently needed in the ordinary 
affairs of life. In statistics, for example, they deal much in aggregates and little in details. 
In geography they are full upon countries, and provinces, and capitals, and populous cities; 
but whatever lies beyond this they leave to the gazetteers. And while, as to the men whose 
names have come down to us from other times, the information they furnish leaves little 
to desire, in regard to those who have made themselves conspicuous among the living gen¬ 
eration, they are either silent, or their notices are imperfect and few. 

But, in the second place, the information which these works contain is often scattered 
through too large a space: facts of detail, of which the need is immediate and pressing, 
are so submerged beneath the multitude of words that the hurried inquirer finds his time 
and his patience alike too limited to permit him to study them out. The works of this 
class which have cost their editors the largest labor and their publishers the largest outlay 
—such, for instance, as the “Encyclopaedia Metropolitana” and the “Encyclopaedia Britan- 
n i ca ».—have, as a necessary consequence of their ambitious design, and in virtue of the 
very pains expended in carrying this faithfully out, sacrificed to a great degree their every¬ 
day usefulness. For quiet perusal, with abundance of leisure, they are invaluable; but 
they are libraries rather than books of reference. They are in no proper sense diction¬ 
aries, but groups of systematic treatises loosely linked together; and though their general 
titles are arranged in alphabetic order, they can only be conveniently consulted for the 
purposes of occasional reference by the aid of an independent index. 

But, thirdly, these elaborate and costly works have not only the character of a library, 
they have almost the bulk of a library. They fill many volumes, and occupy so large an 
amount of space as to unfit them altogether for table use. A condition indispensable to 
the usefulness of a book of reference is, nevertheless, that it shall be always near the 
inquirer’s hand—on the table of the student, on the desk of the merchant, on the bench 
of the artisana condition which deprives every voluminous cyclopaedia, however great 
in other respects may be its merits, of its principal practical value for the every-day uses 
of practical men. 

Another fault of most works of this class is, that the information they give cannot 
always be trusted. In this respect they are very unequal. An article, for example, in 



















PREFACE. 


x 

the “ Encyclopaedia Britannica,” which bears the signature of Thomas Young, or Henry 
Brougham, or Sir John Herschel, will of course command universal confidence; but 
besides such as these, there are in the same work many articles of unknown authorship, 
derived probably, in most instances, from previous similar publications, and originally 
affected by unsuspected errors which they continue to perpetuate. 

Finally, it is too often the case that books of general reference are behind the actual 
state of knowledge at the date of their publication. In the progress of the sciences, in 
the growth and decline of industries, in the incessant social and political mutations which 
time brings with it, any occasional resume of the aspects of human affairs must largely 
lose in value in proportion as the point of time for which it is true recedes into the past. 
Ever} 7 " inquirer, therefore, who has sought from books of reference information as to mat¬ 
ters of living interest, must have been often disappointed to find that, while they tell him 
so very much, they fail to tell him precisely what he wants to know. 

Entering thus upon their task with a lively recollection of the particulars in which 
they have found the books of general reference at their command to fail them at their 
need, the Editors of this one have faithfully labored, not wholly they trust without success, 
to avoid the faults here signalized. To this end, considering in the outset that no work, 
however comprehensive its scope, can be absolutely exhaustive of all human knowledge, 
they have aimed to give the largest space to matters concerning which the need of exact 
information is most generally and most frequently felt; keeping in view, at the same time, 
the wants of the student in his closet, and those of the practical man in the daily affairs 
of life. 

They have, secondly, treated all large subjects analytically , exhibiting each elementary 
topic under its own head in alphabetic order. Titles are thus multiplied and separate 
articles abridged. The work becomes its own index, and is made to combine the character 
of a dictionary with that of a cyclopaidia. Upon topics of principal importance or of 
immediate and living interest, nevertheless, it has not been considered incompatible with 
this plan to introduce systematic essays; but these when admitted are practically indexed, 
by including their subordinate titles in the alphabetic arrangement, with cross-references 
to the principal articles. The accuracy of the information conveyed in these more elabo¬ 
rate essays is in all cases attested by the signatures of their writers, who will be recognized 
in general as the highest authorities on the subjects thus treated. In the list of these 
valued contributors, elsewhere given, will be noticed the names of very many gentlemen 
of distinguished eminence in letters and science in the United States and in Europe; and 
negotiations recently completed, or now in progress, with foreign writers no less eminent, 
will largely extend this list for the future volumes. 

In the articles of the class by far most numerous, however, the principle has been 
adhered to of compressing the largest number of facts or truths into the smallest possible 
compass. These articles are therefore very brief, but pithy in proportion to their brevity. 
Comments, discussions, speculations—even, as a rule, criticisms upon the chefs (Vceuvre of 
art or letters—have been avoided. These have no fit place in a book of reference, of which 
the proper object is to give facts of positive knowledge, and not the opinions of men about 
such facts. This was the principle laid down by the eminent man with whom, as the Pub- * 
lisher has elsewhere stated in a narrative of deep interest, the project of this work origin¬ 
ated. “ Give me the facts—I will find you the words,” seems always to have been the 
unuttered motto of Horace Greeley. And the only book of reference which Mr. Greeley 
required was a book of facts. The character of the present work will be found to have 
been largely controlled by this fundamental principle of its projector. Had he lived to 
rejoice with us in its publication, it might have been more largely so; but the present 
editors have remembered that to most men facts are sometimes made more useful, and 
principles more intelligible, by concise illustrations of their significancy. 

Still, the condensation given to the articles in general has made it possible to introduce 
an amount of information in detail, principally geographical, biographical, and statistical, 
quite beyond what will be found in any other cyclopaedia. 

1. As to Geography. So far as the United States are concerned, this work is a complete 
gazetteer. Every township in every State or Territory will be found recorded in its proper 
place, with its population according to the census of 1870; and every town of more than 










PREFACE. 


xi 

one thousand inhabitants has been written up expressly for this work by a competent 
authority resident on the spot, wherever such could be found. The larger towns, and the 
States themselves, have been made the subjects of elaborate articles by accomplished 
experts, whose names, attached to the articles, will be a sufficient guaranty of the fidelity 
with which they have been prepared. 

Nor has foreign geography been a subject of less careful or less conscientious attention, 
although it has not been followed into so minute detail as that of our own country. Com¬ 
pact notices are given of all towns numbering more than five thousand inhabitants; in 
which are exhibited all the important statistical facts relating to them, whether industrial, 
educational, social, religious, or in any manner otherwise interesting. Every important 
country has been treated, by specially competent writers, in a variety of aspects, including 
its physical geography; its political divisions; its growth or decline in population; its 
geology, natural history, and mineral resources; its agriculture and manufactures, and 
their characteristic products; its commerce and commercial marine; its inland navigation 
and railway communications; its political institutions; its systems of civil and criminal 
jurisprudence; its postal and telegraphic service; its provision for the maintenance of 
religion, the support of education, the cultivation of art, and the encouragement of 
science; its methods of organized benevolence; its literature, ephemeral and permanent; 
its military and naval strength; and finally, in brief outline sketch, the history of its past, 
as a key to its actual condition. Provinces and large towns have been treated in accord¬ 
ance with the same plan, in so far as it is applicable to them; and, for the volumes which 
are to follow, arrangements recently concluded will secure a more effectual execution of 
the plan than is shown even in the thorough and carefully studied articles contained in 
the present. Hereafter, foreign countries and their principal towns will be described by 
eminent foreign writers, members of the geographical and statistical societies of European 
capitals, or gentlemen of distinguished reputation whose studies have been specially 
devoted to these subjects. Some of the articles prepared under these arrangements for the 
ensuing volume have already been received. 

2. As to Biography. In this department, the present work may fairly claim a certain 
merit, not only for what it has added of matter wholly new, but also for what it has 
omitted. Many names handed down from the distant past, which have long encumbered 
the dictionaries of biography without sensibly enhancing their value, will be looked for in 
the present publication in vain. They are names of men who were no doubt useful in their 
day, but who have been long since nearly swallowed up in that practical oblivion which 
awaits the great majority of mankind, however prominent among the men of their own 
generation. The space thus gained has been more usefully filled, by introducing in large 
number the biographies of living men, whose names are constantly encountered in journals 
or heard on people’s lips, but of whom little is generally known beyond those facts of their 
history which have secured for them honorable distinction, or simple notoriety. The 
materials for these biographical notices have been gathered by writers perfectly well 
acquainted with their subjects; and the statements they embrace may be accepted as entirely 
authentic. It may probably be remarked that some of the names here given are not those 
of men entitled to permanent pedestals in a national Walhalla. To this entirely just 
observation the reply may be, that the object of these volumes is not to dispense laurels, 
nor to distinguish, among the candidates for immortality, those who are most deserving. 
Their single object is to furnish to the people such information as the people need— 
information, moreover, of a kind which the people have heretofore had no ready 
means of obtaining. But though among the names which appear in these volumes for 
the first time there are doubtless some which may have for the world, and even for the 
American portion of it, only a temporary interest, and which will therefore, sooner or 
later, drop from the places here assigned them, there are none, it is believed, concerning 
which the men of the present generation are not likely more or less frequently to 
desire information. They are names of men who have been, or who are now, con¬ 
spicuous in public affairs, or prominent as religious teachers and leaders, or influential 
as writers or journalists, or distinguished as members of the Bar or Bench, or widely 
known as philanthropists, scholars, educators, engineers, naturalists, physicists, chemists, 
or devotees of abstract or applied science. It is of course not to be expected that a first 













PREFACE. 


xiv 

journals devoted to these sciences, the reports and jmblic documents published under the 
authority of governments, relating to population, commerce, agriculture, manufactures, 
coinage, currency, etc., and in general all publications entitled to be regarded as authentic 
sources of information as to important matters of fact. All the articles prepared by the 
writers in the office have passed under the critical scrutiny of three or four, at least, of the 
editorial staff, before being finally given to the press. With these ample provisions to 
secure accuracy and to guard against errors of ignorance or inadvertency, it is to be hoped 
that the faults of this work will consist rather in its unavoidable omissions than in any 
seriously mistaken statements. 

As additional evidence of the thoroughness with which the work of this Cyclopaedia 
has been, at least in intention, conducted, it may be further remarked, that the number of 
specially qualified writers engaged in it is unprecedentedly great. No argument is necessary 
to secure assent to the proposition, that an article upon any important subject prej^ared by 
one who, through the study and investigation of a lifetime, has made the subject his own, 
must be at once more clear in its method and more instructive in its details, than any 
that can be compiled by an ordinary writer, even with the best printed authorities before 
him. The rule has been, therefore, to place such subjects in such hands; and this has 
been followed out so persistently that, in not a few instances, after articles in themselves 
quite unexceptionable had been already prepared by the office-writers, and had even been 
set up in type, they have been subsequently cancelled and set aside in favor of new arti¬ 
cles by living authorities upon the same subjects, whose co-operation had been later 
secured. In regard to changes of this nature, in many instances involving delay and no 
slight expense, the Editors feel bound to acknowledge—and they do here publicly acknow¬ 
ledge—the unfailing cheerfulness with which the Publisher has received all their sugges¬ 
tions, and the prompt liberality with which he has carried them into effect. 

After saying so much of the pains taken with the literary labor of the Cyclopaedia, it 
may seem like descending to matters comparatively trivial to speak of the work as a pro¬ 
nouncing dictionary. This, however, is a feature in it which will strongly recommend it to 
most readers; for nothing is more embarrassing, either in public speaking or in ordinary 
conversation, than the uncertainty which is often felt as to the proper mode of accenting 
an unfamiliar word. In this book the place of the accent is marked in the title of every 
article, and thus the essential guide is given to its just pronunciation. 

One important observation remains to be made in conclusion. No cyclopaedia, however 
correctly it may represent the state of the world’s knowledge or of its material condition 
at the date of its publication, can continue to do so for a long period of years. Works of 
tl*is kind, nevertheless, have often been reprinted from the same plates unaltered, for a 
quarter of a century or more; long before the end of which period, in regard to all mat¬ 
ters to which time brings change, they cease to be authorities altogether. With the present 
work it is proposed to pursue a different plan. Editions will be printed from month to 
month, as the demand may require; but no edition will be published without such cor¬ 
rections in the plates as the progress of time may render necessary. The book will there¬ 
fore always, so far as vigilance can accomplish that result, be kept up in its record of facts 
to the date of its delivery to purchasers; and its latest issues will stand on a level, in point 
of authority, with its earliest. It follows that whatever errors may be found to have 
escaped notice in the present issue, will be corrected as soon as discovered; and the Editors 
will feel themselves under obligations to any who will call their attention to such as they 
may chance to observe. 

By means of th-is system of continual emendation, by supplying omissions, by adding 
immediately on their announcement new facts which the progress of discovery may bring 
to light, and by entirely rewriting, from time to time, such articles as are capable of being- 
improved by reconstruction, the Editors trust that the work may not only preserve its 
original value, but that it may even, with lapse of time, grow more and more useful to the 
public for whose benefit it has been designed, and to whose judgment it is now submitted 


FREDERICK A. P. BARNARD 
ARNOLD GUYOT, 

New York, June, 1874. Editors. 
















# 


ORGANIZATION OF THE EDITORIAL STAFF. 


*** The following statement shows the subjects to which the different members of the editorial staff have severally 
given their more particular attention, not only in themselves preparing articles relating to those subjects, but also in 
securing contributions from others, and in carefully scrutinizing all such contributions with a view both to ensure accu¬ 
racy and to exclude anything which might seem objectionable. 


DIRECTING EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: 

President BARNARD. 


ADVISORY EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: 

Professor GUYOT. 


DEPARTMENTS 
(see Title-Page): 

Public Law, Intercourse of Nations, etc .Pres. WOOLSEY. 

Municipal, Civil, and Constitutional Law, etc ..Prof. DWIGHT. 

English and Foreign Literature, etc .Hon. Mr. MARSH. 

Grecian and Roman Literature, etc ..Prof. DRISLER. 

Presbyterian Church — History, Doctrine, Biographies, etc .Prof. HITCHCOCK. 

Philosophy, Psychology, etc .Hon. Mr. HARRIS. 

Social Science, Political Economy, etc. .Pres. CHAPIN. 

American History, Southern Geography, Statistics, etc .Hon. Mr. STEPHENS. 

The Fine Arts, Liberal Christianity, Biographies, etc. . . . Rev. Mr. FROTHINGHAM. 

Mathematics and Physics ; Protestant Episcopal Church — History, Biographies, etc. Pres. BARNARD. 
Physical Geography, Foreign Geography, Meteorology, Climatology, etc. . . . Prof. GUYOT. 

Civil and Military Engineering, Biographies, etc. .Gen. BARNARD. 

Naval Affairs, Naval Construction, Navigation, Biographies, etc .Com. PARKER. 

Mechanics, Mechanical Engineering, etc .Prof. TROWBRIDGE. 

Chemistry, its Applications, etc .Prof. CHANDLER. 

Geology, Natural History, etc .Prof. NEWBERRY. 

Medicine, Surgery, the Collateral Sciences, etc. . .Dr. PARKER. 

American History, Statistics, Agriculture, etc. .Hon. Mr. GREELEY* 

9 

Baptist Church — History, Doctrine, Biographies, etc .Pres. ANDERSON. 

Congregational Church—Ethical Science, Biographies, etc .Prof. SEELYE. 

Philosophical and Church Dogmatics; Lutheran Church, Biographies, etc. . Prof. KRAUTH. 

Methodist Church South — History, Doctrine, Biographies, etc .Dk. SUMMERS. 

Methodist Church North — History, Doctrine, Biographies, etc .Dr. STEVENS. 


ASSISTANTS: 
LINUS P. BROCKETT, 
CHARLES W. GREENE, 
CLEMENS PETERSEN. 


* The latest labors of Mr. Greeley’s life were given to this work, to which he contributed largely. It is with 
justice, therefore, that his name is preserved in the list of its Editors. 

xv 


























































































































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'1 
































« 


CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FIRST VOLUME 

OF 

JOHNSON’S ILLUSTRATED UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA, ETC. 


Names of additional contributors to the Second and Third Volumes will be found in the list immediately follow¬ 
ing the present. Besides the writers here mentioned, more than four hundred and fifty gentlemen connected with the 
press in the principal centres of population scattered throughout the United States have furnished for this volume 
succinct accounts of the towns and villages in which they respectively reside, and the number of these for the volumes 
succeeding will be very largely increased. 


Abbot, Henry L., M. N. A. S., Willett’s Point, N. Y., 

Maj. U. S. Eng., Bvt. Brig.-Gen. U. S. A., Bvt. Maj.-Gen. Vols. 

Armitage, Rev. Thomas, S. T. D., New York, 

President of American Bible Union. 

Baird, Rev. John G., A. M., New Haven, Conn., 

Assist. Secretary State Board of Education of Connecticut. 

Barker, George F., M. D., Philadelphia, 

Professor of Physics, University of Pennsylvania. 

Barnard, Hon. Henry, LL.D., Hartford, Conn., 

Editor of the American Journal of Education. 

Barry, William F., U. S. A., Fortress Monroe, Va., 

Col. U. S. Artillery, Bvt. Maj.-Gen. U. S. A. 

Beard, Richard, A. M., Lebanon, Tenn., 

Professor of Theology in Cumberland Univ. 

Beatty, Ormond, LL.D., Danville, Ky., 

President of Centre College. 

Benedict, B. L., Esq., Burlington, Vt., 

City Directory and Free Press. 

Berri, William, Jr., Esq., Brooklyn, New York, 

Editor of The Carpet Trade. 

Betts, Rev. Beverley R., A. M., New York, 

Librarian of Columbia College. 

Bishop, J. B., Esq., New York, 

Ed. Staff of the New York Tribune. 

Blake, John R., A. M., Mecklenburg Co., N. C., 

Prof, of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in Davidson Coll. 

Blake, William P., A. M., Ph.B., New Haven, Conn., 
Former Prof, of Mineralogy and Geology, College of California. 

Blodget, Hon. Lorin, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Bradley, Hon. Joseph P., LL.D., Newark, N. J., 

Associate Justice Supreme Court of the United States. 

Briihl, G., M. D., Cincinnati, O. 

Camp, William A., Esq., New York, 

Manager of the Clearing House, New York City. 

Chase-, George, LL.B., New York, 

Assistant in Columbia College Law School. 

Chase, Thomas, A. M., West Haverford, Pa., 

Professor of Philology and Literature in Haverford College. 

Child, Francis J., Ph. D., Cambridge, Mass., 

Boylston Prof. Rhetoric and Oratory, Harvard University. 


Clark, J. Nelson, M. D., York, Pa., 

President of Cottage Hill College. 

Clinton, J. W., Esq., Clinton, la., 

Agent Cornell College. 

Coffin, John H. C., A. M., M. N. A. S., Wash., D. C., 

Editor of the United States Nautical Almanac. 

Comfort, George F., A. M., Syracuse, N. Y., 

Prof, of Mod. Languages and ^Esthetics, Syracuse University. 

Cook, Clarence, Esq., New York, 

Art Critic New York Tribune. 

Cope, Prof. Edward D., A. M., M. N. A. S., Haddon- 
field, N. J. 

Cullum, George W., U. S. Engineers, New York, 

Col. U. S. Engineers, Bvt. Maj.-Gen. U. S. A. 

Dalton, John C., M. D., M. N. A. S., New York, 

Prof, of Physiology and Hygiene, School of Med. Columbia Coll. 

Dana, James D., LL.D., M.N.A.S., New Haven, Conn., 
Sillimari Prof, of Geology and Mineralogy, Yale College. 

Delmar, Hon. Alexander, Brooklyn, N. Y., 

Late Chief Bureau of Statistics, Treas. Dept., Washington, D. C. 

De Peyster, Gen. J. Watts, A. M., New York. 

Dillmann, Christian F. A., Ph. D., Berlin, Germany, 
Professor of Exegetical Theology in Berlin University. 

Drown, Thomas M., M. D., Philadelphia, Pa., 

Mining Engineer; Sec. American Inst, of Mining Engineers. 

Egleston, Thomas, A. M., E. M., New York, 

Prof, of Mineral, and Metall., Sch. of Mines, Columbia Coll. 

Elliott, Ezekiel B., Esq., Washington, D. C., 

Chief Clerk Bureau of Statistics, Treas. Dept., Wash., D. C. 

Eve, Paul F., M. D., Nashville, Tenn., 

Prof, of Operative and Clinical Surgery, Univ. of Nashville. 

Fairchild, Rev. E. H., Berea, Ky., 

President of Berea College. 

Fogg, A. G., Esq., Concord, N. H., 

Editor of New Hampshire Gazetteer. 

Foster, John G., New York, 

Lt.-Col. U. S. Engineers, Bvt. Maj.-Gen. U. S. A. 

Garfield, Hon. James A., Hiram, Ohio, 

Maj.-Gen. Vols., Rep. in Cong, for the 19th Cong. Dist. Ohio. 

Gill, Theo., M.D., Ph.D., M.N.A.S, Washington, D. C., 

Librarian of the Smithsonian Institution. 

Gillmore, Quincy A., New York, 

Lt.-Col. U. S. Engineers, Bvt. Maj.-Gen. U. S. A. 

xvii 
















XV111 list of contributors. 


Gilman, Daniel C., Ph. D* Oakland, Cal., 

President of the University of California. 

Gilman, Rev. Edward W., S. T. D., New York. 
Gilmore, Joseph H., A. M., Rochester, N. Y., 

Prof, of Logic, Rhetoric, etc. in the University of Rochester. 

Gray, Asa, LL.D., M. N. A. S., Cambridge, Mass., 

Fisher Professor of Natural History, Harvard University. 

Grier, William M., S.T. D., Due West, S. C., 

President of Erskine College. 

Ilagner, Gen. Peter V., U. S. Ordnance, Watervliet 
Arsenal, West Troy, N. Y. 

• 

Hartshorne, Henry, A. M., University Penna., 

Professor of Hygiene, University of Pennsylvania. 

Hasselquist, T. N., S. T. D., Paxton, Ill., 

Pres, of Augustana Coll, and Theol. Seminary. 

Hendrix, Rev. W. W., McKenzie, Tenn., 

President of Bethel College. 

Higginson, Col. Thomas W., Newport, R. I. 

Hilgard, Eugene W., Ph. D., M. N. A. S., Ann Arbor, 
Mich., 

Prof, of Geology, Zoology, and Botany, University of Michigan. 

Hilgard, Julius E., M. N. A. S., Washington, D. C., 

Assist. Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey. 

Hillman, Prof. ,S. D., Carlisle, Pa., 

Dickinson College. 

Hinsdale, B. A., A. M., Hiram, Ohio, 

President of Hiram College. 

Hodge, Archibald A., S. T. D., Allegheny City, Pa., 

Professor of Theology in Allegheny Seminary. 

Homes, Henry A., LL.D., Albany, N. Y., 

Librarian of the State Library, Albany. 

Hughes, Thomas, Q. C., London, England, 

Late Member for Frome of the House of Commons. 

Jacobi, Abraham, M. D., New York, 

Clinical Prof, of the Diseases of Children, School of Medicine, 

Columbia College. 

Jacobi, Mary C. Putnam, M. D., New York. 

Jacobs, William, A. M*., Philadelphia. 

Johnson, Samuel W., A. M., M. N. A. S., New Haven, 
Conn., 

Prof, of Agricultural and Analytical Chemistry, Yale College. 

Joy, Charles A., Ph. D., New York, 

Professor of Chemistry, Columbia College. 

Leonowens, Mrs. Anna H., New Brighton, N. Y., 

Author of The English Governess at the Siamese Court. 

Longley, Abner T., Esq., Washington, D. C., 

Department of Agriculture. 

March, Francis A., LL.D., Easton, Pa., 

Prof, of the Eng. Language and Com. Philology, Lafayette Coll. 

Mayer, Alfred M., Ph. D., M. N. A. S., Hoboken, N. J., 
Prof, of Physics, Stevens Technological Inst., Hoboken, N. J. 

Meigs, Montgomery C., M.N.A.S., Washington, D. C., 
Quartermaster-Gen., Brig.-Gen., Bvt. Maj.-Gen. U. S. A. 

Middleton, N. Russell, LL.D., Charleston, S. C., 

President of College of Charleston. 

Moore, Joseph, A. M., Richmond, Ind., 

President of Earlham College. 

Morgan, Hon. Lewis H., LL.D., Rochester, N. Y. 

Morton, Henry, Ph. D., M. N. A. S., Hoboken, N. J., 
Pres. Stevens Technological Institute, Hoboken, N. J. 

Newcomb, Simon, M.N.A.S., Washington, D. C., 

Professor of Astronomy, U. S. Naval Observatory. 


Newton, Hubert A., LL.D., M. N.A.S., New Haven, 
Conn., 

Professor of Mathematics, Yale College. 

Northrop, Hon. Birdsey G., A. M., New Haven, Conn., 

Secretary of the State Board of Education. 

O’Conor, Charles, LL.D., New \ork. 

Oliver, James E., A. M., Ithaca, N. Y., 

Professor of Mathematics, Cornell University. 

Osgood, Prof. Howard, S. T. D., Upland, Pa., 

Crozer Theological Seminary. 

Perine, George E., Esq., Engraver, New York. 

Pierce, C. Newlin, Dentist, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Parton, Janies, Esq., New York, 

Author of People’s Book of Biography, etc. 

Plympton, George W., C. E., Brooklyn, N. Y., 

Prof, of Natural Philosophy, Polytechnic Institute; of Chem¬ 
istry, Long Island Medical College; of Mechanics, Cooper 
Union, New York. 

Pomeroy, Prof. John N., LL.D., Rochester, N. Y. 

Richardson, Wilson G., A. M., Mecklenburg Co., N. C., 
Prof, of Ancient and Modern Languages, Davidson College. 

Rood, Ogden N., A. M., M. N.A. S., New York, 

Professor of Mechanics and Physics, Columbia College. 

Russell, A. J., C. E., Ottawa, Canada, 

Crown Timber Agent. 

Schaff, Philip, Ph. D., S. T. D., New York, 

Professor of Apologetics, etc. in Union Theological Seminary. 

Schem, Alexander J., Hoboken, N. J., 

Ed. of Deutseli Amerikanisches Conversations Lex. 

Shedd, William G. T., S.T. D., New York, 

Prof, of Biblical Literature in Union Theological Seminary. 

Sheppard, Charles E., Esq., Bridgeton, N. J., 

Attorney and Member of Board of Trade. 

Shields, Charles W., S. T. D., Princeton, N. J., 

Professor of History in the College of New Jersey. 

Shreve, Samuel H., C. E., Esq., Toms River, N. J. 

ShurtlefiJ Hon. Nathaniel B., Boston, Mass., 

Ex-Mayor. 

Simmons, George C., Esq., New York, 

Clerk U. S. Board of Engineers. 

Smith, Asa D., S. T. D., LL.D., Hanover, N. H., 

President of Dartmouth College. 

Smith, John Jay, Esq., Philadelphia, 

Superintendent Laurel Hill Cemetery. 

Smith, O. L., S. T. D., Oxford, Ga., 

President of Emory College. 
Somerville, James, Esq., New York, 

Bookbinder. 

Spooner, Alden J., Esq., 

Late Editor of Long Island Star. 
Stevens, J., Esq., Granville, Ohio, 

Denison University. 

Stockbridge, Hon. Henry, Baltimore, Md. 

Studer, Jacob H., Esq., Columbus, O., 

Author of History of Columbus, O., etc. 

Sumner, William G., A. B., New Haven, Conn., 

Professor of Political and Social Science, Yale College. 

Tenney, Sanborn, A. M., Williamstown, Mass., 

Professor of Natural History, Williams College. 

Thomas, John J., Esq., Union Springs, N. Y., 

Editor of the Country Gentleman. 

Thomas, Prof. Joseph, M.D., LL.D., Philadelphia, Pa., 

Author of Dictionary of Biography and Mythology. 

Tillman, Samuel D., LL.D., New York, 

Prof, of Mechanical Philosophy and Technology, Am. Inst. 
















LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. 


Trowbridge, William P., A. M., M. N. A. S., New 
Haven, Conn., 

Higgiu Professor of Dynamical Engineering, Yale College. 

Tryon, George W., Jr., Philadelphia. 

Tuttle, Hudson, Esq., Berlin Heights, O. 

Tyler, William S., S. T. D., Amherst, Mass., 

Williston Prof, of the Greek Lan. and Lit. in Amherst College. 

Van Name, Addison, A. M., New Haven, Conn., 

Librarian of Yale College. 

Verrill, Addison E., A. M., M. N. A. S., New Haven, 
Conn., 

Professor of Zoology, Yale College. 

Ward, Rev. William H., S.T.D., New York, 

Editor of Independent. 


XIX 

Watson, James C., Ph.D., M. N. A. S., Ann Arbor, 
Mich., 

Professor of Astronomy, University of Michigan. 

Welling, James C., LL.D., Washington, D. C., 

President of Columbian College. 

Whedon, Daniel D., S.T. D., LL.D., New York, 

Editor of the Methodist Quarterly Review. 

White, Hon. Andrew D., LL.D., Ithaca, N. Y., 

President of Cornell University. 

Winter, William, Esq., New York, 

Ed. Staff of the New York Tribune. 

Winthrop, Hon. Robert C., LL.D., Boston, Mass. 

Youmans, Prof. Edward L., M. D., New York, 

Editor of the Popular Science Monthly. 

Zachos, J. C., Esq., New York, 

Curator of Cooper Union. 


CONTRIBUTORS TO THE SECOND AND THIRD VOLUMES. 


Articles for the Second and Third Volumes of this work will be contributed by many of the writers mentioned in 
the foregoing list; and others are in progress of preparation, or have already been prepared, by those whose names 
are given below. 


Abbott, Miss Louisa M., Burlington, Yt. 

Adams, Hon. Charles F., Sr., D. C. L., LL.D., Boston, 
Mass., 

Late U. S. Minister to London. 
Adams, Col. Julius W., C. E., New York, 

President of the American Society of Civil Engineers. 

Alvord, Gen. Benjamin, Washington, D. C., 

Paymaster-General of the U. S. Army. 

Andree, Richard, Ph.D., Leipsic, Saxony, 

Professor in the University of Leipsic. 

» 

Andrews, George L., West Point, N. Y., 

Prof, of the French Language in the U. S. Military Academy. 


Arnold, Albert N., S. T. D., Chicago, Ill., 

Prof, of New-Testament Greek in Bap. Theol. Sem. of Chicago. 


Arnold, John W. S., M. D., New York, 

Prof, of Physiology in the N. Y. University Medical College. 


Austin, Coe F., Esq., Closter, N. J. 
Badeau, Gen. Adam, 


U. S. Consul, London, England. 


Bailey, William W., Esq., Providence, R. I., 

Baird, Prof. Spencer F., M.N.A.S., Washington, D. C., 

Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 


Balch, Thomas, Esq., Newport, R. I. 


Ball, John, F. R. S., M.R.I.A., etc., London, England. 

Beauregard, Gen. G. T., New Orleans, La., 

President New Orleans and Carrollton R. R. Company. 


Behm, E., Gotha, Saxony, 

Assist. Editor of Petermann’s Geographischen Mittheilungen. 

Bellows, Rev. Henry W., S. T. D., LL.D., New Vork, 

Pastor of the Church of All Souls, Fourth Avenue. 
Benton, Col. James G., U. S. Ordnance. 

Bergh, Henry, Esq., New York, 

Pres, of the N. Y. Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. 
Bermingham, Edward J., M.D., New York. 


Bessels, Emil, Ph. D., New York, 

Astronomer to the Polaris Arctic Expedition. 

Billings, John S., M. D., Washington, D. C., 

Assistant Surgeon U. S. Army. 

Blackie, Prof. George S., M. D., New York. 

Bolton, H. Carrington, A. M., Ph. D., New York, 
Assist, in Analytical Chemistry, School of Mines, Col. Coll. 

Brace, Rev. Charles L., New York, 

Secretary Children’s Aid Society. 

Brackett, Col. Albert G., U. S. Army, Fort Sanders, 
Wyoming Terr. 

Bradford, Lt.-Com. Robert F., U. S. Navy. 

Brand, Rev. William F., A. M., Emmorton, Md., 

Rector of St. Mary’s Church, Emmorton. 

Brewer, Thomas M., M. D., Boston, Mass., 

Ed. of the History of North American Birds. 
Brialmont, Alexis, Belgium, 

General Belgian Army. 

Brittan, Miss Harriet G., Calcutta, Hindostan. 

Brown, Edward, Esq., Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Bryant, William Cullen, LL.D., New York, 

Editor of the New York Evening Post. 

Buck, Gurdon, M. D., New York. 

Burgess, John W., LL.B., Amherst, Mass., 

Professor of History and Political Science in Amherst College. 

Buttz, Prof. Henry A., A. M., Madison, N. J., 

Professor of Greek in the Drew Theological Seminary. 

Cameron, Henry C., Ph.D., Princeton, N. J., 

Professor of Greek in the College of New Jersey. 

Chandler, William IT., A.M., Ph.D., Bethlehem, Pa., 

Professor of Chemistry in the Lehigh University. 

Chapin, Rev. Edwin H., S. T. D., New York, 

Pastor of the Fourth Universalist Church, Fifth Avenue, N. Y. 

Chesbrough, E. S., C. E., Chicago, Ill., 

Chief Engineer city of Chicago. 

Church, Prof. John A., E. M., New York, 

Associate Editor Army and Navy Journal, New York. 
















xx ' LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. 


Clark, Alonzo, M. D., New York, 

Professor of Pathology and Practical Medicine, Medical 
Department Columbia College, N. Y. 

Clymer, Meredith, M. D., New York. 

Cockrill, Sterling, Esq., Pine Bluff, Ark. 

Colyar, Hon. A. T., Nashville, Tenn. 

Comstock, Gen. Cyrus B., U. S. Engineers. 

Cooke, Josiali P., A. M., Cambridge, Mass., 

Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Harvard University. 

Cooke, M. C., Esq., A. M., London, England, 

Author of Handbook of British Fungi. 

Cornwall, Henry B., E. M., Princeton, N. J., 

Prof, of Analytical Chemistry, Mineralogy, etc., College of N. J. 

Cowdin, Elliot C., Esq., New York. 

Crosby, Rev. Howard, S. T. D., LL.D., New York, 

Chancellor of the University of the City of New York. 

Curry, Jabez L. M., S. T. D., LL.D., Richmond, Va., 

President of Richmond College. 

Curtis, Edward, M. D., New York, 

Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, Medical 
Department Columbia College, N. Y. 

Daly, Hon. Charles P., LL.D., New York, 

Chief-Justice Court of Common Pleas, New York. 

Dana, Richard H., LL.D., Boston, Mass., 

Author of Two Years Before the Mast. 

Dawson, Benjamin F., M. D., N^sw York. 

Dawson, Prof. John W., LL.D., F. R. S., Montreal, 

Principal of McGill College, Montreal, Canada. 

Day, Edward H. C., Esq., New York, 

Prof, of Geology and Physiology in the New York Normal Coll. 

Day, George E., S. T. D., LL.D., New Haven, Conn., 
Holmes Professor of the Hebrew Language and Literature 
and Biblical Theology, Yale College Theological Seminary. 

Delafield, Francis, M. D., New York. 

Detmold, William, M. D., New York, 

Professor Emeritus of Clinical and Military Surgery, Medical 

Department Columbia College, N. Y. 

Dewey, Rev. Orville, S. T. D., LL.D., Sheffield, Mass. 

Dexter, Ransom, A. M., M. D., Chicago, Ill., 

Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy and Zoology in the 

University of Chicago. 

Dole, Rev. George T., Stockbridge, Mass. 

Draper, Henry, M. D., New York, 

Prof, of Analytical Chemistry in the Medical School of New 

York City University. 

Draper, John W., M. D., LL.D., New York, 

Prof, of Chemistry, etc. in the Univ. of the City of New York. 

Eaton, Daniel C., LL.B., New Haven, Conn., 

Professor of Botany, Yale College. 

Egle, William H., M. D., Harrisburg, Pa., 

Author of History of Pennsylvania. 

Elliot, Maj. Geo. H., U. S. Engineers. 

Emerson, George B., LL.D., Boston, Mass. 

Ernst, Capt. Oswald H., U. S. Engineers, West Point, 
N. Y., 

Instructor in Practical Military Engineering, etc. in the U. S. 

Military Academy. 

Farquhar, Com. Norman H., U. S. Navy. 

Feuchtwanger, Lewis, M. D., New York. 

Field, David Dudley, LL.D., New York. 

Field, Rev. Henry M., S. T. D., New York, 

Editor of the New York Evangelist. 


Fisher, Rev. Ebenezer, S. T. D., Canton, N. Y., 

President of St. Lawrence University Theological School. 

Fisher, George J., M. D., Sing Sing, New York, 

President of the New York State Medical Society. 

Fisher, George P., S. T. D., New Haven, Conn., 

Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Yale College. 

Flint, Austin, M. D., New York. 

Flint, Austin, Jr., M. D., New York. 

Forshey, Prof. Caleb G., C. E., New Orleans, La. 

Foster, Frank P., M. D., New York. 

Fox, Hon. Gustavus V., Lowell, Mass., 

Late Assistant Secretary of the Navy. 

Frizell, Joseph P., Esq., C. E., Boston, Mass. 

Frost, Benjamin D., C. E., North Adams, Mass., 

Chief Engineer of the Hoosac Tunnel. 

Gardiner, Frederic, S. T. D., Middletown, Conn., 

Prof, of the Literature and Interpretation of the Old 
Testament, Berkeley Divinity School. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, Esq., Boston, Mass. 

Gavit, John E., Esq., New York, 

President American Bank-note Company. 

Geddes, Hon. George, Fairmount, N. Y., 

Late Senator State of New York. 

Gibbons, James S., Esq., New York. 

Gibbs, Wolcott, M. D., LL.D., M. N. A. S., Cambridge, 
Mass., 

Rumford Professor of the Application of Science to the Useful 

Arts in Harvard University. 

Gihon, Commander Albert H., M. D., U. S. Navy. 

Goodale, George L., A. M., Cambridge, Mass., 

Assistant Prof, of Vegetable Physiology in Harvard Univ. 

Gould, Benjamin A., Pli. D., M. N. A. S., Cordoba, 
Buenos Ayres, 

Director of the Observatory of the Argentine Republic. 

Graham, Hon. William A., Hillsboro’, N. C., 

Former Governor of North Carolina. 

Green, William H., D. D., Princeton, N. J., 

Professor of Oriental and Old-Testament Literature in the 

Princeton Theological Seminary. 

Gregg, Rt. Rev. Alexander, S. T. D., Galveston, Tex., 
Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, Diocese of Texas. 

Hall, James, LL.D., M. N. A. S., Albany, N. Y., 

Palaeontologist to the Nat. His. Surv. of the State of New York. 

Hammond, William A., M. D., New York, 

Late Surgeon-General U. S. A. 
Hampton, Gen. Wade, Columbia, S. C. 

Hawkins, Prof. B. Waterhouse, New York. 

Hayden, Prof. Ferdinand V., M.D., M.N.A.S., Wash¬ 
ington, D. C., 

Chief of the U. S. Western Exploring Expeditions. 

Hayes, Isaac I., M.D., New York, 

Commander of the Kane Search Expedition of 1860. 

Heilprin, Michael, Esq., New York. 

Henry, Prof. Joseph, LL.D., M. N. A. S., Washing¬ 
ton, D. C., ° 

Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 

Hewitt, Abram S., Esq., A.’M., New York, 

Secretary of the Cooper Institute. 

Hickok, Laurens P., S. T. D., LL.D., Amherst, Mass., 
Late President of Union College, Schenectady. 

Hilgard, Theodore C., M. D., New York. 

Hitchcock, Charles H., A. M., Ph. D., Hanover, N. H., 
Hall Prof, of Geology and Mineralogy, Dartmouth College. 











LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. xxi 

Hitchcock, Edward, A. M., M. D., Amherst, Mass., 
Professor of Hygiene and Physical Education in Amherst Coll. 

Holder, I. B., M. D., New York, 

Curator of the Museum of Natural History, Central Park. 

Holley, Alexander L., C. E., Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Horsford, Prof. Eben N., M. D., Cambridge, Mass., 

Late Professor in Harvard University. 

Hough, Prof. George W., LL.D., Albany, N. Y., 

Director of the Dudley Observatory. 

Houston, Col. David C., U. S. Engineers. 

Howard, Benjamin, M. D., New York. 

Howard, Gen. Oliver 0., LL.D., U. S. Army, Wash¬ 
ington, D. C., 

Late Chief of Freedmen’s Bureau. 
Hudson, Frederic, Esq., Concord, Mass. 

Humphrey, Rev. Zephanias M., S. T. D., Philadel¬ 
phia, Pa. 

Hunt, T. Sterry, F. R. S., LL.D., M.N. A.S., Boston, 
Mass., 

Prof, of Geology in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 

Hurst, John F., S. T. D., Madison, N. J., 

President of Drew Theological Seminary. 

Inglis, David, LL.D., Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Johnson, John, LL.D., Middletown, Conn., 

Fisk Prof. Emeritus of Natural Science in the Wesleyan Univ. 

Johnson, Oliver, Esq., New York, 

Managing Editor Christian Union. 

Kendrick, Asahel C., S. T. D., LL.D., Rochester, 

Munro Prof, of the Greek Lan. and Lit. in Rochester Univ. 

Kingsley, Rev. Charles, M. A., London, England, 

Canon of Westminster. 

Kirkwood, Daniel, LL.D., Bloomington, Ind., 

Prof, of Nat. Philos, and Astron. in the University of Indiana. 

Ivrackowizer, Ernst, M. D., New York. 

Kroeger, A. E., Esq., St. Louis, Mo. 

Lamar, Hon. Lucius Q. C., M. C., Oxford, Miss., 

M. C. from the 1st Congressional District of Mississippi. 

Latimer, James E., S. T. D., Boston, Mass., 

Prof, of Histor. Theol. in the Boston Univ. Theological School. 

Lattimore, Samuel A., A. M., Rochester, N. Y., 

Professor of Chemistry in Rochester University. 

Leland, Charles G., Esq., London, England, 

Author of Hans Breitmann’s Ballads. 

Lewis, Tayler, LL.D., L. H. D., Schenectady, N. Y., 

Nott Prof, of the Oriental Languages in Union University. 

Lowell, James R., D. C. L., LL.D., Cambridge, Mass., 

Prof, of Belles Lettres in Harvard University. 

Luce, Capt. Stephen B., U. S. Navy. 

Marsh, Othniel C., A. M., New Haven, Conn., 

Professor of Paleontology in Yale College. 

Martin, Benjamin N., L. H. D., New York, 

Professor of Logic and Intellectual and Moral Philosophy in 
the University of the City of New York. 

Matile, George A., LL.D., Washington, D. C., 

Author of various works on History, Archaeology, etc. 

Maunoir, Charles, Paris, Frahce, 

General Secretary of the Geographical Society of Paris. 

McAlpine, Hon. William J., C. E., Albany, N. Y. 

McCormick, Lieut.-Com. Alexander H., U. S. Navy, 
Annapolis, Md. 

McCosh, James, S. T. D., LL.D., Princeton, N. J., 

President of the College of New Jersey. 

McLean, Charles F., Pli.D., LL.D., New York. 

Meade, Com. Richard W., U. S. Navy. 

Merrill, Col. William E., U. S. Engineers. 

Moffatt, Rev. James, S. T. D., Princeton, N. J., 

Prof, of Ecclesiastical History in the Princeton Theol. Sem. 

Montague, William L., A. M., Amherst, Mass., 

Professor of French, Italian, and Spanish in Amherst College. 

Morgan, H. J., Esq., Ottawa, Canada, 

Office of Secretary of State. 

Murray, Prof. David, Yeddo, Japan, 

Commissioner of Education to the Japanese Government. 

Newton, Gen. John, U. S. Engineers, New York. 

Niemann, August, Gotha, Saxony, 

Ed. for Genealogy and Diplomatics of the Almanach de Gotha. 

Olmsted, Frederick Law, C. E., New York, 

Architect and Chief Engineer N. Y. Central Park. 

Ordronaux, John, M. D., LL.D., New York, 

Prof, of Medical Jurisprudence, School of Law, Columbia Coll., 

and State Commissioner of Lunacy. 

Osgood, Rev. Samuel, S. T. D., LL.D., New York. 

Otis, Prof. Fessenden N., M. D., New York. 

Otis, George A., M. D., U. S. Army. 

Owen, Hon. Robert Dale, Indiana. 

Packard, Alpheus S., Jr., Brunswick, Me., 

Lecturer on Entomology in Bowdoin College. 

Paine, Henry D., M.D., New York. 

Parrott, Capt. Robert P., Cold Spring, N. Y., 

Superintendent West Point Foundry. 

Parsons, Theophilus, LL.D., Cambridge, Mass., 

Late Dane Professor of Law in Harvard University. 

Peabody, Miss Elizabeth P., Cambridge, Mass., 

Author of Spiritual Culture, etc. 

Peaslee, Edmund R., M. D., LL.D., New York, 

Professor in Medical Department, Dartmouth College. 

Peck, William G., LL.D., New York, 

Prof, of Mathematics and Astronomy, Columbia College. 

Peirce, Rev. B. K., S. T. D., Boston, Mass., 

Editor of Zion’s Herald. 

Pickering, Edward C., B. S., M.N.A.S., Boston, Mass., 

Thayer Prof, of Physics in the Mass. Institute of Technology. 

Phillips, Charles, LL.D., Mecklenburg Co., N. C., 

Prof, of Mathematics and Engineering in Davidson College. 

Poe, Gen. Orlando M., U. S. Engineers. 

Porter, Noah, S. T. D., LL.D., New Haven, Conn., 

President of Yale College. 

Post, Truman M., S. T. D., St. Louis, Mo. 

Proctor, Richard A., B. A., F. R. A. S., London, Eng., 
Secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society. 

Pumpelly, Prof. Raphael, M.N. A.S., St. Louis, Mo., 

• Late State Geologist of Missouri. 

Pynchon, Rev.xThomas R., S. T. D., Hartford, Conn., 

Scovill Professor of Chemistry and Natural Science. 

Quinby, Isaac F., LL.D., Rochester, N. Y., 

Harris Prof, of Math, and Nat. Philos, in Rochester Univ. 

Quintard, Rt. Rev. Charles T., S.T.D., Sewanee, Tenn., 

Bishop of the Prot. Episcopal Church, Diocese of Tennessee. 

« 

Raymond, Prof. Robert R., A.M., Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Raymond, Rossiter W., Ph. D., New York, 

Professor of Mining Geology in Lafayette College; U. S. 

Commissioner of Mining. 

Riddle, Hon. Albert G., Washington, D. C., 

Former M. C. of Ohio. 

Ripley, George, Esq., New York, 

Literary Critic New York Tribune. 









LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. 


xxii 

Robin, Rev. E., Paris, France, 

Delegate Prison Reform Association. 

Robinson, Ezekiel G., S. T. D., LL.D., Providence, 
R. I., 

President of Brown University. 

Robinson, Solon, Esq., Jacksonville, Fla., 

Author of Facts for Farmers. 

Rodgers, Lieut. Raymond P., U. S. Navy, Annapolis. 

Rodriguez, Juan C., Esq., New York, 

. Editor of O Novo Hondo. 

Russell, Charles P., M. D., New York. 

Rutherfurd, Lewis M., Esq., M. N. A. S., New York. 

Sandham, Alfred, Esq., Montreal, Canada, 

Secretary of Y. M. C. Association. 

Satterthwaite, Thomas E., M. D., New York. 

Schaeffer, Prof. Edward M., M. D., Washington, D. C. 

Schmidt, Henry I., S. T. D., New York, 

Gerhardt Prof, of the German Language, Columbia College. 

Seelye, Lucius C., A. M., Northampton, Mass., 

President of Smith College. 

Seguin, Edward C., M. D., New York, 

Lecturer on Pathological Anatomy, Med. Dept. Columbia Coll. 

Sheafer, H. C., Esq., Philadelphia, Pa., 

Editor of Philadelphia Bulletin. 

Short, Charles, A.M., LL.D., New York, 

Professor of Latin in Columbia College. 

Silliman, Benjamin, M. D., M. N. A. S., New Haven, 

Professor of Chemistry in Yale College. 

Smith, Edward, M. D., F.R. S., London, England. 

Smith, Hamilton L., LL.D., Geneva, N. Y., 
Prendergast Prof, of Astron. and Nat. Philos, in Hobart Coll. 

Smith, I. Lawrence, M. D., LL.D., Louisville, Ky., 
Late Prof, of Chemistry, Medical School Univ. of Louisville. 

Smith, Richard S., U. S. Naval Academy, 

Professor of Drawing in the U. S. Naval Academy. 

Smith, Stephen, M.D., New York, 

Member of the New York City Board of Health. 

Spofford, Ainsworth R., Esq., Washington, D. C., 

Librarian of Congress. 

Staunton, Rev. William, S. T. D., New York. 

Stearns, William A., S. T. D., LL.D., Amherst, Mass., 

President of Amherst College. 

Stevens, J. A., Esq., New York, 

Late Secretary Chamber of Commerce. 

Stevens, Simon, Esq., New York. 

St. John, Samuel, M. D., New Canaan, Conn., 

Professor of Chemistry and Medical Jurisprudence, Medical 

Department of Columbia College. 

Stone, Livingston, Esq., Charlestown, N. H., 

Assistant to the U. S. Fish Commissioner. 

Summers, Thomas O., Jr., A.M., Greensborough, Ala., 
Prof, of Chemistry and Physiology in the Southern Univ. 

Sumner, Lt.-Com. George W., U. S. Navy. 

Taylor, Hon. Edward W., Houston, Tex., 

President of State Agricultural Society. 

Thayer, Hon. M. Russell, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Thurber, Prof. George, New York, 

Editor of the American Agriculturist. 

Thurston, Robert H., C. E., Hoboken, N. J., 

Prof, of Mechanical Engineering in the Stevens Techn. Inst. 

Todd, Sereno Edwards, Esq., Closter, N. J., 

Author of several agricultural books. 

Torrey, Miss Eliza, New York. 


Townsend, Luther T., S. T. D., Boston, Mass., 

Harris Professor of Practical Theology in the Boston Univer¬ 
sity School of Theology. 

Trowbridge, John, B. S., Cambridge, Mass., 

Assistant Professor of Physics in Harvard University. 

Trumbull, Hon. J. Hammond, LL.D., M. N. A.S., 
Hartford, Conn. 

Tyndall, John, LL.D., F.R. S., London, England, 

Prof, of Natural Philosophy and Supt. of Royal Institution. 

Van Amringe, J. Howard, A.M., New York, 

Professor of Mathematics in Columbia College. 

Vanderpoel, S. O., M.D., New York, 

Health Officer Port of New York. 

Van Lennep, Rev. Henry J., M. D., Smyrna, Asia 
Minor, 

Author of Travels in Little-known Parts of Asia Minor. 

Vinton, Francis L., E. M., New York, 

Prof, of Civil and Mining Eng., School of Mines, Colum. Coll. 

Waddel, John N., S. T. D., Oxford, Miss., 

Chancellor of the University of Mississippi. 

Waller, Elwyn, Esq., E. M., New York, 

Assist, to the Prof, of Anal. Chem. School of Mines, Colum. Coll. 

Webb, Gen. Alexander S., LL.D., New York, 

President of the College of the City of New York. 

Webb, Gen. James Watson, New York. 

Weld, Mason C., Ph. B., Closter, N. J., 

Late Assistant Editor American Agriculturist. 

Wells, Hon. David A., LL.D., Norwich, Conn., 

Late U. S. Special Revenue Commissioner. 

Wells, Samuel R., Esq., New York, 

Editor Phrenological Journal. 

White, Richard Grant, Esq., New York. 

Whitney, Prof. James A., New York. 

Whitney, Prof. Josiah D., LL.D., M. N. A.S., San 
Francisco, Cal., 

State Geologist State of California; Sturgis-Hooper Professor 

of Geology in Harvard University. 

Whitney, William D., Ph.D., LL.D., M. N. A.S., 
New Haven, Conn., 

Prof, of Sanscrit and Comparative Philology in Yale College. 

Whittier, John Greenleaf, Esq., Amesbury, Mass. 

Wilbur, Hervey B., M. D., Syracuse, N. Y., 

Superintendent State Asylum for Idiots. 

Williams, Hon. Isaiah T., New York. 

Willis, J. R., Esq., Halifax, N. S., 

Sec. of Board of Com. of Schools, Cor. Member Phil. Acad, of 
Science, Boston Natural History Society, and Liverpool 
G. B. Microscopic Society. 

Wilson, George H., Esq., New York, 

Secretary Chamber of Commerce. 

Wilson, William D., LL.D., L. H. D., Ithaca, N. Y., 

Prof, of Moral and Intellectual Philosophy in Cornell Univ. 

Wines, Rev. Enoch C., S. T. D., LL.D., New York, 

Secretary of the Prison Association of New York. 

Wood, De Volson, C. E., Hoboken, N. J., 

Prof, of Math, and Meehan, in the Stevens Technological In. 

Woodcock, William P. t Jr., M. D., Sing Sing, N. Y. 

Woodward, Col. Joseph J., M.D., M.N. A. S., Wash¬ 
ington, D. C., 

Assistant Surgeon U. S. Army. 
Worman, Prof. James H., A.M., New York, 

Of McClintock and Strong’s Biblical Encyclopedia. 

Wynkoop, Gerardus H., M.D., New York. 

Young, Charles A., Ph. D., M.N.A.S., Hanover, N. H., 
Appleton Prof, of Natural Philosophy in Dartmouth College. 


















JOHNSON’S 

NEW ILLUSTRATED 

UNIVERSAL CYCLOPAEDIA. 



A. 


A, the first letter of all known phonetic alphabets, except 
the Abyssinian (or Ethiopian), in which it forms the thir¬ 
teenth, and the Runic, in which it is the tenth. The cause 
of its being placed at the head of all the principal European 
and Asiatic alphabets is not certainly known, but is prob¬ 
ably to be found in the fact that the original sound of the 
letter (similar to that of our a in far ) is the most easily formed 
of all the vowels, requiring for its utterance scarcely any 
effort, and the slightest possible change in the position of 
the. vocal organs, except simply opening the mouth; it is 
accordingly the first sound that children usually utter. 

A with a stroke above it (a), in the ancient Gfeek, denoted 
the first numeral, but a with the stroke beneath stood for 
1000. 

A in Latin stands for 500, and with a stroke over ( A ) for 
ten times that number (‘or 5000). 

A is also used to mark a note in Music (which see). 

A is frequently used as an abbreviation. (See Abbrevia¬ 
tions.) 


In logic, A is the sign employed to denote a universal 
affirmative proposition. 

A 1 (or “A No. 1”) is often applied in mercantile affairs 
to denote any article of the very highest class. In regis¬ 
tering vessels, A designates the character of the hull of the 
vessel, while the figure 1 marks the efficient state of her an¬ 
chors, cables, stores, etc. 

Among the ancient Romans A stood for several proper 
names, especially for the prsenomen Aulus. 

A, Ab, or Abs, a Latin particle signifying “from,” 
“off,” “awaj r ,” and forming the prefix of a multitude of 
English words, as abduct, to “lead or take away;” abstract, 
to “draw away or from;” avert, to “turn away.” 

Aa, the name of several rivers or streams in Germany, 
Switzerland, Holland, Russia, and France. It is supposed 
to signify “water,” and to be etymologically related to 
the Latin aqua. Aacli, or Acii, another form of tho 
same word, constitutes a part of several geographical 

1 













































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































AACHEN—ABACUS. 


names, as Aachen (the German of Aix-la-Chapelle), Bib- 
erach, etc. 

Aachen. See Aix-la-Ciiapelle. 

Aagard (Carl Fredrik), a Danish painter, born in 
1833, at first gave his attention to decorative painting, but 
afterwards turned to landscape painting. One of his most 
celebrated pictures is a scene from a zoological garden, which 
was exhibited at Stockholm in 1866. / 

Aal'borg (t. e. “Eel Castle” or “city”), a seaport of 
Denmark, in Jutland, on the south shore of the Lymfiord, 
through which vessels pass into the Cattegat, and 63 miles 
N. W. of Aarhuus. The number of vessels arriving here 
annually amounts to about 400. Pop. in 1870, 11,721. / 

Aa'len, a town of IViirtemberg, on the Ivocher, 48 miles 
by rail E. N. E. of Stuttgart. Pop. in 1871, 5552. 

Aa'li Pash'a (Mehemed Emin), a Turkish statesman, 
was born in 1815 at Constantinople, was appointed minis¬ 
ter of foreign affairs Aug. 15,1845, which position he filled 
three times within the period from 1846 to 1853. In Dec., 
1845, he became chancellor of the divan, in 1846 pasha, and 
in 1852 for the first time grand vizier, which position he 
afterwards held several times. In 1855 he represented Tur¬ 
key at the conferences of Vienna and Paris, and signed the 
treaty of Paris of Mar. 30, 1856. In May, 1864, he pre¬ 
sided at the conference of European powers for settling the 
Rumanian question. In 1867, while the sultan undertook 
a tour over the Continent, Aali Pasha was appointed regent 
of the empire. In the same year he went to Candia to set¬ 
tle the difficulties on that island amicably. He was also 
well known as a poet. Died Sept. 6, 1871. 

Aalten, a town of the Netherlands, province of Guelder- 
land, on the Aar, 29 miles E. of Arnhem. Pop. in 1867, 6160. 

Aar, a river of Switzerland, rising in the Grimsel and 
Schreckhorn Mountains in the canton of Berne, forms the 
remarkable fall of Ilandeck, traverses the lakes of Brienz 
and Thun, and enters the Rhine opposite Waldshut. Length, 
175 miles. It is navigable from Thun to its mouth. Aar 
is also the name of several rivers of Germany. 

Aa'rau, a town of Switzerland, capital of Aargau, on 
the river Aar, 63 miles by railway W. of Ziirich. It has 
manufactures of silk and cotton stuffs, mathematical in¬ 
struments, etc. In 1798 it was the capital of the Helvetic 
republic. (See Switzerland.) Pop. in 1870, 5449. 

Aard-Vark, i. e. “ earth-pig” ( Orycter' opus Capen'sis), 
an animal of the class 
Mammalia, order Eden¬ 
tata, abounds in Cape 
Colony. It is a planti¬ 
grade, is about five feet 
long, including the tail, 
burrows in the ground if 
pursued, and quickly en¬ 
ters so far that it is beyond 
the reach of the pursuer. 

It feeds on ants, seeking 
its prey by night; it read¬ 
ily breaks down the walls 
of the ant-hills, catching 
the insects with its long prehensile and slimy tongue. Its 
flesh is often used as food. 

Aard-Wolf, i.e. “ earth-wolf ” (Prot'eles crista'tus), a 
carnivorous digitigrade quadruped of the class Mammalia, 
is a native of Caffraria. It is about equal in size to a fox, 
and resembles a hymna in structure and other respects, hav¬ 
ing the fore legs longer than the hind legs. It is called 
earth-wolf because it digs burrows or holes in the ground, 
in which it passes the day. It is considered by some as a 
connecting link between the hymna and the dog. 

Aar'gau [Fr. Aargovie], a canton in the N. part of 
Switzerland, is bounded on the N. by Germany, on the E. 
by Zurich, on the S. by Lucerne, and on the W. by Basel 
and Solothurn. Area, 543 square miles. The chief rivers 
are the Aar and the Limmat. It consists chiefly of fertile 
and well-cultivated hills. Fruit of all kinds is produced in 
large quantities, and many cattle are raised here. It has 
important cotton factories. There are mineral springs 
at Baden and Schinznach. In 1871 the population was 
198,873, of whom 107,703 were Protestants, 89,180 Roman 
Catholics, 449 belonged to other Christian churches, and 
1541 w r ere Jews. The canton was organized in 1803. The 
constitution is dated from 1841, and was revised in 1852 
and in 1862. The income in 1867 amounted to 2,046,685 
francs, the expenses to 2,581,685 francs, and the debt was 
estimated at 1,000,000 francs. It contributes 14,762 men 
to the federal army. Capital, Aarau. (See Muller, “ Der 
Aargau,” 1870.) 

Aar'huus, a seaport of Denmark, in North Jutland, 
on the Cattegat, 37 miles S. E. of Viborg. It has a cathe¬ 


dral, a museum, a library, and various manufactories. Pop. 
in 1870, 15,025. / 

Aar'oil [Heb. *|HnX], the first high priest of the Israel¬ 
ites, was a descendant of Levi, probably in the eighth or 
ninth generation. He was three years older than his brother 
Moses (Ex. vii. 7), and apparently (Ex. ii. 4) some years 
younger than their sister Miriam. An impulsive and elo¬ 
quent man, he was appointed spokesman to Moses, whom 
he assisted in the deliverance of the Israelites from the 
bondage in Egypt. Ho died on Mount Ilor, which is still 
called the “ Mountain of Aaron,” and was succeeded in the 
priesthood by his son Eleazar. 

Aaron (Samuel), a Baptist minister and educator, born 
in 1800 at New Britain, Pa., was ordained in 1829, and 
held pastorates at New Britain and Norristown, Pa., and 
at Burlington and Mount Holly, N. J. He also gained 
great reputation as a teacher in various schools, especially 
at Treemount Seminary, near Norristown, and the Mount 
Holly Institute. He was the author'of various text-books. 
Died April 11, 1865. 

Aar'sens, or Aarsscns, van (Franciscus), born at 
The Hague in 1572, was the son of the Dutch statesman 
Cornells van Aarsens (1543-1624). The younger Van 
Aarsens was sent to the court of France as resident in 1598, 
and as ambassador in 1609 and in 1627 ; to Venice from 
1609 to 1615, and again in 1619; to England in 1626 and 
in 1640, when he negotiated the marriage between the 
prince of Orange (William II. of Nassau) and the princess 
Mary, daughter of Charles I. of England. Died in 1641. 

Aa'sen (Ivar Andreas), a Norwegian writer, born 
Aug. 5, 1813, at Orsteen, was at first a school-teacher, but 
subsequently devoted himself wholly to the study of the 
Norwegian dialects. He was supported in this study by 
the Drontheim Association of Sciences, which furnished 
him the means of visiting all parts of the country. Ho 
wrote “ Det Norske folkesprogs grammatik ”■ (1848), “ Ord- 
bog over det Norske folkesprog” (1852), and “Norsko 
ordsprog” (1856 ).V Q 

Aas'viir is the name of a group of small islands under 
the Arctic polar circle, about 10 miles from the Norwegian 
coast, which until recently were entirely unnoticed. The 
owner leased them for a small price to two poor fishermen. 
At present they are one of the most important fishing- 
places in Europe. About Dec. 10, when the herrings arrive, 
over 10,000 fishermen come here, and in two or three weeks 
catch about 200,000 kegs of herrings. From Jan. 1 to Dec. 
1 the islands are almost deserted, being inhabited by only 
a few families, i/ 

Ab, the eleventh month of the Jewish civil year, and 
the fifth of the ecclesiastical year. 

Abab'de, a village of Middle Egypt, on the east bank 
of the Nile, 8 miles S..of Beni Hassan. Near it are the 
ruins of the ancient Antinoe (or Antinoopolis), a city built 
by the emperor Hadrian (or Adrian) in honor of his favor¬ 
ite Antinoiis. 

Ababdeh, a negro tribe of nomads in Upper Egypt 
and Nubia, are chiefly employed as guides through "the 
deserts. 

Ab'aca, or Manila Hemp, is the fibre of the leaf¬ 
stalk of a. species of plantain (Mu'sa troglodyta'rum, other¬ 
wise called Mu'sa tex'tilis), growing abundantly in the 
Philippine Islands, from which many thousand tons are 
annually exported. Of the fibres of this tree a cordage is 
made \vhich has the property of floating on water; sea¬ 
water does not rot it, and it therefore requires no tarring. 
A portion of the fibre which is fine and white is manufac¬ 
tured into a kind of linen. It is an excellent material for 
paper. 

Aback', in sea-language, denotes the position of the 
sails when laid flat against the mast, either by the force 
of the wind or for the purpose of avoiding some imminent 
danger. 

Ab'aco, or Great Abaco, the largest of the Bahama 
Islands, is 80 miles long, its N. E. point being in lat 26° 
18' N., Ion. 76° 57' V . Area, about 96 square miles. Carle- 
ton is the chief town, and its southern point is in lat. 
25° 51' N., Ion. 77° 09' W. Little Abago lies W. of the 
northern part of Abaco. 

Ab acot, an antique cap of state, worn formerly by 
the kings of England. It was made in the shape of a 
double crown. 1 

Ab a c u s [Gr. a£a£, gen. a^axo?], a calculating instru¬ 
ment which was used in mercantile transactions by the 
ancient Greeks and Romans, and is sometimes used in 
schools by the moderns. One form common in the U. S. 
for teaching children addition and multiplication consists 
of a frame somewhat like that of a slate, with twelve 
wiies lunniug through it, and twelve beads or small balls 



Aard-Vark. 




















ABAD—ABAUZIT. 


3 


on each wire. Ab'acus Pythagor'icus was anciently a name 
for the multiplication table. In architecture, abacus sig¬ 
nifies the level tablet 
placed between the en¬ 
tablature and the capi¬ 
tal of a column. The 
old Ionic as well as the 
Tuscan abacus is simi¬ 
lar to the Doric (as here 
represented), but the new 
Ionic resembles the Co¬ 
rinthian. 

Abaci, an affix of 
Persian origin, signify¬ 
ing “abode,” and occur¬ 
ring in the names of 
many cities in the East; 



Corinthian Abacus. 


as Hyderabad, the “ abode or city of Hyder.” 

Abaci' is also the name of several kings who reigned 
in Moorish Spain. Abad I. was the first Moslem king of 
Seville. He began to reign in 1023, and died in 1042. 
Abad III., the last of this dynasty, died in 1095. 

Abad'clon, a Hebrew name applied to the angel of the 
bottomless pit; the same as the Asmodeus of Tobit iii. 8, 
and the Apollyon of Rev. ix. 11. 

Abaft', a sea-term signifying at or towards the stern of 
a vessel. 


Abaisse, or Abaissecl (i. e. “lowered”), a term in 
heraldry applied to any armorial figure when it is de¬ 
pressed or placed below the centre of the shield. 

Ab'ana, the name of one of the rivers of Damascus 
mentioned in the Bible (2 Kings v. 12). Its identification 
with the modern Barada is now generally accepted. (See 
Porter’s “Five Years in Damascus,” 1855.) 

Abancay', a town of Peru, in the department of Cuzco, 
is situated on the river Abancay, 74 miles W. S. W. of 
Cuzco. It has large sugar-refineries. Pop. estimated at 
about 5000. 


Abancourt, d’ (Charles Frerot), a distinguished 
French engineer, born in Paris, resided many years in 
Turkey in the employ of the French government. Several 
of the maps of Eastern Europe prepared by him have a 
high reputation. Died at Munich in 1801. 

Abancourt, d’ (Charles Xavier Joseph Franque- 
ville), a minister of Louis XVI. of France, was born at 
Douai in 1758. He was a nephew of the celebrated Calonne. 
He was massacred at Versailles Sept. 9, 1792. 

Aban'clonment [from the Fr. abandonner], in law, is 
used in several senses, depending upon the subject to which 
it is applied: 

1. In Insurance. —In this branch of the law it is applied 
to recovery by the insured in case of loss. Loss is either total 
or partial. In certain cases of partial loss the insured may, 
at his election, transfer the entire property to the insurers, 
and claim a total loss. The insurers would thus become 
the owners of the property in its impaired condition. This 
act is abandonment, and the “total loss” thus occasioned 
is termed constructive. It is applicable particularly to 
marine insurance. The subject is governed by rules differ¬ 
ing somewhat in England and in America. The general 
principle is, that a serious injury must have happened by a 
marine peril to the ship or cargo (the value must have usu¬ 
ally been diminished more than one-half), or the purposes 
of the voyage as to the ship must have been substantially 
defeated, as in the case of an embargo for an indefinite 
time. The act of abandonment must be exercised not upon 
mere conjecture, but upon credible information, and with¬ 
out delay. No particular form is necessary. 

2. As to Personal Property. —An owner may cast away 
or otherwise relinquish personal property, so as to cause 
his ownership to cease. This may readily occur in the case 
of property at sea. The intent is a principal subject of 
inquiry. Property in this condition is otherwise called 
“ derelict.” 

3. Real Estate. —Abandonment in this branch of the law 
applies to incorporeal rights, such as easements. There can 
be no abandonment of the ownership of the land itself. This 
must be parted with by some recognized mode of convey¬ 
ance, such as a deed, or the principle of estoppel must be 
invoked or the rules of the statute of limitations. 

4. In the legal relation of husband and wife the word 
abandonment is frequently employed as an equivalent to 
desertion. It is in some instances defined by statute. 

Abar'ca (Joaquin), a Spanish bishop and leader of the 
absolutist party, born in 1780, was, on account of his zeal¬ 
ous advocacy of the principles of absolutism, made a bishop 
by Ferdinand VII. Subsequently he became prime minister 
of Don Carlos, but after a time fell into disfavor for being 


too moderate. He was banished, and died in 1844 in a con¬ 
vent near Turin, Italy. 

Aba'rim (meaning “regions beyond”), a mountain- 
range of Moab, on the E. side of Jordan, opposite Jericho, 
mentioned in Num. xxvii. 12 and elsewhere. Pisgah is 
either the same as Abarim or a part of it. This line of 
mountains rises to the height of nearly 3000 feet above the 
Mediterranean, and more that 4000 feet above the Dead Sea. 
As seen from Jericho or the Mount of Olives, the summit of 
the range is apparently almost level. But recent explorers 
report considerable inequalities of surface. The highest of 
the peaks, still called Mount Neba or Nebbeh, is thought to 
be the Nebo from which Moses viewed the Land of Promise 
(Deut. xxxiv. 1-4). 

Abascal' (Jose Fernando), a Spanish commander, 
born at Oviedo in 1743. He entered the army in 1762, 
served against the French and the English, became intend- 
ant of New Galicia, and in 1804 was appointed viceroy of 
Peru. He was an able and popular ruler, and accomplished 
much for the people of Peru. In 1812 he was made a mar¬ 
quis. He was recalled in 1816. Died at Madrid June.30, 
1821. 

Abatement [from the Fr. abattre, to “strike away”] 
is a legal term applied in various branches of the law. 

1. Title to Real Estate. —Here it refers to the wrongful 
entry of a stranger upon land after an ancestor’s death, and 
before the entry of an heir or devisee, and thus keeping 
him out of possession. The wrong-doer is termed an 
abator. 

2. Nuisances. —In this case it means the act of destroy¬ 
ing or removing a nuisance, which may take place without 
legal process. No unnecessary damage must occur, and the 
act must be done without a breach of the peace. 

3. In respect to legacies and creditors’ claims the word 
means a proportionate reduction of them where there are 
not sufficient assets to make full payment. 

4. In actions the word has two significations : (1.) In 

respect to pleadings. A defendant may assert by a “plea 
in abatement” that the plaintiff’s action ought to cease by 
reason of some informality or irregularity. It is called a 
dilatory plea, because it does not meet the case upon the 
merits. Such pleas are not favored in modern law, and 
there is a tendency to confine them by statute within nar¬ 
row limits. If the cause is abated on such grounds, a new 
action may be brought. (2.) In respect to the termination 
of a litigation by the occurrence of some event during its 
progress, such as the death or disability of a party. In a 
court of law the regular effect of the death of a party was 
to cause the action to abate altogether. In a suit in equity 
proceedings were suspended, and might be revived by es¬ 
tablished methods. Similar rules were applied to disabili¬ 
ties, such as the marriage of a female party to an action. 
The effect of this doctrine is largely modified in codes of 
procedure in this country, and in England by the “ Com¬ 
mon-Law Procedure” act. Under these statutory regula¬ 
tions an action may, after the death of a party, be con¬ 
tinued by or against his representatives, on motion to the 
court in which the action is pending. The application is 
subject to regulations to prevent unnecessary delay. There 
are certain actions in which there can be no revival. An 
instance is that of a cause of action for a personal wrong 
(tort). This is said to “die with the person.” In other 
words, it cannot be prosecuted by or against the executors 
or administrators of a party sustaining or inflicting the 
wrong. T. W. Dwight. 

Abatement, in heraldry, denotes symbols of disgrace 
introduced into a coat-of-arms; these are scarcely mentioned 
by any heraldic writers except the English. A delf tenne is 
the sign of a revoked challenge; a point-d-point denotes a 
coward; a gusset sinister denotes drunkenness. 

Abattis, or Abatis [Fr.], in fortification, a bulwark or 
obstruction formed by trees felled and placed side by side, 
so that their tops are directed towards the enemy. Some¬ 
times the ends of the branches are cut’off and sharpened. 

Abattoir, a public establishment in which cattle, sheep, 
etc. are killed with such sanitary arrangements as will guard 
the population of a city against the nuisances of private 
slaughter-houses. This improvement originated in Paris 
in 1807. The principal abattoirs for the city of New York 
are at Communipaw in Jersey City, N. J. 

A Battuta [It.], a term in music signifying in strict 
or measured time. 

Aba-Ujvar, a county of Hungary, is bounded by the 
counties of Zips, Saros, Zemplin, Torna, and Borsod. Area, 
1109 square miles. The country consists entirely of pic¬ 
turesque mountains. The soil, which is very fertile, yields 
wine in abundance. Gold, silver, iron, and copper are 
found here. Pop. in 1869, 166,666. Chief town, Ivaschau. 

Abauzit (Firmin), a celebrated French Protestant phil- 












































































4 ABBADIE—ABBOT OF MISEULE. 


osopher and mathematician, was born at Uzes, Languedoc, 
Nov. 11, 1679, was educated at Geneva, travelled in Eng¬ 
land and Holland, and wrote several works on theology, an¬ 
tiquities, etc. He was a friend and correspondent of Sir 
Isaac Newton, who esteemed him highly, and he was pro¬ 
foundly versed in many branches of learning and science. 
Died in Geneva Mar. 20, 1767. 

Abbadie (Jacques), D. D., a French Protestant di¬ 
vine, born in B6arn in 1658. He removed to England 
in 1688, preached in London, and became dean of Killaloe 
in Ireland. Ilis chief work is a “ Treatise on the Truth 
of the Christian Religion” (in French, 2 vols., 1684), which 
was received with favor by both Protestants and Roman 
Catholics. Died in London Nov. 7, 1727. 

Abbadie, d’ (Antoine and Arnould Michel), two 
brothers and French travellers, born in Dublin in 1810 and 

1815, who explored Abyssinia and Upper Egypt between 
1838 and 1848, travelled up the White Nile, and even visited 
Darfoor. Their more important works are “Nouvelles du 
haut fleuve Blanc,” “Note sur la route du Darfour,” “Sur 
les negres Yambo,” “ G6odesie d’Ethiopie,” etc. (1860-63), 
and “Douze ans dans la Haute-Ethiopie ” (2 vols., 1868). 
Their collection of Ethiopic and Amharic manuscripts, 
numbering 234, was until recently the largest collection in 
Europe. 

Abbandonamen'te [It.], in music, signifies “with 
self-abandonment,” despondingly. 

Abbas', or, more fully, Abbas-Ibn-Abd-il-Moot'- 

talib, a paternal uncle of Mohammed, and the ancestor of 
the dynasty of Abbassides, was born at Mecca about 566 
A. D. He fought against Mohammed at the battle of Bedr, 
but was afterwards converted, and rendered important ser¬ 
vices to that prophet. 

Abbas I., or Shah Abbas, surnamed the Great, a 
king of Persia, born in 1557, was a son of Mohammed Mirza. 
He began to reign about 1584, and distinguished himself by 
his ability and energy. In 1605 he defeated the Turks in a 
great battle, and recovered the Persian provinces which they 
had occupied. Died in 1628. 

Abbas-Mir' za, a son of Fatah Ali Shah, king of 
Persia, was born in 1783. He commanded the Persian 
army which was defeated by the Russians in 1811. He was 
a prince of superior talents, and promoted the introduction 
‘of European culture and military tactics into Persia. He 
died before his father, in 1833. 

Abbas Pacha, viceroy of Egypt (the third of the pres¬ 
ent dynasty), a grandson of Mehemet Ali, was born at Yedda, 
in Arabia, in 1813. He succeeded his uncle Ibrahim Pacha 
Nov. 9-10, 1848, and died in July, 1854. He was succeeded 
by his uncle, Said Pacha. 

Abbassides (pronounced ab-bas'sidz; sing. Abas- 
side, ab-bas'sid), orAbbasides [Lat. Abbas'idee; called 
by the Arabs Beni Abbas, i. e. “sons or descendants of 
Abbas”], the name of a celebrated dynasty of caliphs who 
reigned at Damascus, and afterwards at Bagdad, from 762 
to 1258 A. D. They traced their genealogy to Abbas, the 
uncle of Mohammed. To this dynasty belonged the caliphs 
Harun-al-Raschid and Al-Mainun. 

Abbatu'cci (Carlo, or Charles), a Corsican general, 
born in 1771. He served in the French army under the 
republic, and was killed at Huningue in 1796. 

Abbatucci (Charles), a son of Jean Charles, born in 

1816, became under Napoleon III. counsellor of state, and 
was in June, 1872, elected to the National Assembly as the 
candidate of the Bonapartist party. 

Abbatucci (Giacomo Pietro, or Jacques Pierre), a 
Corsican, born in 1726, became a general of division in the 
French service. Died in 1812. 

Abbatucci (Jean Charles), a French lawyer, a nephew 
of Carlo, noticed above, was born in Corsica in 1791. He 
became in 1848 a partisan of Louis Napoleon, who appointed 
him minister of justice in 1852. Died in 1857. 

Abbatucci (Severin), son of Jean Charles, was in 
1871 elected member of the National Assembly, and in Au¬ 
gust resigned his seat in order to give to Rouher, the leader 
of the Bonapartist party, an opportunity to be elected. 

Abbe, &'ba', a French term formerly applied to ecclesi¬ 
astics and students of theology who were supported by the 
revenue of monasteries. They often devoted themselves 
to literary pursuits or were employed as tutors in wealthy 
families. Before the Revolution the* king had the power 
to nominate 225 abbes commendataires, whose offices were 
sinecures. (See Abbot.) 

Abbeoku'ta, or Abbekuta (i. e. “under the rock”), 
a large town of Western Africa, and capital of the king¬ 
dom of Yorruba or Yarriba, is built on granite hills around 
a rock 250 feet high, and is situated on the left bank of the 


Ogoon River, 120 miles N.W. of Benin, ihe negro bishop 
Crowther has established a newspaper here in the Egba lan¬ 
guage,’ the number of Christians is estimated at 2000. It 
was founded in 1825 by some fugitives, and has rapidly in¬ 
creased. Pop. estimated at 100,000. 

Ab'bess [Lat. abbatis'sa], the superior of a convent of 
women, corresponding in rank and authority to an abbot, 
except that she cannot exercise the functions of the priest- 

h °Abbeville, Sb'vM', a fortified city of France, situated 
on the river Somme, in the department of Somme, on the 
Northern Railway, 36 miles by rail N. W. of Amiens. It 
contains a fine cathedral and manufactories of woollen 
cloths, etc. Abbeville has in late years been made famous 
by the discovery of many interesting relics of pre-historic 
man in the valley of the Somme at that place. Pop. in 
1866, 19,385. 

Ab'beville, a county in the W. N. W. of South Caro¬ 
lina, bordering on Georgia. Area, 960 square miles. It 
is bounded on the S. W. by the Savannah River, and on the 
N. E. by the Saluda, and is intersected by the Greenville 
and Columbia R. R. Generally fertile and well watered. 
Gold is found in the county. Cattle, grain, cotton, and 
wool are raised. Pop. 31,129. Capital, Abbeville. 

Abbeville, the capital of Henry co., Ala., finely situ¬ 
ated 3 miles from Yattanabbee Creek and 100 miles S. E. 
of Montgomery. It has two churches, one academy, and 
one weekly paper. Pop. of township, 1267. 

M. A. Sheehan, Ed. “Henry County Register.” 

Abbeville, a post-village, capital of Wilcox co., Ga. 

Abbeville, a post-village, capital of Vermilion parish, 
La. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 545. 

Abbeville, a post-village of Lafayette co., Miss., on 
the Central Mississippi R. R., 56 miles N. by E. of Grenada. 

Abbeville, the capital of Abbeville co., S. C., is 97 
miles W. by N. of Columbia, on a branch of the Green¬ 
ville and Columbia R. R. It has some manufactures, a male 
and female academy, three schools, five churches, a library, 
two newspapers, a Bible society, and various public build¬ 
ings. Pop. of Abbeville township, 3034. 

J. C. Hemphill, Ed. “ Medium.” 

Abbey (Richard), a Methodist clergyman and author, 
born in Genesee co., N. Y., Nov. 16, 1805, removed to 
Illinois in 1816, and to Natchez, Miss., in 1825. In 1.844 
he entered the ministry in the Methodist Church, and is 
now (1873) a member of the Mississippi Conference of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church South. He has been an ex¬ 
tensive newspaper and review writer. His first book, 
“Letters to Bishop Green on Apostolic Succession,” was 
published in 1853, and was soon followed by the “End of 
the Apostolic Succession,” a written debate with Yerger 
and Smedes on Higli-Church doctrines. His “ Ecclesiasti¬ 
cal Constitution ” was published in 1856, “ Creed of All 
Men,” against deism, appeared in 1855, “ Church and Min¬ 
istry” in 1859, and “Diuturnity” in 1866. In 1868 he 
published anonymously “Ecce Ecclesia,” and in 1872 “ The 
City of God and the Church-Makers.” He has also pub¬ 
lished “Baptismal Demonstrations,” “ Divine Assessment,” 
“ Strictures on Church Government,” “ The Divine Call to 
the Ministry,” etc. In 1858 he was elected financial secre¬ 
tary of the Southern Methodist Publishing House. 

Abbia'ti (Piiilippo), a skilful Italian painter, born at 
Milan in 1640; died in 1715. * 

Abbitib'bie, or Abbitib'bc, a lake, river, and trad¬ 
ing-station in British North America, near James’s Bay, 
into which the river flows. 

Abbon the Crooked (in Latin, Ab'bo Cer'nuus ), a 
French monk of St.-Germain-des-Pres, described the siege 
of Paris by the Northmen (885-887) in an epic poem which 
has been translated into French by Guizot. Died in 923. 

Abbon of Flenry [in Latin, Ab'bo Floriacen'sis], an 
eminent French monk, born near Orleans in 958, was one 
of the most learned men of his age. He became abbot of 
Fleury. Died in 1004. 

Ab'bot [Lat. ab'bas; Fr. abbe; from the Hebrew abba, 
“ father”], the superior of a convent or monastery, and an 
ecclesiastic of high rank in the Roman Catholic Church. 
Abbots were ranked as prelates of the Church next to the 
bishops, and had the right to vote or speak in the general 
councils. In England there were formerly a number of 
mitred abbots, who sat and voted in the House of Lords. 

Abbot, a post-township of Piscataquis co., Me. It 
has manufactures of lumber, carriages, etc. Pop. 712. 

Abbot, a township of Potter co., Pa. Pop. 534. 

Abbot of Misrule, or Abbot of Fools, called in 

Scotland the Abbot ot Unreason,” a title given in the 
Middle Ages to the master of revels, and especially to the 
person appointed to preside over Christmas festivities. 
















ABBOT—ABBOTT. 5 

Abbot (Abiel), D.D., born at Andover, Mass., Aug. 17, 
1770, graduated at Harvard in 1792, was a Congregational 
minister in Haverhill, Mass. (1795-1803), and in Beverly, 
Mass., until 1827, when he sailed for Cuba. Died of yellow 
fever at Staten Island, N. Y., June 7, 1828. His “Letters 
from Cuba” (1829), and a volume of his sermons (1831), with 
a memoir, have been published. 

Abbot (Abiel), D.D., born at Wilton, N. H., Dec. 14, 
1765, graduated at Harvard in 1787. He studied theology, 
was tutor at Harvard (1794-95), minister of the Congrega¬ 
tional church at Coventry, Conn. (1795-1811), and of the 
Unitarian church, Peterborough, N. H. (1827-48). He 
published a “History of Andover,” Mass. (1829), etc. 
Died Jan. 31, 1859. 

Abbot (Benjamin), LL.D., an eminent teacher, was 
born at Andover, Mass., Sept. 17, 1762, and graduated at 
Harvard College in 1788. He was principal of Phillips 
Academy at Exeter, N. H., for fifty years (till 1838). 
Among his pupils were Daniel Webster, Alexander H. 
Everett, Edward Everett, Lewis Cass, Jared Sparks, and 
George Bancroft. Of fine character and courtly manners, 
he had great power over his pupils. He died Oct. 25, 1849./ 

Abbot (Charles), Lord Colchester, born Oct. 14,1757, 
Speaker of the British House of Commons (1802-17), was 
made peer in 1817, and died May 8, 1829. 

Abbot (Ezra), born in Jackson, Me., April 29, 1819, 
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1840, became in 1856 as¬ 
sistant librarian in Harvard College, in 1872 professor of 
New Testament criticism and interpretation in the Cam¬ 
bridge Divinity School; published “ Literature of the Doc¬ 
trine of a Future Life” (1864-71). He has also served as 
assistant and editor of such works as Norton’s “Gospels,” 
Hackett’s revision of Smith’s “Bible Dictionary,” Noyes’ 
“New Testament,” and Hudson’s “Concordance.” He 
has also published many review articles, etc. 

Abbot (Francis Ellingwood), born at Boston, Mass., 
Nov. 6, 1836, graduated at Harvard, and was (1870—73) 
editor of the “ Index,” a journal devoted to the interests 
of Free Religion. He also published articles on the 
“ Philosophy of Space and Time,” “ The Conditioned and 
the Unconditioned;” “Philosophical Biology,” etc., in the 
“North American Review” and other periodicals. / 

Abbot (George), D. D., born in Surrey Oct. 29, 1562, 
was educated at Oxford. He became bishop of London in 
1610, and archbishop of Canterbury in Jan., 1611. He was 
noted for his liberal principles, and was a rival or oppo¬ 
nent of Laud. Died Aug. 4, 1633. 

Abbot (Gorham Dummer), LL.D., a younger brother 
of Jacob Abbott, was born Sept. 3, 1808, graduated at 
Bowdoin College in 1826, and took a part of the theologi¬ 
cal course at Andover in the class which graduated in 1831. 
He was pastor for three years at New Rochelle, N. Y., and 
for thirteen years principal of the Spingler Institute in 
New York City. He has published “ The Family at Home,” 

“ Nathan Dickerman,” “ Mexico and the U. S.” (1869), and 
other works. * 

Abbot (Henry L.), an American officer, born Aug. 13, 
1831, at Beverly, Mass., graduated at West Point 1854, 
major of engineers Nov. 11, 1865, served as assistant on 
Pacific R. R. surveys, 1854-57, and was associated with 
General Humphreys on the hydrographic survey of the 
delta of the Mississippi, 1857-61, the results being set forth 
in an elaborate report, “Physics and Hydraulics of the 
Mississippi River.” In the civil war served in the Manas¬ 
sas campaign, 1861; engaged at Blackburn’s Ford and Bull 
Run (wounded and brevet captain); in the construction 
of the defences of Washington, 1861-62; in the Virginia 
Peninsula, 1862; engaged at Yorktown (brevet major) and 
the Seven Days’ operations before Richmond; as chief to¬ 
pographical engineer of Banks’s expedition to the Gulf of 
Mexico, 1862-63; as colonel of the First Connecticut Ar¬ 
tillery Volunteers, in command of siege artillery before 
Petersburg, 1864-65 (brevet lieutenant-colonel U. S. A., 
and brevet brigadier-general U. S. V.) ; engaged in various 
actions; as chief of artillery of expedition to Fort Fisher, 
1865 ; and in command of a brigade in the defences of 
Washington, 1863-65. Brevet colonel and brigadier-gen¬ 
eral U. S. A. Mar. 13, 1865, and brevet major-general 
U. S. V. for gallant and meritorious services. Since the 
war he has been superintending defences and in command 
of engineer battalion and torpedo school of practice at 
Willet’s Point, N. Y., member of engineer boards, and ob¬ 
server on solar eclipse expedition to Sicily, 1870—/1. lie 
is the author of several professional papers, and a member 
of American Academy of Sciences and other associations. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Abbot (Robert), D. D., a learned English bishop, a 
brother of Archbishop George Abbot, was born in 1560. 
He became a popular preacher, and in 1615 bishop of Salis- 

bury. Died Mar. 2, 1617. He left several theological, con¬ 
troversial, and political works, once highly valued for their 
learning. 

Abbot (Samuel), a wealthy merchant of Boston, born 
at Andover, Mass., was one of the founders of the theolog¬ 
ical seminary, at Andover, towards the building of which 
he gave $20,000 during his lifetime and $100,000 at his 
death. He also contributed large sums for various other 
charitable purposes. Died April 30, 1812, aged eighty. 

Abbot (Walter), U. S. N., born in 1843 in the State 
of Massachusetts, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1861, 
became an ensign in 1862, a lieutenant in 1864, a lieutenant- 
commander in 1866, served on board the steam frigate Mis¬ 
sissippi at the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jackson and 
the capture of New Orleans in 1862, and on board the iron¬ 
clad New Ironsides from 1863 to 1865 in her numerous en¬ 
gagements with the forts off Charleston, and in the fight 
with Fort Fisher at Wilmington, N. C. Died at Funchal, 
Madeira, in the winter of 1873. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Ab'botsford, the seat of Sir Walter Scott, is situated 
on the right bank of the Tweed, about three miles from 
Melrose Abbey. It is surrounded by beautiful scenery. 

This estate was purchased in 1811 by Sir Walter, who ex¬ 
pended a large sum of money in the erection of a pictu¬ 
resque and irregular pile of buildings, which has been cha¬ 
racterized as “a romance in stone and lime.” The expense 
of this building was the chief cause of Scott’s failure in 

1826. (See Scott, Sir Walter.) 

Ab'bots-Lang'ley, a parish of England, in Hert¬ 
fordshire, was the birthplace of Nicholas Breakspear 
(Adrian IV.), the only Englishman who ever became pope. 

Ab'bott (Benjamin), a noted Methodist preacher, was 
born in Pennsylvania in 1732. He travelled and preached 
extensively in his native State, in New Jersey, Delaware, 
and Maryland, and was one of the chief founders of his. 
denomination in those States. His native eloquence was 
extraordinary. His autobiographical records, embodied in 

Firth’s “ Life of Abbott,” are among the most remarkable 
of the early writings of Methodism. He was a man of little 
education, but of saintly character. Died in 1796. 

Abbott (Charles), Lord Tenterden, an eminent Eng¬ 
lish .judge, born at Canterbury in 1762. He published in 

1802 a “Treatise on the Law of Merchant Ships and Sea¬ 
men,” which is a standard work; became a judge in the 
court of common pleas in 1816, and lord chief-justice of 
the king’s bench in 1818. In 1827 he was raised to the 
peerage as Lord Tenterden. Died in 1832. 

Abbott (Jacob), a prolific and popular writer, was born 
at Hallowell, Me., Nov. 14, 1803, graduated at Bowdoin Col¬ 
lege in 1820, studied theology at Andover, Mass., from 1822 
to 1824, was tutor in Amherst College from 1824-25, and 
professor of mathematics in the same institution from 1825 
to 1829, was principal of the Mount Vernon School (for 
young ladies) in Boston from 1829 to 1834, when he was 
ordained and took charge of the Eliot church in Roxbury 
(till 1836). For several years he made his home in New 

York City, though frequently absent in foreign countries. 

He now (1873) resides at the old family homestead in Farm¬ 
ington, Me. His reputation as an author was established 
by the “ Young Christian Series,” consisting of “ The Young 
Christian” (1832), “The Corner-Stone ” (1834), “ The Way 
to Do Good,” “Hoaryhead,” and “McDonner.” But he is 
best known as the author of “ The Rollo Books” (28 vols.), 

“The Franconia Stories” (10 vols.), “Harper’s Story- 
Books ” (36 vols.), and other juvenile works, some of 
which have been translated into various languages. 

Abbott (Rev. John Stevens Cabot), brother of Jacob, 
was born at Brunswick, Me., Sept. 18, 1805, graduated at 
Bowdoin College in 1825, at Andover Theological Semi¬ 
nary in 1829, and was settled as minister in Worcester, 
Roxbury, Nantucket, and New Haven. Since 1866 he has 
resided in Fair Haven, Conn. Among his works may bo 
named “The Mother at Home” (1833), and “ History of 
Napoleon Bonaparte,” 2 vols. 8vo. Among the most im¬ 
portant of his recent works is his “History of Napoleon 

III.” (1868). 

Abbott (Lyman), third son of Rev. Jacob Abbott, was 
born in Roxbury, Mass., Dec. 18, 1835, graduated at the 

New York University in 1853, practised law for a time in 

New York City, studied theology with his uncle, Rev. John 

S. C. Abbott, was settled in the ministry at Terre Haute, 

Ind., from 1860 to 1865, was connected with the Freedmen’s 
Commission from 1865 to 1868, then accepted the pastorate 
of the New England Congregational church in New York 

City, which he resigned in 1869, and no"w (18/3) resides at 
Cornwall, on the Hudson, engaged in literary pursuits. 

Since 1871 he has edited for the American Tract Society 
its “Illustrated Christian Weekly,” the only illustrated ro- 

/ 

















6 . . ABBOTT—ABBREVIATIONS. 


ligious weekly paper in the country. Besides other literary 
wt>rk, he has published “Jesus of Nazareth, His Life and 
Teachings” (1869), “Old Testament Shadows of New Tes¬ 
tament Truths” (1870), “Morning and Evening Exercises, 
selected from the Writings of Henry Ward Beecher ” (1871), 
“ Laicus, or the Experiences of a Layman in a Country 
Parish” (1872), and is now engaged in carrying through 
the press of Harper & Brothers a “ Popular Religious Dic¬ 
tionary” of about 1200 pages. 

Abbott (Robert 0.), M. D., brevet colonel and surgeon 
U. S. A., born in 1824, entered the army as assistant sur¬ 
geon in 1849. In 1862 he became medical director of the 
Fifth Corps, and in the summer of that year medical direc¬ 
tor of the department of Washington—a difficult position, 
the duties of which he performed with great honor and ad¬ 
ministrative ability and rare professional skill. Died, in 
consequence of overwork, June 10, 1867. 

Ab'bott’s, a township of Bladen co., N. C. Pop. 716. 

Ab'bott’s Creek, a post-township of Forsyth co., 
N. C. Pop. 768. 

Abbrevia'tio Placito'rum (“abbreviation of plead¬ 
ings ”), in legal history, an abstract of ancient pleadings 
made prior to the Year Books. (See Year Books.) 

Abbreviations [Lat. abbreviationes, from cibbre'vio, 
abbrevia'turn, to “shorten” (from bre'vis, “short ”)], cus¬ 
tomary contractions of words and phrases used in writing, 
in order to save time and space. They are formed by the 
omission of some letters or words, or by the substitution 
of arbitrary signs. In mediaeval manuscripts abbrevia¬ 
tions are so numerous that special study and training are 
required to decipher them. 

The following are the more important abbreviations in 
common use: 


da, ana, “ of each.” 

A. A. A. G., Acting Assistant 
Adjutant-General. 

A. A. G., Assistant Adjutant- 
General. 

A. B., Artium Baccalaureus, 
Bachelor of Arts. 

A. B. C. F. M., American 
Board of Commissioners for 
Foreign Missions. 

Abp., Archbishop. 

A. C., Ante Christum, before 
Christ; also Arch-Chancel¬ 
lor. 

Acct., account. 

A. D., Amio Domini, “in the 
year of our Lord.” 

Ad. or Adv., adverb. 

Adj., adjective. 

Admr., administrator. 

Adrnx., administratrix. 

Alt. or aetat., setatis, of age. 

A. G., Adjutant-General. 

A. II., Anno Hegirse, “in the 
year of the Hegira ” (flight 
of Mohammed). 

Ala., Alabama. 

A. M., Anno Mundi, “in the 
year of the world.” 

A. M., Ante Meridiem, “be¬ 
fore noon.” 

A. M., Artium Magister, 
Master of Arts. 

Anon., anonymous. 

Ans., answer. 

Apr., April. 

A. Q. M., Assistant Quarter¬ 
master. 

A. R. A., Associate of the 
Royal Academy (London). 

Ari., Arizona. 

Ark., Arkansas. 

A. U. C., Ab Urbe Condita, 
“from the Founding of the 
City” ( i. e. Rome). 

Aug., August. 

A. V., Authorized Version. 

A. Y. M., Ancient York Ma¬ 
son. 

B. A.or A. B.,Bachelor of Arts. 

Bart, or Bt., Baronet. 

Bbl., barrel. ^ 

B. C., before Christ. 

B.C.L.,Bachelor of Civil Law. 

B. D., Bachelor of Divinity. 

B. L., Bachelor of Laws, le- 
gum baccalaiireus. 


Brigadier-Gen- 


Bp., Bishop. 

Brig.-Gen., 
eral. 

Bro., brother. 

Bush., bushel. [Beata Virgo. 

B. V., Blessed Virgin, Lat. 

C. , centum, a “ hundred j” 
also “ centigrade.” 

C., Consul; also chapter. 

Ca., circa, about. 

Cal., California. 

Cal. or-Kah, Kalends. 
Cantab., Cantabrigiensis, “of 
Cambridge.” 

Cantuar., of Canterbury. 
Cap., capitulum, “chapter.” 
Capt., Captain. 

C. B., Companion of the 
Bath ; also Cape Breton. 

C. C., Caius College. 

c. c., cubic centimetre. 

C. C. P., Court of Common 
Pleas. 

C. E., Civil Engineer. 

Cent., centum, “ hundred.” 

Cf., confer, compare. 

C. G. H., Cape of Good Hope. 
Chap, or ch., chapter. 

Chron., Chronicles. 

C. J., Chief-Justice. 

C. M., common metre. 

Co., company; also county. 
C. O. D., cash on delivery. 
Col., Colonel; also Colorado. 
Coll., college. 

Com., Commodore, Commis¬ 
sioner. 

con., contra, “ against.” 

Cor., Corinthians. 

Cor. Sec., Corresponding Sec¬ 
retary. 

Cos., cosine. 

Coss., Consules or Consuli- 
bus, “consuls” (of Rome). 
Cr., creditor. 

Crim. Con., criminal connec¬ 
tion or conversation. 

C. S. A., Confederate States 
of America. 

Ct. or Conn., Connecticut. 
Cwt., a hundredweight. 

Cyc., cyclopaedia. 

d. , penny, pence, denarius. 

D. , five hundred; also Dena¬ 
rius. 

D. A. G., Deputy Adjutant- 
General. 


Dak., Dakota. 

Dan., Daniel, Danish. 

D. C., District of Columbia; 
also da capo, “ from the be¬ 
ginning.” 

D. C. L., Doctor of Civil 
Law. 

D. D., Doctor of Divinity. 

D. D. S., Doctor of Dental 
Surgery. 

Dea., deacon. 

Dec., December. 

Deg., degree. 

Del., Delaware; also deline- 
avit, “ he designed ” (on 
engravings). 

Dept., department. 

Deut., Deuteronomy. 

D. F., Fidei defensor, “ De¬ 
fender of the faith.” 

Dft., defendant. 

D. G., Dei gratia, “ by the 
grace (or favor) of God.” 

Dist., district. 

Do., ditto, “the same.” 

Doz., dozen. 

Dr., Doctor; also debtor. 

D. T., Dakota Territory. 

D. V., Deo volente, “God 
willing.” 

Dwt., pennyweight. 

E. , east. 

Ebor., Eboracum, York. 

Eccl., Ecclesiastes. 

Ecclus., Ecclesiasticus. 

E. D., Eastern District (of 
Bi’ooklyn, N. Y.). 

Ed., editor, edition. 

Edin., Edinburgh. 

E. E., Errors excepted. 

e. g., exempli gratia, “ for ex¬ 
ample.” 

E. I., East Indies. 

E. I. C., East India Company. 

E. M., Mining Engineer. 

Encyc., encyclopaedia. 

E. N. E., east north-east. 

Eng., English, Engineers. 

Eph., Ephes., Ephesians. 

E. S. E., east south-east. 

Esth., Esther. 

Esq., Esquire. 

et al., et alii, “and others.” 

etc., et csetera, “ and the 
rest;” i. e. other such 
things; and so forth. 

Et seq., et sequens, “and the 
following.” 

Exr., executor. 

Exod., Ex., Exodus. 

Exon., Exonia, Exeter. 

Exx., executrix. 

Ez., Ezra. 

Ezek., Ezekiel. 

F. or/., franc, florin, farthing, 
foot. 

F. and A. M., Free and Ac¬ 
cepted Masons. 

F. or Fahr., Fahrenheit. 

F. A. S., Fellow of the Anti¬ 
quarian Society; Fellow of 
the Society of Arts. 

F. A. S. E., Fellow of the 
Antiquarian Society of Ed¬ 
inburgh. 

F. B. S., Fellow of the Botan¬ 
ical Society. 

F. D., Fidei defensor, “ De¬ 
fender of the faith.” 

Feb., February. 

F. F. V., first families of Vir¬ 
ginia. 

F. G. S., Fellow of the Geo¬ 
logical Society. 

Fla., Florida. 

F. L. S., Fellow of the Lin- 
naean Society. 

F. R. A. S., Fellow of the 
Royal Astronomical (or 
Asiatic) Society. 

F. R. C. P., Fellow of the 


Royal College of Physi¬ 
cians. 

F. R. C. S., Fellow of the 
Royal College of Surgeons. 

Fri., Friday. 

F. R. G. S., Fellow of the 
Royal Geographical Soci¬ 
ety. 

F. R. S., Fellow of the Royal 
Society. 

F. R. S. E., Fellow of the 
Royal Society of Edin¬ 
burgh. 

F. S. A., Fellow of the Soci¬ 
ety of Antiquarians. 

F. S. S., Fellow of the Statis¬ 
tical Society. 

F. Z. S., Fellow of the Zoo¬ 
logical Society. 

Ga., Georgia. 

Gal., Galatians. 

gal., gallons. 

G. B., Great Britain. 

G. C. B., Grand Cross of the 
Bath. 

G. M., Grand Master. 

Gen., General, Genesis. 

Ger., German. 

Gov., Governor. 

Gr., Greek. 

G. T., Good Templars; Grand 

' Tyler. 

Gtt., guttse, “ drops.” 

Hab., Habakkuk. 

Hag., Haggai. 

II. B. C., Hudson’s Bay Com¬ 
pany. 

H. B. M., His or Her Britan¬ 
nic Majesty. 

Hdkf., Handkerchief. 

h. e., hoc est, “ this is.” 

Heb., Hebrews. 

hhd., hogshead. 

Hist., history. 

II. I. II., His or Her Imperial 
Highness. 

H. M. S., His or Her Ma¬ 
jesty’s Ship. 

lion., Honorable. 

IIos., Ilosea. 

H. R., House of Representa¬ 
tives. 

H. R. H., His or Her Royal 
Highness. 

II. S. S., Histories Societatis 
Socius, Fellow of the His¬ 
torical Society. 

I. , Is., Isl., island. 

Ia., Iowa. 

Ibid, or lb., ibidem, “ in the 
same place.” 

Id., idem, “ the same.” 

Id., Idaho. 

i. e., id est, “that is.” 

I. H. S., lesus Hominum Sal¬ 
vator, “Jesus Saviour of 
men.” 

III. , Illinois. 

incog., incognito, “unknown.” 

Ind., Indiana. 

Ind. Ter., Indian Territory. 

In lim., in limine, “at the 
outset.” 

In loc., in loco, “ in the place.” 

I. N. R. I., Jesus JFazarenus 
Rex Judseorum, “Jesus of 
Nazareth, King of the 
Jews.” 

Inst., institute. 

inst., instante mense, “in the 
present month.” 

Int., interest. 

I. O. O. F., Independent Order 
of Odd Fellows. 

I. 0. S. M., Independent Or¬ 
der of the Sons of Malta. 

Isa., Isaiah. 

It., Italian. 

J. A., Judge Advocate. 

J am., Jamaica. 

Jan., January. 

























ABBREVIATIONS. 

r- 

t 


Jas., James. 

Miss., Mississippi. 

plff., plaintiff. 

sin., sine. 


J. C., Juris Consult. 

Mile., Mademoiselle. 

plupf., pluperfect. 

S. J., Society of Jesus. 


J. C. 1)., Juris Civilis Doc- 

Mine., Madame. 

P. M., Post Meridiem, “after 

S. J. C., Supreme Judical 


tor, Doctor of Civil Law. 

Mo., Missouri. 

noon.” 

Court. 


J. D., Juris Doctor, Doctor 

Mon., Montana. 

P. M., Postmaster. 

S. M., Sa Majeste, His or 


of Law. 

Mons., Monsieur. 

P. 0., Post-office. 

Her Majesty. 


Jer., Jeremiah. 

M. P., Member of Parliament. 

Pop., population. 

Sp. or Span., Spanish. 


Jno., John. 

M. R. C. S., Member of the 

Port., Portuguese. 

S. P. Q. R., Senatus Popu- 


Jona., Jonathan. 

Royal College of Surgeons. 

P. P., Parish Priest. 

lusque Roman us, “the Ro- 


J. P., Justice of the Peace. 

M. R. I. A., Member of the 

PP., Patres, “fathers.” 

man senate and people.” 


Jr. or Jun., Junior. 

Royal Irish Academy. 

pp-, pages. 

Sq. or Seq., sequens, the fol- 


JucL, Judith. 

MS., manuscript. 

P. P. C., pour prendre conge, 

lowing; Sqq., sequentes, the 


J. U. D., Juris utriusque 

MSS., manuscripts. 

“ to take leave.” 

same in plural. 


Doctor, Doctor of both 

Mt., mount. 

P. R., Porto Rico. 

Sq. ft., square foot. 


Canon and Civil Law. 

Mus. I)., Doctor of Music. 

Pres., President. 

Sq. in., square inch. 


Judg., Judges. 

N., north, or noon. 

Priv., privative. 

Sq. m., square mile. 


J. V. D., Juris ntriuaque Doc- 

N. A., North America. 

Prof., Professor. 

SS., saints; also “esses,” a 


tor, Doctor of Civil and 

N. A. S., National Acad, of Sci. 

Pro tern.. Pro tempore, “ for 

collar worn by knights and 


Canon Law. 

N. B., Nota Bene, “mark 

the time.” 

others in heraldry. 


K., King. 

well;” also North Britain 

Prob., problem. 

Ss. or Sc., scilicet, “to wit,” 


Kal. or Cal., Calends. 

(Scotland) and New Bruns- 

Prov., Proverbs. 

“namely.” 


Kan., Kansas. 

wick. 

Prox., Proximo or Proximo 

Ss., semis, “half.” 


K. B., Knight of the Bath. 

N. C., North Carolina. 

mense, “in the next month.” 

S. S., Sunday School. 


K. C., King’s Counsel. 

N. E., north-east, New Eng- 

Ps., Psalm. 

S. S. E., south south-east. 


K. C. B., Knight Commander 

land. 

P. S., postscript, privy seal. 

S. S. W., south south-west. 


of the Bath. 

Neb., Nebraska. 

Pub. Doc., public document. 

St., saint and street. 


K. G. C. B., Knight Grand 

Neh., Nehemiah. 

Pxt., pinxit, painted it. 

S. T. D., Sacrosanctse Tlieol- 


Cross of the Bath. 

Nem. Con., Nemine contradi- 

q., farthing ( quadrans ). 

oqise Doctor, Doctor of The- 


K. G., Knight of the (garter. 

cente, or Nem. Diss., Ne- 

Q., Queen, question, Quintus. 

ology. 


K. P., Knight of St. Patrick. 

mine dissidente, “no one 

Q. C., Queen’s Counsel. 

S. of T., Sons of Temperance. 


K. T., Knight of the Thistle. 

contradicting or opposing.” 

Q. d., Quasi dicat, “As if he 

S. T. P.. Sacrosanctse Theol- 


Kt., Knight. 

Nev., Nevada. 

should say.” 

oqise Professor, Professor 


Ivy., Kentucky. 

N. F., Newfoundland. 

Q. E. D., Quod Erat Demon- 

of Theologv. 


La., Louisiana. 

N. G., New Granada. 

strandum, “which was to 

S. W., south-west. 


Lam., Lamentations. 

N. II., New Hampshire. 

be demonstrated.” 

Syr., Syriac. 


Lat., latitude. 

N. J., New Jersey. 

Q. E. F., Quod Erat Facien- 

T. E., Topographical Engi- 


Lat., Latin. 

N. M., New Mexico. 

dum, “ which was to be 

neers. 


L. D., Lady Day. 

N. N. E., north north-east. 

done.” 

Tenn., Tennessee. 


Lev., Leviticus. 

N. N. W., north north-west. 

Q. M., Quartermaster. 

Tex., Texas. 


L. II. D., Literarum Humani- 

No., Numero, “Number.” 

Q.P.,“as much as you please.” 

Text. Rec., Textus receptus. 


orum Doctor, Doctor of 

N. 0., New Orleans. 

Qr., quarter, farthing. 

Tliess., Thessalonians. 


Literature—conferred onlv 

Nov., November. 

Q. S., Quantum Sufficit, “ a 

Tit., Titus. 


by the Regents of the Uni- 

N. P., Notary Public; also 

sufficient quantity.” 

U. G. R. R., Underground 


versity of the State of N. Y. 

New Providence Island. 

Qu., query. 

Railroad. 


L. I., Long Island. 

N.S., Nova Scotia, New Style. 

Q. V. or q. v., quod vide, 

Ult., Ultimo, ultimo mense, 


Lib., liber, book. 

N. T., New Testament. 

“ which see,” or quantum 

“in the last month.” 


Lib., lb., 1., libra . a “ pound.” 

Num., Numbers. 

* vis, “as much as you 

U. P., United Presbyterian. 


Lieut., Lieutenant. 

N. W., north-west. 

please.” 

U. S., United States. 


LL.B., Bachelor of Laws. 

N. Vi. T., North-west Terri- 

R. (Rex), “ King,” or Regina, 

U. S. A., United States Army. 


LL.D., Lequm Doctor, “ Doc- 

tory. 

“ Queen.” 

U. S. A., United States of 


tor of Laws.” 

N. Y., New York. 

R. A., Royal Academician, or 

America. 


L. S., Locus Sigilli, “Place 

N. Z., New Zealand. 

Royal Artillery. 

U. S. N., United States Navj r . 


of the seal.” ■ 

0., Ohio. 

R. C., Roman Catholic. 

U. S. P., United States Phar- 


Lon., longitude. 

Ob., obiit, « died.” 

R. E., Royal Engineers. 

macopceia. 


L. R. C. P., Licentiate of the 

Obad., Obadiah. 

Rec. Sec., Recording Sccre- 

U. S. S., United States ship 


Royal College of Physi- 

Obdt., obedient. 

tary. 

or steamer. 


cians. 

Obs., obsolete. 

Ref. Ch., Reformed Church. 

U. T., Utah Territory. 


L. R. C. S., Licentiate of the 

Oct., October. 

Reg. Prof., Regius Professor. 

V. or vs., versus, against. 


Royal College of Surgeons. 

01., oleum, oil. 

Rev., reverend, Revelation. 

Va., Virginia. 


L. S. D., Libri, Solidi, De- 

01. or Olym., Olympiad. 

R. I., Rhode Island. 

V. D. M., Verbi Dei Minis- 


narii, “pounds, shillings, 

Or., Oregon. 

R. M., Royal Marines. 

ter, “ preacher of the word 


[and] pence.” 

0. S., Old Style. 

R. M. S., Royal Mail Steamer. 

of God.” 


M., Monsieur, mille (a “thou- 

0. T., Old Testament. 

R. N., Royal Navy. 

Ven., Venerable. 


sand”), a milo; noon. 

Oxon., Oxoniensis, “ Oxo- 

Ro. or Robt., Robert. 

V.-G., Vicar-General. 


M., 10,000. 

nian” or “of Oxford.” 

Rom., Romans. 

Viz., Videlicet, “ namely.” 


M. A., Master of Arts. 

Oz., ounce. 

R. R., Railroad. 

V.-P., Vice-President. 


Macc., Maccabees. 

P., Pere, “father.” 

R. Rs., Railroads. 

vs., versus, “ against.” 


Mad. or Mme., Madame. 

Pa., Pennsylvania. 

R. S. D., Royal Society of 

Vt., Vermont. 


Mag., magazine. 

Park, Parliament. 

Dublin. 

W., west. 


Maj.-Gen., Major-General. 

P. C., Privy Councillor. 

R. S. E., Royal Society of 

Wash., Washington. 


Mai., Malachi. 

P. E. I., Prince Edward’s 

Edinburgh. 

W. I., West Indies. 


Mar., March. 

Island. 

R. S. Y. P., repondez, s’ilvous 

Wis., Wisconsin. 


Masc., masculine. 

P. E., Protestant Episcopal. 

plait, “ Reply, if you please.” 

W. N. W., west north-west. 


Mass., Massachusetts. 

Per Ann., Pr. An., Per An- 

Rt. Hon., Right Honorable. 

W. S. W., west south-west. 


Matt., Matthew. 

num, “ by the year.” 

Rt. Rev., Right Reverend. 

W. T., Washington Terri- 


M. B., Bachelor of Medicine. 

Per Cent., Per Centum, “ by 

S., south, saint, or shilling. 

tory. 


M. C., Member of Congress. 

the hundred.” 

S. A., South America. 

W. Va., West Virginia. 


Md., Maryland. 

Pet., Peter. 

Sam., Samuel. 

Wy., Wyoming Territory. 


M. D., Medicinal Doctor, 

Ph. D., Philosophise Doctor, 

Sans., Sanscrit. 

X, Xpiurd?, Christ. 


“Doctor of Medicine.” 

“Doctor of Philosophy.” 

S. C., South Carolina. 

Xmas., Christmas; Xtian, 


Me., Maine. 

Phil., Philippians, Philip. 

Sc. or Ss., scilicet, “to wit;” 

Christian, etc. 


M. E., Methodist Episcopal. 

Phila., Philadelphia. 

also sculpait, “ he engraved 

Yr., year, your. 


M. E. S., Methodist Episcopal 

Philem., Philemon. 

it” (on engravings). 

Zech., Zechariah. 


South. 

Philom., Philomathes, “a 

S. E., south-east. 

Zeph., Zephaniah. 


M. H. S., Massachusetts Ilis- 

lover of learning.” 

Sec., Secretary. 

&, and. 


torical Society. 

Philomath., “ a lover of learn- 

Sept., September. 

&c., et cietera, or and so forth. 


Messrs, or MM., Messieurs. 

ing.” 

Y®, Y‘, The, That. (This 

usfe of Y originated in the 


“gentlemen.” 

Pinxt. or pxt., pinxit, “he 

Anglo-Saxon character p, which was equivalent to the mod- 


Mic., Micah. 

painted.” 

ern th. In manuscripts this 

character degenerates into a 


Mich., Michigan. 

Pk., peck. 

form like a black letter y (n), which was retained after its 


Minn., Minnesota. 

pi., plu., or plur., plural. 

origin and real sound had been lost sight of.) 






















ABBREVIATOR—A’BECKET. 


Abbrovia'tor, a notary of the papal court and of the 
church councils, whose business is to prepare briefs and per¬ 
form various important services as secretary. The number 
of these notaries was formerly about seventy-two. 

Abbt (Thomas), an eminent German author, born at Ulm 
in 1738. He became professor of mathematics at llinteln 
in 1761, and contributed to the improvement of the German 
language. Ilis chief works are“Vom Verdiensto ” (“ On 
Merit,” 1765) and “ Vom Tod furs Vatcrland” (“ On Dying 
for [one’s] Fatherland,” 1761). Died in 1766. 

Abd, an Arabic word which signifies ‘'servant” or 
slave, and forms the prefix of many Oriental names, as 
Abd-Allah, “ servant of Allah,” Abd-er-Raiiman, “ ser¬ 
vant of the Merciful” (t. e. of God). 

Abd-el-Hamid (Du Couret), a French traveller, 
born in 1812, set out in 1834 for the. East, visited Egypt, 
travelled up the Nile, through Abyssinia, to the shores of 
the Red Sea, and returned along the Red Sea to Cairo. In 
consequence of the Eastern habits contracted on his travels, 
he embraced Mohammedanism, and assumed the name of 
Abd-el-IIamid. After having been imprisoned in Persia 
for political reasons, he was released through the interven¬ 
tion of France, and returned to his native country in 1847. 
In 1848 he was despatched by the government to Timbuctoo. 
He published the result of this exploration in “ Memoire a 
Napoleon III.” (1855); he also published “Medine et la 
Mekke” (3 vols., 1855). 

Abd-el-Ka'der (i. e. the “servant of the Powerful,” 
in other words, the “servant of God”), a distinguished 
Arab chieftain, born near Mascara, in Algeria, in 1807. 
His father, Mehi-ed-Deen, was a maraboot, or religious 
noble, of no little influence. Algeria having been invaded 
by the French in 1830, Abd-el-Kader was chosen emir 
(prince) by the Arabs of that country. He defeated the 
French at Macta in 1835. A treaty of peace was con¬ 
cluded in 1837. In 1839 hostilities were again renewed, 
and in the war which followed, against a power so much 
superior to his own, Abd-el-Kader displayed extraordinary 
energy, combined with a marvellous fertility of resources, 
but he was at length, in 1847, obliged to yield to over¬ 
whelming odds: he laid down his arms on condition that 
he should be sent to Alexandria or St. John d’Acre. But, 
in direct violation of the terms of capitulation, he was 
taken to France, where he was detained as a prisoner until 
1852. In 1860, when the Christians of Syria were threat¬ 
ened with massacre by the fanatical Mohammedans of that 
country, Abd-el-Kader, with extraordinary diligence and 
at the risk of his own life, protected many thousands of 
those defenceless people so long as the danger lasted. In 
1864 he paid a visit to Egypt, where he was well received 
by the viceroy, and received from M. de Lesseps a piece of 
land. He also joined the order of Freemasons. In 1865 
he visited Constantinople, where he was received with great 
honors. In 1867 he attended the Universal Exhibition of 
Paris. Abd-el-Kader has written in the Arabic language a 
work which he sent to the French Academy, and which was 
translated into French by Dugat, under the title “ Rappel 
a l’Intelligent, avis a l’lndifferent” (1858). Died Nov., 
1873. (See “Life,” by Churchill, London, 1867.) 

Abd-el-Latif', or Abdallatif, an Arabian histo¬ 
rian and physician, born at Bagdad in 1162. He wrote a 
valuable work on the history, antiquities, and geography 
of Egypt, of which De Sacy published a French version. 
Died about 1230. 

Abd-el-Wahab', the founder of the sect of Wahab- 
ites or Wahabees, was born in Nejed, Arabia, in 1691. He 
recognized the Koran, and endeavored to reform the Mo¬ 
hammedan religion, which he affirmed had become cor¬ 
rupted from its primitive purity. Died in 1787. (See 
Wahabees.) 

Abde'ra [Gr. ’Afl^pa], an ancient city of Thrace, noted 
as the birthplace of the philosopher Democritus. The stu¬ 
pidity and ignorance of the people of Abdera was proverbial. 

Abd-er-Rahman III., surnamed An-Nasir-Lidin- 
Illah, or Al-Nasser-lidInillah, a celebrated caliph, was 
born about 888 A. D. He began to reign at Cdrdova in 
912. He was an able and successful warrior, and was dis¬ 
tinguished as a patron of learning and the arts. During 
his long reign the power and glory of the Moslem empire 
in Spain were raised to the highest pitch. Died in 961. 

Abdication [Lat. abdica'tio], a term applied to the 
act of resigning a throne, which has frequently occurred. 
The Roman emperor Diocletian voluntarily abdicated in 
305 A. D., and the German emperor Charles V. in 1556. 
Many sovereigns have been compelled to abdicate by the 
hostility and violence of their subjects, as James II. of 
England (1688), Charles X. (1830) and Louis Philippe 
(1848) of France, Ferdinand of Austria (1848), and Isa¬ 
bella of Spain (1870). 


Abdo'men [Lat. abdo'men (gen. abdom'inis), from 
nbdo, abdere, to “hide”], that portion of the trunk of the 
human body which lies below the diaphragm. It contains 
the liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys, as well as the. 
stomach, the small intestines, and the colon. The abdomen 
is lined by a serous membrane, the peritoneum, which is 
folded over the viscera, allowing them a certain freedom of 
motion, but retaining them in their proper relations to each 
other by means of the mesenteric fold. The external wall 
of the abdomen is conveniently divided by writers into 
thirteen “regions,” by means of four imaginary transverse 
lines and five vertical ones. The first transverse line 
crosses the point of the ensiform cartilage; the second is 
on the lowest ribs; the third goes from the anterior superior 
spinous process of the ilium on one side to the same point 
on the other; the fourth is on the upper margin of the 
pubic bone. The first and fifth vertical lines run on either 
side towards the shoulder-joint from the insertion of Pou- 
part’s ligament into the pubes; the second and fourth lines 
ascend from a point on the crest of either ilium vertically 
towards the posterior border of the axilla; the third line 
passes along the spinous processes of the vertebrae. Of the 
thirteen regions, five are anterior, four are lateral, and four 
are posterior. From above downward, the anterior are the 
epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric, and right and left in¬ 
guinal regions. The lateral regions are the right and left 
hypochondriac and the right and left iliac. The posterior 
regions are the inferior dorsal and lumbar regions of either 
side. 

Abdomen, in entomology, the hindmost of the three 
regions into which the body of an insect is divided. It is 
composed, typically, of eleven rings or segments, more or 
less distinct from each other, but the number is often only 
ten. It contains a portion of the intestines and the sexual 
organs. In the perfect insect its segments have attached to 
them no legs or wings. In many insects its last segments 
bear appendages of various uses and forms, as pincers, 
stings, ovipositors, etc. In some insects the abdomen is not 
well differentiated from the thorax. 

Abdomina'les [the plu.of the Latin adjective abdom- 
ina'lis, “ belonging to the abdomen ”], or Abdominal 
Fishes, in the Linnsean classification, an order including 
all osseous fishes of which the ventral fins are beneath the 
abdomen and behind the pectoral fins. In the system 
of Cuvier the name is given to an order of more limited 
extent, a subdivision of the Malacopterygii or soft-rayed 
fishes, having the ventral fins, if present, beneath the ab¬ 
domen and not attached to the bones of the shoulder. It 
includes the Cyprinidas (carp, etc.), Esocidae (pike, etc.), 
Siluridae, Salmonidm (trout, salmon, etc.), Clupeidae (her¬ 
ring, etc.), Cyprinodontidse, etc. The order is not recog¬ 
nized by all naturalists. 

Abduc'tion [from the Lat. ab, “ away,” and duco, duc- 
tum, to “lead”], in law, the forcible or fraudulent carrying 
away of a person. It is usually confined to females re¬ 
moved with a view to their marriage or seduction. It is 
allied to the word kidnapping, which would include the case 
of males. Abduction is an offence severely punished by 
statute law, both in England and in this country. 

Abd-ul-Aziz' [written in French Abdoid-Aziz, and 
in German Abd-ul^Asis\, a son of Mahmood II., was born 
in 1830, and succeeded his brother, Abd-ul-Medjid, as sul¬ 
tan of Turkey, June 25, 1861. He reduced the imperial 
civil list from seventy-five million piasters to twelve million, 
abolished, among other barbarous practices, that of assas¬ 
sinating the sons of the princesses, favored the introduc¬ 
tion of Western manners and customs, and he has done 
much to destroy the old and cherished traditions of the 
Turks. (See Turkey.) 

Abd-ul-Medjid' [written in French Abdoul-Medjid, 
and in German Abd-ul-Medschid ], sultan of Turkey, the 
eldest son of Mahmood II., was born in 1823. He suc¬ 
ceeded his father July 1, 1839, when his capital was men¬ 
aced by the victorious army of Mehemet Ali, viceroy of 
Egypt- This danger was averted by the intervention of 
England and other great powers in July, 1840. He favored 
religious liberty and the reforms which his father had in¬ 
itiated, but his good-will was partially frustrated by the 
resistance of his fanatical subjects. He died June 25, 
1861, and was succeeded by his brother, Abd-ul-Aziz. (See 
Turkey.) v 

Abeceda rians, a sect founded in the sixteenth cen¬ 
tury by a person named Storck, who professed that learn- 
ing was not necessary, not even the knowledge of the 
alphabet (A B C, hence their name), for the proper under¬ 
standing of the Scriptures; and some went so far as to 
maintain that it was not even desirable to know how to 
read. 

A’Beck'et (Gilbert Abbot), a humorous English writer 























A’BECKET—ABERDEEN. 


9 


and lawyer, born in London about 1810. Ho contributed 
to the London “Times” and “Punch.” Among his Avorks 
is “The Comic Blackstone” (1844-46). Died in 1856. 

A’Becket (Thomas). See Becket. 

Abed'licgo [“slave of Nego,” the second god of the 
Babylonians], the name given in Babylon to Azariah (Dan‘. 
i. 7), one of Daniel’s three friends. 

Abeel' (David), D. D., an American missionary, born at 
New Brunswick, N. J., June 12, 1804. He published “A 
Journal of a Residence in China, 1829-33,” “A Missionary 
Convention in Jerusalem, 1838,” and “The Claims of the 
World to the Gospel.” Died at Albany Sept. 4, 1846. 

A'bekeil (Bernhard Rudolph), a German writer, born 
at Osnabriick Dec. 1, 1780, became in 1808 tutor to the 
sons of the poet Schiller, and afterward director of the gym¬ 
nasium in Osnabriick. He published “Cicero in seinen 
Briefen” (“Cicero in his Letters,” 1S35), which is highly 
commended, and has been translated into English. Died 
at Osnabriick Feb. 24, 1866. 

A'bel, the second son of Adam and Eve, was killed by 
his brother Cain. He is regarded as a type of faith and as 
the first martyr. (See Genesis iv. and Hebrews xi. 4.) 

Abel (Clarice), an English surgeon and naturalist, bora 
in 1780. He served as naturalist to Lord Amherst's embassy 
to China in 1816, and published a “Narrative of a Journey 
in the Interior of China” (1818). Died at Cawnporo, India, 
Nov. 24, 1826. 

Abel (Joseph), an historical painter, bora near Linz on 
the Danube in 1768, worked in Rome and Vienna. Among 
his works is “ Prometheus Bound.” Died in 1818. 

Abel (Niels Henrik), an eminent mathematician, bora 
at Findo, in Norway, in 1802. He gained distinction by his 
discoveries in the theory of elliptic functions^and was highly 
eulogized by Legendre. Died in 1829. A 

Abelard [Lat. Abselardus'], or Abailard (Pierre), a 
celebrated French philosopher and dialectician, born near 
Nantes, in Bretagne, in 1079. He studied dialectics under the 
Nominalist Roscellinus and the Realist William de Cham- 
peaux, and afterwards theology under Anselm of Laon. He 
taught in various places, largely in Paris, drawing around 
him great numbers of pupils from different parts of Europe. 
He sought to avoid the extremes of Nominalism and Real¬ 
ism, though his doctrine is not far removed from strict Nomi¬ 
nalism. He had marvellous subtlety; he was able to foil 
the first masters of his age in logic; and was as audacious 
in propounding his notions as he was ingenious in defend¬ 
ing them. But he lacked moral courage; he loved truth 
less than he thirsted for fame; his vanity and selfishness 
had no bounds; and his treatment of one of his pupils, the 
beautiful and accomplished Eloise, whom he first seduced, 
afterwards married, and then deserted, leaves upon his 
memory an indelible stain. He was one of the most promi¬ 
nent founders of Scholasticism, and exerted a larger influ¬ 
ence upon the intellectual activity of his time than any 
other man. He died in 1142. The most complete work on 
Abelard is Charles de Reinusat’s “Abelard,” Paris, 1845. 
(See also Cousin’s “Introduction to the Works of Abe¬ 
lard;” Berington’s “History of Abelard and Heloise,” and 
Wright’s “Abelard and Eloise,” N. Y., 1853.) 

Abel, von (Karl), a German statesman, born at Wetz- 
lar in 1788, was a leader of the absolutist and ultramon¬ 
tane party. He became Bavarian minister of the interior 
in 1838, and was removed from office by the influence of 
Lola Montez in 1847. Died at Munich in Sept., 1859. 

. A'belites, or Abe'lians, a sect of Christians who 
lived in Northern Africa in the fourth century. They en¬ 
joined marriage without carnal intercourse, in order not to 
propagate original sin, claiming in support of their practice 
the example of the patriarch Abel. They adopted children, 
who were brought up to the same kind of marriage. They 
were extinct before the time of Augustine. 

Aben, Ebn, or Ibn, a prefix to many Arabic proper 
names, denoting “ son of.” 

Abenaquis. See Abnakis. 

Aben'cerrage, the name of a noble Moorish family 
of Granada, in Spain. The implacable feud between this 
family and the Zegris formed the subject of several Spanish 
and French dramas. 

A'bendberg, a mountain of the Bernese Alps, in the 
Swiss canton of Berne, rises abruptly from the S. shore of 
Lake Thun, and has an altitude of about 5000 feet above 
the sea. On its southern slope is an asylum for cretins, 
founded about 1842. 

A'ben Ez/ra, a Spanish Jew and eminent commentator 
on the Bible, born at Toledo about 1090-1100. He excelled 
as a mathematician, linguist, physician, and poet. Died 
about 1167-76. The dates are uncertain. 


A'bensberg, a small town of Bavaria, 18 miles S. W. 
of Ptatisbon, has a castle and a mineral spring. Here Na¬ 
poleon defeated the Austrians April 20, 1809. 

A'ber, a Cymric term signifying “meeting-place of 
waters,” occurs as a prefix to names of places in Great 
Britain— e. g. Aberdeen. It is probably etymologically re¬ 
lated to the Persian ob, “ water.” The corresponding Gaelic 
term is Inver — e. g. Inverness. 

Aberbrothwick. See Arbroath. 

Ab'crcorn, dukes of, marquesses of Abercorn (in the 
Irish peerage, 1790), Viscounts Hatnilton (in the peerage 
of Great Britain, 1786), earls of Abercorn (1606), barons 
of Paisley (1587), of Abercorn (1603), of Hamilton, Mount- 
castle, and Kilpatrick (in the peerage of Scotland, 1606), 
Viscounts Strabano (1701), Barons Strabane (1616), Mount- 
castle (in the Irish peerage, 1701), marquesses of Hamilton 
(in the Irish peerage, 1868), and dukes of Chatelherault (in 
France, 1548), one of the most prominent noble families of 
Great Britain. 

Abercorn (James Hamilton), first duke of, born 
Jan. 21, 1811, succeeded his grandfather as marquis of 
Hamilton in 1818, and became lord lieutenant of Ireland in 
1866, which position he held until 1868, when he was cre¬ 
ated duke of Abercorn. He is at present lord lieutenant of 
Donegal co., Ireland, and major-general of the Royal Arch¬ 
ers. 

Ab'ercrombic (James), a British general, born in 1706, 
who in 1758 took command of near 50,000 men in New York, 
in order to recover the forts which the French had taken. 
On the 8th of July he attacked Ticonderoga, but was re¬ 
pulsed by the French with great loss, and was soon removed 
from the command. Died April 28, 1781. 

Abercrombie (James), D. D., an eloquent Episco¬ 
palian clergyman and scholar, bora Jan. 26, 1758, preached 
in Philadelphia, where he died June 26, 1841. 

Abercrombie (John), M. D., an eminent Scottish phy¬ 
sician, bora at Aberdeen in 1780. He graduated as M. I). 
in 1803, practised in Edinburgh, and attained the reputa¬ 
tion of being the first consulting physician in Scotland. 
‘He published “ Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers 
of Man” (1830), and “The Philosophy of the Moral Feel¬ 
ings” (1833), which were highly esteemed. Died in 1844. 

Abercrombie (John J.), an American officer, born in 
1798 in Tennessee, graduated at West Point in 1822, colonel 
Seventh Infantry Feb. 25, 1861, and Aug. 31, 1861, briga¬ 
dier-general U. S. volunteers. He served chiefly on the 
Western frontier (1822-61); as adjutant First Infantry 
(1825-33); in the Black Hawk war in 1832; in the Florida 
war, 1837-40 ; engaged at Okee-cho-bee (brevet major); in 
the war with Mexico, 1846-48; engaged at Monterey 
(wounded and brevet lieutenant-colonel), Vera Cruz, Cerro 
Gordo, and aide-de-camp to Major-General Patterson, 1846- 
47 ; as superintendent of recruiting service, 1853-55. In 
the civil war served in the Shenandoah campaign, 1861- 
62; engaged at Falling Waters; in the Virginia Peninsula, 
1862; engaged at Fair Oaks (wounded) and Malvern Hill, 
and till 1864 in command of troops before Washington, 
D. C. Brevetted brigadier-general U. S. A. for long and 
faithful services, and retired from active service June 12, 
1865. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Ab'ercromby (James), Baron Dunfermline, born in 
1776, was a son of General Sir Ralph Abercromby. He 
was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons by the 
Whigs in 1835, and resigned in 1839, when he passed into 
the House of Lords. Died in 1858. 

Abercromby (Sir Ralph), a distinguished British 
general, born in Clackmannanshire Oct., 1734, entered the 
army in 1758. After the peace of 1783 he passed ten 
years at home in retirement. He distinguished himself in 
the disastrous campaigns in .Holland in 1794 and 1795. 
In 1795 he took command of an expedition sent to the 
West Indies, where he captured several islands from the 
French. He was the second in command of the army 
which the duke of York led to Holland in 1799, and was 
appointed in 1800 commander-in-chief of the expedition 
to Egypt, which was then occupied by the French under 
Bonaparte. The British army, which landed early in Mar., 
1801, was attacked by Menou, near Alexandria, on the 21st 
of that month. In this action the French were defeated, 
but Sir Ralph was mortally wounded, and died on the 28th 
of Mar., 1801. He was distinguished for superior talents, 
bravery, and humanity. 

Ab erdeen', or Aberdeen'shire, a county of Scot¬ 
land, is bounded on the N. and E. by the North Sea, on 
the S. by Kincardine, Forfar, and Perth, and on the W. by 
Inverness and Banff. It has an area of 1970 square miles. 
The Grampian range of mountains extends along the 
southern boundary of this county, which contains several 
high peaks. Among these are Ben-Macdhui, 4390 feet, 














ABERRATION. 


10 ABERDEEN— 


and Cairngorm, 4000 feet high. It is drained by the Dee 
and the Don. The principal rocks are granite and mica- 
slate. More cattle arc raised in Aberdeen than in any 
other county in Scotland. Pop. in 1851, 212,032; in 1871, 
244,607. 

Aberdeen, a city and seaport of Scotland, and the 
capital of the county of Aberdeen, is on the North Sea, at 
the mouth of the river Dee, 93 miles N. N. E. of Edin¬ 
burgh. It is a handsome city, with spacious streets and 
granite houses, and is celebrated as a seat of learning. 
Among the principal public buildings are the town-house, 
several churches, and Marischal (pronounced marshal) 
College, founded in 1593. Aberdeen has a good harbor 
and an extensive trade, the chief articles of export being 
fine cotton and woollen fabrics, granite, grain, cattle, and 
fish. Here are flourishing manufactories of cotton and 
woollen goods, combs, machinery, etc. Old Aberdeen, 
which is near the mouth of the Don, about 1 mile N. of 
the new city, is the seat of King’s College and University, 
founded in 1494. Pop. of the parliamentary burgh in 
1871, 88,125. 

Aberdeen, capital of Monroe co., Miss., is on the W. 
side of the Tombigbee River, and connected by a branch 
railroad with the Mississippi and Ohio R. R. It buys and 
ships 16,000 bales of cotton yearly. It has a fine court¬ 
house, one of the best river bridges in the South, a female 
college, and a great trade. It contains five steam-mills 
and a steam cotton-compress, and is but 18 miles from the 
famous Greenwood Springs. It has a tri-weekly newspaper. 
Pop. 2022. S. A. JokAS, Ed. and Pub. “Examiner.” 

Aberdeen, a thriving post-village of Huntington 
township, Brown co., O., on the Ohio River opposite Mays- 
ville, Ky., and 60 miles above Cincinnati. Pop. 871. 

Aberdeen (George Hamilton Gordon), fourth earl 
of, a British statesman, born in Edinburgh Jan. 24, 1784, 
graduated at Cambridge in 1804. He began his public life 
as a Tory, was sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1813, and 
was raised to the British peerage as Viscount Gordon in 
1814. In 1828 he became secretary of state for foreign 
affairs in the cabinet of the duke of Wellington, with whom 
he resigned in Nov., 1830. He was reappointed to that 
office by Sir Robert Peel in 1841, gradually abandoned the 
high Tory principles, and favored a pacific foreign policy. 
In 1846 he resigned office with Sir Robert Peel, after whose 
death (1850) he was regarded as the chief of the Peeiite 
party. He became, in Jan., 1853, prime minister in a cab¬ 
inet formed by a coalition of parties. In 1854 England was 
involved in a war against Russia., to which measure Lord 
Aberdeen gave a reluctant support. Either from this 
cause, or because the war was conducted with ill success, 
the ministers became very unpopular. Lord Aberdeen re¬ 
signed in Feb., 1855, and was succeeded by Lord Palmer¬ 
ston. Died Dec. 14, 1860. 

Aberdeen (George John James), fifth earl of, old¬ 
est son of the preceding, born Sept. 28, 1816, was for a 
number of years, as Lord Iladdo, a member of the House 
of Commons, where he voted with the Liberals. He suc¬ 
ceeded his father in the peerage in 1S60. Died Mar. 22, 
1864. 

Aberdeen, earls, Viscounts Formantine, Barons Had- 
do, Methlie, Tarves, and Kellie (in the Scottish peerage 
since 1682), Viscounts Gordon (in the peerage of the United 
Kingdom since 1814), and baronets (in the Scottish peer¬ 
age since 1642), one of the most prominent noble families 
of Great Britain, an offshoot of tho ancient Scotch family 
of the Gordons.—Sir John Gordon of Iladdo was in 1642 
created baronet by Charles I. for services rendered to that 
monarch in the battle of Turriff.—Sir George Gordon of 
Haddo was lord high chancellor of Scotland when in 1682 
he was created an earl. He was an uncompromising oppo¬ 
nent of William of Orange. 'Died in 1720. 

Abergavenny, commonly pronounced ab-er-ga/ne, a 
market-town of England, in Monmouthshire, on the Usk, 
which is here joined by the Gavenny, and crossed by a fine 
bridge, 13 miles W. of Monmouth. 

Abergavenny, earls of, and Viscounts Nevill (in 
the peerage of Great Britain, 1784), barons of Avergavenny 
since the time of Henry III., a prominent noble family in 
the peerage of Great Britain. —William Nevill, fifth 
earl of, was born Sept. 16, 1S26, and succeeded his father 
in 1868. His oldest son and heir is Reginald William 
Bransby, Viscount Nevill, born Mar. 4, 1853. 

Ab'ernethy (John), a dissenting minister, born at 
Coleraine, in Ireland, in 1680. Ho was for many years 
pastor of a Presbyterian church at Antrim, and incurred 
the censure of the synod by his independent spirit. About 
1730 he removed to Dublin, where he preached to an inde¬ 
pendent congregation. Died in 1740. 

Abcrncthy (John), an eminent English surgeon, born 


in London in 1765, was a grandson of the preceding, and 
a pupil of John Hunter. He was chosen assistant suigeon 
of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, in 1786, and 
eventually chief surgeon of the same. As a lecturer on 
anatomy and surgery he gained immense popularity. He 
published in 1809 an important work, “ On the^ Constitu¬ 
tional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases, the doc¬ 
trines of which have greatly contributed to improve the 
science of surgery. Many anecdotes are related ot his 
eccentric manners and of his witty or petulant speeches to 
his patients. Died in 1831. 

Aberration [Lat. aberra'tio, from ab, “ from,” and 
er'ro, erra'tum, to “ wander ”], a term Variously employed : 
in optics it denotes the unequal deviation ot rays of light 
when refracted by a lens or reflected from a concave mirror. 
There are two kinds of optical aberration—viz., Chromatic 
(from the Greek “ color”) Aberration, or Aberration 

of Refrangibility, and Spherical Aberration, or Aberration 
of Sphericity. In astronomy also there is the Aberration 
of the Celestial Bodies, sometimes (but less correctly) term¬ 
ed the Aberration of Light. 

1. Chromatic Aberration, or Aberration of Refrancjibil- 
ity. —A convex lens may be regarded as a number of 
prisms having their bases in contact. IlencC, when a sheaf 
of rays of white light passes through it, the rays undergo 
not only refraction, but also decomposition ; and since the 
variously colored rays into which white light is divided by 
a prism possess different refrangibilities, it follows that 
when light is converged by a convex lens it is refracted to 
different foci. The violet rays, being the most refrangi¬ 
ble, form a focus nearest to the lens; while the red rays, 
being the least refrangible, form a focus farthest from the 
lens. Thus, in place of one focus, there are, in reality, an 
almost infinite number—viz., one for each of the differently 
refracted rays (the rays even of the same general color 
being not all refracted equally), and in the order of violet, 
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. Hence the rays 
do not meet at the same focus of the lens; and this devia¬ 
tion of the foci is called the chromatic aberration of a lens. 

2. Spherical Aberration, or Aberration of Sphericity. — 
Lenses and mirrors are usually ground with spherical sur¬ 
faces, and so long as the aperture does not exceed eight or 
ten degrees, the rays of homogeneous light refracted or re¬ 
flected by different parts of them meet very nearly at the 
same focus of the lens or mirror. But as the aperture of a 
spherical mirror increases, the rays reflected from the edges 
cross each other at a point on the axis nearer to the mirror 
than those which are reflected from portions of the mirror 
near its centre. Thus, the rays are deviated from the true 
focus of the mirror. Again, with regard to spherical lenses 
of large aperture, the rays which pass through the lens 
near its circumference are refracted to a point nearer to the 
lens than those which pass through its central portion. In 
the case of mirrors this deviation of light from the focus is 
called spherical aberration by reflection, while in the case 
of lenses it is called sp>herical aberration by refraction. It 
may be remedied by giving lenses and mirrors parabolic 
surfaces—a plan which is almost invariably followed in the 
construction of specula for astronomical purposes. 

3. Aberration of the Celestial Bodies, often (but less cor¬ 
rectly) termed the Aberration of Liyht, in astronomy, an 
apparent displacement of a celestial object, due to the pro¬ 
gressive motion of light. This aberration is caused—1, by 
the motion of tho earth in its orbit; and 2, by the motion 
of the observed celestial objects. It was discovered by 
Bradley in 1727. This astronomer reasoned that if tho 
earth’s motion bears only an appreciable relation to the 
velocity of light, we ought to expect that the raj’s from a 
star would seem to come from a point nearer than is actu¬ 
ally tho case to that point in the heavens towards which 
the earth’s course is directed. The phenomenon he had 
observed corresponded exactly with this explanation. Tho 
change of place due to the velocity of light, estimated from 
tho eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, corresponded (within the 
limits of observational error) with the observed changes in 
the apparent positions of the fixed stars. It follows, from 
a consideration of the earth’s path, that each star appears 
to describe a small ellipse about its true place. This fact is 
of great importance in its direct bearing on observational 
astronomy, but it is perhaps no less important on account 
of the evidence it supplies as to the motion of the earth. 

The correction of the observed position of a celestial 
object for aberration gives the true position for the mo¬ 
ment when the light which makes it visible left it; but this 
is not the true position for the moment of observation, ex¬ 
cept on supposition that the observed object is at rest. If 
the body itself is in motion, then, in addition to the correc¬ 
tion of position tor aberration, there must be a correction 
for the amount of proper motion which has taken place in 
the interval since the light which makes it visible left it. 
In order to make this correction we must know the rate of 
















ABERT—ABINGER. 11 


proper motion and the distance of the body. If the abso¬ 
lute proper motion of the body is given in miles, or length- 
measure, and not the apparent in angular measure, and is 
parallel to the motion of the earth, then the whole correc¬ 
tion may be treated as aberration, by taking the sum or the 
difference of the velocities per second of the two bodies, 
according as they are in the opposite or in the same direc¬ 
tion, and comparing this with the velocity of light. If the 
velocities of the two bodies are in the same direction and 
equal, their difference is zero, and the correction is nil. 
Hence, a body moving in the same direction as the earth, 
and with the same velocity, is unaffected in apparent po¬ 
sition by aberration. The same will be true of a body not 
moving in the same direction as the earth, provided that 
when its velocity is decomposed into rectangular compo¬ 
nents, one of which is parallel to the earth’s motion, this 
latter component velocity is equal to the earth’s velocity 
and in the same direction. 

It follows from the foregoing that the bodies of a group 
or system, as observed the one from the other, are unaffected 
by aberration in consequence of any common motion in 
which all participate alike, but that they suffer displace¬ 
ment from this cause only in consequence of their relative 
motions. The moon partakes of the annual motion of the 
earth round the sun, but suffers no aberration on that ac¬ 
count ; and so the sun, though it may have a proper motion 
in space, is unaffected by this cause in its apparent posi¬ 
tion, as viewed from the earth or from any other member 
of the solar system, since this motion is one in which all 
the bodies of' the system equally participate. 

Revised by F. A. P. Barnard. 

A'bert (John J.), an American officer, born 1785 in Mary¬ 
land, graduated at West Point 1811, chief of Topographical 
Engineers July 7, 1838, rank of colonel. Upon resigning 
from the army, April 1, 1811, he became a lawyer, and as 
a private of the District of Columbia'militia was engaged 
in the battle of Bladensburg, Md., in 1814. After his re¬ 
appointment as brevet major of Topographical Engineers, 
Nov. 22, 1814, he was on various surveys of harbors, rivers, 
and coasts, and Mar. 19, 1829, placed in charge of topo¬ 
graphical bureau, Washington, D. C., being also Indian 
commissioner, 1832-34, and member of several scientific, 
historical, and geographical societies. He was retired from 
active service Sept. 9, 1861, and died Jan. 27, 1863, at 
Washington, D. C., aged 78. G. W. Cullum, U.S. A. 

Abert (William Stretch), a son of Colonel J. J. Abert, 
was born in the District of Columbia, graduated at West 
Point in 1855, entered the artillery, became in 1861 captain 
in the Sixth Cavalry and colonel of volunteers, serving 
throughout the civil war with great honor, and receiving a 
brevet of lieutenant-colonel U. S. A. In 1867 he was made 
major of the Seventh Cavalry. Died at Galveston, Tex., 
of yellow fever, Aug. 25, 1867. 

Ab'eryst'with, a market-town, seaport, and fashion¬ 
able watering-place of Wales, at the mouth of the Ystwith, 
34 miles N. E. of Cardigan. It has good hotels. Pop. in 
1871, 6898. 

Abey'ance [Norman Fr. ctbbaiaunce, “expectation;” 
literally, “gaping” or waiting with open mouth], a legal 
term signifying “ in expectation or suspense.” It is used 
to indicate the condition of property where there is no per¬ 
son in whom its ownership is vested. In the law of real es¬ 
tate it is generally applied to a fee, which is said to be in 
abeyance when there is no particular owner of the inherit¬ 
ance. It has been laid down that a fee can be in abeyance 
only while there is a freehold estate (or life interest) in the 
land vested in some person. It is denied by writers of high 
authority that a fee can be in abeyance. The tendency of 
modern law certainly is to discountenance this theory, and 
to reduce the cases of abeyance to the narrowest possible 
limits. The term has been applied in some instances to 
personal property, as in case of captures at sea in time of 
war. as to the title after capture and before condemnation 
in the prize court. 

Ab'gar, or Ab'garus [Gr. 'AjSyapo?], written also Aba- 
garus, Agbarus, and Augarus, a name common to 
several kings of Edessa, in Mesopotamia. The fourteenth 
of these kings, Abgar Uchomo, is said to have been in corre¬ 
spondence with Christ. The genuineness of this correspon¬ 
dence has found defenders even in the nineteenth century. 

Abgil'lus (John), son of the king of the Frisii, became 
a Christian, and accompanied Charlemagne in several ol his 
expeditions. He received the title of Prester, or Priest, on 
account of the excessive severity of his life. He is not to 
be confounded with the Mongolian Prester John of the 
eleventh century. 

A'bib (after the Babylonian captivity called Nisan), 
the first month of the Hebrew sacred year, and the seventh 
of the civil year. 


Abida-Jebel, a volcanic mountain of Abyssinia, in 
Mudaito; lat. 10° 9' N., Ion. 41° E. 

A'bies [supposed to be derived from the Lat. ab, “from,” 
and eo, to “ go,” on account of the great height to which it 
goes or extends from the earth], the Latin name of a genus 
of coniferous trees which have leaves growing singly on the 
stem, as the fir and the spruce. The Abies excelsa pro¬ 
duces the valuable timber called “ white deal,” also Bur¬ 
gundy pitch and frankincense; the Abies balsamea yields 
the balm of Gilead, or Canadian balsam. The famous cedar 
of Lebanon, which affords excellent timber, is called Abies 
cedrus by some botanists. Several species of Abies are 
highly prized as evergreen ornamental trees—viz., Abies 
excelsa (the Norway fir), Abies alba (white spruce), Abies 
nobihs (noble silver fir), Abies pectinata (European silver 
fir), and Abies balsamea (balsam fir). The Abies balsamea, 
Abies Canadensis (hemlock spruce), Abies alba, Abies Fra- 
seri, and Abies nigra are natives of the Eastern U. S., while 
the most magnificent species of the genus, Abies JDonglasii, 
Abies Menziesii, Abies nobilis, Abies grandis, and Abies 
amabilis, grow on the western coast of North America. 

Abila, capital of the tetrarchy of Abilene, identified, 
some fifty years ago, with Sfik, on the right bank of the 
Barada, near the point where it breaks through the Antili- 
banus range of mountains towards the plain of Damascus. 
It was on the great road between Heliopolis and Damascus, 
32 miles from the former city and 18 miles from the 
latter. There was another Abila E. of the Jordan, a few 
miles S. of the Yarrnuk (or Hieromax),the northern bound¬ 
ary of Gilead. 

Abile'ne, an ancient tetrarchy, whose capital was 
Abila (which see). It is impossible to fix its limits. St. 
Luke (iii. 1) speaks of it as the tetrarchy of Lysanias, who 
was apparently a son of the Lysanias mentioned by Jo¬ 
sephus. (See Krafft’s “Topographic Jerusalems,” 1847.) 

Abilene, a post-village, capital of Dickinson co., Kan., 
on the Kansas River and Kansas Pacific 11. R., 95 miles by 
railroad W. of Topeka. It has one weekly newspaper. It 
is a great point for shipping cattle eastward by rail. 

Abim'elech (“the royal father ”). I. A king of Gerar, 
a city of the Philistines in the time of Abraham (Gen. xx. 
1, sq.). II. Another king of Gerar in Isaac’s time (Gen. 
xxvi.), perhaps a son of the foregoing. III. A son of 
Shechem (Judges ix.), was for three years (B. C. 1322- 
1319) a self-constituted king over a great part of Israel. 

Ab'ingdon, a market-town of England, in Berkshire, 
on the Ock where it joins the Isis, 51 miles W. N. W. of 
London. It sends a member to Parliament. Pop. of the 
parliamentary borough in 1871, 6583; of the municipal 
borough, 5805. 

Abingdon, a city of Knox co., Ill., on the Chicago 
Burlington and Quincy R. R., 85 miles N. E. of Quincy. 
It is surrounded by a rich agricultural district, and is the 
seat of Iledding College, controlled by the Methodist Epis¬ 
copal Church, and of Abingdon College, sustained by the 
Christian denomination. It has four hotels, three churches, 
one plough-factory, two steam-mills, and one wagon-fac¬ 
tory. The city has three public parks, and one weekly 
neivspaper. Pop. in 1870, 948. 

W. H. Heaton, Ed. and Prop. “ Knox Co. Democrat.” 

Abingdon, a post-twp. of Harford co., Md. Pop. 2598. 

Abingdon, the capital of Washington co., Ya., in a 
township of its own name, on the Virginia and Tennessee 
R. R., 315 miles W. S. W. of Richmond. It has three fe¬ 
male colleges of high grade, an extensive iron-foundry, and 
is the birthplace of several distinguished men. It has a 
weekly paper. The county was organized in 1776, and is 
the first spot of earth named in honor of the Father of his 
Country. Emory and Henry College is in this county, and 
a large male academy, both flourishing institutions. Tho 
Maury Literary Society of Abingdon has a valuable library. 
Immense deposits of salt and gypsum are found here, and 
a very large part of the salt used in the Southern States 
during the war was obtained from salt-wells bored in this 
vicinity. Pop. of township, 3163; of village, 715. 

Geo. R. Dunn, Pub. “Abingdon Virginian.” 

Abingdon, a township of Gloucester co., Va. Pop. 
4506. 

Abingdon, earls of, Baron Norreys (1572, in the 
English peerage), a noble family of Great Britain. The 
first earl was created in 1682.— Montagu Bertie, the sixth 
earl, was born June 19, 1808, and succeeded his father in 
1854. He is lord lieutenant of Berkshire. 

Ab'inger (Sir James Scarlett), Lord, born in Ja¬ 
maica, 1769, was educated at Cambridge and the Middle 
Temple, and was called to the bar in 1791. He became one 
of the most accomplished barristers of his time. In 1818 
he entered Parliament as a Whig, but afterwards became a 
















12 ABINGTON—ABOLITION OF SLAVERY. 


decided Tory. In 1827, and again in 1829, he was attorney- 
general. lie was raised to the peerage in 1834, and was ap¬ 
pointed chief baron of the exchequer. He died April 7,1844. 

Aldington, a township of Mercer co., Ill. Pop. 931. 

Abington, a post-township of Wayne co., Ind. P. 833. 

Abington, a post-township of Plymouth co., Mass., 
on the Old Colony R. R., 18 miles S. by E. of Boston, has 
four post-villages (North, East, Centre, and South Abing¬ 
ton), manufactures of boots, shoes, and tacks, one national 
and two* savings banks, three weekly newspapers, eleven 
churches, and forty-two schools. The Hanover branch 
and the Abington and Bridgewater R. R. traverses this 
town, which is the largest in the county. Pop. 9308. 

Arthur P. Ford, Ed. “Journal.” 

Abington, a township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 2362. 

Abington, a post-twp. of Montgomery co., Pa. P. 2440. 

Abipones, a tribe of Indians living in the Gran Chaco, 
in the Argentine Confederation. They lived formerly W. of 
the Parand, between lat. 28° and 30° S., between Santa Fe 
and Santiago del Estero, but at present have removed 
towards Corrientes. The Abipones are of high stature, 
good swimmers, and tattoo themselves. Long lances and 
arrows with iron points are their weapons. In 1783 their 
number was estimated at 5000, but they have been reduced 
to 100 at the present day. They are related to the Tobas. 

Abka'sia, or Aba'sia, a narrow territory in Western 
Asia, belonging to Russia, lies between the Caucasus Moun¬ 
tains and the Black Sea, which bounds it on the S. W. 
Area, estimated at 3486 square miles. Pop. about 80,000. 
The inhabitants, under the emperor Justinian, became 
Christians, but subsequently embraced Mohammedanism. 

Ab'lution [Lat. ablutio, from ab, “from,” and lu'o, 
lu'tum, to “wash”], a religious ceremony of the Roman 
Catholic Church, signifies the washing of the sacramental 
cup and of the hands of the priest. 

Abna'ki, or Abenaqui, frequently called Tarran- 
tenes or Taranseens, a name given to the former tribes 
of Algonquin Indians of Maine and vicinity. They were 
once formidable enemies of the Indians of Southern New 
England and of the colonists, siding with the French against 
the English, but the latter overcame them and expatriated 
the greater part. Their remnants are Catholics, their an¬ 
cestors having been converted by the labor of Sebastien 
Rale (1658-1724) and others. Rale compiled a dictionary 
of their language (published in 1833). Their history has 
been written by Maurault (1866) and by Yetromile (1866). 

Ab 'ner (the “enlightener”), the uncle of Saul, the first 
king of Israel. Abner became commander-in-chief of Saul’s 
army, and for some time after the death of the king he was 
the chief support of Ishbosheth, his successor; but subse¬ 
quently went over to the side of David, then king of Judah. 
With David he found such favor that the jealousy of Joab 
was aroused, and Abner was slain by him B. C. 1046. 

Abo [Sw. pronunciation, o'boo], a Russian city and sea¬ 
port, on the Aurajoki near its entrance into the Gulf of 
Bothnia; lat. 60° 26' 58” N., Ion. 22° 17' E. It was built 
by Eric IX. of Sweden in 1157, was subsequently taken by 
the Russians, and in 1809 was, with the whole of Finland, 
ceded to Russia. It was the capital of Finland until 1819, 
and is now Q the see of a Lutheran archbishop. The Uni¬ 
versity of Abo, having been destroyed by fire in 1827, was 
rebuilt at Helsingfors. Pop. in 1867, 18,109. ✓ 

Abo - Bjorneborg,. a government of Finland, is 
bounded by the governments of Wasa and Tawastehus, 
and by the Gulfs of Finland and of Bothnia. Area, 9895 
square miles. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is 
commerce and shipbuilding. The government has O also 
some factories. Pop. in 1867, 319,784. Chief town, Abo. 

Abo, Peace of, concluded August 17, 1743, between 
Sweden and Russia, put an end to the war begun by Swe¬ 
den at the instigation of France in 1741. During this con¬ 
test, and through the misconduct of the Swedish generals, 
the Russians gained entire possession of Finland. The 
greater part of this territory they offered to restore on con¬ 
dition that Sweden should elect the prince of Holstein- 
Gottorp successor to the throne. This condition the Swedes 
complied 0 with, and the treaty of peace was accordingly 
signed at Abo. v 

Aboite, a post-township of Allen co., Ind. Pop. 906. 

Abolition of Slavery. Ancient servitude of the 
constrained, involuntary kind appears to have risen, flour¬ 
ished, decayed, and passed away without provoking any 
organized moral or religious opposition. That, so far at 
least as Europe was affected, was irrespective of race or 
color; for, though the Egyptians and Arabs bought and 
held negro slaves, they were not known in Europe till in¬ 
troduced into Spain by the Moorish invasion and conquest. 


After the slavery of negroes had been firmly planted in, 
and quite generally diffused over, the New World, shaves 
began to be taken to Europe by their American masters, 
and legal opinions for a time affirmed the validity of their 
bondage in countries where no law forbade it; but this was 
arrested, so far at least as Great Britain was concerned, by 
the famous decision of Lord Mansfield, who, in the case 
of the negro Somerset, brought to England from the West 
Indies by his master, held that slavery can only exist by 
virtue of positive law, and that, there being no such law in 
England, the master, though a Briton, forfeited all right in 
and power over him by taking him to that country. 

The first systematic agitation for the overthrow of sla¬ 
very began with certain American Quakers John W ool- 
man and Anthony Benezet of Philadelphia being conspicu¬ 
ous among them—about the middle of the last century. 
Benezet published in 1762 a book in exposure and denun¬ 
ciation of the slave-trade. His friend William Dillwyn 
removed to England some time afterwards, and there en¬ 
listed Granville Sharpe and others in the cause. The agi¬ 
tation soon after arising in this country against the Stamp 
Act and other arbitrary measures of the British govern¬ 
ment, incited many Americans to consider questions of 
natural right, and thus to condemn and oppose slavery. 
Hence, Thomas Jefferson, himself a slaveholder, yet op¬ 
posed to slavery, had no difficulty in inducing a majority 
(sixteen to seven) of the Congress which met next after 
the acknowledgment of our independence to vote to exclude 
slavery (in March, 1784) absolutely and for ever from all 
the Union not included in any State. The proposition did 
not then prevail, since the votes of a majority (seven) of 
all the States were required to enact it, and the absence of 
a delegate from New Jersey reduced the States voting yea 
to six, against three voting nay — North Carolina being 
divided. The proposition, restricted to an inhibition of 
slavery in the territories already ceded by the States to 
the Confederation, was renewed in 1787, when it was unani¬ 
mously passed, and it was reiterated with like unanimity 
by the first Congress which assembled under the Federal 
Constitution, when it received the approval of President 
Washington. 

Meantime, the convention which formed that Constitu¬ 
tion had authorized Congress to prohibit the importation 
of slaves after twenty years; and this was done—Congress 
having forbidden, in 1794, our people to engage in carry¬ 
ing slaves to other lands, absolutely outlawing all partici¬ 
pation in the slave-trade by our people, and all importa¬ 
tion of slaves into this country, by an act passed March 
2, 1807—twenty-three days before the British Parliament, 
after a struggle which had lasted nearly a quarter of a 
century, did likewise. 

A British society for the suppression of the slave-trade 
was organized by Dillwyn, Granville Sharpe, and Thomas 
Clarkson in 1787, to whom William Wilberforce, already 
in Parliament, soon lent his powerful aid. William Pitt, 
then prime minister, admitted the justice of their cause, 
and gave them a cold and hesitating support; Charles 
James Fox, his great rival, was its hearty supporter; so 
was Edmund Burke. Yet bill after bill for the suppression 
was defeated either directly or by postponement until after 
Pitt’s death and Fox’s accession to the premiership, when 
(in June, 1806) a resolve pledging the House to the meas¬ 
ure passed the Commons by 100 yeas to 41 nays, and a bill 
founded thereon was next winter carried through both 
Houses, and received the royal assent Mar. 25, 1807. 

Great Britain was slowly followed in this step by Sweden, 
Denmark, Holland, France, and several of the South Ameri¬ 
can republics. Spain and Portugal reluctantly promised 
to do likewise, but were tardy in fulfilling their compact, 
even though they had accepted money or favor from Great 
Britain as a consideration therefor. The slave-trade was 
first declared a felony by act of Parliament in 1811, while 
acts passed in 1824 and 1837 made it piracy, punishable 
by transportation for life. 

So soon as the slave-trade had been placed under the 
ban of the law, its British adversaries reorganized for a 
war upon slavery itself, against which they had hitherto 
put forth no combined or systematic efforts. Mr. Wilber¬ 
force presented their petition to the House of Commons in 
1823, when it was defeated; Mr. Brougham took the lead 
in their behalf in 1830 ; and the struggle for parliamentary 
reform which followed the death of George IV. and the 
accession of William IV. brought a large adhesion of 
strength to their cause; so that in May, 1833, Mr. Stanley 
(the late earl of Derby) introduced, as secretary for the 
colonies, resolves which proposed the total (though gradual) 
emancipation of the slaves held in the British colonies, and 
a payment to their owners of £20,000,000. These resolves 
passed both Houses, and were followed by a bill of liko 
tenor, which likewise passed and received the royal as¬ 
sent Aug. 2, 1833. It took effect Aug. 1, 1834, but an 


















ABOLITION OF SLAVERY. 13 


apprenticeship system was engrafted upon the .measure, 
whereby the slavery of some was virtually prolonged for 
four, and that of others for six years. Experience proved 
this apprenticeship tainted with all the vices of slavery, re¬ 
lieved by scarcely any of its advantages ; so the last traces 
of slavery w r ere, by common consent, effaced from British 
soil Aug. 1, 1838. 

The more northern of our States arc justly entitled to the 
credit of having first in modern times discerned and pro¬ 
claimed the wrong and mischief of slaveholding. Abolition 
received in Great Britain powerful and, for a time, com¬ 
manding influence in Church and State; but the slave¬ 
holders were distant colonists, not directly represented in 
Parliament, and their defeat would not disturb the exist¬ 
ing social order in the mother-country. Not so in the 
original New England States, New York, New Jersey, and 
Pennsylvania. Rhode Island, then eminently commercial, 
was long the focus of an extensive slave-trade, wherein some 
of her first families were involved ; and slaves were held as 
firmly, though not so numerously, in New York and Penn¬ 
sylvania as in Virginia and the Carolinas before the Revo¬ 
lution. Soon after the Declaration of Independence, Mas¬ 
sachusetts adopted a bill of rights, which her highest court 
soon decided was incompatible with slavery, which was 
thereby outlawed. In Pennsylvania an abolition society, 
whereof Dr. Franklin was a member, was organized in 
1780, and did not cease its earnest efforts until it had seen 
that State made a home for freemen only. In New York 
a similar organization was effected somewhat later, and 
the State was brought to decree the emancipation of her 
slaves by the constitution of 1821, though, with regard to 
some who were then minors, the liberation did not take 
effect till about 1830. In New Jersey the work was still 
more gradual, but hardly a handful were held in a nominal 
bondage after that date. Slavery had ceased to be a power 
north of Delaware and Maryland as early as 1820, save 
through the political, commercial, and social ligaments 
which bound the North and the South closely together, 
and made the wishes and supposed interests of the latter 
potent throughout the former. 

As in England the early efforts of the abolitionists were 
directed against the African slave-trade exclusively, and a 
general crusade against slavery disclaimed, so in this coun¬ 
try the anti-slavery spirit was long contented with resist¬ 
ing the extension of slavery into regions previously un¬ 
scourged by it. There were, indeed, unconditional aboli¬ 
tionists, of whom Benjamin Lundy, William Lloyd Gar¬ 
rison, Alvan Stewart, Nathaniel P. Rogers, Lewis Tappan, 
and Elijah P. Lovejoy may be deemed representative 
pioneers; but their school Avas limited in numbers, and 
had little immediate influence on legislation or govern¬ 
ment, since an overwhelming majority of those earnestly 
opposed to slavery held that the spirit, if not the letter, of 
the Federal Constitution forbade all interference by Con¬ 
gress Avith the internal polity of a State, and restricted to 
moral influence the efforts of the citizens of one State to 
subvert or modify the institutions of another State. But 
Avhen, in 1818, the Territory of Missouri framed a consti¬ 
tution and applied for admission into the Union as a 
State—said constitution recognizing and upholding sla¬ 
very—the representatives of the free States very generally 
resisted such admission until she should provide at least 
for gradual emancipation. The Senate opposed any such re¬ 
strictions, but a compromise was ultimately effected where¬ 
by Missouri was admitted as a slave State on condition that 
slavery should never exist in any territory of the U. Sj 
north of the parallel of 36° 30' N. latitude. The House 
consented to this by barely three majority (90 to 87), nearly 
all the nays being cast by Northern opponents of slavery. 
(See Missouri Compromise.) On the admission of the re¬ 
public of Texas into the Union in 1845 the Missouri Com¬ 
promise line of division was agreed upon and extended 
through all the public domain then acquired. In 1846, 
pending the war with Mexico, Mr. David Wilinot of Penn¬ 
sylvania introduced into the House a proposition to pro¬ 
hibit for ever slavery from all new territory that might be 
acquired-from Mexico, at the termination of that war. This 
proposition became celebrated as the Wilmot Proviso, and 
gave rise to continued and heated discussions in the Houso 
and the Senate until 1850, when another compromise, as it 
was called, was effected. (See Slavery Compromise op 
1850.) The agitation was renewed again in 1854, when a 
bill was introduced into the Senate by the Hon. Stephen A. 
Douglas for the organization of State governments in the 
Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, and providing for the 
repeal of the so-called Missouri Compromise act of 1820. 
The bill was adopted by the Senate by a large majority, 
but in the House it encountered very strong opposition, 
passing finally by a vote of 113 to 100. 1 he question 

whether slavery should exist within the States to be formed 
under this act was thus referred to the people of tlie Terri¬ 


tories themselves, and was left to be decided by what, in 
the popular parlance of that day, was called “squatter 
sovereignty.” As the Territories were thinly peopled, there 
consequently arose a rapid migration towards them, espe¬ 
cially towards Kansas, from both North and South, each 
section aiming to secure a predominance in the popular 
vote and in the constitutional convention. Occasional col¬ 
lisions between these rival colonists naturally occurred, at¬ 
tended in some instances with serious violence; and the 
struggle for power was protracted through several years. 
Both parties prepared and presented constitutions to Con¬ 
gress embodying their respective views. The election of 
Mr. Lincoln as President in 1860 finally decided the con¬ 
troversy, and Kansas Avas admitted as a free State in 1861. 
The same event occasioned the Avithdrawal from their seats 
in Congress of the Senators and members of the House 
from seven of the Southern States, and gave the advocates 
of slavery restriction by Federal legislation a majority in 
the Senate for the first time since the government was or¬ 
ganized. The House Avas still more decidedly anti-slavery. 
As the Avar Avcnt on, defeats, even more than victories, dif¬ 
fused and intensified among Unionists the hatred of sla¬ 
very; so that Avhen Mr. Lincoln (Sept. 22, 1862) proclaimed 
that if the revolted States should still continue in rebellion 
he would, on the 1st of January ensuing, declare free all 
Avho were held as slaves Avithin those States, public senti¬ 
ment Avas ripe for sustaining that policy. Secession being 
still rampant, the President issued his second proclamation 
on the day appointed; after Avhich no Federal commander 
was at liberty to remand slaves who had fled from their mas¬ 
ters to find protection within the Union lines. From that 
date the war for the Union became, Avhat in essence it had 
necessarily been from the outset, a struggle for freedom to 
all, and European rulers, Avho had smiled upon the Con¬ 
federacy in the earlier stages of the contest, Avere repelled 
from taking its part openly when it Avas seen that its fate 
involved that of American slavery. 

The Thirty-seventh Congress initiated the work of direct, 
outright emancipation by an act proposed by Senator Wil¬ 
son of Massachusetts, abolishing slavery in the Federal 
District, and paying the OAvners an average compensation 
of $300 for each slave liberated. This bill passed the Sen¬ 
ate, April 3, 1862, by 29 yeas to 14 nays, and the House, 
April 10, by 92 yeas to 39 nays. This was followed by an 
attempt, to proffer a like compensation to the so-called 
Border States if they Avould consent to emancipation; but 
it was strenuously opposed by their representatives and by 
the entire Democratic party, and ultimately failed in the 
House for lack of a tAvo-third vote to take it up out of its 
order on the last day of the session. A bill prohibiting 
absolutely all slaveholding in any Federal territory became 
a law, by the President’s approval, June 19, 1862. A bill 
decreeing the freedom of all slaves of persistent rebels 
found in any place occupied or commanded by the forces 
of the Union, forbidding their rendition to their masters, 
and providing that negroes might be enlisted to fight for 
the Union, after undergoing sundry transmutations ulti¬ 
mately passed the House by 82 yeas to 42 nays, and the 
Senate by 27 yeas to 12 nays, and became a law, by the 
President’s approval, July 17, 1862. 

A constitutional amendment (the thirteenth), abolishing 
and prohibiting evermore the enslavement of human be¬ 
ings, was proposed in the Senate by Mr. Henderson of 
Missouri at the former session, Avhen it passed that branch, 
April 8.1864, by 38 yeas to 6 nays—six Senators not voting. 
Being sent to the House, it failed to command the requisite 
two-thirds—yeas, 85; nays, 66; Avhen Mr. Ashley of Ohio 
kept it alive by changing his vote to nay and then moving 
a reconsideration. When that Congress reassembled, Dec. 
6, 1864, for its final session, Mr. Lincoln had been trium¬ 
phantly re-elected and the civil Avar was plainly near its 
end. The President, in his annual message, recommended 
a reconsideration and passage of the amendment aforesaid ; 
and this was accomplished, Jan. 31, 1865, by 119 yeas to 
57 nays—12 chosen as Democrats or Conservatives voting 
with all the Republicans in the affirmative—every Repub¬ 
lican present and voting; eight Democrats absent. By the 
ratification of three-fourths of the States, and by the utter 
collapse of the civil war, this amendment became a part of 
the supreme laiv of the land, and its authority has never 
been contested. By its force slavery was banished from 
the U. S., as it had already been from every portion of 
this continent except Brazil and the Spanish islands of 
Cuba and Porto Rico. In Brazil an act was passed in 
Sept., 1871, freeing all the slaves belonging to the govern¬ 
ment, and securing freedom to all those born after the date 
of the enactment. (There has not yet been published any 
complete history of the abolition of slavery ; the best work 
on the abolition of the slave-trade is Clarkson’s “History 
of the Abolition of the Slave-Trade,” 2 vols., 1808.) 

Horace Greeley. 
















14 ABOLITIONISTS—ABSCESS. 


Aboli"tionists, a name applied to those persons— 
more particularly in the U. S.—who were distinguished for 
their zeal against the institution of slavery. (See Anti- 
Slavery Society, by Hon. Horace Greeley, LL.D.) 

Abo'mey, an African town, capital of the kingdom of 
Dahomey; lat. 7° 30' N., Ion. 1° 40' E. It contains sev¬ 
eral royal palaces. Pop. estimated at from 50,000 to 60,000. 

Abo'ny, a town of Hungary, in the county of Csongrad, 
47 miles S. E. of Prague. Pop. in 1869, 10,232. 

Aborig'i-nes [a Latin word derived from ab, “from/’ 
and ori'go (gen. ori'ginis), “ source,” “ origin ”], the earliest 
original inhabitants of a country—that is, those who occu¬ 
pied it at the period when it began to be known, and who 
either were (according to a once prevalent opinion) indig¬ 
enous to the soil, or had immigrated thither before the dawn 
of history. Some of the ancients supposed they had always 
inhabited the same soil, and sprang from it, as the Athe¬ 
nians, who thence called themselves autoch'thones (from av- 
t 6?, “ itself,” and x0d>y, “ earth,” “ soil,” “ land ”); i. e. sprung 
from the laud or soil itself. But the Romans and modern 
nations use the word aborigines to designate those inhabit¬ 
ants of a country of whose origin nothing certain is known. 
Thus the Indians of America are properly called aborigines, 
because they were found there at its discovery, and as to 
their origin we have only their own tradition (which is not 
uniform) that their ancestors came from a distant region in 
the North-west. 

Abolition [Lat. abortio], the premature birth or exclu¬ 
sion of the human foetus. It is doubtful whether the act 
of causing an abortion is an olfcnce at common law unless 
the mother is quick with child, on the untenable ground 
that life does not begin until that period. The early stat¬ 
utes took the same distinction. Later legislation in Eng¬ 
land wholly discards it, and makes it a felony to procure 
the miscarriage of a female by unlawful means at any 
period of her pregnancy. The laws of the various States 
in this country still maintain to some extent the older rule. 

About (Edmond), a popular French novelist and polit¬ 
ical writer, born atDieuze (Meurthe) Feb. 14,1828. In 1868 
he wrote, as one of the contributors to the “ Gaulois,” a 
series of witty and satirical letters, in consequence of which 
that paper was suppressed by the authorities; but he was 
nevertheless assisted by the imperial government, which in 
1870 appointed him councillor of state. At the beginning 
of the war he was for a short time war-correspondent for the 
“ Soir.” Sept. 14, 1872, he was arrested by the Germans, 
but was released Sept. 21. He published in 1855 a work on 
modern Greece, “ La Grece contemporaine,” which was much 
admired. He had been sent to the French school of art in 
Athens by his government. Among his works are novels 
entitled “Tolla” (1855), “Germaine - ” (1857), a political 
treatise on “The Roman Question” (1860), “Madelon” 
(1S63), “Le Progres” (1864), “La vieille roche ” (3 vols., 
1865-66), “ L’infame ” (1867), “ Les manages de province” 
(1868), “ L’A B C du travailleur” (1868). 

Aboville (Francois Marie), Count, a French general, 
born at Brest Jan. 23, 1730. He directed the artillery at 
Yorktown, Va., in 1781, and was inspector-general of artil¬ 
lery under Napoleon I. Died Nov. 1, 1819. 

Abrabanel', or Abarbanel', sometimes written 
Barbanella (Isaac), a celebrated Spanish rabbi, born in 
Lisbon in 1437, was liberally educated. He was greatly 
distinguished for his intellectual powers and various eru¬ 
dition. Having been banished from Portugal in 1481, lie 
found refuge in Spain Until 1492, when the Jews were ex¬ 
patriated from that kingdom. He died at Venice in 1508. 
His commentaries on the Holy Scriptures were once highly 
esteemed. 

Abracadab'ra, a term probably of Persian origin, was 
in former times highly prized as a magical formula, and 
supposed to be efficacious in the cure of fevers. 

A'braham, originally Abram, an eminent Hebrew 
patriarch, called the “Father of the faithful,” was born at 
Ur, in Chaldea, according to Hales, 2153 B. C.; according 
to Ussher, 1996 B. C. (Bunsen says he lived about 2850 B. C.). 
“Abraham” signifies “the father of a numerous people.” 
He migrated to Canaan, where he led a nomadic life in 
tents, was greatly renowned for piety and wisdom, and was 
called a friend of God. He died at the age of 175 years. 
(See Genesis xi.-xxv.; Acts vii.; Hobrews xi. 8-17.) 

A'braham-a-Sanc'ta-CIa'ra, a popular German 
preacher and Augustine friar, whose name was Ulrich 
Megerle, was born in Suabia June 4, 1644. He was ap¬ 
pointed preacher to the imperial court at Vienna in 1669, 
and published many religious works. His sermons -were 
seasoned with witty, humorous, or whimsical expressions. 
Died Dec. 1, 1709. 

A'brahamites, the name of a sect of Bohemian deists, 
who are said to have rejected all parts of the Bible except 


the Ten Commandments and the Lord’s Prayer. They were 
suppressed in 1783. 

A'braham Osh'ki, a Jew of Portuguese descent, who 
translated the Bible, word for word, into Spanish. It was 
published in 1553 at Ferrara, and although the first edition 
is now seldom met with, it is still esteemed in Spain both 
by Christians and Jews. 

Abran'tes, a fortified town of Portugal, in Estrema- 
dura, on the Tagus, 73 miles N. E. of Lisbon. Grain, oil, 
and fruit are sent from it to the market of Lisbon. Pop. in 
1863, 5590. 

Abrantes, Duke of. See Junot. 

Abrantes, Duciiessof (Madame Junot), born in Mont¬ 
pellier Nov. 6, 1784, was married to General Junot about 
1800. Her family was related to that of Bonaparte, to whom 
her mother had shown great kindness before he became a 
general. In 1806 she accompanied her husband to Lisbon, 
and in 1807 General Junot was made duke of Abrantes. 
On the restoration of the Bourbons she was kindly received 
by Louis XVIII. She distinguished herself as an author¬ 
ess, and wrote, besides other works, “Memoirs, or Histor¬ 
ical Souvenirs of Napoleon, the Revolution, the Directory,” 
etc. (18 vols., 1831-34). Died June 7, 1838. 

Abrax'as Stones, the name of certain gems (found in 
Syria and Egypt) on which are engraved the word Abraxas 
and several symbols or fantastic figures. They were once 
prized as amulets and talismans. 

Abridg'ment [Fr. abrtger, to “ shorten ”], a condensa¬ 
tion or compendium of a book or literary work. In the 
law of copyright an abridgment, when fairly made, is re¬ 
garded as a new work, and accordingly its publication is 
not an infringement of the copyright. A distinction is 
taken in the legal decisions between an abridgment and 
a compilation. The latter is more readily regarded as an 
infringement, as the words of an author are reproduced, 
while in a true abridgment the thoughts are expressed in 
other words and in a condensed form. 

Abro'lhos (?. e. “open your eyes”), a group of small 
rocky islands which belong to the province of Espirito 
Santo, Brazil. The largest of these, Santa Barbara, 40 
miles from the coast, has a lighthouse in lat. 17° 58' S., Ion. 
38° 42' W. 

Abru'zzo, the northern part of the former kingdom of 
Naples, but now included in the kingdom of Italy. It is 
bounded on the N. E. by the Adriatic. It is divided into 
three provinces—viz. Chieti, formerly called Abruzzo Ci- 
teriore (or Citra); Teramo, formerly Abruzzo Ulteriore (or 
Ultra) I.; and Aquila, formerly Abruzzo Ulteriore II. 

Ab'salom, the third son of King David, by Maacah, a 
Syrian princess, was remarkable for his personal beauty. 
Having, by his popular arts and fair speeches, gained the 
favor of the people, he rebelled against his father and 
raised a large army, which was defeated by the army of the 
king. Retreating from this battle, Absalom was killed by 
Joab, although David had given orders that his life should 
be spared. (See 2 Samuel xiii.-xix.) 

Ab'salon, called also Axel, an eminent prelate and 
general, born in Iceland in 1128, was a liberal patron of 
learning, and was distinguished for his wisdom in coun¬ 
cil. He was one of the ministers of the Danish king Wal- 
demar I., and became archbishop of Lund in 1178. Died 
in 1201. v 

Ab'scess [Lat. absces'sus, from abs, “away from,” and 
ce'do, to “ go,” because the pus separates itself from the 
rest of the body], in surgery, is a circumscribed collection 
of pus in any part of the animal organism, as distinguished 
from “purulent infiltration,” which designates such a col¬ 
lection not circumscribed. The term “ diffuse abscess ” is, 
however, applied, though improperly, to purulent infiltra¬ 
tion. An “acute abscess” is one which is the result of 
active inflammation. “Cold abscess”, is the result of 
chronic inflammation. The tendency of an acute abscess is 
to “point” or “come to a head;” that is, from the outward 
pressure of the accumulating pus, the walls yield mechani¬ 
cally in the direction of least resistance. In favorable 
cases the evacuation of the pus, natural or artificial, is the 
initiation of recovery; but if the abscess be of the “cold” 
variety, or be deep-seated and extensive, or be associated 
with metastatic symptoms or septictemia, the question of 
recovery becomes a much more complicated one. Deep- 
seated abscesses, when they traverse considerable tracts of 
the body and point at a distant part, are called “ con¬ 
gests e abscesses a term which is very properly passing 
out of use. Such abscesses are often for a long time diffi¬ 
cult of detection, and their treatment taxes, too often in 
vain, the best skill of the surgeon. In general, abscess is 
detected by observation of the general and local symptoms. 
Hie general symptoms are fever and subsequent rigors; the 






















ABSCISSA—ABSTRACT SCIENCE. ] 5 


local are “pain, heat, redness, and swelling,” followed by 
softness and fluctuation of the fluid contents. (See Pus.)/ 

Abscis'sa [from the Lat. abscindo, abscission, to “cut 
off”], a term used in geometry to denote a segment cut off 
from a straight line by an ordinate to a curve. 

Abse'cuin, or Absecom, a post-village of Atlantic 
co., N. J., on the Camden and Atlantic R. R., and near Ab- 
secum Bay, 7 miles N. W. of Atlantic City. Absecum 
lighthouse is a brick structure, standing on the S. side of 
Absecum Inlet; lat. 39° 21' 55" N., Ion. 74° 24' 32" W. 
It shows a fixed white dioptric light of the first order, 165 
feet above the sea. 

Absentee, a term applied to capitalists and proprie¬ 
tors of land who do not reside on their estates, but spend 
their incomes in other countries. This practice is very 
prevalent among the Irish nobility and gentry, and some 
political economists ascribe the poverty of Ireland partly 
to this absenteeism. 

Absinthe [Fr. for “wormwood”], a liqueur much used 
in France, prepared from alcohol mixed with volatile oil 
of wormwood, oil of anise, and other ingredients. It has 
peculiarly intoxicating effects, which are due to the oil of 
wormwood, the state resulting from its use being very dif¬ 
ferent from the result of alcohol poisoning. Trembling, 
vertigo, fearful dreams, and epileptiform convulsions are 
among its severer consequences. Absinthe-drinking is one 
of the most dangerous forms of stimulation yet invented— 
the more so because its immediate consequences are usually 
more agreeable than those of alcohol. 

Ab'sis, or Ap'sis [Gr. aifas, an “arch”], a name given 
formerly to that part of a church in which the clergy were 
seated or the altar was placed. It was either circular or 
polygonal on the plan, and covered with a dome. 

Ab'solute [from .the Lat. ab, “from,” and solu'tus, 
“loosed,” a “part” (from soVvo , solid turn, to “loose”)], 
originally, loosed or freed from all conditions, absolutely 
independent; hence, positive, unconditional, unlimited. 
As a scientific term it is the reverse of relative, as absolute 
velocity. In metaphysics it represents the unconditioned 
infinite and self-existent. Absolute monarchy is that which 
is not limited or restricted by constitutional checks. 

Absolute Alcohol. See Alcohol, by C. F. Chandler. 

Absolu'tioji [Lat. absolutio], in canon law, is the par¬ 
don and remission of sins which a Roman Catholic priest 
pronounces to a penitent offender. 

Absor'bents [for etymology, see Absorption], a term 
applied to a set of vessels of a peculiar character in the 
animal body. (See Lymphatics.) 

Abso'rokas, a tribe of American savages. (See Crows.) 

Absorp'tioil [Lat. absorp'tio, from ab, “from,” and 
sor'beo, sorp'tum, to “sip or suck”] is the function by 
which nutritive matter is absorbed into an animal or plant. 
Plants absorb carbonic acid gas by their leaves and other 
green parts, and it is supposed that this absorption takes 
place principally through the stomata of the leaves, and 
both by the upper and under surface of the leaf; in some 
plants much more powerfully by the one surface than by 
the other. But plants also derive their nourishment par¬ 
tially, although not principally, from their roots, and it is 
at the extremities of their fibrils that absorption takes place 
most rapidly, by capillary attraction and a process called 
Endosmose (which see). Absorption in animals is known 
to be largely by endosmose, and that process, mechanical 
rather than vital, is affected, it is believed, only indirectly 
by the nervous energy. 

Abs'tinence [from abs, “from,”and te'neo, to “hold,” to 
“ keep ”], the act or state of abstaining from food, drink, etc. 

Abstinence, Total, that is, from all indulgence in 
the use of intoxicating beverages, was practised in early 
ages by the Nazarites and Rechabites, mentioned in Scrip¬ 
ture. Some of the Hebrew prophets rigorously inveigh 
against the prevalence of drunkenness, yet hardly indicate 
total abstinence as the proper remedy. The Essenes (which 
see)— a Jewish sect contemporary with the Messiah—were 
distinguished for temperance in eating and drinking, es¬ 
chewing generally the use of flesh and wine. Mohammed 
peremptorily forbade the use of wine as a beverage by his 
followers. In the feudal ages, societies designed to shield 
their members and others from the evils of drunkenness 
were often formed, but not on the basis of absolute disuse 
of stimulants. The discovery of alcohol by an Arabian 
chemist about 1000 A. D. had, through.the art of distilla¬ 
tion, greatly expanded and intensified the evils of intem¬ 
perance, especially in Northern E-urope, where beer had 
generally been the most potent stimulant attainable by the 
masses. The discovery and settlement of America, largely 
increasing the average rewards of manual labor, especially 
on this continent, rendered intemperance more common, by 
increasing the ability of the common people to purchase 


alcoholic stimulants; and this country, especially through¬ 
out the half century succeeding its Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence, was hardly equalled in the prevalence of intoxi¬ 
cation even by the British and Scandinavian kingdoms, 
and was unapproached by any other nation. 

The earliest known organization of a total abstinence 
society in the U. S. was “ The Temperate Society of Mil- 
ton and Northumberland” (Saratoga co., N. Y.), founded 
by Dr. Billy J. Clarke in 1808, which at its commence¬ 
ment had forty-three members. Distilled liquors and wines 
were absolutely prohibited by its rules, but not the mode¬ 
rate use of beer. In 1813 was formed the “Massachu¬ 
setts Society” for the suppression of intemperance. In 
1826 the American Temperance Society was organized. 
The evils resulting from the free use of ardent spirits were 
so general and glaring that kindred societies were soon 
formed in many cities, villages, and rural townships, the 
movement being strongly aided, especially among zealous 
Christians, by Dr. Lyman Beecher’s “ Six Sermons on In¬ 
temperance.” Dr: Eliphalet Nott, president of Union 
College, was also early and honorably distinguished as a 
pioneer in the temperance cause. It was not till 1833 that, 
at a national meeting of the friends of temperance, held in 
Philadelphia, the principle of “ total abstinence from all 
that may intoxicate” was propounded, only to be voted 
down; but it was again proposed, and adopted, at a 
national convention held at Saratoga Springs in August, 
1836, and became henceforth the basis of the temperance 
movement, to which a great impulse was given by the 
“Washingtonians” (in good part reformed drunkards), 
who began their work in 1841, and for a time seemed 
destined to sweep all before them. The first State to pro¬ 
hibit the sale of intoxicating beverages was Maine, in 
1851. The other New England States soon followed her 
example. New York had already (in 1846) authorized the 
voters of her several cities and townships to forbid such 
sale by a popular vote; but her court of appeals pro¬ 
nounced this unconstitutional, as it likewise did (in 1859) 
a law of absolute prohibition enacted in 1855. Chief- 
Justice Shaw of Massachusetts held that every citizen 
injured or annoyed by the proximity of a grogshop might 
lawfully abate it as a nuisance, but his two associates, on 
appeal, overruled him. 

Partial, if not general, prohibition was enacted in seve¬ 
ral Western States, but here, as elsewhere, most imperfectly 
enforced. The Washingtonian effort gradually spent its 
strength and faded out, being succeeded by new organiza¬ 
tions, whereof the “ Sons of Temperance,” “ Good Tem¬ 
plars,” “ Rechabites,” “ Good Samaritans,” and “ Cadets 
of Temperance ” are still active and flourishing. 

The total abstinence movement in Great Britain first 
attracted public attention in 1831. The “pledge” to drink 
no intoxicating liquors was first adopted by a national 
gathering at Manchester in 1834. It has never yet become 
so influential in that as in this country, and its upholders 
have only ventured to ask of Parliament a “ permissive ” 
act—that is, one allowing any locality to forbid and outlaw 
the liquor traffic by a majority vote—and this has never 
been conceded. The votaries of total abstinence in Great 
Britain are generally found in the humbler walks of life. 

In Ireland total abstinence was first effectively com¬ 
mended by Father Mathew, who, by his simple expositions 
and exhortations, persuaded millions of his countrymen 
and fellow-Catholics to take the pledge, which many of 
them have since broken. Since his death, in 1856, the re¬ 
form has decidedly lost ground in Ireland, while it has as 
yet made little headway in any part of Continental Europe 
or South America. Horace Greeley. 

Abstinents, a Christian sect of Gaul and Spain in the 
latter part of the third century A. D., who condemned mar¬ 
riage and the use of flesh-meats and wine, declaring that 
they were made by the devil, and not by God. 

Ab'stract [from the Lat. abs, “from,” and tra'Tio, 
trad turn, to “draw”], literally, that which is drawn away 
or separated (or viewed Separately) from all external cir¬ 
cumstances or conditions, and hence opposed to Concrete 
(which see). 

Abstraction (see preceding article), the intellectual 
process by which the mind separates one of the attributes 
of an object from the others, and thinks of it exclusively. 
An idea or notion of an abstract or theoretical nature is 
sometimes called an abstraction. 

Abstract Science (metaphysics, logic, mathematics) 
starts from a proposition, not derived from experience, but 
found as an axiom in the human understanding; from 
which proposition a whole system is evolved by inference 
and deduction. All discoveries, as far as they are not in¬ 
cidental, are made by application of abstract science (ex¬ 
periment), as all inventions are made by application of 
knowledge of the real object (experience). 
















ABSURDUM, REDUCTIO AD—ABYSSINIA. 



Absurcl'um, Reduc'tio ad, a term used in geom¬ 
etry to denote a mode of demonstration, in which the truth 
of a proposition is demonstrated by proving that the con¬ 
trary is absurd or impossible. 

Abt (Franz), a German composer, born at Eilcnburg 
Bee. 22, 1819. lie became in 1855 first chapelmaster to the 
duke of Brunswick. Ilis works arc chiefly songs, which 
enjoy great popularity in Germany and the U. S. 

Abu (also written in English Aboo), an Arabic word, 
signifying “father,” occurs as a prefix to many Oriental 
names. 

Abu, a mountain of India, in Rajpootana, connected 
with the Aravulli range, is about 5000 feet above the level 
of the sea. It is a celebrated place of pilgrimage for the 
Jainas, who have four temples at Dilwara, near the middle 
of the mountain. One of these is said to be the most su¬ 
perb of all the temples of India. 

Abubekr', or Aboo-Bekr, a caliph, the first of 
Mohammed’s successors, was born in Arabia about 570 
A. D. Ilis original name was Abd-el-Kaaba, which was 
exchanged for Aboo-Bekii (i . e. “father of the virgin”), 
because his virgin daughter Ayesha was married to the 
prophet. He began to reign in 632 A. D., and died in 634, 
leaving a high reputation as a man and a ruler. 

Abugirgeh, a large Fellah town of Middle Egypt, 
about 2 miles AT. of the Nile and 122 miles above Cairo. 

Abukir', a village of Egypt, on the site of the ancient 
Canopus, and on the sea-coast at the west side of Abukir 
Bay, 15 miles N. E. of Alexandria. Here is a castle. 

Abukir Bay is on the coast of Lower Egypt, between 
the village and castle of Abukir and the Rosetta mouth 
of the Nile. In this bay Admiral Nelson gained a decisive 
victory over the French fleet, Aug. 1, 1798, and the Turks 
were defeated by the French under Napoleon I., July 25, 
' 1799. 

Abulca'sis, or Abulka'sis, written also Abul- 
Kasem, Khalaf Ebn Abbas, a celebrated Arab phy¬ 
sician and surgical writer, born near Cdrdova, in Spain. 
His principal work was published in 1778, under" the title 
of “ Abulcasis de Chirurgia.” The portion of it devoted 
to surgery is regarded as the most valuable treatise of the 
kind that has come- down to us from early times. Died 
about 1110. 

Abulfa'raj [Lat .Abulfara'gins] (Gregorius), a learned 
historical writer, born in Armenia in 1226, became maph- 
rian or primate of the eastern division of the Jacobite 
Christians in 1266. He wrote in Syriac and Arabic several 
valuable works, among which is a “ History of the Dynas¬ 
ties.” Died in 1286.—There was also a famous Oriental 
poet, Ali Abulfaraj (897-997). 

Abul-FazI, an eminent Oriental historian, who in 1574 
became vizier or prime minister of the great Mogul emperor 
Akbar. He was a wise and liberal statesman. He was as¬ 
sassinated about 1600. Among his important works are a 
history of Akbar, called “Akbar Nameh,” and “Institutes 
of Akbar ”(“ Ayeen Akbari”). 

Abulfe'da, a Moslem prince and celebrated Arabian 
author, was born at Damascus about 1273. He fought with 
distinction for the sultan of Syria against the Tartars or 
Mongols, and was rewarded with the title of prince of Ha¬ 
mah. He wrote an important work entitled “ An Abridg¬ 
ment of the History of Mankind,” and another, “The De¬ 
scription of the Countries,” which is regarded as the best 
Arabic work on geography that is extant. Died in 1331. * 

Abu Sambul, Abusimbal, or Ipsambul, a ruined 
place in Nubia, on the AT. bank of the Nile, 1014 miles 
above Cairo and 8 miles above the Second Cataract. It 
contains two of the best-preserved specimens of the great 
rock-hewn temples of ancient Egypt. It has also four 
sitting colossal statues, which are not only the largest, but 
are considered the finest, specimens of Egyptian-plastic 
art. One of these figures is fifty feet high as it sits. 

Abutment, the part of a pier or wall from which an 
arch springs, and which resists the lateral or outward 
pressure. (See Bridge, by Gen. J. G. Barnard, U. S. A.) 

Aby'dos, an ancient city of Upper Egypt, on the left 
bank of the Nile, 5 or 6 miles from the river, and about 100 
miles below Thebes. Here are the ruins of a temple of 
Osiris and a temple of Memnon, in which Mr. Bankes dis¬ 
covered in 1818 the celebrated tablet of Abydos, now in the 
British Museum. 

Aby'dus, or Aby'dos [Gr/A)3v5o?], an ancient city of 
Asia Minor, on the Hellespont opposite Sestos, was cele¬ 
brated as the place where Xerxes and his vast army crossed 
over to Europe on a bridge of boats, 480 B. C. It was also 
celebrated for its connection with the story of Hero and 
Leander. 

Ab'yla and Cal'pc, the names of the pillars of Her¬ 


cules, standing on both sides of the Straits of Gibraltar. 
The former was in Africa. 

Abyssin'ia [Arab. Habesh], in a wider sense, is the 
name commonly given by European geographers to the 
entire Ethiopic plateau which rises on the AT. ol the Red 
Sea, extending to the S. AT., and descending on the N. to 
the lowlands of Nubia, and on the AT. to the plains of Sen- 
naar and Kordofan. On the E. it is bounded by Adal, and 
the southern part, which is as yet almost entirely unex¬ 
plored, extends far an unknown distance into the interior 
of Africa. The population is estimated by the Catholic 
bishop of Massaja at 12,000,000, of which over 9,000,000 
are Sidamas and Gallas. 

Abyssinia, in a more limited application, comprises the 
three former kingdoms of Tigre, Amhara, and Shoa. It is 
bounded on the N. E. by the Red Sea, on the S. by the 
country of the Gallas, and on the N. AT. by Nubia. Its 
area is estimated at about 158,000 square miles, and the 
population at 4,000,000. The country ascends from the AT. 
in broad terraces, which in the E. descend abruptly, and 
reach a height, in some places, of 8000 feet. The plateaus 
are encircled by mountain-ranges of 12,000 to 14,000 feet 
in height. The low and waterless district of the savage 
Danakil tribes separates the fissured plateau, with its mighty 
streams and ravines (which occasionally widen into deep 
valleys), from the sea, which is only accessible from three 
points—Massowa, in the N., Amphilla Bay, about 100 miles 
farther to the S. E., and Tajurrah, in the S. The hydro- 
graphic centre of the country is Lake Tsana or Dcmbea, 
which is crossed by the Abai, the chief river of Abyssinia. 
The next river of importance is the Atbara, which flow^ in 
a north-westerly direction towards the Nile, and receives 
the Tacazze from the S. E. The beds of the upper Abai, 
of the Atbara, and of the Tacazze are surrounded by three 
mountain-ranges, of which that in the E. of the upper Ta¬ 
cazze forms the orographic crown of the country. The 
mountains consist mostly of porphyry, basalt, and lime¬ 
stone. Its wild, romantic character the country owes to a 
grand volcanic action of the later tertiary period. The hot 
springs in the interior, occasional eruptions on the coast 
of the Red Sea, as well as earthquakes (1854), prove that 
volcanic action is not entirely extinct as yet. The surface 
of the country is, however, subject to much greater changes 
to-day in consequence of the action of the mountain-streams, 
which for thousands of years have carried to the valley of 
the Nile the fertile soil of the plateaus. Deeper and deeper 
they dig into the rocks, and transform the narrow ravines 
into broad valleys. The vegetation of the valleys is of an 
exceedingly luxuriant, tropical character. But in conse¬ 
quence of fevers, serpents, and beasts of prey it is not 
well adapted to habitation. The plateau, however, with very 
few animals, and swept by strong winds, has a healthy, tem¬ 
perate climate and a fertile soil. It has but few forests, and 
in some parts is entirely without trees, but a rich grass covers 
the ground, which is traversed by many springs and brooks 
throughout the year. All the different kinds of grain of the 
East and of Europe, such as corn, barley, rye, oats, etc., 
grow here exceedingly well; while the lowlands produce 
cotton, sugar-cane, and tobacco, and the best coffee grows 
wild everywhere. The eastern plains of the sub-alpine re¬ 
gion are occupied bylawless hordes of Mohammedan Asebo 
Gallas, avIio make almost uninterrupted incursions into the 
plateaus, which are inhabited by Christians. 

The most important city of the country is Gondar, which 
is also the residence of the abuna. Other cities are Adowa 
(the capital of Tigre), Antalo, Ankobar (the capital of Shoa), 
Angolola, and Aliya Amba. 

The Abyssinian peasant is an industrious workman. The 
soil, indeed, needs only to be scratched to produce three har¬ 
vests a year, and cattle of all kinds thrive finely. But as 
the rural districts are subject not only to large tributes, 
but also to constant robberies from all sides, the peasants 
generally suffer greatly from poverty. 

Most of the inhabitants belong to the Abvssinian Church 
(which see). Some of the border districts have been occu¬ 
pied by Mohammedans, who appear to be advancing. The 
F alas ha aie a peculiar Jewish tribe, living in the Saincn 
Mountains and in several other districts. The Roman 
Catholic Church, which in the course of the sixteenth cen¬ 
tury was several times on the point of gaining a great in¬ 
fluence, began its missionary operations again in 1833, and 
was vigorously supported by the influence of France. The 
great hopes which the conversion of a prominent Abyssin¬ 
ian prince raised in the missionaries were, however, not ful¬ 
filled ; the. membership in 1872 did not exceed a few hun¬ 
dred, and in that year the missionaries were again expelled 
from Tigre by Kassa. The first Protestant missionary who 
labored among the Abyssinians was Gobat (subsequently 
Anglican bishop of Jerusalem), who was followed by many 
others; none ot whom, however, have succeeded in firmly 
establishing Protestantism in Abyssinia. 

















ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. 


History .—The Abyssinians, who, according to Arabian 
traditions, emigrated from Yemen, are a mixed race. Even 
at the present day the inhabitants of the different provinces 
differ widely both in their language and in their physiog¬ 
nomy. In history the Abyssinians first appear in the em¬ 
pire of Axum. Under a family of kings who claimed to be 
descended from Solomon and the queen of Sheba, and who 
ruled to the end of the fourth century, the country advanced 
greatly. In the middle of the fourth century Christianity 
was introduced. The advance of the Mohammedans, how¬ 
ever, broke off every connection with the remainder of the 
Christian world, and left the country entirely to Coptic in¬ 
fluences. As the patriarch, according to law, must neces¬ 
sarily be a Copt, and generally was an ignorant monk, the 
clergy, who had formerly not been wanting in theological 
and scholastic learning, could not reach a high state of edu¬ 
cation. In 1603 the combined efforts of the Portuguese (who 
had saved the empire from total destruction by the Moham¬ 
medans and Gallas) and of the Jesuits succeeded in convert¬ 
ing the royal family to Catholicism. Civil wars were the 
result, as the people remained true to their old faith; and 
only when the connection with the Church of Rome was fully 
severed (about 1630) did the country again become quiet. 

The power of the imperial family, the Ilazie, was gradu¬ 
ally reduced to a mere shadow, until in the present century 
its authority was totally set aside by Ras Ali, the governor 
of Amhara. Nominally, the Hazie continued, however, to 
rule until Lij Kassa was crowned as negus negussie (king 
of kings) in 1855. Kassa, descended from noble but poor 
parents, was made by the favor of the regent Menene, the 
mother of the nominal king, Ras Ali, governor of the prov¬ 
ince of Kuara. Impelled by ambition, he soon rebelled and 
seized the province of Dembea. After several years of quiet, 
varied by a few successful raids into the neighboring low¬ 
lands, he undertook a great expedition against Egypt, which 
was a complete failure. This induced Menene to take up 
arms against him again, but the royal troops were com¬ 
pletely beaten. After several more victories over Gocho, 
the most powerful chief of Gondar, and over Ras Ali him¬ 
self, Kassa was in possession of the whole of Amhara. Then, 
after he had also defeated Ubie, the independent prince of 
Tigre, at Deraskye (1855), he was master of the whole of 
Abyssinia, and was crowned king under the name of Theo¬ 
dore II. Increasing vanity and pride now took the place 
of the pleasing manners which had gained him the affection 
of those around him, especially of the Europeans. He still 
continued, however, to be a good ruler as long as his friend 
and adviser, the Englishman John Bell, who had come to 
Abyssinia in 1842, remained with him. The attempts at 
reform to which Bell tried to encourage him remained 
almost entirely fruitless, although Theodore destroyed the 
power of the feudal nobles and of the priesthood. When 
in 1860 he had lost his friend Bell in a war against the 
rebels, he became a bloodthirsty tyrant and the scourge of 
his people. For three years terrorism kept the country in 
subjection ; then, unable to bear his extortions for the main¬ 
tenance of the army, numbering 150,000 men, the people 
rose in a general rebellion. Wherever Theodore came with 
his army the people fled into the mountains, and only re¬ 
turned after he had left. He found nowhere an open enemy, 
but famine reduced his army so quickly that it only num¬ 
bered 7000 men when the difficulties with England began. 

7'lie English-Abyssinian War .—Walter Plowden, who at 
one time had just as much influence with Theodore as Bell, 
had been sent to Gondar as English consul, and had in 
1849 concluded a commercial treaty with Ras Ali. Theo¬ 
dore intended to send an embassy to England. Lord Clar¬ 
endon answered through Powell that Queen Victoria would 
receive the embassy if Theodore would desist from his plan 
of conquering Egypt. This caused the first bitterness, for | 
the king’s favorite plan was the restoration of the ancient 
Ethiopian empire. After Plowden’s death in 1860, Came¬ 
ron was sent as English consul to Abyssinia. Theodore 
sent him with a letter to Queen Victoria to open negotia¬ 
tions for a war with the Turks. (The story that he wanted 
to marry Victoria was invented by the French newspapers.) 
One Bardel was sent for the same purpose to Paris. Cam¬ 
eron himself remained in Africa, and sent the letter by 
mail. Before an answer could be expected he returned to 
Abyssinia. Theodore, who meanwhile had been strongly 
prejudiced against the Europeans by the imprudent con¬ 
duct of the French consul Lejean, and the unfavorable re¬ 
ception which Bardel had received in Paris, regarded the 
conduct of Cameron as an insult. At this time the mis¬ 
sionary Stern, who was in the service of an English mis¬ 
sionary society, by an error of etiquette angered the king, 
who punished him severely. Imprudently Stern told the 
Frenchman Bardel that he had written a book, “Wander¬ 
ings among the Fcllashas of Abyssinia,” which might 
bring him into trouble. Bardel translated the most insult¬ 
ing portions of it to the king, who in the greatest rage im- 
2 


17 


prisoned Stern and Rosenthal, another missionary who was 
guilty of a similar offence. As no answer came from 
Queen Victoria, Cameron, according to orders from his 
government, asked for permission to return to his post at 
Massowa. In answer to this, Theodore put him and his 
companions in chains (Jan. 4, 1864), and brought him in 
November to the mountain-fortress of Magdala. This 
caused the British government to answer Theodore’s letter, 
and to charge the Syrian Hormuzd Rassam with its de¬ 
livery. He had to wait, however, until July, 1865, before 
he received permission from the king to enter Abyssinia. 
In Jan., 1866, he met Theodore, and so far won his favor 
that the prisoners were released, and were permitted to de¬ 
part. Suddenly, however, Rassam and those just released 
were again imprisoned, because Theodore had understood 
Queen Victoria’s letter as proposing that Rassam should 
remain with him in exchange for the prisoners, and there¬ 
fore considered Rassam’s intention to leave immediately as 
a breach of treaty. The efforts of several German scholars 
residing in Abyssinia, as Dr. Schimper and Zander, suc¬ 
ceeded in bringing about a reconciliation. But still the 
whole party were kept in captivity, which, though not 
severe, could still only be broken by force of arms. As 
Theodore did not answer a letter demanding the release of 
the prisoners, Lord Stanley sent the king on Sept. 9, 1867, 
his ultimatum, which Rassam, however, did not deliver, 
fearing that the consequences might bo fatal to the pris¬ 
oners. The English government resolved therefore to send 
an armed expedition from Bombay, and gave Sir Robert 
Napier the command. Colonel Mercwether, the British 
resident in Aden, and the Swiss Werner Munzinger 
(which see) had for some time been engaged in trying to 
discover the best means to secure the success of the difficult 
undertaking. At the head of a large reconnoitering party 
they found the best road to the plateau, and established 
friendly relations with the natives, in which they were 
most efficiently aided by the German missionary Dr. Krapf. 
Therefore, when Napier landed, Jan. 3, 1868, at Mulkutto, 
in the shallow bay of Annesley—which Colonel Mercwether 
had transformed into a convenient harbor by building a long 
pier—he found almost all obstacles removed. In Senafeh 
the army, consisting of 4000 Englishmen and 8000 East 
Indians, with 10,000 mules and twenty elephants for the 
transportation of the artillery and the provisions, first 
gained a footing in the highlands. Thence they moved in 
a southerly course to the fortress of Magdala, which was 
considered almost impregnable, and into which Theodore 
had retired, being pressed on all sides by rebellious princes. 
The difficulties of the ground, as well as the extreme care¬ 
fulness of Napier, caused the army to advance but slowly. 
On the 10th of April the first action took place, at Arogy, 
in which Theodore’s troops were driven back into the fort¬ 
ress. Theodore now released the prisoners, but Napier 
demanded an uncohditional surrender, and, as that was 
refused, proceeded on April 14 to storm the fortress, which 
was taken with but little trouble. Theodore was found 
dead on a hill, having killed himself. Napier conducted 
the difficult retreat with great success, and took the prince 
Alamayu, the only legitimate son of Theodore, to Eng¬ 
land. After the British had left, the country returned to 
the old state of anarchy, from which Theodore had for a 
time raised it. In 1869, Gobazie, prince of Amhara, pro¬ 
claimed himself king, but only ruled as far as his arms 
prevailed. He was in 1871 defeated in a great and deci¬ 
sive battle near Adowah by Prince Kassa of Tigre, who 
early in 1872 was crowned with great solemnity as Em¬ 
peror John of Ethiopia, but was likewise unable to break 
the opposition of a number of the independent princes. In 
Sept., 1872, Kassa was involved in serious difficulties with 
the khedive of Egypt, which led to the occupation of some 
mountain-districts (which were claimed by Kassa as be¬ 
longing to Abyssinia) by Werner Munzinger, who had 
been appointed by the khedive governor of Massowah. 
After his victory over Gobazie, the new emperor had ap¬ 
pointed Prince Voronya as ras of Amhara; who, however, 
when the emperor returned to Adowa, endeavored to make 
himself independent. The emperor subdued Amhara 
again, took Gondar without resistance, and compelled Vo¬ 
ronya to sue for pardon. Ten days after this had been 
granted to him, Voronya escaped from the residence of 
the emperor, and again placed himself at the head of his 
troops. Early in 1873 he was, however, again defeated; 
the emperor once more entered Gondar, and his rule over 
Amhara and Tigre was regarded as more firmly established 
than at any previous period. (See Holton, “ Abyssinia,” 
1871; it contains a complete list of all printed works on 
Abyssinia; Andree, “Abyssinien,” 1S69; Markham, “A 
History of the Abyssinian Expedition,” 1869.) 

A. J. Sciiem. 

Abyssin'ian Church. Abyssinia was converted to 
Christianity in the early part of the fourth century. The 




















18 


ACACIA—ACADEMY. 


church is national and independent, and with regard to 
doctrine Monophysitic. The visible head or abuna (“ our 
father ”) is ordained by the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria. 
Circumcision is practised in the Abyssinian Church, pre¬ 
ceding baptism. Communion is administered daily to the 
laity, and confession is rigidly enforced, even among priests. 
The efforts made, both by the English and Roman Catholic 
churches, to elevate the religious tone of the Abyssinians 
have hitherto, owing in part perhaps to political influences, 
been attended with but little success. 

Aca'cia [from the Gr. aierj, a “ sharp point,” on account 
of the prickles or thorns on the tree], 
a genus of plants of the natural order 
Leguminosm, found in Asia, Africa, 

America, and Australia. This genus 
comprises many beautiful and useful 
trees, among which is the Aca'cia 
Arab'ica, producing the gum-arabic 
of commerce. The bipinnated foliage 
of some species of acacia is sensi¬ 
tive to the changes of the weather. 

Several of the species are valuable 
for timber, and the seeds of the Aca¬ 
cia concinna are used as soap, and 
form an article of commerce. 

Acacl'emy [Gr. ’A/caS^'a; Rat. 
acade'mia; Fr. academic], a word originally applied to an 
Athenian garden or grove and to the school of philosophy 
which Plato founded in that place, which was in a suburb of 
Athens. The name is supposed to have been derived from 
Academus or Ilecademus, a mythical person who, according 
to Greek tradition, presented the garden to the people of Ath¬ 
ens. The modified systems or schools of philosophy which 
the successors of Plato adopted were designated by the titles 
of the Middle and the New Academy. The word academy is 
also applied to a society of authors, savants, or artists found¬ 
ed for the improvement of literature, science, or art. The 
first institution of which we read, at all corresponding to 
this idea, was the Museum, a society of scholars established 
at Alexandria by Ptolemy Soter in the third century B. C., 
which concentrated in that city all that was most eminent 
in science, philosophy, poetry, or criticism. The Jews in 
different cities, the Constantinopolitan emperors, and the 
Arabian caliphs founded societies of the same description. 
Charlemagne, among his various efforts for the propagation 
of literature, collected an association of learned men, who 
read and compared the works of antiquity, and gave them¬ 
selves in their academic intercourse the assumed names of 
different ancient authors. But this institution was dis¬ 
solved at the death of Alcuin ; nor do we find any memorial 
of a similar society, except a few among artists, chiefly in 
France, until after the taking of Constantinople by the 
Turks, when the Greek scholars driven into Italy held 
literary meetings, which gradually assumed a more regu¬ 
lar form. In 1560 a society called the Academia Secre- 
torum Naturae, was founded at Naples in the house of 
Baptista Porta, but was abolished by a papal interdict. 
It was, however, succeeded by the Academia Lyncei at 
Rome, of which Galileo was a member, the objects of 
which, like those of the former, were chiefly connected with 
the pursuit of natural history. From the beginning of the 
seventeenth century academies multiplied in Italy. Among 
the most eminent of those which bore a philosophical cha¬ 
racter was the Academy del Cimento at Rome in that cen¬ 
tury; and in more recent times the Academy of Sciences at 
Bologna deserves to be mentioned with honor. But Italy 
has been most prolific in academies of literature and phi¬ 
lology, which form by far the greatest number in the cata¬ 
logue of 550 such institutions which have been enumerated 
as existing or having existed in that country. A general 
and somewhat ridiculous fashion prevailed in the seven¬ 
teenth and eighteenth centuries among literary men of that 
country, of forming themselves into societies for the promo¬ 
tion of literary objects, to which they gave fanciful sym¬ 
bolic names, every member assuming in his own person some 
analogous appellation. Among the most celebrated was the 
Academy (It. Academi'a ) degli Arcadi at Rome, of which 
the meetings were held in a meadow, and the members en¬ 
acted shepherds and shepherdesses. It was founded about 
1690, and still subsists, having various affiliated societies 
in other places. The Academia degli Umidi, one of the 
oldest of these associations, became afterwards the Floren¬ 
tine Academy. The Academia degli Intronati (“of the 
Deaf”), degli Umoristi (“of the Humorists”), and many 
others with similar quaint appellations, have acquired 
celebrity in Italy. Of her philological academies the most 
illustrious is the Academia della Crusca (i. e. “ of the straw 
or chaff” *), founded at Florence in 1582, which by its 

* In allusion to its office of winnowing or purifying the 
national language. 


famous dictionary established the Tuscan dialect as the 
standard of the national language. It is now incorporated 
with the Academia Fiorentina. 

The first institution of this kind in France, the Acade¬ 
mic Fran^aise, was founded in 1635, by Cardinal Riche¬ 
lieu. It was formed for the purpose of refining the French 
language and style, and, although in its first period it was 
chiefly remarkable for the adulation which it bestowed on 
its vain though able founder, it became in process of time 
by far the most celebrated and influential of all European 
literary societies. It consisted of forty members, and a place 
among them was eagerly sought after for a long period as 
one of the highest honors which could be attained by an 
author. Like that of La Crusca, it published a dictionary 
of the national language in 1694. The Royal Academy of 
Sciences was founded by Louis XIV. in 1666, and pub¬ 
lished 130 volumes of memoirs up to the year 1793, when 
it was abolished by the Convention. The Academy of 
Painting and Sculpture, and that of Inscriptions and 
Belles-Lettres, were the other two principal academies of 
Paris. The latter was founded by Colbert in 1663, and re¬ 
modelled in 1701. At the Revolution all four were abol¬ 
ished, and in 1795, at the suggestion of Condorcet, the 
National Institute of France was established in their stead. 
It consisted of four classes, arising out of the four acade¬ 
mies of which it was composed. According to its reorgani¬ 
zation by Napoleon in 1806, these classes were remodelled, 
and each of them consisted of a certain number of sections, 
each furnished with a specified number of acting and cor¬ 
responding members. The first class, or that of sciences, 
had sixty-three members and 100 correspondents; that of 
languages, forty, and sixty correspondents; that of history 
and antiquities, forty, and sixty correspondents; that of the 
arts, twenty-eight, and thirty-six correspondents. The first, 
third, and fourth each named eight foreign associates. In 
1816 the Institute was again remodelled by Louis XVIII. 
The four classes again took the name of academies, and be¬ 
came more independent of one another, their joint property 
being managed by a commission of eight members, two 
from each, under the superintendence of the minister of 
the interior. The first academy (that of sciences) retained 
the same number of members ; the second and third were 
reduced to thirty-eight and thirty-seven respectively ; the 
fourth was increased to forty. To the Academy of Inscrip¬ 
tions and Belles-Lettres and that of Sciences w r as added a 
class of free academicians, of the number of ten, with no 
privilege except that of attendance. The Academy of Arts 
had the right to choose its own number of free members. 

Of similar institutions in Germany, the oldest was the 
Academia Naturrn Curiosm, a scientific association, founded 
in 1662 in Franconia, afterwards taken under imperial pro¬ 
tection, when it received the name of the Academia Caesareo- 
Leopoldina. The Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin was 
founded in 1700 by Frederick I. of Prussia; Leibnitz was 
its first director. Other German academies of sciences are 
those of Gottingen, established in 1750; the Bavarian 
Academy at Munich, established in 1759, chiefly for his¬ 
tory, and in 1829 divided into three sections; and the Saxon 
Association of Science, founded in 1846, and divided into 
two classes. The Imperial Royal Academy of Sciences at 
Vienna originated in 1846. Turkey established a similar 
institution in 1851, and Egypt in 1859. The Imperial 
Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg was founded by 
Catherine I., and endowed by Catherine II. with great 
munificence, but established on the French model. She 
separated from it the Academy of Arts. 

In England the name of academy has been chiefly con¬ 
fined to associations for promoting the arts. The Royal 
Academy of Arts was founded in 1768, and consists of forty 
members. It has separate professors of painting, architec¬ 
ture, anatomy, and perspective, and a council of nine is 
elected annually. The Academy of Ancient Music was 
founded by private association in 1710; the Royal Academy 
of Music, under the patronage of George III., but dissolved 
shortly after. The present Academy of Music was founded 
in 1822. The principal literary and philosophical societies, 
answering in character to the branches of the French In¬ 
stitute, are: 1. The Royal Society of London, which is con¬ 
fined to objects of a scientific character. It had its origin 
as early as 1645, but was established by royal charter in 
1662. Its acts have been published under the name of 
Philosophical Transactions ” from 1665 to the present day. 
2. The Antiquarian Society, which was established in 1751, 
and whose acts are published under the title of “Archm- 
ologia.” 3. The Society of Arts, which originated in 1718. 
4. That of Literature, which was founded in 1823. Besides 
these, there are numerous societies which bear the name of 
the peculiar branch of science to which their exertions are 
confined. The Royal Society of Edinburgh obtained a 
chaiter in 1/83, and another, with more liberal provisions, 
in 1811. 1 



Acacia Arabica. 



























ACADIA—ACANTHURUS CHIRURGUS. 19 


Among the most valuable published transactions of 
academies and similar societies, besides those already 
mentioned, are those of Colbert’s “Academie des Inscrip¬ 
tions ct Belles-Lettres” (50 vols. 4to, from 1701 to 1793); 
those of the Institute being continuations of the memoirs 
of the former academies of which it was composed ; those of 
the Royal Academy of the Sciences and Belles-Lettres at 
Berlin; at first in Latin, then in French (from its remodel¬ 
ling in 1744 by Frederick the Great), now in German; the 
“Acta” of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg; the 
“Commcntarii” of the Academy of Bologna; and the “An- 
tichita d’Ercolano,” published by the Herculanean Academy 
of Naples. 

The American Academy of Sciences and Arts was founded 
in 1780 by the council and house of representatives of Mas¬ 
sachusetts. The National Academy of Sciences of the U. S., 
incorporated by the Thirty-seventh Congress in 1863, was 
limited by the original charter to fifty members, citizens 
of the U. S., fifty foreign associates, and a variable number 
of honorary members. Its stated meetings are held twice 
a year. Special meetings are held on call. Committees 
pursue at all times investigations required by the govern¬ 
ment. The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 
was founded in 1812. Besides a very valuable scientific 
library, it contains one of the best natural-history collec¬ 
tions in the world, especially rich in birds. (Sec Military 
Academy, and also Naval Academy, by Prof. R. S. Smith.) 

J. Thomas. 

AcaGlia [Fr. Acadie], sometimes called Arca'dia, 
Acca'dia, or Ca'die, the peninsula now called Nova 
Scotia. It was settled by the French in 1604. Acadia 
originally included New Brunswick and a part of Maine. 
It was the subject of frequent quarrels between the French 
and English on account of-the valuable fisheries near its 
coast, and was finally ceded to England in 1713. The in¬ 
habitants having refused to take the oath of allegiance to 
the British king and to bear arms against the French, the 
governor and his council resolved to remove them to the 
other British provinces. The French settlers, 18,000 in 
number, were forced to give up their property, and were 
sent off in such haste that many families were separated. 
This event has furnished the subject of “Evangeline,” one 
of Longfellow’s most admired poems. 

Acajut/la, a town and seaport in the Central American 
republic of San Salvador, is situated on the Pacific Ocean, 
12 miles S. of Sonsonate. It consists, besides the custom¬ 
house and the dwelling of the captain of the port, of a 
large warehouse, almost entirely in ruins at present, and a 
few huts and sheds. Under the Spanish rule it was for a 
long time the only port on the W. coast between Acapulco 
and Realejo; at present it is second in importance in San 
Salvador, and has over one-third of the foreign trade of 
this republic. The chief article of export here is Peru¬ 
vian balsam, of which 20,000 pounds are annually exported. 

Acale'phae (or, in English, Ac'alephs, and some¬ 
times Acale'phaiis), [from the Gr. a/caA^rj, a “nettle”], 
(in the singular Acale'pha or Ac'aleph), a class of 
radiated animals according to the system of Cuvier. They 
are commonly called jelly-fishes or sea-nettles, and some¬ 
times sea-blubber. The body of these animals is composed 
of a transparent, gelatinous substance, and in one section 
of the class, the true Medusae, the body is entirely unsup¬ 
ported by any hard framework. The quantity of solid 
matter contained in them is very small, over ninety-nine 
per cent, being water; they may therefore be described as 
almost “living water.” If one of them be taken from the 
sea and laid upon the surface of a dry board or rock, it de¬ 
liquesces very rapidly. One of these, weighing fifty ounces 
when taken from the water, has been found not long after¬ 
wards to be nothing but a little dry cellular tissue, weigh¬ 
ing only five or six grains. All the senses in the Acalephm 
save that of touch are thought to be wanting. They pos¬ 
sess, however, a muscular and a nervous system, as well as 
a distinct digestive apparatus. The digestive organs are 
lodged in a common centre or a longitudinal axis. From 
this centre proceed ray-like processes, with tentacular ap¬ 
pendages presenting a great variety of form. In these are 
the peculiar nettling organs, which are generally composed 
of an oval capsule containing a spirally-coiled filament, 
which is suddenly thrown out whenever the animal is in 
any way disturbed. These filaments are lined to their very 
extremities by barbules, which are arranged in such a man¬ 
ner as always to point backward when the filament is pro¬ 
jected. A system of vessels from the gastric cavity pro¬ 
ceeds through the body. The existence ot blood has not yet 
been detected. The acalephs have no teeth; in some of the 
animals of this class, such as the Physalta (or Portuguese 
man-of-war), food is obtained by suction through the flask- 
like appendages which hang down beneath, each possessing 
an orifice and a sucker. The Acalephm are of various forms 


and sizes; many of them are shaped somewhat like an 

umbrella when spread. 
While most of them arc 
extremely small, the 
larger sometimes attain 
a length of three feet or 
more. The phosphores¬ 
cence of the sea is in part 
caused by multitudes of 
minute Acalephae. The 
larger acalephs subsist 
on small fish and other 
marine animals; they are 
propagated by eggs, etc., 
according to the process 
of alternate generation. 
The eggs produce a brood 
totally different from the 
parent, and resembling 
Infusoria, which attach 
themselves to some sta¬ 
tionary object and as¬ 
sume a polyp-like form, 
and by gemmation pro¬ 
duce a progeny which in 
time attains to the origi¬ 
nal form, or, in other 
words, becomes like the 
grandmother. (See Al¬ 
ternate Generation.) 
They possess the power, 
also, of multiplying by 
gemmation alone, little 
ones being almost ready 
formed from the sub¬ 
stance of the parent, 
mostly from the Avails of 
the peduncle or from the 
surface of the ovaries, 
and being very similar 
to their parents. These 
animals arc classified ac¬ 
cording to the different 
powers of locomotion 
which are exhibited in 
them. They are grouped in three orders—the Ctenophora?, 
Discophorae, and Hydroids, ranking in the order named, 
the Hydroids being the lowest in development. In some 
instances the Hydroids closely approach the character of 
the polyps; but others are plainly acalephs, and there arc 
many intermediate gradations. 

Acantlia'ceae [so named from Acanthus , one of its 
genera], a natural order of monopetalous exogenous plants, 
having irregular didynamous tlowcrs, and particularly 
known by their calyx being imbricated in two broken 
Avhorls, and by their seed growing from hooks on the pla¬ 
centa. Several species of this order have beautiful flowers, 
like the Thunbergia. The U. S. ha\ T e several genera. 

Acanthas'pis [Gr. asavOa, a “spine,” and ao-n-i?, a 
“shield”], a genus of buckler-headed fishes found by Dr. 
Newberry in the corniferous limestone of Ohio. It some¬ 
what resembles Ceplialasg>is, the buckler or carapace bear¬ 
ing similar denticulated spines, but the cranial plates are 
covered Avith a peculiar vermicular ornamentation, and 
Avere not ankvlosed together. 

Acan'thophis [from the Gr. asavOa, a “thorn,” and 
o$is, a “serpent”], a genus of venomous serpents allied to 
the viper, and natives of Australia. They have a horny 
spine at the end of the tail. The genus includes the dread¬ 
ed death adder, Acanthophis antarctica, one of the most 
venomous of known reptiles. 

Acaiithopteryg'ians [Gr. a/ccu-flo?, a “thorn,” and 
ttt epvtj (gen. v-Tepvyoi), a “ Aving ” or “fin”], one of the two 
primary divisions of the Osseous fishes in the system of 
Cuvier. This order, Avhich includes the perch and mack¬ 
erel, is characterized by the bony spines which are formed 
from part of the rays of their dorsal, anal, and ventral 
fins. This order is the most extensive of those generally 
recognized by naturalists among fishes. 

Acanthu'rus*Chirur'gus, or Sea^Surgeon, oAves 
its name to the sharply-pointed and keen-edged spine on 
the side of the tail, which cuts and Avounds like a surgeon's 
lancet. The scales of this fish are very small, and the sin¬ 
gle spine on each side of the tail is movable and set in a 
longitudinal grooA r e. Its food is of a A’egetable nature. 
It is found on the Atlantic coasts of tropical America and 
Africa, and is tolerably plentiful in the Caribbean seas. 

* Literally “thorn-tailed,” from the Gr. asavOa, a “thorn,” 
and o vpa, a “ tail.” 



Acalepha. 

























20 


ACANTHUS—ACCENT. 


Aean'thus [from the Gr. dKarda, a “thorn”], the sys¬ 
tematic name of a 
genus of herba¬ 
ceous plants, na¬ 
tives of Southern 
Europe, belonging 
to the natural order 
Acanthaceoe. The 
most remarkable 
species of this ge¬ 
nus are the Accm- 
thus motlis and the 
Acanthus spinosus, 
which have large 
white flowers and shin¬ 
ing leaves of a beautiful 
form. This foliage is 
said to have suggested 
to the architect Callim¬ 
achus the first idea of 
the ornate and beauti¬ 
ful capital which forms 
the most striking feature 
in the Corinthian order 
of architecture. 



Natural form of the leaf. 



Leaves artistically modified. 


A Capel'la, or A la Capel'Ia, in music, means “in 
the church style;” it is equivalent to alia breve, a time- 
signature which frequently appears in church music. It 
likewise denotes that the instruments are to play in unison 
with the voices, or that one part is to be played by a num¬ 
ber of instruments. 

Acapul'co, a seaport-town of Mexico, on the Pacific 
Ocean, and in the state of Guerrero, 190 miles S. S. W. of 
Mexico; lat. 16° 55' N., Ion. 99° 48' AV. The harbor is 
nearly landlocked, and is one of the best in the world. 
The climate is hot and unhealthy. It formerly commanded 
the whole trade between the Spanish dominions in America 
and those in the East Indies. Since the discovery of the 
California gold-mines it has again become one of the most 
important ports of Mexico. The harbor is so deep that 
large ships can anchor closo to the granite rocks. The 
steamers which ply between Panama and San Francisco 
touch here regularly. The greater part of the town was 
destroyed by an earthquake in 1852. Pop. about 3000. 

Acari'drc or Acar'ida [for etymology see Acarus], 
a family of small animals, including the acarus or mite 
and other minute insects belonging to the order Arach- 
nida. Their food consists of both animal and vegetable 
substances. Some of them are free and lead a wander¬ 
ing life, while others are parasitic, living on other ani¬ 
mals. Those of the former class have their mouths fur¬ 
nished with distinct mandibles, and are often found in 
great numbers in old cheese, brown sugar, and dried fruit, 
and in the cabinets of entomologists. One of the most 
destructive of these is the Acarus destructor. Those of 
the latter class are possessed of a sucker, by which they 
adhere to the skins of animals, where they are supplied 
with nourishment.*' A few species of the Acaridm are 
aquatic, and have their legs furnished with hairs, by means 
of which they swim with facility. The Acaridse are propa¬ 
gated by eggs, and are extremely prolific. When mature 
they usually have eight legs, the young or imperfectly de¬ 
veloped animals having only six. It was an Acarus whose 
appearance under the electrical experiments of Mr. Crosse 
startled the public several years ago with the supposition 
that it was generated or created by the electrical fluid. 
From its discoverer it was called Acarus Crossii. (See 
Spontaneous Generation.) 

Acar'ina [for etymology see Acarus], a sub-order of 
spider-like insects, inferior in rank to true spiders, includ¬ 
ing the ticks, the mites (Acaridae), and other families, 
having the various articulations merged into or closely 
joined to the abdomen. 

Acarna'nia, a district of ancient Greece, bounded on 
the N. by the Ambracian Gulf, on the E. by the river 
Achelous, and the S. and W. by the Ionian Sea. Accord¬ 
ing to tradition, it was named from Aearnan, the son of 
Alcnueon. It is mostly occupied by well-wooded hills or 
mountains. Acarnania and iEtolia constitute a nomarchy 
or province of modern Greece, with an area of 3025 square 
miles. Pop. in 1870, 121,693. 

Ac'arus [from the Gr. ««aprfc, “that which cannot be 
cut on account of its smallness” (from a, negative, and 
Ketpw, to “cut”)], a genus of minute animals, including 
the common mite found in figs and other dry provisions 
(the Acarus domesticus), and many other species. (See 
AcARiDiE.) The itch is caused by an acarus which was 


* For an account of the parasitic Acaridae the reader is re¬ 
ferred to Kuechenmeister’s “Manual of Parasites,” vol. ii. 


formerly known as the Acarus scabiei, but which is now 
usually called Sarcoptes hominis. 

Ac'ca Uauren'tia was the name of a woman to whose 
grave the ancient Homans brought sacrifices on the occa¬ 
sion of a festival, on the tenth day before the calends of 
January. According to a Roman legend, she married tho 
rich Tarrutius, and upon her death left her whole property 
to the Homan people; while, according to another legend, 
she was the nurse and foster-mother of llomulus and 
Remus. 

Accelerando, in music, signifies, with gradually in¬ 
creasing velocity of movement. 

Acceleration [Lat. accelera'tio, from ad, “to” (im¬ 
plying “addition”), and cel'ero, celera'tum, to “hasten”], 
a continuous increase of the velocity or rate of motion of 
a moving body. The measure of velocity is, in general, 
the space through which that velocity, if unvarying, would 
carry a body in a unit of time (in mechanics, one second). 
When motion is uniform, the spaces passed over in suc¬ 
cessive units of time are equal. When it is accelerated or 
retarded, these spaces increase or diminish, and cannot be 
taken as measures of the velocity at either the beginning 
or the end of tho period. In order, therefore, to compare 
the successive velocities of an accelerated or retarded body, 
the spaces must be taken which are passed over in consec¬ 
utive equal but indefinitely small intervals of time. If these 
minute spaces increase, the velocity is accelerated; if they 
diminish, it is retarded. Their differences show whether 
retardation is uniform or otherwise. If they increase, it 
is increasing; if they diminish, it is diminishing. Thus, 
the differences of these differences, or the second differences, 
indicate the character of the variation. If the second dif¬ 
ferences are positive, the acceleration is increasing or the 
retardation is diminishing, and vice versa. If the second 
differences are zero, the acceleration or retardation is uni¬ 
form. The simplest case of a force producing a uniform 
acceleration is that afforded by the action of the earth on 
falling bodies. The increase of velocity in this case is pro¬ 
portional to the time, and nearly equal to 32.2 feet per second. 

Acceleration of the Fixed Stars denotes the appar¬ 
ent greater diurnal motion of the stars than of the sun, 
the cause of which is that the sun’s apparent yearly motion 
takes place (though much more slowly) in a direction con¬ 
trary to that of its apparent daily motion. Compared with 
the sun, the stars thus seem to gain about three minutes 
fifty-six seconds each day, coming by that interval earlier 
each successive twenty-four hours, to the meridian. 

Acceleration of the Moon, or Acceleration of the 
Moon’s Mean Motion, is one of the most remarkable pe¬ 
culiarities of the lunar motions. It was noticed by Halley 
that when the ancient eclipses are compared with mod¬ 
ern lunar observations, tho moon is found to be moving 
faster now on her course round the earth than in former 
days. The explanation of this peculiarity was long sought 
for unsuccessfully by the leading professors of the New¬ 
tonian system of astronomy. Indeed, it may be said even 
now that the acceleration of the moon is a problem but par¬ 
tially solved. We owe to Laplace the first successful attempt 
to explain the difficulty. He showed that the moon's mo¬ 
tion is accelerated through the slow process of diminution 
which the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is undergoing. 
Owing to this change, there results (on the whole) a slight 
diminution of the sun’s influence upon the moon’s motions. 
The influence of the earth being thus increased, the same 
effect accrues as would follow from a slight increase in the 
earth s mass; in other words, a slight decrease in the moon’s 
period of revolution. But it has been recently shown that 
Laplace’s explanation accounts for only about one-half of 
the moon s actual acceleration. The remaining half remains 
still unexplained. 

Acceleration of the Planets. The motion of the 
planets in their orbits is variable, being quicker or slower 
according as the planet is at a less or a greater distance from 
the sun. Hence, in moving from the apogee to the perigee 
of the orbit, the motion of a planet is accelerated, and on 
the contrary, in moving from the perigee to the apogee, the 
motion is retarded. Revised by F. A. P. Barnard. 

Ac'cent [Lat. accen'tus, from ad, “to” or “according 
to,” and ca'no, can'turn, to “sing” or “sound”]. In Eng¬ 
lish, accent usually denotes the greater stress which is laid 
on some one syllable of a word, as, for example, in na'tion, 
protect , ev \ dent, formidable. In our language the accent 
is never placed farther from the end of a word than the 
pre-antepenultimate (as in ex'qmsitely, lios'pitable, formi¬ 
dable). Even this is comparatively rare, and the pronun¬ 
ciation of such words is attended with some difficulty to 
many speakers. I he accent on the antepenultimate (as in 
ed ucate, ev ident, mortality), on the penultimate (as in 
devo Hon, na lion, etc.), and on the ultima (as in exhort', 
proceed'), is of continual occurrence. 
























ACCENTOR—ACCIDENT. 


21 


In French, accent denotes not a stress of voice, but for the 
most part simply a quality of sound; thus, c with the acute 
accent (e) represents a sound nearly similar to the English 
a in fate; with the grave accent (e) it indicates a sound 
nearly like our e in met, and with the circumflex (e) a sound 
similar to the last, but still more open. A with the circum¬ 
flex (a) is pronounced like our a in far or farther (§,), while 
a without any accent approaches very nearly to our a in 
fat (5,). The grave accent on the preposition d (“to ”) is 
merely used to distinguish this word from the verb a (“ has ”), 
which is always written without the accent. 

In German, accent is essentially the same as in English; 
in Italian, Spanish, and most other European languages 
(including the modern Greek), it is similar, or very nearly 
similar, to that of our tongue. 

With regard to the ancient Greek accent, there is a great 
diversity of opinion among scholars. The most probable 
theory seems to be that the acute accent of the Greeks 
caused the syllable on which it was placed to be sounded 
in a higher key than the other syllables, but without any 
greater stress or force of utterance, and that “ when a high- 
tone ultima, followed by other words in close connection, 
dropped down to a lower key, it was written with a grave 
accent instead of the acute.” (See on this subject an inter¬ 
esting paper read by Prof. Hadley before the American 
Philological Association, July 27, 1S70.) The acute fol¬ 
lowed by a grave on the same long syllable combined to 
form the circumflex. They were at first probably written 
separately, as in the word ouj^a, but afterwards the two 
were joined, as in o-w/aa. The invention of the Greek signs 
of accent is due to Aristophanes of Bj-zantium, a cele¬ 
brated grammarian, who lived and taught in Alexandria, 
and who flourished about 260 B. C. (or about 200 B. C., ac¬ 
cording to some writers). 

Accent in music is analogous to accent in language. It 
consists of a stress or emphasis given to certain notes or 
parts of bars in a composition, and may be divided into 
two kinds—grammatical and rhetorical or aesthetic. The 
first kind of accent is perfectly regular in its occurrence, 
always falling on the first part of a bar. It is true that 
long or compound measures of time have, besides the chief 
accent in every bar, some subordinate accent, but these are 
only slightly marked. As a general rule, we may observe 
that the grammatical or regular accent must not be exag¬ 
gerated. It should be marked only so far as to give a clear 
sense of rhythm. The aesthetical accent is irregular, and 
depends on taste and feeling, exactly as do the accent and 
emphasis used in oratory. In vocal music well adapted to 
words, the words serve as a guide to the right use of aesthet- 
ical accents. 

Accen'tor [Lat. the “warbler”], a genus of warblers, 



Accentor. 

including the hedge-accentor or sparrow (Accentor modu- 
laris), a familiar and abundant European bird, five and a 
half inches long, brown above, steel-colored beneath. Its 
song is fine, but short. It has been introduced into the 
U. S. The Accentor Alpinus of the Alps is a larger bird. 

Acceptance, an engagement to pay a bill of exchange. 
(See Bill of Exchange, by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Accep'tants, or Constitu'tionists, a name given 
in 1713 to the Jesuits in France who accepted the constitu¬ 
tion or bull Unigenitus issued by Pope Clement XI. The 
Jansenists, who rejected the pope’s bull, were called Ap¬ 
pellants or Recusants, .and appealed to a general council. 


They were imprisoned and persecuted, but after the death 
of Louis XIV., the regent, the duke of Orleans, prevailed on 
the greater part of the recusant bishops to accept the bull 
with certain modifications. The Appellants continued their 
resistance after the Unigenitus became national law (1730). 

Accessary, or Accessory [from the Lat. ad, “to,” 
and ccdo, cessum, to “go”], in criminal law, a participant 
in a felony who is not the chief actor, and is not pres¬ 
ent at its commission, but yet in some way is connected 
with it, either before or after the fact (or act committed). 
An accessary before the fact is one who, though not present, 
procures, counsels, or commands another to commit it. An 
accessary after the fact is one who, knowing a felony to 
have been committed, receives, relieves, comforts, or assists 
the felon. 

In offences below the grade of felony there are no acces¬ 
saries. All implicated are regarded as principals. By the 
common law of England the same rule is applied to the case 
of treason. In manslaughter, as defined by common law, 
there can be no accessary before the fact. 

Accession [Lat. accessio, from ad, “to,” and cedo, ces¬ 
sum, to “go”], in law, a species of title to property borrowed 
from the civil (or Roman) law, and defined to be the right 
to all which one’s own property produces, whether that prop¬ 
erty be movable or immovable, and the right to that which 
is united to it by accession, either naturally or artificially. 
By this principle the increase of an animal belongs to its 
owner, or a building becomes the property of the man on 
whose soil it is erected. An important instance of the ap¬ 
plication of this doctrine is found in the manufacture by 
one person of materials belonging to another. The prop¬ 
erty in its manufactured state belongs, in general, to the 
owner of the materials. A leading exception to the prin¬ 
ciple is, that if the manufacturer, acting in good faith, 
without the consent of the owner, changes the identity of 
the materials, as if he converts grapes into wine or grain 
into whisky, he will become the owner of the manufac¬ 
tured article. This rule would not be applied in favor of a 
wilful wrong-doer. The word “accession” is also used to 
indicate the fact of succession in government, such as the 
“ accession ” of a new dynasty in monarchies, as in the case 
of the House of Hanover in England. T. W. Dwight. 

Accessory, or Accessary, in painting, a term ap¬ 
plied to everything introduced into a picture that is not an 
essential part. In an historical painting the human or ani¬ 
mated figures are the principal objects, and all the others 
are accessories. 

Ac'cidens, or Per Accidens (?. e. “by accident”), 
a Latin phrase used by the older philosophers to denote an 
effect not following from the nature or essence of the thing, 
but from some accidental quality. It is opposed to 
per se: thus, fire burns per se; heated iron burns per 
accidens. 

Ac'cident [from the Lat. ad, “to,”and ca'do, to 
“fall,” to “happen”], in logic, is one of the predi¬ 
cables ; in its strictest logical sense it is that which 
may be absent from or present in the subject, the es¬ 
sence of the species to. which the subject belongs re¬ 
maining the same. Thus, if it be predicated of a man 
that he is “ walking,” or that he is “ a native of Paris,” 
the first expresses what is termed a separable accident, 
the latter an inseparable; i. e. the individual may 
cease to walk, but cannot cease to be a native of Paris, 
but neither of these alters the species, man, to which 
the individual belongs. It is to be observed with re¬ 
gard to the accident, as well as the other predicables, 
that they exist only relatively to each other, so that 
the same quality may be accidental when predicated 
of the species which is a property when predicated of 
the individual. Thus, “malleability ” is an accident 
of the subject “metal,” because many metals are not 
malleable. But it is one of the properties of gold, iron, 
etc., as distinguishing these from the non-malleable 
metals. 

Accident. This is an important topic in equity 
jurisprudence. It has been defined to be such an un¬ 
foreseen event, misfortune, loss, act, or omission as is 
not the result of any negligence or misconduct in a party. 
It is, however, difficult to bring all the cases in which the 
court assumes jurisdiction within the bounds of a definition. 
Some of the leading cases of interference by the court are— 
1. Where negotiable or other instruments have been lost, 
and there is no adequate remedy in a court of law. 2. 
Where a clause has been inadvertently omitted from or in¬ 
serted in an instrument. The court in such a case makes 
the instrument conform to the intent of the parties. 3. 
Penalties and forfeitures. In this class of cases the court 
relieves against the penalty or forfeiture where the injury 
occasioned by the breach of duty is susceptible of completo 













































22 ACCIDENT 


compensation, as in the case of an omission to pay rent on 
an appointed day. There would be no relief in case of a 
wilful wrong, nor where the forfeiture is in the nature of a 
statutory remedy for a breach of duty. 4. Cases of omis¬ 
sion, through inadvertence or ivant of knowledge of facts, 
to defend an action. The court has power to allow the ne¬ 
cessary steps still to be taken. It is a general rule that 
the court will not interfere in favor of a mere volunteer, 
such as a donee or devisee in a will. Thus, if a seal were 
accidentally omitted from a conveyance made without con¬ 
sideration, or a clause were omitted from a will, there would 
be no relief. It is a further rule that relief will not be 
granted as against a purchaser who has acquired legal 
rights in good faith and for a valuable consideration. 

Accident, a post-township of Alleghany co., Md. Pop. 
1006. 

Accidental Col'ors are colors depending on the hy¬ 
persensibility of the retina of the eye for complementary 
colors. If we look for a short time steadily with one eye 
upon any bright-colored spot, as a wafer on a sheet of white 
paper, and immediately after turn the same eye to another 
part of the paper, a similar spot will be seen, but of a 
different color. If the wafer be red, the imaginary spot 
will be green; if blue, it will be changed into yellow; the 
color thus appearing being always what is termed the com¬ 
plementary color of that on which the eye was fixed. 

Accidentals, in music, are those flats and sharps 
which are prefixed to the notes in the course of a move¬ 
ment, and are not indicated by the signature at the com¬ 
mencement. 

Accidentals, in painting, are those fortuitous or chance 
effects, occurring from luminous rays falling on certain 
objects, by which they are brought into stronger light than 
they otherwise would be, and their shadows are conse¬ 
quently of greater intensity. This sort of effect is to be 
seen in almost every picture by Rembrandt, who used them 
to a very great extent. There are some fine instances of 
accidentals in Raphael’s Transfiguration, and particularly 
in the celebrated picture, the Notte of Correggio, in which 
the light emanates from the infant Christ. With these 
effects may be classed such accidental lights as those from 
a forge or a candle, or some such object, of which the use 
is extremely important to the painter of still-life. 

Accip'itres [from the Lat. accip'io, to “take”], the 
plural of the Latin accip'iter, the name given by Linnseus 
to an order of carnivorous birds, including the eagle, vul¬ 
ture, hawk, and owl. More recent ornithologists have 
named this order Raptores. This order, comprises all the 
true birds of prey, though the shrikes and a few other 
birds, from their habits, almost deserve the latter title. As 
may be seen in the accompanying illustrations, the beaks 



Head and Foot of Head and Foot of Pere- Head and Foot of 
the Osprey. grine Falcon. American Spar¬ 

row-hawk. 


and claws of the Accipitres are marvellously adapted, by 
their sharpness and curvature, to the predatory habits of 
these birds. 

Acclamation [Lat. acclama'tio ], a term used in pub¬ 
lic and deliberative assemblies. A motion or proposition is 
adopted by acclamation when the assent is so nearly unani¬ 
mous that the counting of votes is omitted. The different 
modes of electing a pope are called scrutiny, acclamation, 
and inspiration. 

Acclimation [from the word climate], the adaptation 
of a human being to a climate different from that to which 
he is accustomed. Such adaptation is accompanied by a 
change in the organism, assimilating it to those of natives 
of the country which the acclimatized person has adopted. 
Certain tropical climates, it would appear, can never be 
safely endured by any native of cold or temperate regions. 
The British troops in Bengal never become truly acclimated, 
but the ill-health and mortality increase with the length of 
stay in that climate. The same experience has been met 
with in West Africa and elsewhere. On tho other hand, the 


ACCOUNT. 


French island of Reunion, which is very unhealthy even 
for planters and merchants and most others, has a healthy 
and hardy peasantry of French descent, whose immunity 
from disease is probably to be ascribed to their abstinence 
from alcoholic stimulants and from all excesses—an absti¬ 
nence which is enforced by their utter poverty. This im¬ 
portant subject has only of late received careful attention. 

Acclimatization, the adapting an animal or plant 
to a foreign climate. Although many plants and animals 
have a remarkable capacity of adapting themselves to 
changes of climate, yet such changes are often attended 
with maladies called “diseases of acclimatization.” Special 
associations (called “acclimatization societies”) for accli¬ 
matizing animals, plants, etc. have been formed in many 
countries. Instead of “ acclimatization,” the French use 
the word “ acclimatation.” 

The acclimatization of foreign field and singing birds in 
the U. S. has been attempted near most of our larger cities 
with considerable success. The “Acclimatization Society” 
of Cincinnati in 1873 imported many hundred pairs of 
German birds at great expense. The object is not only to 
naturalize foreign songsters, but to increase the number of 
birds destructive of insects injurious to vegetation. Simi¬ 
lar societies exist at Sandusky, St. Louis, and other points, 
both in the Northern and Southern States. Among tho 
birds imported are the blackbird (a singer), thrush, golden 
finch (very beautiful and a sweet singer), green-bird, bull¬ 
finch (easily tamed and trained), redbreast, starling (a fine 
singer), lark, greenfinch, goldfinch, knotpecker, the wagtail, 
the magpie, hedge-sparrow, titmouse, nightingale, redtail, 
German quail (a singer), and fence-sparrow. 

Accolade, a ceremonious act by which, in former 
times, knighthood was conferred. It was an embrace and a 
gentle blow or “dub” on the shoulder of the new-mado 
knight, made by the sovereign. 

Accol'ti (Benedetto), an Italian writer and lawyer, 
born at Arezzo in 1415, became chancellor of the republic 
of Florence in 1459. He wrote a Latin history of the cru¬ 
sade which Godfrey of Bouillon conducted to Palestine. 
This was the basis of Tasso’s great poem. Died in 1466. 

Ac'comac, a county in the E. part of Virginia, bor¬ 
dering on Maryland. Area, 480 square miles. It is part 
of a peninsula, the “Eastern Shore,” and is bounded on 
the E. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the W. by Chesa¬ 
peake Bay. The surface is level and the soil moderately 
fertile. Corn, oats, and wool are raised. Capital, Drum- 
mondtown or Accomac Court-house. Pop. 20,409. 

Accomac Court-House, a post-village, the capital 
of Accomac co., Va., 95 miles E. by N. of Richmond. 

Accommodation Paper. See Bill of Exchange. 

Accom'plice [ad-con-plicare, to “fold up together”], 
one of several persons associated in a crime. In its broad¬ 
est use it includes all who are connected with the offence, 
whether as principals or accessaries; but it is generally ap¬ 
plied to those who are admitted to give evidence against 
their fellow-criminals. 

Accord' [from the Fr. accorder, to “harmonize”], or 
Accord and Satisfaction, in law, an agreement be¬ 
tween an injured party and the one who has caused the 
injury that the latter shall give, and the former receive, 
something in satisfaction of the wrong inflicted. The “ ac¬ 
cord” is an agreement as to the thing to be done, and the 
“satisfaction” is the performance of the agreement. This 
agreement, if executed, is a bar to any suit brought on 
the original cause of action. The subject is governed by 
well-settled rules, such as that the thing to be done must 
not be uncertain, that it must be advantageous to the in¬ 
jured party, and that the agreement must be fully carried 
into effect. Under these rules it would not be a valid ac¬ 
cord to give the injured party something to which he was 
already entitled, as, for example, to pay a portion of a debt. 

Accord, in music, is synonymous with concord, the 
relation of two sounds which are agreeable to the ear. 

Accor'dion, a musical instrument, in which the tones 
are produced by the vibration of metallic springs moved 
by wind, which is applied by a bellows. It was invented 
by Damian, a Viennese, about 1829. 

Account [remotely from the Lat. ad, “together,” and 
compu'to, to “reckon”], a computation or calculation; a 
statement of the receipts and payments of one who acts in 
a fiduciary relation, as an executor or a trustee, or a state¬ 
ment showing in detail the transactions between merchants 
or others who have dealt together. An account current is 
one that is open, running, and unsettled. An account 
stated is one which has been adjusted between tho parties, 
and a balance struck. An account may also become stated 
without any express agreement, and by implioation, as 
where one of two merchants who have dealt together draws 






















ACCRA—ACETATE. 23 


up a formal statement of their dealings and sends it to the 
other, and the latter receives it and retains it without ob¬ 
jection for a reasonable time. He is thus presumed to as¬ 
sent to its correctness. 

Account, or account render, is the name of a common- 
law action which lay against one who by virtue of his posi¬ 
tion or office ought to have rendered an account and refused 
to do so. This action is now almost obsolete. A court of 
equity has much more complete power to grant relief in all 
cases of mutual accounts, and in cases where the taking of 
an account is incidental to other matters over which that 
court has jurisdiction. Some of the instances in which an 
account may be taken on the one ground or the other are 
agency, general average, apportionment, contribution be¬ 
tween sureties, waste, trusts, express or implied, including 
administration, guardianship, and partnership. In suits 
for an account both parties are deemed to be substantially 
plaintiffs for many purposes, and an affirmative decree may 
be made for the defendant, if a balance be found in his 
favor, as well as for the plaintiff. T. W. Dwight. 

Accra, or Ac'ra, a small territory in Africa, on the 
Guinea coast, belongs for the most part to England. It is 
about lat. 5° 30' N., Ion. 0° 12' W. The English portion 
has about 3000 inhabitants, chiefly negroes. 

Accre'tion [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and cresco , cretum , 
to “grow”], the gradual accumulation of soil along the 
banks of a river or the sea, formed by the washing of the 
water. In the case supposed the increase belongs to the 
owner of the adjacent land. If the increase be sudden, 
the alluvion formed upon the sea-shore or navigable river 
belongs to the state. 

Ac'criilgton, a manufacturing town of England, in 
Lancashire, is situated in a deep valley between several 
hills, and at the junction of two railways, 13 miles E. of 
Preston and about 22 miles N. by W. of Manchester. It 
has increased rapidly in population and importance, and is 
considered the centre of the cotton-printing business. It 
has also extensive manufactures of cotton cloth, and coal¬ 
mines in which many of the inhabitants are employed. 
Among the public buildings is a fine Gothic church built 
in 1838. Pop. in 1851, 7481; in 1861, 19,688. 

Accuba'tion [Lat. accuba'tio, from ad, “to,” “upon,” 
and cu'bo, to “lie”], the reclining posture in which the an¬ 
cient Greeks and Homans took their meals. Two or three 
couches were spread around the dining-table, each of which 
was capable of containing three persons. The guests lay 
on their left sides, their heads or elbows being supported 
by pillows, the feet of the first being behind the back of 
the second, and those of the second behind the third. The 
middle place was generally deemed the most honorable. 

Ac'cum (Friedrich), a German chemist, born at Biicke- 
burg in 1769. Having removed to London in 1793, he 
became professor of chemistry in that city about 1802. 
He promoted the use of gas for illumination by a valuable 
work entitled a “Practical Treatise on Gas Light” (1815). 
He wrote other works. Died in Berlin in 1838. 

Accumulated [from the Lat. ad, “to,” “up,” and 
cu'mulo , cnmula'tum, to “heap”] Force is the power of a 
moving body to overcome resistance. When a force acts 
on a body so as to produce its motion, the force must be 
in excess of the resistance to the motion, and, as power 
is imparted to the body at each instant, this is termed ac¬ 
cumulated force. Thus, if a strong man should pull on a 
rope attached to a ship at rest, but floating free in still 
water, his efforts at first would seem unavailing, because 
his strength would be so slight compared with the vis 
inertise (which is proportioned to the weight) of the ship. 
If, however, he continue to pull steadily, the force applied 
will gradually impart a slow motion to the vessel. This is 
an example of the accumulation of force, which, however, 
is less manifest in this instance, owing to the fact that not 
merely the vis inertise of the vessel, but also the weight and 
friction of the opposing water, are to be overcome. But 
let us suppose a mass of iron or lead of many thousand 
tons to be suspended by a huge chain or cable extending 
to an immense height.* In this case, as there would be no 
appreciable resistance from the air, the constant applica¬ 
tion of a very small force would at length, by accumulation, 
communicate a rapid motion and prodigious momentum to 
the huge mass in question—a momentum which a force a 
thousand times as great could not suddenly overcome, and 
indeed could only overcome at all by a continual applica¬ 
tion, and consequent accumulation, of force in an opposite 
direction. 

* It is obvious that if the chain or cable were not very long, 
the weight soon after it began to move (acting like a pendulum) 
would necessarily rise considerably higher than the point at 
which it was first suspended; hence a great part of the force ap¬ 
plied would be lost in overcoming the attraction of gravitation. 


Accusative. See Declension, by J. Thomas.) 

Aceph'ala [“without a head,” from the Gr. a, priv., 
and Ke<f>a.\r), the “head”], a term applied to a class of mol- 
lusks called otherwise Conchifcra or Lamellibranchiata. 
(See Conchology, by George W. Tryon, Jr.) 

Aceph'ali [etymology the same as the preceding], a 
term applied in the early Christian Church to bishops ex¬ 
empt from the jurisdiction of their patriarchs. 

Aceph'alocysts [from the Gr. a, priv., /ce^aArj, “head,” 
and kv'o-tis, a “bladder”] are hydatids without head or 
visible organs, and were formerly considered to be parasitic 
animals, but more recent observations establish the fact that 
they are scolices or larvae of cestoid worms, especially of 
the tape-worm. They are found in various parts of the 
body of man, as the liver, cavity of the abdomen, etc., 
and consist of simple sacs filled with a transparent liquid. 
These sacs are oval or approaching to spherical, and vary 
in size from the head of a pin to that of a child. They 
appear to increase by gemmation, developing smaller cysts 
between the laminm of the parent, which are discharged 
from its inner or outer surface. They are composed of a 
homogeneous substance resembling albumen. (See T. S. 
Cobbold’s “Entozoa,” 1864, p. 259 et seq.) 

Acer'ra (anc. Acer'rse), a town of Italy, in the prov¬ 
ince of Caserta, 8 miles by railway N. E. of Naples. It 
has a cathedral and a seminary. The sluggish channels of 
the Lagni render the place unhealthy. Pop. in 1861, 10,971. 

Ace'sius, a bishop of Constantinople,lived about 320- 
340 A. D. He favored the Novation doctrine. Constantine 
said to him, “Place a ladder, O Acesius, and ascend alone 
into heaven.” (Socrates i. 10.) 

Acetab'ulum [a Latin word signifying a “vinegar cup 
or cruet ”], a term applied to the suckers on the arms of the 
cuttle-fish and other dibranchiate cephalopods, which have 
been, hence, recently termed Acetabulifera. These suckers 
are called by Aristotle kotv Aoi (“ cups ”), which has sometimes 
been erroneously translated “joints.” In anatomy, acetab¬ 
ulum signifies the cavity of the hip-joint. In entomology, 
it is the socket on the trunk of an insect in which the leg 
is planted. 

Ac'etal [from the Lat. ace'turn, “ vinegar ”], a colorless, 
inflammable liquid obtained by the action of spongy pla¬ 
tinum upon the vapor of alcohol. It is convertible by slow 
combustion into acetic acid. 

Ac'etate [Lat. ace'tas, -atii\. The acetates are a class 
of salts composed of acetic acid and various oxides. They 
are all soluble in water, and, for the most part, crystallize 
readily. Many of these are extensively used either in 
dyeing or for medical purposes. The following are among 
the most important: Acetate of Aluminium. —This salt 
exists only in solution, being decomposed by evaporation. 
It is largely used in dyeing and calico-printing as a mor¬ 
dant, and is prepared by precipitating alum with acetate 
of lead, sulphate of lead being thrown down, and a mixture 
of acetate of aluminium and sulphate of potassium remain¬ 
ing in solution. Acetate of Ammonium. —The neutral ace¬ 
tate is a white crystalline salt, readily soluble in water and 
alcohol, and evolving ammonia on evaporation, so that it 
is difficult to obtain it in its crystalline form. Its solution 
is known in pharmacy as Spir'itus Mindere'ri. Acetate of 
Copper. —Copper forms several acetates; the normal salt 
is known as crystallized verdigris. It forms dark, bluish- 
green prismatic crystals, which are efflorescent and very 
poisonous. There are three basic acetates of copper, 
named, respectively, the sesquibasic, the dibasic, and the 
tribasic. These are all contained in common verdigris, 
which is largely used both as a pigment and as a mordant 
in dyeing. It is obtained by submitting metallic copper 
to the joint action of air and acetic acid. Aceto-arsenite 
of Copper. —A beautiful but very poisonous green pigment, 
known in commerce as arsenic green, imperial green, Paris 
green, and Schweinfurt green. It is insoluble in water, and 
is prepared by boiling verdigris and arsenious acid together. 
Acetate of Iron. —Iron forms two acetates; the only one of 
importance, however, is the ferric acetate, which is gener¬ 
ally prepared by mixing persulphate of iron with acetate 
of lead. It has not been obtained in the crystalline state, 
but forms a red-brown solution, which decomposes on ebul¬ 
lition. A very crude mixture of the ferrous and the ferric 
acetate, known as pyrolignite of iron, is largely used as a 
mordant in dyeing black. Acetate of Lead. —Lead forms a 
normal and several basic acetates. Normal acetate of lead 
(known as sugar of lead) is a white crystalline salt, having 
a sweet astringent taste. When oxide of lead is digested 
with a solution of normal acetate, the tribasic acetate is 
formed in long, silky needles. A solution of this salt is fre¬ 
quently used on account of its power of precipitating many 
vegetable substances, such as gum and coloring matters. 
It is used in medicine under the name of Goulard water or 



















24 ACETIC ACID—ACHEEN 


Goulard extract (liquor plumbi subacctatis). Acetate of 
Potassium is a very deliquescent salt, and is obtained with 
difficulty in a crystallized state; it melts to a limpid liquid 
below redness. It exists in the juices of many plants, and 
is prepared artificially for medicinal purposes by neutral¬ 
izing acetic acid with carbonate of potassium. Acetate of 
Sodium .—An efflorescent crystalline salt, prepared by satu¬ 
rating acetic acid with carbonate of sodium. On evapora¬ 
tion it separates into large transparent prisms. It is simi¬ 
lar in its medical properties to the acetate of potassium. 

Acet'ic Ac'id [Lat. ac/idum acet'icum ] is the most 
common of the vegetable acids, and is the essential princi¬ 
ple of vinegar. It is composed of carbon, oxygen, hydro¬ 
gen, and water. It occurs in the juices of many plants, and 
in some animal secretions. It is produced by the decom¬ 
position and oxidation of many organic bodies. It is pre¬ 
pared from weak alcoholic liquids, as wine, cider, and beer, 
by oxidation, “ acetous fermentation,” and by the destruc¬ 
tive distillation of wood, “ pyroligneous acid.” 

The chemical formula of acetic acid is IIC2II3O2. Alco¬ 
hol may be converted into acetic acid by bringing it into 
contact with spongy platinum, from which it absorbs oxy¬ 
gen. (See Fermentation.) Crystallizable or glacial acetic 
acid, the most concentrated form of acetic acid, is obtained 
by distilling dry acetates with concentrated sulphuric acid. 

Acetic Anhydride, Anhydrous Acetic Acid, or 
Oxide of Acetyl, obtained by the action of oxychloride or 
chloride of phosphorus on acetate of potassium, a colorless, 
very mobile, strongly refracting liquid, possessing a power¬ 
ful odor. 

Acetic Ethers are acetates of the alcohol radicals, such 
as acetate of ethyl (C2II5C2II3O2); acetate of methyl, “ tether 
lignosus” (CH3C2H3O2), found in crude wood vinegar; 
acetate of amyl (C5H11C2H3O2), made by distilling acetate 
of potassium, fusil oil, and sulphuric acid. (For other 
members of the group see Watts’s “Dictionary of Chem¬ 
istry,” i. 21.) 

Ac'etone,or Pyro^acetic Spirit, a limpid, mobile 
liquid of agreeable odor and biting taste, like that of pep¬ 
permint. It mixes with water, alcohol, and ether, and dis¬ 
solves many camphors, fats, and resins. Acetone is the 
representative of a class of organic bodies, called ketones, 
which are derived from the aldehydes by the replacement 
of one atom of hydrogen by an alcohol radical. 

Aldehyde. Acetone. 

C2II4O. C 2 H 3 (CH 3 ) 0 . 

Ac'etyl, Acetox'yl, or O'thyl, a radical not yet 
isolated, but supposed to exist in acetic acid and acetates. 

Acetyl is C2II3O. 

Acetic acid, C2II3O ) n 
II j 

Acetate of potassium, C2II3O ) n 

K j U - 

Acetic anhydride, C2H3O j 

C2II3O j ' C. F. Chandler. 

Achoe'an [an adjective derived from Achaia (which see)] 
League, a confederation of Grecian cities formed about 
280 B. C. Previous to the invasion of Macedonia by the 
Gauls, the Achaeans had performed an insignificant part 
in the history of Greece, but soon after that event four 
Achman towns formed a league for mutual protection. 
Aratus of Sicyon induced his native town to join the league 
(251 B. C.), and was himself made strategos (general-in- 
chicf) of the confederacy. Corinth joined the league in 
243 B. C., and was soon followed by Epidaurus, Megara, 
and several other cities. Philopcemen, called the “last of 
the Greeks,” became strategos of the league in 208 B. C. 
In 191 B. C. the confederacy included Sparta, Athens, and 
nearly all the cities of the Peloponnesus, and for fifty years 
maintained the cause of Grecian independence against the 
JEtolians and against the encroachments of Rome. The 
confederates, under Diaeus, were defeated at Corinth by 
the Roman general Mummius, and Southern Greece was 
made a Roman province under the name of Achaia (146 
B. C.). The Achaean confederacy may be said to fur¬ 
nish the most perfect example of the federative system 
which ancient Greece affords, and its history forms one of 
the most glorious chapters in the annals of ancient times. 

Achae'ans [Gr. ’Axatoi], one of the four races of inhabit¬ 
ants of ancient Greece. The name is often extended in the 
Homeric poems to the whole Greek people. The Achaeans 
proper inhabited parts of Thessaly, and in the Pelopon¬ 
nesus they anciently occupied Argos, Laconia, and the 
neighboring regions, whence they were, for the most part, 
expelled by the Dorians, the exiles settling along the north¬ 
ern shore of the Peloponnesus, and founding there a new 
community. They remained an obscure people till the 
founding of the Achaean League (which see). 

Acha'ia [Gr. ’Ax<ua], a state of ancient Greece, in the 


N. part of the Peloponnesus, was bounded on the E. by 
Sicyonia, on the N. by the Bay of Corinth, and on the S. 
by Arcadia and Elis. It was about 65 miles long from E. 
to W. The surface was hilly or mountainous. (SeeAciiAiAN 
League.) Achaia and Elis constitute a nomarchy or prov¬ 
ince of modern Greece. Area, 1908 square miles. Pop. in 
1870, 149,561. In the days of the New Testament writers, 
Achaia signified the whole Peloponnesus. 

Achard (Louis Amedee Eugene), a French novelist, 
born in 1814, was for a time contributor to the “ Courrier > 
de Paris” in 1845, and after the revolution of 1848 became 
a political writer in the camp of the royalists. He wrote, 
among other works, “Belle Rose” (5 vols., 1847), “ L’eau 
qui dort” (1860), “Miss Tempete” (1861), “ Ilistoire d’un 
homme” (1863), “Madame de Sarens” (1865). 

Acha'tes, a friend and companion of Alneas, was noted 
for his fidelity. The proverbial phrase fidus Achates is 
often applied to a man who is a devoted follower of his chief. 

Acheen', an independent kingdom in the N. W. part of 
Sumatra, has an area of about 25,500 square miles. It was 
formerly much larger, but in recent times its power and ex¬ 
tent have considerably decreased. The interior is entirely 
unknown. The E. coast consists of large fertile plains, 
while on the W. are high mountain-ridges. The chief pro¬ 
ductions are rice, cotton, tropical fruits, pepper, and vege¬ 
tables. Horned cattle, horses, and goats are raised in large 
quantities and of an excellent breed. The inhabitants are 
Mohammedans, and are divided into Acheenese, Pedeerese, 
and Malays. The former are found all over the empire, 
and are again divided into three tribes. The Pedeerese 
are found in the region of Pedeer on the N. coast, which 
formerly was a powerful kingdom. They are of a much 
darker complexion than the Acheenese. The Malays come 
from the southern coasts of Sumatra, and prevail in some 
parts of the S. W. They are of small stature, dark com¬ 
plexion, more agile and ingenious than the neighboring 
tribes, but also sensual, treacherous, and proud. They are 
good sailors, very fond of cockfights, and addicted to the 
use of opium and betel. Their language is a Malay dialect. 

The estimates of the population range between 450,000 and 
2,000,000. The sultan is nominally the highest authority, 
but in reality the government is in the hands of a shah- 
bandar appointed by him. The sultan has generally very 
little authority, because he has not the means to make him¬ 
self felt. In many kampongs (?. e. villages), especially 
those situated at a distance from the capital, and which 
have become wealthy through trade, he possesses no au¬ 
thority whatever. Each of the three subdivisions of the 
Acheenese proper has two chiefs, whose position is heredi¬ 
tary, and who bears the title panglima or tivwanku. The 
sultan must consult with these six chiefs on anything that 
he intends to undertake, and must ask for their consent, 
which they only give after consultation with the chiefs of 
the second grade. These six chiefs of the Acheenese elect 
the new sultan from the reigning family, and have the right 
to depose him if he acts contrary to the popular custom, or 
does anything injurious to the public welfare. Every vil¬ 
lage has its own chief, called panghulu, imam, or datu, and 
in a larger kampong a rajah. He must consult with the 
members of his community on every question, and report 
the result to his panglima. 

The income of the sultan consists of 5 per cent, of the 
value of all goods imported into the capital, Acheen, and 
the duties levied on the goods imported in the provinces, 
as Avell as on the sale of pepper. In return, he must pay 
each of the panglimas five catti, gold (each at 480 Spanish 
dollars). The panglimas, however, deliver just as much as 
they please of the money raised in the sultan’s name, and 
this explains the lowness of his finances. To improve his 
financial affairs he carries on trade, and his mercantile 
affairs are conducted by the shahbandar, who of course does 
not neglect his own interest. 

Acheen was visited by the Portuguese in 1506, by the 
Dutch in 1595, and by the English in 1612. In 1659 the East 
India Company established a factory at the capital. In 1818 
a long internal war was brought to a close by the interference 
of Sir Stamford Raffles in favor of the sultan Janhar, who 
in return granted the English valuable trading privileges to 
the exclusion of the other European nations. In 1824, Eng¬ 
land exchanged her possessions in Sumatra against Malacca, 
and the protectorate over Acheen was transferred to Hol¬ 
land, which, however, engaged not to destroy the independ¬ 
ence of Acheen. This provision was revoked by a treaty of 
Feb. 5, 1871. In the beginning of 1873 a war arose between 
the Dutch and Acheen. In the memorial published by the 
Dutch government in April the treachery of the sultan is 
declared to be the cause. He is accused of having solicited 
the aid of the Dutch against somo native tribes, and at 
the same time the aid of other European powers, especi¬ 
ally Turkey, France, and Italy, against the Dutch.’ In con- 















AOIIELOUS—ACHTKARSPELEN. 


sequence of this, the Dutch governor was instructed to de¬ 
mand a satisfactory explanation and guarantees for the 
future conduct of the sultan, and only to declare war if 
these demands were not complied with. As they were re¬ 
fused, the governor declared war on Mar. 26, 1873. The 
first operations of the Dutch were not successful, but they 
were to be resumed in the fall on a large scale. 

The city of Achcen, the capital of the above state, in 
lat. 5° 35' N., Ion. 95° 19' E., is rapidly decaying. Ac¬ 
cording to an old estimate, it had 30,000 inhabitants, which 
number, however, is at present by far too large. It is situ¬ 
ated on a river, about one mile from the sea-shore. The 
harbor is guarded by a small fort with four or five can¬ 
nons. Some coasting trade is carried on with Malacca, 
Singapore, and Penang. 

Achelo'us [Gr.’A^eAwo?], now As'pro-Pot'amo, the 
largest river of Greece, rises in Mount Pindus, flows nearly 
southward, forms the boundary between Acarnania and 
iEtolia, and enters the Ionian Sea after a course of about 
100 miles. 

A'chenbach (Andreas), a German landscape and 
marine painter of the Diisseldorf school, was born at Cas- 
sel in 1815. He obtained a medal of the first class in Paris 
in 1855. 

Achenbach (Heinrich), a German statesman, born 
Nov. 23, 1829, became in 1858 privatdocent, and in 1860 
professor at the University of Bonn, in 1866 chief council¬ 
lor in the Prussian ministry of commerce, in 1872 secretary 
of state in the ministry of public worship, and on May 14, 
1873, minister of commerce. He has also been since 1866 
a member of the Prussian Diet. While professor in Bonn 
he published valuable works on the agrarian relations of the 
Germans in ancient times, on German and French mining 
laws, and founded an excellent periodical exclusively de¬ 
voted to mining law. 

Achenbach (Oswald), a landscape painter, a brother 
of Andreas, was born at Diisseldorf in 1827. In 1863 he 
became professor of painting in the academy of his native 
city. 

Ache'llium [from the Gr. a, negative, and xcuVw, to 
“g< a P,” to “open”], a term applied by botanists to a dry, 
hard, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit or pericarp, as that of 
the rose and the ranunculus. 


A'chenwall (Gottfried), a distinguished German 
writer on statistics, born at Elbing in 1719, is reputed to 
have originated statistical tables. He became professor of 
philosophy at Gottingen about 1750. He first introduced 
the term “ Staatswissenschaft,” by which he proposed to 
include all the knowledge essential to statesmanship. Died 
in 1772. 


Ach'eron [Gr. ’Axepoov, gen. ’Ayepovros], the ancient name 
of a river of Elis, an affluent of the Alpheus. It was also 
applied in mythology to a river of the infernal regions. 

Acheron'tia [from Ach'eron , in the Greek mythology 
a river of the dead], 
or Death’s-head 
Moth, is a genus of 
lepidopterous insects 
belonging to the family 
Sphingidae. There is 
found in England and 
other European coun¬ 
tries a species of this 
genus (the Acheron'tia 
Qt'ropos), having on 
the back of the thorax 
a remarkable represen¬ 
tation of a human skull, 
and it has hence received the name of death’s-head moth. 
This is a very handsome insect, and is from four and a half 
to five and a half inches in expanse of wing.. If disturbed 
or handled, it makes a peculiar squeaking noise, the only 
known example, it is said, of a lepidopterous insect having 
what may be called a voice. It is much dreaded by the 
ignorant and superstitious, who consider its appearance to 
be ominous of evil. It does not hesitate to attack bee¬ 
hives, devouring the honey and putting the bees to flight. 
Though possessing no weapons of defence that have yet 
been discovered, it appears to suffer no harm from its armed 
enemies. Its larva is a large caterpillar about five inches 
in length, with beautiful markings; the color is a kind of 
greenish-yellow, and the back is traversed by lines partly 
blue and partly white, speckled with black spots. The 
caterpillar feeds mostly on the leaves of the potato plant ; 
and it retires deep into the earth, and changes into a chry¬ 
salis in the month of September. It emerges the following 
Juno or July, transformed into a perfect insect. This moth 
is seen most frequently in the mornings and evenings of 
autumn. 



Death’s-head Moth. 




25 


Acheru'sia. I. A lake in Epirus, into which the river 
Acheron flows. II. A cavern in Bithynia, near the city of 
Heraclea; through it Hercules is said to have dragged Cer¬ 
berus up to the light of day. 

A-Cheval [Fr., meaning “on horseback” or “as¬ 
tride”], as a military term, indicates the position or situ¬ 
ation of a body of troops astride , as it were, of a river or 
road, etc., which separates or divides one portion from an¬ 
other. 

Achill, Ak'il, or Eagle Island, an island off the W. 
coast of Ireland, forming part of the county of Mayo. It is 
about 15 miles long by 12 miles broad. Area, 55 square 
miles. Pop. about 5000. On the coast is a sheer precipice 
2200 feet high. 

Achil'les [Gr. ’AxiAAev?], a famous Grecian warrior, the 
hero of Homer’s “ Iliad,” was the son of Peleus, king of 
Thessaly, and the sea-nymph Thetis. From the name of 
his father, he was oftpn called Peli'des. At the siege 
of Troy he was pre-eminent for courage, strength, and 
swiftness, but, having been offended by Agamemnon, he 
refused to fight. But when his friend Patroclus had been 
killed, he returned to the war to avenge his death. He 
slew Hector and many other Trojans. According to a 
poetic legend, his mother, by dipping him in the river 
Styx, had rendered him invulnerable except his heel, by 
which she held him. He was killed with an arrow by Paris, 
who shot him in the heel. 

Achil'les’ Ten'don [Lat. ten'do Achil'lis ] connects 
the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles of the calf of the leg 
with the heel-bone. It is capable of resisting a force equal 
to 1000 pounds weight, and yet is sometimes ruptured by 
the contraction of these muscles in sudden extensions of 
the foot. The name was given in allusion to the death of 
Achilles, the Grecian hero, by a wound in the heel. An¬ 
cient surgeons regarded wounds or serious bruises of the 
Achilles tendon as fatal. In modern surgery, however, 
tenotomy, or the division of this or other tendons, is a not 
infrequent operation, especially in the treatment of club¬ 
foot. In that form of this affection called Tal'ipes equi'nus 
the tendo Achillis is unnaturally shortened, so that the heel 
in standing does not touch the ground. 

Achil'li ( Giovanni Giacinto), Dr., an Italian Protestant, 
formerly a Dominican friar, was born at Viterbo in 1803. 
He left the Catholic communion about 1839, and issued an 
Italian version of the New Testament, which is regarded, 
by some, as the best in that language. In 1850 he went to 
England, and became involved in a lawsuit (in 1852) which 
was brought against Dr. John Henry Newman for slander. 
The case was tried before Lord Campbell, and a verdict 
given for the plaintiff, Dr. Achilli. Dr. Achilli has also been 
professor of the Italian language and literature in the Eng¬ 
lish College at Malta. 

Achromat'ic [“without color,” from a, priv., and 
xpio/ma, “ color ”], a term applied to lenses and telescopes 
through which objects appear colorless, or without the dis¬ 
coloration which arises from the unequal refrangibility of 
the rays of light. (See next article.) 

Achro'matism [for etymology, see preceding article]. 
(See Aberration, Chromatic.) A prism of flint glass will 
cause a certain, amount of refraction and of dispersion, and 
if a similarly-shaped prism of the same glass be placed be¬ 
hind it, in the reverse position, the refraction and disper¬ 
sion in one direction by the first prism will be exactly 
neutralized by the refraction and dispersion in the opposite 
direction by the second prism, and as a result there will be 
no refraction and no color. But suppose a prism of crown 
glass, having the same dispersion as the one of flint glass, 
be placed behind the latter in the reverse position, the two 
dispersions, being opposite and equal, will neutralize each 
other, and the result will be white light; but the mean re¬ 
fractions being different, they will not neutralize each other, 
and the beam of light will pass through achromatic, or 
almost free from color, but refracted more or less. As a 
lens may be looked upon as a combination of prisms with 
curved surfaces, achromatic lenses may be produced in the 
same way as achromatic prisms. Absolute achromatism is 
perhaps unattainable by art, owing to the spectra from dif¬ 
ferent dispersive media not having an exact proportionality 
to one another. This is called irrationality of dispersion. 
It may be remedied in some degree by introducing a third 
lens of plate glass in addition to the flint and crown glass 
lenses. An under-corrected lens is one in which the cor¬ 
recting lens of flint does not quite accomplish the purpose, 
and the violet ray will come to a focus a little within the 
red. In an over-corrected lens the error is of the opposite 
kind, and the order of colors will bo inverted. 

Achromatic Telescope. See Telescope. 

Aclitkarspe'len (the “eight parishes”), a town of 


















2G 


ACHTYEKA—ACOMA. 


the Netherlands, iu the province of Friesland. Pop. in 
18(57, 9285. 

Achtyr'ka, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Kharkov, 69 miles N. E.of Kharkov, on the Vorskla River. 
Pop. in 1867, 17,411. 

Aci, or Aci Reale, a town and seaport of Sicily, in 
the province of Catania, at the mouth of the river Aci, near 
the foot of Mt. Etna, and 7 miles by rail N. E. of Catania. 
It is built mostly of lava, and has many line edifices. Here 
are mineral springs and the Cave of Polyphemus. Pop. in 
1872, 35,787. 

A9'id [Lat. aqidus, "sour”], in chemistry, a term ap¬ 
plied to an important class of compounds. The various 
acids usually have the following properties: (1) solubility 
in water; (2) a sour taste; (3) the power of turning vegeta¬ 
ble blues to red; (4) the power of decomposing carbonates, 
and displacing the carbonic acid with effervescence; (5) 
the power of neutralizing more or Jess the alkalies, at the 
same time losing most of their own characteristic proper¬ 
ties, forming salts. (See Salts.) A great number of acids 
are compounds of oxygen with various elements. Others 
contain chlorine, iodine, or other elements, instead of oxy¬ 
gen. (See Chemistry.) Various theories have been ad¬ 
vanced to account for the peculiar properties of acids. 
That of Dulong, proposed in 1816, is now generally ac¬ 
cepted. It is known as the binary or hydrogen theory of 
acids. All acids are considered salts of hydrogen (Ger- 
hardt)— i. e. compounds of hydrogen with simple or com¬ 
pound acid radicals; thus: 

Hydrochloric acid H(C1), 

Hydriodic acid H(I), 

Hydrocyanic acid H(CN) or H(Cy), 

Nitric acid H(N0 3 ), 

Sulphuric acid H 2 (S(> 4 ), 

Phosphoric acid H 3 (P 04 ). 

Salts, according to this theory, are produced by repla¬ 
cing the hydrogen by metals or basic radicals; thus, hydro¬ 
chloric acid and potassic hydrate form potassic chloride 
and water: IIC1 + KHO = KC1 + H 2 0. Nitric acid and 
ammonic hydrate yield amnionic nitrate and water : II(N 03 ) 
+ (NH 4 )HO = (NH4)(N0 3 ) + H 2 O. Sulphuric acid and 
calcic hydrate yield calcic sulphate and water: H 2 (S 04 ) + 
Call202 = Ca(SC> 4 ) + 2H 2 0. Phosphoric acid and sodic 
hydrate yield sodic phosphate and water : II 3 (P 04 ) + 2Na 
HO = Na 2 H(P 04 ) + 2 H 2 O. Acids are monobasic, bibasic, 
tribasic, etc., according as they contain one, two, or three 
atoms of replaceable hydrogen. Acids may produce several 
classes of salts, according as they contain more or less atoms 
of hydrogen. Hydrochloric acid forms one salt with potas¬ 
sium, KC1. Sulphuric acid forms two—the neutral, K 2 (SC> 4 ), 
in which both atoms of H are replaced by Iv; the acid, in 
which only one is replaced, KH(S 04 ). Phosphoric acid 
forms three classes, thus: K 3 (P 04 ), K 2 H(P 04 ), KH 2 (P 04 ). 
An atom of a monatomic radical replaces one atom of 
hydrogen, as shown above in the case of K,(NH 4 ) and Na. 
An atom of a diatomic radical, as calcium, replaces two 
atoms of H, as shown above in the case of sulphuric acid 
and calcic hydrate. This is further illustrated by the fol- 


lowing formulas : 



Acids. 

Radicals. 

Salts. 

HC 1 

Iv' 

K(C1). 

U 

Ca" 

Ca(Cl 2 ). 

u 

Bi'” 

Bi(Cla). 

h 2 (S0 4 ) 

K' 

K 3 (S0 4 ). 

u 

Iv' 

KH(SOi). 

u 

Ca” 

Ca(S0 4 ). 

H 3 (P0 4 ) 

K' 

k 3 (P0 4 ). 

a 

a 

K>H(P0 4 ). 

u 

iC 

KH 2 (P0 4 ). 

u 

Ca” 

Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 . 

u 

U 

Ca 2 H 2 (P 04 ) 2 . 

u 

a 

CaH 4 (P 0 4 ) 2 . 


Compound ethers are salts in which the hydrogen of the 
acid is replaced by the alcohol radicals. (See Ether.) 

Ethyl chloride (C^IIsyCl; amyl nitrate (C5Hn)'(N0 3 ); 
ethylene iodide (C 2 H 4 )”I 2 . 

Acids are of three types: 

( 1 ) The water type: water = jj j 0, ^ } 0 2 , ^ } 0 3 ; 
nitric acid ° 2 ^ 
phoric acid j 0 3 . 


H 2 / v * H 3 
(SO*)' 


^ 0 ; sulphuric acid j 0 3 ; phos- 


(2) The hydrochloric acid type: hydrochloric acid IICl; 
hydriodic acid HI; hydrocyanic acid H(CN). 

f H 

(3) The ammonia type: ammonia NH 3 = N j H; cyanic 


acid (carbamide) N j j succinamide N 


f (C4II4O2)"; 

1 H 5 —^ { H 

sulphocyanic acid N | jj ‘' ^ . 

(4) Intermediate acids are formed from two or more 
atoms of two different types. Sulphamic acid (SO 3 H 3 N) is 
II 3 N 
1I 2 0 


derived from 


chlorhydrosulphuric acid (S0 3 IIC1) 


, IICl) 

from ii 2 o • 


(See Amic Acids.) 

(See a very interesting paper on normal and derived 
acids by G. F. Barker, in the "American Journal of Sci¬ 
ence” [2] xliv., 1867, p. 384.) C. F. Chandler. 

Acidim'eter [from the Lat. aq'idum, an " acid,” and 
the Gr. perpov, "measure ”], an instrument for determining 
the strength of an acid by its saturating power. It usually 
consists of a glass tube graduated into a hundred equal 
parts, and containing an alkaline liquor ol known strength, 
the proportion of which requisite to saturate a given quan¬ 
tity of any acid is the equivalent of that acid. (See Chem¬ 
ical Analysis and Volumetric Analysis.) 

Ack'land (Lady Harriet Caroline Fox), a daughter 
of the earl of Ilchester and wife of Major John D. Ackland 
of the Twentieth regiment of foot in the British army, was 
born in 1750, and accompanied to America her husband, 
who was wounded and made prisoner at Saratoga Oct. 7, 
1777. She attended upon her husband (who died in the 
following year) with great constancy and heroism. Died 
July 21, 1815. 

Ack'ley, an incorporated town of Hardin co., Ia., at 
the junction of the Dubuque and Sioux City and Central 
R. Rs. of Iowa, 132 miles W. of Dubuque. It has a weekly 
newspaper. Ed. Independent. 

Acknowledgment [from the English word know¬ 
ledge], in law, the act by which one who has executed an in¬ 
strument declares or acknowledges, before some authorized 
officer, that it is his act or deed. The term is also applied 
to the officer’s certificate of this fact endorsed on the instru¬ 
ment. The general object of an acknowledgment is two¬ 
fold : first, to comply with the recording acts, so that the 
instrument may be lawfully recorded; secondly, to give the 
instrument such authenticity that it may be put in evidence 
in courts of justice, without further proof of its execution. 
As a general rule, it is not necessary to the validity of the 
instrument, though the laws of some of the States provide 
that a wife’s conveyance of real estate or release of dower 
is invalid unless on a private examination apart from her 
husband she acknowledges that she executed it freely and 
without fear or compulsion of her husband. This rule is 
borrowed in its substance from an English practice under 
a so-called statute of fines. The officers generally author¬ 
ized to take acknowledgments are judges and clerks of 
courts, mayors, justices of the peace, commissioners of 
deeds, and notaries public. 

Acknowledgments of conveyances of real estate should 
correspond in form with the requirements of the law of the 
State where the land is situated, though that law sometimes 
permits them to be valid if they conform to the law of the 
place where they are executed. T. W. Dwight. 

Ac'laml (Henry Wentivorth), M. D., D. C. L., F. R. S., 
born in 1815, was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where 
he took his degree of M. D. in 1848. He was one of the 
founders of the University Museum, and became in 1858 
regius professor of medicine. He accompanied the prince 
of Wales to America in 1860, and has published "The 
Plains of Troy” (1839) and a valuable "Memoir on the 
\ isitation of Cholera in Oxford in 1854,” besides numerous 
scientific and medical papers. 

Acceme'tae (i. e. the "sleepless ”), [from the Gr. a, priv., 
and KOLix6.op.ai, to "fall asleep”], an order of monks, some¬ 
times called A\ ateliers, which was founded at Constantinople 
early in the fifth century. They performed divine service 
day and night, and were divided into three classes, each of 
which had its share of duty. They established many mon¬ 
asteries and were held in high estimation. Studius, a Ro¬ 
man noble and a member of this order, built a monastery 
called Studium, and the monks were styled Studitge. Hav¬ 
ing afterwards favored the doctrines of Nestorius, their 
credit declined. 

Ac'olyte [from the Gr. 6ko\ov9os, a " follower ”], a func¬ 
tionary who, in the Roman Catholic Church, assists the 
priest in the performance of religious services. According 
to Roman Catholic authorities, acolytes formed the second 
ol the inferior orders of clergy in the primitive Church, 
subdeacons being tho first. It is now tho fourth of the 
minor orders. 

Aco'ma, a village of Valentia 00 ., N. M., supposed by 
some to bo Acuco, mentioned by the Spanish historians. It 
is inhabited by Indians, is built on a high sandstone rock 
















ACOMA—ACOUSTICS. 


27 


and is reached by a spiral staircaso cut in the rock. It has 
a church and a missionary station, but has at present no 
priest. 

Acoina, a township of McLeod co., Minn. Pop. 392. 

Aconcagua, the highest peak of the Andes, is in Chili, 
lat. 32° 38' 30" S., Ion. 70° 0' 30" W. Its height is 22,478 
feet above the level of the sea. 

Aconca'gua, a province of Chili, is bounded on the N. 
by Coquimbo, on the E. by the Argentine Republic, on the 
S. by Santiago and Valparaiso, and on the W. by the Pacific. 
Area, 4932 square miles. This province is the most moun¬ 
tainous part of Chili, and contains the highest peak of the 
Chilian Andes, Aconcagua. The climate is very dry, and 
owing to the high mountain-ranges there is very little veg¬ 
etation in this province. Pop. in 1863, 130,253. Chief 
town, San Felipe. 

Ac'onite [Lat. Aconi'tum ], a plant of the genus Aconi'- 
tuin and the order Ranunculacem. The Old World contains 
many species of this genus, some of them, particularly 
Aconitum ferox of India, very poisonous. The Atlantic 
U. S. have two native species. The Aconitum Napellus, or 
monkshood, a native of Europe, Asia, and the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains of the U. S., is the plant which yields the aconite used 
in medicine. This plant abounds in the deadly alkaloid 
aconitine, but when administered in suitable doses is useful 
in rheumatism, neuralgia, and in fevers. This remedy, in 
minute quantity, is a favorite with homoeopathists, but was 
employed by physicians before the rise of homoeopathy. 
The "winter aconite” ( Eranthis ) of Europe is a closely re¬ 
lated plant, and has similar properties. 

Ac'orus Cal'amus (sweet flag), a medicinal plant of 
the order Aracern. Its aromatic stem (rhizoma) is used as 
a stomachic and tonic. It is a native of both continents, 
and is known as " sweet flag.” 

Acos'ta (Gabriel), a Jewish reformer, born in 1587 in 
Oporto, Portugal, was educated in the Catholic religion, but 
went to Holland, where he embraced the faith of his fathers, 
and changed his name to Uriel. He was condemned and 
persecuted as a heretic by the rabbis, and died by suicide 
in 1647. His autobiography was published in Latin and 
German in 1847. 

Acotyled'onous Plants [from the Gr. a, priv., and 
KorvArjfiuij', a " seed-leaf ”], plants without cotyledon or seed- 
lobes. The term is synonymous with Cryptogamous Plants 
(which see), for the latter plants are propagated by spores, 
and not by true seeds. A few seed-bearing plants, like the 
dodders, have, however, no cotyledons. 

Acous'tics. The term acoustics is derived from the 
Greek Smcwtuios, from dxov'w, to "hear”—“belonging to 
the sense of hearing.” Acoustics has for its object the 
study of the nature, the production, and the perception of 
sound. 

Strictly speaking, sound is a sensation which is produced 
when vibrations of a certain character are excited in the 
auditory apparatus of the ear. These vibrations are gene¬ 
rated by progressive tremors in the atmosphere, called 
sound-waves, the nature of which we shall briefly consider. 
Let it be premised that the particles of the air, and of all 
elastic media, are ordinarily maintained in a state of equi¬ 
librium and rest by mutually repellent forces. If any par¬ 
ticle be disturbed from its position of equilibrium, it must 
be by an impulse received from some body foreign to the 
medium; and when so disturbed it is solicited to return by 
a force directly proportioned to the distance, or amplitude , 
of its displacement from that point. Also, the velocity 
with which it will be animated on reaching in its return 
the point of original rest will be directly proportioned to 
the extreme amplitude of its displacement; so that, in vir¬ 
tue of its inertia, it will make an equal and similar excur¬ 
sion in the opposite direction. When in its return from 
this it reaches once more the point of equilibrium, it will 
have passed over the entire range of its movement in both 
directions; and this is said to constitute one complete 
oscillation or double vibration. 

From the law of force above stated the following deduc¬ 
tions are made by the help of the calculus. Put a to rep¬ 
resent the extreme amplitude of displacement; V, the 
maximum velocity of the vibrating particle (the velocity with 
which the particle passes the point of equilibrium, expressed 
by the distance such velocity, continued uniformly, would 
carry a body in one second of time); T, the time of a com¬ 
plete double vibration ; and n, tho ratio of the circumference 

a a 

to the diameter of the circle. Then V= 2 jt—, and T = 2n— ; 

from which last expression it appears that the time of vibra¬ 
tion is constant, whatever be the amplitude of displace¬ 
ment, since a varies directly as V. 

Rut in an elastic medium one particle cannot bo dis¬ 
placed from tho position of equilibrium without disturbing 


the equilibrium of its nearest neighbors. The neighboring 
particle towards which it is driven will begin, almost but 
not quite in the same instant, to move in the same direction ; 
and this will disturb the next, and through it the third, and 
so on, the tremor being rapidly propagated throughout the 
medium. The distance to which this tremor will have 
reached when the particle first disturbed has completed one 
entire double vibration is the length of the sound-wave, or 
of one complete undulation. 

The relation between vibration and undulation may be 
made more clear by the following illustration. Since VT 
is the distance accomplished in time, T, with velocity, V, 
and since VT = 2 tt«, it follows that if, with radius, a = CA 
or CB, we describe a circle, ADBE, a particle p' will de¬ 
scribe the circumference, ADBE, 
with velocity V continued uni¬ 
form, in the same time, T, in 
which the vibrating particle p 
performs a complete double vi¬ 
bration on the diameter AB. 
If p' leaves D in the same in¬ 
stant in which p passes C, the 
two will be together at B, and 
again at A; and it is further 
provable that, at any inter¬ 
mediate instant, the line join¬ 
ing p and p ’, as FG or IIK, 
will always be parallel to CD, 
Also, that if the arcs of revolu¬ 
tion be reckoned from D, and the time from D to F, or from 
D to II, be called t, the distance i/=CG or CK, of p from 
the point of equilibrium, C, will always be representable by 



and perpendicular to AB. 


the formula y —a sin 2 



and the velocity, v, of the same 


particle will always be v =V cos 2 tt—. 

Now the rapidity of the propagation of the tremor through 
the elastic medium is, for all tremors producing the sensa¬ 
tion of sound, vastly greater than the velocity v or V; and 
this velocity of propagation is uniform, although the sev¬ 
eral velocities of the particles of the medium which succes¬ 
sively take up the tremor, diminish with the increase of 
distance from the origin, because of the diffusion of the 
exciting force through a constantly increasing number of 
particles. This diminution for moderate distances may be 
disregarded. If the foreign body which disturbs p be, for 
instance, the limb of a tuning-fork making 500 double vibra¬ 
tions per second, the time of describing CB will be but the 
2000th part of a second. During this time the tremor in 
the air will advance more than six inches, while CA will 
hardly exceed ^L-th of an inch. The velocity of propaga¬ 
tion in this case, therefore, exceeds the mean velocity of 
vibration more than 240 times. But if we consider the 
movement of p through CB to be made up of an indefinite 
number of exceedingly minute elementary motions, these 
elementary motions will have all the different velocities cor¬ 
responding to the possible values of FG between C and B; 
and each one of these velocities will be successively trans¬ 
mitted along the line of propagation, one behind the other; 
so that, when p reaches B and comes to rest, ail these 
velocities will still be living in a row of particles extending 
over a distance of six inches, the largest being foremost, 
and the least, which is zero, being that of the particle p 
itself. As p returns towards C, it leaves its next neighbor 
towards the right partially unsupported, and that neigh¬ 
boring particle follows it. There occurs then a second 
series of propagated movements, all the molecules moving 
in the returning direction, though the tremor advances, 
forming the wave of dilatation, as the former was the wave 
of compression. Sound-waves may accordingly be repre¬ 
sented graphically by a curved line, as in Fig. 2, where tho 

Fig. 2. 



portion of the curve above the horizontal straight line rep¬ 
resents the wave of compression, and the part below the 
wave of dilatation. The ordinates to the different parts of 
this curve represent the velocities animating the particles 
in the different parts of the wave; those above being ad¬ 
vancing velocities, and those below, receding. The dis¬ 
tance between M and N is the length of a complete undu¬ 
lation, commonly represented by A. Then if x (Fig. 3) be 

Fig. 3. 

C A A 


x 

v-- 


Y- 


X 





















ACOUSTICS 


28 


ratus was only three : the sound was generated by the dis¬ 
charge of a child’s brass cannon. The paper was attached 
to a circular disk arranged with a handle, which enabled 
the experimenter to revolve it with a velocity of only one 
turn per second, which was roughly accomplished by watch¬ 
ing a seconds pendulum, consisting ot a ball attached to a 
string having a length such as to cause it to vibrate sec¬ 
onds. The mean of a number of experiments gave a re¬ 
sult far more accurate than would have been expected. 
Using the same general idea, but causing the sound-waves 
.to act on little gas-burners connected with the two mem¬ 
branes, in the same year Ivan Zoch!| in Erlangen contrived 
a far more delicate instrument, with which he obtained le- 
sults rivalling those of the French Academy in 1822, 
although in his case the difference ot the paths was. only 
three or four feet. With it he measured the velocity in 
various gases, and by driving a current of air through 
during the experiment was actually able to ascertain the 
change due to this cause. A somewhat similar *idea was 
used in this fruitful year by Prof. Quincke^[ ot Berlin, in 
a very beautiful contrivance, where, unlike the two pre¬ 
ceding, the signal was given not to the eye, but to the ear, 
the two sounds being made to destroy each other, produ¬ 
cing silence in a manner presently to be explained.. W ith 
this instrument Dr. Seebeck' : '' : ' has proved that in small 
tubes sound travels slower than in the open air, partly, as 
it would seem, owing to friction, and partly to loss ot heat 
developed by the sound-wave itself through conduction by 
the walls of the tube. He has also shown that in small 
tubes the velocity is less in the case of deep notes than 
with those which are higher. 

Laplace’s formula for the velocity of sound in gases and 
vapors is 



taken to represent any distance from the point of rest, C, 
of the disturbing or sounding body, the distance, y, of the 
particle at x from its place of equilibrium will be expressed 
by the formula 

. (t x 

V = a sin 2 tt I--- 

and the velocity animating that particle at the instant by 
the formula 

v = Vcos 2 tt 

For examples under the first formula, let t = n T ; i. e. let 
p have made an exact number of complete oscillations; 
then by giving different values to x we ascertain the condi¬ 
tion of corresponding points along the line. Thus if x = 0, 
we have y — 0 ; or p is at this moment in its position of 

equilibrium. Making x successively = —, —, —, ——,A, 2 £a, 

O 4 2j 4 

and substituting these values, we have the corresponding 
values of y equal to — a — a, 0, + «, 0 ^; positive signs 
indicating displacement to the right, and negative signs 
the reverse. 

For examples under the second formula, let t = n T, as be- 

- , A A 2a 7a 5a A 7a . , 

fore, and put x = , —, ~, —, successively. 

We shall then have v= + iV, — iV, — i-Y, + T LV, ~ 

V, 0 , for the corresponding velocities; positive signs indi¬ 
cating movement towards the right, and negative signs the 
reverse. The signs of displacement and movement for the 
same particle are half the time alike and half the time un¬ 
like. 

Velocity of the Propagation of the Sound-waves in the 
Air .—This has been the subject of a considerable number 
of experiments, of which we give below the most important. 
In 1822 a determination of this kind was undertaken by 
some members of the French Academy; the stations selected 
were at Montlhery and Villejuif, the distance being 18622.27 
metres. Cannon were alternately discharged at the two 
stations at night, and the time which elapsed between the 
flash and the perception of the sound noted. On the first 
night twelve and seven shots were heard—on the second 
only one. The result was, that at a temperature of 0° C. 
sound travels with a velocity of 831.2 metres per second. It 
is somewhat strange that to this important experiment only 
two nights were devoted.* We have besides this, the more 
careful experiments of Moll and Van Beek f in the following 
year, who obtained for their result at 0° C., 332.05 metres per 
second; and finally we must add the experiments of Bra- 
vais and Martins, J who measured the velocity of sound in 
a slanting upward direction from the Lake of Brienz to a 
station on the Faulhorn, obtaining as result at 0° C. a 
velocity of 332.37. This last experiment is interesting as 
showing that sound travels with the same velocity in an up¬ 
ward direction as on a level, as is required by the formula 
of Laplace. 

Recently several pieces of apparatus have been devised 
by which the velocity of sound can be measured when the 
distance travelled over is only a few feet; so that it is now 
possible to make this experiment in a small apartment. 
Suppose that we generate a sharp, short sound at the open 
extremity of a tube, the other end being closed by a mem¬ 
brane; the sound-impulse, reaching the closed end of the 
tube, would announce its arrival by giving the membrane 
a little push outward; and if we had fastened on it a pen¬ 
cil, this might be caused to make a mark on a sheet of 
paper at the same instant. Let us now imagine that we 
had, near each other, two such tubes, the second one being 
longer than the first, but bent so that both still terminated 
side by side, each with its membrane and pencil, and that 
finally our sheet of paper, instead of being stationary, 
were in motion. Then, under these circumstances, the 
sound-wave travelling through the shorter tube would 
make its mark first, and the paper would have a chance to 
move a few inches before receiving the pencil-mark due to 
the companion wave; and if we knew the rate of the 
paper’s motion, it is evident that we could easily calculate 
the velocity with which the sound had travelled through 
our apparatus. This general explanation will give an idea 
of the principle involved in a number of new contrivances, 
with some of which it is even possible to experiment at 
various temperatures and on other gases than our atmos¬ 
phere. A simple and cheap apparatus of this kind was, 
in 1866, devised by Dr. Ernst Neumann,§ a school-teacher 
in Dresden; the difference in the paths of the sound-waves 
was about twenty feet, although the length of the appa- 


* “ Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.,” T. xx., p. 210. 
fPogg. “Ann.” Bd. v., s. 351, 469. 
tPogg. “Ann.” Bd. lxvi., s. 351. 

\ Pogg. “Ann.,” cxxviii., s. 307. 


v = the number of metres traversed by the sound-wave in 
a second of time; </ = the accelerating force of gravity = 
9.8088 metres; 7i = the height of the mercury in the ba¬ 
rometer reduced to the height it would have at 0° C.; d — 
the specific gravity of the gas, mercury at 0 ° being taken 
as unity; K = the quotient of the specific heat of the gas 
at a constant pressure, divided by its specific heat at a con¬ 
stant volume = 1.42. It is seen from this formula that the 
velocity is directly proportional to the square root of the 
pressure the gas is under, and inversely proportional to the 
square root of its specific gravity. It is evident also that 
the velocity is independent of the height of the barometer, 
for a change in the barometer affects not only h in the nu¬ 
merator, but also d in the denominator, in such a way that 
the value of the fraction remains constant. No term re¬ 
lating to the distance of the sounding body enters the for¬ 
mula; hence the velocity is independent of the distance— 
that is, of the amplitude of the sound-wave. The follow¬ 
ing is a convenient formula for calculating the velocity of 
sound in air at various temperatures: 

v = 333. MV 7 1 + at ; 

a — coefficient of expansion of air for 1° C. = 0.003665 ; t = 
the temperature in degrees of the centigrade scale; M 
standing for metres. It was also found experimentally 
that sound moves quicker with the wind and slower against 
it; the final velocity being in the one case equal to the 
sum, in the other equal to the difference, of the velocity of 
wind and that of the sound-wave itself. In gases, the ve¬ 
locity of sound, of course, as indicated by the formula, in¬ 
creases with the temperature; in air this increase is about 
two feet per second for each degree centigrade. The,veloci¬ 
ty of sound in oxygen gas at 0° C. is 1040 feet; in carbonic 
acid, 858 feet; in hydrogen, 4164 feet. 

In 1827, Colladon and Sturm determined experimentally 
the velocity of sound in fresh water. The experiment was 
made on the Lake of Geneva, and it was found to be 4714 
feet per second at a temperature of 15° C. Laplace has 
also given a formula for the velocity of sound in liquids: 



g as before = 9.8088 metres, and A is the amount which a 
column of the liquid one metre long shortens under a pres¬ 
sure equal to its own weight; it hence is necessary to de¬ 
termine the compressibility of the liquid in order to employ 
this formula, as the velocity is inversely proportional to 


|| Pogg. “ Ann.,’’ cxxviii., s. 497. 

Pogg. “Ann.” cxxviii., s. 177. 

** Pogg. “Ann.,” cxxxix., s. 104. Compare also the experi¬ 
ments of Regnault on this subject (“Comp. Rend.” t. lxvi., p. 
209); also those of Kundt (Pogg. “Ann.” exxx, s. 337); and 
finally those of Schneebeli (Pogg. “ Ann.,” cxxxvi., s. 296). 

























ACOUSTICS. 


29 


the square root of the compressibility. The velocity of 
sound in alcohol at 20° C. is 4218 feet; in ether, at 0°, 
3801; in sea-water, at 20° C., 4768. 

The velocity of sound in solids can be calculated by this 
last formula, and can also be experimentally determined; 
that iu 



At 20 C.° 

At 1005. 

Gold 

is 5,717. 

. 5,640 

Lead 

“ 4,030 . 

. 3,951 

Copper 

“ 11,666. 

.10,802 

Iron 

“ 16,822. 



The Intensity of Sound varies inversely as the square of 
the distance of the sounding body from the ear; it is also 
proportional to the square of the amplitude of the sound¬ 
wave. Thus far, we can hardly be said to possess a pho¬ 
nometer, or instrument for the purpose of comparing the 
relative intensities of two sounds or sets of sound-waves; 
hence we must regard with interest a step recently taken 
in this direction by Prof. A. M. Mayer of Iloboken, who, by 
employing small vibrating flames and the principle of in¬ 
terference, succeeded in solving this problem in certain 
cases. For details we must refer the reader to the original 
article, published in the January number of the “American 
Journal of Science and Arts,” 1873. 

Reflection of Sound .—The waves of sound can be reflected 
like the waves of light, and obey the same law, the angle 
of incidence being equal to the angle of reflection ; this can 
be proved indirectly with the aid of spherical or parabolic 
mirrors, though, from the circumstance that the sound¬ 
waves are large relatively to such reflecting surfaces as can 
be used, the experiments are far more difficult than with 
the almost infinitely shorter waves of light. The author 
has recently contrived a new method by which the reflec¬ 
tion of sound can be studied, and the relative reflecting 
powers of different substances examined. A circular disk 
with open and closed sectors, or with sectors of different 
materials, is made to revolve rather slowly near a sound¬ 
ing-reed, in such a way that the sound is from time to time 
reinforced by reflection. The result is, that a sound re¬ 
sembling “the beats” is produced, these alternations of 
sound and comparative silence disappearing when the disk 
is made complete, or when its alternate sectors are com¬ 
posed of substances having the same power of reflection. 
The same apparatus can be used to determine the relative 
powers of different bodies for the transmission of sound. 
Echoes are cases of the reflection of sound, and the wonder¬ 
ful power of very long tubes in conveying sounds to a great 
distance is due to the same property. 

Refraction of Sound.— Sound-waves can be refracted or 
bent out of their course by denser or rarer bodies in a man¬ 
ner corresponding to light; this can be demonstrated by the 
use of a large lens of carbonic acid enclosed in a thin mem¬ 
brane, when it will be found that the sound-waves from a 
watch will be concentrated just as a glass lens concentrates 
the rays of light. Recently, the refraction of sound has 
been directly studied with a prism, according to the method 
which has long been used in light. Prof. C. Hajech gene¬ 
rated sound-waves in the interior of a box b, by the aid of a 
bell which was struck by clockwork ; travelling along a tube 
t, they reached the prism P, and were refracted by it as in¬ 
dicated in Fig. 4. The amount by which they were bent out 
of their path was ascertained by moving the ear over the 
graduated circle cc, which was in an adjoining room, till 
the position of maximum intensity had been ascertained. 
The sides of the prism were made of thin membrane, of 
paper, or finally of sheets of mica. Experiments were per¬ 
formed on hydrogen, ammonia, illuminating gas, carbonic 
acid, and on sulphurous acid gas. Besides these gases, two 

Fig. 4. 


C 




liquids were also employed—ordinary water and water satu¬ 
rated with common salt. Amongst other results it was found 
that the same prism refracted waves of different lengths (or 
different tones) alike. The results of these measurements 
corresponded with those indicated by the known velocities 
of sound in the substances employed, taken in connection 


with the explanation of refraction as given in the undula* 
tory theory of sound. 

Sound-waves rendered Visible .—Quite recently this feat 
has been accomplished by the German physicist Topler, who 
employed the snap of an electric spark for the generation 
of the sound-wave, and then illuminated it by the instan¬ 
taneous light of a second spark. He was thus not only 
able to sec with distinctness a simple sound-wave, but also 
to observe its reflection, refraction, and the interference of 
two sound-waves. (Pogg. Ann., cxxxi., s. 180, 1867.) 

Inflection of Sound-waves. —From the circumstance that 
the sound-waves are not minute relatively to the obstacles 
they encounter, it happens that they manifest this property 
of travelling around corners in a high degree. The corre¬ 
sponding experiments with light require some care, but the 
inflection of sound-waves is something that we with diffi¬ 
culty escape from, obstacles placed in their path casting but 
little acoustic shadow. 

Interference of Sound-waves .—Thus far, we have occu¬ 
pied ourselves with single sets of waves, and have supposed 
the particles of air to be acted on by only one wave at a 
time. It will, however, more commonly happen that it is 
necessary to deal with particles which are at the same in¬ 
stant being acted on by more than a single wave. Let us 
take the simplest case, and suppose our particles acted on 
by two equal and similar sound-waves; now, it may hap¬ 
pen under these circumstances that the two waves agree in 
their action, any particular layer of air being at the same 
moment subjected to a condensation or rarefaction from 
both these sources. When this happens the motion of its 
particles will be twice as great, and we shall hear a louder 
sound. But something else is equally likely to occur: it 
may happen that just at the moment when the layer ought 
to be condensed by one wave, its companion attempts to 
rarefy or expand it; these two motions will then neutralize 
each other, and instead of sound we shall have silence. 
This can be illustrated with two similar organ-pipes which 
give exactly the same note; sounding them both together 
may give a louder tone, or one which is quite faint. If 
closed organ-pipes are used, the silence, as far as the mu¬ 
sical note is concerned, is quite complete, nothing but the 
hoarse noise which is always mingled with it being percep¬ 
tible. We can combine both these experiments into a single 
one by employing organ-pipes which give slightly different 
tones; if now both sets of waves start fairly together, the 
condensations and rarefactions being in harmony, this state 
of things cannot long remain, owing to the inequality in 
their length, as is shown in Fig. 5, where condensation is 
marked heavily, rarefaction lightly. Already at 1 the con¬ 
densation coincides with the rarefaction; farther on, at 2, 
the old state of things has returned; and the condition at 
3 is the same with that at 1. Hence, in this experiment 
we must expect to have alternations of sound and silence, 
the tone rising and swelling to a maximum, then dying 
away again to repeat itself, etc. These alternations are 
called beats, and furnish even to the unmusical ear a very 


Fig. 5. 

w>—> 



1 2 



3 


accurate means of judging of the identity of musical tones. 
Having considered briefly these general properties of sound¬ 
waves, we pass on to some of their distinguishing charac¬ 
teristics. Among the most important of these is— 

Length of Sound-leaves. —The pitch of the note, other 
things being equal, depends on the length of the wave; 
long waves give low notes—short waves, those that are 
high. The longest waves, in the air at a temperature 0° C., 
which are capable of producing the sensation of sound, 
have a length of about 66 feet. The tone, from a musical 
point of view, is imperfect, and in order to remove this de¬ 
fect entirely it is necessary to shorten the wave to about 
271 feet. On the other hand, when the waves are reduced 
to a length of three or four tenths of an inch, they again 
become inaudible; to have a useful musical effect their 
length must be increased to about 3.2 inches. Instead of 
speaking of the length of the sound-waves, which evidently 
must vary with temperature, it is more customary to use 
the number of vibrations producing a given sound ; thus, as 
sound travels at the rate of 1090 feet per second in the air 
at 0° C., it follows that a wave 66 feet long will execute in 
a second 16J vibrations, and one which is 271 feet long, 
forty vibrations, etc. We give below a table, arranged in 
octaves, of the number of vibrations of the notes used in 
music : 






























30 ACOUSTICS. 


1GI 

33 

66 

132 

264 

528 

1056 

2112 

4224 

C 

C 

C 

c 

c 

c 

c 

c 

c 


C' 

C 

c 

c f 

c" 

c 

c"" 

C 

C" 

C' 

c 

c 

c' 

c" 

c 

c"" 

c'"" 

c 2 

Ci 

c 

c 

Cl 

c 2 

C3 

C 4 

Co 

c -3 

c-2 

c—1 

c° 

c 1 

c 2 

C 3 

C4 

C& 

ut —2 

ut—1 

uti 

ut 2 

ut 3 

ut.l 

Uts 

Utc 

Ut7 


As will be seen, several modes of notation sire employed, 
the last being the French—that preceding, the method 
proposed by Sondhaus for scientific purposes. In large 
organs C with 164 vibrations is reached, the effect being 

imperfect; the piano reaches a with 3520 vibrations, and 

sometimes c with 4224. The highest note employed in the 
orchestra is ds, with 4752 vibrations (piccolo flute). The 
practical range in music is from 40 to 4000 vibrations, em¬ 
bracing seven octaves. The human ear is, however, able 
to reach eleven octaves; that is, the sensation of sound is 
produced by vibrations varying from 16£ up to 38,000 in a 
second. 

It is not difficult to measure the length of the sound¬ 
waves or the number of vibrations producing them ; a very 
simple means is with the sirene of Cagniard de Latour. 
This instrument consists of a circular revolving disk C F 
(Fig. 6), which is provided with fifteen small apertures 
cut in its substance in a slanting direction ; below this 
disk is a second one, which is stationary, and also provided 
with a similar set of holes. When air is driven through 
the apparatus by a wind-bellows the upper disk is set in 
rotation after the manner of a reaction mill, which has the 
effect of rapidly opening and closing the set of apertures, 
so that when a sufficient velocity of rotation has been at¬ 
tained, the pulses of air rushing through produce a low 
musical note, the pitch rising with the velocity or number 

Fig. 6. 



of vibrations communicated to the air in a second. Upon 
the axis is an endless screw, E H, which, acting on a toothed 
wheel, S, registers the number of turns made by it in a given 
time, say in fifteen seconds. In using this apparatus it is 
only necessary to raise the pitch of the note furnished by 
it till it is in unison with the note whose number of vibra¬ 
tions we wish to determine. If, then, this unison is main¬ 
tained for fifteen seconds, we can, without calculation, read 
the required number of vibrations directly on the dial-plate 
of the sirene; then, by dividing the velocity of sound in 
the air by this number, we have the length of the wave. 
In the case of a tuning-fork the number of vibrations can 
be still more directly ascertained by attaching to one of its 
arms a small piece of fine wire or a minute portion of a 
feather, and causing this to act as a pen on a revolving 
cylinder. This latter is covered by a sheet of paper which 
has been smoked by burning camphor, and when set in 
revolution registers the vibrations made by the tuning-fork 
on the lampblack surface. Seconds marks are simultane¬ 
ously impressed on the smoked paper by an electro-mag¬ 
netic attachment; so that afterwards it is not difficult to 
obtain the desired result with a high degree of accuracy. 
There are also other methods of measuring the length of 
sound-waves, based on the principle of interference, and 
quite recently Prof. Mayer of Hoboken has succeeded in 
measuring wave-lengths directly in the air. ( American 
Journal of Science and Arts, for Nov., 1872, p. 387.) 

The Form of a Sound-wave. —In all that has preceded, 
and also in the formulas for the sound-wave, we have as¬ 
sumed that the particles of air swing backward and forward, 
obeying the law of the pendulum ; and this is true for pure, 
simple °tones, such as those furnished by tuning-forks. 


The ear is so constructed as to be able to take up these 
pendulum-like vibrations, which then produce appropriate 
sensations in the brain, but it is not capable ot directly 
taking up vibrations which are executed according to laws 
different from that of the pendulum. Let us take a simple 
case, and suppose the air acted on by two pendulum-like 
sets of impulses, due to the joint action of two tuning-forks, 
one of which in a second executes twice as many vibrations 
as the other. The particles of air will then obey a new 
law, and will assume positions and velocities which are the 
resxdtants due to the action of the two origin.al forces, and 
the form of the wave will be entirely altered. When this new 
kind of wave strikes upon the ear it is instantly analyzed 
into its two constituents, which independently affect their 
corresponding nerve-fibrils, and a peculiar sensation is pro¬ 
duced, due to the presence of two distinct sensations; in¬ 
deed, as Helmholtz, to whom we owe these interesting facts, 
has shown, it is possible after some practice to actually 
recognize the two original constituents. If we add a third, 
a fourth, or any number of new sets of impulses, the law 
changes with each, and also the resulting form of the wave, 
and consequently the final sensation. Conversely, if by 
any other means we generate waves having forms not nor¬ 
mal, and present them to the ear, they will instantly be 
analyzed into a sufficient number of normal forms to meet 
the requirement, and a corresponding number of sensations 
will be produced. For example, reed-pipes, or a reed alone, 
furnish waves with an abnormal form, and the sound from 
them is analyzed, as Helmholtz has shown, by the ear into 
sixteen to twenty sets of normal waves or pure simple tones. 
We may add here that, as in this example, it is not neces¬ 
sary that these distinct sets of waves or notes should be in¬ 
dependently generated, but merely that the original wave 
should have a form capable of being analyzed into these 
simple constituents. Even the form of the wave furnished 
by the sirene is not normal; along with its proper or fun¬ 
damental note the octave is virtually present in an amount 
which is often somewhat embarrassing. These higher notes, 
which accompany the proper or fundamental tone, are called 
over-tones, or harmonicals, and it is their presence which 
determines the quality of the sound, or its timbre or clang- 
tint. In the case of tuning-forks the over-tones are absent, 
hence the hollow and somewhat poor character of the 
sounds they emit; with closed organ-pipes they are scarcely 
present to any extent, though more so with open pipes, 
where the first and second over-tones can be distinctly re¬ 
cognized— i. e. the octave and the twelfth. In reed-pipes 
they are present in great abundance and strength, so as 
quite to change the character of the fundamental note; the 
same is true of stringed instruments. It is the presence of 
these over-tones which enables us to distinguish between 
different instruments, even when sounding the same funda¬ 
mental note, and finally which, as we shall see, enables us 
to recognize the voices of different persons under similar 
conditions. Our inability to distinguish at once the pres¬ 
ence of particular over-tones is simply the result of want of 
practice, and is shared alike by the musical and unmusical. 
This can be corrected by practice, or by the use of the 
resonators contrived by Helmholtz. These instruments 
have usually the form of a hollow sphere, open at both ends 
of its diameter; one of these openings has a shape adapting 
it for insertion into the ear; the other aperture is larger, 
its size being determined by experiment. The size of this 
opening and the capacity of the sphere are so related that 
when the sphere is placed in connection with the ear the 
experimenter is rendered comparatively deaf to all notes 
but one, the strength of this latter being greatly exacted by 
the instrument. The analysis of which we have just spoken 
was to a great extent effected by the aid of these con¬ 
trivances, a large number of these spheres being of course 
necessary for purposes of investigation. We may add here 
that Mr. R. Koenig, so celebrated for his beautiful acoustic 
apparatus, has pushed this matter one step farther, and by 
connecting these resonators with manometric capsules and 
small gas-flames has succeeded in rendering visible the phe¬ 
nomena of which we have been speaking, thus enabling a 
person ^rho is deaf still to pursue these investigations. 

Cause of Dissonance or Discord. —This peculiar effect, 
which sometimes attends the reception of two or more sets 
of sound-waves, has also recently been explained by the 
investigations of Helmholtz, which have thrown a flood of 
light on this obscure subject. It has for a long time been 
known that when two sets of sound-waves are simultaneously 
presented to the ear, the relation between their length being 
in some simple proportion, such as 1 : 2, 2 : 3, 3 : 4, or 4 : 5, 
an agreeable effect is produced, the sounds seeming to melt 
into each other, producing what is known as consonance; 
while, on the other hand, more complicated relations often 
generate discord. 4o account for this, many fanciful theories 
have been proposed, of which we will merely allude to that 
of Leibnitz, who imagined that the mind delighted in the 















































































ACOUSTICS. 


perception of simple mathematical relations, and was dis¬ 
pleased by the reverse! It is hardly necessary to say that 
this is not the true explanation, which we must seek in cer¬ 
tain relations of the nerves of sensation to external stimu¬ 
lating causes. The nerves of vision, touch, and hearing are 
endowed with the following property : when stimulated, the 
sensation produced is at the first instant at a maximum, and 
rapidly becomes less intense; if, however, the nerves are 
allowed to rest for small intervals of time, they quickly re¬ 
gain their former sensitiveness, and this process may be 
repeated indefinitely. If, now, we expose the eye, for ex¬ 
ample, to light, we obtain the maximum sensation; then 
the periodic withdrawal and return of the light may readily 
be so arranged as to produce in succession a long series of 
these maxima of sensation, which quickly become disagree¬ 
able, and even may be dangerous : it is the case of a flicker¬ 
ing light, whose bad effects are so well known. The sensa¬ 
tion of tickling is strictly analogous to the above, and is 
produced by corresponding causes. The nerves have, how¬ 
ever, another well-known property: after stimulation the 
sensation produced is found to remain, or “ persist,” for a 
minute interval of time with undiminished strength; so 
that in the case of light and sound, if the successive stimu¬ 
lations follow each other at sufficiently rapid intervals, these 
evil effects are naturally abolished, and only continuous 
sensations are perceived. Discord is, then, as Helmholtz 
has ascertained, due to the presence of the beats, or to rapid 
alternations of sound and comparative silence, they corre¬ 
sponding to the bickerings of a flame. When from any 
cause these beats follow each other at the rate of about 33 
in a second, the discord is at its maximum, becoming more 
tolerable with twice this number, and finally disappearing 
altogether as their number is increased to about 120 in a 
second. On the other hand, if the beats follow quite slowly 
—for example, at the rate of three to five in a second—the 
effect is not unpleasant, and can even be employed in music, 
suggesting as it does the idea of trilling. Discord is then 
due to the production of beats by the interference of the 
over-tones, which almost always accompany the funda¬ 
mental notes, and, as has been shown by calculation, this 
can be entirely or partially avoided only by the use of such 
simple ratios as those above indicated. For further details 
we must refer the curious reader to the original work of 
Helmholtz (“ Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen,” 1865). 

Effect of Communicating Motion to the Source of Sound 
or to the Ear. —In all the foregoing it has been tacitly as¬ 
sumed that during experiment the position of the source 
of sound and of the recipient ear remained invariable; 
when this ceases to be true, certain curious changes are 
produced, which recently have grown into importance, ow¬ 
ing to their correspondence with certain optical phenomena 
by which it is possible to study the motion of the fixed stars 
towards or away from our planet. Let us suppose that the 
sounding body is stationary, and that the ear of the ob¬ 
server is moved with some rapidity towards it; then it will 
result that in a given time the observer will receive a larger 
number-of impulses than at first, and that the pitch of the 
sound will be correspondingly elevated. The same effect 
will be produced by moving the sounding body towards a 
stationary ear. And from the same cause it is evident that 
motion of the ear away from the source of sound will lower 
the pitch of the note, etc. These ideas were first brought 
forward by Christian Doppler in 1842, and since then have 
been repeatedly subjected to the test of experiment. Dr. 
Ballat in Belgium, with the aid of a locomotive and a party 
of musicians, proved their correctness in a quantitative 
manner, and Dr. Mach has contrived an apparatus with a 
moving reed-pipe by which they can be studied in an ordi¬ 
nary room; and finally by the use of tuning-forks Prof. Mayer 
of Hoboken has succeeded in illustrating them before large 
audiences. [American Journal of Science and Arts, April, 

1872, p. 267.) 

The Voice. —As the human vocal organs are built essen¬ 
tially on the plan of a reed-pipe, it is desirable at the start 
to understand the construction and action of one of these in¬ 
struments. A reed organ-pipe consists, then, of two parts, a 
vibrating tongue or reed, and a variously shaped pipe. When 
connected with a wind-bellows the reed is thrown into vi¬ 
brations, and after the manner of a sirene permits the air to 
pass through in a series of puffs, which, linking themselves 
together, generate a musical tone. The waves furnished by 
the reed are not, however, normal in form, but, as pre¬ 
viously explained, have a form such as would be generated 
by the joint action of a fundamental normal tone or wave, 
combined with a set of shorter waves or over-tones: in 
other words, practically- it furnishes a fundamental note 
with a series of strong over-tones, the particular funda¬ 
mental note and corresponding set of over-tones depending 
on the construction of the reed itself and the manner in 
which it is tuned. The function of the pipe is to strengthen 
any or all of these notes; thus, conical pipes strengthen 


31 


all the over-tones up to a certain height, excluding those 
that are not much longer than the aperture of the pipe 
itself, while cylindrical pipes strengthen the odd over¬ 
tones, or those whose rates of vibration are related to each 
other as 1, 3, 5, etc. Hence, the pitch of the note is de¬ 
termined by the rate of the reed’s vibrations—the quality, 
or clang-tint, of the sound by the shape and size of the 
pipe. In the human vocal organs the reed is supplied by 
two vibrating membranes at M (Fig. 7), called the vocal 
cords. For the production of sound it is necessary that 
they should be stretched, and that at the start the opening 
between them should be closed. Air is then forced through 
them from the lungs; they are set in vibration, and allow 
it an interrupted passage, exactly as in the case of a 
reed, as has been shown by experiments on the living and 
dissected larynx, or with the aid of artificial vocal cords 
made of sheet india-rubber. The pitch of the voice de¬ 
pends on the extent to which the membranes are stretched. 
Muller, by increasing the tensive force half an ounce up to 
eighteen ounces, raised the tone with one of his dissected 
preparations more than two octaves. The pitch depends 
also to some extent on the strength of the current of air 
employed, rising as the latter is increased. The human 
voice includes not quite four octaves, though no one single 
voice would be able to compass a scale of this extent. The 
pitch also^other things being equal, depends on the length 
of the vocal cords; that of men is about 18 millimetres, with 
women it is only 12. The clearness of the voice depends 
on the accurate closure of the slit between the cords, from 
time to time, while they are in operation. Theory and ex¬ 
periment alike point to the fact that when the vocal cords 
are set in action waves having an abnormal form are gene¬ 
rated, corresponding to a fundamental note with a set of 

Fig. 7. 



over-tones. The function of the cavity of the mouth and 
nose CC' (Fig. 7) is to strengthen or weaken the fundamental 
tone and various sets of the over-tones; and in this action 
the size of the opening of the mouth also plays an import¬ 
ant part; thus, the quality of the sound uttered, or its 
clang-tint, depends finally on the shape and size of the 
cavity of the mouth and nose. This cavity, then, corre¬ 
sponds to the pipe of a reed organ-pipe. The vocal cords 
retaining all the time the same tension, by altering the 
shape and size of the cavity of the mouth and its opening 
we can generate sounds having a different clang-tint, as, 
for example, Ah, 0, etc. It is not even necessary to set 
the vocal cords into action if a complex sound consisting 
of many tones is supplied from some outward source ; thus, 
we were recently informed by President Barnard of Columbia 
College that by taking advantage of the complex sounds or 
noise of a railroad car, and by varying suitably the cavities 
just referred to, he has succeeded in producing musical 
notes in rapid succession, such as the notes of any familiar 
melody, at pleasure. 

The Vowel-sounds are the simplest which can be uttered 
by the human voice, and*have frequently been made the 







































32 ACOUSTICS. 


subject of investigation. In 1831, Willis in England found 
that by mingling certain tones produced by reed-pipes he 
could to somo extent imitate the vowel-sounds. ( Pogy . Ann. 
lid., xxiv., s. 397.) In this mode of working there is the 
obvious difficulty that reed-pipes furnish large sets of notes, 
so that it is not possible to obtain very accurate knowledge 
by such experiments. More recently, Helmholtz, with the 
aid of his resonators above described, succeeded in analyz¬ 
ing the vowel-sounds, although they present greater diffi¬ 
culties than most other sounds of equal complexity. This 
results from the circumstance that, from childhood upward, 
we all have been accustomed to regard the tones of the 
vowel-sounds as independent wholes, making no attempt 
to ascertain their musical components, since in the case 
of a vowel-sound the clang-tint is all important, and is in¬ 
deed the only means by which wc judge of its identity. 
Helmholtz ascertained that vowel-sounds are produced by 
the presence of a fundamental note mingled with its higher 
over-tones in various proportions; he even was able to prove 
that the intensity of the highest of these over-tones varies 
somewhat in different individuals, being greater in voices 
that are shrill than in those whose sound is softer. Having 
finished this labor, he undertook the artificial reconstruction 
of the vowel-sounds from pure constituents. These are best 
furnished by vibrating tuning-forks. One of these instru¬ 
ments, alone by itself, furnishes a tone which at a little dis¬ 
tance is quite inaudible, but by causing it to vibrate directly 
in front of a hollow metallic cylinder of exactly the right 
capacity, its sound is greatly strengthened, and can be dis¬ 
tinctly heard in a room of large dimensions. The cylinder 
is of course entirely closed with the exception of a circular 
opening at the end near the fork. When the fork is thus 
caused to vibrate in connection with a resonator, the sound 
is instantly extinguished if the aperture in the cylinder be 
closed, but as it is gradually opened the sound correspond¬ 
ingly gains in intensity; so that it is evidently in the power 
of the experimenter to regulate the loudness of the tone 
produced. A tuning-fork, however, soon ceases to vibrate, 
and accordingly must be provided with a contrivance to 
obviate this difficulty. By placing it between the arms of 
an electro-magnet having the form of a horseshoe, it can 
be caused to vibrate for any period of time, provided the 
magnetic attraction is intermittent, and always exercised 
at exactly the right moment. This is accomplished by 
breaking and re-establishing the electric current with the 
aid of another tuning-fork, which vibrates at exactly the 
same rate; and the second fork, being also provided with 
a similar electro-magnet, is able independently to maintain 
itself in vibration for any length of time, as is the case 
with the vibrating attachment so often found on electrical 
apparatus for medical purposes. It would not be possible 
with this arrangement to sustain in vibration a third fork 
whose rate was a little slower or faster than that of its two 
companions; but if its rate should be exactly twice, three, 
or four times as great, this end could easily be accomplished; 
for then, though the attractive impulses might be fewer than 
desirable, at least they would always be rightly timed. 
Hence, it is evident that a series of forks whose rates of 
vibration are as 1, 2, 3, etc. can be kept simultaneously in 
vibration by a contrivance of this nature. This was, then, 
the plan actually employed by Helmholtz; keys being con¬ 
nected by strings with the valves of the resonators, and 
being opened by the pressure of the fingers, the proper 
notes were obtained with the desired strength. Helmholtz's 
vowel-sound apparatus, as made by Mr. Koenig of Paris, 
consists of eight tuning-forks with their resonance-cylin¬ 
ders, the fork which establishes and regulates the current 
being on a separate stand. These forks give the following 
notes: Utz, Ut3, S0I3, Ut4, Mu, S0I4, Ut5, Sis. When all 
these forks are set in vibration, their resonance-cylinders 
remaining closed, only a low humming sound is heard, but 
by pressing one or more keys the corresponding notes are 
called forth with any desirable degree of strength. The 
German vowel-sound u can be approximately imitated by 
sounding the Ut2 fork alone, or better by adding the two 
first over-tones— i. e. the octave and twelfth, Ut3 and S0I3. 
0 is obtained with a weak Ut-2 and strong Ut4; Ut3, S0I3, 
and MU mingling to a small extent. The German a, with 
Uts and MU strong; Ut3, Ut4, S0I4 having a moderate 
strength. In the same language the ic is given by Mis and 
S0I5 strong, with the notes Ut4, Uts, S0I4 weaker; and 
finally the e by the aid of S0I5, Sis, and Ut6 strong; Uts 
and Ut4 being weaker. 

Of course, since only pure musical notes are employed, 
they can only reproduce the musical constituents of the 
vowel-sounds; hence the effect resembles the sound of the 
vowels as sung rather than pronounced. Corresponding 
with these remarkable experiments, Helmholtz also found it 
possible to imitate with the same apparatus certain varie¬ 
ties of organ-pipes; at least to reproduce the musical con¬ 
stituents of their tones, though of course the noise with 


which they arc often accompanied was absent; he in addi¬ 
tion imitated the nasal tones of the clarionet by the use of 
a portion of the forks, while the joint action of the whole 
set gave the softer tones of the bugle-horn. I or exciting 
the apparatus into action he used only two of Grove scups, 
though other experimenters have since then found it some¬ 
what difficult of manipulation, and lately an attempt has 
been made by Appun to replace it by a series ot reeds pro¬ 
vided with resonators, with which it has been found possi¬ 
ble to reproduce some of the sounds in question (?< and a).- 
Wo must here mention the remarkable results attained in 
the last century by Prof. v. Kempelen in Vienna with his 
speaking machine, which more recently has been greatly 
perfected by the two Fabers, uncle and nephew, f Some 
months ago the latter exhibited in Columbia College this 
wonderful apparatus, which is capable of uttering not only 
syllables, but words and sentences, with a certain mechan¬ 
ical precision. In it the human vocal organs are directly 
imitated by vibrating plates of ivory, and it is remarkable 
that it is operated on by only fourteen keys or stops, which 
give the five vowels and the nine consonants, l, r,w,f, h, b, 
(/, g, sch. The other consonants are produced partly by 
combinations of the above, and partly by increasing the 
strength of the current of air from the bellows. For the 
purpose of causing the machine to speak French, an extra 
attachment is provided, whereby more nasal tones can be 
generated. Mr. Faber has also connected with it a singing 
attachment, in which, by means of quick changes in the 
form of the vocal cords, the musical scale can be executed. 

Consonants .—These sounds are generally regarded not as 
constituted of notes having any particular musical relation 
to each other, as in the case of the vowel-sounds, but rather 
as consisting of different varieties of noise. Thus, as ex¬ 
amples of explosive noise we have p and b, t and d, k, g, q; 
of frictional noise, s, z, sell, l, f, v, m, n, and h; of intermit¬ 
tent noise, r. J The mechanical mode by which the conso¬ 
nants are produced is to a considerable extent understood, 
but their actual acoustic elements resist all attempts at com¬ 
plete analysis. That they have an acoustic character can¬ 
not, however, be doubted, and some progress has been made 
towards ascertaining the natural pitch of their predominant 
notes. Thus, upon repeating (in German) the consonants 
b, k, t,f, s, it will be found that b is the deepest in tone, s 
the highest; and that, taken together in the above order, 
they constitute a series of perceptible musical gradations. 
For further information we must refer the reader to the 
original investigations of Dr. Oskar Wolf, who seems to 
have succeeded in actually determining the pitch of the 
predominating constituent in the case of most of the conso¬ 
nants. $ 

The Ear .—The sensation of sound is produced by the 
stimulation of certain nerve-fibrils in the interior of the 
ear, and this result is brought about by the sound-waves in 
the following manner: These waves first strike upon the 
external ear, and possibly are, to some slight extent, con¬ 
centrated by it; afterwards they travel along the tube 
D (Fig. 8), and reach the tympanum or drum of the ear at 

Fig. 8. 


B 



C. This consists of a thin membrane which closes the ex¬ 
ternal passage, and which is capable of being set in vibra¬ 
tion or of responding to an immense variety of waves or 
impulses. It may here be remarked that a catholicity of 
this kind has not thus far been observed in experiments on 
membranes artificially stretched, whose range is found to 
be far more limited. There is also some reason to believe 
that the tympanum is capable of a certain degree of “ ac¬ 
commodation ” to the sounds that are presented to it, fol¬ 
lowing the well-known analogy of the eye in this respect. 
Attached to the inner side of the tympanum is a series of 

* “ Sprache und Ohrby Dr. Oskar Wolf, page 11. 
f “ Der Mechanismus der menschlichen Sprache nebst Beschrei- 
bung einer Sprechenden Machine von Wolfgang v. Kempelen,” 
Vienna, 1791. 

1 See the work of G. Gattfied Weiss, Braunschweig, 1868. 
g“ Sprache und Ohr,” Dr. Oskar Wolf, Braunschweig, 1871. 



















ACOUSTICS. 


33 


three small bones, called respectively the malleus, c, the 
incus, and the stapes, o (the hammer, the anvil, and the 
stirrup. See Figure 8). These bones are rather closely 
bound together, and transmit the vibrations of the tym¬ 
panum finally to the stirrup, which is destined to commu¬ 
nicate them to the inner ear. The portion we are now en¬ 
gaged with has a communication with the mouth by means 
of the Eustachian tube, E, which is closed except in the 
act of swallowing; its function is to preserve an equilib¬ 
rium between the pressure of the air in the middle ear and 
that on the other side of the drum. While the middle ear is 
filled with air, the inner ear is filled with a liquid, and is com¬ 
pletely enclosed for protection in solid bone. In Fig. 9 a scc- 

Fig. 9. 



tion of the inner ear is given. SSS are the semicircular 
canals cut open ; V is the vestibule; o and r are the foramen 
ovale and the foramen rotundum ; C is a section of the coch¬ 
lea. We give in addition a p£a?» of the ear, after Helmholtz 
(Fig. 10), the cochlea, for the sake of clearness, being sup¬ 
posed to be unrolled. A is the vestibule, C the cochlea, a 

Fig. 10. 



the foramen ovale, b the foramen rotundum, / the nerves 
of hearing. The sacs at d contain attached to their walls 
small crystals of carbonate of lime in contact with the 
nerves, and their function, as it appears, is to render us 
sensible of simple short sounds or shocks, which probably 
would not affect the vibratory apparatus presently to be 
described. They act as drags on the nerves when the latter 
vibrate with the water in which they are bathed, and thus 
produce sensation. This is the simplest portion of the ap¬ 
paratus for hearing, and is found in many of the lower ani¬ 
mals, where the more complicated arrangements are en¬ 
tirely absent. These sacs contain also, in connection with the 
nerves, certain microscopic hairs, that are quite elastic and 
brittle, and probably capable of being set into vibration 
when the particular notes to which they are tuned are pre¬ 
sented to them, just exactly as a tuning-fork can bo set in 
vibration by the waves proceeding from a second fork of 
the same pitch. (See Fig. 11.) In the cochlea we also find 
a membrane (the organ of Corti) with a great number of 
fine microscopic cords stretched in it, which probably have 
the same function. The reader will find, by opening a piano 
and pressing the foot on the right-hand pedal, that if then 
the vowel-sounds, for example, are pronounced in a loud, 
clear voice over the strings, it will result that the strings 
which are capable of giving the notes of which they are 
built up will be set in vibration, and will echo back some¬ 
what faintly the original sounds. And so it is probably in 
this portion of the ear; these microscopic strings, being 
thus set in vibration, stimulate the nerves connected with 
them and produce corresponding sensations. If the sound 
is compound or the form of the wave abnormal, this sound 
is analyzed into its constituents, since the cords (and rods) 
can only execute normal vibrations; which circumstance 
explains much that was said under the head “ Form of the 
3 


Wa"\ and we see finally that the clang-tint is the sensa¬ 
tion luced by the simultaneous action of two or more 

of tl strings upon their appropriate nerves. The coch¬ 
lea contains about 3000 
. of these strings, and if, 
with Helmholtz, we sup¬ 
pose that 200 of them 
are useful for rendering 
us sensible of tones not 
used in music, there will 
remain for the musical 
tones proper 2S00 for 
the seven octaves, or 
400 for each octave, 33J 
for each half tone. Now, 
according to the experi¬ 
ments of E. II. AYeber, 
skilful musicians can 
distinguish J-r of a half 
tone, which is a small¬ 
er quantity than corre¬ 
sponds to the number 
of these strings. It 
would appear, then, that 
in this case two of these 
strings are at the same 
time excited into action, 
and the musician by 
practised attention is 
able to notice which of 
them vibrates the more 
strongly. 

As rendering the above 
views more probable, we 
may mention the experi¬ 
ments of Yon Ilensen 
on the ears of certain 
minute forms of crabs, which he enclosed in an artificial 
ear corresponding to the labyrinth. The cars of these 
crustaceans are partially external, and consist of sets of 
hairs capable of vibration, connected with the nerves, as 
in the case we have just been considering. \\ T hen differ¬ 
ent notes were sounded, Von Ilensen was able with the 
microscope to notice that certain hairs responded, etc.* 
The functions of certain portions of the ear are still in¬ 
volved in much obscurity; this is the case, for example, 
with the three semicircular canals, concerning whose object 
and use we possess as yet no certain information. Among 
the fishes the myxine has one of these canals, the lamprey 
has two, the higher forms, three; and it appears that in 
birds of prey they become highly developed. 

In closing this article it may be proper briefly to men¬ 
tion the results obtained with the phon auto graph of Scott 
and Koenig. This may be regarded as a gigantic ear, en¬ 
dowed with the power of permanently registering the vi¬ 
brations of its own tympanum. It consists of a parabolic 
mirror, M (see Fig. 12), of zinc, which concentrates the 
sound-waves, and causes them to set in vibration a thin 
membrane, t, which is provided with a “p en ” attached to 
its centre. The vibrations are in this way finally inscribed 
on the surface of a revolving cylinder, C, which is covered 
with paper smoked by burning camphor. The figure gives 
a view of this apparatus seen from above. With this 



Fig. 12. 


instrument Koenig suc¬ 
ceeded in obtaining the 
autographic curves due 
to single notes, or to the 
joint action of several 
within the compass of an 
octave. Bonders, how¬ 
ever,was able, after much 
trouble, to obtain the 
complex curves due to 
the vowel-sounds. For 
u (German) it was a 
common sine curve, as 
it should be; this was 
also true for u and i, 
the instrument being 
able to reproduce neither the weak over-tones of the first, 
nor the high over-tones of the second. The form of the 
curve altered with the pitch of the voice uttering the 
vowel, but changes in dialect produced only slight modi¬ 
fications. AA'ifch diphthongs the duration of the sound and 
modifications due to change from one diphthong to another 
were rendered visible. Consonants spoken just before a 
vowel altered only the beginning of the curve, and pro- 


UvVNAA^*! 



* Yon Hensen, “ Studien fiber das Gehoerorgan der Dekapo- 
■n;” A r on Siebold u. Ivolliker, “ Zeitschrift fur wiss. Zoologie,” 
i. xiii. 


























































































































34 


ACQUACKANONCK—ACTA ERUDITORUM. 


duced only a corresponding modification when uttered 
immediately after the vowel.'*' The duration of a in the 
word dang = 42, in dagen = 37, in dag = 16 vibrations, 
each single vibration consuming ^ of a second, so that 
the actual durations were, 0.16, 0.142, 0.061 of a second of 
time. ’ 0. N. Rood. 

Acquack'anonck, a township of Passaic co., N. J. 
Pop. 4368. 

Aequavi'va, a town of Italy, in the province of Bari, 
16 miles S. S. W. of Bari. Pop. in 1861, 6517. 

Ac'qui, a town of Italy, in the province of Alessandria, 
on the Bormida, 21 miles by rail S. S. W. of Alessandria. 
Here are sulphurous springs, which are much frequented, 
and ruins of an old Roman aqueduct. Acqui has several 
fine buildings and silk-factories, and is a bishop’s see. Pop. 
in 1861, 6824. 

Acquin'ton, a township of King William co., Ya. 
Pop. 2960. 

Acquit'tal [from the Old Fr. acquiter, to “ forsake ”], in 
law, a release from a contract or other obligation ; more 
usually employed in criminal practice, where it denotes a 
judicial deliverance from a charge of guilt, either by a ver¬ 
dict of not guilty by a jury upon a trial, termed “acquittal 
in fact,” or by mere operation of law, as where one has 
been charged simply as accessary, and the principal is ac¬ 
quitted. An acquittal is a bar to any future prosecution 
for the same offence. In the U. S. this is secured by a con¬ 
stitutional provision that “ no person shall be twice put in 
jeopardy for the same offence.” The judicial construction 
of this clause prevents a second trial for the same offence 
after an acquittal. 

A'cre [from the Ang.-Sax. acer or secer, a “field,” ety¬ 
mologically allied to the Lat. ager and Ger. Acker'], a 
superficial dimension of land, is equal to 4840 square 
yards. The English acre is the same as that of the U. S. 
A French acre contains about one arpent and a half. 

Acre, Ak'lta, or St. Jean d’Acre [Phoenician 
Accho, and called by the Greeks Ptolema'is ], a city and 
seaport of Syria, is on the Mediterranean, 30 miles S. of 
Tyre, and 8 miles N. of Mount Carmel; lat. 32° 54' N., 
Ion. 35° 6' E. The “key of Palestine,” it has been the 
scene of many famous sieges and battles. It was taken by 
the Crusaders in 1104, and retaken by the Saracens in 
1187. In 1191 it was recovered by the Crusaders (under 
Guido of Jerusalem, Philip of France, and Richard the 
Lion-hearted of England), and held by them till they were 
finally driven out of Palestine in 1291. Bonaparte be¬ 
sieged it for sixty days in 1799, but failed to take it. In 
1840 it was bombarded and captured by the English fleet. 
Pop. variously estimated at from 20,000 to 50,000. 

Acrc'lins (Israel), a clergyman, born at Ostaker, Swe¬ 
den, Dec. 25, 1714, was educated at Upsal, and was ap¬ 
pointed in 1749 a provost to take charge of the Swedish 
congregations on the Delaware. After a sojourn in America 
of seven years, he returned to Sweden in 1756. He wrote 
a description of the Swedish colonies in America (1759). 
Died April 25, 1800. 

Ac'robat [literally, “one who goes or moves upon his 
extremities (toes),” from a*po?, “extreme,” and /3arijs, “one 
who treads or goes”], a term applied to a x-ope-dancer or 
to a person who entertains the public by performances on 
the tight rope or slack rope, and by gymnastic feats of 
agility, such as vaulting and tumbling. 

Acrob'ates (i. e. the “ acrobat ”), a genus of Australian 
marsupials, includes the “pigmy acrobat,” “ dwarf phalan- 
ger” or “opossum mouse” (Acrobates pygmseus), which in its 
character and habits resembles the flying squiri-el. It is 
two inches long, and its tail is of about the same length. 

Acrocerau'nia [from axpov, a “peak” or “promon- 
tory,” and Kepawos, “thunder”], the ancient name of a 
chain of mountains on the western coast of Greece, and 
extending into the sea by a bold promontory; so called 
because violent thunder-stonns arc said to be frequent in 
that region. The modern name is Chimara. The Acroce- 
raunian promontory is Cape Linguetta; lat. 40° 27' N., 
Ion. 19° 18' E. 

Ac'ro-Corin'tlms, a steep rocky hill near the city of 
Corinth, in Greece, is about 2000 feet high. On this hill 
stood the aci’opolis or citadel of Corinth. The view from 
the top is very extensive and beautiful. 

Acrog'enous [from the Gr. anpov, “ summit,” and yeVw, 
to “ be born ”], a name applied to certain cryptogamous 
plants (acrogens), as ferns and mosses, in which the stem 
increases by the coherence of the bases of the leaves and 
by elongation at the summit, and not in diameter by the 

* F. C. Bonders, “ Zur Klangfarbe der Vocale;” Pogg. “Ann.” 
1864, cxxiii., s. 527, 528. 


addition of fresh matter to their outside, as in exogens, or 
to their inside, as in endogens. 

Acro'lein, Acryl'ic-Al'tlehytlc, C3H40= : C(CH2)''H 

COH, 

an intolerably pungent body produced by the dehydration 
of glycerine. It is always produced when neutral tats con¬ 
taining glycerine arc subjected to destructive distillation, 
and is the chief cause of the offensiveness of that opera¬ 
tion. 

Acron'ycal [from the Gr. a*po?, “ extreme, and vv£, 
“night”]. A star or planet is said to be acronycal when 
it is opposite to the sun, or passes the meridian at mid¬ 
night. It rises acronycally when it rises as the sun sets, 
and sets acronycally when it sets as the sun rises. 

Acrop'olis [from the Gr. aKpov, a “peak or “sum¬ 
mit,” and ttoAis, “city”], the name given to the citadel of 
an ancient Grecian city, usually built on the peak or top of 
a hill. The Acropolis of Athens was especially celebrated, 
and was adorned with the temple of Minerva oi Athena, 
called the Parthenon, and the Erechtheum, the ruins of 
which still excite the admiration of all travellers. 

Acros'tic [Gr. aKpoo-rixov, from a/epo?, “extreme,” and 
o-n'xo?, “order,” “line,” “verse”], a term applied to a poem 
so contrived that the first, last, or other series ot letters of 
the lines shall form some name or phrase. Sir John Davies 
wrote twenty-four hymns to Astraja, each of which is an 
acrostic on Elizabetha Regina (Queen Elizabeth). On a 
somewhat similar principle, in the poetry of the Hebrews 
the initial letters of the verses were made to correspond to 
the letters of the alphabet in their proper order. The 
119th Psalm affords perhaps the most remarkable example 
of this. Every line in the first division of the psalm be¬ 
gins with K (aleph), and in the second division with D 
(betli), and so on. 

Acs, a village of Hungary, in the county of Komorn, 
on the right bank of the Danube, has a beautiful palace of 
the prince of Liechtenstein, and in the Hungarian revolu¬ 
tion was the scene of several battles, of which that of Aug. 
3, 1849, was the most important. Pop. in 1869, 3933. 

Act [Lat. ac'tus (from a'go, ac'tum, to “do”)], in dra¬ 
matic literature, is a division of a drama ; it is again sub¬ 
divided into scenes. The Greek dramas of the old model 
were naturally divided into separate portions by the choric 
odes (or stasima), which occur at intervals, during which 
the stage was left to the sole occupation of the chorus. 
Nevertheless, the Greek writers do not notice this division 
in express terms; nor do we know the origin of the famous 
rule of Horace, that every dramatic piece should be re¬ 
strained within the limits of five acts, neither more nor 
less. The division into acts must be in great measure ar¬ 
bitrary,! although rules have been laid down by various 
writers to define the story or plot which should be contained 
in each of them. Thus, Yossius gives it as a rule that the 
first act should present the intrigue, the second develop it, 
the third be filled with incidents forming its knot or com¬ 
plication, the fourth prepare the means of unravelling it, 
which is finally accomplished in the fifth. 

Act, a term applied in legal and political language to a 
law or statute which is approved and ordained by the legis¬ 
lature, as an act of Parliament, an act of Congress. The 
proposed law is called a bill until it has passed through the 
first, second, and third readings, and has been approved by 
both houses of Parliament (or Congi-ess) and signed by the 
executive. 

Act, in the English universities, is an exercise per¬ 
formed by students before they receive a degi’ee. The stu¬ 
dent who is said “to keep the act,” and is called the re¬ 
spondent, chooses certain propositions, which he defends 
by syllogisms. Sevei-al other students, called “opponents,” 
who are nominated by the proctor, try to refute his argu¬ 
ments. 

Act of Settlement, in Great Britain, is the title of the 
statute 12 and 13 of William III., c. 2, by which the crown 
was limited to the House of Hanover, and all Roman 
Catholics were excluded from the throne. 

Ac'ta Diur'na (“ Daily Acts”), the name of an official 
gazette or journal published by authority in ancient Rome. 
It contained bi-ief notices of the ti*ansactions of public as¬ 
semblies, legal tribunals, etc. Julius Cmsar was the first to 
order that the Acta Diurna should be di-awn up in regular 
form and published. 

Ac'ta Emdito'rnm (“Acts of the Learned”) was a 
literary joui-nal founded at Leipsic in Germany in 1682 by 
Otto Mencke and others. It had a high reputation, and 
was continued until 1782. 


f “ Sakoontala ” (a drama by Kalidasa), perhaps the most ex¬ 
quisite production of the poetic genius of the Hindoos, was di¬ 
vided into seven acts. 




























ACTA MARTYRUM—ACTION. 


35 


Ac'ta Mar'tyrum (“Acts of the Martyrs”), a collec¬ 
tion of the lives of Christian martyrs. The most noted is 
that of Ruinart, Paris, 1689, commemorating the martyrs 
of the first four centuries. 

Ac'ta Sancto'rum (“Acts of the Saints”), a collection 
of the lives of Christian saints of all ages. The most ex¬ 
tensive collection is that of the Jesuit Bollandists, which 
begins with January and follows the calendar. The first 
volume appeared in 1643; the fifty-fourth, which comes 
down to Oct. 14, in 1793; the fifty-fifth in 1845; the six¬ 
tieth, which comes down to Oct. 29, in 1867. 

Act.x'oil [*Akt<uW], in Greek mythology, a grandson of 
Cadmus, was a famous hunter. It is said that he was 
changed into a stag and killed by his own hounds because 
he had seen Diana bathing. 

Ac'tian Games, games celebrated at Actiutn, in 
Greece, in honor of Apollo. They were restored by Au¬ 
gustus to commemorate his victory over Antony at Actium 
(31 B. C.). 

Actin'ia [from the Gr. i/crt? or olktiv, a “ray”], a genus 
or sub-order of 
radiated marine 
animals, of the 
class Zoophyta, 
and order Acti- 
noida, often call¬ 
ed sea-anemones. 

They are gene¬ 
rally attached to 
rocks or shells, 
are of a soft, ge¬ 
latinous texture, 
and have nume¬ 
rous tentacula, 
by which they 
seize their prey. 

Some species of 
Actinia are very 
beautiful, and resemble flowers. Among the most remark¬ 
able genera of the order Actinoida is the Bunodes (which 
see). 

Ac'tinism [from the Gr. olktiv or d/ert'?, a “ray”]. The 
effects produced by the rays of the sun are of three kinds, 
illumination, warming, and chemical change. The first two 
of these are obvious enough, and are always perceived 
wherever the solar rays penetrate. The chemical changes 
produced by light occur only under certain conditions, and 
are not obvious to common observation. Certain salts have 
very long been known to undergo decomposition in the sun¬ 
light, or even in the diffuse light of day; and among these 
the salts of silver are especially remarkable. To this prop¬ 
erty, the so-called indelible inks, of which silver nitrate is 
the basis, owe the permanency of the traces left by them. 
The chloride, bromide, and iodide of silver are more sensi¬ 
tive still. 

When a beam of compound light is dispersed by the 
prism, the most energetic action upon silver salts is found 
in the violet rays of the spectrum; but this effect, as shown 
by Stokes, extends very far into the darkness beyond the 
violet. Stokes made the additional remarkable discovery 
that these non-luminous chemical rays become luminous 
when certain substances are presented to them. Such sub¬ 
stances among others are solution of quinine sulphate, in¬ 
fusion of horse-chestnut bark, glass tinted yellow by oxide 
of uranium, and fluor spar. This phenomenon was named 
by its discoverer, fluorescence. (See Fluorescence.) I he 
heating effects of'the spectrum, on the contrary, are found 
to be more remarkable in the red than anywhere else 
among the luminous rays; while the maximum heating 
effect°is entirely outside the spectrum and in the dark. 
This discovery, made long ago by Sir William Herschel, is 
a counterpart to the more recent one of Stokes just men¬ 
tioned ; and both taken together show that the sunlight, as 
dispersed by the prism, spreads through a wide space, in 
which the rays exciting vision occupy only the middle part. 

The luminous, heating, and chemical effects of light 
being so broadly different, it was natural, in the earlier 
stages of this investigation, to ascribe them to agencies or 
forces essentially differing from each other in physical cha¬ 
racter. It was common, therefore, to say that the sunlight 
is made up of three independent species of rays, the color¬ 
ific, the calorific, and the chemical. Instead ot the word 
chemical, Dr. Draper, of New York, proposed, in 1842, to 
substitute the term tithonic to distinguish the rays of the 
class last mentioned; this term being derived, by a fancied 
analogy, from the beautiful myth of lithonus and Au¬ 
rora. ' Sir John Herschel, a little later, suggested the term 
actinic, which ultimately prevailed, lo the three kinds ot 
rays above mentioned, Dr. Draper, in 1844, proposed to add 
a fourth, under the name pliosphorogenic rays; that is to 


say, rays which cause certain substances, which have been 
acted upon by them, to continue, for some time afterwards, 
to phosphoresce, or to give light in the dark. Dr. Draper 
believed it to have been established by his experiments, 
that these rays, though imparting to material bodies the 
light-producing power, are themselves totally distinct from 
light. The more recent labors of this eminent investigator 
have led him, however, to the conclusion—which is the 
doctrine now generally received—that, physically consid¬ 
ered, the sunlight is homogeneous, the variety of effects 
produced by it being consequences of the different degrees 
of rapidity with which the vibrations of the luminiferous 
ether are performed, and being especially dependent on the 
nature of the surface and of the substance upon which the 
rays are received. 

Tyndall has recently made some interesting additions to 
our knowledge of the actinic properties of light, in experi¬ 
ments upon the vapors of a variety of volatile compounds 
which when highly rarefied are instantly decomposed by 
it. In the course of these experiments he has incidentally 
demonstrated the cause of the blueness of the sky, or of 
distant mountains seen through a large body of interven¬ 
ing air. This tint is owing to the presence in the air of ex¬ 
ceedingly minute particles of precipitated vapor. 

The actinic properties of light have formed the basis of 
an art having an almost endless variety of useful applica¬ 
tions. (For particulars in regard to this, see Photography, 
and also Light, Chemical Effects of.) 

F. A. P. Barnard. 

Actinom'eter [from the Gr. clktlv, a “ray,” and perpov, 
a “measure”], an instrument for measuring the actinic or 
chemical rays of light. (See Actinism.) Several methods of 
doing this have been proposed; thus, a sensitive surface 
of chloride of silver is found to darken, when exposed to 
the light, in proportion to the intensity of the light and the 
duration of exposure; and since this darkening is produced 
entirely by the actinic rays, the depth of tint produced by 
exposure for a few (say five) minutes will give an approxi¬ 
mate idea of the intensity of the actinism present. The 
difficulty in this case is to prepare chloride of silver paper 
which shall always have the same degree of sensitiveness. 
Dr. Draper employed for the above purpose the reaction 
originally observed by Gay-Lussac and Thenard, that chlo¬ 
rine and hydrogen, when mixed in equal volumes, do not 
combine in the dark, while they unite to form hydrochloric 
acid when exposed to the actinic rays of light. Draper dis¬ 
covered the important law that this action varies in direct 
proportion to the actinic intensity of the light and to the 
time of the exposure. Other actinometers have been pro¬ 
posed, based upon other chemical reactions; thus, a solu¬ 
tion of chloride of gold and oxalic acid will remain clear in 
the dark, but precipitates gold when exposed to actinic rays. 

Ac'tion [from the Lat. ago, actum, to “perform,” to 
“move”], in law, means a proceeding before a court of 
justice by one person against another to obtain redress for 
the infringement of a right, in the manner prescribed by 
law. This definition would exclude such proceedings as 
mandamus and prohibition. The word is not properly ap¬ 
plied to courts of equity, but the corresponding proceeding 
is there termed a suit. Actions are distinguished into civil 
and criminal. A civil action is instituted for the enforce¬ 
ment of a private right or the redress of a similar wrong. 
In reference to the place in which they are to be brought, 
they are either local or transitory. Civil actions are either 
real, personal, or mixed. Criminal actions are prosecuted 
in the name of the state against some person charged 
with the commission of a crime. The distinction between 
real and personal actions refers to the point whether the 
recovery of land is sought, or damages by way of compen¬ 
sation, or specific personal property. An action is local 
when by a rule of law it must be brought in a particular 
locality, such as a county. Actions not so localized are 
termed transitory. 

The number of actions under these rules is quite con¬ 
siderable. The distinctions between them are sometimes 
subtle and perplexing. There is a marked tendency in this 
country to modify or to do away with them, and to estab¬ 
lish a single form of civil action, embracing proceedings 
both in law and in equity. The New York code of pro¬ 
cedure assumes to give a definition sufficiently comprehen¬ 
sive to include both an action at law and a suit in equity. 
It abolishes all the old forms of action, and recognizes but 
one action, termed a “ civil action.” The rule of this code 
has been extensively followed in the Western States, and 
has had much influence upon legal opinion in England. 

T. W. Dwight. 

Action, a series of events forming the subject of an epic; 
thus, the adventures of Alncas form the action of tho 
“Ahieid.” Epic action should have three qualifications: 
It should bo but one, should be entire, and should be great. 



















36 ACTIONS FOR PIANOS—ADAM. 

Action, in oratory, signifios gesture, or the adaptation of 
the countenance and gesture of the speaker to his subject 
and sentiments. This aerino corporis (“ language of the 
body”), as Cicero calls it, is a very important part of ora¬ 
tory. Demosthenes said that action was “ the beginning, 
the middle, and the end of the orator’s office or art.” 

Action, in painting and sculpture, is the state of the sub¬ 
ject as imagined in the artist’s mind at the moment chosen 
for representation. 

Action, in mechanics, denotes the effort which a power 
or body exerts upon another body. .It is an axiom in 
mechanics that action and reaction are always equal. 
Thus, if an anvil be struck with a hammer, the resistance 
of the former to the latter is exactly equal to the force with 
which the hammer acts upon the anvil. 

Actions for Pianos are mechanical devices by which 
the impulse given the key is transmitted to a hammer which 
strikes the string. The action also regulates the motion of 
the hammer after the stroke, preventing any reaction or re¬ 
bounding. Actions made by different makers differ some¬ 
what in the details of their construction. They have been 
brought to a high degree of perfection. 

Ac'tium [Gr. ’Aktiov], (now called A'zio), a promon¬ 
tory and town of ancient Greece, in Acarnania, near the 
entrance of the Ambracian Gulf. Here occurred the great 
naval battle of Actium (31 B. C.), between Octavius Caesar 
and Mark Antony; the former gained a decisive victory. 
Active Voice. See Grammar. 

Ac'ton, a piece of defensive armor, formerly worn in 
the shape of a shirt with short sleeves. It was made of 
leather, to which pieces of iron were sewed. 

Acton, a post-township of York co., Me. Pop. 1008. 

Acton, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass., on the 
Fitchburg, the Nashua Acton and Boston, the Hudson 
branch, and the Lowell and Framingham R. Rs. It has 
valuable stone-quarries, and South Acton is an important 
manufacturing village. Total pop. 1593. 

Acton, a township of Meeker co., Minn. Pop. 480. 

Acton (Lord John Emeric Edward Dalberg), born in 
1834, was elected to Parliament for Carlow in Ireland in 
1859. He belonged to the liberal Catholic party, in whose 
interest he founded in 1861 the “ Home and Foreign Re¬ 
view.” In 1865 he was returned to Parliament, and in 
1869 created a baron. 

Ac'tor (fem. Ac'tress), a stage-player, or performer 
of dramas. Actors are supposed to have originated in an¬ 
cient Greece. By the ancient Romans they were regarded 
as a disreputable class. After the fall of the Roman em¬ 
pire the dramatic art and profession was abandoned or lost 
for several centuries. The first actors in England were ser¬ 
vants of the nobility, and performed for the diversion of 
their masters. In the Middle Ages the monks exhibited a 
species of drama called mysteries or miracle plays, the sub¬ 
ject of which was usually some miracle or marvellous event 
in the history of the Church. 

Acts of the Apostles, the fifth book of the New 
Testament. (See Apostles, Acts of.) 

Ac'upuiicture [Lat. acupunctn'ra, from a'ens , a 
“ needle,” and pun'go, punc'tum, to “ prick”], or Acu- 
punctura'tion, a term applied to the surgical operation 
of puncturing a diseased part with needles. This method 
is extensively used in Japan and China for the cure of many 
diseases, and has been successfully applied in the treatment 
of rheumatism. Steel needles are made use of, about three 
inches long, and set in handles. The surgeon, by a rotary 
movement, passes one or more to the desired depth in the 
tissues, and leaves them there from a few minutes to an 
hour. Their insertion is accompanied by no pain except 
the first prick—a fact of which the quacks of the sixteenth 
century did not fail to take advantage. According to Car¬ 
dan, they travelled from place to place practising acupunc¬ 
ture, and before inserting the needle they rubbed it with a 
peculiar kind of magnet, either believing or pretending that 
this made the operation painless. The relief to pain a fforded 
by this simple operation is sometimes astonishing, and the 
wounds are so minute as to be harmless if skilfully made. 

Acush / liet, a post-township of Bristol co., Mass., has 
manufactures of lumber, boxes, cigars, and boots and shoes, 
but is chiefly agricultural. Pop. 1132. 

Acute' [Lat. acu'tus, from ac'uo, acu'turn, to “ sharpen,” 
to “ point” (literally, “pointed,” hence “sharp,” “severe”)], 
a term applied to diseases having severe or violent symp¬ 
toms, attended with danger, and terminating favorably or 
otherwise within a few days. 

Ac'worth, a post-township of Sullivan co., N. II. Gi¬ 
gantic crystals of beryl occur here. There are manufactures 
of wooden ware, woollens, boots and shoes, etc. Pop. 1050. 

Ad, a Latin preposition signifying “to,” “at,” “by,” 

“on,” “towards,” “near,” “with,” etc. In compound 
words the d is usually changed to correspond with the fol¬ 
lowing letter; thus, ad becomes ac before c, al before l, ap 
before/), etc. 

Ada, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs, on the 
river Thciss, 30 miles S. of Szegedin. Pop. in 1869, 9344. 

A'da, a count} 7 in the S. W. part of Idaho, includes 

Boisee Valley. It is intersected by the Boisee River, and 
bounded on the S. by the Lewis (or Snake) River. The 
surface is mountainous. Gold is found in this county. 

Grain, potatoes, and butter are produced. Pop. 2675. 
Capital, Boisee City. 

Ada, a post-village of Kent co., Mich., in a township 
of its own name. Pop. of township, 1427. 

Ada, a post-village of Hardin co., 0., on the Pittsburg 

Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R., 57 miles W. of Crestline. 

It has a college, the North-western Ohio Normal School, 
three churches, numerous manufactories, and one weekly 
newspaper. Bent L. Thompson, Ed. “Record.” 

Adagio, &-d&'jc-o [composed of ad, “at,” and agio, 

“case,” “leisure”], an Italian musical term, signifies a slow 
movement or measure of time. 

Adair', a county in the central part of Iowa. Area, 

576 square miles. It is drained by Middle River and by 
affluents of Nodaway River. The surface is undulating or 
nearly level. Grain, wool, hay, and butter arc produced. 

Pop. 3982. Capital, Fontanelle. 

Adair, a county in the S. part of Kentucky. Area, 450 
square miles. It is traversed by Green River. The soil is 
moderately fertile and extensively covered with forests. It 
contains abundant water-power. Cattle, grain, tobacco, 
and wool are produced. Pop. 11,065. Capital, Columbia. 

Adair, a county in the N. N. E. part of Missouri. 

Area, 570 square miles. It is intersected by Chariton 

River, and by the North Fork of Salt River. The surface 
is undulating and the soil generally fertile. Cattle, grain, 
tobacco, and wool are produced. It is intersected by the 

St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R. Pop. 11,448. 

Capital, Kirksville. 

Adair, a township of Camden co., Mo. Pop. 637. 

Adair (James), a trader who resided among the North 
American Indians for forty years, mostly among the Chicka- 
saws. He was the author of a work on the American In¬ 
dians (1775), in which he attempted to show the resem¬ 
blance between their customs and those of the Jews. 

Adair (John), an American general, born in South Caro¬ 
lina in 1759. He commanded a body of Kentuckians at the 
battle of New Orleans in 1815, and was governor of Ken¬ 
tucky from 1820 to 1824. He was U. S. Senator (1805-06) 
and member of Congress (1831-33). Died May 19, 1840. 

Adair (Sir Robert), born in London May 24, 1763. He 
became a Whig member of Parliament in 1S02, ambassador 
to Vienna in 1806, and represented Great Britain at Con¬ 
stantinople from 1809 to 1811. Died Oct. 3, 1855. 

Adal', a narrow tract of Eastern Africa, bordering on 
the Red Sea, and extending from Massowa to the Strait of 
Bab-el-Mandeb. It is inhabited by nomadic tribes of 
Donakila (or Danakil), and is considered a part of Abys¬ 
sinia by some geographers. 

A'dalbert (Heinrich Wilhelm), a Prussian prince, a 
cousin-german of William I., born in Berlin Oct. 29, 1811. 

He entered the army in his youth, and obtained the rank 
of lieutenant-general. He became in 1848 admiral and 
commander-in-chief of the navy. Died June 6, 1873. 

Ada'Sia, or Satalich (anc. Attalia), a seaport of Tur¬ 
key in Asia, in Anatolia, on the gulf of the same name, 175 
miles S. E. of Smyrna, in lat. 36° 52' 2” N., Ion. 30° 45' 

E. It is built on the slope of a hill, has narrow, dirty 
streets, and a small but good haidbor. Tropical fruits are 
exported hence. Pop. estimated at 13,000, of whom about 

3000 are Greeks. 

Ad 'am [Heb. DIN, i. e. “ man ”], the first man (see Gen. 
i., ii., and iii. ), is supposed to have been created, according 
to the Hebrew chronology, 4004 B. C., and according to the 

Greek chronology, 5411 B. C., though some writers contend 
that his date should be placed much earlier. He was origi¬ 
nally placed, with Eve his wife, in the garden of Eden, 
whence they were expelled for voluntary disobedience to 
the Divine command. 

Adam (Adolphe Charles), a celebrated French com¬ 
poser, born July 24, 1S03, published numerous popular 
operas and ballets, of which the most celebrated are “'Le 
postilion de Longjumeau,” which was played for the first 
time m 1836, and gained great applause : “ Le roi d’Yvetot ” 

(1842), “Richard in Palestine” (1849), and “La iolie fille 
de Gand” (1839). Died May 3, 1856. 

Adam (Albrecht), a German painter of battles, born 
























ADAM—ADAMS. 37 


at Nbrdlingen April 16,1786, entered the service of Eugene 
do Beauharnais, with whom he witnessed the Russian cam¬ 
paign of 1812. Died Aug. 28, 1862. 

Adam (Lambert Sigisbert), an eminent French sculp¬ 
tor, horn at Nancy in 1700. Some of his works adorn the 
garden of Versailles. He became professor in the Royal 
Academy at Paris in 1744. Died iu 1759.— Nicolas Se- 
BAStien, a skilful sculptor, a brother of the preceding, was 
born at Nancy in 1705. Among his works is “ Prometheus 
Bound.” Died in 1778. 

Adam (Robert), the most celebrated British architect 
of the eighteenth century, was born in 1728, went to Italy 
in 1754, and from Italy to Dalmatia, where he visited the 
ruins of the palace of the emperor Diocletian, on which he 
published “ The Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Dio¬ 
cletian at Spalatro” (1764). Among his most prominent 
works are the university building and St. George’s church 
in Edinburgh, the buildings known as the Adelphi in Lon¬ 
don, besides many private residences. He died in 1792, 
and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Ad'amailt [Lat. ad'amas; Gr. aSa/xa?, “that cannot be 
subdued or broken,” from a, negative, and Sa/xaio, to “ sub¬ 
due”], the ancient name of the diamond, is also a word 
used to denote a substance of extraordinary hardness and 
strength or durability. 

Ad'amites, an heretical sect who are said to have 
sprung up in the second century, who rejected marriage, 
and appeared in public naked. This name was also as¬ 
sumed by a sect of fanatics who arose in Bohemia in the 
fifteenth'century and advocated a community of wives. 
They still exist in Bohemia, and are said to be guilty of 
great excesses, though outwardly discreet. 

A<1' inns, a county of the W. part of Illinois. Area, 
760 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Missis¬ 
sippi River, which separates it from Missouri. The sur¬ 
face is undulating; the soil is exceedingly fertile. The 
county is intersected by the Chicago Burlington and Quincy 
R. R. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are produced. Coop¬ 
erage, flour, metallic wares, etc. are among the manufac¬ 
tures. Pop. 56,362. Capital, Quincy. 

Adams, a county of Indiana, bordering on Ohio. Area,, 
324 square miles. It is watered by the Wabash and St. 
Mary’s rivers, is well timbered and nearly level, and the 
soil is productive. Grain, wool, hay, and dairy produce are 
the staples. It is intersected by the Cincinnati Richmond 
and Fort Wayne R. R. Pop. 11,382. Capital, Decatur. 

Adams, a county of the S. W. of Iowa. Area, 432 
square miles. It is drained by the Nodaway River and 
other streams. Coal is mined here. Grain, hay, wool, and 
butter are produced. Pop. 4614. Capital, Quincy. 

Adams, a county in the S. W. of Mississippi, has an area 
of about 440 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the 
Mississippi River, and on the S. by the Homochitto. The 
surface is nearly level; the staple products are maize, cot¬ 
ton, cattle, and wool. Pop. 19,084. Capital, Natchez. 

Adams, a county in the S. centi’al part of Nebraska, 
intersected by the Little Blue River. It is traversed by 
the Burlington and Missouri River R. R. Grain and hay 
are raised. Pop. 19. Capital, Juniata. 

Adams, a county in the S. part of Ohio, has an area of 
500 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Ohio River, 
and drained by Brush Creek. The surface is hilly. Iron, 
building-stone, cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, and flour are 
produced. Pop. 20,750. Capital, West Union. 

Adams, a county of Pennsylvania, bordering on Mary¬ 
land, has an area of about 530 square miles. It is drained 
by the Conewago Creek and the head-streams of the Mo- 
nocacy River. The South Mountain range extends along the 
north-western boundary. Copper and marble are found. 
The surface is uneven. Cattle, grain, wool, and hay are 
produced, and carriages, leather, lime, flour, saddlery, etc. 
are manufactured. Pop. 30,315. Capital, Gettysburg. 

Adams, a county of Wisconsin, bounded on the W. by 
the Wisconsin River, has an area of about 650 square miles. 
The surface is mostly covered with forests, which furnish 
valuable lumber. Grain, wool, hay, and butter are pro¬ 
duced. Pop. 6601. Capital, Friendship. 

Adams, a township of La Salle co., Ill. Pop. 1662. 

Adams, a township of Allen co., Ind. Pop. 2388. 

Adams, a township of Carroll co., Ind. Pop. 1149. 

Adams, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 80/. 

Adams, a post-township of Decatur co., Ind. Pop. 2162. 

Adams, a township of Hamilton co., Ind. Pop. 2178. 

Adams, a township of Madison co., Ind. Pop. 1564. 

Adams, a township of Morgan co., Ind. Pop. 120/. 

Adams, a township of Parke co., Ind. Pop. 3286. 

Adams, a township of Ripley co., Ind. Pop. 2703. 


Adams, a township of Dallas co., Ia. Pop. 1015. 

Adams, a township of Delaware co., Ia. Pop. 730. 

Adams, a township of Keokuk co., Ia. Pop. 866. 

Adams, a township of Mahaska co., Ia. Pop. 835. 

Adams, a township of Wapello co., Ia. Pop. 1363. 

Adams, a post-township of Berkshire co., Mass., con¬ 
tains several large manufacturing villages, among which 
are North and South Adams. The Pittsfield and North 
Adams and the Troy and Boston R. Rs. terminate at North 
Adams. Adams has extensive manufactures of cotton and 
woollen goods, prints, ginghams, warp, twine, cassimeres, 
paper, nitro-glycerine, boots and shoes, etc. It has two 
national banks and three savings banks. Here is Mount 
Greylock, 3600 feet high, the highest point in Massachu¬ 
setts. North Adams is also the western terminus of the 
Hoosac Tunnel. It has two weekly newspapers and one 
quarterly. Adams has an abundant supply of water from 
water-works. It has fourteen churches and four large 
hotels. It also contains a natural bridge, and the “ Sand 
Springs,” a well-known place of summer resort. A con¬ 
siderable number of Chinese are employed in the boot and 
shoe factories. Pop. 12,090. 

J. T. Robinson, Ed. “Transcript.” 

Adams, a township of Hillsdale co., Mich. Pop. 1797. 

Adams, a township of Houghton co., Mich. Pop. 670. 

Adams, a post-township of Mower co., Minn. Pop. 576. 

Adams, a township of De Kalb co., Mo. Pop. 879. 

Adams, a post-village and township of Jefferson co., 
N. Y., on the Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg R. R., 156 
miles W. N. W. of Albany. Adams village is the seat of 
Hungerford Collegiate Institute; it also contains two banks, 
one weekly newspaper, a foundry, a malt-house, two tan¬ 
neries, a cabinet-shop, a sash-and-blind factory, saw and 
grist mills, and two carriage manufactories. There are 
eight churches in the town. Pop. 1352; of Adams town¬ 
ship, 3348. Hatch & Allen, 

Pubs. “Jefferson County Journal.” 

Adams, a township of Champaign co., O. Pop. 1238. 

Adams, a township of Clinton co., 0. Pop. 883. 

Adams, a township of Coshocton co., O. Pop. 1113. 

Adams, a township of Darke co., 0. Pop. 2291. 

Adams, a township of Defiance co., 0. Pop. 1220. 

Adams, a township of Guernsey co., 0. Pop. 762. 

Adams, a township of Lucas co., 0. Pop. 959. 

Adams, a township of Monroe co., 0. Pop. 1201. 

Adams, a township of Muskingum co., 0. Pop. 727. 

Adams, a post-township of Seneca co., 0. Pop. 1537. 

Adams, a township of Washington co., 0. Pop. 1786. 

Adams, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 973. 

Adams, a township of Cambria co., Pa. Pop. 836. 

Adams, a township of Adams co., Wis. Pop. 425. 

Adams, a township of Green co., Wis. Pop. 1007. 

Adams (Charles Baker), an American naturalist, born 
at Dorchester, Mass., Jan. 11, 1814. He graduated at Am¬ 
herst College in 1834, served as tutor in the same institu¬ 
tion during the years 1836-37, was professor of chemistry 
and natural history in Middlebury College 1838-47, when 
he became professor of zoology and astronomy in Amherst 
College, which post he held till his death, which occurred at 
St. Thomas, West Indies, Jan. 19, 1853. He was a man of 
comprehensive grasp, with great capacity also for details. 
He wrote reports upon the geological survey of Vermont, 
also “ Contributions to Conchology,” and, in connection 
with Prof. Gray of Brooklyn, prepared an elementary 
treatise upon geology, which has had much favor. 

Adams (Charles Francis), LL.D., D. C. L., an American 
diplomatist, the son of John Quincy Adams, was born in 
Boston Aug. 18, 1807. He graduated at Harvard in 1825, 
studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1828. In 1848 
he was nominated for the office of Vice-President by the 
Freesoilers, who supported Mr. Van Buren for the presi¬ 
dency. He published the “Life and Works of John 
Adams” (10 vols., 1850-56). Having joined the Repub¬ 
lican party, he was elected a member of Congress in 1858, 
and again in 1860. In the spring of 1861 he was ap¬ 
pointed minister to England, the duties of which position 
were, during the American civil war, very arduous and 
critical. He performed these duties with much ability and 
prudence, and returned home in 1868. In 1871 he was ap¬ 
pointed one of the arbitrators on the Alabama claims. 

Adams (Daniel), M. D., was born at Townsend, Mass., 
Sept. 29, 1773, and graduated at Dartmouth in 1797. He 
was prominent in New Hampshire politics, and was widely 
known as an educator,, editor, and physician, and as the 
author of an excellent arithmetic and other school-books. 
Died at Keene, N. II., June 8, 1864. 



























38 


ADAMS. 


Adams (Hannah), born at Medfield, Mass., in 1755, 
was one of the first women of America to engage in literary 
pursuits. She was a person of great excellence of character, 
and possessed real merit as a writer. She wrote a “ View 
of all Religions ” (1784), “ History of New England ” (1799), 
“Evidences of the Christian Religion” (1804), “History of 
the Jews” (1812), “Letters on the Gospels,” an “ Autobi¬ 
ography,” and other works. Died at Brookline, Mass., Nov. 
15, 1831. She was the first person whose remains were 
buried at Mount Auburn. 

Adams (Henry A.), IJ. S. N., born in 1833 in Pennsyl¬ 
vania, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1851, became a 
passed midshipman in 1854, a master in 1855, a lieutenant 
in 1856, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in 
1866. AVhile attached to the sloop-of-war Levant in 1856 
he took part in the engagement with the Barrier Forts at 
the mouth of the Canton River, China. He served on board 
the Brooklyn at the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jack- 
son and the capture of New Orleans in 1862, and partici¬ 
pated afterwards, while attached to the North Atlantic 
blockading squadron, in both attacks on Fort Fisher. Of 
his services at Fort Fisher, Admiral Porter, in his official 
despatch of Jan. 28, 1865, writes: “I recommend the pro¬ 
motion of Lieutenant-Commander H. A. Adams, without 
whose aid we should have been brought to a stand-still 
more than once. He volunteered for anything and every¬ 
thing.” Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Adams (Isaac), born in 1803 at Rochester, N. H., in¬ 
vented in 1828 the well-known Adams printing-press, which 
he further improved in 1834. This press is now in very 
general use. 

Adams (Rev. Jasper), D. D., wasborn atMedway, Mass., 
in 1793, graduated at Brown University in 1815, was pro¬ 
fessor of mathematics there (1819-24), was president of 
Charleston College, S. C., in 1824 and again in 1827-36, of 
Geneva College in 1825-27. He was (1838-40) a professor 
of geography,^thics, etc. at West Point. Died Oct. 25, 1841. 

Adams (John), the second President of the United 
States, was born in Braintree, Mass., on the 19th of Oct., 
1735, 0. S. He graduated at Harvard College in 1755, 
studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1758. For this 
profession he was well fitted by a clear, sonorous voice, a 
ready fluency of speech, and a quick conception. In 1764 
he married Abigail Smith, a woman of superior intelligence. 
His attention was drawn to political affairs by the passage 
of the Stamp Act in 1765, and he offered on that subject a 
series of resolutions which were very popular. He removed 
to Boston in 1768, became one of the most courageous and 
prominent advocates of the popular cause, and was chosen 
a member of the General Court (the legislature) in 1770. 

He was one of the delegates that represented Massachu¬ 
setts in the first Continental Congress, which met in Sept., 
1774. In a letter written at this crisis he declared : “The 
die is nowcast; I have passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim, 
live or die, survive or perish with my country, is my unal¬ 
terable determination.” He distinguished himself in Con¬ 
gress by his capacity for business and for debate, and ad¬ 
vocated the movement for independence when the majority 
of the members were inclined to temporize and to petition the 
king. In May, 1776, he moved and carried a resolution in 
Congress that the Colonies should assume the duty of self- 
government. In June a resolution that the United States 
“are and of right ought to be free and independent” was 
moved by Richard Henry Lee, seconded by Mr. Adams, 
and adopted by a small majority. Mr. Adams was a mem¬ 
ber of the committee of five appointed June 11 to prepare 
a declaration of independence, in support of which he made 
an eloquent speech about July 2. He was the chairman of 
the board of war appointed in June, 1776, and was sent as 
commissioner to France in 1778, but returned in July, 1779. 
Having been appointed as minister to negotiate a treaty of 
peace and commerce with Great Britain, he went to Europe 
early in 1780. Conjointly with Franklin and Jay he nego¬ 
tiated a treaty, the preliminary articles of which were 
signed Nov. 30, 1782. He was employed as minister to 
the court of St. James from 1785 to 1788, and during that 
service wrote his “ Defence of the American Constitutions” 
(1787). In 1789 he became Vice-President of the United 
States, and about that time identified himself with the Fed¬ 
eral party, by which he was re-elected to the office of Vice- 
President in 1792. 

In 1796, Mr. Adams was chosen President of the United 
States, receiving seventy-one electoral votes, while his com¬ 
petitor, Thomas Jefferson, received sixty-eight votes. He 
sympathized with the anti-Gallican party, and pursued the 
policy of neutrality between France and England. In¬ 
volved in a quarrel with the French Directory, which in¬ 
terfered with the maritime interests of the Americans, he 
sent Mr. Murray as minister to France early in 1799, in 
order to avert a war. This act gave much offence to the 


Federalists, and broke the unity of that party. Among the 
unpopular measures for which Mr. Adams was held respon¬ 
sible were the Alien law and the Sedition law. In 1800 
he was the Federal candidate for the office of President, but 
he was not cordially supported by Gen. Hamilton, the 
favorite leader of his party. Receiving sixty-five electoral 
votes, he was defeated by Thomas Jefferson, who received 
seventy-three votes. 

Mr. Adams then retired from public life to his large estate 
at Quincy, Mass., and gave his attention partly to agricul¬ 
ture. The general neglect and odium which he experienced 
were at last compensated by the election of his son John 
Quincy to the presidency of the United States. He died on 
the 4th of July, 1826, on the same day with Thomas Jeffer¬ 
son. It is a curious coincidence that three Presidents ot the 
United States (Monroe being the third) have died on that 
anniversary. J* Thomas. 

Adams (John), LL.D., eminent as a classical teacher, 
was born in Canterbury, Conn., Sept. 18, 1772, and gradu¬ 
ated at Yale College in 1795. After presiding over Plain- 
field Academy, and Bacon Academy in Colchester, Conn., 
he was made principal of Phillips Academjq Andover, Mass., 
May, 1S10, resigned that position after great success in 1833, 
and died April 24, 1863. Prof. Thomas C. Upham and 
many other distinguished scholars and philanthropists were 
among his pupils at Andover. 

Adams (John Couch), an English astronomer, born in 
Cornwall June 5,1819, was educated at Cambridge. In 1841 
he began to search for the causes of the irregularities in the 
motion of Uranus. He ascertained that they were caused 
by the attraction of a planet then unknown, and thus par¬ 
takes with Leverrier the honor of the discovery of Neptune, 
for which he received the Copley medal in 1848. He be¬ 
came Lowndean professor of astronomy at Cambridge in 
1858. 

Adams (John Quincy), the sixth President of the 
United States, was born in Braintree, Mass., on the 11th of 
July, 1767. He was eldest son of President John Adams 
and his wife, Abigail Smith, who was descended from the 
family of Quincy. In 1778 he was placed at a school in 
Paris, and in 1780 passed to the University of Leyden. 
He returned home in 1785, and finished his education at 
Harvard College, where he graduated in 1788, after which 
he studied law with Theophilus Parsons, and was admitted 
to the bar in 1791. Having gained distinction by some 
political essays, he was appointed minister to The Hague 
in 1794. In 1797 lie married Louisa Catherine Johnson of 
Maryland, and in the same year was sent as minister to 
Berlin, from which he was recalled in 1801, when the Re¬ 
publicans obtained power. 

He was elected a Senator of the U. S. by the Federalists 
in 1S03, but voted for Jefferson’s embargo in 1807, and 
thus separated himself from the Federal party, and lost his 
seat in the Senate in 1808. Before this date he had distin¬ 
guished himself as a public speaker, and had been appointed 
professor of rhetoric at Harvard College (1805). In 1809 
he was sent as minister to Russia. He was one of the com¬ 
missioners that negotiated the treaty of peace with Great 
Britain, signed Dec. 24, 1814, and ho was appointed minis¬ 
ter to the court of St. James in 1815. In 1817 he became 
secretary of state in the cabinet of Monroe, in which posi¬ 
tion he remained eight years. In 1824 four candidates for 
the presidency were presented—John Q. Adams, Andrew 
Jackson, Henry Clay, and William II. Crawford—all of 
whom professed to be Democrats. Mr. Adams received 
eighty-four electoral votes, Jackson ninety-nine, Crawford 
forty-one, and Clay thirty-seven. As neither had the re¬ 
quisite majority, the election devolved on the House of 
Representatives, which chose Mr. Adams. This result was 
due to the influence of Henry Clay, and when Mr. Adams 
nominated him as secretary of state, the friends of Jack- 
son accused Adams and Clay of “ bargain and corruption,” 
but the charge is not generally credited. His administra¬ 
tion was opposed by a powerful party, formed by a coa¬ 
lition of the Jacksonians with the friends of Crawford. 
This party had a majority of the members of Congress, 
and, uniting on General Jackson as their candidate, tri¬ 
umphed in the election of 1828, when Mr. Adams received 
only eighty-three electoral votes out of two hundred and 
sixty-one, which was the whole number. 

In 1830 he was chosen by the voters of his native dis¬ 
trict to represent them in Congress, in which he distin¬ 
guished himself by his application to business, his asser¬ 
tion of the right ot petition, and his resolute opposition to 
what he considered to be the encroachments of the slave- 
power. “ With unwavering firmness,” says W. H. Seward, 
“ against a bitter and unscrupulous opposition, exasperated 
to the highest pitch by his pertinacity—amidst a perfect 
tempest ot vituperation and abuse—he persevered in pre¬ 
senting these petitions [against slavery] one by one, to the 
















ADAMS 


amount sometimes of two hundred in a day.” He con¬ 
tinued to represent the same district in Congress for seven¬ 
teen years, during which he maintained a position inde¬ 
pendent of party. He was seized with paralysis in the 
Capitol on the 21st of Feb., 1848, and died on the 23d 
of that month. In religion he was a Unitarian. He left 
many writings in prose and verse, which have been pub¬ 
lished; also a voluminous diary of his public life. He 
had an only surviving son, Charles Francis Adams, noticed 
above. J. Thomas. 

Adams (John Quincy), a grandson of the preceding, 
and son of Charles Francis Adams, noticed above, was 
born at Boston, Mass., Sept. 22, 1833, graduated at Har¬ 
vard in 1853. He was the Democratic candidate for gov¬ 
ernor of Massachusetts in 1867 and 1868, but was both 
times defeated. He was also a candidate for the vice-pres¬ 
idency in 1872, on the ticket with Charles O’Conor. 

Adams (John R.), D. D., born in Plainfield, Conn., 
graduated at Yale College in 1821, was three years a 
teacher in Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., was Presby¬ 
terian and Congregational minister in various towns of 
New Hampshire, New York, Massachusetts, and Maine; 
was chaplain during the civil war in the Fifth Maine and 
One-IIundred-and-Twenty-first New York regiments. For 
his services he received public acknowledgments from the 
governor of Maine. Died April 26, 1866, at Northampton, 
Mass., aged sixty-four. 

Adams (Nehemiati), D. D., an American theologian, 
was born at Salem, Mass., Feb. 19, 1806, graduated at 
Harvard in 1826, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 
1829. He first settled at Cambridge in 1829, and in 1834 
became pastor of the Essex street church in Boston. He 
resigned his pastorate in 1870. He published several the¬ 
ological and other works, and a “South-side View of Sla¬ 
very” (1854), which was severely condemned by the oppo¬ 
nents of slavery. He has had a high reputation for scholar¬ 
ship and pulpit eloquence. 

Adams (Samuel), a celebrated American patriot and 
orator, born in Boston Sept. 27, 1722, was a second cousin 
of President John Adams. He graduated at Harvard Col¬ 
lege in 1740, and became a merchant, but was not success¬ 
ful in that business, which he soon abandoned. In 1765 he 
was chosen to represent Boston in the General Court of 
Massachusetts, in which he distinguished himself by his 
courage, energy, and oratorical talents, and acquired great 
influence. Before the Revolution he was an unflinching 
advocate of the popular cause, and took such an active 
part in political meetings that he was one of the two lead¬ 
ing patriots who were excepted from a general pardon of¬ 
fered in 1775. He was a member of the first Continental 
Congress, which met in Sept., 1774, and he signed the De¬ 
claration of Independence in 1776. He remained in Con¬ 
gress about eight years, was afterwards elected to the senate 
of Massachusetts, and was a member of the State conven¬ 
tion which ratified the Federal Constitution in 1788. His 
political affinities connected him with the Republican (or 
Jeffersonian) party. He was elected governor of Mas¬ 
sachusetts in 1794, was re-elected twice, and retired to pri¬ 
vate life in 1797. Having survived his only son, he died in 
Oct., 1803. In religion he was a decided Calvinist. In the 
letters and other writings of John Adams occur several pas¬ 
sages which express a high opinion of the talents and 
merits of Samuel Adams, in whose productions he says 
may be found “ specimens of a nervous simplicity of rea¬ 
soning and eloquence that have never been rivalled in 
America.” (See W. V. Wells’s “Life and Public Services 
of Samuel Adams,” 3 vols. 8vo, 1865.) 

Adams (Seth), a brother of Isaac Adams, the inventor, 
was born at Rochester, N. H,, April 13, 1807, has been for 
many years associated with his brother in the manufac¬ 
ture of the Adams printing-press, and since 1849 has been 
extensively engaged in sugar-refining in Boston, Mass. 
He has given considerable sums of money to Bowdoin Col¬ 
lege. 

Adams (William), D.D., LL.D., a son of John Adams 
(principal of Phillips Academy, Andover), a distinguished 
Presb} 7 terian divine, born in Colchester, Conn., Jan. 25, 
1807, graduated at Yale College 1827, and at Andover The¬ 
ological Seminary 1830. He was ordained at Brighton, 
Mass., Feb., 1831, settled over the Central Presbyterian 
church in New York City, Nov., 1834, and over the newly- 
formed Madison Square Presbyterian church, Feb., 1853. 
An acknowledged leader in the New School branch of the 
Presbyterian Church, he took a prominent part in the re¬ 
union of the two branches in 1870. He has published 
many sermons, addresses, and articles in reviews, besides 
the following volumes: “The Three Gardens—Eden, Geth- 
semano, and Paradise, or Man’s Ruin, Redemption, and 
Restoration,” 1856; “Thanksgiving: Memories of the 


ADDA. 39 


Day, and Helps to the Habit,” 1867 ; “Conversations of 
Jesus Christ with Representative Men,” 1868. In 1873 he 
was chosen president and professor of sacred rhetoric in 
the Union Theological Seminary, N. Y. 

Adams (William T.), a popular American writer, 
known under the pseudonym of Oliver Optic, born in 
Medway, Mass., July 30, 1822, has published numerous 
works for children. Among these may be named “The 
Riverdale Series” and “Young America Series.” llis 
journal, entitled “Our Boys and Girls,” founded in 1867 
as a weekly, and subsequently published as a monthly, has 
obtained a large circulation. 

Adams Centre, a post-village of Adams township, 
Jefferson co., N. Y. 

Adam’s Creek, a twp. of Craven co., N. C. P. 1352. 

Ad'amson (John), an English author, born in 1787. 
He wroto a “Memoir of Camoens” (1820) and “ The His¬ 
tory, Antiquities, and Literatui’o of Portugal” (2 vols., 
1842-46). Died in 1S55. 

Adam’s Peak, a mountain in Ceylon in lat. 6° 52' N., 
Ion. 80° 32' E., which has a height of about 7000 feet. It 
is considered by the Booddhists as the holy centre of the 
world. A temple is situated on the highest portion of the 
peak, under which the footprints of Booddha and Sripa- 
dam (i. e. “ luck”) are said to be seen. Booddha is said to 
have left those traces upon his last visit to the earth. The 
Brahmans and Mohammedans also consider it a holy 
mountain—the former, because they consider Booddha as 
an avatar (incarnation) of Vishnoo; the latter, because 
they ascribe the footprints to Adam, who is said to have 
here mourned for 1000 years his expulsion from Paradise, 
standing on one foot. 

Ad'amsthal, a village of Moravia, Austria, 9 miles N. 
of Briinn. In the neighborhood is the curious calcareous 
cavern Regciskala, which belongs to the large system of 
caverns which is found to the N. of Briinn. Adamsthal is 
growing considerably, and is much visited by tourists. 

Ad/amstown, a post-borough of Lancaster co., Pa. 
Pop. 431. 

Adamsville, a twp. of Marlboro’ co., S. C. Pop. 1407. 

Ada'na, a city of Asia Minor, on the river Sihoon, about 
20 miles from the sea and 18 miles E. of Tarsus. It has 
some trade in grain, wine, cotton, etc. Here are interest¬ 
ing ancient remains. Pop. estimated at 25,000. 

Adanson (Michel), a celebrated French naturalist, 
born at Aix April 7, 1727, was educated at the college of 
Plessis. He went to Senegal in 1748 to explore the natural 
history of that region, in which he passed five years in his 
arduous and dangerous enterprise, and collected an im¬ 
mense number of animals and plants. He published, after 
his return, a “Natural History of Senegal” (1757), and 
“The Families of Plants” (1763), in which he opposed the 
artificial system of Linnaeus. In 1759 he was elected a 
member of the Academy of Sciences. He expended the 
labor of several years on an encyclopaedia entitled “ The 
Universal Order of Nature,” which he left in manuscript, 
perhaps unfinished. A part of his mature life was passed 
in extreme poverty, but he afterwards received a pen¬ 
sion from the state. He was a man of noble but eccentric 
character, and was regarded as a naturalist of the first 
order by Cuvier, who composed a eulogy on him. Died 
Aug. 3, 1806. 

Adanso'nia, a genus of plants of the natural order 

Sterculiacem, was named 
in honor of the great 
naturalist, M. Adanson. 
The Adanso'nia digita'- 
ta, or baobab, is found 
in tropical Africa, and is 
one of the largest trees 
in the world. It does not 
grow very high, but its 
trunk is often more than 
twenty feet in diameter. 
The fruit of the baobab 
is called monkey-bre’ad. 
Adanson saw a tree of 
this species which he 

month in the civil year 
of the Jews, which included part of February and March. 

Ad/da ( anc. Ad'dua ), a river of Northern Italy, rises 
in the Valtellina, among the Rluetian Alps, and enters 
Lake Como, which is an expansion of this river. After 
issuing from that lake it flows nearly southward through 
Lombardy, and empties itself into the Po 7 miles above 
Cremona. Length of river and lake, about 130 miles. 



Adansonia. 

estimated to be 5000 years old. 
A'dar, the name of the sixth 

























ADDAX—ADELUNG. 


Ad'dax, the O'ryx (or Ad'dax) nasomacula'tus of the 
naturalists, is a large ante¬ 
lope found in Nubia, Kor- 
dofan, and other parts of 
Northern or North Cen¬ 
tral Africa. Its broad 
spreading hoofs enable the 
animal to obtain a firm 
foothold upon the dry and 
yielding sand. Its horns, 
which are from three to 
four feet long, are beauti¬ 
fully twisted into a spiral, 
having two turns and a 
half. The general color 
of the add ax is a milk- 
white, but there is a black 
patch of hair on the fore¬ 
head, and it has a dark 
brown mane, with more or less of reddish-brown mixed 
with gray on the head, shoulders, and part of the back. 

Ad'der, a common name of the viper, or of any venom¬ 
ous serpent belonging to the family Viperidse. The name 
is popularly applied to several non-veuomous snakes. 

Ad'dington, a county of Canada, in the S. E. part of 
Ontario, bordering on Lake Ontario, has an area of 576 
square miles. It is drained by the Napanee River, and 
contains several small lakes. Among the staple produc¬ 
tions are lumber and wool. Capital, Bath. Pop. in 1871, 
21,312. 

Ad'dison, a county in the IV. part of Vermont. Area, 
750 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by Lake Cham¬ 
plain, and drained by Otter Creek. The surface in the E. 
is mountainous, but the soil near the lake is level and fer¬ 
tile. Quarries of white and variegated marble are worked 
in this county, which is intersected by the Rutland and 
Burlington R. R. Cattle, grain, wool, and hay are pro¬ 
duced, and lumber, cooperage, saddlery, carriages, etc. are 
manufactured. Capital, Middlebury. Pop. 23,484. 

Addison, a post-township of Du Page co., Ill. Pop. 
1613. It is the seat of a teachers’ seminary. 

Addison, a township of Shelby co., Ind. Pop. 2677. 

Addison, a township of Washington co., Me. P. 1201. 

Addison, a township of Oakland co., Mich. Pop. 1063. 

Addison, a post-village and township of Steuben co., 
N. Y. The village contains many important manufactur¬ 
ing establishments, and is in a highly flourishing condition. 
It has one weekly paper. Pop. 2218. 

G. II. Hollis, Ed. “Advertiser.” 

Addison, a post-township of Gallia co., 0. Pop. 1340. 

Addison, a post-township of Somerset co., Pa. Pop. 
1456. 

Addison, a post-township of Addison co., Vt. P. 911. 

Addison, a post-township of Washington co., Wis. 
Pop. 1833. 

Ad'dison (Joseph), an English humorist, moralist, and 
author of great merit and celebrity, was born at Milston, 
near Amesbury, in Wiltshire, on the 1st of May, 1672. He 
was a son of Lancelot Addison. In 1687 he entered Queen’s 
College, Oxford, from which he passed to Magdalen Col¬ 
lege in 1689. lie became a good classical scholar, and as 
a writer of Latin verse probably excelled all his contem¬ 
poraries. At an early age he enjoyed the friendship and 
patronage of Dry den, Lord Somers, and Montagu (Lord 
Halifax), the last of whom persuaded him to enlist as a 
Whig in the civil service of the state. Having in 1699 re¬ 
ceived a pension of £300, he visited France and Italy, and 
wrote a charming “ Letter from Italy,” in verse, addressed 
to Lord Halifax (1701). He lost his pension on the death 
of William III. (1702), and returned home in 1703. His 
next work was “ The Campaign,” a poem on the battle of 
Blenheim (1704), which was greatly admired, and was re¬ 
warded with the office of commissioner of appeals. He 
afterwards produced his interesting “ Travels in Italy,” and 
“ Rosamond,” an opera, lie was appointed under-secretary 
of State in 1706, and was elected to Parliament in 1708. 
His diffidence disqualified him for public speaking, but this 
defect was compensated by his success as a political writer. 
He became in 1709 secretary to Lord Wharton, lord lieu¬ 
tenant of Ireland, and contributed to the “ Tatler,” of which 
his friend Richard Steele was the editor. 

On the 1st of Mar., 1711, Addison and Steele began to 
issue daily “ The Spectator,” the most elegant and famous 
periodical and miscellany that ever appeared in England. 
Addison wrote the best of the essays, which form an epoch 
in literary history and have exerted a powerful and salutary 
moral influence. Among his literary merits are grace and 
propriety of diction, elegant taste, genial philosophy, and 



Addax. 


inimitable humor. “ As an observer of life, of manners, of 
all the shades of human character,” says Macaulay, “ he 
stands in the first class.” 

“The Spectator” ceased to appear daily in Dec., 1712, 
but was revived as a tri-weekly paper in 1714. Among his 
other works are the tragedy of “ Cato ” (1713), wffiich was 
received with great applause, an ingenious “Dialogue on 
Medals,” and a series of able political papers called “ The 
Freeholder” (1715). In 1716 he married the proud and 
uncongenial countess-dowager of Warwick, and early in 
1717 was appointed secretary of state. He resigned this 
office in 1718, and died June 17, 1719, leaving only one 
child, a daughter. His marriage appears not to have been 
happy. Addison was greatly distinguished for his wit and 
colloquial powers. Lady Mary Montagu, who had con¬ 
versed with the most eminent wits, pronounced him “the 
best company in the world.” “His humanity,” says Ma¬ 
caulay, “ is without a parallel in literary history. The 
highest proof of human virtue is to possess boundless power 
without abusing it. No kind of power is more formidable 
than the power of making men ridiculous; and that power 
Addison possessed in boundless measure. But it would be 
difficult, if not impossible, to find, in all the volumes which 
he has left us, a single taunt which can be called ungenerous 
or unkind.” “Whoever wishes,” says Dr. Johnson, “to 
attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant 
but not ostentatious, must give his days and nights to the 
volumes of Addison. . . . He not only made the proper use 
of wit himself, but taught it to others. He has restored 
virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence not to be aslmmed. 
This is an elevation of literary character ‘ above all Greek, 
above all Roman fame.’” (See Johnson’s “Lives of the 
Poets;” Macaulay, “Critical and Historical Essays;” 
Atkin, “ The Life of Addison,” 1843.) J. Thomas. 

Addison’s Disease [named from its discoverer, the 
late Dr. Addison of Guy’s Hospital, London], or Supra¬ 
renal Melasma, a rather rare disease, the most obvious 
symptom of which is a gray-black or bronze color of the 
skin, gradually coming on. The chief lesion discovered 
after death is a cheesy degeneration of the supra-renal cap¬ 
sules, the result of a peculiar chronic inflammation. Pa¬ 
tients usually suffer from extreme debility, depression of 
spirits, pain in the epigastrium and back, often accompanied 
by dyspepsia, vomiting, diarrhoea, and grave nervous symp¬ 
toms. No remedy is known, and the disease, though care¬ 
ful nursing is extremely useful, is probably never cured. 


A'del, a post-village, the capital of Dallas co., Ia., 25 
miles W. of Des Moines. One of the best water-privileges 
in the State is to be found here. It is the centre of two 
projected railroads. The surrounding country is rolling 
and highly productive. There are two weekly newspapers. 
Pop. 711; of Adel township, 1563. 

J. E. Williams, Ed. “ Gazette.” 

Ad'elaide, a city, the capital of South Australia, is 
situated on both sides of the river Torrens, 8 miles from 
its entrance into the Gulf of St. Vincent. It was founded 
in 1836. The streets are wide and rectangular. It is the 
seat of an Anglican and a Roman Catholic bishop, and con¬ 
tains a government-house, an assay-office, a theatre, ex¬ 
tensive manufactures, and several banks. Pop. in 1871, 
27,208. Port Adelaide, situated about 6 miles N. N. W. of 
the city, is the centre of the commerce of the colony. The 
harbor admits vessels drawing eighteen feet of water. It 
has a heavy trade in copper, grain, and wool. Adelaide 
is connected by railways with Dry Creek, Victor Harbor, 
Gawlertown, Kapunda, and Ivooringa. 

Adel'phia [7. e. “brotherhood;” from the Gr. aSe A(/>6s, 
a “ brother ’], a collection of the stamens 
of a flower into a bundle. Linnseus em¬ 
ployed this term for those plants in which 
the stamens, instead of growing singly, 
combine into one or more parcels or 
brotherhoods; thus, Monadelphia signified 
stamens all connected into one parcel; Di- 
adelphia, into two parcels, and so on. 

A'delsberg, a market-town of Carniola, 
Austria. A short distance from the town 
is the Adelsberg Grotto, which is one of 
the most peculiar caverns of the world. It consists of five 
different parts, and is full of beautiful formations, which 
are partly suspended from the ceiling (stalactites), in part 
hang down upon the wall like draperies (incrustations), 
and part arise from the ground in the form of obelisks or 
columns (stalagmites). 

A'delimg (Friedrich), a German philologist, born at 
Stettin Feb. 25, 1768, became a resident of St. Petersburg, 
and preceptor to the grand duke, who was afterwards the 
emperor Nicholas. He wrote on the Sanscrit language and 
literature. Died Jan. 30, 1843. 



Adelphia. 





















ADELUNG—ADJUTANT-GENERAL. 41 


Adelung (Johann Christoph), an eminent philologist, 
an uncle of the preceding, born in Pomerania Aug. 8, 1732. 
Ilis reputation is founded chiefly on his “Attempt at a 
Complete Grammatico-Critical Dictionary of the German 
Language” (“Vcrsuch eines vollstandigcn grammatisch- 
kritischen Wdrterbuches der Hochdeutschen Mundart,” 
1774—86). This is considered to be superior to Dr. John¬ 
son’s Dictionary in definitions and etymology. Among his 
other works is one on language, entitled “ Mithridates oder 
allgemeine Sprachen-Kunde.” Died at Dresden Sept. 10, 
1806. 

A'den, a seaport of Arabia, in Yemen, is on the Gulf 
of Aden, at Cape Aden, in lat. 12° 46’ 15" N., Ion. 45° 10' 
E. It was a magnificent emporium in the Middle Ages, 
and, being favorably situated near the entrance of the Red 
Sea, was the chief mart of the products of Asia. From 
these advantages, and its climate, rendered cool and de¬ 
lightful by the sea-breeze (although the rugged volcanic 
hills with which it is surrounded, without a particle of 
vegetation, make it anything but attractive in appear¬ 
ance), it was named, after the Oriental manner, Aden (?. e. 
“Eden”). The British obtained possession of it in 1839, 
since which time the population and trade of the place 
have rapidly increased. It has a good harbor, a dry and 
healthy climate, and one of the most important and ad¬ 
vantageous positions on the route from Europe to India, 
whether by the railway from Alexandria to Suez, or by 
the Suez Canal and the Red Sea. Aden resembles Gib¬ 
raltar in its position on a rocky promontory and in its 
military importance; it has been strongly fortified by the 
British. Its area is about 19 square miles. The exports 
in 1871-72 were £885,919, and imports £1,404,169. The 
population, which in 1838 was not over 1000, is variously 
estimated at from 20,000 to 50,000. 

Aden, Cape, a rocky promontory at the S. extremity 
of Arabia, adjoining the town of Aden, rises to the height 
of 1776 feet. It is joined to the mainland by a low sandy 
isthmus less than a mile wide. 

Aden, Gulf of, that part of the sea lying between 
Arabia and Adel, and extending from the Strait of Bab-el- 
Mandeb to the Indian Ocean or Arabian Sea. On some 
maps this is marked as the Arabian Gulf. Length, about 
500 miles. 

Adept' [Lat. adeptus, from ad, “for,” and aptus, 
“fitted”], a term applied to a person who is skilful or well 
versed in any art or science; formerly applied especially to 
an alchemist who was supposed to have discovered the 
secret of turning base metal into gold, or to have found the 
philosopher’s stone. 

Ader'no, a town of Sicily, at the foot of Mount Etna, 
17 miles N. W. of Catania. Pop. in 1861, 12,877. 

A'dersbach Rocks, a remarkable group of high and 
detached sandstone rocks, near the village of Adersbach, 
in the N. E. part of Bohemia. They present fantastic 
forms, and occupy an area of several miles in extent. One 
of the pinnacles is over 200 feet high. 

Adet (Pierre Auguste), a French chemist and poli¬ 
tician, born at Nevers in 1763. He was sent by the French 
Directory as ambassador to the United States in 1795, but 
he suspended his functions in 1797, for the alleged reason 
that the American government had violated its neutrality. 
Died in 1832. 

Adhe'sion [Lat. adhe'sio, from ad, “to,” and hse'reo, 
hse'sum, to “stick”], the attractive force which causes the 
smooth surfaces of two substances to adhere together, or 
which causes a fluid and solid to unite. The amount of 
adhesion between solid surfaces is measured best by the 
adhesion balance of J. J. von Prechtl. Capillary attrac¬ 
tion is an instance and particular manifestation of adhe¬ 
sion. 

Adhesion, a term used in botany to denote the union of 
contiguous parts, as when the petals adhere and form a 
monopetalous corolla; the calyx often adheres to the ovary, 
and then seems as if it grew from the apex of it. This 
tendency causes great diversity of appearance in the organs 
of plants. 

Adiaph'orites [from the Gr. aS<.a</>opos, “ indifferent ”], 
a name given to Melanchthon, and those who agreed with 
him in submitting, in things indifferent, to an imperial edict. 
When Charles V. in 1548 issued an edict called the Interim, 
relating to disputed religious doctrines, the Protestants be¬ 
came involved in a controversy in which this name origi¬ 
nated. 

Ad'ige [Lat. Ath'esis], a river in Italy, rises among the 
Alps in the Tyrol, where it is called the Etsch. Flowing 
southward, it passes by Trent, and enters Lombardy. After 
passing by Verona, it flows nearly south-eastward, and falls 
into the Gulf of Venice about 13 miles N. E. of Adria. It 
is a rapid stream, about 220 miles long. It is navigable 


from its mouth to Trent, but the velocity of the current 
impedes navigation. 

Ad'ipocere [Lat. adipoce'ra, from ad'eps (gen. ad'ipis), 
“fat,” and ce'ra, “wax”], a substance which results from 
the decomposition of animal bodies, and resembles sperma¬ 
ceti, or a mixture of wax and fat. Human bodies buried 
in wet ground are often reduced to this condition. 

Ad'ipose [Lat. adipo'sus, from ad'eps (gen. ad'ipis), 
“fat”], of the nature of fat, fatty. Adipose tissue is an 
animal membrane which contains the fatty matter. It 
presents an aggregation of very small spherical pouches or 
vesicles filled with fat or oil. This tissue is organized and 
vital, but the fat is not. 

Adiron'dac Mountains, a gi’oup of mountains, the 
highest in the State of New York, occupy parts of the 
counties of Hamilton, Essex, Franklin, and Clinton, and 
are in the N. E. part of the State. The highest summit, 
Mount Marcy, which is in Essex county, is 5370 feet above 
the level of the sea. These mountains, being of primitive 
formation, are remarkable for grand and picturesque sce¬ 
nery. They are covered with forests of maple, ash, beech, 
pine, hemlock, cedar, and other trees, and abound in game. 
A number of lakes occur among the Adirondacs, which are 
also drained by the Saranac and Ausable rivers. The Ad¬ 
irondacs are a favorite resort for summer recreation. The 
waters abound in trout, and deer and other game is to be 
found in the forests. Iron ore and lumber are obtained 
here. 

Adirondac, a former village of Newcomb township, 
Essex co., N. Y., about 1800 feet above the level of the 
sea, and 100 miles N. N. W. of Albany. Here are rich 
beds of magnetic iron-ore, and several iron-works, now 
abandoned. The village was near Lake Sandford, which 
is 11 miles long and is navigable. 

Ad'it [Lat. ad'itm, from ad, “to,” and e'o, i'tum, to 
“go”], a horizontal passage and entrance into a mine, de¬ 
signed partly to drain water from it. Adits occur chiefly 
in mountainous regions, and are sometimes several miles 
long. 

Adja'cent Angle, an angle contiguous to another, so 
that one side is common to both angles. 

Ad'jective [Lat. adjectivum, from ad, “to,” and jacio, 
jactum, to “cast,” to “put”], in grammar, the name of a 
class of words which are joined to nouns, in order to qual¬ 
ify the general ideas expressed by the nouns. 

Adjourn'ment, a term applied to the postponement 
of the pi’oceedings of the U. S. Congress, or of either house 
of the British Parliament, from one time to another speci¬ 
fied time. It differs from prorogation, which is an act of 
royal authority, whereas the power of adjournment is 
vested in each house respectively. 

Ad'jutant [Lat. adju'tans, from adju'to, to “ assist ”], 
the title of a military officer who assists the superior officer 
of an army, regiment, etc. He carries orders from the 
chief to the subordinate officers, and collects the reports 
which are made by the latter to the former. He inspects 
escorts and guards, keeps the journal or account-book of 
the regiment or division, and acts as secretary to his chief. 
In the U. S. a regimental adjutant ranks as first lieutenant. 

Ad'jutant ( Cico'nia ar'gala), an East Indian bird, al¬ 
lied to the stork, is called argala by the natives. It is 
about five feet high, has long legs and an enormous bill, 
and can swallow a cat or a small leg of mutton with the 
greatest facility. It is very useful as a scavenger, clean¬ 
sing the streets and public squares of various offal and 
dead animals. The famous marabou feathers are obtained 
from the adjutant and a kindred species, the marabou 
(marabout) of Africa. 

Adjutant-General, the principal organ of the com¬ 
mander of an army in publishing orders. The same organ 
of the commander of a division, brigade, geographical di¬ 
vision, or department is styled assistant adjutant-general. 
The laws of the U. S., however, provide for but one adju¬ 
tant-general, with the rank of brigadier-general (colonel 
after vacation of office by present incumbent), made by 
regulations chief of a bureau of the war department, and 
charged with the recruiting service, records, returns, etc.; 
two assistant adjutants-general, with the rank of colonel ; 
four with the rank of lieutenant colonel; and thirteen with 
the rank of major. The bureau duties of adjutants-gen¬ 
eral and assistants are—publishing orders in writing; mak¬ 
ing up written instructions, and transmitting them; recep¬ 
tion of reports and returns; disposing of them; forming 
tables showing the state and position of corps; regulating 
details of service; corresponding with the administrative 
departments relative to the wants of troops; corresponding 
with the corps, detachments, or individual officers serving 
under the orders of tho same commander; and the method- 
















42 


AD LATUS—ADMIRALTY 


ioal arrangement and care of the records and papers of his 
office. The active duties of adjutants-general consist in 
establishing camps; visiting guards and outposts; muster¬ 
ing and inspecting troops ; inspecting guards and detach¬ 
ments; forming parades and lines of battle; the conduct 
and control of deserters and prisoners; making reconnais¬ 
sances; and in general discharging such other active duties 
as may be assigned them. 

Adjutant-General of a State. See Militia. 

Ad La'tus (t. e. “at the side,” implying readiness to 
assist), a term applied to persons sent, as aids, with an am¬ 
bassador, especially when the latter is unable to speak the 
language of the court to which he is ordered. In Austria 
the term is applied to generals who are given as aids to the 
commandant of an army corps or province. 

Ad'ler (Georg J.), Ph. D., a German philologist, born 
at Leipsic in 1821, came to the U. S. in 1833. He was for 
some time professor of German in the University of New 
York. He wrote several German and Latin school man¬ 
uals, and an excellent German and English dictionary. 
Died in New York Aug. 24, 1868. 

Ad'lerberg (Vladimir Feodorovitch), Count, a Rus¬ 
sian general and minister of state, born in 1793, served in 
the campaigns of 1812-14, was major-general in the Turkish 
campaign of 1828, and was made lieutenant-general in 
1833. He also held the positions of general director of the 
mails, minister of the imperial house, and chancellor of the 
Russian orders. Of his sons, Alexander and Nicholas are 
both lieutenants-general and adjutants-general to the em¬ 
peror. Nicholas was appointed governor-general of Fin¬ 
land in 1866. 

Ad'lercreeta (Carl Johan), Count, a Swedish gen¬ 
eral, born April 27, 1757, served against Piussia in 1788, 
and in the Finnish war of 1808. On Mar. 13, 1809, in con¬ 
sequence of several unpopular actions of the king, Gus- 
tavus IV., he arrested the king in the name of the people, 
which act gained him great popularity. Died Aug. 21, 
1815. 

AtUIer Sal'vius (Johan), a celebrated Swedish ambas¬ 
sador and diplomatist, was born in Strengnas, Sweden, in 
1590, and died at Stockholm in 1652. He was sent by Gus- 
tavus Adolphus on various missions of importance, and 
during the Thirty Years’ war he enjoyed the fullest con¬ 
fidence of that monarch. After the conclusion of peace 
he returned to Sweden, and Avas created a councillor and 
baron. Throughout his life a firm friendship existed be- 
tAveen him and the celebrated chancellor Oxenstiern. 

Ad'lersparre (George), Count, a Swedish officer and 
statesman, born Mar. 28, 1760, took part in the Avars of 
1788 and 1808 against Russia, and in the deposition of 
Gustavus IV. He received many indications of favor from 
the new king, but was dissatisfied with the result of the 
revolution, because he had not gained as much influence 
as he desired. He published from 1830-33 a number of 
secret documents, as Avell as his correspondence with Charles 
XIII. and others, in consequence of which he was sentenced 
to pay a fine. He nevertheless continued to publish these 
documents. Died Sept. 23, 1835. 

Ad liib'itum (?. e. “at (or according to) pleasure”), 
often employed by physicians in giving directions about 
taking some harmless medicine; also used in music to in¬ 
dicate that a certain part may be played according to the 
taste of the performer. 

Adme'tus [Gr. ’AS^ro?], son of Pheres, Avho was the 
mythical founder and first king of Pherm in Thessaly. He 
was one of the Argonauts, and took a part in the Caly- 
donian Hunt. He Avon the hand of Alcestis by coming to 
the suit in a chariot draAvn by boars and lions, that being 
a condition imposed by the bride’s father, Pelias. The god 
Apollo procured from the Fates a grant that Admetus might 
be exempt from death if his father, mother, or Avife should 
die for him. The touching story of Alcestis and her devo¬ 
tion, death, and restoration to life is the subject of one of 
the most celebrated tragedies of Euripides. 

Administra'tion [from the Lat. ad, “for,” and min- 
istro, ministratum, to “be a servant”]. This word literally 
signifies “management” or the conduct of business. It is 
often used to indicate the action of the executive depart¬ 
ment of government, as distinguished from the legislative 
and judicial. It sometimes is employed Avith reference to 
trust funds, but its technical meaning is the management 
or disposition, according to laAv, of the personal estate of 
an intestate or of a testator having no executor. The 
common-laAv distinction betAveen heirs on the one hand and 
executors and administrators on the other, should be noted. 
When an owner of real estate died, his estate devolved upon 
his heirs, who were persons related to him by blood; when 
an owner of personal property died, leaving a testament or 
will, that branch of his estate devolved upon his executors,. 


if such Avcre named ; if there Avere none, then upon admin¬ 
istrators appointed by a court of justice. Administration 
in this sense Avas in England under the control of the ec¬ 
clesiastical courts until 1857, when it devolved upon a 
newly-created court of probate. In the U. S. it is gene¬ 
rally vested in special tribunals termed probate, or orphans’, 
or surrogates’ courts. By such a court administration is 
conferred on the person or persons entitled to it by the 
local rules of law. It is in general committed first to the 
AvidoAV or husband, then to the children, and then to the 
other next of kin, in a prescribed order. The court has 
power of selection among the next of kin in equal degree. 
These provisions are substantially copied from early Eng¬ 
lish statutes. The person thus entrusted Avith the admin¬ 
istration is called an administrator. The court grants him 
“letters of administration” as evidence of his authority. 
He represents the deceased. He must make an inventory 
of the personal estate, collect the assets, and convert the 
property into cash, pay the debts, render an account, and 
distribute the balance in his hands among the persons en¬ 
titled to it. He is a trustee, and under the control of a 
court of equity as Avell as of the probate court. 

When the deceased leaves a will, but there is no executor, 
the person to whom administration is granted is termed an 
administrator “Avith the will annexed” (cum testamento 
annexo). In this case the Avill is to guide the administra¬ 
tor in his duties. Should an administrator die before his 
duties are fulfilled, another is appointed to perform the res¬ 
idue of his functions, called “ administrator de bonis non.” 

While an administrator exercises full control over the 
personal estate of the deceased, his authority is confined 
to it unless it is insufficient to pay debts : in which case 
the probate court generally has by statute the right to di¬ 
rect him to sell enough of the real estate to satisfy them. 

Letters of administration confer no poAver to bring ac¬ 
tions in foreign states. Where there are assets in another 
state or country, a subordinate or ancillary administrator is 
appointed, who acts under the direction of the foreign court, 
and remits according to its order any funds which he may 
receive to the principal administrator. T. W. Davigiit. 

Ad'miral [Fr. amiral ], the title of a naval officer of the 
highest rank, supposed to be derived from the Arabic amir 
al bdhr, Avhich signifies “ chief ” or “commander of the sea.” 
The English form of the word was formerly amiral, as in 
Milton’s “ Paradise Lost.” The admirals of the British 
na\*y are divided into three classes (according to the color 
of their flag), and are styled admirals of the red, of the 
white, and of the blue. The admiral of the red commands 
the centre of a fleet disposed in battle-array. Vice-admiral 
is the title of the officer next in rank to the admiral; and a 
rear-admiral is the third in the scale of subordination. 

The grades of rear-admiral and commodore in the U. S. 
navy were first established by act of July 16, 1862, which 
provides that the number of each grade shall not exceed 9 
rear-admirals, 18 commodores, 36 captains, 72 commanders, 
144 lieutenant-commanders, 144 lieutenants, 144 masters, 
and 144 ensigns. Squadrons would be commanded by rear- 
admirals, and the individual vessels thus: First rates by 
commodores; second rates by captains; third rates by com¬ 
manders ; fourth rates by lieutenant-commanders. By act 
Of Congress of Dec. 21, 1864, the President was authorized 
to appoint from the rear-admirals one vice-admiral, Avho 
shall be the ranking officer in the navy of the U. S., and 
Avhose relative rank Avith officers of the army shall be that 
of lieutenant-general in the army. This grade Avas created 
for and bestowed upon Rear-Admiral Farragut. By act of 
July 25, 1866, it Avas provided that the number of officers 
of each grade on the active list should be 1 admiral, 1 vice- 
admiral, 10 rear-admirals, 25 commodores, 50 captains, 90 
commanders, 180 lieutenant-commanders, ISO lieutenants, 
160 masters, 160 ensigns, and in other grades the number 
now alloAved by laAv. The rank of admiral thus created 
Avas bestoAved upon Vice-Admiral David Farragut. It is 
uoav (1873) held by David D. Porter. 

Revised by J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Ad'miralty [from the word admiral ], the tribunal 
Avhich has cognizance of maritime causes. This court Avas 
established in England about the time of EdAvard III., and 
was at first held before the lord high admiral or his deputy. 
At present, admiralty jurisdiction is there exercised by the 
judge ot the admiralty, who holds an instance or a prize 
court by means ot separate commissions ; the former bcin 0, 
the ordinary admiralty court, and the latter being a special 
tribunal instituted in time of Avar to take cognizance of 
matters pertaining to prizes. In the U. S. exclusive ad¬ 
miralty and maritime jurisdiction is by the Constitution 
delegated to the Federal courts. 

It Avas lor a long time an unsettled question Avhethcr the 
word as there used had the limited sense employed in the 
early English statutes of 13 and 15 Rich. II., ‘restricting 





















■I 

ADMIRALTY—ADRIA. 43 


admiralty jurisdiction, or whether it had a wider significa¬ 
tion. The latter view has finally prevailed, principally 
owing to the arguments of Mr. Justice Story; and the 
word embraces not only cases occurring on tide-waters, but 
on navigable streams above tide-water, including the great 
lakes. It rests with Congress to determine upon what court 
the jurisdiction shall be conferred. It has accordingly vested 
it in the first instance in the district court. No distinction 
is taken here between the instance and the prize court. 

Admiralty jurisdiction is either civil or criminal. Its 
civil jurisdiction embraces cases of maritime contracts 
(such as affreightment, repairs of ships, bottomry bonds, 
pilotage, seamen’s wages, and salvage), general average, 
collisions, and maritime trespasses in general. The prin¬ 
ciples and course of practice of the court in civil cases are 
in the main derived from the Roman or civil law. 

Admiralty, the office of lord high admiral of England; 
also the department of the navy or the commissioners who 
control the navy. The chief minister of marine in Great 
Britain is styled first lord of the admiralty. 

Admiralty Islands, a cluster of islands in the Pacific, 
N. E. of Papua. The largest is nearly 60 miles long, and is 
in lat. 2° S., Ion. 147° E. 

Admis'sions [from the Lat. admitto, admissum, to 
“send to,” to “suffer one to enter”], in the law of evi¬ 
dence, are acknowledgments or concessions by a person of 
the existence of certain facts. When they relate to the mat¬ 
ter in dispute, they are admissible in evidence against the 
party making them. They may be made either by a party 
to an action or by some one identified with him, as by a 
partner. The admissions of an agent will affect his prin¬ 
cipal. Those made by a predecessor in interest will affect 
his successor. Thus, the admissions of an ancestor will 
charge an heir. In form, an admission may be either di¬ 
rect or implied from conduct, or in some instances even 
from silence. The effect of an admission is usually only to 
raise a presumption against the party, which he may rebut; 
but some admissions are regarded as of so high a character 
that the law will not allow them to be contradicted. (See 
Estoppel, by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Ado'be, the name of the sun-dried bricks of ivhich 
houses are built in Mexico, Arizona, California, and Central 
America. The adobe brick is made of sandy loam, and the 
houses are usually only one story high. 

Adol'phus (or A'dolph) of Nassau was elected em¬ 
peror of Germany in 1292, as successor to Rudolph of 
Hapsburg. In 1298 the German princes transferred the 
imperial crown to Albert, but Adolphus refused to abdicate. 
A war ensued between these rivals, and Adolphus was killed 
in battle in July, 1298. 

Adol'phus Fred'erick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp and 
king of Sweden, was born May 14, 1710. He was elected 
bishop of Lubeck in 1727, crown-prince of Sweden July 3, 
1743, and became king on April 5, 1751. The Swedish 
nobles continued their arrogance under him to the utmost, 
so that at last he threatened to resign. In consequence of 
this the parliament revoked the restrictions of the royal 
prerogatives. Died Feb. 12, 1771. 

Adol'phus (John), an English historian and lawyer, 
born in 1766. He was noted for eloquence, and practised 
with great success in criminal causes. His defence of Thistle- 
wood, accused of treason, in 1820, was highly commended. 
His principal work is a “History of England from the Ac¬ 
cession of George III.” (7 vols., 1805-45). Died July 16, 
1845. 

Ad'onai [an ancient plural of Heb. “]"HX, “ Lord,” with 
suffix denoting a pronoun of the first person; cf. Fr. mon¬ 
sieur], a term applied in the Hebrew Scriptures to God. 
Owing to the veneration of the Hebrews for the most sacred 
name of the Deity, Jehovah (or Yahveh) was not pronounced 
in reading the Scriptures; but Adonai was read instead of 
it wherever it occurred. When the Hebrew text came to be 
vocalized, the proper pointing of Adonai, was given 

to mrr (? Jehovah), so that the true pronunciation of the 
latter name has been lost. 

Adon'ic Verse is composed of a dactyl and a spondee 
(or of a dactyl and a trochee). It is specially adapted to 
lively poetry, but is seldom used alone, being generally com¬ 
bined with other metres. The beautiful and well-known 
Latin hymn, however, commencing with 

“ Plaudite coeli, 

Rideat aether,” etc., 

affords an instance in which this metre runs through the 
whole piece. 

Ado'nis [Gr. ’ASwcis], a youth who was celebrated in 
ancient poetic legends as a model of youthful beauty and a 
favorite of Venus. Addicted to the pleasures of the chase, 
he was killed by a wild boar. An annual festival in honor 


of Adonis, called Adonia, was celebrated in Asia Minor and 
other countries bordering on the Mediterranean. He was 
called Thammuz by the Hebrew writers. —Adonis was also 
the name of a river which rose in Mount Lebanon, and 
flowed through Phoenicia into the sea. 

Adonis, a genus of herbaceous plants, of the natural 
order Ranunculacem, natives of Europe. Several species 
of this genus are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. 

Ad'onists, a name given to some biblical critics who 
maintain that the Hebrew points usually annexed to the 
consonants of the word Jehovah are not the proper points 
belonging to that word. 

Adop'tian Controversy, The, originated in Spain 
near the end of the eighth century. Felix, bishop of Urgel, 
and Elipandus, archbishop of Toledo, advanced the doctrine 
that Christ was by nature and generation the Son of God 
only as regards his divine nature, but as to his human 
nature he was merely the Son of God by adoption. Those 
who espoused these views were called Adoptionists (in Lat. 
AdojJtiani). They have been called the Nestorians of the 
West. No particular notice was taken of them so long as 
they confined the propagation of their opinions to Moham¬ 
medan territory, but when they undertook to spread the new 
doctrine in the Frankish empire, Charlemagne promptly 
put a stop to it by convening two synods, one at Ratisbon 
(792), another at Frankfort (794), both of which condemned 
Adoptianism as heresy. Elipandus, who still adhered to 
his views, died in 799. Felix recanted at the Council of 
Aix-la-Chapelle in 799, and died in 816. 

Adop'tion [from the Lat. ad, “ to,” “ for,” and optio, a 
“choice”], in law, is the taking a child of other parents as 
one’s own. The practice, which was common in ancient 
Rome, was recognized by the civil law, and is found in 
countries and states where that law and its modifications 
still prevail. In some other states the matter is regulated 
by statute. The parents, guardians, next of kin, or other 
legal representative of the child, must in general give con¬ 
sent after notification of the intent to adopt. Adopted 
children do not, in most countries, inherit property coming 
from collateral relatives of the adoptive parents. Adop¬ 
tion is usually authorized by a probate court or other es¬ 
tablished authority after due notice. The adoption of an 
adult person is known in the civil law as adrogation. 

Ador'no (Antonio), a doge of Genoa, was driven out 
and re-established three times in succession. It was by his 
persuasion that the Genoese agreed to the treaty, signed 
Oct. 26, 1396, which rendered them subjects of Charles VI. 
of France. The violence of the Genoese, however, soon un¬ 
did what Adorno had advised them to do. 

Adour, a river of South-western France, rises in the 
Pyrenees and flows north-westward. After passing by 
Dax, it pursues a S. W. direction, and enters the Bay of 
Biscay a few miles below Bayonne, which is on its bank. 
Length, about 200 miles. It is navigable to Dax. 

Adowah, or Adoa, the capital of the Abyssinian 
province of Tigre, is situated in a well-cultivated and popu¬ 
lous plain near the ruins of Axoom, the former capital of 
Abyssinia. It is the most important commercial town of 
Abyssinia. Pop. about 5000. 

A'dra (anc. Abde'ra ), a seaport of Spain, in Andalusia, 
46 miles S. E. of Granada. Here are extensive lead-mines. 
Pop. about 7400. 

Adrain' (Robert), LL.D., born at Carrickfergus, Ire¬ 
land, Sept. 30, 1775, served as an officer in the rebellion of 
1798, was badly wounded, escaped to the U. S., was pro¬ 
fessor of mathematics in Rutgers College (1810-13), Colum¬ 
bia College (1813-25), and the University of Pennsylvania 
(1827-34). Died at New Brunswick, N. J., Aug. 10, 1843. 

Adramy'ti (the ancient Adramyt'tium), a seaport of 
Asia Minor, on the Gulf of Adramyti, 83 miles N. of 
Smyrna. It exports olives, wool, and gall-nuts. Pop. about 
8000. 

Adraste'a [Gr. ’ASpao-reia, perhaps from a, negative, and 
SiSpacncw, to “ escape,” because her punishments were cer¬ 
tain], a Greek surname or epithet for the goddess Nemesis, 
who administered retribution for iniquity.—Also, a nymph 
of Crete, to whom, with Ida and the Curetes, Rhea entrusted 
the infant Zeus in the Dictman grotto. 

Adras'tus [Gr. ''ASpao-ro?], a king of Argos and a con¬ 
temporary of Theseus, was the father-in-law of Polynices. 
He commanded the famous expedition called the war of the 
“Seven against Thebes,” the objectof which was to restore 
Polynices to the throne of Thebes. This enterprise, which 
was not successful, was a favorite theme of ancient epic and 
tragic poets. 

A'dria, or Iia'dria, an ancient town of Italy, situ¬ 
ated between the Po and the Adige, in the province of 
Rovigo, 13 miles E. of Rovigo. It was in ancient times a 


















44 


ADRIAN—ADVERB. 


seaport on the Adriatic, but it is now 14 miles from that 
sea. Pop. 12,803. 

A'drian, the county-seat of Lenawee co., Mich., is a 
flourishing city, distinguished for the elegance of its public 
and private buildings. Its streets are wide and lined by 
shade trees. It is situated on rolling ground, and is inter¬ 
sected by the S. branch of the river Raisin, which, besides 
affording perfect drainage, furnishes water-power. The 
city is divided into four wards, which are represented by 
two aldermen each in the city council, of which body the 
mayor is chairman. It possesses a handsome central pub¬ 
lic school building costing $100,000, built of brick and 
sandstone. There are also four branch school buildings in 
the different wards. The total valuation of school property 
is not less than $250,000. The schools are controlled by a 
board of six trustees, two of whom are elected annually. 
The annual expenditures for education, including interest 
and payment of bonds, amount to about $25,000. Adrian 
possesses a well-organized paid fire department employing 
two steam fire-engines, one hook-and-ladder truck, and a 
mounted Babcock fire-extinguisher; total valuation of ap¬ 
paratus, horses, and real estate, $50,000. Manufactures 
are railroad lanterns, car trimmings, locks, and all kinds 
of brass and malleable iron work, employing 100 men and 
$250,000 working capital. The Adrian Car and Manufac¬ 
turing Company manufactures railway and street cars, em¬ 
ploying from 200 to 300 men and $300,000 actual capital. The 
leading car-shops of the Lake Shore and Michigan South¬ 
ern R. R. are also located here. Adrian is situated on the 
main line of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. R., 
30 miles W. of Toledo and 74 miles S. and W. of Detroit, 
between which cities and Chicago it is the principal pas¬ 
senger point. Another railroad, connecting with the Grand 
Trunk at Grand Trunk Junction, and having St. Louis 
as its objective point, is rapidly being constructed. The 
city has a national bank, two daily and weekly, and two 
exclusively weekly papers, one in the German language. 
Among its other industries are 3 large foundries and 1 
machine-shop, 1 paper-mill, manufacturing both printing 
and wrapping paper, and employing 30 hands and $75,000 
capital; 1 woollen mill, 2 steam sash and blind and turning 
establishments, and numerous wagon and blacksmiths’ 
shops. It has 5 large hotels, and several minor ones. Its 
mineral spring and hotel is much frequented. The Masonic 
Temple, a prominent building, cost $100,000. The opera- 
house, which is handsomely frescoed and is capable of 
seating 1500 persons, cost in its erection and equipment 
$30,000. Adrian College, a leading Methodist institution, 
is healthfully located on the western boundary of the city. 
On Monument Square is a beautiful marble shaft surmount¬ 
ing a freestone base, on the different panels of which are 
the names of those soldiers from Adrian who lost their lives 
in the civil war. Surveys have been made for a system of 
water-works to cost $100,000. A street railway from the 
depOt to the college is projected. Pop. 8438; of Adrian 
township, exclusive of part of the city, 1451. 

Applegate & Fee, Pubs. “ Times and Expositor.” 

Adrian, a township of Monroe co., Wis. Pop. 003. 

Adrian, emperor of Rome. See Hadrian. 

A'drian [Lat. Adrianus ] I., a native of Rome, was 
elected pope in 722. Ilis dominions were invaded by the 
king of the Longobards, against whom Adrian was de¬ 
fended by Charlemagne. Under this pontiff Rome enjoyed 
more than usual prosperity. Died in 795. 

Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspear), the only Eng¬ 
lishman who ever attained the dignity of pope, was born 
near St. Albans. He became cardinal-bishop of Albano in 
1146, and was chosen pope in 1154. He was a strenuous 
asserter of papal supremacy. Died in 1159. 

Adrian VI., a native of Utrecht, and a preceptor of 
the emperor Charles V., succeeded Leo X. in 1521. He 
favored reform, and was honest and virtuous. Died in 1523. 

Adriano'ple [anciently Adn'anopolis; Turk. Ed- 
reneK], a large city of European Turkey, on the river Ma- 
ritza (the ancient Ilebrus), 130 miles W. N. W. of Constan¬ 
tinople. The name is derived from the Roman emperor 
Hadrian, who founded a city here. It was the capital of the 
Ottoman empire from 1366 until 1453. Here is the famous 
mosque of the sultan Selim, which is said to be the finest 
Moslem temple extant, and has four lofty minarets. Among 
the other public structures are a palace, the bazaar of Ali 
Pasha, and an aqueduct by which the city is supplied with 
water. Here are extensive manufactures of silk, cotton, and 
woollen stuffs. Among the exports are opium, leather, 
wool, and attar of roses. Adrianople is the residence of the 
governor-general of the vilayet Edreneh, and of a Greek 
bishop. Pop. estimated at from 100,000 to 150,000. 

Adriat'ic Sea [Lat. Mare Adriaticum ], a portion of 
the Mediterranean, lying between Italy on the one hand 


and Illyria and Albania on the other. The name was de¬ 
rived from the town of Adria. It is about 500 miles long 
from N. W. to S. E., and has a mean width of about 100 
miles. The N. W. part of it is called the Gult of Venice, 
and at the S. E. end it is connected by the Strait of Otranto 
with the Ionian Sea. The N. E. coast is rocky, and begirt 
with a great number of islands. The depth and extent of 
the Adriatic have been greatly diminished by deposits of 
sand and mud and by the formation of alluvial tracts along 
the shore. The encroachment of the land is most remark¬ 
able on the W. and N. W. coasts of the Gulf of Venice. 

Adul'tery [Lat. adulterium\, criminal sexual inter¬ 
course between a married person and one of the opposite 
sex, whether married or single. This act has been pun¬ 
ished by the laws of some nations with great rigor—among 
the ancients often with death. In the English law the act 
is not treated as a temporal crime, but left to the cogni¬ 
zance of the spiritual courts. A civil action for damages 
may by common law be brought by a husband against one 
who has committed adultery with his wife. This is called 
an action “for criminal conversation.” It is also a ground 
of divorce—at first partial, but now, by statute, total. In 
some of the States of this country adultery has been made 
a crime, while in others the English law in its substance 
still prevails, and only the civil proceedings are allowed. 

Advancement [Old Fr.], in law, is a provision of 
money or other property, made by a parent for a child in 
advance or anticipation of the estate or distributive share 
to which such child would be entitled on the parent’s 
death. An expenditure for the education and maintenance 
of a child is not regarded as an advancement. It must 
be made with a view to a portion or settlement in life. 
The parent’s intent is the main subject of inquiry. In the 
English law of real estate it only applies in case of several 
female heirs, who take the interest called coparcenary. In 
the American law of descent the subject is of general ap¬ 
plication. The effect of an advancement is to reduce the 
child’s share to that extent, estimating the value as of the 
time of the receipt. An advancement differs from a debt 
in that the latter can be recovered by action, while the 
former can only be deducted from a distributive share. It 
is at the option of the person advanced to bring in to the 
general distribution the amount received or not. In the 
English law the act of bringing it in is termed hotchpot. 
The doctrine strictly applies only to cases of intestacy. 
There is a cognate doctrine termed “ ademption,” appli¬ 
cable to the case of property left by will. In this country 
the subject is often governed by statute, sometimes estab¬ 
lishing distinct rules for real and personal estate. The 
word “advancement” is also used in the law of trusts to 
indicate that a purchase of land made in the name of a 
wife or child or other person as to whom the purchaser 
stands in the place of a parent shall actually belong to 
such person, and shall not, by the fiction of a resulting trust, 
revert beneficially to the purchaser. T. W. Dwigiit. 

Advancement of Science. The British Associa¬ 
tion for the Advancement of Science was founded in 1831 
by Sir David Brewster, Sir John Ilerschel, Sir Humphry 
Davy, and others. The American Association for the Ad¬ 
vancement of Science was formed in 1847. 

Ad'vent [Lat. adven'tus, from ad, “to,” and ve'nin, 
ven'turn, to “come,” referring to the coming of Christ], a 
term applied by the Church to the period of four weeks 
preceding Christmas. The Catholics, and some Protestants, 
observe Advent by abstaining from public amusements and 
nuptial festivities. The Greek Church lengthens the period 
to six weeks. 

Ad'ventists, a body of Christians found chiefly in the 
U. S., whose distinctive characteristic is a belief in the 
speedy advent or second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. In 
1833, William Miller of Massachusetts was led by the study 
of the prophecies of the Bible to the belief that the second 
advent and the final judgment would occur in 1843. He 
had at one time about 50,000 followers; and notwithstand¬ 
ing the failure ot this and other predictions fixing a def¬ 
inite date, there are, it is believed, about 20,000 members 
of the Adventist churches, who at present do not presume 
to foretell the period of the second advent, but live in ex¬ 
pectation of that event. They generally practice adult im¬ 
mersion, believe in the necessity of a change of heart and 
a godly life, in the ultimate annihilation of the wicked, 

and in the sleep of the dead until the final judgment._ 

There is a separate organization of Seventh-Day^Advent- 
ists, which in 1872 had 40 ministers, 46 licentiates, 204 
churches, and 4801 members. 

Ad'verb [Lat. adverbium, from ad, “to,” and verbum, a 
word ], one of the parts of speech in grammar. Adverbs 
are in all languages indeclinable (though sometimes subject 
to the change of form known as comparison), and are used 



























ADVERSE POSSESSION—AEGIUM. 45 


to express modifications of verbs, adjectives, or other ad¬ 
verbs, as to place, time, cause, manner, intensity, certainty, 
conditionality, quality, quantity, etc. The function of an 
adverb is often performed by sentences or parts of sen¬ 
tences. Most English adverbs are formed by adding the 
suffix ly to an adjective or its root, though many are not 
thus formed. 

Adverse Possession. See Disseizin. 

Ad'vocate [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and voco, vocatum, 
to “call”], a word which in the ecclesiastical and civil law 
courts corresponds to counsellor or counsel in common law 
courts. The term by which the members of the bar in 
Scotland (following the civil law) is known is the Faculty 
of Advocates. In a popular sense, the word denotes a de¬ 
fender or protector generally, especially one who pleads for 
his client in open court. 

Advocate, Lord, is in Scotland the title of an im¬ 
portant public functionary, the public prosecutor of crimi¬ 
nals and the senior counsel for the Crown in civil causes. 
He is sometimes styled king’s (or queen’s) advocate, and is 
the first law-officer of the Crown for Scotland. 

Advocate of the Church [Lat. advocatus ecclesise], 
in the Middle Ages a canon or a layman, often a prince or 
baron, who assumed the protection of a bishop’s see, a 
monastery, or a particular church. Sometimes the office 
was hereditary, when it appears to have implied the duty 
of defending the Church’s rights by force of arms. Oftener, 
perhaps, it was held by an advocatus causarurn, a person 
appointed by a prince to defend the Church temporalities 
in secular courts of law. They often administered justice 
in the name of the Church. They collected tithes and other 
revenues, and were frequently priests who enjoyed lucrative 
benefices. The people suffered so severely from their op¬ 
pressions that Pope Urban III., in 1186, undertook to re¬ 
form the abuse; but so great was the opposition of the 
Church and nobles that it was not for many years that the 
evil was modified. 

Advocates, Faculty of, is the title of the associated 
members of the legal profession in Scotland. This society 
was formed in 1532. 

Advocates’ Library, the largest library of Scotland, 
belongs to the Faculty of Advocates, and is located in Ed¬ 
inburgh. It was founded in 1682 by Sir George Macken¬ 
zie, and contains about 200,000 volumes. It ranks as the 
fourth library in the number of volumes in Great Britain. 

Advoca'tus Diab'oli (?. e. the “devil’s advocate”), a 
phrase applied in the Roman Catholic Church to a person 
whose business is to magnify the faults or detract from the 
merit of those who are jiroposed to be canonized as saints. 
He is opposed by an advocatus Dei, or “ God’s advocate.” 
An advocatus diaboli nearly prevented the canonization of 
Saint Charles Borromeo in 1610. 

Advovv'son, in English law, the right of presentation 
to an ecclesiastical benefice or a vacant living in the 
Church. The lord of a manor by building a church ac¬ 
quired the right of nominating the minister, and as long 
as this right continues annexed to a manor it is called an 
advowson appendant. Most of the benefices of the Eng¬ 
lish Church are presentative advowsons, which are re¬ 
garded as property, and are bought and sold. Of nearly 
12,000 church benefices, about one-half belong to the 
Crown, the bishops and other higher clergy, the universi¬ 
ties, etc.; the remainder are in the gift of private persons. 
In most cases, however, the bishop has a right to reject the 
appointee if he chooses. 

Ad'ytum [Gr. aSvrov, “inaccessible”], the innermost 
shrine of a temple or sacred building, accessible only to 
certain priests and others duly initiated. Of a similar 
character was the “holy of holies” in the Temple of Jeru¬ 
salem. The adytum, or cella, was the place where the deity 
worshipped was believed to be especially pi’esent. Some 
writers have called the innermost recesses of the human 
spirit the “adytum.” 

AEchmal'otarch [from the Gr. aix/xaAwTo? (from alxnv, 
the “ point of a spear,” and aAow, to “ be taken ”), “ taken 
with the spear,” and ap^w, to “ rule”], the title of the gov¬ 
ernor of the captive Jews residing in Chaldsea, Assyria, and 
the adjacent countries. He was called by the Jews them¬ 
selves roschgaluth, “chief of the captivity.” 

iE'dile [Lat. sedi'lis, from te'des, a “temple” or “build¬ 
ing ”], a Roman magistrate who superintended the temples 
and other public buildings, the public games and spectacles, 
and performed various other duties. Two curule aediles 
were annually elected. There were also “plebeian mdiles.” 
Colonies and other towns had aediles. This office was one 
of dignity and honor, though reckoned as a minor magis¬ 
tracy. (See Schubert, “ De Romanorum Adilibus,” 182S.) 

Ae'don [Gr. ’A^Stov], in Greek mythology, a daughter 


of Pandareus of Ephesus. According to the Odyssey, she 
was the wife of Zethus, king of Thebes. Envious of Niobe, 
her brother Amphion’s wife, she attempted to slay the eld¬ 
est son of the latter, but by mistake killed her own child, 
Itylus. Zeus changed her into a nightingale, whose sad 
notes are the expression of Aedon’s woe. There are other 
and different traditions as to Aedon’s crime and suffering, 
but in all she is transformed into the nightingale. 

AEge'an Sea [Lat., AEY/as'um Ma're; Gr. Ai-yoloy7T€Aayo?, 
perhaps from cayi's, a “ squall,” though other etymologies 
have been given], or Grecian Archipelago, the name 
given by the ancients to that part of the Mediterranean 
between Asia Minor and Greece. Its length from N. to S. 
is about 400 miles, and its breadth about 200. It is very 
deep, and encloses numerous islands, several of which are 
of volcanic origin, while others are composed of white 
marble. Many of them rise to the height of 1600 feet. 

yEgilUitis Colon'na, an eminent schoolman, born at 
Rome in 1247 of an illustrious stock. He was the pupil 
of Aquinas and Bonaventura, and became an Augustinian 
hermit. In 1292 he became prior-general of his order. 
He went to France, where Philip the Bold made him tutor 
for his son, afterwards Philip the Fair. In 1296 he became 
archbishop of Bourges. For many years he taught with 
applause in the University of Paris, and was called Doctor 
Fundatissimus and princeps theologorum. Died Dec. 22, 
1316. He left a great number of writings, most of which 
are now in MS. 

ZEgi'na [Gr. Alyiva], Egina, or Engia, an island of 
Greece, in the Gulf of Agina ( Saron'icus Si'nm), 16 miles 
S. S. W. of Athens. It is 8 miles long, and nearly the same 
in width. It is of an irregular^ triangular shape. Area, 
41 square miles. The western half is a fertile plain; the 
remainder is diversified by mountains, hills, and valleys, 
which produce almonds, wine, olive oil, etc. This island 
is celebrated for its architectural remains. (See Aginetan 
Sculptures.) Pop. 6000. At the N. W. end of the island 
is the modern town of Egina. Mount St. Elias, the highest 
point of the island, is in lat. 37° 42' N., Ion. 23° 30 r E. 
The island is difficult to approach. 

AEgina, Gulf of (the ancient Saron'icus Si'nus), is a 
portion of the Agean Sea lying between Attica and the 
Morea. It contains the islands of Agina and Salamis. 

iEgine'tan Sculptures. The small island of Agina 

contains very interest¬ 
ing remains of ancient 
sculpture. On an emi¬ 
nence in the eastern 
part of the island stand 
the ruins of a temple, 
usually called the tem¬ 
ple of Jupiter Panhel- 
lenius, but now be¬ 
lieved to have been a 
temple of Athena. 
Among these ruins a 
series of statues, six¬ 
teen in number, were 
excavated by a com¬ 
pany of Germans, 
Danes, and English- 
Ituins in Agina. men in 1811, and are 

now in the Glyptothek 
at Munich. The various figures that have been discovered 
seem true to nature, as in the old Greek style, with the 
structure of bones, muscles, and even veins, distinctly 
marked; but the faces have that unpleasant, forced smile 
which is characteristic of all sculpture before the time of 
Phidias. (See Muller, “ Agineticorum Liber,” 1817.) 

yEgi'ra [Gr. Alyeipa], one of the twelve cities of the an¬ 
cient Achsean confederation in Greece. It probably stood 
near the sea and on the river Crius, though its site is not 
well known at present. It was chiefly famous for its tem¬ 
ples of Zeus, Apollo, Artemis, and Aphrodite Urania (the 
“ heavenly Venus,” a goddess who was especially worshipped 
here), as well as of other divinities. This town is called 
Hyperesia by Homer. 

iEgisHhus [Gr. Alyicrflo?], in classic mythology, a son of 
Thyestes, and an adopted son of Atreus. He seduced Clytem- 
nestra while Agamemnon was absent, and was her accom¬ 
plice in the murder of that king. He was killed by Orestes. 

iE'giiim [Gr. Myiov, now Vostitza'], a city of ancient 
Greece, belonged to the c Acha)an League, and after 373 was 
the chief city in that confederation, of which it was long the 
capital. It had a good harbor to the W. of the river Seli- 
nus. Remains of its ancient buildings are yet to be seen. 
The modern town is a place of some importance. It is 
surrounded by gardens. On Aug. 23, 1817, it was visited 
by an earthquake which destroyed two-thirds of the houses. 
































































4G 


JEGLE MARMELOS—ARABIANS. 



iEgle Marmelos. 


magnitude, present a singular and striking appearance. It 
is popularly known in India as the bel or bael (sometimes 
incorrectly written bhel) fruit. It has a hard but rather 
thin shell or rind, resembling in consistency the shell of a 
squash, and contains a soft, yellowish pulp of a peculiar 
flavor, esteemed delicious by many, and abounding in a 
bland, transparent mucilage (with which the seed-cavities 
in particular are filled), which, it is said, renders this fruit 
singularly beneficial in dysentery and other complaints at¬ 
tended with irritation of the bowels. The seeds are situ¬ 
ated in a small cavity which they do not nearly fill, the re¬ 
maining space being occupied by the transparent mucilage 
already described. The half-ripe fruit, dried, has recently 
been introduced into the British pharmacopoeia under the 
name of Bela; it is mildly astringent, and is said to be 
very efficacious in cases of diarrhoea and dysentery. The 
ripe fruit is an excellent aperient, being very gentle and 
for the most part effectual in its operation. If the culture 
of this valuable fruit could be successfully introduced into 
the West India Islands and the southern parts of North 
America, it might richly repay the expense and labor in¬ 
curred in making the experiment. 

iEgospot/ami [Gr. Aiyo? no ra^oi], a small river and a 
town in the Thracian Chersonese, where the Spartan Ly- 
sander defeated the Athenian fleet in 405 B. C. This victory 
ended the Peloponnesian war. A large aerolite fell near 
this place about 465 B. C. 

iEgyp'tus [Gr. Aiyvn-ros], a son of Belus and a brother 
of Danaus, became king of Arabia, and conquered the 
country which derived from him the name of Egypt. Ac¬ 
cording to a legend, he had fifty sons, who were murdered 
(except one) by the daughters of Danaus. (See Danaides.) 

AE'lia Capitoli'na, a name given to the colony which 
was planted by the emperor Hadrian at Jerusalem; this 
title it retained until the time of the Christian emperors. 

Aelst, or Aalst, van (Evert), a skilful Dutch painter, 
born at Delft in 1602. His subjects were dead game, golden 
and silver vessels, etc. Died in 1658.—His nephew Wil¬ 
liam, born in 1620, painted flowers, fruits, and still-life with 
wonderful success. Died in 1679. 

Aeltre, or Aaltere, a large trading village in the Bel¬ 
gian province of East Flanders, 13 miles W. of Ghent. Pop. 
in 1866, 6520. 

yEnc'as [Gr. Aivei'a?], the hero of Virgil’s “iEneid,” 
was, according to tradition, the son of Anchises and the 
goddess Venus. He was one of the most valiant defenders 

* JE'gle [Gr. AiyA.yj, “splendor” or “glorious beauty”], the 
name of one of the Hesperides, was probably applied to this tree 
as meriting a place in the fabled garden which, according to the 
poets, was assigned to the care of those celebrated nymphs. 


of Troy against the Greeks. According to Virgil, he, after 
many adventures and disasters, settled in Italy, and married 
Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus. The origin of the 
Roman state is traditionally ascribed to him and his heirs. 

iEne'itl [Lat. JEne'is] is the title of Virgil’s great epic, 
the most celebrated and beautiful poem in the Latin lan¬ 
guage. It is regarded as an imitation of Homer’s “Iliad” 
and “ Odyssey,” and, in the opinion of most critics, is infe¬ 
rior to them in originality and sublimity. 

iEo'lia [Gr. AtoAia], or iE'olis [Gr. AioAG], a region 
of Asia Minor, so called from the ASolians, who settled there 
and founded several cities on different parts of the coast. 
It was more especially in Lesbos, and along the neighbor¬ 
ing shores of the Gulf of Elea, that they finally concentrated 
their principal colonies, and formed a federal union, called 
the iEolian League, consisting of twelve states and several 
inferior towns. The soil of this country is very fertile. 

iEo'lian Harp, a simple musical instrument, the 
sounds of which are produced by the vibration of strings 
moved by wind. It is formed by stretching strings of cat¬ 
gut, tuned in unison, across a wooden box, which is placed 
in an open window. Athanasius Ivircher (1602-80) was 
the inventor. 

AEo'lians [so named from JE'olus, a son of Hellen], one 
of the primitive tribes of the ancient Greeks. They were 
the dominant race of Thessaly and Boeotia. They founded 
on the western coast of Asia Minor many states or cities, 
among which were Smyrna and Mitylene. The iEolic dia¬ 
lect was harsh, and approached the character of the Doric. 
It preserved the digamma for a long time. The fragments 
of Alcmus and Sappho present the typical iEolic language. 
(See JEolia.) 

AEol'ipile, or iEol'ipyle [from the Lat. sE'olua, the 
“god of the winds,” and pi'la, a “ ball”], a hollow metallic 
ball, having a small orifice with which a curved tube is con¬ 
nected. When filled with water and heated, steam passes 
out violently. It was thought by the ancients to illustrate 
the origin of the winds; hence the name. 

iE'diis [Gr. AloAo?], in Greek mythology, the god who 
controlled the winds and reigned in the iEolian Islands. 
(For an account of his actions and kingdom, see Virgil’s 
“iEneid,” book i., 51-63.) 

yE'oii [Gr. aicov], a Greek word signifying an age, a 
period of time; also eternity. The Gnostics used the word 
aeons in a peculiar sense, as distinct entities or virtues that 
emanated from God before time began. 

AEra'rians [Lat. serarii ], a class of inhabitants of an¬ 
cient Rome who did not belong to any of the tribes or cen¬ 
turies, and who had no civic rights except the protection 
of the state. Any citizen, no matter how high his rank, 


iE'gle* Mar'melos, the scientific name of a remark¬ 
able fruit tree growing in the central and southern parts of 
India, and belonging to the natural order Aurantiacem. It 
sometimes attains the size of a large apple tree, which in 
shape it may be said to resemble, being broad and spread¬ 


ing, rather than high. The fruit is always of a somewhat 
irregular form, and when mature varies in size from five to 
eight or nine inches in diameter. At the season when it is 
fully ripe there are no leaves on the trees, which, with their 
naked branches supporting here and there a truit of such 



















7ERARIUM—AERONAUTICS. 


47 


for bad conduct might be degraded to the rank of an aera- 
rian by the censors, but the punishment was not in all cases 
a lifelong one. The Coerites seem to have been aerarians; 
at any rate, the disfranchisement of a citizen was sometimes 
called “in Cseritum tabulas referri or “ being placed in 
the list of CEerites.” Persons declared infamous became 
agrarians. This class is also believed to have included a 
large number of small retail merchants, who came to Rome 
from the provinces without authority, and were received 
into no tribe. Agrarians paid a heavy tax, but were ex¬ 
empt from military duty. 

^Era'rium, the public treasury in the temple of Saturn 
at Rome, in which money and the public accounts and 
archives were kept. Besides the regular treasure, there 
was an serarium sacrum, or reserve, and later a military 
treasury. The funds belonging to the popidus, or patri¬ 
cians, was called publicum, and kept in a separate treasury, 
though in the same building. 

A'erateil Bread [from the Lat. «e>, “air”], an un¬ 
fermented bread, the ingredients of which are wheat flour, 
salt, carbonic acid, and water. The carbonic acid is tho¬ 
roughly mixed with the flour and water in air-tight vessels 
by means of machinery especially adapted to this purpose, 
so that it is as light as the best fermented bread. 

A'erated Waters are extensively used to allay thirst 
in feverish conditions. The most common of these is car¬ 
bonic acid water, incorrectly called soda-water, for it sel¬ 
dom contains soda. It is prepared by placing chalk or 
marble in a vessel with water and sulphuric acid, when the 
carbonic acid is evolved in the form of gas. The latter is 
afterwards forced into water under pressure, so that the 
water dissolves about five times its own volume of the gas. 
It forms a brisk, sparkling liquid, with a pungent but 
pleasant taste. The use of leaden reservoirs for aerated 
water is not without danger of poisonous effects. When 
copper lined with silver or tin is used, it requires, for safety, 
to have the lining renewed at least as often as once in two 
years. Carbonic acid water is, when iced, a most refresh¬ 
ing drink in sea-sickness and in many cases of disease. 
The effervescing draughts called soda powders and seidlitz 
polvders are other forms of aerated beverages. In the 
former, bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid are added to 
water in a tumbler, and a refreshing draught instantane¬ 
ously prepared. Seidlitz powders contain tartrate of soda 
and potassa and bicarbonate of soda in one paper, and tar¬ 
taric acid in the other; and when both are added to water, 
effervescence ensues, and the liquid is then taken. A more 
agreeable and useful purgedive aerated water is the effer¬ 
vescing solution of citrate of magnesia in carbonic acid 
water, the invention of an American pharmacist. Aerated 
waters are also produced naturally. Water, as it comes 
from a spring, tastes differently from the same water after 
being boiled; and this is due to the unboiled water con¬ 
taining the gases oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid— 
especially the latter—dissolved in it. Rain water has a 
mawkish taste, chiefly because of the impurities dissolved 
in it; but when that rain water trickles down through the 
earth, it is filtered and purified, and absorbs more or less 
air and gas. When it is dashed from ledge to ledge of rock, 
it becomes still more thoroughly aerated. Many spring 
waters are aerated in a peculiar way, which confers upon 
them important medicinal properties ; these will be noticed 
under the head of Mineral Waters, by C. F. Chandler. 

Ae'rial Perspective, in painting, is the art of giv¬ 
ing due gradation to the strength of light and shade and 
the colors of objects, according to their distances; or the 
laws which regulate the apparent distances of bodies, as 
modified by the variations in the transparency of the air or 
in the brightness of the light. 

iE'rians, an heretical sect founded in the fourth century 
by iErius, a native of Pontus. They were Homoiousians 
(?. e. they maintained that the Son was similar to the Father 
in essence, but not identical with him). 

Aerodynam'ics [Lat. aerodinam'ica, from the Gr. arjp, 
“air,” and Swap. is, “power”], the dynamics of the air, and 
of gaseous bodies generally; the phenomena exhibited by 
gaseous bodies, whether at rest or in motion under the ac¬ 
tion of forces. These phenomena are seldom treated inde¬ 
pendently ; but are in part common to all fluids, gaseous or 
liquid. As peculiar to gases, they present themselves in 
innumerable special forms; e.g. the transmission of sound; 
the movements of projectiles; of the pendulum; of rail¬ 
way trains, etc. Also in pneumatics, in aeronautics, in the 
application of the force of the wind as a mechanical power, 
and to navigation, etc. 

Aeroe, u/ro'eh, or Arroe, a Danish island in the Bal¬ 
tic, 10 miles S. of Funen, is 14 miles long and about 5 miles 
wide. It is fertile and well cultivated. Pop. about 12,400. 
Aerolites. See Meteors, by Prof. II. A. Newton. 



Aerom'eter [from the Gr. d>?p, “air,” and perpov, “a 
measure ”], an instrument formerly used to make the neces¬ 
sary corrections in pneumatic experiments to ascertain the 
mean bulk of gases. 

eronau'tics 

[from the Gr. dijp, 
“ air,” and vavrijs, 
a “sailor”]. The 
ci'cdit of the in¬ 
vention of the bal¬ 
loon (1783)is con¬ 
ceded to Stephen 
and Joseph Mont¬ 
golfier, sons of a 
paper - maker at 
Annonay, near 
Lyons, France; 
but the principles 
on which a bal¬ 
loon could be con¬ 
structed were al¬ 
ready pretty gen¬ 
erally known to 
scientific men. The Jesuit Francis Lana of Brescia in 
1670 projected a balloon which, though impracticable of 
construction, was founded upon the fundamental principle 
established by Archimedes that a body will float upon or be 
suspended in a fluid denser than itself. Curiously, the 
Jesuit anticipated recent visionary schemes of application 
to offensive warlike purposes, in the prediction that “ no 
walls or fortifications could then protect cities, which might 
be completely subdued or destroyed, without having the 
power to make any sort of resistance, by a mere handful 
of daring assailants, who should rain down fire and confla- 
gi'ation from the region of the clouds.” 

The Montgolfier balloon by which, June 5, 1783, the first 
public ascent was made, was a spherical bag consisting of 
pieces of linen, merely buttoned together, suspended from 
cross poles ; two men kindled a fire under it, and kept feed¬ 
ing the flames with small bundles of chopped straw; the 
loose bag gradually swelled, assuming a graceful form, and 
in the space of five minutes it was completely distended, 
and made such an effort to escape, that eight men were re¬ 
quired to hold it down. On a signal being given, the stays 
were slipped, and the balloon instantly rose with an accel¬ 
erating motion till it reached some height, when its velocity 
continued uniform, and carried it to an elevation of more 
than a mile; but its buoyant force being soon spent, it re¬ 
mained suspended only ten minutes, and fell gently in a 
vineyard, at the distance of about a mile and a half from 
the place of its ascension. 

The substitution of hydrogen (the lightest of all gases, 
generated by the application of dilute sulphuric acid to 
iron filings) for smoke (or the heated products of combus¬ 
tion) was soon after tried by M. Charles of Paris with ulti¬ 
mate success. But hydrogen is troublesome to make, and, 
moreover, expensive. Coal gas (carburetted hydrogen), 
easily obtained from gas-works, has almost superseded it in 
modern times, though much heavier (about two-fifths the 
density of air). The balloon itself is made of varnished 
silk or calico or rubber cloth, and enveloped in a netting to 
which the suspending cords of the car are attached. 

The balloon offered to scientific men a ready method of 
exploring, for scientific purposes, the higher regions of the 
atmosphere. Of the earlier ascents perhaps the most note¬ 
worthy are those made by Biot and Gay-Lussac. The latter 
(Sept. 15, 1804) ascended to the height of 23,040 feet or 4J 
miles above the level of the sea, and 1600 feet higher than 
the loftiest pinnacle of our globe. But this feat was sur¬ 
passed by Messrs. Glaisher and Coxwell in an ascent from 
Wolverhampton in 1862. The precise elevation they 
reached could only be guessed, but it could scarcely be less 
than 35,000 feet, and might possibly extend to 37,000 feet, 
or seven miles. 

Mr. Glaisher, who is the greatest authority on the phe¬ 
nomena of balloon ascension, having ascended higher than 
any other and always for scientific purposes, has given the 
following table for the diminution of density of the air: 


At the height of 1 mile the barometer reading is 24.7 in. 

“ 2 miles “ 

<( g « « 

(t 4 u “ 

u r: << “ 


O 

10 

15 

20 


20.3 

16.7 

13.7 

11.3 
4.2 
1.6 
1.0 


less. 


Concerning temperature the result of all his mid-day ex¬ 
periments is thus expressed: 

“The change from the ground to 1000 feet high was 4° 
b' with a cloudy sky, and 6° 2' with a clear sky. At 10,000 
feet high it was 2° 2' with a cloudy sky, and 2° Avith a clear 
sky. At 20,000 feet high the decline of temperature was 






































48 AERONAUTICS. 


1° 1' with a cloudy sky, and 1° 2' with a clear sky. At 
30,000 feet, the whole decline of temperature was found to 
be 02°. Within the first 1000 feet the average space passed 
through for 1° was 223 feet with a cloudy sky, and 102 feet 
with a clear sky. At 10,000 feet the space passed through 
for a like decline was 455 feet for the former, and 417 feet 
for the latter; and above 20,000 feet high the space with 
both states of the sky was 1000 feet nearly for a decline of 
1°. As regards the law just indicated, it is far more nat¬ 
ural and far more consistent than that of a uniform rate of 
decrease.” ( British Quarterly, Oct., 1871.) 

One of the most important determinations to be made, 
especially in connection with aerial navigation, is that of 
the atmospheric currents. So long as, without power of 
self-propulsion, the balloon is committed to the air to be 
borne as it lists, it is scarcely correct to talk of navigation. 
That there is some degree of certainty in air-currents may 
be indicated by a curious fact mentioned by M. Flamma- 
rion (a distinguished French aeronaut)—namely, that the 
traces of his various voyages are all represented by lines 
which had a tendency to curve in one and the same general 
direction. “Thus,” says he, “on the 23d of June, 1867, 
the balloon started with a north wind directly towards the 
south-south-west, and, after a while, due south-west, when 
we descended. A similar result was observed in every ex¬ 
cursion, and the fact led me to believe that above the soil 
of France the currents of the atmosphere are constantly 
deviated circularly, and in a south-west-north-east-south 
direction.” (Id.) 

On the 12th of Jan., 1864, Mr. Glaisher left the earth, 
where a south-east wind was prevailing. At a height of 
1300 feet, he was surprised to enter a warm current, 3000 
feet in thickness, which was flowing from the south-west, 
that is, in the direction of the Gulf Stream itself. At the 
elevation in question the temperature, according to the 
usual calculation, should have been 4° or 5° lower than 
that at the ground, whereas it was 3i° higher. In the re¬ 
gion above, cold reigned, for finely-powdered snow was 
falling into this atmospheric river. Here, therefore, was 
a stream of heated air previously unsuspected, which, if 
its course is steady, as it appears to be during winter, con¬ 
stitutes a prodigious accession to our Resources, and adds 
another to the many meteorological blessings the world en¬ 
joys. (Idem.) 

“The meeting with this south-west current” (writes Mr. 
Glaisher) “ is of the highest importance, for it goes far to ex¬ 
plain why England possesses a winter temperature so much 
higher than our northern latitudes. Our high winter tem¬ 
perature has hitherto been mostly referred to the influence 
of the Gulf Stream. Without doubting the influence of 
this natural agent, it is necessary to add the effect of a par¬ 
allel atmospheric current to the oceanic current coming 
from the same regions—a true aerial Gulf Stream.” (Idem.) 

It is the result of meteorological observations made at the 
Smithsonian Institute and elsewhere that in the temperate 
zones of our continent the resultant direction of all the 
winds is from the west. During the time of sailing vessels 
the average length of a voyage from America to England 
was scarcely more than one-half of that in the opposite 
direction. All thunder-storms come to us from the west. 
The higher clouds are perpetually seen moving eastward. 

From the published letters of Prof. Henry to Mr. Wise, 
the aeronaut, concerning his proposed aerial voyage across 
the Atlantic, the following extracts are made: 

“All the observations that have been made on the motion 
of the atmosphere, as well as the deductions from theoretical 
considerations, lead to the conclusion that the resultant mo¬ 
tion of the air around the whole earth, within the temper¬ 
ate zones, especially about the middle of them, is from west 
to east, and therefore, provided a balloon can be sustained 
at a sufficient height and for a sufficient length of time, it 
would, under ordinary circumstances, be wafted across the 
Atlantic. But the question is, Can the balloon be sustained 
at a sufficient height and for a sufficient length of time to 
make the journey ? This is a question that can be deter¬ 
mined only by actual experiment. ... I had no doubt 
of the fact that, if your balloon can be sustained in the air 
sufficiently long, a voyage might be made across the Atlan¬ 
tic; but this is the point which, it would appear to me, from 
my partial knowledge of what has been accomplished in the 
art of ballooning, is yet to be satisfactorily established. No 
one, however, has had more experience in the art than your¬ 
self, and you ought not to venture on the hazardous jour¬ 
ney without the fullest assurance that the balloon can be 
sustained at the requisite elevation for, say, ten days.” 
(New York Times, July 11, 1873.) 

In the above (as is believed) is found the sole basis for 
the notion of reaching by balloon the European continent 
from ours. Some attempts have been made to apply mathe¬ 
matical analysis to the determination of the general direc¬ 
tion of the winds, but the imperfect knowledge of the re¬ 


condite data and the difficulty of defining them analytically 
are insuperable obstacles. 

A determinate current—a “gulf stream”—might afford 
some slight basis of calculation for an aerial voyage, but 
scarcely enough to form the basis of balloon navigation. 
Self-propulsion has been aimed at by hundreds of invent¬ 
ors, few of whom have possessed knowledge of the real data 
or difficulties of the problem. Among such, however, should 
not be included M. Dupuy de Lome, the celebrated naval 
constructor, who is said to have received a grant from the 
French government to enable him to construct a fish-like 
machine to be worked by a screw, and assisted by a sort 
of swimming bladder. (British Quarterly .) 

An exhaustive mathematical investigation of M. Gustave 
Lambert (“De la Locomotion Mecanique dans Fair ct dans 
l’eau,” Paris, 1864) is presumed to be an exponent of the 
scientific basis upon which M. de Lome founds his project. 
A pamphlet of nearly 100 large and closely-printed octavo 
pages cannot here be summarized. We must content our¬ 
selves with a statement of a practical result, premising that 
the idea of a flying machine is pronounced impracticable; 
that while the aerial ship must be self-sustaining, spherical 
or spheroidal forms (such as now in ordinary use) are inap¬ 
plicable. Self-sustenation being attained, the problem is 
asserted to be identical with the naval problem; hence the 
balloons should have forms analogous to those of very sharp- 
built ships. Their length should be ten to twelve times their 
greatest transverse dimensions. The feebleness of tonnage 
compared with the volume of air displaced, imposes enormous 
dimensions. Thus for the driving screw (or helix) 15, 20, or 
even 25 metres of radius may be necessary. The figures sug¬ 
gested for the very smallest type are as follows : Cross-sec¬ 
tion, 200 square metres (about 46 feet diameter); length, 
120 metres (400 feet); tonnage, about 15 tons; speed, 40 
metres per second (88 miles per hour); engine, 360 horse¬ 
power, driving a screw of 4 arms of 15 metres radius at a 
rate of 45 revolutions per minute. The carcass of the bal¬ 
loon, or rigid framework, “is arranged upon the tubular 
principle of Stevenson.” The covering to consist of an 
exterior gummed envelope, made very smooth, and an in¬ 
terior envelope (containing hydrogen) divided into air-tight 
compartments. As the total weight diminishes by the con¬ 
sumption of the fuel, air is admitted into these compart¬ 
ments in place of the hydrogen. The screw shaft extends 
from end to end, traversing, through packing boxes, the 
partitions; by which mutual points of support are obtained. 
It is believed that such a structure need not weigh more 
than 5 tons; and hence 10 tons will be allowed for the 
navigators, the engine, the water, and the fuel. The author 
admits that if ordinary marine engines are taken as types 
the allowance is greatly inadequate ; but he thinks a high- 
pressure cylinder engine of 60 horse-power can be made 
to weigh only 6 tons, by which a speed of 20 to 25 metres 
per second (44 to 55 miles per hour, equal to that of a “gale 
of wind”) may be had. There will remain 4 tons (of ton¬ 
nage) to spare, of which one ton is assigned to naviga¬ 
tors and water and three tons to fuel, by which a run of 50 
hours’ duration may be made. The author supposes that, 
for ordinary voyages, 55 miles per hour will (except in 
cases of strong head-winds) allow supply stations to be 
reached in much less than 50 hours; generally in 10 hours. 
Furthermore, with the apparatus as just described, it would 
be possible to go, with fair wind, from Paris to New York. 
This assertion (in the author’s language) “is neither hazard¬ 
ous, utopian, nor rash ; it is a solution which the reader may 
verify with the figures before him.” The author anticipates 
that ultimately engines of very high jiressure, of 400 horse¬ 
power, and weighing but 5 or 6 tons, may be counted upon, 
and even that a “steam-turbine” can be realized, by which 
the weight of cylinders, cranks, and connecting rods will be 
dispensed with; and finally that if gun (or explosive) pow¬ 
ders can be substituted for steam, a speed of 100 metres per 
second (220 miles per hour) may be realized, and 24 hours’ 
fuel-supply carried. 

The author whose results we have thus epitomized con¬ 
cludes by what he entitles “ Proposition pratique ” to form 
a “ &ociete pour la locomotion aerienne” with a capital of 
five millions of francs, by which to make experimental con¬ 
structions. 

Mr. Glaisher, whose aeronautic experience has been al¬ 
ready alluded to, expresses no such hopes. He tells us that 
he has attempted no improvement in the management of 
the balloon, that he found it was wholly at the mercy of the 
winds, and that he saw no probability of any method of 
steeling it ever being discovered. (British Quarterly Rev.) 
But Mr. Glaisher s field of thought and observation has 
been, as regards aerial navigation, quite diverse from our 
author’s, and the problem is not to be decided by an ipse 
dixit of this kind. 

At the commencement of the French Revolutionary war, 
about ten years after the production of the Montgolfier 























AERONAUTICS. 49 


balloons, an Aerostatic Institute was formed by command 
of the French Directory (at the suggestion of Guyton de 
Morveau) in the Ecole Polytechnique, and under its super¬ 
intendence reconnoitring war balloons were constructed by 
a M. Cout6, and supplied to each republican army in the field. 
The army of the Rhine and Moselle was provided with 
two—viz., the “ Hercule ” and “ Intrepide;” another named 
the “ C61este” was prepared for the use of the army of the 
Sambre and Meuse; the “ Entreprenant” for the army of 
the North; and a fifth was destined for the army of Italy. 
That attached to the army of the Sambre and Meuse, under 
Gen. Jourdan, was first used May, 1791, by Col. Coutelle, 
at Maubeuge, before Mayencc, in reconnoitring the ene¬ 
my’s works. This balloon, which was 27 feet in diameter, 
and took at first fifty hours to inflate, was retained to the 
earth by two ropes, and the aeronauts communicated their 
observations by throwing out weighted letters to the gen¬ 
eral beneath. After this method of reconnoitring had been 
successfully practised four or five days, a seventeen-pounder 
gun was brought down to a neighboring ravine, and (being 
thus masked) suddenly opened fire upon the balloon. Sev¬ 
eral shots were fired without effect, and the machine was 
then hauled down; but the next day the gun was forced to 
retire and the reconnoissances were then carried on as be¬ 
fore. After two or three weeks, the balloon was removed 
to Charleroi, distant from Maubeuge about 36 miles. To 
save the expense and trouble of another inflation, it accom¬ 
panied the troops at a sufficient height to allow the cavalry 
and baggage wagons to pass beneath, ten men marching 
on either side of the road, and each man holding a separate 
rope attached to the balloon, which was thus retained at its 
proper elevation. After making one observation on the 
way, the balloon arrived before Charleroi at sunset, and the 
captain had time before close of day, to reconnoitre the 
place with a general officer. Next day they made a second 
observation in the plain of Tumet, and at the battle of 
Fleurus, which took place on the following day, June 17, 
1794, the balloon was employed for about eight hours, hov¬ 
ering in rear of the army at an altitude of 1300 feet. {Prof. 
Paper, R. E., vol. xii.) 

This notable instance of the successful employment of a 
reconnoitring balloon is thus commented upon in the French 
history, “ La Guerre de la Revolution de France“ Ce fut 
a cette bataille (Fleurus), que l’onfit, pour la premiere fois, 
l’essai d’un areostat, avec le secours duquel le General 
Jourdan put etre parfaitement instruit des dispositions et 
des mouvemens d’ennemi; ainsi, cette decouverte regardee 
jusqu’ alors comme un objetde pure curiosite, dut etre, des 
cet instant, range parmi les inventions utiles.” {Idem.) 

We hear too of balloons at a battle near Liege and in the 
sieges of Mayence and Ehrenbreitstein in 1799. That we 
hear no longer of them during the Napoleonic wars is evi¬ 
dence that no adequate results were obtained from them. 

An attempt was, however, made to revive them in the 
African campaign of 1830, but there was no opportunity for 
making use of them. The Austrians are said to have em- 
ployed reconnoitring balloons before Venice in 1849, and 
the Russians in observing from Sebastopol. The French 
again made use of them in the late Italian campaign of 
1859, but this time the service was in charge of civilian 
aeronauts, the MM. Godard. Ascents were made from 
Milan, Gargonzola, Castenedolo, and the Castiglione Hills; 
and, according to the Timex Paris correspondent (in the 
letter dated 11th of Jan., 1862), they proved great failures, 
as judged from a military point of view. {Idem.) 

The balloon was tried for our service in the recent civil 
war. Ascents were made from our lines on the north of the 
Potomac, during the fall of 1861, with no material results. 
It formed a part of our equipage and impedimenta during 
the Virginia peninsula campaign, including the siege of 
Yorktown and the operations before Richmond. The writer 
is not aware of a single official report recording any mate¬ 
rial service rendered by the balloon, but numerous news¬ 
paper paragraphs concerning it have been quoted, like the 
following referring to the battle of the “ Seven Pines,” or 
“Fair Oaks,” of June 1, 1862: “During the whole of the 
engagement on Sunday morning, Prof. Low’s balloon hov¬ 
ered over the Federal lines at an altitude of about 2000 feet, 
and maintained successful communication with Gen. Mc¬ 
Clellan at his head-quarters. It is asserted that every 
movement of the Confederates armies was distinctly visible, 
and instantaneously reported.” {Times, June 17, 1862.) 

The balloons in use were of two sizes—the smaller of about 
30 feet diameter containing 1300 cubic feet, and the larger of 
double this capacity. The latter size I believe are found 
preferable. While encamped before Richmond, Capt. F. 
Beaumont, R. E., spent some time in our camp (part of 
which as a guest of the writer) and paid particular atten¬ 
tion to our balloons. I avail myself of his labors {vide 
Prof. Paper, R. E., vol. xii.) for a description : 

« The balloons were made of the best and finest descrip- 
4 


tion of silk, double sewn and prepared with the greatest 
care; the summit of the balloon containing the gas valve 
being made of either three or four folds of cloth, to ensure 
sufficient strength in that part subject to the greatest strain. 
The varnish, on which the success of the apparatus much 
depends, was a secret of Mr. Low’s, the chief aeronaut, his 
balloons kept in their gas a fortnight or more, and their 
doing so he laid to the fact of the varnish being particu¬ 
larly good; there was always a small amount of leakage, 
still at the end of a fortnight sufficient gas remained in the 
balloon to enable him to make an ascent without its being 
replenished. In balloons for military purposes this is an 
important point, as they must be kept ready to ascend at 
any moment. I have little doubt, however, that many well 
prepared varnishes could be found to answer the purpose 
as well; the network covering the bag was gathered in, in 
the usual manner, and ended in a series of cords attached 
to a ring, hanging about level with the tail of the balloon, 
and from this hung the wickerwork car, the ring being 
about level with a person’s chest when standing upright in 
the car. The string for working the valve passed through 
the centre of the balloon, and coming out at the tail was 
loosely tied to the ring, to which were fastened the guys, 
three in number ; thus the car, though swayed about by the 
motion of the balloon, hung always nearly vertically be¬ 
neath it. 

“The gas generators, two in number, were nothing more 
than large tanks of wood, acid proof inside, and of sufficient 
strength to resist the expansive action of the gas; they 
were provided with suitable stop-cocks for regulating the 
admission of the gas, and with man-hole covers for intro¬ 
ducing the necessary materials. The gas used was hydro¬ 
gen, and indeed for practical purposes, all things consid¬ 
ered, there is none other that is nearly so suitable; its 
low specific gravity makes it a sine qua non for a military 
aeronaut, as independently of the ease with which it is pro¬ 
duced, when a balloon is attached to the earth it is of the 
first importance that it should offer as little resistance to 
the air as possible, as its stability depends upon this point. 
The hydrogen was generated by using dilute sulphuric acid 
and iron; any old iron, such as bits of the tires of wheels, 
old shot broken up, etc., was used ; so that it was necessary 
to provide only the sulphuric acid, which in large quantities 
is cheap, and with proper precautions very easy to carry. 

“ The gas generated passed through a leathern tube into 
a lime purifier, and thence in a similar manner into a sec¬ 
ond, the action of the lime simply absorbing the carbonic 
acid and other extraneous gases, and sending the hydrogen 
quite, or very nearly pure, into the balloon. On leaving 
the generator its temperature was high, even the leathern 
pipe being so hot that the hand could hardly bear to touch 
it, but after passing the second purifier it was delivered, 
barely warm, into the balloon. The whole of the appa¬ 
ratus was so simple that nothing more remains to be said 
about it. 

“In using it the balloon is unpacked and laid in well-or¬ 
dered folds on a carpet spread on the ground to receive it; 
the tail is then placed ready for connection with the last 
purifier, properly charged with lime and water, and the 
connection by leather pipes between the purifier and the 
generator having been established, the latter is charged; 
care must be taken not to complete the communication be¬ 
tween the last purifier and the tail of the balloon until a 
clear stream of hydrogen is obtained, so as to avoid getting 
foul air into the machine. Under ordinary circumstances, 
in three hours from the time of the machine being halted, 
it can be prepared for an ascent; but this, should circum¬ 
stances require it, might be shortened by employing two 
generators and making a suitable alteration in the purify¬ 
ing arrangement. Such alteration, however, would rarely 
be necessary, as the balloon, when inflated, can, unless in 
very windy weather, be very readily carried; twenty-five 
or thirty men lay hold of cords attached to the ring and 
march along, allowing the machine to rise only sufficiently 
to clear any obstacle that there may be in the way. 

“ Each generator required four horses to draw it, and 
each balloon, with the tools, etc., four horses. The sul¬ 
phuric acid it is essential to keep in a carriage to itself, 
but two horses will draw a sufficient quantity of concen¬ 
trated acid to last for a long time. The undermentioned is 
a resumd of the balloon corps and apparatus with General 
McClellan’s army: 

“ Balloon Corps. 

1 chief aeronaut, } requiring 2 in- 

1 captain, assistant do., # \ structed men. 

50 non-commissioned officers and privates, J 

“ Apparatus. 

2 generators, drawn by 4 horses each. 

2 balloons, “ “ 4 horses each (including tools, 

spare ropes, etc.). 

1 acid cart, “ “ 2 horses. 






















50 aerophytes. 


“When the machine is inflated it is kept to the ground 
by a series of sand-bags which are hooked on to the net¬ 
work, so that they can be disengaged at a moment’s notice; 
thus confined, with the sentry to guard it, the machine re¬ 
mains unhurt in any weather short of a very violent wind 
storm, in which case it should be hauled down altogether. 

“ When it is required for an ascent, the captain and some 
thirty of his men get round the balloon and carry it to tho 
appointed place; the weight to be lifted having been put 
into the car, the ballast is so adapted, that including a 
couple of bags of sand, which it is not safe to go up with¬ 
out, there should be a buoyancy of, say, 20 or 30 pounds; 
the three guy ropes having been attached the men leave go 
of the car together and seize the ropes, one of which is led 
through a snatch-block attached to a tree, or some securely 
fixed object; the ropes are then paid out, and the machine 
rises to the required height; the motion of the guy ropes 
is regulated by the aeronaut through the captain on the 
ground. Of course, on the proper manipulation of the 
ropes the convenience and safety of the aeronaut depend.” 

The following extract gives such an accurate idea of 
what could be seen that I quote farther: 

“Most anxious inquiries were made from the observers 
in the balloon, as to the difficulties that lay on the road to 
Richmond. Were there any fortifications round the place? 
Where were the camps, and for how many men? Were 
there any troops in movement near tho present position ? 
and many other questions of equal importance. Now these 
questions were difficult to answer; and even from the bal¬ 
loon many of them could only be replied to with more or 
less uncertainty. From the balloon to the Chickahominy, 
as the crow flies, was about two miles ; thence on to Rich¬ 
mond, eight more. At the altitude of 1000 feet in clear 
weather an effective range of vision of ten miles could be 
got; thus the ground on the opposite side of Richmond 
could be seen; that is to say, houses, and the general occu¬ 
pation of the land became known. Richmond itself was 
distinctly seen, and the three camps of the Confederates 
could be distinguished surrounding the place. 

“ Looking closer the wooded nature of the country pre¬ 
vented the possibility of saying whether it were occupied 
by troops or not, but it could be confidently asserted that 
no large body was in motion. In the same way, on seeing 
the camps round the place one could form a very rough es¬ 
timate of the number of men they were for, but it was im¬ 
possible to say whether there were men in them or not. 
Earthworks, even at a distance of eight miles, could be 
seen, but their character so far off could not be distinctly 
stated, though one could with certainty say whether they 
were of the nature of field or permanent works. The 
pickets of the enemy could be made out quite distinctly 
with supports in rear, thrown forward to the banks of the 
stream. The country from its thickly wooded character 
was peculiarly unfitted for balloon reconnoissances; had it 
been a plain like Lombardy, tho position of any consider¬ 
able body of troops would have been known; as it was, it 
was only possible to say that they were not in motion; this 
could be confidently asserted, as though they might remain 
hid in the woods while stationary, in marching they must, 
at some time or other, come into open ground and be seen. 

“ During the battle of Hanover Court-house, which was 
the first engagement of importance before Richmond, I 
happened to be close to the balloon when the firing began. 
The wind was rather high, but I was anxious to see, if 
possible, what was going on, and I went up with the father 
of the aeronaut. The balloon was, however, short of gas, 
and as the wind was high, we were obliged to come down. 
I then went up by myself, the diminished weight giving 
increased steadiness, but it was not considered safe to go 
hig-her than 500 feet on account of the unsettled state of the 
weather. The balloon was very unsteady, so much so that 
it was difficult to fix my sight on any particular object; at 
that altitude I could see nothing of the fight. It turned 
out afterwards that the distance was, I think, over twelve 
miles, which, from 1000 feet, and on a clear day, Avould in 
a country of that nature have rendered the action in- 
visble.” 

With some considerable experience at Yorktown and be¬ 
fore Richmond, the writer can only say that, while no moans 
of obtaining information in war should be neglected, the 
slight amount obtained by the balloon did not compensate 
for the enormous expense and incumbrance which it in¬ 
volved. An ascent of 1000 feet was the maximum aimed 
at--probably the maximum practicable; for the weight of 
the rope becomes a limiting element to higher ascensions 
by captive balloons. In reality I doubt whether more 
than GOO or 700 feet were ever attained; a very slight wind 
sufficing to carry the balloon off at a large angle with the 
vertical through the point of attachment. With modern 
firearms three miles’ distance from the enemy is about a 
minimum for so large an object, for though the hitting of 


the balloon may involve no great risk to the observer (since 
it would descend slowly) its injury should be guarded 
against. The view at three miles’ distance from GOO feet 
height is anything but a “bird’s eye” one; but at least it 
surmounts all adjacent obstacles. Rut suppose the enemy s 
position lies in a wooded country and extends lor several 
miles. How much of it will be exposed by such a view ? 
If a fortification or a line of battle, with a clear front, is 
the object, there will be improved vision; but to make out 
anything really specific and useful, a telescope (not a mero 
binocular) of high power and (hence) small field is indis¬ 
pensable. Now the motion of the balloon renders the use 
even of the opera-glass difficult; of the telescope absolutely 
impracticable. Only once in all his ascents (before \ork- 
town) did the use of a telescope appear practicable, and of so 
little service had it always proved it had been left behind. 
Descending to obtain- one and reascending, a breeze had 
disturbed the dead calm in which only it can be used. Some 
information was obtained from it before \ orktown—much 
more from the trenches. Before Richmond it rendered no 
service worthy of record. (To those who would study moro 
fully the military uses of the balloon, I refer to the able 
and exhaustive articles by Captain Beaumont and Lieu¬ 
tenant Grover, “Prof. Papers R. E.,” vol. xii.) 

We hear of no use of the balloon for reconnoitring pur¬ 
poses during the recent Franco-German war; but it at least 
proved itself to have a use. During the German siege up¬ 
wards of fifty of these aerial packets sailed from the be¬ 
leaguered metropolis with despatches for the outer world. 
They conveyed about two and a half millions of letters, re¬ 
presenting a total weight of about ten tons. Most of them 
took out a number of pigeons, which were intended to act 
as postmen from the provinces. One called Le General 
Faidherbe was furnished with four shepherd’s dogs, which 
it was hoped would break through the Prussian lines, carry¬ 
ing with them precious communications concealed under 
their collars. The greater number of these balloons were 
under the management of seamen, sometimes solitary ones, 
whose nautical training, it was naturally supposed, would 
qualify them more especially for the duties of aerial navi¬ 
gation. More than one fell into the hands of the enemy, 
having dropped down right amongst the Pi'ussians. In 
some of these cases the crews were generally made prison¬ 
ers, but in others they effected their escape; and more than 
once their despatches were preserved in a very remarkable 
way—in one instance being secreted in a dung-cart, and in 
another being rescued by a forester, and conveyed to Buffet, 
the aeronaut of the “Archimede,” who had been sent out in 
search of them, and had traversed the hostile lines on his 
errand. Many of these postal vessels were carried to a con¬ 
siderable distance, some landing in Belgium, Holland, or 
Bavaria; whilst one, “La Ville d’Orleans,” was swept into 
Norway, and came to anchor about 600 miles north of 
Christiania. A few, unhappily, never landed at all. Le 
Jacquard, which left the Orleans railway station on the 
28th November, with a bold sailor for its sole occupant, 
disappeared like many a gallant ship. It was last observed 
above Rochelle, and probably foundered at sea, as some 
of its papers were picked up in the Channel. “ Le Jules 
Favre” (the second of that name), which set out two days 
subsequently, has arrived nowhere as yet; and one of the 
last of these mail-balloons, the “ Richard Wallace,” is miss¬ 
ing, as much as if it had sailed off the planet into infinite 
space. So long^as these machines continued to be launched 
by day, they were exposed to a fusillade whilst traversing 
the girdle of the Prussian guns, the bullets whistling round 
them even at an elevation of 900 or 1000 metres. To avoid 
this peril it became necessary to start them by night, al¬ 
though the disadvantages of nocturnal expeditions, in 
which no light could be carried, and consequently the 
barometer could not be duly read, were held by many to 
outweigh all the dangers attaching to German projectiles. 

(British Quarterly, Oct., 1871.) 

Another event so exceptional as the siege of Paris may 
again justify tho use of balloons for similar services, and 
in ppen countries they may perhaps occasionally serve use¬ 
fully for military reconnoissances. To science they do not 
appear (as now constructed) capable of adding much to the 
little ( something indeed) they have already given. When 
the “balloon of the future”—that in short which M. Lam¬ 
bert confidently predicts, shall have appeared, then, indeed, 
science, commerce, social and business intercourse, and the 
art of war, may all hail it as an important adjunct; till 
then we must icait. (Sec “Travels in the Air,” by James 
Glaisher, Camille Flammarion, and W. de Fonville, 
London, 1871; “Prof. Papers, Royal Engineers,” vol. xii.; 
“De la Locomotion dans l’air et dans l’eau,” Gustave Lam¬ 
bert, Paris, 1864.) J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

A'erophytes, or Ae'rial Plants [from the Gr. irjp, 
the “atmosphere,” and ^vror, a “plant”], are plants which 
grow in air only, as distinguished from terrestrial plants, or 














AEROSTATIC PRESS—yETHIOPS. 


those which grow in earth, and hydrophytes, or those which 
live under water. The epiphytal orchids and many lichens 
are aerial plants, deriving sustenance from the air and its 
vapors. They are to be distinguished from parasites, like 
mistletoe, which feed on, and not merely grow on, trees, etc. 

Acrostat'ic Press, a machine used to extract the col¬ 
oring-matter from dyewoods and other substances by at¬ 
mospheric pressure. For this purpose a vessel is divided 
by a horizontal partition pierced with small holes. Upon 
this the substance containing the coloring-matter is laid, 
and a cover, also perforated, is placed upon it. The liquid 
which is to dissolve the coloring-matter is then poured on 
the top, and the air being drawn from the under part of the 
vessel by an air-pump, the liquid is forced through the sub¬ 
stance by the pressure of the atmosphere. 

Aerostat'ics. See Aerodynamics. 

AEs'chin es [AicryiVr;?], a celebrated Greek orator, born 
at Athens 387 B. C., was the greatest rival of Demosthenes. 
He served with distinction at the battle of Mantinea (362 
B. C.), and was in early life an opponent of Philip of Mace- 
don. Having been sent with other negotiators on an em¬ 
bassy to the Macedonian court in 347 B. C., he afterwards 
became a friend of Philip and an adversary of Demosthenes, 
who accused Aeschines of receiving a bribe from the king 
of Macedon. He made a famous oration against Ctesiphon, 
because the latter proposed to reward Demosthenes with a 
golden crown, but he was defeated in his contest by the 
matchless eloquence of his rival, and was exiled in 330*B. C. 
He then retired to Pthodes, where he taught rhetoric with 
applause. Three of his orations are still extant; they have 
been edited by Franke (1860) and others. Died in 314 B. C. 

/Es'chyhis [Gr. Aio-yvAo?], an excellent Athenian tragic 
poet, born at Eleusis, in Attica, in 525 B. C. He was the most 
ancient of the three great tragic poets of Greece. He fought 
with distinction at the battle of Marathon (490 B. C.), and 
again at the battle of Salamis. In 484 he gained his first 
prize in tragedy. He composed, it is said, about seventy 
tragedies, and gained thirteen prizes, but he was defeated 
by Sophocles in 468 B. C., soon after which he went to Syra¬ 
cuse, where he was honored by King Hiero. He died at 
Gela, in Sicily, in 456 B. C. According to a commonly re¬ 
ceived tradition, he was killed by a falling tortoiso which 
an eagle dropped. Only seven of his tragedies arc extant— 
viz., “ Prometheus Bound,” “The Seven against Thebes,” 
“The Persians,” “Agamemnon,” “The Female Suppli¬ 
ants,” “ Choephori,” and “ Eumenides.” His “ Oresteia,” 
which is certainly one of the most powerful works of art 
which the human mind ever created, is the only complete 
trilogy which has been left to us. It consists of the three 
tragedies, “ Agamemnon,” “ Choephori,” and “ Eumen¬ 
ides,” and shows in the most striking manner how the 
Greek tragedies which we possess must be considered only 
as parts of greater compositions—as acts of dramas rather 
than as dramas. Its idea is to show the redeeming influ¬ 
ence of the state in the life of mankind. 

iEscula'piils [Gr.’Acr/cArjn-io?], in classic mythology, the 
god of medicine, was a son of Apollo. The poets feigned 
that he raised the dead to life—that he thus offended Pluto, 
who complained to Jupiter, who killed Aesculapius with a 
thunderbolt. He was afterwards worshipped as a god, and 
a temple was erected to him at Epidaurus. According to 
Homer, he had two sons, Machaon and Podalirius. His de¬ 
scendants were called Asclepiadm. 

AEs'culin, or Escoliti (C 21 H 24 O 13 ), a crystalline fluores¬ 
cent glucoside obtained from the bark of the horse-chestnut 
and other trees of the genera JEsculus and Pavia. It pos¬ 
sesses a bitter taste, and is converted by boiling hydro¬ 
chloric or dilute sulphuric acid into glucose and a bitter 
crystalline substance called sesculetin, C 9 II 6 O 4 C 21 II 24 O 13 + 
3H 2 0 = 2C 6 IIi 2 0 6 + C 9 II 6 04. 

AEsir, a'sir (the Norse plural of As or Asa, a word of 
uncertain derivation, but probably allied to the Sanscrit as, 
to “be,” and applied as a name to the gods as “beings,” 
par excellence), the general name of the beneficent deities 
of the Norsemen. The principal ASsir are Balder, Frey, 
Freyia, Frigga, Heimdall, Odin, Thor, Tyr, Vali, and Vidar, 
which will be noticed under their respective heads. 

iE'sop [Lat. xEso'pus; Gr. Aio-wtto?], a celebrated fabu¬ 
list, born about 620 B. C., is supposed to have been a na¬ 
tive of Phrygia. He was a slave in his youth at Athens, 
but afterwards obtained his freedom in consideration of his 
wit. A statue executed by Lysippus was erected to Alsop 
by the Athenians. Many of the fables which in popular 
collections arc ascribed to ACsop are spurious. 

rEso'pus (Cloditjs), a famous Roman tragic actor, was 
a friend of Cicero, and flourished about 75 B. C. His action 
was grave, dignified, and impassioned. He retired from the 
stage in 55 B. C. 


51 


^Estiva'tion [from the Lat. ses'tivo, sestiva'tum, to 
“ spend the summer,” to “ retire for the summer season ”], 
a botanical term, used to denote the manner in which the 
parts of a flower are folded in the bud before it has opened. 
The various forms of aestivation are called valvate, imbri¬ 
cated, contorted, induplicate, reduplicate, etc. 

AEsthet'ics [Gr. aicrdrjrLKos, “fitted for perception”]. 
The word and its cognates were applied by the Greeks in 
relation to the philosophy of perception. In modern phil¬ 
osophy the term is used to denote the scientific classification 
of the faculties through which we apprehend the beautiful 
and the sublime, and which give us the experience of the 
resulting emotions. It involves also the statement and dis¬ 
cussion of the laws which should preside over and condition 
all forms of artistic production, the application of these 
general laws to the special branches of the fine arts in re¬ 
spect to criticism, and the history of the development of 
these laws in practice. The principles of aesthetics were in an¬ 
cient times discussed by Plato, Plotinus,and St. Augustine; 
and in their application to poetry by Aristotle and Horace; 
and in relation to eloquence by Quintilian,and to style by Lon¬ 
ginus. The term was first used in its modern sense in the 
eighteenth century by Alexander Gottlieb Baumgartcn, pro¬ 
fessor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He taught 
that there is in the mind a power or faculty for the appre¬ 
ciation of the beautiful—a power whose existence is not de¬ 
pendent on that of the intellect, though the latter may be 
necessary in order properly to direct and develop the 
aesthetic faculty. Psychologists have classed the operations 
of the mind under three general heads—namely, the Intel¬ 
lect, the Sensibilities, and the Will. The proper object of 
the first is Truth; of the second, Beauty in its various 
forms, including harmony; and of the third, Good or Vir- 
tue. Aesthetics would consequently come under the second 
division, relating as it does to objects or qualities which 
appeal at once to the sensibilities, without any direct refer¬ 
ence to the intellectual power. 

There may be said to be two distinct schools, which differ 
radically respecting the true principles of aesthetic develop¬ 
ment and culture. The one, starting with the standard 
works of art, or with the most perfect models which nature 
offers us, and selecting from each what appears most pleas¬ 
ing or graceful, seeks, by means of these, either by direct 
imitation or indirect suggestion, to create a new work, 
which shall combine as many as possible of the elements 
of the original models. It is obvious that the merits of 
such a work cannot in any case rise above the aggregate 
of the merits of the productions after which it has been 
copied. The other school, recognizing the fact that it is 
possible for transcendent genius to create forms of beauty 
which shall not only excel in their combined effect, but in 
their individual elements, everything that has ever been 
seen in nature or in art, seeks to cultivate the faculty of 
ideal conception, using the works of nature or the models 
of the great masters simply to improve the art of expres¬ 
sion ; or, in other words, the power to translate, as it were, 
our ideal conceptions into forms which can be understood 
and appreciated by the common mind. Those of this school 
would say that such works as the Apollo Belvedere, or Dan- 
necker’s celebrated statue of Christ, could never, in the first 
instance, be formed from actual nature—that, in fact, the 
very power of selecting the most beautiful forms, or the 
most beautiful elements of any particular form, implies the 
existence of an ideal faculty; for if the mind has not some 
standard in itself, but is wholly dependent on what it sees 
for its conception of beauty, why should it not copy the 
faulty as well as the beautiful ? It is, in fact, by trying 
what it sees by the ideal standard in itself, that it knows 
how to select the one and reject the other. 

Aesthetics cannot yet be considered a complete and sys¬ 
tematically developed science, though several of the best 
minds of the last and present century have done much to 
investigate and explain its principles. Among the most 
important works on this subject arc the following: Fried¬ 
rich Theodor Vischer's “Aesthetik, oder die Wissensckaft 
des Schonen ” (“ Aesthetics, or the Science of the Beauti¬ 
ful”), which is perhaps the best and most complete work 
on {esthetics that has yet appeared; Hegel's “Aesthetik,” 
contained in his complete works, published after his death; 
Cousin’s “Le Yrai, le Beau et le Bon” (“The True, the 
Beautiful, and the Good ”) ; Weisse’s “ System der Aesthe¬ 
tik,” 2 vols., Leipsic, 1830; Jouffroy’s “ Cours d'Esthe- 
tique,” Paris, 1842; Ruge’s “ Neue Vorschule der Acs- 
thetik,” 1837 ; Zimmermann, “ Gcschichte der Aesthetik,” 
Vienna, 1858; and Dipped, “ Handhuch der Aesthetik,” 
1873. (See Alison, “On Taste,” 1784; Burke, “The Sub¬ 
lime and Beautiful,” 1756; Bascom, “Alstketics,” 1862; 
H. N. Day, “ The Science of Alsthetics ;” and especially 
Kant, “ Kritik der Urtheilskraft.”) 

Revised by M. B. Anderson. 

iEthiopSo See Ethiops Mineral. 























52 A ETIANS—AFGHANISTAN. 


Ae'tiailS, tlic followers of Aetius, who was in the fourth 
century a deacon, and afterwards a bishop, lie was an 
Arian, but was considered a heretic by both orthodox and 
Arians. His doctrine and followers were condemned in 
359 A.D. 

Ae'tius, sometimes incorrectly written AStius, an emi¬ 
nent Roman general, born in Moesia before 400 A. D. As 
commander of the Roman army in Gaul, he gained im¬ 
portant victories over the Visigoths, lluns, and other bar¬ 
barians about 425-430 A. D. Aetius and Theodoric com¬ 
manded the army which in 451 checked the victorious 
hordes of Attila the Hun, and defeated him in a great bat¬ 
tle at Chalons. He was suspected of treachery by the em¬ 
peror Valentinian III., who killed him with his own hand 
in 454 A. D. 

AEt'na, a township of Logan co., Ill. Pop. 920. 

/Etna, a township of Mecosta co., Mich. Pop. 335. 

/Etna, Mount. See Etna. 

/Eto'lia [Gr. AirwMa], a state or country of ancient 
Greece, was bounded on the N. by Thessaly, on the E. by 
Locris and Doris, on the S. by the Gulf of Corinth, and 
on the W. by the river Achelous. It was intersected by 
the river Evenus, the modern Phidaris or Fidaris. The 
surface is partly mountainous, the scenery magnificent, 
and the climate delightful. The range of Mount Pindus 
extends along the northern part. The ancient iEtolians 
were a warlike, barbarous, and rude people in the age of 
Pericles. iEtolia now forms, conjointly with Acarnania, a 
nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece. (See Acarnania.) 

Aflfec'tetl, or Adfec'teil, a term used in algebra: ap¬ 
plied to an equation, it signifies that two or more several 
powers of the unknown quantity enter into the equation ; 
as, a : 3 — ax 2 + bx — c = 0 , in which there are three different 
powers of x. 

Affet'to, or Affetuo'so, in music, a term prefixed to 
a movement, showing that it is to be performed in a smooth, 
tender, and affecting manner. 

Affida'vit [Late Lat. from ad, “ to,” Jides, “faith, ” dedit , 
“he gave ” (i. e. “he made oath ”)], an oath in writing made 
before some person who has authority to administer an oath ; 
a statement in writing signed by the party making it, and 
sworn to before some authorized officer, who appends and 
signs an official statement to that effect, termed a “jurat.” 
By an extension of its original meaning it is made to in¬ 
clude also cases where an affirmation, authorized by law, is 
taken instead of an oath. An affidavit is made ex parte 
and without cross-examination. It is much used in making 
various motions in court, and in proving conveyances ex¬ 
ecuted before subscribing witnesses, so as to have them 
recorded. An affidavit is called extra-judicial when, though 
taken before an officer authorized to administer oaths, it is 
not itself required or authorized by law. 

Affin'ity [from the Lat. ad, “to,” “on,” and ji'nis, 
“boundary”], in law, is the relationship contracted by 
marriage between a man and his wife’s kindred, and be¬ 
tween a wife and her husband’s kindred. Affinity is used 
in contradistinction from consanguinity, which expresses 
relations that originate in the blood. 

Affinity, a term used in biology to denote that the re¬ 
lation which organisms bear to one another is very close, 
and depends on some essential correspondence between im¬ 
portant organs. The term is used in contradistinction to 
analogy, in which the points of resemblance are of less im¬ 
portance. Thus the foliage of Lath'yrue nisso'lia resembles 
that of grass, but there is no real affinity between the dico¬ 
tyledonous Lathyru8 and the monocotyledonous grass. 

Affinity, Chemical, the attractive force which unites 
two or more chemical substances so as to form a compound 
which differs from either of them; or the mutual propen¬ 
sity which certain kinds of matter have to combine with 
each other exclusively or in preference to any other con¬ 
nection. “ This term,” says Liebig, “is decidedly fallacious 
if it be intended to convey the meaning that such sub¬ 
stances are related to each other.” This force or propen¬ 
sity acts only at insensible distances—that is, only when 
the two bodies are in contact. The action of affinity is 
often modified and increased by heat and light, as in the 
case of potash and sand, which will only unite when raised 
to a red or white heat: and the gases chlorine and hydro¬ 
gen will not combine unless they are exposed to the light. 
Many surprising changes in the properties of matter are 
produced by affinity, as when the poisonous chlorine unites 
with sodium to form common table-salt. The poisonous 
prussic acid is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and nitro¬ 
gen, neither of which is noxious by itself. Elements differ 
greatly in the strength and range of their affinities. Oxygen 
has an affinity for nearly all the other elements. 

Afiirnia'tion [Lat. affinna'tio, from ad, “to,” and 


jir'mo, finna'turn, to “ make firm,” to “ bind ”], in law, a 
declaration made by a witness as a substitute for an oath 
in a court of justice. This formula is used by Quakers 
an<jl others who have conscientious scruples against oaths. 
In the U. S. the use of affirmations instead of oaths has 
become very common, experience seeming to have shown 
that the value of evidence and the force of obligations are 
not diminished thereby. 

Aftia'tus [from the Lat. ad, “to,” “upon,” and flo, 
fla'tum, to “blow”], a term sometimes used to signify in¬ 
spiration or the gift of prophecy, especially in reference to 
those who uttered oracles at Delphi. 

Alfre (Denis Auguste), archbishop of Paris, was born 
at St.-Rome-de-Tarn in 1793. He became vicar-general 
at Paris in 1834, and archbishop in 1840. During the in¬ 
surrection of June, 1848, he made a generous effort to end 
the carnage by a personal appeal to the insurgents, but 
while he was speaking to them hostilities Avere renewed 
between the insurgents and the military, and he was mor¬ 
tally Avounded by a ball. He left an “Essay on the Egyp¬ 
tian Hieroglyphics” (1834), and other Avorks. 

Afghanistan' is the Persian name of the country of 
the Afghans, which is called by the natives Wilajet (i. e. 
the “mother country”). It is situated betAveen lat. 29° 
and 36° N. and Ion. 62° and 72° E., forming a small quad¬ 
rilateral, which historically, geographically, and linguisti¬ 
cally forms the connecting link between India and Western 
Asia. It is bounded on the N. by Bokhara, on the E. by 
British India, on the S. by Beloochistan, and on the W. by 
Persia. The area is estimated (Behm and Wagner, “Be- 
volkerung der Erde,” Gotha, 1872) at 250,900 square miles. 
The ground rises toAvards the N. E. to 6000 feet above the 
sea-level, and descends gradually towards the S. IV. to 1600 
feet. In the N. are the Avild snow-coA r ered mountains of 
Hindoo-Koosh, and farther on the ancient Paropamisus, 
Avhich is divided at present into the Kolii-Baba—from 
which the Ilelmund descends—and Ghur Mountains. The 
boundary between the Indian and Persian systems is formed 
by the desolate mountain-range of Takht-i-Suleirnan. The 
depression in the S. W., in Avhich Lake Hamoon is situated, 
is exactly opposite in character to the N. and E., which, in 
consequence of the mountainous nature of the country, have 
no large rivers. Besides the Helmund, the Cabul is the 
only river of any consequence Avhich floAVS through the east¬ 
ern mountains towards the Indus. 

In consequence of the difference in the height and direc¬ 
tions of the mountains, great contrasts are found in the 
climates of the different parts. In the sheltered valleys all 
kinds of tropical fruits, tobacco, and cotton are groAvn, 
while in the northern plateaus snoAV-storms are of frequent 
occurrence. The same contrasts are found in the animal 
kingdom. Bears, wolves, and foxes are found, together 
with lions, tigers, and camels. The mountains are rich in 
valuable minerals and metals (iron, lead, gold, sulphur). 

The population is estimated (Behm and Wagner, “ Be- 
volkerung der Erde,” Gotha, 1872) at 4,000,000. The 
large majority of the inhabitants are Afghans, who belong 
to the Indo-European race, and are divided into an eastern 
and a Avestern group. Besides the Afghans, there arc also 
remains of the original Iranian inhabitants (Tadshiks) and 
Indian tribes, who, like the Afghans, belong to the Sunnite 
Mohammedans; the Turanian Hczarch and the Turkish 
Kazzilbasb, Avho, like the Persians, are Sliiitic Moham¬ 
medans. The proud and poAverful race of the Afghans 
rules OA r er all these. The Afghans are divided into many 
tribes, avIio recently have become united under one ruler, 
but seem to be opposed to a real union, although they do 
not lack a national pride. For trade and industry the 
Afghan has no taste; his element is war. The chief 
cities are Cabul, Kandahar, Balkh, Herat, PeshaAver, and 
Ghuzni. (For the language of the Afghans, see Afghan 
Language.) 

History .— Herodotus was acquainted with Afghanistan. 
He calls the inhabitants Pactyans. The warlike tribes who 
rule the country at present first entered the country at the 
time of the Persian-Mongolian rule, and did not begin 
to act together until the middle of the eighteenth century, 
when, under Ahmed-Shah (1747-73), the founder of the 
Durani or Abdali dynasty, they threAV off the rule of the 
Persians, Avhom they had always hated on account of their 
religion. Bloody civil Avars devastated the country, until 
Avith the death of Ivamram the Durani monarchy, Avhich 
had existed for seventy-six years, totally collapsed in 1829. 
B ith the exception of Herat the country passed into the 
hands of the Baraksai. Three brothers divided the country, 
of Avhom Dost Mohammed Avas the most powerful. The 
perpetual Avar, however, did not cease. In the W., Persia 
tried to capture Herat; in the E., Dost Mohammed Avas 
at war with Lahore; and on Oct. 1 , 1838, the British 
governor-general of India, Lord Auckland, under various 















AFGHAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE—AFRICA. 


53 


pretexts, declared war against Afghanistan. In the spring 
of 1839 the Anglo-Indian army advanced with great losses 
through the pass of Bolan to Kandahar, and in August took 
possession of the deserted city of Cabul for the British pro¬ 
tegee, Shud-Shah, the lawful heir to the throne. Dost 
Mohammed was compelled to surrender to the British, but 
his son Akbar raised a revolution throughout the country; 
in consequence of which the British were compelled to leave 
the country in Jan., 1842. Hunger, cold, and the fanatic 
Ghildshees completely destroyed the retreating army. 
Generals Nott and Pollock, however, again invaded the 
country, dispersed the disorderly troops of Akbar, de¬ 
stroyed Ghuzni and Cabul, and quickly retreated. The 
British now thought that they had completely humbled 
the Afghans, and that there was no risk in releasing Dost 
Mohammed. This energetic prince quickly restored his 
power in Cabul, and as early as 1846, conjointly with the 
Sikhs (which see), again commenced operations against 
the British. The defeat of his allies (1849) forced him to 
relinquish all hopes in this direction. On the other hand, 
he extended the empire in the N. as far as Balkh (1850), 
and brought the southern tribes under his rule by the cap¬ 
ture of Kandahar. To gain Herat and to settle his west¬ 
ern boundaries, he concluded an offensive and defensive 
alliance with the British, and was led into a war with Per¬ 
sia (1856-57), which had violated its treaties with England. 
The hostilities were, however, soon ended by a treaty, 
according to which Herat, which had been occupied by the 
Persians in Oct., 1856, was given to Ahmed Khan, a Ba- 
raksai chief. Dost Mohammed renewed his alliance Avith 
the British, and he and his heirs were recognized as sov¬ 
ereigns. The country enjoyed several years of quiet, until, 
in 1860, Ahmed Khan had a little difficulty with the spn 
of Dost Mohammed, Afzul Khan of Kunduz, about some 
border districts. This was soon settled. But when Ahmed 
Khan, at the instigation of the Persians, advanced in 1862 
at the head of a large body of troops towards Farrah and 
Kandahar, Dost Mohammed marched against him, having 
formed the plan not only to extend the northern part of the 
Afghan empire in the E. to Balkh, but in the W. even to 
Chardjuy. He repelled the enemy beyond the boundary 
and enclosed Herat, which surrendered after a long siege 
on May 26, 1863, shortly after Ahmed Khan had died 
within its Avails. But Dost Mohammed also died on May 
29, before he had entered the city. His death put an end 
to the prospect of a speedy consolidation of the Afghan 
empire. 

The Persian government, as soon as it heard of the defeat 
of its faithful ally, Ahmed Khan, and the death of Dost 
Mohammed, sent an envoy to Shere Ali, the son and heir 
of Dost Mohammed, Avho in opposition to the policy of his 
father Avished to remain at peace Avith Persia, and effected 
a reconciliation. In other respects, Shere Ali was not so 
fortunate. Immediately after the death of Dost Mohammed 
disturbances arose in every quarter. Afzul Khan, the 
brother of Shere Ali and the governor of Balkh, refused to 
make the customary signs of submission, and proceeded 
immediately to actual hostilities. He soon captured Cabul 
and Kandahar, and Avas recognized by the governor-gen¬ 
eral of India not as sovereign of Afghanistan, as he de¬ 
sired, but as ruler .of Cabul and Kandahar. He died, 
however, soon after this recognition. The civil Avars Avere 
only ended in Jan., 1869, Avhen Shere Ali defeated his half- 
brother Azeem and his nephew Abdul Rhaman Khan at 
Ghuzni so decisively that they were compelled to seek 
refuge in the British territory. In July, 1869, new diffi¬ 
culties arose on the frontiers of Turkistan. But the chief 
danger for Afghanistan does not lie so much with the na- 
tive tribes of Asia as Avith Russia on the one hand and 
England on the other, both of whom are desirous of obtain- 
ing Herat. Shere Ali chiefly owes his success to subsidies 
in money and arms furnished by England, Avliich hoped to 
find in him a trustworthy ally to check the Russian ad¬ 
vance in Central Asia. Lord Mayo gave Shere Ali a grand 
reception in British India, and held a conference at Um- 
ballah in Mar., 1869. Shere Ali Avas formally recognized 
as sovereign of Afghanistan by England—an act Avhich 
created a great sensation both in Persia and Russia. In 
1871, Afghanistan Avas again the seat of civil war, Mehemed 
Yakub, a son of Shere Ali, having revolted. In May the 
rebels took possession of the important city of Herat, but 
a reconciliation was very suddenly brought about by Eng¬ 
lish influence, as Yakub is less devoted to English inter¬ 
ests than his father. But, Avhile England assists Shere Ali, 
Russia favors the pretensions of his rival, Abdul Rahman, 
and pays him a yearly subsidy. In 1872, in consequence 
of the advance of the Russian forces towards Afghanistan, 
Earl Granville on Oct. 8 despatched a note to the British 
ambassador at St. Petersburg to demand assurances from the 
Russian government that it would not encroach upon the 
country which Afghanistan claimed as her own. These de¬ 


mands were conceded in 1873, and thus dispelled the fears 
Avhich Avere entertained as to an Oriental war betAveen Russia 
and Great Britain. (See Eyre, “ The Military Operations 
at Cabul,” 1843; Kaye, “ History of the War in Afghanis¬ 
tan, 1861; Mohan Lal, “ The Life of Dost Mohammed 
Khan,” 1846; Belleav, “ Journal of a Political Mission to 
Afghanistan,” 1862; Vambery, “ Centralasien,” 1873 ; arid 
the accounts of travels by Connolly, Burnes, Masson, Fer- 
rier, Bellew, Vambery, and others.) A. J. Sciiem. 

Afghan Language anti Literature ( Pushtu, Padi- 
to, or Pu x tu). The Afghan language is, like all mountain 
languages, a harsh, guttural tongue—so much so that 
Mohammed is reported to have said that the “ Pushtu is 
the language of hell.” It has until recently been classed 
by all the leading authorities, as Dorn, Lassen, and F. 
Muller, under the Iranian group of languages of the Indo- 
European family. But Dr. Ernst Trumpp (“Grammar of 
the Pashto Language, or Language of the Afghans, com¬ 
pared with the Iranian and North-Indian Vernaculars,” 
1873), who is at present considered the highest authority 
on the PashtS language, and Prof. M. Haug of Munich, 
entirely disagree Avith those who hold this opinion. While 
Dr. Trumpp Avishes to give it an intermediate position be¬ 
tween the Iranian and Indian groups, Dr. Haug makes it a 
separate branch of the great Indo-European family. 

The Afghan language has thirty-nine sounds, ten of 
Avhich are confined to words Avhich have been introduced 
from the Arabic; it is Avritten Avith Arabic characters. It 
is not until very lately that we meet with any literary at¬ 
tempts, and then only imitations of Persian models, partly 
of a romantic-epical and partly of a lyrical form. One of 
the earliest, and at the same time most learned, poets is 
Abdurrahman, from the district of Peshawer, a learned 
Suffee. Others are—Mirza Khan Anssari, a poet of the 
first half of the seventeenth century; Khushhal Khan 
Khattak, his contemporary, who took up his abode in 
India; but especially Ahmed Shah Abdali, the founder of 
the Durani dynasty. Historical and religious documents 
are also not wanting, but none are older than the fifteenth 
century. The former Avorks on the Afghan language, as the 
“Grammar” (1840) and the “Chrestomathy ” (1847) by 
Dorn, a “Grammar of the Pukhtu,” “Dictionary of the 
Pukhtu,” and the anthology, “ Gulshan-i-roh ” (“Selec¬ 
tions from the Poetry of the Afghans,” 3 vols., 1860-61), 
by Raverty, and Muller’s “Die Conjugation des Afghan- 
verbums ” (1867), have been entirely superseded by the 
new work of Prof. Trumpp, Avliich has already been re¬ 
ferred to. A. J. Schem. 

Afiirni', or AfUim-Kara°Hissar (“black castle of 
opium”), a city of Asia Minqr, in Anatolia, 53 miles S. E. 
of Ivutaieh. It is on a mountain-side, is the residence of a 
pasha, and has a large trade in opium, whence its name. 
Here are numerous mosques, a citadel, and manufactures 
of carpets, arms, saddlery, etc. Pop. estimated at 50,000. 

Afrago'la, an Italian town, in the province of Naples, 
noted for its manufactures of straw bonnets. Pop. in 1861, 
16,129. 

Afrancesa'dos, a name given to those Spaniards who 
supported the French cause, or recognized Joseph Bona¬ 
parte as king, in 1808-13. They were proscribed or treated 
Avith severity by Ferdinand VII. after he Avas restored to 
the throne. 

AFrica [called also Libya (Gr. Aiflvr;) by the ancients, 
who appear, however, to have been acquainted with the 
northern and north-Avestern portions only], the third in 
point of size of the great divisions of the globe. The an¬ 
cient Romans at first applied the name Africa only to that 
part of the continent with Avhich they were best acquainted, 
the part about Carthage. This became the Roman prov¬ 
ince of Africa; and Avhen, in later times, the name came 
to be applied to the whole continent (previously called 
Libya, though that name Avas often very loosely employed 
to designate the north-eastern part of the continent), the 
province of Africa was often called Africa Propria, Africa 
Vera, or Africa Provincia. This province ma} r be roughly 
stated to have occupied the old Carthaginian home terri¬ 
tories, and was sometimes known as Zeugitana. Its pres¬ 
ent native name, Frikiah, is ob\ r iously connected with that 
noAv given to the Avhole continent. Some of the ancient 
geographers reckoned Africa as a part of Europe. In form 
the continent of Africa somewhat resembles an imperfect 
triangle, having its base t-OAvards the north and its apex 
towards the south. Its Avhole length from Cape Bianco on the 
N. (lat. 37° 20' N., Ion. 9° 48' E.) to Cape Agulhas (lat.34°49' 
8" S., Ion. 20° 0' 7” E.) is 5100 miles; and its greatest breadth 
from E. to W. (?. e. from Cape Guardafui at the entrance of 
the Red Sea at Bab-el-Mandeb (lat. 11°50'N., Ion. 51° 21' 
E.) to Cape Verde on the Atlantic (lat. 14° 44' N., Ion. 17° 32' 
W.) is more than 4500 miles. Behm and Wagner (“ Bevolke- 
rung tlerErde,” Gotha, 1872) estimate the area at 11,600,000 




















54 


AFRICA. 


square miles. Africa is bounded on the N. by the Mediter¬ 
ranean, on the E. by the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, on the 
S. by the Southern Ocean, and on the W. by the Atlantic. 
It presents the appearance of a vast peninsula, united to 
the adjacent Asiatic continent at its north-east extremity, 
between the lied Sea and the Mediterranean, by the Isth¬ 
mus of Suez, a narrow strip of land. Its coast-lino is 
10,200 miles in length, and is nowhere deeply indented 
with bays or gulfs, except the Gulf of Guinea on the west¬ 
ern coast. The other principal indentations are—the Gulf 
of Sidra, on the northern, the Bights of Benin and Biafra, 
on the western, and Sofala and Delagoa Bays, on the east¬ 
ern coast,- Capes Spartel and Bianco, on the N., Cape 
Verde, on the N. W., Cape Agulhas, on the S., and Cape 
Guardafui, on the E., are its more prominent projections. 
Among the few islands which, from their proximity, may 
be considered to belong to this continent, are the Bis- 
sagos, in Senegambia, near the mouth of the Rio Grande; 
Fernando Po, in the Bight of Biafra; Princess Island and 
the islands of St. Thomas and Anuobon, in the Gulf of 
Guinea; the Querimba and Bazaruta Islands, and the isl¬ 
ands of Zanzibar and Pemba, on the eastern coast. The 
Canary and Cape Verd Islands, near the north-western 
coast, are farther otf than the others; Madagascar, the 
Comoro Islands, and Socotra are off the eastern coast, Mad¬ 
agascar being separated from the mainland by the Mozam¬ 
bique Channel, which is 250 miles broad in its narrowest part. 

Political Divisions .—In 1872 the area and population 
of the political divisions of Africa were, according to Behm 
and Wagner, as follows: 


Countries. 

Square Miles. 

Population. 

Morocco . 

259,600 

2,750,000 

Algeria . 

258,300 

2,921,246 

Tunis . 

45,700 

2,000,000 

Tripoli, with Barca and Fezzan. 

344,400 

750,000 

Egypt. 

659,000 

8,000,000 

Desert of Sahara. 

2,436,000 

4,000,000 

Mohammedan countries of Central 



Soudan . 

631,000 

38,800,000 

French Senegambia. 

96,500 

209,162 

Liberia . 

10,000 

718,000 

Dahomey. 

4,000 

180,000 

British possessions in Western Sou- 



dan. 

17,100 

577,313 

Portuguese possessions in Western 



Soudan . 

35,900 

8,500 

Other ten-itory in Western Soudan.. 

658,000 

36,807,000 

Abyssinia. 

158,000 

3,000,000 

Other territory in Eastern Africa.... 

1,341,000 

26,700,000 

Portuguese possessions in Southern 



Africa— a. Eastern coast. 

383,000 

300,000 

b. Western coast. 

313,000 

9,000,000 

Cape Colony. 

221,300 

682,600 

Natal. 

17,800 

269,362 

Orange Free State. 

42,400 

37,000 

Transvaal Republic. 

114,300 

120,000 

Other territory in Southern Africa.. 

934,000 

5,591,000 

Territory on the equator. 

1,522,000 

43,000,000 

Cape Verd Islands. 

1,650 

67,347 

St. Thomas and Principe. 

450 

19,295 

Fernando Po and Annobon. 

490 

5,596 


38 


St. Helena. 

47 

6,860 

Tristan d’Acunha.. 

45 

53 

Socotra.. 

1,700 

3,000 

Abd-el-Kuri. 

60 

100 

Zanzibar . 

600 

380,000 

Madagascar.. 

228,500 

5,000,000 

Comoro (with Mayotte). 

1,070 

64,600 


150 


Reunion. 

970 

209,737 

Mauritius and dependencies. 

700 

322,900 

Other islands. 

420 

19,639 

Total, inclusive of the desert 



of Kalahari. 

11,600,000 

192,520,000 


Mountains, Table-lands, etc .—The entire southern half 
of Africa consists of an immense plateau, which descends 
in the S. W. and E. in terraces to narrow coast-countries, 
and which has only lately become known. The interior 
consists of a plateau running from S. to N., and in some 
parts is not more than from 2000 to 3000 feet high. It is 
generally very level, and is partly open desert (Kalahari) 
and partly wooded, rich in water, fertile, densely populated, 
and well cultivated. On the eastern border of the central 
basin, beyond the coasts of Mozambique and Zanzibar, is 
the territory of the great lakes, while under the equator and 
nearer to the E. coast are found a series of high mountain- 
ranges (Mountains of the Moon) with high, snow-clad peaks 
(Kilimandjaro, 18,000 feet). In Central Africa we meet 
with the plateau of Soudan, beyond the Niger, as the N. W. 
extremity of the South African plateau, and the alpine 
region of Abyssinia as the N. E. extremity. In the N. are 
found the Atlas Mountains, with the plain of Beled-el- 
Jerid, which forms the stepping-stone to the desert. 


Deserts. —The great deserts of Africa are the Sahara and 
those of Nubia and Libya, situated N. of the Soudan and 
Abyssinia, the two together constituting the largest desert 
in the world. The Sahara is upwards of 3500 miles in 
length, and nearly 1400 miles in its greatest breadth, run¬ 
ning almost across the whole breadth of Northern Africa 
between the parallels of 15° and 35° N. lat. Its entire area 
has been estimated at 1,500,000 square miles—a space equal 
to nearly twice the surface of the Mediterranean. The at¬ 
tempt to furnish water along the routes across this vast 
desert by means of artesian wells appears to be a success. 
In South Africa, about the tropic, is the desert Kalahari. 

Rivers and Lakes. —The rivers of Africa, although many 
of them arc large, have, until a very recent period, afforded 
no certain inlet to its central regions, and the trade ot Eu¬ 
ropeans has thus been confined to narrow districts along the 
coast. The Nile is the only river in Northern Africa flowing 
into the Mediterranean; it is also the longest river in Africa, 
having a course of probably not less than 4000 miles. T here 
are no other rivers of any magnitude, so far as known, in 
Northern or North-western Africa. The most considerable 
in Eastern Africa are the Zambezi (or Quillimane) and the 
Juba. The former rises in the interior, and enters the 
Mozambique Channel by several mouths. It is said to 
have a course of 900 miles, and to be navigable during the 
rains for 200 or 300 miles from the sea. The Juba, rising 
in Abyssinia, falls into the Indian Ocean at the town ot 
Juba, on the coast of Zanguebar, in lat. 0° 15' S., Ion. 43° 
39' E. It is said to be likewise navigable for boats.to a 
great distance from the sea. The other principal rivers of 
Eastern Africa are the Hawash, in Abyssinia; the Atbara 
(with its affluent, the Takatze); the Bahr-el-Abiad, or White 
Nile, and the Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue Nile; the last three 
are branches or affluents of the Nile. The principal rivers 
of Western Africa, beginning at its northern limit and pro¬ 
ceeding south, are the Senegal, Gambia, Casamanza, Cacheo, 
the Jeba (or Geba), the Rio Grande, the Nunez, the Sierra 
Leone, the Adiri (or Volta), the Quorra or Joliba (Niger), 
the Zaire (or Congo, one of the largest in Africa), the Co- 
anza, and the Gariep (or Orange) rivers. 

Among the largest lakes of Africa that have been fully 
explored is Lake Tchad (Chad, or more correctly, accord¬ 
ing to Barth, Tsad). It is situated nearly in the centre 
of the continent, in the territory of Bornu, in lat. about 
13° N. and Ion. 15° E. It is about 220 miles long, and, 
at its widest part, about 140 miles broad; and receives two 
rivers—the Yeou, from the west, and the Shary, from the 
south. The other known lakes of Africa are the Debo, in 
Soudan, in the same latitude as Tchad, and under the fifth 
parallel of W. Ion., trave'rsed by the Niger; the lake of 
Dembea, in Abyssinia, traversed by the Bahr-el-Azrek; 
and Lake Nyassa, in South-east Africa, about which little is 
known. It was seen in 1859 by Livingstone, according 
to whom it is 50 miles long. Among the other large lakes 
are the Victoria Nyanza, discovered by Capt. Speke in 1858 
(supposed by him to be the principal source of the Nile), 
lying under the equator; the Albert Nyanza, W. of Victoria 
Nyanza, first seen by Sir Samuel Baker in 1864; and the 
Tanganyika, S. of Albert Nyanza. Lakes are also met with 
in the ranges of Mount Atlas, the largest of which is called 
Lowdeah. Another large lake was discovered in Southern 
Africa by Dr. Livingstone, in 1849. It is called by the 
natives N’gami (the Ng is pronounced like the Spanish N), 
the “ Great Water;” it is said to be about 70 miles in length, 
and is both the source and recipient of several fine streams. 
Among the former is the Zouga, which flows from the lake, 
first in a N. E. and then in a S. S. E. course. It is described 
by Dr. Livingstone as a beautiful stream; the banks are 
covered with gigantic trees, including a species of Adan- 
sonia, some individuals of which measured from seventy to 
seventy-six feet in circumference. The water of the river 
is soft, cold, and remarkably clear. It rises and falls peri¬ 
odically, the cause of which is unknown. 

Geology .—The geology of Africa is known as yet only 
from a few cursory observations made at points distant 
from each other. The part passed over by Dr. Livingstone 
presents a variety of schists, shales, sandstone, and tufa, 
overlying granitic and trap rocks. In one place, towards 
the eastern side of the continent, coal is found under the 
sandstone. The lofty barrier of limestone along the west¬ 
ern boundary of Egypt reappears in the rugged hills of the 
Sahara; it sometimes contains marine shells. Limestone 
is also found along the lower skirts of the Atlas Mountains. 
The strata occupying the surface over the desert of Sahara 
are very modern, showing that the sea covered this area at 
a very recent date. The high table-lands of the interior of 
Africa apparently include representatives of all the older 
geological formations, and show that the nucleus of tho 
continent is of very ancient date. In Southern Africa tho 
geological structure has been determined with considerable 
accui'acy, and triassio strata have been found there in great 




























































AFRICA. 


force. They have furnished some remarkable fossil reptiles, 
which have been grouped by Owen into a new family 
(Dicynodontia, dis kuon odous, “two canine teeth ”), which, 
with beaks much like those of turtles, have immense canine 
teeth implanted in the upper jaws. 

Of the precious metals, gold has long been found in Africa. 
Probably the richest gold-mine is at Nataku in Western 
Africa, the gold occurring in lumps, grains, and spangles. 
Gold-dust is found on the Barra, on the W. coast. Iron 
occurs in Morocco, Algeria, and Abyssinia, and in the 
mountains of Central and South Africa. Copper and lead 
are also found in Southern Africa. Large diamond-fields 
have recently been discovered in great abundance near the 
Vaal River. Of other minerals, salt, manganese, and differ¬ 
ent nitrates have been found in large quantities. 

Climate .—The climate of Africa, as far as its continental 
character prevails, and particularly in the rainy zone, is en¬ 
tirely uniform, and in consequence of the position of the 
continent (four-fifths in the tropics), of the large extent of 
the Sahara within the hot zone, of the extensive table-lands 
of Southern Africa, and of the deficient water-supply and 
the limited area of the forests, it is exceedingly dry and 
hot. The interior of Africa is in all probability the hot¬ 
test region on the globe, but exhibits great contrasts of 
temperature. While the days often reach a temperature of 
120° to 125° Fahrenheit, the nights sometimes have only 
55°. The region of the tropical or summer rains extends 
from lat. 16° to 21° N. North of the equator the rainy 
season lasts from April to October, in the S. from October 
to April. In the extreme northern and southern parts of 
Africa the four seasons of the temperate zone are found. 

Vegetation .—In those regions where dampness and heat 
are combined, especially in the valleys of the large rivers, 
the vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant and rich in pecu¬ 
liar forms. Among the more prominent plants are the 
baobab, the shiah butter tree, the dragon tree, the date and 
fan palms, the oil-palm, various species of aloes, numerous 
spices and drugs, dyewoods, and timber trees, and the 
coffee and india-rubber tree. Among the productions are 
cotton, indigo, bananas, wheat, corn, rice, European and 
tropical fruits, including the grape. Several varieties of 
earth-nuts are extensively cultivated. Dourra and teff are 
native grains resembling millet. 

Zoology .—The animal life is distinguished by large and 
clumsy forms. The elephant and rhinoceros and the hip¬ 
popotamus (which is peculiar to this continent) are found 
here. Among the Carnivora the lion, leopard, hymna, 
ichneumon, and civet are met with. Throughout Africa the 
graceful family of the antelopes, in over sixty species, is 
found, sometimes in herds of 100,000. The camel, the Bar¬ 
bary horse, and the ass are the beasts of burden mostly used 
in Africa. Numerous genera of apes and monkeys are 
found. The zebra in Southern Africa, and the giraffe, the 
tallest existing mammal, in Central and Southern Africa, are 
peculiar to the continent. Among the birds the ostrich is 
the most remarkable. Numberless flocks of parrots and 
bright-colored, noisy birds enliven the forests. Among rep¬ 
tiles, the crocodile is found in all the large rivers and lakes 
of Africa. Various species of serpents and lizards are also 
met with. Among the insects, the ants with their cone-like 
habitations are the most destructive. They attack and de¬ 
molish everything, except metals and stones, that comes in 
their reach. Besides these ants, the locusts cause great de¬ 
struction of property. They travel about in large swarms, 
and woe to the fields that they alight upon; not a vestige 
of green remains after they have left. But they are also 
used as food by many of the native tribes. 

Population .—The population is estimated by Behm and 
Wagner (“ Bevolkerung der Erde,” Gotha, 1872) at 
192,520,000. The densest population is found in the Sou¬ 
dan, on the Gulf of Guinea, from the Senegal to Lower 
Guinea, also on several other parts of the coast, on large 
rivers (as the Nile), and, according to recent reports, in some 
parts of the interior of Southern Africa. To the N. of the 
Soudan, inclusive of Abyssinia and the territory of the Nile, 
the Caucasian race (with both dark and light-colored repre¬ 
sentatives) predominates, comprising the Berbers, Abyssin- 
ians, Egyptian Copts, and the Turks. The rest of the con¬ 
tinent S. of these countries is inhabited by the Ethiopian 
or negro race. In the extreme S. are the Cafirs, the Bush¬ 
men, and the Hottentots. European colonists are found 
almost all along the coast, especially in Cape Colony, 
Algeria, and the islands. 

Approximate Religious Statistics .—Mohammedanism and 
Fetishism are the prevailing religions of Africa, except 
in Abyssinia, where a corrupt form of Christianity ex¬ 
ists; in Madagascar, where the conversion of the queen 
(1809) and the prominent men of the country has secured 
the Christianization of the island; in the republic of Li¬ 
beria, the government of which is under the controlling in¬ 
fluence of the Protestant denominations of the U. S.; and 


55 


in the colonies of the European nations. Human sacrifices 
are offered among some of the negro nations, but rarely, 
except on great occasions. The number of Mohammedans 
in Africa is from 60,000,000 to 100,000,000. The Jews are 
numerous in Morocco, Algeria, and Abyssinia; their aggre¬ 
gate number in all Africa is from 700,000 to 800,000. °The 
estimates of the Roman Catholic population greatly vary 
(from 1,000,000 to 4,000,000), as it is doubtful how large a 
portion of the Portuguese colonies may be set down as 
nominally Catholic. The Protestant population before the 
conversion of Madagascar was estimated at about 700,000; 
it exceeded in 1873 that of the Roman Catholic. In Abys- 
synia and Egypt about 3,500,000 are connected with the 
Abyssinian and Coptic churches. 

Languages .—Recent discoveries have shown that a scien¬ 
tific classification of the African tribes can be made neither 
by distinction of color nor of languages. Many tribes have 
changed their original language for another, or have mixed 
it considerably with other languages, while some of the 
darkest races, as the Wolof on the Senegal, are decidedly 
related to the Caucasian race. Prof. F. Muller (“Linguis- 
tiche Ethnographie,” in Behm, “Geogr. Jahrb.,” 1868) di¬ 
vides the languages into five large families: I. The languages 
of the African negroes, in twelve groups: the Teda, Maba, 
Bornu, Bagrimma, Houssa, Logone, Wandala, Wolof, and 
Mando languages, the Mena languages, the languages of 
the Nile, the languages of the Niger, those of Sierra Leone, 
and those of the Gold Coast. II. The languages of the 
Central Africans, in two groups : Fulah and Nuba lan¬ 
guages. III. The language of the Hottentots, in four 
groups: Nama, Kora, dialect of the Cape, and the lan¬ 
guage of the Bushmen. IV. The Cafir languages, in three 
groups: the eastern group, comprising the true Cafir lan¬ 
guages, the languages of Zambezi and of Zanzibar; the 
central group, comprising the Setchuana and Tekeza; and 
the western group, comprising the Bunda, Herera, Londa, 
Congo, Mpongwe, Dikele, Isubu, and Fernando Po. V. 
The Caucasians of Africa, in two groups: the Hamitic lan¬ 
guages, comprising the Egyptians, the Bedja, Somauli, 
Dankali, and Galla; the Semitic languages, comprising 
the Ethiopic (Geez), Tigre, Amharic, and Arabic. 

Commerce .—The commerce of Africa, owing to the bar¬ 
barous state of the country and to the large dimensions of 
the slave-trade, has never been of any great importance. 
But in recent times, since the civilized nations have 
adopted measures to suppress this inhuman traffic, a great 
progress has been made. The principal articles of export 
are gums, timber, wax, ivory, palm oil, gold, hides, feathers, 
etc. A considerable inland trade is carried on with iron 
goods, clothing, salt, beads, and small shells called cowries, 
which are also used as a circulating medium. The Maria 
Theresa dollar, which circulates in Abyssinia, along the 
shores of the Red Sea, and some parts of the Soudan, is 
the only coin used in Africa, with the exception of the Eu¬ 
ropean colonies. 

History of Discovery .—The peninsular form of Africa is 
supposed to have been known to the ancients, and it is 
even supposed by some that the Phoenicians circumnavi¬ 
gated this continent long before the earliest historical rec¬ 
ords. In modern times Africa has been the object of 
many researches and explorations. In 1446, Cape Verde 
was doubled by the Portuguese. In 1486, Bartholomew 
Diaz discovered the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco 
da Gama doubled it. Since the middle of the sixteenth 
century other nations, especially Englishmen, Frenchmen, 
and Germans, have also taken part in the exploration of 
Africa. In 17S8 the foundation of the African Association 
of London gave new life to the exploration of this conti¬ 
nent. Among the more prominent travellers in the last 
ten years of the eighteenth and in the nineteentli century 
are Hornemann (to Murzuk and on the Niger); Lander (on 
the Niger); Mungo Park (1795-97 and 1805-06) on the W. 
coast; Burckliardt in the region of the Nile ; Denham, Clap- 
perton, and Oudney to Bornu (1822-24); Clapperton in 1825 
throughUpper Guinea to Sokota; in 1849, Richardson, Barth, 
and Overweg from Tripoli to the Niger and Benue, who were 
followed by Vogel in 1853. Barth alone returned in 1856; 
Vogel was murdered by order of the sultan of Wada'i, and 
Richardson and Overweg died on the way. Equal in im¬ 
portance to these travels in the N. of Africa are those of 
Livingstone in the S. In 1849 he reached Lake N’gami 
from the S., in 1851 the Liambye, and during the years 
1852-56 he travelled from the Liambye to Loanda on the 
W. coast, and thence through the continent to the mouth 
of the Zambezi, when he discovered the Victoria Falls, 
which are said to exceed in beauty the Falls of Niagara. 
From 1858-64, Dr. Livingstone, together with his brother 
Charles, explored the lakes Nyassa and Shirwa, and three 
times traversed for a great distance the upper course ot 
the Shire. In 1865 he set out on a new journey to reach 
the equator and to find the sources of the Nile. Dec. 




















56 AFRICAN ASSOCIATION—AGAPETAS. 


6, 1860, the men belonging to his expedition returned and 
reported him murdered by the natives. But subsequent 
explorations and two letters—one dated Dec. 14, 1867, and 
the other in 1869—showed these reports to be untrue. In 
1870, Henry Stanley, in the employ of the “New York 
Herald,” set out to discover Livingstone, and ivas so for¬ 
tunate as to find him in 1872. Upon his return, Mr. Stan¬ 
ley brought with him the journal and several letters of Dr. 
Livingstone, which throw an important light upon the re¬ 
gions of Central Africa. Livingstone awaited the supplies 
which were sent him by Stanley in Ujiji, and then set out 
again. In 1857-59, Burton and Speke discovered the lakes 
Tanganyika and Victoria Nyanza or Ukerewe, and in 
1860-63, together with Grant, Speke discovered the pas¬ 
sage of the Nile from the Victoria Nyanza. In 1864, Baker 
discovered Lake Albert Nyanza, and ascertained that it is 
connected with Lake Victoria Nyanza. In 1869, Baker 
undertook a new expedition up the Nile to suppress the 
slave-trade and to extend the Egyptian domain, and on 
his return, June, 1873, reported to have been entirely suc¬ 
cessful. Other explorers are the Dutch lady Tinne, Carlo 
Piaggia, and the two brothers Poncet, Petherick (on the 
Bahr-el-Gazal) and Du Chaillu (in equatorial Africa). 
Among the German explorers are especially to be named 
Dr. G. Schweinfurth, Ileuglin, Kinzelbach, Munzinger, 
Steudner, Baron von der Dccken, Ivrapf, Karl Mauch, who 
discovered large gold-fields in Southern Africa, and Ger¬ 
hard Rohlfs, who explored Morocco, Algeria, Tripoli, and 
the countries of the Soudan. At the close of 1872 a new 
society for the exploration of Africa was formed in Ger¬ 
many, which began its operations by sending out an expe¬ 
dition for the exploration of the Congo, under Dr. Giiss- 
feldt. Gerhard Rohlfs had also set out again for these 
regions. In South-eastern Africa, Karl Mauch had con¬ 
tinued his explorations in 1S72, and had discovered, in lat. 
20° 15' S. and Ion. 26° 30' E., the ruins of an ancient city, 
which he thought to be Ophir, together with the ruins of 
the queen of Sheba’s palace, and a temple built by her in 
imitation of that of Solomon. 

Literature. —Compare, besides the works of the explorers 
already mentioned, Petermann and IIassenstein, “ Inner- 
afrika nach dem Stande der geogr. Kenntnisse in den 
Jahren 1861-63” (1863); Vivien de St.-Martin, “ Le 
Nord de l’Afrique dans l’antiquite” (1863). On the coun¬ 
tries of the Nile, see the works of Ruppel, Russegger, 
Werner, and Ianobleciier; also Kloden, “Das Stromsys- 
tem des oberen Nil” (1856); Beke, “The Sources of the 
Nile” (1860). For the Soudan compare the works of Lan¬ 
der and Caillie ; also Mage, “Voyage dans le Soudan 
occidental” (1868), and IIorton, “Physical and Medical 
Climate and Meteorology of the West Coast of Africa” 
(1867). On Eastern Africa compare Guillain, “Docu¬ 
ments sur l’histoire, la geographic, et le commerce de l’Af- 
rique orientale ” (1856), and Iarapf, “ Reisen in Ostafrika” 
(1858). Central and South Africa is described in Burton, 
“The Lake Regions of Central Africa” (1860) ; Anders- 
son, “ Travels in South-west Africa;” L. Magyar, “ Travels 
in Southern Africa;” Fritsch, “Drei Jahre in SUdafrika” 
(1869); and “Die Eingebornen Siidafrikas” (1872). 

A. J. Schem. 

African Association, a society formed in London 
in 1788 to assist enterprising men in their attempts to ex¬ 
plore Africa. It was united with the Royal Geographical 
Society in 1831. 

African Company. A company by this name was 
incorporated in Great Britain in 1754 for the purpose of 
promoting trade with Africa. It was obliged to support 
all English fortifications between Cape Blanco and the Cape 
of Good Hope, in return for which it received an annual 
salary of £13,000. It was deprived of its charter in 1821. 

African Methodist Episcopal Church, The, 
was organized in 1816 by colored Methodists, who had 
been down to that date under the care of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church. They elected Rev. Richard Allen their 
first bishop in 1816. Their doctrines are substantially the 
same as those of the parent Church. They report (1872) 
620 ministers and 200,000 members. They have four high 
academies, one university, and two weekly journals. (See 
Methodism, by Rev. Abel Stevens, A. M., LL.D.) 

African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, 
The, was formed in 1820 by a secession of African Meth¬ 
odists from a congregation of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church in New York City. They held their first annual 
conference in 1821; it was composed of 22 preachers, and 
reported 1426 church members. In 1838 the conference 
elected Rev. Christopher Rush its first bishop, with the 
title of superintendent. Its superintendents are elected 
quadrennially by the general conference. They report (in 
1872) 700 ministers and 164,000 church members. Their 
doctrines and ecclesiastical system are mostly copied from 


those of tlic Methodist Episcopal Church. (See Meth¬ 
odism, by Rev. Abel Stevens, A. M., LL.D.) 

Africa'nus (Sextus Julius), a Christian writer emi¬ 
nent for his learning, died about 232 A. D. He wrote a 
general chronology of the world from the creation to 221 
A. D., in which lie fixes the date of the creation at 5499 B. C. 

Af'ton, a post-township of Washington co., Minn. It is 
the seat of an academy. Pop. 825. 

Afton, a post-village and township of Chenango co., 
N. Y., on the Albany and Susquehanna R. R., 28 miles 
E. N. E. of Binghamton. It has six churches, a spoke 
factory, a sash-and-blind factory, and other shops, and a 


fine suspension bridge across the Susquehanna, which in¬ 
tersects the township. The bridge has 362 feet span. Pop. 
of township, 1931. 

Afton, a township of De Kalb co., Ill. Pop. 873. 

Afton, a township of Cherokee co., Ia. Pop. 263. 

Afton, a township of Howard co., Ia. Pop. 474. 

Afton, a post-village, capital of Union co., Ia., on the 
Burlington and Missouri River R. R., 180 miles W. of Bur¬ 
lington and 50 miles S. W. of Des Moines. It has two 
weekly papers, a fine court-house, and is the centre of an 
extensive country trade. Pop. 961. 

J. F. Bishop, Ed. of “Afton News.” 

Afze'lius (Arvid August), a Swedish poet and histori¬ 
cal writer, born May 6, 1785. He published, besides other 
works, a “Legendary History of the Swedes.” Died Sept. 
25, 1871. 

A'ga, a Turkish title, signifying “lord,” is given to a 
superior military commander, and to others as an honorary 
title. 

Ag'adcs, Ag'adez, or Ag'des, a city of Central 
Africa, capital of the kingdom of Asben, is in an oasis of 
the Sahara; lat. 16° 30' N., Ion. 8° 12' E. It formerly had 
a population of about 50,000, which is now greatly reduced. 
It is visited by merchants from Soudan, and others from 
Northern Africa. Pop. about 7000. 

Agalmat'olite [from the Gr. aya\/xa, “image,” and 
Ai0o?, “stone”], a name applied to a number of soft, fine¬ 
grained minerals which the Chinese carve into images. 
They are hydrated, aluminous, or magnesian silicates, as 
pyrophyllite, biharite, pinite, talc, etc. 

Ag'ama, the name of a lizard, employed by Cuvier to 
designate the first section of the iguanian sauria, or Aga- 
midas, which section is characterized by the absence of 
palatal teeth. The agamoid lizards include several genera, 
which are numerous in species. They are distributed over 
the warmer parts of America, Africa, Asia, and Australia. 
Most of them have a lax skin, which they can inflate with 
air. One of the most remarkable animals of this family is 
the Ciilamydosaurus (which see). 

A game in'll on [Gr. ’Aya//.ejuctoj'], the son of Atreus, king 
of Mycenm, was a brother of Menelaus. He had the chief 
command of the Greeks at the siege of Troy, where he 
quarrelled with Achilles. He, as well as his brother, was 
often called Atri'des (i . e. “ son or descendant of Atreus ”). 
After his return from Troy to his own kingdom he was 
murdered by his wife Clytemnestra and ABgisthus. He 
was the father of Orestes, Electra, and Iphigenia. 

Agamen'ticus, Mount, in York co., Me., is about 4 
miles from the ocean, above the level of which it rises 673 
feet. It is an important landmark for seamen ; lat. 43° 
13.4' N., Ion. 70° 41.2' W. It is in York township. 

Ag'ami (the Pso'phia of the naturalists), a genus of 
South American birds, called trumpeters from a peculiar 
sound which they utter. The Pso'phia crep'itmw is equal 
in size to a large pheasant, but has longer legs and neck. 
It can be perfectly domesticated. 

Ag'apae [from the Gr. dydnri, “brotherly love”], love- 
feasts, or feasts of charity, in use among the early Chris¬ 
tians. After the celebration of the communion, the obla¬ 
tions which had been made in the church, consisting of 
meat and bread, which the rich had brought from their 
houses, were consumed at a common feast. 

Agapem'one [from the Gr. dydnrj, “love,” and vr,, 
“abode”], a community of fanatics and free-lovcrs formed 
in 1846 at Charlynch, in Somersetshire, England, by Henry 
J. Prince, who was previously a clergyman of the Anglican 
Church. His disciples, known as « Lampeter Brethren,” or 
“Family of Love,” hold their property in common, live in 
splendid style, and pass their time in voluptuous ease. Mr. 
Prince makes extravagant pretensions as an apostle or re¬ 
former in religion, and it is said that ho is styled “ God in¬ 
carnate ” by his followers, who arc sometimes called Prince- 
ites. 

Agape'tac [from the Gr. dyan-qro^, “beloved”], the title 
given to the virgins and widows who among the primitive 























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0 t”*Vq?2 


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.ccaosi 


cp Abu 


> V.*wN 


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AGAPETUS I.—AGE. 57 


Christians devoted their time to the service of bishops and 
ministers. 

Agape'tus I. was elected pope of Rome in 535. Died 
in 536 A. D. 

Agapetus II. became pope in 946, and died in 955 or 
956. 

A'gardh (Karl Adolph), a Swedish naturalist, born in 
Scania Jan. 23, 1785, was ordained a priest in 1816. lie 
wrote, besides other works, “ Species of Sea-weeds ” (“ Spe¬ 
cies Algarum,” 1820-28) and “Systematic Arrangement of 
Sea-weeds ” (“ Systema Algarum,” 1824). He became bishop 
of Karlstad in 1834. Died Jan. 28, 1859. 

Ag'aric [Lat. Agar'icus, from the Gr. ayapocov], a genus 
of fungi, the species of which are very numerous. True 
agarics have radiant gills, while Boleti have tubes beneath 
the cap or pileus. The Agaricus campestris or common 
mushroom and some others are delicate articles of food; 
the Agaricus mmcarius and other species are dangerous 
poisons; many of the deliquescent species are called toad¬ 
stools ; numerous small ephemeral species appear to bo 
harmless. The Agaricus olearius is remarkable for being 
phosphorescent. The common mushroom is frequently cul¬ 
tivated, both in the open garden and in sheds. The term 
agaric is also applied to various Polypori and other fungi 
which grow on the trunks of trees. From some of these 
“punk,” “touchwood,” or “ amadou” is prepared. 

Aga'sias of Eph'esus, a Greek sculptor, who is sup¬ 
posed to have lived about 400 B. C. Among his works is a 
line statue called “ The Gladiator v or “ Borghese Fighter,” 
which is now in the Louvre. 

Ag'assiz (Louis John Rudolf), M. D., Ph. D., LL.D., 
an eminent Swiss naturalist and geologist, born in the parish 
of Motier, near Lake Neuchatel, May 28, 1807, was the son 
of a Protestant minister. He studied the medical sciences 
at Zurich, Heidelberg, and Munich, where he graduated. 
His first work was a Latin description of the fishes which 
Martius and Spix brought from Brazil, published in 1829-31. 
He devoted much time to the study of fossil fishes, and was 
appointed professor of natural history at Neuchatel in 1832. 
During a visit to Paris he formed friendships with Cuvier 
and Humboldt. His reputation was increased by a great 
work in French, entitled “Researches on Fossil Fishes” 
(5 vols., 1832-42, with more than 300 plates), in which he 
made important improvements in the classification of fishes. 
Having passed many summers among the Alps in researches 
on glaciers, he propounded some new and interesting ideas 
on geology and the agency of glaciers in his “ Etudes sur 
les Glaciers” (1840) and his “ Systeme Glaciaire” (1847), 
which are among his principal works. 

In 1816 he crossed the Atlantic on a scientific excursion 
to the U. S., in which he soon resolved to fix his permanent 
residence. He accepted, about the beginning of 1848, a 
chair of zoology and geology at Harvard; he explored the 
natural history of the U. S. at different times, and gave a 
new impulse to the study of nature in this country. He 
rejects the Darwinian theory of organic development. In 
1865 he conducted an expedition to Brazil, and explored 
the lower Amazon and its tributaries, in which it is stated 
that he discovered more than 1800 new species of fishes. 
He became in 1868 a non-resident professor of natural his¬ 
tory at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Early in Dec., 
1871, he accompanied the Ilassler expedition, under Prof. 
Pierce, to the South Atlantic and Pacific oceans and the 
western coast of America. Among his important works are 
“Outlines of Comparative Physiology ” (1848); a “Journey 
to Brazil” (chiefly written by his wife, 1868); and “Con¬ 
tributions to the Natural History of the United States,” an 
expensive work which is to extend to ten vols. 4to, of which 
the first four volumes appeared 1857-62. Probably no one 
except Hugh Miller has done more to popularize science in 
our time than Agassiz, and no other teacher has trained so 
many young and rising naturalists. Yet it may be observed 
that some of his favorite opinions ( e . g. of the absolute im¬ 
mutability of species) are not now held by many living nat¬ 
uralists. More, however, than almost any other leader in 
modern science, Agassiz has insisted upon a theistic view 
of creation, as opposed to the idea of the self-evolution of 
uncreated nature. “ He is not merely,” says Mr. Whipple, 
“a scientific thinker; he is a scientific force; and no small 
portion of the immense influence he exerts is due to the en¬ 
ergy, intensity, and geniality which distinguish the nature 
of the man. In personal intercourse he inspires as well as 
performs, communicates not only knowledge, but the love 
of knowledge.” He died at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 14, 1873. 

Agassiz 9 Mount, a remarkable inountain-peak of 
Arizona, is an extinct volcano, about 70 miles N. E. of 
Prescott. It is 10,000 feet or more above the level of the 
sea, and belongs to the range or group of San Francisco 
Mountains. As a place of summer resort it has every at¬ 


traction—scenerjq water, climate, elevation, and proxim¬ 
ity to one of the greatest natural curiosities in North 
America, the Great Canon of the Colorado. 

Ag'ate [from Acha'tes, a river of Sicily, where they were 
first found], a mineral much used for ornamental purposes, 
is a variety of quartz marked with veins or layers, which 
are different in color and often concentric. This structure 
is due to the mode of formation, in successive layers on the 
walls of cavities, usually in volcanic rocks. Agates are 
found in all countries, and are much used for ornaments 
and utensils, such as seals, ring and pin stones, vases, cups, 
mortars, etc. Many of the polished agates are very beau¬ 
tiful, and their preparation has created an important in¬ 
dustry at Oberstein in Germany. Here great skill is dis¬ 
played in cutting and polishing agates, and still more in 
coloring them. A large part of the Oberstein agates come 
originally from South America. 

Ag'atha, Saint, a Silician virgin and martyr, who was 
put to death in 251 A. D. 

Agathar'chus [’Ayaflapyo?], a Greek painter who lived 
about 480 B. C., is regarded as the inventor of scene-paint¬ 
ing, or the first who applied the laws of perspective to the 
art of painting.—Another painter of this name lived about 
sixty j r ears later, and was patronized by Alcibiades. 

Aga'thias, surnamed Asianus, a Greek historian and 
poet, was born at Myrina, in Asia Minor. He became a 
resident of Constantinople about 554 A. D., and wrote a 
history of contemporary events, which is extant. Died 
about 580. 

Agath'ocles [Gr. ’AyaGo/cAr/s], a tyrant of Syracuse, born 
in Sicily, was originally a potter. He raised himself by his 
talents to a high military rank, and also distinguished him¬ 
self as an orator. Having massacred a large number of the 
prominent and respectable men of Syracuse, he obtained the 
supreme power in 317 B. C. He afterwards waged war 
against the Carthaginians, over whom he gained several 
victories in Africa, but was subsequently defeated by them. 
In 306 B. C. a peace was made, which secured to both par¬ 
ties their former possessions. Died in 289 B. C. His death 
is ascribed to a poisoned toothpick, given to him at the in¬ 
stigation of his grandson Archagatlius. 

Ag'athon, or Ag'atho [’AyatW], an eminent Greek 
tragic poet, born at Athens about 450 B. C., was a friend 
of Plato and Euripides. He gained a prize for one of his 
tragedies in 416 or 417 B. C. Plato expressed a high opin¬ 
ion of his works, of which only small fragments are extant. 
Died about 400 B. C. 

Aga've [from the Gr. ayavos, “illustrious,” “noble”], a 
genus of plants of the order Amaryllidaceae; they are na¬ 
tives of tropical America. The most remarkable species of 
this genus is the Agave Americana, commonly called Amer¬ 
ican aloe, or century plant. The latter name originated in 
an incorrect opinion that it bears no flowers until it has 
attained the age of one hundred years. The spike, which 
often rises to the height of about thirty-six feet, sometimes 
bears as many as 4000 flowers. The agave never survives 
long after efflorescence. The Agave Americana is emplo 3 'ed 
for fences in Southern Europe; it has become naturalized 
in Ital 3 7 and the north of Africa. By maceration of the 
leaves of this and other species are obtained fibres, which are 
used, under the name of Sisal hemp, for the manufacture of 
ropes, hammocks, etc. Another species, the Agave Mexi- 
cana, when the innermost leaves have been torn out, affords 
a juice which yields sugar; and which, when diluted with 
water and subjected to fermentation, becomes an intoxica¬ 
ting drink called pulque, to which the Mexicans not unfre- 
quently sacrifice both fortune and life. It is made likewise 
from the Agave Americana, and from several other species ; 
and a spirituous liquor (aguardiente) is distilled from it. 
The roots of Agave saponaria are used in Mexico for wash¬ 
ing, forming a lather with salt water as well as with fresh. 

Ag'awam, a post-village of Hampden co., Mass., on the 
W. side of the Connecticut River, in a fertile township of its 
own name, 98 miles W. S. W. of Boston. It has manufac¬ 
tures of paper and woollens. Pop. of township, 2001. 

Agile (anc. Ag'atho), a town of France, department of 
Ilerault, on the river Herault and Canal du Midi, 2 miles 
from the Mediterranean, and 18 miles by rail E. of B 6 zieres. 
It is mostly built of black basalt, and is popularly called the 
Black Town. Here is a college, also a school of naviga¬ 
tion. Pop. in 1866,9586. It has an active trade in wine, oil, 
silk, grain, etc. Its harbor is in lat. 43° 17' N., Ion. 3° 28' 
E., and is accessible to ships of 200 tons. 

Age [Lat. se'tas], a word used in various significations: 
1 , it denotes the whole duration of the life of a man or 
other creature; 2 , a certain period or division of human 
life, which, according to Shakspearc, is divided into seven 
ages; 3 , the time when a person is authorized by law to act 
for himself, and is released from the control of his parents 














58 


AGEN—AGENT 


or guardians. According to the laws of England and the 
U. S., a person becomes of age when he or she is twenty- 
one years old. Before this age one cannot vote or make a 
valid will. A citizen of the U. S. cannot be a Senator be¬ 
fore the age of thirty, nor President before the age of thirty- 
five. In Great Britain men are eligible to Parliament at 
twenty-one. The natural divisions of human life are in¬ 
fancy, childhood, boyhood (or girlhood), adolescence, man¬ 
hood (or womanhood), and old age. The age of puberty is 
fourteen or fifteen. The sixty-third year is called the grand 
climacteric. Some trees are believed to live to an age of 
4000 years or more. The average life of a horse is from 
twenty-five to thirty years; of an elephant, probably about 
two hundred; of a dog, from twelve to fifteen. Fishes are 
remarkable for longevity, and a carp (it is said) has been 
known to live two hundred years. 

Age, in chronology and history, is sometimes used as 
synonymous with century, and sometimes also with a gen¬ 
eration. Writers differ in respect to the period included 
under what is called the Middle Agee, but they are com¬ 
monly understood to begin about the time of Charlemagne, 
and to extend to the fifteenth century. 

Age, in literature, is a period usually bearing the name 
of some powerful person who flourished during that time. 
Among the most memorable of these are the age of Peri¬ 
cles, the Augustan age, the age of Leo X., and the age of 
Elizabeth (or Elizabethan age). 

In geology, an Age is the second great division of time— 
e. g. the Devonian Age, the time in which the Devonian 
system of rocks was deposited—or intervals in the life-his¬ 
tory of the globe marked by the prevalence of certain forms 
of animal or vegetable life; e. g. the Age of Mammals — the 
Tertiary; the Age of Reptiles = the combined Triassic, Ju¬ 
rassic, and Ci*etaceous Ages of geological time. 

Age is a term used to designate the successive epochs or 
stages of civilization in universal history or mythology. 
The Greek and Roman poets imagined a series of four 
ages—the Golden, the Silver, the Brazen, and the Iron. 
An ancient and widespread tradition commemorates the 
pristine innocence, peace, and happiness of the primeval 
Golden Age, under the reign of Saturn. The other three 
were regarded as successive degrees of declension from that 
primitive state. The pre-historic ages in modern anthro¬ 
pology are usually called the older and newer stone ages 
(palaeolithic and neolithic ages) and the age of bronze. 

Agen, ICzhaN' (anc. Agin'num), a town of France, cap¬ 
ital of the department of Lot-et-Garonne, on the right 
bank of the Garonne, 85 miles by rail S. E. of Bordeaux. 
It is pleasantly situated in a fertile country, and has an 
active trade in brandy, prunes, leather, wine, madder, and 
other articles. Here is a public library; also manufac¬ 
tures of serge, cotton prints, and linen goods. Joseph 
Scaliger was born in the vicinity of Agen. Pop. in 1806, 
18,222. 

A'gency, a post-village of Wapello co., Ia., in a town¬ 
ship of its own name. Pop. 630; of township, 1223. 

Agency, a township of Osage co., Kan. Pop. 1865. 

Agen'da [from a'go, ac'tum, to “act” or “do”], a 
Latin word signifying “to be done,” or “what ought to be 
done,” has been applied by theologians to practical duties 
as distinguished from the credenda (“to be believed”), or 
doctrines that must be accepted as articles of faith. 

Agenois, §/zhAnw§/, a former district of France, in 
Guienne, had an area of about 1080 square miles. It is 
now comprised in the department of Lot-et-Garonne. 

Age'nor [Gr. ’A yrjvmp], in classic mythology, a king of 
Phoenicia and a son of Neptune, was the father of Cad¬ 
mus, Phoenix, and Europa. 

A'geilt [from the Lat. ago, to “act”], in law, one who 
acts for another. This is an extensive topic, and must be 
treated with a brevity scarcely admitting even a sketch of 
its rules. Many of its principles closely resemble the cor¬ 
responding topic in the Roman law (mandat), so that they 
are of quite general application in the jurisprudence of 
civilized countries. Agency may be created by express 
words or by implication. There are cases in which an ex¬ 
press authority in writing is necessary by statutory law. 
It is a general rule that when an act is to be done under seal 
the agent’s authority must be of the same grade. Should 
a person act as agent without authority, the subsequent 
ratification of the act will make it valid and binding on the 
person for whom it was done, in the same manner as if he 
had originally directed it. An agency is often implied 
from the course of business. A wife who sells goods in her 
husband’s shop, or receives payment of a debt duo him with 
his knowledge and without objection, may be deemed to bo 
his agent, and may bind him in subsequent transactions of 
a similar kind. An agency is in general revocable either 
by the principal’s own act, executed with sufficient noto¬ 


riety, or by some event which renders the performance of 
the act impracticable. Thus, the death ot the principal, 
in general, causes an instantaneous revocation. I here is 
a class of powers, termed “powers coupled with an in¬ 
terest,” which in their nature are irrevocable. There must 
be in this case an interest on the part of the agent in the 
property over which the power is to be exercised. An il¬ 
lustration is the pledge of goods for a debt, with a power to 
sell in default of payment. The leading points in agency 
are the relations of principals to third persons, those of the 
agent to third persons, and the mutual relations between 
the principal and agent. 

I. The Relations of the Principal to Third Persons— It is 
a rule that when an agent acts within the scope of his em¬ 
ployment he may bind his principal. This is on the prin¬ 
ciple of identity. There is another class of cases where 
the agent is not acting within the scope of his employment, 
but the principal has given him the appearance of authority, 
and the third person with whom he deals has no adequate 
means of distinguishing between his apparent and actual 
authority. In this case the principal is liable under a rule 
that where one of two innocent persons must suffer, that 
one should sustain the loss who has put it in the power of 
the wrong-doer to commit the wrong. It is in substance 
the doctrine of Estoppel in pais (which see). Under this 
doctrine usage has great effect upon the power of agents to 
bind their principals. There is a large number of agents 
who have known and recognized functions, such as factors, 
brokers, and cashiers of banks. It is the well-settled rule 
that these persons, acting within the usage of their busi¬ 
ness, may bind their principals, notwithstanding instruc¬ 
tions to the contrary, unless these restrictions are brought 
to the knowledge of the persons with whom they deal. It 
is a general rule that when a power is conferred upon an 
agent, he has by implication such incidental authority as is 
necessary to carry his power into effect. An authority 
created by writing must be followed, and an act in excess 
of it is unauthorized and not binding on the principal. 
The mode of execution deserves notice. The agent should 
purport to bind his principal. This rule is particularly 
applicable to sealed instruments. Should an agent have a 
so-called power of attorney to execute a conveyance of land, 
the deed should purport to be the act of the principal by 
the agent, and should be subscribed in that manner; other¬ 
wise it would be at most the agent’s deed, and not that of 
the principal. Where there is no technical rule in the way, 
a principal may be liable even though undiscovered, as lie 
must be deemed to be identified with the agent. On the 
general principles of the law of contracts, the principal can 
take advantage of a contract made in his behalf with a 
third person, and enforce it by action in his own name, 
even though he were not at the time disclosed, subject to 
the qualification that the rights of the other party to the 
contract are not prejudiced. A principal is liable for the 
fraudulent or wrongful acts of his agent acting within his 
employment. He cannot take the benefit of the agent’s 
acts and avoid their burdens. So complete is the identifi¬ 
cation of these parties that notice to an agent on the sub¬ 
ject of his employment is legally notice to the principal, 
although it be not in fact communicated. This rule often 
operates with great severity upon innocent principals, im¬ 
puting legal fraud when none has been in fact committed. 

II. The Relations of the Agent to Third Persons .—If the 
agent having power to bind his principal does so expressly, 
he is not liable. But if he exceeds his authority, or, acting 
within it, fails to disclose his principal, he becomes person¬ 
ally responsible. In the case first supposed he is deemed 
to have entered into an implied contract that he has the 
necessary authority, and is liable accordingly. In the other 
case, the third person, on discovering the principal, has an 
election either to charge the agent or the principal. This 
doctrine may perhaps be qualified if the agent contracts in 
writing, on account of the rule that parol evidence is in¬ 
admissible to alter a written instrument. The agent, in 
turn, may have a right of action upon a contract made 
in his own name with a third person, though in fact made 
for the benefit of his principal. It is a general rule that 
an action does not lie against an agent to test the right of 
the principal to a fund, but the action should be brought 
against the principal himself. But in the case of duress 
of goods (see Duress), if payment is made to an agent 
under protest, an action may be brought against him to 
recover back the money. This doctrine assumes much im¬ 
portance in its application to duties collected upon imports; 
so that a law of Congress regulates the mode in which the 
protest should be made. 

III. The Relation of Principal and Agent as between 
Themselves .—The rules governing this relation are quite 
different. Tho agent is bound to obey the instructions of 
the principal. If in violating them he binds the principal 
to third persons, ho is personally liable to make eompen- 





























AGESILAUS II 


sation for his breach of duty. His relation is a fiduciary 
one. He is subject to the rule that he cannot deal in his 
principal’s affairs for his own benefit. When directed to 
sell, he cannot become a purchaser; when ordered to buy, 
he cannot become a seller. This rule springs from the 
relation, and is applied with as much rigor to agents who 
act gratuitously as to those who receive compensation. An 
agent having discretion to exercise cannot delegate his au¬ 
thority ; he cannot substitute another in his place. Where 
the business requires it, he may employ subordinates in 
the execution of his duties. It is not uncommon to insert 
a clause in a written delegation of agency (power of at¬ 
torney) allowing substitution ; this is valid. An agent 
should keep separate accounts, and distinguish his princi¬ 
pal’s money from his own; otherwise he might become 
personally responsible for its loss. The measure of his 
liability ordinarily is reasonable care, which is determined 
by that diligence which prudent men usually exercise in 
the conduct of their own affairs. For his services he is 
in general entitled to a reasonable compensation. He is 
sometimes paid by commissions; this is usual in the case 
of a broker. He has earned his commissions when he has 
brought the purchaser and seller together. He cannot bo 
deprived of them by a failure on the part of his employer, 
through wantonness or caprice, to enter into the contract 
which he has succeeded in negotiating for him. 

The law of agency underlies, to a considerable extent, the 
law of partnership. The rules whereby one partner can 
bind his associates by contracts within the scope of their 
business are but applications of the doctrines of agency to 
this special branch of the law. (For information of a more 
special nature concerning particular cases of agency, con¬ 
sult Attorney, Broker, Factor, Partnership, etc.) 

T. W. Dwight. 

Agesila'us [’AyTjcn'Aao?] II., a celebrated Spartan gen¬ 
eral and king, was a son of King Archidamus II. He be¬ 
gan to reign at the death of his brother Agis in 399 B. C., 
two years after which war was renewed between the Spar¬ 
tans and the king of Persia. Agesilaus commanded the 
army which invaded Asia Minor, and gained several vic¬ 
tories, but in the mean time the Athenians, Thebans, and 
other Greek peoples had formed a coalition against Sparta, 
to defend which the king was recalled by the ephori in 394 
or 395 B. C. He maintained his reputation in this war, 
which was ended by a treaty of peace in 378. Sparta was 
again involved in a war with the Thebans, who under 
Epaminondas gained a decisive victory at the great battle 
of Leuctra, 371 B. C., at which, however, Agesilaus was 
not present. He afterwards defended the city of Sparta 
with success when it was besieged by Epaminondas. He 
died about 360 B. C., aged 84 years. 

Agglu'tinate [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and glu'tino, 
glutina'tum, to “glue” or “cement”] Languages, a 
term applied, in comparative philology, to languages 
which are in a certain state of development intermediate 
between those which are strictly monosyllabic like the 
Chinese, and those which are inflectional like the Greek or 
Latin. Examples of languages in the agglutinated state are 
found among the Indian languages of America and the 
Turanian languages of Asia. In the Aryan languages con¬ 
jugation and declension are doubtless the result of glueing 
on pronouns to verbs and nouns; but in them these termi¬ 
nations have coalesced, so as to form practically a single 
word, and the primitive parts have therefore, in a greater 
or less degree, lost their original and independent force. In 
the Turanian languages, however, the declension and con¬ 
jugation can still be taken to pieces, and the affixes are 
seen to be distinct from the roots to which they are ap¬ 
pended, as in Turkish, etc. (See Max Muller’s “ Lec¬ 
tures on the Science of Language,” first series, lect. viii.) 

Agh'mat, a fortified town of Morocco, on the N. de¬ 
clivity of Mount Atlas, 24 miles S. of Morocco. Pop. 
about 6000. 

Aghrim, or Aughrim, awg'rim or awn'rim, a parish 
of Galway, Ireland, 13 miles N. E. of Loughrea. Here 
the army of William III. gained a decisive victory over 
that of James II., July 12, 1691. 

Agincourt, Azh&N'kooR', or Azincourt, Az&N'koor', 
a village of France, in the department of Pas de Calais, 
18 miles E. of Montreuil, and 10 miles N. W. of St.-Pol. 
Near this place the English king, Henry V., who had 
about 15,000 men, gained a complete victory over the 
French army of about 60,000 on the 25th of Oct., 1415. 

A'gio [in Italian, aggio, a word originally signifying 
“ease,” “convenience,” “accommodation”] was used in 
Italy to denote the difference between the real and nominal 
values of money, or the percentage difference between the 
values of the current and standard money of a place. Tho 
premium or discount on foreign bills of exchange is some¬ 
times called agio. 


.—AGNUS DEI. 59 


Agis IV., of Sparta, born about 264 B. C., was a wise 
and meritorious ruler. He began to reign conjointly with 
Leonidas in 244 B. C., when Sparta was in a degenerate 
condition. He attempted to restore the old Spartan insti¬ 
tutions and to reform the corrupted morals of the people. 
He also proposed to improve the condition of the poorer 
citizens by an agrarian law. Condemned by the ephori 
on a charge of subverting the laws, he was strangled in 
240 B. C. 

Agnadello, iin-yil-deFlo, a village of Northern Italy, 
10 miles E. of Lodi. Here the French duke of Vendome 
defeated Prince Eugene Aug. 16, 1705, and Louis XII. of 
France the Venetians May 14, 1509. Pop. about 1600. 

Agnano, &n-y3/no, a lake of Italy, 3 miles W. of Na¬ 
ples, is about half a mile in diameter. It occupies the crater 
of an extinct volcano, and is near the Grotto del Cane, 
from which noxious gases arise. 

Ag'nate [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and nas'eor, natus, to 
“ be born ”]. In Roman law, agnates are those who descend 
through males from a common ancestor, in opposition to 
cognates — i. e. all the descendants of a common ancestor, 
whether through males or females. Thus, in France, by 
Salic law, the hereditary crown passed by right of agnation, 
females being excluded. 

Ag'nes Cit'y, a township of Lyon co., Kan. Pop. 143. 

Ag'nos, Saint, a Roman virgin, who is said to have 
suffered martyrdom under Diocletian, in 303 A. D. 

Agne'si (Maria Gaetana), an Italian woman of ex¬ 
traordinary learning and intellect, was born at Milan Mar. 
16, 1718. About the age of twelve she could converse in 
Greek, Latin, and other languages on abstruse subjects 
of philosophy and mathematics. During the illness of her 
father, who was a professor of mathematics at Bologna, she 
lectured in his place. She published a work called “Ana¬ 
lytical Institutions ” (1748), which displays mathematical 
genius of a high order. Died Jan. 9, 1799. 

Agnes Sorel, mistress of King Charles VII. of France, 
was born 1409, became in 1431 lady of honor to the duch¬ 
ess of Anjou, and so fascinated the king by her beauty 
that he appointed her lady of honor to the queen. She 
exercised a most beneficial influence over the king, whom 
she stimulated to action against the English, who then 
invaded France. She died Feb. 9, 1450, as it is supposed, 
by poison administered by the dauphin. 

Ag'ni, or Ag'nis [etymologically related to the Latin 
ig'nis], in Hindoo mythology, the god of fire. He was a 
deity of great importance among the early Aryans, but 
after the rise of the gods of the Hindoo triad he sank into 
a very subordinate position. He is sometimes represented 
with two faces, three legs, and seven arms, with his head 
surrounded by flames, and is generally painted of a deep- 
red color. By some he has been made to correspond to the 
Vulcan of classic mythology, but he does not anywhere 
appear as an artificer, like that deity. His principal cha¬ 
racters are those of a purifier and bearer of incense to 
heaven, thus being made a mediator between man and the 
gods. His two faces are supposed to be a type of fire in its 
two characters—beneficent (or creative) and destructive— 
and his seven arms to indicate the seven prismatic colors. 

Agnoe'tae [from the Gr. ayvoeo), to “be ignorant”], in 
ecclesiastical history, the name of a sect in the sixth cen¬ 
tury who maintained that Christ in his human nature was 
ignorant of many things, particularly of the day of judg¬ 
ment. Another and earlier sect of this name denied the 
omniscience of God. 

A'gnolo, d’ (Baccio), a distinguished Italian architect 
and sculptor in wood, was born at Florence in 1460. He is 
said to have been the first who ornamented the windows of 
palaces with frontons or frontispieces. Died in 1543. 

Agno'men [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and no'mcn, a 
“name”]. Besides the praenomen, nomen, and cognomen, 
the ancient Romans sometimes had a fourth name ( agno¬ 
men), which was derived from some illustrious action or 
remarkable event. Thus, two Scipios had the name Afri- 
canus given them on account of their victories over the Car¬ 
thaginians in Africa. The younger of these celebrated gen¬ 
erals had a second agnomen—viz. JEmilianus—because he 
was the son of L. Paulus iEmilius, and adopted into the 
family of the Scipios. Fabius Cunctator (i. e. “ Fabius tho 
delayer”) was so called because by his cautious policy and 
prudent delays he, and he alone, of all the Roman generals, 
was able to oppose Hannibal successfully when that gen¬ 
eral was at the height of his victorious career. 

Agnone, &n-yo'n&, a town of Italy, in the province of 
Campobasso, 20 miles N. W. of Campobasso. Copper-ware 
is made here. Pop. in 1861, 9255. 

Ag'nus De'i, the name applied to the fifth and last 
section of the Roman Catholio mass, beginning with the 














GO 


AGONIC—AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 


words “ Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi” (i. e. “ Lamb 
of God, who takest away the sins of the world ”). It is 
also applied to the figure of a lamb bearing a cross, which 
is stamped on a compound of balsam, chrism, and wax, 
or on silver, and often worn by Roman Catholics. 

Agon'ic [from the Gr. a, “without,” ywi ria, an “angle”] 
Line is the name applied to the line which joins all the 
places at which the magnetic needle points due north and 
south. The plane of the magnetic meridian of a place, 
which is the vertical plane passing through the two poles 
of a magnetic needle freely suspended at that place, does 
not, generally speaking, coincide with that of the geograph¬ 
ical meridian, a vertical plane passing through the place 
and the north and south terrestrial poles. The angle formed 
by these planes is termed the magnetic declination. At cer¬ 
tain places these planes coincide, and such places are called 
places of no declination. The line which joins all these 
places is termed the line of no declination , or the agonic line. 
A line of this kind passes through the eastern part of South 
America to Hudson’s Bay, thence towards the North Pole 
to the White Sea; passing southward, it cuts Arabia, and, 
after traversing the Indian Ocean and the eastern portion 
of Australia, goes through or near the South Pole to join 
itself again. It is not fixed in position, but is at present mov¬ 
ing slowly westward on our continent. There is a second 
agonic line which has been observed near China and Japan. 

Agonis'tici, an ascetic sect of Christians who lived in 
Northern Africa in the fourth century. They renounced 
labor and matrimony. Their name, derived from the Greek 
dywi'UTTTjs (agonWtes ), a “wrestler,” appears to have been 
given in allusion to their wrestling with “ the world, the 
flesh, and the devil.” 

Agos'ta, or Augus'ta, a seaport of Sicily 1- , in the pro¬ 
vince of Catania, and on the Mediterranean, 14 miles N. 
of Syracuse. It has a good harbor, defended by two forts, 
and exports salt, olive oil, wine, and honey. In 1693 it was 
nearly destroyed by an earthquake. Pop. in 1861, 9223. 

A go ll a Ta ( Procyon cancrivorus), the crab-eating rac¬ 
coon of South America, is larger than the common raccoon, 
has a shorter tail, and more variable colors. It is commonly 
of a blackish-gray, with six rings around the tail. In habits 
it resembles the common raccoon. 


Agouti, S,-goo'tee ( JJasyproc'ta ), a genus of rodent 
mammals related to the porcupines. The common agouti 
(Dasyprocta agouti) is a native of Brazil, Paraguay, Gui¬ 
ana, and the neighboring countries. Formerly, in these 
districts it existed in great numbers, but from its frequent 
ravages on the sugar-cane, potatoes, and yams, it has in 
many parts been hunted out and almost exterminated. It 
is between the size of a hare and a rabbit, has long hind 
legs, round ears, bright black eyes, and a short, stumpy tail, 
which, as well as the rump and thighs, is covered with long, 
coarse, bristly hair, whence the name Dasyprocta (from the 
Gr. Saa-u's, “ rough,” and npuwTo?, “ tail ” or “ hinder parts”). 
The agouti is an omnivorous animal, eating almost all kinds 
of vegetables, fruits, roots, meats, etc. Its habits are all 
quick and active, and even while eating it continually turns 
its head from side to side, in order to guard against danger. 
The animal is easily domesticated, but as it is specially fond 
of using its teeth on all kinds of furniture, it is but little 
valued as a pet. It gnaws with great rapidity, taking but 
a few minutes to cut its way through an ordinary door. 
Add to this that its playfulness and all its amusing qualities 
seem to be lost in its do¬ 
mestic state. In some 
countries its flesh is eat¬ 
en, but a prejudice gen¬ 
erally prevails against it. 

There are several other 
species, such as the black 
agouti ( Dasyprocta cris~ 
tata), whose range is 
nearly the same with 
that of the common 
agouti, but is perhaps more limited. The agoutis are said 
to have been the largest mammals inhabiting the West In¬ 
dia Islands at the time of their discovery. 



Black Agouti. 


A'gra, or Aklmrabad', a city of Hindostan, in the 
North-west Provinces, and capital of the division of the 
same name, is on the right bank of the river Jumna, 134 
miles by rail S. S. E. of Delhi, and 754 miles by rail N. N. E. 
of Bombay; lat. 27° 11' N., Ion. 78° E. It was the capital of 
the Mogul and Mohammedan emperors of India from 1504 
to 1647, and was once a large and splendid city, but a grqat 
part of it is now in a ruinous state. The houses are mostly 
built of red sandstone. Here arc several magnificent edifices, 
the most celebrated of which is the Taj Mahal, a mausoleum 
erected by the emperor Shah Jchan (1627-66) in honor of 
his favorite queen. This edifice, the finest in India, and 


perhaps in the world, is built of white marble, surmounted 
with a dome seventy feet in diameter, and adorned inter¬ 
nally with exquisite mosaics of cornelian, lapis lazuli, and 
jasper. It cost above £3,000,000. Among the articles ex¬ 
ported from Agra are cotton, sugar, salt, and indigo. Many 
houses in Agra were destroyed by the Sepoys during the 
mutiny of 1857. At that time the population was 125,262. 

Ag'ram, or Zag'rab, a royal free city of Croatia, and 
the capital of that country, on the left bank of the Save, 
172 miles S. of Vienna. It is the seat of a Roman Catho¬ 
lic archbishop, and has two gymnasia, two Realschulcn, 
two normal schools, two theological seminaries, besides 
many other institutions of learning. Six annual fairs are 
held here. Pop. in 1869, 19,857. 

Agra'rian Law [Lat. lex agra'ria, from a'gcr, a 
“field”]. This term originated in the ancient republic of 
Rome, and signified a law enacted to distribute or regulate 
the public land, ager publicus. Such laws were opposed by 
the patricians, who had appropriated to their own use the 
lands acquired by conquest, and who had long enjoyed the 
privilege of occupying them as tenants, on the condition 
of paying to the state a tithe of the produce. The consul 
Spurius Cassius first proposed to divide a portion of public 
land among the poor citizens, but the measure was defeated 
by the aristocrats. In 367 B. C. an agrarian law was origi¬ 
nated by Licinius Stolo, ordaining that no man should pos¬ 
sess more than 500 jngera (330 acres) of the public domain, 
and that such public land as any man occupied in excess 
of 500 jngera should be distributed among the poor citizens. 
Tiberius Gracchus was the author of an important agrarian 
law. These and later agrarian laws were never executed. 
In Sparta the attempt of King Agis IV. to enforce an 
agrarian law led to his murder by the ephori (240 B. C.). 

Agreement. See Contract, by Prof. T. W. Dwight. 

►-Agric'ola (Cneius Julius), a Roman general and 
statesman, born at Forum Julii (Frejus), in Gaul, June 13, 
37 A. D. He was appointed governor of Aquitania by Ves¬ 
pasian in 73, and became consul in 77. About a year later 
he was sent as governor to Britain, which he conquered, 
and governed with much ability and moderation. By a wise 
and humane policy he promoted the civilization and pros¬ 
perity of the natives. He erected a chain of forts from the 
Clyde to the Frith of Forth. He was recalled about 85 
A. I). by Domitian, who was jealous of him. Died Aug. 
23, 93 A. D. He was the father-in-law of the historian 
Tacitus, who wrote a Life of Agricola. 

Agricola (Johann), originally Schneider or Schnit- 
ter, a German theologian, born at Eisleben April 10, 1492, 
studied at Wittenberg, and became a friend of Luther, with 
whom he was afterwards involved in a doctrinal contro¬ 
versy. He obtained a chair at Wittenberg in 1536. Ag¬ 
ricola and his followers were called Antinomians (opposets 
of the law), because they maintained that a Christian is 
not bound to obey the Mosaic law. He wrote many theo¬ 
logical works, and published a valuable collection of Ger¬ 
man proverbs. Died in Berlin Sept. 22, 1566. 

Agricultural Chemistry is the study of the chemical 
relations of those substances which compose the products 
of the farm. Since the chemistry of these substances is 
most intimately connected with their physical, geological, 
and physiological aspects, the term agricultural chemistry, 
as commonly understood, embraces a wide range of natu¬ 
ral science in its applications to vegetable and animal pro¬ 
duction. The object of agriculture is to develoj) from seed 
and soil the largest possible value of useful plants and use¬ 
ful animals at the smallest cost. Nothing is plainer than 
that the farmer should accurately understand the nature 
of those materials and agencies which build up his crops 
and increase his herds. He should know whence the ma¬ 
terials of his crops may be drawn, what ones are placed at 
his disposal naturally in surplus, and what must be pro¬ 
vided by his own care. He should know how to control or 
work in harmony with the energies whoso action is essen¬ 
tial to his success. Agricultural chemistry inquires, first 
of all, what the plant and animal are made of. It finds 
that both, when living, consist largely of water, to the ex¬ 
tent of forty to ninety per cent., which is indispensable to 
their existence as a vehicle for the process of circulation or 
transfer of nutriment. The dry plant or animal maybe 
divided into matter volatile by heat, ninety to ninety-nine 
per cent., and one to ten per cent, of ash. The volatile or 
combustible matter is either organized— i. c. possesses a 
structure, or is a tissue of organs, inimitable by the art of 
man, through whose mechanism the principle of vitality 
operates—or else it consists of substances which are the 
direct results of chemical changes in the organized matter. 
Muscle-fibre and wood-fibre are of the former, sugar and 
urea are of the latter kind. The volatile matters are thence 
termed organic ; they consist of carbon compounds, most of 
which are highly complex in their atomic constitution. 





































AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 61 


The most important organic matters of our staple field- 
crops are few in number—being, 1. The amyloids, com¬ 
pounds of carbon with hydrogen and oxygen, the last two 
being in the proportions in which they exist in water— 
viz., cellulose or wood-fibre, starch, the sugars and the 
gums; 2. The pectoids, also compounds of carbon, hydro¬ 
gen, and oxygen, comprising pectose—the hard pulp of 
fruits and roots—and pectine, pectosic and pectic acids— 
the gummy or gelatinous matters of ripe and cooked fruits; 
3. The fats and fixed oils; 4. The organic acids, oxalic, 
malic, citric, and tartaric; 5. The albuminoids, albumen, 
casein, fibrin, and their analogues, which, besides carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen, contain fifteen to eighteen per cent, 
of nitrogen, with one-half to one per cent, of sulphur. 
The ash of the plant consists of phosphates, sulphates, 
chlorides, silicates, and carbonates of potassium, sodium, 
calcium, magnesium, and iron. 

The growth of a plant is the development of a germ or 
seed when acted upon by the solar ray, with access of 
water, air, and soil. The organic matters above enume¬ 
rated as constituents of crops are exclusively generated and 
organized by the plant. Carbonic acid gas supplies car¬ 
bon, water furnishes hydrogen and oxygen, while nitrogen 
is derived partially from minute quantities of ammonia 
mingled with the air. Nitrogen is, however, chiefly ob¬ 
tained from the nitrates of the soil. All the ash-elements 
come exclusively from the soil. The agriculturist cannot 
aid the nourishment of his crops except through the soil, 
and there he can only influence the supplies of water, of 
nitrogen, and of ash-elements. Carbon, the most abun¬ 
dant ingredient of all crops, making up forty-four to forty- 
eight per cent, of the dry matter, is furnished so fully by 
the atmospheric carbonic acid that additional supplies from 
the soil are not directly advantageous. The atmosphere 
contains, it is true, but a very small proportion of this gas 
—one-twenty-five hundredth of its bulk—but this is con¬ 
siderably in excess of the wants of the most luxuriant 
growth. 

The fertility of the soil depends, chemically—1, upon 
the presence in it of all the ash-elements and of nitrates 
in proper quantity; and 2, on their occurrence there in 
such states of combination as give a constant and regulated 
supply. Numerous experiments have demonstrated that a 
soil destitute of any one of the following substances—viz., 
phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, potash, lime, magnesia, 
oxide of iron—is absolutely barren by virtue of such de¬ 
ficiency. It is also certain that a soil which contains the 
usual amount of potash, but only in the form of feldspar, 
or of phosphoric acid, but only as apatite, or of magnesia, 
but only as serpentine, is infertile, because these substances 
do not yield their elements to the solvent agencies of the 
soil or plant rapidly enough to serve as plant-food. 
Alumina is an abundant element of soils, but it is always 
absent from agricultural plants; and recent investigations 
also appear to show that silica, which is present in many 
plants, is an accidental ingredient, and in no manner 
essential to their growth or perfection. Soda likewise ap¬ 
pears to be unessential to most of the vegetative processes; 
for, although it is perhaps never entirely absent from culti¬ 
vated plants, it often occurs in them in extremely minute 
quantity, so that the soda which is indispensable to the 
blood and milk of animals must be obtained, in part at 
least, directly from mineral sources. 

Nitrates and ammonia-salts—which are the natural sup¬ 
plies of nitrogen to crops—rarely are, and never need be, 
present in the soil in more than the minutest proportion. 
It is only requisite that they be generated or gathered 
there as rapidly as crops remove them. The process of nit¬ 
rification, whereby inert or inassimilable nitrogen existing 
in the soil or in the air is converted into nitric acid, is one 
of the utmost agricultural importance, though still largely 
involved in mystery. 

The great bulk of any soil is chemically indifferent in the 
nourishment of the present crop. The weight of an aver¬ 
age loamy soil is about 4,000,000 pounds per acre for each 
foot of depth. A crop of grain of thirty-three bushels re¬ 
moves but 140 pounds of ash-elements—viz., forty pounds 
in the seed and 100 pounds in the straw. A hay-crop of 
two tons carries off but 260 pounds of ash-ingredients. 
These quantities, if assumed to come from two feet of depth, 
are respectively bat 1-30,000th and 1-67,000th of the entire 
mass of soil. Hellriegel’s experiments give results which 
warrant us in concluding that 55 pounds of potash, 17 of 
soda, 17 of magnesia, 23 of lime, 55 of phosphoric acid, 11 
of sulphuric acid, 8 of chlorine, and 54 of nitrogen (in the 
form of nitrates), are all that need be present, in soluble 
condition, in 1,000,000 pounds of soil, in order to establish 
there a fertility equal to the production of 33 bushels of 
barley-grain and 2000 pounds of straw per acre. In other 
words, the 140 pounds of ash-elements may be taken from 
1,000,000 pounds of a soil in which but 186 pounds exist 


in soluble condition, and in which, therefore, the propor¬ 
tion of real plant-food—nitrogen, but not water, included— 
is but l-4000th. Good soil, in the practical sense, how¬ 
ever, yields, and may contain, a larger proportion of imme¬ 
diately available plant-food than one part in 4000, but 
rarely more perhaps than ten times that amount. 

As cropping removes these substances from the soil, they 
are replaced more or less rapidly and completely by weath¬ 
ering, whereby, under the influence of moisture, carbonic 
acid and oxygen, aided by heat and by the alternations of 
heat and cold, the rock-dust of the soil is gradually fluxed 
into soluble pabulum, and charged with nitrates. 

The soil is endowed with absorptive qualities which en¬ 
able it to retain in a state of comparative insolubility certain 
ash-elements, especially those which are in general the 
least abundant—viz., phosphoric acid and potash—even 
when applied to it from external sources in the most solu¬ 
ble form and in large quantity. This absorption of plant- 
food by the soil is accompanied by a corresponding libera¬ 
tion of other substances, especially of lime and sulphuric 
acid. The impalpable matter of the soil, consisting largely 
of aluminous and ferruginous silicates, is mainly the seat of 
these absorptions; sand, silica, carbonate of lime, humus, 
and even pure clay (kaolinite), being destitute of the power 
in question. 

Soils may be fully supplied with all the nutritive ele¬ 
ments in proper quantity and form, and yet be infertile. 
This may happen on account of faults in physical condi¬ 
tion, whereby they are rendered uncongenial to plants. A 
certain medium porosity, admitting of access and efflux of 
water, and a quality of being suitably warmed by the sun 
and of carrying heat through the cool of the night, are no 
less indispensable to high productive power than an ap¬ 
propriate chemical condition. 

Manures improve the soil by supplying one or several of 
those ingredients required by plants which arc deficient 
either by reason of yearly removal of crops or from original 
poverty of composition. Practice has taught that phos¬ 
phates and nitrogen in assimilable form are most com¬ 
monly the substances which strikingly benefit land, and 
chemical analysis shows that of these the former is ordina¬ 
rily the least abundant ingredient of soils, and the latter is 
one which is not only not abundant, but one which rapidly 
wastes by solution in rain-water, being daily carried off in 
immense quantities, through springs and rivers, into the 
sea. 

The action of fertilizers is not, however, fully explained 
by their affording a direct supply of lacking nutritive ele¬ 
ments ; manures operate indirectly to feed crops, by their 
chemical effects upon the soil. It has been abundantly 
demonstrated that common salt, gypsum, and other saline 
matters may react on the soil to convert potash and mag¬ 
nesia, for instance, into soluble forms, and thus to give the 
same i-esult as would follow an immediate application of 
the last-named substances. 

Certain manures which are used in large doses, such as 
stable-dung, peat, marl, and lime, also influence the fer¬ 
tility of the soil, by amending its texture or otherwise 
modifying its physical characters. 

It is theoretically possible to produce a maximum crop 
of any given kind, continuously and perpetually, upon the 
same plat of land. In practice, however, it is far easier, 
and therefore far cheaper, to alternate or rotate crops. 
A hoed crop implies surface-tillage, several times repeated 
during the growing season, thus effectually exposing the 
upper soil to the oxidizing influence of the air. A field 
put into grass or clover is to some extent under opposite 
conditions. In the one case, organic matters waste rap¬ 
idly ; in the other, they accumulate in the soil. In the 
first instance, the surface-soil tends to lose that porosity 
and attractiveness for moisture due to the presence of 
humus, which is a quality of the utmost significance in cli¬ 
mates subject to drouth. In the second instance, the soil 
gains in these respects. On the other hand, the lower soil, 
which under hoed crops is yearly broken up by repeated 
ploughing, may settle down to injurious compactness in a 
pasture or meadow. Deep-rooted crops affect the soil very 
differently from those whose radication is confined to near 
the surface. The reasons for rotation thus become, to 
some extent, apparent. Agricultural chemistry is compe¬ 
tent to show, further, that some plants, while occupying 
the soil, enrich it, and, though yielding the farmer a large 
and valuable harvest, yet actually manure the land for a 
subsequent crop. Clover has long been known as a plant 
of this kind. A good clover-crop, when made into hay, 
removes from the soil twice or thrice the ash-elements and 
nitrogen that are contained in a good wheat-crop, and yet 
the good clover-crop will develop in a soil where the good 
wheat-crop can only be raised by help of manure. More 
than this, the good clover-crop not only grows on the un¬ 
aided soil, but likewise fertilizes that soil, so that it can 














62 


AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY—AGRICULTURE. 


subsequently mako the good wheat-crop. The enriching 
effects of clover are absolute in respect of nitrogen. The 
clover plant is able, in a given time and on a given sur¬ 
face, to assimilate nitrogen much more rapidly, or to a 
much greater amount, than the wheat plant can. It there¬ 
fore flourishes better on a limited supply, or gives a full 
crop where wheat would make perhaps but half a crop; 
anil, besides, leaves in the soil where it has grown more 
nitrogen in its roots and stubble than an entire wheat-crop 
contains. In respect of ash-elements, the clover plant can 
add nothing to the soil in the way of quantity, but it 
strongly influences their quality. It transmutes the in¬ 
soluble matters into soluble, and collects largely, by its 
deep-penetrating roots, from stores of food which the 
wheat plant can scarcely reach. AVhen its roots decay, 
these substances remain where a succeeding wheat-crop 
can at once utilize them. This enriching process has again 
its narrow limits. If we keep land in clover, it becomes 
“clover-sick,” probably from exhaustion of the deep-lying 
plant-food, and this disease is hard to cure, because of the 
inaccessibility of the subsoil to fertilizing applications. 

By judicious rotation of crops a soil of moderate quality 
may be made to yield fair harvests without loss of product¬ 
ive power. In order thus to economize in the fullest de¬ 
gree the resources of soil and crop, the farmer needs an 
accurate knowledge of their nature, such as can only be ob¬ 
tained by encouraging the study of agricultural chemistry. 

In studying the utilization of vegetable products for 
obtaining the various animal matters which are employed 
as food, etc., agricultural chemistry enters into a higher 
and more difficult field. Here it has been obliged, by nu¬ 
merous experiments, to test much of the empirical know¬ 
ledge which agricultural practice had too vaguely supplied, 
and also finds itself under the necessity of investigating 
the most purely scientific questions of physiology. Although 
many useful practical results have been obtained, this de¬ 
partment of our knowledge is extremely incomplete, and, 
save in technical details, is too closely allied to the general 
subject of animal nutrition to require notice in these pages. 

Of useful books on agricultural chemistry, those of 
Liebig and Boussingault take pre-eminence; the former 
by their brilliant suggestiveness, the latter by their ac¬ 
curate experimental study of many points of the highest 
practical interest. In Germany, Wolff, IIeiden, Knop, 
and Mayer have recently published excellent systematic 
treatises. Great Britain has produced no extended work 
since J. F. W. Johnston’s “Lectures,” which are still 
valuable, though far behind the time. In the United 
States, two books by S. W. Johnson have been received 
with favor. (See Liebig, “Agricultural Chemistry,” 1841; 
“Modern Agriculture,” 1859; “Natural Laws of Hus¬ 
bandry,” 1863, etc.; Boussingault, “Economic Rurale,” 
1851; “ Mcmoires de Chiinie Agricole,” 1854; “ Agronomie, 
Chimie Agricole,” etc., 1860-68: Wolff, “Naturgesetzliche 
Grundlagen des Ackerbaues,” 1856; “ Landwirthschaftliche 
Fiitterungslehre,” 1861; Heiden, “ Diingerlehre,” 1868; 
Knop, “ Lehrbuch der Agricultur Chemie,” 1868 ; Mayer, 
“Agricultur Chemie,” 1871; Johnston, “Lectures on Ag¬ 
ricultural Chemistry and Geology,” 1847; Johnson, “How 
Crops Grow,” 1868; “How Crops Feed,” 1870.) 

S. W. Johnson. 


Agricultural Geology —geology applied to agricul¬ 
ture—embraces whatever can be learned in regard to the 
nature of the substructure of any district with reference to 
drainage and water-supply, the origin, physical structure, 
and mineral constituents of soils, the distribution and prop¬ 
erties of mineral fertilizers, etc. It is chiefly valuable as 
teaching the probable resources of a district in soil, subsoil, 
mineral manures, etc. To the farmer it is often desirable 
that he should know the results likely to be obtained from 
deep ploughing and deep draining. These depend greatly 
on the nature of the rock, the dip and compactness of the 
strata, and the form of the surface in reference to the strati¬ 
fication. In a majority of cases, the subsoil is derived from 
the underlying rock, and the soil is derived from the sub¬ 
soil; so that for the most part the soil indicates the rock. 
Thus in any estimate of the fertility of land the nature of 
the underlying rock comes into consideration, for both the 
depth and texture of the soil depend, to a considerable ex¬ 
tent, on the rock beneath, and the productiveness is depend¬ 
ent on these. Thus, soils formed from rocks which abound 
in phosphates are often of extraordinary fertility. Even the 
fossils and shells that are found in, and are characteristic 
of, rocks increase the value of the land where they occur. 

Agricultural Schools. See Scientific Schools. 


Agricultural System, a theory of political economy 
invented by F. Quesnay (physician to Louis XV.), who 
taught that those only increase the wealth of a country who 
develop the resources of the earth, such as the products of 
the vegetable and mineral kingdoms. 


Agriculture [Lat. agricultu'ra, from a'ger, gen. 
a'gri, a “field” or “land,” and co'lo, cultum, to “till;” lit¬ 
erally, the “ tillage (or cultivation) of land ”] is the art of 
increasing and assuring, by human effort and care, the pro¬ 
duction and growth of such material substances as con¬ 
tribute to the sustenance or enjoyment of our race, whether 
directly or through the nourishment of such animals as 
minister to the comfort and well-being of mankind. Its 
origin and progress are nearly identical with those of 
civilization. The absolute savage gathers and consumes 
the seeds, nuts, roots, etc. that gratify his apjietite or 
renew his wasted strength ; he may collect and save them 
in seasons of plenty to minister to his needs in time of 
want, but he never thinks of planting or tilling with intent 
to increase his stores. Save under the immediate pressure 
of hunger or cold, he has no habit of working—no days or 
hours set apart for industry. Were it otherwise, he would 
cease to be a savage. 

The barbarian is primarily a careless, nomadic cattle- 
breeder or shepherd. Having captured and domesticated 
certain animals, he spares a part of them for weeks, or 
months, or years, that they may be available in time of 
greater need. Some of them—the horse and the dog, for 
instance—he values and preserves, though, unless sorely 
pressed by hunger, he rejects them as food. Some rarely 
found, like the beaver, otter, mink, etc., he prizes for their 
fur, whereby he may defend himself against cold, and 
sometimes increase his personal attractions. The breeding 
and rearing of the horse, cow, sheep, camel, reindeer, ass, 
hog, etc. form the earliest and rudest department of bar¬ 
barian industry. Poorly and scantily fed or sheltered, 
these animals increase slowly, and thousands of them are 
often swept off by the unusual severity of winter. Land is 
lightly valued by the ruder herdsmen: if one locality does 
not serve, they seek and find another. A great dearth or 
famine has sometimes set in motion tribe after tribe, until 
a hunt for food became a migration, then an irruption, 
overturning dynasties and subjugating races more polished 
but less warlike than their conquerors. 

Though the origin of agriculture is lost in the darkness 
which shrouds pro-historic times, it can hardly be doubted 
that men first sowed seeds in the annually-inundated lower 
valleys of the Nile and other great rivei's, which, cradled 
in distant mountains, arc swelled by melting snows more 
slowly and equably than others. These valleys are often 
more or less extensively seeded by grains or nuts brought 
down by the floods; and when such seeding failed or 
proved inadequate, observation would soon teach those 
whose subsistence depended on the process to supplement 
or eke out Nature’s niggard, capricious bounty by human 
providence and industry. Nature had presented a pattern 
whereon man might profitably improve. After a time the 
sower strewed his seeds over the face of the stilled and 
slowly-receding flood, knowing that the softened soil be¬ 
neath would retain and cover the germs which the sun would 
speedily quicken : hence the Hebrew proverb, “ Cast thy 
bread upon the waters, and thou shalt find it after many 
days.” Such seeding required no animal or mechanical 
power, no implement but the human hand and arm, while 
the annual inundation supplied in abundance the elements 
of growth. Such was probably the infancy of agriculture. 

But the area naturally inundated is small and limited, 
while, under favoring circumstances, population tends ever 
to increase. To cultivate more acres was indispensable; 
and the most facile, rather than the most fertile, were first 
selected for such use. But here the earth required break¬ 
ing up and pulverizing; so the aid of strong, docile ani¬ 
mals was soon invoked, and rude implements devised to 
render their muscular strength serviceable. The yoke and 
the plough were thus called into existence—both rude, as 
the yoke still measurably is; the original plough being a 
forked stick or tree-top, with one prong left five or six feet 
long for a beam, and the other shortened to a foot or two, 
and sharpened, to serve as a coulter and share. Asia, 
Africa—nay, even Spain and Portugal—have made but 
moderate improvements thereon to this day; while West¬ 
ern Europe and the United States have left the primitive 
plough almost out of sight. Yet it was not till the begin¬ 
ning of the eighteenth century that Jethro Tull persuaded 
a few British farmers that iron was the true, chief material 
for ploughs; and only the enlightened cultivators of tho 
present century have substituted steel for iron. 

The ruling classes in most nations of antiquity wronged 
themselves by degrading labor. In the Brahminical 
hierarchy, which has so long petrified a large portion of 
the human race, priests rank above soldiers, and soldiers 
form a caste which looks down on the tillers of the soil. 
Nearly all the ancient kingdoms of Semitic origin or genius, 
the Hebrews excepted, concurred substantially in this mis¬ 
taken estimate. Greece should have been more enlightened, 
but her ruling caste also, in the days of her glory, was a 

















AGRICULTURE. 63 


caste of warriors, while her soil was tilled mainly by slaves. 
Home, in the days of her republican vigor, was a community 
of cultivators, every citizen being allotted land (usually 
about six acres), which he was expected to till with his own 
hands, as was done by some of her greatest warriors and 
wisest statesmen. But wars of conquest soon tilled the re¬ 
public with slaves captured in battle, and rural labor, as 
well as household service, was devolved on them, render¬ 
ing tillage menial and (in the general regard) degrading. 
Agriculture drooped and withered under this burden, and 
Italy, naturally the garden of Europe, drew a great part 
of her bread for ages at first from Sicily, then from Egypt 
and other distant regions, which ignorance, neglect, and 
wretched husbandry could not render sterile or unfruitful. 
Feudalism in the West, Islamism in the East, planted 
themselves on the ruins of the mighty but corroded fabric 
of lloman power; and it was not till the Crusades had 
somewhat shattered the claims of feudalism that any sub¬ 
stantial progress in agriculture was made since the ages 
of Moses and Homer. The average serf of Western 
Europe, at the date of the Norman conquest, and for 
generations thereafter, was nowise more fortunate, and was 
barely more efficient, than the Hebrew cultivator of the age 
of Samson or of David. 

The law given by Moses, the book of Job, and the paint¬ 
ings still fresh and vivid in the Egyptian pyramids, to¬ 
gether carry us back nearly or quite live thousand years, 
and show us that the jdough has been in use for more than 
that number of years. Moses ordained that the soil should 
lie fallow every seventh year—a rude but tolerably certain 
mode of restoring, by rest and atmospheric influences, its 
exhausted fertility. Isaac, the son of Abraham, is said to 
have reaped a hundred-fold in one instance—a wondrous 
product if the crop were the most prolific known to West¬ 
ern Asia in that age. Indeed, historians agree that a yield 
of five bushels per acre of wheat was the full average of 
antiquity, if not beyond it. Rye, barley, and oats did 
better, though not much. Even middling husbandry, with 
modern implements and methods, yields at least twice as 
much per acre, and thrice as much per bushel of seed, as did 
that of Europe and Asia from ten to forty centuries ago. In 
the production of tho grape, the olive, the apple, fig, etc., 
as also in the rearing of cattle, the ancients stood more 
nearly on a plane with us, save that their stock was inade¬ 
quately and capriciously fed and sheltered in winter, 
whence great losses were from time to time encountered. 
A very few eminent breeders kept choice animals, but the 
great majority thought no more of blood in cattle than of 
grafting their apple trees or underdraining their marshes. 
In Greece, agriculture scarcely attracted the notice of the 
intellectual, powerful, and cultivated minority, who were 
intent on war and politics, art and music; and no work of 
noticeable ability survives to attest Greek devotion to, or 
interest in, the improvement of the soil. Home was less 
sterile in this respect; her writers on agriculture proffered 
suggestions which, though more than two thousand years 
old, may still be pondered with profit by practical farmers. 
The original allotment of land to each Homan citizen 
ranging from two up to six acres, the advantage of 
thorough over shiftless cultivation is especially insisted on 
by them, while the advisability of early planting, tilling, 
harvesting, etc. is forcibly commended. Slavery having 
degraded labor, while luxury enervated the richer classes, 
Roman agriculture sank into decay, and Italy was for 
centuries largely supplied with bread-grain from abroad. 
The Northern barbarians who overturned and divided tho 
Homan empire were but rude cultivators, and despised 
the arts of peace, as only befitting serfs and slaves. Of 
course they did nothing to improve the wretched methods 
of cultivation which they found in vogue in Greece, Gaul, 
Iberia, and Italy. But the Saracens, who soon wrested 
a great part of Southern Europe from the grasp of their 
degenerate offspring, introduced irrigation and kindred arts 
from Northern Africa, and made the Spanish peninsula 
flourish as it had never done till then. The fact that 
their revenue in Spain amounted in the tenth century to 
$30,000,000 (equaUo twenty times that amount in our day) 
indicates an efficiency and a thrift in cultivation, as well 
as manufactures, unknown to their modern successors. 

So long as Europe bent to the yoke of feudalism, agri¬ 
cultural improvement was scarcely possible. The tillers 
of the soil were mainly tenants at will, bound to rush to 
arms at the call of their lord, and liable to be dispossessed 
at his nod. They usually paid their rents in kind, and one 
who grew unusually large crops would have been promptly 
required to increase his quota of rent. Leases for fixed 
terms, or for two or more lives, gradually replaced the 
older methods, the landlords at length discovering that 
their own true interest required that the tenant should be 
incited to improve his processes, enlarge his fields, and in¬ 
crease his crops. 


The condition of the masses under the feudal system 
precluded efficient cultivation. Sunk in the grossest igno¬ 
rance, grovelling in superstitious fear of a haughty priest¬ 
hood, taking the law from the mouths of their landlords or 
feudal masters, they had neither means nor will to improve 
their holdings and methods. Wheat they seldom ate; their 
scanty crops of this grain were required by their masters; 
rye, barley, and oats afforded their meat and their drink— 
beer or mead being their only luxury. Even the aris¬ 
tocracy of most European countries, but especially of Eng¬ 
land, knew few edibles but these, esculent vegetables being 
as yet few and poor. Says “ The British Cyclopmdia:” “It 
was not till the end of the reign of Henry VIII. that any 
salads, any carrots, or other edible roots were produced in 
England. The little of these vegetables that was used was 
formerly imported from Holland and Flanders.” Butcher’s 
meat had been and was abundant and cheap, only because 
most of the country was uncultivated, lay in common, and 
was ranged over by cattle that received little care and less 
fodder. The invention of printing, the discovery of 
America, the dayspring of inquiry and mental freedom in¬ 
augurated by Martin Luther, rung the knell of feudalism. 
The New World supplied some excellent edibles to the Old 
—Indian corn and the potato foremost among them. No 
other grain but rice yields food for man so bounteously as 
the maize; no other root is so generally acceptable as the 
potato, though several others yield a larger bulk or weight 
per acre. Even if the maize were already known to China 
and the far East, its value to Europe was not lessened. 
And even tobacco, though making a heavy draft upon the 
soil, has largely contributed to enhance the gains of the 
husbandman, since many communities pay as much an¬ 
nually for this seductive narcotic as for bread. 

Modern agriculture dates from the invention of planting, 
and the consequent multiplication of books and of readers. 
“ The Book of Husbandry,” the first English work of de¬ 
cided merit devoted to tillage, was first published in tho 
reign of Henry VIII. (1534), and is attributed to a judge 
named Fitzherbert. It is eminently practical in its incul¬ 
cations, and nearly as minute in its descriptions as its 
lineal successor, Mr. Stephens’s “Book of the Farm.” It 
was soon followed by several others of like purpose, which 
are often judicious, though sometimes fantastic, in their 
recommendations. The introduction of red clover and the 
turnip into Great Britain, about 1G45, probably did more 
for her farmers than all the books ever printed had thus 
far done. It is said that Lord Bacon, having assiduously 
collected all the works treating of agriculture known in his 
day, after dipping into them sufficiently to form an opinion 
of their contents, at length consigned them to the flames, 
saying that they laid down rules arbitrarily and with no 
regard to principles. We presume this sweeping criticism 
contemplated the writings of German and French, as well 
as British, writers on the art of cultivating the soil. 

Jethro Tull, a gentleman farmer of Berkshire, whose 
“Horse-hoeing Husbandry” appeared in 1731, seems to 
have been the first author who contemplated the farmer’s 
calling with the eye of genius. He Jiad for thirty years 
been drilling in his crops with decided advantage, and he 
tells others how to profit by his example. He insisted on 
the advisability of repeated ploughings before seeding, and 
of sowing in drills so wide apart as to admit of cultivation 
with a horse-hoe. Underdraining being as yet unknown, 
he laid his land in ridges, with shallow ditches interven¬ 
ing ; he sowed but three pecks of seed to the acre; he hoed 
his wheat in the fall, and again in the spring; and, making 
the ridges of this year on the ground allotted to the ditches 
of last year, he grew thirteen crops of wheat in succession 
on the same field, and maintained that the soil was nowise 
exhausted thereby. He thus anticipated the Loisweden 
practice of our day, which consists in marking off a 
(drained) field into strips three feet in width, cultivating 
these in alternate years, and tilling the fallow spaces be¬ 
tween the strips of grain. It is claimed for this practice 
that the crop is as large as when all the ground is sown, 
and that wheat after wheat may thus be grown ad infini¬ 
tum ! Tull sowed turnip seed in the same drills or ridges, 
at depths of one, two, and four inches respectively, calcu¬ 
lating that the lowest would germinate in spite of any but 
the severest drouth, and that, the young plants appearing 
at different times, a part of them must at all events escape 
the fly. British agriculture owes very much to the turnip, 
which grows luxuriantly in its moist, cool climate, yet is 
there left in the ground, scarcely touched by frost, until 
gnawed away gradually by sheep, which arc thus fattened 
more cheaply than they otherwise could be. 

The breeding of choice sheep and cattle received signal 
attention in Great Britain during the last century, and tho 
improvements thus effected have been maintained and ex¬ 
tended. The Durham and Alderney breeds of cattle, tho 
Leicester, Cotswold, and other excellent breeds ot long or 














64 


AGRICULTURE. 


coarsc-woolled sheep, are among the trophies of that cen¬ 
tury. The Merino was brought from its native Spain by 
George III. in 1788, but experience proved it unsuited to 
the British isles, where mutton is of more consequence than 
wool. 

The high price of grain, caused by the persistent wars 
between France and England for twenty-five years prior 
to 1815, stimulated the progress of British agriculture. 
Scotland participated fully in this improvement, whereby 
millions of acres were reclaimed from heath and bog or 
rugged pasture, and made largely productive of grain and 
roots. Underdraining was greatly promoted by an act 
of Parliament providing that money should be advanced 
from the public treasury to defray its cost, upon the secu¬ 
rity of a first mortgage on the property thus reclaimed. 

The progress of agriculture since 1800 has been so rapid 
that its recent triumphs outweigh all that preceded them. 
The use of dissolved bones as a fertilizer is hardly yet sev¬ 
enty years old, yet it has increased the annual grain-har¬ 
vest of Great Britain by millions of bushels. For a gene¬ 
ration the farmers of this and other countries saw cargo 
after cargo of bones taken from their shores to fertilize 
British fields, without even asking what this should sug¬ 
gest to them; but now they use all the bones attainable 
(mainly in the shape of superphosphate), and look around 
for more. Guano—whereby the fields of Peru and Chili 
were fertilized long before Columbus dreamed of a shorter 
passage westward to China and Japan—first found its way 
to Great Britain in 1841: its annual application already 
costs that country millions of dollars, and is still increas¬ 
ing. Lastly, the employment of steam in the direct service 
of agriculture, not only in threshing and winnowing, but 
in ploughing and tilling as well, is among the great and 
beneficent improvements of boundless scope and promise 
for which mankind are indebted to the intelligent and ener¬ 
getic cultivators and mechanicians of Great Britain. 

American agriculture, like that of continental Europe, 
has too generally been content to follow and to copy whero 
it might have pointed and led the way. Wrestling with 
giant forests, with stumps and roots, and often with a 
rocky or a sandy soil, with his capital absorbed in the pur¬ 
chase of his generally superabundant acres, the average 
American cultivator has been content to do as his grand¬ 
father did, heedless of all suggestions of improvement. 
Underdraining, deep-ploughing, the use of commercial fer¬ 
tilizers, etc., he instinctively dislikes, and resists so long as 
resistance is possible. Thus far the substantial triumphs 
of American agriculture have mainly been the trophies of 
mechanical genius. Thus, the cotton-gin of Eli Whitney 
has done more to diffuse comfort and plenty throughout the 
civilized world than any single achievement of an Ameri¬ 
can farmer. Our people were among the first to reduce 
the weight ami lessen the draft of the plough, and they 
have been among the foremost in its gradual transmutation 
from a rude implement, constructed mainly of wood, to 
one far more effective, whereof barely the handles are of 
wood, while the land-side, as well as the share, and nearly 
or quite all besides, are made of polished and excellent 
steel. In axes, scythes, hoes, spades, and nearly every 
other instrument of manual effort on a farm, our country 
may boast a decided superiority. In the profitable substi¬ 
tution of animal for manual exertion, however, have our 
most signal triumphs been won. By ploughing instead of 
hoeing Indian corn we have immensely increased the area 
cultivated, while reducing the cost of the product. Under 
our prompting the sickle has been superseded by the cra¬ 
dle in cutting all the smaller grains, and this again by the 
reaper, which cuts acres more rapidly than roods could be 
cut with the cradle. The mower (always akin to. and 
sometimes identical with, the reaper) has so reduced the 
cost and fatigue involved in our hay-harvest that cattle are 
kept far more cheaply in our old States, estimating their 
cost in hours of labor, than they could be prior to the last 
twenty or thirty years. Horse-rakes, hay-tedders, with 
fanning-mills and kindred devices for separating grain 
from chaff, threshers of many diverse patterns, corn-husk- 
ers, potato-diggers, etc., have immensely economized our 
labor and increased the bulk and value of our annual har¬ 
vests. Underdraining, subsoiling, irrigation, etc. have 
as yet been naturalized among us entirely by the efforts of 
an enlightened but nowise numerous minority, but their 
benefits are so signal and indubitable that the many cannot 
long hesitate to adopt them. 

In the use of steam in ploughing we are deplorably 
backward, owing in good part to our recent great and ex- 
bars ing civil war. But for this a thousand portable steam- 
engines would doubtless have been tearing up our fields 
ere this, as is the case already in Great Britain, and must 
soon be here. As it is, we may fairly boast of one step in 
advance of our great rival. On the plantation of Mr. Ef¬ 
fingham Lawrence, fifty miles below New Orleans, on the 


west bank of the Mississippi, the largest steam-engines 
yet constructed by Messrs. John Fowler A Co., the British 
makers of steam-ploughs and other cultivating machinery, 
arc steadily and profitably employed, not merely in plough¬ 
ing that glutinous, leathery clay to a depth of twenty-six 
to twenty-eight inches, but similar engines, worked entirely 
by blacks till recently slaves, arc lifting and pulverizing to 
a depth of fully two feet the spaces which separate the 
rows of growing cane; and doing the work so thoroughly, 
when the cane is about one foot high, that it needs no 
further tilling till matured—the plants pushing their roots 
quickly into the mellow earth, and thence drawing suste¬ 
nance for a growth so luxuriant as to smother and choke 
out all future weeds. So far as is known to this writer, no 
earlier cultivation of growing crops by steam has been 
seen on this planet. 

And this is a hint by which thousands must profit. But 
few years can elapse before the vast prairies of the est 
and South-west will be cultivated largely, it not mainly, 
by steam—the same locomotive being employed to plough, 
seed, till, harvest, thresh, winnow, and perhaps transport 
the grain to the nearest steamboat wharf or railroad sta¬ 
tion. Working on untired through day and night, con¬ 
suming nothing when idle, and thoroughly pulverizing 
fifty acres per day to a depth unattainable by horse-power, 
the steam-engine will prove here, as elsewhere, the might¬ 
iest friend and most useful servant ever vouchsafed to hu¬ 
man genius at the call of an urgent need. 

Early History of Agriculture .—As the Greeks and Ro¬ 
mans appear to have arrived at as great a degree of perfec¬ 
tion in legislation as the moderns, so they may be said to 
have attained great excellence in the art of agriculture. 
Till within the present century very little difference existed 
between the most approved agriculture of climates analogous 
to that of Italy and the agriculture of the Romans as de¬ 
scribed by Cato, Columella, and other ancient writers. The 
chief superiority of the moderns consists in their machinery, 
and especially in their knowledge of the sciences connected 
with this pursuit; the last, though extremely important, 
being of very recent date, and as yet by no means generally 
diffused. By science are not only acquired more enlightened 
and greatly improved methods of treating the soil, but su¬ 
perior breeds both of plants and animals have been origin¬ 
ated ; by improved machinery a more perfect tillage has 
been produced, and also a more complete separation of the 
produce of the soil from the refuse of the plants and other 
impurities. 

In Great Britain the history of agriculture begins with 
the Roman Conquest. Julius Caesar found the inhabitants 
in a state of semi-barbarism, but Agricola left them in pos¬ 
session of all the arts of civilization known to the Romans. 
Agriculture declined with the invasion of the Saxons, but 
was preserved through the dark ages after the establish¬ 
ment of Christianity by the intelligence of the members of 
religious establishments, who gradually became possessed 
of the greater part of the landed property in the country. 
The culture of the land will be found to have depended in 
every country principally on its climate and civilization, 
though partly, also, on its government and population. In 
the warmer climates, where nature produces fruits in the 
greatest abundance for the food both of men and animals, 
and where very little care is required to procure shelter 
or clothing, agriculture has made little progress, because 
it is comparatively unnecessary for the prosperity of the 
inhabitants. On the other hand, in climates of a directly 
opposite character agriculture has made equally slight prog¬ 
ress, owing to the almost insurmountable obstacles opposed 
to it. It is therefore only in intermediate climates, where 
the soil admits of labor by man throughout a great part of 
the year, that agriculture is calculated to attain the highest 
degree of perfection. 

Literature of Agriculture .—The literature of agriculture 
begins with the works of the Romans, of which Columel¬ 
la’s work, “ He Re Rustica,” may be considered the most 
comprehensive and valuable. Virgil’s “ Georgies,” a poem 
unequalled of its kind in any language, may be said to 
teach, with all the attractions of the most exquisite poetry, 
everything that was then known of the art of agriculture. 
In the dawn of modern agriculture, the principal writers 
were—Crescentius in Italy, Herrera in Spain, Olivier de 
Serves in France, Hereshbachius in Germany, and Fitz- 
herbert in England. (For the recent literature of scientific 
agriculture, the reader is referred to the bibliography at 
the end of Agricultural Chemistry.) At the beginning 
of the present century the most comprehensive author on 
agriculture in Italy was Fillippo Re: in France, Tessier; 
in Germany, Mayer; and in England, Marshall. About 
the best work from which a general idea may be obtained 
ot the agriculture of France and corresponding climates is 
Maison, “ Rustique du xix e siecle, ou Encyclopedic d’Agri- 
culture pratique,” complete in one volume, Svo.; and the 





























AGRICULTURE, DEPARTMENT OF—AHLQUIST. 65 


corresponding British works are Loudon’s “ Encyclopedia 
of Agriculture Stephens’s “ Book of the Farm Mor¬ 
ton’s “ Cyclopedia of Agriculture and Wilson’s “ British 
Farming.” Horace Greeley. 

Agriculture, Department of, was established by 
Congress in 1862 in Washington, D. C. By means of an¬ 
nual and monthly reports it diffuses information deemed 
advantageous to the agricultural interests of the country. 
It purchases and propagates seeds and plants, which are dis¬ 
tributed to the people of the U. S. It is under the com¬ 
missioner of agriculture, who is appointed by the President 
and confirmed by the Senate. It has a fine building, which 
stands W. of the grounds of the Smithsonian Institution. 
Connected with it are a museum, chemical laboratory, prop¬ 
agating gardens, and a library. Its monthly reports of 
the prospects of the staple crops are especially valuable. 
At the propagating gardens plants received by exchange 
from foreign governments and botanic gardens are tested 
with a view to introducing new and useful plants into this 
country. 

Agrigen tum (now Girgen'ti), an ancient city of Sicily, 
situated on the slope of a mountain on the S. coast of the 
island. It was founded about 582 B. C., and once had about 
200,000 inhabitants. Here are magnificent ruins, among 
which are the temple of Concord (said to be the most perfect 
extant structure of the early Greek architecture), and the tem¬ 
ple of Olympian Jupiter, about 350 feet long. (See Gir- 

GENTI.) 

Ag'rimony [Lat. Agrimo'nia], a genus of herbaceous 
plants of the natural order Rosacese. The Agrimonia Eu- 
patoria, a native of Europe and the U. S., has been used in 
medicine. Several species grow in the Southern U. S. 

Agrippa, King. See Herod Agrippa. 

Agrip'pa (Henry Cornelius), a celebrated German 
physician, philosopher, and astrologer, was born at Cologne 
Sept. 14,1486. He cultivated many departments of know¬ 
ledge, and engaged in various pursuits in many countries 
of Europe. He acquired fame by his talents and his sup¬ 
posed skill in occult science, but he was regarded as an im¬ 
postor and heretic by some of his contemporaries. He 
lectured on theology at Cologne and other places, and 
practised medicine in France. Among his works is a satire 
“ On the Vanity of the Sciences” (in Latin, 1530). Died 
Feb. 18, 1535. 

Agrip'pa (Marcus Vipsanius), an eminent Roman 
statesman and general, born in 63 B. C. He became in his 
youth a friend of Octavius (afterwards the emperor Augus¬ 
tus), to whom he rendered important military services, es¬ 
pecially at the battle of Actium, where he commanded the 
fleet, in 31 B. C. Agrippa and Maecenas were the principal 
ministers and advisers of Augustus after he had obtained 
the supreme power. He married Julia, the daughter of 
Augustus, about 21 B. C., and had several sons, two of 
whom were adopted by the emperor. Died in 12 B. C. 

Agrippi'na I., a Roman lady, the daughter of M. 
Vipsanius Agrippa and his wife Julia, was married to the 
famous Germanicus. Her virtue is highly commended. 
Died about 32 A. D. 

Agrippina II., a daughter of the preceding, was born 
about 14 A. D. She was the mother of the emperor Nero, 
and was notorious for her profligacy and her crimes. Her 
third husband was the emperor Claudius, whom she killed 
by poison. She was put to death by her son Nero in 60 A. D. 

Ag'telek, or Bar'adla, the name of one of the largest 
and most remarkable stalactitic caverns of Europe, is in the 
county of Gbmbr, in Hungary. Here is a labyrinth of cav¬ 
erns, one of which is 96 feet high, 90 feet wide, and extends 
about 900 feet in a direct line. 

A'gua, Volcan' de (i. e .“ volcano of water ”), a moun¬ 
tain of Central America, in the state of Guatemala, situated 
about 25 miles S. W. of Guatemala; so called from the fact 
that it sometimes pours forth torrents of water. The old 
town of Guatemala has been twice destroyed by it. Its 
crater is 15,000 feet above the sea-level. 

A'guas Calien'tes (t. e. “warm springs”), a state of 
Mexico, is bounded on the N. by Zacatecas, on the E. by 
Guanajuato, on the S. by Lake Chapala, and on the W. by 
Xalisco. Area, 2217 square miles. The surface is partly 
level and partly hilly, and in the N. are branches of the 
Sierra Nevada. The soil is very fertile, but poor in min¬ 
erals. Pop. in 1868, 140,630. 

Aguas Calientes, a town of Mexico, the capital of 
the state of its own name, is on a plain or table-land 6000 
feet above the level of the sea, and 250 miles N. W. of the 
city of Mexico. It has numerous churches and three con¬ 
vents, and is surrounded by gardens and orchards of olives, 
pears, figs, etc. Hot springs occur in the vicinity. Pop. 
about 39,000. 


A'gue [probably from the Fr. agu, an old form of aigu, 
“ sharp,” in allusion to the violence of the disease] is the 
common name for the Intermittent Fever (which see). 

Aguilar' de la Fronte'ra, a town of Spain, on the 
Cabra, 22 miles S. S. E. of Cordova, is noted for the white¬ 
ness of its houses and the cleanness of its streets. It has 
several fine public squares, a town-hall, and a dismantled 
Moorish castle. Pop. 11,836. 

Aguilar (Grace), a Jewish authoress of Spanish ex¬ 
traction, was born at Hackney, near London, June 2,1816. 
Among her numerous works are “Women of Israel,” 
“ Home Scenes and Heart Studies,” and “ Home Influence, 
a Tale.” She died at Frankfort Sept. 16, 1847. 

Agulhas, Cape, the most southern point of Africa, is 
about 100 miles E. of the Cape of Good Hope. A light¬ 
house was erected on it in 1849; lat. of lighthouse, 34° 49' 
8” S., Ion. 20° 0' 7” E. 

Agusti'na, called the “Maid of Saragossa,” died at 
Cueta, Spain, in 1857. She greatly distinguished herself 
during the siege of Saragossa by the French in 1809, and 
as a reward for her services was made a lieutenant in the 
Spanish army, and received numerous decorations. Byron 
extols her in “ Childe Harold,” canto i., stanzas 54, 55, 56. 

Agyn'ians [from the Gr. a, neg., and yvvr), a “woman”], 
a Gnostic sect of the seventh century who condemned mar¬ 
riage and the use of certain kinds of meat. 

A'hab [Heb. Achab~], eighth king of Israel, who reigned 
B. C. 915-895. His wife was Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, 
the usurping king of Tyre. He dwelt at Jezreel, which ho 
adorned with splendid buildings. The story of his weak¬ 
ness, his idolatry, and the stern opposition of the prophet 
Elijah is related in the first book of Kings. Ahab was 
killed in battle with Benhadad, king of Damascus. 

Ahan'ta, a negro kingdom in Upper Guinea, which was 
formerly independent, but was conquered by Ashantee. It 
is one of the healthiest, richest, and most civilized districts 
on the coast, having a fertile and well-cultivated soil. The 
chief productions are sugar-cane, rice, and timber. The 
chief articles of export are palm oil, ivory, and gold. In 
1683, Frederick William, the great elector, attempted to 
start a colony here, but in 1718 Prussia sold all her pos¬ 
sessions on the Gold Coast to the West India Company in 
Amsterdam. The Dutch took possession of several other 
districts in this neighborhood, but in 1872 ceded all their 
possessions on the Gold Coast to Great Britain. 

AMasue'rus, the name of one Median and two Persian 
kings mentioned in the Old Testament. The Ahasuerus of 
Esther was probably Xerxes, the invader of Greece, who 
reigned from 486 to 465 B. C. He invaded Greece in 480, 
and is supposed to have married Esther the year after. 

A'haz [Heb. Achaz, “possessor”], twelfth king of Judah 
after its secession from Israel, reigned B. C. 740-726. His 
reign was greatly disturbed by the attacks of Rezin, king 
of Damascus, and Pekah, king of Israel, as well as those 
of the Edomites and Philistines. Ahaz called to his aid 
the powerful Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, who over¬ 
threw the enemies of Judah, but made Ahaz his vassal, and 
carried off rich treasures from the temple and palaces of 
Jerusalem. Ahaz was an idolater. A statement in 2 Kings 
xvi. 2 as to his accession would make his son and succes¬ 
sor, Hezekiah, to have been born when he was eleven years 
old, but this must be a transcriber’s error or the date of a 
viceroyship. 

Ahazi'ah, ninth king of Israel, succeeded his father 
Ahab, and ruled under the direction of Jezebel, his mother, 
B. C. 895-894.—Also the name of the sixth king of Judah, 
B. C. 884-883. A famous error of some transcriber (2 Chron. 
xxi. 5, 20) makes him younger than his own son. 

Ahith'ophel [Heb. Achithophel, “foolish ”], a Hebrew 
politician and councillor of David. He took the side of 
Absalom in his rebellion, but, foreseeing the failure of the 
enterprise, went home and hanged himself. 

Ahl'feld (Johann Friedrich), an eminent German 
preacher, born Nov. 1, 1810, became in 1847 clergyman in 
Ilalle, and in 1851 in Leipsic, and gained in both places the 
reputation of an excellent pulpit orator. He published 
several collections of sermons, all of which have had a large 
sale. 

Ahl'quist (August Engelbert), a celebrated Finnish 
philologist, born Aug. 7, 1826, not only made the Finnish 
language his especial study, but also made it his object to 
raise it to the rank of a written language, and to create a 
national Finnish literature. For this purpose he travelled 
under the greatest difficulties through Northern Russia and 
Siberia to acquaint himself with the tribes of the Uralian- 
Altaic race living there. At present he is professor of Fin¬ 
nish language and literature in the University of Hel¬ 
singfors. His chief works are “ An Attempt at a Moksha- 















66 


AHLWARDT—AIKEN. 


Mordwinian Grammar” (1862), a “ Grammar of the Wotish 
Language,” and a description of his travels in Siberia 
(1853-58). He has also written many poems in the Finnish 
language, and made several translations from the German 
of Schiller. 

Ahl'wardt (Theodore Wilhelm), a German Oriental¬ 
ist, born July 4, 1828, became in 1861 librarian and professor 
of Oriental languages at the University of Greifswalde. He 
published “ Chalef el Ahmars Qasside” (1859), besides sev¬ 
eral historical works. 

Ali'med IV., sometimes called Abd'ul-Hamid, a 

Turkish sultan, born in 1725, succeeded to the throne in 1773. 
His reign is chiefly notable on account of the two disas¬ 
trous wars with Russia, in which Turkey lost the Crimea, 
a portion of Circassia, with some other territories, and a 
number of important fortresses. Died in 1789. 

Ah'medabad' (7. e. “the abode of Ahmed”), a city 
of British India, in the presidency of Bombay, is on the 
river Subbermuttee, 16 miles by rail N. N. W. of Surat; 
lat. 23° 1' N., Ion. 72° 48' E. It was formerly a large and 
magnificent capital, but is now much decayed. Here are 
several beautiful mosques and other remains of its ancient 
splendor. It was founded by Ahmed Shah in 1412. Pop. 
estimated at 130,000. 

Ali'mednug'gur (7. e. the “fort of Ahmed”), a city 
and fortress of British India, in the presidency of Bombay, 
on the Seena, 162 miles by rail E. of Bombay. It was 
taken by General Wellesley in Aug., 1803, and the fortress 
is now held by a British garrison. Pop. about 20,000. 

AhTnedpoor'-Barra (7. e. “great Ahtnedpoor”), a 
town of Ilindostan, situated in a fertile tract 30 miles S. W. 
of Bhawlpoor. It has manufactures of matchlocks, gun¬ 
powder, cotton, and silk stuffs. Pop. about 20,000. 

Ah'mood, a town of British India, in the presidency 
of Bombay, 12 miles N. by W. of Baroach. Pop. about 
13,000. 

Alin (Johann Franz), a German writer and author of a 
new method of learning foreign languages, born at Aix-la- 
Chapelle Dec. 15, 1796, published a “Practical Course for 
the Quick and Easy Acquisition of the French Language” 
(167th ed. 1870), and other similar works, which have 
found an immense circulation. His method has been imi- 
itated by many other writers. Died Aug. 21, 1865. 

Ah'napee, a post-village of Kewaunee co., Wis., in a 
township of its own name. Pop. of township, 1544. 

Ah' rens (Heinrich), an eminent German, born July 14, 
1808, lectured in Paris in 1833 on the history of German 
philosophy since the time of Kant, and became in 1834 pro¬ 
fessor of philosophy in Brussels, in 1850 professor of ab¬ 
stract law and political economy at Graz, in 1859 of prac¬ 
tical philosophy and political science at Leipsic, and in 
1863 was elected representative of the university in the 
first chamber of Saxony. His principal works are “ Cours 
de droit naturel ” (6th ed. 1869; German ed. 1846); “ Philo- 
sophie des Rechts” (1851-52; 6th ed. 1870); “ Juristische 
Encycl.” (1855-57), which has been translated into several 
foreign languages. 

Ah' risnan, the principle of evil among the ancient Per¬ 
sians. (See Ormuzd.) 

Ai, the native name of the Bradypus tridactylus, or three¬ 
toed sloth, an edentate mammal of South America. There 
are several varieties of this animal. It takes its name from 
the loud cry which it makes while moving in the forests. 
It is very tenacious of life, and will move its legs long after 
it has been disembowelled and beheaded. In habits it re¬ 
sembles the other sloths. 

A'i (a “ruin”), a city of Palestine, which was destroyed 
by Joshua. Its site is not positively known.—Also a city 
of Ammon, destroyed by the Babylonians. 

Aid) a post-village of Lawrence co., 0., in a township 
of the same name. Pop. of township, 1476. 

Aid' an, Saint, first bishop of Lindisfarne, was born in 
Ireland, and was sent as a missionary bishop to Northum¬ 
bria by the bishop of Iona about 635 A. D. He was suc¬ 
cessful in establishing Christianity, being aided by the king 
and nobles. His life was adorned by charity, humility, and 
all the Christian virtues. Died Aug. 31, 651. 

Aides-de-Camp, confidential officers selected by gen¬ 
eral officers to assist them in their military duties, are ex- 
officio assistant adjutants-general (act Mar. 2, 1821). They 
are in the U. S. service attached to the person of the gen¬ 
eral, and receive orders only from him. Their functions 
are difficult and delicate. Often enjoying the full confidence 
of the general, they are employed in representing him, in 
writing orders, in carrying them in person if necessary, in 
communicating them verbally upon battle-fields and other 
fields of manoeuvre. It is important that aides-de-camp 


should know well the position of troops, routes, posts, 
quarters of generals, composition of columns, and oiders 
of corps. It is necessary that their knowledge should be 
sufficiently comprehensive to understand the object and 
purpose of all orders, and also to judge in the varying cir- 
cumstances of a battle-field whether it is not necessary o 
modify an order when carried in person, or it there be time 
to return for new instructions. ( Scott’s Military Diction¬ 
ary.) The existing law of the U. S. allows six aides-de- 
camp (colonels) to the general; two and a military secre¬ 
tary (lieutenant-colonels) to the lieutenant-generals; three 
(captains or lieutenants) to a major-general; and two (lieu¬ 
tenants) to a brigadier-general. 

Aidin', or Guzel-Hissar (anc. Tral'les ), a town of 
Asiatic Turkey, in Anatolia, on the river Mender (Mean¬ 
der), about 68 miles S. E. of Smyrna, with which it is con¬ 
nected by railroad. It has a large trade, being next to 
Smyrna in commercial importance, and is the residence of 
a pasha. Here are several fine mosques and synagogues. 
American missionaries have established here a llouiishing 
Protestant mission. Pop. estimated at 15,000. 

Aido'ne, a town of Sicily, in the province of Caltani- 
setta, 20 miles E. S. E. of Caltanisetta. Here are mineral 
springs. Pop. in 1861, 5229. 

AigucbcJle, a small town of France, in Savoy. Pop. 
about 1100. Here the combined French and Spanish armies 
defeated Duke Charles Emmanuel III. of Savoy in 1742. 

Aiguebelle, d’ (Paul Alexandre Neveue), a French 
naval officer in the service of China, was born Jan. 7,1831. 
He took part with the Franco-Chinese corps against tho 
Tai-Pings, and took in 1864 the important city of Hang- 
Chow-Foo. He entered the Chinese service, was created a 
mandarin of the first rank, organized an important military 
arsenal at Foo-Chow-Foo, and in June, 1869, he launched 
the first man-of-war of the new navy built on the European 
plan. He was then made grand admiral of the Chinese 
fleets, which title was expressly created for him. 

Aigues Mortes, a town of France, in the department 
of Gard, 19 miles from Nimes. Pop. in 1866, 3932. The 
large saline works of Peccais arc in the neighborhood. An 
interview between Francis I. of France and the emperor 
Charles Y. took place here in 1538. 

Aiguille [Fr., a “ needle ”], the name of numerous sharp- 
pointed peaks in the Alps. 

Aiguillou (Armand Vignerod Duplessis Richelieu), 
Duke of, a French statesman, born in 1720, was governor 
of Alsace, and afterwards of Brittany. He gained the 
favor of the king’s mistress, Madame du Barry, and through 
her influence was made prime minister. Upon the acces¬ 
sion of Louis XVI. he was removed from office and banished 
from court, and died in 1782. 

Aiken, a county of South Carolina, formed in 1873 from 
parts of Barnwell, Edgefield, Lexington, and Orangeburg 
counties. It is bounded on the W. by the Savannah River. 
Area, 900 square miles. The principal minerals are kaolin 
(which is largely exported) and burr mill-stone. Cotton 
goods, paper, and pottery are manufactured. 

John S. Shuck, Ed. “Aiken Journal.” 

Aik'en, the county-town of the county of the same name 
in South Carolina, is noted as a resort for invalids, especially 
those suffering from pulmonary complaints. Being situated 
on a plateau 600 feet above the level of the sea and 400 feet 
higher than the city of Augusta, which is 17 miles distant, 
and the soil being sandy and porous, the system of natural 
drainage is almost perfect, rendering the atmosphere pecu¬ 
liarly dry and elastic. The dew-point is invariably low. 
The climate is a mean between the dry, cold region of Min¬ 
nesota and the moist, temperate section of Florida, and has 
proved efficacious in restoring health to invalids in thou¬ 
sands of cases. It is easily accessible by means of the South 
Carolina R. R., on which it is located. The appearance of 
the town, with its broad streets, 150 feet wide, is pleasing 
and attractive. Besides public or free schools, there - are 
several private schools, seven churches (Methodist, Baptist, 
Catholic, Presbyterian, and Episcopalian, and colored 
Methodist and Baptist), two weekly newspapers and one 
daily, a lyceum hall, and a reading and club room sup¬ 
plied with the daily papers and periodicals. The hotels, 
of which there are two capable of accommodating over 100 
guests each, and the private boarding-houses, are well kept 
and adapted to the requirements of invalids. Each year 
the number of visitors increases as the characteristics of 
this locality become better known. During the season of 
1872-73 some 1850 names were registered. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 2259. John S. Shuck, Ed. “Aiken Journal.” 

Aiken (Charles Augustus), D. D., LL.D., was born 
at Manchester, Vt., Oct. 30, 1827, graduated at Dartmouth 
I College in 1846, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 




























AIKEN—AINSWORTH. 


1853, was pastor of a Congregational church in Yarmouth, 
Me., from 1854 to 1859, professor of the Latin language 
and literature at Dartmouth from 1859 to 1866, professor 
of Latin in the College of New Jersey from 1866 to 1869, 
president of Union College from 1869 to 1871, and is now 
professor of Christian ethics and apologetics in the Prince¬ 
ton Theological Seminary, lie translated and edited the 
book of Proverbs in the American edition of Lange’s 
“ Commentary,” and has published several articles in the 
“Bibliotheca Sacra” and “Princeton Review.”/ 


Aiken (William), born in Charleston, S. C., in 1806, 
graduated at South Carolina College in 1825. He was 
prominent in public alfairs, was governor of South Caro¬ 
lina (1844-46), and a Democratic member of Congress 
(1851-57). He was a man of great wealth, being pro¬ 
prietor of Jehossee Island, where he formerly employed 
1000 slaves in rice-culture. He was distinguished while in 
public life by his wisdom and moderate views, and has con¬ 
tributed largely to the cause of education and to benevolent 
objects. While in Congress in 1857 he lacked but one vote 
of becoming Speaker of the House of Representatives. 

Aik'in (John), M. D., an English writer, born in Lei¬ 
cestershire Jan. 15, 1747. Ho produced, conjointly with 
his sister, Mrs. Barbauld, an instructive juvenile book 
called “Evenings at Home” (1792-95), which had great 
popularity, lie practised medicine in London and other 
places. Among his numerous works is a biographical dic¬ 
tionary, entitled “General Biography” (10 vols. 4to, 
1815). He edited the “ Monthly Magazine” (1796-1806). 
Died Dec. 7, 1822. 

Aikin (Lucy), a daughter of the preceding, born Nov. 
6, 1781, wrote, besides other works, a memoir of her father 
( 1823 ), and “ Life of Joseph Addison ” (1843). Died Jan. 
29, 1864. f 

Aik'mail (William), a distinguished Scottish painter, 
born at Cairnby Oct. 24, 1682; died in London June 7, 
1731. 

Ailan'thiis, or Ailan'tus (/. c. “tree of heaven”), a 
tree which is a native of China, and has remarkably large 
pinnate leaves. It grows rapidly, and is often planted as 
an ornamental or shade tree in the cities of Europe and 
the U. S. The foliage is handsome, but it causes much an¬ 
noyance by the rapid spread of suckers from the parent 
tree. The staminate flowers, which are borne on distinct 
trees, have an offensive odor that often produces headache 
and nausea. The female plants are free from this objection, 
and the clusters of winged fruit which they bear are quite 
ornamental, so that they should always be chosen for shade 
trees. Besides the above (Ailcinthus glandulosua) there are 
several other species, chiefly tropical. They belong to the 
order Simarubaceae. 



Ailanthus Silkworm (the At'tacua cyn'tkici of the 
naturalists) is so named 
from its feeding on the 
leaves of the ailanthus 
tree. The silk obtained 
from this worm is ex¬ 
tensively used in China 
and it is even thought 
by some that it .will, 
for most purposes, ulti¬ 
mately supersede the 
culture of the common 
silkworm, as it is much 
hardier and not subject 
to many diseases to 
which the other is lia¬ 
ble. In addition to .,, o.,, 

Ailanthus bilkworm. 

this, the tree is easily 

cultivated, being readily acclimatized in most temperate 
countries. The eggs are hatched in a similar manner to 
those of the common silkworm, and the larvae, after being 
fed through their first moult with picked leaves, are trans¬ 
ferred to the trees, and there left. 

Ailly, Peter of, an eminent French prelate, born in 
Picardy in 1350. He became archbishop of Cambray in 
1395, and a cardinal in 1414. He denounced and wished 
to reform some abuses in the Church. He was called 
“Malleus Hoereticorum” and“ Aquila Doctorum.” Died 
about 1420. 

Ail re cl (iEthclred or Alured), Saint, Cistercian 
abbot of Rievaulx, Yorkshire, born in England in 1109, 
was educated in Scotland. lie wrote numerous sermons, 
histories, and other works, part of which were edited by 
Twisden (1652), by Camerarius (1631), and by one Gibbon 
(Douai, 1631). Died Jan. 12, 1166. 

Ail'sa, Marquesses op (1831), Barons Ailsa(lS06, in the 
United Kingdom), earls of Cassilis (1509); Barons Ken¬ 
nedy (1452, in Scotland); baronets (1632, in Scotland), a 


67 


prominent family of Great Britain. —Archibald Kennedy, 
the third marquess, born Sept. 1, 1847, succeeded his father 
in 1S70. 

Ail'sa Craig, an island 10 miles from the coast of Ayr¬ 
shire, Scotland. It is a crag of trap-rock of a somewhat 
columnar character. It is 1098 feet high, and 2 miles only 
in circumference. It is not inhabited. It gives his title 
to the marquis of Ailsa, its proprietor. 

Ailu'rus* Ful'gens, the scientific name of an animal 
of the class Mammalia, order Carnivora, family Ursidae, 
found in the mountains of Nepal. By the inhabitants of 
that country it is termed panda, chitiva, and wah, the last 
name having been given it on account of its peculiar cry. 
It is about the size of a large cat, and is remarkable for its 
singularly rich and beautiful fur, which is mostly of a bright 
chestnut-brown, but deepens into a fine rich black on the 
chest and outside of the legs. It has a short head and a 
thick muzzle. The head is of a whitish fawn-color, with a 
ruddy chestnut spot under each eye. The tail is of the same 
color as the body, being marked with a series of dark rings. 
“The coat of the panda is not only handsome in appear¬ 
ance, but is very thick, fine and warm in texture, being 
composed of a double set of hairs—the one forming a thick 
woolly covering to the skin, and the other composed of long 
glistening hairs, that pierce through the wool and give the 
exquisitely rich coloring to the surface of the fur.” Cuvier 
regarded the panda as the most beautiful of known quad¬ 
rupeds. It is much to be regretted that these animals do 
not exist in sufficient numbers to render their fur an ar¬ 
ticle of commercial value. The food of the panda is chiefly 
of an animal character, consisting of birds, their eggs, the 
smaller mammalia, etc. Its habits are partly arboreal. 

Aimard (Gustave), a French novelist, born about 1818, 
came to America at an early age, and after a short stay 
travelled throughout Southern Europe. Among his works 
are “ Les Trappeurs de l’Arkansas” (1858), “Les Aven- 
turiers” (1863), “L’Araucan” (1864), etc. 

Aitne-Martin (Louis), a French writer, born in 17S6, 
became in 1815 secretary of the Chamber of Deputies. He 
published, among other works, “ Lettres a Sophie sur la 
physique, la chimie et l’histoire naturelle” (1810), and 
“L’education des meres de families” (1834). He also pub¬ 
lished the complete works of Bernardin de St.-Pierre, with 
a biography of the author. Died June 22, 1847. 

Ai'mon, or Ay'moml, a French Benedictine of Fleury, 
wrote a “ Historia Francorum,” extending from 253 to 654; 
also a life of Abbo of Fleurv, and other works. Died in 
1008. 

Ain, a department of Eastern France, is bounded on the 
N. by the departments of Saone-et-Loire and Jura, on the 
E. by Haute Savoye, on the S. by Isere, and on the W. by 
Rhone and Saone-et-Loire. Area, 2239 square miles. The 
department is watered by the Rhone and the Saone, which 
flow along its boundaries, and by the Ain. The western 
part consists of a large plateau, which is very fertile. In 
the E. large mountain-ranges prevail, which contain iron, 
asphaltum, and the best lithographic stones in France. It 
it is subdivided into 5 arrondissements, 35 cantons, and 450 
communes. Pop. in 1872, 363,290. Chief town, Bourg-in- 
Bresse. 

Ain'muller (Maximilian Emanuel), a German painter, 
born at Munich Feb. 14, 1807, is noted as the restorer of 
the art of painting on glass. Among his works are the 
windows of the cathedrals of Ratisbon and Cologne. Died 
Dec. 8, 1870. 

Ai'nous, or Ainus, a savage race inhabiting the Ivoo- 
rile Islands. They have mainly attracted attention from 
the greatly exaggerated, though not utterly false, state¬ 
ments of travellers, that their bodies were entirely covered 
with hair; from which circumstance they are often called 
“hairy Ivooriles.” They are said to be of a mild and 
amiable disposition. They worship the sun and moon, but 
have no priests or places set aside for religious services. 
They have a written language. (See “My Last Cruise,” 
by Lieut. A. W. Habersham, of the U. S. Navy, 1857.) 

Ains'worth, a post-village of Washington co., Ia. 

Ainsworth (Robert), an English classical scholar, born 
near Manchester in 1660, taught school in London. He 
published a well-known Latin dictionary (1736). Died 
April 4, 1743. 

Ainsworth (William Francis), an English physician 
and geologist, born at Exeter Nov. 9, 1807. He accom¬ 
panied Colonel Chesney on an expedition to the Euphrates 
in 1835. He published “Researches in Assyria” (1842), 
and “ Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, 
Chaldea, etc.” (2 vols., 1842). 

* Ailurus signifies “ having a waving tail,” like that of a cat; 
from alo\os, “quickly moving” or “ waving,” and ovpd,a “tail.” 




















68 


AINSWORTH—AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 


Ainsworth (William Harrison), an English novelist, 
born in Manchester Feb. 4, 1805. lie published “ Rook- 
wood ” (1834) and “Jack Sheppard” (1839), the latter of 
which had an extraordinary success, and “The Tower of 
London.” In 1845 he became the proprietor of the “New 
Monthly Magazine.” Ilis numerous stories have had great 
popularity. 

Aintab', a town of Asiatic Turkey, on the S. slope of 
Mount Taurus or Alma-Dagh, about 60 miles N. of Aleppo, 
and 92 miles N. E. of Antioch. It is well built, and has 
manufactures of leather, woollen cloths, etc. The American 
Protestant missionaries have had for years a flourishing 
mission among the Armenians of this town. Pop. 43,410. 

Air [Gr. a>}p, from aw, to “breathe;” Lat. nr'eV] was con¬ 
sidered an element by the ancient philosophers, but it is 
now known to be a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen with 
soino other gases. (For information respecting the prop¬ 
erties and phenomena of the air, see Acoustics, by Prof. 
0. N. Rood, A. M.; Barometer, by Pres. F. A. P. Barnard, 
S.T. D., LL.D., L. H. D.; and Pneumatics.) 

Air (in painting). See Aerial Perspective. 

Air, a town of Africa. See Asben. 

Air-Bed, a sleeping apparatus made of air-tight cloth 
or vulcanized india rubber, divided into compartments and 
inflated with air. The coolness, cleanness, and elasticity of 
this bed render it desirable for the uso of the sick. 

Air-Bladder, or Swimming-Bladder, an organ 
in fishes which enables them to modify their specific gravity, 
and to move easily upward or downward, by increasing or 
diminishing the volume of air (in some instances replaced 
by nitrogen) in the bladder. This air is supposed to be ob¬ 
tained by secretion. The mackerel and some other species 
of fish have no air-bladder. It is the analogue of the lungs 
of air-breathing animals. 

Air-Cells, in birds, are cavities connected with the res¬ 
piratory system, and are distributed over the inside of the 
chest and abdomen. They also penetrate the bones and 
quills. Communicating with the lungs, they give a great 
extension to the surface with Avhich the air inhaled comes 
in contact, and serve to increase the muscular energy and 
the animal heat, and to diminish the specific gravity. 

Air-Cells, in plants, are spaces in the cellular tissue, 
containing air. They occur chiefly in aquatic plants. 

Air'drie, a market-town and parliamentary borough 
of Scotland, in the county of Lanark, 11 miles E. by N. 
of Glasgow, with which it is connected by railway. It is 
well built and lighted with gas. The growth and prosperity 
of Airdrie have been increased by mines of iron and coal 
which are worked in the vicinity. Pop. in 1861, 12,922. 

Aire-Sur-l’Adour, an old town of France, on the 
river Adour, 20 miles S. E. of Mont de Marsan, is the seat 
of a bishop, has a cathedral and a college. It was once the 
capital of the Visigoth kings. Pop. in 1866, 4885. 

Aire-sur-la-Lys, a fortified town of France, in Pas 
de Calais, on the river Lys, 10 miles S. E. of St.-Omer. It 
has a Gothic church, and manufactures of woollen stuffs, 
hats, and soap. Pop. in 1866, 8803. 

Air-Gun, an instrument for projecting bullets or other 
missiles by means of the elastic force of condensed air. A 
strong reservoir of metal is constructed, into which air is 
forced by a condensing syringe. The reservoir may be of 
any form, but it is most conveniently disposed of by pla¬ 
cing it within the stock. The bullet should fit the barrel 
very exactly, so as to leave no windage. On pulling the 
trigger, the condensed air escapes through the valve and 
rushes with violence into the barrel, propelling the bullet 
before it; and the instant the finger is withdrawn from the 
trigger, the valve is closed by the pressure of the air in the 
magazine, which remains in a somewhat less condensed 
state for the next discharge. Thus the same supply of air 
in the magazine will serve for several successive discharges, 
but the force becomes weaker and weaker after each. The 
force with which a projectile is propelled from an air-gun 
is commonly much less than that produced by an ordinary 
discharge of gunpowder, but they may be so made as to 
be very formidable weapons. 

Air'lie, Earls of, Barons Ogilvy of Airlie (1491), Barons 
Ogilvy of Alyth and Lintrathen (1639, in the Scotch peer¬ 
age), a prominent family of Great Britain. The first earl of 
Airlie was created in 1639.— David Graham Drummond 
Ogilvy, the tenth earl, was born May 4, 1826, and suc¬ 
ceeded his father in 1849. 

Air-Plants, a term applied to certain epiphytic tropi¬ 
cal plants, which hang in festoons from forest trees, and are 
able to live suspended in the air, without tho presence of 
earth or water. The family of Orchidaceao furnishes some 
beautiful specimens of air-plants. 


Air-Pump, a machine by which a partial vacuum is 
formed and air is exhausted from a vessel, was invented 
by Otto Guericke in 1654, and subsequently improved by 
several persons. It consists of a circular brass plate, on 
which is placed a bell-glass, called a receiver, and two ver¬ 
tical brass cylinders, each of which is furnished with a pis¬ 
ton. By means of a hole in the centre of the plate, and a 
connecting tube, a communication is formed between tho 
receiver and tho cylinders. The movement of the piston 
expels the air from the cylinders, into which a portion of 
air then rushes from the receiver, and a valve is placed at 
tho mouth of the connecting tube, so that no air can re¬ 
turn into the receiver. Another valve in the piston opens 
outward and permits the air to escape. The air-pump is 
used in many scientific experiments to demonstrate the 
pressure of the atmosphere and various other properties 
of air. 

Air'y (George Biddell), C. B., LL.D., D. C. L., F. R. S., 
born at Alnwick, Northumberland, June 27, 1801, graduated 
B. A. at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1824, being senior 
wrangler. In 1826 he became Lucasian professor of phil¬ 
osophy, and in 1828 Plumian professor of astronomy. In 
1835 he was appointed astronomer-royal, and placed in 
charge of the Greenwich Observatory. Dr. Airy has at¬ 
tained a very high rank as an astronomer and physicist, 
and has written much upon weights, measures, coinage, 
railways, and other kindred subjects. He has made im¬ 
portant improvements in astronomical and philosophical 
instruments. He wrote the article “ Gravitation” in tho 
“Penny Cyclopaedia,” and “Trigonometry,” “Figure of 
the Earth,” and “ Tides and Waves” in the “ Encyclopaedia 
Metropolitana;” also “Mathematical Tracts,” “Ipswich 
Lectures on Astronomy,” “Errors of Observation,” trea¬ 
tises on “Sound,” “Magnetism,” etc., besides very nume¬ 
rous and important monographs and papers for periodicals. 

Aisne, a river of the N. part of France, rises in tho 
department of Meuse, flows nearly westward, passes by 
Soissons, and enters the Oise near Comjiiegnc. Length, 
about 150 miles. The canal of Ardennes connects it with 
the Meuse. 

Aisne, a department in tho N. of France, is bounded 
on the N. by the department Nord, on the E. by Ar¬ 
dennes and Marne, on the S. by Seine-et-Marne, and on 
the W. by Oise and Somme. Area, 2839 square miles. It 
is traversed by the Oise, the Aisne, and the Marne rivers. 
The soil is fertile, and the manufacturing industry in this 
department is very large. Wheat and hay are among the 
staple productions. It is subdivided into 5 arrondisse- 
ments, 37 cantons, and 837 communes. Chief town, Laon. 
Pop. in 1872, 552,439. 

Aisse (Mademoiselle), a Circassian woman, born in 
1693, was bought at the age of four years by the French 
ambassador in Constantinople, who brought her to France. 
Her position in society, together with her romantic adven¬ 
tures, gave her quite a celebrity in the last century. Died 
in 1733. Her letters were published, with notes, by Vol¬ 
taire in 1787, and with notes by Mad. St.-Beuve in 1846. 

Ait/kin, a county in the central part of Minnesota. 
Area, 720 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by Lake 
Mille Lacs, and the N. by Cass and Itasca counties. It is 
traversed by the Northern Pacific R. R. The surface is un¬ 
dulating. Pop. 178. 

Aitze'ma, van (Lieuwe), a Dutch historian, born at 
Doccum in 1600, wrote a “ History of the Netherlands from 
1621 to 1668 (15 vols.), which is highly commended. 

Died in 1669. 

Aix, aks (anc. A'qwe Sex'tise), a city in the S. E. part of 
France, in the department of Bouches-du-Rlione, 33 miles 
by rail N. of Marseilles. It was formerly the capital of 
Provence, and was a celebrated seat of learning in the 
Middle Ages. It is the seat of an archbishop, has a fine 
cathedral, a city hall (hotel de ville), a museum, a royal 
college, and a public library containing about 100,000 vol¬ 
umes. Here are manufactures of silk and cotton, and warm 
mineral springs, from which it derived its ancient name. 
Pop. in 1866, 28,152. 

Aix, a small town of France, in Savoy, in a delightful 
valley 8 miles N. of Chambery. It is near Lake Bourget, 
and has thermal springs, which are much frequented. 
Here are some ancient Roman ruins. Pop. in 1866, 4430. 

Aix-la-Chapelle [Lat. A'quia Gra'num; Ger. Aa'- 
chen], a city of Rhenish Prussia, is situated on the frontier 
of Belgium, and on the railway which connects Liege and 
Cologne, 44 miles by rail W. S. W. of the latter. It was 
once a faipous city, and the capital of the empire of Char¬ 
lemagne, who made it his favorite residence. It is a well- 
built, handsome city, with a cathedral founded in 796 A. D., 
a large town-hall, an elegant theatre, a public library, and 
several hospitals. Here are celebrated mineral springs, the 

















AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, CONGRESS OF—AKHLAT. 


69 


temperature of which is about 112° Fahrenheit. They are 
considered efficacious for the cure of the gout, rheumatism, 
and cutaneous diseases. This city has important manufac¬ 
tures of fine broadcloths, needles, and pins. The cathedral 
contains the tomb of Charlemagne and a collection of relics, 
which attract a multitude of visitors. The successors of 
Charlemagne and the emperors of Germany were crowned 
here from the ninth century until 1531. P. in 1871, 74,238. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of. This congress 
was held in 1818 for settling the affairs of Europe after the 
war of 1815. The king of Prussia and the emperors of 
Russia and Austria were present in person. The different 
representatives were Metternich, Wellington, Castlereagh, 
Hardenburg. Bernstorff, Nesselrode, and Capo d’Istrias, 
with Richelieu on behalf of France. Their deliberations 
resulted in the withdrawal from French territory of the 
army of occupation, and prepared the way for what was 
afterwards known as the “ Holy Alliance ” (which see.) 

Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaties of. I. Treaty of 1668. 
This treaty was concluded May 2, 1668, between Louis XIV. 
of France on the one side, and the “ Triple Alliance,” in¬ 
cluding England, Sweden, and Holland, on the other. At 
the death of Philip IV., Louis laid claim, in the name of 
his wife, and under the laws of succession of Brabant and 
Namur, to a large portion of the Spanish Netherlands. He 
had already seized several strongholds and fortresses, when 
Holland, becoming alarmed at his rapid progress, concluded 
the triple alliance with England and Sweden. Louis, rather 
than resort to a war against so powerful a league, deter¬ 
mined to accept mediation; and a treaty of peace was 
concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle, by which France retained 
possession of Charleroi, Valenciennes, and other strong 
towns, which she had already seized. 

II. Treaty of 1748. This treaty ended, in 1748, the 
Austrian war of succession, in which all the great powers 
of Europe were, either on one side or the other, engaged. 
Several German princes had disputed the claim of Maria 
Theresa to the throne of Austria, and from this cause the 
war arose. It lasted with various success for eight years 
(from 1740 to 1748 ); at the end of which time a peace was 
concluded which left the different states with nearly the 
same possessions as before. 

Aiza'ni, an ancient town of Asia Minor, now in ruins. 
Among its ruins, the theatre, with accommodations for over 
12,000 spectators, is in a fine state of preservation. 

Ajaccio, &-y&t'cho, or Ajazzo, §,-y&t'so, a seaport, 
the capital of Corsica, is on the W. coast, in lat. 41° 54' 
N., Ion. 8° 44' E. It has a good port defended by a cit¬ 
adel. It has also a cathedral and a library of 18,000 vol¬ 
umes. Wine and olive oil are exported from this town. 
Napoleon Bonaparte was born here on Aug. 15, 1769. A 
magnificent monument, representing the emperor Napoleon 
I., surrounded by his four brothers, was finished in 1865. 
Pop. in 1866, 14,558. 

Aj'alon, a town of Palestine belonging to the Levites, 
in the land of Dan. It was probably on the spot now oc¬ 
cupied by the village of Yalo. Over the valley in which 
this town was situated the moon stood still while Joshua 
pursued the five kings. 

Aj ail', a region of Eastern Africa whose coast extends 
from Cape Guardafui indefinitely southward. 

A(jax [Gr. Ala?], surnamed the Greater, the son of 
Telamon, a Grecian hero, was king of Salamis. He acted 
a prominent part at the siege of Troy, and exceeded the 
other Greek warriors in strength and stature. Having been 
defeated by Ulysses in a competition for the armor of 
Achilles, he became insane and killed himself. 

Ajax, the son of O'ileus, surnamed the Lesser, to dis¬ 
tinguish him from Ajax the son of Telamon, was king of 
Locris. He was one of the Greek heroes that fought at the 
siege of Troy, and excelled all the Greeks in swiftness, ex¬ 
cept Achilles. According to tradition, he offended Minerva 
by his impiety, for which he was drowned on his homeward 
voyage from Troy. 

Ajmeer, Ajmere, or Rajpoota'na, a city of 
British India, in the North-west Provinces, capital of a 
division and a district of the same name, is 220 miles S. W. 
of Delhi, and situated in a picturesque valley. It contains 
several massive temples and mosques; also an English and 
Oriental school. Pop. estimated at 25,000. 

Ak'abah, a fortified village of Arabia, near the N. ex¬ 
tremity of the Gulf of Akabah. (See Elath.) 

Akabah, Gulf of, a portion of the Red Sea, lying in 
the N. W. part of Arabia, and bounded on the W. by the 
eninsula of Sinai. It is about 100 miles long, and has 
igh and steep shores. 

Akan, a post-township of Richland co., Wis. P. 675. 

Ak'bar, or Ak'ber (written also Acbar and Ack- 


bar), Mohammed, surnamed Jalal-ed-Deen, a famous 
and excellent Mogul emperor, was born at Amerkote, in the 
valley of the Indus, in 1542. He was a son of Humayoon, 
whom he succeeded in 1556. He displayed great military 
talents and political wisdom, and extended his dominions 
by the conquest of Bengal and part of the Deccan. Under 
his reign the Christians and Jews were tolerated and pro¬ 
tected. He encouraged literature and promoted commerce. 
He ordered a complete survey and census of his empire, the 
result of which, with minutely detailed statistics, was re¬ 
corded in a book called “ Ayeen Akbery ” (“ Institutes of 
Akbar”), which is very celebrated. Akbar was greatly 
distinguished for his justice, humanity, and magnanimity. 
He died in 1605, and was succeeded by his son Selim, sur¬ 
named Jehan-Geer. 

A'ken, a town of Prussia, in the province of Saxony, 
on the left bank of the Elbe, 24 miles S. E. of Magdeburg, 
has factories of beet-sugar and chemicals. Pop. in 1871, 
5273. 

A'kenside (Mark), M. D., an English didactic poet of 
high reputation, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne Nov. 9, 
1721. He studied medical sciences at Edinburgh, graduated 
as M. D. at Leyden in 1744, and practised in London, where 
he settled in 1748. His success as a physician was hindered 
in some degree by his reserve or lack of affability. His 
reputation is founded chiefly on “ The Pleasures of the 
Imagination,” in blank verse (1744), which was received 
with great favor. It was commended by Dr. Johnson “as 
an example of great felicity of genius and uncommon am¬ 
plitude of acquisitions.” He wrote several shorter poems 
and medical treatises. His “Treatise on Dysentery” (in 
Latin, 1764) proved him to be an excellent classical scholar. 
He was appointed a physician to the queen in 1760. Died 
June 23, 1770. His character is represented as estimable 
and dignified in a high degree. 

A'kerblatl (Johan David), a Swedish antiquary and 
Orientalist, born in 1760. He visited Jerusalem in 1792, 
and the Troad in 1797, gained distinction by deciphering 
the demotic writing of ancient Egypt, and wrote a “Letter 
on the Egyptian Inscription of Rosetta” (1802). Died 
Feb. 8, 1819. 

A1 lerman', sometimes written Akjerman, or Ak- 
kerinail, a fortified town of Bessarabia, on the right bank 
of the Dniester, about 4 miles from the Black Sea, and 28 
miles S. W. of Odessa. It has a port, numerous factories, 
and an extensive trade in salt, etc. A treaty concluded at 
Akerman on Sept. 4, 1826, exempted the Danubian prov¬ 
inces from all but a nominal dependence on Turkey. Pop. 
in 1867, 29,343. Lat. 46° 12' N., Ion. 30° 22' E. 

Ak'erman (Amos T.), attorney-general of the U. S. for 
a short time under Gen. Grant, was born in N. II. in 1823, 
but for fourteen or fifteen years previous to his appointment 
had been a citizen and practising lawyer of Georgia. He 
sided with the Confederates in the late war, but after the 
surrender of the Southern arms he advocated the sanction 
of the reconstruction measures of Congress, was a member 
of the State convention of 1867-68, and acted a prom¬ 
inent part in shaping the new constitution formed by that 
body. 

A'ker’s, a township of Tuscaloosa co., Ala. Pop. 367. 

A'kers (Benjamin), commonly known as Paul Akers, 
an American sculptor, born at Sacarappa, Me., July 10, 
1825, went to Boston in 1840, and made busts of Long¬ 
fellow, Samuel Appleton, and others. Mr. Akers lived 
much in Italy, and executed some of his finest works there. 
The pieces done in America were chiefly portrait busts and 
medallions, which were highly esteemed as likenesses and 
as works of art. He died in Philadelphia May 21, 1861. 
A man of fine sensibility and pure genius, he lived up to 
the highest ideal of his art, and was beloved by many 
friends. 

Akhalies, a class of religious warriors among the Sikhs 
in Hindostan. They deny God, believe in fate, and are very 
fanatical and turbulent. (See Nanekism.) 

Akhalzikh, Akalzik, or Akis'ka, a city of Asiatic 
Russia, in Georgia, on an affluent of the Koor, about 92 
miles W. of Tiflis. It contains a mosque and several 
churches, and has some trade in silk and honey. Many of 
the inhabitants are Armenians. The Russians defeated the 
Turks near this place in 1828, and it was ceded to Russia 
in 1829. Pop. in 1867, 15,977. 

Ak-Hissar (i . e. “white castle”), written also Ek- 
Hissar (the ancient Thyati'ra), a town of Asia Minor, in 
Anatolia, 53 miles N. E. of Smyrna. It contains several 
bazaars and about 1300 houses. Here are many ancient 
remains. Pop. about 10,000. 

Akhlat', a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Armenia, on the 
N. W. shore of Lake Van, 203 miles S. E. of Trebizond. 

















70 


AKIBA—ALABAMA. 


It was formerly the seat of tho Armenian kings, and is at 
present the seat of an Armenian bishop. Pop. about 4000. 

Ak'iba (Ben Joseph), a Jewish rabbi of great learning 
and influence, was president of the school of Bene Barak 
in the second century A. D. Having joined the rebellion 
of Barchochebas, he was flayed and burned by the Homans 
at the age of 120 years. 

Akmol'lilisk, a province of Russia, in Central Asia, is 
situated S. of the government of Tobolsk. Area, 244,280 
square miles. It consists of a plateau, in the N. level, and 
in the S. mountainous, having very little rain. It is fre¬ 
quently visited by heavy snow-storms. Chief town, Ak- 
mollinsk. Pop. in 1867, 226,788. 

Ak'ron, a post-township of Peoria co., Ill. Pop. 1185. 

Akron, a post-township of Tuscola co., Mich. P. 585. 

Akron, a village in Erie co., N. Y., one of the most im¬ 
portant centres of production of hydraulic cement. It is 
in Newstead township, and on the Niagara Falls branch of 
the N. Y. Central R. R., 14 miles W. of Batavia. Pop. 444. 

Akron, a flourishing city, capital of Summit co., 0., on 
the Ohio Canal, 36 miles S. of Cleveland, on the highest 
point of land between Lake Erie and the Ohio River. The 
Atlantic and Great Western, the Cleveland Mount Vernon 
and Columbus, and the Valley R. Rs. pass through the city, 
which contains 2 woollen, 2 paper, and 7 flouring-mills, 4 
foundries, 1 rolling-mill, 1 blast-furnace, 1 forge, 3 plan- 
ing-mills, 2 manufactories of reapers and mowers, 1 of 
pearl barley, 1 of oatmeal and farina, 1 of knives and sic¬ 
kles, 1 of rubber goods, 1 of chains, 1 of matches, and 3 of 
sewer-pipes, 2 oil-refineries, 3 machine-shops, 1 manufactory 
of boilers, 2 of ploughs, 1 of woollen cards, 1 of horse hay- 
rakes, 1 of stoves, 1 of iron fences, 10 of stone-ware, 1 of 
blank-books. It has also 4 printing-offices, 1 daily and 3 
weekly papers, 4 banks (with an aggregate capital of 
$1,300,000), 3 public parks, a beautiful cemetery, a public 
library, and a high school. It is the seat of Buchtel Col¬ 
lege, and has all the adjuncts of an enterprising and pros¬ 
perous inland city. Pop. 10,006. 

S. A. Lane, Ed. “Beacon.” 

Akshehr', or Ak-Sheher (i. e. “white city”), a city 
of Asiatic Turkey, in Karamania, about 70 miles N. W. of 
Konieh, contains near 1500 houses. It is the ancient Phil- 
omelion of Strabo. 

Ak' su, a town of East Toorkistan, on a river of its own 
name, 250 miles N. E. of Yarkand. It has manufactures 
of woollen stuffs and jasper, and is visited by many cara¬ 
vans from all parts of Central Asia. Pop. about 60,000. 

Ak'yab, a town of British Burmah, at the mouth of the 
Aracan River, 550 miles S. E. of Calcutta. Its situation is 
healthy and very advantageous for commerce, with a com¬ 
modious and safe harbor. It has a large trade, especially 
of rice, large quantities of which are exported hence. Pop. 
about 10,000, mostly Bengalese and Chinese. Here is a 
Protestant missionary station. 

Alj the Arabic definite article, forms a prefix to many 
Oriental names, as Al-Mansoor, “ the victorious,” Al-Amin, 
“the faithful,” etc. 

A'la [a Latin word signifying a “wing”], a Roman 
military term, denoting the wing of an army. At first, 
when the whole legion consisted of Roman citizens, it was 
applied to the body of horsemen who served with the foot- 
soldiers, but after the admission of socii, whether Latini or 
Italici, it was applied to the troops of the allies, both horse 
and foot, which were stationed on the wings. At a still 
later time, the alae were composed of foreign troops serving 
with the Roman armies; while under the empire the term 
was given to bodies of horsemen raised generally in the 
provinces, and serving apart from the legion. (See Wing.) 

Alaba'ma, a river of the U. S., is formed by the Coosa 
and the Tallapoosa, which unite about 10 miles above 
Montgomery, in Alabama. It flows nearly westward to 
Selma, and afterwards in a general S. W. direction, and 
unites with the Tombigbee to form the Mobile River. It is 
navigable for large steamboats through its whole extent, 
which is about 300 miles. It traverses a fertile region, of 
which cotton and maize are the staple products. 

Alabama (signifying, in the Creek language, “ Here wo 
rest”), one of the Southern States of the Union,the twenty- 
first in the order of its admission. Its extreme limits are be¬ 
tween lat. 30° 15' and 35° N.,and between Ion. 84° 56' and 
88° 48' W. from Greenwich, but the main body of the land 
of the State lies between lat. 31° and 35° N., and between 
Ion. 85° 10' and 88° 31' W. from Greenwich. The extreme 
length of the State from N. to S. is 336 miles, and it varies 
in breadth from 148 to 200 miles. Its boundary on the N. 
is the State of Tennessee on the line of the 35th parallel of 
N. lat.; on the E. the State of Georgia, the Chattahoochee 
River forming the dividing line from West Point to tho 31st 


parallel, about 120 miles, and for the small south-western 
section of the State, the Perdido River, which separates it 
from Florida, forms the eastern boundary tor nearly 60 



miles; the southern boundaries are the State of Florida 
from the Chattahoochee to the Perdido River, and the Gulf 
of Mexico from the mouth of the Perdido to the State line 
of Mississippi. On the W. it is bounded by the State of 
Mississippi, the Tennessee River forming the extreme north¬ 
western boundary, and causing a slight deviation westward 
in the boundary. Its area is 50,722 square miles,or 32,462,080 
acres. Negotiations are now in progress for the acquisi¬ 
tion from Florida of the seven counties lying between the 
Chattahoochee or Apalachicola and the Perdido, which will 
give it about 200 miles of coast, and the excellent harbor 
of Pensacola. The surface of the State is generally level, 
except in the northern portion, through which the Blue 
Ridge extends, but nowhere attains any great elevation. 
From this broken but very beautiful portion there is a 
gradual declination towards the S., the surface expanding 
into broad prairies with gentle swells, and reaching in the 
vicinity of Mobile Bay a level but very little above that of 
the Gulf of Mexico. The principal rivers are the Tennessee, 
the Mobile, Tombigbee, Alabama, Coosa, Black Warrior, 
Perdido, and Chattahoochee, all of them, except the Ten¬ 
nessee, having numerous affluents. The Tennessee sweeps 
across the entire northern section of the State from the 
N. W. to the N. E. corner, forming an irregular curve, or 
rather an obtuse angle, at Guntersville, where it is about 
forty miles S. of the northern line of the State. It receives 
no considerable tributary on its southern side, and only 
Elk River, Flint River, and Paint Rock River, three small 
streams, on the northern side in its course through the State. 
The Chattahoochee, a large stream, but having no consid¬ 
erable tributaries in the State, forms a part of its eastern 
boundary, and discharges its waters into the Gulf. The Per¬ 
dido, a smaller but considerable stream, rises in Escambia 
county, and falls into Perdido Bay after a course of about 
100 miles. The Escambia and Choctawhatchie rivers, with 
their affluents, drain a portion of the southern part of the 
State, and discharge their waters into Pensacola and Choc¬ 
tawhatchie Bays on the Florida coast. But much the 
greater part of the waters of the State finds their way into 
Mobile Bay through the Mobile River and its tributaries. 
The Tombigbee, the Alabama, the Coosa, the Cahawba, the 
Tallapoosa, and the Black Warrior are all, directly or in¬ 
directly, affluents of the Mobile. The Tombigbee, coming 
from Mississippi, receives the waters of the Black Warrior, 
and at 50 miles above Mobile Bay unites with the Ala¬ 
bama, which had already received the Coosa, the Talla¬ 
poosa, and the Cahawba. After the junction of the Tom¬ 
bigbee and the Alabama the united rivers receive the name 
of the Mobile River. The Tensaw River, a considerable 
stream, unites by natural canals with both the Alabama and 
the Mobile rivers, but finally makes its way, as an inde¬ 
pendent and parallel stream, to Mobile Bay. The Black 
Warrior is navigable for light-draft steamers for 285 miles, 
and the Alabama for 300 miles. The Tensaw, Chattahoo¬ 
chee, Tennessee, and Perdido are all navigable for a con¬ 
siderable distance. The whole extent of steamboat river 
navigation in the State is nearly 1500 miles. Mobile Bay, 
the main outlet of the navigable waters of the State, is in 
the extreme south-western part, is about 30 miles long, and 
from 3 to 8 broad, and has fifteen feet of water at low tide 
at its main entrance. The smaller bays, Grand, Bonsecours, 
and Perdido, are not of much commercial importance, 
being shallow, though mostly landlocked. 

Geology and Soil .—The southern portion of the State, 
extending for 132 miles northward from the Gulf of Mexico 
and 40 from the Florida State line, and embracing an area 
of 11,000 squaro miles, belongs to tho alluvial, diluvial, and 















































ALABAMA. 71 


tertiary formations, and has a light but productive soil, 
easily tilled and well adapted to raising fruits. Corn and 
cotton also do well on this soil. There are extensive forests 
of pine, and excellent timber and considerable quantities of 
tar and turpentine are produced in this region. On the low 
lands near the Gulf the cypress and several varieties of the 
oak abound. The pine forests afford good natural pas¬ 
turage for cattle. North of this tract, and extending 102 
miles northward on the W. side and 60 on the E. side of the 
State, is the region known as the Cotton Belt, underlaid 
mostly with the Jurassic limestone, with some chalk, mostly 
prairie land, declining very slightly towards the S.—a fer¬ 
tile region well adapted to agriculture, and in the past 
largely devoted to the culture of the great Southern staple, 
cotton. In the eastern and north-eastern part of the State 
we ( find the great mineral region, an extension of the 
eozoic rocks from Virginia, North and South Carolina, and 
Georgia, in which gold has been found in paying quanti¬ 
ties for so many years. These primitive rocks extend no 
farther, however, than Eastern Alabama, and do not quite 
reach the banks of the Tallapoosa River, occupying a por¬ 
tion of Lee, Chambers, Tallapoosa, and Randolph counties. 
Contiguous to them on the N. N. W. and W. are carbonif¬ 
erous rocks, the bituminous coal region occupying a tract 
of 4332 square miles. In this region are also many other 
valuable minerals. West of this is a belt of about 35 miles 
in width from N. to S. underlaid by palaeozoic rocks, with 
a broken surface and a poor soil, but a healthy region, 
affording great facilities for manufacturing from its abun¬ 
dant water-power. In the extreme northern part of the 
State we come to the valley of the Tennessee, a limestone 
region, with broken surface, but with many rich and fertile 
valleys, and scenery of great beauty. Here are found lands 
adapted to grazing, as well as those which yield large crops 
of cotton, corn, cereals, and fruits. 

Mineralogy .—The State is rich in minerals. Gold was 
discovered in Randolph county in 1836, and mined so suc¬ 
cessfully that $213,750.66 of it had been coined at the U. S. 
mint and its branches to June 30, 1872, and the greater 
part previous to 1859. The gold is generally found com¬ 
bined with silver, but there is also in the mineral districts 
argentiferous galena in considerable quantities. Copper is 
also found, but not in ores sufficiently rich to make its 
mining profitable, though it has been attempted in Baine 
county. Among other minerals scattered through the State 
the mineralogists report syenite, steatite, cobalt, vivianite, 
carite, calcite, dolomite, and quartz crystals as existing in 
considerable quantities. Potter’s, porcelain, and fire clays, 
and materials for the production of hydraulic lime; litho¬ 
graphic stone, manganese, sulphate of baryta, slate, and red 
ochre, as well as various building stones, are found in such 
quantities as to make their exploitation profitable. The 
granite of Coosa county is superior, for statuary and mon¬ 
umental purposes, to any other in the U. S., and the white 
marble of the same county, and the variegated marbles of 
Talladega and the adjacent counties, are not surpassed on 
this continent. 

But the most valuable portion of the mineral wealth of 
Alabama consists in her mines of coal and her abundant 
iron ores. The coal-fields contain seams of bituminous 
coal from one to eight feet thick, of several varieties, some 
well adapted for the generation of steam, others equal to 
the Liverpool coals for the production of gas and coke, and 
still others, of the splint coal variety, admirable for smelting 
iron ores. In close proximity to the latter are extensive 
beds of iron ore; the Red Mountain extends across the 
State for more than 100 miles, having in its whole course a 
stratum of solid red iron ore from two to eight feet thick. 
Very extensive beds of the brown hematite iron ore of the 
best quality are found in Bibb, Shelby, Jefferson, Talladega, 
St. Clair, and Claiborne counties. The iron manufactured 
from these ores is of excellent quality. There are numerous 
mineral springs, mostly of chalybeate and sulphur waters, 
in the State. 

Vegetation. —Extending over more than four degrees of 
latitude, and to a point within seven degrees of the tropics, 
Alabama combines the vegetable products of the temperate 
and semi-tropical regions. In the N. the white, red, cup, 
pin, and post oak, the hickory, chestnut, poplar, cedar, elm, 
mulberry, and pine, are the principal forest trees. Below 
latitude 33° the trees are festooned with the long Spanish 
moss, and the forests begin to assume a more semi-tropical 
character. In Marengo and Greene counties there were ex¬ 
tensive canebrakes, where the cane, a species of bamboo, had 
made large tracts almost impassable by its dense growth. 
In the midst of these canebrakes gigantic cedars in groves 
or islands, of sombre foliage, towered up through the jun¬ 
gle. These canebrakes have now been cleared, and reveal 
a soil of the most extraordinary fertility. In this region, 
below 33°, the deciduous trees very generally give place to 
the live-oak, the cypress, the loblolly, the yellow pine, the 


magnolia, and other forest trees of the Gulf region, while 
the apples, pears, plums, and hardy peaches are partially 
replaced by the fig, the pomegranate, the olive, the apricot, 
the scuppernong grape, and the orange. The northern part 
of the State is best adapted to the culture of the grasses, 
the cereals, and maize, though in the more fertile valleys 
considerable cotton is raised. The central and most of the 
southern portion is admirably adapted to cotton, and the 
State produced, until recently, more of that staple than 
any other of the Southern States. Large quantities of 
maize are also grown in the central counties. In the S. W. 
the sugar crop is usually successful, and considerable rice is 
grown on the wet and low lands. At one time indigo was 
raised somewhat extensively and successfully in that por¬ 
tion of the State, but the competition with the East Indian 
crop, raised by ryot labor, made it so little profitable that 
other crops were substituted for it. The Ramie is now 
grown largely in some of the southern counties. Tobacco 
is also a crop of some importance. 

Zoology .—There are still great numbers of deer in the 
northern counties, and wild turkeys are abundant. Wild 
pigeons, partridges, rabbits, gray squirrels, and other game 
are plentiful, while opossums, raccoons, wild-cats, wolves 
(the prairie wolf), foxes, and bears are occasionally met 
with. Along the rivers and bays wild ducks and teal, and 
in their season rice-birds, etc., afford abundant employment 
for the sportsman. Lizards and snakes abound in the 
swampy regions, and the moccasin and milk snake are par¬ 
ticularly venomous. In some of the streams and bayous 
the alligator is found, though less abundant than in Lou¬ 
isiana. Fish are abundant in Mobile Bay and in most of 
the rivers, and many of them are of excellent quality and 
flavor. 

Climate .—This varies with the latitude and elevation. In 
the northern counties the climate is delightful. The tem¬ 
perature is seldom below 32° Fahrenheit in winter, and the 
elevation is sufficient to prevent the intense heats of a South- 
ei*n summer. Huntsville and Florence on the Tennessee 
River are favorite resorts for invalids. There is some 
malaria in parts of the valley of the Tennessee, as well as 
in some of the other river valleys. In the central counties 
the heat is greater, but not oppressive. In 1869 the highest 
temperature in the central counties was Aug. 22,105° Fah¬ 
renheit; the lowest, Feb. 28, 20° Fahrenheit; and the 
average mean temperature of the year 62° Fahrenheit. 
The average monthly rainfall was 4.58 inches, February 
being the wettest, and May the dryest month. In the south¬ 
ern counties there is more malaria and a greater tendency 
to fevers. The heat is at times intense, but the nights are 
rendered comfortable by the Gulf breeze. In the central 
and southern portions of the State, though there is no lack 
of water, much of it is not potable or is of very poor 
quality. In some of the cities and large towns this evil 
has been remedied by boring artesian wells, which often 
furnish an ample supply of excellent water. The wells and 
springs of the northern counties are of the very best 
quality. * 

Agricultural Products. —Our latest dates of these are for 
the year 1871, except cotton, of which the estimate for 
1872 is 507,430 bales, or 235,955,240 pounds. According 
to the careful estimates of the agricultural department, 
the crop of maize or Indian corn of 1871 was 19,080,000 
bushels, 1,315,862 acres being cultivated in that crop, and 
its estimated value was $17,558,600; of wheat the crop was 
832,000 bushels, raised from 132,063 acres, and having an 
estimated value of $1,297,720; of rye, only 24,000 bushels, 
raised on 2608 acres, and valued at $43,200 ; of oats, 672,000 
bushels, raised on 50,149 acres, and worth $584,640 ; of bar¬ 
ley, 6000 bushels, occupying 387 acres, and worth $6600; 
of potatoes (probably Solanum tuberosum), 157,000 bushels, 
from 1847 acres, worth $166,420 (the census return of 
sweet potatoes in the State in 1870 was 1,871,360 bushels); 
of tobacco (in 1870), 152,742 pounds; and of rice, the same 
year, 222,945 pounds (both returns undoubtedly far below 
the truth); hay, in 1871, 18,600 tons, from 13,984 acres, 
and valued at $362,700; of sugar (cane) in 1870, 31 hogs¬ 
heads, and of molasses (cane), 166,009 gallons; of sorghum 
molasses, 267,269 gallons; of butter (in 1870), 3,213,753 
pounds; of cheese, the same year, 2732 pounds, and of 
milk sold, 104,675 gallons; of beeswax (in 1870) 22,767 
pounds, and of honey, 320,674 pounds. The number of 
acres of improved land in farms, in 1870, was 5,062,204; of 
unimproved lands included in farms, 8,380,332 acres of 
woodland, and 1,518,642 acres of other unimproved lands. 
The cash value of farms the same year was $67,739,036, 
and of farming implements and machinery, $3,286,924. 
The estimated value of farm products for the census year 
(ending June, 1870) was $67,522,335. The value of orchard 
products in that year is stated at $37,500 ; of market-gar¬ 
dens, at $139,636; of forest products, $85,933; of home 
manufactures, $1,124,513; of animals slaughtered or sold 















72 


ALABAMA. 


for slaughter that year, $4,670,146. The number of horses 
in the State in Feb., 1872, was estimated by the agricul¬ 
tural department at 106,700, and their value at $9,297,838; 
the number of mules at 101,600, and their value at 
$10,752,328; the number of oxen and other cattle at 
337,800, and their value at $3,847,542 ; the number of milch 
cows at 180,700, and their value at $3,402,581; the number 
of sheep at 188,100, and their value at $342,342; the num¬ 
ber of swine at 981,000, and their value at $3,590,460. 

Manufactures .—Alabama has only recently given much 
attention to manufactures, and though her manufacturing 
establishments are now increasing with considerable rapid¬ 
ity, she still ranks low in the amount of her manufactured 
products. In 1860 there were 1459 manufacturing estab¬ 
lishments in the State, of which 336 were saw-mills, 140 
blacksmith-shops, 236 grist-mills, 132 tanneries and leather¬ 
dressing establishments, 110 boot and shoe shops, 27 tur¬ 
pentine distilleries, 123 carriage, wagon, and cart factories, 
and 32 saddlers’ shops, or in all 1136; so that eleven-four¬ 
teenths of the whole were occupied with the simple and 
ordinary mechanisms of an agricultural State. The total 
capital invested in manufactures in 1860 was $9,098,191 ; 
the cost of raw material was $5,489,963; the number of 
hands employed, 7889 ; the annual cost of labor, $2,132,940 ; 
and the value of products for the year 1859, $10,588,571. 
During the war of 1861-65 some of the cities and larger 
towns of Alabama were largely engaged in the manufac¬ 
ture of war material—iron plates, cannon, firearms, pow¬ 
der, steamboats, etc.—as well as in the packing of pro¬ 
visions. In 1870 the statistics of her manufactures 
were—number of establishments, 2231 ; capital invested, 
$5,713,607; cost of raw material, $7,643,784; ntunber of 
hands employed—males, 7489, females, 860—total, 8349 ; 
annual cost of labor, $2,211,638; value of products in 
1869, $13,220,655. The manufacture of iron, of machinery, 
and of cotton goods had received a remarkable impulse, and 
there had been a general increase in all the higher branches 
of industry. The manufactured product of the 13 cotton 
manufactories in 1870 was $1,088,767, and several large 
factories have since been erected. 

Itailways .—In Jan., 1872, there were 1671 miles of com¬ 
pleted railways in Alabama, of which 786 miles had re¬ 
ceived aid from the State, either in direct bonds or in 
endorsements, to the aggregate amount of $15,420,000. 
The aggregate cost of the nine railroads which make up 
this aggregate for road and equipment cannot be exactly 
ascertained, but it does not vary much from $64,000,000. 
Most of the Alabama railroads are portions of great trunk 
roads connecting the Northern or Southern Atlantic States 
with the ports of the Gulf or the Mississippi River, and in 
some cases destined to form links in the connection with 
the Pacific coast or with Mexico. Thus, the Alabama and 
Chattanooga R. R. forms one of the important links in 
that great combination of railroads now extending from 
the St. John’s River in the province of New Brunswick 
almost in an air-line to Meridian, Miss., and destined 
by the speedy completion of its few remaining'gaps soon 
to reach the Rio Grande. The Selma Rome and Dalton 
is another and perhaps still more direct link in the same 
line, soon to connect directly with New Orleans. The 
Mobile and Montgomery and the Montgomery and West 
Point are portions of a line which, with the completion of 
two or three insignificant gaps in South Carolina, will con¬ 
nect by a very direct line New Orleans and points still far¬ 
ther south-west with Richmond, Yorktown, and Norfolk. 
The Selma and Meridian and the Montgomery and Eufau- 
la lines form portions of the railroad chain extending from 
Brunswick, Ga., which, crossing the Mississippi at Vicks¬ 
burg, takes the name of the Southern Pacific, and following 
mainly the 32d parallel of latitude will reach the Pacific 
coast in Southern California. The Mobile and Ohio is the 
terminal link in a line of railroad which, with but one 
short gap, extends from Duluth on Lake Superior to 
Mobile. The Memphis and Charleston, crossing the up¬ 
per portion of the State, forms an important section of the 
long line which now connects Little Rock, Ark., and Mem¬ 
phis, Tenn., with Richmond, Washington, New York, and 
New England, and which will soon be extended westward 
along the 35th parallel of latitude to the Pacific. Another 
road, as yet incomplete, is destined to connect Mobile 
and Charleston, S. C. Two shorter roads connect respect¬ 
ively Selma and Montgomery with the fine port and har¬ 
bor of Pensacola,, which by the consent of Florida is soon 
to become a port of Alabama; while other roads already 
finished make a continuous railroad connection between 
Pensacola, Selma, and Montgomery in the South, and 
Nashville, Louisville, Evansville, Indianapolis, Chicago, 
Milwaukee, and the upper peninsula of Michigan in the 
North. No State in the Union is more indissolubly linked 
to every other portion by the iron bands of its railways 
than Alabama. 


Financial Condition. —The assessed valuation of property 
in Alabama in 1870 was $155,582,595, of which $117,223,043 
was real estate, and $38,359,552 personal property; the cen¬ 
sus valuation the same year, which approximates more nearly 
to the actual value, though considerably below it on personal 
property, was $201,855,841. The total taxes of that year, 
aside from the national taxation, were $2,982,929, of which 
$1,456,024 were State taxes, $1,122,971 county, and $403,937 
town, city, and ward taxes. The entire public debt other 
than national, in Jan., 1872, was $20,219,136, of which 
$15,420,000 was the State debt, mostly incurred in aiding 
railroads; $1,704,173 was county debt, and $3,094,963 was 
the debt of towns and cities. The average wealth to each 
individual of the population of the State in 1870 was 
$202.46; the rate of taxation per $1000, $14.77; the rate 
of taxation per head, $2.99; and the ratio of public debt 
to the population, $20.30 per head. The taxes are levied 
on real estate, and on the following articles of personal 
property : real estate bonds, town property, stocks of goods 
and merchandise, horses, mules, sheep, and hogs. There 
are also licenses, and a poll-tax of about $1.50 for school 
purposes. 

The foreign commerce of the State is mostly conducted 
through its principal port, Mobile; the imports into that 
port and district for the year ending June 30, 1872, were 
$1,761,402, and the exports (a large proportion being cot¬ 
ton) for the same year were $13,938,605. Probably cotton, 
etc. to the value of about $2,000,000 was exported through 
New Orleans by way of Memphis, and through Pensacola and 
Savannah by railroads and the Chattahoochee River. The 
vessels belonging to the customs district of Mobile in the 
year ending June 30, 1871, were 42 schooners, 32 sloops, 52 
steamers, 96 unrigged vessels, or 222 vessels in all, having 
a total tonnage of 18,047 tons. For the year ending June 
30, 1872, there were 78 sailing vessels, 34 steamers, and 92 
unrigged vessels, having a total tonnage of 13,808 tons. 
For the year ending June 30, 1870, 105 American and for¬ 
eign vessels entered the port of Mobile, the tonnage of 
which was 70,249 tons, and the crews numbered 1739 men. 
The same year 128 vessels cleared from the port, having a 
tonnage of 79,738 tons, and crews numbering 1865 men. 
In addition to these, 9 ocean steamers, having an aggregate 
tonnage of 13,115 tons, entered and cleared from the port 
the same year. There are no means of ascertaining the 
internal commerce of the State. 

Banks. —There were in Jan., 1873, nine National banks 
in Alabama—viz. the First National Bank of Mobile, capital 
$300,000 ; the National Commercial Bank of Mobile, capital 
$500,000; the First National Bank of Montgomery, cap¬ 
ital $208,208; the Merchants’ and Planters’ National Bank 
at Montgomery, capital $100,000 ; the National Bank of 
Huntsville, at Madison, capital $100,000 ; the Selma City 
National Bank, capital $250,000; the Gainesville National 
Bank, at Gainesville, capital $100,000; the First National 
Bank of Tuscaloosa, capital $60,000 ; and the National Bank 
of Birmingham, capital $50,000. There were also at the 
same time two State banks, both located in Mobile, having 
an aggregate capital of $1,000,000, and five savings banks, 
with capital and accumulations amounting to $672,000, all 
of them doing a discount as well as a deposit business. 
There were also twenty-two private banking-houses, be¬ 
sides three agencies of the National Freedmen’s Savings 
Bank and Trust Company, acting as bankers in the State. 

Insurance. —There are two life insurance companies char¬ 
tered by the State, organized in 1868 and 1871, having an 
aggregate capital of $500,000 and aggregate assets of 
$1,074,311; and eleven fire insurance companies, with an 
aggregate capital of $1,385,000 and aggregate assets of 
$1,406,000. The greater part of the underwriting, both of 
life and fire insurance, is, however, in the hands of agencies 
of companies from other States and countries. 

Population. —Alabama appears for the first time in the 
census of 1820, when her population was 127,901, and her 
relative rank among the States in population was nine¬ 
teenth. In 1830 it was 309,527, and she ranked fifteenth; 
in 1840 it was 590,756, entitling her to the twelfth place; 
in 1850 it was 771,623, and she still maintained the twelfth 
place; in 1860 it was 964,201, but owing to the rapid 
growth of the Western States she was now thirteenth. In 
1870, owing to her heavy losses during the war, the popu¬ 
lation had only increased to 996,992, and she held the six¬ 
teenth place in population. In 1820 there were 41,879 slaves 
and 571 free colored persons in the State; in 1830, 117,549 
slaves and 1572 free colored; in 1840, 253,532 slaves and 
2039 free colored; in 1850, 342,844 slaves and 2265 free 
colored; in 1860, 435,080 slaves and 2690 free colored; in 
1870 there were no slaves, but 475,510 free colored persons. 
The number of white persons at these dates was—in 1820, 
85,451; in 1830, 190,406 ; in 1840, 335,185; in 1850, 
426,514; in 1860, 526,271 ; in 1870, 521,384. In 1860 
there were 160 Indians, and in 1870, 98 Indians. But a 





































ALABAMA. 73 


very small portion of the population are of foreign birth 
or parentage. Only 9962 are reported as foreign born, 
16,981 as having both parents foreigners; 20,765 as hav¬ 
ing a foreign father, and 18,060 a foreign mother; and 
revious enumerations vary but little from these numbers, 
n the matter of sex, of the entire population 488,738 are 
males, and 508,254 females; of the native population, 
482,470 are males and 504,560 females; of those of foreign 
birth, 6268 are males and 3694 females; of the whites, 
255,023 are males and 266,361 females; of the colored, 
233,677 are males and 241,833 females; a further distinc¬ 
tion is made between negroes, of whom 213,987 are males 
and 219,711 females, and mulattoes, of whom 19,690 are 
males and 22,122 females. The density of population for 
the whole State is 19.66 persons to the square mile; but the 
density map of the ninth census report shows that while 
the eastern, north-eastern, and a small district of the north¬ 
ern and western portions have a population of about thirty 
to the square mile, the remainder of the State, except the 
city of Mobile, has not more than eight or nine inhabitants 
to the square mile. 

Education .—The number of children of school age (be¬ 
tween five and twenty-one years) in the State in 1871 was 
387,057; of these 77,139 (38,600 males and 38,539 females) 
reported themselves as having attended school during some 
part of the year 1869-70. Table xii. of the ninth census 
gives the reported attendance upon the schools of the State 
as 75,866 (37,223 males and 38,643 females), under the 
charge of 3364 teachers (2372 males and 992 females). The 
attendance on schools is said to have increased somewhat 
since 1870, but no statistics are given. The income of all 
educational institutions in the State in 1869-70 was 
$976,351, of which $39,500 was from endowments, $471,161 
from taxation and public funds, and $465,690 from other 
sources, including tuition. Of this income $629,626 be¬ 
longed to the public schools, of which there were 2S12, 
which had 3008 teachers and 67,263 pupils that year. 
This income was composed of the following items: from 
endowments, $8000; from taxation and public funds, 
$447,156; from other sources, $174,470. In 1871 the funds 
were increased from taxation to the extent of over $90,000, 
and in 1872 about $110,000 more. Of these public schools, 
14 were normal schools, or rather normal classes, mostly 
connected with the colleges, having 25 teachers and 488 
pupils; 4 were high schools, with 6 teachers and 170 schol¬ 
ars; 10 were grammar schools, with 10 teachers and 200 
scholars; and 2784 were graded and ungraded common 
schools, with 2967 teachers (817 females) and 66,405 pupils. 
Of the schools not public, 9 were colleges and universities, 
besides 7 other female colleges and seminaries, with 65 in¬ 
structors and 667 students. The colleges had 63 professors 
and teachers, 1026 students, and $108,800 income, of which 
$31,500 was from endowment. There are 46 academies, 
with 132 teachers, 3086 pupils, and $142,750 of income. 
There are 2 theological and 1 medical professional school, 
the former having 4 instructors and about 25 students, and 
the latter 7 instructors and 30 students. The University 
of Alabama, at Tuscaloosa, was liberally endowed with 
lands by the U. S., the greater part of which have been 
sold, and yield a large income for its support. It still owns 
about 500 acres, and has new, large, and commodious build¬ 
ings for instruction and dormitories, an observatory, a presi¬ 
dent’s mansion, and five houses for professors. Its coal- 
lands yield an annual rental of sufficient coal for fuel. The 
university has been, however, since the war, in a greatly 
depressed condition, and has had but a small number of 
students. Some changes were made in its officers and or¬ 
ganization in 1871, since which it is reported to be doing 
better. Howard College, at Marion, is a flourishing college, 
though insufficiently endowed. It is under the control of 
the Baptists, and in 1872 had 6 professors, 121 students, 
and a library of 5000 volumes. The East Alabama College, 
at Auburn, which in 1871-72 established a scientific, indus¬ 
trial, and agricultural department, and received the Con¬ 
gressional agricultural land-grant to the State, is under the 
control of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, and in 
1871-72 had 7 professors and 98 students in the collegiate de¬ 
partment, and 3 professors and 59 students in the scientific 
department. The Southern University, at Greensborough, 
founded in 1855, is also under the control of the Methodists. 
Spring Hill College, at Spring Hill, near Mobile, is a Ro¬ 
man Catholic institution, founded in 1835. In 1872 it had 
18 instructors and 52 students. The other colleges of the 
State are Florence University (Presbyterian) and Wesleyan 
College (Methodist) at Florence, La Grange College (Presby¬ 
terian) at La Grange, and Talladega College at Talladega. 
The seven female colleges are respectively under the control 
of the Presbyterians, Methodists, Episcopals, Baptists, and 
the Methodist Episcopal Church South. They are all pros¬ 
perous, and had an aggregate in 1872 of 58 teachers and 
667 students. There are two theological seminaries in the 


State—the theological department of Howard College (Bap¬ 
tist) at Marion, and the Ecclesiastical Seminary of the dio¬ 
cese of Mobile (Roman Catholic) at South Orange. The 
Medical College of Alabama, at Mobile, organized in 1856, 
has 11 instructors, and gives a free course of lectures. 
There is one institution for the deaf and dumb and the blind, 
at Talladega, having, in 1871, 4 teachers, 64 pupils (50 
deaf mutes and 14 blind), and $12,005 income. Besides 
these there were 83 day and boarding schools, having 97 
teachers, 3129 pupils, and an income of $70,870; and 17 
parochial and charity schools, with 52 teachers and 1256 
scholars, and a reported income of only $500. The manage¬ 
ment of educational affairs in the State is in the hands of a 
State board of education, consisting of the State superin¬ 
tendent of public schools, who is its presiding officer, and 
two members from each of the eight Congressional districts, 
who are elected by the people for four years. The governor 
is an ex officio member of the board, but has no vote. The 
State superintendent is elected on the State ticket for 
four years. The board of education are also a board of 
regents of the State University, and appoint its president 
and faculties. There is a county superintendent for each 
of the sixty-five counties, elected by the voters of the county, 
and in each county these superintendents, with two other 
persons, constitute the county boards. There are also town¬ 
ship boards, consisting of three trustees, who are the con¬ 
tracting parties in engaging teachers, who must, however, 
have the certificate of the county board before they can 
teach. The school fund (from the sale of school lands) 
amounted in 1872 to $3,051,746.92. It is invested so as to 
yield 8 per cent, interest. The other sources from which 
school income is derived are—special appropriations by the 
State or individuals, escheated estates, military exemptions, 
an annual appropriation of one-fifth of the revenue, and a 
poll-tax of $1.50. In Jan., 1872, the amount devoted to 
public schools was about $855,000. After paying the other 
expenses of the school department, there remained a divi¬ 
dend of $1.33 for each child of school age. 

In 1869-70 there were in the State 383,012 persons over 
ten years of age who could not write, and 349,771 of these 
could not read. Of these, 22,856 were white males and 
20,773 white females between the ages of ten and twenty-one 
years; while 48,430 whites were over twenty-one years of 
age; 50,007 were colored males and 51,530 colored females 
bet ween the ages of ten and twenty-one years; while 189,361 
were colored persons over twenty-one years of age. In 
Mobile, while there were 5473 children attending school, 
there were 7916 of ten years old and over who could not 
read, and 9106 of the same age who could not write. Of 
these, 1004 were whites and 8102 colored. 

Libraries .—Of these, of all classes, there were in 1870 in 
the State 1430, containing an aggregate of 576,882 volumes. 
Of these, 1132 were private libraries, containing 490,305 
volumes, while 298, containing 86,577 volumes, were public 
libraries. Among these, 1 was the State Library, having 
3000 volumes; 4 were town or city libraries, having only 
800 volumes in all; 33 were court or law libraries, with 
7785 volumes; 12 were college or school libraries, having 
23,300 volumes; 239 were Sabbath-school libraries, with 
49,517 volumes; and 9 were church libraries, with 2175 
volumes. 

Newspapers and Periodicals .—The ninth census gives to 
Alabama 89 periodicals of all classes, having an aggregate 
circulation of 91,165, and issuing annually 9,198,980 copies. 
In 1860 there were 96 periodicals, with an aggregate circu¬ 
lation of 93,595, but issuing annually only 7,175,444 copies. 
Of those published in 1870, 9 were daily newspapers, hav¬ 
ing a circulation of 16,420 ; 2 tri-weekly, with a circulation 
of 700; 2 semi-weekly, with a circulation of 2870; and 76 
weekly, with a circulation of 71,175. Of these, 87 were 
political, having a circulation of 88,665, and issuing an¬ 
nually 9,068,980 copies ; and 2 were religious, having a cir¬ 
culation of 2500, and issuing annually 130,000 copies. 

Churches .—The statistics of the census of 1870 in regard 
to churches in all the Southern States are necessarily in¬ 
complete, and at best only an approximation to the facts. 
The census reports 2095 church organizations of all de¬ 
nominations; 1958 church edifices, 510,810 sittings, and 
$2,414,515 as the value of church property. These aggre¬ 
gates are unquestionably considerably below the truth. It 
reports 786 Baptist churches, 769 church edifices, 189,650 
sittings, value of church property $535,650 (tho “Bap¬ 
tist Almanac” for 1873 gives the number of associations as 
44; of churches, 1162; of ordained ministers, 574; of com¬ 
municants, 74,871); of minor Baptist organizations it reports 
3 churches, 3 church edifices, 550 sittings, $1000 of church 
property ; of the Christians, 19 churches, 19 church edifices, 
5750 sittings, $10,050 of church property; of Congrega- 
tionalists, 4 churches, 2 church edifices, 650 sittings, $/300 
of church property (the “Congregational Quarterly” for 
Jan., 1873, reports, for 1872, 5 ohurches, 6 ordainod min- 














74 


ALABAMA 


isters, 204 communicants); of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church, 50 churches, 38 edifices, 15,520 sittings, $204,600 
of church property (the “ Church Almanac ” for 1873 reports 
1 diocese, 30 clergymen, 42 parishes, 3046 communicants) ; 
of Jews, 2 congregations, 2 synagogues, 1650 sittings, 
$300,000 of ecclesiastical property; of Methodists, 901 
churches, 892 edifices, 218,945 sittings, $787,265 of church 
property (the “Methodist Episcopal Church Minutes” re¬ 
port for 1872, 84 itinerant ministers, 165 local preachers, 131 
church edifices, 9052 communicants; and the Methodist 
Episcopal Church South, the same year, 228 itinerant min¬ 
isters and local preachers, 483 churches, and 25,514 mem¬ 
bers); of Presbyterians (Church South), 145 churches, 143 
edifices, 50,215 sittings, $322,550 of church property; of 
other Presbyterian bodies, 57 churches, 57 edifices, 17,400 
sittings, $37,150 of church property; of Roman Catholics, 
there were 1 diocese, 20 congregations, 19 church edifices, 
6730 sittings, $409,000 of church property; of Universalists, 
6 congregations, 2 edifices, 550 sittings, $1400 of church 
property; of union churches, 12 congregations, 12 edifices, 
3200 sittings, $S550 of church property. 

Constitution .—The present constitution of Alabama was 
adopted in 1866, but has been largely amended. The 
governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, auditor, 
treasurer, and attorney-general are chosen by the electors 
on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. All 
hold office for two years, except the auditor, whose term is 
four years. The house of representatives must not ex¬ 
ceed 100 members, apportioned according to the population, 
but each county has at least one member. The senators are 
elected from senatorial districts; they must not be less than 
25 or more than 33 in number, and serve for four years, 
while the representatives are elected for but two years. 
They must be electors and residents of the State, and the 
senators must in addition be twenty-seven years of age or 
upward. In all elections by the people the vote is by bal¬ 
lot. All male citizens, twenty-one years of age, who have 
resided in the State for six months next preceding the elec¬ 
tion, and have taken the oath to support the Constitution 
and laws of the U. S. and of Alabama, are entitled to vote. 
All persons resident in the State, born in the U. S., or per¬ 
sons who have legally declared their intentions to become 
citizens of the U. S., shall be citizens of Alabama. Tem¬ 
porary absence from the State does not cause a forfeiture of 
residence. All able-bodied male citizens between the ages 
of eighteen and forty-five are liable to military duty. One 
major-general and three brigadier-generals are appointed 
by the governor, subject to confirmation by the senate. 
The adjutant-general and other staff officers are appointed 
by the governor. The militia is divided into two classes, 
the volunteer and the reserve force. Officers and men re¬ 
ceive no pay when not in active service. 

Judiciary .—The judicial power is vested in a supreme 
court, circuit courts, chancery courts, courts of probate, and 
such inferior courts as the General Assembly may estab¬ 
lish from time to time. The supreme court has appellate 
jurisdiction only, and must be held at the seat of govern¬ 
ment twice every year. The State is divided into circuits, 
each of which must include not less than three nor more 
than eight counties, and a judge is chosen for each circuit, 
whose term of office, like the supreme and chancery court 
judges, is six years. He must reside in the circuit for 
which he is chosen, and hold court in each county of his 
district twice every year. The circuit court has original 
jurisdiction in all matters civil and criminal within the 
State not otherwise excepted by the constitution, but in civil 
cases only when the sum in controversy exceeds $50. There 
are now twelve circuit districts in the State. There are 
three supreme court judges, twelve circuit court judges, and 
five chancellors of the court of chancery. The judges of 
these higher courts can hold no other office of profit and 
trust under the State or U. S. during their term of office. 
Judges of the lower courts, justices, and constables are 
elected by the people in each county. The clerk of the su¬ 
preme court is appointed by the judges. The other clerks 
of courts are elected by the people for six years. The at¬ 
torney-general must reside at the seat of government. A 
solicitor must be appointed for each county. 

Principal Toions. —Mobile, the only considerable seaport 
of the State, and next to New Orleans the most important 
commercial city of the Gulf States, is situated on Mobile 
Bay, and had a population in 1870 of 32,034. Montgom¬ 
ery, the capital of the State, situated on the Alabama 
River, had in 1870 a population of 10,588. The other 
towns and cities of the State having between 3000 and 
7000 inhabitants are—Selma, on the Alabama, 6484; Hunts¬ 
ville, on the Tennessee, 4907; Eufaula, on the Chattahoo¬ 
chee, 3185. Those having between 1000 and 2000 inhab¬ 
itants are—Talladega, 1933; Tuscaloosa, on the Black 
Warrior, 1689 ; and Tuscumbia, on the Tennessee, 1214. 

Representatives in Congress .—Under the new apportion¬ 


ment of Dec. 14, 1871, Alabama is entitled to eight repre¬ 
sentatives in Congress. They are all chosen by districts. 


Counties. 

Population 

1870. 

Population 

1860. 

Population 

1850. 

Autauga. 

11,623 

16,739 

15,023 

Baker. 

6,194 



Baldwin. 

6,004 

7,530 

4,414 

Barbour. 

29,309 

30,812 

23,632 

Bibb. 

7,469 

11,894 

9,9C9 

Blount.. 

9,945 

10,865 

7,367 

Bullock. 

24,474 



Butler. 

14,981 

18,122 

10,836 

Calhoun. 

13,980 

21,539 

17,163 

Chambers. 

17,562 

23,214 

23,960 

Cherokee . 

11,132 

18,360 

13,884 

Choctaw. 

12,676 

13,877 

8,389 

Clarke. 

14,663 

15,049 

9,786 

Clay. 

9,560 



Cleburne. 

8,017 



Coffee. 

6,171 

9,623 

5,940 

Colbert. 

9,574 

11,311 

9,322 

Conecuh. 

12,537 



Coosa. 

11,945 

19,273 

14,543 

Covington. 

4,868 

6,469 

3,645 

Crenshaw. 

11,156 



Dale. 

11,325 

12,197 

6,382 

Dallas. 

40,705 

33,625 

29,727 

De Kalb. 

7,126 

10,705 

8,245 

Elmore. 

14,477 



Escambia. 

4,041 



Etowah. 

10,109 



Fayette. 

7,136 

12,850 

9,681 

Franklin. 

8,006 

18,627 

19,610 

Geneva. 

2,959 



Greene. 

18,399 

30,859 

31,441 

Hale. 

21,792 



Henry. 

14,191 

14,918 

9,019 

Jackson. 

19,410 

18,283 

14,088 

Jefferson. 

12,345 

11,746 

8,989 

Lauderdale. 

15,091 

17,420 

17,172 

Lawrence. 

16,658 

13,975 

15,258 

Lee. 

21,750 



Limestone. 

15,017 

15,306 

16,483 

Lowndes. 

25,719 

27,716 

21,915 

Macon... 

17,727 

26,802 

26,898 

Madison. 

31,267 

26,451 

26,427 

Marengo. 

26,151 

31,171 

27,831 

Marion. 

6,059 

11,182 

7,833 

Marshall. 

9,871 

11,472 

8,846 

Mobile. 

49,311 

41,131 

27,600 

Monroe. 

14,214 

15,667 

12,013 

Montgomery. 

43,704 

35.904 

29,711 

Morgan. 

12,187 

11,335 

10,125 

Perry. 

24,975 

27,724 

22,285 

Pickens. 

17,690 

22,316 

21,512 

Pike. 

17,423 

24,435 

15,920 

Randolph. 

12,006 

20,059 

11,581 

Russell. 

21,636 

26,592 

19,548 

Sanford. 

8,893 



Shelby. 

12,218 

12,618 

9,536 

St. Clair. 

9,360 

11,013 

6,829 

Sumter. 

24,109 

24,035 

22,250 

Talladega. 

18,064 

23,520 

18,624 

Tallapoosa. 

16,963 

23,827 

15,584 

Tuscaloosa. 

20,081 

23,200 

18,056 

Walker. 

6,543 

7,980 

5,124 

Washington. 

3,912 

4,669 

2,713 

Wilcox. 

28,377 

24,618 

17,352 

Winston. 

4,155 

3,5 / 6 

1,542 


History .—The first settlement made in the limits of this 
State by whites was in 1702, when Bienville erected a fort 
near Mobile Bay. In 1711 a small French colony was 
planted on the present site of Mobile, and in 1713 was 
fully organized. In 1763 all the territory now comprised 
in the State lying N. of the 31st parallel, and extending 
westward to the Mississippi River, was ceded by France to 
Great Britain, and by the treaty of peace with Great 
Britain in 1783 became a part of the territory of the U. S. 
It was attached to Georgia, except a strip 12 miles wide, 
adjoining the State of Tennessee, which was claimed by 
South Carolina. In 1802 the territory from the Chatta¬ 
hoochee to the Mississippi, lying between the 31st and 
35th parallels, was ceded to the U. S. by Georgia and 
South Carolina, and organized as Mississippi Territory. 
As yet, however, this territory had no access to the Gulf 
except through French or Spanish territory, the peninsula 
of Florida and the Gulf coast to the mouth of Amite 
River, and thence across to the Mississippi, extending 
northward to the 31st parallel, having been ceded by 
France to Spain. During the war of 1812 with Great 
Britain that part of the Spanish territory lying between the 
Perdido and Pearl rivers was occupied by the U. S. troops 
as a precautionary measure, and finally annexed to Missis¬ 
sippi Territory. The difficulties growing out of this seizure 
were subsequently settled by the purchase of the entire 
territory held by Spain in 1819. In 1813 and 1814 the 
Creek Indians inhabiting the present State of Alabama be¬ 
came very troublesome, and finally attacked and captured 
Fort Mimms on the Alabama River, near its junction with 
the Tombigbee, Aug. 30, 1813, and killed 380 whites who 





















































































































ALABAMA—ALABAMA CLAIMS. 


had taken refuge there. Gen. Jackson at once marched 
into the Creek country with a strong force, and, following 
up the Indians very promptly, reduced them to complete 
subjection in a series of engagements in which their loss 
was 1617 killed, and his 100 killed and 400 wounded. 
After the battle of Horseshoe Bend, Mar. 27, 1814, in which 
the Creeks lost about GOO killed, they signed a treaty of 
peace in which they gave up three-fourths of their terri¬ 
tory. Emigration to the fertile lands along the Alabama 
River and its tributaries now increased, and in 1817, Mis¬ 
sissippi having been admitted into the Union as a State, 
Alabama was organized as Alabama Territory, and on the 
2d of Aug., 1819, adopted a constitution under which it was 
admitted to the Union Dec. 14, 1819, having at that time 
127,901 inhabitants. Alabama was actively concerned, 
with Georgia and Mississippi, in effecting the removal of 
the Indian tribes in those States to the present Indian 
Territory. As one of the largest slaveholding States in the 
Union, Alabama uniformly acted up to what were consid¬ 
ered the interests of its section, taking strong ground in 
favor of the annexation of Texas, resisting all measures 
for the restriction of slave territory, and opposing with 
great vehemence what its political leaders characterized as 
Northern aggressions. In the presidential campaign of 
1860, when it became probable that Mr. Lincoln would bo 
elected, or at all events that Mr. Breckinridge would be 
defeated, an active correspondence was maintained between 
the political leaders in Alabama and those of other South¬ 
ern States as to the best measures to bring about the seces¬ 
sion of the Southern States and the formation of a South¬ 
ern confederacy. Gov. Moore of Alabama sent a com¬ 
missioner to the convention of South Carolina, which met 
Dec. 17, 1860, urging them to secede. He had issued his 
proclamation for an election of delegates to a convention 
in Alabama on Dec. 6. The delegates were elected on the 
24th of that month, and met at Montgomery Jan. 7, 1861, 
and the ordinance of secession was passed Jan. 11, 1861— 
yeas 61, nays 39; and before adjourning the convention 
called for delegates from all the Southern States to meet 
at Montgomery, Ala., on the 4th of Feb., 1861, to organize 
a Southern confederacy. That convention met, organized 
a provisional government, elected Jefferson Davis Presi¬ 
dent of the Confederacy, and Alexander H. Stephens Vice- 
President, and the new President having chosen his cabi¬ 
net and a Confederate Congress being provided for, they 
adjourned, making Montgomery, for the time, the capital 
of their Confederacy. In July, 1861, the capital and Con¬ 
gress were removed to Richmond. Gov. Moore had already 
(in Jan., 1861) seized the U. S. arsenal and arms in Mobile, 
had occupied with State troops Fort Morgan in Mobile 
Bay, and had taken possession of the revenue cutter Cass. 
In the progress of the war Alabama took an active part, 
though the northern portion of the State contained a strong 
Union party. Several severe battles were fought within the 
limits of the State—notably, the naval actions and the cap¬ 
ture of the forts in Mobile Bay in Aug., 1864, the siege and 
capture of Mobile in Mar. and April, 1865, and the capture 
of Selma and other towns by Gen. Wilson in April, 1865. 
There were also minor conflicts at Athens, Montevallo, 
Scottsboro’, Talladega, and Tuscumbia. After the close of 
the war Alabama was in the same condition with the other 
Southern States. President Johnson appointed a pro¬ 
visional governor June 21, 1865, and pending measures of 
reconstruction the State was placed under military control. 
On the 25th of Sept., 1865, a State convention met and an¬ 
nulled the ordinance of secession, and in December follow¬ 
ing the provisional governor was withdrawn and the State 
allowed to manage its own affairs, subject only to some 
slight supervision of the military authorities. In Aug., 
1867, Gen. Pope, commanding the third military district, 
ordered an election of delegates to a State convention to 
prepare a new constitution and civil government for the 
State. The convention met Nov. 5, 1867, and the consti¬ 
tution was submitted to the people Feb. 4, 1868. There 
was much opposition to it, and many of those opposed 
stayed away from the polls. The result was, that though 
the constitution received a majority of the votes cast, it did 
not receive a majority of those registered, and hence was 
deemed to have been rejected. Most of its provisions have, 
however, since been engrafted on the existing constitution. 
The State was admitted to a representation in Congress by 
an act passed over the President’s veto June 25, 1868. 

There was great suffering in consequence of the desola¬ 
tion of the country by the war, the failure of crops, and 
the difficulty of readjusting labor on the new basis, during 
the transition period of 1865-67; and subsequently the 
number of disfranchised persons at first, though these were 
mostly soon restored to their political rights, the attempts 
of a few misguided men to coerce the newly enfranchised 
people of color by threats, and the suspicions entertained by 
many of these against their former masters, led to somo 


t D 


disturbances and outrages, and to fears of more. Happily, 
ere long better counsels prevailed; the necessity of retriev¬ 
ing her position as a State financially, socially, and politi¬ 
cally led the citizens of Alabama to unite to preserve peace 
and order, and with returning prosperity a better state of 
feeling took the place of the old bitterness, and mutual 
toleration led the way to mutual regard. The State officers 
and legislature granted the State credit somewhat too freely 
for their existing financial condition to some of the great 
railroad enterprises of the State, as they found to their 
cost in 1870 and 1871; but fortunately, the error, though 
complicated by the mismanagement of the officials of a 
neighboring State, was not irretrievable, and the judicious 
management of the governor and his advisers and the leg¬ 
islature relieved the State from what seemed at first a seri¬ 
ous embarrassment. On the whole, Alabama has passed 
through the crucial period of her history, the period of re¬ 
construction, with less disturbance or disorder than most 
of the Southern States; and with the return of financial 
prosperity, and the development of the mineral, agricul¬ 
tural, manufacturing, and commercial resources of the 
State by the great railroad lines now traversing it, there is 
every reason to believe that she will enter on a new and 
more rapid period of growth and advancement. There will 
be occasional troubles, of course, but these will be adjusted 
without the interference of the general government and 
without serious disorder. In the autumn and winter of 
1872-73 there was a marked instance of such an adjust¬ 
ment. The two political parties which divide the State 
were so evenly balanced that both claimed a majority in 
the Legislature, a part of whoso members were elected in 
Nov., 1872; and so strenuous was their opposition to each 
other that there was a bolt at the very commencement of 
the session. One party, calling themselves Conservatives, 
assembled at the capitol in Montgomery, Avere duly organ¬ 
ized by the officers of the previous legislature, and secured 
a quorum in both houses. The other party, claiming to be 
Republicans, organized as a legislature in the U. S. court¬ 
room at Montgomery, but Mr. Lindsay, the retiring gov¬ 
ernor of the State, himself a Conservative, refused to rec¬ 
ognize the court-room legislature. The incoming governor, 
Mr. David P. Lewis, who was elected as a Republican, rec¬ 
ognized each in turn; at first, there seemed to be danger 
of collision, but after some bitterness and denunciation 
the two legislatures were fused into one, and a spirit of 
harmony gained the ascendency. 


Governors of the State. 


William W. Bibb. 1819-20 

Thomas Bibb. 1820-21 

Israel Pickens. 1821-25 

John Murphy. 1825-29 

Gabriel Moore. 1829-31 

John Gayle. 1831-35 

Clement C. Clay. 1835-37 

Arthur P. Bagby. 1837-41 

Benjamin Fitzpatrick. 1841-45 

Joshua L. Martin. 1845-47 

Reuben Chapman. 1847-49 


Henry W. Collier. 1849-53 

John A. Winston. 1853-57 

Andrew B. Moore. 1857-61 

John Gill Shorter. 1861-63 

Thomas H. Watts. 1863-65 

Lewis E. Parsons, Prov. 1865-65 

Robert M. Patton. 1865-68 

William H. Smith. 1868-70 

Robert B. Lindsay. 1870-72 

David P. Lewis. 1872- 


Electoral and Popular Vote at Presidential Elections. 


Year. 

No. of 
Electoral 
Votes. 

For what Candi¬ 
date. 

Popular Vote for each Candidate. 

1820 

3 

Monroe. 

Unanimous for Pres’dt Monroe. 

1824 

5 

Jackson. 

Jackson, 9443; Adams, 2416; 
Crawford, 1680; Clay, 67. 

1828 

5 

Jackson. 

Jackson, 17,138; Adams, 1938. 

1832 

7 

Jackson. 

Unanimous for Pres’dt Jackson. 

1836 

7 

Van Buren. 

Van Buren, 20,506, White, 15,612. 

1840 

7 

Van Buren. 

Van Buren, 33,991; Harrison, 
28,471. 

1844 

9 

Polk. 

Polk, 37,740; Clay, 26,084. 

Cass, 31,363; Taylor, 30,482. 

1848 

9 

Cass. 

1852 

9 

Pierce. 

Pierce, 26,881; Scott, 15,038. 

1856 

9 

Buchanan. 

Buchanan, 46,739; Fillmore, 
28,552. 

1860 

9 

Breckinridge. 

Breckinridge, 48,831; Bell, 27,875; 
Douglas, 13,651. 

1864 

— 

No vote. 

No vote. 

1868 

8 

Grant. 

Grant, 76,366; Seymour, 72,088. 

1872 

10 

Grant. 

Grant, 90,272 ; Greeley, 79,444. 


L. P. Brockett. 


Alabama, a township of Columbia co., Ark. P. 866. 

Alabama, a township of Sacramento co., Cal. P. 336. 

Alabama, a post-township of Genesee co., N. Y. It 
contains fine water-power, and the Oak Orchard acid 
mineral springs, nine in number. Their waters aro largely 
used for their tonic effect. One-fourth of the township is 
occupied by the Tonawanda Indian Reservation. 1 . 1805. 

Alabama Claims. The protracted negotiations, the 
treaty of Washington resulting therefrom, and the arbitra¬ 
tion at Geneva by which this treaty was in part executed, 
may justly be deemed as forming tho most important cause 
celebre of modern diplomacy. The claims themselves were 
















































76 


ALABAMA CLAIMS. 


made by the government of the U. S. in favor of certain of 
its citizens and of itself upon the government of Great 
Britain, on account of the acts of certain warlike vessels 
which sailed from British ports in the interest or employ 
of the Confederate States during the war of the rebellion in 
the U. S. The treaty of Washington describes them as 
“ differences [which] have arisen between ” [the two gov¬ 
ernments], “ and still exist, growing out of the acts com¬ 
mitted by the several vessels which have given rise to the 
claims generically known as the Alabama claims.” The 
Confederate cruisers in respect of which the U. S. made any 
reclamations before the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva 
should be separated into two classes: first , those which were 
substantially fitted out and adapted to warlike use in Great 
Britain, so that they actually commenced their hostile 
careers by sailing from a British port; and secondly, those 
which commenced their hostile careers in the Confederate 
service within other territorial jurisdictions. 

First Class .—The Florida was an iron screw gunboat. 
The contract for her was made in 1861 by Bullock, the Con¬ 
federate agent in England having the matter in charge, 
with a firm of builders in Liverpool. Her object and des¬ 
tination were well known at that place, but the formal pre¬ 
tence was kept up that she was designed for the Italian 
navy. She sailed for Nassau on the 23d of Mar., 1862, with 
a crew of fifty-two men, all British except three or four, of 
whom only one was an American. She was in every respect 
a man-of-war, except that her armament was not in place, 
but she could have been put in complete preparation for 
battle in twenty-four hours. While she was preparing to 
sail, shot, shells, etc. were sent by river from Liverpool to 
Hartlepool, and there shipped on board the steamer Bahama, 
which left for Nassau, and there joined the Florida. All 
these facts were from time to time diligently brought to the 
attention of the British authorities by Mr. Adams, the 
American minister, and by Mr. Dudley, the American con¬ 
sul at Liverpool. At Nassau certain abortive proceedings 
against the Florida were undertaken by the colonial gov¬ 
ernment. She sailed from Nassau on the 8th of August, 
having cleared for St. John, New Brunswick. At the same 
time, a schooner laden with the shot, shell, and other mu¬ 
nitions of war sailed from Nassau, and met her at a neigh¬ 
boring island, where the transfer was made, and the Florida 
immediately set out on a hostile cruise. On the 4th of Sep¬ 
tember she ran through the blockading squadron into Mo¬ 
bile, by pretending to be a British man-of-war and flying 
the British flag. On the 26th of Jan., 1863, she escaped 
from Mobile. Her career as a Confederate cruiser ended 
Oct. 7, 1864. Three of her captures, the Clarence, the 
Tacony, and the Archer, were fitted out and armed as her 
tenders, and aided in the work of destruction. During her 
cruises she was repeatedly received into British ports, and 
permitted to repair and to take in full supplies of provis¬ 
ions and coals. She and her tenders captured and destroyed 
American merchant-vessels and cargoes amounting in value 
to many millions of dollars. 

The Alabama was built for speed, and not intended for 
fighting, and was manned by British subjects. She was a 
wooden steam sloop of about 1040 tons register, built for 
the Confederate States by Laird & Sons at Birkenhead, in 
England, and was called “No. 290,” from her number in 
the list of steamers constructed by that firm. She was 
barque-rigged, was furnished with two engines of 350 horse¬ 
power each, and was pierced for twelve guns. Strict pre¬ 
cautions were taken to keep her destination a secret, but 
the suspicions of the agents of the U. S. having been excited 
before she was quite finished, the minister of the U. S. re¬ 
quested the British government to detain her. The British 
ministers consulted the Crown lawyers, and after some delay, 
caused by the illness of the queen’s advocate, an opinion 
was given in favor of detaining her. In the mean time, the 
“No. 290” had escaped, under a pretext of a trial trip, near 
the end of July, 1862. She was not equipped with guns 
and warlike stores when she left the Mersey, but received 
them at Terceira, whither they were conveyed by another 
vessel. In August, 1862, Capt. Semmes took command of 
the steamer, which he named the Alabama, and began his 
cruise with a crew of eighty men. He burned the merchant- 
vessels which he captured, being unable to take them into 
any port of the Confederate States in consequence of the 
blockade. The Alabama never entered any port that was 
possessed by the Confederate States. 

It is stated that she captured sixty-five vessels, and de¬ 
stroyed property valued at $6,000,000. Much greater than 
this amount was the damage inflicted on ship-owners of the 
U. S. by the heavy insurance for war-risks to which they 
were subjected, and by the difficulty in obtaining freight for 
their vessels. 

After a long cruise in the Pacific Ocean, she returned to 
Europe, and entered the port of Cherbourg to refit and ob¬ 
tain a supply of stores, June 11, 1864. A few days later 


the war-steamer Kearsargc, of seven guns, commanded by 
Capt. Winslow of the U. S. navy, arrived at Cherbourg. 
Capt. Semmes came out of the port and offered battle on 
the 19th of June. When the vessels were about one mile 
apart, the Alabama began to fire rapidly and wildly, while 
the guns of the Kearsargc were served with cool precision 
and effect. Both vessels during the action moved rapidly 
in circles, swinging round an ever-changing centre. After 
they had described seven circles, the Alabama began to sink 
and raised a white flag. Capt. Semmes, who had lost thirty 
killed and wounded, escaped in the English yacht Deer¬ 
hound. Capt. Winslow lost three killed and wounded, and 
took sixty-five prisoners. The Alabama went to the bottom. 

The Georgia was built for the Confederates on the Ctyde. 
She sailed early in 1863, and proceeded to a point off' the 
French coast, where she met the steamer Alar, which had 
been sent from Liverpool with her arms, ammunition, etc. 
Some steps were taken by the British government to pre¬ 
vent her escape, but they were too late. After a warlike 
career of about a year, she returned to Liverpool, and was 
there sold by the Confederate agents, Mr. Adams remon¬ 
strating in vain against this proceeding. Shortly after the 
sale she left the port, and was captured by the U. S. cruiser 
Niagara. 

The Second Class .—The Sumpter, the Nashville, the 
Itetribution, the Tallahassee, the Chickamauga. These were 
all armed and equipped in, and sailed from, Confederate 
ports. The claims made in respect of them were based upon 
allegations that they were received into British ports, and 
permitted to augment their supplies of coal and supplies, in 
excess of the maximum amount permitted by the queen’s 
proclamation of neutrality; and also in respect of the Ret¬ 
ribution, that she was permitted to take captured cargo into 
one of the Bahamas, and there sell or dispose of it without 
any judicial process. The case of the Shenandoah was quite 
different. She was originally a British steamer, called the 
Sea-King, and had been engaged in the East India trade. 
She sailed Oct. 8, 1864, for Bombay in ballast, with a crew 
of forty-seven men. She was not then armed and equipped 
or fitted out as a man-of-war. On the same day another 
steamer, the Laurel, sailed from Liverpool, ostensibly for 
Nassau, having on board a number of Confederates and a 
quantity of guns, gun-carriages, and other munitions of 
war. These steamers met at Funchal, in the island of Ma¬ 
deira, where the transfer was made. Here sho was taken 
command of by Captain Waddell of the Confederate service, 
and manned. A small part only of the original crew con¬ 
sented to remain with her, and she sailed with less than 
one-half of her regular force of men. On the 25th of Jan., 
1865, she arrived at Melbourne, where she was permitted 
to repair and to coal. She also at the same place enlisted 
a large number of men, augmenting her crew by forty-five 
new enlistments. This was done so openly that it was the 
common talk of the town, and was freely commented upon 
by the local papers. The tribunal of arbitration decided 
that the colonial authorities did not exercise due diligence 
in preventing these enlistments. Leaving Melbourne, she 
proceeded to the Arctic regions, and there, beyond the reach 
of any U. S. cruisers, she made great havoc among the 
American whaling ships. This was continued for several 
months after the complete overthrow of the Confederacy. 
She finally arrived at Liverpool on the 6th of Nov., 1865, 
and was surrendered to the British government, and by it 
delivered over to the U. S. 

A diplomatic correspondence arose at once from the fore¬ 
going events. We can only state in the briefest manner 
the points which were urged by either side. It should be 
carefully borne in mind that the protracted negotiations 
growing out of the recognition of the Southern States as 
belligerents by the queen’s proclamation of neutrality on 
the 13th of May, 1861, had no necessary connection with 
the Alabama claims. Although the two alleged causes of 
complaint were often mingled, and perhaps deemed insepa¬ 
rable, in the popular opinion of Americans, yet they were 
entirely distinct, and were finally and definitively held to 
be so by the treaty of Washington. During the war the 
immediate object of all communications made on the part 
of the U. S. was to induce the British government to inter¬ 
fere and prevent the escape of the Confederate cruisers; the 
remote object of the same communications, and the sole 
purpose of those made after the war, was to present and 
urge a demand for compensation. 

Mr. Secretary Seward and Mr. Adams placed themselves 
upon the fundamental position that a neutral nation is 
bound by the principles and doctrines of the international 
law, independent of any mere municipal regulations, to use 
all the means in its power to prevent its territory from 
being made the base of military operations by one belligerent 
against the other. To this it was added that if further legis¬ 
lation was necessary to enable the authorities to carry out 
their international duties, it was always within the power 



























ALABAMA CLAIMS. 


77 


of the Parliament to enact the needed statute, and that an 
international obligation therefore rested upon that body to 
pass the act. The British government took issue with all 
these propositions; they denied all international duty an¬ 
tecedent to or beyond the existing statute; this statute, 
they claimed, was the limit of their power and responsi¬ 
bility. The statute referred to, known as the Foreign En¬ 
listment act, was passed in 1819. In substance it provides 
“that if any person within any part of the United King¬ 
dom shall . . . equip, furnish, fit out, or arm” any vessel, 
or attempt to equip, etc. any vessel, or procure any vessel 
to be equipped, etc., or knowingly aid in equipping, etc. 
any vessel, with intent that it may be employed in the ser¬ 
vice of one belligerent, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, 
and shall be fined and imprisoned, and the vessel, with its 
arms, etc., shall be forfeited. Lord Russell refused to go 
beyond this statute, and declared that the executive as such 
could not act, and that all proceedings under it must be 
judicial. To this end he demanded from Mr. Adams such 
preliminary technical proofs as would warrant a conviction 
by the courts. There was thus thrown upon Mr. Adams 
and Mr. Dudley the duty of acting as police agents and 
detectives for the British government in obtaining the evi¬ 
dence which the local officials did not busy themselves with 
discovering. At last, a construction was given to this statute 
by the English courts in tho case of the Alexandra which, 
upon the theory before urged by Lord Russell, rendered the 
British government powerless. Like the Florida and the 
Alabama, she was constnictedfor the Confederates, in every 
respect a man-of-war ready for action, except that her guns 
and ammunition were not on board. She was proceeded 
against under the statute, which makes it the offence “to 
equip, furnish, fit out, or arm any vessel.” The judge at the 
trial held that each one of these words means the same 
thing, and, as the Alexandra was not actually armed in a 
British port, the law was not violated. This ruling was 
sustained on appeal by the higher court. As the govern¬ 
ment had denied all international obligation, so this decis¬ 
ion removed all municipal duty to interfere .with the oper¬ 
ations of the Confederate agents. Such was the course of 
the negotiations during the war. 

In the year 1868 a change in the sentiments of British 
statesmen was apparent, and it was conceded that the mat¬ 
ter was one for amicable adjustment. Under the influence 
of these opinions a convention was signed on the 14th of 
Jan., 1869, by Mr. Reverdy Johnson, the American min¬ 
ister, and Lord Clarendon, the British secretary for foreign 
affairs. It provided that “all claims upon the part of indi¬ 
viduals, citizens of the U. S., upon the government of Her 
Britannic Majesty, and all claims on the part of individuals, 
subjects of Her Britannic Majesty, upon the government of 
the U. S.,” arising since Feb. 8, 1853, shall be referred to 
commissioners or arbitrators to be settled. This treaty was 
rejected by tho U. S. Senate, receiving but one vote in its 
favor. The reasons for this action were many : the most 
important were, that the treaty was expressly limited to 
claims of individual citizens, and ignored the existence of 
any on the part of the U. S. as a nation, and that it pro¬ 
vided for the payment of claims against the U. S. 

The long negotiations were ended by the treaty of Wash¬ 
ington. The operative clause in this treaty is found in Art. 
I., which after reciting the “ differences existing,” as quoted 
before, proceeds: “Now, in order to remove and adjust all 
complaints and claims on the part of the U. S., and to pro¬ 
vide for the speedy settlement of such claims, the high con¬ 
tracting parties agree that all the said claims growing out 
of acts committed by the aforesaid vessels, and generically 
known as the Alabama claims, shall be referred to a tribu¬ 
nal of arbitration,” etc. This language is broad and without 
limit. A correspondence had taken place between Mr. 
Secretary Fish and Sir Edward Thornton, the British min¬ 
ister to the U. S., in Jan., 1871, preliminary to the negotia¬ 
tion of this treaty, in which Mr. Fish wrote, Jan. 30th, that 
“the removal of the differences which arose during the re¬ 
bellion, and which have existed since, growing out of the 
acts committed by the several vessels which have given rise 
to the claims generically known as the Alabama claims, will 
also bo essential to the restoration of cordial relations.” 
To this suggestion Sir Edward Thornton acceded, and a 
joint high commission was agreed upon to negotiate the 
treaty. It will be noticed that the language of Mr. Fish’s 
note is the same as that found in the first article of the 
treaty. The high commission consisted, on the part of the 
U. S., of Hamilton Fish, the secretary of state, Robert C. 
Schenck, the American minister to Great Britain, Samuel 
Nelson, one of the justices of the Supreme Court, Ebenezer 
It. Hoar, and George H. Williams; and on the part of 
Great Britain, of Earl de Grey and Ripon, president of the 
queen’s council, Sir Strafford Northcote, M. P., Sir Edward 
Thornton, Sir John Macdonald, and Professor Montague 
Bernard. They completed the treaty of Washington on 


tho 8th of May, 1871. In the deliberations the U. S. com¬ 
missioners claimed compensation for “direct losses” in the 
destruction of vessels and cargoes, and in national expend¬ 
iture in the pursuit of the Confederate cruisers, and for 
“indirect injury” in the transfer of American shipping to 
the British flag, in the enhanced rates of insurance, in the 
prolongation of the war, and in the addition to the cost of 
the war; they proposed that Great Britain should pay a 
lump sum, to be agreed upon, for all these claims. The 
British commissioners in answer proposed arbitration. The 
American commissioners would not agree to arbitration 
“unless the principles which should govern the arbitrators 
were first agreed upon.” Finally, the latter suggestion was 
accepted; arbitration was adopted, and the rules which 
should govern the arbitrators were agreed upon. Articles 
I. to XI. of the treaty relate to the Alabama claims. The 
first describes, as has been shown, the matters submitted for 
decision; the others describe the constitution of the tri¬ 
bunal, its procedure, and the form of its decision. The 
seventh contains the important three rules, as follows: 

First. That a neutral government is bound, first, to use 
due diligence to prevent the fitting out, arming, or equip¬ 
ping, within its jurisdiction, of any vessel which it has 
reason to believe is intended to cruise or carry on war 
against a power with which it is at peace; and also to use 
like diligence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction 
of any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above, 
such vessel having been specially adapted in whole or in 
part within such jurisdiction to warlike use. Secondly. 
Not to permit or suffer either belligerent to make use of 
its ports or waters as the base of naval operations against 
the other, or for the purpose of the renewal or augmenta¬ 
tion of military supplies or arms, or the recruitment of 
men. Thirdly. To exercise due diligence in its own ports 
or waters, and as to all persons within its jurisdiction, to 
prevent any violation of the foregoing obligations and 
duties; it being a condition of this undertaking that these 
obligations should in future be held to be binding inter¬ 
nationally between the two countries. 

These rules Great Britain denies to have been parts of 
the international law when the acts complained of were 
done, but for reasons of comity only consents that they 
retroact and apply to those acts, and be made the basis of 
decision. The article concludes as follows: “The high 
contracting parties agree to observe these rules as between 
themselves in future, and to bring them to the knowledge 
of other maritime powers, and to invite them to accede to 
them.” In pursuance of the treaty, the following persons 
constituted the tribunal of arbitration: Count Edward 
Sclopis, named by the king of Italy; Mr. Jacob Staempfli, 
named by the president of the Swiss Confederation; Vis¬ 
count d’ltajuba, named by the emperor of Brazil; Mr. 
Charles Francis Adams, named by the President of the 
U. S.; and Sir Alexander E. Cockburn, named by the queen 
of Great Britain. Each sovereign litigant was to present 
its claim to the tribunal in the form of a printed “case,” 
and subsequently in an answer termed a “counter-case.” 
Each case was to contain the facts and arguments relied 
upon by the party, and the counter-case was to be a reply 
to the case of the adversary. The American case was sepa¬ 
rated into six parts; it gave a minute history of the acts 
of the British government towards the U. S. during the 
rebellion, and of the fitting out and subsequent operations 
of each Confederate cruiser; and discussed the questions of 
international law involved in the controversy, and con¬ 
cluded with a demand of the compensation to be awarded. 
The British case was separated into ten parts, and covers a 
similar ground to the American case, though from a differ¬ 
ent point of view. Both were supplemented by many vol¬ 
umes of evidence. Two very distinct questions arose upon 
these papers: (1) What matters were submitted by the 
treaty to the arbitrators ? and (2) By what rules and prin¬ 
ciples of law were the arbitrators to be guided in deciding 
the matters submitted to it? The consideration of the first 
and preliminary one of these questions gave rise to a con¬ 
troversy which for a while threatened to interrupt the 
whole scheme of arbitration. In Part VI. of the American 
case the U. S. presented the items of damage to which it 
claimed to be entitled. Quoting the language used by tho 
American high commissioners, the case described claims 
for “direct” losses or damages, and other claims for 
“indirect” losses. Tho “direct” were said to includo 
“losses growing out of the destruction of vessels and their 
cargoes by the insurgent cruisers, and the national expend¬ 
itures in pursuit of those cruisers.” Tho “indirect” wero 
said to embrace “the loss in the transfer of the American 
commercial marine to the British flag,” “tho enhanced pay¬ 
ments of insurance,” “the prolongation of the war,” and 
the “ addition to the cost of the war.” The presentation of 
these so-called indirect claims caused a great opposition in 
England. The government denied that they wero included, 














78 ALABAMA INDIANS—ALAMO, THE. 


or intended to be included, in the terms of the treaty. Fresh 
negotiations were opened; a supplemental treaty was pro¬ 
posed; the controversy was continued after the meeting of 
the tribunal, and for a while it seemed possible that the 
whole proceeding would be a failure. The British agent 
asked for an adjournment of the tribunal for eight months, 
to allow formal negotiations. Finally, on the 19th of June, 
Count Sclopis, president of the tribunal, announced that 
the arbitrators, without deciding the question whether these 
claims were included in the treaty, “ had arrived, collect¬ 
ively and individually, at the conclusion that these claims do 
not constitute, upon the principles of international law ap¬ 
plicable to such cases, good foundation for an award of 
compensation or computation of damages between na¬ 
tions.” The difficulty was then ended and the arbitration 
went on. 

The argument upon the merits which was presented by 
the litigant nations to this high tribunal was most able and 
exhaustive. There is not space to present it even in the 
briefest outline. It turned mainly upon the true meaning 
of the phrase “ due diligence ” used in the three rules. The 
counsel on the part of Great Britain was Sir Roundell 
Palmer, then the acknowledged leader of the English bar, 
and afterwards made lord high chancellor with the title of 
Lord Selbornc. The counsel on the part of the U. S. were 
William M. Evarts and Caleb Cushing. The final decision 
of the tribunal was announced Sept. 14. The arbitrators 
decided unanimously in favor of Grea.t Britain in respect 
ofthe Georgia, Sumpter, Nashville, Tallahassee, and Chicka- 
mauga, and similarly in respect of the Retribution, by a 
vote of three to two. They all decided (Sir Alexander 
Cockburn for reasons peculiar to himself) that Great Brit¬ 
ain was liable for the original fitting out and escape of the 
Alabama, and for her subsequent free admission into British 
ports. The same conclusion was reached in respect to the 
Florida, Sir Alexander Cockburn alone dissenting. The 
ruling as to these vessels applied also to their tenders. The 
tribunal was unanimous that no liability arose in respect of 
the Shenandoah prior to her arrival at Melbourne ; but three 
of the arbitrators, Count Sclopis, Mr. Staempfli, and Mr. 
Adams, held that the colonial authorities failed to exercise 
due diligence to prevent the enlistment of men at that port, 
and that Great Britain was liable for captures made after 
her departure thence. The tribunal, in making their award, 
formulated and announced the following general principles, 
a portion of which lie at the basis of the whole decision, 
while a portion apply only to the estimate of the quantum 
of damages: “ Due diligence should be exercised by neu¬ 
tral governments in exact proportion to the risks to which 
either one of the belligerents may be exposed by failure to 
fulfil the obligations of neutrality on their part.” The 
effects of a violation of neutrality, as committed by the 
Alabama and other such cruisers, were not done away with 
by a commission subsequently issued by the Confederate 
government. “ The government of Great Britain cannot 
justify itself for its failure in due diligence on the plea of 
the insufficiency of the legal means of action which it pos¬ 
sessed.” The claim of the U. S. for the national cost of 
pursuing the Confederate cruisers cannot be distinguished 
from the general expenses of the war, and is therefore an 
indirect loss which cannot be allowed. Prospective injuries 
to shippers and ship-owners, such as loss of future profits, 
are equally uncertain and indirect. All double claims for 
the same losses are rejected, but interest is allowed. Upon 
these principles the tribunal awarded, for actual losses of 
ships and cargoes and interest, the sum of $15,500,000. It 
is thus seen that the tribunal wholly overruled the position 
maintained by Great Britain from the beginning, that its 
statute was the sole criterion of its power and duty. In 
like manner the tribunal brushed away all claims by the 
U. S. for indirect and national losses, and strictly confined 
its judgment to the compensation of American private citi¬ 
zens for losses of ships, cargoes, freight, and wages. 

J. N. Pomeroy. 

Alabama Indians, a remnant of the once powerful 
tribe of that name, reside in Polk co., Tex. They are under 
the care of the State, but arc also assisted by the general 
government. They are peaceable and quite industrious. 
They use the English language, but no woman is allowed 
to speak to a stranger. They retain the dress and many 
of the peculiar habits of the aborigines, but the women are 
clothed somewhat like their white neighbors. The people 
are remarkably tall, strong, and well formed. They num¬ 
ber about 260. 

Alabas'ter [Lat. alabastri'tes and alabas'ter ; Gr. 
dAa/Wrpo?], a name applied to two kinds of white mineral 
substances which are similar in appearance, but different in 
composition. The alabaster proper is a fine-grained variety 
of gypsum or sulphate of lime; the finest quality of this 
is found near Volterra, in Tuscany; the other is a crystal¬ 


line carbonate of lime, and is harder than the first. Both 
are manufactured into ornaments. 

Alabaster, a post-township of Iosco co., Mich. Pop. 
235. 

Alabaster IIox, or Alabas'trum, a vessel for con¬ 
taining precious perfumes, used by the ancients in various 
countries. They were made commonly of onyx-alabaster, 
but other materials were used. When the woman broke the 
“ alabaster box of ointment” to anoint the feet of Jesus, as 
mentioned in the Gospels, it is probable that she had a ves¬ 
sel with a long tapering neck, which was scaled, and that 
she broke off the neck to get at the perfume. Alabastra 
of this form were not unfrequent. 

Alabaster Cave, in Placer co., Cal., is a remarkable 
cavern 8 miles S. E. of Auburn, and 1 mile from the 
North Fork of the American River. This cave contains 
beautiful chambers incrusted with alabaster of various 
tints. It also contains a lake of undetermined extent. 

Alach'ua, a county in the N. part of the peninsula of 
Florida. Area, about 1000 square miles. It is bounded 
on the N. by the Santa Fe River, on the W. by the Suwa- 
nee. The surface is rolling or nearly level; the soil is gen¬ 
erally fertile. Sea-island cotton, grain, wool, molasses, and 
sugar are produced. Bog-iron ore has been found. It is 
intersected by the Florida R. R. Capital, Gainesville. Pop. 
17,328. 

Alago'as, a maritime province of Brazil, is between 
9° and 10° S. lat. It is bounded on the N. and W. by Per¬ 
nambuco, on the E. by the Atlantic, and on the S. by Ser- 
gipe and the river San Francisco. Area, 15,300 square miles. 
The surface is partly mountainous; the soil of the valleys 
and lowlands is fertile, and produces cotton, sugar, maize, 
etc. Capital, Mjiceio. Pop. of the province in 1867, esti¬ 
mated at 300,000, of whom 50,000 were slaves. 

Alagoas [Port, “the lakes”], a town of Brazil, in the 
province of the same name, on the Lake Maysuaba, was 
until 1839 the capital of the province. It was formerly a 
large and important city, but since the change of the seat 
of government it has declined very much. It has a con¬ 
siderable trade in tobacco. Pop. about 4000. 

Alagon', a river of Spain, enters the Tagus about 2 
miles N. E. of Alcantara. Length, about 120 miles. It is 
noted for its fine trout and other fish. 

Alaiedon, a township of Ingham co., Mich. Pop. 
1296. 

Alain de Lille [Lat. Ala'nus de In’suits ], a French 
philosopher and ecclesiastic, surnamed the Universal 
Doctor. He was born in 1114. lie wrote many works in 
prose and verse, and was one of the most learned men of 
his time. Died about 1200. 

Alais (anc. Ale'sia), a town of Southern France, in 
Gard, on the Gardon, and at the foot of the Cevennes, 31 
miles by rail N. W. of Nimes, with which it is connected 
by a railway. It is in a productive coal-field, and has 
several manufactories, a college, and a school of mines. 
Pop. in 1866, 19,964. 

Al amance', a county in the central part of North 
Carolina. Area, about 500 square miles. Is drained by 
Haw River and Alamance Creek. The surface is undulat¬ 
ing, the soil productive. Very valuable iron ore abounds. 
Grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. It is intersected by 
the North Carolina R. R. Capital, Graham. Pop. 11,874. 

Alame'da, a county in the W. part of California. Area, 
820 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by San Fran¬ 
cisco Bay, and drained by Alameda and Calaveras creeks. 
The surface in the E. part is mountainous, being occupied 
by the Coast Range; the soil of the lowlands is fertile. 
There arc numerous warm mineral springs. Cattle, grain, 
and wool are produced, and saddlery, harness, and me¬ 
tallic wares are manufactured. Capital, San Leandro. Pop. 
24,237. 

Alameda, a post-township of Alameda co., Cal. It 
has a weekly newspaper. Pop. 1557. 

Al'amo, a post-township of Kalamazoo co., Mich. Pop. 
1148. 

Alamo, a post-village, capital of Crockett co., Tenn. 

Al'amo, The [alamo is the Sp. for “poplar” tree], a 
celebrated fort at San Antonio, Tex. A small body of 
Texans, mostly from the U. S., here bravely resisted a 
Mexican force of ten times their number from Feb. 11 to 
Mar. 5, 1836, and nearly all perished rather than surrender 
to a foe whom they despised. The six who finally sur¬ 
rendered were murdered by the Mexicans; Travis, Croc¬ 
kett, and Bowie were here killed. In consequence of this 
heroic defence, Alamo is styled the “ Thermopylae of Amer¬ 
ica.” “ Remember the Alamo!” became the war-cry of 
the Texans in their struggle for independence. 










ALAMOS, LOS—ALAUDA. 79 


A'lamos, Los, a town of Mexico, province of Sonora, 
110 miles N. W. of Cinaloa, has rich silver-mines in the 
vicinity. Pop. in 1SG5, about G000. 

A'latul Islands, or O'land, a numerous group of 
small islands in the S. part of the Gulf of Bothnia, near 
the Baltic, Q belong to the grand-duchy of Finland, govern¬ 
ment of Abo. About eighty of them are inhabited. Pop. 
about 15,000. They were ceded to Russia by Sweden in 
1809. The Russian fortifications here were destroyed by 
the English and French troops in 1854, and by a separate 
convention annexed to the treaty of Paris 0 ( April, 1856) the 
emperor of Russia agreed “ that the Aland Isles should 
not be fortified,” etc. 

Alangia'ceoe [from Alan'gium, one of its genera], a 
natural order of plants closely allied to the Myrtaceae. It 
consists of Indian species having aromatic roots and eat¬ 
able fruit. Their long, strap-shaped petals afford one of 
the principal distinctions between them and the true 
myrtles. 

AHa'iii, an ancient warlike tribe of unknown origin, 
who made incursions into the Roman empire as allies of 
the Goths and Vandals. They invaded Asia Minor in the 
reign of Aurelian, and co-operated with the Vandals in the 
invasion of Gaul in 40G A. D. 

Alapayevsk, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Perm, 200 miles E. of Perm. It has largo iron-works. Pop. 
in 18G7, 5447. 

Alarcon' y Mciulo'za, de (Don Juan Ruiz), an 
eminent Spanish poet and dramatist, born in Mexico about 
1590. He became a resident of Spain in 1622, after which 
he obtained the office of reporter of the royal council of the 
Indies. A volume of his dramas was published in 1G28. 
Among his works, which present a faithful delineation of 
Spanish manners, and are commended for elevation of senti¬ 
ment, are “Las Paredes Oycn” (“Walls have Ears”) and 
“La Verdad Sospechosa” (“Suspicious Truth”), which 
Corneille imitated in his “Menteur.” Died in 1639. 

Al'aric [Lat. Alari' ’cits], a celebrated conqueror, a Vis¬ 
igoth, was born about 350 A. D. Soon after the accession 
of Arcadius as emperor of the East, Alaric invaded Thrace, 
Macedonia, and other provinces, in 395 A. D. He took 
Athens and entered the Peloponnesus, from which he was 
driven out by Stilicho. Hostilities were then suspended by 
a treaty, and Arcadius appointed Alaric governor of Illyria 
in 396. lie invaded Northern Italy in 402, but was defeated 
by Stilicho at Pollentia and Verona. Stilicho having been 
killed in 408, Alaric renewed the invasion of Italy, which 
the emperor Ilonorius was unable to defend. The army of 
the Visigoths invested Rome, then the richest and most im¬ 
portant city in the world, but they were induced to retire 
by the payment of 5000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds 
of silver. After unsuccessful efforts to negotiate, Honorius 
rejected the terms of Alaric, who in 410 took Rome, and 
permitted his soldiers to pillage it for six days. He was 
marching to Sicily when he died at Cosenza, in 410 A. D. 
(See Simonis, “Kritische Untersuchungen iiber die Ges- 
chichte Alarich’s,” 1858.) 

Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, 
began to reign in 484 A. D., at the 
death of his father Euric. His domin¬ 
ions included parts of Spain and of 
Gaul. He was killed in battle by the 
hand of Clovis, king of the Franks, in 
507. 

A Las'co, Alas'co, or Alas'ko 

(John), a Polish Protestant, born in 
1499, became Catholic bishop of Ves- 
prim in 1529. He was afterwards con¬ 
verted, went to London, preached there 
a few years, but on the accession of 
Queen Mary, in 1553, he retired for 
safety to Germany. He wrote several 
theological works. Died Jan. 13, 1560. 

Ala Shehr (the ancient Philadel¬ 
phia, founded about 200 B. C. by At- 
talus Philadelphus), a Availed city of 
Asia Minor, at the N. E. base of Mount 
Tmolus, 93 miles E. of Smyrna. Here 
are five Christian churches and nu¬ 
merous ancient ruins. Pop. about 
15,000. 

Alas'ka, or Alias'ka, a Terri¬ 
tory forming the N. W. part of North 
America, is hounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean, on 
the E. by British America, on the S. by the Pacific Ocean, 
and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean, or Sea of Kamtchatka, 
and Behring’s Strait, by which it is separated from Asia. 
It lies between lat. 54° 40' and 71° 23' N., and between 
Ion. 141° and 168° W. (except a narrow strip S. of Mount 


St. Elias). Area, 580,107 squaro miles. The most north¬ 
ern extremity is called Point BarroAv. The peninsula of 
Alaska, which is about 350 miles long and 25 miles in 
average Avidth, extends soutli-Avestward into the Pacific. 
The south-eastern part of Alaska is a long, narrow strip of 
land extending along the sea-coast from Mount St. Elias to 
the parallel of 54° 40' N., and bounded on the N. E. by a 
mountain-ridge Avhich is parallel to the Pacific. This strip 
is only about thirty-three miles Avide. This territory, which 
includes a great number of large and small islands in the 
Pacific and in Behring’s Strait, Avas formerly called Russian 
America. It was purchased by the U. S. from Russia in 
1867 for $7,200,000. 

The surface of the southern and western parts is moun¬ 
tainous, but the northern coast on the Arctic Ocean is flat. 
The principal rivers are—the Colville, Avhich Aoavs north- 
Avard into the Arctic Ocean; the Ivooskovime, which flows 
south-westward, and after a course of about 300 miles enters 
the Kamtchatka Sea; and the Yukon (or IvAvichpak), Avhich 
traverses the central part of Alaska and falls into Norton 
Sound. The length of the Yukon (or Youkon) is estimated 
by some Avriters at 2000 miles. 

The climate is humid, and less severe than that on the 
Atlantic coast in a corresponding latitude. The mean an¬ 
nual temperature at Sitka is about 42°, and it is said that 
the mercury seldom falls below zero at Kodiak. The high¬ 
est mountain-peak is Mount St. Elias, which is a volcano ; 
its height is estimated at nearly 18,000 feet. Mount Fair- 
Aveather is of nearly equal height, and there are several other 
volcanoes. 

The parts of Alaska which are near the Pacific Ocean are 
mostly covered Avith forests of spruce, cedar, fir, etc., which 
groAv to a great size. It is stated that some of these trees 
attain a height of 200 feet or more. Here occurs a species 
of Cupressus, called yelloAV cedar, Avhich is an excellent tim¬ 
ber for shipbuilding. Tho-A r alue of this region consists 
chiefly in its fisheries, timber, and furs, and perhaps in its 
i coal, the A r alue of Avhich is not determined. The coal is of 
! tertiary origin. Among the fishes that abound here are the 
1 salmon and the cod. The majority of the native inhabit¬ 
ants are Esquimaux. The principal wild animals are the 
elk, deer, bear, and seal. In the session of 1872 Congress 
annexed this territory to Washington Territory as a coun¬ 
ty. (See Washington Territory.) (See F. Whymper, 
“Travels and Adventures in Alaska,” 1S69; and Dall, 
“Alaska and its Resources,” 1870.) Pop. of Alaska in 
1870, 29,097 (Avhites and half-breeds), besides about 65,000 
Indians. Revised by L. P. Brockett. 

Ala'tri, a town of Italy, in the province of Rome, 45 
miles E. S. E. of Rome. It is the seat of a bishop. In the 
neighborhood is a large stalactitic cave. Pop. in 1861, 
11,370. 

Alatyr', a town of Russia, in the government of Sim¬ 
birsk, at the junction of the Alatyr and Soora Rivers, 70 
miles N. W. of Simbirsk. Pop. in 1867, 8085. 

Alau'da, a genus of passerine birds Avhich includes the 
skylark ( Alau'da arven' sis), after the nightingale the most 


celebrated song-bird of Europe. The flesh of the skylark 
is esteemed a delicacy, and traps and nets of many kinds 
are employed for its capture. Its food consists of grass¬ 
hoppers and other insects, Avorms, spiders, and grubs of 
various kinds. The beautiful Alauda eristata, or crested 
lark, is one of the most common birds of Europo and 





























































80 


ALA VA—ALBANY. 


Northern Africa. For other species of this interesting 
genus, sec Lakk. 

A1 'ava, one of the Basque Provinces in Spain, is 
bounded on the N. by Biscay and Guipuzcoa, on the E. 
by Navarre, on the S. by Logroho, and on the W. by 
Burgos. Area, 1205 square miles. The country is moun¬ 
tainous, but fertile, especially along the shores of the Ebro. 
The chief products are fruit, wine, grain, and hemp. Here 
are also several mineral springs. Chief town, Yitoria. Pop. 
in 1867, 102,494. 

Alb, or Albe [Lat. al'ba, from al'bua, “ white ”], a long 
white linen vestment worn by the clergy of the Roman 
Catholic Church while they are performing the service. It 
sometimes has a cross embroidered upon the breast. At the 
end of the tunic and around the wrists are ornaments 
called “ apparels.” 

Alb (called also the Swabian Alps), a chain of 
mountains which extends about 75 miles, and forms the 
watershed between the Danube and the Neckar, and is 
mostly comprised in Wurtemberg. The average height of 
this range is nearly 2200 feet. Some remarkable caverns 
occur in the limestone formation of this chain. 

Alba, Duke op. See Alva. 

Al'ba (the ancient Al'ba Pompe'ia ), a town of Italy, 
province of Cuneo, on the Tanaro, 30 miles S. E. of Turin. 
Wine, silk, grain, and oil are the staple productions of the 
district, in which are also quarries of marble and rock-salt. 
Pop. of the town in 1861, 6367. 

Alba, a township of Henry co., Ill. Pop. 295. 

Albace'te, a province of Spain, comprises the N. part 
of the kingdom of Murcia and a portion of New Castile. 
It is bounded on the N. by Cuenca, on the E. by Valencia, 
on the S. by Murcia, and on the W. by Ciudad Real. Area, 
5972 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the 
Sierra de Alcaraz, and the surface is diversified by moun¬ 
tains, hills, and fertile valleys. It is drained by the river 
Segura, which rises within its limits. Among its staple 
products are grain, wine, tobacco, oil, cattle, and sheep. 
Capital, Albacete. Pop. in 1867, 221,444. 

Albacete, a town of Spain, capital of a province of 
the same name, 172 miles by rail S. E. of Madrid. It 
stands on a fertile plain, has manufactures of knives 
and other steel goods, and considerable trade. Large 
cattle-fairs are held here in September. Pop. in 1860, 
17,088. 

Al'ba Lon'ga, a very ancient city of Latium, in Italy, 
was founded, according to tradition, by Ascanius, the son 
of JEneas, several centuries before the foundation of Rome. 
It was situated near the Alban Lake, about 16 miles S. E. 
from Rome. Its remains have been discovered. 

Al'ban [Lat. Alba'nus ], Saint, the first person who 
suffered martyrdom in England for the Christian religion. 
His death occurred about 286 A. D. 

Albauen'ses [from Alba, a town of Piedmont], that 
division of the Catharists who believed in absolute dualism. 
They taught that the world was created by the Evil Spirit. 
(See Cathari.) 

Alba'ni (Alessandro), an Italian cardinal, a nephew 
of Pope Clement XI., was born at Urbino in 1692. He 
made a rich and celebrated collection of statues and other 
works of art at Rome. Died in 1779. 

Albani (Francesco), an eminent Italian painter, born 
at Bologna Mar. 17, 1578, was a pupil of Denis Calvart 
and L. Caracci. He excelled in painting the female form 
and rural prospects. Among his best works are highly 
finished oil pictures of “The Toilet of Venus,” “Diana 
Bathing,” and “The Four Elements or Seasons.” His 
wife and children, who were remarkable for their beauty, 
served him as models for angels and cupids. Died Oct. 4, 
1660. 

Alba'nia, the ancient name of a country bounded on 
the E. by the Caspian Sea, and comprising the modern 
Daghestan and Shirvan. Its inhabitants were often de¬ 
feated, but never conquered, by Rome. 

Alba'nia (called Shlriperi by the natives, and Arna- 
outli/c by the Turks), the south-western part of European 
Turkey, lies between lat. 39° and 43° N., and is bounded 
on the W. by the Adriatic and Ionian seas. Its length N. 
and S. is about 290 miles, and its width varies from 40 to 
90 miles. It nearly coincides with the ancient Epirus. 
The surface is mountainous, being occupied with nine 
ridges that are nearly parallel. The highest peaks rise 
about 8000 feet above the level of the sea. Among the re¬ 
markable features of Albania are its subterranean rivers 
and its beautiful lakes. The chief articles of export are 
wool, horses, timber, and maize. The Albanians are rude 
and warlike mountaineers, more addicted to robbery than 


industry. They are probably descended from the ancient 
Illyrians and Epirotes. Philologists are not agreed respect¬ 
ing the affiliations of their language, which has several 
strongly marked dialects, and is probably Indo-European. 
The inhabitants are often called Arnaoots or Arnaouts, and 
Skipetar. Pop. estimated at 1,300,000. Besides these, a 
large number of Albanians live in Greece and other parts 
of the Levant. ✓ 

Albano, a lake and mountain in Italy, about 14 miles 
S. E. of Rome. The lake, which is six miles in circumfer¬ 
ence, occupies the crater of an extinct volcano, and is 1000 
feet deep or more. The lake has no natural outlet, but dis¬ 
charges its waters through an artificial tunnel cut through 
tufaceous rock. This tunnel or “emissary ” was undertaken 
by the Romans in 397 B. C. It is one of the most remark¬ 
able remains of ancient Roman engineering. It is 6000 
feet long. Alba Longa stood on the N. E. margin. From 
the E. shore of this lake rises Mount Albano or Monte 
Cavo, which is over 3000 feet high, and commands an ex¬ 
tensive and magnificent prospect. On its summit are the 
ruins of the temple of Jupiter Latialis. 

Alba'no (anc. Alba'rium), a city of Italy, on or near 
Lake Albano, and on the Via Appia, 18 miles by rail S. E. 
of Rome. It occupies the site of Pompey’s villa, is cele¬ 
brated for beauty of scenery, and is a favorite summer 
residence of the wealthy citizens of Rome. Here is a 
museum of antiquities and a large convent. Pop. 5200. 

Al'bany, or Al'bainn, an ancient name of the High¬ 
lands of Scotland. It is supposed that Albany, or Albion 
(see Albion), was the original name given to the whole 
island by its Celtic inhabitants, and that it was afterwards 
restricted to the north-western part of Scotland, when the 
Celts had retired from the other parts of Britain. The title 
of duke of Albany was given to the second sons of several 
kings of Scotland and England. 

Albany, a small maritime division of Cape Colony, 
South Africa, about 450 miles E. of Cape Town, is about 
65 miles long and from 30 to 40 miles wide. It is traversed 
by Great Fish River. The soil produces maize, barley, 
cotton, and other commodities. Capital, Grahamstown. 
Pop. in 1865, 16,264. 

Albany, a county in the E. part of New York. Area, 
482 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Hudson 
River, and on the N. (partly) by the Mohawk. The Nor- 
manskill and Catskill creeks afford good water-power in 
this county. The surface is mostly hilly; the soil near 
the streams is fertile, but in some parts is sandy and 
sterile. Magnesian limestone, marl, gj'psum, and iron are 
found. The county is intersected by several important 
railroads, terminating at Albany, the capital. Grain, wool, 
hay, milk, butter, and cheese are the staples, and the manu¬ 
factures are extremely various and important. Pop. 133,052. 

Albany, a county of Wyoming Territory, bordering on 
Colorado. It is intersected by the North Fork of Platte 
River, and also drained by the Laramie River. The sur¬ 
face is partly mountainous, and occupied by the Black 
Hills. Laramie Peak, the highest point in this county, 
rises over 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. Valuable 
lignitic coal is found, and iron ore abounds. Stock-raising 
is an important pursuit. The soil in some parts is fertile, 
especially in Laramie Plains. The Union Pacific R. R. 
passes through the county. Cattle and wool are the sta¬ 
ples. Capital, Laramie. Pop. 2021. 

Albany, a city and capital of Dougherty co., Ga., is on 
the right bank of Flint River, on the South-western R. R., 
106 miles S. S. W. of Macon. It is also the northern ter¬ 
minus of a division of the Atlantic and Gulf R. R., and is 
the present terminus of the Brunswick and Albany R. R. 
It has two weekly papers. Large quantities of cotton are 
here shipped by rail. The Flint River is navigable to this 
point only at high water. Pop. 2110. 

C. W. Styles, Ed. of “ Albany News.” 

Albany, a post-village of Whiteside co., Ill., in a town¬ 
ship of its own name, on the Mississippi, 177 miles N. by 
W. of Springfield. Pop. of village, 606 ; of township, 805. 

Albany, a post-village, the capital of Clinton co., Ivy., 
126 miles S. of Frankfort. Pop. 163. 

Albany, a post-township of Oxford co., Me. Pop. 651. 

Albany, a township of Stearns co., Minn. Pop. 231. 

Albany, a post-village, the capital of Gentry co., Mo., 
on Grand River, 52 miles N. E. of St. Joseph. It has 
manufactures of furniture, brooms, wagons, harness, lum¬ 
ber, etc.; five churches, two newspapers, graded schools, a 
grist-mill, a foundry, and a machine-shop. Three railroads 
are under construction to this point. Pop. 607. 

R. N. Traver, Ed. of “Albany News.” 

Albany, a township of Carroll co., N. II. Pop. 339. 



























ALBANY. 


New State Capitol (Albany, N. Y.). 


view of the city from the E. bank of the river is picturesque 
and imposing, from the full exposure of the public edifices, 
with their domes and steeples, the Helderberg and Catskill 
Mountains being visible in the S. W. The corporate limits 
reach to Schenectady in a strip of land thirteen miles long 
and a mile wide. The principal streets are Broadway and 
Pearl street, which run parallel with the river, and State 
street, 100 feet wide, which ascends the hill to the Capitol, 
and thence narrower to the limits of the city proper west¬ 
ward. Washington avenue runs parallel to it, commencing 
from in front of the City Hall, and continues as the Sche¬ 
nectady turnpike. 

The chief public edifices and institutions are the Cap¬ 
itol, of which the corner-stone was laid in 1806; the State 
Hall for State offices and the City Hall for city offices, both 
of marble and fronting on small parks near the Capitol; 
the State Museum of Natural History, chiefly of geology, 
with a cabinet of Indian curiosities, and is in the same 
building with the collection of implements and productions 
of the field of the State Agricultural Society; the State 
Library, containing, with the law department, over 90,000 
volumes; the Bureau of Military Record, containing me¬ 
morials of past wars; the Dudley Observatory, inaugurated 
in 1856, possessing the best astronomical instruments and 
Scheutz’s tabulating machine, and now having also a 
physical observatory ; the Medical College, which, with the 
Law School and the Observatory, now has an organic con¬ 
nection with Union College at Schenectady, under the name 
of Union University; two public hospitals, and a State 
normal school. The Albany Institute is a society first 
formed in 1791 for the advancement of science, and pub¬ 
lishes its transactions. There is a public high school, one 
academy for boys, and three for girls. In 1870 there were 
10,737 children attending school, and 2398 persons over ten 
years of age who could not read or write. There are sixty 
places of worship ; the largest and most imposing church 
being the cathedral of the Immaculate Conception. There 
is also a Young Men’s Association (founded 1833), a Young 
Men’s Christian Association (1857), numerous Catholic so¬ 
dalities, and other benevolent societies. The Roman Cath- 
6 


olic diocese of Albany (founded in 1847) includes all the 
State N. of 42° N. lat., and E. of the E. lines of Tioga, 
Tompkins, and Cayuga counties; the Protestant Episcopal 
diocese of Albany (founded in 1868) is bounded on the W. 
by that of Central New York. The city contains numerous 
lodges of Masons, Odd Fellows, and other social and benev¬ 
olent organizations. The Sisters of Mercy and of Charity, 
and the Christian Brothers, have institutions here. The 
Academy of the Sacred Heart at Kenwood, but within the 
city limits, occupies a building of immense size. At pres¬ 
ent (1873) the Rt. Rev. John J. Conroy, D. D., is the Ro¬ 
man Catholic bishop of Albany, and the Rt. Rev. Francis 
McNeirny is his coadjutor. The present bishop of the 
Protestant Episcopal diocese of Albany is the Rt. Rev. 
William Croswell Doane, S. T. D. 

The penitentiary, opened in 1848, was under the charge 
of A. Pilsbury to 1873, receiving annually, mostly for short 
terms, over 1000 prisoners, and has almost uniformly been 
more than self-supporting. Washington Park is an exten¬ 
sion of a small parade-ground with that name on the W. 
side into a park of 250 acres, with a lake and carriage 
drives of several miles. The Rural Cemetery, about four 
from the city northward, contains 230 acres, and is admired 
for its picturesque beauty and its monuments, especially 
Palmer’s statue of the “ Angel at the Sepulchre.” 

The advantages of Albany for trade are derived from 
the fact that it is near the head of tide-water and naviga¬ 
tion, and is the eastern terminus of the Erie Canal and the 
southern terminus of the canal from Lake Champlain. 
There are six or seven railroads leading from Albany; the 
Hudson River and the Harlem to New York City, the Bos¬ 
ton and Albany to Boston; the Rensselaer and Saratoga to 
Vermont and Canada; the New York Central to Buffalo; 
and the Albany and Susquehanna to Binghamton on the 
Erie R. R., besides steam and horse railroads to Troy. The 
river is crossed by two railroad bridges, and a company is 
incorporated for a third, over which teams will also pass. 
The most prominent manufacture has hitherto been stoves, 
including now hollow-ware, averaging annually $2,500,000 
in value. Latterly, nine shoe-factories have been estab- 


Albany, in Albany co., is the capital of New York, and 
is situated on the W. bank of the Hudson River, 145 miles 
N. of New York City, and 164 miles (or 201 by railroad) 
W. of Boston, in lat. 42° 39' 49" N., Ion. 73° 44' 33" W. 

The place was first settled by the Dutch in 1614 as a 
trading-post, and after Jamestown was the earliest settle¬ 
ment by Europeans within the limits of the thirteen States. 
Fort Orange, or Aurania, was erected here in 1623. The 
village was successively called Beverwvck and Williamstadt. 
In 1664 it was called Albany, for the duke of York and 
Albany, afterwards James II. Till the Revolution it was 
the centre of a large Indian trade. The colony continued 
to be inhabited by the Dutch, brought over largely by the 


Van Rensselaer family, who secured twenty-four miles 
square on both sides of the river, and leased the land. 
Feudal tenure was abolished in 1787. After the Anti-rent 
war the State prohibited in 1846 leases of land for a longer 
period than twelve years. It was incorporated as the city of 
Albany in 1686 and became the capital of the State in 1797. 

The site of the city extends from the bank of the river, 
with two miles of frontage, over the alluvial plain, and after 
a few hundred feet rises up on the sides of the hills to and 
upon the table-land 150 to 200 feet high. The slope is 
divided by three or four valleys, worn by former streams 
into the clay-beds on which the city is built; these valleys 
have been largely filled up and covered with houses. The 





















































































































82 


ALBANY—ALBEMARLE 


listed. There are thirty-three brewers and maltsters, and 
several manufactories of aniline colors, furniture, flour, 
brick, oilcloth, paper collars, safes, pianos, jewelry, soap, 
candles, boilers, machinery, etc. The lumber-market in 
the value of its lumber is second to none, the quantity re¬ 
ceived being valued at $13,000,000 a year. Its cattle-trade 
is of the greatest importance, being the central market for 
New York City and New England, and its stock-traffic 
amounts to $20,000,000 a year. Grain and the products 
of the extensive local manufacturing interests are also ex¬ 
ported. Lumber is brought chiefly from Michigan, Canada, 
Pennsylvania, and Northern New York. Commerce is facil¬ 
itated by a large number of slips for vessels, by a large 
dock, and by a pier, forming a great canal basin. There 
is also a very large grain elevator, owned by the New York 
Central R. R. The various receipts by canal amounted to 
$15,806,259; clearances by canal, $4,753,971. The city has 
a board of trade and a board of lumber-dealers. Albany 
is a port of survey in the U. S. customs district of New 
York. On June 30, 1870, there were 24 schooners, 40 
sloops, 57 steamers, and 194 unrigged vessels belonging to 
this port. Albany has 8 national banks, with large assets 
exclusive of the stock. It has 11 savings banks. Albany 
has twelve miles of street railway. In 1873 there were 4 
stock-and-mutual fire insurance companies, besides 1 purely 
mutual and 1 life insurance company. It has 10 weekly, 2 
semi-weekly, 1 monthly, and 7 daily periodicals. 

The city is supplied with water by gravitation from an 
artificial lake in the Sand Plains about 5 miles W. Some 
will also be pumped from the river in future. The fire de¬ 
partment has seven steam fire-engines and a fire-alarm 
telegraph system. 

A magnificent edifice for a new Capitol is building, back 
of the present one, of New England granite, the corner¬ 
stone of which was laid June 24, 1871. It covers moro 
than three acres of ground, being 290 feet wide by 390 feet 
long, and may cost at least $10,000,000 before completion. 
With the basement it will be four stories high, besides the 
mansard story. It is in the Renaissance style, and has, in 
addition to high pavilions and turrets, a main tower 320 
feet high. The entire structure will weigh 150,000 tons. 

The population in 1790 (according to the Federal census) 
was 3506; in 1800,5349; in 1810, 10,762; in 1820, 12,541 ; 
in 1830, 24,238; in 1840, 33,762; in 1850,50,762; in 1860, 
62,367; in 1870 (old limits, 69,422), 76,216. In the latter 
year parts of Watervliet and Bethlehem were annexed to 
Albany, and a part of Albany to Watervliet. The U. S. 
census gives the population both before and after the change. 

H. A. Homes, State Library, Albany, N. Y. 

Albany, a post-village, capital of Linn co., Or., on the 
Oregon and California R. R., is situated on the right (E.) 
bank of the Willamette River, at the mouth of the Cala- 
pooya, 28 miles by rail S. of Salem. The situation is beau¬ 
tiful. Small steamboats can ascend to this point for eight 
months in the year. Albany has a collegiate institute, a 
brick court-house, two weekly newspapers, and three or 
more churches. Pop. of precinct, 1992. 

Albany, a post-township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 1510. 

Albany, a township of Bradford co., Pa. Pop. 1379. 

Albany, a post-township of Orleans co., Vt., 32 miles 
N. E. of Montpelier. It has an academy, three villages, 
six churches, and manufactures of lumber, boots, shoes, 
etc. Pop. 1151. 

Albany, a post-township of Green co., Wis. Pop. 1374. 

Albany, a township of Pepin co., Wis. Pop. 275. 

Albany (Louisa), Countess of, a daughter of the Ger¬ 
man prince Stolberg-Gedern, born Sept. 22, 1753. She be¬ 
came in 1772 the wife of the Pretender Charles Edward 
Stuart, a grandson of James II. of England. Her husband 
having died in 1788, she was mistress of the poet Alfieri. 
Died Jan. 29, 1824. (See Alfieri.) 

Al'batross ( Diomedea ), a genus of web-footed birds 
of the family Laridae, re¬ 
markable for their great 
size and powers of flight. 

The wandering albatross 
(Diomedea exulane ) is 
the largest of all oceanic 
birds,having wings which 
measure twelve feet or 
more from tip to tip, but 
are narrow in proportion 
to their length. This 
bird is sometimes seen 
by voyagers over 100 
miles from land. It feeds 
chiefly on fish. “ Some¬ 
times for a whole hour 
together,” says the duke of Argyll, “ this splendid bird 



Albatross. 


will sail or wheel round a ship in every possible variety of 
direction, without requiring to give a single stroke to its 
pinions.” There has been much discussion as to the means 
which enable the albatross to maintain this remarkable 
kind of motion; and the matter is not well explained. The 
above bird, known also as the man-of-war bird and the 
Cape sheep, is found near the coasts of most seas, but 
especially near those of Asia and Africa. Besides the 
above, there are the sooty albatross, Diomedea fidiginosa, 
of Eastern Asia, and the Diomedea chlororhynchun; and 
still other species arc described. 

Albay, a town in Luzon, one of the Philippine Islands, 
258 miles S. E. of Manila, is the capital of a province. 
Pop. about 13,000. Pop. of the province, about 204,840. 

Al'bee, a township of Saginaw co., Mich. Pop. 197. 

Al'bcmarlc, a town of France. Sec Aumale. 

Albemarle, a county near the central part of Vir¬ 
ginia, has an area of about 700 square miles. It is bounded 
on the N. W. by the Blue Ridge, and on the S. by the 
James River. It is drained by the Rivanna and Hard¬ 
ware Rivers. The surface is finely diversified by hills and 
valleys. The soil is generally fertile. This county is in¬ 
tersected by the Chesapeake and Ohio It. R. It was the 
native place of Thomas Jefferson. Grain, tobacco, and wool 
are the staples. Pop. 27,544. Capital, Charlottesville. 

Albemarle Sound, in the N. E. part of North Caro¬ 
lina, extends from the mouth of the Roanoke River 60 
miles eastward to a narrow island which separates it from 
the Atlantic. Its average width N. and S. is about 12 miles. 
It communicates by narrow inlets with Pamlico and Curri¬ 
tuck Sounds. The water in it is nearly fresh. Its greatest 
depth is 24 feet; average depth, 20 feet. 

Albemarle (George Monk), Duke of, a famous Eng¬ 
lish general, chiefly known to history as the principal agent 
in the restoration of the Stuarts in 16G0, was born of an 
ancient Devonshire family near Torrington Dec. 6, 1608. 
He joined the army in order to escape punishment for mis¬ 
handling a sheriff who was about to arrest his father for 
debt. In 1625 ho engaged in the expedition against Spain, 
and took part at the attack upon Rhe, and served ten 
years in the Netherlands. In the campaign against the 
Scots he served as lieutenant-colonel. He led a regiment 
against the Irish, and was governor of Dublin until peace 
was struck by the marquess of Ormond in 1643. In tho 
civil war Monk was taken prisoner by Fairfax in 164 4, and 
imprisoned in the Tower, and only regained his liberty 
after a confinement of two years by taking the Covenant. 
He was given a command by the Parliamentarians, but 
drew upon him suspicions of treachery, and cleared himself 
with difficulty before Parliament. After the defeat of the 
royalist cause Cromwell appointed Monk a lieutenant-gen¬ 
eral and chief of artillery, in which capacity he did such 
service at the battle of Dunbar that Cromwell made him 
general-in-chief of the army in Scotland. In 1652 he took 
part in the commission which drew up a pact of union 
between England and Scotland, and went to Scotland as 
governor in 1654; in which position he had great difficulties 
in maintaining his rule against the Presbyterians. The 
royalists had already some hopes of his support, and 
Charles sent him secret overtures in 1656. Monk delivered 
this letter up to Cromwell. After the death of the dictator, 
Monk declared in favor of Richard Cromwell, and assumed 
the authority of a defender of public order only when 
Lambert threatened to establish a military despotism. On 
the 1st of Jan., 1660, he marched over the border with 6000 
men, joining Fairfax at York, and marched into London 
on the 3d of February, without drawing sword from scab¬ 
bard. At first he kept every one in the dark as to his in¬ 
tentions. On Feb. 28 he recalled the Presbyterian members 
expelled from Parliament in 1648, thus creating a majority 
for the king. He held negotiations with Charles, and Par¬ 
liament declared the latter king on the 8th of May. Charles 
gave Monk the offices of privy councillor, chamberlain, and 
lord lieutenant of Devon and Middlesex, besides creating 
him duke of Albemarle. In 1666 the duke of Albemarle 
commanded the naval expedition against Holland, was 
beaten by De Ruyter in the three days’ conflict at Dunkirk, 
but defeated the Dutch admiral at North Foreland. Died 
Jan. 3, 1670. 

Albemarle, Earls of (Viscounts Bury and Barons 
Ashford), one of the prominent families of England.—The 
first earl of this family, Arnold van Keppel, born in 
1669, was a Dutch favorite of William, prince of Orange, 
with whom he went to England in 1688. After that prince 
became King William III., Van Keppel was created earl of 
Albemarle, and was a rival of the duke of Portland in com¬ 
peting for royal favor. Died in 1718.—The sixth earl, 
George Thomas Keppel, born June 13, 1799, was member 


































ALBEMARLE—ALBERT NYANZA. 


of the House of Commons for East Norfolk from 1832 to 
1835, and for Lymington from 1847 to 1850. He succeeded 
his brother as earl of Albemarle on Mar. 15, 1851. He is 
a lieutenant-general in the British army. 

Albemarle, a post-village, the capital of Stanley co., 
N. C., is situated in a township of its own name, about 60 
miles S. by W. from Greensboro’. Pop. of township, 1600. 

Alberic I., a ruler of Rome, was born in the beginning 
of the tenth century, the son of a Lombardian noble. He 
became margrave of Camerino, and, through his marriage 
with the celebrated Marozia, ruler of Rome. He was ban¬ 
ished by John X. from Rome, and was murdered in 925. 
His son, Alberic II., was a powerful and wise ruler, and 
died in 954, after a reign of twenty-three years. He was 
succeeded by his son, Ottaviano, who was elected pope 
under the name of John XII. in 956. 

Albero'ni (Giulio), Cardinal, an ambitious Italian, 
born near Piacenza May 31, 1664. He began his public 
career as envoy of the duke of Parma to the court of Mad¬ 
rid, and, having gained the favor of Philip V., became 
prime minister of Spain in 1715. His foreign policy was 
so audacious and violent that nearly all the powers of Eu¬ 
rope combined against Spain. Among his offensive acts 
was the invasion of Sardinia in time of peace. He was 
removed from office in 1719, and banished from Spain. 
Died Jan. 26, 1752. (See Bersani, “ Storia del Cardinale 
Giulio Alberoni,” 1862.) 

Al'bers (Johann Friedrich Hermann), an eminent 
German physician, born Nov. 14, 1805, became in 1831 
professor of pathology in Bonn, established a celebrated 
asylum for insane and nervously affected persons in Bonn, 
and in 1856 became director of the pharmacological cabi¬ 
net of the university. Died May 12, 1867. He has pub¬ 
lished, among other works, “Handbuch der allgemeinen 
Pathologie” (2 vols., 1842-44), “ Lehrbuch der allgemeinen 
Arzneimittellehre” (1853), and “ Die Spermatorrhoe” (1862). 

Albert, a town of France, in the department of Somme, 
18 miles N. E. of Amiens, has cotton-factories and paper- 
mills. Pop. in 1866, 4019. 

Al'bert, a county in the S. E. part of New Brunswick, 
bordering on Chiegnecto Channel. The coal-like mineral 
called Albertite is found here, and petroleum has been ob¬ 
tained. Area, about 650 square miles. Capital, Hopewell 
Cape. Pop. 10,672. 

Albert, crown prince of Saxony, born April 23, 1828, 
took part in the campaign in Sleswick-Holstein in 1849, 
was made lieutenant-general in 1853, and general in 1857, 
commanded the Saxon army in the war against Prussia in 
1866, received the command of the twelfth army corps after 
the admission of Saxony into the North German Union, in 
which position he took part in the battles of Rezonville, 
Gravelotte, and Sedan in the German-French war of 1870, 
and received the command of the fourth army (of the 
Meuse). In July, 1871, he was created field-marshal of 
the empire, and soon after field-marshal of Russia. 

Albert [in German, commonly Albrecht ] I., archduke 
of Austria, born in 1248, was a son of the emperor Ru¬ 
dolph of Habsburg. He was elected emperor of Germany 
in 1298, but his title was contested by Adolphus of Nassau, 
who had occupied the throne. These rivals fought a battle, 
in which Adolphus was killed. Albert, who was noted for 
his cruelty and avarice, was assassinated May 1, 1308, by 
his nephew, John the Parricide. 

Albert V., a son of Albert IV., was born in 1397, and 
became duke of Austria in 1404. He was chosen king of 
Hungary in 1437, and emperor of Germany in 1438. His 
title as emperor was Albert II. Died in 1439. 

Albert, archduke of Austria, a son of the emperor 
Maximilian II., was born in 1559. He was appointed 
governor of the Netherlands in 1596 by Philip II. of 
Spain, whose daughter Isabella he married about 1598. 
In 1600 he was defeated by Maurice of Nassau, who fought 
for the Dutch republic. The war was suspended in 1609 
by a long truce. Died in 1621. 

Albert I., margrave of Brandenburg, surnamed the 
Bear, was born about 1106. He was the founder of the 
House of Brandenburg. Died about 1170. 

Albert III., of Brandenburg, born in 1414, was sur¬ 
named Achilles and Ulysses, on account of his courage 
and wisdom. Died in 1486. 

Albert (of Brandenburg), first duke of Prussia, a 
grandson of the preceding, was born in 1490. He was 
elected grand master of the Teutonic Order in 1511, and 
was the last who held that office. In 1525 he became a 
Protestant, and duke of Prussia, which he held as a fief of 
the king of Poland. Died in 1568. 

Albert (Prince), or, more fully, Albert Francis 
Augustus Charles Emmanuel, prince of Saxe-Co- 


83 


burg-Gotha and consort of Queen Victoria of England, was 
born near Coburg Aug. 26,1819. He was a son of Duke 
Ernest I. His marriage with Victoria was celebrated in 
Feb., 1840, soon after which he obtained the rank of field- 
marshal in the British army. He patronized science and 
art, was a liberal promoter of benevolent institutions, and 
acquired great influence in public affairs as the prudent 
and trusted adviser of the queen. In 1857 he received the 
title of prince consort. Died Dec. 14,1861. His death was 
lamented as a national loss. (Compare Morton, “The 
Prince Consort’s Farms” (1863), Grey, “The Early Years 
of the Prince Consort” (1867), and “Leaves from the 
Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1848-61” 
(1868).) 

Albert Edward, prince of Wales, the eldest son of 
Queen Victoria, was born Nov. 9, 1841. He is the heir- 
apparent to the British throne. In 1860 he visited the U. S. 
He married, Mar. 10, 1863, the princess Alexandra of Den¬ 
mark. Among his children by this marriage are—Prince 
Albert Edward Victor Christian, duke of Cornwall, born 
Jan. 8,1864; Prince George Frederick Ernest Albert, born 
June 3, 1865; and Princess Louisa Victoria Dagmar, born 
Feb. 20, 1867. In Dec., 1871, the British nation was kept 
for some weeks in a state of painful anxiety by the dan¬ 
gerous illness of Prince Albert Edward at Sandringham. 

Albert, a French revolutionist and mechanic, whose 
original name was Alexandre Martin, was born at Bury 
(Oise) April 27,1815. He founded in Paris in 1840 a jour¬ 
nal called “L’Atelier” (“ The Workshop ”), and was amem- 
ber of the provisional government formed in Feb., 1848. 

Albert (Frederick Rudolph), archduke of Austria, 
eldest son of Archduke Charles, was born Aug. 3, 1817. In 
1851 he was appointed military and civil governor of Hun¬ 
gary, which position he retained until 1860. In 1859 he 
was sent to Berlin to bring about an understanding between 
the two great powers of Germany, and in 1863 was created 
field-marshal. 

Alber'ta, a township of Benton co., Minn. Pop. 158. 

Albertinel'li (Mariotto), an eminent Italian painter, 
born about 1475, was a pupil of Raselli, and a friend and 
imitator of Fra Bartolommeo, with whom he painted sev¬ 
eral pictures. Among his most celebrated paintings is the 
“Affliction of Mary and Elizabeth” in Florence, “The 
Virgin Mary with Saint Domenico ” on the Monte Cavallo, 
“Saint Catherine” and the “Virgin Mary with the Child” 
in the Louvre. Died about 1520. 

Albert Lea is the shire-town of Freeborn co., Minn. 
It is 128 miles W. of the Mississippi River, at the intersec¬ 
tion of the Southern Minnesota and the contemplated line 
of the St. Louis and Minneapolis R. Rs. It has several 
small manufactories, public park, library association, high 
school, and two newspapers. It is beautifully situated be¬ 
tween two lakes, one of which bears its name, and the sur¬ 
rounding country of undulating prairie and timber is charm¬ 
ingly picturesque. An abundance of game has made it a 
popular resort for pleasure-seekers. Pop. of Albert Lea 
township, 1167. D. G. Parker, Pub. of “Standard.” 

Al'bert Mausole'um, erected in commemoration of 
Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. The first stone 
of this building, at Frogmore, was laid by Queen Victoria 
in Mar., 1862, and the remains of Prince Albert were re¬ 
moved from St. George’s Chapel to the mausoleum in De¬ 
cember of the same year. 

Al'bertson’s, a post-township of Duplin co., N. C. 
Pop. 667. 

Alber'ti (Leon Battista), an eminent Italian architect, 
poet, and writer on art, was born at Genoa (or, as some say, 
at Florence) in 1404. He was employed as an architect by 
Pope Nicholas V., completed the Pitti Palace at Florence, 
and designed the church of St. Francis at Rimini. His 
“Treatise on Architecture” (“ De Re AMificatoria,” 1485) 
is highly commended. Died April, 1472. 

Al'bert Nyan'za (written also Albert N’Yanza), a 
large lake of Africa, and one of the sources of the White 
Nile, is situated under the equator, about 90 miles W. of 
Victoria Nyanza. It is 300 miles long or more, and is 92 
miles wide where it is crossed by the equator. The north¬ 
ern extremity is in lat. 2° 45' N. The southern part has 
not been fully explored. The surface of this lake is 2720 
feet above the level of the sea. On the eastern side it is 
enclosed by rocky cliffs of granite and porphyry, the aver¬ 
age height of which is about 1500 feet, and by isolated 
peaks, which are supposed to rise 5000 feet or more above 
the lake. Near the western shore is a range called the Blue 
Mountains, about 7000 feet high. The scenery around this 
lake is described as extremely beautiful. The water is 
fresh, sweet, and very deep. The Albert Nyanza was dis¬ 
covered and named by Sir Samuel White Baker, who with 
his wife reached Vacovia, on the eastern shore, in Mar., 












84 


ALBERTUS MAGNUS—ALBRIGHT’S. 


1864, after several years of arduous and perilous adven¬ 
tures. “ It was,” he says, “ a grand sight to look upon 
this vast reservoir of the mighty Nile, and to watch the 
heavy swell tumbling upon the beach, while far to the 
south-west the eye searched as vainly for a bound as 
though upon the Atlantic. It was with extreme emotion 
that I enjoyed this glorious scene.” Embarking in a boat, 
he explored the lake to Magungo, which is near its northern 
extremity, and in lat. 2° 16' N. The lake here was about 
16 miles wide. The Somerset River, or Victoria Nile, which 
is the outlet of Lake Victoria Nyanza, enters Lake Albert 
near Magungo. Ascending the Victoria Nile, he discovered 
a grand cataract, 120 feet high (perpendicular), which he 
named Murchison Falls. (See Sir S. W. Baker, “The Al¬ 
bert Nyanza, Great Basin of the Nile,” 1866.) 

Alber'tus Mag'nus (i . e. “Albert the Great”), some¬ 
times called Albert de Bollstadt. He was born in Ba¬ 
varia in 1193, and became a Dominican friar. In 1254 he 
was chosen provincial of the Dominican Order, and in 1260 
became bishop of Ratisbon. He lectured for many years 
at Cologne, and wrote numerous works on theology, logic, 
philosophy, and other subjects. He was reputed one of the 
most learned men of the Middle Ages, and was regarded 
as a magician by some of his contemporaries. Died in 
1280. Thomas Aquinas was one of his disciples. 

Al'bi, or Al'by [Lat. Albi'ga], an old city of France, 
capital of the department of Tarn, on the river Tarn, and 
on a hill 42 miles N. E. of Toulouse. It has a museum of 
natural history, a college, a normal school, a cathedral, a 
public library, and a theatre ; also manufactures of coarse 
linens, tablecloths, and cotton goods. Here is an arch¬ 
bishop’s see. The Albigenses derived their name from this 
town, which suffered much in the religious wars of France. 
Pop. in 1866, 16,596. 

Al'bia, the county-seat of Monroe co., Ia., on the Bur¬ 
lington and Missouri River R. R. where it is crossed by 
the Central R. R. of Iowa, 100 miles N. W. of Burlington, 
and about 65 miles S. E. of Des Moines. It has one national 
bank and two weekly papers. Two other railroads are pro¬ 
jected to the place. The county is mostly underlaid with 
coal of a good quality, and mines are being opened in nu¬ 
merous places. The country around it is rich and product¬ 
ive. Pop. 1621. 

James Haynes, Ed. “Spirit op the West.” 

Albigen'ses [from Albi'ga , the Latin name of Albi, a 
town of France], a name given to several sects of reformers 
in the south of France which called themselves Catharists. 
In 1208, Pope Innocent III. proclaimed a crusade against 
these reformers and against Raymond VI., count of Tou¬ 
louse, one of their principal leaders. A large army was 
led against them by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester. 
The war was carried on with great bitterness of feeling on 
both sides, and with little intermission till 1229, when a 
treaty between the contending parties was concluded at 
Paris. Many of the Albigenses emigrated to other coun¬ 
tries, while others perished in the Inquisition, which was 
established about the same time that the pope proclaimed 
his crusade. The name gradually disappears in the early 
part of the fourteenth century. (See Faber’s “ Inquiry 
into the History and Theology of the Ancient Vallenses 
and Albigenses,” London, 1838.) 

Al'bin, a township of Brown co., Minn. Pop. 194. 

Albi'ni (Franz Joseph), an able German statesman 
and lawyer, born in Rhenish Prussia May 14, 1748. He 
passed some years in the service of the emperor Joseph II., 
after whose death (1790) he became chief minister of the 
elector of Mentz, whom he served with fidelity until 1802. 
Died Jan. 8,1816. 

Albi'no [Port., from the Lat. al'btis, “white”], a per¬ 
son who has a great deficiency or an absence of pigment 
in the hair, skin, and eyes. The complexion is very light, 
the hair often snowy white, the eyes red. Albinism in 
the human species may be observed in white and black 
races, and in the negro is sometimes partial, patches of the 
skin having the normal color. Albinism is frequent among 
Zuni Indians and other tribes in Arizona. A degree 
of nyctalopia (day-blindness) is common among albinos. 
Elephants, birds, mice, and other animals sometimes ex¬ 
hibit the phenomena of albinism, which is often hereditary. 

Al'bion, the ancient Celtic name of Great Britain. 
The name, said to signify “ white island,” is supposed by 
some, though without good reason, to have been given on 
account of the chalky cliffs of Kent. 

Albion, a post-village, capital of Edwards co., Ill., in 
a township of the same name, and on the New Albany 
Mt. Carmel and St. Louis R. R. It has a high and healthy 
location, good schools, a chemical laboratory, a wagon-fac¬ 
tory, and two newspapers. Pop. of village, 613; of town¬ 
ship, 2856. J. E. Clarke, Pub. “ Albion Independent.” 


Albion, a post-village, the capital of Noble co., Ind., 
in a township of its own name, about 26 miles N. W. of 
Fort Wayne. Pop. of township, 598. 

Albion, a township of Butler co., Ia. Pop. 1039. 

Albion, a township of Howard co., Ia. Pop. 682. 

Albion, a post-township of Kennebec co.. Me. Pop. 
1356. 

Albion, a post-village of Calhoun co., Mich., on the 
Kalamazoo River and Michigan Central and N. C. M. R. R., 
37 miles S. of Lansing and 96 miles W. of Detroit. It is 
the seat of Albion College, under the control of the Meth¬ 
odist Episcopal Church. The village has four fine primary 
school buildings, besides an excellent central school; a 
national bank, two weekly papers, two large flouring and 
other mills, two door, sash, and blind factories, a tannery, 
an extensive agricultural tool manufactory, machine-shop 
and furnace, a library, five churches, and two benevolent 
societies. Pop. of Albion township, 2409. 

S. W. Cole, Pub. “Albion Mirror.” 

Albion, a post-township of Wright co., Minn. P. 281. 

Albion, the capital of Orleans co., N. Y., on the Erie 
Canal and the New York Central R. R., 30 miles W. of 
Rochester, has a brick court-house, a jail, a furnace, two 
banks, two newspapers, two public parks, six churches, a 
free library, and several important manufactories. It is 
the seat of a fine academy, and of Phipps’ Union Seminary. 
It is in Barre township. Pop. 3322. 

C. G. Beach, Ed. “ Orleans Republican.” 

Albion, a township of Oswego co., N. Y. It has manu¬ 
factures of leather, lumber, etc. Pop. 2359. 

Albion, a post-borough of Erie co., Pa. Pop. 452. 

Albion, a thriving village and township of Dane co., 
Wis., is situated in an important tobacco-growing region. 
Albion Centre is the seat of Albion Academy, also of a 
prosperous Sabbath school publishing-house, both under 
the patronage of the Seventh-Day Baptist denomination. 
It has one semi-monthly paper, and is three miles from 
Edgerton, on the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. Pop. 
of township, 1142. 

Rev. J. E. N. Backus, Pub. of “ Gem.” 

Albion, a township of Jackson co., Wis. Pop. 1991. 

Al'bite [from the Lat. al'bus, “white,” and the Gr. 
Ai'0o?, a “ stone”], a silicate of alumina and soda, sometimes 
called soda felspar. It is a constituent of granite, being 
associated with true felspar, from which it may be distin¬ 
guished by its greater whiteness and translucency. It also 
occurs in syenite and greenstone. 

Al'boin [Lat. Alboi'nus], the founder of the Lombard 
kingdom in Italy, was a son of Alduin, whom he succeeded 
in 543 A. D. He conducted an army of Longobards into 
Italy in 569, and conquered the northern provinces. He 
married Rosamund, a daughter of King Cunimund, whom 
he had killed. Alboin was assassinated in 573 A. D., at 
the instigation of Rosamund. 

Albo'ni (Marietta), a popular Italian singer, born at 
Cesena Mar. 10, 1824, was a pupil of RossinL She per¬ 
formed with great applause in Paris and London in 1846- 
47, and afterwards visited the U. S. She was married to 
the count de Pepoli. Her voice is a contralto, in the high¬ 
est degree sweet and sonorous. 

A1 Borak' (?. e. “the lightning,” so called on account 
of its fleetness), the name of a creature on which Moham¬ 
med is said to have made journeys to the celestial regions. 

Albornoz' (Gil Alvarez Carillo), or/Egid'ius de 
Albornoz', a Spanish cardinal, born at Cuenca. He was 
appointed archbishop of Toledo by Alfonzo XI. of Castile, 
whose life he saved in a battle against the Moors. In 1353, 
Pope Innocent VI. sent him as legate to Italy, where he 
distinguished himself by his military and political talents, 
and restored the authority of the pope over many cities. 
Died Aug. 24, 1367. 

Al'brecht, the name of many German princes. (See 
Albert.) 

Al'brechtsberger (Johann Georg), one of the most 
learned contrapuntists of modern times, born Feb. 3, 1736, 
became director of the choir of the Carmelites in Vienna, 
organist to the court in 1772, musical director at St. Ste¬ 
phen’s cathedral in Vienna in 1792, and died Mar. 7, 1809. 
He published “ Griindliche Anweisung zur Composition” 
(1790; 3d ed. 1821). 

Al'bright (Jacob), an American divine of the Lutheran 
Church, born in Montgomery co., Pa., in 1759. He founded 
in 1808 the Evangelical Association (which see). Died 
in 1808. 

Al'bright’s, a township of Alamance co., N. C. Pop. 
625. 
































ALBUERA, LA—ALBURG. 85 


Albue'ra, La, a village of Spain, in Estremadura, on 
a small river of its own name, 13 miles S. E. of Badajos. 
Here on the 16th of May, 1811, the British general Beres- 
ford defeated the French marshal Soult, who lost nearly 
9000 men. The allies lost about 7000. 

Albufe'ra, a lake of Spain, 7 miles S. of Valencia, is 
11 miles long, and abounds in fish and wild fowl. It is 
near the sea, with which it is connected by a narrow chan¬ 
nel. The Spaniards were defeated near this lake in 1812 
by the French under Marshal Suchet. 

Albu'men [from al'bus , “white”], a Latin term signi¬ 
fying the “ white of an egg,” denotes in chemistry an or¬ 
ganic compound of great importance, which, besides be¬ 
ing the characteristic ingredient in the white of an egg, 
abounds in the serum of the blood, in chyle, lymph, the 
juice of flesh, and forms an important part of the skin, 
muscles, and brain. In Bright’s disease it is found in con¬ 
siderable quantity in the urine. “ It is obvious,” says Lie¬ 
big, “ that albumen is the foundation, the starting-point, of 
the whole series of peculiar tissues which constitute those 
organs which are the seat of all vital actions.” Albumen 
is also found in small quantities in most vegetable juices. 

When heated to a temperature from 140° to 160°, albu¬ 
men coagulates and becomes insoluble in water. It is also 
coagulated by alcohol and most of the acids. According 
to Liebig, the albumen of blood is C2i6H338N5iS3068- Lie- 
berkiihn considers it CyoHi^NisSO^- 

The fibrine of the muscles and the albumen of blood con¬ 
tain the same elements in the same proportion. 

Egg albumen differs from serum albumen by being pre¬ 
cipitated by ether and by turpentine, and being almost in¬ 
soluble in strong nitric acid. When injected into the veins 
of dogs or rabbits it passes into the urine unchanged, while 
serum albumen injected in the same way does not appear 
in the urine at all. 

Coagulated albumen is white, opaque, and elastic. It 
dries to a brittle, translucent, horny mass, which when 
placed in cold water swells up to its original form. 

Albumen is a weak acid, apparently dibasic. Its salts 
with the alkaline metals are soluble; they are obtained by 
adding the caustic alkalies or alkaline carbonates directly 
to albumen. The other albuminates are insoluble, and are 
obtained by precipitation: Potassic albuminate = K' 2 C 72 
H 110 N 18 SO 22 ; calcic albuminate = Ca”C72HnoNi8S022. 

The white of egg is recommended as an antidote to cor¬ 
rosive sublimate, mercuric chloride, as it forms mercuric 
albuminate, which is insoluble in water. As it is, however, 
slightly soluble in saline solutions, the physician should 
also secure vomiting, to remove the mercury from the stom¬ 
ach. Albumen is much used for clarifying syrups and other 
liquids. When boiled with them, it coagulates to flocks, 
entangling the suspended impurities, and carrying them 
either to the surface as a scum or to the bottom as a sedi¬ 
ment. In cooking, the white of egg is employed; in sugar 
refining, bullock’s blood. Albumen is also used for prepar¬ 
ing the surface of paper for photographic printing, and 
for making a cement with lime. 

Egg and serum albumen are now manufactured in large 
quantities by simply drying the natural fluids in thin 
layers in warm air, taking care that the temperature shall 
not be so high as to coagulate the albumen, and thus render 
it insoluble. The chief application of this albumen in the 
arts is in calico-printing. It is employed in fastening cer¬ 
tain colors upon the fibres of cotton cloth, especially pig¬ 
ments such as ultramarine, chrome yellows, and oranges, 
Guignet’s green, etc., and also the aniline colors. The pig¬ 
ments or colors are simply mixed with a solution of albumen, 
printed on the cloth, and fixed by steaming, which coagu¬ 
lates the albumen and renders it insoluble. A dark-colored, 
inferior quality of serum albumen, sold under the name of 
“ dried blood,” is used by sugar refiners to clear the solu¬ 
tions of raw sugar. C. F. Chandler. 

Albu'minoids, or Pro'teids, an extensive class of 
organic bodies found in animals and plants. They form the 
chief constituents of blood, muscles, nerves, glands, and 
other organs of animals; and though present in plants in 
much smaller proportions than cellulose, starch, sugar, etc., 
they still play a most important part in plant life. Their 
exact constitution has not been determined. Analysis shows 
them to contain— 

Carbon, 52.7 to 54.5. 

Hydrogen, 6.9 “ 7.3. 

Nitrogen, 15.4 “ 16.5. 

Oxgyen, 20.9 “ 23.5. 

Sulphur, 0.8 “ 1.6. 

They are amorphous, more or less soluble in water, inso¬ 
luble or nearly so in alcohol, insoluble in ether, soluble in 
excess of strong acetic acid, soluble in alkalies, and soluble 
in strong mineral acids. Nitric acid produces yellow xan¬ 
thoproteic acid. Strong alkalies change them to leucine, 


tyrosine, oxalic acid, carbonic acid, ammonia, etc., accord¬ 
ing to the temperature. From their solutions they are pre¬ 
cipitated by excess of mineral acids, by potassic ferrocyanido 
with acetic or hydrochloric acid, by acetic acid in presence 
of a considerable quantity of alkaline or alkaline earthy 
salt, gum arabic or dextrine, by mercuric nitrate, Millon’s 
reagent. 

They have been classified as follows: 

I. Albumens, soluble in water: 1. Serum albumen; 2. 
Egg albumen. 

II. Globulins, insoluble in water, soluble in very dilute 
acids and alkalies, soluble in dilute solutions of sodic chlor¬ 
ide and other neutral salts: 1. Myosin; 2. Globulin ; 3. 
Fibrinogin; 4. Vitellin. 

III. Derived albumens, insoluble in water and in solu¬ 
tions of sodic chloride ; soluble in dilute acids and alkalies : 
1. Acid albumen ; 2. Alkali albumen, or albuminate casein. 

IV. Fibrine, insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in di¬ 
lute acids and alkalies, and in neutral saline solutions. 

V. Coagulated proteid. 

VI. Amyloid substance, or lardacein. 

VII. Peptones, produced by the action of the gastric 
juice on all albuminoids. 

For further information on this important class of bodies 
see Hoppe-Seyler, “ Handbuch der Physiologisch-Chemi- 
schen Analyse;” the eleventh English edition of Fownes’ 
“Manual of Chemistry;” and the “ Handworterbuch der 
Chemie,” 2t Auf. II., p. 124. C. F. Chandler. 

Albuminu'ria [from albumen and the Lat. uri'na, 
“urine”] is the presence of albumen in the urine, constitu¬ 
ting a very important symptom of disease. Albumen is 
sometimes observed in small proportion in the urine of per¬ 
sons apparently healthy. Artificial obstruction (by vivi¬ 
section and ligation) of the emulgent veins in the lower 
animals produces albuminuria, thus illustrating the fact 
that passive engorgement of t he kidney may cause this symp¬ 
tom, as in organic disease of the heart. Albuminuria has 
been reported as following the injudicious use of oil of tur¬ 
pentine, in which case it results from an active congestion 
of the kidney. Albuminuria is sometimes associated with 
dyspepsia, in which case it may be either a temporary and 
probaljly unimportant symptom, or a precursor of Bright’s 
disease—a malady which is among the most formidable of 
all with which we have to deal. This symptom has also 
been observed in malarial and typhoid fevers, pneumonia, 
smallpox, scarlet fever, measles, erysipelas, peritonitis, con¬ 
sumption, pregnancy, rheumatism, leucocythaemia., purpura, 
and a great variety of other conditions. In most cases it 
results from a degeneration of the kidney, characterized by 
swelling, opacity, and molecular decay of the renal epithe¬ 
lium. 

Albuminuria is best detected either by slightly acidula¬ 
ting and then boiling the urine in a test-tube, or by adding 
nitric acid. In either case the albumen coagulates into a 
white, semi-solid mass. Albuminuria is best treated by 
attention to hygienic conditions. 

Albunol', a town of Spain, in the province of Granada, 
near the Mediterranean, 35 miles W. by S. of Almeria. It 
is well built and has several convents. Pop. about 5000. 

Albuquer'que, a town of Spain, in the province of 
Badajos, 26 miles N. of Badajos. It has a castle, and manu¬ 
factures of cotton and wool. Pop. about 7500. 

Albuquerque, a post-town, the capital of Bernalillo 
co., N. M., on the Rio Grande, 75 miles S. W. of Santa Fe. 
It has a trade in wool, hides, grain, and wine. Gold, silver, 
iron, lead, copper, and coal are found near this place, which 
is 5032 feet above the sea-level. Pop. 1307. 

Albuquerque, or Alboquerque, d’ (Affonso), sur- 
named the Great and the Portuguese Mars, a celebrated 
general, born at Alhanda, near Lisbon, in 1452, was rela¬ 
ted to the royal family. After he had distinguished him¬ 
self in several expeditions to Africa and the East Indies, he 
was appointed viceroy of the Indies in 1509. He took the 
city of Goa in 1510, and conquered Malacca, in which he 
obtained booty of great value, in 1511. In 1513 his fleet 
entered the Red Sea, which had never before been navi¬ 
gated by Europeans. He captured the rich emporium of 
Ormuz in 1515. Having been removed from command, he 
died at Goa Dec. 16 of that year. He is said to have been 
eminent for justice and other virtues, which, combined with 
his military skill, greatly increased the power of Portugal 
in India.— Alboquerque (Bras Affonso), a natural son ot 
the preceding, was born at Alhandra in 1500. He was a 
naval officer, and was noted for his integrity and public 
spirit. He wrote a narrative of his father s campaigns, 
entitled “ Comentarios do grande Affonso d Alboquerque 
(1557). Died in 1580. 

Al'burg, a post-township of Grand Isle co., \ t. This 
township has a celebrated mineral spring which is of a de¬ 
cidedly alkaline character, and contains lithia. It is useful 














86 


±. 


ALBURNUM—A LCIBIADES. 


in gout and rheumatism, and other diseases. It has been 
recommended for cancer, but has no marked effect on that 
disease. Alburg has an academy, and is on the Vermont 
Central R. R. Pop. 1716. 

Albur'num [from the Lat. albus, “white”], or Sap- 
wood, is that part of the wood of exogenous trees which 
is most recently formed and is contiguous to the bark. It 
consists partly of tubes through which the sap ascends, and 
is of a white or pale color, whence its name is derived. It 
gradually hardens with age, and is converted into duramen 
or heart-wood, which is more valuable than alburnum. 

Alcae'us [Gr. ’AAkcuo?], a celebrated Greek lyric poet, 
born at Mitylene, flourished about 600 B. C. In the violent 
contests between the democracy and the nobles of Lesbos 
he took side with the latter. He wrote in theiEolic dialect, 
and invented the metre called Alcaic. Ilis poetry is im¬ 
passioned and full of enthusiasm. Horace admired and im¬ 
itated the odes of Alcaeus, who, among the nine lyric poets 
of the Alexandrian canon, was recognized as the second, 
or, as some say, the first. He is said to have been a friend 
and admirer of Sappho, to whom some of his verses were 
addressed. His works are lost except small fragments. 

Alca'ic Me'tre, in Greek and Latin poetry, was named 
from Alcaeus, the reputed inventor. The greater alcaic 
verse consists of two iambic feet, a long catalectic syllable, 
a choriambus, and an iambus. The lesser alcaic is two 
dactyls, followed by two trochees. 

Alcaide. See Alcayde. 

Alcala' de Guadai'ra, a town of Spain, in the prov¬ 
ince of Seville, 9 miles S. E. of Seville, has a Moorish cas¬ 
tle, and considerable trade in grain. Pop. about 7400. 

Alcala' de Hena'res, a city of Spain, in the prov¬ 
ince of Madrid, on the river Henares, 21 miles by rail E. 
of Madrid, was built in 1083 near the site of the ancient 
Complutum. It was the seat of a celebrated university 
founded by Ximenes, which has been removed to Madrid. 
After this removal, Alcala (which had 22,000 inhabitants 
in 1768) rapidly declined. Cervantes was born here in 
1547. The celebrated Complutensian Bible was printed at 
Alcala in 1514. Pop. about 8600. 

Alcala' la Real', a city of Spain, in the province of 
Jaen, stands in an elevated glen about 2700 fe^t above the 
sea, and 24 miles S. W. of Jaen. It has a court-house, 
several convents, a hospital, etc. Pop. 6738. 

Alcal'de [probably a corruption of the Arabic al cadi, 
“ the judge”], the title given by the Moors, Spaniards, and 
Spanish American nations to a judicial or administrative 
officer, is sometimes erroneously confounded with alcayde. 
Alcalde pedaneo signifies justice of the peace. 

Alcam'enes [Gr. ’AA^a/ieV^?], an eminent Athenian 
sculptor, a pupil of Phidias, flourished about 420 B. C. 
He was equal in celebrity to any sculptor of his time ex¬ 
cept his great master. Pausanias states that he was living 
in 400 B. C. 

Al'camo, a town on the island of Sicily, in the province 
of Trapani, 24 miles S. W. of Palermo, has a college and 
picturesque ruins of an old castle. Pop. in 1872, 20,890. 

Alcaniz', 41-kS.n-yeeth', a town of Spain, in the prov¬ 
ince of Pernel, on the Guadalupe River, 57 miles S. E. of 
Saragossa. Pop. about 7500. 

Alcantara, a town of Spain, in the province of Ca- 
ceres, is situated on the left bank of the Tagus, near the Por¬ 
tuguese boundary. Here are ruins of a grand bridge built 
by the emperor Trajan in 103 A. D., of which a triumphal 
arch forty feet high still remains. The duke of Alva here 
defeated the Portuguese in a great battle on Aug. 25, 1580. 
Pop. about 4100. 

Alcantara, Order of, also called the Order of 
Saint Julian, a religious order of Spanish knighthood, 
founded in 1156 at Alcantara for the defence of the Chris¬ 
tians against the Moors. In 1495 the office of grand¬ 
master of this order was united to the Spanish crown. 
Their crest was a pear tree. 

Alcatraz' (or Alctra'ces) Island, of California, 
sometimes called Pelican Island, is in the bay, 2£ miles 
N. of San Francisco. Length, 1650 feet; height, 130 feet. 
It is fortified, and commands the entrance of the Golden 
Gate. On its summit is a lighthouse 36 feet high, in lat. 
37° 49' 27” N., Ion. 122° 24' 19” W. 

Alcava'la, or Alcaba'la, a tax formerly imposed in 
Spain and her colonies on all property sold, and payable as 
often as it changed hands. This tax, which was at first 10, 
and afterwards 14 per cent, ad valorem, was very injurious 
to the prosperity of the country. 

Alcay'de,or Alcaide [from the Arabic al, “the,”and 
cadi, a “ magistrate ”], a term applied by Spaniards, Moors, 
and Portuguese to a jailer or inferior magistrate. 


Alca'zar (or Alcazer) de San Juan', a town of 
Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, 47 miles N. E. of 
Ciudad Real, has manufactures of soap, nitre, and gun¬ 
powder. Pop. 7942. 

Alca'zar Kebir' (“the great castle”), a city of Mo¬ 
rocco, 83 miles N. W. of Fez. Pop. in 1864, about 25,000. 
Near it is a bridge ( Alcantara ) where Sebastian, king of 
Portugal, was defeated and killed Aug. 4, 1578. 

Alces'tis [Gr. ’AA^ons), in classic mythology, was a 
daughter of Pelias and the wife of Admetus, king of Thes¬ 
saly. The poets feigned that she prolonged the life of her 
husband by suffering voluntary death as his substitute, and 
was rescued from Hades by Hercules. The story of her 
devotion is the subject of one of the tragedies of Euripides. 

Al'chemy [for etymology, see below] is commonly un¬ 
derstood to mean the occult science or art of transmuting 
the baser metals into gold. Some writers suppose that 
alchemy originated in Egypt, the ancient name of which 
was Chem (“dark,” “mysterious”), and that it was intro¬ 
duced into Europe by the Arabs. The origin of alchemy 
seems to be connected with the widespread notion that the 
manifold forms of matter have a common basis, and that 
the individual properties of material bodies are due to for¬ 
mative force separable in thought, if not in fact, from this 
common substratum. Hence it followed that if this first 
matter could be dissolved or separated from all special 
formative forces, and the special “form” of gold or other 
precious substance discovered and got under control, these 
or any material body could be produced at will. From this 
point of view we may understand the reason of the alchem¬ 
ists’ search for the “universal solvent” and for the special 
“forms” of things. The union of the materia prima and 
the “form” of gold would produce the actual metal. In 
like manner, if the vital principle or form of the bodily 
organization could be found and controlled, the tendencies 
to disease and decay in the bodily organization could be 
resisted. Hence the search after the elixir of life and the 
philosopher’s stone. It was this search after “forms” and 
the materia prima which so vitiated the method of the Mid¬ 
dle Age investigators. It was a reaction against this false 
analysis of Aristotle which led to the bitter opposition to 
his name and doctrines which marked the rise of modern 
science in Europe. When belief in the reality of the Aris¬ 
totelian analysis passed away, alchemy ceased. 

In the Middle Ages the alchemists expended immense 
labor and time in experiments, the object of which was to 
discover the philosopher’s stone and an elixir vitae (the 
elixir of life) which could cure all diseases and restore old 
people to youth. Many useful discoveries were the results 
of these visionary pursuits, in which the most eminent men 
of those times took part. Roger Bacon (1214-92) was a 
believer in the doctrine that base metals can be transmuted 
into gold. The works which he wrote on alchemy are the 
oldest extant European writings on that subject. Among 
the other famous alchemists were Basil Valentine, R. Lully, 
and Paracelsus. As late as the sixteenth century many men 
of Superior intellect devoted their time and money to al¬ 
chemy, and hoped to discover the grand arcanum. Accord¬ 
ing to Liebig, “ The great (Francis) Bacon, Luther, Benedict 
Spinosa, and Leibnitz believed in the philosopher’s stone, 
and in the possibility of the transmutation of metals.” 
(Familiar Letters on Chemistry.) The same writer affirms 
that “Alchemy was never at any time anything different 
from chemistry. It is utterly unjust to confound it, as is 
generally done, with the gold-making of the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries. Among the alchemists there was 
always to be found a nucleus of genuine philosophers, who 
were often deceived in their theoretical views ; whereas, tho 
gold-makers, properly so called, knowingly deceived both 
themselves and others.” Revised by M. B. Anderson. 

Alcia'ti [Fr. Alciat ], (Andrea), an eminent Italian 
lawyer, born in 1492 at Alzato. He lectured on law at 
Bourges from 1528 to 1532, after which he was professor 
of law at Bologna, Pavia, and Ferrara. He wrote, besides 
other works, “Commentaries on the Digest” and a book of 
emblems. Died in 1550. Erasmus said of him, as Cicero 
said of Scaevola, “ He was the most jurisprudent of orators, 
and the most eloquent of lawyers.” 

Alcibi'ades [Gr. ’AA/«/3iaS7}?], a famous Athenian gen¬ 
eral and politician, born of a noble family about 450 B. C., 
was a son of Cleinias. He was educated at the house of his 
relative, the illustrious Pericles, and inherited a large estate. 
Pericles was a second cousin to the mother of Alcibiades. 
From nature he received great personal beauty and tran¬ 
scendent abilities, with strong passions and proclivities to 
licentious habits. As a favorite pupil and companion of 
Socrates he enjoyed in his youth great advantages for the 
cultivation of his mind. (Sec Socrates.) In 420 B. C. he 
began his political career as the leader of the democratic 
party and an opponent of Nicias, who advocated peace with 




























ALCIPHRON—ALCOTT. 


87 


Sparta. Having induced the Athenians to send a great ex¬ 
pedition (in 414 B. C.) against Syracuse, the ally of Sparta, 
he was chosen to command it, in conjunction with Nicias 
and Lamachus. Soon after the fleet had reached Sicily, 
Alcibiades was recalled to defend himself against a charge 
of sacrilege, but he escaped to Sparta, and in his absence 
was condemned to death by the people of Athens. He ac¬ 
quired much influence with the Spartans, whom he aided 
in their operations against his native country, but several 
jealous Spartan leaders having conspired against him, he 
fled to the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, and again changed 
sides. The next scene in the drama of his eventful and way¬ 
ward career presents him as the commander of the Athenian 
fleet, in 411 B. C. He defeated the Spartans at Abydos in 
411, and at Cyzicus in 410 B. C. Having by these and other 
victories restored the naval supremacy of Athens, he returned 
in triumph to the capital in 407, and regained his popularity. 
He was removed from the command in 406, in consequence 
of a reverse which his fleet suffered in his absence, and he 
again went into exile. He sought refuge in Phrygia, where 
he was assassinated by night in 404 B. C. (See Plutarch, 
“ Life of Alcibiades;” Grote, “ History of Greece,” vol. 
viii.; Thirlwall, “History of Greece.”) 

Al'ciphron ['AAxi^pwi'], a Greek epistolary writer, who 
is supposed to have lived about 180-200 A. D. He repre¬ 
sented the manners and opinions of various classes of soci¬ 
ety in fictitious letters, the style of which is admired as a 
specimen of Attic purity. 

Alci/ra, an ancient walled town of Spain, on an island 
in the river Jucar, in the province of Valencia, 25 miles S. 
of Valencia, has two fine stone bridges, besides an iron rail¬ 
way bridge. Near it is a curious cavern. Pop. 14,022. 

Alcmac'on, a Greek philosopher, a native of Crotona, 
and a pupil of Pythagoras, lived about 530 B. C. He is 
said to have been the first anatomist who dissected animals. 

Alc'man [Gr. ’AA/t^ar], a celebrated Spartan lyric poet, 
born at Sardis, was originally a slave. He flourished about 
650 B. C., and became a free citizen of Sparta. Ho wrote 
songs called “ Parthenia,” also bridal-hymns and other 
erotic poems which were greatly admired. According to 
some writers, ho was the inventor of erotic poetry. Some 
small fragments of his works are extant. 

Alcme'ne [Gr. ’AAk/u.tji/ 7 }], a daughter of Electryon and 
Anaxo, the daughter of Alcaeus. She is said to have been 
the mother of Heracles by Zeus. Hera, jealous of Alcmene, 
delayed the birth of Heracles for seven days, that Eurys- 
theus might be born first, and thus be entitled to greater 
rights, according to a vow which Zeus had made. There 
are different accounts of her death. According to Plutarch, 
Agesilaus opened her tomb at Haliartus in Boeotia, and 
carried her remains to Sparta. 

Al'co, a kind of dog found wild in Mexico and Peru. 
It has been domesticated, and is described as having a very 
small head, with large and pendulous ears. It is not known 
whether it has escaped from domestication or is a native of 
these countries. 

Al'cohol [from the Arabic definite article cil, “the,” 
and kohol, originally a “powder of antimony,” used for 
painting the eyebrows, afterwards applied to anything 
very subtle], a limpid, colorless liquid, which has a hot, 
pungent taste, and is the essential principle of all spirituous 
liquors and intoxicating drinks. It is the product of the 
fermentation of sugar or saccharine substances, and is ex¬ 
tracted by distillation from spirituous liquors, such as 
whisky and brandy, which contain nearly fifty per cent, 
of water. Pure alcohol is very inflammable, has a strong 
affinity for water, is a powerful solvent, boils at 173° Fahr¬ 
enheit, and has never been congealed by the greatest de¬ 
gree of cold that could be produced. It is composed of 
carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, the proportions being about 
52 per cent, of the first, 35 of the second, and 13 of the last. 
Its symbol is OH 6 0 2 , or C 2 H 6 O (according to the new no¬ 
menclature). In medicine, alcohol is used as a stimulant 
or excitant, mostly in the form of wine, brandy, or whisky. 
In pharmacy, alcohol is extensively used as a solvent; its 
solutions are called tinctures. The strongest alcohol that 
can be procured is termed absolute alcohol or anhydrous 
alcohol; it is prepared by removing the last few per cent, 
of water by quicklime. 

Alcohol may be produced synthetically by causing 
strong sulphuric acid to absorb ethene gas (olefiant gas), 
by which ethyl-sulphuric acid is produced, C2H4 + H2SO4 
= II.C2H5.SO4. On distilling this acid with water, alcohol 
is obtained, while dilute sulphuric acid is left in the retort 
or still, II.C2H5.SO4 + H2O = C 2 II 6 O + II2SO4. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Alcoholom'etry [from alcohol, and the Gr. pirpov, a 
“ measure ”] is the method of obtaining the amount of ab¬ 
solute alcohol in a given quantity of spirits. This may be 


done—( 1 ) by determining the specific gravity of the spirits, 
provided they contain nothing besides water and alcohol. 
The specific gravity of w ater being 1 , that of pure or ab¬ 
solute alcohol is 0.7938 at 60° F. Tables have been care¬ 
fully prepared showing the percentage of alcohol corre¬ 
sponding to different gravities between these extremes. (See 
Specific Gravity.) If the spirits contain sugar, etc., they 
must be purified by distillation before determining the 
gravity. (2) The percentage of alcohol may be determined 
by observing the boiling-point. Water boils at 212° F., ab¬ 
solute alcohol at 173° F. (3) By observing the tension of 
the vapor. The first method is always employed in practice. 

Alcohols. The term alcohol, originally limited to 
spirit of wine, is now applied to a large class of bodies, 
some of which are solids. They are all similarly consti¬ 
tuted, being saturated hydrocarbons, in which one or more 
hydrogen atoms are replaced by an equal number of mole¬ 
cules of hydroxyl (.Oil). They may also be regarded as 
compounds of hydroxyl with alcohol radicals. Thus, pro¬ 
pane yields three alcohols: propane, C 3 II 8 ; propyl alcohol, 
(C3Ht)(OII) monatomic; propene alcohol, (C 3 ll 6 )”(OH )2 
diatomic; propenyl alcohol, (C 3 H 5 )'"(OH )3 triatomic. The 
last-mentioned is glycerine. The simplest alcohol is methyl 
alcohol or wood-naphtha, CII 3 .OII. Common alcohol comes 
next in order, C 2 H 5 .OII. Cetyl alcohol (Ci 6 H 33 OH), de¬ 
rived from spermaceti, and ceryl alcohol (C 27 H 55 .OII), de¬ 
rived from Chinese wax, are white crystalline solids. Those 
alcohols containing one molecule of OH are called mona¬ 
tomic. Other series of hydrocarbons yield similar alco¬ 
hols; phenol or carbolic acid, Cel^OH), is the alcohol of 
benzol, CeH 6 . Diatomic alcohols contain two molecules of 
OH; those derived from the marsh gas or methane series 
of hydrocarbons are called glycols. Triatomic alcohols 
contain three molecules of OH; glycerine or propenyl al¬ 
cohol, C 3 ll 5 (OH) 3 , is the last example. Tetratomic, pent- 
atomic, and hexatomic alcohols are known. Manna sugar, 
or mannite (C 6 Hh 06 = Cel^OHje), is a hexatomic alcohol, 
derived from the hydrocarbon sextane, Cellu. Glucose or 
grape-sugar is the aldehyde of this alcohol. (See Alde¬ 
hyde.) Cane-sugar (C 12 II 22 O 11 ) is intimately related to 
glucose, as it corresponds to two molecules of glucose, less 
one molecule of water; it is called a polyglucosic alcohol. 
Starch and cellulose (C 18 H 30 O 15 ) are regarded as being the 
oxygen-ethers or anhydrides of the polyglucosic alcohols. 

By replacing the OH in alcohols by chlorine, bromine, 
etc., haloid ethers are produced ; thus : 

Common or ethylic alcohol = C 2 II 5 .OII. 

Ethyl chloride = C 2 H 5 CI. 

Methenyl alcohol (triatomic) = CH(OH) 3 . 

Methenyl chloride, chloroform = CIIC 13 . 

By replacing the hydroxyl by acid radicals, compound 
ethers are produced: 

Amyl alcohol, C 5 H 11 .OH. 

Amyl acetate, C5II11.C2H3O2. 

Propenyl alcohol, glycerine, C 3 ll 7 ( 01 I) 3 . 

Glyceryl tristearate, stearine, C 3 H 7 (Ci 8 H 55 02)3. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Alco'na, a county in the N. E. part of Michigan. Area, 
about 630 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Lake 
Huron, and traversed in the S. W. part by the Au Sable 
River. It is an almost solid forest of pine timber, but has 
excellent farming lands. Oats and potatoes are the staples. 
Capital, Harrisville. Pop. 696. 

Alcona, a post-township of Alcona co., Mich. P. 146. 

Alco'ra, a town of Spain, in the province of Castellon, 
11 miles N. W. of Castellon. It has potteries and distilleries 
of brandy. Fruits are the chief articles of export. Pop. 
about 6000. 

Al'corn, a county in the N. part of Mississippi, border¬ 
ing on Tennessee. It is drained by the Big Hatchie River, 
which rises within its limits. The surface is undulating or 
nearly level; the soil is fertile. Capital, Corinth. This 
county is intersected by the Memphis and Charleston R. R. 
Cattle, grain, cotton, and wool are the staples. Pop. 10,431. 

Al'cott (Amos Bronson), an American ideal philosopher, 
and one of the principal contributors to the “The Dial,” 
was born at Wolcott, Conn., Nov. 29,1799, and now resides 
at Concord, Mass. He has acquired some reputation as an 
educational reformer, but is chiefly distinguished for his con¬ 
versational powers. He has held formal “conversations” 
in many of our principal cities on a wide range of specula¬ 
tive and practical themes, and has published two volumes 
of essays—“Tablets,” 1868; “Concord Days,” 1872. 

Alcott (Louisa May), an American writer, daughter 
of the preceding, was born in 1833. She has published a 
number of very popular works for children and youth; 
among these may be named “ Little Women ” (1867), “ The 
Old-Fashioned Girl” (1869), “ Little Men, or Life at Plum- 
field” (1871), and “Work” (1873). 












ALCOTT—ALDEN. 


88 


Alcott (William Alexander), M. D., an American 
writer on education, was born at Wolcott, Conn., Aug. 6 , 
1798. He contributed to several journals, lectured at 
various places on education, hygiene, and other subjects, 
and published a number of popular works, among which 
are “The House I Live In,” “The Young Man’s Guide,” 
“The Library of Health,” “The Young Woman’s Guide,” 
and “Moral Reform.” l)ied Mar. 29, 1859. 

Al'cove [Fr. alcove; Sp. alco'ba; supposed to be de¬ 
rived from the Arabic al-kauf, a “tent”], in architecture, 
a recess in an apartment, separated by an estrade or parti¬ 
tion of columns, and occupied by a bed of state; a recess 
in a library or a lateral apartment for books. 

Alco'y, a town of Spain, in the province of Alicante, 
30 miles N. of Alicante. It is built on uneven ground 
among the hills, and has manufactories of paper and 
woollen goods. About 200,000 reams of paper are made 
here annually. A large part of this paper is consumed in 
the form of cigars ( papelitos ). Pop. in 1860, 25,196. 

Al'cuin, or Al'cwin, an English prelate and scholar, 
whose full name was Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus, was born 
at York about 735 A. D. He went in 782 to the court of 
Charlemagne, of whom he became the confidential friend 
and adviser. He is said to have founded schools at Aix- 
la-Chapelle and Paris. In 796 he was appointed abbot 
of St.-Martin at Tours. He is regarded as the most learned 
man of his age. He died May 19, 804, leaving many let¬ 
ters, poems, and works on theology, etc. 

Alcy'one, or Halcy'one [Gr. ’AA/cvo^], in classic 
mythology, a daughter of iEolus and the wife of Ceyx. 
She was so inconsolable for the death of her husband that 
she threw herself into the sea. Tradition adds that Ceyx 
and Alcyone were changed into kingfishers to reward their 
mutual devotion. 

Alcyo'nium [Gr. aXavoviov, from ’aA/cW, a “king¬ 
fisher,” so called from its supposed resemblance to the 
nest of a kingfisher], a genus of zoophytes belonging to 
the order Alcyonaria, presents a curious polype mass and 
star-like pores, through which polypes protrude them¬ 
selves. The Alcyonium digitatum abounds on the shores 
of Great Britain. The Alcyonium carneum is found along 
the American coast from Cape Cod northward. 

Aldan', a river of Siberia, the largest tributary of the 
Lena, rises in the Yablonoi Mountains, near the frontier 
of the Chinese empire. Flowing north-eastward, and after¬ 
wards in a N. W. direction, it enters the Lena about lat. 
63° N., and nearly 60 miles below Yakutsk. Length, es¬ 
timated at 1300 miles. 

Aldan Mountains, a chain of mountains in the E. 
part of Siberia, connected with the Stannovoi Mountains, 
and extending about 400 miles, from lat. 61° 20' N. to 67° 
30' N. The highest summit of these is Mount Kapitan, 
about 4200 feet high. Some geographers give the name a 
more extensive application—to all the mountain-ranges in 
the N. E. of Asia. 

Ald'borough, Earls of, viscounts of Aldborough 
(1766), Viscounts Amiens (1777), and barons of Baiting- 
lass (1763, in the Irish peerage), a prominent family of 
Great Britain. The first earl was created in 1777.— Ben¬ 
jamin O’Neale Stratford, the sixth earl, was born June 
10, 1808, and succeeded his father Oct. 4, 1849. 

Aldeb'aran [from the Arabic al, “the,” and dabaran, 
“following,” because this star follows the Pleiades], the 
name of a star of the first magnitude in the constellation 
of Taurus, otherwise called a Tauri. It is the brightest 
star of a group called the Hyades. 

Aldegonde, Saint. See Marnix. 

Al'degre'ver, or Aldegraef (Heinrich), a distin¬ 
guished German painter and engraver, born at Soest, in 
Westphalia, in 1502, was a pupil and imitator of Albert 
Diirer. Among his numerous engravings are “ The Labors 
of Hercules” and a portrait of Luther. Died about 1562. 

Al'dehyde [from al, first syllable of alcohol, and dehyd, 
first two of de-hydrogena'tus, “ deprived of hydrogen ”], 
compounds formed by depriving alcohols of hydrogen. The 
term aldehyde was first applied to acetic aldehyde, pro¬ 
duced from common alcohol by limited oxidation, effected 
by ( 1 ) imperfect combustion, as when a spirit-lamp burns 
out for want of alcohol; ( 2 ) by the action of potassic di¬ 
chromate and sulphuric acid; (3) by the action of chlorine 
and water. Thus, 

Alcohol. Oxygen. Aldehyde. Water. 

C2H6O + O — C2II4O + H2O. 

Acetic aldehyde is a limpid, colorless liquid of a peculiar 
ethereal odor, which when concentrated is very suffocating. 
By exposure to the air it absorbs oxygen, and passes into 

Aldehyde. Acetic Acid. 

C2II4O + 0 = C 2 Il 40 2 . 


It reduces oxide of silver to the metallic state, i his alde¬ 
hyde has been prepared in large quantities during the past 
few years, to be used in the manufacture of aldehyde green, 
one of the most beautiful of the aniline colors. 

The aldehydes are intermediate in composition between 
the alcohols and the corresponding acids. By the loss of 
hydrogen the alcohol becomes an aldehyde; by the addition 
of oxygen the aldehyde becomes an acid : 

Common ethylic alcohol, C 2 Il60. 

Acetic aldehyde, C 2 H 4 O. 

Acetic acid, C 2 II 4 O 2 . 

By substituting an alcohol for hydrogen in an aldehyde, 
a ketone is produced, acetic ketone or acetone = C 2 H 8 
(CH 3 )0. 

Among the other more important aldehydes may be men¬ 
tioned acrylic aldehyde or acrolein (C 3 H 4 O), a very offen¬ 
sive liquid produced by the dehydration of glycerine. It 
is always found in the destructive distillation of oils and 
fats containing glycerine, and is the chief cause of the very 
pungent odor produced. Chloral (C 2 IICI 3 O), produced by 
the prolonged action of chlorine on alcohol, is trichlorinated 
acetic aldehyde. By combining with water it produces the 
“chloral-hydrate” so extensively used of late on account 
of its hypnotic effects. It is supposed to be transformed 
by the alkali of the blood into chloroform and formic acid, 
thus: 

Chloral-hydrate. Potassic-hydrate. Potassic-formiate. Chloroform. Water. 

C 2 HC1 3 0.H 2 0 + KHO = KCHO 2 + CHCI 3 + II 2 0. 
Bitter-almond oil (C 7 II 6 O) is benzoic aldehyde. 

Aldehydes possess three characteristic properties: (1) 
they unite with alkaline bisulphites; (2) they unite with 
aniline ; (3) when fused with caustic potash they give off 
hydrogen, forming the potassic salt of the corresponding 
acid. C. F. Chandler. 

Al'den, a post-township of McHenry co.. Ill. Poji. 722. 

Alden, a post-township of Hardin co., Ia. Pop. 739. 

Alden, a post-township of Freeborn co., Minn. Pop. 
381. 

Alden, a post-township of Erie co., N. Y. It is trav¬ 
ersed by the New York Central and the Buffalo division 
of the Erie R. R. Its station on the latter road is 14 
miles E. of Buffalo. Pop. 2547. 

Alden, a post-township of Polk co., Wis. Pop. 390. 

Alden (Bradford R.), an American officer, born May, 
1811, in Meadville, Pa., was descended from the famous 
Pilgrim Alden, who came out in the Mayflower and mar¬ 
ried the beautiful Priscilla Mullens, and his father, Roger 
Alden, was a major in the Revolutionary army. He grad¬ 
uated at West Point in 1831, captain Fourth Infantry June 
14, 1842, served at Florida posts 1832-33, assistant in¬ 
structor in various departments of the Military Academy 
1833-40, aide-de-camp to Major-General Scott 1840-42, in 
military occupation of Texas 1845, commandant of cadets 
at Military Academy 1845-52, on frontier duty on the Pa¬ 
cific 1853, engaged as acting colonel commanding two 
volunteer battalions (which he had raised) on an expe¬ 
dition against the Rogue River Indians, engaged at Jack¬ 
sonville, Or., Aug. 24, 1853 (severely wounded). After 
his resignation, Sept. 29, 1853, he travelled three years in 
Europe, endeavoring to regain his health. Subsequently, 
while on a visit to Western Pennsylvania, he became satis¬ 
fied, by his extensive explorations, of the abundance of 
petroleum, and was among the first to appreciate and give 
effect in 1859 to the value of this discovery. After repeated 
efforts to serve in the civil war, the paralysis caused by his 
wound compelled him to desist. Devoting himself to the 
study of literature and art, in which he was accomplished, 
to the culture of Christianity, of which he was a bright 
exemplar, and to works of active benevolence, for which 
he was famed, he spent his after years till he died, Sept. 
10, 1870, at Newport, R. I., aged fifty-nine. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Alden (James), U. S. N., born June 19, 1809, in Maine, 
entered the navy as a midshipman April 1 , 1828. became 
a passed midshipman in 1834, a lieutenant in 1841, a com¬ 
mander in 1855, a captain in 1863, a commodore in 1866, a 
rear-admiral in 1871. He served in the Mexican war, and 
participated in the capture of Vera Cruz and Tobasco. In 
command of the steamer South Carolina, he engaged the 
batteries off Galveston, Tex., Aug. 3, 1861, and commanded 
the steamer Richmond in the engagement with Forts St. 
Philip and Jackson, and at the capture of New Orleans, 
April 24, 1862, and during the passage up and down the 
Mississippi River by Vicksburg, June 28 and July 15, 
1862; in the engagement at Port Hudson, Mar. 14, 1863, 
commanded the Brooklyn at the great victory over forts, 
rams, and gunboats in Mobile Bay, Aug. 5 , 1864, and in 
both the Fort Fisher fights, Dec., 1864, and Jan., 1865. 
Of his conduct in these affairs, Rear-Admiral David D. 





















ALDEN—ALEMANNI. 


89 


Porter, in his official report of Jan. 28, 1865, speaks in 
terms of exalted admiration, and concludes his remarks 
thus: “ I consider him able and worthy to fill the highest 
rank, and I know that the government has no one in its 
navy more full of energy, zeal, or intelligence in his pro¬ 
fession. I shall feel much disappointed if Captain Alden 
is not promoted to a rank he has won more than once dur¬ 
ing this rebellion. I am sure the department will appre¬ 
ciate all I have said of this gallant officer. His record 
speaks for him.” In 1869 he was appointed chief of the 
bureau of navigation, and in 1871 was appointed to the 
command of the European station. He retired from active 
service in 1873. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Alden (John), one of the Pilgrim Fathers who came 
over in the Mayflower in 1620. He was a magistrate of 
Plymouth Colony for more than fifty years. He was born 
in 1599, and died at Duxbury Sept. 12, 1689. 

Alden (Joseph), D. D., LL.D., was born at Cairo, N. Y., 
Jan. 4, 1807, and graduated at Union College in 1829, 
studied theology at Princeton, and was ordained pastor of 
a Congregational church at Williamstown, Mass. (1834), 
was a professor in Williams College (1835-52), in Lafay¬ 
ette College, Pa. (1852-57), president of Jefferson College 
(1857-67), and since 1867 principal of the New York State 
Normal School at Albany. 

Alden (Rev. Noah), a prominent advocate of religious 
liberty in Massachusetts. He represented the town of Bell¬ 
ingham in the convention which formed the constitution 
of that State. He was also a member of the convention 
which ratified the Constitution of the U. S. In 1766 he be¬ 
came pastor of the Baptist church at Bellingham, where he 
exercised his ministry with great influence and success for 
about thirty years. 

Alden (Timothy), D. D., born at Yarmouth, Mass., Aug. 
28, 1771, graduated at Harvard in 1794. He was pastor 
of a Congregational church in Portsmouth, N. H. (1799- 
1805), and was for many years afterwards a prominent 
educator in Portsmouth, Newark, New York, Boston, Cin¬ 
cinnati, etc. He was the founder and first president (1817— 
31) of Alleghany College, Meadville, Pa. He published a 
collection of epitaphs (5 vols., 1814), “An Account of Mis¬ 
sions among the Senecas ” (1827), and other works. Died 
at Pittsburg, Pa., July 5, 1839. 

Al'denhoven, a market-town of Prussia, in the Rhine 
province. Here the Austrians defeated the French on Mar. 
1 , 1793, and the French defeated the Austrians on Oct. 2, 
1794. Pop. in 1871, 2898. 

Al'der [Lat. AVnua], a genus of trees and shrubs of the 
natural order of Betulaceae or Amentacete. They are na¬ 
tives of the temperate parts of Europe and North America. 
The wood of the common alder of Europe (Alnus glutinosa) 
is used by turners and joiners, affords good charcoal for the 
manufacture of gunpowder, and is valuable for mill-wheels 
and the piles of bridges. The alder is prized as an orna¬ 
mental tree in landscapes. The Alnus cor difolia, a native 
of Italy, is a large and beautiful tree. The alders of the 
Eastern U. S. are shrubs or small trees, but Alnus Oregona 
of the W. coast grows to the height of sixty to seventy feet. 

Al'derman (originally signifying an “older” or 
“senior” man), the title of a municipal officer or magis¬ 
trate in the corporations of England and the U. S. The 
London court of aldermen exercises judicial and legislative 
authority in the corporation. In New York City the term 
is applied to the members of the city council, who are 
elected by the people. In some cities they are magistrates; 
in others councillors. 

Alderney, aul'der-ne, or Aurigny, an island in the 
English Channel, 7 or 8 miles from Cape la Hogue (France), 
belongs to England. It is about 4 miles long, and less than 
2 miles wide. Guernsey, another of the Channel Islands, 
is about 15 miles from this place. The people of Alderney 
are mostly of French extraction. This island produces a 
celebrated breed of small cows. It is separated from France 
by the Race of Alderney, a strait about 8 miles wide, the 
navigation of which is dangerous in stormy weather. It is 
politically a dependency of Jersey. Pop. in 1871, 2718/ 

Al'dershott Camp, a permanent camp formed in 
1855 for the improvement of the British army in tactics 
and in evolutions on a large scale. It is situated on Alder- 
shott Heath, on the confines of Surrey, Hampshire, and 
Berkshire. The area of ground appropriated to this pur¬ 
pose is about 7000 acres. Pop. in 1871, including Frimley 
and Farnborough, 35,864. 

Al'dine Edi'tions, the name given to the editions of 
Greek and Roman classics which were issued by Aldus 
Manutius and his descendants in Venice between 1490 and 
1600. These editions are highly prized for the correctness 


of the text and the beauty of the typography. (See Ma¬ 
nutius.) 

Aldobrandi'ni, a celebrated noble family of Florence. 
Among its most prominent members were Salvestro, born 
1499, died 1558; Ippolito, born 1536, died 1605, who was 
elected pope in 1592 as Clement VIII.; his brother Tom- 
maso, the fourth son of Salvestro; and Francesco, who was 
created a prince by his uncle Clement VIII. “Aldobrandine 
Wedding” is the name of a painting which probably dates 
from the time of Augustus, and was found in 1606 on the 
site of the former garden of Maecenas. It was named after 
Prince Aldobrandini, who first came into possession of it. 

Ald'rich (Henry), D. D., an English scholar and com¬ 
poser of sacred music, was born at Westminster in 1647. 
He was one of the ablest champions of Protestantism in the 
reign of James II., and became dean of Christ Church, 
Oxford, in 1689. He composed anthems which are used in 
the English cathedrals. Died Dec. 14, 1710. 

Aldrich (Thomas Bailey), a poet, born in Portsmouth, 
N. H., Nov. 11,1836. He lived in his youth in Louisiana, 
and then in New York, where he was for a time a clerk, 
then a proof-reader, and afterwards attained eminence as 
a writer and editor. He has been connected with “ The 
Home Journal,” the “ Atlantic Monthly,” and other peri¬ 
odicals, and has published “ The Bells ” (1854), “ The Course 
of True Love” (1858), “ Pampinea ” (1861), several vol¬ 
umes of poems, “The Story of a Bad Boy” (1869), “Mar¬ 
jorie Daw” (1873), and other works. 

Ald'ridge (Ira), a negro tragedian, born in Maryland 
in 1804, was in his youth a personal attendant of Edmund 
Kean. He performed with success in England and other 
countries of Europe. He received medals or tokens of 
honor from the king of Prussia and the emperor of Austria. 
Died Aug. 7, 1867. 

Aldrovan'dus (Ulysses), an eminent Italian naturalist, 
born at Bologna Sept. 11, 1522. He graduated as doctor 
of medicine in 1553, and became professor of natural his¬ 
tory at Bologna in 1560. Having expended much time 
and money in collecting specimens and in the study of na¬ 
ture, he began in 1599 the publication of his “Natural His¬ 
tory ” (13 vols.), of which three volumes on birds and one 
on insects appeared during his life. The other volumes 
were edited by several persons after his death. His “ Nat¬ 
ural History” is a laborious and ill-digested compilation. 
Died Nov. 10, 1607. 

Ale, a sort of beer, a fermented liquor produced from 
malt. Ale contains more alcohol than common beer, and 
is a favorite beverage of the British. Scotch ale and Bur¬ 
ton ale have a high reputation. There are three varieties 
of malt liquor in general use in this country—ale, porter, 
and lager beer. All are prepared from malt, which is bar¬ 
ley which has been allowed to germinate (sprout), and has 
then been dried by artificial heat. Hops are added to give 
the aromatic bitter flavor. The lower the temperature at 
which the malt is dried the lighter will be the color of the 
malt and the beverage. Ale and lager beer are made from 
light, porter from dark-colored malt. Ale and porter are 
fermented at temperatures of from 65° to 90° F. while 
lager beer is fermented at from 46° to 50° F. 

In the manufacture of ale the first fermentation is checked 
at such a point as to leave a considerable quantity of sac¬ 
charine matter in the liquor. By the subsequent ferment¬ 
ation in the barrels or bottles this is changed to alcohol 
and carbonic acid; the latter substance causing the cha¬ 
racteristic effervescence. (See Beer, by C. F. Chandler.) 

Alean'dro [Lat. Alean'der\, (Girolamo), a learned 
Italian cardinal, born at Motta Feb. 13,1480. He was ap¬ 
pointed librarian of the Vatican in 1519, and was sent by 
Leo X. as papal nuncio to Germany in 1520, to counteract 
the influence of Luther. He showed a violent animosity to 
Luther at the Diet of Worms. Died Jan. 31, 1542. 

Ale'do, a post-village, the capital of Mercer co., Ill., on 
a branch of the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 
120 miles N. W. by N. from Springfield. It has two 
weekly papers, is the seat of a college, and is in a fine 
agricultural district. Coal is found in the vicinity. Pop. 
1076. II. Bigelow, Ed. of “Record.” 

Alegam'be (Philip), a learned Flemish Jesuit, born 
at Brussels Jan. 22,1592. He removed to Rome, where he 
became superior of the order of Jesuits. He wrote a valu¬ 
able contribution to the biography and bibliography of the 
Jesuit authors, entitled “ Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis 
Jesu ” (1643). Died Sept. 6, 1652. 

Aleman'ni (i . e. “all men”), the name of certain Ger¬ 
man tribes who formed a confederacy against the Romans 
about 200 A. D., and at that time lived on the Main. They 
invaded Gaul in the reign of Julian the Apostate, who 
gained a victory over them in 357 A. D. Having been de- 

















90 


ALEMBERT, D’—ALEXANDER. 


featcd by Clovis in 496, their confederacy was dissolved. 
From this ivord is derived the French Allemand, signifying 
“ German.” 

Alembert, d’ (Jean le Rond), a celebrated French 
geometer and philosopher, born in Paris Nov. 16, 1717, 
was an illegitimate son of M. Destouches-Canon and 
Madame de Tencin. Having been abandoned by his 
mother in the street, he was nursed by the wife of a gla¬ 
zier, and continued to live with her for about forty years. 
He received from his father an annual pension of 1200 
livres, and was educated in the Mazarin College, which he 
entered in 1730. His favorite study was mathematics. In 
1741 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences, and 
in 1743 produced his celebrated “ Treatise on Dynamics,” 
which opened a new epoch in mechanical jihilosophy, by 
the demonstration of the principle “ that there is an abso¬ 
lute equality at all times between the entire amount of 
force applied and the sum-total of the effects produced.” 
His treatise “ On the Theory of the Winds” gained the 
prize of the Academy of Berlin in 1746. In 1752, Fred¬ 
erick the Great offered him the presidency of the Royal 
Academy of Berlin, which he declined. D’Alembert was 
associated with Diderot as joint editor of the famous “En¬ 
cyclopedic,” for which he wrote an admirable “ Prelimi¬ 
nary Discourse” and many mathematical articles. He 
was admitted into the French Academy in 1754. He 
formed a liaison with the accomplished Mademoiselle 
l’Espinasse, who lived with him twelve years. He showed 
his independence and indifference to riches by i*efus- 
ing, in 1762, the invitation of Catherine II. of Russia, 
Avho offered him a salary of 100,000 francs to direct the 
education of her son. In 1772 he was elected secretary of 
the French Academy. He was an intimate friend of Vol¬ 
taire, and assumed toward Christianity the attitude of a 
skeptic— i. e. a doubter and candid inquirer—while he 
openly avowed his hostility to the Church of Rome. His 
moral character is generally represented as noble and be¬ 
nevolent. Among his works are “ Researches on some Im¬ 
portant Points of the System of the Universe” (3 vols., 
1754-56), “Melanges of Literature and Philosophy,” 
“Elements of Philosophy” (1759), and eulogies on the 
members of the French Academy who died between 1700 
and 1772. He died in Paris on the 29th of Oct., 1783. An 
edition of his works was published by Bossange in 5 vols. 
ivo, 1821. “His literary works,” says Lacroix, “con¬ 
stantly directed to the perfection of reason and the pro¬ 
pagation of correct ideas, were highly appreciated by all 
good judges. They are all remarkable for a pure diction, 
a neat style, and strong or pithy thought.” 

Alemb'ic [from the Arabic article al, and the Gr. a/u|3if, 
a “ cup or pot”], an apparatus formerly used by alchemists 
and chemists in the process of distillation and sublimation. 
It has been superseded by the retort and receiver. 

Alemte'jo, or Alente'jo (“ beyond the Tagus”), a 
province of Portugal, is bounded on the N. by Beira, on 
the E. by Spain, on the S. by Algarve, and on the W. by 
Estremadura and the Atlantic. Area, 9416 square miles. 
It is -intersected by the Gaudiana River, and is washed by 
the Tagus, which forms part of the northern boundary. 
The climate is hot and dry, the surface is hilly, and the 
soil of the northern and eastern valleys is fertile. The 
chief productions are wheat, maize, barley, grapes, rice, 
and figs. Capital, Evora. Pop. in 1868, 332,237. 

Alen^on, a city of France, capital of the department 
of Orne, is situated on the Sarthe and in a plain, 65 miles 
by rail W. S. W. of Paris. It is well built and handsome, 
has a cathedral, a public library, and a church about 1000 
years old. Here are manufactures of various articles, in¬ 
cluding muslin, leather, and a celebrated lace called Point 
d’Alenfon. Pop. in 1866, 16,115. 

Alep'po, called by the Arabs Ha'leb (anc. Chal'ybon 
and Boros'a), an important city of Syria, and one of the 
chief emporiums of the Ottoman empire, is on the Kowek, 
about 55 miles E. of Antioch; lat. 36° 11' N., Ion. 37° 10' 
E. It is surrounded by limestone hills, and presents a pic¬ 
turesque appearance. The houses are well built of stone, 
two or three stories high, mostly in the Saracenic style, with 
richly ornamented walls and ceilings. In the environs are 
celebrated gardens about twelve miles in extent. Aleppo 
has a castle, a Mohammedan college, and many Christian 
churches. It has an extensive trade in cotton and silk 
stuffs, tobacco, wine, oil, indigo, etc., and is visited by 
large caravans from Bagdad, Diarbekir, Mosul, and Ar¬ 
menia. It was a great emporium of trade during or before 
the Middle Ages. Its prosperity was greatly injured by 
the earthquake of 1822, which destroyed a large part of 
the city. The population, which before that event was 
more than 200,000, was about 100,000 in 1867. 

Aleppo, a post-township of Greene co., Pa. Pop. 1382. 


Alesh'ki, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Tauria, 8 miles E. of Kherson. Pop. in 1867, 8484. 

Ale'sia (’AAecna), the fortified capital of the Gallic tribe 
Mandubii, was built, according to a legend, by Hercules. 
Here the last desperate battle for freedom was fought by 
the Gauls, under Vercingetorix, against the Romans, under 
Julius Crnsar, in 52 B. C. The Gauls were completely de¬ 
feated and the city destroyed. Alesia was rebuilt, and 
again destroyed by the Northmen in 864. It was on the 
present Mont Auxois, at the foot of which the modern town 
of Alise is situated. 

Ale'sius [Gr. aAeiVo, “to be a wanderer”], the name 
given, probably by Melanchthon, to Alexander Alane, who 
was born in Edinburgh April 23, 1500, was canon of St. 
Andrew’s, turned Protestant, went to Germany in 1532, 
and again in 1540; was made professor at Leipsic, and died 
there Mar. 17, 1565. He wrote much and ably. It was he 
who translated the Book of Common Prayer into Latin. 

Alessandres'ku (Gregory), a celebrated Rumanian 
poet, born in 1812, was sent in consequence of political 
agitations to a convent, where he wrote his most celebrated 
work, “The Year 1840,” in which he gives expression to 
the hopes of his party. In 1859 he was for a few months 
minister of finance, since which time he has belonged to 
the liberal opposition, which he has effectively aided with 
his poems and fables. A second edition of his collected 
works appeared in 1863. 

Alessan'dri (Basil), the most prominent Rumanian 
poet of modern times, born in 1821, took part in the lib¬ 
eral movement of 1848, was minister of foreign affairs for 
a few months in 1859-60, and has since resided a part 
of the time in Yassy and part of the time in Paris. 
Among his works are “ Doinas ” (1853), “Doine si lacri- 
mivare” (1863), and “The Popular Ballads of Rumania” 
(2 vols., 1853). 

Alessan'dria, a province of Northern Italy, is bound¬ 
ed on the N. by Novara, on the E. by Pavia, on the S. by 
Genoa, and on the W. by Cuneo and Torino. Area, 1952 
square miles. The country consists partly of large fertile 
plains and partly mountains, and is traversed by the 
Tanaro, the Scrivia, and the Bormida. Chief town/Ales¬ 
sandria. Pop. in 1871, 683,473. 

Alessandria (sometimes called Del'la Pa'glia, from 
its first houses having been roofed with straw), a fortified 
city of Italy, the capital of the province of the same name, 
is situated on a plain on the river Tanaro, and on the rail¬ 
way from Turin to Genoa, 46 miles E. S. E. of Turin. It 
is well built, has a cathedral, a royal college, several hos¬ 
pitals, and about fourteen churches. Here are manufac¬ 
tures of silk, linen, and woollen goods, and other articles. 
Two miles S. E. of this place is the village and battle-field 
of Marengo. The citadel is regarded as one of the largest 
and strongest fortresses in Europe. Pop. in 1872, 57,079. 

Aleutian (or Aleu'tan) Islands, a group of 150 or 
more islands, sometimes called the Catharine Arch¬ 
ipelago, in the North Pacific, extending in a row from 
the peninsula of Alaska towards the S. point of Kamt- 
chatka. They are rocky and volcanic, having some active 
volcanoes, and are inhabited by rude natives, who subsist 
by fishing and hunting. The inhabitants are of a race 
essentially Esquimaux. These islands belong to the U. 
S. Onemak or Unimak, the largest of the Fox Islands, 
is about 50 miles long. Pop. about 1200. 

Ale'wife [supposed to be a corruption of the Indian 



Alewife. 


name aloof], (the Alo'sa tyran'nus), a species of American 
fish, belonging to the family Clupeidae, and nearly allied to 
the herring and the shad. It abounds in the Chesapeake 
Bay, and is found along the Atlantic coast of the U. S. As 
many as 5000 barrels have been caught in one year in the 
waters of Massachusetts. In the spring the alewives as¬ 
cend the rivers to deposit their eggs. 

Alexander, a county forming the S. extremity of Il¬ 
linois. Area, 245 square miles. It is situated between the 
Ohio and the Mississippi rivers, at their confluence. The 
surface is flat, and partly subject to inundation. Cairo, 
which is in this county, is the southern terminus of the Il¬ 
linois Central R. R. Grain, wool, and potatoes are the 
staples. Capital, Cairo. Pop. 10,564. 


















































ALEXANDER—ALEXANDER I. 91 


Alexander, a county of the N. W. of North Carolina. 
Area, 300 square miles. It is drained by the South Yadkin 
River. The surface is hilly. Grain, tobacco, and wool are 
the staples. Capital, Taylorsville. Pop. 6868. 

Alexander, a post-township of Washington co., Me. 
Pop. 456. 

Alexander, a post-village and township of Genesee co., 
N. Y., on the New York Central and Rochester division of 
the Erie R. R. It containes a seminary, a tlouring-mill, 
and three churches. Pop. 1605. 

Alexander, a township of Athens co., 0. Pop. 1511. 

Alexander [Gr. ’ A \ ei - av 8 po <; ; surnamed the Great, the 
third Macedonian king of the name, the most famous of all 
military heroes, was the son of Philip, the celebrated king 
of Macedon, and Olympias, the daughter of the king of 
Epirus, who claimed descent from Achilles. At the age 
of fourteen, Alexander was placed under the instruction 
of Aristotle, and soon distinguished himself by his rare 
intellectual powers and by his rapid advancement in every 
kind of knowledge. His descent from Achilles, for whose 
character and achievements he cherished an enthusiastic 
and misplaced admiration, appears to have given his mind 
an early direction towards military glory. Among all 
books the “ Iliad ” was his favorite, and we are told that 
every night a copy of that poem was placed, along with 
his sword, under his pillow. King Philip had such con¬ 
fidence in his son’s courage and capacity that he left him, 
although only sixteen years of age, the regent of his king¬ 
dom during his expedition against Byzantium. At the age 
of eighteen years, Alexander greatly distinguished him¬ 
self in the battle of Chaeronea, and the victory won by 
the Macedonians on that occasion was due, in no small 
measure, to the valor of the young prince. On the death 
of Philip, in 336 B. C., Alexander, not yet twenty years 
of age, succeeded to the throne. Several of the states 
which his father had subjugated deemed this a favorable 
opportunity for recovering their liberty, but the courage 
and celerity of Alexander defeated all their schemes. 
While, however, the young king was engaged in reducing 
the Triballi, the Thebans raised the standard of revolt. 
He instantly directed his march towards Boeotia; Thebes 
was taken by storm, the houses were levelled to the ground, 
and the citizens who had escaped slaughter in the assault 
sold as slaves, excepting only the posterity of Pindar, the 
celebrated Theban poet, and those who had opposed the 
rebellion. Not long after, at an assembly of the Grecian 
states held at Corinth, Alexander was chosen generalissimo 
of the Greek and Macedonian troops destined for the in¬ 
vasion of Persia. Early in the spring of 334 B. C. he en¬ 
tered Asia with an army of about 35,000 men, including 
4500 cavalry. At the river Grani'cus the Persians sought 
to prevent his passage. The Macedonians, though fighting 
at a great disadvantage, gained a signal victory. At Gor- 
dium he attempted to untie the famous knot, for he had 
been told that the empire of the world had been prophesied 
to him who should succeed in this attempt. But having 
for some time tried in vain, he at last drew his sword and 
cut it, saying that this was the only way to untie it. It is 
said that those whose office it was to decide upon the in¬ 
terpretation of the prophecy, either sincerely or from mo¬ 
tives of policy, declared that the Macedonian king had 
fulfilled it. Having received reinforcements in 333 B. C., 
he engaged Darius, the Persian king, who commanded at 
the river Issus an army of 600,000 men. The Persians 
were defeated with immense slaughter; the mother, wife, 
and two daughters of Darius were taken captive, but were 
treated with the greatest respect and kindness by the con¬ 
queror. After this great success scarcely any of the cities 
of Asia presumed to offer resistance to his victorious arms. 
But Tyre, then a powerful maritime and commercial city, 
had the courage or temerity to oppose his progress. The 
city was taken after a most determined resistance, which 
lasted seven months, but the conqueror fixed an indelible 
stain upon his reputation by his merciless cruelty towards 
the conquered Tyrians, thousands of whom were cruelly 
slaughtered, and the rest, numbering nearly 30,000, were 
sold into slavery. Gaza soon after met with a similar fate. 
Alexander then advanced into Egypt, where the people, 
weary of the Persian domination, welcomed him as a 
liberator. In Egypt, on one of the principal mouths of 
the Nile, he founded a city called Alexandria. 

He next visited the temple of Jupiter Ammon, situated 
on an oasis in the desert of Libya, with the hope, it is said, 
that the god would acknowledge him to be his son. This 
having been done through the priest of the temple, he 
again turned his thoughts to the invasion of Persia, where 
Darius had succeeded in collecting another army of more 
than a million men, with not less than 40,000 cavalry. 
Alexander had scarcely more than 40,000 infantry and 
7000 horse. The opposing armies met at Gaugamela, not 


far from Arbela, in 331 B. 0. The Persians were defeated 
with prodigious slaughter. Not long afterwards, Darius 
was murdered by Bessus, one of his satraps. As the dying 
king, covered with wounds, lay extended in his chariot, 
Alexander came up ; at the tragic spectacle the conqueror 
could not restrain his tears. He caused the body of Darius 
to be taken to Persepolis, where it was interred in the 
tombs of the Persian kings. Bessus having been taken 
and put to death, Alexander carried his victorious banners 
beyond the Jaxartes (now called the Sihon, or the Sir 
Daria), subdued Sogdiana, and married Roxana, the 
daughter of a Bactrian prince whom he had conquered. 
After this he turned his thoughts to the invasion of India. 
He crossed the Indus 327 B. C., formed an alliance with 
Taxiles (or Taxilus, as the name is sometimes written), an 
Indian king, and advanced to the banks of the Ilydaspes 
(now the Jhylum), where he encountered Porus at the head 
of an immense army, accompanied by a multitude of ele¬ 
phants. After a sanguinary battle, the Indian king was 
totally defeated and taken prisoner. Alexander’s favorite 
horse, Bucephalus, having been mortally wounded in this 
battle, the conqueror founded a town on the spot where he 
was buried, which he called Bucephala. Taking one city 
after another, he had advanced as far as the Hyphasis (now 
called Gharra), when his troops, alike uninfluenced by his 
menaces and his entreaties, positively refused to go any 
farther. Being thus under the necessity of returning, he 
committed the fleet which he had ordered to be built on the 
Hydaspes to Nearchus, while he himself proceeded by land 
through what is now Beloochistan to Susa. His army en¬ 
countered in this march incredible hardships and suffering, 
so that many soldiers perished from thirst and hunger. 
Having arrived at Susa, he married as his second wife a 
daughter of Darius. As he was forming schemes for the 
extension and improvement of his empire, he died, 323 
B. C., at Babylon, in the thirty-third year of his age. 

It would be unjust to Alexander to regard him merely 
as a great and successful military hero. lie possessed some 
moral qualities of a high order, especially generosity and 
magnanimity. Many of his views of state policy were 
liberal and enlightened. But all that was most excellent 
and admirable in his character was impaired and vitiated 
by mistaken ideas of the dignity and glory which belonged 
to a great king. As his passions were stronger than his 
intellect, extraordinary as the latter undoubtedly was, they 
gradually acquired, during his long career of uninter¬ 
rupted success, an almost unlimited ascendency over him. 
His uniform prosperity may be said to have been his great¬ 
est misfortune. Being a stranger to the “ sweet uses of 
adversity,” it was impossible for him to see his own cha¬ 
racter and conduct in their true light. After his unparal¬ 
leled successes had turned his brain, regarding himself as 
little less than a god, he could not brook the slightest free¬ 
dom of speech, even from his most faithful and most mer¬ 
itorious officers. In a paroxysm of ungovernable rage he 
slew his friend and foster-brother Clitus, who had once 
saved his life, after which a grief, scarcely less violent 
than his anger had been, took possession of his soul, so 
that if he had not been restrained he would probably have 
taken his own life. Pope (in “The Temple of Fame”) 
sums up his career and character in one short line— 

“ The youth who all things but himself subdued.” 

(See Arrian’s “History of Alexander’s Expeditions;” 
Quintus Curtius’s “Life of Alexander;” Williams’s 
“Life and Actions of Alexander the Great,” 1829; Droy- 
sen, “Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen von Macedonien,” 
1833; Geier, “ Alexandri Magni historiarum scriptores 
aetate suppares,” containing the fragments of contempora¬ 
neous historians, 1844; Thirlwall’s “ History of Greece.”) 

J. Thomas. 

Alexander I. (Pope), Saint, a Roman by birth, became 
bishop of Rome in 108 A. D. Died in 117.— Alexander 
II. (Anselmo Badagio) was elected pope in 1061. He de¬ 
clared William the Conqueror the true heir to the English 
crown. Died in 1073.— Alexander III. (Rolando Ranuc- 
cio Bandinelli), one of the ablest men that ever sat on the 
papal throne, was a native of Sienna. He was elected pope 
in 1159. He was involved in a long contest with Frederick 
Barbarossa, and with the anti-popes who were supported 
by that emperor. Having been twice compelled by his 
enemies to leave Rome, he was in 1163 acknowledged pope 
by a council at Tours. The emperor, whom he had ex¬ 
communicated in 1167, made his submission soon after the 
battle of Legnano, and was absolved. Thomas a Bccket, 
who had been encouraged by Alexander in his resistance 
to Henry II. of England, was, after his assassination, 
canonized by the pope. According to Voltaire, Alexander 
proclaimed that no Christian should be held as a slave. 
He is said to have been the first who reserved to the Holy 
See the right of canonization. Died Aug. 1, 1181. (See 













92 ALEXANDER I.—ALEXANDER. 


Reuter, “Geschichte Alexanders III. und der Kirche 
seiner Zeit,” 1860, 2 vols.)— Alexander IV. (Rinaldo di 
Anagni) became pope in 1254. Died May 12, 1261.— Al¬ 
exander V. (Pietro Filargo) was chosen pope in 1409. 
Died May 3, 1410.— Alexander VI. (Rodrigo Lenzuoli 
Borgia), born at Valencia, in Spain, in 1430, was a nephew 
of Pope Calixtus III. Before his election to the papacy 
he had several illegitimate children, among whom were the 
infamous Cassar and Lucretia Borgia. He became a car¬ 
dinal in 1456, and was chosen pope in 1492. Among the 
events of his pontificate was the death of Savonarola. 
Died Aug. 18, 1503. llis character was an infamous com¬ 
pound of cruelty, treachery, licentiousness, and other vices. 
•—Alexander VII. (Fabio Chigi) was born at Sienna Feb. 
13, 1599, and became pope in 1655. He embellished Rome 
with architectural works. Died May 22, 1667.— Alexan¬ 
der VIII. (Pietro Ottoboni) was born in Venice April 19, 
1610, and elected pope in 1689. He assisted the Venetians 
in a war against the Turks. Died Feb. 1, 1691. 

Alexander I., king of Scotland, a younger son of 
Malcolm Canmore, began to reign in 1107. He was an 
able ruler. He died in 1124, and was succeeded by his 
brother, David I.— Alexander II., born in 1198, succeeded 
his father, William the Lion, in 1214. He married a sister 
of Henry III. of England in 1221. He is said to have 
been a wise and able prince. Died in 1249.— Alexander 

111., of Scotland, born in 1241, was a son of the preceding, 
and became king in 1249. He married, in 1251, Margaret, 
a daughter of Henry III. of England. His reign was 
peaceful and prosperous. He fell with his horse over a 
precipice, and was killed in 1286. 

Alexander I. (or Alexan'der Pav'lovitch), em¬ 
peror of Russia, the son of Paul I. and Maria, a princess 
of Wurtemberg, was born at St. Petersburg in Dec., 1777. 
He married, in 1793, Elizabeth, a daughter of the crown 
prince of Baden, and succeeded his father, who was assassi¬ 
nated in Mar., 1801. He promoted civilization, education, 
industry, and trade. His foreign policy was pacific until 
he joined a coalition against Napoleon in 1805. In Decem¬ 
ber of that year the Russian and Austrian armies were de¬ 
feated at Austerlitz. After the Russian armies had sus¬ 
tained several other defeats, the war was ended by the 
treaty of Tilsit in 1807. Alexander then became the friend 
and ally of Napoleon, and declared war against England. 
But, alarmed by the insatiable ambition of Napoleon, he 
resolved on a change of policy, and formed an alliance 
with England and Sweden. Russia was invaded in 1812 
by Napoleon, who took Moscow, but his army was soon 
compelled to retreat, and nearly all perished with cold and 
hunger or were taken prisoners. After the abdication of 
Napoleon, Alexander entered Paris with the victorious 
armies in 1814, and exhibited more generosity and clem¬ 
ency towards the French than the other allies showed. He 
again entered Paris in triumph in July, 1815, and in the 
same year formed, with the emperor of Austria and the 
king of Prussia, a coalition called “the Holy Alliance,” 
the tendency of which was reactionary and hostile to the 
cause of liberty. The professed object of this alliance was 
to promote religion and peace. As he advanced in years 
be became more contracted and less liberal, a prey to 
hypochondria and suspicion. His projects of reform were 
abandoned, a rigid censorship of the press was maintained, 
and all liberal or progressive tendencies were repressed. 
He died without issue at Taganrog, Dec. 1, 1825, and was 
succeeded by his brother Nicholas. (See Russia.) 

Alexander II., surnamed Nicolaevitcii (?. e. “the son 
of Nicholas ”), emperor of Russia, the eldest son of Nicholas 

1., was born April 29, 1818. His mother was a sister of 
William I. of Prussia and emperor of Germany. He mar¬ 
ried in 1841, Marie, a daughter of the grand duke of Ilesse- 
Darmstadt, and ascended the throne on the 2d of Mar., 
1855, during the Crimean war, which Russia waged against 
France, England, and Turkey. The war was terminated by 
the treaty of Paris, signed in Mar., 1856. His domestic 
policy has been more moderate and liberal than that of his 
ancestors. He is commended for punishing official corrup¬ 
tion and liberating public instruction from military dis¬ 
cipline and control. Among the memorable events of his 
reign was the emancipation of about twenty million serfs, 
which was decreed in 1861. (See Russia.) 

Alexander Alexandrovitch, grand duke of Russia 
and cesarevitch, the second son of the emperor Alexander 

11., was born Mar. 10, 1845. He married in Nov., 1866, 
Marie Sophie Frederike Dagmar, who is a daughter of 
Christian IX., king of Denmark, and who then assumed 
the name of Marie Feodorovna. He became, after the 
death of his elder brother Nicholas, in 1865, the heir-ap¬ 
parent to the throne. He has two sons—Nicholas Alexan¬ 
drovitch, born in 1868, and George Alexandrovitch, born 
in 1871. 


Alexander (Archibald), D.D., an eminent divine, born 
near Lexington, Rockbridge co., Va., April 17, 1772. He 
became president of Hampden-Sidney College in 1796, and 
pastor of a Presbyterian church in Philadelphia in 1807. 
In 1812 he was chosen the first professor of the Theological 
Seminary of Princeton, N. J., then just founded. He was 
distinguished as a pulpit orator and as a writer on the¬ 
ology. Among his works are “Outlines of the Evidences 
of Christianity ” (1824), a “History of the Israelites,” and 
“Outlines of Moral Science” (1852). The first of these 
works has been translated into several languages. He mar¬ 
ried, in 1802, Janetta Waddell, a daughter of a well-known 
blind preacher. Died Oct. 22, 1851. 

Alexander (Barton Stone), an American officer, born 
in 1819 in Kentucky, graduated at West Point 1842, and 
Mar. 7, 1867, lieutenant-colonel of engineers. He served 
as assistant engineer, repairing fortifications, 1842-47, in 
the war with Mexico 1848, at the Military Academy as 
treasurer and erecting buildings 1848-52, constructing 
military asylum (Soldiers’ Home) near Washington, D. C., 
1852-55, altering Smithsonian Institution 1854, building 
Chelsea Marine Hospital, Mass., 1855-59, and erecting 
Minot’s Ledge lighthouse, entrance to Boston harbor, 1855- 
61. In the civil war was aide-de-camp, with the rank of 
lieutenant-colonel, chiefly employed in the construction of 
the defences of Washington, D. C., 1861-66, in Manassas 
campaign 1861, engaged at Blackburn’s Ford and Bull 
Run (brevet major), in Virginia peninsula campaign 1862, 
engaged at Yorktown (brevet lieutenant-colonel), West 
Point, Chickahominy, Fair Oaks, Gaines’s Mill, and Gold¬ 
en’s Farm, as consulting engineer of Major-General Sheri¬ 
dan’s army in Shenandoah Valley 1864, present at Cedar 
Creek, and in preparation of bridge equipage, devising 
defensive works, and member of various boards 1861-66. 
He was made brevet colonel and brigadier-general Mar. 13, 
1865, for meritorious services. Since the war he has had 
charge of most of the public works in Maine till Jan. 7, 
1867, when he became senior engineer and member of the 
Pacific board of engineers for fortifications. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Alexander (James Waddell), D.D., an eminent divine, 
was born near Gordonsville, in Louisa co., Va., Mar. 13, 
1804. He graduated at Princeton in 1820, and became in 
1833 professor of rhetoric at the College of New Jersey 
(Princeton). From 1844 to 1849 he was pastor of the 
Duane street Presbyterian church in New York. From 
1849 to 1851 he was professor of church history in the 
Princeton Theological Seminary. In 1851 he took charge 
of the Fifth avenue Presbyterian church in New York City, 
and died July 31, 1859. He was a man of various culture, 
and had uncommon unction and power as a preacher. He 
published numerous articles in the “ Princeton Review,” 
and a number of volumes, such as “ Discourses on Chris¬ 
tian Faith and Practice” and “Sacramental Discourses.” 

Alexander (John Henry), an American savant, born 
at Annapolis, Md., in 1812, published a “Treatise of 
Mathematical Instruments” (1835), “Contributions to the 
History of Iron” (1840), “Introits” (1844), “Dictionary 
of Weights and Measures” (1850), “International Coin¬ 
age” (Oxford, 1857), and other works. Died at Baltimore 
Mar. 2, 1867. (See his Life by W. Pinkney, 1867.) 

Alexander (Joseph Addison), D.D., was born in Phila¬ 
delphia April 24, 1809. He graduated at the College of 
New Jersey in 1826. He was chosen adjunct professor of 
Latin in 1833. In 1838 he went into the Theological Semi¬ 
nary as associate professor of Oriental and biblical litera¬ 
ture, and in one chair and another continued to serve the 
institution till his death at Princeton, Jan. 28, 1860. He 
made extraordinary attainments in the Semitic and other 
languages. He was also an impressive preacher. He wrote 
much for the “Princeton Review.” His most important 
works are commentaries: “Isaiah” (2 vols. Svo, 1846) 
“Psalms” (3 vols. 12mo, 1850), “Acts” (1 vol., 1857)’ 
“Mark” (1 vol., 1858). “Matthew” was published post¬ 
humously in 1860. 

Alexander (Nathaniel), born in Mecklenburg, N. C., 
in 1756, graduated at Princeton in 1776, served in the Re¬ 
volutionary army, and afterwards practised medicine. He 
was member of Congress (1803-05) and governor of North 
Carolina (1805-07). Died at Salisbury, N. C., Mar. 8, 
1808. ’ 

Alexander (Stephen), LL.D., a distinguished astron¬ 
omer, born at Schenectady, N. Y., Sept. 1, 1806, grad¬ 
uated at Union College in 1824. He became professor of 
astronomy at the College of New Jersey in 1840, and obtain¬ 
ed in 1845 an additional chair of mechanics. He has ac¬ 
quired distinction as a writer on astronomy. 

Alexander (William), earl of Stirling, a Scottish 
poet, born in 1580. He wrote, besides several dramas, a 









ALEXANDER—ALEXANDRIA. . 93 


didactic poem entitled “ Doomesday ” (1614), which was 
much admired. He was appointed secretary of state for 
Scotland in 1626. Died in 1640. 

Alexander (William), styled Lord Stirling, an Amer¬ 
ican general, born in New York in 1726. Ho claimed the 
earldom of Stirling, but did not succeed in obtaining the 
estate belonging to it. Having espoused the popular cause 
in tho Revolution, he served with distinction at Long 
Island, Germantown, and Monmouth, and obtained the 
rank of major-general. He also promoted the cause by 
exposing the intrigues of Conway. Died Jan. 15, 1783. 

Alexander ISa'las, a usurper of the throne of Syria, 
was a person of low origin, and lived in the second century 
B. C. He pretended to be the son of Antiochus Epipli- 
anes, and with the aid of Rome and several Greek 
princes defeated his rival Demetrius Soter in 150 B. C., 
and Demetrius was killed in the flight. After a short 
reign he was defeated by his father-in-law, and in 146 
B. C. was murdered by an Arabian emir with whom he had 
taken refuge. 

Alexander John I., prince of Rumania, born Mar. 
20 , 1820, was elected in 1858 to the assembly of Moldavia, 
became in the same year minister of war of the united 
principalities, was elected in 1859 first prince of Moldavia, 
and then prince of Wallachia, in both cases by a unani¬ 
mous vote, but had to pledge himself to complete the union 
of the two principalities, and then resign in favor of some 
European prince. But he was not recognized by Turkey 
until Dec. 23, 1861, as prince of both principalities, on 
which day the union of the two principalities under the name 
of Rumania was proclaimed. But in consequence of sev¬ 
eral unpopular measures the most prominent men of Ru¬ 
mania planned a revolution, and in the night of Feb. 23, 
1866, entered his apartments and forced him to sign his 
resignation. After that time he lived in Vienna as a pri¬ 
vate citizen. He died in 1873. 

Alexander Karageorgevitch, prince of Servia, the 
son of Gerny George (which see), the first prince of Ser¬ 
via, born Oct. 11, 1806, was elected prince of Servia in 

1842. Russia protested against his election, but Mar. 27, 

1843, he was again elected, and this time by a unanimous 
vote. In consequence, however, of his peace policy to¬ 
wards the foreign powers, he became obnoxious to the 
people, and was deposed Dec. 11, 1858. In 1868 he was 
accused of complicity in the murder of Prince Michael, his 
successor, and was sentenced in 1871 by the authorities of 
Austria, where he had resided since his deposition, to eight 
years’ imprisonment and the costs. 

Alexan'der Nev'ski (or Nev'skoi), a Russian prince 
and hero, born in 1219, was a son of the grand duke Yar- 
oslaf II. He gained in 1240 a signal victory over the 
Swedes on the Neva ; hence his surname. On the death of 
his father, about 1246, he became grand duke of Vladimir. 
Died in 1263. By the Russians he is regarded as a saint. 

Alexan'der of Aphrodis'ias, a celebrated Greek 
commentator on Aristotle, lived at about the close of the 
second century after Christ. Like his masters, Herminus 
and Aristocles the Messenian, he tried to free the Peripa¬ 
tetic philosophy from the syncretism of Aminonius and 
others, and to restore the true interpretation of Aristotle’s 
works. 

Alexan'der Seve'rus, a Roman emperor, born about 
205 A. D. His original name was Alexianus Bassianus, 
but when upon his removal to Rome he was created caesar, 
pontiff, consul, and princeps juvenix elect by his cousin, 
the emperor Elagabalus, he assumed the name M. Aure¬ 
lius Alexander, and added Severus afterwards. In 222 
A. D., upon the death of his cousin, Alexander was pro¬ 
claimed emperor by the praetorians, and confirmed by 
the senate. In 232 he gained a great victory over the 
Persians; in 234 he marched into Gaul against the Ger¬ 
mans, but was waylaid and murdered by some mutinous 
soldiers in 235. 

Alexan'dra (Caroline Marie Charlotte Louise 
Julie), princess of Wales, a daughter of Christian IX., 
king of Denmark, was born in 1844. She was married in 
Mar., 1863, to Albert Edward, prince of Wales. 

Alexan'dri, or Aleksandri (Vasilio), a Moldavian 
poet and litterateur, born at Yassy in 1821, was educated 
in Paris. He produced, in French and Moldavian, a 
number of dramas which were performed with success at 
Yassy. In 1852 ho published “ Popular Ballads of Ruma¬ 
nia.” His novels, songs, and ballads have been much 
admired. 

Alexan'dria [classical accentuation, Alexandria ; Gr. 
’AAe£ai/6pe<.a], an ancient and celebrated city and seaport of 
Lower Egypt, named from Alexander the Great, by whom 
it was‘founded in 332 B. C. It was situated on a low and 
narrow tract which separates Lake Mareotis from the 


Mediterranean, near the western mouth of the Nile, and 
117 miles N. W. of Cairo. Lat. of Pharos, the Alexandria 
lighthouse, 31° 12' 9” N., Ion. 29° 53' E. Soon after its 
foundation it became the capital of the Grecian kings who 
reigned in Egypt, and one of the most populous and mag¬ 
nificent cities in the world. It was a great emporium of 
commerce, for which its position between Europe and In¬ 
dia was very advantageous. Before, as well as after, tho 
Christian era this city was a celebrated seat of learning 
and philosophy. Here was founded the greatest library of 
antiquity (see Alexandrian Library), and the celebrated 
Museum. Among the principal edifices was the Sera- 
peion, or temple of Serapis. In front of tho city stood 
a famous lighthouse called Pharos, on an island of the 
same name. It is supposed that during its greatest pros¬ 
perity Alexandria had 600,000 inhabitants, a majority 
of whom were Greeks and Jews. Even after Egypt had 
been conquered by the Romans, this city was second only 
to Rome in size and importance. About the period 300- 
640 A. D. it was a great focus of Christian theology and 
sectarianism. It was captured by the Saracen caliph 
Omar about 640, after which its prosperity declined. The 
discovery of a passage to India by the Cape of Good 
Hope (1497) contributed to its ruin, so that the population 
was reduced in 1778 to 6000. The principal remains of its 
ancient grandeur are—a granite monolith erroneously 
called Pompey’s Pillar; the Catacombs; and two obelisks 
named Cleopatra’s Needles, one of which, about seventy- 
tvflb feet high, is standing, and the other lies prostrate on 
the ground. 

The modern city, which has again become populous and 
important, is built near the site of the ancient, and on a 
mole or isthmus connecting the main land with the island 
of Pharos. It is connected with Cairo by a canal and rail¬ 
way, and with Suez by a railway, which is continued from 
Cairo. Here are a palace of the pasha, a custom-house, a 
large naval arsenal, and medical, naval, and other schools. 
Some of tho new streets present the aspect of a European 
city, but in the Turkish quarter the streets are narrow and 
dirty. In consequence of steam navigation, Alexandria 
has again become a great emporium of the commerce be¬ 
tween Europe and India. The chief articles of export are 
grain, sugar, drugs, cotton, gums, rice, dates, and hides. 
Steamers ply regularly between this port and Brindisi, 
Malta, and Constantinople. Eleven newspapers are pub¬ 
lished here in the Italian, Greek, and French languages. 
Pop. in 1871, 219,602; among whom there are 25,000 
Greeks, 20,000 Italians, 15,000 French, 8000 Germans and 
Swiss, and a large number of other foreigners. 

Revised by A. J. Schem. 

Alexandria, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Kherson, 148 miles N. E. of Kherson. Pop. in 1867, 10,434. 

Alexandria, a town in Wallachia. Pop. 8596. 

Alexandria, a county in the N. E. part of Virginia. 
Area, about 36 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. 
by the Potomac, which separates it from the city of Wash¬ 
ington. The surface is hilly. This county was formerly a 
part of the District of Columbia, and was retroceded to 
Virginia in 1844. Grain i3 the chief crop. Capital, Alex¬ 
andria. Pop. 16,755. 

Alexandria, the capital of Glengary co., Ontario, is 
about 130 miles N. E. of Kingston. 

Alexandria, a township of Calhoun co., Ala. Pop. 
1689. 

Alexandria, a township of Leavenworth co., Kan. P. 
1179. 

Alexandria, the capital of Rapides parish, La., is on 
the S. bank of the Red River, 350 miles by water N. W. of 
New Orleans. It has a convent of the Sisters of Mercy, 
four well-established and prosperous institutions of learn¬ 
ing, five churches (Catholic, Episcopalian, Methodist, color¬ 
ed Methodist, and colored Baptist), a large three-story brick 
hotel, two well-organized companies of firemen, three ship¬ 
ping warehouses, a large number of stores, and two weekly 
papers. It has two weekly packets to New Orleans, besides 
which the Shreveport, Jefferson, Tex., and other boats, some 
thirty-five in all, stop here. In 1872 Alexandria shipped 
8265 bales of cotton, 3662 hogsheads of sugar, and 5845 bar¬ 
rels of molasses, besides large quantities of hides, peltries, 
moss, beeswax, tallow, pecan-nuts, and fruit. Pop. 1218. 

E. R. Biossat, Ed. “Louisiana Democrat.” 

Alexandria, a post-village, capital of Douglas co., 
Minn., in a township of the same name, 140 miles W. N. W. 
of St. Paul, on the proposed line of the St. Vincent branch 
of St. Paul and Pacific R. R. It has a weekly paper, a 
U. S. land-office, and steam grist and saw mills. The vil¬ 
lage is pleasantly situated on one of the many beautiful 
lakes which abound in that part of the State. Pop. of 
Alexandria township, 503. 

Joseph Gilpin, Ed. “ Post.” 













94 


ALEXANDRIA—ALFIERI. 


Alexandria, a township of Benton co., Mo. Pop. 921. 

Alexandria, a post-village of Clarke co., Mo. It has 
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 688. 

Alexandria, a post-township of Grafton co., N. II. It 
has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 876. 

Alexandria, a township of Hunterdon co., N. J. Pop. 
3341. 

Alexandria, a post-village of Jefferson co., N. Y., in 
a township of its own name, on the St. Lawrence ltiver, 
25 miles N. by E. of Watertown. Alexandria Bay is a port 
which is visited by steamboats. It has a lighthouse. The 
township embraces a part of the Thousand Isles, and is a 
great summer resort. It contains a glass-factory and 
eight churches. Pop. of township, 3087. 

Alexandria, a post-borough of Huntingdon co., Pa. 
Pop. 556. 

Alexandria, a city, port of entry, and capital of Alex¬ 
andria co., Va., is pleasantly situated on the right bank of 
the Potomac, 7 miles below Washington. The river is here 
1 mile wide, and forms a good harbor, which is deep enough 
for the largest ships. The streets are regular and well 
paved, and the principal thoroughfare is traversed by a 
horse railway. The city contains a court-house, a new and 
very handsome market-house, fifteen churches, several 
banks, has two daily and three weekly newspapers, an 
efficient steam fire department, and is lighted with gas 
and supplied with water. An extensive cotton-factory has 
been in operation for a number of years, with flouring- 
mills, machine-shops, plaster-mills, and other industries. 
The city is noted for the number and excellence of its in¬ 
stitutions of learning, and has a large public library. It 
is the terminus of a number of railroads; one crosses the 
State to the North Carolina border; another, to connect 
with the Ohio River, is being constructed; one to Rich¬ 
mond, t rid Fredericksburg; and a short line affords hourly 
communication with Washington. Alexandria enjoys an 
extensive coal-trade by the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal 
from the Cumberland region, a large number of vessels 
being employed in the shipment of the product of the 
mines to Northern ports. Pop. 13,570.* 

E. Snowden, Ed. “Alexandria Gazette.” 

Alexan'drian Li'brary, the largest and most cele¬ 
brated library of antiquity, was founded by Ptolemy Phil- 
adelphus, king of Egypt, about 275 B. C. He purchased 
many books at Athens, Rome, and other places. This 
library is said to have been partially destroyed by fanat¬ 
ical Christians about 395 A. D. According to some au¬ 
thorities, it was burned in 642 A. D. by order of the caliph 
Omar, who argued that if books agree with the Koran they 
are unnecessary, if they differ they should be destroyed. 
(See Ritsciil,“ Die Alexandrinischen Bibliotheken,” 1838.) 

Alexandrian (or Alexandrine) School is the name 
given to a certain type of thought and culture which began 
to prevail in Egypt about 300 B. C. The intercourse of the 
Jewish and Greek colonists who had previously settled in 
that country had given rise to a blending of the peculiar 
religious ideas of each. The Gnostics, whose system was 
a mingling of Oriental with Christian thought, originated 
chiefly in Alexandria; and Philo-Judaeus, generally re¬ 
garded as the founder of Neo-Platonism, was also a native 
of that city. Athanasius, Gregory of Nazianzus, and other 
eminent Christian Fathers favored the Alexandrian School, 
and adopted to a certain extent the doctrines of the Neo- 
Platonists. This school was likewise renowned for the cul¬ 
ture of mathematics and physical science, and numbered 
among its disciples Euclid, Aristarchus of Samos, and, ac¬ 
cording to some writers, Archimedes. The celebrated critic 
Aristarchus is said to have passed the greater part of his 
life in Alexandria, where he founded a school. With regard 
to correctness and elegance of expression the Alexandrian 
writers were highly distinguished, but they were deficient 
in life and spirit. In a school where imitation and rule 
took the place of inspiration, each generation became more 
artificial and lifeless than its predecessor, and both prose 
and poetry often became labored affectation. Special works 
on the history of the Alexandrine School have been writ¬ 
ten by Matter, 2 vols., 2d. ed., 1840-44; Barthelemy St.- 
Hilaire (1845), and Simon (2 vols., 1844-45). 

Alexan'drine, a poetical metre or verse, formed of 
twelve syllables, which was first used by a French poet of 
the twelfth century, named Alexander of Paris. The sec¬ 
ond line of the following couplet from Pope’s “ Essay on 
Criticism,” part ii., line 156, furnishes an example: 

“ A needless Alexandrine ends the song:, 

Which, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.” 

See also Virgil’s “ Georgies,” iii., 424. 

Alexandrine Age, a name applied to a period during 
which Alexandria was the principal centre of literature and 
science in the world. It extended from about 300 B. C. to 


600 A. D., and was represented by many eminent gram¬ 
marians and critics, who excelled in correctness and ele¬ 
gance of style, but were deficient in genius and originality. 

Alexandro'pol (called also Muenri or Guenri), a 
fortified town of the Caucasus, in the government of Eri- 
van, on the Arpa-Chai River, 85 miles S. W. of Tiflis. 
The fort, which lies about 2000 feet from the city, 300 feet 
above the level of the river, commands the entire vicinity, 
and can hold 10,000 men. Alexandropol is an important 
strategical point, as it is the key to Armenia. Pop. in 
1867, 17,272. 

Alexan'drov, a town of Central Russia, in the gov¬ 
ernment of Vladimir, 70 miles W. N. W. of the city of Vla¬ 
dimir. It contains a convent founded by Ivan IV., who is 
said to have also established here the first printing-press in 
Russia. Pop. in 1867, 5810. 

Alex'is (or Alex'ius) Comnenus, the name of sev¬ 
eral emperors who reigned at Trebizond (Trapezus) in the 
thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. They be¬ 
longed to the same family as the Alexis Comnenus men¬ 
tioned below. 

Alexis (or Alexius) I., Comnenus, emperor of Con¬ 
stantinople, born in 1048. Having distinguished himself 
by his military talents, he was proclaimed emperor by his 
soldiers about 1080, in place of Nicephorus, who was then 
deposed. He showed himself an able and a crafty ruler. 
Some writers censure him for his failure to support the 
operations of the first Crusade, which occurred in his reign. 
He died in 1118, and was succeeded by his son John. 

Alexis Alexandrovitch, grand duke of Russia, a 
younger son of the emperor Alexander II., was born in 
Jan., 1850. He visited the U. S., making an extensive 
tour in 1872, and meeting nearly everywhere a warm re¬ 
ception among the Americans. 

Alexis Miciiaelovitch, czar of Russia, was born Mar. 
10, 1629, and succeeded his father Michael in 1645. He 
promoted civilization and improved the laws. He was the 
father of Peter the Great. Died Jan. 29, 1676. 

Alexis Petrovitcii, or Petrowitsch, a Russian prince, 
a son of Peter the Great, was born in 1690. He showed 
such a hostility to the reforms of his father that the latter 
resolved to exclude him from the throne. While Peter was 
travelling in Western Europe in 1717, Alexis fled to Vienna 
and Naples. He was soon brought back, and condemned 
to death on a charge of treason or rebellion. He was found 
dead in prison in July, 1718. Scarcely a doubt can be en¬ 
tertained that he was poisoned by the order of his father. 
His son Peter became emperor in 1727. 

Alex'isbad, a watering-place of Germany, in the Harz 
Mountains, 9 miles from Ballenstadt, was established as a 
watering-place by the duke of Anhalt-Bernburg in 1810. 
It has two springs—the Selke spring, which contains no 
carbonates, and very little carbonic acid gas, but large 
quantities of chloride and sulphate of iron, and is only used 
for bathing; and the Alexis spring, containing carbonate 
of iron, is used for drinking. The scenery in the neighbor¬ 
hood is beautiful. 

Alex'ius, Saint, the son of a noble Roman, who lived 
at the time of Pope Innocent I. (402-416). He married at 
the wish of his father, but fled after the marriage, and after 
having lived for a long time as a hermit, he returned and 
devoted himself to a life of charity, and only made himself 
known a short time before his death. His life was dra¬ 
matically treated in the Middle Ages in most of the Eu¬ 
ropean languages. 

Alfalu, a town of Austria, in Transylvania. Pop. in 
1869, 5041. 

Alfie'ri (Vittorio), Count, the most popular Italian 
poet of his time, was born at Asti, in Piedmont, Jan. 17, 
1749, and inherited a large fortune. He was sent to the 
Academy of Turin, in which he learned little, and which 
he quitted about 1764. Recoiling with disgust and resent¬ 
ment from the stupid pedantry and tyranny of his teachers, 
he plunged into dissipation and neglected the cultivation 
of his mind. He passed many years in travel, for which he 
had a strong passion, and visited nearly all the countries 
of Europe, impelled by morbid unrest and love of excite¬ 
ment, rather than a rational resolution to complete his ed¬ 
ucation. He began his literary career by the drama of 
“Cleopatra,” which was performed with applause in 1775. 
About this time he entered a more regular course of life, 
and devoted himself with passionate ardor to study and 
composition. It is stated that he commenced the study 
of Greek after he was forty years old. His literary suc¬ 
cess was promoted, as he affirms, by the influence of the 
countess of Albany, the wife of the Pretender Charles Ed¬ 
ward Stuart. (See Albany, Countess of.) He passed 
many years in her society at Florence and Rome, and in 
France. He composed numerous tragedies, comedies, sat- 































95 


ALFONSINE TABLES—ALGAROVILLA. 


ires, and lyrical poems. His reputation is founded chiefly 
on his tragedies, among which we notice “ Virginia,” “ Fi¬ 
lippo II.,” “ Orestes,” “ Abel,” “ Mary Stuart,” “ Myrrha,” 
“ Octavia,” and “ Saul.” His dramas, which display great 
energy of language and intensity of passion, and abound 
in noble sentiments, were well adapted to reform the na¬ 
tional literature, which had become effete, insipid, and des¬ 
titute of manly vigor. “ The aim of his works,” says Mad¬ 
ame de Stael, “is so noble, the sentiments which the author 
expresses accord so well with his personal conduct, that his 
tragedies ought always to be praised as actions, even when 
they may be criticised as literary works.” ( Corinne .) Alfieri 
was liberal in politics, and ardently desired to improve the 
political and social condition of Italy by his writings. 
Among his works are an “Essay on Tyranny,” five odes on 
the American Revolution, and his interesting Autobiogra¬ 
phy. He died at Florence Oct. 8, 1803. His complete 
works were published at Pisa in 22 vols. 4to, 1808. A new 
edition of his dramatic works was published by Milanesi 
(1855, 2 vols.). His life was written by Teza (1861). 

Alfon'sine (or Alphon'sine) Tables, the name of 
the astronomical tables prepared by the order of Alfonso 
X. of Castile and Leon, at a cost of 400,000 gold ducats— 
say, $800,000. They were published in 1252. They were 
first printed in 1483, and were the first printed tables that 
ever appeared. For about three centuries they were all 
that astronomy had to depend on. 

Alfon'so III. of Asturias, surnamed the Great, began 
to reign in 866 A. D. He enlarged his dominions by vic¬ 
tories over the infidels of Spain. Died in 910. 

Alfonso I. of Castile (or Alfonso VI. of Leon), sur¬ 
named the Brave, was a son of Fernando I. He became 
king of Leon in 1065, and of Castile in 1073. Aided by 
the famous Cid, he defeated the Moors in several battles. 
He died in 1109.—Alfonso VIII. of Castile (sometimes 
called Alfonso III.) was born about 1155, and became 
king in 1158. He defeated the sultan Mohammed An-Nasir 
in a great battle in 1212. Died in 1214.—Alfonso XI. of 
Castile, born in 1311, succeeded his father, Fernando IV., 
in 1312. He gained a great victory over the sultan Abool- 
Hassan at Tarifa in 1340. Died in 1350. 

Alfonso X., king of Leon and Castile, surnamed El 
Sabio (“the Wise”), was born in 1221. He succeeded his 
father, Fernando III., in 1252. He was one of the most 
learned men of his time, and was distinguished as a patron 
of literature and science, but he was not prosperous in 
political and military affairs; his reign was disturbed by 
rebellions. Under his auspices an excellent code of laws 
was given to Spain, and the Bible was translated into Cas¬ 
tilian. He wrote several works in verse and prose which 
are highly commended. Died April 4, 1284. 

Alfonso I., king of Naples and Sicily, born about 
1385, was a son of Fernando I. of Aragon, whom he suc¬ 
ceeded in 1416. On the death of Joanna II., queen of Na¬ 
ples (1435), that kingdom was claimed by Alfonso and 
Ren§ of Anjou. After a long war between these rivals, 
Alfonso obtained the throne of Naples in 1442. He died 
June 27, 1458, and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand I. 

Alfonso [Port. Affon'eo] I., the first king of Portugal, 
born about 1100, was a son of Henry of Burgundy. He 
inherited from his father the title of count of Portugal. 
Having gained a great victory over the Moors at Ourique 
in 1139, he then assumed the title of king. He afterwards 
took Lisbon, and became master of all Portugal. He died 
Dec. 6, 1185, and left the throne to his son, Sancho I. 

Al'ford, a post-township of Berkshire co., Mass. It 
has valuable marble-quarries. Pop. 430. 

Alford (H enrv ), D. D., an English poet and theolo¬ 
gian, born in London in 1810. He became a fellow of 
Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1834, incumbent of Quebec 
street chapel, London, in 1853, and dean of Canterbury 
in 1856. His most popular poetical work is “ The School 
of the Heart, and other Poems” (1835), which was highly 
commended by the “Edinburgh Review” for Jan., 1836. 
He gained a high reputation as a biblical critic by his 
edition of the Greek New Testament (1844—52). A revised 
edition of it appeared in 4 vols. (1859 et seq.). He pub¬ 
lished also a small volume entitled “The Queen’s English,” 
which attracted some attention. Died Aug. 13, 1871. 

Alford (John), born in 1686, was the founder of a pro¬ 
fessorship of natural religion, moral philosophy, and civil 
polity in Harvard College, and also a benefactor of Prince¬ 
ton College and other institutions. Died at Charlestown, 
Mass., Sept. 29, 1761. 

Al'fordsville, a township of Robeson co., N.C. P. 1041. 
Al'fred, surnamed the Great, written also /Elfred, 
Alured, or Alvred [Lat. jEIfre''dugi\, king of the West 
Saxons in England, was born in Berkshire in 848 or 849 
A. D. He was a younger son of Ethelwolf, and succeeded 


his brother Ethelred in 871, when he found the country in 
a miserable condition. In the preceding reign the king¬ 
dom had been invaded and ravaged by an army of Danes 
whom the Saxons were unable to resist. After the acces¬ 
sion of Alfred these piratical incursions were continued or 
renewed, and nearly all of the kingdom was conquered by 
the Danes. Alfred was forced to flee from his court and 
conceal himself in the hut of a cowherd. Having by 
furtive measures raised a small army, he attacked and 
routed the Danes at Eddington in 878. Soon after this 
battle the Danish king Godrun (or Guthrun) surrendered 
himself, was converted to Christianity, and remained a 
peaceable subject of Alfred, who now directed his attention 
to civil affairs. He founded or improved the British navy, 
rebuilt cities and forts, established schools, compiled a code 
of laws, and reformed the administration of justice. In 
that age of ignorance he was distinguished as a scholar, as 
well as a patron of learning. He translated several works 
from the Latin into Anglo-Saxon. About 886 he was 
recognized as the sovereign of all England. His kingdom 
was again invaded in 894 by an army of Northmen under 
Hastings, who is said to have had a fleet of 300 ships. 
Alfred defeated them in several battles, and finally drove 
them out of the island. He died in 901, and was succeeded 
by his son, Edward the Elder. Alfred is regarded as the 
wisest and greatest of all the kings of England. He was, 
says Freeman, “a saint without superstition, a scholar 
without ostentation, a conqueror whose hands were never 
stained with cruelty, a prince never cast down by adversity, 
never lifted up to insolence in the day of triumph.” (See 
also Sharon Turner, “History of the Anglo-Saxons.”) 

Alfred, a post-village, the capital of York co., Me., in 
a township of its own name, on the Portland and Rochester 
R. R., 32 miles W. by S. of Portland. It has manufac¬ 
tures of lumber and woollen goods, and contains a Shaker 
village. Pop. of township, 1224, 

Alfred, a post-village and township of Alleghany co., 
N. Y., has a sash, blind, and door factory, cheese-box 
factory, one academy, and one weekly paper. It is the seat 
of Alfred University, a Seventh-Day Baptist institution. 
Pop. of township, 1555. 

N. Y. Hull, Ed. “Sabbath Recorder.” 

Alfred (or Alured) of Beverly, an English priest 
and historian, born about 1100. He wrote a history of 
Britain in Latin, which is supposed to be an abridgment 
of the work of Geoffrey of Monmouth. 

Al'freton, a market-town and parish of England, in 
Derbyshire, 12 miles N. N. E. of Derby. It is supposed to 
have been named in honor of Alfx-ed the Great. Pop. in 
1871, 11,805. 

Alfs'borg, a township of Sibley co., Minn. Pop. 264. 
Al'gae (the plu. of Lat. alga, a “sea-weed”), the scien¬ 
tific name of the sea-weeds, etc., a division of cryptoga- 
mous plants belonging to the class Thallogens, and com¬ 
prising many species which grow in salt or fresh water, 
and are greatly diversified in form, size, and structure. 
Some are too small to be seen by the naked eye, while the 
stem of the “giant kelp ” of the W. coast of America some¬ 
times attains a length of from 1000 to 1500 feet. Having 
no true roots, they sometimes adhere to rocks or the sea 
bottom, and sometimes they float on the surface. Naviga¬ 
tors sometimes meet with masses of gulf-weed ( Sargassum ) 
many miles in extent. An area of this kind in the Atlantic 
is said by Maury to be as large as the Mississippi Valley. 
There are several such areas in the ocean, called Sargasso 
Seas (which see). Algae are cellular in structure, are use¬ 
ful as manure, and some species, like Irish moss, are used 
as food. Kelp or barilla, made by burning sea-weeds and 
other marine plants, yields soda and iodine. The Algae 
proper are divided into three groups—the green-spored, the 
red-spored, and the brown-spored Algae, each containing 
many orders. 

Algan'see, a post-twp. of Branch co., Mich. P. 1421. 
Algar'di (Alessandro), an eminent Italian sculptor 
and architect, born at Bologna about 1600, studied design 
under the Caracci. His masterpiece in sculpture is a co¬ 
lossal work in relief in St. Peter’s church, Rome, the sub¬ 
ject of which is Pope Leo forbidding Attila to enter Rome. 
He was, according to some critics, equal or superior to any 
sculptor of his age. Died in 1654. 

Algarot/ti (Francesco), Count, an eminent Italian 
writer, born at Venice Dec. 11, 1712. He was a skilful 
connoisseur of the fine arts, and wrote, besides other 
works in prose and verse, “ Letters on Painting,” which 
are highly commended. He removed to Berlin, where he 
passed many years, enjoying the favor and intimacy of 
Frederick the Great, who gave him the title of count in 1740. 
Ho corresponded with Voltaire. Died at Pisa in 1764. 
Algarovil'la, an astringent substance procured from a 
















96 


ALGARVE—ALGERIA. 


tree called Jnga marthee , which grows in New Carthagena, 
in South America. It is a powerful agent for tanning 
leather. 

Algar've, the southernmost province of Portugal, is 
bounded on the N. by Alemtejo, on the E. by Spain, and 
on the S. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Area, 1872 square 
miles. The surface is mostly mountainous. The main 
exports are wine, salt, dates, and other fruits. The chief 
towns are Faro and Lagos. Pop. in 1868, 177,342. * 

Al'gebra [supposed to be derived from the Arabic al, 
“the,” and tjabara (or jabara), to “bind,” to “consoli¬ 
date”], an important branch of mathematics, sometimes 
called universal arithmetic, but it may be more properly 
described as a calculus of symbols. The symbols it em¬ 
ploys are of three kinds: (1) those of quantity, known or 
unknown, which consist of ordinary numbers and letters 
of the alphabet; (2) those of operation, amongst which 
are +, —, X, - 5 -, V, etc.; and (3) mere abbreviations for or¬ 
dinary words. (See Sign.) The combination of these sym¬ 
bols according to fixed laws leads to algebraical expres¬ 
sions or formulas, in which actual computations are indi¬ 
cated rather than performed. The universality of algebra 
as compared with arithmetic consists in the fact that in 
the latter, computations being effected as they arise, all 
traces of the intermediate steps are obliterated, and the 
result is applicable to a single case only; whereas in al¬ 
gebra the formulas contain implicitly the answers to an 
unlimited number of questions. Again, to the equivalence 
of two algebraical formulas always corresponds a general 
theorem, which arithmetic can only verify in particular 
cases. Thus, from the algebraical identity, 

(a + 6) (a — b) — a 2 — b 2 , 

we learn that the “product which results from multiplying 
the sum by the difference of any two numbers is equal to 
the difference of their squares.” 

The systematic notation, to which algebra owes its chief 
power as an instrument of research, has been of very grad¬ 
ual growth, and is still being extended. In the first known 
treatises on the subject, by Diophantus, who probably lived 
in about the fourth century of our era, the few symbols 
employed are mere abbreviations for ordinary words. The 
Arabians, who obtained their algebra from the Hindoos, 
did little or nothing towards its extension, though their 
treatises, after being carried into Italy by a merchant of 
Pisa, Leonardo Bonacci (1202 A. D.), gave rise to import¬ 
ant improvements. Scipio Ferreus of Bononia is said to 
have solved the first problem of the third degree (1505); 
but it was Tartaglia, or rather Cardan, who first gave the 
general solution of a cubic equation, and employed letters 
to denote the unknown quantities, the given one being 
still mere numbers. Without extending algebraic notation, 
Ferrari, a disciple of Cardan, discovered the general solu¬ 
tion of a biquadratic equation, and thus, unknown to him¬ 
self, reached the barrier which, as has since been proved, 
will ever remain impassable to the searcher for general 
solutions of equations of the fifth and higher degrees. 
(See Equations.) Towards the middle of the sixteenth 
century algebra was introduced into Germany, France, and 
England, by Stifelius, Peletarius, and Robert Recorde, re¬ 
spectively. In doing so, the latter also invented the very 
convenient symbol of abbreviation =, and Stifelius the far 
more important symbols of operation +, —, V. In the 
same century, through her far-famed son Vieta, France 
contributed still more to the progress of the science. Vieta 
introduced letters as symbols for known as well as for un¬ 
known quantities, and by the increased power thus acquired 
he laid the foundation of the general theory of equations. 
In this direction he was followed by Girard, Harriot, Des¬ 
cartes, and others; in short, the science now advanced rap¬ 
idly towards its present state of perfection. It would be 
fruitless here to attempt to trace its progress. (The reader 
who wishes to do so may consult with advantage Hutton’s 
“ Mathematical Tracts,” vol. ii., Bonnycastle’s transla¬ 
tion of Bossut’s “Histoire des Mathematiques,” or the 
works of Montucla.) The last great improvement in al¬ 
gebraic notation, that of determinants, is of quite recent 
date. (See Determinants, by Prof. H. A. Newton.) 

Algeci'ras, or Algezi'ras, a seaport-town of Spain, 
in the province of Cadiz, 6 miles W. of Gibraltar, from 
which it is separated by the Bay of Gibraltar; lat. 36° 8' 
N., Ion. 5° 26' 5” W. Pop. in 1860, 18,216. Leather and 
charcoal are exported from this port. Here occurred a 
naval battle between the English and French in July, 1801. 

Al'ger (Cyrus), born at West Bridgewater> Mass., in 
1782, became in 1809 an iron-founder in South Boston, and 
became famous as a founder of cannon. He was also dis¬ 
tinguished for his benevolence and publio spirit. Died 
Feb. 4, 1856. 

Alger (Rev. Horatio, Jr.) was born at North Chelsea 
(now Revere), Mass., Jan. 13, 1834, and graduated at Har¬ 


vard in 1852. He studied divinity at Cambridge, and in 1864 
was ordained over the Unitarian church at Lrewstcr, Mass. 
He published “Bertha’s Christmas Vision” (1855), “Paul 
Preston’s Charge” (1865), besides other volumes of prose 
and poetry and contributions to periodical literature. 

Alger (William Rounseville), an American writer, 
born at Freetown, Mass., Dec. 11, 1823, graduated at Har¬ 
vard in 1857. He has been a clergyman and a diligent 
and various author. Besides his most important work, 
“A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life” 
(1861), his “Genius of Solitude” (1867) and “Friend¬ 
ships of Women” (1870) have been admired. He has 
also translated a volume of Oriental poetry from the Ger¬ 
man. His last work relates to the drama. 

Alge'ria is the name of a country on the North African 
coast which since 1831 has belonged to France. It is situ¬ 
ated between Tunis on the E. and Morocco on the IV., while 
in the S. it extends indefinitely into the Sahara. In the 
main, the French rule may be said to be established over 
the territory from lat. 37° to 32° N., and from Ion. 2° W. to 8° 
E. The coast, which is mostly high and steep, has but few 
and poor harbors, although the rocky promontories form 
many inlets of the sea. At a distance from the coast the 
country forms a plateau with an elevation of 2000 to 3000 
feet, which gradually declines in the S. towards the Sahara. 
In regard to formation of the ground, three divisions are 
distinguished. Along the coast is the zone of the Tell, or 
Little Atlas, a mountainous region with many coast-streams, 
fertile valleys, and deep gaps. The principal plain of this 
zone is the Metidjah, immediately south of Algiers, 50 miles 
by 20, fertile, well watered, and covered with an abundant 
vegetation. To the S. of the Little Atlas lies the Shott or 
Sbakh, the zone of the large, arid plains, which are mostly 
covered only by a long dry grass called half a (Stipa ma- 
crochloa, the esparto grass of commerce), but in summer 
present a most remarkable appearance, from the shining 
crust of salt which covers the beds of the saline lakes. In 
the S. the Greater Atlas separates the Shott from the third 
zone, the Sahara, whose loose sand extends to the wooded 
heights of the southern slopes of the mountains. The en¬ 
tire area is estimated at 258,000 square miles. 

The climate of Algeria is warm and of a very uniform 
character. The winter, from September to April, is the 
rainy season of the country, but this rainy season is often 
interrupted by a period of good weather lasting many 
weeks. The summer is almost entirely without rain. The 
plants and animals are those of the temperate and sub¬ 
tropical zone. The coast produces vegetables, such as 
cauliflowers and artichokes, which are exported in large 
quantities to Europe. Other products are wheat, barley, 
tobacco, and tropical fruits of all kinds. The dwarf fan- 
palm, with its rankling roots, has long been a plague to the 
agriculturist, but recently it has been extensively used for 
industrial purposes. Forests of palms, cedars, and cork- 
oak, as well as different kinds of shrubs, cover the Little 
Atlas. The grasses and reeds of the Shott afford rich nour¬ 
ishment for the beautiful Arabian horses and large herds 
of asses, mules, and sheep. The fruit of the date-palm be¬ 
gins to ripen in the oases of the Sahara. The beasts of 
prey, which formerly were very numerous in Algeria, are 
almost entirely exterminated, hyaenas and jackals occur¬ 
ring now and then. Among the valuable minerals of the 
country are iron, copper, lead, marble, sulphur, and salt. 

The total number of Europeans, without the army, in 
1866, was 217,990, of whom the majority live in the cities; 
of these, 122,119 were French, 58,540 Spaniards, 16,655 
Italians, 10,627 English and Maltese, 5436 Germans, and 
4643 of other nationalities. The three provinces of Algeria 
had, according to the census of 1866, the following popula¬ 
tion : Algiers (39,120 square miles), 200,060 ; Oran (111,830 
square miles), 146,302; and Constantine (107,367 square 
miles), 139,910; so that there is, inclusive of 2,434,974 na¬ 
tives, and exclusive of 67,774 soldiers, a total population 
of 2,921,246. The population remains stationary, as immi¬ 
gration has almost ceased in late years. The native Jews 
were estimated in 1866 at 33,952. The native Mohammed¬ 
ans are chiefly divided into Arabs and Kabyles. In 1857 
the number of the former was estimated at 1,385,000, the 
number of mountain Kabyles at 580,000, and Kabyles of 
the plains at 379,000 ; but other statements of the numerical 
strength of these two races widely differ. Both Kabyles and 
Arabs live in tribes, the total number of which in Algeria 
is 1364. As regards the religion of the inhabitants, there 
were, according to the census of 1866, 211,195 Catholics, 
5002 Protestants, 33,952 native Jews, 1785 European Jews, 
17,232 members of other Christian sects or persons of un¬ 
known religion; the remainder, more than 2,600,000, were 
Mohammedans. The Roman Catholics have an archbishop 
at Algiers, and bishops at Oran and Constantine. For the 
Protestants there are consistories at Algiers, Oran, and 


























ALGHERO 


Constantine, under which both the Lut heran and Reformed 
churches are placed. The highest authority for the Mo¬ 
hammedan worship are the muftis of the two principal 
mosques at Algiers. There are lyceums at Algiers, Bona, 
Constantine, Philippeville, and Oran. At the head of the 
administration is (since 1870) a civil governor-general, who 
directs the action of both the civil and the military author¬ 
ities in the settled districts, the territory of tho Algerian 
Sahara and the adjoining districts, inhabited chiefly by 
nomad tribes, remaining under exclusive military rule. Tho 
country under civil government is divided into three prov¬ 
inces, Algiers, Constantine, and Oran, at the head of each of 
which is a prefect. The imports of Algeria in 1869 amounted 
to 118,000,000 francs, the exports to 154,000,000. The aggre¬ 
gate number of vessels entered and cleared was, in the same 
year, 6232, of 1,125,343 tons. The commercial navy con¬ 
sisted of 152 sailing vessels, of 4609 tons. 

History .—Numidians in the E. and Moors in the W. 
ruled in ancient times in Algeria, until by the capture of 
Carthage (146 B. C.) the foundation for the Roman power 
in Northern Africa was laid. Extensive ruins of forts, 
cities, roads, and aqueducts, buried in the deserts at the 
present, show what a high state of civilization the country 
reached at that time. Algeria then supplied Rome to a 
great extent with grain. The conquest of the country by 
the Vandals, and subsequently by the Arabs, cast it back 
into barbarism. Although the nomadic tribes accepted 
Mohammedanism, and although there were some well- 
cultivated districts and thriving cities, still no well-regu¬ 
lated, lasting state could be formed. Christianity, which 
had flourished in the early centuries, was entirely sup¬ 
pressed. In 1505 the emir of the Metidjah, being hard 
pressed by the Spaniards and Portuguese, called to his aid 
the renowned pirates Iloruk and Khaireddin Barbarossa, 
who by cruelty and treachery made themselves rulers of 
the country. Being again attacked by the Spaniards, 
Khaireddin acknowledged the supremacy of Turkey. He 
received Turkish assistance, and now begins a new period 
in the history of Algeria, during which it was a constant 
terror to the navigation and the coasts of the Mediter¬ 
ranean. Several expeditions against Algeria by the Chris¬ 
tian powers were either unsuccessful or remained without 
lasting results. The Turkish authority was gradually re¬ 
stricted, until in 1705 the ruler or dey of Algeria made him¬ 
self entirely independent. Large French fleets held the Al¬ 
gerians partly in check during the rule of Napoleon I. But 
after the restoration of peace the Algerian piracies recom¬ 
menced on a large scale, and at length called forth ener¬ 
getic measures on the part of the Christian countries. The 
U. S. took the lead. On June 20, 1815, the fleet under 
Commodore Decatur won a brilliant victory at Cartagena, 
and forced the dey to sign a treaty of peace, in which the 
flag of the U. S. was recognized as inviolable. In the 
next year the city of Algiers was bombarded by the Eng¬ 
lish, and the dey compelled to surrender all the Christian 
slaves. But soon the piracies were again resumed, and 
the pirates even ventured into the German Ocean. A con¬ 
flict which arose in consequence of a disputed claim of 
France on Algeria at length put an end for ever to this 
state of affairs. A personal insult offered by the dey to 
the French consul induced the French government to send 
out a fleet, which began the blockade of the Algerian ports 
on June 12, 1827. But as nothing was effected in this way 
during three years, a large expedition was fitted out, which 
set sail on May 25, 1830. The city of Algiers was besieged, 
and surrendered after a bombardment of three days on 
July 5. The French captured in the city about 1500 can¬ 
non and 50,000,000 francs. But the real difficulties had 
but just begun, for every inch of land was only gained by 
a fight with the Kabyles. The French committed many 
blunders and cruelties, so that provinces, like Constantine 
and Oran, which had already declared their submission, 
again revolted. The marabouts commenced to preach the 
holy war against the oppressors, and Abd-el-Ivader placed 
himself at the head of the natives. The French authority 
decreased more and more, and even the energetic duke of 
Rovigo, who was appointed governor in Dec., 1831, was 
not able to improve the situation, but only made matters 
worse by his unparalleled cruelties. Only when Abd-cl- 
Kader, who, as the head of thirty hostile tribes, had been 
elected emir of Mascara, signed a treaty of peace in 1834 
did the province of Algiers (and that province only) have 
peace for a short time. Soon the French again began hos¬ 
tilities, and were severely defeated on the river Makta 
(1835). In Dec., 1835, the French took Mascara, but Abd- 
el-Kader was in a short time more powerful than ever, so 
that the French were forced to make peace with him (1837), 
giving him, under French sovereignty, the administration 
of the entire west of Algeria, with the exception of the 
large cities. Oct. 13, 1837, Constantino was taken by the 
French, and then the French rule was firmly established in 
7 


ALGIERS. 97 


the east. In 1839, Abd-el-Kader again opened the war, 
and devastated the French colonies on the lowlands. Mas¬ 
cara and Saida were taken by the French, and Abd-el- 
Kader was compelled to fly to Morocco, where tho French 
followed him, forcing the sultan of Morocco, after several 
decisive victories, to sue for peace. But Abd-el-Kadcr 
again succeeded in raising fresh forces, and continued to 
devastate the French border districts, until a conflict with 
Morocco (Dec., 1847) compelled him to surrender to the 
due d’Aumale (Dec. 21), as he found the passes of Karbens, 
through which he had hoped to escape, occupied. A large 
number of expeditions under Pelissier, Jussuf (a chief of 
Turkish troops, who had joined the French in 1832), and 
others secured for the French the oases of Laghuat, Tug- 
gurt, Wadi-Suf, and Wargela. In 1856-57, Random un¬ 
dertook a large and successful expedition against the 
Kabyles. From Oct., 1865, to the beginning of 1867, Al¬ 
geria was the scene of new insurrections under the leader¬ 
ship of Si Lala and Si-Hamed-ben-Ilamza, the latter of 
whom was a commander of the Legion of Honor. The 
great events of 1870 in Europe produced a sensation in 
Algeria. When the news of the surrender of Napoleon 
and the continued defeats of the French army under Mc¬ 
Mahon, whom the Arabs had considered invincible, be¬ 
came known among the southern tribes, their hopes of 
throwing off the French rule were again revived. The 
first disturbances arose in the S. E. part of the province 
of Constantine; as the rebels w T ere in want of war-material, 
the troubles spread slowly, but in October the situation 
became more dangerous, as large hordes of Arabs from the 
extreme S. of Oran began to move towards the E. In 
Mar., 1871, the Arab chief Sidi-Mokrani was said to be 
within twenty-five leagues of the city of Algeria with 
40,000 men, having declared war against France. Sidi- 
Mokrani was killed in May, but nevertheless several dis¬ 
tricts remained in insurrection. In October several tribes 
recommenced hostilities in Constantine, but in November 
order was again restored throughout Algeria. 

The history of the French administration in Algeria indi¬ 
cates anything but success. The colony has cost, and still 
costs, large amounts of money, without giving to France 
anything in return except the belief that it is a good train¬ 
ing-school for French generals. In 1858 an attempt was 
made to give the colony a separate ministry under Prince 
Napoleon, who was followed by Count Chasseloup-Laubat 
in 1859. But as early as Dec. 11, 1860, the old system was 
again taken up, and yielded as small results as before. In 
1863, Napoleon addressed a letter to the governor-general, 
Pelissier, which indicated an intention to try a radical 
change of administration. Algeria was to be treated as an 
Arabic kingdom, rather than a French colony, and the 
tribes should be made the owners of the lands they occu¬ 
pied. In May, 1865, Napoleon himself visited Algeria, 
and in a proclamation addressed to the whole population 
the sentiments of his letter to Pelissier were repeated. 
The hopes of the emperor were, however, not fulfilled, the 
new system remaining as unsuccessful as its predecessors. 
In 1870 the European inhabitants demanded the aboli¬ 
tion of the military rule, under which they had thus far 
been placed, in common with the natives, and which was 
regarded as the chief impediment to the prosperity of the 
colony. The republican government in Paris immediately 
granted their demand. The military rule was abolished 
for all the districts occupied by the settlements of the Eu¬ 
ropeans and their descendants. A civil governor, assisted 
by a colonial council, is the highest authority, and the col¬ 
ony is represented by six deputies in the National Assem¬ 
bly of France. The transition from military to civil rule 
was attended by some revolutionary troubles, which, how¬ 
ever, did not last long. (See MacCartiiy, “Geographie 
Physique, economique et politique de l’Algerie,” 1858; 
Nettement, “ Histoire de la conquete d’Algerie,” 2d cd. 
1871.) A. J. Schem. 

Alghe'ro, or Alghe'ri, a fortified town and seaport 
of the island of Sardinia, is on the W. coast, 15 miles S. W. 
of Sassari. It has a cathedral and several convents. Wine, 
grain, tobacco, coral, etc. are exported from it. Pop. in 
1861, 8092. 

Algiers' [Arab. Al-Jezair'; Fr. Alrjer\ a seaport and 
city of North Africa, on the Mediterranean; lat. 36° 47' 
3" N., Ion. 3° 4' 5" E. It was formerly the capital of 
the dey of Algiers, but since 1830 has been the capital 
of the French colony of Algeria. Built on the slope ol a 
steep hill which rises to the height of 500 feet, it pre¬ 
sents from the sea an imposing appearance, which is partly 
owing to the whiteness of the houses. The old streets are 
mostly narrow and crooked, but several straight .and ele¬ 
gant streets have been made since the French became 
masters of the city. The houses are built of stone and 
brick, have flat roofs, and are annually whitewashed. 
















98 


ALGIEKS—ALICANTE. 


Among the public buildings are numerous mosques, several 
Roman Catholic churches, a line cathedral and exchange, 
and a public library. The beauty and prosperity of the 
city have been much improved by the French, and its com¬ 
merce has been greatly increased. Among the articles of 
export are wheat, coral, afiimal skins, and olive oil. Steam 
vessels ply frequently between Algiers and Toulon and 
Marseilles. This city was for three centuries the rendez¬ 
vous of the Algerine pirates, who, though few in number, 
defied the power of the greatest nations of Europe. It was 
bombarded by the English admiral Lord Exmouth in July, 
1816, when a large part of the city was reduced to ruins, 
and was taken by the French in July, 1830. Pop. without 
the military, was estimated in 1866 at 52,614. 

Algiers, a suburb of New Orleans, is a post-village on 
the Mississippi River, opposite New Orleans. It has im¬ 
portant drydocks and yards for ship and boat building. It 
is the northern terminus of the Louisiana and Texas R. R. 
Steam ferryboats ply between Algiers and the city proper. 

Algo'a Bay is on the S. coast of Africa, in Cape Col¬ 
ony, about 425 miles E. of Cape Town. Here is a good 
harbor, and a flourishing seaport called Port Elizabeth, 
situated at the mouth of the Baasher River. 

ATgoI, a star in the constellation of Perseus, is remark¬ 
able for its periodical variation in brightness. 

Algo'ma, a district which forms the north-western por¬ 
tion of the province of Ontario in Canada. It borders on 
Lakes Huron and Superior. It has recently become fa¬ 
mous for its rich silver-mines, and also contains copper, tin, 
and iron, and abundance of timber. Pop. in 1871, 4807. 

A1 goina, a township of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1959. 

Algoma, a township of Winnebago co., Wis. P. 807. 

Algo'na, a post-village, the capital of Kossuth co., Ia., 
on the East Fork of the Des Moines River, and on the Iowa 
division of the Milwaukee and St Paul R. R., 51 miles W. of 
Mason City, and about 120 miles N. by W. of Des Moines. 
It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 860 ; of Algona town¬ 
ship, 2157. J. II. Warren, Ed. “ Upper Des Moines.” 

AI gonac, a post-village of St. Clair co., Mich. P. 754. 

Algon'kins, one of the two great families of Indians 
that formerly occupied the Valley of the Mississippi and 
the regions east of it. The Indians of New England were 
Algonkins. The Chippewas are at present the most num¬ 
erous tribe of the Algonkins. Their migration eastward 
(some 1200 years ago) is supposed to have been later than 
that of the Iroquois. (See Parkman’s “The Jesuits in 
North America,” and Baldwin’s “Ancient America,” 
1872.) 

Algon'quin, a post-township of McHenry co., III. It 
contains the villages of Algonquin, Cary, and Crystal Lake. 
The first is noted as a milk-shipping station, about 65,000 
gallons being monthly sent to Chicago; also celebrated for 
its fine water-power and three flouring-mills, and its min¬ 
eral spring. Crystal Lake is a fine summer resort; the 
lake of the same name is a beautiful sheet of water, from 
which ice is harvested for the Chicago market. Pop. 2157. 

G. E. Earlie. 

Algonquin, a township of Ontonagon co., Mich. P. 54. 

AUgorithm [Fr. algorithne; It. algor is'mo, formed 
from the Arabic al, “the,” and the Gr. apiOp-os, “number,” 
with the insertion of the letter g between the article and 
initial vowel of arithmos\, the art of computing in refer¬ 
ence to some particular subject or in some particular way, 
as the algorithm of numbers, of surds, etc. 

Algreen-Ussing (Tage), a contemporary Danish jur¬ 
ist and statesman, born at Frederiksborg, in Seeland, in 
1797. He became in 1848 procurator-general for the king¬ 
dom of Denmark, and professor of law at Copenhagen. 
He has published several legal works. Died in 1870. 

Alguazil', or Alguacil', the name given in Spain to 
an inferior officer appointed to execute the law, correspond¬ 
ing to a constable, bailiff) or policeman. 

Al-Hak'em-Ibn-At/ta (called Al-Moken'na, 
-Mokanna, or ■Mukanna, i. e. “the veiled one”), an 
impostor who in 774 A. D. announced himself as a prophet 
and lawgiver in Khorassan. Having been attacked by the 
troops of the caliph Mahdi in 780, he set fire to his castle 
and consumed himself to ashes. His story is the subject 
of Moore’s “'Veiled Prophet of Khorass&n.” 

Alha'ma (r. e. “the bath”), a town of Spain, in the 
province of Granada, in a beautiful valley 23 miles S. W. 
of Granada. Here are celebrated warm springs. Pop. 
6931. 

Alham'bra (the “red citadel”), a famous palace and 
citadel of the Moorish kings of Granada, was built 1248- 
1314 in a suburb of the city of Granada. It is surrounded 
by beautiful gardens and groves of aromatic trees. The 


interior of the palace is exceedingly gorgeous, and richly, 
ornamented with arabesques, filigree, and fretwork. Among 
the portions now standing are the Court of the Lions and 
the Court of the Fish-pond. The former, which is built 
of white marble and alabaster, is named from a fountain 
in its centre supported by twelve lions, and surrounded by 
a gallery resting on columns and arches which are admi¬ 
rably light and elegant. This place capitulated to the Span¬ 
iards in 1491, and was entered in triumph by Ferdinand 
and Isabella in 1492. (See Irving, “ The Alhambra,” 1832.) 

Alhaurin' el Gran'de, a town of Spain, in the prov¬ 
ince of Malaga, 15 miles S. W. of Malaga. Marble and 
granite quarries are worked in the vicinity. Pop. 5514. 

A'li, pasha of Yanina, born in 1741, was the son of an 
Albanese chief. Upon the death of his father, who had 
been robbed of all his possessions by his neighbors, his 
mother placed him, when only sixteen years old, at the 
head of their partisans. At first he was unsuccessful, ow¬ 
ing to a want of funds, but at last defeated his enemies and 
returned in triumph to Tepelcn, his native town. The day 
after his return he murdered his brother, and then impris¬ 
oned his mother in the harem, where she soon died, he having 
accused her of this crime. He now rendered some import¬ 
ant service to Turkey, so that he was first appointed in 
the place of Dervendshi Pasha, who had to look out for the 
safety of the highways, and then pasha of Tricala in Thes¬ 
saly. He seized the city of Yanina by means of a forged 
firman, and then forced the inhabitants to demand him as 
ruler from the sultan. He was for a time in correspondence 
with Napoleon, but afterwards occupied the places on the 
Albanian coast belonging to Napoleon. In 1803 he was 
made governor-general of Rumelia. In 1820, in conse¬ 
quence of his treasonable intercourse with France and 
Russia, an army was desjiatched against him, but owing 
to the Greek revolution, which he used for his own ends, he 
succeeded in keeping Yanina until 1822, when he surren¬ 
dered, having been promised amnesty. He was neverthe¬ 
less executed, and his head was sent to Constantinople. 

A'li, or A'Ti-Ibn-A / bi-Ta / lib / , surnamed the lion 
of God, an Arabian caliph, a cousin-german of the prophet 
Mohammed, was born at Mecca in 602 A. D. He mar¬ 
ried Fatimah, a daughter of Mohammed, whose doctrines 
he adopted and enforced with great ardor and courage. 
In 632 his rival, Abu-Bekr, was chosen caliph, after a con¬ 
test which caused a schism and the formation of the sects 
of Sunnites and Shiites, the latter of which were parti¬ 
sans of Ali. He succeeded Othman as caliph in 655, and 
was assassinated about 661 A. D. His son Ilassan be¬ 
came caliph. Ali was distinguished as an author of max¬ 
ims and proverbs. His religious party, the Shiites, are 
especially numerous in Persia and Turkestan. His de¬ 
scendants have ruled in Egypt, Spain, Western Africa, and 
Syria. The sentences ascribed to him were published by 
Fleischer (1837); a new edition of his “divan” (lyrical 
poems) was published at Boulak, near Cairo, in 1840. 

Alia, a town of Italy, on the island of Sicily, in the 
province of Palermo, is situated on a high mountain, 28 
miles S. E. of Palermo. Pop. in 1861, 5425. 

Ali-Bey, a celebrated chief of the Mamelukes, born 
in Abkhasia in 1728. He was taken to Egypt at an early 
age, and raised himself from a servile condition by his 
ability, became bey of the Mamelukes, and in 1757 bey 
of Egypt, and succeeded in becoming independent of 
Turkey. He attempted to restore the ancient Egyptian 
empire, and had almost conquered Syria when his chief 
general, his adopted son, was bribed by the Turks, and 
drove him from Egypt. He succeeded in getting up an¬ 
other army, but after a few victories was again defeated 
and captured, and died a few days after, in 1773. 

Alibert (Jean Louis), a distinguished French medical 
writer, born in Aveyron May 26, 1766. He was first physi¬ 
cian-in-ordinary to Louis XVIII. after 1815. Ho wrote, 
besides other able works, a “ Description of the Diseases of 
the Skin” (1806-25), which is commended for its style and 
other merits. Died Nov. 6, 1837. 

Al'ibi [Lat., meaning “elsewhere”], in law, is the ab¬ 
sence of a person accused of crime from the place where the 
offence is charged to have been committed. If established, 
it is a defence to the accusation. 

Alican'te, a province in the south-eastern part of 
Spain, is bounded on the N. by Valencia, on the E. by the 
Adriatic, and on the S. and W. by Murcia. Area, 2118 
square miles. The country consists partly of fertile plains 
and partly sterile mountains. Pop. in 1867, 426,656. Chief 
town, Alicante. 

Alicante (anc. Lucen'tum), a fortified city and seaport 
of Spain, the capital of the above province, is on the Medi¬ 
terranean Sea; lat. 38° 20' N., Ion. 0° 26' W. It is well 
built, with high and substantial stone houses, and contains 



















ALIGATA—ALIZARINE. 99 


several hospitals, one college, and a theatre. Wine, grain, 
soda, oil, oranges, etc. are exported from this place, which 
is the chief seaport of Valencia. Pop. in 1800, 31,162. 

Alica'ta, or Lica'ta, a seaport-town of Sicily, in the 
province of Sicily, on the S. coast, 25 miles S. B. of Gir- 
gcnti. It exports grain, wine, sulphur, etc. Near it are 
the ruins of the ancient Gela. Pop. in 1861, 14,338. 

A'lien [from the Lat. alienus, “ belonging to another” 
(rt^i'as)]. An alien by English law is a person born out of 
the allegiance of the king. In this country ho is one born 
out of the jurisdiction of the U. S., who has not been nat¬ 
uralized or made a citizen under their laws. By the com¬ 
mon law the children of public ministers born abroad 
are citizens, for their fathers owe allegiance to no foreign 
power. By the laws of Congress, children of American 
fathers born abroad, where such fathers have resided in 
the U. S., are American citizens. (See Citizen.) It has 
been claimed that, independent of this statute, such children 
are American citizens. (The arguments against this view 
are stated with great cogency and learning by the venera¬ 
ble Horace Binney in an article upon “ The Alienigense of 
the U. S.”) Aliens are subject to certain disabilities affect¬ 
ing their exercise of political rights. After naturaliza¬ 
tion they are ineligible to the office of President and 
Vice-President of the U. S. The principal disability 
affecting aliens concerns the acquisition of the title to 
real estate. There are two general modes of acquisition 
—by purchase and by descent. An alien may acquire 
title by purchase (including conveyance and devise) in the 
absence of statutes to the contrary, and can hold it sub¬ 
ject to a proceeding by the state termed “ office found.” 
This is in substance an inquiry through an authorized offi¬ 
cer into the fact of alienage; and if that be found, the land 
is adjudged to belong to the state. An alien can convey 
no better title to a citizen than he himself possesses. This 
defect in the title can be cured by a private act of the 
State legislature. In the case of descent no title at all 
passes to the alien, and no inquest of office is necessary. A 
citizen brother can inherit from a brother, though their 
father be an alien, owing to the common-law rule that in¬ 
heritances never ascend, and it is accordingly not necessary 
to trace title through the alien father. This disability is 
wholly removed in a number of the U. S., and modified in 
others. Where the disability is not removed, legislation is 
almost universal in favor of resident aliens, allowing them, 
if they intend to become citizens, to acquire land for a 
limited period, and to dispose of it and to transmit it to 
heirs. Aliens are capable of acquiring, holding, and 
transmitting personal property in the same manner as citi¬ 
zens, and may freely resort to courts of justice to maintain 
and protect their rights. Under the laws of Congress they 
are not, however, entitled to take out a copyright. Aliens 
have been distinguished in time of war into friends and 
enemies. An alien enemy cannot make a contract with a 
citizen. It is illegal in its inception, and cannot be 
enforced even after peace. Nor can such an alien prose¬ 
cute actions of any kind while the war lasts, though, if 
there be no illegality in the claim, the right to sue revives 
in time of peace. An alien becomes a citizen through 
naturalization. The difficulties growing out of this sub¬ 
ject have led to the negotiation of various treaties between 
the U. S. and foreign powers. (See Naturalization.) 

T. W. Dwight. 

Align/ment [from the Fr .aligner, to “arrange in a 
line ”], a military term, signifies the arrangement of men 
in line. The alignment of a camp is the rectilinear dispo¬ 
sition of the tents. The word sometimes denotes the laying 
out or regulation of a street by a straight line. 

Aliment. See Food, by Edward Smith, M. D., LL.B., 
F. R. S. 

Alimentary Canal, the cavity in the body of an ani¬ 
mal in which food enters to be digested before it is con¬ 
veyed by the nutritive vessels into the system. In some 
animals it is a simple cavity, with only one opening; in 
others it is a proper canal, with an outlet or anus distinct 
from the inlet or mouth, and is a continuous passage of 
variable dimensions from the mouth to the anus. The 
principal portions of the alimentary canal of Mammalia 
are the oesophagus, a duct or tube leading from the mouth 
to the stomach; the more expanded cavity of the stomach; 
the small intestines, which are long and convoluted; and 
the large intestines. The canal is lined throughout its 
whole length with mucous membrane. Its entire length 
in man is about thirty feet. 

Al'imony [Lat. alimonia], in law, an allowance grant¬ 
ed by a court to a wife from the husband’s estate, either 
during a litigation between them or at its termination. 
Originally, it was only granted in suits for separation, but 
now by statute it is usual to make the allowance in pro¬ 
ceedings for divorce dissolving the bonds of matrimony. 


In England the ecclesiastical court had jurisdiction of this 
subject until 1857, when it was vested in a court of divorce. 
In this country the jurisdiction is conferred in general on 
courts of equity. Alimony is of two sorts —pendente lite, 
and permanent. (1.) The object of the first is to enable the 
wife to carry on a litigation with her husband, or to sus¬ 
tain herself during its pendency. It is immaterial whether 
the proceedings be instituted by or against her. Should 
the wife have sufficient means of her own, no allowance of 
this kind will be made. The amount rests in the sound 
discretion of the court, and is subject to increase or dimi¬ 
nution. (2.) Permanent Alimony .—This is a periodical al¬ 
lowance given from the husband’s estate as the result of 
the litigation in the wife’s favor. No allowance is made 
when the proceedings terminate unfavorably to her. The 
amount varies with the husband’s wealth and position, and 
is commonly from one-third to one-half of his income. It 
is subject from time to time to variation by the action of 
the court, depending upon the circumstances of the case. 
The court has ample power to make its decree effectual, 
and may have recourse to the writ of ne exeat to prevent 
the husband’s withdrawal from the- State without proper 
security for its payment. Should the husband depart to 
another State, the parties might become “ citizens of dif¬ 
ferent States,” within the view of the U. S. Constitution; 
so that she could enforce her claim to alimony in the Fed¬ 
eral courts. The ordinary rule that the domicil of the wife 
follows that of the husband would not be applicable to this 
case, even though the case were one of judicial separation 
rather than of total divorce. T. W. Dwight. 

Alisal, a township of Monterey co., Cal. Pop. 2723. 

Alisma'ceae [from the Gr. aAio-jua, a “water-plant”], a 
natural order of endogenous plants, natives of temperate 
climates. They are herbaceous, and usually grow in 
swamps or shallow waters. Among the genera of this 
order are Alis'ma and Sagitta'ria (arrowhead). 

Aliso is the name of a fortification erected by Drusus 
in the year 11 at the entrance of the Eliso into the Lupia 
(Lippe). It was the scene of several severe contests be¬ 
tween the Romans and the Germans. 

Al'ison (Archibald), a Scottish writer, born in Edin¬ 
burgh Nov. 13, 1757, was educated at Oxford. He took 
orders in the Church of England in 1778, and became 
curate of Kenley, in Shropshire, in 1790. In 1800 he re¬ 
moved to Edinburgh, where he preached for many years. 
His chief works are “Essays on the Nature and Principles 
of Taste” (1784), and two volumes of sermons (1814). Died 
May 17, 1839. / 

Alison (Sir Archibald), Bart., D. C. L., a son of the 
preceding, was born at Kenley, in Shropshire, Dec. 29, 
1792. He graduated in the University of Edinburgh, 
studied law, and was called to the bar in 1814. In 1832 
he published his “Principles of Criminal Law,” a work of 
standard authority. His chief work is a “History of Eu¬ 
rope during the French Revolution” (10 vols. 8vo, 1833— 
42), which comes down to 1815, and has had a great popu¬ 
larity. “Its merits,” says the “Edinburgh Review” for 
Oct., 1842, “are minuteness and honesty—qualities which 
may well excuse a faulty style, gross political prejudices, 
and a fondness for exaggerated and frothy declamation.” 
He wrote a continuation of this History to the year 1852, 
a “Life of John, duke of Marlborough” (1847), and other 
works. In politics he was ultra Conservative. Died May 
23, 1867. V 

Alison (William Pulteney), M. D., a physiologist, a 
brother of the preceding, was born in Edinburgh in 1790. 
He became professor of the institutes of medicine at Edin¬ 
burgh in 1828, and professor of the practice of medicine 
in 1832. He published “ Outlines of Physiology and Pa¬ 
thology” (1833), and other works. Died in 1859. 

Aliz'arine [from ali-zari, the commercial name of 
madder in the Levant] is the coloring-matter of madder 
(Rubia tinctornm). Alizarine was discovered in 1824 by 
Robiquet and Colin, by treating madder with strong sul¬ 
phuric acid, producing a black mass, which they called 
charbon de garance. On heating this, it yielded a sublimate 
of alizarine crystals. 

Preparation .—Several processes have been employed for 
the extraction of alizarine, more or less pure, from madder. 
Kopp’s plan, which has been applied on a larger scale by 
Schaaf and Lauth of Strasburg, consisted in treating the 
madder with an aqueous solution of sulphurous acid, by 
which both alizarine and purpurine, another coloring-mat¬ 
ter, were dissolved. On adding 3 per cent, of sulphuric 
acid to the solution, and heating to 95° or 104° Fahrenheit, 
the purpurine was precipitated. In the filtrate from the 
purpurine the alizarine was precipitated in an impure state. 
This was extensively sold under the name of “green ali¬ 
zarine.” From the washings a brown alizarine ot inferior 



















100 


ALKALI—ALKALIMETEK 


quality separated. The green alizarine was sometimes puri¬ 
fied by dissolving it in rectified petroleum, withdrawing the 
alizarine by agitating with soda lye, and precipitating it by 
sulphuric acid. It was thus obtained comparatively pure 
in yellow flakes, which dried to H yellow powder. Another 
process for extracting alizarine was based upon the obser¬ 
vation of Leitenberger that purpurine is soluble in water 
from 77° to 131° Fahrenheit, while alizarine requires a 
much higher temperature. Alizarine is largely sold to the 
calico-printers in the form of a yellowish-brown paste, 
under the name of ‘‘madder extract;” also in the form of 
a dry powder. It may be crystallized from solution in 
red prisms or by sublimation in yellow needles. 

Properties .—It is but slightly soluble in water, except 
under pressure at temperature much above the boiling- 
point. One hundred parts of water dissolve 

at 212 ° Fahrenheit, 0.034 alizarine. 

302° “ 0.035 “ 

392° « 0.820 “ 

437° “ 1.700 “ 

482° “ 3.160 “ 

It is soluble in alcohol and in ether, forming yellow solu¬ 
tions. It is also soluble in wood-naphtha, benzol, bisulphide 
of carbon, turpentine, glycerine, and petroleum. In sul¬ 
phuric acid it dissolves with a deep-red color, and is pre¬ 
cipitated unchanged on adding water. It is soluble in 
caustic alkalies and alkaline carbonates, forming a violet 
solution, from which it is precipitated by acids. Akaline 
solutions of alizarine form, wflth soluble lime and baryta 
salts, precipitates of a beautiful purple color; with alum¬ 
ina salts, a red; with iron salts, a purple precipitate. If 
a piece of cotton cloth which has been printed with the 
common alumina and iron mordants is placed in water 
holding a little alizarine in suspension, it will be found on 
heating the whole that the cotton will become permanently 
dyed in shades of red and purple. Alizarine is a feeble acid, 
forming, as above shown, soluble salts with the alkaline 
metals, insoluble colored salts with most other metals. 
Turkey-red, madder-pink, and the various shades of purple 
and chocolate on calico, are compounds of alizarine with 
metallic bases. 

Origin of Alizarine .—Little if any alizarine exists in 
the living madder root, and after the root is gathered it is 
found that the alizarine increases in quantity by keeping 
for several years. It is now believed that the alizarine is 
produced from a substance called rubian or rubianic or 
ruberythrinic acid, a glucoside, by a peculiar fermentation 
induced by a peculiar madder ferment called erythrozone: 

Rubian. Alizarine. Glucose. 

C 26 H 320 n>(?) — C14II8O4 + 2C6H12O6. 

Rubian undergoes the same change under the influence of 
dilute acids. 

Artificial Alizarine .—One of the greatest triumphs of 
modern chemistry was the artificial production of alizarine 
by Graebe and Liebermann in 1869. By a careful study of 
an extensive class of bodies, Graebe established the exist¬ 
ence of a peculiar series of compounds called quinones, 
which contain the phenyl nucleus, and in which two atoms 
of oxygen are united together by a common bond, form¬ 
ing a dyad radical (O 2 )", which aids in binding together 
two adjacent carbon atoms. The molecular structure of 
the lowest quinone, that derived from quinic acid or from 
benzol, is shown in the following graphic formula?: 

Benzol. Quinone. 

H H 

• I 

C C 

// \ ■ // \ 


In studying the quinones, Graebe noticed certain gen¬ 
eral characteristics, which he attributed to their peculiar 
molecular structure. Thus, two of the hydrogen atoms as¬ 
sociated with the oxygen radical ( 0 2 )" may be replaced 
by HO, H 2 N, or IISO 3 , the product being an acid, an amide, 
or a sulpho-acid. The following table illustrates the most 
important relations in this connection of the quinones: 


Primary Hydrocarbons 
Benzol. 


Cell 6. 

Naphthalene. 

O10II8. 


Quinones. 
Quinone. 

C 6 H 4 =(0 2 )". 

Naphtho-quinone. 

Ci 0 H 6 = (0 2 )"- 


Acids. 

Quinonic Acid. 

(HO) 2 =C6H2=(0 2 )". 

Naphtho-quinonic Acid. 

(HO) 2 =C 10 H4 = (O 2 )". 


Five years before, Martins and Griess, while investiga¬ 
ting some derivatives of naphthalene, discovered a body 
very similar but not identical with alizarine; and Graebe 
had obtained a body from a naphtho-quinone derivative 
which resembled alizarine in some respects. Graebe came 
therefore to the conclusion that alizarine belonged to the 


quinone series, and, associated with Liebermann, he began 
his investigation upon it. The starting-point was to as¬ 
certain the primary hydrocarbon from which the alizarino 
could be constructed. They therefore subjected alizarine 
ftvm madder to the process devised by Bayer for the 
conversion of phenol into its hydrocarbon, benzol. They 
passed alizarine vapor over heated zinc-dust, and obtained 
the hydrocarbon anthracene, ChIIio- It only remained to 
change the anthracene into its quinone, and then into its 
quinonic acid, to form the alizarine: 

Anthracene, C 14 II 10 . 

Anthraquinone, Culls = ( 0 2 )”. 

Anthraquinonic acid or alizarine, (HO)a= Ci 4 H 6 = (0 2 )". 

A body, anthracenuse, had been prepared years before 
by Laurent and Anderson, which Graebe and Liebermann 
now recognized as the quinone of anthracene, Culls = ( 0 2 )”. 
They heated this with bromine, by which they replaced 1I 2 
by B 2 H 2 , obtaining bibrom-anthraquinone, CuH 6 Br 2 — 
( 62 )”. To replace the Br 2 by hydroxyl (HO) 2 , they heated 
it with caustic potassa, KOH, and thus obtained the potas¬ 
sium salt of the new acid, from which the acid was pre¬ 
cipitated by hydrochloric acid as a yellow powder indenti- 
cal with the alizarine derived from madder. The practical 
importance of this discovery attracted to it the attention 
of numerous chemists, and simpler processes, avoiding the 
use of the expensive bromine, were soon devised. An 
abundant supply of anthracene is obtained from the re¬ 
fuse coal-tar of gas-works, and in a few months anthracene, 
w r hich had never been seen except as a chemical curiosity, 
became a regular article of commerce. (See Anthracene.) 

The annual consumption of madder in dyeing and calico- 
printing is estimated to exceed $10,000,000. Large tracts 
in Holland, Alsace, Italy, and the Levant are devoted to 
its culture. It not only supplies dyestuffs, but in Alsace 
it yields a large proportion of the alcohol of commerce; 
the root containing sugar, w r hich is extracted and subjected 
to fermentation. 

This brilliant discovery of Graebe and Liebermann seems 
destined to effect a very serious change in the agricultural 
system of people as remote from each other as the shores 
of the North Sea and Asia Minor. In addition to alizarine, 
an anthra-purpurine has been obtained from anthracene, 
which is apparently identical with madder purpurine, and 
another color called pseudo-purpurine : 

Alizarine, (II0) 2 = Ci 4 H 6 = (0 2 ). 

Anthra-purpurine, (HO)3 = C14H5 = ( 0 2 ). 

Pseudo-purpurine, (IIO)4= C14H4 = ( 0 2 ). 

Thus, we now have four classes of beautiful colors derived 
from coal: 1, Phenol colors; 2, Aniline colors; 3, Naph¬ 
thaline colors; 4, Anthracene colors. Theoretically, 1 
pound of alizarine would require 0.60 pound anthracene, 
which would be obtained from 30 pounds of coal-tai*, re¬ 
quiring 660 pounds of coal. In practice, the yield is less 
than half this amount. There are now about twenty fac¬ 
tories, chiefly in Germany and Switzerland, engaged in the 
manufacture of alizarine. (For further details with regard 
to alizarine, consult “Die Farbstoffe,” von P. Schutzen- 
bergen, uebersetzt von Dr. II. Schroder, Berlin, 1873.) 

C. F. Chandler. 

AFkali [from the Arabic definite article al, and kali, 
the plant from which soda was first obtained], a chemical 
term applied to an important class of bases which combine 
with acids to form salts, turn vegetable yellows to red, and 
vegetable blues to green, and unite with oil or fat to form 
soap. The proper alkalies are potash, soda, lithia, caesia, 
rubidia, and ammonia, which are extremely caustic. Potash 
is called vegetable alkali, soda is called mineral alkali, and 
ammonia, volatile alkali. Lime, magnesia, baryta, and 
strontia, having some properties of alkalies, arc called alka¬ 
line earths. The alkalies and alkaline earths are metallic 
oxides, except Ammonia (which see). When an alkali and 
an acid combine in due proportion they are said to neu¬ 
tralize each other; they really produce metallic salts: 

KOH + HC 1 = KCl + ILO. 

NaOH + IINO 3 = NaNOs + H 2 0. 

(See Acids, by Prof. C. F. Chandler, Ph. D., LL.D.) 

Alkalim ctcr [from alkali, and the Gr. /aerpov, a “meas- 
ure ], an instrument used to ascertain the proportion of 
pure carbonate of jiotash or of soda in a commercial sample 
of those articles, and to test the strength and purity of 
soda-ash, potash, etc. It consists of a graduated glass tube 
divided into 100 degrees (numbering from the top), and 
filled with diluted sulphuric acid, which is poured into a 
given quantity of the solution of the alkali until it is neu¬ 
tralized. If this process empties the tube to the eightieth 
degree, it shows that the article contains 80 per cent, of 
pure alkali. This process is called alkalimetry. The same 
instrument is also used to test the strength of acids, by 
filling the tube with a solution of alkali and reversing the 
process. (See Volumetric Analysis.) 


























ALKALIMETRY—ALLEGHANY. 101 


Alkalimetry. See preceding article. 

Al'kaloids [from alkali, and the Gr. eTSo?,“ form ”], an 
important class of substances of organic origin, having the 
qualities of alkalies more or less strongly marked, and be¬ 
ing capable of forming salts with acids, like the inorganic 
bases. They are often substitution products of ammonia. 
They are divided into two classes —natural and artificial. 
The natural alkaloids are found in plants and animals. 
They are composed essentially of carbon, hydrogen, and 
nitrogen; besides which a great number contain oxygen. 
The alkaloids have generally an energetic action on the 
animal system, and hence are employed as medicine; in 
comparatively large doses they are often powerful poisons. 
They have generally a bitter taste, and form in many in¬ 
stances the active principles of the plants in which they are 
found. Such are morphine, found in opium; quinine and 
cinchonine, in cinchona bark; strychnine, in nux vomica; 
hyoscyamine, in henbane; atropine, in belladonna; caf¬ 
feine or theine, in coffee and tea, etc. 

The animal alkaloids are few, the more important being 
urea, found in the urine of the Mammalia; and kreatine 
and kreatinine, two of the constituents of the juice of 
flesh. The artificial alkaloids are those organic bases 
which are formed in the researches of chemists. Recently 
several of the natural alkaloids have been manufactured on 
a small scale without the intervention of the living plant 
or animal. Urea can be formed from the simplest form of 
dead organic nitrogenous matter. Coniine, the alkaloid 
of hemlock, has been prepared artificially. (See Amines, 
Urea, etc.) 

Alka'na, or Alkan'na [Sp. alca'Ka~\, a name of the 
coloring-matter obtained from the plant Lawsonia inermis, 
of the order Lythraceaa, which is used by the Oriental ladies 
to color their nails and teeth. 

Al'kanet ( Anchu'sa ), a genus of herbaceous plants 
found in Europe, belong to the natural order Boragina- 
ceie. They have five stamens. Some of the species are 
cultivated for the beauty of the flowers. The root of the 
Anchusa tincto'ria affords a resinous red coloring-matter, 
and is used to color pomades, lip-salves, hair-oils, etc. 

Al-Katif', or El-Chatif, a town of Arabia, on the 
bay of the same name, which is part of the Gulf of Persia. 
It has a fort, a bazaar, and a citadel which is said to have 
been built by the Portuguese. Pop. about 6000. 

Alkmaar', or Alckmaer', an old and important forti¬ 
fied town of Holland, in the province of North Holland, 20 
miles N. N. W. of Amsterdam, and 5 miles from the ocean. 
It is well built, and is traversed by several canals, by which 
it carries on an active trade in butter and cheese. It is said 
to be the greatest mart for cheese in the world. Here are 
manufactures of soap, leather, sail-cloth, etc. This town 
was defended with success against the Spaniards in a long 
siege which began in 1573. Pop. in 1867, 11,609. 

Alkmaar, van (Henry), a Low-German poet who 
lived about 1475-1500. He was the author or translator 
of a very popular poem and satire entitled “ Reinecke 
Fuchs” (“Reynard the Fox”), which he published in 
Low German at Liibeck in 1498. He professed that he 
translated this from the Walloon and the French, but no 
such original is extant. 

Alkoran. See Koran. 

Al'la Bre've, 3,1'Hl bra/vi, in music, the name of a 
movement whose bars or measures consist of the note 
called a breve, equal therefore to two semibreves or four 
minims. It is sometimes marked thus, 0. 

Alla Capella, the same as Alla Breve (which see). 

Al'lah, the Arabic name of the Supreme Being, the 
only true God, as distinguished from the deities worshipped 
by idolaters. 

Allard (Jean Francis), born in 1785, went to Egypt 
in 1815, and thence to Persia, where Abbas Mirza gave him 
the title of colonel, but with no command. For that rea¬ 
son he went to Lahore, where he gained the confidence of 
the maharajah of the Sikhs, who made him commander- 
in-chief of his army, which he organized according to Eu¬ 
ropean custom. He died in 1839. 

Al'lahabad' (i . e. “the city of God”), an ancient and 
holy city of Ilindostan, the capital of the North-western 
Provinces, is at the confluence of the Ganges and the 
Jumna, 498 miles by rail N. by W. of Calcutta; lat. 25° 
25' 26" N., Ion. 81° 51' E. Many thousand pilgrims 
annually resort to this place to bathe in the sacred rivers 
which licre unite. The houses of the natives are mostly 
mean. This city is important as a military point, and is 
advantageously situated as an emporium of trade on the 
East Indian Railway, and also on the Grand Trunk road. 
A large part of the city was reduced to ruins by the hos¬ 
tile operations between the mutinous Sepoys and the 
British in 1857. Pop. in 1861, 64,785. 


Allamakee', a county which forms the N. E. corner 
of Iowa, has an area of 667 square miles. The soil is 
fertile, and the surface undulating and well timbered. 
Grain, wool, hay, and dairy products are the staples. 
Carriages and wagons are manufactured. Capital, Lan¬ 
sing. Pop. 17,868. 

Al'lan (David), a Scottish painter of domestic and 
humorous subjects, was born at Alloa Feb. 13, 1744, and 
was called the “ Scottish Hogarth.” He studied and 
worked for many years in Rome, whither he went in 1764. 
Among his works are “ The Origin of Painting,” which 
represents a Corinthian maiden drawing her lover’s profile 
on the wall; and illustrations of Allan Ramsay’s “ Gentle 
Shepherd.” Died Aug. 6 , 1796. 

Allan (Sir Hugh), born in Ayrshire, Scotland, in 1810, 
emigrated at an early age to Canada, where he became, in 
conjunction with his brother Andrew, proprietor of a line 
of steamships. In 1870 they had eighteen steamships ply¬ 
ing between Montreal and Great Britain. He was one of 
the canal commissioners “ inspecting the internal naviga¬ 
tion” of Canada (1870-71), and in 1873 became prominent 
in operations in support of the Canadian Pacific Railway. 

Allan (Sir William), an eminent Scottish historical 
painter, born in Edinburgh in 1782. He worked some 
years in St. Petersburg, visited Circassia and Turkey, and 
returned to Edinburgh in 1814. lie received 1000 guineas 
for his picture of “Circassian Captives.” In 1835 he was 
elected academician of the Royal Academy of London, 
and in 1840 succeeded Wilkie as limner to Her Majesty 
for Scotland. Among his works are “ The Death of Re¬ 
gent Murray,” “ Peter the Great Teaching Shipbuilding to 
his Subjects,” “ Knox Admonishing Queen Mary,” and two 
pictures of the battle of Waterloo. Died Feb. 22, 1850. 

Allan'toin (C 4 N 4 H 6 O 3 ), a colorless crystalline substance 
found in the allantoic fluid of the foetal calf and in the 
urine of the sucking calf. It is produced artificially by 
boiling uric acid with lead dioxide and water. 

Allan'tois [from the Gr. aAAas, a\kavTo<;, a “sausage,” 
and elSos, a “form”], a thin membranous sac developed 
during incubation in the eggs of birds and reptiles, and in 
the embryo of viviparous animals during gestation. (For 
its development and uses, see Embryology, by Prof. J. C. 
Dalton, M. D.) 

Allatoo'na, a post-village of Bartow co., Ga., on the 
Western and Atlantic R. R., 40 miles N. W. of Atlanta. 
Gen. J. E. Johnston, when pursued by Gen. Sherman, made 
a stand in the strong position of Allatoona Pass, in May, 
1864, until his flank was turned. The Union general 
Corse defended this place with success against the assault 
of a superior force in Oct., 1864, while Gen. Sherman, from 
the top of Kenesaw Mountain, signalled that he should 
hold out to the last. 

Al'legan, a county of the W. S. W. of Michigan, bor¬ 
dering on Lake Michigan, contains 840 square miles. It 
is traversed by the navigable Kalamazoo River. The sur¬ 
face is undulating or nearly level; the soil is fertile, and 
produces good timber, fruit, grain, wool, hay, and cattle. 
Lumber, brick, carriages, etc. are manufactured. Capital, 
Allegan. Pop. 32,105. 

All egan, a post-village, capital of the above county, 
on the Kalamazoo River, and on the Kalamazoo division 
of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. R. and Mans¬ 
field Coldwater and Lake Michigan R. R. It has a national 
^nd private bank, two newspapers, two foundries, five 
hotels, the Holly water-works, car-works, and twenty-four 
other manufactories propelled by water and steam, an 
academy, two Masonic and two Odd Fellows’ lodges, nine 
churches, and the library of the Allegan literary and library 
association. Pop. 2374; of Allegan township, 3642. 

D. C. Henderson, Ed. “ Allegan Journal.” 

Allega'ny, a county of the W. S. W. of New York, 
bordering on Pennsylvania. Area, 1033 square miles. It 
is intersected by the Genesee River. The soil is generally 
fertile and adapted to grazing. Bog-iron ore and limestone 
are found. This county is traversed by the New York and 
Erie R. R. Cattle, grain, wool, and hay are produced, and 
metallic wares, leather, lumber, flour, carriages, etc. are 
manufactured. Capitals, Belmont and Angelica. P.40,814. 

Allegany, a post-village and township of Cattaraugus 
co., N. Y. It contains a Roman Catholic college and Fran¬ 
ciscan convent, and has important manufactures. Pop. of 
village, 746; of township, 2485. 

Allcgha'ny, a river which rises in Potter co., Pa., 
makes a short circuit in New York, and returns into the 
former State. Flowing afterwards in a S. S. W. direction 
through the hilly oil-regions, it unites with the Mononga- 
hela at Pittsburg, forming the Ohio. It is navigable for 
small steamboats 150 miles or more above Pittsburg. It 














102 ALLEGHANY—ALLEIN. 


is over 400 miles long, and its waters are remarkably clear 
and pure. 

Alleghany, a county which forms the N. W. extremity 
of Maryland, bordering on Pennsylvania and West Vir¬ 
ginia. Area, 800 square miles. The Potomac River and 
its north branch form the southern boundary of this county, 
which is traversed by several ridges of the Alleghany Moun¬ 
tains. Between these are fertile valleys called glades, 
adapted to pasture and dairies. Iron ore, excellent bitu¬ 
minous coal, limestone, and hydraulic cement are abun¬ 
dant. Coal is extensively mined. Grain, wool, hay, fruit, 
and dairy products are the staples, and lumber, leather, 
firebrick, and metallic wares are manufactured. The water¬ 
power is very extensive. Garrard county was cut off from 
it in 1873. Capital, Cumberland. Pop. 38,536. 

Alleghany, a county of the N. W. of North Carolina, 
bordering on Virginia. It contains important deposits of 
copper ore. The Alleghany Mountains pass through it. 
Grain and wool are raised. Capital, Gap Civil. Pop. 3691. 

Alleghany, a county in the W. of Virginia. Area, 
500 square miles. It is drained by Jackson’s River, which 
unites with the Cow Pasture River on the E. border to 
form the James River. The main Alleghany ridge forms 
the N. W. boundary of this county, which is traversed by 
other mountain-ranges, and contains fine scenery and val¬ 
uable mineral springs. The Chesapeake and Ohio R. R. 
and the James River Canal connect this county with Rich¬ 
mond. Grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital, 
Covington. Pop. 3674. 

Alleghany, a township of Davidson co., N. C. P.436. 

Alleghany, a township of Armstrong co., Pa. P. 2568. 

Alleghany, a township of Blair co., Pa. Pop. 1913. 

Alleghany, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 890. 

Alleghany, a township of Cambria co., Pa. P. 1230. 

Alleghany, a township of Potter co., Pa. Pop. 625. 

Alleghany, a township of Somerset co., Pa. P. 1133. 

Alleghany, a township of Venango co., Pa. P. 1485. 

Alleghany, a township of Westmoreland co., Pa. P. 
1710. 

Alleghany, a township of Craig co., Va. Pop. 938. 

Alleghany, a post-township of Montgomery co., Va. 
Pop. 2504. 

Alleghany College. See Colleges. 

Alleghany Mountains, or Alleghanies, a name 
sometimes used as synonymous with the Appalachian sys¬ 
tem of mountains. (See Appalachian Mountains.) In a 
more restricted sense it is applied to the parallel ranges 
which traverse Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, and 
form the most prominent features in the physical geogra¬ 
phy of those States. The general direction of these ridges 
is nearly N. E. and S. W., and their mean height about 
2500 feet. Among their highest summits are the Peaks 
of Otter, in Virginia, rising to 4200 feet above the sea. 
These ridges are remarkable for the parallelism of their 
direction and the uniformity of their outline and altitude, 
and enclose several beautiful and fertile valleys. The 
rocks of the Alleghanies are the Silurian and Devonian 
limestones and sandstones, and the group of strata called 
the coal-measures. 

Alleghany Springs, in Montgomery co., Va., 3 miles 
from Shawsville, on the Virginia and Tennessee R. R., and 
77 miles S. W. of Lynchburg, are a popular resort for in¬ 
valids and others. The springs are highly saline, and pro¬ 
duce laxative, tonic, or alterative effects, according to the 
method of use. They are especially recommended for dys¬ 
peptics. Eight miles distant are the sublime Puncheon 
Run Falls, and the scenery near is wild and picturesque. 

Alleghe'ny, a county of the W. S. W. of Pennsylvania. 
Area, 750 square miles. The Allegheny and Monongahela 
rivers unite near the centre of the county, and form the 
Ohio. The surface is diversified by hills, valleys, rolling 
uplands, and deep ravines, which present a variety of pic¬ 
turesque scenery. The soil is fertile and the land nearly 
all arable. Among the products of this county are bitu¬ 
minous coal, iron, and limestone. In population and man¬ 
ufactures this county exceeds all others in the State except 
Philadelphia. Cattle, grain, wool, and hay are staples. 
The manufactures are extremely varied and important. 
Capital, Pittsburg. Pop. 262,204. 

Allegheny, a city of Allegheny co., Pa., separated 
from Pittsburg by the Allegheny River. Five fine bridges 
connect the two cities. It contains over 100 large manu¬ 
facturing establishments, including extensive iron and 
steel rolling-mills, locomotive-works, cotton and woollen 
mills, 10 foundries, 8 machine-shops, 10 tanneries, 2 flour- 
ing-mills, salt-works, white-lead works, etc. It has 45 


churches, including 15 Presbyterian of the different 
branches, 9 Methodist Episcopal, 10 Roman Catholic, 2 
Protestant Episcopal, 2 Baptist, 3 Methodist, 2 Lutheran, 
1 Disciples, 1 Congregational. There are in Allegheny 3 
theological seminaries, numerous benevolent and reforma¬ 
tory institutions, the Western Penitentiary, 2 national 
banks; a soldiers’ monument, costing over $40,000 ; a 
beautiful park, embellished with costly fountains, statues, 
etc.; 2 beautiful cemeteries—Union Dale and St. Mary’s ; 1 
public library, a fine market-house, 4 horse railroads, and 
very extensive water-works. Allegheny City is growing 
very rapidly. Pop. 53,180. W. D. Cummings. 

Alle'giance [Fr. allegeance], in law, is the tie or obliga¬ 
tion which binds a citizen or subject to a state. The com¬ 
mon law distinguishes between natural and local allegiance. 
The former is that which a citizen owes to the state of 
which he is a member,- the latter is due from a person 
who is not bound by the rules of natural allegiance, but 
who is temporarily subject to the laws of the state by 
which the allegiance is claimed. Under this theory a for¬ 
eigner temporarily residing in a country is subject to its 
laws. Under such circumstances, should he conspire to 
overturn the government he may be guilty of treason. 
When he departs his allegiance is at an end. Natural al¬ 
legiance, on the other hand, cannot be shaken off at the 
will of the citizen. Should he abandon the country to 
which he belongs, and engage in war on the part of a for¬ 
eign state against it, he might, in strictness, if taken 
prisoner, be treated as a traitor. Such a treatment would, 
under some circumstances, be extremely harsh, as where 
the state had encouraged emigration, and the consequent 
assumption by an emigrant of relations naturally leading 
to a duty to take sides in a controversy with an adopted 
country. The doctrines of allegiance are of feudal origin, 
and it has been found difficult to reconcile them with the 
requirements of modern times. The U. S. in their legis¬ 
lation upon naturalization have proceeded upon the theory 
that a citizen of a foreign country might, at his will, shake 
off his allegiance and become a citizen here. The Eu¬ 
ropean nations have quite uniformly denied that there is 
any such general rule of public law, whatever may be the 
opinion of individual jurists. The perplexing and irritat¬ 
ing questions thus raised have been for the most part re¬ 
cently disposed of by treaties between the U. S. and the 
leading foreign nations. (For these treaties see Natu¬ 
ralization.) T. W. Dwigiit. 

Al’legory [Gr. aWr/yopCa ; Lat. allegoria], a figure of 
speech which may be termed a prolonged metaphor; a nar¬ 
rative in which abstract ideas are personified, as Bunyan’s 
“ Pilgrim’s Progress,” which furnishes one of the finest 
examples of allegory to be found in literature. Allegory 
is not confined to literature, but may also be employed in 
painting, sculpture, and jiantomimic representations. It 
differs from symbol with respect to the relation between 
idea and form. In a symbol the form is naturally indi¬ 
cative of the idea, as when a lion rising from its couch is 
taken as a representative of the awakening spirit of de¬ 
mocracy, while in an allegory idea and form are entirely 
disconnected, as when a city is represented by a female 
figure. Mere allegory without any power of symbolization 
is tiresome, and often stupid. 

Allegret'to [a diminutive of the It. allegro, “lively”] 
is a musical term which denotes a movement or time 
quicker than andante, but not so quick as allegro. 

AUlegri (Gregorio), an Italian composer of sacred 
music, born in Rome about 1580. lie was a singer in the 
pope’s chapel and a pupil of Nanini. His masterpiece is 
the “ Miserere,” which is annually performed in the pon¬ 
tifical chapel during Passion Week. Died in 1652. 

Al'legro (7. e. “lively,” “cheerful”), in music, one of 
the principal degrees of movement; a term which signifies 
that the piece to which it is prefixed is to be performed in 
a brisk and lively manner. The word is sometimes used 
as a substantive, and a name of an entire musical com¬ 
position. 

Al'lein, or AUIeinc (Joseph), an English non-con¬ 
formist minister and writer, born at Devizes in 1633, was 
educated at Oxford. He was ejected from a curacy at 
Taunton in 1662, after which he was persecuted by im¬ 
prisonment in Ilchester jail, and was fined for preaching. 
His death was hastened by ill-treatment, and he died Dec. 
22, 1668. Among his works is an “Alarm to the Uncon-> 
verted” (1672), which is highly esteemed. 

Allein, or Alleine (Richard), an English non-con¬ 
formist and Puritan, born in Somersetshire in 1611, edu¬ 
cated at Oxford, was rector of Batcombe in that county, 
but was ejected in 1662. He published “ Vindicim Pietii- 
tis” (“Vindication or Defence of Piety,” 1663), and other 
works. Died Dec. 22, 1681. 













ALLEN. 


103 


Al'len, a county of Indiana, bordering on Ohio. Ai’ea, 
638 square miles. The St. Joseph and St. Mary rivers 
unite in this county to form the Maumee. It is also drained 
by the Aboitc River and several creeks. The surface is 
nearly level; the soil is very fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, 
and hay are staple products. Machinery, Hour, carriages, 
metallic wares, etc. are among the manufactures. It is in¬ 
tersected by the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R., 
and the Toledo Wabash and Western, Fort Wayne Jack- 
son and Saginaw, and Fort Wayne Muncie and Cincin¬ 
nati R. Rs. Capital, Fort Wayne. Pop. 43,494. 

Allen, a county in the S. E. of Kansas. Area, 432 
square miles. It is intersected by the Neosho River, and 
drained by Elm and Deer creeks. The surface is undulat¬ 
ing ; the soil is fertile. Excellent timber abounds. The 
county contains a large proportion of prairie, and is well 
adapted to the raising of stock. Grain, wool, potatoes, 
and hay are staple products. It is traversed by the Leav¬ 
enworth Lawrence and Galveston R. R. The most valu¬ 
able mineral found here is coal. Capital, Iola. Pop. 7022. 

Allen, a county of Kentucky, bordering on Tennessee. 
Area, 300 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the 
Big Barren River. The surface is generally level, and the 
soil moderately fertile. Limestone caverns are found in 
this county. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are produced. 
Capital, Scottsville. Pop. 10,296. 

Allen, a county in the W. N. W. of Ohio. Area, 405 
square miles. It is intersected by the Auglaize and Ottawa 
rivers. The surface is generally level and well timbered; 
the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, hay, and lumber 
are produced. Carriages and wagons are manufactured. 
This county is traversed by the Dayton and Michigan 
and the Pittsburg and Chicago R. Rs. Capital, Lima. 
Pop. 23,623. 

Allen, a township of Pope co., Ark. Pop. 225. 

Allen, a township of Lasalle co., Ill. Pop. 877. 

Allen, a township of McLean co., Ill. Pop. 1224. 

All en, a post-township of Miami co., Ind. Pop. 1042. 

Allen, a township of Noble co., Ind. Pop. 1754. 

Allen, a township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 732. 

Allen, a township of Warren co., Ia. Pop. 788. 

Allen, a post-township of Hillsdale co., Mich. Pop. 
1759. 

Allen, a township of Worth co., Mo. Pop. 1352. 

Allen, a post-village and township of Allegany co., 
N. Y. Pop. 794. 

Allen, a township of Darke co., 0. Pop. 781. 

Allen, a township of Hancock co., 0. Pop. 969. 

Allen, a township of Union co., 0. Pop. 1198. 

Allen, a township of Northampton co., Pa. Pop. 2040. 

Allen, a township of Washington co., Pa. Pop. 815. 

Allen, a township of Morgan co., West Ya. Pop. 766. 

Allen (Charles), LL.D., a jurist, was born at Worces¬ 
ter, Mass., Aug. 9, 1797, and was admitted to the bar in 
1818, was a judge of various State courts' of Massachu¬ 
setts between 1842 and 1859, and chief-justice of the Mas¬ 
sachusetts superior court (1859-67). From 1849 to 1853 
he was a Free-Soil member of Congress. He published 
fourteen volumes of legal reports (1861-68), and was long 
an influential lawyer and an able jurist. Died Aug. 6, 
1869. 

Allen (David Oliver), D. D., an American divine, 
born at Barre, Mass., in 1800. He graduated at Amherst 
College in 1823, and labored as a missionary in India from 
1827 to 1853, in which latter year he returned to America. 
He published a “History of India” in 1856. Died July 
17, 1863. 

Allen (Elizabeth Akers), known as “Florence Per¬ 
cy,” was born in Strong, Me., Oct. 9. 1832. Her first hus¬ 
band ivas the sculptor Akers. She is now the wife of E. 
M. Allen of New York. She published in 1867 a volume 
of poems of decided merit, and has contributed much to 
periodical literature. 

Allen (Ethan), General, born at Litchfield, Conn., 
Jan. 10, 1737. He became an oivner of iron-works at Sal¬ 
isbury, Conn., and in 1766 removed to Vermont, where he 
became a leader in the popular resistance to the claims of 
New York. The province of NeAv York declared Allen an 
outlaw, and offered £150 for his arrest. On the outbreak 
of the Revolution, Allen heartily joined the movement, 
and on the 10th of May, 1775, he surprised and captured 
the fort at Ticonderoga, summoning its astonished com¬ 
mandant to surrender “in the name of the great Jehovah 
and the Continental Congress.” This capture gave the 
army a valuable supply of artillery and stores. He had 


but eighty-three men under him, among whom Avas Bene¬ 
dict Arnold. On the 25th of Sept., 1775, he attacked Mon¬ 
treal Avith a small force, but was captured and sent to 
England as a prisoner. He Avas treated Avith great cruelty, 
and was not exchanged till 1778. The British authorities 
tried in vain to bribe him to induce the Vermonters to 
join their cause, but he skilfully contrived by his negotia¬ 
tions to keep the British troops out of Vermont. He pub¬ 
lished pamphlets against the New York domination, a 
narrative of his captivity (1799), a “Vindication of Ver¬ 
mont” (1779), and “ Allen’s Theology, or the Oracles of 
Reason ” (1784), an attack upon the Christian religion. 
He professed to believe in the transmigration of souls. Ho 
Avas courageous, humane, and generous, but ambitious, 
rash, and eccentric. Died of apoplexy near Burlington, 
Vt., Feb. 12, 1789. (See his “Life” by Hugh Moore 
(1834), and by II. W. de Puy (1853).) 

Allen (IIeman), LL.D., born at Poultney, Vt., Feb. 23, 
1779, graduated at Dartmouth 1795, became a laAvyer, was 
chief-justice of a Vermont State court (1811-14), member 
of Congress (1817-18), U. S. minister to Chili (1823-28), 
and held various other important positions. He Avas a 
nephew of Ethan Allen. Died at Highgate, Vt., April 9, 
1852. 

Alien (Henry), an enthusiast, born at Neivport, R. I., 
Juno 14, 1748, founder of the “ Alletiites.” Ho maintain¬ 
ed that Adam and Eve before the fall had no corporeal 
bodies, and denied the resurrection of the body. He 
preached in Nova Scotia, and published some hymns and 
religious treatises. Died Feb. 2, 1784. 

Allen (Ira), General, born in Cormvall, Conn., April 
21,1751,Avas a younger brother of Ethan Allen. Emigrating 
in 1772 to Vermont, he became a prominent and public- 
spirited citizen. While he Avas colonel of militia his regi¬ 
ment did good service at the battle of Bennington. He 
bore a prominent part in settling the early difficulties of 
Vermont with the neighboring States. In 1795 he went 
to France to purchase arms for his State, but was taken 
on the voyage home, carried to England, and there sus¬ 
tained Avith success an eight years’ lawsuit on the charge 
of attempting to supply the Irish with arms. He Avas 
afterAvards imprisoned in France. He Avrote a “Natural 
and Political History of Vermont” (1798) and other works. 
Died Jan. 7, 1814. 

Allen (Joseph W.), an English landscape painter, born 
at Lambeth, in Surrey, in 1803. He was the principal 
scene-painter at the Olympic Theatre, and is said to have 
corrupted his style in landscape by the “brilliant effects” 
which arc only adapted to the stage. He had previously 
painted rural scenery with success. Died Aug. 30, 1852. 

Allen (Rev. Moses), a patriot, born at Northampton, 
Mass., Sept. 14, 1748, graduated at Princeton in 1777. He 
Avas taken prisoner by the British and confined in a prison- 
ship at Savannah. He Avas droAvned Feb. 8, 1779, in an 
attempt to escape. 

Allen (Paul), born at Providence, R. I., Feb. 15,1775, 
graduated at BroAvn University in 1796, studied kiAV, and 
removed to Philadelphia, Avhere he engaged in journalism, 
serving as editor and correspondent to \ r arious journals. 
He published a volume of poems (1801), “ LeAvis and 
Clarke’s Travels” (1814), “Life of Alexander I.” (1818), 
and other Avorks. His “History of the Revolution” (1819) 
was written by John Neal and others. He was for a time 
insane. Died at Baltimore (where he was an editor of the 
“Morning Chronicle”) Aug. 18, 1826. 

Allen (Philip), born in Providence, R. I., Sept. 1, 1785, 
graduated at Brown University in 1803. He was an ex¬ 
tensive cotton-manufacturer, and built the first Watt steam- 
engine eA r er made in Providence; was governor of Rhode 
Island (1851-53), and U. S. Senator (1853-59). Died Dec. 
16, 1865. 

Allen (Richard), first bishop of the African Methodist 
Episcopal Church in the U. S. He was originally a 
preacher in the Methodist Episcopal Church, and Avas or¬ 
dained deacon by Bishop Asbury in 1799. He Avas elected 
bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1816. 
Died in Philadelphia in 1831. (Sec Methodism.) 

Allen (Richard L.), born in Hampden co., Mass., Oct., 
1803, was a merchant of Ncav York in 1832, and became 
a farmer on the Niagara River. With A. B. Allen, his 
brother, he established tho “American Agriculturist,” 
which became a very successful paper. He was the author 
of “The Diseases of Domestic Animals” (1848), “Ameri¬ 
can Farmer’s Muck-Book,” etc. Died at Stockholm, Savc- 
den, Sept. 22, 1869. 

Allen (Robert), an American officer, born in 1812 in 
Ohio, graduated at West Point in 1836, and, July 20, 1866, 
assistant quartermaster-general (rank colonel), and briga¬ 
dier-general U. S. volunteers, May 13, 1863. Served in the 












104 ALLEN 


artillery till May 11, 1846, and subsequently in the quarter¬ 
master’s department; on engineer duty in 1886, and in 
Florida war in 1837-38, in emigrating Cherokees to the 
West in 1838, in quelling the Canada border disturbances 
in 1840-41, in garrison in New York harbor in 1841-46, in 
the war with Mexico in 1846-48 on quartermaster duty, 
being present at the battles from Vera Cruz to the city of 
Mexico (brevet major), on quartermaster duty at New Or¬ 
leans and New York in 1848-49, as chief quartermaster of 
Pacific division in 1849-52 and 1854-61. In the civil war 
served as chief quartermaster at St. Louis, Mo., in 1861— 
63, and at Louisville, Ivy., 1863-66; from which points he 
directed the furnishing of transportation and supplies for 
the various armies operating in the Mississippi Valley 
(brevet lieutenant-colonel and brigadier-general July 4, 
1864), and for several expeditions, including those against 
the North-west Indians; as chief quartermaster of the 
division of the Pacific in 1866-69, and senior assistant in 
quartermaster-general’s office in Washington, D. C., since 
1869. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Alien (Samuel), a London merchant, born about 1635, 
was one of the proprietors of New Hampshire under 
Mason’s patent, and was governor of the colony (1691— 
99). His claim involved him and his heirs in expensive 
litigation. Died May 5, 1705. 

Allen (Solomon), tin American patriot and preacher, 
born in Northampton, Mass., Feb. 23, 1751, was a brother 
of Moses, noticed above. He served as a major in the 
Revolutionary war. Died Jan. 20, 1821. 

Allen (Stephen), born in New York City in 1767, be¬ 
came mayor of the same in 1821. He was distinguished 
for his public spirit and public services, being one of the 
persons who originated the enterprise of supplying New 
York with Croton water. He was a victim of the burning 
of the steamer Henry Clay in July, 1852. 

Allen (Stephen), D. D., an eminent divine and educa¬ 
tor of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Maine 
in 1810, graduated at Bowdoin College in 1835, entered 
the ministry in the Maine Conference in 1839, and has de¬ 
voted much of his life to education in his native State, 
particularly as principal of the Maine Wesleyan Seminary. 

Allen (Thomas), an American patriot, born at North¬ 
ampton, Mass., Jan. 17, 1743, was a brother of Moses, 
noticed above, and the father of William Allen (1784-1868). 
He was the first minister in Pittsfield, where he began to 
preach in 1764. In the Revolution he served as chaplain 
in the American army. Died Feb. 11, 1810. 

Allen (Weld N.), U. S. N., born Mar. 27, 1837, in 
Maine, graduated at the Naval School in 1856, became a 
lieutenant in 1861, a lieutenant-commander in 1863, a com¬ 
mander in 1871, served during the summer of 1861 at Fort 
Dahlgren near Alexandria, and was for some weeks in 
command of that important post. In 1862 and 1863 
served on board the gunboat Kanawha, and in 1864 com¬ 
manded the steamer New London, Western Gulf blockad¬ 
ing squadron. In 1865, while attached to the steam-sloop 
Tuscarora, Allen led the men of that vessel in the assault 
upon Fort Fisher, and was wounded in the left arm. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Allen (AVilliam), a lawyer, who was chief-justice of 
Pennsylvania before the Revolution, and a royalist after 
it began. He aided Dr. Franklin in founding the College 
of Philadelphia. Died in 1780. 

Allen (William), F. R. S., an English chemist and phi¬ 
lanthropist, born in London Aug. 29, 1770, was a friend 
of Sir H. Davy. He was elected F. R. S.-in 1807, and in 
conjunction with W. II. Pepys made researches on respi¬ 
ration, etc. He devoted much time to benevolent enter¬ 
prises, and as a minister of the Society of Friends travelled 
in France, Germany, and Russia, in which latter country 
he had an interview with the emperor Alexander in 1822. 
In 1825 he founded two manual-labor schools at Lindfield, 
Sussex. Died Dec. 30, 1843. 

Allen (AVilliam), D. D., a learned clergyman and au¬ 
thor, was born at Pittsfield, Mass., Jan. 2, 1784. He gradu¬ 
ated at Harvard in 1802, was licensed to preach in 1804, in 
1810 succeeded his father as pastor in Pittsfield, was chosen 
president of Dartmouth College in 1817, and was president of 
Bowdoin College from 1820 to 1839. His last days were spent 
at Northampton, Mass., where he died July 16, 1868. He 
published numerous volumes, both of prose and of poetry. 
Ilis best known work is an “American Biographical and 
Historical Dictionary” (1809; 2d ed. 1832; 3d ed. 1857). 

All en (AVilliam Henry), a naval officer, born at Provi¬ 
dence, R. I., Oct. 21,1784. He served with distinction under 
Decatur when the latter captured the Macedonian, in Oct., 
1812. Having obtained the command of the Argus, Cap¬ 
tain Allen took several prizes from the English. He was 


ALLIA. 


mortally wounded in a battle between the Argus and tho 
Pelican Aug. 14, 1813. 

Allen (William Henry), M. D., LL.D., was born at 
Readfield, Me., Mar. 27, 1808, educated at Bowdoin Col¬ 
lege, Me., 1833, was professor of Latin and Greek in 
the Cazenovia Methodist Seminary, N. Y., from 1833 to 
1835, professor of chemistry and natural philosophy in 
Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., from 1836 to 1846, pro¬ 
fessor of philosophy and English literature at the same 
institution from 1846 to the close of 1849, president of 
Girard College, Philadelphia, from 1850 to 1863, president 
of the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania during 1865 
and 1866, and was reappointed president of Girard College 
in 1867, which office he still sustains with eminent ability. 
In 1872 he was elected president of the American Bible 
Society. He is author of “A Manual of Devotion for 
Girard College of Orphans,” and of numerous and able 
addresses, reviews, etc. 

Allen (William Howard), an officer of the U. S. navy, 
was born at Hudson, N. Y., July 8, 1790. He commanded 
the Argus after AVilliam Henry Allen was mortally wound¬ 
ed, in 1813. Nov. 8, 1822, he was killed by pirates whom 
he attacked near Matanzas. 

Allen (AVilliam Stickney), an American journalist, 
born at Newburyport, Mass., in 1805, was for nearly twelve 
years editor of the “ Newburyport Herald.” He removed 
in 1837 to Missouri, where he afterwards edited the “St. 
Louis Republican.” Died June 16, 1868. 

Al'lendale, a post-village and township of Ottawa co., 
Mich. Pop. 799. 

Allendale, a post-village of Bergen co., N. J., on the 
Erie R. R., 26 miles from New York. Large quantities of 
berries are here shipped to New York. 

Allendale, a township of Barnwell co., S. C. P. 1847. 

Al'len’s, a township of Winston co., Ala. Pop. 553. 

Allen’s Creek, a township of Hanover co., Ya. Pop. 
2844. 

Allen’s Factory, a post-township of Marion co., Ala. 
Pop. 587. 

Allen’s Fresh, a post-township of Charles co., Md. 
Pop. 4584. 

Allen’s Grove, a township of Mason co., Ill. P. 1199. 

Allen’s Grove, a post-township of Scott co., Ia. 
Pop. 646. 

Al'lenstein, a Prussian town, provinceof East Prussia, 
situated on the Alle, 65 miles S. of Ivonigsberg. Pop. in 
1871, 5514. 

Al'lenstown, a township of Merrimack co., N. H., on 
the Suncook Valley R. R., has manufactures of cottons, 
twine, brick,, etc. Pop. 804. 

Al'lensville, a post-township of Person co., N. C. 
Pop. 1120. 

Al'lenton, a post-township of A\ T ilcox co., Ala. P. 1954. 

Al lentown, a borough of Allegheny co., Pa. P. 772. 

Allentown, a city, capital of Lehigh co., Pa., on the 
right bank of the Lehigh River, 60 miles N. by AV. of Phila¬ 
delphia. It is on the Lehigh Valley R. R.‘ The Lehigh 
and Susquehanna R. R., leased by the Central R. R. of New 
Jersey, runs on the opposite bank of the river. The East 
Pennsylvania R. R. connects at this place with the Lehigh 
Ahilley R. R. Some seven trains run daily to New York. 
There are ten blast-furnaces at this place, two large rolling- 
mills, foundries and machine-shops, large tanneries, shoe 
manufactories, tube-works, woollen-mills, fire-brick works, 
etc. There is a fine court-house, a prison costing $250,000, 
three national banks, public school property worth $300,000, 
and five weekly and two daily newspapers. It is the seat 
of Muhlenberg College. Pop. 13,884. 

AV. J. S. Coxworth, Ed. “ Lehigh Valley Daily News.” 

Al'ler, a river of Germany, an affluent of the Weser, 
rises near Magdeburg and flows north-westward. It is 
about 150 miles long. 

Al'lerton (Isaac), one of the “Pilgrim Fathers,” left 
London in 1608, and went to Holland. He came to New 
Plymouth in the Mayflower’s first voyage. He was a man 
of some wealth, and was at first a man of influence, but 
was afterwards unpopular. He became a merchant.of New 
Amsterdam (New York), residing at Marblehead, New 
Haven, and other points. The second of his three wives 
was Fear, a daughter of AVilliam Brewster. Died in 1659. 

All-Hal'low, the old English name for All Saints’ 
Day (the 1st of November). 

Al'lia, or A'lia, according to Livy, a small stream 
which entered the Tiber 11 miles above Rome, was the 
scene of the battle in which Brennus and the Gauls de¬ 
feated the Roman army, about 388 B. C. It has not been 
identified in modern times. 












ALLIANCE—ALLODIUM. 


105 


Alli'ance, Stark co., 0., at the crossing of the Pitts¬ 
burg Fort Wayne and Chicago and the Cleveland and Pitts¬ 
burg It. Rs., is a very thriving and prosperous town, con¬ 
taining many extensive manufactories of horse-rakes, 
reapers, pumps, terra-cotta ware, steam-hammers, tin 
presses, besides rolling-mills, white-lead works, etc. etc. 
Two newspapers are published here. It has one national 
bank, extensive gas-works, excellent public schools, a col¬ 
lege, and good libraries. Pop. 4063. 

W. H. Phelps, Pub. “Alliance Monitor.” 

Alliance, Holy. See Holy Alliance. 

Al'libone (Samuel Austin), LL.D., an author, born in 
Philadelphia April 17, 1816. Ilis principal work is a 
“Critical Dictionary of English Literature and Authors” 
(3 vols., 1859-70), an excellent work, of very great value 
to the student. 

Al'lier, a river of France, is the most important affluent 
of the Loire. It rises in the S. of France, near the source 
of the Loire, flows nearly N., and enters that river at 
Nevers. Its entire length is about 260 miles. 

Allier, a department of France, is bounded on the N. 
by Cher and Nievre, on the E. by Saone-et-Loire, on the 
S. by Puy-de-Dome, and on the W. by Creuse and Cher. 
Area, 2822 square miles. It is intersected by the Allier, 
and bounded on the N. E. by the Loire. The soil is fertile. 
The chief productions are wine, grain, timber, cattle, 
horses and sheep. Iron, coal, and marble are found here. 
It is subdivided into 4 arrondissements, 28 cantons, and 
317 communes. Chief town, Moulins. Pop. in 1872, 
390,812. 

Alliga'tor [corrupted from the Sp. el lagarto, the 


“lizard”], a genus of American saurian reptiles (nearly 
allied to the crocodile) which abound in the rivers and 
swamps of the Southern U. S. They have broader heads, 
more numerous teeth, and more obtuse snouts than croco¬ 
diles. Various reptiles of this genus are called caymans 
in South America. They all hibernate in the winter or 
dry season, when they bury themselves in the mud. The 
alligator is about fourteen feet long, including the tail, 
which is a powerful weapon for defence. It is a fierce and 
voracious animal, and sometimes attacks and kills men 
both on water and land, but it cannot turn quickly on land. 
Dunn" the heat of the day it is often seen basking in the 
sun on the dry ground. Its back and sides are defended 
by hard mailed plates, which are proof against a rifle-ball. 
The alligator is an oviparous animal, its eggs being small, 
but numerous. The parent deposits them in the sand of 
the river-side, scratching a hole with her paws, and placing 
the e""S in a regular layer therein. She then covers these 
with land, grass, mud, etc., and deposits another layer on 
top of them, and so on until she has laid from fifty to sixty 


eggs. These are hatched by the heat of the sun and the 
decaying vegetable matter. The name alligator is also fre¬ 
quently applied to the muggur of India. The common 
alligator of the Southern States is the Alligator Mississij)- 
piensis, but among the so-called alligators of Florida a 
true crocodile has been discovered. 

Al'ligator, a township of Tyrrel co., N. C. Pop. 778. 

Alligator, a township of Chesterfield co., S. C. P. 659. 

Alligator Pear. See Avocado Pear. 

Alligator Swamp, an extensive marshy tract in 
North Carolina, occupies a large part of the peninsula be¬ 
tween Albemarle and Pamlico sounds. 

Al'lingham (AVilliam), born at Ballyshannon, Ireland, 
about 1828, published “Poems” (1850), “Day and Night 
Songs” (1854), “ Lawrence Bloomfield in Ireland” (1864), 
in which year he obtained a literary pension. 

Allio'li (Joseph Franz), a German Catholic theologian, 
born at Sulzbach Aug. 10, 1793. He became professor of 
theology at Munich in 1826, resigned in 1835, and became 
soon after canon at Ratisbon. His German translation of 
the Bible (6 vols., 6th ed. 1839-45) was approved by the 
pope, and has had a very wide circulation. He also pub¬ 
lished a “Manual of Biblical Antiquities” (1841). Died 
May 22, 1873. 

Al'lison, a township of Lawrence co., Ill. Pop. 855. 

Al'lisoil (Francis), D. D., a Presbyterian minister, 
born in Ireland in 1705, came to America in 1735. He was 
for many years vice-provost and professor in Philadelphia 
College. Died Nov. 28, 1777. 

Alliso'llia, a village of Franklin co., Tenn., on the Elk 
River and on the Nashville and Chat¬ 
tanooga R. R., 77 miles S. E. of Nash¬ 
ville. Here is an abundant water¬ 
power. 

Allison’s Mills, a township of 
Jackson co., Ala. Pop. 564. 

Allitera'tion [from the Lat. ad, 
“ to,” and litera, a “ letter ”], in com¬ 
position, the frequent recurrence of 
the same letter, or of words beginning 
with the same letter, as “ AVhen friends 
were few and fortune frowned.” It is 
often used in proverbial phrases, as, 
“ AVilful waste makes woeful want,” 
and in poetry for the production of 
effect, as in this line of Gray: “To 
high-born Hoel’s harp or soft Llewel¬ 
lyn’s lay.” In the Celtic and early 
Gothic languages alliteration was a 
recognized ornament of poetry, and 
was used instead of rhyme. 

Al'lium [from the Gr. dAe'o/uuu, to 
“avoid,” because of its offensive 
smell], a genus of herbaceous plants 
of the natural order Liliacem, natives 
of the temperate and cold regions of 
the northern hemisphere, including 
the garlic, onion, leek, and chive. 
They have mostly bulbous roots, um¬ 
bellate flowers, narrow and fistulose 
leaves, and a peculiar smell and taste 
called alliaceous. 

Al'loa, a seaport and market- 
town of Scotland, in the county of 
Clackmannan, on the left (N.) bank 
of the Forth, and at the head of its 
frith, 28 miles AV. N. AA r . of Edin¬ 
burgh. It has a good harbor and an 
active trade. Glass, ale, whisky, woollen goods, and leather 
are manufactured here, and coal is an important article of 
export. Steamboats ply daily between Alloa and Edin¬ 
burgh. Pop. 6676. 

Alloh'roges, a nation of ancient Gaul which occupied 
the territory now comprised in Dauphiny, Savoy, and Pied¬ 
mont. They were allies or peaceable subjects of Rome. 

Allocu'tion [Lat. allocu'tio, from ad, “ to,” and lo'quor, 
locu'tus, to “ speak ”], a formal address; a term used espe¬ 
cially by the court of Rome, and applied to a speech which 
the pope addresses to the college of cardinals on some po¬ 
litical or ecclesiastical subject. The pope often resorts to 
this method to define his position or explain his policy, or 
reserve a claim which he cannot enforce in the present cir¬ 
cumstances. 

Allo'dium, or Allo'ilial Ten'ure, in feudal law, 
freehold estate, land held by an individual in his own 
absolute right, and free from feudal tenure or obligation. 
There is no allodial land or property in England, the laws 



Alligator. 


















































































































106 ALLOMEEISM—ALLSTON. 


of which declare that the king is the original proprietor 
and lord paramount of all the land in the kingdom. 

Allom'erism [from the Gr. aAAos, “ different,” and ;u.epo?, 
a “portion” or “share”], a term denoting constancy of 
crystalline form under variation in the proportion of the 
constituents of a compound. Thus, an alloy of zinc and 
antimony containing 36 per cent, of the latter metal crystal¬ 
lizes in needles which do not vary in angular measurement, 
though the antimony be increased 20 per cent. 

Allop'athy [from the Gr. aAAos, “other,” “different,” 
and naOos, an “affection”], a supposed theory of medicine, 
according to which remedies are used whose effects are op¬ 
posite to the symptoms of the diseases treated. The term 
allopathy was formed after that of homoeopathy, and both 
terms were introduced by Hahnemann. The two terms are 
contrasted, the one teaching that medicines must produce 
a similar affection to the disease itself, the other a different 
affection. The idea of this method of medication is at least 
as old as Hippocrates, who used the expression, “rd evavria 
raiv evavTLinu tara> irjixara ”—“ opposites are remedies of op¬ 
posites.” It has been contrasted in modern times especi¬ 
ally with the maxim of Hahnemann, “ similia similibus 
curantnr ,” or “ like cures like,” which is the fundamental 
principle of homoeopathy—an idea which is also advanced 
by Hippocrates. It is altogether an error to designate the 
prevalent and ancient science and practice of medicine as 
allopathy. The teachers and adherents of this science insist 
that its scope legitimately embraces all positive truth con¬ 
cerning disease and its treatment; no more to be narrowed 
down to an exclusive principle, such as that of allopathy, 
than astronomy can be made synonymous with the nebular 
theory, or zoology with the theory of development. 

Allo'ri (Alessandro), a skilful Italian painter, born 
in Florence in 1535, excelled in the science of anatomy. 
Among his masterpieces are “The Last Judgment” and 
“ Christ disputing with the Doctors.” Died in 1607. 

Allori (Cristofano), an eminent painter, a son of the 
preceding, was born at Florence in 1577. He was a good 
colorist, and excelled in portraits. Among his works, which 
are exquisitely finished, is a Magdalene. Died in 1621. 

All’otta' va, in music, is a direction to play an octave 
higher or lower. 

Allot'ment Sys'tem, or Allotment of Land, an 

expression commonly used in England in reference to small 
portions of land cultivated as gardens by peasants and 
other poor laborers, who hold the land as tenants.-. Allot¬ 
ment, as a legal term, may be defined as the grant or allow¬ 
ance of a portion of land too inconsiderable to be the subject 
of a formal conveyance. 

Allot'ropy, or Allot'ropism [from the Gr. aAAos, 
“other,” and rpon-rj, “conversion”], in chemistry, a term 
applied to the diversity of form and properties which some 
elements exhibit under certain circumstances, as, for ex¬ 
ample, when exposed to a great heat or to an electric dis¬ 
charge. Many chemists believe that every element is ca¬ 
pable of existing under several allotropic modifications. 
Among the substances which afford examples of allotropy 
are sulphur, phosphorus, oxygen, and carbon. If the solid 
and brittle sulphur be heated to 480° F., and then poured 
into water, it ceases to be brittle and becomes very elastic. 
Sulphur in its ordinary state is slightly soluble in turpen¬ 
tine and some fixed oils, but in its elastic condition it be¬ 
comes insoluble in those oils. Phosphorus affords a re¬ 
markable illustration of the same principle. In ordinary 
circumstances, when freshly prepared, it is a pale yellow 
solid, resembling wax. In this form it is extremely com¬ 
bustible, requiring to be kept under water to avoid taking 
fire spontaneously. But if this same substance be excluded 
from air and kept several days at a temperature of about 
450° Fahrenheit, it becomes red, and ceases to be readily 
combustible, so that it need not be kept under water to 
prevent its taking fire. Oxygen, which in its common 
state has no odor, may, by an electric discharge through 
a glass tube or bottle containing air, be transformed into 
ozone, which has a peculiar odor and other new properties. 
(See Ozone.) The diamond and graphite are allotropic 
forms of carbon. 

Allouez (Claude Jean), a Jesuit, born in France in 
1620, went to Quebec in- 1658 as missionary to the Algon- 
kins, settled on Lake Superior in 1665, at Kaskaskia, Ill., 
in 1676, and visited numerous tribes in the North-west. 
Died in 1690. He was bitterly disliked by La Salle. 

Allowances, Officers’, are the payments made to 
officers in the British army for special duties. An officer 
commanding and paying a company receives a contingent 
allowance for the expense of repairing arms, etc. An offi¬ 
cer sent on duty from one place to another has a travelling 
allowance of so much a mile. A somewhat similar system 
is observed in the U. S. army. 


Al'loway Kirk, an old ruined church in the parish of 
Ayr, near the mouth of the river Doon, is the scene of 
Burns’s poem of “Tam O’Shanter.” A monument has been 
erected here to the memory of Burns, who was born near 
the kirk. 

Allox'an (C 4 N 2 II 2 O 4 ), a white crystalline substance 
formed by the action of cold strong nitric acid on uric 
acid. It is converted by baric hydrate into alloxanic acid, 
II 2 .C 4 N 2 H 2 O 5 . 

Alloxan'tin (CsN 4 H 407 . 3 Aq), a colorless crystalline 
compound produced by the action of hot dilute nitric acid 
on uric acid; also by the action of deoxidizing agents, as 
H 2 S, on alloxan. 

Alloy' [from the Fr. alloyer, to “mix” (as metals), 
probably from the Latin al'ligo, to “bind to,” to “join,” 
and hence to “mix”], a mixture or compound of two or 
more metals fused together; sometimes a compound of 
precious metal with a metal of less value; thus, in coin¬ 
age, the term alloy is applied to a baser metal mixed with 
gold or silver in order to make it harder. Chemists apply 
this term to all combinations obtained by fusing metals 
together; thus, brass is an alloy of copper and zinc; 
bronze is an alloy of copper and tin ; pewter is an alloy of 
tin and lead. In many cases the metals do not unite in 
definite or invariable proportions. The density—or, in 
other words, the specific gravity—of an alloy is sometimes 
greater and sometimes less than the mean of its compo¬ 
nents. Most alloys have greater cohesion than either of the 
metals of which they are composed, so that a bar of an 
alloy will bear a greater longitudinal strain than a bar of 
either metal. British gold coin contains 11 parts of pure 
gold and 1 of copper; the law of the U. S. requires that in 
1000 parts of coin there must be 900 parts of gold ; and the 
intent of the law is, that the alloy shall be of copper only; 
but, as in parting silver from native gold it has been here¬ 
tofore impossible to separate the whole, except at an ex¬ 
pense too great to be economical, it has been permitted to 
allow the residual silver to be counted as part of the alloy, 
provided the proportion of silver be not greater than one- 
half. The more effectual processes introduced of late years 
into the U. S. assay offices have made it possible to make 
the parting nearly complete; and it is now provided that 
the silver shall not exceed one-tenth part of the whole alloy. 
A compound of mercury with another metal is an amalgam. 

All Saints’ Day, or All Hallows [Ang.-Sax. all, and 
Jidlig, “holy”], a festival of the Boman Catholic, Anglican, 
Lutheran, and the various Oriental churches. Observed on 
the 1st of November, in honor of the saints in general. 

All Souls’ Day, a festival of the Roman Catholic 
Church, observed on the 2d of November, in order to alle¬ 
viate the sufferings of the souls in purgatory. 

All'spice, a common name of pimento, or Jamaica 
pepper, the dried berry of the Euge'nia pimen'ta, which is 
a native of the West Indies. It is called allspice because 
it is supposed to combine the flavor of several spices. 

All'ston (Joseph), an American planter, born in 1778, 
became governor of South Carolina (1812-14). He mar¬ 
ried Theodosia, the only child of Aaron Burr. Died Sept. 
10 , 1816. 

Allston (Robert F. W.), an American officer and gov¬ 
ernor, born April 21, 1801, in All Saints’ parish, S. C., 
graduated at West Point in 1821, served as lieutenant of 
artillery on topographical duty till he resigned, Feb. 1, 
1822, to become a rice-planter on the Great Pedee River; 
surveyor-general of South Carolina 1823-27, member of the 
house of representatives of South Carolina 1828-32, of the 
senate 1832-56, presiding 1847-56, deputy adjutant-gen¬ 
eral of South Carolina 1831-38, and governor of South 
Carolina 1856-58. He was much interested in agriculture 
and public education, and wrote valuable memoirs upon 
both subjects. Died April 7, 1864, on his plantation, near 
Georgetown, S. C. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Allston (Washington), an American painter of celeb¬ 
rity, both at home and abroad, born Nov. 5, 1779, on his 
father’s plantation, at Waccamaw, S. C.; died at Cam¬ 
bridge, Mass., July 9, 1843. Being of delicate constitu¬ 
tion, he was sent to school at Newport, It. I., at the age 
of seven. There he formed the acquaintance of Edward 
Malbone, the miniature painter, a kindred spirit, two 
years his senior, whose taste, enthusiasm, and unusual 
culture stimulated the lad’s ambition and fixed the bent 
of his genius. On graduating from Harvard College in 
1800, he went to Charleston, and at once began his art-life 
under the influence of his Newport friend, whom he found 
there. The opportunities for intelligent study of good 
masters were small at that time, but zeal and patience used 
them all. The young man scorned no helps, but copied 
the best he could find, and felt grateful, especially to 
Robert Edgo Pine, whoso portraits of General Gates, 

















ALLUVION—ALMA. 107 


Charles Carroll, Baron Steuben, and Washington were 
much admired as examples of color. In 1801, Allston, 
accompanied by his friend Malbone, is in London, a stu¬ 
dent of the Royal Academy, whereof Benjamin West was 
president. West became his intimate friend, and so re¬ 
mained to the last. London opened to the young artist a 
new world of opportunity and sympathy. His three years 
there were full of improvement and delight. Then the 
Louvre in Paris offered to him its superb gallery, rich with 
gems of Italian art. This prepared him for Italy, where, 
principally in Rome, he spent four years in close compan¬ 
ionship with Thorwaldsen the sculptor and Coleridge the 
poet. In 1809 he returned, richly freighted, to his native 
country, but soon went back to London with his wife, a 
sister of Hr. William E. Channing. There he produced 
his first great work, “ The Dead Man Restored to Life by 
the Bones of Elisha.” The picture obtained the prize from 
the British Association, and was afterwards purchased by 
the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. Allstou’s repu¬ 
tation was made. Other great paintings followed: “St. 
Peter Liberated by the Angel,” “ Uriel in the Centre of the 
Sun,” “Jacob’s Dream,” with smaller things between— 
all eagerly sought by purchasers. But toil and confine¬ 
ment, and sorrow from the death of his wife, impaired 
his health; in 1818 he came to America again. The 
next twelve years were passed in Boston, where, in 
spite of a feeble body and a saddened mind, he painted 
the “Jeremiah,” “Saul and the Witch of Endor,” “Mir¬ 
iam,” “Beatrice,” and other pieces exquisite in color and 
feeling. In 1830, Allston married, as his second wife, a 
daughter of Chief-Justice Dana of Cambridge, Mass.; 
and at Cambridge he thenceforth lived, writing and paint¬ 
ing, in great seclusion, but enjoying the society of a group 
of intimate and noble friends. To this period of his ac¬ 
tivity belong “ Spalatro’s Vision ” and “ Rosalie,” the for¬ 
mer one of his most weird, the latter one of his loveliest 
creations. The work which he meant should be his mas¬ 
terpiece, and on which he bestowed immense labor in the 
latter years of his life, “ Belshazzar’s Feast,” was never 
finished. It was after a week of steady, severe labor on 
it that the artist gently expired from an attack of heart 
disease. The sketch, probably never intended by the 
painter to be exhibited, is in the Athenmum Gallery in 
Boston. 

If Allston had not been a painter, he might have been 
distinguished as an author. The few writings from his 
pen that have been published indicate a rare penetration 
and refinement of mind. His novelette, “Monaldi,” de¬ 
serves to be still read and admired for its literary excel¬ 
lence. His poems were light and incidental productions, 
and have been forgotten. He prepared a course of lec- • 
turcs on art, which were published after his death. 

Allston had the poetic temperament; his passion was 
for beauty—not for the sensuous beauty that charms the 
eye, so much as for the intellectual beauty that enchants 
the soul. Neither the landscape nor the human face in¬ 
terested him so much as the forms that stood before his 
imagination. He was of a thoughtful, interior, specula¬ 
tive cast of mind, meditative and dreamy. His sensibility 
to spiritual impressions was acute; he was a lover of the 
supernatural and the mysterious, with a love of the roman¬ 
tic. He never wholly outgrew his liking for ghost-stories, 
and the awful, the grand, the wild possessed an unfailing 
attraction for him to the end of his life. This peculiarity 
of his mind displays itself in the subjects of his greatest 
paintings—“ Uriel,” “ Saul and the Witch of Endor, “ The 
Vision of the Bloody Hand,” “ The Dead Man Coming to 
Life ”—and not less in his last and most ambitious piece, 
“ Belshazzar’s Feast;” the great feature of which was the 
awful handwriting on the wall, glaring down on the scene 
of revelry, making the light of the candles dim and strik¬ 
ing consternation into royal hearts. Conceptions like these 
transcend any artist’s power of execution, and much of the 
disappointment with Allston’s work arises probably from 
the sense of inadequacy of the performance. The grandeur 
is there, the impression of intellectual power is always 
conveyed, the spiritual influence of a subtle imagination 
is always felt; but the skill to tell satisfactorily the won¬ 
derful story is wanting. It is when he descends from such 
ambitious flights and paints a “Rosalie,” a “Beatrice,” a 
“Lorenzo and Jessica,” that the exquisite quality of his 
art appears. These are creations ot the fancy too, pure 
dreams of the poet, attempts to catch and portray what 
the eye cannot perceive, and only the most ethereal touch 
can feel. Their charm is indescribable. It is not in 
the composition, which is not always admirable, nor in 
the drawing, which is now and then deficient in freedom 
and grace, nor even in the color, rich and mellow as it is: 
it lies rather in the refined delicacy of sentiment which 
pervades the work, spiritualizing whatever the master 
touches. His most tremendous creations are touched with 


this subtle grace. They are never appalling or grotesque ; 
they are always, in some aspects, lovely. 

The technical excellence of Allston’s art was its color. 
Leslie is quoted as saying that the harmony of tint in the 
“Uriel” suggested the best pictures of Raul Veronese; 
and the appellation given him in Rome, “ the American 
Titian,” proved that the artists there discovered in his can¬ 
vas something more than the adroit use of pigments, some¬ 
thing of the strange art of mingling them that in the great 
master was so inimitable. Artists could even rejoice in the 
melancholy incompleteness of the “ Belshazzar,” because it 
allowed them an opportunity to study the painter’s method. 

The personal qualities of Allston were exceedingly at¬ 
tractive. His high-toned moral integrity, his enthusiasm, 
his utter singleness of mind, his maidenly purity of heart, 
fascinated all who approached him. He was free from 
envy and jealousy and guile. Artists revered him. Horatio 
Greenough, a man of culture as well as an artist, said, 
“ He was a father to me in what concerned my progress of 
every kind.” And Washington Irving wrote of him : “ To 
the last he appeared to retain all those elevated, refined, 
and gentle qualities which first endeared him to me—a 
man whose memory I hold in reverence and affection as 
one of the purest, noblest, and most intellectual beings 
that ever honored me with his friendship.” 

Allston was slight in form, and carried about him an air 
of refined dignity that at once attracted attention. His 
countenance wore an expression of serene abstraction. 
His brow was broad, his eye large; his white hair fell long 
upon his shoulders in his latter years. In the public street 
he seemed wrapped in thought till a friend spoke to him, 
and then he seemed the soul of love. Before his death, in 
1839, his paintings, those that were in America, forty-two 
in number, were collected a short time for exhibition. The 
best of them are in private galleries; some of the very 
best are in England. Mr. Allston was chosen a member 
of the Royal Academy soon after his return from his first 
long residence in England. 0. B. Frothingham. 

Allu 'vion [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and Ino, to “wash”], 
tho soil imperceptibly formed by the constant washing of 
the waters along the banks of a river or the sea. (See 
Accretion.) It differs from “ avulsion,” as the latter is not 
gradual, but sudden and perceptible. 

Allu'vium, a geological term, "signifies gravel, sand, 
and other matter washed down by rivers and floods, and 
spread over land that is not permanently submerged. Such 
deposits, which belong to the post-tertiary formation, often 
accumulate at the mouths of large rivers and form deltas. 
(See Delta.) All the land of Lower Egypt is alluvial. It 
has been estimated that the Mississippi annually carries 
down a quantity of sediment sufficient to cover 144 square 
miles with a stratum one foot deep. Alluvial soil is fre¬ 
quently the most fertile part of the earth’s surface. 

Al'lyl, Ac'ryl, or Propyle'nyl (C 3 II 5 ), the third term 
in the homologous series CnILn-i- Oil of garlic *is the 
sulphide of allyl (€ 3115 ) 28 . Oil of mustard is the sulpho- 
cyanate of allyl, C 3 H 5 .CNS. 

Al'lyn (Robert), D. D., an eminent clergyman and 
educated in the Methodist Episcopal Church, born at 
Ledyard, Conn., Jan. 25, 1817, graduated in 1841 at the 
Wesleyan University, Conn.; mathematical teacher in 
Wilbraham Academy, Mass., 1841-43, joined the New En¬ 
gland Conference 1842, was elected principal at Wilbraham 
1845, principal of the Providence Conference Academy 
1848 ; commissioner of public instruction for Rhode Island 
1854, served three terms in tho Rhode Island legislature, 
appointed professor of ancient languages in Ohio Uni¬ 
versity at Athens 1857, president of the Wesleyan Fe¬ 
male College, Cincinnati, 0., 1859, and president of Mclven- 
dree College, Ill., 1863-73. 

Al'ma, a small river of Russia, in the Crimea, flows 
W. and enters the sea about 20 miles N. of Sevastopol. 
On its banks the allied armies of England and France, 
commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St.-Arnaud, de¬ 
feated the Russians on the 20th of Sept., 1854. 

Alma, a post-township of Marion co., Ill. Pop. 794. 

Alina? a post-village, the capital of Wabaunsee co., 
Kan., in a township of its own name, about 65 miles W. of 
Lawrence, situated at the crossing of the prospective Man¬ 
hattan Alma and Burlingame, and the Mill Creek Valley and 
Council Grove R. Rs. It contains several stores, wagon 
and other shops, one flouring-mill and one saw-mill, run 
by water-power. The town is at tho junction of four 
creeks, each furnishing water-power. Boring for coal is 
now going on, which geological experts say is to be found 
at a depth of about 350 to 400 feet. The town is growing 
very rapidly. Six important mail-routes centro at this 
point, and stages arrive and depart daily. One newspaper 
is published here. Pop. of Alma township, 890. 

A. Sellers, Pub. “News.” 


























108 ALMA—ALMEIDA-GARRETT, DE. 


Alma, a post-township of Allegany co., N. Y. It has 
manufactures of lumber. Pop. 766. 

A1 ma, the county-seat of Buffalo co., Wis. It has one 
weekly paper. It is on the Mississippi River, 60 miles N. 
of La Crosse, and within 4 miles of the celebrated Beef 
Slough Boones. It has manufactures of bricks, wagons, 
flour, etc. Pop. of village, 565; of township, 1049. 

Ed. of “ Express.” 

Alma, a township of Jackson co., Wis. Pop. 731. 

Al'mack’s, a suit of assembly-rooms in King street, 
St. James, London, was formerly celebrated as a fashion¬ 
able place of resort for the aristocracy. Annual balls were 
given in these rooms, the managers of which were ladies 
of high rank, who conducted them with great exclusive¬ 
ness. These rooms were built in 1765 by a person named 
Almack, an anagram of McCall, his original name. The 
desire of admission to the balls and parties at Almack’s 
was so eager that it is said votes in Parliament have been 
purchased by tickets offered to the wives and daughters of 
members, s 

Almaden', or Almaden' del Azo'gue (i. e. “the 
mines of quicksilver ”), a town of Spain, in the province 
of Ciudad Real, 50 miles S. W. of Ciudad Real. Here 
are mines of quicksilver (cinnabar), which are said to be 
the richest and most ancient in the world, producing an¬ 
nually about 2,000,000 pounds. They were worked by the 
ancient Spaniards, and afterwards by the Romans. Al¬ 
maden has a practical school of mines and three hospitals. 
The mines were rented in the sixteenth century by the 
Fuggers, the famous bankers of Antwerp, and in 1S43 the 
Rothschilds obtained the contract from the Spanish gov¬ 
ernment. Pop. 8645. ✓ 

Al'maden, a township of Santa Clara co., Cal. Here 
are important mines of mercury and valuable mineral 
springs. Pop. 1647. < 

Almaden Quicksilver-mines, The, of Santa 
Clara co., Cal., are named after those of Almaden in Spain, 
the latter being the most important in the known world. 
The Santa Clara mines are the New Almaden, Providence, 
Enriquita, and Guadalupe. The first mentioned is 14 
miles from San Jose and 65 miles S. of San Francisco, in a 
region remarkable for its picturesque scenery. The ore 
(cinnabar) has from tiftie immemorial been known to the 
Indians, who used it for making vermilion paint. Some 
Mexicans having bribed them to disclose the profound 
secret of its place, a company was formed in 1846, which 
began to work the mine. The presence of this deposit has 
been of incalculable benefit to California, since enormous 
quantities are employed in gold and silver mining. The 
metallic mercury is separated from the ore by a simple pro¬ 
cess of distillation. , 

Al'magest [from the Arabic al, “the,” and the Gr. 
ju-eyio-To?, “ greatest”], a name given by the Arabs to Ptole¬ 
my’s ^reat work on astronomy, which was written in 
Greek, and translated in the ninth century into Arabic. 

Alma'gro, a city of Spain, in the province of Ciudad 
Real, 14 miles S. E. of Ciudad Real. It is well built, has 
a town-hall, two hospitals, and one Latin school. Large 
quantities of lace are made here; also brandy, soap, and 
earthenware. Pop. 10,273. 

Almagro, de (Diego), a Spanish soldier of fortune, 
and one of the conquerors of Peru, was a foundling, and 
was named after the city in which he was found in 1475. 
At an early age he went to America, where he is said to 
have enriched himself by plunder. Pizarro, Almagro, and 
Luque in 1525 united in an enterprise to conquer Peru, in 
which they were successful. (See Pizariio, Francisco.) 
In 1535, Almagro invaded Chili and gained some victories 
over the natives, but his progress was hindered by the en¬ 
mity and perfidy of Pizarro. He returned from Chili in 
1536, and took Cuzco, which Pizarro claimed as part of 
his possessions. In April, 1538, Almagro was defeated in 
battle and taken prisoner by Pizarro, who put him to 
death. 

Almagro, de (Diego), a son of the preceding, was 
born about 1520. He became the leader of a party which 
was hostile to Pizarro, whom they assassinated in 1541. 
He then took the title of captain-general of Peru, but he 
was defeated in battle by the royal army under Yaca.de 
Castro, and was executed in 1542. 

Alma'li, a large town of Asiatic Turkey, in the S. part 
of Anatolia, on the river Myra, 25 miles from the Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea. It is beautifully situated in a valley, contains 
several factories and mills, and has a prosperous trade. 
The appearance of the town is uncommonly picturesque. 
Pop. about 20,000. 

Al' ma Ma'ter (?’. e. “fostering or propitious mother”), 
a name used to express the relationship of a university to 
its “foster-children” (alumni) who have been educated in it. 


Al'manac, or Almanack [Arab, the “register”], an 
annual publication containing a calendar of the days and 
months of the year, the time of the sun’s rising and set¬ 
ting, a notice of the eclipses of the sun and moon, and 
other astronomical phenomena. To these essential topics 
are often added predictions of the weather, and sometimes 
useful information of different kinds. The origin of alma¬ 
nacs is very ancient. They correspond in some respects 
to the Fasti of the Romans. The first printed almanac 
was that of George von JBurback, resident at Vienna, in 
1460. Regiomontanus began in 1474 a series of almanacs 
in their present completed form. In the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries they were often used as organs of 
political parties, were filled with the absurdities of astrol¬ 
ogy and vain prognostications, and were enlisted in the 
service of superstition and imposture. Among the most 
widely-known almanacs of the present time is the “Gotha 
Almanack,” which was first published in German in 1763. 
It is also published in French. It contains statistics re¬ 
specting all nations, with much political information. 

The lirst American almanac was that of William Brad¬ 
ford of Philadelphia, published in 1687. In 1732, Frank¬ 
lin first published his celebrated “ Poor Richard’s Almanac.” 
The “American Almanac” appeared in Boston from 1828 
to 1861. At present over 100 almanacs are published in 
the U. S., embracing every possible subject, a number of 
which appear in foreign languages, especially the German. 

Almanac, Nautical, an annual work devoted to as¬ 
tronomical phenomena and used in navigation. The 
“British Nautical Almanac” was planned by Maskelyne, 
and first published in 1767. A similar French work, enti¬ 
tled “ Connaissance des Temps,” was commenced by Picard 
in 1678, and has been continued to the present time. There 
is an excellent almanac published in Berlin under the title 
of Ephevieris. The “American Nautical Almanac,” which 
first appeared in 1853, has a high reputation. It is pub¬ 
lished annually by the U. S. navy department through the 
board of navigation. It is a large volume, published for 
the use of the navy, and sold at cost to others. (See Ephem- 
eris, by Prof. J. II. C. Coffin, LL.D.) 

Alman'sa, or Alman'za, a town of Spain, in the 
rovince of Albacete, 52 miles by rail E. of Albacete. It 
as manufactures of linen and cotton fabrics, brandy, 
leather, and soap. Near this town the French under the 
duke of Berwick defeated the British and Spanish armies, 
April 25, 1707. Pap. 7900. 

Alman'sor (Abu Jaafar), the second caliph of the 
family of the Abbasides, was born in 712. He ruled from 
754-775, persecuted the Christians in Syria and Egypt, 
founded Bagdad, and promoted arts and sciences. 

Aim as, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs, 16 
miles W. N. W. of Maria-Theresienstadt. Pop. in 1869, 
8193. 

Al'meh, or Al'mah, written also Alm6 (plu. Awa- 

lim ), a name applied to the professional female singers 
and dancing-girls of Egypt. The singers are hired to per¬ 
form in the harems of the rich. The common dancing-girls 
are a different and less respectable class, belonging to a 
tribe called Ghawazi. They perform lascivious pantomimes 
in the streets. 

Almei'da, or Almey'da, a fortified town of Portugal, 
in Beira, and on the Coa, 83 miles N. E. of Coimbra. It is 
an important stronghold. Here Lord Wellington defeated 
the French general Massena, Aug. 5, A811. Pop. about 
1150. 

Almeida, a town of Brazil, province of Espirito Santo, 
is on the ocean, about 20 miles N. of Victoria. It was 
founded by the Jesuits in 1580. Pop. about 4000. 

Almeida, de (Don Francisco), a famous Portuguese 
commander and viceroy of India, was born in Lisbon about 
1450. He was a son of the count of Abrantes. Haying 
gained distinction in wars against the Moors, he was ap¬ 
pointed viceroy of India in 1505. He built several forts on 
the Indian coast, and extended the dominion of Portugal 
by his conquests. In 1507, Albuquerque was sent to India 
with a commission to supersede Almeida, but the latter re¬ 
fused to resign. He gained a decisive victory over the 
Egyptian fleet near Diu in 1508, and resigned his office 
about the end of that year. As he was returning to Por¬ 
tugal, he was killed by some Caffers near the Cape of Good 
Hope Mar. 1, 1510. 

Almeida-Garrctt, de (Joao Baptista), a Portuguese 
poet and politician, born Feb. 4, 1799, minister of public 
education 1820—24, was compelled to leave the country 
several times, and was elected a member of the Cortes in 
1836. Died in 1854. Among his works (16 vols., 1854-55), 
the most celebrated are the epic-lyrical poems “Camoes” 
and “Adozinda,” the satirical poem “Dona Branca,” as 
well as several dramas. 
















ALMENA—ALMY. 109 


A1 me'lia, a post-township of Van Buren co., Mich. 
Pop. 980. 

Al'mer, a township of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop. 671. 

Almeri'a, a province of Spain, forms the E. part of the 
former kingdom of Granada. It is bounded on the N. by 
Murcia, on the E. and S. by the Mediterranean, and on the 
W. by Granada. Area, 3299 square miles. It contains 
rich mines of silver and lead. Grain, silk, and wine are 
the chief productions. Capital, Almeria. Pop. in 1867, 
352,946. 

Almeria, iU-mi-ree'd, a city and port of Spain, on the 
Mediterranean, 104 miles E. of Malaga, is the capital of a 
province of the same name. Under the reign of the Moor¬ 
ish kings it was one of the richest and most important 
towns in the kingdom of Granada. It has a safe harbor, 
defended by two forts, and a fine cathedral. Wine, silk, 
cochineal, and other articles are exported from this port. 
Pop. in 1861, 29,426. 

Almi'ra, a post-township of Benzie co., Mich. P. 393. 

Al'mohades [Arabic, Al-Mowahidoon, i. e. “Unita¬ 
rians,” or advocates of the unity of God, as taught in its 
original purity by Mohammed], a Mohammedan dynasty 
that reigned in Spain and Northern Africa from 1129 to 
1269. It was founded by Abu-Abdillah Mohammed, sur- 
named Al-Mahdi, “the director.” The Almohades were 
the conquerors and successors of the Alinoravides. The first 
Almohade who took the title of sultan was Abd-el-Mumen. 

Almoji'a, a Spanish town in the province of Malaga, 
10 miles N. W. of Malaga, is noted for its baths. Pop. 7041. 

Almonacid/, a town of Spain, in the province of To¬ 
ledo, on the Tagus. Here the French under King Joseph 
defeated the Spaniards under Vanegas on Aug. 11, 1809. 

Al'mond. ( Amyy'dalus ), a genus of plants of the nat¬ 
ural order Rosacese, composed of trees and shrubs nearly 
allied to the peach. The common almond (Amyg'dalus com- 
nu'nu) is a tree from twenty-five to thirty feet high, a 
native of Barbary, but it now abounds in the south of Eu¬ 
rope, from which great quantities of the fruit (kernels) 
are exported. Sweet almonds, which contain a large pro¬ 
portion of bland fixed oil, are an agreeable article of food. 
Bitter almonds contain a peculiar principle called amyg- 
dalin, and yield a poisonous oil. The leaves of the almond 
contain prussic acid. The dwarf almond tree is culti¬ 
vated for the beauty of -its flowers, which resemble the 
blossoms of the peach, but are generally double. 

Almond, a township of Clay co., Ala. Pop. 967. 

Almond, a post-village and township of Allegany co., 
N. Y. It contains an academy, a mowing-machine factory, 
four churches, several quarries, mineral springs, and has 
manufactures of boots, shoes, etc. Pop. 1686. 

Almond, a post-township of Portage co., Wis. P. 651. 

Almond'bury, a large village, township, and parish 
of England, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The village 
is on the Calder, 36 miles S. W. of York, and has cotton 
and woollen mills. Pop. in 1871, 12,268. 

Almon'de, van (Philippus), sometimes written Al- 
lemon'da, a Dutch admiral, born at Briel in 1646. He 
was the second in command under De Ruyter when the 
latter was killed in 1676, and contributed to the victory 
which Van Tromp gained over the Swedes in 1677. He 
commanded the Dutch fleet which, aided by the English, 
defeated the French at La Hogue in 1692. Died in 1711. 

Al'mond’s, a township of Stanley co., N. C. P. 792. 

Almonds, Oil of. Both sweet and bitter almonds 
yield by pressure a fixed oil, which is of a light-yellow 
color and odorless. It consists chiefly of olein; is soluble 
in 25 parts of alcohol. It is used in medicine, having a 
mild laxative property. It is sometimes given to new¬ 
born infants, mixed with syrup of roses. One hundred 
pounds of almonds yield about fifty pounds of oil. Bitter 
almonds, macerated with cold water and distilled, yield a 
volatile oil known as the “oil of bitter almonds,” or hy¬ 
dride of benzoyl. This does not pre-exist in the almonds, 
but is produced, together with hydrocyanic or prussic acid, 
from the glucoside amygdalin under the influence of the 
ferment emulsm: 

Amygdalin. Water. ^enzoy^ ^<3?° Glucose. 

C 20 H 27 NO 11 + 2H 2 0 = C 7 II 6 0 + HCN + 2C 6 Hi 2 06 

It is a colorless, limpid oil, smelling of bitter almonds. 
When freed from prussic acid it is not poisonous. It 
oxidizes to benzoic acid, C 7 H 6 O 2 . It is regarded as the 
aldehyde of the benzoic group. It is also produced by the 
action of manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid on albu¬ 
men, fibrino, caseine, and gelatine. It has been used to a 
considerable extent for flavoring confectionery and for 
scenting soap. For the former purpose the prussic acid 
which it usually contains makes it dangerous, ioi the 


latter purpose it has been entirely superseded by the much 
cheaper nitrobenzol or essence of mirbane (C 6 H 5 NO 2 ), 
also called artificial oil of bitter almonds, which possesses 
the same odor. 

AI'inoner [Fr. aumdnier; Lat. eleemosyna'rius ], an 
officer whose duty is to distribute alms for a king or other 
person of rank, or for a monastery. The grand almoner 
of France was a functionary of high rank, and usually a 
cardinal. This office was abolished during the Revolution. 
In England there is a lord high almoner, who distributes 
the bounty of the queen twice a year. 

Al'mont, a post-township of Lapeer co., Mich. P. 2298. 

Al'inonte, a village of Lanark co., Ontario, on the 
Brockville and Ottawa R. R., 6 miles N. of Carlton Place. 
It has one weekly newspaper, and large manufactures of 
woollen goods. Pop. about 2500. 

Almon / te (Don Juan Nepomuceno), a Mexican general 
and statesman, born in 1804 of Indian descent, was at¬ 
tached to the embassy in London in 1824 and 1832, minis¬ 
ter of war under Bustamente, and in 1841 minister pleni¬ 
potentiary. He distinguished himself in the war against 
the U. S., was sent to Washington in 1853, and in 1857 to 
Paris. He went to Mexico with the French expedition in 
1862, and was declared president in Juarez’s place, but was 
not able to gain recognition. He entered the capital with 
the French army June 10, 1863, and was made president 
of the government junta. Died Mar. 22, 1869, in Paris. 

Almo'ra, or Almo'rah, a town and important fort¬ 
ress of Northern Hindostan, is situated among the Him¬ 
alayas, 85 miles N. of Bareilly, and at a height of 5337 
feet above the sea. 

Al'moravidcs [a corruption of the Arabic Almorabi- 
tun, signifying those “bound” or “devoted” to the ser¬ 
vice of God], the name of a Moslem or Arabian dynasty 
that reigned in Northern Africa and Spain. It was found¬ 
ed by Adballah-Ibn-Yaseen about 1050, and continued to 
reign until 1145, when the last Almoravide sultan was 
conquered by the Almohades. 

Alm'quist (Karl Jonas Ludwig), a Swedish poet and 
prose writer, born in 1793. He published histories, works 
on grammar, romances, epic poems, etc. Among his works 
are “Amorina,” a romance, and a collection • of poems en¬ 
titled “Book of Thorn Roses” (i. e. “Sweet Briars”). 
Died Oct. 26, 1866. 

Alms'houses, institutions for the reception and sup¬ 
port of indigent and sick persons who are unable to main¬ 
tain themselves. Almshouses (officially called “ work- 
houses” in England and “poorhouses” in Scotland) have 
been long maintained in the latter country, in a few of the 
larger towns, at the public expense, but there was no gen¬ 
eral statutory provision to that effect until 1845. In Eng¬ 
land public provision was made for the poor in 1535, 
houses for their reception were established by statute in 
1563, and the employment of the poor in compulsory labor 
was inaugurated in 1601. Workhouses in London were 
established in the reign of William and Mary, and the 
workhouse system has been since extended by numerous 
statutes. A similar system was introduced into Ireland in 
1838. All paupers who are able to earn their subsistence 
are compelled to do so. On the continent of Europe out¬ 
door relief is much more frequent, the helpless and home¬ 
less poor being cared for in the hospitals. In most of the 
U. S., almshouses are maintained by county or municipal 
authorities. In Massachusetts, almshouses, with farms at¬ 
tached, are maintained in nearly all the towns, though 
some of the smaller towns board their paupers in private 
families. The “State paupers” of Massachusetts, chiefly 
of foreign birth, who have no legal residence in any town, 
are maintained in the State almshouses, of which that at 
Tewksbury is the principal. Among the other celebrated 
institutions of this character may be mentioned that on 
Blackwell’s Island, N. Y., that on Deer Island, near Bos¬ 
ton, and the Philadelphia county almshouse, West Phila¬ 
delphia, Pa. (See Pauperism.) 

Al'mug Tree, a name found in the Old Testament, is 
supposed to denote a species of sandal-wood. 

Almunecar', a seaport-town of Spain, in the province 
of Granada, and on the Mediterranean, 33 miles S. of 
Granada. It exports fruits and other articles. Pop. about 
6000. 

Al'my (John J.), born in Rhode Island April 25, 1814, 
became in 1829 a midshipman in the U. S. navy, a lieuten¬ 
ant in 1841, served in the Mexican war and in the Nic¬ 
aragua and Paraguay expeditions, became a commander 
in 1861, a captain in 1865, and a commodore in 1869. 
During the civil war he was an officer of the blockading 
squadron, and subsequently chief signal-officer of the 
navy. 










110 


ALMY—ALPHABET. 



Al' my (William), an American philanthropist, born 
Feb. 17, 17(51, was a member of the Society of Friends, 
lie lived at Providence, R. I., and amassed a large 
fortune in the cotton manufacture, lie endowed a 
large boarding-school at Providence. Hied Feb. 5, 

18,30. 

Al'na, a post-township of Lincoln co., Me. 

Pop. 747. 

Aln'wick, a market-town of England, in the 
county of Northumberland, on the river Alne, 32 
miles N. of Newcastle. It is well built of stone, 
and has a town-hall, a theatre, a mechanics’ insti¬ 
tute, etc. Pop. in 1871, 7055. 

Alnwick Castle, the seat of the duke of 
Northumberland, adjoining the above town, is one 
of the most magnificent baronial castles in Eng¬ 
land. It is supposed to be 1200 years old or more, 
and has belonged to the Percy family since the 
reign of Edward II. In 1830 it was repaired at 
a cost of £200,000. Malcolm III., king of Scot¬ 
land. while besieging this castle in 1093, was kill¬ 
ed, with his eldest son, by the earl of Northum¬ 
berland. William the Lion of Scotland, having 
laid siege to it in 1174, was defeated and made 
prisoner. 

Al' oe, a genus of endogenous plants of the 
order Liliacese, natives of Africa and other warm 
regions, and chiefly valuable for their medicinal 
properties. The drug called aloes is obtained 
from several species, among which the Aloe So- 
cotrina, found in the island of Socotra, affords 
the best quality. (See Aloes.) 

Aloe, American. See Agave. 

Al' oes, a stimulating, purgative drug having a bitter 
taste, is the inspissated juice or extract obtained from the 
leaves of several species of the aloe. It is imported from 
Bombay, Socotra, the Cape of Good Hope, the West Indies, 
etc. “ Cape aloes ” is obtained from the Al'oe sqiica'ta; 
“Socotrine aloes,” from the AVoe Socotri'na; and “ Bar- 
badoes aloes,” from the Al'oe vulga'ris. Aloes is much 
used combined with other cathartics; from its stimulating 
effect upon the lower bowel it is unsuitable for those suf¬ 
fering from piles. Heated with nitric acid, aloes yields 
chrysammic acid. (See Wood and B ache’s “ Dispensa¬ 
tory.”) 

Aloes Wood, called also Agila or Eagle Wood, 

is the inner part of the trunk of the Aquila'ria oxia'ta and 
the Aquila'ria agal' lochurn, trees which are natives of trop¬ 
ical Asia. It is supposed to be the lign-aloes of the Bible. 
Aloes wood contains a fragrant resinous substance, which 
emits a pleasant odor when burned, and is highly prized 
as a medicine by the Orientals. 

Al'ogi, a sect of religionists opposed to the Montanists, 
was formed about 160 A. D. They were styled Alogi, a 
name of double meaning, signifying their rejection of 
writings in which the Logos is mentioned, and also that 
they were without reason. 

Aloi'adre (i . e. “ sons of Aloeus ”), in Greek mythology, 
Otus and Ephialtes, two giants of extraordinary strength 
who attempted to storm Olympus, and were condemned to 
suffer in Tartarus. 

Alom'pra, the founder of the reigning dynasty of 
Burmah, was born about 1700. He revolted against the 
king of Pegu in 1753, was victorious in several battles, 
and became master of Burmah, in which he founded Ran¬ 
goon. Died May 15, 1760. 

Alopecia. See Baldness. 

Al o'ra, a city of Spain, in the province of Malaga, 17 
miles N. W. of Malaga. Soap and oil arc manufactured 
here. Pop. 6818. 

Alosa. See Shad. 

A'lost, or Aalst, an ancient walled town of Belgium, 
in East Flanders, on the navigable river Dender, 18 miles 
by rail W. N. W. of Brussels. It contains the church of 
St.-Martin, one of the largest and finest in Belgium, a 
town-hall, a college, and an academy of design. Here are 
cotton-mills, copper-foundries, distilleries, and manufac¬ 
tures of lace, leather, etc. Alost has an active trade, and 
exports hops, corn, and oil. It was formerly the capital of 
Austrian or imperial Flanders. Pop. in 1866, 18,978. 

Aloysius (Saint) of Gonzaga. See Gonzaga. 

Alpa'ca (the Auclie'niapa'co, supposed by several zool¬ 
ogists to be only a domesticated variety of the guana'co), a 
ruminant animal nearly allied to the lama, and belonging 
to the family Camclidae, is a native of the mountains of 
Peru and Chili. It is rather smaller than the lama, and 
has a long neck, which it carries erect. Flocks of domes¬ 


ticated alpacas are kept by the Peruvians, who export great 
quantities of their wool. This wool, which varies in color, 


Ajpaca. 

is remarkable for its length, fineness, silken texture, and a 
lustre almost metallic. It is longer and straighter than 
that of sheep. The most extensive manufactures of al¬ 
paca cloth are in England, which imports annually about 
3,000,000 pounds of this wool. It first became an article 
of commerce in England in 1829. The alpaca has also 
been introduced into Australia, whence the wool was first 
obtained in 1859. A great part, however, of the so-called 
alpaca goods of commerce are made of the wool of the 
Cotswold, Leicester, and other long-wooled breeds of sheep. 

Alp-Arslan' (t. e. “strong lion”), written also Alp- 
Arselan, a famous Persian sultan of the Seljookide dy¬ 
nasty, was born in Turkistan in 1030. He ascended the 
throne in 1063, and embraced Islamism. Under the direc¬ 
tion of his wise vizier, Nizam-ul-Mulk, Persia enjoyed 
great prosperity, many colleges were founded, and learn¬ 
ing was promoted. In 1071, Alp-Arslan defeated and took 
prisoner Romanus Diogenes, emperor of Constantinople, 
whom he treated generously. He was assassinated in 
Dec., 1072. 

Alpe'na, a county in the N. E. of Michigan, bordering 
on Lake Huron, has an area of about 700 square miles. It 
is drained by the Thunder Bay River, and is heavily tim¬ 
bered. Oats, barley, potatoes, and lumber are produced. 
Capital, Alpena. Pop. 2756. 

Alpena, a city, the capital of Alpena co., Mich., at the 
head of Thunder Bay. It manufactures 125,000,000 feet of 
lumber yearly, contains a large hemlock-extract factory, 
two weekly papers, an excellent harbor, and is situated 
about 210 miles N. by W. from Detroit on Lake Huron. 
Pop. of township, 2612. 

A. C. Tefft, Ed. of “Alpena County Pioneer.” 
Alpes, Basses. See Basses-Alpes. 

Alpes, Hautes. See Hautes-Alpes. 

Alpes-Maritimes, a department forming the S. E. 
extremity of France, bordering on Italy. It is bounded 
on the N. and E. by Italy, on the S. by the Mediterranean 
Sea, and on the W. by Yar and Basses-Alpes. Area, 1518 
square miles. It is drained by the river Yar. The surface 
is diversified by mountains and fertile valleys. This de¬ 
partment includes the county of Nice, which was ceded by 
Italy to France in 1860 ; also the arrondissement of Grasse, 
detached from the department of Yar. It is partly covered 
with forests of valuable timber. Among its staple pro¬ 
ducts are grapes, olives, oranges, lemons, figs, and silk. 
The chief towns arc Grasse, Antibes, Cannes, and Nice, 
which is the capital. It is divided into 3 arrondissements, 
25 cantons, and 146 communes. Pop. in 1872, 199,037. 

Al'pha and Ome'ga, the names of the first and last 
letters ot the Greek alphabet, A, Q. These words occur in 
the book of Revelation as a title of the Lord Jesus Christ. 
Ihe two letters were used by the early Christians as sym¬ 
bols ot faith, and were sometimes marked on coins, tombs, 
ornaments, etc. 

Al'phabet, a word formed of the first two Greek let- 
tcis (a, /3, alpha, beta), and used to denote the entire series 
of letters (arranged in a certain order fixed by custom) 











































A LPHJEUS—ALPS. 


with which any language is written. Nearly all the mod¬ 
ern European tongues, deriving their letters, for the most 
part, from the ancient Romans, have, with slight excep¬ 
tions, the same characters (though pronounced differently), 
arranged in precisely the same order as the Roman (or 
Latin) alphabet. The d ( ae ), o ( oe ), and ii (ue ), occurring 
in the German, Danish (or Norwegian), Swedish, and Hun¬ 
garian, but not found in the other languages, are to be con¬ 
sidered as diphthongs, or at least as compound characters, 
rather than single letters. W is not found in the Italian, 
Spanish, or Portuguese alphabet, nor in French, except in 
words or names of foreign origin. K is scarcely used in 
French, Spanish, or Portuguese, except in a few words of 
foreign derivation. The Italians discard not only w and 
k, but also x and y. The ancient Romans used k and y in 
a very few words, but w was entirely unknown to them. 
It was originally written vv, whence the English name of 
the letter, u and v, like i and j, having formerly been 
equivalent to each other. 

The order of the letters is the same in the alphabets of 
most of the European languages; in the Greek, however, 
the letters, though nearly corresponding in power, and 
often similar in form, to those of the Roman alphabet, are 
arranged very differently, g (y) being the third and z (£) 
the sixth in the order of the letters; and x (£), instead of 
being almost at the end, as in our alphabet, is near the 
middle, not to mention other differences. In Russian, He¬ 
brew, Arabic, and Sanscrit the order of the alphabet varies 
still more from the Roman, while many of the letters differ 
not only in form, but in power, from those of the languages 
of Western Europe. 

Not only the origin of letters, but also the successive 
steps or stages by which they were brought to their present 
perfection, is involved in great obscurity. According to 
a commonly-received theory, all Avriting was in the first 
instance ideographic (from the Gr. eiSea, an “ image,” and 
ypa(f)U), to “write” or “paint”), that is, representing images 
or scenes directly to the eye (and hence called picture¬ 
writing), instead of being phonetic, i. c. representing sounds 
or words which are merely the signs of ideas. Picture- 
writing, which even a few years since prevailed very ex¬ 
tensively among our aboriginal tribes, was doubtless one 
of the earliest arts knoAvn to the human race. To eonvejr, 
for example, the idea that one man had killed another, 
they would represent the figure of a dead man stretched 
upon the ground, and another man standing by erect, with 
some deadly Aveapon in his hand. Since, however, this 
kind of Avriting would only be adapted to represent images 
or scenes, and not thoughts, as mankind advanced in cul¬ 
ture and required a more perfect instrument for communi¬ 
cating their ideas, phonetic writing, representing sounds 
by means of signs (Avhich Ave term letters), was at length 
invented. But between the primeval ideographic Avriting 
and the fully-developed phonetic method there Avas, Ave 
have every reason to believe, an intermediate stage— 
namely, symbolic Avriting. Thus, the ancient Egyptians 
represented, it is said, a siege by a scaling-ladder, a battle 
by two hands holding a boAv and shield, etc. In the pro¬ 
gressive steps towards a perfect system of Avriting by 
phonetic signs, it seems probable that those signs Avere at 
first used to represent entire syllables. But such a system 
would obviously require many different characters, render¬ 
ing it extremely complicated and difficult to learn. To 
obviate this difficulty, signs were at last employed to repre¬ 
sent the simple elementary sounds produced by the human 
voice. 

There is reason to believe that the forms of the letters 
were first suggested by some animal or object Avhose name 
had as its initial sound that Avhich was to be represented 
by the letter. Thus, in IlebreAV, the word dleph, an “ox,” 
has for its initial syllable the sound of the first letter, and 
this letter Avas originally represented by the mere outline 
of the head of an ox; so also beth, a “house,” having b 
for its initial sound, that letter was formed after a rude 
picture, in outline, of a house; and so on. (For a presen¬ 
tation of the most remarkable alphabets, see the notices 
of the various languages under their respective heads, as 
Arabic, Greek, Hebreav, etc., etc.) J. Thomas. 

Alphre'us (in John xix. 25 called C’lopas), the father 
of the apostle-James the Less, and also possibly of Jude. 

Alpharet'ta, a small post-village, the capital of Milton 
co., Ga., about 100 miles N. W. of Milledgeville. Pop. 12G. 

Al'phen, vail (Hieronymus), a popular Dutch poet and 
jurist, born at Gouda in 1746. He became treasurer-general 
of the United Provinces. He produced, besides other works, 
“Poems and Meditations” (1777), “Short Poems for Chil¬ 
dren” (1781), which are highly commended, and an admired 
imaginative poem on “The Starry Heavens” (“De Star- 
renhcmel,” 1783). Died in 1803. 

Alphe'us, or Alphei'us [Gr. ’AA^ctds], the modern 


111 


Rouphia, a celebrated river of Greece, in the Morea. It 
rises in Arcadia, flows westward by Olympia, and enters 
the Mediterranean after a course of about 100 miles. 
Flowing through a formation of cavernous limestone, it 
sometimes sinks and is lost in a subterranean channel. 

Alpheus, in classic mythology, a river-god and a son 
of Oceanus. According to the poetical legend, he loved 
the nymph Arethusa, Avho fled from him to the island of 
Ortygia, and Avas transformed into a fountain. Alpheus 
pursued her under the sea and Avas united to the fountain. 

Al'pine, a county of the E. part of California, border¬ 
ing on NeA'ada. Area, estimated at 1000 square miles. It 
is drained by the Carson River, by the North Fork of the 
Mokelumne, and by the North Fork of the Stanislaus 
River. The surface is mountainous, the county being 
traversed by the great Sierra Nevada. It contains rich 
mines of silver. It was formed in 1864. Cattle, grain, and 
wool are produced. Capital, Silver Mountain. Pop. 685. 

Alpine, a post-township of Clarke co., Ark. Pop. 828. 

Alpine, a post-township of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1445. 

Alpine Club, a society for the promotion of Alpine 
discovery, was formed in England in 1858. Three mem¬ 
bers of this club, Mr. Hudson, Lord Francis Douglas, and 
Mr. Haddo, perished with their guide in the descent of 
the Matterhorn in July, 1865. Other Alpine clubs w T ere 
formed in Austria, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany. In 
1873 an American Alpine club was formed. 

Alpine Plants are those plants, usually of a somewhat 
arctic character, which are found in elevations approach¬ 
ing perpetual snow in the Alps and in other regions in 
different parts of the world. On the Andes, near the 
equator, at an elevation of from 12,000 to 15,000 feet above 
the sea, many kinds of plants are found resembling in 
their general appearance those which occur in Switzerland 
at an elevation of 6000 feet; and these, again, resemble, 
or are even identical with, the species which in Lapland 
grow upon hills of A r ery little elevation, or Avhich are found 
at the level of the sea. Similar plants occur also in all 
lofty mountain-ranges at elevations varying greatly Avith- 
in narrow geographical limits. When the alpine plants of 
Central Europe are spoken of, those are meant Avhich groAv 
at an average height of 6000 feet, marking what, in the 
language of science, is called a zone. This on the Riesen- 
gebirge falls as Ioav as 4000 feet, and rises in the Southern 
Alps and Pyrenees to 9000 feet, and even higher. Although 
rich in forms peculiarly its OAvn, this zone contains many 
plants Avhich are likewise found on much lower hills. But 
the number of these diminishes as the elevation increases. 
Hence the spaces clear of snow in the highest regions pos- 
sess a characteristic flora, the plants of Avhich are distin¬ 
guished by a diminutive habit, and an inclination to form 
a thick turf, frequently also by a covering of wool, whilst 
their stems are often partly or altogether Avoody, and their 
floAvers are in many instances remarkably large, of bril¬ 
liant colors, and very odoriferous. In the Alps, gentians, 
saxifrages, rhododendrons, and various species of primrose 
abound. With the phanerogamous plants are associated a 
number of delicate ferns and exceedingly beautiful mosses. 
Many alpine plants are limited to a A r ery small district. 

Alpi'nus, or Alpin (Prosper), M. D. [It. Pros'pero 
Alpi'ni ], a celebrated Italian botanist, born at Marostica, 
in the Venetian state, Nov. 23, 1553. Having passed sev¬ 
eral years in Egypt, he published in Latin a work “On 
the Plants of Egypt” (1591), and obtained a chair of bot¬ 
any at Padua in 1593. He made important contributions 
to the science of botany. Among his works is one “On 
Exotic Plants.” Died Feb. 5, 1617. 

Alp'nach, or Alp'nacht, a Swiss village in the can¬ 
ton of UnterAvalden, at the foot of Mount Pilatus, 8 miles 
S. S. W. of Lucerne. Here was the famous slide of Alpnach , 
a Avooden trough or railway on which timber Avas moved 
down with great velocity from a height of 2500 feet. Pop. 
in 1870, 1630. 

Alps [Lat. Al'pes; Fr. Alpes ; Ger. AVpen ; etymology 
uncertain], the most remarkable system of mountains in 
Europe in regard to both extent and elevation, may be 
said to extend from the Mediterranean betAveen Marseilles 
and Nice irregularly eastward to near 18° E. Ion. and 45° 
30' N. lat. They form a crescent-shaped chain, and 
stretching across the country cover a part of France, the 
greater part of Switzerland, and a considerable portion of 
Northern Italy and Austria. They culminate in Mont 
Blanc, and form the Avatershed or dividing line betAveen 
the rivers that Aoav into the Mediterranean and those Avhich 
discharge their Avaters into the German Ocean and Black 
Sea. Several important rivers of Europe take their rise in 
Alpine valleys; the largest are the Rhine, Rhone, and 
Danube. This system of mountains is included between 
the parallels of 44° and 48° N. lat. and 6° 40' and 18° E. 














112 


ALPUJ ARRAS—ALTAI. 


Ion., and covers an area of about 95,700 square miles. It 
is estimated that the Alps, with their various windings, have 
an extent from IV. to E. of about 700 miles, and a breadth 
varying from 50 to 200 miles. The bases of the northern 
and the southern sides are encircled by an extensive series 
of lakes, those on the former side being from 1200 to 2000, 
and those on the latter from 600 to 700 feet above the level 
of the sea, while in the interior some are found at an ele¬ 
vation of 6000 feet. The different ranges have an average 
elevation of above 7700 feet, from which altitude over 400 
peaks rise into the limits of perpetual snow. From these 
snowy heights descend, under various forms, the destructive 
avalanches. In the numerous valleys of these lofty regions 
are collected the immense quantities of snow which form 
the long streams of ice called glaciers. (See Glaciers, 
by J. Ball, F. It. S.) The Alps are generally divided into 
three parts, which are distinguished as the East, the West, 
and the Middle Alps. I. West Alps. —The principal ranges 
included within these are: 1. The Maritime Alps, commen¬ 
cing not far from Genoa, extend westerly along the coast of 
the Mediterranean to near Barcelonette in France, and at¬ 
tain in their highest part an elevation of nearly 10,000 feet. 

2. The Cottian Alps, culminating in Monte Viso, 12,600 
feet high. 3. The Graian Alps, forming the boundai-y be¬ 
tween Savoy and Piedmont, and rising in Mont Iseran to 
an elevation of 13,272 feet, and in Mont Cenis to 11,785 
feet. II. Middle Alps, Central Chain . — 1. The Pennine 
Alps, between the plains of Lombardy and the valley of 
the Rh6ne. Their most lofty peaks are—Mont Blanc, 
15,784 feet high, and Grand Cervin, 14,815 feet high. 2. 
The Helvetian Alps, extending from the pass of the Simp¬ 
lon along St. Gothard (10,000 feet) to the pass of Spliigen. 

3. The Rhaetian Alps, between the Inn, the Adda, and the 
Upper Adige. Northern Chain. —1. Bernese Alps, between 
the Rhone and the Aar. The highest summits are Fin- 
steraarhorn, 14,025 feet, Jungfrau, 13,114 feet, and Schreck- 
horn, 13,393 feet high. Southern Chain. —1. Oertler Alps, 
between the Adda and the Adige, the highest peak being 
Oertlerspitze, 12,823 feet high. 2. The Tridentine Alps, 
between the Adige and the Piave. III. East Alps. —The 
principal chains of these are: 1. The Noric Alps, highest 
summit Gross-Glockner, 12,957 feet high. 2. The Carnic 
Alps. 3. The Julian Alps. 4. The Dinaric Alps. Gene¬ 
rally speaking, the Alps are lowest where the system is 
broadest, and highest where the system is narrowest. 

The passes over the Alps are called, in French, cols. 
They are about sixteen in number, and now most of them 
can safely be travelled over by carriages. One of the most 
noteworthy is the Great St. Bernard, connecting the valley 
of the Rhone with Piedmont. It was crossed by Napoleon 
in 1800. Its highest summit is about 8170 feet. The Little 
St. Bernard connects Geneva, Savoy, and Piedmont. This 
is the pass by which some suppose Hannibal to have crossed 
into Italy. Its highest point is about 7190 feet above the 
level of the sea, and is now but little used. The Spliigen 
Pass, connecting the sources of the Rhine with the Adda, 
was used by the Romans in their intercourse with the 
countries bordering on the Danube and the.Rhine, by the 
Germans in the Middle Ages, as well as by modern tourists. 
In some places bridges, terraces, and long galleries are 
constructed of stone to afford protection against the ava¬ 
lanche and whirlwinds. The latter are not only destruc¬ 
tive in themselves, but frequently set the former in motion. 
The Alps, with the exception of Switzerland, are rich in 
minerals, and offer one of the finest fields in the world for 
the geologist. It has been shown that the highest central 
mass, the primary Alps, consists chiefly of the crystalline 
rocks, gneiss and mica-slate, with a small proportion of 
granite. Representatives of the carboniferous and Jurassic 
formation appear among the Central Alps. In the Pen¬ 
nine, Graian, and Rhodian Alps are found large masses 
of serpentine. Quartz-porphyry is found in the N. of 
Piedmont and in the upper valley of the Adige; and in 
the E. of Piedmont, on the N. and S. sides of the chief 
range, extensive deposits of clay-slate and grauwacke, 
mixed with transition limestone, occur. Precious stones 
are found in considerable numbers. Among these is the 
well-known rock-crystal of St. Gothard. Most of the min¬ 
ing and smelting is done in the eastern part of the Alps; 
gold and silver are found in Tyrol, Salzburg, and Carinthia; 
copper exists in the French Alps, in Tyrol, and in Styria. 
The amount of iron and lead extracted from the mines of 
Carinthia and Styria is about 745,000 hundredweight per 
annum. Large quantities of quicksilver are extracted from 
the mines in Carniola. Salt exists in almost every part. 
Coal is found in abundance in Switzerland and Savoy, and 
hot springs are numerous. Many animals inhabit the 
Alps. Among them are the chamois, the ibex, marmots, 
wolves, bears, lynxes, wild-cats, and various species of 
A. birds. Of the domestic animals, goats and oxen abound, 
but horses, sheep, dogs, etc. are found in small numbers. 


Fish are found in some of the lakes at an elevation ot 6000 
feet. The inhabitants of the Alps are industrious and 
simple-hearted, but the spirit and manners ot the neigh¬ 
boring plains have penetrated the larger valleys; the true 
Alpine life has passed away, and the simplicity and cha¬ 
racteristic industry of the Alpine farms arc now preserved 
only in the higher valleys. Revised by A. Geyot. 

Alpujar'ras, a mountain region or range of Spain, in 
Granada, between the Sierra Nevada and the Mediterranean. 
The direction of the range is nearly parallel to the sea-coast. 
The highest peaks rise to the altitude of about 7000 feet. 
Rich pastures abound on the slopes and in the valleys ot 
the northern side of the range. 

Alrau'nen,or Alni'iire, a name given by the ancient 
Germans to certain prophetic women who were employed 
in sacrificing victims, and were supposed to have magical 
or supernatural skill. Also applied to small images carved 
out of mandrake roots, and exhibiting a rude imitation of 
the human form. These were venerated or superstitiously 
prized by the Germans and other northern nations. 

Alsace and Alsace-Lorraine. See Elsass and 
Elsass-Lothringen. 

Alsace, a post-township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 1294. 

Alsa'tia, a name formerly given to Whitefriars, Lon¬ 
don, which was used as a sanctuary by criminals in the 
early part of the seventeenth century. This privilege was 
abolished by an act passed in 1697. (See AVhitefriars.) 

Alsatia. See Elsass and Elsass-Lothringen. 

A1 Se'gno, in music, a notice to a performer that he 
must return and commence again that part of the movement 
to which the sign : S : is prefixed. 

Al'sen, an island belonging to the Prussian province 
of Sleswick-Holstein, in the Baltic, near the coast of Sles- 
wick, is 18 miles long, and has an area of 106 square miles. 
It is remarkable for its picturesque and beautiful scenery, 
is very fertile, and produces excellent apples. Christian 
II. of Denmark, who was deposed in 1523, was imprisoned 
here for nearly seventeen years. Pop. in 1860, 23,188. 

A1 Sirat' (literally, the “ road ” or “ passage ”), a bridge 
as narrow as the edge of a razor, supposed by the Moham¬ 
medans to extend from this world over hell to paradise. 

AUsop (Charles Richard), born in 1802, graduated at 
Yale in 1821, became a lawyer of Middletown, Conn., was 
mayor of that city (1843-46), and State senator in 1855, 
besides holding other responsible positions. Died Mar. 5, 
1865. 

Alsop (Richard), born at MiddletoAvn, Conn., Jan. 23, 
1761, was versed in Greek, Latin, French, and other lan¬ 
guages. In conjunction with Theodore Dwight and others, 
he edited the “ Echo/’ a satirical publication, the first num¬ 
ber of which was issued at Hartford in 1791. He published 
a ‘“Monody on the Death of Washington ” (1800), and 
translated from the Spanish Molina’s “Natural and Civil 
.History of Chili.” Died Aug. 21, 1815. 

Al'stead, a post-township of Cheshire co., N. II., has 
five churches, and manufactures of paper, edge tools, lum¬ 
ber, etc. Pop. 1213. 

Al'ston (John), celebrated as the introducer of an iin- 
jrnoved system of printing books for the blind with em¬ 
bossed or raised Roman capital letters, was a merchant of 
Glasgow, Scotland, who died in 1846. He was long a 
director of an asylum for the blind in that city. 

Alston (Willis), a native of North Carolina, repre¬ 
sented a district of that State in Congress from 1803 to 
1815, and from 1825 to 1831. He was chairman of the 
committee of ways and means during the war of 1812-14. 
Died April 10, 1837.—His father, Willis Alston, was a 
member of Congress 1799-1803. 

Alstrceme'ria, or Al'strcemer’s Lily, a genus of 
plants of the order Amaryllidacem, natives of Peru and 
Chili. Several species of this genus have beautiful flowers, 
and are cultivated in gardens. The tubers of the Alstrce- 
meria Sahilla are cultivated for food in the West Indies. 

Al'stromer, or Alstrcemer (Klaudius or Klas), a 
Swedish naturalist, was born at Alingsas Aug. 9,1736. He 
was a pupil of Linnaeus, who named in his honor a genus 
of plants, Alstroemeria. He travelled in Spain and other 
countries, and published a “ Discourse on the Breeding of 
Fine-woolled Sheep” (1770). Died Mar. 5, 1796. 

Alt, in music, a term applied to the high notes of the 
scale. 

Alt, or AUten, a German word signifying “old,” forms 
the prefix of numerous names in Central Europe, as “ Alt- 
Ofen” (“Old Ofen”). 

Altai', or Al'ta Yeen Ooo'la {i.e. “the golden 
mountain”), the name of a system or range of mountains 

























ALTA M All A—ALTMUHL. 113 


of Central Asia, near the S. border of Siberia. They extend 
from the sources of the Irtish to Lake Baikal. One range, 
called tho Little Altai, forms the boundary between Siberia 
and Chinese Tartary. According to some authorities, tho 
Altai proper extends from 84° to 100° E. Ion., and lies be¬ 
tween 48° and 54° N. lat. The Obi and other large rivers 
rise in the Altai Mountains, and flow northward. On the 
west tho range terminates in the Ivatoonsk or Katoonya 
mountains, a small isolated group, in which Mount Bie- 
lookha or Bcluka rises to the height of 11,063 feet. Their 
flanks in many places are covered with magnificent forests 
of cedar. A large portion of this system of mountains is 
covered with perpetual snow. Rich mines of gold, silver, 
and copper have been opened in them. Porphyry and sev¬ 
eral kinds of precious stones are also found. 

Altamaha', a river of Georgia, formed by the union 
of the Oconee and Ocmulgee in the central part of the State. 
Flowing south-eastward through sandy plains, it enters the 
Atlantic 12 miles below Darien, after a course of about 140 
miles. It is navigable for vessels of thirty tons. 

Al'tamont, a post-township of Alleghany co., Md. 
Pop. 1133. 

Altamont, a post-village, capital of Grundy co., 
Tenn., about 120 miles S. W. of Knoxville. 

Altamu'ra, a handsome town of Southern Italy, in 
the province of Bari, at the foot of the Apennines, 33 miles 
S. W. of Bari. It is defended by a castle, and has a fine 
cathedral. It was formerly the seat of a university. Here 
is the site of the ancient Lupatia. Pop. in 1861, 17,198. 

Al'tar [Lat. alta're ], a table or elevated place on which 
the ancient Jews and pagans offered sacrifices. The first 
altar mentioned in history was built by Noah immediately 
after the Flood. Altars were sometimes erected as me¬ 
morials of some great event by the religious personages 
of sacred history. The ancient Greeks and Romans used 
a great number of altars, each of which was dedicated to 
some particular deity. They were constructed of different 
materials and in various forms. The name is also applied 
to a part of the furniture of Christian churches. The altar 
of Episcopalian churches is the communion-table. In the 
Prayer Book of Edward VI. (1549), the word altar was re¬ 
tained in the communion service, but ‘Gable” was substi¬ 
tuted a few years later for the word altar. The Lutheran 
Church retains the altar. 

Alt'dorf, or Al'torf, a town of Bavaria, on the river 
Schwarzbach, 13 miles E. S. E. of Nuremberg, had a uni¬ 
versity from 1623 to 1809. Pop. in 1867, 3317. 

Altdorf (Switzerland). See Altorf. 

Alt'dorfer (Albrecht), an eminent German painter 
and engraver, a pupil of Albert Diirer, born at Altdorf, in 
Bavaria, in 1488. He is called by the French “ Le Petit 
Albert” (in allusion, doubtless, to the great Albert Diirer). 
His works are characterized by a romantic spirit. A 
painting of the victory of Alexander over Darius is called 
his masterpiece. He left many engravings on copper and 
on wood. Died in 1538. 

Alte'a, a seaport-town of Spain, in the province of 
Alicante, on the Mediterranean, 38 miles N. E. of Alicante. 
Pop. 5193. 

Al'tena, a town of Prussia, in Westphalia, on the 
Lenne, 18 miles S. E. of Dortmund. It has manufactures 
of iron and steel. Pop. in 1871, 7122. 

Alteiitnirg, Saxe, German duchy of. See Saxe-Al- 

TENBURG. 

Al'tenburg, a Availed town of Germany, capital of Saxe- 
Altenburg, is 24 miles by rail S. S. E. of Leipsic. It is the 
seat of the higher courts, and contains seven churches, one 
theatre, and several hospitals. Linen goods, brandy, por¬ 
celain, and optical instruments are made here. Pop. in 
1871, 19,966. 

Altenes'sen, a town of Prussia, in the Rhine province, 
has some iron-works. Pop. in 1871, 10,099. 

Al'tengaard’, a seaport-town of Norway, capital of 
the province of Finmark, on the Alten, at the head of a 
fiord, 53 miles S. S. W. of Hammerfest. It is often visited 
by Russian vessels. 

Arten-Oet'ting, or Alt'otting, a small town of 
Bavaria, near the river Inn, 42 miles S. W. of Passau. It 
is visited by great numbers of Roman Catholic pilgrims, 
who are attracted thither by an image of the Virgin Mary, 
called the “Black Virgin.” Several German emperors 
held their court here in the Middle Ages. Pop. in 1867, 
2408. 

Al'tenstein, a castle in Saxe-Meiningen, Germany, 
near the watering-place Liebenstein. Near this castle is 
the beech tree where Luther was captured and taken to the 
Wartburg on May 4, 1521. 

8 


Alt'enstein, von (Karl), Baron, a Prussian minister 
of state, born at Anspach Oct. 7, 1770. In 1815, he ren¬ 
dered important services to Germany by the recovery of 
works of art and literature which the French had removed 
to Paris. He was appointed minister of public instruction 
and worship in 1817, and held that office for many years. 
Died May 14, 1840. 

Al'teratives [from tho Lat. al'tcro, altera'tum, to 
“ change ”], a term applied to medicines which are often 
irritant or poisonous in full doses, but which almost im¬ 
perceptibly alter disordered secretions, acting specially on 
cei-tain glands, or upon absorption in general, when given 
repeatedly in small doses. Thus, mercurj^ is an irritant 
capable of producing salivation and other distressing 
symptoms; but if small doses are given at intervals, they 
produce alteration in disordered actions, which may result 
in an improvement in the nutrient functions, and they may 
effect these changes without otherwise affecting the consti¬ 
tution or inducing salivation. So iodine, also an irritant 
in large doses, and poisonous in some forms, is most useful, 
when given in proper doses, in correcting a scrofulous con¬ 
dition, promoting the absorption of tumors, etc. Prepara¬ 
tions of arsenic are powerful alteratives in some cases of 
skin-disease. So also are the decoctions of certain plants, 
which, taken in large quantities of water, operate partly 
by their solvent properties, and partly by their stimulant 
effect on the organs of the body. Properly speaking, any 
medicine is an alterative which, when given either in large 
or small quantities, has the power of gradually correcting 
or modifying a diseased condition. The term “alterative” 
is less used than formerly, and physicians differ as to tho 
propriety of using drugs of this class. 

Al'ter E'go (“my other self”), a term used in the for¬ 
mer kingdom of Naples to signify the king’s deputy, who 
Avas authorized to perform the functions of royalty during 
the compulsory absence of the king. 

Alter'nate [Lat. alternn'tus, from alter’no, alterna'turn, 
to “interchange”] Generation, in biology, is that mod¬ 
ification of generation in which the young do not resemble 
the parent, but the grandparent, or even some more remote 
ancestor, so that the successive series of individuals seem 
to represent two or more different species alternately re¬ 
produced. The salpa, a floating gelatinous molluscoid ani¬ 
mal, is an example; it may be found as a solitary individ¬ 
ual, pregnant with numerous minute salpse of a more sim¬ 
ple structure, which continue after birth to be united 
together in the form of a long chain floating on the sea. 
In each individual of this chain there is generally deA r el- 
oped an egg from Avhich is hatched a solitary salpa, of the 
form and organization of its grandparent ( i . e. the parent 
of the chain of aggregate salpas); thus the species is rep¬ 
resented by an alternation of simple and aggregate salpm. 
(See Parthenogenesis and Cestoid Worms.) 

Althae'a [Gr. aXQala, from aA0a>, to “heal”], a genus of 
plants of the natural order Malvaceae, natives of Europe 
and naturalized in the U. S. It includes the hollyhock 
( Altlise!a ro'sea ) and marshmallow ( Althse'a ojficina’lis), 
which is used in medicine as a demulcent or emollient. 
Althma, or shrubby althaea, is also a common name of the 
Hibis'cus Syri'acus. 

Althen (Ehan or Jean), a Persian who gained distinc¬ 
tion by introducing madder into France, Avas born in 1711. 
He Avas taken captive by the Arabs in his youth, and sold 
as a slave in Smyrna, whence he escaped to France Avith 
some seeds of madder. He made successful experiments in 
the cultivation of that plant, which was afterwards exten¬ 
sively cultivated and became very profitable. Died in 1774. 

Altliorp, Lord. See Spencer. 

Altin' Nor, or Altyn' Nor (i.e. “sea of gold”), or 
Teletskoi, a lake of Siberia, in the S. part, is about 320 
miles S. of Tomsk, and is traversed by one of the head- 
streams of the Obi. It is about 48 miles long and 8 miles 
in average Avidth. 

Al'titude [Lat. altitu'do, from al'tus, “high”], a sci¬ 
entific synonym for height. In astronomy, it signifies the 
height of a star or other body above the horizon—that is, 
the angle of elevation of a celestial body. This altitude 
is expressed in degrees, the greatest possible altitude being 
90 degrees. It is measured in observatories by means of 
a telescope attached to a graduated circle, which is fixed 
vertically. The altitude of a triangle is measured by a 
straight line drawn from the vertex perpendicular to the 
base; that of a cone by a straight lino drawn from tho 
vertex perpendicular to the plane of the base. 

Alt'miihl, a river of Bavaria, rises near the village of 
Hornau, flows S. E. and E. and enters the Danube at Kel- 
heirn, after a course of 100 miles. The Ludwigs Canal 
connects this river Avith the Rcgnitz, and opens communi¬ 
cation betAveen the Danube and tho Rhine. 















ALTO—ALUMINIUM. 


114 


Al'to, a township of Lee co., Ill. Pop. 832. 

Alto, a township of Fond du Lac co., Wis. Pop. 1448. 

Al'to, in music, the counter-tenor part, or that imme¬ 
diately below the treble; the deepest and lowest kind of 
musical voice in females and boys. 

Altomitn'ster, a place of pilgrimage in Northern 
Bavaria, has a nunnery which was founded by the Scotch¬ 
man Saint Alto in the eighth century. Pop. about 1000. 

Al'ton, a city and port of entry in Madison co., Ill., on 
the Mississippi River, 21 miles above St. Louis and 3 
miles above the mouth of the Missouri. It stands on a 
high limestone bluff. It is connected with Chicago by the 
Chicago Alton and St. Louis R. It., and its trade is facili¬ 
tated by the St. Louis Alton and Terre Haute R. R. The 
city has important manufactures. Large quantities of 
grain, hay, fruit, stone, and lime are shipped here. It has 
two national banks and a female seminary. Alton con¬ 
tains a large Roman Catholic cathedral and ten churches. 
One daily and two weekly papers are issued here. It has 
an excellent system of public schools, has a large number 
of factories, foundries, glassworks, etc., and is connected 
by horse railroad with Upper Alton, 2 miles distant. 
Upper Alton is the seat of Shurtleff College. Pop. 8665. 

L. A. Parks & Co., Pubs. “ Alton Telegraph.” 

Alton, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. P. 500. 

Alton, a township of Waseca co., Minn. Pop. 429. 

Alton, a post-village, the capital of Oregon co., Mo., 
about 150 miles S. S. W. of St. Louis. Pop. 76. 

Alton, a post-township of Belknap co., N. H., on the 
Dover and Winnipiseogee R. R. It has a savings bank and 
some manufactures. Pop. 1768. 

Al'tona, the most populous and important city of the 
Prussian province of Sleswick-Holstein, is on the right 
bank of the Elbe, one or two miles below Hamburg. It is 
connected by railroad with Kiel, and has an extensive 
trade by the navigation of the Elbe. Many of the mer¬ 
chants of Hamburg reside in Altona, which contains an 
observatory, a gymnasium, and a library of 12,000 vol¬ 
umes or more. Here are important manufactures of to¬ 
bacco, soap, chemicals, leather, ropes, etc. Altona is a 
free port, accessible to large vessels. In 1869, 1185 ocean 
vessels entered the port. Pop. in 1871, 74,131. 

Alto'na, a post-village of Knox co., Ill. Pop. 902. 

Altona, a post-township of Clinton co., N. Y. P. 2759. 

Alton Bay, N. H., on Lake Winnipiseogee, and at the 
terminus of the Dover and Winnipiseogee R. R., 96 miles 
from Boston, is a place of summer resort. It is connected 
by steamer with Centre Harbor. 

Alton-Shee, d’ (Edmond), Comte, a French demo¬ 
crat, born in 1810. He promoted the revolution of Feb., 
1848, after which he acted with the socialists and radical 
reformers. 

Altoo'na, a growing city in Blair co., Pa., on the 
Pennsylvania R. R., 237 miles AY. of Philadelphia, and 
117 E. of Pittsburg, at the E. base of the Alleghany 
Mountains, which the railroad here crosses. It contains 
fifteen churches, one national bank, one daily and three 
weekly newspapers; the principal offices and extensive ma¬ 
chine-shops of the Pennsylvania R. R., in which locomo¬ 
tives and cars are manufactured, and in which over 2000 men 
are employed; large individual car-works, several extensive 
planing-mills, one large rolling-mill, partly in the city; 
extensive water-works, costing over $300,000; mechanics’ 
library, containing about 3000 volumes. Pop. 10,610. 

E. B. McCrum, Ed. “Altoona Tribune.” 

Alt'orf, or Alt'dorf, a town of Switzerland, the capi¬ 
tal of the canton of Uri, is near the S. extremity of the 
Lake of Lucerne, and at the foot of the Grunberg. Here 
is an old tower which is said to mark the place where 
William Tell shot the apple off his son’s head. Pop. in 
1870, 2724. 

Al'to-Rilie'vo (7. e. “high relief”), a term used in 
sculpture to designate the mode of representing objects by 
figures which stand completely out from the ground, being 
attached to it only in a few places, and in others worked 
almost entirely round like single statues. This branch of 
art was brought to the highest perfection by Phidias in 
the metopge of the Parthenon, which are now in the British 
Museum. Figures which have only a slight projection from 
the ground are said to be in basso-rilievo (or bas-relief). 

Altran'sta.dt, a town of Saxony, at which Charles 
XII. of Sweden concluded a treaty with Augustus, elector 
of Saxony, in 1706. A treaty was also signed here in 1714 
between the emperor Charles VI. of Germany and Louis 
XIY. of France. 

Al'trillgham, a market-town of England, in Cheshire, 
is on the Cheshire Midland R. R. and on Bowden Downs, 


8 miles by rail S. AY. of Manchester. It is a very neat 
town, and has some cotton factories. It is a resort for in¬ 
valids, because of the salubrity of the air. Pop. 6648. 

Alt/stat/ten, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of 
St. Gall, 8 miles S. E. of St. Gall. Pop. in 1870, 7575. 

AltiUras, a county in the S. part of Idaho, borders on 
Nevada and Utah. It is intersected by the Lewis or Snake 
River, and also drained by the Malade River. The surface 
is generally mountainous. Gold and silver are found in 
this county in quartz rocks. The silver ore is particularly 
rich. AVheat, oats, and barley are produced. Capital, 
Rocky Bar. Pop. 689. 

Alturas, a village of Rockland co., N. Y., on the Erie 
R. R., 28 miles from New York. It has a public park of 
twelve acres, and is the seat of Alturas Home Institute, 
an industrial school for young women. 

Alt'wasser, a town and watering-place of Prussia, in 
the province of Silesia. It has iron-foundries, coal-mines, 
and porcelain-factories. Pop. in 1871, 6985. 

Al'udels (plu.), [a word of Arabic origin], pear-shaped 
glass or earthen vessels used as receivers in the distillation 
of certain substances, especially mercury and hydrochloric 
acid. They are generally arranged in the form of a chain 
on an inclined surface. 

A1 'um [Lat. alu'men ]. Common alum is a double salt 
of great importance, the chemical name of which is “ sul¬ 
phate of alumina and potash.” It occurs in colorless 
octahedral crystals, having a sweet astringent taste. It is 
a powerful styptic, and is applied sometimes as a mild 
caustic. Its formula is KOSO 3 + AUOs.SSOs + 24HO (or, 
by the new notation, K 2 AI 24 SO 4 . 24 H 2 O). Alum is large¬ 
ly manufactured, and is much used in preparing skins, as 
a mordant in calico-printing, and in glazing paper, and 
occasionally for the adulteratio' of bread. 

Ammonia alum, (NH 4 ) 2 -.^ 24 S 04 . 24 H 20 , containing am¬ 
monium in place of potassium, has of late largely replaced 
potash alum in the arts, owing to the low cost of the am¬ 
nionic sulphate prepared from gas liquor. The term 
alum is now applied to a class of isomorphous double sul¬ 
phates containing a monad sulphate, a trivalent sulphate, 
and 24 molecules of water. The monad metals which are 
known to form alums are potassium, sodium, lithium, cae¬ 
sium, rubidium, thallium, and silver, and also ammonium, 
etc.; the trivalent metals aluminium, iron, chromium, man¬ 
ganese. Next to the alums above mentioned, the most 
common is potassic-chrome alum, K 2 Cr 4 S 0424 H 20 . Arn- 
monio-ferric alum is used in medicine and the arts. 

AUum Bagh, a fort in Oude, about 4 miles from 
Lucknow, was originally a palace surrounded by a fine 
garden and a park. During the mutiny of 1857 it was 
used as a fort by the Sepoys, from whom it was taken by 
the British under Outram and Havelock. It was after¬ 
wards defended with success by Sir James Outram and a 
garrison of 3500 men against the Sepoys, who attacked it 
in Jan., 1858. Sir Henry Havelock died here Nov. 25, 
1857. 

Alu'mina, the oxide of aluminium, is the most abun¬ 
dant of all the earths, and is the principal constituent of 
clay. In 100 pounds of alumina there are 52.94 of alumin¬ 
ium and 47.06 of oxygen. Its symbol is AI 2 O 3 . In its 
common state this earth is a soft white powder, without 
taste, and in the crystalline form it occurs as sapphire and 
ruby, two of the hardest and most valuable of the precious 
stones. An impure alumina, which is found in the islands 
of the Grecian Archipelago, Asia Minor, and Chester, 
Mass., is the emery used as a polishing-powder for glass 
and metals, on account of its hardness. The clay of arable 
land is mostly produced by the disintegration of felspar, 
which is a compound of alumina, potash, and silica. Alumina 
has two properties which render it of great importance 
in the useful arts: one is that its silicate forms with water 
a plastic material adapted for pottery; the other is its 
strong affinity for coloring and extractive matter, by which 
it is useful as a mordant in printing calico and in dyeing. 

Alumiii'ium, or Alu'minum, a white metal which 
is the base of alumina, was discovered by AVohler in 1828. 
Its symbol is Al; its equivalent is 13.7 (by the new nota¬ 
tion, 27.4). Aluminium is ductile, tenacious, and very mal¬ 
leable, and remarkable for its sonorousness and levity. The 
specific gravity of aluminium when fused is only 2.56, but 
when it has been hammered or rolled it is 2.67. As this 
metal is not found in nature in a separate or metallic state, 
it was formerly very rare, and cost as much as gold, but the 
price has been reduced to ten dollars a pound or less. It 
is now obtained from a mineral called cryolite, which is a 
double fluoride of aluminium and sodium, and is imported 
in large quantities from Greenland. AVhen this cryolite is 
mixed with an excess of soda and heated, the metal is 
readily separated. It is not oxidized by exposure to air 















ALUMNUS—AMADEUS VIII. 


115 


and moisture, and is not tarnished by sulphuretted hydro¬ 
gen. Fused with copper, it forms useful alloys resembling 
line brass, though much more beautiful, and specially 
adapted for gun-metal. 

Alum'nus, plu. Alumni (fern. sing. Alum'na, plu. 
Alumnae), a Latin word signifying a “foster-child,” is 
applied in modern times to the graduates of a university 
or college, in order to express the relation between them 
and their Alma Mater (which see). In Germany there 
were recently institutions called alumnat, founded for the 
gratuitous education of poor boys, who were termed 
alumni. 

Alum Ridge, a township of Floyd co., Ya. Pop. 1035. 

Alum Root, a name of two species of plants, natives 
of the U. S., the Gera'nium macula'turn and the Heuche'ra 
America'na. Their roots are astringent, and are used in 
medicine. 

Alum Shale, Alum Slate, or Alum Schist, con¬ 
sists of clay, combined with much iron pyrites and some 
bituminous or carbonaceous matter. From it the alum of 
commerce is obtained by a double decomposition, induced 
by burning the alum schist slowly until its condition is 
sufficiently changed, leaching, and then adding sulphate of 
potash or ammonia to the solution. 

Al'unite, or Alum-stone, a mineral found in various 
localities, which was formerly largely used for the prepara¬ 
tion of Roman alum. It is a basic sulphate of aluminium 
and potassium, K 2 AI 64 SO 4 . 6 H 2 O. 

Alu'nogen, a mineral which has the composition of a 
simple sulphate of aluminium, AI 2 . 3 SO 4 .I 8 II 2 O. 

Alu'ta, called also Alt, a rapid river of Transylvania, 
rises in the Carpathian Mountains, flows southward through 
Wallachia, and enters the Danube at Nicopolis. Length, 
341 miles. 

Al 'va, or Al'ba (Fernando Alvarez de Toledo), 
Duke of, a celebrated Spanish general, was born of a 
noble Castilian family in 1508. lie entered the army in 
his youth, and accompanied Charles V. in his campaign 
against the Turks in 1530. In 1547 he gained a decisive 
victory over the German Protestants at Miihlberg. In 
1555-56, as commander-in-chief of the army of Philip II., 
he defeated the French and papal forces in Italy. As a 
general he was inclined to pursue a Fabian policy. He 
was distinguished for cool determination and remorseless 
cruelty. In 1567 he was sent by Philip II. to the Nether¬ 
lands with an army of about 10,000 veterans, to suppress 
the revolt of the Protestants. He established the “ Council 
of Blood,” beheaded Count Egmont after a mockery of a 
trial, and commenced a reign of terror and sanguinary per¬ 
secutions of persons suspected of heresy. To defend the 
country against this bloody despotism, William, prince of 
Orange, raised an army in 1568, but the duke of Alva 
avoided a battle, and by delay compelled William to retire 
from the contest, because he could not pay his troops. 
Although Alva defeated or outgeneralled the Dutch pa¬ 
triots in war, he utterly failed to subdue or pacify them, 
and he was recalled in 1573. He boasted that he had put 
to death 18,000 persons in the Netherlands, besides those 
killed in battle. In 1580 he invaded and conquered Por¬ 
tugal. Died Jan. 12, 1583. (See Prescott, “Philip II.,” 
vol. ii.; Motley, “ History of the Dutch Republic.”) 

Al'va Plantation, a post-township of Aroostook co., 
Me. Pop. 496. 

Alvara'do, a post-village of Washington township, 
Alameda co., Cal., on Alameda Creek, 6 miles from San 
Francisco Bay. Salt is here procured for market. P. 315. 

Alvara'do, de (Pedro), a Spanish general and adven¬ 
turer, born at Badajos, went to America in 1518. He served 
with distinction under Cortez in the conquest of Mexico, 
and in 1520 was selected by Cortez to command in the city 
of Mexico during the absence of his chief, who marched 
against Narvaez. He conducted a successful expedition 
against Tehuantepec and Guatemala in 1523, and was ap¬ 
pointed governor of Guatemala. After a voyage to Spain, 
he led an army across the Andes into the province of 
Quito, which he found already occupied by Pizarro. This 
chief induced Alvarado to retire by the payment of a large 
sum of money. Alvarado was killed in a fight with some 
natives in 1541. 

Al'varez (Francisco), a Portuguese priest, born at 
Coimbra, went to Abyssinia in 1515 in company with the 
Portuguese ambassador, Duarte Galvam. He passed about 
six years in that country, which he explored, and returned 
to Portugal in 1527. An interesting account of his travels 
was published in 1540, entitled a “True Account of the 
Country of Prester John.” Died about 1540. 

Alvarez (Don Jose), an eminent Spanish sculptor, born 
at Priego, in the province of C 6 rdova, in 1768. lie gained 


a prize in 1799, after which he pursued his studies in Paris. 
He removed to Rome, where he passed many years, and 
was intimate with Canova. Among his works are “ Or¬ 
pheus Sleeping,” “Antilochus and Memnon,” and “Grupo 
Colosal de Zaragoza,” which represents a scene in the 
defence of Saragossa. He was appointed court-sculptor to 
Ferdinand VII. Died at Madrid in 1827. 

Alvarez (Juan), a Mexican general, born in 1790. He 
was a leader of the insurgents who took arms against 
Santa Anna in the spring of 1854, and drove him from 
power in Aug., 1855. Alvarez became president of Mex¬ 
ico in October, but he resigned in December of the same 
year. During the French invasion of 1863-66 he was one 
of the most determined opponents of Maximilian and his 
party. Died in 1863. 

Al 'verson (James Lawrence), LL.D., born at Seneca, 
N. Y., in 1816, graduated at Wesleyan University in 1838, 
was a successful teacher in the institutions at Elmira, Caze- 
novia, and Lima, N. Y., and was professor of mathematics 
in Genesee College (1849-64). Died Sept. 12, 1864. 

Al'vinczy, or Al'vinzy, von (Joseph), Baron, an 
Austrian general, born in Transylvania Feb. 1, 1735. He 
served with distinction in the Seven Years’ war, and ob¬ 
tained the rank of lieutenant-field-marshal in 1789. In 
the summer of 1796 he took command of an army of about 
55,000 men sent to oppose Bonaparte in Italy. He was 
defeated at Areola in Nov., 1796, and at Rivoli in Jan., 
1797, soon after which he was superseded in the command. 
Died Sept. 25, 1810. 

Alvi' so, a post-township of Santa Clara co., Cal. Pop. 
588. 

Al'vord (Benjamin), A. M., an American officer, born 
Aug. 18, 1813, at Rutland, Vt., graduated at West Point 
1833, paymaster-general U. S. A. Jan. 1, 1872, and brig¬ 
adier-general U. S. volunteers April 15, 1862. He served 
chiefly at frontier posts 1833-54, in Florida war 1835-37 
and 1841-42, engaged at Camp Izard, Olaklikaha, Thlono- 
tosassa, and Big Cypress Swamp, as assistant professor at 
the Military Academy 1837-39, in Cherokee nation 1839- 
40, adjutant Fourth Infantry 1840, in military occupa¬ 
tion of Texas 1845-46, in the war with Mexico 1846-47, 
engaged at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma (brevet cap¬ 
tain), Paso Ovejas, National Bridge, Cerro Gordo (Aug. 15), 
Las Animas (brevet major), and Huamantla, and, upon 
being transferred from the infantry to the pay department, 
as chief paymaster of the department of Oregon 1854-62. In 
the civil war was in command, as brigadier-general of vol¬ 
unteers, of the district of Oregon. Brevet lieutenant-col¬ 
onel, colonel, and brigadier-general U. S. A. Aug. 9, 1865, for 
faithful and meritorious services. Since has been paymas¬ 
ter in New York City 1865-67, and chief paymaster of the 
district of Omaha and Nebraska 1867-72 ; and is now 
paymaster-general U. S. A., head-quarters at Washington, 
D. C. Author of a memoir on Hie “ Tangencies of Circles 
and of Spheres,” 1855, “ The‘\pnterpol»tion of Imaginary 
Roots in Questions of Maxima and Minima,” 1^60, and of 
numerous essays and reviews, 1833-73. VJyJz 

George W. Cullum, U. S‘. A. 

Alyat'tes [Gr. ’AAvamj?], a king of Lydia, who ascend¬ 
ed the throne about 618 B. C., was the father of Croesus. 
During a battle between him and Cyaxares of Media an 
eclipse of the sun occurred, and made such an impression 
that they ceased fighting and made a treaty of peace. 
Some astronomers identify this eclipse with that of 610 
B. C. Died about 560 B. C. 

Al'zei, an old city of Germany, in the grand duchy of 
Hesse, on the Selz, 19 miles S. of Mayence. It has a real- 
schule. Alzei and the vicinity is the scene of the events 
of the Nibelungenlied. Pop. in 1867, 5102. 

Al'zog (Johannes Baptist), a German Catholic theo¬ 
logian, born at Ohlau, in Silesia, in 1808, became in 1853 
professor of ecclesiastical history at Freiburg. His “Man¬ 
ual of Universal Church History” (“IlaDdbuch der Uni- 
versalkirchengeschichte,” 1840; 9th edit. 1872, two vols.) 
has been translated into the principal European languages. 

Ainade'us [It. Amede'o or Amade’o ], the name of 
nine counts and dukes of Savoy, the first of whom was a 
son of Count Humbert, and lived in the eleventh century. 
—Amadeus V., count of Savoy, a son of Count Thomas II., 
was born in 1249. He succeeded his uncle Philip in 1285, 
increased his dominions by marriage, and was the first 
prince of Savoy that made any considerable figure in his¬ 
tory. Died in 1323.— Amadeus VI., of Savoy, was born in 
1334, and became count in 1343. He was an able and 
successful ruler, defeated the French in battle in 1354, and 
added a part of Piedmont to his dominions. Died in 1383. 

Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, a grandson of the 
preceding, was born in 1383, and succeeded his father in 
1391. He received the title of duke from the emperor 














116 


AMADEUS—AMARYLLIDACEvE 


Sigismund in 1416. In 1434 he resigned his power to his 
son Louis, and retired to the monastery of Ripaille. Hav¬ 
ing a high reputation for wisdom, he was chosen pope by 
the Council of Bale in 1439, and took the name of Felix 
V. As Eugenius IV., who had been deposed by that coun¬ 
cil, was still recognized as pope by a strong party, a schism 
ensued in the Church. Felix V. resigned the papacy in 
1448, and died in 1451. 

Amatle'us [It. Amede'o ; Fr. Amedee], king of Spain, 
a son of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, was born May 
30, 1845. He received the title of duke of Aosta, and 
married, in May, 1867, Marie Victoire Charlotte, a daugh¬ 
ter of the prince dal Pozzo della Cisterna. On the 16th 
of Nov., 1870, the Spanish Cortes, by a vote of 191 
against 98, elected him king of Spain, the throne of which 
had been vacant for two years. It had been offered to 
several foreign princes, who declined. Amadeus accepted 
it, and arrived at Madrid Jan. 2, 1871. Feb. 11, 1873, he 
abdicated the throne and the republic was proclaimed. 

Am'adis of Gaul, or Am'adis de Gaul'a, a cele¬ 
brated hero of romance, was called a son of the fabulous 
King Perion of France. The story of his adventures, en¬ 
titled “Amadis de Gaula,” was written by Vasco de Lo- 
beira, a Portuguese, in the twelfth century. This work, 
which has been translated into several languages, is com¬ 
monly admitted to be the best of all the romances of chiv¬ 
alry. There were other fictitious heroes of romance, call¬ 
ed Amadis of Greece and Amadis of Trebizond. 

Amador', a county of the E. central part of Califor¬ 
nia. Area, about 600 square miles. It is bounded on the 
N. by the Cosumne River, and on the S. and S. E. by the 
Mokelumne. The surface is hilly or mountainous. This 
county contains mines of gold and copper, and quarries or 
beds of marble. Cattle, grain, wool, and wine are pro¬ 
duced. Capital, Jackson. Pop. 9582. 

Amador, a post-village of Amador co., Cal., on Ama¬ 
dor Creek, 6 miles N. W. of Jackson. 

Amador, a township of Chisago co., Minn. Pop. 77. 

Am'adou (“German tinder”), a name given to several 
species of fungus called agarics, growing on oak and ash 
trees in Europe. The hard amadou ( Polyp' orus ignia'rius) 
and the soft amadou [Polyp'orus fomenta'rius) are used for 
tinder, and applied to wounds as styptics. Some varieties 
are prepared for tinder by charging them with saltpetre. 

A'mager, a small island of Denmark, adjoining the 
harbor of Cojienhagen, is partly occupied by a suburb of 
that city. Area, 22 square miles. Here are gardens ivhich 
supply that capital with vegetables, and a large chemical 
factory. Pop. 6500. 

Am'alek, a grandson of Esau and one of the chief¬ 
tains of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 12, 16). A remnant of his 
posterity existed in the time of Hezekiah (1 Chron. iv. 43). 

Amal'ekites, a nomadic and warlike people, occupy¬ 
ing, at the time of the Exodus, the Sinaitic peninsula 
and the wilderness between Egypt and Palestine. Op¬ 
posing the march of the Israelites, they were signally de¬ 
feated at Rephidim. Centuries later, they were severely 
punished by Saul, and finally destroyed by David. 

Amal'fi, an ancient and decayed city and seaport of 
Southern Italy, on the Gulf of Salerno, 25 miles S. E. of 
Naples. During the several centuries of the Middle Ages 
it was a great commercial emporium and the capital of a 
republic. It is the seat of an archbishop. Its situation 
is rocky and very picturesque. Amalfi was the birthplace 
of Masaniello and of Flavio Gioja, called the inventor of 
the mariner’s compass. Pop. in 1861, 4186. 

Amal'gam [perhaps from the Gr. a, a “poul¬ 

tice”], a combination or alloy of mercury with another 
metal. Some amalgams are definite chemical compounds. 
Glass plates are converted into mirrors or looking-glasses 
by covering one surface with an amalgam of tin. Gold 
and silver are dissolved in mercury, and form amalgams 
which are used in the processes of gilding and plating 
various objects. 

Amalgamation, the act or process of combining 
mercury with another metal, applied especially to the pro¬ 
cess of separating gold and silver from the quartz rock 
in which they arc found imbedded. The quartz is first 
crushed, and then shaken in a barrel or machine in con¬ 
tact with mercury, which unites with and collects the small 
particles of gold or silver. The precious metal is after¬ 
wards easily separated from the amalgam by the application 
of heat. 

Ama'Iie, or Ame'lia (Axxa), duchess of Saxe-Wei- 
mar, a daughter of the duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, 
was born Oct. 24, 1739. She was married in 1756 to Ern¬ 
est, duke of Saxe-Weimar, who died in 1758. She was a 
generous patron of men of genius, and attracted to her 


court the greatest German authors, including Goethe, 
Wieland, Schiller, and Herder. She died April 10, 1807. 

Amalie (Marie Friedrike Auguste), duchess of Sax¬ 
ony, a sister of Frederick Augustus II., was born in 1794. 
She wrote a number of dramas which were performed with 
success, among which are “ The Marriage Ring,” “ The 
Coronation Day,” and “ Falsehood and Truth.” Died Sept. 
18, 1870. 

Amalthe'a, or Amaltheia [Gr. ’A^aA^'a], in classic 
mythology, the name of the nurse of Jupiter. This nurse 
was supposed to have been a goat, the horn of which, 
broken off by Jupiter, was endowed by him with magical 
power, and became famous as the cornucopia), or the “ horn 
of plenty.” 

Amamba'hi, or Amamba'y, a South American 
mountain-range, is about 200 miles long, and forms the 
watershed between the Parana and the Paraguay rivers. 
The river Amambahi rises in this range, flows eastward 
about 100 miles, and enters the Parana. 

Amana, a township of Iowa co., Ia. Pop. 1441. 

Aman'da, a township of Allen co., 0. Pop. 1376. 

Amanda, a post-village and township of Fairfield co., 
0., 130 miles from Cincinnati. Pop. of township, 1547. 

Amanda, a township of Hancock co., 0. Pop. 1469. 

Amani'ta [Gr. d/xai/rrai], a genus of fungi nearly al¬ 
lied to Agar'icus, from which is derived a poisonous prin¬ 
ciple called amanitine. The Amani'ta musca'ria, a native 
of Europe, is very poisonous, and is used to kill flies. 

Amapa'la, a city and seaport of Honduras, is situated 
on Tigre, the most important island of the Bay of Fonseca, 
which contains a number of excellent harbors. The chief 
articles of export are tobacco, hides, precious woods, and 
indigo. Pop. about 1000. 

Amar (J. P.), a French Jacobin notorious for his cruelty, 
was born at Grenoble in 1750. He became a member of 
the Convention in 1792, voted for the death of the king, 
and in Oct., 1793, presented to the Convention a report 
which condemned to death twenty-two Girondists. 11c 
contributed to the ruin of Robespierre on the 9th Thermi- 
dor, 1794. Died in Paris in 1816. 

Am'aranth [Lat. amar an' thus; Gr. d/uapai/ros, i. e. 
“unwithering,” from a, priv., and /aapcuVo), to “wither”], a 
flower which does not wither or fade; also the poetical 
name of an imaginary flower, considered as an emblem of 
immortality; a genus of plants of the order Amarantha- 
cese, has in some species richly colored flowers, that are 
scarious, persistent, and not liable to wither. The Ama- 
ran'thus cauda'tus (“prince’s feather”), “love-lies-bleed¬ 
ing,” and other exotic species are cultivated in the 
gardens of the U. S. Several other unsightly species are 
naturalized as weeds. 

Amarantha'ceae [from Amaran'thus or Amaran'tus, 
one of the genera], a natural order of plants comprising 
about 300 species, which are mostly natives of tropical 
countries. They are herbaceous or fruticose, with simple 
leaves, and dry persistent flowers in heads or spikes. This 
order includes, besides the genus Amaranthus, the Gom- 
phrena globosa (globe amaranth), the purple flowers of 
which retain their beauty for several years. 

Am'arapoo'ra, or Ummerapoora, a fortified city 
of Burmah, on the Irrawadi River, about 8 miles N. E. of 
Ava. It was formerly the capital of Burmah, and had a 
population of about 170,000, but after the seat of govern¬ 
ment was removed in 1819 it rapidly declined. The houses 
are mostly built of bamboo. Pop. in 1870, estimated at 
90,000. 

Am'ara-Sing'ha, or -Sin'ha, an eminent Hindoo 
poet and grammarian, of unknown period, is supposed by 
some to have lived about 50 B. C. lie belonged to the sect 
of Buddhists, and wrote works which were all destroyed 
by the Brahmans, except his “Amara Kosha,” which is a 
vocabulary of about 10,000 Sanscrit words. 

Ama'ri (Michele), an Italian historian, born at Paler¬ 
mo in 1806. His chief work is “The War of the Sicilian 
Vespers” (2 vols., 1842), which was very popular, but was 
proscribed by the government. He escaped to France, and 
acted a prominent part in the revolution of Sicily in 1848. 
After the defeat of the Italian patriots in 1849 he became 
a resident of Paris. During the dictatorship of Garibaldi, 
in 1859, he was minister of foreign affairs; subsequently 
he became a member of the Italian senate, and in 1863 
minister of public instruction. He resigned in 1864. Among 
his other works are a “History of the Mussulmans of 
Sicily (1853), and “I Diplomi Arabi del Archivo Fioren- 
tino ” (1863). He died Sept. 20, 1870, at Palermo. 

Amaryllida'cea; (so called from Amaryl'lis, one of its 
genera), a natural order of endogenous herbaceous plants, 






















AMARYLLIS 


which generally have beautiful flowers and bulbous roots. 
The species of this order are very numerous, and most 
abundant in tropical regions, especially near the Cape of 
Good Hope. It comprises the Amaryllis, the Narcissus, 
the Fourcroya, the Nerine, the Coburgia, the Agave, Snow¬ 
drop, etc. The U. S. have several genera. 

Amaryl'lis (gen. Amaryl'lidis), a genus of bulbous- 
rooted plants of the natural order Amaryllidaceae. They 
have beautiful flowers, with six stamens. The Amaryl'lis 
formosis 1 sima and Amaryl'lis amab'ilis are cultivated in 
gardens, and much admired. The Atamaseo lily ( Amaryllis 
Atamasco ) is a native of the U. S. 

Ama'sia, Amasieh, or Amasiyah, a city of Asia 
Minor, on the Yeshil-Irinak, 355 miles E. of Constantino¬ 
ple. It contains nearly 4000 houses, many of which arc 
of stone, a strong citadel, and a fine mosque. Silk is pro¬ 
duced here and is exported. Strabo was a native of Ama- 
sia, which was formerly the capital of the kings of Pontus 
(which see). Pop. between 20,000 and 25,000. 

Ama'sis, a famous king of Egypt, who. succeeded 
Apries about 570 B. C., was more friendly to the Greeks 
and other foreigners than his predecessors. Under his 
reign Egypt enjoyed peace and prosperity. Ho built some 
magnificent monuments at Memphis, his capital. He died 
about 525 B. C., and was succeeded by his son, Psammen- 
itus. 

Am'athus [Gr. ’AjuafloOs], an ancient city of Cyprus, 
especially addicted to the worship of Venus, who was 
hence called Amathusia. 

Araa'ti (Andrea), an Italian who lived at Cremona 
about 1550, made excellent violins, which are equal or su¬ 
perior to any made in the present time. —Antonio, a son 
of the preceding, was born about 1565. He was a cele¬ 
brated maker of violins. Died 1635. —Nicolo, Antonio 
(1550-1635), and Geronimo, all excelled in the art, but 
Nicolo, junior (born Sept. 3, 1596, died Aug. 12, 1684), 
excelled the rest of the family in the number and quality 
of his violins. 

Amatitlan', or Amatitan', a town of Central Amer- 
. ica, in Guatemala, 19 miles S. W. of the city of Guate¬ 
mala, and near the lake of the same name; lat. 14° 28' 
39" N., Ion. 90° 37' 50" W. The houses are made of 
mud, and are only one story high. Wells of boiling hot 
water occur in this vicinity. The chief business of this 
town is the production of cochineal. Pop. about 7000. 

Ama'to, <1’ (Giovanni Antonio), an Italian historical 
painter and theologian, called the Elder, was born at 
Naples in 1475. lie painted religious subjects, and no 
others, in a style which resembled that of Perugino. 
Among his works is a “ Dispute on the Sacrament.” Died 
in 1555.—His nephew of the same name, surnamed the 
Younger, born at Naples in 1535, was an able painter. 
He excelled in coloring. Died in 1598. 

Amauro'sis [Gr. apaii patens, fromafiaupow, to "darken ”], 
a term formerly much employed to designate total or par¬ 
tial blindness dependent upon diseases of the optic nerve, 
either at its origin, in its course, or in the retina; the last- 
mentioned seat of the disease being by far the most fre¬ 
quent. If the local disease be temporary or functional, the 
sight will probably be regained, but in the majority of 
cases there is no such hope. It may arise from many 
causes, one of the most remarkable of these being the ex¬ 
istence of Bright’s disease; and in cases resulting from 
this cause there is an organic change in the structure of 
the retina, readily discernible by the aid of the ophthal¬ 
moscope. Amaurosis sometimes comes on at once, but is 
generally gradual in its attack. The treatment varies with 
the extremely various pathological conditions. Active 
treatment is seldom called for, and no item in the cure of 
this disease is more important than strict attention to the 
hygienic condition. 

Amau'ry (or AmaUric) I. [Lat Amalri'cus], king of 
Jerusalem, a son of Baldwin II., was born in 1135. He 
began to reign at the death of his brother, Baldwin III., 
ini 162 or li63. In 1168 he invaded Egypt, from which 
he was soon forced to retreat by Saladin, who in turn in¬ 
vaded Amaury’s dominions in 1170. Died July 11, 1173. 

Amaury II. * sometimes called Amaury tie Lusi- 

gnaiq became king of Cyprus as heir of his brother Guy, 
and took the title of king of Jerusalem in 1194. His do¬ 
minions were occupied by the victorious Saracens, so that 
his reign was only nominal. Died in 1205. 

Amaxichi, the capital of the Ionian island of Santa 
Maura (or Leucadia), is on its E. coast. It h.as a light¬ 
house, and a harbor adapted for small vessels. It is the 
residence of a Greek archbishop. Pop. about 4000. Earth¬ 
quakes often occur here. The remains of cyclopean walls 
are found in the vicinity. 

Amazi'ah, king of Judah, succeeded his father Joash 


AMAZONAS. 117 


about 837 B. C. He waged war with success against the 
Edomites, and reigned twenty-eight or twenty-nine years. 
He was killed by conspirators in 809 B. C. 

Am'azon, Maranon', or Orellana, a South Amer¬ 
ican river, and the largest river on the globe, rises among 
the Andes in Peru. It is formed by the union of several 
large head-streams called the Beni, Apurimac, Ucayale, 
and Tunguragua, which last is the most western branch, 
and is sometimes called the Upper Maranon. Geographers 
have not unanimously decided which of these is the main 
stream. The Apurimac, the most southern of all the 
branches, rises about lat. 15° S. 

According to the statements of recent explorers, this 
river is known under three different names in different 
parts of its course; from its mouth to the mouth of the Rio 
Negro it is called the Amazon or Amazonas; from the 
mouth of the Rio Negro, through Ecuador, to Tabatinga, 
on the borders of Ecuador, it is known as the Solimoes or 
Solimoens; and from Tabatinga to its source in the Andes, 
it is called the Maranon. The Amazon, from its junction 
with the Napo in Ecuador, has a nearly due eastern course, 
varying therefrom not more than two or three degrees 
throughout its whole length; it is therefore almost wholly 
in the same latitude, which is not the case with any other 
river of large size on the globe. It is also entirely within 
the tropics, and only about three or four degrees from the 
equator, but the climate is not so hot and sickly as might, 
from this, be supposed, ,the average temperature being 84°, 
and the extremes 72° and 92°. The waters of the river, 
owing to the white clay which they contain, are turbid and 
of a milky color. Those, however, which rise in the woody 
plains have their waters black or of a dark amber color, 
and in some cases of a deep green, bei-ng dyed by the veg¬ 
etable matter found so abundantly along their banks. This 
mighty stream, flowing through Ecuador and the boundless 
forests of Brazil, and increased to an immense volume by 
the great tributaries that enter it from the right and from 
the left, empties itself into the Atlantic Ocean under the 
equator. Its whole length is about 3500 miles, and the 
area of the countries which it drains is estimated at 
2,264,000 square miles or more. It is said to be four miles 
wide at the mouth of the Japura, more than 1000 miles 
from the sea. The navigation of the Amazon is nowhere 
obstructed by cataracts. One of the most interesting facts, 
indeed, connected with the Amazon, is the smallness of its 
fall; at a distance of 3000 miles from its mouth the eleva¬ 
tion is only 210 feet; the descent is therefore considerably 
less than an inch to the mile. According to Lieut. Hern¬ 
don, the river and its Ucayale branch are navigable for a 
distance of about 3300 miles from the ocean. The Tungu¬ 
ragua is likewise navigable for many miles above the mouth 
of the Ucayale. Vessels can also pass from the Amazon, 
through the Rio Negro and the Casiquiare, into the Ori¬ 
noco. It is estimated that the Amazon and its affluents open 
to the ocean 10,000 miles of interior navigation for large 
vessels. The tide ascends it nearly 400 miles, and about 
the time of full moon the great tidal wave which passes 
round the globe from E. to W. rushes into the mouth of 
the river with such violence that it raises the water nearly 
fifteen feet high. This wave, which is very dangerous to 
small vessels, is called bore in English and pororoco by 
the natives. 

The principal affluents that enter the Amazon from the 
right are the Ucayale, the Yurua. the Purus, the Madeira, 
the Tapajos, and the Tocantins. Those that enter it from the 
left are the Napo, the Putumayo, the Japura, and the Rio 
Negro. During the rainy season the Amazon overflows its 
banks and submerges a large extent of country. It is well 
supplied with fish, and flows through a region of great fer¬ 
tility, which is densely covered with primeval and almost 
impassable forests, in which jaguars, panthers, pumas, mon¬ 
keys, tapirs, and other wild animals abound. The river 
encloses numerous large islands, besides that named Joan¬ 
nes or Marajo, which is 150 miles in diameter. This island 
divides the mouth of the river into two channels, one of 
which is nearly 100 miles wide. The mouth of the Amazon 
was discovered by Yanez Pinion in 1500, but the first Eu¬ 
ropean who explored the river was Orellana, in 1539. 
Among the recent voyages of discovery and exploration, 
those of Lieutenant Herndon in the employ of the U. b. 
government, in 1850, of the Brazilian government in 
1862-64, and of Prof. Agassiz,* who discovered 1163 new 
species of fish, in 1867, are the most important. Since 
1867 the river has been opened for trade to all nations. 
The dense and unbroken forest that covers the whole val¬ 
ley of the Amazon is a remarkable feature of its physical 
geography. (See Herndon and Gibbon, " Exploration of 
the River Amazon,” 2 vols., 1853—54; Agassiz, “ A Jour¬ 
ney in Brazil,” 1867.) A. J. Schem. 

Amazo'nas, or Al'to Amazo'nas, a province in 















118 AMAZONAS—AMBLYOPSIS. 


Northern Brazil, is bounded on the N. by Dutch and Brit¬ 
ish Guiana and Venezuela, on the E. by the province of 
Para, on the S. by Bolivia and Matto Grosso, and on the 
W. by the United States of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. 
Area, about 574,000 square miles. It consists chiefly of 
forests, inhabited by independent tribes of Indians. The 
entire civilized population amounted, according to a cen¬ 
sus of 1862, to 40,259; according to an official work pub¬ 
lished in 1867 (“ l’Empire du Br6sil”), to 95,000 free per¬ 
sons and 5000 slaves. Capital, Barra do Itio Negro. 

Amazonas, a department of Peru, is bounded on the 
N. by Ecuador, on the E. by Loreto, on the S. by Junin, 
and on the W. by Caxamarca and Libertad. The soil is 
fertile, but, owing to the thinness of the population, very 
little is done to cultivate it. Straw hats of a superior 
quality are made here and exported. Chief town, Chacha- 
poyas. Pop. about 38,000. 

Am'azoiis [Lat. Ama'zones; Gr. ’A/ ma^oves, perhaps 
meaning “ without breasts;” they are said to havo cut off 
the right breast, which interfered with their aim in arch¬ 
ery], female warriors; a semi-fabulous nation of martial 
women which was celebrated by the ancient Greek poets. 
According to tradition, they lived in Asia Minor, and 
fought against the Greeks at the siege of Troy, where they 
were commanded by their queen, Penthesile'a. Another 
queen of the Amazons, named Thalestris, is said to have 
made amorous overtures to Alexander the Great. The 
battles of the Amazons were favorite subjects with ancient 
Greek painters and sculptors. 

Ambale'ma, a town in the United States of Colombia, 
in the state of Cundinamarca, on the Magdalena, about 50 
miles W. of Bogota. Excellent tobacco is produced in the 
neighborhood. Pop. about 9700. 

Ainbal'la, a city in the East Indies, in the North¬ 
western Provinces. Pop. about 22,000. Here a treaty 
was concluded between the governor-general of India, Lord 
Mayo, and the emir Shere Ali of Afghanistan in 1869, to 
strengthen the friendly relations of these two countries. 

Ambarva'lia [derived from a Latin term, amhi're 
ar'va,i. e. to “go round the fields ”], applied to a religious 
festival observed by the ancient Romans in the month of 
May, in order to propitiate Ceres and invoke her blessing 
on the coming harvest. It was so called from the victims 
being carried round the fields by the priests. 

Ambassador, or Embassador [Fr. ambassadeur; 
It. ambasciato're; originally, a “servant” or “minister”], 
a diplomatic minister of the highest order, sent by a prince 
or nation to the court of another power to manage special 
affairs of state. He is expected not only to be the agent 
of his government, but to represent the power and dignity 
of his sovereign or his country. By the law of nations he 
and his suite are entitled to peculiar privileges and immu¬ 
nities. They are exempt from the control of the municipal 
laws of the country in which they perform diplomatic 
duties, and are not amenable to punishment for acts which 
are only mala prohibita ( i . e. “ evils or offences [merely] 
prohibited by statute”), and not mala per se (i. e. “things 
evil or criminal in themselves”). They are usually ex¬ 
empt from direct taxation, and are allowed to import goods 
without paying custom-house duties. The word ambassa¬ 
dor is recognized as an official title of the highest rank of 
diplomatic service of the U. S. (See International Law 
No. I., by Pres. T. D. Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D.) 

Amba'to, a town of Ecuador, 65 miles S. S. W. of Quito, 
has an active trade in grain, sugar, and cochineal. It was 
destroyed in 1698 by an eruption of Cotopaxi, but was soon 
rebuilt. Pop. estimated at 13,000. 

Am'ber [Lat. sue'einum; Fr. arnbre; Gr. jjAe/crpov], a fossil 
resin, usually of a pale-yellow color, sometimes nearly trans¬ 
parent. It is found in many parts of the world in deposits 
of cretaceous or more recent age, and is now known to be 
the resinous exudation from several species of extinct co¬ 
niferous trees, of which one, called Pinites succinifer, is sup¬ 
posed to have produced the greater part. Over 800 species 
of insects have been found preserved in amber, and leaves 
or other fragments of 163 species of plants. Amber is ex¬ 
tensively used for ornaments, and especially for the mouth¬ 
pieces of pipes, the consumption being greatest in Eastern 
Europe, Turkey, Persia, etc. Fine pieces of it are worth 
more than their weight in gold. The largest mass known 
is in the Cabinet at Berlin; its weight is eighteen pounds, 
and it is valued at $30,000. Most of the amber of com¬ 
merce is obtained from the shores of the Baltic, between 
Konigsberg and Memel. Small pieces are frequently found 
in the green sand of Gay Head and New Jersey, and in the 
cretaceous coals of the far West. Amber was highly prized 
and much used by the ancients. It was one of the chief 
articles of commerce among nations. It was the special 
object of many of the voyages of the Phoenicians, and it 


was an article of exchange long anterior to the dawn of 
history, as we know by its frequent occurrence in the re¬ 
mains of the lake-dwellings of Switzerland. 

Amber exhales a fragrant odor when burned, and was 
formerly in high repute as a medicine. An acid obtained 
from it (succinic) is a useful agent in chemical operations. 
When rubbed, amber becomes strongly electro-negative, 
a'nd the first exhibition of electric force which received in¬ 
telligent attention was the attraction exerted on light bodies 
by amber. This force, at first supposed to be possessed by 
amber alone, took the name of that substance, t/Acktpoj', 
from which “electricity” is derived. 

Amber, a post-township of Mason co., Mich. P. 392. 

Am'berg, a walled town of Bavaria, on the river Yils, 
39 miles E. of Nuremberg, was formerly the capital of the 
Upper Palatinate. It is well built, and has a gymnasium, 
a normal school, and a large public library; also a royal 
manufactory of muskets, and several breweries and potter¬ 
ies. The French Republican army under Jourdan was de¬ 
feated near this town by the archduke Charles, command¬ 
ing the Austrians, in 1796. Pop. in 1871, 11,688. 

Am'bergris [from the Fr . ambregris, i. e. “ gray am¬ 
ber”], a peculiar perfume, a gray substance found float¬ 
ing on the sea or lying on the sea-coast, and in the intes¬ 
tines of the spermaceti whale ( Physe'ter macroceph'alus). 
It is supposed to be a morbid secretion of this animal. 
When heated or dissolved in alcohol it emits a peculiar and 
agreeable odor, not easily described or imitated, and ex¬ 
ceedingly diffusive. It has also the remarkable power of 
increasing the odor of other perfumes. The price of it is 
about five dollars an ounce. It affords about 85 per cent, 
of a peculiar fatty and crystalline substance called ambrein. 
The specific gravity of ambergris is about 0.8. 

Ambergris (so called from the ambergris found on its 
shores), a barren island in the Gulf of Mexico, belonging 
to Yucatan, is 30 miles long from N. E. to S. W., and 3 
miles wide. 

Ambert, a town of France, in the department of Puy- 
de-Dome, on the river Here, 37 miles S. E. of Clermont. It 
has extensive manufactures of paper and silk ribbons. 
Pop. in 1866, 7519. 

Ambidex'ter [from the Lat. am'bo, “both,” and dex'- 
ter, “right-handed”], a person who uses both hands with 
equal facility. The proportion of such persons in the world 
is small. The term is sometimes applied to a double-dealer, 
and to a juror who takes a bribe from each party in a law¬ 
suit. 

Ambi'orix, a famous Gallic chief who ruled over the 
Belgic tribe of Eburones, and waged war against Julius 
Caesar. By insidious measures and stratagem he gained a 
decisive victory over the Roman generals Sabinus and 
Cotta, whose army he annihilated in 54 B. C., during the 
absence of their commander. He was afterwards signally 
defeated by Caesar. (See C.esar’s “ Gallic War,” book v.) 

Am'bitus [from the Lat. am'bio, ambitum, to “go 
round ”], a term used by the ancient Romans to designate 
the going about and soliciting votes by candidates for office. 
The practice of offering one’s self as a candidate in an open 
and honorable way was called am'bitus popula'ris. An¬ 
other kind, which was common, but disreputable, consisted 
in cajolery, bribery, etc. 

Ambleteuse, a decayed seaport of France, on the Eng¬ 
lish Channel, 6 miles N. of Boulogne, and about 25 miles 
from the English coast. Here James II. of England landed 
after his abdication in 1689, and here Napoleon I. erected 
a granite column in honor of the grand army in 1805. 

Amblyop'sis [from the Gr. Av?, “blunt,” “dulled,” 
and oi/u?, “vision”], the term applied to a genus of blind 



fish. One species of this genus (Ambyloj/sis sptelse'us') is 
found in the great Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. The eyes 
of this fish, though seemingly absent, exist in a rudiment¬ 
ary state, enclosed beneath the epidermis. The amblyop- 
sis is quite small, the largest specimens averaging from 
four and a half to five inches in length. The body is 
nearly white, and partly covered with scales. Prof. Cope, 
describing the habits of these fish, says, “ They are easily 
taken by the hand or net if perfect silence be preserved, 
for they are unconscious of the presence of an enemy ex¬ 
cept through the sense of hearing. This sense is, however, 
evidently very acute, for at any noise they turn suddenly 























AMBO—AMEN. 


119 


downward and hide beneath stones, etc. on the bottom.” 
Their food consists in a great part of the crayfish found in 
the cave, but they sometimes feed on other fish, in the pur¬ 
suit of which they show remarkable activity, thus proving 
that the tactile sense is well developed. According to Prof. 
Cope, the amblyopsis belongs to the order Haplomi, its 
nearest kindred being minnows, pickerels, and herrings. 
The Amblyopsis spelseus is not confined to this cave alone, 
but has also been found in two or more places north of the 
Ohio. (See an interesting account of the Blind Fishes of 
the Mammoth Cave in the “American Naturalist” for 
Jan., 1872.) 

Am'1)0 [Gr. aju/3iov], a reading-desk or pulpit which was 
common in ancient Christian churches, and is still found 
in Oriental churches. The Gospels and Epistles were read 
from the ambo. 

Amboina. See Amboyna. 

Amboise (anc. Ambacia), an old town of France, in 
the department Indre-et-Loire, on the railway from Orleans 
to Tours, 14 miles by rail E. N. E. of Tours. It is cele¬ 
brated as the place of imprisonment of Abd-el-Ivader from 
1848-52. Here the “Conjuration d’Amboise,” a conspiracy 
of the Huguenots against the Guises, was formed in 1560. 
It has been the residence of several of the kings of France. 
Pop. in 1866, 4188. 

Amboise, tl’ (Georges), Cardinal, a French states¬ 
man, born at Chaumont-sur-Loire in 1460. He became 
archbishop of Rouen in 1493, and a faithful adherent of 
the duke of Orleans, who, on ascending the throne as Louis 
XII. in 1498, chose him for his prime minister. He be¬ 
came a cardinal in 1499. He was an able administrator 
and a prudent counsellor. He retained power until his 
death, Mar. 25, 1510. 

Am'boy, near the centre of Lee co., Ill., at the crossing 
of the Illinois Central and Chicago and Rock Fall R. Rs., 
94 miles almost due W. of Chicago. It has one weekly 
paper, seven churches, a fine public hall, four free-school 
buildings, two flouring-mills, three grain elevators; the 
Illinois Central shops, employing over 400 hands; is division 
head-quarters of the Illinois Central road from Dunleith 
to Centralia; was laid out in 1854. Pop. 2825; of Amboy 
township, 1279. 

W. II. Haskell, Ed. “ Amboy Journal.” 

Amboy, a post-township of Hillsdale co., Mich. Pop. 
1160. 

Amboy (N. J.). See South Amboy. 

Amboy, a township of Oswego co., N. Y. Pop. 1431. 

Amboy, a township of Fulton co., 0. Pop. 1089. 

Amboy'na, or Amboi'na [Malay, Amboon' or Am- 
bun\, the most important, though not the largest, of the 
Moluccas or Spice Islands, situated E. of Booro, in lat 3° 
46' S., Ion. about 128° E. It is about 30 miles long, and 
has an area of 282 square miles. The surface is mountain¬ 
ous, and granite rock occurs on the summits of some of the 
mountains. The staple production is cloves, the trade in 
which is monopolized by the Dutch. About 500,000 pounds 
of cloves is the average quantity annually produced here. 
This island belongs to the Dutch. Pop. 30,000. 

Amboyna, the capital of the Dutch government of 
Amboyna, is on the island of the same name, and is de¬ 
fended by Fort Victoria. It is regularly built, has a pub¬ 
lic garden and a good harbor. Pop. about 9000. 

Ambra'cia, a town of ancient Greece, on the site of 
the modern Arta, was the capital of Epirus during the 
reign of King Pyrrhus, who was killed 272 B. C. 

Am'briz, a small native kingdom on the W. coast of 
Africa. Its capital is Quebranza. The port of Ambriz, 
about 70 miles N. of Loando, at the mouth of the Ambriz 
River, has considerable trade. 

Am'bros (August Wilhelm), a German composer, born 
Nov. 17, 1816, became in 1869 professor of music in the 
University of Prague. Among his works are overtures to 
“Genofeva” and “Othello,” and a “History of Music” 
(“Geschichte der Musik,” vols. i.-iii., 1862-68). 

Am'brose [Lat. Ambro'sius], Saint, one of the Latin 
Fathers of the Church, was born in Gaul about 340 A. D. 
He was a son of the Roman prefect of Gaul, and is sup¬ 
posed to have been born at Treves. Having studied law, 
he was appointed governor of Liguria and Milan about 
370, and distinguished himself in that position by his wis¬ 
dom and moderation. On the death of the bishop of Milan, 
in 374 A. D., a violent contest ensued between the Catholics 
and Arians about the choice of his successor. By general 
consent, Ambrose, who was not obnoxious to either party, 
was elected bishop, although he had never been a priest. 
He accepted the office with reluctance, and performed its 
duties with great ability and zeal. He favored the ( atlio- 
lics and earnestly opposed Arianism, but he does not ap¬ 


pear to have been a violent persecutor. On several occa¬ 
sions he manifested moral courage by denouncing the sins 
and checking the arrogance of temporal rulers and poten¬ 
tates. The emperor Theodosius the Great having ordered 
a massacre of the Thessalonians in 390, Ambrose forbade 
him to enter the church, and extorted from him the per¬ 
formance of a public penance. Died in 397 A. D. He was 
tlie author of a method of singing called the “Ambrosian 
Chant,” and left numerous religious works and letters. Ho 
is commended by Villemain as “a man who, amidst the 
turbulence and instability of the empire, never had a foible 
or a stain on his character, and whoso magnanimity was 
adequate to all trials.” 

Ambro'sia [from the Gr. apppoTos, “immortal”], in 
classic mythology, “the food of the gods,” which was 
supposed to confer immortal youth. According to a poet¬ 
ical legend, it was sometimes given to mortals who were 
favorites of the gods, and was used by Jupiter and Venus 
to anoint their hair. Ambrosia is also the name of a genus 
of weeds, one species of which, common in the U. S., is 
known by the name of hogweed or Roman wormwood. 

Ambro'sian Chant, the choral music of the early 
Christian Church, derived its name from Saint Ambrose, 
bishop of Milan, who introduced it into the Western Church 
about 386 A. D. The style of singing was Greek; the mu¬ 
sical notation was, no doubt, borrowed from the Greek, and 
adapted to the church services to relieve their monotony. 
The Ambrosian chant is the foundation of church music. 

Ambrosian Library, a library founded at Milan in 
1609 by Cardinal Federigo Borromeo, and named in honor 
of Saint Ambrose, the patron saint of that city. It con¬ 
tains over 90,000 printed volumes and 15,000 manuscripts, 
including some rare palimpsests discovered by Angelo Mai, 
and a MS. of Virgil enriched by marginal notes of Petrarch. 

Ambula'cra [from the Lat. am'bulo, to “walk”], a 
name of the peculiar organs of locomotion of the starfish 
and sea-urchin; the narrow longitudinal portions of the 
shell of the sea-urchin {Echinus), which are perforated by 
small orifices, giving passage to tentacular suckers. 

Am'bulance [probably from the Lat. am'bulo, to 
“walk” or “move slowly,” because a gentle motion was 
necessary for the wounded], a military term applied in 
France to a movable hospital which is attached to each 
division of an army, and furnished with apparatus for the 
relief of the sick and wounded. It was invented or im¬ 
proved by Baron Larrey. The name is now commonly 
given to a covered vehicle by which wounded men are re¬ 
moved from the field of battle. Improvements were made 
in the construction of ambulances by the Americans in the 
civil war of 1861-65, the excellence of which was recog¬ 
nized by their use during the Franco-German war of 1870. 

Ambulance Corps, a body of men employed in the 
British army in the Crimean war to drive ambulances and 
attend the sick and. wounded. The experiment was not 
successful, and the ambulance corps was superseded by the 
land transport corps. In the late civil war of the U. S. 
the officers and men of the ambulance corps were detailed 
from the line. 

Amelan'chier, a genus of plants of the natural order 
Rosaceae, comprises a small number of species, natives of 
Europe and North America. The Amelanchier Canadensis, 
called June-berry or service-berry, is a shrub or small tree 
which bears a pleasant fruit, and is sometimes cultivated 
in the U. S. 

Ame'lia (anc. Ame'ria), a town of Italy, 22 miles S. W. 
of Spoleto, has a cathedral and is a bishop’s see. Ameria 
was one of the oldest cities of ancient Umbria, and the 
native place of Roscius. Pop. about 5000. 

Ame'lia, a county of S. E. Virginia, has an area of 300 
square miles. It is bounded by the Appomattox River on 
nearly all sides except the S. The surface is diversified, 
the soil fertile. The county is intersected by the Richmond 
and Danville R. R. Grain, tobacco, and wool are produced. 
Capital, Amelia Court-house. Pop. 9878. 

Amelia, a township of Orangeburg co., S. C. P. 2040. 

Amelia Court-house, a small post-village, the cap¬ 
ital of Amelia co., Va., on the Richmond and Danvillo 
R. R., 36 miles W. S. W. of Richmond. 

Amelia Island, in the Atlantic, is a part of Nassau 
county, which forms the N. E. extremity of Florida. It is 
16 miles long and 4 miles wide. The town of Fernandina 
is near the N. extremity. Amelia Island light, in lat. 30° 
40' 23“ N., Ion. 81° 28' 20“ W., is at the N. end of the 
island. The lighthouse is of brick, 58 feet high, and shows 
a flashing white light 112 feet above the sea. 

Amen' [Heb. jOX, signifying “So be it,” or “Let, it bo 
irrevocably fixed ;” Gr. ’A^v, “verily,” “of a truth”] has 
been adopted in the service of the Christian Church as a 














120 AMENDE HONORABLE—AMERICA. 


response and an expression of assent at the end of a 
prayer. In some passages of the New Testament at the 
beginning of an emphatic declaration, it is translated 
“ verily.” 

Amende Honorable, in French law, a form of in¬ 
famous penalty to which criminals who offended against 
public decency or morality were condemned. The simple 
amende honorable consisted of a confession in open court 
made by a bareheaded and kneeling criminal. The amende 
honorable in figuris was made by a culprit kneeling in his 
shirt, with a torch in his hand and a rope round his neck. 
In modern speech the term is applied to a public recanta¬ 
tion or apology. 

Amend'ment, in law, is the correction of an error 
committed in any process, or the alteration of the record 
or of any pleadings in a civil or criminal cause. The de¬ 
ficiency of means of amendment in pleading at common 
law led to the statutes of amendments and jeofails. 

Amendment, in legislation, is an alteration in the words 
of any bill, motion, or resolution. Any member may move 
an amendment to a bill or resolution after it has been 
read twice, and it is usual to take a vote on the amend¬ 
ment first, and next on the main question. An opponent 
of a bill has a right to move an amendment to it by a mo¬ 
tion to strike out all after the enacting clause, and to sub¬ 
stitute a contrary principle. Either house of Parliament 
(or Congress) has a right to amend a bill which has been 
approved by the other, but such amendments must receive 
the assent of both houses before the bill can become a law. 

The term amendment is also applied to an alteration of 
the Constitution of the U. S. To render an amendment 
valid it must be first proposed by two-thirds of both houses 
of Congress, and must be ratified by the legislatures of 
three-fourths of the several States. The most recent of 
these changes in the organic law is the Fifteenth Amend¬ 
ment, which ordains that no man shall be disfranchised on 
account of color or race. (Sec Constitution.) 

Ame'nia, a post-village and township of Dutchess co., 
N. Y., on the New York and Harlem R. R., 851 miles N. 
N. E. of New York. It has a distributing post-office, five 
iron-mines, yielding in the aggregate some 250 tons of ore 
per day, and a condensed-milk factory, using nearly 0000 
quarts of milk per day. It has five churches, a seminary, 
one weekly paper, and a national bank with $500,000 cap¬ 
ital. Pop. of township, 2662. 

C. II. Scott, Jr., Pub. “Amenia Times.” 

Amenites. See Omish. 

Ameno'phis (or Am'enoph) [Gr. 'Amevoxfus], 1., a 
powerful king of Egypt, the second of the ten kings of the 
eighteenth dynasty, began to reign about 1500 B. C. 

Amenophis (or Amenoph) II., the sixth king of 
the eighteenth dynasty, is regarded by some authors as 
identical with Memnon, who fought against the Greeks at 
the siege of Troy. (See Memnon.) 

Amenophis III. was a grandson of the preceding, 
and the eighth king of the eighteenth dynasty. He came 
to the throne about 1400 B. C. His reign was long, and 
greatly promoted the prosperity of Egypt, which he 
adorned with many noble monuments. He is supposed 
to have built the palace of Luxor (El-Ukser) at Thebes, 
which was his capital. His military exploits are recorded 
on the obelisk which now stands in the Place de la Con¬ 
corde in Paris. According to Bunsen, Amenoph III. ivas 
the king whom the Greeks called Memnon. 

Amenta'cerc [from the Lat. amenta'ceus, “having an 
amentum ”], a name given by Jussieu to a natural order of 
exogenous trees or shrubs having their flowers arranged 
in amenta or catkins. It included the birch, willow, alder, 
and other common trees. By recent botanists this order 
has been broken up into the Betulaceae, Salicaceae, and 
others. 

Amen'tum [a Latin word meaning a “thong”] is ap¬ 
plied in botany to a kind of inflorescence (also called cat¬ 
kin) which occurs in the willow, pojilar, and birch. It 
differs from a spike in being deciduous. 

Amer'ica [so called from Amerigo Vespucci, a Floren¬ 
tine navigator in the Spanish service, who visited South 
America in 1499], one of the grand divisions of the globe, 
being smaller than Asia, but larger, perhaps, than both 
Europe and Africa taken together. It is the only one of 
these divisions that is washed by all the four great oceans 
—the Northern, the Southern, the Atlantic, and the Pacific. 
It extends from Point Barrow, lat. 71° 24' N., to Cape 
Horn (on Horn Island), lat. 55° 58' 40'' S. (the continen¬ 
tal portion reaching only to Cape Froward, on the Straits 
of Magellan, in lat. 53° 53' 7'' S.). The continent may be 
said to consist of two vast peninsulas, called, respectively, 
North and South America, which are connected by the 
Isthmus of Panama or Darien (in its narrowest part only 


28 miles wide). The American continent, stretching as it 
does from N. to S. for about 9000 miles in a nearly straight 
line, is the longest continuous body of land on the globe. 
Its greatest breadth in South America is between Cape St. 
Roque in Brazil and Cape Parina in Peru, between lat. 4° 
and 7° S., a distance of over 3250 miles. In North Amer¬ 
ica its greatest breadth is over 3100 miles, between Cape 
Canso in Nova Scotia and Cape Lookout in Oregon. Amer¬ 
ica is bounded on the E. by the Atlantic, and on the W. by 
the Pacific, and is separated from Siberia by Behring's 
Strait. 

The physical features of this portion of the globe are on 
the most gigantic scale, for here are found the greatest 
rivers and lakes, the largest valleys, the loftiest mountains 
(with the exception of the Himalayas), and the finest for¬ 
ests in the world. Hero (particularly in the Andes) also is 
exhibited the greatest development of volcanic phenomena 
in the world. The whole number of active volcanoes on 
the earth is estimated at about 270. Of these, 190 (over 
two-thirds of the whole) occur on the coast and islands of 
America. 

As the northern limits of America are not yet accurately 
ascertained, and as the statements of the area of most of 
the large political divisions widely differ, the area of 
America can only be roughly estimated. The following 
table (sec Behm and Wagner, “ Bevolkerung der Erde,” 
Gotha, 1872) exhibits the area and population of each po¬ 
litical division, according to the latest official censuses 
and the most recent scientific calculations: 


Names of Countries. 

Square Miles.* 

Population.* 

NTorth America. 

8,657,000 

51,964,000 

Greenland... 

759,800 

10,000 

3,888,557 

British America.— 

3,524,200 

Bermudas .. 

24 

11,796 

St. Pierre and Miquelon. 

81 

3,971 

United States (with Alaska). 

3,Gil,800 

38,877,000 

Mexico.. 

761,000 

9,173,052 

Central America. 

188,000 

2,671,000 

Guatemala. 

40,780 

1,180,000 

Honduras . 

47,080 

350,000 

San Salvador. 

7,340 

600,000 

Nicaragua.. 

58,170 

350,000 

Costa Rica. 

21,500 

165,000 

British Honduras. 

13,500 

25,635 

West India Islands. 

92,000 

4,214,000 

Spanish possessions. 

49,475 

2,068,870 

British “ . 

12,625 

1,054,116 

French “ . 

1,000 

306,244 

Dutch “ . 

400 

35,482 

Danish “ . 

122 

37,821 

Swedish “ . 

8 

2,898 

Republic of Hayti. 

10,200 

572,000 

Republic of San Domingo. 

17,800 

136,500 

South America. 

6,959,000 

25,675,000 

Brazil.. 

3,252,900 

10,000,000 

French Guiana. 

35,080 

25,151 

Dutch Guiana. 

59,800 

59,885 

British Guiana. 

99,900 

152,932 

Venezuela. 

368,200 

1,500,000 

United States of Colombia. 

357,200 

3,000,000 

Ecuador. 

219,000 

1,300,000 

Galapagos Islands. 

2,955 

510,000 

Uninhabited. 

Peru. 

2.500,000 

Bolivia. 

535,900 

132,615 

2,000,000 

2,000,000 

Chili. 

Argentine Republic (with the 
Gran Chaco and the Pampas 
Argentinas). 

871,700 

1,812,000 

Patagonia. 

376,300 

24,000 

Paraguay... 

63,800 

1,000,000 

Uruguay. 

66,700 

300,000 

Falkland Islands.. 

4,741 

686 

Aurora Islands.. 

210 

Uninhabited. 

South Georgia Islands. 

1,570 

Uninhabited. 

Total America. 

15,896,000 

84,524,000 


America, North, exclusive of Central America, extends 
from the Arctic Ocean to lat. 16° N. It is bounded on the 
N. by the Arctic Ocean, on the E. by the Atlantic Ocean 
and Gulf of Mexico, on the S. by the Gulf of Mexico and 
Central America, and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. Its 
contour is more irregular than that of South America, be¬ 
ing deeply indented by gulfs, bays, etc. The length of the 
eastern coast, from Hudson’s Strait to Florida Channel, is 
about 13,700 miles; on the Pacific its length is estimated at 
10,500, on the Arctic Ocean at 3500 miles; thus making 
a total of 27,700 miles of coast-line for North America. 
Along the E. coast of the continent some important changes 
of elevation are being wrought; in some places the coast is 
rising, and in others subsiding. The area of North Amer¬ 
ica is estimated at 8,657,500 square miles. 

* As most, of the following figures are not official statements, 
but estimated, no regard could be taken in summing up the 
totals of the grand divisions to any hundreds, tens, and units. 










































































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AMERICA. 


Face of the Country, Mountains, etc .—In North America 
the mountains and plains almost balance each other. To 
the N. of the basin of the Gulf of Tehuantepec, in lat. 17° 
N., a mountain-range rises, which becomes wider the farther 
N. it proceeds, and up to lat. 21° N. occupies almost the 
entire country between the two oceans. This is the table¬ 
land of Anahuac. It is cut up by several rows of hills into 
plateaus, between which volcanic peaks rise to a great 
height. Among the highest are the peak of Orizaba (17,809 
feet), Cofre clc Perote (14,310 feet), and the Popocatepetl 
(17,744 feet). Northward from the 21st degree of N. lat. 
the character of the mountains begins to change, and the 
isolated peaks become connected mountain-chains. Three 
chains branch off from this point: the north-western branch, 
the Cordillera of Sonora, runs along the coast of the Gulf 
of California to its northern point in lat.' 33° N.; the cen¬ 
tral branch, or Sierra Madre, goes farther N.; the Eastern 
Cordillera is low until it reaches the Rio del Norte, after 
that it becomes higher and higher, until it reaches the 
region of the head-waters of the Rio del Norte, where it 
again joins the central branch and forms with it a wild 
mountainous region. These chains enclose the plateau of 
New Mexico, which rises to a height of 4000 to 6000 feet. 
Between the parallels of 35° to 40° N. lat., the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains attain as a whole their greatest elevation, a large 
number of peaks exceeding 14,000 feet, while the passes re¬ 
tain an elevation of 8000 to 11,000 feet. Farther N., from 
42° to 45° N. lat., the Wind River Mountains, with their 
northern prolongation, form a remarkable hydrographical 
centre, from which flow the waters of the Columbia and 
Colorado rivers on the W., and on the E. those of the Mis¬ 
souri and its branches, the Yellowstone, Wind River, and 
South Platte. It is in this region of mountain lakes, of 
boiling springs and geysers, that a national park has been 
reserved by an act of Congress around the Yellowstone 
Lake. The western branch, the Wahsatch Mountains, en¬ 
closes a wide plateau, with an elevation of 4000 to 5000 
feet, which contains its own system of lakes and rivers. 
The most important of its lakes is the Great Salt Lake. 
The western border of this plateau is formed by the Sierra 
Nevada and the Cascade Mountains, which run along the 
ocean and enter Alaska. The highest peaks in this range 
are Mount Fair Weather (14,735 feet) and Mount St. Elias, 
in lat. 60° 17' 35" N. (about 16,000 feet). To the N. E. of 
the Wind River Mountains are the Black Hills, rising iso¬ 
lated from the plains, in lat. 46° N. The most northern 
branch is the most important, and runs in a N. W. direc¬ 
tion to the Arctic Ocean. Between lat. 42° and 53° N. 
many peaks reach above the line of perpetual snow. 
Among the highest of these are Mount Hooker (15,700 feet) 
and Mount Brown (16,000 feet). From lat. 52° N. the 
range gradually descends to 4200 feet, then branches off 
into several chains, and terminates at the Mackenzie at an 
elevation of only 2100 feet. Among the isolated systems 
of North America the most prominent are the Coast Range 
in the W., and the Appalachian system in the E. The 
Coast Range begins at Cape San Lucas in Lower Cali¬ 
fornia, and running parallel to the coast has openings at 
only two points for rivers to pass through, and continues 
through Vancouver and the other islands in that region. 
The Appalachian system (also called from one of its parts 
the Alleghanies) is separated from the other mountains of 
this continent by large plains, the plain separating it from 
the Rocky Mountains being, with the exception of the great 
desert plain of Africa, the largest in the world. The high¬ 
est peak in this system is Mitchell’s IPeak, in North Caro¬ 
lina, 6707 feet. Mount Washington, the highest peak of the 
White Mountains, rises to a height of 6288 feet. Farther 
N. a rocky plateau extends between the Atlantic and the 
lower St. Lawrence; Mount Katahdin, its highest peak, is 
5385 feet high. To the N. of the St. Lawrence the rocky 
plateau of Labrador rises to a mean elevation of 2000 feet. 

Geology .—The geology of North America is so compli¬ 
cated that no detailed description of it could be compressed 
into the necessarily limited space of this article. It may, 
however, be very briefly sketched as follows: N. of the St, 
Lawrence is a belt of old crystalline rocks—Laurentian and 
Huronian—which stretches from Labrador to Lake Supe¬ 
rior, and thence northward. The Adirondacs in New York, 
and a similar space on the S. shore of Lake Superior, may 
be said to form part of this eozoie belt. This is the old¬ 
est known portion of the earth’s surface, and has not been 
submerged since the.beginning of the Silurian age. New 
England is, for the most part, underlaid by metamorphic 
rocks, which are of Laurentian, Silurian, Devonian, and 
carboniferous age. S. of the great lakes, and between the 
Atlantic and the Mississippi, is an extensive district, chiefly 
of palaeozoic age, having been elevated above the ocean at 
the close of the carboniferous period, when the Alleghanies 
were raised. This area is skirted on the Atlantic coast by 
a belt of trias, which fills the valley of the Connecticut, un- 


121 


derlies much of New Jersey, and holds thocoal of Eastern 
\ irginia and North Carolina. Outside of the triassic area, 
and reaching around from New York to the mouth of the 
Mississippi, are more or less broken belts of cretaceous and 
tertiary strata. W. of the Mississippi the great area of 
“the Plains" is underlaid on the E. by carboniferous and 
permian, more westerly by triassic, Jurassic, and cretaceous 
rocks, with broad areas of fresh-water tertiary of mioccne 
and pliocene age. The Rocky Mountains have axes of 
granite and crystalline slates, flanked in some localities by 
Potsdam sandstone, more generally by carboniferous and 
more recent strata; all of which, even to the tertiary, are 
more or less upheaved. Volcanic rocks also abound in this 
chain. W. of the Rocky Mountains is a high plateau 
reaching to the Sierra Nevada, and extending N. and S. 
from the city of Mexico far into the Canadian territory. 
This plateau is cut by the canons of the Colorado and its 
tributaries to the depth of over 6000 feet, and is shown to 
include representatives of almost the entire geological series. 
The western part of the plateau exhibits a great prevalence 
of modern volcanic rocks, and from the number and richness 
of its veins of silver may be called the silver belt of the 
continent. The Sierra Nevada has a granitic axis, flanked 
by metamorphosed triassic and Jurassic slates, which con¬ 
tain quartz veins rich in gold. The “placer" or surface 
deposits of gold skirt the western base of the Sierra Nevada 
for 700 miles, and have yielded nearly $1,000,000,000 since 
1848. The Coast Mountains of California are mainly com¬ 
posed of cretaceous and tertiary strata, are more recent 
than the Sierra Nevada, and are richer in mercury than 
in fold and silver. The mercury is contained in metamor¬ 
phosed cretaceous rocks. 

The geological structure of Mexico is essentially the same 
as that of the adjacent portions of the U. S., with the same 
richness in the precious metals. The only noteworthy ele¬ 
ments in the mineral resources of Mexico not found farther 
N. are the tin of Durango and the triassic anthracite of 
Sonora. 

In the region about Hudson’s Bay, and farther N., Silu¬ 
rian rocks have been found in various localities. On Mel¬ 
ville’s Island carboniferous strata occur, while on Disco 
Island, Greenland, on the lower Mackenzie and Yukon 
rivers, tertiary rocks are exposed. These contain great 
quantities of fossil leaves, which prove that in the miocene 
epoch a luxuriant vegetation covered all the shores of the 
Arctic Sea, and that the climate was then as mild as that 
of the State of Virginia is now. In the glacial epoch ice 
covered the continent as far S. as the 40th parallel, grind¬ 
ing down the rocks and spreading the drift over most of 
the country N. of this line. 

Copper is abundant, especially in Mexico and on the 
shores of the great lakes. In the latter locality it has been 
chiselled out from its native bed in masses weighing as 
much as 150 tons of nearly pure metal. Quicksilver occurs 
in Mexico and California. Probably the richest lead dis¬ 
trict in the world is that on both banks of the Mississippi, 
between 41° and 44° N. lat. Over 54,000,000 pounds have 
been extracted at this point in a single year. The coal¬ 
fields of North America are immense, extending over an 
area in the U. S. alone of more than 150,000 square miles; 
large beds occur also in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, the 
Rocky Mountains, and on the Pacific coast. Both bitu¬ 
minous and anthracite coal exists; the former is most abun¬ 
dant, but the latter is found in large beds in Eastern Penn¬ 
sylvania, where millions of tons are mined every year. 
Since 1862 great quantities of petroleum have been obtained 
in Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Canada, and 
other districts. Iron is abundant. Antimony, zinc, co¬ 
balt, arsenic, titanium, and chrome are also found. Salt 
is found abundantly in various localities. 

Bays, Gulfs, Lakes, and Rivers .—By the indentations of 
the bays, gulfs, and rivers the interior of North America is 
at once laid open to the commerce of the world. On the 
E. coast we first meet with Baffin’s Bay, which separates 
British America from Greenland; Hudson’s Bay, which 
opens into the Atlantic by Hudson’s Strait; the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence, connecting the great lakes with the Atlantic; 
the Bays of Fundy, Cape Cod, Delaware, and Chesapeake; 
Long Island, Pamlico, and Albemarle sounds; the Gulf 
of Mexico, Gulf of Campeche, Bay of Honduras, and Mos¬ 
quito Bay—all on the E. coast. The indentations on the 
Pacific coast are neither so large nor so numerous as thoso 
on the E.; among the more important are the Gulf of Te- * 
huantepec, Gulf of California, San Francisco Bay, Straits 
of Juan de Fuca (opening into Puget’s Sound, St. George’s 
Channel, and Admiralty Inlet), Queen Charlotte’s Sound, 
Cook's Inlet, and Bristol Bay. To the N. of the basin of 
the Mississippi is found the region of the great lakes and 
of the St. Lawrence River. These lakes form together the 
greatest mass of fresh water found in any one spot on tho 
globe. They arc live in number. Lake Superior has an 
















122 AMERICA. 


area of more than 31,400 square miles; Lake Erie has an 
area of 10,000 square miles, and is connected by canals 
with the Hudson and the Mississippi; Lake Ontario, from 
which the St. Lawrence passes, has an area of 7300 square 
miles; Lake Huron covers 23,800 square miles; and Lake 
Michigan 25,600 square miles. Other large lakes in North 
America arc Lake Winnipeg, Athabasca, Great Slave, and 
Great Bear lakes in British America; Lake Champlain and 
Great Salt Lake in the U. S.; Lake Nicaragua in Central 
America; and Lake Chapala in Mexico. Besides these, 
numerous other beautiful sheets of water of smaller sizes 
occur, especially N. of 42° N. lat. No other continent is 
more favored with large rivers than North America, nearly 
every portion being accessible from the sea. In the N. the 
Mackenzie River empties into the Arctic Ocean, and the 
Saskatchawan into Hudson’s Bay; the St. Lawrence east¬ 
ward into the Atlantic; and the Mississippi and Rio 
Grande del Norte southward into the Gulf of Mexico. 
The Columbia and Colorado of the West take their rise in 
the western declivities of the Rocky Mountains; the for¬ 
mer, after a course of 1200 miles, empties directly into the 
Pacific; the latter, after flowing 1000 miles, empties into 
the Gulf of California. In lat. 32° 30' N., Frazer’s River 
empties opposite to Vancouver’s Island into the Pacific. 
The Atlantic slope is drained by a large number of rivers 
of different lengths. The largest river-system in North 
America is that of the Mississippi. Its most important 
tributaries are the Arkansas, Red River, the Illinois, the 
Ohio, and the Missouri, which in itself forms another great 
river-system. The most important tributaries of the Mis¬ 
souri are the Yellowstone and the Platte River. 

Islands. —South-east of Florida, in the recess formed by 
the narrowing of the continent at Central America, lies an 
extensive archipelago called the West Indies. This group 
extends E. into the Atlantic to about 60° W. Ion., whence 
it turns almost directly S. and reaches to the mouth of the 
Orinoco River, thus enclosing the Caribbean Sea on the N. 
and N. E. The larger of these islands are Cuba (the most 
western), Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. Near the 
mouth of the St. Lawrence are the islands of Newfound¬ 
land, Cape Breton, Prince Edward, Anticosti, etc. Besides 
these, Long Island and the Bermudas are the only islands 
of any account on the E. coast. The principal ones on the 
Pacific coast are Vancouver’s; Queen Charlotte’s and King 
George III.’s Archipelagoes, W. of British America ; and 
Prince of Wales, Sitka, and Admiralty on the coast of 
Alaska, and the Aleutian Islands reaching westward to¬ 
wards Asia. A large number of barren islands lie in the 
Arctic Ocean of which but little is known. 

Climate .—In comparing the climate of the western with 
that of the eastern continent, we must compare not the E. 
with the W. coast, but E. with E. and W. with W.; which 
comparison will show that the difference of temperature 
lies not between the two continents, but between the oppo¬ 
site shores of each continent. Take, for exanrple, Nain in 
Labrador: while the mean temperature of this place is 25° 
F., at Archangel, on the western coast, it is 44°. This dif¬ 
ference of 19° between the eastern and western coasts of 
the New World is but very little less than the difference 
between the eastern coast of the New and the western 
coast of the Old, for the temperature of Gothenburg, in 
Sweden, is only 21° higher than that of Nain. This dif¬ 
ference decreases the farther S. we go. But, generally 
speaking, the climate of North America is 10° lower than 
the same parallels in Western Europe. On the E. side and 
middle of the continent N. of 50° N. lat. it is so intensely 
cold that it is almost uninhabitable. In Mexico and Cen¬ 
tral America the climate is similar to that of the torrid 
zone, being very changeable; the table-lands of the former 
generally have a delightful climate. In Canada the change 
from winter to summer is very sudden, the spring being of 
short duration. 

Vegetable Productions .—North America abounds in im¬ 
mense forests, in which are found vast numbers of large 
and valuable trees. One of the most noted is the Sequoia 
gigantea, belonging to the cedar family and a native of 
California, which is one of the greatest wonders of the 
vegetable world. It sometimes attains a height of 400 
feet and a diameter of from 30 to 40 feet. By the Span¬ 
iards it is called the Palo Colorado. Another remarkable 
tree is a species of pine or fir in Oregon, which grows from 
200 to 300 feet in height, and has a girth of from 60 to 80 
feet. The forests contain pine, oak, ash, hickory, red 
beech, the lofty Canadian poplar, several species of chest¬ 
nut, walnut, several species of maple (among them the 
sugar-maple), cedar, cypress, juniper, hemlock, basswood, 
palmetto, dogwood, willow, catalpa, wild-cherry, tulip tree 
(or American poplar), elm, sycamore, magnolia, gum, lo¬ 
cust, etc. The most important farinaceous plant peculiar 
to the New World is maize or Indian corn. It extends 
over a large part of North America, but is found mostly 


in the Central U. S. It is also naturalized, or nearly so, in 
the warmer parts of the Old World. Cacao, vanilla, pi¬ 
mento, copaiba, jalap, cinchona, tobacco, sweet potatoes, 
and the cochineal plant (Cactus cochinilifer), are also indig¬ 
enous. Wheat, barley, peas, oats, and rice are cultivated 
with success throughout the greater portion of the conti¬ 
nent. Many vegetables, besides various fruit trees, are 
grown. Among the latter are the orange, lemon, apple, 
peach, etc.; the principal native fruits are of the nut 
kind. Coffee, sugar, and cotton aro staple products. The 
vine generally succeeds when properly cultivated. An in¬ 
teresting native cereal is the Zizania aquatica, the w r ild 
rice of the North-west, yielding an important supply of 
food to the native tribes. The true potato (Solatium tu¬ 
berosum) is a native of both North and South America. 

Zoologg .—The number of ferocious animals found in 
America is comparatively very small. Of those that are 
found the principal ones are the polar and grizzly bear. 
The former (sometimes called the white bear) is the largest 
of his genus, and is an inhabitant of the Arctic regions, 
being seldom seen S. of 55° N. lat. The latter is a native 
of North America, and is found in the regions of the Rocky 
Mountains, from New Mexico to as far N. as 61° N. lat. 
Besides these may be mentioned the cougar or panther, 
lynx, and wild-cat. The bison, or American buffalo, roams 
over the prairies W. of the Mississippi in immense herds, 
but is rapidly disappearing in consequence of the advance 
of civilization. The musk-ox is smaller, seldom weighing 
more than 300 pounds. The deer family is represented by 
several species, the largest being the moose, whose height 
is about six feet. A single specimen of the antlers of these 
animals has been found to weigh over 50 pounds. Reindeer 
are numerous in the frozen regions. Among the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains are found peculiar sheep and a goat-like antelope; the 
former are covered with short, fine, and flexible wool, and 
are much larger than the domestic sheep; the latter, in¬ 
habiting the highest cliffs of the mountains, are covered 
with long hair, beneath which is a very fine wool. Among 
the wolves, the prairie-wolves are found in great numbers 
on both sides of the Rocky Mountains. Among the do¬ 
mestic dogs are the Newfoundland dog, Mackenzie River 
dog, the Arctic dog, etc. Of the foxes there are several 
kinds—viz., the red, gray, and Arctic. The other prin¬ 
cipal quadrupeds are beavers, otters, raccoons, badgers, 
opossums, weasels, hares, muskrats, marmots, squirrels, 
porcupines, gophers, and antelopes. There are numer¬ 
ous species of reptiles, the rattlesnake being among the 
most dangerous. The alligator, a native of the Southern 
U. S., attains a length of from fourteen to sixteen feet. 
Tortoises, sea-turtles, toads, and frogs abound. Several 
hundred species of birds are found, the greater number 
of which are peculiar to this continent. The wild turkey, 
one of the principal native birds, formerly existed in large 
numbers, but is rapidly disappearing. Wild pigeons are so 
numerous in some localities as to darken the air when they 
fly over, and to break the limbs of the trees on which they 
roost. Among the rapacious birds are the bald eagle, the 
sparrowhawk, the swallow-tailed hawk, falcon, vulture, 
turkey-buzzard, and owi. Among the gallinaceous birds 
are turkeys, pheasants, grouse, and quails. The represen¬ 
tatives of the Grallae are cranes, herons, flamingoes, spoon¬ 
bills, rails, and purple gallinules. Swans, wild-geese, 
ducks, pelicans, etc. constitute the principal water-fowls. 
Some of the smaller birds are larks, orioles, buntings, 
magpies, jays, cedar-birds, thrushes, shrikes, mocking¬ 
birds, robins, grosbeaks, blue-birds, parrots, woodpeckers, 
humming-birds, kingfishers, chuckwills-widow, whippoor¬ 
wills, etc. Of fish there are almost endless varieties; the 
chief ones are sturgeon, salmon, salmon-trout, shad, white 
fish (peculiar to the great lakes), mackerel, herring, hali¬ 
but, sheepshead, trout, bass, perch, pike, etc. 

Population, Races, etc .—The aboriginal races of Mexico 
and Central America still constitute an important part of 
the population. Many of the North American Indians are 
yet in existence, but they are fast disappearing before the 
advance of the white man. Almost all the authorities on 
the subject agree with the traditions of the Indians and 
Esquimaux that an immigration of the native race took 
place at an early period—probably from Asia. In spite 
of the difference existing between many tribes in different 
localities, one racc seems to have inhabited the whole con¬ 
tinent, to which the Esquimaux bear the same relation as the 
Lapps and Samoycdes to the other Mongolians of the Old 
World; and this race resembles most closely the Mongo¬ 
lians. According to ancient Chinese legends, an early Mon¬ 
golian emigration and Chinese colonization appear very 
probable; while the original languages, in spite of their 
great variety, in their uniform formation resemble those of 
Eastern Asia more than any others. Much is still in the 
dark with respect to the original inhabitants. Their cha¬ 
racter at the present day shows a great capability of being 












AMERICA. 


123 


civilized, as they had their own civilization in Mexico and 
Central America, and in South America in Peru and New 
Granada, and as is shown by the fact that under the Jes¬ 
uits, the Quakers, and the Moravian Brethren some have 
attained a considerable degree of civilization. The African 
race constitutes a large portion of the population, espe¬ 
cially of the southern part of North America. It was in¬ 
troduced for the purpose of slavery, but seems to prosper 
better than in its native continent. From 1789 to 18G0 
(i. e. while it was in slavery) it increased in the U. S. 28 
per cent, every ten years, or 5 per cent, less than the Cau¬ 
casian race; while in San Domingo, where it was in a free 
state, its increase from 1793 to 1868 was larger than that 
of the Caucasian race, while the natives have decreased 
everywhere. The Caucasian race is only represented in 
North America by the Germanic and the Romanic families, 
the latter chiefly in Mexico and the Central American re¬ 
publics, the former in the U. S. and British America. 
Among the 40,000,000 of the Germanic family, the Anglo- 
Saxons predominate largely, constituting over two-thirds 
of the population as regards the descent, and over three- 
fourths with regard to the language. 

History. —If we except the reputed early visits of the 
Danes and Norwegians to Greenland in the ninth and 
tenth centuries, America was first made known to the 
civilized world by Christopher Columbus, who set sail 
under the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella from Palos 
on the 3d of Aug., 1492, with a view of finding Eastern 
Asia by a western passage. He first landed at San Sal¬ 
vador, on the 12th of October. During the ensuing months 
he visited Cuba, Hispaniola, and other islands. But the 
continent of North America was first discovered by John 
Cabot and his son Sebastian in 1497, one year before 
Columbus reached the continent of South America. The 
Cabots sailed under the patronage of Henry VII. of Eng¬ 
land, and touched the fh-st year at Labrador, and the next 
at Newfoundland. Gaspar de Cortereal, a Portuguese no¬ 
bleman, who made two voyages to the coast of Labradoi’, 
is supposed to have been murdered on his second voy¬ 
age, as he never returned. In 1512, Ponce de Leon dis¬ 
covered Florida. In 1524, Giovanni Verrazzano, a Floren¬ 
tine navigator, under the patronage of Francis I. of France, 
explored more than 2000 miles of the coast of the present 
U. S. and British America. A few years later, Jacques 
Cartier made several voyages and explored Newfoundland, 
and first ascended the St. Lawrence. Not many years sub¬ 
sequent a French fortress was erected near the present site 
of Quebec. While these discoveries were being made, Cor¬ 
tez discovered and conquered Mexico. Within the last 
twenty-five years it has been clearly established that there 
is a communication by water between the Atlantic and 
Pacific by an Arctic sea. But the passage has never been 
made by vessels alone, the voyage in question having been 
partly effected by means of sleds and partly by sailing. 
As the discovery and exploration of North America by 
Europeans advanced, it became a political dependency of 
several European nations, in particular of Spain, France, 
England, Holland, and Denmark. In 1776 most of the Eng¬ 
lish colonies established an independent American common¬ 
wealth under the name of the United States of America; 
they have since become one of the greatest states of the 
globe. In 1821 Mexico became independent of Spain. 
The remainder of North America, comprising about one- 
half of its extent, is either a dependency of European 
powers, or, like the greater portion of Greenland, is with¬ 
out any organized government. 

Central America is that narrow strip of land which 
unites North and South America, but which properly be¬ 
longs to the former. It lies between the parallels of about 
7° and 18° of N. lat. It is about 800 or 900 miles long, 
its breadth varying from 20 miles in its narrowest to 400 
in its widest part. It is bounded on the N. by Mexico, on 
the E. by the Caribbean Sea, on the S. by New Granada, 
and on the W. by the Pacific. Its area, according to Behm 
and Wagner, is 188,370 square miles. 

Face of the Country, Mountains, etc. —Central America 
consists almost entirely of mountainous regions, but the 
mountains are entirely distinct from those of North and 
South America. They are separated from the cordilleras 
of South America by a row of hills ranging in height from 
300 to 1000 feet, while in the W. the Mesa de Tarita (600 
feet high) separates the Isthmus from the North American 
continent. N. of Panama rises the plateau ot V eragua, in 
which the Silla de Veragua (8000 feet high) is the highest 
point. Farther N. is the plateau of Costa Rica, with an 
average height of 2000 feet, and that of Cartago, 4400 feet. 
Numerous peaks of 10,000 feet and over are interspersed. 
In the N. the plateau gradually descends, until it forms 
the plain of Nicaragua. To the N. of this plain rises the 
table-land of Honduras, with an average height of 4000 
feet. Apart and on the S. of the plateau are two rows of 


volcanoes, the highest of which are San Miguel, a peak of 
15,000 feet, San Vincente, San Salvador, and Izalco. A 
mountain of not quite 2000 feet connects the table-land of 
Honduras with that of Guatemala, rising to an average 
height of 5000 feet. Here also are a number of high vol¬ 
canoes, among which are the Pacaya, the two volcanoes of 
Guatemala, those of Amilpas, 12,200 feet high, Quezalte- 
nango, 12,300 feet, and the more distant Soconusco. 

Geology. —The central axis of the Isthmus is composed 
of crystalline and volcanic rocks. These are flanked on 
either side by strata of tertiary age, which contain, in 
some places, valuable beds of lignite. Gold, silver, lead, 
and mercury are found in many localities, and rich mines 
of all these are known to exist in Costa Rica and Hondu¬ 
ras ; but the obstacles presented by the climate, the gov¬ 
ernments, and the population of these countries have lim¬ 
ited their productiveness. The ancient inhabitants of Cen¬ 
tral America, who constructed the cities of which the ruins 
have been so frequently described, possessed large quanti¬ 
ties of gold, as we know from the numbers of gold images 
and implements found in their sepulchres. The explora¬ 
tion of the graves of Cliiriqui was at one time an exciting 
industry. Jasper and marble are worked in Honduras, 
and sulphur is collected near the volcano of Quezaltenango. 
Large quantities of salt are jiroduced on the Pacific coast, 
and also from the salt springs, which are numerous. 

Bays, Gulfs, and Rivers. —Central America is intersected 
by numerous streams of considerable size, but necessarily 
short from the narrowness of the country. All the longer 
streams are on the-northern and eastern sides of the moun¬ 
tains, and flow into the Atlantic. Among these the Usu- 
masinta is the largest, and the San Juan, which forms the 
outlet of Lake Nicaragua, is next in size. Among the 
bays and gulfs, the most important are the Gulf of Hon¬ 
duras on the E. coast, the Bay of Panama, the Gulf of 
Dulce, Coronada Bay, Gulf of Nicoya, and the Gulf of 
Fonseca on the Pacific coast. Besides Lake Nicaragua, 
which has an area of 3400 square miles, we find in Central 
America the lakes of Managua in Nicaragua, Ilopongo in 
San Salvador, Amatitlan (or Atitlan) in Guatemala, and 
the Yojoa in Honduras. 

Climate. —In Central America the year consists of two 
seasons—viz., the wet and the dry. In the former the sun 
is always vertical, and is seldom seen, the skies being filled 
with clouds and falling rain, while in the latter the tem¬ 
perature does not rise near so high, but hot and dry 
weather prevails, with a clear and more healthy atmos¬ 
phere. In the higher regions, where the land is more 
open, few noxious vapors are generated, and health is 
comparatively good, but in the low marshes, where de¬ 
composition is rapid, many contagious diseases prevail. 

Vegetable Productions .—Central America is remarkably 
adapted to the growth of vegetables and tropical fruits. 
Indian corn, sweet potatoes, sugar-eane, indigo, tobacco, 
cacao, the cactus, mandioca, and bananas flourish. Many 
other tropical fruits, among them the cherimoya (said by 
Humboldt to be the most delicious fruit in the world), grow 
abundantly. In the large forests mahogany, logwood, lig- 
numvitse, pimento, sarsaparilla, vanilla, black balsam, etc. 
are met with. There are not less than ninety-seven differ¬ 
ent kinds of trees growing luxuriantly in the forests of 
Panama that are fatal to animal life. 

Zoology. —The zoology of Central America is very simi¬ 
lar to that of the other divisions of America. Its birds 
are chiefly remarkable for their brilliant plumage. Among 
them are many species of humming-birds and the quezal. 
Serpents are numerous, many of them being dangerous. 
Two species of locusts, a brown and a green, are known 
here. The former is very destructive. Fish abound in the 
seas, rivers, and lakes. 

History. —In 1502, Columbus visited the E. coast of Cen¬ 
tral America, and passed along the shores of Honduras, 
Mosquito territory, Costa Rica, and Veragua, but being op¬ 
posed in his undertakings, both by the inhabitants and his 
crew, he was forced to return home. In 1523, Pedro Alva¬ 
rado was despatched by Cortez to conquer Central America, 
and within two years had subdued the whole country. After 
that it remained subject to Spain till 1823, when it was 
formed into a federal republic and became independent; 
but in 1833 the republic of Central America was dissolved, 
and the separate republics of Guatemala, Honduras, San 
Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica were formed. Since 
then several attempts have been made to reunite these five 
republics in a confederation, but they were not successful. 
Only a small portion of Central America (British Hondu¬ 
ras) is a European dependency. 

Inhabitants. —The population of Central America con¬ 
sists of whites and creoles; mestizoes, or the offspring of 
whites and Indians; aboriginal natives, and a few blacks. 
It is estimated that one-twelfth of the inhabitants are 
whites, four-twelfths mixed races, and seven-twelfths In- 


























124 AMERICA. 


dians. Generally speaking, the inhabitants are immoral, 
ignorant, and superstitious. 

South America, a vast triangular-shaped piece of land, 
with its apex S., extends from lat. 12° 30' N.-to Cape Horn, 
in lat. 55° 59' S., a distance of about 4800 miles, its great¬ 
est breadth from E. to W. being about 3300 miles. Its 
area is estimated by Behm and Wagner at 6,958,600 square 
miles. At least three-fourths lie within the temperate zone. 
Its coast-lines, particularly the western, have but few in¬ 
dentations, except near the S., where both on the E. and W. 
sides there are many inequalities. Here also lies an ex¬ 
tensive group of mountainous islands, forming the archi¬ 
pelago of Ticrra del Fuego. These islands are indented on 
all sides by numerous bays and narrow inlets. 

Mountains and Volcanoes .—The mountains of South 
America comprise four great systems; the most remark¬ 
able of these are the Andes, which stretch along the Pacific 
coast from N. to S., in a continuous chain, for a distance 
of about 4200 miles in a nearly straight line. This range 
is of no great width, but of very great altitude, ranking in 
this respect next to the Himalayas, the highest point of the 
former, the Sorata, being 24,800 feet high, and the highest 
of the latter, Everest, 29,000 feet high. The second sys¬ 
tem is that of Parime or Parima, also called the Highlands 
of Guiana, consisting of numerous irregular groups of 
mountains of about 2000 feet in height, which separate the 
plains of the lower Orinoco from those of the Rio Negro 
and the Amazon. The culminating peak of this range is 
Maravaca, about 8200 feet high. The third system is 
generally known by the name of the Coast Chain of Vene¬ 
zuela, the culminating point of which is the Silla de Carac- 
cas, 8600 feet high. The fourth is that of Brazil, which 
consists of two great ranges running nearly parallel to the 
coast, and numerous other smaller ranges stretching far 
into the interior and crossing the country at different 
angles. It may be well to remark that all the higher 
mountains of South America are confined to the Pacific 
and Atlantic coasts, while the interior is occupied by a 
series of low, level plains, with an elevation of near 1000 
feet, that reach from one extremity of the continent to the 
other. The active volcanoes of South America are about 
thirty in number. They all occur among the Andes, and 
consist of three distinct series—those of Chili, those of 
Peru and Bolivia, and those of Quito. The loftiest of these 
mountains is Sahama, one of the Peru and Bolivian series, 
23,000 feet high. The heights of the others vary from 
13,000 to 18,000 feet. 

Plains .—The plains of South America are of vast extent, 
stretching for hundreds of miles with but few perceptible 
inequalities. During the rainy season they are covered 
with verdant grasses, but when the dry season comes on 
the grass dies out entirely in some sections, so that they 
present the appearance of a desert. These great plains are 
variously designated the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, the 
Selvas of the Amazons, the Llanos of the Orinoco, etc. 
The Pampas of Buenos Ayres are about 900 miles in 
breadth, cover an area of about 315,000 square miles, and 
have an elevation of about 1000 feet above the sea. The 
several regions of these plains are marked by the growth 
of different kinds of vegetation, such as thistles, lucerne, 
grasses, etc. The thistles in some cases grow so large and 
have such formidable spines that they form an almost 
impenetrable barrier, individual stalks being ten or twelve 
feet high. Thousands of cattle and horses roam over these 
. grassy plains, where they find inexhaustible quantities of 
food. The Selvas of the Amazon, in the centre of the con¬ 
tinent, are so densely covered with wood (hence their name) 
that the country in some parts, were it not for the rivers, 
would be impenetrable. They extend along the Amazon for 
about 1500 miles, and vary in width from 350 to 800 miles. 
The Llanos of the Orinoco and Venezuela are also very ex¬ 
tensive, occupying a tract of about 153,000 square miles. 
They lie between the deltas of the Orinoco and the river 
Coqueta, and present a remarkably level surface. It is 
stated that there is scarcely an eminence one foot high in 
the space of 270 square miles. Trees are not very numer¬ 
ous, except on the banks of the Orinoco, where the forests 
are dense. Besides these, there is also the desert of Pata¬ 
gonia, occupying an estimated area of 100,000 square miles. 
This is the most barren of all the plains in America. 

11 ivers and Lakes .—Of the three most important rivers 
of South America, the Amazon, the Orinoco, and the Plata, 
the first is the largest on the globe. It takes its rise among 
the Andes, and after a course of 4000 miles empties its waters 
into the Atlantic directly under the equator. Its waters aro 
navigable from its mouth, which is 96 miles in width, for a 
distance of about 2300 miles. The Orinoco rises among the 
Parime Mountains, and has a course of about 1400 miles. 
This river has many affluents that are large streams. It is 
connected with the Amazon by one of its affluents, the Rio 
Negro, by means of a natural canal, called the Cassiquiare. 


This is one of the most remarkable phenomena in physical 
geography. The Plata (Rio de la Plata) is more ot an es¬ 
tuary than a river, and is formed by the confluence ot the 
Paranti and Uruguay Rivers. It is about 185 miles long, 
and at its mouth, between Punta del Este and Cape San 
Antonio, it is near 130 miles wide. The navigation of this 
stream is obstructed by frequent shoals, and its waters are 
so turbid that they tinge the sea for a distance of near 200 
miles from its mouth. There are many other important 
rivers in South America, of less magnitude than those just 
enumerated, but equal, if not superior, in size to Europe’s 
largest streams. The principal ones are the San Francisco, 
the Rio Negro, Colorado, Essequibo, etc. But few lakes of 
any considerable size exist in South America, the chief one 
being Titicaca, which is situated on the frontiers of Bolivia 
and Peru, and covers an area of about 4090 square miles. 
It is at.an elevation of about 12,800 feet above the level of 
the sea, and in some parts is 120 fathoms deep. There are 
many small lakes on the table-lands of the Andes and in 
the elevated mountain-valleys. Their water is of the purest 
blue and green colors, and in many of them intensely cold, 
being near the line of perpetual congelation. 

Climate. —The climate of South America is neither so 
extremely hot in the N. nor so intensely cold in the S. as 
one would be led to suppose from its geographical position. 
This may be attributed to the operation of the trade-winds, 
the influence of the lofty Andes, and other physical causes. 
The burning heat felt in the plains of Arabia is wholly un¬ 
known in the new continent. Throughout the entire basin 
of the Amazon the climate is greatly moderated by the 
breeze that is always blowing up the river. But in some 
of the deep recesses, where the dense forests ward off the 
breeze, it is almost suffocating. Brazil and all the coun¬ 
tries west of it have an equable and temperate climate. 
The mean temperature of Rio Janeiro is 74° F. The 
southern portion of the continent is so acted on by the 
Antarctic breezes and immense tracts of surrounding ocean 
that its climate is rendered cool and moist. The strip of 
land on the W. coast lying between about 7° and 32° S. 
lat. and 65° and 68° W. Ion. is an exception to this, as rain 
never falls there. 

Geology. —The geology of South America is as yet but 
imperfectly known, but it may be briefly sketched as fol¬ 
lows: In the southern part of the continent, E. of the 
Andes, the surface is mainly occupied by drift and the loess¬ 
like deposits of the Pampas, the latter containing the 
remains of the great edentates, Megatherium, Glyptodon, 
etc.—a fauna almost peculiar to South America, and now 
represented by her sloths, armadilloes, and ant-eaters. N. 
of Paraguay, and S. of the Amazon, is a broad area under¬ 
laid by crystalline and palasozoic rocks, a part of which are 
of carboniferous age. The valley of the Amazon forms a 
great plain, of which the longest diameter is E. and W., 
lying between the palaeozoic highlands which have been 
referred to and a somewhat similar region of old metamor- 
phic and probably palaeozoic rocks in Northern Brazil and 
Venezuela. The immediate banks of the great river are 
composed of soft, horizontally stratified red sandstone and 
shales, shown by Prof. Orton to be of tertiary age, and 
not drift as supposed by Agassiz. Along the coast, near 
the mouth of the Amazon, cretaceous rocks were found by 
Hartt and others, containing Ammonites, Inoceramus, etc. of 
species common to the chalk of Europe. The country bor¬ 
dering the upper Orinoco, both by its geological structure 
and by its minerals (gold, itacolumite, etc.), shows a marked 
resemblance to the southern portion of the Alleghany belt 
in North America. At the northern end of South America 
we find near the mouth of the Magdalena tertiary rocks 
with beds of lignite; higher up, and near Bogotfi, creta¬ 
ceous strata, with ammonites of European species; still 
farther inland, crystalline rocks and the famous emerald- 
mines. The great chain of the Andes is composed mainly 
of granite and crystalline slates, with vast masses of tra¬ 
chyte, porphyry, basalt, and other rocks of purely igneous 
origin. On the W. flanks of the chain carboniferous, triassic, 
Jurassic, cretaceous, and tertiary strata have been recog¬ 
nized; all of which are more or less disturbed, and locally, 
like the underlying granite, are metalliferous. All the 
southern extremity of South America shows marks of gla¬ 
cial action, but the view advanced by Prof. Agassiz, that 
the valley of the Amazon was once occupied by a glacier, is 
not generally accepted by geologists. Many parts of South 
America contain rich deposits of the precious metals and 
gems, but the most precious minerals of all, coal and iron, 
are far less abundant here than in North America. Brazil 
furnishes gold from several districts. Beautiful topazes are 
also found there, and the most productive diamond-mines 
in the world arc in Brazil. Gold and emeralds are obtained 
in \ enezuela. Chili, Ecuador, and Peru are famous for 
their mines of silver, and Chili now produces half the cop¬ 
per consumed in the world. Extensive though not rich de- 

















AMEKICAN—AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES. 125 


t 

posits of mercury are also found at various points on the 
W. coast. 

Vegetation. —As there is such a variety of climate in 
South America, no special character can, with propriety, 
be given to its vegetation. The most distinguishing fea¬ 
ture are the great forests. They cover the greater part of 
the entire continent, and in some places are so dense that 
to force an entrance, even with an axe, to any considerable 
distance, is almost an impossibility. Many of the largest 
trees are adorned with the most brilliant flowers. In 
almost every part of tropical America vegetation is exhib¬ 
ited on the grandest scale. In certain districts, that are 
specially favored with due proportions of heat and moist¬ 
ure, the magnitude of the trees and variety and beauty of 
the flowers are extraordinary. Fruits, such as oranges, 
lemons, limes, cocoanuts, pineapples, mangoes, bananas, 
pomegranates, mammoons, goyabas, jambas, aracas, man- 
gabas, and others, grow in great profusion. Many of the 
most important and most widely known varieties of fruit 
are, however, naturalized, rather than strictly native pro¬ 
ducts. The bitter quassia, rosewood, tonka-bean, indigo, 
coffee, sugar-cane, maize, and the cacao tree (from the seed 
of which chocolate is made) are important productions. 
Tapioca and cassava are also made from the root of the 
Janipha Manihot. Several medicinal plants of great value 
are natives of this country, among which are cinchona, 
or Peruvian bark, ipecacuanha, copaiba, the balsams of 
Peru and Tolu, and many others. Among the remarkable 
plants we may mention the wax-palm, the vegetable-ivory 
palm, the mate or Paraguay tea, and the guarana (both 
containing theine, the active principle of tea and coffee, 
and both similarly used); also the vanilla-plant; several 
caoutchouc-yielding trees; several cow trees, yielding a 
valuable milk-like latex or juice; varnish trees, and an 
immense number of orchidaceous epiphytes. In short, the 
botany of South America is very rich, and is by no means 
yet thoroughly known. Its palm trees are numerous and 
useful, but are not equal in commercial importance to those 
of the Old World. Towards the S. the character of the 
forests is greatly changed by the coldness of the climate. 

Zoology. —South America has but few formidable beasts 
of prey. The most ferocious one peculiar to the country is 
Fells onca, or jaguar. It is larger and stronger than the 
panther, but inferior in both these respects to the Bengal 
tiger. The puma, or American lion, is also found. Mon¬ 
keys of the family Cebidce and of an inferior type are abun¬ 
dant both in species and individuals. Of the winged mam¬ 
mals the most remarkable are the vampire bats. These ani¬ 
mals are mostly confined to Guiana, Colombia, and Brazil, 
where they are very troublesome, attacking and sucking the 
blood of both men and beasts while they are asleep. In the 
low, marshy places are found the anaconda and boa-constric¬ 
tor. Lamas, alpacas, and vicunas are peculiar; horses, asses, 
sheep, oxen, alpacas, goats, and swine are the chief domestic 
animals. Horses and cattle have greatly increased; the 
former can be bought for a few dollars, and the latter are 
mostly valued for their hides and tallow, the flesh being 
generally thrown away. South America is especially rich 
in birds; the most remarkable one in respect to size is the 
condor; one of the largest specimens yet captured measured 
about fourteen feet between the tips of the wings. It sel¬ 
dom exceeds eleven, however, the body being from three to 
three and a half feet in length. It frequents the most in¬ 
accessible cliffs of the Andes. Eagles, falcons, vultures, 
and other rapacious birds are found. Many birds of bright 
plumage also exist. Alligators, lizards, electric eels, and 
snakes°are numerous. Fish abound in the seas, lakes, and 
rivers. Immense numbers of centipedes, scorpions, spiders, 
ants, termites, and locusts occur. The latter are especially 
numerous in Buenos Ayres, sometimes covering the earth 
for a distance of 200 miles, and eating every vestige of 
green substance that protrudes from the ground. The mos¬ 
quito and chigoe are also much dreaded. 

Faces of Men. —Many of the aborigines still exist in 
South America. The aboriginal Araucanians of Chili are 
more advanced in civilization than the other Indians. They 
associate in small communities, are industrious workers, 
weave and dye cloth with much skill, have fewer vices 
than the other tribes, and are firm and courageous. They 
are fond of spirituous liquors, and manufacture a drink 
called chicha. Like other Indians of South America, they 
have long been acquainted with the art of working the 
metals, particularly gold and silver. The Indians ot the 
Pampas have a dark complexion, are low in stature, and 1 
made, but they are muscular and athletic, and arc remark- 
ably good horsemen. They do not cultivate the soil 01 ap¬ 
ply themselves to any sort of labor, but lead a io\ ing lite, 
are cruel and ferocious in disposition, and generally settle 
disputes with the knife. In the southern extremity of the 
peninsula, below the 38th parallel, is found the Patago¬ 
nian, whose stature and bulk, though very remarkable, 


have been much exaggerated. The average height of this 
race is about six feet. The head and features are large, and 
the complexion of a dark copper-brown. They lead a no¬ 
madic life, and subsist on the flesh of the animals they 
kill. 

History. —The first discoverer of South America was 
Columbus himself, who landed at the mouth of the Orinoco 
in 1498. Alonzo de Hojeda, an enterprising Spanish cava¬ 
lier, with a fleet of four ships, soon followed in the track 
of Columbus, and having reached South America near the 
equator, passed the mouths of the Essequibo and Orinoco 
rivers, and examined the greater part of the coast of 
Venezuela. On this expedition Hojeda was accompanied 
by Amerigo Vespucci, who was a native of Florence. He 
(Vespucci), being an experienced mariner and a man of 
considerable talent, published in the year 1500, after their 
return, an account of their voyage and explorations, and 
thus his name became inseparably associated with the new 
continent. Nearly the whole of South America was until 
the beginning of the nineteenth century a dependency of 
Spain and Portugal. About 1810 the war of independence 
began in the Spanish colonies, which, after about ten years, 
ended in the complete overthrow of Spanish rule and the 
establishment of a number of republics. Brazil also be¬ 
came (in 1823) independent of Portugal, but retained the 
monarchical form of government, and now is the only 
monarchy on the entire American continent. 

Literature. —See Humboldt, “Examen critique de l’his- 
toire de la geographic du Nouveau Continent” (5 vols., 
1836-39); Macgregor, ‘‘The Progress of America from 
the Discovery of Columbus to the year 1846” (2 vols., 
1847); Squier, “The States of Central America” (1857); 
Wappaus, in the new edition of Stein’s and Horschel- 
mann’s “ Ilandbuch der Geographic und Statistik” (1855 
seq.); Ivohl, “Geschichte der Entdeckung von Amerika” 
(1861); “Naturalist’s Directory of North America and the 
West Indies ” (published by the Essex Institute, Salem, 
Mass., 1865); J. Disturnell, “Influence of Climate in 
North and South America, etc.” (1867); Dr. D. G. Brin- 
ton, “The Myths of the New World” (1868); B. F. de 
Costa, “The pre-Columbian Discovery of America by the 
Northmen, illustrated by translations from the Icelandic 
Sagas” (Albany, 1868). Revised by J. S. Newberry. 

American, a township of Sacramento co., Cal. P. 416. 

American Antiquities. Under this appellation are 
commonly included the various remains of aboriginal forti¬ 
fications, mounds, etc., as well as those of architecture and 
art, whether existing in North, Central, or South America. 
This name is obviously too general and of too extensive an 
application for a work in which the various articles are de¬ 
signed to be distributed as much as possible under separate 
heads, so as to adapt it to convenient and ready reference. 
The various architectural and other remains, therefore, of 
Mexico and Central and South America will be noticed re¬ 
spectively under Mexican Antiquities, Copan, Palenque, 
Peruvian Antiquities, Tiaiiuanico, etc. But as there is 
no other more appropriate head under which the peculiar 
though widely extended remains found in the valley of the 
Mississippi and its tributaries can be treated, it is proposed 
to describe them in the present article. 

Most of these monuments are mounds and walls of earth. 
They are usually found overgrown by the primeval forests, 
and in the living and decaying trees which cover them we 
have a record that they have been abandoned at least a 
thousand years. As they are plainly the relics of a se¬ 
dentary people, very different in their habits and modes of 
life from the Indians who occupied all the country at the 
time of the advent of the whites, they have been generally 
regarded as the work of a distinct and now extinct race, to 
whom the name of Mound-Builders has been given. Be¬ 
sides the mounds and other earth-works left by the Mound- 
Builders, one occasionally finds very wide walls laid up of 
rough stones without mortar, some of which will be refer¬ 
red to farther on. We have proof also that the Mound- 
Builders worked the copper-mines of Lake Superior, lead- 
mines near Lexington, Ivy., and oil-wells in Canada and 
North-western Pennsylvania. {Newberry.) 

The remains of the Mound-Builders are spread over a 
vast extent of country. They are found on the sources 
of the Alleghany, in the western part of the State of 
New York, and in nearly all the Western States, including 
Michigan and Iowa. They were observed by Lewis and 
Clarke on the Missouri, 1000 miles above its junction with 
the Mississippi. They line the shores of the Gulf of Mexico 
from Texas to Florida, whence they extend through Ala¬ 
bama and Georgia into South Carolina. They arc espe¬ 
cially numerous in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Mis¬ 
souri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Missis¬ 
sippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and Texas. Many ot 
these remains were evidently designed as works of defence 














12(5 AMERICAN INDIANS—AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 


or as watch-towers in war. No inconsiderable number 
appear to have been formed as sepulchral monuments or 
places of burial for the dead; while others seem obviously 
to have been constructed as temples or places of worship 
and sacrifice. Among those evidently works of defence 
are the fortifications found in Ross co., 0., near the village 
of Bourneville. These occupy the summit of a lofty hill, 
the sides of which are remarkably abrupt, so as to be at 
some points absolutely inaccessible. The defences consist 
of a wall of stone, now in ruins, carried around the hill a 
little below its brow, and extending across the neck which 
connects the hill with the range beyond. On the eastern 
side, where the declivity is least abrupt, the wall is stronger 
and higher than on the other sides, except across the neck 
(which is about 700 feet wide), where it is strongest of all. 
In this portion of the wall are three gateways about eight 
feet wide. In one place on the western side, where the ab¬ 
ruptness of the hill makes it wholly inaccessible, the wall 
is discontinued for some distance. Everything, indeed, 
connected with these works clearly indicates that they were 
designed for purposes of defence. It may be added that the 
space enclosed within the wall is more than 140 acres, while 
the entire line of the fortifications measures about two and 
a quarter miles. The enclosure is abundantly supplied with 
water, which can readily be obtained at the depth of a few 
feet by digging, and is also found in two considerable ponds 
or small lakes, one of which covers about two acres. An¬ 
other work of a similar character, in the southern part of 
Highland co., 0., is known as Fort Hill. The fortifications 
are on the summit of a hill 500 feet high. They are com¬ 
posed of mingled earth and stone. Measured from the 
bottom of the ditch, from which the earth used in building 
the embankment has been excavated, the wall is in some 
places fifteen feet high, while the average breadth of the 
base is from thirty to forty feet. That these fortifications 
were constructed several centuries ago is rendered more than 
probable by the fact that a chestnut tree twenty-one feet in 
circumference was found growing some years since on the em¬ 
bankment, and an oak tree twenty-three feet in circumference, 
though now fallen and much decayed, had evidently grown 
upon the earth of the fortifications. The entire length of 
the wall at Fort Hill is more than a mile and a half: it en¬ 
closes a space of about fifty acres. Among the remains, 
which give evidence of their having been constructed for 
religious purposes, are a large number consisting of an em¬ 
bankment or wall of earth in the form of a perfect circle, 
adjacent to which there is often a square or parallelogram 
made with an embankment similar to that of the circle. In 
Ross co., O., east of the Scioto River, near Cliillicothe, are 
works of this description. The circle is 1050 feet in diam¬ 
eter, the side of the adjoining rectangle being about 900 
feet. The wall of the latter is about twelve feet high, with 
a base of fifty feet, without any ditch on either side. The 
wall of the circle is somewhat lower. Nearly similar to the 
above, and of about the same extent, are the celebrated re¬ 
mains at Circleville, 0., though they have (or rather had, 
for the lines have become almost obliterated by the repeated 
cultivation of the ground) this peculiarity, that the circle 
is formed by a double embankment, with a ditch between. 

One of the most remarkable works of this kind is the 
Great Serpent, situated on the summit of a hill in Adams 
co., O. It extends 700 feet, terminating in a triple coil at 
the tail. The line of the body is gently and gracefully 
undulating, and the entire length, if extended in a straight 
line, would not be less than 1000 feet. Its jaws are widely 
distended, and it seems attempting to swallow an oval 
figure (perhaps designed to represent an egg) which is 100 
feet long and 80 wide. The embankment which forms the 
body of the serpent is five or six feet high, with a base of 
from twenty to thirty feet. It would seem that it might 
have been designed as some mystical emblem. No small 
number of the remains consist of mounds, generally nearly 
conical in their form, at other times resembling a parallelo¬ 
gram. Of the former class is the great mound at Grave 
Creek, in Ohio, about twelve miles below Wheeling. It is 
about 70 feet high and 1000 feet in circumference at the 
base. In 1838 a shaft was sunk from the apex to the base; 
two sepulchral chambers were found constructed of logs, 
and covered with stones; the lower chamber contained two 
skeletons, the upper but one, in an advanced stage of decay. 
It is supposed that as a general rule each mound was raised 
over a single individual, although some may have been de¬ 
signed as general cemeteries. 

Near Cahokia, in Illinois, is a very extensive earthwork 
in the form of a parallelogram, 700 feet long by 500 wide 
at the base, with a height of 90 feet. The top is level, hav¬ 
ing an area of near five acres. 

Many implements and ornaments have been found in the 
mounds. They arc usually composed of stone, though some¬ 
times of copper, more rarely still of shell or bone. The cop¬ 
per is always in its native state—never alloyed, nor even 


cast—and shows specks of silver, such as are found only in 
the copper of Lake Superior. The stone implements—ex¬ 
cept the flint spear and arrow heads—are wrought with 
much care and skill. Pottery is found in most of the 
mounds; it is sometimes graceful in form and highly orna¬ 
mented, oftener coarse and rude. Masses of galena, calc- 
spar, quartz crystals, sheets of mica, and marine shells 
found in the mounds, with copper and stone implements 
composed of materials brought trom distant localities, in¬ 
dicate some internal but no foreign commerce. Fragments 
of coarse cloth have been discovered, but all fine fabrics 
are wanting, perhaps from the lapse of time. No bones 
taken from the mounds indicate that their builders had 
domestic animals. In many instances the human skele¬ 
tons have almost entirely disappeared, attesting their great 
antiquity. No tablets or inscriptions yet discovered indi¬ 
cate that the Mound-Builders had a written language, and 
the inscriptions on rocks so common in the country they 
occupied, and usually referred to them, are of rude execu¬ 
tion, mythical character, and of doubtful parentage; so 
that they throw little light on the history of this ancient 
race. 

From all the facts before us, we can at present say little 
more than this: that the valley of the Mississippi and the 
Atlantic coast were once densely populated by a sedentary, 
agricultural, and partially civilized race, quite different 
from the modern nomadic Indians, though possibly the 
progenitors of some of the Indian tribes; and that after 
many centuries of occupation they disappeared from our 
country at least one thousand, perhaps many thousands, 
of years before the advent of the Europeans. The pre¬ 
historic remains found so abundantly in Arizona appear 
to be related to the civilization of Mexico; and the remnants 
of semi-civilized Indian tribes now found there are perhaps 
descendants of the ancient builders of the great houses and 
cities whose ruins are there found. (See Squier, “Memoir 
of the Ancient Monuments of the West,” and “Aborig¬ 
inal Monuments of the State of New York,” 1849; Bald¬ 
win, “Ancient America,” 1872; Davis, “The Monuments 
of the Mississippi Valley;” Foster, “ Pre-historic Races of 
the U. S.” (1873). Revised by J. S. Newberry. 

American Indians. See Indians, by J. Hammond 
Trumbull, LL.D. 

American Indians, Languages of. See Indian 

Languages, by J. Hammond Trumbull, LL.D. 

American Institute. The American Institute was or¬ 
ganized on the 19tli of Feb., 1828, by a few prominent busi¬ 
ness-men of the city of New York, who were strongly im¬ 
pressed with the importance of fostering American manu¬ 
factures ; and they proposed to direct immediate attention 
to this subject by a public display of the best specimens of 
domestic skill and industry. In October of the same year 
the first exhibition was held in the Masonic Hall, then lo¬ 
cated on Broadway, and at its close gold and silver medals 
valued at more than $1000 were awarded to the successful 
competitors. As the expenses incurred at this exhibition 
were less than the receipts for the admission of visitors, 
the association wisely inferred that industrial expositions 
by judicious management could be made self-sustaining, and 
accordingly it took measures for ensuring a permanent or¬ 
ganization. 

By an act of the N. Y. legislature, passed May 2, 1829, 
the American Institute of the city of New York was incor¬ 
porated “ for the purpose of encouraging and promoting do¬ 
mestic industry in this State and in the U. S. in agriculture, 
commerce, manufactures, and the arts, and any improve¬ 
ments therein, by bestowing rewards and other benefits on 
those who shall make such improvements or excel in any 
of the said branches; and by such other ways and means 
as to the said corporation, or the trustees thereof, shall ap¬ 
pear most expedient.” Under this act, and without ex¬ 
ternal aid, the Institute continued its operations, depending 
chiefly for support on the attractions of its annual fairs, yet 
from time to time enlarging the sphere of its usefulness, 
until its beneficial influence was felt and acknowledged 
throughout the whole country. Forty-one exhibitions have 
been held, a number far exceeding that of any other or¬ 
ganization in the world. A single comparison will show 
the actual progress made in this department of the Insti¬ 
tute. Its first exhibition (in 1828) was open for three 
days, and the number of entries of articles for competition 
was less than one hundred; its exhibition in 1872 con¬ 
tinued for nearly three months, and the number of entries 
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AMERICANISM—AMES. 127 


fully imitated by other associations. Its persistent efforts 
in fostering the genius of invention which has wrought 
such magical changes in the material condition of this 
and other lands, probably suggested the plan of inter¬ 
national expositions. Doubtless these have accomplished 
much by their genei'al diffusion of practical knowledge; 
nevertheless, as linancial investments not one of them has 
been remunerative. 

One feature peculiar to the competitive displays of the 
American Institute which deserves especial commendation 
is the requirement of satisfactory practical tests of steam- 
engines, pumps, and other working machinery, also of 
harvesters and other agricultural implements, in which 
the power expended in the operation of each is carefully 
measured, thus furnishing a criterion for impartial awards. 

It was early found that the interests of agriculture re¬ 
quired a free and frequent interchange of opinions as to 
the best methods of tilling the soil; accordingly the Farm¬ 
ers’ Club was established. For many years it has held 
weekly meetings, at which communications from all parts 
of the Union are read and made the subjects of interesting 
discussions. Full reports of these discussions appear in 
leading metropolitan weekly journals, and by this means 
it is estimated that in the year 1872 each meeting interested 
not less than a million readers. Through the agency of 
this club many farmers, even in most remote States, have 
been supplied with improved varieties of cereals and other 
seeds, the number of packages gratuitously distributed by 
mail in a single year having reached 12,000. 

The Polytechnic Association is another important branch 
of the Institute, which holds weekly sessions for the pur¬ 
pose of examining new inventions and discoveries, and of 
discussing all questions relating to technology. To these 
and other organizations under the control of the Institute 
the public have free access. 

During each winter the Institute gives a course of scien¬ 
tific lectures, which is free to the members and their fami¬ 
lies. The high character of each course has been main¬ 
tained by selecting as lecturers professors in colleges and 
other gentlemen of acknowledged ability and culture. The 
library of the Institute contains about 10,000 volumes, the 
most of which relate to science and its useful applications. 
By vote of the members works of fiction are now excluded. 

Since the year 1841 the Institute has made annual re¬ 
ports of its transactions to the legislature. The volumes 
printed by their authority have been widely circulated 
throughout the State and among kindred associations in 
this country and Europe. Within the last ten years these 
volumes, containing an average of 1200 pages each, have 
been increasing in interest and value. It has been the aim 
of the corresponding secretary, under whose supervision 
they are prepared, to give in each a summary of progress 
in science and art, both at home and abroad, and at the 
same time to exclude from them all discussions on abstract 
questions or disputed points which might tend to excite 
religious, political, or social prejudices. 

The Institute had about 3000 members in 1873, and the 
value of its property was then estimated at $300,000. It 
has never received a bequest or endowment, but in antici¬ 
pation of such an event the legislature of New York, by an 
act passed April 21,1866, enlarged its powers, and directed 
that all donations, bequests, and devises hereafter made for 
its benefit should be taken and held by a board of regents, 
among whom are the governor of the State and the mayor 
of the city of New York. 

The exhibition buildings owned and occupied by the In¬ 
stitute in 1873 extend from Second to Third avenue, and 
from Sixty-third to Sixty-fourth street, their length being 
610 feet, and the extreme width 200 feet. They are, how¬ 
ever, of a temporary character, and it is proposed to erect 
at no distant day a permanent fire-proof structure of such 
ample dimensions as to accommodate under one roof all the 
departments of the Institute. 

It will be seen by this brief sketch that the American 
Institute is exactly adapted to meet certain intellectual 
wants of almost every class of citizens, and at the same 
time to give material aid to the inventor and manufacturer. 
It does not seek to educate the young, but rather to diffuse 
among those who have arrived at maturity a knowledge 
of the latest triumphs of science, the most important im¬ 
provements in the arts, and the best machines and methods 
for increasing material productions. Its mission is not 
limited to its own members, for its highest aim is the pub¬ 
lic good. 

The names of those who have labored long and faith¬ 
fully for its success are too numerous to be here enumerated. 
Prominent among its early friends were Thaddeus B. 
Wakemann, its first corresponding secretary, who held that 
office for twenty years, and Gen. James Tallmadge, for 
twenty years its president. Among those who have more 
recently increased its fame and influence by their pens and 


personal efforts we may mention the late Horace Greeley, 
president of the Institute from 1866 to 1871, and the dis¬ 
tinguished scientist and divine, the Rev. F. A. P. Barnard, 
LL.D., who at this time (1873) most ivorthily fills the same 
responsible post. Samuel D. Tillman. 

Amer'icanism, a term applied to certain peculiar ex¬ 
pressions or forms of the English language prevailing in 
the U. S.; such as fall, for “ autumn;” clever , for “kind” 
or “obliging;” to fix, instead of to “arrange” or “put in 
order,” to “ dress;” go ahead, etc., etc. It may, however, 
be remarked that some of the so-called “ Americanisms ” 
are nothing more than old English words, the original sig¬ 
nification of which has become partly or wholly obsolete in 
England, while it is still retained in America; for example, 
sick, sickness, instead of the modern English “ill,” “ill¬ 
ness ;” and ride, which originally signified to be conveyed 
either in a carriage or on horseback, but limited to the lat¬ 
ter exclusively by the present English usage. Both of 
these words are often used in the common translation of 
the Bible in what we may call their American signification. 
Others are words which in England are provincial or local, 
but which are in extensive, if not universal, use in the 
U. S.; to wilt, in the sense of to “droop” or “wither,” is 
an instance of this kind. It is an obvious error to call 
those words “ Americanisms ” which have been introduced 
as the name of something which does not exist or is com¬ 
paratively little used in England, as prairie, molasses, etc. 

The following are some of the most remarkable Ameri¬ 
canisms extensively prevailing in the U. S.: Baggage, used 
instead of the English word “ luggage ” to denote the trunks 
or what contains the wearing apparel, etc. of one who is 
travelling.— Boss (a corruption of the Dutch baas, a “mas¬ 
ter”), one who has the employment or direction of a set of 
workmen.— Creek, which signifies in England a small arm 
or inlet of the sea, is used almost universally in the U. S. 
for a “small river.”— Hack, signifying, according to Eng¬ 
lish usage, a horse let out for hire, is employed in the U. S. 
for a “ hackney coach,” of which it is doubtless an abbre¬ 
viation.— Sleigh is in universal use in the U. S. for what 
the English call a “sledge.”— Woods is almost invariably 
used in America instead of the English words “ wood ” and 
“ forest.” 

Many expressions are reproachfully termed American¬ 
isms which have the sanction of some of the best English 
writers; we may cite, among others, talented, which Cole¬ 
ridge condemned as an Americanism, but which is as legiti¬ 
mately formed as gifted, a word fully sanctioned by the 
usage of the best English authors; and in this connection, 
which, if not a very elegant expression, has at least the 
merit of brevity, and was used by Hazlitt long before the 
reproach of its being an Americanism was attempted to be 
fastened upon it. (See Bartlett’s “ Dictionary of Ameri¬ 
canisms;” Pickering’s “Vocabulary of Words and Phrases 
peculiar to theU. S.;” Lowell’s Introduction to the “Big¬ 
low Papers,” second series.) J. Thomas. 

American River, in the N.central part of California, 
formed by the union of its North and South Forks in the 
western part of El Dorado county; it flows in a S. W. direc¬ 
tion, and empties into the Sacramento River a short dis¬ 
tance above Sacramento City. Gold is found along the 
banks of this river and its forks. 

Amer'icus, capital of Sumter co., Ga., on the South¬ 
western R. R., 70 miles S. S. W. of Macon, has six churches, 
one female college, one male high school, several common 
schools, one large carriage manufactory, and 160 stores and 
shops of all kinds. It has one weekly paper and one na¬ 
tional bank. Pop. 3259. 

John R. Worril, for Ed. of “Sumter Republican.” 

Americus, a post-village and township of Lyon co., 
Kan., on the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R., 8 miles 
N. W. of Emporia. The Neosho River furnishes valuable 
water-power. Pop. of township, 884. 

Americus, a post-village, capital of Jackson co., Miss., 
near the Pascagoula River, about 150 miles S. E. of Jack- 
son. 

Americus Vespucius. See Vespucci. 

A'mersfort', or A'mersfoort/, a town and port of 
the Netherlands, in the province of Utrecht, on the river 
Eem, 12 miles N. E. of Utrecht. It has a Jansenist semi¬ 
nary, a Latin school, and manufactures of cotton and wool¬ 
len stuffs. Tobacco, grain, and dried herrings are exported 
from this town. Pop. in 1867, 13,258. 

Ames, a post-village of Washington township, Story 
co., Ia., on the Iowa division of the Chicago and North¬ 
western R. R. It has one weekly newspaper, and is the 
seat of the State Agricultural College. Pop. 636. 

Ames, a post-village of Canajoharie township, Mont¬ 
gomery co., N. Y., is the seat of an academy. Pop. 150. 

Ames, a township of Athens co., 0. Pop. 1229. 












128 AMES—AMHERST. 


Ames (Adelbert). an American officer, born Oct. 31, 
1835, at Rockland. Me., graduated at West Point 1861, 
lieutenant-colonel Twenty-fourth Infantry July 28, 1866, 
and brigadier-general U. S. volunteers May 20, 1863; 
served in the artillery in the Manassas campaign 1861, en¬ 
gaged at Bull Run (wounded and brevet major), in defences 
of Washington 1861-62, in command of battery in the Vir¬ 
ginia Peninsula 1862, engaged at Yorktown, Gaines’ Mill, 
and Malvern Hill (brevet lieutenant-colonel), as colonel 
Twentieth Maine Volunteers Aug. 29, 1862, in Maryland 
campaign 1862, engaged at Antietam, in Rappahannock 
campaign 1862-63, engaged at Fredericksburg, Chancel- 
lorsville, and Beverly Ford, in Pennsylvania campaign 
1863, engaged at Gettysburg (brevet colonel), in operations 
in the department of the South 1863-64, in command of a 
division in the operations before Petersburg 1864, engaged 
at Port Walthall Junction, Cold Harbor, and Darby town 
road, in expeditions to Fort Fisher 1864-65, engaged in 
the assault and capture of the place (brevet brigadier-gen¬ 
eral U. S. A. and brevet major-general U. S. volunteers), 
and in operations in North Carolina 1865-66. Breveted 
major-general Mar. 13, 1865, for gallant and meritorious 
services in the field. Since the war was made provisional 
governor of Mississippi June 15,1868, in command of fourth 
military district, department of Mississippi, 1869. Re¬ 
signed Feb. 23, 1870, and was elected to the U. S. Senate 
from Mississippi on the reconstruction of that State, and 
took his seat April, 1870. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Ames (Edward R.), D. D., a bishop of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church, born at Athens, 0., May 20,1806. He was 
educated at Ohio University, was tutor at McKendree Col¬ 
lege (1823-29). began to preach in 1830, and was appointed 
a bishop in 1852. Since 1861 he has resided in Baltimore. 

Ames (Fisher), LL.D., an eminent orator and states¬ 
man, born in Dedham, Mass., April 9, 1758. He graduated 
at Harvard College in 1774, after which he studied law in 
the office of William Tudor of Boston, and was admitted 
to the bar in 1781. In several political essays which he 
wrote for the newspapers of Boston about 1785 he dis¬ 
played practical wisdom and literary ability of a high 
order. He was a member of the convention of Massachu¬ 
setts which in 1788 ratified the Federal Constitution, and 
he advocated its adoption in an eloquent speech. Having 
identified himself with the Federal party, he was elected a 
member of Congress in 1789 by the voters of the district 
which included Boston. He supported the administration 
of Washington, spoke frequently in Congress, and soon ac¬ 
quired a national reputation as an orator of the foremost 
rank. Among the most memorable of his parliamentary 
efforts was a powerful speech in support of Jay’s treaty 
with England, April, 1796, which has been preserved. At 
the close of this speech an opponent of the treaty moved 
to postpone the vote on the question, giving as a reason 
that the members were too much excited to make a just 
and rational decision. After he had served four terms in 
Congress he retired to private life in 1797, on account of 
his delicate health. He married Francos Worthington 
of Springfield in 1792. In 1799 he pronounced a eulogy 
on Washington before the legislature of Massachusetts. 
He was elected president of Harvard College in 1804, but 
he declined that position. He died on the 4th of July, 
1808, leaving several sons. His character was eminently 
pure and honorable. He was distinguished for his wit, his 
colloquial powers, and his brilliant imagination. His ora¬ 
tions abound in happy metaphors and illustrations. His 
works, consisting of orations, essays, and letters, were pub¬ 
lished by his son, Seth Ames, in 2 vols., 1854. 

Ames (Joseph), born in Roxbury, N. II., in 1816, be¬ 
came an artist, studied in Rome, painted excellent portraits 
and genre pictures, became a resident of Boston, Mass., 
and afterwards of Baltimore, and died in New York City, 
Oct. 30, 1872. Among his best works are portraits of 
Pius IX., Rufus Choate, and Ristori as “ Medea,” “Maud 
Muller,” and “ The Old Stone Pitcher.” 

Ames (Nathan P.), an American machinist, born in 

1803, was remarkable for his sound judgment and practical 
ability. He owned extensive manufactories of firearms, 
bronze statuary, cannon, machinery, and edge-tools at 
Chicopee Falls and Cabotville, Mass. Died April 23, 1847. 

Ames (Oakes) was born in Easton, Mass., Jan. 10, 

1804. His father was a blacksmith, and the son was 
brought up to the same trade. The elder Ames had estab¬ 
lished his reputation as a maker of shovels; and his two 
sons, Oakes and Oliver, Jr., continued the manufacture of 
these and other implements, chiefly agricultural, upon a 
large scale, and acquired great wealth. He was a member 
of Congress from Massachusetts (1862-73), and his opinion 
upon financial matters had great weight. Mr. Ames was 
largely interested in the building of the Union Pacific R. R. 


and in the Credit Mobilier enterprise. Died at North Easton, 
Mass., May 8, 1873. 

Amesbury, a township of Washington co., Me. Since 
1850 depopulated. 

Amesbury, a post-township of Essex co., Mass., ox¬ 
tending from the navigable Merrimack River, its southern 
boundary, to the State of New Hampshire, is 40 miles by 
rail N. of Boston. There is a horse railroad extending to 
Newburyport, 5 miles distant, and also a branch railroad 
connecting with the Eastern R. R. Here are extensive 
manufactures of flannels, carriages, boots and shoes, cassi- 
meres, broadcloths, etc. It has two weekly newspapers and 
seven churches. Amesbury is the residence of the poet 
Whittier. It has a national and a savings bank. Pop. of 
township, 5581. W. II. B. Currier, Ed. “Villager.” 

Am'ethyst [Gr. aneOvcrros, from a, priv., and fxedvaicu, to 
“make drunk”], a purple variety of rock-crystal or quartz, 
colored by manganese, so named from its reputed virtue of 
preventing intoxication. It is found in Brazil, Ceylon, In¬ 
dia, and many other places, and is worn in the form of 
seals and ornamental articles. The Oriental amethyst is a 
variety of spinel, and is a more valuable gem than the com¬ 
mon amethyst. 

Amha'ra, the central division of Abyssinia, capital 
Gondar. (Sec Abyssinia.) / 

Amhar'ic Language, so called from the province of 
Amhara, has been, since the extinction of the Ethiopic 
Language (which see), the chief language of Abyssinia, 
and is spoken by the majority of the population in the 
countries between the rivers Tacazze and Abai, and in the 
former kingdom of Shoa, while in the countries in the N. 
E. of Abyssinia, N. of the Tacazze, the Tigre language 
predominates. Among the Semitic languages, the Amharic 
is nearest related, both grammatically and lexicographi¬ 
cally, to the Ethiopic, but is by no means a new form of 
the Ethiopic, but rather a descendant of the Old Amharic, 
which is closely allied to the Ethiopic. Although the Am¬ 
haric has retained many peculiarities of the Old Semitic, it 
still represents a later stage of development of the southern 
Semitic than does the Ethiopic. In all its phonetic rela¬ 
tions the Amharic has degenerated very much, while many 
of its grammatical forms have been abolished, and have 
been only in pai-t replaced by new forms. After the Am¬ 
haric language had been used for many centuries by the 
people, and after the extinction of the Ethiopic, it became 
a written language, the Ethiopic alphabet being employed, 
while for the sounds peculiar to the Amharic new characters 
were introduced by a modification of the Ethiopic characters. 
Although the Amharic cannot be called a literary language 
in the true sense of the word, still many works have been 
written in it within the last three centuries, partly transla¬ 
tions and explanations of biblical and other Ethiopic books 
and vocabularies, partly short historical works, dogmatical 
and ethical compendia, formulae for confession, etc. for the 
people, and partly medical and magical treatises. In the 
Ethiopic-Amharic books of the history of the native kings 
some of the older Amharic poems are given. But of these 
works very little is known in Europe. Up to the present 
time, only missionary works have been printed. The Am¬ 
haric has been treated grammatically and lexicographically 
by Ludolf (1698), more completely by Isenberg (Lexicon, 
1841; Grammar, 1842). 

Am'herst, a town and seaport of British Burmah, is 
on the E. shore of the Bay of Bengal, 30 miles S. S. W. of 
Maulmain. It was founded in 1826. Th<* harbor is ex¬ 
posed to the S. W. monsoon. Pop. about 30,000. 

Amherst, a village of Cumberland co., Nova Scotia., is 
situated near the N. W. extremity of the Bay of Fundy, on 
the Intercolonial R. II. It has one weekly newspaper, a 
considerable lumber-trade, agriculture, coal-mining, manu¬ 
facturing, and shipbuilding. Pop. about 2000. 

Amherst, a county of the central part of Virginia, has 
an area of 418 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. 
and S. E. by the James River, and on the N. W. by the 
Blue Ridge. The surface is diversified, and presents beau¬ 
tiful scenery where the James River passes through the 
Blue Ridge. Grain, tobacco, and wool are produced. Cap¬ 
ital, Amherst. Pop. 14,900. 

Amherst, a post-township of Hancock co., Me. P. 350. 

Amherst, a post-village and township of Hampshire 
co., Mass., on the New London Northern R. R., 85 miles N. 
of New London, and on the Mass. Central R. R., 82 miles 
W. of Boston. It is the seat of Amherst College and of 
the Mass. Agricultural College. (See Amherst College.) 
The town has one high school, four grammar schools, four 
intermediate and nine primary schools. It has one na¬ 
tional and one savings bank, nine churches, two newspa¬ 
pers. three paper and two planing mills, one manufactory 
of leather, four of children’s wagons, one of palm-leaf hats. 




















AMHERST—AMIC ACIDS. 


129 


and one of planes. Amherst is also one of the healthiest 
and best agricultural towns in Mass. The village is sit¬ 
uated upon an elevation which affords a beautiful view of 
the fertile and picturesque valley of the Conn, and of the 
surrounding mountains—the Holyoke range to the S. W., 
and on the N. Mettawampe, Sugar Loaf, and others. Pop. 
of township, 4635. W. H. Hobbie. 

Amherst, a post-township of Fillmore co., Minn. Pop. 
1115. 

Amherst, one of the three shire-towns of Hillsborough 
co., N. H., a beautiful village 48 miles from Boston, 11 
from Nashua, and 30 from Concord, on the Wilton R. R. 
It has Congregational, Baptist, and Methodist churches, 
court and town-house, high school house and a fine hotel. 
The township contains Babboosuck Lake and a mineral 
spring. It is a fine summer resort. It has one weekly 
paper, and was the birthplace of Horace Greeley. Pop. 
of township, 1353. 

E. D. Boylston, Pub. “Farmers’ Cabinet.” 

Amherst, a township of Erie co., N. Y. It contains a 
copious sulphur spring, natural gas-works, which yield 
illuminating gas, and has also quarries of hydraulic lime¬ 
stone. Williamsville, the principal village, contains an 
academy, four churches, and a number of manufactories. 
Pop. 4555. 

Amherst, a post-township of Lorain co., 0. Pop. 2482. 

Amherst, the county-seat of Amherst co., Va., 13 
miles N. of Lynchburg, on the W. C. Y. M. and G. R. R. It 
contains two churches (Episcopal and Methodist), a high- 
school, one newspaper, and a fine public hall. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 3632'. Ed. “ Enterprise.” 

Amherst, a post-township of Portage co., Wis. P. 982. 

Amherst, Earls of, and Viscounts Holmesdale (1826, 
in the peerage of the United Kingdom) and Barons Am¬ 
herst (1788, in the peerage of Great Britain), a noble fam¬ 
ily of Great Britain. 

Amherst (Jeffery), called Lord Amherst, a British 
general, born in Kent Jan. 29, 1717. He entered the army 
in 1731, became a colonel in 1756, and a major-general in 
1758. He rendered important services in the war against 
the French which resulted in the conquest of Canada in 
1760, and at the end of that war was appointed com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the British army in America. He be¬ 
came governor of Virginia in 1763, was created Baron 
Amherst in 1776, and was commander-in-chief of the army 
in England from 1776 to 1782. In 1796 he obtained the 
rank of field-marshal. Died Aug. 3, 1797. 

Amherst (William Pitt), first Earl of, a nephew 
of the preceding, was born in England Jan. 14, 1773. He 
was sent as ambassador to China in 1816, and reached 
Pekin, but he failed to effect the object of his mission, as 
he refused to comply with the degrading ceremonies which 
Chinese etiquette prescribed, and was not admitted into the 
presence of the emperor. He was governor-general of In¬ 
dia in 1823-26, and was created an earl in 1826. Died 
Mar. 13, 1857.—His son, William Pitt, born Sept. 3, 1805, 
succeeded him as second earl.—His eldest son, William 
Archer, Viscount Holmesdale, born Mar. 25, 1836, was 
from 1859 to 1868 member of the House of Commons for 
West Kent, and was in 1868 re-elected as member for Mid- 
Kent. 

Am'herstburg, a town of Essex co., Ontario, Canada, 
on the Detroit River, 5 miles from its entrance into Lake 
Erie, and 225 miles W. S. W. of Toronto. It contains a 
court-house, five or more churches, and one newspaper- 
office. Pop. in 1871, 1936. 

Amherst College, one of the leading colleges in the 
United States, is situated in Amherst, Hampshire co ; , 
Massachusetts. It was founded in 1821, and at its semi¬ 
centennial in 1871 it had 1936 alumni, of whom 1450 are 
supposed to be living. Of the 1936 graduates up to the 
last triennial, 751 were ministers, 75 missionaries in foreign 
lands, 129 doctors of medicine, 186 lawyers, and 208 pro¬ 
fessors and teachers; 195 served in the late war, and 26 
sacrificed their lives in the service. The college edifices, 12 
in number, have been erected at a cost of $300,000. The 
pecuniary value of the scientific and archaeological collec¬ 
tions cannot be estimated at less than $125,000, and the 
whole property of the institution, including permanent 
funds, professorships, scholarships, prizes, etc., is more 
than a million of dollars. All this is the gift of private 
charity and munificence, with the exception of about 
$50,000 granted by the State. The donors have been the 
Christian men and women of Massachusetts. The largest 
benefactors are Hon. Samuel Williston and Dr. William J. 
Walker; the former has given $150,000, and the latter a 
quarter of a million. The Hitchcock Ichnological Cabinet, 
the Adams Collection in Conchology, and the Shepard 


Mineralogical and Meteoric Collections, are known the 
world over as of unsurpassed value and excellence. The 
Barrett Gymnasium, with its accompanying system of ex¬ 
ercise and instruction, constitutes a feature peculiar to this 
institution; all the students, unless excused for special 
reasons, are required to exercise half an hour daily, chiefly 
in the light gymnastics, under the direction of a professor 
who is an educated physician, and who has charge of their 
health and physical culture. The faculty of Amherst Col¬ 
lege at present consists of 21 persons, including the presi¬ 
dent, 12 professors, 3 lecturers, 4 instructors, and an assist¬ 
ant librarian. The number of students in 1871, the year 
of jubilee, all in the four classes of the regular college 
course, was 261—65 seniors, 49 juniors, 76 sophomores, and 
71 freshmen. The annual income is about $50,000. The 
presidents of the college have been Rev. Zephaniali Swift 
Moore, D.D. (1821-23); Rev. Heman Humphrey, D.D. 
(1823-45); Rev. Edward Hitchcock, D.D., LL.D. (1845- 
54); and Rev. William A. Stearns, D.D., LL.D. 

The Massachusetts Agricultural College, although the 
offspring of Amherst College, and situated in the same place 
for the purpose of securing the advantage of its scientific 
treasures, has no organic connection with it, having a sepa¬ 
rate faculty and a distinct board of trustees, elected by the 
legislature of the State. It was opened for students in the 
fall of 1867, and held its first commencement, with the 
graduation of its first class, in the summer of 1871. It has 
three college halls, two boarding-houses, the Durfee Plant- 
house, and a botanic museum, besides the buildings per¬ 
taining to the farm, which consists of over 300 acres. The 
students work on the farm a certain number of hours 
each week, under the direction of the superintendent and 
the professor of agriculture. They also receive regular 
military exercise and drill under tbe professor of military 
science and tactics. The real estate of the college cost 
about $200,000. Its permanent funds, derived from the 
sale of lands given by Congress, from grants by the State, 
and from private donations, amount to balf a million. The 
faculty, as exhibited in the catalogue of 1871, consists of 
28 persons, including the president, Dr. William S. Clark, 7 
professors, 2 instructors, 16 non-resident lecturers, a gar¬ 
dener, and a farm superintendent. There were then 147 
students—30 seniors, 34 juniors, 27 sophomores, 32 fresh¬ 
men, 22 select, and 2 resident graduates. (See “ History 
of Amherst College,” by Prof. W. S. Tyler, D.D., 1872.) 

W. S. Tyler. 


Amherst Islands, a group in the Yellow Sea, near 
the S. W. coast of the peninsula of Corea. 

A'mia Cal'va, the scientific name of a species of fish 
found in the fresh waters of North America. It is one of 
the few living ganoids, is interesting from its relationship 
to the ancient fossil fishes, and remarkable for the cellular 
structure of its air-bladder, which somewhat resembles the 
lung of a reptile. It is known as the “ dog-fish ” or “ law¬ 
yer,” and is worthless as food. 

Ainian'thus [Gr. a/uLtavrog, “ undefiled,” from a, priv., 
and /aicuVw, to “defile”], a delicate and fibrous form of ser¬ 
pentine, so called because cloth made of it can be purified 
by fire. It is sometimes called mountain flax. The cloths 
in which the ancients wrapped the bodies that were burned 
on the funeral pyre were sometimes made of amianthus. 

Am'ic Ac'ids, acids in which a portion of the hydroxyl 
(OH) has been replaced by amidogen (NH 2 ). When dry 
ammonia gas is passed over a thin layer of sulphuric an¬ 
hydride (SO 3 ), the gas is absorbed, and a white crystalline 
compound results which contains N 2 H 6 S 03 = (NH 4 ) 2 S 04 — 
II 2 0, or ammonic sulphate, less one molecule of water. On 
dissolving it in water it fails to give the reactions of sul¬ 
phuric acid; it is the ammonium salt of a new acid, sul- 
phamic acid. Its relation to sulphuric acid is thus shown: 

Sulphuric acid, II 2 S 04 = j S0 2 , 

Sulphamic acid, II.NH 2 .S 03 = j S0 2 . 

Sulphamic acid is monobasic, and forms numerous salts: 
Ammonic sulphamate, NH 4 .NII 2 .SO 3 , 

Potassic “ K.NH 2 .S0 3 , 

Baric “ Ba(NH 2 .SC> 3 ) 2 . 

Dry carbonic anhydride (C0 2 ) unites with dry ammonia 
(NH 3 ), forming ammonic carbamate, NH 4 .NH 2 .CO 3 = 
N 2 Il6C0 2 , or equivalent to ammonic carbonate, (NIl 4 ) 2 C 03 , 
less II 2 0. This salt contains carbamic acid, the relation 
of which to carbonic acid is thus shown: 

Carbonic acid, II 2 C 03 = j CO, 

Carbamic acid, H.NH 2 .C0 2 = j CO. 

Ammonic carbamate exists in common ammonic carbonate, 
and was formerly called anhydrous carbonate of ammonia. 
It dissolves readily in water, and by combining one mole- 


9 














130 


AMICE—AMLWCH. 


cule of water passes into ammonic carbonate, NH 4 .NII 2 .- 

C0 2 + H 2 0 = (NH 4 ) 2 C0 8 . 

When both molecules of hydroxyl in a bibasic acid are 
replaced by amidogen, a neutral amide results. Carbamide 
or urea, (NH 2 ) 2 CO, is such an amide. Bibasic acids may 
thus form an amic acid or a neutral amide, according as 
one or both molecules of hydroxyl are replaced by amid¬ 
ogen. Tribasic acids may form two amic acids and a neu¬ 
tral amide. Monobasic acids containing only one hydroxyl 
yield no amic acids, only neutral amides. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Am'ice, or Amic'tus, an upper garment worn by the 
Homans over the tunic; also a linen vestment worn over 
the shoulders of Roman Catholic priests during the cele¬ 
bration of the mass. 

Ami'ci (Giovanni Battista), an Italian optician and 
savant, born at Modena Mar. 25, 1784. He was skilful in 
the fabrication of mirrors and lenses for telescopes and 
microscopes. He was for many years director of the ob¬ 
servatory of Florence, where he gained distinction as an 
observer. He wrote on double stars and other topics of 
astronomy. The achromatic microscope which he con¬ 
structed was considered a valuable improvement. Died 
April 10, 1863. 

Am'ides, compounds derived from ammonia, NII 3 , by 
the replacement of one or more atoms of II by a metal or 
by a compound radical, acid or basic. According to the 
character of the replacing body, they are either— 

1. Amides proper, in which one or more hydrogen atoms 
are replaced by an acid radical; as, 

Acetamide, N.C2H3O.H2, 

Diacetamide, N.(C 2 H 30 ) 2 .H. 

2 . Amines, in which one or more hydrogen atoms are 
replaced by a basic radical; as, 

Potassamine, N.KH 2 , 

Diamylamine, N.(C 5 Hn) 2 .H. 

3. Alkalamides, in which hydrogen is replaced by both 
acid and basic radicals; as, 

Mercurobenzamide, N. Hg.C 7 II 5 O.il, 
Ethylformamide, N.C 2 H 5 .CHO.H. 

Monamides are derived from one molecule of ammonia, 

NHHH. 

Diamides “ “ two “ “ N 2 H 2 H^H 2 . 

Triamides “ “ three “ “ N3II3II3H3. 

Amines and alkalamides present corresponding classes. 

According as one-third, two-thirds, or all the hydrogen 
of the ammonia is replaced, the amide, diamide, or triam¬ 
ide is said to be primary, secondary, or tertiary. Amides 
are well illustrated by 

f C2H3O 

Acetamide. N.C 2 H 3 O.H 2 = N \ H 

(H. 

It is a white crystalline solid, which melts at 172° F., and 
boils at 430° F. Heated with acids or alkalies, it unites 
the elements of water, forming acetic acid and ammonia, 
N.C 2 H 3 O.H 2 + H 2 0 = NH 3 + H.C 2 H 4 O 2 . It is formed by the 
action of heat on ammonic acetate, and by other methods : 
NII 4 .C 2 H 302 = N.C 2 H 3 O.H 2 + H 2 O. It acts both as a base 
and as an acid. By uniting with hydrochloric and nitric 
acids it forms compounds analogous to ammonic salts, 
while by admitting silver in place of hydrogen, silver-acet¬ 
amide is produced. (See Amines.) C. F. Chandler. 

Amidine. See Starch. 

Amid'ogen [contracted from ammonia and the Gr. 
yewaoi, to “produce”], a compound of one atom of nitro¬ 
gen and two atoms of hydrogen. Its symbol is NH 2 . It 
has not been obtained in a separate state, but may be 
traced in combination with other substances, with which it 
forms important organic compounds called amides. Potas- 
siamide, NH 2 K, is a compound of the metal potassium 
with amidogen. Ammonia is a compound of NII 2 with 
H. (See Amic Acids, Amides, and Amines, by C. F. Chan¬ 
dler.) 

Amiens (anc. Samarobri'va and Ambia'ni), an ancient 
and important town of Northern France, capital of the 
department of Somme, is on the river Somme, and on the 
Paris and Boulogne R. R., 81 miles by rail N. of Paris. 
It was once very strongly fortified, and still has a citadel. 
It is the seat of a bishop, and contains a magnificent Gothic 
cathedral 415 feet long, 182 feet wide, having a spire 420 
feet high, which was founded in 1220 and finished in 1288. 
Among its other fine edifices are the h&tcl deville, Chateau 
d’Eau, and the library, containing 60,000 volumes. Here 
are extensive manufactures of cotton velvet, serges, plush, 
and other cotton and woollen stuffs. The river, which is 
here divided into many canals, affords water-power for 
mills and manufactories. Amiens was the native place of 
Peter the Hermit and of Delambre. An important treaty, 
called “ the Peace of Amiens,” was signed here by the 
French and British in Mar., 1802. On Nov. 27, 1870; the 


German general Manteuffel obtained here a great victory 
over the French army of the Loire, and soon after the Ger¬ 
mans took possession of the town. Pop. in 1866, 61,063. 

Am'mes, amides in which the radical replacing hydro¬ 
gen is basic, an alcohol radical. They are monamines, 
diamines, triamines, etc., according as they are formed 
from one, two, three, or more molecules of ammonia. The 
nitrogen may be replaced by phosphorus, arsenic, anti¬ 
mony, etc., giving rise to phosphines, arsines, stibincs, etc. 

The natural organic bases, alkaloids, found in plants, 
probably belong to this class of bodies. »The amines have 
of late acquired great theoretical and practical import¬ 
ance. They are basic compounds, resembling ammonia to 
a greater or less degree in odor, alkaline reaction, and 
readiness to form salts with acids. A few examples will 
best illustrate the class : Ethylamine, NC 2 Il 7 = NIl 2 (C 2 ll 5 ), 
a mobile liquid which boils at 66 ° F. It has a pun¬ 
gent odor, very like that of ammonia, turns reddened 
litmus blue, forms a cloud with hydrochloric acid, pro¬ 
duces salts with acids very similar to the corresponding 
ammonic salts, is readily soluble in water. Diethylamine, 
NH(C 2 H 5 ) 2 , and triethylamine, N(C 2 H 5 ) 3 , are similar com¬ 
pounds. When triethylamine is mixed with ethyl iodide, 
C 2 H 5 I, a crystalline tetrethyl-ammonium-iodide, (C 2 H 5 ) 4 l, 
is formed, analogous to ammonium iodide, NH 4 I. On treat¬ 
ing this compound with precipitated silver oxide suspended 
in water, a tetrethyl-ammonium hydrate is formed, which 
resembles in many respects potassic and sodic hydrates. 
Its solution is strongly alkaline, very bitter, destroys the 
skin, saponifies the fats, decomposes many metallic salts, 
precipitating hydrates. With acids it forms neutral salts. 
Its chloride unites with platinic chloride, forming orange- 
yellow octahedra. The analogy with ammonia is shown 
by the following symbols : 

Ethylamine, NH 2 (C 2 H 5 ), ammonia, NH 3 . 

Diethylamine, NH(C 2 Hs) 2 . 

Triethylamine, N(C^Hs^. 

Tetrethyl-ammonium, N(C 2 Hs) 4 . ammonium, NH 4 . 

“ iodide, N(C 2 H 5 ) 4 I, ammonium iodide, NH 4 I. 

“ hydrate, N(C 2 H 5 ) 4 (OH), ammonic hydrate, 

NH 4 (OII). 

Phenylamine or aniline, C 6 H 7 N = N(CeH 5 )H 2 , is a very 
important member of this class. (See Aniline.) 

Diamines represent two molecules of ammonia in which 
two, four, or six atoms of 11 are replaced by one, two, or 
three molecules of a diatomic radical: 

Ethylen-diamine, N 2 (C 2 H 4 )” II 4 . 

Diethylen-diamine, N 2 (C 2 H 4)”2 H 2 . 

Triethylen-diamine, N 2 (C 2 H 4 )” 3 . 

(See Ethylene Bases.) Triamines, triglyceryl-triamine, 
N 3 (CsH 5 )'” 3 , tetramines, and pentamines are supposed to 
exist. (See Rosaniline.) C. F. Chandler. 

Amite, a river rising in the S. W. part of Mississippi, 
enters Louisiana, flows southward to Ascension parish, 
where it turns towards the E., and falls into Lake Maure- 
pas. Length, about 100 miles. 

Amite, a county of Mississippi, bordering on Louis¬ 
iana, has an area of about 700 square miles. It is traversed 
by the Amite River, and bounded on the N. W. by the Ho- 
mochitto. The surface is somewhat diversified; the soil is 
adapted to cotton. Cattle, rice, wool, and corn are also 
produced. Capital, Liberty. Pop. 10,973. 

Amite, a post-village, capital of Tangipaho parish, La., 
on the Amite River, and on the New Orleans Jackson and 
Great Northern R. R., 68 miles N. N. W. of New Orleans. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 910. 

Am'ity, a post-township of Livingston co., Ill. P. 790. 

Amity, a post-village of Page co., Ia., in a township 
of its own name, 115 miles S. W. of Des Moines. Pop. of 
township, 1010 . 

Amity, a post-township of Aroostook co., Me. P. 311. 

Amity, a township of Allegany co., N. Y. It has con¬ 
siderable manufactures. Pop. 2087. 

Amity, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 1646. 

Amity, a township of Erie co., Pa. Pop. 924. 

Am'ityville, a post-village of Huntington township, 
Suffolk co., N. Y., is on the South Side R. R. of Long Island, 
29 miles from the N. Y. ferries. Pop. 500. 

Am'leth, or Ilam'leth, an ancient prince of Jutland, 
who is considered a fabulous personage by some writers. 
He is said to have lived about 150 B. C. His story is re¬ 
lated by Saxo Grammaticus, and was formerly considered 
the foundation of Shakspeare’s “ Hamlet.” 

Am'lwch, a seaport and parliamentary borough of 
North Wales, is on the N. coast of the island of Anglesey, 
15 miles N. W. of Beaumaris. It owes its growth and 
prosperity to the Parys and Mona copper-mines. Pop. in 
1871, 7034. 














AMMAN—AMMONIA. 


131 


Am'man, or Ambition (the ancient liabbah, the capi¬ 
tal of the Ammonites), a ruined city of Syria, in the pasha- 
lic of Damascus, is picturesquely situated on the Zurka, an 
affluent of the Jordan, 55 miles E. N. E. of Jerusalem. Here 
was an important city in ancient times, originally named 
Kabbah, which was besieged and taken by the army of 
King David. (See 2 Samuel xi. and xii.) After it had been 
once ruined, it was rebuilt by Ptolemy Philadelphus, and 
called Philadelphia. It has extensive ancient remains. As 
late as 300 A. D. it was a remarkable city, having a mag¬ 
nificent theatre and temples. It was one of the cities of 
the Decapolis. 

Am'man (Johann Conrad), M. D., a Swiss physician, 
born at Schaffhausen in 1669, practised at Haarlem, in 
Holland. He acquired distinction by his successful efforts 
to teach the deaf and dumb to speak, and wrote on that 
subject an essay called “ Surdus Loquens” (the “Deaf 
Speaking,” 1692). Died in 1724. 

Amman (Jost or Justus), an eminent Swiss engraver 
and designer, born at Zurich in 1535. He removed about 
1560 to Nuremberg, where he worked for many years, and 
illustrated numerous books with his designs. He engraved 
on copper and on wood. Among his works are “ Portraits 
of the Kings of France from Pharamond to Henry III.” 
(1576), and wood-cuts of “ Reinecke Fuchs.” Died in 1591. 

Ainmana'ti, Ammana'te, or Ammana'to (Bar¬ 
tolommeo), an eminent Italian sculptor and architect, born 
at Florence in 1511, was a pupil of Sansovino. He was 
patronized by Pope Julius III., who employed him to adorn 
the Capitol (in Rome) with sculptures. He completed the 
Pitti palace of Florence. Among his best works are a 
bridge called Ponte della Trinita at Florence, and three 
statues which adorn the tomb of Sannazar at Naples. Died 
about 1590. 

Am'meline, a white crystalline, feebly basic substance, 
resulting from the action of acids or alkalies on melam, 
is considered to be an amic acid of cyanuric acid. Its 
composition is C 3 N 5 H 5 O. 

Am'men (Daniel), U. S. N., born May 15, 1820, in 
Ohio, entered the navy as a midshipman July 7 , 1836, 
became a passed midshipman in 1842, a lieutenant in 1849, 
a commander in 1863, a captain in 1866, a commodore in 
1872. During the latter part of 1861, and all of 1862, he 
commanded the gunboat Seneca in the South Atlantic block¬ 
ading squadron; he bore a conspicuous part in the battle 
of Port Royal, Nov. 7, 1861, where he gained the admira¬ 
tion of his officers and men for his skill, coolness, and in¬ 
trepidity. He engaged afterwards in all the operations of 
Dupont’s command on the coasts of Georgia and Florida. 
In an official report to Flag-officer Dupont of Dec. 6,1861, 
Commander C. R. P. Rodgers writes: “ I have to thank 
Lieutenant-commanding Stevens for the most earnest, cor¬ 
dial, and efficient co-operation, and also Lieutenants-com- 
manding Ammen and Bankhead, whose vessels were always 
in the right place, and always well handled.” And again 
in a despatch of Jan. 3, 1863, Rogers says: “Lieutenant- 
commanding Ammen will make a separate report of the 
Seneca and Ellen at Seabrook before I met him. It is un¬ 
necessary for me to say to you that his work was thoroughly 
done.” He was engaged as commanding officer of the 
monitor Patapsco with Fort McAllister, Mar. 3, 1863, and 
complimented by his superior officer, Captain Percival 
Drayton, for his services during the action; in the iron¬ 
clad attack on Fort Sumter, April 7, 1863, and commended 
by Flag-officer Dupont in his despatch of April 15, 1863, 
for “ the highest professional capacity and courage;” in 
both attacks on Fort Fisher Dec., 1864, and Jan., 1865, and 
for the “ cool performance ” of his duty on these occasions 
recommended for promotion by Rear-admiral David D. 
Porter; in 1866 and 1867 a member of the board assembled 
to examine volunteer officers for admission into the regular 
navy; in 1869 appointed chief of the bureau of yards and 
docks, and on Oct. 1, 1871, chief of bureau of navigation, 
in the discharge of which duty he is now engaged. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Ammen (Jacob), an American officer and teacher, born 
Jan. 7, 1808, in Botetourt co., Va., graduated at "West 
Point 1831, and became, July 16, 1862, brigadier-general 
U. S. volunteers. While a lieutenant of artillery he served at 
the Military Academy as an assistant instructor, 1831-32 and 
1834—37; at Charleston harbor 1832-33, during South Caro¬ 
lina’s threatened nullification, and at Fort Trumbull, Conn., 
1833-34. After his resignation from the army, Nov. 30, 
1837, he was professor of mathematics in Bacon College, 
Ky., 1837-39, of mathematics in Jefferson College, Miss., 
1839-40 and 1843-48, of mathematics in the University of 
Indiana, 1840-43, and of mathematics and astronomy in 
Georgetown College, Ky., 1848-55; and civil engineer at 
Ripley, O., 1855-61. During the civil war he was captain 
and lieutenant-colonel of the Twelfth Ohio \ olunteers, 


colonel of the Twenty-fourth, and brigadier-general U. S. 
volunteers, serving in the West Virginia campaign 1861 • 
engaged at Cheat Mountain and Grecnbriar, in the Ten¬ 
nessee and Mississippi campaign, engaged at battle of Shi¬ 
loh and siege of Corinth, in various movements of the army 
of the Ohio, 1862-63, and in command of several districts 
in Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee, till he resigned, Jan. 
14, 1865. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Am'mergaif Mys / tery [Ger. Ammergauer Passions- 
spiel], the name given to the representation of our Saviour’s 
Passion which since 1634 has taken place every ten years at 
the village of Ober-Ammergau, in Bavaria. The custom 
originated in a vow made by the inhabitants, on their de¬ 
liverance from the plague, to celebrate the Passion Tragedy 
every tenth year. The last took place in 1870, but was in¬ 
terrupted by war, and finished in 1871. (See Holland, 
“Das Ammergauer Passionsspiel im Jahre 1870,” 1870.) 

Ammia'nus Marcelli'nus, an eminent Roman his¬ 
torian, born at Antioch, was of Greek extraction. He 
served in the army in his youth (about 350 A. D.), and in 
the expedition which the emperor Julian conducted against 
Persia. Having abandoned the military profession, he 
settled at Rome, and there composed in Latin his “ His¬ 
tory of the Roman Empire,” in 31 books, of which 13 are 
lost. The entire work comprised the period from 96 A. D. 
to 378 A. D. His history is highly prized for its impar¬ 
tiality and other merits. (Best ed. by Wagner and Erfurdt, 
1808, 3 vols.) He is supposed to have been a pagan. Died 
about 395 A. D. 

Ammira'to (ScinoNE), an Italian historian, born at 
Lecce, in the kingdom of Naples, Sept. 27, 1531. He be¬ 
came a resident of Florence in 1569, and was patronized by 
the grand duke Cosimo. In 1596 he obtained a prebend in 
the cathedral of Florence. He wrote, besides other works, 
a “Discourse on Cornelius Tacitus” (1594), and a “History 
of Florence” (“Istorie Florentine,” 2 vols., 1600-41), which 
is regarded by some critics as the most accurate work on 
that subject. He has been styled the modern Livy. Died 
Jan. 30,‘l601. 

Ammod'ytes [from the Gr. ayyoSim)?, a “sand-bur- 
rower”], the name of a Linngean genus of apodal fishes, 
characterized by a compressed head narrower than the 
body, and both elongated. The sand-eel is an example of 
this genus. 

Am'mon, or Ham'mon [Gr. an ancient pa¬ 

gan deity worshipped in Egypt, Greece, and other coun¬ 
tries, was called Amun by the Egyptians, and Jupiter Am¬ 
mon by the Romans. He was sometimes represented in 
the form of a ram. There was a great temple of Ammon 
in the oasis of Siwah or Ammonium in the Libyan Desert, 
and another at Thebes, which city was called No-Ammon 
by the ancient Hebrews. Alexander the Great visited the 
temple of Ammon in the oasis (B. C. 331), and assumed 
the title of the son of Ammon. Remains of this temple 
still exist. 

Ammon, von (Christoph Friedrich), an eminent 
German Protestant theologian and pulpit orator, born at 
Baireuth Jan. 16, 1766. He became professor of theology 
at Gottingen in 1794, obtained a chair at Erlangen in 1804, 
and removed in 1813 to Dresden, where he was appointed 
court-preacher to the king of Saxony. He was a man of 
great and varied erudition, and belonged to the Rationalist 
school in theology. His most important work is “ Fortbil- 
dungdes Christenthums zur Weltreligion” (4vols., 1833-40). 
Died May 21, 1820. 

Ammo'nia [for etymology see below], or Volatile 
Alkali, an important chemical compound in the form of 
a transparent, colorless, and pungent gas, is formed by the 
union of one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen. 
Its symbol is NH 3 . Priestly, who first obtained it in a 
separate state, called it alkaline air. The name ammonia 
is derived from sal-ammoniac, which was formerly procured 
near the temple of Ammon, in Libya, by burning camel’s 
dung. It is now obtained as a by-product by the distilla¬ 
tion of bituminous coal in making gas, and from refuse ani¬ 
mal matter in preparing bone-black, etc. It combines with 
acids to form salts. As it supplies to plants the nitrogen 
they require, it is one of the most important ingredients in 
manures. (See Guano.) A solution of this gas in water 
is used in medicine, and is called spirits of hartshorn or 
liquor ammonise. One volume of water will dissolve or ab¬ 
sorb 500 volumes of ammonia. Liquid ammonia has been 
employed as a motive-power by Tellier, and for the produc¬ 
tion of artificial cold by CarrtL (See Ice.) This gas can 
also be liquefied by pressure and cold, and then becomes a 
colorless liquid, with the properties of ammonia much in¬ 
tensified. The smelling salt, or volatile salt of hartshorn, 
used as a restorative in faintness, is a carbonate of ammo¬ 
nia. Ammonic sulphate, (NII^SO*. is manufactured in 
large quantities, by boiling “gas-liquor” with lime, and 






























132 AMMONIAC—AMNESTY. 

conducting the ammoniacal gas which is liberated into sul¬ 
phuric acid. On evaporating the solution, the sulphate is 
obtained as a white salt. It is extensively used in the 
manufacture of alum in place of potassic sulphate, as a con¬ 
stituent of artificial fertilizers, and for the preparation of 
other ammoniacal salts. Ammonic nitrate is used for the 
preparation of nitrogen monoxide (N 2 O), laughing-gas. 
Ammonic chloride, NII 4 CI, has long been known as sal-am¬ 
moniac. The “ammonia type” is one upon which a few inor¬ 
ganic and many organic compounds are formed. (See Amides, 
Amines, etc., by Prof. C. F. Chandler, Ph. D., LL.D.) 

Ammo'niac [Lat. ammoni'acum], a gum-resin used in 
medicine, is imported from Africa and India. It is ob¬ 
tained from the Dore'ma ammoni'acum, an umbelliferous 
plant containing a milky juice, which by drying is con¬ 
verted into this gum. It is used as an expectorant, and 
sometimes applied externally as a plaster. 

Ammoni/tes [from Am'mon, and the Gr. XMos, a 
“stone;” so named from 

shells, sometimes four feet 

in diameter, and often beau- Ammonite, 

tifully ornamented exteriorly. The internal structure was 
similar to that of the Nautilus, except that the siphon was 
external, and the septa (partitions between the chambers) 
were arched outward, and were convoluted at their mar¬ 
gins, so that their intersecting with the walls of the shell 
produced beautiful foliated figures. The ammonites began 
in the trias, were immensely multiplied in the Jurassic and 
cretaceous ages, and became entirely extinct at the close 
of the latter. More than 500 species have been described, 
and they are found in the mesozoic strata of all parts of the 
world. Beautiful ammonites occur in the cretaceous rocks 
of the country bordering the upper Missouri, in the Indian 
Territory, and in Texas. The old genus Ammoni'tes has 
been lately much subdivided by Prof. Alph. Hyatt, Prof, 
von Hauer, and others. (See “Bulletin Mass. Comp. Anat. 
Cambridge,” and article Ammonitid.e, by J. S. Newberry.) 

Am'monites, an ancient Semitic tribe or nation, de¬ 
scendants of Ben-Ammi, a son of Lot. They inhabited the 
east side of the Jordan, between the rivers Arnon and Jab- 
bok, and adjoining the northern part of Moab. Their 
chief city was Rabbah. (See Amman.) They frequently 
waged war against the Israelites, and were conquered by 
Jephthah, and afterwards by King David. (See 2 Samuel 
xi. and xii.) About 164 B. C. they were defeated by Judas 
Maccabaeus. They are called “ the children of Ammon ” 
in the Old Testament. 

Ammonit'idae, a family of cephalopodous mollusks, 
of which the genus Ammoni'tes is the type. The genera of 
this group are all extinct, beginning with Goniati'tes in the 
Devonian and carboniferous, followed by Gerati'tes and 
Ammonites in the trias; Ammonites in great development 
in the Jurassic and cretaceous ; Baculi'tes, Scaphi'tes, An- 
cylo'ceras, Crio' ceras, Helico'ceras, Hetero'ceras, Ptycho'- 
ceras, Hami'tes, Turrili'tes, etc., being exclusively cretace¬ 
ous, and the family ending with them. 

The shells of the Ammonitidm are all chambered, and 
were generally, though not always, external; the animal 
inhabiting the last and largest, called the body-chamber. 
The series of smaller chambers are supposed to have served 
as a float, by which the specific gravity of the animal was 
harmonized with that of the surrounding medium, and this 
shell maintained in a position best suited to its movements. 

The septa are arched outward at the centre, and ruffled 
at the margins; are nearly simple in the earliest stages 
of growth, most convoluted at full maturity, more simple 
again in old age. The ornamentation of the external sur- 
face, which consists of ridges, knobs, and spines, and is 
often very elaborate, follows the same law. 

In most of the Ammonitidee the shell is a discoid spiral, 
but the cretaceous genera exhibit great diversity of form ; as 
Ammonites, with a symmetrical spiral coiled in the same 
plane; Scaphites, Ancyloceras, Crioceras, and Toxo' ceras, 
showing a gradual unrolling of the coil, until in Baculites 
the shell is quite straight. In Helicoceras it forms an open 
elevated spiral; in Turrilites, an elongated conical closed 
spire, like that of a gasteropod, but sinister, turned to the 
left. 

The life-history of the Ammonitidm is very peculiar and 
interesting. After a long term of existence, during which 

they show a modest simplicity of structure and little di¬ 
versity of form, in the mesozoic ages the family is expanded 
and developed in the most wonderful way, their numbers 
being enormously increased, their size becoming gigantic, 
their forms being almost infinitely varied, their structure 
more complicated, their ornamentation more elaborate, di¬ 
versified, and beautiful. The cretaceous period was the golden 
age of the Ammonitidge, when they attained such numbers, 
size, variety, and beauty as to far eclipse all other tribes of 
shelled mollusks, living or extinct. Their greatness ended 
here, however. Like the flowering of a plant or the splen¬ 
dor and extravagance of an over-civilized nation, their 
extraordinary development seems to have been exhaustive 
of the vital energies, as in the age next succeeding their 
grand climacteric, so far as now known, they had no rep¬ 
resentative. 

The peculiar features in the career of the Ammonitid® 
are best seen in contrast with that of their nearest relatives, 
the Nautilidae. The latter began their existence in the ear¬ 
liest palaeozoic seas as mollusks, with straight ( Orihoceras) 
or coiled ( Nautilus ) shells, of which the structure was very 
simple. Of this family the Orthocerata are extinct, but 
the genus Nautilus has held its undeviating way through 
all past ages, and is now represented by living species 
which can hardly be distinguished from those that lived 
millions of years ago. The full explanation of the differ¬ 
ence in the history and fate of these two closely allied 
families is perhaps beyond our reach, but it seems prob¬ 
able that we have here another illustration of the truth 
which underlies the diversity of fate in human individuals 
and nations, as well as of species, genera, and orders in 
the life-history of the globe—viz., simplicity of structure 
and habit promotes longevity by its adaptation to general 
and prevailing circumstances in time and space, while a 
highly specialized organization will flourish only in special 
and rare conditions. J. S. Newberry. 

Ammo'nium (NH 4 ), a hypothetical metal which is 
supposed to exist in the salts of ammonia, and to be com¬ 
posed of one volume of nitrogen and four of hydrogen. 

It is the analogue of potassium and sodium, but has never 
been obtained in a separate state; a supposed amalgam of 
ammonium, however, may be formed by the action of the 
galvanic battery on a globule of mercury surrounded by a 
solution of ammonia, and by the action of sodium amal¬ 
gam on a solution of ammonium chloride. 

Ammo'iiium Ba'ses, compounds analogous to NH 4 .- 
II.0, ammonic hydrate, in which the II atoms are replaced 
to a greater or less extent by basic radicals, such as ethyl, 

C 2 II 5 , amyl, C 5 H 11 , etc. (See Amines, by C. F. Chandler.) 

Ammo'iiium, or Am'mon, the ancient name of an 
oasis in the Libyan Desert, about 300 miles W. S. W. of 

Cairo. It is now called El Siwah. Here was a cele¬ 
brated oracle and temple of Jupiter Ammon, in a grove of 
palms; also royal palaces and the “ Fountain of the Sun,” 
the water of which was cold at noon and warm at midnight. 

The ruins of the temple may still be seen. 

Ammo'nius, surnamed Saccas (because in his youth 
he was a porter and carried sacks), a Greek philosopher, 
born in Alexandria, was the founder of the school called 
Neo-Platonic about 193 A. D. Though born of Christian 
parents, he went over to paganism. Among his pupils were 
Longinus, Origen, and Plotinus. He left no writings, and 
died about 243 A. D. 

Ammonoo'suc, Lower, a river of New Hampshire, 
rises in Coos county, near Mount Washington, and flowing 
south-westward through Grafton county, enters the Con¬ 
necticut River. It is about 100 miles long. 

Ammouoosuc, Upper, a river of Coos co., N. II., 
which empties into the Connecticut at Northumberland. 

It is about 75 miles long. 

Ammoph'ila ( i . e. “delighting in sand”), [from the 

Gr. afx/xos, “sand,” and <£iAew, to “love”], (the Calama- 
grostis of Gray), a genus of grasses nearly allied to 
Arundo, and distinguished by a spikelike panicle, and by 
the glumes being nearly equal, keeled, and longer than the 
pal® of the single floret. The Ammophila arnndinacea, 
called sand-reed, mat-grass, or marum, grows on the sandy 
shores of Europe, and is of great utility in fixing the shift¬ 
ing sand. It is also used to make mats. 

Ammunition [from the Lat. ad, “for,” and munitio, 

“ defence ”], a military term applied to cannon-balls, shells, 
bullets, fuses, cartridges, grenades, gunpowder, and all the 
projectiles and explosive substances used in war. The am¬ 
munition of field artillery consists of shot, loaded shells, 
case-shot, shrapnel, cartridges, priming-tubes, matches, 
and rockets. An infantry soldier generally carries sixty 
rounds in his cartridge-box. 

Am'nesty [from the Gr. ajutojorta, “non-remembrance”], 
an act of oblivion of past misconduct granted by the gov- 

















AMNION—AMPERE. 


133 


ernment to those who have been guilty of some offence. It 
is usually granted to whole communities or classes of in¬ 
dividuals who have taken part, or are supposed to have 
participated, in some movement against lawful authority ; 
it may be granted either before or after conviction, and its 
effect is entirely to efface the crime and cause it to be for¬ 
gotten by the law. An instance is an act of amnesty in 
England in the 20th Geo. II. e. 52, called “an act for the 
king’s most gracious general and free pardon.” This sub¬ 
ject has recently excited much interest in the U. S., owing 
to a provision in the fourteenth amendment to the Constitu¬ 
tion creating certain disqualifications as to holding office by 
persons who have participated in rebellion, and at the same 
time allowing their removal by a special vote of the Con¬ 
gress. Such a removal is in the nature of an act of amnesty. 

Am'nion, or Am'nios [etymology doubtful], the soft, 
delicate, and most internal membrane containing the waters 
which surround the foetus in utero; also called agni'na tu'- 
nica. It secretes a fluid called li'quor am!mi. (See Em¬ 
bryology, by Prof. J. C. Dalton, M. D.) 

Am'nios, in botany, a thin, semi-transparent, gelati¬ 
nous substance in which the embryo of a seed is suspended 
when it first appears, and by which the embryo is probably 
nourished in its first stages. 

Amoe'ba Dif'Aliens, an organism of the order Rhiz- 
opoda, is one of the lowest animal structures with which 
zoologists are acquainted. It is a mere gelatinous mass of 
a rounded form, capable of emitting processes and lobes 
from all parts of its body, and retracting them at will. This 
animal abounds in the bottom of fresh-water ponds, and 
is well known to amateur microscopists under the name of 
Proteus. With the exception of a clear pulsating space, it 
appears to be a structureless mass of sarcode. 

Amol', a city of Persia, in the province of Mazande- 
ran, on the river Ileraz, about 12 miles from its entrance 
into the Caspian Sea, and 85 miles N. E. of Teheran. A 
bridge of twelve arches crosses the river here. Pop. esti¬ 
mated at from 35,000 to 40,000. 

Amo'inum [from the Gr. cbu«>M.o?, “blameless,” “with¬ 
out fault”], a genus of plants of the order Zingibcraceae or 
Scitaminese, and of the Linnoean class Monandria. They 
are natives of the tropical parts of Asia and Africa, and pro¬ 
duce aromatic seeds called cardamom and grains of Paradise. 

Amoo', or Amu, also called Amoo Darya (anc. O.vus; 
Arab. Gihon), a river of Western Asia, rises on the Belur 
Tagh, nearly 15,000 feet above the level of the sea, receives 
many affluents from the mountains of Turkestan and the 
Hindukush, flows through Turkestan, and falls into the 
Aral Sea. The length of its course is 1610 miles. Ac¬ 
cording to the treaty of peace concluded in July, 1873, be¬ 
tween Russia and Khiva, this river will hereafter constitute 
the boundary-line between Khiva and Bokhara. 

Amoor', Amur, or Saghalien, a large river of 
Eastern Asia, formed near lat. 53° N. and Ion. 122° E. 
by the union of the Shilka and the Argoon, the latter of 
which forms for about 400 miles the boundary between Si¬ 
beria and the Chinese empire. The Amoor flows alter¬ 
nately eastward and south-eastward, forming the boundary 
between China and Siberia, until it arrives at a point about 
lat. 48° N. It afterwards pursues a general N. E. direction 
through the Littoral province of Siberia, and enters the 
Sea of Okhotsk or Gulf of Saghalien. Its length, exclusive 
of the branches, is estimated at 1800 miles. It is stated 
that steamboats have ascended from its mouth to the junc¬ 
tion of the Shilka and Argoon. The navigation is ob¬ 
structed by ice until May. In the lower part of its course 
it traverses a fertile country, covered with extensive forests 
of oak, ash, elm, maple, pine, etc. The largest tributary 
of the Amoor is the Soongari, which enters it on the right. 

Amoor, Country of the [Ger. Amurland], the name 
given to a part of Mantchooria which in 1858 was ceded by 
China to Russia. It includes the island of Saghalien and 
the whole tract on the left side of the Amoor lying between 
43° and 54° N. lat., and containing an area of 276,000 square 
miles. It is divided into the province of the Amoor and 
the Littoral province. The area of the province of the 
Amoor is 109,000 square miles; and the pop. in 1867, 
22,297. The winters are very severe, and navigation is 
generally closed from the end of October to the beginning 
of May. The soil is fertile, and in the more sheltered 
parts many plants of Soufhern Asia grow luxuriantly. 
The forests are magnificent, abounding in oaks and nut¬ 
bearing trees. Fur-producing animals are very numerous, 
and the rivers yield great quantities of fish. Gold-fields 
have been recently discovered, and coal is abundant in the 
island of Saghalien. 

Ainoret'ti (Carlo), an Italian naturalist and writer, 
born at Oneglia, near Genoa, Mar. 13, 1741. He produced 
a good biography of Leonardo da \ inci (1784), and a work | 


on the natural history and geography of Lakes Como, Mag- 
giore, and Lugano, called a “Journey from Milan to the 
Three Lakes” (1794). In 1797 he became librarian of the 
Ambrosian Library of Milan. Died Mar. 24, 1816. 

Amor'gos, or Amor'go [Gr. ’A/uopyos], a fertile isl¬ 
and in the Archipelago, 18 miles S. E. of Naxos, belongs 
to the kingdom of Greece. It is 13 miles long and 6 miles 
wide, and contains a small town called Amorgos. The sur¬ 
face is mountainous. The poet Simonides was born here. 
It has a good harbor; lat. of E. end, 36° 54' N., Ion. 26° 
6' E. Pop. about 3700. 

Am'orites (“mountaineers”), a powerful nation of 
Canaan that occupied the country on both sides of the 
Jordan in the time of Moses, and resisted the Israelites in 
their march towards the Promised Land. Moses defeated 
their two kings, Sihon and Og, who reigned at Heshbon 
and Bashan respectively. Og is said to have been the last 
“remnant of giants” (Deuteronomy iii. 11). The Amor- 
ites were afterwards subdued by Joshua, but he was not 
able to exterminate them. They appear to have been long 
hostile to the Israelites, but in Solomon’s time were reduced 
to a tributary condition. 

A'mos, one of the minor Hebrew prophets, was a con¬ 
temporary of Isaiah, and lived about 785 B. C. He was a 
herdsman and a gatherer of sycamore fruit. He denounces 
the prevalent idolatry in vigorous and eloquent terms, 
using many images taken from rural and pastoral life. 

Araoskeag', a manufacturing village of Hillsborough 
co., N. H., on the Merrimack River, which here falls 54 
feet in a mile and a half, thus affording great water-power. 
It is now a part of the city of Manchester (which see). 

Amo'tion [from the Lat. a ( ah ), “away,” and moveo, 
motum , to “move”], in law, the removal of an officer of a 
corporation from his office. It differs from disfranchise¬ 
ment, which refers to the removal of a member. Amotion 
may accordingly take place without disfranchisement. 

A'moy, a seaport-town of China, on an island of the 
same name, in the province of Fo-Kien, and on the Chan¬ 
nel of Formosa; lat. 24° 28' N., Ion. 118° 4' E. It is sit¬ 
uated at the mouth of a river which passes by the large 
city of Chang-Choo-Foo, of which Amoy is the port. 
Amoy is one of the chief commercial towns of China, and 
its merchants are noted for their enterprise. It was taken 
by the British in 1841, and has been open to the trade of 
all nations since 1843. Among the articles of import are 
cotton, cotton goods, iron, sugar, camphor, and pepper. 
The chief articles of export are tea, sugar, porcelain, silks, 
and paper. Amoy is one of the chief centres of the Prot¬ 
estant missions in China. Pop. estimated at 300,000. 

Ampcl'ic A^id, a white solid produced by the action 
of nitric acid on schist oils. 

Am'pelin, a substance resembling creasote, obtained 
from schist oil. 

Ampelop'sis [from the Gr. a/u^Ao?, a “ vine,” and 
“ resemblance ”], a genus of creeping, vine-like, woody 
plants, to which the Virginia creeper or American wood¬ 
bine (Ampelopsis quinquefolium) belongs. This is one 
of the most beautiful of our hardy creeping ornamental 
plants. It is highly esteemed in England, and is better 
adapted to the climate of America than the ivy, and is 
also more rapid in its growth, and has handsomer foliage. 
The leaves are deciduous, but they die in a blaze of crim¬ 
son glory when touched by the frost, so that the plant is 
lovely even in death. It is of the order Vitacem. 

Ampere (Andre Marie), an eminent French natural 
philosopher and mathematician, born at Lyons Jan. 20, 
1775. He produced in 1802 an interesting essay “On the 
Mathematical Theory of Games of Chance.” He became 
inspector-general of the University (1808), professor of 
analysis in the Polytechnic School (1809), chevalier of the 
Legion of Honor (1809), and a member of the Institute 
(1814). Having made important discoveries in electro¬ 
magnetism, he published in 1822 a “ Collection of Obser¬ 
vations on Electro-Dynamics,” a work which displays re¬ 
markable sagacity. “ The vast field of physical science,” 
says Arago, “perhaps never presented so brilliant a dis¬ 
covery, conceived, verified, and completed with such rapid¬ 
ity.” He attributed the phenomena of natural magnetism 
to electric currents which continually pass around the earth 
from east to west. He further explained his discoveries in 
this department of science, to which ho gave the name of 
Electro-Dynamics, in his “ Theory of Electro-Dynamic 
Phenomena deduced from Experiments ” (1826). Among 
his other works are treatises on optics and an “ Essay on 
the Philosophy of the Sciences,” etc. (1834). He was a 
man of genial disposition, and noted for simplicity of 
character. Died in Marseilles June 10, 1836. 

Ampere (Jean Jacques Antotne), an accomplished 
scholar and litterateur, a son of the preceding, born at 












134 AMPHIBIA—AMPLIFICATION. 


Lyons Aug. 12, 1800. Ho enjoyed in his youth the society 
of Madame RAcamicr, and devoted much attention to 
English and German literature. In 1833 he succeeded An- 
drieux as professor of French literature at the College of 
France, lie became a member of the Academy of In¬ 
scriptions in 1842, and a member of the French Academy 
in 1847. He travelled extensively in Egypt, the Levant, 
and the U. S. Among his works are “Literature and 
Travels” (“Literature et Voyages,” 1833), “Literary 
History of France before the Twelfth Century ” (3 vols., 
1839), an “ Essay on the Formation of the French Lan¬ 
guage” (3 vols., 1841), “ Greece, Rome, and Dante” (1850), 
and “Roman History at Rome” (“ Histoire Romaine a 
Rome,” 4 vols., 1856-G4). His style is very brilliant and 
pungent. Died Mar. 27, 1864. 

Amphib'ia [Gr. d/a^i'^ia, from apAw, “ both,” and /3tda>, 
to “live”], a term applied to animals that live both on the 
land and in the water. In the Linnman system it included 
all reptiles and cartilaginous fishes, although some reptiles 
would be drowned if they remained very long under water. 
This classification has been modified by the removal of 
the cartilaginous fishes from the class of Amjriiibia. Cuvier 
applied the term to such mammals as the seal and walrus, 
which inhabit both the land and water. 

Naturalists now divide the Reptilia of the olden zoolo¬ 
gists into two classes—viz., Reptilia, which includes the 
lizards, snakes, and turtles; and Amphibia, which com¬ 
prises the serpent-like cecilians, salamanders, and batra- 
chians (frogs and toads). Most amphibians pass thx-ough 
a metamorphosis like that of the frog, which emerges from 
the egg as a tadpole, when it is fishlike in form and breathes 
by gills, being truly aquatic; subsequently the tail and 
gills disappear, legs and lungs are developed, and the ma¬ 
ture animal, though perhaps inhabiting the water, is an 
air-breather. In some amphibians the first or embryonic 
condition continues unchanged through life, as Menobran- 
chus, Menopoma, etc., the water-puppies and young alliga¬ 
tors of the Western rivers. The largest of these aquatic 
carnivorous salamanders is Sieboldia, which inhabits the 
lakes of Japan, and attains a length of three feet. Though 
now regarded as dull and disgusting creatures, this latter 
group of amphibians once stood at the head of all then ex¬ 
isting members of the zoological series. The amphibians 
first appeared in the carboniferous age, and the lagoons in 
the coal-marshes swarmed with aquatic salamanders, some 
of which were six feet in length, very active, and preda¬ 
ceous, and the monarchs of the animal world of that age. 
More than twenty species of amphibians have been ob¬ 
tained by Dr. Newberry from the cannel coal of one mine 
in Ohio. The amphibians had their golden age in the 
trias, when Labyrinthodon, with a body as large as that of 
an ox, and teeth four inches long, ruled the animal kingdom. 
In the succeeding age (Jurassic) the sceptre passed from 
the amphibians to the true reptiles. Prop. Newberry. 

Amphib'ole [from the Gr. a^ipoXos, “equivocal”], a 
name given by Haiiy to hornblende, on account of its re¬ 
semblance to augite. (See Hornblende.) 

Amphic'tyon [Gr. 'AjuAiktiW], an ancient and perhaps 
fabulous hero and king of Attica, supposed to have been a 
son of Deucalion. 

Ainphictyon'ic Coun'cil, a celebrated congress or 
politico-religious court of the confederated tribes of an¬ 
cient Greece, which met twice every year—in the temple 
of Apollo at Delphi in the spring, and at Thermopylm in 
the autumn. It was composed of the deputies of twelve 
tribes—viz., Thessalians, Boeotians, Dorians (or Spartans), 
Ionians (or Athenians), Locrians, Dolopians, Magnetes, 
Malians, Achmans, Phocians, iEnianians, and Perrhaebians, 
who each sent one or two members. The predominance of 
northern and Pelasgic tribes proves the great antiquity 
of this institution, which in course of time declined, and 
in the age of Demosthenes had lost its authority. The 
members of this council bound themselves by an oath that 
“they would not destroy any Amphictyonic city nor cut 
off its streams in war or peace.” One great object of the 
council was the protection of the temple at Delphi. (See 
Tittmann, “ Ueber den Bund der Amphiktyonen,” 1852.) 

AmphiFochus, a brother of Alcmmon, took part in 
the march of the Epigoni to Thebes, and of the Greeks 
to Troy. After his death he was raised among the gods. 

Amphi / on [Gr. 'ApA<W], in classic mythology, a Theban 
prince and musician, a son of Jupiter and the husband of 
Niobe. According to the poetic legend, he availed himself 
of his skill in music to build the walls of Thebes, and the 
stones, attracted by the sound of his lyre, moved and ar¬ 
ranged themselves in the proper position. 

Amphiox'us [from the Gr. apAw, “both,” and 
“sharp”], the name of a genus of fishes (Leptocardii), so 
called because they are sharp at both ends. They are 


recognized as vertebrate animals only by their gelatinous 
dorsal cord, which supports a medullary spinal cord. They 
are without brain or true heart, and have various other ex¬ 
ceptional characters. The genus is often called Branchioa- 
torna. The popular name is lancelet. One species is lound 
in the marine waters of the Southern U. S. 

Amphip'olis [from the Gr. apA i. “around,” and tj-oAi?, 
“city ”J, an ancient and important city of Thrace or Mace¬ 
donia, was founded by an Athenian colony about 437 B. C. 
It was situated at the mouth of the river Strymon, which 
here enters the Strymon'icus Sin'us, the modern Gulf of 
Contessa. The waters of the river are said to have once 
surrounded the town (whence the name). In the Middle 
Ages it was called Popolia. Its site is now occupied by a 
small Turkish town called Yenikeui. 

Amphisbne / na [Gr. api(}>lopaiva., from apA<v. “on both 
sides,” and 0cuVw, to “go”], a genus of serpent-like rep- 



Amphisbsena Fuliginosa. 

tiles, of which the head and tail are so similar in appear¬ 
ance that it is difficult on a cursory inspection to determine 
at which extremity the head is situated. They are found 
in Brazil, the West Indies, etc., and, according to the state¬ 
ments of respectable naturalists, are able to creep forward 
or backward with nearly equal facility. Several species 
are known. They burrow in the earth, have rudimentary 
eyes, and are usually classed with the saurians. 

Amphis'sa., a town of ancient Greece, in Locris, was 
situated 7 miles from Delphi, on the site of the modern 
town of Salona. Here was a temple of Athena, containing 
an image of the goddess. 

Ampliithc'atre [Gr. ap-^iOiaTpov, from d/u<f>t, “around,” 
and OeaTpov, a “theatre”], a spacious and uncovered edifice 
of an elliptical or circular form, in which the ancient Ro¬ 
mans witnessed the exhibition of public games and the 
combats of gladiators and wild beasts. It was constructed 
so that all the spectators could behold the performance, 
which was exhibited in an open level space called the 
arena, surrounded on all sides by tiers of seats, which rose 
higher as they receded from the arena. The most famous 
of these edifices was the Flavian Amphitheatre, or Colos¬ 
seum of Rome, which was built by the emperors Vespasian 
and Titus, finished about 80 A. D., and is still standing. 
It is about 620 feet long, 513 feet wide, and 157 feet high. 
The longest diameter of the arena was 287 feet. It is said 
to have had seats for 80,000 spectators, and standing-room 
for 20,000 more. The exterior was adorned by three rows 
of columns—Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Colosseum 
is regarded by many as the most august and imposing ruin 
in the world. 

Ampliithe'rium [from d/if' 5 , “on both sides,” and 
6r)pLov, “beast;” named probably in allusion to its double 
or doubtful character], a genus of fossil insectivorous mam¬ 
malia found in the oolitic strata in Oxfordshire, England. 
It presents many points of analogy with the living marsu¬ 
pial genus Myrmecobius. 

Amphitri'te [’Ap<£<.Tpir>}], in the Greek mythology, a 
Nereid, a goddess of the sea, the wife of Neptune and the 
mother of Triton. She is represented sitting in a car of 
shells drawn by tritons, or on a dolphin. 

Amphit'ryon [Gr. ’ApAiTpvwv], in classic mythology, a 
son of Alcaeus. Having accidentally killed his uncle Elec- 
tryon, he was banished from Mycenm. He married Alcmena, 
who was the mother of Hercules. 

Am'phora [from the Gr. <xpAb “on both sides,” and 
<f>epaj, to “ bear,” from its being borne by its two handles], the 
Latin name of a vase with two handles which was used by 
the ancient Greeks and Romans to hold wine and oil. It 
was also a liquid measure, containing about eight and a 
half gallons among the Greeks, and six among the Romans. 

Amplifica'tion [Lat. amplified'tio, from am'plus, 
“large,” and fa'cio, to “make”], in rhetoric, is the en¬ 
largement and expansion of a subject or discourse by the 
use of epithets and illustrations and the enumeration of 
circumstantial accessories, with a view to produce a deeper 
impression. Cicero was much inclined to amplify his ora¬ 
tions. Exaggeration is a vicious kind of amplification. 






















AMPLITUDE—AMSTERDAM. 


135 


Am'plitude [Lat. amplitu'do, from am'plus , “large,” 
“great”], in astronomy, is the angular distance of a heavenly 
body, when it rises or sets, from the east or west points of 
the horizon. The amplitude of a fixed star remains the 
same all the year, but that of the sun changes daily, and 
on a given day varies according to the latitude of the ob¬ 
server. 

Amplitude, in mechanics and physics, is used in refer¬ 
ence to oscillating and vibrating bodies, to indicate the dis¬ 
tance between the extreme positions assumed by the body. 
Thus the amplitude of oscillation of a pendulum is the angle 
between the extreme positions of the line joining the centres 
of suspension and oscillation. 

Ampu'dia, de (Pedro), a Mexican officer who ob¬ 
tained the rank of general in 1810. He fought against the 
Texans in 1842, and commanded the Mexican troops which 
defended Monterey in 1846 against Gen. Taylor, to whom 
he surrendered in September of that year. 

Ampul'la, a Roman vessel of glass or earthenware, 
used for holding oil, wine, etc., was nearly globular in form. 
Many of these are preserved in the collections of antiqua¬ 
ries. In the Catholic Church an ampulla is a vessel which 
contains wine for the sacrament. Ampulla Rememis (in Fr. 
la Sainte Ampoule) was a famous vessel of holy oil which, 
according to tradition, was brought from heaven by a dove, 
and was used to anoint Clovis when he was crowned at 
Rheims in 496 A. D. 


Ampulla'ria [from the Lat. ampulla , a “flask”], an 



Ampullaria Dubia. 


interesting genus of gasteropod mollusks, called apple- 
shells, idol-shells, pond-snails, etc. Fifty or more species 
are known, mostly tropical, and all inhabiting fresh water 
and mud, though some are occasionally found in salt and 
brackish waters. They are remarkable for their tenacious 
hold on life, many being able to live away from the water 
for years. One species is occasionally found alive in hol¬ 
low logs of mahogany and logwood from Honduras. Ihe 
Ampullaria dubia is brought from the Nile. 

Amputa'tion [from the Lat. amputo, amputatum, to 
“prune,” to “lop off”], in surgery, is the removal, by- 
operation, of any part of the body or limbs on account ot 
disease or injury, such as would endanger life if the part 
wore allowed to remain. The term of late denotes more 
especially such removal of a limb, but is still sometimes 
used for the excision of a tumor or gland. 

Amputations are properly resorted to not only after 
severe and very dangerous irfjuries, but in such diseases as 
gangrene, cancer, etc., which are without rational prospect 
of cure by other means. In general, cases where the 
chances of cure will probably be much increased by this 
operation afford legitimate subjects for its exercise. This 
rule would include some cases of inti actable ulccis of the 
leg, of aneurism, and of diseased bones and joints. In¬ 
curable and unsightly deformities, where they put the pa¬ 
tient to great inconvenience, may in some circumstances be 


removed by the knife. An amputation in which a bone is 
cut off is said to be “in the continuity.” An amputation 
at a joint, when no bones are divided, is in “the contigu¬ 
ity ;” the latter operation is not often performed, though it 
has had recent advocates. Amputations are chiefly either 
“flap” or “circular” operations. The “flap” operation, 
in some of its many modifications, is probably the most 
frequently employed. One, two, or even three flaps have 
been employed, the size, shape, and thickness of these flaps 
of skin and flesh varying with circumstances. In general, 
they ought to be large enough to cover amply the end of 
the stump, and not so large as to be redundant after the 
wound shall have healed. The flap amputation, practised 
by certain mediaeval surgeons, and revived by Lowdham 
of England nearly 200 years ago, was made general by 
Liston, and has since his time been variously improved 
and modified. 

“ Circular amputation ” is performed by first dividing 
the skin and superficial fascia by a sweep of the knife 
around the limb, dissecting up the skin for two or three 
inches, and at that part dividing the muscles down to the 
bone. The flesh is removed from the bone to allow the saw 
to be applied. 

The danger attending amputation is generally in propor¬ 
tion to the nearness of the operation to the trunk, as well 
as to the size of the limb. Thus, amputation at the hip- 
joint is the most doubtful of all in its results; but even 
this, in some cases, especially in military surgery, may im¬ 
prove the chances of life under severe injury. Amputations 
at the joints are by most surgeons considered as more seri¬ 
ous than in the continuity of the limbs. Of the foot alone 
several different modes of amputation are in use, as Lis- 
franc’s, Chopart’s, Syrne’s, and Pirogoff’s amputations. 

Amrit', the richest place in ruins on the whole Phoe¬ 
nician coast (Syria), near the city of Tortosa. It is the 
ancient Marathus, and was discovered in the seventeenth 
century by Pococke, but was not explored until the present 
century, by Ernest Renan. The most important ruin found 
here is “El Maabed” (t. e. “the temple”). 

Am'rita [from the Sanscrit a, signifying “without,” 
and mrita, “dead,” also “death”], sometimes incor¬ 
rectly written Amreeta, in Hindoo mythology, is the 
name applied to the water of immortality, which is said to 
have been obtained by the churning of the ocean. The 
term amrita or amrit is sometimes given to the food as well 
as the drink of the gods, and likewise to any delicious 
drink. 

Amrit'sir, or Amritsur, written also Umritsir, the 

sacred city of the Sikhs, in the Punjab, in Northern India, 
40 miles E. of Lahore; lat. 31° 40' N., Ion. 74° 56' E. It 
is said to contain 399 Hindoo places of worship. Here is 
a magnificent temple of the Sikhs, on an island, in a large 
tank or reservoir, called “the Pool of Immortality,” which 
is visited by many pilgrims. Runjeet Singh built here the 
large fortress of Govindghur, which is one of the most re¬ 
markable objects in the place. Amritsir has manufactures 
of shawls, silk stuffs, and cotton goods; also an extensive 
transit trade with India and Central Asia. Pop. in 1866, 
about 180,000. 

Am'rou Ben el As, a famous Arabian warrior, born 
about 600 B. C., at first opposed Mohammed, but became 
a zealous proselyte, aided in the conquest of Syria, con¬ 
quered Egypt, of which he became emir, taking Alexan¬ 
dria in 640 A. D., and Tripoli three years later. He became 
an opponent of Ali. He was a man of energy and prudence. 
Died in 663. 

Ams'dorf, von (Nikolaus), a Reformer, born in Sax¬ 
ony Dec. 3, 1483. He became a zealous Lutheran, and 
accompanied Luther to the Diet of Worms in 1521. He 
was afterwards an opponent of Melanchthon, and was much 
addicted to controversy about doctrines. In 1542 he was 
appointed bishop of Naumburg. He wrote numerous po¬ 
lemical works. Died May 14, 1565. 

Ams'ler (Samuel), a skilful engraver, born in Switzer¬ 
land in 1791. He became professor of engraving in the 
Academy of Fine Arts in Munich. He engraved many of 
the works of Raphael and Thorwaldsen, and reproduced 
the former with peculiar fidelity. Among his best works 
are the “Triumph of Alexander the Great,” after Thor¬ 
waldsen, a “ Holy Family,” and a “ Burial of Christ,” both 
after Raphael; also a “ Christ,” after Dannecker. Died in 
1849. 

Am'sterdam', formerly Amstelredamme, or Am- 
steldamme (“the dike or dam of the Amstel”), [Lat. 
Amsteloda'mum], an important commercial city and capital 
of the kingdom of Holland, is situated at the junction of 
the Amstel with the Y, and near the Zuyder-Zee, through 
which it has access to the ocean; lat. 52° 22' N., Ion. 4° 
53' E. It is the largest city of Holland and its constitu- 
































136 AMSTERDAM 


tional capital, but the royal court is at The Hague. Am¬ 
sterdam stands on flat, marshy ground, into which piles, 
fifty feet long, are driven to form a foundation for the 
houses, which aro mostly built of brick. The city is divided 
into ninety islands by a number of canals, which are crossed 
by 280 bridges. A part of the old ramparts have been 
pulled down, and twenty-eight windmills for grinding grain 
have been erected on the bastions. The principal streets 
are the Heerengracht, Iveizergracht, and Prinzensgracht, 
each of which is about two miles long and describes a semi¬ 
circle. Canals occupy the middle of these streets, which 
are scarcely surpassed in elegance by those of any capital 
in Europe. Among the grand public buildings of this 
metropolis is the palace or town-hall, a stone edifice 282 
feet long and 235 feet wide, resting on 13,659 piles, driven 
into the ground to the depth of 70 feet. This palace con¬ 
tains a remarkable hall 120 feet long, 60 feet wide, and 
100 feet high, lined with white Italian marble. The city 
has a beautiful justiciary hall, a modern building of Gre¬ 
cian architecture. The most beautiful church of Amster¬ 
dam is the Niouwe Kerk (founded in 1408), which is 350 
feet long and 210 wide, and contains monuments of the 
poet Yondel, Admiral de Ruyter, and of several other 
Dutch admirals. This Nieuwe Kerk and the Oude Kerk 
(“old church”), which has a remarkable organ, both be¬ 
long to the Reformed Church. There are twelve other Re¬ 
formed churches, and eighteen Roman Catholic churches. 
Amsterdam is liberally supplied with hospitals and other 
charitable institutions. Among the most important edu¬ 
cational and literary institutions are the Athenaeum Illus- 
tre, which has a botanic garden, a school of anatomy, and 
chairs of art, law, medicine, and theology; the city Latin 
school; the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, founded in 1820 ; 
the Arti et Amicitiae society of painters; the naval school; 
the Royal Dutch Institution for science, literature, and art; 
the antiquarian society; and the society of literature and 
fine arts, called Felix Meritis. The Museum of Pictures, the 
Museum van der Hoop, and the Feodor Museum (since 1866) 
contain rich collections of the works of the Dutch masters. 

The chief products of the manufactures of Amsterdam 
are tobacco, soap, canvas, glass, jewelry, cordage, ma¬ 
chinery, steam-engines, etc. Its commerce is more import¬ 
ant than its manufactures. That great trade which in the 
sixteenth century placed Amsterdam at the head of the 
commercial cities of Europe gradually declined, partly 
from the rise of other ports, but principally from the dif¬ 
ficulties of navigation caused by the silting up of the Zuy- 
der-Zee, and, above all, the Pampus Bar. Large vessels 
were obliged to discharge their cargoes outsede, and were 
then floated over the bar by means of camels, which, when 
the water was pumped out of them, raised the vessel with 
them. To remedy this, the North Holland Canal was cut 
to the Ilelder, a distance of 51 miles. It is 124 feet broad 
at the surface and 31 feet at the bottom, and is available 
for vessels drawing 18 feet of water. But even this great 
highway is now inadequate, and moreover is obstructed in 
winter by ice. To maintain the rank of Amsterdam as one 
of the great commercial entrepots of Europe, one of the 
most remarkable engineering works of modern times was 
commenced in 1863, and is now far advanced towards com¬ 
pletion—the direct connection of the port of Amsterdam 
with the North Sea, 15 miles distant, by a canal terminat¬ 
ing in an artificial harbor on that sea. (See Canal; also 
“ Prof. Papers Corps of Engineers,” No. 22.) 

Amsterdam is the terminus of a railway which connects 
it with Utrecht and the cities of Prussia. The chief arti¬ 
cles of export are butter, cheese, sugar, coffee, oil, spices, 
colors, etc. In 1868, 1465 vessels, of 430,739 tons, entered 
the port of Amsterdam, and 1508 were cleared. 

Amsterdam was founded about 1250, before which it was 
a mere fishing-village, with a castle, the residence of the 
lords of Amstel. It was fortified in 1482, and became a 
part of the United Provinces in 1578, after which its com¬ 
merce and population rapidly increased. Between 1630 
and 1750 it was the foremost commercial city of Europe. 
This city was the native place of Spinoza, Admiral de 
Ruyter, Swammerdam, and other eminent men. Pop. in 
1857, 259,873; in 1867, 267,627; and in 1870, 281,805, of 
whom about 59,000 are Catholics, 35,000 Lutherans, 4000 
Mennonites, 1000 Remonstrants, and 30,000 Jews. 

Revised by J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Amsterdam, a township of Hancock co., Ia. P. 259. 

Amsterdam, a post-village and township of Mont¬ 
gomery co., N. Y., on the Mohawk River and on the Cen¬ 
tral R. R., 33 miles N. W. of Albany. It has 6 churches, 
19 manufactories, 4 banks, 1 horse railroad, and 2 weekly 
newspapers. Pop. 5426; pop. of township, 7706. 

C. P. Winegar, Ed. of “Recorder.” 

Amsterdam, a post-village and township of Botetourt 
co., Va., 50 miles W. of Lynchburg. Pop. of township, 3828. 


AMYLAMINES. 


Amuck', or Amook, a word used among the Malays. 
Men who are rendered insane and desperate by the habit¬ 
ual use of opium or hasheesh run along the streets armed 
with a dirk, and kill or wound all persons in their reach. 
This is called “running amuck.” It is generally delibe¬ 
rately planned, and is the Malay mode of suicide. AY here 
a Japanese would commit hari-kari, the Malay runs amuck 
— i. e. by attacking all he meets he seeks and finds death 
at the hands of others. 

Am'ulet [Lat. amule'tum ], an object worn on the per¬ 
son as a charm, and supposed to have power to protect 
the wearer against evil spirits, sickness, and other real 
or imaginary evils. Amulets were worn by the ancient 
Egyptians, Greeks, and Jews. The Greeks and Romans 
wore a variety of gems and small figures of heroes, deities, 
and animals. Amulets were also used by the early Chris¬ 
tians, but that form of superstition was condemned by the 
Council of Laodicea about A. D. 360. They are common 
among the Turks at the present day. An astrological am¬ 
ulet called talisman was highly prized by the Arabs. 

Am'urath, or Mu'rad I., sultan of the Turks, born 
in 1326, succeeded Orkhan, his father, in 1359, took Ad- 
rianople in 1361, and waged with success long and bloody 
wars, chiefly with the Christians, in what is now European 
Turkey. He was assassinated June 15, 1389. 

A 31 ) 13rat h II. succeeded his father, Mohammed I., in 
1421, attacked Constantinople in 1423, contended with va¬ 
rying success for many years against the Hungarians under 
Hunyady, and against Scanderbeg. He gained a great 
victory at Kosovo in 1488. Died Feb. 9, 1541. 

Amurath III., one of the most cruel of the sultans, 
born in 1545, came to the sultanate in 1574. His reign 
was marked by long wars with Austria and Persia, and 
with the janizaries at home. Died Jan. 17, 1595. 

Amurath (Murad) IV., sultan of Turkey, born about 
1610, succeeded his uncle Mustafa in 1623. He had a pas¬ 
sionate temper, which was rendered more violent and dan¬ 
gerous by habitual drunkenness. He amused himself by 
shooting from his palace windows at passengers in the 
streets. The most important event of his reign was the 
capture of Bagdad by his army in 1638. Died in 1640. 

Amussat (Jean Zulema), a French surgeon and writer, 
born in Deux-Sevres in 1796. He invented and improved 
several surgical instruments, and published some able pro¬ 
fessional treatises, among which are “ Researches into the 
Nervous System” (1825), and a “Memoir on the Torsion 
of Arteries” (1829), which obtained a prize of the Insti¬ 
tute. Died in 1856. 

Amwell, a township of AA r ashington co., Pa. Pop. 1879. 

Amy'clae [Gr. ’A/uv/cAai], an ancient town of Laconia, on 
the Eurotas, 20 stadia S. E. of Sparta, was famous in the 
heroic or legendary age as the abode of Tyndarus and 
Leda and Castor and Pollux, who were called Amyclsei 
Fratres (Amyclsean Brothers). This town was conquered 
by the Spartans about 775 B. C. 

Amyg'dalin, or Amyg'daline, a white crystalline 
principle which is contained in the bitter almond, and 
under the influence of emulsine and water yields hydrocy¬ 
anic acid and the volatile oil of bitter almonds. The sym¬ 
bol of amygdalin is C 20 H 27 NO 11 . (See Almonds, Oil of.) 

Amyg'daloid [from the Gr. a^vySaXov, an “almond,” 
and eiSog, a “form”], having the form of an almond; ap¬ 
plied in geology to certain volcanic rocks in which once 
existed oval cavities or cells now filled with nodules of 
some crystalline mineral deposited from an infiltrated so¬ 
lution. These nodules are composed of agate, chalcedony, 
calcareous spar, etc., and are commonly found in a basis 
of basalt, greenstone, or other trap rock. Empty cells often 
occur in the same rocks that contain these nodules, the 
cavities in each case having been originally formed and 
filled with gas or steam. 

Amyg'dalits [from the Gr. a^vySaXos, the “almond 
tree”], a genus of plants of the order Rosacem, consists 
of trees whose fruit is a drupe. It comprises the almond 
{Amyg'dalus commvfnis) and the peach ( Amyg'dalus Per'- 
sica). 

Am'yl (C 5 II 11 ), a compound radical belonging to the 
alcohol series, exists in amylic alcohol, C 5 H 11 .O.H, or fusel 
oil. It forms a series of compound ethers (see Ethers), 
some of which are used as substitutes for the essences of 
natural fruits. The nitrite of amyl is an ethereal liquid 
of agreeable odor, which has been recently brought to the 
attention of medical practitioners on account of its pecu¬ 
liar action on the circulation. A few drops inhaled causes 
a sudden acceleration of the pulse and flushing of the face. 

Amyl'amines, organic bases formed on the ammonia 
type by the substitution of amyl, C 5 II 11 , for H. Amyla- 
mine is N(C 5 Hn)H 2 , diamylaminc is N(C 5 Hn) 2 H, tri- 

















AMYLENE—ANACHAEIS CANADENSIS. 


137 


amylaminc is N(CsHn) 3 , tetramylammonium isN(C 5 lIn) 4 - 
(See Amines, by Prof. C. F. Chandler, Ph. D., LL.D.) 

Ain'ylene (C 5 H 10 ), a diatomic radical homologous with 
ethylene. It is produced by the dehydration of amylic 
alcohol, and is a transparent liquid of a faint but offensive 
odor. It possesses anaesthetic properties, and has been 
used as a substitute for chloroform, but was abandoned 
after having produced fjual results. (See Ethylene.) 

Amyot (Joseph), a French Jesuit missionary, born at 
Toulon in 1718. He sailed to China in 1750, was invited to 
Pekin by the emperor, and passed the rest of his life there. 
He learned the Chinese language, from which he translated 
several works into French, and compiled a “ Mantchoo- 
Tartar-French Dictionary” (Paris, 3 vols., 1789-90). Few 
European authors have done so much to illustrate the 
history and customs of China. He wrote a large portion 
of the “ Memoirs concerning the History, Sciences, Arts, 
and Customs of the Chinese” (16 vols., 1776-1814). Died 
in Pekin in 1794. 

Amyrida'ceae, a natural order of exogenous plants 
(trees or shrubs), natives of tropical regions, and abound¬ 
ing with balsamic and resinous juice. The type of the 
order is the genus Am'yris , which produces elemi. They 
have compound leaves, three to five petals, and stamens 
twice or four times as many as the petals. Among the 
products of this order are myrrh, frankincense, bdellium, 
elemi, olibanum, and balsam of Gilead. It comprises, be¬ 
sides Amy r is, the genera Balsamodendron, Bosioellia, Idea, 
and Bursera. Southern Florida has two trees of the order 
•—the cachibou gum tree, Bursera gummifera (a large tree), 
and Amyris Floridana (torch wood), a small tree. 

A'na [avd], a Greek word signifying “upward,” 
“through,” “again.” In medical prescriptions, Ana, or 
aa, denotes an equal quantity of each ingredient. 

Alia, a suffix which often occurs as the termination of 
words which are the titles of books containing collections 
of the anecdotes, conversations, and sayings of eminent 
men. Among the most remarkable of these are “ Scal- 
igerana” (1666), “Menagiana,” “ Heutiana,” “Walpoli- 
ana” (relating to Horace Walpole), and “ Johnsoniana.” 
They abound most in French literature. The “ Scaligerana ” 
was the first publication of this kind that ever appeared. 

Anabap'tists [from the Gr. prep, dvd, “again,” and 
/ 3 a 7 rTi'£u>, to “baptize”], a name applied during the six¬ 
teenth century to various bodies of Swiss and German 
Christians, who, while differing widely in personal cha¬ 
racter, in social and political opinions, and religious faith, 
agreed in discarding infant baptism, and in re-baptizing 
(according to the popular notion) those who personally ac¬ 
cepted of Christianity. While in this respect the German 
Anabaptists held a position similar to that of the Baptists 
of to-day, they did not, as a general thing, insist that im¬ 
mersion only is valid baptism. Indeed, they generally 
practised pouring or affusion. (See “ Christian Review ” 
for July, 1861.) 

Many of the early Anabaptists were men of irreproach¬ 
able character and true Christian devotion. (See Hub- 
meyer, Menno.) Some of them believed that it was wrong, 
in any circumstances, to bear arms. Others, however 
(whose vices and follies have been imputed to all who 
agreed with them in rejecting infant baptism), aspiring 
with a fanatical zeal to purify the Church and reform so¬ 
ciety, taught that, among men living under the gospel and 
having the Spirit of God to direct them, human govern¬ 
ment was not only unnecessary, but an unlawful encroach¬ 
ment on their spiritual liberty; that the distinctions of 
birth, rank, and wealth should be abolished; and that all 
Christians, throwing their possessions into one common 
stock, should live together as members of one family. Many 
of their leaders claimed to be enlightened and directed by 
supernatural visions and revelations. One of these, Thomas 
Miinzer, claimed, it is said, a divine commission to estab¬ 
lish a holy community, and to overthrow the then existing 
governments by the sword. He assembled a considerable 
force, which was totally defeated in May, 1525, near Miihl- 
hausen, and Miinzer, with the other leaders, was put to 
death. Many of his followers, however, survived, and 
spread their doctrines through Germany, Holland, and 
Switzerland. A numerous body of them, under John Mat¬ 
thias of Haarlem and John Boccold (or Bockholdt) of 
Leyden, established themselves in 1533 at Munster, de¬ 
posed the magistrates, and having confiscated the property 
of many of the more wealthy citizens, they deposited it in 
a jiublic treasury for the common use. The inhabitants 
were drilled to military duty, and vigorous preparations 
were made for the defence of Munster, which they styled 
Mount Zion. Count Waldeck, bishop and prince of Mun¬ 
ster, having surrounded the city with an army, Matthias 
sallied from the gates, and was at first successful in several 
engagements. But having once gone forth with a small 


company, they were all killed. Boccold succeeded him, 
with the title of King John. He wore a crown, clothed 
himself in purple, and took to himself numerous wives, 
only one of whom, however, was honored as queen. En¬ 
couraged by the example of their monarch, many of Boc- 
cold’s followers, it is said, gave themselves up to sensuality 
and license. At length, in 1535, Minister was taken, and 
Boccold and other leaders of the Anabaptists were put to 
death with torture. (See Cornelius, “Geschichte des 
Miinsterischen Aufruhrs,” Leipsic, 1855, and the “ Dutch 
Martyrology;” Bouterwek’s “ Literatur und Geschichte 
der Wiedertaufer;” Winter's “ Geschichte der Baierischen 
Wiedertaufer;” Calvary’s “ Mittheillungen aus dem Anti- 
quariate,” vol. i., p. Ill, seq.) 

The word Anabaptist is sometimes applied, at the present 
day, to those who baptize by immersion, and on profession 
of their faith, persons who have been sprinkled in infancy; 
but the name is repudiated by modern Baptists, since they 
regard the immersion of a believer as the only valid bap¬ 
tism, and maintain that they do not rebaptize. As no his¬ 
torical connection can be established between the Baptists 
and the fanatics of Munster, the name “ Anabaptist” ought 
not to be applied to them. J. H. Gilmore. 

Anaba'ra, a river of Siberia, rises about lat 66° 30' 
N., and Ion. 107° E., flows northward about 300 miles, and 
enters the Arctic Ocean. 

Aliabas'iclsB [from An'abas, one of the genera], a 

family of acanthopterygi- 
ous fishes, in which the 
membrane of the pharynx 
is divided into numerous 
appendages and cells. 
These retain water suf¬ 
ficient to moisten the gills 
for a considerable time, 
so that when the pools 
which these fish inhabit 
dry up, they are able to 
Ancibas Scanilens: Climbing Perch. move about on land in 

search of other water. They are all fresh-water fishes, and 
have spines on their fins. They are found in South-eastern 
Asia and Southern Africa. One of this family, the An'abas 
scan'dens (or Per'ca scan'dens), found in India, is espe¬ 
cially remarkable for its climbing powers. Unlike the eel, 
which only passes over moist ground, the anabas takes its 
journey over hard, dry, and dusty roads, and frequently up 
steep ascents heated with the burning beams of the noon¬ 
day sun, and does not seem to feel any serious inconve¬ 
nience from these. It is even asserted by some writers 
that this fish is able to climb a tree. 

Anab'asis [from the Gr. avd, “up,” and /3cuVw, to “go”], 
a Greek word signifying an “ ascension,” a march from a 
lower into a higher region. In medicine, it is sometimes 
applied to the increase of a disease or paroxysm. Also the 
title of two Greek historical works : 1. Xenophon’s account 
of the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his brother 
Artaxerxes, king of Persia, and of the retreat of the ten 
thousand Greeks who had served in the army of Cyrus. 
2. Arrian’s “Anabasis,” in which are recorded the expedi¬ 
tions of Alexander the Great into Persia and India. 

An'ableps [from the Gr. ava/3AeVa>, to “look up”], a 
genus of malacopterygian viviparous fishes, characterized 
by a remarkable projection of the eyes from the sides of 
the head, and by a singular structure of the cornea and 
iris, in consequence of which it has two pupils on each 
side, and seems to have four eyes. They are found in 
Guiana and Surinam. 

Aiiacan'thini [from the Gr. av, priv., and dsavBa, a 
“ Spine ”], an order of fishes distinguished by an ossified 
endoskeleton, the surface covered in some cases with cy¬ 
cloid, in others with ctenoid, scales; fins supported by flex¬ 
ible or jointed rays; ventrals beneath the pectorals, or 
wanting; swimming-bladder without air-duct. This order 
includes the cod and other edible fishes. 

Anacardia'cefe [from Anarcar'dium, one of the gen¬ 
era], a natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, mostly 
natives of tropical regions, and often abounding in a resin¬ 
ous fluid of extreme acridity. The leaves are alternate and 
without dots, the petals perigynous, and the fruit is usually 
a drupe. The order is founded on Anacardium occidental 
(cashew-nut), and contains many species, among which are 
poison ivy, mastic, sumac, pistachio-nuts, and the mango. 

Anach'aris Canaden'sis, an herbaceous plant of 
the order Hydrocharidacese, is a native of North America, 
growing in ponds and slow streams, in which it is en¬ 
tirely submerged. It has a much-branched perennial stem, 
and is remarkable for the rapidity of its growth. It is 
naturalized in Great Britain, where it suddenly appeared 
in such abundanco as to obstruct tho navigation of the 




































138 ANACHARSIS—ANAGNI. 


Trent, Derwent, and other rivers. It was first observed 
in Great Britain about 1812. It causes no such trouble in 
the U. S. 

Anachar'sis [Gr. ’Av^xapo-is], a celebrated Scythian 
philosopher who lived about 000 B. C., and was a friend of 
Solon. He was the only “ barbarian ” admitted to the priv¬ 
ilege of a citizen of Athens, and according to somo authori¬ 
ties was reckoned among the Seven Wise Men of Greece. 
It is said that on his return to Scythia he was put to death, 
because he practised some Greek religious rites. Some of 
his pithy sayings have been preserved by Diogenes Laer¬ 
tius and others. A French author, Jean Jacques BarthO- 
lemy, published a popular work entitled “ Travels of Ana- 
charsis the Younger in Greece” (1788), which represents 
with considerable fidelity the life and customs of the ancient 
Greeks. It was translated into English. 

Anach'ronism [Gr. avaxpovio-p-os, from ard, used for 
“against,” and xp° ,, oi >> “time”], an error in chronology, 
an inversion or disturbance of the order of time. The use 
of cannon in Shakspeare’s “King John” is an anachron¬ 
ism, as cannon were not employed in England until a hun¬ 
dred years or more after his reign. Painters who represent 
ancient patriarchs in modern costumes are censured for 
anachronism. 

Anacla'che, a snowy peak of the Bolivian Andes, is 
supposed to be 22,000 feet or more above the level of the 
sea; lat. 18° 12' S., Ion. 69° 20' W. It is covered with 
perpetual snow. 

Anacle'tus, bishop of Rome, was a native of Athens. 
He was the successor (or, according to others, the prede¬ 
cessor) of Saint Clement. Died about 100 A. D. 

Anacletus, an antipope, was elected by a party of 
cardinals in 1130 as a rival pope to Innocent II., who was 
recognized by the majority of the European powers. Ana- 
cletus was supported by the Romans. Died in 1138. 

Anacon'da [ Eunec'tcs muri'nus, Bo'a muri'na of some 
naturalists], a large serpent allied to the Boa constrictor, is 
a native of tropical America, especially of Brazil and Gui¬ 
ana. It sometimes grows to the length of forty feet, and 
is the largest serpent of America. It passes much of the 
time in the water, preferring the shallow parts of a lake or 
stream. Among the generic characters that distinguish it 
from the boa arc the small size and position of its nostrils, 
which open at the upper part of the end of the muzzle, and 
are directed upward. It is not venomous. 

Anac'reon [’AvaicptW], a famous Greek lyric poet, born 
at Teos, in Ionia, about 560 B. C. He emigi’ated from Teos 
when that town was taken by the Persians, about 540, and 
passed many years at Samos, where he was patronized by 
King Polycrates. After the death of this patron, 522 
B. C., he became a resident of Athens, to which he was in¬ 
vited by Hipparchus. Love and wine were the favorite 
themes of his muse. Died in 476 B. C. According to tra¬ 
dition, his death was caused by a grape-stone which stuck 
fast in his throat. Some fragments of his poems are extant. 

Anadir', or Anadyr, a river of Siberia, near the ex¬ 
treme N. E. part of Asia, rises north of Kamtehatka, flows 
nearly eastward, and enters the Sea of Anadir. Length, 
about 450 miles. The Sea or Gulf of Anadir is in Sibe¬ 
ria, near the N. E. extremity of Asia, and is a large inlet of 
the Pacific Ocean. It is separated from the Arctic Ocean 
by a peninsula about 150 miles wide. 

Anadyom'ene [Gr. ’Ai'aSvojueVrj], (the goddess “rising 
up out” of the sea), a surname given to Venus; also the 
name of a masterpiece of Apelles, representing Venus ris¬ 
ing from the sea and wringing her flowing hair with her 
fingers. This picture was purchased by the people of Cos, 
who sold it to the emperor Augustus for one hundred tal¬ 
ents, or more than $ 100,000 of our money. 

Anne'mia [from the Gr. a, priv., and alpa, “blood ”], also 
called Spanae'mia [from o-navos, “scarce,” “rare,” and 
alp.a, “blood”], a morbid condition of the body in which 
the blood is of an abnormal composition, there being usual¬ 
ly a deficiency in the normal number of red corpuscles, a 
poverty of albumen, and an excess of salts, the absolute 
amount of the blood being usually below that observed in 
health. This condition is not properly a disease, so much 
as a result of some disease or lesion, such as dyspepsia, 
haemorrhage, excessive secretion from any gland or sur¬ 
face, insufficient nutrition, defective aeration of the blood, 
consumption, cancer, malarial or other slow poisoning, 
leucocythaemia, excessive labor, or long-continued mental 
troubles. The symptoms are, first, great debility, paleness 
of face, lips, and tongue, wasting of the tissues, various 
cardiac, arterial, and venous murmurs, a small and often 
rapid pulse, clearness and low specific gravity of the urine. 
Late in the disease the feet swell and sweating is observed. 
The treatment is, first, if possible, to remove the cause. 
Next, the proper conditions for recovery must be establish¬ 


ed, such as proper food, due exercise, and good air. Ton¬ 
ics, if they are well borne by the patient, arc generally 
useful. Strychnia, quinia, and, above all, iron, are olten 
extremely useful. The iron is generally thought to act as 
food, there being an actual deficiency of iron in the blood. 

AiicESthe'sia [from the Gr. av, priv., and aicrOdropa i, to 
“perceive,” to “feel”], in medical language, when used to 
designate a symptom, denotes a diminution or a complete 
loss of the sense of feeling, either general or much more 
frequently local. In this sense it is opposed to the term 
hypersesthesia, which denotes an exaltation or excess of 
sensibility. Both these conditions are symptoms of dis¬ 
ease of the nervous system. When feeling proper is abol¬ 
ished while pain exists, it is called “anaesthesia dolorosa;” 
when both pain and the sense of touch are absent, it is 
« analgesia.” But of late the term commonly denotes a 
total or partial, local or general, suspension of all the 
senses as the result of the application or inhalation of some 
chemical agent. Local anaesthesia is produced by the rapid 
evaporation of some highly volatile substance, like ether 
or rhigolene, and consequent chilling of the part to be af¬ 
fected. The local application of certain drugs, such as 
aconitine, will also produce a degree of anaesthesia. Gen¬ 
eral anaesthesia is, however, by far the most common result 
of this kind to which the physician directs his efforts. The 
Chinese have used preparations of hemp for this purpose 
for many centuries. The “ Arabian Nights ” contain nume¬ 
rous allusions to a similar use of this drug. Mandragora, 
opium, and many other soporifics were used by the ancients 
as anaesthetics, though such use is dangerous from the pro¬ 
found effects pi’oduced. Surgical operations in later times 
have been successfully performed while the patient was in 
the mesmeric sleep or condition of “ hypnotism.” Such a 
condition is, however, usually regarded as a diseased one, 
and its pi’oduction is outside the province of the physician. 
The anaesthetics generally in use are common or ethylic 
ether, chloroform, and nitrous oxide gas, each of which is 
administered by inhalation. There is some reason to be¬ 
lieve that the anaesthetic property of ether was not un¬ 
known in the sixteenth century, soon after the discovery 
of this agent by the alchemists. Several physicians in the 
eighteenth century recommended the use of ether by inhal¬ 
ation for the relief of pain. Sir Humphry Davy in 1800 
observed the anaesthetic effect of nitrous oxide, and pro¬ 
posed its use in surgery, but it was not till 1844 that Horace 
Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Conn., successfully employed 
this gas for the prevention of pain in removing teeth. The 
subject, however, fell for the time into undeserved neglect, 
though at present this gas is extensively ejnploycd in den¬ 
tistry and in some other surgical operations. 

Between 1816 and 1846 several American physicians pro¬ 
posed the use of ether as an anaesthetic. In October of 
the latter year, Dr. W. T. G. Morton of Boston (who had 
successfully used ether in dentistry) administered it to a 
patient in the Massachusetts General Hospital during a 
surgical operation by the late Dr. Warren. In Nov., 1847, 
Sir J. Y. Simpson of Edinburgh first announced chloro¬ 
form as an anaesthetic, it having been used for the relief 
of difficult breathing by Ives of New Haven, Conn., in 
1832, and its anaesthetic effect upon the lower animals hav¬ 
ing been shown by Flourens ten months before Simpson’s 
experiments. The use of both ether and chloroform has 
spread rapidly since the above discoveries. Various other 
agents (amylene, amyl I 13 dride, carbon bichloride, Dutch 
liquid, methylene bichloride, etc.) have been proposed, but 
for the most part they have turned out to be more danger¬ 
ous than the older and better known anaesthetics. 

With regard to the relative superiority of the various 
agents used, opinions differ. It is claimed by some that 
ether is much safer than chloroform, while other practi¬ 
tioners of eminence assert that chloroform is pleasanter, 
cheaper, and more speedy in its effect, and equally safe if 
the requisite skill is employed in administration. The 
principal objections to nitrous oxide are, that it is not 
easily portable, and that its effects are very transitory. 
Experiments tend to show that ether produces anaesthesia 
by causing anaemia of the brain, while chloroform appears 
to act by producing hyperaemia. Further observations are 
constantly being made on these points, and these experi¬ 
ments may be fairly expected to throw great light on the 
subject. / Chas. W. Greene. 

Aliaesthet'ics, the name applied to certain prepara¬ 
tions having the property of producing Anaesthesia (which 
see). 

Ana'gni (anc. Anag'nia), a town of Italy, 37 miles E. 
S. E. of Rome, is the seat of a bishop. It is the resi¬ 
dence of several noble families, and was the birthplace of 
several popes, among whom were Innocent III. and Greg¬ 
ory IX. Anagnia was nearly as old as Rome, was the 
chief city of the Hernici, and was an important place dur- 



















ANAGRAM—ANALYSIS. 


139 


ing the whole period of the ancient Roman history. Virgil 
mentions it as the wealthy Anaguia. Pop. 6000. 

An'agram [from the Gr. avd, “ backward,” and ypdp./xa, 
a “letter” or “writing”], a word or sentence formed by 
the transposition of the letters of some word, phrase, or 
sentence. The most perfect or proper anagram, called 
palindrome, is formed by reading backward— i. e. reversing 
the order of the letters—as “evil,” live. The making of 
anagrams was a fashionable exercise of ingenuity in the 
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as well as in the Dark 
or Middle Ages. A very curious specimen of anagram is 
the transmutation of Pilate's question, Quid est Veritas 
(“ What is Truth ?”) into Est Vir qui adest (“ It is the Man 
who is present”). Dr. Burney made the felicitous discov¬ 
ery that the Latin sentence Honor est a Nilo (“Honor is 
(or comes) from the Nile”) is concealed in the name of 
Horatio Nelson. The opponents of the Dutch theologian 
Jacobus Arininius transformed his name into Vani Orbis 
Amicus (“A Friend of the Vain World”).- Among recent 
examples of the anagram are—Florence Nightingale, “Flit 
on, cheering Angel;” Sir Robert Peel, “Terrible Poser;” 
French Revolution, “Violence, run forth.” (See Wheatly 
on “Anagrams.”) 

An'aheim, the second town in size and importance in 
Los Angeles co., Cal., situated in the centre of the largest 
valley in California, is 12 miles from the sea, and is the 
head-quarters of the wine interest of Southern California. 
It produces over 1,000,000 gallons of wine annually. It 
has one weekly paper. Pop. 881. 

Richard Melrose, Pub. “Southern Californian.” 

Anahuac', a Mexican word used vaguely or in various 
senses, sometimes applied to the great central table-land 
or plateau of Mexico, which comprises more than half of 
the Mexican republic, and lies between lat. 15° and 30° N. 
and Ion. 95° and 110° W. It is elevated from 6000 to 9000 
feet above the level of the sea, contains several lakes, and 
is bounded on the E. and W. by chains of high mountains. 
From this plateau rise several high volcanoes, one of which, 
Popocatepetl, has an altitude of 17,784 feet. 

Anahuac Mountains, a branch of the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains, is a chain in the northern part of Mexico, W. of the 
Rio del Norte, with which it is nearly parallel, and con¬ 
nected with the Anahuac table-lands. 

An'akim, the ancient race of giants who lived in the 
S. of Palestine at the time of the exodus of the Israelites. 
They are called “the children of Anak” in Numbers xiii. 
28. “Joshua destroyed them utterly with their cities,” but 
a remnant of them was left in Gaza, in Gath, and in Ash- 
dod (Joshua xi. 21). 

Anal'cime, or Anal'cite [from the Gr. a, priv., and 
aAKiju. 05 , “ strong”], a hydrated silicate of soda and alu¬ 
mina, generally occurring in twenty-four-sided crystals, 
which are sometimes transparent. By friction it becomes 
feebly electrified, whence its name. It is found in the trap- 
rocks of Ireland, Scotland, Nova Scotia, and Lake Su¬ 
perior. 

Analem'ma [Lat. analem'ma ; Gr. avd\rpj.p.a, a “sup¬ 
port” or “ object supported,” from avd, “ up,” and Aa p.pdvc», 
to “take”], in geometry, the projection of a sphere upon 
the plane of a meridian, the eye being supposed to be 
placed at an infinitely distant point of the radius perpen¬ 
dicular to that plane. In this projection (which is also 
called orthographic ) all small circles whose planes are par¬ 
allel to that of projection are represented by concentric 
circles of the same magnitude as the originals, all circles 
in planes perpendicular to that of projection are seen as 
chords or diameters of the meridian circle, and all other 
cii’cles of the sphere are projected into ellipses. 

A'nal Glands, in comparative anatomy, are organs for 
secreting substances which, though not always so, are gen¬ 
erally repulsive in their character, and are commonly em¬ 
ployed for purposes of defence. They present every grade 
of the glandular structure, nearly always opening into the 
termination of the intestine near the anus. The sweet fluid 
ejected by the aphides, and of which the ants are so fond, 
is the product of secerning tubules opening on the poste¬ 
rior part of the body; and the singular defensive acrid 
vapors discharged explosively by the insects called “ bom¬ 
bardiers ” are likewise the products of anal glands. In the 
mollusks the most remarkable example of these glands is 
presented by certain cephalopods, such as the cuttle-fish, 
in which there is sometimes a single and sometimes a bi- 
lobed or trilobed cyst, that secretes an inky fluid which 
these animals eject to blacken the water around them, for 
the purpose of concealment in time of danger. In reptiles 
the anal bags are either single, double, or triple, and in 
many species, as in frogs and tortoises, are developed to a 

* It is usual for anagrammatists to treat i as the same with j, 
and u as identical with v. 


great size, and serve for aquatic respiration. In birds the 
anal follicles consist of a single cavity, which is termed the 
bursa Fabricii. In quadrupeds the anal follicles generally 
consist of two sacciform cavities, each having an opening 
near the verge of the anus. In the^kunk ( Mcphi'tis va'- 
rians) the secretion of these glands furnishes to the animal 
its principal means of defence. In the civet ( Viverra 
civetta ) and the beaver ( Castor fiber) the secretions from 
the anal glands have long been an article of commerce; the 
former is sometimes employed, when combined with other 
substances, as a perfume; the latter, under the name of 
castor, is used in medicine. 

An'alogue [from the Gr. avd. “according to,” and 
Ao-yo?, “ratio” or “proportion”], in comparative anatomy, 
a member or organ of an animal that performs the same 
function as a part or organ in a different animal. Thus, 
the wing of a bird is the analogue of the wing of an insect, 
though different in structure. 

Alial'ogy [Lat. analo'gia; Gr. avaAoyc'a, from avd, “ac¬ 
cording to,” and Aoyos, “ ratio ” or “ proportion ”], literally, 
the state or circumstance of having proportion one to the 
other; used to denote a relation or agreement between dif¬ 
ferent things in certain respects. The conclusions to which 
we are led respecting one thing, by reasoning from our ex¬ 
perience concerning another similar thing, form what is 
termed analogical knowledge. The word analogy is gen¬ 
erally employed to designate an imperfect degree of simi¬ 
larity. Thus, a physician, arguing from the effects which 
he had seen produced by a certain drug on one man to its 
probable effects on another man, would be said to reason 
from experience; but reasoning from the effects produced 
on an inferior animal to the probable effects on man, he 
would be, more properly, reasoning from analogy. Thus 
also, Bishop Butler, in his celebrated treatise on the “Anal¬ 
ogy of Religion, Natural and Ptevealed,” has argued that 
the same sort of difficulties which are found in the consti¬ 
tution of nature must be looked for in the spiritual world, 
and that the existence of this analogy is a good reason for 
believing that revealed religion proceeds from God, the 
Creator of the material universe. 

In rhetoric, the word analogy designates, not the direct 
resemblance between two objects, but a resemblance be¬ 
tween the relations in which they stand to other objects. 
For example, to term youth “ the dawn of life ” is said to 
be an analogical metaphor, because there is no direct re¬ 
semblance between youth and morning, but the one maybe 
said to bear the same relation to life that the other does 
to day. In grammar, analogy means a conformity in the 
principles of organization of different words or collections 
of words. In geometry, analogy signifies nearly the same 
thing as proportion, or the equality or similitude of ratios. 

In zoology, the term analogy is usually restricted to the 
relation w'hich animals bear to one another in the similarity 
of a smaller proportion of their organism; thus, the As- 
calaphus Italicus, in the length and knobbed extremities 
of its antennae, the coloring of its wings, and its general 
aspect, exhibits a striking resemblance to the butterfly, but 
in all the essential parts of its organization it conforms to 
the neuropterous type of structure; its relation to the Lep- 
idoptera is therefore said to be one of analogy, while it is, 
in fact, connected with the ant-lions by affinity. 

Reasoning from analogy consists in inferring that cer¬ 
tain facts are true with reference to objects which have 
afforded us no examples of those facts, on the basis of the 
similarit 3 r of those objects to other objects better known. 
It warrants only probable conclusions, but the probability 
may often become very strong, and in the affairs of life it 
is often necessary to act upon conclusions thus attained. 
Even when its conclusions are very uncertain, they may 
often serve to guide inquiry and lead to discovery. 

Revised by J. II. Gilmore. 

Anal'ysis [Gr. diGAvcns, from dvd, “throughout,” and 
Av'w, to “ untie ”], in geometry, a method of conducting geo¬ 
metrical inquiries, invented by the philosophers of the 
school of Plato, or, according to Theon of Alexandria, by 
Plato himself, and one of the most ingenious and beautiful 
contrivances in the mathematics. 

“Analysis,” says Pappus, “may be distinguished into 
two kinds : in the first, which may be called contemplative 
analysis, we propose to discover the truth or lalscliood of 
an affirmed proposition; the other belongs to the solution 
of problems, or the investigation of unknow'n truths. In 
the first we assume the subject of the proposition advanced 
to be true, and proceed through the consequences of the 
hypothesis till we arrive at something known. If this re¬ 
sult is true, the proposition is true also, and the direct dem¬ 
onstration is obtained by stating in an inverse order the 
different parts of the analysis. If the ultimate consequence 
at which we arrive is false, the proposition Avas also false. 
In the oase of a problem, wo first suppose it to be resolved, 















140 ANALYSIS, CHEMICAL—ANAPHORA. 


and deduce the consequences resulting from that solution 
till we arrive at something known. If the last consequence 
involves only something which can be executed, or is com¬ 
prised among what geometers called data, the proposed 
problem can be solved; and the demonstration—or rather, 
in this case, the construction—is obtained, as in the for¬ 
mer case, by taking the different parts of the analysis in 
an inverse order. If the last result is impossible, the thing 
demanded is also impossible." 

The names of the ancient writers on the geometrical 
analysis are—Euclid, in his “Data and Porismata;” Apol¬ 
lonius, in his treatise “ De Sectione Rationis ” and in his 
“Conic Sections;” Aristams, “De Locis Solidis;” and Era¬ 
tosthenes, “De Mediis Proportionalibus;” but of these only 
the “Data” of Euclid and some fragments of Apollonius 
have come down to our times. A complete system of the 
ancient geometrical analysis may be found in the works of 
Dr. Simson of Glasgow. The reader may also consult with 
advantage Leslie’s “ Geometrical Analysis.” 

Analysis is directly opposed to synthesis, which advances 
step by step through known propositions, from the data to 
the qumsita in the case of a problem, or from the hypothesis 
to the predicate in the case of a theorem. Analysis is the 
chief though not the sole instrument of discovery, whilst 
synthesis adapts itself naturally to instruction. Euclid’s 
direct demonstrations, for example, are all synthetical; his 
indirect ones, however, retain the analytical character. The 
methods of conducting analysis and synthesis are the same 
in kind, the only difference being that, in the hands of the 
investigator at least, the several steps of the former are ex¬ 
periments suggested by experience, for which no rule can 
be assigned, whereas in the latter these steps are suggested 
by previous knowledge, gained, in fact, very frequent^ from 
a preliminary analysis. 

The ancient geometers conducted their analysis by means 
of ordinary language only; their successors, however, fre¬ 
quently availed themselves of the powerful resources of 
algebra. As a consequence of this habit the word anal¬ 
ysis, until a very recent reaction set in, lost entirely its 
original meaning as a method of reasoning opposed to 
synthesis, and by a strange perversion of terms became 
synonymous with algebra and the calculus; that is to say, 
with the instruments employed in investigation. The fact 
that algebra may be, and often is, employed synthetically 
as well as analytically appears to have been overlooked. 

Revised by J. Thomas. 

Analysis, Chemical. See Chemical Analysis, by 
Prof. S. W. Johnson, A. M., and Volumetric Analysis. 

Analytical Geometry. See Geometry. 

Anam', or Annam', Empire of, called also Cochin 
China, a country of South-eastern Asia, is bounded on the 
N. by China, on the S. and E. by the Chinese Sea, and on 
the W. by Laos, Siam, and the Gulf of Siam. Area, about 
198,000 square miles. It lies between lat. 8° 40' and 23° 
22' N. The length from N. to S. is about 800 miles, and 
the width is very unequal in different parts. It is traversed 
by a long range of high mountains, the direction of which 
is nearly N. and S. The principal river is the Mekong (or 
Cambodja), which is navigable, and flows southward into 
the Chinese Sea. The empire of Anam was formed at the 
beginning of the present century out of the former king¬ 
doms of Tonquin and Cochin China (Ko-Tchin-Tching), 
to which were added the province of Champa and a part 
of the ancient kingdom of Cambodja. The population is 
variously estimated at from 9,000,000 to 27,000,000, the 
latter figure being given by the Catholic missionaries. 

Tonquin is the most northern part of Anam, and borders 
on the Gulf of Tonquin. It is intersected by the river 
Sang-koi, which enters the Gulf of Tonquin. The soil is 
fertile, and produces rice, cotton, and spices, with a variety 
of varnish trees and palms. Gold, silver, copper, and iron 
abound in Tonquin, which is the only part of Anam that is 
rich in metals. 

Cochin China is a long and narrow district, bounded on 
the E. by the Chinese Sea, and on the W. by a range of 
barren mountains, which have not been explored. A large 
part of the soil is sterile. The scenery of the coast is grand 
and beautiful. The chief products are eagle-wood (Aloex 
ylon), sugar, and cinnamon. 

Cambodia, or Kamboja, is S. W. of Cochin China, and 
borders on the Gulf of Siam. (See Cambodia.) 

Champa, or Tsiampa, is the most southern part of Anam, 
bordering on the sea. The soil is sterile, consisting of sand¬ 
hills and granite formations, but yields one valuable pro¬ 
duct, the fragrant eagle-wood. Several good harbors occur 
on the coast of Champa. 

The government of Anam is despotic. Mandarins ap¬ 
pointed by the emperor govern the provinces, and are the 
commanders of the army. Buddhism is the religion of 
the majority of the people; among the higher classes Con¬ 


fucius has many adherents. Roman Catholic missions were 
planted in the seventeenth century, soon became prosper¬ 
ous, and have maintained themselves in spite of the most 
cruel persecutions. In 1862 the emperor engaged in a 
treaty of peace concluded with France to tolerate Chris¬ 
tianity and protect the Christians in their lives and prop¬ 
erty throughout the empire. In 1872 the Catholic Church 
of Anam (inclusive of the French Cochin China) was divided 
into eight vicariates apostolic, of which four were in 1 on- 
quin, three in Cochin China, and one in Cambodja. The 
Christian population was in 1864 estimated at 500,000; and 
though from 1864 to 1862 it greatly decreased, it is now 
believed to exceed that number, as in 1865 the apostolic 
vyiariate of Tonquin alone had 127,852, and that ot East¬ 
ern Tonquin 43,315 Catholics. The commerce of Anam is 
to a large extent in the hands of Chinese merchants; the 
chief branch of industry is silk manufacture. The capital 
is Hue, at the mouth of the river of the same name. 

The Anamese language is, like the Chinese, monosyllabic ; 
the literature consists almost exclusively of imitations of 
Chinese works. About 214 B. C., Tonquin and Cochin 
China were conquered by a Chinese prince and settled by 
Chinese colonists. From that time to 1428 they were in 
turn sometimes subject to China, sometimes independent. 
In 1428 they threw off the Chinese yoke and formed an 
independent empire, under the dynasty Leh. But the au¬ 
thority of this house became soon merely nominal, Ton¬ 
quin being ruled (since 1545) by the dynasty of the Trinh, 
Cochin China (since 1600) by that of Nguyen. A new 
dynasty, Tay-song, arose in 1765, and exterminated the 
dynasties of Leh, Trinh, and Nguyen. Only one scion of 
the latter, Nguyen-anh, escaped, was educated in France, 
and having returned to Anam, and conquered and exter¬ 
minated the dynasty Tay-song, was under the name Gya- 
long proclaimed as the first emperor of Anam. His natural 
son and successor, Minh-menh (1820-41), and the son and 
grandson of the latter, Thien-tri (1841-47), and Tu-duc 
(since 1847), were all cruel persecutors of the Catholic 
Church, and thus became involved in hostilities with 
France and Spain. A four-years’ war (1858-62) ended 
in a treaty of peace, by which the emperor of Anam ceded 
three provinces of Cochin China, Saigon, Bienhoa, and 
Mytho, to France. In 1867 three other provinces of Cochin 
China, Yinh-long, Chan-doc, and Ha-tien, were annexed 
to the French dominions, which have an area of 21,728 
square miles, and a population of 1,204,287. (See Veuil- 
lot, “La Cochin Chine et la Tonquin,” 1859; Cortambert 
and De Rosny, “Tableau de la Cochin Chine,” 1863; Bas- 
tian, “Die Volker des ostl. Asiens,” vol. iv., 1868.) 

A. J. Schem. 

Anam'boe, or Anamaboe, a seaport and British fort 
on the Gold Coast of Africa, 11 miles E. N. E. of Cape Coast 
Castle, is the residence of a governor. It exports palm-oil, 
gold-dust, ivory, etc. Pop. about 3000. 

Anamirapucu', a river of Brazil, in the province of 
Par&, enters the estuary of the Amazon after a course of 
about 200 miles. 

Anam or'phosis [Gr. ava/xopfjWcri?, from dvd, “ again,” 
and ixopQoa), to “form”], in natural history, denotes the 
ideal change of form or development which may be traced 
through the species or higher members of a natural group 
of animals or plants. Some naturalists adopt the theory 
that living species have been developed from extinct spe¬ 
cies by the process of anamorphosis. The term is some¬ 
times applied in botany to an unusual development of an 
organ, as the calyx of a rose assuming the form of a fruit. 

Anamorphosis, in perspective, denotes a drawing which 
when viewed in the usual way appears distorted or pre¬ 
sents an image of something different, but when viewed 
from a particular point or reflected by a curved mirror, it 
appears in its proper form and just proportions. 

Anamo'sa, a post-village, capital of Jones co., Ia., on 
the Wapsipinicon and Buffalo rivers, 50 miles S. W. of 
Dubuque, on the Dubuque and South-western and Iowa 
Midland R. Rs. It has two weekly newspapers, a national 
bank, excellent quarries of building-stone, and a State pen¬ 
itentiary. Pop. 2083. Ed. “Anamosa Eureka.” 

Ananassa Sativa. See Pineapple. 

Ananyev, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Kherson, 90 miles N. W. of Odessa. Pop. in 1867, 11,402. 

Anapa', a seaport and fortified town of Russian Cir¬ 
cassia, on the N. shore of the Black Sea, near the mouth 
of the Kuban. The harbor is not safe in stormy weather. 
The town has been by turns the property of Turks and 
Russians, and now belongs to the latter. Pop. about 9000. 

Anaph'ora [Lat. anaph'ora / Gr. avaefropd, from ava, 
“again ’ or “back,” and <t>epo), to “carry”], in rhetoric, a 
repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of two or 
more consecutive sentences or clauses, as, “ It is sown in 








ANARRIIICHAS—ANATOLIA. 


141 


corruption ; it is raised in incorruption. It is sown in dis¬ 
honor; it is raised in glory. It is sown in weakness; it is 
raised in power.” 

Anar'rhichas [from the Gr. dud, "up,” and dppi X aa0a h 
to “clamber”], the name of a genus of spiny-finned osse- 


properties. Under the influence of drought it rolls up into 
a ball, becomes detached from the ground, and is carried 
away by the wind. When it comes into contact with moist¬ 
ure it expands into its natural form. It retains for many 
years this property of expanding when moistened. 




Aiiarrhichas lupus, Sea Wolf. 

ous fishes, characterized by having their mandibular, pal¬ 
atine, and vomerine bones armed with large osseous tuber- 
cules bearing on their summits enamelled teeth. It in¬ 
cludes the wolf-fish, which is common to both sides of the 
Atlantic. 

A'nas [from the Lat. a'nas, a “duck”], a Linnman 
genus of web-footed birds belonging to the order Palmi¬ 


Anas clypeala, or Shoveler Duck. 

pedes, has been divided by recent ornithologists into many 
genera—namely, Anas (the duck), Anser (the geese), Cygnus 
(the swans), Aythyn (red-head), Somateria (eiders), etc. 
The anas in this restricted sense has a flattened bill, the 
base of which has a greater breadth than depth, and the 
bill is as wide (or wider) at the extremity as at the base. 

Anasarca. See Dropsy. 

Anasta'sius I., emperor of Constantinople, was born 
at Durazzo about 430 A. D. He succeeded the emperor 
Zeno in 491. The orthodox, who considered him a heretic, 
revolted and defeated his army in 514. Died in 518 A. D. 

Anastasius II. became emperor of the East in 713 
A. D. Theodosius was chosen emperor by his army, which 
took Constantinople and deposed Anastasius in 716. Died 
in 720 A. D. 

Anastasius I., Saint, a native of Rome, became pope 
about 398 A. D. He condemned the doctrines of Origen. 
Died in 402 A. D. —Anastasius II., Saint (Pope), a native 
of Rome, succeeded Gelasius I. in 496 A. D. Died in 498.— 
Anastasius III. was chosen pope in place of Sergius III. 
in 911. Died in 913.— Anastasius IV. succeeded Eugenius 
III. as pope in 1153. He died at an advanced age Dec. 2, 
1154. 

Anastasius, surnamed the Librarian, a Roman 
priest who was librarian of the Vatican, and lived about 
860 A. D. He compiled an “ Ecclesiastical History ” in 
Latin, and wrote other works. Died about 890. 

Anastasius, Saint, surnamed Astric, the apostle of 
the Hungarians, was born in 954. He converted the duke 
Stephen, and many other Hungarians. Died in 1044. 

Anastasius Griin. See Auersperg. 

Anastat'ica [from the Gr. dvdarac ns, “resurrection ”], 
the name of a genus of cruciferous plants, one species of 
which, called the rose of Jericho ( Anastatica Hierochun- 
tina), grows in Palestine and has singular hygroscopic 


Anastat'ic Printing, a process by which 
printing and engravings may be transferred to 
metal, from which impressions exactly like the orig¬ 
inal can be taken. The printed sheet is moistened 
with dilute phosphoric or nitric acid, and pressed 
with great force upon a zinc plate, which is after¬ 
wards washed with an acid solution of gum, and 
then inked with a roller. 

Anas'trophe [from the Gr. dvd, “up,” “back,” 
“over,” and <7Tpe'$w, to “turn”], a term in rhetoric 
applied to a species of inversion or departure from 
the usual order of succession in words, as when 
Scott, in the “ Lady of the Lake,” says, “ Clattered a hun¬ 
dred steeds along,” for “A hundred steeds clattered along;” 
so Virgil in the “iEneid,” lib. i., 1. 32, has “ Maria omnia 
circum ” for “ c ircurn omnia maria ” (“around all the seas ”). 

An'atase [from the Gr. anxratn?, “extension,” so called 
from the length of its crystals], a name of titanic acid or 
oxide of titanium, which occurs in octahedral crystals, 
having a splendent and adamantine lus¬ 
tre. Some specimens found in Brazil re¬ 
semble diamonds so much as to be mis¬ 
taken for them. Called also octahedrite. 

Anath'ema [av<£0e|u.a, from avd, “up,” 
and Tt0Tjp.i, to “set” or “place”], a Greek 
word, the primarj" meaning of which was 
something “placed” or “hung up” in 
the temples of the gods, and hence “con¬ 
secrated” or “devoted.” Among the 
Jews and Christians it is a curse or de¬ 
nunciation uttered by ecclesiastical au¬ 
thority, and a form of excommunication 
of heretics and other offenders. 

An'athoth, or A'nata, an ancient 
'Jewish city of refuge, about 4 miles N. E. 
of Jerusalem, is supposed to have been 
the native place of the prophet Jeremiah. 

Anat'idac, the name of a family of 
web-footed birds, of which the genus Anas 
is the type. It includes the duck, goose, 
swan, and others. Cuvier gave them the 
name of Lamellirostres. 

Anato'lia, Anado'li, or Nato'Iia 
[from the Gr. ’Arai-oAr), the “rising” or 
“orient”], the modern name of Asia Mi¬ 
nor, which is a large peninsula, bounded 
on the N. by the Black Sea and the Sea 
of M&rmora, on the S. by the Mediterranean, and on the 
W. by the Grecian Archipelago. The Euphrates forms part 
of its ill-defined eastern boundary. It lies between lat. 36° 
and 42° N., and between Ion. 26° and 41° E. The length 
from E. to W. is about 700 miles, and the area is estimated 
at 204,434 square miles. The western coast is indented with 
numerous gulfs, and presents many high and precipitous 
cliffs. The interior is an elevated plateau, enclosed by two 
mountain-ranges—namely, Mount Taurus, which extends 
through the southern part from the Euphrates to the archi¬ 
pelago ; and Anti-Taurus, which traverses the northern 
part. The general direction of these ranges is nearly E. 
and W. Some peaks of Mount Taurus attain a height of 
10,000 feet or more. Between these two long ranges aro 
several others which rise to a great height. The highest 
summit in Anatolia is the volcanic Arjish-Dagh, or Mount 
Argmus, which is situated 13 miles S. of Kaisareeyeh, and 
is 13,000 feet above the level of the sea. Mount Olympus, 
about 8 miles S. of Brusa, has an altitude of 8800 feet. 

The largest river of Anatolia is the Kizil-Irmak (anc. 
Halys), w T hich rises in the E. part and enters the Black 
Sea. The western part of the peninsula is drained by the 
Meander and the Ilermus (Sarabat), which flow westward 
into the JEgean Sea. In the central part are a number of 
salt lakes and barren steppes of large extent. The Kata- 
kekaumene, or “ burnt country,” a volcanic waste, is the 
best known of these regions. 

The rocks which underlie the upper regions of Anatolia 
are mostly granite, serpentine, and schist. Along the 
southern and western coasts calcareous rocks predominate, 
and marble is abundant. Numerous extinct volcanoes and 
rocks of volcanic origin occur in different parts of the coun¬ 
try. The climate presents a great diversity in consequence 
of the inequality of the surface. The western shores have 
been celebrated in all ages for their mild and genial cli¬ 
mate, and the coast of the Black Sea is favored in that re¬ 
spect. The central plateau is very hot in summer and cold 



















































































142 ANATOLIA—ANAXAGORAS. 


in winter, partly because it is not well watered and is gene¬ 
rally destitute of forest trees. The northern region and 
the other sea-coasts are covered with extensive forests of 
oak, ash, beech, plane, and other trees good for timber. 
The coasts of the Aegean and Black seas have a very lux¬ 
uriant vegetation and a fertile soil. Among the chief prod¬ 
ucts are sugar, wine, opium, tobacco, olives, figs, wheat, 
barley, and silk. The flora of Southern and Western Ana¬ 
tolia is extremely beautiful. The mountains arc infested 
by panthers, bears, and wolves. 

Anatolia, which forms a part of the dominions of the 
sultan of Turkey, comprises the pashalies of Anatolia, 
Itchelee, Karamania, Marash, Sivas (or Room), and Tre- 
bizond. The population, which is estimated at 10,970,000, 
consists of Ottoman Turks (who are a large majority), 
Turkomans, Greeks, nomadic Koords, and Armenians. 
The cultivation of the soil is generally neglected here, and 
the principal branches of industry are the production of 
opium, wine, and oil, and weaving shawls and carpets. 
The chief cities are Smyrna, Brusa (or Bursa), Sinope, 
Angora, Konieh, Kutaieh, and Trebizond. In ancient 
times this peninsula was occupied by many powerful king¬ 
doms and famous cities. (See Asia Minor, Ionia, Lydia, 
Pontds, etc. Hamilton, “ Researches in Asia Minor,” 
1842; Tchihatcheff, “Asie Mineure,” 1853-60; and 
Barth, “ Reise von Trapezunt bis Skutari,” 1860.) 

A. J. Schem. 

AnaloJia is also a pashalic of Asiatic Turkey, form¬ 
ing the western portion of the peninsula called Asia Minor. 
It is the largest and richest province in the Turkish em¬ 
pire, and the most populous in Western Asia, comprising 
nearly half of the Anatolia described above. 

Auat'omy [from the Gr. &vd, “up,” “through,” and 
re^yu), to “cut”], the science of the structure of organized 
bodies; so called because its results are attained and its 
investigations are pursued by “cutting up” or dissecting 
organisms. The widest and most general knowledge of 
organized structures is to be attained only by the exami¬ 
nation and comparison of the structure of all species of 
animals and vegetables. Such a comparison has given 
name to the science of Comparative Anatomy (which see) 
—a science embracing in its field all the other branches of 
anatomical knowledge. That branch of comparative anat¬ 
omy which seeks to trace the unities of plan which are ex¬ 
hibited in diverse organisms, and which discovers, as far 
as may be, the principles which govern the growth and 
development of organized bodies, and which finds func¬ 
tional analogies and structural homologies is denominated 
“philosophical” or “transcendental” anatomy. The 
study of the structure of animals is called zootomy, or 
animal anatomy ; vegetable anatomy is known as phytot- 
omy, or more frequently as structural botany. That branch 
of anatomy which describes the organs or viscera, etc. 
of any one species, and the relations of these organs to 
each other, is called descriptive or special anatomy, or or¬ 
ganography. Histology treats of the “ tissues ” or imme¬ 
diate structural elements. Microscopic anatomy is minute 
histology, or the science of the more remote structural ele¬ 
ments of which the body is built up. The examination of 
the ultimate structural elements is the province of organic 
chemistry, but between that science and histology there is 
yet an uncrossed, perhaps an impassable, barrier. (See His¬ 
tology, by Col. J. J. Woodward, M. I).) 

Vegetable anatomy is, and must be, chiefly histological, 
since the various parts of plants are structurally much less 
differentiated from their typical histological elements than 
those of most animals. Indeed, the organography of 
plants is very simple, the philosophical anatomist being 
able to show that all the proper organs of the vegetable 
are modifications of the leaf. 

Human anatomy, the science of the structure of the 
human body, is not only a subject of interest and vital 
importance to the physician and the surgeon, but should 
be understood in its general outlines by parents and 
teachers, and by every one who recognizes the im¬ 
portance of the knowledge of that self of which the 
body is so important a part. To the painter and sculptor 
the study of the superficial muscles and bones is consid¬ 
ered indispensable. Such knowledge is primarily sought 
in the dissecting-room; but the slowly accumulated results 
of the practical anatomist’s work have been minutely 
recorded; and for ordinary instruction the published 
text-books are sufficient; while for the surgeon, and even 
for the artist, practical work with the scalpel is all im¬ 
portant, as substituting certainty and familiar personal 
knowledge for the less valuable knowledge that is acquired 
by reading and tradition. Practical anatomical work is 
pursued and legalized in most civilized nations; and the 
(much exaggerated) abuses to which it has led in former 
times are now for the most part prevented by law. 


Human anatomy is “general,” “special,” “topograph¬ 
ical,” or “ surgical.” “ General anatomy ” applies the re¬ 
sult of philosophical anatomy to the human body, assigns 
various organs to appropriate groups, and divides the 
whole subject into suitable branches or heads; “special 
anatomy” describes the constituent parts; “topographi¬ 
cal” or “regional anatomy” studies the relations of parts 
in important portions of the body ; “ surgical anatomy ” is 
the application of regional anatomj^ to parts peculiarly 
liable to surgical operations, and its study is entered into 
as a preparation for such operations. “ Pathological an¬ 
atomy,” or the study of organs as modified by disease, is 
also an important branch of the science. 

As the leaf and its appendages in the organography of 
the vegetable kingdom, and as the segment with its ap¬ 
pendages in articulate animals, are regarded as the single 
structural elements upon which the whole organism is built, 
so in man and in all vertebrates the vertebra with its 
apophyses or branches is the typical element of which 
the osseous framework is composed, and all the sym¬ 
metrical or bilateral parts are in a manner dependencies 
of the osseous system. 

This great truth was first fully grasped by Oken. Another 
remarkable generalization was made by the great Bichat— 
that all non-symmctrical parts, such as the digestive and 
circulatory systems, are of a character resembling tjie vege¬ 
tative growth, and not directly subject to the will. Such 
parts have in general non-striated muscles, and are largely 
supplied with nerves of the so-called sympathetic sys¬ 
tem; while, on the other hand, bilateral and symmetrical 
parts, as the limbs and the most important muscles, are 
largely under the direction of the will, and are supplied 
by cercbro-spinal nerves. Two hundred and twenty-nine 
pairs of voluntary muscles are recognized by anatomists. 

The muscles, in accordance with this theory, are divided 
into—1, striated muscles, or “muscles of animal life,” 
which are symmetrical or found alike on both sides; and, 
2, non-striated muscles, those of “ organic life,” which are 
found chiefly in non-symmetrical parts, or if in symmetrical 
parts they always exist as parts of some sjiecial organ, 
while striated muscles are never so found. 

We have seen incidentally that there are likewise two 
sj’stems of nerves—the cerebro-spinal and the sympathetic 
or ganglionic systems, which are somewhat analogous to 
the two classes of muscles. Some theorists, perhaps rather 
fancifully, make a similar twofold division in almost all the 
animal tissues. 

Anatomists divide their science into osteology, which 
treats of the skeleton; myology, the science of the mus¬ 
cles ; angiology, which describes the blood-vessels or the 
circulatory system; splanchnology, relating to the viscera 
or organs concerned in the digestion of food; and into 
other branches which relate to the respiratory, nervous, 
and reproductive systems and the organs of special sense. 
These minor sciences, however, treat of the physiology 
(functions) as well as the anatomy (structure) of the vari¬ 
ous parts. (For descriptions of the various organs and 
tissues, see Eye, Ear, Heart, Bone, Muscle, etc.) 

History .—It is said that the priests of ancient Egypt 
were familiar with the facts of human anatomy. The an¬ 
cient Greeks practised the dissection of animals, and gained 
considerable knowledge of their structure. Alcmseon, De¬ 
mocritus, Hippocrates, Diodes, and Aristotle were zooto- 
mists, but no ancient Greek seems to have suspected the 
existence-of a nervous system or of the circulation of the 
blood. Erasistratus (300 B. C.) is said to have been the 
first to dissect the human body. Herophilus and Parthenius 
followed him. Later, Galen, Seranus, and Moschion prac¬ 
tised dissection of the human body. The science of anat¬ 
omy, except so far as taught by Galen, perished with the 
old Roman empire. Its restorers were Mundinus (born 
1315), Guy de Chauliac, Vigo (1516), Sylvius (1539), In- 
grassias, Horman, Fallopius (1523-62), Eustachius (1500— 
75), but especially the Flemish Vesalius (1514-64). Leon¬ 
ardo da Vinci (1452-1519) had practically studied anatomy 
in its relations to art. Servetus (1509-53) is believed to 
have first announced the circulation of the blood; Cmsal- 
pinus, Paolo Sarpi, and others soon after made the same 
announcement, but its truth was first shown by Harvey 
(1578-1657), a pupil of Fabricius. The later names of 
Asellius, Bartholine, Wharton, Willis, Ruysch, Pachionius, 
Malpighi, Valsalva, Cotunni, Monro, and Meckel are 
among the most brilliant; but the number of eminent an¬ 
atomists is very great. In recent times microscopical and 
pathological anatomy have been the fields of numerous 
and important discoveries. Drs. John Bard and Peter 
Middleton of New York are said to have made the first 
dissection in America in 1750. Chas. W. Greene. 

Anaxag'ovas [’Ava£a-yopa?]> an eminent Greek philoso¬ 
pher of the Ionic School, was born at Clazomense, near 
Smyrna, about 500 B. C. He passed nearly thirty years at 















ANAXARCHUS—ANCIENTS. 


143 


Athens, to which he removed about 480, and enjoyed the 
friendship of Pericles. He wrote a “ Treatise on Nature/* 
of which small fragments are extant. In 450 B. C. he was 
accused of impiety, and, though defended by Pericles, was 
condemned to death or banishment, and retired to Lampsa- 
cus, where he died in 428 B.C. He appears to have maintained 
the eternity of matter. Combining great sagacity and close 
reasoning with diligent observation, he rendered important 
services to physical science. He ascribed the origin of the 
world and the order of nature to the operation of an eter¬ 
nal self-existent and infinitely powerful principle which 
he termed Nous (Mind). He taught that generation and 
destruction are only the union and separation of elements 
which can neither be created nor annihilated, demonstrated 
that air is a substance, explained the theory of eclipses, 
and refuted the doctrine that things may be produced by 
chance. (See Ritter, “ History of Philosophy,” 1838.) 

Anaxar'chns [’Ava£apxos], a Greek philosopher, born 
at Abdera, in Thrace, accompanied Alexander the Great in 
his expedition against Persia in 334 B. C. He gained the 
favor of that prince, whom he survived a short time. 

Anaximan'tler [’Ava£buav8pos], an eminent Greek phil¬ 
osopher, born at Miletus about 610 B. C., was a disciple of 
Thales. He is said to have discovered the obliquity of the 
ecliptic, and to have invented the sun-dial. According to 
tradition, he taught that the earth is a cylinder, that the 
sun is a globe of fire as large as, or larger than, the earth, 
and that infinity is the beginning and end of all things. 
He appears to have been the first Greek who wrote any 
work in prose on geometry or philosophy. Died about 546 
B. C. 

Anaxim'cnes [’Ai'afip.ev^?], a Greek philosopher of 
whom little is known, was born at Miletus, in Asia Minor, 
about 550 B. C. He taught that the original principle or 
primary form of things was air, or a subtle ether which is 
in perpetual motion. 

Anaximenes (of Lampsacus), a Greek historian and 
preceptor of Alexander the Great, about 340 B. C. He 
wrote a history of the reign of Philip of Macedon, and an¬ 
other of the exploits of Alexander, neither of which is extant. 

An'cach, a department of Peru, is bounded on the N. 
by the department of Libertad, on the E. by the littoral 
province of Loreto and the department of Junin, on the S. 
by the department of Lima, and on the W. by the Pacific. 
Area, estimated at 43,100 square miles. The department 
extends from the Andes to the Pacific, and contains all 
climates and their products. The chief occupations of the 
inhabitants are agriculture and the raising of cattle. The 
rich silver-mines in the mountains, as well as the rivers 
containing gold, are but very little worked at present. 
Chief town, Huaraz. Pop. about 190,000. 

Ancelot (Jacques Arsene Francois Polycarpe), a 
French dramatic poet, born at Havre Feb. 9, 1794, pro¬ 
duced in 1819 a tragedy entitled “ Louis IX.,” which was 
warmly applauded, and procured for him a pension of 2000 
francs. Among his other works are an epic poem called 
“ Marie de Brabant” (1825), “ Fiesque,” a tragedy (1824), 
and “ Olga,” a drama (1828). He was admitted into the 
French Academy in 1841. Died Sept. 7, 1854: 

His wife, Marguerite Yirginie Chardon, born at Dijon 
Mar. 15, 1792, was a novelist and an artist. She wrote sev¬ 
eral dramas and tales which are worthy of commendation. 

An'cestor [remotely from the Lat. an'te, “ before,” and 
ce'do, to “go”], one who has preceded another in the di¬ 
rect line of descent. In law it signifies one from whom an 
estate has been derived by inheritance; a deceased person 
from whom, on account of his decease, an estate has passed 
to another, called an heir, by operation of law. Ancestor 
and heir are correlative terms. In this sense a brother 
may be the ancestor of a brother, or a child of a father, 
wherever those persons can take land from such relatives 
by inheritance. 

Anchi'ses [Gr. ’Ayx tcri J ? l’ a Trojan prince related to 
Priam, was, according to tradition, a favored lover of 
Venus, and the father of /Eneas, with whom he escaped 
from Troy. He is said to have died in Sicily. 

Anchithe'rimn, an equine quadruped of which the re¬ 
mains are found in the lower mioceno strata, supposed to 
be the progenitor of Hipparion in the upper miocene, and 
hence of Equus in the pliocene. It is also regarded as a 
connecting link between the tapiroid Paleotherium of 
the eocene and our modern horses. In Anchitherium the 
foot was composed of three toes, all of which rested on t ic 
ground; in Hipparion the lateral toes were dwarfed, >ut 
present; in Equus they are obsolete, or repiesented only 
by the internal splint-bones. 

Anch'or [Lat. an'chora; Gr. ay/fvpa], an iron implement 
used to fasten a vessel to the ground in comparatively shal¬ 
low water. It consists of a round straight bar called the 


shrink, at the upper end of which is a transverse piece 
called the stock, and of two curved arms at the lower end 
of the shank, each of which arms terminates in a triangu¬ 
lar plate called a fluke or palm. The lower end of the 
shank is the crown. The stock is at right angles to the 
plane of the flukes. The cable is fastened to a ring in the 
upper end of the shank. When the anchor is cast from 
the ship into the sea, the crown first strikes the ground. 
The anchor then falls over, so that one end of the stock 
rests upon the ground, and the movement of the ship 
causes one of the flukes to enter the ground, and to pene¬ 
trate deeper in proportion as the strain or traction on the 
cable increases. Mr. Porter invented an improved form 
of anchor, the arms of which are pivoted to the stock, in¬ 
stead of being rigidly fixed. Men-of-war and large ships 
carry two large anchors of equal size at the bows, thence 
called bower anchors, and two of smaller size, called the 
sheet anchor and spare anchor. For particular and special 
services they have also the “ stream ” and the “kedge” 
anchor. Smaller vessels have fewer anchors and of inferior 
size. When one anchor is down, the ship is said to be at 
single anchor. When the anchor is dragged out of the 
ground by the movement of the vessel, it is said to come 
home, and when the cable becomes twisted around the 
anchor or stock, the anchor is said to be foul. To weigh 
anchor signifies to heave or raise the anchor out of the 
ground into the ship. 

Alich'orage, ground fit to hold a ship’s anchor, so that 
she may ride safely. Hard sand or stiff' clay forms the 
best anchorage. A landlocked harbor is also a requisite 
•of good anchorage. The water should not be too deep, as 
in that case the cable, extending nearly vertically, will be 
apt to pull the anchor out of the ground. The term is 
also applied to the toll or harbor-dues which the owner or 
captain of a ship pays for permission to cast anchor. 

Anch'orite, or Anch'orct [from the Gr. cGxcopijTT??, 
from iva, “up,” “back,” and x^P^ to “retire”], a hermit 
or person who has retired from the world and devoted him¬ 
self to ascetic religion in solitude. The term Avas first ap¬ 
plied to Christians of the third century who retired to caves 
and solitary places in the deserts of Palestine, Egypt, and 
Syria, to which, in some cases, they we* driven by perse¬ 
cution. They often subjected themselves to painful priva¬ 
tions and various forms of penance. The first of these 
anchorites was Paul of Thebes, who died in 340, aged 104 
years. The so-called “father of monachism” was Antony 
of Coma, in Upper Egypt, Avho was born in 251 and died 
in 356, aged 105 years. One anchorite, Simeon Stylites, is 
said to have lived many years on the top of a pillar in 
Syria, about 420-450 A. D. The chief difference between 
an anchorite and a monk is that the former lived alone, 
and the latter associated with other monks. The first mon¬ 
astery Avas founded by Pachomius, on the island of Tabenna 
in the Nile, about the year 340; the first nunnery, some 
eight years later. 

Ancho'vy (the Engrau'lis encrasich'olus of the natural¬ 



AnchoA r y. 

ists), a small fish, from five to seven inches long, Avhich 
abounds in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic shores 
of Europe. It belongs to the Clupeidse, or herring family, 
and is distinguished by a sharp-pointed head, the upper 
jaAv longer than the loAver, and the deeply-cleft mouth ex¬ 
tending behind the eyes. It is salted and packed in small 
barrels for exportation, and used for sauces, pastes, etc. 
The Engraulis vittatus, an anchovy of the Atlantic shores 
of the U. S., might easily be taken in immense quantities. 
Anchovies also abound on our Pacific coast. 

Anchovy Pear ( Gri'as cauliflo'ra), a tree which grows 
in the West Indies in moist ground or shalloAV Avater, and 
is allied to the Myrtacem. It bears a fruit (a drupe) which 
is pickled antf used for food. 

Anchylosis. See Ankylosis. 

Ancienne Lorette, a post-vdllage of Quebec co., 
province of Quebec, Canada, 7 miles S. W. of Quebec. 
About 250 Huron Indians live here, descendants of thoso 
who settled here after the dispersion of the Hurons by the 
Iroquois in the seA'cnteenth century. Pop. in 1871, 2333. 

An'cients [Lat. antia'nus, from an'tea or an'te, “ be¬ 
fore”], those persons Avho lived in former ages; a term 















144 ANCIENTS, COUNCIL OF—ANDERSEN. 


applied somewhat indefinitely to men of all generations 
except those that are modern, but there is no exact line of 
demarcation between the ancient and the modern. The 
term is also applied to gentlemen of the Inns of Court and 
Chancery in London. 

Ancients, Council of, in French history, one of the 
two assemblies composing the legislative body in 1795-99. 
It consisted of 250 members, each of whom had to be at 
least forty years old. It was dissolved by the revolution 
of the 18th Brumaire. 

Anci'le (plu. Ancil'ia), the shield of Mars, which, 
according to tradition, fell from heaven in the reign of 
Numa, when an oracle declared that Rome could never be 
taken while this shield remained in that city. Numa com¬ 
mitted it to the custody of the Salii or priests of Mars, 
and had eleven other shields made precisely like it, in order 
to prevent the genuine shield from being stolen. 

Ancillon (Johann Peter Friedrich), an able German 
historian and statesman of French extraction, was born at 
Berlin April 30, 1766. He was the pastor of a Protestant 
church in that city in the former part of his mature life. 
In 1801 he published “ Melanges of Literature and Philos¬ 
ophy.” His principal historical work is a “View of the 
Revolutions of the Political System of Europe since the 
Fifteenth Century ” (in French, 4 vols., 1803-05), which was 
very successful. He was soon appointed royal historiog¬ 
rapher and councillor of state. In 1831 he became minis¬ 
ter of foreign affairs. His policy was prudent and mod¬ 
erate. Died April 19, 1837. 

Anc'karsward (Karl Henrik), a Swedish statesman, 
born at Sweaborg in 1782. He was elected a- member of 
the Diet in 1817, and soon became the leader of the oppo¬ 
sition party, but retired to private life in 1829. Died in 
1865. 

Anco'na, a province of Central Italy, is bounded*on 
the N. by Pesaro and Urbino, on the E. by the Adriatic 
Sea, on the S. by Macerata, and on the W. by Perugia. 
Area, 740 square miles. The country is chiefly mountain¬ 
ous, and is traversed by the Esino and Musone. The chief 
articles of export are grain, oil, wine, and hazel-nuts. The 
chief branch of industry is the silk manufacture. Chief 
town, Ancona. Pop. in 1871, 262,359. 

Ancona, an important city and seaport of Central 
Italy, on the Adriatic, 132 miles by rail N. E. of Rome, 
capital of the province of Ancona. It is built on the slope 
of a hill, and presents a picturesque appearance from the 
sea. It is supposed to have been founded about 400 B. C. 
Among the remarkable public buildings are a cathedral, 
the government palace, the town-house, and a triumphal 
Corinthian arch, which was built by Trajan of white mar¬ 
ble. It has a college, ten churches, and several convents. 
The harbor is one of the best on the Adriatic. In 1732 it 
was declared a free port. Ancona is connected by rail¬ 
ways with Rome, Bologna, and Brindisi. It has consid¬ 
erable trade, carried on by steamships which ply between 
this point and the Levant. The chief articles of export 
are wool, grain, silk, oil, alum, sulphur, fruit, and soap. 
Ancona was taken in 1832 by the French, who occupied it 
until 1838. Lat. 43° 38' N., Ion. 13° 30' E. Pop. in 1871, 
45,741. 

Anco'na (Sydenham E.), born at Warwick, Lancaster 
co., Pa., Nov. 20, 1824, became connected with the Reading 
R. R., and was a member of Congress from Pennsylvania 
(1860-66). . 

An'cram, a post-township of Columbia co., N. Y. Iron 
ores are obtained here, and lead was formerly mined. Pop. 
1793. 

Ancre, d’ [It. D’Ancora ], (Concino Conoini), Le Mare- 
chal, an Italian courtier, born at Florence. He formed a 
part of the retinue of Maria de Medici (queen of Henry IV. 
of France) when she went to Paris in 1600, and he married 
Eleonora Galigai, who had much influence with that queen. 
His talents for intrigue and the favor of the queen (who in 
1610 became regent) raised him suddenly to power. In 1613 
he was appointed a marshal of France and prime minister. 
Having excited general odium by his rapacity, he was as¬ 
sassinated at Vitry April 24, 1617, by De Luynes and other 
conspirators. 

An'cus Mar'tius, fourth king of Rome, a grandson 
of Numa, succeeded Tullus Hostilius about 636 B. C. He 
promoted the religious institutions of Numa, and is consid¬ 
ered the founder of the plebeian order. He waged war 
against the Latins, whom he subdued, founded Ostia, and 
built the Pons Sublicius (Bridge of Piles). Died about 
612 B. C. 

An'cylus, a genus of small, patelliform, fresh-water gas- 
teropod mollusks, of which several species inhabit the 
streams and lakes of North America. 


Ancy'ra [Gr. ’ Ayicvpa ], an ancient city of Galatia, in 
Asia Minor, said to have been built by Midas, was about 
30 miles W. of the river Halys. Under the Roman empire 
it was an important city and the capital of Galatia. Its 
site is occupied by the modern city of Angora (which see). 
Two councils of the Church were held here—one in 314, 
and the other in 358 A. D. 

An'da, a genus of plants of the order Euphorbiaceae. 
The only known species is the Anda Brasiliensis, a Brazil¬ 
ian tree, the fruit of which contains two seeds, called Pur- 
(jados Paulistas. These afford a valuable fixed oil, which 
is used in medicine as a cathartic, and as a drying-oil by 
painters. The bark is astringent. 

Alldalu'sia [formerly called Vandalmia, from the Van¬ 
dals; Sp. Andaluci'd], the southern portion of Spain, is 
bounded on the N. by Estremadura and La Mancha, on 
the E. by Murcia and the Mediterranean, on the S. by the 
Mediterranean, and on the W. by Portugal and the Atlan¬ 
tic Ocean. Area, 33,665 square miles. It is supposed 
to correspond to the Tarshish (the western) of the Bible 
and the Bseticci of the Romans. The Sierra Morena ex¬ 
tends along the northern border, and the southern part is 
traversed by the Sierra Nevada, the highest summits of 
which rise about 11,000 feet above the sea. The largest 
river is the Guadalquivir, which flows south-westward and 
enters the Atlantic. The soil of the valleys and plains is 
fertile. Silver, copper, iron, lead, and mercury are found 
here. The chief products are grain, cotton, wine, wool, 
sugar, olives, oranges, and figs. The climate is delightful. 
The Andalusian breed of horses has long been celebrated. 
Andalusia is divided into eight provinces—viz., Almeria, 
Granada, Jaen, Cadiz, Cordova, Malaga, Huelva, and Se¬ 
villa, in each of which is a town of the same name. Pop. 
in 1867, 3,200,944. 

Andalusia, a post-village, capital of Covington co., 
Ala., 30 miles E. of Sparta. 

Andalusia, a post-township of Rock Island co., Ill. 
Pop. 878. 

Andalu'site, an anhydrous silicate of alumina, which 
is found in Andalusia and other places, and occurs in four¬ 
sided prisms. It may be distinguished from felspar by its 
greater hardness and infusibility. A peculiar variety called 
chiastolite or made is very abundant at South Lancaster, 
Mass. It occurs in stout crystals, having the axis angles 
of a different color from the rest, exhibiting a tessellated 
appearance on the cross section. (See Dana’s “System of 
Mineralogy,” 5th ed.) 

Andaman' Islands, a group of small, densely-wooded 
islands in the Bay of Bengal, between lat. 10° and 13° N., 
and about 93° E. Ion. Area, 2550 square miles. They are 
180 miles S. W. of Cape Negrais. The inhabitants are in 
the lowest stage of barbarism, and are said to resemble 
none of the races of the adjacent parts of Asia. It has 
been used as a penal colony for Hindoos by Great Britain. 
The earl of Mayo, the governor-general of India, was mur¬ 
dered here by a convict on Feb. 8, 1872. The native popu¬ 
lation does not exceed 1000, and is dying out. They wear 
no clothing except a coating of mud. The number of con¬ 
victs in 1868 was 7230, and the number of free inhabitants 
(inclusive of officers, soldiers, etc.), 1400. The chief set¬ 
tlement is Port Blair. 

Andan'te [the present participle of the It. verb an¬ 
da're, to “walk,” to “go”], an Italian musical term direct¬ 
ing the time, or rather the style, in which a piece is to be 
performed. It denotes a movement that is moderate, rather 
slow and sedate, but distinct and flowing. 

. Andaquies Wax, a peculiar beeswax from South 
America. 

Andclys, Les, 14 zSxd'le', a town of France, in the 
department of Eure, near the Seine, 20 miles N. E. of 
Evreux. Pop. in 1866, 5161. 

Alldennes, a town of Belgium, in the province of Na¬ 
mur, on or near the Meuse, and on the railroad from Namur 
to Liege, 12 miles by rail E. of the former. Porcelain is 
made here. Pop. in 1866, 6278. 

An'derlecht, a market-town of Belgium, in the prov¬ 
ince of Brabant, 10 miles S. W. of Brussels. It has brew¬ 
eries and large dyeing establishments. Pop. in 1866,11,663. 

Anderlo'ni (Pietro), a skilful Italian engraver, born 
near Brescia Oct. 12, 1784. He lived at Milan, and en¬ 
graved some works of Raphael, Titian, and Poussin. Died 
Oct. 13, 1849. 

An'dersen (IIans Christian), an eminent Danish poet 
and novelist, born at Odense, in the island of Fiinen, April 
2, 1805, was a son of a poor shoemaker, who died when 
Hans was nine years old. In 1819 he went to Copen¬ 
hagen to seek employment in the theatre, but was rejected 
because he was too lean. Before this period he had written 











ANDERSON. 


145 


several tragedies and poems, among which was the “Dying 
Child.” He made various unsuccessful efforts to obtain 
employment, and passed several years in adversity, until 
he found generous friends, who in 1828 placed him in the 
university, where he was educated at the public expense. 
In 1830 he published a volume of his collected poems. 
Having received a gift of money from the king, he visited 
Germany, France, and Italy in 1833, and produced in 1834 
a romance called “ The Improvisatore,” in which the sce¬ 
nery and manners of Italy are described with admirable 
fidelity. He related some episodes of his early life in a 
hook entitled “Only a Fiddler” (1837). Among his other 
works are “ The Poet’s Bazaar ” (1842); “Ahasuerus,” a 
drama; “The Two Baronesses,” a tale in English; and 
several volumes of fairy tales, which display original ge¬ 
nius and a rich imagination. His works have been trans¬ 
lated into many languages. (See Hans Andersen, “ True 
Story of my Life,” new edition, 1871.) 

Anderson, a county in the S. E. of Kansas. Area, 576 
square miles. It is drained by the three forks of the Pot- 
towatoinie Creek, which rise within its limits, and by Sugar 
Creek. The surface is undulating or nearly level; the soil 
is fertile. It is traversed by the Leavenworth Lawrence 
and Galveston R. R. Grain, tobacco, cattle, wool, hay, and 
butter are produced. Capital, Garnett. Pop. 5220. 

Anderson, a county in N. Central Kentucky. Area, 300 
square miles. The Kentucky River, here navigable, bounds 
it on the E. The county is intersected by Salt River. Gold 
and lead have been found. The surface is mostly undula¬ 
ting; the soil is fertile. Grain, tobacco, wool, hay, and 
butter are produced. Capital, Lawrenceburg. Pop. 5449. 

Anderson, a county in the N. W. of South Carolina, 
on the Savannah River. Area, 800 square miles. It is 
bounded on the N. E. by the Saluda River, and intersected 
by the Kiowee. The surface is diversified; the soil is gene¬ 
rally fertile and well watered. The Greenville and Colum¬ 
bia R. R. passes through it. Cattle, grain, cotton, tobacco, 
and wool are produced. Capital, Anderson. Pop. 24,049. 

Anderson, a county in the N. E. of Tennessee. Area, 
600 square miles. It is intersected by the Clinch River, 
and also drained by Powell’s River. Between the Cumber¬ 
land Mountain, which extends along the N. W. border, and 
Chestnut Ridge, is a large and fertile valley. The county 
has abundance of timber and valuable salt springs. Coal 
is found here. Grain, tobacco, and wool are produced. 
Capital, Clinton. Pop. 8704. 

Anderson, a county in E. Central Texas, containing 
1098 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Neches, 
and on the W. by Trinity River, which flows through a 
rich valley covered with good timber. The surface is un¬ 
dulating; the soil is fertile. Iron ore is abundant. Petro¬ 
leum has been found. It is intersected by the International 
R. R. Cattle, wool, corn, rice, and cotton are produced. 
Capital, Palestine. Pop. 9229. 

Anderson, a township of Clarke co., Ark. Pop. 504. 

Anderson, a post-township of Mendocino co., Cal. 
Pop. 679. 

Anderson, a township of Clarke co., Ill. Pop. 947. 

Anderson, a city, capital of Madison co., Ind., on the 
West Fork of White River, and at the crossing of the 
Cleveland Columbus Cincinnati and Indianapolis and the 
Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. Rs. It is a manu¬ 
facturing city, having a hydraulic canal with 44 feet fall. 
It has three banks (one national) and two newspapers. 
Owing to increase in manufacturing interests, it increases 
rapidly in population. Pop. 3126; of Anderson township, 
4713. Hardesty & Metcalf, Pubs. “Herald.” 

Anderson, a township of Perry co., Ind. Pop. 1136. 

Anderson, a township of Rush co., Ind. Pop. 1452. 

Anderson, a township of Warrick co., Ind. Pop. 842. 

Anderson, a township of Mills co., Ia. Pop. 531. 

Anderson, a post-township of Pope co., Minn. P. 74. 

Anderson, a township of Hamilton co., O. Pop. 4077. 

Anderson, capital of Anderson co., S. C., on the Green¬ 
ville and Columbia R. R., 127 miles W. N. W. of Columbia. 
It is prosperous, and has a thriving, industrious population. 
It is the seat of Carolina High School for boys and girls. 
It has a national bank and two weekly newspapers. Pop. 
1432. J. A. Hoyt, Ed. “Intelligencer.” 

Anderson, a township of Williamsburg co., S. C. P. 576. 

Anderson, a post-village, capital of Grimes co., Tex., 
140 miles N. E. of Austin and 9£ miles from the Texas 
Central R. R. It has excellent schools, and is the seat of 
Patrick Academy, a first-class institution. It has manu¬ 
factures of wagons, carriages, etc., and one weekly paper. 
Pop. 495. J. A. Kirgan, Ed. “Grimes Co. Journal.” 

Anderson (Alexander), M. D., born in New York 
10 


City in 1774, graduated as M. D. at Columbia College, and 
became the earliest wood-engraver in the U. S. He made 
the cuts for Webster’s “ Spelling Book,” illustrations for 
an edition of Shakspeare, and published an illustrated 
“ General History of Quadrupeds ” (1804). Died at Jersey 
City Jan. 16, 1870. 

Anderson (Christopher), pastor of a Baptist church 
in Edinburgh from 1808 till 1850, published sacred works, 
of which the most important is “ The Annals of the Eng¬ 
lish Bible” (2 vols. 8vo, 3 editions—1845, 1848, and 1855; 
the last two enlarged and improved), characterized byAlli- 
bone as “ by far the best book on the subject.” Died in 1851. 

Anderson (Henry James), M. D., LL.D., born in 1798, 
graduated at Columbia College, N. Y., in 1818, and at the 
College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1824. He became 
professor of mathematics and astronomy at Columbia Col¬ 
lege in 1825, and emeritus professor in 1866. He pub¬ 
lished “Geology of Lynch’s Expedition” and “ Geological 
Reconnaissance of the Holy Land” (1848). 

Anderson (Rev. H. T.), born in 1811, was an eminent 
scholar of the denomination known as the “ Disciples ” and 
“ Campbellites,” and was the author of an interlinear trans¬ 
lation of the New Testament. Died in Washington, D. C., 
Aug. 19, 1872. 

Anderson (Hugh J.), born in Maine in 1801, became a 
lawyer, was a member of Congress from Maine (1837-41), 
governor of Maine (1844-47), a presidential elector in 1849, 
U. S. commissioner of customs (1853-58), and in 1866 be¬ 
came sixth auditor of the U. S. treasury. 

Anderson (Isaac), D. D., an American Presbyterian 
minister, born in Rockbridge co., Va., Mar. 27, 1780. He 
emigrated in his youth to Tennessee, and was noted as a 
pioneer preacher in the West. He founded a theological 
seminary at Maryville, Tenn. Died Jan. 28, 1857. 

Anderson (James), LL.D., an able Scottish writer on 
political and rural economy, was born near Edinburgh in 
1739. He was a practical as well as a scientific farmer, and 
invented an improved form of plough. In 1777 he pub¬ 
lished “Essays relating to Agriculture and Rural Affairs” 
(3 vols.). He removed to London in 1797, and there issued 
a monthly periodical called “ Recreations in Agriculture, 
Natural History,” etc. (1799-1802), in which he anticipated 
the famous theory of rent afterwards adopted by Malthus 
and Ricardo. Died Oct. 15, 1808. 

Anderson (John), F. R. S., a Scotch naturalist, born in 
Dumbartonshire in 1726, was educated in the University 
of Glasgow. He became in 1760 professor of natural philos¬ 
ophy in that institution. In 1786 he published a valuable 
work entitled “ Institutes of Physics.” He gave gratuitous 
scientific lectures to the working-classes for many years. 
By his last will he founded a useful institution (in Glasgow) 
called Andersonian University (which see). Died Jan. 
13, 1796. 

Anderson (John Jacob), born in New York City in 
1821, was long at the head of one of the public schools of 
that city, and has published numerous works, chiefly edu¬ 
cational histories. 

Anderson (Joseph) was born in New Jersey Nov. 5, 
1757, was an officer in the Revolutionary war, became a 
lawyer, was appointed a territorial judge by Washington 
(1791), was U. S. Senator from Tennessee (1797-1815), and 
first comptroller of the U. S. treasury (1815-36). Died 
April 17, 1837. 

Anderson (Martin Brewer), LL.D., of Scotch-Irish 
descent on his father’s side, was born in Brunswick, Me., 
Feb. 12, 1815, graduated at Watcrville College (now Colby 
University), Waterville, Me., in 1840, was tutor in the col¬ 
lege two years, and then professor of rhetoric nearly seven 
years. In 1850 he removed to New York City, and became 
editor-in-chief, and in part proprietor, of the “New York 
Recorder.” In 1853 he was chosen president of the Ro¬ 
chester (N. Y.) Baptist University, which position he still 
(1873) holds. He has published numerous review articles, 
addresses, and educational papers. 

Anderson (Richard Clough, Jr.), born in Louisville, 
Ivy., Aug. 4, 1788, graduated at William and Mary College, 
was a member of Congress from Kentucky (1817-21). He 
was appointed minister to the republic of Colombia in 1823, 
and envoy extraordinary to the Congress at Panamd, in 
1826. Died July 24, 1^26. 

Anderson (Richard Henry), a general, born in South 
Carolina about 1822, graduated at West Point in 1842, and 
served with honor in the Mexican war. He became a 
brigadier-general of the Confederate States in 1861, major- 
general in 1862, and commanded a division at Gettysburg, 
July, 1863. 

Anderson (Robert), M. D., a Scottish biographer, born 
in Lanarkshire Jan. 7, 1750, became a resident of Edin- 




















burgh in 1784. He wrote a “ Life of Hr. Johnson/’ and 
published a good edition of “ The Works of the British 
Poets; with Prefaces Biographical and Critical” (14vols., 
1792-1807). Died Feb. 20, 1830. 

Anderson (Robert), an American officer, born June 
14, 1805, near Louisville, Ky., graduated at West Point, 
1825, and May 15, 1861, brigadier-general U. S. A. His 
father was colonel in the Revolutionary army, and his 
mother a cousin of Chief-Justice Marshall. He was private 
secretary 1825-26 to a relative upon his mission as U. S. 
minister plenipotentiary to the republic of Colombia, served 
at artillery school for practice 1826-28, chiefly on ordnance 
duty 1828-35, assistant inspector-general of Illinois vol¬ 
unteers in the Black llawk war 1832, engaged at the battle 
of Bad Axe, at Military Academy as instructor of artillery 
1835-37, in Florida war 1837-38 (brevet captain), in sev¬ 
eral actions, as aide-de-camp to Major-General Scott while 
removing Cherokees to the West 1838, as assistant adju¬ 
tant-general eastern department 1838-41, chiefly in garrison 
1845453, in war with Mexico 1847, engaged at Vera Cruz, 
Cerro Gordo, Amozoque, and Molino del Rey (severely 
wounded and brevet major), member of artillery boards 
1841-60, governor of Ilarroclsburg Military Asylum 1853- 
54, inspector of iron-work for public buildings 1855-59; in 
command of defences of Charleston harbor, S. C., 1860-61. 
In the civil war, after evacuating Fort Moultrie, he moved 
to Fort Sumter, which he surrendered, after a heavy bom¬ 
bardment, April 12-13, 1861 (brevet major-general); in 
command of department of Kentucky and of the Cumber¬ 
land 1861, which his shattered health compelled him to re¬ 
linquish. Till he was retired from active service, Oct. 27, 
1863, he performed but little duty. He translated “ In¬ 
structions for Field Artillery, Horse and Foot,” 1840, and 
“ Evolutions of Field Batteries,” 1860. In vain he sought 
restoration of health abroad, his strength gradually failing 
till he died Oct. 26, 1871, at Nice, France, aged sixty-six. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Anderson (Rev. Rufus), D. D., LL.D., born in North 
Yarmouth, Me., Aug. 17, 1796, graduated at Bowdoin Col¬ 
lege in 1818. He studied theology at Andover from 1819— 
22. In 1824 he became assistant secretary, and in 1832 
secretary, of the American Board of Foreign Missions, 
which position he filled with distinguished ability for 
thirty-four years. He visited the Mediterranean missions 
(1843-44), the Indian missions (1854-55), and the Sand¬ 
wich Islands in 1863. At the age of seventy he resigned 
his position in the Board of Missions (1866), at which 
time, without any previous knowledge on his part, he was 
presented, as a testimonial to his faithful and meritorious 
services, with $20,000 (contributed chiefly by the merchants 
of New York and Boston), which sum he made over to the 
Board, reserving to himself the right to draw from it what¬ 
ever might be necessary for his support. Among Dr. An¬ 
derson’s numerous publications may be named—“ Observa¬ 
tions on the Peloponnesus and Greek Islands” (Boston, 
1830); “The Hawaiian Islands, their Progress and Con¬ 
dition under Missionary Labors” (Boston, 1864); “A 
Heathen Nation Evangelized: History of the Mission, etc. 
to the Sandwich Islands” (1870); “ History of the Missions 
of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis¬ 
sions to the Oriental Churches” (2 vols. 12mo, 1872). 

Anderso'nian University, an institution of Glas¬ 
gow, in Scotland, was founded in 1795 by John Anderson, 
noticed above. His design was to impart by popular lec¬ 
tures a knowledge of the sciences to mechanics. He be¬ 
queathed to it his valuable library and apparatus. It has 
a high reputation, especially in the medical department. 
The number of professors is about fifteen. 

An'derson’s, a township of Caswell co., N. C. Pop. 
1544. 

An'dersonville, a post-village of Sumter co., Ga., on 
the South-western R. R., 11 miles N. E. by N. of Ameri- 
cus. During the civil war it was the site of a Confederate 
military prison for captured Federal soldiers. The mor¬ 
tality at this prison was very great, 12,926 prisoners of 
war having died here. One Henry Wirz, a Swiss adven¬ 
turer, was the superintendent of the prison, and after the 
close of the war he was tried and convicted by a military 
commission on charge of excessive cruelty to the prisoners, 
and was executed Nov. 10, 1865. The Confederate authori¬ 
ties, in at least two official reports, attributed the excessive 
mortality to the bad management of the prison. Ander- 
sonville is now the site of a national cemetery, in which 
the deceased Union soldiers are buried. The cemetery is 
well laid out, trees have been planted, and the names, rank, 
etc., of most of the dead have been ascertained and in¬ 
scribed on head-boards. 

Andersonville, a village of Fine township, St. La"w- 
rence co., N. Y., on Oswegatchie River, has manufactures 
of oars, tubs, lasts, etc. Iron ore is found in the vicinity. 


An'clcrsscn (Adolf), a German chess-player; born at 
Breslau in 1818. At the London chess tournament in 1851 
he defeated the famous player Staunton, but he was defeated 
by Paul Morphy in Paris in 1858. 

An'dersson (Charles John), a Swedish traveller, 
born in 1827, was the natural son of an Englishman. He 
went to Southern Africa in 1850, and passed several years 
in the exploration of the natural history and geography 
of that region. He published a narrative of his travels, 
“Lake Ngami” (1855), and “ Okawango River” (1859). 
Died in Southern Africa July 5, 1867. 

An'des [Sp. Cordille'ra de los An'des'], a grand South 
American range of mountains which is one of the most 
prominent features in the physical geography of the globe. 
It extends along the western border of the entire conti¬ 
nent, nearly parallel to the Pacific coast, from the Strait of 
Magellan to the Isthmus of Darien, a distance of about 
4500 miles. In length it far exceeds every other mountain- 
chain on the earth. The general direction of this chain is 
nearly N. and S. The southern part of the Andes, for a 
distance of about 2500 miles, consists of a single range or 
ridge, extending through Patagonia and along the eastern 
border of Chili. The Patagonian Andes rise to the height 
of 8000 feet. The Chilian Andes, which are included be¬ 
tween lat. 24° and 42° S., have an average width of about 
130 miles, and in some places are not more than 100 miles 
from the Pacific. The highest summit of the Chilian An¬ 
des (but not of the whole chain, as formerly believed) is 
the porphyritic Nevado of Aconcagua, which rises 22,422 
feet above the level of the sea, and is about 100 miles N. E. 
of Valparaiso. In Chili also occur the volcanic peaks of 
Tupungato, 20,270, and Maypu, 17,764 feet high. The line 
of perpetual snow in the Andes of Northern Chili is about 
14,000 feet above the sea. 

About lat. 19° S. the chain is divided into two parallel 
branches called the Cordillera of the Coast and the Cordil¬ 
lera Real. The former extends north-westward along the 
coast of Peru, the summits of the range being about 100 
miles from the ocean. The Cordillera Real, which traverses 
Bolivia and is about 250 miles from the other range, is 
nearly equal in height to the Chilian Andes. The peak of 
Illampu, in Bolivia, has an altitude of 24,800 feet. These 
two parallel cordilleras are connected at several points by 
transverse ranges or groups called knots, and enclose the 
table-land of Desaguadero and Lake Titicaca, which is 
12,800 feet above the level of the sea. The highest sum¬ 
mit of the Peruvian Andes is the volcano of Arequipa, 
20,000 feet high, and 55 miles from the Pacific Ocean. 

Proceeding northward, we come next to the Andes of 
Ecuador, or Andes of Quito, which extend from lat. 5° S. 
to the table-land of Quito, enclosed between two ranges of 
enormous volcanoes. Among these the highest are Chim¬ 
borazo, 21,424 feet, and Cotopaxi, 18,875 feet (Humboldt 
says 19,069). The form of the latter is almost a perfect 
cone. “Among all the volcanoes that I have seen,” says 
Humboldt, “the conical form of Cotopaxi is the most 
beautifully regular.” (See Cotopaxi.) 

There are a number of passes which cross the Andes, but 
all at a great elevation, and mostly dangerous as well as 
arduous. Several passes among the Peruvian and Bolivian 
Andes are about 15,000 feet above the sea, and the lower 
passes are not less than 12,000 feet. 

Minerals .—The rocky foundations of these grand barriers 
are granite, gneiss, mica-slate, greenstone, porphyry, quartz, 
limestone, red sandstone, and metamorphic rocks. Hum¬ 
boldt saw in Peru vast masses of quartz 7000 or 8000 feet 
in height. The Andes are celebrated for their mineral 
riches, consisting of large quantities of gold and silver. 
Platina, mercury, copper, tin, and iron are also found among 
them. The most productive gold-mines are in Peru and 
New Granada; the silver-mines of Potosi are among the 
richest in the world. Few parts of the globe are subject to 
so frequent and destructive earthquakes as the countries 
adjacent to the Andes and enclosed between its different 
ranges. The cities of Quito, Lima, Callao, and Valparaiso 
have been nearly ruined by them in recent times. The 
number of volcanoes among the Andes is about fifty, thirty- 
six of which are classified as active, and the others are 
doubtful, not having been seen in a state of eruption by 
any European. “It is but rarely,” says Humboldt, “that 
the elastic forces at work within the interior of our globe 
have succeeded in breaking through the spiral domes 
which, resplendent in the brightness of eternal snow, 
crown the summits of the Cordilleras; and even where 
these forces have opened a permanent communication w ith 
the atmosphere through circular craters or long fissures, 
they rarely send forth currents of lava, but merely eject 
ignited scorirn, steam, sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and jets 
of carbonic acid.” ( Cosmos .) This illustrious traveller 
states that he found pelagic shells on a ridge of the Andes 
more than 15,000 English feet above the sea. 











ANDES—ANDRE. 


The geological structure of the Andes is as yet but im¬ 
perfectly known, and is probably not the same in all parts 
of the chain. Like all great mountain-systems, the Andes 
have been produced by elevatory forces acting at different, 
and in some instances widely separated, periods. Carbonif¬ 
erous, triassic, Jurassic, and tertiary rocks have been re¬ 
cognized on their flanks; and the older palaeozoic will un¬ 
doubtedly be found to make up a part of their mass. 

Climate .—The limit of perpetual snow on the Andes 
that are near the equator is about 15,000 feet, and among 
the Bolivian Andes, about lat. 20° S., it is said to be 17,000 
feet. Glaciers rarely if ever occur in the central or tropi¬ 
cal portions of the Cordilleras. Between the equator and 
lat. 30° S. the prevailing wind blows from E. to W., and 
the eastern side of the Cordillera intercepts nearly all the 
moisture, so that little or no rain falls in Peru and Northern 
Chili on the western slope, or on the narrow tract between 
the Andes and the ocean. The changes of weather among 
these mountains are sudden and violent, and the electric 
storms are very terrific. Here are exhibited greater varia¬ 
tions and contrasts of climate than in any other region of 
the globe. The elevated plains within the tropics have a 
cool and salubrious climate, and the fruits of the tempe¬ 
rate zone here flourish under the equator. Although the 
Andes are inferior to the Himalayas in altitude, they pre¬ 
sent a more remarkable variety of phenomena. “ This por¬ 
tion of the surface of the globe,” says Humboldt, “ affords 
in the smallest space the greatest possible variety of im¬ 
pressions from the contemplation of nature. Among the 
colossal mountains of Cundinamarca, of Quito, and of Peru, 
furrowed by deep ravines, man is enabled to contemplate 
alike all the families of plants and all the stars of the fir¬ 
mament. There at a single glance the eye surveys majestic 
palms, humid forests of bambusa, and the varied species of 
Musacese, while above these forms of tropical vegetation 
appear oaks, medlars, the sweetbrier, and umbelliferous 
plants, as in our European homes. . . . There the depths 
of the earth and the vaults of heaven display all the rich¬ 
ness of their forms and the variety of their phenomena. 
There the different climates are ranged the one above the 
other, stage by stage, like the vegetable zones whose suc¬ 
cession they limit; and there the observer may readily 
trace the laws that regulate the diminution of heat as they 
stand indelibly inscribed on the rocky walls and abrupt 
declivities of the Cordilleras.” (See also Humboldt’s 
“Travels.”) A. J. Schem. 

Andes, a post-village and township of Delaware co., 
N. Y. It has a collegiate institute, a national bank, ono 
weekly newspaper, and one furnace. Pop. 2840. 

F. G. Barclay, Ed. “Andes Recorder.” 

And/esin, or And'esite, a mineral resembling fel¬ 
spar in appearance, is essentially a silicate of soda, lime, 
and alumina. It was originally brought from the Andes, 
but is found also in the Vosges, Canada, etc. 

Audi 'ra, a genus of plants of the natural order Legu- 
minosae. The Andira inermia , called cabbage tree or cab¬ 
bage-bark tree, is a native of the West Indies, and bears a 
pod containing a single seed. The bark of the Andira, 
called worm-bark, is a powerful anthelmintic. 

All'diron [a corruption of hand iron], a term applied 
to the metallic utensils used to support the wood which is 
burned in an open fireplace. They are called firedogs in 
some parts of Great Britain. They are often called “dog 
irons” in many parts of the U. S. The andiron consists 
of a horizontal bar, supported by three feet, and having 
an upright standard at one end. This was sometimes sil¬ 
ver, and ornamented with arabesques or a human figure. 

And'law, von (Heinrich), a German politician and 
zealous Catholic, born in 1802. He was chosen a member 
of the legislature of Baden in 1833, and opposed all lib¬ 
eral movements and reforms. He published in 1864 “ The 
Priesthood and Christian Life, with Regard to the Great 
Questions of the Present.” Died in Mar., 1870. 

Andoc'ides [Gr. ’AvSo/«Stj?], an Athenian orator, born 
about 467 B. C. He took an active part in public affairs, 
and was banished several times. He went into exile when 
the Thirty Tyrants became masters of Athens, in 404 B. C., 
and returned when they ceased to rule. Died about 390 
B. C. Several of his orations are extant. 

Andor'ra, a valley and small republic among the East¬ 
ern Pyrenees, between the French department ol Ariege 
and the Spanish province of L6rida. Area, 149 square 
miles. It is surrounded by high mountains, and has rich 
mines of iron and a lead-mine. It has been independent 
since the time of Charlemagne, and is governed by twenty- 
four consuls. The inhabitants are a hospitable and indus¬ 
trious people, and are mostly farmers and cattle-raisers. 
Capital, Andorra. Pop. in 1865, estimated at 12,000. 

An'dover, a market-town and parish of England, in 


147 


Hampshire, 63 miles W. S. W. of London. The origin of 
the town is very ancient. It has a handsome church, which 
cost about $150,000. Pop. in 1871, 5501. 

Andover, a post-twp. of Tolland co., Conn., on the Hart¬ 
ford and Providence R.R., 5 miles W. of Willimantic. P.461. 

Andover, a post-township of Henry co., Ill. P. 1767. 

Andover, a post-township of Oxford co., Me. It has 
manufactures of starch, lumber, etc. Pop. 757. 

Andover, a post-township of Essex co., Mass., on the 
S. bank of the Merrimack River. The village of Andover 
is pleasantly situated on the Shawsheen River and on the 
Boston and Maine R. R., 23 miles N. of Boston. It has a 
national bank, a savings bank, an insurance comjianv, a 
free public library of over 3000 volumes and an endow¬ 
ment of $20,000. It also has extensive water-power, and 
manufactures of shoe-thread, woollen goods, rubber goods, 
printers’ ink, lampblack, etc. Here are Abbot Female 
Academy, founded in 1829, and Phillips Academy, a well- 
endowed institution founded in 1778. It is also the seat 
of Andover Theological Seminary, founded in 1807, and 
under the direction of the Congregationalists. It has a 
library of about 30,000 volumes. The buildings of the 
above institutions stand on an eminence which commands 
a fine prospect. Two quarterlies are published here, one 
of which is the “Bibliotheca Sacra,” an able religious peri¬ 
odical, edited by professors of the seminary. It has nine 
churches, and a good system of public schools. Pop. 4873. 

IV. F. Draper, Pub. “ Bibliotheca Sacra.” 

Andover, a post-township of Merrimack co., N. II., on 
the Northern R. R., 21 miles N. W. of Concord. It has 
manufactures of woollens, hosiery, lasts, etc. Pop. 1206. 

Andover, a post-twp. of Sussex co., N. J. Pop. 1126. 

Andover, a post-village and township of Allegany 
co., N. Y., has seven manufacturing establishments, five 
churches, one furnace, one graded school, one weekly paper, 
and a good trade. It is in a good farming region, and is on 
the Erie R. R., 110 miles E. of Dunkirk. Pop. of township, 
1873. E, S. Barnard, Ed. “Andover Enterprise.” 

Andover, a post-township of Ashtabula co., 0., at the 
junction of two railroads, has a weekly paper, cheese-fac¬ 
tories, and mills. Pop. 921. 

D. L. Calkins, Ed. “Andover Advertiser.” 

Andover, a post-township of Windsor co., Yt. P. 588. 

Andover (North Surplus), a township of Oxford co., 
Me. Pop. 38. 

Andover (West Surplus), a township of Oxford co., 
Me. Pop. 4. 

Andover Theological Seminary. See Andover. 

Andra'da e Sil'va, or Sylva (Joze Bonifacio), a dis¬ 
tinguished Brazilian, born at Santos June 13, 1765. He 
acted a prominent part in the revolution by which Brazil 
became independent in 1822, and was prime minister in 
1822-23. He wrote some scientific treatises and poems. 
Died April 3, 1838. 

Andral (Gabriel), M. D., a celebrated French physi¬ 
cian, born in Paris Nov. 6, 1797, married a daughter of 
Royer-Collard. He published an able work called “Cli¬ 
nique Medicale” (4 vols., 1824-27). In 1839 he succeeded 
Broussais as professor of pathology and therapeutics in 
Paris, and in 1842 became a member of the Institute. 
Among his works is a “Summary of Pathological Anat¬ 
omy” (3 vols., 1829).—His father, Guillaume Andral, 
was a celebrated physician. 

Andrassy (Julius), Count, a Hungarian statesman, 
born Mar. 8, 1823, of an ancient and noble family. He 
took a prominent part in the revolution of 1848 as an ad¬ 
herent of the popular cause, and was condemned to death 
in 1849, but he escaped and went into exile. When the 
right of self-government was restored to Hungary, in Feb., 
1867, Andrassy was appointed premier of a new Hunga¬ 
rian ministry by the emperor. He succeeded Von Beust 
in Nov., 1871, as minister of foreign affairs in the common 
ministry of the whole empire. 

An'dre (John), a British officer, born in London, of 
Swiss parents, in 1751, entered the army in 1771. Having 
obtained the rank of lieutenant, he was sent to America in 
1774. Ilis superior talents and fine personal qualities pro¬ 
cured for him a rapid promotion to the important position 
of adjutant-general, with the rank of major (1779). He 
was a good scholar, an artist, a versifier, and a man of 
varied accomplishments. Benedict Arnold having offered 
to betray West Point, Major Andre Avas selected by Sir 
Henry Clinton, the British commander, to make the neces¬ 
sary arrangements for carrying out the plot. Andr6, as¬ 
suming the name of Anderson, ascended the Hudson, and, 
having had a private intervicAV with Arnold, by whom he 
was furnished with maps and plans of Vest Point and a 


















148 ANDREW—ANDREW, SAINT, ORDER OF. 


pass through the American lines, was, while returning to 
New York City by land, intercepted near Tarrytown by 
three armed Americans, who, discovering by incautious 
remarks on his part that he was a British officer, took him 
prisoner. On searching his person, they found the plans 
in his boots. He made an unsuccessful effort to bribe his 
captors, who conducted him to Lieut.-Col. Jameson, who, 
with singular obtuseness, resolved to send him to Gen. Ar¬ 
nold, but was dissuaded by Major Tallmadge. Major Andre 
was tried as a spy, and condemned to be hung, by a board 
of six major-generals and several brigadier-generals. Sir 
Henry Clinton made earnest efforts to save his life, but 
they were unavailing, and he was executed at Tappan 
Oct. 2, 1780. He behaved with dignity and fortitude on 
this occasion, and his fate excited deep and general sym¬ 
pathy. The day before his death he drew with a pen and 
ink a portrait of himself, which is now in the Trumbull 
Gallery of Yale College. A monument was erected to his 
memory in Westminster Abbey. 

Andre'* (Jacob), D. D., a German Protestant theolo¬ 
gian, born at Waiblingen, in Wurtemberg, Mar. 22, 1528. 
He became professor of theology at Tubingen in 1562, and 
distinguished himself by his learning and eloquence. He 
wrote against the Calvinists and Homan Catholics, and was 
a principal author of the “ Formula Concordiae” which was 
adopted by the Lutherans in 1580. Died Jan. 7, 1590. 

Andreae, or Andrea (Johann Valentin), an eminent 
German writer, born at Herrenberg, in Wurtemberg, Aug. 
17, 1586, was a grandson of Jacob, noticed above. He be¬ 
came pastor at Calwin 1620, and chaplain or court-preach¬ 
er at Stuttgardt in 1639. Among his chief works, which 
evince a liberal philosophical spirit, are a “Hundred Sa¬ 
tirical Dialogues” (in Latin, 1617), a “ Mythologica Chris¬ 
tiana” (1619), an Autobiography, and an allegory in verse 
called “ Die Christenburg.” He has been regarded as the 
founder of the order of Rosicrucians, but without sufficient 
evidence. Died May 1, 1654. “Andreae,” says Hallam, 
“ was a man above his age, and a singular contrast to the 
pedantic herd of German scholars and theologians.” 

Alidre'se (Laurentius), [Sw. Lars Anderson ], a Swe¬ 
dish Reformer, born in 1482. He was converted to Prot- 
estanism, and in 1523 was appointed chancellor of Sweden 
by Gustavus Vasa. He produced in 1526 a Swedish trans¬ 
lation of the New Testament. Died in 1552. 

Andrea'ni (Andrea), a skilful Italian engraver, sur- 
narned II Mantua'no ( i. e. “the Mantuan”), was born at 
Mantua in 1560. He improved the art of engraving on 
wood in chiaroscuro. Among his works is an engraving 
of a Deluge, after Titian. Died in 1623J 

Andre'a Pisa'no, or Andre'a da Pi'sa, an emi¬ 
nent Italian sculptor and architect, born at Pisa in 1270. 
He preferred the antique models of Grecian art to the Goth¬ 
ic style which had prevailed in Italy. He adorned with 
sculptures the facade of Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence, 
and became superintendent of the public works of that city 
about 1300. As an architect he designed the arsenal of 
Venice and the church of San Giovanni at Pistoia. His 
masterpiece in sculpture is the bronze rilievi of the gates 
of the Baptistery at Florence. Died in 1345. 

An'dree (Karl Theodor), a German writer, born in 
Brunswick Oct. 20, 1808, was from 1838 to 1853 editor of 
several periodicals, as the “Deutsche Reichszeitung” and 
“Bremer Handelsblatt,” and was 1858 appointed consul to 
Chili. Among his principal works are “ Nordamerica ” 
(2d ed. 1854), “ Buenos Ayres und die Argentin. Republik” 
(1856), “ Geographische Wanderungen ” (2 vols., 1859), and 
“Geographic des Welthandels” (“Geography of the 
World’s Commerce,” 2 vols., 1863-69). 

Andreossy (Antoine Francis), Count, an eminent 
French military engineer, born at Castlenaudary Mar. 6, 
1761. He served in Egypt as general of brigade in 1798, 
and became a member of the Institute of Egypt. He was 
the chief of Bonaparte’s staff on the 18th of Brumaire, 1799, 
obtained the rank of general of division, and was sent as 
ambassador to England in 1802. Between 1804 and 1814 
he represented France at the courts of Vienna and Con¬ 
stantinople. In 1826 he was chosen a member of the 
Academy of Sciences. He wrote, besides other works, 
“ Constantinople and the Thracian Bosphorus during the 
years 1812-14” (1828). Died Sept. 10, 1828. 

An'dres (Juan), a Spanish Jesuit distinguished for 
learning, was born at Planes Feb. 15, 1740. He was 
versed in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Italian, and French. On 
the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain in 1767 he removed 
to Italy. He produced in 1776 an able “ Essay on the Phil¬ 
osophy of Galileo,” in Italian. His principal work is “On 
the Origin, Progress, and Present State of All Literature ” 
(in Italian, 7 vols., 1782-99). He was appointed keeper of 
the royal library at Naples in 1806. Died Jan. 13, 1817. 

An'drew, a county of Missouri, on the Missouri River, 


which separates it from Kansas. Area, 425 square miles. 
It is bounded on the W. by the Nodaway River, and in¬ 
tersected by the Platte River and the Kansas City St. 
Joseph and Council Bluffs R. R. The soil is fertile. Wheat, 
corn, oats, and tobacco are the products. Coal is found. 
Capital, Savannah. Pop. 15,137. 

Andrew, the county-seat of Jackson co., Ia., at the 
“ geographical centre ” of the county, is the only direct post 
point between Maquoketa and Bellevue, the two commer¬ 
cial cities in the county. It is 8 miles N. E. of Maquoketa, 
and 12 miles S. W. of Bellevue. It has one weekly paper. 
The citizens of the township (Perry) have voted a tax and 
subscribed $20,000 in aid of a railroad from Maquoketa to 
Andrew, to be completed in the fall of 1873. Pop. 352. 

Ed. “ Picket.” 

Andrew [Lat. An'dreas ], Saint, one of the twelve 
apostles, was, like his brother Simon Peter, a fisherman of 
Galilee. He is supposed to have been the first disciple of 
Christ. The latter part of his life is involved in obscurity. 
According to tradition, he preached the gospel in Greece 
and Scythia, and suffered martyrdom in Patrae, in Achaia. 
He is the patron saint of Scotland. A cross formed by ob¬ 
lique beams, thus, ><^, is called Saint Andrew’s cross. 

Andrew (or Andras) I., king of Hungary, was of 
the family of Arpad. He began to reign in 1046, and 
waged war against the emperor Henry III. Died in 1058. 

Andrew II. of Hungary was born about 1176, and be¬ 
came king in 1205. He conducted an unsuccessful crusade 
against the Mohammedans in 1217. In 1222 he convoked 
a diet, to which he granted the Golden Bull, called the 
Magna Charta of Hungary. It confirmed the rights and 
privileges of the Hungarian bishops and nobility, whose 
revolts had disturbed his reign. Died Mar. 7, 1236. 

Andrew III. of Hungary, a grandson of the preceding, 
was born in Venice. He succeeded Ladislas III. in 1290, 
and was the last king of the dynasty of Arpad. His claim 
to the throne was opposed by the pope, who supported 
Charles Martel (son of Charles II. of Naples) as the rival 
of Andrew. The latter defeated Charles Martel in battle in 
1291. Died in 1301. 

Andrew (James Osgood), D. D., bishop of the Meth¬ 
odist Episcopal Church South, was born in Wilkes co., Ga., 
May 3, 1794. He entered the itinerant ministry in the 
South Carolina Conference of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church Dec. 12, 1812, and was consecrated bishop at Phila¬ 
delphia in May, 1832. Having become connected with 
slavery by marriage, the General Conference of 1844 took 
such action in his case as led to the division of the Meth¬ 
odist Episcopal Church, and the organization of the Meth¬ 
odist Episcopal Church South; in which he continued to 
exercise his episcopal functions efficiently till the session 
of the General Conference in New Orleans April, 1866, 
when he was placed on the retired list. He died at the 
residence of his son-in-law, the Rev. John W. Rush, in 
Mobile, Ala., Mar. 2, 1871. He was an eloquent, devout, 
and successful minister. He resided during a part of his 
episcopate in Oxford, Ga., and then in Summerfield, Ala. 
lie published a work on “ Family Government,” w hich is 
highly esteemed, and a volume of “Miscellanies.” 

Andrew (John Albion), LL.D., an American states¬ 
man, born at Windham, Me., May 31,1818. He graduated 
at Bowdoin College, studied law, and was admitted to the 
bar of Boston in 1840. Having distinguished himself as an 
opponent of slavery, he was elected governor of Massachu¬ 
setts by the Republicans in 1860. In answer to the Presi¬ 
dent’s call for volunteers, April 15, 1861, he despatched five 
regiments in one week from that date. He was again elected 
governor in 1861, and was afterwards thrice annually re¬ 
elected. During the civil war he rendered important ser¬ 
vices to the cause of the Union by his eloquent speeches 
and messages, and gained great popularity by his assid¬ 
uous attention to the welfare of the soldiers. Died Oct. 
30, 1867. A meeting of the members of the legislature of 
Massachusetts adopted a resolution “that in his decease 
the commonwealth and the nation alike have suffered an 
irreparable loss; that his reputation had become national, 
and we might well have hoped for him the highest national 
offices and honors.” 

Andrew, Saint (or The Thistle), Order of, a Scot¬ 
tish order of knighthood, named in honor of Saint Andrew, 
the patron saint of Scotland. It was founded in the reign 
of James V., was revived by James II. of England in 1687, 
and re-established by Queen Anne in 1703. The star of the 
order of the Thistle consists of a Saint Andrew’s cross of 
silver embroidery, with rays emanating between the points 
of the cross, in the centre of which is a thistle of gold and 
green. On a circle which surrounds this thistle is inscribed 
the motto “Nemo me impune lacessit” (literally, “No one 
provokes me with impunity”). 












ANDREW, SAINT, ORDER OF—ANDRONICUS II. 149 


Andrew, Saint, Order op (Russian), founded by Peter 
the Great in 1698, is the highest in the empire, bestowed 
only on the imperial family, princes, generals-in-chief, and 
persons of high rank. The badge of this order bears on 
one side a cross enamelled in blue, and in the four corners 
of the cross the letters S. A. P. R. (Sanctus Andreas Pa- 
tronus Russise). On the reverse is a spread eagle, with a 
legend signifying “ For Religion and Loyalty.” 

Andrews (Alexander), born Aug. 4,1824, in England, 
began in youth to contribute to the periodicals of London, 
and was the author of several books, the best known of 
which is a “History of British Journalism” (1856). Died 
Nov. 8, 1873. 

Andrews (Annie M.), an American lady, born about 
1S35. She volunteered to nurse the sick at Norfolk, Va., 
during the prevalence of yellow fever in 1855. In acknow¬ 
ledgment of her great services the Howard Association of 
New York presented her with a gold medal. 

Andrews (C. C.), an American general of volunteers 
during the civil war (1861-66), born in New Hampshire, 
appointed brigadier-general of volunteers Jan. 5, 1864, 
honorably mustered out Jan. 15, 1866., At present is U. S. 
minister to Sweden. 

Andrews (Edavard Gayer), D. D., an eminent preacher 
and bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born 
in New Hartford, N. Y., Aug. 7, 1825, graduated at the 
Wesleyan University, Conn., in 1847, entered the ministry 
in 1848, became teacher in the Oneida Conference Semi¬ 
nary, Cazenovia, N. Y., in 1854, was elected its president 
in 1855, resumed the pastorate in New York East Confer¬ 
ence in 1864, and was elected bishop in 1872. 

Andrews (Ethan Allen), LL.D., an American scholar, 
born at New Britain, Conn., Jn 1787. He graduated at 
Yale College in 1810. He published, besides a number of 
school-books, a good Latin-English lexicon (1850). Died 
Mar. 25, 1858. 

Andrews (Gen. George L.) was born at Bridgewater, 
Mass., in 1827, and graduated first in his class at AVhst 
Point in 1851. He was acting assistant professor of en¬ 
gineering at West Point (1854-55), and for distinguished 
services in the army of the Potomac became brigadier- 
general and brevet major-general of volunteers. In 1871 
he was appointed professor of French at West Point. 

Andrews (James Petit), an English historical writer, 
born near Newbury, in Berkshire, in 1737. He published, 
besides other works, an amusing “ Collection of Anecdotes, 
etc., Ancient and Modern” (1789). His most important 
work is a “History of Great Britain in connection with the 
Chronology of Europe” (1 vol., 1794, unfinished). Died 
Aug. 5, 1797. 

AndreAVS (Joseph), born at Hingham, Mass., Aug. 17, 
1806, was apprenticed to an engraver in 1821, studied his 
art in London (1836-37), and subsequently became a line 
engraver in Boston, Mass. His reputation is very high. 

Andrews, or Andrewes (Lancelot), a learned Eng¬ 
lish theologian, born in London in 1555, was educated at 
Cambridge. He was one of the chaplains of Queen Eliza¬ 
beth, who appointed him dean of Westminster. He was 
one of the divines selected to translate the Bible under the 
auspices of James I., and became bishop of Chichester in 
1605. In 1609 he was translated to the see of Ely, and ap¬ 
pointed a privy councillor. He was considered the most 
learned English theologian of his time, except Ussher, and 
had a high reputation as a pulpit orator, but his style was 
pedantic and artificial. He became bishop of Winchester 
in 1618. He was the author of several religious works, 
among which was a “Manual of Private Devotions,” etc. 
Died Sept. 25, 1626. 

Andrews (Rev. Lorrin), born in East Windsor, Conn., 
April 29, 1795, was educated at Jefferson College, Pa., and 
at Princeton, sailed as a missionary to Hawaii in 1827, 
founded in 1831 the Lahainalula Seminary, which became 
the Hawaii University, in which he was a professor. He 
was long a judge and privy councillor under the govern¬ 
ment, and published parts of the Bible in the native tongue, 
wrote a Hawaiian dictionary, and various works on the 
history, etc. of the Sandwich Islands. Died at Honolulu 
Sept. 29, 1868. 

Andrews (Stephen Pearl), born in Massachusetts in 
1812, devoted himself to the study of social questions, the 
civil and common law, theories of government, a universal 
language, etc., and has written numerous works on these 
and kindred subjects. 

Andrews (Timothy P.), an American officer, born in 
Ireland, died at Washington, D. C., Mar. 11, 1S68. He 
was appointed paymaster in the IT. S. army May 22, 1822, 
and served as such till April 9,1847, when he was appointed 
colonel of a regiment of voltigeurs raised for the war with 


Mexico, and served in command of his regiment till July 
20, 1848, when it was disbanded and he was restored to the 
pay department; deputy paymaster-general Dec. 17, 1851, 
and paymaster-general, with the rank of colonel, Sept. 6, 
1862, brevet brigadier-general Sept. 13, 1847, for gallant 
conduct at the battle of Chapultepec, Mex.; retired from 
active service on his own application Nov. 29, 1864, but 
continued on special duty till the day of his death. 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Engineers. 

AndreAVS (William D.), born at Grafton, Mass., in 
1818, removed to New York in 1840, and became distin¬ 
guished as the inventor of an oscillating engine, and espe¬ 
cially of a centrifugal pump of great excellence. 

An'dria, a town of Southern Italy, in the province of 
Bari, 14 miles by rail E. of Canosa. It is the seat of a 
bishop, and has a fine cathedral, built in 1046; also a col¬ 
lege. In the vicinity are numerous caverns (in Latin, 
antra), from which the name is said to be derived. Pop. 
in 1871, 34,034. 

Andrieux (Francis Guillaume Jean Stanislas), a 
popular French dramatic poet, born at Strasburg May 6, 
1759. He produced in 1787 a comedy called “ Les Etour- 
dis ” (“ The Giddy-heads ”), which was performed with ap¬ 
plause. In 1798 he was chosen a member of the Council 
of Five Hundred. He became professor of belles-lettres 
in the Polytechnic School in 1804, and professor of French 
literature in the College of France in 1814. He was ad¬ 
mitted in 1816 into the French Academy, of which he 
was chosen perpetual secretary in 1829. Among his works 
are “ Brutus,” a tragedy, and a drama called “ Moliere 
with his Friends.” He belonged to the classical school of 
literature. Died May 10, 1833. 

An'dro, or Aft'dros, an island of Greece, in the arch¬ 
ipelago, about 10 miles S. E. of Euboea, is the most north¬ 
ern of the Cyclades. Length 21 miles, width 8 miles. The 
surface is hilly, the soil is fertile. Andros is also the name 
of a town and port on the eastern coast. Lat. of Cape 
Guardia, its N. W. point, 37° 58' N., Ion. 24° 43' E. Pop. 
of the island in 1870, 19,674. 

An'drocles, or An'droclus, a Roman slave, whose 
adventures and friendship with a lion are mentioned by 
Aulus Gellius. He ran away from his master into Africa, 
and there entered a cave, in which he met a lion that was 
lame. The lion presented to him a paw, from which An- 
drocles extracted a thorn. To recompense him for this 
service the lion afterwards supplied the man with food as 
long as he remained in that region. Androcles finally was 
captured, and was condemned to fight with a lion in the 
amphitheatre of'Rome. This lion proved to be the same 
that he had met in the cave, and, though purposely kept 
from food to increase his ferocity, he instantly recognized 
his benefactor as a dog would his master. The man was 
then pardoned and liberated. 

Androm'ache [Gr.’AvSpojuaxT?], a celebrated and beau¬ 
tiful Trojan lady, was the wife of Hector, and one of the 
most admired characters of the “ Iliad.” After the destruc¬ 
tion of Troy she became the captive of Pyrrhus, and finally 
the wife of Helenus, a son of Priam. She is the subject 
of a tragedy of Euripides. 

Androm'eda [Gr. ’A vSpofieSr}], in classic mythology, 
was a daughter of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia, and of Cassi¬ 
opeia. She boasted that she was more beautiful than the 
Nereids. Neptune, to avenge this affront, sent a sea-mon¬ 
ster to plague the Ethiopians. The oracle of Ammon hav¬ 
ing declared that the sacrifice of Andromeda would ap¬ 
pease Neptune, she was chained to a rock, but was rescued 
by Perseus, and after death was transformed into a con¬ 
stellation. 

Andromeda, a genus of shrubs of the order Erica¬ 
ceae, found in America, Europe, and Asia. The Andromeda 
polyfolia, common to both hemispheres, has fine rose-colored 
flowers. The Andromeda floribunda of the U. S. also has 
abundant and very fine flowers, appearing in April. The 
Andromeda nitida of the Southern States has fragrant blos¬ 
soms. The U. S. have at least eight species, some of which 
are reputed poisonous to cattle. 

Androni'cus I., Comnenus [Gr. ’AvSpoWo? Kojuvtjvo?], 
a Byzantine emperor, was a grandson of Alexis I., Com¬ 
nenus. He had superior talents, but was profligate and 
cruel. In his youth he engaged in treasonable intrigues 
against the emperor Manuel, who confined him in prison 
many years. Having been appointed regent during the 
minority of Alexis II., he murdered that prince and usurp¬ 
ed the throne in 1182. He abused his power by the execu¬ 
tion of many Greek nobles, victims of his revenge or jeal¬ 
ousy, and carried his cruelty to such excess that his subjects 
revolted and tortured him to death in 1185. 

Andronicus II., Pal;eologus, a son of the emperor 
Michael, was born about 1260. He began to reign at Con- 











150 ANDRONICUS III.—ANEURISM. 


stantinople in 1283. lie waged war against the Turks with¬ 
out decisive result. His reign was inglorious, and he was 
dethroned in 1328 by his grandson, Andronicus III. Hied 
Feb. 13, 1332. 

Andronicus III., Palasologus, was a grandson of 
the preceding. He became emperor of Constantinople in 
1328, and was defeated by the Turks in 1330. His reign 
was disastrous, and the Turks conquered several of his prov¬ 
inces. Hied June 15, 1341. 

Androni'cus Cyrrhes'tes, a Greek architect and 
astronomer, who is supposed to have lived about 100 B. C., 
and to have erected at Athens the octagonal building called 
the Tower of the Winds, which is still standing. It was 
intended to indicate the direction of the wind. 

Androni'cus Rho'dius (i . e. “of Rhodes”), a Greek 
Peripatetic philosopher who lived about 60 B. C., and is 
said to have invented the word Metaphysics. He collected 
and arranged the works of Aristotle. 

Andropo'gon [from the Gr. avrjp, a “ man,” and nioyuiv, a 
“ beard,” alluding to the bearded rhachis and flowers], an 
extensive genus of grasses, mostly coarse and many of 
them tropical. The U. S. have about fifteen species E. of 
the Mississippi. The most important of the genus is the 
Andropogon Schcenanthus, extensively cultivated in Ceylon 
and other Oriental regions for its oil. Ceylon exports several 
tons of this oil annually. It is called oil of citronella, and 
is chiefly used in perfuming the so-called “honey soap.” 
Several foreign species are cultivated for their oils, which 
are sold as “oil of verbena,” “lemon-grass,” “geranium,” etc. 

An'dros (Sir Edmund), an English governor, born in 
London Hec. 6, 1637. He was governor of New York from 
1674 to 1682, and was appointed governor of New England 
in 1686. His arbitrary and oppressive conduct rendered 
him very unpopular. Recent historians, however, have 
asserted that his private character was excellent, and that 
he had to contend with the unjust prejudices of the colo¬ 
nists. In April, 1689, the people of Boston revolted and 
deposed him. He governed Virginia from 1692 to 1698. 
Hied Feb. 24, 1714. 

Antlroscog'gin, a river which rises in Umbagog 
Lake, and flows southward through Coos co., N. II., to the 
western boundary of Maine, which it crosses. Running 
then in a general S. E. direction, it passes through Oxford 
and Androscoggin counties in Maine, and enters the Ken¬ 
nebec River 4 miles above Bath. Its length is 145 miles. 

Androscoggin, a county in the S. W. central part of 
Maine, drained by the Androscoggin and Little Andros¬ 
coggin rivers, which furnish extensive water-power. There 
are also several lakes in the county. It has an area of 
400 square miles, and is traversed by the Maine Central 
R. R. Manufactures and agriculture are both prosperous. 
Grain, potatoes, and dairy products are largely exported. 
Capital, Auburn. Pop. 35,866. 

Andujar', or Anduxar (the ancient Illitur'gis ), a town 
of Spain, in the province of Jaen, on the Guadalquivir, at 
the foot of the Sierra Morena, 27 miles N. W. of Jaen. It 
has a trade in grain, fruit, and porous jars and pitchers, 
of which great numbers are made here for the purpose of 
cooling water. Pop. 12,605. 

Anduze, a town of Southern France, in the depart¬ 
ment of Gard, 7 miles S. W. of Alais. It has manufac¬ 
tures of silk, hats, and leather. Pop. in 1866, 5303, prin- 
cipally Protestants. 

Anel (Hominique), an eminent French surgeon and ocu¬ 
list, born at Toulouse in 1678, practised in Paris. He in¬ 
vented a probe and syringe, and w r as skilful in the treat¬ 
ment of aneurism and fistula laclirymalis. Hied about 1728. 

Anemom'eter [from the Gr. i^os, the “ wind,” and 
ju.eVpov, a “ measure ”], an instrument used for measuring 
the force or velocity of the wind. Several different kinds 
of anemometers have been invented, but the one most gen¬ 
erally used was devised by Hr. Robinson of Armagh, and 
made by Casella of London. It consists of four hemi¬ 
spherical cups aflixed to the ends of two horizontal cross¬ 
rods, which are attached to a vertical axis. The cups are 
so arranged that their diametrical planes catch any pass¬ 
ing current, and are caused to rotate. Motion is thus com¬ 
municated to a combination of wheelwork, and by two 
indices the velocity of the wind is shown. Hr. Robinson 
found that the cups, as well as the vertical axis to which 
they were attached, revolve with a velocity equal to one- 
third of the wind’s velocity. Lind’s anemometer is also 
used. Whewell and Casella have devised instruments for 
registering the direction and velocity of the wind. (See 
Meteorological Instruments, by Prof. G. W. Hough.) 

Anem'one [from the Gr. avepos, “wind”], a genus of 
herbaceous plants of the natural order Ranunculaceae, na¬ 
tives of Europe, Asia, and North and South America. The 


species of anemone are numerous, and mostly have beauti¬ 
ful flowers, the size of which is increased by cultivation. 
The Anemone hortensis, or garden anemone, is highly prized 
.and is extensively cultivated in Holland. It prefers a light 
soil. Among the other beautiful species are the Anemone 
coronaria , sometimes called poppy anemone; the Anemone 
Japonica, a native of Japan ; the Anemone pratensis, which 
has blue flowers; the Anemone pulsatilla (pasque flower), 
which grows wild in England, and has purple flowers; and 
the Anemone nemorosa (wood anemone), which has white 
flowers. In North America are found several species pecu¬ 
liar to this hemisphere, besides some which are common 
also in the Old World. Pulsatilla, a favorite remedy with 
homoeopathists, is produced by a plant of this genus. 

Anemone, Sea, a popular name of marine radiated 



animals belonging to the order Actinaria. They are poly¬ 
pes of a soft gelatinous texture, and have numerous tenta¬ 
cles disposed in circles and extending like rays around the 
mouth. When they are expanded in the water they resem¬ 
ble a polypetalous flower, and are admired for beauty of 
form and color. They abound on the shores of the sea, and 
are generally attached to rocks, stones, or shells, but have 
some power of locomotion. When they are left dry by the 
receding tide they contract into a mass of jelly. They are 
very voracious, and will seize by their tentacules and swal¬ 
low animals as large as themselves. Some species of the 
Actinaria can be kept in an aquarium, and can be fed on 
fish or other animal food. Among the most beautiful of the 
sea anemones are the Actinia mesembryanthemum, which is 
common on the British shores, and has around the margin 
of its mouth a circle of azure tubercles ; the Actinia crassi- 
cornis, which is also found on the British shores, and dis¬ 
plays a variety of colors; and the Actinia dianthus, which 
is found in deep water. 

Anem'oscope [from the Gr. avepos, “wind,” and 
aKoneu), to “look”], an instrument which indicates the di¬ 
rection of the wind, as a vane or weathercock. Sometimes 
the vane turns a spindle which descends through the roof 
of the house into the chamber of the observer. An index 
fixed to the spindle indicates the direction of the wind on 
a compass-card fixed to the ceiling. 

Aneroid Barometer. See Barometer. 

Aliet, a town of France, in the department of Eure-et- 
Loir, 9 miles N. E. of Hreux. Near it is the plain of 
Ivry, where Henry IY. gained a decisive victory over the 
army of the League in 1590. Pop. about 1400. 

An'enrism [Gr. avevpwpa, a “ widening ”], a pulsating 
tumor filled with blood, and communicating more or less 
directly with an artery, the tunics of which are wholly or 
partially destroyed. A “ true ” aneurism has one or more 
arterial coats in its wall. A “false” aneurism has a wall 
of condensed areolar tissue, the arterial coat having disap¬ 
peared. A “traumatic” aneurism originates in a wound 
or other accidental injury. A “ varicose ” aneurism com¬ 
municates with both an artery and a vein, but the term 
sometimes signifies a mere symmetrical dilatation of an 
artery. When such dilatations occur in groups or knots, 
it is a “circoid” aneurism. When the blood gets between 
the coats of an artery, and thus forms a tumor, it is a “dis¬ 
secting” aneurism. The heart and its valves are liable to 
aneurismal dilatations. 

Aneurisms not traumatic are frequently traceable to the 
degeneration of the arterial coats known as atheroma. In 
general, aneurism of the extremities, when sufficiently near 
the surface, as when it occurs in the “popliteal space” (the 
hollow of the knee), may be treated with a fair prospect of 
success by long-continued compression, mechanical or dig¬ 
ital. “ Ligation,” or tying the artery, sometimes succeeds. 
Galvano-puncture has its advocates as a means of cure. 
The injection of powerful astringents has succeeded in 
some cases, but is not to be regarded as a safe proceeding. 





























ANGAEA—ANGELO BUONAEOTTI. 151 


The prospect, especially in aneurisms of the aorta and its 
great branches, is that the disease will prove fatal, though 
there are very unfrequent cases which spontaneously re¬ 
cover by the formation of a clot within the tumor, which 
gradually shrinks into a hard, sometimes a chalky, mass. 
The administration of sedatives and medicines which in¬ 
crease the proportion of fibrine in the blood has been often 
advocated. Prolonged fasting has been recommended; but 
in general the safest way is for the patient to avoid all 
excesses, and to make use of a nutritious diet, without 
attempting a cure. One of the most remarkable effects of 
aneurism is the absorption of neighboring tissues, and even 
of bones, from the continual pressure. The aneurism some¬ 
times finally bursts internally, causing almost immediate 
death. Revised by Willard Parker. 

Angara', or Upper Tungus'ka, a river of Sibe¬ 
ria, rises in Lake Baikal, about 30 miles S. of Irkutsk. 
Passing by that town, it flows first northward and after¬ 
wards in a westerly direction, and enters the Yenisei, of 
which it is the principal tributary. Length, about 1000 
miles. 

An'gel [from the Gr. ayyeAo?, a ct messenger ”], a minis¬ 
tering spirit; a spiritual, intelligent Being employed by 
God to carry commands, to announce glad tidings, and ad¬ 
minister comfort to men. The Scriptures record many in¬ 
stances in which angels became visible to men. The an¬ 
cient Hebrews believed in the existence of several orders 
of angels, among which were the seraphim and cherubim, 
and archangels. The only angels mentioned by name in 
the Bible are Michael and Gabriel. Raphael is mentioned 
in Tobit, a book of the Apoc^pha. The popular notion 
that angels have wings is rather a poetical invention than 
a revealed truth. The belief in guardian angels has been 
cherished by Jews and Christians of all ages. 

Angel, an ancient English gold coin, so called from the 
figure of the archangel Michael piercing the dragon, which 
was on its obverse. The value of the angel (which con¬ 
tinued to be coined until 1650) varied from 6s. 8d. to 10s. 

Angel-Fish ( Squati'nct ), called also Monk-Fish and 
Shark-Ray, a fish allied to the shark, is found on the 
coasts of England and France and the southern coasts of 
the U. S. It is about seven feet long, and is remarkable 
for its ugliness of form. The body is nearly four feet wide, 
and is flattened horizontally. 

An'geli (Filippo), an eminent painter of the early 
seventeenth century, was born in Rome and patronized by 
Cosimo, grand duke of Florence. His aerial perspectives 
are famous, and his works are highly prized.— Giulio 
Cesare Angeli (1570-1630), and Giuseppe Angeli of 
Venice (born 1715), were also successful painters. 

Angel'ica [so called from its supposed angelic virtues], 
a genus of plants of the natural order Umbelliferm, na¬ 
tives of the north temperate zone. They are mostly her¬ 
baceous and perennial, having bipinnate or tripinnate 
leaves. The Angelica archangelica (garden angelica) 
grows to the height of six feet, has greenish flowers, is 
aromatic, and contains resin and essential oil. Its root is 
used in medicine as an aromatic stimulant and tonic. This 
plant was formerly cultivated for the table, being blanched 
and used as celery. The U. S. have several species of An¬ 
gelica and Archangelica, a kindred genus. It yields an¬ 
gelica balsam and angelic acid. 

Angelica, a half-shire village and township of Alle¬ 
gany co., N. Y., on Angelica Creek. The village is 262 
miles W. by S. from Albany, 5 miles N. of the Erie R. R., 
and on the line of the Rochester Nunda and Pennsylvania 
R. R. It has five churches, a newspaper printing-office, a 
paper-manufacturing establishment, a national bank, ex¬ 
cellent water-power, and a beautiful park. Pop. 991; of 
the town, 1643. 

P. S. Norris, Ed. “ Angelica Republican.” 

Angelica, a post-township of Shawanaw co., Wis. P. 
233. 

Angelica Tree, or Hercules’ Club, a small tree 
or large shrub, found from Florida to Pennsylvania and 
westward. It is the Aralia spinosa of the order Aralia- 
ceee. It has a stout trunk, covered, like the branches, with 
prickles, and its leaves are very large and decompound. 
Its flowers appear in July and August in great clusters, 
composed of very numerous umbels. This tree is common 
in cultivation. 

Angelico, Fra. See Fiesole. 

Angeli'na, a county in the E. part of Texas. Area, 
1059 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the An¬ 
gelina River, an affluent of the Neches, and on the S. W. 
by the Neches River, both navigable. Petroleum is abun¬ 
dant. Cotton, beef, pork, and sugar-cane are produced. 
The surface is heavily timbered. Capital, Homer. Pop. 
3985. 


Ange'lio, or de'gli An'geli (Pietro), [Lat. Pe'tms 
An'gelus ], an eminent Italian scholar and Latin poet, born 
at Barga, near Lucca, in 1517. He was professor of belles- 
lettres at the University of Pisa for many years. 11 is chief 
works are a poem on hunting called “ Cynegeticon vel de 
Venatione” (1562), and a mediocre Latin epic poem enti¬ 
tled “ The Syriad” (1591), the subject of which is the Cru¬ 
sades and the conquest of Palestine. This poem was ad¬ 
mired by his contemporaries. Died Feb. 29, 1596. 

Ailgelis (Pierre), a French painter of landscapes and 
conversation-pieces, was born at Dunkirk in 1685. He 
worked in England, and his productions were praised by 
II. Walpole. Died in 1734. 

Angel Island, California, is in the bay of San Fran¬ 
cisco, 5 miles N. of San Francisco. It has an area of 800 
acres, and extensive quarries of brown sandstone, valuable 
for building. 

An'geli (James Burrill), LL.D., born at Scituate, R. I., 
Jan. 7, 1829, graduated at Brown University, studied two 
years in Europe, was professor of modern languages and 
literature at Brown University (1853-60), editor of the 
“Providence Daily Journal” (1860-66), president of the 
University of Vermont (1866-71), and president of the 
University of Michigan since 1871. He is the author of 
various articles in the “North American Review” and 
other quarterlies. 

Angeli (Joseph Ivinnicut), an American lawyer and 
able legal writer, born at Providence, R. I., April 30, 1794, 
graduated at Brown University in 1813. Among his works 
are a “Treatise on the Right of Property in Tide-Waters” 
(1826) and “ The Limitation of Actions.” Died May 1, 1857. 

An'gelo, a township of Monroe co., Wis. Pop. 461. 

An'gelo (or, more correctly, Ag'nolo) Buonarot'ti 
(Michael), an Italian sculptor, born at Lettignano, 3 miles 
from Florence, on Mar. 6, 1475. The Buonarotti (or Buo- 
narotti Simoni, as they designated themselves) were a dis¬ 
tinguished Florentine family. The name is often found in 
connection with offices in the state. They held fast to a 
tradition that the Simoni were descended from the counts 
of Canossa, in whose veins flowed imperial blood; but 
modern historians attach no value to the tradition. The 
child was entrusted to a nurse, wife of a stone-mason, 
and Michael used in after years to say in jest that it was 
no wonder he had such love for his profession, since he had 
imbibed it with his mother’s milk. He began to draw 
as soon as he could use his hands. They used to show his 
early paintings on the walls of the house in which he grew 
up. He was destined to be a scholar, but gained little from 
his teachers, preferring to lounge in the studios of the 
artists and try his hand at drawing. His father and un¬ 
cles protested against his pursuing the artist’s career, but 
he persevered till he carried his point. On the 1st of 
April, 1488, the lad being fourteen years old, he was ap¬ 
prenticed for three years to David and Domenico Ghirlan- 
dajo, the latter being one of the first masters at Florence. 
He agreed to pay him six gold florins the first year, eight 
for the second, and ten for the third. While with him, 
Michael produced his first painting, a copy of a plate of 
Martin Schangauer representing the temptation of St. An¬ 
thony. The copyist colored the animals from nature. The 
pupil left the studio before the three years had expired— 
some say because the master was jealous of his ability. 
The gardens of Lorenzo the Magnificent, richly stored with 
works of art, were tempting and accessible to a youth of 
his promise, and soon the attention of the merchant-prince 
was attracted by a fawn modelled by his hand. Lorenzo 
took the young Michael into special favor, showed him his 
treasures, and introduced him, among others, to Poliziano, 
at whose suggestion the group of Hercules and the Cen¬ 
taurs was executed. At this time, too, he made a Madonna, 
after the manner of Donatello. Such advantages as these 
were of the rarest, and they were improved to the utmost. 
On the death of his patron and the overthrow of the Me¬ 
dici, the artist left the city and hastened to Venice; thence 
to Bologna, where he stayed about a year. In July, 1495, 
he was again in Florence, executing works for the Medici, 
a Sleeping Cupid among others, which became the occa¬ 
sion of his going to Rome under strong inducements from 
an agent of the cardinal San Giorgio, who had purchased 
the Cupid, but whose after-promises were finer than his per¬ 
formance. 

The first great work executed in Rome was the statue of 
the Drunken Bacchus, a naked youth intoxicated with 
wine. Next came a pietii, the mourning Mary with the 
dead Christ in her lap, now placed in a side-chapel of St. 
Peter’s, near the entrance. On the completion oi the “pi- 
eta” in 1499, the artist was induced by a change in the 
government to return to Florence. Two years later he re¬ 
ceived an order to cut a statue from an immense block ot 









152 ANGELO. 


marble, eighteen feet long, which had been brought from 
Carrara for a figure of colossal size designed for the church 
of Santa Maria del Fiore. The order had not been execut¬ 
ed, and the block, the despair of architects, lay in the work¬ 
shop yards adjoining the cathedral. From this block Mi¬ 
chael Angelo evoked the “ David ” of the Piazza del Gran 
Duca. The statue was finished early in 1504. Owing to 
its enormous weight, 18,000 pounds, three days were re¬ 
quired to transport it from the studio to the square in front 
of the Palazzo Vecchio, where it still stands. The erection 
of the “ David” was an event in Florence; occurrences 
were dated from it; a superstitious feeling even attached 
to it in the minds of citizens, who apprehended disaster to 
their city in case it should be disturbed. 

The fame of the great sculptor had by this time reached 
the ears of Pope Julius II., who was meditating the erec¬ 
tion of a colossal mausoleum for himself in St. Peter’s, 
which was already enriched with costly monuments of art. 
A dispute arising between the pope and the sculptor, the 
high-spirited artist abrujRly left Rome for Florence. It 
w as there that he designed the great painting for the ducal 
palace, of which the cartoon only was finished, represent¬ 
ing soldiers startled by the trumpet while bathing in the 
Arno. At present only a copy of small size remains, but 
this discloses the wonder of the work, the drawing of 
so many naked bodies in the various attitudes required by 
such a subject. A reconciliation with the pope having been 
etfected, his next work was a bronze statue of Julius II., 
placed at the principal portal of San Petronio in Bologna. 
The unveiling took place Feb. 21, 1508. On All Saints’ 
Day, 1509, so swiftly did this extraordinary man work, all 
Rome was gazing enraptured at the ceiling of the Sistine 
Chapel, which he literally covered in twenty months with 
frescoes by the order of Julius, the astonished but impa¬ 
tient pope admiring with the rest. In 1513 the sumptuous 
pontiff died, mentioning the mausoleum in his will, with 
directions for its completion; and Michael resumed work 
on it. New plans were drawn on a reduced scale, and a 
new contract was made, with higher estimates of cost. For 
three years the architect was completely absorbed in this 
task. It was estimated that the bronze ornaments for the 
tomb would require more than 22,400 pounds of metal. 
The blocks of marble were conveyed from his studio near 
the Vatican to the neighborhood of the Capitol, where were 
the sculptor’s workshops, and where he himself took up his 
abode. He seems to have begun with the “Moses,” with 
which the photograph has made all men familiar. Then, 
perhaps, come the two chained youths which now stand in 
the Museum of the Louvre in Paris. 

The completion of the fagade of San Lorenzo was the 
next great task proposed to the sculptor by Leo X., the 
pope undertaking that the work should not interfere with 
the completion of the mausoleum, which he was under 
contract to finish. The new work required not only a 
sculptor, but an architect, and besides these an engineer 
and a superintendent of authority. Angelo undertook 
the whole, would accept no aid, passed a spring and sum¬ 
mer in the mountains, discovered and opened marble- 
quarries, directed workmen in several places, arranged for 
transportation, manufactured figures in wax; in a word, 
made himself felt in every department of the enterprise. 
Buonarotti possessed prodigious powers, and tasked them 
to the utmost, but it seemed to be his destiny to complete 
none of his gigantic enterprises. Partly through the im¬ 
petuosity of his own nature, partly from the multitude and 
splendor of his ideas, and partly by reason of the caprices 
of his princely employers, his career was full of abortive 
schemes. The building of the fagade of San Lorenzo, the 
work at which he had toiled for years as he had at no other 
—a work the magnitude whereof threw the mausoleum into 
the shade—was brought to a stand-still finally by the disas¬ 
ters which befell the family of Medici. Instead of it, the con¬ 
struction of the Medicean chapel in Florence was assigned 
to him by Clement VII. But neither was this completed. 
The two statues of Lorenzo, duke of Urbino, and of Giu- 
liano, duke of Nemours, the two famous figures which all 
the world are familiar with, attest the grandeur of the de¬ 
sign. The efforts of the sculptor were amazing; he worked 
w T ith passion ; the toil would have killed another man. In 
a few months the colossal statues Morning, Evening, Day, 
and Night, which are regarded as his greatest conceptions, 
were placed in their niches. 

In 1533, at the age of fifty-eight, and after a rest from 
similar labor of thirty years, Angelo, at the instance of 
the pope, took up his brush to paint the “ Last Judgment” 
on the altar-wall of the chapel whose ceiling had been 
covered with the creations of his hand. The mausoleum 
was perforce discontinued again. The artist wished to 
resume it on the completion of the Last Judgment, but was 
again overruled by papal authority; a new chapel, the Ca- 
pella Paolina, had been added to the Vatican, and no one but 


Michael Angelo must adorn it. The dilemma was painful, 
for he felt bound in honor to complete the mausoleum; but 
being released finally, he went forward with the decorations 
of the chapel. The two vast paintings representing the 
“Crucifixion of Peter” and the “Conversion of Paul” 
were finished, but they no longer exist as he left them. 

Michael Angelo was an old man when Antonio di San 
Gallo, the director of St. Peter’s church, died, and the re¬ 
sponsible office was conferred on him. Other architects 
were talked of. Had Rafael been living, the post would 
doubtless have been his. Giulio Romani declined being 
a candidate for the position, on account of his ill-health. 
Bramante had laid the foundation of the present structure 
in 1506. After him several architects submitted plans and 
made alterations—Rafael, Fra Giacondo, Peruzzi. An¬ 
tonio di San Gallo succeeded him. But Angelo took the 
work up as from the beginning, with full power to do as 
he would; and though his designs were never carried out, 
the main credit for what was done afterwards belongs to 
him. The front facade was not his work; the colonnades 
surrounding the square were not his design; the obelisk 
and the fountains were placed where they are by later 
hands; in other points his designs were crippled; but to 
him belongs the glory of the great dome, which he never 
saw suspended, but which he lived to model. What the 
whole would have been could his conceptions have been put 
into stone, none can tell, for his inward vision alone con¬ 
templated it. 

The touch of the mighty hands was felt on other Roman 
buildings. It converted the Baths of Diocletian into the 
magnificent church “ Degli Angeli.” His brain teemed 
with ideas. He would have rebuilt half Rome had he pos¬ 
sessed the power. His actually-formed plans would have 
transformed a conspicuous portion of the city if they could 
have been executed. But years impaired even his prodig¬ 
ious force. He drew till his hand could no longer hold 
a pencil; he carved as long as he could guide a tool; but 
he felt old; to use his own language, “ Death often pulls 
me by the coat to come with him.” His last group, a 
Christ lying dead in his mother’s lap, was unfinished; a 
flaw in the marble condemned it, and nearly sacrificed it. 
The artist gave it to one of his pupils. It is now in Flor¬ 
ence, beneath the dimly-lighted dome of the Santa Maria 
del Fiore. Urgent solicitations to return to his native 
Florence might have prevailed with him at this time but 
for his unwillingness to leave the milder climate of Rome, 
and his deeper unwillingness to abandon his great labor 
on St. Peter’s, now running through five pontificates, which 
political disturbances, and failing funds, and continual 
misunderstandings had suspended. Saddened and soli¬ 
tary from the loss of friends, shadowed by the disappoint¬ 
ment of unrealized hopes, he dwelt in Rome, his thoughts 
turning sometimes gloomily to things immortal and in¬ 
visible. 

“ The fables of the world have robbed my soul 
Of moments given me for thoughts of God.” 

He pours out his heart in sonnets which betray a spirit of 
fatigue and passionate longing for rest. The end came on 
the 18th of Feb., 1564, when he was ninety years old. He 
sank exhausted under the weight of three laborious gene¬ 
rations. 

The above is the barest possible outline of the career of 
this great man. An attempt to characterize his work even 
thus baldly would be impossible here; nor is it necessary, 
for the main features of his genius are familiar to all who 
are in the smallest degree acquainted with the productions 
of his hand. He was architect, sculptor, painter, poet, 
eminent in each, skilful in anatomy, a master of mechanics. 
In poetry, Dante was his model for style, the delight of 
his kindred spirit. He entreated the pope’s permission to 
erect a worthy monument to Dante at his own expense in 
an honorable place. The finer monument he is said to 
have actually erected—a book of drawings illustrating the 
“Inferno”—was lost. 

Michael Angelo was rather short of stature, with broad 
shoulders, firm and strong limbs, thin but robust frame. 
Habits of abstemiousness, continence, frugality, and indus¬ 
try steeled his constitution. The wealth his genius brought 
him did not spoil his simplicity. “ Rich as I am,” he once 
said in his old age, “ I have always lived like a poor man.” 
His head was wide, his forehead prominent, his eye small 
and light. His face was disfigured in early life by a blow 
dealt him by a fellow-student in the Medici gardens, which 
broke his nose. The disfigurement had its effect on a tem¬ 
per inclined to melancholy; but by nature he was kind, 
gentle, generous, self-reliant, independent, ambitious, 
proud, but magnanimous; too tenacious of his own rights, 
but not unready to concede the claims of others. His 
family position, his genius, and his fame gave him every 
social advantage, but he lived in retirement, rarely ap¬ 
peared on public occasions, avoided the companionship of 












ANGELS’ CAMP—ANGLESEY. 153 


artists, wrote Italian, the language of Dante, instead of 
Latin, and was satisfied to stand on his merit as an artist. 
The great sculptor lies buried in Santa Croce, in Florence. 
In the same church the duke had a monument erected in 
his honor. 

Many points relating to the life and works of Michel- 
agniolo, as he signed himself, have been left obscure from 
tho withholding of important family papers—first, by the 
count Buonarotti, and afterwards by the city of Florence, 
to which the count bequeathed them. Even yet all is not 
known. 

The Life by Herman Grimm, translated into English 
by Miss Bunnett (reprinted in Boston, 1866), contains 
much new matter of interest. A list of Michael Angelo’s 
works may be found in the shorter biography by Richard 
Duppa, LL.B. (Bohn’s “European Library”). An edition 
of the “ Poems ” was published in Florence about ten years 
ago. 0. B. Frothingham. 

An'gels’ Camp, a post-village of Calaveras co., Cal., 
25 miles E. of Stockton, has one weekly paper. 

An'gelus Dom'ini (“the angel of the Lord ”), a form 
of prayer which Roman Catholics repeal at sunrise, noon, 
and sunset, when they ring a bell called tho Angelus bell. 

An'gelus Sile'sius, one of the most prominent Ger¬ 
man poets of the seventeenth century, whose proper name 
was Johann Scheffler, was born at Breslau, in Silesia, 
in 1624, and in 1652 joined the Roman Catholic Church. 
He wrote several mystical devotional works, among which 
are the “ Cherub’s Guide-Book” and the “Angelic Book of 
Wonders” (1674). Died July 9, 1677. Special works on 
him have been written by Kahlert and Schrader (1853). 

All'germann, a navigable river of Sweden, rises in the 
mountains between Sweden and Norway, collects the water 
of several lakes, and flowing south-eastward enters the 
Gulf of Bothnia near Hernosand. Length, about 250 miles. 
Its banks abound with beautiful scenery. 

An'germaiiiiland, or Angerma'nia, an old prov¬ 
ince of Sweden, is now included in the province of Herno- 
sand or Westernorrland. 

Ang'ermun'de, a town of Prussia, in the province of 
Brandenburg, on Lake Miinde, and on tho Berlin and Stet¬ 
tin Railway, 44£ miles by rail N. E. of Berlin. Pop. in 
1871, 6412. 

An gers, formerly Angiers (the ancient Juliom'agus), 
a fortified city of France, capital of the department of 
Maine-et-Loire, and once the capital of the province of 
Anjou. It is on the Mayenne River, 4 miles N. of the 
Loire, and on the railway which connects Tours with 
Nantes, 60 miles by rail S. W. of Le Mans. The old walls 
are converted into boulevards lined with handsome houses. 
It has a cathedral, a college, a library of about 35,000 vol¬ 
umes, a museum, and a school of arts and trades; also 
manufactures of linen and woollen stuffs, hosiery, silk twist, 
leather, etc. Here are the ruins of an ancient castle of the 
dukes of Anjou, and the Hospice of St. Jean, founded by 
Henry II. of England. Lord Chatham and the duke of 
Wellington attended a military school in Angers. Pop. in 
1866, 54,791. 

Anghie'ra, de (Pietro Martire), [Lat. Pe'trus Mar'- 
tyr Angle'rius ], an eminent Italian scholar and historian, 
born of a noble family at Arona, on Lake Maggiore, in 
1455. He emigrated to Spain in 1487, and became a priest. 
In 1501 he was sent by King Ferdinand on a mission to 
the sultan of Egypt, and in 1505 he was appointed prior 
of the church of Granada. H# was also a member of the 
Council of the Indies. His most important work is a his¬ 
tory of the New World and American discovery, entitled 
“ De Rebus Oceanicis et Orbe Novo Decades ” (1530), which 
is highly esteemed. Died in 1526. 

An'gilbert, or En'gilbert [Lat. Angilber'tus], Saint, 
an eminent statesman and Latin poet, was born in North¬ 
western Gaul. He married Bertha, a daughter of Charle¬ 
magne, and became a confidential minister of that monarch. 
In the latter part of his life he entered a monastery. He 
wrote several short poems, and was called the Homer of 
his time. Died Feb. 18, 814 A. D. 

Aligi'na [from the Gr. ayyw; Lat. an'go, to “ strangle ”], 
applied to diseases attended by a sense of suffocation. 
(See next article.) 

Angi'na Pec'toris (“angina of the breast”), called 
also Hreast Pang and Heart Stroke, an intense pain 
occurring in paroxysms, and usually commencing in the re¬ 
gion of the heart or at the lower end of the breast-bone, and 
extending along the left arm, more rarely going towards 
the right side. It is characterized by a sense of suffocation, 
faintness, and often by the apprehension of approaching 
death. This symptom has been called the “ spasm of a 
weakened heart,” and is very seldom experienced by any 


but persons with an organic disease of that organ. The 
exciting cause is not unfrequently a strong and sudden 
emotional disturbance. Men over fifty years of age are 
most frequently attacked. Valerian, gentle aromatic stimu¬ 
lants, and saline cathartics are considered useful in the 
attack, which is usually, not always, short. Between par¬ 
oxysms the patient should lead a tranquil, retired life, and 
make use of a plain, nutritious diet. 

Ang'le [from the Lat. an'gulus, a “corner”], in popu¬ 
lar language is a point formed by the meeting of two lines 
whose direction is not the same. In geometry a rectilineal 
angle is the inclination of two straight lines which meet, 
but have not the same direction. The point of meeting is 
called the vertex of the angle, and the lines are its sides or 
legs. Angles are measured by degrees of a circle, as their 
magnitude depends on the quantity of rotation round the 
vertex which would be required to make the lines coincide. 
An angle of ninety degrees is called a right angle; if it is 
more than ninety, it is obtuse, and if less than ninety, it is 
acute. When three or more planes meet at the same point, 
the corner thus formed is a solid angle. 

Angle, Curvilinear, is the angle formed by the tan¬ 
gents to two curves at the point where the latter meet. 

Angle, Dead, in fortification, an angle of the wall so 
formed that a small piece of ground in front of it can 
neither be seen nor defended from the parapet. 

Angle, Facial, in zoology, is regarded as an important 
indication of the relative intelligence and sagacity of men 
and other animals. It signifies the angle made by the 
meeting of two straight lines, drawn, the one from the most 
prominent part of the frontal bone to the anterior margin 
of the upper jaw; the other from the external auditory 
foramen to the same point. The facial angle of a European 
is about eighty degrees; of an African negro, about seventy; 
of an ape, about fifty. 

Angle, Visual, in optics, is the angle formed by two 
rays of light, or two straight lines drawn from the extreme 
points of an object to the centre of the eye. The apparent 
magnitude of an object depends on the magnitude of the 
visual angle which it subtends. 

Ang'ler ( Lo'phius America'mis), a fish found on the 

American coasts, and 
called the sea-devil or 
goose-fish. It belongs to 
a family of acanthoptery- 
gious fishes called Lophi- 
adae. It is from three to 
five feet long, has an en¬ 
ormous head and a very 
large mouth, furnished 
with worm-like append¬ 
ages. By means of these, 
and the filaments which 
rise from the top of its 
head, it is supposed to 
attract the fishes on which 
it preys. The Lophiadas 
are remarkable for the 
elongation of the carpal bones, by which they are enabled 
to leap up suddenly and to seize fish that are above them. 

Amg'les [Lat. An'gli], an ancient Low German tribe 
from which England derives its name (Angle-land, Eng¬ 
land). They occupied a narrow district in the S. of Sles- 
wick, between the Schlei and Flensburg, whence some of 
them passed over, in the fifth century, in conjunction with 
other Saxon (or Low German) tribes, into Britain, where 
they conquered the native Britons and established the 
Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. That the Anglian settlers of 
Britain should have given their name to the island is due, 
possibly, to the fact that the tribal name “Angles” had 
come to be used as a generic term for the Saxon (or Low 
German) tribes; just as the word “Yankee” has come to 
signify, to a European, any citizen of the U. S.; but, more 
probably, to the fact that the Anglians were the first of the 
Low German settlers of Britain to accept Christianity, and 
hence to be recognized in the Latin literature of the period. 
(See Anglo-Saxon, by Prof. J. II. Gilmore, A. M.) 

Ang'lesey, or Ang'lesea (angle'sA- ei, or “island;” 
anc. Mo'na), an island and county of North Wales, in 
the Irish Sea, about 1 mile from Caernarvon, from which it 
is separated by the Menai Strait. It is about 20 miles long 
and 17 miles wide. The surface is nearly level and the 
scenery rather tame; the soil is generally fertile, producing 
wheat, barley, oats, and potatoes. The principal rocks are 
mica-schists and limestone. Here are rich mines of cop¬ 
per and lead. The island is connected with the mainland 
by the Menai suspension bridge and the great Britannia 
tubular bridge, over which the Chester and Holyhead Rail¬ 
way passes. The ancient Mona was an important scat of 
Druidical power. Pop. in 1871, 35,090. 



Angler, or Fishing-Frog. 
























154 


ANGLESEY—ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


Anglesey, Earls op, anti Barons Newport-Pagnell, in 
the English peerage (16(>1), Viscounts Valentia and Barons 
Mountnorris in the Irish peerage. The earldom was estab¬ 
lished in the Annesly family by Charles II., but became ex¬ 
tinct 1761 in Richard Annesly, the sixth earl of this fam¬ 
ily. The title had been borne by Christopher Villiers, 
brother of the duke of Buckingham, and his son Charles. 

Anglesey (Henry William I*aget), Marquis of, a 
British general and statesman, born May 17, 1768, was 
the eldest son of the earl of Uxbridge, lie entered the 
army, gained distinction as a cavalry officer, and be¬ 
came a major-general in 1808. He inherited the title of 
earl of Uxbridge on the death of his father in 1812, and 
entered the House of Lords. At the battle of Waterloo, 
1815, he commanded the British cavalry, and lost a leg. 
Soon after this event he received the title of marquis of 
Anglesey. In 1828 he was appointed lord lieutenant of 
Ireland, but having become an advocate of Catholic eman¬ 
cipation, he was removed by Wellington in 1829. He held 
the same office from 1831-33, and was raised to the rank 
of field-marshal in 1846. Died April 29, 1854. 

Anglesey, Marquesses of (1815, in the United King¬ 
dom), earls of Uxbridge (1784, in Great Britain), Barons 
Paget (1550, in England) and baronets (1730, in Ireland).— 
Henry William George Paget, the third earl, was born 
Dec. 9, 1821, and succeeded his father in 1869. He was a 
member of Parliament for South Staffordshire from 1854 
to 1857. 

Ang'lesite, a sulphate of lead produced by the decom¬ 
position of galena, was so named because first observed in 
Anglesey. It occurs in rhombic prisms with dihedral ter¬ 
minations, and of a white, gray, or yellowish color. 

Ang'lican Church, a name of the Established Church 
of England, sometimes called the Anglo-Catholic Church. 
The creed of this Church is legally defined in the Thirty- 
nine Articles, first adopted in 1562. The term is also some¬ 
times used as a collective name for all the religious denom¬ 
inations comprised under the name of Episcopalians. (See 
England, Church of, by Rev. B. R. Betts, A. M.) 

Ang'ling [from the Lat. an'gulus, a “ corner ” or “ angle,” 
a “hook”], catching fish by means of a hook attached to 
a line and rod, the hook being furnished with bait, which 
is either some object upon which the fishes naturally prey, 
or is a counterfeit of such an object. The practice has pre¬ 
vailed through all ages and in almost all countries. In 
1496, Wynkin de Worde “ emprented at Westmestre a 
‘Treatise of Fysshinge with an Angle/ by Dame Juliana 
Berners.” Izaak Walton in 1653 gave to the world his 
“ Complete Angler,” afterwards enriched with additions by 
his friend Charles Cotton, highly esteemed for correctness 
of details and happy humor. In angling the first consid¬ 
eration is what is termed “ fishing-tackle,” which consists of 
the rod, line, and hook, with the requisite baits, worms, flies, 
etc. The line should be strong, smooth, or even, flexible, 
and of a material not easily injured by wet. To the rod is 
attached a reel, on which a part of the line is wound Avhen 
it is too long for the occasion, but especially when, having 
caught a strong fish, it is necessary to draw it in gradually 
and cautiously, lest the line should be broken. The reel 
should be made so as to Avind or unwind freely. The baits 
may consist of various kinds of worms or flies, little fishes, 
small pieces of fish, meat, etc. Artificial lures are much used, 
particularly for catching the trout and salmon. They are 
variously made; usually the feathers of some bird (as the 
cock or pheasant) are so disposed as to resemble insects on 
which the fish are wont to feed. (See G. C. Scott, “ Fish¬ 
ing in American Waters;” II. W. Herbert, “ Fish and Fish¬ 
ing in the U. S.,” 1850; IIallock, “The Fishing Tourist,” 
1873; Roosevelt, “ Superior Fishing,” 1865.) 

Anglo-Cath'olics, a party of High Church Anglicans, 
often called Puseyites ? from one of their leaders, Dr. 
Pusey, otherwise known as Tractarians, from the series 
of ninety tracts issued by them between 1833 and 1841. 
They emphasize these four “Catholic principles:” apostolic 
succession, baptismal regeneration, the real presence in the 
Eucharist, and the authority of tradition. 

Angloma'nia [from the Lat. An'gins, “English,” and 
the Gr. ^avla, “madness” or “infatuation”], a term ap¬ 
plied among the French and Germans to an indiscriminate 
admiration of English institutions and national peculiari¬ 
ties, or a propensity to imitate English customs and con¬ 
ventionalities. An Anglomania prevailed in France just 
before the revolution of 1789. The opposite state of feel¬ 
ing is called Anglophobia. 

An'glo-Sax'on, a name given to the people and lan¬ 
guage which resulted from the consolidation of the differ¬ 
ent Low German tribes which in the fifth century overran 
Southern Britain. The name would seem to point to a 
blending of two distinct races, the Angles (which see) 


and the Saxons; but according to Latham (“Ethnology 
of the British Islands ”), there is no distinction to be made 
between the Angles and the Saxons on the ground of the 
difference in name. “If,” says he, “the Saxons ot Anglo- 
Saxon England were other than Angles under a different 
name, they were North Frisians.” According to the “ Sax¬ 
on Chronicle,” which is, with reference to these events, a 
mere paraphrase of Bede’s “ Ecclesiastical History ot Brit¬ 
ain”—the latter work being written about 150 years after 
the last of the Saxon invasions, Avhich the “ Chronicle” re¬ 
cords as if it were contemporaneous Avith them—there Avere 
seven distinct Teutonic “invasions” of Britain, beginning 
A. D. 449, and including parties of Jutes, Frisians, Saxons, 
and Angles. That Jutes, in the sense of people trom 
Northern Denmark or people of Scandinavian stock, were 
the first of the Gothic invaders to land in Southern Brit¬ 
ain, is highly improbable; and the topographical nomen¬ 
clature of Kent, Avhere Hengist and Horsa, Avith their par¬ 
ty of Jutes, are said to have settled, bears no traces of 
Danish influence. By “Jutes” we are probably to under¬ 
stand, generically, “Goths.” Indeed, in Alfred’s Anglo- 
Saxon translation of the passage in Bede which the “ Chron¬ 
icle ” manifestly follows, the Latin Jutis is rendered by 
Geatum (Goths), a term Avhich is elsewhere applied to Al¬ 
fred himself. The “Chronicle” itself, by the way, expli¬ 
citly asserts (Bohn’s ed., p. 341) that 787 Avas the first year 
Avhcn ships of Danish men sought the land of the English 
nation; one manuscript of the “ Chronicle ” says that Hen- 
gist landed with a party of Angles; while tradition calls 
him a Frisian, which he probably was. 

The Saxon settlement of Britain was probably partici¬ 
pated in by all the Low German tribes betAveen the Elbe 
and the Sehlei, although, on the ground of linguistic affin¬ 
ity, the Frisians would seem to have been most prominent. 

(See Latham’s “ Ethnology of the British Islands;” 
Marsh’s “Origin and History of the English Language;” 
Nicholas’s “Pedigree of the British People;” “Proceed¬ 
ings of the London Philological Society,” vol. v.) As soon 
as the Saxons had subjugated the Keltic inhabitants of 
Britain (Avho resolutely opposed the invaders, and many of 
Avhom Avere driven before them into the fastnesses of 
Wales, and across the sea into Armorica, though most 
of them were, doubtless, amalgamated with the invading 
race), they began to contend Avith each other. The vari¬ 
ous kingdoms forming the famous “Heptarchy” (or, to 
speak more correctly, the “Octarchy”*) Avere at length, 
in 827, reduced by Egbert, king of Wessex, into a single 
monarchy, Avhich attained its highest point of power and 
glory under Egbert's grandson, Alfred the Great (871-901). 
The Saxon power Avas completely overthroAvn by William 
the Conqueror at the battle of Hastings, in 1066. (For a 
full account of the Anglo-Saxons, their history, their Iravs, 
customs, etc., see Sharon Turner, “ History of the Anglo- 
Saxons ;” J. M. Kemble, “ The Saxons in England;” also, 
Lappenberg’s “History of the Anglo-Saxon Kings,” and 
Freeman’s “Old English History.”) J. II. Gilmore. 

Anglo-Saxon Language and Literature. The 
pagan conquerors of England described in the article 
Anglo-Saxons spoke many dialects, but all of them Avere 
Low German. Missionaries Avere sent from Rome (A. D. 
597) to convert them to Christianity. The Roman alpha¬ 
betic writing Avas thus introduced, and a single tongue 
gradually came into use as a literary language through the 
whole nation. It was at its best in the reign of Alfred the 
Great (A. D. 871-901)’. It continued to be Avritten till the 
colloquial dialects, through the influence of the Normans, 
had changed so much as to make it unintelligible to the 
people; then there greAv out of these dialects of mingled 
Anglo-Saxon and Norman a neAv literary language, the 
English. The old language was long called Anglisc, Eng- 
lisc (English), and some scholars insist that it should still 
be called so, and that it is nothing but Early English. But 
it differs more from English than Latin does from Italian, 
and it needs a separate name, and has come to be called 
Anglo-Saxon. It belongs to the Indo-European family— 
has similar roots and grammatical structure Avith German, 
Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit. It was the most highly culti¬ 
vated of the Germanic languages of its time; it attained 
the capacity of translating the Latin classics with accuracy 
and ease; and it has original literature worthy of study. 
Its chief interest, however, is as the mother-tongue of the 
English. It has given us the names Qf the objects, rela¬ 
tions, and affections which we speak of most, the Avords laden 
Avith the dearest associations, the idioms on which the beauty 
of our poetry and the poAver of eloquence, wit, and humor 
depend. From it almost all our grammatical forms are 
derived. The following sketch of its grammar has been 
made full enough to explain our English grammar. 


* See on this particular subject, Sharon Turner’s “ History of 
the Anglo-Saxons,” vol. i., book ii., chap. 4. 




















ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LIT EE AT UR E. 


155 


Phonology. —The alphabet has twenty-four letters. 


Old Forms. 

Roman. 

Names. 


a 

A 

a 

a 

je 

8B 

M 

se 

a 

B 

b 

B 

b 

bi 

E 

0 

C 

c 

ka 

D 

8 

D 

d 

da 

B 

3 

DII 

dh 

edh 

e 

e 

E 

e 

a 

F 

F 

F 

f 

ef 

E 

5 

G 

g 

g& 


II 

h 

ha 

I 

i 

I 

i 

ee 

L 

1 

L 

1 

dl 

CO 

m 

M 

m 

5m 

N 

n 

N 

n 

dn 

0 

o 

0 

0 

o 

P 

P 

P 

P 

pa 

R 

P 

R 

r 

dr 

8 

r 

S 

s 

dss 

T 

t 

T 

t 

ta 

Fpp 

TH th 

thorn 

U 

u 

U 

u 

00 

v 

-n 

[ YV 
l(W) 

vv ) 

A 

Y 

P 

(w) j 

wen 

X 

X 

X 

X 

ex 

Y 

• 

y 

Y 

y 

ypsilon 


The vowels sounded nearly as in German : a as in far ; 
d as in fall; te as a in glad; se as a in dare; e as in 
let; $ as in they; i as in dim; i as ee in deem; o as in 
opine; 6 as in holy; u as in full; u as oo in fool; y 
nearly like u in music, or the French u; y the same sound 
prolonged. There were many dialectical variations of the 
vowels, and there are also certain regular variations which 
are carefully represented in the Anglo-Saxon writing. 
Words originally spelt with a sometimes appear with se, 
sometimes with ea, sometimes with e, sometimes with o, 
showing that the sound of a was as seldom pure, and as 
variously flattened and broken, as it is in the Middle and 
Southern States of America. When a or i would come 
before l, r, or h, the broken sound produced by those let¬ 
ters, such as we make in hear, leer, is written as ea and eo. 
So after c and g the breaking heard in our Southern States 
in cear for car, gearden for garden, is carefully represented 
by the same ea, eo. Before in or n, o often appears for a ; 
as mon for man. 

A vowel is also modified by the vowel of the following 
syllable, the German umlaut: a followed by i changes to e : 
man, man, meni, men ; 6 to e : gos, goose, gcsi, geese ; u to 
y : mils, mouse, mysi, mice ; and the like. 

Many of the niceties of pronunciation were neglected in 
the Norman spelling, but they were long kept up in the 
folk-speech. The changes of the old to the present sounds 
of these vowels have been made in modern times, mostly 
during the Elizabethan age and since. These changes 
have an important peculiarity. All through the Indo- 
European languages, beginning with Sanscrit and coming 
down through Greek, Latin, Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and the 
like, there is a regular gradual weakening of the vowels: 
a weakens to o, e, i; u to o, e; i to e. But in English 
there is a vigorous strengthening of accented vowels. The 
weakest vowels, u and i, change to strong diphthongs: 
mils becomes mouse, hits, house, and the like; lit becomes 
life, which is pronounced Idife, or nearly so ; and a, though 
it becomes oftenest the mixed sound of a in fate, yet in 
words from Anglo-Saxon d is aw or 6: pas become* those ; 
ham, home; brad, broad (brawd); and the like. Unac¬ 
cented vowels weaken or disappear. This gravitation of 
our words to accentual centres indicates a special vigor of 
utterance accompanying the new manly vigor of the Eng¬ 
lish race. Similar changes are found in modern German, 
French, and most vigorous modern tongues, but only in 
particular words, or within very narrow limits, compared 
with the English. 

The consonants were pronounced in general as in Eng¬ 
lish, but c was always pronounced as k ; g like German g, 
as in give, or nearly enough to alliterate with it never as 
in George; i consonant like y; p like w; qu was repre¬ 
sented by cp; wh by hp, in which a strong h was heard be¬ 


fore the w, as a weak one now is in New England; the two 
sounds of th, as in thin and thine, had two characters, \> 
thin, and 'S thine, which, however, are not found in any 
manuscript uniformly so used. HI, as in hlaford, lord; hr, 
as in hra'oor, rather; yl, as in platung, loathing ; yr, as in 
pritan, write; cn as in cniht, knight, had the first letter 
distinctly sounded, as the last two had in the Elizabethan 
age. The weakening of c, sc, and g, and of the combina¬ 
tions here mentioned, mostly occurred at the first mixture 
of Norman and Anglo-Saxon, several of the sounds being 
unpronounceable to the Normans. 

Inflection. —The Anglo-Saxon has three genders, three 
numbers, and five cases. The dual number and the instru¬ 
mental case are rare, except in the pronouns. 

The Noun. —There are four declensions distinguished by 
the endings of the genitive singular— es, e, a, and an. The 
first three are from the old vowel declensions, and are called 
strong; the fourth is from the N-declension, and is called 
weak. Most nouns of the masculine and neuter gender 
belong to the first or fourth declension, and are thus de¬ 
clined : 

First Declension. 

Singular. Anglo-Saxon. English. 

Nominative, fisc, fish, 

Genitive, fisces, fish’s, of a fish, 

Dative, fisce, to or for a fish, 

Accusative, fisc, fish, 

Instrumental, fisce, orf, by or with a fish, 

Plural. 

Nominative, fiscas, 

Genitive, fisca, 

Dative, fiscum, 

Accusative, fiscas, 

Instrumental, fiscum, 


Latin. German. 
sol, Sohn. 
solis, Sohnes. 
soli, Sohne. 
solem, Sohn. 
sole (ablative). 


fishes, 
of fishes, 
to or for fishes, 
fishes, 

by or with fishes, 


soles, Sohne. 
solum, Sohne. 
solibus, Sohnen. 
soles, Sohne. 
solibus (ablative). 


Fourth Declension. 


Singular. 

Anglo-Saxon. 

English. 

German. 

Nominative, 

oxa, 

ox, 

Knabe. 

Genitive, 

oxan, 

of an ox, 

Knaben. 

Dative, 

oxan, 

to an ox, 

Ivnaben. 

Accusative, 

oxan, 

ox, 

Ivnaben. 

Plural. 

Nominative, 

oxan, 

oxen, 

Knaben. 

Genitive, 

oxena, 

of oxen, 

Knaben. 

Dative, 

oxum, 

to oxen, 

Knaben. 

Accusative, 

oxan, 

oxen. 

Knaben. 


From the first declension the English endings of the 
possessive case and of the plural number are derived. In 
Anglo-Saxon, as in German, most secondary formations 
and new words were declined according to the N-declen- 
sion, and that seemed likely to be the leading one; but 
the Normans formed their plural in -s, and in English the 
Norman -s joined with the Anglo-Saxon -s to kill it, and 
oxen, with the irregular children, brethren, is almost its 
only memorial in current speech. 

The possessive -es is a distinct syllable, and is so in Eng¬ 
lish as late as Shakspeare. Many persons imagined it to 
be a contraction of his, and we often find his written in its 
place in Early English and Semi-Saxon : Anak his children 
for Anak’s children ; and Bacon, carrying out the mistake, 
has Pallas her glass for Pallas’s glass. 

The plural -as is also a separate syllabic, and the Eng¬ 
lish -es remains so in words ending with a hissing sound: 
glass, glasses; church, churches; box, boxes; in other 
words it is now contracted: king, kings. 

Words from Anglo-Saxon ending in / change it ton: 
wolf, wolves; while those from French mostly retain f: 
chief, chiefs; gulf, gulfs. 

Words in Anglo-Saxon from stems in -i have umlaut, as 
described above under Phonology, in the dative singular 
and in the nominative and accusative plural. Thus, man, 
man, is declined: Nom. man; Gen. rnannes; Dat. men(i); 
Acc. man; Plural Nom. men(i); Gen. manna; Dat. man- 
num ; Acc. men(i). The i is dropped, and hence our plural 
men; so fot, foot, plu. fet(i), feet; gos, goose, plu. ges(i), 
geese; tfift, tooth, te^i), teeth; mfis, mouse, plu. m^s(i), 
mice; bro'Ser, brother, bre'Ser, whence brethren, with the -en 
of the fourth declension irregularly added. 

Neuters generally have no plural sign; sceap, sheep, for 
example, is the same in the singular and plural. Hence 
several English words from such neuters remain without 
any plural sign: sheep, deer, swine; and some are used 
with or without one ; as folk, hair, head, hundred, pound, 
sail, score, year, yoke. 

A few neuters end in -ru: cild, child, plu. cildru, whence 
first childer, and then, with a second plural ending from 
the fourth declension, childer-en, children. 

Gender has two aspects : (1.) It represents a tendency 
to use different sounds for relations to males from those to 
females; long vowels and liquids are oftenest used for fe¬ 
males. (2.) A tendency to couple words agreeing in their 













156 


ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATUKE. 


endings. From the first point of view there can be but 
three genders; some languages have two, some one, some 
none. From the second point of view there may be as 
many genders as there are sets of endings. Some languages 
have none; some ( e . g., Congo and Caffer) have many. 

In Anglo-Saxon the endings control the gender; pif- 
man, woman, is masculine, because it ends in man; pif, 
wife, is neuter, as in German. 

Many stems have pairs of endings—one masculine, the 
other feminine. Remains of these in English are sang-ere, 
masc., singer, sang-estre, fem., songster ; baee-ere, m., baker, 
bmc-estre, f. (whence the old bakster), a female baker; 
pebb-ere, in., weaver, pebb-estre, f., whence webster, a fe¬ 
male weaver. Such pairs are common : fox, m.,/oa:, fixen, f., 
vixen ; hlaford, m., lord, from hlaf, loaf, and peard, keeper, 
hlaf(or)dige, f., lady ; gans, gos, goose, gandra, m., gander. 

Many compounds are formed whose first part marks sex, 
and last part gender, psepned-, weaponed, carl-, man-, are 
common for males; pif-, wife, maegden-, maiden, epen-, 
queen or quean, for females : paepned-man, m.; carl-cat, not 
now Charles-, but Tom-cat; man-cild, n., man-child; pit¬ 
man, in., woman; mdklen-cild, n., girl; cpen-fugol, m., 
quean-bird; so also the expressions spere-healf, f., spear- 
half, on the male side; spindel-healf, f., spindle-half, on 
the female side. 

Man in his various relations and the common domestic 
animals have pairs of words from different roots in use 
through many of the Indo-European languages. The 
English come mostly from Anglo-Saxon: faeder, modor, 
father, mother; sunu, dohtar, son, daughter; oxa, efi, ox, 
cow; for sheep, ram, m., eopu, f.; for dogs, hund, hound, 
bicce, f.; for poultry, coc, in., hen, f.; for bees, dran, drone, 
m., beo, f.; and the like. 

The gender adopted for objects without life, when per¬ 
sonified in English, often differs from the Anglo-Saxon 
gender; sunne, sun, is feminine; mona, moon, is mascu¬ 
line ; scip, ship, is neuter. The German generally agrees 
with the Anglo-Saxon. English literature has rather taken 
these genders from the mythology of Greece and Rome. 

The Adjective. —The Anglo-Saxon adjective, like the 
Greek, Latin, and others, is declined; and, like the Ger¬ 
man, has two sets of endings for each gender. The common 
forms are called the strong, or indefinite, or pronominal 
declension, and are like those of the demonstrative pro¬ 
noun. When an adjective is preceded by a definite article, 
demonstrative, or like word, or is in the vocative case, it is 
declined like a weak noun (see oxa, above), and this is 
called the weak or definite declension. Thus blind, blind, 
is commonly declined in the masculine thus: Nom. blind; 
Gen. blindes ; Dat. blindum ; Acc. blindne ; Instrumental, 
blinde; Plural Nom. blinde; Gen. blindra ; Dat. blindum; 
Acc. blinde; Instr. blindum; but “ the blind man ” would 
be thus declined: Nom. se blinda man; Gen. paes blindan 
mannes; Dat. ham blindan men; Acc. hone blindan man; 
Vocative, blindan man ; Instrumental, p£ blindan men, etc. 
English adjectives, especially monosyllables, sometimes in 
Chaucer have an -e added, a relic of the definite declen¬ 
sion or the plural number; but they are now undeclined. 

Comparison. —Adjectives are generally compared by 
adding -ir, -er, -dr for the comparative, -ist, -est, ost for the 
superlative. The i of the endings works umlaut like that 
of man, men described in the declension of nouns : strang, 
strong, compar. streng(i)ra, superl. strengest; aid, old, corn- 
par. eld(i)ra, superl. eldest, whence the English elder, eldest. 

Some words form their superlative in -ma: for-ma, first. 
Some of these form a double superlative, fyr-m-est, from 
forma; sefte-m-est, which the English has converted into 
aftermost, as though compounded with most. In the same 
manner are to be explained hindmost, uttermost, southmost, 
and the like. 

The irregular comparison of good, bad, much, little, is 
already in Anglo-Saxon. The comparison by more and 
most is not used. 

Pronouns. —The personal pronouns are thus declined: 

First Person. 

Singular. Anglo-Saxon. German. 

Nominative, ic, [ich], I. 

Genitive, min, [meiner or mein], mine, or of me. 

Dative, m6, [mir], me, or to me. 

Accusative, mec, me, [mich], me. 

Dual. 

Nominative, pit, toe two. 

Genitive, uncer, of us two. 

Dative, unc, to us two. 

Accusative, uncit, unc, us two. 

Plural. 

Nominative, pe, [wir], roe. 

Genitive, fiser, fire, [unser], our, or of us. 

Dative, fis, [uns], us, or to us. 

Accusative, fisic, fis, [uns], us. 


Singular. 


Second Person. 
Anglo-Saxon. German. 


[du], thou. 

[deiner or dein], thine, or of thee. 
[dir], thee, or to thee. 

[dich], thee. 

ye two. 
of you two. 
to you tioo. 


[ihr], ye. 

[euer], your, or of you . 
[euch], you, or to you. 


The dual was rare, and has disappeared. The English 
pronouns are plainly from the Anglo-Saxon. It is worth 
notice that ge, ye, is nominative, eop, you, always objective 
in the English Bible. The first person plural is used for 
the singular by authors, preachers, and chiefs in Anglo- 
Saxon sometimes ; ye and you appear first as pronouns of 
reverence for thou in Old English. 

Third Person, Singular. 

Masculine. 

Anglo-Saxon. German. 


Nominative, 

pfi, 

Genitive, 

pin, 

Dative, 

Pe, 

Accusative, 

pec, pe, 

Dual. 


Nominative, 

git, 

Genitive, 

incer, 

Dative, 

inc, 

Accusative, 

incit, inc, 

Plural. 


Nominative, 

ge, 

Genitive, 

eoper, 

Dative, 

eop, 

Accusative, 

eopic, cop, 


Nominative, 

he, 

[er], he. 

Genitive, 

his, 

[seiner or sein], his, or of him. 

Dative, 

him, 

[ihm], him, or to him. 

Accusative, 

hine, 

[ihn], him. 



Feminine. 

Nominative, 

heo (or 

hie), [sie], she. 

Genitive, 

hire, 

[ihrer or ihr], her, or of her. 
[ihr], her, or to her. 

Dative, 

hire, 

Accusative, 

heo (or 

hie), [sie], her. 



Neuter. 

Nominative, 

hit, 

[es], it. 

Genitive, 

his, 

[seiner or sein], its, or of it. 

Dative, 

him, 

[ihm], it, or to it. 

Accusative, 

hit, 

[es], it. 


Plural 

FOR ALL THE GENDERS. 


Nominative, hi, hie (or heo), [sie], they. 

Genitive, heorft (hyra, or [ihrer], their, or of them. 
hirfi), 

Dative, him, [ihnen], theyi, or to than. 

Accusative, hi, hie (or hefi), [sie], them. 

The article and demonstrative se is thus declined: 

Singular. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Neuter. 


Nom., 

se, 

seo, 

pact, the, or 

that. 

Gen., 

paes, 

pi'ere, 

pass, of the, 

or of that. 

Dat., 

pam, 

P&re, 

pam, to the, 

or to that. 

Acc., 

pone, 

pa, 

past, the, or 

that. 

Instr., 



p£, pe, by the, or that. 


Plural of all the Genders. 

pa, the, or those. pam, to the, or to those. 

ptera, of the, or of those. pa, the, or those. 

pis, “ This.” 

Singular. 



Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom., 

pis, 

peos, 

pis, this. 

Gen., 

(pisses), 

pisse, 

pises (or pisses), of this. 

Dat., 

(pissum), 

pisse, 

pi sum (or pissum), to this. 

Acc., 

pisne, 

pas, 

pis, this. 

Instr., 

\>ys, 


pys, by this, thus. 


Plural for all Three Genders. 

Nom., pas, these. Dat., pisum, to these. 

Gen., pissera (or pissS,), of these. Acc., pas, these. 

Interrogative. 

Neuter. 

Singular. 
hpaet, what. 
hpaes, of what. 
hpam, to what. 


Masculine. Feminine is wanting. 
Singular (Plural wanting). 
Nom., hpa, who, 

Gen., hpaes, whose, 

Dat., hpam, to whom, 


Acc.,‘ hpone (or hwaene), whom, hpaet, 1 chat. 

Instr., hp£, hp£, by what, why. 

In the third personal pronoun it will be noticed that the 
feminine heo has given place in English to she, from sefi, 
the demonstrative, and the plural throughout to they, their, 
them, from the same demonstrative. This personal pro¬ 
noun is a weak demonstrative. Hit, it, has lost its h; the 
neuter genitive his has given way to its, a late English 
growth, not in the first edition of our Bible, and seldom 
used by scholars even as late as Milton. The English ob¬ 
jectives come from the old datives, and him, them, etc. are 
still datives in some idioms: I gave him the book, I taught 
them grammar , and the like. 

















—---—-1 

ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 157 

The origin of English that, this, them, they, these, those Indicative Mood. 

(Kis), who, what, whom, is obvious ; which, hpylc, German Present and Future. Past, 

welcher, is from hpa, who, and lie, like, and means of what ic hyre, I hear. ic h^rde, I heard, 

kind. Ilpa and hpaet are interrogatives in Anglo-Saxon ; h^rest, thou hearest. >il hardest, thou hcardest. 

whas, ichose, and wham, whom, appear as relatives in Semi- he hyretS, he heareth, he h^rde, he heard. 

Saxon ; the nominative who is not a full relative till the pe hyraft, we hear. pe h^rdon, we heard. 

fourteenth century, and what does not now admit of an g§ h^raft, ye hear. ge hyrdon, ye heard. 

antecedent. hi h^ratS, they hear. hi hyrdon, they heard. 

From these pronouns are derived a large number of Subjunctive Mood, 

adverbs in Anglo-Saxon, which have come into English: . , . 

where, at what place; there, at that place; here (from he), 1C A ’ or 1C * ^ A or A ".y r( ^ e * 

at this place; so whither, to tchat place; thither, to that pe, ge, or hi hyren. P e , ge, or hi hyrden. 

place; hither, to this place; and whence, from ichat place; Imperative. Infinitive. 

thence ; hence; when, at what time; then; how, ichy (from h^r Jrfi. h^ran. 

hil, hp£), in what way; thus, in this way. hyratS ge. Gerund, to h^ranne. 

The definite article the is a weakened form of the Participi es 

demonstrative that, like French le from Latin ille ; it is t, , 17 . „ " . . . , , 

common in Anglo-Saxon. The indefinite article an, a, is a Present, h^rende, hearing. Passive, hyred, heard. 

weakened form of the numeral an, one, like French un The -s of hears is a softening of -$, used already in 

from Latin units; though not uncommon, it is not as fre- Anglo-Saxon in the northern dialect. The same-s is found 
quent as in English. in the plural. In the Midland Counties the plural, e'S- 

The personal pronouns are used as reflexives. Self is changed to -« to conform with the past tense and this sub- 
sometimes added, and then the pronoun and self are both junctive : forms like those loves, they loves, they loveth and 
declined : ic selfa, I self, not my self ; Gen. min selfes, of they loven, are found as late as Shakspeare and Spenser. 
my self, etc. The English himself, itself, themselves, her- There are said to be 168 plurals in s, and 46 in -th in the 
self, preserve the old construction. Shakspeare folio of 1623. 

Numerals. — The cardinals are like the English: an, The subjunctive is used for our potential and imperative, 

one; tpa, two; J?reo, three; . . . endleofan, eleven; tpelf, as well as the subjunctive. Relics of these uses are in 
twelve ; ^reo-t^ne, thirteen ; . . . tpenti g, twain-ten, twenty ; English: It were a grievous fault = It would be a grievous 
. . . from seventy to one hundred and twenty, the fault; Be it so — Let it be so. But a periphrastic potential, 
great hundred, hand is prefixed : hund-seofon-tig, seventy; with the auxiliaries may, can, must, might, etc., is used in 
. . . hund-teon-tig, or hund alone for hundred ; hund- Anglo-Saxon as in English. The infinitive is regularly 
endleofan-tig, one hundred and ten; hund-tpelf-tig, one without to, hence forms with auxiliaries still reject it, and 
hundred and twenty; then hund and jjrittig, one hundred familiar idioms in which the infinitive is the object of a 
and thirty. verb, and to is not needed to express purpose or the like. 

The ordinals are — fyrsta,y?/-s£; 6 5er, other, second; J>ridda, There was a verbal noun ending in -ing, -ung, which 

third; feoper'Sa, fourth ; and so on as in English, except seems to have been confused with the participle in -ende, 

fift, sixt, twelft, which have only lately changed to fifth, and given form to our present participle. 

sixth, seventh ; and except that a modern -teenth has taken The participle (h^red or gifen) is the only passive form, 

the place of the old -teo'oa in thirteenth, fourteenth, etc. All the modes and tenses of the passive voice are made by 

Verbs. — The conjugations are determined by the past joining auxiliaries with it, as in English, German, and other 
tenses, the old perfects. The old way of forming the like languages. 

perfect in the Indo-European languages was by repeat- The two tenses given above answer for all times — one for 

ing the root, a process familiar in Greek and Latin under all past times, the other for present and future ; but forms 
the name of reduplication ; tan, to extend, has its perfect with auxiliaries are also used. Hgebbe, have, for the per- 
tan-tan ; these two syllables tend to run together, either feet, and haefde, had, for the pluperfect, are in full use : h£ 
by weathering out? the unaccented one or by contraction. hsefft mon geportne, he has made man, in which it is to be 

In Sanscrit we have ta-tan, in Greek te-ta(n)-ka, Latin noticed that mon is the object of haef'S, and geportne a par- 

te-tin-i, Gothic than and then. In this way grew up five ticiple in the accusative masculine, agreeing with mon. 
conjugations in Anglo-Saxon, called ancient or strong con- Some intransitives form these tenses by the verb to be: 

jugations: he is hi'Ser gefered, he is (has) come hither ; he pses agan, 

1. Root vowel a unchanged in the past tense; as, gife, he was (had) gone. These forms, which are like the Ger- 

give ; geaf, gave; gifen, given : bidde, bid ; baed, bade; man, are common in Shakspeare, Bunyan, and some of them 
beden, bidden. still in conversation. Have with an intransitive does not 

2. Root vowel i changed to d in the past tense ; as, drife, bear analysis, but we do not want two tense signs for the 
drive ; draf, drove ; drifen, driven : rise, rise ; ras, rose ; same tense. 

risen, risen. For the future, sceal, shall, and pille, toill, are common, 

3. Root vowel u changed to ed in the past tense; as, though seldom free from some meaning of duty, promise, 

cleofe, cleave; cleaf, clove; clofen, cloven. determination, such as indeed goes with them in English. 

4. Root vowel d changed to 6 in past tense ; as, tace, The present distinction between shall and will in the dif- 

take ; toe, took; tacen, taken. ferent persons is not established in Anglo-Saxon; will is 

5. Root long or diphthong contracting with reduplica- more common in Northumbrian, as now in Scottish. The 
tion to eo, e in the past tense; as, feallen , fall ; feol, fell; future perfect is not discriminated. 

feallen, fallen. Other ways of expressing the future occur: he gib's 

In this classification the variations produced on the root rtedan, he is going to read — French, II va lire; ic to 
vowel by adjacent vowels and consonants, as described drincenne haebbe, I have to drink —I shall drink; is to 
above under Phonology, are not taken into account; and syllenne, is to be betrayed=will be betrayed. 
they are so numerous as to leave few verbs exactly alike to The progressive form is common, with also a slightly 

serve as models for new forms. Hence all new forms took different use from the English : is feohtende, is fighting, 
the sixth or weak conjugation : continues fighting; bee's feohtende, will continue fighting, 

6. Past formed by suffixing -de, from dide, did ; lufe, etc. The passive progressive is being fouglit does not occur ; 

love ; lufo-de, loved ; lufod, loved. an ambiguous verbal noun in -ing answers the purpose: he 

English verbs which change their vowel in the past tense paes on huntinge, he was a-hunting, said both of the hunter 
come from Anglo-Saxon, and generally from verbs of the and the game. 

strong conjugations ; but there are a few from weak verbs Of the emphatic form in do only rare examples are found, 

which had umlaut or breaking; thus selle, sell, sealde, sold, perhaps only when the verb is repeated, 
where the root a has umlaut to e in sell, as in man, men, Particles. — Most English prepositions and conjunctions 

and has breaking to ea before Id ; so sece, seek ; sohte, are from Anglo-Saxon, and the forms are often so full that 
sought, where root 6 has umlaut to e, like goose, geese, and we can easily connect them with corresponding words in 
the -de is changed to -te. Similar are tell, told ; bring other languages, and trace their origin and primary mean- 
frorn brengen, brought; think, thought ; buy, bought ; work, ing. Most of those which look most primitive are from 
wrought. The vowels are pretty badly mixed up in Eng- pronouns. 

lish irregular verbs, and it is an inviting field for the gram- Syntax. — There is nothing in which Anglo-Saxon differs 

marian to clear them up one by one. more from English than its syntax, which is that of a highly 

Some of our auxiliaries come from old perfects used as inflected language like Latin or Greek. The most general 
presents, on which new past tenses are formed: mmg, may, laws are common to all speech; a much larger number aro 
rneahte, might ; can, cfi'oc, cou(l)d ; the l is bad spelling, in common to all Indo-European tongues. The frequency 
analogy with woxdd from will, should from shall. with which different combinations arc used by each makes 

Verbs without a connecting vowel are com, am ; don, do ; the great difference between them. Apparent anomalies ol 
gan, go, past code, yode. Stande, stand, stod, stood, has an n English syntax may often be easily understood by study of 
inserted, a relic of an old Sanscrit conjugation. the Anglo-Saxon, from which they sprang: “il/e thinks 1 














158 ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


sate him” seems strange; but in Anglo-Saxon the thinks is 
found to be a different verb from the common English 
think, and to mean seem, and govern a dative; it seems to 
me=methinks. “ He taught me grammar ”—Lucan, teach, 
governs an accusative and dative, taught to me. “I asked 
him a question ”—ficsian, ask, governs an accusative of the 
person asked. “He icent a-hunting”—a is the preposition 
on in Anglo-Saxon. U I loved him the more”—the is in 
Anglo-Saxon the instrumental case of the demonstrative 
(b^ be), more for that, or by that. And so examples might 
be given without end. No difficult point in English syntax 
can be safely discussed by one who does not know its 
history. 

For study of the language the English books are— 
March’s “ Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon,” 
New York, 1870; Hadley’s “Brief History of the Eng¬ 
lish Language,” in Webster’s Dictionary, 1865; Klipstein’s 
“ Anglo-Saxon Grammar,” New York, 1853; Rask’s “ Gram¬ 
mar,” translated by Thorpe, London, 1865; Bosworth’s 
“Anglo-Saxon Dictionary,” London, 1837; Marsh’s “Eng¬ 
lish Language, and its Early Literature,” New York, 1862; 
Corson’s “ Hand-book of Anglo-Saxon and Early English,” 
New York, 1871; Shute’s “Manual,” New York, 1867; 
March’s “ Introduction to the Study of Anglo-Saxon,” 
New York, 1870. In German: Heyne, “ Kurtze Laut- 
und Flexionslehre,” Paderborn, 1862 ; Koch, “ Historische 
Grammatik der Englishen Sprache,” Weimar, 1863; Maetz- 
ner, “ Englische Grammatik,” Berlin, 1865; Ettmuller, 
“Lexiconcum SynopsiGram.,” Qued. <fc Lips., 1851; Grein, 
“ Sprachschatz der Angelsachs. Dichter,” Cassel and Gott¬ 
ingen, 1864; Grimm, “Deutsche Grammatik,” Gottingen, 
1840. 

Anglo-Saxon Literature.— The pagan Anglo-Saxons 
had their poets and orators, and after their conversion 
to Christianity there was an unbroken succession of good 
scholars in England. Most of their writings are, however, 
in Latin. 

The prose writings in the Anglo-Saxon language may be 
classified as follows: 

1. Theological. —The Gospels were read in the native 
tongue as part of the church service, and several manu¬ 
scripts are preserved. Editions have been printed by Par¬ 
ker, 1571, Mershall, 1665, Thorpe, 1842, reprinted in Amer¬ 
ica by Klipstein, Bouterwek, 1857, Surtees Society, 1854-63, 
Bosworth, 1865. iElfric’s translation of the Heptateuch was 
published by Thwaites, 1698. We have also versions of the 
Psalms. There are many Homilies. iElfric, an eminent 
scholar, compiled or translated a series of eighty of them 
about A. D. 990, which were edited by Thorpe for the 
ANfric Society, 1844-46. Others are promised by the Early 
English Text Society. 

2. Ph ilosophical. —King Alfred translated Boethius, “De 
Consolatione Philosophic.” It is freely rendered, with 
large additions and omissions by the royal author. Edi¬ 
tions are by Rawlinson, 1698, Cardale, 1829, and Fox in 
Bohn’s Library, 1864. 

3. Historical. —The most illustrious of the Anglo-Saxon 
scholars, Beda, known to many generations as “the Ven¬ 
erable Bede,” wrote in Latin an “ Ecclesiastical History of 
the Angles and Saxons,” translated by King Alfred into 
Anglo-Saxon, abounding in picturesque details of the he¬ 
roic adventures and characters of his time, has been often 
reprinted, and its best scenes repeatedly rendered into 
verse. (See, for some of them, Wordsworth’s “ Ecclesias¬ 
tical Sonnets.”) The Anglo-Saxon translation was edited, 
with a Latin translation, by Abraham Wheloc, folio, 1644, 
and by Dr. John Smith, 1722. 

“ The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” gives an outline of the 
history of Britain from the earliest times to Henry II., 
A. D. 1154. Copies were kept atthe monasteries as early as 
the time of Alfred. As far as Beda’s history extends, the 
Chronicle has been drawn from it or a common source. It 
is in general a meagre affair. There are many editions: 
Thorpe’s, 1861, has seven parallel texts, a translation and 
indexes. 

The general “History of the World,” by Orosius, was 
translated by Alfred, with additions of some value. It has 
often been printed. Thorpe’s edition in Bohn’s Library 
has a translation and glossary, 1857. 

Many brief biographies are found in Beda and the Hom¬ 
ilies, and some separate lives. That of St. Guthlac (see 
Wright’s “Biographia Literaria”) has been several times 
printed; Goodwin, London, 1848. 

4. Law. —A considerable body of laws have been got to¬ 
gether. They begin with those of AEthelbirht, who was 
king of Kent at its conversion. Those of Alfred have an 
introduction on the history of law, the laws of Moses, and 
their relations to Christ and Christian nations. The laws 
are full of valuable knowledge. The ecclesiastical rules re¬ 
lating to confession, penance, and the like are particularly 
suggestive. The best editions are Thorpe’s and that of 


Schmid, Leipsic, 1858. The latter has translations into 
Latin and German, and valuable notes and a glossary. 

5. Natural Science and Medicine. —Such are in “ Popular 
Treatises of Science,” Thorpe, 1841, and Leechdom’s, 
Cockayne, 1864-66. 

6. Grammar. —There is a grammar by AElfric in Somner’s 
Dictionary, 1659; A Colloquy and glossaries, Wright, 1857. 

Anglo-Saxon Poetry is very different in metrical struc¬ 
ture from the English. It is like the Old Icelandic, the 
Old Saxon, and the Earliest German. It is marked off into 
verses by alliteration, the recurrence of the same initial 
sound in the first accented syllables of words. A perfect 
verse of the common narrative kind has three alliterating 
syllables—two in the first section, and one in the second; 
but the first section has but one in many verses. A very 
artificial rhythm is used. Each section has four beats or 
metrical accents. Every root-syllable has its beat, and so 
has the final syllable of each section, and almost any sylla¬ 
ble may have a beat if the poet chooses. 

p&r' pses TimlVSa Meah'tor 7 ; Myn 7 spyn'sode 7 , 
word 7 ptfer'on tcyn'sume 7 , Eod'e ]Fealli 7 '3e6p 7 forb 7 , 
cpSn 7 IIr6t> 7 gfir 7 es 7 cyn 7 na 7 gemyn'dig 7 , 

</ret 7 te gold 7 -hrod 7 en 7 gum'an 7 on heal'le/ 
and 7 J?a/refi'lic 7 pif 7 /ul 7 ge'seal'de 7 , 
ier'est Ajast'-Den'a 7 e'S'el'-pear'de 7 , 

ised 7 hin 7 e 5145 7 ne 7 set b&r'e 6eor 7 ->eg 7 e 7 . 

There was fardly daughter ; there the fate's vibration, 
words were winsome. Forth yode IFeallitheow. 

gueen of Hrothgar, of courtesies mindful, 
greeted in gold-array the guests in the hall, 
and then the gladsome wife gave the beaker 
first to the sovereign Ziege, fard of the East-Danes, 
ftlithe she fcade him be at the 6eer-drinking. 

Knowledge of the popular poetry was universal. It was 
disgraceful not to be able to chant in turn at the feasts. 
Beda, Aldhelm, Alfred learned and loved the old ballads, 
and made verses. Most of the poetry has perished. The 
early Christians condemned whatever was mixed with the 
old superstitions, and the Normans despised or neglected 
all Anglo-Saxon literature. But we have specimens of va¬ 
rious kinds : 

1. The Ballad Epic. —The old ballads are brought to¬ 
gether, beautified, exalted, and fused into a long poem. 
“ Beowulf ” is the “ Iliad ” of the Anglo-Saxons. The ex¬ 
ploits celebrated in it are for the most part combats with 
monsters after the manner of Hercules, but it has the usual 
epic variety—the wrath of the monster, the rousing of the 
hero, the fitting out of the ship, the voyage, the banquet, 
the wordy war of rivals, woman’s graceful presence, the 
arming for fight, and desperate and long-drawn struggles. 
Only one manuscript of it remains. Little notice of it was 
taken till the late revival of Anglo-Saxon scholarship ; but 
the interest in it has risen to a great height, and many 
editions, translations, and essays of elucidation and inter¬ 
pretation have appeared in Germany, England, and Den¬ 
mark. We may mention Kemble, 1833-37 ; Ettmuller, 1840 ; 
Thorpe, 1855; Grein, two editions, 1857-67 ; Gruntvig, 
18^1; Heyne, two editions, 1863-68. 

There are a few fragments to be classed with “ Beowulf.” 
Such are the “Traveller’s Song” and the “ Fight at Finns- 
burg,” both which are given with “Beowulf” in many 
editions. 

2. The Bible Epic is a treatment of the Bible narrative 
similar to that of the ballad epic. The great master in this 
sphere is Caedmon, who is often called the Anglo-Saxon 
Milton. Beda, who lived in the same region, and may have 
seen him, tells us that he was an unlearned man, who could 
not sing the common secular ballads, and that a vision ap¬ 
peared to him and directed him to sing the Creation, and 
that his success was esteemed inspiration. He had many 
imitators, and whether the poems which remain are his is 
not known. These are four poems, called, by Grein, Gen¬ 
esis, Exodus, Daniel, Christ and Satan. Similar are a 
fragment of Judith, Cynewulf’s “ Christ,” “ The Harrowing 
of Hell,” and some fragments. Of all these we have a crit¬ 
ical edition and translation by Grein, and of Cmdmon edi¬ 
tions by Thorpe, 1832; Bouterwek, 1849-54. The manu¬ 
script is illuminated, and the illuminations were copied and 
published in 1833. 

3. Ecclesiastical Narratives. —These are versified lives 
of saints and chronicles. We have Andreas (1724 lines), 
Juliana (731 lines), Guthlac (1353 lines), Elene (1321 lines). 

4. Psalms and Hymns. —Translations of a large part of 
the Hebrew Psalms, and a few Christian hymns and prayers. 

5. Secular Lyrics. —A few from the “ Chronicle,” cele¬ 
brating the kings or others. 

6. Allegories, Gnomic Verses, and Riddles. —“The Phoe¬ 
nix” (677 lines), “ The Panther” (74 lines), “The Whale” 
(89 lines), Gnomic Verses and Riddles ; “ Dialogue between 
Solomon and Saturn,” in Grein, vol. ii., pp. 339-407—a 
favorite style with the Anglo-Saxons. 
















ANGOLA—AN 11A LT. 


159 


7. Didactic, Ethical. —Alfred’s “Metres of Boethius” are 
versifications of parts of Boethius referred to under Prose 
Writings above. The best edition is Grein, vol. ii., pp. 295- 
339. Grein’s “Bibliothek der Angelsachsischen Poesie,” 
Gottingen, 1857, with his translations and complete glos¬ 
sary, gives the apparatus for the study of all these poems. 
Ilis “ Bibliothek der Angelsachsischen Prosa,” now in pro¬ 
cess of publication, promises to render an equal service for 
Anglo-Saxon prose. 

(Outlines of this literature are to be found in March’s 
“Introduction to Anglo-Saxon,” New York, 1870; Mou- 
ley’s “English Writers,” London, 1867; Wright’s “Biog- 
raphia Brit. Literaria,” London, 1842; Ettmuller’s “Sco- 
pas” and “ Boceras,” Qued. and Lips., 1850.) 

E. A. March. 

Ango'la (formerly Don'go or Ambomle), a country 
in the S. W. part of Africa, bordering on the Atlantic Ocean, 
is bounded on the N. by Congo, from which it is separated 
by the Danda River, and on the S. by the Coanza River. 
It is included between lat. 8° and 10° S. The interior is 
said to be mountainous or hilly; the land is well watered, 
and produces a luxuriant tropical vegetation. Angola is 
rich in minerals, among which are gold, silver, copper, and 
iron. Lions, leopards, elephants, and hippopotami abound 
here. The chief articles of export are ivory, gold, wax, 
and slaves. This country is subject to the Portuguese, who 
have several forts on the coast. Nominally, a large pro¬ 
portion of the population belongs to the Roman Catholic 
Church, which, since the middle of the sixteenth century, 
has had a bishop in the capital; but their Christian belief 
is still largely mixed with pagan notions and practices. 
Pop. of the colony, about 600,000. Area, 25,500 square 
miles. Capital, San Paulo de Loando; pop. about 12,500. 

Angola, the county-seat of Steuben co., Ind. It has a 
large school building, a machine-shop, two foundries, a 
flouring-mill, two saw-mills, two planing-mills, two weekly 
papers, ten dry goods stores, three drug stores, two hard¬ 
ware stores, and two printing-offices. Pop. 1072. 

W. C. McGonigal, En. “ Republican.” 

Angola, a post-village of Evans township, Erie co., 
N. Y., on Big Sister Creek and on the Lake Shore R. R., 21 
miles S. W. of Buffalo. It was the scene of a memorable 
railroad accident Dec. 18, 1867, when 40 persons were 
wounded and 70 killed, many of them burned alive. Pop. 
600. 

Ango'ra (the ancient Ancy'ra ; in Turk., Engoor'), a 
town of Asiatic Turkey, about 217 miles E. S. E. of Con¬ 
stantinople. It is situated on an elevated plain adapted to 
pasturage, and is celebrated for its breed of goats, having 
long silky hair which is manufactured into shawls and a 
stuff' called mohair. Large quantities of this hair are ex¬ 
ported, and goats of this breed have been successfully in¬ 
troduced into the U. S. Here are remains of Greek and 
Byzantine architecture. In 1402 a decisive victory was 
gained near Angora by Tamerlane over Bayazeed (Baja- 
zet), who was taken prisoner. The pop. is estimated at 
50,000. (For a notice of the ancient city, see Ancyra.) 

Angor'no, or Angornu, a town of Central Africa, in 
Bornu, is near the W. bank of Lake Tchad and 15 miles 
S. E. of Ivuka. It has an extensive trade in cotton, am¬ 
ber, and slaves. Pop. estimated at 30,000. 

Angostu'ra, or Bol'ivar City, an important city of 
Venezuela, capital of the province of Guiana, is on the 
right bank of the Orinoco River, 263 miles S. E. of Caracas. 
It is advantageously situated for trade, and exports cotton, 
indigo, coffee, tobacco, cattle, etc. It contains a college, a 
hospital, and a fine hall in which the congress of Angos¬ 
tura met in 1819. Pop. about 7000. 

Angostura Bark, or Angustura Bark, the aro¬ 
matic bitter bark of certain trees of the natural order 
Rubiace®, natives of the tropical parts of South America. 
The bark is so named because it is imported from Angos¬ 
tura. It is tonic and stimulant, and has been used in the 
cure of fever, dysentery, diarrhoea, etc. It is obtained 
chiefly from the Galipse'a officina'lis or Cuspa'riafehrif uga. 

Angouleme (anc. Inculis'ma or Iculis'ma), a city ot 
France, capital of the department of Charente, on the river 
Charente and on the Paris and Bordeaux Railway, 83 miles 
by rail N. E. of Bordeaux. It is situated on a hill, and has a 
cathedral, college, theatre, public library, and several paper- 
mills. Linen and woollen stuffs arc manufactured here. 
This town was the birthplace of Marguerite de Valois and 
Balzac. Pop. in 1866, 25,116. 

Angouleme, cl’ (Charles de A Alois), Duke, a natu¬ 
ral son of Charles IN. of France, born April 28, 1573 ; Hav¬ 
ing formed a plot against King Henry IV., he was impris¬ 
oned from 1604 to 1616. He had the chief command of the 
royal army when it began the famous siege of Rochelle in 
1628. Died Sept. 24, 1650. 


Angouleme, d’ (Louis Antoine de Bourbon), Duke, 
born Aug. 6, 1775, was the eldest son of the Comte d’Ar- 
tois, afterwards Charles X. of France. He emigrated with 
his father in 1789, and in 1799 married his cousin, Marie 
Therese Charlotte, a daughter of Louis XVI., with whom 
he lived in exile until 1814. He commanded the French 
army which intervened against the Spanish liberals in 
1823, and restored Ferdinand VII. to absolute power. His 
abilities were mediocre. Died at Goritz June 3, 1844. 

Angouleme, d’ (Marie Therese Charlotte), Duch¬ 
ess, the wife of the preceding, was born Dec. 19, 1778, and 
was a daughter of Louis XVI. In Aug., 1792, she was 
confined in the Temple with the king and her mother, Ma¬ 
rie Antoinette. She was released in 1795, and exchanged 
for Camus and others who had been captured by the Aus¬ 
trians, after which she passed many years in exile. She 
appears to have had more energy than the other Bourbons. 
She became again an exile in 1830. Died Oct. 19, 1851. 

Angoumois, a former province of France, included the 
present department of Charente and part of Dordogne. Its 
capital was Angouleme. 

An'gra,- a seaport-town, and the capital of Terceira, 
one of the Azores; lat. 38° 39' N., Ion. 27° 12' W. It has 
a beautiful situation and a good harbor. It contains a 
cathedral, a military college, and an arsenal. Wine, grain, 
honey, etc. are exported from this town. Pop. in 1863, 
11,839. 

An'gri, a town of Italy, in the province of Salerno, on 
the railway from Naples to Eboli, 15 miles by rail N. W. 
of Salerno. Pop. in 1861, 6921. 

Anguil'la, or Snake Island, an island in the Lee¬ 
ward group, in the West Indies, 4 miles N. of St. Martin. 
Area, 34 square miles. The island is low and covered with 
forests, and belongs to Great Britain. The staple products 
are sugar, tobacco, and cotton. Pop. about 3100. 

Anguil'lula (7. e. “little eel,” from the Lat. anguil'la, 
an “eel”), a genus of minute animals allied to the nema- 
toid worms. Best known are those called “vinegar eels,” 
found abundantly in cider vinegar. They are remarkable 
for tenacity of life. Anguilla Jluviatilis, after being dried 
until it becomes brittle, will recover its activity when placed 
in water. Anguilla tritici, found on blighted wheat, has 
been known to revive after being kept dry for five years. 

An'guis [a Latin word signifying “serpent”], a syste¬ 
matic name of a genus of serpent-like reptiles having the 
maxillary teeth compressed and hooked, and the palate not 
armed with teeth. (See Blind Worm.) 

Anguiscio'la, or Angusso'la (Sofonisba), an emi¬ 
nent Italian painter, born at Cremona about 1534, excelled 
in portraits. Invited by Philip II. of Spain, she went to 
Madrid, and painted portraits of the queen and others. 
In the latter part of her life she became blind. It is said 
that Van Dyke acknowledged he had derived much benefit 
from her conversations on art. Died in 1626. 

Angular Motion of a point or a body is the same as 
that of the line or radius vector joining the moving point 
to some fixed point. The angular velocity of the body in 
reference to the fixed point is the ratio of the angle de¬ 
scribed by the radius vector to the time occupied by its 
description. 

Angus, Earl of. See Douglas. 

An'gus (Rev. Joseph), D. D., born Jan. 16, 1816, edu¬ 
cated at the University of Edinburgh, president of Re¬ 
gent’s Park College (Baptist), London, and author of 
“ The Bible Handbook,” “ Handbook of English Litera¬ 
ture,” “ Handbook of the English Tongue,” and other 
works, and editor of the best edition of Butler’s “Analogy” 
(1855, 12mo, pp. 551). He is one of the revisers of the 
English New Testament for the American Bible Union, a 
member of the committee of the convocation of Canterbury 
for revising the New Testament, and a prominent member 
of the Evangelical Alliance, as a delegate of which he vis¬ 
ited the U. S. in 1873. 

Angus (Samuel), a naval officer born at Philadelphia 
in 1784. He became a captain in the U. S. navy, and com¬ 
manded the vessel which in 1814 conveyed Adams and Clay 
to Ghent on a diplomatic mission. He served with dis¬ 
tinction in the French troubles of 1800, in the war of 1812, 
and was four times wounded. Died May 29, 1840. 

An'lialt, a duchy of Germany, almost completely sur¬ 
rounded by the Prussian province of Saxony, consists of 
two larger parts and four enclaves, having together an 
area of 897 square miles. The duchy is traversed by the 
Saale, the Elbe, and the Selke. While the eastern part is 
level, the western is mountainous and wooded. The soil is 


* Angra in Portuguese denotes a “creek,” “bay,” or “station 
for ships.” 





















160 ANHALT-BERNBURG—ANILINE COLORS. 


generally fertile. Cattle-raising is extensively and success¬ 
fully carried on here. Here are also mines of silver, copper, 
iron, and lead. The duchy has five gymnasia and three semi¬ 
naries. Pop. in 1871, 2013,354. Capital, Dessau. According 
to the budget of 1872, the receipts and the expenses were 
both estimated at 2,231,000 thalers. The public debt in 
1871 amounted to 2,259,210 thalers. The dukes of Anhalt 
claim to have descended from the celebrated Albert the 
Bear (which see), the first margrave of Brandenburg. In 
1212 Anhalt was divided into three parts; it was united in 
1570 by Joachim Ernst, and again divided into four 
branches—Dessau, Bernburg, Kothen, and Zerbst—upon 
his death in 1586. In 1793, after the extinction of the 
house of Anhalt-Zerbst, its dominions were divided by the 
remaining three. In 1807 the three houses joined the Con¬ 
federation of the Rhine, and in 1814 the German Confedera¬ 
tion. In 1847 the house of Anhalt-Kothen became extinct, 
and the duke of Anhalt-Dessau took the administration of 
its dominions upon himself; and when, in 1863, the house 
of Anhalt-Bernburg also became extinct, Anhalt was again 
united under one ruler. (See the works of Heine, 1865; 
Krause, 5 vols., 1861-66; and Siebigk, 1867.) 

An'halt-Bern'burg (Christian), Prince of, a Ger¬ 
man general, born in 1568, was a man of superior abili¬ 
ties. He was the chief promoter of a league of Protestant 
princes formed against the emperor in 1608. He com¬ 
manded the army of Frederick elector Palatine, which was 
defeated at Prague in 1620. Died in 1630. 

An'halt-Des'sau (Leopold), Prince of, an able Ger¬ 
man general, born in 1676, commanded the Prussian troops 
under Prince Eugene in Italy and Flanders in 1706-12, and 
was second in command of the Prussian army which op¬ 
posed Charles XII. of Sweden in 1715. Died in 1747. 

Anhandu / hy-Mirim / and Anhandu'hy-Guazu', 
two rivers of Brazil, in the province of Matto-Grosso. 
They rise in the Serra Galhano, and enter the Rio Ver- 
melho. The former is about 150 miles, and the latter about 
200 miles, in length. 

An'holt, an island of Denmark, in the Cattegat, is 
7 miles long and about 4 miles wide; lat. of the lighthouse, 
56° 44' N., Ion. 11 ° 39' E. It is surrounded by danger¬ 
ous shoals. Pop. 200 . v 

Anhy'dride, an oxygen compound formed by the ab¬ 
straction of water from an acid. Thus, for instance, by 
taking (new notation) water, II 2 O, from carbonic acid, 
H 2 CO 3 , we have carbonic anhydride, CO 2 . (See Chemistry.) 

Anhy'drite [from the Lat. adhy'drus, and the Gr. 
A LOos, a “stone”], a mineral composed of anhydrous sul¬ 
phate of lime. It is harder and heavier than common sul¬ 
phate of lime (gypsum), into which it is slowly converted 
by the absorption of water. It occurs in several varie¬ 
ties— viz. granular, fibrous, radiated, and translucent, 
sparry anhydrite or cube-spar, and compact anhydrite. 

Anhy'drons [from the Gr. av, priv., and vfiwp, “water”], 
“without water,” a chemical term applied to a compound 
which contains no water, as pure and absolute alcohol, 
which is called anhydrous alcohol; quicklime as it comes 
from the kiln is anhydrous lime, but when it comes into 
contact with water, the lime and water combine and form 
hydrated lime. 

Anice'tus, Saint, was bishop of Rome about 155 A. D. 
The time of his death is uncertain. 

An'il,onc of the plants from which indigo is obtained; 
a kind of indigo said to be a native of America, but now 
cultivated in the East Indies. It is very similar to Indi- 
gofera tincto'ria. 

An'iline [from «n?7, “indigo”], Phenyl'amine, or 
Am'ido-benzol', discovered in 1826 by Unverdorben as 
a product of the distillation of indigo, and called by him 
crystalline, on account of the ready crystallization of its 
salts. It attracted much attention from chemists, and was 
made the subject of many researches, which contributed 
greatly to enlarge the facts and theories of modern chem¬ 
istry. It did not acquire any commercial importance till 
1856, when Perkin prepared from it the beautiful purple dye 
mauve. The brilliancy and intensity of this color attracted 
the attention of chemists and dyers, and in a short time an 
entirely new series of colors was discovered, by which the 
art of dyeing has been almost revolutionized. 

Aniline is found among the products of the distillation 
of bituminous coal (in “coal-tar”), of peat, bones, etc. It 
is prepared, however, from benzol derived from the more 
volatile portions of coal-tar. The benzol, C 6 ll 6 , is converted 
by the action of nitric acid into nitrobenzol, C 6 II 5 NO 2 , 
and this compound is changed by the action of ferrous 
acetate, produced by iron filings and acetic acid, into ani¬ 
line ; 

Nitro-benzol. Aniline. 

C 6 1I 5 N02 + 6FcO + H 2 0 = C 6 H 7 X + 3 FC 2 O 3 . 


Aniline is a colorless, mobile, oily liquid, having a faint 
vinous odor and aromatic burning taste. Its specific grav¬ 
ity is 1.002; boiling-point, 182° C. It is very poisonous. 
It dissolves very slightly in water, in all proportions in 
ether, alcohol, wood-naphtha, bisulphide of carbon, and in 
oils, fixed and volatile. The aqueous solution is faintly 
alkaline, and precipitates many metallic bases from solu¬ 
tions of their salts. With bleaching-powder it produces a 
violet-blue color, with sulphuric acid and potassic bichro¬ 
mate, a bluish-black precipitate, and when treated with 
arsenic acid, stannic chloride, etc., it is converted into 
rosaniline. When exposed to the air, aniline acquires a 
yellow or red color, which is always noticed in commercial 
“aniline oil.” It forms a numerous class of salts, most of 
which crystallize readily. 

Aniline is an amine, a monamine, or an ammonia, in 
which one atom of hydrogen is replaced by a radical phenyl, 
C 6 H 5 : 

fH . fH. 

Ammonia, N ] H; Aniline, N ] C 6 II 5 . 

U (II. ■ 

Aniline is now manufactured in enormous quantities for 
the preparation of the different colors. (See Amines, Benzol, 
Phenyl.) C. F. Chandler. 

Aniline Colors. In 1835, Runge noticed the violet- 
blue color produced by chloride of lime with aniline, and 
Fritzsche subsequently showed that chromic acid formed 
with aniline a blackish-blue precipitate. In 1853, Beis- 
senhirtz obtained a blue by acting upon aniline with po¬ 
tassic dichromate and sulphuric acid. It remained for 
W. H. Perkin to develop this reaction, and to lay the 
foundations of the great aniline industry which is now so 
extensive. In 1856 he isolated the color found in the last- 
mentioned reaction, called it mauve, and showed that it 
could be used as a dye. Many chemists at once turned 
their attention to the subject, and a great number of new 
colors of almost every tint and shade were discovered, 
which have taken the place in dyeing, and to a consider¬ 
able extent in calico-printing, of the animal and vegetable 
colors in previous use. The chemical composition of many 
of these colors has been established, and many chemical 
facts of great importance have been developed by their 
study. 

Aniline Reds. — Rosaniline salts are the most important 
of all the aniline colors. They are not only used for the 
production of brilliant tints on cotton, wool, and silk, but 
they constitute the material from which many of the other 
colors are prepared. Rosaniline has been shown by Hof¬ 
mann to be a colorless base, a triamine (see Amines), hav- 

f(C 6 H 4 )". 

ing the formula C 20 H 19 N 3 , or X 3 ] 2(C 7 H 6 )". It is pro- 

(H 3 . 

duced by the union of one molecule of aniline with two 
molecules of toluidine, and the abstraction of six atoms 
of hydrogen: 

Aniline. Toluidine. Rosaniline. 

C 6 H 7 N + 2 C 7 H 9 N = C 20 II 19 N 3 + IL;. 

A great variety of dehydrogenizing agents may be em¬ 
ployed to effect this reaction. It is found that the best 
results are obtained when an aniline oil is employed which 
contains about 25 per cent, of toluidine. Hofmann in 1858 
prepared rosaniline by treating aniline Avith tetrachloride 
of carbon, but on a manufacturing scale Medlock’s process 
with arsenic acid is now in most general use. The aniline 
oil, 1 part, is heated with 1£ parts of a 75 per cent, solu¬ 
tion of arsenic acid in a closed iron still provided with a 
stirrer. The product is boiled Avith water and filtered, and 
on adding to the solution common salt in excess, the crude 
hydrochlorate of rosaniline is precipitated. This is dis¬ 
solved in boiling water, filtered, and allowed to crystallize. 
This salt of rosaniline, C 20 H 19 X 3 .HCI, is known as aniline 
red, magenta, fuchsine, so/ferino, roseine, azaleine, etc. It 
appears in magnificent green crystals, with a metallic lus¬ 
tre like that of the Aving-covers of Brazilian beetles or can- 
tharides. It is soluble in water and in alcohol, Avith a color 
varying from a beautiful cherry-red to a crimson. 

Yerguin and Renard of Lyons, who first made aniline 
red on a manufacturing scale, used tetrachloride of tin, 
SnCl 4 . Gerber-Keller prepared rosaniline nitrate, azaleine, 
by the action of mercuric nitrate. Lauth and Depouilly 
heat aniline with nitrate of aniline. Laurent and Castel- 
haz prepare aniline red directly from the crude nitrobenzol, 
Avhich contains nitrotoluol, by heating it with iron filings 
and hydrochloric acid. The first reaction of the FeCl on 
the nitrobenzol results in the removal of oxygen from the 
nitrobenzol and nitrotoluol, and the addition of hydrogen, 
producing aniline, toluidine, and Fe 2 Cl 6 . On heating this 
mixture further, the Fe 2 Cl 6 removes hydrogen from the 
aniline and toluidine, and rosaniline is the result. Coupier 
heats together aniline, nitrotoluol, hydrochloric acid, and 















ANILINE COLOKS. 161 

rosaniline, C2oHi8(C6H5)N 3 ,HCl, called also rosaniline vio- 


a little iron. Rosaniline hydrate, C20H19N3.H2O, may be 
precipitated from the solutions of its salts by alkalies; it is 
rose-red and somewhat crystalline, but by proper care may 
be obtained colorless. 

Ammonic sulphide, or zinc-powder, converts rosaniline 
salts into leucaniline, C20H21N3, which is colorless; by 
adding H2, oxidizing agents change it back to rosaniline. 
Advantage is taken of this fact to produce discharge pat¬ 
terns, the zinc-powder, thickened with gum, being printed 
upon goods previously dyed with aniline red. Silk and 
wool take up aniline red very readily, but cotton must be 
previously mordanted. For dyeing cotton the mordant 
generally used is tannate of tin, produced by subjecting 
the cotton first to a solution of sumach, then to sodic stan- 
natc, and finally to dilute sulphuric acid. In calico-print¬ 
ing the color is mixed with albumen or the preparation of 
Perkin and Schultz, a solution of aluminic arsenite in 
aluminic acetate. On drying and steaming the goods the 
color is rendered insoluble or fixed. 

Other reds of less importance are di-hydriodate of tri¬ 
methyl chrysaniline, C 2 oHi 4 (CIl 3 ) 2 N 3 .( 1101 ) 2 , called chrys- 
aniline red; nitrosophenyline, C 6 H 6 N 2 O; toluidine red, xyli- 
dinc red, etc. 

Aniline Pixk.— Safranine is a coloring-matter pro¬ 
duced by the oxidation of aniline. It is supposed to be 
C21H20N4. It forms crystallizable salts. 

Aniline Violets and Blues. —These colors shade into 
each other so gradually that they cannot well be separated. 

1. Mauve, or aniline purple (of Perkin), was the first of 
the aniline products used as a dye. It is the sulphate or 
other salt of the base mauveine, C27H24N4. It may bo pre¬ 
pared from pure aniline, free from toluidine, by the action 
of potassic dichromate and sulphuric acid. It may also be 
prepared by the action of cupric chloride (Dale and Caro), 
or by chloride of lime. This dye has been entirely super¬ 
seded by other preparations. It was known while in com¬ 
merce as mauve, aniline purple, Perkin’s violet, indisine, 
aniline harmaline, violine, and mauve rosolane. 

2 . Hofmann’s Violets and Blues. —Rosaniline contains, 
as shown in the formula given above, three atoms of re¬ 
placeable hydrogen. By substituting for one, two, or all 
of these, various alcohol radicals, as methyl, ethyl, amyl, etc., 
a great variety of colors, ranging from the red of rosani¬ 
line salts through purples and violets to the purest blue, are 
obtained. Hofmann’s violets are produced by heating ros¬ 
aniline, alcohol, and the iodide of methyl, ethyl, or amyl 
under pressure. A violet syrup results, containing the hy- 
driodate of the new substitution product; for instance, 
hydriodate of trimethyl rosaniline, C2oHi6(CH3)sN3.HI. To 
recover the iodine, the solution may be boiled with caustic 
potash, which precipitates trimethyl rosaniline, which may 
be washed, and redissolved in alcohol containing hydro¬ 
chloric acid, or in acetic acid and water. The following 
are some of the more important colors of this group : 
Hydrochlorate of methylrosaniline, C2oHi8(CH3)N3,IICl ; 
hydriodate of methylrosaniline, C2oHi8(CH3)N3HI; hy¬ 
drochlorate of dimethylrosaniline, C2oHi7(CH3)2N3,HCl ; 
hydrochlorate of trimethylrosaniline, C2oHi6(CH3)3N3,HCl; 
hydrochlorate of monethylrosaniline, C2oHi8(C2H5)N 3 ,HCl, 
called also Hofmann’s red violet; hydriodate of ethylros- 
aniline, C2oHi8(C2H5)N3,HI, called also Hofmann’s red vio¬ 
let; ethyliodate of ethylrosaniline, C2oHi8(C2H5)N3,C2H5l, 
called also fuchsine with a blue tint, and Hofmann’s violet 
red; hydrochlorate of diethylrosaniline, C2oHn(02115)2^, 
HC 1 , called also Hofmann’s blue; ethyliodate of diethyl¬ 
rosaniline, C2oHn(C2H5)2N3,C2H5l, called also Hofmann’s 
red violet and ethylic rosaniline violet; hydrochlorate of 
triethylrosaniline, C2oHi6(02115)3X3,IIC 1 , called also Hof¬ 
mann’s blue; ethyliodate of triethylrosaniline, C2oHi6(C2 
H5)3N3C2H5l, called also Hofmann’s blue and ethylic ros¬ 
aniline violet; ethylbromate of triethylrosaniline, C20H16 
(C2H5)3N3,C2H5Br, called also brimula. Wauklyn used 
isopropyl iodide in a similar manner. 

As the successive atoms of hydrogen are replaced by the 
alcohol radical, the shade passes farther and farther from 
the original red, giving first a reddish-purple, then a full 
purple, then violet, then reddish-blue, finally a full blue. 
The picrate of triethylrosaniline yields a fine green tint. 

3 . Phenyl-rosanilines. —By heating rosaniline salts with 
aniline (phenylamine) the radical phenyl, C6II5, is intro¬ 
duced in the place of H, giving rise to a series of purples 
and violets, terminating in the most beautiful blue tri- 
phenylrosaniline— bleu de Lyon, the only blue which has 
come into extensive use. This blue is insoluble in water, 
which rendered its application' somewhat troublesome, as 
an alcoholic solution was necessary. Nicholson found that 
sulphuric acid produced a compound analogous to sulph- 
indigotic acid, soluble in water; this is now extensively 
manufactured under the name of ‘’Nicholson’s blue” or 
“ soluble blue.” The following are the more important 
compounds of this series: Hydrochlorate of monophcnyl- 


let, red monophenylrosaniline, and Hofmann’s violet; 
hydrochlorate of diphenyl rosaniline, C2oHi9(CeH5)2N 3 , 
HC 1 , also known as rosaniline violet and Hofmann’s vio¬ 
let; triphenylrosaniline or triphcnylic rosaniline, C20II16 
(Oells^Ns, called also aniline blue, rosaniline blue, Hof¬ 
mann’s blue, bleu de Paris, bleu de Lyons, bleu de Mul- 
house, bleu de Mexique, bleu de nuit, bleu lumiere, bleuine, 
azurine, and night blue; hydrochlorate of triphenylrosani¬ 
line, C2oHi6(C6H5j3N3,lICl, known also by the same names 
as the above; acetate of triphenylrosaniline, C2oHi6(C6ll5)3 
N 3 ,H,CH 3 0 2 , known also by the same names as the 
above; bisulphotriphenyl rosaniline acid, C2oHi6(C6H5)3N 3 , 
(H2S04)2.H2SC>4, called also Nicholson’s blue and soluble 
blue. In this acid the last II2 arc replaceable by metals 
with the formation of salts. 

4 . Tolyl-rosanilines correspond to the phenyl-rosani¬ 
lines. The most important is tritolyl-rosaniline, C20H16 
(C7ll7)3N3, known as toluidine blue. 

5 . Many other derivatives of aniline, rosaniline, etc. 
have been introduced, which exhibit shades from red to 
blue, passing through purple and violet, as dahlia-colored 
salts of ethylmauveine, 027H23(C2ll5)N4; the violet salts 
of methylaniline, CeH6(CH 3 )N; salts of violanile, CisHis 
N 3 , and of mauvaniline, C19II17N3. Besides these there 
are many colors the composition of which is not known, 
such as regina blue, opal blue, regina purple, bleu de 
Fayolle, violet de Mulhouse, Britannia violet, geranosine, 
violet imperial. 

Aniline Greens. — 1 . Aldehyde green, called also aniline 
green, viridine, and emeraldine .—In 1861 , Lauth obtained 
a beautiful but fugitive blue by the action of aldehyde on 
a solution of a rosaniline salt in sulphuric acid. A young 
chemist, Cherpin, endeavored to fix the color, and was ad¬ 
vised by a photographer’s apprentice to use sodic hypo¬ 
sulphite, a salt used for fixing photographs, on account of 
its property of dissolving argentic chloride, bromide, and 
iodide. Cherpin followed the unscientific advice, and ob¬ 
tained the most beautiful green. The original process of 
Lauth and Cherpin is still pursued, and is so simple that 
many dyers prepare tho color for themselves. Aldehyde 
green is principally employed in silk-dyeing. 

2 . Iodine green, known also as iodide of methyl green .— 
It is produced by heating trimethyl or triethyl rosaniline 
violets (Hofmann’s violets), or methylaniline violets, with 
the iodide of methyl, ethyl, or amyl. The color is a salt 
of a new base, which may be separated by the action of 
sodic hydrate. It is extensively used for cotton and silk. 
Its tint is bluer than that of aldehyde green, and it is more 
useful, as it yields a greater variety of shades in connec¬ 
tion with picric acid. 

3 . Perkin’ 8 green, or iodide of ethyl green .—This dye re¬ 
sembles iodine green, but differs in solubility; it is much 
used, especially in calico-printing. 

4 . Emeraldine. —A green which may be produced in the 
fibres of cotton cloth by printing on a mixture of an ani¬ 
line salt and potassic chlorate, and allowing it to dry for 
twelve hours, when the green color will have been devel¬ 
oped. Hot dilute alkalies or boiling soap solutions change 
it to blue. 

Aniline Yellows. —Aniline yellows are little used in 
dyeing or printing. 

1 . Chrysaniline, C20II17N3, called also 'phosphine, aniline 
yellow, yellow f uchsine, is a secondary product in the man¬ 
ufacture of rosaniline. Owing to the insolubility of its 
nitrate, it has been proposed to use its acetate or hydro¬ 
chlorate as a reagent to precipitate nitric acid. 

2 . Other yellows are chrysotoluidine, C21H21N3.H2O, the 
isomeric compounds diazo-amidobenzene and amido-di- 
phanylimide, C12II21N3, and zinaline, C20H19N2O6. 

Aniline Browns and Maroons. —Several browns have 
been produced directly or indirectly from aniline. De 
Laire obtained a maroon by adding rosaniline hydrochlo¬ 
rate to fused aniline hydrochlorate. Schultz prepared a 
fine garnet color bypassing nitrous vapors through a solu¬ 
tion of soda holding rosaniline in suspension. Jacobsen 
prepares a rich brown by heating picric acid and aniline 
together, dissolving the product in hydrochloric acid, and 
precipitating with caustic soda. He obtains another by 
heating ammonium chromate with aniline formate. Kocch- 
lin produces a brown on wool by printing on a mixture of 
rosaniline hydrochlorate (fuchsine), oxalic acid, and potas¬ 
sium chlorate, and on cotton by adding to this mixture 
some cupric sulphide. Browns are generally made Irom 
the residues of rosaniline. 

Aniline Gray. —Oastelhaz has patented a process by 
which a beautiful gray is produced, which has, however, 
found little favor among dyers on account of its high cost. 
He subjects mauveine (Perkin’s violet) to the action ot sul¬ 
phuric acid and aldehyde. Carves and Ihierault prepare 
a rich gray, called by them murein, by mixing aniline, 















162 


ANIMAL—ANIMA MUNDI. 


hydrochloric acid, potassic dichromate, copperas, and sul¬ 
phuric acid. 

Aniline Black. —No one has yet succeeded in producing 
a good black dye from aniline, though the color produced 
on cotton, silk, or wool by immersing first in a solution of 
an aniline salt, and then in potassic dichromate, is very 
near a black. In calico-printing, however, blacks of 
great intensity and durability have been discovered, which 
are now extensively used; in fact, except for mourning 
goods, in which the black predominates over the white, 
the aniline black is now used almost exclusively. Light- 
foot discovered the first aniline black in 1863. lie printed 
on the cotton a mixture of aniline hydrochlorate, potassic 
chlorate, cupric chloride, sal-ammoniac, acetic acid, and 
starch paste; exposed the cloth to the air for two days, and 
fixed the color with an alkali. Lauth improved the pro¬ 
cess by substituting cupric sulphide for the cupric chloride. 
Cordillot substituted potassium ferrideyanide for the cop¬ 
per salt. Alfred Paraf in 1865 introduced a mixture of 
aniline hydrochlorate, potassic chlorate, and hydrofiuosilicic 
acid, properly thickened. On exposing the goods in the 
“ ageing-room ” to a temperature of 32° to 35° C., the 
chloric acid is liberated, and oxidizes the aniline to a 
black. In 1867, Paraf patented the use of a new agent, 
the “chromium chromate.” His mixture for printing con¬ 
tained aniline hydrochlorate, potassic chlorate, chromium 
chromate, starch, and water. In the ageing-room chromic 
acid is set free to act upon the aniline salt. 

Application of Aniline Colors in Dyeing and Calico- 
printing. —In silk-dyeing no mordant is required; to pro¬ 
duce an even color, however, it is found best to use a weak 
soap solution with the dye; and sometimes a little acid is 
added, sulphuric or tartaric. For printing on silk the colors 
are thickened with gum-senegal, printed from blocks, and 
when dry the goods are steamed and washed. A discharge 
style may be produced by dyeing silk with a rosaniline salt, 
then printing on zinc-dust thickened with gum. The ros¬ 
aniline is reduced to colorless leucaniline, producing white 
figures on a colored ground. By mixing colors with the 
zinc which are not affected by it, colored figures are pro¬ 
duced. For dyeing wool no mordant is required; the goods 
are simply handled in hot solutions; except in the case of 
Nicholson’s blue, which is dissolved in an alkali, the goods 
after passing through the solution being subjected to an 
acid bath. For dyeing cotton, mordants are necessary. By 
subjecting the goods to (1) a decoction of sumach, (2) to 
sodic stannate, and finally (3) to diluto sulphuric acid, a 
stannic tannate is produced on the fibre whi'ch has a great 
affinity for aniline colors. For printing, the colors are 
thickened with albumen, or a solution of aluminum arsen¬ 
ate in aluminum acetate, and fixed by steaming. 

Aniline colors are also used for inks, for coloring leather, 
soaps, vinegar, candies, ivory, horn, etc.; and lakes are 
prepared from them for paper-staining, printers’ ink, etc. 
etc. 

The high cost of aniline colors is counterbalanced by 
the brilliancy of their tints and the simplicity of dyeing. 
The aniline color industry has acquired greater propor¬ 
tions in Germany than in any other country. In the U. S. 
manufacturers chiefly confine their attention to rosaniline 
salts. Although coal-tar is extensively distilled here, and 
benzole is exported, all the aniline is imported. 

(For further details see Watt’s “Dictionary of Chem¬ 
istry” and supplement; Wurtz, “ Dictionnaire de Chimie,” 
and specially “Die Farbstoffe,” von M. P. Sciiutzenber- 
ger: “Deutsche Uebertragung,” von Dr. H. Schroder, 
Berlin, 1868-73. Special works on the subject are Beck¬ 
er’s “ Anilin-Farberei,” Berlin, 1871; Retmann’s “Ani¬ 
line and its Derivatives,” New York, 1868; Ivrieg’s “ Thc- 
orie und practische Anwendung von Anilin in der Farbcrei 
und Druckerei,” Berlin, 1866. Wagner’s “ Jahresbericht 
der chemischen Technologie,” from 1858 to date, contains 
the record of the progress of this important branch of 
chemical industry.) C. F. Chandler. 

An'imal [Lat. animal, from animus, “spirit;” Gr. are/xos, 
“wind,” “ breath”], an organized being, distinguished from 
plants, at least in the higher and more developed groups, 
by the power of voluntary motion, the faculty of digesting 
food, which is usually, not always, received into an ali¬ 
mentary canal, and the possession of a nervous system, 
which regulates the acts of the animal and receives impres¬ 
sions from without. An organism, according to Kant’s 
felicitous definition, is that structure wherein each part is 
at the same time the means and the end of all the rest. 
The distinction is not easily made out between some of the 
lower animals and plants; but recent observers claim to 
have made the discovery that all plants, even the most 
minute, have the power of taking up nitrogen from am¬ 
monia compounds—a power which, it is asserted, is pos¬ 
sessed by no animal. The power possessed by green plants 
of taking up carbon from carbonic acid, and by other 


plants of taking it from hydrocarbons, is probably not 
shared by animals. * 

(The structure and functions of animals arc treated of 
under the heads Comparative Anatomy, Physiology, Em¬ 
bryology, etc. See also Zoology, and the names of the 
various groups of animals.)» 

Animal'cule [Lat. animal'culum, the diminutive of 
animal ], literally, a “minute animal,” commonly denoting 
one whose figure can only be discerned by the aid of a 
microscope. In popular language it is mostly applied to 
the microscopic animals which zoologists call Infusoria and 
Protozoa. Many of the so-called animalcules are now 
known to belong to the lower ranks of the vegetable king¬ 
dom. 

Animal Electricity. See Electricity, Animal. 

Animal Heat is the persistent and uniform elevation 
of temperature which a great proportion of living animals 
possess. This elevation does not appear to be a constant 
factor of animal any more than vegetable life; for in those 
animals which are fixed and almost motionless there is 
often great difficulty in detecting any animal heat. But 
even in the so-called cold-blooded animals there is a normal 
range of elevated temperature. Infusoria, earthworms, 
snails, fishes, and especially reptiles, possess an appreciable 
amount of animal heat, and the temperature in health of 
some species has been pretty accurately determined, though 
it appears to vary decidedly in these animals with seasons 
of functional activity or rest. In all animals there seems 
to be a relation between the temperature and the habitually 
fast or slow rate of motions. 

Mammals, birds, and insects have special powers of 
maintaining heat. In insects it is scarcely discernible in 
the pupa state, except when the pupa is about to enter the 
condition of perfect development. Hymenopterous insects 
especially have a high range of temperature. Humble- 
bees’ nests have been observed with a heat 18° above that 
of the surrounding earth. Mr. Newport in one instance 
found a bee-hive with a temperature of 102° F. while the 
bees were aroused, though in a neighboring hive with quiet 
bees the thermometer stood at 481°. It would appear that 
the variation of heat within the limits of health is greater in 
insects than in birds and mammals. 

The heat of birds is in most species much higher than 
that of mammals ; that of the swallow, an extreme example, 
reaching 1111° F. The temperature ofmammals varies from 
94° to 107°, that of man being 98° F. in health, while in 
some fevers it exceeds 105°. It appears that any excess 
over the latter temperature is a bad symptom in fevers, 
while any long-continued depression of even a very few 
degrees below the normal range is also a prognostic of ap¬ 
proaching dissolution. The thermometer of late has be¬ 
come an important means of diagnosis and prognosis in 
disease. Many of the Rodentia and Cheiroptera during a 
part of the year lose a great proportion of their ordinary 
heat, the temperature falling nearly to the freezing-point, 
while many of the vital functions pass into a state of abey¬ 
ance. This condition is called hibernation. 

The principal direct source of animal heat is generally 
believed to be the slow oxidation of carbon (perhaps also 
hydrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus), the material thus 
slowly burnt being introduced in the food, while the oxy¬ 
gen comes in from the air by the lungs; but it is objected 
by many physiologists that the amount of material con¬ 
sumed, with all possible economy of heat, seems inadequate 
to the effect produced. It is observed that the cutting of 
certain nerves in vivisection (notably those belonging to 
the sympathetic system) leads to great temporary increase 
of heat in the parts which had been supplied by the 
wounded nerve, the increase being followed by a permanent 
decrease of heat. This appears to show that the produc¬ 
tion of animal heat is, to some extent at least, under con¬ 
trol of the nervous system. Chas. W. Greene. 

Animal Magnetism. See Mesmerism. 

Animal Mechanics. See Locomotion of Animals. 

Animals, Worship of, a form of worship prevalent 
in many ancient lands, as once in Egypt and Persia, and 
even now in India, where the earlier and purer knowledge 
of God had become obscure, and the likeness of the Deity 
was sought, and supposed to be found, in the forms of ani¬ 
mated nature. The historical fact is exactly sketched by 
Paul in Romans i. 21-23. 

An'ima Mun'di is a Latin phrase signifying “soul 
of the world.” It was used by ancient philosophers, who 
supposed that nature or 'all matter was pervaded by an 
ethereal essence and vital force, which organized and actu¬ 
ated created beings, but was inferior to the Divine Spirit. 
The Atman (Atma) or Param&tma of the Hindoos was also 
regarded as the soul of the world in a somewhat different 
sense. The Atman was supposed to be the original life- 
principle from which the universe was evolved. 
















ANIME—ANNA IVANOVNA. 


1G3 


An'im6, a resin which exudes from Hymensea Courbaril, 
a tree of the natural order Leguminosae, and a native of 
Brazil. It has been used as a medicine and as incense. In 
England the name anim 6 is applied to a resin known in 
India as copal, and obtained from the Valeria Indica. 

A'nio (the modern Tevero'ne), a river of Latium (Italy), 
flowed nearly westward, passed by Tibur, and entered the 
Tiber 4 miles N. of Rome. Length, about 55 miles. An¬ 
cient Rome was in part supplied with water from the Anio 
by two aqueducts, respectively 43 and 62 miles long. 

Anion. See Anode. 

An'ise, Oil of, an essential oil obtained by distilling 
anise seeds or star anise with water. Oil of fennel, from 
Anethum foeniculum and Artemisia Draeunculus, is of a 
similar chemical composition. Oil of anise and of fennel 
contain a hydrocarbon oil, said to be isomeric with oil of 
turpentine, and an oxidized oil, C 10 II 12 O, called anethol or 
anise camphor, which solidifies at temperatures below 10° C. 

An 'ise Seed, the fruit of the PimpineVla Ani'sum, an 
annual herbaceous plant of the order Umbelliferas, is a 
native of Egypt. It is cultivated in Syria, Malta, Spain, 
and Germany, and is used in medicine as a stimulant and 
a carminative. It is also used to flavor liqueurs and as a 
condiment. Anise seed contains a volatile oil which is em¬ 
ployed for similar purposes. A large part of the anise 
oil of commerce is from star anise, the fruit of Illicium 
anisatum, a small tree of the order Magnoliaceae. The 
whole plant is carminative, and is used by the Chinese as a 
spice. Its properties are those of the Pimpinella. It is 
imported from Anam and China. 

An'ise Tree [so named from the smell, which resem¬ 
bles that of anise], a name applied to two small trees or 
large shrubs of the order Magnoliaceae, growing in the 
Gulf States—the Illicium Floridanum and the Illicium par- 
viflornm. Both are evergreen, the former with dark purple 
and the latter with small yellow flowers, appearing in May 
and June. The star anise oil of commerce is the product 
of the Illicium anisatum of Eastern Asia; and it is believed 
that the same oil might be obtained from the Illicium Flor¬ 
idanum. The Illiciumparvijlorum has a taste and smell re¬ 
sembling those of sassafras. The Illicium religiosum of 
China yields a fragrant incense for temple-worship. 

Anis'ic Ae'id (II.C 8 H 7 O 3 ), produced by the oxidation 
of anise-camphor and of the oils of anise and fennel. 
Hydride of anisyl, C 8 H 7 O 2 .II, is formed at the same time. 

Anis'ic Al'cohol (CsHgO.II.O^ is formed by heating 
hydride of anisyl with potash. 

Anisodac'tyls, or Anisodac'tyla? [from the Gr. 
ancros, “unequal,” and Sd/crvAo?, a “finger” or <‘toe”], the 
term applied to an order of birds, including those inses- 
sorial species the toes of which are of unequal length, as 
in the nuthatch. The name has been also applied to the 
odd-toed section of ungulate Mammalia, in which the toes 
are of unequal number, more often called perissodactyls. 

An'isol, or Phe'nate of Me'thyl, (C 7 HgO= CH 3 .- 
C 6 H 5 O), a colorless aromatic liquid formed by the action 
of caustic baryta on anisic acid. 

Anisson-Duperron (Alexandre Jacques Laurent), 
a French political economist, born in 1776. He became 
director of the imperial printing-office in 1809, and was 
created a peer in 1844. He wrote, besides other works, a 
treatise in favor of free trade. 

Aniu'y, or Aniuj (Greater), a river of N. E. Sibe¬ 
ria, rises about lat. 67° N., and, after a course of 270 miles, 
enters the Kolyma near lat. 68 ° N. The Lesser Aniuy 
rises in lat. 66 ° 30' N., and falls into the Kolyma near the 
mouth of the Greater Aniuy. Length, about 250 miles. 

Anjier', a seaport of Java, on the Sunda Straits, 69 
miles W. of Batavia, is often touched at by vessels bound 
for Batavia, to take in provisions, and to land the mails 
and passengers, which go to Batavia overland. 

Anjou, a former province and duchy of France, in¬ 
tersected by the river Loire, was inhabited in ancient 
times by the Andegavi, who were conquered by Caesar. It 
now forms the department of Maine-et-Loire and part 
of Sarthe, Mayenne, and Indre-et-Loire. Its capital was 
Angers. Geoffroy, count of Anjou, married Matilda, a 
daughter of Henry I. of England, and was the founder of 
the royal house of Plantagenet. His son Henry was count ot 
Anjou and king of England. Anjou was annexed to the ci own 
of France about 1204^ and was bestowed as a fief on Charles 
(a brother of Saint Louis), who became king of Naples. 
Louis, a son of King John, was the first duke of Anjou, 
which was erected into a duchy about 1360. Anjou was 
finally annexed to the French crown in 1480, after which 
the younger sons of several kings bore the honoraij title 
of duke of Anjou. Pop. about 550,000. 

Ank'arstrom (Johan Jakob), a Swedish regicide, born 


in 1761, was a partisan of the aristocracy. Having formed 
a conspiracy with Count Horn and others, he assassinated 
Gustavus III. at a masked ball, Mar. 16, 1792. He was 
condemned to death, and, after he had been publicly whip¬ 
ped, was beheaded April 29 of that year. 

An'ker, the name of an old European liquid measure 
of capacity, now disused everywhere except in Denmark 
and Norway, and having different values in different coun¬ 
tries. The anker of Copenhagen is a little more than 9$ 
U. S. gallons, or a little less than 81 imperial gallons. The 
anker of Hamburg was 9.54 gallons ; of Bremen, 9.57 gals.; 
of Lubec, 9.89 gals.; of Amsterdam, 101 gals.; and of Ber¬ 
lin (old measure), 12.45 gals.; later measure, 9.07 gals. 

Ank'lam, or Anclam, a town of Prussia, in Pome¬ 
rania, is on the Peene, 109 miles by rail N. of Berlin. It 
has manufactures of linen and woollen goods. It belonged 
formerly to the Hanseatic League. Pop. of the town in 
1871, 10,739. 

Anko'ber, Ankobar, or Ancober, a town of Abys¬ 
sinia, the capital of Shoa, is situated 8200 feet above the 
level of the sea, and about 265 miles S. E. of G 6 ndar. It 
contains a royal palace, and is a favorite residence of the 
monarch. Pop. estimated at from 12,000 to 15,000. 

Ankylo'sis, or Anchylosis [from the Gr. dyxv\os, 
“bent”], in surgery, a stiffened and more or less fixed and 
immovable joint, so called from the crooked position often 
seen in limbs with such joints. Ankylosis may result from 
suppurative inflammation, as in “white swelling” of the 
knee, and is to be regarded as a favorable termination of 
such disease. These cases result often in neo-plastic exu¬ 
dations—new tissues—adhering to the cartilages of both 
articulating bones; and not unfrequently these new growths 
are partly or completely ossified, converting the two bones 
into one. The cartilages or ligaments of a joint may be¬ 
come shrunken from disease, the opposing synovial mem¬ 
branes may adhere to each other, or other important struc¬ 
tural changes may prevent motion. “ Spurious ankylosis” 
is a case in which a spasm or cicatricial contraction of the 
muscles, or even of the skin, prevents motion, while the 
joint itself is not the seat of disease. Cases of so-called 
hysteria sometimes are accompanied by a stiffness of one 
or more joints; but such cases are readily detected after 
the adminstration of an anaesthetic, when the joint at once 
becomes movable. 

The prospect of recovery of motion in an ankylosed joint 
is small indeed. Joints stiffened at an inconvenient angle 
may be put into better shape during anaesthesia, and then 
be allowed to become ankylosed again in the desired posi¬ 
tion. Excision of joints has been considerably practised, 
and with some success as a means of cure. 

An'na, a post-village and township of Union co., Ill., 37 
miles N. of Cairo. Pop. of village, 1269 ; of township, 2697. 

Alina, Saint, is supposed to have been the mother of 
the Virgin Mary, but she is not mentioned in the Bible. 
The Roman Catholic Church in Austria and other coun¬ 
tries celebrates an annual festival in her honor on the 26th 
of July. 

An'naberg', a mining-town of Saxony, in the Erz¬ 
gebirge, 18 miles S. of Chemnitz. It has mines of silver, 
cobalt, and tin, and manufactures of lace and silk ribbons. 
Pop. in 1871, 11,693. 

An'na Carlov'na, regent of Russia, born in 1718, was 
a daughter of the duke of Mecklenburg, and a niece of 
Anna Ivanovna, empress of Russia. She was married in 
1739 to Anton Ulrich, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, 
and had a son, Ivan, whom Anna Ivanovna designated as 
her successor. Soon after the death of that empress, in 
Oct., 1740, Anna Carlovna assumed the office of regent. 
She was deprived of power by a conspiracy which raised 
Elizabeth to the throne in Dec., 1741. Died Mar. 18, 1746. 

An'na Comne'na, a learned Byzantine princess and 
writer, born Dec. 1, 1083, was a daughter of Alexis I., em¬ 
peror of Constantinople. She became the wife of Niceph- 
orus Bryennius. On the death of her father, in 1118, she 
conspired against her brother John, and attempted to 
usurp the crown or to place it on the head of her husband, 
but failed. She wrote in Greek a life of her father, en¬ 
titled the “Alexiad,” which is an important historical doc¬ 
ument. The style is rather affected. Died in 1148. 

An'liadale, a flourishing village of Richmond co., N. Y., 
on the Staten Island R. R. It has good school and hotel 
accommodations. 

An'na Ivanov'na, empress of Russia, born at Moscow 
Jan. 25, 1693, was a daughter of Ivan, a brother of Peter 
the Great. She was married in 1710 to the duke of Cour- 
land, who died in 1711. She succeeded Peter II. on the 
throne in 1730, and permitted her favorite Birento control 
the empire. He abused his power with great cruelty, and 















164 


ANNALS—ANNE ARUNDEL. 


executed and banished many thousand persons. She died 
Oct. 28, 1740, and was succeeded by Ivan. 

An'nals [Lat. anna'les, from an'nua, a "year”], a term 
derived from the ancient Roman annales pontificum, which 
were official records of public events kept by the pontifex 
maximus. These were burned by the Gauls, who took 
Romo about 390 B. C. The name was afterwards applied 
to historical works, as the "Annals” of Tacitus. Some 
persons define annals to be materials for history, or a spe¬ 
cies of history arranged in order of time, each event being 
recorded under the year in which it occurred. 

An'naly, a township of Sonoma co., Cal. Pop. 2374. 

An'iianilale, a post-village of Red Hook township, 
Dutchess co., N. Y., the seat of St. Stephen’s College (Epis¬ 
copalian). Pop. 347. 

Annap'olis, a county in the W. S. W. part of Nova 
Scotia, bordering on the Bay of Fundy. Area, about 1100 
square miles. The county contains much excellent land, 
and has beds of valuable iron ore. Pop. 18,121. 

Annapolis, or Annapolis Royal, a seaportof Nova 
Scotia, at the mouth of the river Annapolis (which enters 
the Bay of Fundy), 95 miles W. of Halifax. It is the 
western terminus of the Windsor and Annapolis R. R. It 
was founded in 1604 by the French, who called it Port 
Royal. The harbor is good, but difficult of access. This 
town was the capital of the province until 1750. Pop. of 
census sub-district in 1871, 2127. 

Annapolis, a city and port of entry, capital of Mary¬ 
land and of Anne Arundel county, is on the S. bank of the 
Severn River, 2 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake 
Bay, 20 miles S. by E. of Baltimore, and 22 miles E. by N. 
of Washington, 40 miles by rail to either of these cities, 
and 30 miles by water (steamboat) to Baltimore. The 
Annapolis and Elkridge R. R., 21 miles long, connects it 
with the Washington branch of the Baltimore and Ohio 
R. R. Annapolis contains a state-house, governor’s man¬ 
sion, court-house, jail, two national banks, two hotels, three 
newspapers, six churches, an Episcopal mission, colored 
Bethel, and Catholic college. There are several oyster¬ 
packing houses—a business which is assuming some pro¬ 
portion. It is also the seat of St. John’s College and the 
U. S. Naval Academy, which was founded here in 1845. 
(See Naval Academy, by Prof. R. S. Smith.) The rail¬ 
road building from Baltimore to Drum Point (mouth of 
Patuxent River) crosses the A. and E. R. R., 3 miles from 
the city, making the distance to Baltimore by rail 22 
miles. The harbor, or Annapolis Roads, is one of the 
finest in the country, there being a depth of 60 feet in the 
channel up to Round Bay in the Severn River, 7 miles 
from the citv. The city has both gas and water works. 
Lat. 38° 58' 50" N., Ion. 76° 29' AY. ‘ Pop. 5744. 

A. P. Southw'ick, for Ed. "Gazette.” 

Annapolis, a post-village of Penn township, Parke co., 
Ind. Pop. 279. 

Ann Ar'bor, a city, capital of AVashtenaw co., Mich., 
on the Huron River and on the Toledo Ann Arbor and 
Northern and Michigan Central R. Rs., 38 miles AY. of De¬ 
troit. The situation is elevated and pleasant. Here is the 
State University, a flourishing institution, founded in 1837. 
(See Michigan University.) Ann Arbor contains ten 
churches, a national bank, a publishing-house, one monthly, 
one semi-monthly, and three weekly papers, and manufac¬ 
tures of wool, iron, ploughs, and furniture. It has a valu¬ 
able mineral spring. Pop. 7363; of Ann Arbor township, 
8746. Ed. " Chronicle.” 

An-Na'sit (or Al-Nassir) Ledinil'lah (?. e. "the 
defender of the religion of God”), one of the Abasside ca- 
liphs, began to reign at Bagdad in 1180. He was a liberal 
patron of learning, and successfully defended his domin¬ 
ions against several aggressive enemies. Died in 1225. 

An'nates (plu.), [Late Lat., from anmts, a "year” (?. e. 
a "year’s wages”)], the tax of "first-fruits,” a tax an¬ 
ciently imposed by the popes on all bishops on their acces¬ 
sion, and equal to one year’s revenue of the benefice. Bon¬ 
iface IX. extended the tax to all livings. The Council of 
Pisa (1409) complained of the custom ; that of Basel (1435) 
called it simony; that of Trent (Nov. 11, 1563) prohibited 
it. Nevertheless, the practice did not become extinct, and 
was recognized by concordat with Naples in 1818. In Eng¬ 
land, annates were first levied in 1213. In 1534 they were 
made payable to the king (Henry VIII.), instead of the 
pope. A levy of taxes of this kind is made in England 
for the benefit of the poorer clergy, and now called Queen 
Anne’s Bounty (which see), because that queen gave up 
her right to it for the benefit of the Church. In Scotland 
the " ann ” or " annat” is now a half year’s extra pay, due 
to the widow or children of a deceased minister of the 
Kirk. 

Annatto. Sec Annotto. 


An'miAvan, a post-township of Henry co., 111. Pop. 
1261. 

Anne of Austria, queen of France, a daughter of 
Philip II. of Spain, was born Sept. 22, 1601. She was 
married in 1615 to Louis XIII. of France, and became the 
mother of Louis XIAL She failed to gain the favor of 
Louis XIII., and is said to have felt the effects of Cardinal 
Richelieu’s enmity. On the death of the king in 1643, she 
became regent, and appointed Cardinal Mazarin prime 
minister. During her regency occurred the civil war of the 
Fronde (1648-52) between Mazarin and some factious mal¬ 
content nobles, who were finally subdued. Died Jan. 20, 
1666. 

Anne of Brittany, the heiress of the duke of Brit¬ 
tany, was born at Nantes Jan. 26, 1476. Several princes 
were eager competitors for her hand. She was married in 
1491 to Charles VIII. of France, and after his death to 
Louis XII. She was wise and virtuous, and had much in¬ 
fluence in the affairs of France. Died Jan. 9, 1514. 

Anne of Cleves, the fourth queen of Henry A r III. of 
England, who married her, to please the Protestants, in 
Jan., 1540. She was divorced in July of the same year. 
She was daughter of John, duke of Cleves, and was born 
Sept. 22, 1515. Died at Chelsea July 16, 1557. 

Anne, queen of Great Britain and Ireland, the last 
sovereign of the house of Stuart, was born at Twickenham, 
near London, on the 6th of Feb., 1664. She was the sec¬ 
ond daughter of James II. and Anne Hyde, who was a 
daughter of the famous Lord Clarendon. She was edu¬ 
cated in the Protestant religion, to which she afterwards 
manifested a constant devotion, although her father, after 
his accession to the throne, attempted to convert her to the 
Roman Catholic faith. In 1683 she was married to Prince 
George of Denmark, a brother of Christian V. At an early 
age she formed an intimacy with Sarah Jennings (after¬ 
wards the duchess of Marlborough), who exercised an 
almost unbounded influence over her, both before and after 
her accession to the throne. Anne was the mother of many 
(seventeen) children, all of whom died young and before 
she became queen. In the revolution of 1688 she supported 
the cause of the prince of Orange, but she was afterwards 
implicated in intrigues for the restoration of her father. 
Anne succeeded AVilliam III., who died Mar. 8, 1702, at a 
time when the strife of parties was extremely violent. She 
pursued the foreign policy of the late king, which involved 
England in the long war of the Spanish succession as the 
ally of Austria and the enemy of France. Among the im¬ 
portant events of her reign were a number of signal vic¬ 
tories gained by the duke of Marlborough over the armies 
of Louis XIAL, and the union of England and Scotland in 
1707. Her political principles, if she had any, were favor¬ 
able to royal prerogative rather than constitutional liberty, 
and rendered her partial to the Tories. Anne became 
gradually alienated from the duchess of Marlborough, who 
was a AYhig, and transferred her favoritism to Mrs. Masham, 
whose intrigues undermined the AYhig party so effectually 
that the Tory statesmen, the earl of Oxford and Lord Bo¬ 
lingbroke, came into power in 1710. The queen and these 
Tory ministers concurred in designs and intrigues to secure 
the succession to her brother, the Pretender. The Euro¬ 
pean war was ended by the treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 
1713. Lord Bolingbroke became prime minister in place 
of the earl of Oxford in July, 1714. Anne died of apo¬ 
plexy on the 1st of Aug., 1714, and was succeeded by 
George I. The period of her reign, illustrated by the 
genius of Newton, Addison, Pope, Bolingbroke, Swift, De 
Foe, and Arbuthnot, was almost as celebrated in literature 
as the Augustan age of Rome. (See Oldmixon, " Life of 
Queen Anne,” 1716; Strickland, "Lives of the Queens 
of England.”) 

Anneal'ing [from the Saxon on-selan, to "set on fire,” 
to "make hot,” to "burn”], a process of tempering glass 
and certain metals by heating them and then cooling them 
slowly, in order to render them less brittle and more tena¬ 
cious. The extreme brittleness of glass that has not been 
annealed is seen in the glass toys called " Prince Rupert’s 
Drops,” which if scratched with a file will collapse into 
powder or small fragments. Glass vessels are annealed in 
a long oven, one end of which is hotter than the other, and 
the trays in which the vessels are placed are’slowly drawn 
into cooler and cooler parts. The operation of annealing 
large vessels requires several days. Iron, brass, and other 
metals which are hammered into plates or drawn into wire 
become brittle during the process, and require to be an¬ 
nealed by cooling them slowly in water or air. Steel is 
tempered and hardened by a process of annealing, being 
placed in an oil-bath or surrounded by a metallic com¬ 
pound which has a low fusing-point. 

Aline Arun'del, a county in the central part of Mary¬ 
land, having an area of 750 square miles. It is bounded 





































ANNECY—ANOINTING. 


165 


on the N. by the Patapsco River, on the E. by Chesapeake 
Bay, and on the S. W. by the Patuxent River. It is also 
drained by the river Severn. The surface is undulating; 
the soil is generally fertile. The staple products are wheat, 
maize, and tobacco. Among its mineral resources are red 
sandstone, copper, and iron. The county is intersected by 
the Baltimore and Washington R. R. Capital, Annapolis. 
Pop. 24,457. 

Annecy, a town of Eastern France, in Upper Savoy, 
is pleasantly situated at the N. W. extremity of Annecy 
Lake, 42 miles by rail S. of Geneva. It has a cathedral, a 
bishop’s palace, an old castle, glass-works, cotton-mills, etc. 
Pop. in 1866, 11,554. 

Annecy, Lake of, is in Upper Savoy, 22 miles S. of 
Geneva, about 24 miles W. of Mont Blanc, and 1426 feet 
above the sea. It is about 9 miles long and from 1 to 2 
miles wide. Its waters are discharged through the Fieran 
into the Rhone. 

An'nclides, or Annel'ida (plu.), [Lat. annel'lus, a 
“little ring”], an order of articulate animals belonging to 
the class Vermes, comprising those true worms which have 
red blood circulating in a complicated double system of 
vessels. As at present constituted, the order contains three 
families—1, the Serpuladas, or Tubicolm ; 2, the Arenicolm, 
or sand-worms, called Dorsibranchiatae ; 3, Lumbricidm, or 
earth-worms—but writers variously expand or limit the 
order; some making it to include a part or all of the Bra- 
chiopoda and other molluscoids. 

Ail'ni, or Ani (anc. Ab'nicum), a ruined city of Asiatic 
Turkey, on the Arpa-Chai River, 28 miles E. by S. of Kars. 
It was the capital of the Bagratian kings of Armenia until 
1064, when it was taken by Alp-Arslan, and was destroyed 
by an earthquake in 1319. Here are ruins of an ancient 
palace and citadel; also some Armenian churches nearly 
entire. 

An'nin, a township of McKean co., Pa. Pop. 760. 

An'nius of Viter'bo [It. An'nio da Viter'bo], a 
learned Italian Dominican monk, whose proper name was 
Giovanni Nanni, was born at Viterbo about 1432. He 
wrote a Latin “Treatise on the Empire of the Turks’’ 
(1471). He-published at Rome, in 1498, “Seventeen Vol¬ 
umes of Various Antiquities, with Commentaries,” con¬ 
taining extracts from the lost works of Berosus, Manetho, 
and other ancient historians. These are generally believed 
to be forgeries. Died in 1502. 

Anniversary [from the Lat. an'nus , a “year,” and 
ver'so, to “turn”], the annual return of a memorable day; 
the day on which some remarkable event is annually cele¬ 
brated. Among the Jews the Passover was an anniversary 
in commemoration of the exodus from Egypt. The prin¬ 
cipal religious anniversaries of Christians are Christmas, 
Epiphany, and Easter. Anniversary days in the Roman 
Catholic Church are days on which an office is annually 
performed for the souls of the deceased. The most popu¬ 
lar anniversary of the U. S. is the Fourth of July. 

Alinonay [Lat. Annonse'um or Annoni'acuni], a town 
of France, in the department of Ardeche, is situated 37 
miles S. S. W. of Lyons, at the junction of the rivers Cance 
and Deaume. It has a suspension bridge, and large man¬ 
ufactories of glove-leather. Paper of fine quality is made 
here. The Montgolfiers, who invented balloons, were na¬ 
tives of the town. Pop. in 1866, 18,445. 

Annot'to, or Annat'to, a red coloring-matter, is the 
pulp of the seeds of the Bixa orellaua, an exogenous shrub 
which grows in South America s\nd the West Indies, and 
belongs to the natural order Flacourtiaceae. It is soluble 
in alcohol, ether, and in potash and soda, either caustic or 
carbonated. It contains a yellow principle called bixin. 
It is used as a dye, but its colors are fugitive. The pulp is 
used to color cheese, is an ingredient in some varnishes, 
and is employed in medicine to color ointments and plas¬ 
ters. In South America annotto is mixed with chocolate 
to improve the flavor. 

Anns'ville, a township of Oneida co., N. Y. It is a 
fine dairy-town, and has four churches and several manu¬ 
factories. Pop. 2716. 

Amiuaire [from the Lat. an'nus, a “year”], a name 
given to certain French publications which appear annu¬ 
ally, as the “Annuaire historique ” or “ Annuaire des Deux 
Mondes,” which corresponds to the English “Annual Reg¬ 
ister.” The “ Annuaire ” published by the bureau of long¬ 
itudes is a celebrated scientific periodical. 

Ail'nual [Lat. annua'lis, from an'nun, a “year”], a 
botanical term applied to a plant which lives only one 
year; a plant which within the space of a year passes from 
a seed into a perfect plant, bears its fruit, and perishes. 1 he 
duration of the life of annuals is generally much less than a 
year. Some plants which arc annuals in one climate are 
perennial in another, as the castor-oil plant. 


Annual, a name given by the English to a class of 
illustrated publications which were designed for Christmas 
gifts and birthday presents, and enjoyed for some years 
extraordinary popularity. They contained contributions 
in verse and prose from distinguished living authors, and 
were illustrated with engravings by the best artists of the 
time. The first of these annuals was the “ Forget-me-Not,” 
edited by Frederick Shoberl, in 1822. “The Literary 
Souvenir,” edited by A. A. Watts, appeared in 1824; and 
the “ Keepsake” w T as commenced by Charles Heath in 1827. 
It was afterwards edited by the countess of Blessington. 
Among the other remarkable annuals was Heath’s “ Book 
of Beauty,” first issued in 1833. After 1840 the demand 
j for annuals diminished and their quality deteriorated. 
They have all been long discontinued. 

Alinu'ity [Lat. annu'itas, from an'nus, a “year;” Fr. 
annuity], a rent or sum of money which a person is entitled 
to receive every year. If the payment is to be continued 
through a period of uncertain length, it is called a contin¬ 
gent annuity; if it is payable for a definite number of years, 
it is an annuity certain. A person who has unemplo 3 ’ed 
capital may find it advantageous to convert it into an an¬ 
nual income, which he is entitled to receive as long as ho 
lives, and which is called a life annuity. The person who 
receives an annuity is called an annuitant. An annual in¬ 
come which is not to be paid until a number of years have 
elapsed is a deferred annuity. Those who invest money in 
the national debt of England are entitled to an income 
which is virtually a perpetual annuity, so that when each 
annuitant dies he may leave it to his heir. The accurate 
determination of the value of annuities in present money 
is a complex question of great importance and considerable 
difficulty, for the solution of which correct tables of vital 
statistics are requisite. The rate of interest is also an im¬ 
portant element in the calculation of annuities. Great 
labor has been expended by several learned men in the 
formation of tables of the value of life annuities at all the 
different ages of human life. 

Annuity, in the law of England, is a sum of money 
payable every year, and charged on the person or personal 
estate of the individual who is bound to pay it; thus dif¬ 
fering from a rent-charge, which is charged on real estate. 
Annuities are often paid by a person who borrows money 
(who is called the grantor) to the person who lends the 
money (who’ is the grantee). An annuity is either for a 
term of years, for a life or lives, or in perpetuity ; and the 
last, although charged on personal property, may descend 
as real estate. 

An'iiulus [Lat., a “ring”], a botanical term used in 
several senses. In mosses it denotes a rim external with 
respect to the peristome; in ferns it is an elastic rib w 7 hich 
girds the theca or spore-case, and by its contraction dis¬ 
perses the spores : the collar which surrounds the stipes of 
some fungi just below the hymenium is also called an an¬ 
nulus. 

Annimcia'tla (the Order of Knights of the Annuncia¬ 
tion) was founded by Amadeus VI. of Savoy in 1362, and 
was originally called the Order of the Collar. The reigning 
king of Italy is grand master of the order. 

Annunciation, Feast of, a festival of the Church 
in commemoration of the announcement of the conception 
of the Saviour to the Virgin Mary by the angel Gabriel. 
It is celebrated on the 25th of March, which is called Lady 
Day. 

Aim'ville, a post-village of Lebanon co., Pa., in North 
Annville township, on the Lebanon Valley R. R., 5 miles 
W. of Lebanon. It is the seat of Lebanon Valley College. 

Ano'a, a species of ruminating animal of the genus 
Bu'bulus, having the horns erect; it is considered by some 
to be a connecting link between an antelope and a buffalo. 
It lives in Celebes. 

An'ode [from the Gr. avofios, a “ way up ”], a term used 
in the science of electrolysis to denote the positive pole, or 
that surface by which the galvanic current enters the body 
(electrolyte) undergoing decomposition. The negative pole, 
or the surface by which the current goes out, is called cath¬ 
ode. The elements of electrolytes are called ions, and those 
which go to the anode are named anions. Thus, in the de¬ 
composition of water by a galvanic battery, water is the 
electrolyte, the platinum plate connected with the positive 
pole is the anode, and the oxygen is the anion. 

An'odyne [from the Gr. av, priv., and oSvVrj, “pain”], 
a medicine which diminishes pain. Opium, morphine, the 
anaesthetics, belladonna, cannabis Indica, etc. are the chief 
anodynes—most of which tend actively to cause sleep. 
Some hypnotics, or sleep-producers, however, like chloral, 
are not anodynes. 

Anoint'ing [from the Lat. in, and un'go, unc'tum (Fr. 
oindre, part, oint), to “anoint”], an Oriental custom of 






















166 


ANOKA—ANSON I A. 


pouring aromatic oil on the head as a mark of honor. It 
was practised at the coronation of kings and the consecra¬ 
tion of high priests and prophets, as in the case of Saul, 
David, Aaron and his sons. Spikenard, myrrh, and olive 
oil wero sometimes used for this purpose. Anointing forms 
a part of the ceremonial of various sacraments in the 
Roman Catholic and the different Oriental churches. 

Ano'ka, a county in the E. part of Minnesota, bounded 
on the S. W. by the Mississippi River, and intersected by 
Rum River. Area, 420 square miles. The surface is diver¬ 
sified, the soil fertile. Wheat, corn, oats, and potatoes are 
staple crops. The county is well wooded, and contains sev¬ 
eral small lakes which abound in fish. Capital, Anoka. 
Pop. 3940. 

Anoka, a post-village, capital of Anoka co., Minn., on 
the left bank of the Mississippi, at the mouth of Rum River, 
or Mille Lac, and on the St. Paul and Pacific R. R., 27 miles 
N. N. W. of St. Paul. Two weekly newspapers are pub¬ 
lished here. It has a valuable water-power. Pop. of 
Anoka township, 1498. 

Ano'lis [from ano'li, the name of a lizard found in the 
Antilles], a genus of saurian reptiles, natives of the warm 
parts of America. It comprises the iguanoid species of 
lizard, which have teeth on the palate of the mouth, as well 
as on the interior jaw-bones, and are remarkable for their 
power of inflating the skin of the throat. They move with 
great agility, and exceed all other saurians in brilliancy of 
color. 

Anomalis'tic Year, the interval of time in which 
the earth completes a revolution with respect to any point 
in its orbit, or the interval which elapses between two suc¬ 
cessive passages of the earth through its perihelion. It is 
four minutes and thirty-nine seconds longer than a sidereal 
year, and its length is 365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes, and 
45 seconds. 

Anom'aly [from the Gr. av, priv., and 6ju.aAo?, “ level,” 
“even,” “regular”], an irregularity; an exception to, or 
deviation from, a general rule. In astronomy it denotes the 
angular distance of a planet from its perihelion, as seen 
from the sun. It is so called because it was in it that the 
first irregularities of planetary motion were discovered. 
There are three different anomalies—the true, the mean, 
and the eccentric. 

Ano'mia [from the Gr. a, priv., and v6^6s, a “ law,” 
so called because it does not conform to the law of struc¬ 
ture characterizing other mollusks], a Linnman genus of 
the Vermes Testacea. Modern naturalists have limited the 
term to a genus of acephalous mollusks having two un¬ 
equal, irregular thin valves, of which the flatter one is 
deeply notched at the cardinal margin. The central muscle 
traverses this opening to be inserted into a third piece 
(calcareous or horny), which is always attached to foreign 
bodies. Numerous species, living and fossil, are found in 
nearly all parts of the world. 

Ano'na [from ano'na, the Sp. name of the custard-ap¬ 
ple], a genus of exogenous trees of the natural order Ano- 
naceae, natives of hot climates. Anona squamosa bears 
an edible fruit called the custard-apple, because its seeds 
are surrounded by a whitish, sweet, cream-like pulp. The 
cherimoya, an excellent fruit of Peru, is produced by the 
Anona Cherimolia. 

An ona'ceae [so called from Ano'na, one of its genera], 
an order of exogenous trees or shrubs, mostly natives of 
tropical countries, and evergreen, having simple, alternate 
leaves. They are generally aromatic and fragrant. The 
distinguishing mark of the order is that they have trimer- 
ous pOlypetalous flowers and a ruminated albumen. This 
order comprises about 300 species, some of which bear 
delicious fruits. The fruit of the Xylopia aromatica is used 
as pepper by the natives of Africa. The order is represent¬ 
ed in the U. S. by four species of pawpaw ( Asimina ) or 
custard-apple. 

Anon'ymous [from the Gr. av, priv., and owfxa, a 
“name”], nameless; a term applied to books published 
without the name of the author. Those which appear 
under an assumed name are called pseudonymous. The po¬ 
litical articles of the English journals are generally anony¬ 
mous, and so are the critical articles in the great quarterly 
reviews. Anonymous books cause much difficulty and per¬ 
plexity to bibliographers and the compilers of catalogues. 
The best account or catalogue of such works is Barbier’s 
“ Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymes ct Pseudonymes” 
(3 vols., 1822-24). . 

Anoplothe'rium [from the Gr. avon\os, “unarmed,” 
and 0r)piov, a “beast”], a genus of extinct artiodactyle 
quadrupeds, found in the strata of the upper eocene for¬ 
mation near Paris, and in Lapland, India, etc. They are 
characterized by the shortness and small size of the canine 
teeth, and have teeth arranged in a continuous series with¬ 


out vacant interspaces—a structure which occurs in no 
existing animal except man. The Anoplotherium commune 
was about the size of a wild boar. 

Anor'thite, a felspathic mineral found at Vesuvius and 
elsewhere; essentially an anhydrous silicate of lime and 
alumina. 

Anotto. See Annotto. 

Anquetil-Duperron (Abraham Hyacinthe), an em¬ 
inent Orientalist, was born in Paris Dec. 7, 1731. Having 
studied Arabic and Persian, his desire to visit India was 
so strong that he enlisted as a private soldier in an expe¬ 
dition which was sent thither in 1754. lie traversed a 
great part of Hindostan, collected MSS., procured the re¬ 
ligious books of the Parsees, and returned to France in 
1762. In 1763 he became a member of the Academy of 
Inscriptions. He published in 1771 his “Zend-Avesta,” 
the first translation of the sacred books of the Parsees that 
ever appeared in any European language. It is not es¬ 
teemed very accurate. He wrote “ India in Relation with 
Europe” (2 vols., 1798) and other works. Died Jan. 17, 
1805. 

Ansaries. See Nusairiyeh. 

Anscha'rius, or Ans'gar, Saint, called the “Apostle 
of the North,” was born in Picardy Sept. 8, 801 A. D. He 
propagated Christianity with success in Denmark and 
Sweden, and became the first archbishop of Hamburg in 
832. Died Feb. 3, 865 A. D. 

An'schiitz (Karl), born at Coblentz, Germany, in Feb., 
1813, became royal musical director at Coblentz, and was 
afterwards director in Nuremberg, Amsterdam, London, 
etc. In 1857 he came to America, founded the German 
opera in New York in 1862, and became a leading con¬ 
ductor and teacher of music. Died Dec. 30, 1870. 

Ans'dell (Richard), an English painter of animals, 
born at Liverpool in 1815. He obtained the gold medal in 
Paris in 1855. 

Anse de Pailier [literally, “handle of a panier”], a 
French term applied to arches which are the result of ellip¬ 
tical curves in section. This is the most elegant form of 
arch for bridges. 

All'selm, Saint [Lat. Sanc'tus Ansel'mus ], archbishop 
of Canterbury, was born at Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033. 
He is regarded as the originator of scholastic theology. In 
1060 he became a pupil of Lanfranc, and an inmate of the 
abbey of Bee in Normandy, of which he was chosen prior 
in 1063, and abbot in 1078. Under his direction Bee be¬ 
came a celebrated school. He was appointed archbishop 
of Canterbury in 1093, after which he was involved in a 
long contest with King William Rufus. He was distin¬ 
guished as a philosopher, and is considered as the reviver 
of metaphysics. Among his principal works are his 
“ Monologium,” his “ Proslogium alias Fides quaerens In¬ 
tellectual,” and “ Cur Deus Homo.” He surpassed his con¬ 
temporaries in acuteness of intellect, originality of mind, 
and dialectical skill. Died April 21, 1109. (See Mohler, 
“ Life of St. Anselm,” in German, translated into English 
by Cox; Hasse, “ Anselm von Canterbury,” 2 vols., 1843- 
52; Remusat, “ St. Anselm de Cantorbery,” 1853.) 

An'son,a county of North Carolina, bordering on South 
Carolina. Area, 650 square miles. It is bounded on the 
N. by the Rocky River, and on the E. by the Yadkin. The 
surface is undulating, and the soil productive, cotton, wheat, 
corn, and oats being the chief staples. Capital, Wades- 
borough. Pop. 12,428. 

Anson, a post-township of Somerset co., Me., 12 miles 
from Norridgcwock. It is the seat of an academy, has four 
churches, four hotels, and various manufactures. Pop. 1745. 

Anson, a township of Chippewa co., Wis. Pop. 455. 

Anson (George), Lord, born in Staffordshire April 23, 
1697, became a post-captain in the royal navy^ in 1724, af¬ 
ter which he passed several years on the Carolina station. 
In 1740 he was appointed commander of an expedition to the 
South Sea, in which he exhibited great prudence and cour¬ 
age amidst disasters and dangers caused partly by the un¬ 
seaworthiness of his vessels. Having circumnavigated the 
globe and made some important discoveries, he returned in 
1744 with several Spanish prizes. He defeated a French 
fleet in May, 1747, and for this service was rewarded with 
the title of Baron Anson of Soberton. He was first lord of 
the admiralty from 1751 to 1757, and admiral of the fleet 
in 1761. Died June 6, 1762. A narrative of his voyage 
round the world was published. 

Anso'nia, an incorporated borough in the town of 
Derby, New Haven co., Conn., on the Naugatuck River, at 
the junction of the Naugatuck and New Haven and Derby 
Pt. Its., 10 miles W. N. W. of New Haven. It is a manu¬ 
facturing village, and has 1 national bank, 1 savings bank, 
4 churches, 3 brass rolling-mills, 1 brass-foundry, 1 iron- 
























ANSONTANS—ANTAGONIST MUSCLES. 


167 


ground. The large ants of South America raise their ant- 


foundry, 2 clock-shops, 1 copper-mill, 2 wire-mills, 1 hard¬ 
ware-factory, 2 hoop-skirt factories, 1 woollen mill, 1 weekly 
newspaper, and 2 water companies. Pop. 2749. 

Ed. “Naugatuck Valley Sentinel.” 

Ansonians, or Ansyreeh. See Nusairiyeh. 

Ans'pach, or Ans'bach, a fortified city of Bavaria, 
on the Rezat, 27 miles S. W. of Nuremberg. It has a 
castle, the former residence of the margraves of Anspach- 
Baireuth, a public library, and manufactures of cotton and 
half-silken stuffs, tobacco, earthenware, cutlery, etc. Pop. 
in 1871, 12,635. 

Anspach (Elizabeth Berkeley), Margravine of, a 
daughter of Augustus, earl of Berkeley, was born in 1750. 
She was accomplished, and remarkable for versatility of 
genius. In 1767 she was married to Mr. Craven, who be¬ 
came earl of Craven, and died in 1791. She was married 
in that year to the margrave of Anspach. She wrote and 
performed dramas, and published entertaining autobio¬ 
graphic memoirs. Died at Naples Jan. 13, 1828. 

An'sted (David Thomas), F. R. S., an English geologist, 
born in London in 1814, was educated at Cambridge. He 
became in 1840 professor of geology in King’s College, Lon¬ 
don, travelled in America and other countries, and publish¬ 
ed a great number of works, among which are “ Geology, 
Introductory, Descriptive, and Practical” (2 vols., 1844), 
“ The Ancient World, or Picturesque Sketches of Great 
Britain,” “The Great Stone Book of Nature” (1863), and 
“ The World we Live in ” (1869). 

An'ster (John), LL.D., born in Cork county, Ireland, 
1798. He was a friend of Coleridge, and regius professor 
of civil law in the University of Dublin. He produced 
“Poems and Translations from the German” (1819), and 
contributed many articles to “ Blackwood’s Magazine.” 
His translation of Goethe’s “ Faust ” (1835) was praised by 
the “Edinburgh Review.” Died June 9, 1867. 

An' swer [Ang.-Sax. and, “ against,” and swarjan, to 
“swear,” to “ affirm”], in the law of evidence, is the reply 
of a witness to a question put to him. It also means a 
pleading interposed in a court of equity by the defendant 
to the bill or information of the plaintiff. In New York, 
since the adoption of the code of procedure, and in a num¬ 
ber of the other States, it is the name given to the defend¬ 
ant’s pleading in all cases, except where he resorts to a 
demurrer. (See Demurrer.) 

Ant, or Emmet [Lat. formi'ea ], a genus of hymen- 
opterous insects remarkable for their industry, ingenuity, 
and muscular strength. It comprises numerous species, 
which are widely distributed in temperate and tropical 
countries. They have geniculate antenme; strong jaws; 
a small, rounded, spoon-like ligula; a thorax compressed 
at the sides; an abdomen nearly oval. They live in so¬ 
cieties composed of males, females, and neuters, the last 
of which are workers and are destitute of wings. Some 
of the neuters, it is said, serve the community as soldiers. 
The males and females have wings, and are larger than the 
neuters, but less numerous. After the pairing season is 
past the females are deprived of their wings to prevent 
their escape, as they have a propensity to desert their 
home and go astray. It appears that ants realize the ad¬ 
vantages of a division of labor, as well as those of co-op¬ 
eration. In winter most species remain dormant, and 
neither work nor Cat, although it is a popular notion that 
they collect in summer a hoard of grain for their subsist¬ 
ence during the winter. They are mostly carnivorous, and 
will attack a living animal many times larger than them¬ 
selves, as a mouse, for example. Another favorite food of 
some species is honey-dew, the sweet excretion of aphides. 
According to some authorities, they coniine these aphides 
in stables, as man does his milch cows, and obtain from 
them, by a process like milking, a regular supply of 
honey-dew. Perhaps the most remarkable of all this in¬ 
teresting group of insects are the “honey ants” of Mexico. 
The honey ants inhabit Mexico, New Mexico, and Arizona. 
They live in colonies, of which the greater number closely 
resemble the common brown ant of the United States. Cer¬ 
tain members of the community, however, during the sum¬ 
mer secrete honey in the abdominal cavity, and soon be¬ 
come incapable of locomotion. They are then placed in 
rows in subterranean galleries set apart for that purpose, 
and are systematically fed by the others. In time the dis¬ 
tension of the abdomen becomes so great that the victim 
ants resemble small, spherical, pellucid grapes, the head 
and thorax simulating the grape-stem. Later in the sea¬ 
son, when food is scarce, these fattened ants are in turn 
devoured by the other members of the colony. Ants ap¬ 
pear to be endowed with greater muscular strength than 
almost any other insect of equal size. They display great 
ingenuity in the construction of their habitations, called 
ant-hills, which are mostly placed on the surface of the 


hills to the height of fifteen feet or more. Some species, 
called mason ants, perforate galleries in the clay, and sup¬ 
port by pillars and arches the roof of their house. Others, 
called carpenter ants, excavate cells and labyrinthine gal¬ 
leries in the trunks of living trees. Ants are supposed to 
have a faculty of conversing or communicating with each 
other by means of their antennas, which, according to some 
naturalists, are organs of hearing. These insects are gen¬ 
erally very pugnacious, and often fight pitched battles with 
other ants. The Swiss naturalist Huber has given a de¬ 
tailed account of their battles, martial exploits, and pred¬ 
atory expeditions. Still more marvellous and paradoxi¬ 
cal is the well-attested fact that some species, as the For¬ 
mica rvfa and the Formica rvfescens (or amazon ant), reduce 
other ants to slavery, and that the principal motive of their 
wars and piratical excursions is to capture larvae and pupae 
or nymphs, which they carry home for slaves. “At the 
head of these daring slave-makers,” says Pouchet, “we 
must put the red ant or amazon, the military expeditions 
of which have been most carefully observed by the natu¬ 
ralists of our epoch. They are so frequent that one may 
enjoy the sight of them any fine day during the summer 
season.” After describing the siege and capture of a nest 
by these amazons, he adds: “Then the whole army, laden 
with booty, and sometimes stretching out in a line forty 
metres in length (130 feet), triumphantly returns to its 
city in the same order as at its departure.” ( The Universe .) 
These slaveholding ants have a great aversion to labor, and 
when they perform a journey are carried by their slaves. 
These are darker colored than their masters, and are called 
Formica fusca. The fact that ants work all through the 
night, and seem never to sleep, was noticed more than one 
hundred and fifty years ago in the “ Guardian ” (vol. ii., 
No. 156). It is asserted that certain ants in warm coun¬ 
tries (one species in Texas) actually plant grass-seeds, and 
cultivate, harvest, and store the grain. Some also con¬ 
struct, and even pave their roads. A battle of ants has 
been described by Huber in these terms: “I shall not say 
what lighted up discord between these two republics, the 
one as populous as the other. The two armies met midway 
between their respective residences. Their serried columns 
reached from the field of battle to the nest, and were two 
feet in width. . . . The field of battle, which extended over 
a space of two or three square feet, was strewn with dead 
bodies and wounded; it was also covered with venom, and 
exhaled a penetrating odor. The struggle began between 
two ants, which locked themselves together with their man¬ 
dibles while they raised themselves upon their legs. They 
quickly grasped each other so tightly that they rolled one 
over the other in the dust.” At the approach of night the 
two armies effected a retreat, but the next day the carnage 
was renewed with equal or greater fury. Some species of 
Formica eject from their abdomen a peculiar volatile, acrid, 
and pungent liquid called formic acid, the offensive odor of 
which defends them against other animals. The carniv¬ 
orous species of ants perform a useful service by devouring 
the carcasses of dead animals. Their voracity is such that 
a clean skeleton of a small animal may be obtained by 
burying it for a short time in an ant-hill. The termites of 
tropical countries, sometimes called white ants, are not 
properly ants, but belong to another genus. (See Ter¬ 
mites.) (See P. Huber, “Traite des Moeurs des Fourmis 
Indigenes.”) Revised by J. S. Newberry. 

Anta^'id [anti and acid], a remedy for acid in the 
stomach or in the blood. The alkalies, lime-water, mag¬ 
nesia, etc., are mostly used for this purpose, vegetable acids, 
like the citric (lemon juice, etc.), being often administered 
with them. These acids become carbonic acid in the blood, 
forming bicarbonates with the alkalies. This antacid treat¬ 
ment is much resorted to in acute rheumatism. 

Antae'us [Gr. ’Ai/tcuos], a fabulous Libyan giant, a son 
of Neptune and Terra, was a famous wrestler, lie was in¬ 
vincible as long as he continued in contact with the earth 
(Terra), but he was conquered by Hercules, who raised him 
into the air and strangled him to death. 

Antagonist Muscles. Every muscle and set of mus¬ 
cles in the animal body is opposed in its action either by 
some other muscle or muscles, or by elastic ligaments. 
Generally it is the former; thus, in the human arm we 
have the triceps extensor muscle antagonized by the biceps 
flexor and the brachialis anticus; in the forearm, there arc 
the flexor and extensor muscles of the hand and wrist, as 
well as the pronators and supinators of the hand. Simi¬ 
larly in the lower extremity opposed muscles exist, although 
not always of corresponding names. The great adductor 
muscles of the thigh, whose action draws the limbs together, 
are antagonized by the glutei and obturator muscles and 
others. The diaphragm, the contraction of which aids in 
expanding the cavity of the chest, is opposed by the ex- 













1G8 


ANTAKIA—ANT-EATER. 


ternal abdominal muscles, whoso action is perceptible in 
expiration. So constant is this provision of muscular an¬ 
tagonism in the animal kingdom that there is no well-as¬ 
certained example of active dilatation of any muscle. The 
diastole of the heart in man and other vertebrates can be 
explained best by elasticity only, as it exerts very little 
power. In Myriapoda each section of the elongated aortic 
heart has triangular muscles connected with the sides of 
the body, by which the diastole after contraction is effected. 
The predominance of power in opposing groups of muscles 
determines the position of different parts of the body when 
at rest; hence, in man the naturally bent position of the 
fingers during sleep, from the prevailing power of the 
flexors. Disease sometimes disturbs the natural balance 
of the muscles. 

Anta'kia, a city of Syria, on the Orontes, is situated 
on the site of the ancient Antiocii (which see). 

Antal'cidas [Gr. ’A^raA/uSas], a Spartan diplomatist, 
who was sent on a mission to Persia when Sparta was in a 
critical position, and negotiated a treaty called the Peace 
of Antalcidas, in 387 B. C. This treaty excited general 
indignation among the Greeks, whose interests the Spar¬ 
tans sacrificed to gratify their enmity to Athens and 
Thebes. One of the articles of this treaty stipulated that 
all the Greek cities of Asia Minor should be subject to the 
king of Persia. 

Antanacla'sis [Gr. avTavaK\a<Ti <?, from avrl, “against” 
(and hence implying contrast), and avas Aao-is, a “bending 
back”], in rhetoric, a figure in which a word is repeated, 
but in a different sense or different inflection from the first, 
which gives a kind of antithetical force to the expression; 
as, “ Learn some craft when young, that when old you may 
live without craft.” 

Antananarivo', or Tananarivo', the capital and 
chief city of Madagascar, is situated in a mountainous 
region in the middle of the island, 166 miles S. W. of Ta- 
mative. It is about 7000 feet above the level of the sea. 
It is reported to be a large city, and to have manufactures 
of gold chains and silk stuffs. The private houses are 
mostly of wood. Pop. estimated at 80,000. 

An'tar, An'tara, or An'tarah-Ibn-Sheddad', a 
celebrated Arabian prince, poet, and warrior who lived 
about 550 A. D. He was the author of one of the seven 
poems which are called Mo’allakat, and were suspended in 
the Kaaba or temple at Mecca. His martial exploits were 
a favorite theme of Arabian poetry and romance. He is 
the hero of a celebrated romance, translated into English 
by T. Hamilton, entitled “ Antar, a Bedouin Romance ” 
(1819). 

Antarctic [from the Gr. avri, “against,” “opposite,” 
and apsTu co?, “pertaining to the north”], opposite to Arc¬ 
tic. The Antarctic Circle is one of the small circles of the 
sphere parallel to the equator, and distant 23° 27£' from 
the South Pole. 

Antarctic Current. This drift-current commences 
on the shores of Victoria Land, in the region of perpetual 
frost. It carries vast quantities of ice and 
cold water towards the N. E. and E., and be¬ 
comes converted into a coast-current, washing 
and cooling the western shores of South Amer¬ 
ica, thus performing a work nearly the con¬ 
verse of that performed by the Gulf Stream on 
the shores of Europe. It conveys drift ice to 
the latitude of about 55°. 

Antarctic Ocean, or Southern Ocean, 
the name applied to thht large body of water 
around the South Pole included within the Ant¬ 
arctic Circle; and also a general term desig¬ 
nating that vast sea S. of the Atlantic, Pacific, 
and Indian oceans. It has not been explored 
so thoroughly as the Arctic Ocean, and was 
long considered impenetrable for ships, on ac¬ 
count of the ice, which extends much farther 
from the Pole (about 10°) than in the Arctic 
Ocean. Sir James Ross has explored the Ant¬ 
arctic Ocean as far as 79° S. In Jan., 1841, 
he discovered in lat. 77° 32' S. and Ion. 167° E. 
a voicano 12,400 feet high, which he called 
Mount Erebus. The portions of land which 
have been discovered in this ocean are called 
New Georgia, Sandwich Lands, New Orkneys, Enderby’s 
Land, Sabrina, Victoria Land, etc. 

Antarctic Researches. The first navigator who 
explored these regions was Capt. Cook, who in Jan., 1774, 
reached lat. 71° 10' S. in Ion. 106° 54' W. In 1823, Capt. 
Weddell penetrated to lat. 74° 15' S. in Ion. 34° 16' 15” W., 
and found there an open sea. In 1839, Capt. Wilkes, of 
the U. S. navy, conducted an exploring expedition towards 
the South Pole. He discovered in Jan., 1840, a portion of 


a large continent in lat. 61° 30' S. and Ion. 161° E. He 
traced the coast westward to Ion. 101° E., but was pre¬ 
vented from landing by an impassable barrier of ice. 
Capt. James Ross, who commanded a British expedition 
in 1841, penetrated as far as 78° or 79° S. He computed 
the position of the southern magnetic pole to be in A ictoria 
Land, lat. 75° 5' S., Ion. 154° 8' E. 

Anta'res [from the Gr. avri, in a sense implying “com¬ 
parison,” and 'Apijs, “ Mars,” because this star was thought 
to resemble Mars], a ruddy double star, the most conspicu¬ 
ous in the constellation Scorpio. It is important in navi¬ 
gation in computing longitude. 

Ant-Catcher and Ant-Thrush, names given to 
birds of tropical and sub-tropical countries that feed upon 



ants, and arc nearly allied to the thrushes. They have very 
powerful voices, a straight, sub-cylindrical bill, hooked at 
the tip, slender legs, and short tail. Some of them belong 
to the genera Pitta and Grallaria. The giant ant-catcher 
of Sumatra (Pitta gigas) is of a fine green color. 

Ant-Eater, a South American family of mammals, 
animals of the order Edentata. Ant-eaters have no teeth. 


and feed on ants and other insects, which they catch by 
thrusting among them the long tongue covered with a vis¬ 
cid saliva. The head is much elongated, and the tail is 
about as long as the body, which is covered with long hair. 
The toes are united as far as the base of the claws, which 
are very large and strong, adapted for the purpose of tear¬ 
ing open ant-hills. The great ant-eater (Myrmecophaga 
jubata), sometimes called the ant-bear, is about four and a 
halt teet long, exclusive of the tail, which is about two and 



Manis lalicaudata, the Asiatic Ant-Eater. 
























ANTECEDENT—ANTHEMIUS. 


169 


a half feet. It has four toes on the fore feet, and five on the 
hind feet. It is a sluggish animal, whose movements are 
not much more rapid than those of a sloth. The little 
ant-eater (Cyclothu rus didac'tylue) is not more than twenty 
or twenty-one inches in entire length. It is remarkable for 
a peculiar structure of the skeleton. On a side view the 
cavity of the chest is completely hidden by the ribs, which 
are greatly flattened and overlap each other, so that on a 
hasty glance the ribs appear to be formed of one solid piece 
of bone. It has two claws on the fore feet and four on the 
hind feet; these claws are compressed, curved, and very 
sharp. The name ant-eater is sometimes given to the aard- 
vark (Orycteropm Capensis) of South Africa, to the pango¬ 
lins, the Echidna, and other mammals which subsist on 
ants and other insects. One of the best known of these is 
the Manis laticaudata, or pangolin of Hindostan. (See 
Pangolin.) 

Antecedent [Lat. antece'dens, from an'te, “ before,” 
and ce'do, to “go ”], that which goes before or precedes in 
time or in place. In grammar, the noun to which a rela¬ 
tive pronoun refers; in logic, the first of two propositions 
in an enthymeme, and the first member of a hjqjothetical 
proposition; opposed to the consequent; in mathematics, 
the first of two terms composing a. ratio. Thus, in the 
ratio A : B, A is the antecedent, and B is the consequent. 

The word in the plural is used in a different sense, as in 
speaking of a person’s antecedents — i. e. his previous con¬ 
duct and character, his early history or primordial rela¬ 
tions. 

Anteililu'vian [from the Lat. an'te, “ before,” and 
dilu'vium, the “ deluge”], a term applied to any person or 
thing that existed before the Flood— i. e. the Noachian Del¬ 
uge. According to the chronology of the Hebrew text of 
the Bible, this flood occurred 1656 years after the creation 
of man. The date of this event, according to the Septua- 
gint version, is several centuries later. Chevalier Bunsen 
adopted the theory that the Flood occurred about ten thou¬ 
sand years ago. Geologists do not recognize that the earth 
was ever inundated by a simultaneous universal deluge 
since it was inhabited by man. 

All'telope [Lat. antil'ope and antel'aphus; Fr. anti¬ 
lope], a family of Mammalia, of the order Ruminantia, cha¬ 
racterized by hollow horns, which are annulated and per¬ 
manent, not annually renewed (except the Antilocapra), and 
not longitudinally rigid. The family comprises numerous 
genera and species, the genus Antilope being the typical 
one, natives of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, remark¬ 
able for their elegant figure and extreme agility. They 
are mostly gregarious, inoffensive, and timid animals, and 
vary greatly in size as well as form. The greater numbers 
of them are found in Southern and Central Africa. Asia 
produces numerous species. Among the various species are 
the gazelle (Gazella dorcas), the beauty of whose eye is 
proverbial; the addax or Nubian antelope; the stein-boc, 
eland, and spring-boc of South Africa; and the chamois of 
Europe. The antelopes arc probably the fleetest of all 



Antitope bezoartica , the Common Antelope. 

quadrupeds. Their flesh is a favorite article of food. Great 
numbers of the prong-buck (Antilocapra America'na) roam 
over the plains between the Mississippi River and the 
Rocky Mountains. The Rocky Mountain goat is another 


antelope (Aptloceras montanus). “Born in the scorching 
sun,’’says Sir S. W. Baker, “ nursed on the burning sand of 
the treeless and shadowless wilderness, the gazelle is anion»• 
the antelope tribe as the Arab horse is among its brethren 
—the high-bred and superlative beauty of the race. En¬ 
tirely free from fat, and nevertheless a mass of muscle and 
sinew, the gazelle is the fastest of the antelope tribe.” 

The “common” or bezoar antelope ( Antilope bezoartica) 
is found in India and throughout Southern Asia. It is a 
very beautiful animal, and is distinguished for its timidity 
and swiftness. Its flesh, like that of most antelopes, is dry 
and rather unpalatable. The Oriental bezoar, a phosphatic 
concretion prized in the East for its supposed medicinal 
virtues, is derived from the intestines of this animal. (See 
Antilocapra.) 

Antelope, a township of Mono co., Cal. Pop. 162. 

Antelope, a township of Tehama co., Cal. Pop. 320. 

Antelope, a county in the N. E. part of Nebraska. 
Area, 864 square miles. Capital, Oakdale. This county 
has been constituted since the Federal census of 1870. 

Antelope, a post-township of Jefferson co., Neb. Pop. 
296. 

An'te Na'ti [a Latin term signifying “born before”] 
was a term applied to such of the Scotch as were born be¬ 
fore the accession of James I. to the throne of England, 
and who were considered as aliens by the English. 

An'tenme, singular Anten'na [a Latin word mean¬ 
ing the “ yard of a ship ”], jointed filaments or tubular sen- 
siferous organs attached to the heads of insects and crus¬ 
taceans. They are sometimes called feelers, and are sup¬ 
posed to be organs of touch (or, according to some nat¬ 
uralists, organs of hearing). An insect has two antennm, 
which are very flexible, and are composed in some species 
of a great number of joints. A crustacean has four an¬ 
tenna). 

Antcque'ra, a city of Spain, in the province of Malaga, 
22 miles N. N. W. of Malaga, on the left bank of the 
Guadalhoree. It lias many monasteries and convents, and 
large factories of flannel, paper, silk, and soap. The popu¬ 
lation of Antequera consists largely of hidalgos, with 
whom the vendetta was a common practice as late as 1845. 
Pop. in 1860, 25,581. 

Ant'eros [’Avrepw?], in the Greek mythology, a being 
opposed to Eros or Cupid; also the deity who avenges un¬ 
requited love. 

An'tes, a township of Blair co., Pa. Pop. 1S93. 

Anthe'lia [from the Gr. dvTrjAios or av6i\\ ios, “opposite 
the sun ”], luminous colored rings observed under certain 
conditions around the shadow of the spectator’s own head. 
The conditions of the phenomenon are two: first, that the 
sun be near the horizon, and secondly, that the shadow be 
projected on a surface covered with dew-drops, as a field 
of grass, or on a dense fog-bank distant about fifty yards. 
They occur chiefly in the polar regions. 

Anthelmin'tics [Gr. a vri, “ against,” andeA/uvs, 
a “ worm ”] are medicines which either destroy or 
drive out intestinal parasites; the former are called 
vermicides, the latter vermifuges. The last named 
are most commonly employed. Against the ordinary 
lumbricoid worm (As'caris lumbricoi'des) an infusion 
or fluid extract of senna and spigelia (pink-root) is 
safe and efficacious. To drive out the worrying seat- 
worms or thread-worms ( Oxyu'rus or As'caris venni- 
cula'ris) nothing is better than santonin, introduced 
into the bowels in the form of a suppository. For 
the more formidable tape-worm ( Tsc'nia) oil of tur¬ 
pentine, oil of fern, kousso, pumpkin seeds, and 
pomegranate seeds are used. It is important that 
the head of the tape-worm shall pass away, as, till 
that happens, the joints continue to be reproduced. 
In all cases of worms attention is needed to the gen¬ 
eral condition of the digestive organs. 

An'them [Gr. o?, “returning a responsive 

sound”], a mixture of motett and cantata, with in¬ 
strumental accompaniment, adapted to scriptural 
words. It was carried to great perfection by Ilandel. 

Anthe'mioii, the ornament or ornamental series 
used in Greek and Roman decoration which is de¬ 
rived from floral forms, more especially the honey¬ 
suckle, very common in the early period of Greek 
art. 

Antlie'mius [’Ar0e>io?]i an eminent Greek arch¬ 
itect and mathematician, surnamed Trallianus, from 
his native place, Tralles, in Lydia, was a brother of Alex¬ 
ander Trallianus. He was patronized by Justinian at 
Constantinople, and designed the celebrated church of St. 
Sophia, which was finished about 537 A. D., and is sur- 






















170 


ANTHEM IUS—ANTHRACENE. 


mounted by a dome in the Byzantine style, of which it is 
probably the original type. It is now a Turkish mosque. 
Died in 534 A. D. 

Anthe'mius, or Anthe'mius Proco'pius, aRoman 
emperor, who began to reign at Koine in 467 A. D., before 
which he was a favorite general of Leo, the emperor of the 
East. lie was the father-in-law of Kicimer, who became 
his enemy. Anthemius was defeated in battle by Ricimer, 
and put to death in 472 A. D. 

An'ther [Lat. anthe'ra, from the Gr. av 0 o?, a “flower”], 
the essential part of the stamen, is the case which contains 
the pollen, and is the male organ of a plant. Theoretically 
considered, the anther is the lamina of a transformed leaf 
divided into two lobes or cells by the connective, which cor¬ 
responds to the midrib of the leaf. When the anther is at¬ 
tached by its base to the tvpex of the filament, it is called 
innate, as in the carex; when it grows to the face or side 
of the filament, it is adnate, as in the magnolia; and when 
the apex of the filament is attached to the middle of the 
anther, the latter is versatile, as in the grasses. The an¬ 
ther has a curious property or habit of opening to discharge 
the pollen at the precise time when the stigma is ready to 
receive it. 

Antherid'ium, plural Antherid'ia [from the Lat, 
anthe'ra, an “ anther,” and the Gr. el 80 s, “ form ”], a name 
applied to organs of cryptogamous plants supposed to be 
analogous in functions to the anthers of the phanerogamous 
flowers. They are variously situated on the surface of 
plants or within their tissue, and are in some cases collec¬ 
tions of cells containing small bodies called phytozo'a, which 
at certain periods exhibit rapid movements. 

Antho'dium [from the Gr. avOos, “flower,” and elSos, 
“form”], a head of flowers, the same as a capitule, applied 
to the flower of the thistle and other Composite, in which 
a number of florets are combined in a head and surrounded 
by a common involucre. 

Anthol'ogy [from the Gr. avOoXo^La, a “collection of 
flowers”], a term applied metaphorically in ancient liter¬ 
ature to a collection of short pieces of poetry on amatory, 
convivial, or moral subjects, or a selection of beautiful 
thoughts and sentences in prose or verse, mostly epigrams. 
The first collection in Greek entitled an Anthology was 
made by Meleager, a Syrian poet who lived about 80-60 
B. C. Another collection, compiled by Constantine Cepha- 
las in the tenth century, was discovered by Salmasius, and is 
nowextant. This anthology, augmented by epigrams found 
on ancient monuments, was edited by Brunck, under the 
title of “Analecta Veterum Poetarum Graecorum” (1776). 
A revised edition of the same was published by Jacobs, en¬ 
titled “ Anthologia Graeca sive Poetarum Grascorum Lusus 
ex Recensione Brunckii” (Leipsic, 1794-1814). Scaliger 
published a Latin anthology in 1573 entitled “ Catalecta 
Veterum Poetarum” (“Selections from the Old Poets”). 
Collections of poetry which may not inappropriately be 
termed anthologies are also found in the literatures of Ara¬ 
bia, Turkey, Persia, and China. 

An'thon (Charles), LL.I)., an American classical schol¬ 
ar, born in the city of New York Nov. 19, 1797, graduated 
at Columbia College in 1815. lie studied law, and was ad¬ 
mitted to the bar in 1819, but he never practised that pro¬ 
fession. In 1820 he became adjunct professor of ancient 
languages in Columbia College, and in 1835 principal pro¬ 
fessor of the classics in that institution. He published, be¬ 
sides other works, an edition of Horace with notes (1830), 
a “ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,” and a 
“Classical Dictionary” (1841). His works have been re¬ 
printed in England. Died July 29, 1867. 

Anthon (John), LL.D., a brother of the preceding, 
born in Detroit in 1784, graduated at Columbia College in 
1801. He was a very eminent lawyer, and was president 
of the Law Institute of New York. He published several 
legal works of importance. Died in New York City Mar. 
5, 1863., 

An'thony, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 543. 

Anthony, a township of Montour co., Pa. Pop. 959. 

Anthony (Henry B.), a statesman, was born at Cov¬ 
entry, It. I., April 1, 1815, graduated at Brown University 
in 1833, was editor of the “ Providence Journal ” (1838-59), 
governor of Rhode Island (1849-51), and U. S. Senator 
(1859-71). 

Anthony (Sttsan Brownell), born at South Adams, 
Mass., Feb. 15, 1820, was the daughter of a Quaker. She 
was for fifteen years a teacher in New York. Since 1852 
she has been an active leader of the woman’s right move¬ 
ment; she has also been long distinguished for her zeal 
and eloquence in the temperance and anti-slavery causes. 
Since the civil war she has given most of her labors to the 
cause of woman’s suffrage. 


Anthony, Saint. See Antony, Saint. 

Anthony’s Creek, a township of Greenbrier co., "West 
Va. Pop. 632. 

Anthony’s Nose, a mountain in the Highlands, E. 
of the Hudson River, is partly in Philipstown township, 
Putnam co., and partly in Cortlandt township, Westchester 
co., N. Y. It rises 1228 feet above the river. In making 
the railroad cutting through its base many beautiful min¬ 
erals were found. 

Anthony Village, a post-village in Coventry township, 
Kent co., R. I., has a national bank and important manu¬ 
factures. It ‘is on the Hartford Providence and Fishkill 
R. R., 13i miles S. W. of Providence. 

Anthoph'yllite, a silicate of magnesia and iron from 
Norway. A fibrous mineral of similar composition, called 
hydrous anthophyllite, is found on New York Island, near 
the corner of Fifty-ninth street and Tenth avenue, which is 
supposed to be an altered hornblende. 

Anthosid'erite [from the Gr. ar 0 o?, a “flower,” and 
cn'fiTjpos, “iron”], a hydrated silicate of iron occurring in 
fine fibrous tufts, with a radiated structure. It is found at 
Antonia Pereira, in Minas Geraes, in Brazil. 

Anthoxan'thum [from the Gr. avOos, a “flower,” and 
(ai’Oos, “yellow”], a genus of jdants of the natural order 
Graminaceae, natives of Europe. The flowers are a dull 
yellow when ripe. It includes the sweet vernal grass (An- 
tlioxanthum odoratum), which grows in meadows and per¬ 
fumes the air with an exquisite fragrance. It is natural¬ 
ized in the U. S. 

An'thracene, or Paranaph'thaline (ChHio), a hy¬ 
dro-carbon existing in coal-tar, and extracted from the last 
portions of the distillate from this substance. The prod¬ 
ucts of the distillation of coal-tar as ordinarily conducted 
are: (1) Crude coal-tar naphtha, containing benzol, toluol, 
etc., lighter than water. (2) Heavy oil of coal-tar, or 
“dead oil,” heavier than water, and containing about 10 
per cent, of Phenol (which see) and cresol, and much 
naphthaline. (3) Green oil, which becomes semi-solid on 
cooling, owing to the crystallization of anthracene. (4) 
Pitch, which remains in the still. Versemann and Fenner 
have patented the further distillation of pitch till only coke 
remains in the still. They thus obtain a much larger yield 
of green oil, and increase the product of anthracene from 
one-half of 1 per cent, to 2 per cent, of the original tar. 
The semi-solid green oil has been used in England to some 
extent as a cheap lubricator or wheel-grease, under the 
name of “ green grease.” The anthracene is separated 
from the green oil by chilling and pressing. In its crude 
state it contains considerable oil, naphthaline, pyrene, 
chrysene, chrysogen, retene, anthraflavic acid, etc. To 
purify the crude anthracene cake, it may be subjected to 
distillation, the first and last portions being rejected, the 
intermediate portion being recrystallized from benzol or 
coal-tar naphtha; or the crude cake may be washed with pe¬ 
troleum naphtha to remove oils, etc., and then recrystallized 
from benzol. Thus obtained, anthracene is always colored 
yellow by chrysogen, which may be destroyed by exposing 
its solution to the direct rays of the sun. Graebe and 
Liebermann prepared anthracene by the action of zinc-dust 
on alizarine, the coloring-matter of madder, and were from 
this led to devise a method for preparing alizarine from an¬ 
thracene—an operation which is now the basis of a very 
important industry. (See Alizarine.) 

Anthracene may also be formed artificially by benzyl 
chloride (C 7 H 7 CI) with water, and by exposing to a red or 
white heat mixtures of ethylene with benzol, cinnamene, 
diphenyl, chrysene, or naphthaline. Anthracene is ob¬ 
tained in beautiful white crystalline laminae, melting at 
213° C., and distilling at 360° C. Anthracene is insoluble 
in water, soluble in alcohol, benzol, and bisulphide of car¬ 
bon to the extent of 0.6, 0.9, and 1.7 per cent, respectively. 
Heat greatly increases its solubility in these liquids. It is 
also soluble in ether and the essential oils, especially oil 
of turpentine. Light petroleum naphtha, which dissolves 
naphthaline readily, has little effect on anthracene. Oxi¬ 
dizing agents, such as potassic dichromate and sulphuric or 
acetic acid, change anthracene into oxanthracene or an- 
thraquinone (ChII^), which, by the addition of O 2 , be¬ 
comes anthraquinonic acid or alizarine, Ci 4 ll 8 04 . Oil of 
vitriol dissolves anthracene, forming a conjugated acid. 
With bromine and chlorine, anthracene forms several sub¬ 
stitution products. On mixing alcoholic solutions of picric 
acid and anthracene, beautiful ruby-red needles of picrato 
are obtained. (See “ Anthracene und seine Derivate,” by G. 
Auerbach, Berlin, 1873; Kopp’s articles in “ Le Moniteur 
Scientifique du Quesneville,” Aug. 15, 1870, Aug. 1 and 15, 
1871: also “ Jahresbericht liber die Fortschritte der Che- 
mie,” 1868 et seq., and W agner’s “ Jahresbericht, der Chemis- 
chen Technologic,” 1868 et seq.) C. F. Chandler. 





















ANTHRACITE—ANTHROPOLOGY. 


An'thracite [Lat. anthraci'tes, from the Gr. av6pa£, a 
“coal”], an important fossil fuel, the hardest variety of 
stone coal, consisting, when pure, almost exclusively of car¬ 
bon. It has a conchoidal fracture, a black color, and an 
imperfectly metallic lustre, from which it is sometimes call¬ 
ed glance coal. It burns slowly, with intense heat, without 
smoke, and with little flame. Anthracite, like all other 
varieties of coal, is of vegetable origin, and is, in fact, 
formed from softer and more bituminous coals by the 
action of subterranean heat, which has driven olf most of 
their volatile matter. The composition of anthracite is 
the same as that of coke formed artificially from bitu¬ 
minous coal, and it is more dense than coke only because 
it has been heated under great pressure. Anthracite has 
no definite composition, but shades imperceptibly into 
graphite on one hand, and into bituminous coal on the other. 
The anthracite beds of Pennsylvania are all of carbonif¬ 
erous age, and were once connected with the bituminous 
coals of the Alleghany coal-field, having been separated 
and changed in character by the upheaval of the Alle¬ 
ghany Mountains. The coals of that State show a regular 
gradation of composition in going from the east to the 
west, and receding from the focus of metamorphic action in 
the Alleghanies. For example, the coal of the Lehigh basin 
is most baked, and contains the least amount of volatile 
matter—3 to 7 per cent.; the Scranton coal, from 9 to 12 
per cent.; the semi-bituminous coal of Blossburg and 
Broad Top, from 17 to 25 per cent.; the bituminous coal of 
Western Pennsylvania, from 30 to 50 per cent. In Rhode 
Island a small basin of carboniferous rocks has been still 
more thoroughly calcined, and the coal is partially convert¬ 
ed into graphite (graphitic anthracite). Anthracite may be 
of any geological age. In China the coals are mostly, if 
not altogether, of mesozoic age, and over large areas they 
are anthracitic. Near Richmond, Va., trap dikes bursting 
through the triassic coal-beds have changed some of them 
locally into a spongy anthracite, a “ natural coke.” Near 
Santa Fe, N. M., an outburst of volcanic rock has, over 
many square miles, converted a cretaceous lignite into an¬ 
thracite. The triassic coal of Los Bronces, Sonora, has been 
extensively metamorphosed by the action of igneous rocks, 
and on Queen Charlotte Island, N. of Vancouver’s Island, a 
local eruption of trap has converted a cretaceous lignite into 
one of the most compact and brilliant anthracites known. 

The density and great heating power of anthracite make 
it the best of all fuels for metallurgic purposes, while its 
freedom from smoke specially commends it for combus¬ 
tion in cities. For the generation of steam, anthracite 
has no superiority over the best bituminous and semi-bitu¬ 
minous coals; and as a household fuel, cannel is preferred 
for open fires from its cheerful flame and the facility with 
which it is kindled; but the steadiness, cleanliness, and 
economy of an anthracite fire will always make it the sta¬ 
ple fuel of the communities which can obtain it. 

Anthracite occurs and is largely mined in Wales, Ire¬ 
land, and other parts of Europe, but the most extensive 
and productive beds of anthracite are those of Pennsylva¬ 
nia. These form several detached basins lying between the 
folds of the Alleghany Mountains. Their aggregate area is 
only about 500 square miles, but from their proximity to the 
chief centres of population and manufacture they have had 
a most important effect on the development of the indus¬ 
try and wealth of America. (See Coal.) (See Taylor’s 
“ Statistics of Coal;” Dadow’s “ Coal, Iron, and Oil;” 
and McFarlane’s “ Coal Formations of America.”) 

J. S. Newberry. 

Anthraquinone. See Antiiracexe and Alizarine. 

Anthropol'atry [from the Gr. arflpwTro?, “man,” and 
Aarpei'a, “service,” “worship”] signifies the worship of 
man. The primitive Christians accused the heathen of an- 
thropolatry, because they deified certain heroes or represent¬ 
ed their gods as having a human form. 

Anthropol'ogy [from the Gr. avOpiano? , “man,” and 
Aoyos, a “treatise”] is a term used in several senses: (1) 
It signifies the science of man as an object of natural his¬ 
tory, and as compared with other animals ; (2) the science 
which treats of man’s whole nature, as distinguished from 
psychology, which treats of the mind or spirit of man; (3) 
in a theological sense it denotes the study of man in his 
relations to God. (For a notice of anthropology in the 
former senses, see Man and iiis Migrations, by President 
M. B. Anderson; and Mankind, by Prof. A. Guyot.) 

Anthropology [<R0poiToAoyta, “doctrine respecting man ”], 
in the theological as distinguished from the physiological 
sense, is that part of the Christian system which treats of 
man in distinction from God. In its entire extent it in¬ 
cludes the description of man both as created and as fallen, 
and therefore properly includes both the holiness and the 
sin of the human race. It begins with the creation of man 
as composed of body and soul, and thus supposes a basis 


171 


in physical anthropology. It then considers the soul as 
created in the image of God, and thus discusses the nature 
of holiness and the happiness of an unfallen creature in 
the paradisaical state. But inasmuch as man continued in 
his primitive holy condition but a brief time, his history 
is made up mainly of his apostasy and its consequences, so 
that practically the subject of anthropology relates to such 
topics as original and actual sin, the free and the enslaved 
will, the relation of the human to the divine efficiency in 
regeneration, and the related doctrines. The great contro¬ 
versies which have resulted in the several anthropologies 
that have a place in the history of religious opinions were 
concerned almost exclusively with sin, and it is in this 
reference that we shall examine the subject. 

In the primitive Church of the first three centuries the 
fact of apostasy was universally acknowledged, but only 
in a general form. The doctrines of sin and grace in their 
more difficult and scientific aspects did not seriously en¬ 
gage the attention of the Church. The theological mind 
was occupied with the doctrine of the Trinity and the great 
controversy concerning the deity of Christ. The state¬ 
ments of Scripture concerning the fall of Adam and its con¬ 
sequences were taken without much discussion, and no acute 
and powerful exegesis was expended upon them for the 
purpose of answering the more difficult questions respect¬ 
ing the nature and depth of human depravity. W hen, 
however, these latter points were presented, and any direct 
response was given, sin in its nature was referred, to a con¬ 
siderable degree, to a sensuous ground, and its intensity 
was not regarded as so great as to deprive the human will of 
all power to good. The origin and development of human 
corruption was traced to the body full as much as to the 
activity of the spirit itself, and hence a remainder of en¬ 
ergy was assumed to exist in the fallen will, by which it 
could co-operate with the Holy Ghost in regeneration. 
This view appears particularly in the writings of Clement 
of Alexandria and Origen, and colors the anthropology of 
that Alexandrine School which acknowledged those theo¬ 
logians as its great leaders. 

It would be a mistake, however, to regard Clement and 
Origen as the only representatives of the anthropology of 
the primitive Church. In Tertullian and Cyprian a tend¬ 
ency appears towards that theory which was afterwards 
elaborated by Augustine. While the part which the sen¬ 
suous nature has in determining the origin and nature of 
sin is still asserted, yet more weight is attached to the 
self-determination of the human will itself—to the purely 
mental and spiritual energy that originates and perpetu¬ 
ates it. This naturally leads to more assertion of the bond¬ 
age of the will, and a more profound conception of sin 
as enfeebling and ruining the moral power of the soul. 
This tendency was strengthened by the adoption by Ter¬ 
tullian of the traducian view of the origin of the individ¬ 
ual. This North African Father, in a somewhat crude 
and materializing manner, held that both the body and 
soul are propagated. Both the immaterial essence of the 
soul and the material substance of the body are individ¬ 
ualized portions of human nature as created in Adam. 
There is no creation from nothing after the creative act on 
the sixth day, when “ God created man male and female, 
and blessed them, and called their name Adam.” (Gen. 
v. 1, 2.) There is only procreation, or the deduction of 
individual after individual from this original unity. Such 
a theory of the propagation of the soul, however difficult 
in itself, yet made the propagation of sin more intelligible, 
and prepared the way for the subsequent doctrine of the 
propagation of sin itself, and not of mere physical evil. 

The anthropology indicated in this brief statement of 
the views of the early Church received a subsequent mod¬ 
ification in the later Alexandrine and Antiochian Schools. 
The best representatives of the first were Athanasius, the 
two Gregories, and the two Cyrils; of the second, Theo¬ 
dore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret, and Chrysostom. The in¬ 
fluence of Origen upon these Greek theologians is apparent, 
but they receded from his extreme positions and modified 
his anthropology, (1) by the adoption of creationism in¬ 
stead of pre-existence; (2) by recognizing more distinctly 
the effects of the Adamic transgression upon the soul it¬ 
self, including the will; and (3) by making a more guarded 
assertion of power to good in the fallen man. They agreed, 
however, with the earlier anthropology in affirming that 
original sin, or inherited corruption, is not culpable. It is 
only a propagated disorder of the sensuous nature seen in 
exorbitant physical appetites, from which temptation is¬ 
sues, and to which every human individual yields without 
exception. But until this .act of the individual will thcro 
is no sin, properly so called, no sin in the sense of guilt, 
in any man. The mortal Adam could beget mortal de¬ 
scendants, but the sinful Adam could not beget strictly 
sinful and guilty descendants. “What, then,’’says Chrys¬ 
ostom, “ is the meaning of the phrase ‘ were made sinners Y 














172 ANTHROPOLOGY. 


(llom. v. 19.) It seems to me to denote liability to suffer¬ 
ing and death.” In this exegesis, Chrysostom put a sec¬ 
ondary meaning upon the verb “to sin,” which has come 
down to the present time, and which has unquestionably 
exerted an influence upon many theologians who would 
agree with the Golden-mouthed in most of his positions, 
and also upon many who would be unwilling to adopt his 
anthropology. 

The question as to the guilt of original sin, and the jus¬ 
tice of imputing that “ disobedience of one man whereby 
many w T ere made sinners” (llom. v. 19), is, in truth, the 
hinge upon which the whole subject of anthropology must 
turn. And the way in which it is answered constitutes 
the dividing line between the two great dogmatic divisions 
which from Augustine down to the present day appear in 
the history of the Church. Augustine, in his controversy 
with Pelagianism, but still more with Semi-Pelagianism, 
maintained that the first sin of Adam is imputable to the 
posterity as guilt, and is a just ground of condemnation, 
because the posterity existed in the progenitor, and in 
some real but inexplicable manner acted in him in the 
first transgression. “We were all,” he says, “in that one 
man, since we all were that one man. The particular form 
in which we were to live as individuals had not been cre¬ 
ated and assigned to us, man by man, but that seminal na¬ 
ture was in existence from which we were to be propa¬ 
gated.” (De Gicitate Dei, xiii. 14.) If the mystery of such 
a generic existence and such a natural union between the 
progenitor and the posterity could be believed and the fact 
conceded, then the imputation of Adam’s sin to his de¬ 
scendants would be made upon the same principle that it 
is imputed to Adam himself—upon the principle, namely, 
of attributing to every real and veritable agent every real 
and veritable act of the agent. The consequence of this 
primal act of apostasy was the total depravation of the 
entire human species, then existing in the progenitors, and 
consequently every individual produced out of this species 
is born entirely depraved. Beginning in the higher parts 
of the soul, the reason and will, sin penetrates and poisons 
the lower powers, and vitiates the bodily appetites and 
propensities. Sin is spiritual evil in its very outset, and 
becomes sensuous corruption in its final issue. The soul 
itself falls from God, and carries the body with its sensu¬ 
ous nature along with it. Unlike the anthropology of 
Origen, that of Augustine explains the disordered appe¬ 
tites of the flesh by the rebellion in the spirit, and not the 
x-ebellion in the spirit by the disorder of the flesh. 

Another point of difference between Augustine and his 
Semi-Pelagian opponents relates to the question as to the 
amount of power to holiness in man after apostasy. Pela¬ 
gianism, as defined and defended by its ablest advocate, 
Julian of Eclanum, contended for plenary power in every 
man to keep the moral law. The apostasy still left the 
will free, and freedom means the liberty of indifference, or 
the power of choosing either good or evil at any instant. 
This view was deemed to be extreme by those who would 
find a middle view between Pelagius and Augustine. G'as- 
sian and Faustus of Rhegium, the best representatives of 
the so-called Semi-Pelagianism, maintained that by the 
fall of Adam his posterity were greatly weakened, but not 
made absolutely impotent to good. There still remained a 
minimum of goodness, which is capable of co-operating 
with God, and therefore regeneration is a joint product of 
grace and free-will. Neither can do without the other. 
In opposition to this, Augustine contended that there is 
no power to good, not even a minimum, left in the human 
soul since apostasy. The heart and will are wholly deter¬ 
mined to evil, and there is no remainder, however small, 
of either inclination or affection that is friendly to God 
and holiness. The carnal mind is enmity towards God, 
and nothing but enmity. Hence, man cannot co-operate 
with God in regeneration. Not until the sinner is made 
willing (Ps. cx. 3; Phil. ii. 12, 13) can he will the right. 

The Pelagian anthropology, which was the occasion of 
forcing out the systematic statements of Augustine, denied 
that any physical or moral corruption of human nature 
resulted from the Adamic transgression, interpreted the 
statements of the fifth chapter of Romans as teaching the 
influence of bad example, and asserted that sin is not 
strictly universal, but that some have lived without trans¬ 
gression. Pelagianism itself never exerted much influence 
within the Church. It contained too few elements of truth, 
and was too utterly at variance with the Scripture repre¬ 
sentations of sin and grace, to get the advocacy of any 
who possessed an evangelical experience. It was rejected 
as heresy. But the middle view of Semi-Pelagianism held 
its ground by reason of its recognition of the injurious 
effects of Adam’s apostasy upon his posterity, and its ac¬ 
knowledgment of the need of grace in order to recovery 
therefrom. Moreover, the degree of power to good which 
many of the Semi-Pelagians asserted was much less than 


| that asserted in the Alexandrine anthropology, and in some 
instances it was reduced to so low a minimum as to border 
closely upon the Augustinian impotence. Wiggers compares 
the three systems with each other as follows : Augustinian- 
isin asserts that man is morally dead; Semi-Pelagianism 
maintains that he is morally sick ; Pelagianism holds that 
he is morally well. 

The Augustinian and Semi-Pelagian anthropologies 
(that of Pelagius being rejected by all parties within the 
Church) continued to hold their ground with varying suc¬ 
cess. The Augustinian theory of sin and grace was adopt¬ 
ed by the Western Church at the Councils of Orange and 
Valence, in 529, as the catholic orthodoxy, not merely in 
opposition to Pelagianism, but also to Semi-Pelagianism 
and all grades of the synergistic theory of regeneration. 
But it would be an error to suppose that the Western Church 
as a body continued to adhere to the views of the venerated 
North African Father. Theologians like Leo and Gregory 
in the fifth and sixth centuries, and like Bede, Gottschalk, 
and Alcuin in the eighth and ninth centuries, propagated 
the teachings of Augustine respecting the corruption of 
human nature and the agency of the Holy Spirit in regen¬ 
eration, but the middle theory found increasing currency 
in the mediaeval Church. Its less rigorous character, to¬ 
gether with its comparative silence upon the more difficult 
parts of the doctrines of original sin, predestination, and 
the enslaved will, recommended it to a large class of minds; 
while the element of human efficiency which it introduced 
into the doctrine of regeneration was thought to render it 
a more intelligible and practical doctrine. It was not 
strange, consequently, that in course of time the Latin 
Church, though holding the name of Augustine in the 
highest veneration, and claiming not to depart from his 
teachings, should have lapsed very generally into Semi- 
Pelagianism. It came thus upon the same doctrinal posi¬ 
tion with the Greek Church, which, during all the contro¬ 
versy at the West respecting sin and grace, continued to 
adopt the views of Chrysostom and the Greek Fathers gen¬ 
erally. In the eleventh century the wonderful intellect and 
saintly piety of Anselm maintained the Augustinian view 
with great power and depth of reasoning, but was not able 
to turn the current which was sweeping with an increasing 
flood in the other direction. Schoolmen like Bernard and 
Aquinas were nearer to Augustine than to any other great 
authority of the past, but the main influence of Scholastic¬ 
ism as a whole tended to undermine his positions. The 
dawn of a new era at the Reformation opened the old 
questions. Luther, Calvin, and the Protestant theologians 
generally not only adopted the Augustinian anthropology, 
but stated the doctrines involved in it with still greater 
clearness, and defended them with still closer reasoning. 
The papal Church took the opposite view. The Council of 
Trent enunciated Semi-Pelagianism, and endeavored to 
give it currency under the great authority of Augustine, 
whose opinions were in some instances honestly miscon¬ 
ceived, and in others knowingly misrepresented. 

Wherever Protestantism prevailed, Augustinianism pre¬ 
vailed also. Augustine’s theory of sin and grace pervaded 
and moulded the symbols of the Reformation almost with¬ 
out an exception, and from them passed into the heart and 
life of the Protestant Church. But in process of time the 
same transition occurs in Protestantism which we have 
seen taking place in the Latin Church. The more rigorous 
typo gives way to the milder in some quarters. The Ar- 
minian controversy in reality turned upon the same points 
that were discussed between Augustine and the monks of 
Adrumetum, between Prosper and Cassian. Calvinism is 
the revived Augustinianism, and Arminianism is the re¬ 
vived Semi-Pelagianism. These two types of doctrine in 
reality exhaust and include all the varieties of doctrinal 
opinion that prevail in modern evangelical Christendom. 
There are minor differences, but churches and individuals 
are either Calvinistic or Arminian, as in the Patristic 
period they were either Augustinian or Semi-Pelagian. 
There is no real mid-point between these two, although 
schools and theologians have frequently attempted to find 
one. 

The difference between these anthropologies is due to 
logic rather than to practical experience. The follower 
of Arminius agrees with the adherent of Calvin in holding 
the fundamental doctrines of the Trinity and the incarna¬ 
tion, of apostasy and redemption, and the religious expe¬ 
rience of both alike is evangelical; that is, it springs out 
of faith in the atonement of the Son of God. The differ¬ 
ence between them relates not to the general facts and 
truths of the New Testament, but to the more specific and 
exact definitions of them. The modern Arminian, like the 
ancient Semi-Pelagian, while confessing sin and trusting 
in the blood of Christ, urges what he believes to be a valid 
argument against the doctrines of predestination and irre¬ 
sistible grace, and that particular form of the doctrine of 















ANTHROPOMORPHISM—ANTIETAM CREEK. 


173 


original sin out of which the doctrines of predestination 
and irresistible grace issue as necessary corollaries. And 
his opponent shows his respect for this belief by entering 
into the debate, and defending what he thinks to be the 
more exact and self-consistent and all-comprehending 
statement of that same evangelical system. The issue of 
a controversy that originates in logic must therefore be left 
to logic. The closest reasoner from the scriptural premises 
and the evangelical experience must be adjudged to be the 
• victor. If the Arminian anthropology shall in the course of 
time prove itself to be the more scientific and self-consist¬ 
ent system of the two, it will be recognized and accepted 
as such. But if in the same calm and cool atmosphere the 
Augustinian statements shall evince their superiority, they 
must pass for Christian science. 

(For the sources of information see, among others, 
Augustine's Pelagian and Semi-Pelagian treatises; Vos- 
Sius, “ Ilistoria de Controversiis qua? Pelagius ejusque re- 
liquae moverunt;” Calvin’s “ Institutes,” book ii.; Ussiier’s 
“ Works,” vol. iii.; Chemnitzius, “ Examen Concilii Triden- 
tini;” Wigger’s “ Darstellung;” Gangauf, “ Metapliysiche 
Psychologic des Augustines;” NEANDER’s“ChurchtIistory,” 
ii., 557-627; Guericke’s “Church History,” $ 91-93; 
Muller, “ Christian Doctrine of Sin;” Baur’s “Gegen- 
satz;” Moiiler, “Symbolik;” Redepenning’s “Orig- 
enes;” IIasse, “Anselm;” Arminius’s “Works;” Episco- 
pius, “Opera;” Limborcii’s “Theologia Christiana;” Bel- 
larmine, “ Disputationes;” Jeremy Taylor, “ On Original 
Sin;” Whitby, “On Original Sin;” Edwards, “On Orig¬ 
inal Sin;” Hagenbach’s “History of Doctrine;” Shedd’s 
“ History of Doctrine ;” Cunningham’s “ Historical Theol¬ 
ogy;” Neander’s “History of Christian Dogmas.”) 

AY. G. T. Siiedd. 

Anthropomor'phism [from the Gr. av9pu)no<>, a “ man,” 
and fxop^rj, a “form”], the representation of tlio Deity under 
a human form or with human affections; the figurative ap¬ 
plication to God of terms which properly relate to human 
beings. Also the heresy of the Anthropomorpiiites (which 
see). 

Anthropomor'phites, or Aiitliropomor'phists, 

persons who believe or imagine that the Deity has naturally 
a human form, as the ancient Greeks and other pagans. 
This error has been also entertained by some Christians, 
especially the Audaeans or Audians, a Syrian sect formed 
about 350 A. I). The tendency to anthropomorphism arises 
from the inability of man to form any conception of a divine 
Person except by imagining that there is some similarity 
between the human and the divine nature. 

Anti [avri, “against”], a Greek preposition which oc¬ 
curs as a prefix to many English words, denoting oppo¬ 
sition, as antidote, “ given against” [poison]; antipodes, 
“ opposite [our] feet,” etc. 

Antibes, &x'teeb' (anc. Antip'olia), a fortified seaport- 
town in the S. E. of France, in the department of Alpes 
Maritimes, is on the Mediterranean, 17 miles by rail S. A\ . 
of Nice. Its port is small but deep, and is furnished with 
a lighthouse. Lat. 43° 35’ N., and Ion. <° 81 E. It has 
a college, and a considerable trade in olives, fruits, oil, salt 
fish. etc. Here are some remains of great antiquity. It 
was founded by a Greek colony about 340 B. C. Its Proven¬ 
cal name Antiboul readily recalls the ancient Greek appella¬ 
tion. Its coins, the remains of its theatre and of certain Ro¬ 
man constructions, have excited the interest of antiquaries, 
but its ancient history is obscure. Pop. in 1866, 6064. 

An'tichlore, a name given by papermalters to sub¬ 
stances which are employed to remove from the pulp the 
chlorine which, in the form of chloride of lime, had been 
used to bleach it, and which, if allowed to remain in the 
pulp, would not only damage the machinery, but injure the 
strength of the paper. Sulphite and bisulphite of soda 
were first employed, but at present hyposulphite of soda is 
almost invariably used. Sulphide of calcium, proto-chlo¬ 
ride of tin, and coal-gas have been used. (See Bleaching.) 

An'tichrist [Gr. ’Ai'i-iApurro?, from aim, “ against,” and 
Xpio-To?, “Christ”], a name which has been variously ap¬ 
plied by Christian writers to a supposed powerful individual 
or institution destined to arise in opposition to Christianity, 
and to obtain a partial or temporary triumph over it. This 
idea has been traced back beyond the Christian era by some 
writers, who cite in favor of this view the prophecy of Eze¬ 
kiel concerning Gog and Magog. The word Antichrist oc¬ 
curs in the Scriptures only in the First and Second Epistles 
of John. He says “that every spirit that confesseth not 
that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh” is Antichrist. The 
“Man of Sin” and “Adversary ” of Paul’s Second Epistle 
to the Thessalonians are commonly identified with the 
Antichrist of John. Many writers, both before and since 
the Protestant Reformation, have made the pope, or the 
papacy, Antichrist. Many writers, both Roman Catholics 


and Protestants, have suggested one or another of the per¬ 
secuting emperors, such as Nero or Diocletian. Others say 
a succession of Roman emperors. 

Anticli'max [for etymology, see Climax], in rhetoric, 
a sentence in which the ideas become less important or im¬ 
pressive at the close; a sentence which descends from great 
to little, and is the reverse of a climax, as in this verse of 
Pope: “Die and endow a college or a cat;” and this line 
from Horace: “ Parturiunt montes, nascetur ridiculus mus.” 

Anticli'nal Ax'is, in geology, a term used to denote 
an imaginary line dividing the portions of a stratum which 
dip in opposite directions. It may be compared to the 
ridge of a house which has a steep roof sloping in opposite 
directions. 

Anti-Corn-Law League, in British politics, an as¬ 
sociation formed about 1839 to procure the repeal of the 
corn laws, in order that breadstulFs might be imported free 
from duty. The constitution of the League was dated 
Mar. 20, 1839, and the central office was located at Man¬ 
chester. This free-trade movement was opposed by the 
Conservative party and by the landed interest. The prin¬ 
cipal orators of the League were Richard Cobden and John 
Bright. A large amount of money was expended by the 
League in paying lecturers and in the distribution of 
printed arguments on the subject, among which was Gen¬ 
eral Thompson’s “ Catechism of the Corn-Laws.” The 
prime minister, Sir Robert Peel, and a majority of Parlia¬ 
ment having been converted to the principles of free-trade 
in grain, the corn laws were repealed in 1846. 

Anticos'ti, a large island of the province of Quebec, 
Dominion of Canada, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, between 
lat. 49° 04' and 49° 58' N., and Ion. 61° 45' and 64° 35' W. 

Area, more than 3750 square miles, over one-half of which 
is arable land of excellent quality. Its length is 140 miles, 
and its greatest breadth is 35 miles. The climate is health¬ 
ful, and remarkably fine for the latitude. The island was 
long regarded as worthless, but it has been surveyed and 
pronounced to abound in valuable forests of pine, spruce, 
tamarac, ash, and other valuable timber ; also in coal, peat, 
plumbago, salt-springs, marl, marble, building-stone, grind¬ 
stones, and valuable minerals. The island abounds in fur- 
bearing animals, and its waters already afford valuable 
fisheries. In 1873 the island was divided by the “Anti¬ 
costi Company” into twenty counties of five townships 
each. Ellis Bay (the chief settlement) and Fox Bay are 
the only tolerable harbors. 

Antic'yra [Gr. ’Ai niKvpd], an ancient city of Thessaly, 
on the river Sperchius. Another Anticyra was a city of 
Phocis, with a harbor on the Corinthian Gulf. Both were 
noted for the production of hellebore. 

Antidicoma'rianites (“enemies of Mary”) were fol¬ 
lowers of Bonosus and Helvidius, two Italians of the fourth 
century who taught that the Virgin Mary, the mother of 
Jesus, was also the mother of other children. 

An'ticlote [from the Gr. ini', “against,” and SiSuopu, to 
“give”], a medicine given to overcome or prevent the in¬ 
jurious effects of poisons. Antidotes are chemical or 
physiological. The first act by neutralizing the poison, 
converting it into an insoluble or harmless substance. 
Physiological antidotes produce action "within the body 
which enables it to resist the effect of the poison. Thus, 
belladonna and opium, both poisonous, are physiological 
antidotes or counter-poisons to each other. Alcohol or 
ammonia is the physiological antidote of certain snake- 
poisons. The more important antidotes are mentioned in 
this work under the name of the poison for which they are 
administered. I 

Antietam, a township of Washington co., Md. P. 854. 

Antietam Creek is the name of a small but deep 
river in Maryland, which empties into the Potomac about 
6 miles above Harper’s Ferry, and which gives name to 
the battle fought near Sharpsburg on Sept. 17, 1862, be¬ 
tween the Federal troops, under Gen. McClellan, and the 
Confederates, under Gen. Lee. The Confederate army had 
crossed the Potomac near Leesburg on the 4th, 5th, and 
6th of September, and had occupied Frederick and the 
surrounding country along the Monocacy. McClellan 
threw a part of his army between the enemy and the fords 
of the Potomac, and thus forced Lee to leave Frederick on 
the 12th, who then marched towards Hagerstown. Two 
days previously, Jackson had separated himself from the 
main army, and hurried by forced marches towards Har¬ 
per’s Ferry, which was occupied by Col. D. S. Miles. On 
Sept. 15 this important position was surrendered to the 
Confederates, and Jackson made over 12,000 prisoners. 

In the mean while, the Federal army had followed Lee 
towards the N., and on the 14th had taken Crampton’s 
Gap and the heights of South Mountain, which com¬ 
manded the road to Hagerstown, thus forcing Lee to re- 





































174 


ANTIGONE—ANTILLES, THE. 


treat over the Antietam to Sharpsburg. On the afternoon 
of the 16th he was followed by Hooker, who, after a sharp 
engagement, secured a favorable position. On the following 
morning the real battle was begun by Hooker, who rapidly 
drove back the left wing of the Confederates under Jack- 
son, while at the same time Burnside engaged the right 
wing. The battle at first raged around a corn-field sur¬ 
rounded by woods, to which Hooker had in the beginning 
driven the enemy. Twice the Federal troops had been 
repulsed, before a party detached from Franklin’s division 
succeeded in holding it. But Hooker had already been 
wounded and carried from the field, and the command had 
devolved upon Gen. Sumner. In the mean while, Burn¬ 
side on the extreme left had made two unsuccessful at¬ 
tempts to cross the Antietam, when at three o’clock in the 
afternoon he placed himself at the head of the troops and 
drove back the enemy, until a row of hills occupied by 
batteries checked his farther advance. At four o’clock 
Burnside received orders to gain this position at any 
price. The first battery was then taken. But by this 
time Lee had succeeded in strengthening the second hill 
by A. P. Hill’s division, so that Burnside declared himself 
not able to hold the ground gained, if not assisted by 
McClellan with the reserve. McClellan did not accede to 
this demand, and the Federal troops were driven back to 
the bridge, which the Confederates did not venture to at¬ 
tack. In the centre, French’s division steadily advanced, 
without being able, however, to occupy the hills. Richard¬ 
son, who commanded another division of Sumner’s corps, 
drove the Confederates from the river halfway back to 
Sharpsburg. Thus, the Federal army, when darkness put 
an end to the battle, had gained a few advantages at all 
points, but had not been able to gain a decisive success. The 
following morning the Confederates asked for an armistice 
to bury their dead, which was granted, and under cover of 
these operations Lee retreated in the night of Sept. 18-19 
to the right bank of the Potomac, without encountering 
much resistance. With regard to the forces at the dispo¬ 
sition of the two commanders-in-chief, the statements vary 
considerably. McClellan states that his army numbered 
87,161, and estimates that of the Confederates at 97,445 
men, while Lee himself states it to have been only 40,000. 
According to the Richmond “ Enquirer,” Lee had 60,000 
under his personal command, while Pollard (“Southern 
History of the War”) estimates Lee’s forces in the morn¬ 
ing at 45,000 and in the afternoon at 70,000 men. The 
losses seem to have been pretty nearly equal. McClellan 
gives his at 12,469, inclusive of 2010 dead, while official 
accounts for Lee’s losses are wanting. According to the 
reports of the commanders of the several corps, they 
amounted during the fortnight’s campaign in Maryland to 
13,533. According to McClellan’s report, they were sev¬ 
eral thousand more. 

Antig'one [Gr. 'AvTiyovri], a daughter of (Edipus, king 
of Thebes, and Jocasta. She attended her father in his 
exile, and buried her brother Polynices in defiance of the 
edict of the tyrant Creon, who, for her disobedience, im¬ 
mured her alive. Her tragic story is the subject of one of 
the dramas of Sophocles. 

Aiitigo'nish, a county in the extreme N. E. part of 
Nova Scotia, bordering on St. George’s Bay. Area, about 
500 square miles. Coal is found. Capital, Antigonish. 
Pop. in 1871, 16,512. 

Antigonish, capital of the above county, is situated 
on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 40 miles from New Glasgow. 
It is surrounded by a fine agricultural district, and has one 
weekly newspaper. Pop. about 4000. 

Antig'onus [Gr. ’ AmLyovo<;~\, king of Asia, surnamed 
Cyclops (?. e. “one-eyed”), a Macedonian general, was 
born about 382 B. C. He took part in Alexander’s cam¬ 
paign against Persia, and became satrap of Phrygia in 
333. In the division of the empire which followed the 
death of Alexander, Antigonus received the provinces of 
L} r cia, Pamphylia, and the Greater Phrygia. Having 
become an enemy of Perdiccas, he formed an alliance 
with Antipater and Ptolemy in 321 B. C. After the death 
of Perdiccas (321 B. C.), Antigonus waged war in Asia 
Minor against Eumenes, whom he defeated and put to 
death in 316. He obtained by conquest several provinces 
in Asia, and indulged an immoderate ambition, to restrain 
which Ptolemy, Cassander, Seleucus, and Lysimachus 
formed a league against him in 315 B. C. In the long 
war that ensued, Demetrius Poliorcetes, the son of Antig¬ 
onus, defeated Ptolemy in a naval battle in 306, soon after 
which Antigonus took the title of king. He encountered 
the united armies of the allies at Ipsus in Phrygia, where 
he was defeated and killed in battle in 301 B. C. 

Antigonus, king of the Jews, a son of Aristobulus II., 
was born about 80 B. C. After the death of his father he 
was expelled from Judea by Antipater and Herod. He 


was restored to the throne by the Parthians about 39 B. C., 
but the Roman senate refused to recognize him as king. 
Mark Antony took Jerusalem and put Antigonus to death 
about 36 B. C. 

Antig'onus Do'son [Gr. ’Avriyovog Aukraje], Ling of 
Macedon, was a descendant of Antigonus surnamed Cy¬ 
clops, and a nephew of Antigonus Gonatas. He became 
regent or king in 229 B. C., during the minority of Philip 
V., who was heir to the throne. He was an ally of the 
Achman League in a war against Sparta, and he defeated' 
the Spartan Cleoinenes in 221 B. C. He died in the same 
year, and left the throne to Philip V. 

Antig'onus Gona'tas [Gr. 'AvrCyovos Foi'ara?], a son 
of Demetrius Poliorcetes, was born about 320 B. C. at 
Gona, or Gonni, in Thessaly, whence his surname. Hav¬ 
ing defeated an army of Gauls who under Brennus had 
invaded Macedonia, he became king of that country in 277 
B. C. He was expelled from his kingdom by the famous 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, in 273, but lie recovered the throne 
after the death of Pyrrhus in 271. He died about 240 B. C., 
and was succeeded by his son, Demetrius II. 

Antig'orite, a species of serpentine in which a por¬ 
tion of the silica is replaced by alumina. It has a weak 
lustre, and feels smooth but not greasy. It is found in the 
Antigoria valley in Piedmont. 

Anti'gua, a British West India island, the most im¬ 
portant of the Leeward Group, was first settled in 1632; 
the area is 89 square miles. It is 22 miles S. of Barbuda. 
The capital, St. John’s, is in lat. 17° 8' N., Ion. 61° 52' 4V. 
The surface is diversified, the climate dry and healthy, and 
the soil of the interior is fertile. Sugar, molasses, and rum 
are the chief articles of export. The exports in 1870 
amounted to £234,012, and the imports amounted to 
£164,178. Pop. in 1862, 37,125. 

Antilegom'ena [from the Gr. avri, “against,” and 
Aeya>, to “speak”], literally, “spoken against,” a theolog¬ 
ical term applied in ancient times to certain books of the 
New Testament, the authority of which was questioned by 
some biblical critics—namely, the Second Epistle of Peter, 
those of James and Jude, the Epistle to the Hebrews, the 
Second and Third of St. John, and the Apocalypse. They 
were, however, ultimately admitted into the canon. 

An'ti-Lib'anus, or An'ti-Leb'anon, a mountain- 

range of Palestine and Syria, extending about 90 miles in 
a N. E. and S. W. direction nearly parallel with Lebanon, 
from which it is separated by the valley of Coele-Syria. It 
is of Jura limestone formation. The highest summit of 
this range is Mount Hermon, which has an altitude of 
about 10,000 feet. The valley of Coele-Syria, between the 
two ranges, now called Buka a, is from 4 to 6 miles wide. 
(See Robinson’s “ Physical Geography of the Holy Land,” 
1865.) 

Antilles, The [some have supposed the name to be 
corrupted from the Latin words ante, “before,” and insulsp, 

“ islands,” because they seemed placed before the continent, 
which is only reached after the islands had been passed], a 
term applied generally to all the West India Islands except 
the Bahamas. They lie between the Atlantic Ocean and the 
Caribbean Sea, and extend from the Gulf of Mexico nearly 
to the Gulf of Paria. They are divided into two groups— 
the Greater Antilles, and the Lesser Antilles, or Caribbean 
Islands, which are the most eastern of the two groups. 
The Greater Antilles comprise the four largest islands of 
the archipelago—namely, Cuba, Ilayti (or St. Domingo), 
Jamaica, and Porto Rico, with the small islands along their 
coasts. They are situated in the torrid zone, and are sub¬ 
ject to frequent hurricanes and earthquakes. In the cen¬ 
tral parts of these islands rise high mountains of granitic 
formation. The staple products are sugar, rum, tobacco, 
cotton, and coffee. 

The Lesser Antilles are small in size, but very numerous, 
and are arranged in a long curved line or row like a cres¬ 
cent, the convex side of which is towards the east. They are 
divided into two groups—viz. the Windward, or South Car- 
ibbee Islands, and the Leeward, or North Caribbee Islands. 
The Windward Islands are Barbadoes, Grenada, the Grena¬ 
dines, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Trinidad, and 
Tobago. All these belong to England except Martinique, 
which is a French colony. The Leeward Islands are An¬ 
guilla, Antigua, Barbuda, Deseada (French), Dominica, 
Guadeloupe (French), Marie Galante (French), Montserrat, 
Nevis, Saba, St. Bartholomew (Swedish), St. Christopher, 
St. Eustatius, St. Martin (French and Dutch), Santa Cruz, 
and a group of several small isles called the Virgin Islands, 
British, Danish, and Spanish. The Leeward Islands are 
British, except those otherwise designated, and three of 
the Virgin Islands. Many of the Lesser Antilles arc of 
volcanic origin, and some are of coral formation. The 
staple productions arc similar to those of the Greater An- 























175 


ANTILOCAPEA—ANTIMONY. 


tilles. A large portion of the population of the Antilles 
are negroes and mulattoes, who are free, except in the 
Spanish islands of Cuba and Porto Rico. Pop. about 
4,000,000. 

Antiloca'pra (“antelope-goat”), the generic name of 
the prong-horned antelope (Antilocapra Americana), which 
inhabits the drier portions of the North American continent 
W. of the Mississippi. With the possible exception of the 
so-called Rocky Mountain goat, this is the only antelope 
found in America, and it differs widely from all the Old 


from Clay to give the States of Ohio and New Jersey to 
Jackson. They nearly elected Joseph Ritner governor of 
Pennsylvania in 1832, and did elect him in 1835, through 
a split in the Democratic ranks. The excitement gradually 
died out, and absorbing questions of finance and political 
economy soon dissolved the Anti-Masonic party. 

Horace Greeley. 

Anti-Me'los, or Antimi'Io (?. e. “over against Me¬ 
los ), a small island of the Grecian Archipelago, is 5 miles 
N. W. of Melos or Milo. 



Prong-Horned Antelope. 


World antelopes in this, that the sheaths of its horns are 
shed annually, like the deciduous horns of the Cervidm. 
In this respect the prong-horned antelope stands quite 
alone, and forms a kind of connecting link between the 
hollow-horned and solid-horned ruminants. 

Antim'achus a distinguished Greek epic 

poet, a native of Colophon or Claros, lived about 400-300 
B. C. He was a friend of Plato, and author of an epic 
poem entitled “Thebais,” which was highly commended by 
some ancient critics, but is not extant. He wrote an ad¬ 
mired elegy called “Lyde,” and other works, which are all 
lost except small fragments. 

Anti-Masonry is a term which indicates repugnance 
to secret societies (that is, societies which conserve secrets) 
in general; but it more directly implies opposition to the 
order known as Masons or Free Masons, for which a high an¬ 
tiquity and wide influence are claimed. This order early ex¬ 
cited the suspicions of European governments, some of which 
regarded it as a mask for conspiracies against throne and 
altar. Some of them protected themselves, so far as they 
might, by procuring the election of princes or other eminent 
personages to the chief offices of the order. 

In the summer of 1826 a thriftless tailor, named William 
Morgan, living in the village of Batavia, in Western New 
York, it was whispered, was engaged in preparing a reve¬ 
lation of the secrets of the Masonic order, whereof he was 
a member. Other Masons, including the editor of the vil¬ 
lage gazette, were understood to be engaged with him in 
the enterprise. Suddenly, Morgan disappeared one even¬ 
ing, and it was soon proved that he had been forcibly 
abducted. Excitement naturally arose, committees of vigi¬ 
lance and safety were organized, and he was traced west¬ 
ward to Fort Niagara, near Lewiston, N. Y., where he was 
temporarily imprisoned, and whence, it was ultimately tes¬ 
tified, he was taken out into deep water in Lake Ontario and 
there sunk, though this was strenuously denied, and various 
stories from time to time affirmed that he was subsequently 
seen alive at Smyrna in Asia and other places. Such re¬ 
ports did not allay the excitement, which deepened and 
diffused itself, finding vent in a political party, which cast 
33,000 votes in the State of New York in 1S28, about 70,000 
in 1829, and 128,000 in 1830; but of this last a fraction 
were not Anti-Masons, but only Anti-Jackson. The party 
spread into other States, and nominated William Wirt for 
President and Amos Ellmaker for Vice-President in 1832, 
when they were heartily supported in several States, but 
carried Vermont only. They probably diverted votes enough 


Anti-mission Baptists, called by themselves 
Old-School Baptists, a denomination of Bap¬ 
tists of the U. S. who have no Sunday schools, mis¬ 
sions, colleges, or theological schools, holding that 
these things make the salvation of men to depend 
on human effort, and not upon divine grace. 

Antimo'nial Wine, a solution of tartar em¬ 
etic in sherry or other wine. 

Antim on'ic Acid, the acid of antimony. It ex¬ 
ists in two modifications—antimonic acid, IISb 03 , 
and metantimonic acid, IRSbaOT. 

An'timony [etymology uncertain ; Lat. stib'- 
ium, from which is derived the chemical symbol, 
Sb], a brittle metal of a silver-white color and of 
a peculiar taste. It occurs in nature native, com¬ 
bined with other metals, as nickel, silver, etc., with 
oxygen and with sulphur. The sulphide, “stib- 
nite” or “gray antimony,” is the source of all the 
antimony of commerce. The most abundant sup¬ 
plies of this ore are obtained from Borneo. It also 
occurs in considerable quantities in Hungary, Corn¬ 
wall, New Brunswick, California, and Nevada. The 
sulphide, being very fusible, is often separated from 
the accompanying gangue-rock by heat, and cast 
in blocks or loaves. The metal, or “regulus of an¬ 
timony” as it is called in commerce, is separated 
from the sulphide in various ways, such as heating 
with metallic iron, sodic carbonate, and charcoal, 
or cream of tartar and nitre. The extraction of 
antimony from its ores is mainly carried on at Linz, 
in Germany, where the sulphide of antimony is 
found extensively, and in Great Britain, which re¬ 
ceives its supply of ore from Singapore and Borneo, com¬ 
monly as ballast. The process consists in heating the crude 
ore, covered with charcoal, on the bed of a furnace, when 
the sulphide of antimony fuses, leaving unmelted the earthy 
impurities ; and thereafter the liquid is drawn off into iron 
moulds, where it solidifies into cakes or loaves. The latter 
are reduced to coarse powder, placed on the bed of a rever¬ 
beratory furnace, and heated with access of ordinary air 
containing oxygen, when the sulphur passes away as gas¬ 
eous sulphurous acid, SO 2 , leaving behind the antimony as 
the teroxide, Sb 20 s. The roasted mass is now mixed with 
one-sixth of its weight of powdered charcoal, the whole 
moistened v*ith a solution of carbonate of soda, and raised 
to bright redness in crucibles, when the metal antimony 
trickles to the bottom, and the impurities are left above in 
the spent flux or scoria, which is known in the arts by the 
name of crocus of antimony. The antimony thus prepared 
is more or less contaminated by sulphur, copper, arsenic, 
iron, lead, etc. It may be freed from all these metals ex¬ 
cept lead by reducing it to a coarse powder and fusing with 
one-sixteenth of gray sulphide and one-eighth of dry sodic 
carbonate. The resulting metal must then be pulverized 
and fused with one-tenth of dry sodic carbonate, and the 
process repeated. 

Owing to the extensive use of antimony preparations in 
medicine, the removal of arsenic is of special importance. 
This can be effected by mixing 4 parts of powdered anti¬ 
mony with 5 parts nitre and 2 parts dry sodic carbonate, 
projecting the mixture into a red-hot crucible. The semi- 
fused mass is boiled with water, and the insoluble potassic 
antimoniate is reduced to metal by fusion with cream of 
tartar. Several successive fusions of pulverized antimony 
with one-eighth of nitre are said to completely remove the 
arsenic. 

Antimony is a brilliant metal of a bluish-white color and 
highly crystalline or laminated structure. Its density is 
6.7 to 6 . 86 . It is extremely brittle, and may be easily pul¬ 
verized in a mortar. Its melting-point is 450° C. (842° F.). 
It may be distilled in an atmosphere of hydrogen at a 
white heat. Heated in the open air, it burns Avith a bluish- 
white flame, and forms copious fumes of antimonious ox¬ 
ide (Sb 2 C> 3 ), or “flowers of antimony.” A peculiar amor¬ 
phous antimony was prepared by G. Gore (Proc. Poy. Soc., 
ix., 70 and 304) by electrolyzing certain solutions of the 
metal. A mass having the appearance of polished steel, 
with a bright, metallic, amorphous fracture, A\ r as obtained 
of a density of 5.78, which, on being broken or heated, 
suddenly passed into the crystalline form, with the evolu- 


l 




























176 


ANTINOMIANS—ANTIOCH, BAY OF. 


tion of sufficient heat to make it take fire (Feuererscheinung). 
Antimony is oxidized bv nitric acid, with the formation of 
antimonous oxide (Sb^Os), antimonic oxide (Sb 2 C> 5 ), or an- 
timonoso-antimonic oxide (SbzOs.Sb-iOs). Antimony forms 
with acids or chlorous radicals two classes of compounds : 

1, antimonous or tri-compounds, as the trichloride, SbCls ; 
trioxide or antimonous oxide, Sb-^Os; trisulphide, SbaSj. 

2 , Antimonic or penta-compounds, as pentachloride, SbCIs; 
pentoxide or antimonic oxide, Sb 2 (> 5 ; pentasulphide, Sb 2 S 5 . 

Antimonous chloride, or trichloride (SbCL), called butter 
of antimony, is obtained by dissolving antimonic sulphide 
iu hydrochloric acid. In its concentrated form it appears 
as a yellow oily liquid of the consistence of melted butter. 
Poured into water, it produces a buttery white precipitate of 
oxychloride {powder of algaroth), SbCL, Sb 20 . 3 , or SbO.Cl. 
Mixed with olive oil, butter of antimony is used for bronz¬ 
ing gun-barrels. Powdered antimony poured into ajar of 
chlorine takes fire, forming SbCl 3 or SbClj. 

Antimonic chloride, or pentachloride (SbCIs), is a colorless 
volatile liquid, prepared by heating antimony in an excess 
of chlorine. By the action of water it is changed to anti¬ 
monic acid and hydrochloric acid. 

Antimonous hydride, or antimonetted hydrogen (Sblls), a 
colorless gas produced by the action of zinc and sulphuric 
acid on a solution of antimony. It burns with a greenish 
flame, evolving fumes of Sb 203 . Passed through a red- 
hot tube, it is decomposed, with the formation of a black 
deposit of Sb. A similar deposit is formed on cold porce¬ 
lain held in the flame. When the gas is passed into a so¬ 
lution of argentic nitrate, a black precipitate of antimo- 
nide of silver (SbAg 3 ) is formed. This gas (Sbl^) is the 
analogue of ammonia, Nils, phosphine, PII 3 , and arsine, 
AsIIs ; as is also the silver compound, SbAg 3 . A class of 
organic bases, represented by triethyl stibine, Sb(C 2 II 5 ) 3 , 
belongs to the same group. (See Amines.) 

Antimonous , or trioxide (Sb 203 ), found native in beauti¬ 
ful crystals, as valentinite and senarmontite. Boiled with 
cream of tartar (K.II.C 4 II 4 O 6 ), antimonous oxide dissolves, 
with the formation of potassio-antimonous tartrate, or tar¬ 
ter emetic (K.SbO.C-tlBOe). An impure oxide is manufac¬ 
tured for the preparation of this salt, by roasting the pow¬ 
dered sulphide, and fusing the product at the end of the 
process. It is known as glass of antimony. 

Antimonic, or pentoxide (Sb 205 ), is formed by heating 
powdered antimony with excess of strong nitric acid, by 
decomposing SbCls with water, or by fusing powdered an¬ 
timony with nitre. Potassic antimoniate is the only reagent 
for the precipitation of soda. There are two modifications 
of this acid, known as antimonic acid, HSbOs, and metan- 
timonic acid, IHSI^Ot. 

Tetroxide, or antimonoso-antimonic acid (Sb 20 <t or Sb 203 . 
Sb 2 0 5 ), occurs native as cervantite. It is the ultimate prod¬ 
uct of the action of heat and air on the metal. 

Trisulphide, or antimonous sulphide (Sb 2 Ss), the ore stib- 
nite, or gray antimony, prepared artificially by fusing anti¬ 
mony with sulphur, or as an orange precipitate bypassing 
sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of tartar emetic. 
This sulphide is a sulphur-acid, which unites with basic 
sulphides, forming salts in every way analogous to the 
oxygen salts. Such are 3 K 2 S.Sb 2 S 3 ,* zinkenite, PbS.Sb 2 S 3 j 
miargyrite, AgS.Sb 2 S 3 ; pyrargyrite, 3 AgS.Sb 2 S 3 . 

Pentasulphide, or antimonic sulphide (Sb 2 S 5 ), is also a 
sulphur-acid, forming sulpho-antimoniates, analogous to the 
ortho-phosphates. The sodic sulpho-antimoniate is Na 3 - 
SbS 4 . Precipitated from a mixture of antimonic penta¬ 
chloride and tartaric acid, it appears as a yellowish-red 
powder, the golden sulphuret. 

Kermes is an oxysulphide (Sb 203 . 2 SbSs) which occurs 
native as the beautiful cherry-red kermesite. 

Alloys of Antimony. — Type-metal is composed of anti¬ 
mony I, lead 4 parts, and when used for stereotype plates 
receives an addition of one-eightieth to one-fiftieth of tin. 
This alloy is not only hard, but, owing to the fact that it 
expands at the moment of solidification, it takes a very 
sharp impression of the mould. Britannia is composed of 
antimony 1, tin 9 parts. Pewter is another alloy of anti¬ 
mony and tin. Antimony also enters into the composition 
of some of the anti-friction alloys. Tartar emetic is the 
most important preparation of antimony used in medicine; 
in large doses it is very poisonous. The old-fashioned 
“ family pill” was a small bullet of metallic antimony, 
which was swallowed for certain difficulties, and carefully 
preserved for future occasions. C. F. Chandler. 

Antino'mians [from the Gr. dvrt, “against,” and vo/uos, 
“law”], a name applied to those who maintained that the 
law is of no use or obligation under the gospel dispensa¬ 
tion. They took their rise from John Agricola (which see), 
who was originally a disciple and friend of Luther, and 
who contended that his views were the legitimate deduc¬ 
tions from the principles taught by Luther himself. He 
taught, among other things, that good works do not pro¬ 


mote our salvation, nor evil ones hinder it. Luther at¬ 
tacked the Antinomian heresy with great zeal, and at length, 
in 1540, Agricola recanted his more obnoxious tenets, and 
pledged himself to teach in conformity to the Church of 
Wittenberg. Antinomianism afterwards appeared in a 
more extravagant form in England, where, during the pro¬ 
tectorate of Cromwell, some zealots maintained that if they 
should commit any kind of sin, it would do them no harm, 
nor affect in the slightest degree their condition in a future 
state, and that it is one of the distinguishing characteristics 
of the elect that they cannot do anything displeasing to 
God. English Antinomianism survived till the present 
century. Crisp was one of its warmest advocates—Wesley 
and Fletcher its sharpest assailants. 

Antinoop'olis, an ancient city built by the emperor 
Hadrian in Egypt, on the site of a more ancient city named 
Besa, and named in honor of his favorite Antinous. It was 
on the E. bank of the Nile, near the modern village of 
Ababde. Here the ruins of its theatre and hippodrome are 
still visible. 

AntiiUous, a beautiful youth, a native of Bithynia, be¬ 
came a favorite and attendant of the emperor Hadrian. 
Having accompanied that emperor to Egypt, he was 
drowned in the Nile in 122 A. D. As a monument to him, 
Hadrian built the city of Antinoopolis, in Upper Egypt. 
Statues almost innumerable were also erected to perpetuate 
his memory aud his form, by artists whose emulation gave 
a new impulse to the fine arts. Some of these statues aro 
still extant. 

All'tioch [Lat. Antiochi'a ; Gr. ’Aimoxeia,' Turk. An- 
talcia], an ancient city and the former capital of Sj^ria, 
situated on a fertile and beautiful plain, on the left bank 
of the river Orontes, 57 miles W. of Aleppo ; lat. 36° W N., 
Ion. 36° 9' 30” E. It was founded in 301 B. C., by Seleu- 
cus Nicator, and named in honor of his father Antiochus. 
It was the favorite residence of the Seleucid kings of Syria, 
was called “Antioch the Beautiful,” and was widely cele¬ 
brated for the splendor of its luxury and the magnificence of 
its palaces and temples. The population in the time of its 
greatest prosperity is supposed to have been 400,000 or more. 
Antioch has been nearly ruined by earthquakes, one of which 
occurred in 115 A. D., and one in 1822. On April 3 and 10, 
1872, the city was visited by severe earthquakes, which de¬ 
stroyed many houses, and caused the death of a considerable 
portion of the population. The disciples of Christ were first 
called Christians in Antioch, which occupies a prominent 
position in the history of the primitive Church as the scene 
of the labors of the apostle Paul. In the fifth century the 
bishops of Antioch received the title of patriarch, and 
ranked equal to the patriarchs of Home, Constantinople, 
and Alexandria. In the Greek Church the patriarchs still 
retain this rank. In the Roman Catholic Church four prel¬ 
ates (of the Greek, Syrian, Maronite, and Latin rites) have 
the tit’e of patriarch of Antioch, but none of them at pres¬ 
ent reside in Antioch. The Jacobite patriarch of Antioch 
is the head of that Church. Many councils of the Church 
were also held here. The crusaders took Antioch from the 
Saracens in 1098, after which it was the capital of a Chris¬ 
tian principality until 1269. Among the remains of its for¬ 
mer grandeur are the ruined walls and aqueduct. The 
modern town, Antakia, is meanly built, has about twelve 
mosques, and some manufactures of pottery and cotton 
stuffs. The culture of silk is the chief branch of industry. 
Pop. variously estimated at from 6000 to 18,000. 

Antioch was also the name of an ancient city of Asia 
Minor, in Pisidia, visited by the apostle Paul (see Acts 
xiii. 14, and xiv. 21), who planted a church there. Of this 
city extensive ruins exist. Besides the above, there were 
at least six other Oriental towns of this name. 

Antioch, a township of Hot Springs co., Ark. P. 320. 

Antioch, in Contra Costa co.. Cal., is a growing town 
on the Sacramento River, and is the trading-point of an 
extensive grain-growing district. Large quantities of 
wheat, barley, and coal are shipped from this place, which 
has 30 feet of water at low tide. It is the terminus of the 
projected King’s River Canal, and is on the line of the over¬ 
land railroad. It has two potteries, copper-smelting works, 
twelve stores, two churches, and a weekly paper. 

J. P. Abbott, Ed. of “Antioch Ledger.” 

Antioch, a post-township of Lake co., Ill. Pop. 1595. 

Antioch, a post-village of Dallas township, Hunting¬ 
don co., Ind. Pop. 449. 

Antioch, a township of Wilkes co., N. C. Pop. 704. 

Antioch, a post-village of Perry township, Monroe co., 
0. Pop. 165. 

Antioch, Ray of, is a port of the Mediterranean, at 
the mouth of the Orontes River, and lies between high 
mountains on the N. and S., by which it is mostly well 
sheltered. The waters are deep. 




























ANTIOCH COLLEGE—ANTIPHON. 177 


Antioch College, at Yellow Springs, Green co., 0., 
wajp founded in 1852, and opened in the following year. 
Though under the patronage of Unitarians, this college is 
designed to be free from sectarian influences, and to de¬ 
velop good character as well as mental excellence in its 
pupils. The sexes are educated together with the best re¬ 
sults. The college was established with a view of diffusing 
education at the lowest possible cost, and thus far with en¬ 
couraging success. There is a music school and a prepara¬ 
tory department. The presidents have been Hon. Horace 
Mann, LL.D. (1853-59), Thomas Hill, D. D. (1859-62), G. 
W. Ilosmer, D.D. (1866-72), and Edward Orton, the present 
incumbent. 

Anti'ochus I. [Gr. ’Am'oxos], surnamed Soter (i.e. “sa¬ 
viour ”), a king of Syria, of the dynasty of Seleucidm, was 
a son of Seleucus I. Nicator, and was born about 324 B. C. 
He commanded the cavalry which fought against Antigonus 
at Ipsus, in 301. Having succeeded his father in 280 B. C., 
he gained a victory over the Gauls, who had invaded his 
dominions, from which victory he derived the surname 
Soter. He was killed in battle by the Gauls in 261 B. C. 

Aiiti'ochus II. Theos, king of Syria, was a son of 
the preceding, and began to reign in 261 B. C. The people 
of Miletus, who had received a favor from him, gave him 
the title of Theos , “ God.” In hi& reign the Parthians re¬ 
volted with success, and Arsaces became king of Parthia, 
which was previously subject to the king of Syria. A war 
which he waged against Ptolemy of Egypt was ended in 
252 B. C. by a treaty, in accordance with which he mar¬ 
ried Berenice, a daughter of Ptolemy, and repudiated his 
first wife, Laodice. After the death of Ptolemy he rein¬ 
stated Laodice, who poisoned him in 246 B. C. 

Antiochus III., surnamed the Great, a grandson of 
the preceding, and a son of Seleucus Callinicus, was born 
about 238 B. C. He succeeded his brother, Seleucus Ce- 
raunus, in 223 B. C. His capital was Antioch, and his king¬ 
dom comprised Syria Proper, Babylonia, Media, and a part 
of Asia Minor. For the possession of Palestine he waged 
war against Ptolemy of Egypt, by whom he was defeated 
at Raphia, near Gaza, in 217 B. C. While he was sup¬ 
pressing a revolt of Acheeus in Asia Minor, in 214, the Par¬ 
thians occupied Media, but, after a successful campaign 
against Arsaces of Parthia, Antiochus reconquered Media 
in 212. He afterwards conducted a victorious expedition 
across the mountains of Hindu-Kush into India, and, 
having formed an alliance with several Indian princes, re¬ 
turned to Antioch, from which he had been absent seven 
years. He took Palestine from the king of Egypt in 198 
B. C., and invaded Thrace in 196. By this movement he 
provoked the hostility of the Roman senate. He led an 
army into Greece, was defeated at Thermopylae in 191 by 
Acilius Glabrio, and retreated into Asia Minor. The Ro¬ 
man army, commanded by L. Cornelius Scipio, passed over 
into Asia in 190 B. C., and gained a decisive victory over 
Antiochus at Magnesia. The war was then ended by a 
treaty dictated by the Romans, who required him to cede 
all the provinces west of Mount Taurus, and to pay about 
15,000 talents. In order to raise this sum, he plundered a 
temple in Elymais, for which act the populace killed him 
in 187 B. C. He left the throne to his son, Seleucus Philo- 
pator. (See Polybius, “History.”) 

Antiochus IV., surnamed Epiphanes (“the illustri¬ 
ous ”), was a son of the preceding. He passed about twelve 
years in captivity in Rome, Avhither he was sent as a host¬ 
age in 188 B. C. He became king on the death of his 
brother, Seleucus Philopator, in 176 B. C. He invaded 
Egypt in 170, and captured the king, Ptolemy Philometor, 
but was constrained by the Roman senate to retire from 
that country in 168 B. C. About this date he plundered 
the temple of Jerusalem and persecuted the Jews, who rose 
in arms and were led by Judas Maccabseus, who defeated 
the Syrian armies in several battles. (See 1 Maccabees ii.) 
Died in 164 B. C. 

Antiochus VII., surnamed Sidetes, a son of Demet¬ 
rius Soter, was born about 164 B. C. He became king ot 
Syria in 137, and defeated the Parthians in several battles, 
but was killed in battle by them in 129 B. C. 

Antiochus VIII., second son of Cleopatra (the wife, 
first of Alexander Balas, then of Demetrius II., and then 
of Antiochus VII.), who reigned over Syria with his 
mother from 126 to 122 B. C., and then alone till 114 B. C., 
when his authority was disputed by his half-brother, An¬ 
tiochus Cyzicenus (Antiochus IX.). He was assassinated 
by an officer of his court 96 B. C. 

Antiochus IX., surnamed Cyzicenus, son of Cleo¬ 
patra by Antiochus VII., survived Antiochus VIII., and 
committed suicide 95 B. C. 

Antiochus X., surnamed Eusebes, son of the preced¬ 
ing, succeeded his father in 95 B. C., but was soon attci 
expelled, and died in obscurity. 

12 _ 


Antiochus XI., surnamed Asiaticus, was the twen¬ 
tieth and last king of the dynasty of the Seleucidge. He 
began to reign about 69 B. C., and was deposed by Pom- 
pey in 65 B. C., when Syria became a Roman province. 

Anti'oco, an island in the Mediterranean, near the 
S. W. coast of Sardinia, is 8 miles long and 3 miles wide. 
The soil is fertile. Pop. about 2200. 

Antioqui'a, one of the states of the United States of 
Colombia, is bounded on the N. by Bolivar, on the E. by 
Bolivar, Santander, and Cundinamarca, on the S. by Cun- 
dinamarca and Cauca, and on the W. by Cauca. Area, 
22,790 square miles. The state is chiefly covered by large 
forests, and is rich in precious metals. The chief occupa¬ 
tion of the inhabitants is mining. Capital, Medellin. Pop. 
in 1870, 365,974. 

Antip'aros, Oli'aros, or Ole'aros, a Grecian isl¬ 
and in the Aegean Sea, about 1 mile W. of Paros, is one 
of the Cyclades. It is 8 miles long and 2 or 3 miles wide, 
and consists of a mass of marble, covered with soil which 
produces some grain, wine, etc. Here is a celebrated sta- 
lactitic cavern called the Grotto of Antiparos, which is 
about 300 feet long and 80 feet high. The roof and sides 
are adorned with white incrustations of great splendor and 
beauty. This grotto was discovered by M. de Nointel in 
1673. It was probably not known to the ancients. Pop. 
about 1200. 

Antip'ater [Gr. AvTiVarpos], a Macedonian general, 
who was a pupil of Aristotle, and held a responsible posi¬ 
tion under Philip of Macedon. He was appointed regent 
of that kingdom by Alexander the Great in 334 B. C., when 
he departed to invade Persia. He defeated Agis, king of 
Sparta, in a battle near Megalopolis in 330. After the 
death of Alexander, his generals or successors agreed that 
Antipater should govern Macedonia and Greece. The 
Athenians, in alliance with other Greek states, made an 
effort to regain their independence in 322, and defeated 
Antipater near Lamia, but, having been reinforced by Cra- 
terus, he gained a decisive victory in the same year. The 
Lamian war was then ended by a treaty dictated by Antip¬ 
ater, who required the Athenians to deliver Demosthenes to 
him. He joined Antigonus in a league against Perdiccas, 
and on the death of the latter, in 321, succeeded him as 
regent of the empire. He died in 319 or 318 B. C., and left 
a son, Cassander. (See Thirlwall, “History of Greece;” 
Diodorus Siculus, '“ History.”) 

Antipater, a son of Herod the Great and Doris, was 
notorious for his wickedness. Having procured the death 
of his half-brothers Aristobulus and Alexander, and con¬ 
spired against his father, he was put to death in 1 B. C. 

Antipater the Idumean, a son of Antipas, and the 
father of Herod the Great, became governor of Idumea. 
Having assisted Julius Caesar in his war against the 
Egyptians, he was rewarded with the office of procurator 
or governor of Judea, about 46 B. C. Died in 43 B. C. 

Antipater of Tarsus, a Stoic philosopher who lived 
about 140 B. C., wrote several works on philosophy and 
morality. He opposed the skepticism of Carneades. 
Cicero represents him as a man of remarkable subtlety. 

Antip'athy [Lat. antipathi'a; Gr. arTt-ndOeia, from 
avri, “against,” and irdOos, “feeling”] is a term applied to 
a peculiarity of the physical or mental constitution in 
which certain persons feel a strong aversion to particular 
objects not offensive to others. Some have from child¬ 
hood an antipathy to animal food, while others dislike 
one particular kind. That this is not always the effect of 
caprice is shown by the fact that contact with the object 
of aversion produces very disagreeable, and in some cases 
injurious, effects on the system. Certain medicines affect 
particular persons dangerously; a single grain of mer¬ 
cury has been known to cause profuse salivation. The 
most remarkable antipathies arc those affecting the special 
senses. Persons have been known to faint at the sight of 
reptiles and other animals. The smell of musk or amber¬ 
gris has been known to throw some people into convul¬ 
sions, and Zimmermann mentions the case of a lady who 
was similarly affected by touching silk, satin, etc. 

Antiph'ilus [’Arn'^iAo?], an eminent Greek painter, 
born in Egypt, is supposed to have flourished about 330 
B. C., but according to Lucian he lived about 220. He 
was distinguished for facility of execution. Among his 
works were “ Cadmus and Europa,” and a portrait of 
Alexander the Great. 

Antiphlogistic [from the Gr. dvri y “ against,” and 
<f>Ae'yw, to “burn”], a term applied to remedies and treat¬ 
ment adapted to subdue inflammation or excitement of the 
system in inflammatory diseases. Among these remedies 
are purgatives and blood-letting. 

Antiphon, or Antipho [Gr. ’Avri^wv], one of the ten 













178 ANTIPHON—ANTISEPTIC. 


Attic orators, born at Rhamnus in Attica about 480 B. C., 
was a son of Sopliilus the Sophist. He opened a school of 
rhetoric at Athens, and made reforms in the art of oratory. 
Among his pupils was Thucydides, who expressed a high 
opinion of him. Declining to plead in court or appear as 
a public speaker, he gained much inlluencc and distinction 
by composing orations for politicians and arguments for 
persons who were accused. He was an adversary of Alci- 
biades in politics, and was the chief promoter of the revo¬ 
lution which in 411 B. C. abolished democracy and converted 
Athens into an oligarchy ruled by a council of 400. A sud¬ 
den reaction restored Alcibiades to power, and Antiphon 
was tried for treason. He made an able speech in his own 
defence, but was convicted and executed in 411 B. C. Fif¬ 
teen of his orations are still extant. (See D. Ruhnken and 
P. van Spaan, “ Dissertatio de Antiphonte Oratore At- 
tico,” 1763; A. Dryander, “ Commentatio de Antiphontis 
Vita,” 1838.) 

An'tiphon [Gr. avri^mvos, from avri, “ against,” “in re¬ 
ply to,” and 4 >cjyi], a “voice”], a piece of music performed 
in cathedral service by choristers, who sing alternately; a 
short verse which was sung in the ancient Church before 
the psalms and other portions of the service. 

Antiph'ony [Gr. at 'ti^wvov], a term applied by the an¬ 
cient Greeks to a species of musical accompaniment in the 
octave by instruments or voices. 

Antiphony is also a sacred song sung by two parties, 
each responding to the other; the answer of one choir to 
the other when an anthem is sung alternately. This prac¬ 
tice prevailed amongst the ancient Hebrews and in the 
early Christian Church. Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, is 
said to have introduced it into the Eastern Church in the 
second century. 

Antip'odes [from the Gr. am, “ against,” and novs, 
7roSos, “ the foot ”], in geography, signifies people who live 
on opposite sides of the globe, and whose feet point against 
each other. The antipodes of any place are those who live 
at the other end of a straight line drawn from that place 
through the centre of the earth to its opposite surface. 
Thus, the antipodes of London, which is in lat 51° 30' N. 
and Ion. 0°, must be in lat. 51° 30' S. and Ion. 180° E. or W. 
The noon of any point corresponds with the midnight of 
its antipodes, and the summer of one coincides with the 
winter of the other. 

Antipodes, a small island in the South Pacific Ocean, 
S. E. of New Zealand; lat. 49° 32' S., Ion. 178° 42' E. It 
is so called because it is the nearest land to the antipodes 
of London. 

An'tipope, one who assumes or usurps the office of 
pope, but is not regularly elected or generally recognized 
as such. The emperors of Germany in several instances, 
having quarrelled with the pope, appointed another person 
to the office. The emperor Henry IV. in 1080 appointed 
the antipope Clement III. in opposition to Pope Gregory 
VII. In some cases two rival popes have been elected by 
different parties of cardinals. The great Western schism 
began in 1378, when the Italian party chose Urban VI., 
and the French cardinals voted for Clement VII., who held 
his court at Avignon, and was recognized by France and 
Spain. This schism was continued after their death by an¬ 
other double election, but in 1415 the Council of Constance 
deposed both of the popes, and elected Martin V. The last 
antipope was Felix V. (originally Amadeus VIII. of Savoy), 
who was elected in 1439, and abdicated in 1449. 

An'tiquaries, Society of, the title of several asso¬ 
ciations of learned men, formed to promote the study of 
antiquities. The London Society of Antiquaries was found¬ 
ed in 1572, and reorganized in 1707, but received its charter 
in 1751. The Scottish Society of Antiquaries was founded 
in 1780. The American Antiquarian Society was organized 
in Massachusetts in 1812. 

An'tiquary [Lat. antiqua'rius, from anti'quits, “an¬ 
cient”]. The term (in Latin) was originally applied to 
persons who copied old books in convents before the inven¬ 
tion of printing. In modern language an antiquary is one 
who studies and collects ancient monuments and remains, 
such as medals, coins, statues, manuscripts, and inscriptions; 
or who makes researches into the history, manners, and cus¬ 
toms of former generations. The antiquary renders an 
important service to society by collecting materials for his¬ 
tory and rescuing many documents from the ravages of 
time. The word is nearly synonymous with archaeologist. 
Pausanias is said by some to have been the first antiquary. 

Antique, an-teck', a French word derived from the 
Latin anti'quits, “ ancient,” signifies old, ancient, old-fash¬ 
ioned, antiquated. In the language of art, the epithet 
antique is applied to the style of the ancient Greek artists, 
especially the sculptors, in contradistinction to the medi¬ 
aeval and the modern styles. The word antique, variously 


defined, is generally understood to refer to a period ante¬ 
cedent to the revival of classical studies in the West and 
the renaissance of art. The Greek sculptors excelled in ideal 
beauty of form, and the antique style is by most critics con¬ 
sidered more perfect than the mediaeval or the modem. 

Antiq'uities [Lat. antiquita'tes, from anti'quus, “ an¬ 
cient”], an important department of learning, comprises 
all memorable facts, ideas, and things which relate to or 
illustrate the origin, early institutions, and development 
of nations. Thus, the study of antiquities, in the largest 
application of the term, includes a knowledge of the re¬ 
ligion, laws, language, arts, traditions, manners, and cus¬ 
toms of ancient peoples, as well as a cognizance of ancient 
monuments of architecture, sculpture, and other arts. 
In a more restricted and perhaps more popular sense, 
the study of antiquities is limited to the discovery, col¬ 
lection, verification, description, and explanation of the 
relics of antiquity, such as medals, statues, inscriptions, 
manuscripts, ruined buildings, bas-reliefs, and hiero¬ 
glyphics. About the time of the revival of learning after 
the Dark Ages the study of classical antiquities became a 
distinct branch of research, which was pursued by many 
eminent scholars. Grasvius published a valuable work on 
Greek antiquities, entitled “ Thesaurus Antiquitatum Grae- 
carum” (12 vols. fob, 1697 et seq.); and Roman antiquities 
were amply illustrated by Gronovius in his “ Thesaurus An¬ 
tiquitatum Romanarum" (13 vols. fob, 1697). Champollion, 
Young, and Bunsen are the highest authorities in Egyptian 
antiquities. Among the best antiquarian works may be 
mentioned Montfaucon, “Antiquity Expliquge” (15 vols., 
1719-24); Heeren, “History of Ancient Commerce;” Dr. 
W. Smith's “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities;” 
Montfaucon, “Monuments de la Monarchic Fran^aise” 
(5 vols., 1725). (For the difference between archaeology 
and antiquities, see Archeology.) 

Antiquity of the Human Race. See Man and 
his Migrations, by Pres. M. B. Anderson, LL.D. 

Anti'quus (-Tan), a skilful Dutch painter, born at 
Groningen Oct. 11, 1702. He passed many years in Rome, 
Florence, and Venice, and after his return to Holland was 
patronized by the prince of Orange. Among his works are 
a “ Fall of the Giants,” a “ Parnassus,” and many portraits. 
Died in 1750. 

Anti-rent'ers, a name given to the inhabitants of 
several counties in Eastern New York, who refused to pay 
the rents and feudal services required of them by the so- 
called lord-patroons, the owners of the land. This dis¬ 
turbance, which at one time nearly amounted to insurrec¬ 
tion, was at length ended by the triumph of the Anti-rent 
party in the constitutional convention of 1846, in which a 
clause was inserted abolishing thenceforth all feudal ten¬ 
ures and incidents. 

Anti-Sabbata'rians, a sect of Christians who recog¬ 
nize no obligation to observe the Sabbath, and who affirm 
that the New Testament does not call for the observance of 
the Sabbath or any other day. 

Autisa'na, a volcanic peak of the Andes, in Ecuador, 
35 miles S. E. of Quito, and 20 miles N. E. of Cotopaxi, 
has an altitude of 19,140 feet. 

Autis'cii (the plu. of Antis'cius), or Antiscians 
[from the Gr. avri, “against,” and <tkiol, a “shade” or 
“shadow”], literally, having “ojiposing shadows” or 
having their shadows in opposite directions at noon ; a 
term applied to the people N. and S. of the equator, con¬ 
sidered in relation to each other. 

Antiscorbutic [Lat. antiscorbn'ticus, from the Gr. 
avri, “against,” and the Lat. scorbu'tus, the “scurvy”], 
corrective of scorbutus, or scurvy. (See Scurvy.) Onions, 
lime-juice, potatoes, lemons, horse-radish, scurvy-grass, 
etc. are the best antiscorbutics. Diet, and not medicine, 
is needed to effect the cure. 

Antiseptic [from the Gr. am', “against,” and errynm, 
to “ putrefy ”], opposed to or preventing putrefaction. An¬ 
tiseptics are substances which prevent or check the decay 
and putrefaction of organic matters. As air, moisture, 
and heat are necessary conditions of putrefaction, the ex¬ 
clusion of one of these from the animal or vegetable mat¬ 
ter is an antiseptic process. The common practice of 
preserving fruit in air-tight cans of tin or glass is an 
illustration of this principle. Generally speaking, so long 
as the air is excluded no decomposition or decay can take 
place. Cold is a powerful antiseptic; intense cold will pre¬ 
vent change even in those substances which putrefy most 
readily. To render timber more durable and less liable to de¬ 
cay, corrosive sublimate, chloride of zinc, and heavy oil of 
tar are sometimes used. For this purpose the wood is placed 
in a steam-box, its pores arc filled with steam, and a. vacuum 
is formed in the pores by the condensation of the steam. 
The pores are then filled with the antiseptic substance. 















ANTI-SLAVERY—ANTISPASMO DIGS. 


The more important chemical antiseptics are—alcohol, 
wood-spirit (or pyroxylic acid), creasote, carbolic acid, 
heavy oil of tar, sugar, glycerine, sulphurous acid, common 
salt, charcoal, nitre, alum, chloride of zinc, sulphate of cop¬ 
per (blue vitriol), cresylic acid, sulphate of iron, aluminum 
chloride and acetate, and other aluminum compounds, cor¬ 
rosive sublimate, and arsenic. Sulphurous acid acts by de¬ 
oxidizing the substance; sugar acts by combining with the 
water of the substance to be preserved; creasote, tannic 
acid, alum, chloride of zinc, sulphate of copper, corrosive 
sublimate, and arsenic form compounds with the organic 
matter which are not liable to become putrescent; alcohol, 
salt, and nitre act both by combining with the water of the 
putrescible substance, and by combining with the sub¬ 
stance itself. (See Preservation of Food, Preservation 
of Timber, Disinfection, and Fermentation.) 

Anti-Slavery, a term which originated during the 
long agitation that resulted in the overthrow of slavery in 
the U. S. It was used nearly synonymously with u aboli¬ 
tion,” but was preferred by many as being more definite, 
since the latter term might as well bo applied to the “abo¬ 
lition of royalty” (a phrase much in vogue during the first 
French Revolution) as to the doing away with slavery. 
The anti-slavery sentiment in the U. S. became more and 
more widely diffused and more intense as the evils of slav¬ 
ery became more apparent, but it found its most decided 
and forcible expression through the organization known as 
the American Anti-Slavery Society. (See next article.) 

Anti-Slavery Society, American. This society 
was organized in Dec., 1833, in the city of Philadelphia, 
by a convention of delegates from a few anti-slavery so¬ 
cieties already in existence in the U. S., and of other per¬ 
sons who were friends of emancipation. The preamble 
and second and third articles of its constitution express 
the character and purposes of the society. The preamble 
asserts that, “ Whereas, slavery is contrary to the princi¬ 
ples of natural justice, of our republican form of govern¬ 
ment, and of the Christian religion, and is destructive of 
the prosperity of the country, while it is endangering the 
peace, union, and liberties of the States; and whereas, we 
believe it the duty and interest of the masters immediately 
to emancipate their slaves, and that no scheme of expatri¬ 
ation, either voluntary or by compulsion, can remove this 
great and increasing evil;... we do hereby agree to form 
ourselves into a societ} 1 ,” etc. The second and third arti¬ 
cles declare that “the object of this society is the entire 
abolition of slavery in the United States;” that the society 
“shall aim to elevate the character and condition of the 
people of color, by encouraging their intellectual, moral, 
and religious improvement, and by removing public prej¬ 
udice, that thus they may, according to their intellectual 
and moral worth, share an equality with the whites of civil 
and religious privileges; but this society will never, in any 
way, countenance the oppressed in vindicating their rights 
by resorting to physical force.” 

The society, thus organized, immediately adopted and 
published a “ Declaration of Sentiments,” in which they 
declared : “ The right to enjoy liberty is inalienable. To 
invade it is to usurp the prerogative of Jehovah. Every 
man has a right to his own body, to the products of his 
own labor, to the protection of law, and to the common ad¬ 
vantages of society. It is piracy to buy or steal a native 
African, and subject him to servitude. Surely the sin is 
as great to enslave an American as an African. Therefore 
we believe and affirm that there is no difference in principle 
between the African slave-trade and American slavery; 
that every American citizen who retains a human being 
in involuntary bondage as his property is, according to 
Scripture, a man-stealer; that the slaves ought instantly to 
be set free, and brought under the protection of law; that 
if they lived from the time of Pharaoh down to the present 
period, and had been entailed through successive genera¬ 
tions, their right fo be free could never have been alien¬ 
ated, but their claims would have constantly risen in solem¬ 
nity ; that all those laws which are now in force, admitting 
the right of slavery, are therefore, before God, utterly null 
and void, being an audacious usurpation of the Divine pre¬ 
rogative, a daring infringement on the law of nature, a 
base overthrow of the very foundations of the social com¬ 
pact, a complete extinction of all the relations, endear¬ 
ments, and obligations of mankind, and a presumptuous 
transgression of all the holy commandments; and that 
therefore they ought instantly to be abrogated. We fur¬ 
ther believe and affirm that all persons of color who possess 
the qualifications which arc demanded of others, ought to 
be admitted forthwith to the enjoyment of the same priv¬ 
ileges, and the exercise of the same prerogatives, as others; 
and that the paths of preferment, of wealth, and of intel¬ 
ligence should be opened as widely to them as to persons 
of a white complexion.” 


179 


Respecting the measures by which the society would 
seek the accomplishment of its purpose, the Declaration 
asserts: “ Our principles forbid the doing of evil that 
good may come, and lead us to reject, and to entreat the 
oppressed to reject, the use of all carnal weapons for de¬ 
liverance from bondage; relying solely upon those which 
are spiritual, and mighty through God to the pulling down 
of strongholds.” “ Our measures shall be such, only, as the 
opposition of moral purity to moral corruption; the de¬ 
struction of error by the potency of truth; the overthrow 
of prejudice by the power of love; and the abolition of 
slavery by the spirit of repentance.” “We shall send 
forth agents to lift up the voice of remonstrance, of warn¬ 
ing, of entreaty and rebuke. We shall circulate, unspar¬ 
ingly and extensively, anti-slavery tracts and periodicals. 
We shall enlist the pulpit and the press in the cause of the 
suffering and the dumb. We shall aim at a purification of 
the churches from all participation in the guilt of slavery. 
We shall encourage the labor of freemen rather than that 
of slaves, by giving a preference to their productions. We 
shall spare no means to bring the whole nation to speedy 
repentance.” 

Arthur Tappan, Lindley Coates, William Lloyd Garrison, 
and Wendell Phillips successively presided over this society 
from the time of its organization to that of its disbandment. 
Among the persons who have held offices in it are—Benja¬ 
min Lundy, Lucretia Mott, William Jay, John G. Whittier, 
Abby Kelly Foster, Gerrit Smith, Samuel J. May, Owen 
Lovejoy, and Edward Beecher. Its organization was the 
signal for the concentration of the resistance of slaveholders 
and their allies, North and South, against the anti-slavery 
sentiment which had always existed, and which had, from 
time to time, found expression in the community. Nume¬ 
rous anti-slavery societies, of States, counties, and cities, 
were soon organized throughout the North; and these, with 
those which had been founded prior to the American Soci¬ 
ety, became its auxiliaries. Besides this organized aid, it 
received cordial sympathy and substantial help from men 
and women not enrolled as its members, who welcomed it 
as a mighty instrumentality for the overthrow of slavery. 
It represented the moral sentiment of the country, which 
was actively warring against American slavery. During 
its existence it adhered to its original constitution, and 
carried on its work in accordance with its Declaration of 
Sentiments. At its tenth annual meeting, held in New 
York in May, 1844, it adopted a resolution declaring that, 
whereas the Constitution of the U. S. contained provisions 
requiring the rendition of the fugitive slave to his master, 
therefore fidelity to the cause of freedom required the dis¬ 
solution of the national compact, and forbade abolitionists 
to hold office or vote under that Constitution. During a 
long period of years this society and its adherents were op¬ 
posed by a large portion of the press and of the pulpits of 
the nation, and were frequently the victims of the violence 
of mobs, who disturbed their meetings, assaulted their per¬ 
sons, destroyed their property, and imperilled their lives. 
In May, 1838, Pennsylvania Hall, a large building erected 
in Philadelphia for the use of public meetings, and especi¬ 
ally for anti-slavery meetings (against which nearly all the 
churches and halls of the country were then closed), was 
burned to the ground by a furious mob on the fourth day 
after its opening and dedication. The purpose of this so¬ 
ciety—namely, the creation of a public sentiment which 
should overthrow American slavery—was at last accom¬ 
plished. This moral force, which had been steadily increas¬ 
ing for more than a quarter of a century, and which had 
called into existence a small and earnest political party, at 
length pervaded the Republican party to the extent neces¬ 
sary for a successful resistance, first, to the extension of 
slavery, and then to its existence. When the thirteenth 
amendment of the U. S. Constitution was ratified, abolish¬ 
ing slavery within the jurisdiction of the U. S., and the 
fourteenth and fifteenth amendments had secured to the 
emancipated slave his personal freedom, by endowing him 
with the ballot of a citizen, the American Anti-Slavery 
Society (the work for which it was organized being finished) 
disbanded its members and ceased to exist, on the ninth 
day of April, 1870. Horace Greeley. 

Antispasmod'ics, a name applied to medicines which 
cure or alleviate spasm. The name is frequently limited 
to a small class of drugs which have usually a strong and 
often an unpleasant odor, and which in some cases act as 
diffusive stimulants. Such are valerian, assafoetida, myrrh, 
musk, ammonia, ether, etc. Others are sedatives, as hydro¬ 
cyanic acid. The term might well include the other nerve- 
sedatives or depressors of reflex action, like bromide of 
potassium, belladonna, Calabar bean, curari poison, etc. 
The best treatment for spasmodic symptoms aims, however, 
at the restoration of health by proper food, good air, and 
correct habits of life, and by such special treatment as the 
case may require. 

















180 


ANTISTHENES— ANTONINUS, MARCUS AURELIUS. 


Antis'thenes [’AvTurfleVr)?], an eminent Greek Cynic 
philosopher, called the founder of the C} r nic sect or school, 
was born at Athens, and flourished about 400 13. C. lie 
was a young man when he served at the battle of Tanagra, 
42(5 B. C. lie was a pupil and friend of Socrates, whose 
death he witnessed. After this event he opened a school 
at Athens in the gymnasium of Cynosarges, where the 
famous and witty Diogenes became one of his pupils, lie 
was a man of temperate habits and simple mode of life, in¬ 
culcating a contempt of riches and sensual pleasure. He 
maintained that virtue is all-sufficient for happiness, and 
directed his attention chiefly to practical morality. Ilis 
works on various subjects are lost, but several of his sen¬ 
tentious and pithy sayings have been preserved. Socrates 
reproved the poverty of his dress and his neglect of the* 
conventional by saying, " I can see thy pride through the 
holes in thy robe.” Antisthenes was living in 371 B. C. 

Antis'trophe [Gr. avna-rpo^r), from avri, "against,” 
and errpe'^to, to "turn”], a term applied by the ancient 
Greeks to that part of a song or dance before the altar 
which was performed by turning from the left to the right. 
Hence a stanza or portion of poetry following the strojihe, 
and responding to it, was called antistrophe. 

An'ti-Tau'rus, a range of mountains in the N. part 
of Asia Minor, extends from the Bosphorus eastward, and 
is nearly parallel to the Black Sea. According to some au¬ 
thorities, it extends from Arjish-Dagh (Mount Argaeus) 
north-eastward into Armenia, forming the watershed be¬ 
tween the Euphrates and the Kizil-Irmak, which enters 
the Black Sea. The name Anti-Taurus was given to the 
range because it is "opposite to or over against the Tau¬ 
rus.” As the latter extends along the coast of the Mediter¬ 
ranean, so the former runs along the coast of the Black Sea. 

Antith'esis [from the Gr. olvtl, "against,” and 0ea-is, a 
"position”], in rhetoric, a figure of speech in which an 
idea is rendered more emphatic and impressive by juxta¬ 
position and contrast with an opposite or converse idea. 
Thus a critic said of a certain book, " It contains many 
good things, and m any new ; but the good are not new, and 
the new are not good.” 

Anti-Trinitarians. See Unitarians, by Orville 
Dewey, S. T. D., LL.D. 

An'titype [Gr. avTirvn-o?, from dvri, "against,” and 
hence "corresponding to,” and tuVos, a "type”], a type or 
figure which corresponds to some other type. In theology, 
it denotes that of which the type was a prefiguration ; the 
person in whom any prophetic type is fulfilled. " The 
holy places made by hands are figures of the true,” which 
are the antitypes of the former. (See Type.) 

An'tium [It. An'zo], an ancient city of Latium, on the 
sea-coast, 34 miles S. S. E. of Rome, was a favorite resort 
of opulent citizens of Rome, in whose villas famous works 
of art have been discovered. Among these was the Apollo 
Belvedere. The emperors Caligula and Nero were natives 
of Antium, the site of which is now occupied by a village 
called Porto d’Anzo (t. e. the "port of Antium”). 

Anti'vari, a town and seaport of Albania, on the 
Adriatic, 14 miles N. W. of Scutari. The harbor is shal¬ 
low, and admits only small vessels. It exports oil, etc., and 
has, with its suburbs, about 1000 houses. Pop. about 5000. 


Ant-Lion, the larva of several species of Mi/rmeleon, 



Ant-Lion. 


and other cognate genera, insects of the order Neuroptera, 
found in sandy tracts in different parts of the world. The 


perfect insect is similar in appearance to the dragon-fly. 
The larva is remarkable for the curious and insidious mode 
in which it catches the ants and other insects on which 
it feeds. It excavates a funnel-shaped cavity in the sandy 
soil, and lies in wait at the bottom until an insect comes so 
near to the edge of the pit that the loose sand gives way 
and the insect falls down the slope. If, before reaching 
the bottom, its victim begins to climb upward, the ant-lion 
throws sand upon it and brings it down. Several species 
of ant-lion are found in the U. S. 

Antceci, an-tee'sl [from the Gr. dvri, " against,” and 
oheo?, a "house” or "dwelling-place”], in geography, is 
applied to people who live under the same meridian and at' 
the same distance from the equator, but the one in north 
and the other in south latitude. The summer of one coin¬ 
cides in time with the winter of the other. 

Antoine, a post-township of Clarke co., Ark. P. 1835. 

Antoine, a township of Pike co., Ark. Pop. 238. 

Antomniar'clii (Francesco), an Italian anatomist, 
born in 1780, a native of Corsica, became anatomical dis¬ 
sector to a hospital of Florence. In 1819 he was sent for 
to attend Napoleon at St. Helena. The ex-emperor was so 
well pleased with him that he left him a legacy of 100,000 
francs. He published "The Last Moments of Napoleon” 
(2 vols., 1823). In 1836 he settled in New Orleans as a 
liomoeopathist. He died in Cuba April 3, 1838. 

Anton Ulrich, a son of the duke of Bruns wick-Wolf- 
enbUttel, was born in 1714. He married in 1739 Anna 
Carlovna, who was a niece of the Russian empress, Anna 
Ivanovna, and who became regent in 1740. In Dec., 1741, 
Anna was deposed, and banished with her husband to the 
government of Archangel. He is supposed to have died 
about 1780. 

Antomel'li (Giacomo), an Italian cardinal and astute 
politician, born at Sonnino April 2,1806. He became grand 
treasurer of the two apostolic chambers in 1845, and was 
appointed minister of finance by Pius IX., soon after his 
election. In 1847 he was made cardinal-deacon. Ho ac¬ 
quired much influence with the pope, and opposed the 
liberal movement of 1848. In 1849 he was appointed pa¬ 
pal secretary of foreign affairs (7. e. prime minister), which 
place he still occupied when Rome, in 1870, was incor¬ 
porated with the kingdom of Italy. He has strenuously 
opposed the cause of Italian unity. 

Antonel'lo, or Antonelli (Antonio), surnamed Da 
Messina, from the place of his birth, an eminent painter, 
born at Messina in 1414. He is reputed to be the first 
Italian who painted in oil, having visited Bruges and ob¬ 
tained from J. van Eyck the secret of oil-painting. He 
returned to Italy about 1445, after which he worked at 
Milan, and removed to Venice about 1470. He gained dis¬ 
tinction by the brilliance of his coloring. Died in 1475. 

Anto'nia (Major, or the Elder), a Roman lady, a 
daughter of Mark Antony the Triumvir, was born in 39 
B. C. Her mother was Octavia, a sister of Augustus Caesar. 
She was married to L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, and was the 
grandmother of Nero.—Her sister, Antonia Minor (the 
Younger), was born 36 B. C. She was the wife of Claudius 
Drusus Nero, and mother of the famous Germanicus and of 
the emperor Claudius. She is said to have been virtuous 
and fair. Died in 37 or 38 A. D. 

Anto'nides van tier Goes (Johannes), a Dutch 
poet, born at Goes in 1647. He held an office in the admi¬ 
ralty. His principal work is a national epic poem on the 
river Y, which is entitled "Ijstroom,” or "Y-Stroom” 
(1671), and was very popular. Died Sept. 18, 1684. 

Antoni'nus (Marcus Aurelius), usually called Mar¬ 
cus Aurelius, sometimes surnamed the Philosopher, a 
Roman emperor highly distinguished for his wisdom and 
virtue, was born in Rome in April, 121 A. D. He was a 
son of Annius Verus and Domitia Calvilla, and his original 
name was Marcus Annius Verus. His education was 
directed by Fronto and Herodes Atticus. He became a dis¬ 
ciple of the Stoic philosophy, with the principles of which 
his habitual conduct w r as consistent. Having been adopted 
as a son by the emperor Antoninus Pius in 138 A. I)., he 
assumed the name of M. JElius Aurelius Verus Caesar. He 
was chosen consul in 140, and married Faustina, a daughter 
of Antoninus Pius, whom he succeeded in 161 A. D. He 
then admitted Lucius Commodus (or Lucius Verus) to a 
share of the imperial power, but the latter died in the year 
169. Before this date the Roman army gained several vic¬ 
tories over the Parthians. Although the temper of Marcus 
Aurelius v r as pacific, he was involved in frequent wars by 
the aggressions of northern barbarians and the revolts of 
his subjects. He conducted in person an expedition against 
the Marcomanni, which was successful, in 168 A. D., and he 
afterwards drove them out of Pannonia. In 174 A. D. he 
gained over the Quadi a famous victory, which was reputed 



















































ANTONINUS, COLUMN OF—ANTONY. 


miraculous. According to Dion Cassius and other writers, 
the Romans, who were suffering with thirst, were refreshed 
by a shower of rain, while their enemies were demoralized 
by a violent storm of hail. One of his generals, named 
Avidius Cassius, then commanding in Syria, revolted in 
175 A. I), and obtained possession of Egypt and part of 
Asia, but he was killed by his own officers in the same year. 
In 176 the emperor visited Syria and Egypt, and displayed 
great clemency towards persons who had been implicated 
in the recent rebellion. On his homeward journey he passed 
through Athens, where he founded a chair of philosophy 
for each of the four sects, Platonic, Stoic, Peripatetic, and 
Epicurean. His ardent love of learning continued un¬ 
abated in advanced age, and he cherished constantly, amidst 
the turmoil of war and the distractions of public life, his 
philosophic and philanthropic aspirations. No monarch 
was ever more warmly and generally beloved by his sub¬ 
jects. It is a strange anomaly in his character and conduct 
that he persecuted the Christians. During a campaign 
against his inveterate enemies, the Marcomanni, he died at 
Sirmium or at Vindebona (Vienna) in Mar., ISO A.D., and 
was succeeded by his son Commodus. lie was author of an 
excellent ethical work in Greek, called “Meditations,” a good 
English version of which, by George Long, appeared in 
1862, under the title of “ Thoughts of M. Aurelius An¬ 
toninus.” “ Ilis writings,” says the eminent philosopher, 
J. Stuart Mill, “the highest ethical product of the ancient 
mind, differ scarcely perceptibly, if they differ at all, from 
the most characteristic teachings of Christ. This man, a 
better Christian in all but the dogmatic sense of the word 
than almost any of the ostensibly Christian sovereigns who 
have since reigned, persecuted Christianity. To my mind 
this is one of the most tragical facts in all history.” (See 
J. Capitolinus, “ Marcus Aurelius Pliilosophus;” Ripault, 
“Histoire do l’Empercur Marc-Antonin,” 5 vols., 1820; 
Tillemont, “Histoire des Empereurs;” De Suckau, 
“Etude sur Marc-Aurele,” 1857; l)iox Cassius, “ History;” 
Aurelius Victor, “ Do Caesaribus Historia.”) 

William Jacobs. 

Antoni'nus, Column of, a pillar which Marcus 
Aurelius erected in Rome to the memory of Antoninus Pius, 
or perhaps in his own honor. It is a combination of the 
Corinthian and Doric orders, and is adorned with bas-reliefs 
of the victories which Marcus Aurelius gained over the 
Marcomanni. It stands in the Piazza Colonna. 

Antoninus, Itinerary of [Lat. Antoni'ni Ttinera'- 
rium ], a valuable geographical work, the date and author 
of which are unknown. It contained the names of all 
places and stations on the roads of the Roman empire, 
with their distances in Roman miles. 

Antoni 7 nus Pi'us (or, more fully, Titus Aure 7 - 
lius Ful'vus Boio'nius Ar'rius AntoniTius), a 
Roman emperor, born at Lanuvium Sept. 19, 86 A. D., was 
a son of Aurelius Fulvus. He was chosen consul in 120 
A. I)., and married Anna Galeria Faustina. Having, as 
proconsul in Asia, distinguished himself by his wisdom 
and equity, he was adopted by Hadrian in 138 A. D., and 
he ascended tho throne on the death of Hadrian, in July 
of that year. He adopted as his successor Marcus Aurelius. 
His reign was so peaceful and prosperous that it furnishes 
but scanty materials for history. Antoninus promoted liter¬ 
ature, and treated the Christians with mildness. As a man 
he was temperate, humane, learned, and eloquent. The 
name of “Pater Patrim” (“Father of his Country”) was 
given to him by the vote of the Roman senate. He had 
two sons, whom he survived. He died Mar. 7, 161 A. I)., 
and was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius. His memory was 
greatly venerated by the Romans of his own and later ages. 
(See J. Capitolinus, “ Vita Antonini.”) 

Antoninus, Wall of (anc. Antoni'ni Val'lum), a ram¬ 
part or intrenchment raised in Scotland by the Romans 
under Lollius Urbicus, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, in 
139 A. D. It extended from the Clyde to the Frith of 
Forth, was 35 miles long and 20 feet high, and was built of 
earth and stone. Its remains are called “Graem’s dyke.” 

Anto'nio (Nicolas), [Lat. Nicola'us Anto'nius], an 
eminent Spanish critic and bibliographer, born at Seville 
in 1617. He published “Bibliotheca Hispana Nova” (2 
vols., 1672), and “Bibliotheca Hispana Vctus” (2 vols., 
1696), which contain catalogues of all the Spanish books, 
with biographical notices, and are highly esteemed. He 
was Spanish agent at Rome 1659-81. Died April 13, 1684. 

Anto'nius (Caius IIybriha), a Roman consul, was a 
son of M. Antonius the Orator, and an uncle of Mark 
Antony the Triumvir. He was chosen consul as the col¬ 
league of Cicero in 63 B. C. He was a profligate politician, 
and did not earnestly co-operate with Cicero in opposing 
the conspiracy of Catiline. Died in 44 B. C. 

Antonius (Marcus), called the Orator, an eminent 


181 


Roman orator and lawyer, born in 143 B. C., was grand¬ 
father of the famous Mark Antony. He became preetor 
in 104, and consul in 99 B. C., and was attached to the 
aristocratic party. Having become an adherent of Sulla 
in the civil war, he was assassinated by the order of Marius 
in 87 B. C. Ho was perhaps the most eloquent Roman 
orator of his time. His eloquence is highly eulogized by 
Cicero in his treatise “ Dc Oratore,” and in his “ Brutus.” 
The orations of Antonius are not extant. 

Antonius (Marcus), surnamed the Triumvir, com¬ 
monly called in English Mark Antony, a celebrated 
Roman general and politician, born in 83 B. C., was a son 
of M. Antonius Creticus. His mother Julia was a daughter 
of L. Julius Cmsar, who was consul about 90 B. C. Though 
in his youth he was addicted to licentious vice and debauch¬ 
ery, he distinguished himself at an early age by his talents 
and riotous audacity. He obtained about 57 B. C. command 
of the cavalry of Gabinius in Syria and Egypt. Having 
been elected qumstor in 53 or 52, he served in Gaul as legate 
of Cmsar, and displayed superior talents in several cam¬ 
paigns. Through the influence of Caesar he was elected 
augur and tribune of the people in 50 B. C. As tribune 
he promoted the interest of Caesar, and vetoed a decree of 
the senate which ordered Cmsar to disband his arm} r . 
Early in 49 B. C. he fled from Rome to the camp of the 
general last named. After the civil war began, and Caesar 
passed into Spain, he appointed Antony commander-in- 
chief of his forces in Italy. The latter commanded the 
left wing at the battle of Pharsalia, 48 B. C. In the year 
47 he became master of the horse to Caesar, who was now 
invested with the office of dictator. He married Fulvia, 
the widow of the demagogue P. Clodius, about 45 B. C., 
and was chosen consul with Caesar as his colleague in 
44. Although he indulged freely in licentious orgies, and 
disgraced himself by the effrontery with which he violated 
the proprieties of life, he displayed great political ability r , 
especially in the crisis which followed the death of Caesar. 
He negotiated with Brutus and Cassius, and temporized 
with the senate, whom he induced to ratify the acts of 
the late dictator. His eloquent funeral oration over the 
body of Caesar excited such popular indignation against 
the conspirators that they were compelled to retreat from 
Rome. In 43 B. C. Antony was defeated in battle by the 
consuls Hirtius and Pansa at Mutina (now Modena). 
About this time he was denounced by Cicero in a series of 
famous orations called “ Philippics.” Before the end of 
the year 43, Antony, Octavius, and Lcpidus united to form 
a league (triumvirate) against the senate and the republi¬ 
cans, many of whom were put to death by the myrmidons 
of the triumvirs. At the instigation of Antony, Cicero was 
proscribed and killed. It was the military skill of Antony 
which defeated Brutus and Cassius at the decisive battle of 
Philippi (42 B. C.), which rendered the triumvirs masters 
of the Roman world. This victory was followed by another 
bloody proscription. Antony, who received for his share 
of the empire the Asiatic provinces and Egypt, now gave 
himself up to pleasure and luxury. He was so captivated 
by Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, that he neglected public 
affairs while Octavius was marching with stealthy steps 
towards supreme and undivided power. Antony and Oc¬ 
tavius were involved in a quarrel in the year 41, but they 
were formally reconciled in 40 B. C., and Antony then 
married Octavia, the sister of his rival or colleague. About 
the end of the year 38 the triumvirate was renewed for a 
period of five years. Arousing once from his indolent and 
luxurious mode of life, he marched with an army into Ar¬ 
menia and invaded Partliia, in which lie fought many 
battles. He soon divorced Octavia, and returned to his 
dalliance with Cleopatra. The conflict which had been 
postponed now became inevitable, and Antony was defeat¬ 
ed at the naval battle of Actium in Sept., 31 B. C. He then 
retreated to Alexandria in Egypt, and was deserted by his 
fleet. Reduced to a desperate extremity, he killed himself 
in 30 B. C. He left two sons, lulus and Antyllus. (SeePLU- 
tarch, “Life of Antony;” Drumann, “Geschichtc Roms;” 
Appian, “ Bellum Civile.”) William Jacobs. 

Antony, or Anthony [Lat. Anto'nius], Saint, sur¬ 
named Abbas, an eminent anchorite, called the founder of 
monachism, was born in Upper Egypt in 250 A. 1). lie 
reduced himself to voluntary poverty, and retired to a 
desert, where he passed many years in ascetic devotion and 
solitude. About 305 he founded a monastery near Faioom 
(or Phaifim). He was an opponent of Arianism, and was 
venerated as a saint and oracle by his contemporaries. 
During the persecution of the Christians in 311 he went to 
Alexandria in the hope of obtaining the crown of martyr¬ 
dom, but he was disappointed, and returned to the desert. 
He had an interview many years later with Athanasius, who 
wrote an account of his life. Some of the letters of Saint 
Antony are extant. Died Jan. 17, 356 A. D. 



















182 ANTONY OF PADUA—AORTA. 


Antony, or Anthony (Saint), of Padua [It. Anto'- 
m'o], was born at Lisbon Aug. 15, 1195. lie became a Fran¬ 
ciscan monk, and preached at Toulouse, Bologna, and Pa¬ 
dua, where he died June 13,1231. According to a legend, 
he once preached to the fish in the sea an eloquent sermon, 
which attracted, it is said, the devoted attention of his tinny 
auditors. This sermon is still extant. An abstract of it in 
Italian and English may be seen in Addison’s “ Remarks 
on Itaty.” He was canonized in 1232. 

An'tony of Bourbon [Fr. Antoinede Bourbon], duke 
of Vendome and king of Navarre, was born in Picardy 
April 22, 1518. * He was a brother of the prince of Conde. 
He married, in 1548, Jeanne d’Albret, the only child of the 
king of Navarre. In 1560 he was appointed lieutenant- 
general of France. Soon after that date he formed a coa¬ 
lition with the duke of Guise and Constable Montmorency, 
and became a Roman Catholic. He commanded the royal 
army for a short time in the civil war, and was mortally 
wounded at Rouen, and died Nov. 17, 1562. He was the 
father of Henry IY. of France. 

An'trim, the extreme N. E. county of Ireland, in Ulster, 
bounded on the N. by the Atlantic, on the E. by the Irish 
Channel, on the S. by the Lagan River, and on the 4V. by the 
river Bann. Area, 1164 square miles. The surface near the 
sea-coast is hilly, and the soil is mostly light. The rock which 
underlies it is basaltic trap, with some new red sandstone. 
Lignite of good quality is mined. On the N. coast is the 
famous Giants’ Causeway, one of the most perfect examples 
of columnar basalt in the world. Oats and flax are the 
staple products of the soil. The county has extensive 
manufactures of linen and cotton. Chief town, Belfast. 
Pop. in 1861, 378,588; in 1871, 419,782. 

An'trim, a county in the N. W. part of the southern 
peninsula of Michigan, is bounded on the 4V. by Grand 
Traverse Bay. Area, estimated at 700 square miles. It 
contains several lakes. Wheat, timber, fruit, butter, and 
potatoes are the chief products. Capital, Elk Rapids. 
Pop. 1985. 

Antrim, a township of Shiawassee co., Mich. Pop. 992. 

Antrim, a post-township of Watonwan co.,Minn. P.263. 

Antrim, a post-township of Hillsborough co., N. H. 
It has manufactures of lumber, leather, furniture, sewing 
silk, etc. Pop. 904. 

Antrim, a post-village of Morris, Charleston, and Del- 
mar townships, Tioga co., Pa., at the southern terminus of 
the Corning Cowanesque and Antrim R. R., 38 miles from 
Lawrenceville. Here are mines of excellent semi-bitumi- 
nous coal, and forests of timber of the best quality. 

Antrim, a township of Wyandot co., 0. Pop. 1061. 

Antrim, a township of Franklin co., Pa. Pop. 3762. 

Ant'werp, a province of Belgium, is bounded on the 
N. by Holland, on the E. by Limbourg, on the S. by South 
Brabant, on the W. by the river Scheldt. Area, 1093 square 
miles. The river Dyle forms part of its southern boundary. 
The soil is generally fertile, and produces grain, hemp, mad¬ 
der, hops, and pine timber. Capital, Antwerp. Pop. in 
1869, 485,883. 

Ant'werp [Dutch Ant'wcrpen; Lat. Antuer'pia; Fr. 
Anver8, 6x'vaiR'; Sp. Amberes], the chief commercial city 
of Belgium, and capital of a province of its own name, is 
on the right bank of the Scheldt, 26£ miles by rail N. of 
Brussels; lat. 51° 13' N., Ion. 4° 24' E. It is strongly 
fortified, and has among its defences a citadel built by the 
duke of Alva in 1567. The magnificent public buildings, 
the numerous churches, the stately and antique houses, and 
the profusion of ornamental trees, render the general ap¬ 
pearance of the city very picturesque. The streets are tor¬ 
tuous and irregular, but one of them, called the Place de 
Meir, is scarcely surpassed in beauty by any street in Eu¬ 
rope. Foremost among the public buildings is the cathe¬ 
dral, one of the largest and most beautiful specimens of 
Gothic architecture in Europe. It is 500 feet long and 240 
feet wide, and contains the principal masterpieces of Ru¬ 
bens. Among the other public edifices are the exchange 
and the marble hotel de ville. The principal institutions 
are—the Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Painting 
and Sculpture, a rich gallery of pictures, a public library, 
and a botanic garden. Antwerp has an excellent harbor, 
which will admit the largest vessels. Railways extend 
from this place to Holland, Prussia, Brussels, and Ghent. 
It has an extensive trade, and is an important market for 
hides. Here are manufactures of black silk stuffs, cotton, 
linen, lace, carpets, sewing-silk, and printers’ ink. Ant¬ 
werp was a city as early as the eighth century, and was 
formerly more populous than it is now. In the fifteenth 
and sixteenth centuries it was the great centre of European 
commerce, and had 200,000 inhabitants or more. It is 
stated that 500 vessels daily entered its port. It was be¬ 


sieged and taken by the prince of Parma in 1585, soon after 
which much of its commerce was transferred to Amster¬ 
dam. By the treaty of Paris, Antwerp, with the rest of 
Belgium, was annexed to the kingdom of Holland in 1814. 
In the popular rising of 1830 against that government the 
citadel was held by Dutch troops under command of Gen¬ 
eral Chasse. The resulting siege of Antwerp by the French 
was a fine practical example of the science of sieges, which 
excited the interest of military amateurs of all nations. 
The defence exhibited a conspicuous example of fortitude 
and endurance. The capitulation took place Dec. 24, 1832, 
the trenches having been opened Nov. 30. During recent 
years, Antwerp, the true military capital of Belgium, has 
been fortified under a very distinguished engineer, Colonel 
Brialmont, as the central point of a great intrenched camp 
on the Scheldt, by a system of works “ unrivalled in Eu¬ 
rope in the intelligent application of the true principles of 
art to a great practical example,” Pop. in 1869, 126,663. 

Revised by J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Antwerp, a twp. of Van Buren co., Mich. Pop. 2690. 

Antwerp, a village of Jefferson co., N. Y., in a town¬ 
ship of the same name, on the Rome Watertown and Og- 
densburg R. R. It has one newspaper and one bank, and 
is the seat of the Northern New York Conference Semi¬ 
nary. Two hundred thousand tons of iron ore are raised 
from beds in this vicinity per year. The Jefferson Iron 
Company is located here. Pop. of township, 3310 ; of the 
village, 773. Ed. of ‘‘Antwerp News.” 

Antwerp, a post-village of Paulding co., 0., on the 
Toledo Wabash and Western R. R., 23 miles N. E. by E. 
of Fort Wayne, Ind., and on the AVabash and Erie Canal. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 717. 

Anu'bis, or Anepu, an idol of the Egyptians, was 
represented as a son of Osiris, and as having the form of 
a dog, or a man with a dog’s head. 

Anvari', or Anwari, a Persian poet, born in Khoras- 
san. He rose to celebrity about 1150, and enjoyed the favor 
of the Seljukide sultan Sanjar, at whose court he passed 
many years. He wrote numerous lyrical poems, which are 
much admired. His elegy on the capture of Sanjar by the 
Ghaurians has been translated into English. Having turned 
his attention to astrology, and predicted that a great hur¬ 
ricane would occur in 1185 or 1186, he fell into disgrace 
when his prediction was not fulfilled. Died about 1200. 

Ail'vil, an iron block with a smooth surface on which 
blacksmiths hammer and shape their work. It varies in 
form and in size. The common or middle-sized anvil, on 
which iron is forged with a sledge-hammer, is in the form 
of an oblong table, which has a conical horn at one end, 
and sometimes a pyramidal horn at the other end. The 
upper surface of the anvil is sometimes made of steel. 

Ajiville, a township of Sumpter co., Ala. Pop. 410. 

Anville, d’ (Jean Baptiste Bourguignon), a cele¬ 
brated French geographer, born in Paris July 11, 1697. 
He devoted his whole life to the study and improvement of 
geography, and is recognized as the first who raised geog¬ 
raphy to the rank of an exact science. He was appoint¬ 
ed geographer to the king, and became a member of the 
Academy of Sciences. Among his works are “ Orbis Ro- 
manus” (“Roman AVorld”), “Orbis A^eteribus Notus” 
(“The AVorld known to the Ancients”), and a “Compend¬ 
ium of Ancient Geography ” (in French, 3 vols., 1768). He 
published 211 maps and plans, which embrace nearly every 
country in the world. Although he never travelled, he de¬ 
lineated various foreign countries with remarkable accu¬ 
racy. The correctness of his map of Egypt was confirmed 
by the French survey of 1798-99. Died Jan. 28, 1782. 
(See Condorcet, “ Eloge de M. d’Anville,” 1762.) 

Anzas'ca, Yal d’, a picturesque valley of Piedmont, 
in the province of Novara. It has beautiful cascades, and 
affords fine views of Monte Rosa. Gold is found here. 

Anzin, a town of France, in the department of Nord, 
1 mile N. 4V. of Valenciennes. It has iron-foundries and 
glass-works, and is the centre of the greatest collieries of 
France. Pop. in 1866, 7283. 

Ao'nia, a district of ancient Greece, in Boeotia, con¬ 
tained Mount Helicon (the Aonian Mount) and the foun¬ 
tain Aganippe. These were celebrated as the favorite re¬ 
sorts of the Muses, who were called Aon'ides. 

A'orist [from the Gr. a, priv., and 6pos, a “limit”], a 
form of the Greek verb which represents an action as tak¬ 
ing place in an indefinite time. The Greek language has, in 
addition to the imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect, the aorist, 
which is peculiarly adapted to the narrative style. The 
aorist has two forms, called first and second aorist, but very 
few verbs have both in use. 

Aor'ta [Gr. aopTTj, from aei'pw, to “raise up,” to “sup¬ 
port,” to “suspend,” because it is supported or suspended 
















AOSTA—APENNINES. 183 


from the heart], the large arterial trunk arising from the 
left ventricle of the heart, and giving origin directly or in¬ 
directly to all arteries except the pulmonary and its rami¬ 
fications. The curve that it makes in the upper part of its 
course, during which it sends off the innominata and the 
left carotid and subclavian arteries, is called the arch of 
the aorta. Tho thoracic aorta extends from the third dor¬ 
sal vertebra to the diaphragm, where it takes the name of 
abdominal aorta, which in the lower part of the abdomen, 
about opposite the fourth lumbar vertebra, divides into 
the two iliac arteries, going to supply the lower extremi¬ 
ties. The thoracic aorta gives off - two or three bronchial 
arteries to supply the tissue of the lungs. The abdom¬ 
inal aorta gives off two phrenic arteries to the diaphragm, 
and the coeliac axis, which divides into three branches to 
supply the stomach, liver, and spleen, besides several smaller 
arteries. (See Circulation of the Blood.) 

Aos'ta (anc. Augus'ta Prseto'ria), a town of Italy, in 
the province of Turin, is on the river Dora, in a valley 50 
miles N. N. W. of Turin. It has a Gothic cathedral, the 
remains of a Roman amphitheatre, and a fine triumphal 
arch. The valley of Aosta produces large forests of pine, 
and has mines of copper, silver, iron, and lead. Cheese, 
leather, wine, and hemp are exported. Pop. in 1861, 5958. 

Apa'ches, a warlike tribe of savages who infest New 
Mexico and Arizona, and hitherto have persisted in hostil¬ 
ity against the Mexicans and the white people of the U. S. 
They make frequent incursions into the states of Chihua¬ 
hua and Sonora. They fight on horseback, and gain a sub¬ 
sistence by robbery. The rifle and bow and arrow are their 
principal weapons. They are divided into several bands 
or tribes. 

Ap'afi (Michael or Mihaly), prince of Transylvania, 
was born in 1632. He began to reign in 1661, and was for 
many years an ally of the Turkish sultan. In 1687 he 
became tributary to the emperor of Germany. Died April 
15, 1690. He was succeeded by his son Mihaly, under 
whom Transylvania was invaded by the Turks, who took 
several towns. He sold his principality to Austria for a 
pension. Died in 1713. 

Apalach'in, a post-village of Owego township, Tioga 
co., N. Y., on the S. bank of the Susquehanna. Pop. 300. 

Apame'a, an ancient city of Syria, on the river Oron- 
tes, which here expands into a lake named Apamea, about 
75 miles S. of Antioch. It was probably named in honor 
of Apame, the wife of Seleucus Nicator. The place was 
called Fatnieh in the time of the Crusades. Its extensive 
ruins still exist. 

Ap'anage, or Ap'panage [from Lat. ad, “for,” and 
pani8, “bread,” “living”], in feudal law, an allowance to 
the younger sons of a sovereign or prince out of the reve¬ 
nues of the country, generally joined with a grant of the 
public domain. In England the duchy of Cornwall is an 
apanage of the prince of Wales, but the younger sons of 
the sovereign arc dependent upon the liberality of Par¬ 
liament. 

Apatill', a town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs, on 
the left bank of the Danube, 60 miles S. of Baja. It has 
a trade in silk, madder, and hemp. Pop. in 1869, 11,047. 

Ap'atite [from the Gr. anarr), “ deceit,” so called be¬ 
cause it deceives the observer by its resemblance to other 
minerals], the native phosphate of lime, which is exten¬ 
sively used as a manure in England and the U. S. It 
usually occurs in crystalline rocks, such as granite and 
greenstone, but is also found in granular limestone and ser¬ 
pentine. The most abundant supplies, however, are de¬ 
rived from beds of animal remains, bones, etc. When 
crystallized it appears in six-sided prisms, sometimes of 
a greenish color, and containing calcic phosphate, with 
a certain proportion of calcic chloride and fluoride, Ca 3 
(P 04)2 + Ca(CUF) 2 . The amorphous apatite which is used 
in the preparation of artificial manure is imported from 
Spain and Norway, and from Sombrero, Navassa, Swan, 
and some other small islands in the West Indies. Before 
it is applied to the soil it is ground to powder and subjected 
to the action of sulphuric acid, which renders the phosphoric 
acid of the apatite soluble in water. The efficacy of apa¬ 
tite as a fertilizer of the soil depends on the presence of 
phosphoric acid, which is essential to the growth ol such 
plants as wheat, barley, and oats. It is often mixed with 
guano, bones, and other manures to make a complex fer¬ 
tilizer, which is better than the simple mineral phosphate. 
A rich deposit of apatite in the form of nodules has been 
found in the postpliocene marls of South Carolina, near the 
Ashley, Stono, and Edisto rivers. Large quantities of 
these nodules, which contain 25 or 30 per cent, of phos¬ 
phoric acid, are converted into “superphosphate of lime” 
at Charleston, S. C., and at Camden, rs. J. It is stated 
that about 13,000 tons of apatite (otherwise called phos- 


phatic guano) were imported into the U. S. in 1868. Apa¬ 
tite occurs in large crystals, associated with white lime¬ 
stone, in St. Lawrence co., N. Y. Massive apatite is found 
in England, Ireland, Spain, and other countries. (See 
Guano, Bone, Fertilizers, Agricultural Chemistry.) 

Apcheron. See Apsheron. 

Ape [Gr. 7Lat. pithe'eus or sim'ia], a name of 
a division of animals closely allied to monkeys, but hav¬ 
ing no tail. It comprises the chimpanzee, orang-outang, 
gorilla, gibbon, etc. The ape belongs to the order Quadru- 
mana and class Mammalia, having four extremities, which 
are all adapted to grasping, like the human hand. Their 
structure is better adapted for climbing trees than for walk¬ 
ing on the ground, and accordingly in the forest they swing 
from tree to tree with great agility and ease, but on the 
ground they are slow and almost helpless. A remarkable 
peculiarity in the habits of these animals is that they use 
clubs and stones as weapons for defence or offence. Apes 
are natives of Africa, India, Borneo, etc. (See Chimpan¬ 
zee, Gorilla, Orang-Outang.) 

Ap'eldorn, or ApeUloorn, a beautiful village of Hol¬ 
land, in Gelderland, on the river Grift, 16 miles N. N. E. 
of Arnhem. Here are an agricultural school and manu¬ 
factures of paper, blankets, and coarse woollen fabrics. 
Pop., with adjacent hamlets, in 1867, 12,411. 

Apel'les [Gr. 'An-gAAij?], a Greek painter, lived between 
352 and 308 B. C. We do not know when or where he was 
born, nor when nor where he died, and not one of his pic¬ 
tures remains; yet his name stands for supreme excellence 
in the art of painting. Suidas says he was born at Colo¬ 
phon ; Strabo and Lucian make him an Ephesian; and a 
doubtful reading in the case of each makes both Pliny 
and Ovid seem to call him a Coan. He studied first with 
Ephorus of Ephesus; afterwards with Pamphilus of Am- 
phipolis. Plutarch (Aratus) says he joined the school of 
Melanthius at Sicyon, not to learn, but to gain credit. He 
painted many portraits of Philip, and also of Alexander, 
who would sit to no other painter. He probably accom¬ 
panied Alexander to Asia, and after his death went to 
Egypt, from which time we hear no more of him. Apelles 
was generous to other painters and devoted to his art. He 
admitted that in some things he was excelled by other 
artists, but he claimed to surpass all others in grace. His 
industry gave rise to the proverb, “ No day without a line.” 
He knew when to stop correcting, declaring that “ Too 
much labor is sometimes hurtful to a piece.” To a cob¬ 
bler, who, having rightly criticised the painting of a shoe 
in one of his pictures, went on to blame the leg, he said, 
“ Let the cobbler stick to his last.” He is thought to 
have invented the process known as glazing or toning, 
and he painted on movable panels—never, says Pliny, on 
walls. His most famous picture was that of “Venus Ris¬ 
ing from the Sea” ( Venus Anadi/omene), painted for the 
temple of Aisculapius in Cos. (See Pliny, “Natural His¬ 
tory xxxv. 10;” Sijidas, “Apelles;” Carlo Dati, “Vite 
dei Pittori Antichi,” 1667; Della Valle, “ Vite Pittori 
Antichi,” 1795; Wustmann, “Apelles’ Leben und Werke,” 
1870.) Clarence Cook. 

Apennines [It. Apenni'no"], (anc. Mons Apenni'nus), 
a long chain of mountains extending through the whole 
length of the Italian peninsula, and forming the watershed 
between the Adriatic Sea and the Mediterranean. This 
chain belongs to the system of the Alps, from which it 
branches off near the Col de Tenda. The northern portion, 
called the Ligurian Alps, is nearly parallel to the Gulf of 
Genoa, and is in close proximity to the coast. The entire 
length of the chain is about 800 miles, and its general di¬ 
rection nearly south-eastward. None of its summits rise 
to the limit of perpetual snow. The highest summit in 
the peninsula is Monte Corno, which has an altitude of 
9546 feet, but Mount Etna, regarded by some as a part of 
the Apennine system, is 10,840 feet high. I he a verage 
height of the chain is about 4000 feet. The geological for¬ 
mations of the Apennines are either metamorphic or sec¬ 
ondary, and limestone is the predominant rock. They are 
remarkable for their rich efuarries of marble ot various 
colors, but are poor in metals. Rocks of volcanic origin 
abound in the former kingdom of Naples. The mineral 
riches of these mountains consist chiefly in the celebrated 
marbles of Carrara, Seravezza, and Sienna. The Apen¬ 
nines are somewhat deficient in sublime and magnificent 
scenery, and their general aspect is that of a wall, with 
few projecting peaks to break the monotony of the scene. 
The higher parts of these mountains are mostly dry, rocky, 
and destitute of trees, but below the altitude ot 3000 feet 
they are covered with forests of the evergreen oak, chestnut, 
beech, and other trees. The olive, orange, and palm also 
flourish near their base, especially where they are in close 
proximity to the sea, as near the Gult of Naples and at tho 












184 APENRADE—APIOS TUBEROSA. 


Riviera of Genoa. Some geographers divide this chain into 
four parts: 1. The Northern Apennines, extending from 
the Col de Ten da to the Pass of Borgo San Sepolcro, near 
Arezzo ; 2. The Central Apennines, from Arezzo to the val¬ 
ley of the Pescara, which separates the provinces of Ter- 
amo and Chicti; 3. The Southern Apennines, from the Pes¬ 
cara to Cape Spartivento; 4. The Insular Apennines, in 
the island of Sicily. In Central Italy the western or south¬ 
western side presents a very gradual descent, but in the 
northern part of the range, which approaches the coast, 
there is a very steep declivity next to the sea. 

Apenra'de, a seaport-town in Sleswick, on a fiord of 
the same name in the Little Belt, 35 miles north of Sles¬ 
wick. It has a good hai'bor and beautiful environs. Ship¬ 
building is carried on here. Near this town is the castle 
of Brundlund, built by Queen Margaret about 1410. Pop. 
in 1871, 5932. 

Aphanip'tera, or Aphanop'tera [from the Gr. 
affiai'ifc, “ invisible,” and nrepor, a “ wing”], i. e. with wings 
not apparent, although they have rudimental elytra (hence 
termed in English aphanipterous), the term applied to an 
order, sub-order, or family of wingless haustellate insects, 
composed of the different species of fleas, and forming the 
family Pulicidae, and closely allied to the flies. There are 
many species, of which the common flea (Pulex irritans) 
may be regarded as the type. The female deposits her 
eggs, generally about a dozen in number, of a white color, 
in any favorable situation; and in about six days the larvae 
are hatched, attaining their full size in ten or twelve days 
more. At the end of this time the larva spins itself a little 
silken cocoon, in which it passes into the pupa state, and 
in about twelve days afterwards emerges a perfect flea. 
This metamorphosis distinguishes the flea and chigoe from 
other blood-sucking parasitic insects; and they are further 
distinguished by the number of segments into which their 
bodies are divided, and by their five-jointed tarsi. The 
chigoe (Sarcopsylla penetrans) is a native of South America 
and the West Indies, and is an exceedingly annoying, and 
sometimes even a dangerous, insect. It penetrates the skin 
entirely out of sight, and in this way often forms trouble¬ 
some ulcers, which, if neglected at first, are very difficult 
to heal. 

Apha'sia [from the Gr. a, priv., and to “ speak”], 
a loss of speech which is a symptom of brain disease, as 
distinguished from aphonia, loss of speech from disease of 
the larynx or direct paralysis of that organ. Aphasia 
may coexist with the most perfect ability to utter words, or 
even to think, the patient sometimes persisting in giving 
things names which do not belong to them. At other times 
the patient, though he can utter words, cannot clothe his 
thought in articulate language, but manifests by signs, etc. 
a normal condition as regards intelligence. Aphasia is not 
necessarily a precursor of insanity, though sometimes ob¬ 
served in its early stages. One of the most remarkable 
facts in this connection is that apoplectic effusion, trau¬ 
matic injury, or disease of the left frontal lobe, and espe¬ 
cially of the third convolution, is notably liable to be fol¬ 
lowed by this symptom, which is not very frequent, and 
which sometimes ends in perfect recovery. (See Aphonia.) 

Aphe'lion [from the Gr. ano, “from,” and rjAio?. the 
“ sun ”], that part of a planet’s orbit which is the most dis¬ 
tant from the sun, and is opposite to the perihelion, or the 
point nearest the sun. In consequence of the mutual at¬ 
tractions of the planets, the figures and positions of their 
orbits are continually but slowly changed. 

Aph'ides (sing, a'phis, gen. aph'idis, a “plant-louse”), 
the name applied to numerous homopterous insects of the 
family Aphidae, and commonly known as plant-lice. They 
inhabit trees and plants, on the juices of which they feed. 
The aphides are remarkable for their saccharine secretion, 
but more especially for a peculiarity in their genei’ative 
economy which consists in the first fecundation of the fe¬ 
male influencing not only the ova developed immediately 
afterwards, but those of the females resulting from that 
development, even to the ninth generation, which are suc¬ 
cessively impregnated, and continue to produce without 
any intercourse with the male." In autumn the males are 
produced, when the last set of females are impregnated, and 
the fecundated eggs brought forth for the ensuing year. The 
body of these insects is generally flask-like, being furnished 
with six legs, a pair of antennae, and two small tubes not 
far from the extremity of the abdomen through which the 
saccharine fluid is exuded. In some of the aphides wings 
are present, but in others they are not. The sweet fluid 
which they throw out is known as honey-dew, and is some¬ 
times produced in such quantities as to fall in drops from 
the leaves of the trees to the earth. Ants have a special 
fondness for this substance, and often frequent plants on 
which it is deposited. They may sometimes be seen milk¬ 
ing the aphides, as it is termed—that is, stroking these 


sugar-tubes with their antennae, to induce them to furnish 

them the saccharine 
fluid more abundantly. 
Hence the aphides 
have been termed the 
milcli-cows of the ants. 
Some species of this 
genus are very destruc¬ 
tive to vegetation, as 
the hop-fly ( A'jddshu'- 
midi), and the aphis 
of the turnip cabbage 
{A'phis hr as' sicse), 
which have sometimes 
destroyed whole crops. 
The aphides are often 
infested by certain mi¬ 
nute parasites, which, 
by laying their eggs in 
the bodies of those in¬ 
sects, cause the death 
of great numbers. It 
is remarkable that one 
of these parasites ( Aph¬ 
id'i us) has itself still 
more minute ichneu¬ 
mon parasites, whose 
eggs are deposited in 
its body. 

Aphis. See Aph¬ 
ides. 

Apho'nia [from the 
Gr. a, priv., and <}>ioveui, 
to “make a sound”], 
a loss of speech in 
which the patient more 
or less completely loses power to utter sounds. This may 
arise from disease of the larynx, from direct paralysis of 
that organ, or from some functional disease, as hysteria or 
chorea. The treatment varies with the disease of which 
the aphonia is a symptom. As a general rule, these cases 
are temporary, unless there is a destruction or serious or¬ 
ganic change in the tissues of the larynx. 

Aph'rodite, a name of a hydrated silicate of magnesia 
found in Sweden. It is a soft, earthy mineral, with a waxy 
lustre, and resembles meerschaum. 

Aphrodite. See Venus. 

Aph’tha, plu. Apli'thcE [from the Gr. anrio, to “set 
on fire ”], ulcers of the mouth, beginning with numerous 
minute vesicles and terminating in white sloughs. Aphthae 
are usually the seat of microscopic vegetation, but whether 
the growth is an essential or only an accidental element is 
a disputed point. Aphthae resemble “thrush” in appear¬ 
ance, but in the latter disease no vesicles are formed. 

Aphthar'to-Docc/tae [from the Gr. a, neg., and<£0ap- 
ros, “ corruptible,” and Bose w, to “think,” to “believe”], 
literally, “believers in [that which is] incorruptible,” the 
name of the followers of Julian of Halicarnassus, who lived 
about 520 A. D., and taught that the body of Christ was 
divine and incorruptible. 

A'pian [Lat. Apia'nus], or Ajipian (Peter), a Ger¬ 
man astronomer and mathematician, born in Misnia in 
1495. His proper name was Bienewitz. He became pro¬ 
fessor of mathematics at Ingolstadt about 1524, and gained 
distinction by his writings, among which is a work on cos¬ 
mography (1524). He first proposed the method of ascer¬ 
taining the longitude by lunar observations. He was en¬ 
nobled by the emperor Charles V. Died April 21, 1552. 

Apic'ius (Marcus Gabies'), a celebrated epicure who 
lived at Rome in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. His 
name became proverbial for gluttony and luxury in eating. 
According to Seneca, he expended more than $3,500,000 in 
the indulgence of his taste for rare dishes, and then discov¬ 
ering that his fortune was reduced to ten million sesterces 
(about $360,000), he poisoned himself, because he could not 
continue his expensive style of living. 

A'pioil [’Airuov], surnamed Plistonkjes, a Greek gram¬ 
marian and historian, born in the Great Oasis, Egypt, lived 
about 20-50 A. D. He opened a school of rhetoric in Rome 
about 45 A. D., and wrote several works, among which were 
a “History of Egypt” and a lexicon to Homer’s poems. 
Josephus’s work, usually called “Against Apion,” was 
written in answer to a book which Apion wrote against the 
Jews. On account of his egotism and loquacity, Tiberius 
used to call him Cymhalurn Mundi (the “Cymbal of the 
World ’). His works are lost, except small fragments. 

A'pios Tul»ero / sa,a papilionaceous plant of the nat¬ 
ural order Leguminosae, was formerly included in the genus 
Glycine. It is a native of Virginia, Ohio, New York, etc., 





































APIS—APOLLO 


has a twining stem, pinnate leaves, and tuberous roots, 
which are used as food, and resemble the potato. The roots 
are commonly called ground-nuts. 

A'i>is [Gr. ’Airis], the name of the bull of Memphis, the 
favorite idol and object of worship of the ancient Egyptians. 
According to some authorities, he was sacred to Osiris, or 
was a symbol of Osiris, and was not permitted to live more 
than twenty-five years, at the end of which time he was 
secretly put to death by the priests. During his life he 
was kept in the temple of Ptah in Memphis, and served by 
a retinue of priests. His death was followed by a general 
mourning until a calf with the requisite color and marks 
was found to supply his place. The principal of these re¬ 
quired marks were—black color with a white square on the 
brow, the figure of an eagle on the back, and a peculiar 
knot under the tongue. 

Aplasiat/ic Lens [from the Gr. a, priv., and n\dvg, 
"deviation”], in optics, a lens which causes all the rays of 
light that fall on it to converge to a single point or true 
focus. In order to be aplanatic, the lens must not only 
have the true geometrical figure necessary to destroy ab¬ 
erration, but must be formed of different media, so as to 
be achromatic. These conditions cannot be accurately ful¬ 
filled in practice. 

ApTin, a township of Perry co., Ark. Pop. 439. 

Apoc'alypse [Gr. dTroK6.\v\pLs. from an-oKaAvn-Tw, to "re¬ 
veal”], a word signifying "revelation,” and usually ap¬ 
plied to the last book of the New Testament. (See Reve¬ 
lation.) 

Apocalyp'tic Knights, a secret society of which 
scarcely anything is known, founded at Rome in 1692 by 
Agostino Gabrino, a citizen of Brescia. To defend the 
Roman Catholic Church against Antichrist is said to have 
been the avowed object of this society, but many suspected 
that the real design was hostile to the established social 
order, and that by Antichrist was meant the pope. 

Apocalyptic Number, the mystical number 666 
spoken of in the book of Revelation (xiii. 18). Some critics 
interpret this to be an enigmatical expression of the word 
Latimi8, the Greek characters of which, taken as numerals, 
amount to 666. The connection between Latinus and the 
Roman power has given Protestants a reason, or pretext, 
to apply this passage to the Roman Church, and the Roman 
Catholics retort by making the same number stand for 
Luther, Calvin, and other Protestants. 

Apocren'ic Ae'id [from the Gr. ano, "from,” and 
Kpijrij, a " fountain,” so called because derived from some 
fountains or springs], an extractive or brown matter found 
in some spring water and in ordinary vegetable mould. It 
is a product of the natural decay of wood and other veg¬ 
etable tissue.' (See Humic Acid.) 

Apoc'rypha [from the Gr. dnoupv^os, "hidden”], a term 
applied by Protestant theologians to a collection of writings 
which have been regarded as an appendage to the Old Tes¬ 
tament, and sometimes as a part of it. They are valuable 
chiefly as historical records, and for the light they throw on 
the religious condition of the Jews from the period of the 
Old Testament to the Christian era. They are divided into 
three classes: 1 st, those which originated in Palestine, such 
as the book of Jesus son of Sirach, first book of Macca¬ 
bees, and book of Judith ; 2d, those of Egypto-Alexandrian 
origin—the book of Wisdom, second of Maccabees, and the 
addition to Esther; 3d, those which show ti-aees of Chaldaic 
or Persian influence, as Esdras, Tobias, Baruch, and the 
additions to Daniel. The Council of Laodicea in Phrygia, 
between 343 and 381 (commonly referred to cir. 360), con¬ 
demned the use of "uncanonical books;” but the list of 
canonical books which follows is now generally thought to 
be an interpolation. The third Council of Carthage (Aug., 
397), in the forty-seventh of its fifty canons, gives a list 
which includes Ecelesiasticus, Wisdom, Tobit, Judith, First 
and Second Maccabees. There are in all fourteen apocry¬ 
phal books, or portions of books, all but three of which 
were pronounced canonical by the Council of Trent in 1546. 
The Roman Catholic Church calls these books deutero- 
canonical or antilegomena, and applies the name “ apoc¬ 
ryphal ” to those books to which a reception into their 
canon of the books of the Old Testament has been refused. 
By Protestants these books are generally called Pseudepi- 
grapiia (which see). The Church of England in her Arti¬ 
cles mentions the Apocrypha as books which "the Church 
doth read for example of life and instruction of manners, 
but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine.” 
They are entirely rejected from public worship by Protest¬ 
ants in America, and by the dissenting churches in Great 
Britain. Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Apocyna'ceae, or Apocyn'eae [so called from Apoc'- 
ynum, the name of one of its genera], an order of exogenous 
herbs, trees, and shrubs. The calyx is usually 5-partite, 


BELVEDEKE. 185 


persistent; the corolla monopetalous and hypogynous; the 
stamens are five, inserted on the corolla. Many of the 
species have a poisonous milky juice, and others arc used 
in medicine. The whole number of the species is said to 
be more than 550. This order comprises the oleander; the 
hya-hya, or cow tree, the milk of which is wholesome; the 
Cerbera, which produces the Tanghin poison of Madagas¬ 
car; the Carissa edulis of Arabia; and the Apoeynum can- 
nabinum, or Indian hemp, which grows in North America. 

Ap'odal Fishes, or Ap'odes [from the Gr. «, priv., 
and 7roe?, i ro<$6?, a " foot ”], a term applied to fishes destitute 
of ventral fins or homologues of the posterior extremities. 
In the Linnsean system, Apodes was the name of an order 
of such fishes, but in the system of Cuvier less importance 
is attached to this distinctive character. Eels are apodal 
fishes. 

Ap'ogee [from the Gr. ano, "from,” and yvj, the "earth”] 
signifies the point of the moon’s orbit most remote from the 
earth; the point which is opposite to the perigee. The 
apogee of the lunar orbit advances eastward among the 
stars, and completes a revolution in nine years. 

Apolac'on, a township of Susquehanna co., Pa. P. 528. 

Apol'da, a town of Central Germany, in Saxe-Weimar, 
on the railway from Berlin to Weimar, 11 miles by rail 
N. E. of Weimar. Here are mineral springs. Pop. in 1871, 
10,507. 

Apollina'ris (or Apollma'rius) the Younger, a 
learned bishop and philosopher, was a son of a gramma¬ 
rian of the same name. He became bishop of Laodicea in 
362 A. D., and gained distinction as an orator and writer. 
Among his works wei’e "Thirty Books against Porphyry” 
and commentaries on the Bible. He was an opponent of 
Arianism, and in 375 founded the sect of Apollinarians, 
who were regarded as heretics. The heresy of which he 
was accused was the denial of the human soul in Christ, 
the place of which, he taught, was supplied by the Logos. 
His heresy was condemned at Alexandria in 362, and at 
Rome in 374. At the Council of Constantinople, in 381, he 
was condemned by name. He died in 390, and by the 
middle of the subsequent century the sect he founded was 
extinct. (See Wernsdorff, " Dissertatio de Apollinare 
Laodiceno,” 1694.) 

Apollina'ris Sido'nius (Caius Sollius), Saint, a 
Latin poet and ecclesiastic, born at Lugdunum (Lyons), in 
Gaul, in 430 A. I). He was a son-in-law of Avitus, who 
was emperor of R,ome for a few months in 455-456 A. D. 
Anthemius, who became emperor in 467, appointed him 
chief of the senate. In 471 he was elected bishop of 
Clermont (Augustonemetum). He wrote "Carmina” and 
"Epistolas,” which are extant, and have some historical 
value. Died in 482 A. D. (See Germain, " Essai sur Apol- 
linaris Sidonius,” 1840.) 

ApolTo [Gr. ’AttoAAwv], in Greek mythology, the god of 
light or day, of poetry, music, archery, etc., was a son of 
Jupiter and Latona. He was often called Delius, because 
he was born on the island of Delos; and Phoebus, which 
signifies "shining.” As the god of light (the presence of 
which is necessary to the existence of beauty) he presides 
over poetry, the arts, etc. According to the later poets, 
he was the god of the sun, and was identified with Helios, 
but Homer represents them as distinct deities. Apollo may 
be considered the ideal representative of the Hellenic peo¬ 
ple, and the impersonation of Hellenic life in its most no¬ 
ble and beautiful forms. He was recognized as the author 
of the healing art, and as the god of prophetic inspiration 
as especially manifested in the oracle of Delphi. Under 
the name of Paean he was invoked as a healer of disease 
and as a destroyer, for his arrows were believed to deal out 
pestilence. Apollo was also worshipped by the ancient 
Romans, who derived their idea of him from the Greeks. 
He was represented by artists as a beautiful young man, 
crowned with laurel, and holding in his hand a harp or a 
bow and arrow. 

Apollo, a post-borough of Armstrong co., Pa., on the 
Kiskiminetas River, and on a branch ot the Central R. R., 
40 miles E. N. E. of Pittsburg. Pop. 764. 

Apol'lo Belvede're, a beautiful antique marble 
statue of Apollo which was discovered at Antium about 
1503, and was placed in the Belvedere of the Vatican. The 
name and date of the artist are unknown. This statue, which 
is about seven feet high, is considered the most perfect 
model of manly beauty. The attitude of the statue is gen¬ 
erally supposed to represent Apollo as he appeared alter 
he had discharged the arrow that killed the Python. (See 
Byron’s " Childe Harold,” canto iv., stanzas clxi., clxii., 
and clxiii.) But another opinion is gaining ground that it 
represents the god with the aegis in his hand, as he appear¬ 
ed to the Goths who were invading his sanctuary at Delphi. 
(See "Apollon Boedromios bronzn. Statue im Besitz des 















186 APOLLODORUS—A POSTERIORI, AND A PRIORI. 


Grafen Sergei Stroganoff erlautert, von Ludolf Stephani, 
init vier Kupfertafeln,” St. Petersburg, 1860.) Clarence 
Cook. 

Apollodo'rus [Gr. ’ATi-oAAdSujpo?], a celebrated Greek 
painter, surnamed the Shadower, was born at Athens 
about 440 B. C. lie was a rival of Zeuxis, the founder of 
a new school, and the reputed inventor of chiaroscuro. 
His works are highly praised by Pliny, who says he was 
the first who painted objects as they really appear. 

Apollodorus of Athens, a celebrated grammarian 
and historian who lived about 140 B. C., was a pupil of Aris¬ 
tarchus. He wrote numerous works, which are lost, and a 
manual of Greek mythology entitled “ Bibliotheca,” a large 
part of which is extant. It is considered very valuable by 
classical scholars as the best work on the subject. It was 
published by Ileyne in two volumes; 2d ed. 1803. 

Apollodorus of Damascus, a distinguished archi¬ 
tect, born at Damascus, lived about 100 A. D. He was pat¬ 
ronized by Trajan, and erected in Rome numerous works, 
among which were the Basilica Ulpia, the Forum of Tra¬ 
jan, and the Column of Trajan, which is still extant. His 
capital work was a noble bridge over the Danube, near the 
mouth of the Aluta, built in 105 A. D. He was put to death 
about 128 A. D. by Hadrian, whom he had offended by 
criticising a temple which that emperor had designed. 

Apollo'ma [Gr. ’A7roAA.wj'ia], an ancient city of Illyr- 
icum, on the Adriatic Sea, about 40 miles S. of Dyrrhachium. 
It was founded by colonists from Corinth and Corcyra, and 
became an important city. The site is now occupied by a 
village called Polina or Pollina, and some ruins of temples. 

Apollo'nius [Gr. A7roAAoji'i.os] of RJhodes, an eminent 
Greek sculptor, lived probably about 200 B. C. Aided by 
his brother Tauriscus, he executed a group of Zethus and 
Amphion tying Dirce to the horns of a bull. Some per¬ 
sons identify this with the group called “ Toro Farnese” 
which is now at Naples. 

Apollonius, a skilful Athenian sculptor, a son of Nes¬ 
tor. His date is unknown, and nothing is known about 
him but that he executed the marble statue of Hercules, 
of which a large fragment, called the Torso of the Belve¬ 
dere, is now in Rome. 

Apollonius, a grammarian and Sophist of Alexandria, 
lived in the time of Augustus. His lexicon to Homer’s 
“Iliad” and “Odyssey ” is extant, and is highly prized. 

Apollonius, surnamed Dyscoliis (the “Morose”), an 
eminent Greek grammarian of Alexandria, was the father 
of ASlius Herodian. He lived about 120-160 A. D., and 
wrote many works which are lost, but a “ Treatise on the 
Syntax of the Parts of Speech ” and three others are ex¬ 
tant. He was styled by Priscian grammaticorum princeps 
—“ prince of grammarians.” 

Apollonius, surnamed Perg.eus, a celebrated and 
profound Greek geometer, born at Perga, in Pamphylia, 
about 250 B. C. Little is known of his life, except that he 
resided in Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy Philopator 
(222-205 B. C.). His most important work is a Greek 
“ Treatise on Conic Sections,” in eight books, which is ex¬ 
tant except one book, lie wrote other works, which are 
lost. He was also distinguished as an astronomer. 

Apollo'nius Jlo'lon, a Greek rhetorician, born at 
Alabanda, in Caria. He taught rhetoric at Rhodes and 
Rome, which he visited in .81 B. C. Cicero and Julius 
Caesar were his pupils soon after that date. 

Apollo'nius Rho'dius [’AttoAAcoi/io? o 'PdSios], a Greek 
poet, born at Alexandria (or at Naucratis) about 235 B. C., 
was a pupil of the poet Callimachus, and at an early age re¬ 
moved to Rhodes, of which he became a citizen, lie taught 
rhetoric at Rhodes for many years, and afterwards returned 
to Alexandria. About 194 B. C. he was appointed keeper 
of the great Alexandrian library. His chief work is an 
epic poem entitled “ Argonautica,” on the expedition of the 
Argonauts, which displays great erudition, and was much 
admired by the ancient Romans. Critics generally agree 
that it contains beautiful passages. (See Weichert, “ Ue- 
ber das Leben und Gedicht des Apollonius,” 1821.) 

Apollo'nius Tyanoe'us (or Apollo'nius of Ty- 
ana), [Gr. ’A7roAAwi'ios Tvai/ev?], a Pythagorean philoso¬ 
pher, born at Tyana, in Cappadocia, lived about 30-70 A. D. 
He performed a journey to India in order to learn the doc¬ 
trines of the Brahmans, and after his return gained a high 
reputation as a sage, an oracle, and a worker of miracles. 
He is considered by some authors as an impostor, and by 
others as a prophet or magician of extraordinary powers. 
He travelled extensively in Europe and Africa, and is said 
to have passed his latter years at Ephesus. Many mar¬ 
vellous and absurd stories are related of him by Flavius 
Philostratus, who wrote his life. Apollonius wrote in reply 
to Euphrates an Apology, which is extant. (See John H. 


Newman’s “Life of Apollonius Tyanaeus,” 1853; Philos- 
tratos, “Life of Apollonius,” in English, 1809; F. C. 
Baur, “Apollonius von Tyana und Christus,” 1832.) 

Apol'los, an eloquent preacher among the early Chris¬ 
tians, was originally a Jew and a native of Alexandria. 
He is said to have been ordained bishop of Corinth. (See 
Acts xviii. 24; 1 Corinthians i. 12; iii. 4.) 

Apol'lyon [Gr. ’AttgAAiW, from anoWvia, to “destroy ”] 
signifies the “ destroyer,” and answers to the Hebrew Abad¬ 
don, and to the Asrnodeus of Tobit. 

Ajiologet'ic Fa'thcrs, a name given to those early 
Christians who addressed to pagans and Jews apologies for 
the Christian religion. Some of these were remonstrances 
against the judicial punishment of Christians as such, ad¬ 
dressed to the Roman emperor or senate. Others were 
defences of Christianity against the charges of the Jews 
and pagans. Among the former were the apologies of 
Justin Martyr, Melito, bishop of Sardis, and the Liber 
Apologeticus of Tertullian. Origen, Tertullian, Clement 
of Alexandria, and Justin were among the principal writers 
of the latter class. 

Apol'ogy [Gr. airoAovi'a], a term originally used to de¬ 
note a written defence or answer to an accusation ; a work 
written in defence of certain doctrines, as Plato and Xen¬ 
ophon’s “Apology for Socrates.” Tertullian, Justin Martyr, 
and other early Christians wrote treatises in defence of the 
Christian religion, which they called Apologies. Among 
the modern works of this class are Bishop Watson’s 
“Apology for Christianity,” and Robert Barclay’s “Apol¬ 
ogy for the True Christian Divinity.” In its modern or 
recent acceptation apology signifies the acknowledgment 
of a fault, usually accompanied by some explanation which 
may palliate or excuse it. 

Apoph'yllite [from the Gr. ano(t>v\\i$u), to “exfoliate”], 
a zeolitic mineral with a lamellar structure, is so called be¬ 
cause it exfoliates before the blowpipe. It is a hydrated 
silicate of lime and potash occurring in square prisms, the 
solid angles of which are sometimes replaced by triangular 
or rhombic planes. It is brittle, and has a white or gray¬ 
ish color, often tinged with green, yellow, blue, or red. It 
is found in beautiful crystals in the Ilartz Mountains, in 
Poonah, and in the Bergen Tunnel at Jersey City. 

Ap oplexy [Lat. apoplexia, from the Gr. ano, “away,” 
and nArjcrcru), to “ strike;” as we speak of a stroke of apo¬ 
plexy or of paralysis], a disease marked by the sudden failure 
of volition, sensation, motion, and mental action, the symp¬ 
toms being caused by a pressure upon the brain originat¬ 
ing within the cranium. Apoplexy is of various kinds, 
differing not so much in symptoms as in pathology. The 
typical form is characterized by an escape of blood into 
the substance of the brain from a ruptured vessel. The 
rupture itself may be caused (1) by a non-inflammatory, 
fatty degeneration of the blood-vessel, caused by bad nu¬ 
trition, etc.; (2) by a brittle condition of the vessel, result¬ 
ing from an inflammatory process. These causes may be 
supplemented by a full habit of body or by a hypertrophied 
heart, or both; and it is easy to see how such secondary 
causes might assist in the rupture of a weakened blood¬ 
vessel. Apoplexy may, however, be produced by an ex¬ 
travasation of blood between the meninges, by a sudden 
and large serous effusion into the ventricles of the brain, 
or even by a congestion (hypermmia) of the brain. The 
apoplectic stroke may end in partial recovery or in speedy 
death. Cases not fatal generally result in permanent or 
temporary paralysis of one side of the body (hemiplegia), 
often on the side opposite that in which the mischief has 
occurred. 

The symptoms of apoplexy are often unexpected. The 
patient falls suddenly (with or without an outcry), his 
respirations are long, slow, and stertorous, the pulse is 
slow, one or both the pupils usually small. If the patient 
does not die during the attack, a secondary inflammation 
follows which may destroy life. Bleeding may be resorted 
to if the pulse be strong and the heart and lungs in good 
condition, but it is often injurious. Mustard to the extrem¬ 
ities and frictions of the skin should be resorted to, and 
the bowels should be moved by enema. Persons having 
reason to fear apoplexy should avoid excesses of all kinds, 
yet live upon nutritious food, paying special attention to 
hygienic conditions. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

A posterio'ri and A prio'ri. Before the time of Kant 
the former ot these terms denoted a reasoning from effect 
to cause, and the latter a reasoning from cause to effect. 
Since Kant s time, and owing to his influence and that of 
his school, these terms are generally used more in relation 
to the doctrine of knowledge; a posteriori knowledge beino' 
empirical knowledge, or knowledge through experience 
and «• priori knowledge being rational knowledge, or a 















APOSTLE—APOTHECARY. 


187 


knowledge through the reason of that which is prior to ex¬ 
perience. 

Apos'tle [Gr. ’Attoo-toAo?, i. e. “ one sent forth,” from and, 
“ away ” or “ forth,” and o-reAAco, to “ send ”], the name 
given originally to the twelve disciples of Jesus, whom he 
had chosen to make known his doctrines to the world. The 
greater part were Galileans, laboring people, and destitute 
of high culture. Their names were Simon Peter (called 
also Cephas and Bar-Jona), Andrew, James the Elder (son 
of Zebedee), John his brother, Philip, Bartholomew (Nath¬ 
anael), Thomas (Didymus), Matthew (Levi), James the 
Younger (son of Alpheus), Thaddeus, Simon, and Judas 
Iscariot. Matthias was chosen in the place of Judas, and 
subsequently Paul and Barnabas were called to the apostle- 
ship. It is a disputed point between the advocates and the 
opponents of episcopacy, whether or not the term apostle is 
applicable to any except the original twelve, and to Bar¬ 
nabas, Matthias, and Paul; some maintaining that the 
office is perpetuated in bishops, while others hold that it 
was temporary, and belonged only to those who Avere wit¬ 
nesses of the resurrection of Christ, and Avere employed by 
him to found the Christian Church. In the third year of 
the Saviour’s ministry the fipostles were commissioned by 
him to preach the gospel to the Jews only, but a short time 
before his ascension he commanded them to “Go and teach 
all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and 
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.” On the day of Pente¬ 
cost the apostles reoeWed miraculous gifts, and began their 
Avork with the public announcement of Christ as the Messiah. 
They travelled over Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor, but 
there appears to be no foundation for the tradition that 
they divided the known Avorld into twelve parts, each tak¬ 
ing one for his special sphere. We have little information 
concerning the time or the place of the death of most of 
the apostles. The Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles 
are the only genuine records concerning them now extant. 

Apostles, Acts of [Gr. Ilpdfei? rtuv ’A7TO(7TdAu)v], the fifth 
book of the NeAV Testament, written by Luke, containing 
the history of the period from the ascension of our Lord to 
Paul’s arrival at Rome; that is, in all probability, from 33 
to 60 A. D. It is proper to observe that though this por¬ 
tion of the Scriptures is styled the Acts of the Apostles, it 
treats only of the acts of Peter, Paul, and James; and of 
these, only Paul’s career is narrated fully and connectedly. 
The book is avoAvedly a continuation of the third Gospel, 
and, though restricted within such narrow limits, may be 
said to give those great events in the history of the apostles 
in Avhich the Christian Church would naturally feel the 
greatest interest. Among these events the pouring out of 
the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, the martyrdom of Stephen, 
and the conversion of Saint Paul, as well as most of his sub¬ 
sequent journeys and labors, are fully related. 

Apostles’ Creed [Lat. Sym'bolum Apootol'iciim ], called 
also the Creed or Confession of Faith, is the most unWersal 
creed of the Christian Church. It is as follows : “ I believe 
in God the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth; 
and in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord; Avho was con¬ 
ceived by the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary; suf¬ 
fered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead, and buried. 
He descended into hell [or hades] ; the third day ho rose 
again from the dead; he ascended into heaven, and sitteth 
on the right hand of God the Father Almighty; from 
whence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead. I 
belie\ r e in the Holy Ghost; the Holy Catholic Church ; the 
communion of Saints; the forgiveness of sins; the resur¬ 
rection of the body; and the life everlasting. Amen.” 
According to a tradition prevailing in the fourth century, 
but noAv generally discredited, this creed was composed by 
the apostles themselves, each contributing one of the arti¬ 
cles. Some churches omit the clause, “ lie descended into 
hell,” asserting that it was not a part of the original creed. 
(This subject is more fully discussed under Creed (which 
see).) 

Apostles’ Islands, or the Twelve Apostles, a 

group of tAventy-seven islands in Lake Superior, 70 miles 
W. of Ontonagon. The principal islands are lie au Ch6ne, 
Madeline, Bear, Stockton, and Outer Island. The islands 
belong to Wisconsin. They are covered with fine timber, 
and their cliffs have been worn into strange forms by the 
action of the waves. The land area is estimated at 200 
square miles. Brown sandstone is quarried and exported 
from the islands. La Pointe, on Madeline Island, is the 
capital of Ashland co., Wis. This place Avas settled by the 
French in 1680. These beautiful islands have several 
Jesuit missions, one of which Avas established in 1658. 

Apostol'ic, or Apostol'ical, a general term given to 
everything directly derived from, or bearing the character 
of, the apostles. The Roman Catholic Church styles itself 
the Apostolic Church, and the papal chair is called the Apos¬ 
tolic chair, because the pope is supposed to bo the legitimate 


and lineal successor of Peter, the chief apostle. The Church 
ot England claims to be apostolic in virtue of regular epis¬ 
copal ordination from the Church before the Reformation; 
so also do the Protestant Episcopal churches in Scotland 
and the U. S. Several churches of Jerusalem, Antioch, 
Ephesus, Corinth, and Rome, wlfich were the special scenes 
of the labors of the apostles, were called apostolic churches. 
With the increasing power of the Roman Catholic Church, 
the Avord apostolic was more exclusively applied to what¬ 
ever belonged to that Church, as Apostolic See, Apostolic 
Canons, etc. 

Apostol'ic Can'ons and Constitutions are notes 
of ecclesiastical customs regarded as apostolical. The Apos¬ 
tolic Constitutions (Constitutiones Apostolicse ) consist of 
eight books, the first six of which contain a comprehen¬ 
sive rule for a Christian life. These are supposed to have 
been Avritten about the end of the third and beginning of 
the fourth century. The Apostolic Canons (Canones Ap>os- 
tolici) Avex - e composed at a later period. The first fifty, 
translated from Greek into Latin by Dionysius Exiguus, 
Avere acknoAvledged by the Latin Church alone. The Greek 
Church accepted the thirty-five canons put forth early in the 
sixth century; and this became a point of dissension be¬ 
tween the Eastern and Western churches. The Apostolic 
Constitutions have been ascribed by some writers to Clement 
of Rome. 

Apostol'ic Fa'thers, the name given to the disciples 
and fellow-laborers of the apostles, especially to those Avho 
have left writings. They are Barnabas, Clement of Rome, 
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, 
Hennas, and Papias of llierapolis. Some also include 
the author of the epistle to Diognetus among these Fathers. 
Cotelerius (Paris, 1672) issued an edition of the works of 
the Apostolic Fathers, Avhich was improved by Clericus in 
1698, and again in 1724. Of recent editors, the best are 
Jacobson (1838 ; 4th ed. 1866), Ilefele (1839; 4th ed. 1855), 
and Dressel (1857 ; reissued 1863). 

Apostol'ici, or Apostol'ic Breth'ren, a name 
given to a sect of religious reformers Avho originated in 
Italy in the latter part of the thirteenth century, and had 
for their leader Glierardo Segarelli of Parma. They trav¬ 
elled over Italy, France, and Switzerland, preaching the 
duty of renouncing worldly ties, property, etc. Having de¬ 
nounced popery, they were condemned by Pope Ilonorius 
IV., and Segarelli was burnt at the stake (1300). His place 
Avas filled by Dolcino, formerly a priest of Milan, Avho, after 
a brave resistance, Avas, Avith his adherents, taken by the 
forces of the pope, and perished at the stake in 1307. 

Apostol'ic Maj'esty, a title of the kings of Hungary, 
Avas first conferred on the duke of Hungary by Pope Syl¬ 
vester II. in 1000 A. D. The title Avas reneAved in 1758 by 
Pope Clement XIII. in favor of Maria Theresa. 

Apostol'ic Par'ty, a party of fanatical Spanish Cath¬ 
olics formed about 1820 for the promotion of an absolutist 
political policy. Their leaders were priests. In 1830 they 
merged themselves into the Carlist party. 

Apostool' (Samuel), a Dutch Mennonite theologian, 
born in 1638. He became in 1662 a minister of a Water- 
landian congregation in Amsterdam. He and Galenus en¬ 
gaged in a doctrinal dispute which divided the Church into 
two sects, called Apostoolians and Galenists. Died about 
1700. 

Apos'trophe [from the Gr. d™, “from,” “aAvay,” and 
crTpo ^ r ), a “turning”], in rhetoric, a digressive address; a 
figure of speech by which the orator suddenly changes the 
course of his oration, and addresses Avith emotional empha¬ 
sis a person present or absent, or some inanimate object. 
Frequent examples of it occur in the speeches and writings 
of great orators and poets. 

Apoth'ecary [from the Gr. anoer/K^, a repository Avhere 
anything is kept], a.person who compounds and sells med¬ 
icines and makes up medical prescriptions. In England 
the profession of an apothecary may be not incorrectly de¬ 
scribed as an inferior branch of the medical profession. 
He is legally entitled to attend sick persons and prescribe 
for them, as Avell as to make up and dispense medicines. It 
is not, hoAvever, usual for him to prescribe medicines to be 
prepared and supplied by others. But although he may 
attend sick persons and prescribe for them, he cannot 
charge both for his attendance and his medicines, but must 
make his election betAveen the two. Although, therefore, 
the apothecary is inferior in professional rank and authority 
to the physician and surgeon, he is considered to be of a 
higher grade than the chemist and druggist, Avho merely 
vends drugs and medicinal compounds, but whose qualifi¬ 
cation, beyond the payment of a small annual tax by way 
of license, does not necessarily offer any test or guarantee 
of skill. The rules of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great 
Britain, incorporated in 1843 by royal charter, and the 


























188 APOTHEOSIS—APPEAL. 


powers of which have been considerably enlarged by a 
statute passed on tho 30th June, 1852, operate as some re¬ 
straint on ignorance and want of skill. Apothecaries and 
grocers (like surgeons and barbers) were in England and 
other countries formerly members of the same guild, and 
hardly distinguishable from each other. They were char¬ 
tered as one company in London in 1606, but in 1617 James 
I. granted the apothecaries a charter as a separate corpora¬ 
tion. 

In the U. S. the vocation of the apothecary is mostly quite 
distinct from that of the medical practitioner. Among physi¬ 
cians it is generally regarded as contrary to professional 
ethics for a practitioner, in large cities at least, to be directly 
interested in the retailing of medicines. The education of 
pharmacists in the U. S. has greatly advanced of late years. 
Many of them are now graduates of colleges of pharmacy 
(the most important of which are in New York and Phila¬ 
delphia), wherein excellent scientific and practical training 
is obtained. There is also a well-organized national phar¬ 
maceutical association. To limit the danger connected with 
the unskilful dispensing of drugs, a law has recently (1871) 
been put in force in New York and other States, requiring 
all apothecaries to pass a rigid examination. 

Apothe'osis [from the Gr. ano, “away,” and 0eo?, a 
“ god the idea being to take one away from among mor¬ 
tals, and to place him among the gods], a Greek word mean¬ 
ing deification, or the practice of raising a human being to 
a place among the gods. This practice was common among 
the ancient Greeks, who deified and worshipped heroes and 
benefactors after their death. Among the Romans, Romu¬ 
lus was the first who received such an honor, and Julius 
Caesar appears to have been the second. Alexander the 
Great sent to all the states of Greece an order that they 
must recognize his divinity, and received from Sparta this 
laconic answer: “ Since Alexander desires to be a god, let 
him be (or become) a god!” Several Roman emperors 
apotheosized themselves and their favorites. 

Appalach'ee Bay, a large open bay near the north¬ 
ern part of Florida, is a part of the Gulf of Mexico, and 
is about 30 miles S. of Tallahassee. It extends inland 
about 50 miles. 

Appalach'ee In'tlians, a once powerful tribe of West 
Florida. They were conquered and converted to Chris¬ 
tianity by Spanish missionaries, but the oppression and 
cruelties of the colonial authorities, together with the de¬ 
structive invasions of English colonists and Indians from 
Carolina, greatly diminished their numbers. Soon after 
1700 a part removed to what is now Alabama, and the tribe 
soon ceased to exist. 

Appala'chi.an Moim'tains, a general term for the 
numerous ranges of mountains traversing the eastern part 
of the U. S., mostly parallel to each other, and in the 
main parallel to the Atlantic coast. This mountain- 
system is about 1300 miles long, extending, under various 
names, from the northern part of Alabama to Maine, 
and occupying, with the valleys which it forms, a space 
nearly 100 miles wide. The portion of this chain in New 
Hampshire is called the White Mountains, the highest sum¬ 
mit of which, named Mount Washington, rises 6288 feet 
above the level of the sea. In New York the system takes 
the name of the Adirondacs, the Catskill Mountains, and 
the Highlands. In Pennsylvania and the Southern States 
they are called the Alleghany Mountains, and the name of 
Blue Ridge is applied to the range in Virginia which is 
nearest to the Atlantic Ocean. These ranges are remark¬ 
able for the uniformity of their outline, and for the parallel¬ 
ism of their ridges and long narrow intervening valleys of 
limestone formation. Among the latter is the Great Valley 
of Virginia, which is bounded on the S. E. by the Blue 
Ridge, and extends across the whole State. The ridges are 
remarkable for their near approach to a rectilinear direc¬ 
tion, and the comparative uniformity of their height. The 
highest summit of the system is the Black Dome, or Mitch¬ 
ell’s High Peak, in N. C., which rises to 6707 feet. 

The geological formations of this chain include all those 
from the metamorphic rocks to the coal-measures, including 
the latter, and the strata belong entirely to the oldest or 
palaeozoic division of the fossiliferous rocks. The aggre¬ 
gate thickness of these, measured in Pennsylvania as they 
appear in succession at the surface, is about seven miles. 
They may be classed under the three great divisions of 
sedimentary rocks—namely, sandstones, slates, and lime¬ 
stones, between which are interstratified beds of coal and 
iron ore. Geologists affirm that the origin of the Appala¬ 
chians is more ancient than that of the Andes and the Alps, 
as is proved by the fact that on the high summits or slopes 
of the latter are found strata of a formation more recent 
than the carboniferous age. Their original height has been 
greatly diminished by the long-continued degrading agency 
of rain, frost, etc. Tho strata of this system are remark¬ 


able for their plications and complexity of flexure, in con¬ 
sequence of which some parts of the strata are nearly ver¬ 
tical. “The coal-measures of Pennsylvania,” says I)afta, 
“ which were originally spread out in horizontal beds of 
great extent, are now tilted at various angles or rise into 
folds, and the strata are broken and faulted on a grand 
scale. The folds vary from a few rods to one hundred or 
more miles in breadth, and are in many successions over 
tho region, wave succeeding wave.” . . . “ The following 
are some of the most important facts established with re¬ 
gard to the Appalachian flexures : I. They occupy the whole 
Appalachian and eastern border-regions of the continent, 
nearly or quite to the Atlantic Ocean. 2. They are parallel 
with the general course of the mountains, and nearly so 
with the Atlantic coast. 3. They are most crowded and 
most abrupt over the part of tho regions which is towards 
the ocean—that is, the S. E. side. 4. The steepest slope 
of a fold is that which faces the N. W.” “A uniform series 
of S. E. dips over such a region is evidence that the strata 
correspond to a number of decapitated folds.” ( Manual 
of Geology.) Among the mineral resources of this chain 
are coal, copper, iron, zinc, nickel, and lead. 

Revised by J. S. Newberry. 

Ap'palachico'la, a river, formed by the union of tho 
Chattahoochee and Flint, at the S. W. extremity of Georgia. 
It flows southward through Florida, and after a course of 
100 miles enters Appalaehicola Bay, a part of the Gulf of 
Mexico. It is navigable for steamboats. 

Appalaehicola, a port of entry, the capital of Frank¬ 
lin co., Fla., is on the river of its own name at its entrance 
into St. George’s Sound, a bay of the Gulf of Mexico, 85 
miles S. W. of Tallahassee. Large quantities of cotton 
were once shipped here. At present there is a trade in 
timber and fish. Pop. 1129. 

Ap'panoose, a county of Iowa, bordering on Missouri. 
Area, 492 square miles. It is intersected by the Chariton 
River, which affords water-power, and also drained by the 
South Fork of the Chariton. The surface is undulating; 
the soil is fertile. This county contains beds of coal, which 
is extensively mined. Grain, dairy products, cattle, wool, 
and tobacco are largely produced. It is traversed by the 
S. W. branch of the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific and 
Burlington and South-western R. Rs. Capital, Centreville. 
Pop. 16,456. 

Appanoose, a post-twp. of Hancock co., Ill. P. 101S. 

Apparatus [from the Lat. ap'paro , appara'tum , to 
“prepare,” to “arrange”], a term which in modern lan¬ 
guage is applied to a complete set of instruments or uten¬ 
sils for performing a scientific experiment or operation; the 
implements or machinery used in the operations of practical 
chemistry, or in the illustration of the principles of natural 
philosophy. 

Appa'rent [Lat. appa'rens, the present part, from ap- 
pa'reo, to “appear”], that which appears to the eye in dis¬ 
tinction from true or real. This term is used in astrono¬ 
my to express several important distinctions, as “ apparent 
time,” which is indicated by the sun, and differs from true 
time. The apparent magnitude of a heavenly body is the 
dimension of the angle formed by two lines drawn from the 
ends of its diameter to the spectator’s eye. The apparent 
diurnal motion of the sun and moon is an optical illusion 
caused by the rotary motion of the earth, and the real mo¬ 
tion of the moon is contrary to its apparent motion. An 
heir-apparent to a throne is a person whose title is better 
than any other except the actual occupant of the throne, 
and whose succession does not depend on any contingency 
if he survive the reigning monarch. 

Apparition [Lat. appari"tio ; for etymology see pre¬ 
ceding article], literally, an “ appearance ” or “ appearing,” 
in common language signifies a spectre, a ghost, a visible 
spirit. In astronomy it means the first appearance of a 
heavenly body after it has been eclipsed or obscured. Stars 
which appear to revolve around the Pole, and which never 
set below the horizon, are said to be within the circle of 
perpetual apparition, which circle grows larger and larger 
in proportion as the spectator approaches the Pole. 

Appar'itor [from appa'reo, to “appear”], a general 
name among the ancient Romans for the officers or public 
servants who attended tho magistrates and judges, includ¬ 
ing heralds, lictors, scribes, etc. In England it is applied 
to the beadle of a university, who carries the mace, and to 
a messenger of a spiritual court, who serves its process. 

Appeal' [from the Lat. appello, to “call”], in law. is 
an accusation of a private citizen against another of some 
heinous crime, demanding punishment for the peculiar in¬ 
jury suffered, rather than for the offence against the public. 
This proceeding has been entirely abolished in England, 
and does not exist in this country. The word also means 
the removal of a cause from an inferior to a superior court 












APPEARANCE—APPLES OF SODOM. 


189 


for the purpose of obtaining a review and re-trial of the 
cose. It differs from a writ of error and a certiorari, in¬ 
asmuch as they merely bring up for review the questions 
of law involved in the proceedings in the lower court, 
while by an appeal the questions both of law and fact may 
be re-examined. In a popular sense, the word signilies 
the removal of a cause, or of a proceeding in a cause, from 
an inferior to a superior court for the purposes of review, 
by whatever means effected. Codes of procedure in a 
number of States abolish writs of error in civil cases, and 
establish a review by appeal in all actions, whether of a 
common-law or equity nature. The word “ appeal ” is used 
in parliamentary law to indicate the mode of questioning 
the decision of the presiding officer as to a parliamentary 
rule. 

Appear'ance [from the Lat. appareo, to “ be seen”], 
in law, the act by which a party to an action brings him¬ 
self, or is brought, into court, usually applied to the de¬ 
fendant. Appearance is either voluntary or compulsory. 
It is said to be voluntary when no process has been served. 
It is also special or general. It is said to be special when 
made for special purposes, not extending to the entire sub¬ 
ject ot litigation. It is general when absolute and uncon¬ 
ditional. A notice of appearance will suffice, or the per¬ 
formance of some act from which an appearance can be 
inferred, such as serving a pleading. In civil cases it may 
be made by an attorney as well as by a party. In crimi¬ 
nal cases personal appearance of the accused is frequently 
requisite, particularly in cases of felony. 

Appen'tlage [Lat. appen'dix, from ad, “ to,” and pen'- 
do, to “weigh” or “hang”], in botany, is applied to all 
parts which are regularly arranged around any other part. 
Thus, leaves are appendages of the axis; so are all the 
flowers, theoretically. The supernumerary sepals in a 
strawberry are appendages of the calyx, and so on. In 
zoology, the bones of vertebrate animals are appendages of 
the vertebraj; the limbs of articulates arc appendages of 
the segments. 

Ap'penzell, a canton in the N. part of Switzerland, is 
bounded on every side by the canton of St. Gall. In con¬ 
sequence of religious differences it was divided in 1597 
into two half cantons—Appenzell Inner Rhodes (Catholic) 
and Appenzell Outer Rhodes (Protestant). Inner Rhodes has 
an area of 62 square miles, and had in 1870 a population of 
11,909. Outer Rhodes has an area of 100 square miles; pop. 
in 1870, 48,726. It consists completely of a wild mountain 
country, intersected by narrow valleys. It has manufac¬ 
tures of embroideries, linen, and calico. In 1864 the ex¬ 
penses of Inner Rhodes amounted to 176,026 francs, and 
of Outer Rhodes to 203,736 francs. Appenzell contributes 
4060 men to the federal army. Capital of Inner Rhodes, 
Appenzell, and of Outer Rhodes, Trogen. The canton was 
formerly subject to the abbey of St. Gall, gained its inde¬ 
pendence early in the fifteenth century, and joined the con¬ 
federation in 1513. (See Zellweger, “ Geschichte des ap- 
penzeller Volkes,” 4 vols., 1830.) 

Appert (Benjamin Nicolas Marie), a French philan¬ 
thropist, born in Paris Sept. 10, 1797. He founded schools 
for the mutual instruction of the poorer classes, and de¬ 
voted much time to the improvement of the condition of 
prisons and their inmates. He published, besides other 
works, a “Treatise on the Education of Prisoners ” (1822). 

Ap'pian [Gr. 'An-mavos’, Lat . Appia'nus], an historian, 
born at Alexandria, in Egypt, flourished about 120-160 
A. D. He removed to Rome in early life, distinguished 
himself as an advocate, and obtained the important office 
of procurator. He wrote in Greek a valuable work on 
“ Roman History” ('Pw^aoc j) ' lo-ropia ) in twenty-four books, 
of which eleven are extant. His style is commended as 
clear and agreeable, but some critics estimate him as a mere 
compiler. (See Dominicus, “ Programma de Indole Ap- 
piani,” 1844.) 

Appia'ni (Andrea), an eminent Italian painter, born 
at Bosizio May 23, 1754, imitated the style of Correggio. 
He is thought to have excelled all the artists of his time in 
fresco-painting. About 1805 he was appointed court-painter 
to Napoleon, whose portrait he painted. His principal 
merits are grace, purity of design, and brilliancy and har¬ 
mony of color. Among his masterpieces are the frescoes 
on the ceiling of the royal palace of Milan, and those in 
the church of Santa Maria Vergine, in the same city. Died 
Nov. 8 , 1817. (See G. Longhi, “ Elogio Storico di A. Ap- 
piani,” 1826.) 

Ap'pian Way [Lat. Vi'a Ap'pia], the most celebrated 
of the ancient Roman roads, was constructed by Appius 
Claudius Caocus about 313 B. C. It extended originally 
from Rome to Capua, 125 miles, but was eventually contin¬ 
ued to Brundisium. It was built in a very expensive man¬ 
ner, and was paved with large polygonal blocks of the | 


hardest stone, accurately fitted to each other, so as to ap¬ 
pear like a solid mass. The substructure was solidified by 
cement. The road has been partly restored by excavation, 
and is found to be in a remarkable state of preservation. 

Applause [from the Lat. applau'do, applau'eum, to 
“strike upon,” to “clap”], a shout of approbation: an 
approving acclamation; a public expression of approba¬ 
tion and praise by striking upon the floor or the clapping 
of hands. This custom prevailed among the ancient 
Greeks and Romans. The Roman comedians usually ter¬ 
minated their performances with a request that the audi¬ 
ence would applaud, valete et plaudite ! Three species of 
applause were used by the Romans—namely Bombus, a 
confused hum, like the buzzing of bees, produced by the 
mouth or the hands; and Imbrices and Testie , which were 
sounds made by striking vessels placed in the theatre for 
this purpose. The last was like the sudden crash produced 
by the fall and fracture of a set of china-ware. 

In modern times, French politicians and dramatists 
often avail themselves of the services of hired applauders, 
called claqueurs, who cry Bis, bis ! (“twice,” “again,” “en¬ 
core”), or Bieji, tres bien ! The audiences of English ac¬ 
tors signify their approbation by the cry of Encore! but in 
the British House of Commons applause is expressed by 
cries of Hear ! hear ! 

Ap'ple ( Py'rus ma'lus), a fruit of a tree of the natural 
order Rosaceae, which is native or naturalized in the tem¬ 
perate regions of Europe and Asia. It was cultivated by 
the ancient Romans, who called it pomum. The fruit called 
apple in the English translation of the Bible was probably 
different from the fruit now known by that name. The 
wild crab-apple of the Old World is the parent of almost 
all the varieties of apple which are cultivated, and which 
have been much improved by cultivation. The apple is 
considered the most valuable fruit of temperate climates, 
and is more extensively cultivated than any other. The 
fruit in botanical language is a pome; the leaves are ovate, 
acute, serrate, or crenate; the blossoms are beautiful and 
fragrant. The tree, which is hardy and slow in growth, 
will live probably two hundred years under favorable cir¬ 
cumstances. The number of varieties of cultivated apples 
is over 200, and is continually increasing. This fruit may 
be divided into three classes, with respect to the season in 
which it matures: namely, summer, autumn, and winter 
apples, the former of which, in the Middle States of the 
Union, begin to ripen about June. 

Among the best varieties of winter apples are the Bald¬ 
win, Spitzenberg, Rhode Island Greening, Bellflower, 
Swaar, Northern Spy, Rambo, Roman Stem, Peck’s Pleas¬ 
ant, Roxbury Russet, Wine Apple or Winesap, Ashmore, 
Belmont, Hubbardston Nonsuch. Large quantities of 
apples are exporteel from the Northern U. S. to Great 
Britain. The finest quality of this fruit is produced in 
New York and other States in the same latitude. Among 
the products obtained from the apple is a beverage called 
cider, and a chemical substance called Malic Acid (which 
see). The wood, which is hard, durable, and fine-grained, 
is used to make weaver’s shuttles, shoe-lasts, cog-wheels, etc. 

The Siberian crab ( Pyrus baccata or Pyrus prnnifolia), 
a native of Siberia, is cultivated in Europe and the U. S. 
for preserves. The Pyrus coronaria (or American crab) is 
a small tree which grows wild in the U. S., and bears a 
sour and harsh-tasted fruit scarcely an inch in diameter. 
This is used for preserves. An important elistinction 
among apples is expressed by the terms natural fruit and 
grafted fruit. The former, which is raised from the seed, 
is mostly very inferior in quality. (See Pomology.) 

Apple Blight, a disease of apple trees, caused by a 
species of aphis (the Aphis lanigera). This little insect 
penetrates the chinks in the bark, extracting the sap, 
causing diseased excrescences, and ultimately the death of 
the tree. 

Apple Creek, a township of Cape Girardeau co., Mo. 
Pop. 2626. 

Apple Creek, a post-village of East Union township, 
Wayne co., O., 7 miles S. E. of Wooster, and on the Cleve¬ 
land Mount Vernon and Delaware R. R. Pop. 300. 

Ap'plegrove, a township of Morgan co., Ala. Pop. 
1379. 

Apple Oil (artificial), a solution of valerianate of amyl 
in six parts of alcohol. 

Apple River, a post-township'of Jo Daviess co., Ill. 
Pop. 1108. 

Ap'ples of Sod'om, a fruit mentioned by Josephus 
and other ancient writers ns growing near the Dead Sea. 
It was fair in appearance, but when grasped in the hand 
collapsed into dust and ashes. Some modern writers have 
supposed that it was the fruit of Sola'num Melon'gena 
(nightshade), but Robinson identifies it with the Ascle'- 














190 


A PPLETON—A PPORTIONMEN T. 


pias gigante' a, the fruit of which looks like an orange, but 
disappoints those who touch it by its nauseousness in an 
immature state, and its emptiness when fully ripe. 

Ap'pleton, a post-township of Knox co., Me. It has 
manufactures of lumber, leather, agricultural tools, and 
lime. Pop. 1485. 

Appleton, a city, capital of Outagamie co., Wis., on 
the Lower Fox River, 30 miles S. of Green Bay. Its rail¬ 
road facilities include the Chicago and North-western, 
the Milwaukee Lake Shore and Northern, the Milwaukee 
and Northern, and the Wisconsin Central R. Rs. The 
river is navigable for steamboats, and is the route of the 
Green Bay and Mississippi Improvement Company. The 
manufactures include woollens, iron, machinery, farming- 
tools, flour, beer, hubs and spokes, barrels, baskets, pulp 
for paper, etc. The river has here a constant fall of forty- 
nine feet, furnishing inexhaustible water-power. There 
are one daily and three weekly papers, two national banks, 
and nine churches. The city is the seat of Appleton Col¬ 
legiate Institute and of Lawrence University. Pop. 4518. 

Stone & Fuller, Eds. “ Daily Times.” 

Appleton (Jesse), D.D., an American theologian, was 
born at New Ipswich, N. H., Nov. 17, 1772, and settled 
over the Congregational church in Hampton, N. II., in 
Feb., 1797. In 1803 he was one of the most prominent 
candidates for the chair of theology in Harvard Univer¬ 
sity. In 1807 he was chosen president of Bowdoin Col¬ 
lege, and died Nov. 12, 1819. A man of rare abilities and 
high classical culture, he was distinguished also for saint¬ 
liness of character, and singular dignity and grace of man¬ 
ners. His works, in two vols. 8vo, with a memoir pre¬ 
fixed, were published by his son-in-law, Prof. Alpheus S. 
Packard, in 1837. 

Appleton (John), LL.D., a jurist, was born in 1S04, 
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1822, became a judge of 
the supreme court of Maine in 1852, and chief-justice in 
1862. He published two volumes of “ Reports ” (1841). 

Appleton (John), born at Beverly, Mass., Feb. 11,1815, 
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1834, became a lawyer and 
prominent Democratic editor in Portland, Me., where he 
settled in 1837, became chief clerk of the U. S. treasury 
department in 1845, and afterwards held a similar position 
in the state department; was charge d’affaires to Bolivia 
(1848-9), member of Congress (1850-59), secretary of lega¬ 
tion in London (1855-56), U. S. minister to Russia (1860- 
61). Died Aug. 22, 1864. 

Appleton (Nathan), LL.D., a merchant, born at New 
Ipswich, N. H., Oct. 6, 1779, became a partner of liis 
brother Samuel in Boston. He was one of the founders 
of Lowell. He was chosen a member of Congress in 1831, 
and again in 1842. Died July 14, 1861. 

Appleton (Samuel), an eminent merchant and philan¬ 
thropist, brother of the preceding, was born at New Ips¬ 
wich, N. H., June 22, 1766. He removed to Boston about 
1794, and amassed a fortune by trade and the manufacture 
of cotton. He gave $25,000 annually for charitable pur¬ 
poses, and made a donation of $10,000 to Dartmouth Col¬ 
lege. He died July 12,1853, without issue, and left $200,000 
to be applied to “ scientific, literary, religious, and charita¬ 
ble purposes.” 

Appleton (William), born at Brookfield, Mass., Nov. 
16, 1786, became a successful merchant of Boston, to which 
be removed in 1807. He was a member of Congress (1851— 
55, 1861-62), and was distinguished for his benevolence. 
He gave $30,000 to the Massachusetts General Hospital. 
Died Feb. 15, 1862. 

Appleton City, a post-village of St. Clair co., Mo., on 
the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R., 59 miles S. W. by S. 
of Sedalia. 

Ap'pling, a county in the S. E. part of Georgia. Area, 
1060 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and N. E. by 
the Altamaha River, and drained by Little Satilla River. 
The surface is level, and the soil is sandy. Corn, rice, mo¬ 
lasses, and honey are among the chief products. It is 
intersected by the Macon and Brunswick R. R. Capital, 
Holmesville. Pop. 5086. 

Appling, a post-village, the capital of Columbia co., 
Ga., 27 miles W. of Augusta. 

Appoggiatnra, &p-pod-j3,-too / r&, literally, a “ sup¬ 
port,” an Italian musical term, indicates a form of embel¬ 
lishment by insertion of notes of passage in a melody. The 
notes are printed in a smaller character than the leading 
notes of the melody. 

Appoint'ment [remotely from the Lat. ad, “to,” and 
punctum, the “point”], in law, a disposition of property 
made by one authorized by a power contained in a deed, 
will, or other instrument to direct its use; an instrument 
executed pursuant to a power of appointment directing the i 


disposition of property agreeably to such power. (See 
Powers.) The word is also used to indicate the designa¬ 
tion by lawful authority of some person to hold an office 
or to perform a public duty. Under the U. S. Constitu¬ 
tion the President has the power to nominate, and, with 
the consent of the Senate, to “ appoint,” persons to hold 
certain specified offices. 

Ap'pold (J. George), F. R. S., an English mechanician, 
born in 1800, was the inventor of a celebrated centrifugal 
pump, of machinery for paying out marine telegraph cables, 
and of a process for dressing furs, which last gave him the 
control of that business. His house was a museum of won¬ 
derful mechanical devices, which opened and closed doors, 
shutters, and gates, and performed many other surprising 
acts, by automatic machinery. Died Aug. 31, 1865. 

Appold Centrifugal Pump. See Pump. 

AppomaUtox, a river of S. E. Virginia, rises in Ap¬ 
pomattox county, flows in a general easterly direction, and 
enters the James River at City Point. Length, estimated at 
150 miles. It is navigable for large vessels to Petersburg, 
20 miles from its mouth. 

Appomattox, a county in the S. central part of Vir¬ 
ginia. Area, 260 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. 
by the James River and canal, and drained by the Appo¬ 
mattox, which rises in it. The surface is hilly; the soil 
mostly productive. Tobacco, grain, and wool are its chief 
products. It is intersected by the South Side R. R. Capi¬ 
tal, Appomattox Court-house. Near this place General 
Lee surrendered his army to General Grant, April 9, 1865, 
and thus terminated the civil war. Pop. 8950. 

Appomattox Court-house, a post-village, capital 
of Appomattox co., Va., was the scene of the surrender of 
Gen. R. E. Lee, with the Confederate army of Northern 
Virginia, to Gen. Grant, April 9, 1865. 

Apponyi (Georg), Count, born in 1808, became the 
leader of the Conservative party in Hungary, and opposed 
the revolutionary movements in 1848. He was appointed 
in 1859 a life-member of the imperial council of Vienna, 
As royal commissary he opened the Diet at Buda in 1861. 

Appoquin'imink, a hundred of New Castle co., Del. 
Pop. 4299. 

Apportionment [from the Lat. ad, “to,” and por- 
tio, a “ share”], in law, the division of a thing into parts; 
the distribution of a claim or charge among different per¬ 
sons in proportion to their interests in the subject-matter 
to which it attaches. The leading cases concern—1, In¬ 
corporeal rights in land, such as commons and rents; 2, 
Encumbrances upon land; 3, Contracts. 1. The principal 
case under this division is that of rents. The question of 
apportionment may arise as to the rights of different own¬ 
ers either of the rent or of the land to which the burden 
of the paj^ment of the rent attaches, or it may occur in 
case of a partial failure of the title as to the territorial 
extent of the land rented, or because the right of the ten¬ 
ant to hold the land ceases before the time agreed upon, on 
account of the expiration of the landlord’s estate. Thus, a 
landlord, after a lease of two houses by one contract for a 
specified rent, may sell one of them. The purchaser would 
be entitled to collect a proportionate part of the rent. So, if 
the lessee should assign to a stranger all his rights in one 
of the houses, the latter would during his ownership be bound 
to pay a proportionate part of the rent. In case the title to a 
portion of the premises failed, as if in the case supposed the 
landlord did not own one of the houses that he assumed to 
lease, and the tenant was accordingly evicted, he would 
pay a proportional part of the rent for the remaining 
house. By the common law there was no apportionment 
where there was a failure as to time. This case is illus¬ 
trated by a lease made by a life tenant for a specified 
period—e. g. a year. Should he die before the time ex¬ 
pired, the lease would of course instantly terminate, and 
the tenant would pay no rent for the .time intervening 
since the last payment of rent fell due. This defect in the 
law has been remedied by statute. It should be added that 
there is by common law no apportionment where the prop¬ 
erty leased is simply diminished in value. Should a house 
and lot be hired and the house be destroyed by fire, no de¬ 
duction can be claimed, as the rent is deemed to be paid 
for the land, which still remains. This rule may be ob¬ 
viated by agreement of the parties. 2. Encumbrances .—It 
is a general rule that several owners of land must bear the 
burden of an encumbrance upon it in proportion to their 
respective interests. Thus, if land were mortgaged, and 
then conveyed to A for life, and, subject to A’s estate, to B, 
the respective owners should share between themselves the 
burden of payment; while the mortgage remained, A 
should pay the interest. If it became necessary to pay 
the mortgage, A would need to raise a sum equivalent to 
his entire duty to pay the interest during his life. His 















APPORTIONMENT BILL—APRICOT. 191 


probabilities of life are estimated by well-known tables 
indicating longevity, such as the Northampton, Carlisle, 
and others. On a similar principle, if mortgaged lands 
be sold in parcels, the duty to pay the mortgage is appor¬ 
tioned among the owners of the respective parcels. This 
is clearly the rule where the sales are contemporaneous; 
but if successive in point of time, the better opinion is 
that there is no apportionment, but that the lots must be 
taken to satisfy the mortgage in " the inverse order of 
alienation.” By this is meant that the lands last sold by 
the proprietor must be first resorted to as a means of pay¬ 
ing the mortgage. As soon as enough money is thus real¬ 
ized the remaining lots are discharged. 3. Contracts .— 
As a general rule, there is no apportionment of contracts. 
In other words, a party to a contract must completely ful¬ 
fil his own obligation before he can enforce the agreement 
against the other party. Thus, if a servant agreed to labor 
for a year at a specified salary, and should work for a por¬ 
tion of the time, and leave without cause, he could collect 
no portion of his wages. There are special cases where a 
contract is apportioned. One is where, after it has been 
partly performed, it is dissolved by mutual consent. So 
also in a contract for personal service there is an implied 
understanding that the contract is not to be completely 
fulfilled unless life should continue. Accordingly, if the 
servant should die before the expiration of the time speci¬ 
fied in the contract, his wages would be apportioned ac¬ 
cording to the time of actual service. Some jurists have 
objected to the severity of the general rule, and would 
allow an apportionment, even where a contract is delib¬ 
erately broken by a party, corresponding to the benefit 
received by the other party,- but the prevailing opinion of 
courts is, and the better philosophy would seem to be, to ad¬ 
here to the rule as modified by the special cases referred to. 

T. W. Dwight. 

Apportionment I?ill, in American politics, denotes an 
act of Congress which determines the total number of mem¬ 
bers sent by all the States of the Union, and also the num¬ 
ber that each State shall send, to the House of Representa¬ 
tives. A new apportionment is made after each decennial 
census. The same term is applied to the act by which a 
State legislature distributes among the counties their re¬ 
spective portions of representation. A populous county 
often forms a district by itself, and elects several members, 
while another district is formed by the union of two or 
three small counties. Those of the dominant party of the 
State sometimes so contrive the apportionment that they 
gain an advantage in the election, by forming districts in 
each of which a county that gives a majority against them 
is joined to a county that gives a larger majority for their 
side. This is called gerrymandering. 

Appraise'ment, or Apprize'ment [from the Lat. 
appre'cio, to " value,” to " set a price upon ”], the act of 
estimating the value of property; the valuation of prop¬ 
erty made by an authorized person, who is called an ap¬ 
praiser. The mode of appointing appraisers varies in the 
different States of the Union. The law of the U. S. requires 
that there shall be an appraisement of the inventoried prop¬ 
erty of decedents and insolvent debtors, of property appro¬ 
priated to public use, and of real estate seized upon execu¬ 
tion. In England, appraisement, as a legal term, signifies 
a valuation of goods taken under a distress for rent by two 
appraisers, who are sworn by the sheriff or constable. The 
appraisers of England must be licensed for the office. 

Apprentice [remotely from the Lat. apprehendo, to 
" comprehend,” to " learn”], a person, ordinarily a minor, 
bound in due form of law, usually by indenture, to another 
for a certain time to learn some art, trade, or business. In 
most of the States of this country statutes borrowed from 
English legislation allow minors, with their own consent, 
and with that of their father, mother, or guardian, to be 
bound out to service—if males, till the age of twenty-one ; 
if females, till the age of eighteen, or for a shorter time. 
When the child is a pauper, he may be bound without his 
consent by public officers or by orphan asylums, houses of 
refuge, or of industry. The same rule is followed in the 
case of children charged with petty crimes. Apprentice¬ 
ship is thus to some extent a mode of penal discipline, and 
is reformatory in its nature, particularly where some cen¬ 
tral authority oversees from time to time the conduct both 
of the apprentice and the master. The master in many re¬ 
spects stands in the relation of a parent. It is his duty to 
instruct the apprentice in the art which he has undertaken 
to teach him, to give him a reasonable support, and to pro¬ 
vide for him in case of sickness. The apprentice, on his 
part, is bound to render faithful service and obedience to 
his master, who may administer for misconduct reasonable 
corporal punishment. This relation is not regulated by 
the ordinary rules governing master and servant, but de¬ 
pends upon special grounds of public policy. It may usu¬ 


ally be dissolved by magistrates where the object of the 
apprenticeship has failed, and in special cases the appren¬ 
tice may be punished by them for wilful neglect to perform 
his duties. • The contract of apprenticeship is of a personal 
nature, and is not assignable. T. W. Dwight. 

Approach'es, a military term which denotes the entire 
system of works employed in the methodic approach by 
siege of a fortification. The works consist of enveloping 
trenches called parallels, and trenches of communication 
called boyaux or zigzags (terms indicating the tortuous or 
zigzag form given them, in order to screen from the fire of 
the place), places of arms, etc. The earth removed is thrown 
upon the side towards the besieged place, by the height of 
which and the depth of the trench itself adequate cover is 
gained for the passage of troops, and even of artillery. 
Approaches sometimes acquire great development, as at Se¬ 
bastopol, where, as is stated, the allies dug seventy miles of 
trenches. Recent changes in artillery and small-arms have 
rendered almost obsolete the methodic rules for the location 
and construction of approaches laid down in text-books on 
sieges. 

Appropriation [from the Lat. ad, “for,” and pro- 
prius, “ one’s own ”] ol Payments, in law, the application 
of money paid by a debtor to his creditor to one of several 
debts. The general rule is that when the payment is vol¬ 
untary, and not under process of law, the debtor has a right 
to direct the application of the money. If he does not ex¬ 
ercise this right, the creditor may elect to which debt to 
apply it; and in case of the failure of both parties to make 
such election, the law will apply the money in accordance 
with certain rules, so as best to promote the rights of the 
parties. When the payment is not voluntary, but is made 
under compulsion, the rules as to election give way, and 
the money should be applied ratably to all the claims. 
Where a debt bears interest, that is extinguished before 
application to the principal. 

Approximate [from the Lat. ad, "to,” and prox'imo, 
proxima'turn, to " approach,” to " draw near ”], in zoology, 
is applied to that arrangement of the teeth in the jaws 
where one is placed against the side of the next, and there 
is no intervening vacancy or diastema. The disposition of 
the teeth in the human species and in the Anoplotherium 
forms an example. 

Appui, Sp'pwe', a French word signifying "support.” 
In military language the phrase point d’appui is applied 
to a base or position fitted to give support to troops; a 
fixed point at which troops form and on which operations 
rest. Lakes, marshes, hills, or steep declivities sometimes 
serve as points d’appui. 

Appurtenances [remotely from the Lat. appertineo, to 
"belong to”]. In law, this word signifies something be¬ 
longing or appertaining to another thing as principal, as a 
right of way appurtenant to land. In a conveyance of land 
with the " appurtenances,” all easements and privileges in 
use and necessary to the enjoyment of the estate granted 
will be included. Land itself will not be considered as ap¬ 
purtenant to land. It is often a difficult question of con¬ 
struction to determine whether land can be regarded as 
apart or parcel of the thing granted; in which case it will 
pass, while it would not be embraced in the word " appur¬ 
tenances.” Thus, in the conveyance of a "mill” or a 
" mansion-house,” land which in the narrow acceptation 
of the terms "mill” or "mansion-house” would not be in¬ 
cluded, might be in a comprehensive sense, since there 
could be no complete enjoyment of the mill or mansion- 
house without them. 

Aprax'in (Feodor Matveievitch), a Russian admiral, 
called the creator of the Russian navy, was born in 1671. 
He was one of the principal coadjutors of Peter the Great 
in his efforts to civilize Russia, and enjoyed his confidence 
in a high degree. He built several ships-of-war, became 
an admiral and president of the admiralty in 1707, and 
took Viborg from the Swedes in 1710. In 1713 he ravaged 
the coasts of Finland, and commanded a fleet in the war 
against Sweden. Died Nov. 10, 1728. 

Apraxin (Stepan Feodorovitch), a Russian general, a 
grandson of the preceding, was born in 1702. He served 
in a war against the Turks, rose rapidly, and became a 
field-marshal. Having the command of a large army in 
the Seven Years’ war, he defeated the army of Frederick 
the Great at Gross-Jagerndorf in Aug., 1757. He ne¬ 
glected to improve the victory by marching to Berlin, and 
was recalled and tried by a court-martial, but before the 
trial was finished he died, Aug. 26, 1758. 

Aprice'na, a town of Italy, in the province of Foggia, 
23 miles N. of Foggia. Pop. in 1861, 5272. 

Ap'ricot [from the Lat. apri'eus, " sunny ”], (Pru'nus 
Armeni'aca), a fruit tree of the natural order Rosacea?, is 
a native of Armenia, and is extensively cultivated in 


















192 APRIES—AQUARIUM. 


Europe and the U. S. It is nearly related tq the plum. 
The blossoms appear before the leaves, which arc ovate, 
subcordate, and acuminate. The fruit, a velvety drupe, 
ripens earlier than the peach, which it resembles in some re¬ 
spects. The color of the apricot is mostly yellow, with a 
red-brown or ruddy cheek on the side which is most ex¬ 
posed to the sun. It is propagated by budding on plum, 
peach, or wild-cherry stocks. Among the numerous vari¬ 
eties of the apricot, the Moorpark is by many persons the 
most esteemed. A variety called Breda is preferred for 
standards in some places. 

A'pries [Gr. ’Ajrptijs], a king of Egypt, called in the 
Bible Piiaraoh-Hophra, was a son of Psammuthis (or 
Psammis), whom he succeeded about 595 B. C. He waged 
war against the Greeks, by whom he was defeated, llis 
subjects revolted and killed him about 568 B. C., and Ama- 
sis then obtained the throne. 

A'pril [Lat. Apri'lii], the name of the fourth month of 
the year, was derived from the Romans, but in the early 
age of the Roman republic it was the second month. 

April Fool’s Day, the name given to the first of 
April, from the prevailing custom of playing tricks upon 
people or sending them upon bootless errands on that day. 
It is supposed to have been derived from some ancient 
pagan custom, such as the Huli festival among the Hindoos, 
or the Roman Feast of Fools. In France the person trick¬ 
ed is called poisson d’Avril (“ April fish”), and in Scot¬ 
land he is called a gowk (cuckoo). 

A Priori. See A Posteriori. 

A'pron, a term applied to a piece of sheet lead which 
covers the touchhole of a cannon, tied by two pieces of rope. 
In shipbuilding the apron is a piece of curved timber fixed 
behind the lower part of the stem, and just above the fore¬ 
most end of the keel, in order to fortify the stem. Apron 
is also a platform or flooring of plank at the entrance of a 
dock. 

Apse [Lat. ap'sia], a semicircular recess usually formed 
at the east end of the choir or chancel of a Romanesque or 
Anglo-Norman church. Such structures arc numerous in 
England and in Germany. (See Apsides.) 

Apsheron', Apcheron, or Abcheron, a peninsula 
which extends into the Caspian Sea at the S. extremity of 
Daghestan. It forms the eastern termination of the Cauca¬ 
sian chain of mountains. It is famous as the place of the 
sacred flame which is venerated by the fire-worshippers 
(Ghebers), and is produced by inflammable gas rising from 
the soil. Large quantities of naphtha are procured here. 

Ap' sides [from the Gr. ai/u's, a “circle”or “curvature”], 
sing. Ap' sis, the two points in the orbit of a primary 
planet which are at the greatest and the least distance from 
the sun, corresponding to the aphelion and perihelion. The 
term is also applied to the extreme points in the orbit of a 
satellite, which in the case of our moon are the same as the 
apogee and perigee. The straight line connecting them is 
called the line of the apsides. 

Ap 'tera [from the Gr. a, priv., and nrepov, a “wing”], 
in the Linnman system an order of insects without wings, 
called apterous insects. This word is not recognized as the 
name of an order by recent entomologists, the wingless in¬ 
sects being assigned to various orders. 

Ap'teral, a term applied to those temples of the ancient 
Greeks and Romans which had no lateral columns. The 
Greek temples were generally peripteral— i. e. with col¬ 
umns on the sides and ends. 

Ap 'tery.v [from the Gr. a, priv., and nTepvg, a “wing”], 
a genus of birds, natives 
of New Zealand, allied to 
the ostrich and emeu. It 
is called by the natives of 
New Zealand kiwi-kiwi. 

It has scarcely any trace 
of wings, but has fine plu¬ 
mage, and a long bill, on 
which it supports itself 
when it rests. It feeds 
upon insects of various 
kinds, more especially on 
worms, which it is said to 
attract to the surface by 
jumping and striking on 
the ground with its pow- Apteryx, 

erful feet. Its skin is very tough but flexible, and is prized 
by the chiefs for the manufacture of their state mantles. 
Three species have been found, but they are believed to 
be nearly extinct. 

Ap'tliorp (East), a clergyman of the Anglican Church, 
was born at Boston, Mass., in 1733, and educated at Cam¬ 
bridge University. He passed many years in England, and 


obtained a benefice at Finsbury. His four letters to Gib¬ 
bon in defence of Christianity (1778) were very favorably 
received. Died April 17, 1816. 

Apule'ius (Aulus Lucius), a celebrated Latin Platonic 
philosopher and satirical writer, was born at Madaura, in 
Africa. He lived about 150 A. D., travelled extensively, 
and was distinguished for his learning and eloquence. 
After he had spent his fortune in travel, he married a rich 
widow, and was involved in a lawsuit with her relatives, 
who accused him of using magical arts to gain her affection. 
He defended himself with success by an “Apology” which 
is still extant. He became popular as an orator at Carthage, 
the senate of which raised statues in his honor. His chief v 
work is a romance entitled the “Metamorphoses, or the 
Golden Ass,” which is supposed to be intended as a satire 
on priests, quacks, magicians, etc. It has been translated 
into English by T. Taylor (1822), by Sir George Head 
(1851), and by several others. Some of his works are lost. 
(See F. Hildebrand, “ Cominentarius de Vita et Seriptis 
Apuleii,” 1835.) 

Apu'lia [It. La Fuglin'], an ancient province of South¬ 
ern Italy, was bounded on the N. E. by the Adriatic Sea, 
and was a portion of Graecia Magna. It was bounded on 
the S. W. by Lucania and Samnium. Among the chief 
towns of this once populous and famous region were Canu- 
sium, Arpi, Luceria, and Arpinum. The battle of Canna), 
and most of the important events of the second Punic war, 
occurred in Apulia. It was conquered by the Normans 
about 1042 A. D. Apulia is included in the modern prov- 
inces of Foggia, Bari, and Lecce. Area, 8541 square miles. 
Pop. in 187U 1,416,792. 

Apulia, a post-village of Fabius township, Onondaga 
co., N. Y., on the Syracuse Binghamton and New York 
R. R., 19 miles S. by E. of Syracuse. Pop. 181. 

Apu're, a river of Venezuela, rises in the Andes near 
lat. 7° N. and Ion. 72° W. It flows eastward, and enters 
the Orinoco in lat. 7° 36' 43“ N. and Ion. 66° 45' W. 
Length, estimated at 736 miles. 

Apurc, a province of Venezuela, is bounded on the N. 
by Merida, Barinas, and Caracas, on the E. by Guiana, and 
on the S. and W. by Colombia. Area, about 22,250 square 
miles. This province is in the most level and lowest part 
of Venezuela, and is almost entirely without trees. The 
chief occupation of the inhabitants is the raising of cattle. 
Chief town, San Fernando de Apure. Pop. 32,485. 

Apu'rimac', a river of South America, and one of the 
head-streams of the Amazon, rises in the Andes, in Peru, 
about lat. 15° 38' S., and about 75 miles from the Pacific 
Ocean. It flows nearly northward, and unites with the 
river Urubainba about 8° 38' S. The stream thus formed is 
called the Ucayale. Its length from its source to the Ucay- 
ale is estimated at 600 miles. 

A'qua, plu. A'quie, the Latin name for water ; the 
pharmacopoeial name for spring water, or natural water in 
its purest attainable state. It is a compound of oxygen 
and hydrogen ; symbol IRO, or Aq. The principal varieties 
of water are distilled water (aqua distillata), river water 
{aqua ex flumine , or aqua fhtvialis), sea water (aqua marina), 
rain water ( aqua pluvialis), and spring water {aqua /on- 
tana). These terms are used in pharmacy, in which vari¬ 
ous watery solutions are also called aqme. 

A'qua For'tis (?. e. “strong water”), a name given 
to nitric acid by the alchemists, is still the common com¬ 
mercial name of that compound. (See Nitric Acid.) 

Aqua Marine, a name sometimes given to the Beryl 
( which see). 

A'qua Re'gia {i. e. “royal water”), a name given to 
a mixture of nitric acid with hydrochloric (muriatic) acid. 
The usual proportion is one of the former and two of the 
latter acid. This is remarkable for its power of dissolving 
gold, regarded as the king of metals. The product is auric 
terchloride, Audi. (See Gold, by Prof. R. W. Raymond.) 

A'qua Regi'nse {i. e. “queen’s water”) is a mixture 
of concentrated sulphuric acid and nitric acid, or of sul¬ 
phuric acid and nitre. It has been used as a disinfectant. 

Aqua'rians [from the Lat. a'qua, “water”], a name 
given to those ascetic persons who used water in the sacra¬ 
ment instead of wine, because they had scruples against 
the use of the latter. This practice is said to have origin¬ 
ated with Tatian in the second century. 

Aqua'rium (plu. Aquaria), or Aquaviva'riuvn, a 

Latin term commonly applied to a glass tank or vessel con¬ 
taining either salt or fresh water, in which living aquatic 
animals and plants are kept as an ornament of drawing¬ 
rooms, an aid to scientific study, and a source of rational 
amusement. It must contain both animals and plants in 
something like a due proportion, as the animals depend for 
breath on the oxygen which is given out by the plants, and 















AQUAKI US—AQUEDUCT. 


193 


the latter are nourished by the carbonic acid gas which the 
animals exhale. The water should be often aerated by agi¬ 
tation, which may be effected by dipping up portions of 
it and pouring them in again from a small height. Aquaria 
are stocked with Mollusca, Algm, Confervas, Crustacea, 
zoophytes, gold-fish, sticklebacks, minnows, and other fish, 
sea-anemones, etc. The presence of molluscous animals is 
necessary for the consumption of the vegetable matter 
which is about to decay and the numerous spores of the 
Confervas, unless the water be continually renewed, as in 
the “fountain aquarium.” No dead animal or decaying 
plant, should be permitted to remain in the aquarium, the 
temperature of which should be kept between 50° and 70° F. 
(See P. H. Gosse, “ Handbook of the Marine Aquarium,” 
1855.) 

Aqua'rius [from the Lat. a'qua, “ water ”], the “Water- 
Bearer,” is the eleventh sign of the Zodiac, into which the 
sun enters about the 20th of January. It is represented 
by Aquarius is also the name of a constellation which 
coincided with that sign at the time when the signs were 
named, but in consequence of the precession of the equi¬ 
noxes it is now in juxtaposition with the sign Pisces. 

Aqiias'co, a post-township of Prince George’s co., Md. 
Pop. 1723. 

Aquat'ic An'imals are those which live constantly in 
the water, as fishes, and those which frequent the water to 
swim on its surface or dive in search of food, as ducks and 
other web-footed birds, otters and beavers among quadru¬ 
peds, etc. Among the aquatic animals are the majority of 
the grand division of Mollusca; numerous tribes of the Ar- 
ticulata, as crabs, lobsters, and shrimps; and a large por¬ 
tion of the Radiata. Whales and dolphins are examples 
of aquatic animals of the class Mammalia. The total num¬ 
ber of aquatic animals is greater than that of all terrestrial 
animals (exclusive of insects). Those which live partly on 
land, and cannot breathe under water, are called amphib¬ 
ious. The peculiarities of structure by which they are 
fitted for swimming, wading, etc. are very admirable. 
Some water-fowls have long legs for wading; others have 
webbed feet which enable them to swim with ease, and have 
waterproof plumage adapted to their mode of life. In 
aquatic animals of the higher vertebrate classes provision 
is made for the maintenance of the proper degree of animal 
heat by a coat of blubber, fur, or plumage, as in the case of 
otters, ducks, etc. The air-breathing animals that inhabit 
salt water have an organic structure greatly modified, and 
their extremities resemble the purely aquatic type more 
than the terrestrial. 

Aquatic Plants, or Water Plants, a term applied 
to various vegetable organisms that grow either partially 
or entirely immersed in water. The latter mode of life is 
mostly confined to cryptogamous plants. Many phaneroga¬ 
mous plants which take root at the bottom of ponds, ditches, 
and running streams are called aquatic, although the flowers 
and leaves are raised above the water or float upon its sur¬ 
face. A primary distinction occurs between the plants that 
grow in salt water and those which grow in or near fresh 
water. The most of the plants which live in the sea be¬ 
long to the division Alg,e (which see). Among the cryptog¬ 
amous plants that inhabit fresh water are the Confervas. 
Aquatic plants have a less compact structure than most 
other plants, and are generally deficient in rigidity and 
firmness of stem. Some water-plants are furnished with 
air-bladders, which enable them to rise to the surface and 
float upon it. Besides those which grow in the sea, there 
are plants whose habitat is the sea-shore, and which re¬ 
quire the influence of salt water. These are sometimes 
called saline or maritime plants. Among the aquatic plants 
growing in fresh water are the species of the orders Alis- 
macern, Naiadacem, Ceratophyllacem, and Nymphmacem. 

Aquatint. See Engraving, byPRES. M. B. Anderson. 

A'qua TofaTia, a secret poison, the invention of which 
is ascribed to a Sicilian woman, a notorious poisoner, named 
Tofana. She lived about 1650-1730. It is said that there 
was, about 1660, a society of young married women in 
Rome who used this aqua Tofa.nato poison their husbands. 
It was sold in vials marked “ Manna of St. Nicholas of 
Bari.” Some suppose it to have been a solution of arsenic. 

A'qua Vi'tne (i. e. “water of life”), [Fr. eau de vie], a 
Latin term applied to brandy, and sometimes to other ar¬ 
dent spirits. 

Aquavi'va (Claudio), a son of the duke of Atri, born 
at Naples in 1543, was appointed Feb. 19, 1581, general of 
the Jesuits. His principal work is entitled “ Ratio Studi- 
orum” (“ Method of Studies”), 1586. Died in 1614. 

Aq'ueduct [Lat. aqweduc'tue, a “channel for conduct¬ 
ing water ”]. The name is applied more especially to arti¬ 
ficial constructions for bringing water from a distance lor 
the supply of cities, and to those bridges which serve to 
13 


convey the water of canals of navigation and of irrigation, 
and of mill-races, at an elevation across deep valleys or 
streams. 

As no very large city could exist without an abundant 
supply of water, we may assume that aqueducts were con¬ 
structed very early in history. The Romans built many 
aqueducts, not only for Rome, but for their principal cities 
in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and the massive and pictu¬ 
resque ruins of the great bridges of these aqueducts are at 
once suggested to the scholar by the word “ aqueduct.” 

Rome, the capital of the ancient civilization, was boun¬ 
tifully supplied with water by many aqueducts. Twenty 
are said to have existed in its period of greatest prosperity, 
bringing water from the hills and lakes of Italy from dis¬ 
tances of from five to sixty miles. The greater pai’t of the 
courses of all these aqueducts were subterraneous, but as 
the Romans were not as skilful in the working of metals 
as the moderns, as metal pipes were with them much more 
costly than masonry, and as cast iron was unknown, they 
were compelled to construct lofty bridges of stone and brick 
to conduct the channels of water at a regular slope or de¬ 
scent from the elevated ranges to the N. and E. of Rome 
across the wide and gradually descending slopes of the 
Campagna or country immediately surrounding the city. 
These bridges were generally built of rude masonry of brick 
or of rubble stones. The mortar was good, and the stone 
and brick, though rough, were durable. The masses, though 
not generally remarkable for their height, were in the ag¬ 
gregate immense, and hence, while the greater part of these 
constructions have perished, very considerable remains exist 
to this day. 

Rome has never been without inhabitants, and the rulers 
of the city have from time to time repaired and utilized the 
different conduits, so that at the present day the city is 
amply supplied with water, the greater part of which is 
brought over ancient aqueducts repaired by the popes. 
The Appian aqueduct, attributed to Appius Claudius Csecus, 
is said to have been completed 311 years before the Chris¬ 
tian era, after the building of the Appian Way. Its length 
was about 6 miles, and it brought, by a devious course, to 
Rome the waters of a spring whose fountain-head was 5 
miles from the city, near Rustica on the Via Collatina. 
The Aqua Augusta was at a later period added to this 
aqueduct. It supplied the most ancient portion of the town 
and the Transtiberine city. 

The Anio Vetus was built B. C. 272 by Manius Curius 
Dentatus. It brought its supply from near Augusta in the 
valley of the Anio, 43 miles from Rome. It was almost 
entirely subterraneous, and the only fragment now visible 
lies below the road and under the Aqua Marcia, outside 
the Porta Maggiore. 

The Aqua Marcia (B. C. 145), built by the praetor Quin¬ 
tus Martius Rex, was 37 miles long, of which 6 miles were 
on arches still visible, crossing the Campagna by the Fras¬ 
cati and Albano roads. This aqueduct is crossed by the 
Claudian aqueduct, which for some distance runs parallel 
to it. It might be restored, but the city is for its present 
population already amply supplied with water. 

Aqua Tepula (B. C. 126), the work of Cneius Servilius 
Cacpio and Cassius Longinus, is 10 miles long. Its channel 
or specus can still be seen at the Porta San Lorenzo and 
Porta Maggiore in connection w r ith the channels of the 
Aqua Marcia and Aqua Julia. 

Aqua Julia (B. C. 34), by Augustus, named in honor of 
Julius Caesar, 12 miles long. Its water was brought to the 
city in a specus or conduit above the Tepula, and, like that, 
upon the arches of the Aqua Marcia, which thus brought 
the waters of three different sources separately to Rome. 
Its channel is still to be seen at the gate of San Lorenzo 
and at the Porta Maggiore. 

Aqua Virgo, also by Augustus. Its source is said to 
have been pointed out by a young girl, whence its name. 
Its course is mostly subterraneous, about half a mile only 
being on arches. It was restored by Pope Nicholas A', as 
the Aqua Vergine, and it still supplies Rome with its best 
water. The fountains in the Piazza di Spagna, Piazza 
Navona, and the magnificent fountain of Trevi arc sup¬ 
plied by this aqueduct, as are many others. On the foun¬ 
tain of Trevi, the virgin pointing out the source to the sol¬ 
diers sent by Augustus appears among many other marble 
reliefs and statues. This is perhaps the finest fountain in 
the world. An inscription, still legible, in a cellar of No. 
12 Via del Nazareno, near the Palazzo del Bufalo, states 
that it was repaired A. D. 52 by Claudius, after having 
been disturbed by Caligula in the construction of his wooden 
amphitheatre. 

Aqua Alsietina, 30 miles in length, built by Augustus; 
restored by Trajan, who added to its waters those of sev¬ 
eral springs along the hills to the W. of Lago Bracciano. 
Its original sources were around the smaller lake Alsietinus, 
now the Lago de Martignano. It was restored by Paul V., 









194 


' AQUEDUCT. 


and now supplies the fountains of the great Piazza of St. 
Peter’s and the magnificent fountain Paolina, and turns 
the wheels of many flour-mills on the slopes of the Janicu- 
lum. It is known indifferently as the Aqua Alsietina and 
the Aqua Paolina. 

Aqua Claudia, built by Caligula and Claudius (A. D. 30 
to 50). Its sources were near Agosta, about 38 miles from 
Rome. Its devious course was over 46 miles in length, of 
which 36 were below the surface and 10 miles were on 
arches. Six miles of arches stretching across the Cam- 
pagna still attest the power and liberality of the Roman 
empire. Repaired by Septimus Severus, by Caracalla, and 
by Pope Sixtus V., its arches now bring to Rome the Aqua 
Pclice from the springs near the Osteria dei Pantani, on the 
road to Palestrina. They supply the Fontana dei Termini, 
near the railroad depot in the Baths of Diocletian, the 
fountain of the Triton, that of Monte Cavallo, and some 
twenty-four others in different parts of the city. 

Anio Novus, also by Claudius, from the forty-second mile 
of the Via Sublacencis. This was the longest of the ancient 
aqueducts, having a course of 62 miles, 48 of which were 
under ground. Its channel or specus is still visible above 
the Aqua Claudia on the arches of the Porta Maggiore. It 
is also visible at the Villa Braschi, near Tivoli, where it is 
nine feet high by four feet in width, but is choked up by a 
calcareous deposit, which encrusted, and finally, unless re¬ 
moved, obstructed the channels of many of these ancient 
aqueducts, especially those from the valley of the Anio. 

It is estimated that Rome was supplied daily with 
377,000,000 gallons of water. The Aque Vergine, Felice, 
and Paula, having their sources in volcanic districts, sup¬ 
ply a pure and delicious water, which does not obstruct its 
channels, and at this day they bring into Rome 153,000,000 
gallons of water daily. By channels of masonry the water 
is led to fountains in every part of the city, and by pipes 
of metal and of burned clay it is distributed to most of the 
great houses or palaces, in each of which it flows constantly 
into a basin, frequently an ancient sarcophagus, of stone 
or marble. The water is rarely carried by pipes to the 
upper stories. 

Rome being the capital of the civilized world for so 
long a time, its aqueducts were on a greater scale than any 
others, but the chief cities of the ancient world were sup¬ 
plied with water by aqueducts, many of which were built 
during the Roman domination. 

During the Middle Ages also aqueducts were constructed, 
and the pointed arch of the Goths is seen in some of the 
existing remains. Among those most noted, generally lofty 
bridges of masonry forming part of the channels of true 
aqueducts, are those of Lyons, Nimes, Segovia, Spoleto, 
Carthage, Constantinople, Lisbon, Marly, Caserta, Metz, 
Tarentum, and many others. 

In modern times many aqueducts have been constructed. 
The New River of London and the Canal de l’Ourcq of 
Paris are true aqueducts. The new aqueduct of the Vanne 
is one of the supplies of Paris. The aqueduct of Roque- 
favour carries the water of the Durance to Marseilles; that 
of Loch Katrine supplies Glasgow. 

Vienna is now constructing an aqueduct to bring the 
water of two springs a distance of 59 miles. The conduit 
is of masoni'y, the channel itself varying in size from five 
feet eight inches by six feet to two feet nine inches by four 
feet, according to the slope, on which depends the velocity 
of the current. The sources are at a height of about 1000 
feet, and the principal distributing reservoir is 277 feet 
above the site of the city. The supply is estimated at 
24,000,000 gallons daily, or 24 gallons to each of 1,000,000 
inhabitants. Whenever Vienna attains to this population 
it will appear that the supply is only one-fourth of that 
which modern civilized man requires. 

In the U. S. there has been of late years great activity 
in the construction of aqueducts for its rising cities. The 
city of New York has the Croton aqueduct, 50 miles in 
length. Boston has the Cochituate; Baltimore, that of 
Jones’s Falls; and Washington, the Washington aqueduct. 

Fig. 1 is a view of High Bridge (so called) over Harlem 
River, N. Y. The Croton Aqueduct passes over this bridge 
in three pipes, one wrought and two cast iron. The wrought 
iron is seven feet six inches in diameter, and the two cast 
iron are each three feet. The bridge is 1460 feet in length, 
having eight arches, in the river, of 80 feet span and 100 
feet high, and seven others, of fifty feet span, on the two 
banks. The bridge is 116 feet above high-water mark. 

The Washington aqueduct, which supplies the capital of 
the U. S., we select as one of the most recent and important 
examples of modern aqueduct construction for fuller illus¬ 
tration and description. 

It is a circular conduit of brick and rubble masonry laid 
in hydraulic cement. Brick and stone were used indiffer¬ 
ently in its construction, each section being built with the 
material which would be most easily and cheaply obtained. 


Its clear internal diameter is nine feet. Its descent or in¬ 
clination is nine and a half inches to the mile. The length 

Fig. 1. 



High Bridge, Harlem River. 


of the conduit from the Great Falls of the Potomac to the 
distributing reservoir is 11 miles ; from the latter the aque¬ 
duct is continued by large iron pipes to the capitol, 5 miles. 
Its capacity is 70,000,000 gallons per day. Its construction 
is shown in ordinary ground (side-hill) by Fig. 4. 

It takes its water at the Great Falls from the Potomac 
River at an elevation of 150 feet above tide-water by a deep 
rock-cut passing under the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal 
(Fig. 5), to a gate-house (Fig. 5), furnished with gates and 
screens to regulate the flow of water and to exclude inju¬ 
rious substances. A dam raises the water of the river about 
six feet to the level of the aqueduct, 150 feet above tide. 
The aqueduct follows the valley of the Potomac, crossing 
the drainage of its left bank by six bridges and many cul¬ 
verts. It jiasses through several tunnels. A waste-weir 
permits any excess of water to escape before it can do in- 
jury to the conduit. 

Its course is generally subterranean : embankments have 
been avoided wherever possible, as more liable to degrada- 


Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 



Cochituate Aqueduct. Croton Aqueduct. 

tion and injury than a masonry conduit deep below the 
natural surface. There are four bridges under the conduit. 
Fig. 6 is the most important of these, the Cabin John 
Bridge or Union Arch, a granite arch of 220 feet span, 
the longest stone arch in existence. This bridge is 101 
feet high and 20 feet wide. The water is delivered into 
the receiving reservoir, of about fifty-six acres, made by 
damming up the valley of Little Falls Branch. (Fig. 7.) 
Two miles tarther on the aqueduct enters the distributing 
reservoir of forty acres by a gate-house. A branch of the 
conduit, seven feet only in diameter, leads around this 
reservoir for use when the reservoir is being cleaned. 

In Fig. 8 is a section of the tower, in which the branch ter¬ 
minates in a four-foot iron pipe, with regulating sliding iron 


Fig. 4. 



gate. Fig. 9 is a profile of the outlet gate-house and screen- 
well, and of the subterranean vault in which are the stop¬ 
cocks and connections of the iron mains which convey the 
water into the cities. There are connections for four pipes 
of forty-eight inches diameter in this vault. There are now 
three mains laid, the original two, 30 and 12-inch, and a 
36-inch main recently added, the cities having already out¬ 
grown the smaller ones laid fourteen years ago. 

At College Branch two 30-inch mains, braced as in Fio- 
10, cross a small inlet and valley by an arch of 120 feet 
span. Rock Creek is crossed by an iron bridge (Fig. 11) 
composed of two cast-iron pipes of four feet diameter, 
which serve as the ribs of an arch of 200 feet span and 
20 feet rise. These pipes convey the water, and also sup- 














































































AQUEDUCT. 


195 


port a platform bearing a road and railway track. This 
bridge, the College Branch, and the Cabin John bridge 

Fig. 5. 



are unique. The highest portion of the streets of Wash¬ 
ington is forty-five feet below the level of the reservoir; 
but a part of Georgetown is at a greater height than any 
part of the aqueduct. To supply this a circular reservoir 
covered by a brick dome (Fig. 12) has been constructed. 
It is supplied with water by a water-pressure engine situ¬ 


ated in the vaults of the west abutment of the llock Creek 
bridge, capable of pumping 10,000 gallons per hour into 
this reservoir, at a height of 226 feet above tide. It is 
worked by the pressure of water from the 30-inch main. 

The aqueduct is capable of delivering 70,000,000 gal¬ 
lons per day. The three iron mains as yet laid, with 120 
miles of small iron distributing pipes, which now supply 
120,000 people, and are connected with 10,000 houses, are 
capable of bringing into the cities of Washington and 
Georgetown 30,000,000 gallons daily. The actual con¬ 
sumption of the cities is already 17,500,000 gallons in 
twenty-four hours. 

In California gold-mining the agent for the separation 
of the gold from the soil is water, and this has led to the 
construction of many large aqueducts, there called mining 
ditches. Some of these are 100 miles in length, and the 
ingenuity of their builders has made some veritable im¬ 
provements in the science and art of hydraulic engincer- 


Fig. 6. 



Washington Aqueduct: Cabin John Bridge (Union Arch), 220 feet span. 


ing. These aqueducts are generally open channels or 
ditches, which follow winding courses along the mountain- 
slopes, preserving regular grades, which are regulated by 
the necessity of the case, the limit being whatever the soil 
will bear without washing away. These grades are as 
high in some cases as thirteen feet to the mile. The 
channels are very crooked. Gulches, gullies, valleys, and 
streams are crossed by wooden troughs supported on tres¬ 
tles. These are estimated to last for about fifteen years. 
Deeper valleys are crossed by sheet-iron pipes. In one 
example a mining aqueduct brings to the mine, with a 
head of 300 feet, from 80,000,000 to 90,000,000 gallons of 
water daily. A valley is crossed by pipes of No. 14 to 
No. 16 gauge sheet iron— i.e. one-sixteenth of an inch in 
thickness—which are twenty-seven inches in diameter. 
These pipes are put together on the line of the work, the 

Fig. 7. 


SLUICE TOWE/i 


OHM ... 



FALL 132/’ LENGTH 264.2' 


sheets, perforated with rivet holes, being brought into the 
mountains on wagons, and finally on pack-mules. They 
are bent to shape and riveted in place. The joints are 
slip-joints, like those of stove-pipe, and they are kept 
together against the pressure and shocks of the water by 
lashings of wire around lugs secured to the sheet iron. 

Chopped straw is thrown into the water at the head, and 
soon packs all the imperfectly fitted joints and makes 
them water-tight. It is recorded that the Romans, who 
made much use of earthenware or terra-cotta pipes, used 
ashes in this way to stop all leaks. The cost of these 27- 
inch sheet-iron pipes is about $4per foot, or $20,000 per mile. 
Many cities which hesitate to provide themselves with 
the best of all water-supplies—that by gravitation, natural 
flow—on account of the great first cost of the aqueduct, 
may profit by this California experience. While the wooden 
and sheet-iron pipes will not last as long as bridges of ma¬ 
sonry and pipes of heavy cast iron, they will still last for 
many years, and the saving in interest upon the original 
capital needed for the more solid construction will not only 
keep them in repair, but rebuild them every fifteen years. 
The lighter constituents of the soil through which the 



Fig. 9. 


INFLUENT 

GATEHOUSE 


! 5 ^ 

!*■» EFFLUENT £ ■» 
£ js SCFEENWELL £ g 


aqueduct is carried as an open ditch or canal arc soon re¬ 
moved by the current, leaving the bottom and sides of the 
channel protected by the gravel and pebbles, too heavy to 
be removed by the regular current, which remain and form 
a covering for the softer and lighter soil. Aqueducts thus 
constructed may be built for $15,000 to $20,000 per mile, 
and thus bring ample and cheap supplies of water to many 
cities which now depend upon steam-engines and a daily 
expense of fuel for scanty supplies of this precious element. 

It has been customary in America to estimate twenty- 
eight to thirty gallons per day for each inhabitant, old and 
young, as a sufficient supply for a great city. But the ex¬ 
perience of all those in which aqueducts have been in use 
for twenty years shows that in the U. S. the supply should 
not be less than 100 gallons per head per day. This con¬ 
sumption is reached in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, 
and Washington, and, where the works afford it, it pro¬ 
motes health and contributes to cleanliness, to pleasure, and 
to safety. It is better that this quantity be assumed in all 
projects for building aqueducts. 


'—■FALL 1.592045 - L. 2.27F.35 E 12.281—L.102'0-—' 


We have seen that the cross-sections of the specus or 
channel of the Roman aqueducts were generally rectangu¬ 
lar. In modern times a great variety of forms have been 
used—rectangular, two-side walls with flat floor and roof; 
curved floor and arched roof, with vertical sides; oval, or 
egg-shaped, with the smaller end of the oval at the bottom; 
and finally circular. 

As the circle is that geometrical figure which with the 
least circumference encloses the greatest area, it follows 
that in lining with masonry a channel cut through the 
earth the circular form will convey the most water with the 
least masonry. Moreover, this form gives the channel with 
the least wetted perimeter. As it is at the surface of con¬ 
tact of the water and its channel that friction occurs, the 
flow of the water will be less retarded by friction in a cir¬ 
cular channel than in any other of the same capacity. 
Therefore, in building a covered channel for conveyance 
of water this form will generally be found the best and 
cheapest. 


































































































196 


AQUEOUS IIUMOK—AQUILEJA. 


Bricks or flat rubble stones are laid with great rapidity 
into the form of a circular conduit. The excavation in the 
earth is cut carefully at the bottom to the form of a serni- 

Fig. 9,— continued . 


DISTRIBUTING RESERVOIR. 



cylinder to receive the masonry, which is laid in hydraulic 
mortar simply upon the earth, until the lower half cylinder 
of masonry is formed. Then two portable wooden centres, 
each of which is one quarter of the cylinder, are placed in 
position on props of wood, and the upper half of the con¬ 
duit is laid as an arch upon them. The inside of the pipe 
is to be plastered with mortar of hydraulic lime and sand, 
and, the whole being covered to a proper depth, we have a 
conduit which will serve for ages, and is liable to no decay 
or destruction except by earthquakes or waterspouts, which 
may break it open or wash it away. 

As the cost of the excavation and construction of the 
conduit is but a part of the aggregate cost of an aqueduct, 
it is wise in all such constructions for cities and villages to 

Fig. 10. 



at first make the conduit itself large enough to convey all 
the water of the source. The conduit should also in any 
case be large enough for a man to pass through con¬ 
veniently, for the purposes of cleaning it and repairing any 
cracks, which in long lines of masonry resting upon soils 
of different natures will occur from settlement of the soil 
and from expansion and contraction of the masonry itself. 

When the source of supply is a great river or lake, the 
conduit should be built to convey more water even than 
100 gallons a day for each inhabitant. Cities continually 
increase, and while at present this quantity appears to be 
enough for actual needs, the greatest abundance of water 
flowing through the fountains and cleansing the streets, 


Fig. 11. 



courts, and drains of a city adds to the health, the pleas¬ 
ure, and comfort of the people. There is scarcely a city 
in the U. S. which in the course of twenty years "has not 
found its aqueduct insufficient for its wants. 

We defer till we treat of water-supply of cities remarks 
upon the reservoirs and pipes for the distribution through 
them of the water brought by the aqueduct from the 
source to their confines, noting only that the modern prac- 

Fig. 12. 


HIGH SERVICE RESERVOIR 



ticc makes reservoirs much more extensive and capacious 
than the ancient. The ltomans brought large supplies 
through aqueducts of rapid flow. A small portion only 
was stored in reservoirs, generally of masonry covered 
with arches, and the surplus was allowed to flow out 
through great fountains and cascades in constant streams. 


The moderns provide large reservoirs in which the water 
not used is stored up to compensate during periods of 
scarcity for the scanty supply of the original source. 
These reservoirs are sometimes covered with brick arches, 
as in London, but generally they are open ponds or lakes 
of many acres. The magnificent covered reservoirs, such 
as that for the Roman fleet at Baim, and the arched reser¬ 
voirs of Constantinople, supported on stone columns, are no 
longer constructed. They remain among the most stately 
monuments of the Roman empire. (See Waterworks and 
Water-Supply, by Prof. S. A. Lattimore, A. M.) 

M. C. Meigs, U. S. A. 

A'queous Hu'mor. See Eye. 

Aqueous Rocks, a geological term synonymous with 
sedimentary rocks, is applied to rocks and strata which 
have been formed by the agency of water, and have been 
deposited at the bottom of seas and lakes. The materials 
of these strata were partly derived from the disintegration 
of older rocks, which, being reduced to particles of small 
size, have been carried along the rivers in the form of 
mud, sand, and sediment, and deposited in the sea. Hum¬ 
phreys and Abbott estimate that the Mississippi conveys 
into the Gulf of Mexico annually an amount of silt equal 
to a mass one square mile in area and 241 feet in depth. 
The waves of the sea also, dashing continually against the 
shores and undermining the rocks, contribute to this pro¬ 
cess of erosion and disintegration. Some aqueous rocks, 
as chalk and limestone, are formed by the accumulation of 
the calcareous shells of marine animalcules, called Forami- 
nifera. Other strata of the carboniferous formation which 
are of vegetable origin are included among the aqueous 
rocks, which in reference to their composition are distin¬ 
guished as arenaceous, argillaceous, calcareous, carbon¬ 
aceous, and saline. The rocks termed metamorphic are 
now generally regarded as aqueous in their formation. 
(See Lithology and Rocks.) (For further information about 
these rocks the reader is referred to the articles on the Si¬ 
lurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Cretaceous, Oolitic, Tri- 
assic, Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene formations.) 

Aqai'a, a post-village and township of Stafford co., Va., 
13 miles N. E. of Fredericksburg. Pop. of township, 2085. 

Aqui'a Creek, in the eastern part of Virginia, flows 
south-eastward through Stafford county, and enters the 
Potomac River. It is navigable for schooners. It is also 
the name of a station on the railroad from Washington to 
Richmond, and on the Potomac River, 75 miles N. of Rich¬ 
mond. Passengers going northward are here transferred 
from the cars to a steamboat. 

Aquifolia'cese [from Aquifo'lium, a former name of 
the holly], a natural order of exogenous plants, all trees 
or shrubs with simple leaves, and mostly natives of Amer¬ 
ica. The ovary is superior, with two or more cells, each 
of which contains a solitary anatropal ovule, and gener¬ 
ally becomes bony as a stone in the fruit, which is fleshy. 
Among the species of this order is the holly {Ilex). The 
species are quite numerous in the U. S. 

Aq'uila (“the Eagle”), a constellation of stars near 
the equator, and on its N. side. 

A'quila, a fortified town of Italy, capital of the prov¬ 
ince of Aquila, is situated on the Pescara, near the Apen¬ 
nines, 58 miles N. E. of Rome. It is well built, and has 
numerous churches. Here are manufactures of linen. It 
was much injured by earthquakes in 1688, 1703, and 1706. 
Aquila was built by the emperor Frederick II. about 1240, 
on or near the site of the ancient Amiternum. Pop. in 1861, 
12,627. 

Aquila, a province of Italy, formerly called Abruzzo 
Ulteriore II., is bounded on the N. E. by Ascoli, on the E. 
by Teramo and Chieti, on the S. by Campobasso and Ca- 
serta, on the W. by Rome and Perugia, and on the N. W. 
by Perugia. Area, 2510 square miles. The chief products 
are grain, vegetables, rice, wine, oil, and fruits. Pop. in 
1871, 333,791. 

Aquilaria'cete [so called from Aquila'ria, one of the 
genera], a natural order of exogenous plants, all of which 
are trees and natives of the tropical parts of Asia. The 
leaves are entire; the perianth coriaceous, turbinate, or 
tubular; the stamens usually ten ; the ovary 2-celled, with 
two ovules ; the fruit a drupe or capsule. The order com¬ 
prises only ten known species, one of which jiroduces the 
fragrant Aloes Wood (which see). 

Aquile'ja, Aquileia, or Aglar, an old town of 
Austria, in the Littoral provinces, near the Adriatic or Gulf 
of Venice, with which it is connected by a canal, is 22 
miles W. N. W. of Trieste. During the Roman empire it 
was an important city, was called the second Rome (Roma 
Secunda), and was the chief emporium of the trade between 
the north and south of Europe. The emperor Augustus 
often resided here, and here were held several councils of the 

























































AQUINAS—AKABIA. 197 


Church, the first of which was in 881 A. D. The bishops 
of Aquileja in the sixth century took the title of patriarch, 
and assumed the rank next to the pope. Aquileja was 
burned by Attila in 452 A. D., at which time it is said to 
have had 100,000 inhabitants. Pop. 1728. 

Aqui'nas (Thomas), Saint, a celebrated scholastic doc¬ 
tor and theologian, surnamed the Angelic Doctor, was 
born in the kingdom of Naples in 1227. lie was a grand¬ 
nephew of the emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa. About 
1243 he joined the order of Dominican monks, and became 
a pupil of Albertus Magnus. After he had studied theol¬ 
ogy and scholastic philosophy, he began to teach and preach 
at Paris with great applause. Having acquired a Euro¬ 
pean reputation by his talents and learning, he left Paris 
in 1201, and was induced by Pope Urban IV. to remove to 
Rome, where he taught philosophy. He was distinguished 
for his modesty, and refused the offer of a bishopric, but 
he had great influence in the Church. The greatest of the 
schoolmen were the Dominican Thomas Aquinas and the 
Franciscan Duns Scotus. They were founders of rival 
sects, which wrangled with each other for two or three cen¬ 
turies. Aquinas wrote a number of works, the most im¬ 
portant of which is his “ Sum of Theology ” (“ Summa Theo¬ 
logies ”)> which was regarded as the most complete com¬ 
pendium of scholastic divinity. He died at Fossanuova, in 
Naples, 1274. His disciples were called Thomists. Aquinas 
was a great admirer of the philosophy of Aristotle. He 
was canonized in 1323. (See Renn D. Hampden, “ Life 
of Thomas Aquinas,” 1848; Maffei, “Vita di Tommaso 
d’Aquino,” 1842 ; Tiioluck, “ Dissertatio de Thoma Aquin- 
ate,” 1842; P. S. Carle, “ Histoire de la Vie et de Ecrits 
de Thomas d’Aquin,” 1846; “ Philosophic de Thomas 
d’Aquin,” par Charles Jourdain, Paris, 1857; “TheLife 
and Labors of S. Thomas of Aquin,” by the Very Rev. 
Roger Bede Vaughan, 2 vols., 1871-72. See Duns Scotus.) 

Aquita'nia [Fr. Aquitaine ], the ancient Latin name 
of the most south-western of the three divisions of Gaul. 
It originally included the country between the Pyrenees 
and the Garonne, but Augustus added to it the territory 
between the Garonne and the Loire. The ancient inhab¬ 
itants were Iberian tribes. It was an independent duchy 
under the feeble princes of the Carlovingian dynasty, and 
became an English possession in 1152 by the marriage of 
Henry II. with Eleanor of Guienne, who was the heiress 
of the duke of Aquitaine. It was united to France in 1451. 

Arabesque, tlr-a-b^sk', signifies “in the Arabian style 
or manner.” It is applied to the fantastic decoration which 
was profusely employed in the architecture of the Arabs or 
Moors in Spain. As employed by the Arabs, it consisted 
of infinitely diversified combinations of curved and straight 
lines, and imaginary foliage and flowers, curiously inter¬ 
twined with other vegetable forms. The figures of animals 
were excluded from the arabesques of the Moors, because 
the religion of Mohammed prohibited their representation. 
The Moors are supposed to have derived this kind of orna¬ 
ment from the Romans, by whom it was extensively used. 
Among the most beautiful specimens of Moorish arabesques 
are the decorations of the famous palace of the Alhambra. 
The name of arabesque was applied to this mode of decora¬ 
tion because it had been long known and admired in the 
works of the Arabs before the discovery of the beautiful 
paintings in the Baths of Titus, by Raphael and his pupil 
Giovanni da Udine, made the world acquainted with a mag¬ 
nificent specimen of the original. The early Italian painters 
and sculptors, however, had always taken delight in this 
style of decoration, as they found it in the antique Roman 
sculpture, where scrolls, flowers, fruit, and leaves are min¬ 
gled with animals and genii. Raphael painted his famous 
arabesques in the Loggie of the Vatican in direct imitation 
of the frescoes on the Baths of Titus. He was largely as¬ 
sisted by Giovanni da Udine.-/ Clarence Cook. 

Arabgir', or Arabkir', an important city of Asia 
Minor, on the Arabgir-Su, and on the road from Aleppo to 
Trebizond, 100 miles E. S. E. of Siwas. It has consider¬ 
able trade, and a large community of Protestant Armenians. 
Pop. estimated at from 25,000 to 30,000. 

Ara'bia [Arab. Jezee'ret (or Jeziret ) -el-A'rab, i. e. the 
“isle or peninsula of the Arabs;” Turk, and Pers. Arabi- 
stan; Lat. Ara'bia'], a peninsula forming the extreme S.W. 
part of Asia, is encompassed by the sea on all sides ex¬ 
cept the N. It is bounded on the N. by Asiatic Turkey, 
on the N. E. by the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman, on the 
S. E. by the Indian Ocean, and on the S. W. by the Red 
Sea. It extends from lat. 12° 35' to 34° N., and from 
Ion. 32° 10' to 59° 40' E. Its area is estimated (Behm 
and lYagner, “ Bevolkerung der Erde,” Gotha, 1872) at 
1,030,000 square miles. It is connected with Africa by the 
Isthmus of Suez at the N. W. corner. The Euphrates forms 
a part of the N. E. boundary of Arabia, the southern part 
of which is included in the torrid zone. The topography 


of the interior of this peninsula is imperfectly known to 
European geographers. We know, however, that it is gen¬ 
erally arid and sterile, destitute of forests, has no large 
rivers, and few permanent streams. The surface is diver¬ 
sified by hills of naked rock, plains of sand, and ranges of 
mountains of no great elevation. The central part of 
Arabia appears to be occupied by an elevated table-land. 
A long range of mountains extends through the W. part 
nearly parallel with the Red Sea, from which it is not more 
than eighty miles distant, and in some parts less than that. 
The peaks of these mountains are from 5000 to 8000 feet 
high. In the vicinity of the mountains, and of the tor¬ 
rents which flow from them, are a number of fertile valleys 
called icadys. Among the remarkable features in the geog¬ 
raphy of Arabia is Mount Sinai, which is 7497 feet high. 
Ancient and foreign geographers divided this country into 
three parts—namely, Arabia Felix, the Happy; Arabia 
Petrjea, the Stony; and Arabia Deserta, the Desert. 
The first comprises the south-eastern part, bordering on the 
Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, and part of the Red Sea; 
Arabia Petraea includes the north-western part, bordering 
on the Red Sea; and Arabia Deserta, the interior and 
northern portions. According to the native geographers, 
the principal divisions are—1, Hedjaz, or Hejaz, which ex¬ 
tends along the Red Sea from lat. 19° N. to 29° N., and is 
bounded on the N. E. by the desert; 2, Yemen, which 
borders on the Red Sea, and extends from Hejaz to the 
Strait of Bab-el Mandeb, and along the Gulf of Aden to 
Hadramaut; 3, Hadramaut, a large tract bounded on the 
S. E. by the Indian Ocean; 4, Oman, which extends from 
the Persian Gulf to the Indian Ocean, and borders on the 
Sea of Oman, being bounded on the W. by the desert; 5, 
Lahsa (El Achsa), or Hadjar, which extends along the Per¬ 
sian Gulf from Oman to the mouth of the Euphrates; 6, 
Nej’d or Nedjed, the central desert region, nearly coincid¬ 
ing with Arabia Deserta. The climate is hot and extremely 
dry. Muscat and Mocha, both on the sea-coast, are among 
the hottest inhabited spots on the earth. The temperature 
of the plains is often 100° in the shade. In many parts of 
Arabia rain never falls in the course of the year, and the 
sun is rarely obscured by a cloud. On the coasts of the 
Red Sea there is a rainy season of two or three months in 
summer, but on the southern or south-eastern coast the 
scanty supply of rain falls in the winter, so that the hottest 
months of the year are also the driest. To the extreme 
dryness of the atmosphere may be ascribed the remark¬ 
able degree of cold sometimes felt in Arabia, for ice and 
snow frequently occur on mountains ranging from 6000 to 
8000 feet in height in the part of the peninsula which is in 
the torrid zone. Among the remarkable phenomena of the 
climate is a hot south wind called simoom, the poisonous 
quality of which has been exaggerated by travellers. The 
soil, where it is irrigated, produces cotton, coffee, indigo, 
tobacco, tamarinds, the date-palm, barley, rice, sugar, and 
many aromatic plants. The flora of Arabia comprises the 
characteristic plants of its neighboring countries. Among 
the wild plants are the mimosa, the Euphorbiacege, lavender, 
jasmine, the aloe, and the trees which yield gum-arabic and 
olibanum. The animal kingdom is here represented by the 
camel, the antelope, the ibex, hyena, wolf, jackal, wild-ass, 
wild-boar, the jerboa, monkey, ostrich, eagle, etc. The Ara¬ 
bian horse is celebrated, and perhaps unrivalled, for docil¬ 
ity, endurance, beauty, and speed. Among the mineral 
resources of Arabia are copper, iron, lead, coal, emeralds, 
carnelians, agate, onyx, alabaster, marble, sulphur, and 
saltpetre. Few nations of the world have been more nearly 
stationary or have made such little progress in industrial 
arts. The division of the Arabs into numerous independ¬ 
ent and unsettled tribes, with consequent absence of national 
unity, is a great obstacle to their improvement and organi¬ 
zation. The government is neither a monarchy, a republic, 
nor an aristocracy, but each tribe is subject to a chief called 
an emir, sheik, or imam. Having the advantage of occu¬ 
pying the coasts between India on the east and Africa 
and Europe on the west, the Arabs distribute the cotton 
goods of India among the peoples of Africa, and carry 
back ivory, gums, dyewoods, etc. Merchandise is conveyed 
across the deserts by large caravans of camels, which are 
styled “the ships of the desert.” The principal exports 
of Arabia are dates, coffee, gum-arabic, myrrh, aloes, 
pearls, balsam, and other drugs. The population, form¬ 
erly estimated at from 10,000,000 to 15,000,000, amounts, 
according to the recent calculations, to only 4,000,000, and 
is divided into two classes—the nomadic Bedouins, who 
have no habitations but tents, and have loose notions ot 
the rights of property; and agricultural and mercantile 
Arabs, who live in towns and villages. The chief towns 
are Mecca, Medina, Loheia, Mocha, Aden, Muscat, lembo 
(or Yambo), and Rostak. 

History .—Owing to its desert character, Arabia was nev¬ 
er touched by any of the great conquerors ot ancient times. 


















198 ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE—ARABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


After the death of Alexander the Great, the Arabians con¬ 
quered a part of Chaldma, and founded the empire of Ilira. 
Another tribe founded the empire of the Ghassanides, on 
the river Ghassan. In 107 A. I). the Roman emperor Tra¬ 
jan was the first to penetrate to the interior. With the 
advent of Mohammed the different tribes began to unite 
and act in concert, and, leaving their peninsula, founded 
large and powerful empires in three continents. (See Moors 
and Caliphs.) At the time of the conquest of the caliphate 
of Bagdad in 1258, and the expulsion of the Moors from 
Spain in 1492, the Arabian rule in Europe and Asia Minor 
came to an end. In the sixteenth century the Turks con¬ 
quered Yemen, but were driven back in the seventeenth, but 
again gained the nominal authority over the holy cities 
and Hejaz. From 1508 to 1609 Muscat was subject to Por¬ 
tugal. The most important event of recent times in the 
internal history of Arabia is the advent of the Wahabees 
(which see) in 1770, and their defeat by Mehemed Ali in 1811. 
At present, the only European power having possessions in 
Arabia is England, which has taken possession of Aden. In 
consequence of an attack made on the Christians in Djidda 
in 1858, the city was bombarded by the British. (See Crich¬ 
ton, “ History of Araby,” 1852 ; Sedillot, “Histoire des 
Arabes,” 1854; Muller, “ Beitrage zur Geschichte der 
westlichen Araber,” 1868; Weil, “ Geschichte der islamitis- 
chcn Volkcr,” 1868; Maltzan, “Wallfarth nach Mekka,” 
1865 ; Wrede, “Reisen in Hadhramaut,” 1870, and the 
accounts of Niebuhr, Burckhardt, Burton, Palgraye, 
and others.) A. J. Schem. 

Ara'bian Architecture, a style sometimes called 
Moorish, originated almost simultaneously with the Mo¬ 
hammedan religion, and followed the progress of that re¬ 
ligion into Eastern Europe, Spain, and Africa. The early 
temples or mosques of the Moslem Arabs were modifications 
of Byzantine architecture. The most peculiar and origi¬ 
nal feature of the Arabian architecture is the horseshoe 
arch. The pointed arch was also very extensively used by 
the Moors or Saracens. Among the finest specimens of 
Arabian style is the Alhambra (which see). 

Revised by Clarence Cook. 

Arabian Language and Literature. The Arabic 
belongs to what is termed the Semitic (or Shemitic*) family 
of languages, and is closely related to the Hebrew, which 
it resembles in its general grammatical structure, as well 
as in the form of many of its words. Like the Hebrew, it 
is written from right to left, and like it, also, the vowels 
are not written in the body of a word or name, but arc 
indicated (if indicated at all) by certain marks placed 
above or below the consonants to which they belong (see 
29). The alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, as 
follows : 



d 

o 

o'® 

O O 






o 

13 

13 

Name. 

Power. 


|8 

P d 

a a 

E 

'O 

<v 

*d 

1—4 



1. 

ft 

L 

l 

1 

alif, 

a. 

2. 




J 

ba, 

b. 

3. 

o 



J 

ta, 

t. 

4. 

o 

lS*. 

A 

3 

tha. 

th. 

5. 

(L 

(1/ 



jeem or jim, 

j- 

6. 

rr* 



> 

ii a, 

h. 


o 

<Lv 





7. 





kha, 

kh. 

8. 

& 

O 

A 


dal, 

d. 

9. 


Jl 

Jy 

• 

A 

dhal, 

dh. 

10. 

Jt 

/• 

j 

) 

ra, 

r. 

11. 

J I- 

j 

J 

J 

za, 

z. 

12. 

LT 

w*• 



seen or sin, 

s. 

13. 


lP- 

*VV*s 


sheen or shin, 

sh. 

14. 


L>^ 


.O 

sad, 

s or ss. 

15. 

LP 


a n 

A3 

dsad, 

ds or dh. 

16. 


Ja 

ja 

Ja 

ta, 

t. 

17. 

Jb 

b. 

K 

h. 

b 

dza, 

dz or dh. 

18. 

C, 


X 


ain (3/in or in), 

t 


c 

C 




* A term derived from Shem, the eldest son of Noah, 
f The letters thus marked ought never, according to the rules 
of Arabic orthography, to be connected with those that follow 
them. 


d 



a 

o o 

H3 

g 8 

2 

'S 

.2 


Si 

5 a 
k 

<v 


19. 

t 


k 

£. 

20. 


O* 

k 

: 

21. 

o 

oi 

ft 


22. 



X? 

* 

23. 

J 

j- 

1 

i 

24. 

r 


+ 

✓0 

25. 

o 

a 

X 

i 

26. 



J- 

3 

27. 

8 

N 

* 

P 

28. 

L5 

L5 

A 

j 


Name. Power. 


ghain (gft'in or Gin), J 


ffi, f. 

kaf, k 

kaf, k. 

lam, 1. 

meem or mini, m. 

noon or ndn, n. 

waw, w. 

ha, h. 

y- 


1. 1 at the beginning of a word is sounded variously, 

according to the vowel-points upon it (see the paragraph 
on Vowels given below); in the middle of a word it is 

sounded as a long, as in uu ( bdb ), a “gate.” 


2. w) sounds like b in English. 


3. o has the sound of the Spanish t, which is pro¬ 
nounced by placing the tip of the tongue against the upper 
teeth. 

4. O sounds like our th in thin. 

5. ^ is usually pronounced like the English j, though 

in some dialects (for example, in that of Egypt) it has the 
sound of our g hard. 


6. ^ sounds nearly like the German ch in ach, but it i 3 
formed lower in the throat. 

7. sounds like the German ch in ach, doch, etc. It 

is usually represented in the French and English languages 
by kh, and in the German by ch. 

8. nearly resembles in sound the English d, but, in 

pronouncing it, the tip of the tongue is placed against the 
teeth. It may be said to bear the same relation to our d 
that the Sjianish t does to our t. 

9. b has no exact equivalent in any European lan¬ 
guage, though it resembles the sound of our th in thy. It 
is often represented by dh, and sometimes by ds, clhs, or 
simple d. 

10. y sounds like the French or Italian r , or like rr in 
the English word terror. 

11. j has the sound of z in English. 

12. sounds like our s in this. 

13. lP is like the English sh. 

14. (jo sounds nearly like the English sharp s; but, in 
pronouncing it, the teeth are not brought so nearly into 
contact. It is sometimes represented by ss, or by f. 

15. (j^ 1 has no equivalent in any European language. It 
is variously represented by dz, dh, dd, and ds. 

16. Ja is in sound nearly like the English t, but is pro¬ 
nounced somewhat harder. It is commonly represented 
by t or tt, and often, especially by German writers, by tA.|| 

17. somewhat resembles in sound. It cannot be 
represented by any English letter or combination of letters. 

18. ^has no exact equivalent in any European tongue. 

It nearly corresponds to the Hebrew y. In the hiatus pro¬ 
duced in uttering &—& in quick succession, we make a 
sound similar to the Arabic ain, but the latter is formed 
lower in the throat. 

19. ^ lias no equivalent in English. It bears nearly the 
same relation to hard g that kh does to lc. It is sometimes 
represented by g, but more frequently by gh, especially by 
French and English writers. 


J These letters have in sound nothing like them in English. 

§ Written, also, > 

. IIJ n cases th is not intended to indicate a sound like th 

in English or the Greek 6 , but rather one similar to that of the 
Hindoo th. 



















ARABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


199 


20 . has the sound of our/. 

21 . . v is similar to our k, but is formed lower in the 

throat. It is sometimes represented by k (with a dot 
under it), and sometimes by q. 

22 . ^ in sound is exactly like our k. 

23. J is likes the English l. 

24. is pronounced like our m. 

25. q is in sound like the English n. 

26. 5 ) as a vowel, is equivalent to oo or il; as a con¬ 
sonant, it sounds like the English w or v. 

27. a sounds like our h; when final, it is nearly silent. 


28. (_$■, as a vowel, sounds like ee (or i), in which case a 
kaara is implied or expressed; as a consonant, like y. In 
the middle of a word the sound of ^ may be doubled by 
means of the tashdeed, which, in writing, is often omitted. 
Preceded by fatha (see Vowels below), this letter assumes 
the sound of our long l, and is represented by ai. 

All the foregoing characters are regarded by Arab 
grammarians as consonants. Alif has been compared to 
the soft breathing (spirit us lenis ) of the Greeks; Ain is a 
similar breathing, though the place of its formation is 
lower in the throat. 


VOWELS. 


29. In Arabic the true vowels are three. They are called 
—1. Fcit'hn (a *); 2. Kas'ra (i, sometimes e); and 3. Dham¬ 
ma (oo or iff). Fatha is written over the consonant to 
which it belongs, thus—; kasra is placed beneath its con¬ 
sonant, thus—; dhamma (which is in fact a minute ,.) is 


written over its consonant, thuS-A. These vowels are 

always joined to the consonant which in pronunciation 

✓ / 

they follow: thus, in (kalam), a “reed” or “pen,” the 


first fatha is considered to belong to the leaf, over which it 
is placed, the second to the Idm (not to the meem which 
comes after it); and so in all similar cases : it necessarily 
follows that no vowel can stand by itself.J Hence, if wo 
wish to write an initial short fatha, it must be associated 

/ * ^ m 9 ' 

either with alif or ain, as (ahad), a “unit,” 


(affl), “forgiveness.” If we would write a short initial 
kasra or dhamma, we must begin the word in the same 

manner: e. g., (lb’n), a “son,” (ibitd), “ser- 

vants,” ( (uf or oof), “fie!” (ubflr or ooboor), a 

“passage” or “crossing.” 

30. If any one of the simple vowels is joined to an ordinary 
consonant, or to an initial alif or ain, it is generally short, 
as will be seen from the foregoing examples; but if in any 
syllable not initial they are joined with any of the (so- 
called) consonants (alif, ain, waio, etc.) to which they nat¬ 
urally correspond, they become long: thus, fatha with 

alif or ain gives us the sound of d, as ujij (bab), a “gate,” 


lXxj (bad or b&-ad), “after;” so kasra with yd gives the 

sound of % (or ee), as (seen or sin), the name of the 

letter / so also dhamma with icaw gives the sound of fi 

or oo, as (nfin or noon), the name of the letter q. It 

should be observed that the fatha or dhamma is not written 
on the alif or waiv, nor the kasra under the yd, but is joined 
to the previous consonant, the semi-consonants coming 
after, for the sole purpose, it would seem, of prolonging 
the vowel. § In order to indicate the sound of d at the 
beginning of a word, it is usual to place a circumflex over 

the alif, —thus, T. The initial long i (i or ee) is represented 
by j\, and long u (d or do) by 

The vowels are usually omitted in Arabic manuscripts, 
and they are scarcely needed by the native Arabs, who are 
already familiar with the language; but they are of the 
utmost importance to foreigners in learning Arabic. The 


* Often represented by e, and sometimes (in English) by u 

f Often represented by o, as in the name of Mohammed. 

J It may be remarked as an apparent exception to this rule 

that Ibn, l ‘son,” is often written simply (5«); but this is 

usually to be considered as an abbreviation for though ben 

or bin is not unfrequently used instead of the longer form ibn. 

?The long vowels in Arabic are to be pronounced very lull 
and long, especially the long g, which is not only longer, but 
somewhat broader, than our a in jar. 


same may be said of the jazm or jezrn (°), a mark placed 
upon a consonant to show that it has no vowel following 

it, as (azrak, “blue,” which without the jazm might 

be pronounced azarak), and the tashdeed or tashdid (u>), 
placed on a consonant to show that it is to be doubled in 

pronunciation; as (Mohammed). 

It is proper to observe that when the Arabic article al or 
el is followed by certain letters, the sound of the l is changed 
to that of the letter following; thus, el-Deen becomes ed- 
Deen ; el-Dowlah, ed-Doivlah; al-Rahman or el-Iiahman, 
ar-Rahman or er-Rahman; al-Temeemee, at-Temeemeej 
and so on. 

The Arabic characters are supposed to have been derived 
from the Syriac, and to have been introduced into Arabia 
by Christian missionaries before the time of Mohammed. 
The oldest form is called the Cufic (or Kufic), from Ivoofa, 
a town in the Euphrates, where it is said the transcription 
of the Koran was extensively carried on. These characters 
were extremely rude and coarse, and, being only sixteen in 
number, could but very imperfectly represent the twenty- 
eight consonant sounds of the Arabic tongue. In the 
tenth century they were replaced by the nesliki characters, 
as they are called, which are still in use. At present the 
Cufic letters are scarcely to be met with, except in ancient 
inscriptions or in the books of antiquarians. 

Of the Arabic tongue there are two principal dialects— 
namely, the northern or prevailing dialect, in which the 
Koran is written, and the southern, which included the 
Himyaritic, originally spoken in Yemen and the extreme 
southern portion of Arabia. The Himyaritic (a term de¬ 
rived from Himyar, an ancient king of Yemen) is supposed 
to have been the basis of the Ethiopian language. 

The Arabic is one of the most extensively diffused lan¬ 
guages in the world. It not only prevails in Arabia, in 
Syria, and in a part of Mesopotamia, but it is spoken in its 
various dialects (which are more or less corrupted) through¬ 
out a large part of Northern Africa, from the shores of the 
Atlantic to the Red Sea. The language is spoken with 
much purity in Egypt, which, since its conquest during 
the caliphate of Omar, in 640 A. D., has been one of the 
principal centres of Arabian culture. From about the 
ninth to the twelfth or thirteenth century it was the pre¬ 
vailing tongue of a large part of the Spanish Peninsula, 
and its traces are still seen not merely in many of the 
names, but in the language, of Spain at the present day. 

Arabian Literature is very rich, especially in poetry 
and other productions of the imagination. Even before the 
time of Mohammed, the Arabs had celebrated poets, who 
sang the praises of heroes and the charms of beautiful 
women. During the great fairs at Mecca poetic contests 
were held in much the same manner as at the games of 
ancient Greece, and the poems which received the prizes 
were, it is said, written out in golden characters, and sus¬ 
pended in the Kaaba (Caaba) at Mecca, the famous temple 
which was said to have been built by Ishmael. From 

this circumstance they are called Mo’allakat 
—that is, “ suspended.” 

Among the Arabian poets, Mohammed is admitted to 
hold, beyond all comparison, the highest place. His fol¬ 
lowers were wont to refer their opponents to the sublimity 
and beauty of the Koran as an unanswerable proof that its 
author was divinely inspired. 

It may be said that, with perhaps the exception of Mo¬ 
hammed, the Arabs have had no poet of the highest class, 
nor have they produced any great epic, or any drama 
worthy of the name. It is in lyric and romantic composi¬ 
tion that they most excel. 

There is one kind of poetical fiction, called “Assemblies” 
(Arab. Makamat oU.Uw)> which may be said to be pe¬ 
culiar to Arabic literature. The “Assemblies” may be re¬ 
garded as the first step towards dramatic composition. The 
author of this species of writing was Hamadanee (or Al- 
Hamadanee), who flourished towards the close of the tenth 
century. He imagined a witty and unscrupulous impro¬ 
viser wandering from place to place, and living on the 
presents which the display of his marvellous talents pro¬ 
cured from his hearers, and a narrator, or story-teller, who 
should be continually meeting with the other, should relate 
his adventures and repeat his excellent improvisations. He 
gave to these compositions the name of “Assemblies,” be¬ 
cause the improviser was always introduced as making his 
appearance in some company or assembly of strangers, 
where the narrator also happens to be, and is sure to be 
greatly astonished at the tricks, wit, and genius ot the 
other, which he afterwards relates in his own language, and 
these relations constitute the “Assemblies” as they are 
presented to us. Of this species of composition the “As¬ 
semblies” of Hareeree (Hariri) furnishes, perhaps, the best 


















200 ARABIAN NIGHTS—ARABIC!. 


specimen. Hareeree is regarded by the Arabs as a con¬ 
summate master of dictiou, and the highest authority in 
the use of language. “ For more than seven centuries/’ 
says a recent writer, “ his work (the ‘ Assemblies ’) has been 
esteemed as, next to the Koran, the chief treasure of the 
Arabic tongue. Contemporaries and posterity have vied 
in their praises of him. His ‘Assemblies’ have been com¬ 
mented on with infinite learning and labor in Andalusia and 
on the banks of the Oxus.” (See Introduction to the “As¬ 
semblies of Al-Hariri,” translated by T. Chenery, London, 
1867.) 

In romance especially the Arabs may be said to excel. 
Among the works of this class we may name the “ Feats 
of Antar,” the stories or fables of Ibn Arabshah, etc. 
But perhaps the most universally popular, not merely of 
Arabian fiction, but of all fiction of which we have any 
knowledge, is the famous collection of tales known as the 
“Arabian Nights” (which see). 

In philosophy, mathematics, history, geography, medi¬ 
cine, and physics, the Arabs, during the period of their 
power, rendered important services to science and civiliza¬ 
tion ; the Arabic terms still found in the language of sci¬ 
ence, such as alcohol, ahjebra, almanac, azimuth , nadir, 
zenith, etc., sufficiently attest their influence on the early 
intellectual culture of Europe. During the period known 
as the Dark Ages the scientific works of Aristotle and other 
Greek philosophers were translated for the most part by 
Christian scholars, who resided as physicians at the courts 
of the califs in great numbers. These works were dili¬ 
gently studied in the Mohammedan capitals of Bagdad, 
Damascus, and Cdrdova, and served to diffuse a knowledge 
of those great writers among nations who otherwise would 
have remained in utter ignorance of them and their 
writings. 

The most glorious period of Mohammedan culture ex¬ 
tended from about 750 to 1200 A. D. During this period 
the Abbasside califs, Haroun-al-Raschid, Motassem, and 
Mamoon, reigned at Bagdad, which, under their auspices, 
became a magnificent centre of science, letters, and the 
arts. In the far East, Mahmood of Gazna (about 990-1030), 
though a sanguinary conqueror, was ambitious of the dis¬ 
tinction of a patron of literature. At his court flourished 
Firdousee* (Firdausi), the greatest not only of all Persian 
but of all Moslem poets, Mohammed only excepted. In 
Spain, under the califs of the Omeyyade dynasty, the 
period of Arabian culture Avas not less glorious, and was 
of much longer duration, than that under the Abbassides. 
Al-Hakem, calif of Cordova (961-76), had, it is said, a 
library of 600,000 volumes. The high reputation for learn¬ 
ing of the Spanish Arabs is shown by the fact that some of 
the best students of Christendom visited Cordova in order 
to study the philosophy of Aristotle, medicine, and mathe¬ 
matics under Arabian professors. To the Arabs we are 
indebted for the preservation of many works from classical 
antiquity, which without their care and zeal would in all 
probability have perished during the long period of dark¬ 
ness and semi-barbarism that followed the overthrow of the 
Western Roman empire. 

Among the most distinguished Arabian authors, besides 
those already mentioned in this article, we may name—1. 
In poetry, Khansa, a female poet contemporary with Mo¬ 
hammed ; Ibn-Doreid (838-933); Al-Mootenabbee (about 
900-965); and Booseeree (or Busiri), who flourished in 
Upper Egypt (about 1250). 2. In philosophy, Alchindus 

flourished under the calif Mamoon (about 820); Alfarabius, 
who lived at Damascus (about 950); Avicenna (980-1037), 
who was even more celebrated as a physician than as a 
philosopher; Averroes (about 1120-98), wrote at Cordova, 
in Spain, a commentary on Aristotle, to which Dante alludes. 
3. In medicine the Arabs excelled all the nations of that 
period; they are commonly regarded as the earliest experi¬ 
menters in chemistry (alchemy). Among their celebrated 
physicians were Razes (or Rhazes), (870-930), who is said 
to have been the first to describe the smallpox accurately; 
Avicenna (Iba Sina), already mentioned, the most famous 
of all the Arabian physicians; Averroes was also distin¬ 
guished as a physician; Abulcasem (Abulcasis), the most 
distinguished of Arabian surgeons, is supposed to have 
practised in Cordova (about 1050-1110); he left a treatise 
on surgery, the most valuable that has come down to us 
from early times. 4. In mathematics the labors of the 
Arabs were not less useful than in other branches of science, 
though they cannot perhaps boast of so many famous names 


* All Mohammedan culture may be considered to be in one 
sense an otfshoot of Greek culture. Not only was the genius of 
the poetry of the modern Persians greatly modified by the in¬ 
fluence of Islamism. but the Persian language itself includes a 
very large mixture of Arabic words and phrases. This is espe¬ 
cially remarkable with respect to some of the later poets. To 
understand thoroughly the works of Saadi, for example, a very 
considerable knowledge of Arabic is absolutely requisite. 


as in philosophy and medicine. They contributed greatly 
to simplify and improve the science of numbers by the in¬ 
troduction of the Indian numerals, with the decimal nota¬ 
tion. They appear to have been the first to introduce the 
knowledge of algebra (which had been previously cul¬ 
tivated by the Greeks and Hindoos) into Western Europe. 
Mohammed Ibn Moosa (who flourished at Bagdad from 
about 810-833) is said to have been the first of his country¬ 
men who wrote on algebra. He also wrote on optics and 
astronomy. Albategnius (Albateni), who died at Bagdad 
in 929, wrote some valuable works on astronomy; Abool- 
feda combined mathematics and astronomy with geography. 
5. In history and geography, Masoodee, one of the first of 
Arab historians, was born at Bagdad, and died at Cairo in 
956. His “Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems” com¬ 
prises the history, the politics, the religion, and the geog¬ 
raphy of many Oriental and European nations. Aboolfeda 
(1273-1331) has left works of great value in this and other 
departments of knowledge. His “ Description of the Coun¬ 
tries ” is considered the best work on geography which the 
Arabian writers have bequeathed to us. Abulfaragius and 
Elmacin (or Elmakin), though Christians, wrote in the 
Arabic language valuable general histories. Ibn Ivhaldoon 
(1332-1406) wrote a valuable history of the Arabs, Per¬ 
sians, and Berbers. Makreezee flourished at Cairo (1360- 
1442), and wrote some excellent historical works. Mak- 
karee, or Al-Makkari (1585-1631), wrote a history of the 
“ Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain,” which has been trans¬ 
lated into English by Gayangos, London, 1840. 

Those who seek for a general view of Arabian literature 
are referred to IIammer-Purgstall’s “ Encyklopadischen 
Uebersicht der Wissenschaften des Orients” (Leipsic, 1804), 
and his “ Literaturgeschichte der Araber” (7 vols. 4to, 
1850-56); Renan, “ Averrhoes et 1’ Averrhoisme;” Wiiew- 
ell, “ History of the Inductive Sciences.” 

J. Thomas. 

Arabian Nights, sometimes called The Thousand 
and One Nights, the title of a collection of wild and 
fanciful Oriental tales, first brought to the notice of Europe 
in the latter part of the seventeenth century, by Antoine 
Galland, a French Orientalist. These fascinating fictions 
are probably more widely diffused and read than almost 
any other production of the human mind. The origin and 
author of this collection are still unknown. According to 
some authorities, the “Arabian Nights” may be properly 
divided into three portions, which may be respectively 
traced to a Persian, an Indian, and an Arabian origin. 
Throughout the entire work, however, everything appears 
to be conformable to the character and customs of the 
Arabian people and to the Mohammedan faith. The fact 
that Haroun-al-Raschid figures in several of the stories goes 
to prove that they, at least, must have been written after 
his death; while the omission of any mention of coffee and 
tobacco (except in two or three instances, where the names 
are supposed to be interpolations) shows that the work 
must have been composed before the introduction of those 
articles into Western Asia (in the latter half of the fifteenth 
century). “Many of the tales,” says Mr. Lane, referring 
to this remarkable work, “ are doubtless of different and 
early origins, and its general plan is probably borrowed 
from a much older production bearing the same title.” 
After some further remarks, he states it as his opinion that 
the composition in its present form was probably com¬ 
menced in the last quarter of the fifteenth, and completed 
in the first quarter of the sixteenth, century, and that the 
author or authors must have been Egyptian, because the 
description of Arab life as it is seen in Cairo is so minutely 
accurate in all respects. But respecting the date and place 
of its composition, Oriental critics are far from being agreed. 
The work has been translated by W. Beaumont (1811), 
Macnaghten, Scott, Torrens, E. Foster (1802), and Lane 
(1839). Most of these translations were from the French. 
It is noteworthy that the tales differ considerably in various 
Arabic texts. Among the best translations of the “Arabian 
Nights ” is that of the celebrated Oriental scholar already 
mentioned, Mr. Edward Lane. The translation is perhaps 
unequalled for its thoroughness and accuracy, and in the 
graces of style is probably not inferior to any other in our 
language. The “Arabian Nights” has given rise to many 
imitations, among the best of which in English is “Tales of 
the Genii,” by Sir Charles Morell. J. Thomas. 

Arabian Numerals or Figures, a name given to 
the characters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, which the Europeans 
received through the Arabs from the Hindoos. The use of 
these numerals was not general in Europe before the inven¬ 
tion of printing. 

Arabic, Gum, exudes spontaneously from the stems 
of several species of acacia. (See Arabin and Gum.) 

Arab'ici (i. e. “Arabians”), an heretical sect which 
arose in Arabia in the third century, the founder of which 












ARABIN—ARAGO. 


was Beryllus, bishop of Bostra. They denied Christ’s di¬ 
vinity, and believed that the soul dies, and is raised again 
with the body. They were confuted by Origen. 

Ar'abin, the essential principle of gum-arabic, is ob¬ 
tained pure by adding alcohol to a solution of gum-arabic 
in water. It dissolves readily in cold water, forming a 
gummy solution, and is precipitated by alcohol. It appears 
to be a weak acid, and to exist in the natural gum in com¬ 
bination with lime, magnesia, and potash. Its composition, 
like that of cane-sugar, is C 12 H 22 O 11 . 

Aracan', or Arracan [called by the natives Ra- 
khaing'], a British province of Farther India, extending 
along the E. side of the Bay of Bengal, and bounded on the 
E. by the Burmese empire, from which it is separated by a 
range of high mountains. The greatest length from N. to 
S. is about 280 miles, and the area is 15,104 square miles. 
The surface is diversified, and extensively covered with 
forests. The chief productions are rice, tobacco, indigo, 
cotton, salt, oil, ivory, hides, and timber. Aracan was con¬ 
quered from the Burmese by the British in 1826. Chief 
town, Akyab. Pop. 321,522. 

Aracan, or Arracan, a town of Farther India, in the 
above province, situated on the river Aracan, about 50 miles 
from its entrance into the Bay of Bengal, about lat. 20° 
45' N., and Ion. 93° 15' E. It was formerly the capital of 
the province and a populous town, but it is now much re¬ 
duced. Pop. estimated at 10,000. 

Araca'ri, or Aricari ( Pteroglos'eus ), a genus of birds, 



natives of tropical South America, and nearly allied to the 
toucan, but generally smaller, with longer tails. The bill 
of one species is white, with a blood-red stripe along the 
middle. One of the most remarkable is the curl-crested 
ara$ari, having the feathers upon its head beautifully curled. 

Araca'ty, a port in the province of Ceara, Brazil, has 
three churches, several schools, and a trade in hides and 
cotton. It is on the river Jaguaribe ; lat. 4° 31' S., Ion. 
37° 48' W. There is a bad bar at the river’s mouth. Pop. 
about 9000. 

Ara'ceae [so named from Arum , one of its genera], a 
natural order of endogenous herbaceous plants, natives of 
temperate and especially of tropical countries. The leaves 
are sheathing at the base, convolute in the bud ; the flowers 
are naked, arranged on a spadix, which is usually enclosed 
in a spathe; the male flowers at the upper part of the spa¬ 
dix, and the female at the base. The genus Arum is the 
type of this order, which is characterized by an acrid juice 
and a nutritious amylaceous substance which is used for 
food. The Amorphopctllus is cultivated in. India for its 
roots (or corms), which are edible. (See Arum.) 

Arachis. See Pea-nut. 


201 


Arach'nida, or Arach'nides [from the Or. ipdxvrj, a 
“spider ”], an order of articulated animals which resemble 
insects in many respects, and are properly regarded as a 
subdivision of that class, but they have no antennae, have 
simple eyes, and generally have eight legs. Like the Crus¬ 
tacea, they have the head and thorax united into one piece. 
They are mostly carnivorous, and some of them are parasitic. 
The primary divisions of this class are Araneina (spiders), 
Pedipalpi (scorpions, etc.), and Acarina (ticks and mites). 

Arach'noid [from the Gr. dpdxrr), a “ spider,” also 
“spider’s web,” and eL5o?, “form” or “resemblance”], re¬ 
sembling a spider’s web, applied to the second or middle 
membrane of the brain. (See next article.) 

Arach'noid Mem'brane (sometimes called me'ninx 
me'dia), the fine cobweb-like serous membrane situated be¬ 
tween the dura and pia mater. It covers both brain and 
spinal cord. It is a closed sac, disposed in two layers. 

Arad, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. by 
Bihar, on the E. by Zarand and Transylvania, on the S. 
by Temes and Krasso, and on the W. by Csanad. Area, 
2322 square miles. In the E. it consists of high mountain- 
ranges, but the W. is a fertile plain, traversed by the White 
Koros. Grain of all kinds, wine, and tobacco are produced 
here in large quantities and of an excellent quality. Chief 
•town, Arad. Pop. in 1869, 304,713. 

Arad, New [Hun. Uj Arad], a town of Hungary, in the 
county of Temcsv&r, and on the left bank of the Maros. 
Here is an extensive fortress, which is one of the strongest 
in the Austrian empire, and is used as a prison for political 
offenders. Pop. in 1869, 4960. 

Arad, Old [Hun. O Arad], an open town, capital of 
the county of Arad, is on the right bank of the Maros, 35 
miles E. of Szegedin. It is a bishop’s see, has a Greek the¬ 
ological seminary, a normal school, and manufactures of 
tobacco, etc. It is an important cattle-market, and has a 
considerable trade in grain. Pop. in 1869, 32,725. 

Ar'adus [the Arvad or Arpad of the Bible], one of the 
chief cities of ancient Phoenicia, was built upon the island 
now called Ruad, which is small and rocky, and is situated 
35 miles N. of Tripoli, and 2 miles from the main land. It 
long continued to be a place of great population and im¬ 
portance. It was supplied with water from submarine 
springs. It was destroyed and depopulated by the Mos¬ 
lems in the seventh century. Many relics of its former 
greatness remain. It has still a small population. 

Arafat', Mount, or .Tebel-er-Rahm (?. e. the 

“mountain of mercy”), a granite hill of Arabia, 15 miles 
E. of Mecca, rises about 200 feet above the plain. It is 
visited annually by a great multitude of Mohammedan pil¬ 
grims, who believe that this is the place where Adam and 
Eve first met after they had been expelled from Paradise 
and had been separated 120 years. 

Ar'ago, a post-village of Richardson co., Neb., on the 
Missouri River, about 28 miles below Brownville. Pop. of 
village, 364; of Arago township, 1245. 

Arago (Dominique Francois), a French astronomer 
and savant, was born at Estagel, near Perpignan (Eastern 
Pyrenees), Feb. 26, 1786. He entered the Polytechnic 
School in 1803, and became in 1805 secretary to the bu¬ 
reau of longitudes. In 1806, Arago and Biot were em¬ 
ployed by the government to perform the measurement of 
an arc of the meridian from Barcelona to the Balearic 
Isles, in order to complete an important operation which 
Delambre and Mechain had commenced. While he was 
engaged in this arduous work among the mountains, war 
broke out between the French and Spaniards. Arago es¬ 
caped from the violence of the Spaniards, who suspected 
him to be a spy, but on his voyage towards home was 
driven by a tempest to Algiers, where he was held as a 
slave. He was finally liberated, and returned to France in 
July, 1S09. In consideration of his services and sufferings 
he was elected a member of the Institute in 1809, although 
he was under the age that the rules required. About the 
same time he was appointed professor of analysis in the 
Polytechnic School, where he lectured for many years. He 
afterwards devoted much attention to optics, astronomy, 
and magnetism. In 1812 he commenced a course of lec¬ 
tures on astronomy, which were rendered very popular by 
a brilliant style added to their other merits. Arago and 
Gay-Lussac founded in 1816 the “Annales de Chimie et 
de Physique.” He advocated the undulatory theory of 
' light, and made several discoveries in the science of elec¬ 
tro-magnetism. For his discovery of the development of 
magnetism by rotation, lie received the Copley medal of 
the Royal Society of London in 1825. He became in 1830 
director of the Observatory of Paris and' perpetual secre¬ 
tary of the Academy of Sciences. His reputation as a 
writer was increased by the eulogies which he composed 
on Condorcet, Ampere, and Carnot, and other members 















202 


ARAGO—ARAM. 


of that academy. He displayed a remarkable faculty of 
popularizing science in his writings and lectures. 

Arago promoted the revolution of 1830, and was elected 
in 1S31 to the Chamber of Deputies, in which he acted 
with the extreme gauche, the advanced republicans. He 
was a member of the provisional government formed by 
tho republicans in Feb., 1848, and co-operated with Lamar¬ 
tine in resistance to the socialists and in the maintenance 
of order. He officiated as minister of war and the marine 
for several months, and was one of the executive commit¬ 
tee of five elected by the Assembly in May, 1848. About 
this time the voters of his native department elected him 
to the National Assembly. He opposed the election of 
Louis Napoleon to the presidency, and refused the oath of 
allegiance after the coup d'etat of Dec., 1851. The em¬ 
peror recognized his eminent services by excepting him 
from the enforcement of the law on this point. Arago 
died on the 2d of Oct., 1853, leaving a son, Emmanuel, 
noticed below. He was a friend of Alexander von Hum¬ 
boldt and of Faraday, - was a man of a generous disjiosi- 
tion, an ardent temperament, and great energy of cha¬ 
racter. “ The popularity of M. Arago,” says Dc Lomenie, 
“ the European reputation which he enjoys, his marked 
position in politics, have all combined to attach to his 
name tho idea of a species of intellectual royalty.” The 
same biographer attributes to him a “ marvellous faculty 
of illumining with unexpected radiance the most abstract 
theories.” (See L. be Lomenie, “Galerie des Contempo- 
rains;” D. F. Arago, “Histoire de ma Jcunesse,” 1854; 
Charles Robin, “ Biographie de D. F. Arago,” 1848; J. A. 
Barral, “F. Arago,” 8vo, 1853; Bertrand, “Arago et sa 
Vie Scientifique,” 1865; Audiganne, “ Francois Arago,” 
1869.) William Jacobs. 

Arago (Emmanuel), a son of the preceding, born at 
Paris Aug. 2, 1812. Ho studied law, and gained distinc¬ 
tion as an advocate and counsel for the defence in political 
trials. Like his father, he was a keen republican, and took 
an active part in the revolution of 1848. In this crisis he 
was selected by the republicans to protest in the Chamber 
of Deputies against the appointment of a regency. He 
was sent as commissary-general to Lyons in March, was 
elected to the Constituent Assembly in April, and was sent 
as minister to Berlin in May, 1848. He resigned this 
position in Dec., 1848, in consequence of the election as 
president of Louis Napoleon, whoso designs he constantly 
opposed. The coup d'etat of Dec., 1851, and the regime 
that followed, excluded Arago from the public service. On 
the formation of a provisional government by the republi¬ 
cans in Sept., 1870, he became a member of the same. He 
was elected a member of the National Assembly in 1871. 

Arago (Etienne), a dramatic author, a brother of 
the great savant, D. F. Arago, born at Estagel, near Per¬ 
pignan, Feb. 7, 1803, produced a number of successful 
comedies and vaudevilles, which exhibit a talent for satire. 
Among his works is “The Aristocrats” (1847), a comedy 
in verse. He fought for the popular cause in the revolu¬ 
tion of 1830, and founded the “ Reform,” a daily republi¬ 
can journal, in 1834. He was director-general of the post- 
office from Feb., 1848, until December of that year, and in 
that position acted with much vigor and ability. As a 
member of the National Assembly he voted with the gauclie 
and opposed the policy of Louis Napoleon. He was exiled 
in June, 1849. After the proclamation of the republic in 
Sept., 1870, he was appointed maire of Paris, which posi¬ 
tion he held until November. In Feb., 1871, he was 
elected a member of the National Assembly, but soon re¬ 
signed on account of his age. 

Arago (Jacques Etienne Victor), a French litterateur, 
brother of the preceding, was born at Estagel Mar. 10, 
1790. lie accompanied the exploring expedition of Frey- 
cinet, as draughtsman, in 1817, and on his return in 1821 
published a “ Tour round the World in the Uranie,” etc. 
(2 vols., 1822). Among his works are several dramas. 
Although he had become blind, he joined a party that went 
to California in 1849 to dig for gold, and published “ Travels 
of a Blind Man in California,” etc. (1851). Died in 1855. 

Ar' agon, a former kingdom of Spain, bounded on the 
N. by France, on the E. by Catalonia, on the S. by Valen¬ 
cia, and on the W. by Navarre and the Castiles. Length 
from N. to S., about 200 miles. Area 17,980 square miles. 
It is now divided into the provinces of Huesca, Saragossa 
(Zaragoza), and Teruel. The Pyrenees, which extend 
along the northern border of Aragon, rise to the height of 
11,000 feet. The surface is diversified by several ranges 
of mountains and many fertile and beautiful valleys. Ara¬ 
gon is intersected by the river Ebro, which flows south¬ 
eastward and divides it into two nearly equal parts. A 
considerable portion of the soil is sterile. Among the 
mineral resources of this region are copper, iron, lead, co¬ 
balt, quicksilver, marble, stone coal, alum, and salt. Ara¬ 


gon was conquered by the Moors in the eighth century. 
The Christian kingdom of Aragon, founded in 1035, be¬ 
came a powerful state, which was united with Castile by 
the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella ot Cas¬ 
tile in 1469. The chief towns are Saragossa and Huesca. 
Pop. in 1867, 925,773. (See Sciimidt, “ Gcschichte Ara- 
goniens im Mittelalter.”) 

Arago'na, a town of the island of Sicily, in the province 
of Girgenti, 8 miles N. ot Girgenti. It has a ruined castle 
and large sulphur-mines. Pop. in 1861, 7947. 

Ar'agonite, or Ar'ragonite, a variety of carbonate 
of lime, first found in Aragon. It crystallizes in hexag¬ 
onal prisms, or in crystals of which the primary forms a 
rhombic prism. It resembles calcareous spar in composi¬ 
tion, but differs from it in the form of its crystals, and is 
reduced to powder by a heat in which calcareous spar re¬ 
mains unchanged. Satin spar is a variety of aragonite. 

Ara'gua, a province of Venezuela, is bounded on the N. 
by Carabobo and Caracas, on the E. by Caracas, on the 
S. by Guarico and Carabobo, and on the W. by Carabobo. 
Area, about 3720 square miles. This province is one of the 
most beautiful and fertile parts of Venezuela, and is trav¬ 
ersed by the river Aragua, from which it takes its name, 
and numerous other small rivers, which all enter Lako 
Valencia. The hills and mountains are covered with plan¬ 
tations, gardens, and country-seats. Here the strange scene 
strikes the eye of wheat-fields and plantations of sugar and 
coffee side by side at an elevation of 3000 feet. Chief toivn, 
Victoria. Pop. 81,500. 

Araguay', or Araguay'a, a large river of Brazil, 
rises in the mountains about lat. 18° 10' S. and Ion. 51° 30' 
W. It flows northward, forms the boundary between 
Goyaz and Matto-Grosso, and after a course of 1300 miles 
joins the Tocantins at Sao Joao. It is navigable for about 
il00 miles. About midway from its source to its mouth it 
encloses the island of Santa Anna, 210 miles long. The 
stream on the E. side of this island is called Furo. 

Ara'lia, a genus of plants of the order Araliacese, na¬ 
tives of the U. S., of the Himalaya Mountains, and other 
regions. It comprises a number of species which are used 
in medicine, as the ginseng, Aralia quinquefolia; Aralia 
nudicaulis, called wild sarsaparilla, which groivs in the 
U. S.; Aralia spinosa, a native of Virginia, which is a 
stimulant diaphoretic, called angelica tree or toothache 
tree; and Aralia racemosa, or American spikenard, which 
produces an aromatic gum-resin. Chinese rice-paper is 
cut from cylinders of the pith of Aralia papyri/era. 

Aralia'cese [so called from Ara'lia, one of its genera], 
a natural order of exogenous plants, natives of tropical, 
temperate, and cold regions in various parts of the globe. 
It comprises about 160 known species (trees, shrubs, and 
herbaceous plants), generally possessing stimulant or aro¬ 
matic properties. The fruit consists of several one-seeded 
cells. The leaves of several species are used as fodder for 
cattle in India. One species of this order, the ivy, is a 
native of England. 

Ar'al, Sea of, a large inland sea or lake in Independ¬ 
ent Tartary, is about 150 miles E. of the Caspian Sea. It 
is included between lat. 43° and 47° N. Length, estimated 
at 262 miles; breadth, about 184 miles. Area, 26,900 
square miles. Next to the Caspian, it is the largest inland 
sea or lake of Asia. Having no outlet, it is consequently 
saline or brackish. The S. W. part, called Lake Landau, 
is shallow, and not more than five feet deep in the deepest 
part. The Aral is fed by the large river Oxus or Amoo, 
which enters the sea at its S. side: it also receives the river 
Sihou or Sir-Daria from the E. The latest measurements 
make it twenty-six feet above the level of the sea. Seals, 
sturgeons, and other fish are found in it. 

A'ram (Eugene), an English felon, born in Yorkshire 
in 1704. He had not the advantage of a liberal education, 
but he acquired a good knowledge of the Latin, Greek, He¬ 
brew, Chaldee, Arabic, and Welsh languages. He became 
a schoolmaster at Knaresborough, where he was intimate 
with a shoemaker named Daniel Clarke. The latter, hav¬ 
ing purchased some goods on credit, suddenly disappeared, 
leaving his debts unpaid. Aram was suspected of being an 
accomplice of Clarke in an attempt to defraud. A portion 
of the goods which Clarke had purchased was found in the 
garden of Aram, who was tried, but acquitted, after which 
he removed from Knaresborough. In 1759 a man named 
Houseman having confessed that he was accessory to the 
death of Clarke, whom Aram had killed, Aram was tried 
for the murder, and made an elaborate argument in his 
own defence, but was convicted, and afterwards confessed 
his guilt. He was hung Aug. 6, 1759. His story forms 
the subject of one of Bulwer’s novels and of a poem by 
Hood. (See Scatcherd, “ Memoirs of Eugene Aram,” 























ARAM^EA—ARAUCARIA. 203 


Araime'a [from A'ram, the son of Shem], the ancient 
name of a region of Asia, the boundaries of which are not 
well defined. It extended from Mount Taurus on the N. 
to Arabia on the S., and coincided nearly with the coun¬ 
tries called by the Greeks Syria, Babylonia, and Mesopo¬ 
tamia. The Aramaic language, a branch of the Semitic, 
was divided into two forms or dialects—the Syriac or West 
Aramaic, and the Chaldee or East Aramaic. The former 
was the language commonly spoken by the Jews in Pales¬ 
tine at the Christian era. 

Aran'da (Don Pedro Abaraca de Bolea), Count of, 
an able Spanish statesman, born of a noble family at Sara¬ 
gossa Dec. 21, 1718. He served many years in the army, 
and rose to the rank of general. In 1765 he became presi¬ 
dent of the council of Castile and prime minister. He used 
his power to promote reform and a liberal policy, and pro¬ 
cured the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain in 1767. In 
1773 he was removed from power by the intrigues of the 
clergy, but he was sent as an ambassador to France, where 
he remained until 1787. He was again prime minister for 
a short time in 1792, and was driven from power by Godoy. 
He died in 1799. 

Aranjuez' (anc. A'ra Jo f vis, i. e. “altar of Jupiter”), a 
town and royal residence of Spain, in New Castile, on the 
left bank of the Tagus, 30£ miles by rail S. S. E. of Madrid. 
It is situated in a beautiful valley, has spacious streets, 
elegant squares, and a royal palace and gardens laid out 
by Philip II. Here are also a theatre, a hospital, and sev¬ 
eral summer-houses in the royal gardens. Aranjuez was 
the scene of the abdication of Charles IV. in Mar., 1808. 
Pop. 10,725. 

Aran'sas, a small river of Southern Texas, rises in Bee 
county, flows south-eastward and enters Aransas Bay. 

Aransas, a post-village of Bee co., Tex. 

Aransas, a village of Refugio co., Tex., on the inside 
of St. Joseph’s Island and on Aransas Bay. It has a gov¬ 
ernment warehouse. 

Aransas Pass, the principal inlet to Aransas Bay 
and Corpus Christi Bay, Tex., between St. Joseph and Mus¬ 
tang islands. It is becoming commercially important, but 
has a troublesome shifting bar. The lighthouse is of brick, 
forty feet high, and stands on Low Island, inside the pass ,• 
lat. 27° 51' 51" N., Ion. 97° 2' 58" W. The Confederate 
works at this pass were captured by the Federal troops, 
with 100 prisoners and some guns, Nov. 20, 1864. 

Arany (Janos), a popular Hungarian poet, born at 
Nagy-Salonta in 1817, became in 1851 professor at Nagy- 
Koros, in 1859 member of the Hungarian Academy, and 
in 1860 director of the Kisfaludy Society at Pesth. His 
first work was a humorous poem called " The Lost Con¬ 
stitution of the Past” (1843), which gained a prize. He 
afterwards produced poems entitled " Toldi” (1847), "The 
Conquest of Murany” (1848), "Catherine” (" Katalin,” 
1850), and " Buda Haltila,” the first part of an epic trilogy, 
which in 1864 was crowned by the Hungarian Academy. 

Arap'ahoe, a county in the N. E. part of Colorado. 
Area, estimated at 4500 square miles. It is drained by the 
South Fork of Platte River, and by Beaver, Bijou, and 
Terrapin Creeks. The eastern part is a plain, and the 
western part is hilly or mountainous. Irrigation renders 
the soil extremely productive. Wheat, corn,*oats, buttei', 
and live-stock are extensively raised. Large quantities of 
gold have been found near the western border. This county 
is partly intersected by the Kansas Pacific R. R. and the 
Denver Pacific R. R., which connect at Denver, the county- 
seat. Pop. 6829. 

Arapa hoe , a new county of Southern Nebi’aska, bounded 
on the N. by the Platte River. 

Arapahoe Indians, a tribe of savages who live be¬ 
tween the South Fork of the Platte River and the head¬ 
waters of the Arkansas. They are associated with the 
Cheyennes. The two tribes together numbered nearly 
4000 in 1870. 

Arapai'ma, a genus of fresh-water fishes found in the 
rivers of South America, and highly esteemed for food. 
They are the largest fresh-water fishes in the world, and 
are allied to the Clupeidee or herring family. Some of them 
measure about fifteen feet long, and weigh 400 pounds or 
more. The body is covered with strong, bony, compound 
scales. 

Ar'arat, a celebrated mountain of Western Asia, rises 
from the plain of the Aras (or Araxes) about 33 miles S. W. 
of Erivan. It is called by the Persians Koh-i-Nooh, 
" Mountain of Noah.” It is on the boundary between 
Persia, Asiatic Turkey, and the Russian possessions. The 
highest peak is in lat. 39° 42' N. and Ion. 43° 38' E., is 
covered with perpetual snow, and has an altitude of 16,915 
feet above the level of the sea, or 14,200 feet above the 


plain of the Aras. It is a volcano, the last eruption of 
which occurred in July, 1840. 

Ararat, Little, a peak which is S. E. of the preced¬ 
ing, and rises in the form of a cone to the height of about 
13,700 feet above the level of the sea. The summits of 
these two mountains are seven miles apart in a direct line, 
but their bases are nearly in contact. According to the 
eighth chapter of Genesis, the ark rested "upon the moun¬ 
tains of Ararat.” 

Ararat, or Pilot Mountain, a hill in Surrey co., 
N. C., between the Arai'at and Dan rivers, is 3000 feet 
high. It is visible at a distance, and serves as a land- 
mark to ti’avellers. 

Ararat, a township of Susquehanna co., Pa. P. 771. 

Arari'pe, Ser'ra de, a table-land or chain of moun¬ 
tains in Brazil. It forms a semicircle around the plain in 
which Crato is situated, and is near the boundary between 
Ceara and Pernambuco. 

Aras' (the ancient Arctx'es), a river of Western Asia, 
rises in the Turkish pashalic of Erzx-um. It flows east¬ 
ward, passes near the northern foot of Mount Ararat, and 
traverses the Persian province of Adzerbijan. It after¬ 
wards turns towards the N. E., and enters Georgia or the 
Russian dominions, and unites with the river Kur about 
60 miles from its entrance into the Caspian Sea. Its whole 
length is about 500 miles. 

Ara'tus [’Apart)?], an eminent Greek poet and astron¬ 
omer, born at Soli, in Cilicia, flourished about 290-260 
B. C. He was patronized by Antigonus Gonatas, king of 
Macedonia, at whose court he passed his latter years. He 
wrote an astronomical poem entitled " Phenomena,” which 
is the oldest extant poem on that subject, and was much 
admired by the ancients. It was translated into Latin by 
Cicero, and was the subject of a commentary by Hippar¬ 
chus. He is supposed to be the poet quoted by St. Paul in 
a discourse to the Athenians. (See Acts xvii. 28.) Aiatus 
also wrote a poem on the weather, called " Diosemeia,” or 
" Pi-ognostica.” A good edition of his poems was jxub- 
lished by Bulile, 1793-1801. 

Ara'tus of Sic'yon, a celebi'ated Greek general and 
statesman, born at Sicyon in 271 B. C., was a son of 
Clinias, who was assassinated about 264. Ai-atus then es¬ 
caped to Ai'gos, where he was liberally educated. In 251 
B. C., with the aid of other exiles, he liberated Sicyon 
from the tyrant Nicocles, and united it with the Achaean 
League, of which he was chosen general ( strate'gos ) in 
245. An impoi'tant object of the league was to maintain 
the independence of the Greek states against the king of 
Macedonia. He expelled a Macedonian garrison from 
Corinth in 243 B. C., was many times re-elected general- 
in-chief, and managed the affairs of the league with much 
ability. About 226 the league was involved in a war 
against Cleomenes, king of Sparta, who defeated Aratus 
in sevei’al battles. Aratus formed in 222 an alliance with 
Antigonus of Macedon against the Spai'tans. He died in 
213 B. C., leaving the reputation of a true patriot. (See 
Plutarch, “Life of Aratus;” Polybius, "History.”) 

Araiica'nia, or Arauca'na, an independent state 
in the S. part of Chili, is bounded on the E. by the Andes 
and on the IV. by the Pacific Ocean. It extends from the 
river Bio-Bio on the N. to Valdivia, or to lat. 40° S., being 
about 190 miles long. The physical features, climate, and 
productions are similar to those of Chili. The Araucanians 
are remarkable for their independent spirit and their suc¬ 
cessful resistance to foreign domination. The Spaniards 
made an unsuccessful attempt to subdue them in 1537 and 
at several subsequent periods. On this subject Ercilla, a 
Spaniard, wrote a celebrated epic poem called "Araucana.” 
It is said that they possess many noble qualities, and cul¬ 
tivate poetry, but abhor the restraints of civilization. 
They recognize a Supreme Being and a future state, but 
build no temples. The government is administered by four 
hereditary toquis, each of whom rules over one of the prov¬ 
inces into which their country is divided. The most im¬ 
portant national questions arc decided by the grand coun¬ 
cil composed of these toquis, or by a general assembly. In 
1860, a French lawyer, De Tonnens, who had gained con¬ 
siderable influence among the Araucanians, proclaimed 
himself, under the name of Orelie Antoine I., constitu¬ 
tional king of Araucania. He was in 1861 taken prisoner 
by the Chilians and sent back to France. In the treaty ot 
Jan. 22, 1870, the Araucanians promised to recognize the 
authority of Chili, but subsequently King Orelie once more 
made his appearance in Araucania and defied the Chilian 
troops. In 1873 financial agents of Or61ie made great 
efforts to effect a loan in London. (See Molina, " History 
of Chili;” Edward R. Smith, "The Araucanians,” etc., 
New York, 1855.) 

Arauca'ria [said to be derived from Araucania (which 












204 


ARAUCO— ARBORICULTURE. 


sec)], a genus of plants of the natural order Coniferae, na¬ 
tives of South America. They are all evergreen trees, and 
are distinguished by having the male and female flowers 
on separate trees, the pollen contained in from ten to twenty 
cases pendent from the apex of each scale, the female 
flowers two under each scale, each having one ovule. The 
Araucaria imbricata, or Chili pine, a native of the Chilian 
Andes, attains the height of 150 feet, and produces a seed 
which is an important article of food; also a fragrant resin 
in abundance. The timber is hard, heavy, and suitable 
for the masts of ships. This tree is cultivated as an orna¬ 
ment of landscapes. The Norfolk Island pine, which is 
about 200 feet high, was formerly called Araucaria, but 
botanists now include it in the genus Altingia or Eutassa. 

Arau'co, a province of Chili, is bounded on the N. by 
Concepcion, on the E. by the Andes, on the S. by Valdivia, 
and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. Area, 13,714 square 
miles. The soil is fertile, but as the ground is covered for 
a large part by forests, agriculture has made very little 
progress. The chief article of export is timber. Chief 
town, Arauco. Pop. in 1870, 87,077. 

Arau'jo d’Azeve'do (Antonio), Count da Barca, a 
Portuguese statesman, born at Ponte de Lima May 14, 
1754. lie negotiated at Paris, and signed, a treaty of 
peace with France in 1797, but the French Directory an¬ 
nulled it. He became minister of foreign affairs in 1806. 
After Napoleon had invaded Portugal and captured Lis¬ 
bon, Araujo accompanied the king, John VI., to Brazil in 
1808. He was appointed minister of marine in 1814, and 
in 1817 sole minister. He was a man of various accom¬ 
plishments ; he wrote poetry and gained distinction by his 
scientific attainments. Died June 21, 1817. 

Arau'jo Por'to-AIle'gre, de (Manoel), one of the 
most prominent poets of Brazil, was born at Bio Pardo in 
1806. He was appointed in 1859 consul-general for Brazil 
to Prussia. His principal works are an epic entitled “ Co¬ 
lombo,” and lyric poems called “Brasilianas.” 

Aravul'li, or Aravali, a mountain-range of Hin- 
dostan, traverses Ajmeer, and is about 300 miles long. The 
highest summits are about 5000 feet above the level of the 
sea. It constitutes the watershed between the Arabian Sea 
and the system of the Ganges. The general direction of 
the range is N. N. E. and S. S. W. 

Ar'lmces [Gr. 'Ap^dsns], a Median general who revolted 
against Sardanapalus, captured Nineveh, his capital, and 
on the ruins of the Assyrian empire founded the kingdom 
of Media, about 876 B. C. 

Ar'balest, or Arbalast [Lat. arcuballis'ta, from 
cu8, a “ bow,” and ballis'ta, “an engine for shooting ;” Fr. 
arbalete], a name of the crossbow, which was much used 
in the battles of the Middle Ages. It was sometimes made 
of steel. The arrow or other missile was placed in a barrel 
or groove which was perpendicular to the cord or bowstring. 
The arrow discharged by these bows was called a quarrel. 

Arbe'la, now Arbeel (Arbil or Erbil), a small town 
of Asiatic Turkey, in Ivoordistan, about 40 miles E. of 
Mosul. The modern town has some large mosques and ba¬ 
zaars. Arbela gave its name to the battle in which Darius 
was finally defeated by Alexander the Great, in 331 B. C., 
but it was fought at Gaugamela. Pop. about 6000. 

Arbela, a township of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop. 870. 

Ar'biter [a Latin word signifying “umpire ”], a person 
chosen by parties in a controversy to decide a question ; 
sometimes applied to a person who has the power of judg¬ 
ing and determining, or who is able to control the destiny 
of others.- Some cases among the ancient Romans were de¬ 
cided by an arbiter, especially when the parties differed in 
respect to the amount of money which one of them should 
pay to the other. 

Arbitra'tion [from the Lat. arbitror, to “ act as judge ” 

( arbiter)~\ , a submission of some matter in dispute to the 
judgment and decision of a person called an “arbitrator.” 
It applies to civil cases only, and- may be either oral or 
written. It is voluntary in its nature, as any party has a 
legal right to have an adjudication upon his case by a court 
of justice. Statute law sometimes makes arbitration com¬ 
pulsory, as where the investigation of a long account is 
necessary. Even after parties have agreed to submit a 
controversy to arbitration, one of them may withdraw his 
consent against the will of the other at any time before the 
hearing is closed. The only remedy of the other party is to 
bring an action for damages, which would usually be nom¬ 
inal. However, when parties enter into a contract, they 
may stipulate that no rights of action shall accrue under 
its provisions unless there is a submission on their part to 
arbitration; in which case the duty to submit becomes a 
condition precedent, and cannot be avoided. The result 
of the arbitration is termed an award. It is not, however, 
equivalent to a judgment of a court, and if not performed 


the regular course of the successful party would be to 
bring an action upon the award, and thus make it a 
judgment of a court. To avoid this inconvenience, stat¬ 
ute law frequently provides that on reducing the submis¬ 
sion to writing a clause may be inserted that the award 
may be entered on the records of a specified court as a 
judgment, whereupon it shall have the like force and effect. 
Having the characteristics of a judgment, the award falls 
under the control of the court, and modes are provided by 
which mistakes and errors may be rectified by judicial 
action. As a general rule, there is no review of the result 
of an arbitration. There are no methods of appeal pro- 
vided, as the theory of the proceeding is that the arbitrator 
is to be the judge of the difference between the parties. 
This rule does not prevent the rectification of mistakes in 
matters of fact, nor does it include the case of fraud or 
the violation of the first principles of justice; as, for ex¬ 
ample, the act of hearing one party, and not the other. 

Arbois, a town of France, department of Jura, about 
25 miles S. W. of Besangon. It is celebrated for its wine, 
and has manufactures of paper and earthenware. Here 
are some Roman antiquities. Pop. in 1866, 5895. 

Arbol-a-brea, the resin of Canarinm album (an amy- 
ridaceous tree), from the Philippine Islands. Baup {Ann. 
Ch. Pliys. [3], xxxi., 108) obtained several distinct princi¬ 
ples from it. 

Arbor'iculture [from the Lat. ar'bor, a “ tree,” and cul- 
tu'ra, “ culture” or “ cultivation”], the art of cultivating trees, 
includes the raising of plantations of forest trees for timber 
and fuel, and ornamental trees for landscape gardening; but 
the culture of fruit trees is commonly assigned to a separate 
head, or to horticulture and pomology. Arboriculture is 
becoming an art of increasing necessity in the U. S., as the 
native forests are rapidly disappearing by the consumption 
of wood for building, manufactures, railway structures, and 
many other purposes. 

Its Importance .—Though at the present time the timber 
crop is more important than any other product of the land, 
yet little attention is paid to it by land-owners. We have 
extended treatises on the management of wheat, corn, and 
other grain crops, on the best systems of rotation, and on 
the many details of farm management, but little is said on 
tree-planting; and not one farmer in a thousand sufficiently 
appreciates the importance of growing young timber on an 
extensive scale to supply the deficiency which will soon be 
felt everywhere as our native woodlands are rapidly cut 
away. An approximate statement of the amount of con¬ 
sumption may serve to show the absolute necessity of urging 
the importance of arboriculture on the attention of land- 
owners at large. In the State of New York alone about 
1,500,000 acres are cleared of timber in ten years; and in 
the U. S. about 3,000,000 yearly, or 30,000,000 acres in ten 
years, are stripped of their trees. Of the wood thus obtained, 
about 6,000,000 cords arc consumed annually for rail¬ 
road fuel; and over fifty million dollars’ worth of ties has 
been used in the construction of the railroads of the Union. 
The wood value of freight and passenger cars is over sev¬ 
enty million dollars, and of wooden bridges fifty million 
dollars. More than one hundred million-dollars’ worth of 
sawed lumber is annually used for shipbuilding, cooperage, 
and the vast number of manufactures wherein this material 
is extensively employed. The wood used as fuel cannot be 
less than twenty-five million cords per annum. Such facts 
as these naturally suggest the same thoughts that were ut¬ 
tered three hundred years ago by the illustrious and far- 
seeing Bernard Palissy, when expressing “his indignation 
at the folly of men in destroying woods.” He adds, “I 
cannot enough detest this thing, and I call it Dot an error, 
but a curse and calamity to all France; for when the forests 
shall be cut, all arts shall cease, and they who practise them 
shall be driven out to eat grass with Nebuchadnezzar and 
the beasts of the field. I have divers times thought to set 
down in writing the arts which shall perish when there 
shall be no more wood, but when I had written down a 
great number, I did perceive that there could be no end to 
my writing, and having diligently considered, I found that 
there was not any that could be followed without wood.” 

Forming Wood-plantations. —But we cannot ask land- 
owners to keep their old woods untouched. They cannot 
afford to hold a large amount of dead capital in the shape 
of the original forests. But new timber should be carefully 
restored as fast as the old is cut away. It is more econom¬ 
ical to reneiv a dense growth of young wood, and to clear 
it, off frequently, or once in about twenty years, than to 
allow the trees to grow a hundred and fifty years. The land 
will in the former case yield five or six' times as great a 
quantity as in the latter. There are two modes of renewal. 
One is to clear away the old trees entirely, and to allow the 
new growth to spring up spontaneously or from the closely- 
cut stumps; and the other is to make neiv plantations 
on well-cultivated land. The value of the new growth 






















ARBOR VITiE—ARBROATH. 


from the renewal of old trees depends much upon its cha¬ 
racter and denseness. To secure a good start, the old trees 
should be entirely cleared away, and not, as is too often the 
case, merely thinned out, leaving the middle growth stand¬ 
ing, for the few scattered trees of medium size which remain 
will shade and greatly retard everything below them. 
Every farmer knows that no young crop can flourish under 
the shade of thin woods. Young trees require the same 
advantages of air and sunshine as Indian corn, and shaded 
trees grow only one-fourth or fifth as fast as those under 
full exposure. To induce free sprouting from the stumps 
the old trees must be cut away in autumn, winter, or early 
spring, and not while growing or in full leaf. 

Thinning .—The young plantations having been started a 
few years (cattle being carefully excluded), the first work is 
thinning. If this is not attended to, trees will crowd and 
enfeeble each other. The first thinning may be done when 
the trees are large enough for hoop-poles. The more crooked 
and feeble growth may be cut out, leaving the best and 
straightest at as uniform distances as practicable. If the 
plantation is a fine one, the hoop-poles will more than pay 
the interest on the land, if not afford a handsome revenue. 
The first thinning may leave the trees about four feet apart, 
and should never be so severe that the shade and fallen 
leaves will not prevent the growth of grass—the leaves 
mulching the surface. It will be found more convenient, 
when the growth is abundant enough, to leave the thinned 
trees as nearly as practicable in straight lines, to allow the 
free passage of wagons for drawing out the timber. A 
good approximate rule for distance in successive thinnings, 
as the trees become larger, is to allow a height of two or 
three times as great as the distance asunder. If too much 
sunlight is let in, the growth of side-limbs will render the 
timber knotty ; if too little light is admitted, the trees will 
be feeble and slender. Experiments show that thinning 
not only increases the amount of wood grown in a given 
time, but renders it more valuable and free from defects. 
A well-managed wood-plantation, on fertile soil, will yield 
an amount of wood equal to forty cords per acre if cut 
every twenty years, or two cords per acre annually. 

Raising trees from seed, although attended with more 
labor and care at first, gives more perfect and profitable 
plantations in the end. The land must be well prepared 
by ploughing, as for corn or other farm-crops. The seed 
may be planted in drills or in hills, like corn, and the 
young trees kept well cultivated a few years, till large 
enough to shade the ground. If the seeds are of free-grow¬ 
ing kinds, the hills may alternate the first year with hills of 
corn; or if in drills, the corn and trees may be in alter¬ 
nate rows. Such large seeds as those of the chestnut, black 
walnut, hickory, and oak may be planted in this way, if 
the seeds have been properly kept through winter. To 
ensure evenness, a surplus of seed should be used, and 
the supernumerary plants afterwards thinned out. The 
smaller and more delicate kinds of seeds should be planted 
in seed-beds of fine mould, and covered by sifting it over 
them, and the trees transplanted into rows when they have 
attained a few feet in height. The depth for covering all 
these seeds may be nearly determined by observing the gen¬ 
eral rule (liable to slight exceptions) of burying them at a 
depth of about three times, and never more than five times, 
their diameter. At a much greater depth few of the young 
plants will find their way to the surface, and in most ger¬ 
mination will be prevented. The only objection to planting 
very shallow is the want of sufficient moisture to sprout the 
seeds. Young evergreen seedlings, in addition to the care 
here prescribed, will require a partial shading through most 
of the first summer, gradually removing it to harden the 
young plants. With the larger seeds which have a horny 
covering—such, for instance, as the chestnut and horse- 
chestnut—entire failure to germinate commonly results 
from permitting this covering to become dried and imper¬ 
vious to moisture; and the only way, therefore, to ensure 
success is to plant them soon after the seeds ripen, or to 
keep them from drying by packing in moist sand or pul¬ 
verized moss. It is for this reason that experiments in 
planting chestnuts which are bought in market nearly al¬ 
ways fail. 

Transplanting young trees from seed-beds, after they 
have been once removed to nursery-rows, is extensively 
adopted in Britain and other parts ot Europe for obtaining 
woodlands. Setting them out when not more than three or 
four feet high is attended with less labor, less check in 
growth, and more certainty of all the trees surviving, than 
if taken at a greater size. Setting out very large trees is 
never profitable for any purpose. Much more depends 
on a good deep soil and thorough after-culture for a few 
years. The great arboriculturist Loudon confidently af¬ 
firmed that he could show larger, finer, and more luxuriant 
trees in five years by setting those of moderate size in 
deeply-trenched ground, and giving them constant cultiva¬ 


205 


tion, than could be obtained in a shorter period by the re¬ 
moval of larger ones—an assertion that was corroborated 
by the experiments of Sir Henry Stewart in the moist cli¬ 
mate of Scotland, where he formed in a single year a land¬ 
scape garden of large trees set out at great expense, theso 
trees never entirely recovering from the sickly appearance 
which their removal gave them. 

Woodland belts, for protection against winds, are found 
of much utility and value, both in the Eastern States and 
on the vast plains of the West. Where the face of the 
country has become denuded, and wintry winds and sum¬ 
mer storms sweep farms with more fury than formerly, belts 
of this character are found to protect young crops and to 
increase the product of the land. Young plants of grass 
and winter grain, after heaving by frost, are beaten about 
and sometimes torn out by the action of the winds on the 
bare surface. Grain-crops and meadows are prostrated by 
tempests. We are informed by landowners who have planted 
screens of evergreens that in some instances the increase of 
crops raised within the range of their protection, and out 
of their immediate shade, has amounted to fifty per cent, 
greater than with entire exposure. Belts of timber a few 
rods in width, traversing farms fully exposed to Avinds, are 
therefore profitable in two ways : First, by the increased 
amount of the crops ; and secondly, by the timber perpetu¬ 
ally furnished by these belts. They should be placed at in¬ 
tervals of from sixty to eighty rods. Where rising land faces 
prevailing winds they should be nearer; but where it falls, 
they may be more remote. If the belts are evergreen, a 
rod wide will be sufficient; if deciduous, they should be 
three or four rods, or more. When cut, one half in breadth 
may be taken at a time. Or the belts may be planted 
thirty or forty rods apart, and alternate ones removed for 
timber. By selecting thrifty growers, such as the Norway 
spruce (evergreen) and the Scotch larch (deciduous), a 
growth of from twenty-five to thirty feet may be reached in 
about ten years, if the young trees are well cultivated at 
first, and fifty feet in twenty-five years. If planted closely, 
they will spread less and will shoot up higher than if thin 
and scattered. 

The jv'ofits of timber plantations must become greater 
each year as the forests of the country are consumed. For 
ordinary fuel alone, the two cords per acre which may be 
yearly obtained would be a constant revenue of ten dollars 
in many portions of the country; and when good timber 
trees are raised, which may be employed in the innumer¬ 
able manufactures of tools and machinery, for cooperage, 
ships, buildings, carriages, and cabinet-work, the annual 
revenue would be several times greater. 

If the planting of the timber-belts already described 
were generally adopted throughout the country, they would 
occupy about one twenty-fifth part of the two hundred mil¬ 
lion improved acres of the Union ; would possess a money 
value when grown of at least $800,000,000, afford a yearly 
revenue in wood and timber of more than $80,000,000, and 
render the land they shelter more valuable than before. 

But it is not merely the pecuniary profit that should in¬ 
duce our people generally to raise trees. The improved and 
polished appearance which ornamental trees would give tho 
country at large, if planted along roadsides and on the 
lawns of farm-residents, would increase the attractions of 
country life and make their homes more desirable to young 
people. The moral influences of tree-planting would in this 
way become an important agency for improving the charac¬ 
ter of the people. John J. Thomas. 

Ar'bor Vi/tae (literally, the “tree of life”), a term ap¬ 
plied to the thick mass of white substance in either hem¬ 
isphere of the cerebellum. This mass, when cut parallel 
to the median line, presents an arborescent or tree-like ap¬ 
pearance. 

Arbor Vitas [see preceding article], ( Thu'ya ), a genus 
of plants of the natural order Conifer®, consisting of ever¬ 
green trees or shrubs, with compressed or flattened branch- 
lets, and small, scale-like, and imbricated leaves. The 
Thuya occidentalis is a native of the U. S., and is often 
planted as an ornamental tree in the parks and pleasure- 
grounds of America and Europe. It is one of the trees 
known as white cedar. The Chinese arbor vit® (Thuya 
orientalis), a native of China, has larger strobiles and more 
upright branches than the preceding. It is cultivated in 
Europe and the U. S. as an ornamental tree, and produces 
a resin which has been supposed to possess medicinal vir¬ 
tues. The genus comprises several other species. 

Ar'broath, Ab'erbroth'wick, or AlVerbroth'- 
ock, a seaport-town of Scotland, in Forfarshire, at tho 
mouth of a small stream called the Brothock, 16 miles N. E. 
of Dundee, with which it is connected by railway. It has 
a public library, and manufactures of coarse linens, canvas, 
leather, etc. About 100 vessels (tonnage 13,896) belong to 
this port. Here aro picturesque ruins of a richly-endowed 













206 > ARBUCKLE—ARCANUM. 


abbey, founded by William the Lion in 1178. Robert Bruce 
and the Scottish nobles met in this abbey in 1320 to or¬ 
ganize a resistance to Edward II. Pop. of the municipal 
burgh in 1861, 8500; of the parliamentary burgh, 17,591; 
of the parliamentary burgh in 1871, 19,974. 

Ar'buckle, a post-township of Mason co., West Ya. 
Pop. 1301. 

Arbuckle (Matthew), an American general, born in 
Greenbrier co., Ya., in 1775. lie served many years on 
the frontier among the Indians; also in the Mexican war 
(1846-47). Died June 11, 1851. 

Arlmth'not (Alexander), a Scottish theologian and 
poet, born about 1538. He became principal of the Uni¬ 
versity of Aberdeen in 1569. Among his works are a 
poem called “The Praises of Women ” and a “History of 
Scotland.” Died in 1583. 

Arbiithnot (John), M. D., F. R. S., an eminent physi¬ 
cian, born at Arbuthnot, near Montrose, in Scotland, in 1660. 
He studied at Aberdeen, where he graduated, and settled 
in London. His first work was an “Examination of Dr. 
Woodward’s Account of the Deluge” (1697). His reputa¬ 
tion was increased by his “ Tables of the Greek, Roman, 
and Jewish Measures, Weights, and Coins” (1705). He 
was appointed physician to the queen in 1709, and obtained 
an extensive practice. He was an intimate associate of 
Pope, Swift, and Lord Bolingbroke. In 1712 he published 
a humorous political allegory entitled a “History of John 
Bull,” in which the great powers then involved in war were 
personated by John Bull the clothier, Nick Frog the linen- 
draper, and Louis Baboon (Louis XIV.). This work dis¬ 
plays a great talent for satire. He produced another hu¬ 
morous and ironical work, called “ The First Book of the 
Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus.” This was part of an un¬ 
finished work which Pope, Swift, and Arbuthnot projected 
in partnership, and which was designed to be a satire 
against pedantry and the abuse of learning. In 1723 he 
was chosen second censor of the Royal College of Physi¬ 
cians, and in 1727 was made an elect of the college. Died 
Feb. 27, 1735. He was a man of amiable character. “He 
has more wit than we all have,” said Swift, “ and his hu¬ 
manity is equal to his wit.” Comparing him with contem¬ 
porary British authors, Dr. Johnson said, “I think Dr. 
Arbuthnot the first man among them. He was the most 
universal genius, being an excellent physician, a man of 
deep learning, and a man of much humor.” 

Ar'butine, a principle found in the leaves of the red 
bearberry ( Arctostaphylos uva ursi). 

Ar'butus, a genus of plants of the order Ericacem, mostly 
natives of America and Southern Europe. They are ever¬ 
green shrubs, bearing a fleshy fruit which has five cells 
and many seeds. The arbutus mentioned by Virgil was 
the Arbutus unedo or strawberry tree,* which bears bright 
red and yellow berries, with beautiful foliage, and is culti¬ 
vated as an ornamental evergreen. The fruit has narcotic 
properties, and is used for making wine in Corsica. An¬ 
other species, the Arbutus Andrachne, a native of the Le¬ 
vant, is admired as an ornamental plant, and bears an es¬ 
culent fruit. The Pacific States have one or more native 
specimens of this genus. The bearberry, a trailing shrub 
which is used as an astringent or tonic in medicine, was 
formerly called Arbutus uva ursi, but is now considered to 
be a species of Arctostaphylos. The trailing arbutus ( Epi - 
gic'a re'pens ), a small but very beautiful flower, is found in 
many parts of the U. S. 

Arc [from the Lat. ar'cus, a “bow”], in geometry, any 
part of a curved line. An arc of a circle is any portion of 
the circumference. The straight line joining the extremi¬ 
ties of an arc is its chord, which is always shorter than the 
arc itself. Arcs of circles are similar when they subtend 
equal angles at the centimes of their respective circles. To 
rectify an arc is to find the length of a straight line to 
which it would be equal if it had the same length in a right 
direction as it has in a curved. The area included between 
an arc and its chord is a segment of a circle. 

Ar'ca, or Arc Shell, a genus of bivalve mollusks which 
are lamellibranchiate, and are the typo of a family called 
Arcadae. The hinge is straight, and is coextensive with 
the whole breadth of the shell, the breadth being greater 
than the length. Numerous species of Area occur in trop¬ 
ical and other seas. Many others are fossil. One living 
species occurs in fresh water in India. 

Arca'da, a township of Gratiot co., Mich. Pop. 1202. 

Arcada, a township of Lapeer co., Mich. Pop. 418. 

Arcade [from the Lat. ar'cus, a “bow,” an “arch ”], 
a row of arches supported by columns or square pillars. 
This term is sometimes applied to a long arched building 

* In the U. S. the name of strawberry tree has been applied to 
the Euonymus Americanus, a plant of a different order. 


or gallery lined on each side with shops; also to a row 
of piers or columns and arches by which the aisles are 
divided from the nave of a church. The arcade in Gothic 
corresponds to the colonnade of classical architecture. Ar¬ 
cades were employed by the ancient Romans in theatres, 
aqueducts, amphitheatres, and temples. 

Arcade, a post-village and township of Wyoming co., 
N. Y., on the Buffalo New York and Philadelphia R. R., 35 
miles S. E. of Buffalo, has extensive woollen mills, mowing- 
machine works, furniture manufactory, academy and union 
school, three churches, and one weekly newspaper. *Pop. 
of village, 573; of township, 1742. 

S. W. Wade, Ed. of “Times.” 

Arca'dia [Gr. ’Ap/caSi'a], a celebrated state of ancient 
Greece, was the most central part of the Peloponnesus (now 
called the Morea). It was bounded on the N. by Achaia, 
on the E. by Argolis, on the S. by Laconia and Messenia, 
and on the W. by Elis. The area was about 1600 square 
miles. It was enclosed on nearly all sides by mountains, 
and a large part of it was occupied by fertile valleys and 
verdant mountain-ridges. The principal river was the Al- 
pheus. The Arcadians were a simple, pastoral people, in¬ 
ferior to most of the other Greeks in genius and culture. 
This inferiority may be ascribed to their isolated position, 
which deprived them of the influence of the sea and of 
the advantages of commerce. The chief towns of Arcadia 
were Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenos, and Megalopolis. The 
Arcadians resembled the Swiss in their love of freedom and 
money, and in their tendency to enlist as mercenaries in 
foreign armies. Among the Ten Thousand whose famous 
retreat Xenophon described, more than two thousand were 
Arcadians. This country was a favorite of ancient pas¬ 
toral poets, who praise the peaceful and happy life of the 
Arcadian shepherds. At present, Arcadia is one of the 
thirteen nomarchies of the kingdom of Greece. Area, 
2028 square miles. Pop. in 1870, 131,740. 

Arcadia, a post-township of Morgan co., Ill. P. 1251. 

Arcadia, a township of Manistee co., Mich. Pop. 175. 

Arcadia, a post-village and township of Iron co., Mo., 
about 4 miles S. of Pilot Knob. Pop. of township, 3058. 

Arcadia, a post-village and township of Wayne co., 
N. Y. Pop. of township, which contains the village of 
Newark, 5271. 

Arcadia, a post-township of Davidson co., N. C. Pop. 
720. 

Arcadia, a township of Halifax co., N. C. Pop. 2898. 

Arcadia, a post-village of Washington township, Han¬ 
cock co., 0. Pop. 288. 

Arcadia, a post-township of Trempealeau co., Wis. 
Pop. 1651. 

Arca'dius [Gr. ’ApjcaSios], emperor of the East, the 
eldest son of Theodosius the Great, was born in Spain in 
383 A. D. In 395 Theodosius died, after he had divided 
his empire between Arcadius and Ilonorius, the latter of 
whom received the western part. The eastern empire, of 
which Byzantium was the capital, included Thrace, Asia 
Minor, and Syria, and extended from the Adriatic to the 
Tigris. During the minority of Arcadius, Rufinus and 
Eutopius successively acted as regents of the empire. The 
empress Eudoxia acquired the control over Arcadius, who 
was a feeble and indolent prince. He died in 408 A. D., 
and was succeeded by his son, Theodosius II. 

Arca'ni Discipli'na (7. e. the “ Discipline of Se¬ 
crecy ”), a term for the first time used by the Protestant 
theologian Dallneus in 1666 for the secrecy observed in 
the early Church with respect to certain doctrines; as, for 
example, those of baptism, the Eucharist, and some others. 
These were withheld from candidates until after they had 
been received into full communion with the Church. Soon 
after the introduction of the term, the subject gave rise to 
a very animated controversy between Catholic and Protest¬ 
ant theologians, which has continued ever since. The for¬ 
mer used it to account for the silence of the early Church 
writers as to certain doctrines and practices of their Church. 
Protestant writers generally regard it either as a natural 
outgrowth of the oppressed condition in which the Church 
found itself at that time, or a degeneration of the simple 
forms of primitive Christianity in the interest of the hierar¬ 
chy. The best Catholic treatises on the subject are those 
by Dollinger (1826), Toklot (1836), Hefelc (1846), and 
Mayer (1868); the best Protestant, those by Richard Rotlie 
(in Herzog’s “Real Encyclopadie ”), Zezschwitz (“ Kate- 
chetik,” 1863), Niedner (“ Kirchengeschichte,” 1846), Har- 
nack(“Der christliche Gemeindegottesdienst,” 1854), and, 
in particular, Bonwetsch (in “ Zcitschrift fur historischo 
Theologie,” 1873), who gives a complete history of tho 
controversy. 

Arca'num (plu. Arca'iia), a secret, a mystery; some- 




















ARCANUM—ARCHAEOLOGY. 


times applied to a medicine the composition of which is kept 
a secret. This term was much used by the alchemists, 
whose object was to discover the grand arcanum, the phil¬ 
osophers stone. 

Arcanum, a post-village of Twin township, Darke co., 
0. Pop. 450. 

Arca'ta, a post-village and township of Humboldt co., 
Cal., situated at the head of Humboldt Bay. It is a place 
of considerable trade. Pop. 924. 

Ar' ce (Manuel Jose), a general who in 1824 was chosen 
president of the republic of Central America for four years. 
He favored the clerical party, at whose instigation he ar¬ 
rested Barrundia, governor of Guatemala, in Sept., 1S26. 
This act provoked a popular revolt and a civil war, in which 
Arce was defeated in 1827. He was expelled in 1829. 

Arcesila'us [’Ap/ceo-i'Aaos], a Greek philosopher, born at 
Pitane, in iEolia, in 316 B. C., was the founder of the New 
(or, as it is sometimes called, the Middle) Academy. He 
was a pupil of Theophrastus, and was an admirer of Plato, 
but taught a modified form of Platonic philosophy. He 
was eloquent, witty, and ingenious in argument, revived 
the Socrat.ic method of teaching, and recommended an 
abstinence from dogmatism. It appears that he left no 
written statement of his doctrines, which are known to vis 
only through the medium of his adversaries, the Stoics. 
Among the sayings ascribed to him is, that “ he knew 
nothing, not even his own ignorance.” Died in 241 B. C. 
(See Ritter, “ History of Philosophy;” G. H. Lewes, 
“ Biographical History of Philosophy.”) 

Arch [Lat. ar'cus, “ a bow,” “ an arch ”], a curved 
structure of stone or brick supported by the mutual pres¬ 
sure of its component parts, intended to cover the space 
between two piers or two columns, and to support at the 
same time a superincumbent weight. The wedge-shaped 
pieces of which the arch is composed are called voussoirs. 
The middle stone of the arch is called the keystone, and 
the lowest stone on either side is the springer. The highest 
part is the crown, the sides are termed haunches, the inner 
curve is the intrados, and the exterior or upper curve is the 
extrados; while the base which supports the lowest vous- 
soir or springer on each side is the impost. Arches are of 
various shapes, but the principal distinction is into round 
and pointed. All other shapes are merely described in one 
of these, and the principle of construction is the same for 
all. The arch was known to the Egyptians, the Ethiopians, 
the Assyrians, the Greeks, and the Etruscans, though no 
one of these peoples made any extensive use of it, since the 
post-and-lintel system met all their wants. Its first con¬ 
siderable use was by the Romans, who employed exclusively 
the round form. They used it in doors and windows, in 
their aqueducts, bridges, and triumphal arches, and they 
early developed from it a complete system of vaulting. (See 
Vault.) Among the oldest arches known is the Cloaca 
Maxima, a great sewer built in Rome in the time of the 
Tarquins, and still in good condition. The pointed arch 
came into use later. It was at first sparingly employed, 
but lending itself more easily than the round arch to the 
increasing desire for height in building, it gradually super¬ 
seded the round arch, and became so inherent a feature of 
the Gothic style that the name of Pointed Architecture is 
often applied to the works of the mediaeval builders. 

Clarence Cook. 

Arch, Triumphal [Lat. ar'cus triumpha r lis; Fr. arede 
triomphe or arc triomphal], a monumental structure erected 
in honor of a victorious general or in commemoration of some 
important event or victory. It was usually placed at the 
entrance of a city or over a grand avenue. The ancient 
Romans built numerous triumphal arches at Rome and else¬ 
where. Scipio Africanus erected one on the Capitoline Hill, 
about 190 B. C. Magnificent structures of this class were 
raised by Augustus at Rimini and Ancona. Three triumphal 
arches at Rome are still extant—namely, the Arch of Titus, 
which commemorates the conquest of Judea; the Arch of 
Septimius Severus; and the Arch of Constantine, a beau¬ 
tiful and imposing structure adorned with bas-reliefs. The 
most magnificent of modern triumphal arches are those of 
Paris, and the finest among these is the Arc de l’Etoile, 
erected by Napoleon I. at the Barriere de Neuilly. It has 
three arches, the central one of which is 95 feet high. The 
whole structure, which is equal,in grandeur and splendor 
to the ancient Roman arches, is about 160 feet high and 
150 feet in length. 

Arch (Joseph), president of the English National Ag¬ 
ricultural Laborers’ Union, was born in Barford, V arwick- 
shire, England, in 1828. He was the child of laboring 
people, and was brought up as a laborer, with no education 
but what he has picked up by himself. He has learned 
from the newspapers all he knows about the important 
questions of the day, and has taught himself to read and 
write. Being a total-abstinence man and a Methodist, he 


207 


added to his daily labor the duties of “a local preacher;” 
that is, a layman who preaches in the chapel or in the open 
air within a certain district, and without pay. He says of 
himself that in his twenty-seven years as a preacher he 
walked over 7000 miles to expound the gospel to his fel¬ 
lows. When a young man, Arch felt that he and his kind 
were badly treated, and he rebelled against it. In a speech 
at Leamington in 1872 he said: “ Men, I’ll tell you what I 
had to do. I had a wife and two children, and one-and- 
sixpence a day (thirty-six cents) was all I was getting, 
working hard, morning and night. I asked my master 
for more; he said, ‘ One-and-sixpence a day is all I shall 
give you.’ I had sworn at the altar to love and cherish 
my wife, and I knew that would not keep her and the chil¬ 
dren ; so I struck. I went away to work where I could get 
higher wages. Sometimes I could not get anything but 
straw to sleep on, and once I slept for nights and nights 
on corded wood; but I thought if any one was to suffer, it 
was not my wife and children, but myself.” He roamed 
over England, working at job or piece work, sending all 
he earned to his wife, and preaching on Sundaj's on the 
village-greens. After a long time, and with much labor 
and sacrifice, Arch saved money enough to buy the free¬ 
hold of his little cottage at Barford. When the Warwick¬ 
shire farm-laborers struck they appealed to Arch to be 
their leader. The strike began in Feb., 1872, at Welles- 
bourne, 7 miles from Warwick. The laborers there and in 
the neighboring hamlets struck for an advance of four 
shillings ($1) per week. Their leader was one John Lewis, 
who proposed that they should form a union, but it was 
necessary to have for leader a better-taught man; so Joseph 
Arch, the local preacher, was sent for. After much foolish 
opposition from high-placed people, both lay and clergy, 
the union was fairly started by the active assistance of 
rich Radicals in Birmingham, with Mr. Auberon Herbert, 
Mr. Edward Jenkins (the author of “ Ginx’s Baby”), Dr. 
Langford, and other reformers. Arch travelled through 
all parts of England, organizing branches of the union 
wherever he went. In two months such progress was made 
that on the 29th and 30th of May a meeting was held at 
Leamington of delegates from all parts of the country, 
presided over by Mr. G. Dixon, M. P. for Birmingham. 
At this meeting Arch was unanimously elected president 
of the union. The movement, which at first was only a 
demand for a few more shillings a week, has now become 
one of political importance, and the laborers demand a 
vote in the counties, as the artisans have already done in 
the cities. Arch at first avoided all political references, but 
when the queen, through her steward, discharged the la¬ 
borers on her private estate for demanding a few more 
shillings a week, he spoke strong words, and even as the 
movement has advanced there is no doubt his ideas have 
advanced also. The union did not at first encourage emi¬ 
gration. Arch said, “I wish to assist a man to get a liv¬ 
ing in England, not to run away from it.” Emigration 
had been tried, and many laborers had been persuaded to 
go to Brazil, where they had suffered terribly from the in¬ 
sufficient food and from the yellow fever. Their fate was 
learned from some of their number, who were sent to New 
York by the Brazilian authorities. (See on this subject, 
“Reports respecting the Condition of British Emigrants 
in Brazil, presented to Parliament by Her Majesty’s Com¬ 
mand,” 1873, and a heartrending letter from one of the 
emigrants, Thomas Sheasby, published by order of the 
earl of Kimberley in the Times of Aug. 29, 1873. See 
also, for a thorough exposure of the whole nefarious busi¬ 
ness, a little book, “Brazilian Civilization, from an Euro¬ 
pean Point of View,” by Jacar6 Assu (a nom-de-plume), 
London, 1873.) As the men sent by the Brazilian author¬ 
ities to New York immediately got good places, and as the 
superintendent declared that they were just the sort of men 
needed here, and that he could obtain places for all such 
who should arrive, Arch determined to visit America and 
look into the matter for himself. He accordingly came 
over in the summer of 1873, and made a careful, study of 
Canada, returning to England in the late autumn of the 
same year, and promising to return to America in the fol¬ 
lowing spring and make an equally careful study of the 
U. S. as a field for emigration. His report will be looked 
for with great interest, and if it shall prove favorable the 
results cannot fail to be of importance to both countries. 
(We are indebted for the facts in this notice mainly to an 
article in the New York “Tribune” for Aug. 16, 1873. A 
brief review of Jacar6 Assu’s book will be found in tho 
“Athenaeum” for Oct. 18, 1873.) Clarence Cook. 

Archaeol'ogy [from the Gr. apyaZo?, “ancient,” and 
Ao-yo?, a “discourse,” a “science”], literally, “the science 
of antiquities.” The term in its widest sense includes tho 
knowledge of the origin, language, religion, laws, institu¬ 
tions, literature, science, arts, manners, customs—every¬ 
thing, in fact, that can bo learned of the ancient life and 















208 ARCHAEOLOGY, BIBLICAL—ARCHAEOPTERYX. 


being of mankind. Archaeology may thus be made to com¬ 
prehend a part, in greater or less degree, of many branches 
of knowledge which are recognized as distinct or independ¬ 
ent pursuits; but in its narrower, and perhaps more popular 
signification, it is understood to have reference to the mate¬ 
rials from which a knowledge of the ancient condition of a 
country is to be attained. These materials may be divided 
into three groups—written, monumental, and traditional. 
The first, or written archaeology, includes both the science 
of ancient writings and the knowledge of printed books. 
The second, monumental archaeology, admits of almost end¬ 
less subdivisions, according to the character of the remains 
to be studied, which may be works of art, such as buildings, 
sculptures, paintings, inscriptions, coins, armorial bearings, 
furniture, enamels, glass, porcelain, etc.; works of engineer¬ 
ing, such as roads, canals, aqueducts, mines, etc.; articles 
of dress, armor, or personal ornament; tools, weapons, uten¬ 
sils, etc.; forms of sepulture; vestiges of man and animals, 
such as bones, etc. The third, or traditional archaeology, 
may be said to include the oral literature of a people, their 
dialects, legends, proverbs, ballads, as well as their sports, 
customs, and superstitions. 

In regard to the application of the words Archaeology 
and Antiquities, it may be remarked that the latter has 
reference properly to the objects studied, the former to the 
study itself. And though archaeology in its more limited 
signification refers to the materials studied, those materials 
are considered not as individuals, but in their totality. 
Thus, while we might say a “collection of antiquities” (i. e. 
of antique objects), we could not so properly say “a collec¬ 
tion of archaeology,” though we might say “an archaeologi¬ 
cal collection.” The study of archaeology was long almost 
exclusively confined to the antiquities of the Greeks and 
Romans, but about the middle of the sixteenth century at¬ 
tention was turned to the antiquities of other ancient nations 
and of the Middle Ages. Since the discovery of the Rosetta 
Stone, which gave a key to its hieroglyphics, the archaeology 
of Egypt has made considerable progress; while the dis¬ 
coveries of Layard, Rawlinson, and others have already far 
advanced that of Assyria. Within the last few years the 
archaeology of India and that of China have been success¬ 
fully prosecuted. The rude and scanty remains of the ab¬ 
original inhabitants of North America have occupied the 
attention of men of letters in this country; while the more 
stately and instructive monuments of Central and South 
America have fully rewarded the investigations of anti¬ 
quaries. Pre-historic archaeology, or the study of the relics 
of man as he existed before the dawn of history, is of late 
attracting much attention, the Royal Society of Antiqua¬ 
ries at Copenhagen having given this branch of the subject 
especial attention, Northern Europo being peculiarly rich 
in remains of the pre-historic ages. 

In Great Britain, too, pre-historic remains of the most 
ancient origin have been abundantly found, and there can 
be but little doubt that many ancient relics which have 
been regarded as Druidical are in reality ante-Celtic. But 
in France and Belgium, especially, have the labors of 
Boucher de Perthes, Lartet, De Vibraye, and others been 
rewarded by the discovery of very ancient human relics. 
In Switzerland (see Lake Dwellings), in Italy, Turkey, 
Germany, India, America, and in many other lands, the 
study of these profoundly interesting pre-historic remains 
has aroused much enthusiasm. But the work is as yet in 
its early infancy. The Cyclopean walls of the southern 
peninsulas of Europe are now generally assigned to the 
pre-historic ages. The fruits of the discoveries near the 
supposed site of ancient Troy are by many referred to pre¬ 
historic times. Still, the presence of inscriptions with 
what seem like Semitic characters must link these supposed 
“treasures of Priam” with historic peoples. The later 
heroic age of Greece has left but few undoubted relics. 
The discovery of Phrygian ruins bearing the name of 
King Midas is interesting in this connection, though it 
does not appear that these ruins can with confidence be re¬ 
ferred to the age of Midas. The deeply interesting dis¬ 
coveries in Cyprus (see Cyprus and Cesnola, di) have 
shown us unquestionably the works of historic times. The 
recent (1873) discovery of the key to the reading of the 
strange inscriptions in the syllabic alphabet of Cyprus 
have thus far given no evidence of their being of very re¬ 
mote origin, and the inscriptions themselves are in Greek 
of a very marked dialect. 

While pre-historic archaeology opens to us a world of 
mystery and wonder, the archaeology of later times serves 
to dispel mysteries; the resulting effect of the two being to 
remove the mysterious age farther backward into the past. 
Much that has hitherto been unexplained is receiving light 
from the labors of archaeologists in the valley of the Eu- 
phrates-Tigris, as well as in that of the Nile. Biblical 
archaeology is greatly forwarded by the labors of the Eng¬ 
lish and Americans in the Holy Land. The Asiatic so¬ 


cieties find abundant material for examination in South¬ 
eastern India, a new and almost untrodden field. Osiander, 
Fresnel, and other Semitic scholars would appear to have 
solved the riddle of the Himyaritic inscriptions in Arabia; 
and the wonders of the semi-civilizations of America be¬ 
fore the time of Columbus have been much diminished by 
the simple and yet admirable generalizations which have 
been of late brought forward with regard to them. (Sec 
the article Architecture of the American Aborigines in 
the present work, by Lewis H. Morgan, LL.D.) But an 
interest hardly less intense than attaches to the above- 
mentioned works is, and long has been, felt in the antiqui¬ 
ties of the Middle Ages, both ecclesiastical and social. 
The civilizations of ancient Rome and Greece are quite 
clearly marked off from ours, while the Christian civiliza¬ 
tion that sprang up on the ruins of the old is our own civ¬ 
ilization, and must possess for ever a deep interest to the 
student of the science of humanity. The French and Ital¬ 
ians have given special attention to this department. 

Among other archaeological works going on at present 
or quite recently, may be mentioned the interesting and 
quite important excavations at Ephesus and other points 
in Asia Minor; those at Gyrene and Carthage; and the labors 
of Mariette Bey in Egypt, so pregnant with important conse¬ 
quences, extended, by the direction of the khedive of Egypt, 
to Nubia and the Soudan. The British war in Abyssinia has 
led to discoveries of much interest in regard to the literary 
archaeology of that remarkable region. The monumental 
archaeology of Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and the rest of South 
America has been studied with important results. 

The quite modern science of “ folk-lore,” which ex¬ 
amines and compares the traditions, legends, superstitions, 
and immemorial customs of existing peoples, links itself 
inseparably with some departments of archaeology; and it 
is from the study of long-overlooked traces of the old 
Ayran and Sanscrit traditions, legends, superstitions, and 
customs that they receive much of the light which has 
lately been shed upon them—a light which shows very 
plainly that a common, if very remote, kinship unites all 
the Indo-European peoples. Such considerations show that 
the true archaeologist is no mere antiquarian curiosity- 
hunter, but a student of matters which have a very wide 
and deep interest to nearly every thoughtful mind. 

The science of archaeology has been greatly promoted by 
the publication of chronicles, records, catalogues, etc., by 
the formation of clubs and societies, and by the establish¬ 
ment of museums for the collection and classification of 
antiquities. Among the societies formed for this purpose 
may be mentioned the Society of Antiquaries of London, 
which was founded in 1572, but was not incorporated by 
royal charter until 1751 ; the Society of Antiquaries of 
Scotland, chartered in 1780 ; and the Royal Irish Academy, 
for promoting “ the study of science, polite literature, and 
antiquities,” which was chartered in 1780. The last two 
have good museums of national antiquities. Among the 
most celebrated antiquarian collections are those of the 
British Museum in London, which contains, besides a great 
collection of early manuscripts, galleries of Assyrian, 
Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, Roman, British, and mediaeval 
antiquities; the museums of the Louvre and the HStel do 
Cluny in Paris, which contain an unrivalled collection of 
mediaeval in addition to more ancient antiquities; and the 
Royal Museum at Naples, which contains most of the ob¬ 
jects recovered during the last one hundred years from 
the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Among the best 
works on classic antiquity are those of Montfaucon, par¬ 
ticularly his “ Antiquite Expliquee” (10 vols., 1719), and 
Winck elm Ann’s “ Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums” 
(1766), and his “Monumenti antichi inediti” (1766). On 
Egyptian archaeology, see the works of Champollion and 
Bunsen. Among the recent works on archaeology those by 
Westropp, “Handbook of Archaeology” (1867), and Jahn, 
“ Aus der Alterthuinswissenschaft” (1869), deserve to be 
here mentioned. On pre-historic archaeology see Lubbock, 
“Pre-historic Times” (2d ed. 1869); Baldwin, “Pre-his¬ 
toric Nations” (1869) and “Ancient America” (1872); C. 
C. Jones, “Antiquities of the Southern Indians” (1873); 
Foster, “Pre-historic Races of the U. S.” (1873). Among 
the writers upon Scandinavian pre-historic remains we may 
mention N. M. Petersen, Finn Magnusen, and Waarsaak. 
(See also the articles Hieroglyphics; Cuneiform Inscrip¬ 
tions, by W. Hayes Ward; Biblical Archeology; and 
Pre-iiistoric Races.) Revised by C. W. Greene. 

Archaeology, Biblical. See Biblical Archeology. 

Archaeop'teryx [from the Gr. apx<uo?, “old,” and 
7rrepv£, “wing”], a remarkable fossil bird found in the 
lithographic limestones (Jurassic) of Solcnhofen, Bavaria, 
and named by Prof. Owen. This bird exhibits some pecu¬ 
liarities of anatomical structure which have led zoologists 
to consider it as a kind of connecting link between birds 















ARCHAIG, LOCH—ARCHER. 


209 


and reptiles. The head is not distinctly shown in the fos¬ 
sil. The wings are short, but provided with long plumes 
spread somewhat like a fan. The tail is long, and com¬ 
posed of a largo number of vertebras, from which feathers 
diverge on either side. The feet are similar to those of 
birds. 

Archaig' (or Arkeg), Loch, a beautiful lake of Scot¬ 
land, in the county of Inverness, 1 mile W. of Loch Lochy 
(or Lochie). It is about 17 miles long and 1 mile wide. 
The adjacent scenery is picturesque. 

Archan'gel [Gr. a Px dyye\ os , from Z PX u>, to “be first,” 
and ayye\o<>, a “messenger” or “angel”], an angel of the 
highest order; a ruling angel. (See Angel.) This term 
is used in the New Testament—Jude 9 and 1 Thess. iv. 16. 

Archan'gel, or Archangelsk', a government or 
province of European Russia, is bounded on the N. by 
the Arctic Ocean, on the E. by the Ural Mountains, on the 
S. by Wologda and Olonetz, and on the W. by Finland. It 
comprises Russian Lapland, and is divided into two parts 
by the White Sea. The surface is flat, and the soil mostly 
barren, but produces valuable timber. The climate is very 
severe. Area, 286,739 square miles. Pop. in 1867, 275,779. 

Archangel, a seaport-town of Russia, the capital of 
the province of that name, is on the Dwina, about 20 miles 
from its entrance into the Bay of Archangel (or the White 
Sea); lat. 64° 32' N., Ion. 40° 33' E. The houses are 
mostly of wood. It has about twelve churches and an 
ecclesiastical college. The harbor is closed by ice except 
about three months, from July to September, during which 
period it is visited by many foreign vessels. The chief 
articles of export are fish, furs, lumber, tallow, flax, linseed, 
tar, iron, and bristles. This place, which was founded in 
1584, was for a long time the only seaport of Russia. 
Pop. in 1867, 19,936. 

Archbish'op [Lat. archie'pWcopus; Gr. apxienio-Konoi;, 
from apx<a, to “ bo first,” and enio-Kon-os, an “ overseer,” a 
“bishop”], the term applied to the head-bishop of an ec¬ 
clesiastical province containing several dioceses, who has 
also a diocese of his own. The title came into use during 
the fourth century, and is said to have been first employed 
by Athanasius. 

Arch'bold, a post-village of German township, Fulton 
co., 0. Pop. 373. 

Arch'dale (John), an Englishman and member of the 
Society of Friends, became governor of Carolina in 1695. 
He introduced the cultivation of rice, and in several re¬ 
spects promoted the prosperity of the colony. In 1707 he 
published a “ Description of the Province of Carolina.” 

Archdea'coil [Lat. archidiac'onus], an ecclesiastic 
whose jurisdiction is immediately subordinate to that of a 
bishop. An archdeacon was originally an assistant of the 
bishop, and an overseer of the deacons and younger clergy. 
The authority of the archdeacons gradually increased, and 
became distinct from that of the bishops, so that in the 
twelfth century they were recognized as influential prel¬ 
ates. Since that time their power and influence have 
been much reduced. The Church of England has seventy- 
one archdeacons, who have a limited vice-episcopal terri¬ 
torial jurisdiction. (Sec Deacon.) 

Archduke' and Archduch'ess, titles assumed by all 
the sons and daughters of the emperor of Austria, and in¬ 
herited by their descendants through the male line. The 
title of archduke was first taken by the dukes of Austria 
in the fourteenth century, or earlier, but their claim to that 
mark of precedence over the other dukes of the German 
empire was not recognized by the emperor and the electors 
until 1453. 

Archegosau'rus [from the Gr. apyrjyo?, a “leader” or 
“beginner,” and o-adpos, a “lizard” or “saurian”], a fossil 
animal, so named because it was supposed to have been the 
beginning of reptilian life. It is found in the Bavarian 
coal-measures. Goldfuss in 1847 described three species 
discovered in the coal-field of Saarbriick, and gave them 
the generic name of Archegosaurus. Professor Owen con¬ 
siders this animal as a remarkable connecting link between 
reptiles and fishes. Agassiz and Dana regard it as a gan¬ 
oid fish, while others class it with salamandroid batra- 
chians. 

Archela'us, a Greek philosopher, surnamed Piiysicus, 
because he applied himself chiefly to physical science, was 
a native of Miletus, or, as some say, ot Athens. He was a 
pupil of Anaxagoras, and flourished about 450 B. C. Soc¬ 
rates was one of his pupils. Archelaus taught that there 
were two principles of generation—heat, which moves, and 
cold, which remains at rest. His works, if he wrote any, 
are not extant. 

Archelaus [Gr. ’Apxe'Aao?], king of Macedonia, was a 
Bon of Perdiccas II., whom he succeeded in 413 B. C. 11c 
14 


patronized Euripides and Zeuxis and other Greek poets 
and artists. Socrates was invited to his court, but did not 
go. This king promoted the prosperity of Macedonia by 
roads and other internal improvements. Died in 399 B. C. 

Archelaus, an able general of Mithridates the Great, 
was a native of Cappadocia. He commanded a large army 
which that king sent to oppose the Romans in Greece in 
87 B. C. He captured a number of islands and occupied 
Athens, where he was attacked and besieged by Sulla. 
Having been forced to evacuate Athens, he retired to Thes¬ 
saly in 86 B. C., and was defeated by Sulla at Chaerone'a 
and Orchomenus. He signed a treaty of peace with Sulla 
in the year 85, and deserted to the Romans in 81 B. C. 

Archelaus, a son of the preceding, became high priest 
of Comana about 63 B. C. He pretended to be a son of 
King Mithridates, and by that imposture induced Berenice, 
queen of Egypt, to marry him. After he had reigned about 
six months in Egypt, he was defeated and killed by the 
Romans in 55 B. C. He left a son, Archelaus, who was 
high priest of Comana until he was deprived of that office 
by Caesar in 47 B. C. 

Archelaus, a son of Herod the Great by Malthace, a 
Samaritan woman. On the death of his father (4 B. C.) 
he became ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea; his 
full brother Antipas and his half brother Philip receiving 
the rest of the kingdom. Fear of him sent the parents 
of Jesus into Galilee. In 6 A. D. he was deposed by Au¬ 
gustus, and banished to Vienne, Gaul, where probably he 
died. 

Archelaus, a Greek sculptor, a native of Priene, is 
supposed to have lived about 30-60 A. D. He produced an 
admirable marble bas-relief representing the apotheosis of 
Homer, which is now in the British Museum. 

Archenceph'ala [from the Gr. a.p X -n, the “first or 
highest place,” and ey/ce'^aAo?, the “ brain ”], a term applied 
to the highest division of the class Mammalia, to which the 
order Bimana, composed of the solitary genus Homo, be¬ 
longs. 

Ar'chenholz', von (Johann Wilhelm), Baron, a Ger¬ 
man historian, born at Dantzic Sept. 3, 1745. He served 
in the Prussian army in the Seven Years’ war, after which 
he travelled in England and other countries. He wrote, 
besides other works, “England and Italy” (2 vols., 1785), 
and a popular “ History of the Seven Years’ War” (2 vols., 
1793), which was translated into many languages. Died 
Feb. 28, 1812. 

Ar'cher [from the Lat. ar'eas, a “ bow ; Fr. archer ] and 
Archery. An archer is one who shoots with a bow. In 
ancient times archers formed an important portion of the 
armies of most Oriental and of all barbarous or semi-bar¬ 
barous nations. Among the ancients, the Cretans, Par¬ 
tisans, and Thracians, and in the Middle Ages the English, 
were especially distinguished for the skill and efficiency of 
their archers. The English archers decided the fate of the 
day in the important battles of Crecy, Poitiers, and Agin- 
court. Among the Asiatic Turks, the Persians, the Tar¬ 
tars, and other nations of the East, as well as certain na¬ 
tive African tribes and some American Indians, the bow 
and arrow are still used as weapons of war. In England 
archery is now no more than a pastime; it is promoted by 
archery clubs or societies. During the reign of Charles II. 
of England archery was much patronized by the court. 
After his reign archery fell into disuse for about a century. 
Towards the latter part of the last century it was revived 
as a fashionable pastime; even ladies often taking part in 
the trials of skill. The exercise, especially in the form of 
target-shooting, is still popular. (See Bow and Arrow.) 

Ar'cher, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 900 square 
miles. It is drained by the Little Wichita River and its 
North and South Forks. It has only a small settled popu¬ 
lation. It is well adapted to pasturage. Bismuth, copper, 
and other metals are found. The county was returned as 
having no population in 1870. 

Archer, a post-township of Harrison co., 0. Pop. 726. 

Archer (Branch T.), M. D., born in 1790 in Virginia, 
studied medicine in Philadelphia, and was long a promi¬ 
nent physician and politician in Virginia. He went to 
Texas, in 1831 took part in the revolution, was in 1835 
president of the “ Consultation,” and was sent as a com¬ 
missioner to the U. S. He was a member of the first Texan 
Congress, and speaker of the house of representatives and 
secretary of war 1839—42. Died Sept. 22, 1856, in Brazo¬ 
ria co., Tex. 

Archer (John), M. D., born in Harford co., Md., in 1741, 
graduated at Princeton in 1760, was the first person who 
received the degree of M. D. in America. This degree ho 
received from the Philadelphia Medical College in 1768. 
Ho served for a time as an officer in the Revolutionary 













210 


ARCHER—ARCHILOCHUS. 


war, and was a member of Congress from Maryland (1801— 
07). Died in 1810. 

Archer (Stevenson), LL.D., a son of Dr. John Ar¬ 
cher, born in Harford co., Md.’, and graduated at Princeton 
in 1805. He was a member of Congress from Maryland 
(1811-17 and 1819-21), and was a judge in the State court 
of appeals, and for a time U. S. judge in Mississippi Ter¬ 
ritory. Died June 5,1848. 

Archer (Stevenson), Jr., a son of the preceding, born in 
Harford co., Md., in 1827, graduated at Princeton College 
in 1846, became a lawyer, and in 1860 was elected to Con¬ 
gress, of which he is still (1873) a member. 

Archer (William S.), a Senator, born in Amelia co., 
Va., Mar. 5, 1789. He was educated at William and Mary 
College, was a member of Congress from 1820 to 1835, and 
was elected to the U. S. Senate by the Whigs of Virginia 
in 1841. He was chairman of the Senate’s committee on 
foreign relations. Died Mar. 28, 1855. 

Archer Fish, the name of certain small East Indian 
fishes of the acanthopterygious family of Bramidae. They 



Archer Fish. 


project drops of water at insects, which they thus cause to 
fall from the air into the water, and then devour them. 
The Toxo'tes jacula'tor, one of these archer fishes, is a na¬ 
tive of Java, and about six inches long. The only remark¬ 
able peculiarity in the form of this fish is its greatly elon¬ 
gated lower jaw, which perhaps may aid it in directing the 
liquid missile upon which its subsistence partially depends, 
as does that of the hunter on the accuracy of his rifle. “So 
powerful,” says Wood, “is the projectile force, and so 
marvellously accurate is the aim [of the Toxotes jaculator], 
that it Avill strike a fly with certainty at a distance of three 
or even four feet.” 

Ar'ches, Court of, a court of ecclesiastical law in 
England, is the chief court of appeal in the province of 
Canterbury, which includes nearly all England. The dean 
of arches is usually the deputy of the archbishop of Can¬ 
terbury. This court is so called because it was once held 
in the church of St. Mary le Bow ( de Arcubus). 

Ar'chetype [from the Gr. apx>b a “beginning,” “ori¬ 
gin,” and TV7T09, “a type”], the original pattern or model 
of a work; the original type on which others are formed. 
Among Platonic philosophers the term archetype was ap¬ 
plied to the original patterns or ideas existing in the Di¬ 
vine mind before the creation. 

Archiac, d’ (Etienne Jules Adolphe Desmier de 
Saint-Simon), Vicomte, a French geologist and author, 
born at Ilheims in 1802. lie published, besides other 
works in French, a romance entitled “ Zizim, or the Chiv¬ 
alry of Rhodes” (3 vols.. 1828), and a “History of the 
Progress of Geology from 1834 to 1863” (8 vols., 1847-62). 
The latter was published at the expense of the state. 

Ar'chias (Auliis Licinius), a Greek poet, born at 
Antioch, became a resident of Rome in 102 B. C., and ob¬ 
tained the right of citizenship. He was intimate with 


Cicero and Lucullus, and was courted or patronized by 
several eminent men on account of his genius or learning. 
Having been accused of being an alien, he was defended by 
Cicero in an able oration (“Pro Archia”) about 60 B. C. 
Among the works of Archias which are lost was a poem on 
the Mithridatic war. (See Wallenius, “ Dissertatio do 
Aulo Licinio Archia,” 1806.) 

Archia'ter, or Archiator [Gr. ipxlarpo^, a “chief 
physician,” from apx<»> to “be first,” and iarpos, “physi¬ 
cian”], a title given by the Roman emperors to some of 
their medical attendants; also to certain officials who were 
paid by the state or city, and were expected to give gratui¬ 
tous medical treatment to the poor. 

Archibald, a post-borough of Luzerne co., Pa., on the 
Delaware and Hudson R. R., about 12 miles N. E. of Scran¬ 
ton. Here are rich coal-mines. Pop. 2571. 

Archibald (Adams G.), born in Truro, Nova Scotia, 
May 18, 1814, became a lawyer in 1839, solicitor-general 
of Nova Scotia in 1856, and was a prominent legislator in 
that province. In 1867 he was president of the Canadian 
council and one of the secretaries of state, and in 1871— 
72 lieutenant-governor of Manitoba and the North-west 
Provinces. 

Archida'imis II., of Sparta, became king about 470 
B. C. He waged war against the Messenians, and com¬ 
manded the army which invaded Attica in 431 B. C., but 
the Athenians declined a battle. This was one of tho ear¬ 
liest campaigns of the Peloponnesian war. He was the 
father of the famous Agesilaus. Died in 427 B. C. 

Archidamus III., king of Sparta, was a grandson 
of the preceding and son of Agesilaus II. He defeated 
the Arcadians and Argives in 367 B. C., in a battle which 
was called the “scarless” or “tearless,” because no Spar¬ 
tan was killed in it. In 362 he defended Sparta with suc¬ 
cess against Epaminondas. He began to reign on the death 
of his father, 361 B. C., and was an ally of the Phocians 
in the Sacred war. Having led an army to Italy to aid 
the Tarentines, he was killed in battle in 338 B. C. 

Archidamus V. was the last king of the Proclid line. 
He was a brother of Agis IV., whom he succeeded in 240 
B. C. He was soon killed by the parties that murdered Agis. 

Archido'na, a village of Spain,In the province of 
Malaga, 9 miles E. N. E. of Antequera. It is on the rail¬ 
way from Granada to Antequera. It has large quarries 
of marble, and many Roman antiquities. Pop. 7410. 

Ar'cliil, Or'chil, or Orseille [perhaps a corruption 
of roccel'la, a “little rock,” so named because the plant 
grows on rocks], a reddish-purple dye obtained from various 
species of lichens, among which are the Lichen roccella or 
Roccella tinctoria, Roccella fuciformis, and Lecanora tar- 
tarea. These are gathered from rocks near the shores of the 
Canaries, the Azores, the Cape de Verde Isles, Sardinia, Cor¬ 
sica, Ceylon, Madeira, Lower California, Auvergne, the Py¬ 
renees, Sweden, and many other countries. The lichens 
do not contain the coloring-matter ready formed, but they 
contain colorless acids, erythric, lecanoric, orsellinic, evernic, 
etc., which readily change to Orcin (which see): By the 
action of air and ammonia the colorless orcin changes to 
purple orcein, which is the coloring-principle of archil. To 
produce the archil, the weeds are reduced to pulp, a little 
putrid urine or amnionic carbonate is added, and the whole 
is allowed to putrefy or ferment. In a week or ten days 
the color is fully developed. By adding potassic or sodic 
carbonate, instead of ammonia, a blue color, Litmus (which 
see), is obtained instead of archil. Cudbear is a variety of 
archil made at Glasgow. Archil produces beautiful shades 
of purple, violet, mauve, red, etc., but, unfortunately, they 
are not, as generally employed, permanent. Dr. Stenhouse 
suggested some improvements in the manufacture of archil, 
which were in 1856 put in practice by M. Marnas of the 
firm of Guinon, Marnas & Bonnet of Lyons. He treated 
lichens with milk of lime, filtered, precipitated the color- 
producing principles by hydrochloric acid, washed them 
on a filter, dissolved them in ammonia, and subjected the 
solution to a temperature of from 153° to 160° for twenty or 
twenty-five days. The color being at this time fully de¬ 
veloped, he precipitated it by adding calcic chloride. The 
purple lake thus obtained was sold as French purple. To 
dye with this lake it is mixed with oxalic acid and water, 
boiled, and filtered. The color all goes into solution, a 
little ammonia is added, and on introducing the silk, wool, 
or mordanted cotton (mordanted with albumen, or as for 
Turkey-red), they become dyed with magnificent fast shades 
of purple. Unfortunately for M. Marnas, in the same year 
that he developed his French purple (1856) Mr. Perkin dis¬ 
covered his mauve, which was the starting-point in the 
great aniline-color industry. Archil has therefore a com¬ 
paratively limited application. C. F. Chandler. 

ArchiUochiis [Gr. ’ApxiAoxos], a Greek poet, was born 










































ARCHIMAG US—ARCHITECTURE. 


in the island of Paros. He flourished about 710-670 B. C. 
At an early age he emigrated to Thasos and became a 
soldier, but he lost or threw away his shield in a battle be¬ 
tween the Thasians and Thracians. He afterwards went 
to Sparta, from which he was banished, probably for the 
licentiousness of his verses. He wrote odes, elegies, and 
satires, which were extremely severe and personal, was re¬ 
garded as the inventor of iambic verse, and was ranked 
by ancient critics as second to Homer. His versatile and 
brilliant genius is highly praised by Quintilian. Accord¬ 
ing to tradition, he was killed in a battle between the Pa¬ 
rians and the people of Naxos. The extant fragments of 
his poetry have been edited by Bergk in his “ Poetge Lyrici 
Graecorum ” (1854). (See Muller, “ Literature of Ancient 
Greece.”) 

Archima'gus, the chief of the ancient Persian magi. 
This title and office belonged to the reigning king of Persia 
after the time of Darius I., who, having ordered a general 
massacre of the magi, directed that it should be recorded 
on his monument that he was the master of the magi. It 
is also the name of a powerful and wicked magician in 
Spenser's “ Faerie Queene.” 

Archiman'drite [Lat. archimandri'ta, from the Gr. 
apxy, the “ first place or power,” and pdrSpa, a “retreat” or 
“ resting-place ”], an ecclesiastic who presides over mon¬ 
asteries of the Greek Church. The Russian bishops are 
chosen from the archimandrites. The title is retained in 
the Greek rite of the Roman Catholic Church. 

Archime'dcs [Gr. ’Ap^i^r/S?;?], the greatest of ancient 
geometers, was born at Syracuse about 287 B. C., and was 
of Greek extraction. He is said to have been a pupil of 
Conon and a kinsman of Hiero II., king of Syracuse, by 
whom he was patronized. He enriched geometry, mathe¬ 
matics, and mechanics with important discoveries, and in¬ 
vented several useful and powerful machines. King Hiero 
suspecting that a goldsmith had mixed alloy with a golden 
crown which he had made for him, applied to Archimedes 
to detect the fraud. The solution of this problem suggested 
itself to him as he entered a full bathing-tub, and perceived 
that his body must displace a volume of water equal to its 
own bulk. Greatly delighted with the discovery, he ran 
out of the bath, without having dressed (as the story goes), 
exclaiming “ Eureka !”—“ I have found it!” He discovered 
the proportion which a sphere bears to a cylinder by which 
it is enclosed. He was the author of a famous saying, 
“Aos rrov crru> sal tov Koapou Kivrjcrixi ”—“ Give me where I may 
stand and I will move the world” (or “ universe”). When 
Syracuse was besieged by the Roman general Marcellus, 
Archimedes exerted his ingenuity in the invention and con¬ 
struction of powerful machines or engines for the defence 
of that city. The tradition that he burned the Roman 
ships by mirrors is not confirmed by Polybius and Plutarch, 
and is discredited by many writers. He was killed, it is 
said, at the capture of Syracuse, in 212 B. C., by a Roman 
soldier, who would have spared his life if Archimedes had 
not been so absorbed in a problem that he would not com¬ 
ply with the soldier’s summons to surrender or to follow 
him. He wrote numerous works, of which eight are extant, 
namely: “ On the Sphere and Cylinder;” “ The Measure¬ 
ment of a Circle;” “On the Equilibrium and Centre of 
Gravity of Planes;” “ On Conoids and Spheroids;” “ On 
Spirals ;” “ The Quadrature of the Parabola;” “ The Are- 
narius;” and “ On Floating Bodies.” According to his 
direction, a cylinder enclosing a sphere was engraved on 
his tombstone, to commemorate his discovery of their rela¬ 
tion. His extant works were edited by Torelli, Oxford, 
1792. “He possessed,” says Professor Donkin of Oxford, 
“ in a degree never exceeded, unless by Newton, the inven¬ 
tive genius which discovers new provinces of inquiry, and 
finds new points of view for old and familiar objects, and 
the power and habit of intense and persevering thought, 
without which other intellectual gifts are comparatively 
fruitless.” (See Hennert, “Dissertation sur la Vie d’Ar- 
chimede,” 1766; Domenico Scina, “Discorso intorno ad 
Archimede,” 1823.) William Jacobs. 

Archimedes, a genus of fossil Bryozoans found in the 
lower carboniferous limestone’of the Mississippi Valley, of 
which the calcareous portion consists of a central axis, 
around which is spirally wound a reticulated, poriferous, 
divergent, ribbon-like band, forming a screw. Several 
species have been described, and they are so abundant in 
the rock which contains them that this has been sometimes 
called the archimedes limestone. 

Archimedes, the Principle of, an important prin¬ 
ciple in the science of hydrostatics, the discovery of which 
is ascribed to Archimedes, is this : “ A body immersed in a 
fluid loses exactly as much of its weight as is equal to the 
weight of the fluid which it displaces.” 

Archimedes’ Screw, a machine for raising water, 


211 


supposed to have been invented by Archimedes. The most 
simple form of it is a flexible tube bent spirally around a 
solid cylinder, the ends of which turn on pivots. The ma¬ 
chine is placed in an inclined position, the lower mouth of 
the tube being under the surface of the water, which can 
be raised to a limited height by turning the crank at the 
upper end. It is often formed of a centre shaft, on which 
metal plates are fixed like the thread of a screw, and en¬ 
closed in a cylindrical trough, the lower end of which is 
inserted in the water. It is used in Holland for draining 
low grounds. 

Archine, a measure of length in Russia exactly equal 
to twenty-eight British or American inches. 

Arcliipel'ago [from the Gr. ap*h “ first,” “chief,” and 
ne'Xayoi, “sea”], a name originally applied to a part of the 
Mediterranean called the AEgean Sea, which lies between 
Greece and Asia Minor and encloses numerous islands. 
These are mostly arranged in two groups, the Cyclades 
and Sporades. The principal islands of the former group 
are Melos or Milo, Naxos, Paros, Andros, Tenos, Delos, 
Seripho, Syra, Cythnos, and Thera. These islands, with 
Negropont, which is the largest island in the Archipelago, 
belong to Greece. Some writers include Crete in the Ar¬ 
chipelago. Among the Sporades, which belong to Turkej r , 
are Rhodes, Samos, Scio (Chios), Lemnos, Metelin or Mity- 
lene, Imbro, Samothraki, and Thasos. The islands of this 
sea are generally of calcareous formation, and have a fer¬ 
tile soil, beautiful scenery, and a pleasant climate. Many 
of them have produced famous philosophers, artists, and 
poets, and have been the scenes of interesting events of 
ancient history. (See Aegean Sea.) In modern times the 
term is applied to any sea or expanse of water which con¬ 
tains many islands, or to a group of islands, as the Ma¬ 
lay or Eastern Archipelago. 

Archipelago (Eastern). See Eastern Archipelago. 

Arch itecture [Gr. dp^iTe/cToi'Koj, “chief art;” Lat. 
architectn'ra; It. archittetu'ra ; Fr. architecture; Ger. Bau- 
kunst, the “building art”]. The art of architecture, like 
all the fine arts, except, perhaps, the art of music, has its 
roots in pure utility. It begins everywhere with the con¬ 
struction of a shelter against the elements. The rudest 
peoples, and even those who live in the mildest climates, 
feel the need of a roof. The Otaheitan lias'his hut, the 
American Indian his tent, the Esquimaux his dome of ice, 
the Indian his cave. Every race shows that there is in¬ 
herent in man the instinct of building. He shares it with 
the.beaver, the ant, and the bird. It exists in him as the 
power of language exists in him, and, like that, as like any 
one of his native powers, it may be developed or may re¬ 
main undeveloped. So long as it continues in this merely 
rudimentary condition, serving man’s necessary physical 
needs, and them alone, it is not a fine art, and it is some¬ 
times questioned whether, even when it is at its highest, it 
deserves that distinction. But without entering upon too 
subtle an argument, it may at least be asserted that build¬ 
ing only becomes architecture and enters the region of art 
when man begins to decorate his shelter in order to gratify 
a craving for beauty, a love of proportion. Still, it is neces¬ 
sary in studying the history of architecture to observe and 
to record its rudimentary condition in the several countries 
where it has been developed to a high point. For man’s 
social experience is written in his buildings; their grandeur 
and beauty are a measure of his civilization. They are the 
material mould of his politics, his religion, and his laws. 

Egyptian Architecture .—Any sketch of the history of 
architecture, however slight, must necessarily begin with 
Egypt, because there the oldest civilization of the human 
race is recorded in the oldest buildings of which we have 
any knowledge. Scholars are now generally agreed that the 
date of the Pyramids of Ghizeh is not less that 3000 years 
B. C. It is suspected that the Sphinx and the small temple 
of granite and alabaster near it may be very much older than 
this. But, whatever may be the result of the researches that 
are now being pushed by scholars and explorers in the domain 
of Egyptian history written all over these stupendous monu¬ 
ments, that Time has only partly overthrown and partly 
buried, it is not possible their age can be reckoned at much 
less than is at present believed,* and the oldest buildings 
of other peoples are but young in comparison with these. 

The architecture of Egypt consists of temples, palaces, 
and tombs. The Pyramids are now believed to be tombs. 
They have been thoroughly explored and patiently studied 
by many able people, and there seems no explanation of 
their purpose more simple and intelligible than this. They 
were built by the different kings whose names they bear as 
receptacles for their bodies, which were concealed in them 
with the most ingenious art; the object in piling up these 

* According to Poole, Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, and others, the 
three great Pyramids of Ghizeh were built B. C. 2450; Bunsen 
puts the date at B. C. 3209; and Marietta at B. C. 4235. 

















212 ARCHITECTURE. 


mountains of stone being to make an indestructible resting- 
place for the body during the ages that must elapse before 
the soul should return and take again her accustomed seat. 
The entrances to the Pyramids are carefully concealed, and 
have been discovered only by stripping off the outer coating 
of stone. The passages that lead to the chambers 'where the 
royal mummies once reposed (for every pyramid has been 
entered and rifled) were purposely made difficult, and even 
dangerous, to traverse, and the entrances to the burial-cham¬ 
ber, when reached, were so artfully and securely closed as to 
be passable only to force. Even when entered, the sarcopha¬ 
gus of polished granite in which the mummy lay could only 
be opened by breaking the solid stone that formed the lid, 
for this had been closed by a device at once so simple and 
effectual that no wit of man could better it. All these de¬ 
vices for concealment can have but one reasonable inter¬ 
pretation ", and it may be said, we think, without fear of 
contradiction, that the many theories by which a mystic or 
scientific origin has been proposed for the Pyramids are 
none of them held at present by any Egyptologists of 
eminence, who are all agreed that the Pyramids were in¬ 
tended simply as tombs. They stand in the midst of a 
vast necropolis, and are in all about a hundred in number. 
The three largest, named after their builders, Cheops or 
Soofoo, Chepheren or Shaf'ra, and Mycerinus, Menkeres, 
are the best known. The pyramid of Cheops originally 
covered a little over thirteen acres of ground, and was 480 
feet 9 inches in perpendicular height. Owing to the re¬ 
moval of the coating of polished granite with which this 
pyramid, like both the others, was originally covered, and 
the heaping of the ruins about the base, both these dimen¬ 
sions are somewhat reduced. Col. Vyse makes the present 
area slightly in excess of twelve acres, and the present 
height 450 feet 9 inches. But in the case of the Pyramids, 
as with all great buildings, the measurements of no two per¬ 
sons agree, and these must be taken as merely approxima¬ 
tive. Beside the Pyramids, the necropolis of Memphis 
contains many smaller tombs, the greater part of which 
are structural, others being hewed out of the solid rock 
where there was a good opportunity, as was the case at 
Ghizeh. At Beni-Hassan, farther up the Nile, there are 
tombs, all of which are excavated from the rocky hillside, 
and are of singular interest from an architectural point of 
view. Both the exterior and the interior of these tombs 
are carved in imitation of a post-and-lintel system. The 
entrance consists of a portico of two columns supporting 
a pretended architrave; the stone above is cut into an 
imitation of projecting eaves, with rafters showing under¬ 
neath. The whole of this portico, end-piers, columns, archi¬ 
trave, and eaves, is carved out of the solid face of the rock, 
which behind it is smoothed down to the appearance of a 
wall, in which is the door that gives entrance to the cham¬ 
ber. The roof of this chamber is carved into the semblance 
of architraves, between which it is hollowed out in the form 
of shallow barrel-vaulting. These make-believe architraves 
are supported by rock-cut columns. In several of these 
grotto-tombs the pillars within and without have so strong 
a resemblance to the Doric column that they have been 
called proto-Doric, and many modern writers on the sub¬ 
ject are persuaded that the Greeks borrowed the Doric 
column from the Egyptians. We cannot enter on the sub¬ 
ject here, but we may express a doubt whether at present 
this belief ought to be considered as having any better 
foundation than conjecture and a striking resemblance. 

The buildings next in antiquity to the Pyramids are the 
palaces of Thebes. The principal ruins of this once mag¬ 
nificent city lie on both sides of the Nile, covering an area 
that extends about two and a quarter miles N. and S. and 
thyee and a half miles E. and W. The principal group 
is at Karnac, on the eastern bank, and consists of a pal- 
ace-temple 1200 feet long, with five or six smaller buildings 
groujmd about it with that lack of symmetry which was a 
characteristic of the builders of that age and of the later 
times, as distinguished from the period of the Pyramids. 
Farther S., about two miles, but once united with it by an 
avenue of sphinxes now in ruins, was the temple of Luxor, 
820 feet long, and with no other buildings connected with it. 
The rest of this astonishing Theban group is found on the 
opposite side of the river, and consists of the temple of 
Medinet Ilabou, the Rhamsession, the temple of Gournou, 
and the temple of Thotmes and Amenophis, but of the last 
two little remains above ground. The river on whose bank 
they were directly built has played a double part in their 
destruction. The inundations have undermined and swept 
them away, and their neighborhood to the water has en¬ 
abled boats to come and carry away their stone for building 
purposes. Our narrow limits utterly forbid any minute 
description of these buildings. Everything about them 
was huge. Their ground-plans were not only really exten¬ 
sive, but they were so subdivided as to make them seem 
much larger than they were. Court succeeded to court, room 


to room, until the sense of size and the sense of distance 
were wearied. The long avenues of sphinxes, the niighty 
columns supporting roofs of solid stone, the tower-like py¬ 
lons that guarded the entrance, were all calculated to over¬ 
awe the human spirit by the notions of vastness and the 
sense of power in the monarchs that could command the 
erection of such structures. Nor must we forget that the 
enormous size and extent of these palace-temples (for they 
contained within themselves the abodes of the kings as well 
as the shrines of the gods) were tempered by a noble sense 
of proportion, by sculpture of a grandeur of which we 
never weary, by the most delicate carving, and by a system 
of ornamentation alike perfect in form and color. Any no¬ 
tice of the Egyptian buildings of this period that should 
fail to hint at their beauty would leave an incomplete im¬ 
pression, but we too often find this praise forgotten in the 
wonder excited by their stupendous feats of building. 

Still farther S., in passing from Thebes to the Second 
Cataract, we find the ruins of temples which, once reck¬ 
oned coeval with the Pyramids, or even more ancient, are 
now known to be the most modern of the Egyptian build¬ 
ings. Of these the best known are the temples at Edfou, 
Denderah, Philae, and Kalabsche, but the shore on either 
side is scattered with ruins, and they differ from those of 
Thebes in being exclusively temples. Some of these build¬ 
ings are of a grandeur of design and size that would have 
done credit to the time of the Pharaohs, and, as a rule, the 
inferiority of these temples, built under the^ dominion of 
the Ptolemies, is more apparent in the sculpture and paint¬ 
ing that decorate them than in their architecture. In style 
and general arrangement the later buildings differ surpris¬ 
ingly little from the more ancient, but many of the buildings 
are better preserved ; they make, for this reason, a clearer 
impression on the visitor, and while it would seem as if 
this fact should have militated against the idea of their 
greater antiquity, it was perhaps counteracted in its effect 
by their greater remoteness, by the difficulty of access to 
them, and the loneliness that invests them. 

“A spirit of simplicity, grandeur, and solidity reigns 
throughout all the Egyptian temples, and every precaution 
seems to have been taken to make them eternal.” Doubt¬ 
less the ease with which large masses of stone were pro¬ 
cured, and the fact that labor cost but little—for the labor¬ 
er was a slave and the land was inexhaustibly fertile—had 
much to do with the peculiar massiveness of the style. 
Every original style of architecture, and even those deriv¬ 
ed styles, such as the Greek, which modified their model 
by the laws of a higher ideal in art and a purer taste, until 
it became almost an independent style,—all these genuine 
workers have been controlled in great measure by their mate¬ 
rial, or rather, let us say, have known how to take advantage 
of it. The Egyptian architecture is in thorough harmony 
with the physical characteristics of the country. The mo¬ 
notony of this flat valley is varied, and at the same time 
accented, if we may so express it, by these gigantic piles 
of masonry that suggest mountain forms. At the same 
time, in piling them up, their builders obeyed the laws of 
structure ; they played no tricks with gravitation, as the 
Gothic and Renaissance builders did ; and if man could 
have been restrained from violating the pyramids and the 
tombs, and from making quarries of the temples, time 
would have preserved them unharmed until to-day and for 
centuries to come. Acquainted with the arch, they rarely 
used it, as knowing doubtless that “ an arch never sleeps,” 
and they would employ no feature that would jeopard the 
durability of their work. Perfect sculptors, they knew 
how to subordinate their carving perfectly to the architec¬ 
ture it was to adorn, and as all their sculpture had an im¬ 
portant meaning, they studied that reserve in its treatment 
that would best enable it to resist all accidents of time and 
human violence. Their buildings have been reproached 
with monotony, but it may be questioned whether any ar¬ 
chitecture has ever made so wide spread, so profound an 
impression, or has given such enduring pleasure. They 
would seem to have early discovered the best way of piling 
up enormous masses of stone, the best way of supporting 
their architraves and roofs, and the best way of ornament¬ 
ing their work ; and having found what they wanted, they 
rested in a sublime content, continuing to build for ages 
without the wish to change, and with no motive to attempt 
improvement in what seemed to them doubtless, as it seems 
to us, incapable of being improved. 

Grecian Architecture .—What we shall have to say about 
Greek architecture will begin, properly, with the introduc¬ 
tion into the peninsula of the Doric order. This, sup¬ 
posing the temple at Corinth to be the oldest example ex¬ 
isting, does not carry us back very far, since its date is 
supposed to be only about 650 B. C. The Ionic order was 
no doubt introduced from Asia as early as this, or, it may 
be, earlier, but all the oldest examples' have perished, and 
the few buildings in which it is now found in Greece itself 

















ARCHITECTURE. 


are of a date far much more recent than the oldest Doric 
temples. There are a few buildings in Greece much older 
than the temple at Corinth, but they are in a ruinous con¬ 
dition, and with the exception of the tomb of Atreus (the 
so-called “treasury” of Atreus) at Mycenm, and the Gate 
of Lions in the wall of the same city, they have little in¬ 
terest for any one but the antiquary; nor do they belong 
to the history of the development of Grecian architecture, 
properly so called. We shall not therefore stop to describe 
the tumuli of Mycenae and Orchemenos, but shall pass at 
once to the consideration of the later buildings. 

In Greece itself the most famous temples were all Doric. 
The temple at Corinth, that at iEgina, the temple of 
Theseus at Athens, with those of Jupiter at Olympia, of 
Minerva at Sunium, and finally the Parthenon at Athens, 
with many others, were all in this style, for which the 
Greeks had a peculiar liking, and which they treated with 
the most perfect skill and taste. 

The Parthenon, indeed, stands in men’s minds as the 
type of the perfection of Greek architecture. Even if we 
felt it necessary to admit—as we certainly do not—that the 
Greeks borrowed the Doric columns and every architectural 
idea and feature from the Egyptians and the Assyrians, Ave 
may assert that in the Parthenon they so perfected their 
model, and invested it with such poetic beauty, that they 
deserve to be called creators rather than copyists. We can¬ 
not understand the Doric order until we have studied it in 
the Parthenon. It united in itself all the beauties and re¬ 
finements of which the style was capable, and it is perhaps 
the highest praise that can be given it if it be admitted 
that it gained little essentially by the addition of the sculp¬ 
tures of Pheidias. They were a glorious ornament, but 
the Parthenon was perfect as a building without them. 

The Parthenon was the only temple in Greece that had 
eight columns in its end porticoes. It was a small build¬ 
ing, being only 228 feet long by 101 feet Avide, and it was 
built of the finest Avhite marble. Like all the Doric tem¬ 
ples, it was painted over its whole surface, internally as 
Avell as externally. The sculpture was relieved by a col¬ 
ored background, the coverings of the roof were certainly 
painted, and all the mouldings. This seems to be the 
general opinion of scholars and artists on this much-vexed 
question, but it is still disputed by some persons of au¬ 
thority. Fergusson in England, Viollet-le-Duc in France, 
and Semper in Germany maintain the affirmative, however, 
and their authority, singly or combined, is very great. The 
fact that color was used cannot be disputed, seeing that 
there are plenty of traces of it still existing. The question 
seems to be, How extensively was it used, and was it ap¬ 
plied to the buildings Avhen they Avere first erected or at a 
later date? 

The Parthenon was built by Pericles about 440 B. C. 
The architects Ictinus and Callicrates Avere charged with 
the construction, and Pheidias was entrusted Avith the com¬ 
mission to fill the tAvo pediments and the metopes with 
sculpture. Whatever may have been the origin of the 
Doric order, by the time the Parthenon came to be built 
Greek delicacy and perception had so ripened as to give 
the order that final grace which has made this celebrated 
temple a standard of architectural perfection to the Avhole 
civilized Avorld. So delicate are the refining processes by 
which this final perfection Avas reached that it was long 
before they were discovered, and people wondered Avhy the 
most careful and conscientious attempts made by skilful 
architects to reproduce the Parthenon always failed to please 
like the original. The truth is, that these refinements are 
too delicate to be detected except by the most accurate 
measurement; they were never intended to be discovered 
by the eye, since their only object Avas the correction in each 
instance of an optical delusion, and the error in Avhich the 
refinement consisted was only meant to be sufficient to just 
counterbalance this delusion. The first of these refinements 
was the entasis or swelling of the columns, a peculiarity 
noticed by Vitruvius, and in our OAvn time first verified by 
Mr. Allanson, though it is to Mr. Penrose’s measurements 
and analyses that Ave owe our present knowledge on this sub¬ 
ject, and indeed on all the minute points connected Avith the 
Athenian architecture. That the columns diminished from 
the bottom to the top was always known, and is evident 
enough to the eye, but it Avas long before it was proved that 
this diminishing was not regular, and that, owing to their 
SAvelling slightly out, they were bounded not by straight 
lines, but by a very delicate hyperbolic curve, only discov¬ 
erable by the nicest measurement. When this Avas found 
out it explained Avhy the modern columns made Avith such 
good faith and cleA r erness in close imitation of the Greek 
looked so stiff and lifeless. And yet Ave have never known 
Iioav to profit by our knowledge. Modern Doric columns 
• either have not enough entasis, and look as if the sides sank 
in, or they have too much, and look like bolsters set on 
end. The entasis of the columns of the Parthenon is 


213 


of the whole height. By another refinement the architrave 
in all the temples was curved upward, so as to correct the 
optical delusion caused by the sloping lines of the pedi¬ 
ment, Avhich would otherAvise have made the straight line 
of the arehitrave appear to sag. This curving of the end- 
architraves was, as we have said, common to all the tem¬ 
ples, but in the Parthenon the architraves of the sides also 
were curved upward to correct the error of the eye in regard¬ 
ing a long straight line. The same nicety of perception led to 
the curving upAvard of the roof-ridge, to the giving all the 
columns a slight inward inclination, and to the making the 
columns at the angles thicker than the others—in the case 
of the Parthenon by ^ of the diameter, and in the case of 
the Theseum by Ap All the curves are hyperbolas or parab¬ 
olas, and in the adjustment of the parts one to another a 
system of proportions was adopted and elaborately carried 
out so recondite that by most persons it was long regarded 
as more fanciful than real. Now, hoAvever, the discoveries 
of Mr. Penrose are universally admitted, and it is seen that 
they explain the charm the Greek architecture has eA r en for 
persons Avho have no scientific acquaintance with the sub¬ 
ject. We must not overlook in passing the theory that the 
Doric temple was an imitation in all its parts of a wooden 
original, the columns being the trunks of trees; the archi¬ 
trave the beam that was laid from post to post; the tri¬ 
glyphs the ends of the joists; and the metopes the spaces be¬ 
tween them filled up with slabs of marble; that the mutules 
were the ends of the roof-rafters, and the guttse the drops of 
rain that collect on the under side of horizontal beams. This 
theory might by this time, Ave think, be allowed to rest 
Avith the myths of Romulus and Remus or the story of 
William Tell and the apple. It has no foundation in fact, 
and deserves no consideration. It is all one with the story 
that the Doric column was designed to suggest the male 
figure, and the Ionic the female. The Doric temple was 
essentially a stone construction, the cella and the portico 
being coA'ered with a Avooden roof, and no part of the ma¬ 
sonry Avas imitative of anything. 

It seems to be admitted by those who have the most 
right to be heard on the subject that the Ionic order was in 
use as early in Greece as the Doric; that in Asia Minor it 
was in use even earlier ; and that it was employed in many 
of the finest temples in that region, which were destroyed 
during the Persian Avar. The fact that the few existing 
buildings in Greece in Avhich this Ionic order is found are 
of a much later date than the oldest Doric buildings led 
earlier writers on the subject to consider it as of much later 
introduction, but it is noAv admitted that the Ionic order 
Avas in use as early in Greece as the Doric order, and that 
in Asia Minor it was perhaps of greater antiquity. The 
famous temple of Diana at Ephesus, that of Apollo at 
Miletus, and others at Sardis, Priene, and Teos, all of 
which have perished, were built in this style. On the other 
hand, the temple of Juno at Samos Avas originally of the 
Doric order, but was perhaps destroyed and rebuilt, since 
the ruins now found there are Ionic. Architectural forms 
often indicate changes in fashion or the prevalence of cer¬ 
tain influences, as Avell as deeper-seated modifications of 
ideas. Thus, at Pompeii, immediately after the first great 
eruption of Vesuvius (63 B. C.), the Roman officials caused 
all the temples and public buildings to be either rebuilt or 
restored in the Corinthian order, which Avas as much a 
favorite at Rome as the Doric was in Greece, and the traces 
of this fashionable remodelling are evident enough to the 
most careless observei’s. In the so-called temple of Venus 
near the Forum the Doric capitals were changed into Co¬ 
rinthian by means of stucco, Avhich to-day is falling off and 
sIioavs the Doric marble underneath. This is only one in¬ 
stance of what has been going on in the practice of build¬ 
ing since the earliest times. The Egyptians seem to have 
been the only Western people Avho never Avere influenced 
in their architecture by their conquerors or their allies. 
Their architecture does not show a single trace of foreign 
influence, but in Western Europe the history of architec¬ 
ture is only the history of modifications, many of them 
vital, it is true, like those produced by the use of the arch, 
of iron, and of painted glass, but many of them, also, due 
to fashion, to the influence of conquest, to the exigencies 
of climate, and to changes in political and social life. It is 
not easy to understand why the Ionic buildings should 
have suffered so much more than the Doric, but it is true 
that even in Greece there is but little left by which to 
judge of the progressive history of the Ionic order. We 
can trace the Doric from its clumsy beginnings in the tem¬ 
ple of Corinth to the perfect beauty of the Parthenon, but 
Avhen we first meet the Ionic in the Ercctheium and the 
temple of the Wingless Victory, it is in full development ; 
the stages by which it arrived at this point, in Greece at 
least, are all destroyed. The loss of these intermediate 
buildings is much to be regretted. Without them it is 
almost impossible to acknoAvledge the relationship betAvccn 
















214 ARCHITECTURE. 


the stilted and awkward capitals of the Hall of Xerxes at 
Perscpolis and the elegant capitals of the Erectheium at 
Athens. 

The Corinthian order was not introduced into Greece until 
the age of Alexander the Great (B. C. 356-323), unless wo 
are to accept what Pausanias says about the temple in 
Tegea, in Arcadia. According to this doubtful authority, 
that temple Avas rebuilt by Scopas, the celebrated architect 
of Paros, after its destruction by fire about 400 B. 0. It 
Avas surrounded by an Ionic peristyle externally, but the 
internal peristyle was Doric, Avith a gallery above, Avith 
Corinthian columns supporting the roof. Supposing this 
to be trustworthy, this temple would mark a very import¬ 
ant era in the history of Greek architecture, as shoAving 
the influx of neAv ideas and a definite departure from the 
older style. Nothing, however, remains in the presumed 
locality of the temple but shapeless ruins, and we must 
aAvait regular explorations before we can know anything 
Avith certainty about the building. So far as Ave knoAv, the 
oldest example of the Corinthian order in Greece is found 
in the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates (one remaining of 
many small structures erected as trophies of victory in the 
musical contests). This Avas built B. C. 335, and has long 
been considered a model of elegance. Much later in date, 
and by no means so beautiful, was the ToAverof the Winds, 
a small octagonal building erected to contain a clepsydra 
or water-clock, and having a dial on one side and a vane 
at the top. This was built in the second century B. C. 
The only traces of the Corinthian order are found in the 
fragments discovered near it, out of which the archgeolo¬ 
gists have constructed two small porches, and it is most 
likely that they did originally belong to the building. The 
most important example in Athens of the Corinthian order 
Avas the temple of Jupiter Olympus, but this was not a 
Greek work, having been begun by Cosentius, a Roman 
architect, in the second century B. C., and finished by 
Hadrian in the second century of our era. The Greeks 
Avere not fortunate in their attempt Avith the Corinthian 
style. Strangely enough, it was left for the Romans to 
bring this order to perfection, though perhaps the Greek 
failure was due rather to the fact that the style Avas intro¬ 
duced at a time when the arts were in decay than to an in¬ 
herent inability to deal with it. Judging from the earliest 
remains we have of the Corinthian as used in Asia Minor, 
the ancient examples may have been in purer taste than 
those that remain to us at Athens. In one of these older 
examples the capital has the acanthus leaf at the base, and 
the honeysuckle ornament above. Later, the volutes of the 
Ionic order Avere added, but in the Greek examples the 
union was never successfully accomplished. 'In the Monu¬ 
ment of Lysicrates we liaA'e the best that Greek hands could 
do in this doubtful mingling of tAvo styles. In the Tower 
of the Winds this Avas not attempted, nor is the spreading 
Asiatic base of the pillars in the Choragic Monument re¬ 
tained. The pillars of the Tower of the Winds, on the 
contrary, are Avithout any base whatever. There is some¬ 
thing not easily understood in this return to an older sever¬ 
ity and purity. 

Roman Architecture .—The Greeks were not great build¬ 
ers, but thoy were supreme architects. With the excep¬ 
tion of a few small monuments of no great importance, 
they have left us nothing besides temples, but in these the 
system of the post-and-lintel architecture Avas made to 
show all the grace, elegance, and dignity of Avhich it was 
capable, just as in the Egyptian temples and palaces it 
had reached the highest point of sublimity. The Romans 
were in general only middling architects, but the Egyp¬ 
tians alone could compare Avith them as builders. It is 
asserted of them that everything in their architecture Avas 
borrowed, but even if this Avere admitted, it must be ad¬ 
mitted, on the other hand, that they Avere not slavish copy¬ 
ists : in many instances they made what they borroAved 
their own. If they inherited the round arch from the 
Etruscans, they made such an individual use of it that it 
has its name from them, and not from their neighbors 
and ancestors. To all intents and purposes they were the 
inventors of it. They borroAved, Ave believe, all the orders 
from the Greeks, and though they spoiled, or at least 
materially changed, the Doric and the Ionic, they made 
of the Corinthian a new creation far more beautiful and 
elegant than it had been in Greek hands. If they bor¬ 
rowed the amphitheatre from the Etruscans, its employ¬ 
ment became so important in their society that it soon left 
its rock-excavated original far behind, and took on a cha¬ 
racteristic and essentially neAv form. The Romans derived 
in their blood a love for the arch and the circular forms 
that spring from it and harmonize Avith it; but it is not 
perhaps necessary to look elsewhere for an explanation of 
the development of the arch and dome in Roman hands 
than to the differences in the climate of Greece and Italy, 
and in the social needs of the Greeks and Romans. As 


has been remarked, the only public buildings the Greeks 
have left us are their temples. They lived in the open air, 
and had no need of the roofs by which the Romans pro¬ 
tected themselves from the excessive heats of their sum¬ 
mers and the rigors of their damp and cold winters. 
Whether it Avere a simple climatic reason, or a something 
in the disposition of the people difficult to trace and ana¬ 
lyze, as such things are and must be, Ave cannot tell. Only, 
here are the facts. The Greeks have left us only temples; 
the Romans have left us temples, baths, amphitheatres, 
bridges, aqueducts, triumphal arches, triumphal columns, 
market-places (fora), palaces, houses, and tombs. They 
took from the Greeks the plans of their rectangular tem¬ 
ples, but the Greek temple was merely a wall admirably 
built and decorated, with a portico running about it; often 
this Avail enclosed an uncovered court, or if the court were 
roofed it was generally roofed Avith wood, the wall and its 
portico being sufficient for the vertical pressure, which Avas 
all it had to sustain. Whatever led the Romans to desire 
plans in Avhich a number of small rooms, or one large 
room, were to be covered with a roof, as Ave have said, does 
not appear, but they shoAved a marked determination to 
this sort of building, and of necessity Avere obliged to in¬ 
vent some stable and at the same time simple means of 
roofing these rooms. We confess avc find something child¬ 
ish in the supposed necessity of finding out Avhence the 
Romans borrowed the great principle of the arch, and 
how they learned to make vaults. Is not man endowed 
Avith eA r ery faculty that is necessary to his well-being, and 
did not the Roman derive his skill in arch-building from 
the same source from Avhich the Esquimaux derives his ? 
Who played Etruscan to the Esquimaux? Nay, for that 
matter, Avho played Etruscan to the Etruscans themselves? 

The Romans, then, Avanted roofs, and roofs that were to 
cover spaces much lai’ger than could be covered by any 
Avoodcn l'oofing Avithout the aid of columns. The circular 
A r ault Avas the simplest, most natural device, and we are 
ready to believe that they came upon it in their OAvn minds 
without the need of any ancestor from Avhom to borrow it. 

The Roman buildings are imposing and magnificent 
from their mass, but in their details there is too often a 
lack of delicacy and proportion, while the ornamentation 
is almost always coarse in execution, though not unfre- 
quently spirited in design. The Romans employed Greek 
workmen and artists to decorate their buildings—the struc¬ 
tures themselves Avere of their own designing—and of 
necessity much fine sculpture and sculptured ornament Avas 
executed, not only in Rome, but in other cities in Italy 
and in the provinces. But, as always happens in cases 
where the employer has no knoAvledge of the Avork he is 
paying for, and little feeling for it or interest in it beyond 
a desire to get the most show he can for his money, the 
skill and taste of the Greek workman deteriorated under 
Roman employment, just as, if avc may be allowed the 
comparison, the skill and taste of the French artist and 
Avorkman deteriorate when they work for English and 
American employers. 

If in this slight sketch we do not attempt to give an 
account of the more celebrated Roman buildings, it is 
because in point of architecture they have little original¬ 
ity; in nearly every case a Roman building Avas a skilful 
pile of masonry, Avith an external mask made up of details 
borrowed from Greece. Besides, few of their buildings 
proper are sufficiently Avell preserved to be described Avith 
accuracy. The Pantheon is the only temple in Rome that 
still retains its Avails, its roof, and its portico; the Flavian 
Amphitheatre (the Colosseum) is in ruins, though it still 
keeps the greater part of the mask of arches, columns, and 
entablatures that covered its masonry and concealed its 
true structure; the stupendous baths of Titus, of Diocle¬ 
tian, of Caracalla are heaps of nearly indistinguishable 
ruin; of the Forum nothing remains but a puzzle for the 
antiquaries, and the palace of the Csesars is a vast desola¬ 
tion. But though these buildings Avere constructed Avith 
great solidity, and in many cases with admirable science, 
they showed in almost every instance a lamentable ignor¬ 
ance of the true principles of architectural design, coupled 
Avith a singular lack of invention. The Romans piled up 
mountains of stone, and thought they had showed them¬ 
selves architects when they had concealed their masonry 
behind screens consisting of monotonous rows of columns 
and pilasters, arches, niches, architraves, and entablatures. 

Still, if we fix our eyes upon Avhat the Romans did, rather 
than upon what they failed to do, we shall find we oavo 
them a considerable debt. Their delight in building gave 
a stimulus to the art all ov r er Western Europe, and if they 
were not architects themselves in the true sense of the 
term, they Avere at least the cause why others Avere archi¬ 
tects, since they laid the broad and deep foundations on „ 
which the men of the Middle Ages built so Avell. 

We know very little of the architecture of Rome during 
















ARCHITECTURE. 


the republic: it was with the empire that the long line of 
Roman achievement in the art of building began. The 
Pantheon, the temples of the Forum, the Colosseum, the 
great aqueducts, the bridges, the baths, were all of late con¬ 
struction, and when the empire fell to pieces every place 
on the earth’s surface that had been subject to it contained 
the proofs of that subjection in buildings that still remain, 
and that would still be in their original condition, so sol¬ 
idly were they built, if man had not destroyed them from 
wantonness or cupidity. 

One class of buildings, however, owed a longer life than 
was granted to the rest to the fact that they easily fitted 
themselves to the new order of things that came in with 
the toleration of Christianity by the state, under Constan¬ 
tine. These were the basilicas or halls of justice. They 
were of several kinds—those that were roofed with stone 
vaults, and those that were roofed with wood—and they 
were either rectangular or circular in form. They were 
built wherever the Romans founded or took possession of 
cities and towns. The larger and more splendid basilicas 
of Trajan and Maxentius, of which the ruins still exist in 
Rome, were vaulted with stone, and splendidly if also 
somewhat barbarously coated with a false decoration of 
pillars and entablatures in costly marbles;. but in the 
provinces, and later in Rome itself, these buildings were 
often small and roofed with wood, and when the Christians 
first began to look around them for places in which to wor¬ 
ship, they either took possession of basilicas already erected 
or put up new ones modelled on the old, but smaller and 
less expensive. However, their inexpensiveness was not 
always the measure of their decoration, for they were in 
most cases built of the materials of older edifices, and 
adorned, and that often splendidly, with columns and slabs 
of rare and beautiful marble from the despoiled palaces 
and temples of imperial Rome. The arrangement of every 
Christian church that lias a ritual is borrowed directly 
from the original arrangement of the basilicas, though 
this was considerably modified at an early period in the 
history of the Church as it changed from a democratic to 
an aristocratic organization. This will be easily seen by 
examining the plan of a Roman basilica, where will be 
found the quaestor’s seat in the apse (which was afterwards 
occupied by the bishop), the altar in front of the apse 
where sacrifice was performed before commencing any im¬ 
portant public business, and the rostra or pulpits at the 
sides where the clerks were placed. These last became 
the reading-desks and pulpits of the new occupants. 
Originally, the whole space in front of the apse was open 
to the public, who came and went as in a modern court¬ 
room ; but Avith the change of ideas in the rulers of the 
Church, a separation was established between the clergy 
and the laity; the apse was railed off, and access forbid¬ 
den ; then a rectangular space was railed off - in front of 
the apse for the inferior clergy, and little by little the pres¬ 
ent disposition of ritualistic churches was established. In 
passing, we may refer the reader to the highly interesting 
church of San Clemente at Rome, where abundant proofs 
of these early conditions may still be studied, and Avhere 
the arrangement of the basilica as built by the Christians 
under the full influence of these aristocratic notions of 
church government are yet to be seen in perfect preserva¬ 
tion. Historically and artistically, the church of San Cle¬ 
mente is much more interesting than St. Peter’s, but it is 
only lately that it is getting to be known to the ordinary 
traveller. 

As the world began to revive after the blasting influences 
of the downfall of the Roman empire were somewhat spent, 
the rapid growth of the new religion called for new churches 
everywhere, and not only churches, but monasteries and 
convents to house the thousands of men and women who 
thronged to fill the ranks of the monastic orders, then 
forming on all sides. 

The Eastern Roman empire, having its seat at Byzan¬ 
tium, continued to erect buildings which, until the rise of 
the Mohammedan powers, showed the influence of the tra¬ 
ditions of Rome, with features borrowed from the countries 
with which the Eastern empire came into more intimate 
relations. It is to this modification in the Eastern empire 
of the classic Roman by barbarian influences that the term 
Byzantine is strictly applicable. The similar modification 
that took place in the classic style in the Western empire, 
principally in the countries N. of the Alps, under the in¬ 
fluence of the so-called Gothic races, is rightly distin¬ 
guished as Jlomanesque. The period of greatest activity 
in the Byzantine style was that which is included between 
the removal of the empire to Byzantium and the death of 
Justinian (A. D. 328-565). Yet, though the styles of the 
East and the West became later so different, during this 
period the line of demarcation can hardly be perceived. 
Constantinople, Rome, and Ravenna were the chief cities 
of one great empire, and throughout the whole region 


215 


whatever building was done was building for the same 
new uses out of the materials that had once done service 
for the old religion and the old society. But, as when a 
family is separated by one of its members leaving the old 
homo and going to dwell in a distant region, while both he 
who goes and they who stay long continue to keep up the 
old traditions and to maintain the former ways of living, 
yet each is sure in time to be subjected to new influences, 
and so to become Avidely different from the other,—so each 
division of the Roman empire, subjected during this long 
period of nearly three hundred years to severe experiences, 
developed a neAV society, and of course a new phase of 
architecture. Before the age of Constantine one style per- 
A r aded the Avhole empire. Then came the period of tran¬ 
sition, “ during Avhich the Western empire was in a state of 
decay, ending in a debacle from which the Gothic style did 
not emerge until some four centuries later, while the East¬ 
ern empire, on the contrary, was during that time progres¬ 
sively forming itself, and did form a style of its OAvn of 
singular beauty and perfection.” This style culminated 
in the erection of the great church of Santa Sophia at 
Constantinople (A. D. 532-563), which the Turks after¬ 
wards cornier ted to their own worship. After this glorious 
achievement the art gradually declined, but many build¬ 
ings of great skill and beauty Avere erected all over the East, 
not only in Constantinople, but in Syria, Russia, Armenia, 
Asia Minor, and Greece. 

Meanwhile, in Western Eui’ope the story of architectural 
progress runs on almost without interruption from the 
grand days of the Roman empire down to the time of the 
gi-eat revival of learning which we call “the Renaissance ” or 
“the Reformation.” Christian architecture began in pagan 
Rome, and every Christian church edifice—parish church 
or cathedral—traces its ancestry back to the Roman basil¬ 
ica. While the countries N. of the Alps were yet struggling 
to create their new civilization on the ruins of the Roman 
empire, in Italy the state of society Avas undergoing a less 
violent transformation, and the old Roman forms were 
modified, but not overthrown nor outgrown. The one rea¬ 
son for this Ave have already noticed in the fact that the 
buildings erected in this period were either restored on the 
ruins of older structures, or were made of old materials, 
and adorned Avith the marble columns, capitals, friezes, 
and slabs that were found in such abundance in the Roman 
cities. The same thing Avas done in cities in France and 
Spain and England—principally in France, of course, 
though even there to a much less extent than in Italy; but 
in the North there were new exigencies of climate to be met, 
and there were the wants and tastes of a new society demand¬ 
ing neAV forms in which to enshrine themselves. But there 
was Avanted the shock of a new crisis, the stir and emotion 
of a great conflict—not of bodies merely in battle, but of 
ideas; and the conquests of the Turks, which led to the 
final absorption and disappearance of the Byzantine style 
in Eastern Europe, had much to do with developing the Ro¬ 
manesque and the full splendor of the Gothic, by introdu¬ 
cing into the society of Western Europe a new and power¬ 
ful disturbing force, stimulating the old faith into neAV 
ardor, and bringing the whole population, directly or indi¬ 
rectly, into contact and conflict with the civilization of the 
East, through those enterprises in which religion and the 
trading spirit were so curiously yet so inextricably min¬ 
gled, and Avhich we call the Crusades. Gothic architecture 
Avas not derived from the East; no single feature of it can 
be traced to that source; it Avas the fruit of religious en¬ 
thusiasm roused to fever-heat by the menace of a ucav per¬ 
secution ; of thought stimulated by adventure, discovery, 
and contact with neAv societies; of the wealth that poured 
into Europe with the rapidly increasing trade Avith the 
East. 

While the new religion was getting itself established in 
Western Europe, it contented itself Avith working in the 
channel of Roman ideas, and Avherever it could find them 
employing Roman materials. But not only did these ma¬ 
terials give out before long, but, as the nations progressed 
more and more in their own development and got farther 
away from the Roman influence, and as the Northern ideas 
and sentiments ever greAV stronger, it was inevitable that 
there should come a change over the style of building. For 
a very slight study of the subject will convince any one 
that of the history of the human race a large chapter at 
least is written in its buildings, and no great change ever 
came over the spirit of man without a corresponding change 
coming over the more important of the works of his hand; 
and none of his Avorks have a more essential importance 
than the buildings in Avhich he lives and worships and 
makes his laws. 

It would, however, be a serious mistake if avo should 
think that any new principle Avas discovered by which the 
architecture we call Christian Avas separated from the 
pagan Roman. It Avas only deA r elopment, nothing more. 
















216 


ARCHITECTURE. 


When the Romans neglected the architrave system—or, as 
it is better called, the post-and-lintel system—of the Greeks 
and Egyptians, and took np and developed the arch (known 
long before their time, but never used to any extent), they 
left nothing useful to be discovered in the field of architecture, 
and these two principles, used separately or in combination, 
are all that since their day men have found it necessary to 
employ. The pointed arch was developed as naturally, in 
obedience to man’s needs, as the round arch had been; it 
was even, as it would appear, a local discover}', and was 
used in Provence in France while the rest of Western Eu¬ 
rope was still building round arches under Roman influ¬ 
ence. Mr. Fergusson shows that its use was very ancient, 
it having been employed by the Assyrians in the eighth 
century R. C., and by the Ethiopians in the seventh centu¬ 
ry B. C.; while the Ethiopians and early settlers in Greece 
(Pelasgi) used the form, though constructed with horizontal 
courses, twelve centuries B. C., and while, to come nearer to 
our own time, the Saracens adopted it in Cairo in the first 
century of the Hejira, and never apparently used a round 
arch after the erection of the mosque of Ebn Touloun 
(A. D. 885); yet, although he sIioavs very clearly that its 
use by the builders of Provence in the time of Charle¬ 
magne Avas dictated by necessity, he finds it difficult to be¬ 
lieve that they could have rein\ r ented it for the purposes 
to which it was applied. But Ave are so far from being 
surprised at any such fact as this, and so unwilling to in¬ 
sist that an ancestor must be found for every achievement 
of man, that we see no reason to doubt that the people of 
Provence invented the form, nor should we be surprised to 
come upon it or the round arch in any land, if such re¬ 
main to be discovered, as impossible to connect with any 
ancestry as Palcnque or Japan. 

The pointed arch was, then, merely a new and fortunate 
step in the march of architectural progress, but its introduc¬ 
tion was gradual, and at first it Avas combined Avith the 
still lingering traces of Roman architecture, appearing like 
a new clement in the buildings so Avell called Romanesque 
from the preponderance in them of Roman features. It 
Avould be impossible in our small space to so much as glance 
OA*er the immense field covei'ed by the buildings of the 
Gothic period. The Gothic architecture reached its cul¬ 
mination in the thirteenth century, Avhen the most beauti¬ 
ful buildings were erected that the world has ever seen. 
“ Not even the great Pharaonic era in Egypt, the age of Per¬ 
icles in Greece, nor the great period of the Roman empire, 
Avill bear comparison,” says Fergusson, “ Avitli the thirteenth 
century in France, Avhether Ave look to the extent of the 
buildings executed, their Avonderful variety and construc¬ 
tive elegance, the daring imagination that conceived them, 
or the power of poetry and of lofty religious feeling that 
is expressed in every feature and in every part of them.” 
The Gothic style is seen in its purity in France and in 
England, but even in Venice and some other cities of 
Northern Italy, Avhere it is mingled Avith Byzantine and 
Roman features, there is a beauty about it, a poetic charm, 
which has of late years especially excited a high degree of 
admiration. 

We have said that no new principle Avas introduced in 
the pointed architecture, but it is important to remember 
that the exigencies of the Northern climate, the less amount 
of sunlight, and the double necessity of admitting as much 
light as possible Avhile excluding rain and snow, inevitably 
led to the development of the manufacture of glass and its 
employment in AvindoAvs. The Greeks, Egyptians, and Ro¬ 
mans were all Avell acquainted with glass, and manufactured 
and used it as freely in proportion to their population as 
we of to-day; but of Avindow-glass the southern people 
had no need in the olden time any more than they have 
to-day. No native of Italy ever feels the necessity for 
interposing a AvindoAv-sash between himself and the outer 
air; it is only foreigners Avho feel that need, and have 
taught the Italians to think it necessary. The builders of 
the Pantheon left an opening of twenty-six feet in diameter, 
making an area of thirty-two square feet, in the centre of 
the dome, through which the rain and snow are free to fall; 
but in the Roman climate no practical inconA r enience is ever 
felt from this exposure. North of the Alps such freedom 
as this Avould be impossible, and man’s old possession of 
glass was soon made to serve a new use. As it lent itself 
easily to staining Avith lo\ r ely color, the Gothic builders 
found a natural delight in using it, and they enlarged and 
multiplied the AvindoAvs of their churches merely for the 
pleasure of filling them Avith painted glass. These windows 
are the glory and chief beauty of their buildings. Some 
of them—the Sainte Chapclle at Paris, for instance—are 
nothing but lovely tents or tabernacles of glass, incom¬ 
parable in design and color. And so strong a hold did this 
neAV element of decoration take upon the minds of the peo¬ 
ple of that age that “ after the middle of the twelfth cen¬ 
tury the principal and guiding motive in all the changes 


introduced into the architecture of the age Avas to obtain 
the greatest possible space and the best-arranged situations 
for its display.” 

The Gothic architecture, after crowding Europe with the 
beautiful or grand performances of its prime, and leaving 
to the Avorld a heritage of wonder that is inexhaustible, 
was struck by decay, and died at last in the fifteenth cen¬ 
tury. Then, after a pause in Avhich much interesting, much 
picturesque, and much very ugly building Avent on, there 
came sloAvly on Avith the dAvindling of the old faith, with 
the vital change in society, with all the elements that made 
the sixteenth century a period of revolution, another great 
change in architecture, Avhich is called the Classic Revival, 
the Renaissance. And just as in the groAvth of the Gothic 
style Ave suav the old Roman forms sloAvly displaced by neAv, 
so noAV we see the ucav forms as sloAvly displaced by the old 
elements that had once given place to them. The pointed 
arch Avas gradually dropped, the stained-glass windoAvs 
faded out of sight, and the old architecture of Rome Avas 
revived in principle, though shorn of much of its grandeur, 
in these buildings croAvned by domes and Avith their sur¬ 
faces masked by the old screens of columns and entabla¬ 
tures. 

Still, in the beginning, much that was magnificent in 
public buildings, in churches, town-halls, chateaux, and 
palaces, was accomplished by the architects of the Renais¬ 
sance, and much that Avas picturesque and charming—if 
not always defensible—in domestic buildings. In Italy and 
France the architecture of the Renaissance produced its 
most splendid fruit, but there is much that is interesting 
in Germany, in Spain, and in England. 

What the chapel of Henry VII. is to the Gothic archi¬ 
tecture, the sign of its approaching death, the church of 
St. Peter at Rome was to the Renaissance; nor did it long 
sur\ r ive that colossal blunder. The work of many years 
and many hands, one of the costliest buildings ever erected 
in modern times, and the product of the skill of the greatest 
architects and artists of the age, it is a building every way 
unsatisfactory, and one Avhich the Avorld has long ceased to 
regard with enthusiasm. But, in truth, the world had be¬ 
come wearied with building, and since that unfortunate ex¬ 
periment has only trifled with brick and stone. For times 
are changed, and the zeal that once burned to build churches 
for the glory of God, the love of art that delighted to adorn 
them, are groAvn cold, and stir men not any more. For 
nearly three hundred years not a single building has been 
erected in Europe or anywhere that has an original claim 
to admiration, or that A\ T ould occasion the least regret by 
its loss except on grounds of convenience or utility. This 
could not have been said of any three centuries, nor of any 
one century, that elapsed betAveen the building of the Pyr¬ 
amids and the close of the sixteenth century of our era. 
During all that unrolling of centuries architecture was a 
living art, employing man’s highest skill and covering the 
earth with beautiful and stately buildings. It is often 
brought as a reproach that man has long ceased to take 
delight in architecture. But, while we may regret the fact, 
it is useless to mourn OA’er it, and infidelity to man to argue 
from it that he is on the road to hopeless degradation. We 
are living in an era of revolution as striking and as mo¬ 
mentous as the race has ever seen, and man’s faculties are 
everywhere busy Avith the pressing needs of the time. It 
may be well to remember that the triumphs of architecture 
haA r e been won in building churches for a worship that was 
suited to the infancy of our civilization; in building pal¬ 
aces for rulers Avho subjected their people’s bodies as 
the Church subjected their minds; and in other structures 
suited to social and political conditions that have passed 
aAvay, apparently for ever. The race is everywhere in fer¬ 
mentation, and Avhen it has settled down into the neAv order 
Avhich Avill surely come out of chaos, the building instinct 
and the delight in building which are a part of the nature 
of man will once more take up the task, and Architecture 
be born again. (For the styles of architecture contemporary 
with the European development of the art, but independent 
of it, see the various articles Assyria, India, and Chi¬ 
nese Architecture. Also for later modifications, see 
Renaissance Architecture.) The historical study of 
architecture is made easy in our day by a multitude of ex¬ 
cellent books upon the subject, some dealing Avith it in the 
general, others in detail. For the English reader no book 
is more valuable than Fergusson’s “History of Architec¬ 
ture, Ancient and Modern,” beginning with the earliest 
times and coming down (in a volume published in 1873) to 
our own day. This latest A r olume contains also an account 
of the principal buildings in America, with criticisms upon 
them. Kiigler’s “ Ilandbuch der Baukunst” is a complete 
and valuable dictionary for consultation, too dry to read. 
The invaluable “ Dictionnaire de l’Architecturc ” of Viollet 
le Due covers the architecture of France from the tAvelfth 
century to the Renaissance. Clarence Cook. 

















ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 


Architecture of the American Aborigines. 

When America was first discovered in its several regions, 
the aborigines were found in two dissimilar conditions. 
First were the Village Indians, who depended almost ex¬ 
clusively upon horticulture for subsistence; such were the 
nations of New Mexico, Mexico, and Central America, and 
upon the plateau of the Andes. Second were the Non- 
horticultural Indians, who depended upon fish, bread-roots, 
and game; such were the Indians of the Valley of the Co¬ 
lumbia, of the Hudson’s Bay Territory, of parts of Canada, 
and of all other sections of North America where cultiva¬ 
tion was unknown. Between these, and connecting the 
extremes by insensible gradations, were the partially Vil¬ 
lage and partially Horticultural Indians; such were the 
Iroquois, the New England and Virginia Indians, the 
Creeks, Cherokees, Mandans, Minnitarees, Shawnees, and 
Chichemecs of Mexico. The weapons, arts, usages, in¬ 
ventions, dances, architecture, and form of government of 
all alike bear the impress of a common mind, and reveal, 
through their wide range, the successive stages of devel¬ 
opment of the same original conceptions. Our first mis¬ 
take consisted in overrating the comparative advancement 
of the Village Indians; and our second in underrating that 
of the Non-horticultural, and also that of the partially Vil¬ 
lage Indians; whence resulted a third, that of separating 
one from the other, and regarding them as different stocks. 
The evidence of their unity of origin has now accumulated 
to such a degree as to leave no reasonable ground for doubt 
upon the question, although this conclusion is not univer¬ 
sally accepted. The latter classes always held the prepon¬ 
derating power, at least in North America, and furnished 
the migrating bands which replenished the continent with 
inhabitants. 

It is a singular fact that the Village Indians, who first 
became possessed of corn, the great American cereal, and 
of the art of cultivation, did not rise to supremacy over the 
continent. With their increased and more stable means of 
subsistence it might reasonably have been expected that 
they would have extended their power, and spread their 
migrating populations over the most valuable areas, to the 
gradual displacement of the ruder nations. In this they 
signally failed. Their civilization, such as it was, did not 
enable them to advance, either in their weapons or in the 
art of war,*beyond the more barbarous nations, except as 
a superior house-architecture rendered their habitations 
impregnable to Indian assault. 

Besides this, their governmental institutions had not ad¬ 
vanced beyond the socictas, founded upon the gentes, and 
which created personal relations, into the civitas, founded 
upon territory and upon property. This argument, when 
extended, demonstrates the impossibility of potentates or 
privileged classes under their institutions, with power to 
enforce the labor of the people for the erection of houses 
or palaces for their individual use. 

It should be further observed, with respect to their rela¬ 
tive advancement, that the Non-horticultural Indians were, 
in general, without the art of pottery, and therefore in a 
state of savagery; that the partially Village Indians, who 
practised the ceramic art, were in the First Period of Bar¬ 
barism; whilst the Village Indians, who, in addition, culti¬ 
vated by irrigation, constructed houses of adobe bricks 
and stone, and a portion of whom, the Peruvians, had do¬ 
mesticated the llama as well as invented bronze, were in 
the Middle Period of Barbarism. It remained for them to 
invent the process of smelting iron ore to attain to the 
Closing Period of Barbarism; and beyond that, to invent 
a phonetic alphabet to reach the First Stage of Civilization. 

The indigenous architecture of the Village Indians has 
given to them, more than aught else, their position in the 
estimation of mankind. The facts of their social condi¬ 
tion, which unfortunately are obscure, have done much less 
in fixing their status than existing architectural remains. 
The Indian edifices of the period of the Conquest, from the 
materials used in their construction, from their palatial ex¬ 
tent, and from the character of their ornamentation, may 
well excite surprise and even admiration; but, as we think 
it can be shown, a false interpretation has, from the first, 
been put upon this architecture, and inferences constantly 
drawn from it, with respect to the social condition and ad¬ 
vancement of the people, both fallacious and deceptive, 
where the plain truth would have been more creditable to 
the aborigines themselves. 

There is a common principle running through this archi¬ 
tecture, from the “ long house” of the Iroquois to the 
pueblo houses of New Mexico, and to the so-called 
“Palace” at Palenque and the “Governor’s House” at 
Uxinal. It is the principle of communism in living, re¬ 
stricted, in the first instance, to groups of persons mutually 
related, and extended, finally, to all the inhabitants of a 
village or encampment by the law of hospitality. Hunger 
and destitution were not known at one end of an Indian 


217 


village whilst abundance prevailed at the other. Com¬ 
munism in living and the general law of hospitality seem 
to have accompanied all the phases of Indian life. These 
great facts of their social condition embodied themselves 
in their architecture, and will contribute to its elucida¬ 
tion. 

It will be the object of this article to present, briefly, 
some of the facts tending to show the practice of com¬ 
munism in living amongst the Non-horticultural and also 
the partially Village Indians, and after that to show its 
expression in their architecture; and, in the second place, 
to bring into notice the principal features of the architec¬ 
ture of the Village Indians of New and Old Mexico and 
Central America, from which the inference will be drawn 
that communism in living entered into and determined its 
character. Concerning the social condition of the latter 
our information is limited and defective. 

Communism in living has its origin in a union of effort 
to procure subsistence, and to a great extent it was a ne¬ 
cessary result of the mode of life of the aborigines. A few 
examples will illustrate the proposition. The Blackfeet, 
during the buffalo-hunt, follow the herds on horseback in 
large parties, composed of men, women, and children. 
When the pursuit of the herd is commenced the hunters 
leave the dead animals in the track of the chase, to be ap¬ 
propriated by the first persons who come up behind. This 
method of distribution is continued until all are supplied. 

All the nations who hunt upon the Plains observe the same 
custom, making a common stock of the capture. During 
the fishing-season in the Valley of the Columbia, where the 
fish are more abundant than in any other river on the 
earth, all the members of a band encamp together and make 
a common stock of the fish obtained. They are divided 
each day according to the number of women, giving to 
each an equal share. This makes a general distribu¬ 
tion at the outset. When cured and packed they are re¬ 
moved to their homes. Among the Iroquois—and the same 
was substantially true of the principal Indian nations— 
each party made a common stock of the fish and game ob¬ 
tained on their hunting and fishing expeditions. This 
usage led to an equal participation in the means of sub¬ 
sistence, as well as an equal division of the surplus, which 
was cured and reserved for winter use. Those forming a 
common household who cultivated a garden-bed enjoyed 
the product in common. After gathering the harvest it 
was stored as a common stock in their dwelling. Each 
house, as will presently be shown, was constructed large 
enough to accommodate several families, among whom the 
communal principle was carried out, but it was limited to 
the household. The village did not make a common stock 
of their provisions, and thus offer a bounty to improvi¬ 
dence, but the principle of hospitality came in to relieve 
the consequences of destitution. 

It should be observed that the family, consisting of a 
married pair and their children, was a weak organization 
in barbarous life, and still weaker in savagery, unable alone 
to cope with the hardships of their condition. It was 
made by pairing, with divorce at the option of either pai’ty. 
But the gens, in which the family practicallj 7 was merged, 
was sufficiently powerful as an organism to face the diffi¬ 
culties of daily life. Accordingly, it will be found that 
the household, which formed a communal group, was most¬ 
ly composed of members of the same gens. 

The law of hospitality may be illustrated by Iroquois 
usages. If a man enters an Indian house in any village, it is 
the duty of the women therein to set food before him. An 
omission to do this would be a discourtesy amounting to 
an affront. If hungry, he ate; if not, courtesy required 
that ho should taste the food and thank the giver. This 
would be repeated at every house he entered and at what¬ 
ever hour in the day. As a custom it was upheld by a 
rigorous public sentiment, and seems to have been univer¬ 
sal amongst the American aborigines. Lewis and Clarke 
refer to the same practice among the nations of the Mis¬ 
souri. “ It is the custom,” they remark, “ of all the nations 
of the Missouri to offer every white man food and refresh¬ 
ment when he first enters their tents.” ( Travels , Long¬ 
man’s ed., 1814, p. 649.) This was simply applying their • 
rules of hospitality among themselves to their white 
visitors. It tended, obviously, to equalize subsistence, 
and prevent destitution in any portion of an Indian com¬ 
munity whilst any household possessed a surplus. Not¬ 
withstanding this generous custom, it is well known that 
the Northern Indians were fearfully pressed for the means 
of subsistence during a large portion of the year. From 
the intensity of the struggle to maintain existence it is not 
surprising that immense areas were entirely uninhabited, 
that other large areas were thinly peopled, and that denso 
populations were impossible. 

Lands were universally held in common, but after tillage 
commenced a possessory right to cultivated tracts or gardens 













218 


ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 


was recognized so long as used. When occupation ceased 
they reverted. 

I. Communal Houses of the Non-horticultural Indians .—W e 
are first to show that communism in living entered into 
and determined the character of the architecture of the Non- 
horticultural and also the partially Village Indians. If it 
can be shown that their houses were constructed on this prin¬ 
ciple, then, wherever houses obviously communal are found, 
although in ruins, and although the people who erected them 
have disappeared, apresumption willarisethat thisprinciple 
prevailed among them, and led to the construction of their 
houses in this form. The architecture of the ruder Indians 
is of but little importance, in itself considered, but as an 
outcome of their usages, and in its relations to the archi¬ 
tecture of the Village Indians, it is highly significant. 



Fig. 1. Ojibwa Wig-e-wam. 


The Non-horticultural Indians differed among themselves 
in the plan of the lodge. The figure, which is copied from 
Schoolcraft’s work, shows the form of an Ojibwa cabin of 
the best class, as it is still seen on the S. shore of Lake Supe¬ 
rior. 'Its mechanism is sufficiently explained by the figure. 
Over it is placed a covering of bark, usually the canoe 
birch, taken off in large pieces and attached with splints. 
Its size on the ground varied from ten to sixteen feet in 
diameter and from seven to ten in height. Twigs of spruce 
or hemlock were strewn around the inner border of the 
ground-floor, upon which blankets or skins were spread for 
beds. The fire-pit was in the centre of the floor, over 
which in the roof was an opening for the exit of the smoke. 
Such a lodge would accommodate two or three pairs, with 
their children. Several such lodges are usually found in 
a cluster, and the several households were made up of 
related persons, the principal portion being of the same 
gens. Carver, who visited a village of this nation on the 
Chippewa River in Wisconsin in 1767, observes: “ This 
town contains about forty houses, and can send out up¬ 
wards of 100 warriors, many of whom are fine stout young 
men.” ( Travels, Philadelphia ed., 1796, p. 65.) It would 
give a total of 500 persons, and an average of twelve per¬ 
sons to a lodge. 



Fig. 2. Dakota Wa-ka'ya, or Skin Tent. 


When first discovered the Dakotas lived in houses con¬ 
structed of poles and covered with bark, each of which 
was large enough for several families. Forced upon the 
Plains, after obtaining the horse they invented a skin tent 
superior to any other in use among the aborigines, from its 
roominess, its portable character, and the facility with 
which it can be erected and struck. The frame consists 


of some twelve poles, from fifteen to eighteen feet in length, 
which, after being tied together at the small ends, are 
raised upright with a twist, so as to cross the poles above 
the fastening. They are then drawn apart at the large 
ends, and adjusted upon the ground in the rim of a circle 
which is usually ten feet in diameter. A number of un¬ 
haired, tanned buffalo skins, stitched together in a form 
adjustable to the frame, are drawn around it and lashed 
together as shown in the figure. The lower edges are 
secured to the ground with tent-pins. At the top there is 
an extra skin adjusted as a collar, so as to be open on the 
windward side to facilitate the exit of the smoke. A low 
opening is left for a door, which is covered with an extra 
skin, used as a drop. The fire-pit and arrangement for 
beds are the same as in the Ojibwa lodge. When their 
tents are struck the poles are attached to a horse, half on 
each side, like thills; the covering and scanty camp-furni¬ 
ture are packed upon other horses, and even upon their 
dogs, and are thus transported over the Plains. This tent 
is so well adapted to their mode of life that it has spread 
far and wide among the Indian tribes. We have seen it 
in use among seven or eight Dakota tribes, among the 
Iowas, Otoes, and Pawnees, and among the Blackfeet, Crows, 
Asiniboines, and Crees. A collection of fifty of these tents, 
which would accommodate 500 persons, makes a picturesque 
appearance. 

The aborigines of the Valley of the Columbia were more 
or less Village Indians, but without horticulture. They 
found an abundant subsistence upon shell- and scale-fish, 
upon fruits and game, and upon the kamash and other 
bread-roots, which they cooked in ground ovens. When 
Lewis and Clarke visited this valley (1805-06) they found 
the Indians living in houses of a higher communal type 
than those previously described, and approaching the pueblo 
houses in New Mexico. They speak of a village of the 
Chopunish (Nez Perces) as follows: “ The village of Tuma- 
chemootool is in fact only a single house, 150 feet long, 
built after the Chopunish fashion, with sticks, straw, and 
dried grass. It contains twenty-four fires, about double 
that number of families, and might perhaps muster 100 
fighting men.” ( Travels, loc. cit., p. 548.) This would give 
500 people in a single house; and the fires probably indi¬ 
cate the number of groups, practising communism among 
themselves, into which they were subdivided, though it 
may have been general to the entire household. 

Til II II II II-II-1 

L_II_II_II_II_II_||_I 

£36 TL 

Fig. 3. Ground-Plan of Neerechokioo. 

Another great house, Neerechokioo, is thus described: 
“ This large building is 226 feet in front, entirely above 
ground, and may be considered a single house, because the 
whole is under one roof; otherwise it would seem more like 
a range of buildings, as it is divided into seven distinct 
apartments, each thirty feet square, by means of broad 
boards set up on. end from the floor to the roof. The 
apartments are separated from each other by a passage or 
alley four feet wide, extending through the whole depth 
of the house, and the only entrance is from this alley 
through a small hole about twenty inches wide and not 
more than three feet high. The roof is formed of rafters 
and round poles laid on horizontally. The whole is covered 
with a double roof of bark of white cedar.” (Ib., p. 503.) 
The apartments indicate the number of groups. Elsewhere 
(p. 515), speaking of the houses of the Claliclellah, they 
remark: “These houses are uncommonly large; one of 
them measured 160 by 40 feet. . . . Most of the houses are 
built of boards and covered with bark, though some of the 
more inferior kind are constructed wholly of cedar bark.” 

These first explorers found the houses of the natives 
large enough to accommodate several families, with from 
twenty to thirty persons in each. They name the following 
villages together (Ib., p. 428) : “ The Clamoitomish, of 
twelve houses and 260 souls; the Potoashees, of ten houses 
and 200 souls; the Pailsk, of ten houses and 200 souls; 
the Quinults, of sixty houses and 1000 souls; the Chillates, 
of eight houses and 140 souls,” etc. The formation of 
large groups in single houses or in apartments of a house 
is thus fully shown. Our explorers do not speak of the 
practice of communism in these groups. When the usages 
of other nations, which are known, are presented, the in¬ 
ference of communism in living in these aboriginal houses 
in the Valley of the Columbia will be plain. The tend¬ 
ency to aggregation in groups, which is clearly shown in 
the numbers occupying each house, reveals the weakness 
as well as inability of the single family to cope with the 
hardships of savage, and even of barbarous, life. Com- 











































































































ARCHITECTURE OF THE 


munism in living, as elsewhere stated, was the law of their 
condition. 

II. Communal Houses of the Partially Village Indians .— 



Fig. 4. Pomeiok. 


The houses of this class are equally communal in character. 
Wythe, in his “ Sketches of Virginia.” first published in 
1690, furnishes an engraving of the village of the Powhat- 
tan Indians, called Pomeiok, consisting of seventeen long 
houses, besides a council-house, arranged around an open 
central space and surrounded with a palisade. Here the 
Algonkin lodge gives place to round-roofed long houses, 
framed with poles, and covered with movable matting in¬ 
stead of bark, and large enough for several families. The 
suggestion of Wythe that “ the buildings were mostly those 
of chiefs and men of rank” ( Sketches , etc., Langley ed., 
1841, pi. 21) embodies the precise error which has repeated 
itself, from the first, with respect to the architecture of the 
American aborigines. Because the house is large, as the 
Governor’s House at Uxmal, therefore it must have been 
the exclusive residence of an Indian potentate—a conclu¬ 
sion opposed to the whole theory of Indian life and insti¬ 
tutions. Indian chiefs were housed with the people, and 
no better than the poorest of them. 



During the greater part of the year the Iroquois resided 
in villages. The size of the village was estimated by the 
number of houses, and the size of the house by the number 
of fires it contained. One of the largest villages of the 
Seneca-Iroquois, situated near Mendon in the county of 
Monroe, N. Y., is thus described by Mr. Greenhalgh, who 
visited it in 1677 : “ Tiotohatton is on the brink or edge of 
a hill, has not much cleared ground, is near the river Tioto¬ 
hatton, which signifies bending. It lies to the westward of 
Canagora about thirty miles, contains about 120 houses, 
being” the largest of all the houses we saw, the ordinary 
being fifty to sixty feet long, with twelve and thirteen fires 
in one house. They have a good store of corn growing to 
the northward of the town.” {Doc. Hist. N. Y ., i. 13.) 

The “ long house” of the Iroquois, from which they 
called themselves, as one confederated people, Ho-de'no- 
sau-nee (“ People of the Long House”), was from fifty to 
eighty, and sometimes more than 100 feet long. It con¬ 
sisted of a strong frame of upright poles set in the ground, 
strengthened with horizontal poles attached with withes, 
and covered with a triangular roof. It was covered over 
with large shingles of elm bark tied to the frame with 
strings or splints. An external Irame of poles and rafters 
was then adjusted to hold the shingles between them, fihe 
two being tied together. 


AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 219 



Fig. 6. Ground-Plan of Iroquois House. 


The interior was comparted at intervals of six or eight feet, 
leaving each chamber entirely open, like a stall, upon the 
hall which passed through the centre from end to end, 
where were the only doors. Between each four apartments, 
two on a side, was a fire-pit in the centre of the hall, used 
in common by their occupants. Thus a house with fivo 
fires would contain twenty apartments and accommodate 
twenty families, unless some were reserved for storage. An 
elderly Seneca woman, now deceased, informed the writer 
that she remembered living in one of these houses of the 
ancient model when a child, which contained eight families 
and two fires. Raised bunks were constructed around the 
walls of each apartment for beds. From the roof-poles 
were suspended their strings of corn in the ear, braided by 
the husks, also their strings of dried squashes and melons. 
Spaces were left between the partitions here and there for 
storage. Each house was usually occupied by related 
families, the women and children belonging to the same 
gens. Whatever was taken in the hunt or raised by culti¬ 
vation by any member of the household was for the com¬ 
mon benefit. Provisions were made a common stock within 
the house. 

It should be observed, further, that among the Iroquois 
there was but one regular meal each day, and that in the 
morning. At this time the cooking for the day was done, 
and the food was served to all within the household from 
wooden bowls, ladles, or platters, and without the use of 
tables. What remained was reserved for use during the 
day, each one partaking whenever hunger prompted. Hom- 
mony, which formed their usual lunch, was cooked at the 
close of the day. The separate fires were for convenience 
alone, all the stores within the house being common. 

Here we find communism in living carried out in prac¬ 
tical life, and an expression of the principle in the plan of 
the house itself. Having found it in one stock so well de¬ 
veloped as the Iroquois, a presumption of its universality 
in the Ganowanian family at once arises, requiring proof 
of the negative in other cases for its rebuttal. 

In 1790, Mr. Caleb Swan, under the direction of Gen. 
Ivnox, secretary of war, visited +he Creek villages in Georgia 
and Alabama. Without describing their houses specially, 
he remarks in his report that “ the smallest of their towns 
have from twenty to forty houses, and some of the largest 
contain from 150 to 200 that are tolerably compact. These 
houses stand in clusters of four, five, six, seven, and eight 
together, irregularly distributed up and down the banks of 
the rivers and small streams. Each cluster of houses con¬ 
tains a clan or family, who eat and live in common.” 
(Schoolcraft, History, etc. of Indian Tribes, x., 262.) The 
cluster of houses among the Creeks was equivalent to one 
of the long houses of the Iroquois ; and the clustered 
household of the former, who ate and lived in common, was 
made up of related families, as the large Iroquois house¬ 
hold within a single house, the relationship being partly 
gentile and partly marital. 

Carver, in describing the “ great town of the Sawkees ” 
on the Wisconsin River, remarks {Travels, loc. cit., p. 29) 
that “ it contains about ninety houses, each large enough 
for several families. They are built of hewn plank, neatly 
jointed, and covered with bark so completely as to keep 
out the most penetrating rain.” 

The Mandans and Minnitarees of the Upper Missouri 
constructed a timber-framed house superior in design and 



PACES 

Fig. 7. Mandan Village Plot. 

























































































































































































































220 ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 


workmanship to those of any Indians N. of New Mexico. 
In 1S62 the writer saw the remains of the old Mandan vil¬ 
lage shortly after its abandonment by the Arickarees, its 
last occupants. The houses, nearly all of which were of 
the same model, were falling into decay, but some of them 
w r ere still perfect, and the plan of their structure easily 
made out. The annexed ground-plan of the village is 
taken from the work of Prince Maximilian, and the remain¬ 
ing illustrations from sketches and measurements of the 
author. The village Avas situated upon a bluff on the W. 
side of the Missouri, and at a bend in the river which 
formed an obtuse angle, and covered about five acres of 
land. It was surrounded with a stockade made of timbers 
sot vertically in the ground, but then in a dilapidated state. 

The houses were circular in external form, the walls being 
about five feet high and sloping upward from the ground, 
with an inclined roof, both exterior wall and roof being 
plastered over with earth a foot and a half thick. 



These houses are about forty feet in diameter, with the 
floor sunk a foot or more below the surface, six feet high 
on the inside at the line of the wall, and from twelve to 
fifteen feet high at the centre. Twelve posts, six or eight 
inches in diameter, are set in the ground at equal distances 
in the circumference of a circle, and rising about six feet 
above the level of the floor. String-pieces, resting on forks 
upon the top of each post, connect them with each other, 
thus forming a polygon at the base of the roof and also 
upon the ground floor. Against these, and opposite to each 
post, an equal number of braces are sunk in the ground 
about four feet distant, which, slanting upward, are ad¬ 
justed by means of forks or depressions cut in the ends, 
so as to hold both the posts and the stringers firmly in their 
places. Slabs of wood or round timbers are then placed in 
the spaces between the braces, at the same inclination from 
the ground, and resting against the stringers, Avhich when 
completed surrounded the lodge with a wooden wall. Four 
posts, each six or eight inches in diameter, are set at the 
four angles of a square in the centre, ten feet apart, and 
rising from twelve to fourteen feet above the floor. These 
are again connected by stringers resting in forks on their 
tops, upon which, and the external walls, the rafters rest. 



The cross-section exhibits the framework as described. 
Poles three or four inches in diameter arc placed as rafters 
from the external walls to the string-pieces upon the central 
posts, and near enough together to give the requisite strength 
to support the earth covering which formed the roof. These 
poles are first covered over with willoAV matting, upon which 
prairie grass Avas spread, and over this a deep covering of 
earth. An opening was left in the centre, about four feet 
in diameter, for the exit of the smoke and for the admission 
of light. The interior is spacious and tolerably Avell lighted, 
although the opening in the roof Avas the only one through 
which light could penetrate. There is but one entrance, 


and that protected by an Eskimo doonvay; that is, by a 
passage five feet Avidc, ten or twelve feet long, and about six 
feet high, constructed Avith split timbers, roofed Avith poles 
and covered on the top Avith earth. Buffalo robes suspended 
both at the outer and inner entrances supply the place of 
doors. Each house, when occupied, Avas comparted by 
screens of Avillow matting or unhaired skins suspended 
from the rafters, with spaces between for storage. These 
slightly constructed apartments extended-back to the Avail 
and opened toAvards the centre, like stalls, thus defining an 
open central area which formed the gathering-place of the 
inmates of the lodge. The fire-pit was in the centre, about 
five feet in diameter and a foot deep, and encircled with 
flat stones set up edgeAvays. A hard smooth earthen floor 
completed the interior. Such a lodge Avould accommodate 
five or six families of related persons. In fact, it was a 
communal house, in accordance with the usage and institu¬ 
tions of the American aborigines, and groAving naturally 
out of their customs and mode of life. We counted forty- 
eight of these houses Avhich Avould average forty feet in 
diameter, besides several rectangular houses constructed of 
hewn logs at a more recent day. 



Fig. 10. Front Elevation of Same. 


Not the least interesting fact connected with these credit¬ 
able homes was the quantity of material required in their 
construction, and the amount of labor necessary for its 
transportation long distances down the river, and to fashion 
it Avith the aid of fire and stone implements into such a 
comfortable dwelling. To cut the timber without metallic 
inplements, and to transport it Avithout animal power, indi¬ 
cate a degree of perseA r ering industry highly creditable to 
a people Avho are generally regarded as averse to labor. 

These houses were thickly studded together to economize 
the space Avithin the stockade, so that in Avalking through 
the village you passed along semicircular footpaths. 
There is not only no street, but it Avas impossible to see in 
any direction except for short distances. 

It is plain, from the facts thus far presented, that the In¬ 
dian household Avas a group of related families united for 
subsistence upon the communal principle, Avhich in turn 
found expression in their house-architecture. 

A reference should be made to the Maricopas and Mo- 
haves of the Colorado, who, although Village Indians, 
still live in ordinary communal houses of the northern 
type, which are thus described by Gen. Emory: “They 
[the Maricopas] occupy thatched cottages thirty or forty 
feet in diameter, made of tAvigs of cottonwood trees, inter- 
woven with the straw of wheat, corn-stalks, and cane.” 
( Notes, etc. in N. M., p. 132; cf. Bartlett’s Pers. Nar., 
230.) Those occupied by the Mohaves, as described by 
Capt. Sitgreaves, are similar in character. ( Expedition , 
etc. Zurii and Colorado Rivers, p. 19.) Although their 
antecedent history is not Avell known, they seem to be in 
the transitional stage, having passed into the horticultural 
and village condition, without being far enough advanced 
to imitate their near neighbors in the use of adobe brick 
and stone. They seem to be existing examples of that re¬ 
curring advancement of ruder tribes in past ages, through 
which the Village Indians Avere constantly replenished from 
the more barbarous nations. 

III. Communal Houses of the New Mexicans. —We are 
next to consider the architecture of the Village Indians, 
among whom it exhibits a higher development, Avith the 
use of durable materials, and Avith the defensive principle 
superadded. It will not be difficult, however, to discover 
and to follow the communal principle as the chief charac¬ 
teristic of this architecture—first, in the pueblo houses in 
NeAv Mexico, and after that in those of Central America. 
The necessary limits of this article Avill prevent a full ex¬ 
position of the subject, but it will be possible to present 
the controlling facts. 

The Indians N. of New Mexico never constructed a 
house more than one story'high, or of more durable mate¬ 
rials than a wooden frame covered Avith matting or bark 
or coated over with earth. Chimneys were unknown, 




























































ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 


221 


and also stairs, except in the form of ladders. In New 
Mexico, going southward, are met, for the first time, houses 
constructed of adobe brick and of stone, and four, five, 
even six stories high. Sun-dried brick must have come 
into use earlier than stone. The practice of the ceramic 
art would suggest the brick sooner or later. At all events, 
what are supposed to be the oldest remains of architecture 
in New Mexico, such as the casas grandes of the Gila and 
Salinas rivers, are of adobe brick. They also used rubble 
stone with mud mortar, and finally thin pieces of tabular 
sandstone, prepared by fracture, and giving a solid and 
durable stone wall. Some of the existing pueblo houses 
in New Mexico are as old as the expedition of Coronado 
(1540-42), as those at Acoma and Taos, and probably Zuiii, 
and those of the Moquis, whilst others, constructed since 
that event, and now occupied, are upon the aboriginal 
model. There are at present about twenty of these pueblos 
in New Mexico, inhabited by 7000 Indians, the descendants 
of those found there by Coronado. They are still living 
substantially under their ancient organization and usages. 
Besides, there are the seven Moqui pueblos near the Little 
Colorado, occupied by 4000 Indians, who have remained 
pure and undisturbed to the present time, and among whom 
the entire theory of Indian village life might be obtained 
if some adventurous ethnologist would seek their secluded 
homes and study the subject on the spot. These Village 
Indians represent, at the present moment, the type of vil¬ 
lage life found from Zuiii to Cuzco at the epoch of the 
Discovery, and, whilst they are not the highest, they are 
no unfit representatives of the entire class. 

The Central Americans were, in their architecture, in 
advance of the remaining aborigines of North America. 


structures of adobe brick grouped together, one of which 
is shown in the engraving. It is about 200 feet long, with 
two parallel rows of apartments on the ground, of which 
the front row is carried up one story and the back two, the 
flat roof of the first story forming a terrace in front of the 
second. The first story is closed up solid for defensive 
reasons, with the exception of small window-openings. 
The first terrace is reached by means of ladders from the 
ground; the rooms in the first story are entered through 
trap-doors in the terrace, and in the second through doors 
opening upon the terrace. This structure is typical of all 
the aboriginal houses in New Mexico. It shows two prin¬ 
cipal features : first, the terraced form of architecture, with 
the housetops as the ordinary gathering-places of the in¬ 
mates ; and second, a closed ground-story for safety. Every 
house, therefore, is a fortress. Lieut. Abert, from whose 
report the engraving is taken, remarks that “ the upper 
story is narrower than the one below, so that there is a 
platform or landing along the whole length of the building. 
To enter, you ascend to this platform by means of ladders 
that could be easily removed; and, as there is a parapet 
wall extending along the platform, these houses could be 
converted into formidable forts/’ (Ex. Doc. No. 41, 1st 
Sess. 30th Congress, 1848, p. 462.) The number of apart¬ 
ments is not stated, but, judging from the window-openings, 
there may be thirty-eight on the first floor, of which half 
are dark, and nineteen in the second story. The different 
houses at that time were inhabited by 800 Indians. Chim¬ 
neys now appear rising above the roof, the fire-place being 
at the angle of the chamber in front. 

The defensive element, so prominent in this architec¬ 
ture, was not so much to protect the Village Indians from 
each other as from the attacks of the migrating bands 
flowing down upon them from the Valley of the Columbia. 


Next to them, probably, were the Aztecs and some few na¬ 
tions southward,' and holding the third position, though 
not far behind, were the New Mexicans. All alike they 
depended upon horticulture for subsistence and cultivated 
by irrigation. Their houses, with those previously described, 
represent together an original, indigenous architecture, 
which, with its diversities, sprang out of their necessities. 
Its fundamental communal type, we repeat, is found not 
less plainly in the comparted long house of the Iroquois 
than in the so-called palace at Palenque. An examination 
of the plan of the structures in New Mexico and Central 
America will tend to establish this proposition. 

New Mexico is a poor country for civilized man, but 
quite well adapted to Village Indians. It possesses a num¬ 
ber of narrow fertile valleys, which were occupied in 1540 
by thirty or forty pueblo villages, containing possibly 
50,000 or 60,000 Indians, and it is occupied now by their 
descendants in manner and form as it was then. Each 
pueblo consisted then, as now, either of a single great 
house or of three or four such houses grouped together; 
and, what is more significant, the New Mexican pueblo is 
a fair type of those found in ruins in Central America in 
general plan, in the mode of life it indicates, and in situ¬ 
ation. All the people lived together in these great houses 
on terms of equality and also for security. Common tene¬ 
ments for common Indians around these structures were 
not found there by Coronado in 1541; neither have any 
been found there since. There is not the slightest ground 
for supposing that any such tenements ever existed around 
the ruined structures in Central America. This suggestion 
should be kept in mind. 

This pueblo or village is composed of three or four 


The pueblos now in ruins throughout the original area of 
New Mexico testify to the perpetual struggle of the former 
to maintain their ground, as well as prove the general in¬ 
security in which they lived. It could be shown that the 
second and additional stories were suggested by the defen¬ 
sive principle. 

Zuni is the largest occupied pueblo in New Mexico at 
the present time. It once contained 5000 or 6000 inhabit¬ 
ants, but in 1851 they were reduced to 1500. The village 
consists of several structures, most of them accessible to 
each other from their terraced roofs. They are constructed 
of adobe brick, and of stone embedded in mud mortar, and 
plastered over. In the engraving, which is copied from 
Sitgreaves’ report, a section of one of the principal struc¬ 
tures is given, the left end being cut off by another build¬ 
ing in front of it, and the right showing a series of angles. 
It shows three stories in the terraced form, with two square 
buildings standing apart on the summit, and forming a 
fourth, giving it the appearance somewhat of a temple, and 
perhaps suggesting an explanation of the application of 
this term by the Spanish invaders to so many of the build¬ 
ings seen in and around the pueblos of Mexico. 

The living-rooms, as shown by engravings in the same 
report, are about ten by fifteen feet, and ten feet high, with 
plastered walls, a hard earthen floor, and usually a single 
window-opening. To form a durable ceiling, round timbers 
about six inches in diameter are placed three or four feet 
apart from the outer to the inner wall. Upon these small 
poles are placed transversely in juxtaposition, over which 
is a deep covering of mud mortar, which forms the terrace 
roof in front and the floor of the rooms within. Mater- 
jars of fine workmanship, and of capacity for several gal¬ 
lons, closely-woven osier baskets, blankets of cotton and 
wool woven by their own hand-looms are among the objects 



Fig. 11. Pueblo of Santo Domingo. 








































































222 


ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 


seen in these apartments. They are neatly kept, roomy and 
comfortable, and differ in no respect from those in use at 
the period of the Conquest. 

It should be noticed that this architecture, and the neces¬ 
sities that gave it birth, led to a change in the mode of life 
from the open ground to the terraces or flat roofs of these 


communal houses. "When not engaged in tillage, and dur¬ 
ing the morning and evening hours, the terraces were the 
gathering and living places of the people. They lived, 
practically, in the open air, to which the climate was 
adapted, and upon their house-tops, first for safety, and 
afterwards from habit. 


Fig. 12. Section of Pueblo House at Zuni. 


Elevations of the principal New Mexican pueblos have 
been published. They agree in general plan, but show con¬ 
siderable diversity in details. Rude but massive structures, 
they accommodated all the people of the village within 
their walls. Since most of them are of adobe brick, or of 
rubble stone embedded in mud mortar; our remaining illus¬ 
trations will be taken from the pueblos in ruins in the val¬ 
ley of the Rio Chaco, which are constructed entirely of 
stone, are unquestionably as old as the epoch of the con¬ 
quest of Mexico, and superior architecturally to those now 
occupied, showing that a decadence in the art commenced 
with European inti'usion. 

About 110 miles N. W. from Santo Domingo on the Rio 
Grande, there are seven great edifices, now in ruins, situated 
within an extent of ten miles in the valley of the Rio 
Chaco, an affluent of the Colorado. They were visited and 
described in 1849 by Lieutenant (now General) Simpson, 
with ground-plans and measurements. (Report of James 
H. Simpson of an Expedition in the Navajo Country in 1849, 
Ex. Doc. No. 64, 1st Sess. 31st Cong., pp. 55-139.) In an 
architectural point of view they are the most interesting 
and remarkable structures in New Mexico. The ground- 
plans, elevations, and the detailed particulars are taken 
from this report. They are probably the remains of the 
Seven Cities of Cibola, against which the expedition of 
Coronado was directed in 1540-42. 

These great edifices were all constructed of the same ma¬ 
terials, and upon the same general plan, but they differ in 
size upon the ground, in the number of rows of apartments, 
and consequently in the number of stories. They con¬ 
tained from 100 to 600 apartments each, and would severally 
accommodate from 1000 to 3000 or 4000 persons. Some of 
them are also the largest structures in ground dimensions 
and in the extent of their accommodations ever found in 
any part of North America. It may be remarked here that 
it is doubtful whether any single pueblo in New Mexico at 
its most prosperous period contained more than 5000 or 
6000 inhabitants, and in such a case it would be made up 
of more than one of these structures, grouped together, as 
at Zuni. This would probably hold true with the great 
majority of the ancient pueblos in Mexico and in Central 
America. 

Ground-plans are furnished of five of the seven edifices. 
They all, save one, agree in being constructed on three 
sides of an open court, the fourth being protected by a low 
stone wall. The outer faces of the walls are constructed 
of thin pieces of tabular sandstone, prepared by fracture, 
and laid in courses without mortar, the inner faces being 
composed of rubble masonry with mud mortar. The walls 


are about three feet thick. There were no doors or open¬ 
ings to enter the buildings from the ground, but in the 
stories above the first are window-openings through the 
walls. General Simpson remarks that they are “built of 
tabular pieces of hard, fine-grained, compact, gray sand¬ 
stone, to which the atmosphere has imparted a reddish 
tinge;” that “in the outer faces of the building there are 
no signs of mortar, the intervals between the beds being 
chinked with stones of minutest thinness;” and that the 
“ filling and backing are done in rubble masonry, the mor¬ 
tar presenting no indications of the presence of lime.” 
“So beautifully diminutive are the details of the structure 
as to cause it, at a little distance, to have all the appearance 
of a magnificent piece of mosaic work.” ( Rejiort , p. 76.) 
The layers are not usually thicker than three inches, and 
sometimes as thin as one-fourth of an inch. Their ancient 
names are of course unknown. General Simpson adopted 
those given to him by his Spanish guide. 

452 ' 


Fig. 13. Ground-Flan of Pueblo of Cliettro Kettle. 

The general plan of all the edifices on the Chaco will be 
made intelligible by the annexed ground-plan. The main 
building and the wings face the court, from which alone 
they are entered, and from which the several stories recede 
outward. Including the court, this great house has an ex¬ 
terior development of 1300 feet. The exterior wall of the 
main building measures 454 feet in length, and the longest 
of the wings 220 feet. At the centre, where four additional 
rows of apartments have been added on the inside, the 
structure is 110 feet deep, and for the remainder 44 feet. 
One of the wings is 50 and the other 58 feet deep, showing 
three rows of apartments in each, and consequently they 
were three stories high; the first row on the court side 
being carried up one story, the second two, and the third 













































































































































ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 


three, in the usual terrace form as before shown. If carried 
up in the same manner at the centre, it would be seven 
stories high on the back row. 

From the measurement some impression may be formed 
of the extent of the accommodations such an edifice would 
afford, especially in Indian life, where more than one pair 
with their children are usually found in one lodge, and, 
it may be supposed here, in one apartment. The plan 
shows 124 rooms on the ground-floor, exclusive of the left 
wing, which was too ruinous to identify the number. Ex¬ 
cluding one row of apartments for the terrace in front of 
the second story, and counting one row less for each suc¬ 
cessive story, there would be an aggregate in this single 
house of some 300 apartments, capable of accommodating 
1500 or 2000 Indians. 

The circular estufas, of which there are six, and five of 
which are incorporated in the body of the structure, were 
their council-houses. They were sunk below the surface, 
and carried up, in some cases, two and three stories. Sim¬ 
ilar estufas are still in use in New Mexican pueblos as 
places for holding councils. The number indicates a sub¬ 
organization analogous to the gens. It may bo supposed, 
therefore, that each estufa was the council-house of a gens, 
or, if the gentes were numerous, then of a phratry com¬ 
posed of two or more gentes derived by subdivision from 
an original gens. 

In the N. W. corner, Gen. Simpson remarks, “ we found 
a room in an almost perfect state of preservation. This 
room is fourteen by seven and a half feet in plan, and ten 
feet in elevation. It has an outside doorway three and a 
half feet high by two and a quarter wide; and one.at the 
W. end leading into an adjoining room. . . . The stono 
walls still have their plaster upon them in a tolerable 
state of preservation. . . . The ceiling showed two main 
beams, laid transversely; on these, longitudinally, were a 
number of smaller ones in juxtaposition, the ends being 
tied together by a species of wooden fibre, and the inter¬ 
stices chinked in with small stones; on these, again trans¬ 
versely, in close contact, was a kind of lathing of the odor 
and appearance of cedar, all in a good state of preserva¬ 
tion. Depending from the ceiling were several pieces of 
short rope.” ( Report , p. 79.) This ceiling agrees in form 
with that at Zuni, previously described. Elsewhere ho 
says that these floor-beams are six inches in diameter, and 
were hacked off by means of some imperfect instrument, 
there being no evidence of the use of the metallic axe. 



This edifice is the most interesting, in some respects, of 
the seven, as well as the best preserved in certain portions. 
In exterior development, including the court, it is 1300 
feet. Its corners are rounded, and the E. wing, now the 
most ruinous part of the structure, appears to have had 
row upon row of apartments added until nearly one-third 
of the area of the court was covered. “ Its present eleva¬ 
tion,” Simpson observes, “ shows that it has had at least 
four stories of apartments. The number of rooms on the 
ground-floor is 139. In this enumeration, however, are not 
included the apartments which are not distinguishable in 
the E. portion of the pueblo, and which would swell the 
number to about 200. There, then, having been at least 
four stories of rooms, . . . there must be a reduction . . . 
of one range of rooms for every story after the first, which 
would increase “the number to 641. (Ib., p. Si.) No 

single edifice of equal accommodations, it may hero be re¬ 
peated, has ever been found in any other part of North 
America. It would house 3000 Indians. 

This room will compare, not unfavorably, with any of 
equal size to be found at Palenque or Uxmal, although, 
from the want of a vaulted ceiling, not equal in artistic 
desio-n The nice mechanical adjustment of the masonry 
and the finish of the ceiling are highly creditable to the 
taste and skill of the builders. “It is walled up says 
Simpson “ with alternate beds of largo and small stones, 
the regularity of the combination producing a very pleas¬ 


223 


ing effect. The ceiling of this room is also more tasteful 
than any we have seen, the transverse beams being smaller 
and more numerous, and the longitudinal pieces which rest 



Fig. 15. Koom in Same. 


upon them only about an inch in diameter, and beautifully 
regular. These latter have somewhat the appearance of 
barked willow. The room has a doorway at each end, and 
one at the side, each of them leading into adjacent apart¬ 
ments. The light is let in by a window two feet by eight 
inches, on the N. side.” (lb., p. 81.) 

The largest of the seven pueblos is Penasca Blanca, which 
has an exterior development of 1700 feet. “This,” ho 
further remarks, “ differs from the others in the arrange¬ 
ment of the stones comprising its walls. The walls of the 
other pueblos are of one uniform character in the several 
beds composing them, but in this there is a regular alterna¬ 
tion of large and small stones, the effect of which is both 
unique and beautiful. The largest stones, which are about 
a foot in length and half a foot in thickness,® form but a 
single bed, and then, alternating with these, are three or 
four beds of small stones, each about an inch in thickness. 
The ground-plan of the structure also differs from the others 
in approaching the form of a circle.” (lb., p. 82.) 

One of these remaining, Una Vida, seems to have been 
in process of construction, and designed, when completed, 
to have been the largest of the seven. The main building 
is 300 feet in length along the exterior wall, and 65 feet 
deep, showing four rows of apartments; and the wing is 
290 feet long and but 16 feet deep, showing but a single 
row. It appears, however, from a projection near one end 
of the width of two apartments, that two more rows were 
to be constructed outside of the existing row, which were 
necessary to complete the wing according to its original 
design. Moreover, it seems to prove that these great houses 
were of slow construction by the process of addition from 
year to year with the increase of the people in numbers, 
and that the enlargement is by adding row to row and 
story to story until the edifice is several rooms deep and 
several stories high. Upon this theory of construction, the 
first row of the main building on the court side would first 
be completed one story high, and covered with a flat roof; 
after which, by adding one parallel wall, with partition 
walls at intervals, as many more apartments would be 
obtained;, and by a third and fourth parallel wall, with 
partitions, as many more. The second row was carried up 
two stories, the third three, and the fourth four; the suc¬ 
cessive stories receding from the court side in the form of 
great steps or terraces, one rising above the other. The 
wings would be commenced and completed in the same 
manner. Further than this, it seems to be evident, from 
the present condition of this structure, that the main build¬ 
ing was to be extended at least 200 feet, with a second 
wing like the first, to fill out the original design and pro¬ 
duce a symmetrical edifice. If these inferences are war¬ 
ranted, the interesting fact is reached that these Indian 
architects commenced their great houses upon a definite 
plan, which was to be realized after years, and perhaps 
generations, had passed away. 

The highest portion of the walls still standing are stated 
at fifteen feet in height at Una Vida, twenty-five feet in 
Wegegi, and thirty feet in Ilungo Pavie. The rooms back 
of the front row in the first story, and the middle rooms in 
the second, were dark, except as they were dimly lighted 
from contiguous apartments. 


* Norman, speaking of the size of the stones used in the edi¬ 
fices in Yucatan, says: “The stones are parallelepipeds of about 
twelve inches in length and six in breadth .”—Rambles in Yuca - 
tan , p. 127. 



























































































224 


ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 



This pueblo has been reserved to the last for the purpose 
of giving both a ground-plan and a front elevation. In 
exterior development, including the court, it is 872 feet, of 
which the back wall measures 300 and the side walls 144 
feet each. It is of medium size, but symmetrical, and 
larger than any single structure in Central America in 


ground dimensions. There are seventy-two apartments in 
the first story, some of which are unusually large, being 
about thirteen by eighteen feet; and, with forty-eight in 
the second and twenty-four in the third, contained an 
aggregate of 146 apartments. It would accommodate from 
1200 to 1500 Indians. 

To complete the representation of the architectural de¬ 
sign of these “great houses of stone” the annexed eleva¬ 
tion is given. It is a restoration of the pueblo of Ilungo 
Pavie, made by Mr. Kern, who accompanied Gen. Simpson 
as draughtsman, and copied from his engraving. We may 
recognize in this edifice, as it seems to the writer, a very 
satisfactory reproduction of the so-called palaces of Monte¬ 
zuma, which, like this, were constructed on three sides of a 
court which opened on a street or causeway, and in the 
terraced form. From the light which this architecture 
throws on that of the Aztecs, it appears extremely prob¬ 
able that these famous palaces, considered as exclusive 
residences of an Indian potentate, are purely fictitious, 
and that, on the contrary, they were neither more nor less 
than great communal houses of the aboriginal American 
model, and with common Indians crowding all their apart¬ 
ments. From what is known of the necessary constitution 
of society among the Village Indians, it scarcely admits 



Fig. 17. Elevation of Hungo Pavie. 


of a doubt that the great house in which he lived was oc¬ 
cupied on equal terms by a hundred other families in com¬ 
mon with his own, all the individuals of which were joint 
proprietors of the establishment which their own hands had 
raised. 



One of the remarkable features of the architecture of 
Central America is the triangular arch, which has been 
regarded as evidence of mechanical advancement. The 
same arch, of which the above is a representation, was 
found by Gen. Simpson in the structures on the Chaco, 
used as a doorway. It is copied from his report. In the 
edifices at Uxmal, Palenque, and elsewhere the rooms are 
vaulted with this arch, the angles being bevelled to a uni¬ 
form surface. The principle of construction is the same in 
both. 


After the capture of the “ Seven Cities of Cibola,” Co¬ 
ronado made a report to Mendozo, viceroy of Mexico, in 
which he expresses his disappointment in the following 
language: ‘‘And to be brief, I can assure your honor ho 
[Friar Marcos de Niza] said the truth in nothing that he 
reported, but all was quite contrary, saving only the names 
of the cities and great houses of stone; for although they 
be not wrought with turquescs, nor with lime, nor bricks, 
yet they are very excellent good houses, of three or four or 
five lofts high, wherein are good lodgings and fair cham¬ 
bers, with ladders instead of stairs, and certain cellars 
[estufas] under ground, very good and paved. . . . The 
seven cities are seven small towns, all made with these kind 
of houses that I speak of; and they all stand within four 
leagues together, and they are all called the kingdom of 
Cibola, and every one of these have their particular name. 
. . . The people of this town seem unto me of a reasonable 
stature, and witty, yet they seem not to be such as they 
should be, of that judgment and wit, to build these houses 
in such sort as they are.” Coronado further states that on 
the fourth day after the capture “they set in order all their 
goods and substance, their women and children, and fled to 
the hills, leaving their town as it were abandoned, wherein 
remained very few of them.” (Hakluyt, Coll, of Voi/aqes, 
London ed., 1600, iii.. p. 377.) 

No evidence has been adduced of the practice of com¬ 
munism by the present Pueblo Indians of New Mexico.* 
Information upon this and other questions concerning their 
organization and mode of life has not been sought by those 
who have visited this isolated country. The Moqui and 
Laguna Indians are organized in gentcs, which raises a 
presumption of its universality among the Village Indians. 
Their arts, weapons, usages, implements and utensils, 

XT * Since writing this article, Mr. David J. Miller of Santa Fe 
N. M, has informed me by letter that the Pueblo Indians still 
hold their lands in common, with a possessory right in each to 
cultivated lands so long as the individual chooses to occupy it but 
that he had not. observed any evidence of the practice of com¬ 
munism in living among them. 
















































































































































































ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 


dances, and general characteristics, so far as they are 
known, are either precisely the same as those of the par¬ 
tially Village Indians of the North, or more advanced 
forms of the same original conceptions. The practice of 
communism must be deduced, for the present, from the 
structure of the houses themselves. Both in New Mexico 
and Central America they are strikingly adapted to com¬ 
munistic life. So much is this the case that their peculiar 
internal arrangement cannot be explained on any other hy¬ 
pothesis. In all the houses in Central America the rooms 
are usually in pairs, which have no connection with the re¬ 
mainder of the building. In some cases four, and in one 
six, apartments are found connected with each other by 
doorways. They are thus divided into sections adapted to 
groups, which are separated from each other by solid walls. 
The presumption arises that the houses in New Mexico are 
similarly constructed, although the fact has not been as yet 
ascertained.* The published engravings, however, show 
less than one-fourth as many chimneys as the inhabited 
houses contain apartments. 

IV. Communal Houses of the Aztecs .—The writers on the 
conquest of Mexico have alike failed to describe the Aztec 
house or the mode of life within it. All that can safely be 
said is, that the houses were large; that they wer6 con¬ 
structed of adobe brick and of stone embedded in mud 
mortar, in both cases plastered over with gypsum, which 
made them a brilliant white; and that some were con¬ 
structed of a red porous stone. For working this stone, 
according to Clavigero, flint implements were used. (Hist. 
Conq. Me. r., Cullen’s trans., 1817, ii., 238.) Some of these 
edifices were constructed on three sides of an open court, 
like those on the Chaco, but the court opening upon a street 
or causeway. In most cases they appear to have been two 
or more stories high, and built in the terraced form. All 
the roofs were flat. The situation of the pueblo of Mexico, 
partly on solid ground and partly in the waters of a shal¬ 
low artificial pond, led to some diversities in its architecture; 
but the essential type of the latter was the same as that of 
New Mexico wherever its features distinctly appear. We 
are able to give one illustration in point. Cortez made his 
first entry into the pueblo, according to the statement of 
Bernal Diaz, with 450 Spaniards, accompanied by 1000 
Tlascalan allies. (Conq. of Mexico, Keating’s trans., Lon¬ 
don ed., 1803, i., 181 and 189.) They were lodged, Diaz 
naively tells us, in a vacant palace of the late father of 
Montezuma, remarking that “ the whole of this palace was 
very light, airy, clean, and pleasant, the entry being through 
a great court.” (76., i., 191.) Suffice it to say, that one 
of the great houses of the Aztecs was sufficiently large to 
accommodate Cortez and his total number of 1450 men. 
One of the great houses then standing on the Rio Chaco 
would have accommodated twice that number. 

It will be noticed that this Mexican house was entered 
from the court into the first story, in which respect it dif¬ 
fered from the present and ancient houses in New Mexico. 
The reason is obvious. The pueblo could only be entered 
along its three causeways, which indicate the true places for 
its defence. The causeways had sluices through them, 
traversed by bridges that could be taken up. 

It is quite plain, we think, that the house occupied by 
Cortez was constructed on three sides of a court, which 
opened on a causeway or street, the type of which is still 
found in New Mexico. When we are gravely told that 
Cortez and his followers are invited by Montezuma to oc¬ 
cupy a vacant palace of his late royal father, we are much 
impressed with the surroundings of the Indian potentate 
thus introduced. But a glance at the contemporary edifices 
on the Chaco tends to unravel the marvel, and to show how 
it was that Cortez and his men could find ample acommo- 
dations in a single house constructed on the aboriginal 
American model; and when it is found to be wholly unneces¬ 
sary to call it a royal 'palace in order to account for its size, 
an ungracious suspicion at once arises in the mind that one 
of the great communal houses of the Aztecs was emptied of 
its inhabitants to make room for the unwelcome intruders. 

V. Communal Houses in Central America .—At the epoch 
of its discovery Central America was probably more thickly 
peopled than any other portion of North America of equal 
area, and its inhabitants more advanced than the remain¬ 
ing aborigines. Their pueblos were planted along the 
rivers and streams, often quite near each other, and pre¬ 
sented the same picture of occupation and of village life 
found about the same time on the Rio Chaco and upon the 
Rio Grande and its tributaries. They consisted of a single 
great house, or of a cluster of houses forming one pueblo. 
In some cases four or more structures are grouped together 
upon the same elevated platform. But there is no reason 
for supposing, from any ruins yet found or from what is 


* Mr. Miller also informs me that the rooms generally are not 
connected with each other in the New Mexican pueblo house. 

15 


225 


known of the people at the time, that any one pueblo con¬ 
tained, at most, more than 10,00.0 inhabitants. No one na¬ 
tion had risen to supremacy within this area by the consoli¬ 
dation of surrounding nations. They were, on the contrary, 
found in that state of subdivision and independence which 
invariably accompanies the gentile organization. Confed¬ 
eracies in all probability existed among such contiguous 
pueblos as spoke the same dialect or closely related dialects, 
as the Cibolans were probably confederated, as the Aztecs, 
the Tlascalan, and Michuacan tribes are known severally to 
have been. Such confederacies never reached beyond the 
language of the people confederated. Even the Aztec con¬ 
federacy was surrounded on all sides except the S. by inde¬ 
pendent and hostile nations, living within 100 miles of the 
border of the Valley of Mexico; as witness the Tlascalans 
on the E., the Michuacans on the W., the Otomies on the 
N. W., and the Meztitlans and Huextecas on the N. E. 

The tropical region of Central America, then as now, 
was undoubtedly covered with forest, except the limited 
clearings around the pueblos, and substantially uninhabited. 
Field agriculture was of course unknown, but the Indians 
cultivated corn, beans, squashes, pepper, cotton, and to¬ 
bacco in garden-beds, which tended to localize them in 
villages. Herrera remarks of the Village Indians of Hon¬ 
duras that “they sow thrice a year, and they were wont to 
grub up great woods with hatchets made of flint.” (Hist, 
of America, London ed., 1725, Stern’s trans., iv., 133.) 
Without metallic implements to subdue the forest, or even 
with copper axes such as were found among the Aztecs, a 
very small portion of the country only would be brought 
under cultivation, and that would be confined mainly to 
the margins of the streams. 

Las Casas, bishop of Chiapa, who was in Central America 
about 1539, after remarking of the people of Yucatan that 
they were “ better civilized in morals and in what belongs 
to the good order of societies than the rest of the Indians,” 
proceeds as follows: “ The pretence of subjecting the In¬ 
dians to the government of Spain is only made to carry on 
the design of subjecting them to the dominion of private 
men, who make them all their slaves.” (An Account of the 
First Voyages, etc. in America, London ed., 1699, trans., p. 
52.) And again he quotes from the letter of the bishop 
of St. Martha to the king, as follows: “To redress the 
grievances of this province, it ought to be delivered from 
the tyranny of those who ravage it, and committed to the 
care of persons of integrity, who will treat the inhabitants 
with more kindness and humanity; for if it be left to the 
mercy of the governors, who commit all sorts of outrages 
with impunity, the province will be destroyed in a very 
short time.” (Ih., p. 61.) 

Two material questions which have been raised remain 
to be considered : First, whether the houses now in ruins in 
Central America were occupied at the time of the Spanish 
conquest; and second, whether the present Indians of the 
country are the descendants of the people who constructed 
them. There is no basis whatever for the negative of either 
proposition; but it is assumed by those who regal’d the 
palace at Palenque and the Governor’s House at Uxmal as 
the ancient residences of Indian potentates, that great 
cities which once surrounded them have perished, and 
further, that these ruins have an antiquity reaching far 
back of the Spanish conquest. 

Mr. Stephens commits himself to the conclusion “that 
at the time of the Conquest, and afterwards, the Indians 
were actually living in and occupied these very cities.” 
(Incidents of Travel in Yucatan, ii., 348, and to the same 
effect, ii., 375.) He also regarded the present Indians of the 
country as the descendants of those in possession at the 
period of the Conquest. (Ib., ii., 299.) He might have 
added that as the Maya was the language of the aborigines 
of Yucatan at the epoch of the Discovery, and is now the 
language of the greater part of the natives who have 
not lost their original speech, there was no ground for 
either supposition. Herrera remarks of the inhabitants of 
Yucatan that the “people were then found living together 
very politely in towns, kept very clean; . . . and the rea¬ 
son of their living so close together was because of the wars 
which exposed them to the danger of being taken, sold, and 
sacrificed; but the wars of the Spaniards made them dis¬ 
perse.” (Ib., loc. cit., iv., 168.) Mr. Stephens, whose works 
and whose observations are in the main so valuable, is re¬ 
sponsible to no small extent for the delusive inferences 
which have been drawn from the architecture of Central 
America. If he had repressed his imagination, and confined 
himself to what he found—namely, certain Indian pueblo vil¬ 
lages built of dressed stone and in good architecture, which 
are sufficiently remarkable just as they are—and had omitted 
altogether such words as “palaces” and “great cities,” his 
readers would have escaped the deceptive conclusions with 
respect to the actual condition of society which his mode 
of treatment and his terminology were certain to suggest. 


















226 ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 


It is sufficiently ascertained that within a few years after 
the conquest of Mexico, Central America was overrun by 
military adventurers, whose rapacity and violence drove 
the harmless and timid Village Indians from their pueblos 
into the forests, thus destroying in a few years a higher 
culture than the Spaniards, then or since, substituted in 
its place. Nothing can be plainer, we think, than this 
additional fact: that all there ever was of Palcnque, Ux- 
mal, Copan, and other Indian pueblos in Central America, 
building for building and stone for stone, is now there in 
ruins. 

One of the most extensive groups of ruins in Central 
America is that at Uxmal. The several structures are 
known as “ The Governor’s House;” the “ House of the 
Nuns,” which consists of four disconnected buildings, fa¬ 
cing the four sides of a court; the “ House of the Pigeons 
the “House of the Dwarf;” and the “House of the Old 
Woman”—in all eight, with some traces of smaller build¬ 
ings of inconsiderable size. The dimensions of the largest 
will be given for comparison with those in New Mexico. 
They are situated in a cluster quite near each other, and 
evidently formed one Indian pueblo. They are constructed 
of stone laid in courses and dressed to a uniform surface, 
with the upper half of the exterior walls decorated with 
grotesque ornaments cut on the faces of the stones. Foster 
states that “these structures are composed of a soft coral¬ 
line limestone of comparatively recent geological forma¬ 
tion, probably of the tertiary period.” ( Pre-historic Races 
of the United States, p. 398.) Norman had previously de¬ 
scribed the material used as a “fine concrete limestone.” 
( Rambles , etc., p. 126.) Elsewhere, with respect to the na¬ 
ture of the tools for cutting this stone, he remarks that 
“flint was undoubtedly used.” (Ib., 184.) According to 
the same author, “the stones are cut in parallelnpijjcds of 
about twelve inches in length and six in breadth, the in¬ 


terstices filled up with the same materials of which the 
terraces are composed.” 127.) This statement denies 
the use of mortar made of lime and sand. Stephens is 
equally explicit in stating that the mortar was of lime and 
sand; and he is perhaps the better authority, having taken 
the masonry apart. A soft coralline limestone could be 
easily worked when first taken from the quarry, and would 
harden after exposure to the air. The size and nature of 
the stones used is some evidence of limited advancement 
in solid stone architecture.®' 

These structures, as reproduced by Stephens and Cather- 
wood, may well excite surprise and admiration for the taste, 
skill, and industry they display. When rightly understood 
they will enable us to estimate the material progress they 
had made, which was truly remarkable for a people still in 
barbarism, but well advanced in the middle period. 


Fig. 19. Pyramidal Platforms. 

We have seen that the style of architecture in New 
Mexico brought the Indians to the housetops as the com¬ 
mon place of living, to which the flat roofs were adapted. 
At first suggested for security, it became in time a settled 
habit of life. The same want was met in Central America 
by a new expedient—namely, a pyramidal platform or ele¬ 
vation of earth, twenty, thirty, and forty feet high, and for 
small buildings still higher, upon the level summits of 
which their great houses were erected. Selecting, when 
practicable, a natural elevation, the top was levelled or 
raised by artificial means, the sides made rectangular and 
sloping, and faced with a dry stone Avail; the ascent being 
made by a flight of stone steps. It was not uncommon to 
form two such platforms, and sometimes three, one above 
the o’lrnr. as shown in the figure. 



1 ig. 20. The Governor’s House at Uxmal. 


These edifices are almost invariably but one story 
high, and but two rooms deep, the walls being carried up 
vertically to an equal height on all sides, and terminating 
in a flat roof. The doorways opened upon a platform-area, 
usually called the terrace, and the place was defended 
on the line or edge of the terrace-walls. Neither adobe 
brick nor rubble masonry nor timber roofs could withstand 
this tropical climate with its pouring rains during a por¬ 
tion of the year. Stone and a vaulted ceiling were indis¬ 
pensable to a permanent structure. Thus elevated, they 
enjoyed the same security as the Village Indians of New 
Mexico on their roof-tops and within their walls. They 
were also above the flight of the mosquitoes and other flies, 
the scourge of this tropical region. Considering the sur¬ 
rounding conditions, single-storied houses upon raised plat¬ 
forms Avas a natural suggestion, and harmonizes with this 
communal type of architecture as fully as the forms found 
in New Mexico. 

For the details of this architecture reference must be made 
to published Avorks Avhich are easily accessible. The front 
elevation of the Governor’s House, taken from Stephens’s 
Avork, will answer as a sample of the Avhole. It stands 
upon the upper of three platforms, of Avhich the lowest is 
575 feet long, 15 feet broad to the base of the middle plat¬ 
form, and 3 feet high; the second, 545 feet long, 250 feet 
broad, and 20 feet high; and the third is 300 feet long, 30 
feet broad, and 19 feet high. The upper platform is formed 
upon the back half of the middle one; of which last Stephens 
observes that “this great terrace Avas not entirely artificial. 
The substratum Avas a natural rock, and showed that ad¬ 
vantage had been taken of a natural elevation so far as it 
Avent, and by this means some portion of the immense labor 
of constructing the terrace had been saved.” {Incidents of 
Travel, etc., i. 128.) 



322 ft. 

Fig. 21. Ground-Plan of Governor’s House. 


The house is symmetrical in structure—322 feet long, 39 
feet deep, and about 30 feet high. It has eleven doorways, 
besides two small openings in front, and contains twenty- 
four apartments, two of which are each sixty feet long. 
The rear wall is solid, and in the central part nine feet 
thick. A parallel Avail through the centre divides the in¬ 
terior into tAvo rows of apartments, of Avhich those in front 
are eleven feet six inches deep, and those back of them 
thirteen feet deep. Both inside and out the walls are of 
dressed stone, laid in courses. 

This vieAv of the interior of a room in the House of the 
Nuns shows the form of the triangular ceiling common to 

* The so-called idols at Copan are the largest stones Avorked by 
the Central Americans. They are about eleven feet high, by 
three feet wide and deep, each face being covered by sculptures 
and hieroglyphics. In a field near the ruins, and near each 
other, are nine of these elaborately ornamented statues. By the 
side of each is a so-called altar, about six feet square and four 
feet high, made of separate stones. They have been supposed to 
have some relation to their religious system, Avith human sacri¬ 
fices in the background. From their position and character it 
may be conjectured that these idols are the grave-posts and the 
altars the graves of Copan chiefs. The type of both may still 
be seen in Nebraska in the grave-posts and grave-mounds by 
their side of Iowas and Otoes, and formerly in all parts of the 
country E. of the Mississippi. If Mr. Stephens had opened one 
of these altars, and this conjecture proved true, he would 
have found within or under it an Indian grave, and perhaps a 
skeleton, with the personal articles usually entombed beside the 
dead. 























































































ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 


227 


all the edifices at Uxmal, Palenque, and in Central America 
generally. It is a triangular arch without a key-stone, with 



Fig. 22. Section of Interior of Room. 

the edges of the stones bevelled, and forming a perfect vault 
over each apartment, except a space a foot or more wide in 
the centre, which is carried up vertically about two feet and 
covered with a cap of stone. The mechanical principle is 
the same as in the New Mexican arch, but here applied on 
a more extended and more difficult scale. It is the most 
remarkable feature in this architecture, mechanically con¬ 
sidered. But when we come to know that this vaulted ceil¬ 
ing was constructed over a core of solid masonry within the 
chamber, afterwards removed—which was the fact—it will 
be seen that these Indian masons and architects were still 
feeling their way towards a scientific knowledge of the art 
of arts. A projecting cornice is seen above the doorway, 
which balances somewhat the interior inward projection of 
the ceiling; and, as it is carried up flush with the cornice, 
the down-weight of the superincumbent mass sustained the 
masonry. The front rooms are twenty-three feet high to 
the top of the arch, and the back rooms twenty-two. Over 
the front doorways were originally wooden lintels, upon the 
decay of which a portion of the masonry had fallen. Those 
over the doorways through the partition walls were found 
in place. The proof of the comparatively modern date of 
these structures is conclusive from these facts alone. 

It will be noticed that there are six single apartments, 
which have no connection with the remainder of the build¬ 
ing, and that the others are in pairs, a back room connect¬ 
ing with the one in front, and neither with any others. It 
seems to show very plainly, in the plan of the house itself, 
that it was designed to be occupied by distinct groups of 
families, each group a large household by itself. If the 
communal principle existed in fact among them, its expres¬ 
sion in the interior arrangement of the house, and in this 
form, might have been expected. This striking and sig¬ 
nificant feature runs through all the structures in Central 
America of which ground-plans have been obtained. 

« The House of the Nuns/’ says Mr. Stephens, “ is quad¬ 
rangular, with a courtyard in the centre. It stands on the 
highest of three terraces. The lowest is three feet high 
and twenty feet wide; the second, twelve feet high and 
forty-five feet wide; and the third, four teet high and five 
feet wide, extending the whole length of the front of the 
building. The front [building] is 279 feet long, and above 
the cornice, from one end to the other, is ornamented with 
sculpture. In the centre is a gateway ten feet eight inches 
wide, spanned by the triangular arch, and leading to the 
courtyard. On each side of this gateway are four door¬ 
ways, with wooden lintels, opening to apartments aveiag¬ 
ing twenty-four feet long, ten feet wide, seventeen feet high 
to “the top of the arch, but having no connection with each 


other. The building that forms the right or eastern side 
of the quadrangle measures 264 feet long; that on the left 



Fig. 23. Ground-Plan of the House of the Nuns. 

is 173 feet long; and the range opposite, or at the end of 
the quadrangle, measures 264 feet. These three ranges 
have no doorways outside, but the exterior of each is a 
dead wall, and above the cornice all are ornamented with 
the same rich and elaborate sculptures.” (76., i., 299.) 

The four buildings contain, in all, seventy-six apart¬ 
ments, which in size vary from ten to twelve feet wide and 
from twenty to thirty feet long. There are twenty single 
apartments and twenty-four pairs of apartments, half of 
which, as in the Governor’s House, are dark, except as they 
are lighted by the doorways connecting with the rooms in 
front. In the structure on the right there are six rooms 
connecting with each other, which number is so unusual as 
to attract attention. Each of these great edifices would 
accommodate, after the fashion of Village Indians, from 
600 to 1000 persons. 

It should also be noticed that there is neither a fire-place 
nor a chimney in either of these houses; neither has one 
been found, so far as the writer is aware, in any ancient 
structure in Central America. Fires were not needed for 
warmth, but since they were for cooking, it shows that no 
cooking was done within these houses. A presumption at 
once arises that the inmates prepared their food in the open 
court or on the lower terraces by household groups, making 
a common stock of their provisions, and dividing from the 
earthen caldron. It may be presumed, also, that the Iro¬ 
quois usage of but one daily meal prevailed among them. 
Fortunately, we are able to present some proofs bearing 
directly upon the question of the ancient practice of com¬ 
munism in these houses. It is found in the present usages 
of their descendants, which may reasonably be supposed to 
have been derived from their ancestors, although they may 
show a deteriorated form of those usages. At Nohcacab, 
a short distance E. of the ruins of Uxmal, there is a settle¬ 
ment of Maya Indians, whose communism in living was 
accidentally "discovered by Mr. Stephens when among them 
to employ laborers. It will be remembered that Yucatan 
was inhabited by Maya Indians at the epoch of the Con¬ 
quest. He remarks as follows : “ Their community consists 
of a hundred labradores or working men; their lands are 
held in common, and the products are shared by all. Their 
food is prepared at one hut, and every family sends for its 
portion; which explains a singular spectacle we had seen 
on our arrival—a procession of women and children, each 
carrying an earthen bowl containing a quantity of smoking 
hot broth, all coming down the same road, and dispersing 
among the different huts. . . . From our ignorance of the 
language, and the number of other and more pressing mat¬ 
ters claiming our attention, we could not learn all the de¬ 
tails of their internal economj 7 , but it seemed to approxi¬ 
mate that improved state of association which is sometimes 
heard of among us; and as this has existed for an unknown 
length of time, and can no longer be considered experi¬ 
mental, Owen and Fourier might perhaps take lessons trom 
them with advantage. ... 1 never before^ regretted so 
much my ignorance of the Maya language.” (■/&•, ii-> 14.) 
A hundred working men indicate a total of five hundred 
persons who were then depending for their daily food upon 
































































































































228 ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 


a single fire, the provisions being supplied from common 
stores, and divided from the caldron. It is, not unlikely, 
a truthful picture of the mode of life in the House of tho 
Nuns and in the Governor’s House at the period of Eu¬ 
ropean discovery. 



265 : 


Scale o-f Feet 
50 40 30 20 in "o 50 

i—l!:l 1 


Fig. 24. Ground-Plan of Zayi. 

Near Uxmal are the interesting ruins of Zayi, which pre¬ 
sent a new feature in Central American architecture. Upon 
a low eminence are three independent structures, one within 
and above the other, presenting the appearance, in the dis¬ 
tance, of a single quadrangular edifice in three receding 
stories. But each stands on a separate terrace, and is built 
against the one immediately above it, except the inner one, 
which stands on the summit. The outer quadrangle stands 
upon the lowest terrace. The measurements of the several 
buildings are indicated on the plan. Together they contain 
eighty-seven apartments, assuming the part in ruins to have 
corresponded with the parts preserved. The rooms, as usual, 
are mostly single or in pairs. A staircase upon the front 
and rear sides interrupts the buildings on these sides from 
the lower terrace to the upper. The dots in the apertures 
indicate columns, which are found in this and several other 
structures. 

Attention has been called to this pueblo—which would 
accommodate 2000 or more persons—for a special reason. 
It seems to furnish conclusive proof of the manner in which 
these great edifices were erected in order to make the pecu¬ 
liar triangular ceiling which is the striking characteristic 
of this architecture. The annexed 
cross-section of a single apartment 
shows the relations of the walls to 
the chamber and its ceiling. The 
chamber, with its ceiling, was con¬ 
structed over a solid core of ma¬ 
sonry, laid simultaneously with the 
walls, which was removed after the 
latter had become seasoned and set¬ 
tled. It tends to show that with 
small stones of the size used the tri¬ 
angular ceiling, as it projected to¬ 
wards the centre in rising, required 
the interior support of a core to en¬ 
sure the possibility of construction 
by their methods. Once put together 
over such a core, and carried up sev¬ 
eral feet over the top of the arch, the 

down-weight of the superincumbent 0 .. 

,. , , 1 , , , , . , Fig. 2d. Cross-Section 

mass would articulate and hold the through one Apartment 

masonry together. It shows, further, 

that the essential feature of the arch is wanting in this 
contrivance. 

The proof of this assertion is the actual presence of the 
unremoved core in one of these edifices in all of its apart¬ 
ments. Mr. Stephens found every room of the back build¬ 
ing on the second terrace filled with masonry from bottom 
to top. He remarks that “the north side of the second 
range has a curious and unaccountable feature. It is called 
the Casa Cerrada, or ‘closed house/ having ten doorways, 
all of which are blocked uji on the inside with stone and 
mortar. ... In front of several were piles of stones which 
they [his men] had worked out from the doorways, and 
under the lintels w T ere holes # through which we were able to 
crawl inside; and here we found ourselves in apartments 
finished with walls and ceilings like all the others, but filled 
up, except so far as they had been emptied by the Indians, 
with solid masses of mortar and stone. There were ten of 
these apartments in all, 220 feet long and 10 feet deep, 
which, thus being filled up, made the whole building a 
solid mass; and the strangest feature was, that the filling 
up of the apartments must have been simultaneous with 
the erection of the buildings, for, as the filling in rose 
above the tops of the doorways, the men who performed it 
never could have entered to their work through the doors. 
It must have been done as the walls were built, and the 
ceiling must have closed over a solid mass.” ( lb ., ii., 22.) 





It does not seem to have occurred to Mr. Stephens that 
the masonry within each room was a core, without which a 
vaulted chamber in this form could not have been con¬ 
structed with their knowledge of the art of building. It 
shows the rudeness of their mechanical resources and the 
real condition of the art among them, but at the same time 
increases our estimate of their originality, ingenuity, and 
industry. They were working their way experimentally in 
architecture, as all other people have done; and they might 
well point with pride to these structures as extraordinary 
memorials of the progress they had made. 

An important conclusion follows — namely, that this 
“closed house” was tho last, in the order of time, erected, 
and had not been emptied of its core and brought into use 
when the Spanish irruption forced the people to abandon 
their pueblo. It would fix the period of its construction 
at or after 1520; thus settling the question of its modern 
date, and removing one of the delusions concerning the 
Central American ruins. 

A brief reference to Palenque will conclude this article, 
already too long, but far from exhaustive of the facts. 
There are four or five pyramidal elevations at this pueblo, 
quite similar in form and relative situation to those at 
Uxmal. One is much the largest, and the structures upon 
it are called the “ Palace.” Several distinct buildings are 
here grouped upon one elevated terrace and are more or 
less connected. Altogether, they are 228 feet front and 
180 deep, occupying not only the four sides of a quad¬ 
rangle, but the greater part of what originally was, in all 
probability, an open court. Nearly all the edifices in Cen¬ 
tral America agree in one particular — namely, in being 
composed of three parallel walls with partition walls at 
intervals, giving two rows of apartments under one roof, 
usually, if not invariably, flat. Where several are grouped 
together on the same platform, as at Palenque, they are 
under independent roofs, and the spaces between, called 
courts, are simply open lanes or passage-ways between. 
The plan of the Palenque structures, like all the others in 
Central America, seems to show that they were designed to 
be occupied by groups of persons, consisting of a number 
of families, whose private boundaries were fixed by solid 
partition walls. They are exactly adapted to this mode 
of occupation; and this special adaptation, so plainly 
impressed upon all this architecture, leads irresistibly to 
the inference that they were occupied on the communal 
principle, and were consequently neither more nor less than 
communal houses, of a model which may be called, dis¬ 
tinctively, that of the American aborigines. None of these 
edifices are as large as those on the Itio Chaco, and, be¬ 
sides, they have but a single story ; but w ith the broad 
terraces which were their gathering-places, they would 
probably accommodate more persons, in equal spaces, than 
the former. 

The structures upon each pyramidal elevation were 
also a fortress. It proves the insecurity in which they 
lived. An impression has been propagated that they were 
surrounded by dense populations living in temporary hab¬ 
itations, to which Stephens has given some countenance 
(Central America , Chi aas, and Yucatan, ii., 235), but the 
suggestion is preposterous. It does not even need refuta¬ 
tion. It sprang from the assumed existence of a state of 
society far enough advanced to develop potentates and 
privileged classes, with power to enforce labor from the 
people for personal objects. There is no evidence what¬ 
ever to support such an assumption. They were animated 
by the same spirit as the Cibolans in what related to per¬ 
sonal independence. Rather than live in subjection to 
Spanish taskmasters, the very Indians who erected these 
houses with so much labor “ set in order all their goods 
and substance, their women and children, and fled to the 
hills, leaving their towns as it were abandoned,” preferring 
a return to a lower stage of barbarism rather than a loss 
of personal freedom. 

American aboriginal history has been perverted, and 
even caricatured, in various ways, and among others by a 
false terminology, which of .itself is able to vitiate the 
truth. When we have learned to substitute Indian con¬ 
federacy for Indian empire, head-chief and chief for em¬ 
peror, king, and prince, Indian villages for great cities, 
communal houses for palaces, together with a large number 
of similar substitutions of simple for deceptive as well as 
improper terms, the Indian of the past and present will be 
presented understandingly, and placed in his true position 
in the scale of human advancement. While the Aryan 
family has lost nearly all traces of its experiences anterior 
to the closing period of barbarism, the Indian family, in 
its different branches, offered to our investigation not only 
the state of savagery, but also that of both the first and of 
the middle period of barbarism. The facts of these several 
conditions, and particularly of the last, were more per¬ 
fectly and strikingly exemplified among them than else- 












































































AliCHON—ARCUATION. ' 229 


where upon the entire earth. It was because of their 
undisturbed development upon a great continent. Further 
than this, their organizations were living and their works 
existent. Through a study of their progressive develop¬ 
ment a rational knowledge of the experience of our own 
ancestors while in the same condition might have been 
recovered. But the rare opportunity has been wasted; 
and worse, for we have romance where we might have had 
the truth. 

Finally, the following conclusions may be stated as rea¬ 
sonable from the facts presented: First, that all there ever 
was of Uxmal, Palenque, Copan, and other Central Amer¬ 
ican pueblos, building for building and stone for stone, is 
there now in ruins. Secondly, that the inhabitants were 
Village Indians, living in single great houses of the com¬ 
munal type, or in several such houses grouped together and 
forming one pueblo. Thirdly, that they were probably or¬ 
ganized in gentes, and as a consequence were broken up 
into independent nations or tribes, with confederacies here 
and there for mutual protection. Fourthly, that from the 
plan and interior arrangement of these houses the practice 
of communism may be inferred, and that it entered into 
and determined their character. Fifthly, nothing herein 
stated is inconsistent with the supposition that some of 
the structures in the Central American pueblos may have 
been devoted to religious uses. And lastly, that a common 
type runs through all the architecture of the American 
aborigines—that of communism in living, which in turn 
tends to show their common origin. 

When we attempt to understand the Palace at Palenque 
or the Governor’s House at Uxmal as the residences of 
Indian potentates, they are wholly unintelligible; but as 
communal houses, embodying the social, the defensive, and 
the communal principles, we can understand how they could 
have been erected and so elaborately and laboriously fin¬ 
ished. It is evident that they were the work of the people, 
constructed for their own protection and enjoyment. En¬ 
forced labor never created them. On the contrary, it is the 
charm of all these edifices that they were raised by the In¬ 
dians for their own use with willing hands, and occupied 
by them on terms of entire equality. And it is highly 
creditable to the Indian mind that while in the middle 
period of barbarism they had developed the capacity to 
plan, and the industry to rear, structures of such architec¬ 
tural design and imposing magnitude. Lewis II. Morgan. 

Ar'chon [Gr. apxcov, from apx<*>, to “ be first”], the title 
of the highest magistrates or rulers of At hens. On the death 
of Codrus, king of Athens (1068 B. C.), the title of king was 
abolished, and Medon, the son of Codrus, became the first 
archon, with limited power. The office was at first hereditary 
and held for life, but in 752 B. C. the term of office was 
limited to ten years, and in 714 it ceased to be hereditary 
and became open to all patricians. In 683 the number of 
archons was increased to nine, who were elected annually. 
One of the nine was called archon eponymus (enwv/xo?), be¬ 
cause his name was used to designate the year; the second, 
who was styled king (/3a.o-iAeus), had charge of religious af¬ 
fairs ; the third was called polemarch (commander-in-chief), 
and originally had the command of the army. The other 
six, who were styled thesmothetic (fleo-pofleVat), “ law-givers,” 
conducted criminal trials, and had power to ratify treaties 
with foreign states. In the latter period of Athenian his¬ 
tory all citizens were eligible to the office of archon. The 
Avord archon (translated ruler) occurs in the New Testa¬ 
ment as the title of several Jews, among whom was Nico- 
demus (John iii. 1). 

Archy'tas [’ApxvVa?], a celebrated Greek philosopher, 
general, and mathematician, was born at Tarentum. He 
flourished about 400-350 B. C., was a Pythagorean in phil¬ 
osophy, and was an intimate friend of Plato, whose life he 
is said to have saved when the tyrant Dionysius Avas about 
to put him to death. As general of Tarentum, to which 
office he Avas elected seven times, he commanded with suc¬ 
cess in several campaigns. He was also employed in im¬ 
portant civil affairs, for Avhich he displayed excellent capa¬ 
city. His A'irtue Avas as conspicuous as his ability. He is 
reputed the first that applied geometry to practical mechan¬ 
ics, and the first to solve the problem of the doubling of 
the cube. He Avas drowned on the coast of Apulia. Only 
fragments of his works are extant. 

Arcis-sur-Aube, aR'se'silR-ob, a toAvn of France, in 
the department of Aube, and on the river Aube, 16 miles 
N. by E. of Troyes. It has manufactures of cotton ho¬ 
siery. On the 20th of Mar., 1814, an indecisive battle was 
fought herebetAveen Napoleon and Prince Schwartzenberg, 
ay ho commanded a portion of the allied army. Pop. in 
1866, 2784. 

Arco'Ia, a village of Northern Italy, on the Alpone, 
near its entrance into the Adige, 15 miles E. S. E. of Verona. 
Here Napoleon gained an important victory over the Aus¬ 


trian general Alvinzy. The French commenced the battle 
on the 14th of Nov., 1796, by an attempt to cross a bridge 
over the Alpone, but were repulsed. The action Avas re¬ 
newed on the 16th, and ended on the 17th, Avhen Alvinzy 
retreated. Pop. 2185. 

Areola, a post-village and township of Douglas co., 
Ill., on the Chicago division of the Illinois Central R. R., 
158 miles from Chicago. It has three Aveekly newspapers. 
Pop. of township, 2332. 

Ar'cos de la Frontc'ra, a town of Spain, in Anda¬ 
lusia, on the right bank of the Gaudalete, 30 miles N. E. 
of Cadiz. It is called Arcos, because it is built in the form 
of a “bow.” Its site is a high rock, which commands an 
extensUe and beautiful prospect. Here are celebrated man¬ 
ufactures of tanned leather. This town Avas once strongly 
fortified. In 1519, Magelhaens started from here for the 
first circumnavigation of the globe. Pop. 11,532. 

Arcot, or Aruca'ti, a city of British India, in the 
presidency of Madras, is situated in the Carnatic, on the 
river Palaur, 71 miles by rail W. S. W.of Madras; lat. 12° 
54' N., Ion. 79° 23' E. It was ceded to the British in 1801, 
before which it had been the capital of the Carnatic. Here 
are the ruins of the naAvab’s palace. It is one of the cen¬ 
tres of the Protestant missions in India. Pop. estimated at 
45,000, mostly Mohammedans. 

Arc'tic [Lat. arc'ticm ; Gr. apuTucos, “belonging to [the 
constellation of] the Bear ” (ap/cro?), which is near the North 
Pole], a term signifying “northern,” or, rather, “far to the 
north,” “ near the North Pole.” 

Arctic Circle, a circle drawn around the North Pole 
of the earth, 23° 28' from the Pole and 66° 32' from the 
equator. It forms the boundary between the north tem¬ 
perate and the north frigid zone. Within this circle the 
sun does not set at the summer solstice nor rise at the 
winter solstice*. 

Arctic Current, so called because it is supposed to 
originate in the ice of the Arctic seas, whence it runs along 
the eastern shore of Greenland and round Cape Farewell 
to the Avestern shore of Greenland, in N. lat. 66°, Avhere it 
turns southward, forming the Hudson’s Bay Current. Thenco 
it passes near the Bank of NeAvfoundland, and, meeting the 
Gulf Stream, crosses it as an undercurrent, flowing into the 
Caribbean Sea. Another portion passes along the coast of 
North America, and reduces the temperature of the land. 
The Arctic Current, which is cold, replaces the warm water 
removed by the Gulf Stream. 

Arctic Discovery. Sec Polar Research, by I. I. 
Hayes, M. D. 

Arc'tic O' cean, or Sea, the ocean which surrounds the 
North Pole, Avashes the northern shores of Europe, Asia, 
and America, and is nearly coextensive Avith the Arctic Cir¬ 
cle. It communicates with the Pacific by Behring’s Strait, 
and with the Atlantic by a wide passage between Greenland 
and Norway. The navigation of this ocean is obstructed 
by perpetual congelation, but it is supposed that a por¬ 
tion N. of 80° is an open polar sea. The Arctic Ocean en¬ 
closes many large islands, and comprises large bays and 
gulfs, which deeply indent the adjacent continents, as Baf¬ 
fin’s Bay, the White Sea, and the Gulf of Obi. The water 
of this ocean is extremely pure and clear, and the ice is 
remarkable for the beauty and variety of its tints. Those 
parts of this sea which have been explored are occupied by 
large fields of floating ice and icebergs in almost perpetual 
motion. Captain Ross measured an iceberg which rose 325 
feet above the water in which it floated. There are masses 
that present a front of 200 feet in height, and fields from 
ten to forty feet thick sometimes extend over 100 miles. 
Icebergs often have a Auolcnt rotation, and are dashed 
against each other Avitli a tremendous force. Fogs, storms, 
and almost endless night add to the dangers Avhich beset 
the explorer. Among the navigators who have explored it 
in search of a north-west passage arc Parry, Ross, Sir John 
Franklin, and Kane. Drs. Hayes and Ilall, and various 
Scandinavian and Dutch navigators, arc among the recent 
explorers. Parry in 1827 reached lat. 82° 45' N., Ion. 
19° 25' E., and found there floes of ice, with open Avater 
between. In 1854, Kane penetrated to lat. 81° 22' in Ion. 
65° 35' W. He argued that there is an open sea, not fro¬ 
zen, around the Pole, from the fact that “ a gale from the 
N. E. of fifty-four hours’ duration brought a heaA r y sea 
from that quarter, without disclosing any drift or other ice.” 
There are valuable whale-fisheries in the Arctic Ocean. 

Arctu'rus [from the Gr. ap*™?, a “bear,” and ovpd, a 
“tail”], a fixed star of the first magnitude in the constel¬ 
lation Bootes, so called because it is near the tail of the 
Great Bear. It is designated in catalogues as a Bootes. 

Arcua'tion [from the Lat. arcus, a “ bow ”], a term for¬ 
merly applied to a mode of propagating trees; the shoots 
of the trees, cut off near the ground, arc bent over and 


















230 ARCUEIL—AREOPAGUS. 


partly covered with earth, which causes them to take root. 
It is generally called inarching. 

Arcueil, a village of France, 3 miles S. of Paris, on the 
railway from that capital to Sccaux, has a line aqueduct 
constructed by Marie de Medicis; also the remains of a 
Roman aqueduct built by the emperor Julian. It is a place 
of resort on holidays for the Parisians. Pop. in 1866, 5024. 

Arcy> Grotto of, an ancient limestone quarry in 
France, in the department of Yonne, remarkable for its 
size and the beauty and extent of its stalactites and in¬ 
crustations, which have almost completely obliterated all 
traces of the labor of man. 

ArdabiP, or Artlebil, a town of Persia, in the prov¬ 
ince of Azerbijan, on the Ivara-Soo, 90 miles E. by N. of 
Tabriz. It is visited by the trading caravans from Tiflis, 
Dcrbcnd, and Ispahan. Pop. estimated at about 10,000. 

Arileehe, a river of France, rises among the mountains 
of Cevcnnes, flows south-eastward through the most mag¬ 
nificent and romantic scenery, and enters the Rhone 1 mile 
from Pont Saint Esprit, after a course of 45 miles. Near 
its mouth is a natural curiosity called the Bridge of Arc. 

Ardeche, a mountainous department in the S. E. of 
France, is bounded on the N. by the department of Loire, 
on the E. by Drome, on the S. by Gard, and on the W. by 
Lozere and Haute-Loire, and drained by the Ardeche. Area, 
2134 square miles. The surface is diversified by extinct 
volcanic peaks, deep craters, ranges of basaltic columns, 
and romantic valleys, forming combinations of scenery 
which are highly magnificent and picturesque. The val¬ 
leys near the Rhone produce good wine, olives, figs, 
almonds, and Spanish chestnuts, the annual crop of which 
latter is about 400,000 bushels. Mines of copper, iron, 
lead, antimony, and coal are worked in this department. 
It is subdivided into 3 arrondissements, 31 cantons, and 339 
communes. Capital, Privas. Pop. in 1872, 380,277. 

Ar'den (commonly written Ardennes, which see), a 
forest in which Shakspeare places the scene of his play 
called “ As You Like It.” There was formerly a forest of 
this name on the western borders of Warwickshire, which 
is believed to have occupied a great part of the midland 
counties, and it is noteworthy as the maiden name of 
Shakspeare’s mother. 

Ar'den, a township of Berkeley co., W. Ya. Pop. 1528. 

Ardennes, or Arden (anc. Arduen'na Syl'va), a hilly 
and densely-wooded tract which includes a part of Belgium 
and of France, and is situated on both sides of the river 
Meuse. The forest of Ardennes in Caesar’s time was more 
extensive, and occupied nearly all the space between the 
Sambre, Moselle, and Rhine. The highest points of the 
Ardennes are about 2200 feet above the sea. The pre¬ 
dominant rocks are clay-slate, grauwacke, and limestone. 
The channel of the Meuse presents rugged and precipitous 
rocks about GOO feet high. Many important military events 
have occurred among the Ardennes, at Rocroi, Sedan, 
Meziei'es, etc. 

Ardennes, a department in the N. E. of France, 
bounded on the N. by Belgium, on the E. by the depart¬ 
ment of Meuse, on the S. by Marne, and on the W. by 
Aisne, was part of the old province of Champagne. Area, 
2020 square miles. It is intersected by the Meuse, which 
flows northward, and by the Aisne, which flows westward. 
The surface is partly hilly, and covered with the forest of 
Ardennes. The valley of the Aisne is fertile and produces 
much grain. Among the mineral resources of this depart¬ 
ment are iron, lead, marble, and slate. The canal of Ar¬ 
dennes, connecting the Meuse and the Aisne, affords facil¬ 
ities for trade. Here are manufactures of glass, metallic 
wares, woollen cloths, shawls, firearms, earthenware, etc. 
It is subdivided into 5 arrondissements, 31 cantons, and 
478 communes. Capital, Mezieres. Pop. in 1872, 320,217. 

Ar'doch, a small village of Scotland, in the county of 
Perth, 8 miles S. S. W. of Crieff. Here is an ancient Ro¬ 
man camp, the most entire now in Britain. The intrenched 
works form a rectangle 500 by 430 feet, the north and east 
sides of which are protected by five ditches and six ram¬ 
parts. 

Ar'ilor [from ar'dco , to “burn”], a Latin word signi¬ 
fying heat, fervor of passion, zeal, intensity of feeling. In 
medicine it denotes an intense or morbidly-increased sen¬ 
sation of heat, as ar'dor febri'lis, “feverish heat.” 

Ardoye, a town of Belgium, in the province of West 
Flanders, G miles N. W. of Courtray. Pop. in 1866, G253. 

Ardshir', or Ardsheer' (Babegan), a king of Persia, 
the founder of the dynasty of the Sassanides, was a man 
of obscure origin. He raised himself by his courage and 
energy, and revolted against Artabanus(or Ardovan), king 
of Persia, whom he defeated and killed. He extended the 
boundaries of Persia by conquests, and afterwards reigned 


in peace for many years. He was celebrated as a sage and 
a legislator, and was the author of maxims which arc still 
preserved by the Persians. Ihe Greeks called him Aiiax- 
crxes. He died about 260 A. D., and was succeeded by 
his son Shapur (or Sapor). 

Are [Fr., from the Lat. area, a “ space of ground ”]. In 
the metric system of weights and measures the arc is the 
unit of measure of surface. It is the square of ten metres = 
119.G0332 square yards. The are is not practically em¬ 
ployed, the hectare =100 ares, or 2.47114 English acres, 
the declare (one-tenth of an are), and the ccntiarc (one- 
hundredth of an are), being the only agrarian measures 
practically used in this system. 

A'rea [a Latin word signifying, originally, an “open 
space,” a “courtyard,” a “threshing-floor”], any plane 
surface. In geometry it means quantity of surface, the 
surface included within any given lines. The calculation 
of areas is one of the ultimate objects of geometry, and the 
measuring units employed are a square inch, a square foot, 
etc. The area of a rectangle is equal to the product of the 
length and breadth. That of a circle is found by multi¬ 
plying the square of the diameter by the decimal .7854. 

Are'ca, a genus of palm trees having pinnate leaves 
and double spathes, a fruit which is a one-seeded drupe, or 
nut with an outer fibrous husk. The Areca Catechu, called 
pinang palm or betel-nut palm, is a native of the East 
Indies, and grows to the height of forty or fifty feet. It 
bears a fruit called areca-nut or betel-nut, which is as¬ 
tringent and tonic, and is extensively used in the East as 
a masticatory. (See Betel.) It also yields a part of the 
catechu of commerce. The Areca oleracea (the cabbage- 
palm) grows in the West Indies, and is more than 100 feet 
high, but has a very slender stem. The terminal leaf-bud 
is nutritious, and is used for food. It also bears nuts, the 
kernel of which is sweet. 

A'remberg', or Arenberg, the name of a noble fam¬ 
ily of Germany, which adhered to the Roman Catholic 
Church and to Philip II. of Spain. They own large estates 
in Hanover and Prussia. 

Are'na, a Latin word signifying “ sand,” was anciently 
applied to an open space of ground strewed with sand on 
which athletes and pugilists contended for mastery, and to 
the open central part of the amphitheatre where gladiators 
and wild beasts fought. This was usually covered with 
sand. In modern language, arena signifies any scene of 
contest or field of intellectual exertion ; any public place in 
which men display their talents or contend for mastery in 
debate. 

Are'na, a post-township of Iowa co., Wis. Pop. 2131. 

Ar'enac, a post-township of Bay co., Mich. Pop. 459. 

Arena'ceoilS [Lat. arena' ceus, from are'na, “ sand ”], 
sandy, of the natm - e of sand ; a geological term applied to 
strata which are composed entirely or chiefly of grains of 
sand. Such are the beds of loose sand which occur in the 
tertiary or more recent formations. The arenaceous rocks 
of the carboniferous and Devonian ages are composed of 
grains of sand cemented together, and are called sandstone. 
When the sandstone is coarse-grained it is called grit, or, 
if the particles are as large as pebbles, it is termed con¬ 
glomerate or “pudding-stone.” 

Ar'endahl, a post-township of Fillmore co., Minn. P. 

853. 

Ar'endal, a city of Norway, 41 miles N. E. of Chris- 
tiansand, on the Cattegat, in lat. 58° 23' N., Ion. 8° 53' E. 
It is built partly on the mainland and partly on islands, 
giving it the name of “Little Venice.” Pop. in 18G5, 
7181. 

Arenic'ola [literally, an “ inhabitant of the sand,” from 
are'na, “ sand,” and co'lo, to “ till,” to “ inhabit”], the lug- 
worm, Arenic'ola piscato'rium ( i . e. “of fishermen”), found 
in the sand of the seashore, is much used by fishermen as 
a bait. It bores in the sand, and forms for itself a tube 
in which it moves with perfect freedom. When touched, 
the lugworm throws out a quantity of yellow fluid that 
stains the hand. 

Ar'enzville, a post-township of Cass co., Ill. P. 884. 

Areoi. See Arreoy. 

Areom'eter, or Araeometer [from the Gr. ipaios, 
“thin,” and fxerpo v, a “ measure”], an instrument used to 
measure the specific gravity of fluids and ascertain the 
strength of spirituous liquors, usually called Hydrometer 
(which see). 

Arcop'agus [Gr. ’Apeio? 7rdyo?], (?. e. “hill of Mars”), 
a hill in Athens W. of the Acropolis; also a celebrated 
court of justice which held its sessions on the same spot 
in ancient times. This court or council was remarkable 
for its high character and great antiquity, having been 
organized before the first Messenian war, the date of which 



















AREQUIPA—ARGENS, D’. 231 


was 740 B. C. It was merely a criminal tribunal before 
the time of Solon, who made important changes in its con¬ 
stitution, and extended its jurisdiction to political and 
moral affairs. lie ordained that this court should be com¬ 
posed of those archons who had performed their official 
duties faithfully, and who had passed with credit the scru¬ 
tiny to which all archons were subjected at the expiration 
of their term of office. Its influence was conservative, and 
tended to restrain the excesses or the progress of democ¬ 
racy. The political power of this court was much reduced 
by Pericles about 458 B. C., but it maintained a high rep¬ 
utation long after that date. The name of the Areopagus 
occurs in the history of the apostle Paul, who uttered a 
memorable discourse on Mars’ Hill. (See Acts xvii. 22-31.) 

Arequi'pa, a department of Peru, bordering on the 
Pacific Ocean, is bounded on the N. by Ayacucho and 
Cuzco, on the E. by Cuzco and Puno, on the S. by Mo- 
quega, and on the W. by the ocean. Area, estimated at 
201,000 square miles. The eastern part is mountainous. 
The soil is fertile, and produces chiefly wine. Gold, silver, 
zinc, lead, and coal are found here. Capital, Arequipa. 
Pop. about 180,000. 

Arequipa, a city of Peru, capital of the above depart¬ 
ment, is finely situated about 40 miles from the Pacific 
Ocean, on the river Chili and on the plain of Quilca, 7850 
feet above the level of the sea; lat. 16° 24' 28" S., Ion. 71° 
37' 30" W. It is reputed one of the best built and most 
beautiful towns of South America. It is the seat of a 
bishop, and has a cathedral, a college, and several con¬ 
vents. The public edifices and private houses are built of 
stone, one or two stories high. It has been ruined by 
earthquakes several times. It has an active trade, facili¬ 
tated by a railroad which extends to Mollendo on the Pa¬ 
cific. Gold and silver are found in the vicinity. The ad¬ 
jacent country is fertile. Here occurred a great earthquake, 
Aug. 13 and 14,1868, destroying property worth more than 
$12,000,000, and said to have caused the death of more 
than 500 persons. Pop. estimated at 40,000. 

Arequipa, Volcano of, a celebrated volcanic peak 
of the Peruvian Andes, is about 14 miles E. of the city of 
Arequipa. It rises to the height of 20,300 feet above the 
level of the sea, and has the form of a regular truncated 
cone, with a deep crater, from which ashes and vapor con¬ 
tinually issue. 

A'res [ r Aprj?], the god of war in the Greek mythology, 
corresponded to the Roman Mars (which see). 

Aretre'us [Gr. ’ApeTcdo?], an able Greek medical writer 
of Cappadocia, is supposed to have lived between 50 and 
150 A. D. The events of his life are not known, but he is 
considered by some persons to rank next to Hippocrates. 
He wrote a work in eight books on the causes, symptoms, 
and cure of acute and chronic diseases, which is still ex¬ 
tant and is highly esteemed. The style is singularly ele¬ 
gant and concise. The Greek text has often been printed, 
and has been translated into English by T. F. Reynolds 
(1837). 

Arethu'sa [Gr. ’A peOovo-a], in classic mythology, one of 
the Nereids, of whom Alpheus was enamored. Also the 
name of a fountain near Syracuse, into which it is said she 
was transformed. (See Alpheus.) Arethusa was invoked 
by Virgil as a source of inspiration in his tenth eclogue. 

Aretin'ian Syllables are ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, which 
Guido d’Arezzo used to designate his notes in his musical 
system of hexachords. 

Aretino (Guido). See Guy d’Arezzo. 

Areti'no (Pietro), [Lat. Areti'nus], a satirical and li¬ 
centious Italian writer, born at Arezzo in 1492. He was a 
man of low birth, and was not liberally educated. He be¬ 
came a resident of Venice in 1527, and found several power¬ 
ful patrons, among whom were the emperor Charles V. and 
Francis I. Among his numerous works were comedies, 
dialogues, sonnets, and letters (6 vols., 1538—5 1 ). He 
gained by his writings great applause and large sums of 
money. His satires, which were personal and bitter, pro¬ 
cured for him the surname of the Scourge of Princes. 
His habits were extremely licentious. Died in Venice in 
1557. (See Berni, "Vita di P. Aretino,” 1537; Dujardin, 
"Vie de Pierre Aretin,” 1750; Mazzuciielli, "Vita di 
Pietro Aretino,” 1763.) 

Aretino (Spinello), a skilful Italian painter, born at 
Arezzo about 1315. He painted frescoes at Florence, Ar¬ 
ezzo, and other towns, and acquired a high reputation. 
Some frescoes which he painted in San Miniato, near 
Florence, are still preserved. His invention and coloring 
are highly commended. The best of his extant works is 
a " History of Pope Alexander III.,” painted in the town- 
hall of Sienna. Vasari considers him superior to Giotto. 
Died about 1400. 


Are'zzo, a province of Central Italy, is bounded on the 
N. by Florence, on the E. and S. by Perugia, and on the 
W. by Sienna. Area, 1279 square miles. The country is 
chiefly mountainous, and is traversed by the Arno and 
Chiano. Chief town, Arezzo. Pop. in 1871, 239,901. 

Arezzo (anc. Arre'tium), a city of Italy, capital of 
the province of its own name, is on the Chiana, 55 miles 
by rail S. E. of Florence. It is a very ancient town, 
having been founded by the Etruscans several centuries 
before the Christian era. Its walls are evidently Etrus¬ 
can. It has two colleges, a seminary, a lyceum, a school 
of technology, an academy of sciences and arts, and many 
silk, cloth, iron, and other factories. Among the public 
edifices are a cathedral, several churches rich in works of 
art, a museum, and the famous Loggie of Vasari. Arezzo 
is remarkable for the great number of eminent men who 
were born in it—namely, Maecenas, Petrarch, Vasari, Pie¬ 
tro Aretino, Guy d’Arezzo, Redi the physiologist, and Ces- 
alpino. Pop. in 1872, 38,907. Ancient Arretium was cele¬ 
brated for the manufacture of terra-cotta vases. 

Arezzo, d’ (Guy). See Guy d’Arezzo. 

Argae'us, Mount [Turk. Arjish-Daglt], the highest 
mountain of Asia Minor, is in the pashalic of Karamania, 
about 12 miles S. of Kaisariyeh, and is connected with a 
branch of Mount Taurus, it rises 13,100 feet above the 
level of the sea. 

Argali ( Capro'vis ar'gali, the O'vis am'mon of some 

writers), the large wild 
sheep of Central Asia anti 
Siberia. Another variety 
or species is found in 
North America W. of the 
Rocky Mountains [O'vis 
Monta'na). It is some¬ 
times called Big-horn or 
Rocky Mountain sheep, 
and has.enormous horns 
about four feet long and 
from eighteen to twenty 
inches in circumference. 

Argali. It is about four feet high, 

has coarse hair, and moves with great agility. 

Ar'gali (Sir Samuel), born at Bristol, England, in 
1572, was deputy-governor of Virginia (1617-19), and 
was detested by the colonists for his tyranny and rapacity. 
Died in 1639. 

Argand (Aime), a Swiss chemist, born at Geneva about 
1750, is noted as the inventor of the Argand Lamp (which 
see). He lived in England, and produced the model of 
the lamp in 1782. It appears that he derived little profit 
from the invention. Died in 1803. 

Argand Lamp, a lamp invented in 1782 by A. Argand, 
noticed above, was designed for burning oil. He invented 
a wick in the form of a hollow cylinder, through which a 
current of air ascends, so that the supply of oxygen is 
increased. This contrivance prevented the waste of car¬ 
bon, which in the old lamps escaped in the form of smoke, 
and it greatly increased the amount of light. He also 
added the glass chimney, by which a draft is created and 
the flame is rendered more steady. This lamp was pat¬ 
ented in 1787. 

Ar'gelan'der (Friedrich Wilhelm August), a dis¬ 
tinguished German astronomer, born at Meinel March 
22, 1799, was a pupil of 0 Bessel. He became in 1823 director 
of the observatory at Abo, in Finland, and commenced 
observations on the fixed stars which 0 have a perceptible 
proper motion. The observatory of Abo having been 
burned in 1828, another was erected for him at Helsing¬ 
fors. In 1S37 he was appointed professor of astronomy 
at Bonn. He published a celestial atlas entitled “ Uran- 
ometria Nova” (1843), and "Astronomical Observations” 
(1846), in which he gives the positions of 22,000 stars. 
He demonstrated that the solar system has a progressive 
motion in space. 

Argemo'ne, a genus of plants of the natural order 
Papaveracese. The Argernone Mexicana is an annual her¬ 
baceous plant, with yellow flowers and sinuated spiny 
leaves, a native of Mexico and the U. S., now naturalized 
in India, Africa, South America, etc. It has seeds which 
are emetic and purgative, and have been used as a substi¬ 
tute for ipecacuanha. 

Argens, d’ (Jean Baptiste de Boyer), Marquis, a 
French writer, born at Aix, in Provence, June 24, 1704. 
He served in the army in his youth, and gained distinction 
by his "Jewish Letters” (" Lcttres Juives, 6 vols., 1788— 
42), and "Chinese Letters” (6 vols., 1739—42). Theso 
procured for him the favor of the crown prince ot Prussia, 
afterwards Frederick the Great. He went to Berlin, and 
became an associate of that prince, who after his accession 














232 


AKGENSOLA, DE—ARGENTINE KEPUBLIC. 


appointed him director of the Academy of Fine Arts. 
Among his works is “ Histoire de l’Esprit Ilumain,” 14 
vols., 1765-G8. Died at Toulon Jan. 11, 1771. 

Argenso'la, de (Bartolome Leonardo), an eminent 
Spanish poet, born at Barbastro, in Aragon, in 156G. Hav¬ 
ing entered the Church, he became a canon of Saragossa, 
and historiographer of Aragon. He published a number 
of poems and a “ History of the Conquest of the Moluccas ” 
(16091. He and his brother were called the Horaces of Spain. 
Died Feb. 26, 1631. 

Argensola, de (Lupercio Leonardo), a popular poet, 
born at Barbastro in 1565, was a brother of the preceding. 
He was appointed historiographer of Aragon by Philip III., 
and secretary of state by the viceroy of Naples in 1610. 
He produced tragedies, entitled “Filis,” “ Isabela,” and 
“ Alexandraalso lyric poems which were very successful. 
The poems of these two brothers display much similarity. 
Died in 1613. Bouterwek commends his true poetic feeling, 
anti recognizes in his works an imagination more plastic 
than creative. (See Ticknor, “ History of Spanish Litera¬ 
ture ;” N. Antonio, “Biblotheca Hispana Nova.”) 

Ar gensoil, d% a French family which has produced 
many men eminent in letters and in public affairs.— Marc 
Bene de Yoyer d’Argenson (1652-1721) was a prominent 
academician and public officer.—His son Bene Louis, mar¬ 
quis d’Argenson (1694-1757), was a foreign minister and 
an author of distinction.— Marc Pierre, count d’Argen¬ 
son (1696-1764), a brother of the foregoing, was an able 
statesman and a patron of letters. —Marc Antoine Bene 
de Paulmy d’Argenson (1722-87), a son of the marquis 
Bene Louis, was an academician and the collector of a 
famous library.— Marc Bene, born in Paris Sept. 10, 1771, 
served as the adjutant of General La Fayette, and fought 
afterwards for the republic. Throughout his life he was a 
prominent leader of the ultra-republicans. Died Aug. 2,1842. 

Argentan [Lat. Argen'use], a town in the N. W. of 
France, in the department of Orne, on a railway which 
connects Alengon with Caen, 16L miles by rail N. N. W. of 
the former. It is well built, and has a fine Gothic church 
and a college; also manufactures of linen, and lace called 
point <VArgent an. Pop. in 1866, 5401. 

Argeilteuil [Lat. Argento'lium], a town of France, in 
the department of Seine-et-Oise, on the Seine, Ilf miles 
by rail from Paris. Here was a convent to which the cele¬ 
brated IIGloise retired about 1120. It is now in ruins. 
Pop. in 1866, 8176. 

Argenteuil, a county of Canada, in the western part 
of Quebec, and in the district of Terrebonne. The Ottawa 
Biver forms its southern boundary. Area, 850 square 
miles. Much of the soil is excellent. Burr millstone is 
found, and there is extensive water-power. Capital, La- 
chute. Pop. in 1871, 12,806. 

Argen'teus Co'tlex, an old uncial manuscript of the 
Four Gospels, written in the Moeso-Gothic dialect on vel¬ 
lum, is so called because the letters are formed of silver, 
except the initials. It is supposed that it was written in 
the sixth century. It is a copy of the translation made by 
Ulphilas, bishop of the Moeso-Goths, and was found in the 
abbey of Werden, Westphalia, in 1597. 

Ar'gentine ( Scopelus ), a genus of small fishes of the 
family Salmonidm, found in the Mediterranean and the 
Atlantic. They derive their name from the silvery lustre 
of their scales, and are valuable for the nacre which is 
obtained from the outside of their air-bladders. One or 
more species occur in the U. S. waters, but no commercial 
use is made of them. 

Argentine [from the Lat. argen'tum, “ silver”], a 
variety of carbonate of lime, having a silvery-white lustre 
and a slaty or curved lamellar structure. 

Argentine, a post-township of Genesee co., Mich. 
Pop. 1061. 

Argentine Republic [Sp. La Republica Argentina, 
named from the Rio de la Plata, i. e. the “ river of silver,” 
argentum], a South American federal republic, is bounded 
on the N. by Bolivia and Paraguay, on the E. by Brazil, 
Uruguay, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the S. by Patagonia, 
Paraguay, and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the W. by the 
Andes, which separate it from Chili. It extends from lat. 
22° to 41° S., and Ion. 54° to 72° W. The area is estimated 
at 871,000 square miles. The disputes with Bolivia and 
Paraguay concerning the boundary-line are not yet (1873) 
settled. If the claims of the Argentine government should 
ultimately prevail, the area of the republic would be about 
1,000,000 square miles. The population, according to the 
census of 1869, amounted to 1,877,490. The area and popu¬ 
lation of the fourteen spates or provinces into which the 
republic is divided are, according to the latest official re¬ 
ports (see Behm and Wagner, “ Bevolkerung der Erde,” 
Gotha, 1872), as follows : 


Provinces. 

Area in 
sq. miles. 

Pop. in 
1869. 

Capitals. 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

1. Buenos Ayres.. 

2. Santa Fe. 

3. Entre Bios. 

4. Corrien tes. 

5. La Rioja. 

6. Catainarca. 

7. San Juan. 

8. Mendoza. 

9. Cordova. 

10. San Luis. 

11. Santiago. 

12. Tucuman. 

13. Salta. 

14. Jujuy. 

Army in Parag 

Gran Chaco. 

Mission es. 

Pampas Argent 

Patagonia. 

In foreign coui 

82.900 
24,000 

47.900 

70.100 
42,500 
42,500 
39,300 
71,600 
71,600 
23,700 

42.500 

15.900 

59.500 

36.100 
uay. 

inas. 

itries. 

495,107 

89,117 

134,217 

129,023 

48,746 

79,962 

60,319 

65,413 

210,508 

53,294 

132,898 

108,953 

88,933 

40,379 

6,276 

45,291 

3,000 

21,000 

24,000 

41,000 

Buenos Ayres... 

Santa F6. 

Concepcion. 

Corrientes. 

La Bioja. 

Catainarca. 

San Juan. 

Mendoza. 

Cordova. 

San Luis. 

Santiago. 

Tucuman. 

Salta. 

Jujuy. 

177,787 

10,670 

6,513 

11,218 

4,489 

5,718 

8,353 

8,124 

28,523 

3,748 

7,775 

17,438 

11,716 

3,071 


Physical Geography .—The country, which has the form 
of an elongated quadrilateral, can be divided with regard 
to the formation of the ground into four regions: 1st, the 
regions of the Andes, which run along the western bound¬ 
ary; 2d, “the Argentine Mesopotamia,” between the 
Uruguay and the Parana; 3d, the Pampas or southern 
plains; 4th, the northern or interior plains, which extend 
into the Gran Chaco far into Bolivia. The characteristic 
feature of the country, excepting the region of the Andes, 
is the plain. The true Pampas are situated between the 
Bio Negro and the Bio Salado. About the mouth of the 
Bio Negro, beyond Buenos Ayres and some distance up 
the Parana, the ground consists of a fine deposit of sand 
and clay, which have been washed down from the moun¬ 
tains in the course of time. For hundreds of miles S. and 
W. of Buenos Ayres not a stone is to be found. In the 
Pampas the principal vegetation consists of grasses, which 
serve as food for the numerous herds of cattle. In the in¬ 
terior cacti and thorny mimosm are frequent. Timber trees 
are not met with. Towards the N. the vegetation becomes 
extremely varied; along the rivers it becomes luxuriant; 
the trees, however, are not extraordinarily high. Land 
capable of being cultivated is found onty along the rivers. 
The strip of country between the eastern branches of the 
Andes and the Parana is more or less sterile and deserted, 
and even the western states are partly separated from each 
other by deserts. Large tracts in the interior are covered 
by volcanic ashes and pumice-stone. The southern plains 
are broken by several ranges of hills, some of which stretch 
150 miles to the S. and S. W. of Buenos Ayres, and run 
from S. E. to N. W. Their elevation above the plain never 
exceeds 300 feet. Parallel to these are the Ventana Moun¬ 
tains, whose highest point is 3500 feet above the level of 
the plain. These ranges mostly consist of granite, which 
in some parts is covered by quartz. In the lower diluvian 
strata many fossil remains of marine animals occur, which 
are also found occasionally in the mountains at a height of 
14,000 feet. The next higher stratum to the one last men¬ 
tioned is rich in fossil remains of extinct mammals of an 
enormous size, which have a striking resemblance to the 
present mammals of South America and Africa (e. g. the 
large armadillo, the giant sloth, the mastodon, fossil horses). 
The mountains, especially the Aconquija Cordilleras, which 
separate Tucuman from Catainarca, are rich in valuable 
metals, especially gold, silver, and copper. In the Famatina 
range, in the province of Bioja, much iron ore is found. 
In the Gran Chaco it was ascertained by the expedition 
of Peter Cornelius Blyss in 1863 that the ground is covered 
for miles around with iron, which contains about 10 per 
cent, of nickel. A piece of this was brought to the British 
Museum weighing about 1400 pounds. Up to the present 
time, however, the republic imports the iron it uses from 
Europe. In the south-western provinces extensive coal¬ 
fields have been discovered, while sulphur, alum, etc. are 
found in large quantities in the Andes. 

Ri vers, Lakes, and Swamps .—Almost all the rivers which 
come down from the Andes, the southern slope of the cen¬ 
tral Brazilian ranges, and the heights forming the watershed 
of Buenos Ayres, unite to form the Bio de la Plata, which 
has a wider mouth than any other river on the globe. Be¬ 
tween the capes San Antonio and St. Mary it has a width 
of 170 miles; 50 miles farther up-stream, at Montevideo, it 
has narrowed down to 75 miles, and the water becomes 
fresh. At Buenos Ayres, 150 miles farther up, the low 
shores cannot be seen from the middle of the river. The 
current can be noticed as far as 100 to 200 miles out in the 
ocean, although the depth of the river is not very great. 
Above Montevideo, which is the only good port on it, its 
navigable channels are so obstructed by sand-banks that 
vessels of light draught, which go to Buenos Ayres, are 


































































ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 


compelled to anchor from six to nine miles from the city. 
Even small boats have such difficulty in getting ashore that 
the passengers are generally landed by means of wagons 
with very high wheels. The chief branches of which the 
La Plata is formed are the Parana (with its affluent, the 
Paraguay) and Uruguay, which are respectively navigable 
for steamers for 1000 and 250 miles. Many of the eastern 
tributaries, especially the Rio Vermejo and the Rio Salado, 
are navigable for smaller vessels for 400 or 500 miles. The 
smaller tributaries coming from the E. are generally un¬ 
suited to navigation by reason of their strong currents. 
Those coming from the Andes, however, slowly wend their 
way through the endless plains, and are of the greatest im¬ 
portance for commerce. The rivers of the interior which 
do not belong to the system of the La Plata are mostly 
unimportant, as they are lost in swamps or temporary lakes, 
or entirely dry up in summer. These temporary lakes, 
lagoons, and swamps are found in great number, and are 
sometimes of considerable extent. Those to the E. of‘the 
Paraguay and Parana generally contain fresh water, while 
those W. of these rivers are brackish, almost without ex¬ 
ception. Among the former the lake of Ybera in the prov¬ 
ince of Corrientes is the most important. Those to the W. 
of the great rivers usually dry up at the end of the rainy 
season, and leave the ground covered with a crust of saline 
matter several inches in thickness. The salts are of dif¬ 
ferent kinds. In the plain around Fort Melincue, W. S. W. 
of Buenos Ayres, sulphates of magnesia are found which 
yield a profitable article of commerce'. Good cooking-salt 
is found in large quantities S. of Buenos Ayres and in the 
neighborhood of San Luis. 

Climate. —The most prominent characteristic of the cli¬ 
mate of the Argentine Confederation is extreme dryness. 
Although the territory W. of the Parana has plenty of 
rain, still the plains in the interior suffer extremely from 
drought, because the S. W. winds, being stopped by the 
Andes, discharge their rain in Chili, and the eastern equa¬ 
torial winds have already exhausted their rain at the tropic. 
Buenos Ayres and the country immediately surrounding 
are often exposed to warm N. winds, which come down the 
valley of the Parana loaded with vapor. The mean tem¬ 
perature of Buenos Ayres is 04° F.; the mean for the sum¬ 
mer 72°, for the winter 52°. In many places a warm and 
a cool season can be distinguished, the former lasting from 
October to May, the latter from May to September. The 
time of the change from one to the other is the chief rainy 
season. The heavy thunder-storms, sometimes accompanied 
by hail-storms, often produce very sudden changes of tem¬ 
perature. Nevertheless, the climate is very healthy. This 
is partly due to the Pampero, a strong S. W. wind coming 
from the Andes. Also the nights, which are cool through¬ 
out the year, and which tend to make the heat of the day 
less felt, contribute much towards this end. In the plains 
of the interior the hot Zonda, the strong and lasting N. 
wind, is very much dreaded. 

Animal and Plant Life — Products .—With very few ex¬ 
ceptions, the animals of the present day have the same 
characteristics as the gigantic fossils found in the country, 
except that they are considerably smaller. The animal 
peculiar to the plains is the llama. The vicuna, related to 
the llama, is hunted in the W. Of other wild animals are 
found the puma, the tapir, the capibara, and the ounce. 
Among the birds the birds of prey, as the condor and the 
Caracara vulture, are especially numerous. The American 
ostrich and different kinds of humming-birds and parrots 
are also often met with. The vegetation of the plains of 
the La Plata is poor. Even in Entre Rios the lack of wood 
is often seriously felt. To the S. clumps of willows are 
found here and there. But the shores of the Parana are 
covered with beautiful forests, and both towards the tropics 
and the Cordilleras the vegetation becomes varied and lux¬ 
uriant. The most characteristic plants of the Gran Chaco, 
as well as of the Pampas, arc mimosas and cacti, and not 
until the foot of the Cordilleras in Salta and Mendoza is 
reached are palms and the other ornaments of tropical for¬ 
ests met with. The nativo plants and animals of these 
regions are, however, mostly superseded by naturalized 
species. The apple tree, which at the jiresent day forms 
largo woods in the S. of Chili and towards the sources of 
the Rio Negro, has been transplanted by the Indians far¬ 
ther N. on the eastern slopes of the Cordilleras. The peach 
tree is largely cultivated on the islands at the mouth of the 
Parana. A wild species of artichoke and impenetrable 
thickets of thistles cover the ground for miles to the W. and 
N. W. of Buenos Ayres. Wine is extensively grown in 
Mendoza and La Rioja. 

Agriculture, Industry , Trade. —Only during the last fif¬ 
teen years has agriculture been generally introduced, es¬ 
pecially in the coast provinces. In the region of the Andes, 
where the ground is more easily irrigated, considerable 
wheat, wine, and fruits of all kinds have been produced for 


233 


a long time. At present, wheat, corn, oats, and other grain 
and vegetables are cultivated on a large scale. Sugar-cane, 
tobacco (especially in Corrientes and Tucuman, but also 
in Salta and Catamarca), cotton, peanuts, and fiax are also 
cultivated, although these plants have only been lately in¬ 
troduced. Labor, instruction, and inclination are sadly 
wanting. Even now the raising of cattle, the old national 
occupation, is much more important than agriculture. The 
natives had at the time of the discovery no other domestic 
animal than the llama or guanaco. Mendoza introduced 
the horse in 1536 ; in 1550 goats and sheep were brought 
from Peru; in 1553 the ox was brought from the coast of 
Brazil. From these importations have descended the mil¬ 
lions of cattle which now roam over the plains of the re¬ 
public. The breeds are almost all good. The sheep have 
been greatly improved. In recent times the breeders of 
cattle have suffered considerable losses, as, in consequence 
of the high tariff of the U. S., they have no market for 
their products. Wild cattle are no longer to be found. All 
are enclosed, though often in very large ranges. The large 
estancias of former times are becoming a thing of the past, 
and they are cut up more and more into smaller estates. 
While the price of land has risen considerably (in some 
places it has doubled within twenty years), the increase of 
the cattle has been so large that the sujiply exceeds the de¬ 
mand largely, and manure is made of the unsold meat. 
About 3,000,000 hides of cattle arc exported annually, and 
in the large slaughter-houses ( saladeros) 60,000 cattle are 
killed annually. The herds of horses seem to diminish 
gradually, but are still so large that 250,000 horse-hides 
are annually exported. The Pampa horse is small and of 
coarse build, but excels in fleetness and endurance. It 
roams about in herds of 6000 or 8000, and is caught by the 
Gauchos with the lasso or the bolas. Mules are raised 
in large numbers, and are exported to Peru and other 
places. General industry and manufactures are unimport¬ 
ant in the La Plata states. The manufacture and export 
of “ Liebig’s extract of meat” is extensive. Besides this, 
tanning and the soap manufacture arc carried on on a large 
scale. Valuable embroidered cloths, wearing apparel, gor¬ 
geous blankets, and ponchos are made of the finest wool. 
The Indian women of the S. also make wonderfully fine 
quilted ponchos, belts, horse-blankets, and harness. A 
laborer is paid from $1 to $3 in gold per day. 

The commerce with the interior is unimportant; that 
with Chili and Bolivia is of more consequence. To these 
countries oxen, mules, and asses are exported in large num¬ 
bers. The commerce by sea is about twenty times as large 
as that by land. It is limited almost entirely to Buenos 
Ayres and Rosario. The river-ports, Santa Fe, Parana, 
Corrientes, Gualeguay, Concepcion, and Concordia, supply 
themselves from Buenos Ayres. The inland trade is almost 
entirely carried on by caravans of thirty or forty wagons. 
The articles of export are, besides those obtained from the 
herds of cattle, horses, and sheep, chiefly ostrich feathers, 
Patagonian and artificial guano, furs, honey, copper, gold 
and silver bars. The total exports amounted in 1870 to 
$23,320,000, and the imports to $39,400,000. In 1870, 1154 
vessels, of 388,796 tons, entered, and 1074 vessels, of 339,759 
tons, cleared from the port of Buenos Ayres. About one- 
half of the exports are hides and three-eighths wool. 

Roads are sadly wanting throughout the entire country. 
Diligences run from Rosario to Mendoza,, San Juan, Cor¬ 
dova, Rioja, Catamarca, Santiago del Estero, Tucuman, 
Salta, and Jujuy. Couriers keep up the communication 
between the 125 post-offices. In 1865, 1,167,611 letters 
were transmitted. According to the president’s message 
in 1871, 605 miles of railroad were in operation, 139 miles 
in construction, and 2248 miles were projected. Accord¬ 
ing to the same message, 1461 miles of telegraph were in 
operation, and 2414 miles were projected in 1871. A sub¬ 
marine telegraph from Buenos Ayres to Montevideo has 
been in operation since 1866. In the same year the Amer¬ 
icans, Hopkins & Cary, received a charter to construct a 
telegraph from Buenos Ayres to Chili. 

Inhabitants .—The native tribes are divided into three 
different groups : 1st, the Araucanians, who roam as far N. 
as the Rio Salado; 2d, the Quicliuas, who were formerly sub¬ 
ject to the incas of Peru, and live E. of the Cordilleras as 
far as Santiago ; 3d, the Guaranis, who formerly ruled from 
the Gulf of Mexico to the Rio de la Plata, and from the 
Atlantic to the Andes. These races arc uncivilized to the 
present day. But the most of the Guaranis, Quicliuas, and 
some of the Araucanians, have been blended together with 
the Spaniards, and this mixed race constitutes the larger 
part of the population of the republic. The number of the 
foreign-born population is very large, and is increasing 
rapidly. The immigration from 1858 to 1S62 amounted to 
28,066, and from 1863 to 1867 to 65,599 souls. The follow¬ 
ing table presents the immigration of each year, ariangcd 
according to nationalities: 















234 


ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 



1863. 

1864. 

1865. 

1866. 

1867. 

Italians. 

Frenchmen. 

Spaniards. 

British. 

Swiss. 

Germans. 

Other nations... 

4,494 

2,334 

1,377 

883 

567 

527 

216 

5,435 

2,736 

1,586 

1,015 

329 

289 

192 

5,001 

2,282 

1,701 

1,583 

502 

363 

335 

4,245(7) 

2,870 

954(7) 

1,370 

958 

274 

3,025(7) 

8,455 

3.671 
1,258 

1.672 
933 
436 
597 

Total . 

10,398 

11,582 

11,767 

13,696 

17,022 


In 1868 the number of immigrants amounted to 29,384, in 
1869 to 37,934, in 1870 to 39,667, and in 1871 to 31,614. T. 
C. Ford says in his report of 1867 that there were ten colo¬ 
nies in the republic, each having on an average 7000 or 
8000 inhabitants, which were all Europeans. In recent 
times much has been done to promote immigration. 

Manners and Customs.— In Buenos Ayres, where the for¬ 
eign population gains the ascendency more and more, 
European dress and manners have been rapidly naturalized. 
The lower classes, which are chiefly mestizoes and half- 
breeds, combine the inclination of ,the higher classes for 
gaming and a dissolute life with the plain and rough mode 
of living of the Gaucho of the Pampas. The G-aucho 
wears a jacket of coarse cloth or sheepskin, and pantaloons 
of the same stuff, which are open from the knee down. His 
poncho is a square piece of cloth with an opening in the 
middle for the head. His ornaments consist of spurs with 
large silver rowels, and a large knife, with the handle inlaid 
with silver, which is carried in the belt. The women are 
dressed almost exactly like the men, only they have the 
neck and arms bare. The rancho or hut of the Gaucho 
consists of a trellis-work of brushwood, which is covered 
with mud. The roof is covered with straw or cow-hides, 
and in the place of a door is a horse-hide. The food of the 
Gaucho consists almost entirely of meat and water. From 
1850 to 1860 there was one marriage for every 140 inhabit¬ 
ants, 1 birth for every 22,1 death for every 44, and 5 children 
for every family; one-fifth of all the children are illegiti¬ 
mate. The mean length of life in the country and the small¬ 
er cities is 40 years. Since 1780 the population has almost 
quadrupled itself. The predominating religion is the Ro¬ 
man Catholic ; Protestants are only found among the immi¬ 
grants. Under the archbishop of Buenos Ayres are the 
bishop of the Littoral (with his seat in Parana), of Cor¬ 
dova, of Cuyo (San Juan), and of Salta. There are very few 
monasteries, but a large number of nunneries. There are 
missions on the Indian frontier, where several hundred 
have been converted. Popular education until recently 
has been very poor. Only 28,000 persons can write. But 
since the accession of President Sarmiento much has been 
done to improve the education of the people. Universities 
have been established at Buenos Ayres and Cordova, while 
colleges exist in those two cities and in Concepcion, and 
several others are in course of erection. Of the forty-three 
printing establishments, Buenos Ayres has sixteen, and of 
the thirty-seven newspapers published in the republic, it 
has sixteen. In 1869, Congress passed a law that the new 
civil code ( codigo civil ) compiled by Dr. Sarsfield, at that 
time minister of the interior, was to be introduced through¬ 
out the whole republic on Jan. 1, 1871. 

Constitution .—The constitution was adopted May 11, 
1853, and was revised in 1860 and 1862. At the head of 
the republic is a president, elected for a term of six years 
by 133 representatives of the provinces. The congress 
consists of a house of representatives with fifty-four mem¬ 
bers, and a senate with two members for each state. In 
1862, Congress transferred the scat of government to 
Buenos Ayres, and introduced several clauses into the con¬ 
stitution with regard to the relations of the city to the con¬ 
federation. The jjrovince of Buenos Ayres elects its own 
governor, but the city is under the direct jurisdiction of the 
president and congress. The judiciary is entirely inde¬ 
pendent. There is a supreme court and tribunals in every 
state. The freedom of the press, of religion, of association, 
of education, and free disposition of property, as well as 
equality before the law, is guaranteed to everybody. 

Army, Navy, and Finances .—The army consists, exclusive 
of the militia and national guard of Buenos Ayres, of 7414 
men, inclusive of 29 generals, 273 commandants, and 632 
other officers. The republic possesses seven men-of-war, 
one of which is armed with twelve guns. The public debt 
in 1871 amounted to 76,576,385 pesos fuertes (1 peso fuerte = 
$1.01). The income in 1870 amounted to 14,833,904, the 
expenditures to 22,199,445, leaving a deficit of 7,365,544 
pesos. Each province has its own budget. 

History .—The La Plata was discovered by Juan Diaz de 
Solis in 1516, who took possession of the country for the 
crown of Spain. Buenos Ayres was founded by Don Pedro 
de Mendoza, who became governor in 1535. The city was 
not, however, firmly established against the attacks of the 
Indians until after its third rebuilding in 1580, and after 


Santa Fe, Mendoza, and other cities in the interior had 
been founded. The government of the countries of the La 
Plata was subject to the viceroy of Peru until 1778, in 
which year a viceroyalty was formed of the provinces of Rio 
de la Plata, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Bolivia, with Buents 
Ayres as its capital. After 1806-07, Buenos Ayres and Mon¬ 
tevideo were for a short time in the hands of the British, 
who, however, were not able to hold them. Soon after 
liberal ideas began to gain ground. The viceroy was ex¬ 
pelled, and on May 25, 1810, a junta gubernativa was in¬ 
stalled. Cordova, Paraguay, and Uruguay, however, did 
not recognize this junta, and a long succession of civil wars 
ensued. Soon after the districts in the interior also joined 
the Confederation. In 1813 a constituent assembly met in 
Buenos Ayres, the Spanish flag was given up, and the re¬ 
public issued its own coin. In the previous year Monte¬ 
video, which had remained longest connected with Spain, 
had. been taken. In 1816 the representatives of all the 
provinces assembled in congress at Tucuman, declared 
the La Plata states independent, and appointed General 
Pueyrredon dictator of the republic. The Spanish troops 
were severely defeated at Chacabuco in 1817, and at Maypu 
in 1818. The last and decisive victory was gained in 1821. 
In the mean while the republic was the scene of serious 
encounters between several ambitious leaders. In 1825 the 
“ Unitarians ” (who favored a strong central government) 
succeeded in x'estoring unity and established a new consti¬ 
tution. But Rivadiva was their only president. Juan 
Manuel de Rosas, the leader of the Gauchos, in connection 
with other malcontents, forced him to resign, and caused 
Dorrego to be elected governor of Buenos Ayres. After a 
counter-revolution under Lavalle, which was lor a time 
successful, Rosas was elected governor in 1826, in which 
position he remained for six years. In 1835 he declined a 
re-election, but accepted the position of dictator of the re¬ 
public with unlimited powers, which he held until 1852. 
During this entire period Congress did not assemble. The 
civil wars nevertheless continued uninterruptedly. The 
independence of Uruguay, which had assumed the title of 
“ Republica Oriental del Uruguay,” had been recognized in 
1828. But Rosas did not relinquish his plans. He assisted 
Governor Oribe, while France took sides with his rival, 
Rivera. Peace was concluded in 1840, but in 1845 new 
difficulties arose, which led to an armed intervention of 
France and England. They blockaded Buenos Ayres and 
occupied the island Martin Garcia, but were compelled to 
recall their fleets the next year. The provinces of Cor- 
rientes and Entrc Rios seceded from Rosas soon after, and 
on Feb. 3, 1852, he was defeated by the united forces of 
Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Urquiza, the head of the 
opposition, in the battle of Monte Caseras, in consequence 
of which he was compelled to fly to England. After a short 
administration of Vincente Lopez, Urquiza declared him¬ 
self president, and recognized on June 23, 1852, the inde¬ 
pendence of Paraguay. In September another revolution 
took place, and Buenos Ayres resolved to secede from the 
Confederation. In the mean Avhile, Congress had adopted 
a new constitution (May, 1853), and Urquiza was elected 
president. Buenos Ayres remained independent, but con¬ 
sented to the conclusion of two treaties in Dec., 1854, and 
Jan., 1855. The attempts at a reunion were not suspended, 
but several difficulties caused the suspension of the treaties. 
A war followed, and Buenos Ayres was defeated. Urquiza 
gained a victory at Cepada on Oct. 23, 1859, and by the 
treaty of peace of San Jose de Flores of Nov. 10, 1859, and 
the union of Parana, Buenos Ayres again entered the Con¬ 
federation. In 1861 new difficulties arose on account of 
taxation, and General Mitre completely defeated the fed¬ 
eral troops on the Pavon (a small tributary of the Parana) 
on Sept. 17, 1861. The president, Santiago Derqui, resigned 
in consequence of this, and General Mitre was appointed 
president pro tern., with the direction to call a congress on 
May 25, 1862, at Buenos Ayres. Mitre was elected presi¬ 
dent of the reunited Confederation on Dec. 14 of the same 
year. In 1866 great dissatisfaction arose in several prov¬ 
inces in consequence of the war with Paraguay (which 
see). In several places, as Mendoza and Catamarca, seri¬ 
ous disturbances arose, which were secretly encouraged by 
Peru, Chili, and Bolivia. In 1867 the disturbance, under 
the command of Videla, began to assume serious proportions 
in Mendoza, and even extended to La Rioja and San Juan. 
General Pannero, although not till Mitre had joined him 
with 4000 men, completely defeated the insurgents, and 
triumphantly entered Mendoza on May 14. Both houses 
of Congress passed a resolution to transfer the seat of gov¬ 
ernment to Rosario, which was, however, vetoed by the 
president. In 1868, Sarmiento was elected president for a 
term of six years. Since that time the country' has been 
rapidly increasing in prosperity. In 1870 a rebellion broke 
out in Entre Rios, at the head of which was General Lopez 
Jordan, a son-in-law of Urquiza. This old patriot was 








































ARGENTON-SUR-CREUSE—ARGONAUT. 


235 


murdered by the rebels in his palace at San Jos6. The re¬ 
bellion, although rapidly gaining, was opposed by almost 
all the other states. On Sept. 23, Jordan was completely 
routed at Santa Rosa, and lost all his infantry and artil¬ 
lery. In April, 1871, he was again completely defeated, 
and the rebellion was suppressed. In Mar. and April, 
1871, the city of Buenos Ayres was visited by the yellow 
fever, and suffered terribly from its ravages. The citizens 
and the government did their utmost to prevent its spread, 
but still the total of its victims was found to be 13,403—a 
. figure which, although large, was still considerably below the 
estimate made by the press. In Feb., 1872, a revolution 
broke out in Corrientes, which, however, was soon ended. 
In Entre Rios, Lopez still continued to agitate in secret, 
but Avithout success. On Jan. 1, 1872, a band of Gauchos, 
under a Bolivian fanatic calling himself a Dios medico (God 
physician), entered the town of Tandil, and crying “ Death 
to the Masons and Gringos \” massacred thirty-five persons. 
They were afterwards captured ; fourteen Avere put to death, 
fifteen imprisoned for fifteen years, and the Dios medico 
was shot by the populace. 

In April, 1872, Gail Jordan was reported to be on the 
frontier of Brazil, at the head of 2000, intending to revive 
the dream of Artigas and Urquiza concerning the estab¬ 
lishment of an independent republic, to consist of the Ar¬ 
gentine provinces of Corrientes and Entre Rios and the 
republic of Uruguay. At the beginning of the year the 
border provinces had to suffer from a new invasion of the 
Araucanian Indians under their chief Calfucura, who are 
reported to hold more than 3000 Argentine citizens as 
prisoners. In May, 1873, the province of Entre Rios Avas 
once more invaded by Lopez Jordan, who captured several 
towns and threatened the two neighboring littoral prov¬ 
inces. The government declared Entre Rios in a state of 
siege, and at once placed a number of the national guard 
in the field; at the same time President Sarmiento sent a 
special message to Congress requesting the adoption of 
vigorous measures for the suppression of the invasion. 

Literature. —Compare, besides the Avorks of Nunez, King, 
Mansfield, and Page, Andree, “Buenos Ayres und die 
Argentinischen Provinzen” (1856); Mannequin, “ Les 
provinces argentines et Buenos Ayres ” (1856); De Mussy, 
“Description geographique et statistique de la Confedera¬ 
tion Argentine” (1861 and 1864); Burmeister, “ Reise 
durch die La Plata Staaten ” (1861); Ford, “La Repub- 
lique Argentine ” (1867); Trelles, “ Registro Estadistico ” 
(1867).; L. Beck Bernhard, “ Le Rio Parana, etc.” (1865); 
Mouchez, “Nouveau Manuel de la navigation dans le Rio 
de la Plata, etc.” (1865); Schnepp, “Mission Scientifique 
dans l’Amerique du Sud” (1864); the “Annales del 
Museo publico de Buenos Ayres,” published yearly by Bur¬ 
meister since 1864; Dominguez, “ History of the Argen¬ 
tine Republic,” translated by G. Williams (1866); M. G. 
and E. T. Muehall, “Handbook of the River Platte” 
(1869); Wappaus, “ Argentinische Republik,” in Stein 
and Hdrschelmann’s “Ilandbuch der Geographie und 
Statistik” (7th ed. 1863-70). A. J. Schem. 

Argenton-sur-Creuse (anc. Argentom' agus), a 
tOAvn of France, in the department of Indre, on the river 
Creuse, 19 miles by rail S. W. of Chateauroux. It has 
ruins of an old castle, and manufactures of woollen 
cloth. Pop. in 1866, 5219. 

Ar'ges, a genus of small fishes of the family Silu- 
ridse, which are often thrown out by some of the SouGi 
American volcanoes Avith torrents of hot and muddy 
Avater. This remarkable fact Avas noticed and published 
by Humboldt, who described one species, now called 
Arges cyclopum. They are ejected near Quito in such 
quantities that fevers are caused by their putrefaction. 

It is supposed that they come from lakes in the caveri s 
of the mountains. The craters from which they arc 
ejected are 16,000 feet or more above the level of the 
sea. 

Ar'gil [from the Lat. argil'la, “ivhite clay”], a 
term sometimes applied to clay or potter’s clay, and, 
in a technical sense, to pure clay or to alumina. 

Argilla'ceous [from the Lat. argil'la, “clay”], 
clayey; having the properties of clay, or partly composed 
of clay. Limestones are called argillaceous if they contain 
as much as 10 per cent, of clay. A conchoidal fracture 
usually indicates the presence of clay in a mineral. 

Argillaceous Rocks. This term is generally applied 
to rocks or strata of which clay is the principal ingre¬ 
dient. Pure clay, called kaolin or porcelain clay, is a 
hydrated silicate of alumina, and is derived from the 
decomposition of felspar. Common clay contains also 
sand and other impurities. Among the argillaceous rocks 
are shales and slates. Clay which has been indurated and 
metamorphosed is called clay-slate. Plastic clays fit for 
pottery occur in the tertiary formation aud more recent 


Ar'gives, or 
of Argolis 


deposits. The argillaceous rocks may be distinguished by 
the odor which they emit Avhen a person breathes on them. 

Argi'vi, the inhabitants of Argos and 
a state of ancient Greece. During the Trojan 
war Agamemnon was king of the Argives, who were then 
the most powerful or prominent among the Greek tribes. 
The name Argives was used by Homer and other ancient 
authors as a generic appellation for all the Greeks. 

Ar'go, an extensive southern constellation, so called 
from the mythical ship of the Argonautse. It is usually 
divided into four: Argo, Argo in Carina (in the keel), 
Argo in Puppi (in the stern), and Argo in Velis (in the 
sails). Canopus, a star of the first magnitude, belongs to 
this constellation, part of Avhich is invisible in our latitude. 

Ar'gol, crude tartar, a salt which is deposited by Avine 
in crystalline crusts on the interior of vats, barrels, and 
bottles. Being less soluble in alcohol than in ivater, tho 
increasing proportion of alcohol during fermentation causes 
it to separate. It consists chiefly of potassic bitartrate, 
KIIC 4 II 4 O 6 , but contains also variable quantities of calcic 
tartrate, coloring and mucilaginous matter. It is purified 
by solution in hot water, clarification by the addition of 
clay, and recrystallization. By repeating the process it 
becomes white, and is then sold under the name of cream 
of tartar, and extensively used in connection with sodic 
bicarbonate for raising bread. Cream of tartar is shame¬ 
fully adulterated with gypsum, flour, etc., many samples 
containing tAvo-thirds or more of such fraudulent admix¬ 
tures. Argol is used for the preparation of tartaric acid, 
Rochelle salt, and potassic carbonate, the latter being often 
called salt of tartar. 

Ar'golis [’ApyoAG], a state of ancient Greece, in the 
N. E. part of the Peloponnesus (Morea), bordering on the 
sea. It consists partly of a peninsula between the Saron- 
icus Sinus (Gulf of iEgina) and the Argolicus Sinus (Gulf 
of Nauplia). It was bounded on the S. by Laconia and on 
the W. by Arcadia. The surface is diversified by moun¬ 
tains which are about 5000 feet high. Near the sea is the 
large plain of Argos, which is rendered unhealthy by 
marshes. Argolis was one of the most famous and power¬ 
ful states of ancient Greece, and was the scene of many 
memorable events or myths in the heroic ages. Here Her¬ 
cules was born, and Pelops and the Atridrn reigned. The 
inhabitants were called Argives (Argivi). The chief towns 
were Argos, Mycenae, Epidaurus, Hermione, Sicyon, and 
Troezene, each of which Avas a separate kingdom. The 
Argives Avere skilful musicians, and cultivated the fine ar’ s 
Avith success, but were never distinguished as poets or 
philosophers. 

Argolis and Corinth is the name of a nomarchy of 
modern Greece. Area, 1447 square miles. Pop. in 1870, 
127,820. Capital, Nauplia. 

Ar'gonaut ( Argonau'ta ), a genus of mollusks of the 



Argonaut within its shell. 


class Cephalopoda, is commonly called “paper nautilus.” 
The latter name is derived from the fragile nature of the 
boat-like shell in which the argonaut floats on the surface 
of tranquil seas. The shell is not chambered like that of 
the true nautilus, but has one spiral caiity, into which the 
animal can retire and be completely hidden. There is no 
muscular attachment of this animal to the shell, which is 
said to be peculiar to the female, who uses it for incubation 
as a nest. Several species are knoAvn. They have eight 
arms, two of which are expanded into broad membrana¬ 
ceous disks, which ivere formerly believed to be sails, and 
the other arms were regarded as oars; but, though the 
fable is perpetuated by the poets, it has long been knoAvn 






















236 ARGONAUTS—ARGYLE. 


that the animal really propels itself by ejecting water from 
its funnel. When it desires, it folds its arms, retires with¬ 
in its shell and sinks to the bottom. 

Argonau'tne [Gr. ’ \pyovavTou, i. e. “the sailors of the 
Argo”], in English Ar'gonauts, the famous Greek heroes 
who, according to tradition, lived before the Trojan war, 
and acquired celebrity by an adventurous navigation of 
unknown seas. This is the most ancient voyage of dis¬ 
covery mentioned by classic poets or historians. They 
derived their name from the ship Argo, in which, under 
the command of Jason, they performed the expedition to 
Colchis, on the Euxine, in order to recover the Golden 
Fleece, which was guarded by a sleepless dragon. Among 
the Argonauts were Hercules, Theseus, Castor, Pollux, and 
Orpheus. In the course of the voyage they landed at sev¬ 
eral points and passed through many perilous adventures. 
Among the obstacles which they encountered were the en¬ 
mity and treachery of iEetes, king of Colchis, but they were 
aided by his daughter Medea, a powerful sorceress, and 
finally carried oft' the Golden Fleece. 

Ar' gos [’Apyo?], a capital city of ancient Greece, situ¬ 
ated in Argolis, about 3 miles from the Argolicm Sinus, or 
Gulf of Nauplia. It was considered the oldest city of 
Greece, and was supposed to have been founded by Inachus, 
the father of Io, about 1500 B. C. It was a famous city in 
the heroic age, and was the residence of Pelops and Aga¬ 
memnon. Argos was the head of a league of Doric cities 
before Sparta acquired the supremacy in the Peloponnesus. 
Its site is occupied by a modern town of the same name, 
C miles N. N. W. of Nauplia. Pop. about 10,000. Here 
are remains of ancient cyclopean structures. 

Ar gos, a post-village of Marshall co., Ind. 

Argos'toli, a seaport-town of Greece, the capital of 
Cephalonia, one of the Ionian Islands, is on the S. W. 
coast. It has a good haven. Pop. 8000. 

Argot, a word of uncertain derivation, applied in 
France to a peculiar language or gibberish invented for 
purposes of concealment by those whose pursuits make 
them dread the arm of the law. In all the countries of 
Europe a language of this kind prevails, and has prevailed 
perhaps to some extent from immemorial time. In Eng¬ 
land it is called “thieves’ Latin,” “St. Giles’s Greek,” 
“peddler’s French,” “flash,” and other names; in Italian, 
“ zergo ” (or “ gergo ”) and “furbesco” (from furbo, a 
“rogue”); in Spanish, “ Germaniain German, “roth- 
welsch” (or “ rothwalsch ”). An able French writer, M. 
Nodier, remarks that “Argot, a language invented by 
thieves, often sparkles with imagination and wit.” The 
following examples may serve to illustrate the truth of the 
foregoing remark : Apotre (“ apostle ”) applied to the fin¬ 
gers, because they are “ sent forth.” Sans feuille (“ without 
leaf ”), the “ leafless” tree—that is, the “gallows.” Epnuser 
la veuve (to “marry the widow”), to “ be hung;” implying 
that those who had previously been joined in the same 
marriage were deceased. Aspic (an “asp,” or poisonous 
serpent), a “slanderer.” Sancho Panza, “justice of the 
peace,” in allusion to Sancho Panza having been under 
Don Quixote magistrate of the Isle of Barataria. Sanglier 
(a “boar,”an animal having long teeth), applied to priests, 
in allusion to their frequent fasting; the phrase “having 
long teeth” was equivalent to “being very hungry.” Some¬ 
times the principle on which the word (in argot) is formed 
is a mere resemblance of sound: thus, arsenic is used for 
“arsenal.” In a somewhat similar manner solir is used for 
ventre (“ belly”), because sollir, “to sell,” in argot signifies 
the same as vendre, which resembles ventre in sound. Con¬ 
siderable attention has of late years been paid to the study 
of argot. Francisque Michel has written a large volume 
on argot (Paris, 1856), which is said to be by far the most 
complete work on the subject. Several distinguished nov¬ 
elists, including Bulwer, Dickens, and Victor Hugo, have 
introduced frequent specimens of this language into their 
works; it may suffice to refer the reader to “ Pelham,” 
“ Paul Clifford,” “Oliver Twist,” and “ Les Miserables.” 

Argout, il’ (Antoine Maurice Apollinaire), Count, 
born in Isere in 1782. He became prefect of Gard in 1817, 
and a peer of France in 1819. In July, 1830, during the 
revolution, he negotiated between the popular party and 
the king, from whom he obtained concessions, but it was 
then too late. He was appointed minister of commerce in 
1831, minister of the interior in 1833, and governor of the 
Bank of France in 1834. He retained that office many 
years. Died in 1858. 

Argue'lles (Augustin), a liberal Spanish statesman, 
born in the Asturias in 1775. He was elected to the Cortes, 
and Avas a member of the committee which produced the 
liberal constitution of 1812. He gained distinction as an 
orator, and became very popular with the liberal party. 
On the restoration of Ferdinand VII., in 1814, he was im¬ 


prisoned for several years, but was released by the revolu¬ 
tion of 1820. He was minister of the interior for several 
months in that year, and was an exile from 1823 to 18.^2. 
After that date he was a leader of the moderate party in 
the Cortes, and in 1841 was appointed tutor to the young 
queen Isabel. Died in 1844. (See Evaristo San Miguel, 
“ Vida de D. A. Arguelles,” 1850.) 

Ar'gument [Lat. argumen'turn, from ar'guo, to “make 
clear”], a reason offered for or against a proposition, 
opinion, etc.; a series of reasonings; a debate or disputa¬ 
tion. In logic, an expression in which, from something 
laid down as granted (?. e. the premises), something else 
(i. e. the conclusion) is to be deduced. “Socrates,” says 
Addison, “ introduced a catechetical method of arguing. 
He would ask his adversary question upon question, until 
he had convinced him out of his own mouth that his 
opinions were wrong. . . . Aristotle changed this method 

of attack, and invented a great variety of little weapons 
called syllogisms. As in the Socratic way of dispute you 
agree to everything which your opponent advances, in the 
Aristotelic you are still denying and contradicting some 
part or other of what he says. Socrates conquers you by 
stratagem, Aristotle by force. . . . When our universities 
found there was no end of wrangling this way, they invent¬ 
ed a kind of argument which is not reducible to any mode 
or figure in Aristotle. It was called the argumenturn basi- 
linum (others write it bacilinurn or baculinum), which is 
pretty well expressed in our English word club-law. V hen 
they were not able to confute their antagonist, they knock¬ 
ed him down.” ( Spectator , No. 239.) In the tables used in 
the exact sciences, the term argument signifies the leading 
numbers, or quantities, arranged in order at the top or sides 
to guide to the tabular number sought. 

Argumen'tum ad Ilom'inem (?. e. an “argument 
[applied] to [the particular] man ” whom you are address¬ 
ing), an argument derived from the principles or conduct 
of an antagonist, or an appeal to the prepossessions or 
prejudices of a person to whom the argument is addressed. 

Ar'giis [Gr. ’Apyos], a fabulous personage who, accord¬ 
ing to an ancient Greek legend, had a hundred eyes, some 
of which were always awake. Having been employed by 
Juno to guard the cow into which Io was transformed, he 
was killed by Mercury. Juno is said to have transferred 
his eyes to the tail of her favorite bird, the peacock. An¬ 
other mythical Argus was king of Argos, and a son of Ju¬ 
piter and Niobe. 

Argus [named in allusion to the Argus of the Greek 
mythology, having a hundred eyes; for a more particular 
explanation see below], a genus of gallinaceous birds re¬ 
markable for rich and brilliant plumage. The only known 
species is the Argus giganteus, formerly called Phasianus 
Argus, and now commonly called argus pheasant. It is a 
native of Sumatra and other parts of the East Indies, and 
is about equal in size to a common barndoor fowl. Two of 
the tail-feathers of the male are about four feet long. The 
name argus is given in reference to the beautiful circular, 
eye-like markings which adorn the plumage of the male, 
especially on the secondaries of the wings. 

Argyle, ar-gil', a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. 
It has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 307. 

Argyle, a township of Sanilac co., Mich. Pop. 151. 

Argyle, a post-village and township of Washington co., 
N. Y., 46 miles N. N. E. of Albany. It is the seat of an 
academy. The township contains beautiful lakes and a 
mineral spring. Pop. of village, 351; of township, 2850. 

Argyle, a post-township of La Fayette co., Wis. Pop. 
1634. 

Argyle, or Argyll, Dukes of, marquesses of Lome and 
Kintyre, earls of Campbell and Cowal, viscounts of Lochow 
and Glenilla, barons of Inverary, Mull, Morven, and Tiry 
(1701), earls of Argyll (1457), barons Campbell (1445), 
barons of Lome (1470, in Scotland), Lords Sundridge and 
Hamilton (1766, in Great Britain). 

Argyle (Archibald Campbell), Marquis of, a Scot¬ 
tish peer, born in 1598, was a son of the seventh earl of Ar¬ 
gyle. In the civil war he fought against Charles I., and 
was a leader of the Scottish Covenanters. He was defeated 
in battle by Montrose in 1644. Having become an adher¬ 
ent of Charles II., he took arms for him against Cromwell 
in 1651. After the restoration of 1660 he was convicted of 
submission to the usurpation of Cromwell, and was behead¬ 
ed May 27, 1661. 

Argyle (Archibald Campbell), ninth earl of, was 
the eldest son of the preceding, lie fought for Charles II. 
at Dunbar in 1650. The estate of his father was restored 
to him, Avith the title of earl, in 1663. When he took the 
test-oath which was exacted in 1681, he added the phrase, 
“ So far as is consistent Avith the Protestant faith.” For 

















ARGYLE—ARION. 237 


this offence he was condemned to death, but he fled to Hol¬ 
land. He returned with a small body of armed men, was 
captured, and executed June 30, 1685. 

Argyle, or Argyll' (George Douglas Campbell), the 
ninth duke op, born April 30,1823, succeeded his father, the 
seventh duke, in 1847, before which he was styled the mar¬ 
quis of Lome. He published in 1848 “ Presbytery Exam¬ 
ined,” in which he defends the Presbyterian system against 
prelacy. Having entered the House of Lords, he supported 
the liberal party, and distinguished himself by his orator¬ 
ical ability and soundness of judgment. He became lord 
privy seal in 1852, and postmaster-general in 1855. When 
the Tories obtained power in 1858, he resigned office, but 
he was reappointed postmaster-general in 1860. In 1866 
he published a philosophical work called “The Reign of 
Law,” one of the ablest of recent works advocating a the- 
istic view of creation. He has also published “ Primitive 
Man” (1869) and other works. He resigned with his col¬ 
leagues in June, 1866, and was appointed secretary for 
India in Dec., 1868. He married Elizabeth Gower, daugh¬ 
ter of the late and sister of the present duke of Sutherland. 
His son, the marquis of Lome, married H. R. H. the prin¬ 
cess Louise, daughter of Queen Victoria. 

Argyle'shire, a large county of Scotland, bordering 
on the Atlantic Ocean. It is bounded on the N. by Inver¬ 
ness-shire, on the E. by Perthshire and Dumbarton, on the 
S. and W. by the sea. It includes the islands of Mull, 
Islay, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Iona, Lismore, Colonsay, etc. 
Area, 3255 square miles. The surface is rugged and moun¬ 
tainous, and presents some of the grandest and most pic¬ 
turesque scenery in Scotland. The highest peaks are Bed- 
anambran, 3760 feet, and Ben Cruachan, 3668 feet. The 
rocks which predominate here are granite, mica-slate, trap, 
limestone, and quartz. Long arms of the sea, called Loch 
Linnhe and Loch Fyne, extend into this county, which 
also contains Loch Awe, a fresh-water lake. The chief 
occupation of the farmers is the raising of cattle and sheep. 
The land is owned by a few proprietors, among whom are 
the duke of Argyle and the marquis of Breadalbane. Inve¬ 
rary and Campbellton are the chief towns. P. in 1871, 75,635. 

Ar'gyro-Cas'tro (modern Gr. Arguron-Kastron; 
Turk. Ergree-Kastree), a town of Albania, on the river 
Deropuli, 50 miles N. W. of Ysinina. It is built on the 
steep declivity of a mountain. The best Turkish snuff is 
manufactured here. Pop. estimated at 8000. 

A'ria (“air”), in music, a rhythmical song, a tune, a 
measured lyrical piece for one or several voices ; commonly 
applied to a song introduced into a cantata, opera, or ora¬ 
torio, and intended for one voice supported by instruments. 

Ariad'ne [Gr. ’ApnxSio?], a daughter of Minos, king of 
Crete, became the lover of Theseus when he visited Crete. 
She gave him a clue of thread by which he was enabled to 
find his way out of the Cretan labyrinth. Her mythus is 
not uniform, but, according to one account, she was aban¬ 
doned by Theseus at Naxos, and subsequently became the 
wife of Bacchus. Others say that Diana slew her at Naxos 
with her arrows. She bore twin sons to Theseus. Her 
name is given to the forty-third asteroid. (See Theseus.) 

Arial'tlus, a deacon of the church of Milan, noted for 
his zeal against the marriage of priests, was born in Lom¬ 
bardy. His preaching led to a schism in the Church, at¬ 
tended with violent tumults. Arialdus was killed June 28. 
1066. (See Muratori, “ Annali d’ltalia.”) 

Arian (nations). See Arya. 

Aria'na, the ancient name of a region in the W. cen¬ 
tral part of Asia, inhabited by the Aryan or Arian race. 
It probably comprised ancient Persia and Bactriana. “ The 
latest and most vigorous offshoot of these branches” [the 
Semitic and Iranian], says Bunsen, “the glorious Arian 
tribe, has outgrown all the rest, as it is the Arian races 
that have given a new turn to the wheel of history and 
remodelled the earth.” (See Arya and Aryan.) 

Aria'na, a township of Grundy co., Ill. Pop. 337. 

Aria'no, a town of Italy, in Avellino, among the Apen¬ 
nines, 23 miles N. E. of Avellino. It is the seat of a bishop. 
It has a mountain-fortress, a fine cathedral, several churches, 
a gymnasium, a normal school,and considerable manufacture 
of silk. Wine and butter are exported. Pop. in 1861, 12,588. 

Arians. See Arius. 

A'rias Monta'mis (Benedictus), [Sp. Beni'to A'rias 
Manta'no ], an eminent Spanish biblical scholar and Orient¬ 
alist, born in Estremadura in 1527. He was a member of 
the Council of Trent in 1562, and under the auspices of 
Philip II. edited a Polyglot Bible, which was published at 
Antwerp (1568-72), and is highly commended. Ho wrote, 
besides other works, “Jewish Antiquities’ (1593). Died 
at Seville in 1598. (See Loumyer, “Vie de B. A. Mon¬ 
tano,” 1842; N. Antonio, “Bibliotheca Ilispana Nova.”) 


Ari'ca, a maritime town of Peru, in Moquega, on tho 
Pacific Ocean, 239 miles S. W. of La Paz. It was onco 
more important than it is now. It is the principal ship¬ 
ping-place of the exports of Bolivia, which are copper, 
silver, alpaca-wool, and guano. Pop. about 4000. 

Arichat, a seaport-town, capital of Richmond county, 
Nova Scotia, situated on the S. coast of Madame Island, 
near the Gut of Canso, and on a small bay or inlet of the 
Atlantic; lat. 45° 28' N., Ion. 61° W. It owes its import¬ 
ance to fisheries. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic 
bishop. Pop., including Little Arichat, 2719. 

Aric'ia, an ancient and celebrated city of Latium, on 
the Appian Way, at the foot of Mons Albanus, 16 miles 
S. E. of Rome. It was an important town in the reign of 
Tarquin the Proud. The Aricians took part in a war of 
the Latins against Rome, which ended in their defeat at 
Lake Regillus, 498 B. C. Cicero speaks of it as in his 
time a wealthy and flourishing municipium. Here was a 
celebrated temple of Diana, and here is a beautiful lake 
called Lago di Nemi. The modern town, La Riccia , is on 
or near the site of the ancient Aricia. 

Ar'icine, Cincho'natine, Cusco'nine, or Quin'- 
oninc, an alkaloid found in the white cinchona-bark from 
Arica. Its salts are easily soluble and crystalline. Its 
formula is C 20 H 26 N 2 O 4 . It is useless in medicine. 

Ariege, a river of France, rises in the Pyrenees, flows 
nearly northward through the department of its own name, 
passing by Foix and Pamiers, and enters the Garonne a 
few miles S. of Toulouse. Length, about 90 miles. 

Ariege, a department in the S. of France, is bounded 
on the N. and W. by Haut-Garonne, on the E. by Aude and 
Busillon, and on the S. by Spain, from which it is sepa¬ 
rated by the Pj^renecs. Area, 1889 square miles. The sur¬ 
face is mostly mountainous, the highest mountains being 
in the southern part. Among the highest summits are 
Montcalm, about 10,600 feet, and Serrere, 9592 feet high. 
It is drained by the rivers Ariege and Salat. The soil of 
the lower lands is fertile. Here are rich iron-mines, which 
furnish the chief article of export. It is subdivided into 
3 arrondissements, 20 cantons, and 335 communes. Cap¬ 
ital, Foix. Pop. in 1872, 246,298. 

A'riel, a word signifying “lion of God” or “ark of 
God,” was sometimes applied to the city of Jerusalem. 
Among the Jews of a more recent date the name was 
given to a water-spirit. —Ariel is also the name of one of 
the principal characters in Sliakspeare’s drama of “ The 
Tempest,” where he is represented as a spirit of air. 

Ariel Gazelle ( Gazella dorcas, var. Arab'ica) is the 
gazelle of Western Asia, the true gazelle belonging to North¬ 
ern Africa. The ariel gazelle is one of the most beautiful 
of antelopes, is twenty-one inches high at the shoulder, of 
a dark-fawn color, the belly white, with a black or brown 
band running along the flanks. It is a variety of the spe¬ 
cies to which the African gazelle belongs. It is hunted 
both for sport (by falconry) and for its flesh and skin, both 
highly prized. Gazelles are often hunted in battue, for 
they cannot be successfully followed in the chase, their 
speed excelling that of the greyhound. They arc great 
favorites in the East when tamed, and the beauty of their 
eyes is proverbial. 

A'l’ics [the Latin of “ ram ”] is the name of a sign of the 
Zodiac; that is, the first thirty degrees of the Zodiac mea¬ 
sured from the point at which the equator intersects the 
ecliptic— i. e. the vernal equinox. Longitudes (celestial) 
are reckoned from this point. Aries is also the name of a 
constellation of the Zodiac which once coincided with that 
sign, but which now occupies the same place as the sign 
Pisces. Among the ancient Romans, aries was the name 
of a battering-ram—a machine with an iron head used to 
batter down the walls of besieged towns or forts. 

Ariet'ta, a township of Hamilton co., N. Y., in the Adi¬ 
rondack regions, contains Piseco Lake, a popular summer 
resort. Pop. 139. 

Ar'il [Lat. aril'liis], a botanical term applied to a mem¬ 
brane or peculiar covering of some seeds, formed by an 
expansion of the funiculus or of the placenta. Mace, for 
example, is the aril of the nutmeg. The aril never appears 
until after the seed is fertilized. 

Ari'oil [’Apuov], an ancient Greek musician and poet, a 
native of Lesbos, lived probably about 700 B. C. Herod¬ 
otus has preserved a curious legend, according to which ho 
was returning from Sicily to Corinth by sea with much 
treasure, to get which the mariners resolved to kill him. 
Having obtained permission to play one tune, he threw 
himself into tho sea, and was received on the back of a dol¬ 
phin, which had been charmed by the music, and carried 
him to land. This dolphin is supposed to be tho same as 
that which figures among tho stars. 











ARIOSTO—ARISTIPPUS. 


238 


Arios'to (Lodovico), a celebrated Italian poet, was 
born at lleggio, near Modena, Sept. 8,1474. He was edu¬ 
cated at the College of Ferrara, and afterwards, in compli¬ 
ance with the wish of his father, studied law, which he dis¬ 
liked and soon abandoned. After the death of his father, 
who left many children younger than Lodovico, he devoted 
much time to the support and education of his brothers and 
sisters. Ilis early lyrical poems procured for him the 
patronage of Cardinal Ippolito d’Este, whose service he 
entered in 1503. He was employed by this cardinal, and 
his brother, the duke of Ferrara, in embassies to several 
Italian courts. In the intervals of his busy life he medi¬ 
tated and matured his great romantic and fantastic poem, 
“Orlando Furioso,” which was published in 1516, and soon 
acquired universal popularity. More than sixty editions 
of it were issued in the sixteenth century. The subject of 
this imaginative epic is the chivalrous adventures of the 
paladins of the age of Charlemagne. The best English 
translations of it are those of Harrington and William 
Stuart Rose. In 1517 he entered the service of Alfonso, 
duke of Ferrara, in whom he found a liberal patron. He 
is said to have been a favorite associate of that prince, and 
to have enjoyed some ecclesiastical revenues. In 1521 he 
was appointed governor or commissary of Garfagnana, 
where he was required to enforce order among a turbulent 
and rude population addicted to brigandage and violence. 
In the latter part of his life he married privately a widow 
named Alessandra Benucci. He had oontinued to polish 
and revise his “Orlando Furioso,” of which he published 
an enlarged edition in 1532, in forty-six cantos. He also 
produced, in Italian, five comedies in verse, seven satires 
formed on the Iloratian model, a number of sonnets, and 
some Latin poems. He died at Ferrara June 6, 1533, 
leaving two natural sons. “ Ariosto,” says Hallam, “ has 
been, after Homer, the favorite poet of Europe. His grace 
and facility, his clear and rapid stream of language, his 
variety and beauty of invention, his very transitions of 
subject, so frequently censured by critics, but artfully de¬ 
vised to spare the tediousness that hangs on a protracted 
story, left him no rival in general popularity. . . . The 
‘Orlando Furioso/ as a great single poem, has been very 
rarely surpassed in the living records of poetry. He must 
yield to three, and only three, of his predecessors. He has 
not the force, simplicity, and truth to nature of Homer, the 
exquisite style and sustained majesty of Virgil, nor the 
originality and boldness of Dante.” (See Harrixgtox, 
“Life of Ariosto,” 1634; Giuniore, “La Vita di Lodovico 
Ariosto,” 1807; Barotti, “ Vita di L. Ariosto,” 4 vols., 1766; 
Fabroxi, “ Elogi di Dante, di Poliziano, di Ariosto, e di 
Tasso,” 1800 ; Carl L. Ferxow, “ Lebenslauf L. Ariosto’s 
des Gottlichen,” 1809.) William Jacobs. 

Ariovis'tUS [Ger. Ari ovist or Ehrenvest ], a chief of the 
ancient Suevi or Marcomanni, was a German. Solicited 
by the Sequani to aid them in a war against the iEdui, he 
marched (72 B. C.) with an army into Gaul, and took pos¬ 
session of that part which was afterwards Burgundy. The 
Gauls then applied to the Romans to liberate them from 
their new master. Ariovistus was defeated by Cmsar near 
Vesontium (Besangon) in 58 B. C., and fled across the Rhine. 

Aris'pe, a township of Bureau co., Ill. Pop. 1216. 

Aris'ta (Mariaxo), a Mexican general, born July 16, 
1802, entered the army in his youth. Having served in 
several civil wars, he was made general of brigade in 1833, 
and was banished in that year by Santa Anna. He returned 
in 1835, became a general of division in 1841, and com¬ 
manded the army which was defeated by General Taylor at 
Palo Alto in May, 1846. In June, 1848, he was appointed 
minister of war, and in 1850 was elected president of Mex¬ 
ico. Under his administration Mexico was disturbed by 
the usual chronic revolts and anarchy, and Arista was 
driven from power by Santa Anna early in 1853. He died 
in Spain Aug. 9, 1855. 

Aristnen'etus [’Apio-ratVero?], a Greek rhetorician of 
Bithynia, was a friend of Libanius. He was killed by an 
earthquake at Nicomedia in 358 A. D. He, or another of 
that name, is the reputed author of some fifty fictitious 
erotic letters (edited by Boissonade, 1822). 

Aristrc'us [Gr. ’Apio-rcuo?], a personage of classic my¬ 
thology, represented as a son of Apollo and Cyrene. He 
married Autonoe, a daughter of Cadmus, was the father 
of Actaeon, and a lover of Eurydice. He was worshipped 
as a divinity who presided over flocks and herds, and 
taught men the art of raising or managing bees. (See Vir¬ 
gil, “ Georgies,” book iv.) 

Aristar'chus [Gr. ’AptVrapxo?] of Samos, an eminent 
Greek astronomer, supposed to have flourished about 275 
B. C. The events of his life arc unknown. Archimedes, 
in one of his works, states that “Aristarchus of Samos 
supposes that the earth revolves about the sun in the cir¬ 
cumference of a circle.” All of his writings aro lost except 


a short treatise “ On the Magnitudes and Distances of the 
Sun and Moon.” He calculated that the sun is twenty 
times farther than the moon from the earth. (Sec Fortia 
d’Urban, “Ilistoire d’Aristarque de Samos,” 1810.) 

Aristarchus, a Greek grammarian, educator, and crit¬ 
ic, born in Samothrace, was a pupil of Aristophanes of 
Byzantium. He flourished about 150 B. C., and founded 
a school of grammar at Alexandria, in Egypt, where he 
passed the greater part of his life. He educated the sons 
of Ptolemy Philopator. His life was chiefly devoted to the 
critical study, explanation, and restoration of the works of 
Homer and other Greek poets. He is regarded by some 
persons as the greatest critic and philologist of antiquity; 
and it is generally agreed that as a commentator and critic 
of Homer he was more successful and meritorious than any 
other. He wrote commentaries on various poets, and some 
works on grammar, of which only fragments are extant. 
Died at the age of seventy-two. (See C. L. Matthesius, 
“ Disputatio de Aristarcho Grammatico,” 1725; K. Leiirs, 
“ De Aristarchi Studiis Homericis,” 1833.) 

Aristi'des, or Aristei'des [Gr. ’Apio-Tei^?], surnamed 
the Just, an eminent Athenian statesman, a son of Ly- 
simachus, was born in Alopeke, a demos of Attica. His 
political tendencies were conservative or aristocratic. He 
was one of the ten generals who had the command of the 
army when the Persians invaded Greece in 490 B. C. Each 
general had a right to the chief command for one day, but 
Aristides persuaded his colleagues to resign or waive their 
claims, so that Miltiades commanded at Marathon when it 
was not his turn. Aristides became chief archon in 489, 
and a political adversary of Themistocles, the leader of the 
democracy. On the pretext that his influence was danger¬ 
ous to the public interest, he was ostracised in 483 B. C. 
On this occasion a citizen who was personally a stranger 
to him, and who could not write, requested him to write 
Aristides on a shell to be used in voting. He asked this 
voter if Aristides had injured him. “No,” replied the 
citizen, “but I am tired of hearing him always called Aris¬ 
tides the Just.” When Xerxes, king of Persia, invaded 
Greece with a mighty army in 480 B. C., Aristides sought 
an interview with Themistocles, took a prominent part in 
the battle of Salamis, and recovered his popularity. He 
commanded the Athenian troops, which, aided by other 
Greeks, defeated the Persians at Platma in 479. Aristides 
and Cimon were appointed in 477 B. C. commanders of the 
Athenian forces which co-operated with other Greek armies 
against the Persians. Pausanias the Spartan had the chief 
command of the allied army, but he offended the allies by 
his arrogance, while Aristides by mildness and prudence 
gained general favor, and promoted the supremacy or pre¬ 
dominance of Athens among the states of Greece. He died 
poor in 467 B. C., leaving a son and two daughters, who 
received dowries from the public treasury. Few statesmen 
have left so pure and honorable a reputation as Aristides. 
(See Plutarch, “Life of Aristides;” Cornelius Nepos, 
“Life of Aristides.”) William Jacobs. 

Aristides (Allies), a Greek Sophist and rhetorician, 
born in Bithynia about 124 A. D., was a pupil of Polemon 
and Herodes Atticus. He acquired a high reputation for 
eloquence, and produced many orations and panegyrics, 
which display a brilliant style and skill in the choice and 
arrangement of words. He resided at Smyrna when that 
city was ruined by an earthquake in 178 A. D., and per¬ 
suaded the emperor Marcus Aurelius to rebuild it. Died 
in 189 A. D. About fifty of his orations and treatises are 
extant. These were published by Dindorf in 3 vols., 1829. 

Aristides of Thebes, an eminent Greek painter who 
lived about 350 B. C., and was a contemporary of Apelles. 
He had a brother, Nicomachus, who was a skilful painter. 
According to Pliny, Aristides was the first who expressed 
on the countenance the passions and movements of the 
soul. He painted a battle between the Greeks and Per¬ 
sians, which the Roman consul seized among the spoils of 
war and took to Rome. 

Aristip'pus [Gr. ’ApiVtittttos], a Greek philosopher, the 
founder of the Cyrenaic school, was born at Cyrene, in 
Africa, about 425 B. C. He was a pupil of Socrates, but 
did not adopt his principles or imitate his mode of life. 
He travelled extensively, indulged freely in sensual pleas¬ 
ure, was intimate with the courtesan Lais at Corinth, and 
flourished as a courtier and philosophic voluptuary at Syra¬ 
cuse in the reign of Dionysius the Elder. Though he re¬ 
cognized pleasure as a proper subject of pursuit, he appears 
to have observed some moderation in that pursuit, and to 
have been remarkable for self-control and equanimity as 
well as versatility, and a faculty of adapting himself to the 
vicissitudes of fortune. Plato is reported to have said that 
“Aristippus was the only man he knew who could wear with 
equal grace fine clothes and rags.” He was celebrated for 
his witty sayings and repartees, some of which are recorded 

















AKISTO—ARISTOTLE. 


239 


by Diogenes Laertius. His works, if he wrote any, have 
not come down to us. He despised or neglected mathe¬ 
matics and physical sciences. He died after 306 13. C., and 
left a daughter, Arete, who was distinguished as a philos¬ 
opher. Wieland wrote in German a romance of “Aristip¬ 
pus and his Contemporaries” (4-vols., 1800-02). (See G. II. 
Lewes, “Biographical History of Philosophy;” F. M>entz, 
“Aristippus Philosophus Socraticus, sive de ejus Vita,” 
1719; Ritter, “History of Philosophy.”) 

Aris'to or Aris / ton [Gr. ’Apiarutv] of Chios* sur- 
named tiie Siren, a Stoic philosopher who lived about 275 
B. C., was a disciple of Zeno. He taught at Athens, and 
confined his attention to moral philosophy. He maintained 
that the chief good consists in indifference to everything 
except virtue and vice. 

Aristobu'lus [Gr. ’Apio-To'/3ovAos], a Greek historian 
who took part in the expedition of Alexander the Great 
against Persia, about 332 B. C., and wrote a history of the 
same, which is not extant. It was highly esteemed by the 
ancients. 

Aristobulus, a Jew and philosopher who lived at Alex¬ 
andria about 175-150 B. C. He was the reputed author 
of a Commentary on the Books of Moses, the aim of which 
was to show that the ancient Greek writers had borrowed 
much from the sacred books of the Hebrews. 

Aristobulus I.* high priest of the Jews, was a son of 
Joannes Hyrcanus. He assumed the title of king in 107 
B. C., and died in 105, when he was succeeded by his brother, 
Alexander Jannaeus. 

Aristobulus II., a nephew of Aristobulus I., and a 
son of Alexander Jannaeus, became king of the Jews about 
70 B. C. Jerusalem was taken in 63 by Pompey, who gave 
the throne to Hyrcanus, a brother of Aristobulus, and car¬ 
ried the latter as a captive to Rome. Died about 48 B. C. 

Aristoc'racy [Gr. apurTOKparia, from apta-ro?, the “best,” 
and /(parent, to “ govern”] signifies ideally a form of govern¬ 
ment controlled and administered by the best or noblest 
citizens. It is enumerated by Aristotle among the princi¬ 
pal forms of government. Aristocracy is of very ancient 
origin, and in some countries of ancient times it prevailed 
as subsidiary to monarchy. The word may be defined as 
a government controlled by the nobility or privileged class, 
or a government in which a minority of adult males consti¬ 
tutes the ruling class. Such was the republic of Venice. 
The aristocratic element also predominated originally in 
the republic of ancient Rome, which was governed by pa¬ 
tricians, whose power was hereditary. The feudal system 
of the Middle Ages favored the formation of powerful aris¬ 
tocracies. Among modern nations England is perhaps that 
in which the aristocracy is most influential and respectable. 
A title of nobility is the great prize for which British states¬ 
men and soldiers compete, and the ranks of the ancient 
noble families are often reinforced by men of genius, who 
are raised to the peerage. There is probably no country 
where rank is more highly prized and ardently coveted, 
although the political power of the aristoracy has been re¬ 
duced by the Reform Bill of 1867. In modern language, 
this word is used to denote nobility, or the higher class of 
society, without reference to government. 

AristOgi'tOIl, or AristOgeitOU [Gr. ’Apnrroyemoi/], 
an Athenian conspirator, an accomplice of Harmodius in 
the assassination of Hipparchus. He was put to death by 
Ilippias in 514 B. C. He was regarded as a patriot by the 
Athenians, who erected statues to him and to Harmodius. 

Aristolo'chia [from the Gr. apio-ro?, the “best,” and 
Ao^et'a or Aoxia, “childbirth”], a genus of plants of the nat¬ 
ural order Aristolochiaceae, are mostly natives of tropical 
countries, and have twining stems. The genus is charac¬ 
terized by a tubular oblique perianth, and by stamens ad¬ 
herent to the style. Some of the species climb to the tops 
of high trees and have handsome flowers. The Aristolo¬ 
chia serpentaria, or Virginian snakeroot, is a native of the 
U. S., possesses stimulant and tonic properties, and was 
once supposed to be a remedy for the bite of serpents. 
Similar virtues are ascribed to various species in different 
parts of the world. The root of this plant is exported from 
the U. S. to Europe, and is highly esteemed as a remedy 
in certain fevers. The Aristolochia Clematitis (birthwort) 
is a native of Europe, a perennial plant, with cordate 
leaves, erect stem, and grows in waste places, hedges, and 
among rubbish. The roots of these and many other spe¬ 
cies, which possess powerfully stimulating properties, havo 
been used in medicine. 

Aristolochia'ccnR, an order of exogenous plants, of 
which Aristolochia is the type. It comprises more than 
130 species, mostly herbaceous plants or climbing shrubs, 
natives of warm climates, and particularly abundant in 
South America. The leaves are alternate, simple, and pe- 
tiolate; the flowers are tubular perianths, axillary and 


solitary, and the stamens arc cpigynous. Several species 
are cultivated in hot-houses, and prized for the beauty of 
their flowers. The Aristolochia Sipho (pipe-vine or Dutch¬ 
man’s pipe), a native of the U. S., and a climbing shrub, 
is planted in Europe to form shady bowers. The U. S. 
have several other species. 

Aristom'enes [Gr. ’ApnrrojutVTjs], a famous Messenian 
general who commanded the army of his state in the 
Second Messenian war. He was renowned for personal 
valor and daring enterprises. Having been finally defeated 
in 668 B. C., he went with his daughter and son-in-law to 
Rhodes. (See Jourdan, “ Histoire d’Aristomene,” 1749.) 

Aristoph'anes [Gr. ’Apnrro^dei}?], the greatest comic 
poet of Greece, was born about 444 B. C., and is supposed 
to have been a native of Athens. Considering his celebrity, 
the materials for writing his biography are surprisingly 
meagre. His first work was “The Feasters” (427 B. C.), 
which is not extant. In 426 he produced “ The Baby¬ 
lonians,” the aim of which was to satirize the demagogue 
Cleon, who was his personal enemy. His “Acharnians” 
obtained the first prize in 425, and is still extant. Among 
his most admired dramas is “The Knights” (424 B. C.), in 
which he attacked and caricatured Cleon with great wit and 
virulence. In the performance of this play, which gained 
the first prize, the author acted the part of Cleon, as no 
other actor would venture to incur the resentment of that 
powerful popular favorite. Aristophanes was a conserva¬ 
tive, and opposed innovations in politics, religion, and the 
social order. He was more distinguished for his ability 
to expose the depravity of human nature than for his 
capacity to appreciate its noble attributes and manifesta¬ 
tions. Among his masterpieces is “ The Clouds ” (423 B. C.), 
an ingenious and powerful satire directed against the 
Sophists, of whom he represented Socrates as the head and 
master-spirit. Ho ridiculed and vilified Socrates, and ex¬ 
cited the popular prejudice against him as a skeptic and 
corrupter of youth. He composed about fifty-four come¬ 
dies, of which only eleven are extant, viz.: “ The Acharn¬ 
ians” (425); “The Knights” (424); “The Clouds” (423); 
“ The Wasps,” which gained the prize in 422; “ The Peace ” 
(419); “The Birds” (414); “Lysistrata” (411); “ Thesmo- 
phoriazusee” (411); “Plutus” (408); “The Frogs” (405); 
“ Ecclesiasuzae ” (392 B. C.). These plays belong to the old 
comedy. His wit is so involved in allusions to local events 
that modern readers find it difiicult to appreciate or enjoy 
it. The purity of his style is greatly admired, and is said 
to be the only thing pure about his works. He died about 
380 B. C. “ The Acharnians,” “ The Knights,” “ The 
Birds,” and “ The Frogs ” have been translated into Eng¬ 
lish by J. Hookham Frere. (See H. T. Rotscher, “Aris¬ 
tophanes und sein Zeitalter,” 1827; II. Pol, “ Dissertatio 
de Aristophane,” 1834; C. F. Ranke, “ Commcntatio de 
Aristoplianis Vita,” 1845.) William Jacobs. 

Ar'istotle was born at Stagira, a city of Thrace, but a 
Grecian colony, in the first year of the 99th Olympiad, or 
384 B. C. His father was Nicomachus, a physician and 
friend of Amyntas, king of Macedon and father of Philip. 
The family of Aristotle was distinguished by the hereditary 
profession of medicine, and was wont to trace its origin to 
Machaon, son of Aesculapius. Left an orphan at an early 
age, he was brought up by Proxenus of Atarneus, in Mysia, 
to whose guardianship he seems to have been entrusted by 
his father, and whose memory Aristotle held so dear in 
after life that he erected a statue to him, and both instructed 
his son Nicanor in the liberal arts and adopted him as his 
heir. In his seventeenth year he went to Athens, and be¬ 
came a pupil of Plato, with whom he continued twenty 
years, and by whom he was called the reader and the in¬ 
tellect of the school, and likened, in his ardor and restive¬ 
ness, to a colt, which needed the bit more than the spur. 
Upon the death of Plato (348 B. C.) he accepted an invi¬ 
tation of Hermeas, tyrant of Atarneus, his former fellow- 
pupil in the school of Plato, to take up his residence with 
him. Here Aristotle spent the three following years of his 
life, when Hermeas, conquered by a Persian invader, was 
sent a prisoner to Persia, where he was put to death by 
Artaxerxes. To avoid a like fate, Aristotle fled to Mit- 
ylene, taking with him Pythias, whom he married, and who 
is variously described as the mistress, the sister, and the 
niece of Hermeas. After her death he married his concu¬ 
bine Herpyllis, the mother of his son Nicomachus. 

When Alexander of Macedon was born, Philip, his 
father, is said to have sent this letter to Aristotle: “ Be it 
known unto you that I have a son, and that I am thankful 
to the gods, not so much for his birth as that he was born 
in your time. For if you will but take the charge of his 
education, I assure myself that he will become worthy of 
his father and of his future kingdom.” The philosopher 
accepted the commission of the king, and there is evidence 
that he gave early directions respecting tho care and cul- 



















240 


AEISTOXENUS OF TARENTUM—ARIUS. 


ture of the infant prince. When Alexander was fifteen, 
Aristotle assumed the personal oversight of his instruction, 
taking up his residence at the court, and continuing there 
during the lifetime of Philip, and for two years after his 
pupil had ascended the throne. When the conquest of the 
East was undertaken, Aristotle returned to Athens, and 
taught philosophy in the Lyceum, a temple dedicated to the 
Lycian Apollo, with walks ornamented by trees, fountains, 
and colonnades. From these shady walks (nepCiTaToi) his 
school received the name of Peripatetic. He hero abode 
and taught thirteen years, when, after the death of Alex¬ 
ander, he was accused by the Athenians of impiety, and 
fled to Chalcis in Euboea, the present Negropont, in order 
to escape the fate of Socrates, or, as he said, that Athens 
might not have the opportunity to sin against philosophy 
again. Here he died (B. C. 322), in his sixty-third year. 

His Character .—Aristotle’s was one of the most highly 
gifted intellects of all the ages. All agree that his wealth 
of scientific knowledge, his unbiassed judgment, his con¬ 
structive power, and his depth and breadth of speculative 
insight are unsurpassed in ancient or modern times. But 
the verdict is not so unanimous respecting his moral traits. 
By some of the ancients he is extolled for his patriotism, 
his reverence, his modesty, his moderation, his love of 
truth, and his attachment to his friends, while others hold 
him up as selffsh, ungrateful, sordid, gluttonous, and im¬ 
pious. It must be owned, however, that few of the stories 
told in proof of either of these sides will bear a sharp 
look. They rest on frail grounds. But while we have 
little direct showing that can be trusted respecting the 
personal character of Aristotle, some points seem clear. 
The regard in which he ever held the memory of Proxenus, 
and the beautiful hymn to virtue which he composed in 
honor of Hermeas, and which we still have, show that he 
was not incapable of gratitude or of love to his friends. 
The charge often made that he was jealous of Plato does 
not hang with the fact of Aristotle’s continued intimacy 
with Xenocrates, Plato’s devoted disciple and successor, 
nor with an elegy, some verses of which have come down 
to us, in which Aristotle calls Plato one whom the bad 
might not evert praise, and who first taught the world how 
a man could be at the same time good and happy. In his 
will he shows not only a judicious care, but an affectionate 
solicitude, for his family, while in his writings a lofty 
moral tone appears and a winning frankness and sincerity 
seem to shine. 

His Writings .—These were very numerous, though only 
a small part, perhaps a fourth, remain, all of which proba¬ 
bly differ more or less from the state in which Aristotle 
left them. Incompetent editors and ignorant transcribers 
have made almost as much mischief as the mould and mil¬ 
dew by which some of the original manuscripts are said 
to have been sadly injured, and some destroyed. But 
while the fragmentary and skeleton-like form which many 
of the so-called Aristotelian writings possess, joined to 
the evident omissions and the repetitions and contradic¬ 
tions which they contain, show the work of some other 
hands than those of the great master, there remains a 
solid nucleus of considerable size, whose purity of style 
and depth of speculative content bring us into the unmis¬ 
takable presence of Aristotle himself. 

His Philosophy. —Aristotle’s method is exactly the re¬ 
verse of Plato’s, which he does not tire of making mani¬ 
fest. The attention which Plato had given to the unity 
of all being, Aristotle directs to the manifoldness of the 
phenomenal world. He is as analytic and discursive as 
Plato is synthetic and intuitive. While Plato finds in the 
universal the only light in which the particular can be 
seen, Aristotle sees the particular to be necessary in order 
that we may have any knowledge of the universal. So he 
gathers particulars from all quarters. History, the human 
mind, and all departments of nature furnish him contri¬ 
butions. He has no rival in the variety and extent of the 
facts which he has collected, and has never been surpassed 
in the patient industry of his investigations. But it is a 
great mistake, though one easily and often made, to judge 
thereby that Aristotle sought for nothing beyond expe¬ 
rience, or that he and Plato represented only the opposite 
extremes of empiricism and idealism. The idea was as 
truly the object of Aristotle’s search as it was of Plato’s. 
Both Plato and Aristotle also agreed that the reality or 
the essence of individual things was in the idea. Aristotle 
also held as strongly as Plato to the objective existence of 
the idea. The doctrine of the Nominalists in the Middle 
Ages, that the idea or the universal is only a subjective 
product in which objects are represented, and by which 
they are named, though often ascribed to Aristotle, is but 
little less foreign to him than to Plato. But while to Plato 
the idea had an objective existence independent of the in¬ 
dividual object which participated in it, to Aristotle the 
idea was immanent in the individual, and had no being 


separate from it. This accounts for the prodigious atten¬ 
tion which Aristotle gave to individual facts. He collected 
these in such vast measure, not because they had any in¬ 
terest in themselves, and not because their collection and 
classification could give a satisfying science, but only for 
the sake of the idea which was immanent in them, and 
which was the only proper object in scientific inquiry, 
since it was the only object which could be truly known. 

This immanence of the idea in the individual shows 
what was the most essential difference between Plato and 
Aristotle, and also what was the most characteristic and im¬ 
portant doctrine in the Aristotelian philosophy. Aristotle 
criticises Plato because the Platonic ideas, being separate 
from and independent of phenomena, could not explain 
the existence of the phenomenal world. They are, in the 
Aristotelian view of Plato’s doctrine, only potential, not 
actual, sources of individual things. But to the idea as 
universal Aristotle ascribes an activity which individual¬ 
izes, but this individualization is not a change to anything 
without, nor because of anything without, but is wholly 
within the universal itself; it is a change thus into a 
difference Avhich is at the same time an identity, a deter¬ 
mining which is a self-determining, wherein the universal 
or the idea realizes or actualizes itself. This self-realizing 
of the idea is conformity to an end which is at the same 
time a self-end, a true Final Cause, wherein is the living 
principle and rational explanation of individual things. 
This doctrine of the final cause, or sufficient reason, which 
it is the immeasurable merit of Aristotle to have intro¬ 
duced into philosophy, carries us back to a principle deeper 
than that of efficient causation, and brings us from the 
world of necessity to that of freedom. Our modern phy¬ 
sicists would gain a profounder view of nature and a more 
successful pursuit of science if they could know this prin¬ 
ciple as Aristotle taught it. They would find him, as the 
ancients called him, “ the father of those who know.” (See 
Stahr, “Aristotelia;” Leaves, “Aristotle;” Grant, “Ethics 
of Aristotle;” Trendelenburg, “Comm, ad ‘De Anima;’” 
Hegel, “ Gcschichte der Philosophic;” Ritter, Ueberaveg, 
and Sciiavegler, ditto.) J. II. Seelye. 

Aristox'emis [Gr. ’Apio-rofero?] of Tarentum, a 
Greek philosopher, a pupil of Aristotle, lived about 350- 
320 B. C. He Avrote numerous Avorks, Avhich are lost, and 
a treatise on music (“Elements of Harmony”), Avhich is 
extant and is accounted valuable. It was published by 
Meursius in 1616. He founded a school of musicians, who 
rejected the system of Pythagoras, and judged of the notes 
in the diatonic scale by the ear exclusively. 

Arith'metic [Gr. apL6p.riTLKri, from apifyxo?, a “ number ”], 
the science which treats of numbers or the art of computa¬ 
tion, is a branch of mathematics. In the ordinary use of 
the term it is the art of expressing numbers by symbols, 
combining these s 3 T mbols, and applying to them rules of the 
greatest practical utility. Among the ancient Greeks, Py¬ 
thagoras, Archimedes, and others cultivated the science of 
numbers, but they labored under the disadvantage of a 
clumsy mode of notation, and had no sign for zero or 
naught. The Roman numerals, I, V, X, L, C, etc., contin¬ 
ued to be commonly used in Europe until the fifteenth cen¬ 
tury. The invention of the symbols called Arabian nu¬ 
merals, iioav in use, is attributed to the Hindoos. The use 
of the cipher (0) gives the modern arithmetic a great ad¬ 
vantage over the ancient. In the modern system of notation 
every sjmibol hffs a local as well as an intrinsic value. The 
intrinsic value of a symbol is the number it represents; 
the local value depends, first, upon the number of symbols 
used, and secondly, on the position of that symbol Avith re¬ 
spect to the others. The ordinary system is called decimal , 
because the calculations are performed by ten symbols or 
digits. 

Arithmetical Mean, The, of tAvo numbers is equi¬ 
distant from those numbers, and is found by adding them 
together and dividing by 2. The mean of a series of num¬ 
bers is the quotient obtained by dividing their sum by their 
number; thus the arithmetical mean of 1, 2, 7, and 10, is 5. 

Arithmetical Progres'sion, a series of three or 
more numbers that increase or diminish by a common dif¬ 
ference, as 5, 7, 9, 11,13. To find the sum of such a series, 
multiply the sum of the first and last terms by half the 
number of terms. 

Aiius (classical pronunciation Ari'us), or Arei'us 
[Gr. "Apetos], the founder of Arianism, Avas born at Cyrene, 
in Africa, near the middle of the third century. lie was 
made a deacon by the patriarch Peter at Alexandria, and 
was placed in the highest rank in the clergy by the patri¬ 
arch Alexander. About 318 A. I). a controversy arose be¬ 
tween Arius and Alexander, Avhich caused Constantine to 
summon a general council at Nicaea (Nice). This council 
pronounced the doctrines of Arius (Avho denied that the 
Son Avas coessential and coeternal Avith the Father) to be 
















ARIUS—AEIZONA. 


241 


heretical, and Arius, who was present at the council, was 
exiled to Illyricum. This sentence, however, was soon after 
revoked. Arianism was .approved by the Synods of Tyre 
and Jerusalem in 335 A. I)., soon after which Arius return¬ 
ed to Alexandria, where his presence created such a dis¬ 
turbance that he was under the necessity of retiring to 
Constantinople. He suddenly died in 336 A. D. Arianism 
was supported as the state religion by the emperor Constan¬ 
tine and by Yalens. The Goths, Vandals, Suevi, and Lon- 
gobardians of the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries were 
mostly Arians. After the reunion of the Longobardians 
with the Catholic Church (662), Arianism as a sect soon 
ceased to exist. The followers of Arius were sometimes 
called Eusebians, from Eusebius, bishop of Berytus and 
Nicomedia. They became divided into two portions—the 
“ Hetero-ousians ” (strict or ultra-Arians), and “ Homoi- 
ousians,” who allowed the “similar essence” of the Son 
with the Father. (See Neander, “ History of the Christian 
Church,” and Maimbourg, “ Histoire de l’Arianisme,” a 
popular though not very trustworthy work.) 

Arms, a genus of siluroid fishes in which the body is 
partially protected by strong bony plates. It has been sug¬ 
gested by Huxley that the ancient placoderm fishes ( Pterich - 
thys and Coccosteus) may have modern representatives in 
the plated siluroids, such as Arius, Clarias, etc. 

Arizo'iia, a Territory of the U. S., lying between the 
Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, bounded by 
Nevada and Utah on the N., New Mexico on the E., the 
republic of Mexico on the S., and California and Nevada 
on the W. It extends from 109° to 114° 25' W. Ion. from 
Greenwich in breadth, and from 31° 37' to 37° N. lat., and 
has an area of 113,916 square miles, or 72,906.240 aci’es, 
varying very little from the united areas of New York, New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. 

Surface, Mountains, Rivers, etc .—The surface of the Ter¬ 
ritory is generally elevated, and consists of wide plateaus, 
having a mean elevation in the N. of 7000 to 7500 feet 
above the sea-level, and sloping gradually southward, 
though occasionally broken by precipitous cliffs, till in the 
region S. of the Gila it has a height of from 60 to 100 feet 
above the sea. These plateaus are occasionally crossed by 
ranges of high mountains, and diversified by towering, 
isolated peaks, reaching an altitude of 12,000 to 14,000 feet 
above the sea. They are also riven in all directions by 
rivers and streams, which have, by ages of erosion, cut for 
themselves channels through the different strata to a depth 
varying from 1000 to nearly 7000 feet. These canons, as 
they are called, are in some instances of great length, and 
their perpendicular walls of from 4000 to 7000 feet in height 
are occasionally broken by side canons, of less depth, from 
tributaries of the larger rivers, which discharge their waters 
in cataracts over these walls. The Grand Canon of the 
Colorado, 400 miles in length and ranging from 1500 to 
6000 feet in height, with its numerous cataracts and its 
dark cavernous rapids and whirlpools, is one of the won¬ 
ders of the world. The mountain-chains, which are mostly 
spurs and outliers from the Rocky Mountains, traverse the 
country, with one or two exceptions, from N. E. to S. W. 
The principal ranges are the Piloncillo, the Pinaleno, and 
Santa Catarina in the S. E.; a low range along the N. bank 
of the Gila; the Mongollon in the E., between the Gila and 
the Colorado Chiquito ; the Zuni Mountains, between the 
Zuni and Rio Puerco, also in the E.; the Sierra de Tuni or 
Catamaza Mountains in the N. E.; the Sierra del Carizo 
and the San Francisco Mountains in the N. ,* the North- 
Side Mountains in the N. W.; the Aquarius and Black 
Mountains in the W.; and the Castle Dome Mountains in 
the S. W. There are also many isolated peaks and buttes 
in the Territory, some of them of great height. In the N. 
there is an isolated table-land of considerable extent, more 
than 1000 feet above the elevated plateau, called the Mesa 
de la Vaca, or “ Table-land of the Cows.” Nearer the centre 
of the Territory are the Blue Peaks, and farther W. Mount 
Kendrick, Mount Sitgreaves, Music Mount, Picacho Mount, 
and Mount Bill Williams. The San Francisco Mountains, 
which we have already mentioned, seem to have been a 
group of volcanoes, none of them now active, but centu¬ 
ries ago they poured out immense streams of lava, which 
flowed northward to the banks of the Colorado Chiquito. 
The geological formation of most of these mountains and 
mountain-ranges is granitic, though in the more western 
ranges there are indications of gneiss and of talcose, mica¬ 
ceous, and clay slates. The soil of the valleys and plateaus 
between the ranges generally consists ot the detritus of 
these rocks, thus indicating that they underlie much of the 
surface of the country. It is computed that the successive 
canons of the Colorado and its upper affluents expose to 
view, in all, geological strata to the thickness of 25,000 feet 
of the earth’s surface; and all the formations known in 
American geology, up to the tertiary and drift formations, 
16 


are found in their regular places. Nowhere on the globe 
is there a better opportunity of studying the geological 
structure of the earth. The whole Territory is drained by 
the Colorado of the West and its tributaries. This magnif¬ 
icent river, which has a length of more than 1200 miles, 
and drains a region more than 300,000 square miles in ex¬ 
tent, is formed in Utah by the junction of the Green and 
Grand rivers; the former rising in Western Wyoming, the 
latter in the mountains of Colorado. From their union the 
Colorado flows S. W. to the northern boundary of Arizona, 
and, continuing in the same direction there for a short dis¬ 
tance, turns sharply to the S. S. E., and thence W. N. W., 
until it strikes the Nevada boundary, where for 35 miles 
more, flowing N. W., it forms the northern boundary of 
Arizona ; and at Fortification Rock turns directly S., and, 
forming the western boundary between Arizona, Nevada, 
and California, discharges its waters into the Gulf of Cali¬ 
fornia. For nearly 600 miles of its course in Arizona it 
flows through deep canons, receiving numerous streams 
(more than 200 in all), and effecting a descent in its course 
through the Territory of not less than 3000 feet. The de¬ 
scent of the river through these formidable canons, rapids, 
and cataracts has been several times attempted, and Colonel 
Powell, U. S. A., accomplished it with great peril to himself 
and party in 1869, and again in 1871. It is navigable, 
though with some difficulty, from its mouth as far as Call- 
ville, Nev., at the entrance to the Grand Canon. The other 
rivers of Arizona, all of them affluents of the Colorado, are 
the Colorado Chiquito, or Little Colorado, a large stream, 
which, like the preceding, flows through deep canons; the 
Gila, which crosses the Territory from E. to W. between 
the 33d and 34th parallels, and discharges its waters into 
the Colorado near its mouth; Bill Williams' Fork, Yamjia 
Creek, and Diamond River, tributaries to the Colorado be¬ 
tween the Colorado Chiquito and the Gila; the Zuni, Rio 
Puerco of the West, Cottonwood Fork, Bouche’s Creek, 
Chevelon’s Creek, and Cataract Creek, affluents of the Little 
Colorado; and the Rio de los Palos, Rio Prieto, Rio San 
Carlos, Rio Salinas, Rio Verde or San Francisco, which 
lower down takes the name of the Saladas, Agua Frio, Cop¬ 
per Creek; and on the S. side, Rio San Domingo, Rio San 
Pedro, and Rio Santa Cruz, affluents of the Gila. None 
of these rivers have much value for navigation, their prin¬ 
cipal importance depending on the demand for their waters 
for irrigation, mining, and manufacturing purposes. 

Mineralogy .—Arizona probably surpasses every other 
State and Territory of the Union in the abundance and 
variety of its mineral treasures. Gold is found in every 
part of the Territory, both in placers and veins; silver is 
abundant and easily mined in the southern part of the Ter¬ 
ritory, the Heintzelman mine, or Cerro Colorado, yielding 
from $350 to $1000 to the ton of ore, and the Mowry, 
Santa Rita, Salero, Caliuabi, and San Pedro mines proving 
profitable for many years. Many gold and silver mines 
had been worked by the Spaniards and Mexicans success¬ 
fully for years before the Territory came into possession 
of the U. S., and these mines are still largely productive. 
There are quicksilver-mines near La Paz; tin, nickel, and 
cinnabar are found in several localities; copper of great 
purity; lead, platinum ; iron ore of several varieties, in¬ 
cluding the ores best adapted to making the finer qualities 
of iron and steel; bituminous coal near Camp Apache, and 
other qualities adapted to smelting purposes at several 
other localities; salt, sulphur, and gypsum, valuable min¬ 
eral springs, natural loadstones of great magnetic power, 
and fossil woods in great variety occur in different portions 
of the Territory. There are also opal pebbles, garnets, red, 
white, and yellow; azurite, malachite, chalcedony, opals, 
sapphires, and possibly some diamonds. 

Soil and Vegetation .—Aside from the barren and lava- 
covered sides of the isolated peaks, and the precipitous 
canons and mesas or lofty table-lands, the soil of Arizona 
is generally fertile, needing only systematic irrigation to 
make it yield abundantly. Even those apparently worth¬ 
less alkaline deserts, on which the candelabra cactus, the 
chapparal, the sagebush and the greasewood constitute the 
only vegetation, yield abundant crops when water is con¬ 
ducted to them. The region of the lower Colorado, which 
is often overflowed by the Colorado and the Gila, yields 
most astonishing crops. The great Colorado plateau of 
North-eastern and Eastern Arizona is for the most part 
covered with a heavy growth of forest trees—mainly the 
short-leaved southern pine, fir, and hemlock, scrub-oak, 
cedar, and juniper; while the mesquite, cottonwood, pilo- 
verde, and mountain mahogany are found in the more ele¬ 
vated valleys, and the cactus of numerous varieties in the 
lower and drier plains. The greater part of Arizona is an 
excellent grazing region, and if it could be protected from 
the raids of the Indians the Territory might become the 
finest stock-raising country on the continent. By the aid 
of irrigation where it is needed, and without it in the south- 































242 ARIZONA. 


ern portion along the lower Colorado and Gila, the cereals, 
maize, beans, onions, and semi-tropical fruits can be cul¬ 
tivated with great success. There is abundant evidence 
that this Territory once maintained a very dense population. 
The ruined cities, and the numerous and costly acequias 
(aqueducts) for conducting water for irrigation and other 
purposes, show that the intelligent and industrious tribes 
who were driven out by the Apaches had made great ad¬ 
vances in civilization. Many of these acequias are still 
capable of being used with but moderate repairs. 

Zoology. —All the wild animals of the Rocky Mountain 
and Sierra Nevada slopes are found here, and some genera 
and species which are rare or unknown farther N. The 
bison or American buffalo is not as abundant here as far¬ 
ther N., but deer of at least two species, antelopes, the 
big-horn or mountain sheep, are found in great numbers ,• 
the plains of Southern Arizona have large herds of wild 
horses, or mustangs; and of the beasts of prey there are 
pumas, jaguars, ocelots, black and grizzly bears, wild-cats, 
the red and the gray wolf, foxes, some peccaries, raccoons, 
and opossums, the sage-rabbit, several species of squirrels 
and prairie-dogs. Of birds there is a very great variety, 
Lieut. Wheeler’s exploring expedition having sent to the 
Smithsonian Institution 500 specimens of 183 species; 
among them, a swamp-swallow never before found W. of the 
Rocky Mountains, and another species supposed heretofore 
to inhabit only the Arctic regions. Game birds are very 
abundant, especially in Southern Arizona, as well as many 
of the vulture and eagle tribes; the king vulture, or king 
of the buzzards, an enormous vulture, little inferior in size 
to the condor or the lammergeier, being occasionally seen. 
Fish of species elsewhere unknown are found in the Colo¬ 
rado and its tributaries, and some species have been dis¬ 
covered in the mineral springs. Many of the fishes of 
these rivers ai'e of very fine flavor and delicate flesh. There 
are also numerous species of mollusks. The serpents and 
reptiles of Arizona are very numerous and formidable. 
The rattlesnake abounds on the sandy mesas or table¬ 
lands, and among the chapparal and around the gigantic 
cereus or saguana, scorpions, lizards, centipedes, and horned 
toads are found. In some of the rivers of Southern Arizona 
there are alligators. 

Climate. —In Northern and Central Arizona the air is 
dry and pure, sometimes cold, but there is seldom any 
snow, except on the mountain-summits, and frosts are rare. 
The heat of summer on the table-lands, where the forests 
are wanting, is sometimes great, but transient, and owing 
to the dryness of the atmosphere and the cool breezes from 
the mountains the nights are invariably comfortable and 
refreshing. Southern Arizona has a mild and delightful 
climate in winter, but the summers are excessively warm. 
The mercury rises at the mouth of the Gila to 120°, or even 
126° F. in the shade, and to 160° or higher in the sun. This 
lower valley of the Colorado is overflowed every summer by 
the river, and there is considerable sickness from malarial 
fevers in consequence. The rainfall throughout the Terri¬ 
tory occurs principally in June, July, August, and Septem¬ 
ber, this being known as the rainy season. During the re¬ 
mainder of the year the cultivated fields must rely upon 
irrigation for their moisture. 

Products. —According to the census of 1870, there were 
in that year 14,585 acres of improved land, and 7222 acres 
of unimproved land, in farms in Arizona, the value of 
which was estimated at $161,340, and the value of farming 
implements on them was $20,105. The wages paid to farm- 
laborers was $104,620, and the total estimated value of farm 
products was $227,998. This was exclusive of the lands 
cultivated by the Indians on reservations in the Territory, 
which must have been quite as much more. The number 
of horses broken to saddle or harness was 4432, of which 
only 335 were on farms; the number of neat cattle was 
38,632, of which 33,500 were on the stock-ranges and the 
remainder on farms. The agricultural products reported 
were 27,052 bushels of wheat, 32,041 of corn, and 55,077 
of barley. The commissioner of the land office estimated 
in 1870 that 6,000,000 acres of the Territory by the aid of 
irrigation arc capable of yielding very large crops; that 
55,000,000 acres were excellent grazing-lands, and the re¬ 
mainder was inarable from its broken and mountainous 
surface or the persistent drought. From the report of 
Lieut. Wheeler, now engaged in the survey of the Terri¬ 
tory, it would appear that the fertile and arable lands are 
of larger extent than the commissioner had estimated. 
Lieut. Wheeler states that the Territory contains more good 
and arable lands than Nevada, and that even the high and 
apparently barren njesas or table-lands under the influence 
of irrigation, which, from their relation to the rivers, is 
almost universally practicable, would yield abundant crops. 

There are few manufactures, and these only of the simpler 
and ruder kinds. The great industry of the Territory is 
mining, and this is prosecuted at so much hazard, from the 


depredations and outrages of the Apaches and some Mex¬ 
ican outlaws, that comparatively little is accomplished. 
Many of the gold arid silver mines have been worked for 
nearly 200 years, but are now abandoned from the danger 
incurred in working them; others are of more recent dis¬ 
covery. There is no definite information concerning either 
the number or the annual yield of gold and silver in the 
mines now opened and worked in the Territory. There are 
probably fifty or sixty mines and placers on which some 
work has been done; but many of the mines, besides the 
danger from the Indians, have as yet an inadequate supply 
of water, and many others, yielding .so far only the lower 
grade of silver ores (those yielding from $15 to $40 per ton 
of ore), are rendered unprofitable by the great expense of 
transportation between the mines and the smelting estab¬ 
lishments. These difficulties will soon be obviated by the 
construction of mining canals and aqueducts and the build¬ 
ing of railways. The Ileintzelman mine is thus far the 
most productive, but the Mowry, Santa Rita, Salero, Ca- 
huabi, San Pedro, Vulture, Tiger, and some of the newer 
mines, are yielding well. 

Railroads. —There are as yet no railroads in the Terri¬ 
tory, but two lines from the Mississippi to the Pacific 
coast: one starting from Vicksburg, following the 32d 
parallel to the vicinity of Tucson, and thence along the 
valleys of the Santa Cruz and Gila to the Colorado River, 
and having its termini at San Diego, San Pedro, and San 
Francisco; and the other starting from Memphis, follow¬ 
ing, with some deviations, the 35th parallel, is to cross 
Central Arizona, along the valley of the Rio Puerco of the 
West, and bridge the Colorado at the mouth of Pahute 
Creek, having for its ultimate destination San Francisco. 
Both these roads are now in active progress, work being 
prosecuted on them at both ends, and they will probably 
be completed in four or five years. 

Finances. —The assessed value of real and personal 
pi'operty in Arizona in 1870 was $1,410,295 ; the true value, 
$3,440,791, exclusive of government property—forts, bar¬ 
racks, stores, etc.—and of property in the hands of Indian 
agents for distribution. The total local taxation the same 
year was $31,323, and the local debt, $10,500. This debt 
was paid off' before Jan., 1872. The government expenses 
for territorial offices amount to $15,000. There are no 
banks, savings banks, or insurance companies in Arizona. 
The commerce of the Territory is conducted mainly through 
San Francisco and Santa Fe, N. M. The Territory had 
sent for coinage to the U. S. mint, up to June 30, 1872, 
$1,015,274.47, although much the greater part of its silver 
ores was sent to Swansea, Wales, for reduction, and the bul¬ 
lion subsequently sold in London. Several of the mining 
companies which reduced their own ores were English, and 
these shipped the bullion directly to England. 

Population. —The population of Arizona, then a portion 
of New Mexico, was in 1860, 6482, leaving out of the count 
Indians not taxed—that is, still retaining their tribal or¬ 
ganization. In 1870 there were 9658 of the settled popu¬ 
lation, including 9581 whites, 26 colored persons, 20 Chinese, 
and 31 civilized Indians. There were also 32,052 Indians 
sustaining tribal relations, of whom 4352 were on reserva¬ 
tions or in villages, and it was estimated that 27,700 were 
nomadic. Of the 4352 Indians in villages or in reserva¬ 
tions, 1277 were men, 1396 women, 925 male children, and 
754 female children. Of the 9658 persons regularly enu¬ 
merated, 5809 were of foreign birth. Of these, 4348 were 
natives of Mexico, 686 were natives of Great Britain and 
Ireland, 379 of Germany, 202 from other European states, 
142 from British America, and 20 from China. Of the native- 
born population, 3849 in number, 1240 were born in the 
Territory, and the remainder in New York, Pennsylva¬ 
nia, Ohio, California, and Missouri. Of the 9658 persons, 
6887 were males and 2771 females. The density of the 
population, excluding tribal Indians, is .085 to the square 
mile. The settlements of whites are mostly along the 
lower Colorado, the lower Gila, and the Santa Cruz rivers, 
in which regions are the greater number of silver and gold 
mines which have been worked of late. The Indian tribes 
of the Tei'ritory are the Apaches, who are subdivided into 
Tontos, Pinals, Arivapas, Mescaleros, Bonitos, and Cochise’s 
Apaches; the Seviches, Apache Mohaves, Apache Coyote- 
ros, and Cosninas ; the Piinos, Maricopas, Papagos, Yumas, 
Mohaves proper, Pahutes, Hualapais, Chemehuevis, and 
Utes. There are also on the elevated mesas of the northern 
plateau some villages of the Moquis and other pueblo or town 
Indians, the small remainder of the ancient Aztec race, and 
some of them, perhaps, of a still earlier race, who had ac¬ 
quired many of the arts and refinements of civilization. 
Of these tribes, the six Apache tribes are all hostile, and 
have constantly been the terror of the settlers, as well as 
of the other Indians. Guerrillas, robbers, and murderers 
by profession, no portion of the settlements has been ex¬ 
empt from their daring and bloody raids. The territorial 











ARIZONA—ARKANSAS 


243 


legislature in 1871, in a memorial presented to Congress, 
furnished sworn evidence that in the two years previous 1G6 
persons had been murdered, and 801 horses and mules and 
2437 cattle killed or stolen by these lawless tribes. Re¬ 
cently, after a very severe punishment, they have for the 
first time sued for peace, and pledged themselves to remain 
on the reservations the government had assigned to them. 
Their repentance is not likely to be very enduring unless 
enforced with the strong hand. The other Indian tribes 
are either indifferent or strongly friendly to the whites. 

Education .—The census statistics of 1870 report 149 
children, all whites, as attending school, 64 natives and 85 
of foreign birth, 79 males and 70 females, while 2690 per¬ 
sons of ten years of age and over could not read, and 2753 
could not write. Of the latter, 262 were natives and 2491 
of foreign birth. Under the heading “schools of all 
classes,” it gives 1 school, with 7 teachers and 132 pupils, 
having an income of $6000 per annum. In Nov., 1871, 
Governor Safford stated in his message that by the first of 
January following they would have a free school in every 
district (there are thirty-four districts) in the Territory. 

Libraries and Newspapers .—There were in the Territory 
in 1870 one public (territorial) library, with 1000 volumes, 
and five private libraries, with an aggregate of 1000 vol¬ 
umes in the five. There was at the same time one weekly 
newspaper, having a circulation among 280 subscribers, and 
issuing annually 14,560 copies. 

Churches .—In 1870 there were 4 churches (all Roman 
Catholic) in the Territory, and 4 church edifices, having 
2400 sittings and property worth $24,000. 

Constitution, etc .—The Territory was organized from New 
Mexico Feb. 24,1863, and its constitution and government 
are still territorial. The legislature meets annually in 
January. The governor is appointed by the President, 
and serves four years. The secretary of state, the treasurer 
(who is also receiver-general), and the auditor, as well as 
the delegate to Congress, are elected by the people. There 
is a U. S. district court for the Territory, the judge of which 
is also chief-justice of the territorial supreme court. There 
are two associate judges of this supreme court, and all 
three are appointed by the President. The supreme court 
holds one session annually at Tucson. There are also pro¬ 
bate courts in each county. The territorial legislature has 
passed an act concerning common schools, which provides 
for the organization of districts and the levying of taxes 
for their support by the boards of county supervisors. 

Counties —There were in 1870, 4 counties—viz. Mohave, 
population 179; Pima, 5716 ; Yavapai, 2142; and Yuma, 
1621. In 1872 the N. W. corner of the Territory, embra¬ 
cing the lowest of the great bends of the Colorado River, 
and what is known as the Black Canon, was set off as Pah- 
ute county. Its population must be very small. 

Principal Towns. —Tucson, the capital, in 1870 had 3224 
inhabitants. It is situated on the Santa Cruz River, in 
Pima county, in the southern part of the Territory, in lat. 
32° 14', and within a short distance of some excellent mines. 
The only other towns of importance are Arizona City, in 
Yuma county, situated in the S. W. corner of the Territory, 
on the Colorado, at the mouth of the Gila, and opposite 
Fort Yuma; population in 1870, 1144; Prescott, the coun¬ 
ty-seat of Yavapai county, and the former capital of the 
Territory, situated in about lat. 34° 35' N., and Ion. 112° 
10' W. from Greenwich; it had in 1870 a population of 
668; Adamsville, Apache Pass, and Camp Grant, in Pima 
county; Ehrenberg and La Paz, in Yuma; Salt River Val¬ 
ley and Wickenberg, in Yavapai. 

History .—The southern part of this Territory was occu¬ 
pied by the Spaniards and Spanish missionaries very early. 
The Jesuits had missions on the Santa Cruz River as early 
as 1600, and the ruins of their churches and convents are 
still in existence. There were also settlements in the sev¬ 
enteenth century on the Gila, the Rio Verde, and the Sa¬ 
linas. The whole Territory, as well as that of New Mex¬ 
ico, formed an integral part of the Mexican republic until 
1848, when that portion lying N. of the Gila was ceded to 
the U. S. The Territory of New Mexico had originally 
for its northern boundary the 37th parallel to the 117th 
meridian, where it touched the boundary of California. In 
1853 the U. S. government purchased from Mexico the ter¬ 
ritory lying S. of the Gila River and W. of the Rio del 
Norte, now known as the “ Gadsden Purchase,” and the tri¬ 
angular section S. of the 37th parallel, and between the 114th 
and the 117th meridians, was transferred to Nevada. Arizona 
was a county of New Mexico until Feb., 1863, when it was 
set oft' as a separate Territory and organized Feb. 24 of that 
year. Its growth and prosperity have been much hindered 
by the constant depredations and outrages of the Apaches, 
and prior to its organization as a Territory it was also the 
favorite haunt of outlaws from Mexico, Iexas, Nevada, and 
California. These have now been mostly driven out, and 
its population is enterprising and law-abiding. 


Governors .— 

John A. Gurley, 1862-63. 
John N. Goodwin, 1863-64. 
M. M. Crocker (military), 
1864-66. 


Richard C. McCormick, 

1866-68. 

A. P. K. Safford, 1869-73. 


L. P. Brockett. 

Arizo'na, a post-township of Burt co., Neb. Pop. 534. 

Arizo'na Cit'y, a post-village of Yuma co., Arizona 
Ter., on the Colorado River, at the mouth of the Gila, 175 
miles from the mouth of the Colorado. It has an extensive 
river-trade carried on in steamers. Pop. 1444. 

Arjish', a river of European Turkey,-rises in the East 
Carpathian Mountains, Hows south-eastward through Wal- 
lachia, and enters the Danube 42 miles S. S. E. of Bucha¬ 
rest. Length, estimated at 175 miles. 

Arjish-Dagh. See Arg^eus, Mount. 

Ark [Lat. ar'ca], a chest, a coffer, a large vessel. The 
term is principally used in a scriptural signification. 

Ark of the Covenant [Heb. aron; Gr. ki /3wtos]. This 
ark, together with the mercy-seat, was especially invested 
with sacredness and mystery by the ancient Jews. It is 
said to have been an oblong chest two and a half cubits 
long by one and a half broad and deep, overlaid within 
and without with gold, and supporting upon its lid the 
mercy-seat, with the cherubims. Its principal purpose or 
use was to contain inviolate the tables of stone upon which 
were written that “ covenant ” from which it derived its 
title. It was also the receptacle for the pot of manna and 
the rod of Aaron. It occupied the most holy spot (the 
“Holy of Holies”) of the whole sanctuary, and thus 
excluded any idol from the centre of worship. (See Ex¬ 
odus xxv., xxxvii., xl.; also Smith’s “ Dictionary of the 
Bible.”) 

Arkadel'phia, a post-village, capital of Clark co., Ark. 
It is situated at the head of steam-navigation on the right 
shore of Washita River, 65 miles S. W. of Little Rock, on 
the Cairo and Fulton R. R. It has water-power, an active 
trade, one weekly newspaper, and is the seat of a State 
normal school; and was, during the first two years of the 
late civil war, a principal military depot for the States 
of Arkansas, Missouri, and Louisiana. On Feb. 15, 1863, 
a skirmish took place between a detachment of Union 
troops under Capt. Brown and a party of Confederates, in 
which the latter were defeated. Pop. 948. 

Arkan'sas, a river of the U. S., next to the Missouri 
the longest affluent of the Mississippi, rises in the Rocky 
Mountains and in the W. central part of Colorado. Its 
general direction is eastward for more than 500 miles 
through extensive plains, large portions of which are sterile. 
Having crossed the eastern boundary of Colorado into the 
State of Kansas, and reached nearly the 98th degree of W. 
longitude, it turns and flows south-eastward through Kansas 
and the Indian Territoi-y to Fort Smith, on the western 
boundary of Arkansas ; continuing thence in a south-east¬ 
ern course, it traverses the State of Ai’kansas, which it di¬ 
vides into two nearly equal portions, and enters the Mis¬ 
sissippi in lat. 33° 54' N , Ion. 91° 10' W. The whole length 
is 2170 miles. It is navigable by steamers 800 miles from 
its mouth during nine months of the year. The difference 
between high and low water in this river is about twenty- 
five feet. 


Arkansas, one of the South-western States of the Union, 



the twenty-fifth in the order of its admission as a State, 
bounded on the N. by Missouri, on the E. by Missouri, 
Tennessee, and Mississippi, being separated from the two 
latter by the Mississippi River; S. by Louisiana, and IV. 
by Texas and the Indian Territoi*y. Its area is 52,198 
square miles, or 33,406,720 acres—about the same size as 


















244 


ARKANSAS. 


England without Wales. It lies between the parallels of 
33° and 36° 30' N. lat., and between the meridians of 89° 
40' and 94° 42' W r . Ion. from Greenwich. 

Surface .—The surface of the State presents great varia¬ 
tions of altitude. The eastern portion, from 30 to 100 
miles W. of the Mississippi, is generally low, containing 
numerous lakes, bayous, and swamps, and, except some 
of the more elevated bluffs, is subject to inundation by the 
annual overflow of the Mississippi River. Beyond this 
level region the surface is moderately hilly, rising gradu¬ 
ally towards the W. and N. W. The western and north¬ 
western sections consist of extensive and elevated prairies, 
broken by the passage across them of the Ozark Moun¬ 
tains in a north-westerly direction from Little Rock to 
South-western Missouri, aud S. of the Arkansas River of 
the Masserne range, which stretches south-westerly from 
nearly the same point. The hills of the Ozark range rise 
to a general elevation of 1500 to 2000 feet, while some of 
the higher ridges and summits attain an altitude of 3000 
feet. Besides these two ranges there are the Black Hills in 
the N., and the Ouachita or Wacliita Hills in the W. The 
country N. of the Ozark range is very beautiful with its 
diversified scenery of hills, plains, prairie, and woodland, 
and the soil is very fertile and well watered. Indeed, the 
whole State may be said to be extremely well watered. 
The Mississippi River washes its eastern boundary from 
the N. line of Tennessee to the northern boundary of 
Louisiana. The Arkansas lliver, entering the State on 
the W. in lat. 35° 15', crosses it diagonally, and discharges 
its waters into the Mississippi in about lat. 33° 40'. The 
St. Francis, the White River (with its large affluent, the 
Big Black), the Ouachita (with its tributary, the Saline), 
and the Red River (with one or two large branches), trav¬ 
erse portions of the State, and discharge their waters into 
the Mississippi at different points. These are all naviga¬ 
ble rivers for at least three-fourths of the year. Almost 
every county is drained by these or some of their smaller 
tributaries. Forty-three counties are traversed by navig¬ 
able streams, and the navigable waters of the State exceed 
3000 miles in length. 

Geology .—The eastern portion of the State, including 
the swampy and overflowed lands, is of alluvial or post- 
tertiary formation, and at no distant geological period 
formed a portion of the great lake or estuary which occu¬ 
pied the whole valley of the lower Mississippi. At the 
mouth of the Arkansas River this post-tertiary belt attains 
its greatest width in the Mississippi Valley, about 75 miles. 
It passes as the land rises gently into tertiary, which in 
turn is succeeded by a wedge-shaped tract of cretaceous 
rocks, narrow N. E. of the Arkansas River, and coming to 
a point nearly opposite Cairo, but widening rapidly be¬ 
tween that and the Red River. N. of the Red River, and 
occupying some of the south-western counties, is a tract of 
primitive or azoic rocks, which extends into the Indian 
Territory, and is the only azoic tract in the State. Adjoin¬ 
ing the cretaceous rocks on their N. W. border is a trian¬ 
gular tract of Silurian rocks, having its apex in Saline 
county and its base in Missouri. W. of this, and occupy¬ 
ing all the remaining territory of the State except the 
small tract of azoic rocks already mentioned, are the car¬ 
boniferous rocks, and on either side of the Arkansas River, 
between Little Rock and the western boundary of the 
State, are the two tracts of coal-measures which will 
eventually make Arkansas one of the largest coal-produ¬ 
cing States in the Union. It will be seen, then, that the 
geological formations of the State include azoic, Silurian, 
carboniferous, cretaceous, tertiary, and post-tertiary rocks. 

Mineralogy. — Gold has been found, but it is thought 
not in paying quantities, in White county. The galena of 
Sevier and Pulaski counties, and it is believed also the de¬ 
posits of lead ore in Washington, Benton, Madison, Car- 
roll, Newton, Marion, Searcy, Izard, Independence, Law¬ 
rence, and Randolph counties are argentiferous, yielding 
in some instances 73 per cent, of lead and 52£ ounces of 
silver to the ton. This is a higher percentage of silver 
than most of the argentiferous galena ores elsewhere yield. 
The zinc ores of the State are said to be equal to those of 
Silesia. Copper, manganese, and iron of the best quality 
are among the other metallic products of the State. The 
iron ores are of two or three kinds, and when combined 
produce an iron of great purity and tenacity. Some of 
the ore-beds are situated in close proximity to the coal¬ 
mines, and are worked to great advantage. The coal-fields 
cover about 12,000 square miles on both sides of the Ar¬ 
kansas River, and coal of good quality has been mined in 
Washington, Crawford, Sebastian, Franklin, Scott, John¬ 
son, Yell, Pope, Perry, Conway, White, and Pulaski coun¬ 
ties. The veins are from three to nine feet in thickness, 
and the coal is semi-bituminous, easily accessible, and con¬ 
taining very little sulphur. An analysis of a five-foot vein 
at Green’s Bank in Sebastian county gave the following 


result: volatile matter, 13.75; coke, 86.25; and for the ul¬ 
timate constituents, water, 1.40 per cent.; gas, 12.35; fixed 
carbon, 82.25 ; ashes, flesh-color, 4 per cent. There are also 
extensive beds of lignite in the south-eastern part of the 
State, of such quality as to be in demand for steamboat 
fuel. Marble of the pink and gray tints, and of excellent 
quality, has been found in various localities; Madison 
county has many quarries of it. Slate, said to be equal to 
the best Vermont, and suitable for all purposes, is quarried 
in Pulaski, Polk, Pike, and Sevier counties. There are ex¬ 
tensive quarries of novaculite or “Arkansas hone or oil 
stone,” by far the best hone-stone known, in Hot Springs 
and Grant counties. The Ozark Mountains are composed 
of the “millstone-grit formation,” and the grindstones 
from that region are superior to the Nova Scotia burr- 
stones. Rock or quartz crystals of marvellous purity and 
transparency, and of large size, are found in Montgomery 
county and elsewhere in what are called the Crystal Moun¬ 
tains. Kaolin or porcelain clay, mineral paints or ochres, 
nitre earths, granite of excellent quality, building stone 
(both sandstone and limestone), marls, greensand, and salt 
are among the other mineral treasures of the State. “ The 
Hot Springs of Arkansas,” very widely known everywhere 
for their healing qualities, are situated in Hot Springs 
county, about 60 miles S. W. from Little Rock. The 
springs are fifty-four in number, and range in temperature 
from 93° to 148° F. They contain a large amount of car¬ 
bonic acid and the carbonates of the alkalies and alkaline 
earths, and have a very high reputation in diseases of the 
lungs and liver, and indeed in most chronic diseases. 
There are many other mineral springs in the State, and in 
Fulton county a mammoth spring, apparently charged 
with carbonic acid, which is constantly effervescing, has a 
uniform temperature of 60° F. in winter and summer, and 
flows at the rate of 8000 barrels per minute. 

Vegetation .—Arkansas has extensive forests of valuable 
timber. Pine of the finest quality is found in the hill- 
country, and occasionally in the bottom-lands. It is said 
that the yellow-pine timber-lands cover one-fourth of the 
area of the State. Dense forests of cypress grow on the 
bottom-lands and along the lakes and bayous, and single 
trees are often met with that will yield 6000 feet of lumber. 
There are many varieties of oak in the State, the most 
valuable of which are the white oak and a kindred species 
called the “overcup oak,” which grows to a great size, its 
trunk being often five feet or more in diameter. This is 
much used for the manufacture of pipe-staves for sugar 
and tobacco hogsheads. The other timber trees of the 
State are red cedar, of which there are large tracts in the 
northern and western sections; black walnut, tupelo gum, 
wild cherry, maple, black locust, sassafras, red mulberry,^ 
and Osage orange, the latter growing to a great size in the 
Red River valley. There are also among the forest trees 
ash, hickory, gum, beech, pecan, sycamore, elm, cotton¬ 
wood, cedar, buttonwood, and hackberry, and of orna¬ 
mental trees and evergreens the holly, willow, catlep, China 
tree, box-elder, butternut, palmetto, dogwood, plum, horn¬ 
beam, ironwood, mockernut, juniper, and laurel. The 
undergrowth of the forests consists chiefly of scrub oak, 
arrowwood gum, sassafras, hazel, sumac, hickory, dogwood, 
and kinnikinnick, with extensive canebrakes in the low¬ 
lands. Among the wild fruits and berries are the pawpaw, 
persimmon, haw, whortleberry, wild plum, and chinquapin. 
The cultivated fruits are abundant and of excellent quality. 
Apples are especially fine in the hill-country. Peaches 
ripen from the first of June to the first of November, and 
pears from midsummer to January. Plums, apricots, cher¬ 
ries, nectarines, and all the small fruits, as grapes, black¬ 
berries, strawberries, etc., are of fine quality and yield pro¬ 
fusely. The grape is extensively cultivated both for the 
table and for wine, and in the long and moderately warm 
seasons it comes to a rare perfection. All the cereals, as 
well as Indian corn, yield abundant crops. Root crops do 
well, and the native grasses of Arkansas, which include 
thirty-five varieties, are remarkable for their succulence 
and their fattening properties. The hay crop is more im¬ 
portant in Arkansas than in any other Southern State. 
Cotton is the great staple, and is largely grown, both on' 
the alluvial lands and on the hills. There is hardly another 
State in the Union which has so large a proportion of ara¬ 
ble lands. 

Zoology .—Wild game, consisting of bears, deer, turkeys, 
ducks, prairie-chickens, and quail, is abundant, and the 
rivers, lakes, and bayous are well stocked with fish, among 
which are pickerel, black bass, buffalo, and catfish, the 
latter sometimes weighing 150 pounds. In the bayous 
and lakes, and in the Red, Ouachita, and Arkansas rivers, 
the alligator occasionally makes his appearance, though 
less abundant than in Louisiana and Texas. Serpents and 
other reptiles are plentiful in the lowlands, and the rattle¬ 
snake and moccasin are found in the hills. 










































ARKANSAS. 


Climate. —Arkansas has as a whole a very fine climate. It 
is sheltered from the northers by the mountains on the N.and 
N. W., and from the fierce heats of the Louisiana lowlands 
by its diversified surface and its long river-valleys. The 
eastern portion of the State is low and hot, and in the swampy 
and overflowed lands there is considerable malarial disease 
—fever and ague, congestive chills, and sometimes yellow 
fever—but on the higher lands the temperature is equable 
and the range of the thermometer not excessive. In 1870 
the extreme range of the thermometer for the year at 
Little Rock was 92°; the highest point reached was 96° 
for one day in September ; the lowest point was 4° above 
zero for one day in December; the average temperature 
of the four months, June, July, August, and September, 
was 78° 30'; and the average of the three winter mouths, 
December, January, and February, 43°. The mean tem¬ 
perature for the year was 62°. The rainfall ranges from 55 
to 60 inches annually. The climate has a high reputation 
for the relief of pulmonary diseases, and from the vital sta¬ 
tistics of the census of 1870 would seem to deserve it. 

Products. —The agricultural products of the State in 
1872 were: Indian corn, 17,710,000 bushels; wheat, 702,000 
bushels; rye, 40,000 bushels; oats, 703,000 bushels; rice 
(in 1870), 73,021 pounds; peas and beans, 47,376 bushels; 
potatoes, Irish ( Solarium tuberosum), 400,000 bushels; 
potatoes, sweet ( Batatas edulis), 712,000 bushels; tobacco, 
770,000 pounds; hay, 12,500 tons; cotton, 283,372 bales 
of 450 pounds each; wool (in 1870), 214,784 pounds; bees¬ 
wax (in 1870), 12,789 pounds; honey, 276,324 pounds; 
butter (in 1870), 2,753,931 pounds; cheese, 2119 pounds; 
milk sold, 31,350 gallons. The orchard products in 1870 
were $157,219 ; products of market-gardens, $55,697; for¬ 
est products, $34,225; wine, 3734 gallons; cane-sugar, 92 
hogsheads; maple sugar, 1185 pounds; cane molasses, 72,008 
gallons; sorghum molasses, 147,203 gallons; maple mo¬ 
lasses, 75 gallons. The number of acres of improved land 
in farms in 1870 was 1,859,821; of unimproved land in 
farms, 5,737,475 acres, of which 3,910,325 were in woodland, 
and 1,827,150 in other unimproved lands; so that only 
22.6 per cent, of the land of the State is as yet taken up in 
farms. The present cash value of the farms of the State 
(in 1870) was $40,029,698, and of farming implements and 
machinery, $2,237,409. The total amount of wages paid 
for farm labor during that year was $4,061,952, and the 
total estimated value of all farm productions, including 
betterments and additions to stock, was $40,701,699. The 
valuation of all live-stock in 1870 was $17,222,556, and of 
animals slaughtered for provisions, $3,843,923. In Jan., 
1873, the number of horses, as estimated by the agricultu¬ 
ral department, was 160,700, and their value, $14,302,300; 
the number of mules was 82,800, and their value, $9,108,000; 
the number of milch cows was 150,300, and their value, 
$3,081,000; the number of oxen and other cattle was 
251,300, and their value, $4,523,400; the number of sheep 
was 160,400, and their value, $321,200; the number of 
swine was 1,067,400, and their value, $4,269,600 ; making 
the total value of live-stock at that time, $35,604,500. 

The manufacturing industry of the State, though not 
fully represented in the census, is not large; but it will 
doubtless increase, as no State in the Union has more 
abundant water-power, cheaper fuel, or a larger supply of 
the raw material for manufactures in close proximity to 
fuel and to good markets. The State had in 1870 two 
cotton-mills, capital $13,000, using 66,400 pounds of cotton 
of the value of $13,780, and producing $22,362 worth of 
goods, at a'cost for labor of .$4100. There were at the 
same date 13 woollen manufactories, with $.>2,500 capital, 
using 115,330 pounds of domestic wool, valued at $55,782, 
and producing goods valued at $78,690, with a cost of labor 
of $6870. There were also 283 establishments for ginning 
cotton, with a capital of $344,825; 35 for the manufacture 
of leather, capital $32,100 ; 212 saw-mills, capital $694,400 ; 
272 flour and meal mills, capital $477,151. The whole num¬ 
ber of manufacturing establishments in the State was 1364, 
capital $2,137,738; steam-engines, 300, with 6980 horse¬ 
power; water-wheels, 134, with 1509 horse-power, employ¬ 
ing 4133 males above sixteen years of age, 48 females above 
sixteen, and 271 children; wages paid during the year, 
$754,950 ; value of materials used, $4,823,651; value of an¬ 
nual products, $7,699,676. The home manufactures of the 
State, not included in these, were reported in the census of 
1870 to amount to $807,573. 

Railroads— The railroads already completed, and to be 
completed by Jan. 1, 1874, have an extent of 1169 miles. 
Of these roads, only 128 miles were completed on the first 
of Jan., 1870, and ten years earlier there were but 38£ 
miles in operation. Of the roads now nearly or quite com¬ 
pleted, several are trunk-roads, forming portions of the great 
routes to the Pacific or to Texas. Thus, the Memphis and 
Little Rock and the Little Rock and Fort Smith, both, we 
believe, now in operation, form important sections of the 


245 


Pacific road which is now in progress along the 35th paral¬ 
lel. They will also connect by a short link with nearly 
3000 miles of complete railway to the North-west. The 
Mississippi Red River and Ouachita R. R., starting from 
Chicot on the Mississippi River and extending westward 
to Fulton on the Red River, will sustain nearly tho same 
relations to the Pacific road along the 32d parallel and to the 
International of Texas as the roads previously named do 
to the line of the 35th parallel. More than 70 of its 155 miles 
are completed. The Cairo and Fulton R. R., extending 
from Cairo (Ill.) and from St. Louis, via the Iron Mountain 
R. R., to Fulton on the Red River, where it joins the Inter¬ 
national of Texas, traversing fifteen counties of the State, 
and forming a part of the grand trunk-line from Chicago 
and St. Louis to Texas, and ultimately to Mexico, is one of 
the most important of the Arkansas railroads. It is 301 
miles in length, is nearly completed, and will be finished by 
Jan. 1, 1874. Other important railways in the State arc 
the Arkansas Central, from Little Rock to Helena: the 
Little Rock Pine Bluff and New Orleans R. R. and its 
branch, extending from Little Rock to the Mississippi 
River at Chicot and to the Louisiana line; the Helena 
branch of the Cairo and Fulton R. R.; the Memphis Shreve¬ 
port and Jefferson Branch R. R., which leaves the Mem¬ 
phis and Little Rock at Duvall’s Bluff'; the Arkansas and 
Louisiana R. R. from Little Rock to Alexandria (La.), not 
yet graded; and the Arkansas Western, which is to be the 
connecting link between the road on the 35th parallel and 
the network of railroads in Kansas and South-western 
Missouri. There have been awarded to these railroads by 
the State the loan of its credit to the extent of $15,000 per 
mile to roads having no land-grant, and $10,000 per mile to 
those having land-grants. These credits and bonds, having 
thirty years to run and bearing interest at 6 per cent., the 
interest to be paid by the roads, have been awarded to the 
extent of 850 miles, or $11,400,000/but only a portion of 
the bonds have yet been issued. The land-grants to these 
companies are not far from 6,000,000 acres. 

Finances .—The State debt of Arkansas, present and (so 
far as the railroads are concerned) prospective, amounts 
to $19,398,000, and is classified as follows: funded debt, 
including the amount due to the Smithsonian Institution, 
loaned to the State many years ago by the general gov¬ 
ernment, $4,430,000 ; State-aid railroad bonds, as specified 
above, $11,400,000 (not all issued yet); levee bonds, 
$3,000,000 (only about $1,600,000 yet issued); ten-year 
bonds to supply casual deficits, $300,000; floating debt, 
$268,000. The railroads will generally be able to pay the 
interest on their bonds, so that the financial position of the 
State is not discreditable to it. The valuation of property 
is rapidly increasing: in 1870 the entire assessed valuation, 
real and personal (which was about 50 per cent, of the 
real values), was $94,528,843; in 1872 it had increased to 
nearly $120,000,000, of which a little more than $80,000,000 
was real estate, and not quite $40,000,000 personal prop¬ 
erty. The true valuation in 1870, according to the ninth 
census, was $156,394,691. Aside from the State debt, 
there are county debts, mostly the issue of county bonds 
to railroads, etc., and town and city debts. The former 
amounted in 1870 to $536,649, and the latter to $154,986. 
The taxation (aside from national taxes) in 1870 reached 
the sum of $2,866,890, of which $950,894 was the State 
tax, $1,738,760 county taxes, and $177,236 town and city 
taxes. The State tax now yields a little more,'and the 
credit of the State is fast improving. As an interior and 
riparian State, Arkansas has no foreign commerce and no 
large river-port. Her cotton is mostly shaped through 
Memphis and New Orleans. Her interior commerce through 
her navigable rivers and her rapidly extending railroad 
system is already considerable, and is fast increasing. 

Ranks and Private Banking-houses .—There are two 
national banks in the State—the Merchants’ National at 
Little Rock, with a capital of $150,600, and the National 
Bank of Western Arkansas at Fort Smith, capital $55,000. 
There are no State banks and no savings banks. There 
are ten private banking-houses—three at Little Rock, two 
at Fayetteville, two at Pine Bluff, and one each at Augusta, 
Camden, and Helena. 

Insurance .—There were no life, fire, or marine insurance 
companies in the State up to Oct., 1872, but several of the 
St. Louis, Memphis, Richmond, and New Orleans com¬ 
panies, and perhaps others, had agencies at Little Rock 
and other points. 

Population .—Arkansas was organized as a Territory in 
1819, and its first appearance as a distinct Territory in the 
census was in 1820, when it had 14,255 inhabitants, though 
settlements within its present boundaries, but then belong¬ 
ing to the Territory of Louisiana, had been reported in 
1810 as having 1062 inhabitants; in 1830 the number was 
30,388; in 1840, after it had been admitted as a State, 97,574; 
in 1850,209,897; in 1860,435,450; and in 1870,484,471. Its 






















246 ARKANSAS. 


population now considerably exceeds 525,000. The den¬ 
sity of the population at the last census was nearly 0.3 in¬ 
habitants to the square mile. The greater part of the 
State is considerably below this average, and only a tract 
comprising six or seven counties on both sides of the Ar¬ 
kansas River in the centre of the State is materially above 
it. Of the population in 1870, 362,115 were whites, 122,169 
colored, 98 Chinese, and 89 Indians. Of the whole num¬ 
ber, 479,445 were natives of the U. S., and 5026 were of 
foreign birth; of the natives, 10,617 had one or both 
parents foreign, 9893 had a foreign father, 8484 a foreign 
mother, and 7760 had a foreign father and foreign mother. 
Of the natives, 170,398 whites, 62,463 colored, and 21 In¬ 
dians, or nearly one-half, were born in Arkansas, about 
230,000 in the other Southern and South-western States, 
and the remainder in the Northern and Western States 
and Territories. The foreigners were mostly Germans 
and Irish. Of the total population, 248,261 were males 
and 236,210 females; of the native population, 244,491 
were males and 234,954 females; of the foreign popula¬ 
tion, 3770 were males and 1256 females; of the whites, 
186,445 were males and 175,670 females; of the colored 
races, 61,680 were males and 60,489 females. Dividing 
these, again, into negroes and mulattoes, there were 55,436 
male negroes and 54,395 females ; 6244 male mulattoes and 
6092 females. Of the whole population, 84,645 males and 
80,847 females were of school age, or between five and 
eighteen years. 

Education .—The whole number of children attending 
school during some part of the year 1869-70 in the State 
was 62,572, of whom 62,546 were natives and 26 foreign¬ 
ers; 56,788 were whites and 5784 colored; 33,068 males 
and 29,504 females. Of persons ten years old and over, 
111,799 could not read, and 133,339 could not write. Of 
these, 28,298 were white males and 35,797 white females; 
34,896 were colored males and 34,326 colored females. 
There were in the State, according to the census, 1978 
schools of all classes, with 2297 teachers, of whom 1653 
were males and 644 females ; 81,526 pupils, of whom 41,939 
were males and 39,587 females. The total income for the 
support of these schools fqr the year ending June 1, 1870, 
was $681,962, of which $7300 was from endowment, 
$555,331 from taxation and public funds, and 119,331 from 
other sources, including tuition. Of these 1978 schools, 
1744 were public, including 1 normal school, with 3 teach¬ 
ers and 62 scholars, with $10,061 income; 3 high schools, 
with 6 teachers and 140 scholars, and $3600 income; 225 
graded common schools, with 289 teachers and 11,887 
pupils, and an income of $93,500; 1515 ungraded common 
schools, with 1668 teachers, 59,956 scholars, and an income 
of $445,300. There were also 3 colleges, with 10 professors, 
235 students, of whom 125 were males and 110 females, 
and $7700 income. Of these, St. John’s College at Little 
llock was founded in 1857 by the Masons, and is sustained 
by them ; Judson University at Prospect Bluff is sustained 
by the Baptists, and Cane Hill College at Cane Hill by the 
Christians. There were 30 academies, with 61 teachers and 
2144 pupils, of whom 1102 were males and 1042 females, and 
$25,387 income. There were four technical schools ; a State 
asylum for the blind at Little Rock, established in 1859, 
which, according to the census, had 4 teachers and 30 
pupils (a later report makes the number of teachers and 
employes 11, and of pupils 40), and an income of $11,000 
(the report of commissioner of education says $18,000); 
one institute for the deaf and dumb, also at Little Rock, 
with 22 teachers and employes, 72 pupils, and an income 
of $22,452; 2 schools of art and music, with 3 teachers, 
20 pupils, and $1000 income. There were also 187 day 
and boarding schools, with 241 teachers, 6818 scholars 
(3481 males and 3334 females), and $67,214 income; and 
10 parochial and charity schools, with 11 teachers, 210 
pupils, and $6300 income. The “ Educational Year-Book” 
for 1873 makes the number of teachers in the public schools 
2035 ; their salaries in the country, $40 to $100 per month, 
in the cities, $75 to $125 per month. There are 10 school 
superintendents, one to each judicial circuit, each having 
a salary of $3000 per annum. The school fund is $95,501. 
The number of children of school age is 194,314, of whom 
182,474 are registered, but the average attendance is only 
32,863. The newly established school system of the State, 
organized in 1868, and since amended, is very efficient. By 
the amendments adopted in 1873 education is made com¬ 
pulsory between certain ages. The board of education, 
which possesses large powers, consists of the State super¬ 
intendent of schools and the ten circuit superintendents. 
The State superintendent is elected by the people on the 
general State ticket, and serves for four years; the circuit 
superintendents are appointed by the governor for four 
years. A district trustee is elected annually in each school 
district, who has charge of the school affairs and local 
educational interests of his district, and is the executive 


school officer within his jurisdiction. The State board of 
education prescribes lists of text-books, puts in operation 
the provisions of the school law, and makes all needful 
rules and regulations respecting common schools and the 
general educational interests ot the State. It directs also 
the establishment of separate schools for white and colored 
children and youth. The teachers are examined by the 
circuit superintendents. The schools of Arkansas have 
received hitherto about $9500 annually from the Peabody 
fund. A State industrial university to receive the agricul¬ 
tural land-grants was established at Fayetteville in 1871. 

Libraries. —The census of 1870 reports 1181 libraries 
of all classes, public and private, in the State, with an ag¬ 
gregate of 135,564 volumes; of these, 888 were private, 
and contained 81,232 volumes ; of the remaining 293, 1 is the 
State Library, with 12,500 volumes; 6 are town or city 
libraries, with an aggregate of 250 volumes; 29 are court 
or law libraries, with 5747 volumes; 216 were Sabbath- 
school libraries, with 29,412 volumes, and 37 church libra¬ 
ries, with 4930 volumes. There were also 4 circulating libra¬ 
ries, with 1493 volumes. 

Neiesjiapers and Periodicals. —In 1870 there were 56 
newspapers and periodicals of all descriptions in the State, 
having a circulation of 29,830, and issuing 1,824,860 copies 
annually. Of these, 3 were dailies (4 dailies in 1872), having 
a circulation of 1250; 1 was a tri-weekly, with a circula¬ 
tion of 300 (there were 2 tri-weekly papers in 1872); 48 
were weeklies, having a circulation of 26,280, and 4 were 
monthlies, with a circulation of 2000. Two of these were 
agricultural, with a circulation of 1000, and printing 12,000 
copies annually; 52 were political—viz. 48 weekly, 1 tri¬ 
weekly, and 3 daily—with an aggregate circulation of 
27,830, and printing annually 1,800,860 copies; 1 was re¬ 
ligious, a monthly, with a circulation of 500, and an annual 
issue of 6000 copies; and 1 educational, with the same cir¬ 
culation and annual issue. 

Churches. —There were, according to the census in 1870, 
1371 church organizations of all denominations in the 
State, and 1141 church edifices, having 264,225 sittings, 
and holding church property valued at $854,975. Of these, 
463 were regular Baptist churches, with 394 edifices, 103,250 
sittings, and $195,725 of church property (the “Baptist 
Almanac” for 1873 gives the number of churches in 1872 
as 648, with 408 ministers and 36,040 members); of other 
Baptist denominations (Christians, Disciples, etc.), there 
were 100 churches, 68 church edifices, 15,150 sittings, and 
property valued at $38,725; of Episcopalians there were 
15 churches, 13 church edifices, 3695 sittings, and property 
valued at $43,450 (the “ Protestant Episcopal Almanac” 
for 1873 gives Arkansas 1 diocese, 1 bishop, 11 presbyters, 
715 communicants, 153 baptisms, and 131 confirmations) ; 
there was 1 Jewish synagogue, with 300 sittings and $6500 
of property; 2 Lutheran churches and 2 church edifices, 
with 1025 sittings and property valued at $10,000; there 
were 583 Methodist congregations, 485 church edifices, 
91,890 sittings, and property valued at $276,850. It is 
difficult to ascertain the exact numbers of the Methodists 
in the State, as they belong to four or five different organi¬ 
zations, some of which do not publish detailed statistics. 
The Southern Methodist Church had about 34,000 members 
in 1872; the Protestant Methodists about 4000; the col¬ 
ored Methodists probably 6000 or 7000, and all others per¬ 
haps 10,000; of regular Presbyterians (?'. e* Presbyterian 
Church South and Associate Reformed Synod of the South) 
there were 106 churches, 87 church edifices, 23,175 sittings, 
$101,625 of church property (there were in 1872 only 39 
ordained ministers reported in the “ Presbyterian Alma¬ 
nac”) ; of other Presbyterians (Cumberland) there were 55 
churches, 44 edifices, 10,425 sittings, $77,500 of church 
property (the Cumberland Presbyterians in 1872 had 87 
ordained ministers in Arkansas, and probably a larger 
number of churches); there were 11 Roman Catholic con¬ 
gregations, 11 church edifices, 5250 sittings, $82,500 of 
church property, 1 diocese, that of Little Rock, or “ Pe- 
tropolis,” and 1 bishop; there was 1 Universalist congre¬ 
gation, 1 church edifice, valued at $400, and with 200 sit¬ 
tings ; there were 34 congregations designated as Union, 
35 church edifices, 9865 sittings, $21,700 church property. 

Constitution, Courts, Representatives in Congress, etc. —The 
present constitution of the State was adopted by the con¬ 
stitutional convention of the State Feb. 11, 1868, and rati¬ 
fied by the people Mar. 13,1868. It provides, among other 
things, that the paramount allegiance of every citizen is 
due to the Federal government in the exercise of all its 
constitutional powers, as defined by the Supreme Court of 
the IT. S., and that no power exists in the people of this or 
any other State of the Union to dissolve their connection 
therewith, or perform any act tending to impair, subvert, 
or resist the supreme authority of the U. S. The equality 
of all persons before the law shall be recognized and ever 
remaiu inviolate, nor shall any citizen ever be deprived of 






















ARKANSAS. 247 


any right, privilege, or immunity, nor exempted from any 
burden or duty, on account of race, color, or previous con¬ 
dition. The State officers are a governor, lieutenant-gov¬ 
ernor, secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney-gen¬ 
eral, and superintendent of public schools, all chosen by the 
qualified electors at a general election. Their term of office is 
four years. The legislature consists of a senate of 24 mem¬ 
bers, chosen for four years, and a house of representatives of 
82 members, chosen for two years. The legislature meets 
biennially in January. Every male person born in the U. S., 
and every male person who is naturalized or has declared 
his intention to become a citizen, who is twenty-one years 
old or upward, and has resided in the State for six months 
next preceding the election—except criminals, idiots, insane 
persons, soldiers and sailors in the service of the U. S., and 
certain classes who participated in the civil war—shall be 
deemed an elector. The supreme court of the State con¬ 
sists of one chief-justice and four associate justices, all ap¬ 
pointed by the governor for eight years. It has appellate 
jurisdiction. There are ten circuits, to each of which there 
is a circuit court, which has original jurisdiction over all 
criminal cases not otherwise expressly provided for bylaw. 
The judges and district attorneys of these courts are ap¬ 
pointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of 
the senate, for the term of four years. The constitution 
makes it the duty of the general assembly to establish and 
maintain free schools. By the act of Congress of Dec. 14, 
1871, Arkansas is entitled to four representatives in Con¬ 
gress during the present decade. 

Counties. —Thei'e are 64 counties in the State, as follows: 


Counties. 

Pop. in 1870. 

Pop. in 1860. 

Pop. in 1850. 

Arkansas. 

8,268 

8,844 

3,245 

Ashley. 

8,042 

8.590 

2,058 

Benton. 

13,831 

7,032 

9,306 

3,710 

Boone. 

Bradley. 

8,646 

3,853 

5,780 

7,214 

11,953 

8,388 

4,103 

9,383 

9,234 

3,829 

Calhoun. 


Carroll. 

4,614 

Chicot. 

5,115 

Clarke. 

9,735 

12,449 

6,697 

3,066 

4,070 

Columbia. 

11,397 


Conway. 

8,112 

4,577 

8,957 

3,831 

3,583 

Craighead. 


Crawford. 

7,850 

7,960 

Crittenden. 

4,920 

2,648 

Cross. 

3,915 

Dallas. 

5,707 

6,125 

8,283 

6,459 

6,877 

Desha. 

2,911 

DreAV. 

9,930 

9,627 

4,843 

9,078 

7,298 

3,276 

Franklin. 

3,972 

Fulton. 

4,024 

1,819 

Grant. 

3,943 



Greene. 

7,573 

13,768 

5,843 

2,593 

Hempstead. 

13,989 

5,635 

7,672 

Hot Springs. 

5,877 

3,609 

Independence. 

14,566 

6,806 

14,307 

7,215 

7,767 

Izai'd. 

3,213 

Jackson. 

7,268 

15,733 

9,152 

9,139 

10,493 

14,971 

7,612 

8,464 

3,086 

Jefferson. 

5,834 

Johnson . 

5,227 

1/3, Fayette. 

5,220 

T/n.wrenee . 

5,981 
3,236 
new co. 

9,372 

5,274 

T/ittfe B.iver. 


T/ineoln. 



Mail i son. 

8,231 

3,979 

3,633 

7,740 
6,192 
3,895 • 

4,823 

IVTarion . 

2,308 

Mississinni. 

2,368 

Monroe. 

8,336 
2,984 
4,374 
new co. 

5,657 

3,633 

3,393 

2,049 

Montcmnierv. 

1,958 

"Mew ton. 

1,758 

Npvnrl a. 


Onap.lii t.a. 

12,975 

2,685 

12,936 

2,465 

14,877 

4,025 

9,591 

978 

Perrv . 

Phillips . 

15,372 

6,935 

Pike. 

3(788 

1,720 

1,861 

Poinsett. 

3,621 

2,308 

Polk . 

3,376 

4,262 

1,263 

Pope . 

8',386 

7,883 

8,854 

11,699 

6,261 

4,710 

Pra.i rip.. 

5(604 

32,066 

2,097 


5,657 

3,275 

T?a n rl olnh. 

7^466 

6,714 

3,911 

3,764 

St Frnneis . 

8,672 

4,479 

Snlinft . 

6,640 
new co. 

3,903 

Sa.rhpr . 

Scott . 

7(483 

5,145 

3,083 


5(614 

5,271 

9,238 

1,979 


12(940 



4(492 

10,516 

4,240 


5(400 

10,571 

5,107 

17,266 

10,347 

6,891 


12,288 

5,357 

10,298 

Von Boren. 

2,864 

W q «Vi i n r **t,on. 

14,673 

8,316 

9.970 

White . 

2,619 



Yell . 

8,048 

6,333 

3,341 




Lincoln, Nevada, and Sarber counties were organized by 
the legislature in 1871. 

Principal Towns .—Little Rock, the capital of the State, 
is also the largest town. It is pleasantly situated on the 


Arkansas River at a point where it is always navigable, 
and is now also a railroad centre for six or seven important 
railroads, several of them trunk-lines. It has also some 
manufactories. It is growing very rapidly. Its population 
in 1850 was 2167; in 1860, 3727; in 1870, 12,380; and it has 
now (1873) nearly 20,000 inhabitants. The other towns of 
importance are Fort Smith, in Sebastian county, also on the 
Arkansas River, on the W. line of the State, population 2227 ; 
Van Buren, nearly opposite Fort Smith, but in Crawford 
county, population 3296; Pine Bluff, on the Lower Arkansas, 
in Jefferson county, population 2081; Helena, on the Missis¬ 
sippi, in Phillips county, population 2249; Hot Springs, in 
Hot Springs county, the site of the famous mineral springs, 
population 1276; Camden, in Ouachita county, population 
1612; Fayetteville, in Washington county, in the N. W. 
part of the State, population 955; and Dardanelle, in 
Yell county, in the W. part of the State, population 926. 

History .—The first settlement within the present limits 
of Arkansas was made in 1670 by the French, on or near 
the St. Francis River, whei’e it discharges its waters into 
the Mississippi. It was a portion of the French territory 
until 1803, when Louisiana Territory, of which it was a 
part, was purchased from France by President Jefferson to 
give the U. S. control of the Mississippi River. In 1812, 
Louisiana having been admitted into the Union as a State, 
the remaining teri’itory was reorganized as Missouri Ter- 
ritory, and in 1819, Missoui'i having framed a State con¬ 
stitution, Ai'kansas and the Indian Territory were organized 
as Arkansas Tei'ritoiy, and remained in that condition until 
June 15, 1836, when the State with its present boundaries 
was admitted into the Union as the twenty-fifth State. Its 
progress was slow for a time. It had, as we have seen, less 
than 100,000 inhabitants in 1840, and but 209,897 in 1850. 
Between 1850 and 1860 its fertile lands and facilities for 
shipping cotton attracted large numbers of cotton-planters 
to it from the Atlantic and Gulf slave States, and its popu¬ 
lation more than doubled during that, decade. Settled al¬ 
most exclusively from the Southern States, its population 
were very thoroughly identified with the maintenance of 
slavery, and it entered heartily into the secessioix move¬ 
ment, though not quite so eai'ly as some of the States E. 
of the Mississippi. The State convention assembled at 
Little Rock and passed the ordinance of secession Mai - . 4, 
1861. During the war Arkansas had its full shai’e of the 
disasters and wretchedness caused by war. A large num¬ 
ber of its own citizens were with the Southern armies, and 
much of its territory was overrun by the hostile foi'ces. 
The battles of Pea Ridge and Fayetteville, as well as sev- 
eral lesser engagements, were fought in its N. W. section 
in 1862, the capture of Arkansas Post took place in Jan., 
1863, and during the same year Helena and Little Rock 
were captured, and Gen. Grant’s army marched through 
the bottom-lands W. of the Mississippi to Bruinsburg and 
Hard Times landings, on their way to the siege and cap¬ 
ture of Vicksburg. Before the close of 1863 the State was 
substantially controlled by the Fedei'al troops. On the 8th 
of Jan., 1864, a convention was assembled to revise the 
State constitution. The amended constitution was adopted 
by the people Mar. 18, 1864, by a vote of 12,177 in its favor 
and 226 against it. The legislature was reorganized under 
the new constitution, but it was not recognized by Congress 
as a legal goveniment. Though ready to abolish slavei’y, 
the people were not at that time prepared to remove the 
disabilities under which the adherents to the Union party 
had labored, and for the next four years they Avere remanded 
to the control of a military government. This was admin¬ 
istered generally with lenity and justice, but the people 
were restless under it. In 1867, Arkansas was united with 
Mississippi as the fourth military district, and Brigadier- 
General E. 0. C. Ord was placed in command of it. He 
directed an election for a State constitutional convention 
to be held in Nov., 1867. The election resulted in a ma¬ 
jority of 14,000 for a convention, which met Jan. 8, 1868, 
and on the 4tli of Feb. following reported a constitution, 
which was adopted and ratified by the people Mar. 13,1868. 
The State was restored to the Union by vote ot Congress 
June 22, 1868, over the veto of President Johnson. At the 
first election of State officers held under the new constitu¬ 
tion, Col. Powell Clayton, who had been an officer in the 
Federal army, xvas elected goA'ernor, and held the office 
until 1871, \vhen he was elected U. S. Senator, and the 
lieutenant-governor became acting go\ r ernor. In 1872 an 
election took place for governor at the same time with the 
Presidential election, and Elisha Baxtei', Republican, was 
reported elected by a majority of 3266 over Mr. Brooks, 
the Democi'atic and Liberal Republican candidate. 1 here 
was, howeA r er, a contest as to the legality of the vote in 
some of the districts, and some of the supporters of Gov¬ 
ernor Baxter becoming dissatisfied with his action, an effort 
xvas made to unseat him by a A r oto of the legislature, de¬ 
claring the election void through fraud. The supreme court 



























































































248 


ARKANSAS—ARLON. 


of the State having decided that this could not be accom¬ 
plished, Mr. Brooks in June, 1873, proceeded against the 
governor with an action of quo warranto brought in one 
of the counties of the State. 

Governors .—The governors of the State have been as 
follows: 


Territorial. 


James Miller.1819-25 

George Izard.1825-29 

John Pope.1829-35 

William S. Fulton.1835-30 

State. 

James S. Conway.1836-40 

Archibald Yell.1849-44 


Samuel Adams (acting)...1844-44 

Thomas S. Brew.1844-48 

John S. Roane.1848-52 

Elias N. Conway.1852-60 

Henry M. Rector.1860-64 

Isaac Murphy.1864-68 

Powell Clayton.1868-71 

Ozro A. Hadley (acting)..1871-72 
Elisha Baxter.1872- 


Presiclential Votes .—Arkansas was admitted into the 
Union in 1836, and cast her first vote for President in No¬ 
vember of that year. This and the subsequent votes have 
been as follows: 


Elect. 

year. 

Elec. 

vote. 

Successful 

candidate. 

Democratic 

candidate. 

Pop. 

vote. 

Whig and 
Rep. cands. 

Pop. 

vote. 

1836 

3 

Van Buren.. 

Van Buren.. 

2,400 

Harrison. 

1,238 

1840 

3 

Harrison. 

Van Buren.. 

6,049 

Harrison. 

5,160 

1844 

3 

Polk. 

Polk. 

9,546 

9,300 

Clay. 

Taylor. 

5 504 

1848 

3 

Taylor. 

Cass. 

7'588 

1852 

4 

Pierce. 

Pierce. 

12,173 

21,910 

Scott., 

7 404 

1853 

4 

Buchanan... 

Buchanan... 

Fillmore. 

10,787 

1860 

1864 

4 

Lincoln . 

no vote 

Breck’ridge. 
no vote 

28,732 

) Bell, 
j Bougl’s. 

20,094 

5,227 

1868 

5 

Grant. 

Seymour. 

19,078 

Grant. 

22,112 

1872 

6 

Grant. 

Greeley. 

37,927 

Grant. 

41,073 


L. P. Brockett. 


Arkansas, a county in the E. S. E. of Arkansas, con¬ 
tains about 1200 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. 
by the Arkansas River, and bounded on the E. by the 
White River, both of which are navigable for steamboats. 
The surface is generally level, and forms part of the Grand 
Prairie. This county is made up of fine prairie and bot¬ 
tom lands. Coi-n and cotton are the staple crojas. Capi¬ 
tal, Be Witt. Pop. 8268. 

Arkansas, a township of Arkansas co., Ark. Pop. 683. 

Arkansas City, on the southern border of Kansas, in 
Cowley co., is at the confluence of the Arkansas and Walnut 
rivers. The town commands the trade of the adjoining 
country and territory. Although the town is but three 
years old, it has one weekly newspaper, a wagon-and-car- 
riage manufactory, stores, shops, etc. in abundance. Three 
years ago it was the hunting-ground of the Osage Indians, 
who frequently visit the place to trade. The location of 
the town is high, dry, and healthy. Its support is from 
the vast farming region by which it is surrounded, and 
from the Texan cattle and Indian trade. 

C. M. Scott, Pub. “Arkansas City Traveller.” 

Arkan'sas In'dians, now generally called Qiia- 
paws, a tribe allied by language to the Dakotas, formerly 
resided on the Ohio. Like the northern Dakotas, they appear 
to have been once divided into several bands or minor tribes. 
Driven from their old haunts by the Illinois and other In¬ 
dians, they went southward, and became the constant and 
powerful allies of the French of Louisiana. They number 
at present some 200, and live in the Indian Territory. 

Arkansas Post, a post-village of Arkansas co., Ark., 
on the left bank of the Arkansas River, 50 miles from its 
mouth, 117 miles S. E. of Little Rock, settled by the French 
in 1685. During the civil war this post was garrisoned and 
fortified by the Confederates. On Jan. 11,1863, a combined 
attack of the U. S. military and naval forces under General 
McClernand and Admiral Porter was made upon the place, 
and its works were finally carried by storm. A large num¬ 
ber of prisoners were captured, and immense quantities of 
materiel, stores, etc. 

Arkansas Stone, a material largely employed for 
hones and oil-stones, consists of novaculite, which is quar¬ 
ried extensively in Hot Springs and Grant counties, Ark. 
Some of it is wrought in the neighborhood, but most of it 
is carried to New Albany, Ind., where it is cut and pre¬ 
pared for market. It is a very beautiful and valuable stone. 

Ark'ansite, a name given to the thick black crystals 
of brookite (titanic acid), found at Magnet Cove in the 
Ozark Mountains of Arkansas. 

Arko'na, or Arcona, a promontory on the N. side of 
the Prussian island of Riigen, in the Baltic. Here is a 
lighthouse on the site of the heathen temple of Swantewit, 
which King Waldemar of Denmark burned in 1168. 

Ar'kose, a rock composed of fragments of felspar; a 
kind of felspathic sandstone. 

Ark'wright, a township of Chautauqua co., N. Y. 
Pop. 1030, 


Arkwright (Sir Richard), an English inventor noted 
for his great improvements in the cotton manufacture, was 
born at Preston, in Lancashire, Dec. 23, 1732. He learned 
the trade of a barber, which he soon abandoned, and ap¬ 
plied himself to the invention of machinery for spinning 
cotton. At that time no machine had been invented that 
could produce cotton yarn of sufficient strength and tenuity 
to be fit for warp. In 1768 he set up at Preston his first 
spinning-frame, for which he obtained a patent in 1769. 
He removed to Nottingham in 1769, and formed a partner¬ 
ship with Need and Strutt, llis machine caused a great ex¬ 
tension of the cotton manufacture, and greatly promoted 
the prosperity of the nation. He became the proprietor of 
several cotton-mills moved by water-power, which he man¬ 
aged with great ability and success, and he may be called 
the founder of the factory system, for he introduced a S} 7 S- 
tem of management so admirable that it was generally 
adopted, and has never been materially improved. Although 
his patent was infringed, and he was defeated in several 
lawsuits which he instituted to defend his rights, his busi¬ 
ness prospered, and he amassed a fortune of about £500,000. 
He was knighted by George III. in 1786. Died Aug. 3, 
1792. (See “Edinburgh Review” for June, 1827; Baines, 
“ History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain,” 
1835.) 

ArSar'ka, a township of Macon co., N. C. Pop. 542. 

Aid and (Jacques Antoine), a Swiss miniature-painter, 
born at Geneva May 18, 1668, worked in Paris and London 
with success. He was a friend of Sir Isaac Newton. Died 
at Geneva May 25, 1746. 

Arles (anc. Ar'elas, Arela'te, or Arela'tum ), a city of 
France, in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, and on 
the E. bank of the Rhone, 15 miles from the Mediterranean 
and 53 miles by rail N. W. of Marseilles. The railway 
which connects Lyons with Marseilles passes through it. 
It has a cathedral of the seventh century, a museum, a col¬ 
lege, and a public library. It was once the cajjital of the 
kingdom of Arelate. Important councils of the Church 
were held here in 314, 354, 452, and 475 A.D. Here are 
the remains of a grand Roman amphitheatre, and an an¬ 
cient granite obelisk which was dug out of the Rhone about 
1389. Arles has manufactures of hats, silk, brandy, etc. 
Its trade is facilitated by the steamboat navigation of the 
Rhone and by two canals. A famous statue called “Ve¬ 
nus of Arles” was discovered here. Pop. in 1866, 26,367. 

Arlincourt, d’ (Victor), Vicomte, a French poet and 
novelist, born near Versailles in 1789. Among his chief 
works is an epic poem called “ Charlemagne, ou la Caro- 
leide” (1818), and “Le Solitaire,” a novel (1825), which 
had some success. His style is eccentric. Died in 1856. 

Arlington, a post-village of Westfield township, Bu¬ 
reau co., Ill., on the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 
92 miles S. W. of Chicago. 

Arlington, a post-village and township of Middlesex 
co., Mass., 7 miles by railroad N. W. of Boston. It has a 
gas company, water-works, and horse and steam railroad 
to Boston. A large supply of ice is sent to market. There 
are five churches, and important manufactures. The prin¬ 
cipal business is market-gardening. The town has a sav¬ 
ings bank, a public library, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. 
of township, 3261. J. L. Parker, Ed. “Advocate.” 

Arlington, a post-township of Van Buren co., Mich. 
Pop. 136U. 

Arlington, a post-township of Sibley co., Minn. Pop. 
752. 

Arlington, a post-township of Phelps co., Mo. Pop. 
1190. 

Arlington, a post-village and township of Bennington 
co., Vt., 15 miles N. of Bennington. Here are marble 
quarries, a mineral spring, and a cave with stalactites. It 
has extensive manufactures of wooden ware, lumber, sash, 
blinds, doors, etc. Pop. of township, 1636. 

Arlington, a post-township of Alexandria co., Va. 
Here are the old mansion of the Custis family, two nation¬ 
al cemeteries, a “ freedmen’s village,” and other points of 
interest made historic during the late civil war. Pop. 1374. 

Arlington, a township of Columbia co., Wis. Pop. 822. 

Arlington (Henry Bennet), Earl of, born in 1618, 
served as a royalist in the civil war (1642-45), was knight¬ 
ed at Bruges (1658), became secretary of state (1662), a 
baron (1664), a member of the “ Cabal ” (1667), received 
the Garter, and was sent as ambassador to the king of 
France in the same year; was impeached by the Commons, 
resigned, and was appointed lord chamberlain (1674). 
Died July 28, 1685. 

Arlon (anc. Orolanmnn), a frontier town of Belgium, 
capital of the province of Luxembourg, 22 miles by rail 
W. N. W. of Luxembourg. It has manufactures of Wool- 
































































A RLT—ARM ANDI. 


249 


lcn stuffs, and an active trade in grain, etc. Pop. in 180G, 
5779. 

Arlt (F erdinand), a distinguished German oculist, was 
born April 18, 1812. He wrote, among other works, 
“ Ivrankheiten des Auges” (3 vols., 1851-56; 4th ed. 18(57), 
“ Pflege der Augen im gesunden und kranken Zustande” 
(3d ed. 1865). 

Arm (the Human) consists of two portions—the arm 
proper and the fore arm; the former having one bone, the 
humerus, which moves freely upon the scapula, forming the 
shoulder-joint; and the latter having two bones, the radius 
and ulna, which move upon each other and upon the hu¬ 
merus, forming the elbow-joint. These connect below with 
the eight small bones of the carpus or wrist. The hume¬ 
rus is attached to the acromion process of the shoulder- 
blade by a ball-and-socket joint, allowing great freedom 
of motion; and were it not for the muscles surrounding the 
joint, it would be frequently dislocated, but it is supported 
by muscles on all sides except at the armpit, into which the 
head of the bone is sometimes driven. The roundness of 
the shoulder is due to the head of the humerus, so that dis¬ 
placement is generally accompanied by a flattening which 
suggests the nature of the accident. On the shoulder is a large 
muscle, the deltoid, which lifts the arm from the side. At 
the back is the triceps, which extends the fore arm; in front 
are two muscles which bend it—the biceps and the brachi- 
alis anticus; and on each side below are muscles passing 
to the fore arm and hand; while above the great muscle of 
the back (latissimus dorsi) and that of the chest (the pec- 
toralis major) are inserted on each side of the groove, 
wherein lies one of the tendons of the biceps. The motions 
of the ulnq are flexion find extension, its projections being 
received in these movements into corresponding depressions 
on the humerus. The rotatory movements of the hand are 
principally due to the radius, the head of which rolls upon 
the ulna, turning the palm downward (pronation), or up¬ 
ward (supination), these movements being effected by mus¬ 
cles which, taking their fixed points from the humerus and 
ulna, turn the radius upon the latter. The elbow-joint is 
hinge-like, and has strong lateral ligaments; but it is lia¬ 
ble to dislocations, often accompanied by fracture, especial¬ 
ly in the young. The arm affords interesting illustrations 
of some principles of mechanics. The insertion of the 
muscles so near to the fulcra or centres of motion involves 
a loss of power; there is, however, a corresponding gain 
in velocity at the end of the lever; and for most of the 
purposes to which the hand is put agility is of far greater 
moment than dead strength. The arm is supplied with 
blood by the brachial artery, the continuation of the axil¬ 
lary. The superficial veins collect into large trunks, which 
unite at the bend of the elbow, and then pass to the axil¬ 
lary—on the outside by the cephalic vein, on the inside by 
the basilic. The nerves pass from the brachial plexus by 
the side of the artery, and diverge from it to their ultimate 
distribution ; the musculo-spiral passing back to appear on 
the outside, and giving off the radial and posterior inter¬ 
osseous nerves ; the ulnar running behind the internal con¬ 
dyle, for which it has obtained the name of “ crazy bone,” 
from the electric-like thrill which passes along the arm when 
the nerve is struck. The median, as its name implies, keeps 
a middle course with the artery. In wounds of the fore 
arm the bleeding may be controlled by pressure of the bra¬ 
chial artery, on the inner side of the biceps, against the 
bone. Much interest is also furnished by the comparison 
of the arm and hand of man (see Hand) with the anterior 
extremities of other animals. Essentially the same bones 
and other parts are found in the fore limb of a mole, the 
fore leg of a horse, the paddle of a whale, and the wing of 
a bird, although modified in each to suit the uses of the 
animal. In variety of movement and facility of prehen¬ 
sion the arm of man far excels that of any other creature. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Arma'da, a post-township of Macomb co., Mich. Pop. 
of village, 494; of township, 1721. 

Arma'da, The Spanish, often called the “ Invinci¬ 
ble Armada,” a great Spanish fleet or armament which was 
fitted out by Philip II. for the conquest of England in 
1588. It consisted of about 130 vessels, some of which 
were of enormous size, carrying in all 2431 guns and 
more than 19,00.0 soldiers. The command of this armada 
was given to the duke of Medina Sidonia, who was not a 
competent naval commander. Lord Howard of Effingham 
commanded the English fleet, which was greatly inferior 
in size. The armada. sailed from Spain about the end of 
May, 1588, and in passing through tho English Channel 
was harassed by the English, who avoided a general en¬ 
gagement. During a night in August, Lord Howard sent 
eight fire-ships against the armada, and produced a panic 
and great disorder, in consequence of which the English 
captured or destroyed about twelve ships early the next 



Armadillos. 


morning. This defeat induced the Spanish admiral to 
abandon the invasion of England, and he resolved to re¬ 
turn to Spain by sailing around the Orkney Islands, the 
passage of the English Channel being closed by the enemy. 
Many of the Spanish ships were wrecked on their circuitous 
voyage, and only fifty-three returned to Spain. 

Armadil'lo (i. e. in Spanish, the “little [animal] in 

armor”), (the Danypux of 
the naturalists), a genus 
of animals of the order 
Edentata, natives of 
South and Central Amer¬ 
ica. They derive their 
name from a bony armor 
which covers the body, 
and consists of polygonal 
plates not connected by joints, but united to form solid 
bucklers, one over the rump and one over the shoulders. 
Between these two bucklers are a number of plates dis¬ 
posed in transverse bands, which are movable and allow 
freedom of motion. The head is protected by a similar 
buckler, not connected with that of the body. The largest 
species is about three feet long, exclusive of the tail. 
They have short legs and feet adapted to burrowing in the 
ground, in which, when pursued by enemies, they bury 
themselves quickly. These animals are nocturnal, and 
feed on insects, carrion, and vegetable food. Their flesh 
is often eaten Jby the natives, but, owing to its rank and 
strong flavor, it is not agreeable to European palates. The 
Glyptodon is an extinct and gigantic kind of armadillo. 

Armaged'don [supposed to be equivalent to Ar-Mc- 
(fiddo, “ mountain of Mcgiddo ”] is applied by some writers 
to the elevated table-land of Esdraelon, the great battle¬ 
field of Palestine. 

Ar'magh, an inland county of Ireland, in Ulster, is 
bounded on the N. by Lough Neagh, on the E. by Down, 
on the S. by Louth, and on the W. by Monaghan and Ty¬ 
rone. Area, 512 square miles. The surface is undulating 
or level, except the S. W. part, where Slieve Gullion rises 
to the height of 1893 feet. The soil is mostly fertile. The 
chief rivers are the Bann, Blackwater, and Callan. Granite, 
trap, carboniferous limestone, and lower Silurian rocks un¬ 
derlie the county. Capital, Armagh. Pop. of the county 
(exclusive of the city) in 1871, 179,221. 

Armagh ( Ard-maylia , the “high field”), a city of Ire¬ 
land, capital of the above county, is situated on high ground 
36 miles by rail S. W. of Belfast. It is built of limestone 
quarried in the vicinity, and has a Protestant cathedral of 
red sandstone crowning the central eminence, down the sides 
of which the streets diverge. Armagh is the archiepiscopal 
seat of the primate and metropolitan of all Ireland, both 
in the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches. It has a 
Roman Catholic cathedral, a large public library, and a lu¬ 
natic asylum. It was the capital of Ireland in the sixth 
and seventh centuries, and was renowned as a school of 
theology, etc. Pop. in 1871, 8952. 

Armagh, a post-village of East Whcatficld township, 
Indiana co., Pa. Pop. 177. 

Armagh, a township of Mifflin co., Pa. Pop. 1873. 

Armagnac, a former name of a region in France, now 
comprised in Gers and parts of llaut-Garonne, Tarn-et- 
Garonne, and Lot-et-Garonne. Its ancient counts were 
feudal to the crown of France until the time of Henry IV., 
who united it in his own person to the crown. In later 
times the title of count of Armagnac was an honorary one. 

Araiagnac, d’ (Bernard), Count, constable of France, 
was an ambitious and turbulent nobleman. He became in 
1407 the enemy of the duke of Burgundy and the chief of 
the faction called “ Armagnacs,” who waged a civil war 
against the Burgundians. In 1415 he obtained the office 
of constable of France, the highest in the nation. Having 
excited by his tyranny the odium of the Parisians, he was 
killed by the populace June 12, 1418. 

Armagnac, d’ (Jean V.), Count, a grandson of Ber¬ 
nard, noticed above, was born about 1420. He was noto¬ 
rious for his crimes, and was excommunicated by the pope. 
As a party to the League of Public Good, he revolted 
against Louis XI. in 1465. Ho was put to death by order 
of that king Mar. 5, 1473. 

Armand (Charles), Marquis de la Rouarie, a French 
officer, born in 1756, fought for tho U. S. 1777-83. He rose 
to the rank of general of brigade. Died in France Jan. 30, 
1793. 

Arman'di (Pierre Damien), an officer of the French 
army, was born in Italy in 1778. He served as colonel 
under Napoleon I. In 1848—49 he fought lor the Italian 
patriots against Austria. Ho wrote in French an ablo 
“Military History of Elephants” (1843). Died in IS.>5. 













250 ARMANSPERG, VON—ARM ILL ARY SPHE RE. _ 

Armenia, .a township of Bradford co., Pa. r Pop. 391. 


Ar'mansperg', von (Joseph Ludwig), Count, an able 
German statesman, born in Bavaria in 1787. He became a 
leader of the liberal party, Bavarian minister of finance in 
1821), and minister of foreign affairs in 1828. By the in¬ 
fluence of the Catholic priests he was removed from office 
in 1831. From Jan., 1833, to Feb., 1837, he governed 
Greece as regent or chief minister under King Otlio, who 
was a minor. Died in 1853. 

Armato'li, or Ar'matoles, a body of Greek militia 
organized about 1500 A. D., or earlier. They lived and 
operated in mountainous regions that were difficult of ac¬ 
cess, and were very tenacious of their independence. They 
were employed by the Turkish sultan to protect the fertile 
plains from the raids of the klephta (mountain-robbers) of 
Thessaly. Northern Greece was divided into about sixteen 
districts, each of which was placed under the supervision 
of an armatol. In the war of Greek independence the ar- 
matoles fought against the Turks, and distinguished them¬ 
selves by daring exploits. 

Ar'mature [from the Lat. armatu'ra, “armor”], a 
piece of soft iron which is placed in contact with the poles 
of an artificial magnet to preserve its magnetic power. If 
a magnet remains long idle, having no object on which to 
exert its attractive force, it loses part of its strength. The 
armature when placed against the poles of a magnet be¬ 
comes itself a magnet, the north pole of which is in contact 
with the south pole of the horseshoe magnet. A larger 
weight can be suspended from the armature, thus placed, 
than the poles of the other magnet can sustain without an 
armature. 

Arme'nia [Turk. Erminee'yeli], an important country 
of Western Asia which has now no political existence, but 
is historically.very interesting as the original seat of an 
ancient civilized people (Armenians), who have preserved 
their nationality to the present time. Armenia, the bound¬ 
aries of which varied in different periods, was situated be¬ 
tween Asia Minor and the Caspian Sea. It was mostly in¬ 
cluded between lat. 37° and 42° N., and between Ion. 36° 
and 49° E. It was divided into Armenia Major and 
Armenia Minor, the former of which was bounded on the 
N. E. by the river Kur, on the E. by the Caspian Sea, and 
on the W. partly by the Euphrates. The Lesser Armenia 
was situated on the western side of the other. This country 
is an elevated table-land, enclosed on several sides by the 
ranges of Taurus and Anti-Taurus, and partly occupied by 
other mountains, the highest of which is the volcanic peak 
of Arai-at. It is drained by the Euphrates and Tigris, 
which rise within its limits, and traversed by the river 
Aras (Araxes). Among its physical features are the large 
lakes of Van and Sevan, the former of which is saline. It 
abounds in romantic mountain-scenery. The chief towns 
of ancient Armenia were Artaxata, Anni, and Tigrano- 
certa. The Armenians call themselves Haiks, or Hailcans, 
a name'derived from Ilaik or Haig, represented as the first 
king of Armenia and a descendant of Japhet. Among the 
most famous of their ancient kings was Dikran or Tigranes, 
who lived about 550 B. C., and was a friend and ally of 
Cyrus the Great. The kingdom was conquered by Alex¬ 
ander the Great in 325 B. C., and recovered its independ¬ 
ence about 190 B. C. It was afterwards ruled by the Par¬ 
thian Arsacidm, among whom was Tigranes the Great, a 
son-in-law of Mithridates, king of Pontus. He waged war 
against the Romans, and was defeated about 63 B. C. The 
Armenians adopted the Christian religion about 250 A. D., 
and still adhere to that faith. Since the Christian era this 
country has been the subject and scene of many bloody 
contests between the Romans, Persians, Byzantine Greeks, 
Saracens, Turks, etc., who have successively been masters 
of it. It is now divided between Russia, Persia, and Tur¬ 
key. The scourge of war and persecution for religious 
opinions drove great numbers of the Armenians from their 
native land, and they are now dispersed in various parts 
of Europe and Asia Minor. The number of Armenians is 
estimated at from 2,500,000 to 3,000,000, of whom about 
1,000,000 live in Armenia. The climate of Armenia is very 
cold in the highlands, while the summer heat of the valleys 
is intense. Here is a variety of soils, some of which in the 
valleys produce good crops of cotton, rice, tobacco, and 
grapes. Grazing and cattle-breeding are more extensively 
followed than agriculture. Among its mineral resources 
are copper, iron, lead, alum, and salt. The chief modern 
towns are Erivan, Erzroom, and Van. The Armenians 
(who are now only a small minority of the population) are 
physically a fine variety of the Indo-European race. They 
have excellent talents for business, and are especially skil¬ 
ful in banking and mercantile pursuits. (See St. -Martin, 
“ Memoire historiqueet geographiquesurrArmenie,” 1818 ; 
Curzon, “ Armenia,” 1854; Strecker, “Beitrage zur Geo¬ 
graphic von IIoch-Armcnien,” 1869.) 

A. J. Schem. 


Armenia, a post-township of Juneau co., Wis. P. 254. 

Armenian Church. Christianity is said to have been 
introduced into Armenia by the apostle Thadilacus, and is 
admitted to have become, through the influence of Gregory 
the Illuminator, the established religion of the state in 289. 
Political troubles prevented the Armenian Church from tak¬ 
ing part in the Council at Chalcedon (451). Hence a misun¬ 
derstanding, which led the Armenians to set up a separate 
communion in 491, without ever having become really 
monophysitic. Among their greatest divines was Nerses 
of Klah (about 1150), whose works have been repeatedly 
published. The head of the Armenian Church, called 
catholicos, resides near Erivan, the capital of Russian 
Armenia, to which place every Armenian is required to 
make a pilgrimage once in his life. The Armenians believe 
in the worship of saints, but not in purgatory, and are 
especially rigid in the observance of fasts. A small portion 
of the Armenians in Turkey, Persia, Austria, and Russia 
have recognized the supremacy of the pope, and are called 
United Armenians. Of late, a split has taken place among 
the United Armenians of Turkey, as the majority of their 
bishops opposed the changes which the pope made in the 
ancient constitution of their Church. They were on that 
account excommunicated by the pope, and in 1872 entered 
into official communication with the Old Catholics of Ger¬ 
many. In 1830 a Protestant mission among the Armenians 
was organized by the American Board of Commissioners 
of Foreign Missions. The mission was very successful, and 
in 1872 more than 3000 Armenians were members of the 
Protestant churches. (See the “Life and Times of S. Gre¬ 
gory the Illuminator,” by Rev. S. C. Malan, London, 1868; 
Hamachod, “ Chronological Succession of Armenian Patri¬ 
archs,” 1865.) Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Armenian Language and Literature. The 
Armenian language is a branch of the Indo-European 
stock, and, according to Fr. Miiller, belongs to the Iranian 
group. The old Armenian, the language of the classic lit¬ 
erature, is now extinct, and has been supplanted not only 
as conversational language, but even in literature, by the 
modern Armenian, which is mixed with many Turkish ele¬ 
ments, and is divided into four principal dialects. The 
Armenian language has its own alphabet, w hich was intro¬ 
duced by Micsrob in 406, and contains thirty-six letters. 
Grammars of the Armenian language have been published 
by Petermann (1837; an abridgment of it in 1841) and 
Lauer (1869) ; dictionaries by Aucher (1821, 2 vols., Ar¬ 
menian and English) and Tchaktchak (1837, Armenian and 
Italian). 

Except a few old songs or ballads, no remains of the lit¬ 
erature of Armenia exist of a date earlier than the intro¬ 
duction of Christianity into that country. After this event, 
however, the Greek language and literature became favorite 
objects of study, and the works of many Greek authors 
were translated into Armenian. The most flourishing pe¬ 
riod of Armenian literature extended from the fourth to the 
fourteenth century. The Armenian Bible, translated from 
the Septuagint version by Miesrob and his scholars (411 
A. D.), is a model of classic style. The theological writers 
and chroniclers of this era are considered, both in adhe¬ 
rence to facts and good taste, superior to the general order 
of Oriental historians. (See Neumann, “ Geseh. der armcn. 
Literatur,” 1836.) 

Armentieres, a town of France, in the department of 
Nord, on the river Lys, 12 miles by rail N. W. of Lille. It 
has manufactures of cotton, linen, lace, and sailcloth. Pop. 
in 1866, 15,579. 

Arm'felt (Gustae Mauritz), 0 a Swedish general and 
courtier, born in the province of Abo in 1757. He became 
a favorite of Gustavus III., who, after he was mortally 
wounded by an assassin in Mar., 1792, appointed Armfelt 
governor of Stockholm. This appointment was nullified 
by the duke of Sudermania, who was the enemy of Arm- 
felt, and acted as regent during the minority of Gustavus 
IV. The regent sent him on a mission to Naples, and 
during his absence charged him with treason, lor which 
he was sentenced to death. When Gustavus IV. began to 
reign in 1799 he restored Armfelt to honor and office, lie 
became governor-general of Finland in 1805, and com¬ 
manded the army in a war against Norway in 1808. Hav¬ 
ing entered the service of Russia in 1810, he obtained 
several high civil offices. Died in 1814. 

Armi'da, the name of a beautiful sorceress in Tasso’s 
poem of “Jerusalem Delivered.” She attempted to seduce 
Rinaldo and other crusaders. The former was fascinated 
for a time, but finally returned to the war against the infi¬ 
dels, and converted Armida to Christianity. 

Ar'millary [from the Lat. armil'la, a “bracelet” or 
“ large ring ”] Sph ere, an ancient and obsolete astronom¬ 
ical machine, consisted of an assemblage of rings or circles 
















ARMINIUS, ARMINIANISM. 


fixed together, so «as to represent the principal circles of 
the celestial sphere in their proper relative positions. 
These rings were movable round the polar axis within a 
meridian and horizon, as in the celestial globe. The ob¬ 
servations of Hipparchus were made by means of the 
armillary sphere. 

Arminius, Arminianism. The name of Arminius 
in his native language was Jacobus Hermans, identical 
with Herman, the name of the hero of Germany, who de¬ 
stroyed the Roman legions under Varus. And as this 
name was transformed into Arminius by Tacitus and other 
Roman writers, so, in accordance with the custom of the 
age when Latin was the language of current literature, 
this name was Latinized, and has come down in modern 
English as James Arminius. He was born in 1560 at 
Oudewater (“ old water”), a small town in the Southern 
Netherlands. He lost his father in early childhood, and 
his mother being left in straitened circumstances, the 
promising intellect of the boy so attracted the attention of 
patrons that he was taken to school at Marburg. When 
fifteen years of age his native town, Oudewater, was taken 
by the Spaniards, and his mother, brother, and sister were 
all massacred, leaving him the sole survivor of his family. 
He was sent by his patrons to the new university at Ley¬ 
den, where he remained six years. Such was his proficien¬ 
cy that the city of Amsterdam adopted him as her vesterling 
or foster-child, to be educated at the public expense, being 
bound by a written obligation to be at the command of the 
city through life. He studied at Geneva under Beza, as 
well as at Basle under Gryneas. At the latter place he was 
offered a doctorate, but declined the honor on account of his 
youth. By Beza he was commended to Amsterdam in high 
terms. He then went to Italy to become accomplished in 
philosophy under Zarabella, and having visited Rome and 
the other principal cities, returned to Amsterdam, where 
he was installed minister at the age of twenty-eight. 

Arminius’s ministry in Amsterdam, of fourteen years’ du¬ 
ration, forms the second period of his life. His learning 
and eloquence were rapidly rendering him one of the lead¬ 
ing theologians and preachers of his age. He was of mid¬ 
dling size, had dark, piercing eyes, and voice light but clear, 
and possessing a winning mellowness. His manners were 
magnetic, and he had the power of fastening firrti friends. 
He was condescending to the lowly and a sympathizing 
guide to the religious inquirer. At the same time he was 
an independent seeker and follower of truth. 

In 1585, the extreme predestinarianism prevalent in the 
Netherlands had been for ten years so effectively attacked 
by Richard Coornhert, an eminent patriotic and acute lay¬ 
man of Amsterdam, that Arminius was invited by the city 
to refute him. In a debate at Delft between Coornhert 
and two high Calvinistic clergymen, the latter were so hard 
pressed that they yielded, and took the lower or sublapsa- 
rian ground, and published a pamphlet against the higher 
view. The extreme Calvinists called upon Martin Lydius, 
professor of theology in Friesland, to refute them, but he 
handed over the task to Arminius, who had thus a double 
request on his hands. He bravely undertook the task, but 
was soon convinced of the untenableness of either the higher 
or lower predestination. At the expense of an ignominious 
failure in even attacking Coornhert, he resolved to pursue 
the light of honest conviction. Avoiding the entire subject 
in public, he prosecuted his investigations with earnest 
study. Yet, in lecturing on Romans vii., having given the 
non-Calvinistic interpretation, he found himself generally 
assailed by the high Calvinists as a Pelagian and Socinian. 
He was arraigned before the ecclesiastical courts, where he 
successfully defended himself on the ground that, though 
adverse to the prevalent opinions, his interpretation con¬ 
tradicted nothing in the standards—namely, the Bclgic 
Confession and the Catechism. Being questioned as to 
predestination, he declined to answer, as no fact was al¬ 
leged against him. 

In prosecuting his inquiries he determined to consult 
privately the best theologians of the day. He commenced 
a confidential correspondence with Prof. Francis Junius of 
the University of Leyden, the most eminent of the Dutch 
theologians. He was delighted to find how far Junius co¬ 
incided with him, but when he addressed to Junius the 
arguments for still more advanced views, the professor kept 
the letter by him unanswered for six years, when he died. 
The friends of Arminius believed that this silence arose 
from the fact that Junius found more than he could answer 
or was willing to admit. Unfortunately, this correspond¬ 
ence was inadvertently exposed by Junius to discovery, and 
was used to the disadvantage of Arminius. Arminius also, 
having received a treatise in favor of predestination by 
Professor Perkins of Cambridge, prepared an epistle to 
him, but was prevented by Perkins’s death from sending it. 
His letters both to Junius and Perkins are embodied in his 
published works, and, whatever may be thought of the 


251 


validity of the argument, no one will deny that in can¬ 
dor, courtesy, and Christian dignity they are hardly to bo 
surpassed. 

On the death of Junius the curators of the University of 
Leyden looked to Arminius as his successor. The reluc¬ 
tant consent of Amsterdam being at length gained, Armin¬ 
ius assented. But the predestinarians, led by Gomarus, 
senior professor of theology at Leyden, opposed his election. 
After a long series of strifes, Arminius offered to meet Go¬ 
marus and satisfy his objections. The meeting took place, 
and Gomarus, admitting that he had judged Arminius by 
hearsay, after Arminius had fully declared his entire op¬ 
position to Pelagianism and Socinianism, fully renounced 
his objections. So far as predestination was concerned, 
each professor was to deliver his own sentiments with mod¬ 
eration, and all collision with the other was to be avoided; 
and Arminius was thereupon elected. 

The six years of his Leyden professorship closing with 
his death are the most important yet troublous period of 
his career. The terms of peace were broken within the 
first year by Gomarus, who delivered a violent public ha¬ 
rangue on predestination in terms of insult to Arminius, 
who was personally present; to which the latter prepared 
a refutation clothed in terms of personal respect towards 
his opponent. Gomarus afterwards confessed that he could 
easily live at peace with Arminius but for the clergy and 
churches, who were intensely hostile to his liberal doctrines. 
Their Belgic Confession, Calvinistic as it was, was sacred 
in their hearts as being the banner under which they had 
fought the battle of civil and religious liberty against Spain 
and popery; and they now, alas! were making it the in¬ 
strument of religious intolerance. Arminius was held as 
invalidating that Confession, and so was everywhere tra¬ 
duced by the clergy as a papist, a Pelagian, and a Coorn- 
herter. Yet, really, the doctrines he taught were essen¬ 
tially the doctrines of Saint Chrysostom, Melanchthon, Jer¬ 
emy Taylor, and John Wesley. In regard to the Confession, 
he ever treated it with reverence, and only claimed the 
right of that same liberality of interpretation which Lu¬ 
therans exercised with the Augsburg Confession—a liberal¬ 
ity similar to that which the English clergy now exercise 
in regard to the seventeenth of their Thirty-nine Articles. 
A voluntary Church may, like any other voluntary associ¬ 
ation, be, if it pleases, stringent in its interpretations, but 
a state Church, which strains all to a tight interpretation 
of a very specific creed under pain of state disabilities, 
runs into religious despotism. This w r as therefore a gen¬ 
uine contest for religious liberty. Arminius was proscribed 
by the clergy, harassed by irresponsible deputations, and 
his students were subjected to persecutions and exclusions 
from the ministry. The more intelligent laity, including 
the magistracy, and especially the chief magistrate, Olden 
Barnevelt, were favorable to Arminius, who at length ap¬ 
pealed to the national legislature (called the States General) 
for protection. That body appointed a committee or coun¬ 
cil, who, having heard both Gomarus and Arminius in 
full, reported that the latter taught nothing but what could 
be tolerated. Before the States General themselves Ar¬ 
minius delivered a full oration, expounding his entire 
views, which is published in the American edition of his 
works. The clergy demanded the appointment of a na¬ 
tional synod, consisting purely of ecclesiastics, but the 
States General, well knowing what would be the fate of 
Arminius in their hands, refused. Under the constant 
pressure of these years of persecution the gentle spirit of 
Arminius at length sunk. He was taken from the bloody 
times that followed the Synod of Dort. His nervous sys¬ 
tem was prostrated, and, attended by his faithful pupil, 
the afterwards celebrated Episcopius, he died in the faith 
he had maintained, Oct. 19, 1609, a martyr to his views of 
truth. 

Arminianism, as the customary antithesis to Calvinism, 
is, within the limits of the evangelical doctrines, the theol¬ 
ogy that tends to freedom in opposition to the theology of 
necessity or absolutism. This contrast rises into thought 
among all nations that attain to reflection and philosophy. 
So in Greek and Roman thinking, Stoicism and all mate¬ 
rialistic atheism held that mind, will , is subject to just as 
fixed laws in its volitions as physical events are in their 
successions. When, however, men like Plato and Cicero 
rose to a more transcendent sense ol moral responsibility, 
especially of eternal responsibility, they came to say, like 
Cicero, “ Those who maintain an eternal series ol causes 
despoil the mind of man of free-will, and bind it in the ne¬ 
cessity of fate.” 

Theistic fatalism, or Predestination, consists in the pre¬ 
determination of the Divine Will, which, determining aliko 
the volitions of the will and the succession of physical 
events, reduces both to a like unfreedom; but those who 
hold Predestination very uniformly hold also to volitional 
necessity, or tho subjection of will in its action to the con- 

























ARMINIANISM. 


252 


trol of strongest motive force. And as the Divine Will is 
held subject to the same law, so Necessity, as master of 
God, man, and the universe, becomes a universal and ab¬ 
solute Fate. This doctrine, installed by Saint Augustine, 
and still more absolutely by John Calvin, in Christian 
theology, is from them called Augustinianism, or more 
usually Calvinism. 

In opposition to this theology, Arminianism maintains 
that in order to true responsibility, guilt, penalty, especially 
eternal penalty, there must be in the agent a free-will; and 
in a true responsible free-will the freedom must consist in 
the power, even in the same circumstances and under the 
same motives, of choosing either way. No man can justly be 
eternally damned, according to Arminianism, for a choice or 
action which he cannot help. If fixed by Divine decree or 
volitional necessity to the particular act, he cannot be held 
responsible or justly punished. In all such statements, 
however, it is presupposed, in order to a just responsibility, 
that the agent has not responsibly abdicated or destroyed 
his own power. No agent can plead in bar of responsibil¬ 
ity any incapacity which he has freely and wilfully brought 
upon himself. It is also to be admitted that there may be 
suffering which is not penalty—finite sufferings for which 
there are compensations, and for which every one would 
take his chance for the sake of life. But eternal suffering, 
for which there is no compensation, inflicted as a judicial 
penalty on the basis of justice, can be justly inflicted only 
for avoidable sin. If Divine decree or volitional necessity 
determine the act, it is irresponsible, and judicial penalty 
is unjust. 

Arminianism also holds that none but the person who 
freely commits the sin can be guilty of that sin. One person 
cannot be guilty of another person’s sin. A tempter may be 
guilty of tempting another to sin, but then one is guilty 
of the sin, and the other of solely the sin of temptation. 
There can thus be no vicarious guilt; and as punishment, 
taken strictly, can be only infliction for guilt upon the guilty, 
there can literally and strictly be no vicarious punishment. 
If innocent Damon die for Pythias guilty of murder, Damon 
is not guilty because he takes Pythias’s place in dying, 
and his death is not to him a punishment, but a suffering, 
which is a substitute for another man’s punishment. The 
doer of sin is solely the sinner, the guilty, or the punished. 
These preliminary statements will elucidate the issues be¬ 
tween Calvinism and Arminianism on the following points: 

1. Foreordination .—Calvinism affirms that God does un¬ 
changeably and eternally foreordain whatsoever comes to 
pass. That is, God from all eternity predetermines not 
only all physical events, but all the volitions of responsible 
agents. To this Arminianism objects that the predetermi¬ 
nation of the agent’s volitions destroys the freedom of his 
will; that it makes God the responsible predeterminer and 
wilier of sin; and that it makes every sinner to say that 
his sin accords with the Divine Will, and therefore, so far 
as himself is concerned, is right. It makes God first de¬ 
cree the sin, and then punish the sinner for the sin decreed. 
The Arminian theory is this: God does from all eternity 
predetermine the laws of nature and the succession of 
physical and necessary events; but as to free moral agents, 
God, knowing all possible futurities, does choose that plan 
of his own conduct which, in view of what each agent will 
ultimately in freedom do, will bring out the best results. 
His system is a system of his own actions. And God’s 
predeterminations of his own acts are so far contingent as 
they are based on his prerecognition of what the agent will 
freely do; yet as his omniscience knows the future with per¬ 
fect accuracy, so he will never be deceived nor frustrated in 
his plans and providences. 

Some Arminians deny God’s foreknowledge, on the ground 
of the intrinsic impossibility of a future contingency being 
foreknown. As the performance of a contradictory act is 
impossible, intrinsically, even to Omnipotence, so, say they, 
the knowability of a future contingency, being an essential 
contradiction, is impossible even to Omniscience. A con¬ 
tradiction is a nothing; and it is very unnecessary to say 
in behalf of God's omnipotence that he can do all things, 
and all nothings too. So it is cqualty absurd to say in 
behalf of his omniscience that he knows all things, and all 
nothings too. The exclusion of contradictions does not 
limit God’s omnipotence or omniscience, but defines it. 
Arminians do not condemn this reasoning, but generally 
hold that their theory is maintainable against Calvinism on 
the assumption of foreknowledge. They deny, as against 
the Calvinist, that foreknowledge has any influence upon 
the future of the act, as predetermination has. Predeter¬ 
mination fixes the act—foreknowledge is fixed by the act. 
In foreordination God determines the act as he pleases; 
in foreknowledge the agent fixes the prescience as he 
pleases. In the former case God is alone responsible for 
the creature’s act; in the latter case God holds the creature 
responsible, and a just divine government becomes possible. 


Yet most Arminians probably would say, with the eminent 
philosopher Dr. Henry More, If the divine foreknowledge 
of the volitions of a free agent contradicts the freedom, 
then the freedom, and not the foreknowledge, is to be be¬ 
lieved. 

2. Divine Sovereignty. —Calvinism affirms that if man is 
free God is not a sovereign. Just so far as man is free to 
will either way, God’s power is limited. Arminians reply 
that if man is not free, God is not a sovereign, but sinks 
to a mere mechanist. If man’s will is as fixed as the 
physical machinery of the universe, then all is machinery 
and not a government, and God is a machinist and not a 
ruler. The higher man’s freedom of will is exalted above 
mechanism, so much higher is God elevated as a sovereign. 
Here, according to Arminians, Calvinism degrades and 
destroys God’s sovereignty, and Arminianism exalts it; that 
the freedom of man no more limits God’s power than do 
the laws of nature by him established; that in both cases, 
equally, there is simply a self-limitation by God of the 
exercise of his power; that Arminianism holds to the 
absoluteness of God’s omnipotence just as truly as Calvin¬ 
ism, and to the grandeur of his sovereignty even more 
exaltedly. 

3. Imputation of Adam’s Sin. —Calvinism affirms that 
Adam’s posterity is truly guilty of Adam’s sin, so as to be 
eternally and justly punishable therefor without a remedy. 
As guilty of this sin, God might have the whole race born 
into existence under a curse, without the power or means 
of deliverance, and consigned to eternal punishment. 
Upon this Arminians look as a dogma violative of the 
fundamental principles of eternal justice. They deny that 
guilt and literal punishment can, in the nature of things, 
be thus transferred. Their theory is, that upon Adam's 
sin a Saviour was forthwith interposed for the race as a 
previous condition to the allowance of the propagation 
of the race by Adam, and a’ provision for inherited dis¬ 
advantages. Had not a Redeemer been provided, mankind, 
after Adam, would not have been born. The race inherits 
the nature of fallen Adam, not by being held guilty of his 
sin, but by the law of natural descent, just as all posterity 
inherit the species-qualities, physical, mental, and moral, 
of the progenitor. Before his fall the presence of the Holy 
Spirit with Adam in fulness supernaturally empowered him 
to perfect holiness—the tree of life imparted to him a su¬ 
pernatural immortality. Separated from both these, ho 
sunk into a mere nature, subject to appetite and Satan. 
The race in Adam, without redemption, is totally incapable 
of salvation; yet under Christ it is placed upon a new re¬ 
demptive probation, is empowered by the quickening spirit 
given to all, and through Christ may, by the exercise of 
free agency, attain eternal life. 

4. Reprobation. —Of the whole mass of mankind thus in¬ 
volved in guilt and punishment for sin they never actually 
committed, Calvinism affirms that God has left a large 
share “passed by”—that is, without adequate means of 
recovery, and with no intention to recover them—and this 
from the “good pleasure of his will ” and for a display of his 
“ glorious justice.” The other portion of mankind God does, 
from “ mere good pleasure,” without any superior preferabil¬ 
ity in them,“elect” or choose,and confers upon them regenera¬ 
tion and eternal life,“ all to the praise of his glorious grace.” 
Arminians pronounce such a proceeding arbitrary, and fail 
to see in it either “justice” or “ glorious grace.” The repro¬ 
bation seems to them to be injustice, and the “grace,” with 
such an accompaniment, unworthy the acceptance of honor¬ 
able free agents. Election and reprobation, as Arminian¬ 
ism holds them, are conditioned upon the conduct and vol¬ 
untary character of the subjects. All, submitting to God 
and righteousness, by repentance of sin and true self-con¬ 
secrating faith, do meet the conditions of that election; all 
who persist in sin present the qualities upon which repro¬ 
bation depends. And as this preference for the obedient 
and holy, and rejection of the disobedient and unholy, lies 
in the very nature of God, so this election and reprobation 
are from before the foundations of the world. 

5. Ph il<>8oj)hical or Volitional Necessity. —Calvinism main¬ 
tains the doctrine that all volitions are determined and 
fixed by the force of strongest motive, just as the strokes 
of a clock-hammer are fixed and determined by the strong¬ 
est force. The will can no more choose otherwise in a given 
case than the clock-hammer can strike otherwise. There 
is no “power of contrary choice.” Calvinism often speaks, 
indeed, of “free agents,” “free-will,” “self-determining 
power,” and “ will’s choosing by its oavh power ;” but bring 
it to analysis, and it will always, say the Arminians, be 
found that the freedom is the same as that of the clock- 
hammer—the freedom to strike as it does, and no otherwise. 
Arminianism affirms that if the agent has no power to will 
otherwise than motive-force determines, any more than a 
clock-hammer can strike otherwise, then there is no justice 
in requiring a different volition any more than a different 






















ARMINIANISM. 


clock-stroke. It would be requiring an impossibility. And 
to punish an agent for not performing an impossibility is 
injustice, and to punish him eternally, an infinite injustice. 
Arminianism charges, therefore, that Calvinism destroys 
all just punishment, and so all free volition and all divine 
government. 

6. Infant Damnation .—Holding that the race is truly 
guilty, and judicially condemnable to endless torment for 
Adam’s sin, Calvinism necessarily maintains, according to 
Arminians, that it is just for God to condemn all infants 
to eternal punishment, even those who have never performed 
any moral act of their own. This was held by Augustine, 
and wherever Calvinism has spread this has been a part of 
the doctrine, more or less explicitly taught. Earlier Cal¬ 
vinists maintained against the Arminians that there is act¬ 
ual reprobation—that is, a real sending to hell—as well 
as particular election, of infants. Arminianism, denying 
that the race is judicially guilty, or justly damnable for 
Adam’s sins, affirms the salvation of all infants. The in¬ 
dividual man as born does, indeed, irresponsibly possess 
within his constitution that nature which will, amid the 
temptations of life, commence to sin when it obtains its 
full-grown strength. He is not, like the unborn Christ, 
“ that holy thing.” There is, therefore, a repugnance which 
God and all holy beings have towards him by contrariety 
of nature, and an irresponsible unfitness for heaven and 
holy association. If born immortal, with such a nature un¬ 
changeable, he must be for ever unholy, and for ever natur¬ 
ally unhappy under the divine repugnance. Under such 
conditions Divine Justice would not permit the race, after 
the fall, to be born. But at once the future Incarnate Re¬ 
deemer interposes, restores the divine complacency, and 
places the race upon a new probation. Man is thereby 
born in a “ state of initial salvation,” as Fletcher of Made- 
ly called it, and the means of final salvation are amply 
placed within the reach of his free choice. 

7. Pagan Damnation .—On its own principle, that power 
to perform is not necessary in order to obligation to perform, 
Calvinism easily maintains that pagans, who never heard 
of Christ, are rightly damned for want of faith in Christ. 
They may be damned for original sin, and for their own 
sin, and for unbelief in Christ, without any Saviour. Ar¬ 
minianism, on the contrary, maintains that there doubtless 
are many in pagan lands saved even by the unknown Re¬ 
deemer. They, not having the law, are a law unto them¬ 
selves. Nay, they may have the spirit of faith, so that 
were Christ truly presented he would be truly accepted. 
They may have faith in that of which Christ is the embodi¬ 
ment, like the ancient worthies enumerated in Heb. xi. 
There may not be as great differences in the chances for 
salvation in different lands as Calvinism assumes. Where 
little is given, much is not required. Arminianism holds 
that no one of the human race is damned who has not had 
full chance for salvation. Missions are none the less import¬ 
ant in order to hasten the day when all shall be converted. 
If that millennial age shall come, and be of long duration, 
Arminianism hopes that the great majority of the entire 
race of all ages may be finally saved. 

8. Doctrines of Grace .—Calvinism maintains that the death 
of Christ is an expiation for man’s sin: first, for the guilt 
of men for Adam’s sin, so that it is possible for God to for¬ 
give and save; and second, for actual sin—that thereby 
the influence of the Spirit restores the lapsed moral powers, 
regenerates and saves the man. But these saving benefits 
are reserved for the elect only. Arminianism, claiming a 
for richer doctrine of grace, extends it to the very founda¬ 
tions of the existence of Adam’s posterity. Grace under¬ 
lies our very nature and life. We are born and live because 
Christ became incarnate and died for us. All the institutes 
of salvation—the chance of probation, the Spirit, the 
Word, the pardon, the regeneration, the resurrection, and 
the life eternal—are through him. And Arminianism, 
against Calvinism, proclaims that these are for all. Christ 
died for all alike ; for no one man more than for any other 
man, and sufficient grace and opportunity for salvation is 
given to every man. 

Calvinism maintains the irresistibility of grace; or, more 
strongly still, that grace is absolute, like the act of crea¬ 
tion, which is called irresistible with a sort of impropriety 
from the fact that resistance in that connection is truly un¬ 
thinkable. Against this Arminians reply that will, aided 
by prevenient grace, is free even in accepting pardoning 
grace; that though this acceptance is no more meritorious 
than a beggar’s acceptance of an offered fortune, yet it is 
accepted freely and with full power of rejection, and is 
none the less grace for that. 

9. Justifying and Saving Faith— Faith, according to Cal¬ 
vinism, is an acceptance of Christ wrought absolutely, as 
an act of creation in the man, whereby it is as impossible 
for him not savingly to believe as it is for a world to be 
not created or an infant to be not born. And as this faith 


253 


is resistlessly fastened in the man, so it is resistlessly kept 
there, and the man necessarily perseveres to the end. Faith, 
according to Arminianism, is, as a power, indeed the gift 
of God, but as an act it is the free, avoidable, yet really 
performed act of the intellect, heart, and will, by which the 
man surrenders himself to Christ and all holiness for time 
and eternity. In consequence of this act, and not for its 
meritorious value or its any way compensating for or earn¬ 
ing salvation, it is accepted for righteousness, and the man 
himself is accepted, pardoned, and saved. And as this 
faith is free and rejectable in its beginning, so through life 
it continues. The Christian is as obliged, through the 
grace of God assisting, to freely retain it as first freely to 
exercise it. It is of the very essence of his probationary 
freedom that he is as able to renounce his faith and apos¬ 
tatize as to reject it at first. 

10. Extent of the Atonement and Offers of Salvation .— 
Earlier Calvinism maintained that Christ died for the elect 
alone; later Calvinism affirms that he died for one and all, 
and so offers salvation to all on condition of faith. But Ar¬ 
minianism asks, With what consistency can the atonement 
be said to be for all when, by the eternal decree of God, it is 
foreordained that a large part of mankind shall be excluded 
from its benefits ? How also can it be for all when none 
can accept it.but by efficacious grace, and that grace is 
arbitrarily withheld from a large part? How can it be for 
all when God has so fastened the will of a large part of 
mankind, by counter motive-force, that they are unable to 
accept it ? The same arguments show the impossibility of 
a rightful offer of salvation to all, either by God or by the 
Calvinistic pulpit. How can salvation be rationally offered 
to those whom God by an eternal decree has excluded from 
salvation ? What right to exhort the very men to repent 
whom God determines, by volitional necessity, not to re¬ 
pent ? What right to exhort men to do otherwise than 
God has willed, decreed, and foreordained they shall do ? 
If God has decreed a thing, is not that thing right? What 
an awful sinner is the preacher who stands up to oppose 
and defeat God’s decrees! If a man is to be damned for 
fulfilling God’s decrees, ought not that imaginary God to 
be, a fortiori, damned for making such decrees ? If a man 
does as God decrees, ought he not to be by God approved 
and saved ? And since all men do as God decrees, wills, 
and determines they shall do, ought not all men to be 
saved, so that the true theory should be Universalism ? 
How can grace be offered to the man whom God had de¬ 
creed never to have grace? or faith be preached to those to 
whom God has made faith impossible ? or conditions pro¬ 
posed to those from whom God withholds the power of per¬ 
forming conditions? Hence, the Arminian affirms that in 
all public offers of a free or conditional salvation to all the 
Calvinistic pulpit contradicts its own creed. 

11. Such is an outline of the usual argument on the sub¬ 
ject; and it is not difficult to determine on which side the 
logic predominates. If we consider the question from its more 
abstract, more metaphysical premises, the Arminian theory 
has equally the advantage. Most of the difficulties of this 
and all similar inquiries doubtless arise from the limita¬ 
tions of our faculties, or rather of our language. We un¬ 
warrantably attribute to the Infinite Mind the modes of 
thought which are peculiar to our finite intellects. The 
most subtle perplexity of this controversy grows out of the 
idea of time —its past, present, and future—and the attempt 
to reconcile foreknowledge with contingency or free-will. 
But what is time ? It is no entity, no substance, like iron, 
air, oxygen. It is, as Kant teaches, subjective, not objec¬ 
tive. It is but a habit of the mind, an association of thought, 
suggested, as Locke says, by the succession of ideas, and 
arising from the finite limitations of our faculties. We 
cannot, therefore, logically transfer to the Infinite Mind 
the temporal distinctions of past, present, and future. A 
succession of ideas, by which alone the conception of time 
is possible, necessarily implies a limitation which cannot 
be predicated of the Absolute Mind. Nor is it necessary 
for us to assume that all duration is an eternal now with 
God; for here, again, we use a distinction of time. We 
can rightly assume but three facts: first, that, owing to 
limitations of our faculties, and especially of language, we 
have habitudes of thought which do not belong to the In¬ 
finite Mind, and from which arise our baffling difficulties 
in the investigation of themes like the present. Secondly, 
that, however incomprehensible, to us, may be the nature 
and action of the Divine Mind, yet the obvious facts of the 
conscious freedom of man’s will and his moral responsi¬ 
bility—facts which are the indisputable basis of laws and 
rights, of reward and penalty, of virtue and society— 
must remain incontestable, and be, in some way, perfectly 
reconcilable with the divine government. They arc facts 
within the comprehension of our finite faculties, they are 
positive and certain, and therefore the mysterious, the un¬ 
known, cannot be incompatible with them. With better 



















ARMINIANISM. 


254 


faculties, and especially with a better terminology, the 
chief difficulties of this controversy may vanish, and it may 
be seen that we have been contending only about words, and 
confounded in a mere logomachy. Hence, as Buckle ( His¬ 
tory of Civilization, i. 1) says, “Among more advanced 
thinkers there is a growing opinion that both doctrines 
(predestination and free-will) are wrong, or, at all events, 
that we have no sufficient evidence of their truth.” 

12. Analogy of Temporal Superiorities .—Calvinism argues 
that in this world Cod distributes advantages, such as 
wealth, rank, beauty, vigor, and intellect, not according to 
desert, but purely as a sovereign. Hence, in the same way 
he may bestow on one faith and eternal life, and on others 
unbelief and eternal death. Arminianism replies that this 
very analogy between the temporal and the eternal bestow- 
ment proves the precise reverse. In this probationary 
world advantages ar ^professedly distributed without regard 
to judicial rectitude. Men are not rewarded according to 
their works or voluntary character. The wicked are set on 
high, and Satan is this world's god. And the very differ¬ 
ence between the dispensation of the world and that of the 
kingdom of God is, that in the latter blessedness is placed 
at every man’s choice, and the result is judicially according 
to voluntary faith and wox-ks. The Bible nowhere places 
beauty or intellect at our own choice, but.it does declare 
faith, repentance, and eternal life to be in our own power, 
and holds us responsible for not exerting the power. 

Basis of Morality. —Calvinism claims that the very se¬ 
verity of its system, its deep view of human guilt and ne¬ 
cessary damnability by birth and nature, its entire subjec¬ 
tion to divine absolutism irrespective of human ideas of 
justice, tend to produce a profound piety. Arminianism 
replies that this is missing the true ideal of piety. It seems 
to be basing Christian morality on fundamental immorality. 
For God to will and predetermine the sin, and then damn 
the sinner—for him to impute guilt to the innocent, and so 
eternally damn the innocent as guilty—are procedures that 
appear fundamentally unrighteous, so far as the deepest 
intuitions of our nature can decide. Thus, first to make 
God in the/wets intrinsically and absolutely bad, and then 
require us to ascribe holiness and goodness to his character 
and conduct, perverts the moral sense. It is to make him 
what we are in duty bound to hate, and then require us to 
love and adore him. Such adoration, secured by the abdi¬ 
cation not only of the reason, but of the moral sense, and 
the prostration of the soul to pure, naked absolutism, natu¬ 
rally results in the sombre piety of fear; just as children 
are frightened into a factitious goodness by images of terror. 
While the piety of Jesus is serene, firm, winning, and 
gently yet powerfully subduing, the piety of absolutism 
tends to be stern and Judaic-like. While thus apparently 
defective at the roots, it does nevertheless often present an 
objective character of rectitude, a practical hardihood and 
aggressive energy in the cause of morality and regulated 
freedom. Arminianism, in order to a true and rational 
piety, sees the ideal of rectitude in the divine character and 
conduct, not by mere ascriptions contradicted by facts, but 
both in the facts and the ascriptions. A harmony of facts 
and intuitive reason is produced, love to the Divine Being 
becomes a rational sentiment, and a piety cheerful, hopeful, 
merciful, and gladly obedient becomes realized. 

Civil and Religious Liberty .—As the freedom of the in¬ 
dividual, and his own intransferable responsibility for his 
own voluntary character and conduct, are fundamental 
principles with Arminianism, it is in its own nature adverse 
to civil or religious despotism. It has been said that when 
Romanism persecutes, it accords with its fundamental 
principle, the denial of right of private judgment, while 
when Protestantism persecutes, it contradicts itself. So 
when Calvinism persecutes, it obeys an intrinsic absolutism, 
while if Arminianism persecutes, it contradicts its own 
freedom and individualism. Yet position has often in his¬ 
tory produced in all these parties palpable violations of, 
and discordances with, their principle. Romanists often 
become by position asserters of ultra-democracy, and Prot¬ 
estants of absolute despotism. And so Calvinism has, his¬ 
torically, been by joosition the advocate for revolution, and 
Arminianism the asserter of authority. In fact, as Ar¬ 
minianism has been, as above shown, the ruling doctrine 
of the Church, and Calvinism an insurgent specialty, so the 
historical position of the first has been favorable to the as¬ 
sertion of authority, and the normal position of the latter 
has been revolt. This may be called one of the accidents 
of history. So the learned Selden in his “ Table-Talk ” re¬ 
marked on the curious contradiction in the English civil 
war, that the advocates of absolutism in religion were the 
advocates of political liberty, and vice versa. Yet it may 
perhaps be truly said that when the religious absolutist 
gains the power he is apt to be an absolute though a con¬ 
scientious despot. He makes a better rebel than ruler. 
Prof. Fisher, a Calvinist, gives a severely true picture of 


the conscientious despotism of Calvin at Geneva. A similar 
despotism on a larger scale in England under Cromwell 
rendered the nation willing by reaction to rush into the de¬ 
pravities of the Restoration. Driven to America, even 
while under the rule of an Arminian monarchy, a similar 
despotism on a small scale overspread New England. 

Nor was Calvinism, as Prof. Fisher truly affirms, the ad¬ 
vocate of liberty of conscience. Not only did Calvin him¬ 
self banish Boisec, ruin Castellio, and favor the execution 
of Servetus, but he maintained, doctrinally, the duty of 
the magistrate to punish heresy. Beza, his learned succes¬ 
sor, wrote a treatise in favor of punishing heretics. Boger- 
man, the president at the Synod of Dort, was the translator 
of Beza’s essay. It is but too evident that the Protestant 
Calvinists differed with the Romanists not about the pun¬ 
ishment of heretics, but about who the heretics to be pun¬ 
ished were. In this respect the Calvinism of the new 
Church and the Arminianism of the old were nearly upon 
a par. The new Church, however, belonged to the pro¬ 
gressive order of things; but whether, finally, the Calvin¬ 
ism or the Arminianism of the new Church first actually 
proclaimed toleration is a matter of question. 

Comparative Morality .—Mr. Froude endeavors by com¬ 
parison to show that Calvinism is superior to Arminianism 
in morals by selecting his own examples. But the Armin¬ 
ian may perhaps in reply make also his selections. Scot¬ 
tish Calvinism has an unquestioned severity of morals, but 
are Scotch character and history, as a whole, even ethically 
superior to the English ? Is the morality of Presbyterian¬ 
ism in its entire aspect superior to that of Moravianism,Qua¬ 
kerism, or Wesleyan Methodism ? Are our American Calvin- 
istic Baptists more Christian in morals than the Free-will 
Baptists ? Is there any umpire qualified to decide that 
the devout Presbyterian is superior to the devout Episco¬ 
palian ? Did Jonathan Edwards present a type of piety 
superior to that of Fletcher of Madely ? or John Calvin to 
that of James Arminius ? Can Calvinism show a grander 
type of an evangelist than was John Wesley in England 
or Francis Asbury in America? Has she produced, in all 
her history, a system of evangelism as earnest, as self- 
sacrificing, as aggressive as the itinerant ministry of Eng¬ 
lish and American Methodism ? Taking the entire body 
of Calvinism since the Reformation, does it excel in purity, 
martyrdom, doctrine, and missionary enterprise the (Ar¬ 
minian) Church of the first centuries ? If it comes to 
counting persons, has any section of the Church nobler 
names than Justin Martyr, Ignatius, Irenaeus, Origen, 
Athanasius, Tertullian, Jerome, Chrysostom, John of Da¬ 
mascus, Hincmar of Rheims, Erasmus, Luther, Melanch- 
thon, Sir Thomas More, Calixtus, Savonarola, Arminius, 
Grotius, Episcopius, Limborch, Curcellaeus, John Milton, 
John Goodwin, Jeremy Taylor, Cudworth, Bishop Butler, 
Bishop Bull, Bengel, Wetstein, Wesley, Fletcher, and 
Richard Watson ? 

Comparative Republicanism. —Nor did, nor does, Predes¬ 
tination as compared with Arminianism, possess any pe¬ 
culiar affinity with republicanism against monarchy. By 
its very nature Calvinism establishes an infinite and eter¬ 
nal distinction between different parts of mankind made 
by divine prerogative, by which one is born in a divine 
aristocracy, and the other in an eternal helpless and hope¬ 
less pariahism; whilst Arminianism, holding every man 
equal before God, proclaims an equal yet resistible grace 
for all, a universal atonement and Saviour alike to all, an 
equal power of acceptance in all, a free, unpredestined 
chance for every man to be the artificer of his own eternal, 
as well as temporal, fortunes. Caste, partialism are the 
characteristics of the former; equality, universality, repub¬ 
licanism, of the latter. It is as plain as consciousness can 
make any fact that it is the latter that is the natural ally, not 
of monarchies, aristocracies, or hierarchies, but of regulated 
freedom. Hence, neither Luther nor Calvin was any more 
a republican than Eck or Erasmus. Augustine and Gott- 
schalk were good papists, and Augustinianism was as en¬ 
tirely at home under the tiara of Gregory the Great as 
under the cap of Bogerman—in the court of Charlemagne 
as in the camp of the Covenanter. Irrespective of their 
Calvinism, the Reformers everywhere acted according to 
conditions. Where kings and nobles favored them, they 
favored kings and nobles; where (as was generally the 
case) they were rejected by rank and power, and had no¬ 
thing to make royalty and aristocracy out of, they fash¬ 
ioned a theocratic Commune, out of which modern political 
experience has picked some aids and methods for voluntary 
government. Modern experience has eliminated the theoc¬ 
racy, the intolerance, and the predestinarianism, and added 
the elements to make republicanism. For all this it duly 
thanks the Reformers, but does not thank their Calvinism. 

History of Arminianism.— The theology of freedom, 
essentially Arminianism, in opposition to predestination, 
necessitated volitions, and imputation of guilt to the inno- 















ARMINIANISM. 


cent, is universally acknowledged to have been the doctrine 
of the entire Christian Church through its most glorious 
period, the martyr age of the first three centuries. The 
Calvinistic historian of theology, Hagenbach, says (vol. i., 
p. 155): “ All the Greek Fathers, as well as the apologists 
Justin, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and the Latin 
author Minucius Felix, exalt the autonomy or self-deter¬ 
mination of the human soul. They know nothing of any 
imputation of sin, except as a voluntary and moral self- 
determination is presupposed. Even Iremeus and Ter- 
tullian strongly insist upon this self-determination in the 
use of freedom of the will.” Again (157): ‘‘ Even the op¬ 
ponents of human liberty, as Calvin, are compelled to ac¬ 
knowledge this remarkable unanimity of the Fathers, and 
in order to account for it they are obliged to suppose a 
general illusion about this doctrine !” 

Arminians contend that we know as well when predes¬ 
tination was introduced into the Church—namely, by Au¬ 
gustine—as we do when transubstantiation and image- 
worship were introduced; that it was in the fourth century, 
when Pelagius upon one extreme made free-will dispense 
with divine grace, Augustine on the other extreme made 
divine grace irresistibly nullify free-will, and thus both 
lost their balance; that both invented dogmas never before 
recognized in the Church; that, tried by the previous mind 
of the Church, both were equally heretical; that the heresy 
of one, pushed to extreme, becomes rationalism and pure 
deism—the heresy of the other, pushed to extreme, becomes 
presumptuous antinomianism. They assert that the Eastern 
Church maintained her primitive position, neither Pelagian 
on one side nor Augustinian on the other, essentially in 
the position of modern Arminianism; that hence Armin- 
ianism is not a compromise, but the primitive historical 
position, the permanent centre, rejecting innovations and 
extremes on either side; that the Western Church, in spite 
of the great name of Augustine, never became Augustinian. 
It is indeed customarily said by anti-Arminian writers 
that this was because the “age of systematic theology” 
had not then arrived. Arminians reply that a theology 
not only unrecognized during that best period of the 
Church, but, still more, a theology unanimously condemned 
as heretical by that period, has little right now to lay 
claim to pre-eminent Christian orthodoxy. The Eastern 
Church—namely, the churches of Asia, with whom the 
language of our Lord and his apostles was essentially ver¬ 
nacular; the Greek Church, to whom the language of the 
New Testament was vernacular; and the Russian Church, 
embracing many millions—all inherited and retain, firmly 
and unanimously, the theology of freedom, essential Ar¬ 
minianism. The learned Calvinistic scholar Dr. Shedd, in 
his “History of Doctrines’’ (vol. ii., p. 198), says: “The 
Augustinian anthropology was rejected in the East, and, 
though at first triumphant in the West, was gradually dis¬ 
placed by the semi-Pelagian theory, or the theory of in¬ 
herited evil [instead of inherited guilt] and synergistic [or 
co-operative] regeneration. This theory was finally stated 
for the papal Church in exact form by the Council of Trent. 
The Augustinian anthropology, though advocated in the 
Middle Ages by a few individuals like Gottschalk, Bede, 
Anselm, slumbered until the Reformation, when it was re¬ 
vived by Luther and Calvin, and opposed by the papists.” 
It will thus be seen, on a review of the universal Church in 
all ages, how small though respectable a minority Augus- 
tinianism or Calvinism, before the Reformation, ever was. 
With minor exceptions, Arminianism was the doctrine of 
the universal Church. 

The accuracy of Dr. Shedd’s statement of the general 
non-existence of Augustinianism during the Middle Ages 
is not invalidated by the fact of the great authority of 
Augustine’s name, arising from the powerful genius and 
voluminous writings of the man. It was no proof that a 
man was truly Augustinian because he belonged to the 
“Augustinian order” or quoted Augustine’s authority. 
Such Schoolmen as Bernard, Anselm, and Peter Lombard 
modified Augustine’s doctrine materially; Bonaventuraand 
Duns Scotus were essentially Arminians, and Hincmar of 
Rheims and Savonarola literally so. Gottschalk, the high 
predestinarian, was condemned for heresy, and Thomas 
Bradwardine, the “second Gottschalk,” made complaints, 
doubtless overstrained, that in his day “almost the whole 
world had become Pelagian.” 

At the Reformation, however, we encounter the phe¬ 
nomenon that all the eminent leaders at first not only 
adopted, but even exaggerated, the absolutism of Augus¬ 
tine. This might seem strange, for it was apparently natu¬ 
ral that the absolute papacy should identify itself with the 
absolute, and that asserters of freedom would have stood 
on the free-will theology. The twin doctrines of the su¬ 
premacy o.f Scripture and of justification by faith were 
amply sufficient, without predestination, for their purpose 
to abolish the whole system of popish corruption. The 


255 


former dethroned alike the authority of tradition and the 
popedom; the latter swept away alike the mediations of 
Mary, saints, and priests. But the first heroic impulse 
of reform tends to magnify the issues to their utmost di¬ 
mensions. The old free-will theology belonged universally 
to the old historic Church, and was identified by the first 
Reformers with its corruptions. Luther at first, in his 
reply to Erasmus “ On the Bondage of the Will,” uttered 
fatalisms that probably had hardly ever before been heard 
in the Christian Church, and perhaps it would be hard to 
find a Calvinist at the present day who would adopt the 
trenchant predestinarian utterances of Calvin. Under the 
indoctrinations of these leaders, especially of Calvin at 
Geneva, the absolute doctrines were diffused and formed 
into the creeds of Germany, the Netherlands, France, Eng¬ 
land, and Switzerland. Butin Germany the “ second sober 
thought” of Melanchthon, who at first coincided with Lu¬ 
ther, receded from predestination, and Melanchthon him¬ 
self intimates that Luther seceded with him; so that the 
Lutherans are now essentially Arminian. In the Nether¬ 
lands the same “second thought,”'led by Arminius him¬ 
self, was suppressed by state power. In France, Protest¬ 
antism, which was Calvinistic, was overwhelmed in blood. 
In England the Calvinism was generally of a gentle type, 
and the same “second thought” was awakened by the 
Arminian writings of Grotius and Episcopius diffused 
through Europe. And as the English Church gradually 
inclined to the ancient high episcopacy of the old Church, 
so it adopted the ancient Arminianism. Calvinism, per¬ 
secuted and oppressed, overthrew monarchy and Church, 
and for a brief period ruled with hardly less intolerance, 
until, overthrown in turn, Calvinism took refuge in America, 
and laid foundations here. Even here past sufferings did 
not teach tolerance, and that doctrine had to be learned 
from checks and lessons administered by surrounding 
sources. Calvinism has, nevertheless, here acted a noble 
part in our Chi-istian civilization. It perhaps about equally 
divides the evangelic Church with Arminianism. 

Arminianism, proper and Protestant, came into exist¬ 
ence under the severe persecution by Dutch Calvinism, in 
Avhich the great and good Arminius himself was a virtual 
martyr. The Synod of Dort, the standard council of the 
Calvinistic faith, made itself subservient to the unprincipled 
and sanguinary usurper Maurice; and even during its ses¬ 
sions the judicial murder of the great Arminian and repub¬ 
lican statesman Olden Barnevelt was triumphantly an¬ 
nounced at Dort to overawe the Arminians at the synod, 
who were bravely maintaining their cause under the lead¬ 
ership of the eloquent Episcopius. Then followed the ban¬ 
ishment of Episcopius, the imprisonment of Grotius, the 
ejection of hundreds of Arminian ministers from their pul¬ 
pits, and the firing of soldiers upon the religious assemblies 
of Arminian worshippei’S. The great Arminian writers of 
Holland, Episcopius, Grotius, and Limborch, are claimed 
by Arminian writers to be the first public proclaimers of the 
doctrine of liberty of conscience in Europe, as those two 
Arminian Puritans, John Milton and John Goodwin, were 
its earliest proclaimers in England. 

Wesleyan Methodism is now by all admitted to be a great 
modern Arminian development. Beginning most humbly 
as a half-unconscious awakening amid the general religious 
chill of Protestantism, it has not only quickened the relig¬ 
ious life of the age, but gathered, it is said, twelve millions 
of worshippers into its congregations throughout the world. 
Its theology is very definite, and very nearly the exact the¬ 
ology of James Arminius himself, and of the first three 
centuries. Cradled in both the Arminianism and Iligh- 
Churchism of the English establishment, Wesley’s maturer 
years earnestly approved the Arminianism, but severed it 
from the High-Churchism. The connection between Ar¬ 
minianism and High-Churchism is hereby clearly revealed 
to be historical and incidental rather than intrinsic or 
logical. Yet, even after adopting the doctrine that every 
Church has the right to shape its own government, as a 
lover of the primitive, post-apostolic Church, as well as 
from notions of Christian expediency, Wesley preferred, 
and provided for American Methodism, an episcopal form 
of government. Arminian Methodism has, in little more 
than a centui'y of her existence, apparently demonstrated 
that the Augustinian “ systematic theology ” is unnecessary, 
and, what it deems, the primitive theology amply sufficient 
for the production of a profound depth of piety, a free 
ecclesiastical system, an energetic missionary enterprise, 
and a rapid evangelical success. She exhibits in her vari¬ 
ous phases every form of government, from the most deci¬ 
sive system of episcopacy to the simplest Congregational¬ 
ism, all voluntarily adopted, and changeable at will. Tho 
problems she has thus wrought suggest the thought that 
the free, simple theology of the earliest age may be tho 
universal theology of the latest. (Sec Calvinism, by Pkof. 
A. A. IIodge, S. T. D.) D. D. Wiiedon. 














256 ARMINIUS- 


Arminius. Sec Hermann. 

Ar'mistcad (Lewis Addison), a general, born at New- 
bern, N. C., Feb. 18,1817, graduated at West Point in 1836. 
He served in the Mexican war (1846-47), and joined the 
Confederate army in 1861. He was killed at Gettysburg 
July 3,1863. 

Armisteatl (Walker Keith), an American general, 
born in Virginia about 1780. He became chief of the corps 
of engineers, and served in the war of 1812. He com¬ 
manded an army against the Indians in Florida. Died 
Oct. 13, 1845. 

Ar'mistice [from the Lat. ar'ma, “arms,” and sto (or 
sis'to), to “stand still”], a truce; a suspension of hostili¬ 
ties between two armies or belligerent powers, which often 
agree to suspend operations for a definite time while the 
diplomatists are negotiating the preliminaries of a peace. 
During the third Crusade, Richard Coeur de Lion and Sal- 
adin made a truce for three years three months and three 
da} T s. In modern times the duration of armistices is much 
less. After the Germans captured Paris, Jan. 30, 1871, the 
French people, having no regular government, desired to 
elect a national assembly, for which purpose an armistice 
was granted by the Germans. The armistice, during which 
the armies on both sides were bound to remain stationary, 
ended in a treaty of peace, the preliminaries of which were 
ratified on Feb. 26, 1871. The definitive treaty of peace 
was signed at Frankfort in May of that year. 

Ar'mitage (Edward), an English historical painter of 
high reputation, born in London in 1817. Among his 
masterpieces are “ St. Francis before Pope Innocent III.,” 
and the frescoes in the new Houses of Parliament. 

Armitage (Thomas), D. D., was born at Pontefract, 
England, Aug. 2, 1819, and became in his youth a Meth¬ 
odist preacher. In 1838 he came to New York, and entered 
the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1848 
he became a Baptist, and settled as a pastor in New York. 
He warmly advocated the movement for Bible revision, 
which led in 1850 to the formation of the American Bible 
Union, of which organization he became an efficient officer, 
and subsequently the president. He occupies a high rank 
as a pulpit orator and as a writer of great power and ele¬ 
gance. His position as a leader in the denomination with 
which he is identified is generally acknowledged. 

Armitage (William Edmond), D. D., a bishop of the 
Protestant Episcopal Church, was born in Now York City 
Sept. 6, 1830. He graduated at Columbia College in 1849 
and at the General Theological Seminary in 1852. lie be¬ 
came rector of an Episcopal church at Portsmouth, N. IL, 
and afterwards at Augusta, Me. In 1859 he accepted a 
similar position in Detroit, Mich. In 1866 he was ap¬ 
pointed assistant bishop of Wisconsin, and in 1870 he be¬ 
came bishop of that diocese, which position he held until 
his death. Died in New York City Dec. 7, 1873. 

Ar'mor [Lat. armatu'ra ], the defensive covering or coat- 
of-mail worn by a soldier; the apparatus which in former 
times men used for personal defence in war, and was often 
called harness. Since the invention of gunpowder, armor 
has fallen into disuse. The principal parts of the ancient 
armor were the helmet, breastplate, and shield. The mate¬ 
rial generally used for this purpose by the Greeks, Romans, 
and other nations of antiquity was brass or bronze. The 
most ancient description of such a panoply or complete 
armor is given in 1 Samuel xviii., which says Goliath “ had 
an helmet of brass upon his head, and he was armed with 
a coat-of-mail; and the weight of the coat was five thou¬ 
sand shekels of brass. And he had greaves of brass upon 
his legs, and a target of brass (margin, gorget) between his 
shoulders; . . . and one bearing a shield went before him.” 
The Greeks of the Homeric age used a large circular 
shield made of several folds of bull’s hide, bound and em¬ 
bossed with brass. They also wore a helmet, a breastplate, 
and greaves, and a leather petticoat which descended nearly 
to the knee, and was covered by narrow strips of metallic 
plates or scales hinged together so as to permit freedom of 
movement. The coat-of-mail worn by the knights of the 
Middle Ages, and sometimes called chain-armor, was form¬ 
ed of a network of steel or iron rings attached to a founda¬ 
tion of leather. The modern Europeans also used an in¬ 
terlaced ring-armor of Oriental origin, which was made in 
the form of a shirt with small steel rings, which were not 
stitched to any foundation. Chain-mail or ring-armor fell 
into disuse in the fourteenth century, and was succeeded 
by plate-armor. The cuirass, almost the sole existing relic 
of mediaeval armor, is now of no practical importance. 
The term is also applied to iron-plate covering applied to 
modern war-vessels and fortifications. (Seo Iron-clad, 
Iron Plating, and Shields.) 

Armor'ica [from the Cymric nr, “upon,” and mor, 
“sea”], the ancient name of the north-western part of 


ARMSTRONG. 


Gaul, bordering on the ocean, and extending from the Seine 
to the Loire. The Armoricans had numerous ships, and 
were extensively engaged in maritime pursuits. About 400 
A. I). Mariadec, a Briton, obtained the chief power in Ar¬ 
morica, which became an independent state. In conse¬ 
quence of the immigration of Britons or Welsh in the sixth 
or seventh century, the name of Armorica was changed 
to Bretagne. The language of the country is closely allied 
to the Welsh. 

Ar'mory [Lat. arma'rium, from ar'ma, “arms”], a store¬ 
house for arms; a place where arms and instruments of 
war are deposited; a collection of ancient armor, as that 
in the Tower of London. In the U. S., armory signifies a 
place where arms are manufactured. The U. S. government 
has extensive armories at Springfield, Mass., and Rock Isl¬ 
and, Ill. (See Arsenal, by Gen. P. V. IIasner, U. S. A.) 

Arms [Lat. ar'ma], weapons of war; offensive weapons 
or instruments, which are divisible into two great classes— 
firearms, and arms which are used without gunpowder or 
any explosive substance. The latter, which are the more 
ancient, are the sword, spear, dart, javelin, lance, arrow, 
battle-axe, cutlass, dagger, dirk, bayonet, scimetar, pike, 
sling, etc. The ancient Greeks, according to Homer, used 
the spear chiefly as a missile, which they hurled at a dis¬ 
tant enemy. The most effective weapon of the steel-plated 
cavalry of the Middle Ages was a ponderous lance nearly 
eighteen feet long. The principal varieties of firearms are 
described in the article under that head. (See Firearms.) 

Arms, or Armo'rial Bear'ings, the name given in 
heraldry to devices borne on shields; ensigns armorial. 
“There is no doubt,” says Hallam, “that emblems some¬ 
what similar have been immemorially used both in war and 
peace. The shields of ancient warriors, and devices upon 
coins or seals, bear no distant resemblance to modern bla¬ 
zonry. But the general introduction of such bearings as 
hereditary distinctions has been sometimes attributed to 
tournaments, wherein the champions were distinguished by 
fanciful devices ; sometimes to the Crusades, where a mul¬ 
titude of all nations and languages stood in need of some 
visible token to denote the banners of their respective 
chiefs. In fact, the peculiar symbols of heraldry point to 
both these sources, and have been borrowed in part from 
each. Hereditary arms were perhaps scarcely used by pri¬ 
vate families before the beginning of the thirteenth cen¬ 
tury. From that time, however, they became very general, 
and have contributed to elucidate that branch of history 
which regards the descent of illustrious families.” 

Armstrong, a county in W. Central Pennsylvania. 
Area, 750 square miles. It is intersected by the Allegheny 
River,bounded on the N. by Red Bank Creek, and on the S.W. 
by the Kiskiminetas, and also drained by Mahoning Creek. 
The surface is hilly or rolling, the soil is mostly fertile. 
Dairy products, wool, grain, and hay are extensively raised. 
Iron, coal, salt, and limestone are found here. The county 
is traversed by the Allegheny Valley R. R., and has im¬ 
portant manufactures. Capital, Kittanning. Pop. 43,382. 
Armstrong, a post-tp. of Vanderburg co., Ind. P. 1290. 

Armstrong, a township of Indiana co., Pa. P. 1435. 

Armstrong, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. P. 1424. 

Armstrong (George Dodd), D. D., a brother of Dr. 
W. J. Armstrong, born in 1813 in Mendham, N. J., grad¬ 
uated at Princeton in 1832, studied theology in Union 
Seminary, Prince Edward co., Va., was professor of chem¬ 
istry and mechanics in Washington College, Lexington, 
Va. (1838-51), and since then pastor of a Presbyterian 
church in Norfolk, Va. He lias been a large contributor 
to periodicals, and has published “ The Summer of the 
Pestilence,” “ The Doctrine of Baptism,” “ The Christian 
Doctrine of Slavery,” “ The Theology of Christian Expe¬ 
rience,” etc. 

Armstrong (James), U. S. N.,born at Shelbyville, Ky., 
Jan. 17, 1794, entered the navy as a midshipman in 1809, 
was captured by the British while serving in the Frolic in 
1814, received the regular promotions, becoming a captain 
in 1841, commanding the East India squadron (1855-58), 
and captured the Barrier Forts in the Canton River in 
1857. Jan. 12, 1861, he was compelled to surrender Pensa¬ 
cola navy-yard to a greatly superior force of Confederates. 
He became a commodore in 1866, and died Aug. 27, 1868. 

Armstrong (James F.), U. S. N., born Nov. 20, 1817, 
in New Jersey, entered the navy as a midshipman Mar. 7, 
1832, became a passed midshipman in 1838, a lieutenant 
in 1842, a commander in 1861, a captain in 1862; re¬ 
tired at his own request Sept. 27,1866. From 1862 to 1866 
he commanded the State of Georgia in the North Atlantic 
blockading squadron, and April 25, 1862, took part in the 
bombardment of Fort Macon, which resulted in its sur¬ 
render to the combined army and naval forces. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 



















ARMSTRONG—ARMY. 


Armstrong (Joiin), M. D., a poet, born at Castleton, 
in Roxburghshire, Scotland, in 1709. He studied medicine 
at Edinburgh, where he graduated in 1732, and soon after 
began to practise in London. His poem called “ The Econo¬ 
my of Love” (1739) was censured as indecent. In 1744 
he produced a didactic poem on “ The Art of Preserving 
Health,” which is his principal work, and has had an ex¬ 
tensive popularity. He was physician to the English army 
in Germany in 1760. Among his other works are “ Benevo¬ 
lence,” a poem (1751), “Taste,” an epistle in verse (1753), 
and a volume of “ Medical Essays” (1773). He was a friend 
of the poet Thomson and Dr. Young. Died Sept. 7, 1779. 

Armstrong (John), an American general, born at 
Carlisle, in Pennsylvania, Nov. 25, 1755. He .served in the 
Revolutionary war with the rank of major. He was the 
author of the anonymous and celebrated “Newburg Ad¬ 
dresses,” written in Mar., 1783, in order to obtain from 
Congress a payment of the money due to the officers of the 
army. 11c was a member of the old Congress, and in 1800 
w r as sent to the U. S. Senate from New York. He was sent 
as minister to France in 1804, and was appointed secretary 
of war in Jan., 1813. He was censured because he failed 
to defend Washington in 1814, and resigned in September 
of that year. Died April 1, 1843. 

Armstrong (John), M. D., an English writer, born in 
the county of Durham in 1784. He graduated as M. D. 
in the University of Edinburgh in 1807, after which he 
practised at Sunderland. In 1816 he published a work on 
“ Typhus Fever,” which widely extended his reputation. 
He removed in 1818 to London, where he practised with 
great success. Dr. Armstrong and Edward Grainger 
founded in 1821 a medical school in Webb street, where 
the former lectured and acquired popularity. He died 
Dec. 12, 1829. (See F. Boot, “Memoir of the Life of J. 
Armstrong,” 1834.) 

Armstrong (John), a native of Pennsylvania, com¬ 
manded successfully the expedition sent in 1756 against 
the Indian allies of the French at Kittanning, served as 
brigadier-general in the Revolutionary army at Fort Moul¬ 
trie, and commanded the militia at Brandywine and Ger¬ 
mantown. He was a member of Congress (1778-80 and 
1787-88). Died at Carlisle, Pa., Mar. 9, 1795. 

Armstrong (Richard), D. D.. born in Northumberland 
co., Pa., in 1805, graduated at Dickinson College in 1827, 
studied theology at Princeton, and went in 1832 as a mis¬ 
sionary to the Sandwich Islands, where he served as minis¬ 
ter of instruction, privy councillor, and president of the 
board of education. He received fatal injuries by a fall 
from his horse, and died Sept. 23, 1860. 

Armstrong (Robert), Brigadier-General, born in 
1790 in Eastern Tennessee, served in the Creek war of 
1813-14, and at the battle of New Orleans as an officer 
of Tennessee volunteers, and in 1836 as a brigadier-general 
of volunteers in the Florida war. He was consul at Liver¬ 
pool (1845-52), and for a time editor of the “Washington 
Union.” Died Feb. 23, 1854. 

Armstrong (Samuel T.), a bookseller of Boston, born 
in 1784. He was chosen lieutenant-governor of Massa¬ 
chusetts, and acted as governor in 1836, in consequence of 
the resignation of Governor Davis. Died in 1850. 

Armstrong (Sir William George), F. R. S., LL.D., 
D. C. L., noted as the inventor of the Armstrong gun, was 
born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1810. He became in 1845 
a proprietor of an establishment for the manufacture of 
hydraulic cranes, engines, and bridges. After numerous 
experiments, he invented, in 1854, a wrought-iron rifled 
cannon of extraordinary power and precision, which bears 
his name. These guns are made of bars of wrought-iron 
two inches wide, heated to whiteness, twisted spirally round 
a steel bar or core, and welded ; other bars are twisted over 
these in a similar way, but with an opposite turn of the 
spiral. Another heating to whiteness precedes a thorough 
welding of all the layers of bars by a steam hammer. The 
internal core is removed, and the bore is rifled by machin¬ 
ery. It is stated that one of these guns will throw a ball 
of thirty-two pounds to the distance of five miles. The in¬ 
ventor was knighted by the queen, and appointed chiel en¬ 
gineer of rifled ordnance. (See Artillery, by Gen. Barry.) 

Armstrong (William Jessup), D. D., a clergyman of 
the American Presbyterian Church, born at Mendham.N. J., 
Oct. 29, 1796, was pastor of the First Presbyterian church 
in Richmond, Va., from 1824 to 1834. In this latter year 
he accepted the appointment of secretary of the American 
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, which office 
he held till his death, which occurred by shipwreck in a voy¬ 
age between New York and Boston Nov. 27, 1846. His 
Life and a collection of his sermons were published. 

Armstrong’s Grove, a post-township of Emmet co., 
Ia. Pop. 45. 

17 


257 


Army. The title or expression “army” is of modern 
origin. During the Italian wars of Louis XII. his soldiers 
began to Frenchify the expression armata, which the Ital¬ 
ians used, or rather armada, the term employed by the 
Spaniards. The latter term is constantly used not only in 
the German, but even the Swedish reports of the Thirty 
Years’ war; whence from armada, armee, army. Previous 
to this the French indicated that which we iook upon as 
appropriately styled army, by bataille, ost (host, harst, Ger- 
mano-Swiss), exercite (exercitus, Latin; excrcito, Span., 
Ital.), or milicc. The latter word was preferred by several 
writers of the eighteenth century as having a more precise 
and general signification, as milicc (militia ) has its root in 
miles, a “soldier,” which, in the accepted meaning of sol¬ 
dier, a “paid fightef,” a militiaman certainly is not. 

Since the earliest history of the world, fabulous or au¬ 
thentic, not alone the physical fate of empires, but the in¬ 
tellectual progress of humanity, the very development of 
mind, has depended upon the efficiency of the force which 
is defined an army. There is no doubt that civilization and 
Christianity—for the development of true civilization is 
the extension of Christianity—have been wafted to the end 
of the world upon the wings of commerce; but trade is 
transitory, and whatever is fixed has been made so by the 
force of arms. Even the most commercial nations, Phoe¬ 
nicia, Carthage, Holland, and England, could have accom¬ 
plished little had they not occupied and held with an army 
or the fragments of an army what their sailors had dis¬ 
covered. 

“Peace is the dream of philosophers, but war is the his¬ 
tory of men;” and if almost universally, but erroneously, 
admitted to be “ the greatest of evils,” it is also one of the 
oldest. It is doubtful if some attempt at reducing war to 
a science is not the eldest of man’s efforts at progress. “ It 
preceded among all nations the arts and sciences proper, 
and perished in proportion as these developed.” “The 
means of attack and defence appear to have been among 
the first essays of human invention, and to have called 
forth the powers of the mind in a greater degree than any 
of the arts of peace.” The first expression of the art and 
science of war was an army. This may be defined as a 
certain proportion of a nation raised by means of “elec¬ 
tion ” (Roman), conscription, voluntary enlistment, or other¬ 
wise, organized, armed, disciplined, and administered con¬ 
formably to a digested system. It is an artificial combina¬ 
tion of human and mechanical forces into a movable en¬ 
gine for defensive or aggressive purposes, of which dis¬ 
cipline is the motive and regulating power. An army, in 
fact, is an aggregated force of men converted into soldiers, 
of each of whom it has been well said: 

“ ’Tis drilling that makes him, skill and sense— 
Perception—thought—intelligence,” 

under a chief 

“ Who has the energy—who the mind— 

The flashing thought—and the fearless hand — 
Together to bring, and thus fastly bind, 

The fragments ” 

into a homogeneous unit of force of which the soul is dis¬ 
cipline. 

An army as it should be is as Foy represented it to be in 
his time: “The army constituted a homogeneous and in¬ 
dividual mass, in which, ascending from the conscript six 
months under arms to the field-marshal, there was no dif¬ 
ference encountered in seeing and feeling.” 

In this connection a curious fact presents itself. Some 
of the most successful commanders on sea have been those- 
who had their training in the land-forces of their coun¬ 
try; more than one as cavalrymen. Not to encumber this 
article with names, consider almost all the Carthaginians’ 
admiral-generals; Duilius, who first taught the Roman 
soldiers how to conquer on the most opposite element; 
Caesar, Pompey; in modern times, Wrangel, Monk, Blake, 
Rupert, Opdarn; the last three originally officers of eav- 
alry. 

Great captains have likewise proved the ablest organ¬ 
izers, administrators, statesmen, and negotiators: witness 
Gustavus, Torstenson, William III., Marlborough, Prince 
Eugene, Villars, Bentinck, Boufflers (the last two negotiated 
the Peace of Ryswick), Frederick the Great. 

Although recent explorations have thrown some light 
upon the national military organizations of Nineveh and of 
Babylon, they are too vague to entitle them to more than 
the passing remark that they were based on scientific prin¬ 
ciples and administered in obedience to laws—laws which 
were sufficient for their era and extremely practical. 
They carried on campaigns at long distances from their 
base, and they besieged strong places, and took them after 
protracted efforts, and they fought battles; all ot which 
proves that they must have comprehended and applied that 
which constitutes the art and science of war. Indeed, it 
would be very safe to assert that recent discoveries demon- 



















258 


ARMY. 


strate that all the ancient armies were better organized, 
administered, and manipulated than we have been accus¬ 
tomed to believe. This remark, indeed, applies to all ar¬ 
mies worthy the appellation. Even Tamerlane has left be¬ 
hind him a treatise that shows that his wild hordes were 
subjected to a military direction by which skill and tact 
were enabled to employ their very native habits to the best 
advantage. The armies of antiquity had peculiar tac¬ 
tics, it is true, but these were congenial to the people and 
country; and, however peculiar, they understood them and 
applied them. AVhoever will examine the Bible carefully 
will find in its descriptions the strongest evidence of a dis¬ 
cipline of iron, of order, cadenced step, organization, tac¬ 
tics, stratagem, and strategy—all that modern pride con¬ 
siders the result of its intelligence—such as has not existed 
even within the last four centuries except in the small ar¬ 
mies of Alva, Maurice, Gustavus, and on a larger scale in 
those of Marlborough and Frederick the Great. Some of 
the passages are magnificent in their portrayal of an army 
worthy of the inspection and leading of the greatest captains, 
complete in every arm or branch of the service. There we 
find expressions which cannot be surpassed in descriptive 
grandeur and comprehensiveness (procellse equestres, “ hur¬ 
ricanes of cavalry,” “whirlwinds of chariots,” etc.). The 
finest light cavalry of all times, imitated with so much suc¬ 
cess by the Saracens, were the Numidians of Hannibal 
(“the Cossacks of the ancient world”), and the Parthians 
were the predecessors of those arrays which culminated 
under Timour (Tamerlane) in the overwhelming of an an¬ 
tagonistic system under Bajazet at Angora, 28th July, A. D. 
1402. Their tactics might be expressed by the term “ swarm 
attack,” which, against a force broken into by the other 
arms, is no despicable method of employing mounted troops. 
Tamerlane’s heavy cavalry was likewise admirable. 

The first army of which we know anything definite was 
the Egyptian. Perhaps since men have aggregated into 
nations no army has ever been maintained in every sense 
in a better condition commensurate with the times; and if 
history is at all reliable, the results were stupendous, con¬ 
sidering the difficulties against which logistics had then to 
contend. If Sesostris (Se-seos-t-re or Bameses, “son of 
the Supreme and Gift of the Sun ”) and his campaigns are 
not a myth, the conception and campaigns of Alexander 
shrink into dwarfs before those of the armies which he 
made and directed; likewise those of the Romans, although 
they planted their eagles against the arctic and within the 
equatorial circle. The genius and generalship of Sesostris, 
which carried his own peculiar aquiline symbols of Apis 
eastward beyond the Ganges and northward of the Caspian, 
westward to the Ister or Danube, and southward towards 
the swell of the Mountains of the Moon, were not inferior to 
that “ inspiration ” of Alexander which bore those of the 
Macedonian Jove to the Indus, or that other inspiration 
which bore the eagles of the first triumvir to his unfulfilled 
invasion of Britain. 

One question, however, presents itself which has a paral¬ 
lel in a more recent period, and this within a century and 
a half. Did Sesostris make his army or simply make 
use of it? The organization of the greatest of Egyp¬ 
tian armies, and the creation of the military spirit with 
which it was imbued, are said to have been due to his 
father, Amenophis III. Here we have an exact type of the 
preparation of Frederick William I., and the application 
by his son, Frederick (II.) the Great, although the latter 
has been compared in a critical analysis and examination 
to Philip II., the founder of the Macedonian power, rather 
than to Alexander the Great, its developer. To compare 
Frederick the Great to the son, rather than to the father, 
is preferable. 

Between the Egyptian and better known organizations 
of civilizations more clearly understood, the Persian army 
deserves consideration, in that its cavalry was excellent, 
and even in the period of its decay it demonstrated that 
if properly commanded it was capable of achieving great 
things. This was shown at the battle of the Granicus, 
where its gallant behavior excited the admiration of every 
Macedonian officer, from the royal general-in-chief down 
to the humblest commander of a company. This is one 
side of the question. The conduct of the Persian horse at 
Platasa (B. C. 479) scarcely justifies a favorable criticism, 
although their defeat is mainly attributable to the fall of 
their leader, Masistius. 

Close following on the Egyptian comes the better under¬ 
stood phalangian array of the Greeks, doubtless derived 
from the idea of that “impregnable phalanx” of the Nilish 
genius and organization which Cyrus found that even his 
Persians were unable to break. This disposition of force 
was exquisitely adapted to the Greek systematic and geo¬ 
metrical mind. The mutual dependence which made a 
phalangite nothing more than a particle of a grand ma¬ 
chine was in perfect accordance with the national character. 


And it would be almost sufficient to prove the thorough 
efficiency of the discipline arrived at through the training 
in and for the phalanx to cite one example which it would 
trouble the critic to parallel—the march described by Xen¬ 
ophon, known as the “ Retreat of the Ten Thousand.” 

Even although the career of the phalanx was short (say 200 
years, from B. C. 550, Cyrus, to B. C. 350, Pyrrhus of Epirus), 
and it did go down before the Roman legion, its spirit revived 
from time to time in the return to dense formations, since, 
after all, the Greeks recognized the phalanx in any army 
corps disposed in compact order or “ in mass,” and even 
applied the term to Roman armies when they were drawn up 
without intervals ( ordre plein). Short-lived in comparison, 
it had already accomplished great things in the “ exact ” 
wars which made Greek generals famous, and the tactics 
of Epaminondas proved a guide for the greatest, a key to 
success on modern fields. It is claimed that the three 
classes of the Greek infantry may be considered analogous 
—the first, the hoplitse, to the grenadiers or to the line 
infantry; the second, the peltastai, to the light infantry; 
the third, the gumnetai, to the riflemen, tirailleurs, or sharp¬ 
shooters of modern armies. It was in the time of Pericles 
that the Athenian soldiers were first paid, material changes 
made in clothing and armor, the second class of infantry 
intermediate between the heavy troops and skirmishers 
was added, and the distinction drawn between heavy and 
light cavalry. This was the acme of the glory of the Greek 
national citizens. With Alexander, artillery (ballistse and 
catapultas) accompanied armies to the field, and the com¬ 
missariat became an acknowledged branch of the art of war. 

In comparing the phalanx with the legion, in order to 
express the deficiencies of the former and the better cha¬ 
racteristics of the latter, the critic is almost justified in 
claiming that the first was human, the second divine—the 
first the creation of human intelligence, the second the re¬ 
sult of an inspiration of a superior power, or as Yegetius 
(A. D. ? 375-390) has it: “Non tantum humano consilio 
sed etiam divinitatis instructu, legiones a Romanis arbitror 
constitutas,” which Clarke translates well: “Heaven cer¬ 
tainly inspired the Romans with the establishment of the 
legions, so superior does it seem to human invention ” (xxi. 
77), “ or the idea of the legion must have been inspired by a 
god (Saxe, Traite des Legions, p. 39), for man was inca¬ 
pable of originating so perfect a military machine”—one 
destined in the course of events to conquer and consolidate 
for the future. 

A clear idea of the striking difference between the pha¬ 
lanx and the legion can be conveyed to any reader’s mind 
by saying that the first was mass or weight, and the second 
mobility or momentum; or, as a further demonstration, the 
first possesses little, the second perfect elasticity; the first 
little, the second perfect adaptability to any ground. The 
field had to be fit for the phalanx; the legion could be 
fitted to any stage of action. The best proof of the infe¬ 
riority of the phalanx and the superiority of the legion was 
in one case its limited sphere as to theatre and existence; 
in the other, the fact that it outlived itself, that its spirit 
continued to conquer when the substance had almost com¬ 
pletely deteriorated—when the legions of Fabius, Marcellus, 
Marius, Scylla, Csesar, and Pompey had degenerated into a 
feeble militia; for instance, when Rome had ceased to be 
anything but a name; when Stilicho (A. D. 405-406) de¬ 
feated Radagasius, and compelled a capitulation at Florence 
which had no parallel in the circumstances, of a monarch 
made prisoner and in the numbers surrendered, for fourteen 
centuries and a half, until Sedan, 1870. 

It is a somewhat extraordinary fact that the only Eastern 
nation, the sixth Oriental monarchy, Parthia, the only one 
which successfully resisted the Roman armies at a period 
when as yet they had lost none of their efficiency—when it 
is claimed that among the Romans “the art of war had been 
brought to its highest point”—never possessed a standing 
army; their military organization was nearer that of the 
feudal times than any that we know of in antiquity. In 
A. D. 217 the Parthian king Artabanus fought a three 
days’ battle at Nisibis Avith the Romans, and if he did not 
actually defeat them utterly, he compelled them “ignomin- 
iously to purchase a peace” (the mere permission to re¬ 
treat cost $8,000,000); and, Avhat is still more curious 
in this consideration, the tactics which lost the battle of 
the Pyramids won the battle of Nisibis, gunpowder hav¬ 
ing restored to the infantry the relative force or shock 
Avhich was previously inherent in the cavalry. In the lieaA r y 
horsemen (/caTa^payroi) of the Parthians is to be found a 
perfect exemplification of Marmont’s cuirassiers armed 
with lances, or the feudal chivalry. The Parthian light 
horse represents, as well as the Numidians of Hannibal, the 
modern hussar, or rather mounted riflemen, if riflemen 
could shoot from the saddle at full speed, or the estradiots 
of the Venetian military era. 

The principles of the phalanx survived in the Saxon 













ARMY. 


wedge of Harold, and revived again in the Swiss wedge of 
Sempach, July 9, 13S6. In the condition of arms in the 
ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries the Saxon wedge (the 
Roman cunew, only one of the many phases of Roman 
formation) would have been irresistible had the Saxons, 
bravest of people, maintained anything like a regular army. 
It was the scientific wedge to all intents and purposes, 
driven by the beetle of invincible determination. As in 
the era of Hastings, even so the principle of the legion 
gives vitality to the very tactics of our own time. The 
tactics of Leo VI. (Flavius the Wise, or the Philosopher, 
A. D. 865-911), with a change of nomenclature and 
weapons, would serve as a valuable text-book for to-day ; 
and when Gustavus Adolphus inaugurated a new system of 
tactics, it was a new birth of those of republican Rome, 
and his triumph at Leipsic (Aug. 28-Sept. 7, 1631) was 
simply a modern victory of the legion over the phalanx, of 
the Swedish brigade (open order) over theTercias (masses) 
of Tilly. 

If this antagonism should be traced back to first princi¬ 
ples, it would be found that the contest between the pha¬ 
lanx and the legion has been going on ever since the first 
shock in arms of organized bodies of men. Even at this day 
we recognize the principles of the phalanx in the dense col¬ 
umn (for instance, that of the English at Fontenoy, that 
living tower of strength which Foy represented as possess¬ 
ing the magic power of repairing the breaches made in it), 
and the legion in the deployed line-of-battle. The battle of 
the Pyramids is a curious example in a case the reverse of 
one previously stated. Whenever weight was required to 
resist the shock of momentum the idea of the phalanx re¬ 
vived. On the other hand, whenever the ground would not 
permit of this massed organization the legionary system 
prevailed, and the primary idea of the legion was revived 
in the lines-of-battle. In the Macedonian phalanx was 
combined all that was excellent in the other different Greek 
systems, while all their defects were avoided, and every im¬ 
provement introduced which expediency recommended or 
necessity required. Thus completed, the Macedonian pha¬ 
lanx was capable of conquering every opposing organiza¬ 
tion, to be in turn conquered by the world-conquering Ro¬ 
mans, as its principle and direction ever must be by supe¬ 
rior tactics and greater mobility and adaptability. 

The real birth of the modern standing army, in the pres¬ 
ent comprehension of the term, does not date back farther 
than the middle of the fifteenth century (1445-48). There 
were, it is true, from time to time, if not always, imperial 
and royal guards maintained, like the Varangians of the 
Byzantine court; also municipal guards, such as those re¬ 
cently in the service of the Free Cities, but standing armies, 
none. This occurred at the East in the reorganization of 
the Janizaries by Amurath I., 1350-72, originated by his 
father, Orchan, 1329. These Janizaries, organized into a 
regular force when the arrays of the Christian powers con¬ 
sisted of a disorderly militia, were invincible for a long 
period through a species of discipline to which fanaticism, 
blind obedience, courage, and enthusiasm gave a strength 
which it did not possess in reality. It was esprit tie corps — 
a substitute, but an imperfect one, for true discipline. Am¬ 
urath or Murad I. perfected likewise the institution of the 
Spaliis (cavalry), and, wonderful foresight, of the woinaks 
(a sort of soldiers of the train). If this is correct, he was 
450 years ahead of the first train corps in any Christian 
army. It is claimed that the Turkish regular army dates 
from Aladin or Ala-Eddyn (1219-36), but whether this is 
true or not, it certainly preceded that of Charles VII. by a 
whole century. Be this as it may, the new birth of the 
army took place at the West by the establishment of the 
‘‘Companies of Ordonnance” by Charles VII. of France. 
It would not be an actual error to style him the father of 
standing armies, were it not that his regular force did not 
combine the three arms; it embraced only the second, 
mounted troops. It remained for his astute son, Louis XI., 
to perceive that no arm of the three could develop itself 
without the appropriate support of the other two. He was 
to Charles VII. what Remington cum suis, and previously 
Col. Poncharra, as to rifled and breech-loading small arms, 
and Louis Napoleon (or whoever was the real factor) as to 
rifled and breech-loading artillery, were to Colonel Ferguson 
of King’s Mountain celebrity; what Torstenson was to 
Wurmbrand in mobilized cannon 250 years ago; what the 
infantry system of to-day and of the future is to that of de 
Guibert. Louis XI. was the father of field-artillery. What 
his wily brain conceived has been better done or further 
developed, but the glory of the conception by him it is im¬ 
possible to deny to him, the most sagacious, at the same 
time most unprincipled, king that ever administered French 
affairs—the first sovereign of Europe styled “ majesty. The 
result was, that his son, Charles \ III., invaded Italy in 
1494 (he entered Rome on New Year’s day, 1495) with the 
first real army Avhich the modern world had seen witli the 


259 


first real army that the Romans, with whom the legion 
originated, had seen since the legion disappeared from its soil 
(Charlemagne in Italy, A. D. 773) nearly a thousand years 
previous, swarmed out by the hordes or hosts of barbarians 
which superficial history deceives careless readers by styl¬ 
ing armies. 

Moreover, it is very remarkable that the new birth of a 
permanent force, with its first train of real artillery, its 
cavalry, the heavy, very much like that of the Parthians 
(KaTa^paKToi), and resembling that recommended by Mar- 
mont in his “ Institutions,” and partially adopted in Russia 
(cuirassiers with lancers), and its light types of hussars,— 
this new birth in arms and its advent in the country of art 
led to a new birth of the arts and sciences. This discovery 
of Italy had more effect upon the sixteenth century, says 
Michelet, than that of America. War and commerce in¬ 
evitably seek the same channels; even so do the arts, for 
scientific war is always the precursor of peace, and the 
triumphs of tranquillity are borne along on the lava-floods 
whereon fertility resumes its sway with greater force and 
beauty when the fiery torrents have cooled. 

It is impossible to refrain from translating a few para¬ 
graphs which present a lively picture of the first national 
army whose descent into Italy cleft the barrier of centuries, 
whence issued forth to the world through the re-birth (re¬ 
naissance) of the art of war—the new birth of all that ele¬ 
vates, refines, beautifies the advance of humanity; of all 
that can justify luxury, the inevitable consequence of the 
development of combined industry and art. 

The army, 60,000 strong when it passed the Alps, having 
left detached corps all along the road, scarcely numbered 
30,000 when it reached Rome. But these constituted the 
very sinew, the boldest and the best armed; relieved of its 
weaklings and stragglers, it was only the more formidable. 
To the music of its drums, with cadenced step, the wild 
battalion of Swiss and Germans led the march. In short 
tunics and tight pantaloons they shone in a hundred vari¬ 
ous colors. Many were of enormous stature, and to exalt 
it the more their casques were surmounted with lofty plumes. 
Besides the sword, they were armed as a rule with sharp 
lances of ash; one quarter of them carried halberds—the 
blade hatchet-shaped, surmounted with a four-sided spike. 
This (originally the Danish or pole-axe) was a deadly 
weapon in their hands. It sei'ved both to slash and to stab; 
in fact, represented a gigantic sword-blade bayonet. To 
each thousand halberdiers there were one hundred musket¬ 
eers. The Swiss despised the cuirass; the front rank 
alone wore iron corselets. Behind these Swiss giants 
marched five or six thousand little, dark-complexioned, 
sunburnt men, vicious-looking, Gascons, the best marchers 
in Europe, full of fire, of intelligence, of resources, hard and 
quick hitters, each of whom was good for ten mortal shots. 

The mounted gendarmes followed, 2500, covered with 
iron, each accompanied by his page and two valets; plus, 
6000 light cavalrymen. In appearance these were feudal 
troops, but in reality the very contrary. As a rule, the 
captains were no longer noblemen leading their vassals, 
but the king’s men commanding those more noble than 
themselves. “In France,” said Guichardini, “every one 
can attain command.” The heavy horses of this cavalry, 
bobbed and cropped in French fashion, without tails and 
without ears, astonished the Italians, and appeared to them 
as monsters. 

The light-horsemen carried the English long bow of 
Agincourt and of Poitiers, which, bent with a wheel-lock, 
launched strong cloth-yard arrows. Thus the French had 
adopted the weapons of their enemies. 

Around the king, on foot, besides the Scotch guard, 300 
archers and 200 knights, all gold and purple, shouldering 
iron maces, served as escort. 

Behind these came thirty-six bronze cannon, each weigh¬ 
ing 6000 pounds; then the long culverins (guns of position); 
then 100 falcons (lightest field-pieces), rolling briskly along, 
not dragged slowly by oxen, according to the Italian method. 
Each piece had a team of six active horses, on a mobilized 
carriage, which in action was unlimbered and at once was 
in battery. 

Every beholder comprehended that this display indicated 
a great revolution in military affairs, and not the mere pas¬ 
sage of an ordinary army. 

This era of Charles VII., father, Louis XI., son, and 
Charles VIII., grandson, was an era of warlike innova¬ 
tions in every branch of the military service. Louis XI. 
was the first French monarch who had a large quantity of 
cannon. He first introduced cast-iron and bronze guns; 
cast-iron shot superseded stone bullets, and in his intrenched 
camp of instruction in 1480 he had a large and respcctablo 
park of artillery. During his reign the medical service 
began to hold up its head for the first time since the legion¬ 
ary organization foundered, with its surgeon to each cohort, 
its hospital attendants and much of what is now deemed 


A. 














ARMY. 


260 


indispensable, but had not been dreamed of for centuries. 
In the succeeding reign of Louis XII., France had one of 
those terrible awakenings whose vigor astonishes the world. 
In 1510, Gaston do Foix being commander-in-chief, a na¬ 
tive French Napoleon of the first quarter of the sixteenth 
century, the French En/anta Perdua, or light troops (foot¬ 
men) appeared, the best marchers for centuries which Eu¬ 
rope had seen, and for centuries were to feel. At Ravenna, 
on Easter Sunday, 1512, they had a fearful baptism of blood 
and fire. This was the era of the introduction of the Ger¬ 
man Landsknechts (mercenary foot) and Hachenschutzen 
(arquebusiers), the regimenting of infantry, the protection 
or support of artillery with picked troops, and “the dis¬ 
appearance of chivalry.” Immediately the order of battle 
of necessity had to be adapted to the use of the rapidly 
improving firearms, and armies, as men of this century 
comprehend the term, were in being. 

Thus the passage of the Alps by the young king Charles 
VIII., feeble, big-headed, six-toed to each foot, realized 
what Bismarck remarked of the Prusso-French war of 
1870-71. This invasion of Italy by an organized national 
army was more than an invasion or an episode of war in 
the common application of the term—it was a historical 
phase. The existing conditions of society were crumbling 
and ready to pass away, and new developments of civiliza¬ 
tion were in the process of germination or ready for the 
shock to fecundate them. War is ever the necessary agent 
of this, and this new birth, like every other bringing forth 
of any new existence in human affairs, like human parturi¬ 
tion, must be accompanied with anxiety intense, agony ex¬ 
treme, and loss of blood profuse; with an actual tearing to 
pieces. Thus armies are the mid wives of progress. 

It is in vain for other nations to attempt to deny that the 
military art and science owe the impulse of their progress 
to France and to French ideas; witness the introduction 
into all other services of so much of its nomenclature ; but 
they also owe their highest practical development and close 
application to the Saxo-Germanic mind. 

The military forces of Greece and Rome, of all antiquity 
indeed, except Egypt (native) and Phoenician or Cartha¬ 
ginian (mercenary), and of every other nation prior to 1450, 
were militia, more or less highly organized, subjected to 
a greater or lesser degree of discipline and instruction. 
Whether or not Philip of Macedon maintained a standing 
army is open to discussion. The advantage of an army of 
natives over one composed of mercenaries is shown especially 
in reverses. A national army may be beaten, but it is difficult 
to destroy it so that it may not revive from its very ashes ; 
as, for instance, that of Rome after Cannae. It will learn 
by experience, by being beaten, to conquer or persevere, as 
was the case with the Romans against Hannibal, the Rus¬ 
sians against Charles XII., the Austrians against Frederick 
the Great, the Allies against France republican and im¬ 
perial. With mercenaries, however, disaster or dearth is 
dissolution or worse, as happened more than once to Car¬ 
thage, and to those who employed German or Swiss lands¬ 
knechts and reiters. Still, the iron hand of Discipline and 
the genius of a master like Hannibal could organize in¬ 
vincible troops from the most discordant materials. This 
would indicate that while nothing can afford an antidote to 
indiscipline, discipline can remedy almost everything. An 
idea can make good defective discipline, and ideas amount¬ 
ing to fanaticism almost, but not entirely, supply the place 
of discipline; but, cseteris paribus, discipline is the nepheah 
or living spirit of an army, without which it is dead. Such 
armies as Hannibal’s are like the “Grand Company” of 
Werner and Fra Moreale in the fourteenth century—vast 
forces of condottieri, which, led by great captains such as 
Saxe-Weimar, Baner, Torstenson, and Frederick the Great; 
their “Monks of the Flag” anneal into masses almost as 
irresistible as fate. Indeed, Hannibal, greatest of generals 
and war administrators, has been actually compared to a 
condottiere on the grandest scale, even though no one was fit 
to be named as his parallel for eighteen centuries, until Ba¬ 
ner, the second Gustavus, and Torstenson, “ the inimitable,” 
demonstrated, under similar circumstances, that armies are 
ever subjected to the same laws and influenced by the ap¬ 
plication of like qualities in a leader. There was compara¬ 
tively no discipline in the French republican armies, espe¬ 
cially that wonderful army which from the Maritime Alps 
carried victory eastward to the last Alpine ridge before it 
sinks into the Austrian plain, and southward to the Gulf of 
Tarentum. Critics, eye-witnesses, and associates admit this. 
Enthusiasm took its place, and a belief in its innate force, 
its invincibility, such as permeated the U. S. army in Mexico, 
and made the escort of a wagon-train willing to encounter 
any force which sought to bar its way. 

The only existing national army which continues to be 
militia, pure and simple, is that of Switzerland, unless the 
old Bonder system still holds good in Norway. The mili¬ 
tary force or army of Holland was a union of regulars and 


militia, to the uninitiated something like that of the U. S., 
but in reality vastly superior and more reliable. Prussia’s 
organization is a union of regulars and militia in the strict¬ 
est definition of the term (using the word “militia” in the 
sense of “the gallant and well-exercised militias of the 
principal republics of Greece,” which were overthrown by 
the forces of Philip of Macedon, that “may be termed a 
standing army”). The Prussian system has been imitated 
in Sardinia—a feeble imitation, as was demonstrated in the 
campaigns of Custozza and Novara—and, later, in Turkey, 
and may be said to operate wherever a Landwehr and Land- 
sturm, “ordinary and extraordinary militia,” are recognized 
as the bases, constituting besides the regular force, equally 
important elements of the national army. 

The famous English bowmen—who won such victories as 
Falkirk, 22d July, 1298; Halidon Hill, 19th July, 1833; 
Crecy, 25th Aug., 1346; Poitiers or Maupertuis, 19th Sept., 
1356 ; Agincourt, 25th Oct., 1415; Pinkey, 10th Sept., 1547 
—were warlike militia, and nothing else — militia in the 
true sense of the expression, as were the Franks of Charles 
Martel, and not in the signification in which the term is mis¬ 
understood in the U. S. From the time of the Balearic sling- 
ers, taught in childhood to rely upon their peculiar weapons 
for their food (fifth century B. C.), and the Carducians, who 
slaughtered the legionaries of Crassus, there w T ere no marks¬ 
men or sharpshooters for many centuries, until the Indian 
wars in America developed the capabilities of the rifle 
(whose regular introduction into European armies dates 
from the American Revolution), with the exception of the 
above-mentioned English long-bowmen, who well deserved 
the proud term applied to them : “ In the forefrount, he 
(Richard III., no mean general nor authority) placed the 
j archers like a strong fortified trench or bulwarke.” These 
archers were equivalent to such unsurpassed skirmishers as 
were many of our woodsmen who glorified the war for the 
Union. Even so from Maharbal to Ziethen and Seydlitz 
no cavalry existed worthy of the fame w T hich these have 
connected immutably with their names. Charlemagne’s 
armies are claimed to have been organized according to 
the old Roman discipline, but this is impossible. Still, that 
there was an acknowledged system needs no other proof 
than the success and extent of his campaigns against the 
most different peoples—from the obstinate Saxon to the in¬ 
tellectual Moor, from the brutish Hun to the Latinized 
Goth. Each of these had an army of its own, with pe¬ 
culiar weapons and tactics. To meet them the Nether-' 
landish hero and emperor must have had armament, dis¬ 
cipline, and a system of logistics. Even without proof the 
results obviate any demonsti'ation that his armies could 
not have been mere hordes like those of the Crusaders. 

Modern war as a fixed or exact science dates from Mau¬ 
rice of Nassau or Gustavus Adolphus, in the beginning of 
the seventeenth century. The first real articles of war pub¬ 
lished were those of the latter. The first infantry which, 
in square, laughed to scorn the efforts of the best existing 
cavalry, the Polish, at Wallhof, 7th Jan., 1626 (type of Bona¬ 
parte’s battle of the Pyramids), were likewise his. His 
was the first artillery, whether its effective development 
was due to him or Torstenson, which manoeuvred and played 
the part of modern artillery according to modern ideas. 
His was the first cavalry which charged in successive lines, 
with reserves or supports to rally on. (Here it may be as well 
to remark that in appearance, except as to armor, the cav- 
j airy of the Thirty Years’ war resembled in dress and duties 
those of the “great American conflict” as near as might be. 
With their felt hats, drooping feathers, short tunics, heavy 
boots, scraggy, ill-groomed horses, and accoutrements, the 
picture of one of their columns might pass for one of ours on 
a raid.) His were the first field-engineers, although the Turks 
had retained a rude knowledge of this art, derived from the 
Romans or Byzantines. Vauban, Montecuculi, and Prince 
Eugene have left their testimony of this. Witness the 
last’s successful operations against Lille in 1708, “a happy 
medium between the Turkish mode of never relieving their 
people until the end of a siege, and our system (British) 
of so frequently changing.” (See “ War in Low Countries,” 
34, 35.) His was the first organized staff administered 
systematically. His was the first camp which bred a series 
of scientific generals, who, through a succession of great 
captains, changed the fate of every European nation in 
whose service they were commissioned. Even in England 
this was so through Leslie, who crushed Montrose, victor in 
seven battles, and it might be said in as many campaigns, 
at Philipshaugh, 13th Sept., 1645. “ These warriors, trained 
in the school of Gustavus and his successor, Bernard of 
Weimar, Baner, Horn, and the inimitable Torstenson, were 
scattered through the different countries of Europe,” etc. 

There is no doubt that a number of men ahead of their 
time, but imbued with the principles of the scientific mili- 
tary past, or taught by personal experience of what was 
needed, worked in to the result achieved by Gustavus 


































ARMY. 


261 


Adolphus : Simon Stevin of Bruges in fortification ; Coligny 
in rapid marches and concentration and combination ; de 
Rohan in tactics and handling of troops, especially moun¬ 
tain-warfare ; Maurice of Nassau in equipment and detail— 
M aurice, whose camp was the finest school of officers which 
had existed for centuries; Torstenson for artillery 5 Kbnigs- 
mark for partisan operations, flying columns, so styled, on a 
grand scale demonstrating their effectiveness. 

But the time has now arrived when a standing army has 
become a necessity for the maintenance of government. 
With the introduction of firearms it was no longer a ques¬ 
tion of individual foresight and exertion, but of national 
effort and preparation. These last involved time and out¬ 
lay, the application of a sovereign’s prerogatives, a national 
expenditure. “Among his arguments in favor of standing 
armies in modern times, Adam Smith enumerates the greater 
difficulty of preserving any considerable degree of order 
and prompt obedience from the noise of firearms, the smoke, 
and the invisible death to which every man feels himself 
every moment exposed as soon as he comes within cannon 
shot, and frequently a long time before the battle can be 
well said to be engaged. ‘ In an ancient battle/ he says, 

‘ there was no noise but what arose from the human voice; 
there was no smoke ; there was no invisible cause of wounds 
or death. Every man, till some mortal weapon actually did 
oppose him, saw clearly that no such weapon was near him.’” 
With the introduction of small-arms and artillery another 
new element of success had to be taken into consideration, 
precision of aim, as well as rapidity of fire. The effects 
of a point-blank volley delivered by an extensive deploy¬ 
ment of cool and practised troops would invariably de¬ 
termine a battle were there no supports or reserves to 
retrieve the effect of such a volcano. Witness that scath¬ 
ing discharge at thirty paces of Wolfe’s veterans upon 
Montcalm’s gallant charge at Quebec, in 1759; or those 
volleys, again, of the duke of Cumberland’s column at Fon- 
tenoy, in 1745, which actually annihilated in succession 
every French line of battle which attempted to stop their 
audacious advance. It was not until the ammunition of the 
English was wellnigh exhausted, their formation breached 
with point-blank discharges of artillery, and the gaps pene¬ 
trated by fresh and furious cavalry, that, with victory al¬ 
most within their grasp, the intrepid troops were compelled 
to relinquish their efforts, and sullenly withdraw from the 
field of their everlasting glory. ( Henderson’s Duke of Cum¬ 
berland, 77-96.) The republic of Venice, wisest in its gen¬ 
eration, comprehended this at once, and passed laws for 
the training of its arquebus-men. Very few students are 
aware of the immense influence in this regard exercised by 
the elector Maximilian of Bavaria. Had the other Roman 
Catholic sovereigns evinced a like prescience, the Thirty 
Years’ war might not have eventuated in favor of free 
thought. Few monarchs ever paid more attention to mus¬ 
ketry fire or thorough organization. Fortunately, his sphere 
was small, and he found few imitators, and his enemies, 
not his allies, profited by his examples and efforts. 

With the Thirty Years’ war began a new era of military 
historjq and the world was henceforth to bow beneath the 
crushing weight of standing armies. 

Prussia, which now stands first in rank as a military 
power, was the first to set an example of the mobilization 
of cavalry proper and of horse-artillery. Fehrbellin was 
a turning-point. There the great elector, Frederick the 
Great’s great-grandfather, vanquished those Swedes, hith¬ 
erto unconquered, who had beaten all others. He demon¬ 
strated what singleness of objective, the perception of it and 
of the value of time and celerity, and determination in execu¬ 
tion, must accomplish. These, when combined, constitute the 
secret of success in war. From this time forward Prussian 
troops made their mark on almost every battle-field of Eu¬ 
rope. The reign which saw these great changes inaugu¬ 
rated—that of Louis XIV.—saw them almost completed. 
The introduction of the bayonet restored to infantry that ag¬ 
gressive power which was lost with the just contempt of the 
knights on horseback for the villain or serf on foot. Since 
then but little changes have occurred, except in amelioi'- 
ation and perfection. The general introduction of uniforms 
has even been attributed to Louis XIV. This is an error. 
In his army, however, the identifying regimental clothing 
was first carried out thoroughly and splendidly. The dis¬ 
tinctive dress dates back to the Carthaginians, in whose army 
every nationality wore peculiar clothing and bore particu¬ 
lar arms. For instance, their Spanish forces wore white 
faced with purple; so the Grecian phalanx had made all 
the field resplendent with crimson and gold, or brass bur¬ 
nished into the brightness of the more precious metal. In 
the first we have the type of the Austrian, in the second that 
of the English uniform. Ezekiel (600 B. C.) alludes to 
blue as the distinguishing color of the Assyrian uniforms, 
“clothed most gorgeously.” Nahum (710 B. C.) speaks of 
the “ valiant men ” of the forces confederated against Nin¬ 


eveh as wearing scarlet garments and as carrying red shields. 
At Angora (1402), in Tamerlane’s army, Mohammed’s con¬ 
tingent from Samarcand were uniformed complete by regi¬ 
ments. In the fifteenth century, at the relief of Neuss 
the bishop of Munster’s troops (7400 men) were clad all iu 
green. In the army of Gustavus Adolphus different organi¬ 
zations wore distinctive colors in cloth and facings. With 
Louis XIV., however, uniform became the rule, the law. 

Here we have an army in the strictest sense of the word_ 

regular, paid, permanent, uniformed, armed alike in each arm 
and branch of the service, disciplined, with pontoon trains, 
engineer corps; in fact, every appliance which science and 
service demanded. Never before had such existed. There 
was room for improvement, but nothing required a begin¬ 
ning. The idea was born and had a strong growth. The 
future could add little but adaptability to changed cus¬ 
toms, habits, advanced and extended civilization. Armies 
were now tolerably complete as to all working purposes, if not 
perfectly complete in every particular and detail with staff and 
staff corps, for the first time since the legion was in its prime. 
It is well, however, to bear in mind that it was not until 
the end of 1797 that the staff (etat major) of armies assumed 
its present form. In 1682 companies of cadets were formed 
for the instruction of young men destined for the service. 
Companies of miners (engineer troops) were now also, 
for the first time, regularly instructed and embodied. In 
the next few years and campaigns the value of these organi¬ 
zations was fully tested, and their efficiency proved. At 
the first siege of Luxembourg, 1684, in which they were 
present, exercising functions such as engineers of to-day 
discharge, eight were killed and nineteen wounded. In 
1692 another less important but more remarkable change 
occurred. The pike, which since the first formation of 
armies, and for thousands of years, had been the principal 
weapon of infantry, was superseded by the bayonet, intro¬ 
duced, like many other notable ameliorations, such as cop¬ 
per pontoons, improved tactics, etc., by General Martinet, an 
officer the reverse of the popular opinion entertained of him. 
Steinkirk, 1692, was the last battle in Europe in which any 
bodies of infantry were armed with pikes. The contest in 
which the bayonet was first used is much disputed. Accord¬ 
ing to some, it was at Turin, 1692, and the first charge at 
Spire in 1703. The pike or half pike, eight feet long, still 
lingered in the hands of officers, under the name of esponton 
orspontoon, down to the beginning of this century, and its 
manual or mention was to be found in our militia regula¬ 
tions within the memory of the writer: “The militia law 
of the United States requires that the commissioned officers 
shall, severally, be armed with a sword or hanger, and es¬ 
ponton.” Itis doubtful if thislaw of 1792 has been repealed. 

The armies of Louis XIV. and those confederated against 
him accomplished all any army had accomplished or can ac¬ 
complish. Witness Marlborough’s march to Blenheim, 13th 
Aug., 1704, and Eugene’s to Turin, 7th Sept., 1706. The 
first has never been surpassed, the second seldom equalled, 
in the annals of warlike achievements. Henceforward, the 
histories of European armies present magnificent efforts in 
obedience to surpassing genius, but it is always the same 
old story over again, with a variation of detail, but no im¬ 
portant difference. 

If judging from cause and effect is a criterion, one of 
the finest armies that ever existed was that of Cromwell, 
1643-58. It deserves attention because it constituted a 
connecting link between the organizations of Maurice and 
Gustavus and those of William III., Louis XIV., and Marl¬ 
borough. For its size it was as complete a working army as 
the world ever saw. England never possessed a native army 
but that of Cromwell, if indeed at any time it exhibited 
one to compare with it. For their day, and perhaps for 
any day, Cromwell’s “ Ironsides ” were the best mounted, 
equipped, armed, uniformed, disciplined, and effective cav¬ 
alry that ever charged an enemy. Their “get up” was in 
its way perfect, but they were so few they can only be con¬ 
sidered as a model in petto of what all cavalry should be. 
In this they resembled the Swedish hussars of the Guard 
upon whom Nolan dwelt with so much emphasis—a very 
perfect text for the head of an exercise, with a blank page 
below. 

English infantry, likewise, had already made a name 
which justified Bugcaud's remark, quoted by Trochu, that 
it was lucky for the world there were so few of them. Na¬ 
poleon I. said, “ I think that if I were at their head I 
could make them capable of anything.” 

But to return to the armies of the close of the seven¬ 
teenth and first decade of the eighteenth centuries. Little 
has been better done than they did with the means at their 
commands, either in field operations or sieges. The siege 
of Maestricht, 29th of June, 1673, is remarkable for being 
the first at which European armies made use of the zigzags, 
or the present mode of tracing approaches in attacking a 
fortified place. They were introduced by Vauban, who 

























ARMY. 


262 


borrowed them from the Turks. It is generally believed 
that parallels were first employed at this siege; but this 
is a mistake, and Vauban’s talents and skill do not require 
any erroneous statements to give them a false glare. 
Trenches, to contain the assailants, had been excavated 
parallel to the works of the fortress to be attacked from 
the earliest times. Vauban’s improvement consisted in 
tracing the approach or communication from the parallel, 
so that it should not be enfiladed, and which the Turks had 
done long before. Montecuculi, in his Memoires, talking 
of the Turks, of whose military skill, as it existed in his 
time, he had very deservedly a high opinion, says: “ They 
do not construct their trenches upon the shortest line, 
flanking them with redoubts from distance to distance, but 
they make them in curved lines, transversal, parallel to the 
place they are approaching, so that they can neither be 
enfiladed from the place nor damaged by its cannon.” 

There is another article in the Turkish system of disci¬ 
pline relative to sieges, as quoted by Montecuculi, which, 
in a modified degree, might be with advantage introduced 
into our service. Those who have witnessed the little labor 
performed by soldiers, the negligence in general of (in 
other respects) good officers, when employed upon working- 
parties, the time lost in relieving the detachments, and the 
hurry they are invariably in to be relieved, will perhaps 
agree that a medium between the two customs would be an 
improvement. “ They (the Turks) do not change the guards 
of the trenches nor the working-parties: when they (the 
troops) have once been assigned to a position, they remain 
there to the end of the siege; their food, water, wood, and 
every other necessary are brought to them.” 

In reflecting upon the stupendous lines of earthworks 
executed almost at a nod by the opposing armies in the 
Low Countries in the wars of William III. and Marl¬ 
borough, thinking men are at a loss whether most to ad¬ 
mire the docility and good-will of the soldier, or the great 
and capacious minds which could conceive and direct such 
operations. They are equal to anything ever done by the 
Romans, and only require the pen of a Caesar to be duly 
appreciated. Take those thrown up by Villeroi and Bouf- 
flers in 1695, from the Lys to the Schelde, twenty miles; 
those from the Schelde to the Mehaigne in 1701; those from 
the Little Gette to the Meuse, not less than thirty-two miles, 
in 1705; from Mons to the Sambre in 1707; those of Marl¬ 
borough against Villars in 1711, twenty-two miles. Moret, 
in his “Fifteen Years of Louis XIV.” (i. 131), speaks of 
Boufflers’ lines as 150 miles long, enveloping Belgium; and 
Captain Parkes, who saw them, states in his “ Memoirs ” 
(77) that “ Villeroi’s lines were prodigiously strong;” they 
“surrounded the whole Spanish Netherlands.” Our late 
civil war furnishes examples parallel to the above; for in¬ 
stance, the defensive works about Washington, D.C., 37 miles 
long, and strongly fortified; and the lines of the Union and 
Confederate armies before Richmond and Petersburg, Va. 

Some of the marches of that era were likewise extraordi¬ 
nary; twenty-eight miles on a day, with such heavy arms, 
equipments, and clothing, is astonishing, when carefully 
considered and the condition of the roads and country 
taken into account. In Aug., 1711, in turning Villars’ 
“ ne plus ultras,” Marlborough’s troops marched sixteen 
hours without once halting ( Alison , 281), and in Sept., 
1791, the prince of Hesse, 49 miles in fifty-six successive 
hours {Ibid., 224). Even as late as 1776 the British army in 
America carried sixty pounds per man, when uniform and 
equipments, everything, had been greatly simplified and mo¬ 
bilized. The British light infantry wore then a model dress. 
IIow much greater was the load under which Marlborough’s 
veterans bore up ! Nevertheless, the very movements of the 
day of Oudenarde are exemplary. In motion at 2 A. m., 
the allies marched 15 miles and crossed the Schelde to begin 
a battle which lasted from 3 p. m. until the obscurity of night 
alone put an end to the firing, and diminished the already 
wonderful results of the victory. 

“Since the days of Marlborough,” remarks a distinguished 
officer of British engineers, Sir James Carmichael Smith, 
“a most excellent system of tactics has been unquestion¬ 
ably introduced into the British army. Changes of front 
are made with rapidity and precision; columns are de¬ 
ployed, or the line formed into columns, with an accuracy 
and celerity formerly never even contemplated. It appears, 
however, open to discussion, whether, in the great and es¬ 
sential points which ought to form the character of the sol¬ 
dier, such as cheerfulness under privations, readiness to 
encounter fatigue as well as danger, perseverance under 
toil, and courage in the field, the army of Marlborough has, 
or ever can be, excelled.” 

The next stride in advance in all army organization 
matters was made by Frederick II. (the Great). With 
him, however, in many cases it was the practical applica¬ 
tion of improvements in theory originated in the reign of 
his common-sense father, so misjudged and misunderstood. 


As early as the first decade of the eighteenth century the 
Prussian was the pattern discipline, and Prussian esprit de 
corps acknowledged and renowned. The introduction of 
the iron ramrod was due to the “ Old Dessauer,” general- 
field-marshal of the Prussian armies; and this simple im¬ 
provement gave a double force to the Prussian infantry, 
which his tactics—he is considered the father of the world’s 
present tactics—quadrupled again by augmenting their 
manoeuvring capacity. Frederick the Great was his pu¬ 
pil in beginnings, but he soon soared far beyond the vision 
of the pedagogue. The pupil seemed competent to realize 
the impossible. He lent “wings to the lightning” by the 
introduction of flying (horse) artillery (first battery 1759). 
Under him the reforms in the tactics of the three arms be¬ 
came accomplished facts in active service, but especially on 
the battle-field. His line tactics were as the working of ma¬ 
chinery, and his revival or application of the oblique order 
of battle gave him victories such as Fame has seldom re¬ 
corded—gave him one, Leuthen, such as has never been 
equalled since war has had reliable annals. Under him and 
his lieutenants, Ziethen and Seydlitz, Europe, the world, 
first saw cavalry such as it never yet had beheld since those 
of Hannibal’s lieutenant, Maharbal—unless, perhaps, those 
Trabants of Charles XII. of Sweden, if they were what they 
were represented to be, and the chimeras clire of opponents 
without discipline—cavalry such as it should be, such as it 
never has been since. When the Seven Years’ war was 
forced upon Frederick in 1756 the “use of cavalry in the 
Prussian army was at its highest perfection.” These, whose 
magnitude can scarcely be comprehended by an unmilitary 
mind, were still but a few of the great and beneficial changes 
he inaugurated. He administered, marched, moved, and 
fought armies as they never had been before handled and 
battled, and he appreciated, first had a realizing sense, of 
what was well known, no doubt, as a theory and neglected 
as a fact, that “ an army, like a serpent, goes on its belly ” 
But why dwell on Frederick? This world has existed six 
thousand years, and with the means at his command no equal 
to “der Einzige” has ever appeared on its stage. Through 
his army he elevated little Prussia to the rank of a first- 
rate power. He did more : he showed it the possible fu¬ 
ture—the way through its army to that future. He did 
even more: while he enforced a discipline which was hailed 
as exemplary, he permeated his army and his people with 
an idea. And Napoleon has left us his witness of a fact that 
he discovered too late, and to his ruin—that “the moral is 
to the physical in war as three to one.” In regard to every 
subordinate matter which unites in the consideration of the 
subject “Army,” Frederick’s stand is the pre-eminent 
position of the statue upon the column. He must rank 
among the very first generals and administrators of the 
world. Others had and have fought armies grandly and 
successfully; but he made one—an example of a fighting 
army, susceptible of everything required of an army. He 
left an army which, notwithstanding its misfortunes, served 
as an example, a base-course qualified to bear any weight 
imposed upon it, as time has shown. It still exists imbued 
with the Frederickian idea of its invincibility—the first, 
the cynosure, among the six or seven military powers of 
Europe: I, Prussia (or Germany, but Prussia is the vital 
force); 2, Russia; 3, France; 4, Austria; 5, England; 6, 
Italy; 7, Spain. 

Before closing this article upon the army organization 
of the seven great Christian powers of Europe in the past 
—of which, however, only four, Prussia, Russia, France, 
and Austria, were truly great—the pre-eminence in every 
respect must be given to Prussia. Russia may have a 
larger numerical force, but Prussia (or Germany) has the 
most reliable, and must be regarded as the greatest mili¬ 
tary power. If the opinion of Napoleon is entitled to con¬ 
sideration, it may be looked upon as perfect. He said that 
a country in which the whole male population fit to bear 
arms were cemented together by discipline or grouted into 
a cohesion by thorough organization, would have a perfect 
army. Were Prussia’s national resources derivative from 
commerce, internal and external, from fertility of soil and 
agricultural proficiency, from manufacturing industry and 
mining commensurate with her military organization—were 
the nation on a par with the army—there would be scarcely 
any limit to its aggressive capabilities. 

It is a curious fact that the elements or principles of the 
military system or organization of Prussia are the oldest of 
which there are authentic records. Of course, in this view 
of the case the Egyptian must be omitted, because the critic 
is dependent for his facts upon records which, whatever re¬ 
liability is conceded, are nevertheless very open to question. 
Although in the Rosetta Stone a key was discovered, it does 
not follow that that key unlocks every difficulty. Like the 
method of interpretation of the inscriptions disentombed at 
Nineveh, worked out with so much skill and perseveranco 
by the German scholar Grotefend, the result is by no means 













ARMY. 


263 


fixed, and until further corroboration is found it is little 
better than a process of more or less accurate guesswork. 

“The principles of the Prussian system are to be observed 
in the military institutions of David, the second king of 
Israel. Like those of Prussia, it is remarkable that the 
natural foundation of all this grandeur was laid in the very 
beginning of a civil war of five years’ continuance, which, 
to all appearance, was wasteful, and would be ruinous, both 
to him and his people. But whilst his enemies, for that 
reason, left him unmolested, he employed that whole time 
partly in gaining over the tribes to him, and partly in train¬ 
ing up all those who sided with him to arms—his own tribe 
first, and all the rest gradually as they joined him; and all 
this under a specious and unsuspected color of keeping up 
a proper force against Ishbosheth his rival. And as his army 
at no time exceeded the number of twenty-four thousand 
men, so small a number created no suspicion, nor gave any 
jealousy to his neighbors, who never reflected that these 
troops were changed every month, and an equal number of 
new men brought into military discipline; or if they ob¬ 
served that it was so after some time, possibly this gave 
them less suspicion, apprehending that there was less to be 
feared from a body of raw, undisciplined men; little con¬ 
sidering that by this monthly and regular rotation every 
man in his dominions must in a little time be trained up to 
arms, and in the course of a few circulations thoroughly 
disciplined, as in Sact it came to pass. For we find him, in 
little more than eight or nine years, able to withstand the 
united force of all his neighbor nations invading him at 
once, which perhaps never was the case of any other prince 
from the foundation of the world.” 

“It is true, other princes (Alexander the Great, for ex¬ 
ample, and Charles XII. of Sweden) have been x combined 
against and invaded by some of their neighbors in the be¬ 
ginning and (as they deemed it) infancy of their reigns; 
but I cannot recollect that ever I heard or read of any gene¬ 
ral combination unanimously entered into against any 
princes of any nation, and yet totally defeated, except 
David.” 

Thus far is a quotation from “ The Historical Account of 
the Life and Reign of David,” published in London in 
1752, just four years before the commencement of the Seven 
Years’ war, when Frederick the Great of Prussia was as¬ 
sailed by a confederation of nations whose population was 
to his own as nearly, if not more than, twenty-five to one— 
when the same Prussia which he raised to such a rank 
among the European kingdoms had fallen lower than he 
found it in consequence of the Peace of Tilsit: a system 
analogous to that of David raised it again, through its 
army, and its army alone, to its pristine position of pride 
and strength. 

Scharnhorst was the chief of the commission for the re¬ 
organization of the army. Among its other members was 
von Boyen, who afterwards became minister of war under 
Frederick William III. and IV.; Grolmann; and, lastly, 
the gentle, kind, but particularly clever, Augustus von 
Gneisenau. 

Although to Scharnhorst was entrusted the carrying out 
the reform of the army, Stein, who reorganized the civil 
administration, influenced the result materially with his 
clear sense and master mind. Whatever credit enures to 
the military men, without Stein-all would have come to 
naught, for he it was first recognized in action that the true 
foundation of the state was “ the people in its unity,” and 
that a nation which wished to be respected had first to 
prove its own self-respect by a spirit of freedom and inde¬ 
pendence. Scharnhorst’s system, in the new organization 
of the army, was based on the general obligation of all 
citizens to carry arms for the defence of the country; the 
monopoly of the nobility with regard to commissions in the 
army was abolished; any man might rise from the ranks, 
even to be a general—in war, by bravery and presence of 
mind; in peace, by military knowledge and acquirements. 
Corporal punishment was done away with, the pigtail was 
cut off, and “the worship of pipeclay” vanished. The re¬ 
strictive clause of the Peace of Tilsit, according to which 
Prussia was allowed to keep only 42,000 troops, Scharn¬ 
horst quietly evaded by making new levies every year, and 
the trained soldiers returning to their homes, from whence 
they might be summoned in right time to form the nucleus 
of an army. The first idea of the “ Landwehr ” and “ Land- 
sturm,” which afterwards led to such surprisingly fortunate 
results, was, even at that time, conceived and first developed 
by Scharnhorst. 

The Russian army, the offspring of Peter the Great, has 
always, since it deserved the title of an army, been remark¬ 
able for the steadiness of its infantry. Zorndorf is one of 
the most wonderful instances of an infantry blasted away by 
a superlative infantry, mowed down by an efficient artillery, 
and stormed into by the finest cavalry in the world, all 
three arms directed by pre-eminent ability, “beaten with¬ 


out flying ;”—an infantry which under a Suwarrow could 
emulate, and even surpass, the dash of the republican 
French. But solidity and obedience need nevertheless 
something more; and it is well to remember the remark of 
Wellington, who, after witnessing a review of 132,000 Rus¬ 
sian infantry, 28,000 cavalry, and 540 guns on the plains 
of Vertus, 10th of Sept., 1815, said to the marquis of Lon¬ 
donderry, “Well, Charles, you and I never saw such a sight 
before, and never shall again ; the precision of the move¬ 
ments of these troops was more like the arrangements of a 
theatre than those of such an army ; but still, I think my 
little army would move round them in any direction while 
they were effecting a single change.” 

The organization of the English army, based upon volun¬ 
tary enlistment, has been pronounced by foreign officers of 
thorough education and acute observation as unworthy of 
scientific study—that is, for home application, although the 
United States have borrowed a great deal from it—in the wri¬ 
ter’s opinion, to their detriment. Great merit, however, has 
been conceded to the British engineers and artillery. The ex¬ 
cellence of the British infantry has been ascribed to the 
natural qualities of the people, and the dash of its cavalry 
to their habits of life. Almost all the marvellous achieve¬ 
ments of England’s footmen must be credited to their un¬ 
shakable determination or pluck, and the judgment of the 
Russian general upon the charge at Balaklava, that “it was 
very magnificent, but it was not war,” can be applied with 
some exceptions to the most notable exploits of the British 
horse. The staff corps, whose service is connected with lo¬ 
gistics, have proved themselves as unreliable as our own de¬ 
veloped a capacity which excited the admiration of all com¬ 
petent to criticise. If the former had not been backed by 
the resources of the wealthiest of nations—profuse expend¬ 
iture making good the shortcomings of red-tape and mis¬ 
direction—they would have neutralized all that bravery 
and fortitude could achieve—qualities which have rendered 
the British arms pre-eminently conspicuous. The military 
organization of Spain affords little to instruct, and less to 
imitate. With rare exceptions—and even the majority 
of these attributable to foreign direction—the military 
forces of the Spanish Peninsula have demonstrated a 
want of efficiency, especially within three centuries, which 
almost raises a doubt as to the validity of the encomiums 
lavished upon the Spanish infantry said to have been de¬ 
stroyed at Rocfoi. So much so, that unbiassed criticism can 
equitably ask if the superiority of the Spanish arms in the 
zenith of their renown was not attributable to circum¬ 
stances and comparison with inferior opponents, and (ex¬ 
cept in certain cases, as, for instance, that of Gonsalvo de 
Cordova, the “ great captain ”) to Teutonic elements, much 
more than to those of Spanish proper or cognate origin. 

Prior to the Prusso-French war of 1870-71 the French 
army organization was considered the best in Europe, and 
yet a few days sufficed to demonstrate the hollowness of that 
which seemed the acme of solidity, and the feebleness of that 
which appeared adequate to resist any strain. In theory 
perfect, in application it proved directly opposite. Why ? 
Because it wanted vitality, living, sentient discipline. Thus, 
for a practical application it was the antithesis to that of 
the United States—scarcely considered worthy of more than 
a short paragraph or passing notice in any work consulted 
upon military affairs. Looked upon by experts as too defec¬ 
tive for study, the military system of the U. S. displayed 
an elasticity and strength which showed that our skeleton 
formation, through the inherent force of our people, could 
be clothed upon with the muscle of an athlete, reversing 
the opinion of the duke of Alva—held for three centuries 
in Europe as an irreversible judgment—that veterans con¬ 
stituted the bone, sinew, and vital force of an army, to 
which new troops added no strength, but only plumpness 
and appearance. This capacity for expansion without de¬ 
stroying efficiency called forth from the famous French en¬ 
gineer-officer Rossel, shot at Sartory by the Thiers admin¬ 
istration of vengeance, one of the most eloquent tributes 
ever paid by an able and accomplished officer to the military 
force and army of a foreign nation ( Abrege de VArt de la 
Guerre, Paris, 1871): “Since the grand wars (terminating 
in 1815) progress has been especially a question of tech¬ 
nology. In Europe the Prussians alone have shown them¬ 
selves investigators, and have made war subservient to great 
political designs, but there is little of art in their cam¬ 
paigns. Theirs are lessons thoroughly learned, theirs are 
improvisations studied out for fifty years and recited to 
perfection. But if there is a difference between modern 
war and war as it was made at the beginning of the nine¬ 
teenth century, it must be sought out in the study of the 
war of secession in the U. S. The war of secession was an 
industrial, progressive war—humane, it the term is accept¬ 
able. . 

“As a military element, the corps of West Point officers is 
assuredly better (I do not say more instructed) than all the 






























264 ARMY CORPS—ARNAULD. 


officers of Europe ; as a political, a giant democracy, rugged 
for work, jealous of all its leaders. There all the new meth¬ 
ods were tried, all the old ones were resurrected again; 
now, chambers of mines, such as were constructed in the 
sixteenth century; now, again, railroad trains brought into 
play against cavalry. As soon as a warlike procedure is 
recognized and appreciated, it is pushed to the extreme; 
abuse or excess of field fortifications; abuse of battles; 
abuse of skirmishers ; of the navy, of guns. There were de¬ 
fences of forts such as should make all the commandants of 
fortified places in France and Alsace sink into the ground; 
battles of eight days, without termination and without pity ; 
improvised armies staked and lost in less time than is ne¬ 
cessary in Europe for a declaration of hostilities. There war 
constructed railroads, created ports, turned the course of 
rivers; to sum up, there the world beheld the application to 
this terrible science of all the exuberance of life, of a people 
seriously active, young, intelligent, and incapable of fear. 

“Of military genius there was little or none, or at least 
confined to the second rank. G enius is something not prac¬ 
tical, nor of commodious employment—above all, among 
these republicans. But, to make up for this, there was a 
very great deal of practical intelligence; the genius of com¬ 
merce applied to war; the fever of production made use of 
to destroy. There war is not a speculation or a result, as 
with us; it is a business; and he was the good general who 
was capable of figuring out his balance-sheet and passing to 
his profit account the active and passive balances of the wise 
use of the time, of the money, and of the blood at his dis¬ 
posal. If we wish to begin anew, it is there in the United 
States that we must seek the elements and bring them down 
to our measure.” In Von Hardegg’s “Vorlesungen fiber 
Kriegsgeschkihte,” published at Stuttgart in 1852, the curi¬ 
ous reader will find “chronological tables” that refer to 
leading works on military matters, which will enlighten him 
on almost every point referred to under this head, “Army.” 
This valuable work was republished at Darmstadt and 
Leipsic, 1868, under the title of “ Anleitung zum Studium 
der Kriegsgeschichte.” (For a Review of the present armies 
of Europe and America, see Organization — Existing 
Army.) J. Watts de Peyster. 

Army Corps. See Corps d’Armee. 

Army List, an official publication issued by the British 
war office, contains the names of all the commissioned offi¬ 
cers in the British army, arranged according to the dates 
of their commissions. Then come the officers of that por¬ 
tion of the queen’s army which belongs exclusively to In¬ 
dia. The bulk of the work is filled with an enumeration 
of all the regiments in the queen's army, and all the officers 
in each regiment. 

Army Register is an annual register published by 
order of the secretary of war, in compliance with an act 
of Congress, containing lists of the departments, regiments, 
and commissioned officers of the U. S. army, with the pro¬ 
motions and casualties for the year. 

Army Regulations is the name of a volume published 
by the U. S. war department, containing rules for the man¬ 
agement of troops in camp and field, with instructions for 
keeping accounts and making returns to the army bureaus. 
It is based upon the Articles of War and other acts of Con¬ 
gress. (See Articles op War.) 

Army Worm, in the Northern States the larva or grub 
of a night-flying moth ( Lexica' nia unipunc'ta). It varies 
considerably in color and size with age and locality, but its 
markings are characteristic. It is usually from less than 
an inch to an inch and three-quarters in length ; dark gray, 
with three narrow yellowish strijies above, and a broader 
one of nearly the same color on each side; thinly clothed 
with short hairs, especially about the head, which is of a 
dull yellow color. The ravages of these worms, which 
sometimes march over grain-fields in great numbers, are 
best prevented by ploughing a double furrow around or 
across the field on which they are moving. Then they 
may be killed by setting fire to straw in the furrows or by 
turning pigs and fowls (after removal of the crop) into the 
field. Crows and blackbirds will also destroy them rapidly. 

The army worm of the Southern States, a near relative 
of the above, sometimes appears in countless hosts and 
devours the cotton. In the West Indies its ravages have 
led to a general abandonment of the cotton crop. Water 
mixed with 2 per cent, of carbolic acid will, it is said, pre¬ 
vent the mischief. Various other destructive larvae are 
called by this name. 

Arna. See Arnee. 

Arnal'do, or Arnold of Brescia, an eloquent Ital¬ 
ian reformer, born at Brescia about 1100. He was a pupil 
of the celebrated Abelard in France, and adopted the mo¬ 
nastic life. Asa preacher he boldly reproved the prevalent 
venality, luxury, and corruption of the clergy. He af¬ 


firmed that the clergy ought not to possess temporal power 
or property. The second Council of the Lateran, in 1139, 
condemned Arnaldo as a disturber of the peace, and ban¬ 
ished him from Italy. lie retired first to France, where he 
encountered the hostility of Saint Bernard, and next to 
Switzerland, where he gained many adherents. In the 
mean time there was formed in Rome a numerous party 
which favored the principles of Arnaldo and were friends 
of civil liberty. These revolted in 1143 against the pope, 
who fled or was driven out of the city. Arnaldo in 1146 
returned to Rome, again raised his voice for religious re¬ 
form, and endeavored to organize a republic. His success 
was hindered by the violence and excesses of the populace, 
which filled the city with disorder for nearly ten years. A 
reaction ensued, and Pope Adrian IV. reduced the Romans 
to submission by laying the city under an interdict in 1154. 
Arnaldo was arrested by the aid of the emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa, and was hanged in 1155. (See D. II. Franke, 
“ Arnold von Brescia,” 1825; Gregorovius, “ Geschichte 
der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter;” Clavel, “Arnauld de 
Brescie. et les Romain§ du XII. Siecle,” 1868.) 

ArnaUdus ViHanova'nus [It. Arnal'do di Villa- 
no'va ], sometimes called Arnaldus Novicomensis, an emi¬ 
nent physician, born about 1235. He devoted much atten¬ 
tion to alchemy, ivrote treatises on medicine, alchemy, and 
religion, and was suspected of heresy. He was employed 
in diplomacy by the king of Naples. Died in 1312. (See 
Campegius, “Arnaldi Vita.”) 

Arnaouts. See Albania. 

Arnatto. See Annotto. 

Arnaud (IIenri), a pastor of the Waldenses and an 
able military commander, was born in Piedmont in 1641. 
He commanded the Waldenses (Vaudois), who in 1689 de¬ 
feated the French in several actions, and recovered their 
native valleys, from which they had been driven by perse¬ 
cution. He served as colonel in the allied army in the war 
of the Spanish succession (1702-13). He published a “His- 
toire de la glorieuse Rentree des Vandocs” (1710), trans¬ 
lated by Ackland (1827). Died in 1721. 

Arnauld (Angelique), called also Angelique de Saint 
Jean, an eminent French nun, born Nov. 28, 1624, was a 
daughter of Robert Arnauld d’Andilly. She was educated 
at Port Royal by her aunt, Marie Angelique, and was a 
zealous Jansenist. In 1669 she was elected prioress of the 
convent of Port Royal. She acquired a high reputation 
for piety, learning, and courageous endurance of persecu¬ 
tion. She became abbess of Port Royal in 1678, after which 
she was persecuted by the Jesuits. She wrote memoirs of 
her aunt, the abbess Marie Angelique Arnauld (1591-1661). 
Died Jan. 24, 16S4. (Sec Sainte-Beuve, “Port Royal;” 
also Beard, “ Port Royal.”) 

Arnauld, formerly written Arnaud (Antoine), sur- 
named L’Avocat, a famous orator, born in Paris in 1560, 
was the most eloquent French advocate of his time. He 
was also distinguished for his probity. He became pro- 
cureur-general in 1585. His most memorable performance 
was his defence of the University of Paris against the Jes¬ 
uits in 1594. lie was the father of four distinguished sons 
(the eminent Arnaulds of Port Royal) and of six daugh¬ 
ters. Died in 1619. 

Arnauld (Antoine), called le Grand Arnauld, a cele¬ 
brated Jansenist theologian and philosopher, a son of the 
preceding, was born in Paris on the 6th of Feb., 1612. His 
mother was Catherine Marion. He was educated in the 
Sorbonne, ordained a priest in 1641, and published in 1643 
a work “ On Frequent Communion,” which was highly es¬ 
teemed, but gave offence to the Jesuits, of whom he was a 
constant and strenuous adversary. This book promoted a 
reform in the style of French theologians. He became a 
doctor of the Sorbonne in 1641, and engaged in the contro¬ 
versy between Jansenius and his opponents on the subject 
of grace. Having retired to Port Royal, a convent near 
Paris, he passed there many years in seclusion, and wrote 
numerous works on theology and philosophy. In 1650 ho 
published an “Apology for the Fathers” (“ Apologic pour 
les Saints Peres”). He was expelled from the Society of 
the Sorbonne in 1656, after which the Jansenists were gen¬ 
erally proscribed and persecuted, both by the civil and 
ecclesiastical powers. He aided Pascal in his “ Provincial 
Letters,” and Lancelot in a “ Grammaire generale et rai- 
sonnee.” Among his other works are “ Logic, or the Art 
of Thinking,” commonly called “ The Port Royal Logic” 
(1662); “The Moral Theology of the Jesuits;” “The Per¬ 
petuity of the Catholic Faith touching the Eucharist de¬ 
fended against Sieur Claude” (1669); and “The Practical 
Morality of the Jesuits ” (8 vols., 1683-94). To escape the 
persecution which the Jesuits instigated, lie became an 
exile in 1679, and passed the remainder of his life in 
Flanders and Holland. He died near Liege Aug. 8, 1694. 


















ARNAULD D’ANDILLY—ARNOBIUS. 


Boileau, who wrote his epitaph, pronounced him the “ most 
learned mortal who ever wrote.” Arnauld was distin¬ 
guished for his earnestness and simplicity of character, his 
industry, and his alacrity in controversy. His works oc¬ 
cupy forty-five closely printed quarto volumes, which were 
published in 1775—83. (See P. Quesnel, “Histoire de la 
Vie ct des Ouvrages de M. Arnauld,” 1697 ; Larriere, 
“Vie d’Antoine Arnauld,” 1783; Sainte-Beuve, “Port 
Royal,” vol. ii.; Varin, “ La Verite sur les Arnaulds,” 2 
vols., 1847.) 

Arnauld d’Andilly (Robert), an able French writer, 
born in Paris in 1589, was a brother of Antoine Arnauld 
(1612-94), and the father of Angelique (de Saint-Jean), 
noticed above. He was appointed intendant of the army 
in 1634, and retired to the monastery of Port Royal about 
1645. He produced a translation of Josephus’s “His¬ 
tory” (1669),. and wrote autobiographical memoirs (1734), 
besides two volumes of lives of saints, called “Vies des 
Saintes Peres du desert.” Died Sept. 27, 1674. His son 
Simon was marquis de Pomponne, and his brother Henry 
(1597-1694) was a devout and zealous Jansenist, and in 
1649 became bishop of Angers. 

Arnault (Vincent Antoine), a French poet and dram¬ 
atist, was born in Paris Jan. 22, 1766. He produced a 
tragedy, “Marius at Minturnee ” (1791), which was warmly 
applauded, and other tragedies, entitled “ Lucretia” (“ Lu- 
crdce,” 1792) and “Germanicus” (1816). He was ap¬ 
pointed in 1808 secretary-general to the University. He 
was admitted in 1829 into the French Academy, of which 
he was chosen perpetual secretary in 1833. Among his 
works is “ Souvenirs of a Sexagenarian ” (4 vols., 1833). 
Died Sept. 16, 1834. 

Arntl, or Arndt (Johann), a German Lutheran “pie¬ 
tist,” born at Ballendstadt Dec. 27, 1555. He began to 
preach at Quedlinburg in 1590, and removed to Brunswick 
in 1599. He published a very popular work “On True 
Christianity” (“Vom wahren Christenthum”), which was 
translated into many languages. W. Jacques produced an 
English translation of it in 1815. He was called the Fene- 
lonof the Protestants. He became superintendent at Zellc 
in 1611. Died May 11, 1621. (See Fr. Arndt, “Johann 
Arnd, ein biographischer Versuch,” 1838; F. W. Kriimma- 
cher, “J. Arad’s Leben,” 1842; Wehrhan, “ Lebensge- 
schichte J. Arndts,” 1848; H. L. Pertz, “ Commentatio de 
J. Arndtio,” 1852.) 

Arndt (Ernst Moritz), a German patriot and popular 
political writer, was born in the island of Riigen Dec. 26, 
1769. He travelled extensively in Europe after he left col¬ 
lege, and was appointed professor of history at Greifswalde 
in 1806. He published a “History of Serfdom in Pome¬ 
rania and Riigen,” and animated the Germans to resist¬ 
ance against Napoleon in his “ Spirit of the Times” (“Geist 
der Zeit,” 1807). He also promoted the patriotic cause by 
many eloquent and spirited poems and prose-writings. His 
celebrated national song, “What is the German’s Father- 
land ?” (“ Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland ?”), is, perhaps, 
the most popular of all the patriotic songs of Germany. He 
married in 1817 a daughter of the celebrated Schleiernia- 
cher. In 1818 he was appointed professor of history at the 
University of Bonn. He was suspended in 1819 on ac¬ 
count of his liberal opinions, but was restored to his chair 
in 1840. He was a member of the national assembly which 
met at Frankfort in 1848, but he seceded with the constitu¬ 
tional party in 1849. Among his works is “ Souvenirs of 
my Outward Life” (“ Erinnerungen aus dem aussern Le¬ 
ben,” 1840). Died Jan. 29, 1860. (Sec Schenkel, “ E. M. 
Arndt; eine Biographie,” 1866.) 

Arne (Thomas Augusttne), Mus. Dr., a distinguished 
English musician, born in London May 28, 1710. He was 
a skilful performer on the violin. He set to music Addison’s 
“ Rosamond ” in 1731, and gained a high reputation by the 
music which he composed for Milton’s “ Comus ” (1738). 
This formed an era in the history of English music. The na¬ 
tional air “ Rule Britannia” was his composition. Among 
his chief productions were “ Artaxerxes,” an opera (1762), 
and “Eliza,” an opera. He married a vocalist named Ce¬ 
cilia Young in 1740. He excelled especially as a composer 
of songs. Died Mar. 5, 1778. His sister Susanna was a 
noted performer. 

Ar'nee, or Ar'na, a large animal of the order Rumi- 
nantia, a native of India, is nearly allied to the ox, and is 
sometimes called lios arnee. It is regarded by some natu¬ 
ralists as a wild variety of the buffalo. It is larger than 
an ox, and in the full-grown animal one of the horns meas¬ 
ures sometimes more than six feet in length. 

Arn'heim, von, or Arnim (Johann Georg), a Ger¬ 
man general and diplomatist, born in Brandenburg in 
1581. He gained the rank of field-marshal in 1628, and 
entered the scrvico of Saxony in lb30. lie commanded a 


265 


wing of the army of Gustavus Adolphus at Leipsic in 
1631, and was opposed to Wallenstein in 1633. In May, 
1634, he defeated the imperialists at Liegnitz. Died April 
18, 1641. 1 

AriVhein, or Arn'heim (anc. Arenacum), a fortified 
town of Holland, capital of the province of Gelderland, on 
the right bank of the Rhine, 57 miles by rail S. E. of Am¬ 
sterdam. It is very ancient, well built, has a governor’s 
palace, and a famous church containing the tombs of the 
dukes of Gelderland; also manufactures of paper and cot¬ 
ton and woollen stufts. A bridge of boats crosses the river 
here. Sir Philip Sidney died at Arnhem in 1586. It was 
taken in 1795 by the French, who were driven out by the 
Prussians in 1813. Pop. in 1869, 31,626.. 

Ar'nica [from the Gr. ap?, apvo?, a “ lamb,” on account 
of the softness of its leaf], a genus of herbs of the order 
Composite, sub-order Tubuliflorm. The flowers of the ray 
are pistillate and ligulate, those of the disk hermaphrodite 
and tubular. The receptacle is naked, the pappus bristly. 
The root, leaves, and flowers of Arnica montana , or leop¬ 
ard's bane of Europe, are poisonous when swallowed, and 
are even irritant to the skin, but are administered as a 
stimulant in paralytic affections, fevers, and other diseases. 
They are also applied with benefit to bruises. They con¬ 
tain a volatile oil, a resin, and an alkaloid, arnicine. The 
root is perennial, the stem about two feet high, simple, with 
few leaves, bearing a head of flowers of a dark yellow, often 
two inches in breadth. The Arnica multicaulis and mollis 
of North America possess similar properties. Besides these 
there arc five or more species in the Far West. 

Arnim. See Arnheim, von. 

Ar'nim, von (Elisabeth or Bettina), a German au¬ 
thoress, bora at Frankfort-on-the-Main April 4, 1785, was 
a sister of Clemens Brentano. She had a very sensitive 
spirit and ardent imagination. In her youth she cherished 
a passionate admiration and platonic affection for Goethe, 
with whom she corresponded. She was married in 1811 to 
L. J. von Arnim, noticed below. Among her works are 
“The Correspondence of Goethe with a Child” (3 vols., 
1835), which she translated into English, and “ Die Giin- 
derode” (2 vols., 1840), which are commended as graceful 
and fascinating. Died in Berlin Jan. 20, 1859. Her 
daughter, Gisela von Arnim, is married to Herman Grimm, 
and published “Dramatische Werke” (3 vols., 1857-63). 
(See “Blackwood’s Magazine,” vol. lviii.) 

Arnim, von (Karl Otto Ludwig), a German traveller 
and writer, bora in Berlin Aug. 1, 1779, wrote several 
poems, and a work entitled “ Passing Remarks by a Pass¬ 
ing Traveller” (6 vols., 1837-50). He also published “ Ger¬ 
man National Melodies,” with an English version (1816). 
Died in Berlin Feb. 9, 1861. 

Arnim, von (Ludwig Joachim), generally called Achim 
von Arnim, a popular and fantastic German poet distin¬ 
guished for his originality, was born in Berlin Jan. 28, 
1781. He devoted some years to the study of the physical 
sciences, and published a “Theory of Electricity” (1799). 
He was one of the founders of the romantic school of Ger¬ 
man literature. In conjunction with Clemens Brentano, 
whose sister, Bettina, he married, he published a collection 
of songs entitled “ The Boy’s Wonder-Horn ” (3 vols., 1806). 
Among his works, which exhibit a rich imagination, arc 
“ The Poverty and Riches, Guilt and Repentance of the 
Countess of Dolores,” a novel (1810) ; “Angelica the 
Genoese and Cosmus the Rope-dancer;” and “ The Crown 
Guardians” (1817). Died Jan. 21, 1831. A new edition 
of his works (“Sammtliche Werke”) was published 1853- 
56, in 22 vols. 

Ar'no [Lat. Armin'], a celebrated river of Italy, which 
rises at Mount Falterona in the Apennines, and falls into 
the sea 7 miles below Pisa, which city, like Florence, is 
intersected by this stream. Its valley (Yal d’Arno) is one 
of the most beautiful regions in Italy. The banks of the 
river are dyked on account of the floods which sometimes 
occur, and the river is made navigable by locks during 
high-water nearly to its source, and ordinarily small ves¬ 
sels can ascend to Florence. Its length is 150 miles. 

Ar'no, a post-village, the capital of Douglas co. Mo., 
126 miles S. S. W. of Jefferson City. 

Arno'bius (AFER),an African rhetorician and Christian 
writer, born probably near Carthage. He flourished about 
300 A. D., and was originally a pagan. The events of his 
life are mostly unknown. Having been converted to Chris¬ 
tianity, he wrote an eloquent work called “ Disputations 
against the Gentiles” (“ Disputationes contra Gentes”), 
in which he exposes the absurdities of paganism. This is 
not considered strictly orthodox, but it is interesting as an 
historical document. According to M. \ illemain, “ It has 
a character of originality, and a real importance in relation 
to philosophy and history.” (See Neander, “ History ot 













266 ARNOLD. 


the Christian Church;” Bayle, “ Historical and Critical 
Dictionary.”) 

Ar'nold (Albert Nicholas), D. D., born at Cranston, 
It. I., Feb. 12, 1814, graduated at Brown University 1838, 
and Newton Theological Institute 1841, ordained pastor 
of the Baptist church at Newburyport, Mass., Sept. 14, 
1841, missionary to Greece 1844—54, professor of church 
history in Newton Theological Institute 1855-57, pastor at 
Westborough, Mass., 1858-64, professor of biblical inter¬ 
pretation and pastoral theology in Hamilton (N. Y.) Theo¬ 
logical Seminary 1864—69, professor of New Testament 
Greek in the Baptist Union Theological Seminary at Chi¬ 
cago 1869-73, and author of “ Prerequisites to Commu¬ 
nion” (1860) and “One Woman’s Mission” (1871). 

Arnold (Benedict), an American general and notorious 
traitor, was born at Noi’wich, Conn., Jan. 3, 1740. He was 
apprenticed to an apothecary, from whom he ran away and 
enlisted in the army, but soon deserted. In his boyhood 
he was noted for his audacity and unruly disposition. He 
became a merchant at New Haven, and the owner of sev¬ 
eral small vessels employed in trade with the West Indies. 
In this business he failed, and incurred a suspicion of 
fraudulent dealing. He obtained a commission as col¬ 
onel in the service of Massachusetts soon after the war 
broke out, in April, 1775. In the autumn of that year he 
commanded a force of about 1000 men sent to capture Que¬ 
bec, and in the long march through the pathless forests of 
Maine proved himself well fitted for such a service. Hav¬ 
ing reached the St. Lawrence River, he effected a junction 
with General Montgomery, who had the chief command. 
They attacked Quebec in Dec., 1775, but failed to take it, 
and Arnold was severely wounded. He was raised to the 
rank of brigadier-general for his service in this campaign. 
Before and after this event he was involved in difficulties 
by his rapacity and pecuniary frauds. He commanded a 
small flotilla which encountered a superior force on Lake 
Champlain, Oct. 11, 1776, and displayed there such un¬ 
flinching courage as well as skill that he gained much ap¬ 
plause, although he was not victorious. He was deeply 
mortified by the action of Congress, which neglected him, 
while it gave the rank of major-general to five of his juniors 
in rank. In 1777 he was appointed a major-general, but 
as he remained below the other five, he was still discontent¬ 
ed. He took part in the battle of Bemus Heights, Sept. 
19, 1777, where he was involved in a quarrel with General 
Gates. At the battle of Stillwater, Oct. 7, he entered the 
field without permission from Gates, rushed into the hottest 
part of the action, rode about issuing orders in every di¬ 
rection, and acted like a madman. He received on that 
day a severe wound, which disabled him for some months, 
and Congress at last accorded him full rank. In June, 
1778, he was appointed to the command of Philadelphia, 
where he lived in an extravagant style and ran into debt. 
While here he married a daughter of Edward Shippen 
(afterwards chief-justice of Pennsylvania). His official acts 
here were so rapacious that a court-martial sentenced him 
(Jan., 1780) to be reprimanded by the general-in-chief. 
Before this date he had been for six months plotting trea¬ 
son, and had made overtures to the enemy. He now soli¬ 
cited and obtained (in Aug., 1780) command of West Point, 
the most important fortress in the U. S., which he offered 
to betray into the possession of Sir Henry Clinton. The 
agent chosen by the British general to conduct the negotia¬ 
tions with Arnold was Major John Andre. (See Andre, 
John.) Arnold and Andre had an interview on the 21st of 
Sept., and made the final arrangements for the surrender 
of West Point, but in consequence of the capture of Andr£, 
Sept. 23, 1780, the plot was detected, and Arnold escaped 
in the British sloop Vulture, Sept. 25. He received about 
£6300 from the British government as a reward of his 
treachery. Having joined the British army and issued an 
address to the American people in vindication of his course, 
he obtained command of an expedition against Virginia, 
which sailed from New York in Dec., 1780, passed up the 
James River, and burned and pillaged a considerable 
amount of property. In the autumn of 1781 the troops 
under his command burned New London, Conn. He went 
to England about the end of the war, and passed many 
yeai’S in that country, where he was generally despised and 
shunned. He died in London June 14, 1801. (See Sparks’s 
life of Benedict Arnold in his “Library of American Biog¬ 
raphy,” vol. iii.) . William Jacobs. 

Arnold (Benedict), a Rhode Island colonist, born in 
England Dec. 21, 1615, was president of Rhode Island 
1663-71. He was a citizen of Providence in 1636, and one 
of the purchasers of Conanicut Island in 1657. lie had a 
good knowledge of the Indian tongues, and thus greatly 
befriended the New England colonies. Died in June, 1678. 

Arnold (Georg Daniel), a writer and jurist, born at 
Strasburg- Feb. 18, 17S0, became professor of civil law in 


that city. He published a work on Roman law (1812), and 
wrote in the Alsatian dialect a comedy of “Whit-Monday,” 
which was praised by Goethe. Died Feb. 18, 1829. 

Arnold (Gottfried), a German Lutheran theologian, 
born at Annaberg, Saxony, Sept. 5, 1666. He preached at 
Werben and Perleberg. Among his numerous works are 
“Sophia, or the Mysteries of Divine Wisdom” (1700), 
and a “History of the Church from the Christian Era to 
1688” (3 vols., 1700), which gave offence to the orthodox. 
Died May, 1714. (See Colerus, “ Ilistoria G. Arnoldi,” 
1718; Adolphe Riff, “ G. Arnold, Historien de l’Eglise,” 
1847.) 

Arnold (Isaac N.) was born at Ilardwicke, Otsego co., 
N. Y., in Nov., 1815, was called to the bar in 1835, remov¬ 
ed to Chicago in 1836, was a member of Congress from Illi¬ 
nois (1861-65), sixth auditor of the U. S. treasury (1865- 
66), and published a “Life of Abraham Lincoln ” (1866). 

Arnold (John), an English watchmaker, born at Bod¬ 
min, in Cornwall, in 1744. He improved the chronometer 
by the invention of the expansion balance and detached 
escapement. Died Aug. 25, 1799. 

Arnold (Dr. Jonathan), born at Providence, R. I., Dec. 
14, 1741, as a member of the colonial assembly brought for¬ 
ward in 1776 a bill repealing the oath of allegiance to Great 
Britain; was a surgeon in the Revolution, a member of Con¬ 
gress (1782-84). Becoming a resident of St. Johnsbury, 
Vt., he was long a judge of the Orange county court. Died 
Feb. 2, 1798. 

Arnold (Lemuel Hastings), born at St. Johnsbury, Vt., 
Jan. 29, 1792, graduated at Dartmouth in 1811, became a 
lawyer and manufacturer in Rhode Island, was governor 
of that State, 1831-33, member of Congress, 1845-47. Died 
at Kingston, R. I., June 27, 1852. 

Arnold (Lewis G.), a general, born in New Jersey, 
graduated at West Point in 1837, served gallantly in Mex¬ 
ico, and in 1862 became a brigadier-general of U. S. vol¬ 
unteers. Stricken with paralysis in that year while on 
duty, he was placed on the retired list in 1864. Died Sept. 
22, 1871, aged fifty-four. 

Arnold (Matthew), LL.D., an English poet, a son of 
the celebrated Thomas Arnold of Rugby, was born at 
Laleham, in Middlesex, Dec. 24, 1822. He was educated 
at Rugby and Oxford, and was chosen a fellow of Oriel 
College in 1845. In 1847 he became private secretary to 
Lord Lansdowne. He married Frances Wightman in 
1851. Among his earliest works is a volume called “The 
Strayed Reveller, and other Poems” (1849). He was 
elected professor of poetry at Oxford in 1857, and pub¬ 
lished in 1865 a volume of “Essays in Criticism,” which 
are highly esteemed. “ The strain of his mind,” says an 
anonymous critic, “is calm and thoughtful; his style is the 
reverse of florid; deep culture and a certain severity of 
taste have subdued every tendency to gay or passionate 
exuberance.” He published a volume of “New Poems” 
in 1867, “St. Paul and Protestantism,” “Literature and 
Dogma” (1873), etc. 

Arnold of Urescia. See Arnaldo. 

Arnold (Peleg) was a delegate to Congress from Rhode 
Island 1787-88, and afterwards was lofig chief-justice of 
the supreme court of Rhode Island. Died at Smithfield, 
R. I., Feb. 13, 1820. 

Arnold (Gen. Richard) was born at Providence, R. I., 
April 12, 1828, and graduated at West Point in 1850. He 
entered the artillery, and in 1862 became a brigadier-gen¬ 
eral of U. S. volunteers, serving chiefly in the Gulf States. 
In 1866 he was brevetted major-general U. S. A. 

Arnold (Samuel), Mus. Dr., an English musician, born 
in London Aug. 10, 1740. He became composer to the Cov¬ 
ent Garden Theatre about 1762. His opera, “Maid of the 
Mill ” (1765), was very popular. He produced many other 
operas, among which are “Rosamond” (1767) and “Inkle 
and Yarieo” (1787). He was appointed organist to the 
king in 1783. His “Cathedral Music” in 4 vols. is still 
popular. Died Oct. 22, 1802. 

Arnold (Samuel Greene), born at Providence, R. I., 
April 12,1821, graduated at Brown University in 1841, and 
at Cambridge Law School in 1845. He was several times 
lieutenant-governor of Rhode Island, served for a time as 
a volunteer in the late civil war, and became U. S. Senator 
in 1863. He published a “History of Rhode Island” (7 
vols., 1859-60), and numerous addresses, reviews, and arti¬ 
cles for periodicals. 

Arnold (Thomas), D. D., an eminent English teacher 
and historian, born at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, June 13, 
1795. Ho entered the University of Oxford in 1811, grad¬ 
uated in 1814, and became a fellow of Oriel College in 1815. 
At college his habits were studious and his opinions lib¬ 
eral. Ho gained the chancellor’s prize for Latin and Eng- 










ARNOLD—ARRACK. 


lish essays in 1S15 and 1817. He removed to Laleham, 
near Staines, in 1819, and married Mary, a daughter of 
llev. John Penrose, in 1820. In 1828 he was ordained a 
priest, and became head-master of Rugby School, which he 
conducted with eminent wisdom and decided success. He 
cultivated among the students a sense of duty and a high 
moral and religious tone, and enforced by his example and 
personal qualities the influence of Christian principles. He 
was much interested in the political and religious move¬ 
ments of the time, was a Whig or Liberal in politics, and a 
strenuous opponent of the High Church and new school of 
theology represented by Pusey. He would not recognize 
in the clergy any peculiar sacredness or any trace of medi¬ 
atorial function. In 1832 he purchased Fox How, a small 
estate between Rydal and Ambleside, where he afterwards 
spent his vacations. He contributed to the “ Quarterly 
Review” and “ Edinburgh Review,” published a good edi¬ 
tion of Thucydides (1830-35), and five volumes of sermons 
(1828-42). His capital work is a “ History of Rome” (3 vols., 
1838-42), which he did not live to finish. It terminates near 
the end of the second Punic war. “ Intellectually,” says 
A. P. Stanley, “his chief excellence lay not so much in the 
philosophical and biographical department of history, as 
in analyzing laws, parties, and institutions.” He was ap¬ 
pointed regius professor of modern history at Oxford in 

1841, and delivered there an introductory course of lec¬ 
tures, which were published in 1842. He died June 12, 

1842, leaving two sons—Matthew, an eminent poet, and 
William D. “He will strike those who study him more 
closely,” says the “Quarterly Review” for Oct., 1844, “as 
a complete character — complete in its union of moral 
and intellectual gifts; . . . for his greatness did not consist 
in the pre-eminence of any single quality, but in several 
remarkable powers, thoroughly leavened and pervaded by 
an ever-increasing moral nobleness.” (See A. P. Stanley, 
“ Life and Correspondence of Dr. Arnold,” 2 vols., 1844; 
Zinzow, “ Thomas Arnold,” 1869.) 

Arnold (Thomas Kerchever), an English clergyman, 
born in 1800. He published a number of popular text¬ 
books for schools, among which are manuals for the Greek, 
Latin, French, and German languages. Died Mar. 9, 1853. 

Ar'nott (Neil), M. D., F. R. S., born in 1788, near 
Montrose, Scotland, was educated at Aberdeen and London, 
became a surgeon in the East India Company’s service, 
settled in London in 1811, as a physician, published “Ele¬ 
ments of Physics” (1827), “ Essay on Warming and Ven¬ 
tilating” (1832), a “Survey of Human Progress” (1861), 
etc. He is distinguished as an inventor and as a benefactor 
of institutions of learning. 

Arnott (William), D. D., born in Perthshire, Scotland, 
in 1808, was educated at the University of Glasgow, was 
ordained in 1839, and subsequently joined the Free Church 
movement, of which he became one of the ablest champions. 
In 1863 he removed to Edinburgh. He was a delegate to the 
meeting of the Evangelical Alliance in 1873 at New York. 

Arnotto. See Annotto. 

Arnould, or Arnoult (Sophie), a popular French 
actress, born in Paris Feb. 14,1744. She was very successful 
as an opera-singer, and was distinguished for her wit and 
conversational powers. Her society was sought by such 
men as D’Alembert and Diderot, and her beauty was praised 
by several eminent poets. Died in 1803. 

Arn'prior, a village of McNab township, Renfrew co., 
Ontario, on the Madawaska River, near the Ottawa, and 
on the Broekville and Ottawa R. R., 40 miles W. of Ottawa, 
with which it is also connected by steamboat lines. It has 
excellent water-power, two weekly newspapers, several mills, 
and there are marble-quarries in the vicinity. Pop. 1740. 

Arns'berg, or A'rensberg, a town of Prussia, in 
Westphalia, is situated on the river Ruhr,46 lpiles S. S. E. 
of Munster. It contains several churches and a gymnasium ; 
also manufactures of broadcloth, linen, etc. In the Middle 
Ages it was one of the seats of the Vehmic court. Pop. in 
1867, 4621. 

Arn'stadt, an old town of Germany, in Schwarzburg- 
Sondershausen, on the river Gera, 10 miles S. of Erfurt, 
with which it is connected by a railway. It is one of the 
most ancient Thuringian towns. Here are manufactures 
of gloves, pottery, etc. A copper-mine has been opened in 
the vicinity. Pop. in 1871, 8603. 

Arns'walde, written also A'renswalde, a town in 
the Prussian province of Brandenburg, 66 miles N. E. of 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder, has extensive chemical manufac¬ 
tures. It is on the railroad from Stettin to Posen. Pop. in 
1871, 6522. 

Ar'nulf [Lat. Arnnl'pTius], emperor of Germany, a son 
of Carloman of Bavaria. The latter was a grandson of 
Charlemagne. Arnulf was elected king of Germany in 
G87 A. D., invaded Italy about 894, and captured Rome in 


267 


896. He was crowned as emperor by the pope at Rome. 
He died in 899, and was succeeded by his son, Louis IV. 
(See Gagern, “ Arnulfi Imperatoris Vita,” 1837.) 

A'rolsen, a town of Germany, capital of Waldeck, on 
the Aar, 23 miles N. N. W. of Cassel. It has manufactures 
of woollen cloth. Here is a fine castle of the prince of 
Waldeck, with a library of 30,000 volumes. Pop. in 1867, 
2148. 

Aro'ma (gen. Aro'inatis), [Gr. £pw/xa], the principle 
in plants or other substances which constitutes their fra¬ 
grance ; the peculiar odor of aromatic plants, such as nut¬ 
meg, cloves, vanilla, and lavender. It is extremely subtle, 
and seems to be almost imponderable, as these substances 
diffuse their odors for a long time without sensible diminu¬ 
tion of weight. The aroma of plants is imparted to fixed 
oils by maceration. 

Aro'ma, a post-village and township of Kankakee co., 
Ill., on the Kankakee River, about 60 miles S. of Chicago. 
Pop. of township, 1100. 

Aromat'ics [Lat. aromat'ica, from aro'ma, a “spice”], 
spicy plants or drugs; substances which emit aroma or 
agreeable perfumes, and are generally characterized by a 
warm, pungent taste, as cloves, cinnamon, ginger. They 
often contain essential or volatile oils or resins. The term 
aromatic is also applied to several animal substances, as 
ambergris, musk, and castor. (See Aroma.) 

Aromat'ic Vin'egar is acompound or mixture of ordi¬ 
nary vinegar with aromatic essential oils, and is a powerful 
perfume. As it is very volatile, and is an excitant when 
snuffed in the nostrils, it is used as a remedy for fainting 
and nervous debility. It is often prepared by combining 
crystallizable acetic acid with the oils of cloves, lavender, 
rosemary, and Acorns calamus. 

Aroos'took, a river of the U. S., rises in Piscataquis 
co., Me., flows north-eastward through Aroostook county 
into New Brunswick, and enters the St. John’s River. 
Length, about 120 miles. 

Aroostook, a county which forms the N. extremity of 
Maine, bordering on New Brunswick. Area, about 6800 
square miles. It bounded on the N. by the river St. 
John’s (which traverses the western part of the county be¬ 
fore it reaches the northern boundary), and is also inter¬ 
sected by the Aroostook. The surface in some parts is 
hilly, and a large part of the county is covered with forests. 
The chief settlements are in the southern part, the soil of 
which is productive. Lumber, cattle, wool, butter, oats, 
buckwheat, hay, maple sugar, and potatoes are extensively 
produced. Capital, Houlton. Pop. 29,609. 

Arpad, the national hero of Hungary and the chief of 
the Magyars, who in 889 A. D. migrated from Galicia, and 
conquered the Slavonic people of Croatia and Transylvania. 
He is called the founder of the kingdom of Hungary. Died 
in 907 A. D. The dynasty of Arpad terminated in An¬ 
drew III., in 1301. 

Arpeggio [It. arpefjgia're, “to play on the harp”], in 
music, a chord of which the notes are given in succession; 
or the sounding the notes of a chord in quick succession, 
so as to imitate the harp. 

Arpent, a French land-measure nearly equivalent to 
an English acre. The French now measure land by the 
hectare instead of the arpent, which is obsolete. 

Arpi'no (anc. Arpi'num), a town of Italy, in the prov¬ 
ince of Caserta, is pleasantly situated on high ground, 5 
miles S. of Sora. It is surrounded by very beautiful 
scenery, has a royal college, several churches and convents; 
also manufactures of woollen cloth, paper, etc. Here is a 
cyclopean wall and other remains of Arpinum, which was 
founded by the Volsci, and became a Roman municipium 
about 188 B. C. It is celebrated as the native place of 
Caius Marius and of Cicero. Variegated and white mar¬ 
bles are quarried in the vicinity. Pop. in 1861, 6240. 

Ar'quebus, Arquebuse, or Harquebus, a hand¬ 
gun used by infantry before the invention of the musket. 
It was originally discharged by a match applied to the 
touchhole. The battle of Morat (1476) is said to have been 
nearly the first in which it was used. It was at first so 
heavy and clumsy that it had to be supported on a forked 
rest planted in the ground before the arquebusier. 

Arraca'cha, the native name of an umbelliferous South 
American plant {Arracacha esculenta). It grows in Colom¬ 
bia, Jamaica, and other tropical regions, and is cultivated 
for its roots, which are large and sweet, and arc eaten after 
being boiled or roasted. The taste is described as between 
that of a parsnip and a sweet chestnut. This plant was re¬ 
commended as a substitute for the potato, and attempts 
were made to cultivate it in England, but that climate was 
found to bo unfavorable. 

Arrack', or Hack, an alcoholic liquor distilled from 








268 


ARRAGON—ARRIAN 


fermented rice, is a common intoxicating drink in the East 
Indies and other Oriental countries. The term is also ap¬ 
plied to a strong drink which is obtained from the fer¬ 
mented sap of the palm tree, and is often called palm 
wine or toddy. Among the species of palms which yield 
this drink are the cocoanut-palm and the date-palm. Ar¬ 
rack is imported into England, and used to make punch. 
When new it has an oily and disagreeable taste, which is 
improved by age. 

Arragon. See Aragon. 

Ar'rah, a town of British India, in the presidency of 
Bengal, 25 miles W. of Dinapoor. The British here gained 
a victory over the mutinous Sepoys in 1857. Arrah was 
the scene of several exciting incidents of that mutiny. 
Pop. about 15,000. 

Ar'ran, an island of Scotland, in the Frith of Clyde, 
county of Bute, 13 miles W. of Ayrshire, and 4 miles E. 
of Cantire. It is about 20 miles long, 12 miles wide, and 
has an area of 165 square miles. The surface is moun¬ 
tainous, the granite peaks of the northern part being re¬ 
markably grand. Here is a cavern in which Robert Bruce 
once hid himself. The geology of Arran, it is said, pre¬ 
sents a greater succession of strata than any other equal 
portion of the British isles. The south-eastern half consists 
of Devonian sandstone, trap-rock, and carboniferous strata. 
The north-western half exhibits a central granite nucleus, 
bordered by mica-slate on one side, and by lower Silurian 
rocks on the other sides. Pop. about 6000. 

Arran, Earls op (1762); Viscounts Studley and Barons 
Saunders (1758, in Ireland), and baronets (1662), a noble 
family of Great Britain. —Philip Yorke Gore, the fourth 
earl, was born Nov. 23,'1801, and succeeded his uncle in 
1837. The dukes of Hamilton in Scotland also have the 
title of earls of Arran. 

Arran, South Isles of, three small islands at the en¬ 
trance to Galway Bay, about 4 miles from the W. coast of 
Ireland, and 27 miles W. of the city of Galw r ay. They are 
named Inishmore, Inismain, and Inishere (or Innishere). 
Area, 18 square miles. They once contained twenty churches 
and monasteries, and a church built in the seventh cen¬ 
tury is still standing in one of them. Here are also re¬ 
mains of cyclopean forts of unhewn stone, supposed to 
have been built in the first century, and described as among 
the most magnificent barbaric monuments of Europe. 

Arrangement, a musical term, denotes the adaptation 
of a piece of music to an instrument different from that for 
which it was originally composed, as when orchestral com¬ 
positions are adapted to the piano. The arrangements of 
Franz Liszt are said to be superior to nearly all others. 

Arras (anc. Nemetacum, afterwards Atreb'ates), a forti¬ 
fied city of France, capital of the department of Pas-de- 
Calais, on the river Scarpe and on the Railway du Nord, 
48 miles by rail N. E. of Amiens, and 120 miles by rail 
N. N. E. of Paris. It was formerly the capital of Artois, 
and was the seat of a bishop as early as 390 A. D. It was 
fortified by Vauban, and ranks as a fortified town of the 
third class. The citadel is separated from the town by an 
esplanade, but it is enclosed within the same wall. Arras 
is well built, partly on a declivity and partly on flat ground, 
and is adorned by fine public buildings, among which are 
a cathedral, a town-hall, and a theatre. It has a museum, 
a school of design, and a public library of about 36,000 
volumes. Here are manufactures of hosiery, lace, woollen 
and cotton goods, etc. In the Middle Ages it was so 
famous for its tapestry that this article was commonly 
called arras by the English. It was the birthplace of 
Robespierre. The grain-market of Arras is said to be the 
most important in the N. of France. Pop. in 1866, 25,749. 

Arras'tre, a mill used in Spain and the Spanish colo¬ 
nies for grinding gold and silver ores. It is a circular basin 
of granite or other hard rock, in the centre of which a ver¬ 
tical wooden shaft revolves, with four horizontal arms, to 
which large flat stones are attached by chains. The ore is 
broken into small fragments before it enters the arrastre. 
The revolution of the shaft is produced by two mules. (See 
Silver, by Prof. W. P. Blake.) 

Ar'rawak Jn'dians, a race or collection of tribes in 
Guiana, remarkable for the euphony of their language 
and their mild and friendly disposition towards the whites. 
They were formerly very numerous and powerful. They 
have been much benefited by the labors of Moravian mis¬ 
sionaries. 

Arreoy', or Areoi, the name of a licentious society in 
the Society Islands, composed of both sexes. They were 
bound to kill all their offspring immediately after birth. 
The arreoy was first noted by Captain Cook, and moro 
fully described by Ellis in his “ Polynesian Researches.” 

Arrest' [Old Fr.], the apprehension or seizure of a per¬ 
son by lawful authority, usually by the command or direc¬ 


tion of some court or officer of justice. It may take place 
either in civil or criminal cases. 

(1) In Civil Cases. —In this instance it may be either on 
mesne or final process. The object of the first is to make it 
certain that the defendant will answer the order of the 
court. He may either remain in custody or give bail, ac¬ 
cording to the rules of practice, as security for his appear¬ 
ance. On final process the arrest is in the nature of an 
execution. The defendant is to be kept in confinement, 
either in jail or within prescribed limits, until the judgment 
is satisfied, or until he is discharged by order of the court. 
In the early common law an arrest was allowed almost as 
a matter of course, imprisonment for debt being the regu¬ 
lar practice. This rule is now greatly modified, and by a 
statute in England and in a number of the American States 
an arrest can only be had in special cases and upon a 
judge’s order. The facts necessary to be shown as a basis 
for the order arc presented on affidavit. There are certain 
persons privileged from arrest by rules of general preva¬ 
lence, such as members of legislatures, or witnesses while at¬ 
tending the sessions of the legislature or courts, and while 
going to and returning from the same. The arrest in such 
cases is irregular, and the party arrested may be discharged 
on motion. This privilege is secured to members of Con¬ 
gress by the U. S. Constitution. An original arrest cannot 
be made on Sunday, nor is it lawful to break into a house 
for this purpose, owing to the legal rule that “a man’s 
house is his castle.” This rule does not apply where the 
defendant has been rescued, and the officer is proceed¬ 
ing regularly to retake him. The common law permits an 
arrest by night as well as by day. This rule is sometimes 
affected by statute. 

(2) In Criminal Cases. —The power to arrest in this class 
of cases is much less restricted. None are privileged (ex¬ 
cept ambassadors and their servants), outer doors may be 
broken open, Sunday is not regarded, and a warrant is not 
in all cases essential. Such an arrest is made either under 
a warrant, or by an officer without a warrant, or by a private 
person without a warrant. A warrant is granted by a mag¬ 
istrate on information in writing and supported by oath, 
and is executed by the person to whom it is addressed, usu¬ 
ally a sheriff or constable. An arrest may be made with¬ 
out a warrant by a peace officer, such as a sheriff or con¬ 
stable, when a felony or breach of the peace is committed 
in his presence, or where a felony has been committed, or he 
has reasonable ground to suspect that it has been, though 
not in his presence, and he has also reasonable ground to 
suspect the party arrested. The right of a private person 
to make an arrest without a warrant is much more restricted. 
He must be prepared to show that a felony has been actu¬ 
ally committed, as w r cll as reasonable grounds of suspicion 
that the party arrested was the wrong-doer. A private 
person is bound to arrest for a felony committed in his 
presence. In making an arrest necessary force may be 
used, and in case of felony even life may be taken where 
arrest is enjoined. An arrest can only properly be made 
within the jurisdiction of the court. When a person 
charged with crime escapes from one State to another, his 
return may be demanded under the laws of Congress. 
Should he escape to a foreign country, he may in certain 
cases be retaken under an extradition treaty with that 
country. (See Extradition.) 

The word “ arrest” is also used in law in connection with 
judgment. This means that judgment is not to be entered, 
although a verdict has been given, on account of some 
reason appearing upon the record, as where the allegations 
in the pleadings are not a sufficient basis for an action. 

T. W. Dwight. 

Arrest', d’ (Heinrich Ludwig), a German astronomer, 
born in Berlin in 1822. He discovered in 1851 the comet 
called by his name, and in 1862 the asteroid Freia. 

Ar'rian [Gr. ’Appiaco?; Lat. Arria'nus Fla'vius ], a dis¬ 
tinguished Greek historian, born at Nicomedia, in Bith- 
ynia, about 100 A. D., was a pupil and friend of Epictetus. 
He was a Stoic in philosophy, edited his master’s “Manual 
of Ethics” (“Enchiridion”), and wrote the “Lectures of 
Epictetus” in eight books, of which four are now extant. 
In 136 A. D. ho was appointed governor of Cappadocia by 
Hadrian. He is said to have served, in the army against 
the Goths and Alani. He chose Xenophon as his model in 
composition. His most important work is a “ History of 
the Expedition of Alexander the Great,” ’A^d/Wi? ’A \e£6.v- 
Spov (“The Ascent of Alexander”), which is the chief au¬ 
thority on that subject, and is highly esteemed for accu¬ 
racy, good judgment, and impartiality. Among his extant 
works are “Indica,” an account of India, a “Treatise on 
Hunting,” and a “Voyage Around the Euxine Sea.” (See 
Ma uermann, “ Arrianus Nicomediensis et Quintus Curtius 
Rufus,” 1835; Ellendt, “ De Arrianeorum Librorum Re- 
liquiis,” 1836.) 








































ARRIAZA—ARROW-ltOOT. 269 


Arria'za (Juan Bautista), a Spanish poet, sometimes 
called Arriaza y Superviela, was born at Madrid in 
1770. lie passed some years in London as secretary of 
legation, and published in 1803 “ Emilia,” a poem on the 
influence of the fine arts. Having returned to Spain in 
1807, he took an active part in politics, and wrote in sup¬ 
port of absolute monarchy. He obtained an important 
position in the department of foreign affairs. In 1810 he 
produced “ Poesias Patrioticas.” Died in 1837. 

Arri'ghi di Casanova (Jean Toussaint), duke of 
Padua, a Corsican general, was born at Corte in 1778. 
He entered the French army in early youth, and served 
with distinction at Marengo, Austcrlitz, and Friedland, 
and was raised to the rank of general of division on the 
field of Essling in 1809. He lived in exile from 1815 to 
1820 ; was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1849. 
Died in 1853. 

Ar'rington, a township of Wayne co., Ill. Pop. 1640. 

Arrington (Alfred W.), born in Iredell co., N. C., in 
Sept., 1810. His father, Archibald, was a member of Con¬ 
gress 1841-45. The younger Arrington was a Methodist 
preacher (1829-34), winning much distinction for eloquence. 
In 1834 he became a lawyer, practising in Missouri, Ar¬ 
kansas, and Texas. He was a district judge in Texas (1850- 
56), and in 1857 removed to Chicago, where his career as a 
lawyer was very brilliant. He was the author of a cele¬ 
brated “Apostrophe to Water,” often quoted. Died Dec. 
31, 1867. 

Ar'ris [from the Lat. avis'ta, the “beard of an ear of 
grain,” the “prickle of a fish”], in architecture, the edge 
or angle formed by two surfaces meeting each other, or the 
line of meeting of two planes in a sharp edge; a term 
sometimes applied to the edges which separate the Hidings 
of a Doric column. 

Arro'ba, a Spanish weight and measure, used also in 
Brazil and the Spanish colonies. There are ten kinds of 
arvoba for weight, ranging between 21 T 8 ^ pounds avoirdu¬ 
pois and 32^^ pounds avoirdupois. Only two of the num¬ 
ber are as great as 28 pounds. There are eleven kinds of 
arvoba for liquid measure, ranging from 2yL 2 ^ gallons to 
^tVo Salons. The arroba for Spain generally is (or was, 
as it is abolished) 4 T 2 ^ gallons. 

Arroiulissement, a French term, signifies a district 
or circuit, and is the name of the principal civil divisions 
of the departments of France. Each department is divided 
into arrondissements, each arrondissement into cantons, 
and each canton into communes. 

Ar roo', Aroo, or Arru Islands, a group of islands 
in Australasia, situated between lat. 5° 20' and 6° 55' S.^and 
between Ion. 134° 10' and 134° 45' E. The largest island is 
70 miles long and 20 miles wide. Some of the natives have 
adopted Christianity. Here is a town called Dobbo, into 
which British goods are imported annually to the amount 
of about £30,000. The exports are pearls, trepaug, and 
birds of paradise. 

Ar'row, a long, pointed, and barbed missile formerly 
much used in war and the chase, and discharged from 
a bow, cross-bow, or ballista, and even now used by some 
savage nations. Among the varieties of the arrow were 
the “cloth-yard arrow” once used by the English archers, 
and about one yard in length, and the “ quarrel,” a heavy 
arrow discharged from the cross-bow. Some South Ameri¬ 
can Indians discharge light poisoned arrows from a blow¬ 
pipe. Poisoned arrows are used by many barbarous peoples. 

Arrowhead ( Sagitta'ria ), a genus of aquatic plants 
of the order Alismacem, natives of both cold and tropical 
climates. They have unisexual flowers, with many stamens 
and many carpels, which are compressed and one-seeded. 
The Sagittaria sagittifolia, a native of Europe, is a beau¬ 
tiful plant with arrow-shaped leaves, which rise above the 
surface of the water. The Sayittaria variabilis of the 
U. S. is very similar to it. The Sayittaria Sinensis (Chi¬ 
nese arrowhead) is cultivated in China in ponds and ditches 
for the sake of its nutritious conns, which abound in starch. 

Arrow - Headed Characters. See Cuneiform 
Inscriptions, by Rev. William II. Ward. 

Ar'row Rock, a post-village and township of Saline 
co., Mo., on the right bank of the Missouri River, 15 miles 
above Boonville. Pop. of township, 3174. 

Ar'row-Root, the starch or fecula from the root of the 
Maranta arundinacea and other species of Maranta. It is 
much esteemed as an easily digestible diet for infants and 
invalids. Large quantities of it are imported into the U. S. 
and Europe from Bermuda and Jamaica, where it is culti¬ 
vated. It is also raised in Georgia and Florida. The 
roots, or rather rhizomes, yield about 25 per cent, of this 
starch, which is in the form of a light, opaque, white pow¬ 
der. It is often adulterated with potato-starch and other 


substances. The name arrow-root is said to refer to the 
use of the fresh roots as an application to wounds inflicted 
by poisoned arrows; and the expressed juice has been 
recommended as an antidote to poisons, and a cure for the 
stings and bites of venomous insects and reptiles. Some 
think that the name is really another form of ara, which 
is said to be the Indian appellation of the plant; but it is 
not improbable that the scales on the root, resembling the 



point of an arrow, may have suggested the name. In pre¬ 
paring “arrow-root,” the rhizomes of the plant, when a 
year old, are washed, carefully peeled, and beaten in a 
wooden mortar or by a mill or wheel-rasp to a milky pulp. 
The pulp is then diluted with water, passed through a 
sieve of coarse cloth or hair to separate the fibres, and the 
starch is allowed to settle. Albumen and salts are held in 
solution, while the starch settles down as an insoluble 
powder, which is finally dried in the sun. According to 
Benzon, the fresh rhizomes contain— 


Starch. 26.00 

Cellular fibres. 6.00 

Albumen . 1.58 

Gummy substances. 0.60 

Volatile oil. 0.07 

Chloride of calcium. 0.25 

Water. 65.50 


100.00 

The prepared arrow-root is almost pure starch. It has 
a peculiar firm feel between the fingers, and when rubbed 
produces a peculiar crackling sound, like that of dry snow 
in very cold weather. Like starch from other sources, it is 
insoluble in cold water, but forms on boiling a gelatinous 
solution. 

The purity of arrow-root is best determined by micro¬ 
scopic examination, as, while the starch granules of different 
plants (see Starch) are almost identical in chemical com¬ 
position and properties, they are often very peculiar in 
size, form, and structure. The granules of the genuine 
Maranta arrow-root are of a regular ovoid form, of nearly 
equal size, and smooth on their surface; while the granules 
of potato starch, one of the most common adulterants, are 
irregularly ovoid, very variable in size, from to 

of an inch in diameter, and streaked and furrowed on their 
surface. The fecula of many other plants is used either 
as a substitute or an adulterant for the true arrow-root. 
Zamia integrifolia yields an arrow-root in the West Indies 
and the neighborhood of St. Augustine, Fla. Arum vulyare 
(wake-robin) yields Portland arrow-root in the isle of Port¬ 
land. Curcuma angustifolia yields East Indian arrow-root. 
Jatropha Manihot, the cassava or tapioca plant, yields Bra¬ 
zilian arrow-root. Tacca oceanica yields Tahiti arrow- 
roots. Alstrcemeria pallida yields Talcahuana arrow-root. 
The potato yields, by careful preparation, the English 
arrow-root. Starch similar to arrow-root is also prepared 
in the West Indies from the roots of Dioscorea saliva or 
yam, of Colocasia esculenta, and from the fruit of Arto- 
carpus incisa or bread-fruit tree. 

For use, arrow-root should be rubbed to a paste with a 
little cold water, and while this is stirred a considerable 
quantity of boiling water should be added. It may bo 
sweetened with sugar and flavored with lemon-juice or 








































270 


ARKOWSIC—ARSENALS. 


with wines and spices. For infants it may be prepared 
with milk. A table-spoonful is sufficient for a pint of 
water or milk. C. F. Chandler. 

Ar'rowsic, a township of Sagadahoc co., Me. It has 
an important lumber trade. Pop. 252. 

Ar'rowsmith, a township of McLean co., Ill. Pop. 927. 

Arrowsmith (Aaron), an English geographer, born 
at Winston, Durham, in 1750, became distinguished as a 
publisher of excellent maps, over 100 in number. Died in 
1823.—His son Aaron (now deceased), and his grandson 
John, also became distinguished for the excellence of their 
maps. 

Arroy'o Gran'de, a post-township of San Luis Obispo 
co., Cal. Pop. 776. 

Arsa'ces I. [Or. ’Apo-a/oj?], the founder of the Arsaci- 
dm and of the kingdom of Parthia, lived about 250 B. C. 
His origin and history are involved in much obscurity, as 
the statements of ancient historians are confused and con¬ 
tradictory. He is said to have been the chief of a nomadic 
tribe of Scythians or Bactrians. All his successors assumed 
the name of Arsaces. 

Arsaces III., king of Armenia, was a son of Tiridates 
III., whom he succeeded about 340 A. D. He waged war 
against Sapor, king of Persia, and formed an alliance with 
Julian the Apostate about 360. The defeat and death of 
Julian are ascribed to the treachery of Arsaces, who de¬ 
serted him in the campaign of 363 A. D. 

Arsaces VI., or Mithridates I., king of Parthia, 
enlarged his dominions by the conquest of Bactria, and 
extended his conquests to the Indus. In 138 B. C. he 
defeated Demetrius Nicator of Syria. After a reign of 
twenty-five years or more, he died about 135 B. C. 

Arsac'idse, the name of a dynasty of Parthian kings 
which was founded by Arsaces in 250 B. C., and continued 
to reign until 226 A. D. The last king of this dynasty 
was Artabanus IV. (Arsaces XXIX.). 

Arsamas, or Arzamas, a town of Russia, in Nizhni- 
Novgorod, is on the river Tiosha, 249 miles E. of Moscow. 
Pop. in 1867, 10,517. 

Ar'senals, public establishments designed for the 
manufacture and storage of arms and military equipments. 
The name is derived from the Latin Arx, applied to the 
citadel or central tower of a fortified place, as the part best 
capable of defence. This became the storehouse for spare 
arms and warlike material, and hence like depositories 
were called Arsenals. 

Weapons of war used more than 1700 years before the 
Christian era are known to us from sculptures upon old 
monuments and from arms found in catacombs and tombs 
of that period. The earliest Egyptian sculptures show 
foot-soldiers armed with swords, javelins, clubs, slings, 
and the bow and arrow; and kings, or high officers, on 
horseback or in chariots, with like offensive weapons, and 
protected by helmets, shields, or shirts-of-mail. As the 
Egyptians are the first nation known to have had a mili¬ 
tary system, we may consider their weapons to have been 
the earliest weapons of war. Succeeding nations changed 
very slowly; all of those prominent during the period 
known as the 11 warfare of antiquity ” used nearly the same 
kind and shape of weapons. Thebes, Carthage, Babylon, 
Athens, Tyre, and Rome were then the great cities of the 
world whence the warrior-kings started their military ex¬ 
peditions, and must have all been in turn active workshops 
for the manufacture of weapons. 

The warfare of the Middle Ages is usually said to date 
from the time of the emperor Augustus of Rome, and to 
extend to the introduction of the use of gunpowder in war. 
Although this epoch witnessed great improvements in the 
organization and discipline of the better class of troops, 
and in the character of some of the warlike implements used 
by them—especially in the mechanical excellence and skill 
shown in their construction—the general form and kind of 
the chief personal weapons appear to have remained much 
the same as during the period of ancient warfare. Wea¬ 
pons and armor of the Middle Ages have been preserved 
to our day in numerous Arsenals and Museums, and speci¬ 
mens of the workmanship of many centuries can be found, 
requiring almost the same words to describe and name them 
as those we use for the Egyptian arms nearly 3000 years 
older. 

The chief changes in offensive weapons were in the 
greater length of the horseman’s spear and sword, and in 
the stronger bows (made of steel and hard Avood), giving 
greater propulsive force to the missiles used with the cross, 
and long, bows. The usual range of this last, we are told, 
became (in the hands of the Scythians and English) from 
3000 to 4000 yards, and experts could shoot three arrows 
per minute. 

In the fifteenth century defensive armor for man and 


horse had reached the highest point of excellence and em¬ 
bellishment. The trade of the armorer was in great repute, 
and personal contests for prowess and display were the 
chief occupation of the Nobles. Foreign wars were mere 
invasions by hosts hurriedly marched into unprepared 
countries, where, like an army of locusts, they devoured 
and destroyed all they met. Surrounding Availed cities not 
anticipating attack, the besiegers could by mere numbers 
shut off assistance, starve the inhabitants into submission, 
and by the use of catapults, ballistas, and battering-rams, 
destroy the Avails, or by towers, overleap them. Cities thus 
attacked Avere often found so helpless against their fate 
that the besiegers at Rhodes Avere enabled to construct and 
move against its walls, Avithout successful opposition, tow¬ 
ers 240 feet high by 47 feet Avide, and having twenty sto¬ 
ries for troops; and, by the use of towers, the Crusaders 
captured Jerusalem after only two months’ siege. 

The cities of Europe now most famous for possessing 
valuable military relics of the Middle Ages are Dresden, 
Vienna, Delft, Berlin, Paris, Madrid, and London; pos¬ 
sibly, interesting and A r aluable collections may still exist, 
unvisited by travellers, in some of the once famous cities 
of Persia, India, China, and Japan, Avhich more intimate 
intercourse may soon make known to us. 

Although gunpowder Avas used in cannon about the four¬ 
teenth century, it Avas not until near the middle of the six¬ 
teenth century, that the first arm light enough to be carried 
and handled by a single soldier was introduced upon the 
battle-field. This became the signal not only for a general 
change in arms and Avarfare, but in the whole constitution 
of civil society. Spears, javelins, and bows and arroAvs 
were useless to oppose the musketeer; helmets, breast¬ 
plates, and coats-of-mail could not resist the bullet. 
Hence, personal armor became a useless encumbrance, as 
the drilled peasant, with his arquebuse, Avas found to be 
superior to the mail-clad warrior and his host of spearmen. 
The supremacy of the Knights could no longer exist, and 
the defence of states soon passed from their hands to those 
of the peasant. War now became a science wherein skill 
and discipline and preparation conquered; not mere num¬ 
bers, artifice, and brute force. Standing armies and Avell- 
supplied arsenals became a necessity for every nation 
aiming at conquest or independence, for none but the 
experienced could wage war. 

It Avas near the close of the seventeenth century before 
all the nations of Europe were supplied with firearms 
which could be handled Avith facility and aimed from the 
shoulder. At this period the Dutch, Spanish, French, and 
English Avere the most efficient in war; soon Prussia be¬ 
came distinguished in discipline and organization, and 
France surpassed others in systematizing its military man¬ 
ufactures and improving its Aveapons. Each nation sought 
by drill in the field and skill in the Avorkshop to devise and 
adopt a special system of military organization and of war- 
material. The French, Prussians, Spaniards, and English 
established arsenals, armories, foundries, and powder- 
works, many of which have been diligently improved and 
extended to our day. 

At the time of the Revolutionary war, the U. S. had few 
arms and no Armories or Arsenals. The arms used at first 
were gathered from citizens; soon after, supplies Avere ob¬ 
tained by purchase in France. The earliest manufacture 
of war-material mentioned is that of poAvder in Virginia in 
1776. Springfield (Mass.) Avas selected by Gen. Washing¬ 
ton as a site for a foundry and laboratory in 1777, and sup¬ 
plies Avere sent from there to Gen. Schuyler’s army in West¬ 
ern New York in July of that year. Brass cannon (chiefly 
howitzers) were cast in Philadelphia in 1777 (some of which 
are now at Watervliet Arsenal), and an arsenal was estab¬ 
lished about this year in Carlisle, Pa. Small-arms were 
manufactured at Springfield Armory prior to 1787. An 
armory was commenced at Harper’s Ferry (Va.) in 1795, 
and “three or four additional arsenals and magazines” 
authorized by Congress at the same time, and others in 
1808. 

During the Avar of 1812 small-arms were procured from 
Springfield and Harper’s Ferry, and other ordnance stores, 
by purchase in the country, or manufacture at the Arsenals. 
After that war, Avith the policy apparently of having U. S. 
Arsenals in each State, several more were authorized, so 
that in 1847 there Avere tAvo armories and seventeen arse¬ 
nals in operation. Of the arsenals, five were “Arsenals of 
construction,” and the others “Arsenals for repairs and 
deposit.” 

In 1838 Congress authorized a new organization of the 
Ordnance Corps, and in 1842 placed the Armories (previ¬ 
ously under civil superintendence) under the charge of its 
Officers. The advantages of the change Avere soon apparent 
in the publication of a regular “System of Construction— 
with Drawings,” and the “Ordnance Manual,” descriptive 
of the material and dimensions for every article of Avar-ma- 

















ARSENIC. 


terial, and the adoption of patterns which proved efficient 
and satisfactory during our next war. The siege and field 
guns, carriages and mortars, friction-primers for cannon, 
and harness of U. S. models, used in Mexico for the first 
time in tear, differed in important details from other sys¬ 
tems. The mortar-firing and siege-equipage were espe¬ 
cially satisfactory. The advantage of the U. S. system of 
small-arms (made chiefly by machinery, and of interchange¬ 
able parts) was very great. They were promptly repaired 
in the field, using spare parts ready fitted. The arms, as 
well as other articles of equipment in the hands of the 
troops, were kept in serviceable order by Ordnance Sol¬ 
diers, who, serving siege-guns in action, also opened shops 
after each day’s halt, and established an active arsenal at the 
citadel of Mexico during the occupation of the city, where 
many supplies were manufactured as well as repaired. 

In 1860 there were twenty-three Arsenals and Armories, 
and during the civil war nine of the Northern and Western 
Arsenals were enlarged and employed as “Arsenals of 
construction,” and the working capacity of the Springfield 
Armory was extended to complete 1000 muskets per day. 
In addition, a large number of private workshops—for the 
manufacture of guns and carriages and stores of all kinds 
—were kept employed, and twenty-five private armories, 
under charge of the Inspector of Contract Arms, made 
muskets, carbines, pistols, and swords, according to gauges 
verified at the National Armory, so that like parts were 
interchangeable with armory work. A daily product of 


Ar'senic (symbol As, equivalent, 75), [Lat. arsen'icum, 
from the Gr. apm jv, “masculine,” “strong,” so named on 
account of its power as a poison], the common name of 
arsenious acid or white oxide of arsenic, a virulent poison. 
(See Arsenious Acid.) The name arsenic is limited in 
scientific language to the metal. Arsenic is found native 
to a limited extent, but occurs usually in combination with 
metals or with sulphur, or both. Mispickel or arsenical 
pyrites (FeAsS) is the most abundant arsenical mineral; 
other minerals containing arsenic are domeykite, Cii6As 2 ; 
algodonite, Cui 2 As 2 ; whitneyite, Cui 8 As 2 ; niccolite, NiAs; 
kaneite, MnAs; smaltite, (Co,Fe,Ni)As 2 ; skutterudite, 
CoAs 3 ; cobaltite, Co(S,As) 2 ; gersdorffite, Ni(S,As) 2 ; ull- 
mannite, Ni(S,As,Sb) 2 ; leucopyrite, FeAs 2 _; rammelsber- 
gite, NiAs 2 ; loelingite; glaucodot, (Co,Fe)(S,As) 2 ; pacite, 
FeS 2 ,4FeAs 2 ; alloclasite; sartorite, PbS,As 2 S 3 ; binnite, 
3Cu 2 S,2As 2 S 3 ; dufreynoisite, 2PbS,As 2 S 3 ; proustite, 3Ag 2 S, 
As 2 S 3 ; tetrahedrite or fahlerz; tennantite; geocronite ; 
polybasite; cnargite, 3Cu 2 S,As 2 S 5 ; realgar, AsS; orpiment, 
As 2 S 3 ; dimorphite, As 4 S 3 ; arsenolite, As 2 0 3 ; mimetite, 
3Pb 3 (As0 4 ) 2 ,PbCl 2 ; berzelite; carminite; pharmacolite, 
Ca 2 H 2 (As0 4 ) 2 .5H 2 0; hoernesite, Mg 3 (As0 4 ) 2 .8H 2 0j roes- 
slerite, Mg 2 H 2 (As0 4 ) 2 .12H 2 0; symplesite, Fe 3 (As0 4 ) 2 . 


271 


1000 muskets was obtained from those making these arms, 
in addition to the arms made at Springfield. 

The Ordnance Department has devoted much attention 
to the manufacture of cast-iron cannon and powder for use 
in large guns, improving greatly the endurance and cer¬ 
tainty of cast iron in cannon. The results obtained both 
in smooth-bore and rifled guns have been so favorable that 
other nations have either adopted or are experimenting 
with like methods. Great credit is due to the late Gen. 
Rodman for the many successes achieved in guns and car¬ 
riages by him, and his name is now inseparably connected 
both with the mode of casting cannon cooled f rom icithin, 
and with the use of mammoth-grain poioder for large can¬ 
non, first suggested and made by him. 

It has been proposed to reduce the number of Arsenals, 
and concentrate all ordinary operations at three or four, so 
that all (or nearly all) ordnance manufactures could be 
conducted at each. Rock Island Arsenal, on the Missis¬ 
sippi, is in course of building on this plan, and is to include 
an armory, arsenal, powder-works, and foundry. A similar 
establishment is proposed for California, and one east of the 
Alleghenies, either in connection with, or in addition to, 
the Springfield Armory. It is also under consultation to 
have some supplies heretofore purchased by the Quarter¬ 
master’s Department manufactured at the Arsenals,—such 
as wagons, harness, canteens, and infantry valises. 

The following table gives a list of all U. S. Arsenals, with 
date of establishment and jiresent condition: 


NH 2 0; erythrite, C0 3 (As0 4 ) 2 .8H 2 0; annabergite, Ni 3 
(As0 4 ) 2 .8H 2 0; cabrerite; kottigite; chondrasenite; tri- 
chalcite ; olevenite; adamite; conichalcite; bayldonite; 
euchroite; irroconite ; erinite; cornwallite; tyrolite; clino- 
clasite; chalcophyllite; scorodite; pharmacosiderite; chene- 
vixite; arsenosiderite; pitticite ; bendantite; lindadserite. 
The most important arsenical minerals are those in which 
arsenic is combined with iron, cobalt, and nickel. Arsenic 
also occurs in small quantities in many other minerals, spe¬ 
cially in antimony ores, iron pyrites, etc., hematite iron ores, 
the soil, mineral waters, etc. Arsenic is in fact one of the 
most widely diffused elements in nature. 

Owing to its occurrence in antimony ores and iron pyrites, 
it is liable to find its way into the various preparations of 
antimony, into sulphuric acid, and the various chemical 
products of which this acid is the basis, as sodic sulphate 
and carbonate, hydrochloric acid, superphosphates, etc. In 
the chemical examination of the bodies of persons supposed 
to have been poisoned the greatest care is necessary to pro¬ 
cure reagents entirely free from arsenic.. 

Metallic arsenic is prepared by sublimation: (1) from 
arsenical pyrites; (2) from a mixture of arsenious acid and 
charcoal. 


Name of Arsenal. 

Springfield Arsenal. 

“ Armory. 

Carlisle Arsenal. 

Harper’s Ferry Armory. 

Schuylkill Arsenal. 

Rome 

ii 

Pikesville 

u 

Washington 

a 

Watertown 

it 

Watervliet 

a 

Bellona 

u 

Champlain 

u 

Allegheny 

a 

Frankford 

it 

St. Louis 

u 

Augusta 

a 

Kennebec 

a 

Baton Rouge 

u 

Mount Vernon . 

Apalachicola 

a 

Detroit 

Li 

Fort Monroe 

ii 

Fayetteville 

a 

Little Rock 

u 

San Antonio 

ii 

Charleston 

ll 

Leavenworth 

a 

New York 

a 

Liberty 

a 

Columbus 

u 

Indianapolis 

ct 

Fort Union 

a 

Vancouver 

• 

“ -! 

Rock Island 

it 

Benicia 

it 


Post-office. 


Springfield, Mass. 

i< <( ^ 

Carlisle, Pa. 

Harper’s Ferry, Ya. 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

Rome, N. Y. 

Pikesville, Md. 

Washington, D. C. 

Watertown, Mass. 

West Troy, N. Y. 

Richmond, Va. 

Yergennes, Vt. 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Bridesburg, Pa. 

St. Louis, Mo. 

Augusta, Ga. 

Augusta, Me. 

Baton Rouge, La. 

Mount Vernon, Ala. 

Chattahoochee, Fla. 

Dearbornville, Mich. 

Old Point Comfort, Va. 

Fayetteville, N. C. 

Little Rock, Ark. 

San Antonio, Tex..... 

Charleston, S. C. 

Fort Leavenworth, Kan.... 
Governor’s Island, N.Y. H. 

Liberty, Mo. 

Columbus, O. 

Indianapolis, Ind. 

Fort Union, N. M. 

Fort Vancouver, Wash¬ 
ington Ter. 

Rock Island, Ill. 

Benicia, Cal. 


Date of 
building or 
authorized. 

Kind and extent of work. 

Present condition. 

1777 

Making ammunition, etc . 

) 

1785 

(about) 

| Small-arms. 

>- Armory in operation. 

1777 

Ordnance stores. 

Broken up. 

1794 

Making small-arms. 

it 

1800 

Laboratory . j 

Transferred to quarter¬ 
master’s department. 

1814 

Depository. 

Sold. 

1808 

it 

Occupied. 

1808 

Arsenal of construction. 

In operation. 

1808 

i i tt it 

tt it 

1813 

It li it 

it it 

1815 

Foundry and Arsenal. 

Broken up. 

1827 

Depository . 

it 

1814 

( 

Arsenal of construction . 

Arsenal of construction and labora- 

In operation. 

1816 4 

tory for metallic cartridges, caps, 


l 

and primers for cannon . 

li ii 

1827 

Arsenal of construction. 

Broken up. 

1826 

Depository and arsenal for repairs... 

it 

1827 

it u it 

In operation. 

1819 

a a a 

Broken up. 

1830 

Depository . 

it 

1832 

(( 

a 

1832 

a 

Occupied. 

1826 

Arsenal of construction. 

In operation. 

1836 

Depository . 

Broken up. 

1837 

li 

it 

1857 

Depository and arsenal for repairs... 

In operation. 

1836 

Depository. 

Broken up. 

1858 

Depository and arsenal for repairs... 

In operation. 

1835 

Depository. 

Occupied. 

1837 

it 

Broken up. 

1863 

a 

Occupied. 

1863 

a 

ii 

1854 

Depository and arsenal for repairs... 

In operation. 

1859 

it it it 

Occupied. 

1862 J 

Arsenal of construction and armory, 


foundry, and powder-works. 

Building. 

1852 

Arsenal of construction. 

In operation. 


P. V. Hagner, U. S. A. 






























































































































272 


ARSENIC OXIDE—ARSENIOUS OXIDE. 


Arsenic is a brittle metal, of a steel-gray color. On the 
fresh fracture it exhibits a bright metallic lustre, which 
soon tarnishes. Its specific gravity varies from 5.62 to 
5.96. Its atomic weight is 75. Its vapor density is 10.3995 
(air = l) or 150 (hydrogen = 1); this is double the atomic 
weight. Hence, the atomic volume is anomalous, being only 
half that of hydrogen. (See Atomic Volume.) It crystallizes 
in rhombohedra. It volatilizes at a dull red heat without 
previous fusion, with a peculiar odor, described as resem¬ 
bling that of garlic. When heated in the open air it burns 
with a bluish flame. 

Arsenic belongs to the group of elements which includes 
nitrogen, antimony, and phosphorus. It forms two princi¬ 
pal series of compounds: ( 1 ) those in which it is triatomic, 
as As'"H 3 , As"'Cl 3 , As'"203, As'^Ss; (2) those in which 
it is pentatomic, as As^Os.AsaSs. 

(For the detection of arsenic sec Arsenious Acid.) With 
oxygen, arsenic forms two important compounds—arseni¬ 
ous oxide, AS 2 O 3 , and arsenic oxide, AS 2 O 5 , which give rise 
to arsenious acid, HASO 2 , and arsenic acid, H 3 AsOjl. With 
sulphur, arsenic forms three important compounds—realgar, 
AsS, orpiment, As 2 S 3 > and AS 2 S 5 . Besides these there is a 
subsulphide, Asi 2 S (?), and a persulphide, AsSg. Arsenic 
combines with metals in the same manner as sulphur and 
phosphorus, which it resembles, especially the latter, in 
many respects; so much so that it is hardly proper to con¬ 
sider it a metal. Its compound with hydrogen, arsine, AsII 3 , 
is analogous to ammonia, NH 3 , and like ammonia is the 
type of a class of bases, arsines, which correspond to the 
Amines (which see). 

Metallic arsenic is rarely used in the arts. Lead con¬ 
taining a small proportion of arsenic is used for the man¬ 
ufacture of shot, and iron containing a little arsenic is very 
fluid when melted, and better adapted for fine castings for 
which strength is not essential. C. F. Chandler. 

Ar'senic Ox'ide (sjmibol AS 2 O 5 ), a compound of oxy¬ 
gen and the metal arsenic; in its hydrated state it constitutes 
arsenic acid. It is found in nature in combination with 
iron, cobalt, lead, etc., in the minerals symplesite, erythrite, 
mimetite, etc., mentioned under Arsenic. It is prepared 
by heating arsenious oxide with nitric acid. It is deliques¬ 
cent and very poisonous. It is extensively used in calico- 
printing, in place of tartaric acid, for developing white pat¬ 
terns on colored grounds in the chloride-of-lime vat. It is 
also extensively used in the manufacture of aniline red. 
Combined with metals, it forms an important class of salts, 
called arseniates, which ai*e analogous to the phosphates. 

Arsenious Oxide (or Anhydride), AS 2 O 3 , in the 
hydrated state Arsenious Acid. 

Occurrence. —It is found native, as the mineral arsenolite, 
in silky, crystalline crusts on ores of silver, lead, nickel, 
antimony, etc., in the Hartz Mountains and other localities. 

Preparation. —At Reichenstein, in Silesia, arsenious ox¬ 
ide is prepared by roasting arsenical pyrites (mispickel), 
FeAsS, in a muffle furnace. The vapors pass into a con¬ 
densing chamber, and are deposited as a powder. This is 
then twice purified by resublimation from iron pots, being 
condensed first in powder in a chamber, finally in vitreous 
masses in the upper part of the subliming vessels. At Ribas, 
in Catalonia, mispickel is roasted in reverberatory furnaces 
without muffles, the crude product being subsequently puri¬ 
fied, as at Reichenstein. At Andreasberg, in the Ilartz, 
native arsenic is roasted for the silver it contains, the arseni¬ 
ous oxide being obtained as an incidental product. Much ar¬ 
senious oxide is produced in the roasting of tin and cobalt 
ores at Altenberg, in Saxony, and of tin ores in Cornwall. 

Properties. —Arsenious oxide appears crystallized in one 
of two different forms, or amorphous: ( 1 ) in octahedral crys¬ 
tals, as usually sublimed and condensed on cold surfaces, 
or as crystallized from its solution in water or hydrochloric 
acid; ( 2 ) in right rhombic crystals, obtained occasionally 
by sublimation or solution in potash ; (3) amorphous, vitre¬ 
ous, or glassy, produced when arsenious oxide is sublimed 
and condensed on a hot surface, so that before solidifying 
it passes through a semi-fluid state. It is transparent 
when first prepared, but gradually becomes opaque and 
crystalline. 

Arsenious oxide usually appears as a very heavy, white, 
gritty, crystalline powder. It has no decided taste. At ! 
218° G. it volatilizes to a heavy, colorless, odorless vapor, 
of a specific gravity of 13.85, which condenses to octahe¬ 
dral crystals on cool surfaces. When heated with charcoal, j 
it is reduced to metallic arsenic, with a peculiar odor like I 
that of garlic. In its common octahedral form it is solu- ! 
bio in about 30 parts of cold or 10 parts of boiling water, j 
When thrown into water, a portion floats like wheat flour, | 
while the portion which sinks rolls itself into little round j 
pellets, dry within. It is nearly insoluble in alcohol, abso¬ 
lutely insoluble in ether. It is soluble in hot dilute acids 
to a greater extent than in water, but it mostly separates 


on cooling, possessing but little basic power. It dissolves 
readily in alkalies, forming arsenites. It acts as a reducing 
agent on nitric, manganic, chromic, and hypochloric acids, 
being changed by them to arsenic acid. It reduces gold 
from its terchloride. To potassium, carbon, sulphur, phos¬ 
phorus, and zinc it gives oxygen, with the liberation of 
metallic arsenic. Distilled with acetates, it yields caco¬ 
dyl, As(CII 3 ) 2 , a compound of a peculiar intolerable odor. 

Effect of Arsenious Oxide on the Animal Economy. —Ar¬ 
senious oxide when taken into the stomach is soon ab¬ 
sorbed into the blood, and circulates with that fluid, ex¬ 
hibiting power over certain diseases, especially intermittent 
fever and skin diseases, as psoriasis, lepra, eczema, etc. It 
is also classed among the tonics, and is given for nervous 
disorders, especially those which are periodic. Among 
the remedies for chorea (St. Vitus’s dance) it holds a prom¬ 
inent place. The usual method of administering arsenic is 
in small doses (from three to five drops) of the liquor ar- 
senicalis, largely diluted with water, twice or thrice in the 
day. It is frequently administered in small granules, which 
should not contain more than one-tentli of a grain each. 
Numerous other arsenical preparations are in use in medi¬ 
cine. Externally, arsenious oxide is a powerful caustic, 
and is considerably used in destroying cancers and malig¬ 
nant growths. Arsenic is sometimes given combined with 
iodine and mercury (Donovan’s solution). Caution is ne¬ 
cessary in its use. 

The quantity necessary to destroy life Aaries consider¬ 
ably. Under circumstances favorable for its operation the 
fatal dose for an adult is from two to three grains. Death 
from a poisonous dose of arsenic may occur in a few hours, 
or after the lapse of many days. Arsenic has been used as 
a slow poison, the symptoms being attributed to inflamma¬ 
tion of the bowels from natural causes. In most cases its 
detection is easy. Arsenic is used by anatomists as an an¬ 
tiseptic, but is dangerous, as it is apt to got into cuts on 
the hands, and cause disagreeable symptoms. In some 
countries, especially in Styria, arsenic is taken by the 
young female peasants to increase their personal attrac¬ 
tions. That arsenic can be taken habitually for any length 
of time would seem an impossibility; and yet such state¬ 
ments are made on unquestionable authority. (See John¬ 
ston’s “ Chemistry of Common Life.”) 

The most effective chemical antidote for arsenic is the 
hydrated sesquioxide of iron, prepared by the rapid pre¬ 
cipitation of a solution of a per-salt of iron (as the per¬ 
sulphate or terchloride) by an alkali (as ammonia). The 
mixture of ferric hydrate with magnesia, obtained by pre¬ 
cipitating the iron solution xvith an excess of calcined mag¬ 
nesia, is still more efficacious. In case of an overdose or 
of intentional poisoning the folloAving treatment is recom¬ 
mended : Evacuate the stomach by the stomach-pump, 
using lime-Avater; administer large draughts of tepid sugar 
and water, magnesia and Avater, or lime-water; avoid the 
use of alkalies, but administer charcoal and hydrated ses¬ 
quioxide of iron. If the fatal symptoms be averted, let 
the patient for a long time subsist wholly on farinaceous 
food, milk, and demulcents. 

The Detection of Arsenious Oxide .—Hydrosulphuric acid 
merely imparts a yelloAV color to the aqueous solution. If 
hydrochloric acid be added, a yellow precipitate of tersul- 
pliide of arsenic is formed, soluble in sulphide of ammo¬ 
nium, from which it is reprecipitated by acids. The sul¬ 
phide of arsenic is soluble in carbonate of ammonia, espe¬ 
cially on heating. Acids reprecipitate it from this solution. 
It is readily dissolved by hot nitric acid ; also by hydro¬ 
chloric acid, with potassic chlorate. Argentic nitrate 
causes no precipitate in the aqueous solution of arsenious 
acid, but if ammonia be cautiously added, a yellow pre¬ 
cipitate of argentic arsenite is produced, readily soluble in 
an excess of ammonia and in nitric acid. In making this 
test, add the argentic nitrate, and then (inclining the test- 
tube) let one or two drops of ammonia run doAvn, so as to 
form a layer on the surface of the liquid to be tested. 
Where the two liquids arc in contact a bright yellow ring 
of argentic arsenite will be seen. Cupric sulphate causes 
no precipitate in the aqueous solution of arsenious acid; 
but if ammonia be added, as in the last experiment, a yel¬ 
lowish-green cupric arsenite (Scheele’s green) is precip¬ 
itated. 1 

Ecinsch's Test. —Metallic copper boiled in a solution con¬ 
taining arsenic, to which hydrochloric acid has been added, 
becomes coated with a gray incrustation of metallic arsenic, 
which, if present in considerable quantity, may be detached 
in scales by long boiling. If the copper, Avit'h the incrus¬ 
tation, be removed, dried betxveen pieces of filter-paper, 
and introduced into a tube closed at one end, the appli¬ 
cation of heat causes the arsenic to sublime as a shining 
black ring if much is present, or as a white crystalline 
ring ot arsenious acid if the quantity is small. Metallic 
zinc precipitates arsenic if the solution be previously acid- 
























ARSENIUS—ARTABANUS. 273 

ulated with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. At the same 
time arseniuretted hydrogen (ASII 3 ) is evolved. 

Marsh’a Test. —This experiment is best conducted in a 
flask provided with a funnel tube, and an exit tube con¬ 
taining calcic chloride to dry the gas evolved. Into the 
flask containing granulated zinc and distilled water dilute 
sulphuric acid is introduced. Hydrogen is liberated, which, 
passing through the chloride-of-calcium tube, where it is 
dried, escapes at the extremity of the apparatus. As soon 
as the air is completely expelled the hydrogen may be ig¬ 
nited. If the solution containing arsenic be now poured 
into the flask, arseniuretted hydrogen will be evolved, and 
the color of the flame changed to a livid blue. 1. If apiece 
of cold porcelain (the cover of a porcelain crucible) be held 
in the flame, a black deposit of metallic arsenic is produced. 
This stain disappears when moistened with calcic hypo¬ 
chlorite. 2. If one or two drops of strong nitric acid be 
poured on an arsenic stain, and then gently evaporated, it 
is converted into arsenic acid. By adding a drop of argen¬ 
tic nitrate solution, and cautiously neutralizing with am¬ 
monia, a brick-red argentic arseniate is produced. An 
excess of ammonia dissolves the red arseniate. 3. If the 
exit tube (which should be of hard glass and free from 
lead) be strongly heated beyond the calcic chloride tube, 
the arseniuretted hydrogen is decomposed, metallic arsenic 
being deposited in the form of a shining black mirror on 
the cold part of the tube. 4. If a short tube be adjusted, 
by means of a caoutchouc connector, to the extremity of 
the exit tube, and the gas passed into a solution of argentic 
nitrate, a black precipitate of metallic silver is produced, 
while the arsenic passes into solution. On neutralizing 
the filtered liquid with ammonia, the yellow argentic ar- 
senite is precipitated. 

Fleetman’s Test. —If a solution containing arsenic be 
mixed with a large excess of a concentrated solution of 
potassic hydrate, and boiled with granulated zinc, arseniu¬ 
retted hydrogen is evolved. A piece of filter-paper, moist¬ 
ened with a solution of argentic nitrate, assumes a pur¬ 
plish-black color if exposed to this gas. This experiment 
may be conducted in a small flask or large test-tube sup¬ 
plied with a cork, through which passes a small tube drawn 
to a point. 

Dry compounds of arsenic, when heated with sodic car¬ 
bonate on charcoal in the inner flame of the blowpipe, 
emit a peculiar garlic odor. Heated with sodic carbonate 
and a little potassic cyanide in a dry tube, closed at one 
end, a black mirror of metallic arsenic sublimes. 

Arsenites. —Arsenious acid forms with bases a series of 

1 salts, which are not very stable, and have been but little 

studied. “ Fowler’s Solution ” is a solution of equal weights 
of arsenious oxide and potassic bicarbonate, boiled with 
water and flavored with spirits of lavender. It contains 
64 grains of arsenious oxide in one pint. The sheep-dip¬ 
ping mixtures commonly employed are composed of arseni¬ 
ous acid, soda, sulphur, and soap, which, when used, are 
dissolved in a large quantity of water, and thus constitute 
essentially dilute solutions of arsenite of soda. Arsenitc 
of copper, or Scheele’s green, is a pigment largely used as 
a pretty and cheap green paint. The same substance is 
extensively employed in the manufacture of green paper- 
hangings for the walls of rooms; and recent inquiries 
would lead to the belief that rooms covered with paper 
coated with this green arsenite of copper are detrimental 
to health, from the readiness with which minute particles 
of the poisonous pigment are detached from the walls by the 
slightest friction, are diffused through the room, and ulti¬ 
mately pass into the animal system. It is also said that 
arsenetted hydrogen, II 3 AS, a very poisonous gas, is gene¬ 
rated in damp weather. Another green pigment is named 
Schweinfurth’s green; it contains arsenious acid, oxide of 
copper, and acetic acid, and is a double arsenite and ace¬ 
tate of copper. With tartaric acid arsenious oxide forms 
a salt analogous to tartar emetic. Its formula is K.AsO. 
C 4 II 4 O 6 . C. F. Chandler. 

Arse'nius [Gr. ’Apo-eVio?], Saint, was born in Rome 
about 355 A. D. The emperor Theodosius appointed him 
in 383 tutor to his son Arcadius. Arsenius retired in 394 
to a desert in Egypt, where he lived as an anchorite. Died 
in 449 A. D. 

Ar'sie, a town of Italy, in the province of Bclluno, 50 
miles N. W. of Venice. Pop. 5317. 

Arsin'oe, daughter of Ptolemy I., king of Egypt, was 
born about 316 B. C. About 300 B. C. she was married to 
Lysimachus, king of Thrace. She instigated Lysimachus 
to put to death his son Agathocles (born before her mar¬ 
riage), in order to promote the succession of her own son. 

« By this crime Lysimachus was involved in war with Se- 
lcucus, king of Syria, and was killed in 281 B. C. Her 
sons having been murdered by Ptolemy CeraunRs, she fled 
to Egypt, and became the wife of her brother, Ptolemy 
Philadelphus. 

18 

Arsinoe, an Egyptian princess, was a daughter of 
Ptolemy Auletes, and a sister of the famous Cleopatra. 

Caesar having conquered Egypt (48 B. C.), took her as a 
captive to Rome, but soon released her. She was assassi¬ 
nated by Mark Antony in 41 B. C. 

• Arsinoe, an ancient city of Egypt, capital of a nome, 
was situated near Lake Moeris, about 50 miles S. S. W. of 

Cairo. It was originally called Crocodilopolis (“the city 
of crocodiles”) because it had a temple devoted to the wor¬ 
ship of those reptiles. Ptolemy Philadelphus gave it the 
name of Arsinoe in honor of his queen. The site is now 
occupied by the town of Mediuet-el-Faium.—Arsinoe was 
the name of another city of Egypt, situated at the N. W. 
extremity of the Pted Sea, near the modern Suez. It was 
an important emporium, connected with the Nile by a canal. 

Ar'sis and The'sis [dpo-is, fleo-i?], two Greek words, 
signifying “ raising up ” and “ laying down.” This mu¬ 
sical term denotes the rising and falling of the hand in 
beating time. It is also applied to the elevation and de¬ 
pression of the voice, and the accentuation of syllables in 
the scansion of poetry, arsis being the stress of voice given 
to strongly accented syllables, and thesis the lesser stress 
given to other syllables. 

Ar'soil [from the Lat . arcleo, or sum, to “burn”], the 
wilful and malicious burning of the house of another. 

There must be an actual burning—an unexecuted attempt 
to fire a house does not constitute the offence. If the act be 
negligent instead of wilful, the crime is not committed, and 
the wrong-doer is only liable to a civil action. The Eng¬ 
lish law on this subject has been modified in this country. 

Arson is in some instances divided into degrees, and cases 
included in it which were not offences at common law. It 
is made a crime by statute law to set fire to one’s own 
house with intent to injure another—as, for example, to de¬ 
fraud insurers. The punishment of arson is severe, and in 
some of its degrees capital. 

Ars-sur-Moselle, a town of Germany, in Alsace-Lor¬ 
raine, 5 miles by rail from Metz, has vineyards and iron¬ 
works, manufactures of paper, instruments, and iron goods. 

Pop. in 1871, 5330. 

Art [from Fr. art, which is from Lat. ars, artem ], sig¬ 
nifies (1), the systematic application of knowledge in pro¬ 
ducing a desired result; and (2), a systematic collection of 
principles and rules for attaining a desired end. Under this 
last head the arts are divided scientifically into (1), those 
which are intended to produce material results, termed the 
useful arts (those useful arts in which the effects are pro¬ 
duced entirely or mostly by machinery or by mechanical 
contrivances are termed Mechanic Arts, which see); and 
(2), those intended to produce {esthetic results, termed the 

Fine Arts (which see), The application of {esthetic prin¬ 
ciples or the laws of taste to works which are intended to 
pi’oduce a religious effect is termed religious art; the ap¬ 
plication of the laws of taste to works of a material nature 
is termed industrial art. (See Fine Arts.) The word art 
is often used as a collective term for any or all of the fine 
arts (as the “study of art,” a “patron of art”); as relat¬ 
ing to the fine arts are also used various derivatives and 
compounds of the word art (as “artist,” “artistic,” “art- 
museum”). (For formative arts, arts of design, etc., see 

Fine Arts.) 

The term “liberal arts” (artes liberates) was applied by 
the Romans to the higher studies, which only freemen were 
permitted to pursue. They were summed up in the follow¬ 
ing verse: 

“Lingua, Tropus, Ratio, Numerus, Tonus, Angulus, Astra.” 

The term “servile arts” ( artes serviles) they applied to 
trades which were practised only by slaves. They were 
summed up in the verse: 

“Rus, Nemus, Arma, Faber, Vulnera, Lana, Rates.” 

In modern times, the term “liberal arts” is applied to 
the collection of studies in philosophy, science, art, and 
history which compose the academic and collegiate (ante- 
professional) course of study; hence, to graduate in the 
arts, bachelor of arts (A. B.), master of arts (A. M.). 

G. F. Comfort. 

Ar'ta (anc. Ambra'cia), a town of Albania, 46 miles S. 

S. E. of Yanina, on the river Arta, here crossed by a remark¬ 
able bridge. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a largo 
cathedral, a citadel, and manufactures of coarse cottons, 
woollens, and capotes. Here are remains of ancient Hel¬ 
lenic walls. Pop. estimated at 6000. (See Ambracia.) 

Arta, Gulf of (the ancient Si'nus Ambra'cius), a gulf 
of the Ionian Sea, in the N. W. of Greece, lies between 
Acarnania and Albania, and is nearly landlocked. It is 
about 25 miles long and about 10 miles wide. The naval 
battle of Actium was fought near this gulf. 

Artaba'nus [Gr. ’Aprd/Wo?], written also Ardavan 















or Ardovan, king of Parthia, and the last of the dynasty 
of the Arsacidm. He began to reign about 21G A. I)., and 
waged war against the Roman emperor Maerinus. He was 
defeated and taken prisoner by the Persians under Ardshir, 
who put him to death in 226 A. D. 

Artaba'zus [Gr. ’Apra/3a£os], an eminent Persian gen¬ 
eral, a favorite of Xerxes, commanded a large division of 
the army which invaded Greece in 480 B. C. He took part 
in the battle of Platma (479 B. C.), after which he retreated 
with his division by forced marches to Byzantium, and 
thence crossed into Asia. 

Artabazus, a Persian general and satrap, revolted 
against Artaxerxes III. in 356 B. C. Having been de¬ 
feated in battle, he took refuge at the court of Philip of 
Macedon. He was pardoned, returned to Persia, and fought 
for Darius at Arbela. He was satrap of Bactria under 
Alexander after 330 B. C. 

Artapher'nes [Gr. ’Apra^epiuj?], a Persian satrap and a 
half-brother of King Darius Hystaspis. He was appointed 
satrap of the western part of Asia Minor in 506 B. C. He 
used his power to restore Hippias, who had been expelled 
from Athens. About 498 B. C. he subdued the Ionians, 
who had revolted against the king of Persia. 

Artaphernes, a general, a son of the preceding, was 
associated with Datis in the command of the Persian army 
which invaded Greece in 490 B. C., and was defeated at 
Marathon. He also served in the army of Xerxes in 
Greece, in 480. 

Artaud (Nicolas Louis), a French writer noted as a 
Greek scholar, was born in Paris in 1794. He became in¬ 
spector of the Academy of Paris soon after the revolution 
of 1830. He translated the dramas of Sophocles (3 vols., 
1827), the comedies of Aristophanes (6 vols., 1830), and 
the tragedies of Euripides (1832). He obtained the office 
of inspector-general. Died in 1861. 

Artaud de Montor (Alexis Francis), Chevalier, 
born in Paris in 1772. lie was for many years secretary 
of legation at Rome, and became charge-d’alfaires at 
Florence in 1805. Among his works are “ Machiavel, his 
Genius and Errors ” (1833), and a “ History of the Sovereign 
Pontiffs” (8 vols.). ,Died in 1849. 

Artax'ata, the former capital of Armenia, on the Araxes, 
was destroyed by the Roman general Corbulo, rebuilt by 
Tiridates, and was captured by the Persians in 370 A. D. 
It is now a mass of ruins. 

Artaxerx'es I., Longimanus [Gr. ’Apra^'p^s Ma*p6- 
yetp; Pers. Ardsheer Dardzddst], a king of Persia, was a 
son of Xerxes I., ivhom he succeeded in 465 B. C. He was 
called Longimanus (“long-handed ”) because his right 
hand was longer than his left. The Egyptians revolted 
against him about 460, but they were reduced to subjection 
about 455 B. C. In 449 the Persians were defeated by 
the Athenian forces of Cimon, near Salamis, in Cyprus. 
Artaxerxes died in 425 B. C., and left the throne to his 
son, Xerxes II. 

Artaxerxes II., surnamed Mnemon, because he had a 
good memory, was the eldest son of Darius II. of Persia. 
He became king in 405 B. C. His younger brother, Cyrus, 
who was governor of Asia Minor, revolted and raised a 
large army, in which were 10,000 Greeks. The king, com¬ 
manding in person, defeated the army of Cyrus at Cunaxa 
in 401. Cyrus was killed in this action, which was followed 
by the famous retreat of the Ten Thousand. (See Ten Thou¬ 
sand, Retreat of.) Agesilaus, the Spartan, invaded the 
dominions of Artaxerxes, and gained several victories, but 
this war was ended by the peace of Antalcidas (387 B. C.). 
He put to death Darius, his eldest son, for a conspiracy. 
He died in 362 B. C., aged about ninety-four, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by his son, Artaxerxes III. (Sec Plutarch, “Life 
of Artaxerxes;” Diodorus Siculus; Thirlwall, “ History 
of Greece.”) 

Artaxerxes III. (or Ochus), king of Persia, was a 
son of the preceding. He began to reign in 361 B. C., and 
disgraced himself by his cruelty and sensuality. Among 
the important events of his reign was the subjugation of 
Egypt, which he effected about 350 B. C Died in 338 B. C. 
It is supposed that he was poisoned by his eunuch, Bagoas. 

Arte'di (Peter), [Lat. Pe'trus Arete'dins], a Swedish 
naturalist, born at Anund Feb. 22, 1705. He was educated 
at Upsal, where he formed an intimate friendship with 
Linnmus. They co-operated on the principle of a division 
of labor in the field of natural history, and Artedi chose 
the department of ichthyology, in addition to physiology 
and mineralogy, which they both cultivated. He visited 
England in 1734. Soon after his return he was drowned 
in a canal at Amsterdam in 1735. He left a Latin work on 
fishes, which Linnmus published in 1738, and which is highly 
commended. (See Linnaeus, “Life of Artedi,” prefixed to 
the work mentioned above.) 


Diana (which see). 

Artemis'ia [Gr. ’Apre/xio-i'a], a martial queen of Hali¬ 
carnassus, was a tributary or ally of Xerxes I., king of 
Persia. She commanded in person her fleet, which fought 
for Xerxes against the Greeks, and she displayed skill and 
courage at the battle of Salamis (480 B. C.). According 
to tradition, she jumped from the Leucadian rock into the 
sea and was drowned, because she was disappointed in 
love. 

Artemisia, an Oriental princess celebrated for her con¬ 
jugal affection and her grief for the loss of her husband, 
Mausolus, prince of Caria, who died in 352 B. C. She 
erected to his memory at Halicarnassus a magnificent 
mausoleum (so called in honor of Mausolus), which was 
considered one of the seven wonders of the world. Remains 
of it still exist. According to tradition, she mingled his 
ashes with her wine and died of grief. (See J. C. Avena- 
rius, “Dissertatio de Artemisia et Mausoleo,” 1714.) 

Artemisia, a genus of plants of the order Composite, 
sub-order Tubuliflorae, comprises numerous species of herbs 
and shrubs, natives of the temperate regions of Asia and 
Europe. They generally have an aromatic odor, and a 
warm or acrid and bitter taste. The Artemisia Absinthium 
(or wormwood) grows wild in England and the U. S., is 
perennial, and has bipinnatifid leaves. Containing a bit¬ 
ter principle and an essential oil, both very strong, it is 
used in medicine as an anthelmintic or vermifuge. Among 
the other species which have medicinal properties are the 
Artemisia santonica (Tartarian wormwood or southern¬ 
wood), a native of Tartary; Artemisia Indica (Indian 
wormwood), which grows on the Himalaya Mountains; Ar¬ 
temisia arborescen8 (tree wormwood), which is a native of 
the Levant; and Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort), which is a 
native of England. The dried flower-buds of several spe¬ 
cies of Artemisia are sold under the name of wormsced, 
semen contra. The great western plains and arid table¬ 
lands of Nevada, Utah, and Colorado are overgrown with 
the Artemisia Ludoviciana (popularly called sage brush), 
which indicates a soil impregnated with alkaline or saline 
substances. 

Ar'tery [Lat. arte'ria, plu. arte'rise, from the Gr. cojp, 
“ air ” or “ spirit,” and t rjpew, to “ keep ” or “ preserve, ” 
the arteries, until Galen’s time, having been supposed to 
contain air]. Arteries are the vessels which convey the 
blood passing from the heart to the various parts of the 
body. The arterial tube is divided into three layers, call¬ 
ed the coats of the artery—an external, which is elastic; a 
middle, which is muscular with elastic layers; and au inter¬ 
nal, smooth and lined with fusiform epithelium. The tube 
is also enveloped in a fibrous sheath. When an artery is 
completely divided by a sharp instrument, its walls do not 
collapse, but the orifice contracts, and also retracts into its 
sheath; a clot then forms and stems the flow till the cut 
edges of the artery have time to throw out lymph, and 
heal. All the arteries of the human body (with the excep¬ 
tion of the pulmonary) are branches more or less direct of 
the aorta. Each main trunk divides into two principal di¬ 
visions—one, the artery of supply, which breaks up into 
branches for the supply of the tissues in the vicinity; and 
another, the artery of transmission, which passes to the 
parts beyond. These, however, anastomose freely. Thus 
the femoral artery divides into the deep femoral, to supply 
the thigh, and the superficial, to supply the leg below the 
knee; the common carotid divides into the external carotid, 
to supply the neck, scalp, and face, and the internal carotid, 
to supply the brain. Although arteries have generally in 
different persons the same distribution of branches, they 
occasionally vary, and thereby are apt to perplex the anat¬ 
omist. Wounds of arteries can be detected by observing 
that the escaping blood is of a bright-red color, and flows 
in jets or spirts at each pulsation; while blood from a 
vein is dark, and flows in a steady current. Arterial bleed¬ 
ing is controlled by tying with a thread, by acupressure, 
by compression, or by the application of stj^ptics, etc. 

Arte'sia, a township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop. 1269. 

Arte'sian Wells are holes of small diameter (usually 
between three and six, and rarely exceeding twelve, inches) 
sunk into the earth, through which the water of subterra¬ 
nean reservoirs or streams rises near to or above the surface. 
Their name is derived from the province of Artois in France 
(ancient Artesium), where they have long been used; but 
they were known to the ancients, by some of whose writers 
they are occasionally mentioned. They were also used in 
China at a very early period, not only as sources of water, 
but also of combustible gas and petroleum. A well at Fil¬ 
lers, Pas-de-Calais, bored in 1126, still flows undiminished. 

Artesian wells are most readily obtained where the geo¬ 
logical formations possess a moderate inclination or “dip,” 
and are composed of strata of materials impervious to 


274 


ARTABAZUS—ARTESIAN WELLS. 


Ar'to mis [’ApTepisT tho Greek name of the goddess 














ARTESIAN WELLS. 


275 


water (rock or clay), alternating with such as, like sand or 
gravel, allow it to pass more or less freely. The rain-water 
falling where such strata approach to or reach the surface 
will in great part accumulate in the pervious strata, render¬ 
ing them “ water-bearing.” Thus are formed sheets of 
water confined between two inclined, impervious walls of 
rock or clay, above as well as below, and exerting great 
pressure at their lower portions. Where water so circum¬ 
stanced finds or forces for itself natural outlets, we shall 
have springs; when tapped artificially by means of a bore¬ 
hole, we have an artesian well, from whose mouth the water 
may overflow if its surface-level be below that of the head 
of pressure as shown in the figure; the principle being 

Fig. 1. 

STE.menehould Ft J100 ft 



Geological section from Chartres to Verdun through the Paris 

basin. Horizontal scale, 90 miles to the inch; vertical scale, 

1500 feet to the inch. 

substantially the same as that upon which artificial foun¬ 
tains are constructed. Even in the absence of properly 
water-bearing pervious strata, accumulation of water may 
take place or subterranean streams may exist in crevices and 
fissures. These occur with especial frequency in limestone 
beds, whose material is more or less dissolved by water; 
thus very commonly caves and subterranean channels are 
formed in such regions, and if the beds be sufficiently in¬ 
clined, head for the rise of water in artesian bores may thus 
be furnished. 

In regions where unstratified rocks prevail, or where the 
stratified rocks are much disturbed, the finding of artesian 
water becomes a matter of great uncertainty, and can in 
general be expected only at considerable depths and at 
low surface-levels. In formations possessing but-a slight 
inclination or “dip” the head of water-pressure maybe 
many miles distant, and a difference of level between its 
locality and that of the well may not be at all apparent 
to ordinary observation. It is thus obvious that the study 
of the geological structure and general surface-conforma¬ 
tion of a region is primarily needful in determining the 
probability of success in obtaining artesian water in any 
given locality. Not only can the practicability, as well as 
the difficulties to be met, be thus in a gi*eat measure fore¬ 
seen, but it can also be ascertained how far the experience 
acquired in one bore may serve in other cases, and what al¬ 
lowance must be made for difference of location with refer¬ 
ence to the head of pressure, as regards depth and the kind 
of strata to be penetrated. Sometimes a single well-con¬ 
ducted experiment will thus demonstrate the feasibility of 
artesian wells over extensive areas. 

As a matter of course, artesian water brings up with it 
such other solid, liquid, or gaseous substances as are pres¬ 
ent in the contiguous rocks, and are either soluble in it, or, 
like petroleum, will float on it. And as from the depth 
from which it is brought it is liable to have come in con¬ 
tact with a great variety of materials, and at a tempera¬ 
ture which increases with a certain degree of regularity as 
we descend (on an average at the rate of one degree Fahren¬ 
heit for every 60 to 70 feet), it is very common to find ar¬ 
tesian water more or less strongly impregnated with a va¬ 
riety of mineral matters, amongst which common salt is 
perhaps the most frequent. In this respect artesian wells 
are quite analogous to natural warm springs. 

The manner of sinking a bore for artesian water varies 
with the depth and with the nature of the material or ma¬ 
terials to be penetrated. In the surface-soil stratum or other 
loose alluvial deposits pipes of wood or iron are very com¬ 
monly driven down by means of a pile-driver. In the al¬ 
luvial region of the iower Mississippi “drove” wells ob¬ 
tained in this way are quite common, being formed of gas- 
pipe one and a half to two inches in diameter, whose lower 
end is a sharp steel cone, perforated for the passage inward 
of the water, which is struck at depths varying from 20 to 


70 feet, and even more. The same mode of obtaining water 
quickly and easily has been extensively employed during 
the building of the Pacific Railroad, the pipes being with¬ 
drawn and carried forward as the work progressed. It is 
but rarely, however, that water thus reached rises above the 
surface. 

When the material is of a more resisting character, and 
greater depth has to be attained (as is usually the case), the 
soil-pipe, whether driven in or set into a hole previously 
bored by means of an earth-auger, serves to prevent the 
loose earth from falling in, and as a guide to ensure the ver¬ 
tically of the bore, which is of the utmost importance. 

The boring tools are of very various shapes, adapted to the 
different kinds of rock, clay, or sand of various degrees of 
consolidation. For hard rock the most generally useful 
tool is a flat chisel; for clay and soft rock, a long, scoop¬ 
shaped bit with a slanting cutter, or with a tapering, 
twisted, spiral band (somewhat like a “gimlet screw”) at 
the lower end; for sand, the same, or, should it be very 
clean and damp, a bit resembling a common wood auger, 
with broad spiral flanges. 

In the case of soft rock, clay, and sand, the auger-bit is 
attached to stiff bars of wood or iron connected by screws, 
and provided with a cross handle at the mouth of the well, 
whereby they can be revolved by the workmen. The whole 
is suspended by a rope working over a pulley attached to 
the top of a tall tripod or other scaffold or derrick, and 
winding on a windlass or whin; the connection between 
the head of the auger and the rope being so arranged that 
the latter is not twisted by turning the former. Thus, 
whenever by boring the auger has become so full as to 
threaten clogging, it is readily hoisted out with its con¬ 
tents, and the latter discharged. Whenever the depth of 
the bore exceeds the height of the derrick, it becomes neces¬ 
sary to unscrew successively the sections of poles or bars 
as they are drawn up, while a collar attached to the pole at 
the mouth of the well prevents it from falling back. When 
working at great depths the operation of discharging the 
borings thus becomes a very tedious one, consuming far 
more time than actual boring. 

The presence of water in the hole generally facilitates 
operations materially; it is therefore poured in from above 
when not naturally present. Sand, especially, can thus be 

Fig. 2. 



discharged more readily and boring continued for longer 
intervals of time. The auger being drawn up, the “sand- 
pump ” can then be sent down at the end of a rope. The 
sand-pump is a long tubular bucket of sheet iron, with a 








































































































































































276 


ARTESIAN WELLS. 


light, valve at the bottom opening inward, enabling it to 
sink down into the semi-fluid mass of water and sand until 
it is full, the valve closing when the pump is raised. The 
same implement serves to clear the bore of quicksand, 
when met with in moderate quantities. 

When hard rock has to be penetrated it must be pecked 
through with chisels, in the same manner that blast-holes 
are drilled by quarrymen and miners. The bits may then 
be attached either to stiff poles, as is done in boring soft 
materials, or, preferably, they may be altogether suspended 
by a rope. The rapid deterioration of the screw connec¬ 
tions by repeated heavy shocks, the liability to deviate 
from the vertical, and the greater difficulty encountered in 
withdrawing the boring tool and discharging the borings, 
have caused the former mode of suspension to be almost 
altogether superseded, in this country, by rope-boring—a 
method extensively adopted by the Chinese long since in 
sinking their numerous deep bores. 

When boring in rock by hand the upper end of the rope 
or pole bearing the drill is attached to a spring pole or bar, 
vibrated by the workmen, who at the same time give a slight 
turn to the cross-bar at each stroke, so as to complete the 
circle in from twenty to thirty strokes, varying with the 
kind of rock and the diameter of the hole. The lift varies, 
usually, between ten and twenty inches. 

When boring by steam-power the boring-rope is con¬ 
nected with a walking-beam vibrated by the engine, which 
also works the whin or windlass (the “ bull-wheel”) when 
required. To obviate the necessity of too frequently 
lengthening the rope as the bore deepens, it is attached to 
the walking-beam by means of a long screw working in a 
stirrup-shaped nut, by turning which the rope can be let 
out to the extent of fifteen to eighteen inches. 

The drill, also, is not directly attached to the rope’s lower 
end, but first to a long and heavy stem of iron, connecting 
at its upper end with a long stirrup-shaped piece, which 
can be made to slide upward into another similar one 
attached to the rope in the reverse position. This arrange¬ 
ment, expressively called the “jars,” serves to facilitate the 
loosening of the tools when they get fast by the jarring 
motion that can thus be given. At the Pennsylvania oil- 
wells the entire length of such a set of tools is about thirty 
feet; its weight, 800 to 1000 pounds. 

A most valuable improvement made of late years in the 
boring of hard rock is the diamond-pointed drill of Le- 
schot. In this implement diamonds are firmly set into the 
conical, concave, or annular end of a steel bar, so as to 
present cutting edges to the rock when turned right- 
handed. It is usually worked by steam or compressed air, 
and by its means the hardest granite may be bored at the 
rate of several inches per minute. It is, of course, equally 
applicable to the boring of artesian wells in hard rock as 
to mining and tunnelling operations, in which it is now 
extensively employed. When an annular bit is used, sample 
cores of the rock penetrated may be brought to the surface 
and examined. As in most labor-saving implements, its 
somewhat considerable prime cost is soon covered by the 
gain in time and cost of repairing other drilling tools. 

It is not often, on the whole, that the sides of an artesian 
bore are sufficiently solid and impervious to remain unpro¬ 
tected throughout. Such is the case, e. g., in the. cretaceous 
limestone region of the States of Mississippi and Alabama, 
whose soft, chalk-like rock is commonly bored with the 
earth-auger, being solid and almost uniform even to the 
thickness of twelve hundred feet. No tubing save the soil- 
pipe is here ordinarily required, even in flowing wells. In 
most cases, however, the use of tubing becomes necessary, 
cither to prevent the walls from “ caving,” or to exclude 
undesirable veins of water or quicksand; the latter espe¬ 
cially being a frequent and most troublesome source of dif¬ 
ficulty. The cheapest and most durable tubing is the 
wooden, but the great diminution of clear diameter result¬ 
ing from its employment greatly limits its practical useful¬ 
ness. Most commonly, wrought-iron tubes (gas-pipes, and 
for larger diameters tubing made of sheet iron and riveted) 
are used, although not very durable; more rarely, cast-iron, 
bronze, or copper ones, the former being rather cumbrous, 
the latter, though very durable, too easily collapsed or de¬ 
formed by outside pressure, and rather costly. Yet they 
' should be used at great depths in bores of great cost and 
importance and difficulty of repair. 

The outside diameter of tubes should ordinarily be three- 
fourths to one inch less than that of the bore-hole, to allow 
for inequalities of surface inside. It is important, on sev¬ 
eral accounts, that they should not fit too closely, except 
for excluding quicksand. The tubes are made in lengths 
of about six feet, screwing into each other or connected by 
outside “ thimbles ” riveted to the lower, and successively 
attached by screw-rivets to the upper section as the tube is 
lowered into the well. 

If after tubing any portion of a well the boring is to be 


continued below, it must ordinarily be done with a corre¬ 
spondingly diminished diameter, both of drills and tubing 
if the latter be inquired. A deep well thus sometimes con¬ 
tains three or four different successive sets of tubing, and 
even more, so that, although begun with a clear diameter 
of eight or nine inches, it may be diminished down to two 
or three. It may then become necessary to extract all the 
tubing, and widen the bore by “reaming.” Expanding 
drills are sometimes used to undercut a set of tubing, and 
thus lower it, but this is a slow process, and somewhat un¬ 
certain of success. 

The accidents to which the well-borer is liable are very 
numerous in kind and of very frequent occurrence. Tho 
most common one is that the tools get “jammed” in the 
well, whether in consequence of a deviation of the bore-hole 
from the vertical, or from the falling in (whether from the 
sides of the well or from its mouth) of some fragment or 
boulder, or perhaps a hard fossil, or from the breaking of 
a joint or the “stripping” of a screw, by which the tools 
themselves have fallen in. 

The first cause mentioned is the most formidable, as it 
is rarely possible to correct fully a material sidewise devi¬ 
ation of a bore-liole; this accident, therefore, frequently 
causes the final abandonment even of deep bores. The 
jamming of the tools by an object fallen from above is also 
often a very serious matter : hence a double-hinged valve 
is commonly placed on top of the soil-pipe as a measure of 
precaution. A large number of most ingenious implements 
for extracting bodies of various kinds and shapes has been 
devised, yet not unfrequently a special tool must be con¬ 
structed to suit a particular case. All possible precautions 
should be taken to prevent such accidents, as their cure is 
but too frequently impossible. 

Among the most noted of deep-flowing wells is that of 
Grcnclle at Paris. The latter city is situated in the lowest 
portion of a basin-shaped mass of formations, so that the 
strata slope towards the city. It was begun in 1833 under 
the auspices of the government, and, advancing slowly, was 
completed on Feb. 26, 1841, when, at the depth of 1792 
feet, the auger, penetrating a ledge of rock, fell suddenly 
several yards, evidently into water. In a short time the 
water rose 112 feet above the sui’face in an immense volume, 
bringing up sand and mud. It exerts a pressure equal to 
a rise of 812 feet above the surface (in pipes), and dis¬ 
charges half a million of gallons per day of very pure water, 
which is distributed to that part of the city. Since, how¬ 
ever, its temperature at the mouth of the well is 82° F., it 
requires to be cooled for drinking purposes, and is used for 
warming the hospitals at Grenelle. A large number of 
other wells have since been sunk in and near Paris, as well 
as London, which is similarly situated as regards geolog¬ 
ical structure. Among the most remarkable of the locality 
is that of Passy, which was sunk with a diameter of two 
feet to a depth of nearly 2000 in the years from 1855 to 
1860, inclusive. It discharges 5,660,000 gallons of water 
per day; the yield of the Grenelle well having, at the same 
time, diminished by one-fourth. 

Among the noted deep artesian wells of Europe is that 
of Ivissingen in Bavaria, completed in 1850. It is 1878^ 
feet in depth, the last 138£ feet being sunk in pure rock- 
salt. Hence the water is strongly salt; its temperature is 
66° F., and the discharge is 100 cubic feet per minute; it 
will rise to the height of 58 feet above the surface. Wells 
have been sunk to greater depths in Germany since then; 
the deepest of all, and doubtless the deepest in the world, 
being that lately sunk at Sperenburg in Prussia, to a depth 
of 3900 feet. 

In the U. S. artesian wells are numerous, especially in 
New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Alabama, and Missis¬ 
sippi. In the latter two States they alone furnish the sup¬ 
ply of water without which the fertile prairie regions would 
suffer severely in summer. It has frequently happened 
here, as elsewhere, that the discharge from the wells first 
sunk has been seriously diminished or altogether stopped 
by the opening of other bores in the same neighborhood or 
at a lower level. A nine-inch bore made at the foot of the 
hill on which the city of Columbus, Miss., is situated caused 
the sudden cessation of the discharge from the numerous 
wells in the town, while itself emitting a stream copious 
enough to run a mill. On the partial closing of the orifice 
the wells above resumed their flow. 

The numerous bored wells of Western Pennsylvania, 
West Virginia, and adjoining parts of ‘Ohio are chiefly 
remarkable as the source of the world’s largest supply of 
petroleum, which flows or is pumped from them, accom¬ 
panied by salt water and combustible gas. Their spontan¬ 
eous flow seems frequently to be caused not so much by 
water-pressure as by that of the combustible gas, which 
is sometimes emitted by them in vast volumes, spouting to 
the height of 60 to 100 feet a mixture of water and petro¬ 
leum. Disastrous conflagrations have at times resulted 































ARTEVELD, VAN—ARTHUR. 


from such inordinate manifestations of energy. These 
wells rarely exceed 500 feet in depth. At Cleveland, 0., 
as well as at a few other points, the natural gas is used both 
for lighting and heating purposes by the proprietors. 

The oil-region of Pennsylvania, with its numerous wells, 
has its parallel in North-eastern China, where the wells are 
said to count by tens of thousands, some of them approach¬ 
ing a depth of 3000 feet. They are not, however, as pro¬ 
ductive of petroleum as those of the U. S. 

A number of wells of moderate depth (not exceeding 500 
feet) have also been sunk at the city of New York. The 
structure of Manhattan Island is exceedingly unfavorable 
to their success ; but good water has been obtained in large 
quantity, and rising to within twenty feet of the surface. 

One of the deepest artesian wells in this country is that 
sunk by the Messrs. Belcher at St. Louis, in the hope of 
getting a supply suitable for their sugar-refinery. It was 
begun in 1849 at 300 feet distance from the banks of the 
river, and with a diameter of nine inches down to 457 feet, 
where it was contracted to three and a half inches; but 
subsequently enlarged to five and a half inches down to 
the depth of 1050 feet, from which point down to 2199 feet, 
the extreme depth reached (in Mar., 1854), its diameter 
is three and a half inches, since carried to 3843 feet 5 
inches. The water, discharged at the rate of seventy-five 
gallons per minute, is a saline chalybeate, sulphur water; 
its temperature is 73.4° F. This well is remarkable for 
having been sunk mainly in hard rock—limestone, sand¬ 
stone, and shale—steam-power having chiefly been used. 
The same applies to the Louisville artesian well, 2066 feet 
in depth; its water likewise is strongly mineral. 

At Terre Haute, Ind., several wells have been sunk to 
depths varying from 1600 to 1900 feet. One of these yields 
only a strong sulphur water; two others also yield petro¬ 
leum. Water quite similar to that of the Terre Haute wells, 
and likewise connected with a petroleum-bearing forma¬ 
tion, though of much later date, is spouted by the artesian 
well near Lake Charles in Calcasieu parish, La. The main 
stream comes from the surface of the great sulphur-bed of 
that locality, at a depth of 440 fleet, at the rate of about 
sixty-five gallons per minute, and with a rise of twelve 
feet above the surface. 

One of the deepest bores in the U. S. is the well sunk 
at the State-house, Columbus, 0. Its depth is 2775J feet, 
but the water struck (which is salt) does not rise above the 
surface; its temperature at the bottom is 91° F., or that of 
hot summer weather. 

In the vicinity of Chicago artesian water of great purity 
is readily obtained at a moderate depth and in great 
abundance, rising to convenient heights above the surface. 
It is of material importance as furnishing a supply both fit 
for domestic use and adequate for manufacturing purposes. 

Among the artesian wells which have encountered great 
difficulties in their construction we may mention those sunk 
at Charleston, £). C., to the depth of 1250 feet, and at New 
Orleans to that of 630. The strata penetrated here being 
but little consolidated, and alternating with quicksand lay¬ 
ers, the auger had to be closely followed by tubing, which 
itself was very liable to sidewise displacement and collapse. 
At New Orleans no satisfactory result was obtained at the 
depth mentioned; at Charleston, a somewhat saline, yet soft 
water, of a temperature of 87°, rises ten feet above the sur¬ 
face, at the rate of twenty gallons per minute; it is used for 
steam-boilers. 

The boring of artesian wells is likely to become a matter 
of capital importance in the arid regions of the West, where 
both surface and spring water is so frequently not only very 
scarce, but undrinkable. An expedition under the command 
of Capt. (now Major-General) Pope was sent out by the [ 
U. S. government in 1855 for the purpose of testing the 
feasibility of sinking artesian wells on the waterless pla¬ 
teau, of the Llano Estacado, which forms a formidable ob¬ 
stacle on the most direct route between the South-west¬ 
ern States and Mexico. It was shown that water would 
rise to within an available distance of the surface in bores 
between 800 and 900 feet in depth. 

In California artesian wells are largely used in providing 
water for irrigation. The same is.being done in the Sahara 
desert of Africa, where such wells have been sunk to the 
depth of 1200 feet, each one creating around itself an oasis. 

Bore-holes are sometimes sunk from the surface into sand 
or-other pervious strata for the discharge of waste water 
that would otherwise prove a nuisance. These are called 
absorbent or drain wells. 

E. W. IIxlgari), Oxford, Miss. 

Arteveld' (or Artevelde), van (Jacob), a famous 
Flemish demagogue, born at Ghent, became a rich brewer. 
By his talents and eloquence he acquired much influence 
and popularity. The people of Ghent, who had revolted 
against the count of Flanders, chose Arteveld as their com¬ 
mander. He banished a number of Flemish nobles and 


277 


knights, and adopted a despotic and arbitrary policy. As 
an ally of Edvyard III. of England, he waged war against 
France. Having formed a design to give the sovereignty 
ol Flanders to the English Black Prince, he provoked a 
revolt of the Flemings, who killed him July 9, 1345. (See 
Froissart, “Chronicles;” J. de Winter, “J. van Arte¬ 
velde,” 1846.) 

Arteveld, vail (Philip), a son of the preceding, was 
born at Ghent in 1340. He was also a popular favorite, 
but passed many years of his mature life as a private citi¬ 
zen.^ When Ghent was besieged by the count of Flanders 
in 1381, and reduced to a desperate condition, Arteveld was 
appointed to the chief command. In May, 1382, he defeated 
the count, and then assumed the title of regent. Charles 
YI. of France intervened in favor of the count of Flanders 
with an army, and Arteveld was defeated and killed Nov. 
27, 1382. (See Froissart, “Chronicles.”) 

Art Exhibitions, public exhibitions of the works of 
living artists, for the purpose of affording pleasure and in¬ 
struction to the people on the one hand, and on the other 
of promoting the sale of the works exhibited. They orig¬ 
inated before the art-unions, with which they are now usu¬ 
ally connected. As in modern times artists depend for 
patronage on private persons, and as their works, if sold, 
are usually kept in the obscurity of private houses, the 
necessity arose that some plan should be adopted for then- 
public exhibition. Among the earliest of such displays 
was that of the French Academy of Art in 1673. The 
regular exhibitions of the Royal Academy of London com¬ 
menced in 1796. Similar exhibitions are held in all civil¬ 
ized countries. The annual exhibition of the National 
Academy of Design at New York is one of the most im¬ 
portant in the U. S. Its exhibitions commenced in 1825. 

Arthahas'ka, a county of Canada, in the central part 
of Quebec, intersected by the Becancour River. Area, 
about. 850 square miles. The county is traversed by the 
Grand Trunk Railway. Capital, St. Christophe (or Artha- 
baskaville). Pop. in 1871, 17,611. 

Arthahas'kaville, or St. Christophe, the capital 
of Arthabaska co., province of Quebec, Canada, has a con¬ 
vent and an academy of the Nuns of the Congregation of 
Montreal, and two weekly papers. 

Arthritis [from the Gr. apdpov, a “joint”], literally, 
“inflammation of a joint;” a term inclusive of gout and 
rheumatism, though properly applicable to inflammations 
of the joints of whatever character. 

Arthro'dia [Gr. ipdpuiSCa, from apOpov, a “joint” or the 
“socket of a joint”], a connection of bones, in which the 
head of one is received into a very superficial cavity in 
another, so as to admit of motion in almost all directions, 
as in the joint between the humerus and the scapula. 

Ar'tliur, a thriving town in the N. Riding of Welling¬ 
ton co., Ontario, Canada, on the Toronto Gray and Bruce 
Railway, 73 miles W. by N. of Toronto. It is the seat of 
important manufactures. Pop. of census sub-district, 4376. 

Ar'thur, Ar'tur, or Ar'tus, a semi-fabulous British 
hero and king of the Silures, is supposed to have flourished 
about 500 or 550 A. D., after the Romans evacuated the 
island of Britain. He is celebrated as the hero of the ro¬ 
mances of the Round Table, and his exploits were favorite 
themes of medimval bards and romancers. According to 
the popular legends, he defeated the Saxon invaders in 
several battles, and bravely defended the independence of 
the Britons, but was finally killed in a battle fought at 
Carnlan against his rebellious nephew Modred. His fame 
and adventures were magnified and embellished by writers 
of various nations in the Middle Ages. Some of these 
affirm that his residence was at Caerleon, on the Usk, in 
Wales, where he lived in grand state, surrounded by mul¬ 
titudes of knights and ladies—that twelve knights of emi¬ 
nent valor formed the centre of this retinue, and sat with 
the king at a round table. Another of his capitals was 
Camelot, identified by tradition with Queen’s Camelot in 
Somersetshire. The name of his wife was Guinivere. (See 
Turner, “ History of the Anglo-Saxons;” Ritson, “Life 
of King Arthur,” 1825; Tennyson, “Idyls of the King.” 
See also Sir Thomas Malory’s “ Byrth, Life, and Actes 
of Kyng Arthur,” London, 1485 ; new ed. by Southey, 1817, 
2 vois. quarto.) The Arthurian romances were probably 
thrown into their present form, if not largely invented, by 
Walter Map. (See Morley’s “ Writers before Chaucer,” 
sub voce.) 

Arthur (Timothy Siiay), an American writer of tales, 
was born near Newburg, Orange co., N. Y., in 1809. He 
became a resident of Philadelphia in 1841, and published 
many popular tales having an excellent moral tendency. 
Among his works are “ Lights and Shadows ot Real Life,” 
“Library for the Household” (12 vols.), and “ The Good 
Time Coming.” y 
























278 ARTHUR'S SEAT—ARTILLERY. 


Arthur’s Seat, a rocky hill which rises in the environs 
of Edinburgh to the height of 822 feet above the level of 
the sea, and commands a prospect of great extent and su¬ 
perlative beauty. It is supposed to derive its name from 
King Arthur. It is formed of several varieties of trap- 
rock upheaved through the carboniferous strata, and pre¬ 
sents on the southern and western sides perpendicular pre¬ 
cipices. 

Ar'tichoke [supposed to be a corruption of al-Jcharciof, 
the Arabic name of the plant], ( Cyna'ra scol'ymus), a per¬ 
ennial herbaceous plant of the natural order Composite, is 
nearly allied to the thistle. It is a native of Southern 
Europe, and is cultivated for food. The genus is distin¬ 
guished by the bracts of the involucre being fleshy at the 
base, and emarginate with a hard point. The part which 
is eaten is the succulent receptacle of the flower-head, 
gathered before the flowers expand, and boiled or made 
into a salad. The Jerusalem artichoke (Helian'thus tuber- 
o'8ct) is an entirely different plant, which is sometimes cul¬ 
tivated for its tubers. 

Ar'ticle [Lat. artic'ulus, literally signifying a “joint” 
or “single part”], a word used in various senses, usually 
denoting a distinct part of a systematic work. It may sig¬ 
nify a single clause in a contract, treaty, or other written 
document, a particular, separate charge or item in an ac¬ 
count, or a point of faith. In grammar, it is a part of 
speech, usually the shortest and simplest of all; in mer¬ 
cantile language, it denotes a particular commodity; in 
journalism, the principal editorials are called leading ar¬ 
ticles. 

Articles, in law, a word used to denote various kinds 
of instruments drawn up under distinct heads or divisions. 
Instances of the use of the word are a libel in admiralty, 
where the libellant (or plaintiff) is said to “articulately 
propound;” “articles of agreement,” “articles of impeach¬ 
ment,” “ articles of partnership,” or of peace or of war. 
“ Articles of Confederation ” is a phrase employed to des¬ 
ignate the compact made between the original thirteen 
States of the U. S., forming a general government before 
the present Constitution, and which, having gone into 
effect Mar. 1, 1781, continued in force until the first Wed¬ 
nesday of Mar., 1789. 

Articles, The Six, were imposed on the English na¬ 
tion by Parliament in 1589 during the reign of Henry VIII. 
They asserted the doctrine of transubstantiation, condemned 
the marriage of priests, enjoined the continued observance 
of vows of chastity, and sanctioned private masses and 
auricular confession. The act imposing these articles was 
popularly called the “Six-stringed Whip.” 

Articles of Faith, an expression usually employed 
to denote the particular points of doctrine which together 
make up the sum of Christian belief. The various churches 
of Christendom, not being agreed upon all these points, 
have for the most part set forth their own exposition of 
them; and it is to these creeds, symbols, or confessions 
that the term Articles is most commonly applied. The 
Articles of the English Church, formerly forty-two in num¬ 
ber, are now reduced to thirty-nine, and by the Methodist 
Church to twenty-five. (See Thirty-nine Articles.) 

Articles of War, a name applied to an act of Con¬ 
gress approved April 10, 1806, to establish rules for the 
government of the U. S. army. Separate articles (those 
now in force, approved in 1864, to supersede the old ar¬ 
ticles of 1802) establish rules for the government of the 
navy. Also applied to the code of military law embodied’ 
in the Mutiny Act annually passed in the British Parlia¬ 
ment. For the enforcement of such Articles of War power 
is given to the Crown to establish courts-martial to try 
and punish offences according to the Articles themselves. 
Another annual Mutiny Act embodies “Articles of War for 
the Marine Forces,” which relates exclusively to the royal 
marine forces while employed on shore. The navy is not 
controlled by any annual Mutiny Act, but the Articles of 
War relating to it are contained in an old act of Parlia¬ 
ment, the 22d Geo. II., c. 33. 

Articula'ta [the plu. neuter of the Latin past part. 
articula'tus , “jointed” or “furnished with joints,” from 
artic'ulus, a “joint”], or Artic'ulated An'imals, one 
of the four primary or grand divisions of the animal king¬ 
dom according to the system of Cuvier, which is generally 
adopted by naturalists. The Articulata are characterized 
by bilateral symmetry and an external skeleton composed 
of a series of rings or segments. These rings in some 
cases appear externally as mere transverse folds in a soft 
skin, but are often covered with a bony or horny sub¬ 
stance. They are also characterized by an internal gang- 
liated nervous system, the ganglia being arranged sym¬ 
metrically along the ventral aspect of the central or median 
line of the body. Optic nerves and other nerves of special 


sense proceed from a ganglion in the head, which is some¬ 
times called the brain, but is not much like the brain of 
vertebrate animals. The Articulata have no proper heart, 
but instead of it a dorsal vessel, a tube carried along the 
central line of the body near the back. The blood is usu¬ 
ally white. They surpass all other animals in muscular 
performances in proportion to their size. Many of the 
Articulata have articulated members or legs, symmetri¬ 
cally arranged in pairs. By most recent naturalists they 
are divided into three classes—Insects, Crustaceans, and 
Worms. Huxley subordinates the Articulata under the 
name of Arthropoda, and introduces the divisions Annu- 
losa and Annuloida, to include some classes of animals 
otherwise placed by Cuvier. 

Artific'ial Ilori'zon, a horizontal mirror, usually 
the surface of a basin of mercury, used to determine the 
altitude of a star or other object when the sensible horizon 
is ill defined. 

Artificial Stone. See Cement, by Gen. Gillmore. 

Arti'gas (Jose), a South American general, born at 
Montevideo in 1755, became in early life a leader of the 
Gauchos, a class of outlaws. In 1811 he entered the ser¬ 
vice of the Junta of Buenos Ayres, for which he fought 
against the Spaniards or royalists. He defeated the latter 
in several battles, and became in 1815 master of the Banda 
Oriental. Aided by the democratic party, of which he was 
the leader, he conquered Buenos Ayres in 1820, but was 
removed from power about the end of that year. Died in 
1851. 

Artil'lery [Fr. artillerie, remotely from the Lat. ars, 
artis, “art,” “ingenuity,” implying that it is the product 
of skill]. The term artillery was in early times used to 
designate all kinds of missiles employed in warfare, and 
the machines by which they were propelled. In modern 
times, however, and especially since the introduction of 
gunpowder for military purposes, the term is understood 
to denote cannon of all sizes and varieties, their carriages, 
projectiles, implements, and equipments, the machines ne¬ 
cessary to transport, serve, and manoeuvre them, and lastly 
the troops specially instructed and employed in their ser¬ 
vice. 

Artillery is classified according to the particular service 
for which it is adapted, and in each class according to its 
size, weight, or the character or weight of its projectile. 
Its primary classification is light and heavy. The former 
includes field, mountain, prairie, and boat guns, rockets, 
etc.; the latter comprises siege, garrison, sea-coast, and 
ship guns. Field artillery is subdivided into horse artil¬ 
lery, in which all tire artillerymen are mounted on horses, 
and “mounted batteries,” in which the officers, sergeants, 
and certain other enlisted men only are mounted on horses, 
the cannoneers marching by the side of the guns, or, for 
manoeuvres on the field of battle or a rapid but prolonged 
movement elsewhere, mounting upon the ammunition-chests 
on the carriages. The size of guns is designated either by 
the diameter of the bore in inches or by the weight of their 
solid shot in pounds. In England they are often desig¬ 
nated by the weight of the guns in hundredweights. 

The artillery engines in use by the ancients were chiefly 
the ballista and catajrult for throwing stones and heavy 
darts, and the battering-ram for effecting breaches or de¬ 
molishing w r alls. These engines were rude, bulky, heavy, 
clumsily constructed, and required many men and much 
time and labor for their transportation, placing in position, 
and manoeuvring; but, for the period and purpose, they 
were doubtless of great power and sufficiently effective. 
The effective range of the ballista and catapult did not 
exceed 100 or 150 paces, but at this distance they were 
capable of discharging missiles of 300 pounds weight. 

In the Middle Ages the cross-bow came into military use, 
and gradually supplanted the catapult. It is probable that 
an engine of similar construction took the place of the bal¬ 
lista. These engines were constructed of tough, fibrous 
wood, and in some instances of steel. By their introduc¬ 
tion greater portability and some increase of range were 
obtained. 

The birth of artillery, as we of to-day understand it, 
must date from that of gunpowder. Although there is but 
little doubt that a compound of nitre, charcoal, and sul¬ 
phur was well known to the Chinese as early as the ninth 
century as an explosive agent, and had been heard of in 
Europe about the era of the first Crusade as adapted sim¬ 
ply for such a purpose, it does not appear that it was well 
known in Europe until it was introduced by Roger Bacon 
in the twelfth century. Its uses for artillery or projectile 
purposes did not seem to be understood until demonstrated 
in the early part of the fourteenth century by the Friburg 
monk Berthold Schwartz, to whom this important attribute 
was made known by an accident. 

The earliest record of the construction of cannon is about 



















ARTILLERY. 


279 


the middle of the fourteenth century. It is alleged that 
cannon were employed by Edward III. of England, A. I). 
1327, in his campaign against the Scots, and also by the 
French, A. D. 1338-39, and at the siege of Algesiras, A. 1). 
1342, but contemporaneous mention is obscure, and refers 
to cannon more as curiosities than as engines of war. The 
first well-authenticated use of cannon in battle was by Ed¬ 
ward III. of England in the battle of Cressy, A. D. 1346. 
Even on this occasion it would appear that their effect 
upon the French was due more to astonishment than to 
any inherent power of the novelty itself. From this date, 
however, the construction and use of cannon increased 
with great rapidity. At the very first they were of small 
calibre, throwing stone or leaden balls of only three or 
four pounds weight, but before the close of the century 
they were capable of throwing stone projectiles of forty or 
fifty pounds for field-guns and of 200 pounds for siege or 
fortification guns. In fact, their excessive size and weight 
not only seriously interfered with, but actually prevented, 
their general use. The earliest cannon were constructed 
of iron bars joined together longitudinally, and strength¬ 
ened by exterior hoops of iron. Wood, wound with rope, 
and sometimes with wire, was also used upon the exterior 
to strengthen them. One of the most interesting of ancient 
monster cannon still extant is the “ Mons Meg,” made in 


Fig. 1. 



1486 at Mons, Brittany, and now in the castle of Edin¬ 
burgh. An inscription on the carriage states that it was 
employed at the siege of Norham Castle in 1513. It burst 
in 1682 in firing a salute. It is made of iron bars hooped 
together, and its bore is twenty inches in diameter. (Fig. 1.) 

Another superb specimen of early cannon—of much 
later date than the preceding—is the “Tsar Cannon” (or 
King of Cannon) in the arsenal of the Kremlin, Mos¬ 
cow. It was made early in the seventeenth century under 
the emperor Theodore. It is of bronze, with a calibre of 


Fig. 2. 



The Tsar Cannon. 


about thirty inches. The carriage upon which it stands is 
merely an ornamental support. Cast without trunnions, it 
was probably laid in permanent position for firing. (Fig. 2.) 

Still more curious (for they are even yet, if we mistake 
not, in battery) are the famous Turkish guns defending the 


Fig. 3. 



Dardanelles. The engraving shows the interior of the fort 
of Chanak Ivalesi on the Asiatic side. There are said to 
be 102 guns (it is not stated that all are like those shown 
and described). The diameter of the shot is thirty-six 
inches, length of guns fifteen feet. They were cast at 


Bagdad. The gun in the foreground is that which hit the 
Windsor Castle in the famous passage up the Dardanelles 
of the British fleet under Admiral Duckforth in 1807. It 
will be observed that the wooden carriages form (only) per¬ 
manent supports, affording no angular motion to the gun, 
the direction of which is necessarily invariable. (Fig. 3.) 

Ancient cannon were in some instances made of leather, 
and as so made were used to some extent by Charles XII. 
of Sweden, A. D. 1697. 

In the very infancy of cannon construction the breech¬ 
loading principle suggested itself, and was made use of in 
a crude manner, but the low state of the mechanic arts for¬ 
bade the exact mechanism necessary to perfect the idea. 
About the middle of the fifteenth century cannon began to 
be cast in iron, and towards the latter portion in various 
alloys. A. D. 1477, Louis XI. of France caused many cast- 
iron cannon to be fabricated for use against the cities of 
Picardy and of Flanders. About this period the projectiles 
for large cannon, which had hitherto been of stone, were 
made of cast iron, but to some extent stone balls continued 
in use for a number of years afterwards. Shells were also 
introduced at this time, and we have a record of their use 
by Charles VIII. of France at the siege of Naples, A. D. 
1494. Brass cannon were first cast in England by John 
Owen, 1535, and a few years later in Scotland by order of 
James IV. During the last half of the sixteenth century 
mortars for throwing shells were introduced in Germany, 
and in the first half of the seventeenth century in France. 
Mortars were at first discharged by igniting the shell before 
it was introduced, and then igniting the charge in the mor¬ 
tar. The great danger of such a practice caused its aban¬ 
donment, but not until it had been followed for half a cen¬ 
tury. Towards the latter part of the seventeenth century 
a short cannon, called after its inventor (the German Ilau- 
bitz) a howitzer, was introduced for the purpose of using 
large shells by direct fire. In 1799 there was introduced a 
short cannon of large relative calibre called a carronade, 
named from the Carron Iron-works, where it was first cast. 
No long guns for firing hollow projectiles at long range by 
direct fire were known until 1812, when Colonel Bomford 
of the U. S. ordnance department invented a gun for that 
purpose, which he improved in 1814, and called a “colum- 
biad.” Some years afterwards this invention was intro¬ 
duced into France by General Paixlians, and was generally 
called in Europe by his name. In 1841 a gun of this 
character, but of somewhat different model, and called a 
sea-coast howitzer, was introduced into the U. S. service; 
and three years later these were followed by columbiads 
of altered model, increased weight, and greater power. Up 
to this period all ordnance was smooth-bore, the rifle prin¬ 
ciple, although suggested very early in the history bf can¬ 
non, and put into practice in military weapons A. D. 1600, 
having never been perfected or brought into general use. 
About 1847-48, soon after the application of the rifle prin¬ 
ciple to small-arms, experiments commenced to be made 
with rifled cannon, but ten or more years were consumed 
before the proper form, number, and twist of the grooves, 
and form of the elongated projectile, had been sufficiently 
ascertained to justify any general use of rifled cannon. 
These varying elements are still the subject of scientific 
research and experiment, although rifled cannon have now 
very nearly superseded smooth-bore cannon throughout the 
world. 

Gunpowder was first used in the form of dust, but its 
great loss and inconvenience in use, and the discovery of 
its increased power in a granulated form, led, after some 
years, to its sole use for cannon in that form. 

In gun construction the prime considerations are tenacity, 
elasticity, and hardness. Cast iron, wrought iron, steel, and 
(for the smaller ordnance) an alloy of 90 parts copper and 
10 parts tin, are found to meet these conditions best. Since 
1860 the alloy has gradually fallen into disuse, England, 
France, and the U. S. being the only nations who use it 
now, and even these nations use it to a very limited extent. 

The present condition of gun construction is mainly ex¬ 
perimental. Iron in one form or another is the only ma¬ 
terial used for heavy artillery, but the particular form in 
which it is to be used, whether as cast, wrought, or steel, or 
whether in bars, coils, or ingots, or in combination—as, for 
instance, steel or wrought iron interior and cast-iron or 
wire-wrapped exterior—is still undecided, and it is left for 
experiments which are still in progress or to be made here¬ 
after to decide which is best. In the U. S. cast iron is used 
for smooth-bore guns, and also for rifle guns, but as its use 
for the latter has not proved satisfactory, experiments are 
now being made with wrought iron, and with wire-wrapped 
and other built-up guns, with fair prospect of success. In 
England modern gun construction at one period inclined 
to the use of a steel interior tube, strengthened by an ex¬ 
terior casting of iron, which is the system ol Palliser. But 
the superior excellence of the inventions ot Sir \\ illiam 














































































280 ARTILLERY. 


Armstrong, improved by those of Fraser, have resulted in 
the exclusive use, in that country at present, of the system 
of these two inventors. This method of gun construction 
is, in brief, a steel core (or body of the gun) strengthened 
by three or more exterior tubes of coiled wrought iron. 
The system is at present popularly known as the ‘•'Wool¬ 
wich.” 

In Germany and Russia, and some other European na¬ 
tions, the lvrupp system of heavy forgings of steel ingots 
is preferred. This last is by far the most expensive, and 
does not always produce the most durable guns. The 
question of breech or muzzle loading is still an undecided 
one. The Germans seem to prefer the first named, while 
Ihe English, after several years’ adoption of the first, have 
of late abandoned its use and returned to the muzzle-loader. 
In the U. S. experiments still going on have not yet dem¬ 
onstrated which principle is the best. The advantages 
of loading at the breech with heavy guns are numerous and 
great, but the sei'ious mechanical difficulties of perfecting 
the movable breech attachments have not yet been satis¬ 
factorily overcome. 

During the half decade (1855-00), and the succeeding 
decade (1860-70), enormous strides were made in gun con¬ 
struction, and in that of carriages and projectiles, and the 
manufacture of gunpowder. 

The plating of vessels of war with iron, and the increas¬ 
ing thickness of this armor, have led of late years to a very 
great increase in the size, weight, and calibres of sea-coast 
and naval cannon, and this in turn has necessitated very 
radical changes in the material and methods of gun con¬ 
struction. In England the lead in this direction was taken 
by Sir William Armstrong, who was subsequently followed 
by Whitworth, Fraser, Palliser, Blakely, and others. In 
Prussia, Krupp at Essen struck out a new method, which 
has proved so successful as to cause his guns to be adopted 
in large numbers by Russia, Austria, Belgium, and Spain, 
in addition to his own country. In the U. S., Rodman, 
Dahlgren, and Parrott have made their names famous by 
successful improvements in heavy gun construction. Each 
of the above-named inventors has given his name to his 
invention, and the guns are so recognized throughout the 
civilized world. 

The method of Armstrong is to form the barrel or body 
of the gun by welding at their ends several wrought-iron 
tubes, each of which is two or three feet in length, and is 
formed by winding a square bar of iron around a mandrel 
and welding the edges. The part of the gun in rear of the 
trunnions is strengthened first by an enveloping tube com¬ 
posed of a plate of iron bent in a circular form and its edges 
welded, and secondly by another enveloping tube made, as 
in the body of the gun, of spiral coils. As at first con¬ 
structed, the Armstrong guns were all breech-loaders, the 
movable breech arrangement consisting of a hollow screw, 
through which the charge was passed into the bore, and 
a wedge which fitted into a slot cut in the breech of the 
gun closing the rear end of the bore. This wedge was 
slipped into its place by a hand, and kept there by a few 
turns of the screw. The breech-loading principle having 
proved unsatisfactory in practice, it was abandoned, and 
all Armstrong guns were subsequently constructed as muz¬ 
zle-loaders. 

Armstrong’s method of construction has been consider¬ 
ably modified by the suggestions of Mr. Fraser, a leading 
employ 6 in the royal arsenal at Woolwich. These modifi¬ 
cations consisted, in brief, in reducing the number of coils, 
shrinking on the outer coils and trunnion-block together, 
introducing offsets or shoulders for hooking or securing the 
different parts to each other, and in using a cheaper iron 
for the outer coils. These modifications, while they did 
not improve the strength of Armstrong’s original inven¬ 
tion, reduced the cost of the gun nearly 50 per cent. As 
thus reduced the cost of Woolwich guns is about double 
that of cast-iron guns in the U. S. of equal weight. Early 
in 1867, Fraser still further modified his method by con¬ 
structing his guns, up to those of 9-inch calibre or 250- 
pounders, of four separate parts: 1st, the inner (or A) 
tube, a solid steel forging, tempered in oil, roughly bored 
out to a calibre slightly less than the proper one; 2d, an 
outer (or B) tube, composed of two single and slightly 
taper coils of wrought iron, united together endways, 
rough turned and shrunk on to the inner (or A) tube, 
which is accurately turned down to receive it, the process 
being easier to turn down the inner tube than to bore the 
outer one; 3d, a breech-coil or jacket, composed of a triple 
coil, a double coil, and a trunnion-ring made and welded 
together; and 4th, the cascable. Guns of this character 
have been constructed of 7-inch (115-pounder), 8-inch (180- 
pounder), 9-ineh (250-pounder), 10-inch (350-pounder), 
and, more lately (1871), 12-inch (600-pounder). Fig. 4 
shows the Woolwich 25-ton (12-inch) gun on its carriage. 
Still more recently, a gun of 11.6 calibre, of greater weight 


and throwing a projectile weighing 700 pounds, has been 

Fig. 4. 



made. This last gun is what is popularly known as the 
35-ton gun, or “the Woolwich Infant.” (Fig. 5.) In the 
calibres of the Fraser system above 9-inch one or two ad¬ 
ditional exterior coils are used. For its size and weight, 
the 9-inch Fraser gun is probably the most efficient gun in 
the world. 

Fig. 5. 



Whitworth’s method is to construct the gun of a low 
steel, the hoops cast hollow, hammered over a steel man¬ 
drel, annealed, and forced together (or the gun built up) 
by hydraulic pressure. The breech-pin, which is made of 
harder steel than the body of the gun, is screwed into its 
place. The striking peculiarity of Whitworth’s gun is the 
cross-section of its bore, which is hexagonal. 

The Blakely gun is composed of a barrel of low steel, 
over which is shrunk a tube of less elastic steel, and over 
all a cast-iron tube or jacket, to which the trunnions are 
attached. The two steel tubes are cast hollow, hammered 
over mandrels, and annealed. The projectiles for these 
guns are on the expanding principle. 

The Palliser method is to insert a steel tube in the bore 
of a cast-iron gun, cither from the muzzle, where it is 
secured by one or more steel screw-washers, or from the 
breech, in which case the steel tube only extends a short 
distance beyond the seat of the charge, and is secured in 
its place by a screw breech-plug. This method affords the 
opportunity of utilizing smooth-bore guns of older sys¬ 
tems by their conversion into rifle guns of considerable 
power and endurance. 

The method of Mr. Francis Krupp of Essen, Prussia, is 
to fabricate the body of his gun from a solid ingot of low 


Fig. 6. 



steel worked under heavy steam-hammers. The gun is 
strengthened by three or more steel tubes, which are 



























































































































AKTILLEKY. 


shrunk upon the central tube or mass of the gun, the last 
ring or tube enclosing the breech being forged in one piece 
with the trunnions, and made without any weld. The 
rings are of different lengths, as is usual with built-up 
guns, and the whole gun is diminished in thickness to¬ 
wards the muzzle, not by tapering, but by being turned 
with concentric steps of diminished heights. Fig. 6 shows 
one of Ivrupp’s field-guns on its carriage. Besides sev¬ 
eral thousand field-guns, Krupp has fabricated nearly 2000 
of 6-inch, 7-inch, 8-inch, 9-inch, 11-inch, 12-inch and 14- 
inch calibre. Of the last-named monsters (of which two 
have been made), both have successfully stood the proof 
of nearly 170 pounds of prismatic powder and a 1200- 
pound projectile. The 14-inch Krupp gun weighs fifty 
tons. (Fig. 7.) The first of its kind required the continuous 
labor, night and day, of sixteen months, and, with its car¬ 
riage and the turn-table (both of steel) on which it is 
mounted, cost $110,000, gold. Krupp’s partiality for steel 
induces him to make all of his projectiles and gun-carriages 
of that material. 


Fig. 7. 



In the Parrott method the body of the piece, or rather 
the gun itself, is of cast iron, cast hollow, and cooled from 
the inside (after the plan of Rodman) for the larger cali¬ 
bres, and strengthened about the seat of the charge by an 
exterior tube of wrought-iron bars spirally coiled-and 
shrunk on. For this purpose this portion of the gun is 
turned down to a cylindrical form. Besides his field-guns 
of 3 inches (10-pounder) and 3.62 inches (20-pounder), 
and his siege-gun of 4.2 (30-pounder), Captain Parrott 
has constructed sea-coast and ship-guns of 6.4 inches 
(100-pounder), 8 inches (200-pounder), and 10 inches 
(300-pounder). His mode of rifling is the increasing or 
gaining, twist. The Parrott gun is serviceable, of consid¬ 
erable endurance, and, when Parrott projectiles are used, 
of most excellent accuracy. The 10-pounder, 30-pounder, 
and 100-pounder seem to give better results than the other 
calibres. Fig. 8 shows the Parrott 200-pounder. 


Fig. 8. 



The method of Admiral Dahlgren of the U. S. navy has 
been illustrated only in guns for naval uses. His guns 
are of cast iron cast solid, and cooled from the exterior; 
they are of great thickness at the breech and as far for¬ 
ward as the trunnions, and from thence to the muzzle 
rapidly diminishing in thickness, so that their external 
configuration is not unlike that of a champagne-bottle. 
Dahlgren guns are chiefly of 9-inch and 11-inch calibre, 
and are adapted exclusively for hollow projectiles. A 
10-inch Dahlgren gun for firing solid shot has, however, 
been put in service. The 15-inch and 20-inch naval guns, 
although they have in great degree the exterior form 
of the Dahlgren, are cast hollow, cooled from the inside, 
and have the elliptical bottom of the bore, which are cha¬ 
racteristic features of the Rodman plan. The 9-inch, 
10-inch, and 11-inch Dahlgren guns have the bottom of 
bore in the conical form of what is known as “the Gomer 
chamber.” 

The guns of Gen. Rodman of the IJ. S. ordnance corps 
are all of cast iron, and are cast hollow and cooled from 
the inside, the exterior being meantime kept from rapid 
cooling by fires built around the gun in the casting-pit. 
Rodman guns are further distinguished by great thickness 
of metal at the breech, by graceful curves of their exterior 


281 


lines, by the absence of all exterior ornamentations, sharp 
angles, or edges, and of the cascable and swell of the 
muzzle, and by having the trunnions at the centre of grav¬ 
ity, thus doing away with preponderance and greatly facil¬ 
itating the service of the gun. Rodman guns are both 
smooth-bore and rifled. The calibres of the smooth-bore 
guns are 8 inches, 10 inches, 13 inches, 15 inches, and 20 inch¬ 
es, and of the rifle, 8 inches (corresponding exteriorly to 10- 
inch s.-b), 10 inches (to 13-inch s.-b.), and 12 inches (10 15- 
inch s.-b.), three dimensions of carriage thus answering for 
six guns. All Rodman guns are adapted to the use of solid 
as well as hollow projectiles. The 15-inch Rodman gun 
weighs 25 tons, the solid shot 450 pounds, and the powder- 
charge 100 pounds mammoth powder. The 20-inch Rod- 
man weighs 58 tons, its solid' shot 1060 pounds, and its 
powder-charge 180 pounds mammoth powder. Fig. 9 
shows the Rodman 15-inch gun. 


Fig. 9. 



In the U. S., in 1856, the systems of artillery in use for 
the land service were as follows: 

Field Artillery. —6-pounder and 12-pounder guns and 
12, 24, 32-pounder howitzers—six different pieces of ord¬ 
nance, and seven different kinds of carriages; the 12- 
pounder howitzer mounting on three different kinds of 
carriage. 

Siege Artillery. —12-pounder, 18-pounder, and 24-poun- 
der guns; 8-inch howitzer; and coehorn, 8-inch and 10- 
inch mortars—six different pieces of ordnance, and as 
many different carriages. 

Sea-Coast Artillery. —24-pounder, 32-pounder, and 42- 
pounder guns; 8-inch and 10-inch columbiads; and 10- 
inch and 12-inch mortars—seven different pieces of ord¬ 
nance, and as many different carriages. 

All of the various carriages were of wood. 

The system of artillery for the land service in use in the 
U. S. in 1873 are as follows: 

Field Artillery. —3-inch rifle and 12-pounder smooth¬ 
bore—two guns and two carriages. Fig. 10 is the 3-inch 
rifle, model of 1861, and at present in use. 


Fig. 10. 



Fig. 11 shows the 12-pounder smooth-bore on its carriage. 

Fig. 11. 



12-Pounder, Gun and Carriage. 


The 3-inch rifle (Fig. 10) is soon to be superseded by a 


Fig. 12. 



new 3i-ineh (Rodman) rifle, model of 1870, shown in Fig. 
12. This is to be mounted on the same carriage as the 12- 







































































































































































































































































282 ARTILLERY. 


pounder smooth-bore (Fig. 11), the weight being about 
the same. 

Sieye Artillery. —41-inch rifle, 8-inch howitzer; 8-inch, 
10-inch, and coehorn mortars—live pieces of ordnance and 
live carriages. 

Sea-Coast Artillery. —10-inch, 13-inch, 15-inch, and 20- 
inch smooth-bore guns; 8-inch, 10-inch, and 12-inch rifle 
guns; 10-inch, 13-inch, and 15-inch mortars—ten different 
pieces of ordnance and seven carriages, the 10-inch smooth¬ 
bore and 8-inch rifle, the 13-inch smooth-bore and 10-inch 
rifle, and the 15-inch smooth-bore and 12-inch rifle, having 
respectively the same exterior dimensions and mounting on 
the same carriage. 

All of the sea-coast ordnance and the mortars of the 
siege system have wrought-iron carriages. 

For two centuries after the invention of cannon no at¬ 
tempts appear to have been made to classify or arrange 
the various sizes and descriptions, or to systematize the 
organization of the material or troops of the artillery. So 
numerous were the varieties that were brought into the 
field, and actually used in battle, that great confusion in 
manoeuvre, difficulty in supply of ammunition, and uncer¬ 
tainty as to results ensued. These disadvantages finally 
became so many and great that l’eforin of some kind was 
essential. In the first half of the sixteenth century, under 
Francis I. of France, this confusion was reduced to some 
sort of system, and about the middle of the same century, 
under Henry II. of France, greater simplification and 
more systematic arrangement were introduced. The vari¬ 
eties of guns were reduced to six in all. It was not until 
more than a century and a half afterwards that any radi¬ 
cal and permanent classification and organization was 
effected. Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden made improve¬ 
ments in the direction of increased mobility of field artil¬ 
lery, and the genius of Frederick the Great of Prussia 
aided materially in the same direction, particularly by 
the introduction of horse artillery. Napoleon Bonaparte 
also, in his day, instituted many advantageous changes in 
the organization, mobility, and use of artillery. Early in 
the eighteenth century the French general of artillery, De 
la Valliere, reduced the number of calibres to five, and im¬ 
proved the construction and reduced the number of gun- 
carriages. Soon after the middle of this century, or about 
1765, the French general of artillery, De Gribeauval, 
effected more extensive and advantageous reforms. He 
separated the field system from the siege, reduced the 
charges of powder, and diminished the weight of field 
artillery; introduced iron axletrees, cartridges, elevating 
screws, tangent scales, perfect uniformity in carriage con¬ 
struction, and improved the draught of artillery when 
upon the road by increasing the diameter of the wheels, 
altering the position of the siege-gun on its carriage, and 
the manner of attaching the horses to all guns. These 
reforms were great, and were so excellent as fo ensure the 
permanency of many of them as the basis of the system 
of the present day. 

The improvements in artillery of the nineteenth century 
have been numerous and important, in fact, during the first 
two decades of its last half these improvements have been 
greater than at any period since the discovery of gun¬ 
powder. In 1827 the consti'uction and form of gun-car¬ 
riages were simplified, the models of guns were improved, 
and the number of calibres still further reduced. In 1850, 
Louis Napoleon, afterwards emperor of France, simplified 
the field-artillery system by the invention of a gun-how¬ 
itzer, a 12-pounder, which took the place of the 8, 9, and 
12-pounder guns, and 12, 24, and 32-poundor howitzers of 
the then existing system. Since the last-named date up to 
the present the chief changes may be stated in brief as fol¬ 
lows : 1st, improvement in the quality of iron for gun-con¬ 
struction, and in the methods of its preparation and use; 
2d, increased size and efficiency of heavy guns; 3d, the 
successful application and general introduction of the rifle 
principle; 4th, more general use of hollow projectiles, and 
especially of shells for heavy guns; 5th, the substitution 
of iron for wood in the construction of gun-carriages. 

The greatly increasing size of heavy guns of cast iron 
involved many mechanical difficulties of construction, and 
finally exceeded the limits of the possibility of perfect cast¬ 
ings. As early as 1844—45, Captain (afterwards General) 
Rodman, a highly intelligent officer of the U. S. ordnance 
corps, instituted a series of scientific investigations, followed 
by experiments, having for their object the removal of this 
difficulty. These investigations, pursued through several 
years, resulted in the introduction of Rodman’s system of 
hollow casting and cooling from the interior, which renders 
perfectly practicable the casting of iron guns of reliable 
endurance of the largest necessary calibre. Perfect success 
having attended the fabrication, by this method, of 8-inch 
and 10-inch guns, Rodman suggested the casting of a 
15-inch gun, which was successfully accomplished in 1860, 


and was followed by the subsequent fabrication of several 
hundred others. A 20-inch gun was next projected by 
Rodman, and the first one was successfully cast in 1863. 
Rifle guns of large calibre have also been cast by the same 
method, but, whether caused by imperfect form or construc¬ 
tion of the projectile, or for other reasons, those of the 
largest calibre (12 inches) have not possessed sufficient en¬ 
durance to resist the immense strains to which such guns 
are subjected. The further fabrication of such cannon has 
therefore been suspended in the U. S. 

Many changes, looking to the substitution of some other 
explosive compound for gunpowder, have been projected 
from time to time, but, although about ten years ago gun¬ 
cotton promised to afford the advantages sought after, its 
use, at no time extending beyond Austria, was soon found 
inexpedient, and was discontinued. Gun-cotton, nitro¬ 
glycerine, and its various compounds, dualin, dynamite, 
lithofracteur, etc., while they are excellent for mining, 
blasting, or ordinary explosive purposes, are found to be 
too quick and powerful for use in firearms, either small or 
great. A wide range of experiment, however, has shown 
that gunpowder can be greatly improved by greater care in 
the selection and manipulation of its ingredients, and by 
increased uniformity in the form and size of its grains. Ex¬ 
periment has further demonstrated that it is essential to 
vary the size of the grain for different calibres of cannon; 
that is to say, a large-grained (or slower-burning) gun¬ 
powder is more advantageous for the larger cannon, since 
it gives increased initial velocity with decreased pressure 
on the walls of the gun. This has resulted in the classifi¬ 
cation of gunpowder in the U. S. service into five kinds : 1, 
rifle powder , for pistols and carbines; 2, musket, for rifled 
muskets; 3, mortar, for field and siege-guns and mortars; 
4, cannon, for the smaller calibres of sea-coast guns; 5, 
mammoth, for 15-inch and larger guns. 

Within the last few years the improvements in the manu¬ 
facture of mammoth powder have been so marked that with 
charges of similar weights the initial velocity of a 15-inch 
projectile has been increased from 1300 or 1400 feet per 
second, with a pressure of 40,000 to 60,000 pounds per 
square inch, to 1800 feet per second, with a pressure of less 
than 30,000 pounds per square inch. As the work done by 
the impact of a projectile is in direct proportion to the 
square of its velocity, it is obvious how great are the advan¬ 
tages which have thus been obtained. 

The condition of artillery throughout the civilized world 
is at the present time in a great degree tentative or experi¬ 
mental—probably more so than at any time since gun¬ 
powder was discovered. The proper proportion of artillery 
to other arms, of the various classes and calibres to one an¬ 
other, and of the different kinds or varieties of projectiles 
most suitable for use, are all at present unsolved problems. 

In the organization of armies for the field the proportion 
of artillery to the other arms has at various periods of the 
world’s history varied between the limits of one gun per 
1000 infantry to six per 1000. Too great a proportion of 
artillery may give confidence to raw and inexperienced 
troops, but it encumbers an anny with an unwieldy train, 
and thus impairs its mobility. Too small a proportion 
weakens the army’s efficiency for many defensive as well as 
offensive operations, and renders some military operations 
exceedingly difficult, if not altogether impracticable. The 
topographical features of the theatre of war, and the pecu¬ 
liarities of the enemy’s organization, exercise a material in¬ 
fluence in the problem. 

In the war in the Crimea (England, France, Sardinia, and 
Turkey against Russia) the proportion of artillery was 
rather less than three guns per 1000 infantry and one per 
1000 cavalry. In the Italian campaign (France and Sar¬ 
dinia against Austria) the proportion was rather more, say 
three and a quarter to three and a half guns per 1000 in¬ 
fantry. In the seven weeks’ war (Prussia against Austria, 
Saxony, and Bavaria) the proportion was about the same, 
with perhaps a slight excess on the part of Austria. In the 
Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71 the proportion was three 
guns per 1000 infantry on the part of the French, and about 
four per 1000 on the part of the Germans. 

In our recent civil war (1861-65) the proportion was 
fixed at the outset at three guns per 1000 infantry, and two 
per 1000 cavalry, with the intention of reducing the for¬ 
mer to two guns as the infantry became more experienced 
and staunch. During the last year of the war the propor¬ 
tion was reduced in the armies commanded by General 
Sherman to about one and a half guns per 1000 infantry 
and one gun per 1000 cavalry, in order that the mobility 
of the armies for the extraordinarily long and rapid 
inarches they had to make might be increased. Under the 
circumstances this proportion was found to be quite suf¬ 
ficient. These circumstances were exceptional and abnor¬ 
mal, and perhaps unlikely to occur again. It is therefore 
not considered to be advantageous to reduce the proportion 

















283 


ARTILLERY, SCHOOLS OF. 


of artillery below two and a half to three pieces per 1000 
infantry, unless the topographical features of the theatre 
of war are mountainous or densely wooded. 

The organization of the artillery of the armies of the 
U. S. during the civil war was designed and executed by 
the writer. Peculiar circumstances compelled this organi¬ 
zation to be somewhat hastily decided upon and adopted. 
It therefore unavoidably included at the outset a variety 
of unsuitable calibres, but as soon as better and more uni¬ 
form material could be fabricated and placed in the hands 
of the artillery troops this temporary anomaly ceased, and 
but two calibres of field-guns were kept in the service— 
the 3-inch rifle and the light 12-pounder smooth-bore, and 
in the proportion of one of the former to two of the latter. 
The generally wooded character of the theatre of war neu- 
tralized in a great degree the advantages of rifled guns, 
and rendered this proportion the most desirable. For siege 
purposes the ordnance used were 4.2-inch and 4.5-inch ri¬ 
fled guns, 8-inch howitzers, and 8-inch and 10-inch mor¬ 
tars. At the siege of Yorktown, where unusual facilities 
of water-transportation greatly favored their use, 100- 
pounder and 200-pounder rifle guns and 10-inch and 12- 
inch sea-coast mortars were put in battery. For guns of 
position in permanent field-works and fortified intrenched 
lines, such as the defences of Washington, 24 and 32- 
pounders of the sea-coast smooth-bore system were exten¬ 
sively employed, these guns having been found on hand at 
the Washington Arsenal. 

The whole number of field-guns which were equipped 
and took the field with the various ai'mics of the U. S. 
during the civil war was about 1500, and they were trans¬ 
ported or accompanied by 40,000 horses, and served by 
about 48,000 men. 

The number of guns of position in use in the various 
field-works or intrenched lines during the same war was 
about 1200, and they were served by about 22,000 men. 
In the defences of Washington alone the number of im- 
placements for cannon were 1500, and there were actually 
mounted and in position 807 guns and 98 mortal's, which 
were served by 18,500 men. These defences, thi'own up by 
the engineers under the direction of General Barnard, 
were the most extensive known in history, exceeding even 
the famous lines of Torres Yedras designed by Wellington 
for the defence of the British army in Spain. They were 
37 miles in circuit, consisted of 68 sepai'ate forts (whose 
aggregate perimeter was 13 miles) and 93 battei'ies, the 
whole connected by 20 miles of rifle-trenches. Moi’e than 
30 miles of road practicable for artillery were consti'ucted 
concentric with the interior of this extensive line. The 
armament of these defences was served by 18,500 skilled 
ax'tillerymen, for whose oi'ganization, instruction, and 
progress especial care was taken by the writer when chief 
of artillery. Every foot of the approaches to these works 
was cleared of obstructions, and was directed in orders to 
be so carefully scrutinized and studied by the artillerymen 
of the various forts that the elevation of the guns and the 
length of fuse for the hollow pi'ojectiles were ascertained 
by actual experiment for evei'y part of them. There were 
no finer and better instructed troops in the world than the 
heavy artillei'y regiments which garrisoned the defences of 
Washington during the year 1863 and a portion of the 
years 1862 and 1864. 

The personnel of the field artillery of the armies of the 
U. S. during the great war alluded to was composed in 
great part of volunteers, but, though raw and uninstructed 
at first, such was the zeal and intelligence of officers and 
enlisted men that most of them finally became as well in¬ 
structed, as rapid in their movements, as accurate in their 
fire, and as steady in their courage, as veteran regular 
troops. The horse-artillery portion of the field artillery 
was, with only three exceptions, composed entirely of bat¬ 
teries of the regular army. They were of course attached 
to the cavalr}’’, opened and maintained the action for them 
in regular fields of battle, accompanied that body even on 
those rapid and sometimes remote “ cavalry raids ” upon 
the enemy’s communications and completely around his 
rear which constituted so extraordinary a feature in the 
late civil war. The services of this body of artillery could 
not possibly be excelled in brilliancy and Sian. 

The troops of the artillery in the regular army of the 
U. S. are at present (1873) organized in regiments, the de¬ 
tails of which are as follows: Five regiments, each consist¬ 
ing of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 3 majors, 1 adjutant, 
1 quartermaster, 1 sergeant-major, 1 quartermaster-ser- 
geant, 2 principal musicians, and 12 batteries. Each bat¬ 
tery consists of 1 captain, 2 first lieutenants, 2 second lieu¬ 
tenants, and 150 enlisted men (sergeants, corporals, arti¬ 
ficers, musicians, and privates). In time ot peace the 
President is authorized to reduce the battery organization 
to 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, and 60 
privates. The law requires that one battery in each regi¬ 


ment shall be “mounted”— i. e. equipped with guns, horses, 
etc.—and gives the President discretion to mount as many 
of the others as the exigency of the public service may 
seem to him to demand. For the purpose of diffusing 
throughout the regiment instruction in light artillery the 
orders of the war department require that each lieutenant 
shall serve a tour of two yeai’s in the mounted battery. 
When not thus mounted the remaining batteries of artil¬ 
lery serve as heavy or garrison artillery in the sea-coast 
fortifications. 

The pei-sonal armament of an artilleryman of the mounted 
batteries, whether field or siege, is a pistol and sabre for 
the sergeants, trumpeters, and drivers, and a sabre only for 
each cannoneer. The personal armament of the artillery¬ 
man of the heavy or garrison batteries, which serve in the 
sea-coast fortifications, is the rifle-musket and other equip¬ 
ment of the infantry soldier. 

The organization, as regards materiel, of a mounted bat¬ 
tery of the U. S. field artillery, when on a war-footing, is 
6 guns, 6 caissons, 1 battery-wagon, 1 travelling forge, and 
112 horses; and when on a peace footing it is 6 guns, 6 
caissons, and 80 horses, or sometimes 4 guns, 4 caissons, 
and 60 horses. Guns of different calibres or descriptions 
are never assembled in the same battery; and in times of 
war field-batteries are attached to divisions (sometimes to 
corps d’armee), and not to brigades. The equipment of 
ammunition of a field-battery for active service in war is 
400 rounds per gun, of which 200 rounds are carried with 
each rifle-gun (3-inch) and its caisson, or 128 rounds with 
each 12-pound gun (smooth-bore) and its caisson; the re¬ 
mainder being carried in the ordinary army transport-wagon, 
but accompanying the battei'y and under the exclusive con- 
ti'ol of its captain. 

The organization of a siege-battery in the U. S. service 
is 4 guns, 1 battery wagon, 1 travelling forge, and 60 horses. 
The amount of ammunition which accompanies the siege- 
battery is 250 rounds per gun, and it is transported in the 
ordinary ax-rny transport-wagon. 

William F. Barry, U. S. A. 

Artillery, Schools of. Special schools for instruction 
in artillery have for many years been organized and main¬ 
tained by the various nations of the civilized world as a 
component part of their military establishment. As early 
as A. I). 1515 such a school was organized by the Vene¬ 
tians. A few years later, Chai'les V. established a school 
of artillei’y in Spain, and another in Sicily. Towards the 
end of the next centui'y (1675) a school for practical instruc¬ 
tion in ai'tillery was established by Louis XIV. of Fi’ance 
at Douai, and a few years later instruction in the theory of 
the science was added to its coui’se. About the same time 
an ai-tillei-y school was organized in Saxony, and some 
years subsequently by the other nations of Germany. In 
Sweden, Austria, and Russia such schools were in existence 
befoi-e the close of the seventeenth century. About the 
middle of the eighteenth centui'y the artillei'y school at 
Woolwich was established in England. 

In some nations the school is a joint one for artillerists 
and engineers, but this is exceptional, the general rule 
being to keep the instruction of these two scientific corps 
separate and distinct. In the U. S. an artillery school for 
practice was established at Fort Monroe, Va., in 1823, and 
it continued in existence for about six years, and as a prac- 
tical school solely, when the exigencies of the military ser¬ 
vice (due chiefly to Indian wars) caused its discontinuance. 
This school was commanded successively by Col. Fenwick 
and Lieut.-Col. Eustis. In May, 1858, a school for prac¬ 
tical and theoretical instruction was organized at the same 
place, under the command of Lieut-Col. Harvey Brown, 
who in less than two years was succeeded by Lieut.-Col. 
Dimmick. This school languished after the first year and 
a half of its existence, and was finally brought to an end in 
1861 by the great civil war. In Nov., 1867, an artillery 
school for theoretical as well as practical instruction was 
again established at Fort Monroe, and has since continued 
uninterruptedly up to the present date (1873). This school 
was organized under the command of Brevet Maj.-Gen. 
Barry, who still remains at the head of its direction. 

The general course of instruction at all artillery schools 
is divided into the practical and theoretical. The theo¬ 
retical comprises mathematics, military surveying, as much 
of physical science as is essential for the artilleryman, 
military engineering, military history, etc. etc.; and in iho 
practical is included the drill and service of, and target prac¬ 
tice with, all kinds of ordnance, the laying out and construc¬ 
tion of batteries, and the duties of the artillery laboratory. 
In some schools of artillery the instruction only ol the com¬ 
missioned officers of that arm is the object, while in others 
instruction is extended to the non-commissioned officers 
and other enlisted men. In the artillery school ot the U. S. 
army the instruction is theoretical and practical, and is 
designed for the benefit of enlisted men ot all ranks, as 






















284 AETIODACTYLA—ARVA. 


well as for commissioned officers. This school is com¬ 
manded by a colonel of artillery, assisted by a lieutenant- 
colonel (who superintends the theoretical instruction) and 
a major (who superintends the practical instruction). The 
scholastic affairs of the institution are supervised by a staff 
composed of the commandant, the two other lield-officers, 
and the ordnance-officer who commands the arsenal at 
Fort Monroe. The adjutant of the school is the secretary 
of the staff. Each of the five regiments of artillery in the 
army of the U. S. has one foot-battery and its captain sta¬ 
tioned at the school. Upon each of these five captains are 
devolved the duties of instructor. From each regiment of 
artillery two first lieutenants and two second lieutenants 
are annually sent to the school for instruction. The coui'se 
of instruction extends over one year, and is conducted on 
a similar plan to that at the Military Academy at West 
Point. There are two examinations in each year for the 
officers, and one for the enlisted men. The first, during 
the last week in August, is for the officers, and is in mathe¬ 
matics only ; the second, commencing April 1, is for officers 
and enlisted men, continues about twenty days, and covers 
the entire ground of the theoretical and practical course 
of instruction. Those who pass the examination success¬ 
fully are awarded an engraved certificate, signed by the 
members of the staff, setting forth that fact. 

The practical instruction comprises the drill-service and 
mechanical manoeuvres of, and ample target practice with, 
every kind of ordnance used in the military service of the 
U. S.; the laying of platforms; the laying out and con¬ 
struction of field-works or intrenched lines for artillery; 
the embarkation, disembarkation, and transportation of 
heavy ordnance, carriages, and artilleiy machines; the 
practical use of all known artillery machines; the estima¬ 
tion of distances and their determination by plane-table and 
portable telemeters; and the duties of the military labora¬ 
tory as far as they concern the artillerist. The theoretical 
instruction includes mathematics, military surveying, as¬ 
tronomy, ordnance and gunnery, military history, the prep¬ 
aration and public delivery of written essays on military 
campaigns or biography, constitutional, international, and 
military law, and the theory and use of surveying;, astro¬ 
nomical, and ballistic instruments and apparatus. 

The school term commences on the 1st of May, annually. 
All reports from the school are made direct to the general 
of the army. Twenty lieutenants and from thirty to forty 
non-commissioned officers pass through the school annually. 

William F. Barry, U. S. A. 

Artiodac'tyla [from the Gr. apno?, “ entire,” “even,” 
and SaKTvAoi, a “finger” or “toe”], the term applied to an 
order of hoofed Mammalia having toes in even number, as 
two or four, and having a subdivided or complex stomach, 
and a moderate-sized simple caecum. To this order all 
those animals belong which are chiefly used for human 
food, and which have been domesticated from a period 
before the historical epoch. 

Artocarpa'ceae [from the Gr. apro?, “bread,” and 
*cap7ro?, “fruit”], a natural order of exogenous plants, of 
which the Artoear'pus inci'sa, or bread-fruit, is the type; 
it is regarded by some botanists as a sub-oixler of Urtica- 
cete. This order comprises more than fifty species, neai-ly 
all natives of tropical countries. The milky juice of some 
yields Caoutchouc (which see), and that of the cow tree 
(A ro8imum) is a rich and wholesome food, like cow’s milk. 
With these is associated the virulent poisonous upas tree 
(Antiaris toxicaria). The seeds of this oi’der are all in- 
nocuoxxs, and those of the Musanga of Western Africa are 
esculent. The fruit is often a sorosis, a single succulent 
frxxit foirned of the aggregated germens of a whole spike 
of flowers, as in the case of the bread-fruit. 

Artois (anc. Atreba'tes), a former province of France, 
bordering on Flanders, is included in the departixxent of 
Pas-de-Calais. The capital of Artois was Arras. Artesian 
wells derive their name from Artois (in Latin Arte'sia). 
Charles X. of France before his accession was styled count 
of Artois. 

Arts, Degrees in. The tei*m arts (in Latin artes ) or 
liberal arts ( ar'tes libera'les), as applied to certain studies, 
was derived from the ancient Romans; and as eai-ly as the 
ninth century was used in the schools of Paris, which 
probably received it from Martian us Capella, and on the 
establishment of universities the term “faculty of arts” 
denoted instructors in science and philosophy, as distin¬ 
guished from the faculties of theology, medicine, and law. 
The number of arts was seven: grammar, logic, rhetoric 
(the Trivium), music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy 
(the Quadrivium). The terms ixiaster and doctor were ap¬ 
plied synonymously to persons teaching by authority from 
the universities. In process of time the first was restricted 
to the liberal arts, the other to divinity, law, and medicine. 
Music, however, had its doctorate, as well as philosophy 


and letters. When regulations were established to prevent 
unqualified persons from teaching, and an initiatory disci¬ 
pline was prescribed, these terms were called gradus , “ steps” 
or “degrees.” The passing of the initiatory stage, first in¬ 
stituted by Gregory IX. (1227-41), conferred the title of 
bacheloi - , and an additional course was necessary to obtain¬ 
ing that of master. Later, the doctorate became, in some 
countries, the third or highest degree. The titles of mas¬ 
ter and doctor implied the duty of publicly teaching some 
of the branches included in the “arts ”—a custom still re¬ 
tained, to some extent, in the Geiman universities, but in 
other countries the titles are simply honorary, or at most in¬ 
dicate the passage of certain examinations. The doctorate 
in medicine, and in some countries that of law, are excep¬ 
tions to this rule. (See Doctor.) 

Art-Union [Ger. Kunst'vereiii], an institution for the 
pi'omotion of a libei’al patronage of the fine arts; a society 
formed to encoui’age the fine arts by the purchase of pic¬ 
tures with a common fxxnd raised by subscription. The 
works they pui’chase are sometimes distributed by lot or 
lottery. Art-unions originated in France about 1812, and 
wei-e introduced in 1823 into Germany, where they pro¬ 
duced probably greater results than in any other country. 
The Dxisseldorf Art-Union, formed in 1829, has given a 
powerfxil impulse to the fine arts, anti has promoted the 
execution of monumental works of art of the highest class. 
In the course of twenty years it expended on works of art 
268,000 thalers. These institutions wei-e introduced into 
Great Britain in 1834, the first being formed in Edinburgh. 
The London Art-Union was oi-ganized in 1837, and was very 
successful. The oldest of these societies in the U. S. was 
the American Ai’t-Union, foxxnded at New York in 1839. It 
had, in 1849, 18,960 members, and an income of about 
$96,000. This society was discontinued because the lot¬ 
tery business was illegal in that State. It is usual to give 
an engraving to each of those who draw blanks in the 
lottery. 

A'rum [Lat. a'rum; Gr. apov ], a genus of endogenous 
herbaceous plants of the order Arace^e (which see). This 
geixus has a convolute spathe, the spadix naked at the 
point. In some of its species a stench like that of carrion 
is produced during flowering, and in some a remarkable de¬ 
gree of heat. The flower of Arum cordifolium has a tem- 
pei'atxxre of 121° F. when the air is only 66°. The Arum 
maculatum (xvake-robin) is a native of England, has arrow- 
shaped leaves, often spotted, and a tuberous, poisonous root, 
which is a drastic cathartic too violent to be taken in a 
fresh state. A nourishing farina called Portland arrow- 
root is p repaired from the root after the acrid juice is re¬ 
moved. The Arum Indicum is cxxltivated in Bengal for its 
stems and tubers, which are eatable. The Arum triphyllum 
of Linnaeus (which recent botanists call Arisieuia triphyllum), 
or Indian turnip, is a native of the U. S. The tubers of 
this plant have medicinal properties like those of Arum 
macidatum, and yield a pure white starch. 

Ar'un, a river of England, in the county of Sussex, 
enters the English Channel at Little Hampton, after a course 
of 35 miles. It is connected by a canal with the Wey. 

Ar'undel, a small mai'ket-town of England, in Sussex, 
on the Arun, 5 miles from the sea and 50 miles S. S. W. of 
London. It is on the south side of the South Doxvns. 
Here, on the summit of a hill, is a magnificent castle which 
was built soon after the Noi'man Conquest, and is the resi¬ 
dence of the dukes of Norfolk. Arundel returns one mem¬ 
ber to Parliament. Pop. in 1871, 2956. 

Ar'undel (or Arunde'lian) Mar'bles, a collection 
of ancient Greek sculptures purchased in Smyrna and else- 
where, chiefly by Sir William Petty, for Thomas, earl of 
Arundel. They were sent to England in 1627, and pre¬ 
sented in 1667 to the University of Oxford by his grandson, 
Heni-y Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk. They consist 
principally of fragments of the “ Parian Chronicle,” sup¬ 
posed to have been executed in the island of Paros about 
263 B. C. This Chronicle, inscribed on marble, contained 
(when pei-fect) a table of the principal events in Greciaix 
histoi-y, from the times of Cecrops (1582 B. C.) to the ar- 
chonship of Diognetxxs, 264 B. C. The inscription for the 
last ninety yeai*s is lost. 

Arus'pices, or Harus'pices [probably from ham 
(=hira, “entrails”), and specio, to “see” or “examine”], 
\vere Roman soothsayers, who foretold future events from 
the inspection of the entrails of the victims offered at the 
altars of the gods. Their art, as perhaps that of the au¬ 
gurs, was brought from Etnxria. 

Ar'va, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. and E. 
by Galicia, on the S. by Liptau, and on the W. by Trencsin 
and Galicia. Area, 802 sqxxare miles. It consists entirely 
of a high mountain-valley, sterile, but beautiful in its 
grandeur. The chief article of export is lumber. Pop. in 
1869, 82,364. 


















A R VICOL A—ASCAR IS. 


285 


Arvic/ola [from the Lat. ar'vum, a “field,” and co'lo, 
to “inhabit”], a genus of small animals of the order Ro- 
dentia, allied to the rat and mouse. They are distinguished 
by the prismatic form and fangless structure of the molar 
teeth. The Arvicola agrestis (field campagnol) and the 
Arvicola riparia (bank campagnol) are natives of Eng¬ 
land. The U. S. have more than twenty species, called 
field-mice. 

Arvieux, cl’ (Laurent), Chevalier, a French travel¬ 
ler and Orientalist, born at Marseilles in 1635. He nego¬ 
tiated a treaty with the dey of Tunis in 1668, and was con¬ 
sul at Aleppo from 1679 to 1686. He wrote a “ Treatise on 
the Manners and Customs of the Arabs” (1717). From 
his papers Labat compiled “Memoirs of Chevalier d’Ar- 
vieux, containing his travels in Asia” (6 vols., 1735). His 
works are commended by Niebuhr. Died in 1702. 

, Arx (gen. Ar'cis), a Latin name given to the citadel 
of an ancient city. The arx was a fortified eminence or 
rock, either within the walls or close to the city, and some¬ 
times bore a particular name, as the Cadmea of Thebes, 
the Acrocorinthus of Corinth, the Acropolis or Cecropia of 
Athens. The arx of Rome was part of the Capitoline Hill. 

A'rya, or Ar'yan. Arya, a Sanscrit word, signifying 
“ respectable,” “ honorable,” was applied to the Sanscrit¬ 
speaking people of India, whose ancestors came aci'oss the 
river Indus from Central Asia probably between 1600 and 
2000 years before the Christian era. The three higher 
castes of the Hindoos are comprehended under the general 
term of Arya; the lowest of the four principal castes (the 
Sudras) belonging to the races whom the Aryas had con¬ 
quered. Arya is supposed to have originally signified 
“ agriculturist,” at a time when the most respectable por¬ 
tion of the people of that part of Asia were engaged in 
cultivating the earth, raising herds of cattle, flocks of 
sheep, etc., whence it came to signify “respectable.” The 
Aryas were of the same race as the ancient Persians, and 
it is said that even so late as the reign of Darius Hystaspes 
the Persians could converse with the light-complexioned 
Hindoos without the aid of an interpreter. Prof. Bopp of 
Berlin, in his “ Comparative Grammar,” has shown that 
many of the languages of Europe are closely related to the 
Sanscrit; or, to adopt the words of the late Prof. Wilson 
of Oxford, “ He may be considered to have established, 
beyond reasonable question, a near relationship between 
the languages of nations separated by the intervention of 
centuries and the distance of half the globe, by differences 
of physical formation and social institutions—between the 
forms of speech current among the dark-complexioned 
natives of India and the fair-skinned races of ancient 
and modern Europe; a relationship of which no suspicion 
existed fifty years ago, and which has been satisfactorily 
established only within a recent period.” (See Preface to 
the translation of Bopp’s “ Comparative Grammar,” Lon¬ 
don, 1845.) All those nations whose relationship has been 
proved “beyond reasonable question” by a careful com¬ 
parison of their languages, are designated as the Indo- 
European (or, less correctly, the Indo-Germanic) family 
of nations. Their ancestors, we have every reason to be¬ 
lieve on purely scientific grounds, were originally one peo¬ 
ple, and therefore Aryan, as a convenient general term to 
denote the race, has been applied not merely to the an¬ 
cestors of the modern Hindoos, and to their nearest of kin, 
the ancient Persians, but to the whole of this extensive 
family, whose forefathers, there is reason to believe, once 
inhabited Central Asia, whence they migrated in search 
of fresh pastures and more room, some going south-east¬ 
ward to India, some northward or north-westward to Rus¬ 
sia, and others westward to Asia Minor, thence to South¬ 
ern and Central Europe. J. Thomas. 

Ar'zachel, a Jewish astronomer, who was born in 
Spain, and lived about 1050-1100. He ascertained the 
obliquity of the ecliptic, and prewired astronomical tables, 
called “ Toledo Tables.” 

As (gen. As'sis), a Roman weight, also called Libra, 
was nearly equal to the modern pound. It was divided 
into twelve uncirn, “ounces,” and was equal to 10 ounces 
18 pennyweights 13^- grains Troy. As was also the name 
of a brass Roman coin which originally weighed a pound, 
but in consequence of the increase of the value of metal 
compared with that of food and other commodities, it was 
gradually reduced to half an ounce. During the second 
Punic war the value of the as was about two farthings, but 
its weight and the prices of articles in Rome were so va¬ 
riable that its value cannot be accurately fixed. (See Ses¬ 
tertius.) 

A'sa Dul'cis (7. e. “sweet asa”), a drug highly prized 
by the ancients as an antispasmodic and diuretic. It was 
considered to be worth its weight in gold, and was obtained 
from a plant of the genus Thapsia, a native of Barbary and 
Southern Europe. 


Asafoetida. See Assafcetida. 

Asagrae'a (named in honor of Asa Gray, the botanist), 
a Mexican plant which has bulbous stems, linear, grass-like 
leaves, and spikes of whitish flowers. The Asagnva offici¬ 
nalis, which is said to be the only species of this genus, pro¬ 
duces the cebadilla-seeds from which the poison veratria is 
prepared. 

Asan'der [Gr. , 'A<mi'Spos], a Macedonian general, a 
brother of Parmenio, was appointed governor of Lydia by 
Alexander the Great in 334 B. C. After the death of that 
king he was satrap of Caria, an ally of Ptolemy, and an 
enemy of Antigonus, against whom he waged war about 
314 B. C. 

A'saph, a Hebrew musician who lived in the reign of 
David. He was a Levite, and was chorister in the musical 
services which David organized in connection with religious 
worship. He wrote several of the Psalms of the Bible. 

Asarabac'ca (As'arum Europ&'um), an herbaceous 
plant of the natural order Aristolochiaceae, having kidney¬ 
shaped leaves, is a native of Europe. The roots and leaves 
are stimulant, purgative, and emetic, and contain a bitter 
principle or crystalline substance called asarin. 

As'arum [Gr. aaapov ], a genus of herbaceous plants of 
the natural order Aristolochiaceae, is distinguished by 
12-horned stamens, distinct from each other and from the 
style, and by a bell-shaped, 3-lobed perianth. The Asarum 
Canadense, a native of North America, called wild ginger, 
is a stimulant and diaphoretic. Two other species grow in 
the Atlantic States. 

As'ben, called also A'ir, a country of Central Africa, 
situated between about 15° and 20° N. lat., and 6° and 11° 
E. Ion., borders on the Desert of Sahara. It includes a 
large tract of desert, and some fertile land which produces 
dates. The climate is hot and dry. Capital, Agades. 

Asbestos, or Asbestus [from the Gr. aapeaTos, “in¬ 
destructible ”], a fibrous mineral composed of fine, flexible, 
and easily separable filaments of a silky lustre. It is a va¬ 
riety of actinolite and tremolite, and consists chiefly of 
silica, magnesia, and lime, or pyroxene. The fibreg of a 
very silky variety of asbestos are called amianthus. As¬ 
bestos may be woven into cloth which is incombustible, and 
if soiled may be cleansed by fire. The ancients wrapped 
the bodies of the dead in such cloth, in order that when 
they were burned on the funeral pyre their ashes might be 
kept separate. It was also used for the wicks of the lamps 
in the temples. Mountain cork and mountain leather are 
varieties of asbestos. It is now employed as a material for 
roofing, boiler-felting, etc. Asbestos is abundant in Cor¬ 
sica, Savoy, and the Tyrol. 

As^oline, a nitrogenous substance contained in soot. 

As'both (Alexander Sandor), a Hungarian officer, 
born Dec. 18,1811, fought in the revolution of 1848, and in 
1851 visited the U. S. He entered the Union aimy on the 
breaking out of the war in 1861, distinguished himself in 
various engagements, and was made a major-general in 
1864. He was minister to the Argentine Republic in 1866, 
and died at Buenos Ayres Jan. 21,1868, from the effects of 
wounds received in battle. 

As'bury (Francis), born at Handsworth, Staffordshire, 
England, Aug. 20, 1745, of Methodist parents, was con¬ 
verted at the age of thirteen, became a local preacher at 
sixteen, an itinerant under Wesley at twenty-two, came to 
America in 1771 as missionary; in 1772 became Wesley’s 
“ general assistant ” in America. During the Revolutionary 
war, though extremely prudent, he was the object of much 
annoying suspicion from the fact that he had scruples 
against taking the oath of allegiance. In 1784 he was 
elected bishop of the new Methodist Episcopal Church, and 
was consecrated by Bishop Coke. His labors and success 
in establishing his Church (chiefly in fields where churches 
were almost unknown) are among the most remarkable of 
which history bears record. Died in Spottsylvania, Ya., 
Mar. 21, 1816. 

As'calon (’Ao-jcdW of the Greeks), called Ash'kelon in 
the Bible, one of the five capital cities of the Philistines, a 
former seaport of Palestine, 14 miles N. of Gaza, 12 S. by 
W. of Ashdod or Azotus, and 42 W. S. W. of Jerusalem. It 
was anciently a place of much importance, and was espe¬ 
cially so in the time of the Crusades, when its small and in¬ 
secure harbor was filled with stones by the sultan Bibars, 
A. D. 1270. It is now a small village called Ascidan, and 
has extensive ruins. 

As'caris [Gr. do-Kapi's], (plu. Ascar'ides), a genus of 
intestinal parasites, of which the most common is the 
round-worm, Ascaris lunibricotdedf found in the intestines 
of man. Children frequently have them, principally in the 
small intestines. The body of this worm is round, elastic, 
with a smooth surface, of a whitish or yellowish color; it 














286 ASCAWANA LAKE—ASCIDIA. 


tapers especially towards the anterior extremity, which 
commences abruptly by three tubercles which surround the 
mouth. The body is transversely furrowed with numerous 
fine lines, and marked also with four lines from head to tail. 
In the female there is usually a constriction of the body at 
the distance of about one-third of its length from the mouth. 
Sometimes, especially in young and weakly children, their 
accumulation may cause serious disturbance; even convul¬ 
sions may be thus produced. There ai’e no symptoms 
(apart from the passage of the worms from the bowels) 
invariably connected with their presence. Itching of the 
nose, capricious appetite, swelling of the abdomen, and 
grinding the teeth when asleep, may all occur, but they may 
also be produced by other causes. Ascaris vermicularis is 
the small white thread-worm or seat-worm, which, although 
called ao-Kapi? by Hippocrates, is by most recent writers 
called Oxyuris vermicularis. Its length is from two-twelfths 
to five-twelfths of an inch, the female being larger than the 
male. The head is blunt, widening on each side ,• the body 
tapers (at least in the female) to a point. Seat-worms, by 
the itching they produce, often distress children very much; 
they are less freqently met with in adults. (For treatment 
of worms, see Anthelmintics.) 

Ascawa'na Lake, a beautiful sheet of water, 2 miles 
long and 1 mile wide, in Putnam Valley township, Putnam 
co., N. Y. It is a place of summer resort. 

Ascen'sion, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, 800 miles 
N. W. of St. Helena, belongs to Great Britain. It is 10 
miles long and 6 miles wide. It is volcanic and mountain¬ 
ous, one peak rising to the height of 2870 feet. It has a 
fort in lat. 7° 55' 55" S. and Ion. 14° 25' 5" W. Turtles, 
vegetables, and birds’ eggs arc procured here. It was dis¬ 
covered in 1501. Capital, George Town. Pop. about 400. 

Ascension, a parish in the S. E. part of Louisiana. 
Area, 420 square miles. It is intersected by the Mississippi 
River, and bounded on the N. by the Amite. The surface 
is an alluvial plain, partly subject to inundation; the soil 
is fertile, producing sugar, rice, cotton, and maize. Capi¬ 
tal, Donaldsonville. Pop. 11,577. 

Ascension [from the Lat. ascen'sio, an "ascent"]. In 
astronomy, the right ascension of a star is the arc of the 
equator intercepted between the first point of Aries and 
that point of the equator which comes to the meridian at 
the same instant with the star. Measured always from 
west to east, the right ascension of a star corresponds or is 
analogous to the longitude of a place on the earth. The 
most convenient mode of designating the position of a star 
is to refer it to the equator, and to a certain fixed point in 
the equator. The point chosen for this purpose is the ver¬ 
nal equinox or first point of Aries, from which the degrees 
are reckoned eastward all round the circle. The right as¬ 
cension and the declination are thus the two co-ordinates 
by means of which the place of any star is determined. 
The right ascension is ascertained by a sidereal clock, and 
is reckoned or expressed in time. For example: if a star 
come to the meridan five hours after the first point of Aries 
passes the meridian, then five hours is the star’s right as¬ 
cension in time, which is equivalent to seventy-five aegrees, 
because one hour corresponds to 15° in space. Ascensional 
difference is the difference between the oblique and the 
right ascension of a celestial object. On account of almost 
all astronomical elements being now computed from obser¬ 
vations of right ascension and declination, instead of ob¬ 
lique ascensions and ascensional differences, this term is at 
present but little used. 

Ascension Day, or Holy Thursday, one of the 

great religious festivals of the Roman Catholic and Epis¬ 
copal churches, is held on the fortieth day after Easter, to 
commemorate the ascension of Christ into heaven. Ascen¬ 
sion Day has been observed at least since 68 A. D., and 
perhaps earlier. Saint Augustine believed it to have been 
instituted either by the apostles themselves or the bishops 
immediately succeeding them. 

Ascet'icism [from the Gr. acr/cew, to " exercise,’’ to 
"discipline’’], a term applied to a voluntary retirement 
from the world and the practice of acts tending to mortify 
the body; so called from the rigid discipline to which the 
devotee subjects himself, the object of the ascetic being to 
advance the spiritual interests of himself or others. As¬ 
ceticism was practised among Jewish and pagan nations 
long before the time of Christ, especially in India. The 
Essenes in Judaea and the Therapeutao in Egypt were bodies 
of Jewish ascetics. At the present day, asceticism is most 
prevalent among Brahmans, Booddhists, and Christians of 
the Armenian, Coptic, Greek, and Roman Catholic churches. 
Early in the second century zealous members of the Chris¬ 
tian Church devoted themselves to lives of poverty, cel¬ 
ibacy, and abstinence from all sensual gratification. Some 
of these remained among men, others dwelt apart as her¬ 
mits- The union of numbers of hermits into one body 


was first made by Pachomius, 340 A. D. This was the vir¬ 
tual origin of Monasticism (which see). 

Ascet'ics [for etymology see preceding article], a name 
commonly given to those who in the early ages of Christian¬ 
ity devoted themselves to a solitary and contemplative life, 
practising great austerities, with a view to mortify the flesh 
and withdraw the mind from worldly objects; also applied 
to those persons in India and other countries who lead a 
life of Asceticism (which see). The ascetics of India are 
especially celebrated on account of the severe and even 
terrible austerities which they practise. One man will 
stand all day in one position exposed to the rays of a burn¬ 
ing sun; another will hold his hands clenched till his finger¬ 
nails grow through them. 

Asch, a town of Austria, in Bohemia, 100 miles W. of 
Prague. It has factories of linen, calico, paper, hosier}', 
and leather goods, and many dyeing establishments and 
breweries. Pop. in 1809, 9405. 

Aschaf'fenlmrg, a town of Bavaria, in the circle of 
Lower Franconia, on the right bank of the Main, 24 miles 
by rail E. S. E. of Frankfort. It has a royal castle, a 
Gothic church, a library of about 22,000 volumes, a hospi¬ 
tal, a gymnasium; also manufactures of woollen goods, 
paper, straw goods, etc. It belonged to the elector of 
Mentz for many centuries, and was ceded to Bavaria in 
1814. A victory of the Prussians over the Austrians was 
gained here July 14, 1866. Pop. in 1871, 9212. 

As'cliam (Roger), an eminent English scholar and 
writer, born in Yorkshire in 1515. He graduated at St. 
John’s College, Cambridge, in 1534, and distinguished him¬ 
self as a classical scholar. In 1544 he published a work 
in defence of archery, entitled " Toxophilus,’’ which is re¬ 
markable as a specimen of pure English style. He was 
appointed in 1548 tutor to the princess Elizabeth, whom he 
instructed in Greek and Latin, but he resigned that posi¬ 
tion in 1550. Soon after this event he was sent as secre¬ 
tary of embassy to the court of the emperor Charles V., 
and passed three years in Germany. Although he was a 
Protestant, he was appointed Latin secretary to Queen 
Mary in 1553, and after her death (in 1558) he was re¬ 
tained at court in the double capacity of secretary and 
tutor to Queen Elizabeth, who again took lessons in Greek 
and Latin. He remained at her court until his death, Dec. 
30, 1588, having by his prudence or good fortune passed 
through very perilous times without persecution or dishon¬ 
orable temporizing. His chief work, "The Schole-Mastcr’’ 
(1571), contains excellent advice on the subject of learning 
Latin. (See Dr. Johnson’s "Life of R. Ascham,’’ prefixed 
to his works, 1767 ; Grant, " De Yita Rogeri Ascham.’’) 

Asch'bach (Joseph), a German historian, born at 
Hochst, near Frankfort-on-the-Main, in 1S01. He ob¬ 
tained a chair of history at Bonn about 1842, and in 1853 
at Vienna. His most important works are a " History of 
the Emperor Sigismund’’ (3 vols., 1838-45); "Allgemeines 
Kirchenlexicon’’ (4 vols., 1846-50), and " Roswitha und 
Conrad Celtes" (1867). He also wrote a "History of the 
Visigoths" (1827) and a “History of the Omeyyades in 
Spain" (2 vols., 1829-30). 

Asch ersle'ben, a town of Prussia, in the province 
of Saxony, is on the river Eine, 18 miles W. S. W. of Mag¬ 
deburg. It has about seven churches, one synagogue, and 
a gymnasium, and is surrounded by a strong wall. Here 
are manufactures of flannel, frieze, linens, pottery, and 
brandy. Pop. in 1871, 16,734. 

Ascians, or As'cii [from the Greek a, priv., and aula, 
a " shade” or "shadow"], literally, "without shadow.” A 
term applied to the people of the torrid zone, who have 
twice in the year the sun perpendicular above their heads, 
and hence are without shadow. 

Ascid'ia, or Ascid'ians [from the Gr. aa-slS lov (dimin. 
of ia-Ko ?), a "leathern battle’’], a group of molluscoids of 
the class Tunicata. They have no shell, but are enclosed 
in an elastic tunic with two orifices, and resemble a bottle 
or jar. Within the external tunic is a muscular membrane, 
regarded as corresponding to the mantle of the other Mol- 
lusca. The greater part of the cavity of the mantle forms 
a branchial sac, the folded lining of which constitutes the 
gills (branchiae). The movements of numerous cilia around 
the mouth bring into it a current of sea-water, which passes 
out at the vent or anal orifice. They have no eyes or other 
organs of special sense, but they have hearts and a circula¬ 
tion of blood, with the remarkable peculiarity that its direc¬ 
tion is sometimes reversed. In their mature state they are 
fixed by the base to some solid substance, as a rock or sea¬ 
weed, but the young, resembling tadpoles in form, swim by 
means of a vibratile tail, which disappears when they settle. 
The group is divisible into solitary or simple (Ascidiadm) 
and compound ascidians (of several families), members of 
which are connected by a tubular stem, and to some extent 












ASCIDIUM—ASGILL. 


have a common circulation of blood, though each has its 
own heart, respiratory apparatus, and digestive organs. 
In other kinds, more strictly called compound ascidians, 
the tunics of many are united into a mass, and they form 
systems like zoophytes. The individuals in these systems 
have always sprung by gemmation from one, and both the 
solitary and compound ascidians propagate by eggs. “In 
the dim obscurity of the past,” says Darwin, “ we can see 
that the early progenitor of all the Yertebrata must have 
been an aquatic animal provided*with branchiae, with the 
two sexes united in the same individual, and with the most 
important organs of the body (such as the brain and heart) 
imperfectly developed. This animal seems to have been 
more like the larvae of our existing marine ascidians than 
any other known form.” (See “ Descent of Man,” vol. ii., 
p. 372.) 

Ascid'ium [from the Gr. olo-klSlov (dimin. of CL(TK.6q ), a 
“small leathern bag or bottle”], a hollow, pitcher-shaped 
body which occurs on the stems of certain plants, as Ne¬ 
penthes and Sarracenia. It usually contains water, and is 
sometimes furnished with reflexed hairs, which prevent the 
escape of insects that fall into it. (See Nepenthes.) As- 
cidium is also a genus of simple tunicaries, which gives 
name to the family Ascidiadse and the whole group of as¬ 
cidians. 

Asci'tes [from the Gr. acnco ?, a “skin,” a leathern bag 
for water, alluding to the shape of the patient’s abdomen], 
dropsy of the abdominal cavity, is most frequently an in¬ 
dication of portal obstruction, caused by “ cirrhosis ” or 
other disease of the liver, which hinders the return of 
venous blood to the heart and causes pressure in the veins, 
leading to transudation of serum into the peritoneal (ab¬ 
dominal) cavity. In other cases it is a symptom of general 
dropsy; or it may result from cancer or tubercle of the 
peritoneum; or, in children especially, it may appear as a 
temporary and quite inexplicable phenomenon, without se¬ 
rious danger or distress. Ascites must be regarded in al¬ 
most all cases as a very grave symptom of disease, yet 
there are not a few cases where the immediate danger 
passes away, and the patient becomes, for the time, com¬ 
fortable; but such results are tenqiorary and unfrequent. 
The treatment is palliative. Diuretics may be useful, but 
hydragogue cathartics are much more effective in relieving 
the symptom. Tapping may be practised where the dropsy 
very seriously distends the abdomen. The diagnosis be¬ 
tween ascites and ovarian dropsy is sometimes very diffi¬ 
cult. The distinctive marks can be appreciated only by 
the skilled physician. 

Asclepiada'ceae [so named from Ascle'pias, one of its 
genera], a natural order of exogenous plants, which often 
have twining stems, and almost always have a milky juice. 
The leaves are entire; the flowers are monopetalous and 
regular, but peculiar in their structure. The corolla is 
divided into live lobes; the filaments of the five stamens 
are usually united so as to form a tube, which is generally 
furnished with a crown or coronet of hood-shaped append¬ 
ages. The fruit consists of two follicles, with many seeds 
terminating in long down or silky fibres. This order com¬ 
prises about 1000 species, mostly natives of warm climates. 
Many of them are used in medicine, and others are culti¬ 
vated for their beautiful flowers, as the Stephan'otis flori- 
bun'da and the Hova carnosa, a hothouse climber, to each 
flower of which a drop of honey is always suspended. 
The type of the order is the Asclepias, several species of 
which are natives of the U. S. Among the medicinal plants 
of this order are Calot'ropis gigante' a, or mudar, Tyloph!ora 
asthmat'ica of India, and Vincetoxicum officinale. Useful 
fibres are obtained from the stems of several species of Calo- 
tropis, from Orthanthera viminea, and Ho'ya viridijlo'ra. 

Asclepi'adae [Gr. ’Ao-/cATj7ria5ai]. This term was first 
applied, among the ancient Greeks, to those who were re¬ 
puted to be the descendants of iEsculapius, the god of 
medicine; afterwards, to those who were trained in his 
temples (Asclepions) in the science and art of healing. 
Aristotle, though not a physician, was one of the family 
of the Asclepiadoe. Young men designed for the medical 
vocation, if sons of physicians, began their studies before 
their twentieth year; others, after a preparatory education 
lasting from the seventeenth to the twentieth year; in both, 
the special medical training probably did not end before 
their twenty-fifth year. Much secresy and exclusiveness 
were observed in their initiation ; and after the first ordeal 
of preparation had been passed, at the commencement of 
the ceremonies of illumination, the Hippocratic Oatii 
(which see) was administered to the candidate. At the 
close of the period of training came the ceremony of coro¬ 
nation, by which the young Asclepiadae were fully intro¬ 
duced into the profession of medicine. (See Watson, 
“Medical Profession in Ancient Times,” New York, 185G.) 

Asclcpiade'an, or Ascle'piad [from Asclepiades, a 


287 


poet who invented this metre], the name of a metre in 
ancient poetry consisting of four feet, a spondee, a chor¬ 
iamb, and two dactyls (or, according to some, two chor¬ 
iambs and an iambus). The first ode of Horace furnishes 
an example: 

“ Maecenas atavls edlte regibus.” 

Asclepi'ades [Gr. ’Ao-kAtjttkxStj?], a celebrated Greek 
physician, born at Prusa, in Bithynia, flourished about 
100—80 B. C. He practised at Rome, where he founded a 
school, and was very popular with the Romans on account 
of his pleasant and simple remedies. His maxim was, that 
a physician ought to cure his patients safely, speedily, and 
agreeably. He relied much on diet, bathing, and exercise 
or gestation. He wrote several works, of which only small 
fragments are extant. (See Gumpert, “ Asclepiadis Bithyni 
Fragmenta,” 1798; Bianchini, “La Medicina d’Asclepi- 
ade,” 1769.) 

Ascle'pias [named, on account of its medicinal vir¬ 
tues, from ’AcrKAr}7rt6s, the Greek name of Alsculapius, the 
god of medicine], a genus of perennial herbaceous plants, 
the type of the order Asclepiadacese, mostly natives of the 
U. S. The corolla is wheel-shaped and reflexed, the crown 
or coronet is fleshy, and each of its hooded appendages lias 
an incurved horn. The Asclepias cornuti (milk-weed or 
silk-weed), formerly called Asclepias Syriaca, is an Amer¬ 
ican plant, abounding in an acrid milky juice, which con¬ 
tains caoutchouc. The seed-vessels are filled with a silky 
down, which is sometimes used for stuffing pillows. The 
fibre of the stem is said to be valuable for ropes. The As¬ 
clepias tuberosa, sometimes called pleurisy-root, lias hand¬ 
some flowers. Its root is used as an expectorant and dia¬ 
phoretic. Many other species of Asclepias grow in the U. S. 

As'coli di Satria'no, an episcopal city of Italy, in the 
province of Foggia, 25 miles by rail S. E. of Foggia, on the 
eastern slope of the Apennines. Near it, Pyrrhus, in 279 
B. C., won a great victory over the Romans, and in 1246 
A. D. an imperial army crushed the Apulian insurgents led 
by Cardinal Rainer. Pop. in 1861, 5669. 

As'coli^Pice'no, a province of Central Italy, is 
bounded on the N. by Macerata, on the E. by the Adriatic 
Sea, on the S. by Teramo, and on the W. by Perugia. Area, 
808 square miles. The province consists chiefly of moun¬ 
tain-ridges running parallel to each other, the portion on 
the coast being of superior beauty. Chief town, Ascoli- 
Piceno. Pop. in 1871, 203,009. 

Ascoli-Piceno (anc. Asculum, Picenum), an old epis¬ 
copal city of Central Italy, in the province of the same 
name, is situated on a hill and on the river Tronto, 53 miles 
S. of Ancona. It commands a fine view of the Apennines, 
a few miles distant. It is well built, and has a cathedral, 
a museum, a theatre,.a library, and many private palaces. 
It was annexed to the Papal States in 1426. A battle was 
fought here between Tancred of Sicily and the emperor 
Henry YI. of Germany, in which the latter was defeated 
(1190). Pop. in 1871/22,937. 

Asco'nius Pedia'ims (Quintus), a Roman critic and 
commentator, was born probably at Padua, and lived about 
50 A. D. He taught at Rome, and is said to have been the 
master of Quintilian. Among his works were valuable 
commentaries on Cicero’s “ Orations.” Poggio Bracciolini 
found in 1416 at St. Gall commentaries on seven ora¬ 
tions—viz., “In Verrem,” “In Divinationem,” “Pro Cor- 
nelio,” “In Toga Candida,” “In Pisonem,” “Pro Scauro,” 
and “ Pro Milone.” He wrote a Life of Sallust, which is 
not extant. He died, aged eighty-five, in the reign of 
Domitian. 

Ascut'ney Moim'tain, an isolated mass of granite in 
Windsor co., Vt., 3300 feet above the level of the sea. Its 
summit affords an extensive and beautiful view of the val¬ 
ley of the Connecticut River. 

Asel'li [Lat. Asel'lius ], (Gasparo), an Italian anato¬ 
mist and physician, born at Cremona about 1580. He be¬ 
came professor of anatomy at Pavla, and acquired distinc¬ 
tion by the important discovery of the lacteal vessels in 
1622. He wrote on this subject a treatise entitled “De 
Lactibus sive Lacteis Yenis” (1627). Died in 1626. 

Asfeld, d’ (Claude Francois Bidal), Marquis, an 
able French general, born in 1667. He served with dis¬ 
tinction in Spain, and commanded the French cavalry at 
Almanza in 1707. He was second in command under I il- 
lars in Italy in 1733, was commander-in-chief in Germany 
in 1734, and became a marshal of France in that year. 
Died Mar. 7, 1743. 

As'gill (Sir Charles), a British general, born in 1762. 
He served against the U. S., and having been captured at 
Yorktown, was selected by lot from the prisoneis to >c 
hung in retaliation for the death of an American officer, 
but he was saved by the intercession of the French court. 
Died in 1823. 












ASH—ASHE. 


288 


Ash (F rax'inus ), an important genus of trees belong¬ 
ing to the family Oleacem, distinguished by imperfect flow¬ 
ers, sometimes destitute of corolla, and leaves unequally 
pinnate. The fruit is a samara, a winged pericarp. It 
comprises about fifty species, mostly natives of Europe and 
North America, and valuable for timber, for fuel, and shade 
trees. The Fraxinus excelsior, the common ash of Eng¬ 
land, is a beautiful ornamental tree, and the timber is 
much esteemed by carpenters, joiners, coachmakers, and 
wheelwrights. It grows to the height of 100 feet or 
more. Cultivation has produced several varieties of it, 
among which is the w T eeping ash, the branches of which 
droop nearly to the ground. The Fraxinus Ornus, or flower¬ 
ing ash, a native of Southern Europe, has more perfect 
flowers than the other species. A saccharine substance 
called manna is obtained from it by making incisions in 
the bark, and sometimes exudes spontaneously. Among 
the noblest trees of the genus is the Fraxinus Americana, 
or white ash, which is abundant in the Northern and Mid¬ 
dle U. S. It leaflets are petiolate, ovate, or lance-oblong, 
entire, acuminate, and in autumn are changed to a dark 
brown or purple tint. The timber is tough, and valuable 
for the same purposes as the Fraxinus excelsior. In the 
forests of the U. S. occur also the Fraxinus pubescens (black 
or red ash) and Fraxinus quadrangulata (blue ash), and 
others. The black ash ( Fraxinus sambuci/olia) is used in 
basket-making. The mountain ash, conspicuous for its 
clusters of red berries, is a species of Pgrus, having no 
affinity with the genus Fraxinus. 

Ash, a township of Monroe co., Mich. Pop. 1451. 

Ash (Joseph P.), an American officer, born in Pennsyl¬ 
vania. On the outbreak of the civil war he entered the 
army as a lieutenant of volunteers, was appointed a second 
lieutenant in the Fifth U. S. Cavalry April 30, 1861, and a 
captain Sept., 1863. In the action near Warrenton, Va„ he 
was wounded in six places before leaving the field; on re¬ 
cruiting service during convalescence. In the campaign of 
1864 of the Army of the Potomac, while endeavoring to 
rally a wavering division of troops at the action of Tod's 
Tavern, he was killed May 8, 1864. (Brevet major and lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel U. S. A. for conspicuous gallantry.) 

• G-. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eng’rs. 

Ashan'tee, written also Asiente, an extensive king¬ 
dom of Western Africa,, on the Gold Coast, Upper Guinea, 
is between lat. 5° and 9° 30' N., and between Ion. 0° 55' 
E. and 4° 7' W. It is bounded on the N. by the Kong 
Mountains, on the E. by Dahomey, on the S. by the At¬ 
lantic, and on the W. by Liberia. Area, about 75,000 
square miles. It is generally mountainous, well watered 
and fertile, and covered with dense forests, which are al¬ 
most impenetrable. The staple products are maize, rice, 
sugar, yams, tobacco, cocoanuts, gums, and dyewoods. 
Gold is said to be abundant here, and the chief articles of 
export are gold-dust, palm oil, and slaves. The people are 
warlike and fierce, and human sacrifices are common. They 
have some skill in the manufacture of sword-blades, cotton 
cloths, and golden ornaments. The government is a des¬ 
potism. Capital, Coomassie (or Kumassi). The British, 
who have a fort on the coast at Cape Coast Castle, were in¬ 
volved in a war with the Ashantees, which began in 1807 
and continued until 1825. The Dutch also had a colony 
on the coast until 1871, when they ceded it to the British. 

In 1873 a war arose between the Ashantees and the Brit¬ 
ish, because the British refused to pay the annual tribute 
to the king of Ashantee which the Dutch had formerly paid 
him. The Ashantees first attacked the Fantis, living 
under British protection, entirely defeated them, and sub¬ 
sequently succeeded in driving all the natives friendly to 
the British into the two forts Elmina and Cape Coast Castle. 
The British troops under Sir Garnet Wolseley then invaded 
Ashantee, and at one time the disturbances seemed to have 
been stopped; but as white troops cannot serve in these re¬ 
gions except in the winter months, and as the Ashantees 
are a fierce and warlike people, a satisfactory settlement 
may require more time and greater exertions. 

Ash'away, a post-village of Ilopkinton township, 
Washington co., R. I., has a national bank and important 
manufactures. 

Ash'borough, a post-village, capital of Randolph co., 
N. C., is 78 miles N. W. of Fayetteville, and 5 miles S. W. 
of Deep River. Pop. of village, 182; of township, 1172. 

Ash'bourne, or Ashburn, a market-town of Eng¬ 
land, in Derbyshire, near the river Dove, 12 miles N. W. 
of Derby. It is on the S. slope of a high hill, and has 
a large church, built about 1240; also manufactures of 
cotton goods and lace. The troops of Charles I. were de¬ 
feated here in 1644. Pop. in 1871, 4945. 

Ash'burnham, a post-village and township of Wor¬ 
cester co., Mass., 55 miles N. W. of Boston. It has one na¬ 


tional bank, three churches, and manufactures of chairs, 
lumber, wooden ware, matches, and cotton goods. Ashburu- 
ham Depot is at the junction of the Cheshire and the Ver¬ 
mont and Massachusetts R. Rs. Pop. of township, 2172. 

Ashburnham, a large village of Peterborough co., 
province of Ontario, Canada, on the Otonabee River, op¬ 
posite Peterborough. It has extensive lumber-mills and 
considerable trade in grain. 

Ashburnham, EaeAs of, and Viscounts St. Asaph 
(1730, in the peerage of Great Britain), barons of Ashburn¬ 
ham (1689, in the English peerage), a noble family of Eng¬ 
land.— Bertram Ashburnham, the fourth carl, was born 
Nov. 23, 1797, and succeeded his father in 1830. 

Ash'burton (Alexander Baring), Lord, an English 
diplomatist, born in 1774, was a son of Sir Francis Baring, 
an eminent merchant. He was employed in his youth in 
mercantile affairs in the U. S., and married a daughter of 
Senator William Bingham of Pennsylvania. In 1810 he 
became the head of the firm of Baring Brothers & Co. of 
London, and in 1812 was chosen to represent Taunton in 
Parliament, in which he acted with the Liberal party until 
1831, when he became a supporter of Sir Robert Peel and 
a moderate Conservative. He was returned to Parliament 
for North Essex in 1832, and was created Baron Ashburton 
in 1835. In 1842 he was sent as a special ambassador to 
the U. S. to settle a dispute which had long been pending 
in relation to the north-eastern boundary. He was se¬ 
lected for this mission because he was acquainted with the 
American people and institutions, and was inclined to a 
pacific policy. Lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster nego¬ 
tiated this important treaty, which was signed at Wash¬ 
ington in Aug., 1842, and was called the Ashburton Treaty. 
Died in May, 1848. He left a son, William Bingham 
Baring, who inherited the title. 

Ash'by, a post-village and township of Middlesex co., 
Mass. It has manufactures of lumber, tubs, etc. Pop. 994. 

Ashby, a township of Rockingham co., Va. Pop. 2268. 

Ashby, a township of Shenandoah co., Va. Pop. 2645. 

Ashby (Turner), a Confederate general, born in Fau¬ 
quier co., Va., about 1824. He was appointed a brigadier- 
genei’al in 1862, and was greatly distinguished as a cavalry 
commander. During Banks’s pursuit of Jackson in the 
Shenandoah Valley, Gen. Ashby was in command of cav¬ 
alry covering the rear of Jackson’s army, and in an en¬ 
gagement near Harrisonburg, June 5, 1862, he was shot 
thi'ough the body and killed. Ilis loss was severely felt by 
the Confederates, he being one of their ablest and bravest 
cavalry leaders. G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eng'rs. 

Ashby-de-la-Zouche, a market-town of England, 
in Leicestershire, 20 miles by rail N. W. of Leicester. It 
has a ruined castle in which Mary queen of Scots was once 
confined, and an ancient church in which was the burying- 
place of the Hastings family. Here are iron smelting-works 
and manufactures of hats and hosiery. Coal-mines and 
salt-springs occur in the vicinity. Pop. in 1871, 9153. 

Ash'clotl, or Azo'tus (modern Asdood or Esdud), an 
ancient city of the Philistines, in Palestine, about 3 miles 
from the Mediterranean and 12 miles N. E. of Ascalon. It 
was an important city and stronghold of the Philistines, 
who, after defeating the people of Israel in'the time of 
Samuel, captured their ark and carried it to the temple 
of Dagon in Ashdod. It was dismantled by Uzziah, be- * 
sieged by Psammetichus, and destroyed by the Maccabees. 

It is called Azotus in the New Testament (Acts viii. 40). 
Near its site is a village of mud houses, called Asdood or 
Esd&d, on the sea 21 miles S. of Jaffa. 

Ashe, a county which forms the north-western extremity 
of North Carolina. Area, 325 square miles. It is drained 
by New River. This county is a mountainous tract between 
the Blue Ridge on the S. E. and Stone Mountain on the W. 
The soil in some parts is productive. Cattle, sheep, and 
grain are extensively raised. Excellent ores of copper 
abound. Capital, Jefferson. Pop. 9573. 

Ashe (John), a general and patriot of the Revolution, 
born in England in 1721, emigrated to North Carolina in 
1727. He took an active part in the political movements 
which preceded the Revolution, and served as a brigadier- 
general during the war. Died, a prisoner of war, Oct. 24, 
1781. 

Ashe (Samuel), a brother of John, mentioned above, 
was born in 1725. He became chief-justice of North Caro¬ 
lina in 1777, and governor of that State 1795-98. Died 
Feb. 3, 1813. 

Ash'e, Ashi, or As'ser (Rab or Rav), a celebrated 
Jewish rabbi of Babylon, was born in 353 A. D. He was 
eminent for his learning and genius, and was the reputed 
author or compiler of the “ Babylonian Talmud,” a vast 
collection of traditions and legal documents, which was 













ASHER 


regarded among the Jews as the highest authority on legal 
questions. Died in 427 A. D. 

Asli'er, a tribe of ancient Israelites, descended from 
Asher, eleventh son of Jacob by the handmaid Zilpah. 
They were assigned a portion of land in the N. W. of 
Palestine, but never dispossessed the Canaanites and Phoe¬ 
nicians who dwelt there. The tribe furnished but one note¬ 
worthy person, the prophetess Anna, who lived during the 
infancy of Christ (Luke ii. 36-38). The territorial bound¬ 
aries and the history of this tribe are very obscure. 

Ash'erville, a post-township of Mitchell co., Kan. 
Pop. 144. 

Ash' es, the solid or earthy residuum left after the com¬ 
bustion of wood, coal, or other organic substances. The 
most important ingredient of the ashes of land-plants is 
potash, or a salt of potash with a portion of lime and silica. 
The potash is extracted from ashes by a process called 
lixiviation—leaching. By dissolving the salt contained in 
the ashes the water is converted into ley, which is after¬ 
wards evaporated by boiling. The insoluble part of the 
ashes remaining after lixiviation is called leached ashes, 
which is composed of carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime, 
oxide of iron, etc. The ashes of marine plants, and those 
that grow near the sea, contain soda instead of potash, with 
a small portion of iodine. The soda is also separated from 
the insoluble mass by lixiviation. Wood ashes are exten¬ 
sively used in the manufacture of soap, and are useful as 
manure. The salts obtained from them by lixiviation are 
called potash and pearl-ash, which latter is a carbonate of 
potassa. Bone ashes consist mostly of phosphate of lime, 
which is a valuable manure. (See Potash, Soda, and also 
Agricultural Chemistry, by Prof. S. W. Johnson, A. M.) 

Ashes, Volcanic, pulverulent lava, thrown out by 
volcanoes, consisting of minute fragments of various min¬ 
erals, as mica, felspar, magnetic iron ore, augite, olivine, 
etc. 

Asheville, the capital of Buncombe co., N. C., is 1 mile 
E. of French Broad River, 255 miles W. of Raleigh, and is 
an important centre of trade. It has one female college, 
three academies, a foundry, machine-shops, three furniture- 
factories, six churches, and three weekly newspapers. Pop. 
1400 ; of township, 2593. R. M. Furman, Ed. “Citizen.” 

Ash'field, a post-township of Franklin co., Mass. It 
has an academy, an insurance company, and a public li¬ 
brary. It is a place of summer resort. Pop. 1180. 

Ash'fortl, a post-village and township of Windham co., 
Conn., 30 miles E. N. E. of Hartford. P. of township, 1241. 

Ashford, a post-village and township of Cattaraugus 
co., N. Y., 35 miles S. E. of Buffalo. P. of township, 1801. 

Ashford, a post-township of Fond du Lac co., Wis. 
Pop. 1799. 

Ash Grove, a post-township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop. 
1146. 

Ash'grovc, a township of Shelby co., Ill. Pop. 1499. 

Ash Hills, a township of Butler co., Mo. Pop. 491. 

Ash'ippun, a post-township of Dodge co., Wis. Pop. 
1623. 

Ashkelon, or Askelon. See Ascalon. 

Ash'kum, a post-township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop. 
1315. 

Ash'land, a county of the N. E. central part of Ohio. 
Area, 390 square miles. It is drained by the Lake Fork 
and Black Fork, which unite to form the Mohican River. 
The surface is mostly undulating; the soil is very fertile, 
and adapted to wheat, grass, or fruit. Grain, wool, and 
live-stock are largely raised. The county is intersected by 
the Atlantic and Great Western and the Pittsburgh Fort 
Wayne and Chicago R. Rs. Capital, Ashland. Pop. 
21,933. 

Ashland, a county in the N. W. of Wisconsin. Area, 
2150 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Lake Supe¬ 
rior, and includes a group of islands called the “ Twelve 
Apostles,” in that lake. It is drained by the head-streams 
of the Chippewa River. The surface is uneven or hilly, 
and partly covered by extensive forests. Great quantities 
of pine lumber are exported. Among the resources of this 
county is iron ore, which abounds in a ridge called the Iron 
Mountains. Capital, La Pointe. Pop. 221. 

Ashland, a post-village, the capital of Clay co., Ala., 
75 miles N. E. of Montgomery. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper, two schools, and abundant water-power. Pop. of 
the township, 1499. J. B. Stedham, Ed. “Times. ’ 

Ashland, a township of Lawrence co., Ark. Pop. 147. 

Ashland, a township of Morgan co., Ind. Pop. 969. 

Ashland, a post-village of Boyd co., Ivy., on the Ohio 
River, 13 miles below Catlettsburg, and on the Lexington 
19 


ASHLEY. 289 


and Big Sandy R. Rerunning 20 miles into the interior to 
the celebrated coal-mines. It has two of the largest blast 
pig-iron furnaces on the Ohio River, and also one of the 
largest and most complete rolling-mills in the country. 
Iron ore, pig iron, and coal are shipped from this point. It 
has one national bank and one weekly paper. Pop. 1459. 

F. R. French, Ed. “Ashland Journal.” 

Ashland, the residence of Henry Clay, the eminent 
orator and statesman, is situated in Fayette co., Ky., about 
2 miles S. E. of Lexington. The estate of Ashland con¬ 
tained about 600 acres, of which 200 were appropriated to 
a beautiful park. 

Ashland, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass., at 
the junction of the Boston and Albany and Ilopkinton 
R. Rs., 24 miles S. W. of Boston. It has one weekly paper. 
The chief business is the manufacture of boots and shoes, 
boxes and lasts, emery, and grain-grinding. Pop. 2186. 

George P. Mayhew, Ed. “Advertiser.” 

Ashland, a post-twp. of Newaygo co., Mich. P. 770. 

Ashland, a post-township of Dodge co., Minn. P. 611. 

Ashland, a post-village, capital of Benton co., Miss., 
on the Tennessee line. It has one weekly paper. 

Henry S. Falconer, Ed. “Argus.” 

Ashland, a post-village, capital of Saunders co., Neb., 
is on Salt Creek, about 3 miles from its entrance into Platte 
River, and on the Burlington and Missouri River R. R., 24 
miles N. E. of Lincoln. Superior magnesian limestone is 
found here. It has two weekly newspapers and a national 
bank. Pop. 653. 

Ashland, a post-township of Grafton co., N. II. It 
has important manufactures of paper, card-board, flannel, 
gloves, etc. It is on the Boston Concord and Montreal 

R. R. Pop. 885. 

Ashland, a township of Chemung co., N. Y. Pop. 1016. 

Ashland, a post-village and township of Greene co., 
N. Y. The township contains six churches, and has beau¬ 
tiful scenery, being partly occupied by spurs of the Catskill 
Mountains. Pop. 992. 

Ashland, a handsome post-village with paved streets, 
capital of Ashland co., 0., is on the Atlantic and Great 
Western Railway, 85 miles N. N. E. from Columbus and 65 

S. W. from Cleveland. It has eight churches, two news¬ 
papers, two banks (one national); one mutual fire insurance 
company, chartered in 1851; two foundries, two machine- 
shops, a clover-thrashcr-and-huller manufactory; an ad¬ 
justable boot- and shoe-pattern factory, which sends goods 
to all parts of Europe; excellent schools, and three grain- 
elevators. Pop. 2601. 

L. J. Sprengle, Ed. “Ashland Times.” 

Ashland, a post-village of Jackson co., Or. 

Ashland, a township of Clarion co., Pa. Pop. 758. 

Ashland, an important town in the Mahanoy Valley, 
the centre of the anthracite coal-fields of Schuylkill co., Pa., 
on the line of the Philadelphia and Reading R. R., 97 miles 
from Philadelphia, within 2 miles of the Lehigh Valley 
R. R., and 13 miles from Pottsville, the county-seat. Ash¬ 
land is the second town in the county in point of popula¬ 
tion and business. It has one national and two State 
banks, two large machine-shops, foundries, etc. It is sur¬ 
rounded by a number of the largest coal operations in the 
region. It has one newspaper. Pop. 5714. 

J. Irvin Steel, Pub. “Ashland Advocate.” 

Ashland, or Ashland City, a post-village, the capi¬ 
tal of Cheatham co., Tenn., on the Cumberland River, 20 
miles below Nashville. Pop. 121. 

Ashland, a post-village of Hanover co., Va., on the 
Richmond and Fredericksburg R. R., 17 miles N. of Rich¬ 
mond. In May, 1864, General Sheridan, in the course of 
a raid, destroyed a depot here. It is the seat of Randolph- 
Macon College. Pop. of Ashland township, 3942. 

Ash'lar, or Ashler, a building-stone squared and 
hewn; dressed stones used for facing work when it is 
worked in regular beds and joints. Tooled ashlars are 
slabs marked with parallel flutings or grooves. Other va¬ 
rieties are called polished ashlar and rustic ashlar, the lat¬ 
ter of Avhicli has an uneven surface. 

Ash'lcy, a small river of South Carolina, rises in Colle¬ 
ton county, and, flowing south-eastward, unites with the 
Cooper River at Charleston. 

Ashley, a county of Arkansas, bordering on Louisiana. 
Area, 870 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by 
the Saline, on the S. W. by the Washita River, and is in¬ 
tersected by Bayou Bart holomew, which is navigable. C oal, 
copper, and lead have been found. The surface is gently 
rolling, and the soil sandy but fertile. Corn and cotton aro 
the chief crops. Capital, Hamburg. Pop. 8042. 

Ashley, a township of Independence co., Ark. Pop. 702. 












ASHLEY—ASIA. 


290 


Ashley, & township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 2110. 

Ashley, a post-village of Washington co., Ill., on the 
Central R. It. where it is crossed by the St. Louis and South¬ 
eastern R. R., GO miles E. S. E. of St. Louis. Pop. 1030. 

Ashley, a post-township of Pike co., Miss. Pop. 1222. 

Ashley, a post-village of Oxford township, Delaware 
co., 0., on the Cleveland Columbus and Cincinnati R. R., 
10 miles N. by E. of Delaware. Pop. 454. 

Ashley (James M.), born in Pennsylvania Nov. 14, 
1824, removed to Ohio in 1849, was a member of Congress 
from 1860 until 1868, when he became governor of Mon¬ 
tana Territory. 

Ashley, Lord. See Shaftesbury. 

Ash'mole (Elias), F. R. S., born at Lichfield, England, 
May 23, 1617, was educated at Oxford, and served as gen¬ 
tleman of ordnance under King Charles I. in the civil wars. 
In 1646 he turned his attention to the study of judicial as¬ 
trology and Rosicrucianism, and Oct. 16 of that year be¬ 
came a brother of the Free and Accepted Masons. He was 
Windsor Herald (1660-75), and married as his third wife a 
daughter of Sir William Dugdale, Garter principal king of 
arms. In 1659 the younger John Tradescant gave him his 
collection of curiosities, which Ashmole presented in 1683 
to Oxford University. It was the basis of the present Asli- 
molean Museum. He wrote “ Theatrum Chymicum” (1652), 
“ The Way to Rlisse ” (1658), “ History of the Order of the 
Garter” (1672), “History of Berkshire” (3 vols. folio, 
1715), and a whimsical “ Diary.” Died May 18, 1692. “He 
was,” says Anthony Wood, “ the greatest virtuoso and curi- 
oso that ever was known in England. . . . He did worthily 
deserve the title of Mercurio-pliilus Anglicus.” 

Ash'more, a post-village and township of Coles co., 
Ill., on the Indianapolis and St. Louis R. R., 94 miles E. S. E. 
of Springfield. Pop. of township, 2088. 

Ash'mun (George) was born at Bradford, Mass., Dec. 
25, 1804, graduated at Yale in 1823, became a lawyer at 
Springfield, Mass., in 1828, was a Whig member of Con¬ 
gress (1845-51), president of the Chicago Republican con¬ 
vention of 1860, and was distinguished as a patriotic and 
able man. Died July 17, 1870. 

Ashmun (Jehudi), an American noted as a promoter 
of colonization in Liberia, was born in Champlain, N. Y., 
in 1794, graduated at Bowdoin College in 1816. He went 
to Liberia in 1822 as an agent of the Colonization Society, 
and rendered important service to the colony. He died in 
Boston Aug. 25, 1828. 

Ashmuil (John Hooker), an American jurist, born at 
Blandford, Mass., July 3, 1800. He graduated at Harvard 
in 1818, and became professor of law there in 1829. He ac¬ 
quired a high reputation as a jurist, but died prematurely 
Apr. 1, 1833. 

Ashtabu'la, a county which forms the north-eastern 
extremity of Ohio. Area, 700 square miles. It is drained 
by the Grand and Ashtabula rivers. The surface is level; 
the soil contains much clay, and is adapted to grazing. 
Great quantities of grain, wool, fruit, and other crops are 
raised. It is intersected by the Lake Shore and Michigan 
Southern, the Ashtabula Youngstown and Pittsburgh, and 
the Franklin Division of the Lake Shore R. Rs. Capital, 
Jefferson. Pop. 32,517. 

Ashtabula, the chief town of Ashtabula co., 0., on the 
Lake Shore R. R., 58 miles from Cleveland, and the termi¬ 
nus of the Ashtabula Youngstown and Pittsburgh and the 
Franklin division of the Lake Shore R. Rs. Its harbor, 
one of the best on Lake Erie, admits vessels of the largest 
class, and it is becoming a port of considerable commercial 
importance, receiving iron ore in transit from Lake Supe¬ 
rior to Youngstown and Pittsburgh, and is a point for the 
shipment of coal on the lake. It has two national and one 
other bank, two newspapers, and a population which has 
greatly increased since the last census. Pop. 1999; of 
Ashtabula township, 3394. Ed. “ Telegraph.” 

Ashtaroth. See Ashtoreth. 

Ash'ton, a post-township of Lee co., Ill. Pop. 1007. 

Ashton, a township of Monona co., Ia. Pop. 106. 

Ash'ton-in-Ma'kerfield, a town of England, in 
South Lancashire. The inhabitants are mostly employed 
in cotton-factories and in collieries. Pop. in 1871, 7463. 

Ashton-umler-Lyne, a town of England, in the S. E. 
part of Lancashire, on the Tame, 6i miles by rail E. S. E. 
of Manchester. It is a great seat of the cotton manufacture, 
and is remarkable for the rapidity of its growth. It re¬ 
turns one member to Parliament. It has a church built in 
the time of Henry V., a theatre, a mechanics’ institute, etc. 
Many of the inhabitants are employed in calico-printing, 
bleaching, dyeing, and the manufacture of machines. Pop. 
in 1811, 22,689; in 1861, 34,836; in 1871, 37,420. 


Ash'toreth, or Ash'taroth, a Syrian goddess, wor¬ 
shipped by the ancient Israelites and other nations of West¬ 
ern Asia. She was called the Queen of Heaven, and ap¬ 
pears to have been a personification of the moon. She is 
commonly identified with Astarte (which see). Her chief 
temples were at Tyre and Sidon. 

Ash'ville, a post-village, the capital of St. Clair co., 
Ala., 115 miles N. of Montgomery. Pop. of township, 992. 

Ashville (North Carolina). See Asheville! 

Ash Wednesday [Lat. Di'es Cin'erum; literally, “day 
of ashes ”], the first day in Lent, so called because in an¬ 
cient times it was the custom for penitents to appear in the 
church covered with sackcloth and ashes. 

A'sia, the largest of the great divisions of the globe. In 
extent of surface it is superior to America in about the pro¬ 
portion of 8 to 6, and it exceeds Europe and Africa taken 
together; while in the antiquity of its history and civiliza¬ 
tion, in the greatness of its population, and in the variety 
of its productions, it surpasses all the other great divisions 
of the globe. It was in Asia that the human race had its 
origin, and from it the arts and civilization were diffused 
over the other regions of the earth. It likewise has jDecu- 
liar claims to the interest of Christians, as containing the 
principal scenes of the events recorded in sacred history. 
The name Asia was originally applied to a small district 
of Lydia, watered by the Cayster; it was afterwards ex¬ 
tended to the whole peninsula now known as Asia Minor, 
and lastly to the entire continent east of the Mediterranean 
and Aegean seas. The ancient geographers usually in¬ 
cluded Egypt within the limits of Asia. 

The area of Asia has been variously estimated. Accord¬ 
ing to a very high authority,'* it may be stated at 16,216,600 
square miles. According to Behm and Wagner (“Bevolk- 
erung der Erde,” Gotha, 1872), it has, including the islands, 
16,924,000 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the 
Arctic Ocean, on the E. by the North Pacific, on the S. by 
the Indian Ocean, on the S. W. by the Red Sea, which sepa¬ 
rates it from Africa, and on the W. by Europe, the Black 
Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Grecian Archipelago. Its 
greatest length, from the Dardanelles to Behring’s Strait, 
is about 10,000 miles, and its greatest breadth, from Cape 
Sievero Vostotchnoi Nos in Siberia, lat. 77° 30' N., to Cape 
Buro, at the S. extremity of the Malay Peninsula, about 
5100 miles. Its maritime coast-line may be reckoned, in 
round numbers, at 35,600 miles. Asia is separated from 
Europe by an imaginary line, the course of w T hich is vari¬ 
ously traced by different geographers; part of it, however, 
is formed by the Ural Mountains; it is joined to Africa by 
a narrow neck of land called the Isthmus of Suez, which 
is, however, crossed by the celebrated Isthmus Canal, thus 
virtually isolating Africa. On the E. it is separated from 
America by Behring’s Strait, which is only 60 miles in 
width. The coasts of Asia are very irregular, being deeply 
indented on all sides by immense bays and gulfs. Among 
these are the Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, 
and Gulf of Siam on the S. coast, and the Gulf of Tonquin, 
Yellow Sea, Sea of Japan, Gulf of Tartary, Sea of Okhotsk, 
and Gulf of Anadir on the E. coast. The indentations on 
the N. are not of the same extent, but are equally if not 
more numerous, the Gulf of Obi being the largest. Asia 
has several large peninsulas, situated on the southern 
and eastern coasts; among them are Arabia, India, Ma¬ 
lacca, Cochin China, Corea, Kamtchatka, and Anadir. 
The principal islands are also situated on the southern and 
eastern coasts; among them are Ceylon, Java, Borneo, 
Sumatra, the Laccadives, Maldives, the Chagos Archipelago, 
the Andaman and Nicobar islands, the Mergui Archipelago, 
Celebes, the Sunda and Banda islands, the Moluccas, Soo- 
loo Islands, Philippines, the islands of Hainan, Formosa, 
Chusan, Hong Kong, the Japanese empire (including the 
great islands of Kioosioo, Sikokf, Niphon, Yesso, and Sa- 
galien), and the Kuriles. On the N. are Kotelnoi, Fadiev- 
skoi, New Siberia, Livkoy, and Nova Zembla. Owing to 
its vast extent of surface, extending from N. to S. through 
more than 76 parallels, and from E. to W. through more 
than 165 meridians, Asia includes every variety of soil, 
climate, and production. The conflicting accounts given 
of the physical structure of a large part of the interior 
render it almost impossible to give a perfectly accurate and 
intelligible view of its general conformation. Its mean 
level above the sea does not exceed about 1150 feet, while a 
third part of it has a mean elevation of not more than 255 
feet. The whole tract lying N. of the Altai and N. W. of 
the Thian-Shan Mountains is one prodigious plain or low¬ 
land, a third larger than Europe, with very little elevation. 
The southern portion, lying along the Indian Ocean, is also, 
comparatively speaking, but little elevated, as is likewise a 

*See the “Treatise on Physical Geography,” by Professor 
Guyot, in Johnson’s “Family Atlas of the World.” 













ASIA. 


great part of the interior, where the height above the sea 
does not exceed about 4000 feet, though formerly supposed 
to be double that height. It is now believed also that the 
elevations of several of the other plateaux of Central Asia 
have been overestimated. But although a large portion 
of Asia rises but little above the sea-level, there are exten¬ 
sive tracts having a great elevation ; and on the other hand, 
a considerable part of the continent is actually below the 
sea-level; as, for example, that portion of country lying 
around the Caspian Sea and Lake Aral, the whole of which 
region is a vast cavity of about 55,000 square miles in ex¬ 
tent. 

Political Divisions .—The area and population of the 
several divisions were estimated in 1872, by Behm and 
Wagner, as follows: 


Names of Countries. 

Square Miles. 

Population. 

Russian territory. 

5,944,600 

10,730,000 

Caspian Sea. 

178,900 

Aral Sea. 

26,900 


Turkey in Asia. 

672,500 

16,463,000 

Arabia. 

926,000 

4,000,000 

Persia. 

636,000 

5,000,000 

Afghanistan, with Herat. 

251,200 

4,000,000 

Beloochistan. 

106,700 

2,000,000 

Kafir istan. 

20,000 

300,000 

Khiva. 

54,200 

1,500,000 

Bokhara. 

76,300 

2,500,000 

Kliokan. 

30,000 

800,000 

Turkomania. 

144,200 

770,000 

Other territory of Turkistan. 

134,500 

2,000,000 

Chinese empire. 

3,742,000 

446,500,000 

Japan. 

149,400 

34,785,321 

Hindostan and British Burrnah.. 

1,558,747 

206,225,580 

Ceylon. 

Farther India: 

24,705 

2,405,287 

Burrnah. 

190,500 

4,000,000 

Siam. 

309,000 

6,298,000 

Anam. 

198,000 

9,000,000 

French Cochin China. 

21,700 

1,204,287 

Straits Settlements. 

1,084 

'306,775 

Malay Peninsula. 

East India Islands: 

31,700 

209,000 

Sunda Islands and Moluccas 

678,500 

25,000,000 

Philippine and Sooloo islands 

114,100 

7,450,000 

Other islands. 

6,800 

170,000 

Total. 

16,924,000 

794,000,000 


Mountains, Face of the Country, etc .—More than two- 
thirds of the surface of Asia consists of mountain-ranges 
and plateaux, connected with each other by branches, and 
controlling the plains by other branches. The largest pla¬ 
teau is the Mongolian in Eastern Asia, so called because it 
is exclusively inhabited by the Mongolian race. It is al¬ 
most double the size of Europe, and has the form of a 
trapezium with rounded sides and angles, having its 
shortest side in the W. and the longest in the N., and has 
an average height of 9000 feet. It is surrounded by moun¬ 
tain-chains on all sides. In the S. are the Himalaya Moun¬ 
tains, having many peaks with an elevation of more than 
20,000 feet, among which Mount Everest, 29,000 feet high, 
is said to be the highest peak known. Connected with 
this by the range of the Ilindu-Kush is the plateau of 
Persia, having in the E. an average height of 6000 feet, in 
the W. of 4000 feet, and in the centre of 2000 feet. It is 
surrounded by numerous mountain-chains, which have 
an average elevation of 10,000 to 12,000 feet. W. of this, 
and connected with it by Mount Arai*at (16,000 feet), is the 
plateau of Asia Minor, which is also connected with the 
Caucasus by branches of the Armenian highland. Other 
important ranges and highlands are, in the S., the plateau 
of Syria and Arabia, the plateau of Hindostan, the ranges 
of Farther India; in the E., the range of Corea; in the N., 
the East Siberian range (with the Aldan and Stanowoi 
Mountains), the ranges of Kamtchatka; in the W., the 
Ural and Caucasian mountains. The plains situated be¬ 
tween the different ranges may be divided into six separate 
parts : the plain of Siberia, containing 4,250,000 square 
miles; the Caspian plain, with the largest inland seas on 
the globe, containing 1,000,000 square miles, of which over 
one-fourth lies below the level of the sea; the Chinese 
plain, which is among the most fertile and best cultivated 
parts of the globe, contains 200,000 square miles; and the 
plains of Farther India, Hindostan, and Mesopotamia. 
Very few active volcanoes are found on the continent of 
Asia, though the islands abound in them. Only one active 
volcano is found in Western Asia—Mount Demavend, 70 
miles S. of tho Caspian Sea. Formerly the plateaux of Per¬ 
sia and of Asia Minor were the scenes of great volcanic 
action, which is now, however, limited to very few places. 
In the Thian-Shan Mountains in Central Asia two active 
volcanoes occur, which form the centre of a great volcanic 
region. Although numerous fire-springs and fire-hills oc¬ 
cur in China, no mountains are known to have emitted 
lava. Not less than nine active volcanoes exist in Kamt- 


291 


I chatka. Earthquakes are of frequent occurrence and of 
a violent character in Asia Minor, the Persian mountains, 
Cabul, South-eastern Tartary, and in Northern Hindostan! 

It has not yet been definitely settled whether Asia or Af¬ 
rica contains a larger extent of desert or steppes. In Asia 
the great marshy plain of Siberia extends southward to 
Turkistan, which, in the neighborhood of the Caspian and 
Aral seas, assumes the character of a sandy and salt 
desert. The greater part of Asia Minor, Arabia, and Per¬ 
sia, half of Mesopotamia, a large part of Manchooria, and 
the entire Mongolia, all form deserts or steppes, with the 
exception of the borders of springs or the shores of rivers, 
the majority of which flow into saline lakes or swamps. 
The cause of this vast amount of desert is without doubt 
the general absence of forests on the continent. This very 
probably was not always the case, but large tracts of what 
in all probability was formerly cultivated land, have been 
transformed by the systematic destruction of the forests in 
the course of several thousand years into deserts or steppes. 

Rivers and Lakes .—A very remarkable peculiarity of 
the river-systems of Asia is its double rivers— i. e. two 
streams rising together, flowing in almost parallel direc¬ 
tions throughout their whole course, and uniting before en¬ 
tering the sea. Among these twin rivers are the Sihon and 
Gihon, flowing into Lake Aral; the Euphrates and Tigris, 
uniting at Koona, and emptying into the Persian Gulf; the 
Ganges and the Brahmapootra; the Yang-tse-Kiang and 
Hoang-Ho, in China, rising near each other, first separat¬ 
ing and again approaching each other, the one falling in¬ 
to the Yellow Sea, the other into the Gulf of Pechelee; and 
the Yenisei and Lena, which empty into the Arctic Ocean# 
Among the other rivers of Asia are, in the northern part 
of the continent, the Obi (or Oby), the Irtish, the Indighirka, 
and the Kolyma; in Eastern Asia, the Amoor, the Iloang- 
Kiang, and the Sang-Koi (or Tonquin); in Southern Asia, 
the Indus, and its confluents, the Attock, Jhylum, Chenaub, 
Sutlej ; the Irrawaddy, the Martaban, the Menain, and the 
Camboja, and the Amoo and Syr-Darya in Central Asia. The 
basins of some of these rivers are of vast extent. That of 
the Obi is 1,250,000 English square miles, being the largest 
in the world, with the exception of that of the Amazon. 
The basin of the Yenisei is 1,041,000 square miles; that of 
the Lena, 787,000 square miles; while those of the Amoor, 
Yang-tse-Kiang, and Hoang-Ho are all above 500,000 
square miles. The Yang-tse-Kiang is the longest river, 
being about 3300 miles long. The Yenisei comes next, with 
3200 miles, tvhile the length of the other principal rivers 
varies from 1500 to 3000 miles. 

A large number of lakes, which form a semicircle, com¬ 
mencing with the Dead Sea, run first in a N. E. and then 
in an E. direction along the highlands of Central Asia to 
the centre of the continent. Among these lakes ai - e tho 
highest, as Lake Baikal; as well as the lowest lakes known, 
such as the Dead Sea, the Caspian Sea, and Lake Aral. 
Besides these, the most prominent are Lake Balkash, Lake 
Tcngrinoor, etc. 

Minerals .—Asia is peculiarly rich in the precious gems, 
and although it is generally considered to abound less in 
metals than the other continents, it ought perhaps to be re¬ 
ferred, at least in part, to the fact of this continent having 
been first settled by civilized nations, who early explored 
and exhausted a large part of its mineral wealth. Dia¬ 
monds are found in the Ural Mountains, Borneo, Ceylon, 
as well as in various other places. Rock-crystals, ame¬ 
thysts, rubies, turquoises, carnelians, agates, onyxes, beryls, 
topazes, and various other gems are found in various places. 
Gold is most abundant in Siberia, in the Altai chain, called 
the Gold Mountains, in Japan, Borneo, the Chinese prov¬ 
ince of Yunnan, and the mountains of the Indo-Chinese 
peninsula. It is also found in less abundance in many of 
the other countries. Silver is found in China, Asiatic Rus¬ 
sia, Anam, Japan, and Turkey. Mercury abounds in China, 
Thibet, Japan, India, and Ceylon. Tin is met with in Bur- 
mah, China, the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and 
Farther India; copper and iron in Japan, in Siberia, in 
Thibet, Hindostan, Anam, Persia, and Turkey; which 
countries also contain lead in greater or less abundance, 
as well as in Siam, Georgia, and Armenia. Coal has been 
found in Siberia, Northern China, Bengal, and some of the 
islands of the Indian Archipelago, and probably exists in 
many unexplored localities. Salt (very often rock-salt) 
abounds in all parts of the continent, and few extensive 
districts arc altogether destitute of salt lakes or springs. 

Climate. —Asia, extending as it does from the polar cir¬ 
cle to the neighborhood of tho equator, must necessarily 
exhibit a great variety of temperature in its different re¬ 
gions. In the western and south-western parts—excepting 
Southern Arabia, which is within the tropics—the climate 
is generally temperate, but in the south-eastern the heat is 
often extreme; while throughout the northern hall of the 
continent excessive cold predominates. The variations of 















































202 


ASIA. 


climate are increased by local influences, especially by tho 
great height of its table-lands and mountains, its compact 
form, and the great extension of the land towards the Pole. 
The greatest heat experienced in Asia occurs in Beloochis- 
tan, where it is said that the thermometer sometimes reaches 
130° F. in the shade. The remarkable variety of climate 
for which Asia is distinguished is not manifested by its 
larger regions alone, but it is equally exhibited within the 
limits of its different countries down to their provinces and 
districts. Thus, while at Peking, which is in the same lat¬ 
itude as Naples (40° N.), tho mean annual temperature is 
55° F., at Naples it is 02° F., and the temperature in sum¬ 
mer is 77° higher than that of Naples, while its winter 
temperature of 28° F. is the same as that of Copenhagen 
in lat. 56° N. The violent winds called typhoons occur in 
South-eastern Asia, their sphere of action diminishing as 
we go westward. They blow at all seasons, though but 
rarely between May and December. The monsoons extend 
into Asia from the Indian Ocean, as far as lat. 36° N. They 
include China, all Hindostan, and part of Thibet. Their 
direction is from the S. W. in summer and from the N. E. 
in winter, the change being accompanied by heavy storms. 
South of the equator the monsoons blow from the S. E. and 
N. W. during the same periods. 

Vegetation .—We find all classes of plants represented 
here, from the luxuriant vegetation in the S. to the mosses 
in the extreme N. The vegetation of tho steppes and 
deserts is poor. Among the plants peculiar to Asia are 
certain palms, fig trees, precious woods, tea, cinnamon, 
pepper, ginger, nutmeg, and other spices, the camphor 
tree and soap tree. Coffee, cotton, rice, sugar, indigo, to¬ 
bacco, the mulberry, and the vine are also grown exten¬ 
sively. The tea-plant is extensively grown throughout 
Assam, China, Cochin China, and Japan. In general, the 
botany of Eastern Asia resembles that of Eastern North 
America, most genera and many species being common to 
the two regions ; but Eastern Asia lias this peculiarity, that 
many genera and orders elsewhere exclusively tropical have 
here their representative northern species. This fact ren¬ 
ders the botany of China and Japan peculiarly rich and 
interesting. 

Zoology .—The animal life of Asia is distinguished by the 
same great variety as the plants and the climate, while the 
greatest variety is found in the S. E. Here we find the ele¬ 
phant, the rhinoceros, the Bengal tiger, the panther, the 
boar, the crocodile, the python, besides many species of 
poisonous snakes, monkeys, parrots, etc. On the southern 
slopes of the Himalaya Mountains large herds of wild 
goats, sheep, horses, asses, mules, and cattle roam about. 
In China the beasts of prey have been mostly superseded 
by domestic animals. The steppes and deserts of Mon¬ 
golia abound in camels, buffaloes, horses, asses, mules, 
antelopes, goats, etc., as well as tigers, leopards, and 
smaller carnivorous animals. In Persia, Asia Minor, and 
Arabia we find, as the chief beast of prey, the lion instead 
of the tiger. Domestic animals are found almost exclu¬ 
sively in the mountains, while the camel is the most im¬ 
portant animal of this region. In Arabia the animal life, 
as well as all other characteristic features, of Africa pre¬ 
dominate. 

Population, Races of Men, Languages, and Religion .— 
The population of Asia was estimated by Beilin and Wag¬ 
ner in 1872 at 794,000,000— i. e. nearly two-thirds of the 
entire population of the earth’s surface, while the area only 
constitutes one-third of the area of the earth. 

Among the Christian churches in Asia, the Greek Church 
is the strongest in the Russian and Turkish territory, and 
is rapidly spreading in Central Asia and China. Other 
Oriental churches in Turkey, Persia, and India are tho 
Armenians, Nestorians, and Jacobites. Catholicism chiefly 
prevails in East India and the Archipelago, while Prot¬ 
estantism has its strongest hold in India. The total num¬ 
ber of Roman Catholics in Asia is estimated at 4,166,000, 
Protestants at 409,000, and other Christian churches at 
8,324,000. Numerous descendants of Christians are thought 
by many to be spread throughout Asia. Thus, numerous na¬ 
tive Christians were recently found to exist in Japan, where 
they had retained their faith for more than two centuries. 
Buddhism, Brahmanism, and the other religions of India, 
China, and Japan are supposed to have over 600,000,000 
believers, while Mohammedanism has about 50,000,000. 
The number of Jews is estimated at 350,000. 

Prof. Fr. Miiller ( Linguistische Ethnographic, in Behm’s 
“ Jahrbuch,” 1868) divides the languages of Asia into four 
families: (1) The Northern Asiatic, comprising the Yuka- 
girian, the Koryakian, Tchukchi, the language of Kamt- 
chatka and of the Kooriles, Yenisei and Koltish, and also 
the languages of the Esquimaux, found also in North 
America. (2) The Southern Asiatic languages, comprising 
the Dravidian languages and the Singhalese. (3) The lan¬ 
guages of Central Asia, which are divided into four large 


families: 1, the Ural-Altaic languages, comprising the Sa- 
moyede group, the Finnish, the Tartaric, the Mongolian, 
and the Tungusian group; 2, Japanese; 3, the language 
of Corea; 4, the monosyllabic languages, comprising the 
language of Thibet, the Himalaya languages, Burmese, 
Siamese, the languages of Anam, the languages of the 
Shan, Miaotse, Lolo, and other tribes, and the Chinese. 
(4) Some groups of the Caucasian family, comprising the 
languages of the Caucasus, the northern group of the 
Semitic languages; among these Chaldee, Syrian, Hebrew, 
etc., and the Indian and Iranian groups of the Indo-Euro¬ 
pean languages. 

History .—The ancient history of Asia may be divided 
into four great epochs, corresponding with the existence of 
the four world-empires—the Assyrian or Babylonian, the 
Medo-Persian, the Grecian, and the Roman, which last 
may be considered as extending to the period of the Mo¬ 
hammedan conquest, in A. D. 638. Christianity was in¬ 
troduced and established at the time of the highest power 
of the Roman empire. 

The next division of Asiatic history, after the Roman, 
is that which comprehends what are usually termed the 
Middle Ages, extending from the beginning of the seventh 
to the end of the fifteenth century, when Vasco da Gama 
discovered a passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope. 
Not quite a century after Mohammed had fled from Mecca 
in 622, his religion, destined to exercise so great an influ¬ 
ence in the East, had spread from the Red Sea to the Cas¬ 
pian, and from Tartary and India as far W. as the Atlantic. 
In 1037, Persia was conquered by Togrul Beg, and India, 
Tartary, Syria, and Egypt by his successors. Having 
taken Jerusalem, their cruelty to the Christian pilgrims 
called forth the Crusades. The dominion of the Saracens 
about the middle of the thirteenth century ultimately ex¬ 
tended, under the sway of Ivublai Khan, over the whole of 
Western Asia. The Crusades had contributed, in a more 
remarkable degree than formerly, to direct the mind of 
Europe towards Asia, and the result was the establishment 
of permanent commercial relations between them. About 
1250 two Venetian noblemen, Nicolo and Maffio Polo, vis¬ 
ited Asia as merchants, taking with them Nicolo’s son, 
Marco, who afterwards became the most celebrated Asiatic 
traveller of the Middle Ages. He resided twenty-four 
years at the Tartar court, by which he was frequently em¬ 
ployed as an ambassador, and during this time he trav¬ 
ersed most of China, a considerable part of India, Java, 
Ceylon, and perhaps several other countries, making also 
a few voyages along the S. coast of Asia. He likewise 
collected much information concerning places which he 
never visited; and his correct description of countries for¬ 
merly unknown to Europeans must be considered as hav¬ 
ing laid the foundation of modern Asiatic geography. 
Several other travellers also published notices of Asia, 
but their relations in general are full of fables ; so that the 
partial knowledge of China and of portions of Northern 
and Central Asia, gleaned principally from the travels of 
Polo, with the discovery, by Rubruquis, that the Caspian 
is an inland sea, must be regarded as all the geographical 
knowledge that the Middle Ages had, in addition to that 
possessed by the ancients. The doubling of the Cape of 
Good Hope by \ asco da Gama in 1498 opened a new channel 
of intercourse with the East, and ultimately led to a moro 
accurate and more extensive knowledge of its geography. 
From the end of the fifteenth century to the present time 
the history of Asia has gradually risen in importance, and 
the progress of its geography been much advanced. With¬ 
in a few years after the arrival of Da Gama on the Indian 
coast the Portuguese had acquired a complete knowledge 
of the whole coast from Cape Comorin to the Bay of Cam- 
bay. At the death of their famous naval commander and 
hero, Albuquerque, in 1515, their colonies were established 
at various points on the Asiatic coast, and extended from 
the Cape of Good Hope to the empire of Japan, a distance 
of at least 12,000 miles. In 1600 a new and formidable 
enemy arose to the Portuguese in the Dutch, who by 1640 
had subdued all the Eastern islands and seas, with the ex¬ 
ception of some British settlements on the coast of Sumatra. 
During the protracted contest between the Dutch and Por¬ 
tuguese, the northern part of Asia, not previously known 
either to ancients or moderns, suddenly emerged from ob¬ 
scurity. Russia, having thrown off the Tartar yoke in 1461, 
proceeded to enlarge her dominion by the conquest of Ivasan 
in 1552, and Astrakhan in 1555. In 1578 the Cossacks, 
having crossed the Ural range, entered Siberia, the dis¬ 
covery and survey of which were pursued so vigorously that 
in 1644 the mouth of the Amoor was reached, and in 1648 
the separation of Asia from America by an open sea was 
proved. Somewhat later a complete geographical view of 
the vast empire of China and part of Central Asia was ob¬ 
tained from the Jesuits, who, having risen to high favor at 
Pekin, actually published a map of that country under the 


















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ASIAGO—ASPARAGUS. 293 


authority and at the expense of the Chinese government. 
The attention of the British had long been directed to 
Asia, and the discovery of the passage by sea gave them a 
new impulse. For many years following that event fre¬ 
quent voyages of discovery were made by British naviga¬ 
tors, and several embassies and other journeys were per¬ 
formed by British subjects on laud. But the formation, in 
1600, of the East India Company, which ultimately estab¬ 
lished British authority in the East, has done more than 
any other event to extend our geographical knowledge in 
that quarter. At first the new information obtained was 
scanty, but from 1740, during the wars with the French in 
the Deccan, and more especially from 1757, after the con¬ 
quest of Bengal, it rapidly increased. 

The recent history of Asia has been under the controlling 
influence of Russia and England, both of which have, in 
the course of the last two centuries, and since the begin¬ 
ning of the nineteenth century, more rapidly than at any 
previous time, extended their boundaries, and are now in¬ 
disputably the two great powers of Asia. Wherever they 
are allied they can dictate to the remainder of the Asiatic 
states; but as they are rivals for the ascendency, they 
zealously watch, and often try to check, each other’s prog¬ 
ress, especially in Central Asia, where the southern frontier 
of the Russian and the northern of the British are now 
separated by a comparatively small tract of land. Quite 
recently, France has gained a firm footing in Farther 
India, and the Netherlands are making great efforts to ex¬ 
tend their rule over the islands of the Indian Archipelago. 
One of the most remarkable events in the recent history 
of the native states of Asia is the opening of Japan to a 
friendly intercourse with the civilized countries of Europe 
and America. Japan already is by far the most progressive 
among the native Asiatic states, and is likely to exercise a 
considerable influence upon the destinies of Eastern Asia. 
In China a powerful anti-foreign party desperately opposes 
the adoption of a similar policy, but there also the com¬ 
bined influence of the commerce, science, and religion of 
the Christian countries is smoothing the way for the be¬ 
ginning of a new era. Persia also has found it necessary 
to enter upon a reformatory career, and the journey of the 
shah to all the European courts—an event entirely unpre¬ 
cedented in the history of the country—has made a power¬ 
ful impression upon the minds of the people. The advan¬ 
tages which Russia and England derive from the construc¬ 
tion of railroads and telegraphs begin to be appreciated 
by all the native states. Considerable progress in this di¬ 
rection has already been made in Japan, and Persia in 
1872 concluded a contract with Baron Reuter of London, 
which, if executed, would cover the whole country with a 
network of railroads. The connection of British India with 
Europe by railroad has for some time engaged the atten¬ 
tion of engineers, and when, in 1873, Lesseps, the origina¬ 
tor of the Suez Canal, came forward with a new scheme, 
great hopes of its speedy execution were entertained in 
scientific and commercial circles. The exploration of the 
interior of Asia has been very active since the beginning 
of the nineteenth century, and the unknown territory is 
at length confined within very small limits. 

A. J. Schem. 

Asi/ago, a town of Italy, in the province of Vicenza, 
23 miles N. of Vicenza, is in a district called “ Seven Com¬ 
munes.” It has manufactures of straw hats and turned 
woodwork. Pop. 5140. 

A'sia Mi/nor, the ancient name of a peninsula form¬ 
ing the western extremity of Asia, now called Anatolia 
(which see). It was bounded on the N. by the Euxine 
( Pon'tus Euxi'nu8) and Propontis, on the S. by the Medi¬ 
terranean, and on the W. by the A Egean Sea (jEge'um 
Mare). The principal divisions were Bithynia, Cappa¬ 
docia, Cilicia, Galatia, Ionia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Lycia, 
Mysia, Pamphylia, Phrygia, Pontus, and Paphlagonia, 
which will be noticed under their own heads. The Mount 
Taurus range extends through the southern part, and Anti- 
Taurus through the northern. The principal rivers are 
the Halys (Kizil-Irmak), which rises in the eastern part 
and enters the Euxine ; the Sangarius (Sakareeyah), which 
also flows into the Euxine; and the Meander, which enters 
the iEgean Sea. Here flourished many famous and power¬ 
ful kingdoms of antiquity, and here many conquerors in 
successive generations contended for supremacy. “ We are 
now,” says Malte-Brun, “ to tread upon a soil rich in in¬ 
teresting and splendid recollections, with an existing popu¬ 
lation completely debased by ignorance and slavery. The 
glory of twentydifferent nations which once flourished in 
Western Asia has been extinguished; flocks wander over 
the tombs of Achilles and Hector; and the thrones of 
Mithridates and Antiochus have disappeared, as well as the 
palaces of Priam and Croesus. The merchants of Smyrna 
do not inquire whether Homer was born within their walls; 


the fine sky of Ionia no longer inspires either painters or 
poets; the same obscurity covers with its shades the banks 
of the Jordan and the Euphrates. . . . The wandering 
Arabian comes, indifferent and unmoved, to rest the poles 
of his tent against the shattered columns of Palmyra. . . . 
If, however, European arts and civilization were, by some 
new arrangement of Providence, to revisit this ancient 
cradle of the human race, we should still find there the 
charming coast of Ionia, with its picturesque islands; the 
fertile shores of the Euxine, shaded by inexhaustible for¬ 
ests; and in the distance the numerous chains of Mount 
Taurus, crowned with upland plains, representing on a 
small scale the vast plateaux of Central Asia.” 

William Jacobs. 

Asiat/ic Societies, societies formed for the promotion 
of the knowledge of the language, literature, and history 
of the Asiatic nations. The first society of this kind was 
established by the Dutch at Batavia in 1780. The next was 
the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded at Calcutta 
by Sir W. Jones in 1784. Among those of more recent 
date are the Societe Asiatique, founded at Paris in 1822; 
the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 
1823; the Asiatic Society of Ceylon, 1845; the German 
Oriental Society in 1845; the Asiatic Society of China, 
established in 1847; and the American Oriental Society in 
1842. 

Asimago'my, a lake in Canada (Ontario), is about 12 
miles long and from 2 to 4 miles wide. It discharges itself 
into the eastern extremity of Lake Superior by a stream 
about 36 miles long. 

As'kew (Anne), a gentlewoman of high distinction in the 
reign of Henry VIII., and an intimate court-friend of his 
queen, Catharine Parr. She was the daughter of Sir Wil¬ 
liam Askew of Kelsey, Lincolnshire. Falling a victim to 
the craft of Gardiner, she was attainted of heresy as a 
“fanatical Anabaptist,” after an examination by Christo¬ 
pher Dare and Sir Martin Bowes, lord mayor of London. 
In the Tower she was tortured by the rack, Wriothesley, the 
lord chancellor, and Rich, inflicting this inhumanity with 
their own hands. Finally, being unable to walk to Smith- 
field, she was carried there in a chair, and her body chained 
to the stake, at which she was burnt in 1546. 

As'maiinshau'sen, a village of Germany, in Nassau, 
on the right bank of the Rhine, 2 miles N. W. of Rudesheim. 
The red wine of Asmannshausen is highly esteemed, hav¬ 
ing a rare aromatic flavor and uncommon strength. It re¬ 
tains its fine qualities only about four years. 

Asmode’us, or Asmo'di, a demon or evil genius, 
who, according to the apocryphal book of Tobit, killed the 
seven husbands of Sara. In the “Talmud” he is called 
the prince of demons. He is the same with Abaddon and 
Apollyon. 

As monse’ans, or Asmoneans, a family of Jewish 
princes, partially identical with the Maccabees. The name 
was derived from Asmonams, who lived about 300 B. C. 
His great-grandson, Mattathias, was a distinguished patriot 
and leader of a revolt against the king of Syria. He had 
several sons, who ruled over Judea and were called Macca¬ 
bees (which see). 

Aso'kft, Acoka, or Ashoka, an ancient king of 
Maghada, in India, was a grandson of Ckandragupta (or 
Sandracottus). He reigned about 250 B. C., was converted 
to Buddhism, and erected a great number of monasteries. 
His dominion extended over the greater part of Hindostan. 

Asp, or As'pic [Lat. as'pis ; Gr. i<rnLi\, a species of 
venomous serpent mentioned by ancient writers. Sonm of 
these describe its bite as inevitably fatal, and as producing 
speedy death without pain. Modern naturalists identify it 
with the Naja haje, a species of hooded viper which is found 
in Egypt, and is from three to five feet in length. When it 
is irritated it dilates its neck. The figure of the Naja haje 
occurs on the sculptured monuments of the ancient Egyp¬ 
tians. The jugglers of modern Egypt cause it to dance to 
their music, and throw it into a cataleptic state. The name 
of asp is also applied to the Vi'pera as'pis, common in many 
parts of Europe, and frequent in Sweden and the neighbor- 
in 0, countries. It is much dreaded on account of its bite. 

Aspar'agus [Gr. aernapayos ], a genus of plants of the 
order Liliacea?, natives of Southern Europe and Africa. 
Its species are partly shrubs and partly herbaceous. They 
have a 6-parted perianth, six stamens, one style, and the 
fruit is a berry. The most important species is Asparagus 
officinalis, the common asparagus of gardens, which is a 
native of Europe, and is generally cultivated in Europe 
and the U. S. It was used as food by the ancient Romans. 
It grows to the height of four feet, and thrives best in a 
rich and deep soil. This plant is raised from the seed, and 
should not be used until about three years have elapsed 
after the planting of the seed. The perennial roots con- 
















294 


ASPARTIC ACID—ASPIRATE. 


tinue for many years to send up every spring a crop of 
tender shoots, which, after having attained the height of a 
few inches, are cut a little below the surface of the ground. 
A peculiar principle called asparagine, C 4 II 8 N 2 O 3 , is ob¬ 
tained from these shoots, and also from the root of the 
marshmallow. 

Aspar'tic Ac'id (C 4 H 7 NO 4 ), an acid obtained by the 
decomposition of asparagine, or by the action of heat upon 
ammonic malate, maleate, etc. 

Aspa'sia [Gr. ’Ao-n-ao-ia], a celebrated woman of ancient 
Greece, remarkable for her genius, beauty, and political in¬ 
fluence, was born at Miletus, in Asia Minor. She became 
in her youth a resident of Athens and the mistress of Per¬ 
icles. Her house was a celebrated resort for the most emi¬ 
nent Athenians, including Socrates, who professed to be her 
disciple. She had a high reputation for talent, and a re¬ 
port obtained currency that she composed part of the great 
funeral oration which Pericles pronounced over the Athe¬ 
nians who fell in battle about 430 B. C. Having been ac¬ 
cused of impiety by Hermippus, a comic poet, she was 
defended by Pericles and acquitted. After the death of 
Pericles she was married to Lysicles. There is extant an 
antique bust inscribed with the name of Aspasia. (See Bu- 
rigny, “Vie d’Aspasie;” Plutarch, “Life of Pericles.”) 

Aspasia the Younger, an Ionian lady whose orig¬ 
inal name was Milto. She became the favorite mistress 
of Cyrus the Younger, who changed her name to Aspasia. 
She was distinguished for beauty and intellect. She was 
taken captive by King Artaxerxes at the battle in which 
Cyrus was killed, 401 B. C., and was consecrated by him 
as a priestess of Anaitis. 

Aspa'siolite, a greenish mineral from Krageroe, Nor¬ 
way. It is a hydrated silicate of alumina and magnesia, 
and is a variety of fahlunite. 

As'pe, a town of Spain, in the province of Alicante, 15 
miles W. of Alicante. Here are numerous flour-mills, about 
twenty oil-mills, several soap-factories, and distilleries of 
brandy. Pop. 6700. 

As'pect [Lat. aspec'tm], look, appearance, countenance. 
In astrology, the position of one planet with respect to 
another. Aspect is defined by Kepler as “ the angle formed 
by the rays proceeding from two planets, and meeting at 
the earth.” The ancients reckoned five aspects—namely, 
conjunction, indicated by the symbol 6; opposition, by 8; 
trine, by A,' quartile, by □; and sextile, by X. Planets 
in conjunction have the same longitude; in opposition the 
difference of their longitude is 180°; the aspect is trine 
when they are 120° apart, quartile when they are 90° 
apart, and sextile when they are 60° apart. 

As'pen, a village of Uintah co., Wy., near the S. W. 
corner of the Territory, and on the Union Pacific R. R., 29 
miles E. of Wahsatch. Coal is mined in the vicinity. The 
station is 7463 feet above the sea. 

As'pen, or Tremulous Poplar (Pop'ulus trem'ula), 
a tree of the natural order Salicaceae, is a native of Europe 
and Western Asia. It is remarkable for the mobility of its 
leaves, which, having long petioles laterally compressed, 
are caused to flutter by the gentlest breath of air. The 
wood is soft and light, is used to make trays and pails, and 
is valuable timber for the interior of houses. The name 
of aspen is also applied to the Populus tremuloides and 
grandidentata, natives of the U. S., resembling the Eu¬ 
ropean aspen in the proverbial quivering of their leaves. 

Aspergil'lum, a remarkable genus of tubicular bi¬ 
valve mollusks, characterized by the soldering of both 
valves to the inner surface of the calcareous sheath. The 
shell has the form of an elongated cone, the larger end of 
which expands into a disk, which is pierced by many small 
tubular holes. Hence it derives its popular name of “ water¬ 
ing-pot.” The animals of this genus are borers, which live 
in sand. They are chiefly found in the Indian and South 
Pacific oceans. Others have been found fossil in Europe. 

As'pern, or Gross Aspern, a village of Austria, on 
the left bank of the Danube, 5 miles E. N. E. of Vienna. 
Aspern, with the adjacent village of Essling, was the scene 
of a great battle between Napoleon and the Austrian arch¬ 
duke Charles after the French army had taken Vienna. 
The French crossed the river by a bridge which they con¬ 
structed at the island of Lobau, and began the attack on 
the 21st of May, 1809. After half of the French had crossed 
the river, the Austrians assumed the offensive. Both of the 
villages were taken and retaken, and the day closed with¬ 
out a decisive result. The fight was renewed on the 22d, 
when, after great slaughter, Napoleon retreated to the right 
bank of the river, having lost about 7000 killed and 30,000 
wounded and prisoners. The Austrians lost about 20,500 
killed and wounded. 

As'phalt [Gr. a<r<£aA.ro?; Lat. asphal'tum ] is a solid 


bituminous substance, often called Mineral Pitch or 
Native Pitch. (See Bitumen, by Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, 
U. S. A.) 

Asphal'tic Coal, a name given to certain coal-liko 
substances which are found filling irregular cavities and 
fissures, generally of the older rocks. They have been often 
classed as coals, but differ in composition and geological 
position from all true coals. They are not stratified, but 
till fissures into which they have evidently flowed when in 
a fluid or plastic state. They are, in fact, ancient asphalts, 
which have become more compact and drier— i. e. contain¬ 
ing less oil and gas—in the lapse of ages. These asphaltic 
coals are found in carboniferous rocks in New Brunswick 
and West Virginia, and in Devonian strata in Ohio and Ken¬ 
tucky. 

As'phodel ( Asphod'elus ), a genus of herbaceous plants 
of the order Liliacese and sub-order Asphodeleae, nearly 
related to the asparagus and onion. They are natives of 
Barbary, Sicily, Greece, and other parts of the Levant. 
Several species are cultivated in gardens for the beauty of 
their flowers, as the Asphodel luteus (yellow asphodel). The 
Asphodel ramosus is said to be the flower which Homer de¬ 
scribes as growing in the meadows of Elysium. It is now 
abundant in Apulia. The ancients imagined that the manes 
of their friends fed on its roots, and they planted it near 
their tombs. 

Asphyx'ia [from the Gr. a, priv., and <r<f>vfis, the “pulse”], 
originally meaning cessation of the motion of the heart, 
has by usage come to signify arrest of breathing (proper¬ 
ly apnoea) by suffocation or strangulation. It occurs in 
drowning, by water excluding air from the lungs; in hang¬ 
ing or choking, by the compression of the windpipe, pre¬ 
venting the entrance of air; in the presence of certain 
gases, as chlorine or pure carbonic acid, by spasmodic clo¬ 
sure of the glottis or entrance to the windpipe. It has been 
proved by careful observations that after death by asphyxia 
the left cavities of the heart are empty, and the right dis¬ 
tended with blood. This is owing to the fact that venous 
blood, not renewed by exposure to the oxygen of the air, 
will not circulate through the lungs, thus being forced to 
accumulate in the right or venous side of the heart. The 
mode of treatment of asphyxia must depend on its cause. 
(See Drowning.) In partial strangulation, abstraction of 
blood in moderate amount may unload the heart and pro¬ 
mote the movement of the blood, after the cause of obstruc¬ 
tion has been removed. For asphyxia from irrespirable 
gases the first necessity is a supply of pure air. When the 
heart has almost or quite ceased to beat for a few moments, 
life is sometimes restored by artificial Respiration (which 
see), or by application of galvanic electricity to the chest. 

Asphyx'iants [from asphyx'ia, “suffocation”], chem¬ 
ical compounds enclosed in bombs or other projectiles, and 
designed to suffocate or poison the enemy, especially in 
naval warfare, where men are confined between the decks 
of a ship. These barbarous inventions are discountenanced 
in honorable warfare. 

Aspidich'thys [from the Gr. aarrLs, a “ shield,” and 
a “fish ”], a genus of fossil fishes, described by Dr. New¬ 
berry, from the Devonian rocks of Ohio. It is allied to 
Pterichthys, but is very much larger. The middle dorsal 
plate of the carapace is a foot wide and a foot and a half 
long, more than an inch thick at the centre, and its external 
surface is studded with smooth enamel tubercles as large as 
split peas. 

As'pinwall (called Colon by the natives), a seaport 
of Central America, is situated on the N. side of the Isth¬ 
mus of Panama, and on Navy Bay, 48 miles by rail from 
Panama, on the Pacific Ocean; lat. 9° 21' N., Ion. 79° 54' 
W. It was founded in 1852 by the Panama R. R. Com¬ 
pany, and is the northern terminus of the Panama R. R., 
which was opened in 1855. It has a good harbor, which is 
deep enough for large ships, and has several large hotels. 
Aspinwall was formerly a great thoroughfare of the travel 
between California and the Atlantic States. Steamers ply 
frequently between this place and New York, which is about 
2000 miles distant. Pop. in 1869, 4000. 

Aspinwall, a post-township ofNehamaco., Neb. Coal 
is found here. Pop. 572. 

Aspinwall (William), M. D., born in Brookline, 
Mass., May 23, 1743, graduated at Harvard in 1764, and 
subsequently took his medical degree in Philadelphia, be¬ 
came a surgeon in the Revolutionary army, and after the 
war was a prominent Jeffersonian politician in Massachu¬ 
setts. He practised medicine with great success, and was 
distinguished for the practice of “ inoculation ” and his 
early adoption of vaccination. Died April 16, 1823. 

As'pirate [from the Lat. as'per, “rough”] denotes in 
pronunciation a rough breathing, similar to the sound of 
the letter h. It occurs with various degrees of intensity, 












295 


ASPIRATOR—ASSASSIN. 


being sometimes almost as strong as the German eh, at 
others so slight as to be scarcely perceptible. In Greek 
grammar it is commonly called spirit its cisper (“ rough 
breathing ’), and is marked thus ('), in contradistinction 
to the spiritus lenis (“ smooth breathing”), represented thus 
(’). 'Oi "EAArji'e? would be represented in English letters 
thus: Hoi Hellenes. 

As'pirator [from the Latin verb aspi'ro, aspira' turn, to 
“ breathe,” or “ breathe on or into,” from ad, “to,” and 
spiro, to “ breathe ], an apparatus used by chemists to 
draw air or other gases through bottles or other vessels. 
It is a tight vessel tilled with water, having a tube with a 
stopcock connected with the upper end, and another tube 
with a stopcock connected with the lower end. The former 
tube is attached to the vessel through which the gas is to 
be drawn ; the stopcocks are both opened, and the weight 
of the water issuing from the lower tube acts as a suction, 
and draws in the gas. 

As'pis, or Clu'pea, an ancient and important fortified 


city of the Carthaginians, on the Mediterranean, about 50 
miles E. of Carthage, was founded about 310 B. C. It was 
the place where Regulus landed in the first Punic war, and 
was a distinguished episcopal see from 411 to 64G A. I). It 
was the last spot on which the African Christians made a 
stand against the Saracens. Remarkable ruins are to be 
seen there. 

Aspromon'te, a mountain at the south-western ex¬ 
tremity of Italy, 16 miles E. N. E. of Reggio, 6300 feet 
high. Here Garibaldi and the greater part of his army 
were taken prisoners in Aug., 1862. 

Aspropot'amo (i . e. “ white river”), the ancient Achc- 
lous, the largest river in the kingdom of Greece, rises in 
Albania. It flows in a S. S. W. direction, and after a course 
of about 100 miles enters the Mediterranean (or Ionian) 
Sea nearly 15 miles W. of Missolonghi. 

Ass, or Doil'key, a quadruped of the genus Asinus 
and family Equidm. It is characterized by long ears, a 
black cross over the shoulder, and short hairs on the 



The Ass. 


upper part of the tail. It is remarkable for its patience, 
stolidity, and power of endurance, and has been the domes¬ 
ticated drudge of man from time immemorial. The ass is 
probably a native of Central Asia,, as it is now found wild 
in that region. Vast numbers of the wild-ass (which the 
Romans called onager) roam over the great Asiatic deserts 
and steppes, feeding on saline herbage. They also inhabit 
Persia, Asia Minor, and Syria. An interesting notice of 
this animal is given in the thirty-ninth chapter of Job. 
The wild-ass is a high-spirited animal of extraordinary 
speed, and is one of the principal objects of the chase in 
Persia, where its flesh is highly esteemed as food. This 
animal (supposed to be the Equus hemionus of Pallas) sur¬ 
passes the horse in swiftness of foot. There appears to be 
some doubt whether the domesticated ass is descended from 
this wild animal, so much superior in speed and other qual¬ 
ities. In Oriental countries the custom of riding on the 
back of the tame ass is very common; and the Old Testa¬ 
ment informs us that it was thus used by patriarchs and 
kings in the earliest times. The asses which are raised in 
Syria and other parts of the East are a better breed than 
those of Europe. The animal is not much employed in the 
U. S., except for the propagation of mules, which are the 
hybrid progeny of the ass and mare. Being very sure¬ 
footed and able to live on scanty fare, the ass is well adapted 
for service as a beast of burden in rocky and mountainous 
regions. Its milk is recommended as a diet for dyspeptic 
and consumptive patients. The proverbial stupidity of the 
ass seems rather due to its patience and endurance than to 
any particular want of intelligence. 

Assafflct'icla, or Asafcetida [from asa, an Oriental 
word said to signify “ gum,” and the Lat. fce'tidus , “ fetid ], 
a gum-resin or the concrete juice of the root of A art-hex as- 
safoetida (the Ferula aesafeetida of Linnaeus). It is a na¬ 
tive of Persia and Afghanistan, has a peculiar and dis¬ 
agreeable odor, and is extensively used in medicine as an 


antispasmodic. It is considered an efficacious remedy for 
hysteria, nervous diseases, and spasmodic pectoral affections. 
In many parts of Asia it is used as a condiment. 

Assai, a beverage which is commonly used on the Ama¬ 
zon, and is prepared from the fruit of Euterpe oleracea and 
other species of palm nearly related to the cabbage-palm. 
The fruit is nearly equal in size to a sloe, and consists of a 
hard seed enclosed in a thin covering of firm pulp. The 
assai, a thick creamy liquid of a purplish color, is composed 
of this pulp and water. 

Assai', a salt lake of Eastern Africa, 25 miles S. W. of 
Tajura, is about 760 feet below the level of the sea. It is 
8 miles long and 4 miles wide, and has an area of 20 square 
miles. The shores are covered with crusts of salt about a 
foot thick. Large quantities of salt are carried hence by 
caravans to Abyssinia. 

As'sam, a province or district of Farther India, bor¬ 
ders on China, forming part of the valley of the Brahma¬ 
pootra. It is included between lat. 25° 45' and 28° 15' N., 
and between Ion. 90° 35' and 96° 50' E. The area is 21,805 
square miles. It is well watered by numerous rivers, has a 
fertile soil, but a large part of it is swampy and subject to 
inundation. The staple products of the soil are rice, tea, 
cotton, opium, and mustard. Gold, silver, and precious 
stones are found here. The rainy season lasts about six 
months, from April to October, during which time the whole 
country is inundated. The large and dense forests of Assam 
are infested by great numbers of elephants, tigers, leopards, 
rhinoceroses, buffaloes, etc. Assam was ceded to the Brit¬ 
ish by Burmah in 1826. The religion of the Assamese is 
Brahmanism. Pop. 710,000. 

Assas'sin [for etymology see below], one who attacks 
and kills by treachery or surprise a person who is unpre¬ 
pared for defence. The word was originally the name of a 
fanatical sect or order, the disciples, it is said, of Alo-ed- 
Deen (Aloaddin), commonly called Sheikh-el-Jebel, or the 























































296 ASSAULT 


“ Old Man of the Mountain.” The first founder of the 
order is said to have been Hassan-ben-Sabah, who flou¬ 
rished in Persia about 1080 A. D. According to some writers, 
they were called Assassins from their immoderate use of 
hasheesh (or hashish), an intoxicating drug obtained from 
Indian hemp. Hassan-ben-Sabah and his followers gained 
possession of several fortified castles in the mountainous 
parts of Persia, and intimidated princes and governors by 
a scries of secret murders. The order consisted of mem¬ 
bers of several degrees, the lowest of which were Fedavies 
or Fedais ( i . e. the “devoted”), who were not initiated 
into the secret doctrines and mysteries, but with blind obe¬ 
dience executed the bloody orders of the prince or Old 
Man of the Mountain, who was their absolute ruler. They 
mustered about 50,000 fighting men in the time of the Cru¬ 
sades, and sometimes came into collision with the crusaders. 
Hassan-ben-Sabah died about 1125. One of his successors 
was assassinated about 1163 by his brother-in-law, because 
ho extended to the whole order an exemption from the com¬ 
mands of the Koran, which exemption had before been the 
exclusive privilege of the initiated. Alo-ed-Deen (Aload- 
din), the famous chief of the Assassins, is supposed to 
have been born about 1210. According to some authori¬ 
ties, this order was suppressed or dispersed by the sultan 
Bibars. (See Von Hammer (Hammer-Purgstall), “ Ge- 
schichte der Assassinen,” 1818; Weil, “Die Assassinen ” 
in Sybel’s “ Ilistor. Zeitschrift,” 1863.) 

Assault' [from the Lat. ad, “upon,” and salio, saltum, 
to “ leap ”], in law, an attempt or offer with force and vio¬ 
lence to do a corporeal hurt to another, as by striking at 
him with or without a weapon. It is often coupled with 
the word “battery,” which means the act of carrying the 
assault into effect. Every battery includes an assault, but 
the converse is not true. In order to constitute an assault 
there must be a present ability to carry the threat into ef¬ 
fect. Thus, if the hand of a person at rest were raised 
against another at such a distance that no blow could be 
inflicted, there would be no assault, while if there were a 
weapon in the hand there might be. Assaults are either 
simple or with intent to commit some other criminal act, as 
to kill, rob, or ravish. Assaults of this class are frequently 
punished with severity by statute law, and are themselves 
declared to be felonies, though the principal offence is not 
committed. A simple assault is a mere misdemeanor. 
There are many instances in which an assault is justifi¬ 
able, as in self-defence, and in arrest by officers, and in the 
punishment of children and apprentices. Even in these 
cases undue force must not be used, and if that which is 
reasonable under all the circumstances be exceeded, the 
party resorting to the force will be a wrong-doer. 

Assault, in military language, is a sudden and vigor¬ 
ous attack of a fortified post or camp, or an effort to carry 
by open force a breach which has been made in a fortress. 
In the regular routine of sieges (as they were formalized, 
for recent changes in the art of fortification and in the 
character of firearms have rendered the old rules some¬ 
what inapplicable) the “assault” is one of the last scenes 
of the drama called a “ siege.” In the regular siege the as¬ 
sault (if, instead of gaining the breach by covered “ap¬ 
proaches,” it is decided to resort to it) is delivered after 
the outworks are captured, and one or more “breaches” 
formed (by “breaching batteries”) in the body of the 
place. It is usually performed by picked troops or volun¬ 
teers (sometimes called a “forlorn hope”), who, at a con¬ 
certed signal (upon which the besiegers’ artillery ceases to 
fire), issue from the contiguous parallels or places of arms, 
descend into the ditch, and advance rapidly and without 
much order, but without firing, upon the breach. “ Firing 
parties” are stationed in neighboring parallels to keep 
down the fire of the besieged, and “ supports ” are close at 
hand to follow up the assaulting party, if successful in 
effecting an entrance. 

Under Louis XIV. commandants of besieged places were 
forbidden to capitulate before receiving three assaults. Un¬ 
der Napoleon it was declared dishonorable and punishable 
with death to capitulate before receiving at least one assault. 
According to Vauban and the “schools,” the open assault 
is a “ useless massacre,” which, if successful, results only 
in the demoralization of the troops, the sacking of the 
place, and the destruction of resources valuable to the be¬ 
siegers. Nevertheless, it is sometimes compulsory, as in 
the case of the assault of Constantine (1837) by the French, 
with a loss of 500 out of 1750. In Spain the English army 
delivered terrible assaults, as those at Badajos (1812) and 
St. Sebastien (1813); the loss at the former (which failed, 
the place being entered by escalade) cost 3700 men, and the 
latter (successful) 2000, killed and wounded. The bloody 
assault by which the siege of Sebastopol was terminated 
Sept. 8, 1855, was necessitated by the fact that the “ap¬ 
proaches” could be pushed forward no farther. This so- 
called siege differed from an ordinary siege in this, that 


•ASSEMANNI. 


“the difficulty was to conquer the Russian army upon a 
ground preferred beforehand, quite as much as to surmount 
the material obstacle presented by the fortifications” ( Niel ). 
The allied loss in this assault (killed and wounded) was 
nearly 10,000; that of the Russians, 11,700 men; thus ter¬ 
minating a siege of eleven months’ duration, and which cost 
the besiegers 150,000 and the Russians 84,000 men. 

The protracted duration and fearful losses at this siege, 
though it cannot be taken as strictly typical of the changed 
character of modern siege warfare, are not without their 
confirmatory bearing upon the dictum of Col. Brialmont, 
one of the most accomplished and authoritative of Euro¬ 
pean engineers ( Etudes sur la defense des Etats), that “ the 
advantage is no longer on the side of the besiegers, and 
that in great places, where materials, provisions, and men 
are never lacking, the superiority is incontestably acquired 
for the defence.” And he adds : “ Conclusion most encour¬ 
aging to small states, and to those which limit their ambi¬ 
tion to the worthy aim of preserving intact and developing 
their independence, their wealth, and their liberties.” 

J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Assay', or Assay'ing [from the Fr. assayer, to “try”]. 
This term, which is applied to metals or metallic compounds, 
is sometimes employed as synonymous with analysis, but 
more generally restricted to the process of ascertaining the 
proportion of gold or silver in an alloy, or of pure metal in 
a metallic ore. Silver plate and manufactured articles of 
gold and silver generally contain an alloy of copper or 
other metal. (See Alloy.) In Great Britain, each article, 
before it is sold, is assayed at Goldsmiths’ Hall, so as to 
determine the proportion of precious metal in its composi¬ 
tion. The process of assaying gold and silver depends on 
the principle that those metals cannot be converted into 
oxides by union with the oxygen of the air, while the baser 
metals with which they are alloyed can be oxidized if raised 
to a high temperature. The apparatus employed in this 
process consists of a cupel, a small shallow vessel made of 
bone-ash, and a muffle. The latter is made of fire-clay, is 
about eight inches long, three or four inches in diameter, 
and is shaped like a railway tunnel (that is, having a flat 
bottom and an arched top); it is open at one end and closed 
at the other, and has several apertures in its sides for air 
to pass through. Weighed fragments of mixed silver and 
lead are placed on cupels, which, introduced into a muffle, 
are exposed to the heat of a furnace until the metals are 
melted. The oxygen of the air unites with the lead, form¬ 
ing an oxide, which is partly volatilized, and partly ab¬ 
sorbed by the porous cupel. At the end of this process of 
cupellation there remains a globule of pure silver, which 
by its diminished weight shows how much alloy was con¬ 
tained in the sample. During the assay of silver by the 
foregoing process, called the dry method, a small loss of 
silver occurs. For this reason the humid process has been 
adopted in the mints of France, of the U. S., and of other 
nations. This method consists in dissolving the compound 
or impure silver in nitric acid of density 1.25, and adding 
a solution of common salt (NaCl), which causes the pre¬ 
cipitation of the chloride of silver (AgCl) in white flocculi. 
The solution of salt is made of a definite strength, and is 
poured out of a graduated vessel until all precipitation of 
pure silver ceases. The assay of gold ores or impure gold 
is performed in a manner similar to that of silver. If gold 
alloyed with copper is to be assayed, some silver must be 
added to the alloy. The alloy of the three metals, gold, 
silver, and copper, may be assayed by cupellation, by which 
the copper is oxidized and the gold and silver remain com¬ 
bined. These may be separated by a process called part¬ 
ing, which, however, is only practicable when the alloy 
contains three parts of silver to one of gold. The parting 
or quartation consists in acting on the alloy by hot nitric 
acid, which dissolves the silver, forming the soluble nitrate 
of silver, and leaves the gold in a solid and separate state. 
As no ore of gold or artificial alloy contains so much silver 
as three to one, it is necessary to incorporate an additional 
quantity of silver with it. This is done by wrapping the 
proper quantities of gold and silver in lead-foil, and heat¬ 
ing them on a cupel. The metallic button which is the re¬ 
sult of this cupellation is hammered on an anvil, and rolled 
into a thin plate or ribbon, which is coiled up and called a 
cornet. This is exposed in a glass vessel to the action of 
nitric acid, which, dissolving the silver, leaves a brown, 
spongy mass of gold. It is then heated in a crucible, an¬ 
nealed, and weighed. As jewelry and other articles cannot 
be assayed either by the dry or humid method without in¬ 
juring their form, their purity is ascertained by the use of 
the touchstone, with which a streak is drawn on the surface 
of the gold. Black basalt is one of the minerals used as a 
touchstone. (For special methods of assay, see the re¬ 
spective metals.) William Jacobs. 

Asseman'ni (Giuseppe Simone), bishop of Tyre in 
partibus, a learned Maronite, born at Tripoli, in Syria, in 













ASSEMBLY—ASSISTANCE, WRIT OF. 297 


1G87. He was sent in 1715 by the pope to Syria and Egypt 
to collect manuscripts, and was keeper of the Vatican 
Library (1738-68). He published a valuable work on Syrian 
literature, entitled “Bibliotheca Orientalis Clementino-Vati- 
cana” (4vols., 1719-28). Died Jan. 14, 1768.—His nephew, 
Stefano Evodio, an Orientalist, born at Tripoli in 1707, 
was educated at Rome. He was archbishop of Apamea in 
partibus. He succeeded his uncle, Giuseppe Simone, as 
keeper of the Vatican Library, in 1768. He published sev¬ 
eral catalogues of Oriental manuscripts. Died in 1782. 

Assem'bly, in politics, a convention or body of men 
associated for civil or legislative business, and possessing 
more or less political power. In some of the U. S. the term 
is applied to the lower branch of the legislature, and the 
other house is called the senate. At the beginning of the 
French Revolution, the members of the Tiers Etat (Third 
Estate), who had been chosen to represent the common 
people in the States-General, assumed (Jan. 17, 1789) the 
title of Assemblee Nationale, and, having been joined by 
the more liberal members of the nobility and clergy, pro¬ 
ceeded to frame a new constitution. The court denied their 
authority, and made a not very vigorous effort to dissolve 
the Assembly, but failed, and finally yielded to the popular 
current. This body, which was termed the Constituent 
Assembly, formed a constitution which was accepted by the 
king, and, having ordered the election of a legislative as¬ 
sembly, dissolved itself Sept. 30, 1791. The Legislative 
Assembly, from which all members of the Constituent As¬ 
sembly were expressly excluded, met Oct., 1791, and con¬ 
tinued to undermine or defy the royal authority, which 
was abolished Aug. 10, 1792. Having convoked a JYa- 
tional Convention, the Assembly closed its labors and exist¬ 
ence Sept. 21, 1792. The formation of the second French 
republic (Feb., 1848) was followed by the election of a 
National Assembly, which met in May of that year, and, 
having formed a constitution, transferred its power to the 
Legislative Assembly. This body was dissolved or abolished 
by the coup-d’ etat of Dec. 2, 1851. The third republic was 
proclaimed Sept. 4, 1870, but, on account of the presence 
of German armies in France, the election of deputies was 
postponed until the armistice, which began just after the 
capture of Paris, Jan. 30, 1871. The National Assembly 
met at Bordeaux in Feb., and elected Adolphe Thiers as 
chef du ponvoir executif (“chief of the executive power”). 

Assembly, General. See General Assembly. 

As'sen, capital of the Dutch province of Drenthe, 16 
miles S. of Groningen, is connected with the Zuyder-Zee 
by the Drenthe Canal. In the neighborhood are tumuli 
mentioned by Tacitus. Pop in 1867, 6443. 

Asses'sor [Lat. asses'sor, from assid'eo, asses'sum, to 
“sit beside,” to “assist”] is applied in England to a per¬ 
son, usually a lawyer or jurist, who is appointed to advise 
the judge and direct his decisions. In several inferior 
courts assessors are appointed by statute. The burgesses 
of every borough are required to elect annually two assess¬ 
ors, who assist the mayor in revising the burgess lists and 
in presiding at the municipal elections. In some of the 
U. S. an assessor is a person elected by the people to assess 
or appraise all taxable property, in order that the owner 
of the same may pay a tax proportioned to its value. This 
valuation or appraisement is called assessment. The as¬ 
sessed value is usually less than the real, or less than the 
price for which it could be purchased. 

As'seteague Island, off the E. coast of Northampton 
co., Va., to which it belongs, has a brick lighthouse, 129 
feet high, standing 2 miles from the S. W. extremity of the 
island and showing a fixed light of the first order, 150 feet 
above the sea, in lat. 37° 54’ 37” N., Ion. t 5° 2V 04 ' W. 

As'sets [from the Fr. assez, “enough ], in law, denotes 
the property in the possession of an heir or under control 
of an executor, administrator, or trustee, applicable to the 
payment of debts and charges against the estate which 
they represent. It is mainly applied to the case of heiis, 
executors, and administrators. Assets are either real or 
personal. Real estate is assets in the hands of an heii $ 
personal property, in like manner, in those of an executor 
or administrator. If the real estate is devised to an exec¬ 
utor, he takes it as trustee. Assets are also distinguished 
into’legal and equitable, the first being under the control 
of a court of law, and the second administered by a court 
of equity: and the two courts are not governed by the 
same rules. In the U. S. this last distinction is by reason 
of statute law of little consequence, as all the estate of a 
deceased person becomes a fund for the liquidation of his 
debts, according to a prescribed statutory order. The dis¬ 
tinction between real and personal assets is still of import¬ 
ance, as it is a general rule that real estate is not to be 
taken for the payment of debts until the personal property 
is exhausted. A testator may by a sufficiently clear direc¬ 


tion in his will avoid the effect of this rule, and make his 
real estate the primary fund for the payment of his debts. 

Assh'ur, or Ash'mr, an ancient and populous city, 
capital of Assyria, on the Tigris, 40 miles below Calah, and 
60 miles S. of Nineveh. Its site is marked by extensive 
ruins at Kileh-Sherghat. Here is a large square mound 
or platform two and a half miles in circumference, about 
100 feet above the level of the plain, and composed in part 
of sun-dried bricks. Cuneiform inscriptions of great inter¬ 
est have been found here.—A son of Shorn was also called 
Asshur, from whom the name of the city was derived. 

AssieiCto, a Spanish word applied to treaties or con¬ 
tracts which the government of Spain made with several 
foreign nations for the purpose of supplying her colonies 
with negro slaves. The first of these assientos was made 
with the Flemings, in the reign of the emperor Charles Y. 
The Genoese obtained the contract in 1580. The privilege 
was transferred to the Portuguese in 1696, and to the 
French in 1701. The English acquired it by the treaty of 
Utrecht, 1713, but resigned or sold it to Spain about 1750, 
since which no such contract has been made. 

Assignat, paper money issued by the French govern¬ 
ment in 1790, and at subsequent periods of the revolution¬ 
ary regime. It was based on the security of the national 
domains, which consisted of the confiscated estates of the 
Church and tvealthy emigres. The total amount of assign¬ 
ats issued was 45,578,000,000 francs. The public credit 
having been ruined by the reign of terror and anarchy, 
the value of the assignats declined lower and lower. In 
June, 1793, one franc in silver was worth three francs in 
paper. The government, in order to check their deprecia¬ 
tion, passed a law to fix the maximum prices of commodi¬ 
ties, the effect of which law was very injurious to trade. 
In Mar., 1796, one franc in gold was equivalent to three 
hundred francs in paper. In July of that year the assign¬ 
ats were recalled, and replaced by the mandats. 

Assign'ment [from the Lat. assigno, t<? “appoint”], in 
law, the act of making over to another one’s estate or in¬ 
terest. The person making the assignment is an assignor; 
the recipient is an assignee. The word is mainly used in 
reference to transfers of leases, incorporeal rights, such as 
copyrights and patents, and rights of action. Such trans¬ 
fers are to some extent by statute law required to be in 
writing. It is a rule of common law that a thing in action 
is not assignable, though this doctrine is not followed in a 
court of equity, an assignment being regarded in that court 
as in the nature of a declaration of trust, so that the as¬ 
signor becomes a trustee for the assignee. There are some 
exceptions to this rule, as in the case of mere personal 
causes of action and cases where public policy intervenes. 
Such an assignee simply takes the rights of his assignor, 
and holds subject to any defences which the debtor could 
urge against his creditor. There is a class of things in 
action not subject to this infirmity, such as bills of ex¬ 
change, promissory notes, checks upon banks, and public 
securities payable to order or bearer. He who purchases 
these in good faith and before maturity, for a valuable con¬ 
sideration, may shut out for the most part the defences 
which might have been urged against the payee. Such 
paper is termed negotiable. In this way the distinction 
between that which is negotiable and that which is assign¬ 
able becomes of great practical consequence. It is a fre¬ 
quent practice on taking an assignment of a claim to obtain 
a statement from the debtor that he has no defence to it. 
He would then be precluded from setting up any that he 
might have on the doctrine of estoppel. 

The word “assignment” is also used to indicate the act 
of setting apart dower for a widow in the real estate of 
her husband. It is also employed in case of bankruptcy 
or insolvency, to indicate the act of transfer of a failing 
debtor’s property to a person called an assignee, who is 
substantially a trustee for the benefit of the creditors. A 
failing debtor by the laws of some States is permitted to 
make a voluntary and even preferential transfer to an as¬ 
signee acting in the same general manner, though such 
laws are substantially superseded for the time being when 
there is a U. S. bankrupt law in operation. 

T. W. Dwight. 

Assi'si [Lat. Assis'iuni], a town of Italy, province of 
Perugia, is built on a steep hill, 13 miles S. E. of Perugia. 
It is surrounded by a wall flanked with towers, and has a 
cathedral built in the eleventh century, and many monas¬ 
teries. It is the native place of Saint Francis. Here is a 
large and beautiful Gothic structure called Convcnto Sacro, 
which is adorned with fine paintings. Among the remains 
of the ancient Assisium is a beautiful portico ol the temple 
of Minerva. Pop. in 1861, 3333. 

Assistance [from the Lat. ad, “near,” and sisto, to 
“ stand ”], Writ of, a direction by the court of chancery to 
the sheriff to put a party in whose favor a dcorco has been 











298 ASSIZE—ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. 


rendered in possession of land to which the decree has de¬ 
claimed him to be entitled. 

Assize [from the Lat. assideo, to “ sit near”], the namo 
of an ancient English court; a writ to recover the posses¬ 
sion of a freehold. The word is used in the plural to de¬ 
note the stated sittings of the judges of the superior courts 
in England in the various counties, by virtue of several 
commissions, to try civil and criminal cases. 

Asso'ciated Press, an association of newspapers in 
the U. S. for the collection of news. Its principal centre 
is at New York, but there are subordinate centres, as at 
Cincinnati, Chicago, and Washington, to which items of 
news are transmitted, to be there condensed and distributed 
to the various journals. Besides this, there are rival asso¬ 
ciations which perform a similar work. In Europe the 
Baron Reuter has almost a monopoly of this kind of busi¬ 
ness, but American journals have always opposed the es¬ 
tablishment of his system on this continent. 

Asso'ciate Pres'Bytery, in Scotland, dating from 
1733, founded in opposition to aristocratic dictation in the 
settlement of ministers. In 1747 a split occurred on the 
question of the “ Burgess Oath,” resulting in the formation 
of the Associate Synod and the General Associate Synod. 
In 1820 this schism was healed, only a few ministers, be¬ 
longing to the General Associate Synod, protesting 
against the union. (See United Original Seceders and 
United Secession Church.) 

Associate Reformed Synod of New York, composed 
of two presbyteries which refused to join the United 
Presbyterian Church, formed in 1858 by bringing to¬ 
gether the Associate and Associate Reformed churches. In 
1860 they reported 16 ministers, 14 churches, and 1631 
members; in 1867 they reported only 11 ministers. 

Associate Reformed Synod of the South, a small Pres¬ 
byterian body which in 1860 reported 68 ministers, in 1867, 
65, and in 1872, 67. 

Associate Synod of North America, like the Associate 
Reformed Synod of N. Y., persons who declined the union 
of the Associate and Associate Reformed churches in 1858. 
In 1860 they reported 11 ministers, 32 churches, and 778 
members, chiefly in Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa; in 1867, 
they reported 14 ministers, 40 churches, and 1221 members. 

Association [from the Lat. ad, “to,” “together,” and 
so'cius, a “companion”], a union of persons; a company; 
a society formed for the transaction of some business for 
mutual advantage; a company formed for the advancement 
of science or literature. 

Association, British, the title of an annual reunion 
of the most eminent scientific men of Great Britain, who 
meet at different places, and report the progress and new 
discoveries made in their respective departments of science. 
The American Association for the Advancement of Science 
was formed in 1847. 

Association of Ideas (otherwise called Mental 
Association, or simply Association, Suggestion, 
Connection of Ideas, Train of Thought, Suc¬ 
cession of Thoughts), etc., a principle or law in men¬ 
tal philosophy exercising an important influence upon the 
operations of the mind. “When a traveller visits the 
ruins of Athens or of Rome, the plain of Pharsalia or of 
Marathon, the sight of these places awakens the memory 
of the men and of the deeds which have made them glori¬ 
ous.” The names of the great recall their achievements. 
A portrait revives similar memories, and calls up emotions 
which might have seemed dormant for ever. 

“ It may bo a sound, 

A tone of music, summer’s eve, or spring, 

A flower, the wind, the ocean, which shall wound, 
Striking the electric chain.”— Byron. 

These facts rest upon the reciprocal power of thought to 
evoke thought. Under this power arises what is called the 
association of ideas, but its law is the law of intellectual 
gravitation—its sphere is the universe of mind. It is 
wider than “ideas,” and extends to all our mental modifi¬ 
cations. Our cognitions, emotions, and active powers, all 
come under the law of association. Our feelings, our will- 
ings, and our efforts are as completely held in groups by 
internal bonds as our ideas are. 

Association may connect ideas by a simple link or by a 
multitude of links. The idea of the civil war of England 
prompts the question, “What is the value of a Roman de¬ 
narius ?” There are no two thoughts so remote as to have 
no link. Association has, therefore, infinite possibilities. 

The laws of association have been variously enumerated. 
Some of the most obvious and important are— 

1. Simultaneity and succession, synchronism and chro¬ 
nology. Thus, Caesar and Pompey, Luther and Leo, 
Charles I. and Charles II.; Aristotle back to Plato, Des¬ 
cartes on to Spinoza. 


2. Contiguity and remoteness between ourselves and the 
things, or between the things themselves: New York and 
Brooklyn, ourselves and our antipodes. We think of Mer¬ 
cury as nearest the sun, and that suggests Neptune as the 
farthest off. 

3. Resemblance and contrast to the eye in works of art, 
which recall the original to the mind : metaphor; punning 
rests on the association of sounds that resemble with things 
that differ. Night recalls day, sickness recalls health, war 
recalls peace. 

4. The logical relations involve association of ideas, though 
not all association of ideas is logical: cause and effect, 
workmen and work, father and child, the universe and God, 
object and means, analogy, premiss and conclusion, part 
and whole. The relations of physical, mechanical, and cos- 
mical order are of the same kind, and hence association is 
the mother of invention and discovery. 

5. The association of the verbal sign with the thing sig¬ 
nified, which is the essence of language and the necessary 
preliminary to reasoning. Two or more of these causes may 
co-operate in particular cases, or the thing may in one 
aspect give rise to one association, in another aspect to 
another. Aristotle reduces the principle of association to 
three parts: Proximity in time and contiguity in place as 
one ; resemblance, contrast. Ilume says : “ There appear to 
be only three principles of connection among ideas—namely, 
resemblance, contiguity in time or place, and cause or effect. 
A picture naturally leads our thoughts to the original (re¬ 
semblance) ; the mention of one apartment introduces an 
inquiry concerning the others (contiguity); we think of a 
wound and the pain which follows it (cause and effect).” 
Augustine reduces the principle to one: What is once to¬ 
gether is afterwards together. Hobbes says : “ The cause 
of the coherence or consequence of one conception to an¬ 
other is their first coherence or consequence at that time 
when they are produced by sense.” Cardaillac (1830) in 
substance repeats Hobbes when he says that simultaneity 
is the common condition of all the other connections: 
nothing can be linked now that has not been linked before. 
Hamilton in the same way reduces the laws to two, simul¬ 
taneity and affinity; and these two laws, he asserts, are 
only modifications of one law, redintegration, or totality: 
“ Those thoughts suggest each other which had previously 
constituted parts of the same entire or total act of cog¬ 
nition.” This is ending where Augustine began. Hamil¬ 
ton maintains that a third thought may be associated 
with a first through a second which “ does not rise into 
consciousness,” “suggestions passing through one or 
more ideas which do not themselves rise into conscious¬ 
ness.” This false theory in metaphysics he illustrates 
by an example drawn from a false theory in physics—to 
wit, that billiard-balls in a row, intermediate between the 
first one, which is struck, and the last one, which flies off, 
remain motionless. Hamilton’s whole position and ar¬ 
gument are marked by the crudity and self-contradiction 
which often mar his lectures. The true theory in such 
cases is, that the acts of consciousness are too rapid to mark 
themselves deeply and distinctly enough in memory to be car¬ 
ried on by it to the end of the process. Reflection usually 
with very little difficulty articulates all the parts. When 
Hamilton reflectively associated Ben Lomond with the Prus¬ 
sian system of education, he simply did slowly what he had 
done before rapidly. The human mind is subtler than light, 
far beyond the degree in which light is subtler than lead. 
Consciousness is the essential condition of an idea. Memory, 
as objectively separated in time from consciousness, is not es¬ 
sential to it. Both can be born together, and both die to¬ 
gether. A precedence in the order of thought must not be 
confounded with a precedence objectively in time. Alexander 
Bain reduces the primary attributes of intellect to three, of 
which the third is retentiveness, the facts connected with 
which may, with few exceptions, “ be comprehended under 
the principle called the law of contiguity or contiguous adhe¬ 
sion. The principle of contiguity has been described under 
various names—as Hamilton’s law of ‘ redintegration,’ the 
‘association of ideas.’ The principle may be stated thus: 
Actions, sensations, and states of feeling, occurring to¬ 
gether or in close succession, tend to grow together or cohere 
in such a way that when any one of them is afterwards 
presented to the mind, the others are apt to be brought up 
in idea.” Bain further discusses agreement, law of simi¬ 
larity, compound association, constructive association. 

Not all ideas once integrant are necessarily redintegrated. 
The strength of the impression which they originally made, 
their duration in fellowship, the time which has elapsed 
since we had them, the cogency of their connection, are all 
determining forces. But in advance of all this the tendencies 
of the law of association in the particular individual are 
determined by the native constitution of his mind and by 
the circumstances of his whole training, mental and moral. 
These tendencies carried out make the poet or the math- 














ASSONET- 


ematioian, the sensualist or the sage. An illegitimate asso¬ 
ciation of ideas may mar a whole life, may work out crime 
and ruin. One and the same thing may be to two persons 
a deadly or a reviving savor. The same flag calls forth the 
fiercest assaults and the most vigorous defence. The same 
strain of music awakens joy, sadness, hope, or despair. The 
poem of Wordsworth on the “ Power of Sound” is but an 
exquisite painting of one class of illustrations of the power 
of association. There are national tendencies under this 
law as well as individual. Governments and societies are 
built for ages on the ideas associated with a single central 
idea embodied in a word. It is the association of ideas 
which makes the mightiest and holiest bond of our life—the 
tie of the home, the native land, the Christian communion. 
It makes the heart of the Swiss sicken and die for the little 
rocky mountain-nook which is associated with the “ Ranz- 
des-Vaches.” The principle of the association of ideas is 
therefore not only of profound interest in psychology, but 
has great importance in morals. Like every power of man, 
it comes under the law' of moral responsibility. Associ¬ 
ation is in certain respects involuntary, and habit can in 
any case carry it beyond the proper control of the will. 
But the will can largely determine what shall he the orig¬ 
inal links of association, and bear an important part in 
determining whether we shall follow up or repress a par¬ 
ticular class of associated ideas. The association of a pro¬ 
fane or ludicrous idea with a sacred name or fact may make 
that name or fact through a whole lifetime the means of re¬ 
calling blasphemy or mockery. 

The attempts to account for the association of ideas are 
of course affected by the general features of the different 
systems. The effort to give them in whole or in part an 
organic mechanical relation has been made by Descartes, 
Hartley, Bonnet, and a number of later writers, who 
relate them to brain-fibre and the nerve. Locke says : 
“ They seem to be but traces of motion in the animal 
spirit.” Kant (“ Anthropologie”) truly says : “ It is in vain 
to look for a physiologic solution of them.” This wonderful 
power of the human mind is part of the perfection which it 
owes to the Great Being who is its author. The thinker who 
makes ideas and their associations physical things, is as ex¬ 
travagant as the idealist who converts the solid earth into 
a mere relation between the mind that thinks of itself and 
the mind itself thus thought of. The materialist and the 
absolute idealist are the antipodes of the one world of ex¬ 
travagance in thought. The later psychologists, Herbart, 
Benecke, and others, have made clearer the twofold cha¬ 
racter in the association of ideas: First, where the asso¬ 
ciated elements are homogeneous, and produce what Herbart 
calls perfect fusion ; second, where the elements are hetero¬ 
geneous, and result in complication or imperfect fusion. 
This distinction is regarded as of great value for the entire 
soul-life, but especially with reference to the points at which 
the approaches of soul to the physiological processes are 
closest. 

A well-regulated association of ideas on our own part, and 
a delicate perception of what is likely to be the association 
in the minds of others with particular words or things, are 
essential to the charm of conversation and of social inter¬ 
course. Without both of these a good and intelligent man 
may be a bore and a nuisance. One of the characteristic 
differences between logic and wit is, that logic keeps the asso¬ 
ciation of ideas under the control of reason, while wit uses 
it for combinations which triumph over reason and carry 
it away a delighted captive. The active imagination is the 
result of this force of the association of ideas. The im¬ 
agination no more creates its own primary elements than 
the painter creates the matter of his colors or his canvas. 
The imagination selects and combines what the law of as¬ 
sociation furnishes. Its most daring so-called “creations” 
are capable of an easy analysis, which shows that they are 
shaped under this law. The memory is largely dependent 
upon association. (See Memory and Mnemotechnics.) Va¬ 
rious uses have been made of the principle of association 
in philosophy. Hume employs it to explain the idea of cau¬ 
sality ; Beid and others to account for the force of habit. 
But though the association of ideas can become the subject 
of culture, it is, as we have seen, primary and innate. 

The association of ideas has been observed by thinkers 
from an early period. Aristotle speaks ot it in his “ Treatise 
of Reminiscence ” very briefly, but in a manner worthy of 
his wonderful acuteness. It is to Locke, however, in the 
latest edition of his “ Human Understanding, we owe the 
first discussion of the subject with a fulness at all commen¬ 
surate with its importance; and no system worthy ot the 
name, since Locke, has failed to devote a large space 
to it. C. P. Krauth. 

As'sonet, a village of Freetown township, Bristol co., 
Mass., on a branch of the Old Colony and Newport It. R., 
10 miles N. E. of Fall River. 

Assolant (Jean Baptiste Alfred), a French author, 


ASSYRIA. 299 


born in 1827, who commenced active life as a teacher of 
history in Poitiers. Ho travelled over the American conti¬ 
nent. Returning to France, he published in the “ Revue 
des Deux Mondes” several novels founded upon his Ameri¬ 
can adventures, and published later various romances. His 
best known works are “Butterfly,” “Acacia,” and “Une 
Fantaisie Americaine.” He has been also a very popular 
journalistic writer. 

Assoucy, il’ (Charles Coypeatj), a French burlesque 
poet, born in 1604, who styled himself “The emperor of 
burlesque,” and who was called by others “Scarron’s ape.” 
He wrote many humorous poems, among them “ Ovide en 
belle Humeur” and “ Ravissement de Proserpine,” in which 
the humor was dull, and their author provoked the satire 
of Boileau, who wrote of him 

“ Le plus mauvais plaisants ent des approbateurs 
Et jusq’ a d’Assoucy, tout trouva des lecteurs.” 

Died in 1679. 

Assump'sit [Lat. “he has undertaken”], an agreement 
not under seal, either express or implied; a common-law 
action to obtain damages for the violation of such an agree¬ 
ment. It is usually divided into common or indebitatus as¬ 
sumpsit, brought in general upon an implied pjromise; and 
special assumpsit, which is founded on an express promise. 

Assumption, a parish in the S. E. of Louisiana, area 
B20 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by Grand 
River, and intersected by the navigable bayou La Fourche. 
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile and adapted 
to the sugar-cane. Sugar, molasses, rice, and corn are the 
chief crops. Capital, Assumption. Pop. 13,234. 

Assumption [Sp. Asuncion], a city of South America, 
the capital of Paraguay, is situated on the left (E.) bank 
of the river Paraguay, 645 miles N. of Buenos Ayres: lat. 
25° 16' 29” S., Ion. 57° 42' 42” W. It was founded by the 
Spaniards in 1536. It has a cathedral, five churches, a 
government palace, a college, a public library, etc. Hides, 
tobacco, timber, and yerba mate (or Paraguay tea) are 
shipped here by the river. The houses are mostly built 
of brick, one story high. Pop. about 48,000. 

Assumption, a post-village and township of Christian 
co., Ill., on the Illinois Central R. R., 23 miles S. of De¬ 
catur. It has a weekly paper, two flouring-mills, and a 
number of stores. Pop. 590 ; of township, 1246. 

John P. Marnel, Pub. “Assumption Press.” 

Assumption, a post-village, the capital of Assumption 
parish, La., 40 miles S. of Baton Rouge. 

Assumption of the Vir'gin, a festival of the Greek 
and Roman churches in commemoration of the resurrec¬ 
tion and miraculous ascent of the Virgin Mary to heaven. 
It is held on the 15th of August. Protestant Christians 
unanimously reject the tradition of these events. The full 
tradition of the Assumption is given in Saint Alphonso 
Liguori’s “ Glory of Mary.” 

Assumption of Mo'ses, a pseudepigraphical or 
apocryphal book containing a pretended account of the 
death of Moses and of the assumption of his soul to heaven. 
Some suppose that Saint Jude alludes, in his reference to 
the contest between the archangel Michael and the devil, to 
the statements made in this book; but it is not certain that 
it existed in apostolic times. 

Asswan, as-swan', Assouan, or Essuan (anc. Sye'- 
ne), a town of Upper Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile, 
near the border of Nubia, 115 miles S. of Thebes; lat. 24° 5' 
N., Ion. 33° E. It is two and a half miles below the First Cata¬ 
ract, and is remarkable for its picturesque situation and an¬ 
cient monuments. Here are quarries of syenite, a variety 
of granite which derives its name from Syene. From these 
quarries came the red obelisks that adorned various temples 
of Egypt. Here arc also ruins of a large Saracen or Ara¬ 
bian town, among which are found many Cufic inscriptions. 
Here, according to some authorities, the poet Juvenal died 
in exile about 125 A. D., but others deny the truth of the 
statement. Pop. 4000. 

As'sye, or As'saye, a village of the Nizam’s domin¬ 
ions, in Hindostan, 24 miles N. of Jaulna, was the scene 
of the duke of Wellington’s first great victory. On the 23d 
of Sept., 1803, with a force of 2000 British and 2500 natives, 
he utterly defeated the Mahrattas, numbering from 30,000 
to 50,000 men, partly officered by the French. Wellington, 
then Gen. Wellesley, captured 98 cannon, and lost 1560 
killed and wounded. 

Assyr'ia [Gr. ’Ac-<rupia], the Latin name of an ancient 
and powerful kingdom (called also Assliur and Assura) 
of Western Asia, was bounded on the N. by Armenia, on 
the E. by Media, on the S. by Babylonia, and on the \\. 
by Mesopotamia, or the river Euphrates. Assyria proper 
appears to havo coincided very nearly with the mod¬ 
ern Kurdistan, but the dominions of the most powerful 









300 ASSYRIA. 


Assyrian monarch? had a much greater extent. According 
to George Rawlinson, “ The site of the second or great 
Assyrian monarchy was the upper portion of the Mesopo¬ 
tamian valley. The cities which successively formed its 
capitals lay, all of them, upon the middle Tigris, and the 
heart of the country was a district on either side of that 
river enclosed between the 35th and 37th parallels of lat¬ 
itude. By degrees these limits were enlarged, and the term 
Assyria came to be used in a loose and vague way of a vast 
and ill-defined tract extending on all sides from this cen¬ 
tral region.” The high mountain-chain of Zagros formed 
the natural eastern boundary of this region, which was also 
bounded on the N. by a snowy mountain-range called Mons 
Nipha'tes. The surface was mostly a plain diversified with 
several ridges or ranges of limestone hills. The soil of the 
plains and valleys was exceedingly productive, so that the 
fertility of Assyria was a favorite theme of ancient writers. 
It is probable that this fertility was promoted by artificial 
irrigation, for Herodotus states that but little rain fell in 
Assyria. The country on the eastern side of the Tigris was 
well watered by rivers—namely, the Greater Zab, the 
Adhem, the Lesser Zab, and the Dialus or Diyaleh. The 
word Assyria, is probably derived from Asshur (or Ashur), 
which was the name of a son of Shem and of the chief god 
worshipped by the Assyrians. 

History .—The early history of Assyria is involved in 
obscurity. According to the book of Genesis (chap, x.), 
Nineveh, the capital of this kingdom, was founded by Nim¬ 
rod, the son of Cush, or by Asshur, a son of Shem. This 
ambiguity arises from the fact that in the Hebrew text 
Asshur means sometimes Assyria, and sometimes a son of 
Shem. The cuneiform inscriptions indicate that the most 
ancient capital was the city of Asshur, on the Tigris, about 
GO miles S. of Nineveh. The Assyrians belonged to the 
Semitic family of nations. Their features, sculptured on 
monuments recently discovered along the Tigris, present a 
striking resemblance to those of the Jews and Arabs. They 
were remarkably warlike, and, according to the prophet 
Isaiah, were “afierce people.” Their pride, treachery, and 
violence are also denounced by several Hebrew prophets. 

In relation to the history and chronology of Assyria we 
have only three original authorities—Herodotus, Ctesias, 
and Berosus. According to Herodotus, who is confirmed 
to some extent by Berosus, the empire commenced about 
1270 B. C., and endured about 650 years, but Ctesias gives 
it a duration of more than 1300 years. “ The cuneiform 
monuments,” says George Rawlinson, “ while they generally 
confirm Herodotus, contradict Ctesias perpetually.” It is 
probable that several kings reigned over Assyria before the 
empire was founded, as an empire implies the previous 
and gradual growth of a nation. Among the early kings 
whose names are found on bricks at Kileh-Sherghat is Bel- 
lush, who is supposed to have reigned about 1350-1330 B. C. 
His great-grandson, Shalmaneser I. (1200-70), is chiefly 
known in history as the founder of Calah, the second cap¬ 
ital of Assyria. He was succeeded about 1270 B. C. by his 
son, Tiglathi-nin, called the conqueror of Babylon, who is 
the first king of whom extensive conquests are recorded. 
Passing over several kings of whom nothing is known but 
their names, we come to Tiglath-pileser I., a powerful 
monarch who reigned about 1150. His conquests are re¬ 
corded on a terra-cotta cylinder which is nowin the British 
Museum, and is perhaps the earliest Assyrian historical 
document that has been discovered. In his reign Assyria 
was probably the most powerful kingdom in the world, 
except Egypt. Among the other Assyrian conquerors was 
Asshur-danni-pal (the Sardanapa'lus I. of the Greeks), who, 
according to Rawlinson, began to reign in 881 B. C., and 
extended the boundaries of Assyria by conquests. He 
compelled Tyre and Sidon to pay tribute to him, and 
reigned about twenty-five years, during which Assyria 
made rapid progress in wealth and art. He excelled all 
his predecessors in the grandeur of his public buildings, 
and erected a great palace at Calah (Nimrood), which is the 
most magnificent Assyrian edifice that has been discovered, 
except the palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh. This palace 
of Asshur-danni-pal, which was 360 feet long, was adorned 
with sculptures, many of which are now in the British 
Museum. He was succeeded by his son, Shalmaneser II., 
who defeated Ben-hadad, king of Damascus, and his suc¬ 
cessor, Hazael. The events of his long reign are recorded 
on an obelisk of black basalt (about seven feet high) which 
was discovered by Mr. Layard at Nimrood in excellent 
preservation. The statement of Ctesias, that Ninus founded 
the Assyrian empire, and that his wife Semiramis con¬ 
quered Ethiopia and invaded India, is generally consid¬ 
ered fabulous, but among the Assyrian monuments occurs 
the name of Sammuramit, the wife of Iva-lush (810-781 
B. C.). Recent explorers of history have substituted this 
Sammuramit, "a very prosaic and commonplace prin¬ 
cess,” for the famous and heroic Semiramis of the Greek 


legends, which appear to have had a very slight basis of 
fact. 

The second book of Kings states that Pul, king of As¬ 
syria, invaded Palestine, and received tribute from Mcna- 
hem, king of Israel, about 750 B. C., but the name of Pul 
does not occur in the native inscription. The Hebrew 
sacred history also mentions Tiglath-pileser II., who began 
to reign about 745 B. C., and waged war with success against 
the kings of Syria, Israel, and Tyre (2 Kings xv. 29). By his 
A r ictories over these and other nations he re-established the 
power of Assyria in the region between the desert and the 
Mediterranean. He was succeeded by Shalmaneser, who 
subdued Hoshea, king of Israel, and reigned about six 
years. The next king was Sargon, who usurped the throne 
about 721 B. C., and was victorious in expeditions against 
many nations or tribes. He defeated the army of Egypt, 
and dethroned Merodach-baladan, king of Babylon, which 
he annexed to his own empire. He was succeeded about 
704 B. C. by his son, Sennacherib, who was the most cele¬ 
brated of all the Assyrian kings, and was distinguished for 
his pride, ambition, and warlike enterprise. His long reign 
was signalized by many victorious expeditions. He de¬ 
feated the Egyptians near Ekron, subdued the Philistines, 
and invaded the dominions of Hezekiah, king of Judah, 
from whom he took many fenced cities, and carried away 
about 200,000 Jews into captivity. Having forced Ilezc- 
kiah to pay tribute to him, he returned to Nineveh, his cap¬ 
ital, where he built a magnificent palace, which surpassed 
in size and splendor all earlier edifices, and was adorned 
with excellent sculptures. This palace Avas partly exhumed 
by Mr. Layard, who excavated on its ground floor sixty- 
eight chambers, and a hall 180 feet long. In a second ex¬ 
pedition against the king of Judah and his ally, the king 
of Egypt, he failed disastrously (see 2 Kings xviii. and xix.), 
his army being destroyed by a miracle in the night atPelu- 
sium. “ The total destruction of the empire in consequence 
of this blow,” says Rawlinson, “ is an exaggeration of Jose¬ 
phus. Sennacherib did not die till 680 B. C., seventeen 
years after his misfortune. . . . He wisely turned his sword 
against other enemies, and was rewarded by important suc¬ 
cesses upon all his other frontiers.” Sennacherib was assas¬ 
sinated by two of his sons, and was succeeded by another 
son, Esar-haddon, who reigned thirteen years, and held his 
court alternately at Nineveh and Babylon. Among his ex¬ 
ploits was the conquest of Egypt. He died about 667 B. C., 
and left the throne to his son, Asshur-bani-pal (or Sardan- 
apalus), who was eminent as a warrior, builder, and patron 
of art. He extended the limits of the empire in almost 
every direction, and built a grand palace at Nineveh 
(Koyunjik). This palace was remarkable for the beauty 
of the bas-reliefs and other ornaments. The sculptures of 
this reign are much superior to the earlier in spirit and 
freedom from conventionality. The empire declined rap¬ 
idly after the death of Asshur-bani-pal, who was succeeded 
by his son, Saracus, a weak and effeminate prince. In his 
reign occurred a great inroad of Scythians, who ravaged 
Assyria and other civilized countries, about 630 B. C. Soon 
after this event, Cyaxares the Mede formed a league with 
Nabopolassar, governor of Babylon, against Saracus. These 
allies took and destroyed Nineveh in 625 (or, as some say, 
606 B. C.), and Assyria then became a province of Media. 

Language and, Religion .—From the mounds of Mesopo¬ 
tamia have been exhumed a large mass and variety of docu¬ 
ments in the Assyrian language, in cuneiform characters. 
These documents confirm the previous opinion of the learned 
that the language was Semitic. They were inscribed on 
slabs of stone, with which the Avails of palaces Avere panel¬ 
led, on obelisks of stone, on clay tablets, and on cylinders 
(or, more strictly, hexagonal prisms) of fine terra-cotta, two 
or three feet long, Avhieh the Assyrian kings deposited at 
the corners of temples. These so-called cylinders were 
covered closely with small inscriptions, which, says G. 
Rawlinson, “it often requires a good magnifying-glass to 
decipher.” The materials which they used most extensively 
for records and literary documents were stone and plastic 
clay, the latter of which, being afterwards baked, has re¬ 
sisted the ravages of time as Avell as stone. The number 
of characters was very great—about 300, all wedge-shaped, 
but Avith a great \ T ariety in the form of the wedge. (See 
Cuneiform Inscriptions.) “ The Assyrian characters,” says 
George Rawlinson, “ correspond not to letters, according to 
our notion of letters, but to syllables.” A grammar of the 
Assyrian language has been published by Menant, and a 
dictionary by Norris (London, I860). 

The religion of the Assyrians was a gross polytheism, 
and nearly identical Avith that of the Chaldeans or Baby¬ 
lonians. The principal objects of their worship Avere As¬ 
shur, Anu, Bel, Iva, Beltis, Nisroch, Nebo, Nin, Shamas, 
and Sin. At the head of the Assyrian Pantheon stood As¬ 
shur, a thoroughly national deity, whom they styled the 
“ Great Lord,” the “King of all the Gods.” The tutelage 


















ASSYRIA—ASTAETE. 


of Asshur over Assyria is strongly marked by the identity 
of his name with that of the country, which in the original 
is complete. 

Architecture, etc .—The artistic genius and multifarious 
ingenuity of the Assyrians, and their highly civilized con¬ 
dition, are abundantly proved by the remains of art which 


301 


have been exhumed near the Tigris by M. Botta and Mr. 
Layard. As architects, as sculpto -s, as designers and en¬ 
gravers, it is evident that they equalled or surpassed all 
other Asiatic nations. Ancient Hebrew and Greek tradi¬ 
tions concur in representing the Assyrians as renowned in 
early ages for skill in architecture. They lavished great 



Portal or Doorway of the Palace of Jvhorsabad. (Bas-relief.) 


labor and ornament on royal palaces, compared with which 
their temples were rather insignificant. The Assyrian pal¬ 
ace, constructed mainly of sun-dried bricks, uniformly stood 
on an artificial platform, which was commonly composed 
of bricks. It contained a great number of rectangular 
chambers and several grand halls, richly ornamented with 
sculptures, which are designed with excellent taste and dis¬ 
play an artistic genius of a high order. These halls are 
lined or panelled with slabs of marble or other stone, which 
are profusely adorned with bas-reliefs and covered with 
historical inscriptions. “Of all the Assyrian works of art/’ 



Winged Bull with a human head, from Nimrood; now in the 
British Museum. (Bas-relief.) 



Colossal Lion from the Great Mound at Nimrood. Length, 12 
feet; height, 7 feet 8 inches. (Bas-relief.) 


says Rawlinson, “which have come down to us, by far the 
most important are the bas-reliefs. They used the bas- 
relief for almost every purpose to which mimetic art is 
applicable.” These represent battles, sieges, naval opera¬ 
tions, hunting-scenes, processions, and scenes of ordinary 
life. The use of the column appears to have been rare in 
Assyrian palaces, where it sometimes occurs in interior 
doorways. The accompanying illustrations may serve to 
give the reader an idea of the general style of the Assyrian 
sculptures, discovered by Mr. Layard, M. Botta, and others. 


“ The imperial palace of Sennacherib,” says Mr. Fergus- 
son, “is, of all the buildings of antiquity, surjiassed in 
magnitude only by the great palace-temple of Karnac; 
and when we consider the vastness of the mound on which 
it was raised, and the richness of the ornaments with which 
it was adorned, it is by no means clear that it was not as 
great, or at least as expensive, a work as the great palace- 
temple at Thebes.” (Handbook of Architecture, vol. i.) 
Among the remarkable remains of Assyrian art now in the 
British Museum are the winged and hiunan-headed lions, 
twelve feet high, and winged bulls of similar dimensions. 
(See Nineveh.) (See also Layard’s “Nineveh and Baby¬ 
lon,” 1853; Layard’s “ Nineveh and its Remains,” 2 vols., 
1849; G. Rawlinson, “The Five Great Monarchies of the 
Ancient Eastern World,” 4 vols., 18G2-C7; Bonomi, “Nin¬ 
eveh and its Palaces,” 1857; Gumpach, “Abriss der Assyr. 
Babyl. Geschichte,” 1859; Niebuhr, “Geschichte Assurs 
und Babels seit Pliul,” 1857.) William Jacobs. 

Assyr'ia, a post-township of Barry co., Mich. P. 1175. 

Ast (Georg Anton Friedrich), an eminent German phil¬ 
ologist and critic, born at Gotha in 1776. He was ap¬ 
pointed professor of classical literature at Landshut in 
1805, and obtained the same chair in the University of 
Munich in 1826. He wrote, besides other works, a “Man¬ 
ual of Aesthetics ” (1805) and “The Life and Writings of 
Plato” (1816). He also published a good edition of the 
works of Plato, with a Latin version and a commentary 
(11 vols., 1819-32). Died Dec. 30, 1841. 

As'tacus [a Latin word signifying “lobster”], a genus 
of crustaceans, including the cray-fishes of Europe and 
the Pacific States of the U. S. 

Astar'te [Gr. ’Ao-Tap-rr;], or Ash’taroth, the chief god¬ 
dess worshipped by the Phoenicians, Syrians, and Cartha¬ 
ginians. She is consid¬ 
ered by some as the orig¬ 
inal of the Greek Aph¬ 
rodite (Venus). Others 
identify her with Cy- 
bele, and others again 
with Juno. As Baal was 
the god of the sun, so 
Astarte was the goddess 
of the moon. She is va¬ 
riously represented, but 
more usually with four 
wings (the two upper¬ 
most of which are in¬ 
tended to symbolize the 
horns of the moon), 
wearing a pointed cap, 
and holding a dove in 
her hand; as shown in 
the accompanying illus¬ 
tration, taken from an 
image of Astarte found 
in Etruria. The Syrians 
built to her a famous 
temple at Hierapolis. Her 
chief temples, besides 
that at Hierapolis, were 
at Tyre and Sidon. (Sec 
Appendix (Essay I.) to 
book iii. in vol. ii. of Rawlixson’s “ Herodotus. ) 

Astar'te, a genus of bivalve mollusks, the typo of the 






















































































































































































































302 


ASTAT tC—ASTEROIDS. 


family Cyprinidae, nearly related to the Vencridao. Fossils 
of some 200 extinct species aro widely distributed over 
the world. Some of them are found in the lias formation. 
Fifteen or twenty species of Astarte now exist in the deep 
sea in various parts of the world. 

Astat'ic [Lat. astaticus; from the Gr. a, priv., and 
loTijjai, to “ stand ”], a term applied to the magnetic needle 
when it is withdrawn from the action of the earth’s mag¬ 
netism, and has no longer the statical position in which it 
is in equilibria with the influence of this force. A needle is 
rendered astatic by placing the axis about which it is mov¬ 
able in the direction in which terrestrial magnetism acts, 
because it cannot then receive any motion from the force, 
and will rest in any position. This effect is more usually 
produced by neutralizing the action of the earth by means 
of an equal and opposite magnetic action; that is, by 
placing the needle vertically above or below a second mag¬ 
netic needle, the N. pole of which is in juxtaposition with 
the S. pole of the first needle. 

As'ter [from the Gr. aa-r^p, a "star”], a genus of plants 
of the natural order Composite, which Lindley proposes 
to call Asteraceae. This genus comprises a great number 
of species, generally herbaceous, mostly natives of the U. S. 
Many of them are cultivated in the gardens of Europe for 
the beauty of the flowers, which bloom from July to Novem¬ 
ber. The ray-florets, which are never of the same color 
as the disk, are purple, blue, violet, white, etc. Among the 
remarkable American species are Aster JVovse Anglise, Aster 
puniceus, Aster cyaneus, and Aster spectabilis. The China 
aster (Aster Chinensis; Callistephus Ghinensis) is a favorite 
garden flower in England and the U. S. Many varieties 
are cultivated, and present a great diversity of colors. 
They prefer a rich soil, and continue to bloom until the end 
of autumn. 

Asteracan'thus [“ star spine”], a genus of fossil sharks, 
of which only the dorsal defensive spines are known. These 
are found in the mesozoic rocks of England, and were 
named by Agassiz from the stellate tubercles with which they 
are ornamented. 

Aste'rius, or As'ter, a Father of the Church, sup¬ 
posed to have been born at Antioch about 340 A. D. Little 
is known of his life except that he was bishop of Amasea, 
in Pontus. Some of his homilies are extant. 

As'teroids [Gr. ao-repoeifij}?, “resembling a star,” from 
acrTrjp, a “ star,” and elSo s, “ form,” “ resemblance ”], the 
name given to members of the zone of small planets trav¬ 
elling between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. They are 
so called because they are not readily distinguishable from 
the fixed stars save by the experienced observer. The dis¬ 
covery of the first knoAvn members of this group of celes¬ 
tial bodies forms one of the most interesting chapters in 
the history of astronomy. It had long been noticed that a 
large gap separates the orbit of Mars from that of Jupiter. 
Not, indeed, that the actual distance between these orbits 
is even so great as that which separates the orbits of Jupi¬ 
ter and Saturn, but the orderly increase observable in the 
planetary distances as we proceed outward from the sun is 
obviously marred by the sudden increase which marks the 
interval between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, as com¬ 
pared with that between the orbits of the earth and Mars. 
This circumstance led Kepler, and afterwards Titius, to ex¬ 
press the opinion that an undetected planet revolves be¬ 
tween Mars and Jupiter. The discovery of the planet Ura¬ 
nus, whose mean distance corresponds exactly with Bode’s 
law (see Bode), led this eminent astronomer to recommend 
that search should be made for such a planet. Accordingly, 
for the first time in the history of astronomy, an empirical 
law—a law whose cause is even now not recognized—led 
astronomers to commence a systematic survey of the heav¬ 
ens. Through the exertions of Baron de Zach an associa¬ 
tion of twenty-four astronomers was formed. These ob¬ 
servers divided the zodiac among them, and soon after the 
beginning of the present century the search for the new 
planet was fairly commenced. But the discovery did not 
fall to the lot of any of those who had undertaken the 
search. As in the case of the planet Uranus, an apparent 
accident brought the first discovered member of the family 
of asteroids under the notice of an astronomer who richly 
merited such a success, though actually engaged on work 
of another character. Piazzi, then at work on his great 
catalogue, was carefully surveying the constellation Taurus, 
when his attention was attracted by an apparent change 
of place in a small star which he had observed on the first 
day of the present century. By Jan. 3, 1801, he had 
convinced himself of the star’s change of place. He com¬ 
municated his discovery to Oriani and Bode, and continued 
his own observations until Feb. 11, when his labors were 
interrupted by dangerous illness. When his letters reach¬ 
ed Oriani and Bode the planet had already approached too 
near to conjunction with the sun to be discernible. There 


seemed great risk that after all the planet would escape as¬ 
tronomers, since it would not be discernible before Sept., 
1801, and the observations of Piazzi were deemed insuffi¬ 
cient for the calculation of the planet’s place after so long 
an interval. But Gauss, the eminent mathematician, came 
to the rescue, and after a careful study of all the obser¬ 
vations made by Piazzi, he formed an ephemeris of the 
planet’s path for several months in advance. At length, 
after an arduous search, L)e Zach redetected the planet on 
Dec. 31, 1801, Olbers (independently) discovering it on the 
following evening. After one year of doubt and difficulty, 
astronomers had succeeded in achieving a well-earned tri¬ 
umph for their science. It was found that the new planet 
travels at a mean distance of 2.767 from the sun, the earth’s 
distance being unity, while Bode’s law had indicated for it 
a distance of 2.8. It therefore fulfilled even more closely 
than was to have been expected this empirical law. It was 
called Ceres by Piazzi. But while astronomers were con¬ 
gratulating themselves on this new proof of the existence 
of law and harmony within the solar system, a fresh dis¬ 
covery threatened to throw all into disorder again. While 
searching for Ceres, Olbers had noticed with sjjecial care 
the arrangement of the small stars which lay near its as¬ 
signed geocentric path. On Mar. 28, 1802, while examin¬ 
ing a part of the constellation Virgo, he noticed a small 
star in a part of the heavens which had thus been render¬ 
ed familiar to him, the star occupying a place where he felt 
sure no star had been visible while his search for Ceres had 
been in progress. In two hours he had recognized the 
planetary motion of this body. By April 28, Gauss had 
assigned to the newly-discovered planet, which received 
the name of Pallas, an orbit having a mean distance very 
little less than that of the planet Ceres. Thus there were 
now two planets where only one had been wanted to sup¬ 
ply the gap in the planetary scheme. Olbers was led to 
expect that others would be found; and a search being in¬ 
stituted for the purpose of testing this view, Harding of 
the Lilienthal Observatory discovered, on Sept. 2, 1804, 
the planet Juno. Subsequently, on Mar. 29, 1807, exactly 
five years after his discovery of Pallas, and in the same 
region of the heavens, Olbers discovered Vesta. 

No further addition was made to the family of aste¬ 
roids until Dec. 8, 1845, when Astrsea was discovered at 
Driessen by a German observer named Hencke. But from 
the discovery of Hebe, on July 1, 1847, not a year has 
passed without adding one or more asteroids to the list of 
known planets. In some years the progress of discovery 
has gone on more rapidly than in others. Thus, in 1861 
ten asteroids were discovered; in 1868, twelve ; while in each 
of the years 1863 and 1869 only two were discovered. But 
at present there seems to be no reason to expect that a. year 
will ever pass without adding to the list. The following 
table presents all the asteroids discovered up to the date 
of writing, with the name of the discoverer and the date 
of discovery: 


No. 

Name. 

Date of Discovery. 

1 

Ceres. 

1801, January 1. 

2 

Pallas. 

1802, March 28. 

3 

Juno. 

1804, September 1.. 

4 

Vesta. 

1807, March 29. 

5 

Astrsea. 

1845, December 8 _ 

6 

Hebe. 

1847, July 1. 

7 

Iris. 

August 13 

8 

Flora . 

October IS. 

9 

Metis. 

1848, April 25. 

10 

Hygeia. 

1849, April 12. 

11 

Parthenope. 

1850, May 11. 

12 

Victoria. 

September 13... . 

13 

Egeria. 

November 2. 

14 

Irene. 

1851, May 19. 

15 

Eunomia. 

' July 29. 

16 

Psyche. 

1852, March 17. 

17 

Thetis. 

April 17. 

18 

Melpomene. 

June 24. 

19 

Fortuna. 

August 22. 

20 

Massilia. 

September 19. 

21 

Lutetia. 

November 15. 

22 

Calliope. 

November 16. 

23 

Thalia. 

December 15. 

24 

Themis. 

1853, April 5 . 

25 

Phocea. 

April 6. 

26 

Proserpina. 

May 5. 

27 

Euterpe. 

November 8. 

28 

Bellona. 

1854, March 1. 

29 

Amphitrite. 

March 1. 

30 

Urania. 

July 22. 

31 

Euphrosyne. 

September 1. 

32 

Pomona. 

October 28 . 

33 

Polyhymnia. 

October 28 . 

34 

Circe [. 

1855, April 6.... 

35 

Leucothea. 

April 19 . 

36 

Atalanta. 

October 5. 

37 

Fides. 

October 5 

38 

Led a. 

1856, .Tannnrv 12 

39 

Lsetitia. 

February 8 

40 

Harmonia. 

March 31. 


Discoverer. 


Piazzi. 

Olbers. 

Harding. 

Olbers. 

Hencke. 

Hencke. 

Hind. 

Hind. 

Graham. 

De Gasparis. 

De Gasparis. 
Hind. 

De Gasparis. 
Hind. 

De Gasparis. 

De Gasparis. 
Luther. 

Hind. 

Hind. 

De Gasparis. 

Goldschmidt. 

Hind. 

Hind. 

De Gasparis. 

Chacornac. 

Luther. 

Hind. 

Luther. 

Marth. 

Hind. 

Ferguson, U. S. 

Goldschmidt. 

Chacornac. 

Chacornac. 

Luther. 

Goldschmidt. 

Luther. 

Chacornac. 

Chacornac. 

Goldschmidt. 















































































































ASTEROLEPIS—ASTON. 


303 


No. 

Name. 

Date of Discovery. 

41 

Daphne. 

Mav 22. 

42 

Isis . 

May 23. 

43 

Ariadne. 

1857, April 15. 

44 

Nysa. 

Mav 27.,, 

45 

Eugenia. 

June 27. 

46 

Hestia. 

August 16. 

47 

Aglaia. 

September 15._ 

48 

Doris. 

September 19... 

49 

Pales. 

September 19 . 

50 

Virginia. 

October 4. 

51 

Nemausa. 

1858, January 22 ... 

52 

Europa. 

February 6 

53 

Calypso. 

April 4./.. 

54 

Alexandra. 

September 10. 

55 

Pandora. 

Septem her 10.. 

56 

Melete. 

1857. September 9. 

57 

Mnemosyne. 

1859, September 22. 

58 

Concordia. 

1860, March 24. 

59 

Elpis. 

September 10 

60 

Erato. 

September 14. 

61 

Echo. 

September 15 

62 

Danae. 

September 19 

63 

Ausonia. 

1861, February 10 

64 

Angelina. 

March 4. 

65 

Cybele. 

Mai’ch 8 

66 

Maia. 

April 9. 

67 

Asia. 

April 17. 

68 

Leto. 

April 29... 

69 

Hesperia. 

April 29. 

70 

Panopea. 

May 5. 

71 

Niobe. 

August 13 

72 

Feronia. 

May 29. 

73 

Cl y tie. 

1862, April 7. 

74 

Galatea. 

August 29. 

75 

Eurydice. 

September 22. 

76 

Freia. 

October 21. 

77 

Frigga. 

November 12. 

78 

Diana. 

1863, March 15. 

79 

Eurynome. 

September 14. 

80 

Sappho. 

1864, May 2. 

81 

Terpsichore. 

’ September 30. 

82 

Alcmene. 

November 27. 

83 

Beatrix. 

1865, April 26. 

84 

Clio. 

August, 25. 

85 

Io . 

September 19. 

86 

Semele. 

1866, January 4. 

87 

Sylvia. 

' May 16.". 

88 

Thisbe. 

June 15. 

89 

Julia. 

August 6. 

90 

Antiope. 

October 1. 

91 

2Egina. 

November 4. 

92 

Undina. 

1867, July 7. 

93 

Minerva. 

August 24. 

94 

Aurora. 

September 6. 

95 

Arethusa. 

November 23. 

96 

ASgle. 

1868, February 17. 

97 

Clotho. 

February 17. 

98 

lanthe. 

April 18. 

99 

Dike . 

May 29. 

100 

H ecat.e. 

July 11. 

101 

Helene . 

August 15. 

102 

Miriam. 

August 23. 

103 

Hera. 

September 7. 

104 

Clymene. 

September 13. 

105 

Artemis . 

September 16 . 

106 

Dione . 

October 10 . 

107 

Camilla . 

November 19 . 

108 

Hecuba. 

1869, April 2 . 

109 

Eelic.it,as . 

October 9 . 

110 

Evd ia.I 

1870, April 19 . 

111 

A to . 

August 14 . 

112 

Tpbigenia. 

September 19 . 

113 

A rna.H,h aha. 

1871, March 12 . 

114 


’ July 24 . 

115 

Thyra, .. 

August 6 . 1 

116 

Si ron a. 

September 8 . 

117 

TiOmiji. 

September 11 . f 

118 

Peitho .. 

1872, March 15 . 

119 

Althea. . 

April 3 . 

120 

T iflnhosis. 

April 10 . 1 

121 

TT(*rin imip.. 

May 12 . 1 

122 

fii rrl n. 

July 31 . 1 

123 

Brunhilda . 

July 31 . 1 

124 

A lppst.p 

August 23 . ’ 

125 

* 

September 11 . 1 

126 

, * 

November 5 . 1 

127 

* 

November 5.j 1 

128 

Nemosis . 

November 25. 1 

129 


1873, February 5 . 1 

130 

Kleotra . 

February 17 . 1 

131 

Vala 

May 25 . 1 

132 


June 12 . 

133 

Cyrene . 

August 16 . 

134 

Soph rosy ne . 

September 27 . 

135 

* 

1874, February 18 . 




Discoverer. 


Goldschmidt. 

Pogson. 

Pogson. 

Goldschmidt. 

Goldschmidt. 

Pogson. 

Luther. 

Goldschmidt. 

Goldschmidt. 

Ferguson, U. S. 

Laurent. 

Goldschmidt. 

Luther. 

Goldschmidt. 

Searle, U. S. 

Goldschmidt. 

Luther. 

Luther. 
Chacornac. 
Forster & Lesser. 
Ferguson, U. S. 
Goldschmidt. 

De Gasparis. 
Tempel. 

Tempel. 

Tuttle, U. S. 
Pogson. 

Luther. 

Schiaparelli. 

Goldschmidt. 

Luther. 

Peters, U. S. 
Tuttle, U. S. 
Tempel. 

Peters, U. S. 

D’Arrest. 

Peters, U. S. 
Luther. 

Watson, U. S. 
Pogson. 

Tempel. 

Luther. 

I>e Gasparis. 
Luther. 

Peters, U. S. 
Tietjen. 

Pogson. 

Peters, U. S. 
Stephan. 

Luther. 


Watson, U. S. 


Watson, U. S. 


Luther. 


A new planet was also discovered by Watson July 29,1873, 
but subsequent observations were prevented by cloudy 
weather, and it has not therefore been included in the list. 

The most remarkable characteristic of the asteroids be¬ 
sides their smallness is the relatively wide range of eccen¬ 
tricity and inclination among their orbits; so that in this 
last respect they may be said to be intermediate between 


* These asteroids have not yet been named. 


the planets and comets. Their distances vary between two 
hundred and more than three hundred millions of miles. 
The eccentricity of Polyhymnia is no less than .339119, so 
that its greatest distance is more than twice its least. The 
inclination of Pallas is 34° 43', so that the excursions of 
this planet above and below the ecliptic exceed, when taken 
together, the mean distance of the planet from the sun. 
Leverrier has shown, by means of calculations founded on 
the secular motion of the perihelion of Mars, that the com¬ 
bined mass of all the asteroids (discovered and undiscov¬ 
ered) cannot greatly, if at all, exceed one-fourth of the 
mass of our earth, and in all probability is much less than 
this. Revised by J. C. Watson. 

Asterol'epis [from the Gr. iarr/p, a “star,” and Aejrts, 
a “ scale,” alluding to the marks on the dermal plates of 
the head], a genus of fossil ganoid fishes, described by 
Hugh Miller, from the Scotch old red sandstone. It is be¬ 
lieved to have sometimes attained a length of twenty feet. 

Asthma, az'ma [Gr. aerdpa, a “gasping for breath”], 
a term somewhat vaguely used to designate diseases cha¬ 
racterized by difficulty of breathing, occurring in parox¬ 
ysms; thus, spasm of the glottis is sometimes called “thymic 
asthma;” autumnal catarrh is known as “ hay asthma;” 
the dyspnoea (difficult breathing) of Bright’s disease has 
been, with questionable propriety, called “ urrnmic asthma;” 
and similar symptoms arising from heart or lung disease 
have also been mistaken for true asthma, which, however, 
may be associated with these various diseases. True asthma, 
according to Niemeyer, includes only those cases where the 
point of the irritation producing the attack is either at the 
origin of the vagus nerve or in some remote part of its 
course. This does not exclude cases of reflex asthma, such, 
for example, as may occur in uterine disease. Others state 
that irritability and hyperaemia of the bronchial mucous 
membrane are essential elements of the disease; and the 
readiness with which powdered ipecac., the exhalations 
from feathers, etc., will excite paroxysms, would appear to 
confirm this view. It is rare to find structural changes of 
any organ in cases of simple asthma. The trained diag¬ 
nostician alone can discriminate between asthma and dys¬ 
pnoea from other chest diseases. True or nervous asthma 
consists in a paroxysmal spasm of longer or shorter dura¬ 
tion, attacking the muscular elements of the bronchial tubes, 
diminishing temporarily their calibre, and thereby ob¬ 
structing respiration. Notwithstanding the great distress 
which may accompany the attack, the immediate danger is 
not great. The smoking of saltpetre-paper or of stramo¬ 
nium-leaves, the administration of opiates, coffee, bella¬ 
donna, conium, cannabis, chloral, vapor of chloroform, etc., 
may or may not relieve the paroxysm. Iodide of potassium 
benefits many cases, permanently or temporarily. Quinia, 
Fowler’s solution, iron, and other tonics are often useful. 
A nutritious diet, with careful regulation of the bowels, is 
important. The compressed air-bath is recommended as 
affording great relief during the paroxysm. 

As'ti (anc. As'ta Pompe'ia), a city of Italy, in the prov¬ 
ince of Alessandria, is on the river Tanaro, and on the 
Turin and Genoa Railway, 36 miles by rail E. S. E. of 
Turin. It is a bishop’s see, has a fine Gothic cathedral, a 
royal college, a theological seminary, a printing-office es¬ 
tablished in 1479, and many elegant mansions. Here are 
several manufactories of silk stuffs. This is the native 
place of the poet Alfieri. Asta Pompeia was a town of 
great antiquity, having been captured by the Gauls in 400 
B. C. Having been destroyed by them, it was rebuilt by 
Pompey the Great. In the Middle Ages it was the capital 
of a republic. Pop. in 1871, 31,033. 

Astig'matism [from the Gr. a, priv., and artypa, a 
“mark” or “spot”] is the term applied to a peculiar de¬ 
fect in the eye which consists in its refracting the rays of 
light differently in different planes. The defect may be de¬ 
tected by looking at a small pinhole in a card held up 
against any bright object, and moved to different distances 
from the eye. To an ordinary eye the image of the hole 
remains circular at all distances, but to an eye having the 
peculiar defect in question the image of the hole, as the 
card is moved away from the eye, becomes elongated, and 
at a certain distance passes into a straight line. This im¬ 
perfection may be corrected by means of a cylindrical or 
spherico-cylindrical lens. 

Astol'phiis, or Astul'phus [Fr. Astolphe; Gcr. A ?V- 
tulf\, king of the Lombards, obtained the throne in 749 or 
750 A. D. Having seized Ravenna about 752. he threatened 
Rome. The pope then applied for help to Pepin, king of 
the Franks, who defeated Astolphus in 754, and forced him 
to cede Ravenna and the Pentapolis to the pope. I his is 
said to have been the origin of the temporal power of the 
popes. Died in 756 A. D. 

As'ton, a township of Delaware co., Pa. Pop. 1845. 













































































































































































































































304 


ASTOK-ASTROLOGY. 


As'tor (John Jacob), born at Waldorf, near Heidelberg, 
in Germany, July 17, 1763, emigrated to the U. S. in 1783, 
and invested his capital in furs, which he took to London 
and sold with much profit. lie next settled at New York, 
and engaged extensively in the fur-trade. He exported furs 
to Europe in his own vessels, which returned with cargoes 
of foreign commodities, and thus rapidly amassed a fortune. 
In 1811 he founded Astoria on the western coast of North 
America, near the mouth of the Columbia, as a depot for 
the fur-trade, for the promotion of which he sent two expe¬ 
ditions to the Pacific Ocean. He was remarkable for his 
sagacity and diligence in business. He purchased in New 
York a large amount of real estate, the value of which in¬ 
creased enormously. At his death (Mar. 29, 1848) his for¬ 
tune was estimated at $20,000,000. He left $400,000 to 
found a public library in New York. (See Astor Library.) 

Astor'ga, d’ (Emanuele), Baron, an eminent musical 
composer, born in Sicily Dec. 11, 1681. He passed some 
years at the court of the emperor Leopold I., by whom he 
was patronized. After the death of Leopold (1705) he 
travelled in many countries of Europe. His chief work is 
a “Stabat Mater,” which is much admired. He also pro¬ 
duced “ Daphne,” an opera, and cantatas, one of which is 
called “ Quando Penso.” Died Aug. 21, 1736. 

Astoria, a post-village and township of Fulton co., Ill., 
on the Rockford Rock Island and St. Louis R. R., 50 miles 
N. W. of Springfield. Pop. 2118. 

Astoria, a post-village of Queens co., N. Y., on the 
East River, opposite New York City, now a part of Long 
Island City (which see). Pop. 5204. 

Astoria, a post-village and port of entry, capital of 
Clatsop co., Or., on the S. bank of the Columbia River, 9 
miles from its mouth. It was once an important depot of 
the fur-trade, having been founded by John Jacob Astor in 
1811. Pop. 639. 

Astor Library, of New York City, one of the largest 
in the U. S., was founded by John Jacob Astor, who be¬ 
queathed $400,000 for that purpose. His will directed that 
the government of the library should be vested in eleven 
trustees—namely, Washington Irving, William B. Astor, 
Daniel Lord, Jr., James G. King, Joseph G. Cogswell, 
Fitz-Greene Halleck, Henry Brevoort, Jr., Samuel B. Rug- 
gles, Samuel Ward, Jr., the mayor of New York, and the 
chancellor of the State. The library, erected on La Fay¬ 
ette place, was opened in 1854, before which J. G. Cogswell 
had been appointed superintendent. William B. Astor, a 
son of the founder, added to his father’s bequest a sum 
nearly equal. The library has about 150,000 volumes. 

Astrabad', or Asterabad, a town in the northern 
part of Persia, capital of a province of its own name, is 
on a small river which enters tfye south-eastern part of the 
Caspian Sea, from which it is about 20 miles distant. It is 
near the N. foot of the Elbrooz Mountains. The situation 
is unhealthy in summer, but the appearance of it is ren¬ 
dered attractive by extensive gardens. The greater part 
of the town is in ruins. Here are some manufactures of 
silk and cotton stuffs. Pop. estimated at 10,000. 

Astrachan. See Astrakhan. 

Astrse'a [Gr. ’Acn-paia], goddess of justice, a person¬ 
age of classic mythology, was said to be a daughter of 
Jupiter and Themis. At the termination of the Golden 
Age, when violence began to prevail in the world, she as¬ 
cended to heaven, being the last of the goddesses to leave 
the earth.—Astraea is also the name of an asteroid discov¬ 
ered by Ilencke in 1845. Its mean distance from the sun 
is 2.577 times that of the earth. It completes a revolution 
in 1511 days. 

Astruea, a genus of radiated animals of the class Poly¬ 
pes, order Madrepora- 
ria. They live in the 
sea, and form calcare¬ 
ous skeletons (star-cor¬ 
als), which are charac¬ 
terized by sessile, star¬ 
shaped, lamellate cells, 
crowded on the upper 
surface. The polyps 

arc often an inch in di¬ 
ameter. They foim 

large, hemispherical 
masses of coral. 

As'tragal [Lat. as- 
trag'alus; Gr. aenpaya- 
A09 j, a convex mould¬ 
ing, which was first in¬ 
troduced at the base of 
the capital of the Ionic order, and has since been applied 
in other positions. It is also called a collarino. 

As'tragalus, in anatomy, the first or uppermost bone 



Astrsea Viridis. 


of the tarsus, which forms with the leg-bones the hinge of 
the ankle-joint. Its lower surface is concave, and rests on 
the os calcis, or heel-bone, with which it is connected by a 
strong ligament. 

Astrag'alus, a genus of herbaceous and shrubby plants 
of the natural order Legumiuosse, sub-order Papilionaceoc. 
The leaves are pinnate, with an odd leaflet, and the pod is 
two-celled. It comprises numerous species, mostly natives 
of the temperate and cold parts of the eastern hemisphere. 
Several species of Astragalus growing in Persia and Asia 
Minor yield gum-tragacanth. The Astragalus Bceticus is 
cultivated in Hungary and Germany for its seeds, which 
are used as a substitute for coffee. Numerous species of 
Astragalus are found in the U. S., especially westward. 

Astrakhan', a government in the south-eastern part 
of European Russia, is bounded on the N. by Samara, on 
the E. by Orenburg and the Caspian Sea, on the S. by Cau¬ 
casia, and on the AV. by the country of the Don Cossacks 
and Saratov. It is intersected by the Volga, which divides 
it into two nearly equal parts. Area, 85,012 square miles. 
The surface is nearly level, and the soil mostly sterile and 
saline. A large part of it is occupied by salt marshes and 
saline lakes. The fisheries of the Volga in this govern¬ 
ment are very valuable, many sturgeon being caught in it. 
Pop. in 1867, 573,954. 

Astrakhan, or Astrachan, a city of Russia, capital 
of the above government, is situated on an island of the 
river Volga, 40 miles from its entrance into the Caspian 
Sea. It has crooked and dirty streets, and houses mostly 
built of wood. It contains a cathedral, about thirty-five 
churches, fifteen mosques, an archiepiscopal palace, a bo¬ 
tanic garden, an Indian temple, and a gymnasium. Im¬ 
mense quantities of fish are exported hence. The other 
articles of export are leather, furs, linen, and woollen 
goods. This place is the seat of Greek and Armenian 
archbishoprics. It has an extensive trade, and manufac¬ 
tures of silk and cotton. Steamboats ply between this place 
and the ports of the Caspian Sea. Pop. in 1867, 47,839. 

As'tralite, a variety of glass resembling aventurinc, 
containing crystals of a cuprous compound, which exhibits 
a dichroitic iridescence of dark-red and greenish-blue. It 
is made by fusing and cooling slowly a mixture of 80 parts 
of silica, *120 of litharge, 72 of carbonate of soda, 18 of 
borax glass, 24 of scale oxide of copper, and 1 of scale 
oxide of iron. 

As'tral Spir'its, spirits which the ancient Persians 
and other Orientals supposed to animate the stars. This 
opinion or superstition was adopted by some of the Greeks 
and Jews. The demonologists of the Middle Ages con¬ 
ceived them as fallen angels or souls of departed men. 

Astrin'gent [Lat. astrin'gens, active part of astrin'go, 
to “ bind,” to “contract”], an agent which produces a per¬ 
sistent contraction in organic tissues, and thus checks dis¬ 
charges from the body, such as excessive purging or diar¬ 
rhoea and haemorrhages. Astringents are of two classes, 
vegetable and mineral. Of the former, tannic and gallic 
acids are the prevailing active principles; and these may 
be obtained and used in the pure state. The most common 
vegetable astringents are galls, oak-bark, logwood, black¬ 
berry root, rhatany, catechu, and kino. Of mineral astrin¬ 
gents, the most important are acetate of lead, sulphate and 
chloride of iron, nitrate of silver, alum, carbonate of lime, 
and the mineral acids, sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric. 

Astroca'ryuin, a genus of palms, comprises about six¬ 
teen known species, natives of tropical America, and re¬ 
markable for the sharp spines with which the stem and 
almost every part is armed. They have pinnated leaves. 
The murumuru palm ( Astrocaryum Murumuru), a small tree 
about ten feet high, grows on the Amazon, and bears a fruit 
about one inch long, which is esculent and highly esteemed. 
Another edible fruit is produced by the tucuma palm (A«- 
trocaryum Tucuma), which grows near the Amazon to the 
height of thirty to forty feet. The Astroca'ryum vulga're, 
called tucum palm, is more lofty than the tree last noticed. 
It is cultivated by the natives, who obtain from the epider¬ 
mis of its unopened leaves a fine and strong fibre of which 
they make cordage, nets, etc. 

As'trolabe [Gr. ao-Tp6Aa/3o?, from aarpov, a “star,” and 
A ap . pdvta , to “take ”], a name given by the Greeks to a cir¬ 
cular instrument used to make astronomical observations, 
which is now superseded by better instruments. The an¬ 
cient astrolabe consisted of two or more circles having a 
common centre, and so inclined to each other as to enable 
the astronomer to observe in the planes of different circles 
of the sphere at the same time. 

Astrol'ogy [from the Gr. aarpov, a “ star,” and Aoyo?, a 
“discourse,” also “science”], literally, the “science of the 
stars.” This term was originally synonymous with astron¬ 
omy, but was subsequently applied to a spurious scienco 


























ASTRONOMY. 


which professed to explain the events of human life by the 
influence of the stars or planets. Astrology, which is a 
very ancient form of superstition, may be defined as the 
study of horoscopes, and an attempt to predict the fortunes 
of men by the positions and aspects of the stars. Judicial * 
astrology is supposed to have originated in Chaldaea. The 
Jews, after their captivity in Babylon, were much addicted 
to it, and the same delusion has prevailed among all the 
nations of Europe. In ancient Rome, during the empire, 
astrologers were a numerous and influential class. In the 
Middle Ages, astronomy proper was chiefly studied as sub¬ 
sidiary to astrology, which was considered as the more im¬ 
portant of the two sciences. The relation between astrol¬ 
ogy and astronomy was like that between alchemy and 
chemistry. The Copernican system contributed greatly to 
bring astrology into discredit. The fundamental concep¬ 
tion of astrology seems to have been drawn from the actual 
influence of the sun upon the earth in affecting health, fer¬ 
tility, and temperature. Connected with these facts was 
the worship of the heavenly bodies as divinities. The no¬ 
tion of Aristotle, set forth in the twelfth book of the “ Meta¬ 
physics,” that the heavenly bodies were “ ensouled,” and 
that each moved in its orbit by a conscious volition, gave 
currency to similar ideas among the students of the Peri¬ 
patetic system. The power of these heavenly beings was 
supposed to flow out from their dwelling-places, and affect 
beings on the earth for good or evil. Astrological predic¬ 
tions are founded on the relative positions and aspects of 
the sun, moon, and planets at the moment of birth, and on 
certain arbitrary influences supposed to belong to each of 
these bodies. To facilitate the determination of the aspects, 
the whole heaven, visible and invisible, is divided into 
twelve equal parts by the horizon, the meridian, and four 
other circles passing through the N. and S. points of the 
horizon and the points of the equator (or prime vertical) 
which are at the distance of thirty and sixty degrees from 
the meridian. These equal spaces are called the twelve 
houses of the heavens, and the circles by which they are 
circumscribed are called circles of position. The circles of 
position are supposed to remain lixed, so that a celestial 
body is carried through each of the twelve houses in the 
course of a day by the diurnal rotation. The first house is 
contained between the eastern horizon and the next circle 
of position going to the eastward. The beginning of the 
first house, or the point of the ecliptic just rising, is called 
the horoscope. The first house is the house of life; the 
second, of riches; the third, of brothers; the fourth, of 
parents; the fifth, of children; the sixth, of health; the 
seventh, of marriage; the eighth, of death ; the nintlf, of 
religion; the tenth, of dignities; the eleventh, of friends; 
and the twelfth, of enemies. Each of the houses has one 
of the heavenly bodies as its peculiar lord. They have dif¬ 
ferent powers, the first being the most powerful. The next 
object is to consider the aspects or configurations of the in¬ 
fluential bodies. The ancients reckoned five aspects. (See 
Aspects.) The quartile and opposition were considered 
malignant or adverse, the trine and sextile as benignant or 
propitious, and the conjunction was an indifferent aspect. 
The influences ascribed to the planets were as arbitrary as 
those ascribed to the aspects. Saturn, being at the greatest 
distance from the sun, was supposed to be of a cold nature; 
Jupiter, Venus, and the Moon, temperate and benignant; 
Saturn and Mars were the most dangerous. The influence 
of the sun and Mercury varied according to circumstances. 

Revised by M. B. Anderson. 

Astron'omy [from the Gr. ao-rpov, a “star,” and vop-os, 
a “ rule ” or “ regulation ”], the science which treats of the 
constitution, motions, and appearances of the heavenly 
bodies. Its scope includes the whole visible universe out¬ 
side our atmosphere. Its principal divisions are—1, De¬ 
scriptive or Physical Astronomy, which, as its name 
implies, includes the simple description of celestial phe¬ 
nomena and laws, and is to the heavenly bodies what 
physical geography is to the earth; 2, Theoretical As¬ 
tronomy, which comprises the investigation of the celes¬ 
tial motions; 3 , Practical Astronomy, which teaches the 
art of using astronomical instruments, and, by their means, 
of determining positions on the earth and in the heavens. 

The material universe, as revealed by the telescope, is 
formed of a vast collection of stars and nebulae, to the 
number of which no definite limit can bo set, scattered 
through an immeasurable and inconceivable extent of space. 
Of the stars, about 5000 are usually visible to the naked eye, 
but very keen observers can detect as many as 8000. The 
number visible is greatly increased when a small telescope is 
pointed at the heavens, and continues to increase with every 


* Judicial is often applied to astrology in the sense of pro¬ 
nouncing judgment (or sentence) upon a man’s character or des¬ 
tiny, in contradistinction to simple astrology, signifying merely 
the knowledge of the stars or heavenly bodies. 

20 


305 


increase in the power of the instrument, rising, in the case 
of the most powerful telescopes, to forty or fifty millions, 
or six to eight thousand for every one visible to the naked 
eye. Even then there is no evidence that the smallest stars 
are seen, but every reason to believe that larger instruments 
would show millions more in every direction. The tele¬ 
scopic stars are for the most part scattered at random, ex¬ 
cept that they are many times thicker in some regions than 
in others. But great numbers of clusters are known in 
which great telescopes show a whole firmament of stars in 
a spot hardly visible to the naked eye. 

The first inquiry which suggests itself in considering the 
stellar universe is, Can we form any estimate of its magni¬ 
tude or of the scale on which it is constructed ? The most 
difficult and refined investigations of recent times have been 
devoted to this question, but with only partial success. 
Until near the middle of the present century the distances 
even of the nearest stars eluded measurement, and even 
now there are not a dozen of which the parallax is known 
with anything like certainty. But these are sufficient to 
enable us to form a sort of judgment, at least, of the scale 
on which the universe is constructed. It is roughly esti¬ 
mated that the stars of the first magnitude have, on the 
average, an annual parallax of two-tenths of a second, and 
are therefore at an average distance of about a million times 
that of the earth from the sun. This distance may be most 
conveniently expressed by saying that light, moving around 
the earth eight times in a second, would require fifteen 
years to traverse it. Now, supposing that, on a general 
average, the more distant stars are of the same real magni¬ 
tude with the nearer ones, but look smaller owing to their 
distance, we may conclude that the smallest stars visible to 
the naked eye are ten times as far as the nearest ones; and, 
allowing for their range of real magnitude, we may conclude 
with considerable probability that they lie at distances which 
light traverses in from fifty to two hundred years. In other 
words, if we conceive two spheres described around our sun 
as a centre, the smaller with a radius over which light 
would pass in fifty years (in round numbers, three hundred 
million of millions of miles), and another with a radius four 
times as great, it is probable that a large portion of the 
stars of the sixth magnitude will be included between these 
two spheres. Applying the same reasoning to the tel¬ 
escopic stars, we may conclude that the smallest stars visi¬ 
ble in the most powerful telescopes are at distances which 
light would traverse in from five to fifty thousand years. 
Of what is beyond we know nothing as yet. 

Of the form and boundaries of this agglomeration of 
stars which forms the visible universe nothing certain is 
known, but it is certain that there is a great tendency to 
aggregation near the plane of the Milky Way. The latter 
is well known to consist of vast aggregations of telescopic 
stars, too small to be separately visible to the naked eye. 
This fact was first clearly shown by Herschcl, and led him 
to his celebrated theory that all the visible stars form a 
comparatively thin stratum, near the centre of which our 
sun is placed. That the densest portions of the universe 
are spread out into such a stratum or plate there can be 
no doubt, but of the limits of the thinner portions, com¬ 
posed of stars scattered outside of this stratum, nothing 
positive can be asserted. 

Nothing indicating either growth or decay has been ac¬ 
tually observed in the stellar universe. There is no es¬ 
tablished instance either of a known star disappearing from 
the heavens, or of a really new one coming into view. The 
supposed cases of the latter kind are now found to be due 
to extraordinary variability ; a small star, perhaps invisi¬ 
ble to the naked eye, suddenly bursting forth into brilliancy, 
and after a time subsiding to its former magnitude. Sev¬ 
eral instances of this kind are on record, the last as late as 
1866, when a star of the second or third magnitude sud¬ 
denly appeared in the Northern Crown. An examination 
of Argelander’s great star-catalogue showed that it was 
formerly a telescopic star of the ninth magnitude. After 
a few days it gradually returned to this magnitude, and 
has not since shown any kind of disturbance. 

A large number of stars—probably one out of every for¬ 
ty or fifty—are of variable brilliancy. Usually, the varia¬ 
tions are so slight as to be discovered only by the careful 
watching of the trained observer, but in a few cases they 
arc so striking as to be plain to any one who will observe. 
The star tj Argus, in the southern hemisphere, varies in 
an extraordinary and irregular manner. Mira Ceti, usual¬ 
ly hardly visible to the naked eye, rises nearly to the second 
magnitude once in every ten or eleven months, and after a 
week or two fades away again. Generally, the variations 
take place in a regular period, so that the times of greatest 
and least brilliancy admit of tolerably exact prediction. 

The stars are found to be moving among themselves in a 
way that must ultimately lead to an entire change ol their 
distribution, and perhaps to their entire separation. The 















306 


ASTRONOMY. 


velocity of motion is usually from twenty to fifty miles 
per second, but in one instance it probably exceeds 200 
miles per second. So far as observation can show, the rule 
is that each star moves forward independently in a straight 
line with a uniform velocity. From the few estimates of 
the masses of the stars which have been made, there is no 
reason to believe that their motions can be appreciably af¬ 
fected by their mutual gravitation. The combined attrac¬ 
tion of all the stars visible with the most powerful telescope, 
supposing their masses to be correctly judged by those of 
the stars which have been weighed, would never stop, and 
would hardly turn aside, the star Arcturus in its course of 
sixty or eighty miles per second, nor Groombialze 1830 in 
its course of 200 miles per second. There is, in fact, no cer¬ 
tain evidence that the stellar universe is held together by 
any bond of attraction whatever, as our solar system is. 
Madler’s view, that Alcyone is the central sun of the uni¬ 
verse, is a piece of groundless speculation which has never 
received the assent of astronomers qualified to judge it. 
The stellar motions take place in every possible direction, 
and without regard to any known law, except that, as a 
general rule, stars in the same region of space move nearly 
in the same direction. 

Besides stars, we have nebulas as component parts of 
the telescopic universe. They are cloud-like patches of 
light scattered all over the heavens, but less numerous in 
the Milky Way than at a distance from it. Two of them, 
situated in the northern hemisphere, the great nebulas of 
Orion and of Andromeda, are clearly visible to the naked 
eye. Before the discovery of spectral analysis it was not 
possible to draw the line between nebulas and clusters of 
stars, because large numbers of objects which look like 
nebulas through small telescopes are found, with large ones, 
to be clusters of stars, and every increase in the power of 
the instrument was found to change objects from the for¬ 
mer to the latter class. It was therefore doubtful whether 
all nebulas were not really clusters of stars too small or too 
distant to be resolved with the telescope. But, as soon as 
the spectroscope was turned upon such of these objects as 
could give a visible spectrum, it was found that many of 
them were not solid bodies at all, but masses of incandes¬ 
cent gas, generally hydrogen or nitrogen. To this class 
belongs the nebula of Orion, which is therefore a true neb¬ 
ula. On the other hand, the nebula of Andromeda gives a 
continuous spectrum, showing that the luminous matter is 
in the solid or liquid state, and probably consists of an ag¬ 
glomeration of stars, though no telescope has yet resolved 
it. 

We have no data whatever for forming a judgment of 
the distance of the nebulae, as we have in the case of the 
fixed stars. A favorite theory is, that the forty or fifty 
millions of stars separately visible through the largest tel¬ 
escopes, the greater number of which, as we have said, are 
spread out in a thin, widely extended stratum, form a sys¬ 
tem to which our sun belongs, and that many of the resolv¬ 
able nebulae are similar systems situated far outside of our 
own. In favor of this view is to be said that our Milky 
Way, viewed from a point 500 times the distance of the 
most remote star in it, would have the appearance of a 
nebula, and would give a continuous spectrum, although 
no telescope we possess would resolve it. It is therefore possi¬ 
ble that many of the more distant resolvable nebulae may be 
such systems. But the greater number of visible clusters 
cannot compare with our Milky Way in the number of their 
stars, as they only comprise a few hundreds or thousands. 
We can really draw no line of demarcation between the 
agglomerations of stars within our own system and the 
most distant cluster, the whole range from one extreme 
to the other being filled with known objects. We must 
therefore regard the views in question as forming a very 
grand but yet unproven hypothesis. 

Our description of the stellar universe may be summed 
up by saying that it is composed of an unknown host of 
stars, certainly more than 50,000,000, mostly scattered in 
irregular aggregations forming the Milky Way, while many 
are aggregated in yet closer clusters, some of which are 
situated within the Milky Way and some without it, and 
of a number of enormous masses of incandescent gases 
situated at unknown distances. Our sun is simply one of 
these 50,000,000 of stars, without, so far as we know, any 
mark to distinguish him among his fellows. He is prob¬ 
ably rather smaller than the average: removed to 1,000,000 
times his present distance, which is probably the average 
distance of the stars of the first magnitude, he would shine 
only as a star of the third or fourth magnitude. He is, 
indeed, accompanied by a number of non-luminous planets, 
while, with one possible exception, no such companions arc 
seen to the stars; but this does not disprove their existence, 
because every planet of our system would disappear from 
view in our most powerful telescopes at a distance far less 
than that of the nearest star. 


The physical constitution of the sun and stars is a sub¬ 
ject which has greatly occupied investigators in recent 
times, without leading them to an entirely certain and 
complete conclusion. The theory of Wilson and Herschel, 
that the sun is a dark, cool body, surrounded by a stratum 
of luminous clouds floating in an atmosphere, has been one 
of the best known, but it is completely disproved by the 
modern discoveries of the conservation of force and the 
equivalence of heat and force. The enormous volumes of 
heat sent off by the sun can be supplied only by a contin¬ 
uous expenditure of force, and any theory which accounts 
for the solar light and heat must show whence that force 
comes. We know that our sun has been radiating light 
and heat in quantities as great as at present for thousands, 
or even millions, of years, while the sun of Herschel would 
cool off very quickly, and then cease to give either light or 
heat. In one respect, however, the theory in question is 
now universally agreed to: the “photosphere”—that is, 
the shining surface of the solar sphere—is composed of 
cloud-like matter, apparently floating in some kind of fluid, 
the whole being at an extremely high temperature. The spots 
are known to be dark depressions in the photosphere, as to 
the cause of which investigators are not yet agreed. Of the 
interior of this enormous globe we can see nothing, but 
there is good reason for holding that it is mostly formed 
of materials similar to those which compose the crust of 
the earth, heated to so high a temperature as to be com¬ 
pletely vaporized and reduced to a state of dissociation, or 
one in which chemical union of different elements is no 
longer possible. At the same time, the pressure to which 
this vaporous interior is subjected by the weight of its 
outer layers is so great that it is compressed into the small¬ 
est possible space, so that the mean density of the sun is 
not much less than that of water. 

On the outside, this mass is continually cooling off by 
radiation, and hence condensing to the solid or liquid state. 
The matter thus condensed forms the photosphere, which 
seems to be in a state of continual change. 

Immediately above the photosphere lies a comparatively 
shallow, but extremely complex, incandescent atmosphere, 
the absorption of which causes the dark lines in the solar 
spectrum. This atmosphere consists of hydrogen gas, 
mixed with the vapors of many of the metals, especially 
magnesium, calcium, sodium, and iron; the metallic vapors, 
except that of magnesium, mostly lying so near the base 
that they are not visible, even with a spectroscope, except 
just at the beginning and end of a total eclipse. This at¬ 
mosphere shines with a red light, and was frequently seen 
during total eclipses of the sun, but its existence and na¬ 
ture were first clearly brought to light by Mr. J. N. Lock- 
yer’s spectroscope. This gentleman termed it the chromo¬ 
sphere. It is agitated by storms of fire, the fury of which 
exceeds anything ever pictured by the wildest imagination 
of the poet, the velocity of the wind sometimes rising to 
100 miles per second, and masses of fiery vapor many times 
the size of our earth shooting up to the height of 20,000, 
50,000, or even 80,000, miles. These masses constitute the 
red “protuberances” always visible during total eclipses 
of the sun, the nature of which was a complete mystery 
until the spectroscope was turned upon them by Janssen in 
India during the great eclipse of 1868. They are now the 
subjects of daily observation by spectroscopists. 

Outside the chromosphere lies an appendage the nature 
of which is still involved in mystery, as it can be studied 
only during the rare moments afforded by total eclipses of 
the sun. It is seen in the glow of light which then sur¬ 
rounds the whole sun, extending to a height greater than 
the semi-diameter of that body, and is known as the solar 
corona. Its spectrum consists principally of a single green 
line, not identified with that of any terrestrial substance, 
but Janssen also recognized some of the lines of hydrogen 
during the eclipse of Dec., 1871. (See Spectrum Analy¬ 
sis.) 

One of the most difficult questions respecting the sun is, 
Whence come the floods of heat which he is continually rad¬ 
iating into space? Why did he not cool off hundreds of 
thousands of years ago ? Why does he not now grow 
cooler from year to year ? Only in recent years have seri¬ 
ous attempts been made to answer these questions, because 
only then was it recognized that heat was a form of force 
which could not be expended without being continually 
renewed. The theory now most generally received is that 
of contraction. It is supposed that as the sun cools off he 
contracts in volume ; and it is found, by calculation, that a 
very small contraction will develop an enormous amount 
of heat in a mass so immense as that of the sun, so long as 
it does not condense to the solid or liquid state. Thus, tho 
supply of heat may be kept up for a million of years to 
come, but it must give out some time, unless renewed from 
some unseen source, and our system will then be involved 
in darkness and death. 























ASTRONOMY. 


307 


By the motion of the spots it is found that the sun ro¬ 
tates on his axis in about twenty-five days, this being the 
period at the equator. But as we approach the poles the 
rate becomes slower and the period longer, approaching 
twenty-six days at a distance of 45°. Beyond this point 
very few spots are to be seen, and the law of rotation is 
not completely known. The liquid or gaseous character 
of the sun’s surface is conclusively proved by the variation 
in the rate of rotation. 

The sun is accompanied by a retinue of eight major 
planets, of wdiich our earth is one, and by a large group 
of minor planets. The major planets may themselves be 
divided into two groups of four ellch, the four inner and 
smaller ones being Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars, 
and the four outer and larger ones being Jupiter, Saturn, 
Uranus, and Neptune. The smallest of the outer group 
(Uranus) has more than ten times the mass of the largest 
of the inner group (the Earth), and is more than fifty times 
its size. Between the two groups is a wide gap in which 
the minor planets are found. The principal numerical ele¬ 
ments of each planet are given in a table appended to the 
present article; the principal of the remaining peculiarities 
are given in the following condensed description : 

Mercury, the nearest to the sun, and the smallest of 
the major planets, shines with a light exceeding that of 
any of the fixed stars, with the possible exception of Sirius. 
Owing to its proximity to the sun, it can be seen by the 
naked eye only when near its greatest elongation, which 
occurs about once in four months on each side of the sun. 
The same circumstance, together with its intense brilliancy, 
has prevented the certain discovery of any peculiarities of 
physical constitution. This planet is quite often seen to 
pass between us and the sun, the transits usually occurring 
at intervals of three, seven, ten, or thirteen years. From 
a careful discussion of all the transits hitherto observed, 
Lcverrier concluded that the motion of its perihelion is 30" 
per century greater than the motion calculated from the 
attraction of all the known planets, and was hence led to 
the hypothesis that a group of small plants circulated be¬ 
tween Mercury and the sun. But the most careful search 
by the best observers has uniformly failed to show any 
trace of such bodies, and there are strong reasons for dis¬ 
believing in their existence. No satisfactory explanation 
of Leverrier’s result has ever been given. 

Venus, the second planet from the sun, is at times, next 
to the sun and moon, the most brilliant object in the 
heavens. When east of the sun it is seen in the west, 
after sunset, as the evening star, and when west of 
him it rises before him as the morning star. It gives 
strong evidence of being surrounded by an atmosphere 
more dense than that of the earth. Several astronomers 
have announced the existence of mountains twenty miles 
high on this planet, but the evidence is too weak to be re¬ 
lied on. Twice in every 120 years Venus passes between 
us and the sun. (For an account of this very rare phe¬ 
nomenon, see Parallax, Solar.) 

The Earth is the first planet accompanied by a moon. 
Its equator is inclined to the ecliptic, or the plane in which 
it moves round the sun, at an angle which in 1850 amounted 
to 23° 27' 31", and which is now diminishing at the rate 
of about 47" per century, to increase again in the course 
of ages, as it fluctuates between comparatively narrow 
limits. The earth’s axis at the same time changes its di¬ 
rection very slowly in the heavens, describing a complete 
circle around the pole of the ecliptic in about 26,000 years, 
the time varying somewhat in consequence of the motion 
of the ecliptic itself. The change of seasons is due to the 
inclination of these two planes, the earth’s northern hemi¬ 
sphere being turned towards the sun from Mar. 21 till 
Sept. 21, and its southern hemisphere being so turned dur¬ 
ing the remainder of the year. About these two dates the 
plane of the earth’s equator passes through the sun, and 
day and night are consequently equal all over the globe, 
whence the term equinox. The civil year has always been 
measured by the interval between the returns of the earth 
to the same equinox, because this return brings round the 
change of the seasons. (See Calendar.) 

The Moon, being the nearest of the heavenly bodies, is 
that one with the physical peculiarities of which we are 
best acquainted. She has the appearance of a perfectly 
arid desert, on which the most careful scrutiny has failed 
to reveal a trace of air, water, or life. Her surface is 
broken up by great inequalities, but they are entirely dif¬ 
ferent in character from those on the surface of the earth. 
Instead of undulating hill and valley, with chains of moun¬ 
tains, we find saucer-shaped depressions, generally of con¬ 
siderable regularity, with flat bottoms, and mounds or hil¬ 
locks, great and small, scattered over nearly the entire 
surface. Large regions are comparatively smooth, and, 
from their dark color, were supposed by the first users of 
the telescope to be seas. Several maps of her visible 


hemisphere have been prepared, on which many of the 
features are named after the great astronomers or philos¬ 
ophers of ancient and modern times. The moon’s revolu¬ 
tion on her axis coincides exactly with her mean motion 
around the earth, and consequently she always presents 
the same face to us. Her farther hemisphere is for ever 
hid from view, but there is not the slightest reason to be¬ 
lieve that it differs in any respect from the one we see. The 
size of the moon is such that her dark shadow, cast by the 
sun, is about 240,000 miles in length, narrowing down to a 
point at this distance. Whenever the earth is in the line 
of this shadow we have an eclipse of the sun. (See Eclipse 
and Acceleration.) 

Mars, the fourth planet from the sun, and the last of the 
inner group, has always been scrutinized by astronomers 
with the greatest interest, owing to the variegated character 
of its surface, and its seeming resemblance to the earth. 
The whole disk is clearly divided into light and dark por¬ 
tions, which have been supposed to be seas and continents. 
The supposed seas present a dull greenish hue, while the 
continents are reddish and give rise to the characteristic 
color of the planet. Near each pole a brilliant white patch 
is seen, which is attributed to arctic snows and ice. The 
conclusion that the markings are due to land, water, snow, 
and ice are to be received with caution. 

Outside of Mars we have the group of minor planets, or 
asteroids, of which 133 are now known, and of which from 
five to ten have been discovered annually for some years 
past. The total number probably amounts to several hun¬ 
dred. As a general rule, their orbits are much more eccen¬ 
tric and much more inclined to the ecliptic than those of 
the major planets. Nothing is known of their physical 
constitution, their small size preventing any peculiarities 
of form or structure from being seen. Their diameters are 
supposed to range from thirty or forty miles to 300 or 400. 
These estimates are founded not on measurement, but on 
the apparent brilliancy of the bodies, and are therefore very 
uncertain. Most readers are acquainted with the celebrated 
hypothesis of Olbers, that these bodies are the fragments 
of a planet which was shattered by some unknown force. 
Recent researches have rendei'ed this hypothesis very im¬ 
probable, and it has almost ceased to be a subject of dis¬ 
cussion among astronomers. 

Jupiter, the next planet in order, is the largest of the 
system, so that, notwithstanding its great distance, it is 
brighter than any other star or planet except Venus. Its 
appearance through the telescope is quite peculiar, a dark 
band or belt being always visible on each side of its equa¬ 
tor, and sometimes another near each pole. When closely 
scrutinized these belts are found to be of irregular shape 
and ragged, cloud-like formation. They are subject to 
occasional changes in color and appearance, and within a 
year or two have been of a rosy hue, which never seems to 
have bfeen seen before. It is doubtful whether the solid 
body of Jupiter is visible at all; in fact, it is not certain 
that it has any solid body. It has been supposed that the 
belts are clouds floating in the Jovian atmosphere, but all 
such analogies between the surfaces of the planets and that 
of our own globe are little better than pure speculation. 
Jupiter is accompanied by four satellites, which were dis¬ 
covered by Galileo when he first pointed his telescope at 
the planet. They are about as bright as the smallest stars 
visible to the naked eye, and could therefore be seen with¬ 
out a telescope if they were not overpowered by the bril¬ 
liancy of the planet. Indeed, it is claimed that they actu¬ 
ally have been seen by unusually good eyes; and some of 
these claims are too strongly supported to be lightly set 
aside. Most of the satellites pass through the shadow of 
the planet, and suffer a consequent eclipse in every revolu¬ 
tion. These eclipses, being visible at the same time all 
over the globe, furnish one of the easiest methods of roughly 
determining the longitude, but very little accuracy can be 
thus attained. By these eclipses the progressive motion of 
light was first determined by Roemer. (See Aberration.) 

Saturn, the sixth planet from the sun, with his rings and 
satellites, is perhaps the most striking telescopic object in 
the heavens. He has belts like Jupiter, but much fainter. 
His rings are very broad and thin, their edges being turned 
towards the planet. Nothing like these rings has been seen 
anywhere else in our system, nor even in the heavens, and 
the question, What keeps them from falling upon the 
planet? is one which has occupied several generations of 
mathematicians and astronomers, without being definitely 
solved. The corpuscular or cloud theory is that now most 
generally admitted. This theory is that the rings are not 
solid or liquid masses at all, but only a vast swarm—or 
rather two or three vast swarms—of very minute satellites, 
too small to be seen separately, but so numerous that they 
present the appearance of a continuous body. Just within 
the inner bright ring is a faint dusky ring, first discovered 
by Bond at Cambridge, which this theory explains very 

















308 


ASTRONOMY. 


easily by supposing the swarm of satellites to be here so 
thin that they are scarcely visible, and permit light to pass 
freely between them. Saturn is accompanied by eight 
satellites, twice as many as are known to’ surround any 
other planet, but none of them present any characters of 
especial interest. 

Uranus was discovered by Sir William Hcrschel in 1781. 
It had frequently been observed before that time, but was 
not known to be a planet. It is accompanied by four satel¬ 
lites, two of which were discovered by Hcrschel. 

Neptune was discovered in 1846 by one of the most re- 
mai’kable achievements in the history of astronomy, its 
position in the heavens having been calculated by Leverrier 
and Adams before its existence was known. (See Nep¬ 
tune, Discovery of.) It is attended by one satellite. Both 
Uranus and Neptune are too far off both from the earth 
and the sun to admit of any peculiarities being seen upon 
their disks, but the spectroscope shows them both to be 
surrounded by atmospheres of great density and remark¬ 
able constitution, in which carbonic acid is perhaps the 
principal ingredient. 

Besides the planets which we have described, quite a 
number of comets are known to be members of the solar 
sj T stem, and a great number of others are suspected to be 
such, even though their time of revolution is so great that 
they have never been recorded as seen but once. The general 
rule is that a comet comes into view suddenly and unexpect¬ 
edly, falling nearly towards the sun as if dropped from 
an infinite distance. It whirls around the sun in a parab¬ 
olic orbit, and flies off into space nearly in the direction 
from which it came. If astronomers have an opportunity 
of observing it carefully for several months, they can tell 
whether it is or is not flying so fast that the attraction of 
the sun will never bring it back again. It is thus definitely 
ascertained that the great comet of 1858 will return, in 
consequence of the sun’s attraction, in about 1950 years, 
probably between the years 3800 and 3820, after flying off 
into space to the distance of fifteen thousand million miles. 

The physical constitution of comets is still one of the 
enigmas of astronomy. Large comets are generally found 
to consist of three distinct formations: (1) a small bright, 
but ill-defined nucleus; (2) a round mass of hazy, nebulous, 
or foggy matter surrounding this nucleus, and indeed seem¬ 
ing to rise from it; and (3) a tail of exti’emely rare matter, 
but of enormous length, extending off from the comet in a 
direction opposed to the sun, growing wider and fainter as 
it extends, until it gradually becomes invisible. But the 
smaller telescopic comets often exhibit neither nucleus nor 
tail, but consist only of an irregular, ill-defined, nebulous 
mass, perhaps brighter at one point. As the comet ap¬ 
proaches the sun the tail develops enormously, and fre¬ 
quently shows itself when none was visible at a distance. 
It is now generally considered that the tail of a comet is 
not a permanent appendage, but a stream of finely divided 
matter continually driven off from the comet into space by 
some repulsive force residing in the sun, the nature of 
which is not yet understood. It may be compared to the 
steam rising from a boiling pot, or to smoke from a chim¬ 
ney. If this view be correct—and it can hardly be dis¬ 
puted—all the comets are continually evaporating into 
space, and must in time be entirely dissipated. 

This theory of the constant dissipation of comets has 
recently received a striking confirmation in the ascertained 
coincidence of meteor-streams with the orbits of comets, 
and in the disappearance of Biela’s comet from the heavens. 
It has long been known that we have either a meteoric 
shower or an unusual number of meteor3 every year on the 
nights of Aug. 9 and Nov. 14, and they aro now found to 
be produced by the earth’s atmosphere meeting a swarm of 
very minute particles which move in the respective orbits 
of two comets. The particles are supposed to be the frag¬ 
ments or dust of the comets which have become separated 
in the course of ages. (See Meteors.) 

The foregoing is the briefest possible description of the 
material universe as revealed by the telescope, and may be 
considered as an epitome of descriptive astronomy. Of 
practical astronomy we can say no more than that it teaches 
the construction and use of such instruments as the tele¬ 
scope, the transit instrument, the meridian circle, and the 
zenith telescope, and the calculation of the observations 
made with them. The usefulness of practical astronomy, 
and the perfection it has attained, may be judged from this 
consideration : take an astronomer blindfolded to any part 
of the globe, give him the instruments we have mentioned, 
a chronometer regulated to Greenwich or Washington time, 
and the necessary tables, and if the weather be clear, so 
that he can see the stars, he can in the course of twenty- 
four hours tell where he is in latitude and longitude within 
a hundred yards. 

For theoretical astronomy, though scientifically the most 
important branch of the subject, we can do no more than 


give the reader a general idea of what it has been and is. 
This science has existed in a rude state from the earliest 
ages of which we have any written record; indeed, astron¬ 
omy has very properly been called the most ancient of the 
sciences. Its progress may be conveniently divided into 
three eras. 

The first era is that of the ancient system, in which the 
earth was considered as the centre of the universe, and all 
the heavenly bodies were believed to revolve about it in the 
course of twenty-four hours. Far from the truth as this 
system was, the ancients discovered the rotundity of the 
earth, and the difference of local time or of the hour of the 
day between places of different longitudes, knew the causes 
and laws of eclipses, and constructed tables which gave the 
motions of the sun, moon, and planets with considerable 
accuracy. The annual motion of the earth round the sun 
produces an apparent annual revolution of the sun among 
the stars, and this apparent revolution was perfectly under¬ 
stood in the earliest historical times. The annual course 
of the sun was mapped out on the heavens, and divided 
into twelve signs, known as “ signs of the zodiac.” The 
year was known to consist of 365^ days, and the connection 
of the seasons with the position of the sun in the zodiac 
was fully understood and described. The great body of 
ancient knowledge on these subjects has been preserved in 
the “ Almagest” of Ptolemy, a work which remained an 
authority in astronomy for nearly 1600 years. 

The second era was that of Copernicus and Kepler, in 
which the sun was assigned to its true place as the centre 
of the solar system; the earth was classified as one of the 
planets moving around it; and all the orbits of these bodies 
were found to be ellipses having the sun in one focus. A. 
comparatively simple geometrical system was thus intro¬ 
duced, which did away with the complicated epicycles of 
Ptolemy, and at the same time represented the apparent 
motions with much more accuracy. Indeed, if the orbits 
had really been perfect ellipses, hardly any further advance 
in accuracy would have been made possible, even by the 
discovery of gravitation. 

The third era is that of gravitation, in which all the 
heavenly bodies are considered as flying through space 
with perfect freedom, but each gravitating towards all the 
others. The sun, being 700 times as heavy as all the plan¬ 
ets, keeps them moving in orbits around him by his own 
gravitation, while the motion of each planet is affected with 
small irregularities caused by the attraction of all the others. 
By this theory the courses of all the planets, and of the 
moon and many of the satellites, are predicted with an as¬ 
tonishing degree of accuracy. The first thing which gravi¬ 
tation settles is the motion of the earth itself on its axis. 
The daily revolution around its axis seems to take place 
with perfect regularity, but the axis itself is subject to sev¬ 
eral very slow motions, which make its direction decidedly 
different in the course of ages. These motions cannot well 
be described without a globe, but as the whole earth and 
the instruments with which observations are made partake 
of them, they change all observed positions of the heavenly 
bodies, and these changes must be carefully allowed for in 
all calculations. 

The Copernican system and the theory of gravitation have 
reduced theoretical astronomy almost to branches of pure 
mathematics—mechanics, geometry, and trigonometry. The 
system is quite simple in its original conceptions, but very 
complex when we descend to minute details. A number 
of imaginary planes are conceived of as passing through 
the earth or sun, and extending out into infinity in every 
direction. The positions of the heavenly bodies are defined 
by their distances from these planes, and the angles which 
the line drawn from the sun or the earth to the body makes 
with different lines drawn in the planes. The most common 
mode of defining position is by giving three data: (1) the 
distance of the heavenly body from some point, either the 
centre of the earth or the centre of the sun, in a straight 
line; (2) the angle which this straight line makes with one 
of the planes in question; (3) a perpendicular being drop¬ 
ped from the body on the plane, the angle which the line 
to the point of intersection makes with some fixed line in 
the plane. When the distances are reckoned from the earth, 
it is usual to take the plane of the equator as that of refer¬ 
ence ; when from the sun, the ecliptic is usually selected. 
Both these planes are constantly changing their position in 
consequence of the attraction of the moon and planets on 
the earth, and this change has always to be calculated and 
allowed for. This operation makes the subject a very in¬ 
tricate one, which can be fully developed only in works de¬ 
voted especially to the subject. 

The following table gives the numerical details of the 
different elements pertaining to each major planet of tho 
solar system. We shall explain such of the columns and 
numbers as need explanation. The “ apparent semi-diam¬ 
eter ” is half the angle which the diameter of the planet 










ASTROPHYLLITE—ATACAMA. 


309 


subtends when seen from some usual or mean distance from 
the earth. In the case of the four inner planets this dis¬ 
tance is that of the earth from the sun, while in the case of 
the four outer ones it is the mean distance of the planet 
itself from the sun. The actual distance of many of the 
planets from us varying very much at different times, their 
apparent magnitudes vary in a corresponding manner. 

The “ mass” of the planet signifies not its size, but its 
weight compared with the weight of the sun. The masses 
of Mercury and Mars are still uncertain; the former by 
perhaps a fourth, or even a third, of its entire amount, and 
the latter by a tenth. 

Dividing the mass of the planet by its solid contents, we 
have its specific gravity or “density,” which we give as 
compared with the density of the earth. The column of 
densities shows a remarkable difference between the mate¬ 
rials of the inner and those of the outer planets, the light¬ 
est of the former (Mars) being nearly three times as heavy, 
in proportion to its size, as the heaviest of the latter, fn 
fact, a piece of the planet Saturn would float in water, which 
is hardly true of a single solid constituent of our globe. 

Among the “ diurnal revolutions ” of the planets on their 
axis we give those of Venus and Mercury, as some astron- I 


Astroph'yllite, a variety of mica found at Brevig in 
Norway. 

Astruc (Jean), an eminent French medical writer, born 
at Sauve, in Languedoc, Mar. 19, 1684. He w T as appointed 
professor of anatomy at Toulouse in 1710, and of medicine 
at Montpellier in 1716. Having removed to Paris in 1728, 
he became consulting physician to the king, and in 1731 
professor of medicine at the Royal College. He had a high 
reputation as a professor. He published, besides other 
works, “ De Morbis Vencreis” (“ Ou Venereal Diseases,” 
1736), which displays much erudition. Died May 5, 1766. 
(See Lorry, “ Vie d’Astruc.”) 

Astii'ria, a former kingdom in the N. of Spain, bounded 
on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, and on the S. by the Can¬ 
tabrian Mountains. The Asturians made a long and brave 
resistance to the Goths and Vandals who invaded Spain 
about 500 A. D., but were finally subdued. Asturia was the 
only part of Spain that was not conquered by the Moors. 
The famous Pelayo, who became king of Asturia in 719 
A. D., defeated the Moors in battle. (See Asturias.) 

Astu'rias, an ancient division of Spain, now the prov¬ 
ince of Oviedo, has an area of 4094 square miles. It is 
bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, on the E. by San¬ 
tander, on the S. by Leon, and on the W. by Galicia. The 
surface is mountainous, and abounds in wild and pic¬ 
turesque scenery. Along the southern border extends a 
chain of mountains, the summit of which, called Pena de 
Penaranda, is about 11,000 feet high. It has extensive 
forests of oak, chestnut, beech, and fir. Among the mineral 
resources are copper, iron, lead, cobalt, antimony, marble, 
coal, and zinc. The eldest sons of the kings of Spain for¬ 
merly took the title of prince of Asturias. The eldest 
son of the ex-queen Isabella still has the title. The chief 
town is Oviedo. Pop. in 1867, 588,031. (See Asturia.) 

Asty'ages [Gr. ’Acrrvay*)?], king of Media, was a son of 
Cyaxares I., and reigned from 593 to 569 B. C. He had a 
daughter, Mandane, who was married to Cambyses, a no¬ 
ble Persian, and bore a son who was Cyrus the Great. He 
was succeeded by Cyaxares II., the last king of Media (569- 
536 B. C.). 

Asuay% or Assuay, a department of Ecuador. It is 
bounded on the N. E. by the United States of Colombia, on 
the S. by Peru, and on the W. by Peru and the departments 
of Quito and Guayaquil. Area, about 28,800 square miles. 
The western part is traversed by several chains of the An¬ 
des, and partly occupied by the desert of Paramo or Asuay. 
In the middle and eastern parts are extensive and fertile 
plains. It is watered by the Napo, Pequena, and other 
rivers, which flow south-eastward into the Amazon, besides 
the Amazon and Putumayo, which flow along its boundary. 
The chief town is Cuenca. Pop. 243,459, mostly aborigines. I 


oiners have thought they observed them, but that of Mer¬ 
cury is entitled to no reliance at all, and that of Venus to 
very little. 

The “ mean distance ” of the earth from the sun is the 
astronomical unit or measuring-rod, with which all dis¬ 
tances in the universe farther than the moon are ordinarily 
measured. We give the mean distances of the several 
planets, first in terms of this unit, which are very exact, 
and then in miles, which are still somewhat uncertain, be¬ 
cause the distance of the sun from the earth in miles is not 
yet known with entire certainty. The most complete de¬ 
termination of this element yet made gives a distance of 
92,380,000 miles, and this is probably within 300,000 miles 
of the truth; but all we can say with reasonable certainty 
is, that the distance is between 92,000,000 and 93,000,000. 
Calling the uncertainty half a million for the earth, it will 
be proportional to their distance in the case of the other 
planets, and therefore nearly 5,000,000 in the case of Saturn, 
and 15,000,000 in the case of Neptune. 

The “ periodic time,” or time of making one revolution 
around the sun, is given in days for the inner group, and 
in Julian years—that is, years of 365£ days each—for the 
outer group. 


Asy'lum [Gr. do-v Aov, from a, neg., and <rv\du>, to “ rob,” 
to “carry off,” because, originally, it was a place of refuge 
against violent and lawless men], a sanctuary and place of 
refuge and security for criminals and others; anyplace of 
retreat and security. In ancient Greece the temples, altars, 
and sacred places were appointed as asylums for criminals 
and persecuted persons, and it was considered a sacrilege 
to kill or remove by force those who had taken refuge in 
them. They were, however, sometimes surrounded and 
watched until they died of starvation. Among the ancient 
Jews cities of refuge were appointed for the benefit of per¬ 
sons who had accidentally committed manslaughter. Romu¬ 
lus is said to have attracted men from other states to Rome by 
offering an asylum to criminals, debtors, or outlaws. Asy¬ 
lums became so numerous under the Roman empire that 
they were considered nuisances by honest people, and were 
nearly all abolished by Tiberius. In the reign of Constan¬ 
tine the Great all Christian churches were asylums. The 
privilege was afterwards extended to convents, and was 
much abused by criminals in the Middle Ages. Several 
popes, in order to prevent this abuse, excluded murderers 
and some other classes of offenders from the privilege of 
sanctuary, which was abolished in England by acts passed 
in 1534 and 1697. In modern usage, the term asylum is 
applied to charitable institutions for the relief of the blind, 
insane, orphans, etc. 

Asylum, a post-township of Bradford co., Pa. Pop. 
1155. 

As'ymptote [Gr. ao-vV^Twro?, from a, neg., and crvuninTu 
(composed of ow, “together,” and 7mrrw, to “fall”), to 
“coincide,” to “ fall together ”], a right line or curve which 
approaches nearer and nearer to some other line, but would 
never meet it though infinitely extended. 

At'abek, a title of honor given to viziers or ministers 
of state by Persian sultans of the Scljook dynasty. The 
atabeks were the governors of several provinces, exercising 
almost royal power. 

Ataca'ma, a province of Bolivia, of which it is the 
most south-western part, is bounded on the W. by the Pa¬ 
cific Ocean, on the N. by Peru, on the E. by the depart¬ 
ment of Potosi and the Argentine Republic, and on the S. 
by Chili. The Andes extend along the eastern border. It is 
about 290 miles long and 150 miles wide, and has an area 
of 70,181 square miles. The greater part of it is a desert, 
rendered uninhabitable by the want of rain. Gold, silver, 
and copper are found here. The volcano of Atacama, 18,000 
feet high, is in the northern part. The desert ot Atacama 
was a favorite burial-place of the aborigines of Peru, be¬ 
cause in it bodies are preserved from decay by the saltness 
of the soil. Capital, San Pedro de Atacama. Pop. in 
1858, 5273. 


Table of the Planetary Elements for 1850. 


Planet. 

Apparent 

Semi-Dia. 

Diameter 
in miles. 

Mass 

(©=!)• 

Density 
(earth = 1). 

Diurnal 

Revolution. 

Mean distance from 0 

Periodictime 

(days). 

Eccentricity 

Long, of 
Perihe'n. 

Inclination 
of Orbit. 

Long, of 
Node. 

Mercury... 

3".30 

2,955 

50oJoOO 

1.25 

h. m. s. 
24 5 0 

In astron. 
units. 

0.387099 

In mills, 
of miles. 

352 

87.96926 

0.2056048 

O r n 

75 7 14 

O f / / 

7 0 7.7 

o * " 

46 33 9 

Venus. 

8".50 

7,610 

420T)00 

0.875 

23 21 24 

0.723332 

67 

224.700787 

0.0068433 

1*29 27 14 

3 23 34.8 

75 19 52 

The Earth 

8".S3 

7,912 

326800 

1.000 

23 56 41 

1.000000 

92i 

365.256358 

0.0167711 

280 21 22 

0 0 0.0 


Mars. 

4".70 

4,210 

3000000 

0.723 

24 37.22.6 

1.523691 

141 

686.979714 

0.0932611 

333 17 54 

1 51 2.3 

48 23 53 

Jupiter.... 

18". 30 

85,300 

1<?48 

0.249 

9 55 21 

5.20280 

480 

(Years.) 

11.86197 

0.0482273 

1154 51 

1 18 41.1 

98 56 10 

Saturn. 

8". 20 

70,080 

3502 

0.134 

10 16 

9.53890 

881 

29.45694 

0.0560660 

90 6 26 

2 29 39.2 

112 20 0 

Uranus.... 

1".80 

30,900 

22000 

0.249 

Unknown 

19.18338 

1772 

84.0205 

0.0463592 

170 38 49 

0 46 20.9 

73 14 38 

Neptune... 

1".30 

34,000 

19^00 

0.209 

Unknown 

30.056S2 

2770 

164.782 

0.0084962 

43 17 30 

1 47 2.0 

130 7 33 


S. Newcomb, U. S. Naval Observatory. 













































ATACAMA—ATCHISON. 


310 


Atacama, a province of Chili, is bounded on the N. 
by Bolivia, on the E. by the Argentine Republic, on the S. 
by the province of Coquimbo, and on the W. by the Pacific 
Ocean. Area, 41,121 square miles. The country is for the 
most part mountainous and sterile, and produces only 
along the banks of a few rivers some vegetables and a few 
fruits. It contains, however, rich copper-mines. The cli¬ 
mate is dry and warm; most of the springs contain salt 
water, and the largest river, the Rio Salado, is almost 
always without water in its lower course! Capital, Co- 
piapo. Pop. in 1869, 82,328. 

Atac'amite, an ore of copper, abundant in the desert 
of Atacama (whence its name), and occurring also as a crust 
on the lavas of Vesuvius and Etna. It may be defined as 
a hydrated oxychloride of copper, or a combination of prot¬ 
oxide of copper with chloride of copper. It is a rich ore, 
containing 55 or 60 per cent, of copper. The natural vari¬ 
eties of atacamite are crystallized, massive, and pulverulent 
or granular. The primary form of its crystals is a rhombic 
prism. The greenish incrustation which is formed on an¬ 
tique bronze weapons, utensils, etc., and which is called 
serugo nobilis, is composed of this salt. 

Atahuall'pa, or Ataba'lipa, the last inca of Peru, 
was a son of Huayna Capac, who died in 1529. By his 
will he divided his dominions between his two sons, Huas- 
car and Atahuallpa, who obtained the kingdom of Quito. 
These brothers reigned in peace about five years, after 
which Huascar sent an envoy to Atahuallpa, and required 
him to render homage for the kingdom of Quito. That 
inca, who was ambitious and warlike, refused to pay hom¬ 
age, and, having invaded Peru with an army, defeated 
Huascar and took him prisoner in 1532. He spared the 
life of Huascar, but deprived him of his throne and liberty. 
In the same year Peru was invaded by Pizarro and a small 
army of Spaniards. The inca, with an unarmed retinue, 
approached the camp of Pizarro, in Nov., 1532, for a 
friendly interview, during which a Spanish priest informed 
the inca that the pope had given Peru to the king of Spain. 
As he rejected with indignation the authority of the pope, 
the treacherous Spaniards seized him and massacred his 
attendants. The captive inca offered to ransom himself by 
a quantity of gold which would fill the room in which he 
was confined as high as he could reach. The Spaniards 
accepted the gold, but refused him liberty. Pizarro accused 
Atahuallpa of plotting against him, and ordered him to be 
tried by a court-martial, which condemned him to be burned 
alive. After he had consented to be baptized his sentence 
was commuted to strangulation, and he was executed Aug. 
29, 1533. According to Prescott, “he showed singular 
penetration and quickness of perception/' (See Prescott, 
“ Conquest of Peru,” vol. i.) 

Atalan'ta [Gr. ’AraXavTij], a mythical personage, was, 
according to ancient Greek legends, the most swift-footed 
of mortals, and was renowned for martial courage. She 
took part in the Argonautic expedition and the Calydo- 
nian hunt. Having many suitors, she offered to marry 
any man who should defeat her in a foot-race, with the 
condition that if he lost he must be put to death. Mila- 
nion, who had received from Venus three golden apples, 
became the successful competitor by dropping them one 
by one before Atalanta, who could not resist the tempta¬ 
tion to stop and pick them up. 

Atasco'sa, a county in the S. part of Texas. Area, 
1097 square miles. It is intersected by Atascosa Creek, 
and also drained by several other creeks. This county is 
two-thirds prairie, and stock-raising is carried on. The 
soil is good and easily cultivated. Corn is the chief crop. 
Lignite is found. Capital, Pleasanton. Pop. 2915. 

At/aalf, Adaulf, or Adolf [Lat. Ataul'phus ], king 
of the Visigoths, and a brother-in-law of Alaric I., whom 
he succeeded in 411 A. D. He had aided Alaric in the 
capture of Rome in 410, and had captured Placidia, a sister 
of the emperor Honorius, whom he married. In 412 he 
retired from Italy into Gaul, where he defeated Jovinus, 
took Bordeaux (Burdigala), and conquered Aquitania. He 
was assassinated by one of his own officers in 415 A. D. 


prairies and on the pampas of South America, though all 
derived from those imported to the Western continent by 
Europeans, are nearly of one size, shape, and color; and 
the same is true of the wild herds of cattle of the South 
American pampas and llanos. Domestic hogs running wild 
assume, in a few generations, a moderate size, slender figure, 
and (in some places at least) a nearly black color, with 
head and tusks approaching those of the wild boar of Eu¬ 
rope. Darwin mentions the fact that in all the breeds of 
domestic pigeons there appear occasionally birds of a slaty- 
blue color, with bars and other marks characteristic of the 
ancestral rock-pigeon (Columba livia). He also considers 
the occasional appearance of stripes upon a horse or mule 
as indicating ancestral identity between the now distinct 
species of the equine genus. This opinion may be accepted 
as probable by some of those who are not ready to adopt 
the whole Darwinian theory. 2. In human pathology ata¬ 
vism is a reversion (similar to the above) to morbid traits 
existing in ancestors, but not in immediate parents. This 
may be briefly illustrated by an example (from “ Lectures 
on Practice of Medicine,” by Sir T. Watson) : A deaf-mute 
man married a woman whose hearing was perfect, and had 
two children by her—one a deaf-mute son, who died child¬ 
less ; the other, a hearing daughter, who married a hearing 
man, and gave birth to two deaf-mute daughters and a hear¬ 
ing son. This son married a woman also with good hear¬ 
ing, and had by her a deaf-mute son. One of the daugh¬ 
ters married a deaf-mute, and bore a hearing son. Gout, 
consumption, insanity, and other diseases sometimes thus 
disappear for one, two, or more generations in a family, 
and yet return in a manner evidently due to hereditary 
(though interrupted or latent) transmission. 

Atba'ra (Astab'oras), a river of North-eastern Africa, 
rises in Abyssinia, near Lake Dembea (or Tsana), and flows 
north-westward. After receiving several tributaries from 
the mountains, it traverses the desert of Southern Nubia, 
and enters the Nile in lat. 17° 37' N., and about 25 miles 
S. of Berber. It is the last tributary that the Nile receives, 
and is one of the principal causes of the inundation of 
Egypt. Its length is estimated at 550 miles. In the dry 
season, October to June, it contains no water except stand¬ 
ing pools. According to Sir Samuel W. Baker, “ its dry 
bed was filled in one night with a mighty stream. To-day 
(June 24) a magnificent stream, some 500 yards in width, 
and from fifteen to twenty feet in depth, flowed through the 
dreary desert.” (The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia, 1868.) 
The same traveller states that “the grand rush of water 
pouring down the Blue Nile and the Atbara into the parent 
channel inundates Lower Egypt, and is the cause of its ex¬ 
treme fertility.” Crocodiles and hippopotami abound in 
this river, on the borders of which are great numbers of 
elephants, rhinoceroses, giraffes, lions, etc. 

Atchafalay'a Bay'ou, in Louisiana, is an outlet of 
Red River, from whence it issues near the mouth of the 
latter at the N. extremity of Point Coupee parish. It 
flows nearly southward through Chetimaches Lake, and 
enters Atchafalaya Bay, a part of the Gulf of Mexico. The 
whole length is estimated at 225 miles. It is navigable for 
steamers. At the entrance to the bay is South-west Reef, 
with an iron lighthouse 50 feet high. 

Atch'ison, a county in N. E. Kansas. Area, 424 square 
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missouri River, 
which separates it from the State of Missouri, and is in¬ 
tersected by Sauterelle River or Grasshopper Creek. The 
surface is pleasantly diversified; the soil is very fertile. 
Wheat, corn, oats, dairy products, potatoes, and hay are 
largely raised. The streams are bordered with forest trees. 
Coal is found. The county is traversed by the central 
branch of the Union Pacific, and by several other rail¬ 
roads. Capital, Atchison. Pop. 15,507. 

Atchison, a county which forms the N. W. extremity 
of Missouri, bordering on Iowa. Area, 700 square miles. 
It is bounded on the W. by the Missouri River, and inter¬ 
sected by the Nishnabatona and Tarkeo Rivers. Largo 
quantities of corn, wool, and dairy products are raised. 
It is traversed by the St. Joseph and Council Bluffs R. R. 
Capital, Rockport. Pop. 8440. 

Atchison, the capital of Atchison co., Ivan., is beauti¬ 
fully situated on the W. bank of the Missouri River, at the 
extreme western point of the “Great Bend.” It is the 
western terminus of the Missouri Pacific, Chicago Rock 
Island and Pacific, and Hannibal and St. Joseph R. Rs. 
It is the northern terminus of the Atchison Topeka and 
Santa FS R. R., the eastern terminus of the central branch 
of the Union Pacific R. R.,*the southern terminus of the At¬ 
chison and Nebraska R. R., and the western terminus of the 
Burlington and Missouri R. R. The Kansas City St. Joseph 
and Council Bluffs R. II. also runs through the place. It 
is therefore the centre of a great system of railroads, and 
one of the principal commercial towns in the State. It 


At'avism [from the Lat. at'avus, a “great-grandfather” 
or “ancestor”] is a word of recent introduction, with two 
modifications of meaning: 1. In natural history atavism is 
the reappearance in animals or plants of traits belonging to 
their remote progenitors which their immediate parents did 
not present. Reversion is a term nearly synonymous, used (by 
Darwin and others) to'indicate not only the occasional or 
individual appearance of such remotely-descended traits, 
but the actual returning to them of a variety or species. 
Domesticated breeds of animals allowed to run wild become, 
after a time, nearly (seldom exactly) like their wild ances¬ 
tors. This is a familiar fact with horses, cattle, hogs, and 
pigeons. The wild horses on the great North American 
















ATCHISON—ATHANASIUS. 


311 


has 3 daily, 3 weekly, and 3 monthly papers; 2 national 
and 2 private banks; 4 public school buildings, one of 
which cost $50,000; St. Benedict’s College, and 3 private 
schools and academies; 8 fine church buildings, including 
a large Catholic cathedral; a foundry, and 2 large furni¬ 
ture manufactories. Pop. 7054. 

J. A. Martin, Ed. “Daily Champion.” 

Atchison, a township of Nodaway co., Mo. P. 1219. 

Atchison (David R.), an American politician, born in 
Fayette co., Ivy., Aug. 11, 1807, emigrated to Missouri in 
1830. He was elected a Senator of the U. S. in 1843 by 


the Democrats, and was re-elected for a term of six years 
ending Mar., 1855. He advocated the repeal of the Mis¬ 
souri Compromise, and was a leader of the Democratic 
party of Missouri in its conflicts with the Free-State party 
of Kansas. 

A'te [Gr.’Arrj], a goddess in classic mythology, supposed 
to avenge crimes, and also to stir up mischief. According 
to Homer, she was a daughter of Jupiter, who, for her mis¬ 
chief-making character, banished her from Olympus. 

At/eles [from the Gr. are\ ifc, “imperfect”], a genus of 
South American monkeys, characterized by the absence of 



a rudimentary condition of the thumb of the anterior 
hands. They have long, prehensile tails. The genus com¬ 
prises the marimonda (Ateles Beelzebub), which is very 
numerous on the Orinoco, besides a dozen other species. 

Ateliers Nationaux, at-le-4' n&'se-o'no', or “ Na¬ 
tional Workshops,” the name of establishments organized 
in Paris by the republican government in 1848 for the ben¬ 
efit of operatives and mechanics who lacked employment. 
These men entertained an idea that the government was 
bound to find them employment. The number of working¬ 
men who depended on the government for subsistence was 
about 100,000. The experiment failed, and when the ate¬ 
liers nationaux were closed a bloody sedition broke out in 
Paris, June, 1848. 

Atella'nae, Fab'ulae, also called Ludi Osci, rustic 
comedies which were performed in ancient Rome, and de¬ 
rived their name from Atella, a town of Campania. The 
actors of these plays spoke the Osean dialect, and amused 
the people with decent drollery. The Macons and Bucco 
of the Fabulae Atellame are said to be the origin of the 
modern Harlequin and Pulcinello. 

A Tem'po (literally, “to time”), a musical term, used 
to denote that after some short relaxation in the time the 
performer must return “to the [proper] time,” or original 
degree of movement. 

A Tem'po Gius'to (“ to the correct time ”), in music, 
a direction to the performer, after a recitative, to keep the 
measure true and correct, which during the recitative had 
been altered to suit the action and passion of the scene. 

Ates'sa, an Italian town in the province of Abruzzo Cite- 
riore, 14 miles W. of Vasto d’Ammone. It has a fine church 
and numerous convents, a hospital, and three monti de 
pietd. Pop. in 1861, 10,729. 

Ath, or Aath, a fortified town of Belgium, province 
of Ilainaut, on the river Dender, and on the railway from 
Brussels to Lille, 20 miles by rail E. by S. of Tournay. It 
has an arsenal, a college, a town-hall, an orphan asylum, 
and a remarkable church; also manufactures ot calico, lace, 
gloves, cutlery, etc. Pop. in 1866, 8260. 

Athabas'ca, or Athapes'co, a river and lake of 

the N. W. provinces of British North America. The lake 
is about lat. 59° N., and between Ion. 106° and 112° W. It 
extends E. and W. about 230 miles, and has an average 
width of 20 miles. The river rises in the Rocky Mountains, 
flows north-eastward, and enters the lake near its western 


extremity. The water of this lake is discharged through 
Slave River, and eventually passes into the Mackenzie 
River. 

Athali'ah, a queen of Judah, was a daughter of Ahab, 
king of Israel, and Jezebel. She was married to Jehoram, 
king of Judah, whom she survived, and became a notorious 
idolater. After the death of her son Ahaziah, about 884 
B. C., she usurped the royal power and murdered all the 
males of the royal family except Joash. In 878 B. C. she 
was killed by the partisans of Joash. Her story is the sub¬ 
ject of one of Racine’s most celebrated tragedies. (See 
2 Kings viii. and xi.) 

Athana'sian Creed [Lat. Sym'bolum Athanasia'nuni], 
so called because it was supposed to have been written by 
Athanasius (died 373). But this is a mistake. It did not 
appear in Greek till the eleventh or twelfth century, and 
was then evidently a translation. In the West it was 
commented upon by Yenantius Fortunatus in 570. And it 
contains extracts from Augustine’s “Trinity” (415 A. D.), 
and from the “ Commonitorium ” of Yincentius Lirinensis 
(434 A. D.); so that it was probably written not far from 
450 A. D., and apparently in Gaul. 

The Athanasian Creed is the sharpest and most rigid of 
the three catholic symbols. It sometimes takes as its title 
the words Quicunque vult, with which in its Latin version 
it commences. The entire passage of which those words 
are a part is in English as follows: “ Whosoever will be 
saved, before all things it is necessary that he hold the 
catholic faith ; which faith except every one do keep whole 
and undefiled, without doubt he shall perish everlastingly.” 
Then follows a minute and precise exposition of the Trinity, 
and an equally exact statement of the doctrine of the incar¬ 
nation; after which this clause occurs: “This is the cath¬ 
olic faith ; which except a man believe faithfully he cannot 
be saved.” The common inference would be that unless a 
man held the doctrine precisely as it is taught in the creed 
he cannot be saved. On account of these “damnatory 
clauses,” as they are sometimes called, many Christians, 
while substantially accepting the doctrines of the creed, 
disapprove of its being used in the churches. Though still 
retained in the church-service in England, it is omitted from 
the Book of Common Prayer used by the Episcopal churches 
in the U. S. Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Athana'sius [Gr. ’Aflamo-io?], Saint, a celebrated Greek 
Father of the Church, was born at Alexandria about 296 
A. D. His education was directed by Alexander, arch- 


































312 


ATHEISM—ATHENS. 


bishop of Alexandria. After he had been ordained as a 
deacon he was appointed a member of the general Council 
of Nice (325), in which he distinguished himself by his 
eloquence, learning, and zeal against Arianism. In 328 
A. D. he was elected archbishop of Alexandria by the clergy 
and the people. lie refused to comply with the will of the 
emperor Constantine the Great, by restoring to communion 
Arius, who had recanted or renounced some doctrines which 
the Council of Nice condemned. He was summoned to ap¬ 
pear at the Council of Tyre, in 335 A. D., to answer several 
charges, and was there deposed. The emperor Constantine 
banished him to Treves, but the emperor Constantius, on 
the death of Constantine, restored him (338) to his see. In 
339 about ninety Arian bishops assembled at the Council 
of Antioch, condemned Athanasius, and, their decision 
being approved by the emperor, he was suspended, and re¬ 
tired to Home. He recovered his office in 346. The Arians 
prevailed in the Council of Arles (353) and the Council of 
Milan, which, under the influence of the emperor Constan¬ 
tius, condemned Athanasius in 355 A. D. He was again 
driven out of Alexandria, and took refuge in the solitudes 
of Upper Egypt, where he passed six years, and wrote sev¬ 
eral doctrinal works. On the accession of Julian the Apos¬ 
tate (361 A. D.) he returned to Alexandria, but he was ex¬ 
iled in 362. In 367 he was restored by Jovian ; in 367 he 
was once more exiled by the Arian emperor Yalens, but 
after a few months (368) he was allowed to return, and now 
continued in peaceable possession of his office until his 
death, in 373 A. D. Athanasius was the most eminent and 
influential leader of the orthodox party (who were some¬ 
times called Athanasians), and was distinguished for his 
fortitude under persecution, and other virtues which quali¬ 
fied him to be a pillar of the militant Church in stormy and 
perilous times. He left numerous polemical and religious 
works, written in Greek in a simple, nervous, and perspicu¬ 
ous style. Among them are a “ Discourse on the Incarna¬ 
tion,” “Five Books against Arius,” “Epistles to Serapio,” 
an “Oration against the Gentiles,” and an “Apology for 
his own Flight.” An edition of his works was published 
at Paris in 3 vols. folio, 1628. (See Socrates, “ Historia 
Ecclesiastica;” Sozomen, “Historia Ecclesiastica;” Moh- 
ler, “Athanasius der Grosse,” 1827; Voigt, “ Lehre des 
Athanasius,” 1861.) Revised by A. J. Schem. 

ATheism [Lat. atheis'mus; from the Gr. a, neg., and 
0 eo?, a “god”], the denial of the existence of God, or the 
doctrine that there is no God. Atheism may be either 
speculative or practical; the former consists in denying the 
existence of God; the latter in living as if there were no 
God. Speculative atheism is, strictly speaking, impossible, 
for the denial of the Divine existence necessarily affirms it. 
For if one deny God’s being, his denial is worthless unless 
it rests upon some reason; but this reason must be abso¬ 
lute, or it can be no sufficient warrant for his denial, and 
this will only be to adduce absolute reason to declare that 
the Absolute Reason cannot be, which is the very absurdity 
of all absurdities. To suppose the existence of some nature 
of things whose chain of invincible necessity stretches 
above and around the Deity, is to suppose what, if it have 
any meaning, must itself be invested with the being and 
the attributes of the Godhead. Strictly speaking, the be¬ 
lief in a God would seem to imply a belief in his person¬ 
ality—that is, in his existence as a conscious being. But, 
according to its modern acceptation, atheism is understood 
to deny not merely the existence of a personal Deity, but 
also the presence in the universe (apart from individual in¬ 
telligences) of any Principle of intelligence, beauty, or 
goodness. (See Pantheism.) Perhaps the most remark¬ 
able phase of systematic atheism is that which is set forth 
in the writings of Epicurus and his followers ; for although 
that philosopher nominally acknowledged the existence of 
gods, he doubtless did so (as Cicero suggests) merely to 
avoid the popular odium which by a denial of their exist¬ 
ence he was certain to incur. In his sj^stem of philosophy 
there is no all-pervading Intelligence, as in that of Anax¬ 
agoras—no principle of order, no law except the law of 
chance. All possible forms of existence had been tried in 
the fortuitous concourse of the primitive atoms, and those 
beings only which had at last attained, by repeated acci¬ 
dental trials, a certain regularity and completeness of parts, 
possessed any permanent existence. Among many of the 
ancient nations in very early times to deny the gods was 
much the same as to deny all religious and moral obliga¬ 
tions ; hence the name atheos (a0eo?), or “ atheist”—that is, 
“without God” or “denying the gods”—became a term 
of the greatest reproach; at length those who had political 
ends to serve came to use it, not very unfrequently, as a 
convenient method of exciting popular odium against an 
opponent; and it has been repeatedly applied to worthy 
and virtuous men, both in ancient and modern times. 

Revised by J. II. Seelye. 

Ath'clard of Bath, an English natural philosopher 


of the twelfth century who travelled in the East and pub¬ 
lished numerous works, some original and some translated 
from the Arabic. A few of these works have been printed, 
and others exist in MS. 

Ath'elstan, or AEthelstan, an able Anglo-Saxon 
king of England, born about 895 A. D., was the natural 
son of Edward the Elder, and a grandson of Alfred the 
Great. He began to reign in 925, and was the first actual 
sovereign of all England. On the death of Sigtric, king of 
Northumbria, Athelstan annexed that country. A leaguo 
was formed against him by the Welsh, Scots, and Piets, 
whom he defeated in a great battle at Brunenburg, 937 
A. D. He reigned over nearly all the island, excejit Scot¬ 
land and Wales. He promoted learning and civilization, 
and was reputed one of the wisest of the Anglo-Saxon 
kings. lie died without issue Oct. 27, 940, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by his brother Edmund. (See Freeman, “Norman 
Conquest,” vol. i.; Hume, “ History of England.”) 

Athe'na [Gr. ’A0 j or ’Afl^a], sometimes called Pal¬ 
las Athena, the goddess of wisdom, and one of the prin¬ 
cipal divinities of the Greek mythology. According to an 
ancient legend, she was the daughter of Jupiter, from whose 
head she issued in full armor. She was the favorite national 
divinity of the Athenians, whose capital was named in her 
honor. She presided over the sciences, inventions, arts of 
peace, laws, etc., and was supposed to have invented every 
kind of art or work proper to women. Athena corresponds 
to the Roman Minerva (which see). 

Atheme'um [Gr. ’Afljjvaiov], a general name for the 
temples of Athena; a temple at Athens, dedicated to Athe¬ 
na, in which poets and orators assembled to recite their 
works and to instruct the young. Also, a school which was 
founded at Ptome on the Capitoline Hill by the emperor 
Hadrian, and long continued to be an important institu¬ 
tion. In the reign of Theodosius II. it had ten professors 
of grammar, three of oratory, five of dialectics, one of phil¬ 
osophy, and two of jurisprudence. The name was given 
to it in honor of Athens, the great seat of ancient learning. 
In modern times the term is applied to literary institutions, 
public reading-rooms, etc. 

Athenfe'us, an eminent Greek litterateur and antiquary, 
born at Naucratis, in Egypt, lived about 200 A. D. The 
events of his life are mostly unknown. He resided for some 
years at Rome, and appears to have been a great reader, 
and an epicure in his habits. He wrote, in the form of 
a dialogue, a very interesting work called Aei7n'oo-o(£io-T<u 
(“The Banquet of the Learned”), which is extant. It is 
an account of an imaginary banquet given by a noble Ro¬ 
man to a number of eminent men, and contains a rich fund 
of anecdotes, criticisms, and extracts from the works of 
about seven hundred poets and historians, some of whose 
works are lost. Although it does not indicate much literary 
ability, it is considered extremely valuable as a melange of 
literary, social, and domestic gossip. A good edition of this 
work was published by W. Dindorf, Leipsic, 3 vols., 1827. 
An English translation of it may be found in Bohn’s “Clas¬ 
sical Library,” London, 1854. (See Fabricius, “ Bibliotheca 
Grasca;” “ Edinburgh Review,” vol. iii., 1803.) 

Athenag'oras [Gr. ’Afl^ayopas], a Greek philosopher 
and Christian writer, born at Athens, flourished about 170. 
Philip Sidetes (about 400 A. D.) makes him the first prin¬ 
cipal of the catechetical school at Alexandria (161-180 
A. D.). He wrote an elaborate treatise on the “ Resurrec¬ 
tion,” also an “ Apology,” addressed, some say, to Marcus 
Antoninus and Lucius Verus, about 166 A. D.; others, to 
Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus, about 177 A. D. 
The best recent edition of his works is that by Otto, 1857. 

Athe'nion [Gr. ’AOrjt'uov], an eminent Greek encaustic 
painter, born at Maronea, in Thrace, was a pupil of Glau- 
cion. He lived about 320 B. C., and died prematurely. 
Among his works was “ Ulysses detecting Achilles dis¬ 
guised as a Female.” 

Ath'ens [Gr. ’Afloat; Lat. Athe 'nse; Turk. Set i'nes~\, an 
ancient and celebrated Hellenic city and republic, unrivalled 
in art and literature, immortal in the records of genius and 
glory. No state, ancient or modern, has produced in pro¬ 
portion to its extent and population so many authors, ora¬ 
tors, artists, and statesmen of the first order, or has con¬ 
tributed so largely to the education and improvement of 
humanity. Athens is situated about 5 miles N. E. of the 
Saronic Gulf, in the plain of Attica, which is enclosed by 
mountains on every side except the south, and forms a 
grand natural amphitheatre; lat. 37° 56' N., Ion. 23° 38' 
E. The plain is bounded on the N. W. by Mount Parnes, 
on the N. E. by Mount Pentelicus (now often called Men- 
deli), on the S. E. by Mount Hymettus, on the S. W. by the 
sea, and on the W. by Mount iEgaleos. About 1 mile N. E. 
of the city rose Mount Lycabettus, an isolated conical peak, 
which forms a prominent and beautiful feature in the land- 








ATHENS. 


scape, and is now called the “ Hill of Saint George.” Within 
the city walls were four hills—namely, the Acropolis ,• the 
Areopagus, or Mars’ Hill; the Pnyx, on which political as¬ 
semblies were held; and the Museum. The Acropolis, or 
citadel, an isolated, rocky hill, rises abruptly nearly 300 feet 
above the plain, near the centre of the space enclosed by 
the walls of Themistocles. It has a flat top about 1100 feet 
long and 450 feet wide, inaccessible on all sides except the 
W., where the ascent is also steep. The city stands on a 
bed of hard limestone, partly covered by a thin, light, and 
rather sterile soil. It has a delightful climate, and an at¬ 
mosphere of almost matchless purity and transparency. 
Mr. Stanley speaks of “the transparent clearness, the bril¬ 
liant coloring of an Athenian sky; of the flood of fire Avith 
which the marble columns, the mountains, and the seas are 
all bathed and penetrated by the illumination of an Athe¬ 
nian sunset.” The same traveller notices “ the violet hue 
which Hvmettus assumes in the evening sky, in contrast 
to the glowing furnace of the rock of Lycabettus and the 
rosy pyramid of Pentelicus.” Hence, Athens has been 
called the “City of the Violet Crown.” Among the phys¬ 
ical features of the environs of Athens are two rivulets, 
the Cephissus and the Ilissus, both of which are nearly 
exhausted and waterless in summer. The walls of Athens 
in its most prosperous state enclosed not only the city proper 
(to "Acttu), but also a long, narrow suburb extending to the 
harbor of Pirteus, which was four and a half miles S. W. 
of the Acropolis, and was connected with it by two long 
Avails, 550 feet apart. The Pirmus Avas a rocky peninsula 
enclosing several good harbors, and defended by a citadel 
and fortress, called Munychia, built on a high rock. This 
Avas sometimes termed the Acropolis of the Pirseus. 

History. —According to an ancient legend, Athens was 
founded by Cecrops, and Avas originally called Cecropia. 
In the reign of Ereclitheus the name was changed to 
Athense, in consequence of the prominence which was given 
to the Avorship of Athena (Minerva). Theseus, the national 
hero of Attica, is said to have united into one political 
body the tweh r e independent demi or communities into 
which Cecrops had divided Attica, and to have made Athens 
the capital of the ucav state. Homer in the “Iliad” men¬ 
tions Athens and its temple of Athena. The last king of 
Athens was Codrus, who sacrificed himself for his country, 
in compliance with the advice of an oracle, about 1068 B. C. 
The state then became a republic or oligarchy, ruled by an 
archon or archons, the first of Avhom was Medon, a son of 
Codrus. An important event in the history of the Athe¬ 
nians Avas the institution of the Olympic Games (which see), 
celebrated once in four years at Olympia, in Elis. The first 
Olympiad began in 776 B. C., the era to which all subse¬ 
quent events were referred by the ancient Greek historians. 
The term of office of the archons was reduced to one year 
about 684 B. C., before which date the archon ruled the 
state for ten years. (See Archon.) Among the powerful 
and conservative elements in the Athenian constitution Avas 
the council or court of the Areopagus (which see), the 
origin of which Avas very ancient. The great legislator and 
statesman Avho laid the stable foundations of the glory and 
prosperity of Athens was Solon, who became archon in 594 
B. C., at a time Avhen many of the poor were reduced to 
slavery and violent party dissensions tended to civil Avar. 
He reformed the constitution, abolished slavery for debt, 
improved the condition of the poor and the common people, 
and divided the population into four classes, according to 
their property. The fourth or loAvest class were not eligible 
to office, but they Avere exempt from taxation, and could 
vote for archons and other officers. He also enlarged the 
jurisdiction and authority of the court of the Areopagus, 
Avhich tended to counteract the excesses of the democratic 
element Avhich he infused into the constitution. Pisistratus 
usurped the chief poiver in 560 B. C., ruled as a mild and 
liberal tyrant for many years, and left his power to his sons 
Ilippias and Hipparchus. The first effort to embellish the 
city during the historical period appears to haA r e been made 
by Pisistratus and his sons. They erected many temples 
and other public buildings, and commenced the temple of 
Jupiter Olympius, which was the largest temple in Greece, 
but it remained unfinished about seven hundred years. The 
state Avas liberated from the mild tyranny of the Pisistra- 
tidai by Ilarmodius and AristogEton, who killed Hippar¬ 
chus in 514. Ilippias Avas expelled in 510 B. C. Soon after 
Clisthenes made some liberal reforms in the constitution, 
Avhich he rendered essentially democratic. He divided the 
people of Attica into ten tribes (which were subdivided into 
Srjuoi, townships or parishes), instead of the four ancient 
Ionic tribes ($vW). It is important to observe that the 
demi assigned to each tribe were in no case all adjacent to 
each other; and “the tribe as a whole,” says Mr. Grote, 
“ did not correspond with any continuous portion of the 
territory, nor could it have any peculiar local interest sep¬ 
arate from the entire community.” This arrangement was 


313 


adopted as a precaution against factious movements arising 
out of local feuds. About 500 B. C. the Greek colonies of 
Ionia revolted against the king of Persia, and Avere aided 
by the Athenians. Provoked by this affront, Darius resolved 
to subjugate Greece, and to punish the Athenians in an es¬ 
pecial manner, for Avhich purpose he sent a large army in 
490 B. C. Among the ten generals Avho commanded the 
Athenian army were three illustrious men—Aristides, Mil- 
tiades, and Themistocles. The armies met on the plain of 
Marathon, where Miltiades gained a decisive victory which 
Avas one of the most momentous events of universal history. 
The Spartans did not arrive in time to take part in this 
battle. The sagacious Themistocles, foreseeing that this was 
only the beginning and not the end of the Avar, persuaded 
the Athenians to build a large fleet. Having spent several 
years in diligent preparation for another invasion of Greece, 
Xerxes (called the Great) crossed the Hellespont with an 
immense army in 480 B. C. The Persians forced the pass 
of Thermopylm, defended by a small band of Spartans, for 
Avhose epitaph Simonides wrote two famous lines which may 
be thus translated: 

■“ Go tell the Spartans, friendly passer-by, 

That Ave obeyed their orders, and here lie.” 

The Athenians in this crisis consulted the oracle of 
Delphi, and received at first an alarming or sinister re¬ 
sponse, to which Avas finally added this emphatic predic¬ 
tion : “ But this assurance I will give you firm as adamant: 
when everything else in the land of Cecrops shall be taken, 
Jupiter grants to Athens that the wooden Avail alone shall 
remain unconquered to defend you.” Concluding that the 
wooden Avail signified the fleet, the Athenians removed their 
Avomen and children to iEgina and Salamis, and evacuated 
Athens, w'hich was taken and burned by the Persians. The 
Greeks Avere reduced to a desperate extremity, but in one 
day the great naval battle of Salamis (480 B. C.) made an 
immense change in their situation, and restored them to 
security and triumph. This event was folloAved by the 
rapid development of the maritime power of Athens. 
Themistocles fortified the Pirmus, and surrounded Athens 
with massive walls sixty stadia in circumference. The 
courage and public spirit of the Athenians in the conflict 
with the Persians raised their reputation and influence so 
high that when many of the Greek states formed a league 
for mutual defence, they gave to Athens the hegemony or 
chief control of the confederacy. Soon after the battle of 
Salamis the Athenians began to rebuild their capital and 
to erect those masterpieces of architecture which have ex¬ 
cited the admiration of all succeeding ages. The most 
brilliant period in Athenian art was the age of Pericles, 
who became the most poAverful statesman of Athens about 
469 B. C. During his long and able administration iEschy- 
lus, Sophocles, Euripides, Socrates, and Phidias flourished. 
He made Athens the most splendid city of Greece, and 
erected, on the Acropolis, the Parthenon, Erechtheum, and 
Propylaea. It was here that Art achieved her greatest tri¬ 
umphs. “ In order to form a proper idea of the Acropolis, 
avc must imagine the summit of the rock stripped of every¬ 
thing except temples and statues, the Avhole forming one 
vast composition of architecture, sculpture, and painting, 
the dazzling whiteness of the marble relieved by brilliant 
colors, and glittering in the transparent clearness of the 
Athenian atmosphere.” ( Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and 
Roman Geoyrapliy.') In 431 B. C. a long .war broke out be¬ 
tween the Athenians and the Spartans, Avho were the ag¬ 
gressors. This Avas called the Peloponnesian Avar, Avhich 
continued about twenty-seven years, and was disastrous to 
the Athenians. During this period, Thucydides, Nicias, and 
Alcibiades were prominent public men of Athens. Nicias 
conducted a large fleet and army against Syracuse (an 
ally of Sparta) in 413 B. C. But the expedition proA'ed a 
disastrous failure. Nearly all of his men were killed or 
captured. In 404 B. C. the war ended Avith the capture of 
Athens by the. Spartan general Lysandcr, who abolished 
the democracy, and established the rule of the Thirty Ty¬ 
rants. Thrasybulus, aided by a body of exiles, expelled 
these tyrants within one year after their accession to power. 
Athens had lost her political and military supremacy, but 
she still surpassed all other states in art and literature, 
and was illustrated by the genius of Plato and Demosthenes. 
The latter began his public career about 354 B. C., when 
the liberty of Athens was menaced by Philip of Macedon. 
He became the leader of the party that opposed Philip, 
Avhom he assailed in his celebrated “ Philippics,” the eter¬ 
nal monuments of his political foresight, wisdom, and 
magnanimity. The army of Philip gained a decisive vic¬ 
tory over the Athenians and Thebans at Chseronea, in 338 
B. C. Athens and the other Greek states then became sub¬ 
ject to Macedon. In 146 B. C., Greeoe Avas reduced to a 
Roman province. Athens under the Roman power con¬ 
tinued to enjoy much prosperity, and Avas the centre of 
Grecian philosophy, literature, and art. The great monu- 


















314 ATHENS. 


ments of the age of Pericles still remained in their original 
beauty and perfection. The Athenian schools of eloquence 
and philosophy attracted great numbers of students from 
Rome and all parts of the civilized world. Here Cicero, 
Virgil, and Horace received part of their education. It is 
difficult to determine the population of ancient Athens, 
which, according to Xenophon, was the most populous city 
of Greece. He states that it contained more than 10,000 
houses. Leake estimates the population at 192,000, includ¬ 
ing the Piraeus. The private houses were small and poor 
compared with the public edifices. The climate was so 
genial that the Athenians passed nearly all their time in 
the open air. 

Monuments and Antiquities .—At the W. end of the Acrop¬ 
olis stood the Propylaea, one of the masterpieces of Athe¬ 
nian art, constructed of Pentelic marble, and finished in 432 
B. C. The central part of this building (called Propylaea 
because it formed a vestibule to the gates by which the 
Acropolis was entered) consisted of two Doric hexastyle 
porticoes, covered with a roof of white marble. Of these 
porticoes the western faced the city and the eastern the in¬ 
terior of the Acropolis; the latter, owing to the rise of the 
ground, being higher than the former. They were divided 
into two parts by a wall pierced by five gates or doors, 
which were the only public entrance into the Acropolis. 
Considerable remains of the Propylaea are still visible. 
Passing through the Propylaea, we come to the Parthenon, 
or temple of Athena Parthenos, regarded as the most per¬ 
fect specimen of architecture ever executed. It was de¬ 
signed by Callicrates and Ictinus, was built in the Doric 
order of white Pentelic marble, and was completed in 438 
B. C. The dimensions were 228 feet long, 101 feet wide, 
and 66 feet high to the top of the pediment. It consisted 
of a cella, surrounded by a peristyle of forty-six columns, 
which were six feet two inches in diameter and thirty-four 
feet high. Within the peristyle at either end there was an 
interior range of six columns five and a half feet in diam¬ 
eter. In technical language this temple was a peripteral 
octastyle, so called because it had eight columns at each 
front. “Such,” says Leake, “was the simple structure of 
this magnificent building, which, by its united excellencies 
of materials, design, and decorations, was the most perfect 
ever executed. Its dimensions were sufficiently great to 
give an appearance of grandeur and sublimity; and this 
impression was not disturbed by any obtrusive subdivision 
of parts. . . . There was nothing to divert the spectator’s 
contemplation from the simplicity and majesty of mass and 
outline which form the first and most remarkable object 
of admiration in a Greek temple.” The whole building 
was adorned within and without with exquisite pieces of 
sculpture, the grandest of which was a colossal statue of 
Athena, executed by Phidias and formed of ivory and gold. 
This statue stood in the largest apartment of the cella. The 
Parthenon remained almost entire, except the roof, until 
1687, when Athens was besieged by the Venetians. A 
quantity of powder which the Turks had placed in the 
cella exploded, and reduced the centre of the Parthenon to 
a heap of ruins. The columns of the two fronts escaped, 
and are still standing, with part of the walls. The Erech- 
theum (’Epeyfletoi'), standing on the Acropolis, was a beau¬ 
tiful temple of the Ionic order, and the most revered of all 
the sanctuaries of Athens, being connected with the origin 
of the Athenian religion. It was completed about 393 
B. C., and adorned with three porticoes and columns, many 
of which are now standing. Among the finest edifices of 
Athens was the Theseium (@rjc relov), or temple of Theseus, 
which was built of Pentelic marble about 465 B. C. Its 
architecture was of the Doric order, and it was surrounded 
by a peristyle of thirty-four columns. The Theseium is 
the best preserved of all the monuments of ancient Athens. 
The temple itself is nearly perfect, but the sculptures have 
received much injury. The site of the Olympeum, or tem¬ 
ple of Jupiter Olympius, is indicated by sixteen gigantic Co¬ 
rinthian columns of marble standing S. E. of the Acropolis. 
This exceeded all other temples of Greece in magnitude, 
being 354 feet long and 171 wide. It consisted of a cella 
surrounded by a peristyle, which had ten columns in front 
and twenty on each side. The peristyle, being double in 
the sides and having a triple range at either end, consisted 
of 120 columns six and a half feet in diameter and above 
sixty feet high. Among the interesting places in the 
suburbs of Athens ■were the Academy—in which Plato 
taught, and which long continued to be a sanctuary of 
philosophy—and the Lyceum, over which Aristotle pre¬ 
sided. Towards the end of the sixth century of the Chris¬ 
tian era Athens began to decline. In 1204 it became the cap¬ 
ital of a duchy which during the fourteenth century belonged 
to Naples. In 1394 the Florentine Nerio Acciajuoli be¬ 
came duke of Athens, and his family held this position 
until 1456, in which year it was taken by the Turks. Dur¬ 
ing the time of the Turkish rule Athens declined more and 


more, and had a population of only 6000 or 8000. The 
ancient monuments were falling to ruin, and the city itself 
presented a true picture of the demoralization of the whole 
nation. The Greek war of independence was the cause of 
great destruction to the city, so that when in 1830 Attica 
was incorporated with Greece, the city was nothing more 
or less than a heap of ruins. But when in 1834 it became 
the capital of the new kingdom of Greece, it rapidly 
changed, and was greatly improved. A royal palace, 300 
feet in length and 280 feet wide, was completed in 1843 
near Mount Lycabettus. Among the finest modern build¬ 
ings are the university, the cathedral, the mint, the thea¬ 
tre, and the chamber of representatives. The university, 
founded in 1836, has about forty professors, and a library 
of nearly 90,000 volumes. It is said to be well organized 
and flourishing. Athens has also several gymnasia, and a 
system of graded free schools. Since the liberation of 
Greece from the Turkish yoke the Hellenic people have 
been animated by an ardent desire to regenerate their 
country by the promotion of education. Athens has a good 
harbor, the ancient Piraeus, now called Drako. Pop. in 1870, 
48,107. Pop. of the Piraeus, in 1870, 11,049. (See Leake, 
“Topography of Athens,” 1841; Stuart and Revett, 
“Antiquities of Athens,” 4 vols., 1762-1816; Grote, “His¬ 
tory of Greece;” Wordsworth, “Athens and Attica,” 1836; 
Mure, “Journal of a Tour in Greece,” 1842; K. O. Muller, 
article Attica in Ersch and Gruber’s “ Encyklopadie;” 
Breton, “ Athen,” 1868; Welcicer, “ Tagebuch einergriech- 
ischen Reise,” 1865.) Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Ath' ens, a county in the S.E. part of Ohio. Area, 430 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the Ohio 
River, and drained by the Ilockhocking. The surface is 
hilly; the soil is fertile. Grain, wool, and tobacco arc ex¬ 
tensively raised. Salt is made from salt-wells. A bed of 
coal underlies the whole county and is extensively worked. 
Iron is found in this county, which is intersected by the 
Marietta and Cincinnati R. R. Capital, Athens. Pop. 
23,768. 

Athens, a township of Dallas co., Ala. Pop. 3565. 

Athens, a post-village, capital of Limestone co., Ala., is 
on the Nashville and Decatur R. R., 27 miles W. N. W. 
from Huntsville. On Sept. 23, 1864, the Confederate gen¬ 
eral Forrest, with a large body of cavalry, invested the 
town, held by Colonel Campbell, of the One Hundred and 
Tenth U. S. Colored Troops, and 600 men, and demanded 
its surrender, which was finally made just as reinforce¬ 
ments were on their way. The place was again occupied 
by U. S. forces, and again attacked by the Confederate 
general Buford Oct. 2-3, 1864, but this time the place was 
firmly held by Colonel Slade, of the Seventy-third Indiana, 
and Buford repulsed. Athens has two weekly newsjiapers. 
Pop. 887; of Athens township, 2618. 

Athens, a city of Clarke co., Ga., on the Oconee River, 
the north-western terminus of the eastern branch of the 
Georgia R. R., which connects it with Augusta, 114 miles 
distant, and the southern terminus of the North-eastern 
R. R., now being constructed to Rabun Gap, which will 
connect with the West at Knoxville, Tenn. It is the seat 
of the University of Georgia, the State College of Agricul¬ 
ture, the Lucy Cobb Institute, several other schools of a 
high grade, and a number of common schools. It has 10 
churches, 2 banks, 1 insurance company, 2 cotton-factories, 

1 foundry, 1 street railway, 1 gas company, 4 fire compa¬ 
nies, and 4 newspapers and periodicals. In the contiguous 
country are four or five cotton-mills and other manufacto¬ 
ries. Pop. 4251. 

Hox. J. H. Christy, Ed. “Southern Watchman.” 

Athens, a township of Ringgold co., Ia. Pop. 502. 

Athens, a post-village of Menard co., Ill. Pop. 351. 

Athens, a post-township of Somerset co., Me. It is 
the seat of an academy, and has manufactures of lumber, 
etc. Pop. 1540. 

Athens, a post-township of Calhoun co., Mich. Pod 
1294. 1 

Athens, a township of Gentry co., Mo. Pop. 2211. 

Athens, a post-village of Greene co., N. Y., on the W. 
bank of the Hudson River, 29 miles below Albany and op¬ 
posite the city of Hudson. It is the southern terminus of 
a branch of the Central R. R. Lime, limestone, bricks, and 
ice are extensively produced. Pop. 1793; of Athens town¬ 
ship, 2942. 

Athens, a post-village, capital of Athens co., O., is on 
the Ilockhocking River, and on the Marietta and Cincin¬ 
nati R. R., 41 miles W. S. W. of Marietta. It is the south¬ 
eastern terminus of the Columbus and Hocking Valley 
R. R., which connects it with Columbus, 76 miles distant. 
Here is the Ohio University, founded in 1804; also a na¬ 
tional bank, two weekly papers, and a State lunatic asylum. 
Pop. 1696; of township, 3277. Ed. “Messenger.” 












ATHENS—ATKINSON. 


315 


Athens, a township of Harrison co., 0. Pop. 1232. 

Athens (borough and township), Bradford co., Pa., em¬ 
braces the junction of the North Branch of the Susque¬ 
hanna with the Chemung (one* called Tioga) River. Athens 
was early known as “Tioga” or “ Tioga Point,” and was 
the most important trading-post in the region. The canal 
once used along the Susquehanna and Chemung is now 
abandoned from Elmira to Pittston, and its bank is occu¬ 
pied by the Lehigh Valley R. R. Company, lessee of the 
Pennsylvania and New York Canal and R. R. Company. 
The Ithaca and Athens R. R., and also the Southern Cen¬ 
tral R. R. (to Owego and Auburn, N. Y.), unite with the 
Lehigh Valley R. R. at Sayers, in Athens township. The 
borough is 15 miles N. of Towanda, the county-seat, and 
4 miles S. from Waverley—Athens township including 
the S. part of Waverley village, which is mostly in N. Y. 
There is a post-office at Athens borough, and one at Orcutt’s 
Creek, in the N. W. part of the township ; a national bank 
and two weekly papers in the borough, and a savings bank 
in South Waverley (the N. end of the township); two bridges 
over the Chemung, two over the Susquehanna, and several 
mills, factories, etc. Athens has the oldest academy in the 
section, and had Nathanael P. Tallmadge among its early 
tutors. Joshua R. Giddings was born at Queen Esther’s 
Flats, below the borough, during the migration of his 
parents from Connecticut to the Western Reserve. “Span¬ 
ish Hill,” S. W. of Waverley, had a fortification on its sum¬ 
mit, the origin of which is unknown. The region is one of 
historical interest and physical beauty. Pop. in 1870, 
borough, 965; township, 2256; total, 3221. 

Ed. op “ Gleaner.” 

Athens, a township of Crawford co., Pa. Pop. 1317. 

Athens, a post-village, capital of McMinn co., Tenn., 
on the East Tennessee Virginia and Georgia R. R., 55 
miles S. W. of Knoxville. It has one weekly newspaper, 
and is the seat of East Tennessee Wesleyan University. 
Pop. 974. 

Athens, a post-village, capital of Henderson co., Tex., 
178 miles N. of Houston, and 180 miles N. E. of Austin City. 
Pop. 545. 

Athens, a post-township of Windham co., Vt. P. 295. 

Ath/erine ( Atheri'na ), a genus of fishes of the family 


ler, pugilist, or runner; a man who competed for honor or 
other rewards in contests of physical strength or agility. 
The arena in which the athletic contended was at the great 
national festivals, the Olympic, Isthmian, Pythian, and 
Nemean games. The victor in these games was treated 
with extraordinary honor. He entered his native city 
through a breach made in the wall for that purpose, and 
his statue was erected in a public place. Plato and other 
eminent philosophers took part in athletic contests. At 
Rome the athletic formed a college or corporation. 

Athlone (Athluan, i. e. “ford of the moon ”), a market- 
town of Ireland, on both sides of the river Shannon, about 
67 miles W. of Dublin, is chiefly in the county of West¬ 
meath and partly in Roscommon. It is on the railway 
from Dublin to Galway, and about two miles S. of Lough 
Ree. The Shannon is navigable for steamers above this 
town. Athlone Castle, built in the reign of King John, has 
been converted into an important military position. P. 6617. 

Ath'ol, a thriving manufacturing village of Worcester 
co., Mass., in a township of the same name. It is at the 
junction of the Vermont and Massachusetts and the Spring- 
field Athol and North-eastern R. Rs. It contains three 
post-offices, two weekly papers, one national and one savings 
bank, and five churches. Cottons, woollens, lumber, wooden 
ware, castings, and many other goods are manufactured. P. 
3517. R. W. Waterman, Pub. and Ed. “ Chronicle.” 

Ath'ole, Dukes of, and marquesses of Tullibardine 
(1703), and of Athole (1676); earls of Tullibardine (1606), 
of Athole (1629), and of Strathtay and Strathardle (1703) ; 
viscounts of Balquhidar (1676), of Glenalmond and Glen- 
lyon (1703); Barons Murray (1604); Barons Balquhidder 
(1606); Barons Balvenie and Gask (1676, in Scotland); 
Barons Strange of Knocklyn (1628, in England); Barons 
Percy (1722, in Great Britain); Barons Murray of Stanley 
(1786, in Great Britain); Earls Strange (1786, in Great 
Britain); Lords Glenlyon (1821, in the United Kingdom). 
—John James Hugh Henry Stewart-Murray, the sev¬ 
enth duke, was born Aug. 6,1840, and succeeded his father 
in 1864. The dukedom takes its name from Athole, a dis¬ 
trict in Perthshire, Scotland. 

Athor, Athyr, or Het-her, an Egyptian goddess, 
the daughter of Ra, supposed to correspond to the Aphro¬ 
dite of the Greeks. The cow was regarded as her symbol. 



Atherine, or European Sand-Smelt. 


Atherinidm, related to the mullet. They have more than 
twice as many vertebrae as the mullet, are about six inches 
long, and have a broad silvery band along each flank. 
The genus comprises many species which abound in the 
Mediterranean. The Atherina presbyter is sold in England 
under the name of smelt. Those of the U. S. coast are 
called “ silversides ” and “ sand-smelts.” They are mostly 
small fishes. 

Atherosperma'cene [from Atherosperma, the name 
of one of the genera], the name of a natural order of incom¬ 
plete aromatic exogenous shrubs found in New Holland 
and South America, remarkable for having their flowers in 
a cup-shaped involucre, and the peculiar anthers of Lau- 
racese. 

Ath'erton (Charles Gordon), an American politician, 
born at Amherst, N. H., July 4, 1804. He graduated at 
Harvard in 1822. He was a member of Congress 1837-43. 
He procured in 1838 the passage of a resolution that all 
petitions or papers relating to slavery should be laid on the 
table without being debated, printed, or referred. In 1843 
and ’53 he was elected to the Senate of the U. S. Died 
Nov. 15, 1853. 

Atherton (Charles Humphrey), born at Amherst, 
N. II., Aug. 14,1773, graduated at Harvard in 1794, became 
a lawyer, and was an enthusiastic Federalist. He was a 
member of Congress from New Hampshire (1815-17). Died 
at Amherst, N. H., Jan. 8, 1853. 

Atherton (Humphrey), a native of England who emi¬ 
grated to Massachusetts about 1636. He became a major- 
general, and was employed in negotiations with the In¬ 
dians. Died Sept. 17, 1661. 

Ath'lete, plu. Ath'Ietes, or Athle'tae [Gr. 
plu. aOArjraf], a term applied by the ancient Greeks to a per¬ 
son who contended for a prize in public games as a wrest¬ 


A'thos, Mount (called Hagion Oros ("A-ytov’Opos) 
by the modern Greeks, and Monte Santo by the Ital¬ 
ians ; both names signifying “ holy mountain ”), a cel¬ 
ebrated mountain of Greece, at the extremity of the 
peninsula of Chalcidice (which extends into the Aege¬ 
an), 80 miles S. E. of Salonica. It rises abruptly to 
the height of 6350 feet above the sea. Xerxes, king 
of Persia, cut a canal through the narrow isthmus 
which connects the peninsula with the mainland, to 
avoid the dangerous navigation around the promon¬ 
tory. In the Middle Ages, Mount Athos was occu¬ 
pied by numerous monasteries (whence the modern Greek 
and Italian names), and was a celebrated seat of learning. 
Here were preserved the remains of famous libraries which 
furnished to scholars many valuable Greek manuscripts. 
A number of monks, estimated at 6000, still reside on this 
mountain, which abounds in beautiful scenery. Recently, 
the Russians have gained considerable influence among the 
monks. The Russians formerly submitted to all the regu¬ 
lations of the Greek monks. Of late, however, they have 
increased so much that the Prussian monks now have a ma¬ 
jority in two monasteries. (See Gass, “ Zur Geschichte der 
Athoskloster,” 1865.) 

Atitlan', a lake and volcano of Central America, 80 
miles N. W. of Guatemala. The lake is 24 miles long, 10 
miles wide, and nearly 2000 feet deep. The volcano is 
12,500 feet high, in lat. 14° 30' 38" N., Ion. 91° 12' 47" W. 
The town of Santiago de Atitlan is on the S. side of the 
lake. 

Atkarsk', a town of Russia, in the government of Sara¬ 
tov, 50 miles N. W. of Saratov. Pop. in 1867, 8311. 

At'kins, a township of Coosa co., Ala. Pop. 543. 

At'kinson, a post-township of Henry co., Ill. P. 1132. 

Atkinson, a post-township of Piscataquis co., Me. 
Pop. 810. 

Atkinson, a township of Worcester co., Md. Pop. 1312. 

Atkinson, a post-township of Rockingham co., N. H. 
It has an academy. Atkinson Depot is a station on the 
Boston and Maine R. R., 37 miles N. of Boston. Pop. of 
township, 488. 

Atkinson (Archibald), born in Isle of Wight co., Va., 
Sept. 13, 1792, studied law at William and Mary College, 
served as an officer in the war of 1812, held prominent 
State offices, and was a member of Congress from \ lrginia 
(1843-18). Died Jan. 10, 1872. 




















316 


ATKINSON—ATLANTIC OCEAN. 


Atkinson (Theodore), born at Newcastle in 1697, be¬ 
came chief-justice of New Hampshire in 1754. Died in 1779. 

Atlan'ta, the seat of justice of Fulton county, and the 
present capital of Georgia. It is the great railroad centre 
of the Southern States. It owes its existence as a city to 
these great channels of overland transportation, which con¬ 
verge at the site on which it has sprung up and grown with 
astonishing rapidity. In 1843, where Atlanta now stands 
was an unbroken forest, but it in a few years afterwards 
became the terminal point of several important and exten¬ 
sive railroads, to w r it: the Georgia R. R., 171 miles in length, 
from the city of Augusta, and, by means of the South Car¬ 
olina and Hamburg R. R., connecting Atlanta with Charles¬ 
ton ; the Macon and Western R. R., 101 miles in length, 
from Macon, thus connecting it, by means of the Georgia 
Central, with Savannah ; the Atlanta and West Point R. R., 
86 miles in length, connecting it by other routes with Mont¬ 
gomery and Mobile, Ala., and New Orleans; the Western 
and Atlantic R. R., 138 miles in length, connecting it, at 
Dalton and Chattanooga, by other routes,'with Knoxville, 
Greenville, and other points in East Tennessee, Nashville 
in Middle Tennessee, and Louisville in Kentucky, and 
Memphis in West Tennessee ; the Air Line R. R., connect¬ 
ing it with Richmond, Va., and with several intervening 
towns and cities of note and distinction. From the same 
common terminal point there is now being constructed the 
Georgia Great Western R. R., which when completed will 
bring it in connection with the inexhaustible coal-fields of 
Alabama. 

Atlanta has sometimes been called the “ Gate City.” The 
first corporate name given to it was “ Marthasville,” in 
honor of the daughter of Hon. Wilson Lumpkin, ex-gov¬ 
ernor of the State. It was not until 1845 that the Georgia 
and Western and Atlantic R. Rs. were completed to this 
place. It was about this time that the first settlements were 
made. In 1847 a charter was granted for the municipal 
government of the new town under the new name of “the 
city of Atlanta.” The population was then about 2500. 
The new name was suggested by J. Edgar Thomson, the 
then chief engineer of the Georgia R. R., but now at the 
head of the Pennsylvania R. R. The idea of the name oc¬ 
curred to him from the geographical position of the place. 
It is immediately on the dividing ridge separating the 
waters of the Gulf from those of the South Atlantic slope. 
The elevation of Atlanta is 1100 feet above the level of the 
ocean, its latitude a little S. of 34° N. It is on a high ridge, 
hence its climate is comparatively mild and delightful at 
all seasons, the thermometer seldom rising in summer above 
90° or falling below 15° in winter. Its atmosphere is dry, 
pure, and healthy. These facts have doubtless contributed 
greatly to its growth, thrift, and prosperity. When the 
other connecting roads were completed it became the centre 
of an immense interior trade. In 1850 its population had 
more than doubled in three years, and in 1859 it was esti¬ 
mated at over 17,000. 

During the late war Atlanta was the theatre of many 
important events. This was the objective point of Gen. 
Sherman in his famous campaign of 1864. After many 
sanguinary conflicts in his progress from Dalton (from the 
7th of May to the last of August), he finally succeeded in 
reaching his goal and taking possession of the city on Sept. 
2. This he held until Nov. 15, when he set out upon his 
grand “ march to the sea.” Before starting on this move¬ 
ment he compelled all the inhabitants to leave, and by 
general conflagration left the city in ruins. But after the 
war was over new life and energy animated the place. As 
early as the fall of 1865, Atlanta, Phoenix-like, was “rising 
from her ashes.” In 1867 her population was thought to 
be quite as large as it was in 1859. In 1868, by the new 
constitution, made in pursuance of the requirements of the 
reconstruction acts of Congress, it was established as the 
future capital of the State. Since then it has continued to 
grow and prosper with its former wonderful rapidity. In 
1870, according to the Federal census of that year, its en¬ 
tire population, white and black, was 22,789. Its popula¬ 
tion is now (1873) estimated at over 30,000. Its real estate 
is now valued lit nearly $9,000,000. Several magnificent 
churches have recently been erected which would be orna¬ 
ments to any city in the Union, while the Kimball House 
as a hotel, in size and dimensions, in interior arrangements, 
as well as grandeur of external structure, stands without a 
rival in the Southern country. It has three national banks, 
three daily, five weekly, and four monthly periodicals. 
Space will not allow details as to the various and nume¬ 
rous mechanical and manufacturing enterprises which now 
distinguish the energy and spirit of the place, such as work¬ 
shops, factories, foundries, and furnaces of all sorts. One, 
however, of these should not be omitted; that is, the Scho¬ 
field Rolling-Mill, with its nail-factory, etc. This mill turns 
out all kinds of railroad and merchant iron. It gives em¬ 
ployment to several hundred operatives, and is said to con¬ 


sume forty tons of coal per day, and produces 400 tons ot 
pig iron per month. 

Atlanta is no less distinguished for its educational than 
its industrial enterprises. The Oglethorpe University has 
been removed from near Milledgeville to this place; besides 
this, it has the North Georgia Female College, the Atlanta 
Medical College, the Atlanta University (colored), Moore’s 
Southern Business University, Eastman’s Business College, 
English and German select school, Orphans’ Free School, 
Storr’s School (colored), and one of the best general systems 
of public schools to be found in any of the States. Atlanta is 
also now a port of delivery; the last Congress made a liberal 
appropriation for the erection of a custom-house here, and 
at no distant day it may be expected that this great centre 
of domestic trade will likewise become noted as an empor¬ 
ium of foreign commerce throughout that extensive region 
of country over which its network of railroad connections 
gives it such wonderful facilities for distribution. 

Alex. H. Stephens, Ed. “Atlanta Constitution.” 

Atlanta, a post-village and township of Logan co., 
Ill., on the St. Louis Alton and Chicago R. R., 39 miles 
N. N. E. from Springfield. There are two steam flouring 
mills, one carriage and wagon factory, five churches, two 
hotels, one newspaper, and one of the largest and best 
school buildings in Central Illinois. Pop. of township, 2339. 

A. W. Briggs, Ed. “Argus.” 

Atlan'tes [for etymology see below], in architecture, 
are statues of figures of the male human form used instead 
of columns by the ancient Greeks and Romans. The latter 
called them Telamones. Atlantes is merely the Latin plural 
form of Atlas, whose shoulders are said to have supported 
the heavens. Similar female figures are called Caryatides. 

Atlan'tic, a county in the S. S. E. of New Jersey, bor¬ 
dering on the Atlantic Ocean. Area, 620 square miles. It 
is bounded on the N. E. by Little Egg Harbor River, and 
intersected by Great Egg Harbor River. The surface is 
level; the soil is sandy, and near the sea is marshy. Dairy 
and gai'den products are extensively raised. The Camden 
and Atlantic R. R. passes through this county. Capital, 
May’s Landing. Pop. 14,093. 

Atlantic, a post-village of Cass co., Ia., on the East 
Nishnabatona River, and on the Chicago Rock Island and 
Pacific R. R., 79 miles W. by S. from Des Moines. It has 
a national bank and two weekly newspapers. Pop. 1200. 

Atlantic, a township of Monmouth co., N. J. Pop. 
1713. 

Atlantic, a township of Accomack co., Va. Pop. 4111. 

Atlan'tic Cit'y, a fashionable watering-place of Atlan¬ 
tic co., N. J., on the Atlantic Ocean, 60 miles S. E. of Phila¬ 
delphia, with which it is connected by the Camden and 
Atlantic R. R. This road was opened in July, 1854, since 
which time many large hotels have been erected here. Pop. 
1043. 

Atlantic City, a post-village of Sweetwater co., Wy., 
4 miles N. E. of South Pass City, is on Rock Creek. It 
has rich placer gold-mines and an aqueduct several miles 
long. 

Atlan'tic O' cean [Lat. A tlan'ticus Oce'anus ; Gr. ’At- 
XavriKT) 9d\a<rcro. or ’Ar\avTLKbv ayos Ger. Atlail'tisclies 
Meer ] is that part of the ocean which separates America 
from Europe and Africa, and extends from the Arctic 
Circle to the Antarctic Circle. Its extreme breadth is about 
5000 miles, and its area about half that of the Pacific. The 
part N. of the equator is called the North Atlantic, and 
that on the S. side of that line the South Atlantic. The 
following bodies of water are }3arts of the Atlantic : the Bay 
of Biscay, the German Ocean, the Irish Sea, the Baltic, 
Hudson’s Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and 
the Gulf of Guinea. Its chief affluents are the Amazon, 
La Plata, Orinoco, Mississippi, and St. Lawrence in Amer¬ 
ica; the Niger, Senegal, and Congo in Africa; and the 
Rhine, Loire, and Tagus in Europe. The portion of 
America which is drained into the Atlantic is vastly greater 
than that which belongs to the basin of the Pacific. The 
greatest depth of the Atlantic yet discovered is about five 
miles. The main feature of the Atlantic basin seems to be 
a deep valley, which, with an average depth of 20,000 feet 
or more, extends along and parallel to the coasts of America. 
The-.so-called telegi-aphic plateau between Newfoundland 
and Ireland has an average depth of 12,000 feet. This is a 
remarkable ridge about 400 miles wide and 1640 miles long. 
(See Deep-sea Soundings.) The chief currents of the 
Atlantic are the Equatorial Current and the Gulf Stream. 
The former moves from the Bay of Benin westward along 
both sides of the equator with a mean velocity of about 
thirty nautical miles a day, but in some places the velocity 
is much greater. Its breadth varies from 200 to 400 miles. 
Near Cape St. Roque it divides into two branches, one of 
which, called tho Brazil Current, runs southward, and the 


























ATLANTIC TELEGEAPH—ATOMIC WEIGHTS. 


317 


other, called the Guiana Current, flows north-westward to 
the Caribbean Sea. The Gulf Stream originates in the 
Gulf of Mexico, passes between Florida and Cuba, and 
flows along the coast of the U. S. with a velocity of about 
eighty miles a day, gradually expanding in volume. As 
it proceeds northward its velocity and temperature both 
decrease. Its mean breadth is about 350 miles. Reaching 
the latitude of New York, it gradually turns to the E., 
and crosses the Atlantic to the Azores, where it divides. 
The northern branch flows to the British Isles, and the 
other, turning southward, is swept back by the force of 
the North Equatorial Current to the Gulf of Mexico. Thus 
is formed near the middle of the North Atlantic a great 
whirlpool or eddy, which accumulates a mass of matted sea¬ 
weed ( Fhcu8 natans). It is maintained by some that this 
weed has its origin at or nearthe place where it is found in 
such abundance, while others think that it is brought here 
by the action of the wind and water. This part of the sea, 
which is called Mar de Sargasso, is said to be 260,000 square 
miles in extent. The water of the Gulf Stream is sometimes 
twenty degrees warmer than that of the adjacent ocean. On is¬ 
suing from the Gulf of Mexico it is of a dark-blue color. This 
stream contributes greatly to temper the climate of Eng¬ 
land and Ireland. Sailing-vessels from the U. S. to Europe 
take advantage of the Gulf Stream, and often make the 
voyage in twenty-three days; the voyage in the other 
direction is not often performed in less than thirty days, 
and the average duration is about forty days. The voyage 
from New York to Europe is favored by the prevalence 
of S. W. winds, as well as by the Gulf Stream. In the 
intertropical regions of the Atlantic the trade-winds pre¬ 
vail with great regularity, blowing nearly westward. 

Revised by A. J. Schem. 

Atlantic Telegraph. See Telegraph, by Prop. A. 
M. Mayer, Ph. I). 

Atlan'ticville, a post-village of Southampton 
township, Suffolk co., N. Y., near the S. shore of Long 
Island. Pop. 179. 

Atlan'tides [Gr. ’ArAavn'Ses], in classic mythology, 
the daughters of Atlas. They were also called Iles- 
perides, Pleiades, and Hyades. (See IIesperides.) 

Atlan'tis, the name of a large island which, ac¬ 
cording to an ancient tradition that was credited by 
the Greek geographers, was situated in the Atlantic 
Ocean W. of Africa. One of the earliest writers who 
mentions Atlantis is Plato, who states that an Egyp¬ 
tian priest gave Solon a description of it. Plato gives 
a beautiful picture of this island, to which he adds a 
fabulous history. Nine thousand years before the 
time of Plato, Atlantis was (so the legend ran) pop¬ 
ulous and powerful, and conquered the western part 
of Europe and Africa. An earthquake afterwards 
caused it to sink in the ocean. (See Rudbeck, “At- 
lantica,” 4 vols., 1675-98; Bailly, “ Lettres sur 
l’Atlan de Platonand Carli, “ Lettres Americaines.”) 

At'las [Gr. ’ArAa?], a mythical personage, said to be a 
son of Japetus and Clymene, and a brother of Prometheus. 
He was represented by the ancient Greek legends as a leader 
of the Titans in the war against Jupiter, for which offence 
he was condemned to support the vault of heaven on his 
head or shoulders. According to some writers who have 
rationalized the myth, he was a king who acquired great 
skill in astronomy. 

Atlas, in anatomy, the first cervical vertebra, the piece 
of the vertebral column nearest to the skull. It forms, 
with the occipital bone, the joint on which the head moves 
in bowing. It turns on the pivot of the second cervical 
vertebra, the “axis,” when we look from side to side. 

Atlas [so called because some early collections of maps 
had prefixed a picture of Atlas upholding the sphere], a 
volume containing a collection of maps, usually including 
more or less descriptive letter-press. I he name was prob¬ 
ably first applied as the proper title of such a book by Ge¬ 
rard Mercator (1512-94) to his “ Atlas,” published in the 
year of his death. Among the best atlases are the works 
of Stieler (in German, French, Swedish, Finnish, Italian, 
etc.), of Menke, Spruner, Berghaus, Sydow, and others, 
illustrating not only geography proper, but history, eth¬ 
nography, geology, astronomy, botany, and other sciepces; 
and the works of A. K. Johnston, Black, and numerous 
others in Great Britain. Among the oldest American at¬ 
lases are those of Matthew Carey and Lurr s Atlas of 
New York,” both valuable and well executed for the times. 
The number of American atlases in later years is very 
great, the most complete and widely-known being “ John¬ 
son’s Family Atlas of the World,” containing a very 
thorough treatise upon physical geography by Prof. Ar¬ 
nold Guyot, Ph. D., LL.D. 

Atlas, a post-township of Pike co., Ill. Pop. 1584. 


Atlas, a post-township of Genesee co., Mich. P. 1501. 

Atlas Mountains, a mountain-system of Africa, 
mostly in Morocco and Algeria, extends from Cape Gher 
on the Atlantic to Cape Bon on the Mediterranean. It is 
a congeries of mountains, sometimes isolated and sometimes 
connected, with many irregular branches. The system is 
divided into the Greater and the Lesser Atlas, the latter of 
which is nearer to the Mediterranean. The highest point 
of the system is in Morocco, and is estimated at 13,000 feet 
above the sea. Mount Miltsin rises to 11,400 feet. The 
mineral resources have not been explored completely, but 
numerous metals are found. 

At'lee (Washington L.), M. D., an eminent physician 
and surgeon, w T as born at Lancaster, Pa., Feb. 22, 1808, 
graduated as M. D. at Jefferson Medical College in 1829, 
practised at Mount Joy and Lancaster, and was professor 
of medical chemistry at the Jefferson College, Philadelphia, 
1844-52. He has published more than eighty medical and 
scientific monographs, etc., but is especially distinguished 
for his great number of successful operations in ovariotomy. 

Atmosphere [from the Gr. dr^o?, “vapor,” and afyolpa, 
a “sphere”], the aeriform fluid envelope which surrounds 
the earth or any celestial body. That of the earth is the only 
one with which we are familiar. It is composed of air (a 
mixture of 77 parts by weight of nitrogen and 21 of oxygen), 
with variable proportions of carbonic acid, aqueous vapor, 
and ammonia, the latter in exceedingly small amounts. (For 
its physical properties see Acoustics, by Prof. O. N. Rood, 
A. M., and Pneumatics ; see also Climate, Storms, and 
Winds, by Prof. Arnold Guyot, Ph. D., LL.D.) 

Atmospheric Engine. See Hot-Air Engine. 

Atmospheric Railway. See Pneumatic Railway. 

Atoll', or Atoln, a name which the natives of the 



Atoll. 

Maidive Islands give to a peculiar kind of island that 
occurs in the Indian Ocean and parts of the Pacific. It is 
a low circular reef of coral, enclosing a lagoon, which in 
many instances, but not all, communicates with the ocean 
by a narrow inlet, or by more than one. (See article on 
Coral Islands, by Prof. Arnold Guyot, Ph. D., LL.D.) 

At'om [Lat. at'omits; Gr. dro/uo?, “ that which cannot 
be cut,” “indivisible,” from a, priv., and rifivto, to “cut,” 
to “divide”], a minute, indivisible particle of matter. Ac¬ 
cording to one theory of speculative philosophy, matter is 
infinitely divisible. On the other hand, many modern 
chemists maintain that all matter consists of ultimate, in¬ 
divisible, and indestructible particles. They believe that 
all the atoms of each element have the same weight and 
form, but the atoms of different elements have unequal 
weights. Many scientific men suppose that all atoms are 
spherical. The tendency of recent scientific research has 
been to prove that the chemical atom and physical atom 
are not identical. (See Atomic Weights and Chemistry.) 

Atomicity. See Chemistry. 

Atomic Theory. See Chemistry. 

Atom'ic Vol'ume of a gas is the space occupied by a 
quantity of it proportional to its atomic weight. It is as¬ 
certained that 1 equivalent or 16 grains ot oxygen at 60° 
F., and at a barometric pressure of 30 inches, occupy 46.6 
cubic inches; 1 equivalent or 1 grain ot hydrogen occupies 
46.7 cubic inches; and 1 equivalent or 35.5 grains of 
chlorine occupy 46.2 cubic inches; consequently the atomic 
volume of hydrogen, chlorine, and oxygen is the same. 
Other gases exhibit a similar relation, and an attempt has 
lately been made to carry out an analogous relation in re¬ 
gard to liquids and solids. 

Atom'ic Weights, or Chem'ical Equivalents, 

the proportions by weight in which chemical elements unit e. 
One element must be selected as the starting-point ot tho 




















































318 


ATOMIZATION—ATRIDES. 


series, and an arbitrary value affixed to it, and thereafter all 
the other elements can have their values awarded to them 
according to the proportional amounts in which they com¬ 
bine. It can be demonstrated that a given amount of one 
clement is equivalent to, and serves the same purpose in 
combining with, a second element as a greater or less 
amount of a third substance. Hydrogen is by some writers 
taken as 1, and all the other elements are represented by a 
quantity which is the minimum amount in which they unite 
with 1 of hydrogen. By others oxygen is regarded as the 
starting-point of the series, and is called 100, whilst the 
other elements have a proportional number attached. (For 
a table of the atomic weights, see Chemistry.) 

Atomiza'tion. In practical medicine this is the very 
minute subdivision of liquids for inhalation or application 
to the throat. It was first introduced in France by Sales- 
Girons. It is effected by forcing a fine jet of liquid against 
either a solid body or a strong current of air, so as to con¬ 
vert it into diffused spray. Bergson, for instance, applied 
to this use the tubes used as odorators to spread perfumed 
liquids through the air. Two glass tubes with minute ori¬ 
fices are fixed at right angles to each other, so that the end 
of the upright tube is near and opposite to the centre of the 
orifice of the horizontal tube. The upright tube being 
placed in the liquid to be atomized, air is forcibly blown 
through the horizontal one. The current of air passing 
over the outlet of the upright tube rarefies the air in the 
latter, causing a rise of the liquid through it, and its very 
minute subdivision (atomization, nebulization, pulveriza¬ 
tion) as it escapes. Siegle has applied steam-power, gen¬ 
erated by the heat of a spirit-lamp, to the propulsion of 
vapor for atomization. PAchardson’s hand-ball spray-pro¬ 
ducer is a simpler apparatus, constructed essentially upon 
the same principle. One of its uses is, by the rapid evap¬ 
oration of ether or rhigolene, to produce a great degree of 
cold for local anaesthesia ( i . e. to annul sensibility in a part 
for a surgical operation). 

Atosie'ment [literally, “ at-one-ment,” i. e. being made 
at one with God] is generally applied to the reconciliation 
between God and man brought about by the sufferings and 
death of Christ. This doctrine of reconciliation, by means 
of expiatory suffering, was common to nearly all the an¬ 
cient religions, hence their rites and sacrifices. The blood 
of man, as being the noblest of created beings, was esteemed 
the highest propitiation, and therefore the death of Christ, 
who was both God and man, was the greatest sacrifice that 
could possibly be made for the sins of the world. Various 
evangelical writers, while they all agree in resting the sin¬ 
ner’s hope of salvation upon the sacrifice of Christ, have 
set forth somewhat different views concerning the nature 
and mode of operation of the Saviour’s mediatorial work. 
To Anselm (who became archbishop of Canterbury in 1093) 
is ascribed the first explicit exposition of the doctrine of 
the atonement as it has been commonly taught in modern 
times. The following is a condensed statement of his doc¬ 
trine : The infinite guilt which man had contracted by 
the dishonor of his sin against the infinitely great God 
could be atoned for by no mere creature; only the God- 
man Christ Jesus could render to God the infinite satisfac¬ 
tion required. God only can satisfy himself. The human 
nature of Christ enables him to incur, the infinity of his 
divine nature to pay, this debt. But it was incumbent 
upon Christ as a man to order his life according to the law 
of God; the obedience of his life therefore was not able to 
render satisfaction for our guilt. But although he was 
under obligation to live in obedience to the law, as the 
Holy One he was under no obligation to die. Seeing, then, 
that he nevertheless voluntarily surrendered his infinitely 
precious life to the honor of God, a recompense from God 
became his due, and his recompense consists in the forgive¬ 
ness of the sins of his brethren. The following is a pres¬ 
entation of the views of some of the leading theological 
writers of the present age. The Rev. F. D. Maurice con¬ 
siders the doctrine of the atonement as the answer which 
the Bible gives to the demands of an awakened conscience. 
In his view the work of reconciliation has been accom¬ 
plished substantially as follows: The will of God is good 
to all, and is right, just, and gracious; the Son of God 
being one in will, purpose, and substance with the Father, 
his whole life on earth was an exhibition of, and submis¬ 
sion to, his Father’s will; the Son was Lord, Root, and 
Head of humanity; being thus one with God and one with 
man, he brought the will of God into our nature, fulfilled 
it in our nature, which had fallen through sin. In our na¬ 
ture, as its Head, he shared that punishment which pro¬ 
ceeded from love, with an anguish which only a perfectly 
pure and holy Being can feel; that Jesus was for this rea¬ 
son the object of his Father’s continual complacency—a 
complacency fully drawn out by the death of the cross, 
which so perfectly brought out to view the uttermost power 


of self-sacrifice which lay hidden in the divine love, and 
consequently that he exhibited humanity, in its Head, 
atoned for, reconciled. In this way, to Mr. Maurice, is 
Christ “ the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of 
the world.” Archbishop Trench, who fairly represents the 
more thoughtful orthodox opinion of the present day, says : 
“ The spirit of man cries out for something deeper than 
repentance, confession of sin, amendment of life—some¬ 
thing which shall reach farther back, which shall not bo 
clogged with sinful infirmities, as his own repentance even 
at the very best must be. Men cry for some work to rest 
upon which shall not be their work, but which shall be 
God’s; perfect, complete. They feel that there must be some¬ 
thing which God has wrought, not so much in them as for 
them; they yearn for this, for atonement, propitiation, ran¬ 
som, and conscience purged from dead works by the blood 
of sprinkling; a rock to flee to which is higher than they, 
than their repentance, than their faith, than their obedience, 
even than their new life in the Spirit. Now, this rock is 
Christ; and John the Baptist pointed to this rock when, to 
those about him who longed after more than amendment 
of life, he exclaimed, in the memorable words, ‘ Behold the 
Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world.’” 
In the writings of Rev. F. W. Robertson and Horace Bush- 
nell there is an expansion of the scriptural teaching that 
the atonement was the act of God himself: “ God was in 
Christ, reconciling the world to himself” (2 Corinthians v. 
19). As Robertson says, “ The death of Christ was the 
sacrifice of God—the manifestation, once in time, of that 
which is the eternal law of his life.” With Bushnell, this 
law of divine love involves an “ eternal cross,” of suffering 
from the sin and with the pain of all his creatures who suf¬ 
fer; the life of Christ on earth and his humiliation and 
crucifixion being “ lustra!,” or designed to exhibit this per¬ 
fect sacrificing love; by which manifestation, through its 
moral influence upon the hearts of men, being “ lifted up, 
he will draw all men unto him.” (John xii. 32.) Bushnell 
endeavors (not without some success) to show that this 
participation in suffering by the Divine Being is not in¬ 
compatible with the supreme felicity which we associate 
with his nature; as, even in our own experience, joy and 
sorrow are sometimes conjoined. By this view of the atone¬ 
ment Bushnell considers that we are enabled to set aside 
the popular idea of a judicial or penal satisfaction rendered 
by the sacrifice of Christ, or of a price paid or a ransom 
exacted in the literal sense. The general feeling of Prot¬ 
estant Chi'istians, however, appears to require a recogni¬ 
tion, in the doctrine of the atonement, of the benefit to man 
of Christ’s sufferings, as not merely a manifestation of God’s 
reconciling love, but as in some manner (though it be mys¬ 
terious) substitutive for man, in accepting what men have 
deserved by sin, and as the means of procuring, in the 
divine economy of the universe, that grace of the Holy 
Spirit by the work of which our salvation is, individually, 
to be accomplished. By those who accept the Scriptures 
as divine revelation it is not considered strange that a part 
of this, as of other doctrines, may yet remain not fully un¬ 
derstood. (SeeNEANDER, “ Christliche Dogmengescliichte;” 
Calvin, “ Institutes of the Christian Religion ;” Edivards, 
“ Concerning the Necessity and Reasonableness of the 
Christian Doctrine of Satisfaction for Sin;” Payne, “Lec¬ 
tures on Divine Sovereignty;” Chalmers, “Institutes of 
Theology;” Campbell (John M’Leod), “Nature of the 
Atonement,” etc.; J. J. Taylor, Unitarian, “ Discourse on 
Christ the Mediator;” Maurice, “Theological Essays;” 
Trench, “Five Sermons” (sermon on “Christ the Lamb 
of God”). See also F. W. Robertson, “Sermons” (1st 
series, Sermon ix.; 3d series, Sermon vii.) ; Horace Bush¬ 
nell, “Vicarious Sacrifice;” Watson (Methodist), “Insti¬ 
tutes.” Revised by Henry Hartshorne. 

Atra'to, a river of South America, in U. S. of Colombia, 
rises near the Cordillera, flows northward through Choco, 
and after a course of about 300 miles enters the Gulf of 
Darien by several mouths. It is navigable for small ves¬ 
sels about 140 miles, and traverses a region rich in gold. 
In 1857 the government of the U. S. sent an expedition to 
explore a route for a ship-canal from the Atrato to the 
Pacific. It is stated that the rainy season continues all 
the year in the valley of this river. In 1870-72 the explo¬ 
rations under the direction of Capt. Selfridge, U. S. navy, 
have been resumed, and all the routes between Panama and 
the Atrato examined, with results far from realizing the 
hopes entertained of a favorable route. 

A'treus [Gr. ’ATpev?], an ancient and celebrated king 
of Mycenae, was called a son of Pelops. He was the father 
of the famous Atridse — i. e. Agamemnon and Mcnelaus. 
The story of Atreus and his family was embellished by the 
ancient fabulists and tragic poets with many wild legends, 
involving horrible crimes and calamities. 

Atri'des [Gr. ’ATpetS^s], plural Atri'dne [’ArpeiSai], a 




















ATRIUM—ATTIC. 


patronymic from Atreus, signifies a son or descendant of 
Atreus. The name in the singular is more usually applied 
to Agamemnon, but the plural is used to designate the two 
brothers, Agamemnon and Menelaus. 

A'trium, a Latin word signifying a court, a hall. In 
Roman architecture the atrium was an entrance-hall or 
central apartment, which was the principal part of a private 
house. In this room the family lived and took their meals. 
Here stood the Lares and Penates, and here the female ser¬ 
vants were employed in weaving and other labors. The 
atrium was also used as a waiting-room for clients and 
other visitors. In ecclesiastical architecture the term de¬ 
notes an open space before a church, forming part of the 
narthex or ante-temple. 

At'ropine, or Atro'pia, a peculiar alkaline principle 
obtained from the Atropa Belladonna, is very poisonous. It 
exists in all parts of the plant. A very minute jmrtion of 
it has the power to dilate the pupil of the eye. Atropine 
is composed of carbon, 70.98; oxygen, 16.36; hydrogen, 
7.83 ; and nitrogen, 4.83. 

A'trypa [from the Gr. a, priv., and Tpvmj, a “ foramen,” 
i. e. “ without a foramen;” an objectionable name, since 
it is not true of these shells], a genus of fossil brachiopod 
shells which closely resemble the Terebratula. It had a 
perforation for the passage of the peduncle, by which the 
animal attached itself to foreign bodies. Many species of 
it have been described, the most of which are Silurian, 
many Devonian, but all palaeozoic. 

Attachment [Fr. attacliement ], the apprehension of a 
person or seizure of a thing by virtue of a writ or order 
issued by a court or judge under authority of law. The 
word is sometimes used to denote the process itself. In 
respect to property, the term is usually applied to seizure 
on mesne process. Attachment was originally one of the 
common-law means of obtaining an appearance in an ac¬ 
tion by the defendant. In some of the States a plaintiff 
can at the commencement of any action to recover money 
attach the property of the defendant as a security for the pay¬ 
ment of the judgment expected to be recovered; and in case 
of recovery the property is to be applied in satisfaction of 
the j udgment. But the more usual rule is that there can be no 
seizure of property, except in specified cases, till the rights 
of the parties have been settled by judgment of the court. 
The exceptions are chiefly in cases where the defendant is 
a non-resident or a fraudulent debtor, or is attempting to 
conceal or remove his property for the purpose of defraud¬ 
ing or delaying his creditors. An attachment is said to be 
foreign where a creditor attaches property in the hands of a 
third person belonging to his debtor, or a debt due from 
a third person to such debtor. The name is said to arise 
from the fact that the proceeding is often resorted to for 
the purpose of collecting a debt against a non-resident. 
In some of the Eastern States this proceeding is called 
“ trustee process;” in other States it is generally known as 
“ garnishment,” meaning a warning. Foreign attachment 
was derived from local customs in London and other cities, 
and formed no part of the general law of England. 

2. Against the Person. —This is issued against officers of 
the court for any misconduct or neglect of duty, and against 
any one who has been guilty of contempt of court. The ob¬ 
ject of the attachment is to bring the guilty party actually 
before the court. He has then an opportunity to show cause 
why he should not be found guilty, or, in legal language, to 
“purge himself of the contempt.” If he cannot do this, 
he is^subject to such punishment as the law permits and 
the court may award. T. W. Dwight. 

Attain'der [Old Fr. attaindre, to “stain”], in law, is 
the extinction of civil rights as the consequence of a judi¬ 
cial sentence of death for a capital crime. From this mo¬ 
ment the criminal was deemed to be legally dead, incapable 
of bringing an action except to reverse the attainder, or of 
appearing in court as a witness. Its two most important 
consequences are forfeiture and corruption of blood. The 
effect of forfeiture upon the offender’s land was such that 
it related back to the time of the commission of the offence, 
and avoided intermediate sales, even to purchasers in good 
faith. The consequence of corruption of blood was that 
the person attainted was incapable of inheriting himself or 
of transmitting an estate by inheritance to another. J hus, 
if a grandfather owned land, and a son were attainted, his 
descendant could not inherit from the grandfather, even 
though the son were dead when the land passed from the 
grandfather. This harsh rule is now modified in England 
by statute. Forfeiture, except in cases of treason and mur¬ 
der, does not extend in the case of estates of land beyond 
the natural life of the offender. By the U. S. Constitution 
no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or 
forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. 
In case of rebellion the U. S. might regard the rebels either 
as belligerents or traitors. In the former aspect of the case 


319 


they would not be bound by the restriction just referred to, 
but might, under the rules of public law applicable to a 
state of war, confiscate their property. If, however, they 
were treated as subjects and as guilty of treason, the re¬ 
striction of the Constitution would become operative. 

Attakapas, at-tuk'a-paw, a large and fertile district 
in the southern part of Louisiana, comprising, according to 
old maps, several parishes. It produces large quantities 
of sugar and molasses. Though often used in conversation, 
the name has no legal existence, and is not employed in 
the census. 

Atta'la, a county of the central part of Mississippi. 
Area, 630 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the 
Big Black River, and intersected by the Yukamokluna (or 
Yockanockany) Creek. The surface is undulating or nearly 
level; a part of the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, 
cotton, wool, and potatoes are the chief crops. Capital, 
Kosciusko. Pop. 14,776. 

Atta'lea, a genus of palms of numerous species, natives 
of tropical South America. They generally have lofty, 
cylindrical, and smooth stems, but some arc stemless. Their 
large pinnate leaves are used for thatching, mats, etc. The 
fruit is a nut enclosed in a dry fibrous husk. The Attalca 
compta bears an eatable fruit about as large as a goose egg. 
The leaf-stalks of Attalea funifera, which grows in tbe 
maritime parts of Brazil, and is there called piassaba, yield 
a fibre much used to make cordage which is very strong and 
durable in salt water. 

At'talus I., k ing of Pergamus, was born 269 B. C. 
He succeeded his cousin, Eumenes I., in 241 B. C., defeated 
the Gauls w T ho had occupied Galatia, and became an ally 
of the Romans in a war against Philip of Macedon. He 
was reputed a wise ruler and able general. Died in 197. 

Attains II., surnamed Philadelphia, born about 220 
B. C., was the second son of Attalus I. He succeeded his 
brother, Eumenes II., in 159 B. C., was a constant ally of the 
Romans, and patronized arts and sciences. Died in 138. 

Attalus (Flavius Priscus), a Roman emperor, born 
probably in Ionia, was converted from paganism to Arian- 
ism. He was prefect of Rome when that city w T as cap¬ 
tured by Alaric in 409 A. D., and was proclaimed emperor 
by that conqueror in the same year, lie was deposed by 
Alaric in 410, and banished by Honorius in 416 A. D. 

At'taman, or Het / man, the title of the chiefs of the 
Cossacks, formerly elected by the people. (See Cossacks.) 
After the revolt of Mazeppa the office was suppressed by 
the czar of Russia until 1750. Catharine II. abolished the 
office among the Cossacks of the Ukraine; among those of 
the Don it still exists, but its prerogatives have been great¬ 
ly reduced. The heir-apparent of the Russian crown is 
principal attaman of the Cossacks, but there are numerous 
subordinate chiefs having the same title. 

At'tar of Ro' ses [from the Arab, itr, “perfume”], the 
oil or essence of Rosa centifolia and its varieties, Rosa 
damascena and Rosa moschata. It is prepared by distil¬ 
lation of the petals in Persia, India, and other Eastern 
countries, whence it is exported in small vials. It is very 
costly, and is often adulterated : 100,000 roses, from 10,000 
bushes, are said to yield but 180 grains of attar. It is often 
called otto of roses. That of Adrianople is called the best. 

At/terbury (Francis), an eminent English prelate, 
writer, and politician, born at Middleton-Keynes, in Buck¬ 
inghamshire, Mar. 6,1662. He entered Christ Church, Ox¬ 
ford, in 1680, graduated in 1687, and became lecturer in 
St. Bride’s Cburch, London, in 1691. Having gained dis¬ 
tinction as a pulpit orator, he was appointed a chaplain 
to the king. He was the author of a witty but superficial 
“Examination of Dr. Bentley’s Dissertations on the Epis¬ 
tles of Phalaris,” which appeared under the name of 
“Charles Boyle” in 1698. He was a Jacobite in politics, 
and a zealous defender of High Church doctrines. He was 
appointed chaplain to Queen Anne in 1702, dean of Carlisle 
in 1704, and bishop of Rochester in 1713. His turbulent 
and imperious temper several times involved him in diffi¬ 
culties, and his hopes of promotion were blasted by the 
death of Queen Anne in 1714. He was a friend of Pope, 
Swift, and Bolingbroke. In Aug., 1722, he was committed 
to the Tower on a charge of treason as an accomplice 
in plots for the restoration of the Stuarts. He was con¬ 
victed by the House of Lords in May, 1723, and was con¬ 
demned to perpetual banishment. He became a resident of 
Paris, where he died Feb. 15, 1732. Four volumes of his 
sermons were published in 1740. His reputation as a writer 
is founded on his sermons and letters, which have great 
literary merits. (See his “ Epistolary Correspondence, 4 
vols., 1783, edited by J. Nichols ; Thomas Stackhouse, 
“Memoirs of the Life of Francis Atterbury,’ 1727.) 

At'tic [Lat. At'tieus; Gr. ’Attikos], pertaining to Attica 
or to its capital, Athens; marked by such qualities as were 













320 


ATTIC—ATTKACTION. 


characteristic of the Athenians. An Attic style designates 
that which is pure, classical, and elegant. Attic base is the 
base of a column used in the Ionic and Corinthian, and 
sometimes in the Doric, orders. Attic wit and Attic salt 
signify a poignant and delicate wit especially characteris¬ 
tic of the Athenians. 

Attic, a term in architecture applied to a low story 
rising above the cornice that terminates the main elevation 
of a building; a sky-lighted room next to the roof of a 
private dwelling-house. 

At'tica [Gr. ’Attuct?], a state of ancient Greece, bounded 
on the N. by Iloeotia, on the E. by the Aegean Sea, on the 
S. W. by the Saronicus Sinus, and on the W. by Megaris. 
It occupied a triangular peninsula, at the S. E. extremity 
of which is the promontory of Sunium. A range of hills 
called Mount Cithaeron extends along the northern border. 
The surface is diversified by limestone hills and plains, the 
soil of which is light and unproductive. About 10 miles 

N. E. of Athens rises Mount Pentelicus, which has an alti¬ 
tude of 3884 feet, and contains inexhaustible quarries of 
white marble of a superior quality. Among the prominent 
physical features of the country are Mount Hymettus, about 
3500 feet high, and Mount Laurium, whose silver-mines 
have recently attracted again great attention. The princi¬ 
pal streams are the Cej)hissus and Ilissus, which flow south- 
westward into the Saronic Gulf. The climate is dry and 
extremely pleasant. The chief productions are wheat, 
olives,, figs, and grapes. Rich silver-mines were worked at 
Laurium. Attica was very advantageously situated for 
commerce, and was at one time the greatest maritime pow¬ 
er of the world. The people of Attica, who belonged to 
the Ionic division of the Hellenic race, planted colonies in 
various distant lands. The region which they colonized 
on the western coast of Asia Minor was called Ionia. The 
capital of Attica was Athens (Athena?), and the inhabitants 
of Attica were citizens of Athens, possessing the right to 
assemble in the capital, and take part in the legislative 
and judicial proceedings. The ancient population is esti¬ 
mated at 500,000, the majority of whom were slaves. Mod¬ 
ern Attica is deficient in forest trees, and presents an arid 
and rather desolate aspect, except in spring. (For the his¬ 
tory of Attica, see Athens.) Attica and Bceotia form a 
department of the modern kingdom of Greece, comprising 
Megaris and the islands of Egina and Salamis. It has an 
area of 2481 square miles. The soil is less fertile than it 
was in ancient times, and is not well cultivated, but it still 
produces olives, grapes, and some wheat. Pop. in 1870, 
136,804. 

Attica, a city of Fountain co., Ind., on the Wabash 
River and Canal, and the Toledo Wabash and Western R. R., 
21 miles W. S. W. of Lafayette. It is also the northern 
terminus of the Indiana North and South R. R. It has a 
national bank, waterworks, a fine public school building, 
three wagon, carriage, and plough factories, and a weekly 
newspaper. Pop. 2273. 

B. F. Hegler, Ed. of “ Ledger.” 

Attica, a township of Lapeer co., Mich. Pop. 1620. 

Attica, a post-village of Wyoming co., N. Y., is on 
Tonawanda Creek and on the Attica branch of the Erie 
R. R., 31 miles E. of Buffalo. It has several churches, two 
banking offices, and a weekly paper. Pop. 1333; of Attica 
township, 2546. C. F. Meloy, Ed. of “News.” 

Attica, a post-village of Venice township, Seneca co., 

O. Pop. 370. 

At/ticus (Titus Pomponius), an accomplished Roman of 
the equestrian order, born in 109 B. C. During the-war 
between Sulla and Marius he remained neutral, and passed 
many years (88-66) in Athens, to which city he rendered im¬ 
portant services. He was an int imate friend of Cicero. Hav¬ 
ing returned to Rome in 65 B. C., he declined to take part in 
political affairs, and distinguished himself by his modera¬ 
tion, generosity, and mediatorial spirit. He was on friendly 
terms with the leaders of both parties that divided the Ro¬ 
mans. lie wrote, besides other books, an epitome of Roman 
history called “Annales,” but all his works are lost. His 
daughter was the wife of M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the emi¬ 
nent statesman. Died in 32 B. C. (See Corn. Nepos, “Life 
of Atticus Hullemann, “ Diatribe in T. Pomponium At- 
ticum,” 1838.) 

At'tila [Gr. \An-tAa?; in Ger. Et'zel or At'zcl; in Hung. 
Ethele\, a famous barbaric conqueror and king of the Huns, 
was a son of Mundzuc (or Mundzuccus). He succeeded his 
uncle Roas as king of the Huns in 434 A. D., his subjects 
being nomadic hordes who occupied Pannonia and Sarma- 
tia. He extended his dominion by conquest over Germany 
and Scythia, and obtained the surname of the Scourge of 
God. The Vandals, Ostrogoths, and Gepidae fought under 
his banner. In 447 A. D. he invaded the Roman empire 
of the East, and defeated the armies of Theodosius II., who 


obtained peace by the payment of an annual tribute after 
the Huns had devastated Thrace and Macedonia. Marcian, 
who succeeded Theodosius II. in 450 A. D., refused to pay 
tribute to Attila, saying, “I have gold for my friends and 
iron for my enemies.” In 451 A. D. Attila invaded Gaul 
with an army estimated at 700,000 men, and besieged Or¬ 
leans ( Aureliamnn ), which was relieved by the approach of 
a Roman army commanded by Aetius. Attila retired to 
Champagne, and awaited the enemy on the Catalaunian 
plain, near the site now occupied by Chalons-sur-Marne. 
Here he was defeated in a great battle by the combined 
armies of Aetius and Thcodoric, king of the Visigoths, in 
June, 451 A. D. It is stated that 250,000 men or more 
were killed in this battle. Attila then retreated into Ger¬ 
many. In 452 he led an army into Northern Italy, which 
he ravaged, and threatened Rome. The emperor Valen- 
tinian III., unable to defend his capital, invoked the media¬ 
tion of Pope Leo I., who had an interview with Attila, and 
persuaded him to grant the Romans a truce. Attila retired 
from Italy, and died in Pannonia in 453 A. D., on the night 
after his marriage with Ildico. He was buried by night, and 
the prisoners who dug his grave were killed, in order that 
the place of his burial might be kejit secret. He had two 
sons, named Ellac and Dengezic. Ilis actions form the 
principal subject of the “ Niebelungen-Lied.” (See Jornan- 
des, “ De Rebus Geticis;” Gibbon, “ Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire,” chaps. Xxxiv. and xxxv.; Wm. Herbert’s 
epic poem entitled “Attila,” 1828; Callimachus Expe- 
riens, “ De Gestis Attilm,” 1541; Fessler, “Attila, Kbnig 
der Hunnen,” 1794; Amedee TniERRY, “Attila dans les 
Gaules,” 1852.) 

At'tleborough, a township of Bristol co., Mass., 30 
miles by railroad S. S. W. of Boston. It has one national 
bank, one savings bank, two public libraries, one loan and 
fund association, a newspaper, nine churches, two hotels, 
and two high schools. Its villages are connected by tele¬ 
graph and railway. Here are extensive manufactures of 
jewelry, calicoes, clocks, buttons, braids, etc. Pop. 6769. 

Ed. of “ Chronicle.” 

Attor'ney [Old Fr. attorner, to “prepare,” to “direct”], 
one who acts for or on behalf of another. Attorneys are 
of two kinds—in fact and at law. An attorney in fact is 
an agent, though the term is commonly applied to one who 
is authorized to act for another by a writing called a power 
of attorney. An attorney^ at law is one who is authorized 
by law to act in the place of another in the management 
or conduct of law proceedings. In England the term is 
employed to denote a class of legal practitioners whose 
duties are preliminary to those of the barrister, who con¬ 
ducts the cause in court. An attorney is admitted there 
after a prescribed term of study, on passing an examina¬ 
tion directed by the court. Barristers come to the bar 
through the action of voluntary societies of lawyers wdiich 
have existed for several centuries. In the U. S. the same 
person is in general admitted both as counsellor (answer¬ 
ing to barrister) and attorney, and examined in the same 
manner and under the same authority as to his qualifica¬ 
tions to perform both classes of duties. An attorney is an 
officer of the court, and liable to be punished for a breach 
of duty, and in aggravated cases to have his name stricken 
from the roll, and thus lose his right to practice. His duties 
to his client require the exercise of reasonable care. He is 
responsible for negligence or wilful default whereby his cli¬ 
ent sustains loss ; for example, for the disclosure by him of 
confidential communications. He is entitled to compensa¬ 
tion, and has a lien upon his client’s papers or securities 
in his possession, and upon any judgment obtained through 
his exertions. 

Attorney-General is an officer under the English 
government whose duty it is to prosecute for the king in 
criminal matters, and to manage civil actions or proceed¬ 
ings where his revenue or other property is concerned, as 
well as to enforce public rights. An illustration is a pro¬ 
ceeding for the establishment of charitable foundations by 
a court of justice, and the correction of abuses in their 
management. The U. S. and the respective States have a 
public officer of the same name, with similar duties. 
Statute law affords a more complete definition of them. 

Attorney, Power of. See Power of Attorney, by 
Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D. 

Attraction [Lat. attractio, from ad, “ to,” and traho, to 
“draw ”], the tendency of bodies to approach each other and 
unite; the force which brings bodies together and resists 
their separation. The principal kinds of attraction are— 
the attraction of gravitation (see Gravitation); capillary 
attraction ; chemical attraction (see Affinity) ; the attrac¬ 
tion of cohesion, which unites the particles of a body, and 
operates only between two portions of matter that are in 
contact; and magnetic attraction (see Magnetism). These 
attractions are divisible into two classes—1, those which 






























ATTRIBUTE—AUBREY. 


321 


act at sensible and measurable distances, as gravitation and 
magnetic attraction ; and 2, those which extend only to ex¬ 
tremely small or insensible distances, as chemical attraction 
and the attraction of cohesion. 

Attraction of Mountains. In 1774, Maskelyne made 
an experiment on the mountain Schehallion, in Perthshire, 
to ascertain the attraction of mountains. This and subse¬ 
quent experiments have established the fact that mountains 
are capable of producing sensible deflections of the plumb- 
lines of astronomical instruments. 

At/tribute [from the Lat. attribuo (composed of at for 
ad, “ to,” and trib'uo, tribu'tnm , to “give”), to “give to,” 
to “assign”] denotes, primarily, any quality or power which 
is by universal consent attributed to a being. Hence, we 
speak of the “attributes of God,” and in a similar manner 
of those of some particular man or of the human race. In 
logic, it signifies the opposite of substance, and the same as 
predicate. 

Attribute, in the fine arts, is a symbol used to distin¬ 
guish and characterize certain figures. Thus, the trident 
is the attribute of Neptune; the caduceus, that of Mer¬ 
cury ; the owl, that of Minerva. Attributes are either es¬ 
sential or conventional. Essential attributes have some real 
relation or resemblance to the object or idea to be repre¬ 
sented. 

At'tucks (Crispus), the leader of the mob in Boston 
which attacked the British troops Mar. 5, 1770, was a 
mulatto or half-breed Indian. He was killed in this affray, 
which was called “the Boston Massacre.” 

At/water, a post-township of Portage co., 0. P. 1180. 

Atwater (Caleb), born at North Adams, Mass., Dec. 
25, 1778, graduated at Williams College in 1804, became a 
lawyer, went to Ohio in 1811, resided at Circleville, and 
was an Indian commissioner under Jackson. He pub¬ 
lished a “Tour to Prairie du Chien ” (1831), “Western 
Antiquities” (1833), “History of Ohio” (1838), and other 
works. Died Mar. 13, 1867. 

Atwater (Jeremiah), D. D., born at New Haven, 
Conn., in 1774, graduated at Yale in 1793, was a college tutor 
(1795-99), first president of Middlebury College, Yt. (1800- 
09), and president of Dickinson College, Pa. (1809-15). 
Died July 29, 1858. 

Atwater (Lyman Hotchkiss), D. D., born at Hamden, 
Conn., Feb. 23, 1813, graduated at Yale in 1831, was a 
tutor and theological student at Yale (1832-35), pastor of 
First Congregational church in Fairfield, Conn. (1835-54), 
became in 1854 professor of mental and moral philosophy, 
and afterwards of logic and moral and political science, at 
Princeton, N. J. He became editor of the “ Princeton 
Review ” in 1869. He has published a “ Manual of Logic ” 
(1867), and contributed much to periodical literature. 

At'well, a township of Rowan co., N. C. Pop. 2051. 

At'woocl, or Attwood (George), F. R. S., an Eng¬ 
lish mathematician, born in London in 1745. He was a 
fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, where he lectured on 
natural philosophy. He published a “Treatise on the 
Rectilinear Motion and Rotation of Bodies ” (1784), a “Dis¬ 
sertation on the Construction of Arches” (1801), and other 
works. He invented a machine noticed below. (See At¬ 
wood’s Machine.) Died July, 1807. 

Atwood’s Machine was invented by George Atwood 
(noticed above) to demonstrate the laws of uniformly ac¬ 
celerated motion, and illustrate the relations of time, space, 
and motion in the case of a body falling under the action 
of gravitation. This machine is so constructed by means 
of pulleys and wheels that turn with the least possible 
friction, that a weight (or falling body) suspended from 
one of the pulleys descends much more slowly than a body 
falling in free space, yet increases in velocity in the same 
ratio as when falling in the air. (See Falling Bodies.) 

Aubagnc, a town of France, in the department of 
Bouches-du-Rhone, 22 miles by rail E. of Marseilles. It 
has manufactures of paper, pottery, and leather, and ex¬ 
ports excellent wine. Pop. in 1866, 7408. 

Aubaine, Droit d’, a French term, denotes the right 
of a sovereign to inherit the property of a foreigner dying 
intestate without native-born heirs. This practice was abol¬ 
ished in 1790, but was restored by Napoleon I. (See Interna¬ 
tional Law' No. I., by Pres. T. D. Woolsey, S. I. D., LL.D.) 

Aubbeenaubbee, a twp. of Fulton co., Ind. Pop. 745. 

Aube, ob, a river of France, rises in Hautc-Marne, 
flows north-westward through the department of Aube, 
and after a course of 124 miles enters the Seine about 24 
miles below Troyes. 

Aube, a department in the N. E. part of France, was 
formed of the southern portion of the province of Cham¬ 
pagne and a small part of Burgundy. It is bounded on 
the N. by the department of Marne, on the E. by lIaute- 
21 


Marne, on the S. by Cote-d’Or and Yonnc, and on the W. 
by Seine-et-Marne. Area, 2317 square miles. It is inter¬ 
sected by the rivers Seine and Aube. The surface is nearly 
level; the soil is fertile, especially in the S. E. part, which 
produces grain, wine, etc. It has manufactures of cotton and 
woollen stuff’s, hosiery, glass, and leather. It is divided 
into 5 arrondissements, 26 cantons, and 4-46 communes. 
Capital, Troyes. Pop. in 1872, 255,687. 

Aubenas, a town of France, in the department of 
Ardeche, is picturesquely situated on or near the river 
Ardeche, 14 miles S. W. of Privas. It stands in a mag¬ 
nificent basin, surrounded by the extinct volcanoes of the 
Yivarais. It has an old castle, a college, and manufac¬ 
tures of silk and woollen stuff's, paper, etc. Several im¬ 
portant fairs are held here. Pop. in 1866, 7694. 

Auber (Daniel Francois Esprit), an eminent French 
composer, born at Caen Jan. 29, 1782, a pupil of Cherubini, 
produced in 1813 “Le Sejour Militaire,” an opera which 
was not successful, but his comic opera called “ La Bergere 
Chatelaine” (1820) was warmly applauded. In 1821 he 
composed “Emma,” an opera which was much admired. 
His works are remarkable for grace, originality, and in¬ 
genious combinations. The opera of “ La Muette de Por- 
tici,” or “ Masaniello ” (1828), is called his masterpiece. 
He was elected a member of the Institute in 1829. Among 
his most popular operas are “Fra Diavolo ” (1830), “Le 
Domino Noir” (1837), “Haydee” (1847), and “Manon 
Lescaut ” (1856). He was appointed chapel-master at the 
Tuileries by Napoleon III. Died May 13, 1871. (See 
Fetis, “Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;” L. de 
Lomenie, “ Galerie des Contemporains.”) 

Au'ber (Harriet), an English authoress, was born Oct. 
4, 1773, and died Jan. 20, 1862. In 1829 she published 
“ The Spirit of the Psalms,” containing some of the best 
versions of modern times. 

Au'berlen (Karl August), a prominent German or¬ 
thodox theologian, born at Fellbach, in Wiirtcmberg, Nov. 
19, 1824. Among his works are “ The Theosophy of Fried¬ 
rich Christoph Oetinger” (1847) and “The Prophet Daniel 
and the Revelation of John considei'ed in their Reciprocal 
Relations” (1854). Died in 1864. 

Aubert (Jean Louis), Abbe, a French poet and fabu¬ 
list, born in Paris in 1731. He edited a journal called 
“ Les Petites Afiiches,” and published in 1756 a collection 
of fables which gained a European reputation. They were 
highly commended by Voltaire, who wrote to Aubert, “You 
have placed yourself beside La Fontaine.” He became pro¬ 
fessor of French literature in the College Royal, Paris, in 
1773. Died in 1814. 

Aubert du Bayet (Jean Baptiste Annibal), a French 
general, born in Louisiana Aug. 29, 1759. He fought for 
the U. S. under Rochambeau, and was chosen in 1791 a 
member of the French Legislative Assembly, in which he 
supported the same principles as La Fayette. He com¬ 
manded at the siege of Mentz, which was taken by the 
Prussians in 1793, and was minister of war for several 
months in 1795. Died at Constantinople, where he was 
ambassador, Dec. 17, 1797. 

Aubervilliers, a town in France, in the department 
of the Seine, 4 miles N. of Paris, and ono of its suburbs. 
Pop. 9240. 

Aubigne, d’ (Merle). See D’Aubigne. 

Aubigne, d’ (Theodore Agrippa), a French Protestant 
historian and soldier, distinguished for his wit, learning, 
and audacity, was born in Saintonge Feb. 8, 1550. He 
studied in a college at Geneva, and at an early age joined 
the Huguenot army, then waging a civil war against the 
court. He afterwards entered the service of Henry of 
Navarre, whose favor he enjoyed. He fought for Henry 
against the Catholic League, and distinguished himself at 
the battle of Coutras (1587). His chief work is a history 
of his own times, entitled “ Histoire Universelle depuis l’An 
1550 jusqu’ a l’An 1601 ” (3 vols., 1616-20). He left auto¬ 
biographic memoirs (“ Histoire secrete de T. A. d’Aubigne,” 
1729-31). He had a son, Constantine, who was the father 
of Madame de Maintenon. Died at Geneva April 29, 1630. 
(See M. A. Sayous, “Vie d’Aubigng;” Davila, “History 
of the Civil Wars of France.”) 

Aubin, a French town, department of Aveyron, 20 
miles N. E. of Villefranclie, in a mining region, with fur¬ 
naces, etc. Pop. 8863. 

Au'brey, a post-township of Johnson co., Kan. Pop. 
U25. 

Au'brey (John), F. R. S., an English antiquary, born 
in Wiltshire Mar. 12, 1625, inherited a large estate, and 
became a member of the club of Commonwealth’s Men. 
He was a collector of antiquarian documents, and left sev¬ 
eral valuable works in manuscript. His “Natural Ilistoiy 






















322 AUBURN—AUCKLAND. 


and Antiquities of Surrey” was published in 1719. He 
also wrote memoirs of the English poets, which were pub¬ 
lished in 1813 under the title of “ Letters written by Emi¬ 
nent Persons in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.” 
Died June 7, 1697. 

Auburn, a post-village of Lee co., Ala., on the Mont¬ 
gomery and West Point It. R., 60 miles E. N. E. of Mont¬ 
gomery. It is the seat of East Alabama College. Poj). 
1018; of the township, 3822. 

Auburn, the county-seat of Placer co., Cal., on the Cen¬ 
tral Pacific It. R., 36 miles N. E. of Sacramento. Fruit is 
extensively grown in the vicinity. There are near the town 
very rich quartz and gravel mines, and eleven quartz mills 
with 101 stamps continually running. Auburn has a court¬ 
house and jail, a public hall, Masonic and Odd Fellows’ 
halls, several churches and school-houses, and three largo 
hotels. The principal buildings are of brick and stone. 
There are two weekly newspapers. Pop. 800. 

W. B. Lyon, Ed. “ Placer Arcus.” 

Auburn, a township of Clark co., Ill. Pop. 602. 

Auburn, a post-township of Sangamon co.. Ill. Pop. 
1303. 

Auburn, the county-seat of De Kalb co., Ind., on the 
Baltimore Pittsburg and Chicago R. R., at the crossing of 
the Fort Wayne Jackson and Saginaw and the Detroit Eel 
River and Illinois R. Rs. It has large manufactories of 
hubs and spokes, staves, a weekly paper, and an extensive 
stocking factory. Pop. 677. 

P. C. Mays, Ed. “Auburn Courier.” 

Auburn, a township of Fayette co., Ia. Pop. 1059. 

Auburn, a post-township of Shawnee co., Kan. P. 662. 

Auburn, a post-village of Logan co., Ky., on the Louis¬ 
ville and Memphis R. R., 18 miles S. W. of Bowling Green. 
Pop. 610. 

Auburn, a post-village, capital of Androscoggin co., 
Me., 34 miles from Portland, on the Androscoggin and 
Little Androscoggin rivers, which furnish extensive water¬ 
power. The manufacture of cotton has recently been com¬ 
menced, while that of shoes has attained considerable pro¬ 
portions. It is situated on the Maine Central R. R., and 
connected with the Grand Trunk system by the Lewiston 
and Auburn R. R. It has u. national bank. Pop. in 1870, 
6169. Ed. “ Lewiston Journal.” 

Auburn, a post-township of Worcester co., Mass., on the 
Norwich and Worcester R. R. It has a public library, and 
manufactures of cottons, woollens, tape, worsted goods, etc. 
Pop. 1178. 

Auburn, a post-twp. of Rockingham co., N. H. P. 815. 

Auburn, a, flourishing city, capital of Cayuga co., N. Y., 
on the New York Central R. R., 174 miles W. of Albany, 
and on both sides of the outlet of Owasco Lake, which is 
2£ miles distant. The Southern Central R. R. connects it 
with Owego, 68 miles S., and with Fair Haven, 30 miles N., 
at which place they have the largest accommodations for 
storing coal in Central New York. The site of Auburn is 
moderately uneven; the streets are wide, well paved, and 
shaded with ornamental trees. The principal public build¬ 
ings and mercantile houses are on Genesee street. Many 
of the private houses display an elegant style of architec¬ 
ture, and are adorned with beautiful gardens. Auburn con¬ 
tains fifteen churches, and is the seat of a theological sem¬ 
inary under the direction of the Presbyterians. This city 
was long the home of the late Hon. William II. Seward. 
Here is a large stone State prison, celebrated for its system 
of discipline. The convicts, numbering sometimes 1000 or 
1200, are employed in the manufacture of boots, shoes, sad¬ 
dlery-ware, cigars, window-sashes, blinds, and doors. The 
city has eight banks, three daily and two weekly papers, 
and manufactures of wool, cotton, iron, paper, etc. Here 
are also five large manufactories of reapers and mowers, 
which are the most extensive in the Union. Pop. 17,225. 

Ed. “Auburn Advertiser.” 

Auburn, a township of Crawford co., O. Pop. 910. 

Auburn, a post-township of Geauga co., 0. Pop. 783. 

Auburn, a township of Tuscarawas co., 0. Pop. 1251. 

Auburn, a post-village of Baker co., Or., on Powder 
River, about J00 miles E. of Salem. Gold is found in this 
vicinity. 

Auburn, a post-village of South Mannheim township, 
Schuylkill co., Pa., on the Philadelphia and Reading R.R., 
9 miles S. E. of Pottsville. Pop. 611. 

Auburn, a township of Susquehanna co., Pa. P. 2006. 

Auburn, a township of Montgomery co., Ya. P. 3171. 

Auburn, a post-township of Fond du Lac co., Wis. 
Pop. 1626. 

Au'burndale, a post-village of Newton township, Mid¬ 


dlesex co., Mass., on the Boston and Albany R. R., 10 miles 
W. of Boston. It is the seat of Laselle Seminary. 

Auburn Theological Seminary, or The Theo¬ 
logical Seminary of Central and Western New 
Y r ork, occupies a large three-story stone building, with 
transept and wings, on elevated ground in the northern part 
of the city of Auburn. It was founded in 1820. In 1873 its 
removal was contemplated, but the friends of the seminary 
having by great exertions raised funds for its endowment, 
the institution will, it is understood, remain in Auburn. It 
is sustained by the Pi'esbyterian denomination. 

Aubusson, a town of France, department of Creuse, 
on the river Creuse, 22 miles S. E. of Gueret. It has a 
celebrated manufactory of carpets. Velvets and woollen 
stuffs are also made here. Pop. in 1866, 6625. 

Aubusson, d’ (Pierre), grand-master of the order of 
St. John of Jerusalem, was born of a noble French family 
in 1423. At an early age he joined the order, the head¬ 
quarters of which was at Rhodes. He distinguished him¬ 
self by his energy and courage in fighting against pirates, 
and was employed on important missions to several courts. 
In 1458 he formed a league between the kings of France and 
Hungary against the sultan Mahomet II. He was elected 
grand-master of his order in 1476, and fortified Rhodes as 
an advanced post for the defence of Christendom against 
the victorious Turks. The great aim and idea of his life 
was the formation of a league of Christian princes against 
the infidels. Early in 1480, Mahomet II. commenced the 
siege of Rhodes with an army of about 100,000 men. The 
Turks were repulsed in several desperate assaults, in which 
Aubusson was severely wounded, and they were forced to 
abandon the enterprise in July, 1480. In 1501 he was 
chosen general-in-chief of the armies of the German em¬ 
peror, the king of France, and the pope, who had formed 
a league against the Turks. His success was hindered by 
the jealousy and discord of these allies. Died in 1503. 
He is regarded as one of the ablest Christian statesmen and 
commanders of his time. (See Bouhours, “ Ilistoire de 
Pierre d’Aubusson,” 1676.) 

Auch, osh (anc. Augus'ta Ausco'ritm or Elimberis), an 
old town of France, capital of the department of Gers, on 
the river Gers, 43 miles by rail S. of Agen. In the time of 
Caesar it was the capital of the Ausci or Auscii. It has a 
beautiful Gothic cathedral, an archbishop’s palace, a royal 
college, a public library, a museum of natural science, and 
a town-hall. Here are manufactures of linens, cotton 
stuffs, leather, etc. Armagnac brandy is exported from 
this town, which was once the capital of Armagnac. Pop. 
in 1866, 12,500. 

Auche'iiia [from the Gr. avx>? v, the “neck” (so called 
from the length of their necks)], a genus of South Ameri¬ 
can animals of the order Ruminantia aud family Camelidm. 
The genus comprises the alpaca and the llama, and other 
species, all of which inhabit the mountain-ranges of the 
Andes. They are nearly allied to the camel, which they 
resemble in general form and in the structure of the stom¬ 
ach. They differ from the camel in having no hump; also 
in dentition, and in the more cloven feet and movable toes. 
Some naturalists think that the alpaca is not a distinct 
species, but a variety of the llama. (See Alpaca.) 

Auchmuty, 3/mu-te (Robert), an eminent lawyer, 
born in Scotland, settled in Boston, Mass., about 1710.* He 
held several high colonial offices. Died in 1750. 

Auchmuty (Robert), an able lawyer, son of the pre¬ 
ceding, practised at Boston, and was distinguished as an 
advocate in trials by jury. He was an admiralty judge 
(1767-76). Having become a zealous Tory in 1776, he went 
to England, where he died in 1788. 

Auchmuty (Samuel), D. D., an Episcopal clergyman, a 
brother of the preceding, was born at Boston Jan. 16, 1722, 
and graduated at Harvard in 1742. He preached in Trinity 
church, New York, and obtained in 1764 the charge of all 
the churches in that city. He adhered to the royalist party 
in the Revolution. Died Mar. 6, 1777. 

Auchmuty (Sir Samuel), a British general, a son of 
the preceding, was born in New York June 22, 1758, and 
graduated at King’s (now Columbia) College in 1775. He 
fought against the U. S. in 1776-78, served many years in 
India, and in 1806 obtained command of an army sent to 
South America. He took the fortified city of Montevideo 
from the Spaniards in 1807, and captured Java from the 
Dutch in 1811. Died Aug. 11, 1822. 

Auckland, a seaport-town, the capital of the British 
colony of New Zealand, is situated on the N. E. coast of 
the island of New Ulster; lat. 36° 50' S., Ion. 174° 50' E. 
It has two fine harbors and considerable trade. It is con¬ 
nected by steamships with Sidney, Melbourne, Honolulu, 
and San Francisco. It is the see of an Anglican bishop, 
and has four banks, three newspapers, and many fioe 



















AUCKLAND—AUDUBON. 


323 


buildings. The mean temperature of the coldest month is 
about 50° F., and that of the warmest about 68°. Auck¬ 
land was founded in 1810. Pop. in 1871, 12,937. 

Auckland (George Eden), Earl op, an English 
peer, born in 1784, inherited the title of baron at the death 
of his father in 1814. He acted with the Whigs, became 
president of the board of trade in 1833, first lord of the 
admiralty in 1834, and governor-general of India in 1835. 
He was created earl of Auckland in 1839, and returned to 
England in 1841. He died without issue in 1849. 

Auckland (William Eden), Lord, an English diplo¬ 
matist and lawyer, was born in 1745. He was one of the 
three commissioners appointed in 1778 to negotiate with 
the revolutionists in the U. S. Having been sent as ambas¬ 
sador to France in 1785, he negotiated a commercial treaty 
with that nation. He published “ Principles of the Penal 
Law ” (1771) and other works. In 1793 he received the 
title of baron. Hied in 1814. 

Auckland Islands, a group of islands in the South 
Pacific, S. of New Zealand. The largest island is about 
30 miles long and 15 miles wide, and has two good harbors. 
This group is valuable as a whaling-station, but is not in¬ 
habited. 

Auc'tion [from the Lat. aur/eo, auctum, to “increase”], 
in law, the act of exposing property for sale by open com¬ 
petition to the highest bidder, by a person called an 
auctioneer. Every bid is deemed to be an offer, which is 
accepted by the auctioneer when his hammer falls. On 
general principles of the law of contracts, the offer may 
be withdrawn by the bidder at any time before acceptance. 
The acceptance of a higher offer is the rejection of the 
lower one. Such a sale must be fairly conducted, both on 
the part of the seller and buyer. The secret employment 
of “ puffers ” or fictitious bidders by the owner to unduly 
enhance the price is a fraud on the purchaser, who may 
avoid such a sale. The same rule applies to secret agree¬ 
ments between purchasers to stifle competition. Such sales 
frequently take place under conditions made known at the 
time of sale. These must be followed by the party to whom 
they are applicable. An auctioneer is to some extent an 
agent for both parties—as, for example, to sign on their 
behalf a written memorandum of sales, where that is re¬ 
quired by law. The conduct of auctioneers is sometimes 
regulated by statute. 

Au'cuba, a genus of plants of the order Cornaceae. 
The only known species is the Au'cuba Japon'ica, an ever¬ 
green shrub which is a native of Japan and China, and is 
cultivated as an ornamental shrub. It is dioecious, has 
small purple flowers, and its fruit is a small red drupe. 
The leaves are pale-green, curiously mottled with yellow. 

Audae'us, or Au'dius [in Syriac U'do], the founder of 
a religious sect called Audians, was a native of Mesopo¬ 
tamia. He was banished to Scythia in 338 A. D., and died 
about 370 A. D. He incurred the enmity of the clergy by 
censuring their luxury and vices. The Audians are accused 
of professing anthropomorphism. 

Aude (anc. A'tax), a river in the S. of France, rises in 
the Eastern Pyrenees, flows northward to Carcassonne, and 
thence eastward until it enters the Mediterranean, G miles 
E. N. E. of Narbonne. Length, 133 miles. 

Aude, a maritime department in the S. of France, is 
bounded on the N. by the departments of Tarn and Herault, 
on the E. by the Mediterranean, on the S. by the Pyrenees- 
Orientales, on the W. by Ariege and Haut-Garonne, and 
has an area of 2437 square miles. It was formerly part of 
the province of Languedoc. The surface is partly moun¬ 
tainous, being near the foot of the Pyrenees; the soil of 
the valleys is fertile and calcareous. It is intersected by 
the river Aude and the canal of Languedoc (or Canal du 
Midi). Among the mineral resources of Aude are iron, 
coal, and marble. The staple productions are grain, olives, 
wine, and fruits. It has manufactures of silk and woollen 
stuffs, paper, and brandy. Capital, Carcassonne. It is 
divided into 4 arrondissements, 31 cantons, and 435 com¬ 
munes. Pop. in 1872, 285,927. 

Audebert (Jean Baptiste), an eminent French artist 
and naturalist, born at Rochefort in 1759. He first acquired 
distinction as a miniature-painter, and subsequently ap¬ 
plied himself to natural history, the love of which became 
his ruling passion. He published in 1800 a “Natural His¬ 
tory of Apes, Lemurs, and Galeopitheci,” with sixty-two 
admirably colored plates, printed in oil-colors by a new 
method which he invented. He was the first to use gold- 
leaf in illustrating the plumage of birds. His splendidly 
illustrated “ History of Humming-birds, Flycatchers, Jac- 
amars, etc.” appeared in 1802. He died in 1800, leaving 
several works unfinished. 

Au'dcnar'de, or Oudcnarde, a town of Belgium, in 
East Flanders, on the Scheldt, 14 miles S. S. W. of Ghent. 


It has a fine Gothic town-hall. Tanning and brewing are 
the chief branches of industry here. Pop. in 1866, 4835. 
Here the prince Eugene defeated the French army in July, 
1708. J 

Au'dience [from the Lat. au'dio, to “hear”], the act 
of hearing; admittance to a hearing; the reception of an 
ambassador by a sovereign at court; sometimes used to 
denote an auditory or assembly of hearers. In England it 
is the name of a court held by the archbishop of Canterbury. 

Au'ditor [from the Lat. audio, to “hear”], a person 
whose duty it is to examine and pass upon the accounts of 
those who have been entrusted with money, or to examine 
a particular account and certify the result. The U. S. 
government, as well as most public and private corpora¬ 
tions, have such officers. An auditor is appointed by 
courts in the course of some actions to examine and state 
accounts, and report them to the court for further 
proceedings. 

Au'ditory Nerve, the nerve of hearing, is the seventh 
in order of origin from the base of the brain, counting from 
before backward. The seventh pair consists of the portio 
dura (or facial), the portio mollis (or auditory), and a small 
intermediate portion. The portio mollis apparently com¬ 
mences in the floor of the fourth ventricle; it then runs 
forward to the back of the petrous portion of the temporal 
bone, and enters the internal auditory meatus. It then 
divides into two portions, which diverge—the smaller one 
for the semicircular canals and the vestibule, the other for 
the cochlea. Those entering the semicircular canals divide 
into five branches, forming at last a nervous expansion 
somewhat analogous to the retina. (See Ear and Acoustics.) 

Audley (Thomas), Lord Audley of Walden, an Eng¬ 
lish lawyer, born in Essex in 1488. He became Speaker 
of the House of Commons in 1529, keeper of the great seal 
in 1532, and lord chancellor of England in 1533. He pre¬ 
sided at the trial of Sir Thomas More. According to some 
authorities, he disgraced himself by his subservience to the 
arbitrary will of Henry VIII. Died April 30, 1544. (See 
Lord Campbell, “Lives of the Lord Chancellors.”) 

Audouin (Jean Victor), an eminent French naturalist 
and comparative anatomist, born in Paris April 27, 1797. 
He was one of the founders of the “Annales des Sciences 
Naturelles,” first issued in 1824, and co-operated with Milne- 
Edwards in researches into the Crustacea and Annelida. 
He succeeded Latreille as professor of entomology at the 
Museum in 1833, and was chosen a member of the Institute 
in 1838. Among his works is a “History of the Insects 
which Infest the Vine” (1840-43). Died Nov. 9, 1841. 

Audrain'', a county of the N. E. central part of Mis¬ 
souri. Area, 680 square miles. It is drained by the Davis 
Fork and Long Branch of Salt River. The surface is un¬ 
dulating or nearly level; the soil is fertile. Cattle, wool, 
dairy products, grain, and tobacco are raised. Coal is 
found. It is intersected by the North Missouri and the 
Louisiana branch of the Chicago and Alton R. Rs. Capi¬ 
tal, Mexico. Pop. 12,307. 

Audran (Gerard), a French engraver of the first order, 
was born at Lyons Aug. 2, 1640. He studied under Carlo 
Maratta at Rome for several years, and returned to Paris 
about 1670. Having been appointed engraver to the king, 
he engraved for him the masterpieces of Le Brun, “ The 
Battles of Alexander.” Among his works are two car¬ 
toons of Raphael, representing the “Death of Ananias” 
and “Paul and Barnabas at Lystra,” and “Coriolanus,” 
after Poussin. He is estimated by some critics as the 
greatest historical engraver that ever lived. Died Feb. 8, 
1691. (See Fontenai, “Dictionnaire des Artists;” Strutt, 
“Dictionary of Engravers.”)—Other members of the Au¬ 
dran family attained eminence as engravers: as Benoit 
(1661-1721), Claude pere (1592-1677), Claude fils (1640- 
84), Germain (1631-1710), and Jean (1667-1756). 

Autlry de Puyraveau (Pierre Francis), a French 
republican, born at Puyraveau in 1783. He was elected to 
the Chamber of Deputies in 1827, and acted a prominent 
and efficient part in the revolution of 1830, during which 
his manufactory in Paris was the rendezvous of the rev¬ 
olutionists. In 1848 he was a member of the Constituent 
Assembly. 

Au'dubon, a county in the S. W. of Iowa. Area, 630 
square miles. It is intersected by the East Nishnabatona 
River, and drained by the West Nishnabatona, which rises 
within its limits. The surface is nearly level; the soil is 
fertile. Grain and wool are the chief crops. Capital, Ex- 
ira. Pop. 1212. 

Audubon, a township of Montgomery co., Ill. Pop. 
1250. 

Audubon, a township of Audubon co., Ia. Pop. 381. 

Au'dubon (John James), a celebrated naturalist, born 















324 AUENBRUGGER YON AUENBRUG—AUGSBURG. 


in Louisiana on the 4th of May, 1780. He was the son of 
an opulent French naval officer who owned a plantation in 
the then French colony. In his childhood he became deep¬ 
ly interested in the study of birds and their habits. He was 
educated partly in Paris, whither he was sent about 1794, 
and he studied design under David, the eminent painter. He 
returned to the U. S. about 1798, and settled on a farm which 
his father gave him, on the Perkiomcn Creek, in Eastern 
Pennsylvania. Here he found time and opportunity for his 
favorite study. He married Lucy Bakewell in 1808, sold 
his farm, and became a merchant at Louisville, Ky. About 
1810 he began to make extensive excursions through the 
primeval forests of the Southern and South-western States, 
in the exploration of which he passed many years. He 
made colored drawings of all the species of birds that he 
found. He resided with his wife and children for several 
years at Henderson, on the Ohio River. In 1824 he visited 
Philadelphia, where he met Charles Lucien Bonaparte, who 
encouraged him to publish a work on ornithology. Before 
this date he is said to have failed in trade and been reduced 
to poverty, and to have successively followed the occupa¬ 
tion of portrait-painter and dancing-master. He went to 
England in 1826, and commenced in London the publica¬ 
tion of his great work, for which he obtained a large num¬ 
ber of subscribers at $1000 a copy. This admirable work 
was entitled “ The Birds of America” (10 vols. folio, 1830- 
39), and was illustrated with 448 beautiful colored plates 
of 1065 species of birds, of the natural size. The work is 
divided into five volumes of letter-press, and five of engrav¬ 
ings designed by the author. This was pronounced by 
Cuvier “ the most magnificent monument that art ever 
raised to ornithology.” Audubon returned to America in 
1829, and again explored the forests, lakes, and coasts from 
Canada to Florida, to collect materials for another work. 
This was his “ Ornithological Biography, or an Account of 
the Habits of the Birds of the United States, etc.” (Edin¬ 
burgh, 5 vols., 1831-39). He revisited England in 1831, 
and returned home in 1839, after which he resided on the 
Hudson River, near the city of New York. He published 
a cheaper edition of his “Birds of America” (7 vols. 8vo, 
1844), and was associated with Dr. Bachman in the prep¬ 
aration of a work on “The Quadrupeds of North America,” 
with plates (6 vols., 1846-50), the drawings of which were 
made by his sons, Victor Gifford and John Woodhouse Au¬ 
dubon. He died in New York City Jan. 27, 1851. Pro¬ 
fessor Wilson of Edinburgh expressed the opinion that he 
was “the greatest artist in his own walk that ever lived.” 
(See “ Life and Adventures of John J. Audubon,” edited, 
from materials supplied by his widow, by Robert Buch¬ 
anan, 1869; C. C. Adams, “ Journal of the Life and Labors 
of J. J. Audubon ;” article on “American Ornithology ” in 
the “ Quarterly Review” for July, 1832.) 

William Jacobs. 

Au'enbrug'ger von Au'enbrug' (Leopold), called 
Avenbrugger by the French, a German physician who in¬ 
troduced percussion of the chest as a means of diagnosis, 
was v born at Gratz, in Styria, in 1722. He announced his 
discovery in a work called “ Inventum novum ex Percus- 
sione Thoracis Ilumani ” (“New Discovery by the Percus¬ 
sion of the Human Chest,” 1761). He practised in Vienna. 
Died in 1809. 

Au'erbach / (Berthold), a popular German author, 
born at Nordstetten, in Wurtemberg, Feb. 28, 1812. He 
published “Spinoza,” a biography or romance (1837); “ The 
Poet and Merchant,” a novel (1839); “The Jews and 
Modern Literature” (1836); and “ The Cultivated Citizen” 
(“Der Gebildete Burger,” 1842). His most popular work 
is perhaps his “ Village Tales of the Black Forest” (2 vols., 
1843). Among his other works are novels called “ Die Frau 
Professorin,” “Edelweiss,” “Baarfiissle” (“Little Bare¬ 
foot,” 1857), “Auf der Hohe” (“On the Heights,” 1865), 
and “ Das Land-IIaus am Rhein ” (“ Country-House on the 
Rhine,” 1869). A number of these have been translated 
into English, French, Dutch, and Swedish, and an Italian 
version of his “ Village Tales” appeared in 1869. 

Auerbach (Heinrich), a German medical professor, 
whose proper name was Stromer, was born at Auerbach, 
in Bavaria, in 1482. He was a friend of Luther and a 
citizen of Leipsic. According to tradition, Doctor Faust 
rode out of Auerbach’s cellar on a barrel. Died in 1542. 

Au'ersperg', von (Anton Alexander), Count, a Ger¬ 
man poet whose nom-de-plume is Anastasius Grun, was 
born at Laybach April 11, 1806. He displayed much wit 
and humor in a poem called “ Spaziergange eines Wiener 
Poeten” (“Promenades of a Poet of Vienna,” 1831). He 
published in 1838 a volume of poems (“ Gedichte”). 

Auersperg (Carlos), Prince, an Austrian statesman, 
born May 1, 1814. In 1867-68 he was for a short time 
president of the Cisleithan ministry. He has been a mem¬ 
ber of the Reichstag, of which he was president, and of 


the Bohemian Diet, where he acted with the German 
party. 

Auerstailt, ow'er-stSt, a village of Prussian Saxony, 
10 miles W. of Naumburg, noted as the scene of an im¬ 
portant victory gained by the French general Davoust over 
the Prussians, who were commanded by their king, on Oct. 
14, 1806, which was also the date of the battle of Jena. 

Au'erswald', von (Hans Adolph Erdmann), a Prus¬ 
sian general, born Oct. 19, 1792, gained distinction by his 
scientific attainments, and was elected to the Parliament at 
Frankfort in 1848. As he was walking in Frankfort in 
company with Prince Felix Lichnowsky, a mob attacked 
and killed them, Sept. 18, 1848. His death appears to have 
been an incidental consequence of his being in company 
with the prince, who was obnoxious to the jjopulace. 

Auf'fenberg', von (Joseph), Freiherr, a German 
dramatist and poet, born at Freiburg, in Brisgau, in 1798. 
Among his numerous works are “ The Alhambra,” a dra¬ 
matic poem (1830), and “Louis XI. in Peronne,” a drama. 
Died in 1857. 

Au'fidus, the name of an ancient river in Italy, near 
the mouth of which was fought the great battle of Cannae, 
216 B. C. (See Ofanto.) 

Au'geas [Gr. Ai-yea? or Avyei'a?], a mythical king of 
Elis, who is said to have owned 3000 oxen. One of the 
twelve labors imposed on Hercules by Eurystlieus was to 
cleanse the Augean stables, in which the dung of these 
oxen had accumulated for many years. Hercules turned 
the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through the stables, and 
killed Augeas because he refused to pay his wages. 

Augereau (Pierre Francis Charles), Due de Cas- 
tiglione, a French marshal, born in Paris Oct. 21, 1757, 
became a fencing-master at Naples before the Revolution, 
enlisted as a private in the French army in 1792, and 
gained the rank of general of division in 1796. In 1796 
he contributed to the victories of Lodi, Castiglione, and 
Areola. He enforced the will of the majority of the Di¬ 
rectory in the couji-d’etat of the 18th Fructidor, 1797, and 
was chosen a member of the Council of Five Hundred in 
1799. He became a marshal of France in 1804, duke of 
Castiglione in 1805, served with distinction at Jena in 1806, 
and was wounded at Eylau in 1807. In 1813 he displayed 
intrepid courage at Leipsic. He transferred his allegiance 
to Louis XVIII. in 1814. Died June 12, 1815. 

Au'gian Co'dex, a defective uncial manuscript of a 
part of the New Testament, was found in the monastery 
of Augia Major, at Rheinau, was purchased by Dr. Bent¬ 
ley in 1718, and is now in Trinity College, Cambridge. 

Atigier (Emile), a French dramatist and poet, a grand¬ 
son of Pigault-Lebrun, was born at Valence, in Drome, in 
1820. He wrote a drama entitled “La Cigue” (“Hem¬ 
lock,” 1844), which had complete success, and “Gabrielle,” 
a comedy (1849), which gained the Montyon prize of the 
French Academy. In 1856 he produced a volume of poems, 
and in 1857 was admitted into the French Academy. 

Au'gite [from the Gr. avyrj, “splendor”], a crystalline 
mineral sometimes called Pyroxene, is nearly allied to 
hornblende. It often occurs in volcanic rocks, is composed 
of silica, lime, and magnesia, and is usually of a greenish 
color. It crystallizes in six or eight-sided prisms variously 
modified, and is an essential component of basalt, dolerite, 
and augite porphyry. Some mineralogists think that the 
difference between augite and hornblende arises only from 
the different circumstances in which they crystallize, the 
former being the result of a more rapid cooling. 

Au'glaize, a river in the north-western part of Ohio, 
rises in Auglaize co., and after a course of about 100 miles 
enters the Maumee River at Defiance. Its general direc¬ 
tion is nearly northward. 

Auglaize, or Grand Auglaize, a small river of 
Missouri, rises in La Clede co., flows northward, and enters 
the Osage about 3 miles below Linn Creek. 

Auglaize, a county in Western Ohio. Area, 400 square 
miles. It is drained by the Auglaize and St. Mary’s rivers, 
which rise within its limits. The surface is nearly level; the 
soil is fertile. Dairy products, corn, wheat, oats, hay, and 
potatoes are the chief crops. This county is intersected by 
the Miami and Erie Canal, and by the railroad which ex¬ 
tends from Dayton to Toledo. Capital, Wapakoneta. Pop. 
20,041. 

Auglaize, a township of Camden co., Mo. Pop. 1330. 

Auglaize, a township of Miller co., Mo. Pop. 608. 

Auglaize, a township of Allen co., 0. Pop. 1696. 

Auglaize, a township of Paulding co., 0. Pop. 788. 

Au Gres, a post-township of Bay co., Mich. Pop. 255. 

Augs'burg (anc. Augus'ta Vindelico'rum), an ancient 
and important city of Germany, in Bavaria, capital of the 












AUGSBURG CONFESSION—AUGUSTA. 


325 


province of Swabia and Neuburg, is situated on the river 
Lech, at the mouth of the Wertach, 39 miles by rail W. N.W. 
of Munich; lat. 48° 21' 42" N., Ion. 10° 54' 16" E. Several 
railways extend from it towards the four cardinal points, 
and connect it with Munich, Nuremberg, etc. The Roman 
emperor Augustus planted a colony here in 12 B. C. It 
became a free imperial city in 1276, after which it was an 
important commercial emporium. This city was also one 
of the chief centres of German art, and the native place 
of Holbein. It was also the native place of the Fugger 
family, at one time the richest family in Europe. Some 
decline in its prosperity occurred after 1500, but it still has 
an extensive trade and many large manufactories of cotton, 
silk, machinery, and paper. Augsburg is one of the prin¬ 
cipal money-markets of the Continent, and owes much of 
its importance to its banking-business and operations in 
stocks. The “Allgemeine Zeitung,” issued in Augsburg, 
is one of the most celebrated and widely circulated journals 
of Germany. Pop. in 1871, 51,284. 

Augs'burg Confes'sion, the first Protestant Confes¬ 
sion of Faith, drawn up by Melanchthon, sets forth the 
doctrines held by Luther and his followers. This Confes¬ 
sion was presented to Charles V. at a German Diet con¬ 
vened at Augsburg June 20, 1530. The original copies of 
this document, in German and Latin, are not known to be 
extant. The emperor forbade the publication of the Con¬ 
fession without permission obtained from himself; but a 
surreptitious and erroneous publication having been made, 
it became necessary for Melanchthon to issue correct copies 
of the text, both in German and Latin. This Confession, 
with its subsequent Apology, became a standard for the Re¬ 
formers, and to this day is regarded as authoritative among 
the Lutheran churches. (See Lutheranism.) 

Ail'gur, a Latin word used by the ancient Romans to 
denote a soothsayer, a diviner, a person who professed to 
foretell events by the flight of birds or other omens. The 
augurs were supposed to be capable of interpreting the will 
of the gods, and divinely gifted with special qualifications 
for this service. Their office was considered as very im¬ 
portant in the state, no public enterprise being under¬ 
taken unless they declared the omens favorable. Their 
divinations were called auguries or auspices, the latter of 
which terms, though properly applied to the inspection of 
the flight of birds, was extended by the Roman writers to 
other signs. In the early period of Roman history the num¬ 
ber of augurs was only three or four, who must be patri¬ 
cians. The Ogulnian law, passed 300 B. C., rendered the 
plebeians eligible to the office of augur, and increased the 
number to nine. The augurs held office for life, and had 
the power of filling vacancies that occurred in their college. 
The college of augurs in some periods of Roman history 
had great political influence, it being contrary to the re¬ 
ligion and usage of the Romans to hold an election, to com¬ 
mence a battle or campaign, or perform any important 
public business, without consulting the auspices. Sulla 
raised the number of augurs to fifteen, and Julius Csesar 
to sixteen. 

Augur (Christopiibr C.), an American officer, born 
1821 in New York, graduated at West Point in 1843, in in¬ 
fantry till Mar. 4, 1869, when he became brigadier-general 
U. S. army. lie served chiefly at frontier posts 1843-61, 
in the military occupation of Texas 1845-46, in the war 
with Mexico 1846-48, engaged at Palo Alto, Resaca de la 
Palma, and as aide-de-camp to Brigadier-Generals Hopping 
and Cushing, scouting and on expeditions against Northern 
Pacific Indians 1855-56,engaged in several skirmishes, and 
as commandant of cadets at Military Academy 1861. In 
the civil war became, Aug. 9, 1862, major-general U. S. vol¬ 
unteers, and served in the defences of Washington 1861- 
62, in pperations on Rappahannock and in the Shenandoah 
Valley 1862, in command of a division in the Fifth corps 

1862, engaged at Cedar Mountain (severely wounded and 
brevet colonel), in General Banks’s expedition to New Or¬ 
leans 1862; in command of the district of Baton Rouge 

1863, in expedition to Fort Hudson 1863 (brevet brigadier- 

general), engaged in action and siege of the place; in com¬ 
mand of department of Washington 1863-66, of the Platte 
1867—71, and of Texas since 1871. Brevet major-general 
Mar. 13, 1865, for gallant and meritorious services in the 
field. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Augur (Hezekiah), an American sculptor, born at New 
Haven, Conn., Feb. 21, 1791, was also noted for mechanical 
ingenuity. He invented a carving-machine which is in 
general use, and as sculptor produced “ Jephthah and his 
Daughter.” Died Jan. 10, 1858. 

Au'gust [Lat. Augustus; Fr. Aotit], the eighth month 
of the year, was so named in honor of Augustus Caesar. 
Before his time it was called Sexti'lis —that is, the sixth 
month, because the Roman year once began on the 1st of 
March. In the calendar of Julius Cmsar the first, third, 


fifth, seventh, ninth, and eleventh months consisted each of 
thirty-one days, and each of the other months of thirty, 
except February, which in common years had twenty-nine, 
and in leap-year thirty days. To gratify the vanity of 
Augustus, one day was taken from February and added to 
August. 

Augus'ta, a county near the western part of Virginia, 
has an area of about 900 square miles. It is bounded on 
tfie S. E. by the Blue Ridge, and forms part of the Great 
Valley of Virginia. It is drained by the South Fork of 
the Shenandoah River, which rises by several branches 
within its limits. The surface is diversified ; the soil is cal¬ 
careous and very fertile. Corn, oats, wheat, and wool are 
largely raised. Fine limestone underlies a great part of 
the county, which is said to contain anthracite coal. It is 
intersected by the Chesapeake and Ohio R. R. Capital, 
Staunton. Pop. 28,763. 

Augusta, a post-village, capital of Woodruff co., Ark., 
on White River, 69 miles N. E. of Little Rock. It has 
two weekly papers. Pop. of township, 2213. 

W. E. Arms, Ed. “Augusta Sentinel.” 

Augusta, a city and the capital of Richmond co., Ga., 
the third city in size in the State, situated on the left bank 
of the Savannah River, 231 miles from its mouth, 120 N. 
N. W. from Savannah, and 136 N. W. from Charleston. It 
is at the head of steamboat navigation on the Savannah. 
Lat. 33° 28' N., Ion. 81° 54' W. Its population in 1870 
was 15,389; in 1860, 12,493; in 1850, 10,217. The city has 
a thriving trade, and does a good wholesale business with 
the towns of the State, with most of which it has a direct 
connection either by river or rail. It also draws consider¬ 
able business from the hill-country of South Carolina. 
From its position it is actively engaged in the cotton trade, 
receiving cotton from a considerable portion of Georgia 
and South Carolina. What is not needed to supply its 
own cotton-mills is sent to Savannah and Charleston, and 
reported in their receipts. Augusta also furnishes a good 
market for the general produce of its region. For many 
years it was the centre of the wagon-traffic, sending out 
goods in all directions in the great lumbering wagons of 
that time, and receiving cotton and produce in return. 
After the railroads began to break up this trade, the city 
declined for a time, but soon regained its trade, and is now 
an enterprising and prosperous city. The Augusta Canal, 
9 miles in length, brings the waters of the Savannah River 
from above the city at such an elevation as to give a head 
or water-power of forty feet. It is one of the largest man¬ 
ufacturing centres of the South. Its manufactories and 
those of Richmond county are of great importance. There 
were in the county in 1870, and by far the larger part in 
the city, 97 manufacturing establishments, of which 12 were 
driven by steam-engines, having an aggregate force of 180 
horse-power, and 47 by water-power, employing an aggre¬ 
gate force of 1222 horse-pow T er. In these manufacturing 
establishments 1280 hands were employed, of whom 1178 
were men, 78 women, and 24 children. The amount of 
capital employed was $1,345,155; the wages paid $517,230; 
the material used was valued at $1,695,765, and the value 
of the manufactured products, $2,614,405. Probably about 
four-fifths in number and nine-tenths in value of these man¬ 
ufactures belonged to Augusta. Among its most important 
manufacturing establishments are two cotton-mills, em- 
loying 553 hands, having $648,000 capital, paying 
182,939 for wages, and $782,506 for material, and produ¬ 
cing goods of the annual value of $1,118,722. One of these 
manufactures cotton yarns, which are largely in demand at 
the North. There is also a car-factory, employing 90 men, 
and producing $108,370 worth of cars; 2 railroad machine- 
shops, employing 113 hands, and turning out $270,196 
worth of machinery; and 5 or 6 other machine-shops, pro¬ 
ducing about $70,000 worth of work. There were 5 flour- 
ing-mills, employing 36 hands and turning out products of 
the value of $517,541. A beginning had also been made in 
foundries for iron castings, which produced nearly $40,000 
worth of goods; in tobacco, snuff, and cigar factories, pro¬ 
ducing $86,250 of goods; 2 printing-offices turned out 
work worth $78,000, and 2 brick-kilns made brick to the 
extent of $39,042. The county of Richmond in 1870 had 
an assessed valuation of $14,075,615, and a true valuation, 
according to the ninth census, of $19,473,131, ranking as 
the second county in the State. Of this valuation about 
four-fifths pertained to the city of Augusta. The city tax 
the same year was $210,000, and the city indebtedness 
$1,355,250. Augusta has a medical school, the Medical Col¬ 
lege of Georgia, founded in 1830, and which in 1872 had 97 
students. It has also an incorporated academy called the 
Richmond Academy, with 7 teachers and 300 scholars; a 
city normal school, with 2 teachers and 30 scholars; t gram¬ 
mar schools, with 7 teachers and 777 scholars; 17 primary 
schools, with 9 teachers and 1238 scholars. Of the 5439 per- 






















sons of school age (L e. between six and twenty-one years), 
3500 are enrolled either in public or private schools, and 
the average attendance is 2632. The income of the public 
schools from all sources is $25,000. There are two daily 
papers published in the city; both have a considerable 
circulation and issue weekly and tri-weekty editions. It 
has three national banks. There are about 20 churches, 
among which are 1 Roman Catholic, 1 Episcopal, 1 Pres¬ 
byterian, 1 Lutheran, 1 Christian, 5 or 6 Baptist, and 6 
or 7 Methodist—2 of them of the Northern Methodist 
Church. Of the Baptist and Methodist churches, sev¬ 
eral are for people of color. The number of sittings in 
these churches is over 12,000, and the estimated value of 
church property almost $400,000. The city has a hospital, 
a clinique connected with the medical college, a Masonic 
hall, and some other charitable institutions. Among its 
public buildings of note arc a costly and very beautiful 
city-hall, Odd Fellows’ hall, the Masonic hall, Richmond 
Academy, the medical college, the opera-house, Independ¬ 
ence Monument, and sevei’al of the churches. The streets 
and avenues are broad and finely shaded, and many of the 
residences are tasteful and elegant. The principal avenue, 
Greene street, has a double row of widespreading trees on 
either side of the spacious highway, and with its elegant 
mansions forms a true boulevai’d. It is considered one 
of the most beautiful of Southern cities. The streets 
cross each other at right angles. There is a well-regulated 
police force. The city cemetery and the Cotton States’ 
Agricultural Fair-Grounds, near the city, are both laid out 
in fine walks and drives, and are favorite places of resort. 
The city is connected with the coast by the Augusta and 
Port Royal R. R., the South Carolina R. R., and the Char¬ 
lotte Columbia and Augusta R. R., in South Carolina, the 
Savannah being crossed to Hamburg, S. C., directly oppo¬ 
site, by a fine bridge; while the Georgia, and the Augusta 
and Macon, and the Savannah and Augusta R. Rs., with 
their branches, give it ready and speedy access to every 
portion of the State. There is also a horse-railroad from 
the city to Summerville, a beautiful suburb. Water is sup¬ 
plied to the city from the Augusta Canal, which is now 
being enlarged and its power greatly increased. It is 
lighted with gas. Though in a very level region, the grade 
of the city is sufficient to ensure a good and sufficient 
drainage. 

History. — Augusta was settled by English colonists 
under Oglethorpe, and laid out in 1735 under royal charter, 
and was named in honor of an English princess. It was 
again chartered in Jan., 1798, and incorporated as a city 
in Dec., 1817. It was for many years the most important 
inland town of the colony. It had acquired a considerable 
trade at the commencement of the Revolutionary war, but 
in the beginning of 1779 was captured by the British and 
loyalists, who held possession of it till the spring of 1781, 
when the British force there was commanded by a loyalist 
named Brown. On May 23, 1781, an American force under 
command of General Henry Lee (“ Lighthorse Harry”) 
laid siege to it, and on the 5th of June Brown surren¬ 
dered. The Americans lost 51 killed and wounded; the 
British lost 52 killed, and 334, including the wounded, were 
taken prisoners. During the war of 1812 or the Indian 
wars it was not molested. In the late civil war it was 
garrisoned by the Confederate troops, and twice threatened 
by Sherman—in his march to the sea, when he passed be¬ 
tween it and Macon; and in his march through the Caro- 
linas, when he made feints against both Augusta and 
Charleston—but it was not visited by a hostile force. Since 
the census of 1870 its population has greatly increased. It 
has long been distinguished for the intelligence, public spirit, 
and good order of its citizens. Walsh & Wright, 

Pubs, and Props. “ Chronicle and Sentinel.” 

Augusta (anc. Megara), a town of Ital^y, in the prov¬ 
ince of Nolo, is situated on an island, which is connected 
by a bridge with the peninsula Cape San Croce, 19 miles 
by rail N. N. W. of Syracuse. Pop. in 1861, 9223. 

Augusta, a post-township of Hancock co., Ill. Pop. 
1992. 

Augusta, a post-township of Des Moines co., Ia. Pop. 
584. 

Augusta, a post-township of Butler co., Kan. It has 
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 515. 

Augusta, a post-village of Bracken co., Ivy., situated 
on the Ohio River, 43 miles above Cincinnati, is the seat 
of Augusta Male and Female College. It has good free 
and private schools; tobacco is the staple of the county; 
one paper is published here. The Kentucky and Great 
Eastern It. R. runs through the town. Pop. 960. 

Geo. Winter, Pub. “Chronicle.” 

Augusta, the capital of the State of Maine, and seat 
of justice of Kennebec co., is on the Kennebec River, at 
the head of sloop navigation, 43 miles from its mouth, and 


63 miles by railroad N. N. E. of Portland; lat. 44° 19' N., 
Ion. 69° 50' W. The Augusta division of the Maine Central 
R. R. passes through it. The main part of the city is on 
the right (W.) bank of the river, and many of the resi¬ 
dences stand on ground which is much higher than the 
river. The State-house, a handsome granite structure, is 
on an eminence, and commands an extensive prospect. 
Among the public institutions are a hospital for the in¬ 
sane, a U. S. arsenal, and St. Catharine’s school for young 
ladies. By the construction of a dam across the river just 
above the city, abundant water-power has been obtained, 
which is employed in manufactures of cotton goods and 
lumber. There is also a card-factory, an iron-foundry, a 
free library, and the Maine State Library. The National 
Military Asylum is just outside the city limits. Nearly all 
the business portion of the city was consumed by fire in 
Sept., 1865. Augusta has three national banks, one daily, 
one semi-monthly, one monthly, and four weekly news¬ 
papers. Pop. in 1870, 780S. 

Alden Sprague, Ed. of “Kennebec Journal.” 

Augusta, a post-township of Kalamazoo co., Mich. 
Pop. 608. 

Augusta, a township of Washtenaw co., Mich. Pop. 
1470. 

Augusta, a post-village, capital of Perry co., Miss., on 
Leaf River, 110 miles S. E. of Jackson. 

Augusta, a post-village and township of Oneida co., 
N. Y., 20 miles S. E. of Oneida Lake and 100 miles W. N. 
W. of Albany. The township contains several manufac¬ 
turing villages. Pop. of township, 2067. 

Augusta, a post-township of Carroll co., 0. Pop. 1015. 

Augusta, a post-village of Eau Claire co., Wis., on the 
West Wisconsin R. R., 22 miles E. S. E. of Eau Claire. It 
has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 761. 

Augus'ta Ilisto'ria (i . e. “Augustan History”), a 
collection of histories or biographies of the Roman em¬ 
perors, from Hadrian to Carinus inclusive (117-285 A. D.). 
The authors of the “Augusta Historia” were Allius Spar- 
tianus, Julius Capitolinus, Allius Lampridius, Yulcatius 
Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio, and Flavius Vopiscus. 

Augus'tan Age, the reign of the emperor Augustus 
Caesar, commenced about 30 B. C., and was the most bril¬ 
liant period in the literary history of Rome. It was illus¬ 
trated by the genius of Virgil, Horace, Livy, Ovid, Proper¬ 
tius, and Tibullus. Cicero also, and Julius Caesar, may be 
included as contemporaries of Augustus. This age was also 
signalized by the most perfect development of the science 
of jurisprudence, in which the Romans excelled all other 
nations, and which was perhaps their only original intel¬ 
lectual property of much importance. A purer Latinity 
appears in the writings of the Augustan Age than in those 
of earlier and subsequent periods. 

Augusta'na Col'lege and Theolog'ical Sem'i- 

mary. This institution was founded in 1860, and held its 
sessions in the basement of the Swedish Lutheran church 
in Chicago, Ill. In 1863 it was removed to Paxton, Ford 
co., Ill. Its primary object is the education of candidates 
for the gospel ministry of the Evangelical Lutheran Church 
among the Scandinavian population of this country. It 
also educates young men for the office of teacher in the 
parochial schools of the Church, and for business and pro¬ 
fessional life. It was incorporated by the legislature of 
Illinois Feb. 16, 1865, and its charter was amended Mar. 
10, 1869. The course of instruction consists of three years 
in the preparatory department, embracing the study of the 
English, German, Swedish, Latin, and Greek grammars 
and languages, together with a thorough course in all the 
branches usually taught in a preparatory department; and 
four years in the college department, embracing the clas¬ 
sical, the scientific, and the mathematical course usually 
taught in American colleges. The scholastic year consists 
of forty weeks, divided into two terms of sixteen and 
twenty-four weeks respectively, including a short recess 
during the holidays. The institution has a library of 7000 
volumes. The faculty, at present, consists of the president 
and three professors ; there is also one tutor. The first prin¬ 
cipal was the Rev. L. P. Esbjorn. In 1863, Rev. T. N. Ilas- 
selquist, D. D., was elected president, which office he yet 
holds. Measures are being taken for the removal of 
this institution to Rock Island, Ill. The institution has 
an endowment of 880 acres of improved land in Ford 
co., Ill., and efforts are now being made to raise $30,000 
as an addition to the college endowment. 

T. N. IIasselquist. 

Augusti (Christian Johann Wilhelm), born Oct. 27, 
1772, at Eschenburg, near Gotha, Germany, studied at Jena, 
where ho became a professor extraordinary in 1800, profes¬ 
sor of Oriental literature in 1803, and professor of theology 
in 1807. In 1812 he became professor of theology at Bres- 













AUGUSTINE—AUGUSTUS III. 


lau, and in 1819 at Bonn. In 1S33 he became director of 
the conservatory at Coblcntz, where ho died April 28, 1841. 
lie was a man of great learning, an orthodox conservative 
Lutheran. His writings are valued as books of reference, 
though they are not without serious faults. His best-known 
work is “ Denkwiirdigkeiten aus der Christlichen Archaeo- 
logie” (12 vols., 1817-31). He published various other 
works, historical and dogmatical. 

Au'gustine [Lat. Aure'lius Augusti'nus], Saint, the 
most eminent of the Latin Fathers of the Church, was born 
at Tagaste, in Numidia, on the 13th of Nov., 353 A. D. 
He was a son of a pagan father and a Christian mother 
(Monica or Monnica), an excellent and devout woman, by 
whom he was instructed in religion. Educated at the best 
schools of Madaura and Carthage, he learned rhetoric, the 
Greek language, philosophy, etc. When, at the age of 
seventeen, he entered the great city of Carthage to com¬ 
plete his education, he was an eager, ambitious student and 
a youth of ardent passions, with a propensity to sensual 
pleasure. According to his own statement in his “ Con¬ 
fessions,” he deviated widely from the path of strict 
morality during this period, and became a father before he 
was married. About the age of nineteen he embraced the 
doctrines of the Manichaeans, and returned to Tagaste, 
where he taught rhetoric and grammar. He adhered to 
Manichaeism about nine years, during part of which he 
lectured on rhetoric at Carthage. In the mean time his 
mother, by her prayers and exhortations, strove to convert 
him to Christianity, without success. He wrote at Carthage 
in his twenty-seventh year a treatise, “ De Apto et Pul- 
chro,” which is not extant. At length he perceived that 
the mystical phrases and futile speculations of the Manich¬ 
aeans were not capable of satisfying the wants of his spirit¬ 
ual nature. Much perplexed with doubts and unrest, he 
removed in 383 A. D. to Rome, and thence to Milan, where 
he was appointed professor of rhetoric in 384. He was 
deeply interested in the Platonic philosophy, and after he 
renounced Manichaeism studied the Bible from a Platonic 
point of view. The sermons of Saint Ambrose, then bishop 
of Milan, made a deep impression on him, and after severe 
spiritual conflicts he became a Christian, and was baptized 
on Easter Eve, 387. In 388 he went back to Tagaste, was 
ordained presbyter at Hippo in 391, associate bishop in 
395, and bishop in 396. Among his earlier writings was a 
treatise against the Manichaeans (“ De Genesi contra 
Manichaeos ”), and “On True Religion” (“ De Vera Re- 
ligione”). lie published about 397 his “Confessions,” in 
thirteen books, a very interesting autobiography. He was 
a zealous opponent of Pelagianism, against which he wrote 
two treatises, entitled “ On the Grace of Christ ” and “ On 
Original Sin.” Semi-Pelagianism was opposed by him, in 
428, in two famous treatises on “ Predestination ” and on 
“ Perseverance.” He also wrote vigorously against the 
Donatists. He finished about 426 a work, “ De Civitate 
Dei” (“On the City of God”), which is regarded as the 
greatest monument of his genius and learning. One aim 
of this book was to vindicate the Christian faith against 
those pagans who asserted that the capture of Rome by 
Alaric and other calamities were consequences of the prev¬ 
alence of the new religion. Near the end of his life he 
wrote the “ Itetractationes,” in which he reviewed carefully 
all his own works. Other important treatises are the “ De 
Doctrina Christiana” and the “ De Trinitate.” He left 
behind him also exegetical treatises, sermons, and letters 
in great number. The best edition of his works is that 
published by the Benedictines at Paris (11 vols., 1679-1700). 
He died at Hippo while that city was besieged by the Van¬ 
dals, on the 28th of Aug., 430 A. D. His character and 
writings exerted an immense and durable influence on the 
Church. “ Of all the Fathers of the Latin Church,” says 
Villemain, “Saint Augustine manifested the most imagina¬ 
tion in theology, the most eloquence, and even sensibility, in 
scholasticism.” For learning his reputation is not so high. 
He was a poor Greek scholar, and knew nothing of Hebrew. 
(See Possidius, “Vita Sancti Augustini;” G. Moringo, 
“Vie de Saint-Augustin,” 1533 ; Tillemont, “Memoires 
Ecclesiastiqucs,” 1702; Rivius, “Vita Sancti Augustini,” 
1646; Poujoulat, “Vie de Saint-Augustin,” 1852; Binde- 
mann, “Augustine’s Leben,” 1844; Butler, “Lives of the 
Saints;” Neander, “History of the Church.”) 

Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Augustine, or Austin, Saint, the “apostle of Eng¬ 
land” and first archbishop of Canterbury. He was a Bene¬ 
dictine monk, connected with a monastery in Rome, when 
he was sent by Pope Gregory I. to convert the Anglo-Sax¬ 
ons, in 596 A.* D. Ho was received amicably by King Eth- 
elbert, whose wife Bertha was already a Christian. He 
converted Ethelbert, and is said to have baptized 10,000 of 
his subjects. Augustine was appointed archbishop of Can¬ 
terbury by the pope. Died in 604, or, as some say, 614. 


327 


(See W. F. Hook, “ Lives of the Archbishops of Canter¬ 
bury,” vol. i.) 

Augustin'ian Monks, a monastic order of the Roman 
Catholic Church. This order was formerly divided into 
three classes, of which two still remain: I. Canons Regular. 
—This class of ecclesiastics originated at Avignon in the 
year 1038, by authority of the bishop Benedict of Avignon. 
They were called Canons Regular because their ranks were 
recruited from the lay and clerical canons who had not 
previously taken monastic vows. They assumed the name 
and rule of Augustine in 1139. They had 170 houses in 
England and 28 in Scotland. II. The so-called Hermits 
of St. Augustine, one of the four great mendicant orders of 
the Church. This body incorrectly claims to have been 
founded by Saint Augustine. Its true origin was in 1256, 
when Pope Alexander IV. compelled eight small bodies of 
Italian monks to unite in one order under the rule of St. 
Augustine, and exempted them from the jurisdiction of 
bishops. The Hermits of St. Augustine have now about 
200 houses. They are much diminished in importance. 
The Special Congregations consisted of those Augustinians 
who desired a severer rule and better discipline than com¬ 
monly prevailed in the order. Martin Luther was a mem¬ 
ber of the Special Congregation of Saxony. III. The Bare¬ 
footed Augustinians originated in 1582, by command of the 
king of Spain. They have a very severe rule. The num¬ 
ber of monasteries in 1860 was about fifteen. This class is 
nearly or quite independent of the former. 

Augustinian Nuns are of four classes: First, those 
under the guidance of Augustinian monks; secondly, those 
under the control of diocesan bishops ; thirdly, barefooted 
nuns; fourthly, Augustines of the Interior of Mary. (See 
Migue, “ Dictionnaire des ordres Religieux,” tom. iv.; Dug- 
dale, “ Onomasticon,” vi. 37.) 

Augusto'wo, or Augustow, a town of Russian Po¬ 
land, in the government of Suvalki, on the Netta, 140 miles 
N. E. of Warsaw. It has manufactures of cotton and wool¬ 
len goods. Pop. in 1867, 9354. 

Ailgustowo, Canal of, unites the Vistula with tho 
river Niemen, and connects it with the Baltic at Memel. It 
is 150 miles long, extending from Wizna on the Narew to 
a point on the Niemen, 14 miles N. of Grodno. 

Augus'tiilus (Romulus), the last Roman emperor of 
the West, was a son of Orestes, a rich patrician. He ob¬ 
tained the title of emperor in 475 A. D., and was deposed 
by Odoacer in 476. 

Augus'tus, a Latin word equivalent to the Gr. 2ej3ao-To?, 
signifies “ majestic,” “ sacred,” “ venerable.” It was a name 
or surname conferred on Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus by 
the Roman senate, 27 B. C. 

Augus'tus (or August) I., elector of Saxony, a son 
of Henry the Pious, was born at Freiberg in 1526, and suc¬ 
ceeded his brother Maurice in 1553. He was an intolerant 
promoter of Lutheranism, and persecuted the Calvinists, 
but was a liberal patron of learning, and under his admin¬ 
istration the manufactures, agriculture, and commerce of 
the country were greatly promoted and improved; he also 
introduced some valuable reforms in jurisprudence. He 
was chiefly instrumental in negotiating the peace of Augs¬ 
burg (1555). He died in 1586, and was succeeded by his 
son, Christian I. 

Augustus II. of Saxony (and Augustus I. of Po¬ 
land), born at Dresden in 1670, was the second son of 
John George III., elector of Saxony, and Anna Sophia of 
Denmark. He possessed extraordinary physical strength, 
and was not deficient in mental faculties. He became 
elector of Saxony on the death of his brother in 1694, 
and was elected king of Poland in 1697, having, for the 
sake of the crown, adopted the Roman Catholic religion. 
His competitor in this election was the French prince 
of Conti. Augustus formed about 1700 an alliance with 
Peter the Great against Charles XII. of Sweden, by whom 
he was defeated in several battles. By a treaty signed in 
1706 he renounced the crown of Poland, which Charles 
XII. gave to Stanislas Lesczynski. In consequence of the 
defeat of Charles XII. by the Russians in 1709, Augustus 
recovered the throne of Poland, and as an ally of Peter the 
Great waged war against Sweden for several years. Au¬ 
gustus was luxurious, licentious, and fond of splendor. He 
squandered, the revenues of Saxony on his mistresses and 
on alchemists, whom he patronized. He had many ille¬ 
gitimate children, among whom was the famous Maurice 
of Saxony (Marshal Saxe). He died in Feb., 1733, leaving 
the throne to his son Augustus. (See Fassmann and Horn, 
“Friedrich August des Grossen Leben,” 1734; Desroches 
de Partiienay, “ Ilistoire de Pologno sous lc ltoi Auguste 
II.,” 4 vols., 1734.) 

Augustus III. (Frederick), king of Poland, born 
at Dresden in 1696, was a son of the preceding. He was 















328 


AUGUSTUS—AULIC COUNCIL. 


inferior in talents to his father. Having joined the Ro¬ 
man Catholic Church, he married, in 1719, Maria Jose¬ 
phine, a daughter of Joseph, emperor of Austria. In 
1733 ho became elector of Saxony, and was chosen king 
of Poland by a party of the Diet. Favored by the courts 
of Austria and Russia, he prevailed over his rival Stanislas. 
In 1742 he formed an alliance with the empress Maria 
Theresa against Frederick the Great, who defeated the 
Saxons in 1745 and captured Dresden. This war was ended 
in 174(3, but Augustus was soon involved in the Seven 
Years’ war, which began in 1755, and his army was again 
defeated by the Prussians. He died in 1763, and his son, 
Frederick Christian, then became elector of Saxony. 

Augustus (William), prince of Prussia, a younger 
brother of Frederick the Great, was born at Berlin in 1722. 
He distinguished himself at Hohen-Friedberg in 1745, be¬ 
came a general of infantry, and displayed skilful general¬ 
ship at the battle of Lowositz in 1756. He died in 1758, 
and left a son, who became King Frederick William II. 

Augus'tus Cie'sar (often called simply Augustus), 
called in his youth Caius Octavius, and after he became 
the heir of Crnsar the dictator, Caius Julius Caesar Oc- 
tavianus, the first Roman emperor, was born at Velitrae 
in 63 B. C. He was the son of Caius Octavius, a senator, 
and Atia, who was a niece of Julius Cmsar. His father 
having died about 60 B. C., his mother was married to L. 
Marcius Philippus, who directed the education of young 
Octavius. At the age of sixteen he assumed the toga virilin, 
and was adopted as a son by Julius Caesar, whom he attend¬ 
ed in his expedition to Spain in 45 B. C. He became a pu¬ 
pil of Apollodorus of Pergamus, under whom he was pur¬ 
suing his studies at Apollonia when Caesar was killed, in 
Mar., 44 B. C. As he had been appointed the heir of the 
dictator, he hastened to Rome to claim his inheritance. 
Mark Antony, who then had the chief power in Rome, re¬ 
fused to deliver the property and papers of the late dicta¬ 
tor. Octavius temporized, and in the turbulent and critical 
times that ensued exhibited the prudence and astuteness of 
a mature politician. He gained the favor of the senate, 
which in Jan., 43 B. C., gave him the command of an army 
which defeated that of Antony near Mutina (M6dena). 

The adhesion of the army to his interest enabled him 
now to defy the authority of the senate. He marched 
to Rome, was elected consul in Aug., 43, and formed 
a triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus against Bru¬ 
tus, Cassius, and the senate. Antony and Octavius 
defeated Brutus and Cassius in the decisive battle of 
Philippi in 42 B. C., and, to confirm their power, pro¬ 
scribed and massacred thousands of their opponents 
in Italy. Augustus then obtained control of Italy by a 
new division of the provinces, but dissensions soon 
arose between him and Antony, who had command in 
Asia. An open rupture was, however, postponed, and 
Antony married Octavia, the sister of his great rival. 
About 38 B. C. the triumvirate was renewed for an¬ 
other period of five years, during which Octavius and 
Antony were virtually masters of the Roman world. 
Octavius defeated Sextus Pompey in battle in the 
year 36, and was chosen consul for the second time 1 
in 33. In the mean time, Antony, infatuated with 
passion for Cleopatra, neglected his own interests, 
and by his ill-treatment of Octavia broke the only 
bond of union with his colleague. The contest for 
supreme power was decided by a great naval victory 
which Octavius gained at Actium in 31 B. C., after 
which he was the sole master of the Roman empire. 

He was subsequently chosen consul several times, and 
professed an intention to restore the republic, but he 
usurped absolute power, partly disguised under re¬ 
publican forms. In 27 B. C. the title of Augustus 
was conferred on him by the obsequious senate, which 
retained the shadow of its former power. His favorite 
ministers and advisers were Agrippa, Mmcenas, and 
Asinius Pollio. He was thrice married; the names of 
his wives were Clodia, Scribonia, and Livia Drusilla. He 
had an only child, Julia. In 23 B. C. he accepted the tribn- 
nitia potestas (tribunitian power) for life. Ilis reign was 
remarkably pacific and prosperous, and the Augustan Age 
was rendered the most brilliant in the Roman literature by 
the genius of Virgil and Horace, whom the emperor libe¬ 
rally patronized. He was a prudent and rather popular 
ruler, governing men with artful policy, and skilfully using 
their passions and talents to promote his own designs. The 
peace, order, and prosperity which his subjects enjoyed 
under his mild and modified tyranny reconciled them to 
the loss of their ancient liberty. He centralized the admin¬ 
istration and enforced discipline in the armies. He adorn¬ 
ed the city of Romo with public buildings, and made such 
improvement in that capital that it was said that he found 
it a city of brick and left it a city of marble. He was not 


happy in his domestic relations. His adopted sons, Caius 
and Lucius Cassar, to whom he intended to leave the throne, 
died young. He was temperate in his diet and moderate 
and frugal in his style of living. He had studied oratory 
with some success, but on important occasions he would 
never speak without careful preparation. He composed 
numerous works in prose and verse on various subjects. 
Having designated his stepson Tiberius as his successor, 
he died in Aug., 14 A. D. (See Suetonius, “Life of Au¬ 
gustus” (“Vita Augusti”); Nicolas Damascenus, “De 
Vita Augusti;” Tacitus, “Annales;” Drumann, “ Ge- 
schichteRoms;” Larrey, “Vie d’Auguste,” 1840; Nouga- 
rede, “Histoire du Siecle d’Auguste,” 1840.) 

Revised by Abel Stevens. 

Auk ( Al'ca ), a genus of web-footed oceanic birds of the 
family Alcadse. The auks are remarkable for the shortness 
of their wings, which in some species are used as paddles 
or fins in swimming under water, while in others they are 
used in flight. These birds are adapted solely for an aquatic 
life, and swim with wonderful rapidity; they pass their 
lives mostly in the sea and on the shore near the water’s 
edge. They are found only in the northern hemisphere, 
and are most abundant in the Arctic regions. The genus 
Alca, restricted by Cuvier, comprises only two species— 
the great auk {Alca impennis) and the razor-bill {Alca 
torda). The great auk is about as large as a goose, and 
resembles a penguin, having very short wings unfit for 
flight, and being compelled by the form and situation of its 
legs to hold itself in an erect position when on the land. It 
moves under the water with extraordinary rapidity. This 
bird, so numerous a few years ago, has been lost sight of, 
and is thought to be extinct. About thirty-four birds and 
forty-two eggs are known, they being distributed among 
the various scientific institutions of the world. The razor¬ 
bills or black-billed auks have longer wings, and can fly 
well. They breed in immense numbers within the Arctic 
Circle, and are very valuable to the Esquimaux, who eat 
their flesh and clothe themselves with their downy skins. 
They derive the name razor-bill from the sharpness of the 
edge of their bills. The common puffin {Fratercula arctica) 
is remarkable for the singular shape, enormous size, and 



Labrador Auk, or Arctic Puffin. 

the light colors of its beak, owing to which it is often call¬ 
ed the sea-parrot or the coulterneb; it is also sometimes 
called the Labrador auk. The name of little auk is often 
given to a species of Mergxdus. 

Au'la Re'gia, Latin words signifying “ king’s hall ” 
or “ court.” This name was applied to a court established 
in England by William the Conqueror, and afterwards reg¬ 
ulated by Magna Charta. 

Ail'lic [from the Lat. au'la; Ger. lieichshofrath ] 
Council, one of the two highest councils or courts of the 
former German empire, co-ordinate with the imperial cham¬ 
ber. The aulic council, which was organized in 1495, con¬ 
sisted of a president, vice-president, and eighteen coun¬ 
cillors, six of whom were Protestants, whose unanimous 
votes could not be overruled by the Catholic majority. The 





































AULICK—AUEICUL A. 


329 


members and officers of this council were appointed by the 
emperor, and had jurisdiction over all matters of feudality 
in which the emperor was directly concerned; all questions 
of appeal made by states from decisions in favor of the em¬ 
peror in inferior courts; and Italian affairs in which the 
emperor was interested. After the dissolution of the Ger¬ 
man empire in 1806, the term aulic council was applied to 
the emperor of Austria’s council of state. 

Au'lick (Commodore John H.), born in Virginia in 1787, 
entered the U. S. navy in 1809. He was promoted to be 
a lieutenant in 1814 for bravery in the fight between the 
Enterprise and Boxer. He afterwards served with great 
honor, becoming captain in 1841, and commodore in 1862. 
Died April, 1873. 

Au'lis, a town of ancient Greece, in Bceotia, on the 
Euripus, had a temple of Artemis (Diana). According to 
the poetical legend, Agamemnon here assembled the Gre¬ 
cian fleet before the siege of Troy, and here he offered his 
daughter Iphigenia as a sacrifice. Its present name is 
Vathi. 

Aull'ville, a village of Lafayette co., Mo., on the Lex¬ 
ington and St. Louis R. R., has one wagon and carriage 
factory, one machine-shop, one manufactory of boots and 
shoes, and other industries. It has one weekly paper. 

H. Duley, Ed. “Aullville Times.” 

All'lsis Gel'lius, a Latin author who lived during the 
reigns of Hadrian and the Antonines. Little is known of 
the events of his life. He resided much at Athens, where 
he composed his “ Noctes Atticae,” probably before 150 
A. D. His book is a mass of curious information upon a 
great variety of subjects, and, though ill-arranged, is val¬ 
uable to critics, from the light it throws upon many obscure 
points of ancient history and literature. The edition of 
Conradi (1762) is one of the best. 

Aumale (formerly Albemarle), a small town of 
France, department of Seine-Inferieure, 13 miles E. N. E. 
of Neufehatel. Pop. in 1866, 2229. In the reign of Henry 
II. Aumale was erected into a duchy, and the title of duke 
of Aumale was given to Claude, a brother of Francis, duke 
of Guise. (See the next article.) 

Aumale, d’ (Claude II.), Due, a French general, born 
in 1523, was a brother of the famous duke of Guise. He 
fought against the Huguenots at St. Denis (1567) and Mon¬ 
contour (1569), and was one of the chief instigators of the 
massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). He was killed in 
battle Mar. 14, 1573.—His son, Charles de Lorraine, due 
d’Aumale, born about 1555, was an ardent partisan of the 
Catholic League. After the death of his cousin, Henry, 
duke of Guise, 1588, Aumale and the duke of Mayenne 
were the leaders of the League, and commanded the armies 
that fought against Henry IV. He had ill-success as a 
general. Having plotted treason with the king of Spain, 
he was condemned to death by Parliament in 1595, but es¬ 
caped. Died at Brussels in 1631. 

Aumale, d’ (Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d’Or- 
leans), Due, the fourth son of Louis Philippe, king of the 
French, was born in Paris in 1822. He entered the army 
in 1839, served several campaigns in Algeria, and was rap¬ 
idly promoted. In May, 1843, having defeated Abd-el- 
Kader, whose camp and treasures became the spoil of the 
victors, he was raised to the rank of lieutenant-general. 
In Sept., 1847, he was appointed governor-general of 
Algeria, about three months after which Abd-el-Kader 
surrendered to him. On learning the abdication of his 
father, he resigned his command, Mar., 1848, and went 
into exile, residing many years in England. He was 
chosen a member of the National Assembly in Feb., 1871, 
soon after which date that body annulled the decree or 
law which had excluded the Orleans princes from France. 
He was elected to the French Academy in the winter of 
1871-72. 

Auue [Lat. ulna, the elbow], an old European cloth 
measure, having many values in different places, varying 
between 27 and 54 inches. The French aune was about 
46.8 inches. The name survives only in Switzerland, where 
it signifies a measure equal to four feet in length, the foot 
being thirty centimetres. The Swiss aune is therefore 
about 47£ inches long. 

Au'ra [a Latin word signifying a "breath,” a “gentle 
breeze,” from the Gr. au, to “ breathe”], a subtle vapor 
or exhalation.— Aura electrica (literally, the “ electrical 
breeze”), the sensation as of cold air experienced when 
electricity is received from a sharp point.— Aura epileptica, 
the peculiar sensation felt by epileptic patients as of a cold 
fluid ascending towards the head.— Aura hysterica , the sen¬ 
sation as of cold air ascending to the head, said to occur 
sometimes in hysteria.— Aura seminalis or aura seminis, 
the supposed vivifying principle of the semen virile, for¬ 
merly believed to ascend through the Fallopian tubes, 


thereby impregnating the ovum in the ovarium.— Aura vi- 
talis, a name for the principle of life. 

Aurantia'ceae [from the Lat. aurantium, an “orange”], 
a natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, natives of 
the warm parts of Asia and Northern Africa. All parts 
of these plants contain a fragrant volatile oil, which 
abounds especially in the leaves and in the rind of the 
fruit. The leaves are alternate, articulated with the peti¬ 
ole, and dotted or pellucid-punctate; the fruit is a hesperid- 
ium. The order comprises numerous species, some of 
which are remarkable for beauty and are highly prized for 
their fruits, as the orange, lemon, and citron. (See Citrus.) 
The fruits of AEgle marmelos, Coolcia punctata, Glycosmia 
citrifolia, and many others are also edible. The Skimmia 
Japonica, a beautiful shrub of Japan, is more hardy than 
the other plants of this order, and flourishes in the open 
air in England. 

Aur'dal, a township of Otter Tail co., Minn. Pop. 85. 

Aure'lian, or Aurelia'nus (Claudius Domitius), a 
Roman emperor of humble origin, was born about 212 A. D. 
at Sirmium, in Pannonia, or, as some say, in Lower Dacia. 
He served with distinction in several campaigns, and raised 
himself by his merit to the highest rank in the army of 
Valerian. It is stated that he usually fought in the fore¬ 
most rank. On the death of Claudius (270 A. D.), Aure- 
lian was elected emperor by the army. Early in his reign 
the empire was invaded by the German tribe of Alemanni, 
whom lie defeated. He abandoned Dacia to the Goths and 
Vandals, in order that the Danube might become the bound¬ 
ary of the empire. The most important and famous of his 
enterprises was an expedition against Zenobia, queen of 
Palmyra, whose extensive dominions included Syria and 
Egypt. Having defeated her army in battle near Emesa, 
he captured Palmyra and its queen in 273 A. D., after 
which he received at Rome a triumph of extraordinary 
magnificence. He recovered Gaul from Tetricus, who had 
usurped royal power, and obtained the title of “ Restorer 
of the empire.” His memory is stained by the judicial 
murder of Longinus the critic, and other acts of excessive 
severity. He was assassinated by his own officers between 
Byzantium and Heraclea in 275 A. D., and was succeeded 
by Tacitus. (See Vopiscus, “Vita Aureliani;” Tillemont, 
“ Histoire des Empereurs ;” Gibbon, “ Decline and Fall of 
the Roman Empire,” chap, xi.) 

Aure'lms, a post-township of Ingham co., Mich. Pop. 
1506. 

Aurelius, a post-township of Cayuga co., N. Y. Pop. 
1952. 

Aurelius, a township of Washington co., 0. Pop. 799. 

Aure'lius Victor (Sextus), a Roman historian who 
flourished about 380 A. D. He was appointed prefect of 
Pannonia Secunda by Julian the Apostate about 360, and 
was prefect of Rome under Theodosius I. He wrote a 
series of biographies of the Roman emperors from Au¬ 
gustus to Constantius, entitled “ De Cmsaribus Historia,” 
which is extant. Two other works are ascribed to him— 
namely, “ The Lives of Illustrious Romans ” and “ Aurelii 
Victoris Epitome.” 

Aure'ola, Au'reole [Lat. aure'olus, “golden”], in 
painting, the golden glory which encircles the heads, or 
even the whole bodies, of saints and martyrs. The circle 
or nimbus when it encloses a cross belongs to Christ alone; 
without the cross it indicates canonized saints. There is 
also a form of aureole appropriated to saints who are called 
beati, “ blessed,” but are not canonized, whose heads are 
decorated with a radiation of golden lines. The idea of 
placing an aureole around the head of divine or sainted per¬ 
sonages did not, there is reason to believe, originate with 
the Christians of the primitive or Middle Ages. Aureoles 
essentially resembling those which surround the heads of 
the saints appear to have been common in India in the 
representations of the Hindoo gods from early times. (See 
Moor’s “ Hindu Pantheon.”) 

Au'reus, or Dema'rius Au'reus, the standard and 
most ancient Roman gold coin, first struck in 207 B. C. 
The average weight of the aureus was about 121 grains—a 
little less than the Greek stater, and about the same as the 
Persian daric. 

Au'ricle [Lat. auric'nla, the diminutive of au'ris , the 
“ear”], the external portion of the ear. 

Auricles of the heart [Lat. auricu'lee cor'dis ], the term 
applied to those cavities of the heart which receive the 
blood returning from the veins, and convey it to the ven¬ 
tricles. The auricles are popularly called “ deaf-ears.’ (bee 
Heart.) 

Auric'ula ( Prim'ula Auric'ula), a plant ot the order 
Primulaceae, nearly related to the primrose, is much culti¬ 
vated in flower-gardens. It is a native ot the Alps and 













330 AURICULA—AURORA BOREALIS. 


other mountains of Europe and Asia. It is prized for the 
beauty and fragrance of its flowers, which grow in the 
form of an umbel on a scape. The size and color of the 
flowers have been much improved by cultivation. Among 
the colors prevailing in the 1200 or more cultivated varie¬ 
ties arc red, pink, crimson, and mulberry. Some varieties 
present a single color, and others are variegated of are 
adorned with a green margin. The flowers are covered 
with a fine meal or powder. The auricula blooms in April 
or May, and often has a second crop of flowers in autumn. 
It prefers a rich, light soil, and the finer varieties are usu¬ 
ally cultivated in pots. The chief requisites of a good 
auricula are large flowers, which are nearly round, and 
have in the centre a white or yellow eye which is distinct 
and round, its color not mixed with the ground color; and 
a long scape, strong enough to hold itself erect. 

Auricula, a genus of Auriculidm, a family of Mollusca 
of the class Gasteropoda. They have a spiral shell covered 
with a horny epidermis. The spire is obtuse or short, and 
the aperture elongated and narrow. They have respiratory 
organs adapted for breathing in air, and they frequent salt 
marshes or the vicinity of the sea. They are chiefly found 
in and near warm seas. Several species are fossil. 

Auric'ular Confes'sion [Lat. auricula, the “ external 
car ”], private confession of sins to a priest. For certain 
offences the early Church required confession. In the fifth 
century, owing to some scandals in public confession, Leo 
the Great (440-461) authorized the parish priest to receive 
confessions. By the twenty-first canon (“ Omnis utriusque 
8exus fidelis”) of the Fourth Lateran Council, in 1215, un¬ 
der Innocent III., it is enjoined upon the faithful to confess 
their sins once a year, at least, to the parish priest, under 
pain of losing Christian burial. 

Auri'ga, a Latin word signifying “ charioteer,” is the 
name of a northern constellation of the celestial sphere, 
sometimes called The Wagoner. It contains Capella, a 
star of the first magnitude. 

Aurillac, o're'yak' (anc. Aureli'acum), a town of 
France, capital of the department of Cantal, is pleasantly 
situated in a valley on the river Jourdanne, 272 miles S. 
of Paris. It is well built, and has wide and clean streets. 
The houses are covered with slate, which is quarried in the 
vicinity. Among its ancient and remarkable public build¬ 
ings are the church of Notre Dame, built in the thirteenth 
century, the castle of St. Stephen, and the college, which 
has a valuable library. Here are manufactures of copper 
kettles, jewelry, paper, carpets, and woollen stuffs. Pop. in 
1866, 10,998. 

Auriol, a town of France, in the department of Bou- 
ches-du-Rhone, 16 miles N. E.of Marseilles. Pop. in 1866, 
5182. 

Au'rochs [Ger. pron. owr'oks], a contraction of the 
German Auer-Ochs (?. e. 

“wild-ox”), the Bos urua 
of some naturalists, and 
Bison bonassus of others, 
is a European species of 
BiS0N(which see). Though 
once found in great num¬ 
bers in many parts of Eu¬ 
rope, it is now chiefly, if 
not wholly, limited to the 
forests of Lithuania, Mol¬ 
davia, Wallachia, and the 
Caucasus. It bears many 
points of similarity to the Aurochs. 

American bison. It is a very powerful animal, being 
somewhat larger than an ordinary ox, and, though clumsy 
in appearance, can run rapidly for a short distance. The 
body of this animal exhales a strong odor, somewhat 
resembling musk. The aurochs is a good swimmer, and 
delights in dabbling in the water and rolling in the mud. 
Its food consists in a great part of lichens, of which it is 
especially fond. 

Auro'ra, a Latin word signifying “morning” or the 
“goddess of morning,” corresponding to the Greek"Ew?. 
The poetical legends represent her as the daughter of Hy¬ 
perion, the wife of the Titan Astraeus, the mother of Iles- 
perus, Boreas, Zephyrus, and Memnon. According to one 
mythical tradition, she loved Tithonus (a son of Laome- 
don), for whom she asked and obtained immortality, but 
forgot to ask perpetual youth. She was sometimes repre¬ 
sented as dressed in a saffron-colored robe, with a torch in 
her right hand. 

Aurora, a post village of York co., Ontario, Dominion 
of Canada, on the Northern Railway, 30 miles N. of To¬ 
ronto. It has one weekly newspaper, three churches, and 
a public park. Pop. in 1871, 1132. 

Aurora, a city of Kane co., Ill., on Fox River, and on 


the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 39 miles W. S. W. 
of Chicago, at the junction of that road with the O. 0. and 
F. R. V. R. R., and the Chicago and Iowa R. R. It has a 
city-hall, which cost $75,000, and a fine building for the 
Young Men’s Christian Association, which is doing a large 
benevolent work. It has three national banks, an exten¬ 
sive silver-plate manufacturing establishment, a foundry, 
several machine-shops, a woollen mill, and the shops and 
works of the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., which 
employ 1500 men. It has twenty churches, five newspapers, 
and excellent public schools, and is the seat of Jennings’ 
Seminary. The city is protected from fire by the Holly 
waterworks system. Pop. 11,162; of Aurora township, 
2033. Ed. “ Beacon.” 

Aurora, Dearborn co., Ind., on the Ohio River and 
the Ohio and Mississippi R. R., 25 miles W. by S. from Cin¬ 
cinnati. It has one national bank, four large barrel-factories, 
Ohio and Mississippi R. R. car-shops, an extensive hay- 
trade, one distillery, one large brewery, one chair-factory, 
one furniture-factory, one hay-press factory, one foundry 
of great capacity, and one weekly paper. Pop. 3304. 

L. W. Cobb, Ed. “Dearborn Independent.” 

Aurora, a post-township of Hancock co., Me. P. 212. 

Aurora, a post-township of Steele co., Minn. Pop. 422. 

Aurora, a post-village, capital of Esmeralda co., Nev., 
is situated on a level space at the junction of two ravines 
which extend between Silver, Middle?, and Last Chance 
Hills, and about 100 miles S. E. of Carson City. Its alti¬ 
tude is about 7500 feet above the level of the sea. Rich 
silver-mines have been opened here. Pop. 160. 

Aurora, a post-village of Ledyard township, Cayuga 
co., N. Y., finely situated on the E. side of Cayuga Lake. 
It is a place of summer resort, has many fine residences, 
some manufactures, a weekly paper, and a national bank, 
and is the seat of Wells’s college for ladies and of Cayuga 
Lake Academy. It is on the Cayuga Lake R. R., 25 miles 
N. W. of Ithaca. Pop. 450. 

Aurora, a post-village and township of Erie co., N. Y., 
18 miles S. E. of Buffalo. It has an academy and somo 
manufactures. Pop. of township, 2573. 

Aurora, a post-township of Portage co., 0. Pop. 642. 

Aurora, a township of Waushara co., Wis. Pop. 967. 

Auro'ra Borea'lis (i . e. “northern light”), called also 
Northern Lights, the term applied to a certain luminous 
phenomenon generally appearing in the northern part of the 
sky, and presenting a light somewhat resembling the dawn 
or break of day. It is most frequent and brilliant in high 
northern and high southern latitudes; in the latter case 
it is called “aurora australis ” or “southern light.” The 
appearances are extremely various. Not unfrequently it 
seems to proceed from a sort of horizontal cloud or haze in the 
northern part of the sky, rising a few degrees above the 
horizon, and stretching from the north towards the east and 
west, so as to form an arc which in some instances has been 
observed to extend upward of one hundred degi-ees. The 
upper edge of the cloud is whitish and luminous, the lower 
part often dark or thick, and sometimes the clear sky may 
be seen between it and the horizon. From the upper part 
of the cloud streams of light shoot up in columnar forms, 
reaching sometimes only a few degrees, sometimes to the 
zenith, or even beyond it. Instances have occurred in 
which the whole hemisphere was covered with coruscations, 
but the brilliancy is greatest and the light strongest in the 
north, near the main body of the meteor. The streamers 
have in general a tremulous motion, and when close together 
present the appearance of waves or sheets of light follow¬ 
ing each other in rapid succession. When several columns, 
issuing from different points, meet at the zenith, a small 
meteor is formed of greater brilliancy than the separate 
columns. The aurora sometimes continues a few hours, 
occasionally the whole night, and even for several nights 
in succession. The height of the aurora above the earth 
has been variously estimated by different scientists. By 
taking observations of the altitude of the highest point of ' 
the arch of the same aurora at different stations, heights 
varying from five to five hundred miles have been calcu¬ 
lated. It is now almost universally admitted that the au¬ 
rora borealis occurs at various heights, and that it is seldom 
found less than forty-five miles above the surface of the 
earth. The distance of the stations at which the same 
aurora has been visible indicates the enormous geographical 
extent, and likewise the great altitude, which the phenome¬ 
non frequently attains. One aurora, for instance—that 
which occurred on Sept. 3, 1839—was seen in the Isle of 
Skye; at Paris; at Asti, in the Sardinian states ; at New 
Haven, in Conn., and at New Orleans. That of Sept. 2, 
1859, was seen all over Europe and North America, and in 
the Sandwich Islands. The aurora of Feb. 4, 1872, was 
seen in the U. S., Europe, and British India. On the other 


















AUSTIN. 


331 


AURORA VILLE 


hand, observers of eminence assert that the aurora some¬ 
times descends to the region of the clouds. The noise that 
is alleged to accompany the aurora would indicate for it a 
moderate height. Some compare it to the noise that is pi'o- 
duced by the rolling of one piece of silk ujion another, and 
others to the sound of the wind blowing against the flame 
of a candle, or that attending the discharge of fireworks. 
It is proper to observe, however, that scientific Arctic voy¬ 
agers, such as Parry and Franklin, throw doubt on the ex¬ 
istence of any such noise, for not one of the numerous and 
brilliant auroras seen by them was attended with the faint¬ 
est sound. It is now certain that the aurora has an elec¬ 
tric origin, and it is believed by some that its phenomena 
are due to the passage of electric currents through highly 
attenuated air at considerable distance from the earth. 
Telegraphic communications are frequently so interrupted 
by electric currents upon the wires during the continuance 
of an aurora that messages for the time cannot be sent. Oc¬ 
casionally, however, the auroral current is so strong and 
continuous that it can be utilized in sending despatches. 

Periodicity in auroral displays has lately been asserted. 
A maximum occurs about once in ten years, and a period 
of remarkable brilliancy about once in sixty years. Some 
physicists associate these periods with the variations in 
the sun’s spots and with the planetary rotations. 

Auro'raville, a township of Anson co., N. C. P. 1843. 

Aurungabad', a city of Hindostan, in the territory of 
the Nizam, on the Doodna, 68 miles N. E. of Ahmednuggur; 
lat. 19° 54' N., Ion. 75° 33' E. It was a favorite residence 
of Aurung-Zeb, in whose honor it was named. Among the 
monuments of its former grandeur are a ruined palace of 
Aurung-Zeb, and a mausoleum with domes of white marble 
erected by that monarch to the memory of his daughter. 
Many of the mosques and other public buildings are sub¬ 
stantial, but signs of decay are visible. Pop. estimated at 
60,000. 

Au'rung»Zeb, or Aurang-Zebe (i.e. the “orna¬ 
ment of the throne”), afterwards called Alum-Geer or 
Alam-Gir (“conqueror of the world”), a famous Mogul 
emperor of Hindostan, was born Oct. 22, 1618. He was a 
younger son of Shah Jehan, who ceased to reign in 1657. 
The elder sons, Dara and Shuja, then contended for the 
crown in battle, while Aurung-Zeb affected indifference to 
temporal power, and craftily concealed his designs under 
the cloak of piety. Having procured the assassination of 
Dara and Shuja, he became master of the empire in 1658, 
and detained in prison his father until his death in 1666. 
As a bigoted Moslem he persecuted the Hindoos and pro¬ 
voked the Mahrattas to revolt. He added Bejapoor and 
Golconda to his empire, and was one of the most powerful 
of the Mohammedan monarchs of India. His long reign 
was a period of outward and specious prosperity, but the 
empire was diseased at heart, and soon entered a state of 
decadence, which was partly the effect of his policy, du¬ 
plicity, and intolerance. Conscious of the crimes by which 
he obtained power, he lacked confidence in his ministers, 
and is said to have lived in continual fear of treachery. 
Died Feb. 21,1707. (See Elpiiinstone, “History of India;” 
Bernier, “Voyages et Description de l’Empire Mogol;” 
J. Mill, “ History of British India.”) 

Ail Sa'ble, a township of Grundy co., Ill. Pop. 927. 

All Sable, a post-village of Iosco co., Mich. 

Ausa'ble, a village and township of Clinton co., N. Y., 
on the Au Sable River, about 7 miles above its entrance 
into Lake Champlain. Excellent iron ore abounds, and 
iron is extensively manufactured. There is an academy at 
Keeseville. Pop. of township, 2863. 

Au Sable Forks, a post-village of Jay township, Es¬ 
sex co., and Black Brook township, Clinton co., N. Y., on 
the Au Sable River, has extensive iron-works, which pro¬ 
duce metal of the best quality, also nail-works, lumber- 
mills, etc. 

Ausculta'tion [Lat. ciusculto, auscidta'tum, to “lis¬ 
ten”], a method of determining the condition of the heart 
and lungs by listening to the sounds produced in the cavity 
of the chest. This is done either by the unassisted ear 
(called immediate auscultation), or by the aid of a simple 
sound-conveying instrument, the stethoscope (termed me¬ 
diate auscultation). The stethoscope was invented by 
Lacnnec in 1816. By care and attention the normal sounds 
produced by respiration and the beating of the heart may 
be distinguished from the several abnormal sounds indi¬ 
cating disease. Auscultation is classed among the most 
important of discoveries in modern medical science. Its. 
details were ably explained by Lacnnec, who published a 
treatise on it in 1819. Recent leading writers upon it 
have been Skoda in Germany, Walshe in England, and 
Flint in the U. S. (See Stethoscope.) 

Auso'nius (Decimus Magnus), an eminent Latin poet, 


born at Burdigala (Bordeaux) about 309 A. D. He was 
liberally educated, practised law in his early life, and 
gained distinction as a professor of rhetoric at Burdigala. 
In 367 A. D. he was appointed tutor to Gratiau by the 
emperor Valentinian. He held several high offices under 
the reign of Gratian, who raised him in 379 to the dignity 
of consul. The learned disagree on the question whether 
he was a Christian or a pagan. He wrote epigrams, epis¬ 
tles, idyllia, etc., which were admired by his contemporaries, 
but display little genius, and are very faulty in style. 
Died about 394 A. D. (See M. de Puymaigre, “Vie 
d’Ausone;” J. Demogeot, “ Etudes historiques et litteraires 
sur Ausone,” 1837.) 

All'spices [from the Lat. auspig'ium (i. e. avispicium, 
the “observing of birds”), from avis, a “bird,” and specio, 
to “see”], a term applied by the ancient Romans to divi¬ 
nations founded on the flight of birds or other omens, by 
which the augurs or soothsayers professed that they could 
ascertain the will of the gods and predict events. (See Au¬ 
gur.) No important enterprise or business was undertaken 
without consulting the auspices. In performing this cere¬ 
mony the augur with a wand marked out a portion of the 
sky for his observations, which portion, called a templum, 
was divided into right and left. If the birds appeared on 
the right hand, the omen was favorable; if they flew to¬ 
wards the left (ad sinistrum), it was unfavorable. The chief 
magistrates also had the right to conduct this ceremony, 
and the commander of the army in time of war had the 
exclusive power of taking the auspices. If a victory was 
gained by his legate or lieutenant, it was said to be won 
under the auspices of the general-in-chief. Thus origin¬ 
ated the common English phrase, “under the auspices” 
of some one. In such cases “auspices” signifies influence, 
patronage. 

Aus'sig, an Austrian town, in Bohemia, on the Elbe, 46 
miles W. N. W. from Prague, has coal-mines in the vicinity, 
and manufactures of linen, gold, and silver work. Pop. 
10,933. 

Aus'ten (Jane), an English authoress, born at Steven- 
ton, in Hampshire, Dec. 16, 177.5. She was educated by 
her father, who was rector of Steventon, and after his death 
she lived at Southampton and Chawton. She is said to 
have been beautiful in features. Her first novel, “ Sense 
and Sensibility,” appeared anonymously in 1811. She 
afterwards produced “ Pride and Prejudice,” “ Mansfield 
Park,” “Emma” (1816), “Northanger Abbey” (1818), 
and “Persuasion” (1818), the first three of which were 
anonymous. These works represent with great fidelity the 
ordinary life of the middle classes of England. According 
to Sir Walter Scott, “she had a talent for describing the 
involvements, feelings, and characters of ordinary life 
which is to me the most wonderful I have ever met with.” 
Died July 18, 1817. (See the “Quarterly Review” for 
Jan., 1821; “Atlantic Monthly” for Feb., iS63.) 

Aus'terlitz, a small town in Moravia, on the Littawa, 
12 miles E. S. E. of Briinn. It has a fine castle. Pop. in 
1857, 3452. It is celebrated as the scene of a great victory 
which Napoleon I. gained over the combined armies of 
Austria and Russia, commanded by their respective empe¬ 
rors, on Dec. 2, 1805. Napoleon had taken Vienna about 
Nov. 12, after which he fixed his head-quarters at Briinn, 
where he had about 75,000 men. The armies of the allies, 
amounting to about 85,000, advanced in five columns to 
offer battle to the French, who occupied high ground partly 
covered by wooded eminences, morasses, and small lakes. 
The battle began about 7 A. M., when the allies attempted 
to turn the right wing of Napoleon, who attacked them in 
flank and at various points with great advantage.' While 
a portion of the allied army was retreating across a frozen 
lake, the ice was broken by the French artillery, and nearly 
2000 men perished in the water. The allies lost about 
30,000, killed, wounded, and prisoners, and the French about 
12,000. Among the results of this victory was the treaty 
of Presburg, Dec., 1805. 

Austerlitz, a post-township of Columbia co., N. Y. 
Pop. 1442. 

Aus'tin, a county in the S. E. central part of Texas, has 
an area of 1024 square miles. It is intersected by the Bra¬ 
zos River, which is navigable for steamboats. The soil is 
fertile; cotton is the staple crop, but corn, cattle, tobacco, 
and wool are raised. Manufacturing is carried on quite 
extensively. The Houston and Texas Central R. R. passes 
through the county, which is one of the most thriving in 
the State. Capital, Belleville. Pop. 15,087. 

Austin, the capital of Texas and seat of justice for 
Travis county, is situated on the left bank of the Colorado 
River, in lat. 30° 16' 25'' N., Ion. 97° 43' 58'' W. It is 
surrounded by fine scenery. The river has been recently 
made navigable for steamboats. Austin became the capital 











AUSTIN—AUSTRALIA. 


332 


of the republic of Texas in 1839, was chosen capital of the 
State in 1850, and in 1872 was made permanent capital by 
vote of the people. It is connected by rail with Houston 
and Galveston. Among the public buildings are the Cap¬ 
itol, the general land-office, the comptroller’s and treasu¬ 
rer’s building, governor’s mansion, asylums for lunatics, for 
the blind, and for the deaf and dumb, and the supreme 
court building. It has a well-organized fire department, 
several steam saw-mills, two ice-factories, several planing- 
rnills, and two sash-and-door factories. It is the seat of the 
flourishing Texas Military Institute, and has three daily 
and six weekly papers and one national bank. Pop. 4428. 

Stanley Welch, Ed. “ State Journal.” 

Austin, a township of Macon co., Ill. Pop. 713. 

Austin, a post-village of Jennings township, Scott co., 
Ind., has three manufactories of shingles, two of barrel 
heads and staves, five saw-mills, two churches, and one 
weekly newspaper. Pop. 321. 

J. H. J. Sierp, Ed. “ Austin News.” 

Austin, a township of Mecosta co., Mich. Pop. 346. 

Austin, a township of Sanilac co., Mich. Pop. 349. 

Austin, a thriving little city, capital of Mower co., 
Minn., on the Red Cedar River, and on the Milwaukee and 
St. Paul R. R., and terminus of the Burlington Cedar Rapids 
and Minnesota and Austin and Mason City R. Rs., 104 miles 
S. of St. Paul. It has two newspapers and two national 
banks. It is near the route of the Southern Minnesota 
R. R. Pop. 2039 ; of the township, 2631. 

Davidson & Basford, Pubs. “ Austin Register.” 

Austin, a post-village, the capital of Tunica co., Miss., 
on the Mississippi River, 44 miles by land and 75 miles by 
water S. W. of Memphis, Tenn. It has two weekly papers. 

Ed. of “ Cotton Plant.” 

Austin, a post-township of Cass co., Mo. Pop. 1366. 

Austin, a city, the county-seat of Lander co., Nev., on 
the eastern slope of the Toyabe range of mountains, 90 
miles S. of Battle Mountain Station, and 6 miles E. of 
Reese River. There are four quartz-mills and many rich 
silver-mines here. It has one daily paper. Pop. 1324. 

Casamayou & Dennis, Pubs, of “ Daily Reveille.” 

Austin, a township of Greenville co., S. C. Pop. 1512. 

Austin (James Trecothic), LL.D., an American law¬ 
yer, born at Boston Jan. 7, 1784. He graduated at Har¬ 
vard in 1802, and became in 1806 a son-in-law of Elbridge 
Gerry. He was attorney-general of Massachusetts from 
1832 to 1843. He published, besides other works, a “ Life 
of Elbridge Gerry.” Died May 10, 1870. 

Austin (Jonathan Loring), a patriot, the father of the 
preceding, was born in Boston Jan. 2, 1748, and graduated 
at Harvard in 1766. He was sent to Paris in 1777 as a 
bearer of despatches, and remained there two years as Dr. 
Franklin’s secretary. After the Revolutionary war he was 
secretary of state in Massachusetts. Died May 10, 1826. 

Austin (Moses), an American pioneer, born in Durham, 
Conn., about 1776. He emigrated to Texas about 1820, and 
obtained from the Mexican government a grant and per¬ 
mission to plant a colony in that province. As he was re¬ 
turning to Missouri for settlers, he died June 10, 1821, but 
the colony was founded by his son, Stephen F. Austin. 

Austin, Saint. See Augustine, Saint. 

Austin (Samuel), D. D., an American Congregational 
clergyman, born at New Haven, Conn., Oct. 7,1760, gradu¬ 
ated at Yale in 1783, was pastor at Fair Haven, Conn., for 
three years from 1786, and afterwards at Worcester, Mass., 
for nearly twenty-five years. In 1815 he accepted the 
presidency of the University of Vermont, which post he 
occupied for about six years. The last years of his life 
were spent in much bodily weakness and mental depression. 
Died Dec. 4, 1830. 

Austin (SARAn), an English writer and accomplished 
translator, was a member of the eminent Taylor family of 
Norwich. She was married to John Austin, a barrister of 
London. She wrote, besides other works, “ Characteristics 
of Goethe” (3 vols., 1833), which was very successful, and 
“ Sketches of Germany from 1760 to 1814.” She produced 
a good translation from the German of Prince Piickler- 
Muskau’s “ Travels in England,” and also one of Ranke’s 
“History of the Popes” (3 vols., 1840), which was highly 
commended by Macaulay. Died in 1867. 

Austin (Stephen F.) was a son of Moses Austin, no¬ 
ticed above. About 1821 he conducted a company of emi¬ 
grants from New Orleans, and planted a colony where the 
town of Austin nowstands. The grant made to his father was 
confirmed to him in 1822 or 1823. Early in 1833 the Texan 
colonists formed a constitution, to obtain a ratification of 
which Austin and other delegates went to the city of Mex¬ 
ico. In consequence of the frequent revolutions and an¬ 


archy of Mexico they did not obtain the admission of Texas 
into the confederacy. In 1835, Austin was chosen com¬ 
mander of the Texan army, and joined in the movement for 
the liberation of Texas. He went as a commissioner to the 
U. S. to obtain the recognition of Texas as an independent 
state. Died Dec. 27, 1836. (See Yoakum, “ History of 
Texas,” 1856.) 

Aus'tinburg, a post-township of Ashtabula co., 0. 
Pop. 1111. 

Aus'tintown, a township of Mahoning co., 0. P. 1948. 

Australa'sia (i. e. “Southern Asia”), a part of 
Oceanica, extending between the equator and lat. 47° S., 
comprises Australia, Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania), New 
Zealand, and those parts of the Malay Archipelago and 
Polynesia between Ion. 130° and 170° E.—viz. Papua, the 
Arroo Islands, New Britain, Timor-Laut, New Ireland, New 
Caledonia, and the Admiralty, Solomon, New Hebrides, 
and Queen Charlotte’s Islands. Its area is estimated by 
Behm and Wagner at 3,425,000 square miles, and its popu¬ 
lation at 4,365,000. 

Australia [from the Lat. australis, “southern”], or 
New Holland, the largest island of the world, is so ex¬ 
tensive that it may be not improperly called a continent. 
It is bounded on the N. by the Arafura Sea, on the E. and 
S. by the Pacific Ocean, and on the W. and N. W. by the 
Indian Ocean. It is included between lat. 10° 44' and 39° 
8' S., and between Ion. 113° 5' and 153° 22' E. Its greatest 
length from E. to W. is 2536 miles, and its greatest breadth 
from N. to S. 1585 miles. The area is about 2,975,000 
square miles. 

Surface, etc .—This continent is remarkably compact in 
form, is not indented by large inlets of the ocean (except 
the Gulf of Carpentaria), and presents no wide estuaries 
of rivers. The eastern, southern, and western coasts are 
almost destitute of indentations, and have few good har¬ 
bors. Australia presents no great variety or inequality of 
surface, compared with its vast extent, and has no very 
high mountains. There are in its compact mass few well- 
marked, lofty mountain-chains, and the interior is conse¬ 
quently unfavorable to the production of large and perma¬ 
nent rivers. The central part of the island is an immense 
plain or low table-land, which is arid and barren except 
in the rainy seasons, and sends little or no tribute to the 
ocean. 

Mountains .—The principal chain is the Blue Mountains 
and Australian Alps, called Warragong Mountains by the 
natives, which extend nearly parallel to the eastern coast 
at distances varying from thirty to ninety miles. The 
highest peaks of this chain are in New South Wales, and 
rise nearly 7000 feet above the level of the sea. None of 
these summits are covered with perpetual snow. The Aus¬ 
tralian Alps present scenery of remarkable grandeur and 
wildness, diversified by immense precipices and gigantic 
fissures. From the principal chain extend a number of 
spurs or detached ranges. 

River8 and Lakes .—Australia has no great navigable 
rivers, and is less fortunate than the other continents in its 
facilities for inland navigation. A scarcity of fresh water, 
whether in the form of rivers or lakes, is one of the most 
obvious characteristics of this great region. Many of the 
rivers flow towards the interior, and are evaporated or ab¬ 
sorbed in the sand. Along the southern coast no perma¬ 
nent stream occurs for a distance of over 1500 miles. The 
poverty of the Australian hydrography is aggravated by 
an alternation of long droughts and violent floods. The 
lakes are not reservoirs for the supply of rivers, but rather 
marshes and landlocked receptacles of its streams. The 
largest of these lakes are Lake Torrens, Gairdner Lake, 
and Lake Eyre, in South Australia, and Lake Austin, Lake 
Moore, and LakeBarlee in Western Australia. The principal 
river of Australia is the Murray, with its large tributaries, 
the Darling and Murrumbidgee, rising on the W. or inner 
slope of the Australian Alps. The Murray rises in the 
south-eastern part of the island, flows westward, north¬ 
westward, and nearly southward, and enters Encounter 
Bay. The Darling rises much farther N., and flows south- 
westward, being apparently longer than that part of the 
Murray which is above the junction. Among the other 
rivers in the south-eastern and eastern parts of Australia 
are the Macquarrie, Lachlan, Lynd, and Burdekin. Along 
the northern coasts occur numerous small rivers, named 
Albert, Victoria, Roper, etc. In Western Australia the 
Gascoyne and Murchison rivers are among the largest in 
that part of the continent. 

Geology and Minerals .—The geology of this vast region 
has not been fully explored, but is supposed to be remark¬ 
ably simple. An immense central expanse of tertiary rocks 
extends from Ion. 124° to 138° E., and from the southern 
coast to lat. 18° S. This tertiary formation is surrounded 
on all sides except the S. by a continuous belt of plutonic 














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AUSTRALIAN ALPS—AUSTRIA, ARCHDUCHY OF. 333 


and metamorphic rocks. This belt is separated from the 
sea on its eastern, western, and northern sides by a tract 
nearly 100 miles wide. Secondary strata prevail along 
the northern and western coasts, while the eastern shore 
from Cape York to Bass’s Strait is composed of palmozoic 
strata, granite, basalt, and other primary rocks. The aurif¬ 
erous rocks of South-eastern Australia are lower Silurian. 

The gold-mines of Australia, discovered in 1851, are 
among the richest in the world. Gold abounds in Victoria 
and New South Wales, in quartzose veins and in the vicinity 
of granite, porphyry, and greenstone. The discovery of 
gold stimulated a rapid emigration from foreign countries 
to Australia. The product of the mines in 1852 was about 
$70,000,000, and in 1867, $60,000,000. It is stated that a 
lump of pure gold weighing twenty-seven pounds was found 
at Mt. Alexander. Valuable coal-fields occur in New South 
Wales, in the basin of the Hunter River. The next most 
important mineral of this island is copper, a rich mine of 
which is worked at Burra-Burra in South Australia. Lead, 
iron, zinc, manganese, and quicksilver are also found, the 
iron being widely and abundantly distributed. Deposits 
of tin, supposed to be the richest in the world, have been 
recently discovered in Australia. 

Climate .—The northern part has a dry, tropical climate, 
and is subject to monsoons which blow with much regularity. 
From the sterile plains of the interior come hot winds, 
which fill the air with fine dust, and raise the temperature 
to 120° in the shade. In New South Wales prevail long 
droughts, which sometimes last a whole year, dry up the 
rivers, and destroy the vegetation, while the rainy season 
often ravages the country with violent floods. The mean 
annual rainfall is reported to be 49 inches at Sydney, 29 
inches at Port Philip in Victoria, 70 inches at Port Mac- 
quarrie, and 19.9 at Adelaide. The mean temperature of 
Melbourne (Victoria) is 59° F. In New South Wales the 
average temperature of spring is 65°, of summer 72°, of 
autumn 66°, and of winter 55°. As a whole, Australia is 
remarkably healthful. Intermittent and remittent fevers 
prevail in the extreme N., and rheumatism in parts of the 
N. W. 

Soil and Productions .—The part of New South Wales 
lying W. of the mountains is fertile, and is generally based 
on limestone. A large portion of this colony is adapted to 
pasturage. “ Between Port Macquarrie and Moreton Bay,” 
says Sidney, “are vast tracts of well-watered land covered 
with heavy timber. Pasture-lands extend for hundreds of 
miles, now ascending the mountain-slopes to their very 
summits, and here spreading out into vast plains.” Wheat 
and other cereals flourish in Victoria, the soil of which is 
generally very productive. Next to gold, wool is the chief 
article of export. In 1870, 177,728,247 pounds of wool 
were exported. Western Australia has much fine land, but 
the interior of the continent is to a great extent, it is be¬ 
lieved, a desert. 

Botany. —The vegetation of this region is very peculiar, 
Its trees, which seldom form dense forests, but are scatter¬ 
ed as in a park, present generally a very singular appear¬ 
ance, and have evergreen leaves, except those that are leaf¬ 
less. Among them are many varieties of Acacia, the Cas- 
uarina, the Norfolk Island pine, the tree ferns, the palm, 
the grass tree, and several species of Eucalyptus, or gum 
trees, one species of which is reported to have examples 
which reach 500 feet in height—probably the highest trees 
in the world. These Eucalypti furnish valuable timber. 
The Casuarina and many species of Acacia are destitute 
of true foliage. Among the most beautiful plants is the 
fern tree, which grows to the height of twenty feet. Aus¬ 
tralia has no good indigenous fruits, and produces few na¬ 
tive vegetables that are worthy of cultivation in gardens. 
It is stated that there are 5440 species of plants peculiar 
to Australia. 

Zoology .—The zoology of Australia is perhaps even more 
anomalous than its vegetation. Here, before colonization, 
were found no ruminating animals,no Pachydermata, no true 
Carnivora except the dog; the carnivorous marsupials taking 
the place of the Carnivora proper. The island has many an¬ 
imals peculiar to itself. It has more than forty species of mar¬ 
supial quadrupeds, the largest of which is a kangaroo. 
Here is found a wild dog called dingo. Perhaps the most 
remarkable animal is the Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, a 
quadruped with the bill of a duck and a body like an ot¬ 
ter, which is regarded as a connecting link between quadru¬ 
peds and birds. Among the Australian birds are the emeu, 
eagle, hawk, owl, parrot, birds of paradise, cranes, peli¬ 
cans, geese, and black swans. Here are numerous reptiles, 
the largest of which is the crocodile. The shores are fre¬ 
quented by whales, seals, sharks, codfish, and many species 
of fish which are not found elsewhere. 

Population .—The aborigines of Australia are a distinct 
race from the natives of the Malay Archipelago, and are 
sometimes called Alfurus. They are nearly black, have 


usually coarse straight hair, and have often been described 
as among the most deformed and debased of the human 
species. They are inferior to the average European in 
stature, and are deficient in muscle and strength. Some 
of them practise cannibalism, go naked, and have no fixed 
habitations. Some tribes of them are gentle, and others 
fierce and warlike. They are very expert in the use of a 
missile weapon called the Boomerang (which see). The 
whole number of the aborigines is not large (in 1871 about 
50,000), and is rapidly diminishing. The total population 
of the island in 1871 was 1,565,294. 

Political Divisions .—Australia is divided into the follow¬ 
ing colonies: 


Colonies. 

Square miles. 

Population. 

New South Wales. 

323,437 

86,831 

383,328 

678,000 

978,000 

523,500 

501,580 

729,868 

188,995 

120,066 

24,785 

Victoria. 

South Australia. 

Queensland. 

Western Australia. 

Northern Territory. 

Total. 

2.973.096 

1.565 294 




Finances .—The receipts, expenditures, and debts for the 
several colonies were as follows in 1870: 


Colonies. 

Receipts. 

Expenditures. 

Debts in 1869. 

New South Wales. 

£2,490,203 

3,210,324 

878,124 

786,349 

98,132 

£2,688,264 

2,214,303 

995,065 

812,238 

113,046 

£9,681,130 

11,924,800 

1,944,600 

3,509,250 

Victoria (1869). 

South Australia. 

Queensland. 

Western Australia. 


History .—Australia was first discovered by a Spaniard, 
Louis Yaez de Torres, who saw the north coast in 1605, 
but did not land. During the seventeenth century the 
Dutch navigators landed at several points on the northern 
and western coasts, but planted no colonies. Dampier vis¬ 
ited the island, and coasted New South Wales. In 1776, 
Captain James Cook explored a large part of the eastern 
coast. The first settlement was made in 1788, at Port 
Jackson, to which about 850 convicts were transported 
from England. Convicts continued to be sent to Botany 
Bay until 1840. In 1829 a settlement was made at Swan 
River, in Western Australia. The colony of South Aus¬ 
tralia was planted in 1834. Victoria was separately organ¬ 
ized in 1851, and gold was discovered in the same year. 
In 1859, Queensland -became a separate colony. Among 
the recent explorers of Australia, the most prominent are 
Sturt (1860-61), Burke (1860), Howitt (1861), Walker 
(1861), Kinlay (1862), McIntyre (1865), and Barnitt (1866). 

Literature .—Compare Meinicke, “Das Festland Aus- 
tralien” (2 vols., 1837),' Heising, “Das Australische Fest¬ 
land und die Goldentdeckung ” (1855); Christmann, “Aus- 
tralien ” (1869); Mundy, “ Our Antipodes ” (1857); Fors¬ 
ter, “South Australia, its Progress and Prosperity ” (1866); 
Jeunesse, ‘‘Geographic de l’Oceanie ” (1869); B. Smith, 
“The Gold-fields and Mineral Districts of Victoria” (1869); 
and Petermann, “Australien in 1871” (in supplementary 
Nos. 29 and 30 of Petermann’s “ Mittheilungen,” 1871). 

A. J. Schem. 

Australian Alps, a range of mountains in the south¬ 
eastern part of Australia, in the colonies of New South 
Wales and Victoria. They are called Warragong Moun¬ 
tains by the natives. They are the highest mountains in 
Australia, but their tops hardly reach the line of perpetual 
snow. The highest peak is Mount Kosciusko, which has 
an altitude of 7176 feet above the level of the sea. 

Australia, the eastern dominions of the Franks under 
the Merovingians, made a kingdom by Clovis, 511 A. D., 
comprising the present Lorraine, Belgium, and some ad¬ 
jacent territory. It was merged in the empire of Char¬ 
lemagne. 

Aus'tria, Archduchy of, is the nucleus around which 
the Austrian empire has grown. Area, 12,270 square miles. 
It is bounded on the N. by Bohemia and Moravia, on the 
E. by Hungary, on the S. by Styria, and on the W. by 
Bavaria. It is intersected by the Danube, and is divided 
by the river Enns into two provinces, Upper Austria (Ober- 
oesterreich) and Lower Austria (Unter- or Nieder-oester- 
reich), in which Vienna is situated. Pop. of Lpper Aus- 
tria in 1869, 736,557; of Lower Austria, 1,990,708. Both 
provinces are mountainous and abound in beautiful scenery. 
The Noric Alps extend along the southern boundary, and 
the northern parts of the archduchy are occupied by moun¬ 
tains called the Bohmerwald. The climate is moderate, 
the average annual temperature of Vienna being ;>l fi. 
The soil in the valley of the Danube is fertile, and the hilly 
regions produce valuable timber. Among the staple prod¬ 
ucts are grain, wine, and excellent fruits. Lower Am ria 
















































AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY. 


334 


has a more extensive commerce than any other province 
of the empire. 

Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, an empire of Eu¬ 
rope, is, with regard to size, the second, and with regard 
to population the fourth, in the order of the European 
states. It has an area of 240,348 square miles, and accord¬ 
ing to the census of 1869 a population of 35,904,435. It 
consists since 1867 of two independent parts, which arc 
only connected by a single ruler and several common in¬ 
stitutions—Cisleithania and Transleithania. (See Hun¬ 
gary.) Cisleithania consists of the following crownlands, 
which are represented in the “ Reichsrath,” or national 
assembly: 


Provinces. 

Area. 

Pop. in 1869. 

Austria above the Enns. 

7,654 

4,632 

2,767 

8,670 

3,995 

3,857 

3 085 

1,990,708 

736,557 

153,159 

Austria below the Enns. 

Salzburg. 

Styria. 

1,137*990 

337,694 

466,334 

Carinthia. 

Carniola. 

Littoral. 

600,525 

885,789 

5,140,544 

2,017,274 

513,352 

5,444,689 

513,404 

Tyrol and Vorarlberg. 

11 324 

Bohemia. 

20,061 

8,583 

1 988 

Moravia. 

Silesia. 

Galicia. 

30 299 

Bukowina. 

4,035 

4,940 

Dalmatia. 

45061 


Total. 

115,887 

20,394,980 



It comprises the S. E. part of Central Europe, and more 
than half of the territory of the Danube, and forms a 
nearly regular quadrilateral. It is almost entirely a con¬ 
tinental state, touching an inland sea (the Adriatic) only 
at one side. Next to Switzerland, it is the most mountain¬ 
ous country of Europe, the mountainous regions compris¬ 
ing an area of over 170,000 square miles. The extensive 
alpine region (the Tyrol, Salzburg, southern part of Aus¬ 
tria, Styria, Carinthia, and the northern part of Carniola) 
gradually changes its character, sloping down in terraces 
into a hilly region in the S. E., but in the N. E. is without 
such gradation (southern part of Carniola, Istria, Croatia, 
S. E. part of Dalmatia, N. E. part of Austria), and termi¬ 
nates in the valley of the Danube. Beyond the Danube 
rises the Bohemian-Moravian-Silesian plateau, enclosed by 
high mountains, and undulating in the interior. To the E. 
of the March are the Carpathian Mountains, which run in 
a curved line along the northern boundary of Hungary. 
The Carpathians are flanked on both sides by a plateau, 
which passes in the N. into the Polish-Russian plain, con¬ 
tinues in the S. to the Danube and the Theiss, and in the 
S. E. is connected with the highlands of Transylvania. 
The plains occupy about one-fourth of the area of the em¬ 
pire; the largest are in Hungary and Galicia. Among the 
waters, the Adriatic Sea is the largest, which washes the 
coast of Austria for over 1000 miles, besides a coast-line 
of over 1400 miles in the islands belonging to Austria. 
The principal rivers are the Danube and Dniester (Black 
Sea), Vistula and Oder (Baltic), Elbe and Rhine (German 
Ocean), and the Etsch (Adriatic). The Danube has the 
largest river-basin in the empire (170,000 square miles), 
and the Rhine the smallest (850 square miles). The most 
important river in Austria is the Danube, which enters the 
empire at Passau, and after a course of 800 miles leaves it 
at Orsowa. It receives numerous tributaries on its course 
through Austria, of which the Theiss, March, and Grau on 
the left, and the Inn, the Enns, the Leitha, and the Drave 
on the right are the most important. A large number of 
lakes connect with the system of the Danube, while a num¬ 
ber of smaller lakes are found in the interior of the alpine 
country. The Neustadter Canal leads from the Leitha to 
Vienna. Austria is rich in mineral springs. The most fa¬ 
mous are Carlsbad and Marienbad in Bohemia, Gastein in 
Salzburg, Ischl and Hall in Upper Austria, and Baden- 
bei-Wien in Lower Austria. The large extent of the mon¬ 
archy is the cause of considerable difference with regard 
to the mean annual temperature. Three climatic belts are 
generally distinguished: 1, the northern belt extends from 
the northern boundary to lat. 49° N., and comprises North¬ 
ern Bohemia and Moravia, Silesia, and Galicia, and pro¬ 
duces chiefly grain and flax, but very little wine; 2, the 
central belt, from lat. 49° to 46° N., contains Central and 
Southern Bohemia and Moravia, Upper and Lower Aus¬ 
tria, Styria, Salzburg, the Northern Tyrol, Carinthia, Car¬ 
niola, Northern and Central Hungary, Transylvania, and 
Bukowina, and, with the exception of the highlands, is 
favorable for the production of wine, fruit, and grain; 3, 
the southern belt, from lat. 46° to 42° N., includes the 
Southern Tyrol, the Littoral provinces, Dalmatia, South¬ 
ern Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, and the Military Frontier, 
and produces, besides the common kinds of grain, corn, 


rice, much wine, and along the southern boundary tropical 
fruits. The empire is entirely in the temperate zone. The 
mean annual temperature varies between 39° F. (Marien¬ 
bad) and 56° (Trieste). The bora and sirocco winds often 
visit the southern part of the empire, and the latter, under 
the name of Fohn, causes great destruction in the alpine 
countries. Excepting platinum, no useful mineral is want¬ 
ing; metals, salt, and coal are present in inexhaustible 
quantities. Gold is found in Transylvania, Upper Hun¬ 
gary, and in the gneiss formation of the Central Alps. 
Silver occurs in the lead and copper deposits of Upper 
Hungary, Bukowina, Bohemia, the Military Frontier, the 
Tyrol, and Styria. Besides these, copper, zinc, mercury, 
tin, lead, sulphur, petroleum, and salt are found in con¬ 
siderable quantities. 

The manufacturing industry, which is almost entirely 
restricted to the western half of the empire, has enormously 
increased of late years. The most important manufactures 
are woollen goods in Bohemia, Moravia, and Vienna, glass 
and china-ware in Bohemia, linen in Bohemia, Moravia, 
and Silesia, cotton goods in the same regions and in Lower 
Austria, and iron-ware in Styria, Carinthia, Upper Austria, 
and Bohemia. Besides these, manufactures of silk, leather, 
paper, beet-sugar, chemicals, etc. are extensively carried 
on. Beer-breweries are found in Vienna and Bohemia, 
and distilleries in Galicia and Hungary, and twenty-seven 
state establishments manufacture all kinds of tobacco. 
Since May 1, 1860, freedom of trade exists throughout the 
empire. Commerce has also considerably increased in late 
years. From 428,800,000 florins in 1868 (1 florin = 47 cents) 
the imports have risen to 534,100,000 in 1871, and the ex¬ 
ports from 475,099,000 in 1868 to 506,500,000 in 1871. The 
chief articles of export are woollen and cotton goods, linen, 
glass, silk, iron, steel, and leather-ware, musical instru¬ 
ments, tobacco, grain, wine, oil, salt, and timber. The chief 
articles imported are cotton, cattle, iron rails, coffee, etc. 
In 1872 the number of miles of railway in operation in the 
monarchy was 7470 miles, while 2819 miles were in con¬ 
struction. In 1870 the railways of Cisleithania forward¬ 
ed 19,404,543 passengers, and received 30,511,311 florins 
as fare, while the transportation of freight amounted to 
420,736,340 centner (1 centner = 123.426 pounds), with an 
income of 90,202,202 florins. The monarchy has 35 ports 
opened to trade in the Littoral provinces, 54 in Dalmatia, 
and 11 in Croatia and the Military Frontier. The com¬ 
mercial navy of Austria consisted in 1870 of 7843 vessels, 
with 375,822 tons, of which 91 were steamers. In 1870 the 
steam-navigation company of the Danube had 155 steam¬ 
ers, with 13,946 horse-power. In 1871 there were 3504 
post-offices and 584 telegraph stations in Cisleithania, 
while the length of the lines amounted to 16,204 miles, and 
the wires to 38,297 miles. In 1870, Cisleithania had 42 
chambers of commerce, 38 banks, of which the Austrian 
National Bank, with 23 branches, is the largest, and 197 
savings banks. 

The Roman Catholic Church has nine archbishoprics 
(Vienna, Salzburg, Goeritz, Prague, Olmiitz, Zara, and 
Lemberg) and twenty-four bishoprics in Cisleithania. 
There are also one Greek Catholic and one Armenian arch¬ 
bishop at Lemberg. The vicars-general of Feldkirch and 
Teschcn and the apostolic vicar of the army also act as 
bishops. The Oriental Greek rite has three bishoprics 
(Czernowitz, Zara, and Catharo) in Cisleithania. 

Education .—In consequence of the neglect of the ele¬ 
mentary schools, education has not advanced as much in 
the German crown-lands as in the other parts of Germany, 
while in the other parts of the monarchy it was until re¬ 
cently very low. But owing to the reform measures intro¬ 
duced of late, education has greatly advanced in the last 
few years. In 1870, Cisleithania had 419 high and 13,880 
elementary schools. In 1871 it had 176 gymnasia, real- 
schulen, and realgymnasien, 6 universities (Vienna, Gratz, 
Innsbruck, Prague, Lemberg, and Cracow), 8 polytechnic 
institutes, besides numerous other schools for special 
sciences. 

Constitution .—Austria is, according to the Pragmatic 
Sanction of Dec. 6,1734, a united, indivisible empire, hered¬ 
itary according to the right of primogeniture in the male 
and female line of the dynasty of Habsburg-Lothringen. 
Since Oct. 20, 1860, it is a constitutional monarchy, and 
by an imperial decree of Feb. 17, 1867, is divided into two 
parts—the Germano-Slavic countries, and the countries 
belonging to the crown of Hungary. The two parts have 
only the sovereign, the dynasty, the finances, the army, 
and foreign representation in common. The sovereign has 
the title of emperor of Austria and king of Hungary, and 
as king of Hungary is styled “His Apostolic Majesty.” 
The imperial ministry, which is presided over by the 
chancellor of the empire, consists of the minister of the 
imperial house, of foreign affairs, of finances, and of war. 
Both parts of the empire have their own parliaments and 




































AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY. 


cabinets. The parliament of the Cisleithan countries is 
called the Reichsrath, and consists of the Hcrrenhaus (181 
members) and the house of delegates (203 members). 

Finances .—In the budget of 1872, for the whole mon¬ 
archy, the expenses are estimated at 110,647,500 florins, 
of which 17,208,900 florins were covered by receipts, and 
the balance, 93,438,000 florins, was to be furnished by both 
parts of the monarchy, Cisleithania contributing 70 per 
cent., and Transleitliauia 30 per cent. In the budget of 
the Cisleithan countries for 1872 the receipts are estimated 
at 308,599,800 florins, and the expenses at 359,380,900 florins, 
leaving a deficit of 50,781,100 florins. The public debt of 
the countries represented in the Reichsrath amounted on 
Dec. 31, 1871, to 412,001,426 florins. 

Army and Navy .—Since 1866 compulsory military service 
has been introduced throughout the empire, in Aug., 
1872, the army was constituted as follows: 


Branches op Service. 

On a peace¬ 
footing. 

On a war- 
footing. 

Infantry. 

121,440 

486,320 

Chasseurs. 

19,771 

58,853 

Cavalry. 

43,993 

58,999 

Artillery. 

27,447 

70,614 

Engineers, etc. 

13,032 

67,821 

Frontier troops. 

5,547 

45,235 

Military establishments. 

9,147 

19,883 

Gensdarmes. 

4,586 

8,519 

Total. 

244,963 

816,244 


The navy consisted in 1872 of 46 vessels, of 93,270 tons, 
and with 365 guns. 

History .—The germ of the empire was the archduchy 
of Austi’ia. In 791, Charlemagne united it with Germany 
as the Eastern March. Under Henry I. (died 1018) the 
name “ Oesterrcich” (Osterrichi, “East empire”) was first 
used. Henry II. received in 1156, from the emperor Con¬ 
rad III., the two marches above and below the Enns. 
Under his son, Leopold V. (until 1230), Styria, and under 
Frederick (died 1246), Carniola, were united to Austria. 
In 1276, Rudolph of Habsburg was elected the first emperor 
of Germany from the ducal house of Austria. After him, 
Albrecht I. (died 1308) and Albrecht II. (died 1439) were 
also emperors of Germany from the same house. From 
Frederick IV. the crown of Germany remained with the 
Habsburg family until the dissolution of the empire in 
1806. Ferdinand IV. raised Austria to the dignity of an 
archduchy. Ferdinand I. in 1526 gained by marriage the 
crown of Hungary and Bohemia, together with Moravia, 
Silesia, and Lusatia. In 1683 the Turks besieged Vienna. 
In the treaty of Vienna of 1738, Naples and Sicily and a 
part of Milan, and in 1739 Belgrade, Scrvia, Bosnia, etc., 
were lost to the Turks. In the treaties of 1742 and 1743 
Austria lost Silesia and Glatz, which it was not able to 
recover in the Seven Years’ war. In 1748, Parma, Piacenza, 
and Guastalla were taken by Spain. In 1772, Galicia was 
obtained at the first division of Poland, and in 1777 
Bukowina. On Aug. 11, 1804, Francis II. (I. of Austria) 
assumed the title emperor of Austria. Much territory was 
lost in consequence of the treaty of Presburg in 1805, 
and tho treaty of Vienna in 1809. In the treaty of Paris 
of 1814, its German territory, Milan, Venetia, and Dal¬ 
matia, were restored to Austria. After that time Austria 
followed a strictly conservative policy under Prince Metter- 
nich, which caused a revolution in Vienna and other parts 
of the country in 1848, when Metternich was dismissed 
and great concessions were made to the people. The 
revolt in Hungary was only suppressed in 1850 through 
the intervention of Russia. The revolutionary movements 
in the Italian provinces continued, and in 1859 Austria 
was compelled to cede Lombardy to Sardinia. In I860 a 
new and liberal policy began to be introduced, the first 
result of which was the new constitution promulgated by 
the emperor on Feb. 20, 1861. (On the part taken by 
Austria in German affairs, as well as on the war of 1866, 
see Germany.) In consequence of this war it was excluded 
from the German Bund, and was compelled to recognize 
Prussia as the leader of the North German Confederation, 
to cede its Italian possessions to Italy, and to recognize 
the latter as a united kingdom. 

With 1866 a new era began for Austria. Count von Beust, 
who now became minister of foreign affairs, instituted an 
entirely new policy. Tho chief danger that now threatened 
the empire was tho national movement arising among all 
the different nationalities of Austria. Beust, in opposition 
to the old policy of favoring the Slavic races to the exclu¬ 
sion of the Germans and the Hungarians, attempted to 
make the Germans and Hungarians the leading nations of 
the empire. This led to a conflict between Beust and his 
opponents, with Belcredi at their head, and eventually to 
a ministerial crisis, which resulted in a complete triumph 
for Beust, who became premier on Feb. 7, 1867. On Feb. 


335 


17 an imperial decree granted to the Hungarians their 
principal demands. (See Hungary.) Beust now set to 
work to organize a common parliament for the German and 
the Slavic peoples, which met with general approbation 
among the Germans and the Poles, but did not satisfy tho 
Czechs. On July 8, 1867, the emperor was crowned king 
of Hungary, and Hungary pledged herself to contribute to 
the common expenses for the army, navy, and foreign rep¬ 
resentation. After the compromise with Hungary had been 
effected the government also undertook to regulate the 
affairs of the Cisleithan countries. Among the privileges 
granted were a general citizenship for all inhabitants of 
Cisleithania, the equality of all before the law, the right of 
all to serve in any branch of the civil service, and the right 
to settle in any part of the country. Furthermore, relig¬ 
ious freedom and freedom of tho press were introduced, and 
besides the sectarian schools established by the Church, it 
was made lawful to institute non-sectarian schools. By 
the law of Dec. 22, 1867, all nations of Cisleithania were 
granted equal privileges, and an inalienable right to pre¬ 
serve their languages and nationalities was conceded. At 
the same time the jury system, publicity, and oral proceed¬ 
ings were introduced into the courts. The institution of 
the “ delegations ” is still another product of the year 1867. 
They meet annually, alternately in Vienna and Pestli, and 
each delegation consists of sixty members, who meet sepa¬ 
rately to decide on the common affairs of the empire. On 
Jan. 1, 1868, a cabinet was formed for the Cisleithan coun¬ 
tries, with Prince Carlos Auersperg as president. A week 
before this time the emperor had formed a common min¬ 
istry for the whole empire, and had appointed Beust chan¬ 
cellor. Although Beust in his despatches professed friend¬ 
ship for Prussia, still, the attitude of the Austrian court in 
several important questions showed that bitterness towards 
Pi-ussia had not entirely disappeared. In the Luxemburg 
question Beust was induced by considerations of safety to 
strive to prevent by all means the impending war, and for 
that reason attempted to conciliate Prussia and France, 
although rumors of a Franco-Austrian alliance were not 
uncommon at that time. Austria’s position, however, 
towards these two powers was entirely reserved, while in 
the East it was entirely without policy. 

With regard to its commercial affairs, Austria has ad¬ 
vanced considerably since 1866. As early as Dec. 21, 1866, 
important commercial treaties had been concluded with 
France, and a treaty with Prussia was concluded before the 
first German customs-parliament assembled in April, 1868. 
Commercial treaties were also concluded with Belgium, Hol¬ 
land, and Italy, and postal treaties with Greece, Italy, the 
North German Confederation, and the three South German 
states; and Austria also joined the coinage treaty of Dec. 
25, 1865, concluded by France, Belgium, Italy, and Switz¬ 
erland. A new question now arose in the abolition of the 
Concordat. The chancellor was supported by the public 
opinion and the Hungarian influence, but, though the gov¬ 
ernment did not sanction its entire abolition, still its most 
important provisions were removed by legislative acts. 
This was done chiefly by the introduction of the civil mar¬ 
riage and the new school law, which places the entire schools 
under the supervision of the state, and makes them inde¬ 
pendent of all churches or religious associations. Another 
important act was the abolition of imprisonment for debt 
and the revision of the usury laws, while in the financial 
department many important reforms were introduced. After 
considerable difficulties a resolution was passed by a large 
majority to change all classes of the general funded debt 
into a uniform debt bearing 5 per cent, interest, which 
was to be taxed not more than 16 per cent. The object 
was to cover a deficit for the next three years of 150,000,000 
florins annually. For this reason the direct taxes were in¬ 
creased, and the laws regulating the production of brandy, 
beer, and sugar were revised. On June 24 the Reichsrath 
adjourned until September. In August the separate diets 
were called, in which, especially in Bohemia, Carinthia, 
and Carniola, the Slavic inhabitants showed a strong spirit 
of resistance towards the new organization of the empire. 
In Bohemia especially the Czechs wished to restore tho 
crown of Wenceslas. The proceedings of the delegations, 
which assembled in Vienna in the same year, took a prompt 
and satisfactory course. The bishops showed a considerable 
opposition to the confessional laws which w r erc proclaimed 
on May 25, 1868, which opposition considerably increased 
when the pope in his allocution sanctioned the proceedings 
of the bishops. In consequence of this, Beust sent a des¬ 
patch to Cardinal Antonelli protesting against the inter¬ 
vention of the clergy in political affairs. At the same time 
the government showed its determination to keep the cler¬ 
gy within bounds by arresting and convicting the bishop 
of Linz. In relation to the (Ecumenical Council ot the 
following year, the Austrian government assumed an ex¬ 
pectant attitude. When the infallibility ot the pope was 












































AUTAUGA—AUTOMATON. 



proclaimed, Beust declared in a despatch of July 30, 1870, 
that the Concordat of 1855 was regarded as abolished by 
the government. 

A reduction of the rate of interest on the national debt 
caused great dissatisfaction among the foreign creditors 
of the empire. Compulsory service was made the basis of 
the reorganization of the army. But the most serious 
question, and the most difficult for the government to solve, 
arose in the question of nationalities. Even in the session 
of 1807 the Poles and the southern Slavic tribes had de¬ 
manded separate concessions for their nationalities, while 
the Czechs had not taken any part whatever in the proceed¬ 
ings of the Reichsrath. The same thing was repeated, 
only in a more demonstrative manner, in 1868. The Diet 
of Galicia demanded in a resolution of Sept. 24 the com¬ 
plete political autonomy of that kingdom, while the Czechs 
in Bohemia and Moravia retired from the diets, and in 
their declarations proposed the complete independence of 
the crown of Wenceslas. In October, Prague was declared 
in a state of siege in consequence of excesses committed 
there. Soon the nationality question was brought before 
the Reichsrath. But this body adjourned on May 15, 
1869, without having done anything in regard to this 
question. In the cabinet two parties had arisen on this 
point, and the minority, which was in favor of a compro¬ 
mise with the different nationalities, was forced to resign. 
But when the Poles and the South Slavic deputies resigned 
their seats in the Reichsrath, the emperor was forced to 
organize a more liberal cabinet. But even this was not 
liberal enough to effect a compromise, and the emperor was 
again compelled to receive the resignation of the cabinet 
and to call upon Count Hohenwart to form a new one. But 
although Hohenwart’s policy was so reactionary and opposed 
to the Germans that in every part of the country a movement 
as general as it was sudden arose among that class, still, 
he was not able to satisfy the demands of the Czechs. 
After negotiations held under the auspices of the emperor 
himself with the two principal leaders of the Czechs, 
Rieger and Clam-Martinicz, had led to no result, Hohen¬ 
wart, and even Count Beust, resigned on Nov. 6. A new 
cabinet, belonging to the German constitutional party, with 
Prince Adolf Auersperg at its head, was formed Nov. 25, 
1871. On Feb. 20, 1872, an important law was passed at 
the suggestion of the government, which provided that 
when members chosen from a provincial diet to the 
Reichsrath resign their seats in the diet or in the Reichs¬ 
rath during its session, or when in consequence of perma¬ 
nent absence they may be regarded as having resigned, the 
emperor can order new elections by a direct vote of the 
respective districts. At a new election for the Diet of 
Bohemia ordered by the government, the latter was vic¬ 
torious, and 40 of the 54 members elected to the Reichs¬ 
rath were friendly to the government, its majority now 
being over two-thirds. In the Diet of the Tyrol a violent 
opposition was made to the government, because it had 
deprived the theological faculty of the University of 
Innsbruck, composed entirely of Jesuits, of its right to 
elect the rector of the university. The majority of the 
diet therefore refused to admit the new rector, and the 
government dissolved the diet. In Galicia a law favored 
by the Ruthenians to introduce direct elections to the 
Reichsrath was voted down by the Polish majority. In 
order to prevent the frequent refusal of members of the 
minority to attend the Reichsrath, the government immedi¬ 
ately after the opening of the session on Dec. 12, 1872, 
proposed a new electoral law, according to which the 
members of the House of Deputies are no longer to be 
chosen by the diets, but are to be elected by a direct vote 
of the people. 

Among other important events in Austria during the 
last few years was a disturbance in Dalmatia in Sept., 
1869, occasioned by the new conscription laws. It was 
settled in Jan., 1870, by a compromise with the insur¬ 
gents. But the German-French war of 1870 turned away 
the attention of Austria from its own affairs. Although 
a party at court, together with the Czechs and Slavic 
tribes, wished to make use of the opportunity to take 
revenge for 1866, the rapid success of the German arms 
and the position of Russia soon dispelled all such plans. 
On Aug. 23 a treaty of neutrality was concluded with 
Great Britain and Italy. Since then the relations of 
Austria to the German empire have been of the most 
friendly character, and have been strengthened by a series 
of conferences of the monarchs of the two countries, the 
last of which was held, with great pomp and splendor, in 
Berlin Sept. 6-11, 1872. In Vienna great preparations 
had been made since 1871 for the international exposition 
of 1873, which was formally opened by the emperor on 
May 1, and bids fair to eclipse in grandeur and variety all 
former expositions. A. J. Schem. 

Autau'ga, a county in Central Alabama. Area, 700 


square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Alabama 
River, and also drained by the Autauga Creek. The sur¬ 
face is undulating; the soil is fertile. The Selma Rome 
and Dalton R. R. passes along the western border of the 
county. Cotton, corn, wool, and rice are the chief crops. 
Capital, Prattville. Pop. 11,623. 

Autau'gaville, a post-township of Autauga co., Ala. 
Pop. 2387. 

Authority [Lat. auctoritas, “ right,” “dominion”], 
power lawfully delegated by one person to another. In 
the plural, the word, as used in law, includes statutes, 
adjudged cases, and the opinions of text-writers or other 
persons learned in the law, relied on to support any legal 
proposition sought to be applied to a particular case. The 
opinions of counsel, of court, or of a text-writer are usu¬ 
ally fortified by a citation of authorities. (See also Reports.) 

Autobiog'raphy [from the Gr. auros, “ self,” /3t o?, “life,” 
and ypa<J)(o, “ to write ”], a life of a person written by him¬ 
self. Such memoirs are divisible into two classes—those in 
which the object of the writer is to illustrate the history 
of his own mind and heart, as the “Confessions” of Saint 
Augustine and Goethe’s “ Dichtung und Wahrheit;” and 
those in which his purpose is to give a sketch of the events 
which have occurred within his own experience, and of 
characters with which he has associated. The “Memoircs 
d’Outre-Tombe ” of Chateaubriand maybe said to combine 
the characteristics of both classes. The autobiography of 
Franklin, the “ Confessions ” of Rousseau, and the' “ Recol¬ 
lections of a Busy Life” by Hon. Horace Greeley are valua¬ 
ble autobiographic works. 

Autochthones [Gr. avrox^oveg, from avros, “self,” 
and x0o6v, “ground,” “country”], a Greek term applied to 
the original inhabitants of a country, implying that they 
were sprung from the soil. The Athenians claimed to be 
autochthones, and wore on their headdress an emblematic 
grasshopper in reference to their origin. The same claim 
was made by many other peoples. 

Autocrat [Gr. avros, “ one’s self,” and Kpareu), to “rule ”], 
literally, “one who rules by himself,” without the inter¬ 
ference or restraint of any other person or persons; an 
absolute sovereign; a monarch who unites in himself the 
legislative and executive powers of the state or empire. 
Such are nearly all the Asiatic sovereigns. Among Euro¬ 
pean rulers the emperor of Russia alone is styled an auto¬ 
crat. He takes the title of “autocrat of all the Russias.” 
The term autocracy is sometimes applied to the govern¬ 
ment administered by an autocrat. 

Au'to-de-Fe (i . e. “act of faith”), the Spanish name 
of a public ceremony held in Spain and Portugal at the 
execution of heretics who were burned by order of the In¬ 
quisition. Multitudes of spectators assembled to witness 
the execution and the procession of monks and priests 
which formed a part of the ceremony. The first ceremony 
of this kind is said to have taken place at Valladolid in 
1560. In 1761 an auto-de-fe was held at Lisbon, at which 
upwards of fifty persons perished. 

Au'tograph [from the Gr. avros, “one’s self,” and ypa^rj, 
“writing”], a manuscript written by the hand of the author; 
an original manuscript as distinguished from a copy. The 
term is sometimes applied to a specimen of the handwriting 
of any eminent person. In modern times many persons 
devote much time to the collection of autographs, which 
are articles of literary trade. Some men study autographs 
as exponents of the character or temperament of the writers. 
The signature of Shakspeare is one of the most scarce and 
highly prized of autographs. (See John G. Nichols, “Au¬ 
tographs of Royal, Noble, Learned, and Remarkable Per¬ 
sonages conspicuous in English History from the reign of 
Richard II. to that of Charles II.” (1829), and “ Isographie 
des Ilommes CMebres,” Paris, 3 vols., 1828-30.) 

Autol'ycus [AvtoAvkos], a Greek astronomer and mathe¬ 
matician, born at Pitane, in Alolis, lived about 325 B. C. 
He wrote a work on the revolving sphere, and another on 
the rising and setting of the fixed stars; both are extant. 

Autom'aton, plu. Aiitom'ata [from the Gr. avro/ua- 
T 09 , “ acting spontaneously ”], a piece of mechanism so 
constructed as to imitate the actions of an animal. This 
exercise of mechanical ingenuity is of very ancient origin. 
Daedalus was among the first who excelled in this art. 
Archytas of Tarentum,who lived about 400 B. C., is said to 
have made a dove that could fly. Among the most w’on- 
derful automata of modern times was the flute-player which 
Vaucanson exhibited in Paris in 1738. This had the form 
of a man, and performed with its fingers. He also pro¬ 
duced an automaton duck which swam, dived, ate and 
digested barley (!), and quacked like a real duck. Ivem- 
pelen constructed a famous automaton chess-player, the 
mechanism of which was very ingenious and complex. This 
automaton could beat the most of the players who tested 













AUTONOMY—A VATCHA. 


its skill, but it was long suspected that a man was concealed 
in it—a Russian officer who had been sentenced to death 
and escaped by this contrivance. It was afterwards fully 
proved that the supposed skill of the automaton was due 
to the presence of a living man, who was concealed within 
the machine. 

Auton'omy [from the Gr. ai/ros, “one’s self,” and vo/u.6?, 
a “law”], the power or right of self-government; political 
independence. The term is used to designate the charac¬ 
teristic of the political condition of ancient Greece, in which 
nearly every city was a separate state, and the people were 
very tenacious of the independence and sovereignty of their 
respective cities. For this reason they could not form a 
large centralized republic or stable government. 

Au'toplasty [Lat. autoplas'tia, from the Gr. avro?, 
“one’s self,” and n\d<TO(o, to “form”], an operation by which 
lesions are repaired by means of healthy parts being taken 
from the patient himself (usually from the immediate neigh¬ 
borhood of the lesion to be repaired), and made to supply 
the deficiency caused by wounds or disease. The opera¬ 
tions for this purpose have different names, according to 
the part affected, as c heiloplastic (the operation for the 
lips), rhinoplastic (for the nose), etc. 

Autrefois Acquit [Fr. “formerly acquitted”], a plea 
by a person indicted for a crime or misdemeanor that he 
has previously been tried for the same offence and acquitted. 

Autrefois Convict (“formerly convicted”), a plea 
by a defendant under the same circumstances as in the 
case of autrefois acquit, that he has previously been tried 
and convicted of the same offence. These pleas, if true, 
are a bar to the action by the rules of the common law. 
They are in this country established as constitutional 
rights, both by the U. S. Constitution and those of the 
respective States. The constitutional provision is that no 
person shall be subject for the same offence to be put twice 
in jeopardy of life or limb. This rule does not apply 
where a new trial is ordered for errors in a previous trial, nor 
where the judge in the course of a trial, in the exercise of 
a sound discretion, discharges the jury, so that there is no 
acquittal nor conviction. In each of these cases the ac¬ 
cused may be tried again as often as the case arises. In a 
legal sense he has not been in jeopardy. The rule upon 
this point is the same in England under the common law 
as in the U. S. under constitutional provisions. 

Au'tumil [Lat. autum'nus; originally, auctum'nus, from 
au'geo, auc'tum , to “ increase,” because it is in autumn that 
the earth yields its increase], the season of the year which 
follows summer, sometimes in the U. S. called Fall, in ref¬ 
erence to the fall of the leaves. In a vague and popular 
sense it comprises September, October, and November. In 
the language of astronomy it is the time which elapses be¬ 
tween the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice. In the 
southern hemisphere, March, April, and May are the months 
of autumn. Autumn may be regarded as occupying the same 
relative position among the seasons of the year as evening 
among the periods of the day, and mature age among the 
stages of human life. 

Autun (anc. Bibrac'te and Augustodu'num), a city of 
France, department of Saone-et Loire, on the river Arroux, 
26 miles by rail N. W. of Chalons-sur-Saone. It is pic¬ 
turesquely situated at the foot of mountains, has a fine 
Gothic cathedral, a college, and library; also manufactures 
of cloth, paper, and carpets. It is the seat of a bishop. The 
ancient Bibracte was the chief city of the iEdui. Here are 
ruins of an amphitheatre, temples, and other Roman an¬ 
tiquities. Autun was the scene of hostile operations be¬ 
tween Garibaldi and the Germans in the winter of 1870— 
71. Pop. 12,398. 

Auvergne (anc. Arver'ni or Alver'nia), a former prov¬ 
ince in the S. central part of France, coincided nearly with 
the present departments of Cantal and Puy-de-Dome. It 
is a mountainous district of volcanic formation, presenting 
many conical and dome-like summits of extinct volcanoes. 
The soil in some parts is fertile, especially near the river 
Allier. Auvergne has produced many eminent men, among 
whom were Pascal, Turenne, Desaix, and La Fayette. The 
chief towns were Clermont and Aurillac. 

Auvergne, d.’ (Latour). See Latour d’Auvergne. 

Auvergne, Mountains of, a branch of the Cevennes, 
situated in the French departments of Cantal and Puy-de- 
D6me. They separate the basins of the Allier, Cher, and 
Creuse from those of the Lot and Dordogne. The highest 
summits of these volcanic mountains are Mount d'Or, 6188 
feet high, Cantal, 6093, and Puy-de-D6me, 4806 feet high. 
The last is a remarkable specimen of an extinct volcano. 
They are generally like truncated cones. The scenery of 
Auvergne is grand and picturesque. 

Auxerre (anc. Autissiodo'mm), a town of France, capi¬ 
tal of the department of Yonne, on the left bank ot the 
22 


\ onne, 93 miles S. S. E. of Paris, with which it is connected 
by railway. It has a fine Gothic cathedral, a college, a mu¬ 
seum, and a public library of 25,000 volumes. Calico, serge, 
hosiery, and good wine are manufactured here. Pop 
15,497. 1 

Auxonne, a town of France, in the department of COte- 
d’Or, on the Saone, here crossed by a bridge, 20 miles by 
rail S. E. of Dijon. It has an arsenal, a barrack, and a 
magazine, with manufactures of woollen cloth and nails. 
Pop. 5911. 

Auxvasse, a township of Callaway co., Mo. Pop. 2050. 

A'va, a city, the former capital of the Burman empire, 
is situated on a plain on the river Irrawaddy, 350 miles N. 
of Rangoon. The official native name of it is Ratnapura, 
“ the city of pearls.” It stands on an island formed by the 
Irrawaddy and two of its affluents. The most substantial 
buildings of this city were destroyed by an earthquake in 
Mar., 1839, after which the seat of government was re¬ 
moved to Monchobo. Pop. about 30,000. 

A'va, a post-township of Oneida co., N. Y. Pop. 1160. 

Ava (Kingdom of). See Burmaii. 

A'va, or Ka'va (Macro'piper methys'ticum), a narcotic 
plant of the natural order Piperacem, is a native of many 
South Sea islands, the inhabitants of which intoxicate 
themselves with a fermented liquor prepared from its root 
(rhizome). It is a shrubby plant, with cordate, acuminate 
leaves, and was formerly classed with the genus Piper. 
The effect of this liquor is a stupefaction like that caused 
by opium, and is followed by copious perspiration. The 
liquor is prepared by maceration in water. 

Avadu'tas, a sect of Hindoo Brahmans, who pi’actise 
excessive austerities, and mortify themselves by painful 
and disgusting forms of penance. They hold their bodies 
in contorted positions until they become permanently de¬ 
formed. They procure a subsistence by begging. 

Av'alanche [Fr. lavanche], a mass of snow or ice which 
collects on the steep declivity of a high mountain, and slid¬ 
ing down the side gathers accessions of snow until it attains 
an enormous bulk, and descends to the valley with ruinous 
momentum. Drift or powder avalanches consist of dry, 
loose snow which is set in motion by the wind and accu¬ 
mulates in its descent; these occur mostly in winter. An¬ 
other kind is formed in spring, when the snow begins to 
melt, and slides down the declivity by its own weight, carry¬ 
ing with it trees and rocks which sometimes bury cottages 
in ruins. Avalanches are common among the Alps, but are 
rare in the Andes. A touch of the foot or a slight move¬ 
ment of the air, even that produced by the sound of a bell, 
is sometimes sufficient to set the avalanche in motion. On 
account of the frequent occurrence of avalanches, some 
parts of the Alpine valleys remain uninhabited. 

Avallon (anc. Abal'lon), a town of France, department 
of Yonne, on the river Voisin, 18 miles S. E. of Auxerre. 
It has manufactures of paper and woollen cloth. The adja¬ 
cent country is fertile, and renowned for its picturesque 
beauty. Pop. 6070. 

Avant la Lettre, a French term applied to an engrav¬ 
ing first printed from the plate, to serve as a proof for the 
artist before he delivers the plate to his publisher. Ama¬ 
teurs are eager to obtain these first proofs, as being finer 
than those which are printed for sale. 

Ava'ri, or A'vars, a warlike tribe of Mongolians that 
entered the countries near the Don, the Caspian Sea, the 
Volga, and westward. Part of them remained near the 
Caucasus, and another part proceeded about 555 A. D. to 
Dacia. They served in the army of Justinian, and fought 
against the Gepidae. They in 568 obtained Pannonia. 
They oppressed the Slavi, and made inroads into Germany 
and Italy. In 769 they were defeated by Charlemagne, 
and nearly exterminated. They used to intrench them¬ 
selves in circular walled camps, traces of which, called 
“ Avarian rings,” are still visible in Hungary. 

Av'attir, or Avatara [from ava , “off,” “away,” 
<f down,” and tdra, a “crossing over” or “passing from 
one thing to another”], in Hindoo mythology, signifies 
“descent” or “transformation,” and is applied to incarna¬ 
tions of some of the principal deities, especially Brahma, 
Siva, and Vishnu. The avatars of Vishnu, which are par¬ 
ticularly celebrated, are reckoned as follows: 1, Matsya, 
the “fish;” 2, Kfirma, the “tortoise;” 3, Varaha, the 
“boar;” 4, Narasingha, the “man-lion;” 5, Vamana (or 
Wfimana), the “dwarf;” 6, Parasurama (called in the com¬ 
mon dialect Purasooram); 7, Rama Chandra; 8, Krishna; 
9, Buddha; the tenth, which is yet to come, is called Kalki, 
or the “ horse.” 

Avat'clia, or Avatch'ka, a bay in the south-eastern 
part of Kamtchatka, affords the best harbor ot the wholo 
peninsula. The capital, Petropaulowski, is on this bay, a 





















338 


AVATCHINSKAYA—AVERELL. 


few miles from which is a volcano called Avatcha or Avat- 
chinskaya. (See next article.) 

Avatchinskay'a, or Mount Avatcha, an active 
volcano in Kamtchatka, near the sea; lat. 53° 15' N., Ion. 
158° 50' E. It has an altitude of 9055 feet, has a crater 
at its summit, and another at a height of 5000 feet. 

A'vebury, A'bury, or Abiry, a small village of Eng¬ 
land, in Wiltshire, 25 miles N. of Salisbury. It is the site 
of extensive remains of the pre-historic period in Europe, 
and is in the vicinity of several remarkable barrows and 
cromlechs of great antiquity. The principal relics, for¬ 
merly ascribed to the Druids, consist of 100 large blocks 
of stone placed on end in a circle, enclosing a level area 
of about 470 yards in diameter, which was surrounded by 
a ditch and a high embankment. Some of the stones meas¬ 
ure twenty feet high above the ground. Nearly a mile S. 
of this temple is a barrow or conical artificial mound called 
Silbury Hill, which is 170 feet high, and covers a space of 
five acres. This was undoubtedly constructed long before 
the Roman conquest of Britain, and the opinion of the later 
archaeologists refers the whole group to times of very re¬ 
mote antiquity. 

Avei'ro, a seaport-town of Portugal, province of Beira, 
at the mouth of the Vouga, 35 miles by rail N. W. of Coim¬ 
bra. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a considerable trade 
in oil, wine, sardines, oranges, salt, etc. Pop. 6557. 

Avellane'da, de (Gertrude Gomes), a Spanish poet¬ 
ess, born in the island of Cuba in 1816. She became a 
resident of Madrid about 1840, and published a volume of 
lyric poems in 1841. Soon after this date she produced 
several novels, and successful tragedies entitled "Alfonso 
Munio” and " Egilona.” She was married in 1846 to Don 
Pedro Sabator, who died the same year. Among her works 
are " La Cruz,” a poem, and dramas called " The Glories 
of Spain” (1850) and " Sonambula.” 

Avellino (formerly called Principato Ulteriore), 
a province of Southern Italy, is bounded on the N. by 
Benevento, on the E. by Foggia and Potenza, on the S. 
by Salerno, and on the W. by Caserta. Area, 1410 square 
miles. The country is throughout mountainous. The soil 
everywhere is extremely fertile, and the harvests are there¬ 
fore generally very large. The country is traversed by the 
Calore and the Ofanto. The chief products are cattle, Sa¬ 
lami, linen, and leather. Chief town, Avellino. Pop. in 
1871, 375,103. 

Avclli'no (anc. Abelli'num), a fortified town of Italy, 
the capital of the above province, is 25 miles E. of Naples, 
and at the foot of Mount Vergine. It is the seat of a 
bishop, has a cathedral, a college, manufactures of paper, 
woollen goods, and maccaroni, and an extensive trade in 
hazelnuts (Nuces Avellanse), chestnuts, and grain. It was 
much damaged by an earthquake in 1694. Pop. 13,446. 

A've Mari'a, or Angel'ica Sahita'tio, a form of 
prayer to the Virgin Mary (commencing Ave Maria, "Ilail 
Mary”), which in the time of Damiani (died 1072) was 
simply the " annunciation ” or salutation of the angel in 
Luke i. 28, but grew by successive additions till it reached 
its present form in the time of Pius V. (1566-72). (See 
Rosary.) 

Ave'na, a township of Fayette co., Ill. Pop. 1182. 

Avenger of Blood. In early ages, as now in barbar¬ 
ous countries, the infliction of the penalty for murder did 
not take place by the action of public authorities, but was 
left to the nearest male relative of the murdered person, 
whose duty was to pursue and slay the murderer. He was 
called the " avenger of blood ” (in Hebrew go el, which term, 
however, was of wider signification). The Mosaic law did 
not set aside this custom, but placed it under regulations, 
prohibiting the commutation of the penalty of death for 
money, and appointing six cities of refuge, three on either 
side of the Jordan, for the manslayer who was not a mur¬ 
derer. The Koran sanctions the avenging of blood by the 
kinsman, but also sanctions the pecuniary commutation. 
The custom prevails among the Arabs at present, as well as 
in other rude nations. 

Aventi'mis (Johannes), a German historian whose 
proper name was Tiiurmaier or Thurnmaier, was born 
at Abensberg, in Bavaria, in 1466. He was invited to 
Munich in 1512, and appointed tutor to the sons of the 
duke of Bavaria. His principal work is a " History of 
Bavaria” ("Annales Boiorum,” 1554), which was highly 
esteemed. The most complete edition is that published by 
Cisner in 1580. Died Jan. 9, 1534. (See J. Ziegler, " Vita 
Aventini.”) 

Avcn'turinc, a name applied to certain varieties of 
quartz or felspar which contain bright red, brown, or golden 
scales of mica, oxide of iron, etc. It is often used as a gem. 

Aventurine Class, also called Cold Flux or Gold 


Stone, a variety of glass used as an ornamental stone by 
jewellers. The ground is of a rich yellowish-brown color, 
with innumerable golden scales. It maybe made by fusing 
together 300 parts of powdered glass, 40 parts of copper 
filings, 80 parts of iron filings, and cooling slowly. 

Av'erage [Lat. avera'gium, from ave'ro, to "prove,” to 
"estimate”], a mean proportion; a medial sum or quan¬ 
tity intermediate between several unequal quantities. The 
relation of the average to the other quantities is such that 
the sum of the excesses of the greater above the average is 
equal to the sum of the defects of the less below it. The 
average of several quantities—for example 3, 7, 9, and ]3— 
is obtained by adding them together, and dividing the sum 
by the number of quantities. The sum, 32, divided by 4, 
gives 8 as the average. 

Average, in law, is a term employed in maritime com¬ 
merce, and is used in different senses when preceded by the 
words general, particular, or petty. 

1. General Average .—This means the case where several 
interests connected together, as being engaged in a common 
adventure at sea, such as ship and cargo, are exposed to a 
marine peril, and one of these interests is voluntarily 
sacrificed, either in whole or in part, as the price of the 
safety of the residue of the property at risk; or expense is 
incurred for the same reason, and the amount of such 
sacrifice or expenditure is charged by law upon the re¬ 
spective interests in proportion to their value. The act 
of voluntarily casting away property under such circum¬ 
stances is termed a "jettison.” The elements of a general 
average case are said to be tjiese: there must be a sacrifice 
of property, it must be voluntary, and must be successful. 
There is no general average allowed in cases of goods 
laden on deck, unless it is usual to place the goods there 
on a voyage such as the one in which this question arises. 
The master of the ship by the maritime law is entrusted 
with the power to order a jettison when the circumstances 
justify it. The American law allows general average where 
a ship which would have foundered is voluntarily wrecked 
in such a manner as to save the cargo or a part of it. 
Expenditures of money in some instances justify a contri¬ 
bution of the nature of general average, as where they are 
incurred for the preservation of the ship or cargo from 
extraordinary perils, or where they are necessary for the 
completion of the adventure in which all the interests at 
risk are concerned; as, for example, for the prosecution of 
the voyage. The property upon which the contribution is 
assessed is the ship, cargo, and freights. The property lost 
contributes as well as that which is saved. The general 
principle is substantially this: as the whole property at 
risk is to the whole amount of the loss, so is each owner’s 
particular interest to his share of the loss. This rule re¬ 
sults in assessing a certain percentage of the loss on each 
owner, according to the value of his interest. The values 
are estimated by rule : the ship and appurtenances are 
valued as at the end of the voyage, and the cargo at its 
value at the time and place of discharge. An adjustment 
made at the end of a voyage at the port of arrival is 
deemed to be valid every where, according to a settled mar¬ 
itime rule. The special rules applicable to the cases in 
which general average is allowed are not precisely the same 
in England and in the U. S., and the subject branches out 
into much detail in the books of maritime law. Practi¬ 
cally, it is closely connected with the business of marine 
insurance, as the insurance on ship, cargo, and freight may 
be made by different underwriters, and under the law of 
abandonment the rights to claim general average, as well 
as the burden of its assessment, may vest in and rest upon 
the respective insurers. 2. Particular Average .—This sig¬ 
nifies damage happening to interest (ship, cargo, and freight) 
at risk at sea in consequence of pure accident. The loss in 
such a case rests upon the owner of the property injured or 
xvpon his insurer. 3. Petty Average .—This term refers to 
certain petty charges in port for pilotage, lights, towage, 
anchorage, and the like, which were formerly apportioned 
upon the owners of the ship and cargo. The modern prac¬ 
tice is to include these charges in the freight. 

T. \V. Dwight. 

A'verell (William W.), born in the State of New York 
1830, graduated at West Point 1855, appointed lieutenant 
Mounted Riflemen; served on frontier and fighting In¬ 
dians till 1859, when wounded. During the civil war ho 
was present at the battle of Bull Run, July, 1861 ; colonel 
Third Pennsylvania Cavalry, 1861; commanded cavalry 
brigade about Washington, D. C. In Virginia peninsular 
campaign 1862 was engaged at Yorktown, Williamsburg, 
Fair Oaks, Malvern Hill. In 1862 he was appointed brig¬ 
adier-general of volunteers; engaged at Fredericksburg 
Dec., 1862; in command at Kelly’s Ford Mar., 1863; par¬ 
ticipated in Stoneman’s cavalry expedition towards Rich¬ 
mond April-May, 1863; engaged in, and in command of. 













A VERT LL—AVILA. 


339 


skirmishes, actions, and raids in West Virginia, Tennessee, 
Shenandoah Valley; at Opequan Sept. 19, 1861, and Fish¬ 
er’s Hill Sept. 22,1864; captain Third Cavalry U. S. A. July, 
1862, and brevetted major, lieutenant-colonel, colonel, brig¬ 
adier-general, and major-general U. S. A. Resigned May, 
1865. Appointed U. S. consul-general to Canada 1866 ; at 
present president of manufacturing company, New York. 

A'verill, a township of Essex co., Vt. Pop. 14. 

Averill, a township of Jefferson co., West Va. P. 2030. 

Aver'nus [Gr.’Aopi/o?, from a, priv., andopi/i?, a “bird”], 
a famous lake [It. Latjn tl’Averno ] of Italy, 10 miles W. of 
Naples. It occupies the crater of an extinct volcano, is 
about a mile in diameter, and 170 feet deep. It Avas sup¬ 
posed that the name Avernus was given to it because the 
mephitic vapors killed the birds that flew over it. The 
ancients imagined that this lake was the entrance to the 
infernal regions. Agrippa opened a canal from Avernus 
to the sea, converting it into a harbor, but the canal was 
destroyed by an earthquake in 1538. 

Aver'roes, or Averrhoes, originally Ibn-Roslitl, a 

celebrated Arabian philosopher and physician, was born at 
Cordova, in Spain, 1120. He rose to great dignity in the 
Moorish kingdom, but was accused of heretical opinions 
and deprived of his office, from which time he lived in 
poverty until the accession of the caliph Al-Mansur-Billah, 
whom he followed to Morocco, where he died in 1198. He 
was a great admirer of Aristotle, on whom he Avrotc a cele¬ 
brated commentary. In the Middle Ages he was called 
“ The Commentator/’ and Avas said to have translated Aris¬ 
totle into Arabic, Avhich story was repeated over and over 
again until in 1852 E. Renan proved it to be a fable; indeed, 
Averroes did not understand the Greek language. 

Aver'sa (anc. Atelln), a town of Italy, in the proA r ince 
of Caserta, and in a beautiful plain 9 miles N. of Naples. 
It is the seat of a bishop, is Avell built, has a cathedral, 
several convents, about ten churches, and a lunatic asylum. 
Pop. in 1872, 21,176. 

A'very (Waightstill), born at Groton, Conn., May 3, 
1745, graduated at Princeton in 1766, became in 1769 a 
lawyer in Mecklenburg co., N. C. lie Avas an early and 
constant.patriot in the Revolutionary Avar, being one of the 
signers of the Mecklenburg Declaration (1775), a member 
of the Hillsborough congress (1775), of the State congress 
(1776), first attorney-general of the State (1777), and was in 
1779 a colonel of militia in active service. Died in Burke 
co., N. C., Mar. 15, 1821. 

A'verysboro’, a post-village and township of Harnett 
co., N. C., on Cape Fear River, about 40 miles S. of Ra¬ 
leigh. During Gen. Sherman’s Carolina campaign, while 
his army Avas marching towards Goldsboro’, a strong force 
of Confederates under Gen. Hardee was intrenched in front 
of Averysboro’ (Mar. 16, 1865), the object being to check 
Gen. Sherman, and gain time for the concentration of forces 
at Smithfield under Gen. Johnston. After three or four 
hours’ severe fighting the Confederates fell back to a sec¬ 
ond and stronger line. The attack being renewed along 
this line, fighting continued through the day, the Confed¬ 
erates being driven within their intrenchments; during the 
night, which was dark and stormy, their works were evacu¬ 
ated, and on the morning of the 17th it was found that the 
army of Gen. Hardee Avas retreating towards Smithfield. The 
Federal loss Avas about 600, killed and wounded, the Con¬ 
federate loss Avas probably smaller, except in prisoners, of 
which many remained in Gen. Sherman’s hands. This 
battle is known as the battle of Averysboro’. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 716. 

A'very’s Creek, a post-township of Buncombe co., 
N. C. Pop. 655. 

Avery’s Gores, a number of tracts of land in Ver¬ 
mont, granted to Samuel AA r ery in 1791. One of them is 
in Addison co., near the top of the Green Mountains. 
Another in Franklin co. has a pop. of 34. 

Aveyron, a department in the S. part of France, is 
bounded on the N. by Cantal, on the E. by Lozere, Gard, and 
Ilerault, on the S. by Tarn, and on the W. by Lot. Area, 
3376 square miles. It is intersected by the river Lot and 
the Tarn, and also drained by the river Aveyron. The 
surface is mountainous, and the chain of the Cevennes ex¬ 
tends along the south-eastern border of the department. 
Among its mineral resources are coal, copper, lead, zinc, 
and iron. The coal-mines are very valuable. It has manu¬ 
factures of cotton yarn, paper, Avoollcn stuffs, carpets, and 
leather. It is divided into 5 arrondissements, 42 cantons, 
and 285 communes. Among the chief articles of export is 
Roquefort cheese. Capital, Rodez. Pop. in 1872, 402,474. 

Avezac, d’ (Auguste Genevieve Valentin), alawyer, 
born in St. Domingo (Ilayti) in 1777, was a brother-in-law 
of Edward Livingston. He practised medicine in Virginia, 


and law in New Orleans with great success. He served in 
the army in the Avar of 1812, and afterwards removed to 
New York. He was charge d’affaires at The Hague in 
1831 and 1845-49. Died Feb. 15, 1851. 

Avezac, d’ (Pierre Valentin Dominique Julian), an 
uncle of the preceding, was born in St. Domingo July 17, 
1769. He became a citizen of New Orleans, and translated 
Scott’s “Marmion ” into French. Died Feb. 1, 1831. 

Avezza'na (Giuseppe), an Italian republican and 
patriot, born in Piedmont Feb. 19, 1797. He fought against 
Bustamente in Mexico in 1832, and became a merchant in 
the city of Neiv York in 1834. Early in 1848 he returned 
to Italy to fight for the independence of his country, and 
was appointed commander of the national guard at Genoa. 
In Mar., 1849, he was chosen minister of Avar of the Roman 
republic and commander of the army. Rome was taken 
by the French in July of that year, and Avezzana escaped 
to the U. S. 

Avia'no, a town of Italy, in the province of Udine, 48 
miles N. N. E. of Venice. Pop. 6184. 

Avicen'na [Fr. Avicenne], the Latin form of Ibn- 
Sina, the most eminent of Arabian physicians, Avas born 
near Bokhara in 980 A. D. He was well versed in mathe¬ 
matics, astronomy, philosophy, and other sciences. Before 
he Avas tAventy years old he Avas reputed the most learned 
man of his time. He was employed as a physician by sev¬ 
eral Samanide sovereigns, and resided at Ispahan and 
Hamadan. He wrote in Arabic a large number of works 
on medicine and philosophy, the most important of which 
is his “System of Medicine” (“ Canon Medicinm ”), which, 
translated into Latin by Gerardius Cremonensis (2 vols., 
1595), Avasfor five centuries a standard book of the highest 
authority in the schools of Europe. He died in 1037. (Sec 
S. Klein, “ Dissertatio de Avicenni Medico,” 1846; Ibn- 
Kiiallikan, “Biographical Dictionary,” edited by De 
Slane, Paris, 1842; Freind, “History of Physic.”) 

Avicen'nia, a genus of plants of the natural order 
Myoporaceae, consists of trees or shrubs resembling man¬ 
groves, and groAving in salt swamps in tropical regions and 
in the southern hemisphere. The Avicennia tomentosa, the 
white mangroA r e of Brazil, has cordate, OA r ate leaves, downy 
on the loAver side. Its bark is used for tanning. Its gum 
is used as food in New Zealand, and its seeds in India. 

Avid'ius (Cassius), an able Roman general, born in 
Syria, commanded for Marcus Aurelius an army which de¬ 
feated the Parthians in 165 A. D. Having become gOA - 
ernor of Syria and commander of several legions, he re¬ 
volted in 175 A. D., and took the title of emperor. He 
obtained possession of Egypt and part of Asia. He was 
killed by his own officers in 175 A. D. 

Avigliano, a toivn of Italy, in the province of Po- 
tenza, 11 miles N. W. of Potenza, is near the Apennines. 
It has a fine church and a college. It was the scene of a 
landslip in 1824, which caused great destruction. P. 9236. 

Avignon (anc. Ave'nio), an ancient city of France, cap¬ 
ital of the department of Vaucluse, is situated on the left 
bank of the Rhone, 74 miles by rail N. N. W. of Marseilles. 
It is the seat of an archbishop, and is surrounded by a rich 
country with delightful scenery. It contains a college, a 
public library of about 45,000 volumes, a museum of natu¬ 
ral history, a botanical garden, a fine theatre, a lunatic 
asylum, etc. Among the interesting and ancient public 
edifices is the former palace of the popes, a vast irregular 
Gothic structure, noAv used as a barrack and prison ; and 
the cathedral called Notre Dame des Dons, rebuilt by Char¬ 
lemagne, and containing a richly-sculptured chapel Avhich 
is much admired. Petrarch passed several years at Avi¬ 
gnon and at Vaucluse (which is about three miles distant), 
Avhcre he first saw Laura. The manufacture of silk is the 
principal branch of industry in this city, which also has 
several paper-mills, iron-foundries, and manufactures of 
velvets and Avoollen stuffs. It has an active trade in Avine, 
brandy, grain, etc. Steamboats ply daily betAveen Avignon 
and Lyons. Avenio Avas the capital of the CaAares before 
the time of Caesar. It Avas taken by the Saracens in 730 
A. D., and after many changes was purchased in 1348 by 
Pope Clement VI., and became the seat of the papal gov¬ 
ernment. Seven successive popes resided at Avignon in 
the fourteenth century, during which it had about 100,000 
inhabitants. The papal court Avas transferred to Rome in 
1377, and Avignon was annexed to France in 1791. Pop. 
in 1866, 36,427. 

A'vila, a province of Spain, in Old Castile, is bounded 
on the N. by Valladolid, on the E. by Segovia and Mad¬ 
rid, on the S. by Toledo and Caceres, and on the V . by 
Salamanca. Area, 3407 square miles. The surface is moun¬ 
tainous, except the northern part. The chief article^ofcx- 
port is merino avooI. Capital, Avila. Pop. in 1867,176,<69. 

Avila (anc. Ob'ila or Ab'ulci), an episcopal city of Spain, 








































340 AVILA Y ZUNIGA, DE—AWARD. 


the capital of the above province, is on the river Adaja, 71 
miles by rail N. W. of Madrid. It was once a rich and 
more populous city, having a flourishing university, founded 
about 1482 and abolished in 1807. It has a fine cathedral 
and convent. Pop. 6892. 

A'vila y Zuni'ga, tie (Luis), a Spanish historian and 
diplomatist, born in Estremadura about 1490. He en¬ 
joyed the favor of Charles V., who sent him as ambassador 
to Rome about 1558. He wrote “ Commentaries on the 
War of Charles V. in Germany in 1546 and 1547” (1548). 
This work has considerable literary merit, but is not im¬ 
partial. Died probably after 1560. 

A'viles, a Spanish town at the mouth of the river of 
the same name, 15 miles W. N. W. of the city of Oviedo, is 
one of the most important trading-places in the province 
of Oviedo. Pop. about 8350. 

A'vis, or Aviz, an order of knighthood in Portugal, in¬ 
stituted by King Alphonzo I. in 1143 to promote the defeat 
of the Moors. The king of Portugal is grand-master of 
the order. 

Avi'tus (Alcimus Ecdicius), Saint, a poet and bishop 
of Vienne, obtained this dignity about 490 A. D. He was 
an adversary of Arianism. He wrote a poem on the “ Cre¬ 
ation of the World and on Original Sin,” which is said to 
present some analogy to Milton’s “ Paradise Lost.” Many 
other of his writings are extant. 

Avitus (Marcus M.ecilius), a Roman emperor, born in 
Auvergne about 400, was the father-in-law of Sidonius 
Apollinaris. He became prefect of Gaul, and succeeded 
Maximus as emperor of the West in 455 A. D. He was 
deposed by Ricimer in 456. Died in 457 A. D. 

Avlo'na, or Valona (anc. Aulo'nci), a fortified town 
and seaport of Albania, on the Gulf of Avlona, which is an 
inlet of the Adriatic 10 miles long. It is 30 miles S. W. 
of Berat, and has the best harbor on the Albanian coast. 
Here are manufactures of arms and woollen stuffs. Pop. 
about 6000. 

Avo'ca, or Ovo'ca, a small river in Wicklow county, 
Ireland, enters the sea at Arklow. It runs through a very 
narrow and picturesque valley, enclosed between wooded 
banks from 300 to 500 feet high. The Vale of Avoca is 
the subject of one of Moore’s songs. 

Avoca, a post-township of Lawrence co., Ala. P. 936. 

Avoca, a township of Livingston co., Ill. Pop. 825. 

Avoca, a post-village of Pottawatomie co., Ia., on the 
Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. Pt., 35 miles from 
Council Bluffs. It has a considerable trade and one weekly 
newspaper. 

Avoca, a post-township of Cass co., Neb. Pop. 480. 

Avoca, a post-township of Steuben co., N. Y., on the 
Rochester division of the Erie R. R., 28 miles N. W. of 
Corning. It has three churches, an iron-foundry, and a 
lumber and flouring mill. Pop. of village, 492; of town¬ 
ship, 1740. 

Avoca, a post-village of Clyde township, Iowa co., Wis., 
on the Milwaukee and St. Paui R. R., 49 miles W. of Madi¬ 
son. Pop. 418. 

Avoca'do Pear, or Alligator Pear ( Per'sea gra- 
tissima), a fruit tree of the order Lauraceae, a native of the 
warm parts of America. It has leaves which resemble 
those of the laurel. The fruit is a drupe, like a pear in 
shape, and has a soft pulp of delicate flavor, which dis¬ 
solves like butter in the mouth, and is called “ vegetable 
butter.” It is much esteemed in the West Indies, and 
grows in Southern Florida. 

Av'ocet, or Avoset ( Recurviros'tra ), a genus of web¬ 
footed birds, of the order 
Grallatores, having long 
legs, and very long, slen¬ 
der bills. They are easily 
distinguished from other 
wading birds by the up¬ 
ward curvature of the 
bill, which is like elastic 
whalebone, and is adapt¬ 
ed to seeking in the mud 
for its food, which con¬ 
sists almost wholly of 
worms, insects, and little 
crustaceans. They are 
birds of powerful wing, 
and better adapted for Avocet. 

flying and walking than swimming. The Recurvirostra 
Americana abounds in the U. S. Another species, Recur- 
virostra avocetta, is common in Europe. The length of 
both species is about eighteen inches. 

Avoid'ance, in English ecclesiastical law, is the term 


by which the vacancy of a benefice is signified. It is the 
condition of a benefice void of an incumbent. 

Avoirdupois', or Averdupois, the name of the 
common system of weights by which we ascertain the 
weight of all commodities except medicines, gems, and 
precious metals. A pound avoirdupois contains 7000 grains, 
the legal standard of which is such that a cubic inch of 
water weighs 252.458 grains. The pound is divided into 
16 ounces, and an ounce into 16 drams. An ounce is equal 


to 4371 grains. 

TABLE OP AVOIRDUPOIS. 

27R grains = 1 dram, dr. 

16 drams = 1 ounce, oz. 

16 ounces = 1 pound, lb. 

28 pounds = 1 quarter, qr. 

4 quarters =--1 hundredweight, cwt. 

20 hundredweight = 1 ton, ton. 


A cubic foot of water weighs 997.17 ounces avoirdupois. 

Avo'la, a seaport-town of Sicily, in the province of Noto, 
13 miles S. W. of Syracuse, is supposed to occupy the site 
of the ancient Ibla or Hybla, famous for honey. It has an 
active trade in grain, cattle, oil, and fruits. An earth¬ 
quake in 1693 destroyed the ancient Avola. Pop. in 1861, 
10,778. 

A'vtm, a post-township of Hartford co., Conn. P. 987. 

Avon, a post-village of Union township, Fulton co., Ill., 
on the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 19 miles S. 
by W. of Galesburg. Pop. 672. 

Avon, a township of Lake co., Ill. Pop. 1005. 

Avon, a post-township of Coffey co., Kan. Pop. 905. 

Avon, a post-township of Franklin co., Me. Pop. 610. 

Avon, a township of Oakland co., Mich. Pop. 1850. 

Avon, a township of Stearns co., Minn. Pop. 211. 

A'von, a post-village of New York, delightfully situated 
in Livingston co., on the right bank of the Genesee River, 
and on the Rochester division of the Erie.R.R., 18 miles 
S. S. W. of Rochester, and on the Avon Geneseo and Mount 
Morris R. R. Avon stands on a terrace 100 feet above the 
river, and commands a beautiful prospect. Here are sul¬ 
phur springs, with seven hotels, which are much frequented 
in summer by invalids. Pop. 900 ; of Avon township, 3038. 

Avon, a post-village and township of Lorain co., O., 17 
miles W. of Cleveland and 3 miles from the shore of Lake 
Erie. Pop. of township, 1924. 

Avon, a township of Rock co., Wis. Pop. 886. 

Av'ondale, a post-village of Chester co., Pa. 

Av'on, Lower, a river of England, rises in Wiltshire, 
flows southward, then nearly north-westward, passes by 
Bath and Bristol, and enters the Bristol Channel after a 
course of about 80 miles. It is navigable for large vessels 
to Bristol, 7 miles. The valley of the Avon is very pictu¬ 
resque. Another river called Avon, or East Avon, rises in 
Wiltshire, flows southward, passes Salisbury, and enters 
the English Channel at Christ Church. 

Avon, Upper, a river of England, rises near Naseby, 
in Northamptonshire, flows in a general S. W. direction 
through Warwickshire and Worcestershire, passing Rugby, 
Warwick, and Stratford, and joins the Severn at Tewkes¬ 
bury. It is about 100 miles long. 

Avo'nia, a township of Osage co., Kan. Pop. 588. 

Avoyelles, a parish of Louisiana. Area, 800 square 
miles. It is intersected by the Red River, and bounded on 
the E. by that river and Atchafalaya Bayou. The surface 
is nearly level, and partly subject to inundation. Fertile 
prairies occur in the western part. Cotton, corn, rice, and 
molasses are largely exported. Capital, Marksville. Pop. 
12,926. 

Avranches (anc. Abrln'cse), a town of France, in the 
department of’the Manche, 32 miles S. W. of Saint Lo. 
It is beautifully situated on a hill, and has a ruined cathe¬ 
dral, a college, and a convent. Here reside many English 
families, attracted by the beauty of the position and the 
cheapness of living. Pop. in 1866, 8642. 

’Awaj, the ancient Pharpar, one of the two rivers of Da¬ 
mascus. (2 Kings v. 2.) 

Award/ [from the Old Fr. awarder, to “ adjudge ”], the 
result of an arbitration. (See Arbitration.) An award 
is governed by well-established rules, such as that it must 
conform to the agreement whereby the matters in dispute 
were submitted to arbitration ; it must embrace them all; 
it must be final, as well as certain and reasonable. Where 
several matters are submitted, it is not necessary that each 
one should be specifically referred to in the award. If the 
arbitrators purport to dispose of the things submitted by 
a general result, it will be presumed that each subject was 
acted upon and embraced in their conclusion. An award 
does not have the force of a judgment in a court of justice. 

































341 


AWE, LOCH—AXMINSTER. 



If not performed, an action may be brought upon it. If 
a sum of money were directed to be paid, a debt would be 
created which could be collected by action. Statutes 
sometimes allow a clause to be inserted in the submission 
that judgment in a court of justice may be entered upon 
the award. In such a case no action is necessary, and a 
judgment may be taken in accordance with the statute. 

Awe, Loch, a lake of Scotland, in the county of Ar- 
gyle, 8 miles N. W. of Inverary, extends 24 miles in a di¬ 
rection N. E. and S. W. Its average width is about 1 mile, 
but in some places it is 2^ miles Avide. The adjacent 
scenery is very picturesque. The north-eastern end is over¬ 
shadowed by rugged mountains, one of which, Ben Crua- 
chan, is 3069 feet high. The Avater of this lake is discharg¬ 
ed through the river Aavc into Loch Etive. Loch Aavc 
encloses many islands, and abounds in trout. Its scenes 
are favorites Avith ai’tists and Avith tourists. On its islands 
are the ruins of several convents and castles. 

Awn ( aris'ta ), the botanical name of a stiff and pointed 
bristle Avhich occurs in the floAvers of many grasses, form¬ 
ing the extremity of a glume or palea, as the beard of Avheat 
and barley. The flowers of some grasses are awnless. 
The parts Avhich are furnished with this organ are called 
aristate. The aAvn is a prolongation of the midrib of a 
glume or palea, or is a rigid, barren branch of inflores¬ 
cence. Sometimes it is tAvisted, and liable to twist and un- 
tAvist hygrometrically; sometimes it is serrate, as in barley. 

Aw'yaw' (Aga-Ojo or Ovo), the capital of Yoruba, 
in Central Africa. Pop. about 70,000. 

Axe, a tool used by carpenters and others for cutting 
wood, is of very ancient origin. Savage peoples of an¬ 
tiquity formed axes of stone, copper, bronze, etc. The 
axe of modern civilized nations is constructed of wrought 
iron, Avith a cutting edge of steel, which is welded to the 
iron when they are heated to a white 
heat. After it has been hammered and 
ground into the proper form, it is care¬ 
fully tempered by heat and cold water. 

Axe'stone, a mineral regarded as a 
A r ariety of nephrite, is hard, tough, and 
more or less translucent. It occurs in 
primitive rocks in Saxony and New 
Zealand; the natives of the latter use 
it to make axes, hence the name. 

Ax'holme Isle, a level and once 
marshy tract of England, in the N. part 
of Nottinghamshire, Avas drained in 1634 
by a Dutchman named Vermuyden, and 
Avas for a long time inhabited by French 
and Dutch Protestant refugees. After 
much litigation between the colonists 
and the proprietors, the lands Avere di- 
A'ided in 1691, and about one-sixth 
was given to the former. It is noAv ex¬ 
tremely fertile of all kinds of crops. 

Ax' ia, a toAvn of ancient Etruria, 

Avhose remains are identified Avith the 
sculptured tufaceous rocks at Castel 
d’Asso, 6 miles W. of Viterbo. Here are 
many chambers believed to be sepul¬ 
chral. There are many Etruscan in¬ 
scriptions. The architecture is of the 
Tuscan order, closely resembling the 
Doric Greek. These remains were dis¬ 
covered in 1808. It is probable that 
Axia never was a large toAvn, but it 
must once have been quite important. 

Ax'inite [from the Gr. d£tVr), an "axe”], an anhydrous 
silicate of alumina, lime, etc. Avith boracic acid, so named 
because it occurs crystallized in oblique rhomboidal prisms, 
so flat as to appear tabular and sharp like the edge of an 
axe. The crystals have a brilliant, glassy lustre, and are 
translucent or sub-translucent. 

Ax'iom [Gr. d£ia>/xa, from dfiow, to “think worthy,” 
also to “demand”], in geometry, a proposition which ad¬ 
mits of no demonstration, but is taken for granted as a 
self-evident truth ; as, “ The Avhole is greater than its part.” 
Every rational science requires such fundamental proposi¬ 
tions and established principles, to Avhich the assent of the 
student is demanded Avithout proof as a basis for further 
argument. It is an axiom in logic that he Avho admits a 
principle admits its consequence. 

Ax'is, plu. Axes, a Latin word signifying “axle.” A 
straight line, real or imaginary, about which a body re¬ 
volves is called the axis of rotation. Axis is an important 
term in astronomy, botany, crystallography, geometry, and 
mechanics. The axis of the earth or other planet is that 
diameter about Avhich it revolves. In botany, the axis is 


the central part of a plant, around which various organs 
are arranged. The stem is called the ascending axis, and 
the root is the descending axis. The stem is an axis for 
the branches, the branch is an axis for the leaves, and the 
rachis is an axis of inflorescence. In geometry, the axis 
of any geometrical solid is the right line which passes 
through the centre of all the corresponding parallel sec¬ 
tions of it, or the right line about Avhich the parts of the 
figure are symmetrically disposed. Thus, the axis of a 
cone is a right line dinAvn from the \ T ertex to the centre of 
the base. The axis of a curved line is formed by a right 
line dividing the cui've into tAvo symmetrical parts. A right 
line di-awn through the foci of an ellipse is its transvei-se 
axis. The lines upon Avhich the abscisass and ordinates of 
plane curves are measured are called co-ordinate axes, of 
which one is the axis of abscissas and the other the axis 
of ordinates. For determining points in space a third axis 
is used. In crystallography, each form of crystal excejxt 
the hexagonal prism and the rliombohedron has three 
axes, one vertical and two lateral. In anatomy, the axis is 
the second cervical vertebra, Avhich in man is the pivot on 
which the head turns. Ax'is in Pcritro'chio, an old term 
for one of the five mechanical powers, commonly called the 
Wheel and Axle. It consists of a Avheel fixed immov¬ 
ably to an axle, so that both turn together around the axis 
of motion. Axis of Elevation, in geo log} 7 , the line or di¬ 
rection in which rocks have been elevated by an internal 
force. This line generally governs the strike of the strata, 
or the direction of a horizontal line upon them, Avhen re¬ 
moved from their natural or original position and inclined 
to the horizon. 

Axis ( Axis maculatus), a species of deer found in India 
and in many of the East Indian islands, is sometimes called 
ehittra by the natives; axis is the ancient name of a. kind 
of deer or antelope mentioned by Pliny. It resembles in 


Axis Deer. 

size and color the European falloAV-deer, but its honis are 
slender, pointed, and little branched. The female has no 
horns. It is easily domesticated, and is kept in parks in Eu- 
rope. Other species, or marked varieties, are known. The 
horns,are bi*ought to Europe and used for knife-handles. 

Ax'le [Lat. ax'is], a bar of iron or aAvooden shaft Avhich 
supports the body of a carriage or wagon, and is supported 
on two wheels, in the hubs or naves of which its ends are 
inserted. Also, the part of machinery Avhich forms the 
centre of the revolving portion, or the immediate bearing 
of the revolution of a piece of machinery which revolves on 
its own centre. Axles of railway cars, instead of revolving 
in the hubs of the wheels, are strongly keyed in them, and 
journals are turned on the portions outside the Avheels. 
These journals pass through and revolve in boxes. 

Ax'ley, a township of Johnson co., Ill. Pop. 1199. 

Ax'minster, a toAvn of England, in the county of De¬ 
von, 16 miles E. of Exeter. The Axminster carpets, Avhose 
manufacture is the chief employment of the inhabitants, 
are excellent imitations of those of Persia and Turkey, but 
most of the so-called Axminster carpets are made else- 
where. Pop. 2918. 












































AXOLOTL—AYRES. 



Ax olotl' (Siredon lichenoides), a remarkable batrachian 
found in the Mexican lakes, is a permanent larva of the 
Amblystoma type of salamanders. It resembles a fish in 


the Stony Brook, the Worcester and Nashua, and the Pe- 
tcrboro’ and Shirley R. Rs., 35 miles from Boston, 15 from 
Lowell, and 27 from Worcester, Some thirty-six passen¬ 
ger trains pass through the town daily. It has 
manufactures of agricultural tools, leather, iron 
castings, and machinery, and has one weekly 
newspaper. En. of “ Ayer Public Spirit.” 

Ay'eshah, or Aieshah [Ger. AischaK], the 
favorite wife of the prophet Mohammed, born at 
Medina about 610 A. I)., was a daughter of Abu- 
Bekr, who afterwards became calif. Mohammed 
wrote a chapter of the Koran expressly to vin¬ 
dicate her chastity, which had been questioned. 
After his death she took an active part in public 
affairs as an enemy of the calif Othmau and his 
successor Ali, who defeated her in battle. Died 
in 677 A. D. (See Irving, “ Mahomet and his 
Successors.”) 

Ayloslniry? an ancient market-town of Eng¬ 
land, the capital of the county of Bucks, is 38 
miles by railway N. W. of London. It returns 
two members to Parliament. Many ducks are 
reared here for the London market. It has some 
manufactures of silk and lace. Pop. in 1871, 
28,760. 

Aylesforil, Earls of (1714, in the peerage 
of Great Britain), and barons of Guernsey (1703, 
in the English peerage), a noble English family. 
—IIeneage Finch, the seventh earl, was born 
Eeb. 21, 1849, and succeeded his father in 1871. 


Axolotl. 

its general form, has four legs, and a long, compressed, and 
tapering tail. On each side of the neck the gills form three 
long feather-like processes, which give it a remarkable ap¬ 
pearance. Length, about ten inches. It is much esteemed 
as food by the Mexicans. (See Siredon.) 

Ax'um, or Axoom [Gr. or ’Afco^], an ancient 

and decayed town of Abyssinia, the former capital of the 
Axumite enrpire, is in the province of Tigre, 85 miles N. W. 
of Antalo. Here is a Christian church, built about 1657, 
which is held in great veneration. Among the antiquities 
of Axum and the monuments of its former grandeur are 
several finely-sculptured prostrate obelisks, and one granite 
monolith sixty feet high, which is still standing. The Axum¬ 
ite empire extended over Abyssinia and Yemen in Arabia. 
Through Adule, a port on the Red Sea, the people of an¬ 
cient Axum carried on commerce with Arabia and India. 
Pop. between 2000 and 3000. 

Ayacu'cho, a department of Southern Peru, bounded 
on the N. by Junin, on the E. by Cuzco, on the S. by 
Arequipa, and on the W. by Huancavelica. Area, esti¬ 
mated at 42,000 square miles. It is drained by the Apuri- 
mac and its affluents. Gold and silver are found here, 
and in agricultural respects it is the richest part of Peru. 
Pop. about 130,000. 

Ayacucho, a town of Peru, in the above province, 
25 miles E. N. E. of Huancavelica. Here the armies of 
Colombia and Peru completely defeated the Spaniards on 
the 9th of Dec., 1824. This victory, gained by General 
Sucre, ended the Spanish dominion on the American con¬ 
tinent, and was followed by the speedy surrender of all the 
Spanish soldiers in Peru. Pop. about 25,000. 

Ayamoil'te, a seaport-town of Spain, in the province 
of Huelva, on the Guadiana River, about 2 miles from its 
mouth, and 71 miles W. S. W. of Seville. It has two 
churches, one hospital, and a town-house. The chief occu¬ 
pation of its people is fishing. Pop. 5969. 

Aye-Aye ( Ghei'romys Madagascarien'sis), a very sin¬ 
gular quadruped of Mada¬ 
gascar, ranked by Cuvier 
among the Rodentia, but 
placed by other naturalists 
in the family of lemurs. 

It has a long, bushy tail, 
and is about as large as a 
hare. Each of its four 
extremities has an op¬ 
posable thumb, and the 
digits are armed with 
pointed nails, which it sometimes uses to pick kernels out 
of nuts. It sleeps during the day, and is very active in 
the night, feeding on insects and fruits. 

A'yer (Peter), one of the founders of the society of 
Shakers, was born in Canterbury, N. H., in 1760. He 
served in the war of the Revolution. Died Sept. 14, 1857. 

Ayer, a post-village and township of Middlesex co., Mass., 
formerly known as Groton Junction, was incorporated as a 
separate town in 1870. It is at the junction of the Fitchburg, 


Ayl'mer, a lake in British North America, 
about 80 miles N. of Great Slave Lake. It is about 50 
miles long and 30 miles wide. 

Ayl'mer, or El'mer (John), a learned English Prot¬ 
estant bishop, born at Tilney, in Norfolk, in 1521. He was 
tutor to Lady Jane Grey, and became an exile on the ac¬ 
cession of Queen Mary. He published in 1559 an answer 
to John Knox’s “Blast of the Trumpet against the Mon¬ 
strous Regiment of Women.” He was appointed bishop 
of London in 1576, after which he treated the Catholics 
and Puritans with severity. Died June 3, 1594. (See 
Wood, “Athenae Oxonienses.”) 

Aylmer, a village of Malahide township, Elgin co., 
Ontario, Canada. It has one weekly newspaper, and is 
actively engaged in manufactures. Pop. about 1400. 

Aylmer, a village of Ottawa co., Quebec, is situated on 
Lake Deschenes. It has one weekly newspaper, and is en¬ 
gaged in lumbering and general manufactures. A line of 
steamers for the Upper Ottawa starts from here. Pop. 
about 2500. 

Ayr, a small river of Scotland, flows nearly westward 
through Ayrshire, and enters the sea at the town of Ayr. 

Ayr, a handsome seaport-town of Scotland, the capital 
of Ayrshire, is at the mouth of the Ayr, 32 miles S. S. W. 
of Glasgow. The river is here crossed by three bridges, 
which connect this town with Newton-upon-Ayr. Among 
the principal edifices are the assembly-rooms, with a spire 
217 feet high, and the Wallace Tower., Ayr has many ele¬ 
gant villas, and is a place of fashionable resort. In the 
vicinity are objects of interest connected with the memory 
of the poet Burns. Coal is the chief article of export. 
Pop. of parliamentary borough in 1871, 17,851. 

Ayr, a flourishing village of Dumfries township, Water¬ 
loo co., province of Ontario, Canada, has extensive lumber 
and flouring mills and is an important commercial point. 
Pop. about 1300. 

Ayr, a township of Fulton co., Pa. Pop. 1247. 

Ayres (Ro.meyn B.), an American officer, born 1825, in 
New York, graduated at West Point 1847; lieutenant- 
colonel Third Artillery July 26, 1866, and Nov. 29, 1862, 
brigadier-general of U. S. volunteers; served in war with 
Mexico 1847-48, at various posts 1848-73, and on expedi¬ 
tion to Yellow Medicine River 1857. In the civil war, 
served in the Manassas campaign 1861, engaged at Black¬ 
burn’s Ford and Bull Run as chief of artillery of division 
1861-62, and of corps 1862-63, in Virginia Peninsula 1862, 
engaged at Yorktown,Williamsburg, New Bridge, Garnett’s 
Farm, Gaines’s Mill, Golden’s Farm, and Glendale; in the 
Maryland campaign 1862, engaged at South Mountain and 
Antietam, in Rappahannock campaign 1862-63, engaged 
at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, in the Pennsylva¬ 
nia campaign, in command of a division 1863; engaged 
at Gettysburg (brevet major), in suppressing New York 
draft riots 1863, in Rapidan campaign 1863, engaged at 
Rappahannock Station and Mine Run, in Richmond cam¬ 
paign 1864-65, engaged at Wilderness (brevet lieutenant- 
colonel), Laurel Hill, Spottsylvania, Jericho Ford, Tolo- 
potomy, Bethesda Church, Petersburg (wounded), Weldon 
























































AYRSHIRE—AZOF, SEA OF. 343 


Railroad (brevet colonel), Chapel House, Rowanty Creek, 
Dabney’s Mill, Five Forks (brevet brigadier-general), and 
Appomattox Court-house ; in command of a division in the 
district of Shenandoah 1865-66, and member of tactics 
board 1867-69. Brevet major-genei’al U. S. army Mar. 
13, 1865, for gallant and meritorious services in the field, 
and brevet major-general U. S. volunteers Aug. 1, 1864, 
for conspicuous gallantry in battles of Richmond campaign. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Ayr'shire, a maritime county of Scotland, bounded on 
the N. by Renfrew, on the E. by Lanark and Dumfries, on 
the S. by Kirkcudbright and Wigtown, and on the W. by 
the Frith of Clyde. Area, 1149 square miles. The surface 
is generally undulating or hilly, and the south-eastern part 
mountainous. It is drained by the Ayr, the Doon, the Lu- 
gar, and other small streams. The county is rich in min¬ 
erals, especially coal, limestone, freestone, and iron. Si¬ 
lurian and Devonian strata occur here. The soil is gen¬ 
erally fertile and well cultivated. Ayrshire is noted for its 
good dairies and superior breed of milch cows. It has 
important manufactures of cotton and wool. Capital, Ayr. 
Pop. in 1871, 200,745. 

Ay'toun (William Edmondstoune), an eminent British 
poet and essayist, born in Edinburgh in 1813, was educated 
in the university of that city. lie studied law, was called 
to the bar in 1840, and married a daughter of Prof. John 
Wilson. He became professor of rhetoric in the University 
of Edinburgh in 1845. Under the assumed name of 
“ Augustus Dunshunner” he contributed many articles to 
“ Blackwood’s Magazine,” and distinguished himself as a 
humorist as well as a poet. In 1849 he produced “ The 
Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers, and other Poems,” which 
had great success. Among his other works are a humorous 
tale called “How I Became a Yeoman,” “Firmilian, a 
Spasmodic Tragedy ” (1854), and “Bothwell,” a narrative 
poem (1856). Died Aug. 4, 1865. (See Theodore Martin, 
“Memoir of William E. Aytoun.”) 

Ayuntamien'to (literally, a “joining” or “meet¬ 
ing ”), the name of Spanish councils or governing bodies 
of towns, which acquired much political influence and im¬ 
portance during the wars between the Moors and Spanish 
Christians. The Spanish kings granted to the towns mu¬ 
nicipal privileges and institutions which were similar to 
those of the ancient Romans, and promoted a spirit of lib¬ 
erty. The councils were elected by the vote of the citizens. 
These institutions were abolished under the Bourbon kings, 
and were restored in 1837. They were deprived of political 
power in 1844. 

Azad'irine, a bitter principle found in an East Indian 
tree ( Melia Azedirach), used to some extent as a substitute 
for quinine. This tree is called “ Pride of China” in the U. S. 

Aza'Iea [from the Gr. a^aAe'o?, “ parched,” probably so 
called because it is usually found in di’y situations], a genus 
of plants of the order Ericaceae and the Linnaean class Pen- 
tandria. It comprises 100 species or more, natives of North 
America, China, and other countries. Many of them are 



Azalea Indica. 


cultivated for their flowers, which arc beautiful and fra¬ 
grant. The Azalea Politico, a small shrub growing near 


the Black Sea, has fragrant flowers covered with glutinous, 
hairy glands. The whole plant is narcotic and poisonous. 
Among the American species (which have deciduous leaves) 
are the Azalea nudifiora, sometimes called honeysuckle, 
which is cultivated in English gardens, and the Azalea 
viscosa, which has glutinous and fragrant flowers. The 
Azalea Indica, a native of India, is a favorite of florists, 
and is remarkable for its brilliant colors. The Azalea c«- 
lendulacea, found in the Southern U. S., is said sometimes 
to clothe the mountains with a robe of living scarlet. Many 
hybrid azaleas are cultivated as flowering shrubs. 

Aza'ni, an ancient and ruined city of Asia Minor, in 
Anatolia, on the Rhyndacus, which is here crossed by two 
Roman bridges, 73 miles S. S. W. of Brusa. Here are ex¬ 
tensive remains, among which are an Ionic temple of Jupi¬ 
ter, with eighteen columns standing, and a theatre 232 feet 
in diameter. 

Aza'ra, de (Don Felix), a Spanish naturalist, born in 
Aragon May 18, 1 46. He was a member of a commission 
sent in 1781 to South America to determine the boundary 
between the Spanish and Portuguese possessions, and he 
remained there twenty years. He prepared numerous maps 
of South America, and published in Spanish “ Observa¬ 
tions on the Quadrupeds, Reptiles, and Birds of Paraguay 
and La Plata” (5 vols., 1802). He also wrote “Travels in 
South America,” which were published in French (4 vols., 
1809). These works are highly esteemed. He died in Ar¬ 
agon in 1811. (See Walckenaer, “Notice sur F. Azara,” 
prefixed to his “ Voyage dans l’Amerique Meridionale,” 
1809.) 

Azari'ah [Heb. ni*TTK, “the Lord helps”], a name of 
frequent occurrence in the Old Testament: (1) Another 
name for Uzziah, the tenth king of Judah, who began 1o 
reign, according to Winer, 809 B. C. (2) One of Daniel’s 
three friends, a noble of the tribe of Judah, carried captive 
to Babylon in 605 B. C., whose name was changed to 
Abednego (which see). (3) The name of some twelve other 
persons mentioned in the Old Testament, most of whom 
were either priests or high priests. 

Aze'glio, d’ (Massimo Taparelli), Marquis, an emi¬ 
nent Italian statesman, author, and artist, was born at 
Turin Oct. 2, 1798. He studied and worked as an artist in 
Rome, where he passed eight years (1821-29), and became 
a skilful landscape-painter. Having removed to Milan, he 
married a daughter of the celebrated author Manzoni. He 
jiublished in 1833 a historical novel entitled “ Ettore Fier- 
amosco,” which was very popular. He stimulated the na¬ 
tional spirit and patriotism of the Italians by another 
popular historical romance, “Niccolo di Lapi” [1841). His 
political principles were liberal but moderate. lie wrote 
numerous political treatises, and fought against the Aus¬ 
trians at Vicenza in 1848. In May, 1849, he was appointed 
president of the council (prime minister) by King Victor 
Emmanuel. In this position he rendered important ser¬ 
vices to his country. He was superseded by Cavour in 
1852. Died Jan. 15, 1866. 

Azela'ic Ac'itl, one of the products of the oxidation 
of oleic acid by nitric acid. 

Azeve'do-Couti'nlio (Joze Joaquim), a bishop of 
Pernambuco and writer, born in Brazil Sept. 8, 1742. He 
wrote an essay on commerce, a pamphlet against the abo¬ 
lition of the slave-trade, and other works. Died Sept. 12, 
1821. 

Az'iimith [Arab, as sumiU, “the path,” a name of the 
zenith], an astronomical term, denotes the angle made at 
the zenith by the meridian and the vertical circle in which 
a heavenly body is situated, or the angle measured along 
the horizon between the north or south pole and the point 
where a circle passing through the zenith and the body cuts 
the horizon. In trigonometrical surveys on the surface of 
the earth the accurate determination of the azimuth of an 
object is very important. It is usually performed with a 
theodolite. Azimuth circles or vertical circles are great 
circles of the sphere, passing through the zenith and in¬ 
tersecting the horizon at right angles. 

Azobenzole, C 12 IL 0 N 2 , produced by reducing nitro- 
benzole or oxidizing benzidine. It is obtained in reddish 
yellow scales. 

Azobenzoyl', C 21 IL 5 N 2 , a white ci’ystalline powder 
formed by the action of ammonia on crude oil of bitter 
almonds. 

Az'of, Azoph, or Azov, Sea of (the anc. Pa'lus 
Mseo'tis, called by the Russians More Azovskoe), is sit¬ 
uated between Russia and the Black Sea, with which it 
communicates by the Strait of Yenikale or Kertch (anc. 
Cimmerian Bosporus). It extends from the Crimea to the 
mouth of the Don, about 200 miles, and is in some places 
100 miles wide or more. Its area is estimated at 14,000 



















344 


AZOF—AZYMITES. 


square miles. The navigation is generally obstructed by 
ice from November to March. This sea, the water of which 
is nearly fresh, contains a great abundance of fish. 

Azof, or Azov (anc. Tan' ais ), a small town and fort 
of Russia, in the government of Ekaterinoslav, near the 
mouth of the river Don, 25 miles E. S. E. of Taganrog. 
It has declined in population and importance. Its harbor 
is shallow. Azof was taken from the Turks by Peter the 
Great. It was settled by the Carians, and in ancient times 
had the name Tanais. After the taking of Constantinople 
by the Italians it passed into the hands of the Venetians, 
who held it until, in 1410, it was captured by the Tartars. 
The Christians were put to death by the captors, from 
whom came its present name. , 

Azores [Port. Aqo'res, from aqor, a “hawk”], or 
Western Islands, are situated in the North Atlantic, 
about 500 miles W. of Portugal, to which they belong, and 
between lat. 36° 55' and 39° 44' N., and Ion. 25° 10' and 
31° 16' W. They are arranged in three groups, one of 
which consists of Flores and Corvo. About 114 miles S. E. 
of this group is the central group of Terceira, St. George, 
Pico, Fayal, and Graciosa. St. Michael and St. Mary form 
the third group, which is nearly 70 miles S. E. of the cen¬ 
tral group. St. Michael, the largest of all, is 50 miles long, 
and varies in width from 5 to 12 miles, and has an area of 
340 square miles. They are of volcanic formation, and have 
fertile soils, though the surface is mostly mountainous. The 
highest point is the Peak of Pico, which has an altitude 
of 7613 feet. Volcanic disturbances of a terrible charac¬ 
ter have occurred at various times. Whole towns have 
disappeared in opening chasms, and in 1811 an island 
emerged suddenly from the deep, and later disappeared. 
The sugar-cane, coffee-plant, orange, and grapevine flour¬ 
ish here, but the soil is not well cultivated. The chief arti¬ 
cles of export are wine, brandy, grain, and oranges. The 
inhabitants are extremely indolent and ignorant. The land 
is held by feudal tenure, and under such restrictions that 
the farmers never think of improving it, and simply gather 
the products which grow wild. It is owned in immense en¬ 
tailed estates. The people are extremely fond of music. 
They are not intemperate in their habits, but are prone to 
the grossest superstition, and filthy in their dress and per¬ 
sons to the last degree. The Azores have no good harbors. 
The Portuguese took possession of these islands in 1449. 
Area, 1149 square miles. Pop. in 1868, 252,480. 

Az'otized Hodies (or Principles) are substances 
which contain nitrogen (azote), and form part of the living 
structure of an animal or plant. Among them are albu¬ 
men, fibrine, caseine, gelatine, and kreatine. 

Azo'tus, the Greek name of Aslidod, an ancient city 
and stronghold of the Philistines, on the Mediterranean, 
21 miles S. of Jaffa. 

Azoxyhenzole, C 12 H 10 N 2 O, a body which crystallizes 
in beautiful yellow needles. It is produced by the action 
of potassic hydrate on an alcoholic solution of nitrobenzole. 

Az'talan, apost-township of Jefferson co., Wis. P. 1261. 

Az'tee Children, the name commonly applied to a 
boy and a girl who were taken from America to England in 
1853, and were represented as descendants of the Az¬ 
tecs. They were under three feet high, had long black 
hair, olive complexions, and very prominent noses. 
They were exhibited to the public for money by a person 
who told an incredible story of their antecedents, and 
pretended that they had been abducted from the an¬ 
cient city of Iximaga. It was commonly believed by 
naturalists that, they were monstrosities—dwarfs that 
never attained their proper development. 

Az'tecs, a name of a Mexican nation which inhab¬ 
ited the table-land of Anahuac at the time of the Span¬ 
ish conquest of Mexico. According to tradition, they 
came originally from Aztlan to Mexico, which was in¬ 
habited by the Toltecs before the migration of the Az¬ 
tecs. It is sujiposed that the latter founded the city 
of Mexico (or Tenochtitlan) about 1325, some say as 
early as 1216, and became the most powerful and domi¬ 
nant people of Mexico or Anahuac. They made consider¬ 
able progress in civilization and the useful arts, derived 
partly from the Toltecs. They were a warlike people, 
and conquered several neighboring tribes. “At the be¬ 
ginning of the sixteenth century,” says Prescott, “the 
Aztec dominion reached across the continent from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific.” The government was an elec¬ 
tive monarchy, and the sovereign was selected from the 
brothers or nephews of the preceding king, so that the 
choice was always restricted to the same family. As they 
had never learned the art of alphabetical writing, their 
laws were exhibited to the public in hieroglyphical paint¬ 
ings or picture-writing. Their religion was a gross poly¬ 
theism. They sacrificed human victims to their gods on a 


larger scale than other nations— i. e. about 20,000 annually. 
Astronomy was the science which they cultivated with 
most success. “We cannot,” says Prescott, “contemplate 
the astronomical science of the Mexicans without aston¬ 
ishment.” They were acquainted with the cause of eclipses, 
and they recognized some of the most important constella¬ 
tions. They adjusted the times of their festivals by the 
movements of the planets, and fixed the true length of the 
tropical year with great precision. An immense dial, dis¬ 
interred in 1790 in the great square of Mexico, has supplied 
us with interesting facts. The calendar engraved on it 
shows that they settled the hours of the day precisely; also 
the periods of the solstices and equinoxes, and the transit 
of the sun across the zenith. The Aztecs were diligent 
cultivators of the soil, and had acquired respectable pro¬ 
ficiency in agriculture, but they had no horses, oxen, or 
other animals of draught. Their staple productions were 
maize and the agave or Mexican aloe, which supplied them 
with food, drink, and clothing. They were ignorant of the 
use of iron, but found a substitute in bronze, an alloy of 
copper and tin, of which they made weapons and tools. 
They also cast golden and silver vases of large size. In 
mimetic art they were much inferior to the Egyptians. 
The Spanish conquerors of Mexico destroyed nearly all 
the manuscripts which they found in the country, and it 
is not probable that the art of reading the picture-writing 
will ever be recovered. “The Aztec character,” says 
Prescott, “was perfectly original and unique. It was 
made up of incongruities apparently irreconcilable. It 
blended into one the marked peculiarities of different 
nations, not only of the same phase of civilization, but as 
far removed from each other as the extremes of barbarism 
and refinement. It may find a fitting parallel in their own 
wonderful climate, capable of producing on a few square 
leagues of surface the boundless variety of vegetable forms 
which belong to the frozen regions of the north, the tempe¬ 
rate zone of Europe, and the burning skies of Arabia and 
Hindostan.” (See Prescott, “ Conquest of Mexico,” vol. i.) 

Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Az'uline, a fine permanent blue dye prepared from 
certain constituents of coal-tar. (See Aniline Colors.) 

Azulin'ic Ac'id, a brown substance produced by the 
spontaneous decomposition of hydrocyanic (prussic) acid. 

Azu'ni (Dominico Alberto), an Italian writer known 
from his researches in maritime law, born Aug. 3, 1749, 
was a judge in Genoa. He published “ Droit Maritime 
de F Europe” (Paris, 1805), and “Dizionario Universale 
ragionato della giuresprudenza mercantile” (2d ed., Li¬ 
vorno, 1822). 

A'zure [Fr. azur], the fine blue color of the sky; also 
the blue pigment which is produced by melting a mixture 
of a salt of cobalt with quartz-sand and potash, and is 
used in coloring porcelain. In heraldry, azure is one of 
the colors employed in blazonry, and is represented in 
engraving by horizontal lines. It is equivalent to the 
color of sapphire among precious stones. In painting, 
azure is a sky-colored blue, called ultramarine. 

Azure Stone. See Lapis-Lazuli. 

Az'urine (Lends'cus coeru'lexis), a fresh-water fish re- 



Azurine or Blue Roach. 

sembling the red-eye or rudd, is found in Lancashire, Eng¬ 
land (where it is called the blue roach), and in Switzerland. 
The color of its back is a slate-blue. 

Az'urite, a beautiful blue carbonate of copper, some¬ 
times called Blue Malachite. It occurs in blue crystals 
which are very brittle, consequently this malachite is not 
well adapted for the ornamental purposes for which green 
malachite is so extensively used. Its composition is 2Cu 
CO 3 + C 11 H 2 O 2 . The most beautiful specimens are found at 
Chessy, near Lyons. The name azurite has also been 
applied to Lazulite (which see). 

Az'ymites [from the Gr. a, priv., and £u/urj, “leaven”], 
a name given to Christians who use unleavened bread in 
the sacrament, as the Latins, Armenians, and Maronites. 
The Greek and Protestant churches use the leavened bread. 
















B—BABEUF. 345 

B. 


B, the second letter of most alphabets, is a consonant of 
the class known as labial mutes. It is cognate with the 
mutes p and /, and etymologically interchangeable with 
them and with the liquid m and the semi-vowels w and v. 
In ancient Rome, B sometimes stood for 300, and B for 
3000. The Greek 0 stood for 2, and / |3 for 2000. In music, 
B is the seventh letter in the natural diatonic scale. B also 
stands for basso as an abbreviation in music. On old French 
coins B stands for Rouen; on Prussian, for Breslau. B in 
chemistry is the symbol of the element boron. As an ab¬ 
breviation, B., or b., signifies “born,” and sometimes “ book.” 

Ba'al, or Bel, the principal god of the Phoenicians, 
Chaldseans, and Carthaginians, is regarded as a personifica¬ 
tion of the sun. Among the Phoenicians, Baal was the god 
of the sun, the vivifier of nature, and Astarte (or Baaltis) 
the goddess of the moon. Baal was identical with the Bel 
or Belus of the Babylonians and Assyrians. The worship 
of Baal prevailed among the ancient Jews in the time of 
the prophet Elijah and earlier. (See 1 Kings xviii. and 
Romans xi. 4.) The word Baal enters into the composition 
of many Hebrew, Chaldee, and Carthaginian proper names, 
as Jezebel, Hannibal, Baal-Peor, Baal-bec (“ city of Baal ”), 
and Beelzebub. 

Baal'bec, Balbec, or Baalbek [the final belt, de¬ 
rived, perhaps, from the Arabic bakka, “to be thronged”], 
(called by the Greeks Heliop'olis , i. e. “city of the sun”), 
an ancient and magnificent city of Syria, situated in a val¬ 
ley or plain near the foot of Anti-Libanus, about 42 miles 
N. W. of Damascus ; lat. 34° 1' 30” N.,lou. 36° 11' E., and 
about 3800 feet above the level of the sea. Its origin and 
early history are not known. It was formerly one of the 
most populous and important cities of Syria, and contained 
many palaces and monuments. Antonius Pius built here 
a grand temple, which subsequently became a Christian 
church. In 636, Baalbec fell into the hands of the Moham¬ 
medans, and in 748 was sacked by the calif of Damascus. 
The site is now occupied by a small modern village and 
extensive ruins of ancient temples, among which was the 
great temple of the sun. This was 324 feet long, and had 
a peristyle of fifty-four Corinthian columns, about seven 
feet in diameter and eighty-nine feet high, including cap¬ 
ital and pedestal. Six of these columns are now standing. 
Some of the stones used in the walls or substructions of 
this temple are sixty-four feet long and twelve feet thick. 
The chief material of these temples was limestone or marble 
and granite. (See Wood and Dawkins, “Ruins of Baal- 
bec,” 1757 ; Cassas, “Voyage Pittoresque de la Syrie,” 
1799; Volney, “Voyage en Syrie;” Robinson’s “Later 
Biblical Researches,” 1852, pp. 505-527.) 

Ba'ba-Dagh, a town of European Turkey, in Bulgaria, 
on a tributary of the Danube, is 93 miles N. E. of Silistria. 
It has considerable commerce with the coasts of the Black 
Sea, and has a Tartar high school. It was stormed by the 
Russians in 1771 and 1828, and was ineffectually besieged 
in 1854. Pop. about 10,000. 

Babahoy'o, a town of Venezuela, in the province of 
Guayaquil, 20 miles N. E. of Guayaquil, on the Cabacol. 
The goods sent from Guayaquil into the interior go to this 
place, and are thence sent farther by mules. In consequence, 
there are large warehouses here. But Babahoyo is, in spite 
of this great trade, only a small, poorly-built town. 

Bab'bage (Charles), F. R. S., an English mathema¬ 
tician, born Dec. 23, 1792, graduated at Trinity College, 
Cambridge, in 1814. He became professor of mathematics 
at Cambridge in 1828, and published in 1832 a work “ On 
the Economy of Manufactures and Machinery,” which was 
translated into several languages. Among his other works 
is a “ Ninth Bridgewater Treatise ” (1837). He invented 
and partly constructed a calculating-machine, which was 
never completed, although about £17,000 of the public 
money was expended on it. Died Oct. 20, 1871. 

Bab'bitt (Isaac), was born at Taunton, Mass., July 26, 
1799. He was a goldsmith, and made at his native town 
the first Britannia ware produced in this country. In 1841 
he received a gold medal for his valuable invention of the 
alloy which bears his name. Congress also gave him 
$20,000. He afterwards engaged extensively in the manu¬ 
facture of this alloy, and also of soap. Died insane at the 
McLean Asylum, May 26, 1862. 

Bab'bitt’s Met'al, a soft alloy invented by Mr. Isaac 
Babbitt of Boston, and used in lining boxes for axles and 


gudgeons, in order to diminish the friction and abrasion. 
These boxes are extensively used in the machinery of steam¬ 
boats and locomotives. The alloy is prepared thus: to 4 
pounds of melted copper add gradually 12 pounds of the 
best Banca tin, then 8 pounds of antimony, and finally 12 
pounds more of tin. 

Bab'cock (C. A.), U. S. N., born June 12, 1833, in the 
city of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman 
April 8, 1850, became a passed midshipman in 1856, a lieu¬ 
tenant in 1859, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a com¬ 
mander in 1869. From 1862 to 1864 he commanded the 
steamer Morse, North Atlantic blockading squadron, and 
was repeatedly in action with Confederate batteries and 
troops while co-operating with our army on the James, 
York, and Pamunkey rivers. He was highly commended 
for his services by Rear-Admiral Lee, who, in the latter part 
of 1864, upon being appointed to the command of the Mis¬ 
sissippi squadron, selected Babcock as his fleet-captain. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Babcock (Rufus), D. D., was born at North Colebrook, 
Conn., Sept. 18, 1798, and graduated at Brown University 
in 1821. He was ordained pastor of a Baptist church in 
Poughkeepsie, N. Y., in 1823, was president of Waterville 
College (1833-36), and has been pastor of churches in 
Salem, Mass., Philadelphia, Paterson, N. J., etc. He has 
published a number of biographical and religious works. 

Ba'bel, or Ba'bil, was the Hebrew or native name of 
the city commonly called Babylon, which is the Greek form 
of the word Babel; it was also the name of a famous tower 
which the descendants of Noah began to build soon after 
the Deluge, on the plain of Shinar, but in consequence of 
the confusion of tongues they could not finish it. The pro¬ 
jectors of this tower said, “ Go to, now; let us build us a 
city, and a tower whose top may reach unto heaven, and let 
us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the 
face of the whole earth.” (Genesis xi.) There is no evi¬ 
dence that the work was ever raised above the foundations, 
but several extravagant reports or traditions of its immense 
height have obtained currency. It is generally believed 
that the position of this tower was identical with the site 
of Babylon. Some persons have confounded the tower of 
Babel with the temple of Belus. Others have entertained 
the opinion that Birs-Niinrood, near Borsippa, is the re¬ 
mains of Babel. Others, again, have identified it with 
a ruin near Hillah. But it may well be doubted whether 
any remains of the tower long survived the defeat of its 
builders. 

Bab-el-Man'deb (i. e. “gate of tears”), a strait 
which connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden and 
the Indian Ocean. On the Arabian side of the strait is a 
cape called Bab-el-Mandeb. The strait is about 20 miles 
wide, and encloses the small rocky island of Perim, on 
which is a British fort. The name of Bab-el-Mandeb was 
given to the strait because the navigation of the sea to 
which it is the entrance, owing to numerous small rocky 
islets, was, before the introduction of steamers, extremely 
dangerous. 

Ba'ber, or Babur (Mohammed), written also Babour, 
surnamed Zaiieer-ed-Deen (“protector of religion”), a 
celebrated emperor of India, and the first of the Great Mo¬ 
guls, was born Feb. 14, 1483. He was a descendant of 
Tamerlane (Timur-Leng). In 1494 he succeeded his father, 
who was king of Ferghana. The first part of his reign 
was disturbed by wars with neighboring powers, and he 
experienced great vicissitudes of fortune. He performed 
remarkable exploits in war, and extended his dominions by 
the conquest of Kandahar, Cabul, etc. He made an in¬ 
cursion into the Punjab in 1505, and a second time in 1519. 
Having again crossed the Indus in 1524, he defeated Ibra¬ 
him, king of Delhi, on the plain of Paniput in 1526, and 
became master of India.. He was an able ruler, and had a 
genius for poetry and music. He died Dec. 26, 1530, and 
was succeeded by his son Humayoon. (See his autobiog¬ 
raphy, of which there is a review in Lord Jeffrey’s “ Es¬ 
says;” R. M. Caldecott, “Life of Bfiber, Emperor of 
Hindostan;” Ferishta, “ Mohammedan Power in India,” 
translated by J. Briggs, London, 4 vols., 1829; William 
Erskine’s “History of India and the First Two Sovereigns 
of the House of Tairnur,” 2 vols., 1S54.) 

Babeuf (Francois Noel), a French conspirator and 
Socialist, who assumed the name of Caius Gracchus, was 
born at St.-Quentin in 1764. Ho founded in Paris, in 1/94, 











346 


BABI—BABYLON. 


“ The Tribune of the People,” a journal in which he ad¬ 
vocated equality and community of property, llis disci¬ 
ples were called Babouvistes, and his system Babouvisme. 
He formed a conspiracy against the Directory, was arrested 
and tried, and the sentence of death being pronounced 
upon him, he stabbed himself with a dagger, May 23, 1797. 
(See Sudre, “Histoire du Communisiue” (1849).) 

llabi, the Malay word for “ hog,” is the name of sev¬ 
eral islands in the Pacific and Indian oceans. One of these 
is about 85 miles W. of Sumatra, and near lat. 3° N. 
Length, about 40 miles. 

Bab'illgtonitej a silicate of iron and calcium. 

Bab'ists [in Arabic and Persian, Bdbi], a Mohammedan 
sect which originated in Persia in the second quarter of 
the present century. It is said to derive its name from 
a prophet named Bab, who was shot by order of the king 
of Persia in 1835. Many of the early Babists took up 
arms to propagate or defend their religion, and no incon¬ 
siderable numbers were taken and put to death; but this 
does not appear to have checked the spread of the new doc¬ 
trines. The adherents of Babism are said at present to 
amount to several millions. They profess to be reformers, 
assert the absolute unity of God, and claim that Bab is as 
much superior to Mohammed as the latter is to Christ. 

Bab'lah, the fruit of several species of acacia. It con¬ 
tains tannic acid and a red coloring-matter. It is used in 
dyeing and calico-printing for fawn colors. , 

Ba'boo, a Hindoo title equivalent to the English “ Mr.,” 
is usually given to gentlemen who are educated and wealthy. 
The Baboos are noted for generosity and public spirit, and 
are liberal in religion. Many of them are bankers and 
merchants. 

Baboon' ( Cynoceph'ahts ), a genus of Old World mon¬ 
keys, distinguished by long truncated muzzles and cheek- 
pouches. Its face has a general resemblance to that of a 



Common Baboon and Monkey. 

dog, and the ridges over the eyes are very distinct. Ba¬ 
boons have callosities on the buttocks, and a repulsive 
physiognomy, which indicates the ferocity of their dispo¬ 
sition. They walk or run easily on the ground, and climb 
trees with agility. They are exceedingly strong, cunning, 
and mischievous. Troops of these animals sometimes enter 
a plantation for plunder, and destroy much besides what 
they eat and carry away in their cheek-pouches. They are 
chiefly found in Africa and Southern Asia. They feed 
mostly on fruits and vegetables. The genus is divisible 
into two groups—the baboons proper, which have long 
tails, and the mandrills, which have very short tails. As 
examples of baboons of the first group may be mentioned 
the chacma, or pig-faced baboon, also called the ursine 
baboon (Oynocephalua porcarius), a native of South Afrida, 
and the (log-faced baboon (Cynocephalua hrtmadryas), a na¬ 
tive of Arabia, Persia, and Abyssinia. The latter species 
is often sculptured on the ancient monuments of Egypt, 
and it is supposed to have been the “ Thoth” baboon to which 
divine honors were paid. It was frequently embalmed, and 
the mummies are still found. The chacma is one of the 
largest of the baboons, about the size of an English mas¬ 
tiff. The mandrill, or rib-nosed baboon (Cynocephalua 
mor'mon), a native of Guinea, is the largest, ugliest, and 
fiercest of the whole genus. Its muzzle is marked with 
blue and scarlet ribs. It is scarcely possible to imagine 
anything more hideous than its aspect. Numerous other 
species are known to the later naturalists. 

Ba'brius, or Babrias, a Greek fabulist who is sup¬ 


posed to have lived a short time before the Augustan Age. 
He made a collection of fables ascribed to JEsop, and turned 
them into verse. Some of them were the original works 
of Babrius. In 1844, Minoides Minas discovered in the 
East a manuscript of 123 fables of Babrius, which were 
published in Paris in 1844. 

Babuya'nes Islands, a group of small islands in the 
Pacific Ocean, between Formosa and the Loo Choo Islands. 
They are of volcanic formation, and very fertile. Among 
the largest of them are Calayan and Babuyan. Large 
quantities of sulphur are obtained on these islands. Pop. 
about 8000. Chief town, Batan. 

Bab'ylas, Saint, bishop of Antioch from 237 to 250 
A. D., when he suffered martyrdom. Miracles are reported 
in connection with his remains. Chrysostom wrote a book 
about him in 382, and in 387 delivered a discourse in com¬ 
memoration of him. 

Bab'ylon [Gr. BafivXuv; Heb. Babel], an ancient and 
celebrated city of Chaldaea, was situated in the plain of 
Shinar, on both sides of the river Euphrates, about GO 
miles S. of Bagdad; lat. 32° 28' 30” N., Ion. 44° 9' 45” E. 
Its site is partly occupied by the modern town of Hillah. 
It is generally believed that it was built near Babel, which 
is mentioned in Genesis (chap, x.) as the beginning of 
Nimrod’s kingdom. We have no subsequent notice of 
Babylon or Babel in the Hebrew sacred history until the 
reign of Hoshea, about 730 B. C., when the people of Sa¬ 
maria were carried away captive to Assyria. (2 Kings 
xvii. 24.) The statements of ancient historians in relation 
to the origin of this city are confused and discordant. 
According to Greek tradition, it was founded by Semiramis 
or Belus, but Berosus affirms that this story is a fiction of 
the Greeks. The earliest historian who gives a description 
of Babylon is Herodotus, whose testimony is that of an 
eye-witness. He visited it about 450 B. C., but he does not 
inform us who founded the city. He says Babylon, which 
after the fall of Ninus (Nineveh) became the capi¬ 
tal of the Assyrian empire, had already been ruled 
by several kings and by two remarkable queens, 
Semiramis and Nitocris. He states that the form 
of the city was a square, each side of which was 120 
stadia (about fourteen miles) in extent, that it was 
enclosed by brick walls, the height of which was 
200 royal cubits (about 335 English feet), and the 
breadth or thickness was 50 cubits (about 85 feet). 
Pliny, however, gives 235 feet as the height of these 
walls, Avhich were reckoned among the Seven Won¬ 
ders of the World. It is supposed that a large part 
of the space enclosed by them was occupied by gar¬ 
dens, orchards, and open fields. The houses were 
built of bricks, and the streets, which were wide, 
crossed each other at right angles. “ Babylon,” 
says G. Bawlinson, “was probably the largest and 
most magnificent city of the ancient world.” The 
prophet Isaiah, who lived about 300 years before 
Herodotus, describes it (chap. xiii. 19) as “ the glory 
of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees’ excellen¬ 
cy.” There is reason to believe that Babylon at¬ 
tained its highest prosperity and splendor in the 
reign of Nebuchadnezzar, who, inflated with pride 
and success, once exultingly asked, “ Is not this 
great Babylon, that I have built for the house of the king¬ 
dom, by the might of my power, and for the honor of 
my majesty ?” (Daniel iv.) The most remarkable build¬ 
ings of this city were two royal palaces, one on either side 
of the river, and the great temple of Belus. Connected 
with one of these palaces was the “ hanging garden,” 
which the Greeks regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of 
the World. This singular structure, which is ascribed to 
Nebuchadnezzar, was a square, each side of which meas¬ 
ured 400 Greek feet. It was supported on several tiers of 
open arches, built one over the other like the walls of a 
classic theatre, and sustaining at each stage or story a 
solid platform from which the piers of the next tier of 
arches rose. The top of the building, which was about 
seventy-five feet high, was covered with a large mass of 
earth, on which grew not only flowers and shrubs, but 
trees of a large size. Herodotus gives a description of the 
temple of Belus, the chief feature of which was the Zig- 
gurat or tower, a huge solid mass of brickwork, built with 
receding stages, square being emplaced on square, so as to 
form a rude pyramid, on the top of which the shrine was 
placed. The number of stages was eight, and the height 
of the tower, according to Strabo, was about 600 feet. 
“ When we turn,” says G. Kawdinson, “ from this picture 
of the past to contemplate the present condition of the 
localities, we are at first struck with astonishment at the 
small traces which remain of so vast and wonderful a me¬ 
tropolis. The broad walls of Babylon are utterly broken 
down.” God has “ swept it with the besom of destruction.” 




























(Isaiah xiv. 23.) On its site are visible no pillars, arches, 
or ruins in the common acceptation of the term, but the 
traveller finds here many heaps or mounds, some of which 
are of enormous size, scattered over the plain, so as to 
verify the prophecy of Jeremiah, “Babylon shall become 
heaps” (chap. li.). Between the “heaps” the soil is in 
many places filled with fragments of pottery and bricks, 
and impregnated with nitre, indicating that it was once 
covered Avith houses. Prominent among the remains of 
Babylon is the Babil mound, a pile of brickwork about 
140 feet high, which is supposed to be the ruins of the 
temple of Belus. The palace of Nebuchadnezzar is iden¬ 
tified Avith a mound which the native Arabs call El-Kusr 
(“the castle”), in Avhich are found fragments of alabaster 
vessels, fine earthenAvare, and bricks of excellent quality 
stamped with the name of Nebuchadnezzar. According 
to M. Oppert, several slabs found in the Kasr mound bear 
the folloAving inscription: “Grand palace of Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar, king of Babylon, son of Nabopolassaf, who walked 
in the worship of Nebo and Merodach his lords.” About 
6 miles S. W. of Hillah is a ruined building Avhich the na¬ 
tives call Birs-i-Nimrood, which, says G. Bawlinson, 
“ strikes moderns Avith more admiration than any other 
uoav existing in the country.” It consisted of seven re¬ 
ceding stages, representing the seven planetary spheres, 
and each stage painted Avith a different color. The first 
or basement stage Avas a square, each side of which meas¬ 
ured 272 feet; the second stage Avas 230 feet square, and 
had a vertical height of 26 feet; the third stage was 188 
feet square and 26 feet high; the fourth stage was 146 feet 
square ; and the others diminished in a similar ratio. From 
the ruins of Babylon successive generations obtained ma¬ 
terials Avith Avhich Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and other great 
cities Avere built. 

History .—About 1270 B. 0. the Assyrian kings became 
masters of Chaldma or Babylonia, of Avhich Babylon was 
the capital. This country was afterwards ruled by an 
Assyrian dynasty of kings, Avho reigned at Babylon, and 
sometimes Avaged Avar against those Avho reigned in Assyria 
proper. At other times the kings of Babylon Avere tribu¬ 
tary to those of Assyria. Several centuries elapsed in which 
the history of Babylon is almost a blank. In the time of 
Tiglath-pileser of Assyria, Nabonassar ascended the throne 
of Babylon in 747 B. C. He is celebrated for the chrono¬ 
logical era which bears his name, and Avhich began in 747 
B. C. About 720, Merodach-baladan became king of Baby¬ 
lon, and sent ambassadors to Ilezekiah, king of Judah (see 
2 Kings xx. and Isaiah xxxix.). A few years later Sargon, 
king of Assyria, defeated and dethroned Merodach-baladan. 
Sennacherib completed the subjection of Babylon, which he 
annexed to the Assyrian empire about 690 B. C. The con¬ 
quest of Nineveh and the subversion of the Assyrian em¬ 
pire, which was effected about 625 B. C. by Cyaxares the 
Medo and his ally Nabopolassar, the rebellious governor 
of Babylon, enabled the latter to found the Babylonian 
empire, Avhich Avas the fourth of Rawlinson’s “Five Great 
Monarchies,” and included the valley of the Euphrates, 
Susiana, Syria, and Palestine. His reign lasted about 
twenty-one years, and Avas probably pacific, as the history 
of it is nearly a blank; but in 605 B. C. his army defeated 
Neco, king of Egypt, Avho had invaded Syria. He was 
succeeded by his more famous son, Nebuchadnezzar (604 
B. C.), who Avas the greatest of the kings of Babylon. Ac¬ 
cording to G. Rawlinson, “ It is scarcely too much to say 
that but for Nebuchadnezzar the Babylonians Avould have 
had no place in history. At any rate, their actual place is 
owing almost entirely to this prince, who to the military 
talents of an able general added a grandeur of artistic con¬ 
ception and a skill in construction which place him on a 
par Avith the greatest builders of antiquity.” Our records 
of his history are derived almost entirely from the Bible— 
i.e. the Second Book of Kings, Second Chronicles, Jere¬ 
miah, and Daniel. Zedekiah, king of Judah, having re¬ 
volted, Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem about 588 
B. C., burned the great temple of Solomon, and carried 
aAvay the JeAVS as captives to Babylon. (See Babylonish 
Captivity.) He also took Tyre and conquered Egypt, and 
became without doubt the most powerful monarch of his 
time. He promoted the Hebrew prophet Daniel to the sec¬ 
ond place in the kingdom. (For an account of his character, 
his marvellous experience, his loss of reason, and his resto¬ 
ration, the reader is referred to the Book of Daniel.) He 
died in 561 B. C., and Avas succeeded by his son, Evil-mero- 
dach, avIio reigned only tAvo years. Nabonadius (or Laby- 
netus), Avho became king in 555 B. C., formed an alliance 
with Croesus against Cyrus the Great. He appears to have 
shared the royal poAvcr with his son Belshazzar, whose 
mother was a* daughter of Nebuchadnezzar. Cyrus be¬ 
sieged Babylon, which he took by stratagem in 538 B. C., 
and with the death of Belshazzar, whom the Persians 
killed, the kingdom of Babylon ceased to exist. Alexan¬ 


der the Great died in Babylon, which he had selected as 
the capital of his empire. (See Rich, “Memoirs on the 
Ruins of Babylon,” 1818; Sir R. K. Porter, “Travels;” 
Layard, “Nineveh and Babylon;” Rawlinson, “ Herod¬ 
otus,” 1858; Raavlinson, “Five Great Monarchies of the 
Ancient Eastern World,” 4 vols., 1860-67 ; 2d ed. in 3 vols., 
1871; Mignan, “Travels in Chaldsea,” 1829.) 

Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Bab'ylon, a post-village and township of Suffolk co., 
N. Y., is on South Bay, and on the South Side R. R. of 
Long Island. It contains 4 churches, 6 hotels, 4 mills, 2 man¬ 
ufactories, and 1 weekly paper. It is connected Avith Fire 
Island by horse railroad and steam ferry, and is famed for 
the salubrity of its climate, and much frequented as a sum¬ 
mer resort. Pop. of village, 1225. 

II. Livingston, Ed. “ Signal.” 

Babylo'iiia, or ChaldtE'a, an ancient country of 
Asia, Avhich the Scriptures call “ the land of Shinar” and 
“ the land of the Chaldees.” It coincided nearly Avith the 
modern Irak-Arabee. Babylonia proper Avas a part of the 
great Mesopotamian plain, and was that alluvial tract 
which intervenes betAveen’the Arabian desert and the river 
Tigris, and was situated on both sides of the Euphrates. 
It extended from the Persian Gulf north-westward more 
than 300 miles, and had an area of about 23,000 square 
miles. The distance is now 430 miles, and the area about 
30,000 square miles; but the Persian Gulf then ran up 120 
miles farther than now. The great and almost sole physi¬ 
cal features of this level region were the rivers Euphrates 
and Tigi'is, the former of which is navigable about 1200 
miles from its mouth. It receives no tributaries from the 
right in the lower part of its course for a distance of 1000 
miles or more, and few from the left, except the Tigris, so 
that its volume diminishes as it approaches the sea. The 
plain through which it passes is a dead level, and remark¬ 
able for its featureless character. The fertility of its soil 
in ancient times was proverbial. “ Of all countries that 
we know,” says Herodotus, “ there is none that is so fruit¬ 
ful in grain, of which it yields commonly tAvo hundred 
fold.” The soil was irrigated by canals, and was well cul¬ 
tivated. The date-palm flourished here, and furnished 
several products of great value. Babylonia was favorably 
situated for commerce, and her people were among the 
most commercial nations of the ancient Avorld. The Baby¬ 
lonians—the Chaldaeans of the Hebrew prophets—Avere a 
mixed race, in which the dominant element Avas Semitic. 
They Avere distinguished for their intellectual ability, their 
high civilization, and martial spirit. Their “wisdom and 
learning” are attested by the prophets Isaiah and Jere¬ 
miah : “ Thy wisdom and thy knowledge, it hath perverted 
thee” (Isaiah xlvii. 10). The luxury of the Babylonians 
is often censured by both sacred and profane writers. The 
Chaldmans excelled other ancient nations in astronomy, 
and were especially addicted to the study of astrology. 
They attained superior skill in architecture, although they 
had no better material than brick. Two of their structures, 
the Avails of Babylon and the “hanging garden,” were 
reckoned among the Seven Wonders of the World. Their 
grand temples and palaces were built of kiln-dried bricks 
of square form, and very hard and durable. The finest 
quality of brick Avas yellow. Brick or clay was also the 
material on Avhich they Avrote and made cuneiform inscrip¬ 
tions. Agriculture and commerce Avere the chief occupa¬ 
tions of these people, who also excelled in the manufacture 
of textile fabrics and carpets. The Babylonian empire, 
which was the fourth of the five great Oriental monarchies, 
included, besides Babylonia proper, Susiana (Elam), Meso¬ 
potamia, Syria, Palestine, Idumea, and part of Arabia. 
(For an outline of its history see Babylon.) The govern¬ 
ment was a loose organization of provinces under native 
princes, who paid tribute, but frequently reA r olted against 
the sovereign, Avho failed to win the affection of the subject 
nations. “Babylonian civilization,” says G. Rawlinson, 
“ differed in many respects from Assyrian, to which, how¬ 
ever, it approached more nearly than to any other knoAvn 
type. Its advantages over the Assyrian were in its greater 
originality, its superior literary character, and its compara¬ 
tive width and flexibility. . . . Babylonia, so far as Ave 
know, drew her stores from no foreign country. To Baby¬ 
lonia, far more than to Egypt, Ave owe the art and learning 
of the Greeks. It was from the East, not from Egypt, that 
Greece derived her architecture, her sculpture, her science, 
her philosophy—in a word, her intellectual life.” 

Revised by R. I). Hitchcock. 

Babylo'nish Captiv'ity. In the Hebrew sacred his¬ 
tory there occurs frequent mention of the fact that the Is¬ 
raelites were carried away captive to Babylon. It Avas a 
part of the policy of the kings of Assyria and Babylon to 
transport a large part of the population of conquered coun¬ 
tries and plant them in a distant part ol the empire. Ono 




















BABYROUSSA—BACHE. 


348 


political object of this deportation was the more easy gov¬ 
ernment, of a people separated from local traditions and 
associations. The captives were not enslaved or treated 
with severity, but they enjoyed probably the same priv¬ 
ileges as the other subjects of the empire, and some of them 
were raised to the highest official positions. Sargon took 
Samaria in 721 B. C., and carried the ten tribes of Israel 
away to Assyria. The great Babylonish captivity of the 
Jews occurred in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, who in 586 
B. C. deposed Zedekiah, king of Judah, burned the temple 
at Jerusalem, and transported the Jews to Babylon. The 
tribes of Judah and Benjamin, by the permission of Cyrus 
the Great, returned to Palestine about 536 B. C., but the 
other ten tribes remained in exile, and disappeared from 
history. The seventy years are reckoned from 605, the 
date of Nebuchadnezzar's first invasion, when Daniel and 
his friends were carried captive. 

Babyrous'sa (Babyroussa al/urus), an animal of the 
hog family, is a native 
of Borneo, Java, and the 
Molucca Islands. It is 
remarkable for the long 
tusks of the upper jaw, 
which are curved back¬ 
ward and resemble horns. 

Its legs are more slender 
than those of the hog. 

Bacchana'lia (call¬ 
ed by the Greeks Dio- 
nysia), the feasts and or¬ 
gies of the votaries of Bacchus among the ancient Greeks 
and Homans. On account of the licentious practices and 
drunkenness which prevailed on these occasions, they were 
prohibited by the Roman senate in 186 B. C. In modern 
language the term is applied to wild revels and intemperate 
feasts. 

Bacchan'tes [the plural of bac'chans, the present part, 
of the Latin verb bacchor, to “revel "or “riot”], the Latin 
term for those, whether male or female, who joined in the 
orgies of Bacchus among the ancient Greeks and Romans. 
Their conduct was very disorderly. They danced, swung 
about the thyrsus, and made a great noise. According to 
an ancient poetical legend, Orpheus was torn to pieces by 
some female Bacchantes. 

Bac'chus [Gr. Ba/cxos], the god of wine, was called 
Dionysus by the Greeks, and sometimes Liber by the Ro¬ 
mans. He was said to be the son of Jupiter and Scmele, 
or, according to one tradition, of Ammon, king of Libya, 
and Amalthea. He taught men the culture of the vine, and 
first produced from grapes an intoxicating drink. His 
worship was spread over many countries of the world, and 
the myth of Bacchus was variously modified by different 
peoples. Bacchus is usually represented as an effeminate 
young man, crowned with vine or ivy leaves, with a thyrsus 
in his hand. His votaries carried sticks or staves called 
thyrsi (sing, thyrsus), which were bound with leaves of the 
ivy and vine. He is said to have performed a successful ex¬ 
pedition to India. The Greek festivals in honor of Bacchus 
were called Dionysia. (See Bacchanalia and Bacchantes.) 

Bacciochi (Marie-Anne-Elise). See Bonaparte. 

Bach, the name of a celebrated German family which 
for upwards of two centuries was distinguished for musical 
talent and produced more than fifty distinguished artists.— 
Veit Bach, the founder of the family, was a native of Pres- 
burg, in Hungary, and emigrated to Thuringia about 1600. 
Besides the great Johann Sebastian (1685-1750), other 
eminent members of the family were Johann Christian, 
called the “ Milanese Bach ” (1735-82); Johann Christoph 
(1643-1703), with his sons Johann Christoph and Johann 
Nikolaus; also Karl Philipp Emanuel (1714-88) and 
Wilhelm Friedmann (1710-84). 

Bach (Johann Sebastian), youngest son of Johann 
Ambrosius, court-musician of Eisenach, born there Mar. 
21, 1685, the most distinguished of the remarkable family 
of Bach, and one of the great musicians of the world. A 
North German and a Protestant, he was a patriarch and 
founder of German music, and has been not inaptly termed 
the Albert Diirer of his art. An extraordinary talent, 
united with enthusiasm and tireless industry, made his 
whole long life, from childhood on, a career of acquisition 
and greatness. Early throwing aside the traditions of the 
Italian school, he penetrated by severe study the secrets 
of musical science, sought the boldest masters, and pursued 
the most rigorous methods. Music in every style inter¬ 
ested him—instruments of all kinds, but the organ was his 
great delight.. He walked miles, as a boy, to hear a mas¬ 
ter’s performance on that instrument. Such ability and 
enthusiasm were recognized from the first. Bach was 
spared the struggle with poverty, and rapidly, by his own 
efforts, rose to eminence. He had, till his voice became 


manly, sung treble in a choir at Liineburg; at eighteen he 
was a violinist at the court of Weimar; at twenty he filled 
the place of organist at Arnstadt; at twenty-one he was 
at Miihlhausen; at twenty-two he was at Weimar again as 
court-organist; seven years later he resigned that most 
honorable position for that of concert-master to the duke, 
an office demanding high capacity, imposing varied re¬ 
sponsibilities, and offering rich opportunity for study and 
practice in composition. His industry at this period was 
marvellous. Here, however, his stay was short. In 1723— 
in the mean time he had passed six years as chapel-master 
to the court at Ivbthen, capital of the duchy of Anhalt- 
Kothcn—the city huthorities of Leipsic chose him to the 
place of musical director of the St. Thomas School; he was 
thirty-eight years old. Here for the rest of his life, twenty- 
seven years, he lived, honored and happy, in the bosom of 
a large family, for he had ten sons, all musicians—beloved 
by numerous pupils, and occupied with the art he had done 
so much to create. Died at Leipsic July 28, 1750. 

Bach’s compositions were numerous, original, and in 
many styles. He wrote for voice and instrument—for or¬ 
chestra, organ, pianoforte, instruments of wood and metal, 
himself being a performer on them all. He wrote for 
sacred occasions masses, oratorios, concerted pieces of 
every kind; his preludes, fugues, cantatas are famous; 
but his stately genius unbent at festive occasions, births, 
and weddings; and even comedy was not out of his range. 
In nearly every field of his art he was a discoverer—in 
some he was a prophet of future discoveries. The fame 
of Bach has been increasing since his death. For genera¬ 
tions to come they who would study the difficult science of 
music will go to him, as students of literature or painting 
go to the grand masters. 0. B. Frothingham. 

Baclie (Alexander Dallas), LL.D., a distinguished 
educator and scientist, born July 19, 1806, died Feb. 17, 
1867, a native of Philadelphia, great-grandson of Benjamin 
Franklin, received his higher education at the U. S. Mili¬ 
tary Academy, where he graduated in 1825 at the head of 
his class. After serving there as assistant professor for one 
year, and on military engineering duty for two more, he 
was called to the chair of natural philosophy and chemis¬ 
try in the University of Pennsylvania, which position he 
filled with great success for eight years, during which he 
was also constantly engaged upon scientific researches in 
physics and chemistry, and as member of the Franklin In¬ 
stitute conducted important experiments on steam-boiler 
explosions and kindred matters. In 1836 he was appointed 
president of Girard College, then about to be organized, 
and went to Europe to study the systems of education and 
methods of instruction and discipline adopted there. His 
report on education in Europe (1839), embodying the re¬ 
sults of his studies, has done very much to improve the 
theory and art of education in America. The Girard Col¬ 
lege not being ready to go into operation, Bache undertook 
the organization of the school-system of Philadelphia; 
after accomplishing which he resumed his old chair at the 
university. He established at Girard College, and during 
five years directed, a magnetical and meteorological obser¬ 
vatory, supported by the American Philosophical Society, 
of which he was a member. The results of these observa¬ 
tions, which were made in correspondence with other obser¬ 
vations in different countries, have largely added to our 
knowledge of terrestrial magnetism. In 1843 he was ap¬ 
pointed superintendent of the U. S. coast surve 3 r , which 
important position he filled to the end of his life, display¬ 
ing the highest administrative ability, combined with all 
the scientific knowledge requisite for the successful prose¬ 
cution of that important work. By the confidence with 
which he inspired the government he was enabled largely 
to increase the scale of expenditure for the survey, result¬ 
ing in a still greater ratio of progress. He omitted no op¬ 
portunity of securing for science the collateral results that 
could be gathered during the prosecution of the work ; ho 
organized a systematic exploration of the Gulf Stream, an 
extended series of tidal observations, on the magnetism of 
the earth, on the direction of the winds, and instituted re¬ 
searches in regard to the bottom of the ocean within sound¬ 
ings, and the forms of animal life existing there. His an¬ 
nual reports to Congress are a monument, not only of his 
administration, but also of his personal investigations in 
regard to the subjects named, and many others connected 
with the improvement of methods of geodesy. In addi¬ 
tion to the direction of the coast survey, Prof. Bache had, 
ex officio, chargo of the construction of standard weights 
and measures for the IT. S., and was a member of the light¬ 
house board. As a regent of the Smithsonian Institution 
from 1846 to the end of his life, he had a large share in 
shaping its operations. During the civil war he was active 
as a member of the Sanitary Commission, and in directing 
the resources of the coast survey to the assistance of the 
naval and military forces. When, in 1863, the National 






























BACHE—BACKUS. 


Academy of Sciences was organized by Congress, Prof. 
Bache, as the acknowledged leader of science in the coun¬ 
try, was elected its president ; nor wero his distinguished 
services to science less acknowledged abroad, as evinced by 
his election to membership of the most prominent scientific 
bodies of Europe. Prof. Bache married Miss Nancy Clarke 
Fowler of Newport, but had no issue. He left his property 
in trust to the National Academy of Sciences, the income 
to be devoted to researches in physical science. Died at 
Newport, R. I., after a lingering illness, on the 17th of 
Feb., 1867. J. E. Hilgard. 

Bache (Benjamin Franklin), an American journalist, 
son of Richard Bache, noticed below, was born in Philadel¬ 
phia Aug. 12, 1769. He went to Europe with Dr. Frank¬ 
lin, and while there learned printing and type-founding in 
the famous establishment of Didot Brothers. After his re¬ 
turn he established a paper galled the “ General Adver¬ 
tiser,” the influence of which was in opposition to the ad¬ 
ministrations of Washington and Adams. Died Sept. 10, 
1798. 

Bache (Franklin), M. D., a son of the preceding, was 
born in Philadelphia Oct. 25, 1792. He graduated at the 
University of Pennsylvania in 1810. He published a “ Sys¬ 
tem of Chemistry for the Use of Students of Medicine” 
(1819), became professor of chemistry in the Philadelphia 
College of Pharmacy in 1831, and obtained the same chair 
at the Jefferson Medical College in 1841. He was one of 
the authors of Wood and Bache’s “ Dispensatory of the 
United States,” a work of much merit and an acknowledged 
standard of authority. Died Mar. 19, 1864. 

Bache (George M.), U. S. N., born Nov. 12, 1840, in 
the District of Columbia, graduated at the Naval Academy 
in 1860, became a lieutenant in 1862, and a lieutenant-com¬ 
mander in 1866. He commanded the iron-clad Cincinnati 
during her various engagements on the Mississippi River, 
and until she was sunk by the Vicksburg batteries May 27, 
1863. His conduct in this last affair elicited the admira¬ 
tion of Admiral Porter and General Sherman, and the sec¬ 
retary of the navy, Gideon Welles, in his “letter of thanks 
to Lieutenant-Commander Bache,” says: “Amidst an in¬ 
cessant fire of shot and shell, even when the fate of the ves¬ 
sel had been sealed, and destruction both from the elements 
and the enemy was threatened, the officers and men appear 
to have stood bravely at their posts; and it is a proud 
record of the Cincinnati that when her last moments came 
she went down with the colors nailed to the mast. It is 
with no ordinary pleasure that I express to you, and to the 
surviving officers and crew of the Cincinnati, the depart¬ 
ment’s appreciation of your brave conduct.” He was in 
command of a little squadron of three vessels, the Tyler, 
the Naumkeag, and Fawn, in the very spirited action of 
June 24, 1864, at Clarendon, Ark., where in forty-five min¬ 
utes he drove the enemy from their battery of seven guns, 
capturing guns, ammunition, and stores. He was in both 
attacks on Fort Fisher, and led the men of the Powhatan 
in the naval assault on the fort Jan. 15, 1865, where he was 
wounded in the right shoulder. Referring to this assault, 
Rear-Admiral Porter, in his despatch of Jan. 28, 1865, says : 
“ Nowhere in the annals of war have officers and sailors 
undertaken so desperate a service. The names of somo.of 
these officers will be found on record on the files of the de¬ 
partment, among which those of Lieutenant-Commander 

T. 0. Selfridge and Lieutenant George M. Bache will be 
found most conspicuous.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Bache (Hartman), an American officer, great-grandson 
of Dr. Franklin, born Sept. 3, 1798, at Philadelphia, Pa., 
graduated at West Point in 1818, colonel of engineers Mar. 
3, 1863, served chiefly as topographical engineer on surveys 
for coast defence, naval depots, harbor and river improve¬ 
ments, roads, and canals, and for lighthouse sites 1818-47, 
in constructing Brandywine screw-pile lighthouse and ice 
harbor, Del., 1848-51, on engineer boards 1852-55, as light¬ 
house engineer 1852-70, in charge of military roads on 
Pacific coast 1855-58, in topographical bureau, Washing¬ 
ton, D. C., 1861-62, in charge 1861, and member of light¬ 
house board 1862-70. Became brevet brigadier-general 

U. S. A. Mar. 13, 1865, for long, faithful, and meritorious 
services, and retired from active service May 7,1867. Died 
Oct. 8, 1872, at Philadelphia, Pa., aged 74. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

% 

Bache (Richard), an Englishman, born Sept. 12, 1737, 
emigrated to the U. S., and in 1767 married Sarah, only 
daughter of Benjamin Franklin. He became postmaster- 
general of the U. S. in 1776. Died in July, 1811. 

Bache (Sarah), wife of Richard Bache, noticed above, 
and only daughter of Dr. Benjamin Franklin, was born in 
Philadelphia Sept. 11,1744. She was a very accomplished 
lady, and was distinguished for her efforts to relieve the 


349 


sick and disabled soldiers of the Revolution. Died Oct. 5. 
1808. 

Bach'man (John), I). D., LL.D., an American natu¬ 
ralist, born in Dutchess co., N. Y., Feb. 4, 1790. He was 
pastor of a German Lutheran church at Charleston, S. C. 
He contributed to Audubon’s great work on ornithology, 
and wrote the principal part of the work on the quadrupeds 
of North America, which was illustrated by Audubon and 
his sons. Among his other works is “ Characteristics of 
Genera and Species, as applicable to the Doctrine of the 
Unity of the Human Race” (1854). Died Feb. 25, 1874. 

Bach'mut, a Russian town, in the province of Ekater- 
inoslav, 127 miles S. E. of Kharkov. In the vicinity are 
large coal-mines. It manufactures much tallow, and is a 
market for meat and grain. Pop. 10,482. 

Back (Sir George), F. R. S., D. C. L., an English navi¬ 
gator, born in Stockport Nov. 6, 1796. He accompanied 
Sir John Franklin on his Arctic voyage in 1819, and in 
1833 commanded an expedition sent out in search of Capt. 
Ross. He wrote an account of this voyage, entitled “ A 
Narrative of the Expedition along the Shores of the Arctic 
Ocean in 1833-34.” He became an admiral in 1867. 

Back Creek, a township of Frederick co.,Va. P. 1895. 

Back Creek, a township of Randolph co., N. C. Pop. 
1212. 

Back'gammon, a game of combined skill and chance, 
played upon a peculiar board or table with men and with 
dice. The men are of two colors, and the table is divided 
into two compartments, each with two sets of points, of 
which there are twenty-four in all. Upon these points the 
men are placed in playing, and their movements are deter¬ 
mined by throws of the dice alternately made by each player; 
but the rules of the game are such that much skill may be 
exercised in executing the movements of the men as indi¬ 
cated by the dice. The object of the game is for the player 
to bring his own men into his own inner table, and to pre¬ 
vent his adversary from doing the same. There are several 
games of backgammon, for which the rules are given in 
“ Hoyle’s Games.” Backgammon is a very ancient recre¬ 
ation, and is by many authorities said to have originated 
in England, or perhaps in ancient Britain. 

Back'huysen, orBakhuysen (Ludolf), a celebrated 
Dutch marine-painter, born at Emden Dec. 18, 1631. He 
was a close student of Nature, and often ventured out to 
sea during storms. His paintings are said to express the 
poetry of the sea. Among his works is a marine view 
which the magistrates of Amsterdam presented to Louis 
XIY. of France. Died in 1709. 

Back Swamp, a township of Robeson co., N. C. P. 800. 

Back'us (Azel), D. D., a nephew of Charles Backus, 
noticed below, was born at Norwich, Conn., Oct. 13, 1765, 
graduated at Yale 1787, in 1791 succeeded Dr. Bellamy as 
pastor of the Congregational church in Bethlehem, Conn., 
in 1812 was chosen first president of Hamilton College, and 
died Dec. 9,1817. He took great interest in political ques¬ 
tions, was an eloquent preacher, and a successful teacher 
and disciplinarian. He published only a few sermons. 

Backus (Charles), D. D., was born at Norwich, Conn., 
Nov. 5, 1749, graduated at Yale 1769, was settled over the 
Congregational church in Somers, Conn., in 1774, and died 
there Dec. 30, 1803. For many years he was accustomed 
to receive theological students into his family. Nearly fifty 
were trained by him, among whom were Dr. Woods of 
Andover. President Moore of Amherst College, President 
Davis of Hamilton College, and several other distinguished 
men. He published many sermons. 

Backus (Rev. Isaac), born at Norwich, Conn., Jan. 9, 
1724, ordained pastor of a Separatist church in Titicut (a 
parish of Bridgewater and Middleboro’), Mass., April 13, 
1748, preached in Titicut till his death, which occurred Nov. 
20,1806. In 1751, Mr. Backus espoused Baptist principles, 
and soon became one of the most active and influential 
ministers of that denomination. He was for thirty-four 
years a trustee of Rhode Island College (now Brown Uni¬ 
versity), was in 1774 agent of the Warren (R. I.) Associa¬ 
tion to advocate before Congress equal privileges for all 
religious denominations, and in 1788 delegate from Middle¬ 
boro’ to the Massachusetts convention which ratified the 
Federal Constitution. In 1777-84 Mr. Backus published 
“A History of New England, with especial reference to 
the Baptists,” a work which is still of value to the general 
student of the history of New England, and especially so 
to one who is studying the progressive recognition of the 
principles of religious liberty in America. A new edition 
(carefully edited by Prof. David Weston of Madison Uni¬ 
versity) was published by the Backus Historical Society, 
Newton Centre, Mass., in 1871, 2 vols. S\o. 

Backus (Jay S.), D. D., born Feb. 17, 1810, at Gran- 



















—BACON. 


.350 BACOLI 


ville, Washington co., N. Y., educated at Granville Acad¬ 
emy and Hamilton, N. Y., pastor of Baptist churches in 
Groton, Auburn, N. Y., and Syracuse, N. Y., now (1873) 
and for many years past the earnest and efficient sec¬ 
retary of the American Baptist Home Mission Society. 

Baco'li, a village of Italy, near Naples. It is on the 
site of the ancient Villa Bauli, which was the seat of the 
country residences of the ancient Romans. Many ruins 
arc found here. 

Bacolor', a town on Luzon, one of the Philippine 
Islands, is the capital of the province of Pampanga. It is 
near the river Pampanga, and 38 miles N. W. of Manila. 
Pop. about 8500. 

Ba 'con, a township of Vernon co., Mo. Pop. 813. 

B aeon, a township of Charlotte co., Va. Pop. 3683. 

B aeon (Ezekiel), LL.D., born in Stockbridge, Mass., 
Sept. 1, 1776, graduated at Yale in 1794, was one of the 
chief-justices of the Massachusetts court of common pleas 
in 1813, first comptroller of the U. S. treasury (1813-15), 
and a member of Congress from Massachusetts (1807-13). 
Died at Utica, N. Y., Oct. 18, 1870. 

Bacon (Francis), [in Latin Francis'cus Baco'nus], 
Baron Ver'ulam, Viscount Saint Albans, one of the 
most illustrious of modern philosophers, was born in Lon¬ 
don Jan. 22, 1561. His father, Sir Nicholas Bacon, was 
lord keeper of the great seal under Elizabeth. Ilis mother, 
a lady of fine talents, whose maiden name was Anne 
Cooke, was a sister of Mildred, the second wife of Lord 
Burleigh. Bacon, soon after he had completed his twelfth 
year, ivas sent to Cambridge, where he is said to have dis¬ 
tinguished himself by his diligence and by his rapid prog¬ 
ress in his studies. While at the university he conceived, 
it is said, a decided dislike to the philosophy of Aristotle 
as it was then taught in the schools. Soon after leaving 
Cambridge he visited France, in order to acquire the French 
language and to continue his studies on the Continent, but 
his father’s death, in 1579, obliged him to return to Eng¬ 
land. In 1582 he was admitted to the bar, and became in 
1589 member of Parliament, and in 1590 counsellor-extra¬ 
ordinary to the queen—a distinction almost without exam¬ 
ple for one so young. Ben Jonson speaks in the highest 
' terms of his gifts as an orator; he tells us that Bacon “ com¬ 
manded when he spoke, and had his judges angry or pleas¬ 
ed at his devotion. No man had their affections more in 
his power. The fear of every man that heard him was, 
that he should make an end.” Lord Burleigh, though Ba¬ 
con’s uncle by marriage, appears rather to have retarded 
than aided the promotion of his nephew. The latter, left 
wholly to his own exertions, applied himself diligently to 
his profession, and at length acquired a lucrative practice. 
He became in 1594 a candidate for the office of solicitor- 
general, but was unsuccessful. The earl of Essex, who ap¬ 
pears to have conceived a warm and sincere friendship for 
Bacon, in order to console him under his disappointment 
made him a present of an estate near Twickenham worth 
£1800 sterling, which in real value was, in all probability, 
nearly if not quite equal to ten times that number of pounds 
at the present day. 

It appears to have been Bacon’s aim for many years to 
acquire a fortune by a wealthy marriage. He paid court 
to a rich widow by the name of Hatton, but, though aided 
by the intercession of Essex, who was then in great favor 
at court, he was not successful; which, according to Ma¬ 
caulay, was a very fortunate circumstance for Bacon. The 
lady afterwards married Bacon’s rival and enemy, Sir Ed¬ 
ward Coke, and “ did her best to make him as miserable as 
he deserved to be.” When Essex, seduced by a wild and 
reckless ambition, embarked on those schemes which after¬ 
wards led to his death on the block (see Essex), Bacon ap¬ 
pears to have used whatever influence he had in order to 
mitigate the resentment of the queen against her misguided 
kinsman. Unhappily for his reputation, he was induced by 
the desire to advance his interest at court—for we can 
scarcely suppose he was influenced by a sense of duty—to 
abandon the office of intercessor, and to take an active and 
prominent part in the prosecution of his former friend. 
And worse still, after the death of Essex, in order to vin¬ 
dicate the conduct of the queen, he employed his talents 
and eloquence to blacken the character of his benefactor. 
After the accession of James I., Bacon appears to have 
enjoyed the highest favor at court. He was knighted be¬ 
fore the king’s coronation. Ilis law practice had now be¬ 
come, if not very extensive, at least very lucrative. In 
1606 he married Alice Barnham, the daughter of a rich 
London merchant. He had previously been appointed 
king’s counsel, and in 1607 he was made solicitor-general. 
He became in 1613 attorney-general and a member of the 
privy council. He was selected by the king as his agent 
to conduct the prosecution against Peacham, in which 
affair Bacon is accused of having sought, against law 


and justice, to obtain the opinions of the judges before 
the case came up for trial. Bacon was appointed in 1617 
keeper of the great seal, and in January of the ensuing 
year he was made lord high chancellor of England, the 
highest civil office to which any subject could then attain. 
In the following July he was created Baron Verulam, and 
admitted to a seat in the House of Peers. In 1619 he be¬ 
came Viscount Saint Albans, and in 1620 published his 
greatest work, the Novum Organum (which see). The 
cup of his prosperity and fame appeared to be full to 
overflowing, but a great reverse was near. It seemed as 
if Fate had raised him to the highest pinnacle of greatness 
that his fall might be the more tragic and more conspic¬ 
uous. He was accused of accepting bribes by a man named 
Waynham, against whom Bacon had decided a suit in 
chancery. A committee of the House of Commons was ap¬ 
pointed to inquire into the case, which was referred to the 
House of Lords as the only*legitimate tribunal for trying 
it. At the beginning of the trial Bacon strongly asserted 
his innocence, but he subsequently abandoned his defence 
and confessed his guilt. He was sentenced (May 3, 1621) 
to pay a fine of forty thousand pounds, and to be imprisoned 
at the king’s pleasure. James was disposed to show him 
every indulgence. As a mere form he was sent to the 
Tower, but two days afterwards he was set at liberty. His 
fine was also remitted, and he was allowed an income of 
£1200, a sum which may safely be pronounced fully equal to 
£6000 at the present day. He died April 19, 1626, and left no 
children. Bacon’s celebrated “Novum Organum” and his 
“De Augmentis” are but parts of a more extensive work, 
entitled “ Instauratio Magna,” or “ Great Restoration,” so 
called because through its means he hoped to recall Philos¬ 
ophy from what he considered the vain and idle speculations 
of the Aristotelian school, and restore her to her true and 
legitimate office of interpreter of Nature. Among his other 
works should be mentioned his “Essays” (first published 
in 1597), doubtless the most popular and widely read of all 
his writings, and his “De Sapientia Veterum” (“On the 
Wisdom of the Ancients,” 1609), of which a good transla¬ 
tion by Sir A. Gorges was published in 1619. Although 
Bacon’s celebrity as an author may be said to rest exclu¬ 
sively on his philosophical writings and his “Essays,” he 
left some very able legal treatises ; among others his “ His¬ 
tory of the Alienation Office,” which Lord Campbell pro¬ 
nounces worthy of Hale. “No one,” says the same able 
critic, “ ever sat in Westminster Hall with a finer judicial 
understanding : no one ever more thoroughly understood 
the duties of a judge.” In person Bacon was well formed, 
but not robust, of a middling stature, with a high and 
broad forehead, his countenance conveying the impression 
both of intellectual power and benevolence of disposition. 
In society he is said to have been “a most delightful com¬ 
panion, adapting himself to company of every degree, 
calling, and humor, . . . bringing out with great effect his 
unexhausted stores of jests new and old.” (See Montague, 
“ Life of Bacon,” added to Bacon’s collected works; Wil¬ 
liam Rawley, “Life of Lord Bacon” (1658); Speeding, 
“Life of Bacon,” in his very complete edition of Bacon’s 
works (4 vols., 1861-68).) J. Thomas. 

Bacon (Joel S.), D. D., born in Cayuga co., N. Y., in 

1801, graduated at Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., in 
1826, studied theology at Newton, Mass., was successively 
president of Georgetown College, Ky., pastor of a Baptist 
church in Lynn, Mass., professor in the institution at 
Hamilton, N. Y. (1834-37), president of Columbian College, 
D. C. (1843-54), and subsequently was a teacher in Ala¬ 
bama and in Virginia. Died at Richmond, Va., Nov. 9,1869. 

Bacon (Leonard), D. D., LL.D., the son of a mission¬ 
ary to the Indians, was born at Detroit, Mich., Feb. 19, 

1802, graduated at Yale 1820, and at Andover 1824. 
From 1825 to 1866 he was pastor of the Centre church 
(Congregational), New Haven, Conn.; from 1866 to 1871 
he was acting professor of systematic theology, and since 
1871 has been lecturer on church polity and American 
church history in the Divinity School of Yale College. He 
has contributed largely to the “ Christian Spectator” and 
the “New Englander,” and was for several years one of 
the editors of the “ Independent.” He has been one of 
the foremost champions of New England Congregational¬ 
ism. Besides numerous occasional sermons and addresses, 
he has published “Select Practical Writings of Richard 
Baxter” (1831; 2d ed. 1835), “Thirteen Discourses on the 
Two-Hundredth Anniversary of the First Church in New 
Haven” (1839), “Slavery Discussed” (1846), “Historical 
Discourse at the Old South Meeting-house, Worcester, 
Sept. 22, 1863.”—One of his sons, Rev. Leonard Woolsey 
Bacon, M. D., born Jan. 1,1830, graduated at Yale in 1850, 
is an able preacher and author.—Another son, Rev. George 
Blagden Bacon, born at New Haven May 23, 1836, was in 
1861 ordained to the ministry at Orange Valley, N. J. 

















BACON—BADEAU. 


Bacon (Nathaniel), an English lawyer and leader of i 
Virginian insurgents, was born in Suffolk about 1640. He 
practised law in Virginia, became an eloquent speaker and 
a popular favorite. He was chosen as leader of the people 
who about 1676 took arms ostensibly to defend the province 
against the savages, but partly to resist the policy of Gov¬ 
ernor Berkeley. Bacon defeated both these enemies, but 
in the midst of the contest he died Oct. 1, 1676. (See 
Sparks’s “ American Biography,” vol. iii. of new series.) 

Bacon (Sir Nicholas), an English statesman, born at 
Chiselhurst, in Kent, in 1510, was the father of the great 
Bacon, Baron Verulam. He was educated at Cambridge, 
studied law, and was appointed solicitor to the court, of 
augmentations in 1537. In 1546 he obtained the office of 
attorney to the court of wards, of which he was deprived 
by Queen Mary in 1553 because he was a Protestant. He 
was appointed lord keeper of the great seal by Elizabeth in 
1558. He was distinguished for his moderation, sagacity, 
and discretion, and rendered Important services to the 
Protestant cause. Among the English statesmen of that 
age he was ranked next to Lord Burleigh, who was his 
friend and brother-in-law. Having held the office of lord 
keeper about twenty years, he died Feb. 20, 1570. (See G. 
W itetstone, “Memoir of Sir N. Bacon;” Lord Campbell, 

“ Lives of the Lord Chancellors.”) 

Bacon (Roger), an eminent English philosopher and 
monk, called the Admirable Doctor, was born near Ilches- 
ter, in Somersetshire, about 1214. He studied at Oxford 
and at Paris, where he took the degree of doctor of laws. 
Having entered the order of Franciscan monks, he settled 
at Oxford and devoted much time to experimental philos¬ 
ophy. He was far in advance of his age, and made dis¬ 
coveries in several sciences. He wrote in Latin a number 
of works on chemistry, optics, physics, etc. By denoun¬ 
cing the immorality and ignorance of the clergy and monks 
he made many enemies. His mechanical skill and his in¬ 
sight into the secrets of nature were such that ho was sus¬ 
pected of dealing in magic. His writings having been 
condemned by a council of Franciscan monks, he was 
thrown into prison about 1278, and confined at least ten 
years. Indeed, it is not certain that he ever came out of 
prison. Nor is it certain in what year he died, whether 
1292 or 1294. His capital work, which treats of several 
sciences, is entitled “Opus Majus,” and was written about 
1266. It was first printed in 1733. Several of his works, 
such as the “ Opus Tertium,” “ Opus Minus,” and “ Com¬ 
pendium Philosophise,” were published for the first time in 
1859. It appears that he was acquainted with the compo¬ 
sition and explosive power of gunpowder. “ The mind of 
Roger Bacon,” says Hallam, “was strangely compounded 
of almost prophetic gleams of the future course of science 
and the best principles of the inductive philosophy, with a 
more than usual credulity in the superstitions of his own 
time.” Giessler says of him that he “showed a wonderful 
keenness of vision on all points in every branch of human 
knowledge.” And yet he believed both in alchemy and in 
astrology ! (See Anthony Wood, “ History and Antiquities 
of Oxford;” “Biographia Britannica.”) 

Bacon Level, a township of Randolph co., Ala. P. 515. 

Ba'conthorp, or Bacon (John), an English Carmel¬ 
ite, surnamed the Resolute Doctor, was born in Norfolk 
about the beginning of the fourteenth century. He advo¬ 
cated the philosophy of Averroes, and had great reputation 
for learning. Among his works is a commentary on the 
“ Master of Sentences” (Peter Lombard). Died in 1346. 

Bacs, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. by 
the county of Pesth, on the E. by Torontal, on the S. by 
Slavonia, and on the W. by Torontal. Area., 3940 square 
miles. The Danube flows along the western boundary, and 
the Theiss along the eastern, while the two are connected by 
the canal of Bacs, which is about 60 miles long. The 
county is entirely level, and, with the exception of the 
swamps along the rivers, is very fertile. Chief town, 
Zombor. Pop. in 1869, 576,149. 

Bacte'ria (plu.), [Gr. £aKTT?p<W, a “club,” alluding to 
the form], in microscopy, a name for certain plant-cells 
which are cylindrical, spherical, or oblong, but sometimes 
distorted in shape. That they are of vegetable not animal 
character is shown by their power of taking up nitrogen 
from ammonia-compounds. They occur either single or 
compound, and multiply by transverse division. They are 
propagated in water, and are not (according to Cohn and 
Burdon-Sanderson) capable of transmission through the 
air, like fungus spores. Cohn divides them into four 
groups, and assigns them a place near the Algm. 

Bac'tria, or Bactria'na, an ancient country of Cen¬ 
tral Asia, bounded on the N. by the river Oxus (Amoo or 
Gihon), and on the S. by the Hindu-Kush Mountains 
(anc. Paropamisus). Its boundaries are not perfectly 


351 


known, but it is considered to be identical with the modern 
province of Balkh. This is supposed by some to have been 
the native country of the Aryan race. Bactria was the 
centre of a powerful kingdom which flourished before the 
historical period. Its capital, Bactra or Zariaspa, which 
stood on the site of the modern Balkh, was the head-quar¬ 
ters of the Magi. In the time of Cyrus the Great, Bactria 
became a Persian province, and was conquered, with 
the rest of the Persian empire, by Alexander the Great. 
The history of Bactria has recently been elucidated by nu¬ 
merous Grgeco-Bactrian coins and other antiquities found 
in the topes or burial-places of Afghanistan. Some of 
these coins present Greek letters, and also letters of a dia¬ 
lect of Sanscrit. (See Wilson, “Ariana Antiqua,” 1841; 
Lassen, “ Indische Alterthumskunde,” 1849.) 

B ac'tris [from the Gr. pasrpov, a “cane”], a genus of 
palms, comprising about fifty known species, all natives 
of America. They are generally small trees, with slender 
stems and pinnate leaves. Some of them are spiny, and 
form thickets which are almost impenetrable. The Badris 
Maraja, or the maraja palm, bears clusters of fruit resem¬ 
bling small grapes, with a pulp of an agreeable flavor. 
The stems are used as walking-sticks. 

Bactri'tes, a group of fossil Ammonitidae, with a 
straight shell, and indented but not ramified septa. Seve¬ 
ral species of it have been found in the Devonian strata. 

Baculi'tes [from the Lat. bar/ulus, a “ stick ”], a genus 
of fossil univalve mollusks of the family of Ammonitidae, 
found in the upper chalk. The shell is chambered, per¬ 
fectly straight, round (or compressed), and tapers to a point. 
Various species are fouud in Europe, North and South 
America, etc. 

Bac'np, a flourishing town of England, in Lancashire, 
22 miles by rail N. of Manchester. It is situated in a beau¬ 
tiful valley, and is a terminus of a branch of the Lanca¬ 
shire and Yorkshire Railway. It has many churches and 
chapels, a fine market-house, and a literary institute. 
Here are extensive cotton-factories and several brass and 
iron foundries and dye-works. Coal-mines are worked in 
the vicinity. Bacup is said to be increasing rapidly. Pop. 
in 1861, 10,935. 

Badag'ry, a seaport-town of Africa, on the Gold Coast 
of Upper Guinea, 50 miles E. N. E. of Whydah. The Por¬ 
tuguese once had several factories at this place, which was 
a market for slaves. Pop. about 10,000. 

Badajos, a province of Spain, is bounded on the N. 
by Caceres, on the E. by Ciudad Real and Cdrdova, on the 
S. by Seville and Huelta, and on the W. by Portugal. 
Area, 8688 square miles. It is for the greater part a poor 
and uncultivated region, and is chiefly used as pasture- 
grounds for immense herds of sheep and swine. Chief 
town, Badajos. Pop. 430,649. 

Badajos' [Sp. Badajoz ; anc. Pax Angus'fa], a fortified 
town of Spain, capital of the above province, is situated 
on the left bank of the Guadiana, 175 miles by rail E. of 
Lisbon. The river is here crossed by a good granite bridge 
of twenty-eight arches. The town contains an old cathe¬ 
dral, an arsenal, and a cannon-foundry. It has manufac¬ 
tures of soap, coarse woollen stuffs, and leather, and a 
brisk contraband trade. Badajos was the native place of 
the painter Morales. It has been the scene of several im¬ 
portant military events. It was besieged and taken by the 
French general Soult in Mar., 1811. Wellington attempted 
to retake it in April, but he failed. Having renewed the 
siege in Mar., 1812, he took it by storm on the 6th of April 
ensuing, after a desperate contest, in which the British lost 
4824 men, killed and wounded. Pop. in 1860, 22,895. 

Badakhshan', or Budukshan, a territory of Cen¬ 
tral Asia, subject to the ruler of Khoondooz (Kunduz), lies 
between lat. 36° and 38° N. and Ion. 69° and 73° E. It 
includes several valleys of the head-streams of the Oxus 
(Amoo). The surface is mountainous, and the great moun¬ 
tain-range of Bolor Tag extends along the eastern border. 
Here are ruby-mines and massive cliffs or quarries of lapis- 
lazuli. Iron, salt, and sulphur are also obtained here. The 
inhabitants are Mohammedans. Capital, Badakhshan. 

Badakhshan, or Fyzabad', a town of Central Asia, 
capital of the above territory, is on one of the head-streams 
of the Amoo, about 210 miles N. E. of Cabool. It was once 
an important place. 

Bad'deck, a post-village, capital of Victoria co.. N. B., 
Dominion of Canada, in Cape Breton Island, on the Big 
Bras d’Or. It is visited by steamers, and has a trade in 
cattle and butter. It is in a township of the same name. 

Badeau (Adam), an American officer, born in New 
York, became a captain and aide-de-camp of 1 . S. volun¬ 
teers in 1862, served on the staff of Gen. Sherman, and was 
wounded at Port Hudson; became in 1864 lieutenant-colonel 












352 


BADEN, GRAND DUCHY OF—BADGER. 


and military secretary to Gen. Grant, and was colonel and 
aide-de-camp 1865-69. He received a brevet as brigadier- 
general U. S. army, and was some time secretary of lega¬ 
tion in London, lie published a “Military History of Gen. 
Grant” (1868). 

Ba'ilen [Lat. Ba'da], Grand Duchy of, a state of 
Germany, bordering on Alsace and Switzerland, is bounded 
on the N. by Hesse-Darmstadt, on the E. by Wiirtemberg, 
and on the S. and W. by the Rhine. It has an area of 5912 
square miles. Pop. in 1871, 1,461,428. The surface is 
mountainous. A long mountain-range called “ The Black 
Forest” (Schwarzwald) extends along the eastern border. 
The highest point is the Feldberg, 4886 feet high. The 
western part of Baden is a long plain extending along the 
Rhine from Bale to Mannheim. The chief rivers, besides 
the Rhine, are the Danube, which rises in Baden, and the 
Neckar. The valley of the Rhine lias a mild climate and 
a very fertile soil, which is well cultivated. The grape 
and other fruits llourish here in abundance. Among the 
staple products are wheat, barley, maize, potatoes, and to¬ 
bacco. Good pine timber abounds in the Black Forest. 
The average quantity of wine produced annually is about 
fourteen million gallons. Among the mineral resources 
are copper, coal, silver, iron, lead, and salt. Baden is rich 
in mineral springs, which are much frequented as water¬ 
ing places, as Baden-Baden, Badenweiler, etc. More than 
9000 persons are engaged in the manufacture of cotton 
fabrics, ribbons, paper, toys and trinkets, wooden clocks, 
etc. The chief articles of export are wine and timber. A 
railroad extends along the valley from Mannheim to Bale. 
The chief towns are Mannheim, Carlsruhe (the capital), 
Freiburg, Heidelberg, Pforzheim, and Constance. 

Religion and Government .—A majority of the people are 
Roman Catholics, and about, one-third Protestants. Baden 
has two universities (Heidelberg and Freiburg), an excel¬ 
lent system of public instruction, and the children are com¬ 
pelled to attend school. This state is governed by an heredi¬ 
tary grand duke, who in relation to foreign and military 
affairs is dependent upon the emperor of Germany. He 
governs according to a constitution which is among the 
most liberal in Germany. The parliament of Baden con¬ 
sists of a chamber of peers and a chamber of sixty-three 
deputies. Hermann II., who died in 1130, was the first to 
assume the title of margrave of Baden. The grand ducal 
family now reigning in Baden are lineal descendants of 
him. In 1746, Charles Frederick became margrave of 
Baden, which under his reign increased in extent and im¬ 
portance. He acquired the dignity of elector in 1803, and the 
title of grand duke in 1806. Having joined the Confedera¬ 
tion of the Rhine, he gained a large accession of territory. 
His grandson, Charles Louis, granted in 1818 a charter 
which forms the basis of the present constitution. Under 
the impulse of the revolutionary movement which began 
in France in Feb., 1848, the popular party of Baden took 
arms to found a republic. The grand duke fled, and a con¬ 
stituent assembly was convened in May, 1849. By the aid 
of a Prussian army he was restored in July of that year. 
In Aug., 1866, Baden formed with Prus¬ 
sia a secret alliance, which was made 
public about April, 1867. Baden be¬ 
came, in 1870, a state of the new Ger¬ 
man empire, in the federal council of 
which she has three votes, the whole 
number of votes being 58. * 

A. J. Schem. 

Baden (anc. Ther'mse Helvet'icse), a 
town and watering-place of Switzerland, 
in the canton of Aargau, on the Lim- 
mat, 14 miles by rail N. W. of Zurich. 

In Jan., 1834, the “conference of Ba¬ 
den ” was held here, in which the repre¬ 
sentatives of Lucerne, Aargau, Thur- 
gau, Soleure, Berne, Bale-City, and St. 

Gall met to settle the relations of the 
Catholic Church to these cantons. The 
temperature of the baths is about 117° 

F. Pop. in 1870, 3412. 

Baden, a post-village of Wilmot 
township, Waterloo co., Ontario, Can¬ 
ada, has important manufactures of 
linen and woollen goods, staves, lum¬ 
ber, flour, beer, etc. It is on the Grand 
Trunk Railway, 72 miles from Toronto. 

Pop. about 500. 

Baden-bei-Wien (anc. Ther'mse 
Ce'tise or Panno'nise), a town and bathing-place of Lower 
Austria, on the river Schwachat, 16 miles by rail S. S. W. 
of Vienna. Here are warm mineral springs, which are fre¬ 
quented by the citizens of Vienna. Many of the Austrian 
nobility have mansions here. Pop. in 1869, 7590. 


Ba'deil-Ba'dcn (anc. Civ'itas Aure'lia Aquen'sis), a 
town and a celebrated watering-place in the grand duchy 
of Baden, is beautifully situated in a pleasant valley at the 
foot of the mountain called Schwarzwald (Black Forest), 
23 miles by rail S. S. W. of Carlsruhe and 6 miles from the 
Rhine. Here are warm saline springs, the temperature of 
which ranges from 117° to 154° F., which were much re¬ 
sorted to in the time of the Roman emperors. They are 
efficacious in cases of gout and chronic cutaneous diseases. 
Baden-Baden is frequented in summer by visitors from all 
parts of Europe, to the number of about 30,000 annually. 
In former years its gambling-hell was a great attraction, 
but upon the restoration of the German empire gambling 
here, as in the other watering-places, was suppressed. Pop. 
in 1871, 10,083. 

Bailenwei'ler, a village and watering-place of Baden, 
2 miles E. of Miilheim, has alkaline thermal springs, the 
temperature of which is 82° F. Large ruins of Roman 
baths were found here in 1784, which are among the grandest 
known. Inscriptions on old coins let us suppose that the 
baths flourished until the middle of the third century. 

Badge [perhaps a contraction of bandage], a mark, sign, 
or token by which a person is distinguished; an honorary 
decoration or special cognizance; as, for example, the stars 
and ci-osses worn by persons of rank and princes in Europe, 
the button on the cap of a Chinese mandarin, or a medal 
given to a soldier as a premium for bravery. Finger-rings 
are mentioned in the Bible as badges of authority; for in¬ 
stance, Pharaoh took off his ring and put it on Joseph’s 
hand as a token of the power delegated to him (Genesis xli.). 
The ambassadors of ancient Rome wore gold rings during 
their mission as badges of authority. Several countries 
have distinctive badges. The badge of England is a rose, 
white and red, ensigned with the royal crown, the origin 
of which was the union of the white rose of the House of 
York with the red rose which was the badge of the rival 
House of Lancaster. The badge of Scotland is a thistle 
ensigned with a royal crown. Ireland has two badges, the 
golden harp and the trefoil, both of which are carried en- 
signed with the royal crown. The badge of France was 
formerly a fleur-de-lis, a “lily or iris,” sometimes called in 
English “flower de luce.” 

Bad' ger, a name applied to certain animals of the 
order Mustelidas, assigned, however, by some to the bear 
family, which they approach in character. They were for¬ 
merly ranked in one genus ( Melee ), but now are assigned 
by most naturalists to at least four different genera. They 
are plantigrades, have a pointed skull, and feet adapted for 
burrowing. They have anal glands which secrete sub¬ 
stances with a disagreeable odor. The common badger, 
brock or grey, of Europe ( Mcles taxus), found also in Asia, 
is about the size of the common fox. It was formerly, and 
is even now, kept for “badger-drawing.” The animal is 
put into a barrel and assailed by numerous dogs, which are 
trained to pull the badger out. The animal resists obsti¬ 
nately until overpowered, when he is allowed a short rest, 


and is then ready for another struggle with his enemies. 
The animal is quite harmless if not abused. The East 
Indian badger (Arctonyx collaris) is a more formidable ani¬ 
mal. Japan has still another badger. Two American 
species of badger (Taxidea Americana and Taxidea Ber- 



The Indian Badger. 

















































BADGER—BAGGESEN. 353 



landieri ) arc known, the former found most abundantly in 
the valley of the Missouri, and the other in Mexico, Cali¬ 
fornia, etc. They arc more carnivorous than the European 
badger, and are remarkable for their short ears, long hair, 
and the rapidity with which they burrow in the earth. 

Badger, a township of Webster co., Ia. Pop. 431. 

Badger (George Edmund), LL.D., an American states- 
'mau, born at Newbern, N. C., April 13,1795. He graduated 
at Yale in 1813, practised law at Raleigh with distinction, 
and in Mar., 1841, was appointed secretary of the navy by 
President Harrison. He resigned in September of that 
year, because Tyler vetoed the bill to recharter the U. S. 
Bank. He was a Senator of the U. S. for about seven years 
(1846-53). Died May 11, 1866. 

Badger (Joseph), an American minister, born at Wil- 
braham, Mass., Feb. 28, 1757, graduated at Yale in 1785. 
He served four years in the Revolutionary army, after 
which he obtained an education, and was sent as a mis¬ 
sionary to Ohio, where he labored more than thirty j’ears. 
Died May 5, 1846. 

Badger (Milton), D. D., an American clergyman, born 
May 6, 1800, at Coventry, Conn., graduated with honor 
from Yale College in 1823, and studied theology at Andover 
Seminary. In 1826 he was appointed a tutor in Yale Col¬ 
lege, and in 1828 was ordained pastor of the South Congre¬ 
gational church, Andover. Dr. Badger was elected asso¬ 
ciate secretary of the American Home Mission Society in 
1835, with which society he was officially connected thirty- 
eight years. He died Mar. 1, 1873. 

Badger (Oscar C.), U. S. N., born Aug. 12, 1823, in 
Windham, Conn., entered the navy as a midshipman Sept. 
19,1841, became a passed midshipman in 1847, a lieutenant 
in 1855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in 
1866, a captain in 1872. He served in the steamer Missis¬ 
sippi on the E. coast of Mexico during the Mexican war. 
In 1861-62 he commanded the steamer Anacostia of the 
Potomac flotilla, was engaged at various times with the 
batteries on the Potomac River, and the “precision” of the 
fire of his vessel is more than once referred to by the com¬ 
manding officer of the flotilla, Lieutenant-commanding 
Wyman, in his reports to the navy department. He was 
in command of the iron-clads Patapsco and Montauk in 
their many engagements with the forts and batteries of 
Charleston harbor in the summer of 1863; as fleet-captain 
was with Rear-Admiral Dahlgren on board the iron-clad 
Weehawken in a night-attack upon Fort Sumter, Sept. 1, 
1863, when he received a severe wound in the right leg, 
from the effects of which he has never entirely recovered. 
His services, character, etc. are thus mentioned by Rear- 
Admiral Dahlgren, in his report to the secretary of the 
navy of Sept. 2, 1863: “ I shall feel greatly the loss of 
Commander Badger’s services at this time. He has been 
with me for more than eight years, and his sterling qual¬ 
ities have rendered him one of the very best ordnance offi¬ 
cers in the navy.” Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Badi'to, a post-village, capital of Huerfano co., Col., 
on the Huerfano River, 54 miles from Pueblo. It has a 
population partly of Mexican origin, and has a large trade 
in wool, hides, and stock. 

Baena (bd-a'n5,), or Vaena, a town of Spain, in the 
province of Cordova, on the Marbella, 32 miles S. E. of 
Cordova. It occupies the site of an ancient Roman town. 
Grain and oil are exported from this place. Pop. 13,000. 

Baepen'di, a town of Brazil, in the province of Minas 
Geraes, is situated on one of the head-streams of the Rio 
Yerde, in the Serra Mantiqueira, about 180 miles N. W. of 
Rio de Janeiro. Pop. about 9000. 

Baer, von (Karl Ernst), a Russian naturalist of Ger¬ 
man extraction, born in Esthonia in 1792. He became in 
1819 professor of zoology at Konigsberg. He wrote, besides 
other works in German, a “History of the Development ot 
Animals” (2 vols., 1828-37). In 1834 he removed to St. 
Petersburg, and was appointed librarian of the Academy 
of Sciences. He made several discoveries in physiology 
and zoology. 

Ba'ez (Buenaventura), a mulatto politician, born in 
1820, was elected president of Santo Domingo in 1849, and 
re-elected in 1856 and 1865. In 1874 he left the country and 
came to the U. S. (See Domingo, Santo, Projects of An¬ 
nexation to the U. S., by Hon. A. D. White, LL.D.) 

Bae'za, or Baetja (anc. Biatia), an old town of Spain, 
in the province of Jaen, 22 miles N. E. of the city of^Jaen. 
It contains a cathedral and several monasteries in the (rothic 
style, which, with other buildings, present an imposing ap¬ 
pearance. The university, established in 1533, has ceased 
to exist in recent times. Under the Moors it was the cap¬ 
ital of the kingdom of Bajasat, and is said to have had 
150,000 inhabitants. Cloth, leather, and soap are made 
here. Pop. 13,405. 

23 

BafTa (anc. Pa'phos), a seaport-town on the S. W. coast 
of the island of Cyprus. It was once an important place, 
but is now ruined or decayed and nearly deserted. In an¬ 
cient times Paphos was a beautiful city, having several 
temples, and was a famous place for the worship of Venus. 

Lat. 34° 47' N., Ion. 32° 26' E. 

Baf'fin (William), an English navigator, born in 1584. 

He accompanied James Hall in an Arctic expedition in 
1612, and discovered Baffin’s Bay in 1616. He wrote two 
narratives of these voyages, and gave in the first a new 
method of ascertaining the longitude at sea by observation 
of the heavenly bodies. He was killed at the siege of Or¬ 
muz, May 23, 1622. 

BaHin’s Bay, or Bylot’s Bay, a large gulf or in¬ 
land sea of North America, communicates with the North 
Atlantic by Davis’s Strait, and with the Arctic Ocean by 
Smith’s Sound. It is about 950 miles long, and has an 
average width of about 300 miles. The greatest depth is 
about 1050 fathoms. The shores are generally high and 
rocky, backed by ranges of snow-covered mountains. It 
was first explored by William Baffin in 1616. Whales 
abound liere. 

Bagatelle [Fr. a “trifle”], the name of a game some¬ 
what resembling billiards. A bagatelle-table is usually 
about seven feet long and twenty-one inches wide, and is 
lined with cloth. The other apparatus of the game con¬ 
sists of small ivory balls and a mace or cue. 

Bag'By (Arthur Pendleton), a lawyer, born in Vir¬ 
ginia in 1794, was governor of Alabama (1837-41), U. S. 
Senator (1843-49), and minister to Russia (1849-53). Died 
at Mobile Sept. 21, 1858. 

Bag'dad, a pashalic forming the S. E. portion of Asiatic 
Turkey, bordering on Arabia and Persia. It extends from 
the Persian Gulf north-westward about 600 miles, and is 
intersected by the Euphrates and the Tigris. It includes 
the ancient Chaldasa, Susiana, and Mesopotamia. The 
part which lies between the Euphrates and Arabia is a 
barren, sandy plain. The soil of some other parts is fer¬ 
tile. The population is a mixture of Turks, Arabs, Kurds, 
Armenians, etc. Capital, Bagdad. 

Bagdad, a celebrated city of Asiatic Turkey, formerly 
the capital of the empire of the califs, and now the cap¬ 
ital of the pashalic of Bagdad, is situated on both banks 
of the Tigris, about 60 miles N. of Babylon; lat. 33° 20' 

N., Ion. 44° 22' 38" E. The river is here about 700 feet 
wide, and is crossed by a bridge of boats. The appear¬ 
ance of the city at a distance is rendered picturesque by 
groves of palm trees and numerous minarets, but the 
streets are narrow, crooked, and dirty. The dwelling- 
houses, having no windows on the side next to the street, 
present an unpleasing exterior, but the interior is often 
richly decorated. Bagdad contains about one hundred 
mosques, some of which have beautiful domes and lofty 
minarets. Here are large bazaars filled with the products 
of European and Turkish markets. It was formerly a very 
magnificent city, and was for many ages the great empo¬ 
rium of commerce of the surrounding countries, but its 
trade has declined. It has manufactures of silk and cotton 
stuffs and red and yellow leather. The population is 70,000. 

In 1831 an inundation destroyed a large part of the city. 
Bagdad was founded by the calif Almansur about 763 

A. D., and built out of the ruins of Ctesiphon. In the 
ninth century it was enlarged by Haroun-al-Raschid, who 
built here a fine palace. In the tenth and eleventh centuries 
it is said to have had 2,000,000 inhabitants. It was sacked 
by llulaku about 1258, and after several changes of mas¬ 
ters was conquered by the Turks in 1638. 

Bagdad, or Boca del Rio, a town on the Rio Grande, 
near its mouth, in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas, was 
during the late civil war in the U. S. a place of great im¬ 
portance to blockade-runners, who carried on from this 
point a heavy trade with Western Texas. 

Bagdad, or Blackwater, a village of Santa Rosa co., 
Fla., on the navigable Blackwater River, 28 miles from 
Pensacola and 1£ miles below Milton. It has extensive 
lumber-mills and manufactures of juniper (red cedar) win¬ 
dow-sash. 

Bag'gage [Lat. impedimen'ta; Fr. hagage], a term ap¬ 
plied to the tents, clothing, utensils, and other necessaries 
of an army, which are carried on carts, pack-horses, or 
mules. In every army the amount of baggage is lim¬ 
ited by strict rules. A private soldier is allowed to carry 
nothing except that which his knapsack and other accou¬ 
trements can hold. The baggage of officers is more exten¬ 
sive. In the U. S. the trunks and carpet-bags of travellers 
are called “baggage,” in England they are “luggage.” 

Bag'gesen (Jens), a Danish poet, born at Korsor, 
in the island of Seeland, Feb. 15, 1764. lie was highly 
gifted, but of a weak character; with a fine fancy, but of 












354 BAGHERIA—BAHIA. 


a restless spirit; excitable, but without passion; fantastic, 
but without imagination. Born between two periods, be 
could neither stay with the old nor march with the new. 
lie was intimate with men of second rank, and enthusias¬ 
tically received by the educated; but no man of first rank 
would acknowledge him, and the great public he never 
reached. Born a Dane, and married first to a German, 
then to a French lady, he fluttered from one country and 
language and literature to another—made a noise in all, 
and became great in none. Of his Danish writings, his 
“ Komiske Fortallinger ” and “ Labyrinthen ” are enter¬ 
taining. Of his German writings, his “ Haideblumen ” are 
not without merit. His letters, of which he wrote thou¬ 
sands in different languages, are very interesting. Died 
in Hamburg Oct. 3, 1826. 

B aghe'ria, a town of Sicily, in the province of Pa¬ 
lermo, 81 miles E. of Palermo. Here are numerous villas 
of the nobility of the island. Pop. in 1861, 11,762. 

Bagli' vi (Giorgio), F. R. S., an Italian medical writer, 
born at Ragusa in 1668. He became in 1692 the pupil of 
Malpighi at Rome, and subsequently professor of anatomy 
at the college Della Sapienza in that city. lie gained dis¬ 
tinction as the author of the system of “ Solidism ”—?. e. 
the theory that diseases originate in the solids. Ho pub¬ 
lished “ Opera Omnia Medico-practica” (1704). Died 
Mar., 1707. (See F. Ferrario, “Della Vita e delle Opere 
di G. Baglivi,” 1839.) 

Bagnaeaval'lo, an Italian painter, whose proper 
name was Bartolommeo Ramenghi, born near Bologna in 
1484. He was a pupil of Raphael, and is regarded as the 
greatest painter of the Bolognese school. Among bis 
works is “ The Coronation of Charles V. at Bologna.” 
Died in 1542. (See Vasari, “Lives of the Painters.”) 

Bagneres de Bigorre (anc. Vi'cus Aquen'sis), a 
town and fashionable watering-place in the S. of France, 
in the department of Hautes-Pyrenees, and on the river 
Adour, 14 miles by rail S. S. E. of Tarbes. It is situated 
in the romantic valley of Campan, and is among the most 
frequented watering-places in France. It has a college, a 
public library, a theatre, a museum, and good hotels. The 
springs, of which there are thirty-two, and whose tempe¬ 
rature ranges from 72° to 124° F., are visited by about 
16,000 persons annually. Bareges and woollen stuffs are 
made here. Pop. in 1866, 9433. 

Bagneres de Buchon (anc. A'quse Convena'rum ), a 
town of France, in the department of Upper Garonne, and 
in the Pyrenees, 42 miles by rail from Bagneres de Bigorre. 
It has sulphurous thermal springs, and is a place of sum¬ 
mer resort. Pop. in 1866, 3921. 

Ba gnes, a French word signifying “galleys,” is now 
the name of the convict prisons of France in which crimi¬ 
nals were confined and employed at hard labor, since the 
galleys were abolished in 1748. Large numbers of con¬ 
victs were thus confined at Brest and Toulon, and were 
employed in mechanical and other work. Various trades 
or mechanical arts were taught to the convicts. In the 
reign of Napoleon III. the bagnes were gradually abol¬ 
ished, and the penal colonies substituted in their place. 

Bagnes-le-Chable, a parish and village of Switzer¬ 
land, in Valais, on the Dranse, 12 miles E. S. E. of Mar- 
tigny. Pop. of the parish, which is coextensive with the 
Val-de-Bagnes, 4256 (1870). This valley was inundated in 
1818 by a debacle which carried away 400 cottages. 

Bagnoles, a village and summer resort of France, in 
the department of Orne, and in a valley 13 miles E. S. E. 
of Domfront. It has warm saline springs and cold ferru¬ 
ginous springs. 

Ba go'as, a Persian eunuch and soldier in the service 
of Artaxerxes Ochus. In 338 B. C. he poisoned that king 
and several of his sons. He raised to the throne of Persia 
Darius Codomannus, who put Bagoas to death about 336 

B.C. 

Bag'ot (Sir Charles), an English diplomatist, born 
Sept. 23, 1781. He was minister to France in 1814, am¬ 
bassador to St. Petersburg in 1820, and to Holland in 1824., 
He in 1842 became governor-general of Canada, where lie 
died May 18, 1843. 

Bagot, a county of Canada, in the S. central part of 
Quebec, is intersected by the Grand Trunk R. R., and 
bounded on the W. by the Yamaska River. Copper ores 
and fine black limestone are found. Capital, St. Liboire. 
Pop. in 1871, 19,491. 

Bag'pipe, a wind instrument supposed to be of great 
antiquity, consists of a leathern bag which the player in¬ 
flates by blowing with his mouth through a tube, or, in 
some cases, by a bellows worked by the elbow. The music 
proceeds from three or four pipes, whose mouthpieces are 
inserted into the bag, the wind being forced out by press¬ 


ing the bag under the arm. One of the pipes, called the 
“chanter,” is pierced with eight holes, while the others, 
or “ drones,” sound each only one continuous low note. 
Though generally fallen into disuse, the bagpipe is still a 
popular instrument in the Highlands of Scotland and the 
west of Ireland, and the Highland regiments are always 
accompanied by their pipers, dressed in proper costume. 
The bagpipe is still used in Southern Italy, as formerly in 
Spain. 

Bag'radites, the name of a royal family of Georgia 
and Armenia. It was founded by Bagrad, who had the 
privilege of crowning the Armenian monarchs. In the 
eighth century a younger son of the Bagradites became 
king of Georgia, and from him the Georgian Bagradites 
claim descent. 

Bagra'tion (Peter), Prince, a Russian general, born 
in 1765, was descended from the noble Georgian family of 
Bagradites. He served with distinction under Suwarrow 
in Italy in 1799. In Nov., 1805, he kept in check for 
six hours a superior force of French under Murat. He 
led the vanguard at Austerlitz, December, 1805, and ren¬ 
dered important services at Eylau and Friedland (1807). 
He was mortally wounded at Borodino, Sejut. 7, and died 
Oct. 7, 1812. 

Bag'shot Beds [named from Bagshot Heath, Surrey], 
the lowest strata in the middle eocene formation of Britain. 
The strata are arranged into four groups: 1. The Upper 
Bagshot, yellow and white sands with ferruginous stains, 
generally unfossiliferous, though at Whitecliff Bay, Isle of 
Wight, a bed contains a large number of shells. 2. The 
Barton beds, colored clays interstratified with sand and 
loam, rich in fossils, shells of Mollusca, etc. 3. The 
Bracklesham beds, composed of marly clays and white 
sands, capped by a bed of flint-pebble conglomerate. This 
is the most fossiliferous group in the series. 4. The Lower 
Bagshot, consisting of variously-colored sands, gray, choc¬ 
olate-colored, or white pipe-claj^s. The white clays con¬ 
tain the only fossil found in this group—beautifully pre¬ 
served leaves in the layers of the clay. The series rests on 
the London clay. Its maximum thickness is about 1200 
feet. Some writers restrict the term to this last group. 

Bahama (ba-ha'ma), Grand, the most north-western 
island of the Bahama group, is 69 miles E. of Florida. It 
is 74 miles long and 9 miles wide. Area, 428 square miles. 
The soil is moderately fertile. Pop. 1020. 

Baha'ma Islands, or Lncay'os, a group of islands 
in the Atlantic Ocean, lie N. E. of Cuba, from which they 
are separated by the old Bahama Channel. They belong 
to Great Britain. They consist of twelve islands, 661 keys, 
and 2387 reefs and cliffs, together 3060 islands and islets. 
They extend like a chain from latitude 21° to 27° 31' N., 
in a north-western direction for a distance of about 700 
miles. They are generally long and narrow, and have 
little elevation above the sea,. The climate in winter is 
very mild and salubrious. The soil is thin, but produces 
maize, cotton, oranges, pineapples, etc. The area is vari¬ 
ously estimated from 3012 to 5123 square miles. Capital, 
Nassau, in New Providence. In 1870 the receipts amount¬ 
ed to £46,000, and the expenses to £47,000. The value 
of the imports was £284,000, and of the exports £190,000. 
The names of the larger islands are Grand Bahama, Abaco, 
Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros, San Salvador (or Cat 
Island), Exuma, Long Island, Crooked Island, Inagua, and 
Caicos. These are mostly covered with forests of the ma- 
deira tree, the mastic, lignumvitse, etc. San Salvador (or 
perhaps Watling’s Island) was the first land discovered by 
Columbus in 1492. The Bahamas were then inhabited by 
a gentle race of aborigines, who were soon exterminated 
by the Spaniards. The English obtained possession of 
them in 1629. Among the exports are canella, arrow-root, 
sponges, salt, conch-shells, eleuthera bark, fresh and canned 
pineapples, etc. Pop. in 1871, 39,162.? 

Bahi 'a, a province of Brazil, is bounded on the N. by 
Pernambuco, on the E. by Sergipe and the Atlantic Ocean, 
on the S. by Minas Geraes and Espirito Santo, and on the 
W. by Goyaz. Area, 176,500 square miles. The large river 
Sao Francisco flows along or near the north-western border 
of the province, which is traversed by a high mountain- 
range about 200 miles from the sea-coast. The soil of the 
lowlands is fertile. The chief products are sugar, tobacco, 
cotton, rice, manioc, and coffee. Diamonds and gold are 
found in this province. Pop. about 1,450,000. 

Bahia, or Sao Salvador, an important maritime city 
of Brazil, capital of the above province, is situated about 
740 miles N. N. E. of Rio Janeiro; lat. 13° 0' S., Ion. 38° 
32' AY. The name is derived from Bahia de Todos-os-San- 
tos (All Saints’ Bay), at the entrance of which it is pleas¬ 
antly situated. The upper part of the city is several hun¬ 
dred feet higher than the lower, and presents a very tine 













BAHR—BAILEY. 


appearance from the sea. The upper town is the most 
populous, most beautiful, and contains the important pub¬ 
lic buildings, among which are the governor’s palace, the 
cathedral, the theatre, the mint, and many fine churches 
and convents. It is the seat of the archbishop of San Sal¬ 
vador. A public library was founded here in 1811. The 
harbor of Bahia is one of the best in America, and admits 
vessels of the largest size. It is defended by several forts, 
and has a lighthouse at the entrance. The chief exports 
of Bahia are sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco, rum, dyestuffs, 
hides, and horns. The commerce is almost entirely in the 
hands of Englishmen. Bahia is the oldest city of Brazil, 
having been founded in 1549, and was until 1763 the capi¬ 
tal. It is, next to Rio de Janeiro, the largest commercial 
city of Brazil. The Bahia Steam Navigation Company, 
organized in 1861, had sixteen steamers afloat in 1868. 
Pop. 120,000. 

Biihr, or Baehr (Joiiann Christian Felix), an emi¬ 
nent German philologist, born at Darmstadt in 1798, and 
educated at Heidelberg, where in 1826 he became professor 
of classical literatui*e. He published a “ History of Roman 
Literature,” 2 vols., 1828; 4th ed. 1868-70, 3 vols. 8vo, and 
edited several of Plutarch’s “ Lives.” He also published 
Herodotus, with valuable notes, 2d ed. 1856-61, 4 vols. 

Bahrdt (Karl Friedrich), D. D., a German rational¬ 
ist theologian, born at Bischofswerda, in Saxony, Aug. 25, 
1741. He became professor of philosophy at Erfurt in 
1762, but he professed such skeptical or cleistical doctrines 
that he was ejected from that position in 1768. Among 
his works are “Aspirations of a Mute Patriot” and “ Let¬ 
ters on the Bible in a popular style.” He was successively 
professor, preacher, teacher, and tavern-keeper. Died April 
24, 1792. (See his “Autobiography” (“ Gescliichte meines 
Lebens”), 4 vols., 1790.) 

Bahrein', or Aval Island (anc. Ty'los or Ty'ros), is 
in the Persian Gulf, near the Arabian coast, about 200 miles 
S. of Bushire. It is 27 miles long and 10 wide, and is sur¬ 
rounded by several small islands. Manama, the capital, on 
the northern extremity, has a good harbor. These islands 
derive their importance from their pearl-fisheries, the an¬ 
nual product of which is estimated at $1,000,000. 

Bahr-el-A'biad (7. e. “white river”), the Arabic 
name of the White Nile, which is the main branch of the 
Nile. It rises in Lakes Victoria Nyanza and Albert Nyan- 
za, under the equator, flows N. along the eastern boundary 
of Kordofan, and unites with the Blue Nile at Khartum. 
It is said to be navigable 1000 miles above Khartum. 

Bahr-el Az'rek (t. e. “blue river”), one of the two 
great branches of the Nile. It unites with the other branch, 
the Bahr-el Abiad (“white river”), in lat. 15° 37' N. Its 
sources are in lat. 10° 58' N., Ion. 36° 50' E., but its spiral 
course, traced through all its windings, will probably exceed 
800 miles. In this distance it descends with immense im¬ 
petuosity from an elevation of 9000 feet to one of 1500 feet, 
collecting the waters of a basin having an extent of 1000 
miles or more. The Blue River is navigable up to Fazogle, 
under the twelfth parallel, 1500 miles from Rosetta. 

Bai' vc (mod. Ba'ja), an ancient town of Italy, beauti¬ 
fully situated on the bay of its own name, in Campania, 10 
miles W. of Naples. It was the favorite watering-place of 
the ancient Romans, who were attracted by the beauty of 
its position and adjacent scenery, the amenity of the cli¬ 
mate, and the virtues of its warm mineral springs. Julius 
Caesar and Pompey had country-houses at Baiae, which 
Horace preferred to all other places. The society of Baiae 
was proverbially voluptuous and dissolute. Ruins of an¬ 
cient temples and villas are visible in this vicinity. 

Bai'ersbronn, a town in Wiirtemberg, 40 miles S. W. 
of Stuttgart. It has manufactures of glass. Pop. in 1867, 
5i38. 

Bai'kal [from the Mongolian Bai-Kul , i. e. “rich sea ”], 
called also the Holy Sea, a large lake in the southern 
part of Siberia, in the government of Irkutsk, is an expan¬ 
sion of the river Angara. It is situated between lat. 51° 
28' and 55° 41' N., and Ion. 103° and 110° E. It is about 
400 miles long, and has an average width of nearly 45 
miles. Area, estimated at 12,118 square miles. It is said 
to be in some places 300 fathoms deep. It receives the Se¬ 
lenga and other rivers, and discharges its waters by the 
Angara, an affluent of the Yenisei. In summer steamboats 
navigate this lake, which is frozen from November to April. 
Here are valuable seal and sturgeon fisheries. The waters 
of this lake are said to have a curious ground swell called 
zyb, the nature of which has never been explained. The 
Christian kingdom of the Prester Johns, between the 
eleventh and the thirteenth centuries, was just S. of the 
Baikal Sea. 

Baikal Mountains, in Siberia, extend eastward in 
three ranges, from the Egtag Altai, and enclose in their 


355 


midst Lake Baikal. They appear to be mostly of volcanic 
origin, and possess considerable mineral resources. 

Bail [Fr. bailler, to “deliver”]. The original significa¬ 
tion of this word is to “deliver.” It is used both as a 
noun and a verb, and refers to property, as well as to a 
person, in the custody of the law. It implies safe-keep¬ 
ing or delivery for a special purpose. It may signify the 
delivery of a person arrested, either on civil or criminal 
process, from the custody of the sheriff or some other 
officer of the law, into the safe-keeping of persons who 
bind themselves for his appearance in court or obedience 
to its processes. Again, it denotes the persons into whose 
keeping the party discharged from actual arrest is deliv¬ 
ered, and sometimes the amount of security given or re¬ 
quired for the defendant’s appearance. 

In all civil actions the defendant may give bail as a mat¬ 
ter of right, and generally in criminal proceedings, unless 
he is charged with a capital offence. The amount of bail is 
in the discretion of the court, controlled by the somewhat 
vague constitutional provision that excessive bail shall not 
be required. 

Bail beloio, or bail to the sheriff, is bail given to the 
sheriff to secure the appearance of the defendant in the 
action, or his putting in special bail on a required day. 
Bail to the action, or bail above, are bound either to satisfy 
the judgment if one should be recovered, or to deliver up 
the defendant to custody. In some of the States the de¬ 
fendant when arrested gives bail to render himself at all 
times amenable to the process of the court, which takes 
the place of bail below and bail above. 

Common bail is the formal entry of fictitious security 
with the clerk of the court. It is given for the appear¬ 
ance of the defendant and his future obedience in cases 
where he has not actually been arrested. Special bail is 
responsible bail, given when the defendant has actually been 
arrested. Bail must in general possess certain prescribed 
qualifications. They must be freeholders or householders ; 
must be within reach of the process of the court, and must 
not be privileged from arrest; must be competent to make 
a contract, and of sufficient, means to pay the amount for 
which they become responsible. Bail can be compelled, on 
suitable application in the action, to justify; this means, 
to show by satisfactory evidence that they possess the 
qualifications required by law. 

While the prisoner, when released on bail, is in fact gen¬ 
erally allowed to go at large, he is regarded by the law as 
in custody of his bail. They can take possession of his 
person at any time or in any place, even though it is ne¬ 
cessary to break into his house. By delivering him to the 
sheriff and complying with legal forms of surrender, they 
can discharge themselves from liability. 

It should be remarked that when a prisoner is held un¬ 
der final process—that is, process to enforce a judgment 
of the court—he cannot be released on bail. However, by 
statute law he is sometimes allowed in civil cases, on giving 
security of the nature of bail, to be released from strict con¬ 
finement in jail, at the same time being partially restrained 
of his liberty by the action of rules defining territorial lim¬ 
its beyond which he cannot lawfully go. 

T. W. Dwight. 

Bail'ey (Gamaliel), M. D., born at Mount Holly, 
N. J., Dec. 3, 1807. In conjunction with J. G. Birney he 
founded in 1836 the “ Cincinnati Philanthropist,” an anti- 
slavery journal. Although his press was destroyed by a 
mob, he continued the publication till 1847, when he issued 
the first number of the “National Era” at Washington. 
The celebrated novel of “ Uncle Tom’s Cabin ” first appear¬ 
ed in this journal. Died June 5, 1859. 

Bailey (Gilbert Stephens). D. D., born at Abington, 
Pa., Oct. 17, 1822, educated at Oberlin College, 0., pastor 
of a Baptist church in Cornwall, N. Y., 1845-46, pastor in 
Illinois 1846-63, superintendent of missions for the Bap¬ 
tist General Association of Illinois 1863-67, and since 1867 
secretary of the Baptist Theological Union at Chicago. He 
is the author of several works, mostly denominational. Dr. 
Bailey originated the system of “minister’s institutes” now 
prevalent in the Baptist denomination, holding the first at 
Chicago in 1864. 

Bailey (Guilford D.), an American officer, born in 
New York 1833, killed at the battle of Seven Pines May 
31, 1862, graduated at West Point July 1, 1856, and pro¬ 
moted second lieutenant of artillery; served on frontier 
duty and in Kansas border disturbance 1856-59, served 
during the civil war in defence of Fort Pickens, Fla., to 
June 27, 1861, appointed colonel First New York Light Ar¬ 
tillery volunteers Sept., 1861, and was engaged in the va¬ 
rious actions of the Army of the Potomac during the Pen¬ 
insular campaign of 1862. 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Engineers. 

Bailey (Jacob Whitman), an American officer andnat- 


















356 BAILEY—BAILLY. 

uralist, born April 29,1811, at Ward (now Auburn), Mass., 
graduated at West Point 1832, served as lieutenant of ar¬ 
tillery in Charleston harbor, 1832-33, during threatened 
nullification of S. C., at Bellona Arsenal, Va., 1834-35, as as¬ 
sistant prQfessor at Military Academy 1834-35, and acting 
professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology 1835-38, 
becoming, upon resigning his lieutenancy, July 8, 1838, full 
professor, which position he held, to the great benefit of the 
Academy and advantage to cadets, till his death. He was 
the inventor of “ Bailey’s Indicator,” and of many improve¬ 
ments in the microscope, in the use of which he achieved 
the highest distinction, particularly in the examination of 
infusoria, algm, and the products of the deep-sea sound¬ 
ings of the coast survey, U. S. exploring expeditions, and 
the Atlantic telegraph plateau, of which he made valu¬ 
able collections and numerous delineations, bequeathing 
them to the Boston Society of Natural History. He was 
president of the American Association for the Advancement 
of Science 1857, and member of various societies of savants 
at home and abroad, and author of over fifty able papers 
in various scientific journals. His health, always delicate, 
was completely shattered by exposure in the Hudson River 
while attempting to rescue his wife and daughter, lost in 
the burning of the steamer Henry Clay, he dying five years 
after, Feb. 26, 1857, at West Point, aged forty-five. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Bailey (James Montgomery), editor of the “ Danbury 
News,” a well-known American humorist, born Sept. 25, 
1841, in Albany, N. Y., commenced journalism on the Dan¬ 
bury “Times” (afterwards “News”) in 1865, which paper 
soon acquired a celebrity throughout the U. S. from an in¬ 
cessant flow of rich, original, and healthy humor which 
the brilliant pen of its editor imparted to its columns. He 
has published “Life in Danbury” and “The Danbury 
News Man’s Almanac.” 

Bailey (Joseph), an American officer who served on 
the Federal side in the late war, and distinguished himself 
by his successful attempt to save thirteen gun-boats, etc. 
of the Mississippi flotilla. The water of the Red River 
having fallen so low that Admiral Porter’s squadron was 
unable to pass the rapids, Col. Bailey in the course of eleven 
days constructed dams which, by raising the water, enabled 
the boats to descend safely. He received for this service 
the thanks of Congress and was made a brigadier-general. 
Having removed to Missouri, he was shot by some ruffians 
Mar. 21, 1867. 

Bailey, or Bailay (Nathan), an English lexicog¬ 
rapher and classical scholar, who kept a school at Stepney, 
where he died June 27, 1742. Soon after 1720 he publish¬ 
ed his “ Universal Etymological English Dictionary,” the 
first English dictionary which aimed at completeness, and 
which was the basis of Dr. Johnson’s more celebrated work 
(1755). He wrote also a “Domestic Dictionary,” and oth¬ 
er books on education. 

Bailey (Philip James), an English poet, born at Not¬ 
tingham April 22, 1816. He studied law, and was called 
to the bar in 1840. In 1839 he published “Festus” (8th 
ed. 1868), a poem which treats of the highest themes of 
philosophy and religion. It excited much admiration, 
and had a wide temporary success, to which its extrava¬ 
gance and defects contributed. “ The faults of the poem 
are as great as the beauties; there is no congruity or pro¬ 
portion in it, and you lay it down with a sense of admira¬ 
tion qualified with disgust.” He wrote other poems, en¬ 
titled “The Angel World” (afterwards incorporated with 
“Festus”), 1850, “The Mystic” (1855), “The Age,” a 
satire (1858), and “The Universal Hymn” (1867). (See 
“ Blackwood’s Magazine” for April, 1850.) 

Bailey (Rufus William), D. D., was born at North 
Yarmouth, Me., April 13, 1793, and graduated at Dart¬ 
mouth in 1813, was pastor of several Congregational 
churches in New England, was professor of languages at 
Austin College, Huntsville, Tex., and its president (1858- 
63). He published “The Issue” (1837) and several edu¬ 
cational and other works. Died April 25, 1863. 

Bailey (Theodorus), U. S. N., born April 12, 1805, in 
Plattsburg, N. Y., entered the navy as a midshipman Jan. 

1, 1818, became a lieutenant in 1827, a commander in 1849, 
a captain in 1855, a commodore in 1862, a rear-admiral in 
1866. He did good service on the W. coast of Mexico in 
the Mexican war, and during a part of 1861—62 commanded 
the frigate Colorado, western Gulf blockading squadron. 
On April 24, 1862, he commanded the right column of Far- 
ragut’s fleet in the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jackson, 
and at the capture of the Chalmette batteries and the city 
of New Orleans, where he led the fleet, and was conspicuous 
for his great gallantry and self-possession. From 1862 to 
1865 he was in command of the eastern Gulf blockading 
squadron. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Bailey’s Harbor, a post-township of Door co., Wis. 

Pop. 297. 

Bail'eyville, a post-township of Washington co., Me. 

Pop. 377. 

Bai'lie, a Scottish term having several legal applica¬ 
tions. The most common and pojiular signification is a 
superior officer or magistrate of a municipal corporation in 
Scotland, with judicial authority within the city or burgh. 

In royal burghs the office is in some respects analogous to 
that of alderman in England. 

Bail'iff [probably a corruption of the LaJ. bafulus or 
bai'ulus, a “porter;” Fr. bailli], a term applied in Eng¬ 
land to a deputy of a sheriff or of a local magistrate ; also to 
magistrates of certain towns and keepers of castles. Bailiff 
may be defined as the keeper or srvperintendcnt of some 
duty or charge legally imposed on him. As officers of the 
law, bailiffs arrest culprits, summon juries, and collect fines. 

There is a class of men employed by the sheriff on account 
of their adroitness and dexterity who are called bound 
bailiffs, because, the sheriff being responsible, for their 
official misdemeanors, they are annually bound in an ob¬ 
ligation, with sureties, for the due performance of their 
service. The sheriff himself is the queen’s bailiff. 

Bailleul, a well-built town of France, in the depart¬ 
ment of Nord, near the Belgian frontier, about 19 miles by 
rail W. of Lille. It has manufactures of woollen and cot¬ 
ton stuffs, hats, lace, etc. Pop. in 1866, 12,896. 

BaiUlie (Joanna), a British poetess, born in Lanark¬ 
shire in 1762. In early life she went to reside in London 
with her brother, Matthew Baillie, the celebrated physi¬ 
cian. Her life was happy, but devoid of remarkable inci¬ 
dents. She published in 1798 the first volume of “Plays 
of the Passions,” which had great success. Several other 
volumes of the same appeared in 1802, 1812, etc. Among 
the most popular of her other works are “ De Montfort,” a 
tragedy, and “ Basil,” a drama. She wrote several ballads 
and songs which are much admired. She was an intimate 
friend of Sir Walter Scott, and her house was the resort of 
many other British and foreign literary celebrities. She 
died Feb. 23, 1851, aged eighty-nine. Commenting on lrer 
“ Plays of the Passions,” the “ Edinburgh Review ” for 

April, 1836, says: “ This great work is completed, and in 
a manner worthy of its commencement ; a noble monument 
of the powerful mind and the pure and elevated imagination 
of its author.” 

Baillie (Matthew), M. D., a brother of the preceding, 
was born in Lanarkshire, Scotland, Oct. 27, 1761. His 
mother was a sister of the great anatomists, John and 

William Hunter. He studied anatomy under his uncle, and 
entered Oxford, where he graduated as M. D. In 1783 he 
succeeded Dr. Hunter as lecturer on anatomy in London. 

He acquired a high reputation as a teacher and expositor 
of that science. He published in 1793 an excellent work 
on “ The Morbid Anatomy of some of the most Important 

Parts of the Human Body,” which had a remarkable influ¬ 
ence on the study of medicine. He practised medicine in 

London with great success, and was appointed physician to 
the king in 1810. Died Sept. 23, 1823. 

Baillie (Robert), an eminent Scottish Presbyterian 
theologian, born at Glasgow April 30, 1602. He was distin¬ 
guished for his learning and moderation. He was one of 
the commissioners sent to London in 1640 to prepare charges 
against Laud, became professor of divinity at Glasgow in 

1642, and was principal of the University of Glasgow after 
the Restoration. He wrote various works and letters. Died 
in July, 1662. 

Baillie of Jerviswood (Robert), a Scottish patriot 
of excellent abilities and character. He opposed the tyran¬ 
nical measures of the duke of Lauderdale, and about 1676 
was fined and imprisoned for four months. Having en¬ 
tered into a correspondence with Russell and Sidney, he 
was arrested and charged with complicity in the Rye-House 

Plot. He was condemned on insufficient evidence, and 
executed Dec. 24, 1684. 

Bailly (Jean Sylvain), an eminent French astronomer, 
born in Paris Sept. 15, 1736. He was admitted into the 
Academy of Sciences in 1763, and published in 1771 a 
remarkable “ Treatise on the Light of the Satellites of 
Jupiter.” In 1775 he produced the first volume of his 
“History of Astronomy, Ancient and Modern” (4 vols., 
1775-83), which by its eloquent diction and ingenious ideas 
obtained great popularity. He became a member of the 

French Academy in 1784, and of the Academy of Inscrip¬ 
tions in 1785. Fontenelle was the only Frenchman who 
before that time had had the honor to be a member of the 
three great academies of Paris. He was the first president 
of the States-General or National Assembly in 1789, and 
was elected mayor of Paris in July of that year. His in¬ 
fluence was exerted to promote order and moderation. He 









BA ILLY—BAINS. 


offended the Jacobins by commanding the national guard 
to fire on a riotous crowd in July, 1791, and resigned his 
office soon after that date. During the Reign of Terror he 
was proscribed by the Jacobins, and after insulting treat¬ 
ment was guillotined Nov. 12, 1793. Among his works is 
“Memoirs of the Revolution by an Eye-witness” (3 vols., 
1804). (See F. Arago, “Biographie de Bailly,” 1852, and 
an English translation of the same, Boston, 1859 ; Lalande, 
“ Eloge de Bailly,”. 1794; Lacretelle, “ Eloge de Bailly,” 
1836; “Edinburgh Review” for April, 1805.) 

Bailly (Joseph A.), a French sculptor, born in Paris in 
1825, emigrated to Philadelphia in 1850. Among his best 
works are “ Adam and Eve,” a group of “ Eve and her Two 
Children,” and a marble monument of Washington (1869) 
placed in front of the State-house in Philadelphia. 

Bail'ment [Fr. bailler, to “deliver”], a delivery of 
goods for some particular purpose, or on mere deposit, upon 
contract, express or implied, that after the purpose has been 
performed the identical goods shall be redelivered to the 
bailor, or otherwise dealt with according to his direction. 
If the contract permits the return of an equivalent instead 
of the goods bailed, there is no bailment, but the transac¬ 
tion constitutes a debt or some cognate engagement. Also, 
a delivery of a thing in trust for some special object, and 
upon contract, express or implied, to conform to the object 
of the trust. 

Bailment includes the borrowing, lending, hiring, or 
keeping of chattels, and the carrying or working upon 
them for another. The party making the delivery, or bail¬ 
ing the property, is termed the bailor ; the party to whom 
it is delivered, the bailee. 

Bailments have been classified as follows: 1, Deposition, 
or deposit; a delivery of goods to be kept by the bailee, 
and returned on demand, without recompense. 2, Manda- 
tnm, or mandate; where the bailee agrees to do something 
with or about the thing bailed, without recompense. 3, 
Commodatum, or loan; where the thing bailed is lent for 
use, without recompense. 4, Pi gnus, or pledge; where the 
thing bailed is security for a debt or other engagement. 5, 
Locatio, or hiring; where the use of something is to be 
given, or labor performed about it, for a compensation. 
Locatio is subdivided as follows: Locatio rei, where the 
bailee by hire gains the temporary use of a thing; Locatio 
operis faciendi, where the bailee agrees to perform labor 
and services, or bestow care and attention upon the thing 
bailed, for a recompense; Locatio operis mercium vehenda- 
rum, where goods are delivered to a bailee to be transported 
to another place, for a recompense. 

The question which most frequently arises and presents 
the greatest difficulty in the law of bailment relates to the 
responsibility which attaches to a bailee if the property is 
lost or injured, and the degree of care which he is bound to 
bestow upon it. With reference to this question, bailments 
have been divided into three groups: 1, Where the bail¬ 
ment is for the benefit of the bailor alone. This class in¬ 
cludes deposits and mandates. Here, as the bailee receives 
nothing for his services, he is held only to the care which 
prudent men are supposed to give to their own affairs, and 
he is responsible only for such loss or injury as results 
from the absence of such care. The degree of care de¬ 
pends much upon the circumstances of each case; for ex¬ 
ample, upon the bulk of the article, its fragility, or its 
exposure to thieves from the dense population of a city as 
compared with the scanty population of a country district. 
In each case it is a question of fact whether the care which 
all the circumstances required was used. 2, Where the 
bailment is for the benefit of the bailee only. This class 
includes commodatum,. Here the greatest care is required 
of the bailee, and he is responsible for the slightest negli¬ 
gence. It is also a rule that he must keep strictly within 
the privilege conferred on him with respect to the thing 
bailed, or he will be liable for any loss or injury to it, even 
though he is guilty of no negligence. 3, Where the bailment 
is for the benefit of both bailor and bailee. This is the case 
in pignus and locatio. Here the bailee is held to the exer¬ 
cise of the care and attention which prudent men under 
the circumstances would reasonably be expected to take. 

There is a class of bailments of an exceptional nature, 
embraced under the head of locatio, w 7 here the policy of 
the law imposes upon the bailee responsibilities for loss or 
injury to the property delivered to his charge, entirely ir¬ 
respective of the question of his care or negligence; this 
class includes innkeepers and common carriers, the liabil¬ 
ities of whom will be considered in another place. (Sec 
Carriers, Hiring, and Innkeepers.) 

The relation of bailor and bailee is largely one of trust, 
and the law requires good faith of each party. As a rule, 
the bailee will not be allowed to dispute the title of his 
bailor. He has a right to the possession of the thing 
bailed during the bailment, and in some instances a special 


357 


property in it. In other ceases he has a bare custody. This 
would enable him to maintain an action against any one 
who should unlawfully interfere with the chattel or deprive 
him of its possession. In such an action he would hold 
the proceeds beyond what was sufficient to indemnify him 
for his special interest as a trustee for the bailor. 

T. W. Dwight. 

Bai'ly (Edward Hodges), an English sculptor, born at 
Bristol Mar. 10, 1788, was a pupil of Flaxman. Ho 
gained the gold and silver medals of the Royal Academy 
about 1809, and became a royal academician in 1821. 
Among his masterpieces are “Eve at the Fountain,” which 
is exquisitely graceful; “Apollo Discharging his Arrows;” 
“The Graces Seated;” “Eve Listening to the Voice;” and 
a statue of Lord Nelson. Died May 22, 1867. 

Baily (Francis), D. C. L., an English astronomer, born 
at Newbury, in Berkshire, Mar. 10, 1744, became a stock¬ 
broker of London. He was one of the founders of the 
Astronomical Society, and rendered important services to 
astronomy by the improvement of the “ Nautical Almanac” 
and the production of the “Astronomical Society’s Cat¬ 
alogue of Stars.” He wrote several standard works on 
life annuities, and a “Life of Flamsteed” (1835). Died 
Aug. 30, 1844. 

Bain (Alexander), LL.D., born at Aberdeen, in Scot¬ 
land, in 1818, graduated as M. A. at Marischal College in 
1840. In 1845 he was elected professor of natural philos¬ 
ophy in the Andersonian University at Glasgow, and in 
1857 was appointed examiner in logic and moral philosophy 
in the London University. In 1860 he became professor 
of logic in the University of Aberdeen. He has published 
“The Senses and the Intellect” (1855), “The Emotions 
and the Will” (1859), “Study of Character, including an 
Estimate of Phrenology” (1861), “English Composition 
and Rhetoric” (1866), “Mental and Moral Science” (1868), 
“Logic, Deductive and Inductive” (2 vols., 1870), and an 
“ Elementary English Grammar ” (1872). Mr. Bain is a 
philosopher of the school of Mill and Herbert Spencer. 
His works on grammar, composition, and mental science 
have been republished in America. 

Bain/bridge, a thriving town, capital of Decatur co., 
Ga., on Flint River, 50 miles from its mouth and at the 
head of navigation, is the western terminus of the Atlantic 
and Gulf R. R., 236 miles W. S. W. of Savannah, and is 
the southern terminus of the Bainbridge Cuthbert and 
Columbus R. R. It has a cotton manufactory, three acad¬ 
emies, two weekly newspapers, and is a considerable ship¬ 
ping-point for cotton. Pop. 1351. 

B. E. Russell, Ed. “Democrat.” 

Bainbridge, a township of Schuyler co., Ill. P. 1200. 

Bainbridge, a township of Dubois co., Ind. P. 2521. 

Bainbridge, a post-village of Monroe township, Put¬ 
nam co., Ind., on the Louisville New Albany and Chicago 
R. R., 9 miles N. by E. of Greencastle. 

Bainbridge, a post-township of Berrien co., Mich. 
Pop. 1337. 

Bainbridge, an incorporated village of Chenango co., 
N. Y., on the Albany and Susquehanna R. R., 32 miles E. 
of Binghamton. It has two weekly newspapers, two hotels, 
some thirty business places, one foundry and machine- 
shop, four churches, and a handsome brick union school- 
house. In front of the churches is a beautiful park, and 
the sidewalks of the village ai’e well flagged with stone and 
shaded with maples. Pop. 681; of Bainbridge township, 
1793. G. A. Dodge, Ed. “ Saturday Review.” 

Bainbridge, a township of Geauga co., O. Pop. 660. 

Bainbridge, a post-village of Ross co., O., on Paint 
Creek, 19 miles S. W. of Chillicothe. It has four churches. 
Pop. 647. 

Bainbridge, a post-village of Lancaster co., Pa., on 
the Susquehanna River and a branch of the Pennsylvania 
R. R., 20 miles S. E. of Harrisburg. Pop. 762. 

Bainbridge (William), an American commodore, born 
at Princeton, N. J., May 7, 1774. He obtained the rank 
of captain in 1800, and commanded the frigate Philadel¬ 
phia in the war against Tripoli. This vessel, having run 
aground, was captured by the enemy in Oct., 1803. He re¬ 
mained a prisoner until peace was concluded, June, 1805, 
and was afterwards raised to the rank of commodore. In 
Sept,., 1812, he obtained command of a squadron consisting 
of the Constitution, of 44 guns, the Essex, andthe Hornet. 
In Dec., 1812, he captured the British frigate Java, mount¬ 
ing 49 guns. Died July 28, 1833. (See Thomas Harris, 
“ Life of Commodore Bainbridge,” 1837.) 

Bains (i. e. “baths”), the name of several watering- 
places in France. The most important ol these is Bains- 
les-Bains, in the department of Y osges, 14 miles S. W . ot 















BAIRAM—BAKER. 


358 


Epinal, situated about 1000 feet above the sea. The place 
has thirteen springs. Among these “ La Grosse Source” 
has a temperature of about 120° F. 

15 ai' ram, a feast of the Mohammedans, begins at the 
end of the fast of Ramadan. It is inaugurated with great 
public rejoicings and illuminations. Its observance is com¬ 
manded by the Koran. “ Little Bairarn ” occurs seventy 
days later. 

Baird (Absalom), an American officer, born Aug. 20, 
1824, at Washington, Pa., graduated at West Point 1849 in 
artillery, captain and assistant adjutant-general Aug. 3, 
1861, and major and inspector-general Nov. 12, 1861, and 
April 28, 1862, brigadier-general U. S. volunteers. He 
served at various posts 1849-61, in Florida hostilities 1851— 
53, as assistant professor at Military Academy 1856-59, 
assistant adjutant-general at Washington, D. C., 1861, in 
Manassas campaign 1861, engaged at Blackburn’s Ford and 
Bull Run, in the adjutant-general’s office 1861, in the Vir¬ 
ginia Peninsula campaign 1862, engaged at Yorktown and 
Williamsburg, in command of a brigade in the army of 
the Ohio, 1862, engaged in the capture of Franklin in 
Rosecrans’ Tennessee campaign, 1863, engaged at Tulla- 
homa, Shelbyville, Dug Gap, Chickamauga (brevet lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel), and occupation of Chattanooga, in com¬ 
mand of a division in the Fourteenth corps in the opera¬ 
tions about Chattanooga (brevet colonel) 1863-64, engaged 
at Missionary Ridge and skirmished in pursuit of the enemy 
in the invasion of Georgia, 1864, engaged at Resaca, 
Pine Mountain, Kenesaw, Mining’s Station, Peach Tree 
Creek, Atlanta (brevet brigadier-general), Jonesboro’, pur¬ 
suit of Hood’s army, in the “ march to the sea ” and sur¬ 
render of Savannah, in the invasion of the Carolinas 1865, 
engaged at Bentonville, Raleigh, and surrender of John¬ 
ston’s army at Durham Station. He was brevetted major- 
general U. S. army Mar. 13, 1865, for gallant and meri¬ 
torious services in the field, and major-general U. S. vol¬ 
unteers Sept. 1, 1864, for distinguished conduct in the At¬ 
lanta campaign and at Savannah. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Baird (Charles Washington), son of Rev. Robert 
Baird, D. D., was born at Princeton, N. J., Aug. 28, 1828, 
and graduated at the University of the City of New York in 
1848, and at the Union Theological Seminary in 1851. He 
was American chaplain at Rome in Italy from 1851 to 1853, 
pastor of the Reformed (Dutch) Church, Bergen Hill, Brook¬ 
lyn, from 1859 to 1861, and since then has been pastor of 
the Presbyterian church at Rye, N. Y. Besides translations, 
fugitive contributions to the press, and works, part of which 
he wrote, he has published “ Eutaxia, or the Presbyterian 
Liturgies,” 1855, “A Book of Public Prayer, compiled 
from the Authorized Formularies of Worship of the Pres¬ 
byterian Church, as prepared by the Reformers Calvin, 
Knox, and others,” 1859, and a “ History of Rye, N. Y. 
(from 1660-1870),” 1871. 

Baird (Henry Martyn), Ph. D., son of the Rev. Robei't 
Baird, D.D., was born in Philadelphia Jan. 17, 1832, grad¬ 
uated at the University of the City of New York 1850, at¬ 
tended lectures in the National University (then University 
of Otho), Athens, Greece, 1851-52, studied theology in the 
Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1853-55, and 
Princeton, N. J., 1855-56. He was tutor of Greek in the 
College of New Jersey 1855-59, and since 1859 has been 
professor of the Greek language and literature in the Uni¬ 
versity of the City of New York. In 1866 he was or¬ 
dained as an evangelist. He has published “ Modern 
Greece,” 1856, “ The Life of the Rev. Robert Baird, D. D.,” 
1866, and a large number of articles in the “ Methodist 
Quarterly Review,” “Princeton Review,” “New Eng¬ 
lander,” and other quarterlies. Y 

♦ Baird (Robert), D. D., an American theologian and 
writer, born in Fayette co., Pa., Oct. 6. 1798. He gradu¬ 
ated at Jefferson College in 1818. He spent several years 
(1835 to 1843) in Europe, where he did much to promote 
Protestant Christianity and the temperance cause. Few 
American clergymen have had so wide an acquaintance with 
distinguished men, or have accomplished a greater amount 
of good. Among his works are “A View of Religion in 
America” (1842) and a “History of the Waldenses, A1 bi- 
genses, and Vaudois.” Died at Yonkers, N. Y., Mar. 15, 
1863. 

Baird (Spencer Fullerton), LL.D., a distinguished 
American naturalist, born at Reading, Pa., in 1823, became 
assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Among 
other works he translated the “ Iconographic Encyclope¬ 
dia.” In conjunction with J. Cassin he wrote “ The Birds 
of North America” (Philadelphia and Salem, 1870) and 
“The Mammals of North America,” and, with Charles 
Girard, produced an excellent work on North American 
serpents. He has contributed valuable articles to the pub¬ 
lications of the Smithsonian Institution and to the “Jour¬ 


nal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,” 
etc., and is a member of the National Academy of Sciences. 

Baireuth, bl'ruth [Ger. pron. bi'roit], a city of Ba¬ 
varia, capital of the circle of Upper Franconia, on the Red 
Main, 126 miles by rail N. of Munich. It is pleasantly situ¬ 
ated and well built; its streets are wide and well paved, and 
the city is adorned with gardens and public fountains. 
The principal buildings are the new palace, the mint, the 
opera-house, and town-hall. There are three palaces in 
the vicinity, named Fantasie, Sanspareil, and Hermitage. 
Here are manufactures of cotton and woollen stuffs, porce¬ 
lain, and leather. Poj). in 1871, 17,837. 

Bai 'us, the Latinized name of De Bay (Michael), a 
Flemish theologian, born in Hainault in 1513. He became 
professor of divinity at Louvain in 1550, and in 1578 chan¬ 
cellor of that university. He adopted the doctrines of 
Saint Augustine, and wrote works on free-will and grace 
which were condemned by Pope Pius V. in 1567. Baius 
retracted or submitted, but his doctrines were afterwards 
maintained by the Jansenists. He was eminent for learn¬ 
ing and piety. Died Dec. 16, 1589. 

Ba'ja. an important market-town of Hungary, in the 
county of Bdcs, on the Danube, 115 miles S. of Pesth. 
It has Roman Catholic and Greek churches, a synagogue, 
and a castle. Here is an important market or annual fair 
for swine. Large quantities of grain and wine arc produced 
in the vicinity. Pop. in 1869, 18,110. 

Baja'da de Parana', or simply El Parana', a town 
of the Argentine Republic, in the province of Entre Rios, 
is situated on the Rio Parana, in lat. 31° 42' 54” S. and 
Ion. 60° 32' 39” W., 230 miles N. W. of Buenos Ayres. 
It was founded in 1730, was the capital of the state from 
1819 to 1862, and of the republic from 1852 to 1862. 
Among its numerous beautiful buildings are the palace of 
Gen. Urquiza, the government palace, and the theatre. It 
is well built, but has of late begun to decline. Pop. about 
7000. 

Bajazet. See Bayazid. 

Bajniok, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs, 
20 miles S. E. of Maria-Theresiopol. Pop. in 1869, 6446. 

Ba'ker, a county in Central Alabama, has an area of 
about 650 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the 
Coosa River. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. 
Tobacco, cotton, corn, and wool are the chief crops. It is 
traversed by the Selma Rome and Dalton and the South 
and North Alabama R. Rs. Capital, Chestnut Creek. 
Pop. 6194. 

Baker, a county in N. E. Florida, bordering on Geor¬ 
gia; it is partly bounded on the N. by St. Mary’s River. 
Sea-Island cotton and sugar-cane are the chief crops. The 
surface is nearly level. Timber is abundant. It is trav¬ 
ersed by the Jacksonville Pensacola and Mobile R. R. 
Capital, Sanderson. Pop. 1325. 

Ba'ker, a county in S. W. Georgia. Area, 450 square 
miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by Flint River, and in¬ 
tersected by the Ichawaynockaway Creek. Corn, cotton, 
and wool are the chief crops. The surface is nearly level; 
the soil is fertile. Capital, Newton. Pop. 6843. 

Baker, a county which forms the S. E. extremity of 
Oregon. It is intersected by the Malheur and the Owyhee 
rivers. Gold is found near the Malheur River. Silver is 
also found. The county is chiefly an agricultural and 
pastoral region. Oats, barley, and wool are largely raised. 
Capital, Baker City. Pop. 2804. 

Baker, a township of Martin co., Ind. Pop. 1018. 

Baker, a township of Morgan co., Ind. Pop. 456. 

Baker, a township of Crawford co., Kan. Pop. 962. 

Baker, a township of Linn co., Mo. Pop. 1269. 

Baker (A. R.), D. D., born in Franklin, Mass., Aug. 30, 
1805, graduated at Amherst in 1830, became a teacher in 
Medway, Dorchester, and Andover, Mass., ordained pastor 
of a Congregational church in Medford, Mass, and has 
subsequently been settled in Lynn, Wellesley, and Boston. 
He has published a “ School History of the U. S.,” “ The 
Catechism Tested by the Bible,” an “ Exposition of the 
Sermon on the Mount,” and numerous other works.—His 
wife, Harrietts N. W. Baker, a daughter of Rev. Dr. 
Leonard Woods, was born in 1815. She has published over 
160 volumes, mostly works for children, written under the 
pseudonym of “Madeline Leslie.” 

Baker (Charles M.), born in New York City about 
1805, resided in Vermont, and after 1838 in Wisconsin, 
where he was a prominent lawyer, and was distinguished 
for his benevolence and piety. He was for some time a 
judge of the State circuit court. Died Feb. 5, 1872. 

Baker (Daniel), D.D., born at Midway, Liberty co., 
Ga., in 1791, graduated at Princeton in 1815, was ordained 


















BAKEK—BALAKLAVA. 


359 


to the Presbyterian ministry in 1818, was pastor at Wash-, 
ington, D. C., Savannah, Ga., Frankfort, Ky., Tuscaloosa, 
Ala., anil Holly Springs, Miss., was for a time president of 
Austin College, Huntsville, Tenn., was a popular and suc¬ 
cessful preacher, and author of several practical and po¬ 
lemical religious works. Hied in 1857.—Ilis son, Rev. 
William Mumford Baker (born in 1825, graduated at 
Princeton in 1846), is the author of a “ Life” of his father 
and of several other popular works, such as “ Inside, a 
Chronicle of Secession,” “ The New Timothy,” “The Vir¬ 
ginians in Texas,” etc. He has been a Presbyterian min¬ 
ister in Galveston and Austin, Tex. (1850-65), and at 
Zanesville, 0. 

Baker (David Jewett), born at East Haddam, Conn., 
Sept. 7, 1792, graduated at Hamilton College in 1816, be¬ 
came a prominent lawyer of Illinois, was a probate judge 
in Randolph co., U. S. Senator (1830-31), and U. S. attor¬ 
ney for Illinois (1833-35). He was one of the leading anti- 
slavery men of Illinois in the contest of 1830. Died at 
Alton Aug. 6, 1869. 

Baker (Edward Dickinson), Colonel, a lawyer, born 
in London, Eng., Feb. 24, 1811, emigrated to the U. S. in 
his youth. He was chosen a member of Congress in 1848, 
removed to California in 1852, and became a popular ora¬ 
tor of the Republican party. In 1860 he was elected a 
Senator of the U. S. for Oregon. Having obtained com¬ 
mand of a brigade of the Union army, he was killed at 
Ball’s Bluff Oct. 21, 1861. 

Baker (George A.), an American portrait-painter of 
great merit, born in New York City. His delineations of 
children are much admired. 

Baker (Osmon Cleander), D. D., born in Marlow, N. H., 
July 30, 1812, studied at Wesleyan University, Conn., 
became teacher in the Newbury Wesleyan Seminary (Vt.), 
1834, and subsequently its principal. He was one of the 
founders of the Methodist theological schools, and for some 
time professor in the Biblical Institute at Concord, N. H. 
In 1852 he was elected bishop. Died Dec. 20, 1871. 
“Baker on the Discipline” is a standard work. 

Baker (Sir Samuel White), K. C. B., the English ex¬ 
plorer, was born June 8, 1821. Having a strong desire for 
adventure, he organized, with his brother, an extensive 
agricultural colony in Ceylon, where he went in 1848, re¬ 
maining in that country eight years. In 1861 he went to 
Africa, with the design of visiting the sources of the Nile. 
He fell in with Speke and Grant, and afterwards explored 
the western arm of the Nile, and discovered the Albert 
Nyanza Lake. In 1869 he set out, under the direction of 
the khedive of Egypt, with 1000 picked men, with the de¬ 
sign of suppressing the slave-trade, extending the bound¬ 
aries of Egypt and spreading the cultivation of cotton. 
In 1873 ho returned from this expedition, reporting com¬ 
plete success. His wife has accompanied him upon all his 
African expeditions. 

Ba'ker Cit'y, a post-village, capital of Baker co., Or. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 312. 

Baker’s Creek, Miss. See Champion Hills. 

Ba'ker’s Falls, a cascade of the Hudson River, in 
Kingsbury township, Washington co., N. Y. The stream 
falls 56 feet in sixty rods, and the scene is one of remark¬ 
able beauty. The falls have been utilized, and furnish a 
great water-power. Here are two machine-shops and some 
paper-mills. 

Ba'kersfield, a post-village of Kern co., Cal., is situ¬ 
ated on Kern River, about 60 miles from Visalia. It has 
two weekly newspapers, and is the centre of a considerable 
cotton-trade. 

Bakersfield, a post-township of Franklin co., Vt., 
50 miles N. W. of Montpelier. It has an academy, and 
manufactures of leather, lumber, doors, sash, blinds, etc. 
Pop. 1403. 

Ba'kersville, a post-village, capital of Mitchell co., 
N. C., 95 miles N. W. of Charlotte. Pop. of township, 1101. 

Bakewell, an old market-town of England, in Derby¬ 
shire, on the river Wye, near its confluence with the Der¬ 
went, is 25 miles by rail N. W. of Derby. It has an an¬ 
cient Gothic church, and chalybeate springs with warm 
baths, which are visited by many persons. Quarries of 
black marble and mines of coal and lead are worked in the 
vicinity. Chatsworth House, the splendid mansion of the 
duke of Devonshire, is three miles from this town, which 
is surrounded by beautiful scenery. Pop. in 1861, 11,254. 

Bakewell (Robert), an English agriculturist, born in 
Leicestershire in 1726. He gained distinction by his im¬ 
provement of domestic animals, especially sheep and horned 
cattle. He originated a breed of sheep formerly called by 
his name, but now known as the Leicester breed. Died 
Oct. 1, 1795. 


Bakhtcliissaroi', or Baktshi-Serai, a Tartar 
town of Russia, in the government of Taurida (Crimea), 
15 miles S. W. of Simferopol. It was formerly the capital 
of the Tartar khans, whose palace is a remarkable Oriental 
edifice and in good repair, with spacious galleries, brilliant 
paintings, and pavilions of light and airy form. The town 
consists of a single street at the bottom of a narrow valley, 
enclosed between steep rocks, and is one of the most sin¬ 
gular in Europe. Pop. in 1867, 11,448. 

Bakhtegan', Lake, in Persia, is 50 miles E. of Shi¬ 
raz. It is 60 miles long, with an average breadth of 8 miles, 
and receives at its western extremity the river Bundemir 
(anc. Araxes). The lake yields large quantities of salt. 

Ba'king is the mode of cooking food in an oven usually 
nearly or quite airtight. The term is also employed in the 
manufacture of bricks, porcelain, etc. (The baking of 
bread will be treated under Bread.) In baking, strictly 
so called, the oven is so closed that the steam and aroma 
arising from the substances within are confined; but by 
opening ventilators a current of air may be produced, 
and then these ovens may be used for oven-roasting. The 
offensive taste that often characterizes baked dishes is thus 
avoided. Baking, although a convenient mode of cook¬ 
ing, is not so good a process for cooking meats as Roast¬ 
ing (which see). 

Ba'kony-Wald (“ forest of Bakony ”), a densely- 
wooded mountain-range of Hungary, extends between the 
river Raab, the Danube, and Lake Balaton. It is 56 miles 
long and 23 miles wide. The average height is 2000 feet. 
Large herds of swine are annually driven hither to feed 
on mast (acorns). Quarries of good marble are worked in 
these mountains. 

Bak sheesh', or Bakshish, an Arabic and Persian 
word signifying a “ present,” a “ gratuity,” is much used 
by beggars and others in Egypt, Palestine, and other East¬ 
ern countries. Travellers in those countries are much an¬ 
noyed by the importunate, and even insolent, cries of the 
natives who demand baksheesh. 

Ba'ku, a seaport-town of Asiatic Russia, capital of Baku, 
on the W. shore of the Caspian Sea, and on the S. side of 
the peninsula of Apsheron (which see). It has several fine 
mosques and bazaars. Here are naphtha springs which ig¬ 
nite spontaneously, and caused Baku to be regarded as a 
holy city by the Parsees, who built several temples here. 
Naphtha and salt are exported from Baku, which is an im¬ 
portant entrepot of trade between Europe and Persia. 
Pop. in 1867, 12,383. 

Balabac', an island of the Malay Archipelago, be¬ 
tween Borneo and Palawan, 30 miles S. of the latter. It 
has an area of 130 square miles. 

Ba'la Beds, a local deposit of hard crystalline lime¬ 
stone, alternating with softer argillaceous bands, which 
occurs near Bala, in Wales, and forms a group of the Lower 
Silurian formation. Trilobites and Cystidese are the pre¬ 
dominant fossils of this group, which is believed to corre¬ 
spond to the Hudson formation of America. It is some¬ 
times called the Caradoc limestone. 

Balsen'iceps (the “wliale-heacl”), a genus of wading 

birds of the stork family, 
includes the whale-head¬ 
ed stork (Balieniceps 
rex) or shoe-bird of 
Northern Africa, where 
it lives in the swamps, 
feeding on snakes and 
fishes. Its enormous 
bill is one of its most 
remarkable characteris¬ 
tics. It has been called 
shoe-bird, from a fancied 
resemblance of its bill to 
a shoe. 

Balaghauts' (7. e. 

“above or beyond the 
Ghauts”), an extensive 



The Balseniceps. 


district of India, in the presidency of Madras, extends from 
the river Cavery to the river Krishna. The surface is hilly; 
the soil is fertile, producing sugar, cotton, and indigo. It 
is stated that diamonds are found here. 

Balakla'va, or Balaclava, a small port and town 
of Russia, in the Crimea, and on the Black Sea, about 7 
miles S. from Sevastopol, is separated from the harbor ot 
Sevastopol by a rocky peninsula. It has a good landlocked 
harbor, supposed to be the port of the Laestrigonians at 
which Ulysses landed. The ruins of churches and mosques 
attest the ancient magnificence of this town. Pop. in 1867, 
742. A few days after the battle of Alma, which occurred 
in Sept., 1854, Balaklava was occupied by the British army, 

















360 


BALANCE—BALBOA, DE. 


and the harbor became the head-quarters of the fleet. The 
British army suffered here great privations in consequence 
of the inefficiency of the war office and the mismanagement 
of the commissariat. Soldiers perished with hunger and 
cold, while ample stores of food and clothing were in the 
holds of ships in the harbor. Here occurred the battle of 
Balaklava between the British and Russians, Oct. 25, 1854. 
The charge of the British cavalry in this action was a fa¬ 
mous but unsuccessful exploit. 

Hal' ance [supposed to be derived from bilanx, having 
two scales; from bis, “twice,” and lanx, a “scale or plate”] 
is a lever of the first kind, the fulcrum being between the 
power and the weight; used to ascertain the weight of bodies 
in comparison with the standard units of weight. The ordi¬ 
nary balance consists essentially of a metallic bar or lever, 
called the beam, either delicately suspended, or supported 
on a stand by the intervention of a wedge-shaped prism, 
technically termed a knife-edge, exactly at its middle point. 
An index is fixed at right angles to the beam, and made to 
travel over a graduated arc, so as to show when the beam 
is horizontal. A scale-pan is suspended from each end of 
the lever. Since the arms of the balance are equal, it is 
plain that there cannot be equilibrium unless the weights 
placed in each scale are also equal. When this is the case, 
the beam is perfectly horizontal and the index vertical. 
The balance is then said to be true. When the beam is 
horizontal with unequal weights, the balance is false. Thus 
it is easy to test the truth of a balance by first placing in 
the scales weights which apparently are equal, and then 
transferring each into the other scale. If the weights are 
not really equal, one of them will appear heavier than 
the other after the transfer. There are, however, two 
methods of finding the exact weight of a body by means 
of a false balance. The body may be weighed with stand¬ 
ard weights in each scale successively, and the true weight 
is the mean proportional between the two apparent weights. 
Or the body (placed in one scale) may be balanced by a 
sufficient quantity of any convenient substance—sand, for 
instance—so that the beam is horizontal, and then replaced 
by standard weights until the sand is balanced; the weight 
thus obtained is the true one. A good balance should have 
its beam in stable equilibrium, for which purpose the cen¬ 
tre of gravity of the beam and its appendages should fall a 
little below the knife-edge. The points of suspension of the 
scale-pans and the fulcrum of the beam should be in the 
same straight line. Both when the scales are empty, and 
when equal weights are placed in them, the beam should 
be horizontal and the index vertical, the arms, of course, 
being exactly equal to one another. It is of great import¬ 
ance that the balance should be very sensitive and indicate 
very slight inequalities in the weights. The sensibility of 
a balance becomes greater, first, as the length of the arms 
is increased, which renders the movement about the ful¬ 
crum more obvious; and secondly, as the weight of the 
beam is diminished, for when the beam is displaced by the 
inequality of the weights, its own weight gives it a tend¬ 
ency to return to its first position. But this displacement 
is less for a given inequality in the weights as the weight 
of the beam is increased; so that the less the beam weighs 
the more sensitive it becomes. A form of balance, more 
convenient for counterpoising, but less exact than the com¬ 
mon form, is that in which the scale-pans are placed above 
the beam. 

The balance of a watch is a wheel nicely poised on its 
axis, the pivot on which it turns being frequently formed 
of rubies or other jewels. The natural effect of an impulse 
given to this wheel would be a complete rotation, but this 
is arrested by the balance-spring, so that it recoils, and a 
vibratory motion results. The balance-spring is a coil of 
steel wire so fine and delicate that 4000 springs weigh only 
about one ounce. One of the extremities of the spring is 
fastened to a point independent of the balance, and the 
other end is attached near its axis. When the impulse is 
given to the balance, it moves round just so far as the im¬ 
pulse given is able to overcome the elastic resistance of the 
spring. When that resistance becomes equal to the im¬ 
pulse, the balance is driven back by the elastic recoil of 
the spring. In marine chronometers a cylindrical helical 
spring is used. Revised by F. A. P. Barnard. 

Balance of Power [Fr. iquilibre politique, i. e. “po¬ 
litical equilibrium” or “equilibrium of states”], a phrase 
used in modern European diplomacy to express a state of 
political equilibrium among neighboring powers, or a polit¬ 
ical system so arranged and counterpoised that no nation 
or monarch may be so powerful as to endanger the inde¬ 
pendence of other states. Such a balance was aimed at in 
the political combinations in behalf of Greece; in those of 
Italy just before the Reformation ; in the policy of Europe 
under the lead of France against Austria and Spain ; in 
the alliances against Louis XVI., against Napoleon I., 


and more recently against Russia in order to preserve the 
independence of Turkey. Its object is to prevent politi¬ 
cal aggrandizement only. There were in Europe, after the 
overthrow of Napoleon in 1815, five monarchies recognized 
as the great powers—namely, France, Austria, Great 
Britain, Russia, and Prussia, to which, in 1859, the king¬ 
dom of Italy was added. The victories of the Prussians 
in 1866 and 1870 have so prostrated the armies of Austria 
and France that there now remain in Europe only two 
first-rate powers, Russia and Prussia (or Germany), and 
the balance of power is supposed to be destroyed, for if 
these two should form an offensive alliance they would be 
a match for all the other powers on the Continent. (See 
International Law No. I., by Pres. T. D. Woolsey, 
S. T. D., LL.D.) 

Balance of Trade [Fr. balance du commerce ], in 
political economy, is the difference between the value of 
the exports and the imports of a country. If the exports 
exceed the imports in value, the balance of trade is in favor 
of that country which usually receives a quantity of gold 
equal to that excess. A nation may, however, derive profit 
from its foreign commerce even when its imports exceed 
its exports in value, for mei’chants who export commodities 
may find it more profitable for them to bring back some 
foreign produce than to bring the money which they re¬ 
ceive for the articles exported. 

Dal' anus, a genus of Cirripedia distinguished by the 
absence of a flexible stalk and the possession of a S 3 r m- 
metrical shell. The name is derived from the Greek word 
for acorn, and was given to it because some species re¬ 
semble an acorn. The base is usually formed of a thin 
calcareous plate, the sides of six valves; and four small 
valves form the operculum, exactly closing the aperture 
at the top. This genus comprises many species, known as 
sessile barnacles, which are found in nearly all seas, at¬ 
tached to stones, shells, and other objects. It is remark¬ 
able that in the early stage of their existence they are capa¬ 
ble of active locomotion, and have large eyes, which dis¬ 
appear, along with the organs of locomotion, when they 
become stationary. Some of the large species were es¬ 
teemed a delicacy by the ancient Romans. The Chinese 
collect and eat the Balanus tintinnabulum, which is said to 
resemble lobster in taste; and Balanus p>sittacus, a South 
American species, is also eaten. This species is sometimes 
four inches in diameter, its height considerably more. 
There are several species found in the U. S. 

Bal'ashof, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Saratov, 138 miles W. of Saratov. Pop. in 1867, 7186. 

Balasore, the chief town of the South Cuttack district, 
in Bengal, on the Boorabullung River, which has a bar at 
its mouth. It has an American mission, salt-works, and a 
coasting-trade. It is 145 miles S. W. of Calcutta. P. 11,000. 

Bal'assa-Gyar'mat, atownof Hungary, in the coun¬ 
ty of Neograd, 40 miles N. of Pesth. Pop. in 1869, 6435., 

Bal'aton, Lake [Ger. Platten-see ; IIuu. Balatomy; 
anc. Pelso], the largest lake in Hungai’y, 55 miles S. W. of 
Pesth, is 51 miles long and 7 miles wide. The area is es¬ 
timated at 383 square miles. It receives numerous streams, 
the largest of which is the Szala, and discharges its water 
through the Sio and Sarvitz into the Danube. Fish of va¬ 
rious kinds are found here. This lake is often celebrated 
in the old romantic ballads of the Magyars. 

Bal'bi (Adriano), an eminent Italian geographer, born 
at Venice April 25, 1782. He became a resident of Paris, 
where he passed many years. He published in 1826 an 
“Ethnographical Atlas of the Globe,” which is highty es¬ 
teemed. His other chief work is a “ Compendium of Geog¬ 
raphy ”(“ Abrege de Geographic,” 1 vol. 8vo), which is 
considered one of the best treatises on that science that has 
ever appeared. His works are mostly written in French. 
He removed from Paris to Italy in 1832. Died Mar. 14, 
1848. 

Bal'bo (Cesare), an Italian statesman and author, born 
at Turin Nov. 21, 1789. He was appointed commissioner 
of the Illyrian provinces by Napoleon in 1812. He advo¬ 
cated the independence of Italy in a work called “ Speranze 
d’ltalia (“ Hopes of Italy,” 1843), which widely extended 
his reputation. As a moderate and liberal patriot he took 
a prominent part in the revolutionary movements of 1848. 
Among his works is a “History of Italy from the Begin¬ 
ning to 1814” (1849), which is highly esteemed. Died 
June 3, 1853. 

Balbo'a, de (Vasco Nunez), a famous Spanish navi¬ 
gator and explorer, born in Estremadura in 1475. lie 
emigrated to Ilayti about 1500, and in 1510 accompanied 
Enciso in an expedition to Darien. Having quarrelled 
with Enciso, Balboa obtained the chief command of the 
party, and in Sept., 1513, discovered the Pacific Ocean from 
the top of a mountain. He descended to the shore and 











BALBUENA, DE—BALDNESS. 361 


took possession of the ocean in the name of his sovereign. 
In 1514, Pedrarias D&vila was sent from Spain to super¬ 
sede Balboa, who was punished by a tine for his insubor¬ 
dination. He served as a deputy under Pedrarias, who, 
actuated by cruelty and jealousy, accused Balboa of trea¬ 
sonable designs, and put him to death in 1517. (See Irv¬ 
ing, ‘‘Voyages and Discoveries of the Companions of Co¬ 
lumbus;” M. J. Quintana, “Vidas de Espanoles Celebres.”) 

Balbue'na, de (Bernardo), a Spanish poet, born at 
Val-de-Penas in 1568. He became bishop of Porto Rico 
in 1620. Of his works, only three have been preserved : 
“La grandeza Mejicana” (Mexico, 1609; Madrid, 1829), 
“ El Siglo de Oro”(1608), and “El Bernardo,” an epic 
poem (1624 and 1808). Died at Porto Rico in 1627. 

BaBbiis (L. Cornelius), surnamed Major, a Roman 
officer, born at Gades (Cadiz), became an intimate friend 
of Caesar, whom he accompanied to Spain in 61 B. C. In 
40 B. C. he was chosen consul, being the first adopted citi¬ 
zen who received that honor. lie wrote a diary of the 
events of his own and Cmsar’s life. 

Balch (George B.), U. S. N., born Jan. 3, 1821, in 
Tennessee, entered the navy as a midshipman in 1837, be¬ 
came a passed midshipman in 1843, a lieutenant in 1850, 
a commander in 1862, a captain in 1866, and a commodore 
in 1872. He served during the Mexican war on the east 
coast of Mexico, from 1862 to 1865 commanded first the 
steamer Pocahontas, and afterwards the steamer Pawnee, 
South Atlantic blockading squadron, during which period, 
in co-operation with our army, he was almost constantly 
engaged with the enemy’s batteries and forts on the Stone 
and Black rivers, S. C. In one action the Pawnee was 
struck forty-six times, but finally succeeded in driving the 
Confederates from their guns “ in the wildest confusion.” 
Rear-Admiral Dahlgren spoke in the highest terms of 
Balch’s bravery, conduct, and sound judgment. 

Foxiiall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Bal'cony [Fr. balcon ; It. bctlco'ne], a platform or gal¬ 
lery projecting in front of a window or several windows, is 
supported by consoles or brackets fixed in the wall or by 
pillars resting on the ground, and has a parapet or balus¬ 
trade before it. The term balcony is also applied to several 
seats in a theatre which are nearest the stage, and con¬ 
sidered the most desirable seats in the house. 

Bal'dachin [It. baldachi'no ], a canopy in the form of 
a crown or umbrella, made of costly materials, richly 
adorned, and raised over a throne, couch, pulpit, or altar. 
In the church of St. Peter in Rome there is a magnificent 
baldachin cast in bronze by Bernini, and supported by four 
twisted columns. The baldachin is used in processions of 
the Roman Catholic Church. The name baldachin is said 
to have been derived from Baldach, a corrupted form of a 
name of Bagdad, and was originally applied to the canopy 
which was carried over an Oriental prince. 

Bald (or White-Headed) Eagle (Halt a'etus leuco- 



Bald Eagle. 

ccph'alm), so called on account of the snowy-white color 
of the head and neck, is a native of North America, where 


it is found along the sea-coasts and at the mouths of largo 
rivers. The length of this bird is about forty inches, the 
stretch of wing from seven to eight feet. The nest of the 
bald eagle is generally made upon some lofty tree, and 
sometimes becomes of great size, as the bird is in the habit 
of using the same nest year after year, and making addi¬ 
tions to it every season. The female bird generally lays 
her eggs in January, two or three in number and of a dull 
white color, and they are hatched by the middle of Febru¬ 
ary. It is strongly attached to its young, and will not for¬ 
sake them, even if the tree on which they rest be enveloped 
in flames. The bald eagle will eat almost anything, even 
carrion, but it is especially fond of fish, which it steals 
from the osprey when practicable, but also takes them 
from the water with much skill. For an interesting de¬ 
scription of the manner in which it takes its prey the 
reader is referred to the account given by Audubon. The 
bald eagle has been adopted by the Americans as their 
national emblem. 

Bald Eagle, a township of Clinton co., Pa. Pop. 950. 

Bal'der, or Baldur [from balldr, “good,” “strong,” 
“valiant”], often called Balder the Good, in the Norse 
mythology was the second son of Odin. He is supposed 
to typify the brightness of the summer sun, and to make 
all things bright and cheerful; hence he has been termed 
the “Apollo of the North.” His abode was Breidablik 
(“widely shining”), where nothing impure could enter. 
The account of his death is as follows: He dreamed one 
night that his life was in the utmost danger; and when he 
related this dream, the gods were so distressed that his 
mother, Frigga, exacted an oath from all things, animate 
and inanimate, that they would not injure Balder. She 
did not, however, exact any oath from the mistletoe, be¬ 
cause it seemed so harmless and insignificant. Now, the 
gods were accustomed to amuse themselves by shooting 
arrows and throwing stones at Balder, to all of which he 
proved invulnerable. When Loki, the god of evil, found 
that the mistletoe had not taken the oath, he obtained the 
plant and went to the assembly of gods, where he found 
Balder’s brother Hoder, standing apart from the others. He 
asked him why he also did not throw something at Balder. 
“ Because I am blind,” answered Hoder, “and have noth¬ 
ing to throw.” “ Come,” said Loki, “ do like the rest; show 
honor to Balder by casting this trifle at him, and I will di¬ 
rect your hand.” Hoder did as the tempter bade him, and 
Balder, pierced through by the mistletoe, fell dead. So 
great was the grief of the gods that Hermod visited tho 
realms of death, and besought Hela to release her prey and 
allow Balder to return to the dwelling of the iEsir. Hela 
answered that if everything mourned him, then he should 
retusn, but if anything whatever failed to weep, then Bal¬ 
der must remain in the world of shades. All things ani¬ 
mate and inanimate were requested by the Alsir to weep for 
Balder, and all did so except a giant hag named Thok (af¬ 
terwards found to be Loki himself, who had assumed this 
form in order to prevent Balder from returning to life). 
She answered their request by jeers, and Balder was ac¬ 
cordingly forced to remain in the abode of the dead. (See 
Thorpe’s “Northern Mythology,” vol. i.; Keyser’s “Re¬ 
ligion of the Northmen.”) J. Thomas. 

Balderic, or Baudry, a French chronicler, bishop 
of Dol, born about the middle of the eleventh century. He 
took part in all the Church councils of the time, and made 
active efforts to restore the rigor of monastic discipline. He 
visited England, and left an account of his travels. He 
wrote a chronicle of the first Crusade, entitled “Historic 
Hierosolomytanse.” We have also from him a life of 
Robert d’Arbrissel. 

Balcli d’Urbino (Bernardino), a mathematician and 
man of letters, born at Urbino June 6, 1553, accomplish¬ 
ed as a writer, and in science as well, under the tutelage 
of Commandino developed a remarkable zeal for the study 
of mathematics. He learned the Hebrew and Chaldean 
tongues in order to better understand the Bible, and every 
year he acquired some new language. His multitudinous 
writings deal with almost every branch of science. Chief 
among his works are “ Cronica de’ Matematici ” (“ Chronol¬ 
ogy of Mathematicians”), “Nautica,” a didactic poem on 
navigation, an Arabic grammar and dictionary, and a trans¬ 
lation of the Targum of Onkelos. He commenced a geo¬ 
graphic dictionary, which he only brought to the letter C 
in four enormous volumes. Died Oct. 12, 1617. 

Bald Mountain Plantation, a township of Somer¬ 
set co., Me. Pop. 8. 

Bald Mountain, a post-village of Greenwich town¬ 
ship, Washington co., N. Y., has extensive lime-kilns, 
which afford great quantities of lime. 

Bald'ness (Alopecia), tho loss or absence of the hair 
of the scalp. There aro some few cases on record in which 












































362 BALDPATE—BALDWIN. 


tho hair has never been developed. This is termed con¬ 
genital baldness. Accidental baldness is caused by an 
atrophy of the hair-follicles. Baldness in the compara¬ 
tively young may occur from wearing waterproof caps or 
unventilated hats, which, by preventing evaporation from 
the head, occasion an unhealthy state of skin. It may be 
complete, or partial, occurring in patches. Senile baldness 
( calvities ) is the consequence of age ; it arises, like the 
preceding variety, from an atrophy of those parts on which 
the hairs depend for nutrition. It generally commences on 
the crown of the head. Women are not so frequently bald 
as men. The causes of baldness are defective supply of 
nutrition, a hereditary tendency, dissipation, but especially 
old age. The hair falls off after severe illnesses, or after 
other causes of general debility. Alopecia is sometimes 
the result of syphilis. The treatment consists in cleanli¬ 
ness, and in exciting the circulation of the scalp by using 
a hairbrush and the application of stimulants, as the Span¬ 
ish-fly ointment, two drachms to an ounce of lard,mixed with 
tho same quantity of pomatum, or some equivalent prepa- 
ration. Any constitutional debility should be remedied. 
Shaving the head is sometimes resorted to, and is often use¬ 
ful. Favus (which see) permanently destroys the hair. 

Bald'pate, called also American Widgeon, the 

Mareca Americana, a duck which breeds in Mexico and 
the South-western States, and also along the western coast; 
found also throughout the U. S., Canada, the northern part 
of South America, and occasionally in Europe. It is highly 
prized for the delicacy of its flesh. It takes its name from 
its white crown. It is variously marked with reddish- 


brown, gray, white, and chestnut. The male has a green 
band running from the eyes to the nape. The bird is nine¬ 
teen and a half inches long. 

Bal'dung (Hans), also called Hans Grim, a German 
painter and engraver, born at Gmiind, in Swabia, in 1470. 
He belonged to the Swabian School, and derived from Dii- 
rer and Schongauer the fantastic element which marked 
his works. He excelled those masters in the handling of 
color and light and shade. His chief work is the altar- 
piece at Freiburg. His wood-cuts are wonderful in their 
Gothic strangeness and bizarre fancifulness. Died in 1552. 

Baltl' win I., king of Jerusalem, born in 1058, was a 
brother of Godfrey of Bouillon. He joined the first Crusade 
in 1096, and fought bravely against the infidels. He was 
chosen count of Edessa by the Christian inhabitants of that 
city. On the death of Godfrey, in 1100, he succeeded him as 
king of Jerusalem. He defeated the Saracens in several bat¬ 
tles, and captured Acre, Cmsarea, and Sidon. He was more 
ambitious and worldly than his brother Godfrey. Died in 
1118 . (See Gibbon, “Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.”) 

Baldwin II. (Baldwin nu Bourg), king of Jerusalem, 
was a cousin of Baldwin I., whom he succeeded in 1118. 
He waged war against the Saracens. During his reign the 
military order of Templars was instituted for the defence 
of the Holy Land. He died Aug. 21, 1131, and left the 
throne to his son-in-law, Foulques of Anjou. 

Baldwin III., the son of Foulques of Anjou, was born 
in 1129, and became king of Jerusalem in 1143. He de¬ 
feated Noor-ed-Deen, the sultan of Aleppo, at Jerusalem, 
in 1152 and 1157. He acquired much renown and influ¬ 
ence, and was respected even by the Saracens. His wife 
was Theodora, a daughter of the Greek emperor Manuel. 
He died Feb. 10, 1162, and was succeeded by his brother, 
Amalric or Amaury. 


Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem, surnamed tiie Leper, 
was born in 1160. He succeeded his father Amalric in 1174. 
He defeated the famous Saladin near Tiberias in 1182, but 
was afterwards defeated by that prince. He died in 1186, 
and was succeeded by his nephew, Baldwin V., who died in 
childhood. 

Baldwin I., the first Latin emperor of Constantinople, 
was born at Valenciennes in 1171. He was Baldwin IX., 
count of Flanders, having inherited that title from his 
father, Baldwin VIII. He joined the fourth Crusade in 
1200, and co-operated with the Venetians in an enterprise 
against Constantinople, the throne of which was occupied 
by Alexis, an usurper. The crusaders defeated Alexis, cap¬ 
tured the city, and elected Baldwin emperor in 1204. He 
was defeated and taken prisoner by the Bulgarians in 1205, 
and died in 1206, leaving the throne to his brother Henry. 
(See A. Cahour, “Baudouin de Constantinople,” 1850.) 

Baldwin II., emperor of Constantinople, born in 1217, 
was a son of Peter de Courtenay, and a nephew of Baldwin 
I. He succeeded to the throne in 1228, and was placed 
under the guardianship of John de Brienne. He began to 
reign in 1237, and encountered much opposition from the 
Creeks and Bulgarians. In 1261 his capital was taken by 
Michael Palseologus, and Baldwin fled to Italy, where he 
died. (The English family of Courtenay claims to be de¬ 
scended from the stock of this emjieror.) 

Baldwin, a county of Alabama, bordering on Florida 
and the Gulf of Mexico. Area, estimated at 1800 square 
miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Mobile River and 
Mobile Bay, and on the E. by the Perdido River. The 
surface is nearly level; the soil is sandy. 
Corn and wool are the chief products. The 
county is intersected by the Mobile and 
Montgomery R. R. Capital, Blakely. Pop. 
6004. 

Baldwin, a county in Central Georgia. 
Area, 257 square miles. It is intersected by 
the Oconee River, and bounded on the N. by 
Little River. The surface is mostly hilly; 
the soil near the Oconee is fertile. Corn, 
cotton, and wool are the chief crops. The 
dividing line between the primary and ter¬ 
tiary formations passes through this county. 
It is intersected bv the Macon and Augusta 
R. R. Capital, Milledgeville. Pop. 10,618. 

Baldwin, a post-village of Duval co., 
Fla., at the crossing of the Jacksonville Pen¬ 
sacola and Mobile and the Florida R. Rs., 
47 miles W. by S. of Jacksonville. 

Baldwin, a post-village of St. Mary’s 
parish, La., is the seat of Thompson Uni¬ 
versity. 

Baldwin, a township of Cumberland 
co., Me., on the Portland and Ogdensburg 
R. R., 25 miles X. W. of Portland. It has manufactures 
of carriages, boxes, spokes, hay-rakes, etc. Pop. 1101. 

Baldwin, a township of Sherburne co., Minn. P. 234. 

Baldwin, a township of Chemung co., N. Y. Pop. 969. 

Baldwin, a township of Allegheny co., Pa. Pop. 3104. 

Baldwin (Abraham), a distinguished statesman of 
Georgia, born in Guilford, Conn., in Nov., 1754, graduated 
at Yale in 1772, was five years a tutor there, and became in 
1777 a chaplain in the army. In 1784 he became a lawyer 
of Savannah, Ga., was a member of Congress (1785-88 
and 1789-99), of the convention which framed the U. S. 
Constitution (1787), and U. S. Senator from Georgia (1799— 
1807). He was the originator of the State University. 
Died Mar. 4, 1807. 

Baldwin (Charles H.), U. S. N., born Sept. 3, 1820, 
in the city of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman 
April 24, 1839, became a passed midshipman in 1845, a 
lieutenant in 1853, a commander in 1862, and a captain in 
1869. He served on the W. coast of Mexico during the 
Mexican war, and was in several sharp engagements with 
the enemy on shore near Mazatlan. He commanded the 
steamer Clifton of the mortar flotilla at the passage of 
Forts St. Philip and Jackson by Farragut’s fleet, April 24, 
1862, and at the attack on Vicksburg of June 28, 1862. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

BaldAvin (Elihu Whittlesey), S. T. D., born at Dur¬ 
ham, N. Y., Dec. 25, 1789, graduated at Yale in 1812 and 
at. Andover in 1817, was pastor of the Seventh Presbyterian 
church in New York City (1820-35), and president of 
Wabash College, Ind. (1S35-40). Died at Crawfordville, 
Ind., Oct. 15,1840. (See a “Memoir” by E. F. Hatfield, 
1843.) 

Baldwin (George Colfax), D. D., born at Pompton, 



The Baldpate, or American Widgeon. 
























BALDWIN—BALEARIC ISLES. 


363 


N. J., Oct. 21, 1817, educated at Madison University, for 
twenty-nine years pastor of the First Baptist church in 
Troy, N. Y. He is the author of “ Representative Men,” 
“Representative Women/’ “The Model Prayer,” etc. 

Baldwin (Henry), LL.D., an American jurist, born at 
New Haven, Conn., in 1779, became a citizen of Pennsyl¬ 
vania. He was elected to Congress several times, and was 
appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of the U. S. in 
1830. Hied April 21, 1844. 

Baldwin (Henry P.) was born in Coventry, R. I., 
Feb. 22, 1814, emigrated to Detroit in his youth, and was 
governor of Michigan (1809—71). 

Baldwin (John Denison) was born at North Stoning- 
ton, Conn., Sept. 28, 1810. After studying law and the¬ 
ology he became a journalist, and was long the editor and 
proprietor of the “Worcester (Mass.) Spy.” He was a 
member of Congress from Massachusetts (1863-69), and 
has published “Raymond Hill and Other Poems” (1847), 
“ Pre-historic Nations” (1869), “ Ancient America” (1872). 

Baldwin (Joseph G.), of Sumter, Ala., was a native 
of Virginia. He was an able lawyer and active politician, 
author of “ Flush Times in Alabama and Mississippi ” and 
of “ Party Leaders,” 1840. 

Baldwin (Loammi), born at Woburn, Mass., Jan. 21, 
1745, studied at Harvard College, and became an engineer, 
was a major, lieutenant-colonel, and colonel in the Revolu¬ 
tionary army, and was afterwards a prominent engineer in 
Massachusetts. Died Oct. 20, 1807.—His son, Loammi 
Baldwin (born May 16, 1780, graduated at Harvard in 
1800), was also an eminent engineer, and was employed in 
the U. S. government works at Charlestown navy-yard and 
at Newport. Died June 30, 1838. 

Baldwin (Matthias W.), an American machinist, born 
at Elizabethtown, N. J., in 1796. He is said to have con¬ 
structed the first locomotive on the American continent. 
He also made several improvements in locomotives. Died 
in Philadelphia Sept. 7, 1866. 

Baldwin (Roger Sherman), LL.D., an American 
statesman, born in New Haven Jan. 4, 1793. He became 
governor of Connecticut in 1844 and U. S. Senator in 1847. 
In 1841, Governor Baldwin was associated with J. Q. 
Adams in the famous Amistad trial before the Supreme 
Court of the U. S. Died Feb. 19, 1863. 

Baldwin (Theron), D. D., born at Goshen, Conn., 
July 21, 1801, graduated at Yale in 1827, was sent as a 
home missionary of the Congregationalists to the West in 
1829, was one of the founders of Illinois College, organized 
the Monticello Female Seminary near Alton, Ill., of which 
he was principal (1838-43). He was for twenty-seven years 
secretary of the “ Society for Promoting Collegiate and The¬ 
ological Education.” Died at Orange, N. J., April 10, 1870. 

Baldwin (Thomas), D. D., a Baptist minister, born in 
Norwich, Conn., Dec. 23, 1753. He became pastor of the 
Second Baptist church in Boston in 1790, preached there 
thirty-five years, and published a work in defence of the 
Baptists. Died Aug. 29, 1825. 

Bald'win Cit/y, a post-village of Douglas co., Kan., 
on the Leavenworth Lawrence and Galveston R. R., 15 
miles S. of Lawrence. Here is an institution called Baker 
University. 

Bald'winsville, a village in Lvsander and Van Buren 
townships, Onondaga co., N. Y., on the Seneca River and 
the Oswego and Syracuse R. R., 12 miles N. by W. from 
Syracuse. A branch of the Oswego Canal runs to this place. 
It has an academy, national bank, one weekly newspaper, 
fork-factory, axe-factory, and various other manufactories. 
Pop. 2130. * G. S. Clark, Ed. “ Gazette.” 

Baldwinsville, a village of Hempstead township, 
Queen’s co., N. Y., on the South Side R. R. of Long Island, 
is situated 1 mile from the sea-beach, and is a place ot 
summer resort. 

Bald'winville, a post-village of Templeton township, 
Worcester co., Mass., on the Vermont and Massachusetts 
R. R., 21 miles W. by N. of Fitchburg. It has important 
manufactures. 

Bale, or Basel [Ger. Basel; Fr. Bdle or Basle; anc. 
Basin' a or Basile' a], an important city of Switzerland, 
beautifully situated on both sides of the Rhine, 65 miles 
by rail N. of Berne, and about 3 miles from the frontier 
of Alsace; lat. 47° 34' N., Ion. 7° 36' E. The Rhine, which 
is here crossed by a bridge, divides it into two parts, named 
in German Gross Basel, “ Great Basel,” and Klein Basel, 
« Little Basel ” (called in French Grande Bdle and Petite 
Bale). A railway extends from this point south-eastward 
to Lucerne and north-westward to Miilhausen, in Alsace. 
Bale is at or near the head ot navigation on the Rhine, and 
is the most important commercial and manufacturing city 
of Switzerland. It was more populous in the Middlo Ages 


than at present. Among its public buildings is a fine cathe¬ 
dral built by the emperor Henry II. between 1010 and 1019, 
with towers 218 feet high, which were not completed till 
1500. The University of Bale, founded in 1459, once had 
a high reputation. This city also has a valuable museum 
of natural history, a botanic garden, and the university 
library of about 85,000 volumes and 4000 MSS. A large 
majority of the inhabitants are Protestants. Bale has ex¬ 
tensive manufactures of ribbons, printed cottons, paper, 
gloves, jewelry, etc. It was first mentioned in 372 A. D., 
was destroyed by the Huns and rebuilt by Henry I. in 917, 
became a part of the German empire in 1032, and joined the 
Swiss Confederation in 1501. Pop. in 1870, 44,834. 

Bale, or Basel, a canton of Switzerland, bordering 
on Alsace and Baden, has an area of 176 square miles. 
The Rhine forms part of the northern boundary of the 
canton, which is bounded on the N. by Germany, on the 
E. by Aargau, on the S. by Soleure, and on the W. by 
Germany and Soleure. It is intersected by the river Birz. 
The surface is diversified with hills and valleys; the soil is 
fertile. Salt is made from salt-wells, and considerable quan¬ 
tities of good wine are made. It has extensive manufac¬ 
tures of ribbons, paper, woollen stnffs, etc. Bale was first 
admitted as a Swiss canton in 1501. The town had pre¬ 
viously been a free city of the German empire. In 1833, 
Bale was divided into two independent portions or lnilf-can- 
tons—namely, Bale city (Ger. Basel S{adt ) and Bale coun¬ 
try (Ger. Ba8el-landschaft; Fr. Bdle campagne). Area of 
the former, 14 square miles; of the latter, 164 square miles. 
Pop. of the former in 1870, 47,760; of the latter, 54,127. 

Bale (or Basel), Council of, a memorable oecumen¬ 
ical council of the Church held in Bale, was summoned by 
Pope Martin V., who died (Feb. 20, 1431) before the ap¬ 
pointed time of its meeting. It was opened Dec. 14,1431, 
under the pontificate of Eugenius IV. (elected Mar. 3,1431). 
The pope tried repeatedly to dissolve the council, but in 
vain. A quarrel in regard to the manner and place of 
holding negotiations with the Greek Church led finally to 
a split. Many bishops, and all the cardinals but one, 
went off with Julianus Cesarini, the pope’s legate, first to 
Ferrara (Jan., 1438), and thence to Florence (Feb., 1439). 
Those who remained chose a new president, and went on 
with their work. Excommunicated by Eugenius, they 
elected a new pope, Felix V., Nov. 17, 1439. Very few 
acknowledged him. This blunder‘broke the moral power 
of the council. Its forty-fifth and last formal session was 
held May 16, 1443, though the council was not technically 
“ dissolved ” till May 7, 1449, when it gave in its adhesion 
to Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius IV. The Roman 
Catholic Church acknowledges only the first twenty-five 
sessions of the council, before the split. (See Wessenberg, 
“Die Allgemeinen Concilien des 15ten and 16ten Jahrhun- 
dertes,” 2 vols., Constance, 1870.) 

Bale ( or Basel), Treaty of, the name of an import¬ 
ant treaty of peace signed at Bale, April 5, 1795, between 
the French republic and Prussia. The latter then agreed 
to abandon the coalition against France, and to give up 
her possessions on the left bank of the Rhine. In July, 
1795, another treaty was here concluded between France 
and Spavin. 

Bale (John), bishop of Ossory, was born at Cove, Suf¬ 
folk, England, Nov. 21, 1495, became a Carmelite, and was 
educated at Cambridge, became a prior (1529), but be¬ 
coming a Protestant, was obliged to leave the country; 
returning, he became a bishop in 1552. He was again 
exiled after Edward VI.’s death, but returned and became 
prebend of Canterbury in 1560. He wrote voluminously. 

His “ Summarium” (1549), a catalogue of British authors, 
is his most celebrated work. Died Nov., 1563. 

Balear'ic Isles (anc. Balea'res or Balea'res In’sidee), 
a group of five islands in the Mediterranean, forming a 
Spanish province, the area of which is 1860 square miles. 
Pop. in 1867, 284,398. Capital, Palma. Their names are 
Majorca, Minorca, Iviga, Formentera, and Cabrera. The 
soil is mostly fertile, though badly cultivated. The climate • 
is very fine. Vegetation has a tropical aspect. The chief 
exports are olive oil, figs, oranges, wool, mules, wine, hats, 
brooms, brandy, capers, saffron, cheese, salt, wooden ware, 
baskets, etc. The ancient natives of these islands were 
very expert slingers, and served in the Carthaginian army. 
The Baleares were made an independent kingdom in 1256, 
but soon became feudal to Aragon, to which kingdom they 
were annexed in 1344. The Moors were long masters here, 
but were expelled in 1285. The kings of Spain long re¬ 
tained the title of “king of the Balearic Islands” as one 
of their secondary honors. The language is made up ot 
various dialects (Mallorquin, Minorquin, etc.), ot t he Cat¬ 
alan, mingled with Arabic (and perhaps Punic) elements. 
(See Majorca and Minorca.) 













364 


BALEARIC CRANE—BALISTES. 


Balear'ic Crane (Iinlearica pavonina), a beautiful 
crane fouud in Northern and Western Africa, conspicuous 



Balearic Crane. 

for its crown of golden plumes and its scarlet cheeks. It 
is readily tamed, often indulging in fantastic dances, run¬ 
ning about with great speed, and screaming with a harsh 
and ringing voice. It is of a bluish-slate color, and is four 
feet high. Its bill is shorter and thicker than that of other 
cranes. It is exceedingly gentle, and, unlike some other 
cranes, is quite harmless. It is doubtful whether this bird 
is the Balearic crane of the ancients. 

Balechou (Jean Joseph Nicolas), a very eminent 
French engraver, born at Arles in 1715. He was the first 
buriuist of his time. Ilis works are remarkably neat, 
and his style brilliant, vigorous, and bold; but his draw¬ 
ing is often defective, and he paid too little attention to 
detail. His “Women Bathing,” " Storm” and "Calm” 
(after Vernet), "Saint Genevieve” (after Charles Yanloo), 
and his full-length portrait of Augustus, king of Poland, are 
his most famous works. The last mentioned is one of the 
great triumphs of the engraver’s art. Died Aug. 18, 1705. 

Baleen' [from the Lat. batsena; Gr. ^xtAaira, a" whale”], 
a substance commercially known as whale-fin and whale¬ 
bone, is procured from the mouth of the right whale, the 
Greenland whale, the Bahia fin-back, the Cape whale, the 
humpback, and various other species. It grows from the 
roof of the mouth of all the Bahenidae or true whales, 
though in some it is too small to be of much use. It is 
never found in the sperm whales or the dolphins. From 
single whales as much as two tons of baleen has been taken. 
It consists of horny plates of albuminous matter charged 
with phosphate of lime. Baleen takes the place of teeth, 
and serves as a strainer for separating from the water the 
little animals which serve as food for the whale. (See 
Whalebone.) 

Balen, or Ballen, van (Hendrik), a Flemish painter, 
born in Antwerp in 1560, studied with Adam van Oort and 
in Italy, and was the first instructor of Yandyck. In spite 
of a certain coldness and mannerism, his harmonious color¬ 
ing, correct taste, and skilful composition have given him 
a more than respectable rank among painters. Of his nu¬ 
merous works, the best known are scriptural and ecclesias¬ 
tical pieces. His nude figures are well executed. Died in 
1632. 

Bales'tra (Antonio), an Italian painter, born at Yero- 
na in 1666. After his father’s death he followed commer¬ 
cial pursuits until he came of age, when he went to Venice 
and became a pupil of Belucci (an able colorist), and after¬ 
wards studied at Rome with Carlo Maratti. His " Defeat 
of the Giants ” gained the prize at the Academy of St. Luke 
in 1694. Among his other famous pictures are a " Saint 
Theresa” at Bergamo, a "Virgin” at Mantua, a "Life of 
Saints Cosmas and Damian ” at Padua, and his own por¬ 
trait at Florence. He was one of the last able artists of 
the Venetian school, though not a slavish follower of any 
school. He was a skilful designer, a good colorist, a labo¬ 
rious and faithful student of his art, and was possessed of 
a vigorous hand and spirit. The works of Giovanni Ba- 
lestra, a skilful engraver, are often incorrectly assigned to 
the subject of this notice. Antonio Balestra died April 2, 
1740. 

Balfe (Michael William), a distinguished musician 
and composer, born in Dublin, Ireland, May 15, 1808, was 
a skilful violinist. He visited Italy in 1825, gained dis¬ 
tinction as a singer, and composed in rapid succession 
many operas, which are not remarkable for originality. 


Among his most popular operas arc "Falstaff” (1838), 
"The Bohemian Girl” (1844), "The Rose of Castile,” and 
" The Talisman,” the latter a posthumous woi’k now (Sept., 
1873) in preparation for representation in London. Died 
Oct. 20, 1870. 

Balfour (John Hutton), M. D., F. R. S., a British bot¬ 
anist and physician, born in Edinburgh Sept. 15, 1808. 
In 1845 he became professor of botany at Edinburgh. Ho 
published a "Manual of Botany” (i849), and a " Class- 
book of Botany” (1852) which is highly esteemed. He 
contributed the article on Botany to the eighth edition of 
the " Encyclopaedia Britannica.” 

Balfour (Robert), a Scotchman, born about 1550, and 
for many years principal of the Guienne College at Bor¬ 
deaux. He had great learning, and was called the "phoenix 
of the age.” His principal works were commentaries 
on Aristotle, 1616, 1618, and 1620. 

Balfour (Rev. Walter), born at St. Ninian’s, Stir¬ 
lingshire, Scotland, in 1777. He was brought up a Pres¬ 
byterian of the national Kirk, but coming to the U. S. at 
the age of twenty, he became a Baptist ten years later. 
In 1823 he became a Universalist, and was long a preacher 
of that faith in Charlestown, Mass. He published, besides 
other works, "Inquiries concerning the Devil,” "Scriptural 
Import of the Words translated Hell” (1824), "The State 
of the Dead” (1833), and controversial letters to Prof. 
Moses Stuart and others. Died Jan. 3, 1852. 

Balfurosh', or Balfrush, originally Barfuvosh 
("the mart of burdens”), an important commercial town 
of Persia, in the province of Mazander&n, on the river 
Bahbul, 14 miles from its entrance into the Caspian Sea, 
and about 110 miles N. E. of Teheran. It has an exten¬ 
sive trade, and contains numerous colleges and caravan¬ 
serais. The bazaars are large, and filled with a great 
variety of goods. A good road extends from this town to 
its port, Meshedi-Ser, on the Caspian. Pop. estimated at 
120,000. 

Bali, or Bal'ly, an island of the Malay Archipelago, 
is about 3 miles E. of Java. Area, 1999 square miles. It is 
nearly 70 miles long and 35 miles wide. The chief exports 
are rice, cotton, coffee, tobacco, hides, etc. The island is 
divided into several small states, of which Badong is the 
chief. The Balinese mostly profess Brahmanism. They 
are said to be superior to the Javanese in mind and other 
respects. Their language resembles that of Java. Pop. 
about 800,000. 

Baliol, or Bal'liol (Edward), a son of King John 
Baliol, invaded Scotland in 1332. Having gained several 
victories over the Scottish army, he was crowned king at 
Scone in September of that year. About three months 
later he was surprised in his camp, and lost his crown. 
His subsequent career was unfortunate. Died in 1363. 

Baliol, or Balliol (John), lord of Galloway and king 
of Scotland, was born about 1259. He became the rival 
of Robert Bruce, and claimed the crown as the grandson 
of David, who was a brother of King William the Lion. 
The dispute was referred to Edward I. of England as 
arbiter, who decided that Baliol was the rightful heir, and 
imposed the condition that he should do homage to the king 
of England. He was crowned in 1292, and swore fealty 
to Edward, but soon renounced his allegiance. Edward 
invaded Scotland, defeated Baliol’s army, and compelled 
him to resign the crown in 1296. Baliol died in France 
in 1314. 

Ba'liol College, Oxford, was founded about 1263 or 
1268 by John de Baliol, whose son of the same name w r as 
king of Scotland. It was enriched by several benefactors 
separated by long intervals of time. Among the graduates 
of this college were John Evelyn and Bradley the astronomer. 

Balis'tes, or File-Fish, a genus of osseous fishes 
of the order Plectognathi of Cuvier, is the type of the 
family Balistidse or Sclerodermata. They are mostly found 
in tropical or sub-tropical seas, have brilliant colors, and 

a body which is remark¬ 
ably compressed. They 
have a curious provision 
for fixing the first dorsal 
sy- spine in an erect position 
or lowering it at the will 
of the fish. For this rea- 
i son they are sometimes 
called trigger-fishes. One 
of the most remarkable 
species is the Batistes 

UnarmedTrigger-fish: Batistes V€tu i u8 or "unarmed 
Vaula (found m the Nile). trigger-fish,” the flesh 

of which is regarded as poisonous. The dusky file-fish 
(Batistes fuliginosm ) has been taken in N. Y. harbor; the 





















































JBALIZE—BALLAD POETRY. 


365 


other file-fish of the U. S. coast are now referred to other I 
but kindred genera. 

Balize, or Belize [a Spanish name corrupted from 
Wallis or Wallace, an English pirate who infested that 
region], also called British Honduras, a British colony 
in Central America, on the Bay of Honduras, and in the 
south-eastern part of the peninsula of Yucatan. Area, 
estimated at 13,500 square miles. Mahogany, fustic, log¬ 
wood, etc. are exported from this colony. Pop. in 1861, 
25,635. 

Balize, or Belize, a town of Central America, is in 
the district noticed above, and on the Bay of Honduras, at 
the mouth of the Balize River. It is a depot of British 
goods destined for Central America. It contains a court¬ 
house, a hospital, several chapels, and an iron market- 
house. Pop. estimated at 6000. 

Balize, a name sometimes given to a village at the 
North-eastern Pass, at the mouth of the Mississippi River, 
derived from the French balise, a “ beacon.” It is inhab¬ 
ited by pilots and their families. 

Ball cats/ (the ancient Hse'mus), a mountain-chain of 
European Turkey, extends from Sophia eastward to Cape 
Emineh on the Black Sea, and forms the southern boundary 
of the basin of the Danube. Some peaks of this range 
are over 5000 feet high. The Balkan is connected with 
the mountains of Middle Europe by the ranges of Monte¬ 
negro and Herzegovina. It is an important natural bar¬ 
rier for the protection of Turkey against Russian invaders. 

Balkash' (in the Calmuck language <f large lake,” is 
called by the Khirgiz Ak Teughiz, i. e. “white sea,” 
or simply Tenghiz Sea), a large lake of Central Asia 
having no visible outlet, is on the borders of Chinese 
Turkistan and the Russian government of Tomsk, between 
lat. 44° and 47° N., and Ion. 77° and 81° E. Its length 
from N. E. to S. W. is 390 miles, and its greatest breadth 
50 miles. 

Balkh (the ancient Bac'tria), a province of Central 
Asia, now subordinate to the khanate of Bokhara. It is 
bounded on the N. by the river Oxus or Amoo, on the E. 
by Budukshan, on the S. by the Hindu-Kush Mountains, 
and on the W. by the desert. A large part of the soil is 
sterile. The natives are Usbek Tartars. Capital, Balkh. 

Balkh ( anc. Zarias'pa and Bac'tra), the capital of the 
province of Balkh, is about 22 miles S. of the Amoo River, 
and 150 miles N. N. W. of Cabul. The ancient Bactra 
was an important city, the remains of which cover a space 
about twenty miles in circuit, and comprise eighteen aque¬ 
ducts now in ruins. It was destroyed by Jengis Khan. 
The modern town is insignificant. Pop. about 2000. 

Ball [from the Gr. j3 d\\ta, “to throw”], a word used in 
various applications; a round body or globe; a dancing- 
party ; a solid shot or bullet discharged from a cannon or 
other gun. Also the name of a game. (See Ball, Game of.) 

Ball, in military affairs. See Bullet. 

Ball, a township of Sangamon co., Ill. Pop. 986. 

Ball, Game of. This was a favorite gymnastic exer¬ 
cise among the ancient Greeks and Romans, the latter of 
whom called it pila. At Rome it was played by persons 
of all ages and by men of high rank. The Greeks prized 
the game as a means of giving grace and elasticity to their 
figures and motions. In the sixteenth century this game 
was fashionable in the courts of French and Italian princes. 
The French jeu de paume and English tennis were modifi¬ 
cations of the game of ball. The ball was sfruck with a 
mallet (Fr. mail or maille; Eng. mall), sometimes called 
pall-mall or pell-mell, from the Italian palla, a ball. A 
form of this game, called cricket, is much played by the 
English at the present time. The popular game of the 
U. S. is base-ball. 

Ball (Ephraim), an inventor, born in Stark co., 0., in 
1812. He had few educational privileges in his youth. 
He began the manufacture of ploughs in 1840, patented 
the “ Ohio mower ” in 1856, and the well-known “ Buckeye ” 
machine in 1858. He was long at the head of a large 
manufactory of farming tools at Canton, 0. 

Ball (Thomas), a distinguished American sculptor, born 
in Charlestown, Mass., June 3, 1819. His works of art are 
numerous and highly esteemed. Among them are busts 
of Webster and Choate, and statues of Webster, Everett, 
and Washington. 

Ballad Poetry. The word ballad signifies in English 
a narrative song, a short tale in lyric verse, which sense it 
has come to have, probably through the English, in some 
other languages. It means, by derivation, a dance-song, 
but though dancing was formerly, and in some places still 
is, performed to song instead of instrumental music, the 
application of the word in English is quite accidental. 
The popular ballad, for which our language has no un¬ 


equivocal name, is a distinct and very important species of 
poetry. Its historical and natural place is anterior to the 
appearance of the poetry of art, to which it has formed a 
step among every people that has produced an original lite¬ 
rature, and by which it has been regularly displaced, and, 
in some cases, all but extinguished. Whenever a peoplo 
in the course of its development reaches a certain intellect¬ 
ual and moral stage, it will feel an impulse to express itself 
in literature, and the form of expression to which it is first 
impelled is, as is well known, not prose but verse, and in 
fact narrative verse. The condition of society in which a 
truly national or popular poetry appears, explains the cha¬ 
racter of such poetry. It is a condition in which the people 
are not divided by political organization and book-culture 
into markedly distinct classes, in which consequently there 
is such community of ideas and feelings that the whole peo¬ 
ple form an individual. Such poetry, accordingly, while 
it is in its essence an expression of our common human 
nature, and so of universal and indestructible interest, will 
in each case be differenced by circumstances and idiosyn¬ 
crasy. On the other hand, it will always be an expression 
of the mind and heart of the people as an individual, and 
never of the personality of individual men. The funda¬ 
mental characteristic of popular ballads is therefore the 
absence of subjectivity and of self-consciousness. Though 
they do not “ write themselves,” as William Grimm has said, 
though a man and not a people has composed them, still 
the author counts for nothing, and it is not by mere acci¬ 
dent, but with the best reason, that they have come down 
to us anonymous. Hence, too, they are extremely difficult 
to imitate by the highly-civilized modern man, and most of 
the attempts to reproduce this kind of jioetry have been 
ridiculous failures. 

The primitive ballad then is popular, not in the sense of 
something arising from and suited to the lower orders of a 
people. As yet, no sharp distinction of high and low ex¬ 
ists, in respect to knowledge, desires, and tastes. An 
increased civilization, and especially the introduction of 
book-culture, gradually gives rise to such a division : the 
poetry of art appears; the popular poetry is no longer 
relished by a portion of the people, and is abandoned to 
an uncultivated or not over-cultivated class—a constantly 
diminishing number. But whatever may be the estimation 
in which it may be held by particular classes or at particu¬ 
lar epochs, it cannot lose its value. Being founded on what 
is permanent and universal in the heart of man, and now 
by printing put beyond the danger of perishing, it will 
survive the fluctuations of taste, and may from time to 
time serve, as it notoriously did in England and Germany 
a hundred years ago, to recall a literature from false and 
artificial courses to nature and truth. 

Of the Europeans nations, the Spaniards and those of 
Scandinavian-German stock have best preserved their early 
popular poetry. We have early notices of the poetry of the 
Germans. Their ballads, mythical or historical, are several 
times spoken of by Tacitus, who says that these were 
their only annals. The earth-born Tuisco and his son 
Mannus were celebrated in the one, and the hero Ar- 
minius in the other. The historian of the Goths, Jornan- 
des, writing in the sixth century, says that these people 
were accustomed to sing the exploits of their fathers to the 
harp, and seems to have taken not a little of his history 
from such songs. The like is true of Paulus Diaconus, the 
Lombard historian, who wrote in the eighth century, and 
mentions songs about Alboin (who died in 563) as existing 
among all the nations of German speech. Charlemagne 
had the old traditional songs of his people collected and 
committed to writing, and even made them one of the sub¬ 
jects of school instruction. Side by side with heroic bal¬ 
lads, social, convivial, and funeral songs (which may, to 
be sure, have been pretty much the same thing) seem to 
have been in use from the earliest recorded times. To all 
this popular poetry, by reason of its heathen derivation and 
character, the Christian clergy opposed themselves with 
the most determined hostility. Not succeeding in extir¬ 
pating it by the use of the spiritual and legal means at 
their command, the German churchmen of the ninth cen¬ 
tury conceived the idea of crowding it out by substituting 
poetry of a Christian subject and tone—an expedient which 
has been tried more than once since then. Though popular 
song lived on in obscure places, the foreground of history is 
filled for six hundred years with religious and courtly 
poetry and with the chivalrous and native epic. Nothing 
is left of the old heroic songs but a fragment of the Hilde- 
brandslied, from the eighth century (best known in a mod¬ 
ernized form of the fifteenth century); and of the Christian¬ 
ized song we have also but a single specimen, the Ludwigs- 
lied, of the year 881. The former is in the ancient alliter¬ 
ative metre, the latter in the then newly-introduced rhymed 
stanza. During the fifteenth and the early part ot the 
sixteenth centuries a second growth of the genuine popular 











BALLAD POETRY. 



song appears, some of it springing, doubtless, out of shoots 
from the old stock which had lived through this long 
interval, some of it a fresh product of the age. These 
ballads were popular in the large and strict sense; that is, 
they were the creation and the manifestation of the whole 
people, great and humble, who were still one in all essentials, 
having the same belief, the same ignorance, and the same 
tastes, and living in much closer relations than now. The 
diffusion of knowledge and the stimulation of thought 
through the art of printing, the religious and intellectual 
consequences of the Reformation, the intrusion of cold 
reflection into a world of sense and fancy, broke up the 
national unity. The educated classes took a direction of 
their own, and left, what had been a common treasure, to 
the people in the lower sense, the ignorant or unschooled 
mass. German ballads have been collected in consider¬ 
able numbers. The sources have been “flying leaves,” 
manuscripts, printed song-books (mostly of the sixteenth 
century), and oral tradition. In interest they are decidedly 
inferior to the Scandinavian and English. 

Christianity and foreign culture, which in different ways 
have been equally destructive in their effects upon ancient 
national poetry, were introduced into the Scandinavian 
countries much later than into Germany and England. In 
the Scandinavian countries, too, the peasantry long main¬ 
tained a much higher position. They were not an op¬ 
pressed and ignorant class, but free men, who shared fully 
in the indigenous culture, and so were well fitted to keep 
and transmit their poetical heritage. While, therefore, the 
heroic ballads of Germany and England have been lost— 
those of England utterly, those of Germany being preserved 
only in epic conglomerates like the Nibelungenlied—and 
while the mythical cycle in both countries is but feebly, if 
at all, represented, Scandinavia has kept a great deal of 
both. The story of Thor’s Hammer forms the subject of a 
ballad still known in all the Scandinavian countries ; a vol¬ 
ume of ballads concerning Sigurd has been gathered from 
tradition in the Faroe Isles within this century, and several 
ballads of this cycle and of that of Dietrich of Bern are found 
in Danish manuscript ballad-books. Svend Grundtvig, the 
editor of the still unfinished but truly magnificent collection 
of the old Danish ballads, has arranged them in four classes : 
first, the Heroic; second, the Trylleviser, or ballads of 
giants, dwarfs, nixes, elves, mountain spirits, enchantment, 
spells, and ghosts; third, the Historic ; and fourth, ballads 
of Chivalry. The historic ballads (intending their orig¬ 
inal, not their actual, form) mostly fall within the period 
from 1150 to 1300; the chivalrous are later, and the two 
other classes belong to a still earlier term, which may ex¬ 
tend over the first half of the twelfth century, and into, or 
perhaps through, the eleventh; that is, to the epoch of the 
introduction of Christianity. Ballads are best preserved 
by oral tradition in Norway and the Faroe Isles, but not 
at all, there, in old manuscripts; Sweden has a few manu¬ 
scripts, and Denmark a great number, written mostly by 
noble ladies living on their estates, and giving the ballads 
as they were sung three or four hundred years ago, as well 
in the lord’s castle as in the peasant’s hut. The Danish 
ballads were collected in a printed form earlier than any 
others except the Spanish. Vedel published a hundred in 
1591; another collection, called Tragica, or old Danish 
historic love-ballads, appeared at Copenhagen in 1657 ; and 
in 1695 Syv republished Yedel’s ballads, with the addition 
of another hundred. 

The English have preserved but a moderate number of 
very early ballads, and the date of many of these it is im¬ 
possible to fix. There are some narrative poems in Anglo- 
Saxon which, without stretch of language, might be called 
ballads. The Norman Conquest, and the predominance of 
the French language for more than two hundred years, had 
of course momentous literary consequences, but there is no 
reason why the production of the native ballad should have 
stopped. The story of the Saxon outlaw Hereward, which 
begins with the second year after the Conquest, and has 
been handed down to us in Latin prose of the twelfth cen¬ 
tury, is full of such adventures as form the themes of bal¬ 
lads, and very likely was made up from popular songs. 
Such ballads, if they existed, are lost, but ballads concern¬ 
ing outlaws are among the earliest and best ones of the 
English. In place of Hereward of the Conqueror’s time, and 
Fulk Fitz-Warin of John’s time (whose history was also ex¬ 
tremely popular), we have Robin Hood of uncertain time. 
Songs of Robin Hood and of Randolph, earl of Chester 
(probably the third earl, who died in 1232), we know, from 
Piers Ploughman, were current among the lower orders at 
the middle of the fourteenth century, and one Robin Hood 
ballad exists in a manuscript which may be as old as the 
first quarter of the next century. Another occurs in a 
manuscript dated at about 1500, others in the Percy manu¬ 
script. The Little Gest of Robin Hood, which is a min¬ 
iature epic made up of half a dozen ballads, was printed 


by Wynkcn dc Worde, “probably,” says Ilitson, “in 1489.” 
We may reasonably place the origin of the Robin Hood 
ballads as early as the thirteenth century. To the thir¬ 
teenth century may belong Hugh of Lincoln, which is 
founded on an incident that occurred in 1255. An Anglo- 
Norman ballad on the same subject twice refers to a King 
Henry, and is therefore put within the reign of Henry 
III., which ended 1276. Sir Patrick Spens, if the occa¬ 
sion of the ballad has been rightly understood, dates from 
1281. After this there are only one or two ballads with 
dates till we come to the Battle of Otterbourn, 1388, from 
which time we have a succession of ballads founded on 
ascertained events, down to the middle of the eighteenth 
century. Ballads like those of Grundtvig’s second class 
exist in a small number; one of them in a manuscript 
of the middle of the fifteenth century. The little that 
we have of ballads of the Arthur cycle, and many of the 
best of all kinds, we owe to the Percy manuscript, written 
just before 1650. A few ballads besides those named 
have been gleaned from manuscripts and early prints, 
but a large part of our whole stock has been recovered 
within the last hundred years from the oral tradition of 
Scotland. The first impulse to the collecting of this poetry 
was given by the publication of Percy’s “ Reliques ” in 
1765. The “Reliques” inspired Burger and Herder, 
through whom, and especially through Herder’s “Yolks- 
lieder” (1778-79), that interest in the literature of the peo¬ 
ple Avas awakened in Germany which has spread over the 
whole of Europe, and has led to the collecting and study 
of the traditional songs and tales of all the European, and 
some of the Asiatic, African, and American races. 

The Spanish alone of the Latin nations can boast a bal¬ 
lad poetry of great compass and antiquity. Following the 
law of analogy where documents are wanting, the origin of 
these ballads would be put between the years 1000 and 
1200, the period when the Spanish nationality and lan¬ 
guage had been developed to that degree which invax*iably 
incites and leads to expression in epic song. Some sort of 
popular poetry about the Cid (whose time is 1040-99) is 
known to have been sung as early as 1147; the poem of the 
Cid itself is placed about 1200. During the century that 
follows we find occasional mention of ballad-singers, but no 
ballads. As in Germany, the popular poetry, after the first 
bloom of the national genius, was supplanted by art-poetry, 
among the higher classes, and it passed out of notice for 
two or three hundred years. A reaction set in in the six¬ 
teenth century. This was the glorious period of Spanish 
history, and the return to the national poetry was a nat¬ 
ural consequence of the powerful stirring of the national 
mind. Omitting “flying leaves” or broadsides, and a few 
ballads in the “ Cancionero General” of 1511, the earliest 
collection of Spanish ballads is an undated “ Cancionero de 
Romances,” printed at Antwerp about 1546; and this, it 
must be observed, is the first ballad-book printed in any 
language, and was gathered in part from the memory of the 
people. Other similar collections followed, from which was 
made in 1600 the great “ Romancero General.” Towards 
the end of the seventeenth century the national ballads de¬ 
clined in favor, with a decline of national spirit, but since 
the beginning of the present century they have been re¬ 
stored to a high estimation at home, and have gained the 
admiration of the world. The oldest ballads are those 
which relate to the history and traditions of Spain, and re¬ 
count the exploits of Bernardo del Carpio, Fernan Gon¬ 
zalez, the Seven Lords of Lara, and the Cid. Then comes 
a variety of romantic and chivalrous ballads, and then bal¬ 
lads of the Carlovingian cycle. These oldest and most 
characteristic of the Spanish ballads have been excellently 
edited by Wolf and Hofmann, and the entire body of this 
literature, amounting to more than 1900 pieces, is included 
in the “Romancero General,” edited by Duran in 1849-51, 
a work which surpasses every other in the same line, ex¬ 
cept the Danish collection of Grundtvig. The collections 
of ballads in the other Latin languages will be found below. 
The most important are the Portuguese “ Romanceiro,” by 
Almcida-Garrett, 1863; the Piedmontese ballads, by Nigra, 
1858-63, and the “Songs and Tales of the Italian People,” 
by Comparetti and D’Ancona, begun in 1870, both first-rate 
works; Arbaud’s, Puymaigre’s, and Bujeaud’s French col¬ 
lections. 

The ballads of other European nations are scarcely less 
interesting than those which have been noticed, and those 
of races which possess little or no other literature are pecu¬ 
liarly instructive, by reason of the light which they throw 
on the history of national poetry; for instance, the songs 
of the Slavic races, and, most of all, of the Servians. The 
Slavic songs as a class are distinguished from the Teutonic 
by the absence of the sentiment of romantic love and of 
chivalrous heroism. In their form, too, they are much less 
dramatic, and even the division of epic from lyric songs is 
not easy. Many songs begin with a few narrative verses, 
















BALLAD POETRY. 


and then become entirely lyric, and the narrative part is 
almost always descriptive. The Servians—especially those 
of Turkish Servia, Bosnia, and Montenegro, who have not 
been much affected by civilization—afford a capital example 
of a race that has not outlived the ballad era. Vuk has col¬ 
lected five or six hundred of their songs, one third of them 
epic, and every one of them from the mouths of the people. 
A few of these are, in their actual form, as old as the fif¬ 
teenth century, some belong to a remoter time, and indeed 
many retain marks of an ante-Christian origin. So far, 
the Servians are like the German nations : the distinction is 
that the fountain of popular poetry still flows, and that he¬ 
roic poems have been produced among the Servians in this 
century which are essentially similar to the older ones, and 
not at all inferior. We find the national poetry, there, in a 
condition closely resembling that in which it was among 
the races of Northern and Eastern Europe many hun¬ 
dred years ago. New songs appear with new occasions, 
but do not supersede the ancient ones. The heroic ballads 
are chanted at taverns, in the public squares, in the halls 
of chiefs, to the accompaniment of a simple instrument. 
Sometimes they are only recited, and in this way are taught 
by the old to the young. All classes know them: the peasant, 
the merchant, the hayduk (the klepht of the modern Greek, a 
sort of Robin Hood), as well as the professional bard. No 
class scorns to sing them—not even the clergy or the chiefs. 

One or two general remarks are required to prevent mis¬ 
conceptions and to supply omissions. From what has been 
said, it may be seen or inferred that the popular ballad is 
not originally the product or the property of the lower or¬ 
ders of the people. Nothing, in fact, is more obvious than 
that many of the ballads of the now most refined nations 
had their origin in that class whose acts and fortunes they 
depict—the upper class—though the growth of civilization 
has driven them from the memory of the highty-polished 
and instructed, and has left them as an exclusive possession 
to the uneducated. The genuine popular ballad had its rise 
in a time when the distinctions since brought about by ed¬ 
ucation and other circumstances had practically no exist¬ 
ence. The vulgar ballads of our day, the “ broadsides ” which 
were printed in such huge numbers in England and else¬ 
where in the sixteenth century or later, belong to a different 
genus ; they are products of a low kind of art, and most of 
them are, from a literary point of view, thoroughly despic¬ 
able and worthless. 

Next it must be observed that ballads which have been 
handed down by long-repeated tradition have always depart¬ 
ed considerably from their original form. If the transmission 
has been purely through the mouths of unlearned people,there 
is less probability of wilful change, but once in the hands of 
professional singers, there is no amount of change which 
they may not undergo. Last of all comes the modern ed¬ 
itor, whose so-called improvements are more to be feared 
than the mischances of a thousand years. A very old bal¬ 
lad will often be found to have resolved itself in the course 
of what may be called its propagation into several distinct 
shapes, and each of these again to have received distinct 
modifications. When the fashion of verse has altered, we 
shall find a change of form as great as that in the Hilde- 
brandslied, from alliteration without stanza to stanza with 
rhyme. In all cases the language drifts insensibly from 
ancient forms, though not at the same rate with the lan¬ 
guage of every-day life. The professional ballad-singer or 
minstrel, whose sole object is to please the audience before 
him, will alter, omit, or add, without scruple, and nothing is 
more common than to find different ballads blended together. 

There remains the very curious question of the origin of 
the resemblances which are found in the ballads of different 
nations, the recurrence of the same incidents or even of the 
same story, among races distinct in blood and history, and 
geographically far separated. The Scottish ballad of May 
Colvin, for instance—the German Ulinger—is also found in 
the Swedish, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, 
Servian, Bohemian, Wendish, Esthonian, Breton, and per¬ 
haps other languages. Some have thought that to explain 
this phenomenon we must go back almost to the cradle of man¬ 
kind, to a primeval common ancestry of all or most of the 
nations among whom it appears. But so august an hypothesis 
is scarcely necessary. The incidents of many ballads are 
such as might occur anywhere and at any time; and with 
regard to agreements that cannot be explained in this way, 
we have only to remember that tales and songs were the chief 
social amusement of all classes of people in all the nations 
of Europe during the Middle Ages, and that new stories 
would be eagerly sought for by those whose business it was 
to furnish this amusement, and be rapidly spread among 
the fraternity. A great effect was undoubtedly produced by 
the Crusades, which both brought the chiel European na¬ 
tions into closer intercourse and made them acquainted with 
the East, thus facilitating the interchange of stories and 
greatly enlarging the stock. 


3G7 


The most important collections of ballads are— 

English .—“ Reliques of Ancient English Poetry,” by 
Thomas Percy, fourth improved ed., London, 1794, and often 
since; “ Ancient and Modern Scottish Songs,” by David 
Herd, second ed., 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1776; “Minstrelsy of 
the Scottish Border,” by Sir Walter Scott, 3 vols., Edin¬ 
burgh, 1802-3, and often since; “ Popular Ballads and 
Songs,” by Robert Jamieson, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1806; 
“Ancient Scottish Ballads,” by George R. Kinloch, Edin¬ 
burgh, 1827; “Minstrelsy, Ancient and Modern,” by Wil¬ 
liam Motherwell, Glasgow, 1827; “ English and Scottish 
Ballads,” by F. J. Child, 8 vols., Boston, 1860, which con¬ 
tains all but two or three of the ancient ballads, and a full 
list of collections; “Bishop Percy’s Folio Manuscript,” by 
J. W. Hales and F. J. Furnivall, 3 vols., London, 1867-68. 

Scandinavian .—“ Danmarks Gamle Folkeviser” (“The 
Ancient Ballads of Denmark”), by Svend Grundtvig, 3 vols., 
and part of a fourth, Copenhagen, 1853-72—by far the 
greatest work in this class of literature ; “Ancient Danish 
Ballads,” translated from the originals by R. C. Alex. 
Prior, 3 vols., London, 1860 ; “Norske Folkeviser” (“Nor¬ 
wegian Ballads”), by M. B. Landstad, Christiania, 1853; 
“Gamle Norske Folkeviser” (“Ancient Norwegian Bal¬ 
lads”), by Sophus Bugge, Christiania, 1858 ; “Svenska 
Folk-Visor ” (“ Swedish Ballads ”), by Geijer and Afzelius, 
3 vols., Stockholm, 1814-16; “Svenska Fornsanger,” by 
A. I. Arwidsson, 3 vols., Stockholm, 1834-42 ; Rosa War¬ 
ren’s “ Danische Volkslieder,” Hamburg, 1858, “Norwe- 
gische, etc. Volkslieder,” Hamburg, 1866, “Schwedische 
Volkslieder,” Hamburg, 1857 ; “Faeroiske Kvaeder” (“ Bal¬ 
lads of the Faroe Isles ”), by V. U. Hammershaimb, 2 parts, 
Copenhagen, 1851-55; “Islenzk Fornkvae'Si,” by Grundtvig 
and SiguPSsson, 3 parts, Copenhagen, 1854-59. 

High German .—“Des Ivnaben Wunderhorn,” Arnim and 
Brentano, 3 vols., Heidelberg, 1806-08, 4 vols., Berlin, 
1853-54; “Alte teutsche Volkslieder in der Mundart des 
Kuhlandchens,” Vienna and Hamburg, 1817; “ Oesterreich- 
ische Volkslieder,” Ziska and Schottky, Pesth, 1819; “Die 
Volkslieder der Deutschen,” F. K. von Erlach, 5 vols., 
Mannheim, 1834-36; “ Schlesische Volkslieder,” Hoffmann 
von Fallersleben and Richter, Leipsic, 1842 ; “ Alte hoch- 
und nieder-deutsche Volkslieder,” L. Uhland, 2 vols., Stutt¬ 
gart, 1844—45 ; “ Deutsche Volkslieder,” F. L. Mittler, Mar¬ 
burg and Leipsic, 1855; “ Frankische Volkslieder,” F. M. 
von Ditfurth, 2 parts, Leipsic, 1855; “Deutschcr Lieder- 
hort,” L. Erk, Berlin, 1856 ; “ Die historischen Volkslieder 
der Deutschen,” R. von Lilieneron, 4 vols., Leipsic, 1865-69. 

Low-German, Netherlandish. —“ Letterkundig overzigt 
en proeven van de Nederlandsche Volkszangen,” J. C. W. 
le Jeune, Amsterdam, 1828; Uhland, as before; “ Oude 
Vlaemsche Liederen,” J. F. Willems, Ghent, 1848; “ Nie- 
derlandsche Volkslieder,” Hoffmann von Fallersleben, sec¬ 
ond ed., Hannover, 1856; “Chants Populaires des Flam- 
ands de France,” E. de Coussemaker, Ghent, 1856. 

Spanish and Portuguese. —“ Tesoro de los Romanceros,” 
etc., Eug. de Ochoa, Paris, 1838, Barcelona, 1840; “ Roman- 
cero Castellano,” G. B. Depping and A. A. Galiano, 2 vols., 
Leipsic, 1844; “ Romancero General” (vols. x. and xvi. 
of “ Biblioteca de autores Espaholes”), Madrid, 1849-51 ; 
“ Observaciones sobra la poesia popular,” etc., M. Mila y 
Fontanals, Barcelona, 1853; “ Primavera y Flor de Ro¬ 
mances,” F. J. Wolf and C. Hoffmann, 2 vols., Berlin, 1856; 
“Romanzen Asturi'ens,” u. s. w., Jos6 Amador de los Rios, 
in “ Jahrbuch fur romanische- u. englische Literatur,” iii. 
268,1861; “ Cancionero Popular,” E. Lafuentey Alcantara, 

2 vols., Madrid, 1866; “ Cansons de la Terra, Cants populars 
Catalans,” F. Pelay Briz y Candi Candi, 3 vols., Barcelona, 
1866-71; “ Romanceiro,” Almeida-Garrett, 3 vols., Lisbon, 
1863 ; Th. Braga, “ Cancioneiro Popular,” Coimbra, 1867 ; 

“ Romanceiro Geral,” Coimbra, 1867; “ Cantos Populares do 
Archipelago Agoriano,” Porto, 1869; “Ancient Spanish Bal¬ 
lads,” J. G. Lockhart, London, 1823; “Portugiesische Volks¬ 
lieder u. Romanzen,” C. F. Bellermann, Leipsic, 1864; “ Ro- 
manzero der Spanier u. Portugieser,” Stuttgart, 1866. 

Italian. —“ Canti popolari Toscani, Corsi, Illirici, Greci,” 
N. Tommaseo, 4 vols., Venice, 1841-42, second ed. of vol. i., 
1848; “Canti pop. inediti Umbri, etc.,” O. Marcoaldi, Genoa, 
1856; “Canzoni pop. del Piemonte,” C. Nigra in the “ Ri- 
vista Contemporanea” of Turin, 1858-63 ; “ Saggio di canti 
pop. Veronesi,” E. S. Righi, Verona, 1863 ; “Volkslieder aus 
Venetien, gesammelt von G. Widter,” 1864; “Canti pop. Sici- 
liani,” G. Pitre, vol. i., Palermo, 1870, vol. ii., 1871; “ Canti 
e Racconti del Popolo Italiano,” D. Comparetti and A. d’An- 
cona, Turin and Florence, vol. i., 1870; vol. ii., 1871; vol. iii., 
1872. 

French. —“Instructions relatives aux Poesies Populaires de 
le France,” J.J. Ampere, Paris, 1853; “ Etude sur la poesie 
populaire cn Normandie,” Eug. de Beaurepaire, Avranches, 
1856; “Chants populaires du pays castrais, A. Combes, 
Castres, 1862; “ Chants pop. de la Provence,” Damase Ar- 
baud, 2 vols., Aix, 1862-64; “Romancero de Champagne,” 
















368 BALLANCHE-BALLAST. 


P. Tarbe, 5 vols., Reims, 1863-64; “ Chants pop. recueillis 
dans le pays messin,” Compte de Puymaigre, Metz, 1865; 
“ Chants et chansons pop. des provinces dc l’ouest, Poitou, 
etc.,” J. Bujeaud, 2 vols., Niort, 1866 ; “ Des chansons pop. 
chez les anciens et chez les Franfais,” C. Nisard, 2 vols., 
Paris, 1867; “Recueil de chants historiques fran§ais,” 
Leroux de Lincy, 2 vols., Paris, 1841-42. 

Rouman and Wallachian. —“ Ballade/’ B. Alexandri, 2 
vols., Jassy, 1853-54; and “ Poesie Populare ale Rornani- 
lor,” Bucharest, 1866 ; “ Ballades et chants pop. de la Rou- 
manie, recueillis et traduits par Alexandri,” Paris, 1855; 
“ Rouman Anthology, National Ballads of Moldavia,” etc., 
H. Stanley, Hertford, 1856; (Alexandras) “ Rumanische 
Yolkspoesie,” deutsch v. W. v. Kotzebue, Berlin, 1857; 
“Poesia Popurala, Balade,” Marienescu, Pesth, 1859; “ Ro- 
manische Yolkslieder,” Schuller, Ilermannstadt, 1859. 

Romaic. —“ Chants populaires de la Grece moderne,” C. 
Fauriel, 2 vols., Paris, 1824-25; the same in German, by 
W. Muller, Leipsic, 1825; “ Neugriechische Volksgesange,” 
J. M. Firmenich, Berlin, 1840 ; “ Canti popolari Toscani, 
Corsi, Illirici, Greci,” N. Tomasseo, 4 vols., Venice, 1841-42; 
“ Neugriechische Yolks- u. Freiheitslieder,” D. H. Sanders, 
Leipsic, 1842; “Das Volksleben der Neugriechen,” etc., 
D. H. Sanders, Mannheim, 1844 ; “ Die neugricchischen 
Volkslieder,” Th. Kind, Leipsic, 1849 ; “ Chants du Peuple 
en Grece,” Compte de Marcellus, 2 vols., Paris, 1851 ; 
“’At (TixoLTa 5rjju.oTuca Trjs ‘EAAaSos ” (Popular Songs of Greece), 
Spyr. Zambelios, Corcyra, 1852; “ Carmina popularia 
Gnseci® recentioris,” A. Passow, Leipsic, 1860; “Anthol- 
ogie neugriechischer Volkslieder,” Th. Kind, Leipsic, 1861. 

Slavic, Eastern Branch .—I. a, Russian .—“ Piesni russ- 
kago, naroda” (Songs of the Russian People), J. Sak- 
harof, 5 parts, St. Petersburg, 1838-39; “Piesni sobran- 
niya, P. V. Ivirieevskim” (Songs collected by P. V. Ki- 
rievsky), 8 parts, Moscow, 1850-68; “ Piesni, etc.” (“ Songs 
collected by P. N. Rybnikof”), 5 vols., Moscow, 1861-70; 
“ Russkiya Narodniya Piesni ” (Russian Popular Songs), 
collected and arranged by P. V. Shein, vol. i., Moscow, 1870; 
“ Stimmen des russischen Volks in Liedern,” P. v. Gotze, 
Stuttgart, 1828; “Die Balalaika” (Russian Popular Songs, 
in German translation), J. Altmann, Berlin, 1863; “ The 
Songs of the Russian People, as illustrative of Slavonic 
Mythology and Russian Social Life,” by W. R. S. 
Ralston, London, 1872. h, Malorussian, Ruthenian .— 
“ Malorossiiskiya Piesni” (Little-Russian Songs), M. 
Maximovitch, Moscow, 1827; “Piesni Ludu ruskiego 
w Galicyi ” (Songs of the Russian People in Galicia), 
Z. Pauli, Lemberg, 1839-40; “ Sbornik ukrainskikh Pie- 
sen ” (Collection of Songs of the Ukraine), M. Maxi¬ 
movitch, Kief, 1849; “ Pisni, Dumki,” etc. (“Songs, 
Thoughts, and Jests of the Russian People in Podolia, 
Ukraine, and Little-Russia”), A. Kotzipinsky, Kief, 1862; 
“ Volkslieder der Polen” (r. e., of the Ruthenian people in 
Poland), gesammelt u. iibersetzt von W. P., Leipsic, 1833; 
“ Die poetische Ukraine,” F. Bodenstedt, Stuttgart, 1845.— 
II. Illyrico-Servian .—1, a, Servian .—“ Narodne srpske 
Pjesme ” (“Songs of the Servian People”), Vuk Stephan- 
ovitch Ivaradshitch, third ed., 6 vols., Vienna, 1841-66; 
“Volkslieder der Serben,” Talvj (Mrs. Robinson), second 
ed., 2 vols., Leipsic, 1853; “ Die Gesange der Serben,” 2 
parts, S. Kapper, Leipsic, 1852; “Poesies populaires Ser- 
bes,” A. Dozon, Paris, 1859. b, Bosnian .—“Srpske Na¬ 
rodne Pjesme iz Bozne” (“Songs of the Servian People in 
Bosnia”), J. V. Petranovitch, Serajevo, 1867. c, Monte¬ 
negrin. —“Pjevanija Tzernogorska,” etc. (“Popular Poetry 
of Montenegro and Herzegovina”), collected by Tshubar 
Tshoikovitch, ed. by J. Milovuk, Ofen, 1833; another col¬ 
lection, ed. by himself, Leipsic, 1839. d, Dalmatian .— 
“ Razgovor ugodni” (“Entertaining Conversations”), by 
A. Cacich Miossich, Venice, 1759, Agram, 1862; “Viaggio 
in Dalmazia,” Alberto Fortis, 2 vols., Venice, 1774. 2, Croat¬ 
ian. —“Narodne Pjesme” etc. (“Popular Songs of the 
Croats, Dalmatians, Bosnians, and Servians ”), Leopold 
Zupan, Agram, 1848. 3, Slovenian (Slaves of Carniola and 
Carinthia), “ Slovenske Pesmi krajnskiga naroda” (“ Songs 
of the Slovenzi in Carniola”) [Achazel and Korytko], Lai¬ 
bach, 1839-44; “Narodne P6sni ilirske,” etc., Stanko Vraz, 
Part I., Agram, 1839; “Volkslieder aus Krain,” iibersetzt 
von Anastasius Griin, Leipsic, 1850. 4, Bulgarian. —“Bul- 
garske Narodne Pesni,” D. and K. Miladinof, Agram, 1867. 
Western Branch, I. Czekho-Slovakian. —1, a, Bohemian and 
Moravian. —“Pjsne narodnj w Cechach” (“Songs of the 
People in Bohemia”), J. Erben, 3 parts, Prague, 1842-45; 
“ Morawske mtrodnj Pjsne ” (“ Songs of the Moravian Peo¬ 
ple”), F. Suschil, Briinn, 1835, 1840, also 1853-57; Bohm- 
ische Rosen,” Ida v. Diiringsfeld, Breslau, 1851; “Bohm- 
ische Granaten, Czechische Volkslieder,” M. Waldau, 2 vols., 
Prague, 1858-60. b, Slovak. —“ Slowanske Narddnj Pjsne,” 
F. L. Czelakowsky (including, besides Slovak songs, Slo¬ 
venian, Bohemian, etc.), 3 parts, Prague, 1822-27, and 
1839-44; “N&rodnj6 zpiewanky cili pjesne swietske Slo- 


waku w Uhrach” (“Songs of the Slovaks in Hungary”), 

J. Kollar, 2 parts, Buda, 1823-27, 1834-35. 2, Polish.— 

“Piesni polskie i ruskie Ludu galicyjskiego” (“Songs of 
the Polish and Russian people in Galicia”), W. z. Oleska, 
Lemberg, 1833; “Piesni Ludu bialo-chrobatdw, mazurow, 
i russindw z nad Bugu ” (“ Songs of the White Chrobatians, 
Massovians, and Russinians on the Bug”), K. W. Woicicki, 
Warsaw, 1836; “Piesni Ludupolskiego w Galicyi” (“Songs 
of the Polish People in Galicia”), Z. Pauli, Lemberg, 1838; 
“Piesni Ludu polskiego,” P. Ivolberg, Warsaw; 1857 ; 
“Piesni Ludu polskiego w Gornym Szlasku” (“Songs of 
the Polish People in Silesia”), Juliusz Roger, Wroclaw, 
1863. 3, Sorabian- Wendish. —“Volkslieder der Wenden 

in der Ober- u. Nieder-Lausitz ”, L. Haupt and J. E. 
Schmaler, Grimma, 1841-43. General Works. —“Histor¬ 
ical View of the Languages and Literature of the Slavic 
Nations,” etc., Talvj (Mrs. Robinson), New York, 1850; 
“ Slawische Volkslieder ” (Russian, Bohemian, Slovak, Bul¬ 
garian), J. Wenzig, Halle, 1830; “Slawische Balalaika” 
(Russian, Little Russian, Carniolan, Polish), W. v. Wald- 
briihl, Leipsic, 1843. 

Lithuanian .—“ Littauische Volkslieder,” collected and 
translated by G. II. F. Nesselmann, Berlin, 1859 ; “ Litthau- 
ische Volkslieder u. Sagen,” Wm. Jordan, Berlin, 1844. 

Breton .—“ Barzaz-Breiz, Chants populaires de la Bre¬ 
tagne,” Th. Ilersart de la Villemarque, fourth ed., 2 
vols., Paris, 1846; “Volkslieder aus der Bretagne,” A. 
Keller u. E. SeckendorfF, Tubingen, 1841; “ Bretonische 
Volkslieder,” M. Hartmann u. L. Pfau, Cologne, 1859 ; 
“ Chants populaires de la Basse-Bretagne,” F. M. Luzel, 
vol. i., L’Orient, 1868. 

Of non-Indo-European races the more important collec¬ 
tions are— 

Finnish .—“ Finnische Runen ” (Finnish and German), 
by H. R. von Schroter, edited by G. II. v. Schroter, Stutt¬ 
gart, 1834; “ Suomen Kansan wanhoja Runoja ” (“ Ancient 
Songs of the Finnish People”), Oscar Topelius, 3 parts, 
Turussa, 1822-26; “ Ivanteletar,” etc., “The Harp, or An¬ 
cient Songs and Hymns of the Finnish People,” E. Lonn- 
roth, 2 vols., Helsingfors, 1840. Estlionian.— “ Ehstnische 
Volkslieder,” original and translation, II. Neus, Reval, 
1850-52. Hungarian .—“Nepdalok es Mondak” (“Songs 
and Tales ”), J. Erdelyi, 3 vols., Pesth, 1842-48; “ Ausge- 
wahlte ungarische Volkslieder,” translated and edited by 

K. M. Kertbeny, Darmstadt, 1851. Turkish. — “ Proben 
der Volkslitteratur der tiirkischen Stamme Siid-Siberiens ” 
(“ Specimens of the Popular Literature of the Turkish 
Races of South Siberia”), W. Radlof, 3 vols., St. Peters¬ 
burg, 1866-70. 

Of comprehensive works and collections the most notice¬ 
able are—“ Stimmen der Volker in Liedern,” J. G. v. Her¬ 
der, 1778, ed. by J. v. Muller, Tubingen, 1807 ; Talvj (Mrs. 
Robinson), “ Versuch einer geschichtlichen Charakteristik 
der Volkslieder germanischen Nationen,” etc., Leipsic, 1840; 
“Hausschatz der Volkspoesie,” 0. L. B. Wollf, Leipsic, 
1853; “ Volksdichtungen nord- u. siideuropaischer Volker 
alter u. neuer Zeit,” J. M. Firmenich, 1867. F. J. Child. 

Ballanche (Pierre Simon), a French social reformer, 
born at Lyons Aug. 4, 1776. He published “Antigone,” 
an historical novel (1814), and “ The Man Without a Name” 
(1820). He became a member of the French Academy in 
1842, and was a friend of Chateaubriand and Madame 
Recamier. Among his works are an “ Essay on Social 
Palingenesis ” and “ The Vision of Hebal.” His philoso¬ 
phy is abstruse and mystical, but he is regarded as a pro¬ 
found thinker by some French critics. Died June 12, 
1847. (See L. de Lomenie, “ M. Ballanche, par un liomme 
de rien,” 1841; J. J. Ampere, “Ballanche,” 1849; Al¬ 
bert Aubert, “P. S. Ballanche,” 1847.) 

Bal'larat, an Australian town and gold-field in Victoria, 
75 miles W. N. W. of Melbourne. The gold-mines of this 
place, which were opened in 1851, are among the richest in 
the colony of Victoria. Ballarat is unrivalled in the fine¬ 
ness of its gold, which averages twenty-three and a half 
carats, the pure metal being twenty-four carats. Pop. in 
1871, including the suburbs, 64,260. 

Bal'lard, a county in the W. of Kentucky, bordering 
on Illinois and Missouri. Area, 400 square miles. It is 
bounded on the N. W. by the Ohio River, and on the W. 
by the Mississippi. The surface is undulating. Indian 
corn and tobacco aro the chief crops. Capital, Blandville 
Pop. 12,576. 

Bal'lard Vale, a post-village of Andover township, 
Essex co., Mass., on the Shawsheen River and the Boston 
and Maine R. R., 21 miles N. of Boston, has valuable 
water-power and extensive manufactories. 

Bal'last [probably derived from beal, “sand,” and tho 
Ger. last, a “load;” Fr. lest\, stone, sand, or other heavy 
substance which is placed in the bottom of a ship when her 
cargo is too light to give her sufficient hold of the water and 












BALLET—BALL’S BLUFF. 


369 


enable her to carry sail without clanger of being upset. A 
vessel which does not carry enough ballast is said to be too 
crank. This condition renders her unsteady and topheavy. 
Iron, stone, and water are the principal substances used 
for ballast. Iron has the great advantage of taking up but 
little space. Water-ballast is sometimes contained in water¬ 
proof bags, or is confined beneath a false bottom in the ves¬ 
sel. A ship is said to be “ in ballast” when she carries no 
cargo except the ballast, passengers, and the baggage and 
provisions of the passengers and crew. Balloons generally 
take up a quantity of sand as ballast, in order that the 
aeronaut may be able, by throwing it out, to increase the 
buoyancy of the balloon or arrest its too rapid descent. 
The term ballast is also applied to the broken stone or 
gravel which is laid as a packing between railway sleepers 
in order to give them solidity and prevent the rise of dust. 

Ballet, bids,', a French word signifying a dramatic or 
theatrical exhibition of dancing and pantomime, with 
music; a species of dance usually forming an interlude in 
theatrical performances, but confined principally to operas. 
The ballet has some resemblance to the pantomimic sacri¬ 
ficial dances of the ancient Greeks, among whom were dan¬ 
cers who expressed actions and passions by rhythm ap¬ 
plied to gesture. The ballet was introduced into France 
under the auspices of Catharine de’ Medici about 1580. 
Noverre about 1770 made improvements in it, to which he 
gave an independent dramatic form. The Yestris family 
were celebrated as performers in ballets. In recent times 
the public favor is almost exclusively bestowed on female 
dancers. The ballet has degenerated in many respects of 
late years. 

Ballina', a market-town and seaport of Ireland, partly 
in Mayo and partly in Sligo counties, and on the river 
Moy, 7 miles from its entrance into Killala Bay, and 18 
miles N. N. E. of Castlebar. The part of the town on 
the E. bank of the Moy is called Ardnaree. Ballina has 
manufactures of coarse linens and snuff; also an active 
trade in fish, provisions, etc. Pop. in 1861, 5452. 

Balliol. See Baliol. 

Ballis'ta, or Balis'ta [from the Gr. /3aAAw, to 
“ throw ”], a military engine used before the invention of 
gunpowder to propel large stones or other heavy missiles. 
It probably originated with the ancient Romans, who used 
it in the siege and defence of fortified places. The con¬ 
struction of the ballista is not well understood. It appears 
that the elastic force with which a twisted rope uncoils 
itself was commonly used as the propelling power, with 
which other forces were perhaps combined. (For a vivid 
picture of the effects of the ballista see Lucan’s “ Phar- 
salia,” lib. iii., 1. 465 et seq.) 

Ballistic Pen'dulum, an instrument used to ascer¬ 
tain the velocity of projectiles and to prove the quality of 
gunpowder. In its simplest form it consists of a large 
block of wood suspended, so as to turn very easily, before the 
mouth of the cannon, and having some means of measuring 
the angle through which the beam oscillates. When the 
magnitude of this angle (produced by the shot lodging in 
the mass) is known, together with the centres of suspen¬ 
sion and oscillation of the mass, the velocity of the shot 
can be determined by calculation. The gun itself is also 
made a ballistic pendulum, being suspended, and its recoil 
observed. But these contrivances are both long since su¬ 
perseded by the several forms of electro-ballistic pendulums. 

Bal'Iium, or Bai'ley, the central part of the old 
Norman castle, sometimes called the donjon, or tfce whole 
space enclosed within the external walls of a castle except 
that covered by the keep. The walls of the lower stories 
were of great thickness. The entrance to the ballium was 
generally by a drawbridge over the ditch. 

Ball Mountain, a township of Watauga co., N. C. 
Pop. 320. 

Balloon. See Aeronautics, by Gen. J. G. Barnard. 

Balloon-fish, a popular name of several marine fishes 
of the genera Diodon , Tetraodon, etc., of the family Gym- 
nodontidse and the order Plectognathes. They take their 
name from the power which they possess of inflating them¬ 
selves with air. Many species are known, of which sev¬ 
eral are American. Our Diodons are all small. 

Bal'lot [Fr. baUotte ], originally a little ball used in 
secret voting. In modern times it is applied to the ticket 
or printed paper which the voter uses at an election, and 
the practice of secret voting is called “ voting by ballot.” 
The tickets are deposited in a wooden box called the bal¬ 
lot-box. The system of voting by ballot prevails in France 
and the U. S. The other mode of voting is called viva 
voce (“by the living voice”). The ancient Greeks elected 
their magistrates or decided political questions by secret 
vote, for which purpose they used beans of different colors. 
The English elections were conducted vivd voce. The adop- 
24 


tion of the ballot has for many years been advocated by 
the British radicals and advanced liberals. In 1871 the 
House of Commons, after a long contest, decided in favor 
of the ballot, but the House of Lords rejected the bill. In 
1872 the Ballot act was passed by both houses, and at 
present all members of Parliament are chosen by ballot. 
In the election of members of social clubs ballots or balls 
are commonly used. A person who is rejected on such 
occasions is said to be black-balled, black balls being used 
by those who vote in the negative. 

Ballou' (IIosea), one of the fathers of the Universalist 
denomination in the U. S., was born at Richmond, N. II., 
April 30, 1771. His early education was acquired by his 
own efforts, though he had to contend with unusual obsta¬ 
cles. He began to preach when about twenty-one years 
of age, and labored in various places in New England. In 
1807 he settled in Portsmouth, N. H., in 1815 in Salem, 
Mass., and in 1817 in Boston. In 1819 he became editor 
of the “ Universalist Magazine,” and in 1831-32 was con¬ 
nected with the “ Expositor.” Died June 7, 1852. Among 
his works are “Notes on the Parables” (1804), and an 
“ Examination of the Doctrine of a Future Retribution ” 
(1846). (See his “Life” by M. M. Ballou, and another 
by T. Whittemore, 1854.) 

Ballou (Hosea, second), D.D., was born in Halifax, 
Vt., Oct. 18, 1796. He was a nephew of the foregoing. 
He entered the Universalist ministry in his youth, and 
preached at Stafford, Conn., and Roxbury and Medford, 
Mass. In 1822 became an editor of the “ Universalist 
Magazine,” and was long connected with various journals 
of his denomination. He displayed much ability as editor 
of the “Universalist Quarterly.” He was (1853-61) the 
first president of Tufts College. He published “Ancient 
History of Universalism ” (1829), an edition of Sismondi’s 
“ History of the Crusades ” (1833), and a hymn-book (1837). 
Died May 27, 1861. 

Ballou (Maturin M.), a son of Rev. Hosea Ballou, 
born in Boston, Mass., in 1822, has long been editor of 
“ Ballou’s Pictorial,” “ Ballou’s Monthly,” and other period¬ 
icals, and has published a “History of Cuba” (1854), 
“ Biography of Hosea Ballou,” “ Life-work of Hosea 
Ballou,” and a valuable compilation of quotations from a 
great number of writers. 

Ballou (Sullivan), an American lawyer and officer 
of volunteers, born at Smithfield, R. I., Mar. 28, 1829, 
educated at Brown University, studied law at Ballston, and 
was admitted to the bar in 1853, clerk of the house of repre¬ 
sentatives of his native State 1854-56, and speaker 1857. 
He entered the army on the outbreak of the late war, and 
was engaged at the battle of Bull Run July 21,1861, where 
he was killed, thus ending a life marked by distinguished 
ability; and his military career, though brief, was distin¬ 
guished by conspicuous gallantry and patriotism. 

Ball Play, a post-township of Etowah co., Ala. Pop. 
327. 

Ball’s Bluff, Loudon co., Va., on the right bank of 
the Potomac, about 33 miles N. W. of Washington. The 
bank here rises about 150 feet above the level of the river. 
It was the scene of a disastrous defeat of the U. S. forces 
under Col. E. D. Baker, Oct. 21, 1861. The hostile forces 
of the North and South had for several months confronted 
each other on opposite banks of the Potomac. On the 19th 
and 20th of October reconnoissances were made in the 
direction of Dranesville and Leesburg by the Federal 
forces under Gen. McCall, without encountering any oppo¬ 
sition. Gen. McClellan being anxious to ascertain the 
strength of the Confederates in these positions, on Oct. 20 
(10£ p. m.), instructions were sent to Gen. Stone at Pooles- 
ville, Md., directing him to keep a good lookout on Lees¬ 
burg, to note the effect of this movement, and adding that 
“perhaps a slight demonstration on your (Stone’s) part 
might have the effect to move them.” Accordingly, Gen. 
Stone ordered the Fifteenth Massachusetts, Col. Devcns, 
to be moved to Harrison’s Island in the Potomac, opposite 
the bluff, and about 100 yards distant from the Virginia 
shore; which was promptly effected in flatboats. At dark 
Devcns sent a detachment of fifteen men under Capt. 
Philbrick to the Virginia shore, to ascertain the where¬ 
abouts of the Confederates. After ascending the bluff they 
had proceeded but, a short distance when they discovered 
what was supposed to be a camp, apparently but poorly 
guarded, which situation Philbrick reported to Col. Devcns 
on his return. Devens forwarded this report to Gen. Stone, 
who immediately issued an order directing Col. Devens to 
land with five companies of his regiment and proceed 
to surprise the discovered camp at daybreak, and, after 
having accomplished this, to pursue as far as he deemed 
prudent, destroy the camp, and return to his position on 
the island, unless he saw a favorable position on the Vir- 











370 


BALLSTON-BALTA. 


ginia side which ho could hold until reinforced. At the 
same time Col. Lee (Twentieth Massachusetts) was ordered 
to occupy Harrison’s Island with his regiment, and to 
throw one company across to the heights on the Virginia 
shore to cover Col. Devens’s return. These orders were 
carried into effect, and at daylight Devens advanced only 
to find the reported camp to be, in fact, no camp, the de¬ 
tachment of the night before having been deceived in the 
moonlight, and mistaken the openings between the trees 
for tents. Col. Devens, however, advanced to within a 
mile of Leesburg, where he halted and, concealing his 
force in the woods, reported to Gen. Stone that he had met 
with no opposition, and asking for further orders. About 
7 A. M. a body of Confederates appeared, but retired when 
approached, and cavalry were also seen on the Leesburg 
road; whereupon Col. Devens fell back to the bluff without 
interference, and reported to Gen. Stone, who directed him 
to remain, and that he would be reinforced. At this time 
his force of officers and men was about 650. The position 
he had taken up was surrounded on three sides by woods, 
and here about noon he was attacked, and fell back to a 
more secure position ; being again attacked, ho retired still 
farther, to the edge of the bluff, where he was reinforced 
by Col. Baker with his regiment of First California Volun¬ 
teers, and who by seniority of rank took command. Col. 
Baker’s instructions were discretionary whether to remain 
or withdraw, but on finding an attack already commenced 
he decided to remain. The force at his command amounted 
to about 1900 men; the Confederate force in the woods was 
reported at 1700, not including, however, a regiment of 
Mississippi volunteers so stationed as to prevent succor to 
Col. Baker from Edwards’s Ferry. Col. Baker had no more 
than disposed his men in line when he received a vigorous 
attack on his right, extending soon to his left and centre. 
For two hours a desperate conflict was maintained, the 
Federals from their exposed position suffering by far the 
heaviest loss. Col. Baker, who displayed the greatest 
bravery, was killed about five o’clock, and the command 
devolved upon Col. Cogswell (New York Tammany Regi¬ 
ment). The severe fire to which the Federal troops had 
been subjected, aud the fearful loss they had sustained, 
caused them to waver, and the only hope that appeared to 
be left was to endeavor to join Gen. Stone, who was known 
to have a strong force at Edwards’s Ferry, about two miles 
away; but this movement was met by a body of fresh 
Mississippi infantry, and under their attack the disheart¬ 
ened and reduced troops were routed, and, flying in great 
disorder down the bluff, were subjected to a galling fire 
from all directions. The boats to which they fled were 
upset or sunk by the Confederates’ fire, and the few that 
escaped either swam out into the stream or concealed them¬ 
selves along the banks of the river, reaching the Federal 
lines under cover of the darkness. In the mean time, Gen. 
Stone had ordered an advance across Edwards’s Ferry to 
their assistance, but as they did not arrive on the field, they 
furnished no aid. The Federal loss in killed, drowned and 
wounded exceeded, probably, 1000 men; Gen. Evans, in 
command of the Confederate forces, reported his loss at 
155. Much blame was attached to Col. Baker for reckless¬ 
ness, and Gen. Stone was subsequently arrested and con¬ 
fined in Fort La Fayette in New York harbor, but was 
afterwards discharged, and at a later period again given 
a command. 

Ball'ston, a township of Saratoga co., N. Y. P. 2180. 

Ballston Spa, sometimes called simply Ballston, a 
post-village, capital of Saratoga co., N. Y., on the Rens¬ 
selaer and Saratoga R. R., 30 miles N. of Albany and 6 
miles S. W. of Saratoga Springs. Here arc mineral springs, 
somewhat frequented in summer. These springs rise from 
the lower part of the Hudson River (Silurian) shales, and 
rank among the best acidulous chalybeate springs in the 
U. S. The village has two national banks, 2 weekly pa¬ 
pers, 5 churches, and several manufactories. It is in Mil- 
ton township. Pop. 2970. 

Ball'ville, a township of Sandusky co., 0. Pop. 1731. 

Bally. See Ball. 

Bally, a Celtic word or prefix signifying “ town” or 
“ dwelling,” enters into the composition of the names of a 
great number of places in Ireland and Scotland. 

Ballyme'na, a market-town of Ireland, in the county 
of Antrim, on the river Braid, 2 miles above its junction 
with the Maine and 33 miles by rail N. N. W. of Belfast. 
It has large public schools, a cotion-spinning mill, and 
extensive bleaching-grounds, and is one of the greatest 
linen and flax markets in Ireland. Pop. 6774. 

Ballyshan'non, a seaport-town of Ireland, in the 
county of Donegal, on the river Erne at its entrance into 
Donegal Bay, 120 miles N. W. of Dublin. A bridge of 
fourteen arches here crosses the Erne. It has about six 


churches and chapels. Here is a valuable salmon-fishery 
in the Erne. Pop. in 1871, 6739. 

Balm ( Melis'sa ojjicina'lis), a perennial herbaceous 
plant of the natural order Labiatse, a native of the south 
of Europe, is cultivated in American gardens, and prized 
for its lemon-scented leaves. The leaves, which are ovate 
and crenate, and the stem, are occasionally used in medicine 
as a gentle aromatic, stimulant, and tonic. Its properties 
depend on an essential oil called oil of balm. An infusion 
of balm is an excellent beverage in febrile diseases. 

Balmacz-Ujvaros, a market-town of Hungary, in 
the county of Szabolcs, 14 miles N. W. of Dcbreczin. Pop. 
in 1870, 9481. 

Bal'mes (Jayme Lucio), a Spanish Catholic priest, born 
at Yich, in Catalonia, Aug. 28, 1810. He was a remark¬ 
ably precocious scholar. He wrote in reply to Guizot an 
able work entitled “ Protestantism Compared with Catholi¬ 
cism in its Relations to European Civilization” (3 vols., 
1848), which was translated into English, French, Italian, 
and German. Among his other works is “Filosofia Fun¬ 
damental,” which was translated into English by II. F. 
Brownson, New York, 1857. Died July 9, 1848. (See 
Antonio Soler, “Biografia de D. J. Balings,” 1850; Gar¬ 
cia be los Santos, “ Vida de Balmes,” 1848; Blanche- 
Roffin, “ J. Balmes, sa Vie et ses Ouvrages,” 1849.) 

Balm of Gilead. See Balsam; Gilead, Balm of. 

Balmor'al Castle, the autumnal residence of Queen 
Victoria, is in a beautiful valley in Aberdeenshire, Scot¬ 
land, on the river Dee, 48 miles W. S. W. of Aberdeen. It 
commands a magnificent prospect and comjirises 40,000 acres 
of beautiful grounds. Prince Albert purchased this estate 
in 1852 for £32,000, and erected a granite castle in the 
Scottish baronial style. It consists of two blocks of build¬ 
ings united by wings, and a massive tower thirty-five feet 
square, rising to the height of eighty feet, and surmounted 
by a turret twenty feet high. 

Balna'ves, or Balnavis (Henry), of Halhill, an 

eminent Scottish Reformer and writer, born in Fifeshire in 
1520. He studied law, and became secretary of state in 
1543. In 1547 he, with other Protestants, took refuge in 
the castle of St. Andrew’s, and'was declared a traitor. The 
castle was captured by the French, who took him, with 
Knox, to Rouen as prisoner. While in prison he wrote a 
“ Confession of Faith.” He returned to Scotland in 1554. 
Died in 1570. 

Bal' sam [Lat. bal'samum; Gr. /SaAo-a/uov], a name in¬ 
cluding in popular language many resinous substances and 
oils to which great medicinal virtues are ascribed; also cer¬ 
tain medicines compounded of resins and oils. The name 
was originally limited to a single substance, the balm of 
Gilead, Mecca balsam, or balsam of Judea. Balsams are 
natural mixtures of resins and essential oils, the resins 
originating from the oxidation of the oils. They are vis¬ 
cid, aromatic liquids, varying greatly in consistence. They 
are of two kinds: (1) the simple oleo-resins, as crude tur¬ 
pentine, Canada balsam, Copaiba balsam, Mecca balsam, 
etc.; (2) balsams containing, besides oil and resin, the 
fragrant cinnamic acid, as liquidamber, Peru and Tolu 
balsams, storax, etc. (For further details see each of the 
above.) Certain pharmaceutical preparations were once 
called balsams, as balsamum opodeldoc, an alcoholic soap 
solution containing ammonia; baUamum arem, a salve 
containing elemi gum; baUamum stdphuris, a solution of 
sulphur in linseed oil. 

Balsam, Canada, the thick, terebinthine sap of Abies 
bahamea, which collects in blisters beneath the epidermis 
on the trunks of young trees. These blisters are punctured, 
and the balsam gathered as an article of commerce. It is 
used in medicine, for varnishes, for mounting microscopic 
objects, etc. Abies grandis of the W. coast furnishes a 
similar fluid. 

Balsam'ina, a genus of herbaceous plants of the order 
Balsaminaceoe, includes numerous species which are natives 
of the East Indies, and are mostly annuals. The Balsam¬ 
ina hortensis (or Impatiens balsamina), commonly called 
balsam, is a favorite garden flower in the U. S., with un- 
symmetrical corollas finely variegated with white, pink, 
red, and purple. It has five stamens, and a capsule of five 
valves, remarkable for the elastic force with which it bursts. 
The term balsam is also applied to the Impatiens noli-me- 
tangere, a native of Europe, and two species of Impatiens 
which grow wild in the U. S. 

Balsamina'ceae, or BalsamiiPeie (so called from 
Balsamina , its principal genus), a natural order of succu¬ 
lent herbaceous plants, natives of the East Indies, Europe, 
China, and America. By Jussieu, Asa Gray, and others it 
is regarded as a sub-order of the Geraniacese. 

Balsam Bake, a township of Polk co., Wis. Pop. 192. 

BaPta, a well-built town of Russian Poland, in Podo- 






















BALTIC—BALTIMORE. 


371 


lia, on the Kodema River, 132 miles E. S. E. of Kamieniec. 
It has over twenty factories of candles, soap, etc., and has 
an extensive trade in cattle, horses, hides, wool, and grain. 
Pop. in 1867, 14,528. 

Bal'tic, or Baltic Sea [Ger. Ostsee; Lat. Mare Balti- 
cumfi and Si'nus Coda'nus ], an inland sea or gulf of North¬ 
ern Europe, is situated between Russia, Sweden, Germany, 
and Denmark, and connects with the German Ocean and the 
Cattegat by the Sound and the Great and Little Belts. It 
is 830 miles long. Its greatest width is 420 miles, and the area 
154,570 square miles. On account of the small proportion of 
salt it contains (not over 2 per cent.), the Baltic freezes much 
more easily and early than the ocean. It is not atfected by 
the tide. The numerous sand-banks and islands, and the 
violent storms with sudden changes of wind, render the navi¬ 
gation of the Baltic dangerous. It receives several large 
rivers—namely, the Oder, Vistula, Niemen, Diina, Narva, 
Neva, Torne&, Dal, etc. No sea has in proportion to its 
size so great an influx of fresh water. The largest islands 
in the Baltic are Seeland, Gothland, Ptiigen, Bornholm, and 
Oesel. The chief ports are St. Petersburg, Riga, Dantzig, 
Stralsund, Konigsberg, Stockholm, and Copenhagen. A 
remarkable phenomenon connected with this sea is the 
slow and gradual rising of its shore in Sweden. 

Baltic, a post-village of Sprague township, New Lon¬ 
don co., Conn., on the Hartford Providence and Fishkill 
R. R., 42 miles E. S. E. of Hartford. Here are important 
manufactures. The village contains one of the largest cot¬ 
ton-mills in the world, running 60,000 spindles. 

Bal'tic Qu Cs tion , the name given to the controversy 
between the Russian government and the Baltic provinces 
of Courland, Esthonia, and Livonia. These countries, 
which never stood in the relation of conquered provinces 
to Russia, were promised by Peter the Great the main¬ 
tenance of their German administration and security for 
freedom of conscience. These rights and privileges were 
confirmed by Alexander II. in Feb., 1856, but the actions 
of the government appear to have contradicted these pro¬ 
fessions. The priests of the Greek Church have sought to 
make converts among the peasants by false promises of 
land and of exemption from military service. Many efforts 
have also been made to compel the German inhabitants to 
adopt the Russian language in public affairs and in their 
schools, and a strict censorship has been exercised over the 
German press. (See A. J. Schem, “ Deutch-Amerikan- 
isches conversations-Lexikon.”) 

Baltimore, a county in the northern part of Mary¬ 
land, bordering on Pennsylvania, has an area of about 700 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by Chesapeake 
Bay, and on the S. W. by the Patapsco River, and inter¬ 
sected by the Gunpowder River. The surface is pleasantly 
diversified by hills, some of which are 800 feet high. Granite, 
gneiss, and limestone underlie the county, which contains 
mines of copper, iron, and chrome. The soil is productive. 
Corn, wheat, tobacco, and garden and dairy products are 
the chief crops. This county, the most populous in the 
State, is intersected by the Northern Central R. R. Other 
railroads meet at the city of Baltimore. It has important 
manufactures. Capital, Towsontown. Pop. 330,741. 

Baltimore, the chief city of Maryland, is situated in 
39° 17' N. lat. and 0° 26' E. Ion. (76° 37' 30" W. from 
Greenwich), at the head of tide-water and of navigation 
on the Patapsco River, about 14 miles from the Chesapeake 
Bay, and nearly 200 from the ocean by ship-channel. The 
Patapsco to this point is a broad estuary; above, a small 
and swift stream, furnishing water-power to many mills 
and manufactories. The harbor is spacious and secure, 
but with a depth of but little over 20 feet. Its depth is 
preserved and is being increased, and an improved ship- 
channel provided by extensive dredging, prosecuted at the 
expense of the U. S., the State, and the city governments. 
The city covers about 10,000 acres of land, and the surface 
of its site was originally very hilly, and notwithstanding 
all the grading rendered necessary by improvements, much 
of the original inequality still exists; and the surrounding 
country being of similar character, with swift streams, ex¬ 
cellent drainage is secured, and the healthfulness of the 
location greatly promoted. 

The first steps for “ erecting a town" on the Patapsco, 
to be called Baltimore Town, were taken by a legislative 
act in 1729, and it was laid out in half-acre lots in 1730. 
In 1752 it contained 25 houses and 200 persons; in 1765 
the number had increased to 50 houses. After this the 
growth was more rapid, .and in 1775 there were 564 houses 
and 5934 persons. In Dec., 1776, the Continental Congress 
transferred its sittings from Philadelphia to Baltimore, and 
met here for about two months. In 1797 it was incorpo- 


* The name Baltic is supposed to be derived from the Latin 
balteus, a “ belt,” on account of the famous belts of this sea. 


rated as a city. The population in 1790 was 13,503; in 
1800, 26,514; in 1810, 35,583; in 1820, 62,738; in 1830, 
80,625; in 1840, 102,313; in 1850, 169,054; in 1860, 
212,418; and in 1870, 267,354. 

The city is laid out, for the most part, at right angles, 
the streets having generally a width of about sixty feet, 
and the buildings are mostly built of red brick, many of 
them with white marble bases; granite and iron are, how¬ 
ever, largely used in the construction of stores and ware¬ 
houses, some of which are very fine. The bricks used for 
building are made from immense clay-beds adjacent to the 
city, and are of unsurpassed quality. The white marble, 
of excellent quality, is procured from inexhaustible quar¬ 
ries about 10 miles N. of the city; the granite, from quar¬ 
ries about 15 miles W. Shipbuilding has always been one 
of the leading industries of the city, but it has greatly 
suffered, in common with the commerce of the country, 
during the last few years. There are several furnaces and 
foundries, producing iron in various forms from ores mined 
in the vicinity, one very extensive rolling-mill, several 
manufactories of agricultural implements, and very largo 
machine-shops, employing many hundred hands. There 
are also extensive manufactories of clothing, leather, shoes, 
tobacco, etc. (in all about 400 manufactories of different 
kinds), and about 100 establishments for packing oysters 
and fruits. This is a very important industry, and gives 
employment to several thousand hands. These industries 
find their outlet both by land and water communication. 
There are lines of steamships to Liverpool, Bremen, Bos¬ 
ton, Providence, Wilmington (N. C.), Charleston, Savan¬ 
nah, Havana, New Orleans, etc., and steamboat lines to 
Norfolk, Richmond, Fredericksburg, Washington, and all 
points on the Chesapeake Bay and its many estuaries. It 
has several excellent railroads, and they are rapidly mul¬ 
tiplying. The Baltimore and Potomac road (to Washing¬ 
ton) has just completed (June, 1873) a tunnel 7400 feet in 
length under the north-western part of the city; and the 
Northern Central road (to Harrisburg) is just perfecting 
its connection with tide-water by a similar tunnel 3500 feet 
long, passing under the north-eastern section. Passenger 
railways also connect the city with all the thriving sub¬ 
urban villages that surround it, where many of the busi¬ 
ness men of the city reside. 

Its sobriquet “ Monumental City " was derived from the 
Washington Monument and Battle Monument, erected by 
the gratitude and patriotism of its citizens. The former, 
located at Mount Vernon Place, North Charles street, is a 
Doric shaft of white marble 180 feet high, surmounted by 
a statue of Washington sixteen feet high, built 1816-30. 
Access to the top is had by 220 winding stairs within the 
column, and it affords a charming view of the city and 
surrounding country. Battle Monument, in Monument 
Square, North Calvert street, is also of white marble, 52^ 
feet high. Wildey Monument on Broadway, of white mar¬ 
ble, 52 feet high, was erected to Thomas Wildey, a citizen 
of Baltimore, who died in 1861, and was the founder of Odd 
Fellowship in America. There is also in Greenmount Cem¬ 
etery a creditable but plain monument and statue to 
John McDonogh, who bequeathed to the city a large sum 
(amounting now to about $1,000,000) to establish the Mc¬ 
Donogh Institute “ for the education of poor children." 
Greenmount and Loudon Park are its two beautiful cem¬ 
eteries, and there are several others creditable, but of less 
pretensions. The city has about 160 churches and 6 Jew¬ 
ish synagogues. The first church founded in the city was 
St. Paul’s (Episcopal) in 1731. The first Presbyterian 
church was erected in 1756; the first Roman Catholic, in 
1770; the first Wesleyan Methodist, in 1773; the first 
Baptist, in 1780; the first Friends’ meeting-house, in 1781. 
Several of the churches are imposing and beautiful struc¬ 
tures. Among the most noticeable are the cathedral, St. 
Alphonsus’, and St. Martin’s (Roman Catholic); Grace, St. 
Peter’s, and Christ (Episcopal); Mount Vernon (Method¬ 
ist); Westminster, Brown Memorial, and First (Presbyte¬ 
rian), and the Unitarian. / 

The water-supply of the city has hitherto been taken 
from Jones’s Falls, about seven miles above the city, and 
is abundant and of good quality. To guard against tho 
possible contingency of protracted drought the Gunpowder 
River is now being added, and this supply is practically 
inexhaustible. The reservoirs now in existence have a 
storage capacity of 857,000,000 gallons. This is distributed 
everywhere in abundance, and there are about 800 fire¬ 
plugs for use in case of fire. The fire department is well 
organized, directed by a police and fire-alarm telegraph, 
and notably efficient. It has eight steam fire-engines, 
with a complement of horses and twelve men to each, and 
three hook-and-ladder companies, thirteen men to each. 

Numerous public squares add to the beauty and health¬ 
fulness of tho city. The largest of these, Patterson Park, 
in the N. E. section of tho city, contains 54 acres. Druid 














372 BALTIMORE 


Hill Park, just outside the N. W. limits of the city, con¬ 
tains 704 acres of ground, with fine forests, lakes, and 
lawns, about twenty miles of good carriage-drives, and has 
no superior as a pleasure-ground. 

First among the public buildings should be named the 
new city-hall (not quite completed), built of white marble, 
occupying an entire square, and costing $3,000,000; the 
Maryland Institute, of brick, 355 feet long; the custom¬ 
house, 240 feet long, with a dome 115 feet high; the 
court-house, and Odd Fellows’ Hall, all of brick; the Ma¬ 
sonic Temple, of white marble; the U. S. court-house and 
the jail, both of granite, are remarkable structures. Out¬ 
side of the city limits, but a part of its institutions, should 
be noted Bay View Asylum (city almshouse), 714 feet in 
length; the house of refuge, retaining about 500 juvenile 
delinquents; Spring Grove Asylum, a State institution for 
the insane, of granite, with capacity for 300 patients; the 
Maryland Institution for the Blind, a beautiful white mar¬ 
ble building, where about fifty of these unfortunates are in¬ 
structed ; and the Sheppard Asylum (for the insane), en¬ 
dowed by the will of Moses Sheppard with about $1,000,000. 
The Peabody Institute of Baltimore was the recipient of 
over $1,000,000 from the late George Peabody. It has, in 
its fine white marble building by the side of the Washing¬ 
ton Monument, a free library of 60,000 books and pam¬ 
phlets, an art-gallery, musical conservatoire, rooms for 
lectures, concerts, etc., and is one of the most thriving of 
the institutions endowed by that great philanthropist, 
which will “ keep his memory green.” The Hopkins Hos¬ 
pital has been but begun. It originated in Mar., 1873, 
when Johns Hopkins, a merchant of the city, placed in the 
hands of trustees selected by him 13 acres of land in the 
eastern part of the city, with directions to establish there¬ 
on a free hospital for the “indigent sick of the city and its 
environs, without regard to sex, age, or color,” guarantee¬ 
ing to them for the purpose $100,000 a year dui’ing his life, 
and endowing it with $2,000,000 for its support thereafter. 

The general education of the city is provided for in about 
125 graded public schools, in which about 40,000 pupils 
are taught by about 550 teachers. Loyola College, a 
Catholic institution under the general supervision of the 
Jesuits, and the seminary of St. Sulpice (St. Mary’s Col¬ 
lege), a Catholic theological institution, are both in a 
flourishing condition, while the medical department of the 
University of Maryland takes very high rank, and the 
law department a respectable position among professional 
schools. The city has 14 national banks, 6 daily, 7 weekly, 
8 monthly, and 1 semi-monthly newspaper. 

The principal libraries of the city are—Peabody Insti¬ 
tute, 59,000 books and pamphlets; Mercantile Library 
Association, 33,278 (both rapidly increasing); Maryland 
Institute, 15,600; Baltimore Bar Association, 7500; Young 
Men’s Christian Association, 2500; Odd Fellows’, 19,356 ; 
Maryland Historical Society, 13,366; Loyola College, 
22,000. \ J Henry Stockbridge. 

Baltimore, a hundred of Sussex co., Del. Pop. 3380. 

Baltimore, a township of Henry co., Ia. Pop. 1114. 

Baltimore, a post-township of Barry co., Mich. Pop. 
1155. 

Baltimore, a post-village of Liberty township, Fair- 
field co., O. Pop. 489. 

Baltimore, a township of Windsor co., Yt. Pop. 83. 

Baltimore, Lord, a title (of the Calvert family) in 
the Irish peerage, created in 1624 by James I., who marked 
his confidence in Sir George Calvert by making him, though 
a Roman Catholic, baron of Baltimore (in Ireland). Cal¬ 
vert was born at Kipling, Yorkshire, England, in 1582. He 
graduated at Oxford, held several important public trusts, 
was knighted in 1617, became principal secretary of state 
in 1619, member of Parliament 1620-21, and first Lord 
Baltimore 1624. By grant of James I. he became proprie¬ 
tary of Avalon in Newfoundland, endeavored to plant a 
colony there, and went thither himself in 1625. Owing 
chiefly to the unfavorable soil and climate, the colony was 
a failure. He then (1628) visited Virginia, met an un¬ 
gracious reception, and returned to England. He seems 
then to have petitioned the king (Charles I.) for a charter 
for founding a new colony, and to have met with favor; 
but before the charter was issued he died, April 15, 1632. 
The charter which his address had secured was issued in 
June, 1632, to his son Cecil, who became the second Lord 
Baltimore, and real founder of the colony of Maryland. 
The territory granted by the charter included the whole of 
the present State of Maryland. Cecil never visited it, but 
sent out an expedition in Nov., 1633, under the charge 
of his brother, Leonard Calvert, as governor. The Calverts 
have been much praised for their liberal and tolerant spirit, 
and their wise and equitable legislation in the colony. The 
successive Lords Baltimore were John (the third), Charles 
(fourth), Benedict (fifth), Charles (sixth), and Frederick 


BALZAC, DE. 


(seventh). Frederick died in 1771, leaving no legitimate 
children, and with him the title Lord Baltimore became 
extinct. (See Fueler’s “Worthies of England;” Ban¬ 
croft’s and Hildreth’s “Histories of the United States ;” 
J. P. Kennedy, “ Character of George Calvert;” Proceed¬ 
ings of Maryland Historical Society; Sparks’s American 
Biography,” vol. ix. S. S.) Henry Stockbridge. 

Baltimore Bird, or Baltimore Oriole (Icterus 
Baltimore), sometimes called Golden Itobin, a beautiful 



Baltimore Bird. 


bird which is found in all parts of the U. S., and migrates 
in winter to tropical or sub-tropical regions. The plumage 
of the male is brilliant, orange, vermilion, and black being 
the most conspicuous colors. This bird is very active, has 
an agreeable song of clear and mellow notes, and builds 
a curious nest, a pendulous pouch about six inches long, 
usually suspended from the drooping branch of a high tree. 
The name originated in the similarity of its colors to the 
livery of Lord Baltimore. The extended wings measure 
about twelve inches from tip to tip. 

Baluze (Etienne), a French historian, born at Tulle 
Dec. 24, 1630, became in 1670 professor of canon law 
in Paris, and in 1707 director of the Royal College under 
Louis XIY. Among his works are “Lives of the Popes of 
Avignon,” 1693, and “ History of the House of Auvergne,” 
in which he endeavored to show that the House of Bouil¬ 
lon was descended from the ancient dukes of Guienne, and 
therefore owed no allegiance to the king of France. The 
king suppressed this work, exiled the author, and confis¬ 
cated his estates. He published forty-five works, among 
which were “Regum Francorum Capitularia” (1677), 
“Lives of the Avignon Popes” (1693), etc. Died in 
Paris July 28, 1718. 

Bal zac, de (Honore), a popular French novelist, born 
at Tours May 16, 1799. After he had written several un¬ 
successful tales, he published in 1829 an historical romance 
called “ The Last Chouans,” which was received with favor. 
His reputation was increased by “ The Physiology of Mar¬ 
riage ” (1831), “ Le Peau de Chagrin” (1831), “Scenes of 
Provincial Life” (1832), “ Scenes of Parisian Life” (1832), 
“ Le Pere Goriot,” and “Eugenie Grandet.” He excelled 
in the analysis of emotions and in the delineation of indi¬ 
viduality of character. He married the countess of Hanska, 
a Polish lady, in 1848. His works have been translated 
into many languages. Died in Paris Aug. 19, 1850. (See 













































































BALZAC, DE— 


G. Desnoiresterres, “Vie dc Ilonore do Balzac;” George 
Sand, “ Notice biographique sur H. de Balzac,” 1853; A. 
Baschet, “ H. de Balzac,” 1852.)^ 

Balzac, de (Jean Louis Guez), Seigneur, a French 
writer, born in 1594. He was patronized by Cardinal 
Richelieu, and was admitted into the French Academy in 
1634. He was considered the best French prose-writer of 
his time, and acquired a durable reputation by his suc¬ 
cessful efforts to improve and refine his native language. 
Among his works are “ The Christian Socrates” (1652) and 
“Familiar Letters” (new ed., 1806). Hied Feb. 15, 1654. 

Bambar'ra, a state of Western Africa, in Soodan, lies 
on both sides of the river Niger or Joliba, which flows in a 
N. E. direction through the middle of this state. It is 
bounded on the S. by the Kong Mountains. The soil is well 
watered and fertile. The rainy season lasts from June to 
November. Two crops of maize, cotton, and yams are raised 
annually. The baobab, butter tree, and date-palm are found 
here. The wild animals are lions, elephants, leopards, 
panthers, etc. The population is composed mostly of Man- 
dingoes. Area, about 21,300 square miles. Capital, Sego. 

Bam'berg, a city of Bavaria, in Upper Franconia, is 
beautifully situated on the river Regnitz, 30 miles N. of 
Nuremberg and 3 miles from the river Main. It is con¬ 
nected bj r railway with Nuremberg and other towns. It is 
well built, and has spacious, well-lighted streets, which are 
lined with handsome houses. Among the remarkable pub¬ 
lic buildings are the magnificent cathedral (Domkirche) 
in the Byzantine style, founded in 1004 by the emperor 
Henry II.; the old palace of the bishops of Bamberg; and 
the Jesuit church of St. Martin’s. Bamberg contains a 
theatre, a lyceum, a museum of natural history, and a royal 
library of about 50,000 volumes. Here are manufactures 
of porcelain, jewelry, musical instruments, gloves, etc.; 
also numerous breweries, which produce beer of superior 
quality. Pop. in 1871, 25,748. 

Bamberg, a post-twp. of Barnwell co., S. C. P. 1907. 

Bambi'no [the Italian for “ infant”], a term applied 
to the swaddled figure of the infant Saviour which, carved 
or painted, forms the subject of many altar-pieces in Ro¬ 
man Catholic churches. The most celebrated of these is 
the Santissimo Bambino of the church Ara Coeli at Rome. 
This is a kind of wooden doll profusely adorned with 
jewels, said to have been carved from a tree which grew 
on the Mount of Olives. It is often carried in procession 
to the bedside of the sick. The festival of the Bambino 
occurs at Epiphany, Jan. 6. 

Bamboccia'de [from the It. bamboo'cio, a “simple¬ 
ton ”], in painting, is a grotesque scene from common or 
low life, such as country fairs, rural sports and festivals, 
and boorish frolics. The name was derived from Bamboc- 
cio, the surname of Peter van Laer, who painted such sub¬ 
jects. He was born in 1613, and died in 1674. 

Bam boo' (Bamtn'sa), [Fr. bamboii], a genus of arbo¬ 
rescent grasses which are natives of the tropical and warm 
parts of Asia and America, and grow to a large size. Some 
of the species are eighty feet high or more. The bamboo 
is a plant of great utility and importance. It has a jointed 
and hollow stem, Avhich is very hard and light, and is ex¬ 
ternally coated with silex. It has been called the national 
plant of China, the natives of which make of it a great 
variety of articles, furniture, weapons, etc. It is sometimes 
used for building houses and bridges and for water-pipes. 
The smaller stems are converted into walking-sticks, and 
are employed in wickerwork and the seats of chairs. Some 
species of Bambusa secrete a silicious, phosphorescent sub¬ 
stance called tabasheer, which possesses remarkable proper¬ 
ties. (See Tabasheer.) 

Bam'borough (or Bambrough) Castle, one of the 

oldest castles in Great Britain, is on the coast of Northum¬ 
berland, 16 miles S. E. of Berwick. It stands on a basaltic 
rock 150 feet high, and accessible only on the S. E. side. 
It was founded in 1070. Connected with this castle is an 
extensive public library, a dispensary, life-boats to save the 
crews of shipwrecked vessels, and other charitable institu¬ 
tions. Near the castle is a village of the same name. 

Bambuk', a country of Western Africa, included be¬ 
tween lat. 12° 30' and 14° 30' N., and between Ion. 10° 30' 
and 12° 15' W., is bounded on the N. E. by the Senegal 
River, and on the S. W. by the Faleme. The surface is 
hilly, and the soil of the valleys fertile. It is inhabited 
by Mandingoes, who are said to be very ferocious. The 
baobab and other trees here attain an enormous size. Bam¬ 
buk has long been celebrated for its rich gold-mines. Pop. 
about 800,000. 

Ba mian', a valley and pass of Afghanistan, on the 
route from Cabul to Turkistan, and between the central 
and western ranges of the Hindu-Kush Mountains, is at 
an elevation of 8496 feet,and is important as the only known 


ANAT-KOMLAS. 373 


pass over the Hindu-Kush Mountains that is practicable 
for artillery. The valley is covered with ruins of the city 
of Gulgula, which was destroyed by Jengis Khan about 
1220. Bamian was one of the chief centres of the Booddh- 
ist worship, and presents numerous caves with gigantic 
idols cut out of the rock. One of these is 160 feet high. 

Ba'mo, B’ha'mo, or B’lian-Mo, the most import¬ 
ant commercial town in the empire of Burmah, in Farther 
India, is situated on the Irrawaddy at the entrance of the 
Tamping. Large caravans laden with silk and other goods 
arrive here from October to May, during which time a large 
business is carried on. Large quantities of raw cotton are 
also exported from this place. The annual imports and ex¬ 
ports amount to about $1,500,000 each. Pop. about 12,000. 

Bamp'ton Lec'tures, so called after the name of their 
founder, the Rev. John Bampton (1689-1751), canon of 
Salisbury, who in 1751 left his “lands and estates” to the 
University of Oxford for “the endowment of eight divinity 
lecture sermons,” to be preached annually at “ St. Mary’s in 
Oxford.” The subjects specified were: (1) “To confirm 
and establish the Christian faith, and to confute all here¬ 
tics and schismatics; (2) upon the divine authority of the 
Holy Scriptures; (3) upon the authority of the writings 
of the primitive Fathers as to the faith and practice of 
the primitive Church; (4) upon the divinity of our Lord 
and Saviour Jesus Christ; (5) upon the divinity of the 
Holy Ghost; (6) upon the articles of the Christian faith 
as comprehended in the Apostles’ and Nicene Creeds.” 
When the lectures commenced, in 1780, the income of the 
estate was £120 a year. Ever since then (except in the 
years 1834, 1835, and 1841) these lectures have been de¬ 
livered. Some of the more noted of the earlier lecturers 
were Dr. White, in 1784, on “Christianity and Mohamme¬ 
danism;” Dr. Nott, in 1802, on “ Religious Enthusiasm;” 
Bishop Heber, in 1815, and Archbishop Whately, in 1822. 
Mansel, in 1858, on “ The Limits of Religious Thought,” 
opened a new era in the history of the lectures. Since 
then we have had, among others, George Rawlinson in 
1859, Farrar in 1863, Mozely in 1865, Liddon in 1866, 
and Bernard in 1867. (For a complete list, down to 1852, 
see Darling’s “ Cyclopmdia Bibliographica.”) 

Ban, a word which occurs in many modern languages, 
signifying an edict; a public order or prohibition; an in¬ 
terdiction ; a notice of marriage; a curse or excommuni¬ 
cation. In the former German empire to put a prince 
under the ban of the empire was to divest him of his 
dignities and pronounce on him a sentence of outlawry. 
The French ban signifies “ exile,” “ banishment.” 

Bail, and Arriere Ban, military terms used in France 
under the feudal system. When the feudal barons were 
summoned to the service of the king in time of war, they 
were called the ban. Their tenants or inferior vassals 
formed the second levy, or arriere ban. The ban and ar¬ 
riere ban constituted the entire military force of France 
in feudal times. 

Ban,* or Ba'nus, the title formerly given to military 
governors of certain districts, called banats, in the eastern 
part of Hungary. The ban was appointed by the king 
with the consent of the Diet, and had formerly very exten¬ 
sive powers. In political, judicial, and military affairs his 
authority was supreme. In time of war he commanded 
the troops of his banat. The most important banats were 
those of Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, and Makovia 
(or Machow), but their boundaries often changed, and they 
were at length united into the double banat of Dalmatia 
and Croatia. 

Bana'na ( Mu'sa sapien'tum), an herbaceous plant of 
the natural order Musaceae, is extensively cultivated in all 
tropical regions of both hemispheres. It is regarded by 
many botanists as a mere variety of the plantain (Musa 
paradisiaca). It grows to the height of from fifteen to 
twenty feet, and the stem terminates in a tuft of leaves 
which are from six to ten feet long, and about one foot 
wide. The fruit, which is generally five or six inches long, 
has a soft, luscious pulp, and is a nutritious and very im¬ 
portant article of food. It is commonly eaten raw. It 
is stated that no other plant produces so great an amount 
of nutriment on the same space of ground. It is success¬ 
fully cultivated in South Florida. 

Bananal', an island of Brazil, also called Nueva 
B eira, is in the river Araguay, and in the province of 
Matto Grosso. Its length from N. to S. is 290 miles, and 
its width about 35 miles. The soil is fertile, and covered 
with a dense forest. There is a largo lake near the middle 
of the island. 

Banat-Komlas, a town of Hungary, in the county 


* Ban in some of the Slavonic dialects is said to signify 
“ master.” 














BANCA—BANDES NOIRES. 


374 


of Torontal, lias beer-breweries and sheep-markets. Pop. 
in 1870, 5715. 

Ban' ca, an island of the Malay Archipelago, belong¬ 
ing to Holland, about 10 miles E. of Sumatra, from which 
it is separated by the Strait of Banca. It is about 100 
miles long, and has an area of 4664 square miles. The 
surface is hilly. It is celebrated for its mines of tin, of 
which about 4700 tons were produced in 1865. Copper, 
iron, and lead are also found here. Pop. in 1870, 59,740. 

Ban'co, the standard money in which a bank keeps its 
accounts, as distinguished from current money. The term 
is chiefly applied to the money in which the Hamburg 
bank keeps its accounts, which is not coined money. The 
Hamburg mark banco (=1*. 5f<A sterling) is to the current 
mark (=ls. 2\d. sterling) as 20 to 17. 

Ban'croft, a post-township of Freeborn co., Minn. 
Pop. 799. 

Ban'croft (Aaron), D. D., a Unitarian minister, was 
born at Reading, Mass., Nov. 10, 1755. He graduated at 
Harvard in 1778, and became in 1785 pastor at Worcester, 
where he remained upwards of fifty years. Among his 
works, besides a great number of sermons, is a life of 
George Washington, which was very popular. He ivas 
the father of George Bancroft, noticed below. Hied Aug. 
19, 1839. 

Bancroft (Edward), M. H., F. R. S., born at Westfield, 
Mass., Jan. 9, 1744, ran away from his native country in his 
youth, practised medicine in Guiana, and resided long in 
England. He was a friend of Dr. Franklin, and professed 
to labor in behalf of America, but is believed to have been 
a spy of the British government. He published several 
political works, a “Natural History of Guiana” (1769), 
“Charles Wentworth,” a novel, and “Researches con¬ 
cerning the Philosophy of Permanent Colors ” (2 vols., 
1794-1813). He never visited America after her inde¬ 
pendence. Died Sept. 8, 1820. 

Bancroft (George), Ph. D., LL.D., D. C. L., an emi¬ 
nent American historian, a son of Aaron, noticed above, 
was born at Worcester, Mass., Oct. 3, 1800. He graduated 
at Harvard College in 1817, and entered in 1818 the Uni¬ 
versity of Gottingen, where he studied history and philology 
under Heeren, Bunsen, and others. In 1820 he took the 
degree of doctor of philosophy at Gottingen. Having 
returned home in 1822, he published a volume of poems 
(1823) and a translation of Heeren’s “Reflections on the 
Politics of Ancient Greece” (1824). In 1834 he produced 
the first volume of his “ History of the U. S.” He was 
appointed secretary of the navy by President Polk in Mar., 
1845, in which year he founded the U. S. Naval Academy, 
resigned that office in 1846, and was sent as minister pleni¬ 
potentiary to England in the same year. He returned 
home in 1849, retired from the public service, and became 
a resident of the city of New York. His capital work is a 
“ History of the U. S.,” the ninth volume of which appeared 
in 1866. In a review of the third volume of this work, 
William H. Prescott observes: “ The reader will find the 
pages of the present volume filled with matter not less 
interesting and important than the preceding. He will 
meet with the same brilliant and daring style, the same 
picturesque sketches of character and incident, the same 
acute reasoning and compass of erudition.” ( North Amer¬ 
ican Revieic for January, 1841.) Mr. Bancroft was appointed 
minister to the court of Berlin in 1867, and negotiated a 
treaty by which Germans emigrating to the U. S. are 
released from their allegiance to the government of their 
native country. In 1871 he was appointed minister pleni¬ 
potentiary to the German empire. 

Bancroft Plantation, a township of Aroostook co., 
Me. Pop. 177. 

Band, in architecture, is the name given to any kind 
of ornament which is continued horizontally along a wall, 
or an ornament by which a building is encircled. Bands 
often consist of foliage, quatrefoils, or of simple bricks. A 
band of a shaft is the moulding or suits of mouldings by 
which the pillars and shafts are encircled in Gothic archi¬ 
tecture. 

Ban'dages [from the Anglo-Saxon bin'dan, to “bind;” 
literally, anything used for binding], applied to the bands 
or wrappers used by surgeons to keep in their places the 
dressings of wounds, to compress bleeding vessels, to rectify 
the deformity produced by fractures or other injuries, and 
to unite parts in which there is a solution of continuity. 
They are commonly composed of soft muslin, linen, or 
flannel. Sometimes they are made to become immovable 
after application by being first soaked in starch or glue. 
The great art in bandaging consists in applying pressure 
with exactly the required firmness, and evenly. Especially 
is it important to avoid interrupting too much the circu¬ 
lation of the blood. Unskilful bandaging has sometimes 


caused fatal mortification of a limb. For this reason the 
arm should never be tightly bandaged (unless temporarily, 
to arrest haemorrhage) without the hand being subjected 
to an equal amount of pressure; and the same rule applies 
with regard to the leg and foot. To make a continuous 
bandage fit well upon a limb or other part, the roller should 
be drawn smoothly as far as it can be, and then, if needful, 
reversed by a turn of the hand from time to time; produ¬ 
cing a spiral, by the overlapping of the successive turns, 
each time, about one-third of its width. A bandage for 
the arm may be from two to two and a quarter inches wide; 
for the lower extremity, two and a half inches; for the 
chest, three inches. The figure-of-eight bandage is often 
required for the elbow or knee-joint. The T bandage is 
available for the lower part of the trunk. A many-tailed 
bandage is used especially in fractures of the thigh. It is 
composed of about eighteen transverse strips, with or 
without a longitudinal band, to which they may be fastened 
by stitching. These being laid under the limb, the lowest 
is folded over, and then the next, and so on until the whole 
thigh is secured. This bandage has the advantage that it 
can be undone without disturbing the position of the limb. 
For a more particular account of bandages we must refer 
to works on minor surgery. Handkerchiefs are sometimes 
employed instead. In the treatment of wounds, however, 
and of stumps of amputated limbs, bandages are less re¬ 
sorted to now than formerly, many surgeons preferring 
lighter and cooler dressings, with adhesive strips, etc. One 
of the most useful of bandages for emergencies is the 
“ Spanish windlass,” to check serious bleeding from any 
part of either extremity. It is merely a strip of muslin or 
a pocket handkerchief passed around the upper part of the 
limb, tied in a knot, and then twisted firmly by a stick or 
bayonet passed under it, so as to press with sufficient force 
to arrest the arterial circulation. It must not be left on 
many hours, but its temporary application has often saved 
life. In like manner, free bleeding from a wound of the 
scalp may be controlled by a compress and bandage tightly 
applied around the head. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Ban'da, a town in British India, province of Allah¬ 
abad, is on the Crane River, 80 miles W. of Allahabad. It 
has increased rapidly of late years, and acquired consider¬ 
able note for its cotton. 

Ban'da Isles, a group of islands, forming part of the 
Molucca Archipelago, belonging to the Dutch. They are 
lofty and volcanic. One of them, named Goonong Apee, 
rises 7880 feet above the sea, and is an active volcano. 
The larger of these islands are exclusively appropriated to 
the cultivation of nutmegs and mace, and produce annually 
about 450,000 pounds of nutmegs. These islands were dis¬ 
covered by a Portuguese, Antonio Abreus, in 1512. The 
Portuguese took possession of the islands in 1524, and in 
1599 they passed under the dominion of the Dutch. Area, 
8748 square miles. Pop. in 1869, 272,000. 

Bamda'na, or Bandan'na, a silk or cotton handker¬ 
chief of East Indian origin, though now extensively man¬ 
ufactured in Great Britain. The cloth is dyed Turkey red, 
and then the pattern is made by discharging the color 
with bleaching-liquor in a hydraulic press. The spreading 
of this liquor is prevented by an enormous pressure. The 
patterns of the real bandana are spots and diamond prints. 

Banda Oriental. See Uruguay. 

Bandel'lo (Matteo), an Italian novelist and Domin¬ 
ican monk, was born in Piedmont in 1480. He emigrated 
to France in the reign of Francis I., and was appointed 
bishop of Agen in 1550. He published in 1554, in Italian, 
three volumes of tales or novels ( novelle ) which are im¬ 
moral, but remarkable for originality of conception and 
other literary merits. A fourth volume was published after 
his death, which occurred in 1562. Shakspeare borrowed 
from him the plots of several plays. 

Bande'ra, a county of Western Texas. Area, 938 
square miles. It is traversed by Medina River, a beautiful 
stream. Grain, cattle, sheep, and swine are exported. 
The climate is very healthy and pleasant. Pop. 649. 
Capital Bandera. 

Bandera, a post-village, capital of the above county, 
is on the Medina River, 30 miles N. W. of San Antonio. 

Ban'derole, a small streamer under the crook on the 
top of a bishop’s staff, sometimes applied to a small 
streamer carried on military weapons or on masts. Also, 
the flat inscribed band used in Renaissance buildings. 

Bandes Noires (“Black Bands”), an opprobrious 
term applied during the French Revolution to companies 
of capitalists who bought the confiscated estates and build¬ 
ings which had belonged to the Church or to emigres. 
They were accused of vandalism and the destruction of 
old relics, works of art, churches, etc. 










BAND-FISH—BANGOR. 


375 


Band-Fish, or Snake-Fish (Cep'ola), a genus of 
fishes related to the ribbon-fish, are remarkable for singu- 



Red Band-Fish. 


larity of form and beauty of color. The body is much 
elongated and compressed. The red band-fish (Cepola ru- 
bescena) is about fifteen inches long, and is found in the 
Mediterranean. 

Ban'dicoot ( Pcram'eles ), a genus of marsupial quad¬ 
rupeds, natives of Australia and Tasmania, having a long 


x\ 



Long-nosed Bandicoot. 

head and pointed muzzle. Their dentition is remarkable, 
as they have ten cutting teeth in the upper jaw, and only 
six in the lower. They devour grain in granaries and 
potatoes in the field. The Perameles naautci is about 
eighteen inches long. The name is popularly extended to 
several kindred genera of marsupials. 

Bandie'ra ( Atilio and Emilio), two brothers and Italian 
patriots, born respectively in 1817 and 1819, were sons of 
a vice-admiral in the Austrian service. In 1842 they opened 
a correspondence with Mazzini, and formed a design to 
liberate Italy by a conspiracy. They failed, and escaped to 
Corfu about Mar., 1844, but hearing a false or exaggerated 
rumor of a revolt in Naples, they returned with a few 
friends and landed in Calabria in June. They were exe¬ 
cuted July 25, 1844. (See Giuseppe Mazzini, “ Ricordi 
dei Fratelli Bandiera, e dei loro compagni,” 1845.) 

Bandinel'li (Baccio), an Italian sculptor, was born in 
1487. He was patronized by Cosimo de’ Medici, the em¬ 
peror Charles V., and Pope Clement VII. As a sculptor 
he was considered as second only to Michael Angelo, of 
whom he was a jealous rival. He adorned the choir of 
the Duomo of Florence with bas-reliefs. Among his best 
works are a group of Adam and Eve, a statue of Orpheus, 
“ The Descent from the Cross,” and “ Hercules and Cacus.” 
Died in 1559. (See Vasari, “ Lives of the Painters and 
Sculptors;” Cicognara, “Storia della Scultura.”) 

Banclit/ti [It. banditi], bands of robbers in the moun¬ 
tainous parts of Italy and Greece, who fall upon travellers 
and hold them captive for a ransom. In former times 
there existed in the larger towns of Italy organized asso¬ 
ciations of bandits, whose stilettoes were ready for hire to 
accomplish any deadly scheme. They were called euphe¬ 
mistically bravi (“ brave men ”), and were not exterminated 
until the modern improvements in police organization. 
Hired assassination ( homicidium conduction, assasainatus ) 
was a worse crime than ordinary murder, and punished by 
the wheel. 

Ban'don, Earls op, and Viscounts Bernard (1800), 
Viscounts Bandon (1795), Barons Bandon (1793, in the 
Irish peerage), a noble family of Great Britain.— Francis 
Bernard, the third earl, was born Jan. 3, 1810, and suc¬ 
ceeded his father in 1856. 

Ban'don, or Ban'donbridge, a town of Ireland, on 


the beautiful river Bandon, 20 miles S. W. of Cork. It is 
situated on both sides of the river, which enters the harbor 
of Kinsale. Bandon was formerly a prosperous manu¬ 
facturing town, but its prosperity has considerably de¬ 
clined. Pop. in 1871, 6074. 

Bands, Military, consist of a body of musicians at¬ 
tached to each army regiment or battalion. In the British 
service these bands generally comprise a band-master and 
about fifteen musicians, who are chiefly maintained at the 
cost of the officers of the regiment to which they belong. 
In the U. S. service the present law provides for a band at 
the Military Academy at West Point, and for each artil¬ 
lery, cavalry, and infantry regiment a chief musician, 
who shall be instructor of music, and for each artillery 
and infantry regiment two principal musicians; each cav¬ 
alry regiment to have one chief trumpeter. 

Ban'dy’s, a township of Catawba co., N. C. Pop. 727. 
Baner, written also Baimier or Banner (Johan), 
a famous Swedish general, born near Stockholm June 23, 
1595. He commanded the right wing under Gustavus 
Adolphus at the battle of Leipsic in Sept., 1631. His 
conduct in this action was highly applauded. On 
the death of Gustavus Adolphus (Nov., 1632) he be¬ 
came the commander-in-chief of the Swedish army, 
lie gained a brilliant victory near Wittstock in Sept., 
1636, and again defeated the imperial army near 
Chemnitz in 1639, after which he overran a large 
part of Germany. Died May 10, 1641. Schiller 
represents him as great in adversity, and formidable 
even after defeat. (See Schiller, “ History of the 
Thirty Years’ War;” Carl Manderfeldt, “ Eloge 
de J. Baner,” 1787.) 

Ban IF, sometimes written and always pronounced 
Bamf, a seaport-town of Scotland, capital of Banff¬ 
shire, at the mouth of the river Doveran, and on 
Moray Frith, about 40 miles N. N. W. of Aberdeen. 
A bridge over the river connects it with Macduff. 
Here is Duff House, the seat of the earl of Fife, with 
a park fourteen miles in circumference. Banff has 
manufactures of leather, soap, iron castings, linen, 
sails, and cordage, and has important fisheries of sal¬ 
mon, cod, and herring, which, with agricultural prod¬ 
ucts, are exported from this town by sea. Banff has 
a lighthouse in lat. 57° 40' N., Ion. 2° 31' W. The 
ljarbor is shallow and poor. The town has numerous 
and excellent schools and charitable institutions. The river 
is liable to floods, which have sometimes been destructive. 
Pop. in 1871, 7439. 

BantF'shire, a county of Scotland, bounded on the N. 
by Moray Frith, on the E. and S. by Aberdeenshire, and on 
the W. by Elgin and Invernessshire, and partly by the river 
Spey, a very rapid stream. Area, 684 square miles. The 
surface is greatly diversified by mountains and valleys. 
Among its highest peaks is Cairngorm, 4090 feet high. 
Granite, slate, old red sandstone, limestone, and serpentine 
occur here. The soil of the valleys is fertile. The breed¬ 
ing of cattle is the chief occupation of the farmers. Capi¬ 
tal, Banff. Pop. in 1871, 62,010. 

Ban'galore', a strongly fortified town of India, the 
capital of Mysore, is on a high table-land 71 miles N. E. of 
Seringapatam ; lat. 12° 58' N., Ion. 77° 38' E. It is the chief 
British military station in Mysore, and is much frequented 
by Europeans, attracted by the salubrity of the air. The 
temperature seldom exceeds 90° F. Here are important 
manufactures of cotton and silk. It was taken by storm 
by Lord Cornwallis in 1791. Pop. 132,000. 

Bang'kok', or Bankok, a large commercial city, the 
capital of Siam, is situated on the river Meinam, about 20 
miles from its entrance into the Gulf of Siam; lat. 13° 38' 
N., Ion. 100° 34' E. It is mostly built of wood, but has 
some brick and stone houses. Many of the houses are 
built on movable bamboo rafts on the river. The Chinese 
constitute a majority of the population, which is estimated 
at 400,000. Bangkok contains a large royal palace and 
numerous Booddhist temples, which are decorated in a gor¬ 
geous style. The stationary dwelling-houses arc raised on 
piles six or eight feet from the ground, in order to protect 
them from inundations. The river is navigable for vessels 
of 250 tons from its mouth to Bangkok, which has an ex¬ 
tensive trade. The chief articles of export are sugar, pep¬ 
per, rice, ivory, cardamoms, hides, tin, etc. Iron-mines 
and forests of teak occur in the vicinity. It is the seat ot 
Roman Catholic and of American Baptist and Presbyterian 
missions. It has some native Christians of Portuguese 
descent. (See Sir John Bowring’s “Siam.”) 

Bail'gor, an episcopal city and seaport^ of North 
Wales, in the county of Caernarvon, on the S. E. shore 
of Menai Strait, 2J miles from the Britannia Bridge, and 
9 miles N. E. of Caernarvon. It is on tho railway which 



















376 


BANGOR—BANJERMASSIN. 


connects Chester and Holyhead, and is situated in a nar¬ 
row, romantic valley. The grandeur and beauty of the 
scenery render it a favorite place of summer resort. Six 
miles from Bangor are slate-quarries which employ about 
2000 men. This city is very ancient, having been raised 
to a bishopric in 550 A. D. The cathedral, founded in 525, 
was destroyed by the Saxons in 1071. Bangor has eight 
annual fairs, four of which are for cattle. They are visited 
by great throngs of buyers and sellers. The trade by sea 
is not important, the harbor not being accessible to large 
vessels. Pop. 6338. 

Ban gor, a post-township of Marshall co., Ia. Pop. 838. 

Bangor, a city, port of entry, and capital of Penob¬ 
scot co., Me., is on the right bank of the Penobscot River, 
about 60 miles from its mouth. It is 138 miles by the 
Maine Central R. R. N. E. of Portland, and 67 E. N. E. from 
Augusta, the present State capital. It is in lat. 44° 47' 50" 
N., Ion. 68° 47' W. from Greenwich. It is the north¬ 
eastern terminus of the Maine Central R. R., the western 
terminus of the European and North American R. R., the 
southern terminus of the Bangor and Piscataquis R. R., the 
northern terminus of the Bucksport and Bangor R. R., the 
northern terminus of the projected Bay and River R. R., 
the north-western terminus of another surveyed railroad 
from Bangor to Calais, as well as the head of navigation on 
the Penobscot River. Bangor is thus easily the railroad 
and commercial, as it is nearly the geographical, centre of 
the State, of which it must ultimately become the-eapital. 
The Ivenduskeag River, navigable to the centre of the city, 
runs directly through it, dividing the city into two nearly 
or quite equal parts. Both rivers, above the city, are broken 
by waterfalls for about 12 miles, thus furnishing water¬ 
power unequaled in New England. Brewer, a beautiful 
suburb of Bangor, lying on the easterly side of the Penob¬ 
scot, and commonly known as the “ Eighth Ward," is the 
city's shipyard, being connected with it by a ferry and a 
covered bridge, and is rapidly filling up with manufac¬ 
tories of different sorts. Bangor is one of the greatest 
lumber-depots in the U. S., nearly 3000 vessels being em¬ 
ployed in exporting lumber, mostly pine, spruce, hemlock, 
and cedar, to every quarter of the globe. It is also largely 
engaged in other foreign commerce. Steamboats ply regu¬ 
larly, by three different lines, between Bangor and the 
several ports along the Penobscot, between Bangor and 
Portland, and between Bangor and Boston. Besides the 
city schools, which are excellent, it has a theological, semi¬ 
nary with five or six professors, and a library of about 
15,000 volumes, a city library of about 12,000 volumes, a 
mechanics’ library of about 9000 volumes, a law library 
of about 1000 volumes; a conservatory of music, a board 
of trade, and other similar organizations. Of banks, it has 
two State, two savings, and seven national, besides several 
brokers who lend money and receive deposits. Bangor has 
fourteen churches and two daily and three weekly papers. 
Four large irorP-foundries, with two of which are connected 
shops for manufacturing machinery, several planing-mills, 
three or four furniture-factories, three extensive carriage and 
sleigh factories, one large trunk-factory, besides many simi¬ 
lar establishments, together with a burnettizing works, do 
a very heavy manufacturing business. The city is sur¬ 
rounded by an excellent agricultural country, which sends 
to Bangor large quantities of farming produce for export. 
It is also doing a heavy business in insurance. With its 
natural suburb, before mentioned, Bangor has a valuation 
of about $11,000,000. There is now a movement on foot 
for building a stone dam across the Penobscot, which, it 
is believed, will soon make Bangor the leading manufac¬ 
turing city of New England. 

The city is divided into seven wards, each of which elects 
annually one alderman and three common councilmen, the 
aldermen constituting the upper and the councilmen the 
lower branch of the city government. The government is 
presided over by a mayor, elected annually. In 1870 there 
were 3252 ratable polls in the city, and estates valued at 
$9,851,561. Bangor has a fine granite custom-house, with 
a U. S. collector and two deputies. Besides the superior, 
probate, and commissioner’s courts for Penobscot county, 
and the regular nisi prius term of the supreme judicial 
court of the State, it has an annual law term of the latter 
court, and an annual sitting of the U. S. district court. 

History .—The French erected here a fort before 1656, 
and named it Norombega. There prevailed in the seven¬ 
teenth century a belief in Europe that a great and flourish¬ 
ing Indian city called Norombega stood near this point. 
The name, variously spelled, occurs in Milton’s “ Paradise 
Lost,’’ in Burton’s “ Anatomy of Melancholy,’’ and other 
works of that time. It was settled in 1769, and was then 
called Kenduskeag. Its name was changed to Bangor by 
Rev. Seth Noble, in honor of a well-known psalm-tune of 
that name. In 1791 it was incorporated as a town, and in 
1834 as a city. Its rapid growth since that time has been 


the result of its position, which combines the advantages 
of a noble and navigable tidal river with a large and 
constant water-power. It has also in the upper waters 
of the Penobscot the means of very cheap transportation 
of logs from the boundless forests of Northern Maine. 
These advantages made it for a long time the greatest 
lumber-market in the world, and even now but one or two 
places excel it in the amount and value of lumber sawed 
and shipped. 

Bangor had by the census of 1800, 277 inhabitants; in 
1810, 850; in 1820, 1221; in 1830, 2868; in 1840, 8634; 
in 1850, 14,432; in 1860, 16,408; in 1870, 18,296. 

B. F. Tefft, En. “ Northern Border.’’ 

Bangor, a township of Bay co., Mich. Pop. 3606. 

Bangor, a township and village of Van Burcn co., 
Mich., on the Chicago and Michigan Lake Shore R. R., 27 
miles N. E. of St. Joseph, in a good farming and fruit 
region. The village has an iron-smelting furnace, an 
“ excelsior’’ manufactory, five saw-mills, two hotels, ono 
weekly paper, a union school, etc. Pop. of township, 
1525. C. W. Gillett, Ed. “ Journal.’’ 

Bangor, a post-village and township of Franklin co., 
N. Y., on the Ogdensburg and Lake Champlain R. R., 55 
miles E. N. E. of Ogdensburg. It has manufactories of 
starch, cheese, and hemlock extract. Pop. of township, 
2431. 

Bangor, a post-township of La Crosse co., Wis. Pop. 
1151. 

Bango'rian Controversy, a controversy which rose 
between the adherents and opponents of ecclesiastical au¬ 
thority in Great Britain. It was brought about by a ser¬ 
mon preached before George I. by Dr. Benjamin Iloadley, 
bishop of Bangor. (See IIoadley.) 

Bangs (IIeman), a Methodist preacher, born in Fair- 
field, Conn., in 1790, joined the New York Annual Con¬ 
ference in 1815. He labored effectively in the pulpits of 
his denomination in New York and Connecticut. He was 
one of the principal founders of the Wesleyan University 
at Middletown, Conn., and one of the most powerful 
preachers of Methodism. Died Nov. 2, 1869. 

Bangs (Nathan), D. D., a Methodist minister, born in 
Stratford, Conn., May 2, 1778. He became editor of the 
“Christian Advocate and Journal,” and president of the 
Wesleyan University at Middletown, Conn. He wrote, 
among other works, a “ History of the Methodist Episco¬ 
pal Church.” Died May 3, 1862. 

Bangs (William M’Kendree), son of Nathan Bangs, 
was born in New York City in 1810, graduated in the Uni¬ 
versity of Ohio in 1829, and served one year in a professor¬ 
ship in Augusta College, Ky. He resigned his chair there 
to enter the itinerant ministry of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church. From 1831 to his death, in 1852, he was a mem¬ 
ber of the New York Conference. He was some time prin¬ 
cipal of the Wesleyan Academy at Wilbraham, Mass. He 
was distinguished by his culture and by the force of his 
controversial writings. 

Ban'ialu'ka, or Banjaluka, a fortified town of Eu¬ 
ropean Turkey, in Bosnia, on the river Yerbas, 94 miles 
S. W. of Bosna-Serai. It has numerous mosques, many 
bazaars, a manufactory of gunpowder, hot springs, and 
Roman antiquities. Pop. 15,000. 

Baniya (pronounced in India, bun'e-y§,), less correctly, 
Baniyan or Banian, a word used in Hindostan to de¬ 
note a shopkeeper, especially a dealer in grain, but also 
applied to the wholesale dealers and importers of Bombay, 
Surat, and Cambay, carrying on a trade with the interior 
of Asia by caravans and with Africa by ships. They usu¬ 
ally belong to the caste called Yaisyas, and strictly abstain 
from animal food. 

Ba'nim (John), an Irish novelist, born at Kilkenny 
April 3, 1798, excelled in the delineation of the life and 
character of the Irish peasantry. He published in 1825 
“Tales of the O’Hara Family,” which was very popular. 
Among his other works are “The Battle of the Boyne” 
(1828), “The Smuggler” (1831), and “The Mayor of Wind- 
gap.” Died Aug. 1, 1842. (See P. J. Murray, “Life of 
John Banim,” 1857.) 

Ban'ister, a township of Halifax co., Ya. Pop. 3731. 
Banister (village). See Halifax Court-house. 

Baniwas, a tribe of South American Indians living on 
the Amazon and the Rio Negro. A vocabulary of their 
language is given by Alfred Wallace in “A Narrative of 
Travels on the Amazon and the Rio Negro” (1853, pp. 
521-541). 11 

Banjermas'sin, or Benjar-Massen (i. e. “the 
river of plenty”), the name of a river, state, and town on 
the S. coast of Borneo. Owing to the inundations of the 












BANK. 


river, the town is completely built on floating logs, held by 
ropes. It has a considerable trade in gold-dust, precious 
stones, birds’ nests, wax, resin, rubber, rattans, pepper, and 
steel of native manufacture and excellent quality. Many 
of the inhabitants are Chinese, and most of the trade is 
with China. The Dutch government is the dominant 
power here. Trade is obstructed by a bad bar at the 
mouth of the river. Pop. estimated at 30,000. 

Bank [from bancus, a “ bench” or merchant’s counter]. 
As a general thing, corporate banks, and particularly banks 
of circulation, have owed their origin to war or the neces¬ 
sities occasioned by it, for it is only at such times that gov¬ 
ernment is disposed to offer or grant those extraordinary 
privileges which form the basis of corporate banking. War 
occasions demands for public loans, or renders it necessary 
that a country should be freely supplied with currency in 
order that its inhabitants may be able to readily meet the 
heavy taxation incident to the continuation of hostilities. 
The establishment of the banks of Venice (1157), Geneva 
(1345), Barcelona (1401), Genoa (1407), Amsterdam (1607), 
Hamburg (1619), Rotterdam (1635), Stockholm (1688), 
England (1694), and France (1716), though not all of them 
banks of circulation, is ascribable to war; and this was also 
the case with the banks of the U. S., established severally 
in 1789, 1791, 1816, and 1863. 

The peculiar structure of the Bank of England, which 
rendered it different, in respect of its privilege of issue, from 
all its European predecessors, is traceable to the banking 
operations—for such they were, in fact—of the colony of 
Massachusetts on the occasion of its expedition against 
Quebec in 1690. To facilitate the payment of the heavy 
taxes which this war obliged it to impose, the colony issued 
in that year bills of credit payable on demand to bearer, 
receivable for taxes and all debts due the colony, and, until 
prohibited, first by act of Parliament, and afterwards by a 
general clause of the American Constitution, made a legal 
tender in payment of private debts. An adventurous 
Scotchman named William Paterson was in the colonies at 
the time, and, returning to England shortly afterwards, 
turned his American experience to account by suggesting 
the establishment of the Bank of England; an event which 
was consummated by act of Parliament dated April 25, 
1694. It is a somewhat remarkable circumstance that to 
the study of American affairs by another adventurous 
Scotchman of the time is due the establishment of the 
first bank of issue in France. This man was John Law, 
who, having witnessed the success of a legal-tender paper 
currency and of a land bank in the colonies, introduced 
these measures, somewhat modified and as his own, to the 
attention of several countries in Europe, with the view of 
having them adopted by them. In this he at length suc¬ 
ceeded, and France in 1716, during the regency of the duke 
of Orleans, became the scene of the most daring operations 
known to the history of banking. It required but three 
years’ time—during which prices became so inflated that land 
rose to 100 years’ purchase—for Law’s bubble to burst. The 
Americans had meanwhile managed their inflated currency 
more deliberately ; and it was not until after the additional 
emissions demanded by the necessities of the colonial cam¬ 
paign against Louisburg in 1745 that evidences of failure 
in the legal-tender system began to appear. Meanwhile, 
the Bank of France had failed, and the notes of the Bank 
of England fallen to 20 per cent, below par. The depreci¬ 
ation of colonial notes in 1748 was as follows: New Eng¬ 
land, 11 for 1; New York and East Jersey, 1.90 for 1; 
West Jersey and Pennsylvania, 1.80 for 1; Maryland, 2 
for 1; Virginia, 1.20 to 1.25 for 1; North Carolina, 10 for 
1; and South Carolina, 7 for 1. When, subsequently, Great 
Britain paid £180,000 sterling to Massachusetts for the ex¬ 
penses of the Louisburg expedition, the latter redeemed her 
outstanding notes at the price to which they had fallen in 
the market—11 for 1. 

In 1712, South Carolina established a bank, and issued 
£48,000 in bills, to be lent on promissory notes and mort¬ 
gages, and retired at the rate of £4000 a year. Soon after 
the emission of these bills prices rose, and in the first year 
advanced to 150 ; in the second, to 200 per cent. In Mar., 
1723, Pennsylvania embarked in banking operations by 
issuing £15,000 in legal-tender notes, to be loaned out at 
interest on collateral security. The advantage of the plan 
induced her, towards the end of the samo year, to issue 
£30,000 more on the same terms. In 1739-40, Massachu¬ 
setts established a bank which emitted bills of credit on the 
South Carolinian plan. With these exceptions, it is be¬ 
lieved that the only paper money in this country prior to 
the Revolution was that, already alluded to, emitted by the 
colonies to make good deficits in revenue. On May 10, 
1775, at the outset of the war of independence, the Conti¬ 
nental Congress directed the emission of $3,000,000 in legal- 
tender notes on the faith of the Confederation. This issue 
was soon followed by others. By the month of Oct., 1777, 



the “ Continental ” currency had become so redundant as 
to occasion depreciation. By the year 1779 the total issues 
amounted to $160,000,000, when Congress directed the 
emission of $40,000,000 more, and declared that under no 
circumstances should the sum of $200,000,000 be exceeded. 
But this declaration proved unavailing, and the depreci¬ 
ation of the notes became so rapid that in 1781 they ceased 
to perform the functions of money. They were subse¬ 
quently redeemed by the present national government at 
the rate of 100 for 1. 

Soon after the fall of Continental money, at the sugges¬ 
tion of Robert Morris, superintendent of finance, Congress 
established a bank in Philadelphia called the Bank of North 
America. This event took place Dec. 31, 1781. The bank 
also obtained charters from the States of New York, April 
11, 1782, and Pennsylvania, April 18, 1782. The Bank of 
Massachusetts at Boston was chartered in 1784, and the 
Bank of New York at New York was established the same 
year. The Bank of North America went into operation 
with a capital of but $400,000. It enjoyed the unquestion¬ 
able advantage of a general circulation for its notes, which 
were receivable for taxes and other dues to the Confeder¬ 
ation, and the then somewhat questionable advantage of 
transacting the fiscal operations of the government; and it 
contributed, so far as its limited means would allow, to re¬ 
lieve the financial distress of the latter. But the position 
held by the bank demanded far greater resources than it 
possessed, and the dearth of circulating media became so 
great throughout the country as to compel several of the 
States to resort again to the emission of “ bills of credit,” 
and even to legalizing personal projierty as a tender for the 
payment of debts. Shay’s insurrection in Massachusetts 
(1786) was caused by the scarcity of money and heavy 
taxes. On the adoption of the Constitution of the U. S., 
which took effect in Mar., 1789, the emission of bills of 
credit by the several States was interdicted, and by law 
gold and silver alone declared to be legal tender: (See 
Finance.) These measures, designed to strengthen the 
financial affairs of the country and invite a restoration of 
credit and commerce, would have proved exceedingly em¬ 
barrassing but for the aid afforded to the operations of the 
treasury by the emissions of the banks, consisting, besides 
those of North America and Massachusetts, of the Bank of 
New York, which was chartered Mar. 21, 1791. This era 
marks the beginning of the now gigantic banking-system 
of the.U. S. 

The combined capital of the three banks still amounted 
to only $2,000,000, and if the new government was to suc¬ 
cessfully collect its revenues, it was necessary to provide a 
currency better fitted for its resources, expectations, and 
necessities. This could only be done at that time by mak¬ 
ing the fullest avail of thft national credit. Accordingly, 
Alexander Hamilton, then secretary of the treasury, boldly 
recommended the establishment of a national bank, under 
charter from the national government, and*with a capital 
of $10,000,000. This project met with the fiercest hostil¬ 
ity. It was unconstitutional; it jeopardized the perpe¬ 
tuity of the Union; it thrust at the very foundation of 
States rights. After having been argued in Congress with 
extraordinary ability, the proposition was decided favor¬ 
ably, and on Feb. 25, 1791, the “first” national bank of 
the U. S. was chartered for twenty years. It was not until 
1794 that it began operations. Of the capital, $8,000,000 
were to be subscribed by individuals, and $2,000,000 by 
the U. S.; one-fourth of the private subscriptions to be 
paid in specie, and three-fourths in 6 per cent. U. S. 
stocks. During the continuance of the charter no other 
national bank was to be established. The bills were to be 
receivable for all payments to the government. Mean¬ 
while, in 1785 the charter granted to the Bank of North 
America by the State of Pennsylvania was repealed. The 
bank, however, continued to transact business under its 
charter from the Continental Congress until the establish¬ 
ment of the Federal Constitution in 1789, when it was re¬ 
chartered by the State of Pennsylvania, and its connection 
with the general government ceased. This bank, as well 
as the two other private oanks of the Revolutionary era, 
still exists. 

The Bank of the U. S. afforded many advantages to the 
government, and fully realized all the expectations formed 
of it by Hamilton; nevertheless, in 1809, when Congress 
was requested to renew its charter, then about to expire 
a request endorsed by the secretary of the treasury, Albert 
Gallatin—it refused. This refusal is attributed to tho 
issue concerning States rights between the two great po¬ 
litical parties of the country, and the application ot that 
issue to the bank question by the private banks of circula¬ 
tion chartered by the States. These had by this time in¬ 
creased in number to 88; their capital exceeded $40,000,000, 
their circulation amounted to over $22,000,000 ; evidences of 
a power difficult to contend against successfully. I he Ban v 











378 BANK. 


of the U. S., after another unsuccessful attempt on Feb. 20, 
1811, to obtain a renewal of its charter from Congress, and 
a similarly unsuccessful one to obtain a charter for its 
continuance from the State of Pennsylvania, wound up its 
affairs. During its continuance it had paid the stock¬ 
holders dividends of from 8 to 10 per cent, per annum,- its 
assets now yielded them 8£ per cent, more than their stock 
investments. Its career had been eminently creditable to 
the management; its dissolution was effected in an orderly 
manner, and without disturbing the money affairs of the 
country. The following table exhibits the condition of all 
the banks in the U. S., including the Bank of the U. S., 
in 1811: 


Tear. 

Number of 
Bank 0 . 

Capital. 

Specie. 

Notes in 
circulation. 

1811 

89 

$52,000,000 

$15,400,000 

$28,100,000 


The currency, generally, had been in a tolerably healthy 
condition since 1796. Previous to that date there had been 
a scarcity following the extinction of the Continental bills, 
while from 1790 to 1795, inclusive, the emission of State 
bills of credit, despite the interdiction of the Constitution, 
had rendered the currency disturbed and fluctuating. 
There was now in the country currency to the extent of 
about five dollars per capita, and, what is of more import¬ 
ance, with a slight tendency to increase. (See Money.) 
Such a condition of the currency bespeaks an era of slowly 
rising prices and general industrial activity. In 1811 war 
with England was anticipated, and this led to such a large 
withdrawal of specie from the country as delayed that es¬ 
tablishment of new State banks which the extinction of 
the first national bank had assured. In 1812 the war 
broke out. In 1813 the new State banks made their ap¬ 
pearance. Together with the old ones, there were now 
150 of them, with $62,000,000 in notes in circulation. 
This immense emission of currency was due to the neces¬ 
sities of the government, which had no resource in the 
emergency but to borrow from the banks all it could ob¬ 
tain. The country was but poorly prepared for such a 
forced extension of credit, and the result was, that in Sept., 
1814, all the banks S. of New England stopped specie 
payment, and did not resume until Jan., 1817. In Sept., 
1814, Baltimore bank-notes were at a discount of 20 per¬ 
cent., and New York, 10 per cent.; in Jan., 1815, these 
notes stood respectively at 20 and 15 per cent, discount; 
in Feb., 1815, upon the first news of peace, at 5 and 2 per 
cent, discount; and in 1816 at 20 and 12| per cent, dis¬ 
count—down again. The condition of the currency was 
now deplorable. The State had but little control over the 
banks, and the Federal government as little over the 
States. Each bank acted ind<*pendently of the others; 
there was no restriction, no redemption, and no homogene¬ 
ity. The constitutional provision, that “ all duties, im¬ 
posts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the U. S.,” 
obliged the treasury, which was compelled to accept the 
bank currency, because there was no other, to “meet by ex¬ 
travagant premiums the mere act of transferring the reve¬ 
nue collected at one point to defray unavoidable expendi¬ 
tures at another.” (Bush, Rep. Fin., 1828.) The extinc¬ 
tion of the first Bank of the U. S. was now generally re¬ 
gretted. The secretary of the treasury, during 1815 and 
1816, made several attempts to unite the State banks in a 
resumption of specie payments, but without success, and 
there was no other practical course open to the government 
but to establish another institution similar to that which 
it had so lately suffered to dissolve. On April 3, 1816, an 
act was passed by Congress to authorize what is now 
known as the “second” Bank of the U. S. The capital 
of the new bank was to be $35,000,000, of which $7,000,000 
to be subscribed by the U. S. government in 5 per cent, 
stocks, and $28,000,000 by private individuals or corpora¬ 
tions, one-fourth in specie, the remainder in U. S. stocks ; 
the charter to continue until Mar. 3, 1836, and in the mean 
time no other bank to be established by Congress; tlie 
notes to be receivable in all payments to the U. S., subject 
to other directions by Congress; the public moneys to be 
deposited in the bank subject to other directions by the secre¬ 
tary of the treasury (a notable provision, as events proved); 
the bank to act as the commissioner of loans for the several 
States, etc. As some time must elapse before it could go into 
operation, Congress prepared for a resumption of specie 
payments by directing the secretary of the treasury, after 
Jan. 20, 1817—about the date the bank commenced ope¬ 
rations—to receive nothing in payment but gold and silver, 
treasury notes, and notes of the national bank, or of State 
banks which redeemed in specie on demand. The effect 
of this measure, and of arrangements made by the Bank 
of the U. S., was the resumption of specie payments by the 
State banks of New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and 
Virginia. 


A new era now began for the banking system of the U. S. 
—an era to end only with the extinction of the national 
bank and the deplorable events of 1837. The last-named 
institution, aided by its numerous branches throughout the 
States, exercised a regulating function with regard to the 
State banks which proved of the highest importance to the 
government, and certainly at first checked them in the 
tendency to emit excessive issues. But its power over 
them was but remote and indirect, and it could not, and did 
not, prevent them from eventually proceeding to extremes. 
Nevertheless, so long as the evil day was put off, the coun¬ 
try continued active and prosperous to an extent only 
attributable to the agency of the banks in diluting the 
currency and promoting a continual rise in prices. The 
following synoptical table shows the condition of all the 
banks in the U. S. from 1790 to 1837—sums in millions of 
dollars: 


Dates 
nearest 
Jan. 1st. 

No.* 

Capital. 

Specie. 

Notes. 

Deposits. 

Loans 
and Dis¬ 
counts. 

1790 

3 

2. 

3. 

1 . 



1811 

89 

52.6 

15.4 

28.1 



1815 

208 

82.3 

17. 

45.5 



1816 

246 

89.8 

19. 

68. 



1820 

308 

137.1 

19.8 

44.9 



1830 

330 

145.2 

22.1 

61.3 

55.6 

200.5 

1834 

506 

200. 


94.8 

75.7 

324.1 

1835 

558 

231.3 

44. 

103.7 

83. 

365.2 

1836 

567 

251.9 

40. 

140.3 

115.1 

457.5 

1837 

634 

290.8 

37.9 

149.2 

127.4 

525.1 


(For population and currency, see Money.) 

With the exception of slight revulsions in 1826, 1829, 
and 1832, the growth of the banking-system and the cur¬ 
rency, up to the close of the last-named year, was satisfac¬ 
tory. A good deal of this growth was based on expecta¬ 
tions, but these expectations were warranted. The popu¬ 
lation was increasing rapidly, abundant harvests had re¬ 
warded the husbandman, and general industrial progress 
was to be observed on all sides. In Dec., 1829, President 
Jackson, in his message, “ questioned the constitutional¬ 
ity and expediency of the law creating the (national) 
bank.” This was the signal for which the State banks 
had been waiting. The bank charter would be allowed to 
expire, and the way paved for additional emissions of bank 
currency. In the winter of 1830 the reports of committees 
of the House and Senate took issue with the views express¬ 
ed by the President, and the battle began. In the follow¬ 
ing winter a bill was introduced in Congress to recharter 
the bank. Its advocates stated that during sixteen years 
the bank had collected and disbursed $300,000,000 or 
$400,000,000 of public money, without the loss or expense 
to the government of a single dollar. It had not only fre¬ 
quently aided the government by loans, but had on more 
than one occasion saved it from dishonor. For example, 
a large instalment of the Louisiana debt, due and adver¬ 
tised to be paid on Oct. 21, 1820, could not be met by the 
treasury. Knowing the importance of the sum to the bank, 
its appeal to that institution had been couched almost in 
a tone of entreaty, but, large as the sum was, and difficult 
as it was for the bank to raise it, the credit of the govern¬ 
ment was not suffered to be injured. The bank had also 
repressed the tendency of the State banks to unduly ex¬ 
pand the currency (a declaration, by the way, not calculat¬ 
ed to improve its case with the President); it had compell¬ 
ed them to redeem their notes in specie, and so rendered 
the currency of the country of a tolerably uniform value; 
its own notes passed current at par except in the remotest 
parts of the Union—places much more remote from the 
seat of government than the great commercial cities of 
Europe from each other, and there they were rarely quoted 
at over one-fourth to three-fourths of 1 per cent, discount. 
In vain. The State banks were weary of the restraint ex¬ 
ercised over them; a great political party was opposed to 
the bank; and the bill passed by Congress July 4, 1832, 
to recharter it was vetoed. The President next resolved to 
remove the public deposits from the safe-keeping of the 
bank, and in 1833 requested the secretary of the treasury, 
W. J. Duane, to sign an order to that effect. This the lat¬ 
ter declined to do, whereupon the President removed him 
from office, and appointed R. B. Taney in his place, who 
on Sept. 23, 1833, removed the public moneys, some 
$9,000,000 or $10,000,000, from the U. S. Bank, anti 
placed them in charge of certain designated State banks, 
setting forth his reasons therefor in a lengthy and able 
address to Congress. The effect of these measures is seen 
in a glance at the table given above. In 1830, before the 
extinction of the Bank of the U. S. was assured, there 
were 330 State banks in existence, with a combined capital 
of $145,000,000 ; notes at issue, $61,000,000 ; and loans, 


* Branches excluded. 










































bank. 379 


$200,000,000. In 1834, when the extinction of the bank 
was assured, these figures rose to $506,000,000, $95,000,000, 
and $324,000,000, respectively. Nor was this all. The 
inflation continued, and in 1837 we find 634 banks, with 
less than $38,000,000 in specie, issuing nearly $150,000,000 
of notes, and discounting $525,000,000 of paper. It need¬ 
ed no prophet to foretell the result of such improvidence; 
yet the country had grown so rapidly, had continued so 
prosperous, was now about to reap such immense addition¬ 
al advantages from the introduction of steam-railways and 
other labor-saving inventions newly discovered or wrought 
to perfection, and had already, in 1826, 1829, and 1832, for 
example, received so many warnings which proved false, 
that one more step forward seemed safe enough, and every 
man was ready to take it. That step led into an abyss so 
frightful that for an entire generation afterwards the coun¬ 
try felt its effects. The immediate cause of the suspension 
of 1837 was an event that in ordinary times would have 
proved a benefit instead of a disadvantage to the nation— 
an over-production of cotton. But credit had been extend¬ 
ed so far that the slightest disturbance of the intricate re¬ 
lations which kept the dizzy edifice erect was sufficient to 
topple it over. In 1836 the cotton crop was unusually 
large, and by the spring of 1837 the price of cotton began 
to rapidly fall, and with it the credits based upon confi¬ 
dently assumed higher prices. In April, 1837, the New 
Orleans and Mobile cotton-factors failed, and soon after¬ 
wards their correspondents in New York failed, among 
them the celebrated banking-house of J. L. and S. I. Jo¬ 
seph, with assets amounting to $7,000,000. On the 26th of 
May the Now York and Natchez banks suspended specie 
payments, and this was soon followed by a general suspen¬ 
sion all over the country. The whole flood of high prices 
now suddenly fell to a lower level, and into the vortices 
and depleting currents thus formed were swept away the 
fortunes of myriads of families. The suspension in New 
York was legalized for one year by the legislature ; stay- 
laws were enacted in the other States ; and Congress on the 
9th of Aug., 1841, enacted a general bankruptcy law; but 
until 1843, when either the statutes of limitations or liq¬ 
uidation had effaced the legal marks of this momentous 
wreck and restored mercantile confidence, the industrial 
affairs of the country remained prostrated (see Prices); 
most of the States failed to pay the interest on their debts, 
and at least one repudiated them outright. (See Repudia¬ 
tion.) The poorer classes of the people were reduced to 
great privation. The high price of flour previous to the 
suspension had induced the New York bread-riot of Feb. 
13, 1837 ; and to the scarcity of money after it is partly 
to be attributed that popular turbulence which expressed 
itself in the numerous local riots that occurred between the 
suspension of 1837 and the restoration of industrial activ¬ 
ity ten years later. 

The Bank of the U. S., after the extinction of its Federal 
charter in 1836, had obtained a charter from the State of 
Pennsylvania. In 1837, in common with all the banks in 
the country, it suspended specie payments. In May, 1838, 
the New York, and shortly afterwards the New England, 
banks resumed specie payments. In Aug., 1838, the Phila¬ 
delphia banks (including the Bank of the U. S.) professed 
to resume specie payments, and on Jan. 1, 1839, there was 
at least a nominal resumption of specie payments through¬ 
out the Union. On Oct. 9, 1839, the banks of Philadelphia 
(including the Bank of the U. S.) suspended for the third 
time, and their example was quickly followed by all the 
banks to the S. and W., and also by the banks of West 
Jersey and Rhode Island. The Rhode Island banks soon 
after resumed. On July 4, 1840, Congress passed an act 
(repealed Aug. 9, 1841, and subsequently re-enacted, with 
amendments, Aug. 6, 1846, known as the Independent 
Treasury law) providing for the keeping of the public de¬ 
posits by receivers-general in New York, Boston, Charles¬ 
ton, and St. Louis: meanwhile the public funds being de¬ 
posited with State banks again. In June or July, 1840, 
the South Carolina banks resumed; all the other banks to 
the S. and W. of New York, except the East Jersey banks 
and a few scattered, continuing to refuse specie payment. 
On Jan. 15, 1841, the banks of Philadelphia (including the 
Bank of the U. S.) resumed—to suspend again Feb. 4,1841. 
A bill to incorporate a “ Fiscal Bank' of the U. S.” was 
passed by Congress Aug. 6, 1841, and vetoed by President 
Tyler Aug. 16. Another bill for a “ Fiscal Corporation” 
was vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, and followed by a resignation of 
all the Cabinet except Mr. Webster. On the 18th or 19th 
of Mar., 1842, the Philadelphia banks resumed, but the 
Bank of the U. S. was defunct. On winding up its affairs 
the entire capital was found to be sunk. It paid its debts, 
and was soon forgotten. The condition of the banks from 
1838 to 1843 inclusive is shown in the following table— 
sums in millions of dollars—the figures, the best extant, 
being partly based on estimates and not altogether reliable: 


Date 






Loans 

nearest 

Jan. 1st. 

No.* 

Capital. 

Specie. 

Notes. 

Deposits. 

and 

Discounts 

1838 

G75 

317.0 

35.2 

110.1 

84.7 

485.0 

1839 

072 

327.1 

45.1 

135.2 

90.2 

492.3 

1840 

722 

358.4 

33.1 

107. 

75.7 

402.9 

1841 

019 

313.0 

34.8 

107.3 

04.9 

386.5 

1842 

503 

200.2 

28.4 

83.7 

02.4 

324. 

1843 

577 

228.9 

33.5 

58.0 

50.2 

254.5 


(For population and currency, see Money.) 

We now approach the palmy days of the State banks. 
The steady progress of the country in population and the 
development of its resources—the latter of which had been 
unduly hastened by the expansion of 1834-37, and as un¬ 
duly retarded by the contraction of 1838-43—now reas¬ 
serted their irresistible influence, and the State banks, 
warned by recent adversity to conduct themselves with 
prudence, entered upon an era distinguished for its healthy 
growth and the introduction of reforms in banking. 

The Suffolk bank system, established in 1824, had grown 
gradually into favor, and although before 1837 it had not 
acquired strength enough to check the expansion which 
culminated in that year, it was now in a position to exer¬ 
cise a substantial check to further improvidence. It sim¬ 
ply consisted in the voluntary association of certain Boston 
banks, employing the Suffolk Bank as their agent, to im¬ 
mediately return the notes of all New England banks 
which had found their way to Boston, to their issuers, and 
obtain specie therefor. When this system had been pur¬ 
sued for several years, the country banks found it to their 
advantage to keep a redemption fund in specie on deposit 
with the Suffolk Bank. The result of the system was, that 
all New England bank-notes were kept at par in Boston, 
and the emissions confined within reasonable bounds. 

The safety-fund system of the State of New York had 
been tried and found inefficacious. It was enacted by 
the State legislature in 1829, and consisted in requiring all 
the banks of the State to contribute one-half of 1 per 
cent, of their capital to a common fund, from which were 
to be paid the liabilities of such banks as might fail. It 
was a system of mutual insurance, and, though perhaps 
sound enough in principle, became under the law unsafe 
and misleading in practice, by inducing the public to rely 
upon the resources of a safety-fund reserve which the in¬ 
adequacy of the premiums demanded had rendered insuf¬ 
ficient for the purposes in view. 

On April 18, 1838, was enacted the Free-Banking law of 
New York. This system provided that any individual or 
association might engage in banking and the issuance of 
circulating notes on condition of securing the latter by 
deposits with the State of 5 per cent, par stocks of the 
U. S. or any of the States, or 6 per cent, bonds and mort¬ 
gages on real estate worth double the amount, etc. The 
system was amended in 1840 so as to limit the stocks de¬ 
posited to those of the Federal governmertt or the State of 
New York; and in 1849, so that at least one-half of the 
stocks deposited should be stocks of the State of New York. 
The law provided that the banks should elect at the outset 
whether their notes should be secured wholly by stocks or 
by stocks and real estate, and thereafter no change was 
practicable; but in practice the banks were permitted to 
withdraw their deposits of bonds and mortgages (except a 
single one), and substitute stocks therefor as a “ superior 
convertible medium in times of financial pressure.” (N. Y. 
Bank Rep., 1862.) The free-banking system of New York 
was enacted in many of the other States, though not alw r ays 
with like success. The general immunity of the banks 
from failure during its continuance has been regarded as 
convincing proof of its soundness, but this by no means 
follows. The healthy progress of the banking-system of 
the U. S. from 1843 to the outbreak of the civil war must 
be attributed to the resumption of industrial progress, 
checked in 1837, and the opening of California in 1849, 
which resulted in a general rise of prices all over the 
world, and by consequence in an unlooked-for appreciation 
of the securities which formed the basis of the tree-bank¬ 
ing system. With certain important modifications—mainly 
those of limiting the issues of the banks to a certain total 
amount (about $350,000,000), requiring the deposits to 
consist solely of U. S. stocks, anil rendering the notes a 
legal tender to and from the government (except for cus¬ 
toms, interest, and redemption) and between the banks, 
this plan forms the basis of the present national banking 
system. 

The following synoptical table exhibits the condition ol 
the State banks from 1844 to 1803, inclusive sums in mil¬ 
lions of dollars and tenths. These statistics were collated 
unofficially by the treasury department, and, although tho 
only ones extant, are not altogether reliable. Although 

* Branches excluded. 
































380 BANKHEAD. 


the civil war broke out in April, 1861, the banks in the 
insurrectionary States are included (by estimate) in the 
table up to 1863, inclusive: 


Date 
nearest 
Jan. 1st. 

No. * 


Capital. 

Specie. 

Notes. 

Deposits. 

Loans 
and Dis 
counts. 

1844 

578 


211. 

49.9 

75.2 

84.6 

264.9 

1845 

580 


206. 

44.2 

89.6 

88.0 

288.6 

1846 

587 


196.9 

42.0 

105.6 

96.9 

312.1 

1847 

591 


203.1 

35.1 

105.5 

91.8 

310.3 

1848 

622 


204.8 

46.4 

128.5 

103.2 

344.5 

1849 

654 


207.3 

43.6 

114.7 

91.2 

332.3 

1850 

685 


217.3 

45.4 

131.4 

109.6 

364.2 

1851 

1852 

1853 

731 


227.8 

48.7 

155.2 

129. 

413.8 

1854 

1059 


301.4 

59.4 

204.7 

188.2 

557.4 

1855 

1163 


332.2 

53.9 

187.0 

190.4 

576.1 

1856 

1255 


343.9 

59.3 

195.7 

212.7 

634.2 

1857 

1283 


370.8 

58.3 

214.8 

230.4 

684.5 

1858 

1422; 


394.6 

74.4 

155.2 

185.9 

583.2 

1859 

14761 


402. 

104.5 

193.3 

259.6 

657.2 

1860f 

1562 


421.9 

83.6 

207.1 

253.8 

692. 

1861 

16011 


429.6 

87.7 

202.0 

257.2 

696.8 

1862 

1496: 


419.8 

102.2 

183.9 

297.1 

647.7 

1863 

1466: 

• 

405.0 

101.2 

238.7 

393.7 

648.7 


(For population and currency, see Money.) 

In Oct., 1857, the State banks from one end of the Union 
to the other suspended specie payments, the Chemical Bank 
of New York being an exception. This event was vaguely 
ascribed, as all suspensions are, to “ overtrading,” but its 
extension to England and the Continent, and its speedy 
termination, together with the fact that the original sus¬ 
pending banks had more specie on hand than notes in cir¬ 
culation, ascribe it to another cause—the improvident loan 
of several hundred million dollars to railways adduced in 
the Finance Report for 1857 having probably had much to 
do with it. Within a few months the banks resumed. Con¬ 
spicuous among the failures of the time was that of the 
Bank of Philadelphia in Feb., 1858. Until the eve of the 
late civil war no event of importance occurred after this to 
impair the strength or prosperity of the State banks. In 
Dec., 1860, a large number of the banks in the Southern 
States suspended specie payments, and the New York banks 
formed a syndicate to sustain in common the results like¬ 
ly to follow this action, and protect the business interests 
of the country against panic. In April, 1861, the civil 
war broke out. In July, Congress authorized a loan of 
$250,000,000 to carry on the war. The money was needed 
at once, and application was made to the State banks for 
$150,000,000 of this amount. Meanwhile, on Aug. 5, 1861, 
Congress suspended the Independent Treasury law of 1846, 
so far as to allow the treasury to deposit any of the bor¬ 
rowed money with the banks and employ them in its dis¬ 
bursement. This implied promise stimulated the banks to 
exert themselves energetically in raising funds for the 
emergency, and over $100,000,000 were loaned to the gov¬ 
ernment by the banks of New York City, as follows: 


August 19, for 7-3.10 per cent, treasury notes.$35,000,000 

October 1, “ 7-3.10 “ “ . 35,000,000 

November 16, for 6 “ coupon bonds. 17,500,000 

“ “ “ 6 “ registered bonds.. 17, 500,000 


Total.$105,000,000 


The remainder of the $150,000,000 borrowed by the govern¬ 
ment was loaned by the banks of other cities. The whole 
amount subscribed by the banks of New York was paid 
into the treasury in coin (A. Y. Bank Rep., 1863, p. 19) by 
the associated banks of New York City between Aug. 19, 
1861, and Feb. 3, 1862; the first loan of $35,000,000 by the 
banks of New York was repaid, to the extent of $31,497,403, 
from sales to outside parties between Sept. 3, 1861, ancl 
Jan. 13, 1862; but none of the securities to be issued by 
the government for the remainder were received by the 
banks until Jan. 14, 1862, nor did the government deposit 
any of the borrowed funds with the banks, or employ the 
latter as disbursing agents. It was impossible to sus¬ 
tain such a depletion of treasure; and on the 28th Dec., 
1861, the New York banks were reluctantly obliged to sus¬ 
pend specie payments—an example quickly followed by 
the banks throughout the country. 

Congress met on Dec. 2, 1861; on the 9th the report of 
the secretary of the treasury was communicated. This 
report recommended the suppression of the State banks 
by taxation, and the substitution in their stead of national 
banks organized on the plan hereinbefore mentioned. Feb. 
25,1862, Congress authorized the issue of legal-tender notes, 
and specie disappeared from use within the country, except 
for the payment of customs and interest on the public debt. 
Feb. 25, 1863, an act was passed by Congress authorizing 


the establishment of national banks on the plan proposed 
by the secretary of the treasury, with permission to deposit 
the public moneys with them ; which act, as amended June 
30, 1864, and subsequently, is now the law of the land. 
Most of the State banks made preparation to reorganize 
under the national system. In Oct., 1863, 66 banks had 
organized under the new system; Jan. 4, 1864, 139 banks; 
Jan. 2, 1865, 639 banks; Jan. 1, 1866, 1582 banks. This 
substantially completed the change. Very few banks re¬ 
mained under the State system, and these were mainly 
those located in great money-centres, which could afford 
to relinquish their circulation, as the Federal law com¬ 
pelled, without suffering loss. The following synoptical 
table exhibits the change from the State to the national 
system (1863 to 1865, inclusive), and the progress of the 
latter since—sums in millions of dollars and tenths: 


Date 
nearest 
Jan. 1st. 

No. 

Capital. 

Specie. 

Legal ten¬ 
ders and 3 
per cent, 
certifi¬ 
cates. 

Cir. 

Notes. 

De¬ 
posits.6 

Loans 
and dis¬ 
counts. 

1864 

139 

14.7 

5.0 


19.5 

10.7 

1865 

639 

135.6 

4.5 

72.5 

66.8 

221.2 

166.4 

1866 

1582 

403.4 

19.2 

187.8 

*258.7 

552.2 

500.7 

1867 

1648 

420.2 

19.7 

186.9 

*298.3 

588.4 

608.8 

1868 

1642 

420.3 

21.0 

164.3 

*298.2 

562.2 

616.6 

1869 

1628 

419.0 

29.6 

142.6 

*297.3 

585.2 

644.9 

1870 

1615 

426.1 

48.3 

134.0 

*295.2 

555.6 

688.9 

1871 

1648 

435.4 

26.3 

124.6 

*298.3 

517.6 

725.5 

1872 

1790 

460.2 

29.6 

118.4 

*320.1 

616.8 

819.0 

“1873 

1919 

479.6 

25.5 

116.8 

*335.1 

625.7 

877.2 


(For population and currency, see Money; for treasury 
balances, see Treasury.) 

These returns, which are compulsory and official, prove 
that under the national banking-system credit has been 
carried to a greater height than it ever attained before. 

One of tip} objections urged against the State in favor of 
the national system, which experience has since sustained, 
was the number of counterfeit and other false notes that 
circulated under the former system, and from which the 
latter is almost free. The number of State banks and 
branches in 1862 was 1496; and, according to the bank¬ 
note reporters of the period, the number whose notes were 
not counterfeited was 253 ; number of kinds of “ imitations,” 
1861; number of kinds of alterations, 3039; number of kinds 
of spurious notes, 1685. Although these statistics would 
perhaps scarcely stand the test of close scrutiny, there is 
doubtless considerable strength in the conclusion to which 
they would lead. The State bank-notes were printed by 
the banks, each for itself, and of as many different designs 
as there were banks; the national bank-notes are printed 
by the treasury, and, according to denomination, arc all of 
one design. 

The State banking-system is by no means extinct. 
Although all the State banks have been compelled to with¬ 
draw their notes from circulation, many of them, scattered 
throughout the States, have never changed to the national 
system; while no inconsiderable number of the national 
banks, some of which were originally State banks, have 
changed to the State system, either to avoid participation 
in the danger which some foresee in the latter or to escape 
the taxes on circulation and deposits levied on national 
banks. On the 21st Sept., 1872, there were seventy of these 
institutions doing business under the laws of the State of 
New York, having a combined capital of $24,845,040; de¬ 
posits, $75,491,383; loans and discounts, $66,076,361 ; 
“ bills of solvent banks and U. S. legal-tender notes,” 
$7,803,556; and specie, $1,261,772. Alex. Delmar. 

Bank'head (John Pine), U. S. N., born in South Caro¬ 
lina Aug. 3, 1821, entered the navy as a midshipman 
Aug. 6, 1838, became a passed midshipman in 1844, a 
lieutenant in 1852, a commander in 1862, and a captain 
in 1866. Died at Aden, Arabia, on his way home from the 
East Indies, April 27, 1869. He commanded the gunboat 
Pembina at the battle of Port Royal, Nov. 7, 1861, and 
during the subsequent operations on the coast of South 
Carolina; commanded the Monitor when she foundered off 
Hatteras on the night of Dec. 31, 1863, and displayed ad¬ 
mirable coolness on that trying occasion. Rear-Admiral 
Lee, in his official report of the disaster, says: “ The ves¬ 
sel filling rapidly, Commander Bankhead ordered the men 
then left on board to leave in the Rhode Island’s boat, then 
cautiously approaching, as the sea was breaking violently 
over the Monitor’s submerged deck. In this perilous posi¬ 
tion Commander Bankhead held a boat's painter until as 

a Oct. 3, 1872. 


* Branches excluded. 

f The census of 1860 (iv. p. 291) gives much higher figures for 
this year. 

X Branches included. 


6 Including deposits of the U. S. and of U. S. disbursing officers. 
c Including State bank notes outstanding, as follows: 1866 45 5- 
1867, 7.0; 1868, 3.8; 1869, 2.7; 1870, 2.4; 1871, 2.1; 1872, 1.9; and 
1873, 1.6 (millions). A portion of this is doubtless lost or de¬ 
stroyed. 



























































BANK-NOTES, MANUFACTURE OF—BANKS. 


many men got in as the boat could carry. He did not leave 
his vessel so long as he could do anything towards saving 
his crew'.” He was a son of General James Bankhead, 
U. S. A. (1783-1856). Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Bank-Notes, Manufacture of. An important ob¬ 
ject in making bank-notes is to guard against counterfeits. 
The engraving should be such that the public can distin¬ 
guish the genuine note by its superiority of execution, and 
the officers of the bank by secret peculiarities of design. 
These ends are secured mainly by the use, in engraving, 
of rare and very expensive lathes. The writing, the em¬ 
blems, and figures are so combined as to render forgery 
difficult. The ink is peculiar. The paper also is of pecu¬ 
liar manufacture, both in Europe and America. About 
1837 a great improvement was made in the engraving of 
bank-notes. This was the production of designs by the 
mill and die, by mechanical pressure, invented by Jacob 
Perkins. The pattern is engraved on a soft steel plate, 
which is then hardened to transfer the pattern by pressure 
to a soft steel roller, on which, of course, the pattern is 
produced in relief. The roller is then hardened to repro¬ 
duce the pattern in the plate on which the note is to be 
printed. (See Engraving, Bank-Note, by John E. 
Gavit, Esq.) 

Bank'rupt [Lat. bancus , a “bench,” and ruptus, 
“broken”], a term originally applied to a merchant whose 
bench or counter had been broken by reason of inability 
to pay his debts. In its popular sense the word is now 
nearly synonymous with insolvent, and denotes any person 
unable to meet his liabilities. In England its legal signi¬ 
fication is well defined. It embraces only traders, or per¬ 
sons whose business it is to buy and sell for gain, and the 
various statutes which have been enacted there since the 
reign of Henry VIII. in relation to bankrupts have been 
applicable to that class alone. By the English laws a bank¬ 
rupt is a trader who has committed an act of bankruptcy, 
as defined by statute. A trader may have committed an 
act of bankruptcy, and have been formally adjudged a 
bankrupt, and yet be entirely solvent—that is, eventually 
able to pay his debts in full ; and he may be wholly unable 
to pay his debts, and yet have committed no act of bank¬ 
ruptcy. A bankrupt was at first regarded as an offender 
against the law, and bankrupt laws were intended for the 
benefit of creditors. But at present they are founded on 
the interests of trade, and intended to be beneficial to 
both debtor and creditor. If the conduct of the bankrupt 
has been such as to entitle him to the consideration of the 
court, he is discharged for ever from all debts owing by 
him at the time he became a bankrupt. The law is con¬ 
fined to traders, because they are regarded as possessing 
peculiar facilities for delaying and defrauding creditors; 
and, on the other hand, they are considered, generally 
speaking, the only class subject to heavy accidental losses, 
and to an inability to pay their debts without any fault on 
their part. Insolvent laws, which in England merely re¬ 
lease the debtor from liability to imprisonment for debt, 
but leave the debt still undischarged, are there regarded as 
affording sufficient relief to other classes of debtors. 

In the U. S., Congress possesses the power, under the 
Constitution, to establish uniform laws on the subject of 
bankruptcies. Pursuant to this power, in the year 1800 
Congress passed a bankrupt law, which by its own terms was 
limited to five years, but it was repealed in 1803. This law 
preserved the leading features of the English laws relating 
to bankruptcy. It could be enforced only on the applica¬ 
tion of creditors, and embraced only the mercantile class. 

In the year 1841 the second bankrupt act was enacted 
by Congress. It could be taken advantage of by all per¬ 
sons whomsoever residing in the U. S. owing debts not 
contracted in a fiduciary capacity, although it could be en¬ 
forced at the instance of creditors only against merchants, 
bankers, brokers, factors, and underwriters. This extended 
exercise of the power over the subject of bankruptcy was 
violently opposed as unconstitutional, on the ground that 
Congress was confined to the well-recognized meaning of 
the term bankruptcies as understood in the English courts 
when the Constitution was formed. The law was repealed 
in Mar., 1843. 

But by act approved Mar. 2, 1867, Congress passed a 
third bankrupt law, even more general in its scope than 
the preceding. Under it any person residing in the U. S. 
and owing debts to the amount of $300 can, on his own 
application showing his inability to pay his debts in full, 
and his desire to surrender his property for the benefit of 
his creditors, take advantage of the act and be declared a 
bankrupt. So a debtor owing a specified amount can be 
forced to become a bankrupt upon the application of cred¬ 
itors if he has committed any of certain offences or acts 
specified in the statute. The bankrupt, after the distribu¬ 
tion of his property amounting to a fixed per centago of 


381 


his debts, obtains a discharge from all his indebtedness 
existing at the time the petition was filed, except in cer¬ 
tain instances specified in the act. 

The distinguishing feature of a bankrupt act is the sum¬ 
mary seizure of all the debtor’s property, and its division 
among his creditors in proportion to their claims. The 
race of diligence among creditors is entirely at an end, and 
all legal proceedings, except such as are in conformity to 
the statute, are stayed. It is against the policy of the 
bankrupt law to allow the debtor, in contemplation of 
bankruptcy, to give preference to one creditor over an¬ 
other. All such preferences are void, and an attempt to 
make them is of itself an act of bankruptcy. 

The various States also possess the power to pass bank¬ 
rupt laws, but no State bankrupt or insolvent law can im¬ 
pair the obligations of contracts. Hence they cannot re¬ 
lease a debtor from obligations incurred before the passage 
of such law, nor act upon the rights of citizens of other 
States. And when Congress sees fit to exercise the power 
over the subject of bankruptcies granted it by the Con¬ 
stitution, the State laws on the same subject are suspended. 
On the repeal of the Congressional law the State laws 
would revive. The power of Congress over the subject is 
plenary, and its law may affect existing debts as well as 
those which are contracted after its enactment. 

The judicial business in bankruptcy is in the main 
transacted by the district court of the U. S., with officers 
called registers to conduct the administrative or non-con- 
tested business. The estate is managed by an assignee, 
■who acts as a trustee, and is accountable to the court re¬ 
ferred to. T. W. D WIGHT. 

Banks, a county in the N. E. part of Georgia. Area, 
280 square miles. It is drained by the sources of Broad 
River. The surface is hilly or uneven. Indian corn is an 
important crop. Some rice and cotton is raised. Capital, 
Homer. Pop. 4973. 

Banks, a township of Fayette co., Ia. Pop. 223. 

Banks, a township of Antrim co., Mich. Pop. 504. 

Banks, a township of Carbon co., Pa. Pop. 3982. 

Banks, a township of Indiana co., Pa. Pop. 747. 

Banks, a township of Upshur co., West Ya. P. 1272. 

Banks (Nathaniel Prentiss), a statesman and gen¬ 
eral, born at Waltham, Mass., Jan. 30, 1816. He learned 
the trade of a machinist, afterwards studied law, was 
elected to the legislature as a Democrat in 1849, and was 
chosen speaker of the house of representatives of Massa¬ 
chusetts in 1851. Having been elected a member of the 
national Congress in 1852, he was separated from the 
Democratic party by his opposition to the extension of 
slavery, and in 1854 was returned to Congress by the 
Republicans and Know-Nothings. In Feb., 1856, after 
an exciting contest which occupied two months, he was 
chosen Speaker of the House on the one hundred and 
thirty-third ballot. He was elected governor of Massa¬ 
chusetts, in Nov., 1857, for one year, and was re¬ 
elected in 1858 and 1859. In May, 1861, he was ap¬ 
pointed a major-general of volunteers, and soon obtained 
the command of an army on the Potomac. Having gained 
some advantage at Winchester in Mar., 1862, he pursued 
the enemy to Harrisonburg. On the 24th of May he was 
attacked by Stonewall Jackson, and retreated rapidly 
to the Potomac. In Dec., 1862, he succeeded General 
Butler as commander of the department of the Gulf. 
About the end of May, 1863, he invested Port Hudson, 
which was taken with about 6000 prisoners, July 9. In 
the spring of 1864 he conducted an expedition up the Red 
River, in which Rear-Admiral Porter co-operated with the 
gunboats. He ascended above Grand Ecore. After sev¬ 
eral battles at Pleasant Hill (April 9) and other places, 
being pressed by superior numbers, he retreated towards 
New Orleans, and was relieved from the command in May, 
1864. He was chosen a member of Congress by the Re¬ 
publicans of Massachusetts in 1864, in 1866, in 1868, and 
in 1870. He served as chairman of the committee of for¬ 
eign relations in the fortieth and forty-first Congresses. 

Banks (Sir Joseph), LL.D., F.R.S., an eminent Eng¬ 
lish naturalist, born in London Jan. 4, 1743, inherited an 
easy fortune. He was educated at Oxford, which he 
quitted in 1763, was elected a fellow of the Royal Society 
in 1766, and sailed with Captain Cook in his voyage 
round the world in 1768. He returned in 1771 with rich 
collections of plants, animals, etc. In 1777 he was chosen 
president of the Royal Society, over which he presided 
forty-two years. He was a liberal patron of naturalists 
and scientific men, who under his auspices performed sev¬ 
eral voyages of discovery. Tho colony of Botany Bay 
owed its origin mainly to him. He contributed memoirs 
to the “Philosophical Transactions” and other publica¬ 
tions. Died Juno 19, 1820. (See Cuvier, “ Eulogy on Sir 









382 BANKS—BANXRING. 


J. Banks,” 1821; Duncan, “Short Account of the Life of 
Sir J. Banks,” 1821.) 

Banks (Thomas), the first great English sculptor, born 
at Lambeth Dec. 22, 1735. lie gained the gold medal of 
the Royal Academy in 1770, and went to Rome in 1772. 
He remained for several years in Rome, and produced 
there “ Caractacus pleading before Claudius,” and an ad¬ 
mirable statue of “ Psyche and the Butterfly,” which was 
purchased by Catharine II. of Russia. Among his mas¬ 
terpieces is the “Mourning Achilles.” He excelled in 
imaginative works. He became a member of the Royal 
Academy. Died Feb. 2, 1805. (See Cunningham, “ Lives 
of the Painters and Sculptors.”) 

Bank'sia, a genus of Australian shrubs and trees of 
the order Proteaceae (named in honor of Sir Joseph Banks), 
have hard dry leaves, and an umbellate arrangement of 
branches, which bear near the extremities oblong heads of 
numerous flowers. One species ( Banksia grandis) grows 
to a height of fifty feet. 

Banks, Savings. See Savings Banks. 

Bank, The, a port of entry of Albert co., New Bruns¬ 
wick, on the Shepody River, 82 miles N. E. of St. John. 
Coal is found in the vicinity. 

Ban'nack City, or Bannock City, a mining-town, 
capital of Beaver Head co., Mon., is on or near the Jeffer¬ 
son Fork of the Missouri River, about 50 miles W. of Vir¬ 
ginia City. Gold and silver are found in this vicinity. 
The name is derived from the Bannack tribe of Indians, 
who are now much reduced in numbers. 

Ban'natyne Club, a literary club deriving its name 
from George Bannatyne, who was born in Scotland about 
1545. He compiled a collection of manuscripts called 
“ Corpus Poeticum Scotorum.” This club was founded at 
Edinburgh in 1823 by Sir Walter Scott, its design being to 
promote the knowledge of Scottish history and antiqui¬ 
ties, and to print rare works which tend to illustrate those 
subjects. The club originally consisted of thirty-one mem¬ 
bers, and gradually increased to one hundred, to which 
number it was finally limited. 

Ban'neker (Benjamin), a negro mathematician, born 
in Maryland Nov. 9, 1731. He was the author of an alma¬ 
nac (1792 sqq.), of which a copy was sent by Thomas Jef¬ 
ferson to the secretary of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. 
Banneker assisted in laying out Washington City and run¬ 
ning the boundary-lines of the District of Columbia. Died 
at Baltimore in Oct., 1806. 

Ban'ner [Fr. banniere; It. bandie'ra; Sp. bande'ra; so 
called, probably, because it was bound to the flag-staff: it 
is doubtless from the same root as the German Band, a 
“ ribbon ”], a military ensign or flag; the standard of a prince 
or state. Banners have been used in all ages and all coun¬ 
tries for the purpose of directing the movements of armies. 
The banner of the ancient Romans was a square piece of 
drapery suspended from a transverse bar and supported on 
a staff. It was marked by the figure of an eagle and the 
initials S. P. Q. R. —Senatus Populusque Bomanus. After 
Constantine became a patron of the Christian religion the 
Roman banners displayed the cross as the national em¬ 
blem, and took the name of labarum. During the Middle 
Ages new forms of banners were adopted. From the banner 
royal, which bore the national emblem, to the pennon of the 
knight or the small streamer attached to a lance, there was 
a regular subordination. No one except a person of high 
rank was permitted to use the square banner. Bishops and 
abbots had the privilege of displaying banners in religious 
processions. Soldiers and patriots are warmly attached to 
the banner or flag of their country as a symbol of nation¬ 
ality and as a visible sign of the national unity and life. 

Banner, a township of Fulton co., Ill. Pop. 1104. 

Ban'neret, a title formerly given to a soldier for some 
heroic action. The banneret was higher in rank than a 
knight, and was so called because he had the privilege of 
displaying a square banner. When a knight was promoted 
to the rank of banneret the points of his pennon were cut 
off, and it was thus converted into a square form. The first 
English banneret was created by Edward I., and the last 
was Capt. John Smith, who rescued the banner of Charles 
I. at the battle of Edgehill. 

Ban'nister, a township of Pittsylvania co., Va. Pop. 
3347. 

Bannister (Henry), D. D., born Oct. 5, 1812, at Con¬ 
way, Mass., graduated at the Wesleyan University, Conn., 
in 1836, studied at Auburn Theological Seminary, was 
principal of the Methodist academy at Cazenovia for some 
years, and in 1856 was appointed professor of exegetical 
theology in the Garrett Biblical Institute at Evanston, Ill. 
He is author of several able published sermons, addresses, 
and reviews. 


Bannister (William B.), born in Brookfield, Mass., 
Nov. 8, 1783, graduated at Dartmouth in 1797, was a suc¬ 
cessful lawyer and merchant, and a distinguished friend of 
learning. He married Miss Grant, a celebrated teacher of 
Ipswich. Died at Newburyport, Mass., July 1, 1853, leav¬ 
ing $40,000 to various charitable institutions. 

Ban'nockbiirn, a village of Scotland, in the county 
of Stirling, on the Bannock rivulet, 3 miles S. of Stirling. 
It was the scene of a famous and complete victory gained 
by Robert Bruce over the English army, led by the king 
Edward II., on the 24th of June, 1314. The English lost 
about 30,000 men. Here are important manufactures of 
woollens, especially tartans and carpets. Pop. about 2600. 

Bannock City. See Bannack City and Idaho City. 

Banns (or Bans) of Marriage [for etymology see 
Ban], a public notice of an intended marriage, given in a 
church or other place prescribed by law. The law of Eng¬ 
land requires that all banns of matrimony shall be jiub- 
lished in an audible manner, according to the rubric pre¬ 
fixed to the marriage service in the Book of Common Prayer, 
upon three Sundays preceding the ceremony. This rubric 
is in the following terms: “I publish the banns of mar¬ 
riage between A, of -, and B, of-. If any of you 

know cause or just impediment why these persons should 
not be joined together in holy matrimony, ye are to declare 
it.” The English law, however, dispenses with this pre¬ 
liminary publication if the parties obtain a license from a 
person authorized to grant it. The custom of banns has 
been abolished in most of the U. S. The practice was first 
directed in the times of the Fathers, was enacted afterwards 
by Odo, bishop of Paris, about 1176, placed in the canon 
law in 1200 by the Synod of Westminster, and prescribed 
for the whole Latin Church by the Council of Lateran in 
1215. It is still required by the canon law of England and 
Roman Catholic countries. 

Bantam', an old town of Java, on the N. coast, 44 miles 
W. of Batavia. It was formerly a large city and great 
entrepot of trade, but on account of the unhealthy climate 
is at present almost deserted. In the fifteenth century it 
was the chief town of a powerful Mohammedan empire of 
the same name, which at one time even comprised the 
southern part of Sumatra and the W. coast of Borneo. In 
1683 the sultan of Bantam became a vassal of the Nether¬ 
lands, and in the beginning of the present century the 
Dutch took possession of the sultanate. The town is in 
lat. 6° 2' S., Ion. 106° 50' E. 

Ban'tam Fowl, a variety of the common fowl, first 
brought from the Indies, and supposed to derive its name 
from Bantam, Java. It is remarkable for its small size 
and its courage. There are many sub-varieties, most of 
which have the legs feathered. 

Ban teng' ( Bos or Bibos bmiteng, or Ban'teng Sonda'- 
icus), a species of ox, a native of Java and Borneo, which 
in color, shape, horns, and want of dewlap bears some re¬ 
semblance to the gaur of India. It has short hair, slender 
limbs, and a sharp muzzle. Though extremely wild, it is 
often domesticated by the natives, and becomes a very ser¬ 
viceable animal. 

Ban'tingism, a regimen for the reduction of corpu¬ 
lence ; so called after an English gentleman named Banting, 
who introduced it as the result of his own experience. It 
consists essentially in the avoidance of food containing fatty 
matter, and of materials which may make fat in the body, as 
starch and sugar. Lean meat predominates in this diet; 
vegetables are almost excluded; butter, milk, sugar, and 
malt liquors are prohibited. With active exercise this 
method is often successful in reducing excessive weight. 

Ban'try, Earls of, and Viscounts Berehaven (1816), 
Viscounts Bantry (1800), Barons Bantry (1797, in the Irish 
peerage), a noble family of Great Britain. —William Hen¬ 
ry Hare Hedges White, the third earl, was born Nov. 10, 
1801, and succeeded his brother in 1868. 

Bantry Bay, a deep inlet in the S. of Ireland, in Cork 
county, is 25 miles long and from 3 to 5 miles wide. It is 
one of the finest harbors in Europe, affording safe and com¬ 
modious anchorage for ships of all sizes. The coast of the 
bay is high and rocky, consisting of Devonian strata, and 
exhibits some of the finest scenery in the island. Near the 
entrance of this bay occurred a naval action between the 
English and French in 1689. 

Bauvarcl' (Joseph), D. D., born in New York City in 
1810, has held many prominent pastorates in the Baptist 
denomination, and is the author of numerous Sunday-school 
Question-books and other works, chiefly tales and histories 
for the young. 

Banx'ring ( Tupai'a ), a genus of insectivorous quad¬ 
rupeds, natives of Sumatra, India, Borneo, etc.; they climb 
trees with agility, like lemurs and squirrels. They have 
an elongated muzzle and a long bushy tail. 



















BANYAN—BAPTISTS. 


383 


Han' yan,* or Banian ( Fi'cus In'dica), an East In¬ 
dian tree remarkable for its mode of propagation by means 
of branches, which descend to the ground and take root 
and become stems or trunks. The shoots at first hang like 
loose cords or ropes, but after they take root they are 
gradually tightened, till they become almost as firm as a 
rod of iron. In this manner a single tree spreads over a 
large extent of ground, and endures for many centuries. 
One of these trees has been described as having 350 large 
stems, and occupying so large a space that many thousand 
persons might stand under its shade. It is a species of 
fig, and produces a fruit about as large as a cherry, and of a 
rich scarlet color. An abundance of gum-lac is procured from 



Banyan Tree. 


this tree, the bark of which is esteemed as a tonic by Hin¬ 
doo physicians. The above illustration may serve to give 
one an idea of a vigorous and comparatively young banyan 
tree. In very old trees many of the stems often become 
almost or quite as large as the original trunk. 

Banyan, a township of Jefferson co., Ark. Pop. 615. 

Banz, the name of one of the finest Benedictine 
abbeys known in .history, is situated in Bavaria in the 
midst of a beautiful landscape. The monks of this abbey 
were noted for their learning and humane spirit. It was 
founded in 1058. The convent was abolished in 1802, and 
is now the summer residence of the princes of Bavaria. 
Here is a museum which is especially rich in petrifactions. 

Baobab. See Adansonia. 

Baour-liormian (Pierre Marie FRAsrgois Louis), 
a French poet of the first empire, born Mar. 4, 1770, 
translator of Tasso and Ossian, and author of many trage¬ 
dies in the severely classic style, which were greatly ad¬ 
mired in their time. Died 1857. 

Baph'omet, a mysterious symbol of the Knight Temp¬ 
lars, was a small human figure cut out of stone, having two 
heads, male and female. It was environed with serpents 
and astrological attributes, and marked with inscriptions, 
mostly in Arabic. The word is supposed to be a corrup¬ 
tion of Mohammed or Mahomet (called by the Portuguese, 
Bafoma), to whose religion the Templars were suspected 
of leaning. Others derive it from Ba<f>i/ the “ bath 

of wisdom,” a reputed name of the Gnostic baptism, often 
called in old writings “baphometic baptism.” Quite a 
number of baphomets are preserved in European archae¬ 
ological collections. 

Bap'tism [Lat. baptis'ma ; Gr. jSaiTTicrMa, from 
to “baptize”], the act of initiating a person, by the appli¬ 
cation of water, into the visible Church of Christ. (See 
Baptists, by Prof. H. Osgood, S. T. D.) 

Bap'tist Church, a township of Cabarrus co., N. C. 
Pop. 1032. 

Baptistery [Gr. paTTTiaTijpiov], a name sometimes given 
to the tank or vessel in which the ordinance of baptism 
is administered; sometimes to a portion of a church in 
which the ceremony of baptism is performed, or a separate 
building erected near the church for the performance of 
that rite. These buildings were either octagonal, polygonal, 
or circular. The baptistery of Florence, among the most 
celebrated, is an octagonal structure about 100 feet in di¬ 
ameter, standing in close proximity to the cathedral. It 
is built of black and white marble. The most remarkable 
features of this baptistery are the magnificent bronze doors, 
adorned with bas-reliefs by Lorenzo Ghiberti. In the 
centre of each of these buildings erected for baptismal 
purposes is a tank, which is often of considerable propor- 

* Probably derived from the Sanscrit vdnyti (pronounced bdnyd 
in Bengal), a “grove” or “thicket,” a single banyan tree often 
forming a grove (or thicket) of itself. 


tions—that at Ravenna being about nine feet square, and 
that of the Lateran, at Rome, thirty-seven inches or more 
in depth. 

Bap'tists, a body of Christians who maintain those 
views of Christian truth which are commonly regarded as 
“evangelical,” but who differ from adherents of the Church 
of Rome and from most Protestants in the following 
respects: 

1. They maintain that immersion is an essential condi¬ 
tion of valid baptism—appealing, in support of their posi¬ 
tion, to the significance of the Greek word panTCfa and its 
Latin equivalents; to the circumstances in which the bap¬ 
tisms of the New Testament were administered; to the 
scriptural significance of the rite as a burial with Christ; 
to the practice of the Church in the early Christian centu¬ 
ries ; and to the concessions of those who, while practically 
rejecting immersion, admit that it was practised by the 
apostles and the early churches. All pleas for a modifica¬ 
tion of the rite on the ground of indifference or expediency 
they meet by insisting on the duty of literal compliance 
with the precepts and example of Christ, and the import¬ 
ance of maintaining the emblematical significance of the 
rite. 

2. They maintain that a visible Church should be com¬ 
posed of such only, and that such only should be admitted 
to baptism, as give credible evidence of regeneration—in 
opposition to those who would make the Church coterminous 
with a state or states, and those who would include in the 
Church the unregenerate members of Christian households. 
These views also they profess to derive from the New Tes¬ 
tament, and enforce them on the ground of reason and 
common sense. They were the first among the various 
sects of modern Christendom to insist on “a spiritual 
church-membership;” and it is largely through their in¬ 
fluence that that idea has gained such wide acceptance in 
this country, and is gradually spreading throughout Eu¬ 
rope. (See Curtis’s “Progress of Baptist Principles.”) 

3. They maintain that professed believers only should 
receive baptism. This position is a natural sequence of 
their view of the spiritual nature of the Church when 
coupled with the almost universally conceded doctrine that 
baptism is the initiatory rite of the Church. They point, 
however, to the baptisms of the New Testament as by 
explicit statement or fair inference the baptism of be¬ 
lievers ; and insist that the baptism of an unconscious 
infant, either on the resjionsibility of the Church, the 
State, or the religious household, is a violation of the rights 
of the individual conscience, which should, in their opinion, 
“give account of itself unto God” in all matters of relig¬ 
ious faith and practice. They maintain, in short, that 
all the Christian ordinances are acts of faith, requiring 
the conscious consent of the subject. In reply to argu¬ 
ments drawn from the mention of the baptism of households 
in the New Testament, they reply that they would cheer¬ 
fully baptize such households as that of Stephanas bap¬ 
tized by Paul (which is described as “the first-fruits of 
Achaia, and addicted to the ministry of the saints”), or 
the household of the Philippian jailer, of which it is 
explicitly affirmed that they were all believers; and point 
to the large number of believing households in membership 
with Baptist churches to show that household baptism 
does not necessarily imply infant baptism. 

4. They maintain that there should be no organic con¬ 
nection between the Church and the State; and, further, 
that each individual church (by which they understand, 
“a body of baptized believers, with its pastor and deacons, 
covenanted together for religious worship and religious 
work”) should be absolutely independent of any other 
body, whether ecclesiastical or political, being accountable 
for its doctrines and practices only to the great Head of 
the Church. As a consequence of this, though Baptist 
churches are frequently grouped together in “associa¬ 
tions,” and the “associations” of a State are further 
combined in “general associations” or “State conven¬ 
tions,” though Baptists frequently call “ councils ” for the 
recognition of churches, the ordination of ministers, and 
the adjustment of difficulties, “associations,” “conven¬ 
tions,” and “councils” have with them no ecclesiastical 
authority whatever, save that with which the Christian 
comity of those constituting them invests them, and the 
moral weight which their conclusions carry. 

In view of the facts just stated, the substantial homo¬ 
geneity in doctrine and practice of a body of Christians 
which embraces, in the U. S. alone, more than 1,500,000 
communicants, may bo a matter of surprise; and that 
surprise will be enhanced when it is understood that tho 
Baptists have no authoritative creeds or symbols, but 
appeal, in support of doctrine or practice, directly to tho 
word of God. This homogeneity (as complete as that 
which exists in any denomination of Christians) is attrib¬ 
uted by tho Baptists to the fact that members enter their 






























BAPTISTS. 


384 


churches consciously adopting a coherent, self-consistent, 
and scriptural system of Christian truth. 

It is to reinforce their utterances in behalf of a spiritual 
church-membership and allegiance in religious matters to 
Christ alone, by an acted protest to what they believe to 
be a departure from the apostolic conception of the Chris¬ 
tian Church, that the Baptists take a position with refer¬ 
ence to the Lord’s Supper similar to that taken by the 
Episcopalians with reference to ministers not episcopally 
ordained. While cordially co-operating with other religious 
denominations in all forms of moral and religious activity, 
they decline to invite them to participation in the Lord’s 
Supper, taking the ground that there is an obvious and 
necessary distinction between Christian fellowship and 
church fellowship. Their position with reference to this 
matter is, briefly stated, that the Lord’s Supper is an ordi¬ 
nance designed by Christ for his churches, and entrusted 
to their care; that baptism is the initiatory rite of the 
Christian Church; that valid baptism involves the immer¬ 
sion of a professed believer. In the first two particulars 
they agree with most Christian sects; and hence are 
accustomed to claim that they do not practise “ close 
communion,” but close baptism; that most of the other 
Christian sects are no more willing than they to invito to 
the Lord’s Supper those whom they do not conscientiously 
regard as baptized. 

In 1815, Robert Hall (one of the most gifted and influen¬ 
tial Baptist ministers of England) published a treatise on 
the “ Terms of Communion,” in which he endeavored to 
satisfy himself and others that baptism was not a pre¬ 
requisite to communion. Ilis genei'al conclusion has been 
accepted by many who inject the premise from which alone 
a Baptist could logically derive it; and since his day most 
of the Baptists of England, and a few in America, havo 
been “ open communionists.” 

History. —The name “ Baptists ” has been borne by the 
denomination whom it now designates only about 200 
years. It was given to them, as is supposed, either dur¬ 
ing the Commonwealth in England or shortly afterwards. 
The name by which they were known previous to the 
Commonwealth was Anabaptist, and the same name in a 
German translation, “ Wiedertaufer,” had for more than 
a hundred years before been applied to the predecessors of 
English Baptists in Switzerland and Germany. But as 
in Switzerland, Germany, Moravia, and Holland these 
Christians had from the first denied the appropriateness 
of the name “Wiedertaufer” (Rebaptizer), so in Eng¬ 
land their first l-ecorded Confession of Faith (A. D. 1644) 
is said to be of “ churches of Christ in London which are 
commonly (but unjustly) called Anabaptists.” In this 
historical sketch the name Baptist will be used to designate 
the German “ Wiedertaufer,” the Dutch “ Doopsgezinden,” 
and English “Anabaptists ” and “ Baptists,” without in¬ 
tending by the name to assert a perfect similarity between 
them in all things. The German “Anabaptists ” (see ar¬ 
ticle Anabaptists) more frequently practised pouring 
than immersion; and the same statement may be made 
(see below) respecting the Dutch “ Mennonites.” These 
bodies of Christians agreed with our modern Baptists, 
however, in admitting only professed believers to baptism, 
and in maintaining the independence of a gospel Church 
of ecclesiastical or political control. They are, in some 
sense, the pi-ogenitors of the Baptists of to-day, though 
the historical connection between the two cannot be easily 
traced. 

Over the continental Baptists of the time of the Refor¬ 
mation has hung a cloud of misrepresentation for thi-ee 
centuries. The Peasant War (1525) and the Munster Re¬ 
bellion (1535) have been laid at their door. That there 
were some renegade Baptists at Munster no one would deny, 
as there were more renegade Lutherans. But Baptists were 
no more responsible for that rebellion and its results than 
English missionaries were responsible for the Sepoy rebel¬ 
lion, or than Baptists of America are now responsible for 
Mormonism because Joseph Smith w T as a renegade Baptist 
and Mormons practise immersion. With respect to the 
Peasant War, Miinzei', its leader, never was a Baptist, and 
never acted in concert with Baptists. In proof of this the 
letter of Baptist ministers of Switzerland (dated Oct., 1524) 
is still preserved at St. Gall, in which, while they express 
sympathy with some of his views (t. e. rejection of the 
mass and infant baptism), they rebuke him for taking the 
sword. In the discussions with Zwingle before 1525, the 
Baptists of Switzerland had maintained the view held by 
many of their descendants in Europe, that Christians had 
no right to use arms for self-defence or the defence of the 
land; and this view was maintained by the Swiss and 
German Baptists at their convention at Schleitheim, near 
Schaffhausen, Sept., 1527. 

The Baptists in the earliest years of the Reformation 
consisted of the poor and obscure. The persecutions of 


centuries had taught them concealment. After 1522 there 
was in Switzerland a band of scholars who had been con¬ 
verted by means of these obscure men, and who literally 
gave their lives for the defence of the faith. Balthazar 
Hubmaier had been pro-rector of the Uni versity of Ingold- 
stadt, and was said by Eek to be the most eloquent man in 
Europe; Conrad Grebel was the scion of a noble house, 
and one of the first scholars of Vienna and Paris; Felix 
Mantz as a Hebraist occupied a high rank; Johann Denk 
and Ludwig Hetzer made a translation of the Prophets 
that compelled the pi'aise of their enemies. These were 
the men whose names appear most frequently in the con- 
fiict which Zwingle provoked with the Baptists. There is 
not one of them who before becoming a Baptist was not 
the friend and associate of Zwingle and his fellow-woi’kers. 

Baptists, Zwinglians, and Lutherans agi-eed, in substance, 
in holding the doctrines of justification by faith and re- 
generation by the Holy Spirit, but they differed most widely 
in their view of the connection of these docti’ines with the 
doctrine of the Church. Luther and Zwingle, though 
pi’eacliing the great doctrine of justification by faith, hesi¬ 
tated to institute i*adical changes either in the constitution 
or the worship of the Church. While they both in the 
earlier part of their woi'k asserted that the Church should 
consist only of believers, and should be independent of the 
state, they both A'ery soon came to consider the whole state 
Christian, and gave all power over the Church into the 
hands of the civil government, and infi-actions of the 
ecclesiastical laws, passed by the states for the protection 
of the Lutheran and Zwinglian reformations, were pun¬ 
ished by fine, imprisonment, and death, with their ap- 
pi’oval. Baptists, on the contrary, held that the only 
churches spoken of in the New Testament are churches 
of believers, and claimed that to bi'ing in as members of a 
Church those who give no evidence of regeneration is to 
institute a practice for which there is not the least scrip¬ 
tural warrant, and to subvert the fundamental principles 
of the Reformation itself. 

The claims of Baptists were—freedom to form churches 
which should be separate from the world, to exei'cise church- 
discipline over their members, and to have the entire con¬ 
trol of their own ecclesiastical affairs without interference 
of the state. As citizens they declared that they owed 
dutiful obedience to the state in all things not in conflict 
with God’s laws, but the state had no l-ight to compel to 
any religious faith or to punish men for their faith. By 
this position, which they held most firmly, they stood not 
only in antagonism to the Reformers, but to the states 
which had passed laws to enforce the Reformed views, and 
hence arose the cry which pursued them for three hundred 
years, of being both heretics and rebels. 

The liberty of private judgment, which both Luther and 
Zwingle claimed in their discussions with Romanists, they 
were unwilling to grant to Baptists, and Protestant and 
Romanist joined hands in persecuting them unto death. 

It is claimed by some writers that the Baptists of the 
period of the Reformation were wild and fanatical, and 
that Menno Simons of Holland (A. D. 1536-61) first intro¬ 
duced order and milder views among them. The writings 
of Grebel, Denk, Hetzer, Hubmaier, the confessions of 
Baptists before the Protestant inquisitors of Switzerland— 
all given before 1530—disprove the assertion. Fanaticism 
cannot be justly charged upon the early Baptists of Switz¬ 
erland. 

How furious the persecution was against Baptists from 
1525 to 1530 may be learned from the fact that within 
these years all the great leaders had been either killed or 
banished from Switzerland, from what is now Elsass, Baden, 
Wiirtemberg, and Germany, and churches, many of them 
of lai-ge membership, were dispersed by fire and swoi-d. 

Hubmaier, during the two years of his banishment from 
Switzerland, under the protection of the counts of Liechten¬ 
stein at Nicolsburg, became the apostle of Moravia, and 
soon that land was filled with Baptists, and made the refuge 
of Baptists fleeing from other countries where the persecu¬ 
tion was more severe. For a hundred years great numbei’s 
of the Swiss braved the loss of their goods, and the long 
journey through hostile territory, and the price set upon 
their heads by the Bavarian dukes, to reach Moravia, 
where they might enjoy some little religious fi*eedom. 
From Moravia they sent out their missionaries to all jxarts 
of Gemxany, the Tyrol, and Switzerland, to Hungary, 
Silesia, and Poland. The Romish historians say that these 
missionaries were very successful in their efforts “to delude 
the people.” The “ Chronicle” of the Moravian brethren 
in manuscript in the town-library of Hamburg, the lately 
discovered complete works of Hubmaier, and ltyedeman’s 
“Account,” set before us the scriptural views and the 
steadfastness of these Moravian Baptists. 

Until 1531-32, Baptists had been most numerous in 
Switzerland, in Southern Germany, the Tyrol, Austria, and 















BAPTISTS. 


Moravia; after this date they appear in large numbers in 
the Netherlands, and in the countries bordering the Baltic 
up to the boundary of Russia. When they first appeared 
in the Netherlands cannot be decided. Ypeij and Dermout 
say Anabaptists were, according to the archives of Gronin¬ 
gen, expelled in 1517. Professor van Oostersee ( Herzog’s 
Encyclopiedie, vol. ix., 346) says of the Mennonites or 
Netherlands Baptists: ‘‘They are peculiar to the Nether¬ 
lands, and are older than the Reformation, and must there¬ 
fore by no means be confounded Avith the Protestantism of 
the sixteenth century, for it can be shown that the origin 
of the Baptists reaches much farther back and is more 
venerable. . . . The history of the Netherlands Baptists, 
particularly at first, is written in blood and tears. Un¬ 
ceasingly confounded with the fanatical party at Munster, 
they were persecuted in the most horrible manner by 
Catholics and non-Catholics. Their Church has given a 
great host of martyrs for the cause of Christ. The doctrines 
of baptism and of oaths raised up between them and their 
opponents walls of division as high as those between the 
defenders and opponents of the mass.” 

The Netherlands were the inheritance of Charles V., 
while in Germany he was emperor only by election, and 
the local government was largely in other hands. This 
accounts for the difference in the means used by him in 
resisting the Reformation. In Germany, till 1546, he tem¬ 
porized, but in the Netherlands he opposed fire and sword 
to the spread of the new doctrines. The history of the 
heroic contest here between the Protestants and Roman¬ 
ists is one of the most glorious in the history of the 
Church. Long before Menno, who is commonly regarded 
as the founder of the Netherlands Baptists, was converted 
and became a Baptist, Baptists were found in the Nether¬ 
lands, and were united in churches from the borders of 
France to the northern bounds of Friesland, and proved 
steadfast unto death in the maintenance of their principles. 
In 1527, at The Hague, the daughter of Weynken Claes of 
Monickendam was strangled and burnt; also Jan Walen 
and two companions at Haarlem. In 1532, Kraen of Har- 
zenswoude, his Avife, and two others, Avere put to death at 
Ha .arlem. In the same year nine citizens of Amsterdam 
suffered martyrdom at The Hague. BetAveen the Baptists 
of the Netherlands and those in the Rhine Provinces and 
in SAvitzerland there was an intimate union. In the 
writings of Menno and Philips Ave find the same vieAvs 
respecting Scripture doctrines which Avere held by tha 
Saauss Baptists in 1524. Their church-government Avas the 
same, and they also agreed with respect to the unlawful- 
ness of taking an oath or bearing arms or accepting civil 
office. The Moravian “ Chronicle” and the Dutch martyr- 
ologies include the Swiss, German, and Netherlands Bap¬ 
tists as brethren together in their Avitness for the truth of 
God. 

The Baptists in the Netherlands have been for a long 
time generally termed Mennonites, from Menno, one of 
their chief teachers. Menno Simons was a priest in the 
Roman Catholic Church in Friesland, Avho underwent a 
change of religious opinions and preached evangelical doc¬ 
trines (though, as he afterwards asserted, Avithout a change 
of heart) while still a priest. Influenced by the courageous 
martyrdom of a young Baptist, he examined and espoused 
Baptist principles, though he did not openly avow them 
until 1537, Avhen the revolt at Munster had led him to 
realize that his influence ought to be felt as a Baptist on 
the side of order and humanity. From that time till his 
death (1561) he labored fearlessly and incessantly (though 
a price was set upon his head) to disseminate the princi¬ 
ples Avhich he had adopted; and Avith such pre-eminent 
success as to give his name to the Netherlands Baptists. 
The minister of no particular congregation, Menno’s life 
was spent in travelling through the countries between the 
Rhine and the Elbe, from Cologne to Liefland. It is a 
great mistake, hoAvever, to suppose that he was their only 
prominent man at this time. He has left his impress upon 
his people by means of his writings, as well as his fearless 
and unceasing labors, but there Avere others who stood 
with him in the front rank as ministers. Dirk Philips 
found his field of activity mostly in Prussia and the lands 
bordering the Baltic, and Leenert BouAvens was the apostle 
of Friesland. Philips, like Menno, Avas a writer as well as 
a preacher and worker, and has left his interpretation of 
Baptist belief in his Avorks. Leenert Bouwens deserves to 
be remembered for his marvellous exertions and almost 
unparalleled success in winning souls to God. His diary 
is still preserved, and reaches from 1551 to 1578, in which 
latter year he died. When we remember that these years 
are covered by the inhuman decrees of Charles V. and 
Philip II. against the Baptists, that during a portion of 
these years Alva ruled in the Netherlands, that a price was 
set on Bouwen’s head, and every one in the land ordered on 
pain of death to arrest him if found, it is little short of the 
25 


385 


incredible that he should have during all these years been 
steadily at work, and should have baptized ten thousand 
persons as the fruit of his labors; yet the places where, 
and the persons whom, he baptized are set down Avith so 
much particularity that there seems to be no room for 
doubting the truthfulness of the record. 

Is it any wonder that men like Menno, Philips, and 
BouAvens, who sought only to conform their faith and life to 
the Avord of God, and to gain others to the same living faith, 
should be stung into strong expressions against Catholic 
and Protestant preachers, who urged on, with all the argu¬ 
ments in their poAver, the civil authority to take the lives 
of Baptists ? Like their brethren in Central Europe, they 
sought only freedom to serve God according to their under¬ 
standing of the Scriptures, while they acknowledged their 
full duty of obedience to the civil power in all matters not 
contrary to God’s word. Their church-discipline Avas strict 
even to severity, and Avherever they were alloAved to remain 
in peace they created centres of temporal as well as spiritual 
prosperity around them, Avere renoAvned for the probity of 
their dealings and for the purity of their domestic relations 
and life, and in their confessions and practices they urged 
the duty of complete religious liberty for all. Yet they 
Avere denounced from the pulpits of other confessions as 
“ Munsterites, Avho if they could would seize land and city, 
draw the sword, steal, not only practise polygamy, but 
community of women and of property, revolt against the 
government, slay their children in body and soul,” etc. 

While William the Silent was a devoted courtier of Charles 
V., Avhile he was a boon-companion of Egmont and Horn 
in their Belshazzar feasts, defenceless men and women were 
facing terrors more dreadful than death in battle for the 
sake of religious liberty. When, long years afterwards, 
William became the Christian hero and champion of the 
precious rights of liberty of conscience, at one of the darkest 
hours of his history, at Roermonde, he came to know the 
Baptists as fast friends of the cause. Opposed to the bear¬ 
ing of arms and to war, they yet recognized the duty they 
OAved to their country to assist her in the hour of need, and 
Avhen William despaired of help from other quarters he ap¬ 
pealed to them, and they out of their poverty contributed 
a sum which was the token of their sympathy. His receipt 
for this money freely given, not lent, is still extant, lie 
never forgot that act. Far in advance of his coreligionists, 
he Avas true as steel to the liberty of religious thought, and 
again and again lifted his arm against the tyranny which 
the hardly-emancipated Reformed sought to exercise over 
the Baptists. Motley’s account has shown us with Avhat dis¬ 
dain and indignation William rejected the request of the 
Reformed, through Aldegonde, in 1577, that Baptists should 
be excluded from citizenship because of their faith, and 
hoAV he then indicated his high esteem of them by saying 
“ their yea Avas equal to the oath” of the Reformed. He 
repeats this in his rebuke of the magistrates of Middle- 
burg in 1578 for persecuting the Baptists, and praises their 
peaceful character. 

From 1520 to 1575, Baptists had preceded the Reformed 
in all parts of the Netherlands, and in the long lists of 
martyrs for the faith ten Baptists suffered to one of the 
Reformed. 

Though never opposed to general culture, and cordially 
Avelcoming to the ranks of the ministry men of the pro- 
foundest scholarship who felt it a duty to preach the gos¬ 
pel, the early Baptists held that mere education could not 
supply the lack of spiritual gifts, and maintained that any 
brother of good report, with sound knowledge of the 
Scriptures and evincing aptness to teach, should be 
licensed to preach the gospel. Shut out from all the higher 
institutions of learning in the sixteenth century, and ob¬ 
serving that ministerial education was not incompatible 
with corruption in morals and bigotry in religion, they 
gradually fell into the tenet that special education Avas a 
disadvantage for the office of the ministry, and looked Avith 
disfavor on any attempt to prepare for it othenvise than by 
private reading of the Bible. The injurious effects of this 
view became apparent when, in the middle of the seven¬ 
teenth century, the Socinians, expelled from Poland, came 
to Holland, and began to infect the churches Avith their 
views. In many churches the tares grew and choked the 
wheat. While full freedom under the laAV had not come for 
the Baptists, the time of severe persecution had passed. 
They pursued their callings in peace and with frugality, 
and riches floAved in upon them apace. They Avere largely 
concerned in commerce Avith foreign nations, and Avhen 
Holland was in straits for money to carry on the Avar with 
England (1666-72) the Baptists lent the government largo 
sums of money at a low rate of interest, and were rewarded 
Avi,th full religious and political liberty. But from that time 
to the present their numbers have steadily declined in Hol¬ 
land. The causes are not difficult to explain—the spread 
of Socinian doctrines among them, by which all the fervor 












BAPTISTS. 


386 


of life and missionary enterprise was lost; their church con¬ 
stitution altered, so that children who reached a certain 
age, whether converted or not, were baptized and made 
members of the Church ; an uneducated ministry, with 
the members of churches far in advance of their pastors; 
the exclusion of all who married one of another religious 
confession; and last, but not least, riches not used for God. 

Commerce, manufactures, and neighborhood had long 
bound England with many ties to the Netherlands. Those 
persecuted in the one country would flee to the other. 
During the sixteenth century there is frequent mention 
made in documents of state, as well as in the writings of 
private persons, of the presence of Anabaptists in England. 
The same cry was raised against them which was common 
in Europe, and they were exposed to the same persecutions. 
Some of those punished most severely were Hollanders who 
had fled to escape death in their own land. The English 
“Anabaptists” of the sixteenth century are shown by their 
statements, when on trial, to have been brethren of the 
Dutch Baptists. No persecution was severe enough to ex¬ 
tirpate the Baptists from England, though it caused them 
to keep their meetings and their views very quiet. Banish- 
ishment, whipping, or death at the stake awaited any pub¬ 
lic “conventicles.” Before a hand was laid to the reforma¬ 
tion of the Established Church in England, Baptists were 
numerous in the kingdom, and the reigns of Henry VIII., 
Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth are blotted with the 
blood of martyred Baptists. 

The same differences which existed among the continental 
Baptists on the schemes of doctrine, since termed Calvin¬ 
ism and Arminianism, were found among the English Bap¬ 
tists. Before and after the Synod of Dort these discus¬ 
sions in England and on the Continent increased in heat, 
and caused separation among confessors of the same views 
on other points. In the early part of the seventeenth cen¬ 
tury, in the reign of James I., the Arminian Baptists were 
numerous in England. But as in Holland, so in England, 
the Arminian Baptists gradually withered under the influ¬ 
ence of Socinianism. 

In Switzerland, in Germany, and in Holland it has been 
found impossible to decide when Baptists first appeared, or 
which were the first churches of Baptists in those lands 
(their simultaneous appearance on every hand being a 
natural result of that appeal to the Scriptures, in contra¬ 
distinction to tradition, made by Luther, Zwingle, and 
Melanchthon); and it is quite as difficult to decide the 
question about the Baptists of England. If one would 
make the first Baptist church to appear under Helwisse in 
1614, then we must deny the historical evidence for the 
conventicles of Baptists in the preceding century. If we 
make the church formed in London in 1633 the first Cal- 
vinistie Baptist church in England, we assume that all the 
Baptists and the Baptist churches of the sixteenth century 
were Arminian in their views, which has never been shown, 
and is contrary to all probability. Baptists were found in 
the north, in the west, but principally in the east, of Eng¬ 
land. Under the dreadful persecutions of the Tudors the 
churches knew little of each other unless they were situated 
near together. We hear more of the Calvinistic church 
formed in 1633, because it was situated in London, and 
performed an important work in the following years. 

On the Continent some who have been classed with the 
Baptists, but who agree with them only in restricting bap¬ 
tism to believers, and in maintaining the independence of a 
Christian Church, regarded pouring as valid baptism, while 
others practised immersion. Pouring was most common 
among the Mennonites, though some among them held to 
immersion, and from those who practised immersion it was 
received by the English brethren, and has continued to be 
their practice to the present day. Crosby relates, on the 
authority of an old manuscript, said to be written by Kiffin, 
that a certain Richard Blount was sent from England to 
Holland to receive immersion from the hands of a regularly 
baptized minister, because the brethren did not know of 
any regularly baptized minister in England. Richard 
Blount was baptized in Holland, and returned and bap¬ 
tized others in England. It has been held that no Men¬ 
nonites ever practised immersion, but facts are against the 
statement. The truth seems to be, that pouring or sprinkling 
was most common among the Mennonites, but there were 
some, and those who held Calvinistic views, who practised 
immersion in the seventeenth century, and by some one of 
these pastors Blount was baptized. 

As the Dutch Baptists differed in some minor tenets from 
the Swiss, so the English differed from the Dutch and Swiss, 
while holding firmly to the principle common to them all, 
that the visible Church should be composed only of those 
who are baptized upon credible evidence of their beipg 
regenerated by the Spirit. The English Baptists did not 
regard it unlawful to take a solemn oath in court or to 
serve in the army. Like their brethren on the Continent, 


they were from the time of Henry VIII. the unflinching, 
unwearied witnesses and advocates of religious liberty— 
not for themselves only, but for all men, for the Turk as 
well as for the Christian ; and when the upheaval of the Eng¬ 
lish nation under Cromwell took place, by the pen and by 
the sword they strove to accomplish their ideal. They were 
found in the council of state, in the army, in the navy, while 
their ministers redoubled their labors, and God bore witness 
to their work by a rich harvest of converts. Raised to a 
height of influence and power, it is the striking manifesta¬ 
tion of the grace of God in them that in prosperity as in 
adversity they advocated unlimited religious freedom for 
all men—“ a free Church in a free State.” 

It is not a mere chance that the two greatest pleaders 
for the rights of conscience whom the centuries have pro¬ 
duced—Milton in England and Roger Williams in Rhode 
Island—held, after mature consideration, those opinions 
for which Bunyan, the Baptist preacher, suffered fine and 
imprisonment. In simple devotion to God’s word, in plead¬ 
ing for that word before the masses of men, in pleading for 
the highest and inalienable right of man against all spirit¬ 
ual and political tyranny, the entire denomination, in fact, 
have led the van of all Christian denominations and borne 
the brunt of the battle. 

Under the Restoration, from Charles II. to William III., 
they suffered bitterly, as did all dissenters, and then with 
peace came the time of rest, degenerating to sloth. Cal¬ 
vinism hardened into hyper-Calvinism (only to be rational¬ 
ized—humanized—scripturalized, through the influence of 
Andrew Fuller). Arminianism deliquesced into Socinian¬ 
ism, divisions separated the orthodox churches, and the 
eighteenth century was a period of stagnation in growth. 
But God had not forgotten them. Near the close of the 
century (when only the Moravians had preceded the Eng¬ 
lish Baptists in the work of foreign missions), Carey, “the 
consecrated cobbler,” as he was sneeringly called by Sidney 
Smith, went forth to India to overthrow heathenism, and 
then arose the Baptist Missionary Society (1792). Marsh- 
man and Ward soon followed and joined Carey, forming a 
triumvirate of Christian missionaries unexcelled in labor 
and results of work; while at the same time they made 
contributions of no slight importance to Oriental scholar¬ 
ship. Baptist missionaries from England have labored in 
India, Ceylon, China, Africa, and the West Indies, and with 
almost equal success. 

The English Separatists who fled to Holland in the last 
part of the sixteenth century became very largely leavened 
with the views of the Baptists, who were numerous in Hol¬ 
land. When the tide of emigration set towards the bleak 
shores of North America, many who felt the strength of 
these views joined the emigration and came out boldly on 
the side of the Baptists after reaching America. The sor¬ 
rowful history of the early continental Reformation was 
repeated in the New World. Those who had just escaped 
from oppressive ecclesiastical thraldom fitted a yoke for the 
necks of men guilty of no crime but devotion to God’s word. 
The Church became political and the state ecclesiastical, 
and the union produced the unavoidable bastard fruit of 
persecution. In opposition to this error of the centuries, 
Roger Williams and a small band of Baptists, driven from 
Massachusetts, founded the colony which afterwards be¬ 
came Rhode Island, the type of all true democratic gov-, 
ernment, on the principle which Baptists had professed for 
more than a century—of freedom for God’s word and free¬ 
dom for man’s conscience. From New England, Baptists 
emigrated to New York and to Virginia. They experienced 
in both colonies the lot of a proscribed people until the agi¬ 
tation of the country just preceding the Revolution turned 
the attention of the dominant parties to other issues than the 
persecution of their own people. During the Revolution 
the Baptists rendered effective service to the infant republic, 
and at its close were instrumental in securing the recognition 
of complete religious liberty in the Constitution of the U. S. 

The nineteenth century has witnessed a marvellous in¬ 
crease in the Baptists of the U. S. From 77 churches, 
with hardly more than 5000 members, in 1770, they had 
increased in 1872 to 19,720 churches, with 1,585,232 mem¬ 
bers and 11,892 ordained ministers. For the latter year 
(1872) they reported 84,625 baptisms, 741,777 officers, 
teachers, and scholars in Sunday-schools, and $4,926,527.04 
for benevolent contributions. In the same year the Bap¬ 
tists in England reported 1940 churches, 178,183 members, 
1569 ordained ministers, and 4255 baptisms. The follow¬ 
ing table gives the statistics of the Baptists, by continents, 
for 1872: 


North America. 

Europe. 

Asia... 

Africa. 

Churches. 

. 20,469 

. 2,960 

. 31 

Baptisms. 

87,482 

8,663 

1,888 

Members. 

1,676,937 

272,437 

26,814 

1,930 

5,112 

Australasia. 

. 144 






24,012 

98,033 

"l,983,230 





























BAR—BARAGUEY D’HILLIERS. 


In this statement no account is taken of the many religious 
sects in the U. S. which hold similar opinions to the “regu¬ 
lar” Baptists with reference to the ordinance of baptism, 
though differing from them in other essential particulars. 
Among these may be mentioned the Free-Will Baptists 
(Arminian), with 1463 churches, 1145 ministers, and 69,910 
members (mostly in the New England States); the Seventh- 
Day Baptists, with 7000 members; the Dunkers, with 
50,000 members; the Disciples or “ Campbellites” (found 
mostly in the Southern States), with 350,000 members. 
These denominations will be specifically mentioned under 
their respective names. 

Allusion has already been made to the missionary-work 
of the English Baptists. Stimulated by the example of 
their English brethren, and providentially impelled to the 
work by Dr. Judson’s adoption of Baptist views, the Bap¬ 
tists of the U. S. organized in 1814 the Baptist Foreign 
Mission Society (now the American Baptist Missionary 
Union), which had in 1872 eight missions in Asia, five in 
Europe, and one in Africa. In these missions there are 766 
churches, 988 laborers of all classes, 1664 stations and out- 
stations, with 52,700 church-members. The receipts of the 
“ Union” in 1872 were $210,199. It has met with the most 
marked success in its missions among the Karens in India; 
in Germany (where 73 churches, numbering 13,970 mem¬ 
bers, have been gathered under the supervision of Rev. 
J. G. Oncken) ; and in Sweden, which now reports 220 
churches and 8807 members. Under the auspices of this 
society 203,382,898 pages had, in 1864, been published in 
33 languages and dialects, several of which were first re¬ 
duced to writing by its missionaries. The Southern Bap¬ 
tist Convention sustains missions in China, Africa, and 
Italy. The American Baptist Home Mission Society, or¬ 
ganized in 1832, supported, in 1872, 425 missionaries, and 
received into its treasury $256,182. It had received and 
expended since its organization $1,958,901, and reported 
67,020 baptisms. The work of this society is prosecuted 
mainly among the feeble churches of the West and the 
froedmen of the South. The Baptist Bible and Publica¬ 
tion Society, organized in 1S24, received, in 1872, $386,368, 
and issued 369,121,076 pages. 

It has already been said that the early Baptists were 
not especially interested in ministerial education, and rea¬ 
sons have been given why their indifference was natural. 
From the fact, however, that they appeal so constantly’ 
to the original Scripture in support of their opinions, edu¬ 
cation soon became a necessity with them, and for moro 
than a century, both in England and America, they have 
given to this subject that attention which its importance 
demands. In 1764, when the Baptists of the U. S. num¬ 
bered barely 5000, they established Rhode Island College 
(now Brown University). In 1872 they numbered 9 theo¬ 
logical seminaries, with 40 instructors, 419 students, prop¬ 
erty to the amount of $866,000, endowment to the amount 
of $958,000, and 62,454 volumes in their libraries; 34 
colleges, with 256 instructors, 4141 students, property to 
the amount of $4,492,000, endowment to the amount of 
$2,228,058, and 136,806 volumes in their libraries; and 51 
academies, with 264 instructors, 4247 students, and prop¬ 
erty to the value of $1,203,700—making a total (accord¬ 
ing to the very imperfect return which wo condense) of 560 
instructors, 8807 students, and property and endowments 
to the amount of $9,849,558. The best of these institu¬ 
tions (which are noticed under their appropriate titles) 
will compare favorably with those of any other denomina¬ 
tion ; and efforts are being made, through the National 
Baptist Educational Commission, to excite a yet deeper in¬ 
terest in edcuation among the masses of the denomination, 
and secure for its institutions of learning a more generous 
patronage. The mention of such names as those of Fran¬ 
cis Wayland, Barnas Sears, Horatio B. Ilackett, Thomas 
J. Conant, Ezekiel G. Robinson, and Asahel C. Kendrick 
may serve as types of the Baptist educators of the present 
day. (With reference to Baptist history, reference may be 
made to the tracts of Denk ; the works of Hubmaier; 
Ten Cate’s “ Geschiedenis der Doopsgezinden,” etc.; Sch yn, 
“ Historia Mennonitarum,” ed. Matschoen ; Thomas Crosby, 
“ History of the English Baptists from the Reformation to 
the Reign of George I.” (1738-40); Ivimey, “History of 
the English Baptists” (1811-23); Taylor, “History of 
the General Baptists;” I. Backus, “ History of Baptists 
of New England;” “The Publications of the Hansard Knol- 
lys Society ;” Cramp’s “ Baptist History ” (the best popular 
Avork) ; and Cutting’s “ Historic Vindications.” For works 
in exposition and defence of Baptist principles and prac¬ 
tices, see Wayland’s “ Principles and Practices of the 
Baptists;” Dagg’s “Church Order;” IIiscox’s “Baptist 
Church Directory;” Chase, Ripley, Judson, and Wiberg 
on Baptism; Arnold, Pepper, and IIovey on the Lords 
Supper.) Revised by M. B. Anderson. 

Bar, a long and narrow piece of wood, metal, or other 


887 


solid substance, generally round, quadrangular, and other 
uniform section. Bar in hydrography, an accumulation 
of mud or sand in any navigable channel by which navi¬ 
gation is obstructed, but more particularly a similar for¬ 
mation almost universally found across and exterior to 
the mouths of rivers and harbors, by which the draught 
of vessels entering is limited. Bar in music is a straight 
line drawn across the staff to divide the music into small por¬ 
tions of equal duration, and also comprises the musical notes 
written or played between such lines. Bar, in heraldry, is 
one of the important charges known as ordinaries. The 
bar is formed by two horizontal lines passing over the shield; 
it differs from the fess in size, the bar occup} r ing only one- 
fifth of the shield. 

Bar, in law. 1st, that part of the court-room in which 
prisoners are arraigned or sentenced, and in which the 
members of the legal profession usually sit. It takes its 
name from the bar or railing which generally separates it 
from the rest of the room. Hence the word often signifies 
lawyers, or persons admitted to practise in the courts; and 
in some cases it refers to or implies the presence of the 
court itself. A trial at bar is a trial before a full bench of 
judges, as distinguished from a nisi prius trial—that is, a 
trial before a single judge. 2d, a complete defence to an 
action in law. A plea in bar is a plea which, if true, com¬ 
pletely defeats the plaintiff’s action. 

Bar, a toivn of Russia, in the government of Podolia. 
In 1768 the Confederation of Bar Avas formed here, by the 
nobility of Poland, to counteract the influence of Russia 
on the king, Stanislas Augustus. Bar was taken by the 
Russians in the same year, and the confederates were com¬ 
pelled to go to Wallacliia. Here they declared the king 
dethroned, and had him carried off from Warsaw in 1771, 
and Avere only suppressed by Russia after four years’ hard 
fighting. Pop. in 1867, 8077. 

Baraba', a A r ast steppe of Siberia, extending between 
the rivers Obi and Irtish on the W. and the Altai Moun¬ 
tains on the N. W., occupies more than 100,000 square miles. 
Many salt lakes and marshes occur in it. It Avas colonized 
by the Russians in 1730. 

Baraboo', capital of Sauk co., Wis., is noted for its 
Avild and beautiful scenery. It is situated on Baraboo 
River, and on the North-Avestcrn R. R., 33 miles N. W. of 
Madison. It is the centre of the Wisconsin hop-producing 
district, and contains seven or more churches, good schools, 
a Aveekly paper, woollen-mills, yarn-factory, furniture-fac¬ 
tory, planing-mills, and an iron-foundry, and is in the 
neighborhood of valuable iron-mines. Altitude, about 900 
feet above the level of the sea. It is in a good fruit, grain, 
and stock-producing region. It has one national bank. 
Pop. 1528; of Baraboo toAvnship, 2758. 

J. J. Weirich, Ed. “Republic.” 

Barab'ra, or Berab'era, the name applied by the 
Egyptians to the inhabitants of a small district in Upper 
Nubia. They are not the same as the Berbers, the latter 
having derived their name from the Arabians. They trade 
Avith the Egyptians in cattle, which they pasture among the 
mountains beyond the Atbara and near the Red Sea. 

Baraco'a, a seaport-town on the N. E. coast of Cuba, 
has considerable trade. In its vicinity is a remarkable 
mountain called the “ Anvil of Baracoa.” 

Bara'tla, a river of Syria., probably the Abana of the 
Old Testament. Its remotest, though not its largest, source 
is a lake, some 300 yards by 50, in the plain of Zebdany 
(8 miles by 3), 3349 feet above the level of the sea, in the 
heart of Anti-Lebanon. It flows south-eastward, passing 
the ruins of the ancient city of Abila, breaking through 
three ridges of the mountain, and reaching Damascus (23 
miles from its source) after a descent of 1149 feet. Then 
it flows on eastward some 17 or 18 miles farther, emptying 
itself into two marshy lakes, each about 20 miles in circum¬ 
ference. In going through the city and gardens of Damas¬ 
cus it is parted into at least seven streams, Avhich after¬ 
wards reunite. (See Porter’s “Damascus.”) 

Bara'ga, a post-township of Houghton co., Mich. Pop. 
160. 

Baraga (Friedrich), D. D., a Catholic missionary, 
born near Dobernik, in Carniola, in 1797. He visited Amer¬ 
ica in 1831, devoted himself to missionary labor among the 
Indians of the Lake Superior region, and was made bishop 
of Sault St. Mary and Marquette. He published numerous 
works in the Ojibbeway (or Chippeway) dialect, a “ Gram¬ 
mar of the OtchipiveLanguage” (1851), and a “ Dictionary 
of the Otchipwe Language” (1853). Died Jan. 19, 1868. 

Baraguey d’Hillicrs (Aciiille), Count, a French 
general, born Sept. 6, 1795. Having ser\ r ed AAifh distinc¬ 
tion in Algeria, he obtained the rank of general of division 
in 1843. In the autumn of 1849 he became commander of 
the army that occupied Rome, lie returned to France in 
















388 BARAGUEY D’HILLIERS—BARBAULD. 


1850, and in the Crimean war commanded a corps which 
co-operated with the British fleet in the Baltic. He was 
made a marshal of France in 1854. 

Baraguey cl’IIilliers (Louis), a French general, the 
father of the preceding, was born in Paris Aug. 13, 1764. 
He served in the Italian campaigns of 1796-97, soon after 
which he became a general of division. He commanded 
the dragoons of the grand army in Austria in 1805, and 
was appointed governor of Venice in 1808. In the Russian 
campaign of 1812 he was taken prisoner with all his divis¬ 
ion. lie died in Berlin Dec., 1812. 

Barante, de (Amable Guillaume Prosper Bru- 
giere), a French statesman and historian of great merit, 
was born at Riom June 10, 1782. He came of a literary 
stock, his father and his great-grandfather having distin¬ 
guished themselves as writers. He was appointed collector- 
in-chief of customs in 1818, and became a peer of France 
in 1819. His chief works are a ‘‘ History of the Dukes of 
Burgundy” (13 vols., 1S26), and a “History of the Na¬ 
tional Convention ” (1853). Died Nov. 22, 1866. (See Gui¬ 
zot, “Memoir of Prosper de Barante,” 1867.) 

Baran'ya, one of the most populous counties of Hun¬ 
gary, is bounded on the N. by Tolna, on the E. by Bacs, 
on the S. by Slavonia, on the W. by Somogy, and has an 
area of 1966 square miles. It is partly mountainous, but 
is very fertile. The Danube forms part of the western 
boundary. Capital, Fiinfkirchen. Pop. 283,506. 

Barataria Bay, Louisiana, an inlet of the Gulf of 
Mexico, lying between the Mississippi and the Bayou la 
Fourche, is about 12 miles long from N. to S., and 5 or 6 
miles broad, communicating with bajmus and lakes of the 
interior. Its shores are marshes little elevated above the 
tides, which-extend to the cypress swamps. Grande Terre 
Island, a ridge of sand which lies across the mouth, was the 
head-quarters of the brothers Laffite, the so-called “pirates.” 
(See Laffite.) The entrance to the bay has been fortified 
by the U. S. in 1840-50, by the construction of Fort Liv¬ 
ingston on the W. end of Grande Terre Island. The bar 
has seven feet of water. Barataria lighthouse, on Grande 
Terre Island, is in lat. 29° 16' 47” N., Ion. 89° 54' 33” AY. 
It is of brick, and is 60 feet high. 

Baratier (Johann Philipp), born of French ancestry 
at Swabach, near Nuremberg, Jan. 19, 1721, when five 
years old spoke French, German, and Latin; when seven 
could repeat the Psalms in Hebrew; and when nine com¬ 
posed a Hebrew dictionary; when thirteen years old 
translated the “ Itinerary ” of Benjamin of Tudela. He 
wrote a reply to Crellius’s “Artemonius,” called “Antiar- 
temonius” (1735), and a “Disquisition on the Succession 
of the Roman Pontiff's in very Ancient Times” (1749). He 
was a Protestant, studied theology and law, and died at 
Halle Oct. 5, 1740, aged nineteen. 

Barb [probably derived from Barbary'], the name of a 
noble breed of horses which originated among the Moors 
of Barbary, who introduced it into Spain. Barbs are re¬ 
markable for their endurance, docility, and gentleness. 
The Carthaginian cavalry, which decided several victories 
over the Romans, are said to have been mounted on horses 
of this breed, which is a variety of the Arabian horse. The 
celebrated “ Godolphin Arabian ” was a barb, as were most 
of the progenitors of the thoroughbred horse of the pres¬ 
ent day. 

Barbace'na (F. Caldeira Brant), Marquis of, a 
Brazilian soldier and diplomatist, born at Sabora in 1772. 
He was appointed by the emperor of Brazil to negotiate 
concerning the independence of that country with Portugal, 
and for his success was created a marquis. He was after¬ 
wards twice minister of finance. He introduced steam- 
engines, steamboats, and the printing-press into Brazil. 
Died in 1842. 

Barba'does Cher'ry, the edible fruit of two small 
AA'est Indian trees (the Malpighi a arena and Malpighia 
glabra). Each fruit contains three seeds. The leaves of 
Malpighia ureas have stinging hairs on the lower side. 

Barbadoes Gooseberry, the edible fruit of PeresJcia 
aculeata, a plant of the order Cactaceas, having a round 
stem, thick, alternate leaves, and large spines. The fruit 
has expectorant properties. It grows in the AYest Indies. 
Barbadoes Leg. See Elephantiasis. 

Barbadoes Tar, or petroleum, is a black, opaque, 
inflammable liquid of the consistence of molasses. By 
distillation it yields naphtha, leaving a residuum of asphai- 
tum. 

Barba'dos,* or Barba'does, the most eastern of the 

* Barbados is a Spanish word signifying the “bearded:” it is 
said that as the Spaniards approached the island they saw a cer¬ 
tain plant growing abundantly on the banks, which resembled 
(as they fancied) men with long beards, hence the name. 


Caribbeo Islands, belongs to the British. Its capital, 
Bridgetown, is situated in lat. 13° 4' N. and Ion. 59° 37' 
AY. The island is 21 miles long, 14 miles wide, and has an 
area of 166 square miles. It is nearly encircled by coral 
reefs, which are dangerous to navigation. The highest 
point of the island has an altitude of 1140 feet. Destructive 
hurricanes often occur here. The soil is fertile, and pro¬ 
duces sugar, cotton, arrow-root, etc. The population and 
prosperity of Barbados have increased since the abolition 
of slavery (Aug. 1, 1834). In 1870 the imports were 
£1,070,000, and the exports £973,000. P. in 1871, 162,042./ 

Bar'bara, Saint, a virgin martyr of the ancient 
Church, in regard to whom traditions clash. Baronius 
accepts the story of her martyrdom at Nicomedia in the 
reign of Maximinus (235-238), and says that she had been 
a pupil of Origen. Assemani thinks she suffered martyrdom 
under Galerius, about 306, at Heliopolis in Coele-Syria. 
She is commemorated Dec. 4. 

Barba'riail [Gr. j3<xp/3apo?; Lat. bar'barus], a term 
applied by the ancient Greeks to all foreigners and all who 
could not speak the Greek language. Plato divided the 
human family into two great classes— Hellenes (“ Greeks”) 
and Barbaroi (“barbarians”). After the Persian invasion 
the Greeks used the word as a term of reproach, implying 
hostility to their own freedom and civilization. After the 
Romans had conquered Greece, and had become in some 
measure Hellenized, the word barbarian w as applied to all 
nations except Greeks and Romans. Saint Paul uses the 
word in this sense in Romans i. 14 (see also Acts xxviii. 4). 

Barbaros'sa, the name of two brothers, renegade 
Greeks and natives of Mitylene, who became Turkish cor¬ 
sairs, and were the scourge of Christendom for many years 
(1510-46). The elder, Arooj (Ilorush or Horuc), made 
himself master of Algiers in 1516. He was defeated and 
slain by the army of Charles A r . in that year. He was 
succeeded in 1518 as ruler of Algiei\s by his brother, Hadher, 
or Khair-ed-Deen. He obtained Tunis by conquest in 
1532, and became the chief admiral of Sultan Solyman. 
Died July 4, 1546. 

Barbaroux (Charles Jean Marie), an eminent 
French Girondist and eloquent advocate, born at Mar¬ 
seilles Mar. 6, 1767. He was chosen a deputy to the Leg¬ 
islative Assembly in 1791, and a member of the National 
Convention in 1792. He denounced Robespierre, and on 
the trial of the king voted for an appeal to the people. 
He was distinguished for his energy and personal beauty. 
Having been proscribed by the Jacobins in May, 1793, he 
fled from Paris. He was guillotined at Bordeaux June 25, 
1794. (See his “Memoires,” 1822.) 

Bar'bary [derived from Berber, the name of a native 
race], an extensive region of Northern Africa, comprising 
the modern Barca, Tripoli, Tunis, Fezzan, Algeria, and 
Morocco, and extending from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean. 

It is included between lat. 25° and 37° N., and Ion. 10° AY. 
and 25° E. It included the ancient Mauritania, Numidia, 
Africa propria, and Cyrenaica. Barbary is divided by 
the Atlas Mountains. The N. side comprises Tunis, 
Tripoli, Morocco, and Algeria. The S. is called Beled-el- 
Jereed (?. e. “ the country of dates”). The soil is generally 
fertile. It was very rich and populous under the rule of 
the Carthaginians and of the ancient Romans, who became 
masters of this region about 146 B. C. It was conquered 
about 430 A. D. by the Vandals, who misgoverned it for a 
hundred years, and it fell under the domination of the Arabs 
in 647 A.D. The inhabitants are mostly Mohammedans. 

Barbary Ape, Pigmy Ape, or Magot, a small 

species of tailless monkey, is a native of Europe, but is 
found in only one place in Europe—that is, the Rock of 
Gibraltar. It also abounds in Northern Africa, especially 
among rocky mountains and forests. It is gregarious, dis¬ 
plays great agility in passing from tree to tree, and usually 
walks on four feet. It is of a greenish-gray color, and rather 
larger than a large cat. It belongs to the genus Inuus. The 
tail is reduced to a mere tubercle. Bands of these apes 
often plunder gardens. This species of monkey is fre¬ 
quently seen in captivity, and is capable of being trained 
to many tricks. It is not regarded as a true ape. 

Barbas'tro, a walled town of Spain, in the province 
of Huesca, on the river Cinca, 57 miles N. E. of Saragossa. 

It has a cathedral and several convents. Pop. 7800. 

B ar'banld (Anna Letitia), an English authoress, bom 
in Leicestershire June 20, 1743, was a daughter of Rev. 
John Aikin. She published a volume of poems in 1773, and 
was married in 1774 to Rochemont Barbauld, a dissenting 
minister, with whom she lived at Palgrave, in Suffolk, and 
taught a boarding-school for ten years. She published, be¬ 
sides other works, “Devotional Pieces ” (1775) and “Early 
Lessons for Children,” which are highly commended, and 
assisted her brother, Dr. John Aikin, in the composition of 















BARBECUE—BARBET. 


o 


89 


a popular work called “ Evenings at Home.” Her writings 
are characterized by an easy, flowing style and pure and 
elevated sentiment. Died Mar. 9, 1825. (See a “Life of 
Mrs. Barbauld,” prefixed to her works, by Lucy Aikin, 2 
vols., 1825.) 

Bar'becue, a township of Harnett co., N. C. P. 1111. 

Bar'bee (Rev. William J.), M. D., born in Winchester, 
Ivy., in 1816, was educated at Miami University, 0., prac¬ 
tised medicine ten years in Cincinnati, 0., and became 
widely known as a teacher, author, and preacher of the 
Christian (“ Campbellite ”) denomination. He has pub¬ 
lished “ Physical and Moral Aspects of Geology,” “ The 
Cotton Question,” and various religious and scientific and 
other works. 

Bar'bel ( Bar'bus ), a genus of fishes of the family of 
Cyprinidae, having short dorsal and anal fins, and the mouth 


furnished with four soft barbules, suggesting the name, 
which is derived from the Latin barba, “beard.” The 
upper jaw extends beyond the lower. The numerous spe¬ 
cies of barbel are all inhabitants of fresh water, and seek 
their food by inserting their snouts into the mud like 
swine. The Barbus vulgaris is abundant in the Thames, 
and affords sport to anglers, but is not much esteemed for 
food. It sometimes measures three feet long, and weighs 
about sixteen pounds. Another species, called binny or 
barbel, is abundant in the Nile and the Jordan, and is 
much esteemed for food. It grows to a large size, and 
sometimes weighs seventy pounds. The barbel of the U. S. 
is the horned sucker or dace ( Catostomus tuberculatus), which 
is readily taken by the hook. It belongs to the same fam¬ 
ily with the true barbel. 

Barbe-Marbois, tie (Francois), Marquis, a French 
statesman, born in 1745, was consul to the U. S. under 
Louis XVI., director of the treasury under Napoleon, and 
was made a senator in 1813. Died in 1837. He wrote a 
“History of Louisiana” (1829). 

Bar'ber [Fr. barbier, from the Lat. bar'ba, “beard”], 
a person who shaves others and cuts their hair. This trade 
or profession is very ancient, and is mentioned by the 
prophet Ezekiel (chap. v. 1). In China and other Oriental 
countries barbers shave the whole or part of the head. The 
practice of shaving the beard was common among the an- 
’ cient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Among the ancient 
Israelites the removal of the beard by shaving or plucking 
it out was a sign of mourning. In former times barbers 
served the public in the capacity of surgeons, and per¬ 
formed the operation of bleeding. The spiral red stripe 
often seen on the barber’s pole is said to symbolize the 
winding of a ribbon round the arm previous to letting 
blood. In London the barber-surgeons formed a corpora¬ 
tion with certain privileges. They were incorporated in 
England in 1461, and were united with the surgeons in 
the°reign of Henry VIII. The connection was dissolved 
in the reign of George II. by an act the preamble of which 
affirms that the trade of a barber is “ foreign to and inde¬ 
pendent of the practice of surgery.” Quite recently the 
surgeons of the Swedish navy were also barbers foi the 
crews. 

Barber, a post-township of Faribault co., Minn. Pop. 
561. 

Barber (Francis), an American officer and teacher, 
born at Princeton, N. J., in 1751, graduated at Princeton 
in 1767. He entered the army in 1776 with the rank of 
major, and took part in the battles of Trenton, Princeton, 
Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. He was after¬ 
wards raised to the rank of colonel, and in 1781 was select¬ 
ed by General Washington for the delicate duty ol sup¬ 
pressing a mutiny of the troops, which he performed with 
success. He was killed accidentally by the fall of a tree at 
Newburg Jan. 11, 1783. 

Barber (John Warner) was born at Windsor, Conn., 
in 1798. He published a “History of New Haven” (1831), 
“Historical Collections” of Connecticut (1836), Massachu¬ 
setts (1839), New Jersey (1844), Virginia (1844), Ohio 


(1847), “Incidents of American History” (1847), “Ele¬ 
ments of General History” (1844), “Our Whole Country” 
(1861), and several other works. 

Barberi'ni (Francesco), an Italian cardinal, a nephew 
of Pope Urban VIII., was born in 1597. He became libra¬ 
rian of the Vatican, and translated the twelve books of 
Marcus Aurelius from Greek into Italian. He was the 
founder of the great Barberini Library. Died in 1679. 

Bar'bcrry (Ber'beris), a genus of plants of the natural 
order Berberidacm, comprises many species, which are all 
shrubs and natives of temperate climates in both hemi¬ 
spheres. They have six stamens, which, when touched at 
the base, show signs of irritability. The fruit is a berry 
with two or three seeds. They are divided into two sub¬ 
genera, sometimes ranked as genera; those with simple 
leaves forming the Berberis, and those with pinnate leaves 
the sub-genus Mahonia. The barberries of Asia 
are numerous and important for their fruits. 
Those of our Pacific slope are Mahonias. The 
common barberry ( Berberis vulgaris ) is a native 
of Europe and the U. S., is an ornamental shrub 
armed with spines, and produces small oval red 
berries in pendulous clusters, which contain free 
malic acid, and are valuable for preserves and 
jelly. The bark is astringent, and is used in 
medicine, and the inner bark and root furnish a 
good yellow dye. A species called Berberis dul- 
cis, which is cultivated in shrubberies, bears a 
sweet black berry which makes excellent jelly. 
Several fine species of Berberis grow in the cen¬ 
tral and western portions of North America. B. 
aquifolium, with spiny leaves and yellow flowers, is gene¬ 
rally cultivated as an ornamental shrub. B. pinnata of 
Oregon bears blue acid berries, and is sometimes called the 
Oregon grape. B. Canadensis is a native of the Allegha- 
nies. Parts of South America abound in native species of 
the barberry. 

Barbes (Armand), a French conspirator and Red Re¬ 
publican, born in Guadaloupe Sept. 18, 1809. He was 
imprisoned in France for political reasons in 1834—35. As 
an accomplice of Blanqui and others in a seditious plot in 
1839, he was condemned to imprisonment for life, but was 
released in 1848. Having conspired against the new regime 
in May, 1848, he Avas again confined for several years. 

Bar'bet ( Laimodon ), a genus of birds related to the 
Picidte or woodpeckers. They have a large conical beak 
surrounded with tufts of bristles, suggesting the name, 
which is derived from the Latin barba, “beard.” They 
inhabit warm countries, particularly tropical Africa. They 
feed on insects. 

Barbet is also the name given to birds of various 
genera, chiefly South American and Asiatic, together form¬ 
ing a connecting link between the kingfishers and the 
trogons. Among the numerous species are the Bucco ver- 



Red-Throated Barbet. 

sicolor of Sumatra and the Tam atm maculata, the red- 
throated barbet of Guiana. 

Barbet, a small variety of the poodle-dog, remarkable 
for its activity, intelligence, and fidelity to its master, bu 
equally distinguished for its ill-temper and its dislike ot 



European Barbel. 





















BAKBICAN—BARCLAY. 


890 


all strangers. It is also very liablo to disease, and lienee 
is not a general favorite. 

Barbette, a platform of earth on which guns are 
mounted to fire over a parapet. 

Barbican, or Barbacan, a watch-tower or advanced 
work before the gate of a castlo or town. The term was 
especially applied to the outwork iutended to defend the 
drawbridge, which in modern fortifications corresponds to 
the tete-du-pont. Several perfect barbicans remain in Eng¬ 
land at Alnwick, Warwick, etc. 

Barbier (Antoine Alexandre), a French bibliogra¬ 
pher, born Jan. 11, 1705, became private librarian to Na¬ 
poleon in 1807, and after the restoration of 1815 was super¬ 
intendent of the private libraries of the king. His chief 
jiroduction is a “ Dictionary of Anonymous and Pseudony¬ 
mous Works” (4 vols. 8v6, 1806-08), which is highly com¬ 
mended. Died Dec. 6, 1825. 

Barbour, a county of Alabama, bordering on Georgia. 
Area, 825 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the 
Chattahoochee River and on the W. by Pea River. The 
surface is undulating; the soil in some parts is fertile. The 
county is partly covered by forests of pine. Cotton and 
corn are raised. It is intersected by the Montgomery and 
Eufaula R. R. Capital, Clayton. Pop. 29,309. 

Barbour, a new county of Kansas, bordering on the In¬ 
dian Territory. Area, 810 square miles. It is bounded on 
the E. by Harper, on the N. by Pratt, and on the W. by 
Comanche cos. 

Barbour, a county of the N. part of West Virginia. 
Area, 330 square miles. It is intersected by the Tygart’s 
Valley River, and also drained by Buchanan River. The 
surface is hilly or mountainous; the soil is very fertile. 
Grain and wool are largely raised. Coal and iron abound 
here. Capital, Philijipi. Pop. 10,312. 

Barbour, a township of Orange eo., Va. Pop. 1323. 

Barbour (James), an American statesman, born in 
Orange co., Va., June 10, 1775. He was governor of Vir¬ 
ginia 1812-14, and a Senator of the U. S. 1S15-25. He 
voted for a U. S. bank, and became president of the Senate 
pro tern. He was secretary of war in the Cabinet of J. 
Quincy Adams (1825-27), and was sent as minister to Eng¬ 
land in 1828, but was recalled in 1829. In 1839 he was 
president of the Whig national convention. Died in 1842. 

Barbour, or Barber (John), an eminent Scottish 
poet, a contemporary of Chaucer, was born about 1320. 
He became archdeacon of Aberdeen in 1356, and went 
to Oxford in 1357 to complete his education. About 1374 
he was appointed one of the auditors of the exchequer. 
His chief work is a national epic called “The Bruce,” a 
history of Robert Bruce, which, in addition to its poetical 
merit, has much historical value. Died Mar. 13, 1396. 

Barbour (John S.), born in Culpeper co., Va., Aug. 
8, 1790, was educated at William and Mary College, was 
a staff officer in the war of 1812, and a prominent State 
Rights member of Congress, 1823-33. Died Jan. 12, 1855. 

Barbour (Philip Pendleton), a jurist, born in Orange 
co., Va., May 25, 1783, was a brother of James, noticed 
above. He gained distinction as a criminal lawyer, and 
became a member of Congress in 1814. He was afterwards 
chosen Speaker of the House, and remained in that body 
until 1825. He was appointed an associate judge of the 
Supreme Court of the U. S. in 1836. Died Feb. 24, 1841. 

Bar'boursville, a post-village, capital of Knox co., 
Ky., on the Cumberland River, 116 miles S. E. of Frankfort. 
Pop. 438. 

Barboursville, or Cabell Court-house, the capi¬ 
tal of Cabell co., West Va., on the Guyandotte River, 154 
miles S. AV. of Wheeling. It is the seat of a State normal 
school, and has one weekly paper. July 13, 1861, it was 
the scene of a brilliant action in which the Federal troops 
were successful. P. 371; of Barboursville township, 1228. 

Barbu'tla [Fr. La Barboude], one of the British AVest 
India Islands, 22 miles N. of Antigua. Its area is 75 square 
miles. It is of coral formation, has no harbor, and is 
partly covered with forests. Pop. in 1861, 713. 

Bar'by, a walled town of Prussian Saxony, on the left 
bank of the Elbe, 15 miles S. E. of Magdeburg. It has an 
old castle and manufactures of woollen and linen stulfs. 
Pop. in 1871, 5212. 

Bar' ca (anc. Cyrena'ica), a region of Northern Africa, 
bounded on the N. by the Mediterranean, on the E. by 
Egypt, on the S. by the Libyan desert, and on the AA r . by 
Tripoli and the Gulf of Sidra. It is deficient in permanent 
streams, and the southern part is a desert, but the soil near 
the sea is fertile. On the mountain-sides are pines, date- 
palms, and olive trees. The inhabitants are Arabs and 
Berbers, who are Mohammedans, and are subject to Tri¬ 
poli. Capital, Benghazi. Pop. estimated at 302,000. 


Barcell o'na, a town of Sicily, in the province of Mes¬ 
sina, 21 miles AV. S. AV. of Messina, near the coast. It has 
a gymnasium, and large vineyards in the neighborhood. 
Pop. in 1872, 20,464. 

Barcelo'na, a province of Spain, comprising the 
south-eastern part of Catalonia, and slojiing down towards 
the Mediterranean. It has an area of 2983 square miles, 
and a population of 749,143. It is one of the most fertile 
and best-cultivated provinces of Spain. 

Barcelo'na [Lat. Bar'cino; Gr. Bap/aiw], the most 
important manufacturing city of Spain, and the capital of 
the province of the same name, in Catalonia, is beautifully 
situated on the Mediterranean, 113 miles E. of Lerida; lat. 
41° 23' N., Ion. 2° 11' E. Next to Cadiz, it is the most im¬ 
portant seaport of Spain. Pop. in 1860, 189,948. It is sur¬ 
rounded by a wall, and defended by a citadel and the strong 
fort of Montjoi. The city is divided into two parts, the old 
and the new town, by a beautiful promenade called La 
Rambla. The streets of the new town are more spacious 
and regular than those of the old. Many of the houses are ■ 
built of hewn stone, and have an imposing appearance. 
The most remarkable public edifices are the Gothic cathe¬ 
dral, which is about 600 years old, and the Audiencia, or 
Palacio de la Deputacion, which is now occupied by the 
courts of law. Barcelona has a university, several public 
libraries, a fine theatre, an academy of arts and sciences, 
and two museums. Here are extensive manufactures of 
silks, woollen stuffs, calicoes or figured cotton stuffs, lace, 
shoes, and firearms, which, with copper, wine, and brandy, 
constitute the principal exports of the city. The harbor 
is commodious, but is obstructed by a bar which excludes 
vessels drawing more than twelve feet of water. This is 
the most populous city of Spain, except Madrid. Barce¬ 
lona is supposed to have been founded by Hamilcar Barca. 
The Romans became masters of it at the end of the third 
Punic war (146 B. C.). It was taken by the Saracens or 
Moors about 714 A. D., and became in 87S an independent 
state. In the twelfth century it was annexed to Aragon. 
In 1714 it was taken by the duke of Berwick after a long 
and heroic defence. 

Barcelona, a province of Venezuela, is bounded on 
the N. by the Caribbean Sea, on the E. by Cumana, on the 
S. by Guiana, and on the AA r . by Guarica and Caracas. 
Area, 13,800 square miles. The country consists almost 
entirely of plains and low plateaux, and is crossed only in 
the N. by the Coast Range, which also is not very high. 
It has but very little commerce. Chief town, Barcelona. 
Pop. 78,634. 

Barcelona, a town and seaport of A'enezuela, and 
capital of the province of the same name, on the Caribbean 
Sea, at the mouth of the river Neveri; lat. 10° 10' N., Ion. 
64° 48' AV. It is an unhealthy place. The houses arc 
built of mud. Pop. about 6000. 

Bar'cLay, a post-village and township of Black Hawk 
co., Ia., 110 miles N. E. of Des Moines. Pop. 861. 

Barclay, a post-village and township of Bradford co., 
Pa., on the Sullivan and Erie R. R., 110 miles N. AA r . of 
Easton. It has important mines of semi-bituminous coal. * 
Pop. of township, 2009. 

Barclay, or Barklay (Alexander), an eminent 
British writer and translator, supposed to bavc been born 
in Scotland about 1480. He wrote the lives of several 
saints, and translated Sallust’s “ Jugurthine AVar,” and a 
French poem called “ The Castle of Labor.” His most 
popular work is his “ Ship of Fools,” a free translation 
from the German of Sebastian Brandt. Died in 1552. 

Barclay (Robert), an eminent reformer and apologist 
for the Society of Friends, was born at Gordonstown, in 
Morayshire, Scotland, Dec. 23, 1648. He was educated in 
Paris at the Scottish College, of which his uncle was rector, 
and learned to write and speak Latin correctly and flu¬ 
ently. He returned to Scotland in 1664, and became a 
member and minister of the Society of Friends in 1666. 
In 1670 he published a defence of his religion, entitled 
“Truth Cleared of Calumnies.” He married Christian 
Mollison in his early life. He afterwards published a 
“Catechism and Confession of Faith” (1675) and the 
“Anarchy of the Ranters” (1676). In 1677 he visited 
Germany on a religious mission, in company with George 
Fox and AA'illiam Penn. In addition to superior talents, 
he had moral courage, which qualified him for the part of 
a reformer. Ilis principal work is “ An Apology for tho 
True Christian Divinity, as the same is held forth and 
preached by the People called in scorn Quakers” (1676), 
written and published in Latin, and afterwards translated 
by the author into English. This work exhibits great 
logical acumen, and has been commended by eminent 
persons of different creeds. In 1679 ho published a 
“Vindication” of his Apology, which had been criticised 


♦ 















BARCLAY DE TOLLY—BARGAIN AND SALE. 391 


by several Avriters. He was appointed governor of the 
province of East Jersey in 1682, but he never went to 
America. He died at Ury Oct. 13, 1G90. (See Joseph 0. 
Bevan, “Life of Robert Barclay,” 1802; W. Sewell, 
“History of the Quakers.”) 

Bar'clay tie Tolly (Michael), Prince, a celebrated 
Russian general of Scottish extraction, was born in Livo¬ 
nia in 1759. He fought against the Swedes in 1790, and 
against the Poles in 1792 and 1794. With the rank of 
major-general he led Benningsen’s advanced guard in 180G. 
In 1809, at the head of 10,000 men, he crossed the frozen 
Gulf of Bothnia, and advanced as far as Stockholm. In 
1810 he was appointed minister of war. He became in 
1812 commander-in-chief of the Army of the West, but 
having been defeated by the French at Smolensko in Au¬ 
gust of that year, he was soon removed. After the death 
of Kutuzof (1813) he again obtained the chief command 
of the army, which he directed at Bautzen, Culm, and 
Leipsic. He was raised to the rank of field-marshal in 
1814. Died May 25, 1818. 

Barcokh'eba, or Barcoch'ebas (“son of a star”), 
(Simon), a famous Jewish impostor, claiming to be the 
Messiah. His real name was Akiba. In the reign of 
Hadrian (A. D. 132) he excited an insurrection among 
the Jews, and seized Jerusalem and many fortified places. 
After a long and bloody contest the city was retaken by 
the Roman general Julius Severus, and Barcokheba was 
killed in the fortress of Bethar on the 9th of Ab (August), 
135. His disappointed countrymen afterwards changed 
his name to Bar-cosba (“son of a lie”). 

Bard, the term originally applied to the ancient poets 
of the Celtic tribes, who composed and sang verses in 
honor of the exploits of brave men. In poetical language 
it is often applied by modern usage to any poet. 

Bard (Samuel), M. D., LL.D., an American physician, 
born in Philadelphia April 1, 1742, was educated at Edin¬ 
burgh, where he was an inmate in the family of Doctor 
Robertson, the historian. He practised in New York City, 
and was the family physician of General Washington. He 
published several medical works, and became president of 
the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York. 
He was an active promoter of benevolent enterprises. 
Died May 24, 1821. (See Rev. J. McVicker’s “ Life of 
Samuel Bard,” 1822.) 

Bardesa'nes (Bar-Deisan) of Edessa, founder 
of a Gnostic sect called Bardesanians. His treatise “ On 
Fate,” or “ The Laws of Countries,” was written during 
the last half of the second century. We had only a few 
fragments of it till in 1843 the entire treatise, in the orig¬ 
inal Syriac (the manuscript belonging to the sixth or 
seventh century), was obtained by Archdeacon Tatham 
from the Syrian convent in the desert of Nitria, and was 
published, with an English translation, by Rev. William 
Cureton in 1855. Ephraem Syrus, who flourished about 
two centuries later, says Bardesanes wrote also 150 hymns, 
which appear to have been more dualistic than the treatise 
just spoken of. The best compendious notice of Barde¬ 
sanes is that by Gallandi, “ Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum,” 
1765. (See also Strunzius, “Historia Bardesanis,” 1710; 
Haiin, “Bardesanes Gnosticus,” 1819.) 

Bard'ings, or Bard, the name applied to the horse- 
armor of the Middle Ages, which consisted of four pieces: 
1, the chamfront (Norman-French, cheveron), protecting the 
forehead and face, and having a steel spike like the horn 
of a unicorn between the eyes; 2, the manifaire, which 
was made of articulated plates, and covered the crest and 
neck; 3, the poitrel, a solid piece of plate-armor, guarding 
the entire shoulders and chest; the bard proper, defending 
the croup of the charger from the ca.ntle of the saddle to 
the tail. A steed thus armed was said to be “ barded.” 

Bards'tovvn, the capital of Nelson co., Ivy., is situ¬ 
ated on an elevated plain and on a branch of the Louis¬ 
ville and Nashville R. R., 39 miles S. E. of Louisville. Here 
are several academies, and St. Joseph's Roman Catholic col¬ 
lege. Pop. 1835. 

Bare'bones, or Bar'bone (Praise God), a fanatic 
who was a member of Cromwell’s Parliament in 1G53, 
which was named after him the “ Barebones’ Parliament.” 
When General Monk came to London, Barebones headed a 
procession of the people, and presented a remonstrance to 
Parliament against the restoration of Charles II. 

Barefooted Friars [Lat. Discalceati], an appellation 
of certain Roman Catholic monks who either wear sandals 
or go entirely barefoot. They are connected with various 
congregations of the strict observance in nearly all the 
orders. There are also barefooted nuns. In some places 
they wear shoes in severe weather. 

Bar'egine, a mucus-like substance produced by the 


algae which grow in mineral springs. It abounds in the 
hot springs of Barreges in France; hence the name. It 
imparts a flesh-broth flavor and odor to the water, and is 
prized for that reason. 

Bare House, a township of Drew co., Ark. Pop. 458. 

Bareil'y, a city of British India, in the North-west 
Provinces, is on the river Jooa, 151 miles E. of Delhi. It 
contains a number of mosques, a college, and many Hindoo 
schools. Here are manufactures of cutlery, carpets, brazen 
water-pots, tables, and ornamental chairs. Bareily was a 
scene of outrage and rapine during the mutiny of 1857, 
Avhcn the Sepoys murdered a number of Europeans. Pop. 
111,332. 

Barere de Viewzac (Bertrand), a French dema¬ 
gogue and lawyer, born at Terbes Sept. 10, 1755. He Avas 
elected in 1792 to the Com r ention, in Avhich he \ T oted for the 
death of the king. In April, 1793, he Avas chosen a mem¬ 
ber of the Committee of Public Safety. He supported the 
Jacobins in their contest with the Girondists, and became 
the reporter of the committee Avhich usurped supreme 
power in July, 1793. He Avas the first who proposed that 
“terror should be the order of the day,” and he dressed the 
atrocious decrees of the committee in such flowery language 
that he was called the “Anacreon of the guillotine.” On 
the 9th Thermidor, 1794, he acted Avith the enemies of 
Robespierre. He was banished as a regicide in 1816, but 
Avas permitted to return in 1830. Died Jan. 14, 1841. 
(See “ Memoires de Barere,” 4 vols., 1843, and the notice 
of Barere in Macaulay’s “ Essays.”) 

Baret'ti (Giuseppe), an Italian writer, born at Turin 
Mar. 22,1716. He removed to London in 1751, and became 
a teacher of Italian and a friend of Dr. Johnson. He 
published an Italian-and-English dictionary (1760), and 
“ TraA r els through Spain, Portugal, and France ”(1770), 
Avhich is highly commended by Dr. Johnson, and other 
Avorks. Died in London May 5, 1789. (See G. Franchi, 
“Notizie intorno alia Vita di G. Baretti,” 1790.) 

Bar'gaim [Old Fr. bargaine, “trade,” from barca, a 
“bark,” a “boat”] and Sale, the act of conveying and 
transferring real or personal property for a A r aluable con¬ 
sideration. The term is also employed to indicate the in¬ 
strument by Avhich the transfer is made. In the law of 
real estate this form of conveyance is in extensive use. 
The original mode of conveying corporeal real estate was 
by means of a ceremony termed livery of seisin, in Avhich 
the seller delivered to the purchaser some visible symbol, 
such as a clod of earth or tAvig of a tree, in the name of the 
property to be conveyed. This method of conveyance came 
to be regarded as cumbersome and inconvenient. It was 
governed by strict and technical rules, and the estates that 
could be created by it were inelastic—not readily moulded 
to the demands of a groAving civilization. The attention 
of conveyancers was attracted to other methods more suited 
to modern necessities. These methods were found in the 
doctrine of uses. A use in land Avas a notion derived from 
the Roman law, by means of which the formal title re¬ 
mained in one person, Avhile the beneficial estate or enjoy¬ 
ment of the profits appertained to another. It corresponded 
in the main to the idea of trusts in modern law. A use could 
be created by a pecuniary or other legal consideration. For 
example, if an owner of land for a pecuniary consideration 
purported by present words to sell it, he would be at once, 
converted into a formal owner, and the person advancing the 
money would be the beneficial owner, or, in technical lan¬ 
guage, would have “a use” in the land. He could become 
formal or legal owner by the action of a court of equity, which 
would, on application, direct that a conveyance should be 
made. While the laiv was in this condition an important 
statute Avas passed, 27 Hen. VIII., c. 10, called the “ Statute 
of Uses,” the effect of Avhich, in substance, was to declare 
that one who had acquired a use under certain prescribed 
conditions in an estate in land should be the legal or formal, 
as well as the beneficial, owner. One great consequence 
of this statute Avas to introduce neAv conveyances. The 
principal one Avas “ bargain and sale.” The sale of land 
for a consideration, as already explained, created a use, 
and the statute gave the OAvner of the use the title. A sub¬ 
sequent statute (knoAvn as the statute of Frauds) requires 
conveyances to be in writing. This is the foundation of 
the modern system of conveyancing, both in England and 
the U. S. Other conveyances, proceeding cither wholly or 
in part on the same theory, are “covenant to stand seised ” 
and “lease and release.” In the first of these the consider¬ 
ation is the affection betAveen near relatives, technically 
called a “good” consideration, as distinguished from “ val¬ 
uable.” In the second, the doctrine of uses is resorted to 
to put the purchaser in constructive possession of an estate 
for years in the land, Avheroupon he may receive a release, 
and thus become complete OAvner. T. W. Davigiit. 
















392 BARGE—BARKER. 


Barge, a pleasure-boat, a boat of state elegantly fur¬ 
nished and propelled by oars; these are used on ceremonial 
occasions by princes and men of high station. Also a flat- 
bottomed vessel of burden employed in loading and un¬ 
loading ships or in conveying freight from one town to 
another. 

B a'ri (anc. Ba'rium), a fortified city and seaport of 
Italy, capital of the province of Bari, is situated on the 
Adriatic Sea, 56 miles by rail N. W. of Brindisi; lat. 41° 
9' N., Ion. 16° 54' E. It is defended by a massive old castle 
of Norman origin. The harbor .admits only small vessels. 
Bari is the see of an archbishop, and has some fine eccle¬ 
siastical buildings, among which is the priory of St. Nicho¬ 
las, founded in 1087. It contains a cathedral, two theatres, 
an arsenal, etc.; also manufactures of silk, cotton, linen, 
and glass. Barium was a very ancient city, and was flour¬ 
ishing as early as 200 B. C. Pop. in 1872, 50,524. 

Bari, a province of Italy, bounded on the N. E. by the 
Adriatic Sea, on the S. by Lecce and Potenza, on the W. 
by Potenza, and on the N. W. by Foggia. Area, 2293 
square miles. The surface is mostly level; the soil is 
very fertile, producing wheat, fruits, and wine. The cli¬ 
mate is very hot in summer. This province formed a part 
of ancient Ajmlia. Capital, Bari. Pop. in 1871, 604,365. 

Bari, the name of a negro tribe on the White Nile, be¬ 
tween lat. 3£° and 61° N., are well built and often attain a 
height of six feet. They are fetish worshippers and prac¬ 
tise polygamy. The men go entirely naked and paint them¬ 
selves with ochre, while the women only wear short aprons. 

Baril'la [Fr. barille ], a crude, impure carbonate of 
soda, which is a considerable article of commerce, and is 
used in the manufacture of soap and glass. It is procured 
by burning plants of the genus Sahola or other plants which 
grow near the sea. Large quantities of it are exported 
from Spain and the Balearic Isles. The Sahola sativa is 
cultivated on ground adjacent to the sea, by which it is 
occasionally submerged, the sea being admitted by flood¬ 
gates through an embankment. The Sahola is cut in Sep¬ 
tember, is dried, and burned in a hole in the ground. 

Bari 'nas, a province of Venezuela, between Truxillo, 
Portugueza, and Merida on the N. and W., Guarico on the 
E., and Apure on the S. Area, 17,008 square miles. It 
consists of fertile plains drained by numerous streams. 
The S. boundary is the river Apule. The chief products 
are hides, cacao, coffee, and tobacco. Capital, Barinas. 
Pop. 126,925. 

Bar' inas, or Vari'nas, capital of the above province, 
near the river Santo Domingo. The city, founded in the 
sixteenth century, has suffered devastation twice within a 
century. It is noted for the exportation of the tobacco 
which bears its name. Pop. 14,000. 

Bar'ing, a post-township of Washington co., Me. It 
is on the St. Croix and Penobscot R. R., and has manufac¬ 
tures of lumber, sash and blinds, boots and shoes, etc. 
Pop. 364. 

Baring (Sir Francis), an English financier, born near 
Exeter in 1740, was the father of Lord Ashburton, and the 
principal founder of the great banking-house of Baring 
Brothers &, Co. of London. Died in 1810. 

B ari'tah, the name of certain large Australian birds 



Baritali, or Piping Crow. 


belonging to the Corvid® (crow family). The bill is large 
and conical, the base of it extending far backward on the 
forehead. The Gymnorhina tibicen (piping crow or piping 
grakle) has a melodious voice, is easily tamed, and learns 
to whistle tunes. There are several genera of these birds. 

Ba'rium [from the Gr. /3apv'?, “ heavy,” as it is an 
ingredient of “heavy spar"], one of the alkaline earthy 
metals. It occurs in nature chiefly in the forms of sul¬ 
phate, barite, barytes, or heavy spar, of carbonate, witherite, 
and of silicate, harmotome. Its symbol is Ba, and its 
atomic weight 137. It is very rarely prepared in the 
metallic state. Barium salts are prepared either from the 
native carbonate by the action of acids, or from the native 
sulphate by first reducing it to sulphide by treating with 
sawdust or some other reducing agent, then acting upon 
this with the proper acids. The most important salts are 
the chloride and nitrate; both are used as tests for sulphuric 
acid and soluble sulphates. The chloride is used as a pre¬ 
ventive of boiler incrustations, owing to its action on the 
sulphate of lime of the feed-water. It is also extensively 
used for the preparation of an artificial sulphate known 
as blanc fix, which is used in enamelling paper. Barium 
forms a protoxide, BaO, called baryta, and a dioxide, BaC> 2 . 
The latter is employed in the preparation of hydrogen 
dioxide, HO 2 . Baric hydrate, BaII 2 02, is the most soluble 
of the alkaline earthy hydrates; it is used in the laboratory 
as a test for carbonic acid, with which it forms a white 
precipitate. Baric sulphate is one of the most insoluble 
salts known. In its native form, barytes or heavy spar, it 
is extensively mined and used to adulterate white lead, an 
application for which it is specially adapted by its high 
specific gravity. The soluble barium salts are all poison¬ 
ous. Any soluble sulphate, as sodic, Glauber’s salt, or 
magnesic sulphate, Epsom salt, is an antidote. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Bark [Lat. cor'tex], the external covering of a tree, is 
composed of cellular tissue. The development of bark is 
most perfect in exogenous plants with perennial woody 
stems, in which only the distinction between wood and 
bark is plainly marked. The outermost layer of bark is 
called epider'mh, which, however, is generally seen only 
in annual stems or in the youngest parts of woody stems. 
Beneath the epidermis is the true bark, the outer layer of 
which is called epiphlce'um, and the inner layer mesophlae'um. 
Within the mesophloeum is a distinct layer named liber or 
endophlceum ( i . e. “ inner bark ”), w hich is composed of 
bundles of woody fibre or vascular tissue, mixed with cel¬ 
lular tissue. The last layer of bark is contiguous to the 
alburnum or sap-wood. The bark increases by the addition 
of an annual layer on its inner surface, next to the albur¬ 
num or cambium, through which the sap circulates. The 
annual layers cannot long be distinctly recognized in the 
bark, and in the older portions of trees the outer layers of 
bark, becoming dry and lifeless, are gradually shed or 
thrown off. The peculiar juices and characteristic proper¬ 
ties of a plant are often most abundant in the true bark, 
which is the most important part of many medicinal plants, 
especially of Cinchona (which see). In making leather, 
tanners prefer those kinds of bark which contain most tan¬ 
nic acid. Oak bark is chiefly used in the tanneries of 
Europe. In the U. S. the bark of several species of oak, 
and also that of the hemlock, is used. The Spaniards em¬ 
ploy the inner layer of the bark of the cork tree ( Quereus 
suber), and the Australians that of the Eucalyptus. The 
bark can be separated with facility from the wood only 
when the sap is flowing. It should be carefully dried, as 
it is liable to be injured by mould. 

Bark Beetle, or Bark Chafer, a name of several 

genera of coleopterous insects, belonging to the family 
Scolylide. They bore holes in bark, deposit their eggs in 
the inner bark, and often kill the tree. One species 
( Toin'icus typoy'raphus) infests the forests of Germany in 
great numbers. In 1783 it caused the death of a million 
pines or more in the Hartz Forest. The U. S. have several 
destructive species. 

Bar'ker, a township of Broome co., N. Y. Pop. 1396. 

Barker, a township of Barbour co., West Va. Pon 
1961. 

Barker (A. J.), IT. S. N., born Mar. 13,1843, in Massa¬ 
chusetts, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1861, became 
an ensign in 1862, a lieutenant in 1864, and a lieutenant- 
commander in 1866. He served in the steamer Mississippi 
at the passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip and capture 
of New Orleans, April 24, 1862, and in the attack on Port 
Hudson, Mar. 14, 1863, where the Mississippi grounded 
and was destroyed; and afterwards in the steam-sloop 
Monongahela at the siege of Port Hudson, and was in 
various engagements in her with batteries on the Missis¬ 
sippi River. Fox hall A. Parker, U. S. N. 






















BARKER—BARLEYCORN. 


393 


Barker (Edmund Henry), an English philologist, born 
in Yorkshire Dec. 22, 1788. He published a revised edi¬ 
tion of Stephens’s “ Thesaurus Linguse Graecae ” (13 vols., 
1810-28). Among his works are “Classical Recreations” 
(1812) and “Parriana” (2 vols., 1829), which contains 
anecdotes, etc., relating to Dr. Parr. Died Mar. 21, 1839. 

Barker (Fordyce), M. D., born May 2, 1819, at Wilton, 
Me., was educated at Bowdoin College, and studied medi¬ 
cine in Boston and Paris. He became in 1845 professor 
of midwifery in the medical school at Brunswick, Me., 
held the same position in the N. Y. Medical College (1850- 
57), and in 1800 became obstetric physician and professor 
of midwifery at the Bellevue Hospital, N. Y. He has 
published numerous papers on obstetrical and other kindred 
subjects, a treatise on “ Sea-sickness,” and one on “ Puer- 
peral Diseases.” 


Barker (George F.), M. D., an American chemist and 
physicist, born in Charlestown, Mass., July 14, 1835. He 
became an apprentice in 1851 in a philosophical instru¬ 
ment manufactory in Boston, where he remained until 1850, 
in which year he entered the Yale Scientific School, and 
graduated as bachelor of philosophy in 1858. He was 
chemical assistant for two winters (1858-01) in the Harvard 
medical school. In 1801 he was appointed professor of 
chemistry and geology in Wheaton College, 111., and ivas 
acting professor of chemistry in 1862-03 in the Albany 
Medical College, where he graduated as M. D. in 1863. 
Early in 1864 he became professor of natural sciences in 
the Western University of Pennsylvania at Pittsburg, was 
instructor (1865) in the Yale Medical College, and was 
appointed professor of physiological chemistry and toxi¬ 
cology at Yale in 1867. In 1871 he was chosen vice-pres¬ 
ident of the American Association for the Advancement 
of Science. In 1873 he became professor of chemistry in 
the University of Pennsylvania. Among his various pro¬ 
ductions may be named a “ Lecture on the Force of 
Nature,” delivered (1863) before the Chemical Society of 
Union College, by whom it was published; and one on the 
“ Correlation of Vital and Physical Forces,” delivered 
(Dec. 31, 1869) before the American Institute in New York; 
republished in France. He is author of a “ Text-book of 
Elementary Chemistry” (1870), which has already passed 
through eight editions, and of the general article on chem¬ 
istry in the present work. 

Barker (Jacob), an American financier, born in Maine 
Dec. 7, 1779. He was a relative of Dr. Franklin. He 
went to New York in early youth, and engaged in business on 
his own account with great success. Before 1812 he was one 
of the prominent politicians of New York. For many years 
he was regarded as among the soundest merchants of that 
city; but he became involved financially, and his reputa¬ 
tion for business integrity having suffered, he removed to 
New Orleans in 1834, where as a banker he acquired wealth 
and influence. He took a prominent political part in the 
affairs of New Orleans and Louisiana during the civil war, 
loyally to the U. S. Died Dec. 27, 1871. 


Barker’s Mill, or Segner’s Wheel, an hydraulic 
machine invented by Dr. Barker towards the close of the 
seventeenth century. The following description may serve 
to exhibit the principle of this machine in its simplest 
form. To those who have any knowledge of hydrostatics 
it is scarcely necessary to observe that every equal unit of 
surface of a vessel full of water is subject to a pressure 
proportional to the depth of the unit below the surface (see 
Lateral Pressure of Liquids) ; every unit of surface at 
the same depth is equally pushed outward. For each such 
pressure on one side of a vessel there is an equal and oppo¬ 
site pressure on the other, whereby the whole vessel is 
kept in equilibrium. 

If one such unit of 
area be removed—that 


is, if a hole be cut in 
the side of a vessel of 
water — the water in 
flowing out will no 
longer be able to press 
upon the surface which 
has been removed, but 
■will nevertheless con¬ 
tinue to press with 
equal force on the op¬ 
posite unit of area. 

The consequence will 
be that the vessel will 
be urged in the direc¬ 
tion opposite to that in 

which the water flows Barker’s Mill, 

out. Barker’s mill in 

its simplest form is shown in the annexed figure. A tube 
ace with lateral arms below, shaped somewhat like an in¬ 



verted T, rests upon a pivot at b. Now, suppose this tube 
to be supplied with water at the top, and an opening be 
made on opposite sides of the horizontal arms c c; the 
water, of course, ceases to press on the tube at the open¬ 
ing, while it continues to press on the opposite side; and 
if the wheel be so constructed as to turn with but little 
friction at a and b, the arms of the tube will be moved round 
in a direction opposite to that in which the water flows. It 
is obviously necessary that the opening in the two arms 
should be on opposite sides, for if they were on the same 
side the pressure on the one (supposing the openings to be 
of equal size) would exactly counterbalance the pressure 
on the other, and the wheel would remain stationary. But 
being on opposite sides, the arms are moved round in the 
same direction, the pressure on each co-operating with that 
on the other. As the rotation proceeds, the pressure at the 
extremities of the arms, c c, generated by centrifugal force 
is added to that due to the head, increasing correspondingly 
the driving power. Hence the machine is often called “ the 
centrifugal mill.” Various contrivances may be adopted 
to facilitate the supply of water, to lessen the friction, etc., 
but the above explanation may serve to show the general 
principle on which such a machine operates. 

Revised by F. A. P. Barnard. 

Barker’s Ridge, a township of Wyoming co., W. Va. 
Pop. 407. 

Barkliara'sted, a post-township of Litchfield co.. 
Conn. Pop. 1439. 

Bark'iug, an English town, county of Essex, on the 
Roding, 8 miles E. of London. The inhabitants pursue 
fishing or traffic with London in barges and market-carts. 
Pop. 5076. 

Bark'ley, a township of Jasper co., Ind. Pop. 832. 

Barks'dale (William), a brigadier-general in the Con¬ 
federate service, born in Rutherford co., Tenn., Aug. 21,1821, 
killed July 2, 1863, at Gettysburg, Pa. He was educated at 
Nashville University, removed to Mississippi, studied law, 
and was admitted to the bar. He served in the Mexican 
war. In 1853 he was elected to Congress from Mississippi, 
and resigned his congressional seat and became a brigadier- 
general in the Confederate army; and it was at the head 
of his brigade that he was killed on the second day of the 
battle of Gettysburg. / 

Bar-le-Duc, or Bar-sur-Ornain, a town of 
France, capital of the department of Meuse, is on the 
river Ornain, and on the railway which connects Paris 
with Nancy, 159 miles by rail E. of Paris. It has a com¬ 
munal college, a normal school, and a public library; also 
manufactures of cotton stuffs, hosiery, and calicoes. Its 
trade is facilitated by a canal which connects the Marne 
with the Rhine. Pop. in 1866, 15,334. 

Barlet'ta (anc. Barduli), a fortified seaport of Italy, 
in the province of Bari, on the Adriatic, and on a rocky 
island 34 miles by rail W. N. W. of Bari; lat. 41° 20' N., 
Ion. 16° 19' E. It is well built, has handsome stone houses, 
and wide, well-paved streets. It contains a fine cathedral, 
a college, a strong citadel or castle, and a colossal statue 
of the emperor Heraclius, said to have been found in the 
sea. Grain, wine, oil, and fruits are exported from this 
town. Pop. in 1872, 28,163. 

Bar'ley [Lat. hor'deuin], a plant of the order Gramineae, 
is a valuable cereal, said to be more widely distributed than 
any other grain. It was cultivated by the ancient Hebrews, 
Greeks, and Romans, and was an important article of food in 
a remote antiquity. First mentioned in Exodus ix. 31. It is 
adapted to both cold and warm climates. The genus Hordeum 
is distinguished by a spiked inflorescence, has three spikelets 
at each joint of therachis, and has three stamens. The lower 
palea or palet is long-awned. The species are mostly annual. 
Barley meal is used for bread in Northern Europe, but in 
many parts of the world this grain is mostly malted ( ger¬ 
minated ) for the manufacture of beer. It is also valuable 
as food for horses. When the pellicle of the grain is re¬ 
moved and the grain is rounded, it is called pearl barley, 
which is used as food for invalids. Two species or vari¬ 
eties of barley are cultivated in the U. S.—namely, Hor¬ 
deum vulgctre, with its grains arranged in four rows; and 
Hordeum distichon, in which there are only two rows. The 
farmers of Europe also cultivate the Hordeum hexastichon, 
the six-rowed barley. The sprat or battledore barley (some¬ 
times called German rice) is much esteemed in Germany. 
It has only two rows, and has widely-spreading awns. I he 
Nepaul or Himalaya barley is weli adapted tor cold and 
mountainous regions, as it produces good crops at the 
height of 14,000 feet above the level of the sea. 

Bar'leycorn (John), a personification of the spirit of 
barley or malt liquor, used in humorous poetical composi¬ 
tion and in jocular parlance. There is an old whimsical 
English tract entitled “ The Arraigning and Indicting ot 



























BAKLOW—BARNARD. 


394 


Sir John Barleycorn, printed for Timothy Tosspot/’ but 
John Barleycorn is best known by Burns’s humorous poem 
of that name. 

Bar'low, a post-township of Washington co., 0. Pop. 
1194. 

Barlow (Francis Ciianning), Major-General, born 
at Brooklyn, N. Y., Oct. 19, 1834, graduated first in his 
class at Harvard College in 1855, served in the Union army 
18G2-65. He was at Fair Oaks and in almost every subse¬ 
quent battle of the army of the Potomac, and won a dis¬ 
tinguished reputation as a brave and able officer. He was 
secretary of state for New York in 1866-68. 

Barlow (Joel), an American poet, born at Reading, 
Conn., Mar. 24, 1755, graduated at Yale College in 1778. 
He served as chaplain in the army in the Revolutionary 
war, after which he studied law. He produced in 1787 
“ The Vision of Columbus,” a poem which was very popu¬ 
lar. Having visited Europe on business in 1788, he passed 
some years in Paris during the French Revolution, and 
amassed a competence by trade or speculation. He re¬ 
turned to the U. S. in 1805, and published in 1808 “ The 
Columbiad,” a mediocre epic poem. He was sent as am¬ 
bassador to France in 1811, and died near Cracow Dec. 
22, 1812, while on his way to Wilna, whither he had been 
invited to meet Napoleon. (See C. E. Oelsner, “Notice 
sur la Vie de J. Barlow,” 1813 ; Griswold’s “ Poets and 
Poetry of America.”) 

Bar'mecides (sing. Bar'mecide), a distinguished 
and powerful Persian family, whose name was derived from 
Barinak or Barmek. His son, Khaled-ben-Barmak, be¬ 
came the prime minister of the caliph Al-Mansur, and 
also of Al-Mahdi, who appointed him tutor to Haroun- 
al-Raschid. Yahya, the son of Ivhaled, was vizier under 
Ilaroun-al-Raschid, to whom he rendered important ser¬ 
vices. Yahya had three sons, named Yahya, Fadhl, and 
Jaafar, who enjoyed the favor of the sovereign. Fahdl 
was vizier for some time. Haroun-al-Raschid, who was 
jealous of their power and popularity, ordered them to be 
put to death about 802 A. D. (See Jaafar.) The virtues 
and misfortunes of the Barmecides have been celebrated 
by many Oriental poets and historians. 

B armecide’s Feast, a celebrated tale from the 
“Arabian Nights;” a term often applied to an ostentatious 
display of worthless bounty. The tale is as follows: 
Schacabac being reduced to great poverty, and having 
eaten nothing for two days together, made a visit to a 
noble Barmecide in Persia who was very hospitable, but 
withal a great humorist. The Barmecide was sitting at 
his table, that seemed ready covered for an entertain¬ 
ment. Upon hearing Schacabac’s complaint, he desired 
him to sit down and fall to. He then gave him an empty 
plate, and asked him how he liked his rice-soup. Schaca¬ 
bac, who was a man of wit, and resolved to comply with 
the Barmecide in all his humors, told him it was admirable, 
and at the same time lifted up the empty spoon to his 
mouth [apparently] with great pleasure. The Barmecide 
then asked him if he ever saw whiter bread. Schacabac, 
who saw neither bread nor meat, answered, “If I did not 
like it, you may be sure I should not eat so heartily of it.” 
Several other nice dishes were served up in idea, which 
both of them commended and feasted on after the same 
manner. This was followed by an invisible dessert; and 
Schacabac, at length being tired of moving his jaws up 
and down to no purpose, desired to be excused, for that 
really he was so full he could not eat a bit more. “ Come, 
then,” said the Barmecide, “ you shall taste of my wines, 
which, I may say without vanity, are the best in Persia.” He 
then filled their glasses out of an empty decanter. Schaca¬ 
bac would have excused himself from drinking so much at 
once, because he said he was a little quarrelsome in his liq¬ 
uor; however, being pressed to it, he pretended to take 
it off, having beforehand praised the color and afterwards 
the flavor. Being plied with other imaginary bumpers of 
different wines, he pretended to grow flustered, and gave 
the Barmecide a box on the ear; but immediately recover¬ 
ing himself, “ Sir,” said he, “I beg ten thousand pardons, 
but I told you before that it was my misfortune to be quar¬ 
relsome in my drink.” The Barmecide, who was pleased 
with the complaisance of his guest, then ordered a good 
substantial dinner to be served up. 

Bar'men, a town and beautiful valley of Rhenish 
Prussia, is on the river Whippcr, 17 miles by rail E. N. E. 
of Barmen. The town is 3 miles E. of Elberfeld, or, ac¬ 
cording to one statement, is a continuation of Elberfeld, 
with which it forms one uninterrupted street six miles long. 
Barmen is the principal seat of the ribbon manufacture on 
the Continent, and its fabrics are distributed to all parts 
of the world. Here are also manufactures of cotton and 
linen goods, velvet, lace, hardware, and chemical products. 
The district which contains Barmen and Elberfeld is the 


most populous, industrious, and thriving in Germany. Bar¬ 
men has a handsome church, an asylum for the deaf and 
dumb, several banks, an exchange, etc. Pop. in 1871, 
74,496. 

Bar'nabas [Gr. Bapvdpas ], Saint, an early Christian 
and apostle, originally named Joseph, was born in the 
island of Cyprus. He was a companion and fellow-laborer 
of the apostle Paul, and appears to have been the principal 
founder of the church of Antioch, to which he was sent by 
the church of Jerusalem. “He was a good man, and full 
of the Holy Ghost and of faith” (Acts xi. 24). According 
to one tradition, he was the first bishop of Milan. (See Acts 
xiii.-xv.; P. Puccinelli, “Vita di S. Barnaba,” 1649.) 

Barnabas, Epistle of, an epistle of twenty-one chap¬ 
ters, which is supposed by llefele to have been written be¬ 
tween 107-120 A. D. After having been lost sight of for 
several centuries, this epistle was first published in 1645, 
but the first four chapters and a part of the fifth were only 
in Latin. In 1859, Tischendorf discovered the whole in 
Greek at Mount Sinai, and it was published in 1863. It 
was formerly ascribed to the apostle Barnabas, but it is 
evidently the work of another and later hand. It is fre¬ 
quently cited by the Fathers, and was by many regarded 
as being of authority in the Church; some even claiming 
for it a place in the sacred canon. It is chiefly directed 
against the Judaizing Christians, and its principal value 
now is in the light it throws upon the customs and doctrines 
of the Christians of that time. Several English translations 
have been published. (See Neander, “Church History,” i., 
381; Kitto, “Cyclopaedia;” “American Presbyterian Re¬ 
view,” Jan. and July, 1864.) 

Bar'nabites, an order of monks which originated at 
Milan in 1533, and were so called because they preached in 
the church of St. Barnabas. Their duties were to attend 
the sick, to preach, to instruct the young, etc. They be¬ 
came numerous, and established monasteries or colleges in 
Italy, France, Austria, and Spain. 

Barnacle. See Cirripedia. 

Bar’nacle Goose (An'ser ber'nicla or Ber'tiicla leu- 
cop'sis), a bird which frequents the coasts of Britain in 
winter, and migrates northward in spring. It is smaller 
than the common wild-goose, and is esteemed for food. The 
plumage of the upper part of its body is ash-gray and black, 
and that of the lower part white. The name of barnacle is 
sometimes applied to the brent goose {An'ser bren'ta or tor- 
qua'tus), which is smaller than the preceding, and has a 
darker plumage, which is nearly all black except the lower 
part of the body. It is remarkable for powerful flight and 
distant migrations, and is prized for the table. It is a win¬ 
ter bird of passage in the U. S. It takes its name from 
the old belief that barnacles were often transmuted into 
geese—a superstition which was once shared by learned 
and unlearned alike. 

Barnacles, in heraldry, are frequently introduced into 
coats-of-arms as a charge. They were instruments used 
by farriers to curb and command unruly horses, and re¬ 
sembled what are now called twitchers. 

Bar'nard, a post-township of Piscataquis co., Me. It 
has manufactures of roofing slate. Pop. 149. 

Barnard, a post-township of Windsor co., Vt. It has 
manufactures of carriages, lumber, tubs, etc. Pop. 1208. 

Barnard (Daniel Dewey), LL.D., a lawyer and Whig 
politician, born at Sheffield, Mass., in 1797, graduated at 
Williams College in 1818, was admitted to the bar at Ro¬ 
chester, N. Y., and in 1821 was a member of Congress from 
New York (1828-30 and 1839-45). He removed to Albany 
in 1832, and was U. S. minister to Prussia (1849-53). He 
was the author of many published reviews, speeches, etc. 
Died April 24, 1861. 

Barnard (Frederick Augustus Porter), S. T. D., 
LL.D., L. II. D., mathematician, physicist, and educator, 
born in Sheffield, Mass., May 5, 1809, graduated at Yale 
College in 1828, tutor in Yale College 1830, professor of 
mathematics and natural philosophy in the University 
of Alabama 1837-48, professor of chemistry and natural 
history in the same 1848-54, professor of mathematics, 
natural philosophy, and civil engineering in the Univer¬ 
sity of Mississippi 1854—61, president of the University 
of Mississippi 1856-58, and chancellor of the same 1858- 
61. In 1854 he took orders in the Protestant Episcopal 
Church, resigned his chancellorship and his chair in the 
university in 1861, and in 1863-64 was connected with the 
U. S. coast survey, in charge of chart-printing and lithog¬ 
raphy. In May, 1864, was elected president of Columbia 
College, New York City, which post he still holds. He re¬ 
ceived the honorary degree of LL.D. from Jefferson College, 
Miss., in 1855, and from Yale College in 1859 ; also the de¬ 
gree of S. T. D. from the University of Mississippi in 1861, 
and that of L. II. D. from the regents of the University of 















BARNARD—BARNES. 


395 


the State of New York in 1872. In 1860 lie was a member 
of the eclipse expedition sent to Labrador (Cape Chudleigh) 
by the U. S. coast survey; and during this absence was 
elected president of the American Association for the Ad¬ 
vancement of Science. In the act of Congress establishing 
the National Academy of Sciences (1863) he was named as 
one of the original corporators, in 1867 he was one of the 
U. S. commissioners to the Paris Exposition, and was chair¬ 
man of the physical section, 1870-72. He is also a mem¬ 
ber of the American Philosophical Society, an associate 
member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 
corresponding member of the Royal Society of Liege, and 
member of many other scientific and literary associations. 
During his long residence in the South, Dr. Barnard was 
actively engaged in promoting public education, both pri¬ 
mary and higher, encouraging and assisting in all depart¬ 
ments of scientific research and literary culture. His pub¬ 
lications have related chiefly to scientific and educational 
subjects. Among these may be mentioned “ Letters on 
College Government” (1854), “Report on Collegiate Edu¬ 
cation” (1854), “Art Culture” (1854), “History of the' 
American Coast Survey” (an extended Report to tlie Amer¬ 
ican Association for the Advancement of Science, 1857), 
“University Education ” (1858), “ Undulatory Theory of 
Light” (1862), “Machinery and Processes of the Indus¬ 
trial Arts, and Apparatus of the Exact Sciences” (1868), 
“Metric System of Weights and Measures” (1871). 

Barnard (Henry), LL.D., an eminent educator, born 
at Hartford, Conn., Jan. 24, 1811, graduated at Yale Col¬ 
lege in 1830, and was called to the bar in 1836. Having 
been elected to the legislature of Connecticut in 1837, he 
reorganized the public schools. He was superintendent 
of schools in Connecticut (1838-42 and 1850-54), in Rhode 
Island (1843-49), president State University of Wisconsin 
(1856-59), and of St. John’s College (1865-67). He pub¬ 
lished, besides other works, the “ Connecticut Common 
School Journal,” which had reached several volumes in 
1855; “Normal Schools in the U. S. and Europe” (1851); 
“Education in Factories” (1842); “School Libraries” 
(1854); “Hints and Methods for the Use of Teachers” 
(1857); and “ National Education in Europe” (1851), when 
he commenced the publication of the “ American Journal 
of Education.” He was appointed in 1867 U. S. commis¬ 
sioner of education. 

Barnard (John), a famous minister of Marblehead, 
Mass., was born in Boston Nov. 6, 1681, and graduated at 
Harvard in 1700. He was a chaplain in the Port Royal 
expedition of 1707, of which he wrote an unpublished ac¬ 
count. Visiting England, he was offered a chaplaincy to 
Lord Wharton, but refused to conform. He was ordained 
colleague minister of Marblehead in 1716, and there re¬ 
mained for life. He took great pains in establishing the 
fisheries and commerce of his people. He published a ver¬ 
sion of the Psalms, sermons, etc. Died Jan. 24, 1770. 

Barnard (John G.), LL.D., was born May 19,1815, in 
Sheffield, Mass., graduated at the U. S. Military Academy 
1833, and was commissioned as brevet second lieutenant in 
the corps of engineers. In 1835 was sent to the Gulf coast, 
where he served seventeen years as an assistant or princi¬ 
pal engineer for the fortifications of Pensacola and New 
Orleans, and on works of harbor improvement. During the 
war with Mexico he was twice called to the field, and re¬ 
ceived the brevet of major “for meritorious services while 
serving in the enemy’s country.” In 1850 he was named 
by the President (Taylor) as chief of a scientific commission 
for the survey of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, with the view 
of establishing a route of commerce and travel to our new¬ 
ly-acquired Pacific possessions. The report drawn up by 
j. J. Williams (1852) gives the first full account of that isth¬ 
mus ever published. In 1854 he was in charge of the con¬ 
struction of the new fortifications of San Francisco, Cal., in 
1855-56 superintendent of the U. S. Military Academy. 
Subsequently, till 1861, he was in charge of the fortifica¬ 
tions of New York harbor. Serving as chief engineer 
under Gen. McDowell in the first Bull Run campaign, he 
was present on the field of that battle, as also at the earlier 
combat at Blackburn’s Ford, the very first of the inchoate 
“Army of the Potomac.” As chief engineer (with the rank 
of brigadier-general) of the Army of the Potomac in the 
Virginia Peninsular campaign of 1862, he directed the siege 
operations at Yorktown and before Richmond; and subse¬ 
quently, as “ Chief engineer of the defences of Washington,” 
the extensive works for the defence of the national capital. 
In the campaign of 1861-65 he served on the staff of Lieut.- 
Gen. Grant as “ Chief engineer of the armies in the field,” 
until the surrender of Lee’s army at Appomattox Court¬ 
house, at which he was present. He was brevetted through 
several grades, and finally received the brevet of major- 
general U. S. army “for gallant and meritorious services 
in the field;” also brevetted July 4, 1864, major-general 


U. S. volunteers “for meritorious and distinguished ser¬ 
vices.” Since the close of the civil war lie has served as 
senior member of the board of engineers for permanent 
fortifications, and as a member of the U. S. lighthouse board. 
He is a member and an original corporator of the National 
Academy of Sciences. The degree of A. M. was conferred 
upon him by the University of Alabama in 1838, and of 
LL.D. by Yale College 1864. He is a member of the Amer¬ 
ican Institute of Architects, and an honorary member of 
the American Society of Civil Engineers. His principal 
publications are “ The Phenomena of the Gyroscope ana¬ 
lytically examined” (1858), “Notes on Sea-Coast Defence” 
(1861), “Reports of the Engineer and Artillery Operations 
of the Army of the Potomac” (1863), in conjunction with 
Gen. W. F. Barry, chief of artillery; “Report on the De¬ 
fences of Washington” (1871), “ Report on the Fabrication 
of Iron for Defensive Purposes,” etc. (1871), made in con¬ 
junction with Gen. II. G. Wright and Col. P. S. Michie; 
“The North Sea Canal of Holland, and Improvement of 
Navigation from Rotterdam to the Sea,” “ Problems of Ro¬ 
tary Motion presented by the Gyroscope, the Precession of 
the Equinoxes, and the Pendulum” (1872). 

Barnaul'', a town of Siberia, in the government of 
Tomsk, at the junction of the Barnaul with the river Obi, 
230 miles S. S. W. of Tomsk. It has a mining school, four 
churches, and several hospitals. All the gold of the Altai 
Mountains is brought here to be smelted, and three large 
gold and silver trains leave here every winter for St. Peters¬ 
burg. A magnetic and meteorological observatory was es¬ 
tablished here about 1841. Pop. in 1867, 12,928. 

Barnave (Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie), a French 
revolutionist and able advocate, was born at Grenoble in 
1761. He was elected in 1789 to the States-General, and 
became a leader of the popular party. As a member of the 
National Assembly he opposed the absolute veto, and advo¬ 
cated the confiscation of church lands and the abolition of 
convents. He was a member of the committee appointed 
to attend the king on his return from Yarennes to Paris in 
1791, after which he became a more moderate reformer, and 
even defended the royal cause. This change of course ren¬ 
dered him unpopular. He retired to private life in Sept., 
1791, and was guillotined Nov. 29, 1793. According to 
Macaulay, he was “the best debater in the National As¬ 
sembly, but he flinched before the energy of Mirabeau.” 
(See M. de Salvandy, “Vie de Barnave,” 1833; Lamar¬ 
tine, “ History of the Girondists.”) 

Barn'bu liters, a nickname given to that portion of 
the Democratic party of the State of New York which op¬ 
posed the extension of slavery and supported Van Buren 
against Cass for President in 1848. They were esteemed 
too radical by their adversaries, one of whom illustrated his 
meaning by a story of a farmer who was so greatly an¬ 
noyed by the rats who devoured his grain that he burned 
his barn to get rid of them. The Barnburners, led by Col. 
Samuel Young, Hon. Silas Wright, Michael Hoffman, etc., 
opposed further borrowing for the improvement or exten¬ 
sion of their State canals, and were hostile generally to 
public debts, corporate privileges, etc. 

Bar' negat, a post-village of Union township, Ocean co., 
N. J., on Double Creek and on the Tuckerton R. R., 1 mile 
from Barnegat Bay. It has an academy, and is a place of 
resort for sportsmen on account of the abundance of wild¬ 
fowl. Its inhabitants are mainly engaged in navigation. 

Barnegat Bay, in Ocean co., N. J., connects with the 
Atlantic by an inlet over a mile wide. The bay extends 23 
miles N. to the mouth of Metetecunk River. There is a 
lighthouse 150 feet high on the S. side of the inlet, with a 
flashing white light; lat. 39° 45' 48” N., Ion. 74° 6' 3” W. 

Barnes, a township of Buena Yista co., Ia. Pop. 233. 

Barnes (Albert), an eminent American divine, born 
at Rome, N. Y., Dec. 1, 1798. He graduated at Hamilton 
College in 1820. He became, in 1830, pastor of the First 
Presbyterian church at Philadelphia, where he preached 
upwards of thirty years. As a commentator on the Scrip¬ 
tures, Mr. Barnes has a high reputation, and his scriptural 
commentaries are popular with the religious community on 
both sides of the Atlantic. The circulation of his “Notes 
on the New Testament” (in eleven volumes) is said to have 
reached more than a million volumes. He commented also 
on Isaiah (1840), Job (1844), Daniel (1853), and the Psalms 
(1871). Among his other works may be named “The 
Church and Slavery” (1857), “ The Atonement in its Rela¬ 
tions to Law and Moral Government ” (1859), “ Lectures 
on the Evidences of Christianity” (1868), “Life at Three¬ 
score and Ten” (1868), and “Scenes and Incidents in the 
Life of the Apostle Paul ” (1869). Mr. Barnes took a lead¬ 
ing part in the controversy which divided the Presbyterian 
Church, and in 1837 was one of the most prominent advo¬ 
cates of the New School doctrines. Died Deo. 24, 1870. 




























396 


BARNES’S—BAROMETER. 


Karnes’s, a township of Montgomery co., Ala. Pop. 
3680. 

Karnes’s Cross-Roads, a post-township of Dale co., 
Ala. Pop. 800. 

Karnes (James), an American officer and engineer, born 
in 1806 at Boston, Mass., graduated at West Point in 1829, 
was a lieutenant of artillery till he resigned from the army 
July 31,1836, serving at Military Academy as assistant in¬ 
structor 1829-30 and 1833-36, at Fort McHenry, Md., 1830- 
32, in Black Hawk expedition 1832, and at Charleston har¬ 
bor 1832-33, during the threatened nullification of South 
Carolina. He was a prominent civil engineer (1836-57), and 
constructed many important railroads. At the beginning 
of the civil war he resumed the military profession as col¬ 
onel Eighteenth Massachusetts volunteers, was appointed 
Nov. 29,1862, brigadier-general U. S. volunteers, and served 
in the Virginia peninsula 1862, Northern Virginia cam¬ 
paign 1862, in Maryland campaign 1862, and at Antietamj 
in Rappahannock campaign 1862-63, at Fredericksburg 
and Chancellorsville, in Pennsylvania campaign, in several 
skirmishes, and at the battle of Gettysburg (wounded), and 
was in command of the defences of Norfolk and Portsmouth, 
Va., 1863-64, of St. Mary’s district 1864-65, and Point 
Lookout camp for prisoners of war 1864-65. Brevet major- 
general U. S. volunteers Mar. 13, 1865, for meritorious ser¬ 
vices, and mustered out of service Jan. 15, 1866. With 
health destroyed he remained at his home in Springfield, 
Mass., where he died Feb. 12, 1869. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Karnes (Joseph K.), brigadier-general and surgeon- 
general U. S. army, born in Philadelphia July 21, 1817, 
educated in Philadelphia, receiving his degree of M. D. 
from the medical department of the University of Penn¬ 
sylvania, class of 1837-38. He followed the practice of his 
profession in the hospitals and as physician to the out¬ 
door poor of Philadelphia till June 15, 1840, when he was 
appointed an assistant surgeon in the army, and a surgeon 
Aug. 29, 1856. In 1863 (Feb. 9) he was appointed medical 
inspector, and Aug. 10 medical inspector-general with the 
rank of colonel. On Aug. 25 he was placed in charge of 
the surgeon-general’s office, and Aug. 22, 1864, received the 
appointment of surgeon-general, which distinguished po¬ 
sition he still retains, administering the responsible duties 
of his department with marked ability. 

Karnes (Phineas), a politician of Maine, born in 1811, 
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1829, was professor of 
Greek and Latin at Waterville (1834—39), and afterwards 
editor of the “ Portland Advertiser,” and held many re¬ 
sponsible offices in Maine. In 1860 he was nominated for 
governor on the Bell and Everett ticket. Died Aug. 21, 
1871. 

Karnesville, a post-village of Pike co., Ga., is situated 
on the Macon and Western R. R., 40 miles N. W. of Macon, 
and has one weekly newspaper. Pop.'754. 

Karnesville, a post-town in the S. W. part of Belmont 
co., 0., 32 miles W. of Wheeling, on the Baltimore and 
Ohio R. R. It has a machine-shop, foundry, planiug-mill, 
woollen mill, carriage factory, national bank, and one 
newspaper, and is the commercial centre of a large and 
wealthy agricultural district. It is noted for its superior 
strawberries and tobacco. Pop. 2063. 

Ed. “ Enterprise.” 

Kar'liet, a post-township of Caledonia co., Vt., on the 
Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers R. R., 51 miles N. of 
White River Junction. It has manufactures of lumber, 
leather, etc. There is an academy at Mclndoe’s Falls. The 
township contains several manufacturing villages. P. 1945. 

Rar'nett, a township of De Witt co., Ill. Pop. 1078. 

Rarnett, a township of Forest co., Pa. Pop. 504. 

Harnett, a township of Jefferson co., Pa. Pop. 223. 

Rar'neveld, a town in Holland, 6 miles S. S. E. of 
Nykerk, in the province of Gelders. There are fine monu¬ 
ments in one of the churches. Pop. 6167. 

Rar'nevelilt (John van Olden), an eminent Dutch 
statesman, bora at Ameersfoort in 1549. He was a mem¬ 
ber of an important embassy sent to England in 1585, and 
after his return was appointed advocate-general of Holland. 
He was an adversary of the earl of Leicester, and became 
the head of the republican party, while Maurice of Nassau 
was the chief of its opponents. Barneveldt opposed the am¬ 
bitious designs and warlike policy of Maurice, and in 1609 
concluded a truce with Spain for twelve years. He was for 
many years grand-pensionary of Holland. The animosity 
between the two parties was aggravated by religious dis¬ 
sension. Barneveldt favored^ the Arminians or Remon¬ 
strants, while Maurice patronized the intolerant Gomarists, 
who were also supported by the majority of the army, the 
clergy, and the populace. The Synod of Dort having con¬ 


demned the Arminians in 1618, Barneveldt was accused of 
treason, unjustly convicted, and beheaded May 13, 1619. 
(See Motlev, “ History of the United Netherlands.”) 

Kar'ney (Joshua), an American commodore, born in 
Baltimore July 6, 1759. Having passed through the in¬ 
ferior grades, he obtained command of the Hyder Ali, and 
captured the General Monk in 1782. He commanded a 
flotilla in 1813, and was wounded at the battle of Bladens- 
burg in 1814. Died Dec. 1, 1818. 

Rarn'hill, a township of Wayne co., Ill. Pop. 2632. 

Karns'Iey, a market-town of England, in the West Rid¬ 
ing of Yorkshire, on the river Dearne, 18 miles by rail N. 
of Sheffield, on the North Midland Railway. It is situated on 
a hill, has coal and iron mines, and manufactures of linen, 
glass, etc. The damasks and drills of Barnsley were con¬ 
sidered to be unrivalled. Here are also bleaching and dye 
works and iron foundries. Pop. in 1871, 23,021. 

Rarns'ness, a township of Pope co., Minn. Pop. 153. 

Karil'stable, the easternmost county of Massachusetts. 
Area, 290 square miles. It consists of a peninsula which is 
about 60 miles long and terminates in Cape Cod. It is 
bounded on the E. and S. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on 
the W. by Buzzard’s Bay. The soil is mostly light and 
sandy. Dairy products, corn, and wool are raised to some 
extent. Many of the inhabitants are engaged in the fish¬ 
eries and in navigation. Capital, Barnstable. Pop. 32,774. 

Rariistable, a port of entry and shire-town of Barn¬ 
stable co., Mass., is on Barnstable Bay and on the Old Colo¬ 
ny R. R., 72 miles S. S. E. of Boston. The inhabitants are 
principally engaged in maritime pursuits. The southerly 
portion of the town, on Vineyard Sound, is largely fre¬ 
quented as a place of summer resort. Hvannis, Cotuit 
Port, Osterville, and other villages are in this township, 
which has eleven churches, a court-house, jail, and a 
weekly paper. Pop. of township, 4793. 

Ed. “ Patriot.” 

Raril'staple, a town and seaport of England, in Dev¬ 
onshire, on the river Taw, 6 miles from its mouth, and 40 
miles by rail N. W. of Exeter. The Taw is here crossed 
by an old bridge of sixteen arches. Barnstaple is pleas¬ 
antly situated and well built, and has manufactures of pot¬ 
tery, lace, etc. It send;? two members to Parliament. The 
harbor has been filled with sand, so that it will not admit 
large vessels. Pop. in 1871, 11,636. 

Rarn'stead, a post-township of Belknap co., N. II. It 
has manufactures of lumber, woollen goods, etc. P. 1543. 

Kar'inim (Phineas Taylor), born in Bethel, Conn., 
July 5, 1810. He became an editor, a trader, and after¬ 
wards a public showman. In 1841 he established in the 
city of New York a museum which was very successful. In 
1849 he engaged Jenny Lind to sing in America, and paid 
her $1000 per night for 150 nights. He afterwards expe¬ 
rienced severe reverses of fortune, but displayed remark¬ 
able perseverance and energy in overcoming the difficulties 
which surrounded him. He also has some fame as a tem¬ 
perance lecturer, and gives freely to philanthropic enter¬ 
prises. (See his “ Life,” written by himself, 1855.) 

Raril'well, a county of South Carolina, bordering on 
Georgia. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Edisto, and 
on the S. W. by the Savannah River. The surface is un¬ 
dulating, the soil productive. Rice, corn, and cotton are 
the chief crops. The county is intersected by the South 
Carolina and Port Royal R. Rs. Capital, Blackville. Pop. 
35,724. 

Ram well, a post-village of Barnwell co., S. C., 60 
miles S. S. W. of Columbia. Pop. of township, 1181. 

Rarnwell (Robert Woodward), LL.D., a statesman, 
born at Beaufort, S. C., Aug. 10, 1801, and graduated at 
Harvard in 1821. He studied law, was a member of Con¬ 
gress from South Carolina (1829-33)/ U. S. Senator in 1850, 
and afterwards a member of the Confederate Congress. He 
was president of South Carolina College (now University 
of South Carolina) (1835-43), and after the civil war held 
the same position until 1873. 

Raroach', a town of British India, in the province of 
Bombay, is on the Nerbudda, 40 miles N. N. E. of Surat. 
Here is a hospital for animals, receiving even insects, which 
is endowed by the Brahmanists. On an island near this 
town is the largest banyan tree in India, which is said to 
have sheltered an army of 7000 men. 

Raro'da, a city of Hindostan, in Guzerat, about 90 
miles by rail N. N. E. of Surat ; lat. 22° 16' N., Ion. 73° 
14' E. It is the residence of the guicowar, a Mahratta 
prince, and has an extensive trade, for which its position 
is advantageous. A railroad extends from Baroda via 
Surat to Bombay, 231 miles. It is a rich city in proportion 
to its size. Pop. estimated at 140,000. 



















BAROMETER. 


397 


Barometer [Gr. pdpos, “weight,” and p-i-rpov, “meas¬ 
ure”], an instrument for measuring the weight or pressure 
of the atmosphere. If a tube of uniform bore be bent into 
the form of the letter U, and partially filled with a liquid, 
the height of the liquid column, as measured above the 
bend, will be found to be the same in both branches. This 
will continue to be true though the air be withdrawn from 
above the liquid on both sides—a thing which may easily 
be effected by suitably connecting the two extremities of 
the tube with an air-pump. But if, while things are in 
this condition, the air be gradually readmitted to one of 
the branches and not to the other, the column in that 
branch will steadily sink, and that in the other will cor¬ 
respondingly rise. Arresting this process at any moment, 
we may say that the difference of height of the two liquid 
columns is a measure of the pressure of the air on the sur¬ 
face of the lower; or that the weight of a column of the 
liquid having a height equal to this difference is just equal 
to the pressure on that surface. In this experiment it 
would be easy to expel the liquid entirely from one branch 
of the tube, without establishing an equilibrium with tho 
column in the other, unless the apparatus should be of 
inconveniently large dimensions, or the 
liquid employed should be one having 
great specific gravity. Mercury, in fact, 
which is nearly fourteen times (13.6) 
heavier than water, is the only liquid 
convenient for the purpose of the ex¬ 
periment; and if this be used, the dif¬ 
ference of height of the columns in the 
two branches will be found to be about 
30 inches when the full pressure of the 
atmosphere is admitted to one branch, 
while it is wholly withdrawn from the 
other. The weight of a vertical column 
of mercury, therefore, of uniform hori¬ 
zontal section, 30 inches in height, is 
equal to the mean pressure of the atmo¬ 
sphere at the surface of the earth on an 
area equal to the base of the column. 

The same fact is demonstrated more ex¬ 
peditiously by simply taking a straight 
tube 32 or 33 inches in length (Fig. 1), 
closed at one extremity and open at the 
othei*, filling it entirely full of mercury, 
placing the thumb firmly on the open 
end, inverting it and plunging this ex¬ 
tremity beneath the surface of mercury 
in a basin, and finally removing the 
thumb. The column will fall, and stand 
as before at about 30 inches above the 
level of the mercury in the basin. This 
is the original experiment of Torricelli, 
made early in the seventeenth century, 
by which he furnished the first satis¬ 
factory explanation of the phenomena which the old phil¬ 
osophers vaguely ascribed to Nature’s abhorrence of a 
vacuum. 

If the pressure of the atmosphere were invariable, the 
barometer would be an instrument of no prac¬ 
tical use, and would simply serve to illustrate 
an interesting physical truth. But this pres¬ 
sure is constantly fluctuating, and its fluctu¬ 
ations are measured by the varying heights 
of the Torricellian column. All that is neces¬ 
sary to form a barometer, therefore, is to con¬ 
nect with the tube and basin of Torricelli 
some kind of scale suitable to measure these 
variations. In English and American ba¬ 
rometers this scale is divided into inches and 
decimals; in France and in continental Eu¬ 
rope generally, into millimetres. If the in¬ 
strument is to be stationary, the scale need 
only have a range of three or four inches, since 
even in localities where the fluctuations are 
largest, they never transcend these limits. The 
divisions directly marked on the scale are made 
sufficiently large to be read by the unassisted 
eye. For smaller divisions a vernier must be 
employed. (See Vernier.) In the best in¬ 
struments the height of the column may be 
read by means of the vernier to the y^^th 
of an inch. Some little practice is required 
in order to learn to read with accuracy. The 
vernier carries a horizontal index which moves 
close to the glass tube containing the mer¬ 
curial column; but the top of the column is rounded, so 
that the highest point is distant from the index by half 
the exterior diameter of the tube. Ordinarily, the bore of 
the tube is small, not exceeding three-sixteenths to three- 
eighths of an inch; but in large standards a tube an en¬ 


tire inch in bore is often employed, and in such instru¬ 
ments the index is a ring or thimble surrounding the tube 
entirely. 

The height of the column must be measured from the 
surface of the mercury in the basin; but the level of this 
surface itself varies with the rising and falling of the col¬ 
umn in the tube. To provide 
against error from this cause, the 
whole scale is, in some barometers, 
made movable, and is raised or de¬ 
pressed as may be necessary, by 
means of a thumb-screw, before ob¬ 
servation. An ivory point directed 
downward from a short projecting 
arm carried by the scale is brought 
so as exactly to meet its image re¬ 
flected in the mercury of the basin, 
and this indicates that the zero of 
the scale is in its true position. In 
other instruments, and generally in 
those in common use, the adjust¬ 
ment is made by raising or depress¬ 
ing the level of the mercury itself 
while tho scale remains fixed. In¬ 
stead of the ivory point, an ivory 
float is sometimes used, carrying 
an upright stem on which is a fidu¬ 
cial mark designed to be brought, 
in the adjustment, into coincidence 
with a similar fixed mark. 

In tubes of small bore the mer¬ 
curial column does not reach the 
full height due to the pressure, 
owing to the effect of Capillary 
Action (which see). A small cor¬ 
rection is therefore necessary on 
this account, which depends on the 
diameter of the tube. With tubes 
of large dimensions this effect is 
insensible; and it may in any case 
be completely eliminated by giving 
to the barometer the form shown in 
Fig. 2, called a siphon barometer, 
in which the basin is dispensed 
with, and the tube is bent upward 
at the bottom, the recurved part 
serving as a substitute for the 
basin. In this form of the instru¬ 
ment, if the bore be uniform 
throughout, every fluctuation of 
pressure occasions equal and op¬ 
posite movements of the two sur¬ 
faces of mercury; and the reading 
on a fixed scale will change only 
half as much as in the common in¬ 
strument. The whole scale should 
therefore be movable; or if a fixed 
scale only be used, the divisions 
should be made of only half their 
nominal magnitude. An attempt 
has been made to magnify the ba¬ 
rometric indications of fluctuating 
atmospheric pressure, by trans¬ 
forming the vertical movements of 
the mercurial column into rotary 
movements of a long index upon 
a dial. The siphon barometer pre¬ 
sents a convenient means of doing 
this. A float introduced into the 
open short arm of the siphon, and 
connected by a silk thread with a 
small pulley on the axis of the in¬ 
dex, will render conspicuous even 
a very minute change in the alti¬ 
tude of the column. The uncertain 
action of this apparatus, however, 
owing to friction and other causes, 
is such as to deprive it of any sci¬ 
entific value. 

The form of barometer now most 
generally approved, constructed or¬ 
iginally by Fortin of Paris, and 
since adopted by Casella, Beck, 
and others of London, and by 
James Green of New York, who has made in it important 
improvements, is shown in Fig. 3. In this, the glass tubo 
is entirely surrounded by a protecting tube of brass, some¬ 
what enlarged at the top, for convenience in applying a 
scale and vernier, and having a vertical opening at tho 
same part to allow tho summit of the mercurial column to 
bo seen. The cistern at the bottom, which is of boxwood, 


Fig. 1. 



Fig. 2. 

























































































































































































































398 . BAROMETER. 


except the upper portion, which is a short glass cylinder, 
is similarly protected—the glass portion, however, being 
uncovered, in order to allow the surface of the mercury in 
the cistern to he visible. The cistern has a bottom of flex¬ 
ible leather, which rests on a broad disk of metal supported 
by a vertical screw, of which the milled head is represented 
in the figure below the instrument. Ily turning this screw, 
the level of the mercury in the cistern is brought to the 
true zero of the scale, indicated by a fixed fiducial point of 
steel or ivory seen within the cistern. 

Since the barometer measures the pressure of the atmo¬ 
sphere, and since this pressure is simply the weight of a 
vertical column of the aerial ocean above the level of the 
place of observation, it follows that, if we carry the instru¬ 
ment from a lower to a higher level, the barometric column 
will fall. One of the most important uses of the barome¬ 
ter, therefore, is as a means of determining heights. (See 
H ypsometry.) But a barometer intended for this purpose, 
or a so-called “ mountain-barometer,” must have a construc¬ 
tion in a number of respects differing from the barometer 
in common use. It must have, of course, a much larger 
range of scale, and especial care must be taken to guard 
it against the danger of fracture in transportation. If it 
is a cistern barometer, the cistern should be air-tight, and 
should have no communication with the atmosphere, except 
through an aperture which may be stopped by a closely- 
fitting screw or cock; and the adjusting screw at the bot¬ 
tom should have so large a range of movement as to allow 
all the air of the cistern to be expelled by raising the 
leather bottom, so that the cistern and tube may be both 
entirely filled with the mercury. The danger of fracture 
from the oscillations of this dense liquid may thus be 
avoided. The best mercurial mountain barometer, how¬ 
ever, is the siphon barometer of Gay-Lussac, shown in Fig. 
4, a, without its scale 
or mounting. In this 
instrument a tube 
bent in the manner 
shown, and closed at 
both ends, has two 
straight portions, of 
small but equal bore, 
connected by an in¬ 
termediate portion so 
much smaller that 
when, after being fill¬ 
ed with mercury, it is 
reversed, as shown in 
Fig. 4, b, the mercury 
will be held in the 
bend by capillarity. 

The only communi¬ 
cation with the air is 
by the aperture o, 
which is so small that 
any drops of mercury 
which may fall into 
the short arm from 
the bend, when the 
instrument is revers¬ 
ed, cannot escape. 

The design, however, 
is to have no excess 
of mercury beyond 
what will be held by 
capillarity in the po¬ 
sition b. This tube 
is suitably supported 
throughout its whole 
length, and protected 
by a surrounding 
tube of brass. The 
zero of its scale is at the middle of the length, and it reads 
from this zero both upward and downward. The readings 
are taken at both surfaces of the mercury, and their sum 
gives the time barometric height. The scale is usually in¬ 
scribed on the tube itself. In transporting the instrument 
it is carried in the inverted position, where the mercury, 
filling the whole tube, is necessarily prevented from oscil¬ 
lating. It is usually carried by the mountaineer in a leather 
case swung over his back, and when set up for observation 
is suspended in gimbal rings, supported by a tripod. 

When a barometer of this kind is carried from place to 
place, subject to occasional jars and concussions, some¬ 
times perhaps in a horizontal position, there is a possibil¬ 
ity that minute portions of air may now and then intrude 
into the tube, between the mercury and the glass. An 
effectual contrivance for preventing these from making 
their way into the Torricellian vacuum was devised by 
M. Bunten, which is represented in Fig. 4, c. The capil¬ 
lary jjart of the tube is divided; the extremity of the 


upper portion is drawn out to a minute orifice; that of 
the lower is widened, so as to form a globular or cylindrical 
chamber contracted at the mouth; and then the two are 
united again by fusion in the manner shown in the figure. 
Any air which may make its way into the tube from below 
is caught in this chamber, and afterwards, when the in¬ 
strument is inverted for transportation, it escapes by the 
way it entered. The invention evinces a high degree of 
ingenuity. 

An interesting form of the mercurial barometer, though 
one which wants the important property of portability, is 
the balance barometer, employed by Father Secchi of 
Rome in his “ Meteorograph,” or instrument for automati¬ 
cally recording the varying conditions of the atmosphere 
as to temperature, pressure, moisture, movement, etc. from 
day to day and from hour to hour. In this, the barometric 
tube is suspended from the short end of a lever or balance- 
beam, while the longer end may serve as an index, or may 
control, as in Father Secchi’s apparatus, the registering 
pens. Of course, when the column rises, the weight is in¬ 
creased, and the arm of the lever which carries the tube 
descends. In Father Secchi’s barometer the tube is of 
forged iron, bored truly to a diameter of two centimetres 
(0.8 inch), but in the superior part having the bore en¬ 
larged to six centimetres (2.4 inches) in order to increase 
the difference of weight caused by small variations of at¬ 
mospheric pressure, and thus render the instrument more 
sensitive. Such a barometer requires, of course, a large 
cistern of mercury; especially since, in order to relieve the 
pressure on the pivot of the balance, it is advisable to con¬ 
nect with the lower end of the tube a cylinder of wood of 
some size, which, plunging into the mercury, sustains by 
its buoyancy the greater part of the weight. 

Another very interesting form of mercurial barometer, 
which has in the highest degree the characteristic wanting 
in the last, of extreme portability, is one recently intro¬ 
duced by Mr. L. Casella, instrument-maker to the Admi¬ 
ralty, London, which may be called a measurer of the 
elasticity, rather than of the pressure, of the air—a dis¬ 
tinction which is real, though the numerical results ob¬ 
tained are identical. In this instrument a glass cylinder 
two or three inches in height, resembling somewhat a 
Fortin’s barometer cistern, closed at top, has a small and 
short glass tube descending into it to a point near the 
bottom. Mercury is contained in a chamber beneath this 
glass cylinder, and may bo forced up into the cylinder 
by a screw acting on a flexible bottom, in the same manner 
as in Fortin’s barometer. When the surface of the mer¬ 
cury reaches the extremity of the descending tube, it im¬ 
prisons a certain quantity of air within the glass cylinder, 
and as the surface is raised higher, this air is compressed, 
and causes a column of mercury to rise in the tube. A 
scale and vernier connected with this tube enables the ob¬ 
server to read the height of this column, and when the 
level of the mercury in the cylinder reaches a certain fixed 
fiducial point, the reading is taken. The height of the 
column is really the measure of the difference between the 
elasticity of the compressed air and that of the free air of 
the atmosphere; but inasmuch as the first of these values 
is a simple function of the second, it is easy so to construct 
the scale that the readings may be the true barometric 
readings due to the pressure of the atmosphere at the time. 
This instrument possesses two important advantages : first, 
its very moderate dimensions ; and secondly, its exemption 
from liability to fracture in transportation, since the quan¬ 
tity of mercury necessary in its construction is very small; 
and when this is withdrawn into the lower chamber, it may 
be confined there by turning a stopcock, and kept perfectly 
motionless. On all accounts, therefore, the instrument is 
admirably suited to the purposes of a mountain-barometer. 

When scientific accuracy is necessary in barometric ob¬ 
servations, all mercurial barometers require that their 
readings should be corrected for temperature. According 
to Regnault, the absolute dilatation of mercury between 0° 
and 100° C. = 32° and 212° Fy, is 0.01813, or about ij^th 
of its bulk. This corresponds to ^gy^th of the bulk for 
each degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, which would be 
equal, for the mean column of 30 inches, to an increase of 
altitude of about girths, or y-g-gth P er degree. Assuming 
the height at 32° F., therefore, to be the normal height, 
the reading at 54° F. will be -g^ths, or yyth inch too great; 
at 76° F., or so-called “ summer-heat.,” -g^ths, or &ths inch 
too great; and at 98° F., ggyths, or 0.2 inch too great. 
The correction for any temperature may be made by cal¬ 
culation from the data here given ; but it is more conveni¬ 
ent to be provided with a table which has been calculated 
in advance for all the temperatures to which the observa¬ 
tion is likely to extend. 

The process of filling the mercurial barometer is one 
which requires great care. In pouring mercury into a 


Fig. 4. 


































































































BAROMETER. 399 


long and narrow tube it is almost impossible to avoid in¬ 
troducing along with it some bubbles of air, which adhere 
with tenacity to the sides of the tube, but which, after the 
tube is inverted, gradually find their way into the space 
above the column and vitiate the vacuum. These may be 
expelled by boiling the mercury in the tube before inver¬ 
sion, when they will be carried off with the vapor. The 
operation is attended with some danger to the tube, the 
boiling-point of mercury being above 660° F., and the 
concussions of the heavy column in ebullition violent. It 
is expedient, therefore, to introduce at first only a small 
quantity, and after boiling that to add more, and so pro¬ 
ceed till the tube is filled, always applying the heat at a 
point but a few inches below the top of the column. Mr. 
Green, however, recommends filling the tube completely 
before beginning the operation, then boiling downward 
from the top, and finally upward from the bottom. There 
is a method of getting rid of air-bubbles, however, which 
is much less hazardous, and hardly less effectual, than this, 
and which only requires a little dexterity of manipulation 
to be successfully employed. In the process here referred 
to the tube is filled at first tp within two or three inches of 
the open end, without any special precaution against the 
introduction of air. A piece of buckskin is then placed 
over this-end and held firmly there, while the tube is care¬ 
fully brought into the horizontal position, when the con¬ 
fined air will of course occupy the upper part of the bore 
throughout. If the tube in this position be slowly ro¬ 
tated around its own axis, the great bubble which extends 
along its whole length will swallow up all the small ones; 
so that, when it is once more made vertical they will be re¬ 
moved along with it. The filling is then to be carefully 
completed, and if any additional bubbles be noticed they 
will be near the mouth, and may be detached by the aid of 
a steel wire. Professional instrument-makers often, after 
employing this method, boil the mercury in the tube also 
for greater security. 

It is of the highest importance that the mercury used 
in barometers should be quite pure. To be entirely safe on 
this score, it is best that the metal should be distilled be¬ 
fore using, but it may also be purified by chemical means. 
The effect of the presence of impurities is to diminish the 
specific gravity of the fluid, and therefore to make its in¬ 
dications uncertain; but it is also to tarnish the tube, and 
to render observation after a time difficult or impossible. 

Other fluids besides mercury may, of course, be em¬ 
ployed in the construction of barometers, but the height 
of the column will in every case be greater in proportion 
as the specific gravity of the liquid is less. Water, for ex¬ 
ample, requires a column of 34 feet, mean height. On the 
other hand, the fluctuations of height of the water column 
are proportionally large, and serve to render conspicuous 
slight changes of pressure, which, in the mercurial barom¬ 
eter, are nearly or quite imperceptible. It is an objection, 
however, to the water barometer that its indications are 
largely affected by the vapor from the liquid which occu¬ 
pies the space above the column, and that the error thus 
arising varies with the temperature. Thus, at 70° F. the 
column is depressed by this cause 10 inches; at 80° F., 14 
inches; and at 90° F., nearly 20 inches; while even at 
32° F., the freezing-point, below which the water barom¬ 
eter is unavailable, the depression from the same cause is 
no less than 2£ inches. To all observations of such a ba¬ 
rometer, therefore, a tabular correction must be applied, de¬ 
pending on the state of the attached thermometer. An¬ 
other source of error in these barometers is found in the 
fact that all natural waters contain more or less air, which, 
when the atmospheric pressure is removed, makes its es¬ 
cape; so that, if the water for such a barometer be taken 
directly from a natural source, the vacuum above the col¬ 
umn will soon be to some extent vitiated by the pressure 
of permanent gases as well as of vapor. This evil may be 
prevented, at least for a time, by thoroughly boiling the 
water immediately before its introduction into the tube; 
but it will return in consequence of the absorption of air 
through the surface of the fluid which is exposed to the 
atmospheric pressure, unless that be protected by some 
covering impervious to air. In the water barometer erected 
in the rooms of the Royal Society in London, such a pro¬ 
tection is provided in a stratum of solution of caoutchouc 
in glycerine. Very few water barometers have ever been 
constructed. The‘first of the kind was erected by Otto 
Guericke, the inventor of the air-pump, in his house at 
Magdeburg. The upper portion of the tube only, to an 
extent of about six feet, was of glass, and this was but 
partially exposed to view, the rest being concealed behind 
the woodwork of the apartment, bloating on the top of 
the liquid the inventor had introduced a diminutive figure 
of a man, which, with the rising of the column in fair 
weather, presented itself to view, but with the approach of 
foul weather retreated out of sight. The water barometer 


in the rooms of the Royal Society has just been mentioned. 
There is such a barometer also in the theatre of the natural 
philosophy class in the University of Edinburgh. At the 
Smithsonian Institution in Washington there was set up, 
some twenty-five years ago, by Mr. James Green of New 
York, under the direction of Prof. Henry, a barometer of 
large dimensions in which the fluid used was sulphuric 
acid. This liquid is free from the objection of forming 
vapor in the Torricellian void ; and owing to its large 
specific gravity a column of it less than 20 feet high suf¬ 
fices to balance the mean atmospheric pressure. Such, 
however, is the avidity with which this acid absorbs watery 
vapor, that its exposed surface must be in some manner 
protected from direct contact with the atmosphere. The 
protection used in this case was a balloon of India-rubber 
firmly secured to the short arm of the siphon barometric 
tube. But, though moisture was thus excluded, air was 
found to make its way gradually into the void above the 
column, and the instrument was finally disused and taken 
down. 

A description of barometer employing no liquid has, in 
recent years, come extensively into use, known as the 
Aneroid Barometer, the invention of M. Vidi, a physicist 
of France. The etymology of this word has been variously 
given. The inventor appears to have derived it from the 
verb ivepo juai, “ I inquire,” but the books commonly give it 
as from a, privative (?. e. signifying negation), vr/po?, “ wet,” 
and etSo s, “ form ;” understanding from the combination “a 
form without liquid,” which seems to be an interpretation 
sufficiently far-fetched. A third derivation is presented by 
Prof. De Morgan (“Budget of Paradoxes,” p. 385) from d. 
(or av), privative, and cupoeibrfc, “ like the air,” or “ having 
to do with the air;” so that anaeroid, or aneroid, would 
seem to mean an instrument which has nothing to do with 
the air, or one which has been named, like the grove in 
Latin, lucus a non lucendo. 

The instrument itself consists essentially of a flat cylin¬ 
drical box formed of thin corrugated metal, from the in¬ 
terior of which the air has been entirely, or nearly,'* ex¬ 
hausted ; the immediate effect being to bring the top and 
bottom into contact with each other by atmospheric pres¬ 
sure. The touching surfaces are then separated by means 
of a strong spring attached to the centre of the upper sur¬ 
face, while the lower is held down, the whole being placed 
within a larger box properly adapted to receive it. With 
the varying pressure of the atmosphere the separation of 
the surfaces is greater or less, or the spring is more or less 
bent, and the movements thus occasioned are transmitted 
by proper multiplying-apparatus to an index which trav¬ 
erses a dial like that of a watch. (Fig. 5.) Aneroid ba- 


Fig. 5. 



rometers often perform very well, and perform well for 
long periods; but in time, the spring is liable to lose its 
elasticity, so as to render the indications untrustworthy. 
These instruments should therefore be occasionally com¬ 
pared with standard mercurial barometers. They are very 
convenient for transportation, being constructed of various 

* Not altogether. In recent constructions, a small portion of 
air is left within the box, as a means of compensating for vari¬ 
ations of temperature; this air gaining as the spring loses in 
elasticity by elevation of temperature, and vice versa. 









































400 BAROMETER. 


dimensions, from eight or ten inches in external diameter 
down to two, and are often graduated to serve as mountain- 
barometers for heights as great as 12,000 or 10,000 feet. 

Another form of barometer without liquid, and in ex¬ 
ternal appearance resembling the aneroid, is Bourdon’s 
Metallic Barometer, now greatly improved by M. Richard 
of Paris, and constructed almost or quite exclusively by 
him. In this, a broad and nearly flat tube of thin metal, 
bent into the form of a horse-shoe, having been exhausted 
of air, is secured by the middle part to the box enclosing 
it, while the ends, left free, are connected by delicate chains 


Fig. 6. 



or wires with the apparatus controlling the index. (Fig. 
6.) The effect of increased atmospheric pressure upon an 
exhausted tube of this form is to bring the extremities nearer 
together, and that of diminished pressure to cause them to 
recede; and these changes are shown by the index on the 
dial. M. Richard’s principal improvement consists in the 
introduction within the tube of a steel spring having the 
curved form of the tube, but nowhere touching its walls; 
giving to it greater rigidity, and much greater uniformity 
of action, than belonged to the instrument as originally 
constructed. 

Long-continued observations of the barometer have 
demonstrated that there are certain fluctuations of atmo¬ 
spheric pressure which are periodical and regular, though 
not large; while such as are noticeable for their magnitude 
are subject to no obvious law. Of periodical fluctuations 
there is a semi-diurnal inequality having its maximum at 
about 10 o’clock morning and afternoon, and its minimum 
at 4, afternoon and morning. Its magnitude varies with 
the latitude, being greatest (0.104 in.) at the equator. In 
lat. 40° it is 0.05 in., and in lat. 70° only 0.003 in. There 
is also an inequality dependent on the seasons, which in 
some parts of the earth is large, and in others almost or 
quite imperceptible. Where it is noticed, the highest read¬ 
ing occurs in January, and the lowest in July, or a little 
later. At Pekin, in China, the mean pressure for the first 
of these months is three-fourths of an inch greater than 
that for the second. A large part of Asia is similarly af¬ 
fected. At Havana the fluctuation is hardly a quarter of 
an inch, the minimum seems not to be reached before the 
month of August, and the decline of the monthly means is 
not regular. At Boston and at London the monthly means 
throughout the year scarcely differ from each other by the 
tenth of an inch, and an annual inequality can hardly be 
said to exist. The position of the moon seems to have a 
slight influence on atmospheric pressure, but this, even 
where most observable, is little more than half a hundredth 
of an inch. 

The non-periodic fluctuations of pressure are very much 
greater than the periodic. If we call the difference between 
the greatest and least readings of the barometer within any 
month the monthly oscillation, and combine the observations 
of many years for the same month, we shall obtain the 
mean monthly oscillation. This is least near the equator, 
and increases towards the poles. At the equator it hardly 
exceeds 0.1 inch; in lat. 30° it is 0.4 in.; in lat. 45°, over 
the Atlantic, it is 1 inch; in lat. 65° it is 1J in. During 
the three winter months the mean is about one-third greater. 
On the continents bordering the Atlantic the means are usu¬ 
ally less than over the intervening ocean. The extreme fluc¬ 
tuations of the barometer, however, very much exceed these 
means. In Boston the greatest height observed in thirty- 
seven years is 31.125 in., and the least, 28.47 in.—difference 
2.655 in. The greatest observed range at London is 3 in.; 
at St. Petersburg, 3.5 in. Within the tropics the range is 


small. At Christiansborg, near the equator, the greatest 
range observed in five years was 0.47. ( Loomis's Meteor¬ 

ology.) 

The barometer is often spoken of as a weather-glass; 
and the scale of the instrument is often inscribed with 
words indicative of the weather which may be expected 
when the head of the column stands opposite them. This 
is, however, apt to convey very erroneous notions; for 
neither the actual nor the approaching weather can be 
correctly inferred from a knowledge of only a single one 
of the conditions which determine meteorological phenom¬ 
ena. The indications of the thermometer, the anemometer, 
and the hygrometer, and the progressive changes denoted 
by those instruments, are quite as important to the predic¬ 
tion of the weather as those of the barometer. Moreover, 
the prognostications derived from these instruments which 
would be justified in one part of the world, would not be 
at all so in another where the physical conditions are dif¬ 
ferent. One remark, however, is true generally. Inasmuch 
as there can be no considerable change in the condition of 
the atmosphere as to heat or moisture or movement which 
is not accompanied or immediately preceded or followed by 
a change of pressure, therefore when the barometer con¬ 
tinues steady, whether it be high or low, the actual state 
of the weather, whatever it may be, is likely to last. It 
may be added that a rapid movement of the barometer 
upward or downward, say three-fourths of an inch in 
twenty-four hours, is of unfavorable augury. Also that a 
very rapid fall will probably be followed by a violent wind. 
A slow movement upward gives assurance generally of fair 
weather. On the Atlantic coast of the U. S., however, ac¬ 
cording to Loomis, the approach of a violent N. E. storm 
is generally indicated by a rise of the barometer above its 
mean height; the wind veers to the N. E., and the atmo¬ 
sphere becomes hazy. Rain or snow follows, and after¬ 
wards the barometer begins to fall. When it reaches the 
lowest point, the wind changes to N. or N. W., and the ba¬ 
rometer rises. If a gale sets in from the E. or S. E.. and 
the wind veers by the S., the barometer will fall till the 
wind becomes S. W. A lull may then occur, followed by a 
renewal of the gale with the wind from the N. W., and a 
simultaneous fall of the thermometer and rise of the ba¬ 
rometer. When a storm of rain or snow follows, as it usu¬ 
ally will, a rapid fall of the barometer, the wind will be N. 
if the thermometer is low, and S. if it is high. If the 
barometer falls with a rising thermometer and increased 
dampness, wind and rain are likely to follow from the S. 
The result of all rapid changes in the weather, or in the 
indications of meteorological instruments, is of brief dura¬ 
tion, while that of gradual changes is generally lasting. 
(See Meteorological Instruments.) 

While observation enables us, thus, in some manner, to 
connect the fluctuations of the barometer with the varying 
conditions or aspects of the weather, it is not easy in all 
cases to assign satisfactory causes for the fluctuations 
themselves. The low state of the column which is com¬ 
monly observed to accompany the formation of heavy 
clouds and the fall of rain or snow, shows that the popular 
language, which speaks of the atmosphere at such times 
as “ heavy,” is scientifically incorrect. Many hypotheses, 
among them some which, in the present state of science, 
would be pronounced absurd on the face of them, have been 
proposed to account for the phenomena; but the true rea¬ 
son of at least the more conspicuous variations of atmo¬ 
spheric pressure must be looked for in rarefaction by heat, 
of which the ultimate source is the sun. Different portions 
of the earth’s surface become unequally heated by the solar 
radiation. The heat thus acquired is imparted by the earth 
to the atmosphere above it, of which the portions most 
heated are also most dilated, and, in consequence of their 
diminished specific gravity, tend to rise. In rising they 
are further dilated by diminished pressure, and their tem¬ 
perature consequently falls until their contained vapor is 
condensed to cloud, with evolution of its latent heat. The 
heat evolved increases the rarefaction, and the upward 
movement continues. The rarefied column is not changed 
in weight by the mere fact of its rarefaction ; but as its 
altitude is increased it necessarily overflows at top upon 
the surrounding air, of which the pressure is thus aug¬ 
mented, while its own is correspondingly diminished. As 
a necessary consequence, the barometer below it falls; and 
as rain naturally follows the precipitation of vapor, the 
rain-area will usually be found to correspond with the area 
of low barometer. Of periodical oscillations, the diurnal 
are in like manner traceable to heat. Those of longer 
period depend on causes less easy to ascertain. 

(For more full information as to the barometer and its 
uses, see “Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,” vol. I., 
pp. 693, by Prof. Guvot and J. W. C. Coffin, 1862; also 
“Manual of the Barometer,” by J. W. Belville, London, 
1849; also the “Smithsonian Annual Reports” of the 




































BAROMETRIC LIGHT—BARQUESIMETO. 


401 


years 1855, 1856, 1859, and 1867. The report of 1856 has 
a detailed description of the construction of Green’s Stan¬ 
dard Barometer; that of 1867 contains an important me¬ 
moir by Marshal Vaillant on the horary variations. Loo¬ 
mis’s ‘‘Meteorology,” and Rkid’s “Law of Storms” may 
also be consulted with advantage.) F. A. P. Barnard. 

Barometric Light. When an upright barometer is 
moved gently backward and forward from the vertical to 
an oblique position, so as to make the mercury oscillate in 
the tube through a range of a few inches, the Torricellian 
vacuum becomes lighted up, so as to be visible in the dark. 
This is called the barometric light, and is due to electricity 
arising from the friction of the mercury against the inner 
surface of the tube. The phenomenon may be exhibited on 
a large scale in the vacuum of an air-pump. The chief pre¬ 
caution is, that the mercury and the glass apparatus be quite 
dry; hence the experiment succeeds best in frosty weather. 

Bar'ometz, sometimes called Tartarian (or Scyth¬ 
ian) Lamb, the prostrate stem (rhizome) of a fern (As- 
pidium Barometz) which grows in salt plains near the Cas¬ 
pian Sea. It is covered with a shaggy, silky down, and has 
some resemblance to an animal. It was anciently believed 
to be half plant, half animal. It was also known as baranetz. 

Bar'on, the title of the lowest degree of hereditary no¬ 
bility in Great Britain and Ireland, is the next below that 
of viscount. The word was formerly used to include , the 
whole English nobility, because all noblemen were barons. 
The distinction between the greater and lesser barons seems 
to have been made at an early period in most of the coun¬ 
tries of Europe. The greater barons, who were the king’s 
chief tenants, held their lands directly, or in capite, of the 
Crown; while the lesser held of the greater by the tenure 
of military service. The greater barons had a perpetual 
summons to attend the parliament or great councils of the 
nation. The practice of conferring the rank of baron by 
letters-patent, and as a mere title of honor apart from the 
possession of land, originated in 1387. Barons are some¬ 
times created by writ, but this mode is nearly obsolete, and 
creation by patent is the surest way of ensuring the hered¬ 
itary character of the peerage. On great occasions a baron 
wears a coronet adorned with six peai'ls set at equal distances 
on the chaplet. He is addressed as “my lord” or “your 
lordship,” and is styled “right honorable.” In France and 
Germany and in many other countries a baron is a noble¬ 
man next in rank to a count. Formerly in Scotland a baron 
was not necessarily a nobleman, but was a holder of land 
in what was called baronial right. There are at present 
several classes of barons : (1) barons of England; (2) barons 
of Great Britain; (3) barons of the United Kingdom (all 
the members of these classes have seats in the House of 
Lords); (4) barons of Scotland; and (5) barons of Ireland; 
the members of the two latter classes having no seat in the 
House of Lords unless chosen as representative peers. There 
are, moreover, life peerages, rarely conferred, which do not, 
at present, entitle the holder to a seat in the House of Lords. 
Certain judges of the exchequer courts of England and Ire¬ 
land are called barons of the exchequer. 

Baron (Bernard), a distinguished French engraver, 
born at Paris in 1700, was a pupil of Nicolas Henri Tar- 
dieu, and resided for a number of years in England, where 
he died at London in 1762. He engraved several plates 
for J. A. Crozat’s collection of prints. His style is coarse 
in mechanical execution, but his merits are acknowledged 
to be great. His works should not be confounded with 
those of John Baron (or Baronius) of Toulouse (hence 
called Toloeano), who was born in 1631, and lived at Rome, 
where he engraved historical scenes and portraits. 

Baron, originally Bayron (Michael), one of the 
greatest of French actors, was born at Paris Oct. 8, 1858. 
His father, a leather-merchant, having fallen in with a 
very beautiful travelling actress, left his business and en¬ 
tered the same troupe. The actress became the mother of 
Michael Baron. Going to Paris in after years, Michael, a 
very handsome young man, attracted the attention of the 
great Moliere, who became his friend and instructor. Bar¬ 
on rose rapidly to the first rank of his profession, and was 
as eminent in tragedy as in comedy. He was with justice 
called “ the honor and the marvel of the French stage.” 
As a writer of plays he was very prolific. His beauty and 
talents caused his name to be mixed up with much of the 
gross scandal of the time. His personal vanity was very 
great. He used to say, “ Every century might produce a 
Caesar, but it took ten thousand years to produce one Bar¬ 
on.” It is commonly reported that he died upon the stage, 
but in reality, though stricken with apoplexy on the stage, 
he lived after that event more than two months. He died 
at Paris Dec. 3, 1729. 

Baron (Pierre), called Peter Baro, a native of 
Etampes, in France, became a Protestant, and escaped to 
26 


England in Queen Elizabeth’s time. In 1575 he was ap¬ 
pointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cam¬ 
bridge, an office which he held till 1596, notwithstanding 
the strong opposition which his doctrinal teachings encoun¬ 
tered. He was an opponent of Calvinism, then strongly 
maintained at the university and by the archbishop of 
Canterbury—Dr. John Whitgift. Baron was therefore 
subject to many vexatious annoyances, and was openly 
accused of heresy and of endeavoring to carry the uni¬ 
versity back to Romanism. He held to his course with 
great persistency, and even had the courage to preach 
against the famous Lambeth Articles, which had been 
drawn up to oppose him and his party. He was conse¬ 
quently forbidden to engage in polemics, and was made so 
uncomfortable that he was obliged to resign his position 
(1596) and retire to London, where he soon after died, 
leaving a number of Latin treatises, since ymblished in 
English. 

Baron and Femme, in heraldry, is the term used to 
designate the bearing by which the arms of husband and 
wife are carried per pale, or marshalled side by side on the 
same shield. The husband’s arms are always carried on 
the dexter side. 

Bar'onet, a diminutive of baron, is a title of honor 
which is hereditary. A baronet is the next lower than a 
baron, compared with whom, however, he is very inferior 
in rank. Baronets were first created in 1611 by James I., 
whose object was to raise money. The creation of baronets 
is limited only by the will of the sovereign, who confers the 
rank either by patent or by writ. A baronet is entitled to 
the prefix Sir to his name, and has precedence of all knights 
except bannerets, knights of the Garter, and privy coun¬ 
cillors. Baronets are of four classes—those of Ulster, Eng¬ 
land, Nova Scotia (or Scotland), and the United Kingdom. 

Baro'nius (Cesar), a Roman Catholic church historian, 
born Oct. 30, 1538, was a disciple of Saint Philip of Neri. 
He became cardinal and librarian of the Vatican. His cele¬ 
brated “Ecclesiastical Annals” (Rome, 1588-93, 12 vols. 
fol.; Antwerp, 1589-1603; Mayence, 1601-05, rev. ed.) was 
a work of twenty-seven years. Baronius was a brilliant 
dialectician and stylist, but has been charged with many 
blunders, owing to his ignorance of Greek. Notwithstand¬ 
ing these errors and his strong partisan spirit, the “Annals” 
of Baronius are conceded to possess very great learning and 
value. They were written in reply to the Magdeburg Cen- 
turiators. He published a number of other works, charac¬ 
terized by the same faults and the same great learning as 
marked his “Annals.” Died June 30, 1607. 

Bar'ony, the lordship, honor, or fee of a baron. In 
England, manors were formerly called baronies, and a 
barony was a manorial and hereditary right arising out 
of land known to the law both of England and Scotland. 
In the Scottish law a right of barony is a right in relation 
to lands which have been erected or confirmed by a clause 
in crown charters, making the grant in liberam, baroniam. 
It involved civil and criminal jurisdiction, but the clause 
in crown charters erecting baronies has become obsolete. 
The divisions of the Irish counties corresponding to the Eng¬ 
lish hundreds, wapentakes, and wards, are called baronies. 

Baro'zzo, or Barozzio (Jacopo), an illustrious Ital¬ 
ian architect, was born at Vignola, near Modena, in 
1507, from which fact he is often called Vignola. He 
studied painting at Bologna, but was so fascinated by the 
study of perspective that he abandoned painting for archi¬ 
tecture, in which art he attained a great reputation. He 
was employed by an association of antiquaries in Rome to 
take measurements and execute models of the remains of 
the ancient statuary of Rome. These models were after¬ 
wards cast in bronze. In 1541 he went to Paris to super¬ 
intend the casting of his copies, and Avhile there was en¬ 
gaged in architectural pursuits. In 1550 he became archi¬ 
tect to Pope Julius III. He designed the splendid palace 
of Cardinal Farnese (Caprarola), in which were placed 
some of his own pictures. He was engaged upon this 
work from 1555 to 1573. Meanwhile, upon the death of 
Michael Angelo in 1564, he succeeded the latter as archi¬ 
tect of St. Peter’s church. He published several valuable 
works on architecture, among which the best known is 
“ Regole de’ cinque ordini d’architettura ” (1563), illus¬ 
trated by engravings. This was long the standard authority 
in classic architecture. He was one of the designers of the 
Escorial Palace in Spain. His buildings show a happy 
combination of dignity and gracefulness. He died at Romo 
July 7, 1573. 

Barquesime'to, a province of Venezuela, is bounded 
on the N. by Coro, on the E. by Carabobo, on the S. by 
Barinas and Trujillo, and on the W. by Trujillo and Mara¬ 
caibo. The province of Yuracuy has lately been detached 
from this province, but nothing definite being known ot 











402 BARQUESIMETO-BARRACKPORE. 


the boundaries, etc. of Yuracuy, we treat of the two as 
one. Area, 9350 square miles. The southern jjart of the 
province is mountainous, while the N. is level. The largest 
river of the province is the Tocuyo, which, however, does 
not become navigable until it enters the province of Coro. 
The soil is poor, but the climate, with the exception of one 
or two districts, healthy. The chief occupation of the in¬ 
habitants is agriculture, and the chief products are tropi¬ 
cal fruits, wheat, coffee, cacao, indigo, and sugar. Chief 
town, Barquesimeto. Pop. 313,881. 

Barquesimeto, a city of Venezuela, capital of the 
above province, and situated on a river of its own name, 
175 miles W. S. W. of Caracas. It was almost destroyed 
by an earthquake in 1812, previously to which it had about 
15,000 inhabitants. It has a college, and is situated in a 
fertile and well-cultivated district. Present pop. about 
10 , 000 . 

Barr, a town of Germany, in Lower Alsace, 23$ miles 
by rail S. W. of Strasburg, has numerous vineyards. Pop. 
in 1871, 5651. 

Barr, a township of Daviess co., Ind. Pop. 2758. 

Bar' ra, a town of Italy, 3 miles E. of Naples, of which 
it is a pleasant suburb. It has many fine residences or 
country villas. Pop. 7656. 

Bar'racks, buildings for the habitation of troops. The 
word is sometimes applied to any collection of buildings 
densely occupied by human beings. 

The experience of the civil war in the U. S. has demon¬ 
strated that ventilation, abundance of pure air, is more im¬ 
portant to the health of man than complete protection from 
cold and heat. While soldiers camped in small and crowded 
tents, kept closed to exclude the cold, suffered from typhoid 
fevers, the sick and wounded in hospital tents and in the 
light and open wooden barracks established as general 
hospitals, recovered more rapidly and certainly than those 
in what are called better buildings, closer and more sub¬ 
stantial. 

There are few large masonry barracks in the U. S., such 
as are found on the continent of Europe in almost every 
large town. Most of the military posts are beyond the 
frontier which separates the .country of civilization and 
cultivation from the region occupied, or rather traversed, 
by the nomadic Indian tribes, and the scarcely less nomadic 
white miner and hunter. A very few of these posts built 
on the open prairies, where timber is scarce and costly, 
have been constructed of stone or brick; more are of sun- 
dried bricks, called by the Mexicans adobes. But the greater 
part of them are of wood—log houses in the timbered 
country, light frames covered with boards in the prairies. 
The open joints of the board wall-coverings and roofs and 
floors make it impossible to exclude fresh air, and they en¬ 
sure a circulation of air, notwithstanding the efforts of the 
occupants of the building to close all ventilating openings. 

The principal and more permanent barracks of the U. S. 
are Madison Barracks, Sackett’s Harbor, N. Y. ; the Cita¬ 
del at Charleston; the barracks at Pensacola; Jackson 
Barracks, New Orleans, La.; Jefferson Barracks, St. Louis, 
Mo., now used as an arsenal; Baton Rouge Arsenal, and 
Mount Vernon Arsenal, Mississippi, now used as barracks 
for the army; Oglethorpe Barracks, Savannah; Benicia 
Barracks, California; Carlisle Barracks, Pa.; Omaha Bar¬ 
racks, Omaha; Fort Leavenworth, Kan.; Mobile Barracks, 
Mobile; Newport Barracks, Ky.; Presidio of San Fran¬ 
cisco, Cal.; Ringgold Barracks, and Fort Brown, on the 
Rio Grande, Tex.; and Plattsburg Barracks, Lake Cham¬ 
plain. In the official list of the quartermaster’s depart¬ 
ment there are 231 military posts, at all of which there 
are barracks, either owned or rented by the U. S. The 
army occupies about 5000 buildings. 

At most of the U. S. navy-yards there are barracks for 
the marines, generally of masonry. Among them are the 
marine barracks of Washington, Charlestown, Brooklyn, 
Pensacola, and Benicia. 

Since the Revolution, Paris has been enriched with very 
fine buildings as barracks. Those of the Prince Eugene, 
the Napoleon Barracks, and the new barracks on the lie 
de la Cite, are noble and beautiful buildings. But it seems 
impossible to so arrange these great buildings as to secure 
thorough and satisfactory ventilation, and without fresh 
air, and disturbed by the movement which must take place 
night and day among large bodies of men occupying large 
rooms, these palaces are not believed to have as low rate 
of mortality as the temporary cheap structures in which 
the U. S. army lives on the frontier. 

There are large barracks in all the great European capi¬ 
tals. Stuttgart, St. Petersburg, Paris, Naples, Rome, are 
noted for the beauty and extent of their barracks. The 
Museo Borbonico at Naples was built for a cavalry bar¬ 
rack ; in it are now collected the many remains of Roman 
and Greek art unearthed at Pompeii and Herculaneum. 


The Romans, who conquered the known world and held 
it by military occupation, built strong barracks wherever 
they established a permanent post. They had no firearms, 
and a small garrison depended upon the strength of their 
walls to resist the attacks of barbarians. The remains of 
such barracks, nearly perfect, have been found of late 
years at ancient Roman stations in the wilderness of Syria 
and Palestine. While the Roman legionary was trained 
and practised at hard work, he did not hesitate to use in 
all such constructions the forced labor of his captives of 
whatever rank or station. Our troops are obliged generally 
to build their own barracks, and, armed with rifles of long 
range, they depend upon superior knowledge and disci¬ 
pline, and seldom fight the savages from behind their 
barrack-walls. 

There are two uses to which barracks are put: one is 
protection during a siege and bombardment from the mis¬ 
siles of the enemy; the other, and far more constant use, 
is protection mainly from the weather. 

Many of the sea-coast forts of the U. S. make ample 
provision in vaulted casemates for the garrison during a 
siege, but such barracks in the climate of the coasts of the 
U. S. should never be occupied in time of peace. They 
are dark, damp, ill-ventilated, and unhealthy, and provis¬ 
ion should be made for shelter outside the ramparts for 
the peace garrison in all cases. In the climate of Spain 
and Italy, of the West Indies, and of Mexico, it is prob¬ 
able that the custom of the tropics of living in rooms 
roofed with earth or masonry has not such disadvantages 
as farther N. 

European practice allows from 420 to 1200 cubic feet of 
space per man in barracks and hospitals; and the latter is 
better than the former; but in practice the air-space is 
limited bj r the appropriations which the government grants 
for barracks and quarters for troops. Thorough drainage 
of the buildings and of the sites is essential to health. 
Temporary cantonments should never remain long in one 
place. The troops should remove to fresh ground, and 
the old site should not be reoccupied until time and frost 
have thoroughly destroyed the effete animal and vegetable 
matter which collects about any large body of men. 

All barracks are liable, on any temporary increase of the 
garrison, to overcrowding. The " Regulations” of the U. S. 
army give to every six soldiers from 225 to 256 square feet 
of floor as the post is N. or S. of the 38th degree of latitude. 
This area, with a height of roof to average twelve feet, gives 
to each man 450 to 512 cubic feet of air-space. In a room 
intended to be occupied by thirty men, at least 60,000 cubic 
feet of fresh air per hour should be admitted from the out¬ 
side, and as much more as can be borne without inconve¬ 
nience. But all ventilating arrangements are liable to be 
obstructed by those for whose benefit they are intended, 
unless made on the most extensive and elaborate scale, and 
placed entirely bejmnd their control. A man feels the cold 
sensation from a draught more distinctly than the headache 
or oppression resulting from too close and impure an at¬ 
mosphere. He knows that if he stops the ventilating inlet 
near him he will get rid of the draught. He does not realize 
that at a future time his health may break down as a con¬ 
sequence of this interference with ventilation. Practically, 
therefore, the most efficient barrack ventilation, except in 
the palaces of masonry built in Europe and ventilated by 
steam-power, is that inseparable from the imperfect con¬ 
struction of the building itself. These defects, beyond the 
skill and power of the soldier to remedy, save his health by 
supplying him continually with fresh air against his will. 

The War Department has of late years adopted an iron 
barrack-bunk to be occupied by a single man, but which 
can be piled three tiers in height, so as to give space for 
circulation during the day, and has abolished the use of the 
two-story double wooden bunks in which soldiers formerly 
slept. 

Books of reference: " Reports of the British Barrack 
Commission,” London, 1861; "Circular Nos. 3 and 4 of 
the Surgeon-General of the United States;” "Reports on 
Barracks and Hospitals;” "Outline Description of Mili¬ 
tary Posts and Stations,” published in 1871 by the quar¬ 
termaster’s department. M. C. Meigs, U. S. A. 

Bar'rackpore, or Barrackpoor, a town and mili¬ 
tary cantonment of British India, on the left (or E.) bank 
of the Hoogly, about 15 miles above Calcutta. It contains 
the country residence of the governor-general of India, 
and many elegant mansions of the European citizens of 
Calcutta, who are attracted by the salubrity of the place. 
The adjacent country is covered with beautiful forests and 
a luxuriant tropical vegetation. Here is a noble park of 
250 acres, which exhibits an admirable specimen of land¬ 
scape-gardening. Barrackpore was called the cradle of 
the Sepoy mutiny of 1857. Several regiments of native 
troops were stationed here. They objected to biting off 
the ends of the cartridges for the Enfield rifle, believing 
















BARRACUDA—BARRING OUT. 403 


the paper to be polluted with animal fat. A Sepoy named 
Mungal Pandy wounded an officer (in Feb., 1857), whose 
blood was the first that was shed by the mutineers. 

Barracu'da, or Barracou'ila, a kind of fish ( Sphy - 
rona Barracuda) of the Atlantic Ocean. It is from six to 
ten feet in length, and very voi'acious. Its flesh is eatable, 
except at certain seasons, when, from some unknown cause, 
it becomes poisonous. It is common about the Bahama 
Islands. 

Barrafran'ca, a town of Sicily, in the province of Cal- 
tanisetta, 11 miles S. E. of Caltanisetta. P. in 1861, 8706. 

Barras, de (Paul Francois Jean Nicolas), Count, a 
French Jacobin and regicide, born in Provence June 30, 
1755. He was chosen a deputy to the States-General in 
1789, and a member of the National Convention in 1792. 
lie acted with the party called the Mountain, voted for the 
death of the king, and joined the enemies of Robespierre 
on the 9th Thermidor, 1794, in which crisis he was com¬ 
mander of the national guard. On the 13th Vendemiaire 
(Oct. 5, 1795), he was again appointed commander of the 
troops by the Convention. With the aid of Bonaparte he 
defeated the royalist insurgents of Paris on that day. He 
was one of the first five members of the Directory appointed 
in Nov., 1795, and, acted a prominent part in the conflict 
of the 18th Fructidor, 1797, after which he was perhaps 
the most powerful of the Directors. He was venal and 
dissolute, and abused his power. His political career was 
ended by the ascendency of Bonaparte in 1799. Died 
Jan. 29, 1829. (See Thiers, “ History of the French Rev¬ 
olution ; ” C. Doris, “Amours et Aventures du Yicomte de 
Barras,” 4 vols., 1816.) 

B ar'ratry [from the Old Fr. barater, to “deceive”], in 
law, used in various branches with different significations: 

1. Marine Insurance. —An act committed by the master 
or mariners of a ship for some unlawful or fraudulent pur¬ 
pose, contrary to their duty to the owners, whereby an in¬ 
jury is sustained. Under this definition an act of negli¬ 
gence would not be barratry, and such is the rule in Eng¬ 
land. The French writers use the word in a broader 
sense, and include in it gross negligence, without reference 
to the motive. Some of the American cases follow this 
view. The general rule is, that fraud is an element in an 
act of barratry, though the word fraud is employed in a 
broad sense to include acts done in opposition to the owner's 
instructions, and yet intended for his benefit, such as sail¬ 
ing out of port without payment of the duties, disregard 
of an embargo, or breach of a blockade. Insurance is fre¬ 
quently made specifically to include losses occasioned by 
acts of barratry, and sometimes with the exception that 
the master is not the owner of the vessel. Barratrous acts 
of a serious kind are declared to be crimes by the laws of 
Congress. Instances are the act of piratically or feloni¬ 
ously seizing or running away with the vessel or cargo, or 
voluntarily delivering the vessel into the hands of pirates. 
These are capital offences. 

2. In Criminal Law. —The act of stirring up suits and 
quarrels. A person practising such acts is called a “com¬ 
mon barrator,” or, in the language of Lord Coke, a com¬ 
mon mover and maintainer of suits in disturbance of the 
peace, etc. A person cannot be a barrator in respect of 
one act only. It must appear that he is a common barrator. 
The subject is usually regulated by statute. 

3. In Scotch law, barratry is the crime of a judge who is 
induced by bribery to render a judgment. T. W. Dwight. 

Bar're, in Worcester co., Mass., 21 miles N. W. of Wor¬ 
cester, is on the Ware River and Massachusetts Central 

R. Rs. It has a national bank, savings bank, an institute 

for feeble-minded children, several large mills and shops, 
five churches, important manufactures, and one weekly 
newspaper. It was named in honor of Colonel Isaac 
Barre. Principal business, farming and dairying. Pop. 
2572. D. Lyman Crandall, Ed. “Gazette.” 

Barre, a township of Orleans co., N. Y. Pop. 6756. 
It contains the village of Albion (which see). 

Barre, a post-township of Washington co., Vt., 6 miles 

S. E. of Montpelier. It has a national bank, an academy, 
is the scat of Goddard Seminary, and has manufactures of 
agricultural tools, castings, doors, sash, blinds, etc. P.1882. 

Barre, a township of La Crosse co., Wis. Pop. 1392. 

Barre (Col. Isaac), born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1726, 
of French parents, entered the British army, where he served 
with great distinction, receiving a wound at Wolfe s victory 
at Quebec (1759), in consequence of which he ultimately 
became blind. He entered the British Parliament in 1761, 
where for years he nobly defended the rights of the Amer¬ 
ican colonists. Died in London July 20, 1802. 

Bar'ree, a township of Huntingdon co., Pa. P. 1237. 

Barrages, or Bareges, a celebrated watering-place 
of France, in the department of Ilautes-Pyrenees, 2,> miles 


S. of Tarbes, is 3240 feet above the level of the sea. Here 
are warm sulphurous springs having a temperature of 
about 104° to 122° F., which are esteemed efficacious in cases 
of scrofula, gout, etc. 

Bar'rcl, a large wooden vessel for holding liquids or 
solids, is bound with hoops, and formed of staves, which 
are wider in the middle than at the ends, and have bevelled 
edges, which render the joints tight. Each end of the 
barrel is closed by a circular head. The arched arrange¬ 
ment of the staves enables it to resist pressure from without. 
The term is also applied to the quantity contained by a 
barrel, which varies for different substances. A barrel of 
flour in the U. S. is equal to 196 pounds, and a barrel of 
pork or beef contains 200 pounds. In wine measure, 314 
gallons make a barrel. A barrel of beer in England is 
equal to 36i imperial gallons. 

Bar'rcl Or'gan, a musical machine in which the 
music is produced by a barrel or cylinder set with pins or 
staples, which, when driven round by the hand, open the 
valves for admitting the wind to the pipes. The number 
of tunes which a single barrel organ can play is small. 
Barrel organs are portable, and are mostly used by per¬ 
formers in the streets, called organ-grinders. A street organ 
usually costs from $150 to $240. 

Bar'ren, a county in the S. of Kentucky. Area, 500 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Big Bar¬ 
ren River. The surface is undulating, the soil fertile. To¬ 
bacco, grain, and wool are extensively raised. Cavernous 
limestone underlies this county. The Louisville and Nash¬ 
ville R. R. passes through the N. W. part. Capital, Glas¬ 
gow. Pop. 17,780. 

Barren, a township of Independence co., Ark. Pop. 887. 

Barren, a township of Jackson co., Ark. Pop. 290. 

Barren Creek, a township of Marion ,co., Ark. P. 320. 

Barren Creek, a township of Wicomico co., Md. P.1572. 

Barren Island, a sandy tract of land at the entrance 
to Jamaica Bay, on the S. shore of Long Island, is a part of 
Gravesend township, King’s co., N. Y. It has fat-render¬ 
ing establishments for utilizing the offal of New York City. 

Bar'rett, a township of Monroe co., Pa. Pop. 930. 

Barr’hcad', a manufacturing town of Scotland, in Ren¬ 
frewshire, 7 miles S. W. of Glasgow. It has cotton-mills, a 
machine-shop, print-works, bleaching-works, etc. P. 6069. 

Barricade, a military barrier or defensive work, em¬ 
ployed to obstruct the passage of an enemy through a road 
or a street of a city, or to protect troops against the fire 
of the enemy. Such works are formed of trees, wagons, 
paving-stones, chains, palisades, etc. They have been often 
used in popular revolts and street-fights, especially by the 
insurgents of Paris. In 1588 the Catholic faction raised 
barricades in Paris against Henry III., who was compelled 
to save himself by flight. A great number of barricades 
were erected in Paris by the popular party in the revolu¬ 
tion of July, 1830, when Charles X. was dethroned. In 
June, 1848, the streets of Paris were again obstructed by 
barricades, and a bloody battle was fought between the 
government of Cavaignac and the Socialists or Commu¬ 
nists, who were defeated. In order to counteract such ope¬ 
rations, Napoleon III. widened and macadamized the prin¬ 
cipal streets of his capital, but barricades were again em¬ 
ployed by the Communist insurgents in the spring of 1871. 

Bar'rie, the capital of Simcoe co., Ontario (Canada), is 
at the W. extremity of Lake Simcoe, and on the Northern 
Railway, 65 miles N. N. W. of Toronto and 30 miles S. E. 
of Collingwood. It has excellent schools, a large trade, 
manufactures of woollen goods, and three weekly papers. 
Steamboats ply on the lake. Pop. in 1871, 3398. 

Bar'rier Treat'ies, the name given to several treaties 
between England and foreign powers; the first between 
England and the Netherlands, negotiated by Lord Town¬ 
send in 1709. The Dutch pledged themselves to maintain 
the queen of England’s title and the Protestant succession, 
while the English engaged to assist the Dutch in preserving 
their barrier-towns. The second was concluded between 
the same powers at Utrecht in 1713. The third was signed 
at Antwerp in 1715, between England, the Netherlands, 
and the emperor Charles VII. 

Bar'ringer (Daniel Moreau), an American politician, 
born in North Carolina in 1807, graduated at the State I Di¬ 
versity in 1826, and became a lawyer. He represented that 
State in Congress for six years (1843-49), and was Ameri¬ 
can minister to Spain from 1849 to 1853. He was a dele¬ 
gate to the national union convention at Philadelphia in 
1866. Died Sept. 1, 1873. 

Bar'ringer’s, a township of Iredell co., N. C. P. 998. 

Bar'ring Out, a practice formerly common in English 
schools, consisted in the scholars taking possession ot the 















BARRINGTON—BARROW. 


404 


building and fastening the doors against the master. It 
seems to have been a rule that if the scholars could sustain 
a siege for three days, they were entitled to dictate terms 
regarding the holidays, hours of recreation, etc. for the en¬ 
suing year. If the master succeeded in forcing an entry, 
the insurgents were at his mercy. The masters, in most 
cases, appear to have acquiesced good-humoredly, but some 
exerted all their strength and ingenuity to storm the garri¬ 
son. It is a singular fact that the scholars of AVitton school, 
in Cheshire, were in 1558 directed by the statutes drawn 
up by the founder, Sir John Deane, to observe the practice : 
“ To the end that the schollars have not any evil opinion of 
the schoolmaster, nor the schoolmaster should not mistake 
the schollars for requiring of customs and orders, I will 
that upon Thursdays and Saturdays in the afternoons, and 
upon holydays, they refresh themselves ; and a week be¬ 
fore Christmas and Easter, according to the old custom, 
they bar and keep forth the school the schoolmaster, in 
such sort as other schollars do in great schools.” 

B ar'rington, a post-village of Barrington township, 
Shelburne co., Nova Scotia, on the Atlantic coast, has 
thriving fisheries, shipbuilding, and coasting trade. Pop. 
about 800. —Barrington Passage, another village of the 
same township, has extensive fisheries, and is connected 
with Cape Sable Island by ferry. Pop. about 500. 

Barrington, a township of Cook co., Ill. Pop. 1490. 

Barrington, a post-township of Strafford co., N. H. 
Pop. 1581. 

Barrington, a post-village and township of Yates co., 
N. Y. It has a mineral spring of some reputation. P. 1506. 

Barrington, apost-townshipofBristolco.,R.I. P. 1111. 

Barringtonia'ceae, a natural order of exogenous 
trees and shrubs, natives of tropical countries, have gen¬ 
erally very beautiful flowers and foliage. The stamens are 
numerous and conspicuous. Some species bear an edible 
fruit, as the Careya nrborea, an East Indian tree, and 
Gmtavici speciosa, which grows in America. Th Q Barring - 
tonia 8pecio8<z, or moordilla, is a remarkable tree of Ceylon, 
having dark glossy leaves, and delicate white flowers with 
crimson tips. Each flower has nearly one hundred stamens. 

Bar'rister, in law, a person admitted to plead at the 
bar, and to take upon him the protection and defence of 
clients. Such persons are admitted in England by volun¬ 
tary societies existing for several centuries, called Inns of 
Court. A barrister differs from an attorney principally in 
this respect, that an attorney prepares a cause for hearing, 
and a barrister conducts the trial in court. In England, a 
barrister can maintain no action for his fees. His services 
are deemed to be honorary. He may, however, receive a 
retainer. In the U. S., the distinction corresponding to 
that in England of “ attorney and barrister” is attorney and 
counsellor-at-law. The common practice is to admit the 
same person to both degrees in the legal profession. A 
counsellor may maintain an action for his fees, as well as 
an attorney. Both are under the control of the courts, and 
may be removed for misconduct. In order to encourage 
freedom of speech, counsellors are not answerable for mat¬ 
ter spoken in a cause and pertinent to the subject under 
discussion, even though it may reflect upon the reputation 
of another and be false; though it would be otherwise if 
the false charge was not pertinent. In England, some of 
the barristers and sergeants-at-law are selected to be King’s 
or Queen’s Counsel (which see). 

Bar'ron, a county in the N. AY. of AA r isconsin, drained 
by the Red Cedar River and several creeks. Area, 1000 
square miles. AVheat, oats, and potatoes are the chief 
crops. Capital, Barron. Pop. 538. 

Barron, a post-village, the capital of Barron co., AVis., 
in a township of its own name, on the Vermilion River, 
121 miles N. N. AY. of La Crosse. Pop. of township, 538. 

Barron (James), an American naval officer, born in 
\ r irgiuia in 1768, served in the navy under his father, who 
was a “commodore of all the armed vessels of the Common¬ 
wealth of Virginia,” was commissioned lieutenant in the 
U. S. navy in 1798, and in 1799 was promoted to be a cap¬ 
tain. He was employed on sea-service in the Mediterranean 
and other waters until 1807, and had acquired a high 
reputation for seamanship and discipline when the affair 
of the Chesapeake cast a shadow over his life. On the 22d 
of June, 1807, the Chesapeake, bearing the pennant of 
Com. Barron, sailed from Hampton Roads for the Mediter¬ 
ranean. The English war-vessel Leopard preceded the 
Chesapeake several miles, keeping in sight until about 3 
o’clock in the afternoon, when the former bore down upon 
and hailed the latter, informing Com. Barron she had a 
despatch for him. A boat being sent alongside, the mes¬ 
sage proved to be the instructions of Admiral Berkeley of 
the British navy to search the Chesapeake for deserters. 


This Com. Barron indignantly refused to permit, and he 
wrote to Captain Humphreys, commanding, that he knew 
of no deserters on the Chesapeake, and that his orders 
would not permit his men to be mustered by any other than 
their own officers. The lieutenant who had brought this 
despatch to Com. Barron returned to the Leopard, and 
shortly after this vessel opened fire on the Chesapeake, 
which proved to be entirely unprepared for battle. Her 
decks were covered with various objects, and it was with 
great difficulty her batteries could be got ready; and when 
ready everything necessary to serve them was found to be 
wanting. But one gun was discharged from the Chesapeake 
before she struck her colors. Three deserters were found 
on board, and taken to the Leopard, Com. Barron being 
permitted to retain his ship, with which he at once returned 
to Norfolk. This outrage caused the greatest excitement 
throughout the nation. Barron was court-martialed for 
neglect of duty, found guilty, and suspended from the ser¬ 
vice for five years. Although restored to his rank and 
placed in responsible positions ashore, he never again did 
sea-service. A long correspondence with Com. Decatur on 
the Chesapeake affair terminated in a duel between them 
at Bladensburg, Md., in 1820, in which both were severely 
wounded, Decatur mortally. Barron died at Norfolk, Va., 
April 21, 1851, being at the time of his death the senior 
officer in the U. S. navy. 

Barron (Samuel), a commodore, a brother of the pre¬ 
ceding, was born at Hampton, A r a., Sept. 25, 1765. He com¬ 
manded a squadron of ten vessels which waged war against 
Tripoli in 1805. Died Oct. 29, 1810. 

Barron (Samuel), a native of A r irginia, entered the 
U. S. navy in 1812, and received the regular promotions, be¬ 
coming a captain in 1855. In 1861 he entered the navy of the 
Confederacy, and became an admiral. He was made prisoner 
at the capture of Forts Clark and Hatteras, Aug. 27, 1861. 

Barros, de (Joao), one of the most eminent of Portu¬ 
guese historians, born at A r iseu in 1496. He was appointed 
governor of the Portuguese possessions in Guinea in 1522. 
His greatest work is entitled “ Asia, or the History of the 
Discoveries and Conquests of the Portuguese in th<> East 
Indies ” (1552-62). He wrote only three decades df this 
work, which was continued by Diego de Couto to the 
twelfth decade. This history is admired for elegance of 
style and other merits. Died Oct. 20, 1570. (See Manoel 
Severim de Faria, “Vida de Joao de Barras,” 1624; 
Barbosa Machado, “ Bibliotheca Lusitana.”) 

Barrot (Camille Hvacinthe Odillon), a French 
statesman and advocate, born at Villefort in Lozere July 
19, 1791. He practised law with distinction in Paris, and 
acted with the popular party in the revolution of 1S30. 
About the end of .that year he was elected to the Chamber 
of Deputies, in which he was a leader of the opposition, 
and advocated electoral reform. During the revolution of 
1848 he supported the proposition to appoint the duchess 
of Orleans as regent. He was minister of justice in the first 
cabinet of Louis Napoleon, from Dec., 1848, to Sept., 1849.— 
His brother, Victorin-Ferdinand, born Jan. 10, 1806, prac¬ 
tised law with success. He was minister of the interior from 
Oct., 1849, to Mar., 1850, and became a senator in 1853. 

B ar'row, a river of Ireland, rises in Queen’s county, on 
the N. E. slope of the Slieve Bloom Mountain. It flows in 
a general southward direction, passes by Carlow and New 
Ross, divides the counties of Kildare, Carlow, and AVex- 
ford from the counties of Queen’s and Kilkenny, and, after 
uniting with the Suir, enters the sea through AYaterford 
harbor. It is about 100 miles long, and is next in import¬ 
ance to the Shannon among Irish rivers. It is navigable 
for ships of 300 tons to New Ross, 25 miles from its mouth. 

BarrOAV [from the Anglo-Saxon beorg, a “ hill or 
mound,” allied to the Ger. Berg, a “hill”], a name of the 
artificial mounds which are found in many countries, and 
which were erected in ancient times in honor of eminent 
persons or for monumental purposes. They are formed of 
earth or stones, and contain in some cases human bones, 
with armor and utensils. In Great Britain there are nu¬ 
merous barrows, which are supposed to have been raised 
before the island was conquered by the Romans. One of 
the largest barrows in Europe is Silbury Hill, in AViltshire, 
which has a vertical height of 170 feet and covers 5 acres. 
Many artificial mounds occur in the U. S., as at Grave Creek, 
AY. Va., and near Marietta, O.; also in Central America. 

Barrow (Isaac), D. D., F. R. S., an eminent English 
pulpit orator and mathematician, born in London Oct., 
1630. He graduated at Cambridge as M. A. in 1652, and 
became professor of Greek in that place in 1660. He was 
appointed Lucasian professor of mathematics in 1663, but 
he resigned that chair in favor of his pupil, the illustrious 
Newton, in 1669. In 1672 he was appointed master of 
Trinity College, Cambridge. He published, besides other 












BARROW—BARRY. 


able works, “ Lectiones Optica) ” (1669) and “ Lectiones 
Geometricce” (1670). His reputation as a theologian rests 
chiefly on his sermons, which were edited by Dr. Tillotson 
(3 vols., 1685). They are very remarkable specimens of 
clear and exhaustive argument. “ The sermons of Barrow,” 
says Hallam, “ display a strength of mind, a comprehen¬ 
siveness, and fertility which have rarely been equalled.” 
Died May 4, 1677. His personal character was noble. 
(See Arthur Hill, “ Life of Barrow,” prefixed to his col¬ 
lected works, 1685; Ward, “ Lives of the Professors of 
Gresham College.”) 

Barrow (Sir John), Bart., F. R. S., an English travel¬ 
ler, born in Lancashire June 19, 1764. As secretary to 
Lord Macartney he went to China in 1792, and to the Cape 
of Good Hope in 1797. He was secretary to the admiralty 
for nearly forty years, and rendered many services to geo¬ 
graphical science by promoting scientific expeditions. He 
was the chief founder of the Geographical Society. Among 
his works are “Travels in Southern Africa” (2 vols., 
1801-03), and a “ History of Voyages in the Arctic Re¬ 
gions” (1818). Died Nov. 23, 1848. (See his “ Autobio¬ 
graphical Memoir,” 1847.) 

Bar'row-in-Fur'ness, a seaport and important town 
of England, in Lancashire and on the Irish Sea, 18 miles 
W. N. W. of Lancaster. It is on the peninsula of Furness, 
and is the western terminus of a railway which extends to 
Dalton, and connects Barrow with the whole railway-sys¬ 
tem of England. It is separated by a narrow channel from 
Barrow Island, and has a good harbor, formed by the island 
of Walney, which is 8 miles long. This place, which about 
1845 was only a small fishing-village, derives its prosperity 
from rich mines of iron ore (red hematite) and manufac¬ 
tures of iron and steel, and it has recently increased with 
great rapidity. In 1867 the Barrow Hematite Steel Com¬ 
pany had eleven blast furnaces in operation, and the quan¬ 
tity of ore taken from the mines was estimated for that 
year at 400,000 tons. This ore yields about 57 per cent, 
of iron. The steel-works of Barrow are said to be the 
largest Bessemer steel-works in Britain. Nearly 20,000 
tons of slate are annually quarried in the vicinity. Bar- 
row has a town-hall, a public library, and numerous 
churches. Large sums of money have been expended in 
converting the channel between the town and Barrow 
Island into docks, and it is probable that Barrow will be¬ 
come an important commercial city. Pop. in 1871,17,992. 

Barrow Strait, the passage leading from Baffin’s Bay 
into Melville Sound. Its average width is about 30 miles. 

Bar' rows (Elijah Porter), S. T. D., born at Mansfield, 
Conn., Jan. 5, 1805, graduated at Yale in 1826, taught 
school in Hartford 1826-31, was ordained in 1832, pastor 
of the first Free Presbyterian church, New York City, 
1835-37, professor of sacred literature in Western Reserve 
College 1837-52, and of Hebrew language and literature 
at Andover Theological Seminary 1853-66. In 1872 he 
entered the same professorship in Oberlin Theological 
Seminary. He has published a “Memoir of Evertin Jud- 
son” (1852), “Companion to the Bible” (1869), “Sacred 
Geography and Antiquities” (1872). He was one of the 
authors and editors of the “Bible with Notes” (American 
Tract Society), and has published twenty-five articles in 
the “ Bibliotheca Sacra.” 

Barr’s Store, a post-township of Macoupin co., Ill. 
Pop. 999. 

Barrun'dia (Jose Francisco), a statesman, born in 
Honduras in 1779, raised the standard of revolt against 
the Spanish government, and was chosen in 1829 president 
of the republic. As a member of the first republican as¬ 
sembly in 1824, he had introduced and carried a decree for 
the abolition of slavery. In 1854 he was minister to the 
U. S., and died Aug. 4, 1854, in New York City. 

Bar'ry, a county of S. W. Central Michigan. Area, 
576 square miles. It is intersected by the Thornapple 
River. The surface is undulating, and diversified by many 
small lakes, prairies, and forests of ash, sugar-maple, beech, 
etc. The soil is productive. Dairy products, wool, wheat, 
and corn are largely grown. The county is intersected by 
the Grand River Valley R. R., a branch of the Central 
R. R. Capital, Hastings. Pop. 22,199. 

Barry, a county of Missouri, bordering on Arkansas. 
Area, 700 square miles. The White River of Arkansas 
flows through the S. E. part. The surface is hilly; the soil 
is partly based on limestone, and is mostly fertile. Grain, 
tobacco, and wool are raised. Lead is found here. Capi¬ 
tal, Cassville. Pop. 10,373. 

Barry, a city and township of Pike co., TIL, on the 
Hannibal and Naples R. R., 26 miles S. E. of Quincy, in a 
fine agricultural region. It has one weekly newspaper and 
a heavy trade in grain. Pork-packing is an important indus¬ 
try. Pop. of township, 2496. H. C. Cobb, Ed. “Adage.” 


405 

Barry, a township of Barry co., Mich. Pop. 1297. 

Barry, a post-township of Schuylkill co., Pa. P. 950. 

Bar'ry (James), an historical painter, born at Cork, 
Ireland, Oct. 11, 1741, was patronized by Edmund Burke. 
He passed about five years at Rome, and became a member 
of the Royal Academy of London, but he was expelled 
from the same in 1797 on account of his irritable temper. 
His masterpiece is “ The Victors at Olympia.” Died Feb. 
22,1806. (See Cunningham, “ Lives of Painters and Sculp¬ 
tors ;” “Edinburgh Review” for Aug., 1810.) 

Barry (John), Commodore, an American naval officer, 
born in Ireland in 1745, emigrated to America about 1760. 
He became commander of a U. S. frigate in 1776, and 
captured the English vessel Atalanta in May, 1781. Died 
Sept. 13, 1803. 

Barry (John S.) was born in Vermont in 1802. He 
studied law, but became a merchant of Constantine, Mich., 
where he removed in 1832. He became a prominent Demo¬ 
cratic politician, and was governor of Michigan (1842-46 
and 1850-52). Died Jan. 15, 1870. 

Barry (Martin), M. D., F. R. S., an English physiolo¬ 
gist, born in Hampshire in Mar., 1802. He graduated as 
M. D. in Edinburgh in 1833, and was chosen a fellow of 
the Royal Society in 1840. His most important work is 
“ Researches in Embryology,” for which he received the 
gold medal of the Royal Society of London. Died April 
27, 1855. 

Barry (Sir Charles), a distinguished English archi¬ 
tect, born at Westminster in May, 1795. He visited Italy, 
Greece, and Egypt about 1818. He designed the Manches¬ 
ter Athenaeum and the grammar-school of Edward VI. at 
Birmingham. In 1841 he became a royal academician. 
His design for the new Houses of Parliament was preferred 
to those of his competitors, and the work was commenced 
in 1840. He died in 1860. (See a “Memoir of Sir Charles 
Barry,” by his son, the Rev. Alfred Barry, 1867.) 

Barry (Patrick), born near Belfast, Ireland, May, 
1816, received a good English education, and devoted 
some years to teaching in one of the national schools. 
He arrived in New York May, 1836, and became clerk for 
Prince & Sons, nurserymen of Flushing. He removed to 
Rochester, N. Y., in 1840, and entered into the nursery 
business in partnership with George Ellwanger. The nur¬ 
series of Ellwanger & Barry are now the most extensive in 
the world. From 1844 to 1852 Mr. Barry edited the “Gen¬ 
esee Farmer;” from 1852-54, “The Horticulturist.” In 
1852 he published “The Fruit Garden,” still a standard 
authority on pomological matters. 

Barry (William Farquhar), a distinguished American 
officer, colonel of the Second Artillery and brevet brigadier- 
general U. S. army, born Aug. 18, 1818, in New York City, 
graduated at West Point in 1838. His first active services 
were in the war against the Indians in Florida, 1852-53, 
w T hen he was advanced to a captaincy. In the Mexican 
war he acted as aide-de-camp to Maj.-Gen. Worth. He 
served in the difficulties with the Indians in Dakota in 
1856, and took part in the Utah expedition, 1858. When 
the civil war broke out he was appointed chief of artillery 
of the Army of the Potomac, with the rank of major and 
brigadier-general of volunteers. His gallant and meri¬ 
torious conduct in the capture of Atlanta won him the 
brevet titles of colonel U. S. army and major-general of 
volunteers, Sept. 1, 1864. Mar. 13, 1865, he was brevetted 
brigadier-general U. S. A. for gallant services in the cam¬ 
paign terminating in the surrender of the army under 
Gen. J. E. Johnston, and w r as made brevet major-general 
U. S. A. in 1865. Gen. Barry organized the entire artillery 
of the Army of the Potomac, and served in the field with 
that array as chief of artillery from Mar., 1862, to Sept., 
1862, participating in the siege of Yorktown and the 
Seven Days’ battles ending with Malvern Hill. He subse¬ 
quently commanded the artillery serving in the defences 
of Washington 1861-63, and served as chief of artillery in 
the armies commanded by Gen. Sherman. He has been 
a member of various boards, and after the war was assigned 
to the command of the northern (lake) frontier for the 
preservation of the national neutrality; and in 1867 ap¬ 
pointed to command the U. S. Artillery School at Fortress 
Monroe, which post he now occupies. Gen. Barry is the 
author of “ Engineer and Artillery Operations of the Army 
of the Potomac, A. D. 1861-62,” in conjunction with the 
w r riter, and “A System of Tactics for the Field Artillery of 
the II. S.,” in conjunction with Maj.-Gens. W. II. Trench 
and II. J. Hunt. J. G. Barnard, II. S. A. 

Barry (William Taylor), born in Lunenburg, A a., 
Feb. 5, 1784, graduated at William and Mary College in 
1803, became a lawyer, was member of Congress from Ken¬ 
tucky (1810-11), served in the war of 1812, was U. S. Sen¬ 
ator‘(1S14-16), was in turn a judge, lieutenant-governor, 









406 BARRY, DU—BARTHOLOMEW, ST., MASSACRE OF. 


State secretary, and chief-justice of Kentucky; postmas¬ 
ter-general under Jackson (1828-35), and died in Liver¬ 
pool Aug. 30, 1835, while on his way to Spain as U. S. 
minister. 

Barry, du (Marie Jeanne Gomart de Vaubernier), 
Countess, a mistress of Louis XV. of France, born Aug. 
9, 1746, had a great influence in public affairs. She was 
guillotined during the Reign of Terror, Dec. 3, 1793. (See 
“ Ilistoire de France pendant le dix-liuitiemo Sieclc,” by 
de Lacretelle.) 

Bar'rytown, a post-village of Red Hook township, 
Dutchess co., N. Y., on the Hudson River R. R., 94 miles 
X. of New York. It has an important trade. Pop. 248. 

B ars, a county of Northern Hungary. Area, 1032 
square miles. With the exception of a small part in the 
S., the country is mountainous, and is traversed by the 
Gran and the Zsitva. The soil of the plain in the southern 
part is very fertile, and produces chiefly grain. Poji. in 
1869, 137,191. Chief town, Kremnitz. 

Bar -sur-Auhe [Lat. Bar'rum ad Al'bnlam ], an an¬ 
cient town of France, in the department of Aube, on the 
river Aube, 33 miles by rail E. S. E. of Troyes. It has a 
trade in wine, hemp, grain, and wool. The allied sove¬ 
reigns held a council here Feb., 1814, and here, in the same 
year, occurred two battles between the allies and the French. 
Pop. 4809. 

Bart, a post-township of Lancastex-, co., Pa. Pop. 1432. 

Bart, or Barth (Jean), a French naval hero, was born 
at Dunkii’k in 1651. He became the captain of a privateer, 
and fought against the Dutch. Having performed several 
bold and successful exploits, he was appointed a captain of 
the royal navy, and obtained command of a squadron in 
1697. Died April 27, 1702. (See A. Richer, “Vic de Jean 
Bart,” 1780; Vanderest, “ Ilistoire de Jean Bart,” 1841.) 

Bart'enstein, a town of Prussia, in the province of 
Prussia, 35 miles S. W. of Konigsberg. It has considerable 
manufactures. Pop. in 1871, 5880. 

Bar'ter, the exchange of one commodity for another, is 
a method of trading sometimes practised by barbarous peo¬ 
ple and others who have no money or credit. Ships sailing 
to uncivilized countries often carry weapons, tools, or oi-na- 
ments to be used in barter with savages. Farmers in the 
U. S. also take produce to country stoi-es, and receive goods 
in exchange without the intervention of money. In law, 
barter or exchange is a contract for transferring property, 
the consideration being some other commodity. 

Bart'fa, or Bart'feld, an old town of North Hun¬ 
gary, in the county of Saros, on the river Tepla, 20 miles 
N. of Eperies. It has hot baths, which are much frequent¬ 
ed, and a considerable commerce in wine, brandy, linen, 
etc. Pop. in 1869, 5303. 

Barth, or Bardt, a seaport-town of Prussia, in the 
province of Pomerania, on the-Binnensee, 15 miles W. N. W. 
of Stralsund. It has shipbuilding docks, and a trade in 
gx*ain and wool. Pop. in 1871, 5774. 

Barth (Heinrich), an enterprising German explorer, 
born at Hamburg Feb. 16, 1821. He travelled in Northern 
Africa in 1845, after which he extended his explorations to 
Palestine, Arabia, and Asia Minor, and published “ Wan¬ 
derings along the Shores of the Mediterranean” (1849). 
He joined Richardson and Overweg in an expedition to 
Central Africa, but they died in 1851, and he explored that 
country alone for about five years. In 1863 he became 
professor of geography in Berlin. He published “ Travels 
and Discoveries in Central Africa” (5 vols., 1857), which 
is a very valuable work. Died Nov. 25, 1866. (See “Ed¬ 
inburgh Review ” for Jan. to April, 1859.) 

Barthelemy (Auguste Marseille), a French satiric 
poet, born at Marseilles in 1796. He published a number 
of satires which had great success. Among them are the 
“ Villeliade,” directed against the ministry of Villele (1826), 
“Napoleon in Egypt” (1828), and “La Nemesis” (1831). 
The last named was the first of a series issued weekly for 
one year. Died Aug. 23, 1867. 

Barthelemy (Jean Jacques), an eminent French an¬ 
tiquary, born near Aubagnc, in Provence, July 20, 1716, 
was an uncle of the preceding. He learned the Greek, 
Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldee languages, and became keeper 
of the royal cabinet of medals in 1753, after which he trav¬ 
elled in Italy and collected many medals. He wrote sev¬ 
eral treatises on numismatics and ancient inscriptions. His 
principal and most popular work is “ Travels of Anacharsis 
the Younger in Greece” (“Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en 
GrSce,” 4 vols., 1788), which is a very agreeable production. 
It has been translated into many languages. He was ad¬ 
mitted into the French Academy in 1789. Died April 30, 
1795. (See Mancini-Nivernais, “ Essai sur la vie de J. J. 


Barthelemy,” 1795 ; Villenave, “Notice sur les ouvrage 
de J. J. Barthelemy,” 1821.) 

Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire (Jules), a French 
scholar and journalist, boi’n in Paris Aug. 19, 1805. lie 
was an editor of the “ National ” and other liberal journals. 
In 1838 he became professor of Greek and Latin philosophy 
in the College of France in Paris. He translated into 
French the works of Aristotle (4 vols., 1839-44), and wrote 
several works, among which is “Du Bouddhisme” (1855). 
He was elected a member of the National Assembly in 1848. 
He was secretary to President Thiers in 1872-73. 

Barthez, or Barthes (Paul Joseph), M. D., LL.D., 
an eminent French physician and writer, born at Mont¬ 
pellier Dec. 11, 1734. He became professor of medicine at 
that city in 1759, and removed to Paris in 1780, after which 
he was consulting physician to the king and a member of 
the council of state. He wrote, besides other works, “New 
Elements of the Science of Man” (1778). Died Oct. 15, 
1806. (See Lordat, “ Memoii'es sur la vie de P. J. Bar¬ 
thez,” 1818.) 

Bar'tholin (Thomas), M. D., one of the most eminent 
physicians of his time, was born at Copenhagen Oct. 20, 
1616. He became in 1648 pi-ofessor of anatomy at Copen¬ 
hagen, and wrote, among other works in Latin, one on the 
lymphatic vessels (the discovery of which he claimed), a 
treatise on the functions of the liver, and “ Anatomia ” 
(1641), which passed through many editions and obtained 
a high imputation as a text-book. The Bartholin family 
produced many eminent physicians. Died Dec. 4, 1680. 

Bartholomew, a bayou in Arkansas and Louisiana, 
rises in Jeffei’son county in the funner State, flows nearly 
southward into Louisiana, and enters the Washita River at 
Washita City. It is navigable for steamboats for 250 miles. 

Bartholomew, a county of the central part of Indi¬ 
ana, contains 400 square miles. It is drained by the Drift¬ 
wood Fork of White River. The surface is partly hilly; 
the soil is fertile. Live-stock, grain, and tobacco are largely 
exported. It is intei’sected by the Jeffersonville Madison 
and Indianapolis R. R. Capital, Columbus. Pop. 21,133. 

Bartholomew, a post-township of Drew co., Ark. 
Pop. 560. 

Bartholomew, a township of Jeffei’son co., Ark. P. 459. 

Bartholomew [Gr. BapfloAo/uaios; Lat. Bartholomse'us~\, 
Saint, one of the twelve apostles, supposed to be the same 
as the Nathanael mentioned in John i. 45-49. We have no 
authentic information respecting his labors or his death. 
According to tradition, he preached the gosjxel in India. 

Bartholomew (Edward Sheffield), an American 
sculptor, was born at Colchester, Conn., in 1822. He prac¬ 
tised dentistry for a time, and then learned painting, but 
afterwards became distinguished as a sculptor. From 1845 
to 1848 he was in Hartford, and after two years spent in 
New York he went to Italy, where he died, at Naples, May 
2, 1858. Some of his works are greatly admired. Among 
them are—“ The Shepherd Boy,” “ Youth and Age,” a 
monument to Charles Carroll, “ Ganymede and the Eagle,” 
etc. 

BartholomeAV Fair, a great English market held 
annually in West Sinithfield, London, on the festival of St. 
Bartholomew (Aug. 24, old style). The charter of this 
fair was granted by Henry I. in 1133. It was originally 
connected with the Church, under whose auspices miracle- 
plays, mysteries, and moralities were represented at the fair. 
In the first centuries of its existence this was the chief 
cloth-fair of the kingdom. Leather, pewter, and live cattle 
were also sold here. Crowds of people were attracted to it 
by a variety of popular amusements and the exhibitions of 
acrobats, tumblers, mountebanks, mummers, and merry- 
andi-ews. Having ceased to be a place of traffic and be¬ 
come a nuisance, it was abolished in 1855. (See Henry 
Morley, “Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair,” 1859.) 

Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, was founded 
in 1102 by Rahere, the king’s ministrel, and was at first 
connected with a priory established by the same person. 
It was made a sanctuary by Edward II., but hospital and 
priory were both dissolved by Henry VIII., who founded 
the hospital anew, giving 500 marks yearly for its main¬ 
tenance, on condition the city should give the like sum. 
There is a medical school attached to it, and the hospital 
relieves 70,000 patients annually. 

Bartholomew, St., Massacre of, the massacre of 
French Protestants which commenced at Paris in the night 
between the 23d and 24th of Aug., 1572. During the minor¬ 
ity of Charles IX. and the regency of his mother Catherine 
de Medicis, a long civil war raged in France between the 
Catholics and Huguenots, whose leaders were the px-ince 
of Cond6 and Admiral Coligny. In 1570 the court made 
to the Huguenots overtures which resulted in a treaty of 













BARTIZAN—BARTOL. 407 

peace. Charles invited Coligny and other leaders of that 
party to court, and received them with warm demonstra¬ 
tions of friendship, which were probably perfidious. The 
false security of the Huguenots was increased by a mar¬ 
riage between Henry of Navarre and Margaret, who was 
a sister of Charles IX. Many Huguenots came to Paris 
to attend the wedding in Aug., 1572. Among the principal 
instigators of the massacre were Catherine de Medicis and 
her sons. Admiral Coligny was wounded by a shot from 
a window of the royal palace on the 22d. The general 
massacre commenced at two o’clock on Sunday morning, 
Aug. 24th, and continued for several da} ? s. The provinces 
followed the example of the capital, with some exceptions. 
In regard to the number of victims there is no certainty. 
Estimates have varied from 1000 to 10,000 for Paris, and 
from 2000 to 100,000 for the whole of France. (See Sis- 
mondi, “ History of France;” II. Martin, “ History of 
France;” Dr Thou, “Historia sui Temporis;” “ The 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew,” by Henry White, 1868.) 

Bar'tizan, in Norman castles, a projecting balcony or 
small stone closet placed on corbels over doorways and on 
other parts, generally for defence, and designed to command 
some assailable point with the fire of its crossbow-bolts. 
It had perforated battlements for the defence of the archers 
and crossbowmen. 

Bart/lett, a post-township of Carroll co., N. II. It has 
manufactures of lumber, etc. Pop. 629. 

Bartlett, a post-village of Shelby co., Tenn. It has 
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 244. 

Bartlett (Elisha), M. I)., an American physician, born 
in Smithfield, R. I., Oct. 6, 1804. He became professor 
of medicine in the University of Maryland in 1844, and 
took the same position in the University of New York in 
1850. He was popular as a teacher, and wrote, among 
other medical works, one entitled “ Essay on the Philoso¬ 
phy of Medical Science.” Died July 19, 1855. 

Bartlett (Henry A.), U. S. M C., born Aug. 19, 1838, 
in Patuxent, R. I., appointed a second lieutenant in the 
marine corps Oct. 16, 1861, became a first lieutenant Nov. 
26, 1861, and a captain Nov. 29, 1867. From July, 1862, to 
Aug., 1864, he served on board the iron-clad New Ironsides 
during her numerous engagements with the forts and bat¬ 
teries of Charleston harbor. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Bartlett (Ichabod), an eminent American lawyer, born 
at Salisbury, N. II., July 24, 1786, and graduated at 
Dartmouth in 1808. He was a member of Congress from 
1833 to 1839. Died Oct. 19, 1853. 

Bartlett (John R.), U. S. N., horn Sept. 26, 1843, in 
the State of New York, became an ensign in 1863, a lieu¬ 
tenant in 1864, and a lieutenant-commander in 1866. He 
served in the steamer Mississippi at the passage of Forts 
Jackson and St. Philip and capture of New Orleans, April 
24, 1862. While attached to the steam-sloop Susquehanna 
he took part in both attacks on Fort Fisher, and was one 
of the assaulting party of Jan. 15, 1865. Commodore 
Godon, who commanded the Susquehanna, makes honor¬ 
able mention of Bartlett in his official despatch of Jan. 
17, 1865, and Lieutenant-Commander Blake, who led the 
men of the Susquehanna in the assault on the fort, refers 
to his conduct on that occasion in the following terms : 

“ Lieutenant Bartlett, belonging to my command, remained 
at the ‘ palisades’ until nightfall, and I beg to call your 
attention to his personal gallantry.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Bartlett (John Russell), an American writer, born at 
Providence, 11. I., Oct. 23, 1805, was one of the founders 
of the American Ethnological Society. lie was appointed 
in 1850 commissioner to determine the boundary between 
Mexico and the U. S. He published, besides other works, 
a “ Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in Texas and 
New Mexico” (2 vols., 1854); “ Progress of Ethnology ” 
(1847); “Dictionary of Americanisms” (1848); “Bibli¬ 
otheca Americana” (4 vols., 1865-70), etc. 

Bartlett (John Sherren), M. D., an English journal¬ 
ist, born in 1790. He founded in New York in 1822 the 
“Albion,” a journal which he edited with much ability 
until 1848. He was afterwards connected with other news¬ 
papers. Died Aug. 24, 1863. 

Bartlett (Joseph), a satiric poet, born in Plymouth, 
Mass., June 10, 1762. graduated at Harvard in 1782, and 
after many vicissitudes of fortune became a lawyer. He 
wrote a poem on physiognomy, and one entitled “ The New 
Vicar of Bray.” Died Oct. 20, 1827. 

Bartlett (Josiah), M. D., an American patriot, born at 
Amesbury, Mass., Nov. 21, 1729. He signed the Declara¬ 
tion of Independence, and was a member of the Continental 
Congress in 1776-78. He became president of New Hamp- 

shire in 1790, and governor of that State under the new 
constitution in 1793. Died May 19, 1795. 

Bartlett (Samuel Colcord), D. D., was born in Salis¬ 
bury, N. H., Nov. 25, 1817, and in 1836 graduated at 
Dartmouth College, where he was afterwards tutor, and at 
the Andover Theological Seminary in 1842. In 1843 he 
was settled over the Congregational church in Monson, 

Mass., in 1846 became processor of intellectual and moral 
philosophy in Western Reserve College, in 1852 took charge 
of the Franklin street church, Manchester, N. II., in 1857 
became pastor of the New England church, Chicago, Ill., 
and in 1858 was made professor of biblical literature in the 
Chicago (Congregational) Theological Seminary. In 1873 
he had leave of absence for a year to travel in the East. 

He has published “ Life and Death Eternal ” and “ Sketches 
of Missions of the American Board,” besides a goodly num¬ 
ber of sermons, orations, addresses, and articles in the lead¬ 
ing reviews. He contributed to the American edition of 
Smith’s “ Dictionary of the Bible.” He has also in con¬ 
templation other and more important works. 

Bartlett (William), born in Newburyport, Mass., Jan. 

31,1748. He acquired great wealth in mercantile pursuits, 
which he used liberally in promoting education, temper¬ 
ance, missions, and the cause of religion and morals. Ho 
gave $30,000 to found the Andover Theological Seminary, 
and added to this gift various benefactions, amounting in 
the aggregate to about $250,000. He also bestowed large 
sums upon other benevolent enterprises. Died Feb. 8,1841. 

Bartlett (William Francis), an American officer of vol¬ 
unteers, born in Haverhill, Mass., June 6, 1840, graduated 
at Harvard University in 1862. On the outbreak of the civil 
war he entered the service as a private soldier, and was ap¬ 
pointed captain in the Twentieth Massachusetts July, 1861 ; 
at the siege of Yorktown, April, 1862, he lost a leg; was 
commissioned colonel of the Forty-ninth Massachusetts 
Infantry, which regiment he led in the assault on Port 
Hudson, La., May 27, 1863, where he was wounded in the 
leg and arm. On this occasion he displayed such daring, 
and was so conspicuous a mark, being mounted, that the 
Confederate officers gave orders not to shoot at him. Col¬ 
onel of the Fifty-seventh Massachusetts Veteran Regiment, 

Aug., 1863, wounded in the battle of the Wilderness, and 
brigadier-general of volunteers June 22,1864, for conspicu¬ 
ous gallantry. He led the assaulting column at the explo¬ 
sion of the mine near Petersburg July 30, 1864, and was 
wounded and taken prisoner. Brevetted major-general U. S. 
volunteers. 

Bartlett (William Henry), an English artist and 
writer, born in London in 1809. He travelled in many 
parts of Europe and America, and visited Egypt and Pal¬ 
estine. He published numerous popular works, illustrated 
with engravings designed by himself. Among his works 
are “Walks in and about Jerusalem” (1844), and “The 
Nile-Boat, or Glimpses of the Land of Egypt” (1849). Ho 
died at sea in 1854. 

Bartlett (William H. C.), LL.D., an American officer 
and scientist, born in 1804 in Lancaster co., Pa., graduated 
at West Point in 1826. He served, while lieutenant of engi¬ 
neers, as assistant professor at the Military Academy 1827- 
29, in the construction of Fort Monroe, Va., and Fort Adams, 

R. I., 1828-32, as assistant to the chief engineer at Washing¬ 
ton, D. C., 1832-34, and as acting professor of natural and 
experimental philosophy at the Military Academy 1834— 

36. On resigning his lieutenancy, April 20, 1836, he was 
appointed full professor of philosophy, continuing as such 
till retired from active service, Feb. 14, 1871. He is author 
of a “Treatise on Optics,” 1839, of “Synthetical Mechan¬ 
ics,” 1850-58, of “Acoustics and Optics,” 1S52-59, of 
“Analytical Mechanics,” 1853-59, and of “Spherical Astron¬ 
omy,” 1855-58. He is a member of several scientific asso¬ 
ciations, corporator of the National Academy of Sciences 
from its formation, and, since 1871, actuary of the Mutual 

Life Insurance Company of New York City. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

BartTey (Mordecai) was born in Fayette co., Pa., Dec. 

16, 1783. He removed to Ohio in 1809, and settled in Mans¬ 
field, Richland co. He served as a captain in the war of 

1812, was a member of Congress (1823-31),-and governor 
of Ohio (1844-46). Died Oct. 10, 1870. (See his Life, by 

A. T. Goodman.) 

Bart'low, a township of itenry co., 0. Pop. 126. 

Bar'tol (Cyrus Augustus), D. D., a Unitarian divine 
and author, born at Freeport, Me., April 30, 1813. He 
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1832, at the Cambridge 
Divinity School in 1835 ; settled as colleague pastor of 

West church, Boston, in 1837. His principal writings are 
“Discourses on the Christian Spirit and Life ^ 

“Discourses on the Christian Body and Form 
“ Pictures of Europe ” (1855), “ Radical Problems (187-), 










408 BARTOLINI 


and “ The Rising Faith” (1873). His contributions to 
periodical literature are numerous and valuable, being 
characterized by tine literary taste and deep religious 
feeling. 

Bartoli'ni (Lorenzo), an eminent Italian sculptor, born 
in Tuscany in 1777. He studied and worked in Paris, and 
was patronized by Napoleon, who in 1808 directed him to 
found a school of sculpture at Carrara. In 1815 he re¬ 
moved to Florence, where he worked for many years. 
Among his masterpieces are a colossal bust of Napoleon 
I., the group of “ Hercules and Lycus,” and a group called 
“ Charity.” His works are characterized by a classic re¬ 
pose and simplicity. He is ranked by the Italians as sec¬ 
ond only to Canova. Died Jan. 20, 1850. 

Bartoloz'zi (Francesco), an Italian engraver, born in 
1725, was a scholar of Fcrreti and Joseph Wagner. He 
lived many years in London. He exerted a bad influence 
by spreading the stippled manner. His works are very 
numerous. Died in 1819. 

Bar'ton, a county in the central part of Kansas. Area, 
900 square miles. It is intersected by the Arkansas River 
and the Atchison Topeka and Santa Fe R. R., and also 
drained by Walnut Creek. Capital, Great Bend. Pop. in 
1870, 2. 

Barton, a county of Missouri, bordering on Kansas. 
Area, 000 square miles. It is drained by the North Fork 
of Spring River and several creeks. A large part of the 
county is prairie. Corn, wool, and tobacco are the chief 
crops. Among its mineral resources are coal and lime¬ 
stone. Capital, Lamar. Pop. 5087. 

Barton, a township of Gibson co., Ind. Pop. 1626. 

Barton, a post-township of Newaygo co., Mich. P. 383. 

Barton, a post-township of Orleans co., Vt., is a thriv¬ 
ing country town, with three villages and good railroad 
facilities. The fertile soil and abundant water-power make 
agricultural and manufacturing business profitable. The 
chief article of manufacture is lumber. There are four 
churches, two graded schools, one academy, one library, 
and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1911. 

G. H. Blake, Ed. op “ Monitor.” 

Barton, a post-township of Tioga co., N. Y. It con¬ 
tains Waverley and other manufacturing villages. P. 5087. 

Barton, a post-township of Washington co., Wis. Pop. 
1376. 

Barton (Benjamin Smith), M. D., born at Lancaster, 
Pa., Feb. 10, 1766, was educated at Pennsylvania College 
and in Europe, graduating as M. D. at Gottingen. In 
1789 he became professor of natural history and botany in 
the College of Philadelphia, and in 1813 professor of ma¬ 
teria medica. He published various works on natural sci¬ 
ence, materia medica, and other subjects, of which the best 
known is his “ Elements of Botany ” (1804 and 1812). Died 
Dec. 19, 1815. 

Barton (Bernard), known as the “ Quaker poet,” 
born in London Jan. 31, 1784, was a member of the Society 
of Friends. He became a clerk in a bank at Woodbridge. 
He published “Poems” (1820), “Napoleon, and other 
Poems” (1822), “Devotional Verses” (1826), “The Reli¬ 
quary” (1836), “Household Verses” (1845), and other 
works. Sir Robert Peel procured for him a pension of 
£100. His works are pervaded by pious sentiment and 
tenderness. Died Feb. 19, 1849. (See “ Memoirs and Let¬ 
ters of Bernard Barton,” edited by his daughter.) 1 

Barton (William), a Revolutionary general, born in 
Providence, R. I., in 1747. As lieutenant-colonel of the 
Rhode Island militia he captured Gen. Prescott July 10, 
1777. He was wounded and disabled in 1778 at Bristol 
Ferry. Congress gave him a colonel’s commission and a 
sword, and he received a grant of land in Vermont. He 
was many years imprisoned in Vermont for debt, but was 
liberated in 1825 by La Fayette, who paid the demand 
against him. Died at Providence Oct. 22, 1831. 

Barton (William P. C.), M. D., a botanist, nephew of 
Dr. B. S. Barton, graduated at Princeton in 1805, and re¬ 
ceived his degree of M. D. at the University of Pennsylva¬ 
nia in 1808. He published “ Florae Philadelphicae ” (i815- 
25), “Flora of North America” (3 vols., 1821-23), “Ma¬ 
teria Medica,” “Medical Botany,” “Plan for Marine Hos¬ 
pitals” (1817), and several other works. He was professor 
of botany in the University of Pennsylvania. Died in 
1855. 

Barton Beds, a group of strata of clay and sand 
forming part of the middle eocene formation, included in 
the Bagsiiot Beds (which see). 

Barton City, a township of Barton co., Mo. P. 270. 

Barton’s Buttons (called also Iris Ornaments). 

By means of a dividing-engine, Mr. John Barton succeeded 


BARYTONE. 


in engraving lines on steel and other surfaces not more than 
from the two-thousandth to the ten-thousandth of an inch 
apart. These, owing to the action of grooved surfaces on 
light, shine in the light of candles or lamps with all the 
colors of the spectrum. From steel dies thus prepared im¬ 
pressions were stamped upon buttons and other articles, 
forming ornaments rivalling in colors the brilliant flashes 
of the diamond. 

Barton’s Creek, a township of Wake co., N. C. P. 1585. 

Bar'tovv, a county in the N. of Georgia, was formerly 
called Cass. Area, 550 square miles. It is intersected by 
the Etowah River. The surface is partly mountainous or 
hilly; the soil is fertile. Grain, cotton, and wool are the 
chief crops. Copper, iron, lead, marble, and limestone are 
found in it. It is traversed by the Western and Atlantic 
R. R. Capital, Cartersville. Pop. 16,566. 

Bartow (Francis Stebbins), horn in Savannah, Ga., 
Sept. 6, 1816, graduated at Franklin College, Ga., 1835, 
studied law at the law school, New Haven, Conn., became 
a prominent member of the Savannah bar, was a member 
of the Georgia legislature, of the senate, and of the Confede¬ 
rate Congress. During the civil war he entered the army 
as captain of the Oglethorpe Light Infantry, was appointed 
colonel of Eighth Georgia Infantry, and brigadier-general 
C. S. A. Killed at Manassas July 21, 1861. 

Bar'tram (John), an American botanist, born in Darby, 
Chester co., Pa., in 1701. He planted a botanical garden on 
the Schuylkill near Philadelphia, made extensive excursions 
in the unsettled parts of North America, and sent speci¬ 
mens to Linnaeus, who pronounced him “the greatest natu¬ 
ral botanist in the world.” He wrote a “Journal of a Tour 
to East Florida in 1766,” and other works. Died Sept. 22, 
1777. (See William Darlington, “Memorials of John' 
Bartram and Humphrey Marshall,” 1849.) 

Bartram (William), a botanist, a son of the preced¬ 
ing, was born at Kingsessing, Pa., Feb. 9, 1739. He ex¬ 
plored the animals, plants, etc. of several Southern States, 
and published “ Ti’avels through North and South Carolina, 
Georgia, and Florida” (1791). He also prepared a list of 
American birds. Died July 22, 1823. 

Bartsch (Johann Adam Bernhard), a German engra¬ 
ver and writer, born at Vienna Aug. 17, 1757. His princi¬ 
pal work is called “The Painter-Engraver” (“Le Peintre- 
Graveur,” 21 vols., 1821). He also prepared a “ Catalogue 
of all the Prints of Rembrandt,” and other similar works. 
Died Aug. 21, 1821. 

Ba'ruch, a Hebrew scribe, was a friend and companion 
of the prophet Jeremiah, whom he served as amanuensis. 
Shortly after 586 B. C. he accompanied Jeremiah to Egypt. 
His subsequent history is unknown. The book of Baruch, 
which the Catholics admit into the canon of the Holy Scrip¬ 
ture, is considered apocryphal by Protestants and Jews. 
It is not without literary merit. In what language or by 
what hand it was first written is unknown. Its sixth chap¬ 
ter, the so-called “epistle of Jeremiah,” is of later, though 
very ancient, date. There is a pseudepigraphic “epistle 
of Baruch ” in the Syriac language, probably a monastic 
forgery, and certainly ivorthless. 

Bar'wood, or Camwood, a red dyewood from the 
western coast of Africa. It is the wood of Baphia nitida, 
a leguminous tree. Its coloring principle is slightly solu¬ 
ble in boiling water, freely soluble in alcohol and alkaline 
solutions. It is supposed to be identical with santoline. 

Bary'ta, or Bary'tes [Gr. flapvs, “heavy,” alluding 
to “heavy spar,” its sulphate], (symbol BaO), the oxide of 
barium, is an alkaline earth and a virulent poison. It is 
an ingredient in sulphate of baryta, or heavy spar, from 
which it is obtained, but it is not useful for any purpose 
except chemical analysis. A solution of baric hydrate is 
used by the chemist as the best test of the presence of 
carbonic acid. Sulphate of baryta, or heavy spar, is a 
common crystallized mineral which is mixed with white 
lead and used as a pigment under the name of permanent 
white. Several mixtures of sulphate of baryta and white 
lead are manufactured and are known in commerce. Venice 
white contains 1 part sulphate of baryta and 1 part white 
lead. Hamburg white contains 2 parts sulphate of baryta 
and 1 part white lead. Dutch white contains 3 parts sul¬ 
phate of baryta and 1 part white lead. The native sul¬ 
phate of baryta was employed by the celebrated potter 
Wedgwood in the manufacture of jasper ware and for the 
formation of white figures, etc. on colored jars and vessels. 
It is also extensively used for adulterating white lead and 
for giving weight to paper. Baryta abounds in North Car¬ 
olina. 

Bar'ytone, written also Baritone [from the Gr. 
fiapus, “heavy,” and ro^o?, “tono”], signifies the tone of a 
man’s voice, about halfway between the bass and tenor. 















BASALT—BASIL. 


It generally extends in compass from B flat to F, and occu¬ 
pies the same position as the mezzo soprano of the female 
voice. In Greek grammar, words with an unaccented final 
syllable are called barytones. 

Basalt' [Lat. basal'tes], a rock of volcanic formation, 
is considered a variety of trap-rock, and is composed of 
felspar and augite or hornblende. It has a compact tex¬ 
ture, a dark-green, dark-gray, or black color, and a con- 
clioidal fracture. The most remarkable characteristic of 
basalt is the columnar structure which it often assumes. 
The columns have a regular prismatic form, w hich appears 
to be the result of a tendency or effort towards crystalliza¬ 
tion, but many theorists deny that it is at all analogous to 
crystallization. They generally have five or six sides, and 
are often divided transversely by joints at nearly equal 
distances. Beautiful specimens of vertical columns of 
basalt are found at the Giants’ Causeway in the north of 
Ireland, and Fingal’s Cave in the Scottish island of Staffa. 

Bas'com (Henry Bidleman), D. D., LL.I)., a bishop 
of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, was born at 
Hancock, Delaware co., N. Y., May 27, 1796. He was 
licensed to preach in 1813, and in 1823 was chosen chap¬ 
lain to Congress; was president of Madison College, Pa. 
(1827-29), professor of morals, Augusta College, Ky., in 
1832, and in 1842 president of Transylvania University, Ky. 
From 1846 to 1850 he was editor of the “ Quarterly Re¬ 
view ” of his Church. In 1850 he was made a bishop; 
died Sept. 8 , 1850. In one of his earlier years he preached 
400 times, and received a salary of twelve dollars and ten 
cents. Bishop Bascom was an extremely popular speaker. 
His sermons are considered to have been very brilliant and 
powerful. His complete writings were published in 1856. 

Bascom (John), LL.D., born at Genoa, N. Y., May 1, 
1827, and graduated at Williams College in 1849, studied 
law and theology, the latter at Andover Seminary. In 
1855 he became professor of rhetoric in Williams College. 
He has published “ Political Economy” (1861), “iEsthet- 
ics” (1862), “Rhetoric” (1865), “Elements of Psychol¬ 
ogy” (1869), “ Science, Philosophy, and Religion ” (1871), 
“ The Philosophy of Religion,” “ The Philosophy of Eng¬ 
lish Literature,” and other works. In 1873 he was ap¬ 
pointed president of Wisconsin University. 

Base [Lat. ba'sis, from the Gr. /3dcri?, a “foundation”], 
a term having important applications in architecture, chem¬ 
istry, geometry, heraldry, and music (It. basso). Base in 
general signifies the bottom of anything considered as its 
support, as the base of a mountain, the base of a pillar. 

Base, in architecture, is the lower part of a pillar— i. e. 
the part between the lower end of the shaft and the top of 
the pedestal. The Doric column had no base. The base is 
composed of two parts—the plinth , which is a flat, square 
block; and the moulding, which is usually circular and 
rests upon the plinth. In botany, the base of a leaf is the 
part next to the petiole. The base of a fruit is the part 
next to the root, or the end to which the stem, peduncle, 
or pedicel is attached. The stem-end of a pear is called 
the base, although it is smaller and usually higher in posi¬ 
tion than the apex. 

Base, in chemistry, is a compound body, generally con¬ 
sisting of a metal united with oxygen. For example, po¬ 
tassium (K) combines with oxygen (0), and thus forms 
the base potash (K 2 O); sodium (Na) and oxygen, the base 
soda (Na 20 ); lead (Pb) and oxygen, the base lead monox¬ 
ide or litharge (PbO). Every oxygen base forms salts 
with oxygen acids to form oxy-salts. Thus, the base 
potash (K 2 O) combines with sulphuric acid (SO 3 ) to 
make the salt sulphate of potash (K 2 0 ,S 03 ); potash 
with nitric acid (NO 5 ) to form the salt nitrate of potash 
or nitre (K 20 ,N 05 ). Occasionally sulphur or some other 
element replaces the oxygen in a base. Thus, the metal 
potassium (K) unites with sulphur (S) to form the sul- 
phur base sulphide of potassium (K 2 S), which can unite 
with a sulphur acid like sulpharsenious acid or orpiment 
(AS 2 S 3 ) to make the salt sulpharsenite of potash (K 2 S,As 2 S 3 ). 
The metal half of a base need not be a simple element, 
but may be a compound body which, for the time, plays 
the part of a simple substance. Thus, the compound ethyl 
(C 4 H 5 ) can combine with oxygen to form ordinary ether 
(; and the base thus produced can, in its turn, 
combine with acids to form salts. In the new chemistry, 
while the basic properties of certain oxides are necessarily 
recognized, a different statement is made in regard to their 
relations to acids. Thus, it is said that, 1. In some cases, 
basic oxides form salts by direct combination with acids; 
as when vapor of sulphuric anhydride (bOs) is passed over 
red-hot barium oxide (BaO), barium sulphato (Ba0,S0 3 or 
BaS0 4 ) is formed. 2. Mostly, however, metallic salts are 
formed by the substitution of a metal for hydrogen in the 
acid. Thus, nitric acid, or hydrogen nitrate (HNO 3 ) 
+ potassium hydrate (KOII) = potassium nitrate (KNO 3 ) 


409 


+ water (H 2 O). In geometry, the base of a solid is the 
lowest part, or the side on which it stands, as the base of a 
cone or plane. 

Base (of operations), a military term denoting, in con¬ 
tradistinction to the line of operations, the (usually) con¬ 
tiguous and well-guarded (by our own or allied forces) 
region upon which an army depends for its supplies, rein¬ 
forcements, etc., to which it sends back its sick and 
wounded, and upon which it (generally) would fall back 
in case of reverse and retreat. Much pedantry is expended 
upon these phrases in what were recognized as standard 
military treatises. The essential thing is, that an army 
have a base, though it may temporarily abandon one to 
acquire another; or in rare cases it may so thoroughly 
control the hostile region in which it operates as to use it 
for most of the purposes of a base. 

Base, in heraldry, is the lower portion of the shield. 
There is a dexter base, a middle base, and a sinister base. 

Revised by C. F. Chandler. 

Base, in music. See Bass. 

B a'sedow (Johann Bernhard), originally Johann 
Berend Bassedau, a German educational reformer, born 
at Hamburg Sept. 11, 1723. He aimed to realize Rousseau’s 
ideas of education, for which he founded at Dessau, in 
1774, a model school called Philanthropic, and published 
a school-book entitled “ Orbis Pictus ” (1774), which was 
illustrated with 100 copper-plate engravings, and became 
very popular. His influence at one time was very great. 
He sought to render science and learning attractive and 
interesting by pictures and natural objects, instead of 
filling the memory with abstractions. Died July 25, 1790. 
(See J. C. Meyer, “Basedow’s Leben uud Schriften,” 2 
vols., 1792 ; II. Ratiimann, “Beitrage zur Lebensgeschichte 
J. B. Basedow’s,” 1796.) 

Basedow’s Disease, called also Graves’Disease 
and Exophthalmic Goitre, is a disease more common 
among women than men, and characterized by prominent 
eyeballs, slightly enlarged thyroid gland, palpitation of 
the heart, and generally by anaemia. Basedow’s disease 
frequently, though not always, ends in recovery. Its cause 
is stated by Niemeyer to be probably a paralysis of the 
vaso-motor nerves. It is best treated by good food, chalyb- 
eates, gentle exercise, and hygienic measures. 

Basel'la, a genus of tropical plants of the order Che- 
nopodiaceae. The Basella alba and rubra have twining 
stems, and are commonly used as potherbs in the East 
Indies. In the vicinity of Paris they are raised in hot¬ 
beds, transplanted to borders, and used as a substitute for 
spinach. The Basella rubra yields a rich purple dye. 

Base'ment, in architecture, the lowest story of a build¬ 
ing, is often sunk below the level of the street, and is some¬ 
times entirely subterranean. 

Ba'shan [Heb. *]EO, of disputed significance], a dis¬ 
trict in Palestine E. of the Jordan, most of it high table¬ 
land, extending from Mount Hermon in the N. to Gilead 
in the S., the Yarmuk (Hieromax), which enters the Jor¬ 
dan just below the Sea of Galilee, being the boundary be¬ 
tween Bashan and Gilead. At the time of the Exodus it 
was occupied by Amorites (“ highlanders ”), whose king, 
Og, was slain in battle with the Israelites, his people over¬ 
powered, and the whole territory assigned to the half-tribe 
of Manasseh. After the Captivity, Bashan consisted of 
four provinces : (1) Golan (modern Jaulan); (2)Argob, or 
Trachonitis (modern Lejah); (3) Hauran (name un¬ 
changed) ; (4) Batanaea (modern Bethanyeh). Iturea 

(now Jedur) in the N. W. was not strictly a part of 
Bashan, though taken by the Israelites. The whole dis¬ 
trict was, and still is, exceedingly fertile, and was famous 
for its oaks and its cattle. Remarkable ruins of ancient 
cities are found there. (See Porter’s “Damascus,” 1855; 
W etzstein’s “ Reisebericht iiber Hauran und die Trach- 
onen,” 1860; and Porter’s “ Giant Cities of Bashan,” 1865.) 

Bashaw' [a corruption of pdshd, which again is a con¬ 
traction of the Persian pdddshdh, a “king”], a title of 
honor given in the Turkish dominions to viceVoys, provin¬ 
cial governors, generals, etc. The term is also used in Eng¬ 
lish to denote a domineering, proud, or tyrannical man. 

Bash'i, a township of Clarke co., Ala. Pop. 640. 

Ba'shi-Bazooks', the name of certain irregular 
troopers in the service of the Turkish sultan. I hey are 
mostly Asiatics, and are wild, turbulent men, much ad¬ 
dicted to plundering. They fought against the Russians 
in the Crimean war (1854-55). 

Bash'kirs, the name of a nomadic race who inhabit 
the Russian government of Orenburg. In religion they 
arc Mohammedans. 

Ba'sil ( Oc/imum), a genus of herbs and shrubs of the 
natural order Labiatm. They aro natives of tropical or 










410 


BASIL—BASIN. 


other warm regions, and generally have an aromatic smell 
and taste. The Ocimum basilicum (sweet basil) is an annual 
plant, a native of the East Indies, and is cultivated in Eu¬ 
rope, where it is used to season food. The Ocimum mini¬ 
mum, or bush basil, another East Indian plant, is culti¬ 
vated for the same use. The Ocimum Campcachianum is a 
native of Florida and of tropical America. Basil is also a 
common name for Pycnanthemum, a North American genus 
with numerous species, all erect, rigid herbs; also of the 
Calamintha clinopodium of Europe and North America, and 
other labiate herbs. 

Ba'sil, or Basil'ius [Gr. BatnAeio? or BaoaAios], Saint, 
surnamed the Great, an eminent Greek Father of the 
Church, was born at Caesarea, in Cappadocia, about 329 

A. D. He was older by about two years than his brother, 
Gregory of Nyssa, and was an intimate friend of Gregory 
Nazianzen. From 351 to 355 he was a student at Athens. 
Then he travelled extensively. Then he spent some seven 
years in monastic retirement in Pontus. In 370 he suc¬ 
ceeded Eusebius as bishop of Caesarea, and he died Jan. 1, 
379, worn out by his ascetic habits. Ilis works (in 3 vols., 
Garnier’s ed., 1721-30) consist of treatises, homilies, and 
letters. He excelled as a letter-writer. He was the author 
of monastic rules and of a liturgy which still bears his name, 
and which is still used in the Russian Church. (See G. 
Hermant, “Vie de Saint Basile,” 1074; J. E. Feisser, 
“ Dissertatio de Vita Basilii Magni,” 1828 ; Klose, “ Ba- 
silius der Grosse nach seinem Leben,” 1835.) 

Basil I. [Lat. Basilius ], surnamed the Macedonian, 
emperor of the East, was born in Macedonia in 820 A. D. 
His origin was obscure. He gained the favor of the em¬ 
peror Michael III., who appointed Basil his own colleague 
in the empire in 866. After Michael was assassinated in 
867, Basil became emperor. He obtained Asia Minor by 
conquest from the Saracens, whom he also drove out of 
Italy. He was an able ruler. He died in 886 A. D., and 
left the throne to his son, Leo VI. (See Le Bead, “ His- 
toire du Bas Empire;” G. Impaccianti, “ Basilio il Mace- 
done,” 2 vols., 1809.) 

Basil II., emperor of the East, a son of Romanus II., 
was born in 958 A. D. He began to reign, in conjunction 
with his brother Constantine, in 975. He was an able 
commander, and waged war with success against the calif 
of Bagdad and the Bulgarians. He completed the conquest 
of Bulgaria in 1018. Died in 1025. 

Basile'an Man'uscript [Lat. Co'dex Basilen'sis, from 
Basile'a, the Lat. name of Bale], the name of two very val¬ 
uable manuscripts of the Greek New Testament, now in the 
library of Bale: 1. A nearly complete uncial copy of the 
Gospels. It is believed to belong to the eighth century, 
and to have been written at Constantinople. 2. A beautiful 
cursive manuscript of the whole New Testament except the 
Apocalypse. It dates from the tenth century. 

Basil'ian Man'uscript ( Co'dex Basilia'nus), an im¬ 
portant uncial manuscript of the Apocalypse, now in the 
Vatican library. It takes its name from the Basilian mon¬ 
astery at Rome, to which it once belonged. It is referred 
to the eighth century. 

Basil'ian Monks, or Monks of St. Basil, a re¬ 
ligious monastic order founded by Saint Basil the Great in 
363 A. D. He composed a system of monastic discipline 
which was approved by the pope, and was practised by 
great numbers of monks both in the churches of the East 
and the Latin or Western Church. Spain, Italy, Asia 
Minor, and many other countries contain monasteries of this 
order at the present time. Those of Italy are chief!v of 
the Greek rite, and those of Spain, etc. of the Latin rite. 
In Asia Minor the United Melchite Greeks have many Ba¬ 
silian monks. There is one convent o*' Basilians in To¬ 
ronto, Canada. The monks of the Russo-Greek Church 
nearly all follow the rule of Saint Basil, variously modified, 
even the so-called monks of Saint Anthony following what 
is substantially the Basilian rule. The Armenian Church 

has also an order of Basilian monks. 

/ 

Basil' ica [Gr. /3acrtAi./o7, the fern, of |3acrtAiK6s, “ royal,” 
from /3acriAei>5, a “king;” ?. e. a “royal hall”], a name 
given by the ancient Greeks and Romans to a public hall 
or court-house in which princes and magistrates adminis¬ 
tered justice. Among the Romans it attained the greatest 
importance, and became, besides a court of justice, a mar¬ 
ket-place and exchange. The first basilica mentioned in 
Roman history was the Basilica Porcia, built about 182 

B. C. Great numbers were subsequently erected in Rome, 
and each provincial town had its basilica, which was usually 
adjacent to the forum. The most ancient basilicas were 
open to the external air, and surrounded by a peristyle of 
columns, for which an external wall was afterwards substi¬ 
tuted. After the reign of Constantine I. some basilicas 
were converted into Christian churches. The term basilica 


is still applied to the five great patriarchal churches in 
Rome and to several smaller ones. 

Basilica, a code of laws, the compilation of which was 
commenced by Basil I., emperor of the East (867-886 A. D.), 
and completed by his son Leo. It is considered valuable 
for the interpretation of the Roman corpus juris, but a por¬ 
tion of it is lost. The “Basilica” was published by Heim- 
bach (5 vols., 1833-50). 

Basilica'ta (the ancient Luca'nia), a province of Italy, 
bounded on the N. by Capitanata, on the N. E. and E. by 
Bari and Otranto, on the S. E. by the Gulf of Taranto, on 
the S. by Calabria Citra, and on the W. by Principato Ul¬ 
tra and Citra. Area, 4122 square miles. It is drained by 
the Brandano and Basicnto. The surface is mountainous. 
It contains a large fertile plain next to the Gulf of Ta¬ 
ranto. Wine, grain, tobacco, and hemp are the staple prod¬ 
ucts. Capital, Potenza. Pop. in 1862, 492,959. 



Basil'icoil Do'ron (“royal gift”), two Greek words 
composing the title of a work which James I. of England 
wrote for the instruction of his son Henry (1599). It is 
interesting chiefly as a literary curiosity. 

Basil'icon Oint'ment, sometimes written Basil'i- 
cum [from the Gr. /3ao-iAucos, “ royal,” so named on account 
of its great virtues], the Cera'turn resi'nse of the Pharma¬ 
copoeias, is composed of five parts of resin, eight of lard, 
and two of yellow wax. It is much used as a stimulating 
application to ulcers, burns, etc. 

Basili'des [Gr. BacriAei'Sr)?], a Gnostic and founder of 
a sect called Basilidians, lived in Egypt in the reigns of 
Trajan and Hadrian, about 100-140 A. D. The events of 
his life are not known. Like Zoroaster, he taught the ex¬ 
istence of two independent creative principles or powers— 
Good, or Light, and Evil, or Darkness. 

Basilis'cus [Gr. Bao-iAur/cos], emperor of the East, was 
a brother of Verina, the wife of Leo I. In 468 A. D. he 
commanded a large armament which Leo sent against Gen- 
seric the Vandal, by whom he was totally defeated. He 
usurped the throne in 474, but was defeated and deposed 
by Zeno in 476. Died in 477 A. D. (See Gibbon, “De¬ 
cline and Fall of the Roman Empire.”) 

Bas'ilisk [Lat. basilis'cus ; Gr. flacriAurKo?, the diminu¬ 
tive of /3acriAeu?, a “ king,” so called because the protuber¬ 
ance on its head was thought to resemble a crown], a genus 

of saurian reptiles of the 
family Iguanidae, sub-or¬ 
der Pachyglossae, natives 
>of the tropical parts of 
America. They are cha¬ 
racterized by a thin tri- 
angular fold of skin rising 
V from the occ.iput and in¬ 
clined backward. They 
also have an elevated crest 
along the back and tail, 
capable of being erected or depressed at pleasure. They 
are well adapted for swimming and for climbing trees, and 
are innocuous and inoffensive animals. The tail is much 
longer than the body. The Basiliscus mitratus (or Ameri- 
canus) is from twenty-five to thirty inches long, including 
the tail. The term basilisk was also applied to a fabulous 
monster by ancient and mediaeval writers, who supposed 
that it had the form of a snake or lizard, that it infested 
the deserts of Africa, and that it was hatched by a toad or 
serpent from an egg laid by a cock. According to pop¬ 
ular opinion, its breath poisoned the air and burned up 
vegetation, and the glance of its eye was fatal to men and 
other animals. It was sometimes called cockatrice and 
the king of dragons. The only ci’eature who could face the 
basilisk and live was believed to be the cock; and travel¬ 
lers were advised to carry loud-crowing cocks with them, 
for the basilisk was believed to stand in great dread of his 
near relative, the cock, and the crowing of the cock was 
considered the only means of driving him away. 

Ba'sin [Fr. 6as#7n], in geography, is a greatnatural de¬ 
pression or concavity on the earth’s surface, without refer¬ 
ence to the stratification. The basin of a river is the whole 
tract of land drained by that river and its tributaries. The 
basin of the Mississippi, for example, is coextensive with 
all the country between the Rocky Mountains and the Ap¬ 
palachian chain. The area of this is estimated at 1,244,000 
square miles. The basin of a lake includes, besides the 
space occupied by the lake, the land drained by the rivers 
that flow into it. The highest line between two basins is 
the ivatershed, or line of separation between the waters. 

Basin, in geology, is applied to depressions in the strata 
in which beds of a later age have been deposited. Thus, 
the site of the city of London, called the London basin, 
consisting of tertiary sands and olays, occupies a hollow in 
the chalk, which is bounded by the North Downs on the S. 


Basilisk. 


















BASINGSTOKE—BASSANO. 411 


and by the chalk-hills of Berks, Wilts, and Bucks on the N. 
The term is also applied to synclinal depressions of strata, 
especially in the coal-fields. 

Ba'singstoke, a town of England, in Hampshire, on 
the South-western Railway, 46 miles W. S. W. of London. 
It has considerable commerce in grain, malt, coal, and tim¬ 
ber, facilitated by the Basingstoke Canal. Here is a church 
built at the time of Henry VIII. Basingstoke has been 
a market-town ever since the Norman Conquest, and was 
anciently of more importance than at present. Pop. in 
1871, 6574. 

Bas'kerville (John), a celebrated English printer and 
letter-founder, born in Worcestershire in 1706. He made 
great improvements in typography. From his press came 
editions highly prized of Virgil (1756), Milton, and the 
New Testament (1763), besides many other beautifully 
printed works. Died Jan. 8 , 1775. 

Bas'ket [Lat. cor'bis or fis'eus; Welsh, basgmed, u a 
weaving of splinters”], a vessel made of willows, twigs, 
or splints interwoven. Baskets have been in use from very 
early ages. The monuments of ancient Egypt abound in 
representations of baskets. They are frequently mention¬ 
ed in the Bible. The ancient Britons were remarkably 
expert in the manufacture of baskets, which were much 
prized by the Romans for their neatness and elegance. 
The process of basket-making is very simple, and appears 
to be well known among the nidest peoples—even among 
the aborigines of Van Diemen’s Land—and many 
tribes of American Indians display great skill and 
taste in making and ornamenting them. Willow, 
oak, and ash are chiefly made use of in the manufac¬ 
ture of baskets. In several parts of England and 
Scotland great attention is paid to the Cultivation of 
the willow, and the returns yielded are very satisfac¬ 
tory. In the U. S. the rattan, oak, willow, and black 
ash are employed extensively. The Chinese export 
great numbers of beautiful baskets made of finely 
split bamboo. 

Basnage tie Beauval (Jacques), an eminent 
French scholar and theologian, born at Rouen in 
1653. In 1676 he became a Protestant minister at 
Rouen, whence he emigrated to Holland in 1685. He 
was appointed pastor of a church at The Hague in 1709. 
Among his works are “ The Holy Communion, or a Trea¬ 
tise on the Necessity and Means of Communing Worthily” 
(1688), a “ History of the Church” (2 vols., 1699), and a 
“ History of the jews from Jesus Christ to the Present 
Time” (5 vols., 1706). Died Dec. 22, 1722. (See Niceron, 
“ Memoires.”) 

Basque Provinces [Sp. Vasconga'das], a part of 
Spain, bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, comprises 
the four provinces, Navarro, Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Alava. 
These coincided with the ancient Cantabria. Area, 6827 
square miles. / Pop. in 1867, 778,229. The surface is moun¬ 
tainous and presents much picturesque scenery. The tops 
of the hills are mostly covered with forests of oak, chest¬ 
nut, beech, etc. Among the mineral resources are copper, 
tin, iron, marble, and porphyry. The chief towns are Bil¬ 
bao, Tolosa, and Vittoria. The Basques are celebrated 
for their bravery, vivacity, and love of independence. They 
speak a peculiar language, whose relation to other tongues 
is still in question. Some have found a relationship, real 
or fancied, to the Tartar and Ugrian tongues; others find a 
slight resemblance to the Coptic. It is called Enscara by 
the Basques, who call their country Euscaleria. They have 
never been subdued, and retain a separate constitution, 
which secures to them political privileges not enjoyed by 
the other Spanish subjects. The origin of the Basques is 
doubtful. W. von Humboldt considered them descendants 
of the ancient Iberi. Others have conjectured that they 
are descendants of the pre-historic races of Europe. The 
total number of Basques in France and Spain is estimated 
at about 785,000. (See Ford’s “ Handbook of Spain 
Karl Wilhelm von Humboldt, “ Researches on the Ab¬ 
origines of Spain by means of the Basque Language, 
1821; and F. Michel, “ Le Pays Basque, sa Population, 
sa Langue, etc.,” 1857.) V 

Bas-Relief [It. basso-rilievo, i. e. “low relief”], in 
sculpture, a term applied to figures which do not project or 
stand out far from the ground or plane on which they are 
formed. It is distinguished from haut-relief (alto-rilievo), 
in which the figures stand sometimes almost entirely Lee 
from the ground. Assyrian and Egyptian bas-reliefs were 
colored. Phidias in the Parthenon brought this style to a 
high degree of art. Relief was much cultivated by the 
Middle Age sculptors. 

Bas-Rhin (“Lower Rhine”), a former department of 
France, in the northern part of Alsace, which was annexed 
to Germany in 1871. (See Llsass.) 


Bass, or Base [from the It. bas'so, “low”], in music, 
is the deepest or lowest part. In respect to harmony the 
bass is the most important part in music, containing more 
frequently the fundamental notes of the chords, while on it 
is formed that important and effective figure in music called 
“ organ-point.” The term is also applied to the deepest and 
gravest quality of the human voice, the usual compass of 
which is from G or F below the bass staff to D or E above 
it. The bass voice is mostly confined to adult males. 

Bass [from the Anglo-Saxon biest; Danish and Ger. 
bast, the “ inner bark” of a tree, especially the linden tree], 
or Basswood, is the American name of a tree ( Til'ia 
America'na), also called Linden or Lime Tree. It is 
common in the U. S., has serrate leaves, which are more 
or less heart-shaped, and bears a woody globular nut one- 
celled and one or two-seeded. The wood is light, soft, and 
not of much value for fuel. It is used in carriage-building. 
Several species of Tibia are found in the U. S., one of which, 
the Tilia heterophylla, or white basswood, is found in the 
West and South, and sometimes grows to an immense size 
and height. The flowers of the basswood abound in honey 
of excellent quality, and are eagerly sought by bees. The 
European linden ( Tilia Enropsea ) is planted as an orna¬ 
mental tree in many cities of Europe and the U. S. This 
species yields the bark which is made into Russia matting. 
(See Linden and Bast.) 

Bass, ftie name of many species of fish of various 


genera, but appropriately belonging to the genus Labrax, 
of the perch family, and other closely allied genera. 
The typical species is a common European sea-fish, which 
is prized as food. It ascends streams, and has become 
landlocked in fresh water without injury. The striped bass 
of the U. S. ( Labrax lineatus), often called rock-fish, affords 
a valuable supply of food. It ascends rivers, and is caught 
in both salt and fresh water. The white bass or perch of 
the great lakes ( Labrax albidus), the ruddy bass ( Labrax 
rufus ) of the coast, the white perch ( Labrax pallidus), the 
little black bass ( Labrax nigricans), the spotted bass of 
the St. Lawrence ( Grystes ?iot«<M«), the Grystes multilineatus 
of Western lakes, the Grystes chrysoj)s of the lakes, the 
Micropterus fasciatus (black bass of the West), the Cen- 
trarchus hexacanthus, or grass bass, the Centrarchus aeneus, 
or rock bass of New York State and the West, are the best 
known of the very numerous American fishes of the true 
bass family, most of which are of great value as food. The 
stone bass ( Polyprion cernium) of the Atlantic and the black 
sea-bass ( Centop>ristes nigricans) of our Eastern coast are 
both highly prized. The so-called Otsego bass ( Coregonus 
Otsego) is a fine fish of the salmon family. The “bass” 
of Charleston, S. C., is the red-fish ( Corvina ocellata), a 
valuable sea-fish. 

Bass (Edward), D. D., the first Protestant Episcopal 
bishop of Massachusetts, was born at Dorchester, Mass., 
Nov. 23, 1726, and graduated at Harvard in 1744. He was 
ordained in England in 1752 by Bishop Sherlock. He was 
consecrated bishop of Massachusetts May 7, 1797, and his 
episcopal authority was afterwards extended over Rhode 
Island and New Hampshire. Died Sept. 10, 1803. 

Bassa'no, a town of Northern Italy, in the province 
of Venice, on the river Brenta, 19 miles N. E. of \ icenza. 
It stands on an eminence near the foot of the Alps, in a 
country which produces excellent wine and fruits. It is 
well built, has many churches and several fine palaces, also 
a theatre, a picture-gallery, a botanic garden, and the cele¬ 
brated old printing-establishment of Remondini. Bona¬ 
parte here defeated the Austrian general Wurmser, Sept. 
8, 1796. Pop. in 1857, 11,827. 

Bassano (or da Ponte, Giacomo), a Venetian painter, 
born in 1510, was the pupil of Bonifazio Venetiano, and 
painted at Venice and Bassano. He excelled in the repre¬ 
sentation of familiar scenes and natural objects. Ins co - 
oring is good, and his works are marked by a bold natu¬ 
ralistic tendency, and have some of the characteristics ol 
modern genre-painting. Diodleb. 19, loJ*. 



European Bass. 













412 


BASSARIS—BASTARD. 


Bas'saris [Gr. /3 aavapis, a ‘‘fox’’], a genus of North 
American Bassaridte, representing the true civets of the 



The Iiing-tailed Kassaris. 


Old World. The Bassaris astuta, known as civet-cat or 
cacomixtle, and also very incorrectly called the raccoon, is 
found in Mexico, Texas, California, etc. These animals 
are about the size of a common cat, and very playful and 
easily tamed. When wild they live in trees. They catch 
rats, mice, and birds. The tail is bushy, and marked w T ith 
rings like that of the raccoon. 

Bassein', a city of British Burmah, on an arm of the 
Irrawaddy, which joins the Bay of Bengal S. of Cape Ne- 
grais. It is 90 miles from the sea, and large ships ascend 
to the city. Much rice is exported hence. Pop. 20,000. 

Basses-Alpes (i. e. “ Lower Alps”), a department in 
the S. E. part of France, is bounded on the N. by Hautes- 
Alpes, on the E. by Italy and Alpes-Maritimes, on the S. 
by Yar, and on the W. by Vaucluse. Area, 2685 square 
miles. The surface is mostly mountainous, with some fer¬ 
tile valleys. It is drained by the river Durance. Pop. in 
1872, 139,332. Capital, Digne. 

Basses-Pyrenees (7. e. “Lower Pyrenees”), a fron¬ 
tier department of France, is bounded on the N. by Landes, 
on the E. by Hautes-Pyrenees, on the S. by Spain, on the 
W. by the Atlantic. Area, 2945 square miles. It is,inter¬ 
sected by the river Gave-de-Pau, an affluent of the Adour, 
which forms its N. W. boundary. The surface is partly 
mountainous,* the soil of the lowlands is fertile. Copper, 
iron, and marble are found here. The chief towns are 
Bayonne and Pau. Pop. in 1872, 476,701. 

Basse-Terre ( i. e. “low land”), a seaport, capital of 
the French island of Guadeloupe, on the S. W. coast; lat. 
15° 57' N., Ion. 61° 44' W. It is the residence of a bishop, 
and has a botanic garden. It has no harbor. Pop. 9480. 

Basse-Terre, a town of the British West Indies, cap¬ 
ital of St. Christopher (or St. Kitts), on the W. coast. It 
has a harbor and an active trade. Pop. about 6500. 

Bas'sett (Richard), a statesman of Delaware, was a 
member of Congress in 1787, and of the convention of the 
same year which framed the U. S. Constitution. He was 
U. S. Senator (1789-93), governor of the State (1798-1801), 
and U. S. district judge (1801-02). He was the father-in- 
law of Hon. James A. Bayard. Died in Sept., 1815. 

Bas'set Horn [It. cor'no di baaset'to], the richest and 
softest of all wind instruments, was invented in Passau in 
1770, and afterwards improved. It is similar to a clarionet 
in tone and fingering, and its compass is two and a half 
octaves. 

Bas'sia, a genus of plants of the order Sapotacem, 
comprises several species of trees, natives of tropical or 
sub-tropical countries. It produces flowers remarkable for 
their fleshy corolla, and a pulpy fruit enclosing three or 
four seeds, which contain an abundance of oil or butyra- 
ceous fat, which is used as food and for other purposes. 


The Bassia latifolia, an East Indian tree called madhuca 
or mahowa, is valuable for timber, and bears seeds from 
which oil is obtained. The Galam butter 
or Shea butter, an important article of 
commerce in Central Africa, which is pro¬ 
cured from the seeds of Bassia Parkii, is 
more solid and more palatable than the 
butter of cow’s milk. It is asserted that 
it will keep for a year without salt. 

Bassi'ni (Carlo), born in Cuneo, 
Italy, in 1812, became celebrated as a vio¬ 
linist, musical director, and composer. 
He was long a successful music-teacher 
in New York. Ho published the “Art of 
Singing” (1857), “Melodic Exercises” 
(1865), “Method for the Tenor” (1866), 
“Method for the Barytone” (1868), and 
other valuable works. Died Nov. 26, 1870. 

Bassoinpierre, de (Francois), 
Baron, a French general, born at Dar¬ 
nel, in Lorraine, 1579. He was an ac¬ 
complished courtier, greatly addicted to 
intrigues, and gained the favor of Louis 
XIII., who raised him to the rank of 
marshal of France in 1622, and sent him 
on embassies to Spain and England. He 
fought against the Huguenots at La Ro¬ 
chelle. Having offended Cardinal Riche¬ 
lieu, he was confined in the Bastile about 
twelve years (1631—42). He died Oct. 12, 
1646, leaving interesting “Memoires” (2 
vols., 1665), which were written in the 
Bastile, and are commended as attractive 
in style. (See Puymaigre, “Vie de Bas- 
sompierre,” 1848.) 

Bassoon' [Fr. basson; It. fagot'to], a 
wind instrument which consists of a per¬ 
forated tube of wood in several pieces, 
which are fastened together, so as to bring the holes and 
keys within the reach of the fingers. At the end is at¬ 
tached a small tapering, crooked brass tube, at the termi¬ 
nation of which is placed a reed to produce the tone. It 
has a compass of three octaves, from double B flat to B flat 
in alt. 

Bas'sora, Bas'sorah, Bas'ra, or Bus'sorah, a 

city of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of Bagdad, on the 
river Euphrates (here called Shat-el-Arab), 70 miles from 
its mouth. It is surrounded by a brick wall nearly eight 
miles in circuit, which encloses gardens, rice-fields, and 
groves of the date-palm. The houses are mean and the 
place is unhealthy. About half of the inhabitants are 
Arabs. Bassora has an extensive trade, being an entrepot 
for the exchange of the productions of Turkey and Persia 
for the commodities of India. The river is navigable to 
this point for ships of 500 tons. Among the exports are 
horses, dates, raw silk, and precious metals. Bassora was 
founded by the calif Omar about 636 A. D., and was once 
a rich and populous city. Pop. about 4000. 

Bassora Gum, a whitish or yellowish opaque sub¬ 
stance resembling gum-arabic, but differing from it by 
being mostly insoluble in water. 

Basso-llilievo. See Bas-Relief. 

Bass River, a township of Burlington co., N. J. 
Pop. 807. 

Bass’s Strait separates Australia from Tasmania, and 
is about 140 miles wide. It was first explored by George 
Bass in 1798. The navigation of this strait is obstructed 
by small islands and coral reefs. 

Bast, or Bass [Lat. liber or endophloe'um], the fibrous 
inner bark of exogenous plants, consists mostly of sap- 
vessels or laticiferous vessels. It is most conspicuous in 
exogenous trees as the substance interposed between the 
true bark and the wood. It is sometimes valuable for 
medicinal purposes, and is often used in the fabrication of 
cloths, ropes, mats, sacks, etc. The Russians apply the 
name bast especially to the inner bark of the linden tree 
(Tilia Europtra), which is extensively used for making 
ropes, mats, and shoes. The trees are cut down in spring 
when the sap abounds. This matting is extensively im¬ 
ported, and used in packing furniture and other articles, 
covering tender plants in gardens, etc. 

Bas'tard [Old Fr.], in law, a person born of parents 
not married to each other. It includes several distinct cases, 
as where the mother is unmarried, or she is a married wo¬ 
man, or where she was married at the time of conception, 
but not married at the time of birth— e. g., being then di¬ 
vorced from the bonds of matrimony or a widow. By the 
rules of the common law the Jjaot of the marriage of the 

































BASTIA—BASYLE. 41 3 


parents at the time of birth is the test of legitimacy, even 
though such marriage may have immediately preceded the 
birth. By the civil or Roman law, intermarriage after birth 
has a retroactive effect, and makes the child legitimate. 
This rule prevails in Scotland. This difference presents 
frequently an interesting question in private international 
law. Thus, if a person owning both land and personal 
property in England should become domiciled in Scotland, 
and there marry the mother of his bastard child, the 
marriage would make the child legitimate, so that he 
could succeed to the personal property in England, but he 
would not inherit the land there situated. Some of the 
States in this country follow the common-law rule, while 
others by statute have adopted the Scotch, so that the same 
point may arise in our inter-State jurisprudence. In the 
case where the mother is a married woman, and it is claim¬ 
ed that a child is the offspring of an adulterous connection, 
it will not be enough that the adulterer may have been the 
father. It must be proved that the husband could not have 
been, either by absence from the country or other sufficient 
reason. The presumptions of law favor legitimacy, and pub¬ 
lic policy requires that these should only be overcome by the 
most satisfactory proof. (The details of this branch of the 
law can be found in the work of Mr. Nicholas on the “Law of 
Adulterine Bastardy.”) Public policy also requires that the 
mother should not be allowed, for the purpose of bastard¬ 
izing the issue, to be a witness to prove want of access on 
the part of the husband. In the special case where the 
mother is at the time of the child’s birth a widow, a ques¬ 
tion may arise as to the effect of the time intervening be¬ 
tween the death of the husband and the birth of the child 
in raising a presumption of illegitimacy. No precise time 
is fixed by law, and the testimony of experts must be re¬ 
sorted to. Statutes sometimes fix a period after which the 
presumption of illegitimacy will arise. A similar question 
may arise after a divorce from the bonds of matrimony for 
the husband’s fault. In the case of a divorce from bed and 
board, where a child subsequently comes into existence it 
is presumed to be illegitimate, as it will be supposed that 
the parties have obeyed the decree of the court and have 
lived apart. This presumption may be rebutted by satis¬ 
factory evidence. 

By the common law, a parent is not bound to sustain an 
illegitimate child. By a series of statutes in England, com¬ 
mencing in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the duty of sup¬ 
port is imposed on the supposed father as well as the moth¬ 
er. This legislation proceeds upon the theory that it is a 
criminal act to bring such a child into the world and to 
cast its support upon the public. Accordingly, an inquiry 
is had before magistrates into the facts of the case, and 
if parentage is established an order is made for a period¬ 
ical allowance for the child’s support. Should the parent 
abscond, his or her property may be sequestered. Due pro¬ 
vision is made for a review of the order of the magistrates. 
These statutes are substantially re-enacted in this country. 
This class of children do not have the same civil rights in 
all respects as those who are legitimate. They cannot in¬ 
herit land from either farther, mother, or collateral relatives, 
or transmit land to them. Natural ties arc, however, re¬ 
garded, it being the same crime for bastard relatives to in¬ 
termarry as for those who are legitimate. Such a child has 
no name except as it may acquire it by reputation. It is 
deemed to have its domicil of origin at the place of its 
birth. These disabilities in this country are to some ex¬ 
tent modified by statutes in the respective States. Thus, 
in New York an illegitimate child may inherit from its 
mother, in default of legitimate descendants; so the moth¬ 
er may in like circumstances inherit from the child. A 
bastard child may be made legitimate by a special act of 
the legislature both in England and in this country. Such 
an act cannot, however, interfere with vested rights of 
others. It could not divest property which had been pre¬ 
viously transmitted to legitimate relatives. 

T. W. Dwight. 

Basti'a, a fortified seaport of Corsica, on the N. E. 
coast, 75 miles N. E. of Ajaccio; lat. 42° 42' N., Ion. 9° 
27' E. It is the richest and most populous town in the 
island, of which it was formerly the capital. It is pic¬ 
turesquely situated on the slope of a hill which rises in the 
form of an amphitheatre. It has a harbor which admits 
small vessels, and has a considerable trade in leather, wine, 
oil, coral,etc. Here are numerous tanneries. Pop. in 1866, 
21,535. 

Bas'tian (Henry Charlton), M. D., F. R. S., born at 
Truro, England, April 26, 1837, is distinguished as an ad¬ 
vocate of the doctrine of the spontaneous generation of 
living organisms. He early gained a brilliant fame as a 
pathologist. He has since his twenty-third year been offi¬ 
cially connected with the London University, and in 1871 
became professor of pathological anatomy in University 


College. He has published “ Modes of Origin of Lowest 
Organisms” (1871) and “ The Beginnings of Life” (1872). 

Bastiat (Frederic), an eminent French political econ- 
mist and advocate of free trade, was born at Bayonne June 
29, 1801. He wrote against the protective system in the 
“ Journal des Economistes.” During a visit to England 
he became acquainted with Cobden, and on his return 
(1845) he produced translations of the speeches of British 
free-traders. He was chosen a member of the Constituent 
and Legislative Assemblies of 1848 and 1849. His chief 
work is “ Harmonies Economiques ” (1849). He died at 
Rome Dec. 24, 1850. 

Bastide (Jules), a French republican and journalist, 
was born in Paris Nov. 22, 1800. He became chief editor 
of the “National” about 1836, and founded the “Revue 
Nationale” in 1846. He was minister of foreign affairs 
under Cavaignac from June to Dec., 1848. He has pub¬ 
lished important educational and historical works. 

Bastile, or Bastille [from bdtir or bastir, to “build”], 
a French word signifying “fortress,” applied especially to 
the state prison and citadel of Paris, which was built about 
1370 by Charles V. Additions were made to it by several 
successive kings, and it was surrounded by a wide ditch. 
Among its prominent features were eight large round tow¬ 
ers five stories high, having walls twelve feet thick or more. 
In these towers were many cells for prisoners. The inmates 
of this prison were generally noblemen, authors, politicians, 
etc., who had not been legally convicted of crime, but were 
victims of royal jealousy, political despotism, court intrigue, 
or ecclesiastical persecution. The only formula used in con¬ 
demning a man to the Bastile was the lettre cle cachet. Among 
the eminent men confined here were Voltaire, Bassompierre, 
and the Man in the Iron Mask. The prisoners were left in 
ignorance of the cause and duration of their punishment, 
and were completely debarred from intercourse with their 
friends. The first violent symptom of the French Revolu¬ 
tion was the destruction of the Bastile, which the populace 
took by storm July 14, 1789. They killed the governor, 
De Launay, and released the prisoners, who were only 
seven in number. 

Bastina'do [It. bastona'ta, a “blow with a stick,” from 
basto'ne, a “staff” or “stick”], a name given by Europeans 
to a form of punishment which is common in Turkey and 
several Oriental countries, and was practised by the ancient 
Egyptians. It consists of blows inflicted with a stick on 
the soles of the feet. 

Bas'tioil [from the Fr. bdtir (formerly spelled bastir), 
to “build”], a bulwark; a projecting tower erected to de¬ 
fend the wall of a town or fortification. An unbroken wall 
enveloping a city or other place, for its defence, would be 
unseen at its foot; hence during ancient times and the 
Middle Ages towers of various kinds projected at inter¬ 
vals, from which the intermediate portions of the wall 
could be observed and reached by defensive projectiles ( 1 . e. 
“flanked”). The invention of gunpowder made it neces¬ 
sary to cover enveloping walls (the enceinte) by earth in 
the form of a glacis in front of the ditch, and to enlarge 
these flanking towers to receive artillery. Thus enlarged, 
their own walls would have been undefended had not their 
outline been so contrived that they should flank each other. 
Hence arises the bastion, the two faces of which, directed 
upon the inner extremities of the flanks of the adjoining 
bastions, are flanked (that is, defended) by them; hence a 
bastion has two faces and two flanks; the fifth side of the 
figure, called the (joreje (between the extremities of the cur¬ 
tain and towards the interior of the place), is usually open. 
That portion of the enceinte which fills the interval between 
two bastions, uniting with the inner extremities of their 
flanks, is called the curtain. The ensemble of a curtain and 
two half bastions is called a bastioned front. (See Forti¬ 
fication, by A. Brialmont, col. d’etat-major, Belgium.) 

Bas'tress, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 251. 

B as'trop, a county of the central part of Texas, has 
an area of 1001 square miles. It is intersected by the 
Colorado River, which is here navigable for steamboats. 
The surface is undulating; the soil is generally fertile, and 
produces cotton and maize. Lignite is abundant. It is 
intersected by the western division of the Houston and 
Texas Central R. R. Capital, Bastrop. Pop. 12,290. 

Bastrop, a post-village, capital of Morehouse parish, 
La., on Bayou Bartholomew, 300 miles N. by W. of Baton 
Rouge. It has two academies, one weekly paper, and is in 
one of the best cotton regions in the State. Pop. 521. 

Ed. “ Morehouse Conservative.” 

Bastrop, a post-village, capital of Bastrop co., Tex., 
on the Colorado River, 35 miles E. S. E. of Austin City. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1199. 

Bas'yle [from the Gr./3a<ri?, “base,’ and vAtj, “timber, 

“ substance ”] is the name given by Graham to a substance, 

















414 


BAT—BATES. 


whether simple or compound, which can unite with oxygen 
to produce a base. Thus, all the metals are examples of 
simple basyles, while ammonium, ethyl, methyl, etc. are 
compound basyles. 

Hat [I jat. vespertilio], the common name for animals 
belonging to the order Cheiroptera, mammals possessing a 
fold of skin which commences at the neck and extends on 
each side between the fore legs or arms and the posterior 
limbs, serving as wings which enable the animal to fly. 
Bats are the only mammals which have the power of flight. 
The anterior extremities and digits are usually very long, 
the eyes small, ears large, thumbs short and armed with a 
hook-like nail, as are each of the toes of the hind feet. The 
clavicle is generally long. Some species have a spur on 
the heel. Bats fl} r for the most part only in the night, liv¬ 
ing by day in hollow trees, caves, and dark buildings. 
Even when their eyes have been destroyed, they can fly 
through narrow and tortuous passages without hitting. 
This is probably owing to their delicate sense of hearing 
and touch. Except in tropical climates, they hibernate in 
cold weather. 

Bats are divided into two groups: the so-called frugivorous 
and the insectivorous bats. The 
former are found only in the Old 
World tropical regions. They 
feed chiefly on fruits, but also 
eat birds, small mammals, etc. 

They number forty or more 
species, and include the rou- 



Flying Fox Bat. 


settes, kalongs, “ flying foxes,’ 
etc. Some of them can spread ggg 
their wings five feet from tip to 18 
tip. The principal genus is 
Pteropus, and its species are re¬ 
markable as having only twenty- 
four vertebrae, a smaller number 
than any other known verte¬ 
brate possesses. The insectiv¬ 
orous bats are by far the most numerous, some 200 species 
being described. The most formidable of these are the 
vampires—tropical Ameri¬ 
can bats of the genus Pliyl- 
lostoma, having a leaf-like 
membrane on the end of 
the nose. They are famous 
for their habit of fastening 
upon sleeping animals and 
men for the purpose of suck¬ 
ing their blood. Such wit¬ 
nesses as D’Azara, Tschudi, 



Vampire Bat. 


Waterton, and Darwin confirm this disputed statement. 
The bats of the U. S. are not very numerous in species, 
though abundant in individuals. They are of the genera 
Vespertilio , Molossus, Ple- 
cotus, etc. Europe is 
much more rich in spe¬ 


cies, the 


“ long-eared 


bat,” Plecotus communis, 
being one of the most 
common. Bats are ex¬ 
tremely useful in destroy¬ 
ing insects, and their ex¬ 
crement so accumulates 
in certain caves, as in 
Farther India, in Ten¬ 
nessee, Arkansas, etc., as 
to promise to become an 



Long-eared Bat. 


important source of guano, of which the quality is in some 
cases excellent. Fossil remains of bats first appear in the 
eocene. Chas. W. Greene. 

Bat/aszek, a town of Hungary, in the county of Tolna, 
70 miles W. of Szegedin, has large vineyards which produce 
an excellent wine. Pop. in 1870, 6452. 

Batatas Edulis. See Sweet Potato. 

Bata'vi, an ancient German tribe or nation who inhab¬ 
ited the country now called Holland, especially an island 
called Batavia or Insula Batavorum, which was enclosed by 
the Rhine, the Waal (Vahalis), the Meuse (Mosa), and the 
ocean. They were conquered by Germanicus, and became 
loyal subjects of the Roman empire. They were exempted 
from the payment of taxes. The Batavian cavalry served 
in the Roman armies, and had a high reputation. 

Bata'via, a city and seaport of Java, the capital of the 
Dutch possessions in the East Indies, is on the northern 
coast of the island and on the Java Sea; lat. 6° 8' S., Ion. 
106° 50' E. Its site is flat and marshy, and intersected by 
canals. The place was formerly very unhealthy, but has 
been improved by draining. The temperature continues 
about uniform throughout the year, the average being 78° F. 


Batavia, which has a good harbor, is the greatest commer¬ 
cial emporium of the Malay Archipelago. It has a stadt- 
house, an exchange, numerous churches, several Chinese 
temples, a bank, a school of arts and sciences, and a 
botanic garden. A telegraphic cable connects it with 
Singapore, about 600 miles distant. The chief articles of 
export are coffee, sugar, pepper, indigo, hides, cloves, nut¬ 
megs, mace, tin, rice, and rattans. Among the imports are 
various articles of European manufacture. Pop. estimated 
at 180,000. This city was founded by the Dutch in 1610. 

Batavia, a post-village and township of Kane co., Ill., 
on Fox River, 38 miles W. of Chicago, with which it is 
connected by two railroad lines. It has two large schools, 
an institute for the insane, valuable quarries, extensivo 
manufactures, a weekly newspaper, and a national bank. 
Pop. of township, 3018. Ed. of “News.” 

Batavia, a post-township of Branch co., Mich. P. 1308. 

Batavia, the county-scat of Genesee co., N. Y., on the 
Tonawanda Creek and the New York Central and Erie 
R. Rs. The Canandaigua and Tonawanda and Attica 
R. Rs. meet at this point, 36 miles E. of Buffalo and 32 
miles W. of Rochester. It coutains six churches, several 
important manufactories, two national banks, one savings 
bank, three newspaper-offices, union school, ladies’ sem¬ 
inary, public library, and the State institution for the blind. 
Pop. of village, 3890; of Batavia township, 6485. 

Henry Todd, Ed. “ Spirit of the Times.” 

Batavia, a post-village, capital of Clermont co., 0., on 
the East Fork of the Little Miami River, 21 miles E. of 
Cincinnati. It has a manufactory of tin-ware, one of car¬ 
riages, a national bank, and two weekly papers. Pop. of 
township, 3334. Ed. of “ Clermont Sun.” 

Bata'vian Republic. Holland having been con¬ 
quered by the French in 1795, the prince of Orange was 
deposed and a new government was established with the 
title of the Batavian republic. This was an ally or tribu¬ 
tary to the French republic, and as such was involved in a 
war against the British, who nearly ruined the Dutch navy. 
In June, 1806, this republic was converted into a kingdom, 
of which Louis Bonaparte became king. 

Bat'chelder (Samuel), born in Jaffrey, N. II., June 
8, 1784, began the cotton manufacture in New Ipswich, 
N. II., in 1808. He superintended the erection of cotton- 
mills in Lowell, Saco, etc., invented a dynamometer for 
mill-work, and published a “History of the Cotton Manu¬ 
facture in the U. S.” 

Bat'clieller (Oliver A.), U. S. N., born June 1, 1842, 
in the State of New York, graduated at the Naval Academy 
in 1861, became an ensign in 1862, a lieutenant in 1864, 
and a lieutenant-commander in 1866. He was attached 
to the steamer Mississippi at the attack on Port Hudson, 
Mar. 15, 1863, when that vessel was destroyed. In 1864 
and 1865 he was attached to the Western Gulf blockading: 
squadron, and served on the steamer Monongaliela as exec¬ 
utive officer in the battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and 
in the subsequent operations leading to the fall of Mobile. 
He was commended for gallantry by his commanding 
officer, Commander Strong, in his official report to Rear- 
Admiral Farragut of Aug. 6, 1864. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Bateman (Kate Josephine), an actress, was born at 
Baltimore, Md., Oct. 7, 1842, and was the daughter of II. 
L. Bateman and Mrs. Bateman, both well known in theat¬ 
rical circles; and her sister Ellen (Mrs. Greppo) was also 
an actress before her marriage. The sisters were brought 
up almost from infancy upon the stage. In 1862, Kate 
Bateman appeared at Boston as “ Leah,” her greatest cha¬ 
racter, and won great applause in the U. S. and Great 
Britain. In 1866 she was married to George Crowe, a 
former editor of the “ London News.” 

Bates, a county of Missouri, bordering on Kansas. 
Area, 900 square miles. It is traversed by the Marais des 
Cygnes (or Osage River). Cattle, grain, and tobacco are 
extensively raised. The surface is undulating; a large 
part of the county is prairie. Capital, Butler. Pop. 15,960. 

Bates, a township of Sebastian co., Ark. Pop. 623. 

Bates, a township of Greenville co., S. C. Pop. 1400. 

Bates (Edward), LL.D., an American statesman and 
lawyer, was born at Belmont, Goochland co., Va.., Sept. 4, 
1793, and emigrated to Missouri in his youth. He became 
a political friend of Henry Clay, and was elected a mem¬ 
ber of Congress in 1827. He presided at the national con¬ 
vention of the friends of internal improvement which met 
at Chicago in 1847, and opposed the repeal of the Missouri 
Compromise in 1854. In Mar., 1861, he was appointed 
attorney-general of the U. S. He resigned in 1864. Died 
Mar. 25, 1869. 

Bates (Isaac C.), born at Granville, Mass., in 1780, 





















I 


BATES 


graduated at Yale in 1802, became a lawyer at Northamp¬ 
ton, Mass., was a Whig member of Congress (1827-35) and 
U. S. Senator (1842-45). Died Mar. 16, 1845. 

Bates (Joshua), born in Weymouth, Mass., in 1788. 
He removed to London in 1826, and became a partner in 
the banking-house of Baring Brothers & Co. He was the 
principal founder of the Boston Free Library, to establish 
which he gave $50,000, on the condition that it should be 
“ perfectly free to all, with no other restrictions than may 
be necessary for the preservation of the books.” He after¬ 
wards contributed books to the value of $50,000. Died 
Sept. 24, 1864. (See “ Memorial of Joshua Bates, from the 
city of Boston,” 1865.) 

Bates (Joshua), D. D., born at Cohasset, Mass., Mar. 
20, 1776, graduated at Harvard in 1800, was ordained pas¬ 
tor of the Congregational church at Dedham, Mass., in 
1803, was president of Middlebury College, Vt. (1818-39), 
was for a time chaplain of the U. S. Senate, and pastor in 
Dudley, Mass. (1843-54). He published various discourses, 
sermons, and other writings. Died Jan. 14, 1854. 

Bates (Martin W.), born at Salisbury, Conn., Feb. 24, 
1787, studied medicine, but became a lawyer of Delaware, 
from which State he was U. S. Senator (1857-59). Died 
at Dover, Del., Jan. 1, 1869. 

Bates (Samuel Penniman), LL.D., born at Mendon, 
Mass., in 1827, graduated at Brown University in 1851, was 
principal of Meadvillo Academy, Pa. (1852-57), where he did 
much to stimulate the cause of education. In 1857 he be¬ 
came superintendent of schools in Crawford eo., Pa.; in 
1860 deputy State superintendent; in 1865 State historian 
of Pennsylvania. He has published various works, among 
which are a “History of Pennsylvania Volunteers” (5 
vols.), “ History of the Colleges of Pennsylvania,” “ School 
Laws of Pennsylvania. He assisted in preparing Armor’s 
“Lives of the Governors of Pennsylvania” (1873). 

Bates (William), D. D., one of the most ornate and 
learned of the English nonconformist writers, was born in 
Nov., 1625, and died at Hackney, July 14, 1699. He as¬ 
sisted at the Savoy Conference for reviewing the Liturgy. 
Soon after the restoration of Charles II. he was made one 
of His Majesty’s chaplains, and but for his nonconformity 
might have become a bishop. His contemporaries called 
him the “silver-tongued.” In 1681 he published (anony¬ 
mously)“ Vitae Selectorum Aliquot Vivorum.” His most 
valuable treatise is “ The Harmony of the Divine Attributes 
in the Contrivance and Accomplishment of Man’s Redemp¬ 
tion,” 1697. His collected works were published in 1700, 
again in 1723, and again in 1815, by Farmer, in 4 vols. 8vo. 

Batesville, a post-village, capital of Independence 
co., Ark., on White River, 90 miles N. N. E. of Little Rock, 
and 115 miles W. N. W. of Memphis. It is the seat of 
Batesville Academy and Soulesbury Institute. The river 
is navigable for small steamboats to this point, and part of 
the year for large ones. It has 2 free schools, 2 hotels, 1 
woollen factory, 5 flouring-mills, 2 wagon-shops, 1 cabinet 
warehouse, and 1 weekly paper. Pop. 881. 

W. H. Bayne, Pub. “Republican.” 

Batesville, a post-village of Panola co., Miss. P. 227. 

Bath [Ger. Bad], the application to the body of water 
or other liquid, or of spray or vapor, for the purpose of 
cleansing the surface or of preserving or restoring health. 
Water, employed in the bath, is an important agent in the 
treatment and prevention of disease. In ancient Greece, 
Rome, Germany, and Judea, in Mohammedan lands (by 
religious precept), as in modern Finland and some other 
countries, bathing may be regarded as almost universal, 
though in desert countries the Moslems use sand instead 
of the water which is there so precious. Some of the 
American Indians, though not otherwise remarkably clean, 
practise bathing in water or steam even to excess. Surf-bath¬ 
ing is a nearly universal pastime on many islands of the 
Pacific. The ancient Romans had extensive public baths— 
institutions which of late have been revived in Europe and 
America on a smaller scale, but in a manner not liable to 
the serious abuses which disgraced the Roman baths. 

The “hot” bath and vapor bath are above 99° F., the 
normal heat of the blood; warm, tepid, and cold baths 
being of lower temperature. The vapor bath of water or 
alcohol accelerates the heart’s action, softens the skin, and 
produces profuse sweating, and is useful in various skin 
diseases, in chronic rheumatism, and in some diseases of 
the kidneys, etc. The hot bath is also stimulant. Locally 
applied, it relieves pain and allays inflammation. The 
hot bath is often employed in the convulsive diseases 
of children, but its effect may be a profound one; and the 
tepid or warm bath is much safer, since the skin of a 
child is extremely sensitive to heat and cold. The hot 
bath sometimes causes a sense as of choking, and a de¬ 
gree of giddiness or headache. When its action is favor- 


BATH. 415 


able, profuse sweating results. The warm bath is a seda¬ 
tive, usually inclining one to inactivity or sleep. It is 
useful in feverish or restless conditions and in eruptive 
diseases, but is not to be recommended in acute diseases 
of the chest, which may be aggravated by it. The cold 
and tepid bath are those most generally to be employed. 
Cold bathing ought never to be practised while the person 
is exhausted or perspiring freely; and there are many 
nervous, thin, and sensitive persons who cannot safely en¬ 
dure the shock and loss of heat which it occasions. The ap¬ 
plication of cold water by the sponge or “pack” is an ex¬ 
cellent measure in many cases of typhoid and other fevers. 
The “hydropathic pack” (in which the patient is wrapped 
in a wet sheet and closely covered with blankets), the hip 
bath, the douche or jet, and the shower bath have each 
their important uses in therapeutics. Various sulphur 
and other springs have a direct effect in skin diseases, 
and useful saline and other principles are no doubt capa¬ 
ble of absorption into tlie system by the skin. Various 
drugs are used in vapor baths, and act upon the patient 
after absorption. Sea-bathing has a peculiar tonic effect 
upon some patients. Besides the above, the “ Turkish ” 
and “Russian” baths have been devised, which combine 
a thorough and direct detergent effect upon the skin with 
the various advantages of the warm and tepid bath, adding 
thereto the often invaluable results of manipulation or 
“ kneading ” the patient, a process the importance of which 
in selected cases can hardly be overestimated. “Wine 
baths,” “ mud baths,” and other devices have been tried 
in different diseases, often with more or less benefit to the 
patient.' Revised by Willard Parker. 

Bath ( anc. Aqua; Solis), a city of England, capital of 
Somersetshire, is beautifully situated in a valley on the river 
Avon, 20 miles from its mouth and 102 miles by rail W. S.W. 
of London ; lat. 51° 23' N., Ion. 2° 22' W. The houses are 
mostly built of white freestone, “ Bath oolite,” quarried in 
the vicinity. Bath presents perhaps a finer appearance than 
any other city of England, which is partly a consequence of 
the configuration of its site. This is in the form of an amphi¬ 
theatre, on the declivity of which the finest streets extend 
in successive terraces. The principal public buildings are 
the Abbey church, in the latest Gothic style, 210 feet long; 
St. Michael’s church, the guild-hall, an elegant theatre, 
a masonic temple, and the assembly and concert rooms. 
The beauty of the situation, the mildness of the climate, 
and the curative efficacy of its hot saline springs render 
Bath a very fashionable place of resort. The temperature 
of the springs, four in number, varies from 97° to 117° F. 
They rise on the bank of the river, and discharge 184,320 
gallons daily. This water is recommended for scrofula, 
palsy, gout, cutaneous diseases, etc. This city sends two 
members to Parliament. The Romans erected baths at this 
place in the first century, and called it Aquae Solis. Nume¬ 
rous Roman antiquities have been found in and near Bath. 
The Great Western Railway passes through Bath. Pop. 
in 1871, 52,542. 

Bath, a port of entry, capital of Addington co., prov¬ 
ince of Ontario, Canada, is on the N. shore of the Bay of 
Quinte, in Ernestown township, 18 miles W. S. W. of 
Kingston. 

Bath, a county in N. E. Kentucky. Area, 290 square 
miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Licking River. 
The surface is partly hilly; the soil in the N. W. part is 
based on limestone, and is fertile. Grain, tobacco, and 
wool are among the chief crops. The county contains coal 
and medicinal springs. Capital, Owingsville. Pop. 10,145. 

Bath, a county of Virginia, bordering on West Vir¬ 
ginia. Area, 725 square miles. It is intersected by the 
Cowpasture River and Back Creek. The surface is diver¬ 
sified by ridges of the Alleghany Mountains with inter¬ 
vening valleys, and abounds in beautiful scenery. Grain, 
wool, and stock are raised. Limestone and iron ore are 
found here. The county is traversed by the Chesapeake 
and Ohio R. R. It contains many medicinal springs, in¬ 
cluding the “Hot Springs ” (110° F.), the “Warm Springs,” 
the “ Healing Springs,” the “ Bath Alum Springs,” etc. 
It also contains the famous “Blowing Cave,” and abounds 
in fine scenery. Capital, Bath Court-house, or Warm 
Springs. Pop. 3795. 

Bath, a post-village and township of Mason co., Ill., 
near the Illinois River, and on the Peoria Pekin and Jack¬ 
sonville R. R., 34 miles N. by E. of Jacksonville. Pop. 464; 
of township, 2124. 

Bath, a township of Franklin co., Ind. Pop. 675. 

Bath, a city of Maine, and capital of Sagadahoc co., 
is on the right (W.) bank of the Kennebec River, 12 miles 
from the ocean, 30 miles S. of Augusta, and 36 miles N. E. 
of Portland. It is built on uneven ground, is lighted with 
gas, and contains five national banks and twelve churches. 















BATH—BATON ROUGE. 


416 


It is advantageously situated for navigation, and has steam¬ 
boat communication with Boston and Portland. The Knox 
and Lincoln R. R., running from Rockland, 45 miles long, 
connects with the Maine Central at Bath. The principal 
business of Bath is shipbuilding. In the year ending June, 
1863, sixteen ships and barks, two brigs, and one steamer 
were built here. There are also many extensive manufac¬ 
tories of lumber, two of boots and shoes, one of carriages, 
and a large manufactory of railroad cars, a large iron- 
foundry, brass-foundry, cordage-factory, and machine and 
boiler shops. There are three printing-offices, one daily 
and one weekly paper, three bookstores, and one book- 
bindery. Bath has long been noted for the excellence of 
its schools. Pop. 7371. 

E. Upton, Ed. “Daily Times.” 

Bath, a post-township of Clinton co., Mich. P. 1125. 

Bath, a township of Freeborn co., Minn. Pop. 404. 

Bath, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H., on the 
Connecticut River and on the Boston Concord and Mon¬ 
treal R. R., 15 miles S. W. of Littleton. It has an acad¬ 
emy, and manufactures of lumber, leather, paper, boots, 
shoes, starch, etc. Pop. 1168. 

Bath, a village of New Utrecht township, Kings co., 
N. Y., on Gravesend Bay, and on the Brooklyn Bath and 
Coney Island R. R., 2 miles from Coney Island. It is a 
summer resort. 

Bath, a village of North Greenbush township, Rens¬ 
selaer co., N. Y., on the Hudson River, opposite the upper 
portion of Albany. It has a mineral spring. Pop. 1465. 

Bath, a post-village and semi-capital of Steuben co., 
N. Y., is on the Cohocton Creek and on the Erie R. R. 
(Rochester division), 74 miles S. S. E. of Rochester and 
310 miles from New York. It has a jail and court-house, 
six churches, one national bank, several factories and mills, 
two newspapers, and an orphan asylum. Pop. of Bath 
township, 6236. 

Bath, a post-township of Beaufort co., N. C. Pop. 1969. 

Bath, a township of Allen co., 0. Pop. 1255. 

Bath, a post-township of Greene co., 0. Pop. 2684. 

Bath, a post-township of Summit co., 0. Pop. 1034. 

Bath, a post-borough of Northampton co., Pa., 10 miles 
W. of Easton, with which it is connected by railroad. Pop. 
707. 

Bath (or Berk'ley Springs), the capital of Morgan 
co., West Va., is situated 2£ miles S. of the Potomac River 
and the Baltimore and Ohio R. R., at Sir John’s Run, 128 
miles W. N. W. of Baltimore. Here are medicinal springs, 
which are much frequented, and have a temperature of 
74° F. They are useful in rheumatic, calculous, nervous, 
and catarrhal diseases. It has a large tannery and one 
weekly newspaper. Pop. 407; of Bath township, 925. 

C. H. Hodgson, Ed. “Mercury.” 

Bath Alum Springs, a post-village of Bath 
co., Va., 5 miles E. of Bath Court-house and 45 
miles W. of Staunton. Here are several alumin¬ 
ous and chalybeate springs, which are much fre¬ 
quented by patients who require tonic and mod¬ 
erately astringent medication. 

Bath Court-house, or Warm Springs, 

a post-village, capital of Bath co., Va., 50 miles 
W. of Staunton and 5 miles N. E. of Hot Springs. 

It has warm saline, chalybeate springs, which 
have a reputation for the cure of scrofula, rheu¬ 
matism, and amemia. 

Bath King of Arms (called also Glouces¬ 
ter King of Arms), the principal herald of the 
order of the Bath and of the principality of Wales. 
Gloucester King of Arms was a title conferred only 
by Richard III. of England, until 1726, when 
George I. restored the office, and conferred the 
higher title of Bath King of Arms. This officer 
does not belong to the College of Heralds, but 
takes precedence of both Clarenceux and Norroy. 

He grants arms in his jurisdiction, subject to 
Garter and the Earl Marshal. 


(K. G. C.), the number of whom is limited to 50 military 
men and 25 civilians, besides the royal family; second 
class, Knights Commanders (K. C. B.) = 102 military and 
50 civil; these and the first have the title of Sir; third 
class, Companions (C. B.) = 525 military and 200 civil. 

Bath, Marquesses of (1789, Great Britain); Viscounts 
Weymouth, Barons Thynne (England, 1682), and baronets 
(England, 1641), a prominent family of Great Britain.— 
John Alexander Tiiynne, the fourth marquess, was born 
Mar. 1, 1831, and succeeded his father in 1837. 

Bath Stone, a building-stone extensively used in 
England, is procured from quarries in the lower oolite in 
Somersetshire, near Bath. It is fine-grained, of a rich 
cream color, is easily wrought, and hardens on exposure to 
the air, but is not very durable. It contains about 94 per 
cent, of carbonate of lime and 2£ of carbonate of magnesia. 

Bath'urst, a thriving town of New South Wales, capital 
of Bathurst county, is on the Macquarie River, 98 miles 
W. N. W. of Sydney. It is connected with Sydney by a 
fine road leading over the mountains. It is the centre of 
the mining district of New South Wales. Pop. in 1871, 
about 5000; of the town and district, 16,826. 

Bathurst, a port of entry, capital of Gloucester co., 
New Brunswick, on the Bay of Chaleurs, 175 miles N. by 
E. of St. John, has a good harbor, and an extensive trade 
in lumber, trout, and salmon. Pop. in 1871, 4469. 

Bathurst, Earls of, Barons Apsley (1771), Barons 
Bathurst (1712, in the peerage of Great Britain), a prom¬ 
inent family of Great Britain.— William Lennox Bath¬ 
urst, the fifth earl, born Feb. 14, 1791, succeeded his 
brother, the fourth earl, in May, 1866. 

Bathyb'ius [from the Gr. |3a0v'?, “deep,” and j3io?, 
“life”], a name given by some biologists to a formless 
expanse of matter of an albuminous or protoplasmic 
character which is believed to cover large areas of the 
ocean’s bed, and to manifest some characteristic evidences 
of possessing organic and perhaps animal life. Its exist¬ 
ence is not universally admitted by savants. 

Bathyl'lus [Gr. BaflvAAos], a popular comedian and 
performer of comic pantomime, was born at Alexandria in 
Egypt, and lived about 30 B. C. He was a freedman of 
Maecenas, and played in Rome. 

Bat'iscan Bridge, a post-village of Champlain co., 
Quebec, Canada, on the N. shore of the St. Lawrence, 69 
miles below Quebec, has two lighthouses and manufactures 
and exports of flour, lumber, and leather. 

Batiste (biUteest') Cambric, a fine white linen tissue, 
remarkable for the firmness and evenness of the threads, 
manufactured in India and France. The term is sometimes 
applied to a thin fabric which is partly cotton, or to a thin 
stuff made of silk and wool. Some of the Indian batistes 
are made of peculiar native fibres. 

Bat Malthse'a (Mnlthsea vespertilio), a fish of the At¬ 



Bat Malthsea. 


Bath, Knights of the, a military order in Great 
Britain, deriving its name from the ceremony of bathing 
which was performed at the initiation of the knights. The 
earliest authentic instance of this ceremony was at the 
coronation of Henry IV. (1399). The last occasion on 
which this ceremony was used was the coronation of 
Charles II., in 1660, after which the order fell into oblivion 
until it was revived by George I. in 1725. It is now the 
second in rank among the orders of England, the order of 
the Garter being the highest. The order of the Bath com¬ 
prises three classes: first class, Knights Grand Cross 


lantic Ocean, found from South America to Newfoundland, 
chiefly remarkable for the monstrosity of its shape. Other 
species of the genus are known, but they are not very fre¬ 
quently taken. 

Bat'on [originally, baston; a French word signifying 
“ staff,” “ stick,” or “ truncheon ”] a staff of office, a sym¬ 
bol of authority among many nations. The baton of a 
marshal of France or British field-marshal is a symbol of 
the highest military authority. The term is also applied 
by the French to a bishop’s crook and to a flagstaff. 

Baton Rouge, a city of Louisiana, capital of the 



















BATON KOUGE—BATTEL. 


417 




i 


parish of East Baton Rouge, is on the left (E.) bank of 
the Mississippi, 129 miles above New Orleans; lat. 30° 28' 
N., Ion. 91° 11' W. It stands on a bluff which rises about 
25 feet above the highest inundations. The river below 
the city is bordered by plantations of sugar-cane, groves 
of tropical fruit trees, and handsome villas and gardens. 
The seat of government was established here in 1847. The 
capitol was completed in 1852 at a cost of $246,000. It 
contains a State-house (which was burned during the war, 
though its walls are still perfect), a college, four churches, 
asylums for the deaf and dumb and the blind, and a peni¬ 
tentiary in which are 600 convicts. The legislature met 
here Jan. 21, 1861, and on the 26th adopted the ordinance 
of secession. The city was taken by the U. S. forces 
May 7, 1862. On Aug. 5, 1862, a Confederate force, num¬ 
bering 5000, under Gen. Breckenridge, attacked the gar¬ 
rison under Gen. Thomas Williams, but, was repulsed after 
a fierce contest of two hours’ duration, in which Gen. Wil¬ 
liams was killed. The place was shortly after evacuated by 
the U. S. forces. The arsenal has been broken up. The cli¬ 
mate is delightful and healthy, and the soil from which this 
city draws its support is rich and easy to cultivate. For 


the growth of grapes, peaches, plums, figs, etc. it has few 
equals. Baton Rouge has two weekly, one semi-monthly, 
and one tri-weekly paper. Pop. 6498. 

W. C. Annis, Ed. “ Gazette-Comet.” 

Baton Rouge, a village and township of Chester co., 
S. C., 54 miles N. N. W. of Columbia. Pop. of township, 
3098. 

Ba too' (Baton or Batu) Khan, said to have been 
the grandson of Jengis Khan, became governor of Kap- 
chak in 1223. He conquered Russia, which he held in 
subjection ten years, and made war on Poland and Hungary. 
Died in 1255. 

Batra'chia (plu.), [from the Gr. fiarpax os, a “frog”], 
called also Batrachians and Amphibians, one of the 
five great classes into which the vertebrate animals are usu¬ 
ally divided, though some writers have reduced the class to 
the rank of an order of reptiles—a class with which they are 
popularly confounded. The batrachians are cold-blooded 
and oviparous, and in most living species are without 
scales, and the blood is partly aerated through the skin. 
The young, for the most part, breathe by gills like those 



Hatching and Progress of the Frog. 


of fishes. They generally have limbs, but not always. 
Their eggs are generally fecundated after extrusion. In 
most cases the eggs are laid in moist places or in water; 
the young a.ssume a fish-like form (as the tadpole), and 
finally, when adult, with few exceptions, lose their gills 
and commence breathing by lungs like true or scaly rep¬ 
tiles. They further differ from reptiles in various points, 
such as in having two occipital condyles, w T hile reptiles 
have but one, and in having very short ribs or none at all, 
while reptiles have a series of ribs. Batrachians are ar¬ 
ranged in four orders: (1) Labyrinthodonts, all extinct, 
which approached the characters of ganoid fishes in their 
teeth, while in their scales and in some other points they 
resembled true reptiles. (2) Caecilia, which approach the 
serpents in form, being long and without legs, and having 
also minute scales; but anatomically and in development 
they are batrachians. They are popularly classed with 
snakes. (3) The Anura, or tailless batrachians, including 
frogs, tree-frogs, and toads, whose young, when they leave 
the tadpole state, not only lose their gills and become lung- 
breathers, but also lose the tail, put forth legs, become car¬ 
nivorous, and for the most part adopt a mode of pro¬ 
gression by a series of leaps. It is stated that in waterless 
regions there are frogs which pass the tadpole state in the 
egg, and are hatched perfect. (4) The Urodela, or tailed 
batrachians, comprising, o, Salamandridae (true salaman¬ 
ders which are terrestrial, and tritons or water-newts); 
b, Amphiumid®, including the “ Congo snake,” the “ hell¬ 
bender,” etc., breathing by cervical spiracles and under¬ 
going no metamorphosis; c, the Sirenid®, having both 
lungs and external gill-tuffs. 

Bat'rachomyoma'cliia [from the Gr. fidTpaxos, a 
“frog,” /xv?, mvos, a “mouse,” and /xa*i 7 , a “battle”], the 
name of a mock-heroic poem, the subject of which was 
the battles of the frogs and mice. It has been erroneously 
ascribed to Homer. It was published by Matthi® (1805) 
and by Baumeister (1852). 

Batshian, or Batchian, an island of the group of 
Moluccas, belonging to the Dutch, lies S. W. of Gilolo. 
Area, about 900 square miles. The surface is mountainous; 
the soil is fertile, and produces excellent cloves. 

27 


Bat'ta, an allowance to the officers of the British army 
in India in addition to the ordinary pay. The batta varies 
according to the part of the country in which the officers 
are employed, and depends on the circumstance of their 
being in the field or in cantonments. The officers receive 
full batta if they are in the field or more than 200 miles 
from the presidential government cities. They receive 
half batta when they are in garrison or in cantonment 
within that distance. 

Battaks, called also Battas, a race of people living 
in that part of Sumatra called Batta, which lies between 
the equator and the parallel of 2° 30' N. They are ad¬ 
dicted to gambling, and are passionately fond of cock¬ 
fights. They speak a peculiar language, have an orig¬ 
inal alphabet or character, and write treatises on pieces 
of bamboo. They commence at the bottom of the page, 
and write from right to left. They make books of the inner 
bark of a species of palm. (See Junghuhn, “Die Batta- 
lander auf Sumatra,” 2 vols., 1847.) 

Battal'ion [Fr. bataiUoii], a tactical unit of infantry; 
a body of infantry amounting to nearly 1000 men. In the 
American cavalry and artillery service eight (in infantry 
ten) companies constitute a battalion. The full comple¬ 
ment of a battalion of British troops is usually ten com¬ 
panies. The British infantry regiments in time of peace 
have each one battalion, but the regiment of the continental 
powers is mostly so large as to comprise several battalions. 
In the U. S. army an infantry regiment has one battalion, 
while regiments in the other arms of the service have two. 
A detachment of infantry of more than one company, and 
less than one regiment, is sometimes called a battalion. 

Bat'tel [Fr. bataille], an ancient mode of trial by sin¬ 
gle combat, usually called “wager of battle.” It had its 
origin among the German tribes, and was introduced into 
England by William the Conqueror at the time of the Nor¬ 
man conquest. It was used, however, in only three cases 
in the court of chivalry, in appeals of felony, and in the 
issue joined in a writ of right to determine the title to real 
property. In criminal cases the accuser and the accused 
fought in person ; in civil cases, by champions. 1 he lead- 


































418 BATTELLE—BAUER. 


ing reason for requiring a champion in civil cases was that 
if the parties should engage in combat, and one of them 
should be killed, the proceeding would terminate by his 
death, and the object of the contest would be frustrated. 
This barbarous mode of trial, which was based on the idea 
that Heaven would give the victory to the injured or inno¬ 
cent party, though for a long time practically disused, con¬ 
tinued to be recognized as part of the law of England till 
the year 1819, when it was abolished by statute. (The de¬ 
tails of the method of proceeding in the case of a writ of 
right will be found in the third book of Blackstone’s 
“ Commentaries,” p. 337.) 

Battelle, a township of Lewis co., West Va. P. 2002. 

Battelle, a township of Monongalia co., West Ya. 
Pop. 1856. 

Bat'tering»Ram [Lat. n'ries ], an engine of war used 
by the ancient Creeks and Romans to make a breach in 
the wall of a town or fortress. It consisted of a heavy 
beam of wood nearly 100 feet long, one end of which was 
armed with a mass of iron or bronze in the form of a ram’s 
head. It was suspended by a chain of rope from a crane 
or trivet, and was made to swing backward and forward in 
a direction nearly horizontal. Sometimes a huge mass of 
stone, armed with a ram’s head and placed on wheels, was 
driven against the walls with gi’eat force. About 100 men 
were employed in impelling it against the wall. To pro¬ 
tect these men a wooden roof ( testudo) was constructed, and 
the whole machine was mounted on wheels. The blows of 
the ram were directed against the same point with gradually 
increasing momentum, which, if continued long, hardly any 
wall could resist. These engines continued to be used in 
the Middle Ages until superseded by cannon. 

Bat/tery [Fr. batterie ], a military term used in vai'ious 
senses. A battery employed in the defence of a fortress is 
a row of heavy guns mounted on an earthwork or other 
platform ; any one of the lines of a fortress which is armed 
with siege-guns. If they have a bomb-proof cover they 
are casemated batteries. A battei’y used in attacking a 
fortified place is a number of siege-guns or mortars placed 
in a line and covered with a parapet. These batteries re¬ 
ceive vai'ious names, expressing their design, position, etc. 
In field operations a battery is a number of guns, with the 
necessary horses, gun-carriages, artillerymen, and officers 
to manage the guns. The number of guns varies in differ¬ 
ent nations. The battery of the British, French, and U. S. 
consists of six guns, of the Austrians and Prussians of eight. 
In reference to the weight of the ordnance, they are divided 
into heavy batteries and light batteries. The term battery 
is also applied in a narrower sense to the personnel or com¬ 
plement of men and officers who serve a set of guns. 

Bat/tery, in law, an unlawful touching of the person 
of another by the aggressor himself, or by any sub¬ 
stance put in motion by him. It must be wilfully done, or 
proceed from want of due care. The law regards a man’s 
person as sacred, and permits no one, without sufficient 
cause, to interfere with it. This rule prevails, no matter 
how slight the unlawful force may be. Every battery in¬ 
cludes an assault. A battery is sometimes justifiable, and 
hence permitted by the law,- as when it occurs in the exer¬ 
cise of parental authority, or is a means of defence of 
one’s self or the members of one’s family, or is committed 
while acting under process of a court or in aid of the of¬ 
ficers of the law. In all these cases the force used must be 
necessary to accomplish the purpose, and not in excess of 
what is required. The remedy for a battery is an action 
for damages. It is also in general a crime, and the wrong¬ 
doer is subject to prosecution in the name of the people. 

Battery, Floating. See Floating Battery. 

Battery, Galvanic. See Electricity. 

Batthyanyi, or Bathyanyi, the name of an ancient 
and celebrated family of Hungarian magnates which has 
produced several statesmen and generals. 

Batthyanyi (Louis), Count, a Hungarian patriot, born 
at Presburg in 1806. He favored the liberal cause, and 
was appointed president of the ministry formed in Mar., 
1818. Finding his position untenable, he resigned about 
six months later. After his friends had been defeated in 
battle by the Austrians, he was tried by a court-martial, 
and, though his conduct had been moderate, he was shot 
Oct. 6, 1849. (See Horvath, “ Louis Batthyanyi, ein poli- 
tischer Martyrer,” 1850.) 

Bat'tle. See Grand Tactics. 

Battle, a town of England, in Sussex, about 7 miles 
N. W. of Hastings, is in a valley enclosed on three sides by 
wooded hills. It is noted for the manufacture of gunpow¬ 
der. Pop. about 3400. It derived its name from the great 
battle (usually called the battle of Hastings) which was 
fought near it on the 14th of Oct., 1066, between William 


the Conqueror and the Saxon king Harold. The victorious 
Norman erected here a large abbey, called Battle Abbey, 
now in ruins. 

Battle-Axe, a weapon much used by the early north¬ 
ern nations, Teutonic, Celtic, and Scandinavian, and re¬ 
quiring great strength in its use. The battle-axe had a 
longer handle and a broader, stronger, and sharper blade 
than the common axe. It was of various forms, which 
had different names, such as the bill and the gisarme. The 
halberd was the latest form of the battle-axe, a form which 
is even now scarcely obsolete, though used only on occa¬ 
sions of ceremony. Battle-axes were used on foot and on 
horseback. 

Bat'tleboro’, a post-village of Edgecomb co., N. C., on 
the Wilmington and Weldon R. R. It has one weekly 
newspaper. 

Battle Creek, a post-township of Tehama co., Cal. 
Pop. 199. 

Battle Creek, a city of Calhoun co., Mich., at the 
confluence of the Kalamazoo and Battle Creek rivers, on 
the Michigan Central R. R., 120 miles W. of Detroit. Its 
educational facilities are very fine ; its manufactures ex¬ 
tensive, especially in the line of threshing-machines and 
farm implements. It has good water-power, four flouring 
mills, a manufactory of knit goods, three iron-foundries, 
an edge-tool manufactory, and two furniture-factories, one 
national bank and one city bank (savings). There are 
eight churches and two newspapers. Pop. 5838; of town¬ 
ship, 1188. 

WOOLNOUGH & BORDINE, PUBS. “ MICHIGAN TRIBUNE.” 

Battle Creek, a post-twp. of Madison co., Neb. P. 284. 

Bat'tledoor, or Battledore [a corruption of the Sp. 
batallador, a “fighter” or “fencer”], an instrument with 
a handle and a flat board (or piece of leather stretched 
tightly on a frame), used to strike a ball or shuttlecock. 
Battledoor and shuttlecock, played with the above instru¬ 
ment, has been a favorite amusement in Europe since the 
fourteenth century or earlier. 

Bat'tle-Ground, a post-village of Tippecanoe co., 
Ind., where the celebrated battle of Tippecanoe was fought 
between Gen. Harrison and the Indians under Tecumseh 
and his brother, the “prophet,” Nov. 7, 1811. 

Bat'tlement, a notched or indented parapet some¬ 
times used in fortification, and often employed for the pur¬ 
pose of ornament on the top of a house or castle. The 
rising parts are called cops or merlons; the spaces or open¬ 
ings between them are crenels, embrasures, or loops. The 
soldier shelters himself behind a merlon while he shoots 
through the embrasure. 

Battle Mountain, a post-township of Humboldt co., 
Nev. Pop. 261. 

Battle-Pieces, paintings representing battles. Among 
the remarkable works in this department are Lebrun’s 
“ Battles of Alexander the Great ” and Rubens’s “ Battle 
of the Amazons.” Horace Vernet is the most eminent of 
recent painters of battles. 

Bat'tletown, a township of Clarke co., Ya. P. 1884. 

Battonya, a town of Hungary, in the county of Csanad, 
16 miles N. E. of Arad. Pop. in 1869, 8642. 

Bat'tue [from the French battre, to “beat”], a mode 
of hunting w T ild animals or killing game on a large scale. 
A number of men, arrayed at equal distances, by beating 
the bushes drive the animals toward a stationary party of 
hunters, who are waiting to shoot them. Sometimes the 
array of beaters is circular, and they drive the game from 
different parts of a large tract of forest to a common cen¬ 
tre. Battues in Great Britain are chiefly practised in ex¬ 
tensive preserves of pheasants, rabbits, and hares during 
the autumn and winter, when country gentlemen invite 
their friends to their mansions for this purpose. 

Baudelocque (Jean Louis), a skilful French surgeon, 
born in Picardy in 1746. He was selected by Napoleon to 
attend the empress Marie Louise as first accoucheur. He 
wrote an able work on the “ Art des Accouchemcnts ” (2 
vols., 1781). Died May 1, 1810. 

Baudissin (Wolf Heinrich Friedrich Karl), Count, 
a German author, born Jan. 30, 1789. He translated, to¬ 
gether with Tieck, a number of Shakspeare’s works. Un¬ 
der the title of “Ben Jonson und seine Schule” (2 vols., 
1836) he published translations of the works of other Eng¬ 
lish authors. He also has made translations of Moliere’s 
comedies (1865-67). 

Bau'er (Bruno), a German rationalistic theologian and 
biblical critic, was born in Saxe-Altenburg Sept. 6, 1809. 
He published numerous works, among which are “ Das ent- 
deckto Christenthum” (1843), “ Geschichte Deutclilands 
unter der Franzosischen Revolution und der Herrschaft 















BAUER—BAVARIA. 


419 


Napoleon’s” (2 vols., 1846), and the “ Apostelgeschichte ” 
(1850). In these writings he showed himself as a reckless 
critic of the extreme school of rationalism, who regarded 
the gospel as fabulous or untrue. In later years he wrote 
in the interest of the extreme conservative party of Prussia. 

Rawer (Georg Lorenz), a German theologian and lin¬ 
guist, born Aug. 14, 1755. He became professor of Orien¬ 
tal languages at Altdorf in 1789, and in Heidelberg in 1805. 
Among his works are “ Ilermeneutica Sacra Veteris Testa- 
menti” (1797) and “ Biblische Theologie des neuen Testa¬ 
ments” (4 vols., 1800-02). He was a rationalist, and 
maintained that the Bible should be interpreted by gram¬ 
matical and historical principles, as the ancient classics 
are. Died Jan. 12, 1806. 

Hauer (Wilhelm), a German inventor, born at Dillin- 
gen Dec. 23, 1822. He constructed a diving-boat for sub¬ 
marine operations, with which several successful experi¬ 
ments have been made. He has also made improvements 
in torpedoes for the destruction of ships and in the firing 
of guns under water. Bauer served with distinction in the 
Sleswick-Holstein war of 1850, and has since been in the 
service of Russia. 

B au'erle (Adolf), a German comic author, born April 
9, 1786, gained considerable popularity from his grotesque 
representations of Viennese life. He wrote “ Die falsche 
Primadonna,” “ Die moderne Wirthschaft,” “Der Tau- 
sendsasa,” and other comedies. He also published “The 
Comic Theatre,” and in his later life numerous novels. 
Died Sept. 19, 1869. 

Bau'ernfcUr, von (Edward), a distinguished German 
dramatist, born at Vienna Jan. 3, 1802, has published nu¬ 
merous popular comedies, among which may be named 
“ Die Bekentnisse” (1834), “ BUrgerlich und Romantisch” 
(1825), and “ Grossjahrig” (“Of Age”), (1846). 

Bau'gher (Henry L.), D. D., a Lutheran divine, born 
at Abbotstown, Pa., about 1803, graduated at Dickinson 
College in 1825, studied theology at Gettysburg and Prince¬ 
ton, became pastor of a church at Boonsboro’, Md., in 1829, 
was a teacher at Gettysburg, Pa. (1830-32), professor of 
Greek and belles-lettres (1832-50) at Pennsylvania Col¬ 
lege, Gettysburg, and was afterwards its president (1850-68). 
Died April 14, 1868. 

Baugh'man, a post-township of Wayne co., 0. Pop. 
2067. . 

Bau'go, a township of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop. 749. 

Bauhin (Gaspard), an eminent botanist and anatomist, 
born at Bale in 1550. He became professor of anatomy and 
botany in his native city in 1588. He wrote valuable med¬ 
ical and botanical works, among which was “ Prodromus 
Theatri Botanici ” (1620). Died in 1624. 

Bauhin (Jean), a Swiss botanist and physician, born 
at Bale in 1541, the brother of the preceding. He became 
physician to the duke of Wiirtemberg at Montbeliard in 
1570. He wrote in Latin a “New Universal History of 
Plants” (3 vols., 1650-51). Died in 1613. 

Baume (Antoine), an eminent French chemist, born 
at Senlis Feb. 26, 1728. He improved the manufacture of 
porcelain, made several inventions, and simplified several 
processes in the useful arts. Baume’s hydrometer is in 
general use among chemists. Among his works is a “Man¬ 
ual of Chemistry ”^(1763). Died Oct. 15, 1804. (See Cadet 
de Gassicourt, “Eloge de Baume,” 1806.) 

Baum'garten (Alexander Gottlieb), a German phil¬ 
osopher, born in Berlin July 17, 1714, was a disciple of 
Wolf. He became professor of philosophy at Frankfort- 
on-the-Odcr in 1740. He did much for the science of aes¬ 
thetics. He published, besides other works, “ Metaphys- 
ica” (1739) and “iEsthetica ” (2 vols., 1750, unfinished). 
Died May 26, 1762. (See Meyer, “Leben A. G. Baumgar- 
ten’s,” 1763.) 

Baumgarten (Michael), a German theologian, born 
Mar. 25, 1812, became professor of theology in Rostock in 
1850. He has published many books and periodicals in 
opposition to the State Church of Mecklenburg, for which 
he has been imprisoned and fined. He has been a promi¬ 
nent member of the Protestantenverein since its establish¬ 
ment, and an earnest advocate of disestablishment. He 
has published “ Schleiermacher as Theologian,” an “Apos¬ 
tolic History,” and many polemical writings and popular 
appeals in behalf of a people’s Church. 

Baumgarten-Crusius (Ludwig Friedrich Otto), a 
learned German theologian, born at Merseburg July 31, 
1788, was a brother of the preceding. He became profes¬ 
sor of theology at Jena in 1S17. Among his works is the 
“Handbuch der Christl. Sittenlehre” (1827.), which is 
highly commended. Died May 31, 1843. 

Baum'gartner, von (Andreas),^ German savant and 
minister of state, born at Fricdbcrg, in Bohemia, Nov. 23, 


1793. He became professor of physics at Vienna in 1S23, 
and Austrian minister of trade and public works in 1851. 
About this date he was chosen president of the Academy 
of Sciences in Vienna. He published a work called “Nat- 
urlehre” (1823). Died July 29, 1865. 

Baum'gartner (Galliis Jacob), a Swiss politician of 
the liberal party, born Oct. 18, 1797. He took part in the 
revision of the constitution of St. Gall, and promoted the 
separation of Bale country from Bale city. He founded 
in Oct., 1842, “Neue Schweizer Zeitung.” He published, 
among other works, “Die Schweizin ihren Kampfen und 
Umgestaltengen, 1830-50” (4 vols., 1853). Died in July, 
1869. 

Baum'stark (Eduard), a German economist, born Mar. 
28, 1807, became in 1848 professor of cameralistics at 
Greifswald. He has taken a prominent part in German 
politics as a liberal politician and writer. He has written 
“ Concerning Means of Improving the Condition of the 
Working Classes” (1860), “ Cameralistic Encyclopaedia” 
(1835), and “Introduction to the Scientific Study of Agri¬ 
culture.” 

Baur (Ferdinand Christian), an influential German 
Protestant theologian and critic, the founder of the Tubin¬ 
gen school of theology, was born at Schmiden June 21, 
1792. He obtained a chair of theology in Tubingen in 
1826. Among his numerous works, which display a rare 
combination of speculative thought with solid erudition, 
are “Die christliche Gnosis” (1835) and “Die christliche 
Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und der Menschwerdung 
Gottes ” (1843). Died Dec. 2, 1860. 

Bautain (Louis Eugene Marie), a French philosopher 
and theologian, born in Paris Feb. 17, 1796. He published 
several works, among which are “ The Philosophy of Chris¬ 
tianity ” (1835) and “Moral Philosophy” (1842). He was 
a popular preacher at Paris, and became director of the 
College of Juilly in 1849. He died Oct. 18, 1867. 

Baut'zen, or Bu'dissiu, a town of Saxony, on the 
Spree, and on the railway from Dresden to Gbrlitz, 35 miles 
E. N. E. of Dresden. It has a royal palace, a cathedral, 
two public libraries; also manufactures of woollens, linens, 
leather, hosiery, paper, etc. Pop. in 1871, 13,165. Here 
occurred a great battle (May 20 and 21, 1813) between 
Napoleon and the allies, who finally retreated. The loss 
of the allies is estimated at 13,000, and that of Napoleon 
at 20,000 men. 

Bavanistye, a town of the Austro-IIungarian mon¬ 
archy, on the Military Frontier. Pop. in 1870, 6120. 

Bava'ria [Lat. Bava'ria or Baioa'ria, i. e. the “ coun¬ 
try of the Boi'i or Boia'rii Ger. Bay'ern or Bai'erii], a 
kingdom forming part of the German empire. It is, next 
to Prussia, the largest German state. It consists of two 
isolated portions: the eastern and larger portion is 
bounded N. by Prussia, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha, Reuss, and Saxony ; E. and S. by Austria; W. by 
Wiirtemberg, Baden, and Ilesse-Darmstadt; the western 
and smaller portion, known as Rhenish Bavaria or the 
Palatinate, is bounded by Prussia, Alsace, Hesse-Darm- 
stadt, and Baden. Area, 29,373 square miles. The larger 
portion of the country is mountainous, the principal moun¬ 
tains being the Algiiu and Bavarian Alps in the S., the 
former of which reach to an elevation of 9000 feet; the 
Bohemian and Bavarian Mountain forests on the eastern 
frontier; the Fichtel Mountains in the N. E.; the Fran¬ 
conia, Jura, and the Hardt. The main rivers arc the 
Danube, which receives in Bavaria thirty-nine affluents, 
and the Main in the N. The Rhine forms part of the 
frontier of the Palatinate. The Danube and the Main are 
connected by the Ludwigs Canal. The number of lakes, 
most of which are alpine lakes, amounts to about fifty. The 
climate is, on the whole, temperate and healthy, but rough 
and severe in the mountains. The soil is fertile and rich 
in products, particularly in corn and cattle. There are 
celebrated mineral springs in Lower Franconia and Upper 
Bavaria (Kissingen and Briickenau). The total popula¬ 
tion, according to the census of Dec., 1871, was 4,861,402, 
of whom nearly three-fourths are Roman Catholics, and a 
little more than one-fourth Protestants. The Jews num¬ 
ber 50,000. It is divided into eight provinces, which, 
according to the census of 1871, had the following popula¬ 
tion: Upper Bavaria, 841,579; Lower Bavaria, 602,005; 
Palatinate, 615,104; Upper Palatinate, 497,960; Upper 
Franconia, 540,963; Middle Franconia, 583,417 j Lower 
Franconia, 586,122; Suabia, 582,888. As regards the 
descent of the inhabitants, about 1,750,000 are Bavarians 
(Old Bavarians or Bavarians proper), 2,250,000 Iran- 
conians, and 633,000 Suabians. Bavaria has 3 uniicrsitics 
—at Munich, Wurzburg, and Erlangen—9 lyceums, 28 
gymnasia (colleges), 10 normal schools, polytechnical insti¬ 
tutions at Munich and Nuremberg, and 7113 public schools 




















420 BAWR, DE—BAXTER. 


(4810 Catholic, 2150 Protestant, and 153 Israelite); also a 
number of Latin, technical, and special schools. All the 
kings of Bavaria have been liberal patrons of science and 
art. There is an academy of science and an academy of 
plastic arts in Munich, which is also celebrated for its rich 
collections of works of art. The principal occupations of 
the inhabitants are agriculture and the breeding of cattle; 
the latter chiefly in the mountainous districts, the former 
in the plains. Among the chief products are cereals, fodder, 
potatoes, hops, tobacco, wine (in the Palatinate and in the 
region of the Main). No less than 10,567 square miles are 
covered with wood, one-half of which belongs either to the 
state or to the communities. The culture of the forests is 
well regulated and profitable. The most active industry is 
found in the provinces of Middle Franconia, Suabia, and 
the Palatinate. Prominent among the industrial cities are 
Augsburg, Kempten, Nuremberg, Fiirth, Schwabach, Bai- 
reuth, Wurzburg, Bamberg, Erlangen, and Hof. The most 
celebrated branch of Bavarian industry is the brewing of 
beer. For 1870 the number of breweries was upwards of 
5400, which produced annually over 131,000,000 gallons, 
beer measure. Beer is an important article of export. 
Bavaria has also flourishing manufactures of linen, woollen, 
iron, and wooden ware, fifty-one glass-works, manufactories 
of paper, chinaware, and guns, and celebrated melting- 
houses at Oberzell. The manufactories of tobacco produce 
annually about 1200 hundredweight of tobacco and upwards 
of 30,000,000 cigars. The most important commercial 
cities are Nuremberg and Augsburg (bills of exchange), 
Hof, Bamberg, Schweiufurt, Wurzburg, Speier, Munich, 
Ratisbon, Passau (navigation of the Danube). Bavaria 
had, in 1871, 1508 miles of railroad and 1945 miles of tele¬ 
graph. The navigation of the Danube engaged fifteen 
steamers and 2000 sailing vessels ; that of the Rhine, twelve 
steamers and 236 sailing vessels; that of the Inn, 2000 
vessels. The chief articles of export are, besides beer, 
corn, wood, cattle, wine, hops; total value of exports, about 
50,000,000 florins. 

Bavaria is a constitutional monarchy, the fundamental 
law of the state bearing date of May 26, 1818, and the 
electoral law now in force having been adopted on June 
4, 1848. The crown is hereditary in the male line only, 
according to the right of primogeniture. The king exer¬ 
cises the administrative power; the legislative he shares 
with a legislature consisting of two chambers. The upper 
chamber, or chamber of the Reichsrathe (counsellors of the 
empire), had, in 1871, 72 members, of whom 51 were en¬ 
titled to a seat as being chiefs of noble families, and 8 by 
their office, while 13 were life-members appointed by the 
Crown. The lower chamber, or chamber of representa¬ 
tives, had, in 1871, 154 members, who are elected for a term 
of six years. The chambers must be convoked at least once 
every third year. There are eight courts of appeal, and 
one supreme court of apjieal in Munich. The receipts and 
expenditures of the state amounted in 1869 to $34,000,000; 
the public debt to $170,000,000; the civil list and appan¬ 
ages to $1,300,000. The Bavarian army, according to the 
treaty of Nov. 23, 1870, forms two army corps of the im¬ 
perial army of Germany under the independent military 
administration of the king of Bavaria, though under the 
chief command of the emperor. The capital is Munich; 
the most important towns next to it are Nuremberg, Augs¬ 
burg, Wurzburg, Ratisbon, and Bamberg. 

Old Bavaria, or Bavaria proper, was originally inhabited 
by the Boii, a Celtic tribe. Under Augustus it constituted 
the Roman province of Noricum. During the great migra¬ 
tion of nations in the fourth and fifth centuries, the country 
was occupied by Germanic tribes, from which the confede¬ 
ration of the Boioari arose, which, though governed by its 
own princes, was dependent upon the kings of Austrasia. 
At the head of the confederation was the family of Agil- 
olfingians, who are mentioned for the first time in 556, and 
were deprived of the ducal dignity by Charlemagne in 777. 
From this time until 911, when the Carlovingian house 
died out, Bavaria belonged to the Franconian empire. 
During the following 250 years Bavaria was disturbed by 
endless civil wars. In 1180 the count palatine, Otto von 
Wittelsbach, was invested with Bavaria. His descend¬ 
ants, with but short interruptions, have remained the rulers 
of the country to this day. Two of them were elected Ger¬ 
man emperors—Louis the Bavarian (as Emperor Louis 
IV., 1314-47) and the elector Charles (as Emperor 
Chaides VII., 1742-45). From 1255 the country was gen¬ 
erally divided between two lines—the counts of the Rhen¬ 
ish Palatinate and the dukes of Bavaria. The electoral 
dignity repeatedly passed from one branch to the other, 
until the peaOe of Westphalia (1648) conferred the fifth 
electoral dignity permanently upon the dukes of Bavaria, 
while an eighth electoral dignity was expressly created for 
the Palatine line. In 1777 the line of the electors of Ba¬ 
varia became extinct, and the elector of the Rhenish Palat¬ 


inate, Charles Theodore, became jruler of Bavaria. Austria, 
however, claimed a large portion of the country, and the 
weak elector was willing to concede this claim; but Fred¬ 
erick the Great supported the jmotest of the next agnate, 
the duke Charles of Zweibriicken, against this arrange¬ 
ment, and thus the bloodless “ war of the Bavarian suc¬ 
cession ” arose, which was ended May 13, 1779, by the 
treaty of Teschen, which gave to Austria the region of 
the Inn, with the town of Braunau, and guaranteed the 
succession in the remainder of the dominions of Charles 
Theodore to the duke Charles of Zweibriicken. In 1784 
the emperor Joseph I. made a new attempt to obtain 
the whole of Bavaria, by offering to the elector Charles 
Theodore, in exchange for Bavaria, the Austrian Nether¬ 
lands, with the title of king; but again the plan was foiled 
by the opposition of the duke of Zweibriicken and Frede¬ 
rick the Great. Charles Theodore died Feb. 16, 1799, and, 
as in the mean while the duke Charles of Zweibriicken had 
died childless, his brother Maximilian IV. Joseph, duke 
of the Palatinate-Zweibriicken, became elector of Bavaria 
and the Palatinate. In the history of Germany the dukes 
of Bavaria are chiefly noted for the leading part which 
they took in the defence of the Catholic Church against 
the Reformation. Throughout the sixteenth, seventeenth, 
and eighteenth centuries they were the heads of the Cath¬ 
olic party among the princes and states of the empire. 
The elector Maximilian lost in the peace of Luneville the 
Zweibriicken Palatinate, but in place of these districts 
received a number of secularized bishoprics, the change 
adding to his dominions 2100 square miles, with nearly 
200,000 inhabitants. In the war of 1805 the elector joined 
France against the emperor of Germany, and received a 
further increase of about 8000 square miles and 800,000 
inhabitants. On Jan. 1, 1806, the elector assumed the 
title of king, and in July of the same year he joined the 
Rhenish Confederation, which he left again in 1813, in 
order to unite with the allies against Napoleon. The 
peace of Paris and that of Vienna regulated the territory 
of Bavaria as it has remained since, with the exception 
of a very small district which in 1866 was ceded to Prussia. 
In 1818 the constitutional form of government was intro¬ 
duced. Louis I. (1825 to 1848), the successor of Maximil¬ 
ian, was a liberal patron of the arts, and at the same time 
greatly favored the interests of the Catholic Church. His 
relation to the notorious Lola Montez led in 1848 to dis¬ 
turbances, in consequence of which he abdicated. The 
support which he had given to the insurrection of the Greeks 
against the rule of the Turks had secured the election of 
his second son, Otho, as king of Greece. In Bavaria he 
was succeeded by his eldest son, Maximilian II. (1848-64), 
who, like his father, liberally patronized science and art, 
but in politics had throughout his reign anti-liberal cabi¬ 
nets. In the Sleswick-Holstein question the Bavarian 
government acted as an ardent champion of the cause of 
German nationality. Maximilian, who died Mar. 10, 1864, 
was succeeded by his son, Louis II., who in 1866, in the 
war between Austria and Prussia, sided with Austria, and 
at the conclusion of peace had to pay 30,000,000 florins as 
expenses of war, and to cede a small district to Prussia. 
At the same time an offensive and defensive alliance was 
concluded with Prussia, and the relations of the two gov¬ 
ernments during the following years were of a friendly 
character. The Catholic party was greatly opposed, not 
only to the foreign policy of the prime minister, Prince 
Hohenlohe (appointed at the close of the year 1866), but 
still more to the educational and other reforms which he 
endeavored to introduce. When the new elections in 1869 
gave to the Catholic party (the “Patriots”) a majority in 
the second chamber, Prince Hohenlohe resigned (Jan., 
1870). The new prime minister, Bray, remained, how¬ 
ever, faithful to the treaties with Prussia, and after the 
outbreak of the war between France and Prussia, Bavaria 
at once joined Prussia and placed two army corps under 
the command of the crown-prince of Prussia. In Nov., 
1870, the Bavarian government concluded a treaty pro- 
viding for the entrance of Bavaria into the German empire, 
and in Jan., 1871, the treaty was ratified by both chambers, 
although the special committee of the second chamber pro¬ 
posed its rejection. A. J. Schem. 

Bawr, de (Alexandrine Sophie Goury de Champ- 
grand), Baroness, a novelist of French extraction, born at 
Stuttgart in 1776. She became the wife of Saint-Simon, 
the famous Socialist, who obtained a divorce, although ho 
had no cause for complaint, except that she was not an 
equal mate for “ the foremost man in the world.” She wrote 
several popular works, among which is “Raoul, ou l’Eneide,” 
a novel. Died Jan. 1, 1861. 

Bax'ter (De Witt C.), an American officer of volun¬ 
teers, born in Dorchester, Mass., Mar. 9, 1829, entered the 
army in 1861 as lieutenant, and passed through the sue- 



























BAXTER—BAYAZID I. 


421 


cessive grades to that of colonel of “ Baxter’s Fire Zou¬ 
aves ” (brevet brigadier-general U. S. volunteers), lie is 
author of “Baxter’s Manual and Company Tactics,” 1861, 
and was naval officer of the port of Philadelphia 1869-71. 

Baxter (Richard), an eminent divine, born at Rowdon, 
in Shropshire, England, Nov. 12, 1615. He was not edu¬ 
cated at any college. Having been ordained in 1638, he 
became vicar of Kidderminster in 1640, and gained dis¬ 
tinction as an eloquent preacher. lie was neutral or mod¬ 
erate in the civil war, being friendly to the Puritans, but 
favorable to a monarchy. In 1650 he produced the “ Saint’s 
Everlasting Rest,” which is highly esteemed. At the Res¬ 
toration (1660) he was appointed one of the chaplains to 
Charles II., and refused the offer of a bishopric. In con¬ 
sequence of the passage of the Act of Uniformity, 1662, 
he seceded or was ejected from the Anglican Church. He 
became a resident of London in 1672, and preached there 
to a meeting of nonconformists. Among his numerous 
works area “ Call to the Unconverted ” (1669); “ Methodus 
Theologiae ” (1674), and “Catholic Theology.” The no¬ 
torious Judge Jeffries in 1685 fined him 500 marks on a 
charge of sedition, which was founded on a passage in his 
writings. For failure to pay the fine he was imprisoned 
nearly eighteen months. Hied Dec. 8, 1691. He was a 
voluminous writer, having published 168 treatises. (See 
his “ Autobiography,” 1696 ; E. Calamy, “ Life of Baxter,” 
1713; William Orme, “ Life and Times of R. Baxter,” 
1830 ; August Neander, “ R. Baxter, ein Mann der Wahr- 
haft rechten Mitte,” 1833; Macaulay, “History of Eng¬ 
land,” vol. i. chap, iv., and vol. iii. chap. xi.; “ Miscella¬ 
nies,” by Wm. R. Williams.) 

Baxte'rians, the term formerly applied to the adhe¬ 
rents of Baxter’s theological system, the doctrines of which 
were—1, that though Christ died in a special sense for the 
elect, yet he also died in a general sense for all; 2, the re¬ 
jection of the dogma of reprobation ; 3, that it is possible 
for even saints to fall away from saving grace. 

Baxter Springs, acitj^ of Cherokee co., Kan., 159 miles 
S. of Kansas City, Mo., at the terminus of the Missouri 
River Fort Scott and Gulf R. R., 1J miles from the State 
line. It has one national bank, one weekly paper, and one 
lead-smelting furnace. It is a shipping depot for Texas 
cattle. The principal minerals are lead, zinc, and coal. 
On the 6th of Oct., 1863, Quantrell, with 600 guerillas, at¬ 
tacked a U. S. escort and encampment of three companies 
at this place. The escort was dispersed and all the wounded 
murdered; the attack on the encampment was repulsed. 
P. 1284. A. T. Lea, Ed. “Baxter Springs Republican.” 

Bay [Fr. baie\, in geography, an inlet of the sea, or a 
portion of the sea extending into the land. The terms bay 
and gulf are vaguely and promiscuously applied to bodies 
of water of various forms and dimensions. Hudson’s Bay, 
for example, might properly be called a gulf. The word 
bay is generally applied to smaller portions than gulf. 

Bay, or Bay Tree, a name of the laurel tree ( Laurus 
nobilis), which is sometimes called sweet bay. The Pru- 
nu8 laurocerasus is sometimes called bay laurel. Several 
other trees are popularly called bay. The “sweet bay” of 
the U. S. is the Magnolia glauca, which has fragrant flowers. 
The “red bay” of the South is the Perse,a Caroliniensis, 
an evergreen laurel tree with fine red timber. The “loblolly 
bay” ( Gordonia Lasianthus) is a fine tree of the Southern 
States, with mahogany-colored wood. A smaller species 
[Gordoniapubescent) is cultivated at the North as a shrub, 
and has large and fragrant white blossoms. Some of the 
rhododendrons and azaleas are called rose bays. The leaves 
of the bay have long been subjects of popular superstition, 
and have been used with other evergreens to decorate 
churches at Christmas. Bays in the plural signifies an 
honorary garland or crown, bestowed as a prize for vic¬ 
tory or meritorious action. It is not known what kind 
of tree is meant by the word in the Bible translated “ bay 
tree.” 

Bay, a county in the E. of Michigan. Area, 725 square 
miles. It is bounded on the E. by Saginaw Bay, and in¬ 
tersected by the Saginaw and Rifle rivers. The soil is 
fertile. Wheat, oats, hay, and dairy products arc raised. 
It contains forests of pine, from which lumber is exported. 
Coal is found, and salt is produced from salt-wells. It is 
intersected by the Jackson Lansing and Saginaw R. R. 
Capital, Bay City. Pop. 15,900. 

Bay, a township of Ottawa co., 0. Pop. 509. 

Ba'ya ( Plo'ceus Philippi'nm), a small East Indian bird 
of the family of Fringillidm, and allied to the weaver-bird. 
It has been called Loxia Philippina by some ornithologists. 
It has a large conical beak. Its color is yellow, spotted 
with brown. It builds a curious nest, shaped like a Flor¬ 
ence flask, and suspended from a small twig of a high branch. 


The entrance is in the lower part of the nest. The baya 
can be easily tamed and trained to obey commands. 

Bayadeei’% or Bayadere, a name given by Euro¬ 
peans to the dancing-girls and singing-girls of India, some¬ 
times called natch- (or nautch-) girls. They are divisible 
into two classes, the first of which are called Bevadusi 
(“servants of the gods”), and belong partly to the caste 
of Yaisyas and partly to that of Sudras. Having passed 
through a course of systematic physical training, and ac¬ 
quired great agility and suppleness of joints, they are em¬ 
ployed to sing the praises of some god at festivals, and to 
dance before his image or in his temple. Those of the 
higher rank are not permitted to leave the enclosure of the 
temple, and are forbidden to marry, but they are permitted 
to accept a lover of one of the higher castes. Devadasis 
of the Sudra caste live outside of the temple and have 
more freedom. There is another distinct class of singing- 
girls who travel about the country in troops, perform at 
private feasts, and entertain the people at taverns, etc. by 
singing and dancing. Their dance is, however, more prop¬ 
erly a pantomime. 

Baya'mo, or San Salvador, a town in the E. part 
of Cuba, 60 miles N. W. of Santiago, is near the river Canto. 
It has eight churches and four schools. Pop. in 1861, 7411. 

Bay'ard (Gen. George D.) was born in New York in 
1835, and gi’aduated at West Point in 1856. He entered 
the U. S. cavalry, and became, after the civil war broke 
out, colonel of the First Pennsylvania Cavalry. In 1862 he 
was made brigadier-general of volunteers. He served with 
the highest honor in the Army of the Potomac, and was 
killed at the battle of Fredericksburg Dec. 14, 1862, where 
he fought with the left wing, under Franklin. 

Bayard (James Ashton), an American statesman and 
lawyer, born at Philadelphia July 28, 1767, graduated at 
Princeton in 1784. He began to practise law in Delaware, 
and in 1796 became a Federalist member of Congress, in 
which he attained eminence as an orator. The contest 
between Jefferson and Burr in 1801 was decided in favor 
of the former by the votes of Federalists acting under the 
influence of Mr. Bayard. He was elected U. S. Senator 
for Delaware in 1804, and remained in that body until 
1813. He was one of the commissioners that negotiated 
the treaty of Ghent in 1814. Died Aug. 6, 1815. 

Bayard (James Ashton, second), born in Delaware, 
graduated at Princeton, was U. S. Senator from his native 
State (1851-64 and 1867-69), resigning twice this office, to 
which he was four times elected, and once appointed to fill 
a vacancy. 

Bayard (Jean FRANgois Alfred), a French litterateur, 
born at Charolles Mar. 17, 1796, wrote over 200 popular 
comedies and vaudevilles, among which were “La reine de 
seize ans,” and “ Les gamins de Paris,” which was per¬ 
formed with great success 463 times in succession. Died 
Feb. 19, 1853. 

Bayard (Pierre du Terrail), Chevalier, a heroic 
French knight, called “le chevalier sans peur et sans re- 
proche” (“the knight without fear and without reproach”), 
was born at Castle Bayard, near Grenoble, in 1475. He 
was remarkable for his modesty, piety, magnanimity, and 
his various accomplishments. He served under Charles 
VIII. in his expedition against Naples in 1494, and distin¬ 
guished himself at the battle of Tornovo. After the acces¬ 
sion of Louis XII. of France, Bayard performed several 
remarkable exploits in war against the Spaniards and Eng¬ 
lish. In the service of Francis I. he took Prosper Colonna 
prisoner, and gained a victory at Marignano in 1515. He 
defended Mezieres with success against the invading army 
of the emperor Charles V. in 1522, and for this important 
service was saluted as the saviour of the country. He was 
killed in battle at the river Sesia April 30, 1524, having 
won the reputation of being a model of nearly every virtue. 
(See Symphorien Champier, “ La Vie et les Gestes de Bay¬ 
ard,” 1525; Guyard de Berville, “ Histoire du Chevalier 
Bayard,” 1760; Rev. Joseph Sterling, “Life of Chevalier 
Bayard,” 1781 ; P. Cohen, “Histoire de Pierre du Terrail,” 
1821; W. Gilmore Simms, “ Life of Chevalier Bayard,” 
New York, 1847; Buciiolz, “Bayard,” Berlin, 1801.) 

Bayard (Richard Bassett), son of James A. Bayard, 
was born at Wilmington, Del., in 1796, graduated at Prince¬ 
ton in 1814, became a lawyer, was U. S. Senator from Dela¬ 
ware (1836-39 and 1841-45), and U. S. charge d’affaires at 
Brussels in 1850. Died Mar. 4, 1868. 

Bayard (Thomas Francis), born at Wilmington, Del., 
Oct. 29, 1828, was elected for the term of six years (1869- 
75) to the U. S. Senate, to succeed his father, Hon. J. A. 
Bayard. 

Bayazid' (often called Baj'azet) I., sultan of the 
Turks or Ottomans, surnamed Ilderim ( i . e . “ the light- 























422 BAYAZID II.—BAYLOR UNIVERSITY. 


Ding”), was born in 1347. lie succeeded his father, Amu- 
rath I., in 1389, and soon conquered Bulgaria, the greater 
part of Asia Minor, and part of Greece. In 1396 he gained 
a victory at Nicopolis over Sigismund, king of Hungary, 
and his allies, the Poles and French. His career of con¬ 
quest was arrested by Tamerlane (or Timur), who invaded 
Asia Minor, and defeated Bayazid near Angora in June, 
1401. Bayazid was taken prisoner here, and confined until 
he died Mar. 9, 1403. (See Von Hammer, “Geschichte 
dcs Osmanischen Reichs.”) 

Bayazid II., sultan of the Turks, was born in 1447. 
He ascended the Ottoman throne on the death of his father, 
Mahomet II., in 1481. He built many mosques in Con¬ 
stantinople, his capital. He was involved in almost con¬ 
tinual wars against the Hungarians, Poles, Persians, and 
Venetians. He died May 26, 1512, and was succeeded by 
his son Selim. 

Bay'berry, the fruit of the bay tree; also the fruit of 
the wax-myrtle (Myri'ca cerif'era), a shrub which produces 
a kind of wax, sometimes called “bayberry tallow/’ and 
used in pharmacy. It has also been employed in making 
candles. The bayberry grows chiefly along our Atlantic 
coast, becoming an evergreen tree in the South. It has 
active medicinal qualities. The wax is found on the out¬ 
side of the berries, and is obtained by boiling. 

Bay'boro’, a post-township of Horry co., S. C. Pop. 
885. 

Bay Bulls, a port of entry and post-town of New¬ 
foundland, 19 miles S. of St. John’s; lat. 47° 18' N., Ion. 
52° 47' W. It has an excellent harbor, which is much fre¬ 
quented as a port of refuge. Fishing and agriculture are 
carried on. Pop. 734. 

Bay City, one of the most flourishing cities of the 
North-west, the capital of Bay co., Mich., is on the right 
(E.) bank of the Saginaw River, 4 miles from its mouth 
and at the head of navigation. It deals principally in 
lumber and salt, immense quantities of which are produced. 
It has excellent school facilities, one national and four 
private banks, two parks, the Holly Waterworks, one street 
railway, several important manufacturing interests, two 
railroads (a branch of the Flint and Pere Marquette, and 
the Detroit and Bay City road, just opened). Several lines 
of steamers connect it with all lake points. It has two 
daily and four weekly newspapers. Pop. 7064. 

E. D. Cowles, Ed. “ Semi-weekly Herald.” 

Bay de Verds, an important post-village of New¬ 
foundland, 38 miles N. of Carbonear. It has no harbor, but 
its cod-fisheries are among the best in the province, yield¬ 
ing $50,000 worth of fish annually. Agriculture is also 
carried on. Pop. 650. 

Bayeux (anc. Bciicas'sse ), a city of France, in Nor¬ 
mandy, and in the department of Calvados, is on the river 
Aure, 21 miles by rail W. N. W. of Caen. It has manu¬ 
factures of porcelain, lace, damasks, calico, and leather. 
Pop. in 1866, 9138. Here is a cathedral which is said to be 
the oldest in Normandy, in which was preserved for a long 
time the famous Bayeux Tapestry (which see). 

Bayeux Tapestry, a web of canvas or linen cloth 214 
feet long by 20 inches wide, on which is embroidered, with 
woollen threads of various colors, a representation of the 
invasion and conquest of England by the Normans. Ac¬ 
cording to tradition, it was embroidered by Matilda, the 
wife of William the Conqueror. Some persons believe that 
she directed the work, which was performed by her maids 
or the ladies of her court. It is considered a valuable his¬ 
torical document, as it gives a correct and minute portrait¬ 
ure of the manners and customs of that age and of the Nor¬ 
man costumes. It contains the figures of about 625 men, 
200 horses, 55 dogs, 40 ships and boats, and numerous 
quadrupeds, birds, etc. The tapestry was discovered in 
the cathedral of Bayeux about 1730, and is now preserved 
in the hotel de ville of that place. (See Bruce, “ Bayeux 
Tapestry Elucidated,” London, 1855; Ducarel, “ Anglo- 
Norman Antiquities,” 1767.) 

Bay'field, a port on Lake Huron, at the mouth of Bay- 
field River, in Stanley township, Huron co., province of 
Ontario, Canada, has an extensive trade in grain and fish. 

Bayfield (formerly La Pointe), a county which 
forms the N. extremity of Wisconsin. Area, 1000 square 
miles. It is bounded on the N. by Lake Superior. It is 
partly covered with forests of pine. The soil is not exten¬ 
sively cultivated. Capital, Bayfield. Pop. 344. 

Bayfield, a post-village, the capital of the above 
county, on an arm of Lake Superior, 281 miles N. N. W. of 
Madison. It has an excellent harbor. P. of township, 344. 

Bayfield (Henry Woolsey), a rear-admiral of the 
British navy, entered the service in 1806, served against 
the U. S. in 1814 on the great lakes, and surveyed the lakes, 


the St. Lawrence River and Gulf (1815-27), of which he 
published valuable charts. 

Bay Hundred, a post-township of Talbot co., Md. 
Pop. 1322. 

Bay Islands, a group of small islands in the Bay of 
Honduras, lluatan, the largest, is about 30 miles from the 
N. coast of Honduras. The other islands are named Bo- 
nacca, Utila, Barbaretta, and Helena. This group became 
a British colony in 1854, but in consequence of a protest 
of the U. S. they were restored to Honduras in 1856. 

Ba.yle (Pierre), a celebrated French philosopher and 
critic, born at Carlat, now in Ariege, Nov. 18, 1647, was a 
son of a Protestant preacher. He studied at the College of 
Toulouse, and was employed for some years as a private 
tutor at Geneva and Rouen. In 1675 he obtained the chair 
of philosophy in the Protestant College of Sedan, which was 
closed or suppressed by the government in 1681. He then 
became professor of philosophy and history at Rotterdam, 
and commenced in 1684 a critical monthly review called 
“Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres,” which he con¬ 
tinued to edit until 1687. Instigated by Jurieu, who ac¬ 
cused Bayle of heretical or unsound opinions, the magis¬ 
trates of Rotterdam deprived him of his professorship in 
1693. Bayle was a skeptic, an eloquent advocate of relig¬ 
ious liberty, and a very independent thinker. His most 
important work is a “Historical and Critical Dictionary” 
(“ Dictionnaire historique et critique,” 2 vols. folio, 1696), 
which exercised a great influence over literature and phil¬ 
osophy, and had a European reputation. Bayle was fond 
of paradox, was a subtle reasoner, a witty writer, and an 
excellent dialectician. He was amiable, courageous, and 
disinterested. According to Warburton, he had “a soul 
superior to the sharpest attacks of fortune, and a heart 
practised to the best philosophy.” Died Dec. 28, 1706. 

Baylen', or Bailen', a town of Spain, in the province 
of Jaen, 22 miles N. N. E. of Jaen. It has manufactures 
of linen, glass, soap, bricks, etc. The Spanish general De 
Castanos here gained a victory in July, 1808, over the French 
general Dupont, and took 18,000 prisoners. Pop. 7831. 

Bay'ley (Most Rev. James Roosevelt), D. D., a grand¬ 
son of Dr. Richard Bayley and nephew of Mother Seton 
(who founded the original American congregation of Sisters 
of Charity), was born in New York City Aug. 23, 1814, 
graduated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., in 1835, was 
for a time a clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal Church, 
but became a Roman Catholic, studied theology in Paris 
and Rome, and was ordained a priest in 1842. He became 
professor of belles lettres at St. John’s College, Fordham, 
and was its president (1845-46). In 1853 he became bishop 
of Newark, N. J., and in 1872 archbishop of Baltimore, Md. 
He has published “Memoirs of Bishop Brute” and other 
works, and is distinguished by his ability as a prelate. 

Bayley (Richard), an American physician, born in 
Fairfield, Conn., in 1745, began the practice of medicine in 
1772. He introduced a new method of treating the croup, 
which was extensively used. He became in 1793 professor 
of surgery in Columbia College, N. Y. Died Aug. 17,1801. 

Bay'lor, a county in the N. part of Texas. Area, 900 
square miles. It is traversed by Brazos River and the Big 
Wichita, and the soil along the banks of the former is very 
fertile, but the surface is generally high and rocky. Be¬ 
tween the Brazos and the Little Wichita it is of a moun¬ 
tainous character. Stock-raising is the only important pur¬ 
suit at present. No population in the census of 1870. 

Baylor (Walker Keith), a native of Kentucky, settled 
in 1830 in Alabama, where he engaged in the practice of 
law. He entered the Senate in 1841, and in 1843 he was 
appointed judge of the third circuit, which position he 
held until the fall of 1845, when he was killed accidentally. 
He was very fond of astronomy. 

Baylor University. This institution is situated at 
Independence* Washington co., Tex. It is 12 miles from 
the Brazos River, 12 miles from Brenham, on the western 
branch of the Houston and Texas Central R. R., and 18 
miles from Navisota, on the main trunk of the same road. 
The vicinity is beautifully diversified by prairie, hill, val¬ 
ley, and live-oak groves. The village of Independence is 
near the centre of population, wealth, commerce, and rail¬ 
roads in the State. The university was chartered by the 
republic of Texas in 1845. One-third of its trustees are 
annually chosen by the Baptist State Convention of Texas. 
It owns nearly 700 acres of good land. The whole amount 
of endowment will not exceed $60,000 ; value of buildings, 
$30,000; libraries, 3700 volumes; apparatus respectable; 
reading-room good. The course of study is modelled after 
that of the University of Virginia. It is complete and 
thoroughly prosecuted. Whole number of students entered 
since 1845, 2700 ; college graduates, 38; law graduates, 31; 
law professors, 3; collego officers, 6; whole number of 















BAYLY—BAZAAR. 423 

students, according to last catalogue, 126, six of whom were 
law students. Its presidents have been the Rev. Henry L. 
Graves, Rev. Rufus C. Burleson, D. D., Rev. George W. 
Baines, Rev. William Carey Crane, D. D., LL.D. Efforts 
promising entire success are now in progress fully to en¬ 
dow all the chairs, and otherwise to promote the efficiency 
of the institution. Hon. R. E. B. Baylor, LL.D., former 
member of Congress from Alabama, and for twenty-five 
years a judge in Texas, gives name to the university. 

Bay'ly (Lewis), bishop of Bangor in Wales, is worthy 
of mention as the author of “The Practice of Piety,” one 
of the most popular religious books ever written. It is 
mentioned by Bunyan as one of the books owned by his 
wife. In 1714 it had passed through fifty-one editions in 
England, besides several translations published in foreign 
lands. Bayly was born at Caermarthen, educated at Ox¬ 
ford, and consecrated as bishop in 1616. He died in 1632. 
He must not be confounded with Thomas Bayly, Anglican 
bishop of Killala in Ireland, who died in 1670.—Bishop 
Lewis Bayly had a son Thomas, who became a zealous Ro¬ 
man Catholic, and published “ The End of Controversy ” 
(Douai, 1654), besides other works. 

llayly (Thomas Haynes), an English litterateur, born 
in 1797 near Bath, was the son of a wealthy solicitor, and 
was educated at Oxford. He married in 1826, and in 1831 
lost his fortune, and was thrown into poverty. He entered 
with the greatest industry upon a literary life, composing 
numerous plays, novels, and poems. He is best known by 
his very numerous songs, some of which will always be 
popular, though few are of a very high literary order. 
Among them are “Oh no, we Never Mention Her,” “The 
Soldier’s Tear,” and “ Why Don’t the Men Propose ?” He 
died in 1839. 

Bayly (Thomas Henry), an American lawyer, born in 
Accomac co., Va., in 1810, graduated at the University of 
Virginia, and was a judge in the State courts. He became 
a member of Congress in 1844, and was chairman of the 
committee of ways and means in several sessions. Died 
June 22, 1856. 

Bayn'am (William), an American surgeon and anat¬ 
omist, born in Virginia in 1749, was educated in England, 
where he long resided. He performed many difficult opera¬ 
tions with success. Died Dec. 10, 1814. 

Baynes (Robert Hall), Anglican bishop of Madagas¬ 
car, was born at Wellington, Somersetshire, England, Mar. 
10, 1831. He was educated at Bath and at St. Edmond’s 
Hall, Oxford, where he took his master’s degree in 1859. 
He received a number of English church preferments, and 
in 1870 became bishop of Madagascar, now a Protestant 
Christian nation. He is the author of numerous religious 
works, among which are a “ Book of Common Praise ” 
(1863), “Lyra Anglicana,” “Autumn Memories and other 
Verses” (1869), and “Sermons.” 

Bay of Islands, a large bay of the W. coast of New¬ 
foundland. It abounds in islands, and its scenery is very 
fine. Good timber, gypsum, and marble abound. About 
30,000 barrels of herring are annually taken here, besides 
cod and other fish. Agriculture is pursued to some extent. 
Pop. of settlements, 947. 

Bay'onet [Fr. baionette~\, so called, it is said, because 
invented or first used at Bayonne, in France, about the 
middle of the seventeenth century. It was originally a tri¬ 
angular-shaped blade, to be screwed into the muzzle of the 
musket, and used by infantry as an offensive or defensive 
weapon. Previous to its introduction pikemen formed a 
portion of an army, but, though retained in service to some 
extent till near the middle of the eighteenth century, the 
bayonet finally superseded them. By the original arrange¬ 
ment the musket could not be discharged while the bayonet 
was fixed; this contrivance was improved upon at a later 
day, and the bayonet was fitted exteriorly to the piece, thus 
permitting it to be fired without unfixing the bayonet. 
The French were undoubtedly the first to use the bayonet, 
and the first infantry charge made with this weapon was 
at the battle of Spire in 1703. Various modifications have 
been made in the mode of fastening the weapon, as well as 
in its shape. Among other forms is the “ sabre bayonet; 
the latest improvement being the “trowel” bayonet, capa¬ 
ble of being used by infantry as a spade in throwing up 
earthworks, as well as in making or resisting a charge. 

Bayonne, bi-yonn' (anc. Lapur'dum), a fortified city 
of France, near its S. W. extremity, in the department ot 
Basses-Pyr 6 n< 5 es, on the river Adour, about 3 miles from 
the Bay of Biscay and 66 miles W. N. W. of Pauj lat. 43° 
29' N., Ion. 1° 29' W. It is pleasantly situated near the 
foot of the Pyrenees, at the mouth of the river Nive, and 
is well built. It has an old cathedral, a citadel built by 
Vauban, a mint, a theatre, and schools of commerce and 
navigation. Here are shipyards, glass-works, sugar-re- 

fineries, and distilleries. The chief articles of export are 
timber, tar, corks, liqueurs, hams, etc. Bayonne has often 
been besieged, but never taken. Here occurred an inter¬ 
view between Charles IV. of Spain and Napoleon I., who 
extorted from the former and his son a renunciation of the 
crown in 1808. Pop. in 1866, 26,333. 

Bayonne, a post-township of Hudson co., N. J. Ba¬ 
yonne City, in this township, on the N. J. Central R. R., 

4 miles from Jersey City, is a place of residence for people 
doing business in New York City. It has two weekly news¬ 
papers. Pop. 3834. 

Bayou, bl'oo [supposed to be corrupted from the French 
word boyau, a “bowel” or “gut,” and hence signifying 
“channel”], strictly means a stream which is not fed by 
springs, but flows from a lake or other stream. It is very 
often used, however, in the Southern U. S. as synonymous 
with “creek,” and frequently designates the tidal channels 
occurring in swamps on the Gulf coast. 

Bayou, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 500. 

Bayou, a township of Ozark co., Mo. Pop. 480. 

Bayou Macon, a township of Chicot co., Ark. Pop. 

753. 

Bayou Metor, a township of Arkansas co., Ark. 

Pop. 306. 

Bayou Sara, a post-village of West Feliciana parish, 

La., on the Mississippi River, at the mouth of the bayou 
of the same name, 36 miles above Baton Rouge. It is the 
southern terminus of a railroad to Woodville, Miss., and 
has considerable trade in corn and cotton. Pop. 440. 

Bayr'hoffer (Karl Theodor), a German philosopher, 
born at Marburg in 1812, became in 1838 professor of 
philosophy in his native town, and in 1850 was forced to 
go to the U. S. He advocated the doctrines of Hegel, and 
wrote, among other works, “ Ueber den Deutsch-Katho- 
licismus” (1845), “Idee des Christenthums ” (1836), and 
“ Idee und Geschichte der Philosophic” (1838). 

Bay Rob'erts, a port of entry of Newfoundland, 8 
miles S. of Harbor Grace, on Conception Bay. Its inhab¬ 
itants are chiefly engaged in the Labrador fisheries. It is 
visited by regular lines of coasting steamers, and has con¬ 
siderable imports. Pop. about 1000. 

Bay Rum {Spiritus myrciee, U. S. P.), a fragrant liquid 
obtained by distilling with rum the leaves of the Myrcia 
acris, and probably of other trees of the genus. These are 
large trees growing in Jamaica and other West India 
islands, and belonging to the Myrtacese. Bay rum is im¬ 
ported in large quantities, and is used as a perfume and as 
a cosmetic. 

Bay Shore, a post-village of Islip township, Suffolk 
co., N. Y., on the South Side R. R. of Long Island, 40£ 
miles from New York. It is finely laid out with gravelled 
streets, and is in a good agricultural region. It is a fine 
summer resort, being one-fourth of a mile from Fire Island 

Bay. Pop. 1200. 

Bay Side, a post-village of Flushing township, Queen’s 
co., N. Y., on the New York and Flushing R. R. It has 
many fine country-seats of New York merchants. It is one 
of the most famous places for clambakes on Long Island. 

Bay'town, a township of Washington co., Minn. 

Pop. 594. 

Bay View, a post-village of Gloucester township, Es¬ 
sex co., Mass., has extensive quarries of granite. It is a 
place of summer resort. 

Bay Win'dow, sometimes corrupted into Bow Win¬ 
dow, a window which projects outward from a room, and 
often occurs in Gothic architecture. The external walls of 
such windows are generally polygonal or semicircular. The 
lower end of bay windows is often nearly on a level with 
the floor of the room. They are frequently supplied with 
a seat called a bay stall. 

Ba'za (anc. Basti), a city of Spain, in the province of 
Granada, about 52 miles N. E. of Granada, is in a fertile 
plain. It is famous for its red wine. In 1489 it was taken 
from the Moors by the Spaniards after a long siege. The 

French marshal Soult here defeated the Spaniards Aug. 10, 

1810. Pop. 7272. 

Bazaar', or Bazar, an Oriental market-place, either 
open or covered with a roof; an Oriental assemblage of 
shops in which goods of various kinds are exposed to sale. 

Each bazaar is occupied by a number of retail traders, and 
is often divided into streets or passages having on each 
side a row of small shops, stands, or counters. The term 
is also applied in European and Western cities to a hall or 
suite of rooms fitted up with counters or stands tor the sa o 
of goods (mostly fancy articles). 

Bazaar, a post-township of Chase co., Kan. Pop. <>64. 












424 BAZAINE. 


Uazaine (Franijois Achille), born at Versailles Feb. 
13, 1811, and, after passing through all the intermediate 
grades, marshal of France Sept. 5, 1864. The son of a 
prominent and wealthy officer, he could have readily ob¬ 
tained an officer’s commission, but he declared it his pride 
to seek his marshal’s baton from the knapsack in which for 
“ every French soldier” the proverb potentially places one; 
and that baton, when found, bore the inscription “ Simple 
soldat en 1831, Marechal de France en 1864.” 

Ilis campaigns are thus stated : Africa—Constantina and 
Oran, 1833, 1834, 1835 (first half). Spain—1835 (second 
half), 1836, 1837, 1838. Africa—Algiers and Oran, 1840, 
1841, 1842, 1843, 1844, 1845, 1846, 1847, 1848, 1849, 1850, 
1S51, 1852, 1853, 1854 (first half). Crimea—1854 (second 
half), 1855, 1856. Africa—1857. Italy—1859, 1860. Mex¬ 
ico-1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, 1866, 1867 (first half). Army 
of the Rhine—1870. Total 35 years of active service, of 
which 32 in campaigns, in the course of which he received 
six wounds or contusions. In the Legion of Honor he was 
Knight (Nov. 22, 1835), Combat of La Macta (Africa); 
Officer (Nov. 5, 1845), Combat of Sidy Kafir; Commander 
(Aug. 16, 1856), Taking of Kinburn (Crimea); Grand Of¬ 
ficer (June 20, 1859), Combat of Marignan (Italy); Grand 
Cross (July 2, 1863), Battle of San Lorenzo (Mexico); Mil¬ 
itary Medal (April 28,1865), Storming of Oajaca (Mexico); 
Medals of the Crimea, Italy, and Mexico. 

On the breaking out of the war with Prussia Marshal 
Bazaine, who had expected the command of one of two 
powerful armies destined to the invasion of Prussia, in ac¬ 
cordance with plans which had been prepared by the late 
Marshal Niel, found himself, in consequence of the sudden 
and unexpected decision of the Emperor to unite all the 
forces in the single “ Annee du Rhin,” in command of only 
a single corps. The disasters of Woerth and Forbach, 
compelling the Emperor to relinquish the command, and 
his sole competitor, MacMahon, being put hors de concours 
by his recent defeat, Marshal Bazaine on the 13th of August 
succeeded to the command of the Army of the Rhine. Re¬ 
organization and concentration compelled a falling back 
upon Metz, and thence upon Verdun, where the shattered 
commands of MacMahon’s corps and the reserves of France 
were being concentrated. The execution of the resolution, 
too tardily taken, was, in consequence, further delayed by 
the battle of Borny (Aug. 14), brought on by the Prussians 
for that sole purpose. In continuing the retreat through 
Metz his columns were vigorously attacked by the Prus¬ 
sians, and the battle of Rezonville (Gravelotte) resulted. 
Undertaken by the advanced Prussian troops hastily thrown 
over the Moselle above Metz, solely to disorder and delay 
the French march, the attack was successfully repulsed, 
and, to the French, “ the moment had arrived to strike a 
great blow and to resume the offensive, .... to drive 
back the Prussians in disorder upon the Moselle.” Be¬ 
fore evening, however, the Prussians had been so greatly 
reinforced as to recover their position and resume the of¬ 
fensive conflict, but with the advantage, on the whole, on 
the French side. There was yet opportunity to continue 
the march on Verdun, but the Marshal spent the next day 
in forming a line of battle from Rozereuilles to St. Privat, 
with his back on Metz, while the Prussians were allowed, 
unmolested, to march across his front to form their line. 
The battle of St. Privat was fought defensively in position, 
on the 18th, without an order from the Marshal,'*' or a re¬ 
inforcement to, or change in, the position of any part of 
the French line. The French left and centre were strongly 
posted—the right “dans Fair” at St. Privat. Without 
natural obstacles on which to rest, powerful artillery alone 
could have given to it adequate power of resistance. It 
was held by the 6th Corps (Canrobert’s), which corps, alone, 
was deficient in its complement of artillery. The Guards 
(Bourbaki’s) and Reserve artillery were stationed in ravines 
in the rear. The French effective force was 150,000 men— 
Prussians (eight corps) 240,000. That the Prussians, un¬ 
successful and even disastrously repulsed on the French left 
and centre, and at liberty to use their immense force where 
weakness exhibited itself, should, failing elsewhere, finally 
concentrate their artillery fire (272 guns) and their infan¬ 
try masses (three corps, 80,000 men) on the French right, 
is natural; but not so, that the guard and reserve artillery 
should lie idle while the French right was overwhelmed 
and driven back (4th and 6th corps) disorganized, upon 
Metz and the Moselle. The remainder of the army, which 
had held its strong positions, was withdrawn the next day 


*“In a combat where the enemy arrayed nearly two-thirds 
of the force with which he had invaded France, the general ar¬ 
tillery reserve was left in its camp at more than 6 kilimettfrs 
distance, the cavalry of the Guard did not put foot to stirrup, 
the heavy cavalry remained at Longueville (a suburb of Metz), 
and as to the infantry of the Guard, it lay without orders till 6 
p. m. at more than a league from the field of battle.” {Metz, 
Cam,pagne et Negotiations.) 


into the intrenched camp in which ten weeks later it was 
destined to lay down its arms. 

But it is an error to say that Bazaine was shut up in the 
intrenchments of Metz. No portion of the Marshal’s army 
was within the enceinte of Metz; and the new and (incom¬ 
plete) advanced detached works favored rather than ob¬ 
structed egress. The question is can an army of 200,000 
men or less, “shut up,” in an intrenched camp anymore 
than in open field, another of nearly equal numbers ? If, 
in open field, an army gives time and opportunity to its 
adversary to encircle it with intrenchments, such is their 
defensive capability with modern arms, that egress, even 
with equal numbers, may become impracticable; but it is 
doubtful whether the slight works thrown up here and there 
by the Prussians ever deserved the name of an intrenched 
line. The loss of morale by such a succession of disastrous 
battles, and the resulting loss of confidence in the leaders, 
may perhaps account for the few and futile attempts at 
sorties (Ml. Canrobert testifies that as late as Oct. 15 vigor¬ 
ous sorties could have been made); for the failure to co¬ 
operate with the movement of MacMahon on Sedan, the 
plea of failure to receive despatches announcing it, is put 
forward, and credibly substantiated. 

His attempt to negotiate with the Prussians through the 
Empress at Hastings must be judged of by his own lan¬ 
guage at his trial: “My position was unprecedented. I 
was, in a certain sense, my own government. The duties 
of a military chief when a legal government exists are 
strictly defined. I by no means admit that to be the case 
in presence of an insurrectionary government. There was 
then no government; there was nothing;” coupled with the 
comment of the due d’Aumale, “What! France, then, no 
longer existed ?” 

Thus exhausting the last days in which action was pos¬ 
sible, the marshal surrendered on the 27th Oct., 1870, an 
army of 160,000 men, Metz, “la Pucelle,” and its fortifica¬ 
tions, and 1800 pieces of artillery. 

He was arraigned Oct. 10, 1873, before a court consisting 
of the due d’Aumale (president), General de la Motte Rouge, 
Baron de Chabaud-Latour, Generals Tripier, Martimprey, 
Princeteau, and Martinez-Dechesnez, charged: 

First —Of having capitulated with the enemy, and surren¬ 
dered the fortress of Metz, of which he had the superior com¬ 
mand, without having exhausted all the means of defence. 

Second —Of having, as the head of the army before Metz, 
signed a capitulation in the open field, the result of which 
was to cause his troops to lay down their arms: and of not 
having, before treating verbally and by writing, done every¬ 
thing which he was bound to do by duty and honor—of¬ 
fences provided for and punished by articles 209 and 210 
of the Code of Military Justice. 

After a trial of two months’ duration he was unanimously 
pronounced guilty, sentenced to be degraded and shot, with 
equally unanimous recommendation that the sentence should 
not be carried into execution, in terms substantially as fol¬ 
lows: “As jurymen, our conscience alone must guide ns, 
and as judges it has been our duty to apply an inexorable 
law. The marshal, however, received the command of the 
army under the most unfortunate circumstances, and the 
court cannot forget that under fire he was always equal to 
himself; that at Borny, Gravelotte, and Noisseville no one 
surpassed him in bravery; and that on 16th of Aug. (Grave¬ 
lotte) he maintained the centre of his line of battle by the 
firmness of his attitude. Neither can the army forget the 
glorious services rendered by the Volunteer of 1831.” 

His sentence was promptly commuted by President Mac¬ 
Mahon to twenty years’ imprisonment in a fortress, without 
military degradation. 

In conclusion I venture to use the words of Niemann’s 
account of the war {Army and Navy Gazette, Dec. 13): 

“ The conduct of the marshal at Metz roused the conjecture 
that he wished to act not only as a general, but as a states¬ 
man ; that he wished independently to make military ac¬ 
tion accord with political events; that even he believed he 
could pursue his own ambitious views, and at the same time 
the interests of France. The temptation of playing an 
important political role in the general overthrow of exist¬ 
ing affairs, while at the head of the largest military body 
which France possessed, no doubt came home to the ambi¬ 
tious Bonapartist general.” 

That his conduct of the military operations from Aug. 13 
to Aug. 18 was inefficient; that his so-called sorties had 
scarce the energy in them to reveal a serious intention to 
go out; that he allowed himself to waste the last precious 
(lays of his army’s efficiency in what were futile—and some 
would call treasonable—attempts to negotiate with the 
empress; and finally crushed the rising—the last —hopes 
of France by a premature surrender at the very moment 
when a protraction might have modified the history of the 
war, must, I think, be the conviction of all who have im¬ 
partially studied his career. J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 














BAZALGETTE—BEADS, SAINT CUTHBERT’S. 425 


Bazalgette (Joseph William), C. B., an English civil 
engineer of French descent, was born in 1819. He has 
won great fame in the construction of sewers, street altera¬ 
tions, and other departments of city engineering. As en¬ 
gineer-in-chief to the Metropolitan Board of Works, Lon¬ 
don, he has constructed many hundreds of miles of sewers 
and river embankments, and has introduced subterranean 
passages for the carrying of gas and water pipes and tele¬ 
graph-wires, so that it is not necessary to break up the 
pavements for repairs. He has also furnished plans for 
the drainage of many British and foreign cities. 

Bazancourt, tie (Cesar), Baron, a French historian, 
born in 1810, wrote a “History of Sicily under the Nor¬ 
man Rule” (2 vols., 1846), histories of the Crimean, Ital¬ 
ian, Chinese, and Cochin-Chinese wars of Napoleon III., a 
treatise on Fencing, and many novels. Under Louis Phil¬ 
ippe, Do Bazancourt was a director of the library of Com- 
piegne, and under Napoleon III. he was official historiog¬ 
rapher. Died at Paris Jan. 25, 1865. 

Bazard (Amand), the founder of French Carbonarism, 
was born in Paris Sept. 19, 1791. He organized societies 
of Carbonari about 1820, and afterwards became a disciple 
of Saint-Simon the Socialist, and editor of the “ Produc- 
teur,” a Saint-Simonian journal. After the death of Saint- 
Simon (1825), Bazard and Enfantin were the chief priests 
of the sect, and they published an “ Exposition of the Doc¬ 
trine of Saint-Simon ” (1828-30). Bazard became disgusted 
with the extreme innovations of Enfantin (who advocated 
a community of wives), and he seceded from the sect in 
1831. Died July 29, 1832. (See Michaud et Yillenave, 
“Histoire du Saint-Simonisme,” 1847.) 

Bazet'ta, a post-township of Trumbull co., 0. It con¬ 
tains the village of Baconsburg (pop. 449), on the Atlantic 
and Great Western R. R. Pop. 1240. 

Bazin (Antoine Pierre Ernest), a French dermatol¬ 
ogist, born Feb. 20, 1807, at St. Brice, came of a long line 
of medical men. In 1847 he became physician and profes¬ 
sor of dermatology in the hospital of St. Louis, Paris. He 
has written able works on venereal and skin diseases. 

Bazin (Antoine Pierre Louis), a brother of the pre¬ 
ceding, born Mar. 26, 1799, was a professor of the Chinese 
language, and published in 1856 a grammar of the Man¬ 
darin dialect. He also made many translations from the 
Chinese. Died in Jan., 1863. 

Baz'Iey (Sir Thomas), Bart., was born at Gilnow, 
Lancashire, England, in 1797. He learned cotton-spinning 
in his youth, went into business on his own account at 
Bolton in 1818, and removed in 1826 to Manchester, where 
his manufactory of fine cotton and lace thread was the 
largest in the world, employing more than 1000 persons, 
for whom he established schools, free lectures, and reading- 
rooms. An early anti-corn-law man and free-trader, he 
became a prominent liberal politician, first entering Par¬ 
liament in 1858. In 1862 he retired from business, and in 
1869 became a baronet. 

BdeUlium [Gr. /SSeAAioc], a gum-resin resembling 
myrrh, but weaker and more acrid, was esteemed by the 
ancients for its supposed medicinal virtues. It is not often 
used by modern physicians. Two varieties of bdellium 
are obtained from the Amyris commiphora of India and 
the Heudelotia Africana, a tree or shrub of Senegal. 

Beach, a term applied to the shore of a sea or lake, es¬ 
pecially to the sandy or gravelly margin which is alter¬ 
nately covered and deserted by the tide. In the U. S. the 
word*also signifies a long low sandy bar or tongue of land 
extending along the sea-coast, and separated from the 
mainland by a narrow harbor or portion of the sea, as 
Squan Beach and Long Beach on the coast of New Jersey, 
and several long beaches on the S. side of Long Island. 
Many smooth sandy beaches are fashionable places of re¬ 
sort in summer. 

Beach, a township of La Fayette co., Ark. Pop. 984. 

Beach, a township of Mower co., Minn. Pop. 101. 

Beach (Abraham), D. D., a Protestant Episcopal di¬ 
vine, was born at Cheshire, Conn., Sept. 9, 1740, graduated 
at Yale College in 1757, and was ordained by the bishop 
of London in 1767. He was until 1783 rector of a church 
at New Brunswick, N. J., and afterwards an assistant min¬ 
ister of Trinity church, N. Y., for thirty years (1783-1813). 
He was the author of some religious works. In his last 
years he was a farmer in New Jersey. The degree of 
*D. D. was conferred upon him by Columbia College in 
1789. He was a strict Episcopalian, and opposed the 
liberalism of Bishop White. Died Sept. 11, 1828. 

Beach (John), a Protestant Episcopal divine, born in 
1700, graduated at Yale in 1721, and was for some years 
Congregational minister of Newtown, Conn. He conformed 
in 1732, was ordained by the bishop of London, and was 
for fifty years a minister of the English Church in Con¬ 


necticut. He published sermons and polemical tracts. 
Died Mar. 8, 1782. 

Beach (John Wesley), D. D., an able preacher of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, was born at Trumbull, Conn., 
Dec. 26, 1825, graduated in 1845 at Wesleyan University, 
Middletown, Conn., was for nine years a teacher, and in 
1854 entered the ministry. His labors have been mostly 
in New York City and vicinity. In 1872 he received the 
degree of D. D. from his alma mater, and in 1873 he be¬ 
came pastor of a church in New Haven, Conn. 

Beach (Moses Yale), an American inventor and pub¬ 
lisher, born at Wallingford, Conn., Jan. 7, 1800. He 
learned the trade of a cabinet-maker in youth, and after¬ 
wards experimented in machines for propelling balloons. 
He invented a rag-cutting machine, now in general use in 
paper-mills. In 1835 he became interested in the “New 
York Sun,” and is regarded as a pioneer in the penny 
newspaper business. In 1857 he left his profession and 
retired to his native town, where he died July 18, 1868. 

Beach Isle, a township of Hancock co., Me. Pop. 9. 

Beach Plum, the Primus maritima, a shrub of the 
order Rosacese, growing along the sea-beaches of the At¬ 
lantic coast of the U. S. It bears an edible fruit, some¬ 
times not much smaller than that of the cultivated plum, 
which it resembles. Away from the sea-shore it degenerates. 

Beach'viile, a post-village of Oxford co., Ontario, 
Canada, on the Great Western Railway and the river 
Thames, 4 miles from AVoodstock, has three churches, man¬ 
ufactures of lumber, linen, cordage, machinery, castings, 
flour, etc., and an extensive trade. Pop. about 700. 

Beach'y Head, the highest headland on the S. coast 
of England, 2£ miles S. S. AV. of Eastbourne, Sussex. It 
consists of perpendicular chalk cliffs 564 feet high, forming 
the E. end of the South Downs. Here is a lighthouse 285 
feet high. The French fleet defeated the Dutch and Eng¬ 
lish near this point in 1690. 

Bea'con, a fiery signal raised on an eminence as a 
guide to mariners, or to alarm the population of a country 
when a hostile army is approaching to invade it. Such 
alarm-fires were used by several ancient nations, including 
Greeks, Hebrews, and Persians, who kindled fires on the 
tops of mountains. In England the beacons were main¬ 
tained by a tax levied on the counties, and were carefully 
organized while the Spanish Armada was expected in 1588. 
Horsemen were then employed to convey the tidings dur¬ 
ing the day, when the beacons could not be seen. 

Beacon, in maritime affairs, denotes a signal erected near 
rocks and shoals to warn mariners against danger, or to 
indicate the proper entrance to a harbor or channel. A 
small lighthouse is frequently called a beacon. Beacons 
on the U. S. coast are either permanent or portable. Many 
floating beacons are now used in which a bell is sounded, 
instead of a light shown, as a warning. These are so con¬ 
structed that the bell rings continually as long as the tide 
or current is flowing. 

Bead, or Bede, in Anglo-Saxon and Old English sig¬ 
nified a prayer, and hence the small perforated balls, of 
whatever material, used for keeping an account of the num¬ 
ber of prayers repeated. Beads are small perforated glob¬ 
ular bodies worn as ornaments by women and children 
around the neck and on other parts of the person, for which 
purpose they are arranged on strings. They are made of 
various materials—gold, amber, coral, pearl, crystal, glass, 
etc. More beads are made of glass than of any other ma¬ 
terial. They are often used in the ornamentation of slip¬ 
pers, purses, and other articles. The ancient Egyptians 
understood the art of making glass beads, which are now 
extensively manufactured at Murano, near A^enice, and in 
China. There are three kinds of beads—the hollow, the 
common, and the bugle. Roman Catholics use a string of 
beads, called a “ rosary,” in saying prayers. Similar chap¬ 
lets are used by Mohammedans and by some sects of 
Booddhists. Great quantities of beads are shipped to 
Africa, India, and the Eastern Archipelago. 

Bea'dle [Ger. Biittel], in England, is an inferior parish 
officer appointed by the vestry. His business is to attend 
the vestry, to act as their messenger, to give notice of their 
meetings, to execute their orders, to assist the constable of 
the parish, etc. 

Beads, Saint Cuthbert’s, a name given to the singlo 
joints of the articulated stem of a fossil animal called En- 
crinite (which see). They have natural perforations, so 
that they can be strung like beads, and they were formerly 
used as rosaries, and popularly believod to have been mado 
by Saint Cuthbert.* 

* “ On a rock by Lindisfarne 

Saint Cuthbert sits, and toils to frame 
The sea-born beads that bear his name. 

Scott’s “ Marmion,” canto a., 1G. 



















426 BEAGLE—BEAK. 


Uea'gle, a small variety of hound, formerly employed 
in England for hunting hares, but now nearly supplanted 
by the harrier. The beagle is about ten inches high at the 
shoulder, is compactly formed, and has long pendulous ears 
and smooth hair. It is remarkable for its keenness of scent 
and perseverance. During the chase it utters a musical cry. 
A small variety is used as a lap-dog. 

Beak [Lat ros'trum; Fr. bee], the bill of a bird; in 
other words, the hard, horny mouth of a bird, consisting 
of two parts, called the upper and lower mandible. (See 
Bill.) The term was also applied to a pointed piece of 
wood fortified with metal, and fastened to the fore end of 
ancient galleys and modern steam-rams, in order to pierce 
the vessels of the enemy. 

Bca'ker, a name formerly given to a kind of drinking- 
bowl or cup, derived from the same root as the German 
lecher. The name is now applied to a glass vessel used in 
chemical laboratories. 

Beale, a township of Juniata co., Pa. Pop. 1039. 

Beale (Lionel Smith), F. It. S., an accomplished Eng¬ 
lish microscopist and physiologist, born in 1828, graduated 
M. B. at the University of London in 1851, in which insti¬ 
tution he was afterwards appointed professor. Many re¬ 
markable books and monographs upon histology and biology 
have been published by Dr. Beale. His papers written 
against the Darwinian hypothesis (1870) have attracted 
much attention. Among his numerous works are “ How 
to Work with the Microscope” (1858), “ The Structure 
of the Tissues of the Body” (1861), and “Protoplasm” 
(1870). 

Beam [Ger. Baiun, a “ tree”], any large piece of timber; 
the principal piece of timber in a building, that lies across 
the walls and serves to support the rafters; also a collection 
of luminous rays emitted from the sun or other luminary. 
The word has several technical applications. The part of 
a balance from the ends of which the scales are suspended 
is called the beam; a weaver’s beam is a wooden cylinder 
on which the web is wound. The term is also applied to 
the part of a steam-engine to which the piston is attached. 
In ships, a beam is a great main cross-timber, extending 
across the hull, supporting the deck, and preventing the 
sides from collapsing. Each of these beams is made of one 
solid piece of good timber, if possible, and is upheld at or 
near the middle by a pillar or pillars. In large steamships 
iron beams are often used instead of wood. A ship is said 
to be “ on her beam ends ” when so much inclined to one 
side that the beams become nearly vertical. The word 
also occurs in the phrase “ on the starboard beam,” which 
is applied to the position of an object at sea which is seen 
towards the right by a person who face is turned towards 
the bow. (See Flexure of Beams.) 

Beams'ville, a post-village of Clinton township, Lin¬ 
coln co., Ontario, Canada, on the Great Western Railway, 
11 miles W. of St. Catherine’s, has manufactures of farming 
tools, carriages, etc. Pop. about 1000. 

Beam Tree, White (Py'rus A'ria), a tree which is a 
native of Europe and Asia, grows to the height of from 
twenty-five to forty feet. It has ovate and serrate leaves, 
which are white and downy beneath, flowers in terminal 
corymbs, and bears a scarlet fruit about as large as a pea. 
This fruit, which is sometimes called sorb or service-berry, 
is acid and astringent, and is used to make beer. The 
hard, fine-grained wood is useful for cog-wheels. 

Bean ( Fa'ba ), a genus of annual herbaceous plants of 
the order Leguminosm, sub-order Papilionacese, was in¬ 
cluded by Linnaeus in the genus Vicia, from which it may 
be distinguished by its leathery, tumid pods and a large 
scar on the end of the seed. The common European bean 
(Fala vulgaris) has been cultivated in Asia and Europe 
since the earliest ages. It has pinnate leaves, without 
tendrils, and fragrant flowers. The seeds, which are nutri¬ 
tious food, are enclosed in long pods which are woolly on 
the inside. Many varieties of this species are cultivated 
in gardens and fields, and are used as food for men, cattle, 
swine, etc. This plant prefers a dry and moderately rich 
soil. Garden beans are planted in the spring in rows. The 
kidney-bean or haricot (Phaseolus vulgaris) is a totally 
distinct plant from the proper bean. The beans cultivated 
for use in America are of various species of Phaseolus. 

Bean Blossom, a township of Monroe co., Ind. Pop. 
1316. 

Bean'ville, a village of Willing township, Allegany 
co., N. Y., on the Genesee River, has manufactures of 
lumber, leather, etc. 

Bear [Lat. ur'sua, female ur'sa; Ger. Bar], a genus of 
quadrupeds of the order Carnivora and tribe Plantigrada, 
is the type of the family of Ursidae. Bears walk on the 
soles of their feet, have five toes on each foot, and have 


claws which are not retractile, but arc adapted for digging 
in the earth or climbing trees. Their tails are very short. 
They have six cutting teeth in each jaw, and one canine 
tooth on each side in each jaw. Bears arc found both in 
warm and cold climates in Europe, Asia, and America, but 
they are not known to live in Africa. The species that in¬ 
habit cold climates are generally more fierce and carniv¬ 
orous than those of tropical regions. Some species pass 
the winter in a state of torpidity and hibernation, during 
which they eat nothing and remain stationary in hollow 
trees or holes in the ground. 

The brown bear ( JJrsus arctos) is widely distributed over 
the continents of Europe and Asia, but it has been extir¬ 
pated from the British Islands. It is generally believed 
to be the only European species. It is solitary, infests 
mountains and forests, eats fish and other animals, and 
subsists partly on fruits and vegetable food. The flesh of 
this bear is eaten by the people of Kamtchatka and other 
regions. 

The black bear ( Ursus Americanus) is found in all parts 
of North America. Its total length is about five feet. It 
prefers vegetable food, but when pressed by hunger will 
kill and eat small animals. It kills its prey by hugging or 
squeezing with its fore paws. Great numbers of black bears 
are killed for their skins, which have a smooth, glossy fur, 
and are valuable for cloaks, caps, etc. This animal is an 
expert climber, is very fond of honey and green corn (maize), 
and is less fierce and dangerous to man than the brown bear. 

The Rocky Mountains and adjacent parts of North 
America are infested by the grizzly bear ( Ursus ferox or 
horribilis), which is much larger and more carnivorous 
than the black bear. It sometimes measures nine feet from 
the nose to the tail, which is very short. The hair is long, 
and its color is a mixture of brown, white, and black. This 
bear, which is very tenacious of life, is the most formidable 



Grizzly Bear. 


beast of prey on the continent of America. It is able to 
master a buffalo (bison) and carry away its huge carcass. 
It is stated that it hunts for prey both by day and night. 
It can run swiftly, but does not climb trees. 

The largest of all the family of Ursidae is the polar bear 



Polar Bear. 

(Ursus maritimua), called also the whito bear, the fur of 


























BEAR-BAITING—BEAK MOUNTAIN. 427 


which is an impure white. It sometimes measures nearly 
ten feet long and five feet high. It is strictly marine in its 
habits, is never found far from the sea, and inhabits the 
most northern shores of Greenland, Asia, etc. It subsists 
chiefly on animal food, and pursues seals and fishes both 
on the ice and in the water. These bears display a re¬ 
markable affection for their cubs. It has not been ascer¬ 
tained whether the polar bear usually hibernates or not. 

The bear mentioned in the Bible was probably the Syrian 
bear ( Ursus Syriacus ), which resembles the brown bear in 
its habits, and has a stiff mane of erect hairs between the 
shoulders. The color of its hair is mostly dingy white or 
brown. Among the other species is the Ursxis labiatus, or 
long-lipped bear of the East Indies, an inoffensive and 
gentle animal, which is often led about by Indian jugglers 
for exhibition. Among the Andes of Chili occurs the Ursus 
ornatu8 , called spectacled bear, which is black except two 
semicircular yellow marks above its eyes. Remains of 
several extinct species of bears have been found in caves in 
England and Germany. Of these, Ursus spelseus, called 
the cave bear, is the best known. It is now thought that 
the “cave bear” was identical with Ursus horribilis, the 
“ grizzly” of America. The bears are by some naturalists 
all arranged in one genus; by others in several genera. 

Revised bv J. S. Newberry. 

Bear-Baiting. A custom was formerly prevalent in 
many countries of baiting bears with dogs. The place in 
which the bears were kept was called a u bear-garden.” 
Bear-baiting was a favorite sport in England, not only for 
the common people, but also for the higher classes. Queen 
Elizabeth is said to have enjoyed it. It was hated by the 
Puritans, Macaulay wittily says, “ not because it gave 
pain to the bear, but because it gave pleasure to the spec¬ 
tators.” This coarse and inhuman entertainment grad¬ 
ually died out, and was finally prohibited by act of Par¬ 
liament Sept. 9, 1835. 

Bear Creek, a township of Shelby co., Ala. P. 693. 

Bear Creek, a township of Boone co., Ark. P. 314. 

B ear Creek, a township of Phillips co., Ark. P. 170. 

Bear Creek, a township of Searcy co., Ark. P. 865. 

Bear Creek, a township of Sevier co., Ark. P. 159. 

Bear Creek, a township of Christian co., Ill. P. 720. 

Bear Creek, a township of Hancock co., Ill. P. 1117. 

Bear Creek, a township of Montgomery co., Ill. Pop. 
1650. 

Bear Creek, a post-township of Jay co., Ind. Pop. 
1247. 

Bear Creek, a post-township of Poweshiek co., Ia. 
Pop. 1852. 

Bear Creek, a township of Emmet co., Mich. P.254. 

Bear Creek, a township of Montgomery co., Mo. Pop. 
2200. 

Bear Creek, a township of Chatham co., N. C. P. 1328. 

Bear Creek, a post-township of Luzerne co., Pa. 
Pop. 135. 

Bear Creek, a township of Sauk co., Wis. Pop. 858. 

Bear Creek, a post-township of Waupacca co., Wis. 
Pop. 462. 

Beard, a name applied to the hair which grows upon 
the lower part of the face of a man, and in exceptional 
cases upon the faces of women, or even children. The 
wearing of the beard is universal in the East, where it has 
long been regarded as a mark of honor and dignity. Some 
races of men, like the American Indians, carefully pluck 
out the beard, which with them and others, such as the 
Mongolian peoples, is very scanty. Most white races have 
beards with hairs differing decidedly in structure and ap¬ 
pearance from those of the scalp. The wearing or not of 
beards in European nations has been regulated partly by 
fashion and partly by legal enactments for or against the 
practice. The beard is believed to protect the throat and 
chest from colds. 

Beard (Richard), D. D., a clergyman of the Cumber¬ 
land Presbyterian Church, was born Nov. 27, 1799, in Sum¬ 
ner co., Tenn. His early education was not without care, 
yet limited. His education preparatory to the ministry 
was conducted better than usual for the time in his Church. 
He was licensed and commenced preaching in 1820, and 
was several years exclusively devoted to the work ot the 
ministry. liis health failing, he spent two or three years 
teaching. He was two and a halt years at Cumberland 
College,’ Princeton, Ky., and graduated. He was imme¬ 
diately appointed professor ot languages in that college. 
He afterwards spent five years at Sharon, Miss., in con¬ 
nection with Sharon College. In 1843 ho became presi¬ 
dent of Cumberland College, Ky., and remained there ten 
years and a half, giving a great impetus to the classic train¬ 


ing of young men, especially those seeking the ministry. 
In 1854, when the Cumberland Presbyterian Church es¬ 
tablished a chair of systematic theology in Cumberland 
University, at Lebanon, Tenn., his high character as a 
scholar and educator at once called him to that position, 
which he has ever since held. He has given to the Church 
an able and standard work on “ Systematic Theology,” in 
3 vols. 8vo. It is regarded as the crystallization of Cum¬ 
berland Presbyterian thought and faith. He has published 
two octavo volumes of biographical sketches of ministers. 
Also, “Why am I a Cumberland Presbyterian?” 1 vol. 
His contributions to the “ Quarterly” and general literature 
of the Church have been constant and most valuable. His 
great dignity, purity, and gentleness of character have 
marked him as a representative man, calling him to the 
moderator’s chair times almost without number. He is 
yet vigorous and earnest in the great work of education. 

Beard (William H.), an American painter, born at 
Painesville, O., about 1826. Among his most popular 
works are “ Bears on a Bender ” and “ Grimalkin’s Bream.” 

Beard'in’s, a station of Etowah co., Ala. Poj). 445. 

Beard’s, a township of Pickens co., Ala. Pop. 446. 

Beard’s Bluff, a township of Marshall co., Ala. 
Pop. 373. 

Beard'slee (Lester A.), U. S. N., born Feb. 1, 1836, 
in Little Falls, N. Y., entered the navy as a midshipman 
Mar. 5, 1850, became a passed midshipman in 1856, a lieu¬ 
tenant in 1859, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, and a com¬ 
mander in 1869. He served in the iron-clad Nantasket in 
the engagement with Fort Sumter of April 7, 1863, and 
is thus commended by his commanding officer, Captain 
Fairfax, in his official report to Rear-Admiral Dupont of 
April 8, 1863: “I am gratified to be able to say that the 
officers and crew behaved with becoming coolness and 
bravery. Lieutenant-Commander L. A. Beardslee, the ex¬ 
ecutive officer, and the senior engineer, Mr. George H. 
White, rendered me great assistance in the working of the 
guns, turret, and even the vessel.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

B ear'field, a township of Perry co., O. Pop. 901. 

Beards'ley (Edward E.), D. D., born in 1808 in Fairfield 
co., Conn., graduated at Trinity College, Hartford, in 1832, 
where he was two years a tutor. He was for a time prin¬ 
cipal of the academy at Cheshire, Conn., took orders in 
the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1835, and has been 
rector of a church in New Haven since 1848. He is the 
author of a “ History of the Episcopal Church in Con¬ 
necticut” (2 vols. 8vo) and a “ Life of Samuel Johnson, 
D. D.,” both valuable works. 

Beardsley (Samuel), LL.D., a native of Otsego co., 
N. Y., practised law in Rome and Utica, N. Y., held vari¬ 
ous State offices, was a member of Congress from New 
York (1831-36 and 1843-1845), attorney-general of the 
State (1837), became a judge of the State supreme court in 
1844, and its chief-justice in 1847. Died May 6,1860. 

Beards'town, the county-seat of Cass co., Ill., situated 
on the bank of the Illinois River. It is the terminus of the 
Springfield and Illinois South-eastern R. R., and is on the 
Rockford Rock Island and St. Louis R. R. It ranks as one of 
the oldest towns in the State. The celebrated “Lithia Springs” 
are here. The hotel accommodations are superior. There 
is a fine park near the business portion of the city. The 
Rockford machine-shops are located here, which employ 
from 100 to 200 men. There is a foundry, flouring, wool¬ 
len, and two saw-mills, one large wagon manufactory, a 
distillery, and a very extensive brewery. The surrounding 
country consists of rich bottom-lands of a sandy nature, 
and produces abundant crops of grapes, corn, sweet pota¬ 
toes, melons, and general marketing. A fine bay, on which 
saw-mills are established, affords a fine resort for boating 
and fishing. The railroad bridge of the Rockford road 
crosses the river at this point, and is a fine structure, cost¬ 
ing some $300,000. The piers are of iron. It has two 
weekly newspapers. Pop. 2588; total pop. of Beardstown 
township, 3582. 

J. S. Nicholson, Ed. “ Central Illinoisian.” 

Bear Grove, a township of Fayette co., Ill. P. 992. 

B ear Grove, a township of Cass co., Ia. Pop. 163. 

Bear Grove, a post-township of Guthrie co., Ia. Pop. 
417. 

Bear House, a township of Ashley co., Ark. P. 525. 

Bear Isle, a township of Hancock co., Me. Pop. 13. 

Bear Lake, a post-township of Manistee co., Mich. 
Pop. 417. 

Bear Mountain, in Pennsylvania, rises in the N. E. 
part of Dauphin co., to the height of about < 50 feet. The 











428 BEAR RIVER—BEAUFORT. 


valley of Bear Creek, which flows at the base of this moun¬ 
tain, contains valuable beds of anthracite coal. 

Bear River, a port of entry of Digby co. and town¬ 
ship, Nova Scotia, at the head of navigation, has quite ex¬ 
tensive manufactures of lumber, leather, etc.; shipbuilding 
is also carried on. It has a large trade in firewood and 
lumber, which arc sent to the U. S. and West Indies. Bop. 
about 900. 

Bear River, a river of the U. S., rises in the N. part 
of Utah, flows northward into Idaho, and changes its course 
abruptly towards the S. Having again crossed the S. 
boundary of Idaho into Utah, it flows south-westward, and 
enters Great Salt Lake about 25 miles N. W. of Ogden. 
The total length is about 400 miles. 

Bears and Bulls, a phrase often used in connection 
with the purchase and sale of stocks, and applied to per¬ 
sons who speculate in government securities and in the 
stocks of railroads and other corporations. The “bears” 
are those^who wish to depress the value of stocks, and the 
“bulls” are those whose interest prompts them to act in 
the other direction. If two men have contracted, the one 
to deliver and the other to take a certain stock at a speci¬ 
fied price on an appointed future day, the former party 
will naturally belong to the bears, and the latter to the 
bulls. 

Bear’s Grease, or Bear’s Oil, is said to be effica¬ 
cious in promoting the growth of human hair. The genu¬ 
ine article being insufficient to supply the demand, per¬ 
fumers and others sell under the name of bear’s oil large 
quantities of beef-marrow, hog’s lard, spermaceti, etc. 

Bear'ytown, a village of Fayette and Varick town¬ 
ships, Seneca co., N. Y., has three churches and manufac¬ 
tures of staves and lumber. 

BeasTey (Frederick), D.D., an American clergyman 
and philosopher, born near Edenton, N. C., in 1777, grad¬ 
uated at Princeton in 1797, became an Episcopalian min¬ 
ister, and was long provost of the University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania. Among his works, which attracted attention in 
Europe, are “A Search of Truth in the Science of the 
Human Mind,” and a “ Reply to the Views of Dr. Chan- 
ning.” Died at Elizabethtown, N. J., Nov. 2, 1845. 

Bea'son’s Store, a township of St. Clair co., Ala. 
Pop. 305. 

Beatification [Lat. beatified'tio, from bea'tus, “bless¬ 
ed,” and fa'cio, fac'tum, to “make”] in the Roman Cath¬ 
olic Church is a solemn act by which the pope pronounces 
a person blessed. It is the first step towards canonization, 
and permits the term “ blessed ” to be given to the new 
saint. This honor is reserved for those who have per¬ 
formed miracles, have suffered martyrdom, or have died 
in the odor of sanctity. The first solemn beatification was 
that of Saint Francis de Sales by Alexander VIII., Jan. 8, 
1662. 

Beating the Bounds, a popular phrase used in 
England to denote the periodical survey or perambulation 
by which the boundaries of parishes are preserved. It is 
the custom that the clergyman of the parish, with the pa¬ 
rochial officers and the boys of the parish school, should 
march to the boundaries, which the boys strike with willow 
rods. The boys themselves were sometimes whipped in 
proximity to an important landmark, in order to impress 
the subject durably on their memories. 

Bea'tou, Beatoun, or Bethune (David), a Scot¬ 
tish cardinal, born in 1494, was a zealous opponent of the 
Protestant Reformation. He was appointed lord privy 
seal in 1528, and was sent as ambassador to France in 1533. 
He became a cardinal in 1538, and succeeded his uncle 
as archbishop of St. Andrew’s in 1539. On the death of 
James V., in 1542, Beaton produced a forged will of that 
king, appointing himself, with three others, regent of the 
kingdom; but his artifice failed, and the earl of Arran 
became the regent. Cardinal Beaton was a cruel persecu¬ 
tor of the Protestants, and caused George Wishart to be 
burned at the stake. He was assassinated in his own castle 
by Norman Leslie and others May 29, 1546. (See Knox, 
“History of the Reformation in Scotland;” Froude, “His¬ 
tory of England,” vol. iv.; Robertson, “History of Scot¬ 
land.”) 

Bc/atrice, a city, capital of Gage co., Neb., in a town¬ 
ship of the same name, on the Big Blue River, 90 miles 
S. S. W. of Omaha. It has a weekly paper. It, is the 
southern terminus of the Omaha and South-western R. R. 
It is noted for its fine water-power and excellent building- 
stone. The U. S. land-office for the Nemaha district is 
located here. Pop. of township, 624. 

Theodore Coleman, Ed. of “Beatrice Express.” 

Bcatri'ce Portiua'ri, a beautiful Italian lady, a 
native of Florence, who excited the admiration of Dante, 


and was immortalized by him in his “ Divina Commedia.” 
She was married to Simone dei Bardi, and died in 1290, 
aged about twenty-four. 

Beat'tie (James), LL.D., D. C. L., a Scottish poet, 
born in the county of Kincardine Oct. 25, 1735. He be¬ 
came in 1760 professor of moral philosophy in Marischal 
College, Aberdeen. To refute the doctrines of Hume he 
published his “Essay on Truth ” (1770), which was ex¬ 
tremely successful. His most popular poem is “The Min¬ 
strel” (1771-74), which excited general admiration. Among 
his other works are “ The Evidences of the Christian Re¬ 
ligion, briefly and plainly stated” (1786), and “The Ele¬ 
ments of Moral Science” (1793). Died Aug. 18, 1803. 
(See Sir William Forbes, “ Life of James Beattie,” 2 vols., 
1806; Alexander Bower, “ Life of James Beattie,” 1804.) 

Beat'ty, a post-village of Westmoreland co., Pa. 

Beatty (John), born near Sandusky, 0., Dec. 16, 1828, 
was engaged in banking, but entered the Third Ohio In¬ 
fantry as a private in 1861, became its lieutenant-colonel 
in that year, its colonel in 1862, and brigadier-general of 
volunteers in the same year. He distinguished himself in 
many important battles in West Virginia, Kentucky, and 
Tennessee in the late civil war. 

Beat'tyvillc, a post-village, capital of Lee co., Ky. 
Pop. 123. 

Beaucaire, a town of France, in the department of 
Gard, on the right (W.) bank of the Rhone, and on a rail¬ 
way from Cette to Tarascon, 15 miles by rail E. of Nimes. 
A bridge nearly one mile long here crosses the Rhone. It 
has an active trade, which is facilitated by a canal extend¬ 
ing to the Mediterranean. Here is held annually a great 
fair (July 25-28), which was formerly perhaps the largest 
in Europe. It is said to have been instituted by Count 
Raymond II. of Toulouse in 1217, although we do not find 
it mentioned until 1315. It has declined in modern times, 
but it is still frequented by merchants from all parts of 
Europe and the Levant. The number of annual visitors 
was formerly estimated at 100,000, but has at present 
greatly declined. The chief articles sold at this fair are 
silks, wine, oil, drugs, wool, leather, and spices. Pop. in 
1866, 9395. 

Beauce, a county of Canada, in the S. E. part of Que¬ 
bec, intersected by the Chaudiere River. Area, 1150 square 
miles. It has mines of copper. Capital, St. Joseph de 
Beauce. Pop. in 1871, 27,253. 

Beauchamp, de (Alphonse), a French historian and 
publicist, born at Monaco, in Italy, in 1767, resided in 
Paris. He contributed to the “Moniteur” and the “Ga¬ 
zette de France,” and published many works, among which 
are a “History of La Vendee” (3 vols.,-1806), a “History 
of Brazil ” (1815), and a “Life of General Moreau” (1814). 
Died June 1, 1832. 

Beau'champ, Earls of, Viscounts Elmley (1815), 
Barons Beauchamp (1806, in the United Kingdom), a 
noble family of Great Britain. —Frederick Lygon, the 
sixth earl, was born Nov. 10, 1830, and succeeded his 
brother in 1866. He was lord of the admiralty in 1859, 
member of Parliament for Tewksbury 1857-63, and for 
West Worcestershire 1863-66. 

B eau'fortl, a post-township of Blue Earth co., Minn. 
Pop. 336. 

B eau'fort,* a county of North Carolina, bordering on 
Pamlico Sound, is intersected by the navigable Pamlico 
River. The surface is level; the soil is sandy, and in 
some parts marshy. Corn, rice, tobacco, and cotton are 
raised. Capital, Washington. Pop. 13,011. 

Beaufort,* a county which forms the southern ex¬ 
tremity of South Carolina. Area, 1540 square miles. It 
is bounded on the N. E. by the Combahce River, on the 
S. E. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the W. by the Savan¬ 
nah River. The surface is a level, alluvial plain ; the soil 
is sandy, but produces good crops of cotton, maize, rice, 
and sweet potatoes. The county is intersected by the 
Charleston and Savannah and the Port Royal R. Rs. Cap¬ 
ital, Beaufort. Pop. 34,359. 

Beaufort, a port of entry, capital of Carteret co., 
N. C., at the mouth of Newport River, about 4 miles from 
the ocean and 168 miles E. S. E. of Raleigh. Its har¬ 
bor is the best in the State, and is defended by Fort Ma¬ 
con. There is a lighthouse 156 feet high at Cape Lookout, 
11 miles S. E. of Beaufort, in lat. 34° 37’ 16” N., Ion. 76° 
31' 07” W. Pop. 2430; of the township, 2850. 

Beaufort, a port of entry, capital of Beaufort co., 
S. C., on Port Royal Island, and on an arm of the sea 
called Port Royal River, about 55 miles W. S. W. of 

* This name is usually pronounced bu'fort in South Carolina 
and bo'fort in North Carolina. 



















BEAUFORT 


Charleston. It has a good harbor, Avith nearly sixteen 
feet of Abater over the bar at the entrance. Lumber, rice, 
and cotton are exported. It has five churches and three 
Aveekly newspapers. Pop. 1739; of the township, 5511. 

Ed. “Barnwell County Times.” 

It cau'fort (Henry), Cardinal, an ambitious English 
prelate, born about 1375, was a natural son of John of 
Gaunt and half-brother of King Henry IV. He became 
bishop of Lincoln in 1398, bishop of Winchester in 1405, 
lord chancellor in 1403, again in 1413, and a third time in 
1424. He acted a prominent part in political affairs, for 
Avhich he had superior abilities. During the minority of 
Henry VI. he was A r ery powerful, and was a rival of his 
nephew, the duke of Gloucester. He Avas suspected of 
complicity in the murder of that rival. Died April 11, 
1447. (See Lord Campbell, “Lives of the Lord Chan¬ 
cellors.”) 

Beaufort, de (Francois de Vendome), Duo, born in 
Paris in 1616, Avas a grandson of Henry IV. of France, 
and a son of C6sar de Vendome. He was a leader of the 
malcontents or opponents of the court in the civil Avar of 
the Fronde. Having returned to his allegiance, he was 
appointed commander of the fleet by Louis XIV. about 
1662. He Avas killed at the siege of Candia in 1669. 

Beaufort, Dukes of (1682), marquesses of Worcester 
(1642); earls of Worcester (1514); earls of Glamorgan, 
Viscounts Grosmont, and Barons Beaufort (1642); Barons 
Herbert (1461); Barons Herbert of Ragland, Chepstow, 
and Gower (1506); Barons Bottetourt (1308, in Eng¬ 
land), an old and prominent family of Great Britain.— 
Henry Charles Fitzroy Soaierset, the eighth duke, was 
born Feb. 1, 1824, and succeeded his father in 1853. He 
Avas member of Parliament for East Gloucestershire 1846- 
53, master of the horse 1858-59 and 1866-68, and is at 
present lord lieutenant of Monmouthshire. 

Beaugency, an old town of France, in the department 
of Loiret, on the right bank of the Loire, and on the rail- 
Avay from Paris to Bordeaux, 16 miles S. W. of Orleans. It 
has manufactures of woollen and leather goods, and a trade 
in Avine, grain, and wool. Pop. 5029. 

Beauharnais, de (Eugene), a son of Vicomte Alex¬ 
andre de Beauharnais, Avas born in Paris Sept. 3, 1781. 
His mother, Josephine, became the wife of Bonaparte, whom 
he accompanied to Egypt in 1798. He Avas rapidly pro¬ 
moted in the army, was appointed viceroy of Italy in 1805, 
and married the princess Amalie Augusta, a daughter of 
the king of Bavaria, in 1806. His functions as viceroy were 
performed with ability, prudence, and moderation. He 
also displayed superior military talents in the campaign 
against Austria in 1809 and in the invasion of Russia in 
1812. Having obtained command of the army in Russia 
after it had suffered great disasters, he acted Avith remark¬ 
able firmness and constancy, and made a masterly retreat. 
After the battle of Liitzen, May, 1813, in which he took 
part, he went to Italy, which he defended against the Aus¬ 
trians until the deposition of Napoleon. He afterwards 
resided at Munich, and obtained from the king of Bavaria 
the title and estate of duke of Leuchtenberg. Died in 
Munich Feb. 21, 1824. One of his sons married Donna 
Maria, queen of Portugal, in 1835. (See Leonard Gal- 
lois, “ Histoire du Prince Eugene de Beauharnais,” 1821 ; 
A. Aubiiiet, “Vie de Eugene de Beauharnais,” 1824.) 

Beauharnois, a county of Canada, in the S. W. part 
of Quebec, has an area of 200 square miles. It is bounded 
on the N. W. by the river St. Lawrence, and is drained by 
the Chateauguay River. The soil is productive. Butter, 
cheese, wool, and oats are the chief' crops. Capital, Beau- 
harnois. Pop. in 1871, 14,757. 

Beauharnois, a post-village, capital of the above 
county, is on the St. Lawrence River, 27 miles S. W. of 
Montreal. It has a number of flax-mills, potteries, and 
factories, and one weekly paper. Pop. in 1871, 1423. 

Beaumarchais, de (Pierre Augustin Caron), a 
French dramatist remarkable for his wit and versatility, 
and whose adventurous career and vicissitudes of fortune 
obtained for him great celebrity, was born at Paris Jan. 
24, 1732, and Avas the son of a clockmaker. Although sent 
to the college (Anglice, school) at Alfort, he was at the 
early age of thirteen apprenticed to his father. He soon 
discovered a decided taste for literature and an excessive 
fondness for music, in Avhicli art he became so proficient 
that he Avas enabled to procure an introduction to the court 
of Louis XV., and was employed to teach the princesses, 
his daughters, to play upon the harp, in the performance 
upon Avhich he was skilled, and in the pedals of Avhich he 
introduced an improvement. At the concerts gi\*en at the 
court he made the acquaintance of Duverney, the cele¬ 
brated financier of that period, whom he was enabled to 
aid, by his influence with the princesses, in the accomplish¬ 


BEAUMONT. 429 


ment of certain projects in which the banker Avas at that 
time engaged. In return, Duverney instructed him in the 
affairs of finance, and aided him with funds and credit. 
The first literary production Avhich attracted attention to 
Beaumarchais Avas his drama of “ Eugenic,” published in 

1767, which, however, did not meet with success. In Nov., 

1768, Beaumarchais’s second Avife died, and in July of the 

same year, Duverney. Although one-half of his Avife’s for¬ 
tune Avas in a life-annuity, and the settlement of Duver- 
ney’s affairs discovered a balance in favor of Beaumar¬ 
chais, a rumor prevailed that he had poisoned his wife, and 
he Avas accused by Comte de la Blache, Duverney’s heir, 
of embezzlement, fraud, and forgery. A seven years’ litiga¬ 
tion in securing the amount due him from Duverney was 
the occasion of his masterly “Memoires” in his defence, 
which obtained for him great notoriety. These productions 
are admitted to be masterpieces in their Avay, and the in¬ 
terest and excitement produced by them is described as 
magical and electrical. Although thus occupied in the law 
and in his favorite literary pursuits, Beaumarchais Avas 
still actiA r ely engaged in various business speculations. He 
Avas prompt to foresee the success of our American Revolu¬ 
tion, and engaged by connivance with, though unaided by, 
the French government, in supplying the Americans Avith 
arms and ammunition. How his services in this direction 
Avere appreciated the folloAving will show : “ By express order 
of the Congress sitting at Philadelphia, to M. de Beaumar¬ 
chais : Sir,—The Congress of the U. S. of America, grate¬ 
ful for the great efforts you have made in their favor, pre¬ 
sents you its thanks, and the assurance of its esteem. It 
grieves for the misfortunes you have suffered in support 
of its States. Unfortunate circumstances have prevented 
the accomplishment of its desires, but it will take the 
promptest measures for acquitting itself of the debts it has 
contracted Avith you. The generous sentiments and the ex¬ 
alted views which alone could dictate a conduct such as 
yours are your greatest eulogium, and are an honor to your 
character. Whilst by your great talents you haA-e rendered 
yourself useful to your prince, you have gained the esteem 
of this rising republic, and merited the deserved applause 
of the New World. John Jay, President” 

Notwithstanding this, his claim, which Alexander Ham¬ 
ilton approved, Avas not paid until 1835, thirty-six years 
after his death, and then but one-fourth part of the 
principal. 

In the midst of his manifold labors he undertook at this 
time an expensive reproduction of the works of Voltaire, 
one edition of Avhich was to be in 92 A'olumes, by which he 
sustained a very heavy loss. NotAvithstanding he gave his 
support to the principles of the French Revolution, and 
imported firearms for the use of the French, his property 
Avas confiscated, and he Avas for a time an exile from his 
na tive land. After undergoing persecution and accusation, 
he returned to France after the Revolution was over. His suf¬ 
ferings during this period Avere described by him in a publish¬ 
ed Avork entitled “ Mes Six Epoques.” He recovered posses¬ 
sion of his beautiful villa at Faubourg St. Antoine, where 
he remained till his death. The evening of May 17, 1799, 
he passed with his family and a feAv friends; on the morn¬ 
ing of the 18th he was found dead in his bed. 

Beaumarchais, besides the works mentioned, is also the 
author of A r arious dramatic productions. “ Le Mariage de 
Figaro,” his masterpiece, produced the greatest excitement 
in Paris, and his “ Barbier de Seville,” which preceded it, 
was also a great success. The first formed an epoch in the 
dramatic, social, and political annals of France, and Avas 
styled by Napoleon “ the Revolution already in action.” It 
is but proper to add that no conception of its wit, vivacity, 
and telling social and political allusions and sarcasms can 
be had at the present day, especially from the opera libret¬ 
tos with which we are familiar. (See L. de Lomenie, 
“Beaumarchais, sa.Vie et son Temps,” 1852 ; Saint-Marc 
Girardin, “Notice sur la Vie de Beaumarchais,” 1835; 
E. Berger, “Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Beau¬ 
marchais,” 1847 ; “Edinburgh Review,” vol. civ., 1856; 
“London Quarterly RevieAv,” July, 1873, etc.) 

J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Beauma'ris, a seaport of Wales, and the capital of 
the island and county of Anglesea, is on the E. coast of 
the island, 3 miles N. of Bangor and about 2 miles from 
the N. end of Menai Strait. It is a favorite place ot resort 
for sea-bathing. The Bay of Beaumaris affords here safe 
anchorage. Here is a ruined castle built by Edward I. 
Pop. 2558. 

Beau'mont, the capital of Jefferson co., Tex., on the 
Texas and New Orleans R. R., 85 miles E. by N. of Hous¬ 
ton and 68 miles N. E. of Galveston, and at the head o 
tide-water navigation on the Neches River, which is navi¬ 
gable for 331 miles from the sea by steamers. The yellow 
pine and cypress lumber and shingles manufactured on the 









430 BEAUMONT—BEAVER. 


Neches River (which has eight or ten mills) are shipped in 
steamers and schooners from Beaumont via Sabine Pass. 
It has one weekly paper. 

W. F. M’ClANAHAN, Ed. OF “ NEWS-BEACON.” 

Beaumont (Francis), an English dramatic poet, born 
in Leicestershire in 1586, was educated at Oxford. After 
he left college he associated with Ben Jonson in London, 
and became an intimate friend of John Fletcher, in part¬ 
nership with whom he wrote several popular dramas, among 
which are “Philaster” (1611), “ The Coxcomb” (1613), 
and “ Cupid’s Revenge” (1613). Beaumont also wrote 
“The Masque of the Inner Temple” (1612), and other 
poems. Died Mar., 1616. Beaumont and Fletcher are 
lyrical and descriptive poets of the highest order, but they 
are offensively coarse and licentious. 

Beaumont (John C.), U. S. N., born Aug. 27, 1821, in 
Pennsylvania, entered the navy as a midshipman Mar. 1, 
1838, became a passed midshipman in 1844, a lieutenant in 
1855, a commander in 1862, and a captain in 1872. While 
commanding the steamer Aroostook, North Atlantic block¬ 
ading squadron, he took part in the shelling of Drury’s 
Blutf, May 15,1862, and commanded the steamer Mackinaw 
in both attacks upon Fort Fisher, and for his services on 
these occasions was recommended for promotion by Ad¬ 
miral Porter in his official despatch of Jan. 28, 1865. 

Foxiiall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Beaumont (William), M. D., an American sui'geon, 
born at Lebanon, Conn., in 1785. "While in the U. S. army 
in 1825 a young man (Alexis St.-Martin) was brought to 
him who had received a wound from a musket discharged 
at the distance of only a few feet. The wound healed, and 
left an aperture about two and a half inches in diameter, 
through which the process of digestion could be seen. Doc-, 
tor Beaumont availed himself of this to make various ex¬ 
periments on digestion, the results of which are extremely 
interesting and of great importance to physiological sci¬ 
ence. They were published in 1838, and afterwards in 
England and on the Continent. Died at St. Louis April 
25, 1853. 

Beaumont de la Bonniere, de (Gustave), an 
eminent French publicist and advocate, was born in Sarthe 
Feb. 16, 1802. He was a grandson of La Fayette. He 
visited the U. S. in 1831, in company with De Tocqueville, 
in order to study American systems of prison discipline. 
He wrote an able work “ On the Penitentiary System 
of the U. S., etc.” (2 vols., 1832), and “Slavery in the 
U. S.” (1835). He was elected to the Chamber of Depu¬ 
ties in 1840, and was a moderate republican member of the 
National Assembly of 1848. Having opposed the coup- 
d’etat of Dec., 1851, he was imprisoned for a short time. 
Died Mar. 2, 1866. 

Beaune (anc. Vellaunodu'num), an old town of France, 
in the department of Cote-d’Or, is on the river Bouzoise, and 
on the Paris and Lyons Railway, 23 miles by rail S. S. W. 
of Dijon. It has the beautiful church of Notre Dame, and a 
splendid hospital founded in 1443. Here are manufactures 
of woollen cloth, cutlery, leather, etc. Good burgundy wine 
is produced in this vicinity. Pop. in 1866, 10,907. 

Beauport, a post-village and parish of Quebec co., 
Canada, 3£ miles N. E. of Quebec. It has extensive man¬ 
ufactures and trade in flour, lumber, nails, etc., and is 
the seat of Beauport Lunatic Asylum, a large and well- 
conducted institution. Pop. about 1300. 

Beauregard, a township of Drew co., Ark. Pop. 598. 

B eauregard, a station on the New Orleans Jackson 
and Great Northern R. R., 139 miles N. by W. of New 
Orleans. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Beauregard (Peter Gustavus Toutant), an Ameri¬ 
can officer and engineer, born in 1818 near New Orleans, 
La., graduated at West Point in 1838, captain of engineers, 
U. S. A., Mar. 3, 1853, and general July 21, 1861, in the 
Southern army. He served in constructing fortifications 
1838-45 and 1848-52, in the war with Mexico 1846-48, en¬ 
gineer at Tampico (erecting defences), Vera Cruz, Cerro 
Gordo, Pedregal, Contreras (brevet captain), Chapultepcc 
(brevet major), and city of Mexico (twice wounded); as 
member of special engineer boards for harbor and river 
improvements and Gulf of Mexico defences 1852-58, and 
in construction of the New Orleans custom-house, marine 
hospital, and quarantine warehouses 1853-60. Resigning 
from the army Feb. 20, 1861, he joined the Southern Confed¬ 
eracy, taking an active part in the civil war; in command 
of the bombardment of Fort Sumter, S. C., 1861, in the 
Manassas campaign at Bull Run, Va., 1861, of the Corinth 
army 1862, after the death of Gen. A. S. Johnston at Shiloh; 
in defence of Corinth till compelled by Gen. Halleck to 
evacuate it, 1862; of the military department of South 
Carolina and Georgia, including the defence of Charleston, 
1862-64; defence of Petersburg, Va., 1864; of the military 


division of the West 1864, and of Charleston, S. C.; from 
which he retired and joined Gen. J. E. Johnston upon the 
approach of Gen. Sherman, to whom his forces were sur¬ 
rendered at Durham Station, N. C., April 26, 1865. Since 
the war he has been a civil engineer in the South. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

BeausoDre, de (Isaac), a learned French Protestant 
writer, born at Niort Mar. 8, 1659. He was ordained in 
1683, but was compelled by persecution to go into exile in 
1685. In 1694 he went to Berlin, and became pastor of the 
French church. Here he remained till his death (June 6, 
1738), though his great talents caused him to receive fre¬ 
quent and tempting calls to go to London, Hamburg, and 
other Protestant cities. Beausobre’s fame rests chiefly on 
his “Ilistoire Critique de Manichelsme ” (2 vols., 1734-39), 
a work of vast labor, learning, and ability. He also published 
a “History of the Reformation” (1785) and other import¬ 
ant works, and, with L’Enfant, translated apart of the New 
Testament. He is charged with Socinian tendencies. 

Beautiful, Science of the. See Aesthetics. 

B eauvais (anc. Bellov'acum), an old city of France, 
capital of the department of Oise, is situated on the river 
Therain, and in a rich valley enclosed by wooded hills, 64 
miles by rail N. N. W. of Paris. It has a fine large but 
unfinished Gothic cathedral, a public library, a museum, 
and a college. Here are extensive manufactures of wool¬ 
len cloths, flannels, shawls, Gobelin tapestry, printed cot¬ 
tons, and carpets. Pop. in 1866, 15,307v It was the chief 
town of the Bellovaci in the time of Csesar. In 1443 it 
was besieged in vain by the English. The citizens of 
Beauvais, aided by the heroine La Ilachette and other 
women, repulsed Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who 
besieged the city in 1472. 

B eauvais, a township of Sainte Genevieve co., Mo. 
Pop. 1306. 

Bca'ver [Fr. bievre; Lat. cas'tor and fi'ber; Ger. Bi'- 
ber\, (the Cantor Fiber of the naturalists), a remarkable 
quadruped of the order Rodentia, is a native of Europe, 
Asia, and North America. Beavers were once abundant in 
the U. S., but they have gradually disappeared before the 
advance of civilization. They are characterized by in¬ 
dustry, sagacity, and instinctive skill in building dams 
and houses. They have strong incisors or cutting teeth, in 
which a sharp, chisel-like edge is alway-s preserved by the 
unequal abrasion of the hard enamel and the other part, 
which is softer. The body of the beaver is about two feet 
long. The toes of the hind feet are long, spreading, and 
webbed to the nails. Among its remarkable characteris¬ 
tics is a tail of an oval form, about ten inches long, hori¬ 
zontally flattened, and about three inches wide. The tail 



is covered with horny scales, but the body is covered with 
a very fine and valuable fur, the color of which is some¬ 
times chestnut-brown ; this fur is used for making hats and 
caps. Its food consists of bark of trees, leaves, roots, and 
berries. The favorite haunts of beavers are rivers and 
lakes which are bordered by forests. “ Their work is all 
performed in the night,” says Dr. Godman. When they 
find a stream that is not sufficiently deep for their purpose, 
they build a dam across it with wonderful ingenuity and 
industry. The dam, which is formed of sticks, roots, stones, 
and mud strangely combined, is watertight, and presents 
a convex surface towards the current. To obtain material 
for it they cut down the trees growing on the margin of 
the stream above the dam, and float them down. They 
prefer small trees, but sometimes fell those that are ten 
inches or more in diameter. It is stated that they have 
built dams nearly 300 yards long. The sides of the dam 
incline towards each other, so that the bottom of it is much 
thicker than the top. There is a popular opinion that 
beavers use their tails as trowels in plastering. It is more 





















BEAVER—BEAVEKTAIL. 


431 


probable that the tail serves as a prop or support when 
they work with their fore feet or carry burdens with them. 
They pass the winter in houses or lodges which are two or 
three feet high, are built on the edge of the water, and 
afford them protection from wolves and other wild beasts. 
They also have holes or burrows in the ground (adjacent 
to their lodges), with entrances under the water, in which 
they take refuge if their lodges are destroyed or become 
untenable. 

The houses or huts of beavers are not built of sticks first, 
and then plastered, but all the materials, sticks, mud, and 
stones, are mixed together, and this composition is em¬ 
ployed from the foundation to the summit. “ The tops of 
the houses/’ says Godman, “ are generally from four to six 
feet thick at the apex of the cone.” “ The outside of the 
hut is covered or plastered with mud late in the autumn, 
and after frost has begun to appear. By freezing it soon 
becomes almost as hard as stone, effectually excluding their 
great enemy, the wolverine, during the winter. The door 
or hole leading into the beaver-hut is always on the side 
farthest from the land, and is near the foundation of the 
hut or at a considerable depth under water.” When they 
are much disturbed by the presence of hunters and settlers, 
beavers renounce their original programme, cease to build 
dams and houses, and, adapting themselves to their altered 
circumstances, excavate in the banks of rivers holes for 
their residence—a signal manifestation of sagacity. 

Beavers are easily tamed, but no wooden cage will keep 
them confined, because they gnaw through. Many of them 
are caught in traps by the Indians and other trappers. In 
1820, (50,000 beaver skins were sold by the Hudson’s Bay 
Company. Their numbers are rapidly diminishing in con¬ 
sequence of the exterminating warfare waged against them 
by hunters, who often kill the young before they have at¬ 
tained half their growth. The bait which is used to entice 
beavers is prepared from the substance called castor (cas- 
toreurn), obtained from glandular pouches connected with 
the reproductive organs of the male beavers. “ The only 
species of beaver known,” says Dr. Godman, “is the one 
we have described,” but others believe the Old World and 
New World beavers to be distinct species. The remains of 
an extinct beaver, very much larger than the living species, 
have been found in the surface deposits of Ohio and New 
York. It was first described by Col. J. W. Foster, and by 
him was called Casteroides. (See Morgan, “ The American 
Beaver,” 1867.) Revised by J. S. Newberry. 

Beaver, a county of Pennsylvania, bordering on Ohio. 
Area, 650 square miles. It is intersected by the Ohio and 
Beaver rivers. The surface is undulating; the soil is very 
fertile. Grain, wool, hay, and dairy products are exten¬ 
sively raised. Bituminous coal and limestone abound in 
this county, which is liberally supplied with water-power. 
The Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago and Cleveland and 
Pittsburg R. Rs. traverse the county. It has many import¬ 
ant manufactures. Capital, Beaver. Pop. 36,148. 

Beaver, a large county in the S. of Utah, bordering 
on Nevada. It is intersected by Green River. Cattle, wool, 
and wheat are the chief exports. Lead, silver, and iron 
are found here. Capital, Beaver. Pop. 2007. 

Beaver, a township of Saline co., Ark. Pop. 240. 

Beaver, a township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop. 1278. 

Beaver, a township of Newton co., Ind. Pop. 637. 

B eaver, a township of Pulaski co., Ind. Pop. 489. 

Beaver, a township of Butler co., Ia. Pop. 1084. 

Beaver, a township of Dallas co., Ia. Pop. 343. 

B eaver, a township of Grundy co., Ia. Pop. 401. 

Beaver, a township of Guthrie co., Ia. Pop. 520. 

Beaver, a township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 1213. 

Beaver, a township of Bay co., Mich. Pop. 141. 

Beaver, a township of Newaygo co., Mich. Pop. 142. 

Beaver, a township of Fillmore co., Minn. Pop. 419. 

Beaver, a townshiji of Renville co., Minn. Pop. 569. 

Beaver, a township of Taney co., Mo. Pop. 581. 

Beaver, a township of Mahoning co., O. Pop. 1933. 

Beaver, a township of Noble co., O. Pop. 1684. 

Beaver, a post-township of Pike co., 0. Pop. 694. 

Beaver, a post-borough, capital of Beaver co., Pa., on 
the right bank of the Ohio River, 2 miles below the mouth 
of the Beaver River, and on the Cleveland and Pittsburg 
R. R., 27 miles N. W. of Pittsburg. It is the seat of Beaver 
College, a female seminary, an academy, good union schools, 
and four churches. There is a fine park in the centre of 
the village. It has three weekly newspapers. Pop. 1120. 

Ed. “ Radical.” 

Beaver, a township of Clarion co., Pa. Pop. 1338. 

Beaver, a township of Columbia co., Pa. Pop. 958. 


Beaver, a township of Crawford co., Pa. Pop. 1177. 
Beaver, a township of Jefferson co., Pa. Pop. 1094. 
Beaver, a township of Snyder co., Pa. Pop. 1766. 

Beaver, a post-village, capital of Beaver co., Utah, is 
on Beaver River, about 50 miles S. by W. from Fillmore. 
Copper and lead are found in the vicinity. 

Beaver Bay, a post-village, capital of Lake co., Minn., 
in a township of the same name, on Lake Superior, at the 
mouth of Beaver Bay River, 55 miles N. E. of Duluth; lat. 
47° 12' N., Ion. 91° 20' W. Pop. of township, 119. 

Beaver Creek, a post-township of Dale co., Ala. Pop. 
400. 

Beaver Creek, a post-township of Bond co., Ill. Pop. 
1490. 

Beaver Creek, a post-township of Washington co., 
Md. Pop. 1366. 

Beaver Creek, a post-township of Seward co., Neb. 
Pop. 565. 

B eaver Creek, a township of York co., Neb. P. 129. 
Beaver Creek, a township of Jones co., N. C. P.1108. 

Beaver Creek, a township of Wilkes co., N. C. Pop. 
960. 

Beaver Creek, a township of Greene co., O. P. 2289. 
B eaver Dam, a township of Butler co., Mo. P. 786. 
B eaver Dam, a township of Bladen co., N. C. P. 619. 
Beaver Dam, a township of Cherokee co., N. C. Pop. 
763. 

Beaver Dam, a township of Haywood co., N. C. Pop. 
1745. 

Beaver Bam, a township of Richmond co., N. C. Pop. 
635. 

Beaver Barn, a township of Watauga co., N. C. Pop. 
413. 

Beaver Dam, a post-village and township of Hanover 
co., Va., on the Chesapeake and Ohio R. R., 40 miles N. N.W. 
of Richmond. Pop. of township, 3237. 

Beaver Dam, a city of Dodge co., Wis., on Beaver 
Dam Creek and on the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 61 
miles N. W. of Milwaukee. It is the seat of Wayland 
University, and has a fine water-power, two woollen fac¬ 
tories, a large seeder establishment, two large grist-mills, 
two newspapers, and various small manufactures. It is 
the commercial centre of a large and rich country. Pop. 
3265; including Beaver Dam township, 4726. 

Ed. of “ Beaver Dam Argus.” 

15 eaver Falls, the capital of Renville co., Minn., on 
the Beaver River, about 2 miles above where it empties 
into the Minnesota, and 108 miles S. S. W. of St. Paul. 
It has mills and sjilendid water-power, breweries, stores, 
county buildings, and one newspaper. It is in an excel¬ 
lent agricultural region. 

I). S. Hall, Ed. “ Renville Times.” 
Beaver Falls, a post-borough of Beaver co., Pa., on 
Beaver River, 4 miles above its junction with the Ohio, 
and on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R., 31 
miles N. W. of Pittsburg. It has important manufactures. 
Pop. 3112. 

Beaver Head, a county of the S. W. part of Montana, 
bordering on Idaho. Area, 4393 square miles. It is drained 
by the Jefferson River, a branch of the Missouri. The sur¬ 
face is partly mountainous. Stock-raising is carried on. 
The Rocky Mountain chain extends along the S. W. bor¬ 
der. Gold is found in it. Capital, Bannack City. Pop. 
722. 

Beaver Indians, a name given to a former tribe of 
Algonquins who lived on the Canada side of Lake Huron. 
It is also applied to a tribe allied to the Chippewyans. 
They live on the Peace River in the British N. W. prov¬ 
inces of North America. 


B eaver Island, a township of Stokes co., N. C. Pop. 
1247. 

B eaver Islands, a group of islands in the N. part of 
Lake Michigan, are a part of the county of Manitou (which 
see) in Michigan. St. James, on Big Beaver Island, is the 
chief town. Here a branch of the Mormons, under Joseph 
Strong, settled in 1846. 

Beaver Meadow, a mining village of Carbon co., Pa., 
11 miles N. W. of Mauch Chunk. Here are valuable coal¬ 
mines, from which the coal is conveyed by a railroad to the 
Lehigh River. 

Beaver Pond, a township of Mercer co., West Va. 
Pop. 1277. 

Bea'vertail, the S. point of Conanicut Island, in Nar- 
ragansett Bay, R. I., has a square granite lighthouse 74 
feet high, Avith a fixed white light of the third order .16 
feet above the sea; lat. 41° 26' 56” N., Ion. 71° 23 39 Vi . 













432 BEAVERTON—BECKET. 


Bea'verton, a post-village of Ontario co., Canada, on 
the E. shore of Lake Simcoe, GO miles N. by E. from To¬ 
ronto. It is the N. W. terminus of the Midland Railway 
of Canada. It has one weekly paper. 

Beaverton, a post-village of Croghan and New Bremen 
townships, Lewis co., N. Y., at the head of navigation of 
Beaver River, has extensive manufactures of lumber and 
a tannery. 

Bea'vertown, a post-village of Beaver township, Sny¬ 
der co., Pa., on the Sunbury and Lewistown R. R., 25 miles 
W. by S. of Sunbury. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Bcbce'ria, or Bebee'rine (C 19 H 21 NO 3 ), a vegetable 
alkali or alkaloid obtained from the bark of the bebeeru, or 
green-heart, a tree of British Guiana. It is used in medicine 
as a substitute for quinine, which it resembles in properties. 

Bebee'ru, Bibiru, or Beebeeru ( Nectandra Ro- 
disei), a tree of British Guiana, the timber of which is 
known in commerce by the name of green-heart. It is of 
the natural order Lauraceae. (See Green-heart.) 

B ecancour, a post-village, capital of Nicolet co., 
Quebec, Canada, 85 miles S. W. of Quebec, has a large 
trade in flour and lumber. Pop. about 600. 

Beccafi'co, i. e. “ fig-eater” ( Syl'via horten'sis or Cur- 
ru'ea liorten'sis), a small bird of the family of Sylviadae or 
warblers, is sometimes called the garden warbler. It is 
abundant in Southern Europe as a summer bird of passage. 
The flesh of it is esteemed as a delicate food by the Italians. 
It has an agreeable song. 

B eccamoschi'no, the Italian name of the Syl'via 
cistic'ola, a small bird of the family of warblers, found in 
Italy. It builds a remarkable nest, which resembles that 
of the tailor-bird. 

Becca'ria, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 
1239. 

B eccari'a, tli (Cesare Bonesana), Marquis, an emi¬ 
nent Italian economist and writer on penal laws, was born 
at Milan Mar. 15, 1738. His principles were formed by 
the influence of Montesquieu. His most important work 
is a “ Treatise on Crimes and Punishments ” (“ Trattato 
dei Delitti e delle Pene,” 1764), in which he advanced elo¬ 
quent arguments against the severities and abuses of crim¬ 
inal law. It obtained great popularity, and was translated 
into many languages. Voltaire admired it, and wrote a 
commentary on it. In 1768 he was appointed professor 
of political philosophy at Milan. Hied Nov. 28, 1794. 
(See C. P. Villa, “Vita del Marchese C. Beccaria,” 1821; 
P. Custom, “Vita di C. Beccaria.”) 

Beche-de-Mer [Fr. for “sea-spade,” because they are 
pressed and dried in a shape not unlike that of a spade], 
or Trepang, a name given to the dried bodies of several 
species of Holothu'ria, or sea-cucumber, which are abundant 
in shallow lagoons and on reefs between Australia, the Fe- 
jee Islands, and the S. E. coasts of Asia. They are es¬ 
teemed a luxurious article of food by the Chinese. The 
Malay divers catch them and prepare them in large quan¬ 
tities for the Chinese market. This animal is usually about 
nine inches long, but sometimes measures two feet. It is 
stated that 8000 hundredweight of the trepang are annu¬ 
ally exported from Macassar to China. (See IIolothu- 

RID./E.) 

Be'cher (Johann Joachim), a German chemist, born at 
Speyer in 1645, is called the author of the first theory of 
chemistry. He became aulic councillor at Vienna, but soon 
fell into disgrace, and removed to Mayence. He was ad¬ 
dicted to speculation, and wrote, besides other works, 
“ Physica Subterranea” (1669). His theory was the basis 
of that which was developed by Stahl. He died in London 
in Oct., 1682. 

Becher (Seigfried), a German political economist, 
born at Plan, in Bohemia, Feb. 28, 1806. Since 1835 he 
has been professor of history and geography in the Poly¬ 
technic Institute in Vienna. Among his works are “Das 
Oesterreichische Miinzsystem von 1524-1838” (2 vols., 
1838), “Organization des Gewerbwesens” (1851), and 
“Die Volkswirthschaft” (1853). 

Bechua'na, Betjiians, Bechuans, or Bosh- 
uana, a nation of Southern Africa, occupying the country 
between 22° and 29° E. Ion. Their southern boundary is 
near 28° S. lat. They are divided into numerous tribes, 
each governed by its chief. They are unwarlike and gen¬ 
tle in disposition, and are said to be superior to the Caffres 
in arts and civilization. They cultivate the soil with skill 
and diligence. Sheep and cows form an important part of 
their riches. The Bechuana worship several species of 
animals. Their language is called “Sechuana.” “Bech¬ 
uana” is a plural form; “Mechuana” is the singular. 
(See Dr. Livingstone, “Travels in Southern Africa;” 
Moffat’s “ Southern Africa.”) 


Beck (Charles), Pii. D., LL.D., a German philologist, 
born at Heidelberg Aug. 19, 1798. Having removed to 
America in 1824, he became in 1832 professor ot the Latin 
language and literature at Cambridge, Mass. He obtained 
the degree of LL.D. from Harvard University in 1865. He 
published “The Manuscripts of the Satyricon of Petronius 
Arbiter Described and Collated” (1863), and other works. 
Died Mar. 19, 1866. 

Beck (John Brodhead), M. D., an American physi¬ 
cian, born at Schenectady, N. Y., Sept. 18, 1794, graduated 
at Columbia College in 1813. He became in 1826 professor 
of materia medica in the College of Physicians and Sur¬ 
geons in New York City. He published “Infant Thera¬ 
peutics” (1849). Died April 9, 1851. 

Beck (Lewis C.), M. D., a brother of the preceding, was 
born at Schenectady Oct. 4, 1798. He graduated at Union 
College in 1817,.became professor of chemistry in the med¬ 
ical college of Albany in 1840, and wrote several works on 
chemistry and botany. His report on the mineralogy of 
New York was published by the State in 1842. Died 
April 21, 1853. 

Beck (Tiieodoric Romeyn), M. D., LL.D., a medical 
writer, a brother of the preceding, was born at Schenec¬ 
tady Aug. 11, 1791. He graduated at Union College in 
1804, practised at Albany, and obtained in 1840 the chair 
of materia medica in the medical college of that city. He 
published “Elements of Medical Jurisprudence” (1823). 
Died Nov. 19, 1855. 

Beck'cr, a county of the W. N. W. part of Minnesota. 
Area, 1400 square miles. It is drained by the Red River of 
the North, which rises within its limits, and contains sev¬ 
eral lakes. The surface is elevated about 1680 feet above 
the sea. Since the census of 1870 it has been rapidly set¬ 
tled. The soil is productive. The grain crop is important. 
It is intersected by the Northern Pacific R. R. Pop. 308. 

Becker (Hermann Heinrich), a German politician, 
called her rothe Becker {i.e. “the Red Becker,” on ac¬ 
count of his extreme radical views in politics), was born 
Sept. 15,1820, took part in the revolutionary movement in 
1848, and was imprisoned for several years. In 1862 he 
was elected a member of the Prussian house of deputies, 
and in 1867 and 1868 of the North German Parliament, and 
is one of the recognized leaders of the liberal party. 

Becker (Jakob), a German genre-painter of the DLis- 
seldorf school, born Mar. 15, 1810. His best works present 
village scenes and idyllic subjects. Died Dec. 22, 1872. 

Becker (Johann Philipp), a German patriot and rad¬ 
ical, born at Frankenthal Mar. 19, 1809. He emigrated to 
Switerzland in 1837, and fought against the Sonderbund in 
1847-48. During the revolutionary movements of 1848 
and 1849 he served in the army of insurgents in Baden. 

Becker (Karl), a German painter, born Dec. 18, 1820, 
painted in Berlin. His paintings are numerous, represent¬ 
ing mostly old Venetian life. 

Becker (Ivarl Fermnand), a German composer and 
writer on music, was born at Leipsic July 17, 1804. He 
composed for the organ, and wrote, besides other works, 
“Trios” (1844) and “Die Torkiinstlcr des 19. Jahrhun- 
derts” (1849). 

Becker (Thomas A.), the first Catholic bishop of the 
diocese of Wilmington, Del., was born of German Prot¬ 
estant parents in Pittsburg, studied in Munich, where he 
joined the Catholic Church, and was consecrated as bishop 
Aug. 23, 1868. 

Becker (Wilhelm Adolf), a learned German author, 
born at Dresden in 1796. He attempted to reproduce the 
social life of ancient Rome in “ Gallus ” (1838), and that of 
ancient Greece in his “Charieles” (1840), both of which 
were translated into English by Metcalfe. His chief work 
is “ Handbuch der rom. Alterthiimer” (1843-46). Died 
Sept. 30, 1846. 

Beck'et, a post-township of Berkshire co. Mass., on 
the Boston and Albany R. R. Pop. 1346. 

Beck'et (Thomas a), archbishop of Canterbury, was 
born in London in 1109. He studied at Oxford and Paris, 
and was appointed high chancellor in 1158, being the first 
native Englishman who filled a high office after the Con¬ 
quest. His style of living was sumptuous in this part of 
his life, but when he became archbishop of Canterbury in 
1162 a remarkable change took place in his habits and de¬ 
portment. He practised or affected great austerity, and 
appeared as a zealous champion of the Church against the 
aggressions of the king, whose policy tended to keep the 
clergy in subordination to the civil power. Becket having 
been involved in a conflict vrith Henry II., escaped in 1164 
to France, and appealed to the pope, by whom he was sup¬ 
ported. Henry confiscated his property and sequestered 
the revenues of his see, and received in return a menace of 
























BECKFORD—BEDELL. 


a papal interdict. In 1170 a formal but hollow reconcili¬ 
ation was made between the king and the obstinate and 
haughty prelate, who returned to England and resumed his 
office. He also renewed his defiance of the royal authority, 
but on the 29th of Dec., 1170, was assassinated by four 
barons, servants of the king. He was regarded as a martyr 
by many patriotic Saxons, as well as by the zealous votaries 
of the Church. He was canonized by the pope in 1173, and 
his bones were deposited in a splendid shrine at Canter¬ 
bury, which became the object of one of the great pilgrim¬ 
ages of Christendom. 

Beckett (James M.), M. D., was a native of South Car¬ 
olina, where he received his medical and literary education. 
He became a resident of Pickens, Ala., was a trustee of the 
State University in 1840, and entered the Senate as a State 
Rights Democrat in 1847. He acquired reputation as a 
debater, but his public life closed with the session of 1849. 

Beck'ford (William), a celebrated author, was born in 
1760. He inherited from his father an immense fortune, 
including the estate of Fonthill, in Wiltshire. His annual 
income was .about £100,000. He married in 1783 Lady 
Margaret Gordon, a daughter of the earl of Aboyne. In 
1784 he published his principal work, “Vathek,” an 
Eastern tale (written in French), which was highly com¬ 
mended by Lord Byron. He was elected to Parliament in 
1790, resided some years in Portugal, and expended an 
enormous sum in the erection of Fonthill Abbey, which he 
filled with rare and expensive works of art. In 1822 he 
sold this palace and the estate of Fonthill for £350,000, and 
built another palace at Bath. He published in 1834 a 
series of letters entitled “ Italy, with Sketches of Spain 
and Portugal,” 2 vols. He was a witty and graphic writer, 
and had much talent for sarcasm. Died May 2, 1844. 
(See “ Memoirs of William Beckford,” London, 2 vols., 
1859; “Quarterly Review” for Mar. and June, 1834.)*/ 

Beckx (Peter John), a Belgian Jesuit, was born 
Feb. 8, 1795. He joined the Society of Jesus in 1819, was 
elected procurator of the province of Austria in 1847, was 
appointed, after the restoration of the Jesuits in Austria, 
provincial for Austria, and was elected in 1853 general of 
the order, in which position he has displayed great energy. 

Becquerel (Antoine Cesar), an eminent French sa¬ 
vant, born at Chatillon-sur-Loing (Loiret) Mar. 8, 1788. 
He served in the army as an officer of engineers from 1810 
till 1815, after which he gave special attention to the study 
of electricity, and made discoveries in electro-chemistry. 
He refuted and exploded Volta’s theory of contact, and 
constructed the first constant pile. In 1837 he received the 
Copley medal of the Royal Society of London. He in¬ 
vented a method of electrotyping. He published, besides 
other works, “ Traits experimental de l’61ectricite et du 
magnetisme” (7 vols., 1834-40). He became a member of 
the Academy of Sciences in 1829.—His sons, Alexandre 
Edmond (born Mar. 24, 1820), a physicist, and Louis Al¬ 
fred, a physician, born in 1814, have each attained dis¬ 
tinction as scientific men. 

B ecse, Old (Hun. O'Beese), a market-town of Hungary, 
in the county of Bacs, 48 miles S. of Szegedin, on the 
Theiss. Pop. in 1869, 14,058. 

Becse, New (Hun. Uj-Becse), a town of Hungary, in 
the county of Torontal, on the Theiss, 8 miles E. of Old 
Becse. Pop. in 1869, 7193. 

Becskerek, Nagy (“Great Becskerek”), a town of 
Hungary, in the county of Torontal, on the left bank of the 
Bega, 59 miles S. W. of Temesv^r, with which it is con¬ 
nected by a canal. It has a considerable trade. Pop. in 
1869, 19,666. 

Bed, in geology, a stratum or layer of stratified sedi¬ 
mentary rock of variable thickness. A bed often consists 
of numerous thin laminae or plates, resulting from intermis¬ 
sions in the supply of materials, produced by such causes 
as the ebb and flow of the tide, and variable degrees of the 
turbidness of the water under which they were deposited. 
Seams become beds, or are so called if they have a con¬ 
siderable thickness, as coal-beds. 

Bed of Justice [Fr. lit de justice], a term applied to the 
seat or throne occupied by the king of France when he was 
present at a session of Parliament; also to such a session, 
or the conference of the Parliament with the king, who 
came to overrule the decisions of Parliament and enforce 
edicts or ordinances to which that body was opposed. De¬ 
crees promulgated at such a session were more authoritative 
than the ordinary decisions of Parliament. The ceremony 
became synonymous with an act of arbitrary power. The 
last “bed of justice” was held by Louis XVI., in 1787. 

B6darieux, a town of France, in the department of 
Ilerault, on the river Orbe, 27 miles by rail N. of Beziers. 
It is well built, and has manufactures of fine cloths, hosiery, 
cotton stuffs, paper, hats, and soap. Pop. 8985. 

28 


433 


Bed-bug, a well-known hemipterous insect, the Cimex 
lectnlarius, infesting beds, houses, dove-cots, and the nests 
of swallows, bats, etc. The eggs are oval and white; the 
young vermin flat and transparent. In eleven weeks the 
insect reaches its full size. It is tenacious of life, and has 
been kept alive more than a year in a sealed bottle without 
food. Cockroaches devour them in large numbers. Mer¬ 
curial solutions, benzine, etc. will extirpate these vermin, 
but prevention by cleanliness is better than cure. 

Bed'-chamber, Lords of the, twelve officers of the 
British royal household who in the reign of a king wait in 
turn on the person of the sovereign. The^ are under the 
groom of the stole, who attends His Majesty only in public 
ceremonies and on occasions of state. During the reign of 
a queen these offices are performed by ladies of the bed¬ 
chamber and the mistress of the robes, who is substituted 
for the groom of the stole. Queen Victoria has about eleven 
ladies and extra ladies of the bed-chamber. These offices 
are usually filled by the “prime nobility” of the kingdom, 
who are appointed by the sovereign, and are not removed 
on each change of the ministry. 

Bed'dington, a post-township of Washington co., Me. 
Pop. 134. 

Bed'does (Thomas), M. D., an eminent English physi¬ 
cian and writer, born at Shiffnal, in Shropshire, April 13, 
1760. He was educated at Oxford, and was well versed in 
the Latin and other languages. He married Anna, a sister 
of Maria Edgeworth, and in 1788 was appointed to the 
chemical lectureship in the University of Oxford. In 1792 
he resigned this position. He wrote for the benefit of the 
working-classes a popular work called “ The History of 
Isaac Jenkins.” He opened in 1798 at Bristol a pneumatic 
hospital for the cure of disease by medicated gases, in 
which Humphry Davy was his assistant. Among his works 
is “ Ilygeia, or Essays, Moral and Medical” (3 vols., 1802). 
Died Nov. or Dec. 24, 1808. (See E. Stock, “ Life of T. 
Beddoes,” 1811.) 

Beddoes (Thomas Lovell), M. D., a poet, a son of the 
preceding, was born at Clifton July 20, 1803. He was a 
nephew of Maria Edgeworth. He studied medicine and 
anatomy at Gottingen, and resided many years in Germany. 
In 1822 he produced “ The Brides’ Tragedy,” which excited 
general admiration by its profound thoughts, though not free 
from extravagance. Among his productions is a tragedy 
called “Death’s Jest-Book” (1851), which displays great 
richness of imagery and passionate eloquence. He died at 
Bale Jan. 26, 1849, in consequence of a dissection wound 
received in 1848. 

Bede [Lat. Be'da], surnamed the Venerable, an illus¬ 
trious and pious English scholar and monk, was born in 
the county of Durham in 673 A. D. He was ordained a 
priest at the age of thirty, and devoted much time to study 
and literary pursuits. His name is regarded as the great¬ 
est in the ancient literature of Britain. He wrote on 
astronomy, grammar, music, etc. His most important 
work is an “Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation” 
(“Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum”), which King 
Alfred translated into Anglo-Saxon, and which has often 
been reprinted. He died May 26, 735 A. D. His whole 
works were published by Dr. Giles (London, 6 vols., 1844), 
including an English translation of his “ Ecclesiastical 
History.” (See Gehle, “ De Bedrn Venerabilis Vita et 
Scriptis,” 1838; J. A. Giles, “Life of Bede,” prefixed to 
his complete Avorks, 1844.) 

Bedeau (Marie Alphonse), a French general, was 
born in Vertou, near Nantes, Aug. 10, 1804. He served 
with distinction in Algeria (1836-47), and became a general 
of division in Sept., 1844. He had the command (under 
Bugeaud) of the troops in Paris when the Parisians re¬ 
volted in Feb., 1848, and under the new republican regime 
he became commander-in-chief of that city. Asa member 
of the National Assembly (1849-51) he acted with the 
republicans and opposed Louis Napoleon. Died Oct. 29, 
1863. 

Bed'egar, or Bedeguar, a name of a remarkable 
gall which is sometimes called sweet-brier sponge, and is 
found on the branches of the sweet-brier and other species 
of rose. It is produced by the Cynips rosse and other in¬ 
sects, and is often one inch or more in diameter. It was 
once used in medicine. 

Be'del (Timothy), a Revolutionary patriot, born at Sa¬ 
lem, N. II., removed to Haverhill, N. H., and was a lieuten¬ 
ant in 1760, serving in Canada. He became in 17/ 5 a captain 
of rangers, and in 1776 colonel of the first regiment of New 
Hampshire troops, and served at Montreal and under 
Schuyler, and afterwards was major-general of Tsew^IIamp- 
shire militia. Died at Haverhill, N. II., in Feb., 1787. 

Bedell' (Gregory Thurston), D. D., son of the fol¬ 
lowing, an American Protestant Episcopal bishop, born 












434 BEDELL—BEDLOKD LEVEL. 


at Hudson, N. Y., Aug. 27,1817, educated at Flushing, 
L. I., and Bristol College, Pa. He is at present bishop of 
the diocese of Ohio. He is the author of “The Divinity 
of Christ,” “ The Profit of Godliness,” “ Sacredness of the 
Grave,” “The Principles of Pastorship,” “The Age of 
Indifference,” “Episcopacy — Fact and Law,” etc.; his 
sermons have been published in the U. S. and in Scotland. 

Bedell (Gregory Townsend), D. P., an eminent Amer¬ 
ican Episcopal clergyman, born on Staten Island, N. Y., 
Oct. 28, 1798. He graduated at Columbia College in 1811, 
was greatly admired as a pulpit orator, and wrote, among 
other religious works, “ Onward, or Christian Progression,” 
“Renunciation,” and two volumes of sermons. Died at 
Baltimore Aug. 30, 1834. (See his “Life” by Rev. Dr. 
Tv ng, 1836.) 

Bedell (William), an English Protestant prelate dis¬ 
tinguished for his wisdom and virtue, was born in Essex in 
1570. He went to Venice in 1004 as chaplain to Sir Henry 
Wotton, the English ambassador, and remained there eight 
years. In 1627 he was elected provost of Trinity College, 
Dublin, and in 1629 became bishop of Kilmore and Ardagh. 
He reformed abuses in his diocese, and acquired much in¬ 
fluence by his acts of charity and his other virtues. He 
procured the translation of the Old Testament into Irish. 
Died Feb. 7, 1642. (See Burnet, “Life of Bishop Bedell,” 
1685; II. J. Monck Mason, “Life of W. Bedell,” 1842.) 

Bedesman (i . e. beadsman), [from the Saxon bead, a 
“ prayer ”], equivalent to petitioner, was a common affix'!*! 
the end of English letters in the fifteenth and sixteenth 
centuries. A common form of signature at one time was, 
“Your bounden bedesman,” or “Your humble bedes woman.” 

Bed'ford, an old market-town of England, capital of 
Bedfordshire, is on the river Ouse, here crossed by a bridge, 
48 miles by rail N. N. W. of London. Several railroads 
pass here. It has more charitable institutions and public 
endowments, in proportion to its size, than any town in 
England. It has several fine Gothic churches, a public 
library, a famous grammar-school, a lunatic asylum, a jail, 
a penitentiary, numerous schools and charities, including 
about sixty almshouses. Bedford has manufactures of farm¬ 
ing implements, lace, and straw hats, and a trade in corn, 
malt, and timber. John Banyan wrote “ Pilgrim’s Pro¬ 
gress” in Bedford jail. Pop. in 1871, 16,849. 

Bedford, a post-village, capital of Missisquoi co., 
Quebec, Canada, is in Stanbridge township, 2 miles from 
Stanbridge, and has good water-power and manufactures. 

Bedford, a thriving post-village of Halifax co., Nova 
Scotia, on Bedford Basin and on the Nova Scotia Railway, 

8 miles N. W. of Halifax. It has a large woollen mill. 
Pop. about 250. 

Bedford, a county of Pennsylvania, bordering on 
Maryland. Area, 1000 square miles. It is intersected by 
the Raystown Branch of the Juniata River. The surface 
is mountainous, being diversified by several ridges of the 
Alleghanies, named Dunning’s Mountain, Warrior Ridge, 
etc. The main Alleghany range extends along the W. 
border of the county. In the N. E. part of this county 
are the Broad Top coal-mines. Grain, cattle, and wool are 
important products. It has considerable manufactures. 
Capital, Bedford. Pop. 29,635. 

Bedford, a county of Middle Tennessee. Area, 550 
square miles. It is intersected by Duck River. The sur¬ 
face is undulating; the soil is fertile. Maize is the staple 
production. Wheat, cattle, tobacco, and wool are also 
raised. The Nashville and Chattanooga R. R. passes 
through this county. Capital, Shclbyville. Pop. 24,333. 

Bedford, a county in the S. of Virginia. Area, 504 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the James 
River, and on the S. W. by the Staunton River. The Blue 
Ridge, which extends along the N. W. border of the county, 
presents beautiful scenery. The Peaks of Otter rise to the 
height of 3993 feet on the boundary of this county, which 
is intersected by the Virginia and Tennessee R. R. The 
soil is fertile. Grain, tobacco, and wool are the chief crops. 
The “ Bedford Alum Springs” afford a valuable chalybeate 
water. Capital, Liberty. Pop. 25,327. 

Bedford, a township of Cross co., Ark. Pop. 319. 

Bedford, a township of Wayne co., Ill. Pop. 1336. 

Bedford, capital of Lawrence co., Ind., on the Louis¬ 
ville New Albany and Chicago R. R., 71 miles N. W. of 
New Albany. It has five churches, an academy, a college, 
eight school-houses, a large town-hall, a fine stone court¬ 
house, three newspapers, one monthly magazine, and one 
national bank. Ed. op “Bedford Independent.” 

Bedford, a post-village, capital of Taylor co., Ia., is 
on a prairie and on the river One-Hundred-and-Two, about 
100 miles S. W. of Des Moines. It is on the branch of the 
Burlington and Missouri River R. R., 35 miles S. of Cres- 


ton, and has considerable trade. It has a weekly news¬ 
paper. Pop. 720. 

Bedford, a post-village, capital of Trimble co., Ivy., 
about 40 miles N. W. of Frankfort. Pop. 200. 

Bedford, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass., on 
the Middlesex Central It.ll. It has a mineral spring. P. 849. 

Bedford, a post-township of Calhoun co., Mich. Pop. 
1466. 

Bedford, a township of Monroe co., Mich. Pop. 1459. 

Bedford, a townshiji of Lincoln co., Mo. Pop. 2325. 

Bedford, a township of Nehama co., Neb. Pop. 195. 

Bedford, a post-township of Hillsborough co., N. II., 
21 miles S. of Concord. It has manufactures of brick, lum¬ 
ber, etc. Pop. 1221. 

Bedford, a post-village and semi-capital of West¬ 
chester co., N. Y., in a township of the same name, on the 
New York and Harlem R. R., 39| miles from New York. 
There are twelve churches in the town. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 3697. 

Bedford, a township of Coshocton co., 0. It has beds 
of good cannel coal. Pop. 918. 

Bedford, a post-village of Cuyahoga co., 0., on the 
Cleveland and Pittsburgh R. R., 14 miles S. E. of Cleve¬ 
land. Pop. 828; of Bedford township, 1788. 

Bedford, a township of Meigs co., O. Pop. 1645. 

Bedford, a post-borough, capital of Bedford co., Pa., 
is on the Raystown Branch of the Juniata, and on a rail¬ 
road, 94 miles W. S. W. from Harrisburg. It is pleas¬ 
antly situated on high ground and between two ridges, one 
of which rises about 1200 feet above the valley. The Bed¬ 
ford Springs, about one mile distant, are a fashionable 
place of summer resort. Iron ores abound, and iron is here 
manufactured. It has two weekly newspapers. P. 1247; 
of the township, 2333. Ed. “Bedford Gazette.” 

Bedford, a post-village, capital of Bedford co., Tenn. 

Bedford, Dukes of (1694); earls of Bedford (1550); 
marquess of Tavistock (1694); Barons Russell of Cheneys 
(1539); Barons Russell of Thornaugh (1603); Barons 
Howland (1695, in England), a prominent family of Great 
Britain. —William Russell, the eighth duke (of this fam¬ 
ily), was born June 30, 1809, and succeeded his father in 
1861. He was member of Parliament for Tavistock 1832-41. 

Bedford (Gunning), a patriot of Delaware, served 
against the French in 1755, was a native of Philadelphia, 
an officer of the Revolutionary army, was wounded at 
White Plains, became mustermaster-general in 1776, was 
a member of Congress (1783-85), and governor of Dela¬ 
ware (1796-97). Died Sept. 30, 1797. 

Bedford (Gunning), a cousin of the preceding, born 
in Philadelphia in 1747, and graduated at Princeton in 
1771, was a member of Congress from Delaware (1785-86), 
and of the convention (1789) that formed the U. S. Con¬ 
stitution. He was U. S. district judge (1789-1812). Died 
Mar. 30, 1812. 

Bedford (Gunning S.), M. D., was born at Baltimore 
in 1806, and graduated at Mount St. Mary’s College in 
1825. After serving as professor in Charleston, S. C., and 
at Albany Medical College, he settled in 1836 in New York 
City, where he was professor of midwifery in the Univer¬ 
sity of New York (1840-42). He published an excellent 
treatise on obstetrics and “ Lectures on the Diseases of 
Women,” besides valuable translations from the French. 
Died at New York Sept. 5, 1870. 

Bedford (John Plantagenet), Duke of, the third son 
of King Henry IV. of England, was born in 1389. He 
was created duke of Bedford in 1414, and was commander- 
in-chief of the forces in England during the absence of 
Henry V., who was his brother. After the death of Henry 
V. (1422) the duke of Bedford was regent of France, and 
waged war with success against the French dauphin. He 
gained a victory over the French at Verneuil in 1424, but 
his conquests were soon checked by Joan of Arc. He died 
at Rouen Sept. 19, 1735. His memory is stained by his 
abetting the murder of Joan of Arc. (See Hume, “ History 
of England.”) 

Bedford Level, or The Fens, a tract of flat land in 
the eastern part of England, is bounded on the E. by the 
German Ocean, and comprises parts of Huntingdon, North¬ 
ampton, Cambridge, Lincoln, Norfolk, and Suffolk. Its in¬ 
land boundary is a range of highlands in the form of a 
horseshoe. Nearly all the marshy district called The Fens 
is included in the Bedford Level, which is intersected by 
the Cam, Ouse, Ncne, and Welland rivers. It was former¬ 
ly a vast morass, and was named in honor of Francis, duko 
of Bedford, who in 1634 undertook to reclaim it, and ex¬ 
pended £100,000 in draining it. The work was completed 


















BEDFOKDSH IRE—BEE. 


435 


by his son, William, duke of Bedford, who spent £300,000 
on it. This tract now produces good crops of grain and 
flax, and grass for pasture. Its drainage has been improved 
in the present century. 

Bed'fordsliire, an inland county of England, bound¬ 
ed on the N. E. by Huntingdon, on the E. by Cambridge, 
on the S. E. and S. by Hertford, on the S. W. by Bucks, 
and on the N. W. by Northampton. Area, 463 square 
miles. The surface is undulating or nearly level, except 
the Chiltern Hills in the S. part. The principal river is the 
Ouse. The southern part of the county consists of chalk, 
thinly covered with a soil which is fit only for sheepwalks. 
Stiff clay and rich Loams occur in other parts of the coun¬ 
ty, which is more exclusively agricultural than any other 
in England. There are some manufactures of straw hats 
and of lace. Capital, Bedford. Pop. in 1871, 146,256. 

Bedford Springs , Bedford co., Pa., are 1 mile from Bed¬ 
ford, yield valuable medicinal water, and are also attractive 
from their cool climate in summer, their pleasant mountain- 
scenery, and their agreeable society. The springs are—An¬ 
derson’s (saline chalybeate), the Sweet Spring (nearly pure), 
the Sulphur, the Chalybeate, Fletcher’s (saline chalybeate), 
and the Limestone. The waters are generally laxative and 
tonic, and act upon the skin and kidneys. 

Bed'lam, a corruption of Bethlehem, which was the 
name of a religious house in London converted in 1547 into 
a hospital for lunatics. When Henry VIII. suppressed the 
religious houses, one of these, coming into the control of 
the corporation of London, was converted into an asylum 
for the insane. In 1814 the insane patients were removed 
to a new asylum in St. George’s Fields, which has good ac¬ 
commodations for almost 500 patients, and is managed in 
an excellent manner. Bedlam is sometimes used as syn¬ 
onymous with a mad-house, or a place of uproar and 
disorder. 

Bed'loe’s Island, in New York harbor and in the 
city of New York, miles S. W. of the Battery. It was 
named from a former owner. In 1800 it was ceded to the 
U. S. government, and in 1841 Fort Wood, mounting sev¬ 
enty-seven guns, was erected upon it. Pop. 97. 

Bedmar', de (Alfonso de la Cueva), Marquis, a 
Spaniard, born in 1572. He was sent as ambassador to 
Venice by Philip II. in 1607, and formed a daring and ne¬ 
farious plot to betray the Venetian city and state into the 
power of the king of Spain. The plot was detected one 
day before that appointed for its execution, and Bedmar 
was expelled from Venice. He became a cardinal in 1622, 
and died in 1655. His conspiracy is the subject of Otway’s 
“ Venice Preserved.” (See I)auu, “ Histoire de Venise 
Saint-Real, “ Conspiration contre Venise.”) 

Bed'minster, a township of Somerset co., N. J. Pop. 
1881. 

Bedminster, a post-village and township of Bucks 
co., Pa., 38 miles N. of Philadelphia. Pop. of township, 
2370. 

Bedos de Celles (Jean Francois), a French Bene¬ 
dictine monk, born at Caux in 1706. He made several 
good organs at Toulouse, and wrote a work called “ L’Art 
du Facteur d’Orgues” (4 vols., 1770), which is highly com¬ 
mended. Died in 1779. 

Bed'ouin, or Beduin, written also Bedaween and 
BedaAVee (“inhabitants of the desert”), nomadic Arabs 
who are, according to tradition, the descendants of Ish- 
mael and the aborigines of Arabia. They are a pastoral 
people, having no houses but tents, and no permanent 
places of residence. They form the greater portion of the 
population of Arabia, but are not confined to that country. 
Though they are not united by a strong national organiza¬ 
tion, they have never been entirely subjugated by any for¬ 
eign conqueror, as the desert into which they can retreat 
forms an almost insuperable obstacle to an invading army. 
They are now widely distributed over Northern Africa, 
Syria, etc. As they have no general government or politi¬ 
cal institutions, religious traditions and customs form the 
only bond of order and union among them. They are 
divided into tribes, each of which is ruled by a sheik, 
whose authority is patriarchal. Their riches consist chiefly 
in flocks of sheep, camels, horses, goats, etc. They are 
ignorant, fierce, depraved, addicted to robbery and fight¬ 
ing, and reckless of the rights of property. They profess 
the Mohammedan religion, but are not very strict in the 
practice of its discipline. Their complexion is brown of 
various shades. In person they are generally lean, sinewy, 
and active. An admirable picture of Bedouin life and 
character may be found in Palmer’s “ Desert of the Exo¬ 
dus,” 1871. 

Bed/straw ( Ga'lium ), a name of a genus of herbace¬ 
ous plants of the order Rubiaceae, distinguished by a 
wheel-shaped corolla, and a fruit which is dry or fleshy, 


2-lobed, separating when ripe into two seed-like, indehis- 
cent, 1-seeded carpels. It comprises numerous species, 
natives of Europe, Asia, and the U. S. The roots of sev¬ 
eral species, as Galium verum, Galium tinctorium, etc., con¬ 
tain a red coloring-matter which is said to be equal to 
madder. The Galium verum, which is a common weed in 
England, is sometimes called cheese rennet, because it has 
the property of curdling milk. It is naturalized to some 
extent in the U. S. The Galium tuberosum is cultivated by 
the Chinese, who eat its farinaceous roots. Galium Ama¬ 
rine, or cleavers, is a A r aluable diuretic. 

Bee [Gr. /meAuro-a ; Lat. apis; Fr. abeille; Ger.I?fe'?ie], the 
name of a large family of insects of the order Hymenoptera. 
All bees were included by Linnmus in the genus Apis, but 
they are now divided into many genera. The name Apiaria 
is now used to include the entire family, which has also 
been styled Anthophila (“flower-loving”) and Mellifera 
(“lioney-producing”) by different naturalists. The insects 
of this extensive family, when in their perfect state, feed 
on saccharine juices, such as the nectar of flowers, honey, 
and the juice of ripe fruit. The honey-bee, on account of 
the large quantities of honey which it collects and stores, 
has attracted the attention of man in all countries, and 
has been celebrated for its remarkable habits in both an¬ 
cient and modern times. A late writer justly remarks: 
“ That within so small a body should be contained appar¬ 
atus for converting the various sweets which it collects into 
one kind of nourishment for itself, another for the common 
brood, a third for the royal brood, glue for its carpentry, 
wax for its cells, poison for its enemies, honey for its mas¬ 
ter, with a proboscis as long as the body itself, microscopic 
in several parts, telescopic in its mode of action, with a 
sting so exceedingly sharp that were it magnified by the 
same glass which makes a needle’s point seem a quarter of 
an inch, it would } r et itself be invisible, and this, too, a 
hollow tube,—that all these varied operations and contri¬ 
vances should be included within half an inch of length 
and two grains of matter is surely enough to crush all 
thoughts of atheism and materialism.” 

This small insect has doubtless excited more admiration 
than any other individual of the w r hole animal creation, 
except man himself, and, with the exception of the silk¬ 
worm and cochineal, is almost the only insect of any com¬ 
mercial value. Professor Jaeger remarks: “It is impos¬ 
sible for any reflecting person to look at a bee-hive in full 
operation without being astonished at the activity and sur¬ 
prising industry of its inhabitants. We see crowds con¬ 
stantly arriving from the woods, meadows, fields, and 
gardens, laden with provisions and materials for future use, 
while others are continually flying off on similar collecting 
expeditions. Some are carrying out the dead, others arc 
removing dirt and offal, while others are giving battle to 
any strangers that may dare intrude. Suddenly a cloud 
appears, and the bees hurry home, thronging at the en¬ 
trances to the hives by thousands, until all are gradually 
received within their enclosure. In the interior of the 
hive we see with what skill they work their combs and de¬ 
posit the honey; and when their labor is over for the day, 
they rest in chains suspended from the ceiling of their 
habitation, one bee clinging with its fore feet to the hind 
feet of the one above it, until it seems impossible that the 
upper one can be strong enough to support the weight of 
so many hundreds.” 

Every swarm is composed of three different kinds or 
classes—the queen, the workers, and the drones. The 
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 



Drone. Worker. Queen, 

“queen ” is the only perfect female in the hive, and during 
the propagating season lays from one to two thousand eggs 
in a day. She is longer than either the drones or workers, 
but her size in other respects is a medium between the two; 
in color darker on the upper side, with legs and under side 
yellowish. When the season for swarming approaches, 
which is always early in the season (usually June in our 
Northern States), she deposits eggs, first for the workers, 
then in drone and queen cells, from which males and queens 
are developed. There seems to be no difference between 
the eggs for producing a worker or a queen, but (lie nature 
of the cell and the food effects the difference. The queen 
lives much longer than any other bee, or often four or fi\c 
years, although this longevity is disputed by some writers 





















BEE. 


on theoretical grounds, but observation appears to have 
fully established the age to be from three to five years. 
She is furnished with a sting, which she uses exclusively 
in combat with other queens. 

It was well known in ancient times that a large bee with 
long body and short wings existed in every hive, and this 
was called the “king,” to whom also was attributed great 
wisdom in governing the whole swarm. This opinion was 
common till within two hundred years, when Swammerdam 
proved by anatomical investigation that this supposed king 
was a female, which lays all the eggs for the multiplication 
and growth of the throng of individuals which she governs. 
Aristotle and Virgil held the opinion that this bee laid no 
eggs, but brought home from flowers and fruits a peculiar 
substance from which first the maggots and then the bees 
originated. 

The best way of making the acquaintance of the queen 
is to divide a swarm and place each portion in separate 
hives. The portion which retains possession of the queen 
will soon become quiet and contented. The swarm without 
the queen, although apparently satisfied at first, will soon 
be restless and uneasy, and cease working. Then if the 
apiarian (who has previously provided himself with an 
extra queen taken from the queen-cells of a hive) offers 
them a queen, they receive her with a peculiar buzz of tri¬ 
umph, which is quickly conveyed like a telegraphic de¬ 
spatch through the hive, and in a few seconds they become 
quiet and satisfied. In order to prove that bees always 
follow the queen, Swammerdam tied one by means of a fine 
hair to the top of a pole, which he then stuck in the ground 
in his garden. The whole swarm immediately followed, 
and surrounded the queen on all sides, and he was enabled 
to carry them all wherever he pleased. It is in this way 
that certain self-styled “ bee-charmers ” cause the swarm 
to alight on the hat, beard, or other place, by securing the 
queen within a gauze bag or cage. 

The worker-bees are imperfect or undeveloped female 
bees, comprising most of the hive, usually nine-tenths or 
more, and commonly twelve or fifteen thousand in a single 
hive. All the labor is performed by the workers; they 
gather all the honey, bee-glue, and pollen, carrying the lat¬ 
ter in little baskets on their thighs, and the former in a lit¬ 
tle sack ; they secrete wax from honey, construct the combs, 
feed the young, and clean the hives. They usually live 
about six months through the winter, and not more than 
two or three months during the working season. A hive is 
therefore a community renewed repeatedly through the 
year, the queen only seeing successive seasons, and on her 
producing many thousands of eggs the existence of the 
colony depends. When deprived of a queen from accident 
or death the hive soon dwindles and dies out. 

The drones are the male bees of the hive. They have no 
sting, they do no work, and their only use is in the propa¬ 
gation of progeny. Huber, the celebrated blind naturalist 
of Geneva, in Switzerland, who made more discoveries of 
the habits of the bee by means of an assistant than any 
other person, asserted that the drones while on the wing 
meet the queen for this purpose, and this opinion is com¬ 
monly adopted, but other writers think the drones only 
fecundate the eggs after they are deposited, in the same 
manner that male fishes fructify the spawn. They are 
larger than the working bee, have a rounder head, and are 
generally more clumsy in their movements. They are de¬ 
stroyed by the workers soon after the close of the honey 
season. 

Bees begin to breed early in spring, and they have usu¬ 
ally increased their numbers greatly by the month of June. 
After the queen has deposited eggs, it requires about twenty- 
two days before the worker comes out a perfect insect, and 
about twenty-five days for the drone. The time for the de¬ 
velopment of the queen is only sixteen days from the lay¬ 
ing of the egg. The egg is fastened by one end to the bot¬ 
tom of the cell, so that it appears as if suspended in the 
air. It is soft and smooth, and five times as long as thick. 
It is first developed into a maggot which has little mo¬ 
tion, with two white eyes, a mouth like a caterpillar, and 
ten respiratory holes on the sides. The maggot is fed by 
the workers for about a week, after which a wax cover is 
placed over the cell, and it becomes a pupa, remains ten 
days in this condition, and then breaks its wax cover, creeps 
out, dries its wings, and in a short time passes out of the 
hive, and flies away with its companions for the collection 
of honey and materials. 

The first swarm, in the climate of the Northern and Mid¬ 
dle States, usually leaves the hive in the month of June. 
The migration seems to depend in a great measure on the 
want of space in the mother-hive, and not on an instinctive 
desire for change ; for skilful apiarians sometimes, by mak¬ 
ing additions to the hive, retain the increase and prevent 
swarming. No certain signs have been discovered to indi¬ 
cate the time when the first swarm will issue from the parent 


hive. If the weather and yield of honey are both favor¬ 
able, swarming may be looked for when the bees become 
crowded for room and hang in large numbers outside the 
hive (although this often takes place without swarming), 
and when the hive is well filled with comb and stores. The 
indications are increased if it is found on examination that 
the royal cells for new queens are in a forward state of 
preparation. The old queen invariably leads forth the first 
swarm, usually in the heat of the day, and if rainy weather 
has occurred the swarming is more likely to occur on the 
appearance of bright sunshine. It is supposed that the 
queen takes the lead, and it is certain that the swarm always 
keeps with her, and she exercises an inscrutable influence 
over all the movements of the thousands which compose it. 
Wherever she alights they follow, and if from any cause 
she returns to the old hive, they all return with her. 

In about nine days from the first swarming a second may 
be looked for, if the swarm is a strong one and the weather 
and honey-harvest are favorable. If a third swarm should 
follow, it is commonly about three days after the second. 
The occurrence of these two swarmings may be commonly 
determined with accui’acy by what is termed “the piping 
of the queen.” The apiarian places his ear near or against 
the hive in the evening of the seventh or eighth day, and 
if a second swarm is to issue he will hear a peculiar whin¬ 
ing and peeping note within the hive. The whining sound 
comes from the new queen which has been left to reign 
by the departure of the old one; and this sound is com¬ 
monly followed by a lower and quicker note from the third 
queen, who is to remain when the second queen quits the 
hive with her swarm. As this insect sovereign appears to 
be impelled by strong jealousy of all rivals, she endeavors 
to sting to death in their cells all the young queens which 
the workers have been feeding ; and when restrained by the 
guard placed for their protection, it is supposed that she 
utters a complaint known as “piping.” This is probably a 
fanciful supposition; but every one who has listened atten¬ 
tively to these sounds has been struck with the strong re¬ 
semblance which the notes of the older queen bear to the 
tone of complaint, and those of the younger to that of de¬ 
fiance. Whenever these notes are heard, which is always 
a week or so after the departure of the first swarm, the 
apiarian confidently expects a second or a third, as the case 
may be, within a day or two, the weather permitting and 
no accident supervening. 

The swarming of the first colony usually takes place be¬ 
tween the hours of ten A. M. and three p. m., but second and 
third swarms often leave earlier or later in the day. The 
bees issue by many thousands, and the air is filled with 
them for a space of from twenty to fifty feet as dense as a 
snow-shower. In a short time they settle, usually on the 
limb of a tree, from which they hang in the form of a bag. 
To prevent their alighting too high up for hiving.it is best 
to have no high trees near the apiary, and hiving may be 
greatly facilitated by providing artificial supports to attract 
them. These are made in many different ways, all with the 
same object in view. A block of wood, cut in the shape of 
a bag or settled swarm, may be covered with dark-brown 
or black cloth, and hung by a hook in a convenient shady 
place in sight of the hives as a decoy. A few dead bees, or 
a portion of the seed-stalks of the mullen, strung to the 
block, increase the attractions. A number of these may be 
placed in different parts of the yard. When the swarm has 
settled, the support may be unhooked and carried carefully 
to the place for hiving, and the bees shaken off on the 
hiving-board. Another contrivance is the hiving-box, con¬ 
sisting simply of any box holding nearly half a bushel, 
with one side open, and attached to a pole. When the 
swarm comes out, the operator takes his box by the handle 
or pole, the box being held over his head, and walks slowly 
in the midst of the flying swarm. They will bo likely to 
alight upon it and enter its open side. As soon as this takes 
place, it is put in a fixed position, resting against a fence, 
or with the pole thrust into a hole made with a crowbar by 
an assistant. AVhen the bees have all settled, it is carried 
to the hive already prepared for the new swarm. A third 
contrivance is made by taking a board about the size of the 
bottom of the hive, boring several holes and inserting corn¬ 
cobs dyed brown or the seed-stalks of the mullen, nailing'' 
a smaller board at the top to form a hood, and attaching it 
by nails to a pole eight or ten feet long. When the bees 
begin to alight upon it it is placed, facing downward, in a 
sloping position in a crowbar hole, as already mentioned. 
A broad projecting board, inserted under the hive intended 
for the swarm, allows the operator to empty the bees upon 
it, from which they will readily pass in. When the bees 
have entered the board is withdrawn. The whole process 
is usually completed in a few minutes. If the swarm should 
not enter the hiving-box, but alight on some tree, the box is 
to be held against the spot as soon as they begin to cluster, 
when they will usually leave the tree and pass into the box; 




















BEE. 


437 


or if they do not, a few jars with the side of the box will 
induce them to loosen their hold and enter it. The ope¬ 
ration is easily performed, and only a minute or two is oc¬ 
cupied in their clustering. It is well to have one or two 
boxes with longer poles, to secure such swarms as settle too 
high up for ordinary reach. The weight of swarms is 
usually five or six pounds, small ones four pounds, and very 
large ones eight or ten pounds. 

The loss of newly-hived swarms, occasioned by their 
leaving the hive, which frequently happens under ordinary 
management, may be prevented by simply placing the hive 
flat on the bottom board for a few days, after which it may 
be raised on supports at the corners a third of an inch, as is 
always practised with established swarms. Another effectual 
mode is to contract the entrance to a breadth of exactly ten 
sixty-fourths of an inch, which allows the workers to pass, 
but confines the queen. Without her the bees will never 
leave. A strip of tin may be tacked on for this purpose, to be 
removed in three or four days. 

Hi vcs .—The first or original hives selected by the bees 
were the hollow trunks of trees, which they cleansed from 
dust and rubbish, gnawing off with their mandibles any as¬ 
perities or projections which might interfere with the future 
construction of the comb. Next, they were made artificially 
somewhat of a bell-shape, and constructed of straw and 
willow twigs; and lastly in the form of oblong or cubical 
boxes, with various modifications and appendages. For 
small apiaries, when the owner desires honey simply for 
home consumption, and can give only occasional attention, a 
simple box-hive with holes through the top, and a simple 
rough box to hold twenty-five or thirty pounds to set over, 
answers a good purpose. The size of the hive should not 
exceed a capacity of 2000 cubic inches; it should be smaller 
rather than larger, and some good apiarians prefer 1700 or 
1800 cubic inches, or about twelve inches each way inside. 
Sticks are set across for the support of the combs. It is 
convenient to have a pane of glass set in one side, covered 
and kept shut by a wooden door, for occasional examination 
of the interior. If guide-combs (or small portions of empty 
combs) are attached to the ceiling of the hive, the combs 
may be so directed that their edges will rest against the 
glass, and enable the operator to see between them. 

If the honey which is obtained from the upper movable 
box is made in small glass boxes placed within this upper 
box, or in a corresponding chamber made in the upper por¬ 
tion of the hive, it will present a finer appearance and sell at 
higher prices in market. This chamber may be entered by 
a side door, and four boxes may be placed within it. 

Artificial Swarms .—It often happens that the apiarian 
wishes to control the time and frequency of swarming, 
without leaving the bees themselves to decide this question 
at their own will. This is effected by making artificial 
swarms. The bees of the hive are separated into two nearly 
equal portions, as already alluded to, and the apiarian, 
having previously secured a new queen by cutting off a 
queen cell when she is about to come out, offers her to the 
unsupplied portion. 

In performing all operations of this kind the bees will be 
rendered more quiet, and they may be handled more easily, 
by previously blowing upon them the smoke of rotten wood 
through a pipe made for the purpose. Cotton rags answer 
the same purpose, but tobacco smoke is too deadly. In ad¬ 
dition to this a mask of gauze and thick gloves will afford 
ample protection. 

Movable-comb Hives .—Apiarians who have a large num¬ 
ber of hives for commercial purposes, who can give much 
personal attention, and who do not fear to approach and 
handle bees freely, have adopted of late years a contrivance 
known as movable-comb hives. These hives enable the 
owner to examine minutely every part of the interior, and 
any evil is readily discovered and remedied, each comb 
being made on a separate frame, which may be lifted out 
from the rest. If the hive should happen to be queenless, 
the fact may be at once determined without waiting till the 
numbers are ruinously reduced. Should the queen produce 
nothing but drones, the discovery may be at once made, 
and her place supplied with a more profitable incumbent. 
If too much drone-comb has been made, it may be replaced 
with worker-comb. If the moth has effected an entrance, 
the larvm may be seen and at once taken out. He can limit 
the number of swarms, by taking out the combs and remov¬ 
ing all the queen cells but one. W hen one hive has a sur¬ 
plus of honey and another is deficient, an equilibrium may 
be effected by exchanging a few combs. Old combs may be 
removed, all that is necessary being to substitute empty 
frames. Movable-comb hives greatly facilitate the making 
of artificial swarms. 

The simplest form of the frame for the movable comb is 
shown by Fig. 4. Guide-combs are attached to the bars 
to have the bees work them straight. Langstroth’s hive 
(Fig. 5) consists of a series of these frames, so arranged 


that any one may be taken out separately from the rest. 
Many other forms of the movable-comb hive have been 

Fig. 4. 




Movable frames taken out. 


Fig. 5. 



Langstroth’s Hive. 


lately devised, obviating difficulties connected with those 
first made. 

The following detailed description of the mode of making 
artificial swarms by the use of movable-comb hives is 
given by L. L. Fairchild in vol. iv. of “ Rural Affairs.” 
Artificial swarms , equal in value to natural swarms, can be 
made in this way. It should only be practised when 
the bees are gathering honey abundantly, and there are 
plenty of drones to mate with the young queens. A little 
before, or about the time of natural swarming, is the time 
to practise it. A good way is to make one good swarm from 
two strong stocks. Take the combs from a hive (No. 1), 
and shake the bees back into the hive, brushing off with a 
wing any that may remain after a shake or two. Put these 
combs, destitute of bees, into a new hive. Leave one comb, 
containing eggs and brood, and the queen, in the old hive. 
Put in empty frames to fill the place of those taken out, 
and leave the hive on its old stand. Remove a strong 
stock (No. 2) to a new location, and put the hive contain¬ 
ing the combs taken from No. 1 on the stand formerly oc¬ 
cupied by No. 2. If this is done tvliile the bees are in full 
flight, those in the field belonging to No. 2 will enter the 
new hive containing the combs, brood, and stores taken 
from No. 1. Finding their queenless condition, they will 
immediately set to work and build queen cells, and, if 
everything works right, will have a queen ready to emerge 
from her cell the fourteenth day. Plenty of brood will 
hatch from day to day to keep up the strength of the swarm 
until the young queen commences laying. The old stock 
will prosper, as it retains its fertile queen, and is in nearly 
the condition of a natural swarm. If a few frames con¬ 
taining empty comb could be given to them, it would be a 
great help, as every pound of comb they build consumes 
fifteen or twenty pounds of honey in its elaboration. There 
are many other ways of making artificial swarms, but this 
is about the safest method for the inexperienced, and pro¬ 
duces a moderate increase of stocks, and yields a good sup¬ 
ply of surplus honey. It will be found very safe, and 
profitable in the long run. The inexperienced had better 
not divide or increase their stocks more than fifty per cent, 
in any one year. Too great an increase of stocks is the 
rock that many an apiarian has split upon when endeavor¬ 
ing to increase his apiary by artificial swarming. There 
is a considerable saving to be made by rearing queens 
artificially to supply every new artificial swarm, but it 
should only be attempted by those well versed in the natu¬ 
ral history and management of the bee. 11 you give the 



































































































































































BEE. 


438 


new swarm a sealed queen cell, it will save them time in 
rearing a queen. 

As soon as a hive is occupied by a new swarm the first 
thing is to begin the manufacture of cells. 

The formation of the wax is a singular and complex 
operation. Huber says, “ The wax-makers, having taken a 
due portion of honey or sugar, from either of which wax 
can be elaborated, suspend themselves to each other, the 
claws of the fore legs of the lowermost being attached to 
those of the hind pair of the uppermost, and form them¬ 
selves into a cluster, the exterior layer of which looks like 
a kind of curtain. This cluster consists of a series of fes¬ 
toons or garlands, which cross each other in all directions, 
and in which most of the bees turn their back upon the ob¬ 
server : the curtain has no other motion than what it re¬ 
ceives from the interior layers, the iluctuations of which arc 
communicated to it. All this time the nurse-bees preserve 
their wonted activity, and pursue their usual employments. 
The wax-makers remain immovable for about twenty-four 
hours, during which period the formation of wax takes 
place, and thin laminae of this material may be generally 
perceived under their abdomen. One of these bees is now 
seen to detach itself from one of the central garlands of the 
cluster, to make a way amongst its companions to the mid¬ 
dle of the vault or top of the hive, and by turning itself 
round to form a kind of void, in which it can move itself 
freely. It then suspends itself to the centre of the space 
which it has cleared, the diameter of which is about an 
inch. It next seizes one of the laminae of wax with a pin- 


Fig. 6. 



Brush and Pincers of the Bee (greatly magnified). 


cer formed by the posterior metatarsus and tibia, and draw¬ 
ing it from beneath the abdominal segment, one of the an¬ 
terior legs takes it with its claws and carries it to the 
mouth.” 

The wax has, perhaps, a nearer analogy to the sebace¬ 
ous secretion of the integument than to any other animal 
secretion : it is formed beneath the scales on the under side 


Fig. 7. 



of the abdomen, and, when accumulated there, seems to irri¬ 
tate the part, for the bee may then be observed wagging 
her body, and running round, or to and fro, as if endeavor¬ 
ing to shake out the little scales; and she is generally fol¬ 
lowed by one or two other bees which have been attracted 
by her movements, and are ready to seize upon the plates 
of wax as they fall. How the bees mould the scales into 
the walls of the cells is not yet exactly understood. Some 
have supposed that they bite pieces off and join them to¬ 
gether; but the smooth and uniform surface of the cell 
shows that some other operation must take place : besides, 
the wall of the cell is sometimes thicker than a scale of wax. 
We must, therefore, suppose that the bees have the power 
of applying some dissolving or softening menstruum to the 
wax Scales, by which they are enabled to knead and blend 
them into a ductile paste. And when we remember that 
the secretion of the salivary tubes of insects is generally 


alkaline, and that wax may be softened by alkali, it has 
been naturally supposed that it is by this means that the 
wax-scales are brought into a workable state. Keaumur, 
indeed, observed a frothy substance exuding from the mouth 
of a bee while working at a cell, which was applied to the 
proper place by the nimble tongue, and then kneaded in by 
the mandibles; and Huber has described the process very 
circumstantially: he says that the bee holds the laminm of 
wax with its claws vertically—the tongue rolled up serving 
for a support—and by elevating or depressing it at will 
causes the whole of its circumference to be exposed to the 
action of the mandibles, so that the margin is soon gnawed 
into pieces, which drop, as they are detached, into the 
double cavity, bordered with hairs, of the mandibles. These 
fragments, pressed by others newly separated, fall on one side 
of the mouth, and issue from it in the form of a very nar¬ 
row ribbon. They are then presented to the tongue, which 
impregnates them with a frothy liquor. During this ope¬ 
ration the tongue assumes all sorts of forms: sometimes it 
is flattened like a spatula: then like a trowel, which ap¬ 
plies itself to the ribbon of wax; at other times it resem¬ 
bles a pencil, terminating in a point. After having moist¬ 
ened the whole of the ribbon, the tongue pushes it so as to 
make it re-enter the mandibles, but in an opposite direc¬ 
tion, where it is worked up anew. The liquor mixed with 
the wax communicates to it a whiteness and opacity which 
it had not before, and doubtless gives it that ductility and 
tenacity which it possesses in its perfect state. 

Bees commonly begin at the top or roof of their cham¬ 
ber, and build downward, at first working irregularly, and 
as it were pasting over the surface, and then building hor¬ 
izontal cells of a more perfect form. These at length be¬ 
come so numerous that they extend downward in the form 
of a vertical wall; other congeries of cells are formed in 
succession, until the whole comb assumes the form of a se¬ 
ries of perpendicular plates or partitions. Each plate con¬ 
sists of a double set of cells, the bottoms of which are ap¬ 
plied to each other and form the partition between each set. 
The plates are not always regular, and the irregularities 
which may be observed are not always necessary adap¬ 
tations to a peculiar form of the cavity in which they are 
built. The cells are not all of the same size, but a sufficient 
number of a given depth are reserved for receiving the 
eggs, and which are necessarily adapted to the size of the 
future maggot: the smaller or shallower cells are those in 
which the honey is stored. The breeding and store cells 
are placed horizontally, but the mouth of the cell is some¬ 
times a little raised, the better to retain the honey. The in¬ 
terspace between the vertical combs is generally about half 
an inch; these streets, as they may be termed, in this city 
of industry, being just wide enough to allow two bees 
busied upon the opposite cells to pass without incommoding 
each other. In addition to these interspaces, the combs are 
perforated in various places, so as to allow a passage for the 
bees from one street to another, thus saving them much 
time. 

The shape of each cell is not, as might have been ex¬ 
pected, cylindrical, or that which seems best adapted to the 
form of the maggot, or even of the constructor bee; but it 
is hexagonal—the only form which allows the cell to be of 
the largest size in proportion to the quantity of matter em¬ 
ployed, and at the same time to be so disposed as to occupy 
in the hive the least possible space. The form of the base 
of each cell, which is in apposition with the one on the op¬ 
posite side, is also such as to gain greater strength, and 
more capacity, with less expenditure of wax; the latter con¬ 
sideration being one of great importance to bees, which do 
not secrete a very large quantity of this material; and the 
most profound mathematicians and most skilful geometers 
have found the solution of the problem, relating to the at¬ 
tainment of the preceding objects, as derived from the in¬ 
finitesimal calculus, to have a surprising agreement with 
the actual measure of the different angles formed by the 
walls of the cell. 

Bees do not gather honey indiscriminately from every 
flower. The oleander, which yields poisonous honey fatal to 
thousands of flies, is carefully avoided by bees,*and the white 
nectaries of the crown-imperial tempt them in vain. The 
flowers of the white clover and of the basswood are espe¬ 
cially attractive to them, and their hum may be heard 
among the branches of the latter at a considerable distance. 
Those flowers which yield a nectar innocuous to the bees 
themselves, but possessing poisonous qualities when taken 
by man (among which may be mentioned the Kalmia Inti- 
folia), are sometimes frequented by bees, and the honey 
derived from them acts like a poison. 

The collection of the farina or pollen of flowers is a great 
object of the industry of bees. In large flowers, as the tu¬ 
lip, the bee dives in ; and if the pollen receptacle or anther 
be not burst, she bites it open, and comes out singularly 
disguised, being covered over entirely with the fertilizing 































BEE-BEECH DROPS. 


439 


dust, which adheres readily to the fringed hairs of her body 
and legs. 

Aristotle, who was well acquainted with much that is in¬ 
teresting in the economy of the bee, was the first to observe 
that a bee during each single excursion from the hive limits 
her visits to one species of flower. Modern naturalists have 
confirmed the general accuracy of this statement, and have 
noticed that the pollen with which a bee comes home laden 
is always of the same color. The necessity of this instinct 
arises out of the operation which the pollen first undergoes 
when collected by the bee. She rakes it out with incredible 
quickness by means of the first pair of legs; then passes it 
to the middle pair, which transfer it to the hind legs, by 
which it is wrought up into little pellets. Now, if the pol¬ 
len were taken indiscriminately from different flowers, it is 
probable that the grains, being heterogeneous, would not 
cohere so effectually. Certain it is, that bees enter the hive, 
some with yellow pellets, others with orange, pink, white, or 
even green-colored ones, but they are never observed to be 
party-colored. Through this instinct, another important 
end is gained in relation to the impregnation of flowers; 
the production of hybrid plants by the application of the 
pollen of one species to the stigma of another is avoided, 
while those flowers are more effectually fertilized which re¬ 
quire the aid of insects for that purpose. 

When a pollen-laden bee arrives at the hive, she generally 
walks or stands upon the comb beating her wings, and 
three or four of her fellow-citizens assist in lightening her 
of her load; or the laden bee puts her two hind legs into a 
cell, and with the intermediate pair or the extremity of the 
abdomen brushes off the pellets. These are then kneaded 
into a paste at the bottom of the cell, and several cells are 
thus filled with the packed and softened pollen, which is 
called bee-bread. 

Besides the honey and farina, bees also collect a peculiar 
substance like gum-resin, which was called “ propolis ’’ by 
Pliny; and this they obtain principally from the balsamic 
buds of the horse-chestnut, birch, and poplar, especially 
the Populm balsamifera. The propolis is soft, red, will 
pull out in a thread, and is aromatic. It is employed in 
the hive not only in finishing the combs, but also in stop¬ 
ping up every chink or orifice by which cold, wet, or any 
enemy can enter. Like the pellets of pollen, it is carried 
on the posterior tibiae, but the masses are lenticular. 
Having thus traced the operations of the working bees 
relating to the collection of the substances required in the 
economy of the hive, we shall now return to the larvae, 
which are the immediate objects of all this industry. 

The bees may be readily detected feeding the young mag¬ 
got, which opens its lateral jaws to receive the bee-bread, 
and swallows it. The well-fed maggot soon grows too large 
for its tough outer skin, and accordingly casts it; when its 
bulk has increased so that it fills its cell, it then requires no 
more food, and is ready to be enclosed for the chrysalis 
state. The last care of the foster-parents is to cover over 
the mouth of the cell with a substance of a light brown 
color, apparently a mixture of wax and farina. This takes 
place generally four days after the larva has been excluded 
from the egg. The enclosed larva now begins to line the cell 
and the covering of the aperture before mentioned with a 
silk, which it spins from glandular tubes similar to those of 
the silkworm. When the first three segments of the trunk 
to which the locomotive organs of the perfect insect are at¬ 
tached begin to be enlarged, the last larva-skin splits along 
the back, and is pushed off from the head backward, and 
deposited at the bottom of the cell, and it then becomes a 
chrysalis. Now the wonderful changes take place, partly 
by a formation of new organs, partly by a development of 
pre-existing ones, which end at last in the completion of 
the perfect bee. 

Bees, although inactive during winter, are not in a torpid 
state, but continue to devour honey and to maintain their 
animal warmth. 

Mr. Hunter found during an evening in July, when the 
temperature of the atmosphere was 54° Fahrenheit, that of 
the interior of a hive full of bees was 82° ; and in Decem¬ 
ber, the external atmosphere being 35°, the bees preserved 
a temperature of 73° ; and, what is at this season extremely 
rare in the lower animals, they maintain their digesti\ e 
powers and subsist on the produce ot the summer and au¬ 
tumn. Accordingly, they are ready to take advantage of 
any fine or mild day, and may be seen then flying abroad 
and appearing to enjoy it. They void their excrements at 
this time, for they are insects of'singular cleanliness and 
propriety; and when purposely confined in the hive, with 
abundance of food, they have been known to tall a sacrifice 
to this instinctive repugnance to defile the hive. 

In conclusion, we may remark that the keeping and 
management ot bees was formerly considered as very 
precarious and uncertain. But modern science, and the 
various improvements which it has effected, have made the 


business in practised hands as certain and successful as 
most agricultural pursuits. Full, populous stocks only are 
profitable. A weak hive will cost many times the care re¬ 
quired for a strong one, and pays nothing back. When 
many hives are kept, a few spare combs on movable frames, 
with sealed brood, may be introduced into a weak hive. 
Facilities for examining and controlling are the foundation 
of success. As with other kinds of business, the manage¬ 
ment of bees requires attention, vigilance, and industry, 
combined with a knowledge of the natural history of the 
insect. 

The Italian bee, which has been introduced of late years, 
is distinguished from the common bee by the yellow bands 
on its body and by its more vigorous habits. It commences 
working earlier in the morning, and continues at work later 
in the evening. It has a longer proboscis, which enables it 
to take honey from the red clover. When properly man¬ 
aged, it has furnished large stores of honey, but apiarians 
are not fully agreed as to its general value and adaptation 
to common management, and some years will probably be 
required to settle the question. John J. Thomas. 

B ee (Barnard E.), a Confederate general, born in 
South Carolina 1824, graduated at West Point 1845 in the 
artillery, and served with distinction throughout the Mex¬ 
ican war (wounded at Cerro Gordo), his gallant conduct 
being recognized by his native State by the presentation 
of a sword of honor. He was on frontier duty principally 
from 1848 to Mar. 3, 1861, when he resigned, and was ap¬ 
pointed a brigadier-general in the Confederate army. At 
the first battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861, he was killed. 

Bee, a county in the S. part of Texas. Area, 900 square 
miles. It is drained by the Aransas River, which rises within 
its limits, and is bounded on the N. E. by Blanco River. 
The surface is nearly level. The climate is healthful. Cat¬ 
tle and sheep are bred in great numbers. The soil is sandy, 
and wood and water are scarce. Capital, Beeville. P. 1082. 

Bee Branch, a township of Chariton co., Mo. P. 1593. 

Beech [Ger. Buche], ( Fa'gns ), a genus of trees of the 
order Cupuliferse, natives of Europe, America, and Aus¬ 
tralasia. The sterile flowers have a bell-shaped calyx five 
to seven cleft, with eight to sixteen stamens. The fertile 
(or female) flowers grow on the same tree, the fruit of 
which is a triangular or sharply three-sided nut, two of 
which are enclosed in an urn-shaped, coriaceous involucre 
or husk. These nuts, called beechmast, are edible, and are 
valuable as food for swine. They yield a large proportion 
of a bland fixed oil which is used as food and burned in 
lamps by Europeans ; the husks contain a volatile, narcotic, 
poisonous principle called fagine . The genus comprises 
several species of beautiful forest trees, with a close and 
smooth ash-gray bark and a light horizontal spray. The 
Fagus sylvatica, or common beech of Europe, forms whole 
forests in many parts of that continent. It grows to the 
height of about 100 feet, and sometimes has a diameter of 
four feet, and is a very ornamental tree, especially when it 
stands alone. The wood is hard and valuable for fuel, and, 
being durable under water, is employed in the erection of 
mills. The French use it extensively in the fabrication of 
sabots or wooden shoes. The white beech, which is a com¬ 
mon tree in some parts of the U. S., is, according to some 
botanists, the same species as that which has been just de¬ 
scribed. The Fagus ferruginea (red beech or American 
beech) is abundant in the Northern U. S., sometimes grow¬ 
ing gregariously in forests which contain few other trees. 
Its leaves are oblong-ovate, taper-pointed, distinctly and 
often coarsely toothed or serrate. This is an ornamental 
tree, which sometimes attains a height of 100 feet, and sui - - 
passes most trees in the depth of shade produced by its rich 
green and shining foliage. The wood is hard, heavy, good 
for fuel, plane-stocks, shoe-lasts, tool-handles, and other 
purposes. The color of the wood is a light brown or red¬ 
dish; hence the name. Among the other species is the 
myrtle tree of Tasmania ( Fagus betuloides or Fagus For- 
steri), a very large and ornamental tree, with evergeen and 
coriaceous leaves, which resemble birch leaves in form. 
Fagus procera, which attains a lofty stature in the Andes 
of Chili, is a valuable timber tree. The Fagus antarctica is a 
characteristic tree or shrub of far antarctic regions, and is 
said to be found farther S. than any other shrub. 

C. W. Greene. 

Beech Creek, a post-township of Ashley co., Ark. 
Pop. 269. 

Beech Creek, a township of Clarke co., Ark. P. 448. 

Beech Creek, a township of Greene co., Ind. P.2059. 

Beech Creek, a post-borough and township of Clin¬ 
ton co., Pa., 80 miles N. N. W. of Harrisburg. Pop ot 
township, 887 ; of borough, 384. 

Beech Drops. See Epiphegus. , 












BEECHER—BEEKMANTOWN. 


440 


Beecli'er (Catherine Esther), an American writer, a 
daughter of Lyman, noticed below, was born at East Hamp¬ 
ton, Long Island, Sept. 6, 1800. She published, besides 
other works, “ Domestic Service,” “ Treatise on Domestic 
Economy,” “True Remedy for the Wrongs of Women,” 
“Manual of Arithmetic,” “Elementary Book of Instruc¬ 
tive Theology,” “ Physiology and Calisthenics,” and “ Com¬ 
mon Sense applied to Religion.” 

Beecher (Rev. Charles), a preacher and writer, a 
brother of the preceding, was born at Litchfield, Conn., in 
1810. Among his works are a “ Review of Spiritual Man¬ 
ifestations ” (1853) and “ Pen-Pictures of the Bible ”(1855). 

Beecher (Edward), D. D., a brother of the preceding, 
was born in 1804. He graduated at Yale in 1822, was 
president of Illinois College from 1831 to 1844, and pastor 
of Salem Street church, Boston, from 1846 to 1856. He pub- 
lished “ The Conflict of Ages” (1856) and other works. 

Beecher (Henry Ward), a celebrated American author 
and divine, son of Dr. Lyman Beecher, noticed below, was 
born at Litchfield, Conn., June 24, 1813. At an early age 
he had a strong predilection for a seafaring life, which, 
however, he renounced in consequence of the deep religious 
impressions which he experienced during a revival. Hav¬ 
ing graduated at Amherst College in 1834, he devoted him¬ 
self to the study of theology at Lane Seminary under the 
tuition of his father, who was then president of that insti¬ 
tution. He became in 1847 pastor of the Plymouth (Congre¬ 
gational) church in Brooklyn, where his genial and original 
eloquence has continued to attract the largest congregation, 
it is said, in the U. S. He was editor of the “ Inde¬ 
pendent” from 1861 to 1863, when he visited Europe for 
the benefit of his health. His earnest addresses to large 
audiences on the subject of the American war appear to 
have had considerable influence in turning the current of 
public opinion in Great Britain in favor of the Union cause. 
Mr. Beecher has also been a prominent advocate of anti¬ 
slavery and temperance reform, and more recently of the 
rights of women. Among his principal works are “ Lec¬ 
tures to Young Men” (1850), “Star Papers” (1855), “Life 
Thoughts” (1858), “Royal Truths” (1864), and a novel 
entitled “Norwood” (1864). He became editor of the 
“Christian Union,” a religious journal, in 1870, and the 
next year issued a “ Life of Christ.” 

Beecher (Lyman), D. D., an eminent American the¬ 
ologian, born at New Haven, Conn., Oct. 12, 1775. He 
graduated at Yale College in 1797, studied theology under 
President Dwight, and became in 1810 minister of the 
Congregational church at Litchfield, Conn. He was a 
popular preacher, and acquired great influence among the 
orthodox churches. To oppose the rapid progress of Uni¬ 
tarian doctrines he removed to Boston about 1S26, and 
preached in the Hanover Street church. He was president 
of Lane Seminary at Cincinnati 1832-51. He published, 
besides other works, “Views in Theology” and “Sermons 
on Temperance,” which had a great circulation. He was a 
man of very energetic character. Died at Brooklyn, N. Y., 
Jan. 10, 1863. (See his “Autobiography and Correspond¬ 
ence,” edited by his son, Charles Beecher, 2 vols., 1864.) 

Beecher (Thomas Kennictjtt), an able Congregational 
minister, son of the preceding, born Feb. 10, 1824, gradu¬ 
ated at Illinois College (Jacksonville, Ill.) in 1843. For 
about twenty years he has been pastor of a church in El¬ 
mira, N. Y. He is an influential speaker and writer, and 
distinguished for philanthropy. His especial work seems 
to be to discourage sectarian feeling in the churches, and to 
promote a fraternal spirit among Christian people. 

Beech'ey (Frederick William), an English navigator, 
born in London Feb. 17, 1796. He accompanied Sir 
Edward Parry in an Arctic expedition in 1819, and ex¬ 
plored the northern coasts of Africa in 1821. Having 
obtained the rank of commander or captain, he conducted 
an exploring expedition to the Polar Sea via Behring 
Strait. He discovered Port Clarence and Port Grantley, 
returned in 1828, and published a narrative of his voyage 
in 1831. He became a rear-admiral of the blue in 1854. 
Died Nov. 29, 1856. (See “Edinburgh Review” for Mar., 
1831.) 

Beechey (Sir William), R. A., an eminent English 
portrait-painter, the father of the preceding, was born in 
Oxfordshire Dec. 12, 1753. Died Jan. 28, 1839. 

Beech Spring, a township of Spartanburg co., S. C. 
Pop. 3280. 

Bee Creek, a township of Mitchell co., N. C. Pop. 189. 

B ee'der, or Bider, a fortified city of Hindostan, cap¬ 
ital of a district of the same name, is near the Manjera 
River and in the Nizam’s dominions, about 75 miles N. W. 
of Hyderabad. It was formerly an important place, but is 
now chiefly remarkable for the manufacture of tutenag 
wares of an alloy of tin and copper. 


Bee-Eater, a name given to various birds of the order 
Insessores, tribe Fissirostres and family Meropidm, which 



The Namaqua Bee-Eater. 


is allied to that of kingfishers. The genus Merops com¬ 
prises numerous species, found in Asia, Africa, and Europe, 
which feed on bees and other hymenopterous insects. The 
common bee-eater (Merojjs apiaster ) abounds in the S. of 
Europe as a, summer bird of passage. It seizes bees as 
they fly in the air, and watches for them near their hives. 
It breeds in holes which it excavates in the banks of rivers. 
There ai'e several other genera called bee-eaters. The 
Namaqua bee-eater (lihinojiomastes cyanomelas ) is a West 
and South African bird. 

Beef-Eater, a term applied jocularly to certain British 
functionaries belonging to the yeomen of the guard, who 
form part of the train of royalty, and attend the sovereign 
at royal banquets, coronations, etc. This term appears to 
be a corruption of the French buffetier, one who serves at 
the buffet (sideboard). 

Beef-Eater ( Bu'phaga ), a genus of birds of the order 
Insessores and tribe Conirostres, sometimes called ox- 
pecker. They are exclusively African, and have a remark¬ 
able habit of sitting on the backs of oxen, buffaloes, camels, 
etc., in order to feed on the larvae of flies which they find 
on their hides. This genus comprises the species called 
buffalo-bird of South Africa. 

Beefield, a township of Greenville co., Va. Pop. 2809. 

Beef T ea, an article of diet of the greatest importance 
in the treatment of the sick and the nurture of infants. 
To prepare palatable beef tea is a matter of some difficulty, 
but the following rules are excellent and easy to follow: 
Take one pound of juicy, lean beef from the shoulder or the 
round, and mince it with a sharp knife on a board or a 
mincing-block. Put it with its juice into an earthen vessel 
containing a pint of tepid water, and let it stand for two 
hours. Strain off the liquid through a clean cloth, squeez¬ 
ing well the meat, and add a little salt. Place the whole 
of the juice thus obtained over the fire, but remove it as 
soon as it has become browned. Never let it boil, other¬ 
wise most of the nutritious matter of the beef will be thrown 
down as a sediment. A little pepper or allspice may be 
added if preferred. 

Beehive House, a name given to certain ancient 
dome-shaped buildings found in Ireland, and supposed to 
have been erected in the twelfth century or earlier. They 
are round edifices, built, without cement, of long thin stones 
placed in horizontal layers, each slightly overlapping an¬ 
other, and so gradually converging to the top. They are 
supposed to have been dwellings of priests. In some places 
occur several hive-shaped subterranean chambers, con¬ 
nected by a passage or gallery. 

Beek'man, a post-township of Dutchess co., N. Y. It 
contains limestone, slate, and mines of iron ore (hematite). 
Pop. 1486. 

Beek'mantown, a village of Mount Pleasant town- 












BEEKMANTOWN—BEER. 


441 


ship, Westchester co., N. Y., on Pocantico River. Pop. 
2206. 

Beekmantown, a post-village and township of Clin¬ 
ton co., N. Y., on the Montreal and Plattsburg R. R., 4 
miles N. of Plattsburg. The township is on Lake Cham¬ 
plain. Pop. of township, 2552. 

Beel'zebllb [Gr. BeeA^eflovA, Deelzeboul, or Beelzebul ], 
(/. e. “the god of dung or of flies”), the name of a god 
worshipped by the people of Ekron, in Philistia. As the 
heathen deities were all regarded as demons by the Jews, 
the name Beelzebub came in course of time to be com¬ 
monly applied to a prince or chief of evil spirits, and in 
this sense it is employed in the Gospels. This name is 
found only in the New Testament. The original and au¬ 
thorized spelling is Beelzebul, which appears to have been 
afterwards changed so as to resemble Baalzebub, which was 
the proper name of the heathen divinity. 

Beer [Ger. Bier; Fr. biere]. The common beer known 
as beer, ale, porter, stout, etc. is the fermented infusion of 
malted barlejq flavored with hops. In a wider sense the 
term beer is applied to beverages prepared from cereals, 
barley, rye, wheat, Indian corn, millet, etc., the chief con¬ 
stituent of which is starch. The treatment involves the 
preliminary operations of malting and mashing, or changing 
the starch to gum (dextrine) and sugar (glucose) by the 
aid of the natural process of germination. The term wine, 
on the other hand, is restricted to alcoholic liquids obtained 
by fermenting the saccharine juices of fruits, as the grape, 
apple, pear, cummt, and gooseberry, or the sap of such 
plants as the sugar-cane, palm, American aloe, etc. There 
are, however, many beverages of inferior quality called 
beer, which consist of saccharine liquors more or less com¬ 
pletely fermented, and flavored with various substances, 
such as spruce beer, ginger beer, root beer, etc. 

The manufacture of beer from barley is divided into two 
distinct processes— malting and brewing —which are con¬ 
ducted in different establishments, the malt-house and the 
brewery; the brewer often purchasing his malt from the 
maltster. Malting consists of four successive operations : 
(1) Steeping. The barley is placed in wooden cisterns, cov¬ 
ered with cold water, and allowed to soak for two or three 
days, when the water is drained off. By this operation the 
barley absorbs from 10 to 50 per cent, of water, softening 
and swelling up at the same time. (2) Couching. The 
softened barley is thrown out upon the floor of the malt- 
house in heaps or couches, where it heats spontaneously and 
begins to germinate, throwing out rootlets or radicles, and 
shoots or acrospires. At the same time it evolves a portion 
of its water, the operation being called sweating. (3) Floor¬ 
ing is resorted to in order to check the germination by re¬ 
ducing the temperature. It consists in spreading the bar¬ 
ley over the floor, and repeatedly turning and respreading 
it over a constantly widening area in layers of diminishing 
thickness. When the process of germination has proceeded 
as far as is desirable, it is completely stopped by (4) Kiln- 
drying. This is effected in a large room with brick or tile 
floors, the kiln, which is heated to the desired temperature. 
Here the germinated barley is rendered perfectly dry and 
crisp. It is then malt. The appearance of the malt, and 
the color of the beer made from it, depend upon the tem¬ 
perature of the kiln. At between 90° and 100° F. pale malt 
results; at 120°-125°, amber malt; 150°-170°, brown malt 
for porter and stout. Black malt is prepared by roasting 
the malt in cylinders, at 300° to 400° F., such as are used 
for roasting coffee. It is used as a coloring for porter. 
During the process of malting the barley increases in vol¬ 
ume and diminishes in weight; 100 measures of barley 
yield 101 to 109 of malt, but 100 pounds yield only about 
80 pounds of malt. The loss in weight is largely due to 
the perfect drying in the kiln, fresh barley containing 10 
to 16 per cent, of water. It is, however, in part due to the 
removal of some soluble constituents in the steeping, to the 
destruction of some during germination, and evolution in 
the form of carbonic acid, water, hydrogen, nitrogen, etc., 
and to the shoots and rootlets. An experiment made by 
C. John gave the following results, leaving out the per¬ 
centages of water: 100 parts of barley lost in the steeping 
0.391; 100 parts of steeped barley yielded— 

Malt. 83.09 

Shoots. 3.56 

Rootlets. 4 -99 

Gases. 8.36 

100.00 

The object of changing the barley to malt is to render 
its constituents soluble, and bring them into a condition 
suitable for fermentation. During germination the albu¬ 
minous substances are changed to diastase, a body which 
exerts a wonderful action upon starch. One part of dias¬ 
tase is said to change 2000 parts of starch (which is insol¬ 
uble) to dextrine (gum), and then to glucose (grape-sugar), 


both of which are soluble in water. It is very doubtful 
whether what Payen and Persoz called diastase is a dis¬ 
tinct body, but the name is a convenient one for the al¬ 
buminous matters, modified and rendered soluble by germi¬ 
nation, which act as ferments, and possess the important 
properties above mentioned. 

Germination is considered to have gone far enough when 
the acrospire has advanced two-thirds the length of the 
grain. Were the process of germination allowed to proceed 
farther, the various constituents of the seed would be as¬ 
similated by the young plant, and transformed into insol¬ 
uble tissues, as they really constitute the supply of fop,d 
designed to sustain the germ during its early development, 
until having acquired leaves and roots it can obtain its 
food from the atmosphere and soil. It was formerly sup¬ 
posed that the conversion of the starch into dextrine and 
glucose took place to a large extent during the malting, 
and the following analyses by Proust have long been 
quoted to sustain this view : 

Barley. Malt. 

Gluten. 3. 1 

Starch. 87. 68 

Gum. 4. 15 

Sugar. 5. 15 

Resin. 1. 1 

100 100 

More recent investigations and analyses made by improved 
methods have shown that very little starch is changed to 
dextrine and sugar during the early stages of germination 
to which the barley is subjected during malting. While a 
larger quantity of starch is converted into dextrine during 
the kiln-drying, especially in the preparation of dark-col¬ 
ored malt, the starch is but little affected until the brewer 
exposes the malt to the action of warm water in his mash- 
tub. Here the changes supposed by Proust to occur during 
the malting actually take place. 

The exact analysis of malt is attended with almost in¬ 
surmountable difficulties, and it has not yet been possible 
to ascertain the precise nature of the chemical processes 
involved in its formation. Dr. Stein investigated the sub¬ 
ject in 1860 ( Wilda’s Centralblatt, 1860, ii., p. 8) and C. 
John in 1869 ( Byer, Bierbrauer, 1869, No. 5, p. 101). John 
found that in the conversion of barley into malt, not count¬ 
ing the shoots and rootlets, the fat diminished from 2.73 to 
1.906 per cent., cellulose 12.24 to 7.18, while the dextrine in¬ 
creased to 8.600, the glucose from 0.34 to 1.49, and the sub¬ 
stances soluble in alcohol and in water from 5.949 to 16.72. 
Stein reports that the fat diminished from 3.56 to 2.09, the 
cellulose 19.86 to 18.76, the starch 54.48 to 47.43, the in¬ 
soluble albuminoids from 11.02 to 9.02, while the dextrine 
increased from 6.50 to 6.95, the soluble albuminoids from 
1.26 to 1.96, the non-nitrogenous extractive matters from 
0.90 to 3.68. These differences appear very slight; but 
although analysis thus fails to reveal the character of the 
changes, their extent and importance are at once seen on 
exposing barley and malt to the action of warm water. 
The former is hardly affected, while the latter quickly 
yields a sweet wort, containing large quantities of dextrine, 
glucose, albumen, etc. 

The diastase of malt is capable of changing to glucose 
a much lai’ger quantity of starch than exists in the barley; 
hence unmalted grain is sometimes added to the malt dur¬ 
ing the subsequent operation of mashing. In Belgium 
potato starch is largely employed. 

Brewing .—The first operation of the brewer is the bruis¬ 
ing or crushing of the malt, which is accomplished by pass¬ 
ing it between iron rollers. It is then placed in the mash- 
tub with warm water, and raised gradually to about 167° 
F. It is here that the starch is transformed into dextrine 
and glucose, which, with the soluble albuminous and saline 
constituents, are taken into solution by the water. From 
one to four bushels of malt are used for each barrel of 
beer. When the price of malt is high, a portion of it is 
replaced by cheaper amylaceous or saccharine substances, 
such as potato starch, or glucose prepared from it by the 
action of sulphuric acid. The insoluble residuum from 
the malt is sold under the name of brewers’ grains for 
feeding cows. The infusion is allowed to stand for a few 
hours to clarify or set, and the sweet clear wort is then 
drawn off into a copper boiler, when it is boiled with the 
hops. From one to five pounds of hops are added for each 
barrel of beer, the quantity varying with the strength of 
the beer, the length of time it is to be kept, and the elimato 
to which it is going. The hops are the female flowers ot 
the Humulus Lupulus; they contain a peculiar essential 
aromatic oil, a bitter principle, lupuline, tannio acid, resin, 
etc. They oommunicate an agreeable flavor to the beer, 
add to its tonic and stimulating properties, aid in clearing 
it by tho action of the tannic acid on the albumen, and di¬ 
minish its liability to spoil on keeping. (Sec Hops.) Dr. 
C. A. Seeley of New York has prepared an extract ot hops 
by moans of gasolene (petroleum spirits) which he con- 
































442 


BEER. 


sillers much preferable to the entire hops. The boiled wort 
is cooled as quickly as possible, either by placing it in 
shallow vessels or passing it over a series of tubes through 
which cold water circulates. It is then run into the fer¬ 
menting vats or tuns, which in large breweries sometimes 
have a capacity of 1200 or 1500 barrels. The temperature 
of the wort best suited to successful fermentation depends 
upon the season. In summer, with the atmosphere at 75° 
F., it should stand at about 55°, with air at 55°, at 60°; 
while in the winter it should have a temperature of at least 
61°. If a very quick fermentation is desired, it may be 
considerably higher. For every 100 gallons of wort about 
1 gallon of yeast is added, which has been produced in a 
previous brewing of the same kind of beer. The yeast is 
usually mixed with a little wort, and left in a warm place 
till it begins to ferment. This lobb, as it is called, is then 
added to the tun. More yeast is employed in winter than 
in summer; twice as much at 50° F. as at 68°. In six or 
eight hours fermentation becomes active; the wort begins 
to work, the glucose, under the influence of the active fer¬ 
ment yeast, undergoes decomposition, yielding alcohol and 
carbonic acid, the latter escaping in bubbles, and bearing 
to the surface particles of yeast, which form a scum. The 
yeast itself, being a plant, develops rapidly, largely at the 
expense of the nitrogenous albuminous matters of tlie wort, 
which are thus withdrawn. (See Yeast.) The tempera¬ 
ture rapidly increases, rising many degrees. This fer¬ 
mentation continues for six or eight days. When it has 
reached the proper point, the beer is separated from the 
yeast, and transferred to the cleansing butts. Here a slow, 
almost imperceptible, fermentation takes place. The solid 
particles of the yeast rise to the surface and escape through 
the bungholes of the casks. Finings are sometimes added 
to clear the beer; they generally consist of isinglass dis¬ 
solved in a little sour beer. The beer is then transferred 
to store-casks, where a slow fermentation occurs, which pro¬ 
duces no perceptible quantity of yeast ; the beer develops 
its finer qualities, and is here finished for use. (See Fer¬ 
mentation.) 

The composition of the water used in brewing is sup¬ 
posed to exert an important influence on the success of the 
process. Lime salts are said to aid in clearing the beer, 
as they form insoluble compounds with some of the acids 
present. Sulphate of lime, or gypsum, is sometimes added 
to the water. The spring water at Burton-on-Trent is said 
to contain considerable sulphate of lime. The strength 
and taste of beer depend upon the quantities of malt and 
hops employed and the mode of conducting each of the 
several operations, especially the' fermentation. Strong 
beers contain much alcohol; substantial beers are those 
which have not been fermented so thoroughly, and which 
consequently contain more of the extractive matters of the 
malt. Bitter beers contain more of the hop extract. 

Ale is prepared from pale malt, and the active fermenta¬ 
tion is checked while there still remains a considerable 
quantity of sugar unchanged. This, by subsequent fer¬ 
mentation in the barrel or bottle, keeps up the briskness. 
Pale ale is made from malt dried in the sun or by steam. 
It is not allowed to rise above 72° during the fermentation. 
The formation of acetic acid is thus prevented, and the un¬ 
pleasant flavor due to the solution of the yeast by the alco¬ 
hol is avoided. Scotch ale is a sweet strong ale. Small 
beer is a weak liquor made by using little malt, or by mash¬ 
ing with fresh water the malt residuum left after the wort 
for ale or porter has been drawn off. Porter is a dark- 
colored beer made from a mixture of pale, amber, brown, 
and black malt. Stout is strong porter. Berlin white beer 
(weiss beer ) is prepared by quick fermentation from a mix¬ 
ture of 1 part of barley malt and 5 parts of wheat malt 
with half a pound of hops per bushel. 

Lager Beer .—The beer of Bavaria, which has of late 
years been so extensively manufactured in the U. S. under 
the name of lager beer, owes its name (from lager, a “ store¬ 
house”) to the fact that it is stored in cool cellars or vaults 
for several months before it is used, and its remarkable 
keeping qualities and highly prized properties to the pecu¬ 
liar kind of fermentation by which it is produced. The 
fermentation of ordinary beer and ale takes place at high 
temperatures; it is consequently rapid, and the carbonic 
acid, evolved in bubbles, carries a portion of the yeast to 
the surface, forming a thick scum. This scum protects the 
beer from the oxygen of the air. The conversion of gluten 
into yeast is in part a process of oxidation, and the oxy¬ 
gen being excluded considerable gluten remains unchanged, 
and acting as a ferment leads to the subsequent change of 
alcohol to acetic acid. The fermentation of lager beer is 
conducted at a low temperature—between 40° and 50° F. 
It proceeds more slowly, and the carbonic acid does not 
carry the yeast to the surface. Consequently, the air has 
a freer access, and the gluten is more completely converted 
into yeast. This beer is usually fermented in the winter, or, | 


if in summer, in rooms cooled by ice. This is called sedi¬ 
mentary or under-fermentation, to distinguish it from the 
ordinary surface fermentation. The yeast, called bottom 
yeast, is quite different from ordinary yeast, and has a tend¬ 
ency to induce the kind of fermentation by which it was 
produced. The following is a brief outline of the process 
employed at one of the largest lager-beer breweries in New 
York. The barley is soaked two or three days, changing 
the waters; it germinates six to ten days, till the radicles 
are brownish; it is then kiln-dried. It is crushed between 
rollers, mashed at 120° to 140° F., the temperature being 
raised by the addition of boiling water to 160° or 170°. 
By adding hot water to the residue a second wort is ob¬ 
tained. The first wort is boiled with the hops; the second 
wort is let in, and the whole is boiled three or four hours. 
After cooling to between 44° and 50° F., it is run into open 
fermenting tuns. One gallon of yeast is added for every 
twenty to twenty-five barrels. Fermentation continues from 
ten to twenty days. There is a heavy froth at first, which 
subsides, leaving the surface clear. It is racked off into 
hogsheads, when the yeast is found at the bottom of the 
tuns. It stands in these hogsheads with the bung open. 
A few days before it is to be put in barrels for use the 
bung is driven in to accumulate carbonic acid for life. 

Three varieties of this beer are made: (1) “ Lager,” or 
summer beer, for which 3 bushels of malt and 1 £ to 3 pounds 
of hops are used per barrel, and which is not ready for use 
in less than from four to six months. (2) “Schenk,” winter 
or present-use beer: 2 to 3 bushels malt and 1 pound hops 
per barrel; ready in four to six weeks. (3) Bock bier, which 
is an extra strong beer, made in small quantity and served 
to customers in the spring, during the interval between the 
giving out of the schenk beer and the tapping of the lager. 
In its manufacture 3£ bushels of malt and 1 pound of hops 
per barrel are used, and it requires two months for its 
preparation. 

The barrels for lager are coated with pitch on the inside, 
to prevent the beer soaking into the wood and giving rise 
to acetic acid when they are empty. Lager is therefore the 
product of a peculiar slow under-fermentation, which takes 
place at low temperatures. 

Chica, or maize beer, was used by the South American 
Indians before the Spanish conquest. Bourza, or millet 
beer, is made by the Criin Tartars. Quass, or rye beer, is a 
sharp acid beverage prized by the Russians. Koumiss, or 
milk beer, is prepared by the Tartars from mares’ milk, 
which they dilute and ferment. 

Composition of Beer. —The stimulant and tonic properties 
of beer are due to the alcohol and the bitter principle of 
the hop, while its nutritive value is ascribed to the extractive 
matters derived chiefly from the malt. The exact character 
of many of the constituents of beer is not known. Besides 
water, alcohol, dexti’ine, and grape-sugar, the following 
substances have been identified: glycerine, succinic, acetic, 
lactic, propionic, glucic, and carbonic acids, albumen and 
albuminous principles, bitter and resinous matters and 
essential oil from the hop, and alkaline and earthy salts. 
The latter, which amount to from 0.15 to 0.28 per cent, of 
the beer, are from one-half to two-thirds alkaline and 
earthy phosphates. The unrecognized constituents of beer 
are grouped under the term extractive matters. In the 
following table the term extract includes all the substances 
left when the alcohol and water are removed by evaporation : 


Analysis of Beer. 


Kinds. 

Percentages. 

Contents per Impe¬ 
rial Pint. 

Alcohol. 

Extract. 

Alcohol, 
fl. ounces. 

Extract, 

ounces. 

Burton ale (Allsopp’s). 

8.25 

13.32 

2.16 

2.77 

Bass’s barley wine. 

8.41 

11.75 

2.18 

2.42 

Edinburgh ale. 

4.41 

3.58 

1.12 

.72 

Guinness’s stout. 

6.81 

6.17 

1.74 

1-25 

Truman, Hanbury & Co.’s 
porter . 

4.02 

5.12 

1.03 

1.01 

Whitebread’s porter. 

4.28 

5.15 

1.09 

1.03 

Hoare’s porter. 

4.18 

5.04 

1.06 

1.03 

Perry’s ale. 

3.87 

3.65 

0.98 

0.73 

1.22 

Munich lager. 

4.70 

6.10 

1.19 

New York lager. 

5.86 

4.32 

1.48 

0.88 

Munich schenk. 

3.90 

5.7 

1.00 

1.16 

Munich bock. 

4.60 

9.2 

1.17 1 

1.90 


Adulteration of Beer. —There is a popular impression 
that beer is extensively and injuriously adulterated; that 
potato starch, grape-sugar, glycerine, and molasses are 
added as substitutes for malt; pine bark, quassia, walnut 
leaf, wormwood, bitter clover, aloes, picric acid, cocculus 
indicus, and strychnine as substitutes for hops; and various 
chemicals to neutralize acidity or conceal dilution. A few 
of the first mentioned would not be objectionable, and it is 
not probable that many, if any, of the others are ever used. 

C. F. Chandler. 
















































BEERSIIEBA—BEETLE. 


443 


Beer'sheba (i. e. the “well of the oath,” or “well of 
the seven ”), an ancient frontier place of Palestine, situ¬ 
ated about 50 miles S. S. W. of Jerusalem, and near the 
border of the desert. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob often 
dwelt there. The phrase “from Dan to Beersheba” was 
used proverbially to express the whole extent of the land 
of Israel. There are still to be seen seven wells of ancient 
masonry, from five to twelve and a half feet in diameter; 
but only two of them now contain water. 

Beershc'ba Springs, a post-village of Grundy co., 
Tenn., on the summit of a spur of Cumberland Mountain, 
12 miles N. E. of McMinnville, has valuable tonic, saline, 
and chalybeate mineral waters, and very beautiful scenery. 
This is a fashionable watering-place for the people of the 
South-west. 

B ees'wax [Lat. ce'ra ], a substance manufactured or 
secreted by the honey bee, is the material of which its cells 
and combs are constructed, and is an important article of 
commerce. In order to separate the wax from the honey, 
the honeycomb is subjected to pressure, which squeezes out 
nearly all the honey ; the residual comb is then heated in 
water and stirred till the wax melts, when the whole is 
passed through hair bags. The wax is received in a vessel 
of cold water, where it is cooled and solidifies as a thick 
cake on the surface of the water. The natural yellow color 
is sometimes changed to white by exposure to the joint 
action of the sun, the ozone of the air, and moisture. Puri¬ 
fied beeswax is tasteless, odorless, and colorless. Its spe¬ 
cific gravity is about .960. It fuses at 145° F., is insolu¬ 
ble in water, and partly soluble in boiling alcohol. Bees¬ 
wax is extensively used in the manufacture of candles and 
tapers, and for other purposes. The candles which are 
burned in Roman Catholic churches are always made of 
wax, which is also an ingredient in the cerates of pharmacy. 
Beeswax consists of—(1) myricin, which is insoluble in 
boiling alcohol, and is chiefly myricic palmitatc, C 3 o 1 I 61 -Cig 
H 31 O 2 ; (2) cerotic acid, C 27 II 54 O 2 , which dissolves in boil¬ 
ing alcohol, but crystallizes out on cooling; (3) cerolein, 
which remains dissolved in the cold alcohol, probably a 
mixture of several substances. 

Beet [Ger. Beete], ( Be'ta ), a genus of plants of the or¬ 
der Chenopodiaceae, extensively cultivated for their escu¬ 
lent roots, which are large and succulent. The species of 
Beta, which are not numerous, are mostly biennial, with 
smooth, ovate, and petiolate radical leaves. They are 
natives of the temperate parts of the Eastern hemisphere. 
The common beet (Beta vulgaris) is indigenous on the shores 
of the Mediterranean, and is extensively cultivated in gar¬ 
dens and fields. The boiled roots are a common article 
of food in most civilized countries of Europe and North 
America. Large quantities of sugar are extracted from the 
roots of the beet in France and Germany. The beet-sugar, 
when refined, is identical with that of the sugar-cane. The 
beet prefers a rich, light soil. The variety chiefly cul¬ 
tivated in gardens is the red beet, so called from the color 
of the root, which is sometimes conical. A coarser variety 
of beet, called mangold-wurzel, is a valuable food for cat¬ 
tle. (See Sugar.) 

Bee'thoven, van (Ludwig), a famous musical com¬ 
poser, born at Bonn Dec. 17, 1770. He was the second of 
four children, of whom the first died an infant. His father, 
Johann van Beethoven, tenor singer in the chapel of the 
elector, being poor, mainly in consequence of bad habits, 
discerned the remarkable musical talents of his son, and 
prepared early to press them into service by teaching him 
to play the harpsichord before he was five years old. Hav¬ 
ing outgrown his father’s instruction, the lad was put un¬ 
der the tuition of Pfeiffer, oboist in the chapel, and then 
under that of Van der Eder, reputed the best organist in 
Bonn. At the age of eleven he was transferred from Van 
der Eder to his successor in the chapel, Neefe, who spoke 
warmly of the boy’s proficiency and mastery of the music 
adapted to the harpsichord. The master himself seems to 
have given him special instruction in the science of composi¬ 
tion, and even had published some of his compositions. At 
this period the lad dedicated to the elector three pianoforte 
sonatas, which also were printed. From this time his repu¬ 
tation increased, and his prosperity, under the auspices of 
eminent patrons, brightened. When but fourteen he was 
made assistant court-organist, and three years later was 
sent to Vienna, at the elector’s expense, to pursue his 
studies under the direction of Mozart, then at the height 
of his fame. In Vienna he finally made his home, after an 
incidental residence of several years in Rome, where his 
efforts were required to support his two younger brothers. 
On his return to Vienna he studied hard with Haydn and 
Albrechtsberger, the celebrated contrapuntist, making him¬ 
self perfect master of the science of musical composition. 
His favorite instrument at this time was the pianoforte, on 
which he soon rivalled the best performers. His technical 


education being completed, his powers trained, his method 
formed, works came from his hand with astonishing rapid¬ 
ity. There is difficulty in fixing the dates of his composi¬ 
tions, but before he was thirty years old he had published 
as many as twenty sonatas for the pianoforte, nine for piano 
and instruments, two concertos for piano and orchestra, 
trios, quartetts, quintetts, septetts, a ballet, “ The Men of 
Prometheus,” and two orchestral symphonies. At this 
period he moved in the best society, was noticed by persons 
of rank, and recognized by all as a genius of the first order. 
These were his happy, hopeful days, but they did not last 
long; they were soon clouded by the one great calamity .of 
his life—a misfortune that to a musician would seem almost 
fatal to achievement. Already in 1800 he speaks sadly of 
a defect in his hearing which occasioned serious inconve¬ 
nience. It increased so rapidly that before long, in the 
course of two or three years, during which he had a violent 
sickness, he became totally deaf. This affliction clouded 
his inner life, made him distrustful, restless, suspicious, 
melancholy, and unsocial. From this time books, medita¬ 
tion, and solitary walks in the country were his sole recre¬ 
ation. His society was limited to a few select friends, with 
whom he could forget himself. He lived in his work, and 
his work went on increasing in volume, gaining in power 
and deepening in intensity from year to year. The achieve¬ 
ments of his genius cannot be described in few words. In 
less than five years were produced the “ Heroic Symphony,” 
“ Fidelio,” Symphonies Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth, with the 
grand mass in C. In 1813 came the Seventh Symphony; 
three years later the Eighth, in 1824 the Ninth or “ Cho¬ 
ral ” Symphony, by many thought the most wonderful of 
all—by Beethoven himself regarded as the most signifi¬ 
cant; and in the intervals between these gigantic creations 
was produced some of his most perfect music. To give 
here any account of these works is impossible; they cannot 
so much as be named, for they cover nearly every species 
of composition, and are so remarkable that nearly every 
one merits special notice. They are as extraordinary for 
their wealth of thought and feeling as for their mastery of 
the laws of composition. They constitute a musical libra¬ 
ry by themselves. The nine symphonies and the grand 
sonatas for the pianoforte are monuments of genius which 
alone would give immortality to their creator. 

Beethoven died Mar. 26, 1827, of dropsy, following a 
violent inflammation of the lungs. His constitution, nat¬ 
urally strong, had been tried by severe shocks of illness. 
His life was solitary; he was never married. His strongest 
natural attachment was for a nephew who proved unworthy 
of his uncle’s devotion. Though his deafness made him a 
recluse, he was not selfish, soixlid, or narrow-souled. On 
the contrary, his human feeling was of the deepest, and, 
though he could never have been rich, he showed himself 
capable of generosity. An enthusiastic republican in his 
belief, and an ardent sympathizer with his countrymen in 
their struggles for political liberty, Beethoven suffered 
bitterly for the woes of his Fatherland, and poured out 
through his music the passion of his proud, agonized heart. 
There are worlds of sorrow in his compositions. They are, 
in every sense of the words, modern and living. Though 
so thoroughly accomplished in musical science, Beethoven 
was never scholastic; though so deeply charged with emo¬ 
tion, ho was never sentimental. His works convey the 
profound, various, comprehensive feeling which was natural 
to a sensitive spirit, keenly responsive to all the joy and 
sorrow of the new age. To this is due their extraordinary 
hold on people who are quite unable to appreciate their 
technical excellence. 

That Beethoven was a man of vast intellect his compo¬ 
sitions testify. But he was something besides a musician. 
He read much and thought much; he was by no means un¬ 
familiar with the literature of Germany, and even with 
Italian letters. When interested, his conversation was ani¬ 
mated, brilliant, and instructive. 

In person Beethoven is said to have been of middle size, 
stout and apparently strong. His statues, busts, and por¬ 
traits represent him with a massive head, broad brow, a 
dignified, sombre expression of countenance, and features 
of harsh but heroic cast. The bronze statue erected in the 
public square of his native city in 1845 is of majestic 
aspect. His latest and most careful biographer, however, 
Mr. A. W. Thayer, an American, describes him as looking 
much like a mulatto, short and sallow, with wide nostrils 
and projecting teeth, heavy lips, and high cheek-bones. A 
great deal has been written about him. Until the biography 
of Mr. Thayer the authorities were his contemporary, Mos- 
cheles (whoso work has been republished in this country), 
and Schindler. 0. B. Frothixgham. 

Bee'tle, a common name given to several species of 
insects of the order Coleoptera. Most writers on natural 
history extend the meaning of the term, and apply it to all 
coleopterous insects, the species of which are very numer- 



















444 


BEETLE STONES—BEHRING. 


ous. They may be distinguished and recognized by the 
two hard sheaths or elytra which cover the pair of true 
membranous wings and organs of flight. Many beetles arc 
remarkable for their singular forms and the brilliant colors 
and ornamental markings of their elytra. Each beetle has 
two antennae, two mandibles of a horny consistence, two 
compound eyes, and six legs. (See Coleoptera and Sca¬ 
rab.*: us.) 

Bee'tle Stones, a name given by the lapidaries of 
Edinburgh to hard nodules of clay iron-stone found abun¬ 
dantly at Newhaven, a suburb of that city. They take a 
fine polish, and are used to make ornamental articles. The 
name is derived from a fossil which often occurs as a nucleus 
of the nodule, and was erroneously supposed to be a fossil 
beetle, but is really a coprolite. 

B ce'town, a post-township of Grant co., Wis. P. 1624. 

Beet-root Sugar, a kind of sugar made in France 
and Germany. The beet root contains about 10 per cent, 
of saccharine matter. The Prussian chemist Achard was 
the first who succeeded in extracting sugar from beets. 
(See Sugar.) 

Bee'viOe, a post-village, capital of Bee co., Tex., 127 
miles S. of Austin City. 

Be' gas (Karl), a German painter, born at Heinsburg 
Sept. 30, 1794. He became about 1818 a resident of Berlin 
and court-painter to the king of Prussia. He painted 
“ The Finding of Moses” and many other scriptural sub¬ 
jects; also excellent portraits of eminent authors and ar¬ 
tists, including Humboldt and Schelling. Died Nov. 24,1854. 

Beg' gar, a person who solicits charitable aid from the 
public at large. In all ages and countries persons have 
practised various arts in order to enlist the sympathies of 
the benevolent. Severe enactments have from time to time 
been made against them. By a law of Richard II. (1388) 
able-bodied beggars were punished and compelled to labor, 
and provision Avas made for the helpless. By an act of 
Henry VIII. (1530) licenses were given to impotent per¬ 
sons to beg within fixed limits, but unlicensed beggars 
were whipped, and all persons giving alms to such forfeited 
ten times the amount given. In the reign of Elizabeth 
beggars above the age of fourteen Avere grievously whipped, 
burned through the ear Avith a hot iron, and for the third 
offence were put to death. This regulation was repealed 
in 1593. 

Begging Friars. See Mendicant Orders. 

Beg'hards [Lat. Beghardi, Bcgchardi, and sometimes 
Beguini ], a name of uncertain derivation (for which see 
Beguines, below), applied to semi-monastic societies of 
men, originating in the Netherlands, and dating from the 
early part of the thirteenth century, or not very long after 
similar societies of women had been formed. At first the 
Beghards were distinguished for piety and works of benef¬ 
icence. Some connected themselves with the Tertiaries of 
the monastic orders; some became wildly fanatical; and 
some fell off into heresies. They were severely handled by 
the Inquisition, but spread into Germany, France, Switzer- 
land, Italy, and even Sicily, and continued down to the 
Reformation. (See Mosheim, “De Beghardis et Beguina- 
bus Commentarius ” 1790 ; and Hallmann, “ Geschichte 
d. Ursprungs d. belgischen Beghinen,” 1843.) 

Beghar'mi, or Bagir'mi, a country of Central Af¬ 
rica, is bounded on the N. by Lake Tchad, on the E. by the 
kingdom of Wadai, and on the W. by the river Shari, 
which separates it from Bornu. Area, 56,600 square miles. 
The greatest length is about 250 miles. Capital, Masena. 
The surface is for the most part nearly level; the soil is the 
most fertile and the best watered of the Soodan. It was 
founded by a heathen chief about 300 years ago, but Mo¬ 
hammedanism soon became the ruling religion. It is trib¬ 
utary to both Bornu and Wadai. The natives are physi¬ 
cally Avell-formed and warlike. Begharmi was visited by 
Dr. Barth in 1852. Pop. about 1,500,000. (See Barth, 
“Travels in Central Africa.”) 

B ego'nia, a genus of tropical plants, the type of the 
natural order Begoniaceae. Some of them are cultivated 
in hot-houses for the sake of the flowers. The leaves, which 
are oblique at the base, have a reddish tinge. The suc¬ 
culent stems and leaves of Begonia tuberosa and other spe¬ 
cies are used as potherbs and eaten in the form of tarts. 
The name Begonia was given in honor of Michel B6gon, 
a patron of science. 

B egonia'cerc (so named from Bego'nia, one of the 
genera), a natural order of exogenous plants, mostly her¬ 
baceous, have alternate leaves, oblique at the base, and 
cymes of unisexual pink flowers, with a colored perianth 
and numerous stamens. There are also white and deep 
scarlet varieties. They are nearly all tropical plants, but 
one species of Begonia grows on the Himalayas 11,500 feet 


above the sea. The order comprises about 160 species. 
Some of the Mexican species are used as drastic purgatives. 

Beguines, bi-geen' [Lat. Beguinse, Begutse , some say 
from the old Saxon beggen, “ to beg” or “ to prayothers 
from the supposed founder, Lambert le Begue or Beghc], 
the name given to semi-monastic societies of women, orig¬ 
inating in Belgium, perhaps at Liege, about 1180 A. D. 
These societies grew in part out of the numerical inequal¬ 
ity between the sexes caused by the Crusades. The women, 
without assuming monastic vows, lived in houses by them¬ 
selves, labored for their own support, and took care of the 
sick. A few of these establishments are still found in 
Belgium. (For the literature, see Beghards.) 

Be'gum [ba'gum, the feminine form of the Tartar beg 
or bey, a “lord” or “prince”], a title of honor given in 
the East Indies to princesses and the sultanas of seraglios. 
Among the charges against Warren Hastings Avas his cruelty 
to two rich begums of Oude, the mother and the wife of 
Sujah Dowlah. In order to extort money from them, Hast¬ 
ings or his agents invaded the privacy of their zenanas, and 
reduced them to the alternative of delivering their treasures 
or exposing their faces to the view of strange men. They 
preferred the former of these tAvo evils. 

Be'haim, or Be'hem (Martin), an eminent cosmog- 
rapher and navigator, born at Nuremberg about 1459. He 
became a merchant, and visited foreign countries in that 
capacity. In 1484 and 1485 he accompanied the navigator 
Diogo Cam in a voyage of exploration along the W. coast 
of Africa. He gained distinction as a maker of maps and 
globes. A large globe which he made in 1492 is still pre¬ 
served by his descendants in Nuremberg, and is prized as a 
monument and record of the progress of geography. Died 
July 29, 1506. (See Giiillany, “ Geschichte des Seefahrers 
Ritter Martin Behaim,” 1853; C. G. yon Murr, “Diplo- 
matische Geschichte des Ritters M. Behaim,” 1778.) 

Be'ham (Bartholomeav), a German portrait-painter 
and engraver, born in 1496, Avas a scholar of Diirer. Died 
in 1540.—His nepheAv, IIans Sebald Beham, born in 1500, 
one of the best of the Nuremberg engravers, chose gro¬ 
tesque, sometimes coarse subjects. 

Beheading. See Capital Punishment. 

Be'hemoth, a huge animal described in the book of 
Job (xl. 15-24). Some critics consider the HebreAV term a 
plural noun for cattle in general. Others think some ex¬ 
tinct species of animal is referred to. Others think the 
elephant is meant. But most writers say the hippopotamus. 

Behes'tian, a township of Ouachita co., Ark. P. 396. 

Behistirn' [Lat. Bagista'nus; Pers. Baghistan', i. e. 
“place of gardens”], an ancient and ruined town of Persia, 
in Irak-Ajemi, 21 miles E. of Kermanshah. Here is a re¬ 
markable limestone mountain (the ancient Mons Bagistanns, 
on the confines of Media), which rises to the height of 1700 
feet, and is almost perpendicular on one side. According 
to Diodorus, the famous Semiramis, on her march from 
Babylon to Ecbatana, encamped here and prepared a resi¬ 
dence, and having cut away the lower part of the rock of 
Bagistanus, caused her portrait to be carved or sculptured 
there. The geography of this locality has been carefully 
investigated by Raivlinson and Masson. A peculiar inter¬ 
est attaches to the rock of Behistun on account of its cunei¬ 
form inscriptions, which were made by order of Darius I., 
king of Persia, about 515 B. C., and have been deciphered 
by Sir II. RaAvlinson. Close to these inscriptions are thir¬ 
teen human figures, one of Avliich represents Darius. “ Tho 
labor,” says Rawlinson, “ bestowed on the Avhole work must 
have been enormous. . . . But the real wonder of the work 
consists in the inscriptions. For extent, for beauty of exe¬ 
cution, for uniformity and correctness, they are perhaps 
unequalled in the world. It is evident that after the en¬ 
graving of the rock had been accomplished, a coating of 
silicious varnish had been laid on to give a clearness of 
outline to each individual letter, and to protect the surface 
against the action of the elements. This varnish is of in¬ 
finitely greater hardness than the limestone rock beneath it. 
It has been washed doAvn in several places by the trickling 
of water for three-and-twenty centuries, and it lies in flakes 
upon the foot-ledge like thin layers of lava.” ( Journal of 
the Asiatic Society, vol. x.) The Persian inscriptions which 
Rawlinson deciphered are contained in five columns, one 
of Avhich has ninety-six lines, and the others each nearly 
as many. There are on the same rock inscriptions in the 
Median and Babylonian languages. (See Raavlinson's 
“ Herodotus,” vols. i. and ii.) 

Behn (Apiira), a female writer in the reign of Charles 
II., born in 1640. She Avrote seventeen plays, besides 
novels and poems which were witty, but licentious. She 
was employed as a spy at Antwerp. Died in 1689. 

Behring, or Beering (Vitus), a Danish navigator, 










BEHRING SEA—BELEMNITELLA. 


445 


born in Jutland in 1680. He entered the Russian navy at 
an early age, and fought with distinction against the Swedes. 
In 1725 he was appointed the commander of an expedi¬ 
tion sent to explore the Sea of Kamtchatka. During this 
voyage, which occupied several years, he discovered Behr¬ 
ing Strait (1728), and ascertained that Asia was not joined 
to America. In a subsequent voyage he was wrecked on 
Behring’s Island, where he died Dec. 8, 1741. 

Behring Sea, or Sea of Kamtchatka, the most 
northern part of the Pacific Ocean, extending between the 
peninsulas of Alaska and Kamtchatka. It is connected by 
Behring Strait with the Arctic Ocean. 

Behring Strait, a channel which connects the Pacific 
with the Arctic Ocean, and separates Asia from America. 
It was discovered by Vitus Behring in 1728. Its width is 
about 45 miles at the narrowest part, between East Cape 
(Asia) and Cape Prince of Wales (America). The depth 
of this strait near the middle is about 30 fathoms. 

Beilan, a town and pass of Northern Syria, on the E. 
side of the Gulf of Iskanderoon, one of only two passes be¬ 
tween Cilicia and Syria. It is thought by some to be the 
same as the ancient Amanian Gates. The town of Beilan 
is situated on a crest 1500 feet above the sea. Pop. about 
5000. It has numerous aqueducts. 

Beira, or Beyra,ba'di, aprovince of Portugal, bounded 
on the N. by Entre-Douro-e-Minho and Tras-os-Montes, 
on the E. by Spain, on the S. by Estremadura and Alemtejo, 
and on the W. by the Atlantic. Area, 9244 square miles. 
Besides the Douro, which flows along its N. boundary, and 
the Tagus, which touches it in the S. E. corner, Beira is 
also drained by the Mondegos. The surface is mountain¬ 
ous; the soil is generally poor. Among the staple produc¬ 
tions are wine, grain, and olives. Marble, iron, and coal 
are found here. Capital, Coimbra. Pop. in 1868,1,288,994. 

Beirout, or Bairut. See Beyroot. 

B eis'sel (Johann Conrad), born at Eberbach, in Ger¬ 
many, in 1690, removed in 1720 to Pennsylvania, and be¬ 
came the founder of the religious community at Ephratah, 
in Lancaster county. He died in 1768, leaving several 
theological works. 

Beit-cl-Fa'kih ( “house of a saint”), a town of 
Arabia, in Yemen, on the Red Sea, 90 miles N. of Mocha. 
The heat here is very great, the thermometer rising to 104° 
F. in the shade, and 145° in the sun. It has a citadel and 
a mosque. Pop. about 8000. It is one of the largest marts 
for coffee in Arabia. 

Be'ja ( ane. Pax Ju'lia), a fortified town of Portugal, in 
Alemtejo, 57 miles by rail S. of Evora. It has a castle, a 
cathedral, and manufactures of earthenware and leather. 
It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. Two annual 
fairs ai'e held here in the fall. Pop. 7060. 

Bejar', a fortified Spanish town romantically situated 
on the Cuerpo de Hombre, 48 miles S. of Salamanca. It 
has manufactures of wool, and is noted for hams. Pop. 
10,683. 

Bejapoor' (7. e. “ the victorious or unconquerable city ”), 
a city of India, in the presidency of Bombay, 140 miles S. E. 
of Bombay. It was formerly the populous capital of the 
powerful Hindoo kingdom of the same name, which was 
founded by Tusnef (died 1510), was conquered by Aurung- 
zeb in 1686, and was afterwards a part of the empire of the 
Grand Mogul. According to tradition, it contained 100,000 
houses, but is at present in ruins. It presents a mag¬ 
nificent external show of domes and minarets, temples and 
mausoleums, some of which display exquisite workman¬ 
ship ; and lofty walls of hewn stone enclose this scene of 
splendid desolation. Among the ruins, which are of great 
extent, is a mausoleum of Mahmood Shah, the dome of 
which is visible at a distance of fourteen miles. Here are 
Beveral brass cannon of enormous size. 

Bekaa. See Buka’a. 

Beke (Charles Tilstone), Ph. D., an English travel¬ 
ler, born in London Oct. 10, 1800. He explored Abyssinia 
(1841-44), and after his return published, besides other 
works, an “Essay on the Nile and its Tributaries” (1847), 
and “ On the Sources of the Nile in the Mountains of the 
Moon” (1848). He has since made other visits to Africa. 

Be'l ies, a county of Central Hungary, is bounded on the 
N. by the county of Szabolcs, on the E. by Bihar, on the S. 
by Csanad, and on the W. by Csongrad. Area, 1321 square 
miles. The country consists of a plain, and is watered by 
the Black, White, and Rapid Koros. The climate is un¬ 
healthy, but the soil is extremely fertile, yielding large 
quantities of wheat of the first quality. Pop. in 1869, 
209,729. Chief town, Bekes. 

Bekcs, or Bekesvar, b&'kSsh-var, a town of Hun¬ 
gary, capital of the above county, is at the confluence of 


the White and Black Koros, 62 miles S. W. of Debreczin. 
It has considerable trade. Pop. in 1869, 22,547. 

Bek'ker (Immanuel), a philologist, was born in Berlin 
in 1/85, was a pupil ot F. A. Wolt at Ilalle. He became 
professor of philology at Berlin in 1810, and published 
“Anecdota Graeca” (3 vols., 1814-21). He produced good 
editions of many classics, among which are Plato (10 vols., 
'1814-21), “The Attic Orators” (7 vols., 1823), and Aris¬ 
totle (7 vols., 1831). Died June 7, 1871. 

Bclai'a, Bielaja, or Biela, a river of Russia, rises 
in the Ural Mountains, flows through Orenburg, and, aftej- 
a very tortuous course of about 650 miles, enters the river 
Kama. 

Bel Air, a post-village and county-town of Harford co., 
Md., 22£ miles N. of Baltimore, and 9 miles from Edge- 
wood Station on the Philadelphia Wilmington and Balti¬ 
more R. R., contains a court-house, jail, academy, 3 public 
schools, 4 churches, 3 hotels, 2 weekly papers, and 1 large 
carriage manufactory. It is situated in a fine agricultural 
section. Pop. of village, 633 ; of township, 5650. 

A. II. Rutledge & Co., Pubs. “ Harford Democrat.” 

Bc'lia Tser'kof (7. e. “White Churches”), a town of 
Russia, in Kiev, on the river Ross. It has considerable 
trade. Pop. about 8000. 

BelcSier (Joseph), D. D., a Baptist divine, born in Bir¬ 
mingham, England, April 5,1794, came to America in 1844, 
and published nearly 200 works, among which are “ The 
Baptist Pulpit” (1850), “History of Religious Denomina¬ 
tions” (1855), etc. Died at Philadelphia July 10, 1859. 

Bel and the Dragon, History of, an apocryphal 
book of the Bible, regarded as a fable by the Jews, by 
Saint Jerome, and many eminent theologians. It is ca¬ 
nonical in the Roman Catholic Church, being part of the 
fourteenth chapter of Daniel in the Vulgate. By the An¬ 
glican Church it is recommended to be read for edification. 

BeJ'chcr (Sir Edward), F. R. S., an English vice-ad¬ 
miral, born in 1799. As commander of the Sulphur he 
sailed on a voyage around the world in 1836, and explored 
the western coasts of America. During this voyage he 
served in the naval operations against the Chinese in 1841. 
He became a post-captain in 1843, and commanded an ex¬ 
pedition sent in search of Sir John Franklin in 1852. Re¬ 
turning without any success, and having lost his vessels, 
he was placed before a court-martial, but acquitted. In 
1864 he became rear-admiral of the red. He published, 
besides other works, a “Narrative of a Voyage round the 
World in the Sulphur.” 

Belcher (Jonathan), a merchant, born in Cambridge, 
Mass., Jan., 1681, graduated at Harvard in 1699. He was 
governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire from 1730 
to 1741. Having been removed from office, he went to 
England to vindicate himself, and was appointed governor 
of New Jersey in 1747. Died Aug. 11, 1757. 

Bel'chertown, a post-village and township of Hamp¬ 
shire co., Mass., on the New London Northern R. R., 10 
miles N. N. W. of Palmer. It has important manufactures 
of carriages, etc. Pop. of township, 2428. 

Bel'doc, a township of Barnwell co., S. C. Pop. 1176. 

Bel'ed-el-Jereed/ (7. e. “the country of dates”), an 
extensive region of Northern Africa, bordering on the Des¬ 
ert of Sahara, is bounded on the N. by Algeria, and on the 
W. by Morocco. The soil is mostly arid and sterile, except 
some oases, which produce the date-palm. 

Belem. See Para. 

Belem'nite [Lat. belenmi'tes, from the Gr. /3e'Ae/xiw, a 
“dart” or “arrow”], a genus of fossil Mollusca of the order 
Cephalopoda, is the type of the family Belemnitidae. The 
portion of the animal usually preserved is a cylindrical or 
conical mass of carbonate of lime, from two inches to a 
foot in length, one extremity generally acute, the other 
excavated to form a conical cavity. This organ is called 
the guard; it protruded from the body of a cuttle-fish, and 
doubtless served as a means of defence. The guard of the 
belemnite expanded above into a hollow, chambered cone, 
the “ phragmaeone, - ” and from one side of this projected 
a spatulate lamina of horny or shelly material, the homo- 
logue of the “cuttle-bone” of Sepia and the “pen ” of Lo- 
ligo. In a few instances the body of the belemnite is rep¬ 
resented in the fossil state, and such a specimen is in the 
cabinet of Columbia College. These show that in form the 
belemnite resembled our common Loligo —that it had an 
ink-bag, and eight arms, which were furnished with many 
sharp books like the living Onyehoteuthis. The belcm- 
nites begin in the St. Cassian beds, as the top of the trias, 
are very numerous in the Jurassic strata, but are not found 
in any more recent deposits. They are represented in the 
chalk by Belem nitella , but have no living analogue. 

BelemnitelTa [dimin. of Belemnites], the name given 
















441) 


BELEMNITIDiE—BELGIUM. 


to the guard of a cuttle-fish closely allied to the belemnite, 
but distinguished by a slit which cuts the side of the phrag- 
macone. It is characteristic of the cretaceous strata, and 
one species (BelcmniteUa mucronata), found on both sides 
of the Atlantic, is common in the cretaceous strata of New 
J ersey. 

Bclemni'tidrc* a family of extinct cephalopods, of 
which the type is the genus Belemnites. It also includes 
JCiphoteuthia , Belemnoptera, and Belemnoteuthis, of the Ju¬ 
rassic, and Belemnitella, etc., of the cretaceous. 

Belfast', an important city and seaport of Ireland, in 
the county of Antrim and province of Ulster, is situated on 
Belfast Lough (an arm of the sea), at the mouth of the 
river Lagan, 101 miles by rail N. of Dublin, and 118 miles 
S. W. of Glasgow; lat. 54° 35' N., Ion. 5° 57' W. The 
river is crossed by three bridges, the finest of which is the 
Queen’s Bridge. Railways extend from this point to 
Dublin, Armagh, and Londonderry. The site of the city 
is low and level, but is partly enclosed by the ridge of 
Divis and Cave Hill, the former of which rises to the 
height of 1507 feet. The houses are mostly of brick and 
are well built; the streets are regular, spacious, well- 
lighted, and macadamized. Belfast is the most prosperous 
commercial town of Ireland, except Dublin. The princi¬ 
pal public edifices are Queen’s College, a beautiful struc¬ 
ture in the Tudor style (opened in 1849); a Presbyterian 
and a Methodist college; the Royal Academical Institu¬ 
tion, affiliated to the London University; the museum, the 
theatre, Linen Hall, the Corn Exchange, etc. In 1872 it 
had 80 churches, of which 28 were Presbyterian. Although 
the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of Down and 
Connor, it is almost entirely Protestant, having only five 
Catholic churches. Fourteen newspapers were published 
here in 1872. The botanic garden of the Natural History 
Society occupies about seventeen acres. Belfast is the 
chief seat of the Irish manufactures of linen and cotton, 
and is the great depot of the linen trade. The linen man¬ 
ufacture was established here in 1637. The other chief 
branches of industry arc weaving of linen and cotton, 
bleaching, dyeing, calico-printing, and iron-founding. Nu¬ 
merous steamers, engaged in the Channel trade, ply regu¬ 
larly between Belfast and Liverpool, Glasgow, Dublin, 
London, etc. The chief articles of export are linens, cot¬ 
ton goods, grain, flax, cattle, and provisions. This city 
has also a large foreign trade. The adjacent country is 
extremely beautiful. Belfast returns two members to Par¬ 
liament. It first became an important place about 1604, 
and was chartered in 1611. Pop. in 1871, 174,394. 

Belfast, a seaport, the capital of Waldo co., Me., is on 
the N. W. shore of Penobscot Bay (sometimes called Bel¬ 
fast Bay), 30 miles from the ocean and 30 miles S. by W. 
of Bangor. Belfast Bay, 9 miles wide, separates it from 
Castine. It has a spacious harbor, which is safe and suffi¬ 
ciently deep for large ships. Belfast is extensively engaged 
in trade, manufactures of paper, shoes, and iron, the fishe¬ 
ries, and in shipbuilding. It is the south-eastern terminus 
of the Maine Central R. R. (Belfast division). It has a 
national and savings bank and three weekly newspapers. 
Pop. 5278. 

W. H. Simpson, Ed. “ Republican Journal.” 

Belfast, a post-township of Allegany co., N. Y. It 
contains a seminary. Pop. 1488. 

Belfast, a township of Fulton co., Pa. Pop. 856. 

Belfort, an important fortified town of France, at the 
foot of the Vosges and on the river Savoureuse, 60 miles 
by rail N. E. of Besan§on. Pop. in 1866, 8400. It has a 
citadel constructed by Vauban, a fine church, and a public 
library ; also manufactures of iron, paper, and calico. It 
was ceded to France by Austria in 1648. In the winter of 
1870-71 it was besieged and taken by the Germans. It 
was the only town of Alsace which the Germans permitted 
the French to retain when that province was annexed to 
Germany in 1871. 

Bcl'fort, a village of Croghan township, Lewis co., 
N. Y., has an extensive tannery. 

Bel'fry, or Bcffroi, the name of a military engine 
used in sieges in the Middle Ages and in ancient times. 
It was a movable tower about as high as the walls of the 
town in the siege of which it was employed. It was con¬ 
structed of wood, with four or more stories or stages, and 
was moved on wheels. The lowest story was sometimes 
armed with a battering-ram, and the other stories were oc¬ 
cupied with archers, slingers, etc. Near the top of the 
beffroi was a hinged drawbridge, which, when let down on 
the parapet of the wall, sometimes enabled the besiegers to 
storm the town. 

Belfry [Fr. beffroi], a bell-tower or turret, usually 
forming part of a church, but sometimes detached from it. 
Towers built for such purposes in Italy are called cam¬ 


paniles. On the continent of Europe municipal belfries 
often occur as portions of the town-house (maiaon de ville). 

Bcl'gac, the name given by Caesar to the warlike tribes 
which in ancient times occupied one of the three great 
divisions of Gaul {Gallia). Their country, which w r as 
bounded on the N. W. by the ocean and on the E. by the 
Rhine, comprised the modern Belgium, part of Holland, 
and the N. E. part of France. This region was sometimes 
called Bclgica or Gallia Belgica. It was separated from 
the territory of the Celtae by the river Sequana (Seine) and 
its affluent the Matrona (Marne). Caesar represents the 
Belgae as distinct from the Celtae proper and the Aquitani 
in language, usages, and political institutions. A part of 
the Belgae were probably Germans or of German origin, 
and a part are believed to have been Cymric Celts. Some 
of the Belgae had crossed the Channel and settled in the 
southern maritime parts of Britain, and were found there 
by Caesar when he invaded the island. The Belgae were a 
brave, warlike people. (See Caesar, “ Commentaries on 
the Gallic War;” Smith, “Dictionary of Ancient Geog¬ 
raphy.”) 

Bel'gard, written also Bjaligrotl, a town of Prussia, 
in the province of Pomerania, 90 miles by rail N. E. of 
Stettin, has a castle, several churches, and manufactures 
of tobacco and woollen stuffs. Pop. in 1871, 6303. 

Bclgaiim', a town of British India, in the presidency 
of Bombay, 105 miles S. W. of Bejapoor. It has solid, 
bastioned walls and ancient ruins, among them two tem¬ 
ples. Pop. about 8000. 

Bel'giam, a kingdom of Europe, situated on the Ger¬ 
man Sea between Holland, Prussia, and France, has an 
area of 11,373 square miles, and (in 1869) a population 
of 4,961,644 inhabitants. It is the most densely peopled 
of any European country, having 436 inhabitants to 
the square mile. The soil is partly fertile, partly (in the 
E.) sandy and marshy. The only mountains are some 
offshoots of the Ardennes in the S. The coast has a 
length of 46 miles, and is of a uniform character. The 
country is well watered by the Meuse and the Scheldt, and 
their affluents, the Sarnbre, Ourthe, Werze, Lys, Dender, 
and Rupel. There are no lakes of importance, but many 
canals. The climate in general is temperate. Among the 
chief products of Belgium belong cattle, fish, corn, fruit, 
wood; among those of the mineral kingdom, iron and coal. 
A coal region covering an area of 476 square miles tra¬ 
verses all Belgium, and embraces two large basins, one of 
which extends into F’rance and the other into Prussia. 
Celebrated mineral springs are found at Spaa. The people 
belong, in almost equal proportion, to two different nation¬ 
alities, the Flemish (German) and the Walloon (French). 
The Flemish language, which is spoken by about 2,500,000, 
prevails in the provinces of East Flanders, Antwerp, Lim¬ 
burg, West Flanders, and Brabant, while the Walloon is 
the predominant language in the provinces of Liege, Hai- 
naut, Namur, and Luxemburg, and is spoken by a popu¬ 
lation of about 2,000,000. The French, though the lan¬ 
guage of the minority, has since 1794 been the official 
language of the state authorities and the court; of late, 
however, the Flemings have begun an active agitation for 
the recovery of equal rights for their idiom. The number 
of periodicals published in the Flemish language was, in 
1871, about 40. With the exception of about 10,000 Prot¬ 
estants and 2000 Jews, the entire population belongs to 
the Roman Catholic Church, which has in Belgium one 
archbishop at Malines, and five bishops at Namur, Ghent, 
Bruges, Tournay, and Liege. 

There are four universities—at Ghent, Liege, Louvain, 
and Brussels; the two first named arc controlled by the 
state; the third by the Catholic bishops, and the last 
named by the Liberal party. Prominent among the other 
educational institutions of the country are the Academies 
of Fine Arts at Antwerp and Brussels, the Museum of 
Painting and Sculpture at Brussels, the Conservatories of 
Music at Brussels, Liege, and Ghent. The people are 
chiefly occupied w ith agriculture, and in this respect excel 
most nations of Europe. The working of mines also con¬ 
stitutes a most important part of the national industry. 
First in order are the coal-mines (with three great centres 
at Mons, Charleroi, and the city of Liege), which produce 
annually about 10,000,000 tons. The annual produce of 
the iron-mines, which are especially numerous in the dis¬ 
trict between the Sambrc and the Meuse, amounts to about 
7,200,000 hundredweight. Wool is the object of an im¬ 
mense industry, and the Belgian woollen cloths are greatly 
superior in quality to those produced in France. The linen 
cloths of Belgium have long been highly valued, and the 
manufacture of lace, though now less prosperous than for¬ 
merly, has nothing to fear from foreign competition. The 
breweries amount to 2671, and beer is the common beverage 
of all classes. The commerce of the country is also in a 





















BELGIUM—BELKNAP. 


447 


very prosperous condition, being greatly promoted by a 
dense net of railroads, which in 1871 had an aggregate 
length of 1936 miles. It is chiefly carried on with France, 
Holland, England, Prussia, North America, and Russia. 
The imports in 1869 amounted to 903,000,000 francs, the 
exports to 691,000,000. The commercial fleet, in 1869, 
consisted of 67 vessels (12 steamers), with an aggregate of 
23,981 tons. The aggregate length of the telegraph lines 
was, in 1871, 2623 miles. The most important ports are 
those of Antwerp, Ostende, and Nieuwepoort; the most 
important centres of the commerce of the interior are 
Brussels, Ghent, Bruges, Liege, Namur, Courtray. 

According to the constitution of Mar. 3,1831, Belgium 
is a constitutional monarchy. The crown is hereditary, 
according to the right of primogeniture, in the male lino 
only. The executive power is vested in the king alone; 
the legislative he shares with the senate and the house of 
representatives. The court of cassation at Brussels is the 
supreme court of the country; besides it there are three 
courts of appeal (Brussels, Ghent, and Liege). The jury 
has been introduced since 1831. The Code Napoleon is 
regarded as the judicial standard. The revenue and ex¬ 
penditures in 1870 amounted to 176,000,000 francs; the 
public debt to 696,000,000 francs. The army on the peace 
footing numbered (without officers) 98,770 men, ,10,600 
horses, and 152 pieces of ordnance; besides, the country 
has a civil guard consisting of 100,000 men, in 257 legions. 
The navy is unimportant. The most important fortresses 
are Antwerp, Mons, Chai'leroi, Philippeville, Marienbourg, 
Ath, Tournay, Menai, Ypres, Ghent, Namur. The meas¬ 
ures and coins are the same as in France. In point of 
administration the country is divided into nine provinces : 
South Brabant, Antwerp, East and West Flanders, Hai- 
naut, Namur, Liege, Limburg, Luxemburg. Brussels is the 
capital and residence of the king: during the summer 
months the king resides at Laeken. The national colors 
are red, yellow, and black, placed perpendicularly beside 
each other; the escutcheon, the lion of Brabant with the 
inscription, “ L’union fait la force.” 

In the time of the Romans, the present Belgium, which 
was then inhabited by Celtic and Germanic tribes, formed, 
under the name of Gallia Belgica, a part of Gaul. The 
treaty of Verdun, in 843, united the southern districts with 
France, the northern with Germany. After the termina¬ 
tion of the Carlovingian rule, the French districts were 
gradually converted into duchies and counties. In 1385 
the county of Flanders fell to the House of Burgundy, 
which in the early part of the fifteenth century gradually 
obtained possession of all the provinces of the Netherlands. 
The marriage of Maria of Burgundy, the last scion of her 
house, Avith the emperor Maximilian I., incorporated the 
Netherlands with the extensive dominions of the House of 
Habsburg, and, under the name of the “ Circle of Bur¬ 
gundy” (Burgundischer Kreis), with the German empire. 
When, after the abdication of Charles V. (1555), his states 
were divided, Belgium remained united with Spain, and 
this union continued after the northern provinces had suc¬ 
cessfully established their independence. Only from 1598 
to 1621, Belgium constituted an independent state under 
the rule of Isabel, daughter of Philip II., and her hus¬ 
band, the archduke Albert. In the course of the seven¬ 
teenth century Spain had repeatedly to cede portions of 
Belgian territory to France. The peace of Utrecht in 
1713 gave Belgium to Austria. 

In the Austrian war of succession the whole country was 
conquered by the French, but it was restored to Austria in 
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (Oct. 18, 1748). In conse¬ 
quence of the unpopular reforms and innovations which 
Joseph II. undertook to introduce, an insurrection broke 
out against Austrian rule in Dec., 1789, and on Jan. 11, 
1790, the Belgian provinces (with the exception of Lux¬ 
emburg) proclaimed their independence under the name of 
“ United Belgium,” but in Nov., 1790, the rule of the Aus¬ 
trians was re-established. After the battle of Jemappes 
(Nov. 7, 1792), Belgium was occupied by the French, and 
in 1794 the country was ceded by Austria to France. It 
was now divided into nine departments, and the adminis¬ 
tration wholly assimilated to that of France. In 1814 the 
first treaty of Paris united Belgium with Holland into the 
kingdom of the Netherlands. The union lasted until Aug., 
1830, when the whole country rose in revolution against 
the Dutch government. On Sept. 20 a provisional gov¬ 
ernment was formed, which, on Oct. 4, after the evacua¬ 
tion of the capital by the Dutch, proclaimed the independ¬ 
ence of Belgium. On June 4, 1831, the prince Leopold of 
Saxe-Coburg was elected king. The preliminary treaty of 
1833 between England, France, and Holland put an end to 
the efforts of the Dutch government for the recovery of 
Belgium, but the definite acceptance of the articles drawn 
up by the London Conference in 1831 for the regulation 
of the frontier between Holland and Belgium did not take 


place until 1838. The subsequent history of Belgium under 
Leopold I. (died Dec. 10, 1865) and his son Leopold II. 
1ms been one of quiet and steady development. The ad¬ 
ministration has been sometimes in the hands of the Cath¬ 
olic and sometimes in those of the Liberal party, but the 
peace of the country has never seriously been disturbed, 
not even by the European revolution of 1848. (See Juste’ 
“ Histoire de Belgique,” 2 vols., 4th ed. 1868.) 

A. J. ScHEar. 

Belgium, a village of Clay township, Onondaga co., 
N. Y., on Seneca River. Pop. 166. 

Belgium, a post-township of Ozaukee co., Wis., on 
Lake Michigan. Pop. 1979. 

Belgo'rod, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Koorsk, on the river Donets, 88 miles S. S. E. of Koorsk, 
and on the railway from Moscow to Kliarkof. It is an 
archbishop’s see, and has numerous churches. Pop. in 
1867, 15,200. 

Belgrade, bel-grad' (anc. Singidu'num; Turk. Bil- 
graad; Ger. Belgrad), an important fortified town of Ser- 
via, is on the right bank of the Danube, at the mouth of 
the river Save, 42 miles S. E. of Peterwardein. The cita¬ 
del, which is very strong, is situated on a point of land 
between the rivers, behind which rises the city with antique 
German edifices, a cathedral, and a palace. Belgrade had 
formerly an Oriental appearance, but it has been abandoned 
by many wealthy Turks, and mosques are partly superseded 
by churches. Here are manufactures of arms, cutlery, silk 
goods, saddlery, and carpets. It has a good port and an 
active trade, being the entrepot of the commerce between 
Austria and Turkey. It is the seat of the chief authorities 
of Servia. In consequence of its importance as a strategical 
point, Belgrade has been the scene of many famous sieges 
and battles. It was besieged without success by the Turks 
in 1456, and taken by the sultan Solyman in 1522. In 
1688 it was stormed and captured by the elector of Bavaria, 
but it was recovered by the Turks in 1690. Prince Eugene 
here defeated 200,000 Turks in 1717, after which it changed 
owners several times. It is now subject to Turkey. Pop. 
in 1866, 25,089. 

Belgrade, a post-township of Kennebec co., Me., 67 
miles N. E. of Portland, on the Maine Central R. R. It 
has manufactures of lumber, boxes, spools, “ excelsior,” etc. 
Pop. 1485. 

Belgrade, a township of Nicollet co., Minn. Pop. 414. 

Belial [Heb. “worthlessness”], a term used in the 
Bible, frequently occurring in the phrase “a son of Belial,” 
which, by a common Hebrew idiom, signifies merely a 
worthless or very bad person; but in the New Testament 
it is generally believed that Belial sometimes is used as a 
proper name of Satan, though it is not universally ad¬ 
mitted. Some commentators think that it is always used 
in the New Testament in its Old Testament signification. 

Belidor, de (Bernard Forest), an eminent French 
military engineer and writer, born in Catalonia in 1697. 
He served in the German campaign of 1742, and became a 
member of the Academy of Sciences. Among his works 
may be mentioned his “ Hydraulic Architecture” (1737), 
a “New Course of Mathematics for the Use of Artillery” 
(1757), a “ Traite de Foi'tification,” and “La Science des 
Ingenieurs.” Died Sept. 8, 1761. 

Belisa'rius [Slavic, the “white tsar or chief”], a cele¬ 
brated general to whom Justinian was chiefly indebted for 
the military glory of his reign, was born at Germania, in 
Illyria, about 505 A. D. Having been appointed general- 
in-chief of the army of the East, he defeated the Persians 
at Dara in 530, and suppressed a formidable sedition at 
Constantinople in 532. He gained two victories over the 
Vandals in Africa, and took their king, Gelimer, a prisoner, 
in 534 A. D. In 534 he obtained a triumph, and the office 
of consul in 535. He also commanded the army of Justinian 
in a long war against the Ostrogoths, who had made them¬ 
selves masters of Italy. He occupied Rome in Dec., 536, 
and gained some other advantages, but was recalled in 540, 
after which he suffered adverse fortune through the enmity 
of the empress Theodora. In 544 A. D. he was again sent 
to Italy to oppose the Gothic king Totila, but his army 
was so inferior in number that he could not gain a decisive 
victory. He resigned the command in 548, and passed 
nearly ten years in inaction. He served with success 
against the Bulgarians in 559, and was imprisoned in 563 
on a charge of treason. Died Mar. 13, 565 A. D. He was 
distinguished for his loyalty, humanity, and other virtues. 
(See Lord Mahon, “Life of Belisarius,” 1829; Gibbon, 
“Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;” C. F. Zeller, 

“ Belisarius,” Tubingen, 1809 ; C. L. Rotii, “ Ueber Belisars 
Ungnade,” 1846.)» 

Bel'knap, a county in Central New Hampshire,^ is 
bounded on the N. E. by Winnepiseogee Lake. Area, oOO 




































448 BELKNAP—BELL. 


square miles. The surface is hilly. Wool, potatoes, grain, 
and butter are the chief products. The county is inter¬ 
sected by the Concord and Montreal 11.11. Capital, La¬ 
conia. Pop. 17,G81. 

Belknap (George E.), U. S. N., born Jan. 22, 1832, in 
Newport, N. Unentered the navy as a midshipman Oct. 7, 
1847, became a passed midshipman in 1853, a lieutenant 
in 1855, a lieutenant-commander in 18G2, and a com¬ 
mander in 1866. In 1856, while attached to the sloop-of- 
war Plymouth, he took part in the assault and capture of 
the “ Barrier Forts” at the mouth of the Canton River, 
China, and was executive officer of the iron-clad New Iron¬ 
sides from 1S62 to 1864 in her numerous engagements with 
the forts and batteries of Charleston harbor. In his offi¬ 
cial report to Rear-Admiral Dupont of the part taken by 
the New Ironsides in the first bombardment of Fort Sumter, 
April 7, 1863, Commodore Turner writes: “ I should fall 
short of my duty, sir, if I omitted to present to your espe¬ 
cial notice the first lieutenant of this ship, Lieutenant-Com¬ 
mander George E. Belknap. It was not in the hour of bat¬ 
tle only that great demand was made upon him ; there was 
a constant pressure upon the high qualities that distinguish 
him as an efficient officer to meet exigencies, which, through 
a week of toil and labor, he had to provide for. lie was 
equal to his work, gave me a perfect support at all times; 
and I desire here, and through you, to commend him to 
the favorable consideration of the government as an officer 
of the highest merit.” Captain (now Vice-Admiral) 
Rowan, in a report to Rear-Admiral Dahlgren of “ the ser¬ 
vices of the New Ironsides against the defences of Charles¬ 
ton harbor,” dated Sept. 10, 1863, says: “I particularly 
recommend to your notice and that of the department the 
services of Lieutenant-Commander Belknap, to whose zeal 
and ability as an executive officer I am so much indebted 
for his untiring efforts to make the ship efficient in every de¬ 
partment, and for his fine judgment and bearing in carrying 
out my orders as commander of the gundeck during the 
fourteen times this ship has been under the fire of the 
enemy’s batteries.” He commanded the iron-clad Canoni- 
cus in both attacks on Fort Fisher. His services on these 
occasions are thus highly spoken of by Rear-Admiral Por¬ 
ter in his “commendatory letter ” of Jan. 28, 1865: “I 
recommend that Commanders Parrott and Calhoun, and 
Lieutenant-Commanders Weaver and Belknap, be pro¬ 
moted. These officers have given a world-renowned name 
to the monitors, and have shown what they were capable 
of performing when properly placed and managed. They 
had the hardest part of the work, and there is no end to 
their energy, bravery and untiring zeal.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Belknap (Jeremy), D.D., was born in Boston, Mass., 
June 4, 1744. He graduated at Harvard College in 1762, 
was pastor of a church at Dover, N. H., from 1767 to 1786, 
and was then settled over the Federal Street church, Boston, 
from 1787 till he died, June 20, 1798. He was the founder 
of the Massachusetts Historical Society in 1791. He was a 
careful scholar and a good preacher. He published, be¬ 
sides other works, a “ History of New Hampshire” (3 vols., 
1784-92), and “American Biography” (2 vols., 1794-98). 
A memoir of him was published in 1847. 

Belknap (William G.), an American officer, born at 
Newburg, N. Y., Sept. 7, 1794, entered the service of the 
U. S. in 1813 as third lieutenant of infantry, and rose 
through successive grades to be lieutenant-colonel of the 
Fifth Infantry in 1847. He served with marked gallantry 
in the war with Great Britain (1812-15), in the Florida 
war against hostile Seminoles, and in the war with Mexico. 
For his services in Florida he was brevetted lieutenant- 
colonel, and for gallant conduct in Mexico he won the 
brevets of colonel and brigadier-general; served on fron¬ 
tier duty from 1848 to 1851 in command of his regiment 
and departments, and while on duty in Upper Texas he 
contracted a disease from which he died near Fort Washita, 
Nov. 10, 1851. G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eng’rs. 

Belknap (William Worth), son of the preceding, an 
American lawyer, and general of volunteers during the 
recent civil war, born at Newburg, N. Y., Sept. 22, 1829, 
graduated at Princeton College, N. J., in the class of 1848, 
studied law with II. Caperton at Georgetown, D. C., re¬ 
moved to Keokuk, la., in 1851, and practised his profes¬ 
sion successfully. He was elected to the Iowa legislature 
in 1857 as a Democrat, but being unwilling to countenance 
the Lecompton constitution, separated from the radical 
wing of his party, and became what was known as a 
“Douglas Democrat” up to the breaking out of the civil 
war, since which time he has been actively identified with 
the Republican party. He entered the army about Oct., 
1861, as major of the Fifth Iowa Infantry, and participated 
in the battle of Shiloh, where he displayed admirable mili¬ 
tary qualities; was provost-marshal of the Seventeenth 


army corps, on Gen. McPherson's staff, and in the cam¬ 
paigns in Tennessee he served under Gens. Sherman and 
Grant, his services being highly esteemed. At the battle 
of Atlanta, Ga., July 22, 1864, he so greatly distinguished 
himself that he was promoted over his superior officers 
to be brigadier-general of volunteers, Aug. 22, 1864. He 
bore a prominent part in all the actions during Sherman’s 
famous “march to the sea,” and finally to Washington. 
He was brevetted major-general Mar. 13, 1865, and hon¬ 
orably mustered out of service Aug. 24, 1865. Although 
tendered more lucrative positions, he declined them to be¬ 
come collector of internal revenue for the first district of 
Iowa, in which he wrought many reforms. In 1869 he 
was appointed secretary of war, which portfolio he still 
retains, administering the responsible duties of his office 
with great acceptability, both to the Administration and 
the country, as well as to the officers of the army. As a law¬ 
yer, he attained prominence; as a soldier, he distinguished 
himself for gallantry and ability to command; and as one 
of the chief executive officers of the government, he is re¬ 
garded among the most successful of the secretaries of war. 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eug’rs. 

Bell [from the Ang. Sax. bellan, to “make a loud 
noise ”], a hollow metallic instrument employed to give 
signals by its sounds. It is usually composed of Bell- 
Metal (wdiich see), but steel bells have been cast with good 
results. From a remote antiquity hand-bells were used in 
religious ceremonies. In Egypt the feast of Osiris was an¬ 
nounced by the ringing of bells; several bells of bronze 
have been found in the ruins of Nineveh; Jewish high 
priests wore golden bells attached to their vestments. In 
Palestine bells were used in personal adornment, as nowin 
the East. The Hindoo and Burmese priests have long used 
them in their temples, and in Athens the priests of Cybelo 
used bells in their rites. The Greeks employed bells (/ccoSwve?) 
in garrisons and markets; the Romans announced the 
hour by the tintinnabulum. The introduction of bells into 
churches is usually ascribed to Saint Paulinus, bishop of 
Nola in Campania (400 A. D.). Their use in churches and 
monasteries soon spread through Christendom. They were 
introduced into France about 550, and Benedict, abbot of 
Wearmouth, brought one from Italy into England about 
680. Portable bells had long before been used in the 
Church. Several specimens, some of them, it is believed, 
as old as the sixth century, are still preserved in Ireland, 
Scotland, and Wales. Bells came into use in the East after 
865. Church bells were then of a comparatively small 
size, and were frequently made of wrought instead of cast 
metal. It was not until the fourteenth century that they 
reached a large size. The “Jacqueline” of Paris, cast 
in 1300, weighed 15,000 pounds; another, cast in 1472, 
weighed 25,000 pounds. The famous bell of Rouen, cast in 
1501, weighed 36,364 pounds. One at Toulouse weighs 66,000 
pounds. The largest bell in the world is the Great Bell of 
Moscow, above 19 feet in height, and weighing 448,000 
pounds. It was cast in 1734, but fell during a fire in 1737, 
was injured, and remained till 1837, when it was raised, 
and now forms the dome of a chapel. Another Moscow 
bell, cast in 1819, weighs 80 tons. The Great Bell at 
Pekin, 14 feet high, weighs 53J tons. 

Bells have long been connected with the services of the 
Christian Church, so that the Mohammedans substitute for 
them the cry of the muezzin from the tops of the mosques. 
Associated in various ways with the ritual of the Church, 
bells acquired a sacred character. They were cast with re¬ 
ligious ceremonies, and consecrated by baptism; received 
names, had sponsors, were sprinkled with water, anointed, 
and covered with the white chrisom, like infants. This 
custom is still practised in Roman Catholic countries. 
Bells were believed to disperse storms and pestilence, drive 
away enemies, extinguish fires, etc. In the Middle Ages 
it was common to put some inscription on the bell, like the 
following: 

“ Yivos voco, mortuos plango, fulgura frango.” * 

“ Funera plango, fulgura frango, Sabbata pango, 

Excito lentos, dissipo ventos, paco cruentos.” f 

“ Laudo Deum verum ; plebem voco; congrego clerum; 

Defunctos ploro ; pestem fugo ; festamque honoro.” 1 

The notion that bells are efficacious in dispelling storms is 
by no means extinct. 

It was a belief that bells had the power to terrify evil 
spirits, and the custom of ringing the passing-bell grew out 
of the belief that devils troubled the expiring patient, and 


* Literally: “ I call the living, I mourn the dead, 

I break the lightnings” (or thunderbolts). 

f “ I mourn the deaths, I break the lightnings, 

I mark the Sabbaths, I arouse the slow, I scatter the winds, 
I appease the cruel.” 

t “ I praise the true God ; call the people ; assemble the clergy ; 
bewail the dead ; put to flight the plague; honor the festivals.” 














BELL. 


lay in wait to afflict the soul the moment when it escaped 
from the body. The tolling of the passing-bell was retained 
at the Reformation, and the people were instructed that its 
use was to admonish the living and excite them to pray 
for the dying. The practice of tolling church-bells while 
funerals are being conducted is still a usage in various 
nations. 

The ringing of the curfew, incorrectly supposed to have 
been introduced into England by William the Conqueror, 
was a custom of a civil nature, and its object was to warn 
the public to extinguish their tires and lights at eight 
o’clock. The eight-o’clock ringing is still continued in 
many parts of England, Scotland, and the U. S. 

The ringing of bells in chimes, and the playing of tunes 
upon them in church-towers, have been carried to the greatest 
perfection in the Netherlands; but many tine chimes are 
found in many other European countries and in the U. S. 

Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Bell, a county of Western Tennessee, bordering on 
Mississippi, established since the census of 1870. It is a 
good cotton and corn region, and is intersected by the 
Memphis and Charleston and the Mississippi Central R. Rs. 
Capital, Grand Junction. 

Bell, a county in Central Texas. Area, 1097 square 
miles. It is intersected by the Leon River, and also 
drained by Lampasas Creek. Much of the surface is fine 
prairie. It is healthy, well watered, and well timbered. 
The soil is adapted to pasturage and cotton and grain 
crops. Corn, wool, cotton, and cattle are raised. Capital, 
Belton. Pop. 9771. 

Bell, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 918. 

Bell, a township of Jefferson co., Pa. Pop. 785. 

Bell, a township of Westmoreland co., Pa. Pop. 810. 

Bell (Andrew), D.D, a Scottish teacher noted as the 
founder of the monitorial system (or Madras system) of 
education, was born at St. Andrew’s in 1753. He took 
orders in the Anglican Church, and became chaplain of 
Fort St. George at Madras in 1789. Having obtained the 
direction of a school for male orphans at Madras, he em¬ 
ployed the scholars in mutual instruction, and after his 
return to Britain published a treatise on his new method 
in 1797. Joseph Lancaster made some successful experi¬ 
ments in this method of education. Bell died Jan. 27, 
1832, and left £120,000 sterling to found educational in¬ 
stitutions. (See R. and C. C. Southey, “ Life of Andrew 
Bell.”) 

Bell (Sir Charles), F. R. S. (London), an eminent 
British anatomist and physiologist, the youngest brother 
of Andrew Bell, was born in Edinburgh in Nov., 1774. 
He removed in 1804 to London, where he lectured on anat¬ 
omy and surgery, and published a “ System of Operative 
Surgery” (1807). In 1814 he was elected one of the sur¬ 
geons of the Middlesex Hospital. He gained distinction 
as a surgical operator, and excelled in the treatment of 
nervous affections. He made the important discovery that 
the nerve-filaments of sensation are distinct from those of 
motion. In 1836 he became professor of surgery in the 
University of Edinburgh. Among his works are an “ Ex¬ 
position of the Natural System of the Nerves of the Human 
Body” (1824), “ Anatomy and Physiology of the Human 
Body” (3 vols., 1816), and “ The Hand, its Mechanism and 
Vital Endowments as evincing Design” (1834). The last 
is one of the Bridgewater Treatises. Died April 29, 1842. 
(See A. Siiaw, “Narrative of the Discoveries of Sir Charles 
Bell in the Nervous System,” 1837 ; “Quarterly Review” 
for May, 1843; Amedee Pichot, “Sur C. Bell,” Paris, 
1846.) 

Bell (Charles II.), Rear-Admiral, born in New York 
Aug. 15, 1798, became a midshipman of the U. S. navy in 
1812, and served in the war with Great Britain, became 
captain in 1854, commodore in 1862, and rear-admiral in 
1866. 

Bell (Henry), a Scottish engineer, born in Linlithgow¬ 
shire April 7, 1767, was the first who obtained success in 
steam navigation in Europe. He worked in London under 
Rennie. A small vessel called “ The Comet,” with an en¬ 
gine constructed by himself, was launched on the Clyde in 
1812. Died Nov. 14, 1830. 

Bell (Henry II.), U. S. N.,born Nov. 17,1807, in Orange 
co., N. C., entered the navy as a midshipman Sept. 1, 1823, 
became a lieutenant in 1831, a commander in 1854, a cap¬ 
tain in 1862, a commodore in 1863, and a rear-admiral in 
1866. In 1861 he commanded the steamer Brooklyn, West 
Gulf blockading squadron. In 1862 he was selected as fleet 
captain by Rear-Admiral Farragut, and while acting in this 
capacity icd the second division of gunboats at the attack 
upon Forts St. Philip and Jackson and capture of New 
Orleans, where his sound judgment and coolness were con¬ 
spicuously shown and highly commended by the whole 
29 


449 


fleet. His services during the passage of the Hartford by 
the Vicksburg batteries, June 28, 1862, are thus referred to 
by Admiral Farragut: “The captain of the fleet, Com¬ 
mander II. II. Bell, was on the poop by my side, and not 
being able, as I before stated, to do much in the manage¬ 
ment of the fleet, owing to the darkness and the smoke, 
gave his attention to looking up the batteries, and pointing 
them out to the officers in charge of the guns, and assisting 
them with his judgment on all occasions.” In 1863 he 
commanded, during the temporary absence of Admiral 
Farragut, the West Gulf blockading squadron. In 1864, 
he was appointed to the command of our squadron in the 
East Indies, where he was drowned, April 12, 1867, in an 
attempt to pass in his barge over the bar at the mouth of 
the Osada River, Japan. Rear-Admiral Henry II. Bell was 
an able and gallant officer, and his death was much lamented. 

Foxiiall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Bell (James), a brother of S. D. Bell, was born at 
Francestown, N. H., Nov. 13, 1804, and graduated at Bow- 
doin in 1822. He studied law at Litchfield, Conn., prac¬ 
tised at Gilmanton, Exeter, and Guilford, N. II., and was 
U. S. Senator (1855-57). Died May 26, 1857. 

Bell (John), an eminent surgeon, born in Edinburgh 
May 12, 1763, was an elder brother of Sir Charles Bell. He 
began in 1786 to lecture on surgery, which he also prac¬ 
tised with success in his native city. He published, be¬ 
sides other works, a “System of the Anatomy of the Hu¬ 
man Body” (2 vols., 1793-98), to which his brother Charles 
added two more volumes, and “ The Principles of Surgery ” 
(3 vols., 1801-07). He was a good classical scholar, and 
one of the most skilful operators of his time. He died at 
Rome April 15, 1820, leaving “Observations on Italy,” 
which was published by his widow in 1825. 

Bell (John), an American statesman, born near Nash¬ 
ville, Tenn., Feb. 15, 1797. He graduated at the Univer¬ 
sity of Nashville in 1814. He was elected a member of 
Congress in 1827, and by successive re-elections continued 
in that body about fourteen years. He supported Gen. 
Jackson for the presidency in 1832, but joined the Whig 
party in 1833, and was chosen Speaker of the House of 
Representatives in 1834. He was an earnest advocate of a 
protective tariff. In Mar., 1841, he was appointed secre¬ 
tary of war by President Harrison. He resigned that office 
in Sept., 1841, because he disapproved the policy of Mr. 
Tyler. He was elected a Senator of the U. S. for Tennes¬ 
see in 1847, was re-elected in 1853, and opposed the repeal 
of the Missouri Compromise in 1854. He was nominated 
in 1860 for President of the U. S. by the Constitutional 
Union party, having Lincoln, Douglas, and Breckenridge 
as his competitors. He received only thirty-nine electoral 
votes. Died Sept. 10, 1869. 

Bell (John), born at Londonderry, N. H., about 1765, 
was governor of New Hampshire (1829-30). He was a 
brother of Gov. Samuel Bell, and was long prominent in 
public affairs. Died at Chester, N. H., Mar. 22, 1836. 

Bell (Luther V.), M. D., LL.D., a son of Gov. Samuel 
Bell, was born at Chester, N. H., Dec. 20, 1806, graduated 
at Bowdoin in 1823, and received his diploma in medicine 
at Dartmouth. He practised medicine in New York and 
Chester, N. H., and became an excellent surgeon, and was 
president of the McLean Insane Asylum, Somerville, Mass. 

| (1837—56). He published able professional writings. In 
1845 he visited Europe by invitation of the trustees of the 
Butler Hospital for the Insane at Providence, R. I., the 
plans for which he prepared. In Aug., 1861, he was ap¬ 
pointed brigade surgeon in the U. S. army, and at the time 
of his death was medical director of Hooker’s division. 
Died in camp at Budd’s Ferry, Md., Feb. 11, 1862. 

Bell (Robert), a journalist, born at Cork, in Ireland, 
Jan. 10, 1800, passed his mature life in London. In con¬ 
junction with Sir E. Bulwer and Dr. Lardner he founded 
in 1841 “The Monthly Chronicle,” which he edited. Among 
his numerous works are a “History of Russia” (3 vols., 
1836-38), “Lives of the English Poets” (2 vols., 1839), a 
“Life of George Canning” (1846), and several dramas and 
tales. He died in London April 12, 1867. 

Bell (Samuel), LL.D., was born in Londonderry, N. II., 
Feb. 9, 1770, and graduated at Dartmouth in 1793. He be¬ 
came a lawyer, and held many public offices. He was a 
judge of the supreme court of New Hampshire (1816-19), 
governor (1819-23), U. S. Senator (1823-35).—His sons, 
James, Samuel Dana, Luther V., and Col. Lewis Bell 
(1836-65, mortally wounded at Fort Fisher), all attained 
distinction. 

Bell (Samuel Dana), LL.D., son of the above, was 
born at Francestown, N. II., Oct. 9, 1798, and graduated at 
Harvard College in 1816. Besides many minor offices, lie 
was justice of the superior court of New Hampshire (1849- 
55), justice of the supreme court (1855-59), chief-justice 

















450 


BELL—BELLENDEN. 


(1859-64), and was one of the most eminent and profound 
jurists that New England has ever produced. Died July 
31, 1868. 

Bell (Thomas), F. R. S., an English naturalist, born 
in Dorsetshire Oct. 11, 1792. He became a member of 
the College of Surgeons in London in 1815, and profes¬ 
sor of zoology in King’s College, London, in 1832. In 
1853 he was elected president of the Linnaean Society. 
Among his works are a “ History of British Quadrupeds ” 
(1836) and a “History of British Stalk-eyed Crustacea” 
(1853). 

Bel'Ia, a town of Italy, in the province of Potenza, 14 
miles S. W. of Malfi. Pop. in 1861, 5202. 

Belladon'na* ( At'ropcr\ Belladon'na), an herbaceous 
perennial plant of the natural order Solanaceae, is some¬ 
times called Deadly Nightshade. It is a native of 
Europe, has ovate leaves, bell-shaped flowers of a lurid, 
purple color, and berries which when ripe are black, shin¬ 
ing, and sweetish in taste. All parts of the plant are nar¬ 
cotic and very poisonous, and contain an alkaloid called 
atropia or atropine, on which its active properties depend. 
The belladonna is considered a valuable medicine and a 
powerful remedy for certain nervous diseases, neuralgia, 
paralysis, etc. It is administered both internally and ex¬ 
ternally. It is a physiological antidote for opium-poison¬ 
ing. When applied to the eye it has the remarkable prop¬ 
erty of greatly dilating the pupil, and it is often used by 
oculists both in examinations and operations. The med¬ 
icinal preparation of belladonna commonly used in the 
U. S. is an extract from the leaves. 

Belladonna Lily ( AmaryVlis Belladon'na), a beau¬ 
tiful rose-colored flower which grows wild about the Cape 
of Good Hope, and is cultivated in the gardens of Eng¬ 
land and France. The drooping flowers are clustered at 
the top of a leafless stem, which is about eighteen inches 
high. 

Bellair', a township of Appanoose co., Ia. Pop. 655. 

Bellaire, a city of Belmont co., 0., on the Ohio River, 5 
miles S. of Wheeling and 137 miles E. of Columbus. It is 
at the terminus of the Central Ohio, the Baltimore and Ohio, 
and the Cleveland and Pittsburg R. Rs. It has water and 
gas works, 1 national and 1 private bank, 1 manufactory 
of window-glass and 4 of flint-glass, 1 nail-mill, 1 blast 
furnace, 1 lantern-factory, and 2 weekly papers. Coal, iron, 
and limestone are abundant. It is a rapidly growing town. 
Pop. 4033. James F. Anderson, Ed. “ Independent.” 

Bel'lamy (Jacobus), an eminent Dutch poet, born at 
Flushing Nov. 12, 1757. He published a collection of 
verses in 1782, and on the occasion of the war of 1785 a 
volume of patriotic poems (“ Yaderlandsche Gezangen ”). 
Among his most popular works is “ Roosje,” a poem. He 
had good taste and a glowing fancy, and contributed largely 
to the improvement of the national literature. Died Mar. 
11, 1786. (See Q. Knipers, “ Notice sur Bellamy.”) 

Bellamy (Joseph), D. D., born in North Cheshire, 
Conn., in 1719, graduated at Yale College (1735), and was 
pastor of the Congregational church at Bethlehem, Conn. 
(1740-90). He was a powerful preacher and a renowned 
teacher of theology. Several volumes of his sermons and 
theological works have been published. Among them are 
“True Religion Delineated” (1750), “Letters and Dia¬ 
logues” (1761), and “Complete Works” (3 vols., 1811). 
Died Mar. 6, 1790. 

Bel'larmine (Robert), [It. Roberto 2?e7(a7*m7ao], a cele¬ 
brated theologian and cardinal, born in Tuscany Oct. 4, 
1542. He entered the order of Jesuits in 1560, and became 
professor of theology at Louvain in 1569. He was a zeal¬ 
ous champion of orthodoxy, and was highly distinguished 
as an able controversial writer against heretics. His prin¬ 
cipal work is “ Disputationes de Controversiis Fidei adver- 
sus hujus Tcmporis Ha;reticos” (3 vols., 1581). He be¬ 
came a cardinal in 1598, archbishop of Capua in 1601, and 
librarian of the Vatican in 1605. Died at Rome Sept. 17, 
1621. He was a man of mild and pacific disposition. “ The 
Church of Rome,” says Ilallam, “ brought forward her most 
renowned and formidable champion, Bellarmin. . . . Ilis 
abilities are best tested by Protestant theologians, not only 
in their terms of eulogy, but indirectly in the peculiar zeal 
with which they chose him as their worthiest adversary.” 
[Introduction to the Literature of Europe.) (See G. Fuli- 
gati, “ Vita del Cardinal R. Bellarmino,” 1624, a work based 
upon an Autobiography; Daniello Bartoli, “Della Vita 
di R. Bellarmino,” 1678 ; P. Frizon, “ Vie du Cardinal Bel¬ 
larmin,” 1708.) 

* The name Belladonna , an Italian phrase signifying “beauti¬ 
ful lady,” is said to have been given to this plant from its having 
been used to improve the complexion, as well as to make the eye 
appear dark and lustrous. 

f From Atropos, the name of one of the Fates. 


Bella'ry, a town of India, in the province of Madras, 
135 miles N. of Seringapatam, is one of the chief military 
stations in the province, and has a fort on a rock 450 feet 
high. Pop. about 30,000. 

Bell Bird [Sp. campane'ro ], (Arapuncja alba or Can- 
marynclius carunculata), found in Guiana and other parts 
of South America, is nearly as large as a pigeon. It utters 
a note of metallic sound, resembling the tolling of a bell, 
which, it is said, can be heard at a distance of three miles. 
It is distinguished by a broad and depressed bill, which is 
soft and flexible at the base. The plumage of the male is 
snowy white. From its forehead grows a curious horn-like 
and tubular appendage, which when empty is pendulous, 
but when the bird is excited is filled with air and rises to 
the height of three inches. The Australian bell bird 
(Myzantha melanophrys), “one of the honey-eaters,” pro¬ 
duces a peculiar tinkling sound; it is an entirely different 
species from the above. 

Bell, Book, and Candle. The excommunication by 
bell, book, and candle is a solemnity belonging to the Ro¬ 
man Catholic Church. The priest pronounces the formula 
of excommunication, consisting of maledictions on the head 
of the person anathematized, and closes the sentence by 
shutting the book from which it is read, taking a lighted 
candle and casting it to the ground, and tolling the bell as 
for the dead. This mode of excommunication appears to 
have existed in the Western churches as early as the eighth 
century. The form of excommunication concluded sub¬ 
stantially as follows: “ Cursed be they from the crown of 
the head to the sole of the foot. Out be they taken of the 
book of life. And as this candle is cast from the sight of 
men, so be their souls cast from the sight of God into the 
deepest pit of hell. Amen.” 

Bell Brook, a post-village of Sugar Creek township,. 
Greene co., O. Pop. 369. 

Bell Creek, a post-twp. of Goodhue co., Minn. P. 820. 

Bellechasse, a county of Quebec, bordering on the 
State of Maine, is bounded on the N. W. by the St. Law¬ 
rence River. Area, 720 square miles. The staple produc¬ 
tions are maple-sugar, hay, flax, and oats. Pop. 17,637. 

Belle Creek, a post-twp. of Washington co., Neb. P. 200. 

Bellefontaine, a post-village, county-seat of Logan 
co., O., at the crossing of the Cincinnati and Sandusky and 
Cleveland and Indianapolis R. Rs. It is the eastern ter¬ 
minus of the Evansville R. R. (building). It is about 110 
miles N. of Cincinnati and 55 miles N. W. of Columbus. It 
has the highest elevation of any town in the State. It has a 
good trade, 2 banks (1 national), 3 newspapers, 10 churches, 

5 schools, a fine court-house, and is noted for its health and 
beauty. P. 3182. J. Q. A. Campbell, Ed. “Republican.” 

Bellefonte, a post-twp. of Jackson co., Ala. Pop. 957. 

Bellefonte, a village of Boone co., Ark. It has one 
weekly newspaper. 

Bellefonte, the county-seat of Centre co., Pa., is beau¬ 
tifully situated at the foot of Bald Eagle Mountain, 87 
miles N. W. of Harrisburg. The Bald Eagle Valley R. R., 
connecting with the Philadelphia and Erie R. II. at Lock 
Haven, and with the Pennsylvania R. R. at Tyrone, passes 
through the town. Of late it is a place of summer resort. 
It has a celebrated spring, and the surrounding scenery is 
very fine. It has two furnaces, three rolling-mills, two 
foundries, an axe-factory, extensive car-works, glass-works, 
and a number of smaller manufactories, one monthly and 
three weekly papers, four printing-offices, three banks, an 
academy, and a large number of fine private residences. P. 
of borough, 2655. P. Gray Meek, Ed. “Watchman.” 

Bellefonte, a township of Nottoway co., Va. P. 2837. 

Belle-Isle-en-Mer, an island belonging to the 
French department of Morbihan, is in the Atlantic. It is 
8 miles from the shore, and has an area of 12 square miles. 
Pop. 10,076, mostly engaged in the pilchard-fishery. Excel¬ 
lent horses and grain are raised here. Here is a fortified 
seaport named Le Palais. 

Belle Isle, North. (1) An island in the strait of the 
same name, between Newfoundland and Labrador, is 21 
miles in circuit, and has a small harbor; lat. 52° 13' N., 
Ion. 55° 19.1' W. (2) Belle Isle, South, an island at the 
entrance of White Bay, on the N. E. side of Newfoundland; 
lat. 50° 49' N., Ion. 55° 29' W. It is a fishing-station. Pop. 
53. (3) Belle Isle, a fertile island, 9 miles long and 3 
broad, in Conception Bay, Newfoundland. It has consid¬ 
erable fishing interests. Pop. 500. 

Belle Isle, Strait of, between Labrador and New¬ 
foundland, is 80 miles long, 12 miles wide, and dangerous 
of navigation. 

Bel'lenden (William), a Scottish author of whose per¬ 
sonal history little is known. He was a professor in the 
University of Paris, and was distinguished for the elegance 
















BELLE PLAIN—BELLINI. 451 


of his Latinity. He published in 1608 at Paris a compila¬ 
tion from the works of Cicero, entitled “ Ciceronis Prin- 
ceps.” Among his other works are “Be Statu Prisci 
Orbis” (“ On the Condition of the Primitive World,” 1615), 
and “ He Tribus Luminibus Romanorum” (1634). Died 
before 1633. Ilis three principal works were reprinted in 
1787, with a Latin preface by Dr. Parr. The preface was 
noted for its elegant Latinity and its allusions to contem¬ 
porary politics. The preface attracted much more atten¬ 
tion than the reprint. 

JBelle Plain, a township of Marshall co., Ill. P. 1002. 

Belle Flaine, a post-village of Benton co., Ia., 116 
miles W. of Clinton, on the Omaha line of the Chicago and 
North-western Railway, being the first division station on 
that road from the Mississippi River. It has a round¬ 
house and shops of the road, four grain-elevators, a na¬ 
tional bank, and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1488. 

D. II. Frost, Ed. “Union.” 

Belle Flame, a post-village of Sumner co., Ivan., is 
situated on the Nineseah River, in the midst of a fine 
agricultural district. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Belle Flaine, a post-village of Scott co., Minn., on 
the Minnesota River and on the St. Paul and Sioux City 
R. R., 47 miles S. W. of St. Paul. Pop. 497; of Belle 
Plaine township, 2375. 

Belle Flaine, a post-township of Shawanaw co., Wis. 
Pop. 576. 

Belle Prai'ric, a township of Livingston co., Ill. 
Pop. 630. 

Belle Prairie, a post-township of Morrison co., Minn. 
Pop. 344. 

Bell er'ophon [Gr. BeAA epo ^ ovT ^, “ slayer of Bellerus ”], 
originally called Ilippon'ous, a personage of the Greek 
mythology, was a son of Glaucus, king of Corinth. Having 
killed Bellerus by accident, he fled to Proetus, king of Ar¬ 
gos, who was instigated by his wife to send him to Iobates, 
king of Lycia. He carried a sealed letter requesting Iobates 
to kill him, but that king imposed on him the dangerous 
mission of fighting with the Chimmra. He killed this mon¬ 
ster and defeated the Amazons. He attempted to soar to 
Olympus on the winged horse Pegasus, but fell to the 
earth. 

Bellerophon, a genus of fossil univalve gasteropod 
mollusks. The shell is symmetrically convolute, with few 
and occasionally sculptured whorls, globular or discoidal, 
and having a dorsal keel, which terminates in a deep notch. 
Many species of it have been found in the Silurian, Devo¬ 
nian, and carboniferous rocks in various parts of the world. 

Belles-Lettres, a French term often used in English 
and other languages as synonymous with polite literature 
or the more refined departments of learning, including poe¬ 
try, rhetoric, history, and fiction. It is a term of mediaeval 
origin, and is used in a vague manner. Authorities are 
not agreed in respect to its exact definition and application. 

Bellever'iion, a post-borough of Fayette co., Penn., 
on the Monongahela River, 26 miles S. of Pittsburg. Pop. 
906. 

Belleview', a township of Dallas co., Ala. Pop. 1535. 

Belleview, a post-township of Calhoun co., Ill. P. 947. 

Belleview, or Bellevue, a post-village, capital of 
Bossier parish, La., is about 20 miles N. E. of Shreveport, 
and 1 mile S. E. of Lake Bodeau. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. 

Belleview, a township of Morrison co., Minn. P. 92. 

Belleview, a township of Washington co., Mo. Pop. 
1867. 

Belleville, a port of entry, the capital of Hastings co., 
Ontario (Canada), on the Bay of Quinte, and on the Grand 
Trunk Railway, 113 miles E. N. E. of Toronto. It is a 
beautiful town, and has fine public buildings, including a 
court-house, jail, numerous public and private schools, nine 
churches, and a custom-house. It is the seat of Albert 
University (Methodist Episcopal), which consists of Albert 
College for young men and Alexandra College for ladies. 
One mile W. of the town is the deaf and dumb asylum, a 
fine building, opened in 1870. The river Moira furnishes 
water-power, and the lumber trade is very extensive. There 
are two woollen mills, four sash and blind factories, a large 
box-shop, furniture-works, four foundries, two locomotive- 
shops, a sewing-machine factory, a pottery, several large 
saw-mills, besides breweries, distilleries, chandleries, ship¬ 
yards, etc. There are three steamboat lines, a gas com¬ 
pany, two banks, a board of trade, and two daily and three 
weekly papers. Pop. in 1871, 7305. 

Belleville, a post-township of Conecuh co., Ala. Pop. 
1584. 


Belleville, a township of San Bernardino co., Cal. 
Pop. 56. 

Belleville, a city, capital of St. Clair co., Ill., 14 miles 
S. E. of St. Louis. Four railroads centre here. It contains 
numerous manufactories of almost every description, and 
one of the largest rolling-mills in the West; also a fine 
convent, numerous churches, and splendid school-houses. 
It is thoroughly gas-lighted. Five papers (two dailies) are 
published here. It is in a region abounding in coal. Pop. 
8146. J. R. O'Neil, Ed. “Advocate.” 

Belleville, a post-village and capital of Republic co.„, 
Kan., is situated in a rich mining district, and has one 
weekly newspaper. 

Belleville, a post-village of Essex co., N. J., on the 
Passaic River, 3 miles above Newark, and 10 miles W. by 
N. of New York. It has four or more churches, and sev¬ 
eral manufactories. Pop. of township, 3644. 

Belleville, a post-village of Ellisburg township, Jef¬ 
ferson co., N. Y., on North Sandy Creek, is the seat of an 
academy. 

Belleville, a post-village of Jefferson township, Rich¬ 
land co., O., on the Sandusky Mansfield and Newark R. R., 

68 miles S. by E. from Sandusky. It has considerable 
manufacturing industry and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 
720. 

Belleville (Bell’s Station P. O.), a village of 
Crockett co., Tenn., on the Memphis and Louisville R. R., 

69 miles N. E. of Memphis. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Bel! evue, a post-village of Jackson co., Ia., pleasantly 

situated on the Mississippi River, 24 miles below Dubuque 
and 13 miles S. of Galena. It stands on a high bank, and 
has a good landing, with a gravelly beach. Produce is 
shipped here in steamboats and by the C. C. and D. R. R. 
It is a summer resort and noted for beautiful scenery. The 
population is largely German. It has an extensive rail¬ 
road trade in grain, stock, produce, etc. It has one weekly 
newspaper. Pop. 1353; of Bellevue township, 2402. 

Ed. “Jackson Leader.” 

Bellevue, a post-village and township of Eaton co., 
Mich., 32 miles S. W. of Lansing, on the Peninsular R. R. 
It has important manufactures and produces excellent lime. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of village, 608 ; of 
township, 1985. Edwin S. Hoskins, Pub. “Gazette.” 

Bellevue, a post-village, capital of Sarpy co., Neb., in 
a township of the same name, on the Missouri River, 15 
miles by water below Omaha, and on the Omaha and South¬ 
western R. R., 57 miles N. E. of Lincoln. It has a court¬ 
house and several churches. Pop. of township, 961. 

Bellevue, a post-village of Huron co., 0., on the Lake 
Shore R. R., 45 miles S. E. of Toledo. It is largely devoted 
to manufacturing, and is a good grain-market. Water¬ 
works are being constructed. It has doubled its number of 
buildings and inhabitants within five years. It has one 
weekly newspaper. Pop. 1219. Ed. of “ Gazette.” 

Bellevue, a borough of Allegheny co., Pa. Pop. 384. 

Bellevue, a township of Brown co., Wis. Pop. 822. 

Bellew' (John Chippendall Montesquieu), a cele¬ 
brated reader, was born in Lancaster, England, in 1823, 
of an ancient and noble Irish stock. His name in youth 
was Higgin, but he assumed his mother’s maiden name on 
coming of age. He was educated at Oxford, and entered 
the Anglican ministry in 1848, and won great distinction 
as a preacher. In 1868 he joined the Roman Catholic 
Church, and has since devoted his time with great success 
to public readings in Great Britain and the U. S. 

Bell Ew'art, a post-village of Innisfil township, Sim- 
coe co., Ontario (Canada), on Lake Simcoe and on the 
Northern Railway, 10 miles from Barrie. It is visited by 
regular lines of steamboats. Pop. about 600. 

Bell Flower, a township of McLean co., Ill. P. 659. 

Bel'lingham, a post-township of Norfolk co., Mass., 
on the New York and New England R. R. It has three 
woollen mills and other manufactories. Pop. 1282. 

Bellingham (Richard), a lawyer born in England in 
1592, emigrated to America in 1634. He was lieutenant- 
governor of Massachusetts for thirteen years, and governor 
for ten years. Died Dec. 7, 1672. 

Bellingham Bay, in almost the extreme northern 
part of Washington Territory, in Whatcom co.,is 14 miles 
long, 3 miles wide, with a depth of from 3 to 20 fathoms. 
Great quantities of lignitic bituminous coal are mined lieie, 
the shaft being only one-quarter of a mile from the harbor. 
It is generally considered the best coal on the Pacific coast 
of North America. Whatcom is the chief point ot this 

coal-trade. . 

Bellini (Giovanni), an excellent painter, was born at 
Venice in 1426. He was the master of Titian, and was 












452 


BELLINI—BELMONT. 


called the founder of the Venetian school. Among his 
best works, which display great richness of color, are a 
“ Madonna and Child,” “ The Coronation of the Virgin,” 
and “ Christ Talking to the Woman of Samaria.” Died 
Nov. 29, 151G. 

Bellini (Vincenzo), a celebrated Italian composer, son 
and grandson of musicians of moderate ability, was born 
at Catania, Sicily, Nov. 3, 1802. lie was a pupil of Zin- 
garelli. In 1827 he produced “ II Pirata,” an opera which 
was performed at Milan with great success. His fame was 
widely extended by “ La Straniera” (1828), “ La Sonnam- 
bula ” (1831), and “La Norma ” (1831). He afterwards 
went to Paris and London, where he was warmly applauded, 
and composed “ I Puritani ” (1834). Died in Paris Sept. 
24, 1835. (See Pongin, “ Bellini,” 1868.) 

Bcllinzo'na. [Ger. Bellenz], a town of Switzerland, 
and one of the capitals of the canton of Ticino, is on the 
river Ticino, here crossed by a bridge, 16 miles N. of Lu¬ 
gano. It is defended by several old castles, and has an 
active transit trade. Pop. in 1870, 2501. 

Bell Metal, a hard, dense, brittle, and sonorous alloy 
of copper with tin, zinc, or some other metal. The propor¬ 
tion in English bells is usually 75 per cent, of copper and 
25 of tin. The bell metal of commerce usually contains 80 
of copper to 20 of tin, or else 78 of copper to 22 of tin. 

Bell Mills, a township of Tehama co., Cal. Pop. 79. 

Bello'na, the goddess of war in the ancient Roman 
mythology, was represented as the companion and sister or 
wife of Mars. She was described by the poets as armed 
with a scourge and holding a torch in her hand. Her 
priests were called Bellonurii. 

BelTows [from Anglo-Saxon bylig, a “bag;” Ger. 
Balgen], a very ancient contrivance for producing a blast 
of air. It consisted, in its rudest form, of a bag which was 
compressed, allowed to become full, compressed again, and 
so on. Representations of bellows have been found in 
some of the earliest Egyptian sculptures, and Sir Gardiner 
Wilkinson believes he has found a valve as early as the 
time of Moses. The natives of India and China have em¬ 
ployed the bellows from time immemorial. Rude forms 
of the bellows are found in many of the lowest tribes 
of Africa. Ordinary bellows, as now used, are practi¬ 
cally leather bags which are compressed and then ex¬ 
panded so as to allow air to enter through a valve opening 
inward, which on compression of the bellows allows no air 
to escape, except through the nozzle. In modern manu¬ 
factories, furnaces, etc. the bellows has been partly super¬ 
seded by machines of different kinds which produce the 
blast of air with greater efficiency and uniformity than 
ordinary bellows. 

Bel'lows (Henry Whitney), S. T. D., LL.D., an emi¬ 
nent Unitarian minister, born in Walpole, N. IL, June 10, 
1814, graduated at Harvard in 1832, and became pastor of 
a church in the city of New York in 1838. He gained dis¬ 
tinction as an eloquent public speaker, and lectured on a 
variety of subjects, especially social, educational, and pa¬ 
triotic enterprises. In 1846 he was one of the founders of 
the “ Christian Inquirer.” Among his works are “ Lec¬ 
tures on the Treatment of Social Diseases” (1857) and 
“The Old World in its New Face” (1868). He was the 
principal promoter and first president of the U. S. Sanitary 
Commission, established in 1862. 

Bellows Falls, a post-village of Windham co., Vt., on 
the W. bank of the Conn. River, and on the Vt. Central R. R., 
53 miles S. E. of Rutland, at the junction of the Rutland di¬ 
vision and of the Cheshire R. R. The river here falls 44 feet 
in half a mile. The village has a medicinal spring, a national 
bank, and five churches. Railroads extend from it to Boston, 
New York, Montreal, etc. The water-power is very great, 
and is being improved. There are six paper-mills, one man¬ 
ufactory of chairs, one of sash and blinds, one newspaper, 
and two large hotels. It is the seat of St. Agnes’ Hall, a 
seminary for young ladies. Pop. 697. Ed. of “Times.” 

Bellows Fish, or Trumpet-Fish, the Centn'scus 


scolopax, a spiny-finned fish of the family Aulostomidse, 
feeds upon small animals found at the bottom of the sea, 


chiefly in the Mediterranean and on the W. coasts of 
Europe. It is good eating, though small, seldom exceed¬ 
ing five inches in length. 

Bcll'port, a post-village of Brookhaven township, Suf¬ 
folk co., N. Y., on Bellport Bay. It is the seat of an 
academy. Bellport. Station, in the same township, is 5 
miles N. of Bellport, on the Long Island R. R., 56i miles 
from Hunter’s Point. 

Bells, in nautical language, is a term having a peculiar 
meaning, and is used as a substitute for those expressions 
by which people on land indicate the hour. The sailor’s 
day or night is divided into watches or periods, each of 
four hours’ duration, and the bell is struck once at the ex¬ 
piration of each half hour. The number of strokes denotes 
the number of half hours that have elapsed in that partic¬ 
ular watch. If the watch commences at 6 p. m., eight bells 
would be a signal for the end of the watch at 10 p. m. 

Bell’s Landing, a post-township of Monroe co., Ala. 
Pop. 1310. 

Bellu'no (anc. Bellu'num ), a city of Italy, capital of 
the above province, on the Piave, 49 miles N. of Venice. 
It is a bishop’s see, and has a cathedral designed by Pal¬ 
ladio, a rich hospital, a public library, a handsome aque¬ 
duct, and a beautiful triumphal arch; also manufactures 
of silk stuffs, hats, leather,and earthenware. Pop. in 1857, 
13,552. 

Bell'ville, a township of Howard co., Kan. Pop. 1240. 

Bellville, a post-village, the capital of Austin co., Tex., 
near the Brazos River, 55 miles W. N. W. of Houston. 

Bel'inontl, a thriving village of Pleasant township, 
Wright co., Ia., is finely situated on the Iowa River, at the 
junction of two prospective railroads. It is in a good and 
well-settled farming region. It has good public schools, 
churches, etc., and one weekly paper. Pop. 327. 

A. M. Allen, Ed. “Belmond Mirror.” 

Bel’mont, a county of Ohio, bordering on West Vir¬ 
ginia. Area, 520 square miles. It is bounded on the E. 
by the Ohio River, and drained by Wheeling and Captina 
creeks. The surface is diversified by hills, which are cul¬ 
tivated to the summit; the soil is fertile. Dairy products, 
grain, wool, fruit, and tobacco are extensively raised. The 
county is intersected by the Central Ohio R. R., and con¬ 
tains coal. Capital, St. Clairsville. Pop. 39,714. 

Belmont, a township of Sumpter co., Ala. Pop. 2916. 

Belmont, a township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop. 833. 

Belmont, a township of Warren co., Ia. Pop. 1048. 

Belmont, a post-township of Woodson co., Kan. Pop. 
622. 

Belmont, a post-township of Waldo co., Me. Pop. 628. 

Belmont, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass. It 
is one of the finest suburbs of Boston. Pop. 1513. 

Belmont, a township of Jackson co., Minn. Pop. 625. 

Belmont, a post-village of Mississippi co., Mo., on the 
Mississippi River, opposite Columbus, Ky., 197 miles S. S. 
E. of St. Louis. In 1861 this place was occupied as a 
Confederate camp. On Nov. 6, Gen. Grant, in command 
at Cairo, descended the river with about 4000 troops, re¬ 
maining over night about 10 miles above Columbus, Ky. 
On the morning of the 7th this force was debarked on the 
Missouri shore a short distance above Belmont, and at once 
moved forward to the capture of the Confederate camp, 
supposed to contain about 3000 men. After several hours’ 
severe fighting the Federal troops forced their way through 
the obstructions on either side. An irresistible charge 
carried the camp, drove the Confederates in all directions, 
and left the field in possession of the Federals. The Con¬ 
federate camp, with all its supplies, ammunition, and bag¬ 
gage, was fired and destroyed. The defeated Confederates 
were, however, strongly reinforced by Maj.-Gen. Polk from 
Columbus, and in turn drove the Federal troops back to 
their boats, fighting all the way against a now vastly 
superior Confederate force, while the batteries on the 
Kentucky side kept up a damaging fire which could not 
be returned. By 5 p. M. the troops were all on board 
their boats without the loss of a gun, while they had 
with them two guns captured from the Confederates. 
The Federal loss was 84 killed, 150 wounded, and a 
similar number missing; the Confederate loss is stated 
at from 500 to 600, killed and wounded. 

Belmont, a township of Otoe co., Neb. Pop. 508. 

Belmont, a post-village, capital of Nye co., Nev., 
in a township of the same name, about 150 miles in a 
direct line E. S. E. of Carson City. Pop. of township, 
244. 

Belmont, a post-township of Belknap co., N. H. It 
has manufactures of hosiery and of lumber. Pop. 1J 65. 
































BELMONT—BELUGA. 


Belmont, a post-village, semi-capital of Allegany co., 
N. Y., on the Genesee River and on the Erie R. R., 92 
miles W. by N. of Elmira, and 94 miles E. S. E. of Dunkirk. 
It contains a court-house and several barrel-factories. It 
has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 795. 

Belmont, a township of Franklin co., N. Y. P. 1619. 

Belmont, a post-twp. of La Fayette co., Wis. P. 1303. 

Belmont, a township of Portage co., Wis. Pop. 508. 

Belmont, a village of Westchester co., N. Y., now a 
part of New York City. Pop. 171. 

Belmont (August), born at Alzey, in Germany, in 
1816, emigrated to America in 1837 as the representative 
of the Rothschilds, and became an active politician of the 
Democratic party. He was chairman of the executive 
committee at the national Democratic convention at 
Charleston in 1860. He is a prominent man in the finan¬ 
cial world of New York. 

Beloit', the capital of Mitchell co., Kan., on the S. 
bank of Solomon River, has a weekly paper, an iron bridge, 
important mills and manufactures, and an active trade. 
Pop. of Beloit township, 173. Ed. “ Beloit Gazette.” 

Beloit, a city of Rock co., Wis., is on Rock River and 
on the Chicago and North-western R. R., 91 miles N. W. 
of Chicago and 47 miles S. S. E. of Madison. It is also 
on the Western Union R. R., which connects it with Mil¬ 
waukee and Rock Island, Ill., and is on the S. boundary 
of the State. It is partly built on a plain which is about 
seventy feet higher than the river. It is the seat of Beloit 
College. It has a national and one other bank, and con¬ 
siderable manufactures of paper, reapers and mowers, 
ploughs, water-wheels, etc. It has one weekly and one 
monthly newspaper. Pop. 4396; of the township, 5139. 

C. Ingersoll, Ed. “ Beloit Free Press.” 

Beloit College, at Beloit, Wis., originated in the de¬ 
liberations of ministers and laymen of Congregational and 
Presbyterian churches in Wisconsin and Northern Illinois. 
In May, 1845, a convention of sixty-nine members decided 
unanimously that a college of the highest order for young 
men ought to be established at Beloit. A self-perpetuating 
board of trustees then elected was incorporated by charter 
from the Territorial legislature of Wisconsin in 1846. The 
corner-stone of the first building was laid in June, 1847, 
and in the fall of the same year five young men were re¬ 
ceived to the first college class. Jackson J. Bushnell, 
A. M., and Joseph Emerson, A. M., both graduates of Yale 
College in the class of 1841, were the first regularly appoint¬ 
ed professors. Rev. Aaron L. Chapin of Milwaukee, also a 
graduate of Yale, was elected first president in 1849, and 
continues (1874) still in otfice. The institution embraces a 
collegiate department and a preparatory school. The col¬ 
legiate department offers two parallel courses of four years, 
called respectively the classical and the philosophical course. 
In the classical course the branches of study and the stand¬ 
ard of scholarship correspond with those of the best col¬ 
leges of New England. The philosophical course combines, 
with such an amount of Latin and Greek as is considered 
essential to the best proficiency in any art or science, a 
more varied range of study and a more extensive culture 
of science. In the preparatory school also two parallel 
courses are defined, called respectively the classical course 
and the elementary scientific course. These courses occupy 
three years, and are adapted to meet the requisitions for 
admission to the two courses of the collegiate department. 
For such as do not contemplate entering college they offer 
opportunities for advanced general culture, well balanced 
and thorough, as far as it goes. 

The faculty of the college is now (1874) composed of 
the president, eight professors, and two instructors of the 
preparatory school. About 2000 young men have received 
more or less of culture in the institution, and the graduates 
of the full course number 210. Its graduates occupy po¬ 
sitions of influence in our own country and many foreign 
lands. For its endowment and support Beloit College de¬ 
pends entirely on private benefactions. It has received 
generous donations from friends in both the East and the 
West, but large additions to its resources are much needed. 
The college is beautifully situated on the banks of Rock 
River. Its most prominent building is the Memorial Hall, 
erected in honor of the sons of the college who fell in the 
late war, and devoted to the collections of the cabinet and 
library, for the steady increase of which generous provision 
is made. Aaron L. Chapin. 

BcIoocJiistan', or Belujistan (anc. Gedrosia), a 
country of Southern Asia, bounded on the N. by Afghan¬ 
istan, on the E. by Sinde, on the S. by the Arabian Sea, 
and on the W. by Persia. Its area is estimated at 107,000 
square miles, and the pep. at 2,000,000. 

This region, which is almost destitute of rivers or per¬ 
manent streams, consists of high mountains and barren, 


453 


I sandy plains. The peak of Takkatoo, in the N. part, is 
said to be 11,000 feet high, and some of the plains or val¬ 
leys have an elevation of 6000 feet above the sea. The 
largest river is the Doostee, which has been found only 
twenty inches deep and twenty yards wide at its mouth. 
It enters the Arabian Sea. The climate presents great ex¬ 
tremes of heat and cold. Most of the fruits known in Eu¬ 
rope, as well as plantains and guavas, are common. Melons 
attain such size that a man cannot lift them. Some of the 
valleys produce rice, cotton, tobacco, indigo, barley, pulse, 
etc. Among the mineral resources are copper, antimony^ 
lead, iron, sulphur, and alum. The inhabitants are divided 
into the Beluches in the N. and W., who are a mixture of 
Persians, Hindoos, and Semitic tribes, and are indolent, 
warlike, and cruel; the Brahuis, the remains of the origi¬ 
nal inhabitants, in the E.; and the Lamri in the S. E. 
The entire population consists of Sunnite Mohammedans. 
They subsist mostly by pastoral pursuits, raising sheep, 
goats, and camels or dromedaries. They are subject to a 
khan, who rules with despotic power. Ivelat was stormed 
and taken by the British in 1839, and the khan was killed. 

Belpas'so, an Italian town, in the province of Ca¬ 
tania, at the side of Mount Etna, 7 miles N. W. from Ca¬ 
tania. Pop. 7038. 

Bel'per, a market-town of England, in Derbyshire, on 
the Midland Railway, 10 miles by rail N. of Derby. It 
has several churches, a public library, and a stone bridge 
over the river Derwent. It has large.manufactures of silk 
and cotton hosiery. Pop. 9509. 

Bel'pre, a post-village of Washington co., O., is on the 
Ohio River, opposite Parkersburg, West Va., and about 
12 miles below Marietta. It is the eastern terminus of 
the Marietta and Cincinnati R. R., connecting here with 
the Baltimore and Ohio R. R. by a great bridge, which 
crosses the Ohio and is more than a mile long. Pop. 911; 
of Bclpre township, 2462. 

Belshaz'zar [Belshar-uzur; Fr. Balthasar ], son of 
Nabonadius (Labynetus), who was the sixth and last king 
of the second Babylonian period. His mother was a 
daughter of Nebuchadnezzar, and probably the widow of 
Neriglissar, the fourth king of the period. When of suffi¬ 
cient age he was associated with his father on the throne, 
and in the book of Daniel is therefore called king. At the 
fall of Babylon in 538 B. C. lie was slain, and his father, 
Nabonadius, then at Borsippa, was taken prisoner. 

Belt, a girdle, a band, a zone. This term is applied in 
surgery to a band or bandage; in astronomy to several 
dark bands, variable in number, which extend across the 
disk of the planet Jupiter and are parallel to its equator. 

Leather belts or bands are extensively used in machinery 
to connect a revolving shaft with another shaft or pulley. 
It is a contrivance for transmitting power with less noise 
and friction than attend the use of toothed gearing. These 
belts are generally used between parallel shafts, and when 
the shafts must turn in opposite directions the belt is crossed. 
When the shafts are not parallel, and their axes produced 
intersect each other, they may be connected by using a 
third shaft. Gutta-percha and India rubber are sometimes 
used instead of leather. To render leather belts durable, 
they should be carefully protected against moisture. 

Belt Creek, a township of Burt co., Neb. Pop. 287. 

Bel'ton, a post-township of Anderson co., S. C. It is 
on the Greenville and Columbia R. R., 26 miles S. of Green¬ 
ville, at the junction of the Anderson branch. Pop. 1364. 

Belton, a post-village, the capital of Bell co., Tex., is 
situated on Leon River, 60 miles N. N. E. of Austin City. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 281. 

Beltra'mi, a large county in the N. W. of Minnesota. 
A considerable part of the surface is covered with lakes, 
among which are the Red Lake, Cass, Itasca (the head 
source of the Mississippi), and a number of smaller ones, 
all connected together. Area, 3100 square miles. Pop. 80. 

Belts, Great and Little, are two straits which con¬ 
nect the Baltic with the Cattegat. The former separates 
the island of Fiinen from Seeland, is 36 miles long, and has 
an average width of about 18 miles. The depth ranges 
between 6 and 26 fathoms, and the current is so strong that 
the Belt is seldom frozen over. The navigation of both 
Belts is dangerous or difficult. The Little Belt, which 
separates Fiinen from Jutland, also forms a communication 
between the Baltic and the Cattegat. It is 32 miles long. 
The widest part of it is about 10 miles, and the narrowest 
about 2500 feet. Its depth ranges from 5 to 14 fathoms. 
From these Belts (Lat. haltei) the Baltic Sea is supposed 
to take its name. 

Beln'ga, a genus of Mammalia, of the order Cetacea 
and of the family Delphinidae or dolphins. They arc dis¬ 
tinguished by a blunt and broad head and the absence ot a 























454 


BELUS—BEMBRIDGE BEDS. 


dorsal fin. They abound in the Arctic seas, are gregarious, 
and afford to the Greenlanders an important article of food. 
The Beluga globiceps sometimes attains a length of thirteen 
feet. Hound-headed cachalot is one of the synonyms of this 
animal. The white whale of the St. Lawrence ( Beluga bo¬ 
realis) is common in northern waters, both salt and fresh. 
It is caught in the St. Lawrence and the Saguenay, is from 
ten to twenty feet long, and is prized for its excellent oil 
and its skin, which makes a very line leather. 

The name Beluga is often applied to a large sturgeon of 
Southern Russia {Acipenser huso), which affords great 
quantities of isinglass and caviare. (See Sturgeon.) 

Be'lus [Gr. BrjAos], in classic mythology, a king of Phoe¬ 
nicia, was said to be a son of Neptune, a brother of Agenor, 
and the father of Egyptus. He is considered by some per¬ 
sons as identical with Baal (which see). 

Belus [BrjAev?, now called Nalir Naaman; perhaps the 
Bealoth of the Hebrew text of the Bible], a small stream of 
Palestine, which enters the sea near Acre. On its banks it 
is said that the art of glass-making was discovered. 

Belus, Temple of, a famous temple of enormous size 
in the city of Babylon, rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar shortly 
after C04 B. C. According to some authorities, it was de¬ 
stroyed by Xerxes, king of Persia. Some writers identify 
its ruins with Birs-Nimrud (a huge mound 6 miles S. W. of 
Hillah), which appears to have been originally about 156 feet 
high. Others identify its ruins with Babil (another mound 
some 6 miles N. of Hillah), whose height is about 140 feet. 

Belvede're (i. e. “fair view”), an Italian word applied 
to a pavilion on the top of a house, or a structure designed 
to afford a fine prospect of the surrounding country; also 
an artificial eminence in a garden. In France and other 
countries of Europe the term is often used as the name of 
a palace, villa, or summer-house. The famous statue of 
Apollo Belvedere derived its name from a gallery of the 
Vatican called Belvedere. 

Bel'vedere ( Chenopodium scoparmm, or Salsola sco- 
paria), an annual plant of the order Chenopodiaceae, is a 
native of Europe and Asia, and is sometimes called summer 
cypress. It is cultivated in gardens, but not for its flowers, 
which have no beauty. It has a close, pyramidal, rigid 
form and narrow leaves, and resembles a miniature cypress. 

Belvedere, a town of Southern Italy, province of 
Cosenza, 26 miles N. N. W. of Cosenza, has a trade in wine 
and raisins. Pop. 5600. 

Bel'videre, the county-seat of Boone co., Ill., on the 
Ivishwaukee River and on the Chicago and North-western 
Railway (Galena division), 78 miles W. N. W. of Chicago. It 
is the terminus also of the St. Paul division of the North¬ 
western Railway, and is projecting a railroad S. E. It has 
a national bank, two newspapers, a planing-mill, a num¬ 
ber of mills, elegant churches, and fine schools. Pop. 3231, 
and is rapidly increasing; of Belvidere township, 4410. 

R. W. Coon, Ed. “ Belvidere North-western.” 

Belvidere, apost-township of Monona co., Ia. P. 272. 

Belvidere, a township of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 54. 

Belvidere, a township of Goodhue co., Minn. P. 626. 

Belvidere, a post-village, the capital of Warren co., 
N. J., on the Delaware River and on the Belvidere Dela¬ 
ware R. R., 13 miles above Easton and 95 miles N. of 
Philadelphia. The Pequest Creek enters the river here, 
and affords a valuable water-power. Belvidere has an 
academy, five churches, one national bank, several mills, 
and a cotton factory. It has three weekly newspapers. 
Pop. of the township, 1882. 

Belvidere, a post-township of Perquimans co., N. C. 
Pop. 2403. 

Belvidere, a township of Lamoille co., Vt. It has 
manufactures of lumber. Pop. 369. 

Belvidere, a township of Buffalo co., Wis. Pop. 632. 

Bel'vin, a township of Pitt co., N. C. Pop. 2151. 

Belvis'ia (also called Napoleo'na), a genus of exog¬ 
enous plants, the type of the natural order Belvisiaceee. 
The few species of this order which are known are natives 
of tropical Africa, and are large shrubs with simple alter¬ 
nate, coriaceous leaves. The flowers, each of which has 
twenty stamens, are sessile, beautiful, and have a very sin¬ 
gular form. The calyx is a leathery cup, divided into five 
ovate segments. The corolla consists of three concentric 
and distinct rings, each of which is monopetalous; the 
lower or outer one, 5-lobed and furnished with thirty-five 
stiff ribs, by means of which it is strongly plaited; when 
fully blown it turns back over the calyx so as to hide it 
completely; the second, a narrow membrane, is divided 
into many fine regular segments like a fringe; the third, 
an erect, cup-shaped membrane, whose edge is cut into 
many fine segments turned downward. The fruit is a 


large berry, similar to a pomegranate in size and form, en¬ 
closing several reniform seeds, one inch long. One species 



Belvisia. 


of Belvisia bears an edible fruit. According to Lindley, 
this order belongs to the Myrtal alliance, and is allied to 
Rhizophoracese. 

Belzo'ni (Giovanni Battista), an Italian traveller, 
born at Padua Nov. 5, 1778, emigrated to England in 1803, 
and gained a subsistence by exhibiting himself as an ath¬ 
lete. In 1815 he visited Egypt at the invitation of Mehe- 
met Ali, who desired him to construct a hydraulic machine. 
He soon directed his attention to the exploration of Egyp¬ 
tian antiquities. He removed to England the colossal 
bust called “Young Memnon,” which is now in the British 
Museum. He opened the temple of Ipsambool and the 
pyramid of Cephren (or the second pyramid of Gizeh). 
lie published in 1821 a very interesting “Narrative of the 
Operations and Recent Discoveries within the Pyramids, 
Temples, Tombs, etc. in Egypt and Nubia.” He undertook 
a journey to Timbuctu, but died near Benin Dec. 3, 1823. 


Bern (Joseph), a Polish general, born at Tarnov, in 
Galicia, in 1795. He served in the Polish army in the 
revolution of 1830, after which he passed some years in 
France. In 1848 he joined the Hungarian patriots, and 
obtained command of the army of Transylvania. He de¬ 
feated the Austrians in several actions, and took part in 
the battle of Temesv&r (1849], which was disastrous to 
Hungary. Having fled to Turkey and conformed to Islam- 
ism, he was raised to the rank of pasha. Died Dec. 10,1850. 
(See Pataky, “Bern in Siebenbiirgen,” 1850; N. N. Lajos, 
“ Le General Bern,” Paris, 1851.) 

Bembe^'iilic [Gr. /3e;u./3>}£, a “top”], a family of hymen- 
opterous insects, the popular name of which is “ sand- 
wasps,” are mostly natives of warm climates. They re¬ 
semble wasps or bees in appearance, and the females make 
burrows in sandy banks, in which they deposit their eggs. 
Some of them emit an odor like that of roses. The U. S. 
have several species. 

Bem'bo (Pietro), a celebrated Italian scholar and car¬ 
dinal, born at Venice May 20, 1470. He removed to Rome 
in 1512, and became secretary to Pope Leo X. In 1539 ho 
was raised to the dignity of cardinal. He wrote, besides 
other works, a Latin “History of Venice” (1551). Died 
Jan. 18, 1547. He was eminent as a restorer of pure 
Latinity. His collected works were published at Venice in 
4 vols., 1729. (See Beccadelli, “Vita di P. Pembo;” J. 
D. la Casa, “Vita Bembi.”) 

Bem'bridge Beils, a division of the upper eocene 
strata found in the Isle of Wight, and containing many 
fossil shells of the Paludina, Planorbis, etc. This division 
comprises, besides several beds of marl and clay, the Bern- 



























BEMENT—BENEDICT I. 455 


bridge limestone, a cream-colored stone, often compact and 
sometimes vesicular and concretionary. Here are found 
remains of the Anoplotherium , an extinct animal. 

Bement', a post-township of Piatt eo., Ill. Pop. 1471. 

He' mis’s Heights, a post-village of Stillwater town¬ 
ship, Saratoga co., N. Y., on the Champlain Canal and 
near the Hudson River, was the scene of the first battle of 
Stillwater, Sept. 19, 1777. 

Hen, a Gaelic term prefixed to the names of many moun¬ 
tains of Scotland, as Ben Lomond, Ben Nevis, etc. It sig¬ 
nifies “ head ” or “ summit.” 

H ell, a Hebrew word signifying “son,” and equivalent 
to the Arabic Ibn, forms the first syllable of many ancient 
scriptural names, as Ben-hadad, Benjamin, Benoni, etc. 
Beni, the plural of Ben, occurs in the names of many Ara¬ 
bian tribes. 

H en, Oil of, a fixed oil extracted by pressure from 
the fruits of Moringa aptera and other species, leguminous 
trees growing in the Levant and the East and lYest Indies. 
It is colorless or slightly yellow, is odorless, and does not 
readily become rancid. It is used to extract the odoriferous 
principles of fragrant plants. 

H eiia'res (anc. Varanashi and Kasi), a famous and pop¬ 
ulous city of Hindostan, situated on the left bank of the 
Ganges, about 428 miles by rail N. W. of Calcutta, and 477 
miles by rail S. E. of Delhi. It is the holy city of the 
Brahmans, the chief seat of their science, and may be called 
the Hindoo capital of India. Flights of stone steps called 
ghdt8 lead down the steep banks of the Ganges, which is 
here about half a mile wide. The external appearance of 
the city, as seen from the river, is rendered very imposing 
by the minarets of about 300 mosques and the pinnacles 
of nearly 1000 pagodas. The streets are very narrow, and 
the houses, which are mostly built of stone, are generally 
lofty, some of them six stories high. Among the remark¬ 
able public edifices are the great mosque of Aurungzeb, 232 
feet high, many Hindoo temples, a vast and old astronomi¬ 
cal observatory, and the Hindoo Sanscrit college, the chief 
seat of native learning in India. As the holy city of the 
Hindoos and the central seat of Brahmanical learning, 
Benares attracts on the occasion of certain festivals an 
immense multitude of pilgrims, estimated at 100,000. The 
permanent population was, in 1866, 200,000. Benares is a 
wealthy and industrious city, having extensive manufac¬ 
tures of silk, cotton, and woollen stuff's. It is a great em¬ 
porium for the shawls of the north, the diamonds of the 
south, and the muslins of Dacca and the eastern provinces. 
The Hindoo Sanscrit college was founded here in 1791, and 
an English department was added to it about 1827. The 
residences of the Europeans are mostly at Secrole, which 
is three miles from nares, and contains many fine man¬ 
sions. It is connected by a railway with Calcutta and 
Delhi. A mutiny of Sepoys broke out here in June, 1857, 
but was soon quelled. 

H en'bow (John), a brave English admiral, born in 
Shropshire in 1650, served first under James II. He became 
a rear-admiral in the reign of William III., who reposed 
great confidence in him. In Aug., 1702, he encountered 
a superior force under the French admiral Ducasse, near 
Jamaica. He maintained a running fight for four days, 
was mortally wounded, and died Nov. 29,1702. (See Camp¬ 
bell, “ Lives of the British Admirals.”) 

Bench, or Banc [Law Lat. bancus], in law, has sev¬ 
eral significations: 1. A court or tribunal for the adminis¬ 
tration of justice. The word originally meant the seat oc¬ 
cupied by the judges in court. In England two of the 
leading courts are termed king’s or queen’s bench and com¬ 
mon bench. The latter tribunal is also called the court of 
common pleas. 2. The word is also used to designate the 
judges as contrasted with the practitioners in their court, 
as in the phrase “the bench and the bar.” 3. Another 
signification is the full number of judges acting as a court 
of review, as distinguished from a single member of their 
body, also acting judicially. Thus, decisions rendered by 
a single judge at a trial are said to take place at nisi jirius, 
while those which are made by members of the court sit¬ 
ting together are said to be made in bench or in banc or in 

O O 

banco. 

Bench Warrant, an order issued by or from a bench 
for the arrest of a person, either in case of contempt or 
after an indictment has been found, or from a judge to ap¬ 
prehend a person charged with an offence. 

Bench'ers, the principal officers of the English inns 
of court, entrusted with their government and with the 
power of admitting persons to the bar, and of disbarring 
practitioners, though the exercise of these powers is sub¬ 
ject to the supervision of the judges of the higher courts. 

Ben'tlemann' (Eduard), a German painter of the | 


Diisseldorf school, was born in Berlin Dec. 3, 1811, and was 
director of the academy at Diisseldorf from 1859 to 1868. 
He painted the “Captive Jews in Babylon ” and “Jere¬ 
miah on the Ruins of Jerusalem ” (1837). 

Bendemeer, or Bendeinir. See Bundemeer. 

Ben'der, or Ben'dery, a fortified town of Russia, in 
Bessarabia, on the right bank of the Dneister, 65 miles 
N. W. of Odessa. Here is a strong citadel on an eminence. 
Bender has several paper-mills, forges, and tanneries. Pop. 
in 1867, 24,443. 

Bend'siii, a town of Russian Poland, in the government 
of Petrokov, 100 miles by rail S. of Petrokov. Pop. in 
1867, 6231. 

Be'lie, a town of Northern Italy, in the province of 
Cuneo, on a hill 16 miles N. E. of Coni. It has an old 
castle. Pop. 6127. 

Ben'edelc, von (Ludwig), an Austrian general, born 
at Odenburg, in Hungary, in 1804. He fought with the 
rank of colonel against the Italians in 1848, and became a 
major-general in April, 1849, after which he served with 
distinction against the Hungarian patriots. He directed a 
corps in the Italian campaign of 1859 and at Solferino. In 
June, 1866, he took the command of the grand Austrian 
army, and remained on the defensive in Bohemia. He was 
defeated by the Prussians at the decisive battle of Sadowa, 
July 3, 1866. 

Benedet'ti (Vincent), Count, a French diplomatist, 
born in Corsica about 1815. He was sent as ambassador to 
the kingdom of Italy in 1861. In 1870 he was employed 
by Napoleon III. in important negotiations with the court 
of Prussia, and had a personal interview with King Wil¬ 
liam at Ems just before the emperor declared war against 
Prussia. 

Beil'eilict [Lat. Benedic' tus\, Saint, a celebrated Ital¬ 
ian religionist, called the founder of monachism in the 
West, was born at Nursia, in Umbria, in 480 A. D. He 
renounced the world in early youth, passed some years in 
solitude, and acquired a wide reputation for sanctity. He 
founded a famous monastery on Monte Cassino, near Na¬ 
ples, and composed a system of monastic rules which was 
largely adopted by the Western monks, and was known as 
the Rule of Saint Benedict. Under this system the monks 
were employed in manual labor and in the instruction of 
the young. (See Benedictines.) Died Mar. 21, 543 A. D. 
(See Juan de Castaniza, “Vida de S. Benito,” 1583; J. 
B. Planchette, “Vie du grand S. Benoit,” 1652; Anton 
Sulger, “Vita divi Benedicti,” 1691; J. G. Waitzmann, 
“ Leben und Wirken des heiligen Benedict,” 1825.) 

Benedict I. became pope of Rome in 574 A. D. Died 
in 578.— Benedict II., a native of Rome, was elected pope 
in 683 A. D., and died in 685.— Benedict III. succeeded 
Pope Leo IV. in 855. He died in 858, leaving a good 
reputation for piety.— Benedict IV. was elected pope in 
900, as the successor of John IX. Died in 903.— Bene¬ 
dict V. was chosen pojie in 964, but was banished from 
Rome by the emperor Otho I. Leo VIII. was pope at the 
same time with him, and both are recognized by Roman 
Catholic historians. Died in 965.— Benedict VI. was 
elected pope in 972, and was killed by the rebellious Ro¬ 
mans in 974.— Benedict VII. succeeded Pope Benedict VI. 
in 975. He is said to have ruled with ability. Died in 
984.— Benedict VIII., a son of the count of Tusculum, be¬ 
came pope in 1012. He crowned the emperor Henry II. in 
1013, and defeated the Saracens, who had invaded the Pa¬ 
pal States. Died in 1024.— Benedict IX. (Tiieofhlac- 
tus of Tusculum), sometimes called the “boy-pope,” was 
chosen pope in 1033. He was extremely licentious, and 
was expelled by the Romans. Sylvester III. became anti¬ 
pope. Benedict was deposed by the emperor Henry III. 
about 1046.— Benedict X., called the Stupid, was chosen 
pope in 1058, removed through the influence of Hildebrand 
in 1059, and died in prison in the same year.— Bene¬ 
dict XI. (Saint), born in 1240, a native of Treviso, suc¬ 
ceeded Boniface VIII. in 1303. He was noted for humil¬ 
ity. Died in 1304.— Benedict XII. (originally Jacques 
Fournier), a native of France, was chosen pope in 1334. 
He was the third pope who reigned at Avignon, and was 
eminent as a canonist and theologian. He wrote several 
works. He died in 1342, and was succeeded by Clement 
VI. Pope Benedict XII. was an excellent man.— Benedict 
XIII. succeeded Innocent XIII. in 1724. He was distin¬ 
guished for moderation and other virtues, and promoted 
the peace of Europe. Died in 1730. (See Clemente da 
Cruz, “ Vida do Benedicto XIII.,” 1739.)— Benedict XIII. 
(anti-pope), (Pedro de Luna), was born in Aragon, and 
was elected pope by certain cardinals at Avignon in 1394. 
Another party elected Boniface IX. at Rome, and a schism 
of the Church ensued. He was deposed by the Council of 
Constance in 1417. Died in 1424. Benedict XIV. (Pros- 











456 BENEDICT—BENEVENTO. 


Pero Lambertini), born at Bologna in 1675, was a man of 
superior talents. He was well versed in history, theology, 
and classical learning. He succeeded Clement XII. in 
1740, and showed himself a liberal patron of literature and 
science. He was also distinguished for his moderation and 
enlightened piety, and was the author of several esteemed 
religious works. Died in 1758. (See Fabroni, “ Vita di 
Benedetto XIV.,” 1787.) 

Benedict (David), D.D., born at Norwalk, Conn., Oct. 
10, 1770, graduated at Brown University in 1806, and was 
for twenty-live years pastor of the First Baptist church in 
Pawtucket, R. I. He has written a “History of the Bap¬ 
tists” (2 vols., 1813; 3d vol., 1848), “History of All Re¬ 
ligions” (1824), “Fifty Years among the Baptists” (1860), 
“ History of the Donatists,” “ Compendium of Church His¬ 
tory,” and other works. 

Benedict (Erastus Cornelius), LL.D., was born at 
Branford, Conn., Mar. 19, 1800, and graduated in 1821 at 
"Williams College. In 1824 was called to the bar, and has 
been president of the New York Board of Education and a 
regent of the university, etc. He published “American 
Admiralty” (1850), “A Run through Europe” (1860), 
“The Hymn of Ilildebert” (1868), and other works. 

Benedict (Sir Julius), a musical composer, born at 
Stuttgart Nov. 27, 1804. He has written “The Gypsy’s 
Warning” (1838), “Brides of Venice,” “Lily of Killar- 
ney” (1862), all popular operas: “Undine,” a cantata, 
and “St. Peter” (1870), an oratorio. 

Benedict (Lewis), an American lawyer and general of 
volunteers, born in Albany, N. Y., Sept. 2, 1817, graduated 
at Williams College, studied law, and was admitted to the 
bar in 1841. He was actively engaged in politics for many 
years, and held various important local offices. He entered 
the army as lieutenant-colonel Seventy-third N. Y. Volun¬ 
teers, engaged at Yorktown, captured at Williamsburg, ex¬ 
changed Sept., 1862, appointed colonel One-Hundred-and- 
Sixty-second N. Y. Volunteers, and was attached to the 
Army of the Gulf. He was in command of a brigade at 
the battle of Port Hudson and during the Red River ex¬ 
pedition, where he greatly distinguished himself. Killed 
at battle of Pleasant Hill, La., April 9,1864, while leading 
his brigade to a charge. (Brevet brigadier-general U. S. 
volunteers for gallant conduct.) 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eng're. 

Benedic'ta, a township of Aroostook co., Me. Pop. 
415. 

Benetlic'tine Editions of the Fathers. The fol¬ 
lowing is a complete list of these highly esteemed and'now 
very costly works : 1, Barnabas (Menard), 4to, 1642; 2, Lan- 
franc (D’Achery), fob, 1648; 3, Bernard (Mabillon), 2 vols. 
fob, 1667; 4, Anselm (Gerberon), fob, 1675 ; 5, Augustine 
(Delfan and others), 11 vols. fob, 1679-1700 ; 6, Cassiodorus 
(Garet), 2 vols. fob, 1679; 7, Ambrose (Du Frische and Le 
Nourri), 2 vols., 1686-90; 8, Hilary (Constant), fob, 1693; 

9, Jerome (Martiany and others), 5 vols. fob, 1693-1706; 

10, Athanasius (Montfaucon), 3 vols. fob, 1698; 11, Greg¬ 
ory of Tours (Ruinart), fob, 1699; 12, Gregory the Great 
(lie Sainte-Marthe), 4 vols. fob, 1705 ; 13, Ilildebert (Beau- 
gendre), fob, 1708; 14, Irenmus (Massuet), fob, 1710; 15, 
Lucius Cmcilius (Le Nourri), 8vo, 1710; 16, Chrysostom 
(Montfaucon), 13 vols. fob, 1718-38 ; 17, Cyril of Jerusalem 
(Toultee and Maran), fob, 1720 ; 18, Basil (Gamier and 
Maran), 3 vols. fob, 1721-30; 19, Cyprian (Maran), fob, 
1726; 20, Justin Martyr (Maran), fob, 1742; 21, Origen 
(De la Rue), 4 vols. fob, 1733-59; 22, Gregory Nazianzen 
(Clemencet), 1 vol. fob, 1778; 2d vol., 1842. 

Benedic'tines, or Benedictine Order, the name 
of the monks who observe the rule of Saint Benedict. 
This order was one of the most ancient and learned relic:- 
ious orders of Western Europe. The first Benedictine 
monastery was that founded by Saint Benedict on Monte 
Cassino, near Naples, in 528 A. D. The order spread rap¬ 
idly and widely in several countries of Europe, and it is 
said had at one period 37,000 monasteries. The Benedic¬ 
tines boasted that their order had produced 24 popes, 200 
cardinals, 4000 bishops, and 1500 saints. The rule of 
Saint Benedict was less severe than that which the Eastern 
ascetics practised. It required that the monks should live 
frugally, avoid laughter, hold no private property, and be 
industrious. To them we are especially indebted for the 
preservation and transmission of many of the ancient 
classics through the Dark Ages down to the present time. 
Among the most celebrated houses or societies of this order 
was the Congregation of Saint-Maur (dating from 1621), 
on the river Loire, to which all the Benedictine houses in 
France were affiliated. Connected with it were many 
learned men, including Mabillon, Montfaucon, and Sainte- 
Marthe. They published good editions of the Fathers (see 
above) and numerous valuable works, among which are 


“L’Antiquit6 Expliqu6e” (15 vols. fob, 1719-24), “Vete- 
ruin Scriptorum Spicilegium ” (13 vols., 1653-77), “Acta 
Sanctorum S. Benedicti ” (9 vols., 1688-1702), and “His- 
toire Litteraire de la France” (9 vols. 4to, 1733-49). The 
Cistercians, Carthusians, Camaldules, Clunians, Celestines, 
and Trappists were branches of the Benedictine order. In 
1870 the order numbered 3089 monks, in eight congrega¬ 
tions, two of which comprise the monasteries in the U. S. 
There are also Benedictine nuns, with twelve convents, in 
the U. S. (See “Annales Ordinis S. Benedicti,” 6 vols., 
1713-39; Tassin, “Histoire de la Congregation de St.- 
Maur,” 1770 ; Montalembert, “The Monks of the West,” 
5 vols., I860.)' 

BeiUedix (Julius Roderick), a German author, was 
born Jan. 21,1811. He has written many successful plays, 
among them, “ Bemoostes Haupt,” “ Der Steckbrief,” “ Der 
Stbrenfried,” “ Mathilde,” etc., and a novel, “ Bilder aus 
dem Schauspielerleben.” Died in 1873. 

Ben'efice [Lat. beneficiam, a “favor”], originally, a 
bounty in land given to a meritorious Roman soldier. In 
mediaeval history the term denoted an estate in land con¬ 
ferred by a superior by way of recompense for service. 
As late as the twelfth century the word was used synony¬ 
mously with foedum. The earlier historians of the Middle 
Ages adopted the view that benefices were given succes¬ 
sively, as revocable, as temporary, as estates for life, and 
finally as estates in perpetuity. This view has been refuted 
by Guizot (see “Civilization in France,” vol. iii.). In the 
canon law it designates a right inhering in a clergyman of 
sharing the income of church property in return for the per¬ 
formance of spiritual duties. The Roman Catholic Church 
includes all clerical offices, even the papal, among bene¬ 
fices ; but the Church of England, which long made the 
term include all preferments except bishoprics, now ex¬ 
cludes also all cathedral preferments, such as deaneries, 
cauonries, arch-deaconries, etc. 

Ben'efit of Cler'gy, in English criminal law, the priv¬ 
ilege of the clergy, a clerk’s privilege. During the Middle 
Ages benefit of clergy in various European countries ex¬ 
tended to a total exemption in favor of clergymen from 
the process of a secular judge in criminal cases. In Eng¬ 
land, however, it was not carried beyond an exemption 
from capital punishment in felony and petit treason. It 
was never granted in cases of high treason or offences be¬ 
low felonies. Offences were thus divided into those which 
were clergyable and not clergyable. This exemption, at 
first allowed only to clergymen, soon was extended to all 
the officers and clerks of the Church, and then to ,every 
one who could read, an ability to read being confined 
almost wholly to those in the service of the Church. But 
when learning became more generally diffused, a distinc¬ 
tion was made between those in orders and laymen who 
could read, the latter being allowed the privilege only 
once, and then (unless they were peers or peeresses) being 
branded in the left thumb. A woman, unless she was a 
peeress, could not claim this exemption, though this in¬ 
equality was rectified by statute. 

At first, the criminals who were allowed this privilege 
were handed over to the ordinary or bishop, to be dealt 
with according to the canons of the Church; but in the 
reign of Elizabeth it was enacted that they should be dis¬ 
charged from prison, with the proviso that the court might 
in its discretion keep the offender in prison for a year ; and 
by subsequent statutes various punishments, such as whip¬ 
ping, fine, and imprisonment, were imposed on criminals 
entitled to benefit of clergy, who were practically all con¬ 
victs. Whenever Parliament desired to make an offence 
strictly capital, the practice was to introduce into the en¬ 
actment the words “ without benefit of clergy.” By statute 
of 7 Geo. IV., c. 28, s. 6, benefit of clergy was abolished. 
Its retention for so long a time was plainly owing to the 
fact that it could be used to mitigate the rigor of the Eng¬ 
lish criminal law. (For fuller details as to the history and 
nature of this exemption, consult 4 Blackstone’s “ Com¬ 
mentaries,” 365.) T. W. Dwight. 

Be'neke (Friedrich Eduard), a German philosopher, 
born in Berlin Feb. 17, 1798. He became extraordinary 
professor of philosophy in the University of Berlin in 1832. 
Among his works are “Psychological Sketches” (2 vols., 
1825-27), a “System of Logic” (2 vols., 1842), and “Prag¬ 
matic Psychology” (1850). His system of psychology is 
called “ empirical.” He disappeared Mar. 1, 1854, and his 
body was found in a canal in June, 1855. 

B eneveiVto, a province of Italy, is bounded on the N. 
by Campobasso, on the E. by Foggia, on the S. by Avel- 
lino, and on tho W. by Caserta. Area, 676 square miles. 
The country i level, and the soil generally fertile. The 
chief articles f export are cattle, grain, wine, oil, etc. It 
has changed masters very often, and was annexed by Italy 
at the same time as Naples. Pop. in 1871, 231,914. 













BENEVENTO—BENI-11 ASSAN. 


457 


B enevento [Lat. Beneven'turn], a walled city of South¬ 
ern Italy, capital of the above province, is situated on 
a hill or declivity and on the river Galore, 33 miles N. E. 
of Naples. Pop. in 1872, 20,133. It has a citadel or 
castle, a line old cathedral, several palaces and churches. 
It is the see of an archbishop, and has several annual 
fairs. Among the many ancient remains found here is 
the magnificent Arch of Trajan, erected in 114 A. D., now 
nearly perfect. Beneventum was a place of great antiquity, 
having become a Roman town as early as 274 B. C., and it 
was an important city during the Roman empire. It was 
conquered in the sixth century by the Lombards, under 
whom it continued to flourish, and became the capital of 
the powerful duchy of Beneven to. The city, with some 
adjacent territory, was given to the pope in 1053. In 1806 
it was erected into a principality by Napoleon, who gave 
Talleyrand the title of prince of Benevento. 

Ben'ezet (Anthony), a French philanthropist, born at 
Saint-Quentin Jan. 31, 1713. He joined the Society of 
Friends, and emigrated in 1731 to Philadelphia, where he 
taught school for many years. He was eminent as an op¬ 
ponent of the slave-trade and slavery, and a benefactor of 
the negroes. He wrote several tracts on slavery and the 
slave-trade, etc. Died May 3, 1784. (See Vaux, “Memoir 
of A. Benezet,” 1817.) 

Ben'fey ( Tiieodou), born at Noertcn, near Gottingen, 
Jan. 28, 1809, became in 1834 professor of Sanscrit and 
comparative grammar at Gottingen. He has published, 
besides other valuable works, a “ Lexicon of Greek Roots” 
(1839-42), “The Cuneiform Inscriptions” (1847), “The 
Hymns of Sama-Veda” (1848), “The History of Oriental 
Philosophy in Germany” (1869), and a “ Sanscrit-English 
Dictionary.” 

Bengal', the largest and most important province of 
British India, is bounded on the N. by Nepaul and Bootan, 
on the E. by Burmah, on the S. by the Bay of Bengal, and 
on the W. by the North-western and the Central Provinces. 
It has an area of 200,724 square miles. The greater part 
of Bengal consists of the great alluvial plain or valley of 
the Ganges and Brahmapootra. The combined delta of 
these great rivers commences 280 miles from the sea, near 
which the delta-islands, here called Sunderbunds, are cov¬ 
ered with a very dense vegetation, and infested by serpents, 
crocodiles, and tigers. Farther N. the country is mar¬ 
vellously prolific of rice, cotton, opium, sugar, indigo, and 
a great variety of tropical fruits. The chief exports are 
opium, saltpetre, rice, hides, and indigo. The climate of 
Bengal is subject to great extremes of heat, and is very 
destructive to the health of both Europeans and natives, 
but in this respect great improvement is reported in the 
last few years. Pop. in 1871, 40,352,960. 

Among the most important cities of Bengal presidency 
are Calcutta, the capital, Delhi, Benares, Patna, Agra, and 
Moorshedabad. The people are Hindoos, Mohammedans, 
Sikhs, and various wild tribes in the hill-country. The na¬ 
tive Bengalese are a facile, deceitful, cowardly race. Their 
morals are much debased. The English first established 
themselves in Bengal in 1656. From the smallest begin¬ 
nings their great empire of the East has grown up. The 
Bengalese language has a basis of Sanscrit, but is modified 
by words of Arabic, Malay, and Persian origin. Its litera¬ 
ture has been much neglected till of late. 

Bengal, a post-township of Clinton co., Mich. P. 1086. 

Bengal, Bay of (anc. Gcinget'icus Si'nus), a part of 
the Indian Ocean extending between Hindostan and Far¬ 
ther India. Its southern boundary is variously placed by 
geographers, according to some of whom it is a line about 
1200 miles long, drawn from Coromandel to the peninsula 
of Malacca. Others assign as its southern limit a line 
drawn from the delta of the Godavery to Cape Negrais. 
Its chief affluents are the Gauges, the Brahmapootra, and 
the Irrawaddy. There are no good harbors on the western 
coast, but several safe ports occur on the E. side, at Aracan, 
Cheduba, Negrais, etc. The tide sometimes rises to the 
height of seventy feet in this bay. The north-east mon¬ 
soon prevails here in summer and the south-west monsoon 
in winter. In this bay are the Andaman and the Nicobar 
Islands. 

Bengal Light, or Blue Light, a brilliant signal- 
light used at sea during shipwreck, and in ordinary pyro- 
techny for illuminating a tract of country. It is produced 
by the combustion of a mixture of nitre, sulphur, and ter- 
sulphide of antimony. These materials are first reduced to 
a fine powder, then dried, and mixed in the proportions 
of 6 pounds of nitre, 2 of sulphur, and 1 of the tersulphide. 

Benga'zi, or Benghasy (anc. Bereni'ce), a seaport- 
town of Northern Africa and the capital of Barca, on the 
E. coast of the Gulf of Sidra, 420 miles E. S. L. of Tripoli. 
The port is shallow, and nearly filled with sand. It has 


some trade in oxen, sheep, corn, and wool. It is supposed 
by some to occupy the site of the ancient Hesperik and the 
Gardens of the Hesperides. Pop. estimated at from 6000 to 
7000. 

Beng'el (Johann Albrecht), D.D., a German Luther¬ 
an theologian, was born at Winnenden, in WUrtemberg, 
June 24, 1687. lie was probably the first Protestant who 
treated the exegesis of the New Testament in a thoroughly 
critical spirit. His edition of the Greek Testament (1734) 
is highly esteemed. He wrote, besides other works, the 
celebrated “Gnomon Novi Testamenti” (1742), and an 
“Exposition of the Revelation of St. John” (1740). Died 
Nov. 2, 1752. (See a “Memoir of the Life of J. A. 
Bengel,” translated from the German; also J. C. F. Burk, 
“Dr. J. A. Bengels Leben und Wirken,” 1831.) 

Bengue'Ia, a country of Western Africa, the limits 
of which cannot be accurately defined. It is bounded on 
the N. by the Coanza River, which separates it from An¬ 
gola, on the S. by Mossamedes, and on the W. by the At¬ 
lantic Ocean. It is watered by numerous rivers which flow 
westward into the Atlantic; none of which, however, are 
of great importance. The surface is mountainous. The 
soil is fertile, and produces a very luxuriant and varied 
vegetation. The climate is hot, humid, and unhealthy, 
especially near the coast. The forests are infested by lions 
and other beasts of prey. Bcnguela is nominally subject 
to Portugal. Capital, Sao Felipe de Bcnguela. 

Ben'ham (A. E. K.), U. S. N., born April 15, 1832, in 
Pennsylvania, entered the navy as a midshipman Nov. 24, 
1847, became a passed midshipman in 1853, a lieutenant 
in 1855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, and a commander 
in 1867. On Nov. 7, 1861, while attached to the steamer 
Bienville, he took part in the battle of Port Royal. From 
1863 to 1865 he commanded the steamer Penobscot, West¬ 
ern Gulf blockading squadron. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Benham (Gen. Henry W.) was born at Cheshire, 
Conn., graduated at West Point with the highest honors 
in 1837, entered the engineers, served in Mexico, and was 
wounded at Buena Vista. He was afterwards employed 
on the coast survey, and was superintendent of the con¬ 
struction of defensive works around New York City, Boston, 
etc. In 1861 he was made brigadier-general of volunteers, 
and in 1865 was brevetted major-general U. S. A. He holds 
since 1867 the rank of colonel of engineers. 

Beni, a river of South America, in Bolivia, rises on 
the E. slope of the Andes, and is formed by the junction 
of the Chuqueapo and Mapiri. It flows first northward 
and then north-eastward, and joins the Madeira or Ma- 
more near the N. boundary of Bolivia, after a course of 
about 650 miles. 

B eni, a department of Bolivia, is bounded on the N. 
and E. by Brazil, on the S. by La Paz, Cochabamba, and 
Santa Cruz, and on the W. by Peru. It comprises the 
whole northern part of the republic, and with the excep¬ 
tion of a small part in the S. W. corner, and a part of the 
province of Menos in the E., consists entirely of an un¬ 
known region, inhabited only by wild Indians. Chief 
town, Trinidad. Pop. 53,900, exclusive of the Indians, 
whose number is estimated at 100,000. 

Benicar'lo, a seaport-town of Spain, in the province 
of Valencia, on the Mediterranean, about 82 miles N. N. E. 
of Valencia. It is meanly built, and has a ruined castle 
and a fishing port. A strong wine is made here and ex¬ 
ported to Bordeaux, where it is used in “cooking” or adul¬ 
terating claret. Pop. 6989. 

Benic'ia, a post-village of Solano co., Cal., is on the 
N. side of the Strait of Carquinez (which connects San 
Pablo and Suisun bays), about 33 miles by water N. E. of 
San Francisco. It was formerly the capital of the State. 
The strait is nearly two miles wide, and is navigable for 
large vessels. Benicia has a law school, a U. S. arsenal 
and barracks, a ladies’ seminary, a convent, and important 
manufactures. It is the seat of St. Augustine College 
(Episcopalian). Hero are quarries of limestone, produ¬ 
cing good hydraulic cement, and the machine-shops and 
foundries of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. Pop. 
of township, 1656. 

Ben'i-IIas'san, a village of Central Egypt, on the 
right bank of the Nile, 23 miles S. S. E. of Minieh. Here are 
twenty-two grottoes or catacombs excavated in a calcareous 
bank or hill. They are supposed to have been used as tombs 
by the people of Hermopolis, which stood on the opposite 
side of the river. Here are apartments sixty feet long and 
forty feet wide, in which are pillars of the native rock six¬ 
teen feet eight and a half inches in height, and five loot 
in diameter. The sides of the grottoes are covered with 
paintings, designed with skill and good taste. These 
tombs are among the most remarkable in Egypt, lho 





















BENI KIIAIBIR—BENSON. 


458 


earliest bears the date of the forty-third year of Ositarscn 
I., not far from 1800 B. C. Says j. P. Thompson, “I found 
one tomb, some 200 feet above the level of the river, almost 
a Doric temple hewn from the solid rock. . . . This cham¬ 
ber was cut from the solid rock with perfect precision ; no 
modern square or line or plummet could make it more true.” 

Be'ni Khaibir', a tribe in Arabia, supposed by some, 
but without sufficient reason, to be a remnant of the ancient 
ascetic Recliabites. They number about 60,000. (See 
Rechabites.) 

IS enin', a kingdom of Western Africa, in Upper Guinea, 
is bounded on the N. E. and E. by the river Niger, on the 
S. W. by the Bay of Benin, and on the W. by Dahomey. 
Its limits in some directions are not well defined or ascer¬ 
tained. The interior is elevated and hilly, and mostly cov¬ 
ered with forests. The soil is fertile, and supports a dense 
population. Sugar, rice, yams, palm oil, and cotton are 
the staple productions. Many human victims are sacrificed 
here. The religion of the country is gross fetishism. 

B enin, a town of Africa, capital of the above, is on a 
river of the same name, which is one of the mouths of the 
Niger. It is about 55 miles from the ocean. The houses 
are built of clay. Pop. estimated at 15,000. Belzoni died 
in this town in 1823. 

Bcni-Sooef', or Beni-Sonef, a town of Central 
Egypt, on the Nile, 68 miles S. S. W. of Cairo. It has cot¬ 
ton-mills and quarries of alabaster, and is the entrepot of 
the produce of the fertile valley of Fayoom. Pop. 6000. 

B en'jamin, the youngest son of the patriarch Jacob 
and of Rachel (who called him Benoni). He was his father’s 
favorite child, and the head of one of the twelve tribes of 
Israel. The territory of this tribe was bounded on the N. 
by that of Ephraim, on the E. by the Jordan, on the S. by 
the land of Judah, and on the W. by that of Dan. After 
the death of Solomon the tribes of Benjamin and Judah 
remained loyal to his dynasty when the other ten tribes 
revolted. 

Benjamin (Judah Peter), an American politician of 
Jewish extraction, was born in Hayti in 1812. He prac¬ 
tised law in New Orleans, was elected a Senator of the U. S. 
for Louisiana in 1852, and re-elected in 1859. He acted 
with the Democrats, and became a secessionist. He was 
secretary of state of the Confederate States from Feb., 
1862, until the collapse of that power in 1865. Since the 
close of the civil war he has practised law in London, 
England. 

Benjamin (Park), an American poet, born at Dem- 
arara, in Guiana, Aug. 14, 1809. He graduated at Trinity 
College, Hartford, Conn., in 1829, and in 1840 became as¬ 
sociated with R. W. Griswold as editor of the “ New York 
World,” a literary journal. He wrote, besides many lyri¬ 
cal poems, a “ Poem on the Meditation of Nature.” Mr. 
Benjamin, though physically strong, was never able to 
walk. Died Sept. 12, 1864. 

Benjamin of Tudela, a Jewish rabbi and traveller, 
commenced about. 1160 a journey through Palestine, Persia, 
and Egypt, in which he passed about twelve years. He 
wrote an account of his travels, which was translated into 
Latin, English, and French. Died in 1173. (See Carmoly, 
“Notice sur B. de Tudele et ses Voyages,” 1837.) 

Benkoelen, or Bencoo'len, a Dutch seaport-town 
on the S. W. coast of Sumatra; lat. 3° 48' S., Ion. 102° 19' 
E. Pop. estimated at 5000. It was founded by the Eng¬ 
lish in 1685, but was ceded to Holland in 1825, in exchange 
for Malacca. The climate of the city is exceedingly un¬ 
healthy. Pepper is the chief article of export. 

B en'ner, a township of Centre co., Pa. Pop. 1362. 

B en'net Spring, a township of Barnwell co., S. C. 
Pop. 1742. 

B en'nett (James Gordon), a journalist, born in Banff¬ 
shire, Scotland, Sept. 1, 1795, and educated for the Roman 
Catholic priesthood, emigrated to the U. S. in 1819, was 
connected with several journals published in the city of 
New York, and was chief editor in 1833 of the “ Pennsyl¬ 
vanian,” a daily paper of Philadelphia. In 1835 he founded 
the “New York Herald,” which was very successful. He 
died June 1, 1872. 

Bennett (John Hughes), M. D., an eminent physician 
and medical writer of Edinburgh, was born in London in 
1812, took his degree at Edinburgh in 1837, and in 1848 
was made professor of the institutes of medicine in that 
city. Dr. Bennett is especially distinguished for his studies 
in histology and therapeutics, and his advocacy of the ex¬ 
pectant treatment of disease. Among his works are “ Clini¬ 
cal Medicine” (1856), “Practice of Medicine,” “Treat¬ 
ment of Pulmonary Consumption,” etc. 

Bennett (Milo Lyman), LL.D., was born in Sharon, 
Conn., in 1790, graduated at Yale in 1811, and studied law 


at Litchfield. He resided at Burlington, Vt., and was a 
judge in the Vermont courts (1839-59). lie published 
“Vermont Justice” and other legal works. Died July 7, 
1868. 

Bennett (Sir William Sterndale), Mus. Dr., I). C. L., 
an English composer and pianist, born at Sheffield April 
13, 1816. He visited Germany, and formed a friendship 
with Mendelssohn. He composed concertos, overtures, and 
pieces for the piano. He was knighted in 1871. 

Bennett’s Bayou, a post-township of Fulton co.. 
Ark. Pop. 427. 

B en'nettsville, a post-village, the capital of Marl¬ 
borough co., S. C., 90 miles E. N. E. of Columbia. It has 
one weekly newspaper. Pop. of township, 1736. 

Ben Ne'vis, a famous mountain of Scotland, and the 
highest point in Great Britain, is in the county of Inver¬ 
ness, about 5 miles E. of Loch Eil. It has an altitude of 
4406 feet, and is very difficult of ascent. On the N. E. 
side is a tremendous precipice 1500 feet in height. Gran¬ 
ite and gneiss form the base of this mountain, the upper 
part of which is porphyry. In clear weather most of the 
Western Islands and the mainland as far as Cairngorm and 
Ben Macdhui can be seen from the summit. 

Bennezette, a township of Butler co., Ia. Pop. 206. 

Bennezette, a township of Elk co., Pa. Poj:>. 902. 

B en'nigsen, von (Rudolf), a prominent German 
statesman, born at Liineburg in 1824, became in 1867 a 
member of the Hanoverian provincial diet and of the Prus¬ 
sian house of delegates, and second vice-president of the 
North German diet. 

B en'nington, a county which forms the S. W. ex¬ 
tremity of Vermont. Area, 700 square miles. It is 
drained by the Battenkill River, which rises within its 
limits. The surface is mostly mountainous or hilly, and 
extensively covered with forests. Quarries of white and 
gray marble are worked in this county, which is intersected 
by the Harlem Extension R. R. or Western Vermont R. R. 
Oats, corn, wool, potatoes, and maple-sugar are important 
products. Capitals, Bennington and Manchester. P.21,325. 

Bennington, a township of Marshall co., Ill. Pop. 

1020. 

Bennington, a township of Black Hawk co., Ia. Pop. 
654. 

Bennington, a post-township of Shiawassee co., Mich. 
Pop. 1424. 

Bennington, a township of Mower co., Minn. P. 257. 

Bennington, a post-township of Hillsborough co., 
N. H. It has manufactures of boots, shoes, paper, cutlery, 
casks, hoes, etc. Pop. 401. 

Bennington, a post-village and township of Wyom¬ 
ing co., N. Y., 26 miles E. S. E. of Buffalo. Pop. of the 
township, 2385. 

Bennington, a township of Licking co., 0. Pop. 907. 

Bennington, a post-township of Morrow co., 0. Pop. 
899. 

Bennington, the semi-capital of Bennington co., Vt., 
is on the Harlem extension division of the New York Bos¬ 
ton and Montreal R. R., 55 miles S. by W. of Rutland, and 
36 miles from the Hudson River at Troy. The town con¬ 
tains three villages—Bennington, North Bennington, and 
Bennington Centre—each of which has a separate post- 
office. Gen. Stark, at the head of a column of “ Green 
Mountain Boys,” defeated a British detachment in force, 
commanded by Col. Baum, sent from Gen. Burgoyne’s 
army to capture the public stores at Bennington, Aug. 16, 
1777,• 600 British prisoners were captured. The town 
contains nine churches, two extensive graded schools, two 
national banks, five large manufactories of knit goods, and 
one of the largest shawl factories in the country. Benning¬ 
ton Village is the largest manufacturing village in the 
State. It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 2501; total 
pop. of township, 5760. 

J. Halsey Cushman, Ed. “Banner.” 

Beno'na, a post-township of Oceana co., Mich. P. 637. 

Bensa'lem, a post-village and township of Bucks co., 
Pa., on the Philadelphia and Trenton R. R., 16 miles N. E. 
of Philadelphia. Pop. of township, 2353. 

B en'son, a post-village, capital of Swift co., Minn., is 
on the Chippewa River and on the St. Paul and Pacific 
R. R., 134 miles W. of St. Paul. Pop. of township, 628. 

B enson, a post-township of Hamilton co., N. Y. P. 320. 

Benson, a post-township of Rutland co., Vt. Pop. 1244. 

Benson (Egbert), LL.D., born in New York City 
June 21, 1746, graduated at Columbia College in 1795, was 
an eminent lawyer, a member of Congress (1784—88, 
1789-93, and 1813-15), a regent of tho university (1789- 













BENSON—BENTON. 


1802), judge of the supreme court of New York (1794-1801), 
and of the U. S. circuit court. Ho published a “ Vindica¬ 
tion ” of the captors of Andr6 (1817), and a “Memoir on 
Dutch Names” (1835). Died Aug. 24, 1833. 

Henson (Henry C.), D. D., an eminent preacher and 
writer in the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born near 
Xenia, 0., in 1815, joined the Indiana Conference in 1842, 
was elected professor of Greek in Indiana Asbury Univer¬ 
sity in 1850, went to California in 1852, was editor of the 
“Pacific Christian Advocate” at Portland, Or., from 1864 
to 1868, and elected editor of the “ California Advocate ” in 
1868, in which office ho still continues. He is author of 
“ Life among the Choctaws,” among whom ho labored 
some time as a missionary. 

Benson (Joseph), an English Methodist minister, born 
in Cumberland Jan. 25, 1748, acquired much influence in 
the Church. He was a popular preacher, and author of 
numerous works, among which are an “Apology for the 
Methodists” (1801), a “Life of the Rev. John Fletcher,” 
and a “ Commentary on the Holy Scriptures” (5 vols., 
1811-18), which is highly esteemed. Died Feb. 16, 1821. 

Bent, a county in the S. E. part of Colorado, bordering 
on Kansas. Area, 5040 square miles. It is intersected by 
the Arkansas River, and also drained by several creeks. 
The soil is adapted to grazing and tillage, and grain is 
successfully cultivated. Capital, Las Animas. Pop. 592. 

Bent Grass (Agros'tis), a genus of grasses comprising 
numerous species which are natives of Europe, the U. S., 
and many other countries. They have 1-flowered spikelets 
in a loose or open panicle, with glumes which are unequal, 
awnless, and longer than the palese. The upper (inner) 
palea is often wanting. Stamens mostly three. Some of 
the species are cultivated for pasture and for hay, on 
account of their adaptation to certain soils. The Agrostis 
vulgaris forms a principal part of the pasture in the more 
elevated districts of England, and resists drought better 
than some other grasses. It is considered suitable for 
lawns. It is called “herd’s grass” or “red top” in Penn¬ 
sylvania. The Agrostis alba, sometimes called “ marsh 
bent grass,” is valuable for pastime, and is common in 
England. It is also naturalized in some of the U. S. 
The Agrostis spica venti, a native of Europe, is a beautiful 
grass, with very slender branches of its panicle, which, 
waving in the wind, presents a glossy and silky appearance. 

Ben'tham (Jeremy), an English philosopher and re¬ 
former, eminent as a writer on ethics and jurisprudence, 
was born in London Feb. 15, 1748. He graduated at 
Queen’s College, Oxford, in 1766, studied law, and was 
called to the bar in 1772, but he never practised that pro¬ 
fession. He published in 1776 an acute and critical “ Frag¬ 
ment on Government,” which abounds in sound and original 
ideas, and in 1787 an exhaustive argument entitled a “De¬ 
fence of Usury.” His next important work was his “ Intro¬ 
duction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation ” (1789). 
He adopted the theory that “utility is the test aud measure 
of virtue,” and that laws should promote “the greatest 
happiness of the greatest number.” He devoted his time 
and talents chiefly to the reform of legislation and govern¬ 
ment, and advocated universal suffrage, the vote by ballot, 
etc. He inherited from his father an easy fortune. About 
1792 he formed a friendship and literary partnership with 
M. Dumont, who translated into French several of Ben- 
tham’s works—namely, “Treatise on Civil and Penal Legis¬ 
lation” (3 vols., 1802), and “Theory of Penalties and Re¬ 
wards” (1811). Among his other works are “ Panopticon” 
(1791), which treats on prison discipline, and “The Ra¬ 
tionale of Judicial Evidence” (5 vols., 1827). By habit¬ 
ual temperance, activity, and self-control he prolonged 
his life to the age of eighty-four. Died June 6, 1832. 
He has great merits in the English jurisprudence, “which,” 
as Macaulay says, “ he found a gibberish and left a sci¬ 
ence.” But on the public in general his influence was 
small, on account of the unreadableness of his writings. 
He represents French ideas, especially those of the 1 rench 
Revolution, and he is the real founder of the utilitarian 
school of philosophy. His works were more admired on 
the Continent than in England. (See “ Memoirs of Jeremy 
Bentham.” prefixed to his works by Dr. Bowring; John 
Hill Burton, “ Benthamiana Sir James Mackintosh, 
“ View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy ;” « Edin¬ 
burgh Review” for Oct., 1843.) 

Bentinck (William George Frederick Cavendish), 
Lord, commonly called Lord George Bentinck, born 
Feb. 27, 1802, was a third son of the fourth duke of Port¬ 
land. He became in 1826 private secretary to George 
Canning, who had married his aunt. He represented Lynn- 
ltegis in Parliament from 1827 until his death, and in 1835 
became a conservative and supporter ol Sir Robert Peel. 
He was much addicted to field-sports and horse-races. 


459 


After Peel adopted the policy of free trade in 1843, Lord 
George was recognized as the leader of the protectionist 
party, which opposed the repeal of the corn laws. He 
died suddenly Sept. 21, 1848. (See B. Disraeli, “Lord 
George Bentinck, a Political Biography,” 1851.) 

Bent'lcy, a township of Perry co., Ark. Pop. 345. 

Bentley (Richard), D. D., a celebrated English critic 
and classical scholar, born at Oulton, in Yorkshire, on the 
27th of Jan., 1662. He entered St. John’s College, Cam¬ 
bridge, in 1676, and having taken the degree of bachelor, 
became, in 1683, tutor to Dr. Stillingfleet’s son, with whom 
he went to Oxford. He was ordained a priest in 1690. In 
1692 he was appointed to deliver the Boyle lecture on the 
evidences of religion, and in 1694 became keeper of the 
Royal Library. He published in 1699 a celebrated “Dis¬ 
sertation on the Epistles of Phalaris,” which procured for 
him a European reputation. He maintained that these 
Epistles were spurious, and was involved in a controversy 
with Atterbury, Charles Boyle, Pope, and other writers, 
who resorted to sarcasm and personality. Bentley defended 
himself in another “Dissertation on the Epistles of Pha¬ 
laris” (1699). He was appointed master of Trinity Col¬ 
lege, Cambridge, in 1700, and married Joanna Bernard 
in 1701. In 1711 he published a good edition of Horace. 
His arrogance provoked a series of quarrels and litigations 
with the fellows of Trinity College. He was appointed 
regius professor of divinity in 1717, and was deprived of 
all his academic degrees and honors by the senate of the 
University in 1718, but he was reinstated by a mandamus 
of the court of king’s bench in 1724. Among his produc¬ 
tions was an edition of Homer, which he left unfinished. 
He proposed to revise and correct the text of the Greek 
Testament by comparing it with all the manuscripts. He 
failed to perform this task, but his principles of criticism 
have since been adopted, and have triumphed over all 
opposition. He died July 14, 1742. His daughter was 
the mother of Richard Cumberland, the dramatist. (See 
Monk, “Life of R. Bentley,” 1830; Hartley Coleridge, 
“Lives of Distinguished Northerns;” “Edinburgh Re¬ 
view” for July, 1830.) 

Ben'ton, a county which forms the N. AY. extremity of 
Arkansas. Area, 900 square miles. It is drained by the 
Illinois and AVhite rivers and several creeks, which afford 
water-power. It has great but undeveloped mineral 
wealth. Tobacco and corn are the chief crops. The soil 
is fertile. Capital, Bentonville. Pop. 13,831. 

Benton, a county of Indiana, bordering on Illinois. 
Area, 414 square miles. It is drained by Pine and Sugar 
creeks. The greater part of the county is an undulating 
prairie, the soil of which is fertile. Grain and wool are the 
chief products. Capital, Oxford. Pop. 5615. 

Benton, a county in E. Central Iowa. Area, 720 
square miles. It is traversed by the Cedar River, and also 
drained by Prairie Creek. It contains extensive prairies, 
the land of which is fertile. Cattle, corn, wheat, and wool 
are largely raised. The Iowa division of the Chicago and 
North-western R. R. passes through this county. Capital, 
Vinton. Pop. 22,454. 

Benton, a county in Central Minnesota. Area, 400 
square miles. It is bounded on the AY. by the Mississippi 
River, and also drained by the Elk River. The surface is 
undulating; the soil in some parts is fertile. AYheat, corn, 
and oats are the chief crops. A railroad has been opened 
from St. Paul to Sauk Rapids, which is the county-seat. 
Pop. 1558. 

Benton, a county of Mississippi, bordering on Ten¬ 
nessee, was organized since the census of 1870. The Talla- 
hatchee River bounds it on the S. AY. The soil is fertile. 
Cotton is extensively raised. The Mississippi Central 
R. R. traverses the AY. part. Capital, Ashland. 

Benton, a county in AY. Central Missouri. Area, 730 
square miles. It is intersected by the Osage River, which 
flows eastward, and is also drained by the Grand River. 
The surface is moderately diversified; the soil is produc¬ 
tive. Tobacco, grain, and wool are the chief products. Lead 
is found in this county. Capital, AVarsaw. Pop. 11,322. 

Benton, a county of Oregon. Area, 1556 square miles. 
It is bounded on the E. by the AVillamette River, and on 
the AY. by the Pacific Ocean. It is drained by the Alsoya 
and Yaquina rivers. The Coast Range of mountains ex¬ 
tends through the central part of the county. AYheat, oats, 
fruit, and wool are important products. Capital, Corvallis. 
Pop. 4584. 

Benton, a county of Tennessee. Area, 400 square 
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Tennessee River, 
navigable for steamboats, and on the N. AV. by the Big 
Sandy River. The soil is productive. Corn, tobacco, aud 
wool are tho staplo products. The county is intersected by 











460 


BENTON—BENT TIMBER. 


Capital, Camden. 


the Nashville and North-western R. 1 
Pop. 8234. 

Benton, a post-village of Lowndes co., Ala., on the 
Alabama River, and on the railroad connecting Selma and 
Montgomery, 31 miles W. of Montgomery. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 2627. 

Benton, a township of Conway co., Ark. Pop. 583. 
Benton, a township of Fulton co., Ark. Poji. 461. 

Benton, a post-village, capital of Saline co., Ark., is 25 
miles S. W. of Little Rock. 

Benton, a post-township of Mono co., Cal. Pop. 91. 
Benton, the capital of Franklin co., Ill., 77 miles N. N. 
E. of Cairo, has 3 churches, 1 high school, 1 law library, 1 
printing-office, 1 weekly paper, 1 manufactory of agricul¬ 
tural implements, 1 carriage-shop, 1 saddle and harness 
manufactory, 2 steam flouring mills, numerous stores, 2 
hotels, an exchange bank, a county court-house, and a jail. 
Pop. 615. J. S. Barr, Pub. “ Benton Standard.” 

Benton, a township of Lake co., Ill. Pop. 640. 
Benton, a post-township of Elkhart co., Ind. P. 1188. 
Benton, a township of Monroe co., Ind. Pop. 867. 
Benton, a township of Benton co., Ia. Pop. 601. 
Benton, a township of Des Moines co., Ia. Pop. 1192. 
Benton, a township of Fremont co., Ia. Pop. 904. 
Benton, a township of Keokuk co., Ia. Pop. 1309. 
Benton, a township of Lucas co., Ia. Pop. 696. 
Benton, a township of Ringgold co., Ia. Pop. 367. 
Benton, a township of Taylor co., Ia. Pop. 1055. 
Benton, a township of Wayne co., Ia. Pop. 852. 
Benton, a jiost-village, capital of Marshall co., Ken., 
on Clark’s River, about 270 miles W. S. W. of Frankfort. 

Benton, a post-township of Kennebec co., Me. It has 
manufactures of lumber. Pop. 1180. 

Benton, a township of Berrien co., Mich. Pop. 3116. 
Benton, a township of Eaton co., Mich. Pop. 1355. 
Benton, a post-township of Carver co., Minn. P. 1297. 
Benton, a township of Adair co., Mo. Pop. 3369. 
Benton, a township of Atchison co., Mo. Pop. 680. 
Benton, a township of Cedar co., Mo. Pop. 1130. 
Benton, a township of Christian co., Mo. Pop. 527. 
Benton, a township of Crawford co., Mo. Pop. 1184. 
Benton, a township of Dallas co., Mo. Pop. 2055. 
Benton, a township of Daviess co., Mo. Pop. 1199. 
Benton, a township of Douglas co., Mo. Pop. 379. 
Benton, a township of Holt co., Mo. Pop. 2226. 
Benton, a township of Howell co., Mo. Pop. 809. 
Benton, a township of Knox co., Mo. Pop. 1602. 
Benton, a township of Linn co., Mo. Pop. 696. 
Benton, a township of Newton co., Mo. Pop. 968. 
Benton, a township of Osage co., Mo. Pop. 2513. 
Benton, a township of Polk co., Mo. Pop. 1650. 
Benton, a township of Wayne co., Mo. Pop. 1291. 
Benton, a township of Webster co., Mo. Pop. 768. 
Benton, a township of Nemaha co., Neb. Pop. 456. 
Benton, a post-township of Grafton co., N. 11. It has 
manufactures of lumber, etc. Pop. 375. 

Benton, a post-township of Yates co., N. Y., includes 
a part of the village of Penn Yan. Pop. 2422. 

Benton, a township of Hocking co., 0. Pop. 1448. 
Benton, a township of Monroe co., 0. Pop. 987. 
Benton, a township of Ottawa co., 0. Pop. 1152. 
Benton, a township of Paulding co., 0. Pop. 404. 
Benton, a township of Pike co., 0. Pop. 1119. 
Benton, a post-township of Columbia co., Pa. P. 1053. 
Benton, a township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 1055. 

Benton, a small post-village, capital of Polk co., Tenn., 
is about 75 miles S. S. W. of Knoxville. Pop. 250. 

Benton, a post-village of Lafayette co., Wis., is 13 
miles N. of Galena, and in Benton township. Rich mines 
of lead are worked here. Pop. of township, 1723. 

Benton (James G.), an American officer, born in 1820 
in New Hampshire, graduated at West Point in 1842 ; major 
of ordnance Sept. 15, 1863. He served at various arsenals 
and on special duties 1842-57, as member of the ordnance 
board 1854-56, at Military Academy as instructor of ord¬ 
nance and gunnery 1857-61. In the civil war he was an 
assistant in the ordnance bureau at Washington 1861-63, in 
command of Washington Arsenal till June 14, 1864, and 
since of Springfield Armory, Mass. Brevet lieutenant- 


colonel and colonel Mar. 13,1865, for faithful and meritori¬ 
ous services in the ordnance department. He is author 
of “ A Course of Instruction in Ordnance and Gunnery for 
the use of the Cadets of the U. S. Military Academy ” (1860). 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Benton (Thomas Hart), an American Senator and 
statesman, born near Hillsborough, N. C., Mar. 14, 1782. 
He removed to Tennessee, studied law, and began to prac¬ 
tise at Nashville about 1810. In the war of 1812 he served 
as colonel under Gen. Jackson. He became a resident of 
St. Louis, Mo., in 1815, and was elected a Senator of the 
U. S. for Missouri in 1820. Having been re-elected in 1826, 
he supported Gen. Jackson, opposed the U. S. Bank, and 
advocated a gold and silver currency, for which reason he 
was often called “ Old Bullion.” For many years he was 
the most prominent public man of Missouri. He was a 
member of the national Senate for 30 years, and opposed 
the extreme State Rights policy of Calhoun. In 1852 he 
was elected to the House of Representatives, in which he 
opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. He was 
opposed by a powerful party of State Rights Democrats in 
Missouri, who defeated him as a candidate for governor in 
1856. He published a “ Thirty Years’ View, or a History 
of the Working of the American Government for Thirty 
Years, 1820-50 ” (2 vols., 1854-56). Died April 10, 1858^ 

Ben'ton Ilar'bor, a post-village of Berrien co., Mich., 
is on the E. side of St. Joseph’s River and the Benton 
Harbor ship canal, 1£ miles from Lake Michigan, in Ben¬ 
ton township, and about 60 miles E. by N. from Chicago. 
It is on the Chicago and Michigan Lake Shore and Elk¬ 
hart and Lake Michigan R. Rs. It has one weekly paper, 
a large trade in grain and lumber, and an immense one in 
fruit, large manufactories of fruit packages, washboards, 
and canned fruit, and an undevelojied water-power. Reg¬ 
ular lines of steamers and sailing vessels connect it with 
Chicago and Milwaukee. Pop. 661 ; of Benton township, 
3116. Alvin Sturtevant, 

Ed. of “ Benton Harbor Palladium.” 

Ben'tonsville, a post-village of Johnston co., N. C., 
in a township of its own name, about 17 miles W. of 
Goldsboro’. After the battle of Averysboro’ (Mar. 16, 
1S65) the army of Gen. Sherman marched towards Golds- 
boio , not anticipating any further contest before reaching 
that destination ; but Gen. Johnston, who had been con¬ 
centrating the Confederate forces from Georgia, South 
Carolina, and Tennessee at Smithfield, N. C. (now amount¬ 
ing to 40,000), slipped out at night in light marching order, 
expecting to fall upon the left wing of Sherman’s army, 
under Gen. Slocum, and crush it before support could reach 
him. . Gen. Slocum was at first driven back, but hastily 
throwing up rifle-pits, assumed the defensive, Kilpatrick 
with his cavalry supporting his left. Six assaults were 
made by Johnston, which failed to dislodge the veterans 
of Slocum from their position, while the artillery fire upon 
the Confederates was very damaging. Night caused a 
cessation, Gen. Slocum still holding his ground. By morn¬ 
ing of the next day the right wing had arrived to Slocum’s 
aid, and Johnston’s army had intrenched itself in a strong 
position. An attempt was made to cut off the line of the 
Confedeiates retreat, but Johnston hastily retreated dur¬ 
ing the night of Mar. 21 on Smithfield and Raleigh. The 
Fedeial loss was upwards of 1600, killed and wounded j the 
Confederate loss is not known : 267 dead, however, were 
left on the field, and 1600 prisoners were taken. Pod. of 
township, 922. 1 

Ben'tonville, a post-village, the capital of Benton 
co., Ark., liO miles N. W. of Little Rock. It has an ac- 
ti\ e trade in tobacco, and has several manufactories. 

Bentonville, a post-village of Sprigg township, 
Adams co., O. Pop. 310. 1 

Bent Timber. Of late years much attention has been 
paid to the subject of bent timber on account of its strength 
and economy. This operation is effected either by bonding 
the timber whole or by bending it in planks, which are then 
put, together in pieces of any required thickness: both of 
them have been used for ship- and for bridge-building, 
iv hen timber is bent whole, the requisite curvature is o-iven 
by steaming the beam and weighing down the side intended 
to receive the curvature; but the objection to this plan is, 
that steaming is apt to impair the durability of the wood 
and the radius of curvature must be always very flat. It 
was to avoid these objections that the system was intro¬ 
duced of cutting the logs into planks, and bending them 
to the required curvature, as is often done in railway- 
,ridges and station-roofs. It has been found that the tim- 
ier so bent remains sufficiently elastic to admit of con- 
siderab e movement under the weight of a train, and con¬ 
sequently opens at the joints and allows water to act upon 
tho interior. Many bridges where these beams have been 



























BENUE—BERBERIDACEiE. 461 


used have decayed ; but in sheltered positions they have 
stood admirably. It is to be observed that bent planks 
retain a much greater degree of elasticity than the whole 
timber so managed, and that they are also more likely to 
retain the original strength of the wood itself. (See Emy, 
“Sur la Charpenterie.”) Bent timber was formerly much 
used in shipbuilding in the form of natural-grown timber, 
but its use is becoming more and more rare, on account of 
the difficulty of obtaining natural-growth wood for that 
purpose. 

Benu'e (i. e. “ the mother of waters ”), a large river of 
Central Africa, is the principal tributary of the Niger or 
Quorra. Its source has not been explored. It flows nearly 
westward through Sokoto, and enters the Niger at Lokoya, 
which is about 300 miles from the mouth of the Niger. 
Dr. Barth in 1851 crossed it near Ion. 12° 30' E., and found 
it there about 800 yards wide. Dr. Baikie in 1850 ascended 
the Benue to Dulti or Dolti, which is aboyt 400 miles from 
its mouth. A second expedition to explore this river was 
undertaken by Dr. Baikie in 1861. In 1867, Gerhard Rohlfs 
travelled up this river from Dagbo to its entrance into the 
Niger at Lokoya, a distance of about 150 miles. 

Ken Wade, a township of Pope co., Minn. Pop. 240. 

B en'zamide, C 7 H 7 NO = N.C 7 II 5 O.H 2 , a primary amide 
obtained in beautiful white crystals by several different 
processes. 

Benzene. See Benzole. 

Ben'zidine, Ci 2 lIi 2 N 2 == N 2 .(Ci 2 H 8 )''.Il 4 , an organic 
base, diamine, formed by the reduction of azobenzene or 
azoxybenzene. 

Ben' zie, a county in North-west Michigan. Area, 440 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. and W. by Lake 
Michigan, and drained by the Bctsie River. Wheat, corn, 
potatoes, and maple-sugar are the staple crojis. Capital, 
Benzonia. Pop. 2184. 

Ben'zinger, a township of Elk co., Pa. Pop. 1630. 

Benzine. See Benzole. 

Benzo'ic Acid, or Flowers of Benzoin, a sub¬ 
stance which exists in many balsams and is obtained from 
benzoin. It is artificially made on a large scale from naph¬ 
thaline and the urine of animals. It occurs in the form of 
snow-white acicular or feathery crystals, and has a pleasant 
aromatic odor. It is readily soluble in alcohol and ether, 
and is one of the ingredients of elixir paregoric (Tinctura 
camphorse compositn). Combined with oxide of zinc, it is a 
most valuable application in many cases of eczema. It is 
also used in the arts for various purposes. The chemical 
formula of this acid is H.C 7 H 5 O 2 . 

Benzoin', or Ben'jamin, Gum [Lat. benzoi'nnm], a 
fragrant resinous substance, is the concrete juice of a tree 
called Styrax benzoin, which is a native of Sumatra, Siam, 
and Borneo, and belongs to the natural order Styracace,® 
(which see). The resin is obtained by making incisions in 
the bark of trees which are cultivated for that purpose. It 
is extensively used as incense in Roman Catholic and Greek 
churches; is also used in perfumery, and in medicine as a 
stimulant, emetic, and styptic. A tincture of benzoin is 
sometimes applied to wounds, and is employed in making 
a cosmetic called virgin’s milk. 

Benzo'in Odorif'erum, a shrub more correctly called 
Lindera Benzoin, of the natural order Lauraceae, a native 
of the U. S., popularly called Benjamin tree, spice bush, 
etc. Its bark is aromatic, stimulant, and tonic, and has 
been used as a remedy for intermittent fevers. 

Ben'zole, Benzene, Hydride of Phenyl, or 
Phene (symbol CeHe), a compound of carbon and hydro¬ 
gen, is a product obtained by the distillation of coal or 
coal-tar. It can also be obtained by subjecting oil-gas 
(carburetted hydrogen) to a pressure of thirty atmospheres, 
by passing the vapor of benzoic acid through a red-hot 
iron tube, by the dry distillation of kinic acid, or by dis¬ 
tilling benzoic acid with lime. It is usually obtained from 
the light oil of coal-tar, coal-tar naphtha, by fractional dis¬ 
tillation, and purification with nitric and sulphuric acids. 
Commercial benzole usually contains considerable quan¬ 
tities of the homologous hydrocarbons toluole, C 7 H 8 , xylol, 
CsHio, etc. It is prepared on a large scale for the man¬ 
ufacture of nitrobenzole, aniline, and aniline colors, and 
for “ carbonizing” coal-gas. Benzole may be produced 
synthetically by heating acetylene, C 2 H 2 , to a temperature a 
little below redness. At ordinary temperatures benzole is 
a thin, limpid, colorless, and volatile liquid, emitting a 
characteristic ethereal odor. Its specific gravity is 0.85 at 
60° F.; its boiling-point is 179.6° F. At 37° F. it becomes 
solid, or crystallizes into beautiful transparent crystals of 
fern-like forms. It is not soluble in water, but dissolves 
readily in alcohol, ether, and turpentine. It is valuable to 
the chemist as a powerful solvent of caoutchouc, gutta¬ 


percha, wax, and fatty substances. It is inflammable, and 
possesses great illuminating power, which it imparts to 
gases, and even to atmospheric air, when they are passed 
through it. With chlorine, bromine, nitric acid, etc., ben¬ 
zole forms interesting substitution products, the most im¬ 
portant of which is nitrobenzole or essence of mirbane, 
O 6 H 5 NO 2 . (See Tar.) C. F. Chandler. 

Benzo'nia, a post-village and capital of Benzie co., 
Mich., on Bctsie River, 5 miles from Frankfort. It is the 
seat of Grand Traverse College, and has one weekly paper, 
one church, and a park. Pop. of Benzonia township, 214. 

J. A. Pettit <fc Co., Eds. “ Benzie County Journal.” 

Benzoyl', C 7 II 5 O, the hypothetical radical which is sup¬ 
posed to exist in benzoic acid and many kindred bodies. 
Oil of bitter almonds is supposed to be its hydride. 

Ben'zyl, Tolyl, or Toluenyl, C 7 II 7 , a hypothetical 
radical, isomeric with cresyl, which is contained in benzylic 
alcohol, toluol (C 7 II 8 = C 7 II 7 .H), etc. 

Benzylamine, C 7 H 9 N = N.C 7 II 7 .H 2 . (See Toluidine.) 

Be owulf', the title of a celebrated Anglo-Saxon poem, 
written not later than the eighth century, and having for its 
subject a semi-fabulous hero of Denmark. An English 
translation of it appeared in London in 1833. 

Beranger, tie (Jean Pierre), an eminent French 
lyric poet, born in Paris Aug. 19, 1780. He passed 
about three years as an apprentice to a printer, and never 
received a very liberal education. He was neglected by his 
father, and spent many of his early years with an aunt, 
who imbued his mind with virtuous and republican princi¬ 
ples. His first essays in verse, which were written under 
the pressure of poverty, obtained for him in 1804 the pat¬ 
ronage of Lucien Bonaparte. He was employed for nearly 
twelve years as a clerk or subordinate secretary in the Uni¬ 
versity of Paris. He published in 1815 a volume of songs 
which became very popular. Some of his verses were 
political, and contained satirical passages which were offen¬ 
sive to the royalists, then the party in power. Having pro¬ 
duced another volume of poems in 1821, he was prosecuted 
and sentenced to an imprisonment for three months. This 
increased the popularity of his songs, and failed to restrain 
the freedom of his satire or abate the ardor of his republi¬ 
canism. He published in 1828 a fourth volume, for which 
he was sentenced to pay a fine of 10,000 francs and to be 
imprisoned for nine months. When his friends obtained 
power by the revolution of 1830, they offered him lucrative 
places, which he declined. He never published any poems 
after 1833, the date of his fifth volume. He rejected all the 
favors and overtures of Napoleon III. Died July 16,1857. 
His character was noble and independent. In his poems 
gayety and pathos are combined with the happiest effect. 
“His style,” says a French critic, “has a limpidity and 
purity which defy criticism.” (See his autobiographic 
memoirs, “ Ma Biographie,” 1857; Savinien Lapointe, 
“ Memoires sur Beranger,” 1857 ; Longfellow, “ Poets and 
Poetry of Europe.”) 

Berard (Claudius), an eminent educator, born at Bor¬ 
deaux, France, Mar. 21, 1786. In 1807 he emigrated to 
the U. S., anti in 1812 was appointed a professor at Dick¬ 
inson College, Carlisle, Pa. In 1815 he accepted an ap¬ 
pointment as teacher in French at the U. S. Military Acad¬ 
emy at West Point, which position he held till 1846, when 
under a law of Congress (1846) he was made professor, 
continuing in this capacity till his death, May 6 , 1848. 

Berat', a town of European Turkey, in Albania, on the 
river Ergent, here crossed by a bridge, 30 miles N. E. of 
Avlona. It contains a citadel, several Greek churches, and 
a number of mosques. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop. 
The population is estimated at 10,000, a majority of whom 
are Greeks. 

Ber'ber, or El Mesherif, a town of Nubia, on the 
Nile. Roads lead from here to Egypt and Khartum. It 
has considerable trade. Pop., according to Heuglin, 45,000. 

B er'bera, a seaport station of Eastern Africa, in So- 
mauli, is on the Gulf of Aden, 130 miles E. S. E. of Zeyla. 
Here is held an annual fair, which is attended by 100,000 
persons from various foreign countries. They bring coffee, 
gold-dust, ivory, slaves, cattle, etc. to exchange for cotton, 
rice, and Indian piece-goods. It appears that Berbera has 
scarcely any permanent population. The fair begins in 
November, and continues nearly six months. 

Berberida'ceae, a natural order of exogenous plants, 
comprises more than 100 known species, one of which is 
the barberry ( Berberis). They are natives of the temper¬ 
ate regions of both hemispheres. They have alternate 
leaves, and hypogynous stamens which are equal in num¬ 
ber to the petals, with anthers opening curiously by valves 
or lids hinged at the top. The pistil is single; the fruit is 
a berry or a capsule. (See Barberry.) 




















462 BERBERINE 


Bcr'berine, C 20 II 17 NO 4 , an alkaloid contained in the 
roots of the barberry {Herberts vulgaris), of columbo {Coc- 
culus palmatus ), and Menispermum fenestratum, and in a 
yellow bark used as a dye in West Africa. 

B er'bers [supposed by some writers to be derived from 
the word Barbari, which the Greeks and Romans applied to 
all foreigners], a name given to the uncivilized, nomadic 
tribes of aborigines who inhabit the mountainous regions 
of Barbary and the northern part of the Desert of Sahara. 
They are sometimes called Kabyles, but they call them¬ 
selves Amazeergh, Amazigh, or Amoshagh. They are the 
descendants of the aboriginal or ancient inhabitants of 
Northern Africa, who occupied the country before it was 
conquered by the Arabs, and they are the most numerous 
part of the present population. The Berbers vary in com¬ 
plexion with situation. Those who inhabit the high valleys 
of the Atlas have light hair and eyes, while those who oc¬ 
cupy the oases of the Sahara are dark, approaching the 
negroes in complexion, though their features are entirely 
unlike theirs. Their language is allied to the Semitic in 
type, and has received from F. W. Newman the name of 
sub-Semitic. Language, customs, and physical type seem 
to indicate affiliation with the Semitic races of Asia and 
Eastern Africa. They are warlike, cruel, and very tenacious 
of their independence. In religion they are bigoted Mo¬ 
hammedans. They keep cattle and sheep, cultivate fruit 
trees, and practise agriculture in a rude manner. Many 
of them live in tents or in clay huts. 

B er'chem, a town of Belgium, in the province of Ant¬ 
werp. It has factories of linen and tobacco. Pop. 5229. 

Bcrdiansk', written also Berdjansk, a seaport-town 
of Russia, in the government of Taurida, is on the N. shore 
of the Sea of Azof, 184- miles N. E. of Simferopol. It has 
a good roadstead and an active trade, and has been remark¬ 
able for its rapid growth. It derives its prosperity partly 
from the coal-mines and salt-lakes of the vicinity. Pop. in 
1867, 12,465. 

BerditcheP, or Bcrditschev, a town of Russia, in 
the province of Kiev, 194 miles N. W. of Elisabetgrad. It 
is meanly built, but is an important commercial town, hav¬ 
ing four annual fairs, held between Aug. 15 and Sept. 15. 
The value of the goods, cattle, corn, wine, etc. sold here 
annually is estimated at $3,000,000. Pop. in 1867, 52,786, 
mostly Jews. 

Be'rea, a manufacturing village of Cuyahoga co., 0., on 
the Cleveland Columbus Cincinnati and Indianapolis and 
Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. Rs., 12 miles S. W. 
of Cleveland. It is noted for its inexhaustible quarries of 
excellent sandstone, and ships 20,000 car-loads of building- 
stone and grindstones yearly. It has two banks and one 
newspaper, and is the seat of Baldwin University, a bibli¬ 
cal school, etc. Pop. 1628. 

P. B. Gardner, Ed. “ Grindstone City Advertiser.” 

B erea College is beautifully situated in the southern 
part of Madison co., Ky., 40 miles S. of Lexington and 
140 from Cincinnati, very near the centre of the State. It 
originated in the labors of Rev. John G. Fee, a native of 
Kentucky, in the employment of the American Missionary 
Association. Mr. Fee was the son of a slaveholder, but 
earnestly embraced the anti-slavery cause while pursuing 
theology at Lane Seminary, and, disowned by his father 
and his Church, devoted his life to the salvation of his na¬ 
tive State. The school, like its founder, was always noted 
for its abolitionism ; yet, though its teachers were generally 
from Oberlin, its pupils were often the sons and daughters 
of slaveholders. Under the administration of Rev. J. A. R. 
Rogers the institution became widely known and popular, 
and its influence began to be feared. The John Brown 
raid gave occasion for its enemies to rally, and a county 
meeting sent a committee of sixty-five armed men to re¬ 
move the school and its officers from the State. At the 
close of the war it was immediately revived, and for the 
last three years its annual average of students has been 
270. These students represent thirty-eight towns and cities 
of Kentucky and eleven other States, as the last catalogue 
reports. Of these 18 are in the four college classes, 7 in 
the ladies’ course, 16 in the normal course, and 43 in the 
preparatory department. The most are in lower depart¬ 
ments. About three-fifths of the students are males, and 
nearly the same proportion colored. In the four higher 
departments the white and colored are almost equal—41 and 
43. This impartial character of the school causes no col¬ 
lisions among the students, and only disturbs those who 
have no responsibility in regard to it. They generally ac¬ 
quiesce in silence. The commencement occurs .on the first 
Wednesday of July. Its first senior class of three young 
men, all Kentuckians and all white, graduates this year 
(1873). A single lady finishes the ladies’ course. The 
course of study is the same as in other regular colleges, 


BERESFORD. 


and the grade of scholarship as high as in young colleges 
generally. 

The present president, Rev. E. II. Fairchild, is the first. 
He commenced his labors in the spring of 1869. Rev. J. 
A. R. Rogers, professor of Greek; Henry F. Clark, A. M., 
professor of Latin ; Albert A. Wright, A. M., professor of 
chemistry, etc.; Henry It. Chittenden, A. B., principal of 
the preparatory department; Mrs. Juliet C. Clark, princi¬ 
pal ladies’ department. Five other young ladies are em¬ 
ployed as teachers, principally in the lower departments. 
There are fourteen trustees, and a ladies’ board of six. The 
property of the college consists of 490 acres of land, esti¬ 
mated at $20,000; Howard Hall, a very nice dormitory 
building for young men, constructed of wood with tin roof, 
$18,000; the new ladies’ hall, nearly completed, of brick, 
with rooms for 110 ladies, $50,000; other temporary build¬ 
ings, $2500; and endowments to the amount of $23,000. 
Deduct from this the debts of the college, and the amount 
necessary to complete the ladies’ hall, and the balance is 
about $95,000. Tuition is very low—$2.50 and $3.50 per 
quarter. The current expenses of the college, over $8000 
per annum, are about half paid by benevolent friends. The 
American Missionary Association sustains the professor of 
Greek and three ladies in part. Future prospects are en¬ 
couraging. E. H. Fairchild. 

Bere'ans, an obscure sect seceding from the Established 
Church in Scotland, founded by one Barclay in 1773. They 
take their name from Acts xviii. 11, deny natural the¬ 
ology, make all the Psalms Messianic, and hold assurance 
to be of the essence of faith. Their numbers are small and 
diminishing. 

Beregh, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. E. 
by Galicia, on the E. by the county of Marmaras, on the S. 
by the counties of Ugocsa and Szatmar, on the W. by the 
county of Szabolcs, and on the N. W. by the county of 
Ungvear. Area, 1440 square miles. The country is mostly 
mountainous, and produces wine. Pop. in 1869, 159,223. 
Chief town, Munkacs. 

Beregszasz, a town of Hungary, in the county of 
Beregh, has large vineyards and quarries. Pop. in 1S70, 
6272. 

Beren'gelite, or Berenge'la Resin, a bituminous 
mineral found in a kind of pitch lake in Peru. {Phil. Mag. 
[3] xiii., 329; xiv., 87.) 

Berenger [Lat. Berenga'rius ] of Tours, an eminent 
French scholastic theologian, born at Tours in 998. He 
studied under Fulbert of Chartres, and became archdeacon 
of Angers in 1040. He rejected the dogma of transubstan- 
tiation, and was excommunicated in 1050 for heresy by Pope 
Leo IX. He was compelled to recant or abjure his error, 
but afterwards relapsed, or continued to oppose the doc¬ 
trines of the Church. Died in 1088. (See Heinrich Mul¬ 
ler, “ Berengarii veteris novique Historia,” 1674; II. Su- 
dendorf, “ Berengarius Turonensis,” etc., 1850.) 

Berenger (Alphonse Marie Marcellin Thomas, de 
la Drome), a French jurist, born May 31, 1785, exposed 
the irregularities in the French courts in “ De la justice 
criminelle” (1818). He has written various treatises on 
the reform of penal law, a “ Rapport sur le systeme peni- 
tentiare” (1836), and has labored to that end as magistrate 
and in the Chamber of Peers. 

Berenice, a daughter of Magas, governor of Cyrcnc, 
was married to Ptolemy Euergetes, king of Egypt. Dur¬ 
ing his absence on a military expedition she made a vow 
to sacrifice her hair to Venus for his safe return, which vow 
she performed. The astronomer Conon reported that Jupi¬ 
ter had transformed this hair into the constellation now 
called Coma Berenices (“Berenice’s Hair”). She was put 
to death by her son, Ptolemy Pliilopator, in 222 B. C. (See 
Carl W. Ramler, “Ptolemaus und Berenice,” 1765.) 

Berenice (called Bernice in the New Testament), a 
daughter of Agrippa I., king of Judea, was born in 28 A. D. 
She was married to Herod, king of Chalcis, and after his 
death to Polemon, king of Cilicia. During a visit to Rome 
she captivated Titus, the son of the emperor Vespasian. 
She was a sister of King Agrippa, before whom Saint Paul 
spoke in his own defence. (See Acts xxv.) 

Berenice, an ancient city of Egypt, on the Red Sea, 
20 miles S. W. of Ras Bernass. It was founded by Ptole¬ 
my Philadelphus, who named it after his mother, and was 
a great emporium of the trade with India. The modern 
name is Sakayt-el-Kublee. Here are the ruins of a temple 
of Serapis and other interesting antiquities. 

Ber'esford (James), an English surgeon, born in Bar¬ 
bados in 1783. He was employed for many years as sur¬ 
geon in the British army, and settled at Hartford, Conn., 
about 1833. Died in 1843. 

Bcresford (William Carr), Viscount, a general, born 










BERETTYO-UJFALU—BERGMANN. 463 


in Ireland Oct. 2, 1768, was a natural son of the first mar¬ 
quis of Waterford. He took command of the Portuguese 
army in Feb., 1809, and fought against the French in the 
Peninsula. In May, 1811, he defeated Soult at Albuera. 
He received the title of duke of Elvas in Spain, was created 
a viscount in 1823, and was master-general of the ordnance 
in 1828-30. Died Jan. 8, 1854. 

Berettyo-Ujfalu, a market-town of Hungary, in the 
county of Behar, 20 miles S. of Debreczin. Pop. 5760. 

Berezi'na, or Beresi'na, a river of Russia, rises in 
the government of Minsk, flows southward, and enters the 
Dnieper above llechitza. Its length is about 325 miles. 
It is navigable, and is connected with the Diina by a canal 
which opens a communication between the Baltic and Black 
seas. The French army, retreating from Moscow in Nov., 
1812, suffered a great disaster in the passage of this river. 
The French constructed hastily two bridges over the river, 
but while they were crossing they were attacked by the 
Russians, who took about 16,000 prisoners. The French 
loss, besides the prisoners, amounted to nearly 12,000, 
many of whom were drowned in the river. 

Berez'na, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Tchernigov, 23 miles E. N. E. of Tchernigov. Pop. 9678. 

Ber'ga, a town of Spain, in the province of Barcelona, 
53 miles N. W. of Barcelona. Pop. 5590. 

Ber'gama (anc. Pergamum or Pergamus), a ruined city 
of Asia Minor, in Anatolia, situated in a beautiful valley, 
on the river Caicus, 46 miles N. N. W. of Smyrna. Pop. 
about 14,000. The ancient city was the capital of the 
kingdom of Pergamus, and the seat of one of the seven 
churches of the Apocalypse. Here are extensive ruins of 
a palace, temple, amphitheatre, and other edifices. 

Berga'mo, a province of Italy, in Lombardy, is bound¬ 
ed on the N. by Sondrino, on the E. by Brescia, on the 
S. by Cremona, and on the W. by Como and Milan. 
Area, 1027 square miles. The northern part is mountain¬ 
ous. The soil of the plains and valleys is fertile. Silk is 
among the products. Capital, Bergamo. Pop. 368,141. 

Bergamo (anc. Bergomum), a fortified city of Italy, 
capital of thd above province, is situated on several low 
hills, 52 miles by rail N. E. of Milan. It presents a very 
picturesque appearance, and is well built. It has a castle, 
a cathedral, a college, a library, a theatre, many convents 
and churches; also extensive manufactures of silk, cotton, 
linen, and woollen fabrics. Bergonum was destroyed by 
Attila in 452 A. D., after which it became an important 
city of the Lombard kings. Bergamo is connected by 
railways with Milan, Brescia, etc. Pop. 37,363. 

Bergamot, the fruit of a tree which is a species or 1 
variety of the genus Citrus, is also called Bergamot Or¬ 
ange, or Mellarosa. According to some botanists, it 
is a variety of the orange (Citrus aurantium). It is culti¬ 
vated in the south of Europe. The fruit is pear-shaped, 
of a pale yellow or green color, and has a green, sub-acid, 
and fragrant pulp. From its rind is obtained by distilla¬ 
tion the oil of bergamot, which has a very agreeable odor, 
is extensively used in perfumery, and is an ingredient in 
eau-de-cologne and several fragrant essences. 

Ber'gen, a fortified city and seaport of Norway, capi¬ 
tal of the province of Bergen, is at the head of a deep 
bay (fiord) of the Atlantic, 184 miles W. N. W. of Chris¬ 
tiania; lat. 60° 24' N., Ion. 5° 18' E. It is picturesquely 
situated at the foot of a mountain, and enclosed on nearly 
all sides by water. The harbor is deep and safe, and is 
defended by several forts. Bergen is well built, has a ca¬ 
thedral, several hospitals, a theatre, a public library, a na¬ 
tional museum, and a college. It is the seat of one of the 
three public treasuries, and is probably the most commer¬ 
cial town of Norway. A large portion of the population 
is employed in the fisheries, and fish and cod-liver oil form 
the chief articles of export. It is stated that in the spring 
600 fishing-vessels may be seen at once in the harbor. 
These vessels bring cargoes of fish that were caught in the 
preceding winter on the northern shores. Bergen was 
founded in 1070, and was once a Hanse town. Pop. 29,210. 

Bergen, a county of New Jersey, bordering on New 
York. Area, 350 square miles. It is bounded on the E. 
by the Hudson River, and intersected by the Hackensack 
and Ramapo. The Passaic River forms part of the S. W. 
boundary. The surface is partly hilly, and the Palisades 
of the Hudson extend along its eastern border. Dairy and 
garden products, corn, and potatoes are the chief crops. It 
is intersected by the Erie R. R. Magnetic iron ore is found 
here. It has various important manufactures. Capital, 
Hackensack. Pop. 30,122. 

Bergen, a post-township of McLeod co., Minn. Pop. 
588. 

Bergen, a former village and township of Hudson co., 


N. J., on the top of Bergen Ridge, 3 miles W. of New 
York. It was merged into Jersey City in 1870. 

Bergen, a post-township of Genesee co., N. Y. P. 1997. 

Bergen, a township of Marathon co., Wis. Pop. 86. 

Bergen, a township of Vernon co., Wis. Pop. 795. 

Ber'gen-op-Zoom, or Bcrg-op-Zoom, a strong¬ 
ly-fortified town of Holland, in North Brabant, is on the 
river Zoom, at its junction with the East Scheldt, 27 miles 
by rail W. S. W. of Breda. It is important as a military 
position, and has often been besieged. The Spaniards 
made unsuccessful attempts to take it in 1588, in 1605, and 
in 1622. In the last-named year General Spinola lost about** 
10,000 men in the siege. It was taken by the French in 
1747, and again in 1794. An English army attacked it 
without success in Mar.', 1814. Pop. 9431. 

B ergerac, a town of France, in Dordogne, is situated 
in a fertile plain on the right bank of the river Dordogne, 
here crossed by a fine bridge of five arches, 27 miles S. W. 
of Perigueux, and 51 miles E. of Bordeaux. It has a col¬ 
lege, a public library, and manufactures of paper, hosiery, 
serges, and copper-ware. The Bergerac wine produced in 
this vicinity is highly esteemed. This town was formerly 
fortified, and sustained several sieges. Pop. 12,224. 

Bergh (Henry), philanthropist, born in the city of New 
York in 1823, educated at Columbia College, is the author 
of “ Love’s Attractions,” a drama; “ Married Off,” a poem ; 
“ The Portentous Telegram,” “ The “ Ocean Paragon,” 
“The Streets of New York,” tales and sketches. In 1863, 
Mr. Bergh was made secretary of legation to Russia, and 
was afterwards a vice-consul there. He is known, not as 
a writer, diplomatist, or government official, but as the 
founder and president of the American Society for the 
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. On his labors for the 
dumb creation rests his fame. Alone, in the face of indif¬ 
ference, opposition, and ridicule, he began the reform which 
is now recognized as one of the beneficent movements of 
the age. Through his exertions as a speaker and lecturer, 
but above all a3 a bold worker, in the street, in the court¬ 
room, before the legislature, the cause he adopted gained 
friends and rapidly increased in influence. The American 
society was incorporated April 10, 1866, by the legislature 
of New York, and, according to the seventh annual report 
(1873), similar societies had been then founded in twenty- 
five States and Territories and in Canada. The society 
has nine branches in the State of New York. There are 2 
in California, 4 in Massachusetts, 2 in Maine, 4 in New 
Jersey, 4 in Ohio, 3 in Pennsylvania, 1 each in Virginia, 
Tennessee, Texas, Rhode Island, Oregon, North Caro¬ 
lina, New Hampshire, Mississippi, Michigan, Minnesota, 
Maryland, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, Georgia, Wash¬ 
ington, D. C., Connecticut, and Colorado Territory. The 
work of the society covers all cases of cruelty to all 
sorts of animals, from the horse to the tortoise, employs 
every moral agency, social, legislative, personal, and 
touches points of vital concern to health as well as to 
humanity—the transportation of cattle intended for the 
shambles, the purity of milk, the times and manner of 
killing for the market. The total number of cases of 
all kinds prosecuted by the parent society, its branches 
and agents, since its foundation, is 2094. The membership 
is large and influential; the cause finds liberal benefactors, 
Mr. Lewis Bonard, a man who lived and died in extreme 
indigence and bequeathed a valuable estate to the society, 
being the greatest. Through this munificence handsome 
quarters were provided in the city, besides a considerable 
portion of the annual income of more than $30,000. The 
work takes on new features every year. Among the latest 
are an ambulance corps, and an ingenious invention for 
substituting artificial for live pigeons as marks for shoot¬ 
ing. 0. B. Frothingham. 

Berg'isch-Glad'bach, a town of Prussia, in the 
Rhine province, 7 miles by rail E. N. E. of Mullheim. It 
has considerable manufactures of paper, linen, woollen, and 
silk goods, potash, percussion caps, etc. Pop. in 1871, 6195. 

Berg'mann (Karl), born at Ebersbach, in Germany, 
April, 1821, removed to America in 1849, and became about 
1855 director of the Philharmonic Society in New York. 
He has composed numerous pieces for orchestras. 

Berg'mann (Torbern Olof), Ph. D., a celebrated 
Swedish chemist, born at Catherinberg, in West Gothland, 
Mar. 20, 1735. He was educated at the University of 
Upsal, and devoted himself to natural history, physics, and 
mathematics. He obtained the chair of chemistry at Up¬ 
sal in 1767. He discovered sulphuretted hydrogen, and 
first obtained important results from the use of the blow¬ 
pipe. He laid the foundation of the science of crystallog¬ 
raphy. Among his works arc an “ Essay on Electric Affin¬ 
ities” (1775), and “Opuscula Physica et Chemica” (6 vols., 
1779-90). Died July 8, 1784. (See P. F. Aurivillius, 



















" Aminnelse-Tal ofver T. 0. Bergman/’ 1785; Biot, article 
in the “ Biographic Universelle P. J. IIjelm, “Amin- 
nelse-Tal ofver T. 0. Bergman,” 1786.) 

Ilcrg'mehl, a German word signifying “mountain 
meal,” is a name of an extremely fine powder found in 
geological strata of recent (eocene) formation, and com¬ 
posed of effete and indestructible silicious frustules of 
Diatomaceae, which are microscopic plants of the class 
Algrn. Vast beds of these fossils occur in Virginia, Mary¬ 
land, Germany, Lapland, and other places. This powder 
is mixed with flour, and used as food by the people of 
Sweden and Norway in seasons of scarcity. 

Berg'soe (Wilhelm), Ph. D., a Danish novelist, born 
Feb. 8, 1835, was in youth a zoologist, attaining distinction 
in that field. But in consequence of the failure of his eye¬ 
sight, and of a long and severe illness, he was disqualified 
for his favorite study, and went to Italy for his health. He 
became a successful writer of romances. His first venture, 
“Fra Piazza del Popolo ” (1866), had a great success. He 
has also published “I Sabinerbjergene” (“In the Sabine 
Hills,” 1871), and “ Bruden fra Rorvig” (“The Bride of 
Rorvig,” 1872). His fame as a novelist is rapidly in¬ 
creasing. 

Ber gues, a fortified town of France, in the department 
of Nord, on the river Colne, 5 miles by rail S. S. E. of Dun¬ 
kirk. It is connected by a canal with Dunkirk and the 
sea, and has an active trade, sugar-refineries, and manu¬ 
factures of soap, tobacco, and earthenware. Pop. 5738. 

B er'gylt (Sebas'tes Norveg'icus or Scorpsena Norvegica), 



The Bergylt. 

a fish of the family Sclerogenidm, resembles a perch in ap¬ 
pearance so much that it has been called sea-perch. It is 
found in all the northern seas, is of a red color, and attains 
a length of two feet or more. It is used as food. It is 
found on both sides of the Atlantic. 

Ber hampoor', or Berhampore, a town of British 
India, in the presidency of Bengal, on the Bhagirathi 
River, 6 miles S. of Moorshedabad, and 118 miles by land 
N. of Calcutta. It is one of the principal British military 
stations in India, and has an appearance of grandeur and 
importance. Sanitary improvements have rendered it one 
of the most healthy places in Bengal. 

Ber'i-ber'i, a disease almost peculiar to Ceylon and a 
part of Hindostan. It is attended by great weakness, often 
dropsy and paralysis, and is generally fatal in a few days 
or weeks. It especially attacks the intemperate, who are 
very numerous in Ceylon, and those who are exposed to the 
effects of bad air, impure water, and insufficient food. 

Ber'ja, a town of Spain, in the province of Almerfa, 
on the S. slope of the Sierra de Gador, 22 miles W. S. W. 
of Almerfa. It is in the midst of lead-mines, and has man¬ 
ufactures of linen, hats, hardware, etc. Pop. 8000. 

Ber'islav, a town of Russia, in the government of Cher- 
son, on the Dnieper, 40 miles E. of Cherson. Pop. in 1867, 
6023. 

Berkeley, a county of the N. E. of West Virginia. 
Area, 250 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the 
Potomac River, and on the S. E. by Opequan Creek. It is 
the most northern part of the Valley of Virginia. The sur¬ 
face is partly hilly ; the soil of the valleys is fertile. Lime¬ 
stone and coal are found here. Wheat, corn, oats, and wool 
are staple products. It is intersected by the Baltimore and 
Ohio R. R. Capital, Martinsburg. Pop. 14,900. 

Berkeley, a post-village of Alameda co., Cal., the seat 
of the University of California and the State Agricultural 
College, is 5 miles N. of Oakland and 9 from San Francisco. 

Berkeley, atownship of Spottsylvaniaco., Va. P. 1801. 

Berkeley (George), an eminent philosopher and 
bishop, was born at Kilcrin, Ireland, on the 12th of Mar., 
1684. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin, where he 
formed a friendship with Dean Swift, and became a fellow 
of that college in 1707. He published in 1709 his “Essay 
towards a New Theory of Vision,” a work of wide reputa¬ 
tion. He propounded his celebrated theory of idealism in 


a “ Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Know¬ 
ledge” (1710), in which he affirmed that there is no proof 
of the existence of a material world. The objects of which 
we are conscious in perception he called “ideas.” Their 
presence he held to be due to the constant agency of the 
Almighty, who causes them to pass in a real and orderly 
succession before the mind. His views are the result ot 
the application of rigid logic to the principles which Locke 
and his school had adopted from Descartes. His method 
was allied to that of Malebranche, though his conclusions 
were drawn with a boldness from which the French philos¬ 
opher recoiled. As distinguished from the egoistic system 
of Fichte, Berkeley’s views have been called theistic ideal¬ 
ism. His object was to undermine materialism and coun¬ 
teract skepticism. In 1713 he removed to London, and 
wrote several essays for the “ Guardian.” He accompanied 
Lord Peterborough as chaplain to Italy, and returned to 
England about 1721. In 1724 he became dean of Derry, 
with an income of £1100. His abundant charity and zeal 
induced him to engage in an enterprise for the conversion 
of the American savages, for which purpose he proposed to 
found a college in America for the education of mission¬ 
aries. Having received a promise of pecuniary aid from 
the government, he married Anna, a daughter of John 
Forster, in 1728, and sailed to Rhode Island. He preached 
at Newport two years, but he did not succeed in his enter¬ 
prise, because the ministers failed to perform their promise. 
He returned home, and was appointed bishop of Cloyno 
in 1734. Among his works are “ Alciphron, or the Minute 
Philosopher” (1732), “ The Analyst” (1735), and a “ Word 
to the Wise” (1749). He died at Oxford Jan. 23,1753, 
leaving an excellent reputation as a model of virtue. 
“Ancient learning,” says Sir J. Mackintosh, “exact 
science, polished society, modern literature, and the 
fine arts contributed to adorn and enrich the mind of 
this accomplished man. All his contemporaries agreed 
with the satirist [Pope] in ascribing ‘to Berkeley 
every virtue under heaven.’ ” ( View of the Progress 

of Ethical Philosophy.) (See Dr. Stock, “Life of 
Berkeley,” prefixed to his works, 2 vols. 4to, 1784; G. 
N. Wright, “Life of George Berkeley/’ prefixed to 
his works, 1843. Berkeley’s works have recently been 
edited, with a life annexed, by Prof. Fraser, in 4 vols. 
8vo, Oxford, 1871.) 

Berkeley (Rev. Miles Joseph), F. L. S., one of the 
most eminent of English botanists of the present century, 
was born in 1803, and educated at Rugby and Christ’s 
College, Cambridge, where he graduated with honors in 
1825. He obtained several Church preferments, but his 
chief distinction has been won in science. As a botanist 
his attention has been principally directed to the lower 
Cryptogamia. He is honorary member of many of the 
scientific societies of Europe. His monographs are very 
numerous. He is the author of “ Gleanings of British 
Algte” (1833), the last volume of the “English Flora” 
(1836), “Handbook of Cryptogamic Botany” (1857), 
“ British Fungology ” (1860), “ British Mosses” (1863), etc. 

Berkeley (Sir William) was born near London. He 
was appointed governor of Virginia in 1641, and held that 
office for many years. He was a royalist in the civil war, 
and was removed from power in 1651 by Cromwell, but be¬ 
came governor again in 1660. He rendered himself un¬ 
popular by his cruelty in putting to death the adherents 
of Nathaniel Bacon, and he once said, “I thank God there 
are no free schools or printing-presses in Virginia.” Died 
in England July 13, 1677. 

Berkeley, Earls of, and Viscounts Dursley (1679), 
Barons Berkeley (1416, in England), a prominent family 
of Great Britain. —Thomas -Moreton Fitz-IIardinge 
Berkeley, the sixth earl, born Oct. 19, 1796, succeeded 
his father in 1810. 

Berkeley Springs, Virginia. See Bath. 

Ber'kenhout (Johx), an English physician of Dutch 
descent, was born at Leeds in 1730. He was sent to Amer¬ 
ica as an agent of the British government in 1788, and was 
imprisoned by Congress as a spy. He wrote “ Biograpliia 
Literaria,” “ Outlines of the Natural History of Great 
Britain,” and a “Botanical Lexicon.” Died in 1791. v 

Berk'ley, a post-township of Bristol co., Mass. It con¬ 
tains the celebrated Dighton Rock. Pop. 744. 

Berks, a county in the S. E. of Pennsylvania. Area, 
920 square miles. It is intersected by the Schuylkill River, 
and also drained by Tulpehocken and other creeks. The 
Kittatinny or Blue Mountain forms the N. W. boundary 
of this county, the surface of which is finely diversified. 
The soil is fertile, especially in the large limestone valley 
between the Kittatinny and the ridge called South Moun¬ 
tain. Grain, cattle, dairy products, potatoes, and wool are 
extensively produced. It has rich iron-mines, which are 






















BERKSHIRE—BERLIN. 465 


extensively worked. The county is intersected by the 
Philadelphia and Reading and the Reading and Columbia 

R. Rs. It was settled by Germans about 1734. It has im¬ 
portant manufactures of many kinds of goods. Capital, 
Reading. Pop. 106,701. 

Berkshire, an inland county of England, bounded on 
the N. by Oxford and Bucks, on the E. by Surrey, on the 

S. by Hampshire, and on the W. by Wiltshire. Area, 705 
square miles, or 451,210 acres. The river Thames forms 
its entire boundary on the N. and N. E. The surface is 
beautifully diversified by hills and valleys. In the S. E. 
is Windsor Forest and Park. This forest consists of oak, 
ash, beech, alder, and hazel trees. The county is drained 
by the river Kennet and other streams. The soil of the 
valleys is mostly a fertile loam, with a subsoil of chalk, 
gravel, or clay. Wheat, oats, horses, and swine arc the 
staple products. The Great Western Railway passes 
through Berkshire. Capital, Reading. P. in 1871,* 196,445. 

Berkshire, a county which forms the W. extremity of 
Massachusetts, bordering on New York and Vermont, has 
an area of about 1000 square miles. It is drained by the 
Hoosic, Westfield, and Housatonic rivers, which rise within 
its limits, and afford abundant watei’-power. The surface 
is finely divei’sified by mountains, hills, and valleys, and 
presents very picturesque scenery. Saddle Mountain (Grey- 
lock), in the N. part, is the highest point in the State. The 
soil is generally productive, and adapted to grazing. Dairy 
products, corn, potatoes, wool, and tobacco are the chief 
products. The manufactures of cotton and woollen goods, 
paper, and glass are important. Marble, limestone, and 
iron ore abound here. The county is intersected by the 
Boston and Albany R. R. and the Housatonic R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Pittsfield. Pop. 64,827. 

Berkshire, a post-twp. of Tioga co., N. Y. Pop. 1240. 

Berkshire, a post-township of Delawax’e co., O. Pop. 
1336. 

Berkshire, a post-township of Franklin co., Vt. Pop. 
1609. 

B er'lat, a town in Moldavia, on the Berlat, 63 miles 
S. of Jassy. It is an enti-epot for grain. Pop. 13,165. 

B er'lichingen, von (Gotz or Gottfried), a famous 
German knight, surnamed of the Iron Hand, was born in 
1480 at Bei’lichingen Castle, in Wiirtemberg. He lost a hand 
at the siege of Landshut, and supplied its place by an iron 
hand. He was a daring and turbulent subject, was involved 
in several feuds with neighboring barons, and fought for the 
insurgent peasants against the nobles in the Peasants’War, 
which closed in 1525. For this offence he was placed under 
the ban of the empire by Maximilian I. He died in 1562, 
and left an autobiography (1731). His exploits form the 
subject of Goethe’s drama of “Gotz von Bei’lichingcn.” 
(See Carl Lang, “Ritter G. von Berlichingen,” 1825; 
Busching, “ Leben Gotz von Berlichingen,” 1814.) 

Ber'lin, the capital of the Prussian monarchy and the 
new German empire, residence of the German emperoi*, seat 
of the highest authorities of Prussia and Gennany, is situ¬ 
ated on the Spree; lat. 52° 30' N., Ion. 13° 24' E. The city 
is of comparatively modern growth. The two oldest parts, 
Old Cologne and Old Berlin, are for the first time mentioned 
in 1237 and 1244. They were in 1307 consolidated into one 
city, which joined the Hanse, became the head of the con¬ 
federation of the towns of Mark, and at the close of the 
fifteenth century became the residence of the electors of 
Brandenburg. Its rapid growth dates from the reign of 
“ the great electoi',” at whose death it numbered about 
20,000 inhabitants. Under Frederick the Great the popu¬ 
lation rose to 114,000; in 1817 its inhabitants numbered 
188,000; in 1844,311,000; in 1851, 436,000 ; in 1867, 702,000; 
and, according to the census of 1871, it had attained the 
number of 825,389 persons, who, with the exception of 
50,000 Roman Catholics and 30,000 Jews, belong to the 
Protestant Church, and chiefly to the United Evangelical 
State Church. In 1867 the city had about 34,000 buildings, 
among which there were about 700 public buildings and 
sixty churches. Berlin consists of sixteen different parts, 
of which Old Berlin, on the right bank of the Spree, and 
Old Cologne, on an island, are the oldest. The others are 
New Cologne, settled about 1681 ; Friedrichswerder, 1658; 
Dorotheenstadt, Neustadt, 1673; Friedrichsstadt, 1694; 
Luisenstadt, 1669; Stralauer Viertel, 1705; Konigsstadt, 
1693; Spandauer Revier (Sophienstadt, 1691); and Fried- 
rich-Wilhelmstadt, named since 1828. Inside of the wall, 
which formerly included the whole of these eleven parts, 
are situated Wedding (Oranienburger V orstadt) ; Moabit 
(Voigtland, 1752); JEussere Friedrichsstadt (laid out in 
1838); iEusseres Spandauer Revier, Schoneberger, and 
Tempelhofer Revier. / 

The principal streets are ITnter den Linden, with four rows 
of lime trees and the stately Brandenburg Gate, the Wil- 
30 


helmsstrasse, and Kbnigsstrasse. Foremost among the pub¬ 
lic places are the Opera Place, with the equestrian statue 
of Frederick the Great by Rauch (erected in 1851); the 
Lustgartcn (laid out in 1828), with the museums; the 
Gensdai-menplatz, with the new theatre; the Wilhelmplatz, 
with the statues of Schwerin, Winterfeld, Seidlitz, Keith, 
Ziethen, and Leopold of Dessau; the Belle Alliance Platz, 
with the Victoria Column (since 1843); the Leipziger Platz, 
with the monument of the count of Brandenburg; and the 
Pariser Platz. The most important bridges are the Kur- 
fiirstenbriicke, with a statue of “the great elector;” the 
Friedrichsbriicke, with eight iron arches; the Schloss- 
briicko, built in 1824, upon two massive arches and with 
eight allegoi’ical marble groups ; the iron Weidendammer- 
briicke, built in 1826; and the Alsenbriicke, built in 1867. 
Among the remarkable public buildings are the Konigliche 
Schloss, with the Weisser Saal; the Konigliche Palast, with 
which the palace of Prince Louis is incorporated; the pal¬ 
aces of the crown prince and the princes Charles and Al¬ 
brecht; the Arsenal; the Artillery School, and the Univer¬ 
sity (formerly palace of Prince Henry ); the Singing Acad¬ 
emy ; the Exchange; the Old Museum, built in 1828 by 
Schinkel, and containing a celebrated picture-gallery, which 
is rich in paintings by the early Italian and German mas¬ 
ters, and in collections of ancient sculpture and other an¬ 
tiquities. Connected with the Old Museum is the New 
Museum, begun in 1843, and chiefly formed of the Egyp¬ 
tian antiquities brought home by the expedition under 
Lepsius. ^ 

Berlin has no churches of importance in point of archi¬ 
tecture. The university was established in 1810, and is in 
every respect one of the greatest literary institutions of the 
world. It had in 1868 about 3000 students, and from its 
beginning has counted among its professors many of the 
most celebrated scholars, such as Humboldt, Rittei’, Fichte, 
Hegel, Schelling, Neander, Schleiermaelier, and Virchow. 
The Royal Libraiy numbered in 1870 about 700,000 vol¬ 
umes and more than 15,500 manuscripts. It rapidly in¬ 
creases, as Prussian publishers are bound to deposit in it a 
copy of evci-y new work. The librai-y of the university has 
about 100,000 volumes. Other important litei’ary institu¬ 
tions are the Academy of Science, the Polytechnic Insti¬ 
tute, the Building Academy, the Navy School, the Mining 
Academy, the Pharmaceutical School, institutions for the 
deaf and mute and for the blind, and ten gymnasia. The 
Charite, the greatest hospital of Berlin, has had as many 
as 10,000 patients in a year. •' 

The trade and commerce of Berlin are extensive. The 
castings in iron and the china manufactures of Berlin have 
a world-wide imputation. The increase of railroad connec¬ 
tion has of late given a powerful impulse to the develop¬ 
ment of industi’y, and the large numbers of the laboring 
classes have made Berlin ono of the chief centres of the 
Internationale. The revenue and expenditure of Berlin 
amount to about five million thalers annually ; the debt, to 
8,000,000 thalers. The authorities of the city have estab¬ 
lished a statistical bureau specially devoted to the statistics 
and history of Berlin ; an annual publication by the presi¬ 
dent of this bureau (“Bei'lin und seine Entwickelung,” 
established in 1866) is the best source of information for 
everything relating to this gi'eat German citj r j4 

A. J. Schem. 


Berlin, a town, the capital of Waterloo co., Ontario, 
Dominion of Canada, on the Grand Trunk Railway, 62 
miles W. S. W. of Toronto, at the junction of the Doon 
branch. It has two weekly papers, fourteen churches, a 
large button-factory, and other important manufacturing 
interests. Its trade is extensive. Pop. 2743. 

Berlin, a township of Chambers co., Ala. Pop. 2018. 

Berlin, a post-village and township of Hartford co., 
Conn., on the New Haven Hartford and Springfield R. R., 
25 miles N. N. E. of New Haven. Pop. of township, 2436. 

Berlin, a township of Bureau co., Ill. Pop. 1469. 

Berlin, a township of Clinton co., Ia. Pop. 805. 

Berlin, a post-township of Worcester co., Mass., is on 
the Boston Clinton and Fitchburg R. R., 40 miles N. W. 
of Boston. Pop. 1016. 

Berlin, a post-village of Worcester co., Md., at tho 
eastern terminus of the Wicomico and Pocomoke R. R., 
and north-western terminus of the Worcester R. R., 14 
miles from Snow Hill. Pop. 697 ; of township, 4330. 

Berlin, a township of Ionia co., Mich. Pop. 1587. 

Berlin, a township of Monroe co., Mich. Pop. 1844. 

Berlin, a township of St. Clair co., Mich. Pop. 1231. 

Berlin, a post-township of Steele co., Minn. Pop. 409. 

Berlin, a township of Coos co., N. II. It has manu¬ 
factures of lumber, etc. Pop. 529. 

Berlin, a post-village and township of Rensselaer co., 











BEKL1N—BEKNAKD. 


4G6 


N. Y., on the New York and llarlcm Extension R. R., 162 
miles N. N. E. of New York City. Pop. of township, 2088. 

Berlin, a township of Delaware co., 0. Pop. 1330. 

Berlin, a township of Erie co., 0. Pop. 1741. 

B crlin, a post-township of Holmes co., 0. Pop. 1007. 

Berlin, a township of Knox co., 0. Pop. 887. 

Berlin, a township of Mahoning co., 0. Pop. 963. 

Berlin, a post-borough of Somerset co., Pa., 70 miles 
fe. E. of Pittsburg. Pop. 640. 

Berlin, a township of Wayne co., Pa. Pop. 1295. 

Berlin, a post-township of Washington co., Vt. Pop. 
1474. It has manufactures of leather and lumber. 

Berlin, a city and township of Green Lake co., Wis., 
on Fox River, at the termination of a branch of the Mil¬ 
waukee and St. Paul R. R., 94 miles N. W. of Milwaukee. 
Steamboats ply between this point and Green Bay, etc. 
It has one bank, three grist and flouring mills, two saw¬ 
mills, one foundi'y, and manufactures of turbine-wheels, 
whips, gloves, woollen goods, etc. It has two newspapers, 
a city park, and a high-school. Pop. of city, 2777; of 
township, 3800. Ed. “Berlin Courant.” 

Berlin, a township of Marathon co., Wis. Pop. 879. 

Berlin anti Ivor, a post-township of Southampton co., 
Ya. Pop. 2674. 

Berlin Blue. See Prussian Blue. 

Berlin Heights, a post-village of Erie co., 0., is the 
seat of a celebrated community of Spiritualists. 

Berlioz (Hector Louis), a French musical composer, 
born Dec. 11, 1803, at Cote-Saint-Andre (Isere). The son 
of a physician sent to Paris to study medicine, he entered 
the Conservatory, following a passionate bent for music, 
lie composed “ Symphonie Fantastique/’ overtures to 
“Waverley” and “King Lear,” “Harold” (1833), and 
“Romeo et Juliette” (1839), symphonies; “Benvenuto 
Cellini,” an opera in two acts, “ Symphonie Funebre et 
Triuraphale” (1840), “Damnation de Faust” (1846), a 
symphony, “ Eufance de Christ,” a trilogy (1854), and 
“ Les Trogens,” a grand five-act opera, played without 
success in 1863. M. Berlioz has been considered the chief 
of the romantic school. His works bespeak an ardent and 
independent genius, and have elicited diverse criticism. 
He was also a talented author and critic, and has published 
“ Traite d’instrumentation et d’orchestration moderne” 
(18.44), “Voyage musicale en Allemagne et en Italie,” 
“Etudes sur Beethoven, Pliick, et Weber” (1845), “ Soirees 
de l’orchestre ” (1853), “ Les Grotesques de la musique” 
(1859), and “ Memoires” (1870). Died Mar. 9, 1869. 

Berme, in fortification, is a ledge or narrow level space, 
three or more feet wide, at the bottom of the outside of a 
rampart where it joins the scarp. It serves as a passage¬ 
way for the garrison, and to prevent the earth and other 
materials from falling into the ditch when the rampart is 
battered by the enemy. 

Bermu'da, a township of Chesterfield co., Ya. P. 877. 

Bermuda Grass, the Cynodon Dactylon, a grass 
which is extensively cultivated in India (where it is called 
dhab), and of late years introduced into the West Indies, 
Europe, the Southern U. S., and the Sandwich Islands. 
It is valuable both for pasture-grass and hay, and is espe¬ 
cially prized in warm climates, where the grass crop is 
generally poor; but in light soils, especially northward, its 
perennial roots cause great trouble to the farmer. 

Bermu'da Hun'dred, in Chesterfield co., Va., on 
the right bank of the James River, just above the mouth 
of the Appomattox, and miles above City Point. The 
tortuous course of the James River here encloses a neck of 
land which Gen. Butler occupied and fortified in May, 
1864, and from which he was to co-operate with Gen. 
Grant by menacing Richmond and Petersburg. On the 
morning of the 16th of May, 1864, Gen. Butler, who had 
moved out of his works, was fiercely attacked by the Con¬ 
federate force under Beauregard, and after a severe strug¬ 
gle, which lasted till noon, driven back into his intrench- 
ments with severe loss. Beauregard, following slowly, 
erected a line of works across the peninsula in front of 
Butler’s. Subsequent expeditions were made from these 
works, and the line finally formed a part of the investment 
lines of the combined armies against Petersburg. 

Bermu'da Islands, or Bermu'das [Fr. Bermudes ], 
or Somers’s Islands, a group of small, low islands in 
the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Great Britain. They take 
their name from Juan Bermudez, who discovered them in 
1522. They are about 624 miles E. S.E. of Cape Hatteras, 
which is the nearest land, and are in lat. 32° 20' N., and 
Ion. 64° 50' W. The extent of the group is only 19 miles 
by 6 miles, although the number of islets is nearly 400. 
Area, 24 square miles. They derive importance from the 


commanding position which they occupy between the West 
Indies and the other parts of British America. They are 
enclosed on several sides by formidable coral-reefs, which 
are said to be the only coral-reefs occurring in the central 
expanse of the Atlantic. The climate is so mild and de¬ 
lightful that these islands are covered with perpetual ver¬ 
dure. Between December and March the temperature 
ranges from 60° to 66° F. The chief articles of export 
are potatoes, onions, and arrow-root. The largest of these 
islands are Bermuda, 15 miles long; St. George’s, Si miles; 
Somerset, 3 miles; and Ireland, 3 miles. Capital, Hamil¬ 
ton, on the isle of Bermuda. St. George’s Isle has a good 
landlocked harbor, which is defended by strong batteries. 
These isles are separated by narrow and intricate channels, 
and have no streams, and but few pools of fresh water. 
Many of the inhabitants are employed in building cedar 
vessels, which are durable and swift. Pop. in 1863, 11,796. 

Bern, a township of Athens co., O. Pop. 1014. 

Bern, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 2124. 

Bernadette, a post-township of Fulton co., Ill. P. 1253. 

Bernadotte, a township of Nicollet co., Minn. P. 214. 

Bernadotte (Charles XIV.), John, king of Sweden, 
a French marshal, born at Pau Jan. 26, 1764. His original 
name was Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte. He enlisted 
as a private in the army in 1780, served as general of divis¬ 
ion under Ivleber and Jourdan in Flanders in 1794, and 
under Bonaparte in 1797. In 1798 he was French minister 
at Vienna, and married Mademoiselle Clary, a sister of 
Joseph Bonaparte’s wife. He was minister of war for a 
short time in 1799. Napoleon created him a marshal of 
France in 1804, and in June, 1806, prince of Pontecorvo. 
He fought at Austerlitz in 1805, and defeated the Prussians 
at Halle in Oct., 1806. He quarrelled with Napoleon, who 
censured his conduct at Wagram (1809), and he resigned 
his command just after that battle. In Aug., 1810, the 
Swedish Diet elected Bernadotte as heir to the throne of 
Sweden, then occupied by Charles XIII., who had no son, 
and he was immediately associated with the old king in 
the exercise of royal power. Early in 1812, Bernadotte, wdio 
took the name of Charles John, negotiated with Russia a 
secret treaty of alliance against Napoleon. He openly 
joined the coalition of the allies in the spring of 1813, and 
led an army of about 28,000 men into Germany. His 
army defeated Oudinot at Gross-Beeren in Aug., 1813, but 
his conduct was considered equivocal and lukewarm by the 
allies. He forced Prince Christian of Denmark, who had 
proclaimed himself king of Norway, to resign, and on Nov. 
4, 1814, Charles XIII. was proclaimed king, and Berna¬ 
dotte crown prince. When the allies entered France in 
1814, he led his army back to Sweden and conquered Nor¬ 
way. He began to reign alone on the death of Charles 
XIII., in Feb., 1818, after which a long peace ensued. He 
died in Mar., 1844, and left the throne to his son, Oscar I. 
(See Erik G. Geijer, “ Konung Karls XIY. Johan Ilis- 
toria,” 1844; W. G. Meredith, “Memorials of Charles 
(XIV.) John, King of Sweden,” 1829.) 

Bernal'da, a town of Italy, in the province of Potenza, 
46 miles S. E. of Potenza. Pop. 5862. 

Bernalil'lo, a large county in the W. part of New 
Mexico, is intersected by the Rio Grande and Rio Puerco. 
The surface is partly mountainous; the valley of the Rio 
Grande is productive. Hides, wool, corn, and wine are 
produced. Gold, silver, lead, iron, copper, and coal abound. 
Capital, Albuquerque. Pop. 7591. 

Bernard (Claude), an eminent French physiologist, 
born at Saint Julien, in Rhone, July 12, 1813. He wrote 
“ Researches on the Uses of the Pancreas,” which gained 
the grand prize of the Institute in 1849. He was admitted 
into the Institute in 1854, and became professor of phys¬ 
iology in the College of France in 1855. Bernard discov¬ 
ered the glycogenic function of the liver. He was created 
grand officer of the Legion of Honor in 1862. Among his 
best-known works are “Lemons de Physiologic” (1855), 
and “ Memoire sur la Chaleur animale ” (1856). 

Bernard (Sir Francis), an English lawyer, born in 
1714, who became governor of New Jersey in 1758, and of 
Massachusetts in 1760. He was unpopular in Massachu¬ 
setts because he brought troops into Boston find opposed 
liberal measures. He was accused of misconduct, but re¬ 
called and made a baronet in 1769. Died June 16, 1779. 

Bernard, Saint, abbot of Clairvaux, an eminent medi¬ 
aeval theologian, and a doctor of the Western Church, born 
at Fontaines, near Dijon, in 1091. He became an inmate 
of the monastery of Citeaux in 1113, and founded in 1115 
a community of the Cistercian order at Clairvaux, in Cham¬ 
pagne, of which he was the first abbot. His ascetic life 
and eloquence rendered him a very influential and power¬ 
ful person in the Church. He was regarded as an oracle by 
all Christendom, founded a large number of monasteries, 














BERNARD—BERNOULLI. 


and was an implacable adversary of Abelard. He zealously 
promoted the crusade of 1146, which was disastrous to those 
who joined it. He died Aug. 20, 1153, leaving many relig¬ 
ious works, and was canonized in 1174. (Sec LemaItre, 
“Vie de Saint Bernard,” 1649; A. Neander, “ Der heilige 
Bernard und sein Zeitalter,” 1813 (translated into English 
by Wrench, 1843); C. Montalembert, “ Histoire de S. 
Bernard;” J. 0. Ellendorf, “Der heilige Bernhard,” 
1837; Eugenio de Corral, “Vida de S. Bernardo,” 1782.) 

Bernard (Simon), an officer of the French imperial corps 
du genie, born at Dole April 28, 1779, was aide-de-camp to 
Napoleon I., and employed by him in many important and 
confidential duties incidental to his branch of the service. 
He was invited to this country by President Madison under 
a resolution approved April 29, 1816, “authorizing the 
President of the U. S. to employ a skilful assistant in the 
corps of engineers,” instigated by the notion prevalent at 
that date, that only in Europe, and especially in France, 
could the high military science necessary to the organiza¬ 
tion of a system of sea-coast defence by fortification be 
found. The chief engineer, Gen. Swift, and subsequently 
another distinguished officer, Col. McKee, sent in their res¬ 
ignations in consequence. Gen. Swift was succeeded as 
chief engineer by Col. W. K. Armistead. As “Assistant 
Engineer” Gen. Bernard was associated with Col. (subse¬ 
quently General and Chief Engineer) J. G. Totten, constitu¬ 
ting a “ permanent board,” upon which the labor of work¬ 
ing out the fundamental principles of the system, and of 
elaborating the projects of defence for the great seaports, 
devolved; and mainly upon these two officers, though 
naval officers of rank and experience were associated with 
them whenever their examinations included positions for 
dockyards, naval depots, or other objects which concerned 
the naval service; and the resident engineer officers had a 
voice in relation to their particular works. He also had a 
prominent part in the inauguration of some of our earlier 
works of civil engineering; e. g. the Chesapeake and Ohio 
Canal, the Delaware Breakwater, etc. He resigned in 
1831, and returned to France, and became aide-de-camp to 
Louis Philippe, and subsequently ministerof war of France. 
To high military and scientific acquirements and great ex¬ 
perience in his professional duties, Gen. Bernard united the 
qualities of an amiable and accomplished gentleman, and 
the tact to adapt himself to his peculiar position without 
wounding the pride of those with whom he was thus asso¬ 
ciated. The prestige of his name aided powerfully in sus¬ 
taining with the administration and with Congress the 
measures which the board found necessary to recommend, 
and in establishing firmly, as a part of our national policy, 
the system of sea-coast defence by fortifications. He died 
in Paris Nov. 5, 1839. J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Bernard of Cluny, not to be confounded with his 
more celebrated countryman and contemporary, Bernard 
of Clairvaux, was born at Morlaix, in Brittany, of English 
parents, probably not far from the year 1100. He was a 
monk at Cluny under Peter the Venerable, who was abbot 
there from 1122 to 1156. He wrote a poem, “ De Con- 
temptu Mundi,” in about 3000 lines, portions of which 
were translated by the Rev. John Mason Neale (1818-66) 
in 1851 and 1862. Dr. Neale pronounces these verses of 
Bernard “the most lovely, in the same way that the ‘ Dies 
Irm ’ is the most sublime, and the ‘ Stabat Mater ’ the most 
pathetic, of mediaeval poems.” Hymns taken from this 
poem, such as “ The world is very evil,” “ Brief life is here 
our portion,” and “Jerusalem the golden,” are among the 
finest gems in recent English and American collections. 

Bernard’s', a township of Cherokee co., Ala. P. 135. 

Bernard’s, a township of Somerset co., N. J. P. 2369. 

Ber'nardston, a post-township of Franklin co., Mass., 
on the Connecticut River R. R. It is the seat of Powers 
Institute. Pop. 961. 

Bernard, the Great St., a famous mountain-pass 
of the Pennine Alps, upwards of 8000 feet in height, be¬ 
tween the Swiss canton of Vaud and the valley of Aosta. 
Near the summit is the celebrated hospice, said to have 
been founded in 962 by Saint Bernard of Meuthon in 
Savoy for the succor of travellers crossing the mountain. 
In the humane efforts of the monks of this hospice the 
valuable dogs known as the St. Bernard breed, and noted 
for their size and sagacity, are valuable assistants. In 1800 
Napoleon crossed the Alps here with an army of 30,000 
men, with cavalry and artillery. 

Ber'nan, a town of Prussia, in Brandenburg, on the 
Stettin Railway, 14 miles N. E. of Berlin. It has manu¬ 
factures of silk stuffs, cotton, and woollen goods. Pop. in 
1871, 5566. 

Bernay, a town of France, in the department of Eure, 
on the railway from Paris to Caen, 25 miles W. N. W. of 
Evreux. It has a college, and manufactures of woollen 


467 


cloths, linens, paper, and leather. A horse-fair, the largest 
in France, is held here annually. Pop. 7510. 

Bern'burg, a town of Germany, formerly capital of 
the duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg, is on the river Saale, hero 
crossed by a bridge, 24 miles S. S. W. of Magdeburg. It 
is connected by railway with Berlin and Dresden. It has 
a gymnasium, a Realschule, a valuable library, a ducal 
castle, and manufactures of porcelain, paper, and starch. 
Pop. in 1871, 15,715. 

Beme [Fr. Berne; Ger. Bern; Lat. Ber'na], the most 
populous canton of Switzerland, and the most extensive 
except the Grisons. It is bounded on the N. by Alsace 
and Soleure, on the E. by Aargau, Lucerne, Unterwalden, 
and Uri, on the S. by Valais, and on the N. by Vaud, 
Fribourg, Neufchatel, and France. Area, 2660 English 
square miles. It is traversed by the river Aar, and also 
drained by the Emmen. The Aar expands into two lakes 
called Brieuz and Thun. The surface is mountainous, and 
the northern part is occupied by the Jura Mountains. 
Several high peaks of the Alps—namely, the Finsteraar- 
horn, 14,032 feet, the Jungfrau, 13,514 feet, Schreckhorn, 
13,393 feet—are in Berne. The valleys of the Simmenthal, 
Lauterbrunnen, and Grindelwald in the Bernese Oberland 
are celebrated for their beauty. The valleys of the Aar 
and Emmen are fertile and adapted to pasturage. Among 
its mineral resources are copper, lead, iron, marble, and 
granite. The canton has important manufactures of watches, 
paper, woollen goods, linens, etc. It is intersected by 
several railroads. Capital, Berne. Pop. in 1870, 506,465, 
of whom 66,015 were Roman Catholics. 

Berne, or Bern [said to be derived from the Ger. 
B'dren, “ bears,” figures of which are on the armorial bear¬ 
ings of the city], a city of Switzerland, capital of the canton 
of Berne, is situated on the river Aar, which encloses it on 
three sides, 65 miles by rail S. of Bale and 92 miles by rail 
N. E. of Geneva. Berne is the seat of the federal govern¬ 
ment of the republic, and is considered to be the finest city 
in Switzerland. It is built of freestone, and the houses are 
massive structures, resting on arcades which form covered 
promenades on both sides of the streets. Magnificent 
Alpine scenery is visible from this point. Berne has a 
Gothic cathedral, a public library, a university, a museum 
of natural history, a mint, and an arsenal. One of the 
finest buildings is the new federal palace. The river is 
here crossed by four large bridges. Several railroads con¬ 
nect it with Geneva, Bfile, and other towns. Berne was 
founded in 1191, and became a free town of the empire in 
1218. It joined the Swiss Confederation in 1352. In 
1849 it became the permanent capital of the whole republic. 
Pop. in 1870, 36,002. 

Berne, a post-township of Albany co., N. Y. It con¬ 
tains nine churches, several manufactories, and a number 
of small caves and mineral springs. Pop. 2562. 

Berne, a township of Fairfield co., 0. Pop. 3056. 

B ern'hartl, duke of Saxe-Weimar, a celebrated Ger¬ 
man general, born Aug. 6,1604, was a younger son of John 
III. of Saxe-Weimar. He fought for the Protestant cause 
in the Thirty Years’ war, distinguished himself at Wimjifen 
in 1622, and became a colonel in the army of Denmark, 
which he quitted in 1628. In 1631 he joined the standard 
of Gustavus Adolphus. The victory which the Swedes 
gained at Liitzen in 1632 is attributed to the skill and 
energy of Bernhard, who in 1633 was appointed to the 
command of the Swedish army. Having made a personal 
treaty of alliance with France in 1635, he afterwards com¬ 
manded a French army and defeated the imperialists. 
Died July 8, 1639. (See Schiller, “History of the Thirty 
Years’ War;” J. A. C. von IIellfeld, “ Geschichte des 
Bernhard des Grossen,” etc., 1797; Bernhard Roese, 
“ Herzog Bernhard der Grossc von Sachsen-Weimar,” 2 
vols., 1828-29.) 

Bernice. See Berenice. 

Berni'na, an imposing mountain-group in the Swiss 
canton of Grisons, rises 13,407 feet above the level <of the 
sea, and has a remarkable glacier. The Pass of Bernina, 
the altitude of which is 6671 feet, affords a communication 
between the Upper Engadine and the Valtelline. 

Berni'ni (Giovanni Lorenzo), an Italian architect and 
sculptor, born at Naples in 1598, lived at Rome. His works, 
the best among which are the colonnade to St. Peter’s 
church, the Scala Regia of the Vatican, and the Barberini 
Palace at Venice, possess some excellencies, but show the 
beginning of the decline of art into the baroque or Jesuit 
style, to which his influence greatly contributed. 

Bernoulli, or Bernouilli (Daniel), F. R. S., an emi¬ 
nent mathematician and philosopher, born at Groningen 
Feb. 9,1700, was a son of Jean (1667-1748). He became in 
1733 professor of anatomy and botany at Bale, where lie 











468 BERNOULLI 


afterwards obtained the chair of physics and speculative 
philosophy, lie gained many prizes of the French Acad¬ 
emy of Sciences, and wrote in Latin and French many scien¬ 
tific works, lie was one of the three greatest members of 
this famous,family. Died Mar. 17, 1782, at Dale. (See Con- 
dorckt, “ Eloge do Daniel Bernoulli,” 1782.) 

Bernoulli (Jacques), a Swiss mathematician, an uncle 
of the preceding, was born at Dale Dec. 27, 1054. He be¬ 
came professor of mathematics in that city in 1687. Ho 
solved Leibnitz’s problem of the isochronous curve, dis¬ 
covered the properties of the logarithmic spiral, and wrote 
several treatises on mathematics, etc. Died at Dale Aug. 
16, 1705. (See Battier, “ Vita Jacobi Bernoulli,” 1705.) 

Bernoulli (Jacques), a nephew and pupil of Daniel, 
was born at Bale Oct. 17, 1759 ; he became professor of 
mathematics at St. Petersburg. He was drowned in the 
Neva July 13, 1789. 

Bernoulli (Jean or John), one of the most eminent 
mathematicians of the Bernoulli family, was born at Bale 
July 27, 1667. He was the father of Daniel and brother 
of Jacques (1654-1705). He discovered the exponential 
calculus, and ascertained the curve of swiftest descent. In 
1705 he succeeded his brother Jacques as professor of 
mathematics at B5,le. His works were published in 4 vols., 
1742. Died Jan. 1, 1748. 

Bernoulli (Jean), a son of the preceding, was born 
at Bale May 18, 1710. He became professor of mathe¬ 
matics at Bale in 1748, and wrote several treatises. Died 
July 11, 1790. —Bernoulli (Jean), born at Bale Nov. 4, 
1744, was a son of the preceding, lie became astronomer- 
royal at Berlin in 1764, and wrote various works. Died 
July 13, 1807.— Bernoulli (Jerome), a Swiss naturalist, 
born at Bale in 1745 ; died in 1829. —Bernoulli (Nicolas), 
a son of Jean and a brother of Daniel, noticed above, was 
born at Bale Jan. 29, 1695. He was professor of mathe¬ 
matics at St. Petersburg, where he died July 26, 1726.— 
Bernoulli (Nicolas), LL.D., F. B. S., a cousin of the pre¬ 
ceding, was born at Bale Oct. 10, 1687. He made several 
discoveries in mathematics. Died Nov. 29, 1759. 

Bern'storff (Albrecht), Count, a Prussian diplomatist 
and statesman, born Mar. 22, 1809, became in 1857 Prus¬ 
sian ambassador in London, was minister of foreign affairs 
from 1861 to 1862, returned to London in 1862, and repre¬ 
sented Prussia in the London Confci’ence of 1871. Died 
Mar. 26, 1873. 

Bernstorff, von (Johann Hartwig Ernst), Count, an 
eminent statesman, born at Hanover May 13, 1712. Hav¬ 
ing entered the civil service of Denmark, he was appointed 
minister of foreign affairs (prime minister) in 1761. He 
was a liberal patron of learning and the arts, and he pro¬ 
moted the commerce and manufactures of Denmark. He 
retained power till 1770. Died Feb. 19, 1772. (See Gf. II. 
Ahlemann, “ Ueber das Leben and den Charaktcr des Gra- 
fen von Bernstorff,” 1777; G. Navarro, “ Vie du Comte J. 
II. E. Bernstorff,” 1822.) 

Bern'ville, a post-borough of Berks co., Pa., 46 miles 
E. N. E. of Harrisburg. Pop. 457. 

Ber' oe, a genus of Radiata of the class Acalepha, and 
of a division called Ciliograde ( i . e. moving by means of 
cilia). They are phosphorescent marine animals. The genus 
is the type of a family characterized by an oval or nearly 
globular body, of a delicate jelly-like substance, with an 
alimentary canal passing through its axis, which is vertical 
as the animal floats in the water. The body is strengthened 
by bands of firmer texture, which are furnished with rows 
of cilia, the motion of which is very rapid. 

B erue'a, or B erea, a large and ancient city of Mace¬ 
donia, situated at the foot of Mount Bermius, about 30 
miles from Pella. It was attacked by the Athenians in the 
war which began about 430 B. C. Saint Paul visited Beroea, 
and preached there. (See Acts xvii. 10.) Its site is occu¬ 
pied by the modern town of Veria, 35 miles W. of Salonica. 
(See Veria.) 

Bero'sus [Gr. Bijpcocro?], an eminent Chaldee historian, 

was a priest of Belus at Babylon, and lived about 300 B. C. 

He wrote in Greek a “ History of Babylonia and Chaldma,” 

which was highly esteemed by the ancient Greeks and 

Romans, but it is lost except a few fragments. These were 

edited by Richter in 1825. Pliny states that the Athenians 

erected a statue to him. 

♦ 

Ber'rien, a county in S. Georgia. Area, 750 square 
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Allapaha, and on 
the W. by Little River, and is drained by the Withlacoo- 
chee. The surface is nearly level; the soil is sandy. Rice, 
corn, cotton, tobacco, and wool are raised. It is intersected 
by the Brunswick and Albany R. R. Capital, Nashville. 
Pop. 4518. 

Berrien, a county which forms the S. W. extremity of 


BERRYMAN. 


Michigan. Area, 600 square miles. It is bounded on the 

W. by Lake Michigan, and intersected by the St. Joseph 
River, navigable for keel-boats. The surface is undulating 
and mostly covered with forests. The soil is fertile. The 
county is intersected by the Michigan Central It. R. It 
sends large quantities of corn, wheat, wool, timber, and 
fruit to market. Capital, Berrien Springs. Pop. 35,104. 

Berrien, a township of Berrien co., Mich. Pop. 1405. 

Berrien (John McPherson), LL.D., a distinguished 
lawyer and politician, born in New Jersey in 1781. He 
removed to Georgia, and was elected a Senator of the U. S. 
in 1824. He was attorney-general under President Jack- 
son in 1829-31, and was again chosen Senator in 1840 and 
1846. Died Jan. 1, 1856. 

Berrien’s Island, in the East River, is a part of 
Newtown township, Queen’s co., N. Y. Area, 12 acres. 

Berrien Springs, a post-village, capital of Berrien 
co., Mich., on the St. Joseph River, about 15 miles from 
Lake Michigan and 160 miles W. S. W. of Lansing. Pop. 
662. 

Ber'rv [Anglo-Saxon beria or berga ; Lat. bae'ea ; Fr. 
bate], a botanical term used to designate a fruit which con¬ 
sists of a pulpy pericarp without valves, containing seeds, 
which have no covering except the pulp or rind, as the 
grape, gooseberry, currant, barberry, service-berry, and 
cranberry. Some of them have the calyx adherent to the 
ovary and the placenta parietal, as the gooseberry. Others 
have the ovary free and the placenta in the centre, as the 
grape. The term berry is popularly applied to several 
small fruits which are not berries in the scientific sense, as 
the strawberry, which bears seeds ( achenia) on the external 
surface of an enlarged and pulpy receptacle. The orange 
is a berry with a leathery rind, and is also called a hes- 
peridium. 

Berry, or Berri, a former province of France, near its 
centre, now forms the departments of Cher and Indre. 
Capital, Bourges. Berry was erected into a duchy about 
1360, after which it was held by many princes of the royal 
family of France. The last duke of Berry was the young¬ 
er son of Charles X. 

Berry, a township of Dane co., Wis. Pop. 1155. 

Berry, or Berri, de (Charles Ferdinand), Due, born 
at Versailles Jan. 24, 1778, was the second son of Charles 

X. He emigrated with his father in 1793, returned to 
France in 1814, and married in 1816 Caroline Ferdinande 
Louise, a daughter of the king of Naples. He was assas¬ 
sinated by Louvel Feb. 14, 1820. He was the father of the 
count de Chambord (Hem-y V.), who is recognized by the 
legitimist party as the heir to the French throne. (Sec 
Chateaubriand, “ Memoires touchant la Vie et la Mort du 
Due de Berry,” 1820.) 

Berry (Hiram G.), a major-general of U. S. volunteers, 
born at Rockland, Me., Aug. 27, 1824, killed at the battle 
of Chancellorsville, Va., May 2,1863. He was member of the 
Maine legislature several times, mayor of his native city, and 
president of Lime Rock Bank. At the first call for troops 
to suppress the Confederate movement he raised three full 
companies, and himself entered the service as colonel of 
the Fourth Maine Volunteers. He was made a brigadier- 
general Mar. 17, 1862, and major-general Nov. 29, 1862. 
Killed at the head of his division by a shot while lead¬ 
ing a bayonet charge on the morning of May 2, 1863. 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Enfrs. 

Berryer (Antoine Pierre), a celebrated French orator, 
lawyer, and legitimist, was born in Paris Jan. 4, 1790. He 
defended General Cambronne about 1815, gained distinc¬ 
tion as an advocate of defendants in political trials, and 
was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1830. After 
Charles X. had been dethroned (July, 1830), he remained 
in the Chamber as the orator of the legitimist party, although 
the other members of that party all retired. He made an 
eloquent speech against the abolition of hereditary nobility 
in 1831. During the first years of the reign of Louis 
Philippe he was regarded as the foremost orator in the 
Chamber. In 1840 he defended Louis Napoleon, who was 
tried for his attempt to excite a revolution at Boulogne. 
He was elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1848, and 
the Legislative Assembly in 1849. In 1850 he went to 
Wiesbaden to offer homage to the count de Chambord. He 
opposed the republic, and protested against the coup-d’Stat 
of Dec., 1851, after which he retired from political life. In 
1852 he was elected a member of the French Academy. 
Died Nov. 29, 1868. (See Louis Marie de la Haye de 
Cormenin, “Biographie parliamentaire de M. Berrver,” 
1837.) 

Ber'ryhill’s, a township of Mecklenburg co., N. C. 
Pop. 1414. 

Ber'ryman, a township of Jo Daviess co., Ill. P. 559. 



















BERRY’S—BERWICKSHIRE. 


Beir'ry’9, a township of Montgomery co., Md. P. 4700. 

Horry’s Store* a township of Jackson co., Ala. P. 600. 

Ber'ryville, a village of Mohawk township, Montgom¬ 
ery co., N. Y., has a cotton factory, paper-mill and grist¬ 
mill. 

Berryville, the capital of Clarke co., Va., is situated 5 
miles W. of the Shenandoah River and 10£ E. of Winches¬ 
ter, and is on the line of the Shenandoah Valley R. R. It 
contains 6 churches, 1 academy, 1 steam saw and 1 sumac 
mill, and 1 newspaper. It is often called “ Battletown,” 
owing to the many contests of Gen. Morgan of Revolution¬ 
ary fame. In this vicinity are many scenes of historic in¬ 
terest. Washington, in surveying the lands of this county 
when it was a part of Frederick, had his head-quarters at 
a beautiful spring just beyond the town. The small house 
which he occupied is still standing. Gen. Morgan lived near 
here. Pop. 580. John 0 . Crown, Ed. “ Clarice Courier.” 

B ersaglie'ri, the Italian name of the riflemen or sharp¬ 
shooters who served in the army of Victor Emmanuel when 
he was king of Sardinia. They took part in the Crimean 
war, 1854-55, and fought against Austria in 1859. They 
wear a dark-green uniform. 

Ber'serker [from her, “bare,” and serh, “coat-of- 
mail”], a hero of Scandinavian mythologjq so named be¬ 
cause he fought without coat-of-mail. He was the grand¬ 
son of Starkader, “ the eight-handed,” and overcame all 
opponents by his irresistible valor. The name has also 
beeu given to a class of warriors who fought naked and 
performed extraordinary feats under the influence of a 
kind of demoniac possession. r 

Berthier, a county of Quebec (Dominion of Canada), 
has an area estimated at 1200 square miles. It is bounded 
on the S. E. by the St. Lawrence River. Its capital is 
Berthier-en-Ilaut, which is on the St. Lawrence, about 55 
miles N. E. of Montreal. Pop. in 1871, 19,804. 

Berthier-en-Bas, a post-village of Montgomery co., 
Ontario, on the right bank of the St. Lawrence, 24 miles 
S. W. of Quebec. 

Berthier-en-Haut, a post-village, capital of Ber¬ 
thier co., Quebec, on the left bank of the St. Lawrence, 55 
miles N. E. of Montreal. It has extensive manufactures of 
leather and a good trade. It has also several saline chalyb¬ 
eate springs, and is in a fertile district. Pop. about 1700. 

Berthier (Louis Alexandre), prince of Wagram, a 
French general, born at Versailles Nov. 20, 1753. He 
served as captain under La Fayette in the U. S. 1778-82. 
In 1796 he became general of division, and chief of the 
staff of Bonaparte’s army of Italy. He gained the con¬ 
fidence of the general-in-chief, retained for many years the 
position of chief of the staff, and accompanied Bonaparte 
to Egypt in 1798. About the end of 1799 he was appointed 
minister of war. He became a marshal of France in 1804, 
and rendered important services in the campaign against 
Austria, 1805. He usually rode in the carriage of Napo¬ 
leon, whose plans he digested, and whose orders he des¬ 
patched with remarkable rapidity and precision. He was 
admirably fitted for the duties of a staff officer by his strong 
constitution, his methodical habits, and his excellent mem¬ 
ory, but he was not so competent to command an army. 
For his conduct at the battle of Wagram (1809) he received 
the title of prince of Wagram. He entered the service of 
Louis XVIII. in 1814, but when Napoleon returned from 
Elba, Bertliier preferred neutrality and retired to Bamberg, 
where he was killed by a fall from a window Jan. 1, 1815. 
He left autobiographic “Memoires d’A. Bertliier,” 1826. 

Berthierite, or Ilarilingerite, a steel-gray, bronzy 
mineral containing FeS + Sb 2 S3. 

Berthollet (Claude Louis), M. D., Count, a French 
chemist, born in Savoy Nov. 9, 1748. He discovered the 
composition of ammonia, and in\ ented the process of 
bleaching by chlorine, that of filtration through charcoal, 
and several fulminating powders. He published a valuable 
work, “The Elements of the Art of Dyeing” (1790), and 
“ Essai de statique chimique” (2 vols., 1803). He was 
associated with Lavoisier in forming a new chemical 
nomenclature, and was one of the chief originatois of mod¬ 
ern chemistry. Died Nov. 6, 1822. (See Cuvier, “ Eloge 
de Berthollet,” 1824.) 

Bertholle'tia, a genus of trees of the order Lecythi- 
dacese. The Bertholletia exceha, a large South American 
tree, produces a hard-shelled fruit (about six inches in 
diameter), enclosing numerous elongated and triangular 
edible seeds, which are called Brazil nuts. Large quanti¬ 
ties of them are exported from Pard. 

]{qj-’ tic* a county of North Carolina, lia\ ing the Chowan 
River on the E. and the Roanoke on the S. Area, about 
900 square miles. It contains extensive pine forests; its 


469 


soil is quite level and fertile. Cotton and corn are the 
staple crops. Capital, Windsor. Pop. 12,950. 

Bertin (Louis Francis), called Bertin l’Ain6, a 
French journalist, was born in Paris Dec. 14, 1766. lie 
founded in 1800, together with his brother (Louis Fran- 
9018, surnamed de Veaux), the daily “Journal des Debats,” 
a literary and political journal, which obtained great influ¬ 
ence and success. He was hostile to Napoleon, who ban¬ 
ished him. Bertin revived his journal in 1814, and con¬ 
tinued to edit it until his death, Sept. 13, 1841.—His son 
(Louis Marie Armand), born Aug. 22, 1801, succeeded him 
as editor. Died Jan. 12, 1854. 

Bertino'ro, a town in Central Italy, province of Forli, 
on a mountain 7 miles S. E. of Forli. It is the seat of a 
bishop. Pop. 6014. 

Ber'tram, a post-township of Linn co., Ia. Pop. 827. 

Ber'traml, a post-township of Berrien co., Mich. 
Pop. 1522. 

Bertrand, de (IIenri Gratien), Count, a French gen¬ 
eral, was born at Chttteauroux Mar. 28, 1773. He followed 
Napoleon to St. Helena in 1815. He died Jan. 31, 1844, 
leaving “ Memoirs of the Campaigns of Egypt and Syria, 
dictated by Napoleon at St. Helena” ( 2 vols., 1847). 

Bcr'wick, a post-village of Cornwallis township, Kings 
co., Nova Scotia, on the Windsor and Annapolis Railway, 
47 miles E. N. E. of Annapolis. It has manufactures of 
boots and shoes. 

Berwick, a post-township of Warren co., III. P. 1066. 

Berwick, a post-township of York co., Me. Pop. 2291. 
It has manufactures of lumber, shoes, carriages, doors, etc. 

Berwick, a post-village in Seneca township, Seneca 
co., 0., on the Cincinnati Sandusky and Cleveland R. II., 
43 miles S. W. of Sandusky. Pop. 188. 

Berwick, a borough and township of Adams co., Pa., 
28 miles S. S. W. of Harrisburg. Pop. of townshij), 507; 
of borough, 325. 

Berwick, a post-borough of Columbia co., Pa., on the 
North Branch of the Susquehanna and on the Lackawanna 
and Bloomsburg R. R., 28 miles S. W. of Wilkesbarre. It 
has a newspaper, one national bank, a car-shop, foundry, 
machine-shop, rolling-mill, and an academy. Pop. 923. 

D. Morris Kurtz, Ed. “Independent.” 

Berwick (James Fitz-James), Duke of, an able gen¬ 
eral, a natural son of James II. of England and Arabella 
Churchill, was born in France Aug. 21, 1670. He had a 
high command in his father’s army in Ireland in 1690, soon 
after which he entered the French service. He obtained 
the command of the French army in Spain in 1704, was 
created a marshal of France in 1706, and gained a decisive 
victory over the English and their allies at Almanza in 1707. 
Philip V. rewarded him with the title of duke of Liria and 
Xerica. He was killed at the siege of Philipsburg June 
12, 1734. (See his own “Memoires,” published by his son 
in 2 vols., Paris, 1778.) 

Berwick-on-Tw r eed, often called simply Berwick, 
a fortified seaport-town of England, in Northumberland, on 
the left (N.) bank of the Tweed, at its entrance into the 
North Sea, 58 miles by rail E. S. E. of Edinburgh; lat. 55° 
46' N., Ion. 1° 59' W. The river is here crossed by an old 
stone bridge of fifteen arches, 924 feet long, and by a mag¬ 
nificent viaduct, over which the trains of the North British 
Railway pass. It is crossed by the North-eastern, the 
Midland, and the Great Northern Railways. It has a Gothic 
church, a theatre, a public library, a town-hall, also large 
manufactures of steam-engines, mill-machinery, etc. Coal¬ 
mines are worked in the vicinity. Pop. in 1871, 13,231. 
The history of Berwick is full of interest. It was one of 
the chief seaports of Scotland in the Middle Ages, and in 
the border wars was often taken and retaken by the Eng¬ 
lish and Scotch, who regarded it as an important military 
position. It was finally ceded to England in 1502, and be¬ 
came by treaty a free town, independent of both states. 
These privileges were confirmed on the accession of James 
I. to the English throne. Down to the time of George II. 
it was customary in Parliamentary statutes to mention 
specifically their application to “ Berwick-on-the-Tweed.” 

Berwickshire, a county of Scotland, forming its S. E. 
extremity, is bounded on the N. by Haddington, on the 
N. E. by the German Ocean, and on the S. E. by the river 
Tweed, which separates it from England, on the S. by Rox¬ 
burgh, and on the W. by Edinburgh. Area, 473 square 
miles. It is drained by the Blackadder, the Whiteadder, and 
the Eye. The surface is partly hilly in the northern part, 
occupied by the Lammermuir Hills. The Merse district in 
the S. part, and near tho Tweed, is nearly level, and is one 
of the most fertile and well-cultivated tracts in the island. 
Carboniferous limestone, porphyry, and old red sandstone 
occur here. Capital, Greenlaw. Pop. in 18/1, 36,4/4. 










470 BERYL-BETHANY. 


Ber'yl [Gr. 0»?puAAo?; Lat. beryl* lua], a mineral which 
occurs in the form of six-sided prisms, which are generally 
blue, yellow, or green, but are sometimes colorless. Those 
which display clear tints of sky-blue or sea-green are called 
aquamarine by jewellers. The deep green crystals consti¬ 
tute Emeralds (which see). The sides of the prisms are 
often longitudinally striated, but the terminating or trun¬ 
cating planes are smooth. The beryl is one of the few min¬ 
erals that contain glucina. It consists of 67 per cent, of 
silica, 19 of alumina, and 14 of glucina. Gigantic crystals 
of beryl are found at Acworth and Grafton in New Hamp¬ 
shire. One specimen found at Grafton was four feet long, 
and weighed more than 2500 pounds. Beryls of fine qual¬ 
ity occur in Brazil, Siberia, and several parts of Eurojie. 
Emeralds are obtained from Peru, Siberia, and Upper 
Egypt. (See Gems, by Prof. H. B. Cornwall, E. M.) 

Be'ryx, a genus of fishes of the family Percidse, of which 
few species are living in the present seas, while a large 
number are found fossil. It begins with the first of the 
teleosts in the chalk. Three species are found in the chalk 
of England, and several in the tertiary, especially in the 
fish-beds of Monte Bolca, near Verona in Italy. This is 
therefore one of the oldest genera of living fishes. 

Berze'lius (Johan Jacob), M. D., F. R. S., Baron, a 
distinguished Swedish chemist, was born in East Goth¬ 
land, Aug. 20, 1779. He studied medicine and chemistry 
at the University of Upsal, and published in 1806 a 
“ Treatise on Animal Chemistry ” (2 vols.). He acquired 
great excellence as an analyst, and made important dis¬ 
coveries in chemistry. He was the author of the system 
of chemical symbols, and he discovered the elements se¬ 
lenium and thorium. His most important work is a 
“ System of Chemistry” (“ Larebok i Kemien,” 3 vols., 
1808-18), which was translated into every European lan¬ 
guage. He was professor of medicine and pharmacy at 
Stockholm 1807-32. He contributed forty-seven articles 
to the “ Memoirs of Physics, Chemistry, and Mineralogy ” 
(6 vols., 1806-18), a work founded by Berzelius and Hisin- 
ger. Died Aug. 7, 1848. (See G. Forciihammer, “ J. J. 
Berzelius,” 1849.) 

Besancon (anc. Vesontio), a city of France, capital 
of the department of Doubs, on the river Doubs, 58 miles 
by rail E. of Dijon. It is connected with Paris and Lyons 
by several railways, is well built and strongly fortified, 
having a citadel which is considered impregnable. It was 
formerly the capital of Franche-Comte. The most remark¬ 
able edifices are a Gothic cathedral, a town-hall, a theatre, 
the palace of Cardinal Granvelle, and the prefecture. It 
has also a college, a public library, a museum, an academy 
of sciences and arts, and extensive manufactures of watches, 
jewelry, porcelain, carpets, etc. Vesontio was an important 
town in the time of Caesar, who in 58 B. C. expelled the 
Sequani from it. Here are many Roman antiquities, and 
the remains of an amphitheatre and aqueduct. P. 46,961. 

Bessara'bia, a province in the S. W. part of Russia, 
is bounded on the N. by Podolia, on the E. by Podolia, 
Cherson, and the Black Sea, on the S. by Moldavia, and 
on the W. by Moldavia and Bukovina. Area, 14,014 square 
miles. By the treaty of Paris (1856) part of Bessarabia 
adjacent to the Black Sea was ceded to Turkey. The sur¬ 
face is mostly low and flat; the soil is fertile, producing 
wheat, barley, maize, tobacco, etc. The chief articles of 
export are cattle, wool, tallow, and salt. The greater part 
of the land is in pasturage. The population is composed 
of Russians, Germans, Bulgarians, Moldavians, Greeks, 
Jews, Poles, etc. Capital, Kishinef. Pop. in 1867, 1,052,013. 

B essa'rion (John), a learned Greek cardinal, born at 
Trebizond in 1395, was a disciple of Plato in philosophy. 
He favored the union of the Latin and Greek churches. 
He was appointed a cardinal by Pope Eugenius IV., and 
received in 1463 the title of patriarch of Constantinople. 
He wrote several works, translated the metaphysics of 
Aristotle into Latin, and was an efficient promoter of 
Greek learning. Died Nov. 19, 1472. (See A. Bandini, 
“ De Vita et Rebus gestis Bessarionis Cardinalis,” 1777; 
Aubery, “Ilistoire des Cardinaux.”) 

Bess'borough, Earls of (1739), Viscounts Duncan- 
non (1723), barons of Bessborough (1723, in Ireland), 
Barons Ponsonby (1749, in Great Britain), Barons Dun- 
cannon (1834, in the United Kingdom), a prominent family 
of Great Britain.— John George Brabazon Ponsonby, the 
fifth earl, born Oct. 14, 1809, succeeded his father in 1847. 
He was member of Parliament for Bletchingley in 1831, 
for Higham Ferrers in 1831, and for Derby 1834-37. 

Bes'sel (Friedrich Wilhelm), an ancient German 
astronomer, born at Minden July 22, 1784. He became 
assistant to Schroter at Lilienthal in 1806, and was ap¬ 
pointed in 1810 director of a new observatory at Konigs- 
berg. In 1818 he published “Fundamenta Astronomic,” 


an important and capital work, on which he had expended 
the labor of many years. After three years’ observations 
he determined in 1840 the annual parallax of the star 61 
Cygni, and published the result in his “ Measure of the 
Distance of the Star 61 Cygni, etc.” (1839). Having made 
a series of 75,011 observations, he formed a catalogue of 
stars within the zone from 15° N. to 15° S. declination, 
containing all stars to the ninth order. Among his works 
are “ Astronomical Observations” (1841-42) and “Popular 
Lectures on Astronomy” (1848). Died Mar. 14, 1846. (See 
C. T. Anger, “Erinnerung au F. W. Bessels Leben und 
Wirken,” 1846.) 

B es'semcr (Henry), an English inventor of Breton 
descent, was born in Hertfordshire in 1818. He made vari¬ 
ous improvements in machinery, but is chiefly known as 
the inventor of the Bessemer process of refining steel—a 
process now largely employed in Europe and America. 
This invention has made Mr. Bessemer a very wealthy man. 

Bessemer’s Process for Refining Iron. See 

Iron, by A. S. Hewitt. 

B essiercs (Jean Baptiste), duke of Istria, a French 
marshal, born near Cahors (Lot) Aug. 5, 1768. He entered 
the army as a private in 1792, served with distinction in 
Italy and Egypt, became a general of division in 1802, and 
marshal of France in 1804. He rendered important ser¬ 
vices at Austerlitz, Jena, Friedland, and Eylau. Having 
obtained in 1808 command of an army in Spain, he gained 
a victory at Medina del Rio Seco. He had the chief command 
of the cavalry of the grand army in 1813, and was killed 
on the day before the battle of Lutzen, May 1, 1813. (See 
Miramont, “Vie de J. B. Bessieres;” “Victoires et Con- 
quetes des Franyais.”) 

Betan'zos (anc. Fla'vium Brigan'tium ), a town of 
Spain, in the province of Corunna, is 12 miles S. E. of Co¬ 
runna. It is said to be the oldest town in Galicia, and has 
remains of ancient fortifications. Here are manufactures 
of linen, leather, and pottery. Pop. 5832. 

Be'tel, or Pawn, a narcotic stimulant extensively used 
as a masticatory by Oriental peoples, especially by tribes 
of the Malay race. It consists of a portion of the nut of 
the Areca Catechu (called betel-nut or pinang), rolled up 
with lime in the leaf of the Piper Betel or other species of 
pepper. The leaf is plucked green, and is smeared with 
moistened quicklime before the slice of areca-nut is 
wrapped in it. This mixture is chewed continually by 
men, women, and children, and the use of it is so general 
that a Malay presents his betel-box as a European offers 
his snuff-box. This practice appears to be very ancient, 
having prevailed before the Christian era. The betel 
causes giddiness in those who are not accustomed to chew 
it. The habitual use of it blackens the teeth, and perhaps 
destroys them. According to Sir James E. Tennent, the 
betel is beneficial, acting as a tonic, antacid, and carmin¬ 
ative. 

Beth, a Hebrew noun, meaning “house” or “habita¬ 
tion,” employed some fifty times in the Scriptures as a 
prefix in naming places, such as Bethel, Bethlehem, and 
Bethany. 

Bethab'ara, a place beyond the Jordan where John 
baptized (John i. 28), though some of the best manuscripts 
have Bethany. 

Betha'nia, a post-township of Forsyth co., N. C. Pop. 
1162. 

Beth'any [Heb. “house of dates;” Gr. Brjflavi'a; Arab. 
El-Azizeh or Lazarieh], a village of Palestine, on the E. 
slope of the Mount of Olives, nearly 2 miles (15 stadia) 
E. of Jerusalem. As the home of Mary, Martha, and 
Lazarus, it was the scene of interesting events in sacred 
history. (See Matthew xxi. 17; xxvi. 6 ; John xi. and xii.; 
Luke xix. 29.) From some point near the village Christ 
ascended into heaven. (Luke xxiv. 50.) Here is a cave or 
excavation in a rock, which, according to a worthless tra¬ 
dition, is the grave of Lazarus. The descent into it is 
effected by twenty-six steps cut into the solid rock. The 
modern village contains about twenty families. 

Bethany, a post-village of Manvers township, Durham 
co., Ontario, Canada, on the Midland Railway, 24 miles 
N. W. by N. of Port Hope. It has three churches and one 
weekly paper. 

Bethany, a post-township of New Haven co., Conn. 
Pop. 1135. 

Bethany, a post-township of Genesee co.. N. Y. Pop. 
1652. 

Bethany, a township of Iredell co., N. C. Pop. 506. 

Bethany, a township of Gratiot co., Mich. Pop. 1462. 

Bethany, a post-village, capital of Harrison co., Mo., 
62 miles N. E. of St. Joseph, 20 miles S. of the Iowa line. 













BETHANY—BETHLEHEM. 


has a good trade, and two weekly newspapers. Pop. of 
township, 2400. Ed. of “Watchman.” 

Bethany, a post-village of By berry township, Wayne 
co., Pa. Pop. 202. 

Bethany, a post-village of Brooke co., West Va., on 
Buffalo Creek, 7 miles from the Ohio River and 16 miles 
N. E. of Wheeling. It is situated in a beautiful and fer¬ 
tile region. It is the seat of Bethany College, established 
in 1841 by Alexander Campbell, the founder of the sect 
of “ Disciples.” 

Beth'el [Arab. Beitin or Beiteeri], an ancient town of 
Palestine, noted as the scene of the dream of the patriarch 
Jacob, was 10 or 12 miles N. of Jerusalem. It was near 
the boundary between Judea and Samaria. Here are ruins 
of ancient churches and other edifices. 

Bethel, a village and township of Wilcox co., Ala., on 
the Alabama River, 50 miles S. W. of Selma. Pop. of the 
township, 2456. 

Bethel, a borough of Fairfield co., Conn., on the Dan¬ 
bury and Norwalk R. R., 3 miles E. S. E. of Danbury and 
25 miles W. N. W. of New Haven. It has manufactures of 
hats. Pop. of township, 2311. 

Bethel, a township of McDonough co., Ill. Pop. 1040. 

Bethel, a post-township of Morgan co., Ill. Pop. 1468. 

Bethel, a township of Posey co., Ind. Pop. 581. 

Bethel, a post-village and township of Oxford co., Me., 
on the Grand Trunk Railway, 70 miles N. N. W. of Port¬ 
land. It has an academy, five churches, and manufactures 
of lumber, carriages, furniture, boxes, woollen goods, 
starch, etc. The scenery is here very fine. Pop. of the 
township, 2286. 

Bethel, a post-township of Branch co., Mich. P. 1511. 

Bethel, a post-township of Anoka co., Minn. Pop. 216. 

Bethel, a small post-village of Shelby co., Mo., about 
40 miles W. N. W. of Hannibal. It was settled about 1842 
by a community of Germans, who built several mills and a 
glove-factory. Pop. of the township, 1224. 

Bethel, a post-village and township of Sullivan co., 

N. Y., 39 miles N. W. of Goshen. It has manufactures 
of leather and lumber. Pop. of the township, 2737. 

Bethel, a township of Cabarrus co., N. C. It is noted 
for its fine scenery. Pop. 1095. 

Bethel, a township of Perquimans co., N. C. Pop. 1128. 

Bethel, a township of Clark co., 0. Pop. 3086. 

Bethel, a post-village of Tate township, Clermont co., 

O. Pop. 634. 

Bethel, a township of Miami co., 0. Pop. 1801. 

Bethel, a township of Monroe co., 0. Pop. 1284. 

Bethel, a post-township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 2285. 

Bethel, a township of Delaware co., Pa. Pop. 554. 

Bethel, a township of Fulton co., Pa. Pop. 861. 

Bethel, a township of Lebanon co., Pa. Pop. 2272. 

Bethel, a township of York co., S. C. Pop. 2330. 

Bethel, a township of Windsor co., Vt., has two post- 
offices, East Bethel and Bethel. It is on the Vermont Cen¬ 
tral R. R., 25 miles N. W. of White River Junction and 40 
miles S. of Montpelier. It has manufactures of shoe-pegs, 
lumber, leather, etc., a national bank, one weekly newspa¬ 
per, and seven churches. Pop. 1817. 

Ed. “White River Standard.” 

Bethel, a township of Pendleton co., West Va. P.714. 

Bethel College, in McKenzie, Tenn. This institu¬ 
tion of learning was founded, with a liberal charter, in 
1850. Its career of usefulness met the most sanguine ex¬ 
pectations of its ardent friends. In an incredibly short 
time fine libraries of well-selected books were collected, an 
excellent apparatus was obtained, and praiseworthy efforts 
made by the board of trustees to secure a liberal endow¬ 
ment. The very moderate charges, as at present, have 
ever made it eminently the school of the people. The war 
of the States in 1861-65 closed its doors, and left its de¬ 
nuded walls all scathed and scarred, the endowment lost, 
libraries scattered, the apparatus destroyed, and its friends 
wasted and greatly disheartened. But since the dark clouds 
of despondency have partially passed away the reorganiza¬ 
tion of the college has been consummated. To secure 
better accessibility, the college has been moved from Mc- 
Lemoresville to McKenzie, Tenn. Her doors are again open, 
and she comes forward to resume her position among col¬ 
leges, that she may bear her part in the education and ele¬ 
vation of the youth of our common country. A liberal pa¬ 
tronage has been given since the reorganization. Successful 
efforts for endowment are being made, the refilling of the 
cases with valuablo libraries has been undertaken with en¬ 
couragement, and the furnishing of suitable apparatus is pro¬ 


471 


gressing. thus dark hours are yielding to a brighter dawning. 
The college is under the control of the Synod of West Ten¬ 
nessee of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. A liberal 
Christianity and a high standard of moral character are 
inculcated, yet no peculiar sectarian or political princi¬ 
ples are allowed in the literary department. Candidates 
for the ministry of all denominations receive tuition free 
of charge. “ Church schools differ from the schools of 
secular learning as differs the cold statue from the livin"- 
man.” Bethel College admits both sexes to her highest 
honors. The course of study is as thorough as that of any 
college of the country, and of an eminently practical cha- ,, 
racter. This institution has had her bright as well as her 
dark hours. Many of the most useful in all the profes¬ 
sions found in various parts of the country have obtained 
their education in this college. There have been many of 
the most powerful revivals of religion connected with its 
history. Her presidents have been in the following order: 
Rev. J. N. Roach, Rev. C. J. Bradley, Rev. A. Freeman, 

D. D., Rev. Felix Johnson, D. D., Rev. B. W. McDonnald, 

D. D., LL.D., Rev. J. S. Howard, A. M.,Rev. M. Liles, A. M., 
Rev. W. W. Hendrix. McKenzie is in Carroll county, at 
the junction of the Nashville and North-western and Mem¬ 
phis Clarksville and Louisville R. Rs. 

W. W. Hendrix. 

Bethes'da [Heb. “house of mercy” or “place of the 
flowing of water”], a pool or tank at Jerusalem where the 
lame man was miraculously healed (John v. 1-9). Some 
identify it with Birket Israil, a large reservoir inside the 
city walls, near St. Stephen’s Gate; others with the Foun¬ 
tain of the Virgin (intermittent), about 300 yards S. of the 
Temple area; and others with the Pool of Siloam, about 
300 yards farther S. 

Bethescla, a township of York co., S. C. Pop. 2997. 

Be'thia, a township of Marion co., S. C. Pop. 767. 

Beth'Jehem [Heb. Beth-lehem, the “house of bread,” 
so called from its fertile soil], a town frequently mentioned 
in both the Old and New Testaments, and especially dis¬ 
tinguished as the birthplace of our Saviour, as well as of 
his ancestor, King David. Anciently it was called “ Beth¬ 
lehem Judah,” to distinguish it from another Bethlehem 
in the northern part of Palestine (Josh. xix. 15). It is 
mentioned as existing in the time of Jacob, but was proba¬ 
bly never very large or commercially important. It has 
at present about 3000 inhabitants, all Christians. The 
principal trade of the place is in crosses, beads, and relics. 
Here are Greek, Latin, and Armenian convents; and the 
monks show a cave which they claim to have been the 
stable where our Lord was born. (See Robinson’s “ Bibli¬ 
cal Researches;” IIackett’s “ Illustrations of Scripture;” 
Ritter’s “Geography of Palestine.”) 

Bethlehem, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 993. 

Bethlehem, a post-township of Clarke co., Ind. P.763. 

Bethlehem, a post-township of Grafton co., N. II., 
on the White Mountain R. R., 5 miles from Littleton. It 
has manufactures of lumber and starch. Pop. 998. 

Bethlehem, a post-village and township of Hunter¬ 
don co., N. J., on the New Jersey Central R. R., 37 miles 
N. N. W. of Trenton. Pop. of the township, 2211. 

Bethlehem, a post-township of Albany co., N. Y. 
Pop. 6950. 

Bethlehem, a township of Coshocton co., 0. P. 850. 

Bethlehem, a village and township of Stark co., 0., 

58 miles S. S. E. of Cleveland. Pop. of township, 2148. 

Bethlehem, a township and borough of Northampton 
co., Pa., on the left bank of the Lehigh River, and on the 
Lehigh Valley and Lehigh and Susquehanna R. Rs., 51 
miles N. of Philadelphia and 5 miles E. of Allentown. It 
is the northern terminus of the North Pennsylvania R. R., 
and is pleasantly situated on the slopes of several hills. 

A bridge across the river connects it with South Bethlehem, 
the seat of Lehigh University, founded by Asa Packer in 
1865, and richly endowed, having a fine stone edifice on a 
high and commanding position. Bethlehem was founded 
in 1741 by the Moravians, who have here a large stono 
church 142 feet long, a theological seminary, an ancient 
chapel, and several benevolent institutions. There are also 
a school for boys and a seminary for ladies, three news¬ 
papers, two national banks, one savings bank, and another 
banking-house. There are a large number of manufactories, 
chiefly in South Bethlehem, including the Lehigh Shovel- 
Works, several foundries, the Bethlehem Iron Company’s 
rolling-mills, machine-shops, etc.—one of the largest estab¬ 
lishments of the kind in the U. S.; Lehigh Zinc Company’s 
rolling-mill, zinc, oxide, and spelter works; Lehigh Brass- 
Works, gas-works in both boroughs, etc. Pop. ot Beth¬ 
lehem township, 2230; of Bethlehem borough, 4512; ot 

South Bethlehem borough, 3556. 

D. J. Godsiialk, Ed. “ Daily Times.” 















472 


BETHLEHEMITES—BEVERIDGE. 


Beth'lehemites, an order of monks established at 
Cambridge, England, in 1257 ; also an order of monks and 
nuns founded at Guatemala about 1665. They are found 
in Central and South America and the Canary Islands. 

Bethlem, a post-township of Litchfield co., Conn. 
Top. 750. 

Beth'maim-Holl'weg (Moritz August), a German 
jurist and statesman, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main April 
8, 1795. He was professor of civil law at Berlin, and sub¬ 
sequently at Bonn, and was Prussian minister of public 
instruction from 1858 to 1862. He published several valu¬ 
able legal works. 

Beth'phage, a locality in Palestine, near Jerusalem, 
appears to have been on or near the Mount of Olives. The 
name occurs in Luke xix. 29 and Matthew xxi. 1. Its site 
has not been exactly ascertained. 

Bethsa'ida [Heb. “house of fish”], an ancient town 
in Palestine, on the W. shore of the Lake of Galilee, the 
home of Andrew, Peter, and Philip (John i. 44). Dr. 
Robinson identifies it with Ain-et-Tabigbah, in a little bay 
or cove between Khan Minych (Capernaum?) and Tell 
Hum (Chorazin?). Another Bethsaida, afterwards called 
Julias, was situated near the head of the lake, on the E. 
side of the Jordan, about 2 miles from its mouth. It was 
near this Bethsaida that Christ fed the 5000. (Luke ix. 
10-17.) 

Beth'sheincsh [Heb. “house of the sun”], the name 
of four places mentioned in the Scriptures, the most im¬ 
portant of which was a sacerdotal city of Judah, about 15 
miles W. S. W. of Jerusalem, and about 2 miles from the 
great Philistine plain. It was here the ark rested on its 
way home from Ekron (7 miles). It was here that Amaziah, 
king of Judah, was worsted and taken prisoner by Jehoash, 
king of Israel (2 Kings xiv. 11-13). In the reign of Ahaz 
it was captured by the Philistines (2 Chron. xxviii. 18), 
and is not again mentioned in sacred history. It stood on 
a low ridge. Only ruins now mark the spot, which bears 
the name of Ain-Shems (“fountain of the sun”). The 
greater part of Samson’s exploits were in its immediate 
neighborhood. 

Bethune, a fortified town of France, in the department 
of Pas de Calais, near the river Lave and the Canal of 
Aire, 23 miles by rail N. N. W. of Arras. It has a fine 
castle, a college, and a Gothic church; also manufactures 
of oil, soap, and woollen goods. It was taken from the 
Spaniards in 1645, retaken by Prince Eugene in 1710, and 
restored to France in 1713. Pop. 8178. 

llethune (George Washington), D. D., an American 
divine and poet, was born in the city of New York in 1805. 
He graduated at Dickinson College in 1822, and at the 
Princeton Theological Seminary in 1825. In 1828 he 
became pastor of a Dutch Reformed church in Rhinebeck, 
N. Y. He was afterwards settled in Utica, and still later 
in Philadelphia. In 1849 he removed to Brooklyn, N. Y. 
In 1861 he went to Europe for the benefit of his health, but 
died at Florence April 28, 1862. Dr. Bethune was distin¬ 
guished for his fine taste, his varied culture, and his love 
of nature. Besides several literary and religious works, he 
published “A Commentary on the 130th Psalm” (1847), 
“Lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism” (1864), “Lays 
of Love and Faith ” (1847). (See his life by 1 )r. Van Nest, 
New York, 1867.) 

Beton. See Brick, Cement, and Stone, Artificial, 
by Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, U. S. A. 

Bet'terton (Thomas), a popular English actor, born 
in London in Aug., 1635. He performed with great success 
the parts of Hamlet, Macbeth, and Othello. He was the 
chief ornament of the English stage for nearly fifty years. 
His wife was a popular actress. He died April 28, 1710. 
(See Charles Gildon, “Life of T. Betterton,” 1710.) 

Bet'ting, or Wa'gcring, a vicious practice which 
prevails more or less in all countries. The English are 
addicted to betting on horse-races to a ruinous extent. The 
British Parliament passed an act, 16 and 17 Viet. c. 119, 
to suppress the haunts of betters, called betting-houses, 
which it declares to be a common nuisance and contrary to 
law. But it provides that its enactments shall not extend 
to stakes or deposits due to the winner of any race or law¬ 
ful sport. The laws of the U. S. prohibit betting on elec¬ 
tions. 

Betts (Samuel Rossiter), LL.D., one of the ablest of 
American jurists, was born at Richmond, Mass., June 8, 
1787, and graduated at Williams College in 1806, practised 
law in Sullivan co., N. Y., served in the war of 1812, 
became judge advocate, and was a member of Congress 
(1815-17). He was a judge of the circuit court for the 
State (1823-26), and U. S. district judge (1826-67). Died 
Nov. 2, 1868. He published a treatise on “Admiralty 
Practice” (1838). 


Bett’s, a township of Sanford co., Ala. Pop. 1048. 

Beudant (Francois Sulptce'), an eminent French min¬ 
eralogist, born in Paris Sept. 5, 1787, became professor of 
mineralogy in Paris in 1820. Among his writings is an 
“ Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy” (2d ed. 1830). Died 
Dec. 9, 1850. 

Beugnot, de (Arthur Auguste), Comte, a French 
writer and liberal statesman, was born at Bar-sur-Aube in 
1797. Ho wrote an “Essay on the Institutions of Saint 
Louis” (Paris, 8vo, 1821), “The Jews of the West” 
(Paris, 8vo, 1824), and a “History of the Destruction of 
Paganism in the West” (2 vols., 1835). He became a peer 
of France in 1841. As a member of the Legislative As¬ 
sembly of 1849 he promoted freedom in public instruction. 
Died in 1865. 

Beu'lah, a township of Lee co., Ala. Pop. 1299. 

Beulah, a post-village, capital of Bolivar co., Miss., 
on the Mississippi River, 110 miles N. of Vicksburg. 

Beulah, a post-township of Johnston co., N. C. Pop. 
1105. 

Bcule (Charles Ernest), a French archaeologist, born 
June 29, 1826, took part in 1849-53 in the excavations of 
the Acropolis in Athens, and became in 1854 professor of 
archaeology in the Imperial Library in Paris. He wrote, 
among other works, “ L'Acnrpole d’Ath^nes ” (2 vols., 
1854), “Etudes sur le Peloponnese” (1855), and “ Fouilles 
de Carthage” (the results of his excavations in Carthage 
in 1858). 

Beur'mami, von (Karl Moritz), a celebrated Ger¬ 
man explorer, was born in 1835. In 1860 he attempted 
to explore the country of the Bogos, but did not succeed in 
reaching it until Mar., 1861. In Dec., 1861, he was en¬ 
gaged to look for Vogel, who, it was supposed, had been 
murdered in Wadai. Beurmann was to start from Tripoli, 
while at the same time Heuglin should attempt to reach 
Wadai from Abyssinia. He reached Kuka in Bornu in 
Aug., 1862. As it was impossible to reach Wadai at that 
time, he made a trip to Jacoba in Bautchi, from which he 
returned to Kuka Dec. 13. Soon aftjpr he attempted the 
voyage to Wadai, and having succeeded in reaching Wadai 
after several futile attempts, he was murdered in Feb., 
1863, in Moa, in the most W. province of Wadai, by the 
command of the governor. 

Beusa'lem, a township of Moore co., N. C. Pop. 1032. 

Beust, von (Friedrich Ferdinand), Baron, an able 
German statesman, born at Dresden June 13, 1809. He was 
appointed minister of foreign affairs in Saxony in 1849. 
In Oct., 1866, he became minister of foreign affairs and 
prime minister of the Austrian empire. He received the 
additional title of chancellor of the empire in June, 1867, 
when Austria was apparently on the verge of ruin. He 
urged the emperor to adopt a liberal policy, and he effected 
important reforms which promoted civil and religious lib¬ 
erty. He insisted on the abolition of the concordat with 
the pope, and induced Francis Joseph to enter into friendly 
relations with the king of Prussia and emperor of united 
Germany. Never since the time of Metternich was the 
foreign policy of Austria so wisely directed as it was by 
Von Beust. He resigned in Nov., 1871, for reasons (as he 
announced) not. political, but purely personal. He was 
then sent as ambassador to London. 

Beu'then, atown of Prussia, in Silesia, 50 miles E. S. E. 
of Oppeln, has manufactures of woollen cloth, zinc-ware, 
and pottery. Pop. in 1871, 17,946. 

Kcv'el [Fr. beveau or bureau'], an instrument used by 
masons and carpenters to take or measure angles. It is 
movable on a point or centre, and may be set to any angle. 
The term also denotes a slant or inclination of a surface 
which is not at right angles with the adjacent surface; a 
sloped or canted surface. It is nearly synonymous with 
splay. 

Bevel Gear, or Bevelled Gear, in mechanics, a 
species of wheelwork in which the axes of two wheels 
working into each other are neither parallel nor perpendicu¬ 
lar, but inclined to each other at a certain angle. Some 
wheels are also called conical wheels. 

Bevercu, a town of Belgium, in the province of East 
Flanders, 7 miles by rail W. of Antwerp. It has factories 
of laces, woollen, linen, and cotton goods. Pop. in 1866, 
7151. 

Bev'cridge (William), an English Orientalist and 
bishop, born at Barrow, in Leicestershire, in 1638. lie was 
a man of great learning and of profoundly religious cha¬ 
racter. He published a “ Treatise on Chronology ” (1669), 
a work “ On the Canons of the Greek Church” (1672), and 
several devotional treatises. In 1704 he was appointed 
bishop of St. Asaph. Died in 1708. (See Thomas H. 












BEVERLAND—BIIAGAVAT GITA. 


473 


Horne, “ Memoir of Bishop Beveridge,” prefixed to an 
edition of his works, 9 vols. 8vo, 1824.) 

Bev'erlaml (Adriaan), a Dutch classical scholar and 
heterodox writer, born at Middelburg about 1654, was a 
friend of Isaac Vossius. He wrote “ Peccatum Originale” 
(“Original Sin,” 1678), and other works which were cen¬ 
sured for impiety. He was banished from Utrecht, and re¬ 
moved to England, where he died insane in 1712. 

1? ev'erley, a market-town of England, in Yorkshire, 

1 mite W. of the river Hull, and 10 mites N. N. W. of the 
city of Hull. It is the chief town of the East Riding of 
Yorkshire, and is handsomely built. The origin of the 
name is said to be Beverlac, a “ lake or dam of beavers.” 
It has an ancient and beautiful Gothic minster, called the 
church of St. John, which exhibits several styles of Gothic 
architecture, and ranks next to York Minster among the 
ecclesiastical structures of England. The oldest part of 
this was erected in the thirteenth century. A priory was 
founded here about 700 A. D. Beverley has an active trade 
in corn, coals, and leather, and is on the railway from Hull 
to York. Pop. in 1871, 10,218. 

Bev'erly, a post-township of Adams co.. Ill. P. 1173. 

Beverly, a thriving post-village of Essex co., Mass., 
is on a small inlet of the ocean, and on the Eastern R. R., 

2 mites N. N. E. of Salem and 18 mites N. N. E. of Boston. 
A bridge across the inlet connects it with Salem. It de¬ 
rives its prosperity chiefly from commerce and fisheries, and 
has a national bank and manufactures of shoes, carriages, 
cotton and woollen goods. It has one weekly newspaper, 
ten churches, and an insurance company. Pop. of Beverly 
township, 6507. 

Beverly, a city of Burlington co., N. J., on the Delaware 
River and the Camden and Amboy R. R., 15 mites above 
Philadelphia. It has five churches, a woollen mill, an oil¬ 
cloth factory, a very extensive ropewalk, and one weekly 
paper. It is a place of summer resort. Pop. 1418 ; of Bev¬ 
erly township, 2438. Geo. F. Clarke, Pub. “Visitor.” 

Beverly, a post-village, capital of Randolph co., West 
Va., is on the Tygart’s Valley River, about 100 mites S. S. E. 
of Wheeling. Pop. of Beverly township, 847. 

Beverly, a post-village of Washington co., 0., on the 
Muskingum River, 20 mites above Marietta. It has a 
national bank. Pop. 814. 

Beverly Manor, a township of Augusta co., Va. The 
town of Staunton is in this township. Pop. 8071. 

Bevier', a post-village of Macon co., Mo., on the Han¬ 
nibal and St. Joseph R. R., 5 mites W. of Macon City. 
Pop. 833; of Bevier township, 1531. 

Bewd'Iey (formerly Beaulieu, i. e. “fair place,” so 
called from its situation), a market-town of England, in 
Worcestershire, on the river Severn, 14 mites N. N. W. of 
Worcester. It is pleasantly situated and neatly built, and 
has manufactures of combs, carpets, brass-ware, and leather. 
Pop. in 1871, 3018. 

Bew'ick (Thomas), a celebrated English engraver, born 
near Newcastle-on-Tyne Aug. 12, 1753, was a pupil of Beil- 
by. He was the founder of the modern English school of 
wood-engraving, and none of his numerous pupils have 
excelled him. He illustrated Gay’s “Fables,” 1779. Beilby 
and Bewick published in 1790 a “ History of British Quad¬ 
rupeds,” with engravings, which procured for Bewick a high 
rejiutation. He was assisted by his brother John in the de¬ 
signs of Goldsmith’s “ Traveller ” and “ Deserted Village.” 
Among his best works is a “History of British Birds” (2 
vols., 1804). Died Nov. 8, 1828. 

Bexar [Sp. pron. b&-Har'], a county in the S. of 
Texas. Area, 1456 square mites. It is intersected by the 
Medina River, and bounded on the N. E. by the Cibolo, 
and also drained by Salada Creek. The soil is generally 
fertile, adapted to maize, cotton, wheat, and pasturage. 
Capital, San Antonio. Pop. 16,043. 

Bexar Territory, an extensive portion of Western 
Texas, having an area of not less than 25,000 square mites. 
It has few inhabitants except Indians. The N. W. portion 
is an outlying part of the Llano Estacado, or “ Staked 
Plain,” a region having little wood, a few springs and 
“water-holes,” some of them salt, and a very few insig¬ 
nificant streams and lakes. The Rio Pecos extends along 
the western border. In the E. central portion there are 
quite a number of streams, chiefly tributaries of the Colo¬ 
rado. The S. central part has an extensive table-land. 
Much of the region is mountainous and rocky. It has 
some cedar timber. The chief settlement is at Fort Concho. 
Its Indians are hostile and intractable. Pop. 1077. 

Bey, or Beg, a title of the Turkish empire signifying 
“lord.” The ruling officers of Tripoli and Tunis are beys; 
and the' same title is given to some local magistrates, to 


colonels and generals of the arm}’, and to the sons of pashas. 
In other cases it is a merely honorary title. 

Beyle (Marie IIenri), a French litterateur, who wrote 
under the assumed name of Stendhal, was born at Gren¬ 
oble Jan. 23, 1783. He held several high civil offices under 
Napoleon. Among his chief works are a “ History of 
Painting in Italy ” (2 vols., 1817), “ Le Rouge Qt le Noir,” 
a novel, a “ Life of Rossini ” (1824), “ Memoirs of a Tour¬ 
ist” (1838), “Rome, Naples, and Florence,” and a novel 
called “The Carthusian Nun of Parma” (1839). He passed 
many years inJJaly. Died in Paris in 1842. (SeelloNORE 
de Balzac!, “Etudes sur M. Beyle.”) 

Bey'root', Beyrout, Beirout, Beirut, or Bairut 

[supposed by some to be identical with the Beroihai of 
2 Sam. viii. 8, and the Berothah of Ezek. xlvii. 16 ; Gr. 
Btjpvto?; Lat. Berytus], a flourishing commercial town and 
seaport of Syria, is finely situated on the Mediterranean at 
the foot of Mount Lebanon, 85 miles W. N. W. of Damascus. 
It is situated on a promontory. The adjacent scenery is 
very picturesque. The harbor admits only small vessels, 
but in the bay about 3 mites from the city there is good 
anchorage for large ships. This is the chief seaport of 
Damascus and Syria, and has an extensive commerce, 
which is increasing. French steamers ply weekly between 
Beyroot and Marseilles, and British steamers ply regularly 
between this city and Liverpool. The chief articles of ex¬ 
port are madder, silk, wool, olive oil, and gums. Here are 
important manufactures of silk stuffs. Pop. in 1867, about 
100,000. Berytus was besieged and taken by Baldwin, 
king of Jerusalem, about 1110, and retaken by the Sara¬ 
cens in 1187. 

B e'za [Fr. De Beze~\, (Theodore), an eminent Calvin- 
istic theologian, born at Vezelay, in Burgundy, June 24, 
1519. In his youth he enjoyed two benefices in the Cath¬ 
olic Church, but in 1548 he went to Geneva with his wife, 
and avowed himself a Protestant. He became professor 
of Greek at Lausanne, and an intimate friend of Calvin. 
In 1554 he published a treatise, “ De Hsereticis a Civili 
Magistratu Puniendis,” in which he defended the burning 
of Servetus. He translated the New Testament into Latin 
(1556), removed to Geneva in 1559, and became Calvin’s 
ablest coadjutor. He succeeded Calvin as professor of 
theology in 1564. He afterwards ruled the Genevan Church 
with energy for forty years. Among his works are a “ Life 
of Calvin” and a “History of the Reformed Churches in 
France from 1521 to 1563” (3 vols., 1580). Died Oct. 13, 
1605. (See Baum, “ Th. Beza,” 2 vols., 1843-51; Heppe, 
“Th. Beza,” 1861.) 

Bezant', or Besant, a gold coin struck at Byzantium, 
or a circular piece of gold or silver without any impression, 
supposed to be a part of the old coinage of Byzantium. 
Some of these were brought home by the Crusaders, and 
were current in England. Their value was 10s. sterling, 
but some gold bezants were worth £15 sterling. They 
occur in heraldic charges, especially Cornish coat-armor, 
and in the arms of banks or bankers (hence the “three 
balls” of the pawnbrokers’ shops). Bezant in heraldry is 
a globe or, or a circle argent. 

Bez'dau, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs. 
Pop. iu 1870, 7573. 

Beziers (anc. Breter'rse), a city of France, in the de¬ 
partment of Herault, on the river Orb and the Canal du Midi, 
27 mites by rail E. S. E. of Cette. It is on the railway 
which connects Montpellier with Toulouse, and has a de¬ 
lightful situation, with a mild climate. Among its antique 
and interesting edifices are a noble Gothic cathedral and 
the church of La Madeleine. It has a college, a public 
library, a theatre; also manufactures of silk, hosiery, 
gloves, glass, soap, brandy, and leather. Beziers has some 
Roman remains. It was the scene of a massacre of the 
Albigenses in 1209. Pop. 27,722. 

B e'zoar, a calculous concretion found in the stomachs 
or intestines of goats, deer, and other ruminant animals, 
was formerly prized for its supposed medicinal virtues and 
as an antidote to poisons. That of the antelope was espe¬ 
cially prized. The bezoar is sometimes composed of the 
superphosphate of lime. It is quite worthless as a medicine. 

Bhagavat (or Bhagavad) Gita, modern Hindoo 
pron. bhug'a vut geet— i. e. “the divine song” [from the 
Sanscrit bhagavat, “adorable,” “divine,” and gita, a “song ’], 
a famous Hindoo poem usually regarded as an episode of 
the Mahabharata (which see), though it is not found in 
all the manuscripts of that great epic. The Bhagavat Gita 
may be called a poetical treatise on the Hindoo philosophy, 
ethical and religious. The discourse on these subjects is 
represented as proceeding from the mouth of the god 
Krishna (one of the avatars of Vishnu). The poem is re¬ 
garded with great reverence by the Hindoos, and it has 
been made the subject of numerous commentaries both in 





















474 


BHAMO—BIBERACH. 


India and in Europe. (See a translation by Wilkins, who 
first introduced the poem to the notice of Europe; W. vox 
Humboldt, “Treatise on the Bhaghavat Gita,” 1827.) The 
Sanscrit text, with a Latin translation, was edited by A. 
W. von Schlegel (2d ed., 1846). 

Bharno. See Bamo. 

Bhar'tri-IIa'ri, a Hindoo poet celebrated as a writer 
of apothegms, is supposed to have been a brother of King 
Vikramaditya, who lived in the first century B. C. Bis 
name is attached to a collection of 300 apothegms which 
were published by Bohlen (Berlin, 1863). Bhartri-Hari 
was the first Hindoo poet whose works became known in 
Europe. 

Bhawl'poor, a state of northern India, bounded on 
the N. W. by the Ghara River and the Indus, and on the 
S. W. by Sinde. Area, about 22,000 square miles. The 
soil is mostly desert and sterile, except near the Ghara. 
Cattle, poultry, sheep, rice, and provisions are plentiful 
and cheap. The chief articles of export are cotton, sugar, 
indigo, hides, wool, and drugs. Capital, Bhawlpoor. This 
state is subject to a khan, and protected by the British. 
Pop. about 500,000. 

BhaAVlpoor, a town of India, the capital of the above 
state, is on a branch of the river Ghara, 210 miles S. W. 
of Lahore. It is situated in a fertile district, which pro¬ 
duces abundance of oranges, apples, and other fruits, and 
has an extensive trade. Here are manufactures of scarfs, 
turbans, chintzes, and other cotton stuffs. Pop. about 
20 , 000 . 

Bhil 'sa, a town of Hindostan, 190 miles S. of Gwalior, 
on the Betwat River, is built on a trap rock, and is for¬ 
tified. In the neighborhood are extensive ruins. Good 
tobacco is raised here. Pop. about 30,000. 

Bhooj, a fortified town of Hindostan, capital of Cutch, 
170 miles S. E. of Hyderabad. It has numerous temples 
or pagodas, mosques, and a beautiful mausoleum of 
Row Lakka, a former ruler of Cutch. Its manufac¬ 
tures of gold and silver are widely celebrated. Pop. 
estimated at 25,000. 

Bho'pal', or Bhapaul, a state of Hindostan 
under British protection, is bounded on the S. by the 
Nerbudda River. Area, estimated at 6764 square 
miles. It is traversed by the Yindhyan Mountains. 
Capital, Bhopal. Pop. about 664,000. 

Bhurt'poor', or Bhurtpore, a “protected” 
state of British India, is between 26° 30' and 27° 50' 

N. lat., and between 77° and 78° E. Ion. Area, es¬ 
timated at 1978 square miles. Good crops of cot¬ 
ton, sugar, and grain are produced. The heat in sum¬ 
mer is extreme. Pop. about 600,000. 

Bhurtpoor, or Bharatpura, a large town of 
India, capital of the above state, in a plain 33 miles W. of 
Agra; lat. 27° 12' N., Ion. 77° 33' E. Pop. estimated at 
100,000. It was formerly fortified by a mud wall, and a 
ditch which could be filled with water from a lake. Lord 
Lake, having assaulted this town in 1805, lost 3000 men. It 
was besieged and taken by the British in 1826. 

Bi [from the Lat. bis, “twice”], a prefix which occurs 
in many chemical and other scientific terms, and denotes 
duality or the number 2, as bivalve, “having two valves;” 
bicarbonate, a salt in which two equivalents of carbonic 
acid are combined with a base; biceps, “double-headed.” 

Biaf'ra, Bight of, a bay of the Atlantic Ocean, on 
the W. coast of Africa, is the eastern portion of the Gulf 
of Guinea, and lies between Cape Formosa and Cape Lo¬ 
pez. It encloses the island of Fernando Po and other 
smaller isles. The largest rivers which flow into the bight 
are the Niger (or Quorra), the Calabar, and the Cameroon. 

Bia'la, an Austrian town, in Galicia, situated on the 
Biala, 42 miles S. W. of Cracow, has manufactures of cloth 
and linens. It is connected by rail with Bielitz. Pop. in 
1869, 6558. 

Biala, a town of Russia, in the government of Siedlce. 
It has several churches and a monastery. Pop. in 1867, 
5662. 

Bial'ystok, a fortified town of Russia, in the govern¬ 
ment of Grodno, on the river Bialy, 52 miles by rail S. W. 
of Grodno. It is well built and handsome, has several 
churches, and a palace with a park, which have been called 
the “Versailles of Poland.” Here are a gymnasium and 
manufactures of woollen goods, hats, leather, and soap. It 
is on a railway from Warsaw to Grodno. Pop. in 1869 
16,985. 

Biancavil'la (i. e. “white town”), a town of Sicily, 
in the province of Catania, on the S. W. declivity of Mount 
Etna, 13 miles N. W. of Catania. Grain, cotton, and silk 
are exported from it. Pop. 9083. 


Bianchi'ni (Francesco), an eminent Italian astrono¬ 
mer and antiquary, was born at Verona Dec. 13, 1662. He 
lived mostly at Rome, and enjoyed a rich benefice, the gift 
of Pope Alexander VIII. He published, besides other 
works, a “Universal History, proved by Monuments and 
illustrated with Symbols of the Antique” (1694). He 
spent several years in an effort to draw a meridian line 
from the Adriatic to the Mediterranean, but failed to com¬ 
plete it. He succeeded in drawing a meridian line through 
the church of Santa Maria degli. Angeli. Died at Rome Mar. 
2,1729. (See Fontenelle, “ Eloge de Bianchini,” 1757; A. 
Mazzoleni, “Vita di F. Bianchini,” 1735.) 

Biard (Auguste Francis), an eminent French painter, 
born at Lyons June 27, 1800, travelled extensively in the 
Levant, Egypt, etc., collecting materials for his art. He 
excelled in several departments of painting, especially in 
genre. Among his works are a “ Family of Beggars,” “ The 
Strolling Players,” “The Wind of the Desert,” “A Battle 
with Polar Bears,” “The Slave-Trade,” and the “Burning 
of a Hindoo Widow.” (See L. Boivin, “Notice sur M. 
Biard.”) 

Biarritz, a village and fashionable watering-place of 
France, on the Bay of Biscay, in the department of Basses- 
Pyrenees, 5 miles S. W. of Bayonne. Here are several 
curious grottoes and mineral springs. The situation is 
pleasant and healthy. This was recently the summer resi¬ 
dence of Napoleon III. Pop. 3652. 

Bi' as [Bias], one of the Seven Sages of Greece, was a 
native of Priene, and a contemporary of Croesus, king of 
Lydia. He lived about 570-550 B. C. He was distin¬ 
guished for eloquence as well as wisdom, and was em¬ 
ployed as a legal and political adviser or advocate. Ac¬ 
cording to tradition, he said, “I carry all my goods (or 
riches) with me.” 

Bib, called also Pout or Whiting Pout (Gadus lus - 



The Bib. 

ens or Morrhna Insca), a fish of the same genus as the cod 
and haddock, is found on many parts of the British coasts 
and farther N. It is seldom more than one foot long, 
and is remarkable for the depth of its body, which equals 
one-fourth of its length. It is esteemed for food. 

Bibb, a county near the centre of Alabama. Area, 700 
square miles. It is intersected by the Cahawba River. 
The surface is hilly; the soil in parts fertile. Cotton and 
corn are the chief crops. Iron ore and coal are found in 
it. Capital, Centreville. Pop. 7469. 

Bibb, a county near the centre of Georgia. Area, 250 
square miles. It is traversed by the Ocmulgee River, and 
also drained by the Tobesofka Creek. The surface is 
hilly ; cotton and corn are the chief crops. The county is 
intersected by the Central, the Macon and Western, and the 
Macon and Brunswick R. Rs. Capital, Macon. P. 21,255. 

Bibb (George M.), born in Virginia in 1772, graduated 
at Princeton in 1792, became a prominent lawyer of Ken¬ 
tucky, and was several times chosen chief-justice of that 
State, and once chancellor; was U. S. Senator (1811-14 and 
1829-35), and secretary of the treasury under Tyler. He 
published four volumes of Kentucky “Law Reports” (1815— 
17). Died at Georgetown, D. C., April 14, 1859. 

Bibb (William Wyatt), M. D., born in Virginia Oct. 
1, 1780, was member of Congress from Georgia (1806-13), 
U. S. Senator (1813-14), governor of Alabama Territory 
(1817-19), and first governor of the State of Alabama (1819- 
20). Died July 9, 1820. 

Bi'ber (George Edward), an English clergyman, born 
in 1801, was formerly associated with Pestalozzi in educa¬ 
tional enterprises, and is author of several pedagogic works. 
He has taken an active part in recent church controversies 
in the High Church interest. 

Bi'berach', a town of Wiirtemberg, is in a charming 
valley and on the river Riss, 23 miles by rail S. S. W. of 
Ulm. It has a realschulo, a beautiful church, built in 1110, 


























BIBERICH—BIBLE SOCIETIES. 


manufactures of paper, linen goods, leather, etc. Pop. in 
1871, 7091. The French general Moreau here defeated the 
Austrians under Latour in Oct., 1796, and the Austrian gene¬ 
ral Kray in 1800. The poet Wieland was born near Biberach. 

lJi'berich, or Bie'brich, a village of Prussia, in the 
province of Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine, 
3 miles S. of Wiesbaden. It has a ducal residence which 
is said to be the finest palace on the Rhine. The river- 
scenery here visible is almost unrivalled. Pop. including 
Mosbach, in 1871, 6642. 

Bibes'co (George Demetrius), Prince, ex-hospodar 
of Wallachia, born in 1804 in the banat of Craiova, studied 
at Paris, and became under-secretary of state. In 1843 
he led the movement which expelled Ghika, and succeeded 
him as hospodar. He instituted many reforms, but was 
forced to resign in 1848, on account of alleged Russian 
predilections. He kept aloof from politics until in 1857 he 
took part in the deliberations of the divan for the reorgan¬ 
ization of Moldo-Wallachia. Died at Paris June, 1873. 

Bible. See Bible, Tiie. 

Bible Christians, called also Bryanites, from Rev. 
William Bryan of Cornwall, England, who left the Wesley- 
ans in 1815. They have in England 368 chapels, 65 preach¬ 
ers, 957 local preachers, and 14,352 members,' in Canada, 
135 chapels, 46 preachers, and 4986 members; in Austral¬ 
asia, 109 chapels, 34 preachers, 147 local preachers, and 2045 
members. In the U. S. the only congregation of “ Bible 
Christians ” is in Philadelphia, and they refer their origin 
to Rev. William Cowherd, who left the Church of England 
about 1800. 

Bible Communists. See Oneida Communists. 

Bible Grove, a post-township of Clay co., Ill. P. 998. 

Bible Societies. While the sixteenth century is dis¬ 
tinguished for the labor spent upon numerous translations 
of the Holy Scriptures into the languages of Christian na¬ 
tions, the nineteenth is no less memorable for the multipli¬ 
cation of Bible societies as a means of securing the widest 
diffusion of the Bible, not only in civilized lands and 
among Christian communities, but throughout the world. 
The British and Foreign Bible Society was established in 
London, Mar. 7, 1804. Previous to that time eight socie¬ 
ties in Great Britain had been engaged in publishing or 
distributing Bibles, though only three, the Naval and Mili¬ 
tary Bible Society (1780), the Dublin Association (1792), 
and the French Bible Society (1792), had made this their 
principal work, and these, it is believed, did not long sur¬ 
vive. The great destitution which was found to prevail in 
the principality of Wales in 1802, and the utter inability 
of existing societies to supply the demand for Bibles, led 
to the organization of the British and Foreign Bible So¬ 
ciety, with the sole object of encouraging a wider disper¬ 
sion of the Scriptures, first in the British dominions, and 
then, according to its ability, in other countries, Christian, 
Mohammedan, and Pagan. Three hundred persons of dif¬ 
ferent religious denominations united in organizing it, and 
£700 were at once subscribed. Its entire receipts the first 
year fell a little short of £5600. 

The American Bible Society was founded in the city of 
New York, May 11,1816, with the sole object, as announced 
in its constitution, of encouraging “a wider circulation of 
the Holy Scriptures without note or comment.” This so¬ 
ciety had, however, been preceded by fifty or sixty others, 
which had come into being at one point and another in the 
U. S. after the organization of the British and Foreign 
Bible Society.. The first of these was founded at Philadel¬ 
phia in 1808; the second at Hartford, Conn., in 1809. 
Next came the Massachusetts Bible Society at Boston, the 
New Jersey Bible Society at Princeton, and the New York 
Bible Society. Such local societies accomplished much 
good within their own bounds, but having no bond of 
union, their operations lacked efficiency and economy, and 
it soon became apparent that a combination of effort was 
essential for thorough work. Thirty-five local organiza¬ 
tions sent delegates to the convention which founded the 
American Bible Society, and eighty-four became auxiliary 
to it during the first year of its existence. Among the 
delegates were representative men of the leading denomi¬ 
nations—Baptist, Congregational, Reformed Dutch, Meth¬ 
odist Episcopal, Protestant Episcopal, Presbyterian, and 
the Society of Friends; but every sectarian jealousy and 
party prejudice being laid aside, all united with perfect 
harmony and cordiality in the single object of “ dissemi¬ 
nating the Scriptures in the received versions where they 
exist, and in the most faithful where they may be required.” 
The announcement of this organization brought trom the 
British and Foreign Bible Society the expression of their 
warmest congratulations, and the offer ol a gift of £500. 
At an early date Bible societies were formed on the conti¬ 
nent of Europe, as at B&lo (1804) and Berlin and Ratisbon 


475 


(1805), and nearly fifty others, chiefly in the north of Eu¬ 
rope, before 1816. At that time also two had been estab¬ 
lished in Africa, five in Asia, and others in Nova Scotia, 
Canada, and the West Indies. About seventy principal 
societies may be'named as having been actually engaged 
in the manufacture and publication of Bibles. Auxiliary 
and branch Bible societies and associations have been very 
extensively formed with a view of enlisting local sympa¬ 
thies, collecting funds from churches and individuals, 
maintaining depositories, and looking after the circulation 
of the Scriptures among the needy. The American Bible 
Society has more than 2000 auxiliary societies, and with 
them are connected nearly 5000 branches. Such societies 
are expected to supply the wants of their field from their 
own resources, if possible, though receiving aid from the 
national society when necessary, and paying over their 
surplus funds annually into its treasury. The British and 
Foreign Bible Society has also not far from 1200 auxiliaries 
and branches, as well as 3134 Bible associations in the 
management of which ladies have a principal part. Be¬ 
sides these home institutions, it has many colonial auxilia¬ 
ries, and also foreign agencies superintending its deposi¬ 
tories of Bibles in the chief cities of Europe. Not far from 
16,000 smaller organizations are thus connected with the 
two principal Bible societies of the world; and when it is 
remembered that many of the continental societies also 
have adopted the auxiliary system, it is very clear that 
this multiplication of associations for the distribution of 
the Scriptures is one of the phenomena of the age. 

The American and Foreign Bible Society was founded in 
New York in 1836 by representatives of the Baptist denomi¬ 
nation, owing to the refusal of the American Bible Society 
to apply its funds to print and circulate versions of the New 
Testament made by American Baptist missionaries, in which 
pcuTT^eiv and its cognate terms were literally translated, 
not transferred. The American and Foreign Bible Society, 
thus inaugurated, instructed its translators “to endeavor to 
ascertain the exact meaning of the original text, to express 
that meaning as literally as the nature of the languages 
into which they should translate the Bible would permit, ' 
and to transfer no words which were capable of being 
literally translated.” By vote of the representatives of 
the two societies this society was to have been consoli¬ 
dated with the American Baptist Publication Society, but 
legal obstacles have been thrown in the way, and the Bible 
Society still maintains an independent existence. Some of 
the members of this society were earnest advocates of the 
publication of a new version of the English Scriptures on 
the same principle as that which governed its translations 
into foreign tongues; and on the refusal of the society to 
authorize such a revision the American Bible Union was 
formed (1850)—a society which has published a revised ver¬ 
sion of the New Testament, Psalms, Job, and Genesis in 
conformity with the principle indicated—translating parr- 
Tigeiv by “ to immerse,” etc. Although some of the most 
eminent scholars among the Baptists have been employed 
on the versions of this society, it has never received the 
support of the great body of American Baptists. 

In general, several characteristics of Bible societies are 
to be noted. They are voluntary associations, being neither 
close corporations nor under ecclesiastical direction, and 
the privileges of membership are secured by the payment 
of money. They are unsectarian, inviting all men to com¬ 
mon efforts on the simple basis of the Scriptures of the Old 
and New Testament without note or comment. They are 
Protestant organizations, however, because the rules of the 
Roman Catholic Church are opposed to the free circulation 
of the Scriptures without admixture of comment. They 
are strictly benevolent societies, publishing not for profit, 
but at prices as low as possible, and making large grants, 
as their receipts may allow, for the supply of the destitute. 
Their work is exceedingly helpful to Sunday-schools and to 
various forms of missionary effort at home and abroad; and 
their influence has been most happy in promoting Chris¬ 
tian union, and presenting a form of religious activity in 
which all denominations might participate without the sac¬ 
rifice of principle. 

The work of Bible societies has constantly encountered 
difficulties of one sort and another. The circulation of the 
Bible in all lands creates a demand for new versions, the 
preparation of which involves many nice points, while the 
revision of existing versions can hardly fail to occasion 
complaint. Even the determination of the canon of the 
Scripturo is not universally agreed on. The most violent 
controversy in the British and Foreign Bible Society turned 
upon the question whether the Apocrypha should be pub¬ 
lished and circulated. The controversy continued lor years, 
and when in 1826 it was finally decided to withhold all aid 
from associations circulating the unoanonical books, fifty 
auxiliaries on the Continent withdrew from the parent 
society. Tho Edinburgh society, which had earnestly op- 












476 BIBLE, 


posed the circulation of the Apocrypha, also withdrew and 
stood aloof. The proposal to combine men of different per¬ 
suasions in Bible effort, and to circulate the Bible without 
the Book of Common Prayer, encountered some opposition 
in England at an early date, which after a few years died 
away. The Russian Bible Society at St. Petersburg 
(founded 1813) flourished until 1826, when its operations 
were summarily suspended by the emperor Nicholas, on the 
ground that it belonged to the Church, rather than to a 
secular society, to furnish the people with the word of God. 

In the American Bible Society differences of opinion con¬ 
cerning the principles which should govern translations into 
foreign tongues led to the formation of the American and 
Foreign Bible Society in 1830; and at a later period (1858) 
its harmony was again imperilled for a time in consequence 
of dissatisfaction at some attempted modifications (numer¬ 
ous though generally slight) in the English editions of the 
society—a dissatisfaction which was allayed by abandoning 
the proposed changes. 

The work accomplished by Bible societies in seventy 
years is vast in extent and of unspeakable usefulness. In 
1872 the receipts of the American Bible Society for a year 
were $689,923, of which $361,274 came from sales. The 
same year it had issued 1,100,871 volumes, including 
Bibles, Testaments, and integral portions of Scripture. 
The British and Foreign Bible Society at the same time 
reported its receipts for a year to be £184,196, and its issues 
2,584,357 volumes. Its total issues since 1804 are 65,884,095, 
and the total issues of the American Bible Society since 
1816, 28,780,969. It is a low estimate to suppose that 
113,000,000 volumes of the Bible or separate books of the 
Bible have been issued by Bible societies since the tears of 
a little girl in Wales in 1802 led Thomas Charles to ask 
what could be done to secure Welsh Bibles for his congre¬ 
gation. The aggregate number of volumes issued by no 
means measures the results of Bible society work. From 
motives of benevolence the prices of Bibles have been de¬ 
termined by the cost of materials and of manufacture, with¬ 
out regal'd to profit. The British and Foreign Bible Society 
has its work (lone by contract; the American Bible Society 
manufactures its publications on its own premises, and in 
so doing gives constant employment to about 400 persons. 
Besides the books which are sold at unremunerative prices, 
a large part of the publications each year are given away to 
destitute families and individuals, to charitable institutions, 
Sunday-schools, missionary societies, soldiers, seamen, im¬ 
migrants, travellers, prisoners, and other classes of persons. 
The American Bible Society and its auxiliaries through the 
U. S. are engaged for the third time in an effort to reach 
every destitute family in the land with the offer of a Bible. 
It has printed the Bible or parts of it in fifty different lan¬ 
guages, twenty-seven of these being new translations; 205 
new versions have been prepared since 1804. The British 
and Foreign Bible Society has directly or indirectly pro¬ 
moted the publication and distribution of the Scriptures in 
at least 200 languages and dialects. (For further informa¬ 
tion respecting Bible societies reference may be had to the 
following works: Owen’s “ History of the British and For¬ 
eign Bible Society,” 1817; Browne’s “ History ” of same, 
1859; Dudley’s “ Analysis of the System of Bible Socie¬ 
ties,” 1821; “ Jubilee Memorial of British and Foreign Bi¬ 
ble Society,” 1854; “Jubilee Commemoration at Bombay,” 
1854; Strickland’s “History of American Bible Society,” 
1856; “Manual of American Bible Society,” 1871; “Jubi¬ 
lee Memorial,” 1866; Memoirs of S. II. Turner, Gardiner 
Spring, and John C. Brigham; numerous controversial pam¬ 
phlets ; “ Bible Society Record,” and “ Annual Reports ” of 
each Bible society.) E. W. Gilman. 

Bible, The [Lat. Bib'lia ; Gr. ra BijSAta (t. e. “the 
books”); Fr. la Bible; Ger. die Bibel; It. la Biblia], 
popularly known also as the Holy Bible and Holy 
Scriptures, a collection of ancient writings, divided into 
two parts, the Old and New Testaments, of which the first is 
regarded by the Jewish Church, and both are regarded by 
the Christian Church, as a divine revelation. With re¬ 
spect to the more precise definition and character of the 
Bible, the views are very diverse in the different churches. 
The Roman Catholic Church, in consistency with the monar¬ 
chical theory which it inherited from the Roman civil law, 
denies any such character to the Bible as would make it a 
constitutional limitation on the sovereign power. The 
supreme authority of revelation does not, on this theory, 
inhere in the codex, but in the personal representative, for 
the time being, of the Church catholic. The Greek Church 
lays chief stress on orthodoxy—that is, on inflexible adhe¬ 
sion to the dogmatic symbols in which the faith of Chris¬ 
tianity was codified in the early centuries. The Scriptures 
must therefore be interpreted in accordance with these 
creeds, but as this elevates the creeds into the position of 
supreme authority, the labor of interpreting Scripture be¬ 
comes a superfluous trouble. The Scriptures have in conse- 


TIIE. 


qucnco fallen into neglect, and this neglect has become so 
absolute, under a rigid traditional orthodoxy, that it is 
impossible to state any positive attitude towards the Scrip¬ 
tures as characteristic of this Church. The Protestants of 
the sixteenth century, in reviving reverence for the author¬ 
ity of the Scriptures, developed various schools of opinion. 
Luther and his followers adopted a comparatively free but 
subjective position. They saw divine revelation in the 
Bible, but not in all parts of it equally. Calvin’s position 
was different and more scientific. Among his followers in 
Switzerland, however, there sprang up a great zeal for the 
doctrine of inspiration. The sacred writers were compared 
to trumpets or to pens, in order to express their absolute 
instrumentality in the hands of the Holy Spirit. The An¬ 
glican Church at first held a less definite theory of the 
Scriptures, and there was great diversity of opinion, but it 
has gradually adopted the general theory of the Swiss Re¬ 
formers, modified only so far as sober reflection has forced 
the over-credulous or over-zealous to relinquish the theory 
of verbal inspiration. Finally, the scientific and critical 
school of biblical scholars, represented chiefly by modern 
Germans, regards the Bible as the human record of a divine 
revelation; not absolutely infallible, since there is no book 
written in any human language but must jiartake in a 
measure of the imperfections of that language. Many of 
this school, while admitting the Bible to contain the record 
of a true supernatural revelation, do not consider it to be 
without positive errors of historical fact, not without false 
coloring from popular legend and tradition, but neverthe¬ 
less a record as good as human hands could make of a truly 
divine revelation. Thus diverse arc the conceptions of the 
book which are held by different parties. Scarcely any of 
these conceptions rely on an unbiassed examination of the 
book, to see what it is; many of them are invented to obtain 
the support of the Bible for some form of Christianity which 
is first settled, independently of the Scriptures, on the basis 
of religious or philosophical prepossessions. The Protest¬ 
ant churches, however, are generally united in regarding 
the Scriptures—1, as of divine authority; 2, as containing 
all knowledge necessary to salvation; 3, as the appropriate 
form of a divine revelation (as opposed to tradition or the 
inner light); 4, as the heritage of all Christians— i. e. it is 
the right of all to read and become acquainted with the 
teachings of the Bible. 

A. The Old Testament .—The Old Testament was originally 
Avritten in Hebrew, but of course the Hebrew manuscripts 
Avhich we possess are separated by a long interval and many 
vicissitudes from the original handiwork of the authors. 

The History of the Hebrew text is briefly as follows: 
I. First Period (536-180 B. C.)—The Babylonian cap¬ 
tivity (from 586, the chief deportation, to 536, the first re¬ 
turn) forms an epoch in the history of the Jews. It is a gulf 
dividing the independent from the subject position of the 
nation. It was under the former that they had original 
and productive power and a living revelation, and while 
they had them they were indifferent to them. After the 
captivity, when the Jewish nation had been purified by 
adversity, they turned back to them with new interest. They 
were able to see that Isaiah and Jeremiah had been the 
only men of their times who had truly had “the mind 
of the Spirit.” They desired to restore the ancient laAv, 
worship, and traditions. To this end the collection and 
preservation of the ancient writings, Avhich served as the 
authority for, or bore witness to, the former observances, 
became an object of great interest and importance. With 
this movement, however, the nation entered on a new stage. 
Its work was not original and creative, but preservative 
and reconstructive. It did not look to the future, to an 
ideal, but to the past, to a memory. Its spring was not in 
thought, communion with God, foresight, and purpose, but 
in tradition, reflection, and application. It had to make 
the most of its inherited wealth, without adding to it. 

In the work which now began Ezra had a prominent 
part. He collected and arranged the ancient writings, and 
so laid the foundation of the canon (see below, section on 
the Canon) ; and from this point the history of the written 
codex begins. The books were at this time Avritten in the 
ancient Phoenician characters which appear on some an¬ 
cient Phoenician inscriptions, on the Moabite Stone, on 
some coins of the Asmoneans, and in the Samaritan Penta¬ 
teuch. The letters had no variation of form or shape for 
capitals and small letters, and neither words, verses, nor 
chapters were marked off in any way. Some of the books 
which now appear separately were then united, and a feAv 
Avhich are uoav found in the canon had not yet been writ¬ 
ten. The work, however, Avhich was now to be done extend¬ 
ed beyond the collection, arrangement, and preservation of 
the ancient Scriptures. The Hebrew language Avas already a 
dead language. The popular dialect Avas the Chaldee, and 
the Hebrew of Moses, David, and the prophets had become 
a sort of classical and sacred language, known only to the 




















BIBLE, THE 



oldest and to the learned. It was an object of academical 
acquisition. It was, therefore, necessary to explain and 
translate or expound the writings. This task naturally 
devolved upon such as possessed the requisite knowledge, 
and they constituted an informal body for this purpose. So 
much is no doubt true, and it forms the historical basis of 
the rabbinical tradition about the “Great Synagogue” 
which was said to have done this work. 

When this much is said of the commencement of this 
period, we have in fact told nearly all which is known 
about it. We can only infer, from what we know of its 
beginning and what we find at its close, that the following 
movements were in progress : 1. The college of interpreters, 
though not a formally or legally constituted body, and 
though their business was primarily literary or academical, 
were gaining in authority and dignity, and acquiring a cer¬ 
tain official character from general consent. The “elders” 
came to have civil and judicial authority from the lack of 
others to fill these functions. Possibly the Sanhedrim was 
an outgrowth of this body. 2. The canon (see below) was 
being formed; the idea of Holy Scripture was being elab¬ 
orated and formulated; the respect for the traditional 
writings, and the disposition to set them by themselves, 
were gaining ground; the doctrine of inspiration took its 
rise. At the close of this period the canon is formed and 
these doctrines are established dogmas. 3. The form of the 
letters in use was undergoing a change. At the period 
referred to, the square letters which are represented in our 
printed texts had become established in use. 

II. Second Period (180 B.C. to 500 A. D.).—The “schools ” 
begin with Simon the Just, in 180 B. C. These schools pro¬ 
duced the Talmud, an immense work in a dozen folio vol¬ 
umes, containing a commentary on the Mishna, which 
is itself a “repetition” of the “Law.” The schools de¬ 
veloped intense zeal for the text of the Scriptures—a zeal 
which, though frivolous and fanatical in many of its mani¬ 
festations, has been of immense value to biblical scholar¬ 
ship. The scribes and Talmudists spent unwearying labor 
in the establishment of the consonant text ; they separated 
the words by spaces (but characteristically ordained just 
how great the space should be). They probably also intro¬ 
duced the verse-mark (:), and therefore the division into 
verses. The preservation of the text from corruption in 
copying was secured by counting the letters or by other 
devices, and by crabbed, rigid, and minute rules. This 
work exercised its legitimate influence on the characters of 
those who did it; it made them punctilious about trifles 
and negligent of “ the weightier matters ;” but it preserved 
the Old Testament text from corruption, and handed it 
down to us in a comparatively pure and reliable form. 
In their exegesis the Talmudists were generally guided 
by arbitrary rules, by dogmatic prepossessions, by a view 
of the Bible which made it a storehouse of occult wis¬ 
dom, only to be unlocked by cabalistic and allegorical 
treatment. It is asserted by some who are well acquainted 
with the Talmud that it contains valuable geographical, 
ethnological, historical, and exegetical information for the 
elucidation of the Bible, but the commentaries of Jews and 
Christians alike fail to bear witness to the truth of the 
assertion. 

The Targum8 .—One result of the zeal of the Jews for 
the original Hebrew was the publication of paraphrases 
in the Aramaic or popular dialect, which were called Tar- 
gumim (from a root signifying to “interpret”). They 
present the rabbinical and traditional interpretation of the 
Scriptures. Their origin is very obscure. 

III. Third Period (500-1488 A.D.).—The Talmud, having 
grown by the work of successive generations for three or 
four centuries, closed about the year 500— i. e., the last of 
the commentators whose sayings are included in it lived at 
that time. Then a new work began. The Jewish nation 
had long been broken up and dispersed. Christianity had 
grown into a powerful opponent. The latter fact had led 
the Jews to abandon the Septuagint Greek version of 
the Old Testament (see below, on the Versions of the Old 
Testament), and the former fact made it necessary to pro¬ 
vide still further for the preservation of the Hebrew text. 
The pronunciation of a language written only with conso¬ 
nants must, of course, be very uncertain; that of the He¬ 
brew had been preserved in the rabbinical schools by tra¬ 
dition. There seemed to be danger that it would now be 
lost if no means of recording it were devised. The Syriac 
language had shortly before been provided with points to 
designate the vowel sounds, and to make the written lan¬ 
guage a complete representation of the spoken. The chief 
seats of rabbinical learning at this period were Tiberias in 
Galilee and Sora in the Euphrates valley, and the scholars 
are known as the Massoretes. The Massorah was a mass 
of notes, comments, emendations, and corrections of va¬ 
rious kinds, which the Talmudists had adopted, committed 
to memory, and handed down by tradition, but which they 


had not ventured to jnark in any way upon the pages of the 
sacred text. The Massoretes now undertook to do this. 
They marked in the text—1, the vowels, the shades of pro¬ 
nunciation of the consonants, and the diacritical points 
which distinguish two sounds expressed by one character; 

2, the accents, which are partly marks of pronunciation, 
and partly serve the purpose of musical notes, marking the 
intonations of the chant ; 3, the emendations and correc¬ 
tions which the Talmudists had adopted. These they 
mark on the margin by a peculiar device, which leaves the 
consonants as they were, but suggests those which should 
be read. Here, again, the superstitious reverence of the 
rabbis for the text served the purpose of a true biblical " 
science, since their proposed amendments are still open to 
criticism and review. It is difficult to pass a summary 
judgment on their emendations, but perhaps in a majority 
of cases modern scholars retain the original reading and re¬ 
ject the Massorah. 

The work of the Massoretes did not begin before the sixth 
century, and it was finished before 1106, the date of the 
oldest manuscript now known to exist. This manuscript 
presents the Massoretic text. The work certainly covered 
a long period, and was done by many different hands. It 
was not possible, even with the minute and stringent rules 
which were adopted, to prevent errors in copying, and our 
manuscripts, all of which belong to the period between 
1106 and 1488, offer many variants. The Jews continued 
to use in the synagogues copies of the Scriptures containing 
only the consonant text. 

IV. After the art of printing was invented some books of 
the Old Testament were printed separately. In 1488 the 
first edition of the whole Hebrew Bible was printed at Son- 
cino. The second, based on the first, was published at 
Brescia in 1494. This was the one used by Luther. An 
independent version appeared in the Complutensian Poly¬ 
glot, 1517. A collection of variants was made from 615 
manuscripts by Ivennicott, Oxford, 1780, and a better one 
by De Rossi, 1788. The Hebrew Bibles in use are scarcely 
more than reproductions of the two first printed editions. 
They possess some critical advantages, but generally the ex¬ 
cellence of a subsequent edition over the former consists in 
typographical accuracy and neatness. A satisfactory crit¬ 
ical edition, with a full account taken of the variants, is yet 
to be prepared. 

V. The Old Testament in the Christian Church .—The 
Church of the first and second centuries based the authority 
and truth of its doctrines on the Old Testament, just as it is 
used in the New Testament. The Church of the third and 
fourth centuries wavered between acquiescence in the au¬ 
thority ascribed to the Old Testament by our Lord and his 
apostles, and hatred and suspicion of all things Jewish. 
No Christians save converted Jews knew Hebrew, and of 
these very few were of the class which “knew the Law.” 
No man was converted who brought into the infant Chm-ch 
a knowledge of the Hebrew. The Septuagint Greek ver¬ 
sion (see below) was the form in which the Christians be¬ 
came acquainted with the Old Testament. The first Chris¬ 
tian scholar who undertook to learn Hebrew was Origen 
(254 A. D.). He prepared a Hexapla, containing the He¬ 
brew and five versions, which unfortunately is lost. We 
possess, however, his commentaries, which show that he had 
borrowed from the rabbis their allegorical mystical methods 
of interpretation. He is counted among the Fathers of the 
Eastern Church, and is the only biblical scholar of whom 
that Church can boast. 

Jerome (430 A. D.) endeavored to learn Hebrew of a Jew, 
and did learn as much as his teacher could or would teacb 
him. His method of treating the Old Testament shows the 
influence of his teacher. Through him the rabbinical ideas 
of inspiration, etc. found their way into the Western Church. 
His translation of the Scriptures (see Vulgate , in the sec¬ 
tion below on the Versions) was regarded as a finality, and 
all interest in the original text died out. In 1311, Clement V. 
ordered that Hebrew should be studied at the universities, 
but no results followed. Nicholas de Lyra (1340) was a 
converted Jew. Ilis commentaries carried great authority 
among Christians, and influenced Luther so much that a 
popular saying arose : “ If Lyra had not played the lyre, 
Luther would not have danced.” The Reformers returned 
with zeal to the study of the Hebrew. That pursuit par¬ 
ticipated in the general revival of learning, and in the most 
recent times it has been wonderfully advanced by the de¬ 
velopment of philological and historical science. It is 
probably not too much to say that the Hebrew language is 
more at the command of this generation than of any other 
since the Babylonian captivity. 

It follows from the above—1, That the only text we can 
hope to establish on manuscript authority is that ot the Mas¬ 
soretes. 2, We have no manuscript, even of this text, older 
than 1106. We shall see below, under Versions, what means 
we have of learning what the text was at an earlier date. 




















478 


BIBLE, TIIE 


3, The vowel-points, accents, word, verse, and chapter divis¬ 
ions are all many centuries more recent than the original 
writings. Even the consonant text has been transliterated. 
The chapter divisions were made in the thirteenth century, 
and applied to the Vulgate. In the sixteenth century it 
was asserted that the vowels, etc. were of later origin than 
the text. This assertion was considered heterodox, as it 
was inconsistent with the prevailing theory of inspiration. 
It is only in the most recent times that this fact has been 
admitted, and it is now undisputed. 4, The crude and 
superstitious theories of inspiration which have prevailed 
to some extent in the Christian Church are of rabbinical 
manufacture. They were introduced into the Christian 
Church first as attaching to the Old Testament, and then 
extended over both in their purest and most original form. 

VI. The Canon and the Apocryphal Books .—As we said 
above (A, I.), when the period of creation and production 
was ended, and the period of conservation and reflection 
and application began, one of the first ideas which was 
elaborated from the crude into the dogmatic form was that 
of the Scriptures in their sacred character and divine au¬ 
thority. Hence the terms Holy Scripture, Word of God, 
etc. When this doctrine was established, the necessity of 
defining and limiting its application at once made itself felt. 
What books come under this designation ? What is the 
standard by which they must be tested in order to answer 
this question ? It is certain that these questions never re¬ 
ceived any authoritative answer. Ezra made a collection of 
books, but he did not include those books which were not yet 
written. The Hebrew Bible as we now possess it is divided 
into three parts: 1, the Torah (t. e., Law—Pentateuch),- 2, 
the Nebiim (Prophets, including Joshua, Judges, First and 
Second Samuel, and First and Second Kings); 3, the Chetu- 
bim (“ Writings, ” including all the other books in the Eng¬ 
lish Version of the Old Testament). Ezra and Nehemiah 
probably collected a book. The addition of the third part 
cannot be historically accounted for. The form of the collec¬ 
tion, as a whole, bears witness to successive collections and 
successive gradations of authority. This gradation may be 
traced still farther. Besides and beyond the Chetubim 
were a number of books which were on the line, not ac¬ 
cepted and not definitely rejected. Still again, beyond 
these were others which were positively set aside. The 
translators of the Septuagint included in their collection a 
number which do not appear in the Hebrew collection 
(they form the Apocrypha of the English Bible). The Ethi- 
opic version contains others which belong even to the class 
of the totally rejected. Thus, one who knew only the 
Septuagint version would find the book of Exodus and the 
book of Tobit side by side, presented to him as of equal au¬ 
thority. Ethiopian Christianity would give the same au¬ 
thority to the book of Adam as to the book of Genesis. 
Thus it is certain that when these versions were made, the 
strict definition of the books to which standard authority 
belonged was not yet established. Ffirst has even shown 
from the Talmud (Kanon des Alien Testament, s. 25) that 
this idea of the canon was not so definitely established at 
the time of our Lord but that the rabbis ventured to pro¬ 
pose to exclude the book of Ezekiel from the canon, on ac¬ 
count of its contradiction to the Pentateuch. Here, then, 
we have the idea of the canon. It is the limited collection 
to which, and to which only, authority as the inspired word 
of God appertains. The works which were in circulation, 
and to which this authority was denied, were called apoc¬ 
ryphal, from a Greek word meaning “to withdraw,” be¬ 
cause they were withdrawn from use for public instruction. 
The third class, the pseudepigraphs, were so called because 
many of them bore names which were forged. In 2 Mac¬ 
cabees ii. 13 we read: “ The same things are narrated in the 
writings and memoirs of Nehemiah, and how he collected 
the books about the kings and prophets, and those of David, 
and the letters of the kings in regard to offerings.” The 
Pentateuch had been restored to authority and use by Ezra 
in 444 B. C. (Nehemiah viii.). Nehemiah added the “Ne¬ 
biim,” which are distinctly described in this passage (“ kings 
and prophets”), and the Psalms, which are the nucleus of 
the Chetubim. The “ letters ” are those of the Persian kings, 
such as we find in the books of Ezra and Daniel. The subse¬ 
quent omission of these letters from the canon bears witness 
to the soundness of the standard by which its formation was 
governed. The Massoretes were finally called upon to de¬ 
cide what books they would recognize as canonical, but in 
this, as in other things, they no doubt confined themselves to 
the establishment of the tradition which they had received. 
In the Christian Church the influence of the Septuagint se¬ 
cured the introduction of the Apocrypha with full canon¬ 
ical authority. Jerome translated all into the Latin Vul¬ 
gate. They thus remain in authority in the Greek and 
Roman churches. Luther adopted the Hebrew canon, but 
translated the apocryphal books, setting them by them¬ 
selves, and giving them a heading which recommended 


them for edification, though not for dogmatic definition. 
The English translators followed the same policy. Of late, 
however, the Apocrypha has been omitted from the popu¬ 
lar editions of the English Bible, because the presence in 
the volume of works which formed a grade between it and 
ordinary works seemed to detract from the supreme and 
isolated position of Holy Scripture. 

The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha are both quoted in 
the New Testament. See Jude 9 (“ Translation of Moses ”); 
14 (Book of Enoch); 1 Corinthians ii. 9 (said by Origen 
to be from a lost apocryphal writing under the name of 
Elijah). Compare also James iv. 5, John vii. 38, and 
Luke xi. 40—citations which we cannot identify with pas¬ 
sages in any known book. 

It appears from the above—1, That the Canon was fixed 
only after long experience, and by the general consent of 
successive generations, who bore testimony, by their esteem 
and veneration for particular books, to their intrinsic au¬ 
thority and profitableness. 2, There is no broad and dis¬ 
tinct line of demarcation between the Canon and the Apoc¬ 
rypha. If we allow ourselves to form estimates of the com¬ 
parative value of various books, we shall find that the first 
book of Maccabees compares very favorably, as an edifying 
religious history, with the book of Esther, and that the book 
of Jesus the son of Sirach compares favorably with Ec¬ 
clesiastes as a book of religious instruction. 

VII. The Order of the Books of the Old Testament. —In the 
arrangement which has been adopted there appears to have 
been an effort to conform as far as possible to chronology, 
not only in regard to the historical, but also the legal and 
prophetic portions. The following are the principal divis¬ 
ions : 

1. Law (in Hebrew, nilH, Torah; Gr. vopo s) or Penta¬ 
teuch (Gr. nevTdrevxos), because it consisted of five parts. 

2. Prophets (Ileb. Gr. Ilpo^rjrat). 

3. Holy Writings or HagiogT-apha (Gr. dyto-ypa^a), called 
in Heb. D'^IAD, Chetubim — i t e., the “ writings,” par excel¬ 
lence). 

The Law included—1, Genesis, or “origin;” 2, Exo¬ 
dus, or the “ going out;” 3, Leviticus, or the book relating 
to the Levites; 4, Numbers, so called because Moses was 
commanded to “ take the sum of all the congregation of 
the children of Israel” (Numbers i. 2); 5, Deuteronomy 
(from the Gr. Sevrepos, “second,” and vopo?, “ law ”), be¬ 
cause it was the second laying down (or the repetition) of 
the Law. 

The Prophets were divided into the Former or Earlier 
( Priores ), including Joshua, Judges, First and Second 
Samuel, First and Second Kings; and Later ( Posteriores ), 
comprising the greater prophets, viz., Isaiah, Jeremiah, and 
Ezekiel, and the minor prophets, Hosea, Joel, Amos, etc. 

The Holy Writings, or Hagiographa, included the Psalms, 
Proverbs, Job, The Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ec¬ 
clesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, First and Second 
Chronicles. (For a more particular notice of the different 
books the reader is referred to their respective heads.) 

VIII. Versions of the Old Testament. —As we saw above, 
the oldest manuscript of the Hebrew Scriptures which we 
possess dates from 1106 A. D., and presents the Massoretic 
text. If we wish to go back of this to reach something nearer 
to the original work of the authors, and to eliminate errors 
which may have crept in, we have one means of doing so— 
viz., the ancient translations which were made from the 
text at a remote date. 

1. The first and most important of these is the Greek ver¬ 
sion, called the Septuagint (LXX.).—Passing over the fables 
of the Jews and early Christians in regard to this version 
(such as that it was made on a set occasion by seventy-two 
men (six from a tribe) chosen by the high priest, and sent 
to Egypt for the purpose—that they each separately trans¬ 
lated the whole, but that, by virtue of divine inspiration, 
the seventy-two translations were identical), we state only 
the best-assured facts in regard to it. The Pentateuch was 
translated by Alexandrian (not Palestinian) Jews, but by 
how many is unknown. It was a result of the enlightened 
interest of the Ptolemies (Lagus and Philadelphus) in all 
literary and scientific progress. It was made in 285 B. C. 
The work thus begun was carried on by various persons at 
various times until all the canonical and apocryphal books 
were translated. Some originally written in Greek were 
added. The parts vary in fidelity to the original and in 
literary excellence. Job and Isaiah are so poorly trans¬ 
lated that one must know Hebrew to see the sense of the 
Greek; Ecclesiastes is faithfully and correctly rendered. 
At this time Greek was the language of popular intercourse. 
The Jews of the time of Christ neglected the Hebrew, and 
generally relied on the Septuagint version. It is the form 
in which the Old Testament is quoted by Mark, Luke, 
Peter, and, for the most part, by Paul. Matthew, John, and 
Paul show acquaintance with the Hebrew, but they also 
use the Septuagint. Its influence was at this time para- 













BIBLE 


mount. It passed into the Christian Church as the authori¬ 
tative form of the Old Testament. It soon began to be 
asserted, however, by the Jews, when the Septuagint was 
quoted in controversy by the Christians, that it was not a 
faithful rendering of the original. Hence the Jews aban¬ 
doned it and returned to the Hebrew, and the most scholarly 
of the Christians attempted to acquire that language. 
Nevertheless, the Septuagint remains the authority of the 
Greek Church to this day. Other Greek versions, which 
need only be mentioned, are those of Aquila, Theodotion, 
and Symmachus. 

2. The Peshito is a Syriac version, whose name signifies 
“ simple ” or “ faithful,” because it is a literal translation, 
not a paraphrase. It includes the New Testament. Its 
origin is obscure. It was in use in the time of Ephraim 
Syrus (378 A. I).). 

3. The■ Vulgate .—Augustine says (“De Doctr. Chris.” 
ii. 11), in regard to the early Latin versions, that “ in the 
first days of the faith, if any one obtained a copy of the 
Greek Scriptures, and gave himself credit for any know¬ 
ledge of the two languages, he ventured to translate.” He 
recommends only one of the versions existing at the time— 
viz., the Itala. This is now lost, but seems to have been 
made from the Septuagint. Jerome (430 A. D.) undertook 
to learn Hebrew, in order to make a new translation from 
the original. History repeats itself with regard to all new 
translations of the Bible. This one was made avowedly in 
order to meet the wants of the common people, and it was 
called the “ Vulgate” because written in the popular Latin. 
It was met by the most violent opposition, by all the argu¬ 
ments of tradition and prescription, and by all the con¬ 
siderations of policy and expediency, which suggest them¬ 
selves in such a case. It was finally adopted, and now it 
has itself become sacred in the Latin Church. The text of 
the Vulgate became so corrupt by repeated copyings that, 
on the invention of printing, the true text seemed lost in a 
chaos of variants. An attempt to revise it resulted in an 
arbitrary decree of Sixtus V. (1598), deciding what it should 
be, and this text is now the “ received text” in the Roman 
Church. A text having critical and scientific authority is 
still a desideratum. 

B. The New Testament .—With the advent of our Lord 
the fountain of divine revelation once more began to flow. 
Mankind once more received an original and creative reve¬ 
lation, not whimsical traditions or weary reflections on the 
record of past thought and life. The Greek language, 
which, as we saw above, was at this time the medium of 
popular intercourse, became the vehicle of the new revela¬ 
tion. The Gospel of Matthew was probably originally 
written in Aramaic, but the remainder of the New Testa¬ 
ment was certainly Greek from the very hands of the 
authors. 

I. History of the Greek Text. —The original handiwork 
of the writers soon perished. We have no record or tradi¬ 
tion of the original manuscripts, and no tradition to bear 
witness to any care for them. Copies were made from them, 
and by the middle of the second century the interest in 
them had become so great as to lead to extensive multipli¬ 
cation of copies. The oldest manuscripts which we pos¬ 
sess date from the fourth century. (See article on the Co- 
dices of the New Testament.) From that time on, the 
number of manuscripts which we possess increases as we 
come down, but as the copies increase in number, so also do 
the variants. When printing was invented one of the first 
uses to which it was put was the printing of the Greek Tes¬ 
tament. This art gave ground to hope that the text-copies 
might be multiplied for the future without the errors insep¬ 
arable from manual copying. The first printed text was con¬ 
tained in the Complutensian Polyglot, prepared under the 
patronage of Cardinal Ximenes, at Alcala (the ancient Coin- 
plutum), in Spain, in 1514. It is not known what manu¬ 
script served as copy for this edition. Erasmus prepared 
a very faulty text, published at Bale in 1516. These two 
editions from manuscripts taken at hazard, no doubt fresh 
ones, served as the basis of succeeding ones (Stephanus, 
Paris, 1516; Beza, 1565; Elzevir, 1641). The last of these 
(chiefly on account of its convenience of form and typo¬ 
graphical beauty) became the “ received text.” The 
doubt between various authorities was settled in this case, 
as in so many others, not by thoroughly investigating the 
matter, but by giving arbitrary sanction to one. The El¬ 
zevir remained supreme until the time of Griesbach (1812). 
Here again we come to a department in which the credit 
for what has been done belongs entirely to German scholars. 
Griesbach, and after him Lachmann (1851), and at present 
Tischendorf, have prosecuted the tedious labor of compar¬ 
ing the variants and weighing the authorities. The ettort 
cannot be defined as one to re-establish the text of the apos¬ 
tles, for that may be pronounced hopeless, but to recover the 
text to which the oldest and best manuscripts bear witness. 
The three scholars mentioned form a succession in which 


I, THE 479 


this aim has been prosecuted with intelligence and zeal and 
consistency. Some other editions, based on limited authori¬ 
ties and imperfect grasp of the task and its method, have 
only confused the labor (Bloomfield, Wordsworth, Alford). 

The dialect of Greek in which the New Testament is 
written is what is called the Hellenistic. This was not a 
good dialect in point of grammatical accuracy, etc., and 
the influence of the Septuagint makes the New Testament 
even a sad specimen of it. This assertion was made in 
the sixteenth century, and it was generally declared that 
the New Testament was written in “ bad Greek.” Such 
an assertion was considered, in some quarters, derogatory 
to the Bible, and a controversy arose as to whether the New •* 
Testament ivas good Greek or bad. It ended in the general 
and very sensible conclusion that any dialect is “good” as 
soon as it contains a literature of any value. Nevertheless, 
the lack of grammatical accuracy, of precision in the use 
of words and particles, and of adherence to the rules of 
style, adds greatly to the difficulty of interpreting the New 
Testament. 

The order of the books in the Greek differs from that 
in the English Version, in that the catholic Epistles follow 
the Acts. 

II. Respecting the Separate Books of the Neio Testament .— 
The following account includes such facts as can be relied 
on, omitting questions which are involved in controversy. 

The Gospels. —We possess a fourfold record of the life 
and teachings of our Lord. It strikes the attention of the 
reader at once, that the first three contain many passages 
which are almost identical. On the other hand, each differs 
from each in a manner equally remarkable. From the ear¬ 
liest times efforts have been made, without much success, 
to harmonize them into one consistent narrative. Within 
a century these phenomena have again been, examined with 
great zeal. The question is raised: Do not these resem¬ 
blances point to an interdependence between the synoptical 
Gospels ? If so, which is the original ? If one served as 
the original, how is it that the authors of the others, in 
using it, failed to transfer passages of high interest ? In 
fact, the phenomena of identity and difference are so per¬ 
plexing that these questions seem unsolvable. The prevail¬ 
ing opinion of scholars at the present time appears to be 
that the Gospel of Mark presents the nearest approach to 
the original of the synoptical Gospels; that Matthew was 
originally written in Aramaic, and translated with the as¬ 
sistance of Mark. That Luke is a subsequent compilation 
of the gospel-material is certain. It was written about the 
year 70. Before the historic interest in the Gospels arose, 
and before the movement towards a New Testament canon 
began, the Gospels no doubt exerted great influence on each 
other. Passages appear to have been copied from one into 
another, either inadvertently or at the pleasure or will of 
the copyist, and hence our science is baffled when it at¬ 
tempts to trace the intricacies of the movement. 

The Gospel of John is clearly independent of the others 
in its material, scope, and purpose. It takes up the life of 
our Lord not so much pragmatically as philosophically and 
mystically—in its religious rather than its historical aspect. 

It has been vigorously attacked by the negative and ration¬ 
alistic school of critics, and is held by many of them to be 
falsely attributed to John, but to date from the latter half 
of the second century. These opinions, however, rest chiefly 
on philosophical and historical dogmas which are set up as 
postulates; and one who refuses to admit the necessary a 
priori truth of these postulates, finds that the true critical 
grounds on which this opinion rests are meagre and in¬ 
sufficient. Conservative scholars of every grade admit the 
authenticity of the book, and even many who doubt if John 
were the author, admit its evangelical authority. 

III. The Canon. —The first century of the Christian era 
produced a large number of literary works beyond those con¬ 
tained in the New Testament. The idea of the canon there¬ 
fore came to be applied here once more (see above, Canon 
of the Old Testament ). Such of these works as were of 
genuine apostolic origin, or were faithful representatives 
of Christian truth, must be separated and recognized apart 
from all others. Here once more the same phenomenon ap¬ 
peared as in the Old Testament. There was no distinct 
dividing line to be drawn. The division did not make or 
suggest itself. The whole body of works might be graded 
from the Gospel of Matthew down to the most gross and 
contemptible product of superstition, but the stages were 
gradual all the way. Different persons differed in their 
comparative estimate of two (e. g., the Epistle of Barnabas 
and the Epistle of Jude, the Shepherd of Hernias and 
the Epistle to the Hebrews), though they agreed in the gen¬ 
eral range of estimate. Down to the middle of the second 
century the Christians used the Old Testament for their apol¬ 
ogetics and their polemics. Moreover, the tradition was still 
so fresh that literary authority was not needed. IV e do not 
find in any writers earlier than Ircnaeus (202) references to 











BIBLIA PAUPERUM—BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


480 


the New Testament writings as authoritative, or as inspired 
in any such sense as the Old Testament was believed to be 
inspired. From this time on, the chief interest of the Chris¬ 
tian Church is rapidly transferred to the New Testament. 
The books are collected and studied and compared. Their 
respective authority is determined. The informal verdict 
of the Church accepted certain books and rejected others, 
but there were a number which were on the line or in doubt. 
These were the Epistle of Jude, the Second of Peter, the 
Second and Third of John, the Epistle to the Hebrews, the 
Shepherd of Hennas, and the Epistle of Barnabas. In the 
third century considerable disfavor to the book of Revela¬ 
tion was manifested in the Western Church, though earlier 
it had been very popular. To go into details of various au¬ 
thorities would lead us too far. Eusebius (340 A. D.) bears 
witness that the matter stood, in his time, in just about the 
position above described. Not only the above-mentioned 
doubtful books, but others also which had become familiar 
and gained a footing in popular affection, were retained, as 
the Apocrypha is still sometimes retained in our Bibles. 
The Synod of Laodicea (360) made the first official list 
(omitting the Apocalypse), and forbade the public reading 
of uncanonical books. Pope Innocent I. (405) fixed the 
canon by decree as it now stands. 

IV. Modern Translations of the Bible .—1. German. In 
the fifteenth century numerous attempts were made to trans¬ 
late the Bible into German, but it remained for Luther to 
present the German people with a national version. His 
safety-imprisonment in the Wartburg gave him an oppor¬ 
tunity. He there translated the New Testament (published 
in 1522). He then undertook, with others, the task of 
translating the Old Testament, and if he had no other claim 
to rank among the Fathers of the Christian Church, with¬ 
out regard to time or country, this work would establish it. 
He had all the enlightened zeal for the popularization of 
the Bible which animated Jerome (see under Vulgate), 
though he resembled him in nothing else. He had to make 
his own tools for the work, for he and his age inherited no 
science and little knowledge from the scholasticism of the 
Middle Ages. Heine’s saying of him and his critics still 
remains true, that many a dwarf has sneered at the giant 
for not being able to see as far as himself after climbing 
upon his shoulders. 

2. French. A French version by Le Fevrc was published 
first in parts, then as a whole, at Antwerp in 1530. An¬ 
other by Olivetan, improved by Calvin, was published in 
Switzerland in 1536. Neither, and no other, has ever won 
the position of a national version in France. 

3. English. John Wickliffe (1384) made the first translation 
into the English language. He translated literally from 
the Vulgate. His work in this respect, as in others, was a 
pioneer of the Reforma,tion. William Tyndale is the true 
father of the English national version, founded on the 
original languages. He conceived and undertook the work 
when he risked his life if a proof-sheet of it were found on 
him, and his work was the basis of all subsequent ones. He 
published the New Testament (from Erasmus’s text—see 
above, History of the Greek Text ) at Wittenberg in 1526. 
He and Coverdale commenced to translate the Old Testa¬ 
ment at Antwerp, but they were discovered; Tyndale was 
captured, and burnt near Brussels in 1536. His merits, ob¬ 
scured by those who afterwards used his work when it was 
safe and popular to do so, have never met with the recog¬ 
nition they deserved. Coverdale finished the translation 
of the Old Testament in 1535. “ Matthew’s Bible” (1537) 
was approved by royal authority. It contained notes. A 
new edition (1539)—the “Great Bible”—and another in 
1540 with Cranmer’s preface—“ Cranmer’s Bible ”—which 
omitted the notes, supplanted the former. The “ Geneva 
Bible” followed in 1560, with Calvinistic notes. This won 
great popularity. Archbishop Parker went back to the 
“Great Bible,” and appointed a commission (mostly bishops) 
to revise it. This produced the “ Bishops’ Bible” (1568). 
It also had explanatory notes. It was the “Authorized 
Version,” and was read in the churches. It represented 
the Church party, while the Geneva Bible retained its place 
amongst the Puritans, and, in fact, with the popular ma¬ 
jority. In 1610 the Roman Catholics also produced a rep¬ 
resentative version, translated strictly and solely from the 
Vulgate, and known as the “Douay Bible.” In 1604, at 
the “Hampton Court Conference,” it was proposed to su¬ 
persede the two Protestant versions by a new one satisfac¬ 
tory to both parties. James I. appointed a commission of 
fifty-four learned men of all parties to do the work, and 
fixed the rules under which they were to act. The “ Bishops’ 
Bible” was to be made the basis, and only altered where 
necessary. This version was published in 1611, and it 
gradually displaced the others by virtue of its intrinsic 
merits. Under the Commonwealth the question of a new 
version was raised, but the committee of Parliament re¬ 
ported that the English version was “ the best in the world.” 


It certainly is one of the very best modern national ver¬ 
sions. In 1.870 the convocation of Canterbury proposed a re¬ 
vision, which is now in progress. W. G. Sumnkii. 

liihlia Pau'perum [a Latin term signifying “ the 
Bible of the poor”]. The work known to bibliographers 
under this name is one of the earliest “ block books ” printed 
before the use of movable type. The printing has been at¬ 
tributed to Laurens Roster of Haarlem, and was probably 
printed somewhere between 1410 and 1420. The work con¬ 
sists of a series of cuts illustrating the history of our Lord, 
as set forth in the New Testament and as predicted in the 
Old. The descriptive text is in the abbreviated Latin of 
the time. It has different titles, but Ileineken gave it the 
name which he found attached to a copy which he described. 
It would seem ill adapted to the wants of the ignorant 
laity of that time, when few among them were equal to the 
task of deciphering the letter-press, and without this the 
engravings would have been meaningless. There seems 
good reason for the opinion of Jackson and Chatto ( His¬ 
tory of Wood-engraving), that the work was prepared to aid 
the mendicant friars of the time in their preaching—the 
text forming the topic for their sermons, and the pictures 
an excitement for their imaginations. (See Jackson and 
Chatto, and Humphrey’s “ History of Printing.”) 

Bib'lical Archaeol'ogy, the science which treats of 
those things which illustrate the public and private life of 
the people and places mentioned in the Bible. Our know¬ 
ledge of these subjects is obtained from the ancient litera¬ 
ture both of the jews and Gentiles, and from the monu¬ 
mental and other remains of ancient nations, such as in¬ 
scriptions, ruins, coins, etc. The principal literary sources 
of archaeological knowledge of this kind are the Bible, Jo¬ 
sephus, Philo, the rabbinical and Arabian writers, Herodo¬ 
tus, and a great number of modern works of traA'el and lit¬ 
erary research. The monumental sources of knowledge may 
not improperly include the interesting literary and other 
remains of ancient Egypt, the coins of the Phoenicians, of 
the Maccabees, and of the Syrians, the cuneiform inscrip¬ 
tions of Babylon, Assyria, and Persia, the Moabite Stone, 
and the remains of the ancient cities of Palestine and the 
neighboring countries. The archaeology of the early Chris¬ 
tian Church receives light also from the writings of the 
Fathers, from the later classical authors, and from the catti- 
combs of Rome. 

Among the immense numbers of treatises upon this sub¬ 
ject we may mention Jahn’s “ Biblical Archaeology ” (1796— 
1805); Robinson’s “Researches” (1856); ltheinwald’s 
“ Kirchliche Archaeologic ” (1830) ; Kitto’s “ Cyclopaedia ” 
(1845-50); Michaelis’s “ Mosaisches Recht” (1770 ; 2d ed. 
1775); Saalschiitz, “Das Mosaische Recht” (1846-48); 
Raumcr’s “ Palestina” (1650). 

Bibliog'rapliy [from the Gr. fiifiMov, a “book,” and 
ypa<]) 0 ), to “ write”], that science which has for its object 
the knowledge and description of the literary productions 
of all ages and races. It is one of the most important aux¬ 
iliaries in studying the history of science and art. Distinc¬ 
tion is often made between pure and applied bibliography. 
The former considers the books by themselves, and aims 
merely to show what has been written, while the latter con¬ 
siders the books according to their character and contents. 
Bibliography is also useful as facilitating the buying 
and selling of books, while classified catalogues are often 
valuable to the student of special subjects. Almost every 
nation, as well as every science, has its own bibliography, 
and there are also separate lists of scarce and peculiar 
books, valuable to bibliomaniacs. The German books pub¬ 
lished since 1700 are given in the “Allgemeine Bilcher- 
lexicon ” of Ileinsius in alphabetical order (vol. i.-xvi., 
1812-69). Ersch gave a list of those published since 1750 
in his handbook of German literature (1845-49). In Leip- 
sic a trade catalogue is published semi-annually, as well as 
Hinrich’s “Verzeichniss” and the monthly “Allgemeine 
Bibliographie ” of Brockhaus, comprising the most im¬ 
portant works of every nation. The French literature has 
been catalogued since 1811 in the “Bibliographie de la 
France;” the Dutch in the “ Nederlandsche Bibliographie ” 
since 1854; the Belgian in the “Bibliographie de la Bel¬ 
gique” since 1838; the English in Longman’s “History of 
New Books ” since 1844; the Italian in the “ Bibliographia 
italiana” since 1861; the Spanish in the “ Boletin biblio- 
grafico espanol” since 1860. Danish, Swedish, Hebrew, 
Greek, and Polish catalogues are also annually published ; 
while the Russian literature is given in the monthly maga¬ 
zine “ Russkaja Bibliografija.” The new books published 
in the U. S. are given in the “Literary Gazette” (Phila¬ 
delphia). Triibner’s “ American and Oriental Literary 
Record” (London, monthly since 1865) gives a list of the 
most important works published in America, China, and 
India. (For the earlier literature of all nations see Ebert, 
“Allgemeines bibliographisches Lexicon,” 2 vols., 1821-50.) 










BIBLIOMANCY—BIDDEFORD. 481 


The oldest known work with this title is De Bure’s “ Bib¬ 
liographic Instructive” (1703-68), but there were older and 
very valuable bibliographies, such, for example, as Conrad 
Gesner’s “ Bibliotheca Universalis ” fc (1545). The works of 
Robert Watt, Dibdin, Horne, and Lownde in Great Britain, 
of Peignot, Brunet, Bourquelot, Louandre, and Querard in 
France, of Gamba in Italy, of Foppens in Belgium, of 
Nyerup and Kraft in Denmark, and of Hain and Panzer in 
Germany, are all of value to the student of general litera¬ 
ture. The American works of Allibonc, Duyckinck, Rich, 
and Bartlett also deserve mention. 

Revised by C. W. Greene. 

Bib'liomancy [Gr. the “Bible,” and ^avTeia, 

“ divination ”], a mode of divination used in both ancient 
and modern times, by opening the Bible and observing the 
first passage which occurred, or by entering a church and 
taking note of the first words of the Bible heard after en¬ 
tering. It seems to have originated with the Jews, and 
to have been adopted from them by the Eastern Christians. 
The application either depended upon the sound of the 
words or upon the signification of the passage. Prayer 
and fasting were used as a preparation for consulting the 
divine oracles. Bibliomancy was prohibited, under pain 
of excommunication, by the Council of Yannes, 405 A. D. 
It continued, however, to prevail for many centuries there¬ 
after. It came into use in the Roman Catholic Church in 
the choice of bishops, and prevailed in some places for cen¬ 
turies. Many eminent Protestant Christians have made 
use of this practice in times of perplexity, as Bunyan and 
John AVesley. 

Biblioma'nia [from the Gr. pif3\iov } a “ book,” and txa- 
via, “ madness”], a taste for collecting books, not for their 
intrinsic value, but for their age or rarity, or on account of 
their publisher’s, printer’s, or binder’s fame, or even, in 
some instances, for the mere caprice of fashion. For ex¬ 
ample, a few years since the works of some of the Elzevirs 
brought fabulous prices, while at present they are sold at 
a comparatively low rate. First editions usually bring 
high prices. The works of such ancient printers as Caxton 
must always be sold high on account of their age; so also 
the books of Aldus Manutius, joining great textual beauty 
and accuracy to extreme age; while the productions of 
much later date are often sought for their beauty alone; 
such, for instance, are the works of Foulis and Baskerville, 
printers of the last century. » 

Bibliothe/ca [from the Gr. £i/3Ai'ov, a “ book,” and 
0 TJK 77 , a “case”], the Latin word signifying library, a col¬ 
lection of books ; often used, like our word “library,” as 
a name for publications of various kinds, as “Bibliotheca 
Hispana,” “ Bibliotheca Sacra,” etc. 

Bice [Ger. Beis, possibly from a root cognate with the 
Sanscrit bisha or bisa, “ poison ”], the name of two blue 
and green pigments which are native carbonates of cop¬ 
per, and have been used by painters from very early times. 
The blue bice is sometimes called mountain blue and on- 
garo. The synonyms of green bice are Hungarian green, 
verdetto, malachite green, mountain green, etc. 

Bi'ceps [from the Lat. bis, “twice” or “two,” and 
ca'pat, a “ head ”], (“ double headed ”), is the large round 
muscle lying upon the front of the arm. Above, it con¬ 
sists of two portions or heads—whence its name—one being 
attached to the coracoid process of the scapula, the other 
to the margin of the shallow socket of the head of the 
humerus. The former is the short, the latter the long, head 
of the biceps. They unite to form a fleshy belly, which 
terminates in a rounded tendon inserted into the tubercle 
of the radius. The action of the biceps is to bend theforo 
arm. Another biceps is found on the outer and posterior 
aspect of the thigh. Its long head arises from the tuber¬ 
osity of the ischium ; its short head, from the linea aspera 
of the thigh-bone. Its tendon is the outer hamstring. 

Bicetrc,* the name of an old castle, a hospital, and a 
fort in the department of Seine, in the southern environs 
of Paris. The castle, which is very large, has been con¬ 
verted into a hospital for old men and for lunatics. Here 
the prisoners sentenced to death or to the galleys were for¬ 
merly kept until the sentence was executed. But in 1837 
this prison was transferred to La Roquette. Situated on 
an eminence, it commands a fine view of Paris and the 
Seine. Here are accommodations for about 900 male lu¬ 
natics, who receive gentle treatment. 

Bicliat (Marie Francois Xavier), an illustrious 
French anatomist and physiologist, born at Thoirette, in 
Jura, Nov. 11, 1771. In 1797 he began to lecture on anat¬ 
omy, surgery, etc. in Paris. He published “ Researches on 
Life and Death ” (1800), and an excellent and profound 
work entitled “ General Anatomy applied to Physiology 


♦ This name is said to be a corruption of TT inchester . Its castle 
was founded in 1290 by John, bishop of Winchester. 

31 


and Medicine ” (4 vols., 1801). He simplified anatomy and 
physiology by reducing the complex structures of the or¬ 
gans to the simple or elementary tissues, and he was the first 
who recognized the importance of the distinction between 
the organic functions and the animal or vital functions. 
Having impaired his health by close application, he died 
before the age of thirty-one, July 22, 1802. 

Bickanii', a native state of India, under British pro¬ 
tection, situated between lat. 27° 30' and 29° 55' N., and 
between Ion. 72° 30' and 75° 40' E. Area, 17,750 square 
miles. The soil is poor, consisting almost entirely of des¬ 
erts. The inhabitants are mostly Rajpoots. Pop. 539,520. • * 

Bickanir, a fortified town, capital of the above state, 
is in an arid and desolate tract 240 miles W. S. W. of Delhi ; 
lat. 28° N., Ion. 73° 22' E. It is surrounded by a battle- 
mented wall three and a half miles in circuit, and has a 
citadel, several temples, and lofty buildings, but the streets 
arc dirty and most of the houses mean. Pop. estimated at 
60,000. 

Bick'erstaff (Isaac), an Irish dramatist, born about 
1735, was in his early life an officer of marines. He pro¬ 
duced several popular comedies and comic operas, among 
which are “ The Maid of the Mill,” “ The Padlock,” “ Love 
in a Village” (1763), and “The Captive.” Died after 1787. 
Steele’s “Tatler”was published under the assumed name 
of Isaac Bickerstatf, which often occurs in the papers of 
that work. 

Bick'ersteth (Edward), an English theologian, born 
in Westmoreland in 1786. He took orders in the Anglican 
Church, and was sent by the Missionary Society to Africa 
in 1816 to reorganize their mission stations. On his return 
he was chosen secretary to that society. He became rector 
of Watton, in Hertfordshire, in 1830, and was one of the 
founders of the Evangelical Alliance. Among his works, 
which are highly esteemed, are a “ Help to the Study of 
the Scriptures” (1814), “The Christian Student,” “A Trea¬ 
tise on Baptism,” and “ The Promised Glory of the Church 
of Christ.” Died in 1850. His collected works were pub¬ 
lished in 16 vols., 1853. (See T. R. Birks, “Memoir of the 
Rev. E. Bickersteth,” 2 vols., 1851.) 

Bickersteth (Edv f ard Henry), a poet and clergyman 
of the Church of England, son of the above, was born Jan. 
25, 1825, and was educated at Cambridge. He has pub¬ 
lished, besides numerous other works, “Poems” (1849), 
“The Rock of Ages” (1859), and “Yesterday, To-day, and 
For Ever” (1860), which has had a great success. His 
poetry, chiefly upon sacred themes, has many admirers. 

Bick' more (Albert Smith), Ph. D., naturalist, was 
born in St. George’s, Me., Mar. 1, 1S39, and graduated at 
Dartmouth in 1860. He studied under Agassiz at Cam¬ 
bridge, and in 1865 sailed for the Dutch East Indies for 
the purpose of collecting shells. He also travelled in China, 
Japan, Manchooria, Siberia, and Russia. He became in 
1870 professor of natural history in Madison University, 
and has devoted much time to the Museum of Natural 
History founded by him at the Central Park, N. Y. He 
has published “ Travels in the East Indian Archipelago ” 
(1869). 

Bitlasso'a, a small river forming part of the boundary 
between France and Spain. It rises in Spain, and enters 
the Bay of Biscay at Fuentarabia. On the Isle of Pheas¬ 
ants, in this river, the treaty of the Pyrenees was concluded 
in 1659. In Aug.. 1813, Wellington defeated the French 
marshal Soult at Sap Marcial on the Bidassoa. 

Bid'deford, a city of York co., Me., situated on the 
Saco River, 9 miles from its mouth, on the Boston and 
Maine and the Portsmouth Saco and Portland R. Rs., 15 miles 
S. W. of Portland. The city limits measure 12 by 4 miles. 

It was named from the city of Bideford, England. The first 
settlement was made at the “ Pool” (at the mouth of the 
river) by Richard Vines, in 1616—17. It was settled by a 
patent to John Oldham and Vines in 1630. York county 
originally embraced all of the province of Maine, and while 
settlements were made at a very early date along the sea- 
coast (none earlier than this) to the Piscataqua River, 
Bideford or Biddeford for a long series of years w'as the 
chief settlement and centre. Here are inexhaustible ledges 
of granite, which ranks among the best in the world, and 
is largely exported. The business of the place is man¬ 
ufacturing: among the chief corporations are the Pepperell 
(capital $1,000,000, three extensive mills, 75,000 spindles, 
average monthly product 1,200,000 yards of cotton cloth, 
employs 1600 hands); Laconia (capital $1,200,000, four 
extensive mills, one in process of erection, about 80,000 
spindles, cotton cloth, monthly pay over $20,000); V ater- 
Power Machine Company, largest in Maine or New Hamp¬ 
shire (cotton and woollen machinery, capital $300,000, 
emplovs 500 men); Harding Machine Company (capital 
$75,000); Gas Company (capital $71,600); Paper Collar 












482 BIDDLE 


Company (capital $15,000). A large amount of lumber is 
also manufactured; valuation, $5,682,402. Assessment, $25 
per $1000; annual tax-list,about$83,000; debt,$142,589.76 ; 
sinking fund amounts to $20,000. It has two national banks. 
Biddeford has eight churches and one chapel, and is noted 
for its church architecture. The average seating capacity, 
800 ; average cost, $20,000. It has one daily and two weekly 
papers. Pop. in 1850, 6095; in 1860, 9349 j in 1870, 10,282. 

J. E. Buller, Ed. “ Union and Journal.” 

Bid/dle (Charles John), a son of Nicholas Biddle, was 
born in Philadelphia in 1819, and graduated at Princeton 
in 1837. He became a lawyer, served with distinction in 
the Mexican war, winning a major’s brevet, and served also 
in the late civil war ; became editor of the “ Age,” a lead¬ 
ing Democratic journal of Philadelphia, which he con¬ 
ducted with great ability. He published a masterly vindi¬ 
cation of Washington’s conduct with regard to the execution 
of Andre. Died Sept., 1873. 

Biddle (Clement), an American officer and merchant, 
born in Philadelphia May 10, 1740. He fought with the 
rank of colonel at the battles of Trenton, Princeton, 
Brandywine, and Monmouth, and quitted the army in 
1780. He was a friend and correspondent of Gen. Wash¬ 
ington, who appointed him marshal of Pennsylvania. Died 
July 14, 1814. 

Biddle (Clement Cornell), a lawyer, a son of the pre¬ 
ceding, was born in Philadelphia in 1784. He served as 
colonel in the war against the British, 1812-15, and after¬ 
wards applied himself to political economy. He produced 
in 1821 a translation of J. B. Say’s “Treatise on Political 
Economy,” with notes. Died in 1855. 

Biddle (James), a naval officer, born in Philadelphia 
Feb. 28, 1783, educated at the University of Pennsylvania, 
and entered the navy in 1800. He served against Tripoli, 
where he was a prisoner nineteen months. In the war of 
1812 he served with distinction in sevei’al engagements, 
and while commanding the Hornet captured the brig Pen¬ 
guin, receiving a wound in the action (Mai*. 23,1814). For 
his services he received a gold medal from Congress, besides 
other honors. He became a captain in 1815. He was after¬ 
wards commissioner to Turkey, China, etc., and held other 
important positions. Died Oct. 1, 1848. 

Biddle (John), the founder of English Unitarianism, 
was born at Wotton-under-Edge, in Gloucestershire, in 
1615, and graduated at Oxford. He was prosecuted about 
1645 for the expression of heterodox opinions respecting 
the personality of the Holy Spirit, and after a formal trial 
by Parliament was condemned to imprisonment for five 
years. While in prison he published in 1648 a “Confes¬ 
sion of Faith concerning the Holy Trinity.” He was lib¬ 
erated about 1650, after the death of Charles I., and gath¬ 
ered a congregation of his fellow-believers. He was sub¬ 
sequently persecuted and imprisoned twice during the 
Commonwealth. It is stated that Cromwell once banished 
him in order to save his life. He died in prison Sept. 22, 
1662. (See J. Toulmin, “Life of John Biddle,” 1815 ; John 
Farrington, “Vita J. Bidelli,” 1682.) 

Biddle (Nicholas), a American naval officer, born in 
Philadelphia Sept. 10, 1750. He entered the royal navy 
in 1770, and once served in a ship of which the famous 
Nelson was mate. He obtained the rank of captain in the 
U. S. navy in 1776, and took several prizes from the Brit¬ 
ish. Early in 1777 he took command of the Randolph, a 
frigate, which encountered the Yarmouth, a 64-gun ship, 
Mar. 7, 1778. During the action that ensued the magazine 
of the Randolph exploded and killed Captain Biddle, with 
nearly all his crew. 

Biddle (Nicholas), LL.D., an, American financier, a 
nephew of the preceding, was born in Philadelphia Jan. 8, 
1786. He was a son of Charles Biddle, who was vice- 
president of Pennsylvania in 1786-87. He graduated at 
Princeton in 1801, was elected to the legislature of Penn¬ 
sylvania in 1810, and appointed a director of the U. S. 
Bank by President Monroe in 1819. In 1823 he became 
president of that bank, the affairs of which he managed 
with great ability and success for many years, so that it 
supplied the country with a sound and uniform currency. 
The bill to recharter the bank having been vetoed by Pres¬ 
ident Jackson in 1832, the bank was closed in 1836 by the 
limitation of its charter. He was soon elected president 
of a new State bank, called “Tho United States Bank,” 
which was chartered by the legislature of Pennsylvania. 
This bank became insolvent in the financial crisis of 1841. 
He was president of the trustees of the fund ($2,000,000) 
which Stephen Girard left to found a college for orphans. 
“To his exertions alone,” says Judge R. T. Conrad, “the 
country ow'es one of the most beautiful structures of mod¬ 
ern times, the Girard College, lie proposed the present 
plan, and in the midst of wild political excitement and 


BIELEF. 


opposition persisted firmly, and secured a building which 
every citizen now not only approves, but applauds.” Died 
Feb. 27, 1844. (See a “Memoir of N. Biddle,” by II. T. 
Conrad, in the “National Portrait Gallery,” vol. iv., 1839.) 

Biddle (Richard), a lawyer and writer, a brother of 
the preceding, was born in Philadelphia Mar. 25, 1796. 
He practised law at Pittsburg, was a member of Congress 
(1837-41), and wrote a “Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, with 
a Review of the History of Maritime Discovery” (1831). 
Died July 7, 1847. 

Bid'eford, a seaport-town of England, in Devonshire, 
on the river Torridge, 1£ miles from its entrance into the 
estuary of the Taw, 30 miles N. AV. of Exeter. It has a 
stone bridge of twenty-four arches, about 680 feet long, a 
town-hall, a hospital, and manufactures of ropes, sails, 
earthenware, and leather. Among the articles of export 
are linen and woollen goods, iron, sails, and naval stores. 
Vessels of 500 tons can come up to the centre of the town. 
Pop. in 1871, 6953. 

Bidsch'ow, or Bydcow, New, a town of Bohemia, 
is 41 miles E. N. E. of Prague. Pop. in 1869, 5957. 

Bid'well, a township of Butte co., Cal. Pop. 337. 

Bidwell (Daniel D.), an American general of volun¬ 
teers, born at Black Rock, now part of Buffalo, N. Y., 
Aug. 12, 1816. He held various important local offices, 
and was actively identified with the militia organizations 
of the city for many years. On the outbreak of the civil 
war he enlisted as a private soldier, and was promoted to 
be captain in the Sixty-fifth, and subsequently colonel of 
the Forty-ninth, New York volunteers. He was engaged 
in the various actions of the Peninsula campaign, in the bat¬ 
tles of South Mountain and Antietam, Fredericksburg, and 
Chancellorsville, and before Richmond and Petersburg, 
being most of the time in command of a brigade. In July, 
1864, he was commissioned a brigadier-general of volun¬ 
teers, and assigned to a command under Gen. Sheridan in 
the Shenandoah Valley, participating in the engagements 
of that campaign, including the battle of Cedar Creek, 
Oct. 19, 1864, where he was mortally wounded while gal¬ 
lantly leading his brigade. 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eng’rs. 

Biel (Gabriel), “the last of the Schoolmen,” was born 
at Spire, in Germany, after 1442, was professor at Tubin¬ 
gen from the establishment of the university there in 1477, 
and died in 1495. Although a devout and earnest Catholic, 
he sided with the Council of Bale against the pope, and de¬ 
plored the corruptions and abuses of his time. He is worthy 
of note as having rejected the doctrine of sensible and in¬ 
telligible species so widely prevalent among the Schoolmen. 

Bie'dermaiin (Alois Emanuel), a German rational¬ 
istic theologian, was born Mar. 2, 1819. He wrote “ Die 
Freie Theologie ” (1844), founded the “ Kirche der Gegen- 
wart,” 1845, and published in 1869 his “ Christliche Dog- 
matik,” one of the most important emanations of recent 
rationalistic theology. 

Biedermann (Friedrich Karl), a German journal¬ 
ist and author, born in Leipsic in 1812. He became pro¬ 
fessor of philosophy and public law at that city, and took 
part in the political movement of 1848. He has written 
numerous philosophical and historical w r orks, and con¬ 
ducted various liberal journals. 

Biefve (Edouard de), a Flemish historical painter, born 
in 1808, studied in Paris with Von Paelink, and lives at 
Brussels. His chief work is “ Compromise of the Bur¬ 
gundian Nobles.” 

Biela, von (Wilhelm), Baron, a German astronomer, 
born at Rosla, in Prussia, in 1782, discovered in 1826 the 
comet noticed below. Died in 1856. 

Biela’s Comet is a comet remarkable for its short 
period, of about six and a half years, and for the near ap¬ 
proach of its orbit to that of the. earth. In 1846 and in 
1852 it appeared as if broken into two distinct comets. It 
has not been observed since 1852, and astronomers are un¬ 
able to explain its apparent disappearance from the solar 
system. A shower of shooting stars which occurred Nov. 
27, 1872, as the earth was crossing the orbit of this comet, 
is supposed by astronomers to have been derived from the 
debris of the lost body. 

Bie'lefeld, a walled town of Prussia, in Westphalia, 
is finely situated on the Minden and Cologne Railway, 20 
miles S. W. of Minden. It has a large linen trade, and 
manufactures of woollen stuffs, leather, soap, and meer¬ 
schaum pipes. Here is the old castle of Sparrenberg, now 
used as a prison. Pop. in 1871, 21,803. 

Bielef 7 , an old town of Russia, in the government of 
Toola, and on the river Oka, 70 miles S. W. of Toola. It 
has a large trade, and manufactures of hardware, leather, 
and soap. Pop. 8123. 











BIELGORAI—BIG CREEK. 


483 


Kiel gorai, a town of Russian Poland, in the govern¬ 
ment of Lublin. Pop. G168. 

Bielgoroil, a Russian town, in the government of 
Koorsk, on the Donitz, 80 miles S. of Koursk. Pop. 8190. 

Bie'litz, a town of Austrian Silesia, on the river Biala, 
48 miles S. W. of Cracow, with which it is connected by rail. 
It has an active trade in woollen cloth and cassimeres. 
Here is a castle of Prince Sulkowsky. A bridge across 
the river connects Bielitz with Bialia, in Galicia. Pop. in 
1809, 10,721. 

Biel'la, a town of Italy, in the province of Novara, is 
on the Cervo, 89 miles by rail N. E. of Turin. It has man¬ 
ufactures of paper, hats, and woollen goods. Pop. 8362. 

Bielo'pol, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Kharkof, on the.Vira, 118 miles N. W. of Kharkof. It is 
on the railway from Orel to Kiev. It has a considerable 
trade and several distilleries. Pop. 12,178. 

Bielzy, a town of Russia, in the province of Bessarabia, 
115 miles N. W. of Odessa, has several factories. An 
annual fair is held here. Pop. in 1867, 6070. 

Bienne [Ger. Biel], a town of Switzerland, in the can¬ 
ton of Berne, at the N. E. extremity of the Lake of Bienne, 
13 miles W. S. W. of Soleure. It is beautifully situated 
at the foot of the Jura, is enclosed by old walls, and is con¬ 
nected by railways with Berne and Lausanne. Here are 
manufactures of watches, cotton goods, etc. Many Roman 
coins have been found at Bienne, which is a place of great 
antiquity. Pop. in 1870, 8113. 

Bienne, Lake of, is in the Swiss canton of Berne. 
It is 10 miles long, 3 miles wide, and 250 feet deep, is near 
the base of the Jura Mountains, and has an elevation of 
1419 feet above the sea. The Thiele passes through it 
before joining the Aar. It encloses the island of St. Pierre, 
which was the residence of J. J. Rousseau in 1765. In 
digging peat, which is extensively procured from its marshy 
border, the remains of a pre-historic village of lake-dwell¬ 
ings has been found on the S. E. side of the lake. 

Biennial Plants, a term including all plants which 
live longer than annuals, and not so long as perennials. 
They grow the first season without flowering, and produce 
flowers in the second season, at the end of which they die. 
Such are the turnip, parsnip, beet, and many other plants 
which are cultivated. Many biennials, if sown early in the 
spring, will flower in the summer or autumn of that year, 
and become annuals. In botanical books, biennial plants 
are often designated by the symbol of the planet Mars, J. 

Bien'ville, a parish in the N. W. of Louisiana. Area, 
680 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by Lake 
Bistineau (navigable by steamers), and drained by Saline 
Bayou and other streams. The soil produces cotton and 
maize. Capital, Sparta. Pop. 10,636. 

Bienville, de (Jean Baptiste Lemoine), a French 
officer and pioneer, born in Montreal Feb. 23, 1680, was a 
brother of Lemoine d’Iberville. He accompanied the latter 
in an expedition to the mouth of the Mississippi in 1699, 
and was three times appointed colonial governor of Louis¬ 
iana. He founded New Orleans in 1718. Died in France 
in 1768. 

Bier'stadt (Albert), a German painter, born at Diis- 
seldorf in 1829, was brought to the U. S. by his parents in 
1831. He studied at Diisseldorf, visited Rome, and re¬ 
turned to the U. S. in 1857. He took part in General 
Lander’s expedition to the Rocky Mountains in 1858. 
Among his works are a magnificent “View of the Rocky 
Mountains—Lander’s Peak” (1863), “A Storm in the Rocky 
Mountains,” and “ The Domes of the Yosemite.” 

Bi'ga^or Bi'gae, a plural form with the same signifi¬ 
cation), a term applied by the ancient Romans to a vehicle 
drawn by two horses abreast; a two-horse chariot used in 
processions and games. Like the Greek war-chariot, it had 
two wheels, was low and open behind, and higher and closed 
in front. Figures of the bigse are often found upon ancient 
coins. 

Big'amy [Lat. bigamia], the offence of contracting a 
second marriage while a former marriage is still subsisting. 
The more proper term for this offence is polygamy. It is 
governed by statute. It is usual to provide that if a hus¬ 
band or wife shall remain absent for a specified number of 
years (seven) without being heard from or being known to 
be living, and the other party shall marry again, no crime 
will be committed, though the absent party be alive. The 
same rule extends to the case of a party divorced from the 
bonds of matrimony. In some of the States a person di¬ 
vorced for his or her own adultery cannot marry again 
during the life of the other party. A violation of this 
rule is not a case of bigamy, but rather a breach of the 
prohibitory statute. A sentence to imprisonment for life 
is in New York a dissolution of a marriage, so that the 


parties may lawfully marry other persons. The offence 
consists in the act of marrying; so that if the parties 
marry in one State and cohabit in another, the crime is 
committed solely in the place of the marriage, and can only 
be prosecuted there. In a prosecution for bigamy an actual 
marriage must be established. Evidence of reputation, or 
even of cohabitation, will not suffice. It does not follow 
that proof of a ceremonial marriage is necessary. The 
law of the States differs upon that point, some holding that 
a case of bigamy may be established by proof of consent 
before witnesses, without any ceremony. Such is the law 
in New York. 

Big B eaver, a township of Beaver co., Pa. P. 1559. 

Big Beaver, a township of Lawrence co., Pa. P. 1406. 

Big Bethel, the name given to the action of June 10, 
1861. Gen. Butler, who had taken possession of and for¬ 
tified Newport News a few days previously, found the Con¬ 
federates under Gen. Magruder in possession of all the com¬ 
manding points in his front; lie accordingly directed a 
reconnoissance in force to be made, with the object of sur¬ 
prising and capturing the position called Little Bethel; 
and to make the expedition more certain of success two 
regiments, Duryea’s Zouaves and the Third New York 
under Col. Townsend, were to start about midnight of 
the 9th, and gain the rear of the position to prevent re¬ 
treat, while a battalion of Vermont troops, Col. Phelps, and 
a New York regiment, Col. Bendix, were to be ready to 
attack in front by daybreak of the 10th. Though various 
precautions had been taken against mistake, the commands 
of Cols. Bendix and Townsend approaching each other 
near daybreak, Col. Bendix’s command opened fire on the 
Third New York, killing two men and wounding a con¬ 
siderable number, and throwing the whole command into 
confusion before the mistake was discovered. The Confed¬ 
erates, being thus notified, retreated to Big Bethel, where 
they hastily threw up breastworks behind a deep creek. 
Gen. Pierce, who was in command of the Federal expedi¬ 
tion, after being reinforced, and finding Little Bethel de¬ 
serted, advanced towards Big Bethel, a few miles to the N., 
where he found a Confederate force, estimated at 1800, 
under the command of Col. J. B. Magruder, a graduate of 
West Point, protected by the hastily constructed earth¬ 
works. Gen. Pierce ordered an attack, which was continued 
nearly four hours, during which time the Federal troops 
were exposed to a deadly fire, while the Confederates were 
almost entirely protected. Later in the day a more general 
assault was made, led by Major Theodore Winthrop, in 
which he was instantly killed while encouraging his men to 
the assault. Gen. Pierce finally ordered a retreat, which 
was effected in good order, the Confederates following at 
some distance with cavalry. Lieut. John T. Greble of the 
Second U. S. Artillery was killed while covering the defeated 
troops. The Confederates, fearing reinforcements of the 
Federals from Fortress Monroe, fell back that night to 
Yorktown. The Federal loss in killed and wounded was 
about 100 men; the Confederate loss was said to be only 1 
killed and 7 wounded. 

Big Black, a river of Mississippi, rises in Choctaw 
co., flows south-westward, and enters the Mississippi at 
Grand Gulf. Length, about 200 miles. It is navigable for 
steamboats for 50 miles. General Grant’s army, moving to 
the siege of Vicksburg, defeated the Confederates on the 
Big Black, nearly 15 miles E. of that town, May 12, 1863. 
The morning after the battle of Champion Hills, May 17, 
1863, found the Confederate forces under Pemberton strongly 
posted on both banks of the Big Black River. The works 
were successfully assaulted, and all the troops on the E. 
bank, with seventeen pieces of artillery, captured, the re¬ 
mainder of Pemberton’s army retreating to the fortifications 
of Vicksburg. 

Big Bone Lick, a salt “lick” or spring in Boone 
co., Ivy. It takes its name from the fossil bones found here 
of the mastodon and other animals, which are thought to 
have resorted to this place to “lick” the salt earth, and to 
have perished in the marshy soil. 

Big Bottom, a township of Independence co., Ark. 
Pop. 938. 

Big Creek, a township of Limestone co., Ala. P. 1140. 

Big Creek, a township of Craighead co., Ark. P.487. 

Big Creek, a township of Fulton co., Ark. Pop. 535. 

Big Creek, a township of Hot Springs co., Ark. 
Pop. 158. 

Big Creek, a township of Phillips co., Ark. Pop. 1699. 

Big Creek, a township of Sebastian co., Ark. P. 1062. 

Big Creek, a township of Sharpe co., Ark. Pop. 414. 

Big Creek, a township of White co., Ind. Pop. 584. 

Big Creek, a township of Black Hawk co., Ia. Pop. 
1394. 



















484 BIG CREEK-BIG RAPIDS. 


Big Creek, a township of Ellis co., Kan. Pop. G. 

Big Creek, a township of Neosho co., Kan. P. 1077. 

Big Creek, a township of Cass co., Mo. Pop. 1007. 

Big Creek, a township of Henry co., Mo. Pop. 1300. 

Big Creek, a township of Taney co., Mo. Pop. 267. 

Big Creek, a township of McDowell co., West Va. 
Pop. 688. 

Bigelow (Erastus Brigham), LL.D., an eminent in¬ 
ventor, born in West Boylston, Mass., April, 1814. While 
a mere boy, he invented a loom for suspender-weaving and 
other machines, and wrote a book on short-hand writing. 
He subsequently invented looms for counterpanes (1838-40), 
another for coach-lace, and in 1839 brought out his well- 
known carpet loom. He is one of the principal manufac¬ 
turers of Clinton, Mass. He published “ The Tariff Ques¬ 
tion” (1862) and other works. 

Bigelow (George Tyler), LL.D., was born at Water- 
town, Mass., Oct. 6, 1810, and graduated at Harvard in 
1829. He was a State senator of Massachusetts (1847-48), 
a justice of the State supreme court (1850-61), and chief- 
justice (1861-68). 

Bigelow (Jacob), M. D., LL.D., an eminent American 
physician and botanist, born in Sudbury, Mass., in 1787, 
graduated at Harvard in 1806. He became professor of 
materia medica and clinic medicine at Harvard, and presi¬ 
dent of the Massachusetts Medical Society. He practised 
medicine in Boston many years, founded the Mount Auburn 
Cemetery, and laid out the grounds with much taste. Among 
his works are “American Medical Botany” (3 vols. Svo, 
1817-21), an able “Discourse on Self-limited Diseases” 
(1835), “Nature in Disease” (1854), and “History of 
Mount Auburn” (1860). 

Bigelow (John), an author and diplomatist, born in 
Malden, N. Y., Nov. 25, 1817, graduated at Union College 
in 1835. He contributed numerous articles to the “ Demo¬ 
cratic Review,” and in 1850 became assistant editor of 
William C. Bryant’s journal, the “New York Evening 
Post.” Having visited Jamaica in that year, he published 
“Jamaica in 1850, or the Effects of Sixteen Years of Free¬ 
dom on a Slave Colony.” He was appointed American 
consul at Paris in 1861, and minister plenipotentiary at 
that court in April, 1865. He resigned this position in 
1866.' He published in Paris “Les Etats Unis d’Amerique 
en 1863,” and in 1871 a work on the French monarchy, lie 
has also edited the “Autobiography of Franklin” (1868). 

Bigelow (Timothy), born in Worcester, Mass., Aug. 
12, 1739, was a blacksmith who became a member of the 
provincial Congress of 1774-75, entered the Revolutionary 
army as captain of minute-men in 1775, was captured at 
Quebec, became a colonel of Massachusetts troops, serving 
at Stillwater, Valley Forge, etc. Died Mar. 31, 1790. 

Bigelow (Timothy), a son of Col. Timothy Bigelow, was 
born in Worcester, Mass., April 30, 1767, graduated at Har¬ 
vard in 1786, practised law in Groton and Boston, Mass., 
where he long stood at the heal of his profession, perform¬ 
ing an immense amount of legal work. He was also long 
a prominent Federalist leader. Died May 18, 1821. His 
daughter became the wife of Abbott Lawrence. 

Big Flat, a township of Searcy co., Ark. Pop. 472. 

Big Flats, a post-township of Chemung co., N. Y. 
Pop. 1902. 

Big Flats, a post-township of Adams co., Wis. P. 89. 

Big Fork, a township of Montgomery co., Ark. P. 206. 

Big Fork, a post-township of Polk co., Ark. P. 274. 

Big' ger, a township of Jennings co., Ind. Pop. 945. 

Big Grove, a township of Kendall co., Ill. Pop. 1726. 

Big Grove, a township of Benton co., Ia. Pop. 856. 

Big Grove, a township of Johnson co., Ia. Pop. 1358. 

Biggs'ville, a post-village of Henderson co., Ill. Pop. 
353. 

Big Horn, or Rocky Mountain Sheep (On’s 
montana, Cuvier), is regarded by Cuvier as identical with 
the argali of the Old World. It also resembles the wild 
sheep ( mouflon ) of the Mediterranean Islands and of the 
Atlas Mountains. It is very large and extremely wild, and 
is found in the western and north-western mountains of 
North America. Its flesh is highly prized, but its hair can 
hardly be called wool. 

Big Horn, a county in the S. E. part of Montana. Area, 
25,862 square miles. It is drained by the Yellowstone and 
its branches. Lignite and other minerals are found here. 
Pop. 38. 

Big Horn, a river of the U. S., is the largest affluent 
of the Yellowstone. It rises in Wyoming Territory, among 
the Wind River Mountains, and, flowing in a generally 


northward direction, crosses the southern boundary of 
Montana, and enters the Yellowstone at Big Horn City, 
in Montana. Entire length, estimated at 450 or 500 miles. 
The upper part or head-stream of it is called Wind River. 

Big Island, a township of Marion co., 0. Pop. 940. 

Big Ivey, a township of Buncombe co., N. C. Pop. 
1270. 

Big Lake, a township of Mississippi co., Ark. Pop. 211. 

Big Lake, a township of Sherburne co., Minn. Pop. 57. 

Big'ler (John), born in Cumberland co., Pa., Jan. 8 , 1804, 
was a brother of Gov. William Bigler of Pennsylvania, be¬ 
came a printer, a journalist, and subsequently a lawyer. He 
removed to Illinois in 1846, and to California in 1849, where 
he was a prominent Democratic politician, and was known 
as “Honest John Bigler.” He was governor of California 
(1852-56). Died Nov. 30, 1871. 

Bigler (William), governor of Pennsylvania, born Dec., 
1813, was of German descent. He received a common-school 
education, and entered a printing-office. He was connected 
with the press many years, and afterwards engaged in mer¬ 
cantile pursuits. He was elected by the Democratic party 
speaker of the State senate 1843, governor 1851 and 1854, 
and U. S. Senator 1855 and 1858. 

Big Level, a township of Greenbrier co., West Va. 
Pop. 1589. 

Big Lick, a post-township of Stanley co., N. C. Pop. 
1354. 

Big Lick, a township of Hancock co., 0. Pop. 1179. 

Big Lick, a post-village and township of Roanoke co., 
Va., on the Virginia and Tennessee R. R., 54 miles W. S. 
W. of Lynchburg. Pop. of the township, 2592. 

Big'low (William), an American teacher and poet, 
born at Natick, Mass., Sept. 22, 1773. He graduated at 
Harvard in 1794, and became principal of the Latin School 
of Boston, for which he prepared several text-books. He 
contributed to different periodicals, and wrote poems, among 
which is “The Cheerful Parson.” Died Jan. 19, 1844. 

Big Mound, a township of Wayne co., Ill. Pop. 1168. 

Bignon (Louis Pierre Edouard), a French statesman 
and historian, born at La Meilleraye Jan. 3, 1771. He 
was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1817, and became 
a peer of France in 1837. He wrote a “ History of Franco 
from the 18th Brumaire to the Peace of Tilsit” (7 vols., 
1827-38), and other works. Napoleon I. bequeathed him 
100,000 francs. Died Jan. 5, 1841. 

Biglio'nia [named by Tournefort in honor of the Abbe 
Bignon, the librarian of Louis XIV.], a genus of plants, the 
type of the natural order Bignoniaceas, natives of the trop¬ 
ical and sub-tropical parts of America. Many of them are 
climbing plants, with compound leaves terminating in a 
tendril, and handsome trumpet-shaped or bell-shaped flow¬ 
ers, which are 5-lobed, or rather 2-lipped. The Bigno- 
nias are probably the handsomest twining plants known.” 
The trumpet-creeper or trumpet-flower of the U. S. is the 
Bignonia radicans (or Tecoma radicans). It has a large 
and showy orange and scarlet corolla, funnel-shaped and 
5-lobed, with four stamens. 

Bigiionia'cese (so called from Bignonia, the principal 
genus), a natural order of exogenous plants, natives of the 
U. S. and of tropical climates. They are mostly trees or 
shrubs, with compound leaves and showy flowers. The 
corolla is monopetalous, tubular, or campanulate, and 
irregular; the stamens are five, or four with the rudiment 
of a fifth; the fruit is a capsule or a drupe. The order 
comprises about 500 species or more, including those which 
some botanists have placed in the separate orders of Cres- 
centiacem and Pedaliacem. Some of them are noble trees 
which are valuable for timber, as the Bignonia Leucoxylon 
of Jamaica, and the ipe-una of Brazil, which is said to be 
the hardest timber of that empire. The red coloring-matter 
called chica is obtained from the leaves of the Bignonia 
Chica, which grows near the Orinoco River. Among the 
North American species of this order is the Catalpa Bigno- 
nioides, a well-known ornamental tree of the U. S., which 
has simple cordate leaves. 

Big North Fork, a township of Fulton co.. Ark. 
Pop. 473. 

Big Oak Flat, a post-township of Tuolumne co.. Cal. 
Pop. 1249. 

Big Piney, a township of Pulaski co., Mo. Pop. 541. 

Big Prairie, a post-township of Newaygo co., Mich. 
Pop. 403. 

Big Prairie, a township of New Madrid co., Mo. 
Pop. 1089. 

Big Rapids, a township of Clare co., Mich. Pop. 132. 

Big Rapids, a city, capital of Mecosta co., Mich., on 




















BIG RIVER—BILL. 


485 


the Muskegon River and Grand Rapids and Indiana R. R., 
also the terminus of the Big Rapids division of the Chicago 
and Michigan Lake Shore R. R., 56 miles N. of Grand 
Rapids and 55 miles N. of Muskegon. It has two banks, 
one national and one under State law, two newspapers, 
Holly Waterworks, extensive water-power, the river being 
dammed in two places, a heavy lumber trade, and large 
manufacturing interests. Pop. 1237 ; of the township, 1702. 

E. 0. Rose, Ed. “ Magnet.” 

Rig River, a township of Mendocino co., Cal. Pop. 
1911. 

Rig River, a township of Jefferson co., Mo. Pop. 2033. 

Rig River, a township of St. Francois co., Mo. Pop. 436. 

Rig Rock, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 3990. 

Rig Rock, a post-townskij) of Kane co., Ill. Pop. 829. 

Rig Sandy, a township of Jefferson co., Neb. Pop. 693. 

Rig Sandy, a township of Kanawha co., West Va. 
Pop. 876. 

Rig Sandy River, an affluent of the Ohio, is the 
boundary between West Virginia and Kentucky. It is 
navigable for more than 100 miles for steamboats. Its 
main stream, or Tug Fork, rises in the S. of West Vir¬ 
ginia. Its West Fork flows through Eastern Kentucky. 
Its valley abounds in coal, timber, and mineral wealth. 

Rig Spring, a township of Fulton co., Ark. Pop. 228. 

Rig Spring, a post-township of Shelby co., Ill. Pop. 
115o. 

Rig Spring, a post-village of Breckenridge co., Ky., 
lying partly in Hardin and Meade cos. A large spring 
rises here which sinks into the ground, and disappears 
after flowing a few hundred feet. Pop. 134. 

Rig Spring, a township of Seneca co., 0. Pop. 2084. 

Rig Stone, a county of Minnesota, bordering on Da¬ 
kota, from which it is partly separated by Big Stone Lake. 
Area, 325 square miles. It is intersected by the Minnesota 
River. Pop. 24. 

Rig Valley, a township of Siskiyou co., Cal. P. 246. 

Rig Vermilion River. See Vermilion River. 

Rig Wood River. See Boisee River. 

Rihar, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. by 
the county of Szabolcs, on the E. by the county of Middle 
Szolnok and Transylvania, on the S. by Arad, and on the 
W. by Bekes. Area, 4279 square miles. The eastern part 
is mountainous, while the western is a plain, consisting 
alternately of swamps, sandy plains, and fertile ground, 
traversed by numerous small rivers. All kinds of grain 
abound, especially wheat of an excellent quality. Wine 
and tobacco are also raised in great quantities. Pop. in 
1869, 555,337. Chief town, Debreczin. 

Biisk, a town of Siberia, in the government of Tomsk, 
300 miles S. of Tomsk. Pop. in 1867, 5952. 

Rij'amigur', Rijnagur, or Bijanaglmr, a decayed 
but once famous city of Southern India, in the presidency 
of Madras, on the Tumbuddra, about 40 miles N. W. of 
Bellary. It stands in a plain containing numerous granite 
rocks, many of which have been rudely sculptured into 
various forms. It was founded in 1336, and was the capi¬ 
tal of a powerful Hindoo kingdom. It was sacked and 
ruined by the Mohammedans of the Deccan in 1564, but 
still presents traces of its former grandeur in a number of 
granite temples and palaces. 

Rij' nee, a rajahship of British India, in Bengal, hav¬ 
ing on the S. the Garrows Mountains, and crossed by the 
river Bramapootra. It is level and fertile, producing rice, 
wheat, sugar, and betel. The people are divided between 
the Bhakat worshippers of Krishna, and the Gorarni, who 
eat meat and drink liquors. 

Bilba'o, often written in English Rilbo'a, a seaport- 
town of Spain, capital of the province of Biscay, is situ¬ 
ated on the river Nervion, near the Bay of Biscay, and 28 
miles N. W. of Vitoria; lat. 43° 15' N., Ion. 2° 54' W. It 
is partly enclosed by high mountains, and is well built. 
Small vessels can ascend the river to this point, which is 
here crossed by several bridges. Bilbao has a cathedral 
and a number of convents; also manufactures of hardware, 
hats, leather, paper, and earthenware. The chief articles 
of export are wool, iron, oil, and fruits. This town was 
founded in 1300, and was first called Belvao, and about 
1500 was the seat of a famous commercial tribunal. Pop. 
in 1860, 17,969. 

Ril'berry, or Whortleberry, the fruit of various 
small shrubs, of the genera Vaccinium and Gaylussacia, 
and of the natural order Ericaceae, natives of North Amer¬ 
ica and Northern Europe. These fruits, under the name 
of huckleberries and blueberries, are extensively usod in 
the Northern U. S. and Canada. 


RiFderdijk' (Willem), an eminent Dutch poet and 
philologist, born in Amsterdam Sept. 7. 1756, was a man 
of great erudition and versed in many languages and sci¬ 
ences. He studied law, and practised as an advocate at 
The Hague. About 1808, Louis Bonaparte appointed him 
president of the Institute of Holland. He was the author 
of many poems, tragedies, and prose works, which had a 
high reputation, and display a vigorous imagination. 
Among his important works are “Elius” (1778),“ Miscel¬ 
laneous Poems” (1799), “ Rural Life,” and an epic poem 
called “ The Destruction of the First World.” Died at 
Haarlem Dec. 18, 1831. ‘ 

Rildt, a town of Holland, in the province of Friesland. 
Pop. in 1867, 8362. 

Rile [Lat. bills], the secretion of the liver in animals. 
In all vertebrates it is formed chiefly from the blood of the 
portal vein, which is mingled, however, to some extent 
with that of the hepatic artery. It is secreted slowly during 
the intervals of digestion, a ttaining its maximum (according 
to Dalton) about an hour after eating. It is in man a yel¬ 
lowish-green, viscid fluid, with a bitter taste and a peculiar 
smell. In carnivorous animals it is brownish-yellow; in 
herbivorous, greenish. From twenty to fifty ounces of it 
are secreted daily in a man. A portion of bile is com¬ 
monly detained in the gall-bladder, where it becomes more 
dense by the loss of water and the addition of mucus. 

Bile contains certain resinous, coloring, and saline con¬ 
stituents. The biliary resin, or bilin, consists of cholic 
(glycocliolic) and taurocholic acids, combined in man with 
soda; also with a little cholesterin, a fatty body. These 
acids are formed in the liver, not being present in the blood, 
unless from absorption after their elaboration in the liver. 
Cholesterin and the coloring-matter of the bile are proba¬ 
bly present in the blood. Arrest of their removal causes 
unpleasant, sometimes serious, symptoms, recognized under 
the term “ biliousness.” 

Entering by the common biliary duct into the duodenum, 
the bile aids in the digestion of food, especially of fat; and 
the greater part of it is then reabsorbed from the small 
intestine. A portion, however, is excreted with the fgecal 
discharge. Bile stimulates the peristaltic muscular action 
of the bowels, being the natural laxative. It acts also as 
an antiseptic to the almost putrescent contents of the large 
intestine. Solidification of the components of the bile (es¬ 
pecially of cholesterin) causes gall-stones, the passage of 
which through the duct often produces extreme pain. 

The gall-bladder is not always present, even in the higher 
animals. Oxen, sheep, and antelopes have it, but not deer 
or camels. It is absent in the elephant and horse, but 
present in the hog. All carnivora have it. Among birds, 
the ostrich, pigeon, and many parrots are without it. Some 
species of the same genus have it, and others not. (See 
Digestion.) It is interesting to observe that the bile of 
salt-water fishes contains potash in place of soda, although 
from their being surrounded by much common salt (chlo¬ 
ride of sodium) in the sea-water, we should naturally ex¬ 
pect to find soda in abundance ; and the bile of land and 
fresh-water animals contains soda, while, considering diet 
and habitat, potash might more naturally be looked for. 

Henry Hartshorne. 

Rilin' [Lat. Belxna ], a town of Bohemia, beautifully sit¬ 
uated in the valley of the Bila, 17 miles W. of Leitmeritz. It 
has celebrated mineral springs which are much frequented, 
and. two castles. Near Bilin is a remarkable isolated clink¬ 
stone rock called Biliner Stein, or Borzenberg. Pop. 3862. 

Rilio us Fever. See Fever. 

Rill, or Reak [Lat. ros'trum; Fr. 5ec], the hard, horny 
mouth of birds, consists of two parts called the upper and 
lower mandibles, which may be regarded as mere exten¬ 
sions of the upper and lower jaws. It is not furnished with 
teeth, but the bills of the tribe Dentirostres have notches 
like teeth, and Prof. Marsh has discovered a fossil bird at 
Fort Harker, Kan., with true teeth. The bill is the prin¬ 
cipal weapon of offence and defence of many birds, and is an 
important character on which the distinctions of the orders 
are founded, the various forms of the bill being intimately 
connected with the peculiar habits of birds. These forms 
are especially adapted to the nature of the food on which 
the bird subsists, and to the operations by which that food 
must be procured. In birds of prey (Raptores), the upper 
mandible is hooked and sharp, and the whole bill is adapted 
for seizing animals and tearing their flesh; birds that teed 
on seeds have short, strong, and conical bills; while hum¬ 
ming-birds have long, straight, and slender bills, fitted to 
insert into long, tubular corollas. Many aquatic birds 
have broad, obtuse, and comparatively soft and sensitive 
bills, with laminae on the inner margin in order to strain 
the mud in which they find their food. At the base of the 
upper mandible is a membrane called the cere, which in 
many birds is naked, in others feathered. 














486 


BILL—BILL OF EXCEPTIONS. 


Bill, in law, a formal statement or declaration in writ¬ 
ing. It is commonly used in connection with some de¬ 
scriptive word. The principal cases will be considered sep¬ 
arately. Bills may be conveniently arranged under the 
following classes: 

1. Contracts and commercial instruments—bill of ex¬ 
change, bill of lading, bill of credit, bill of sale, single or 
penal bill. 

2. A project of law pending before a legislature, as in 
the U. S. Constitution, Article I., section 7, “ bills for rais¬ 
ing revenue.” After such a bill becomes a law, it is usually 
termed an "act.” 

3. Laws actually passed by the legislature, as a bill of 
indemnity, a bill of attainder or of pains and penalties. 

4. Constitutional instruments or provisions—" bill of 
rights.” 

5. In mercantile and ordinary usage—bill of goods, bill 
of health, bill of mortality, bill of parcels, bills payable 
and receivable. 

0. In pleadings, criminal and civil—original bill, bill of 
Middlesex, bill of indictment, bill of privilege, bill in 
equity. 

7. In legal practice—bill of costs, bill of exceptions, bill 
of particulars. 

Bill, Brown-bill, or Gisarme, an ancient weapon 
of the English infantry for fighting at close quarters. It 
differed from the battle-axe in its sickle-shaped blade, to 
which a drawing stroke was given. The bill was used by 
the English at the battle of Hastings, and finally went out 
of use in consequence of the introduction of firearms. Sim¬ 
ilar weapons were used by mounted troops, as well as in¬ 
fantry, both in England and on the Continent. 

Billardie'ra [named in honor of La Billardiere, author 
of a " Flora of New Holland,” 1804-06], or Ap'pleberry, 
a genus of twining Australian shrubs of the order Pitto- 
sporaceae, have simple alternate evergreen leaves and pen¬ 
dulous flowers, with a bell-shaped corolla and a calyx of 
five sepals. The fruit, which is edible, is a soft, spongy peri¬ 
carp with inflated cells and many seeds, which are loose in 
the cells. The Billardiera longiflora and ovalis are culti¬ 
vated as ornaments in greenhouses. 

Bil'lerica, a beautiful post-village of Middlesex co., 
Mass., on the Boston and Lowell R. R., 18 miles N. by W. 
of Boston. It has five churches, an academy, and import¬ 
ant manufactures. Pop. of Billerica township, 1833. 

Bil'leting, a mode of feeding and lodging soldiers 
when they are not in camp or barrack. It is a compulsory 
process by which soldiers obtain food and lodging in tav¬ 
erns, inns, or private houses. In 1745 all persons in Eng¬ 
land were exempt from this burden except certain traders. 
The persons liable to have soldiers billeted on them in Eng¬ 
land at present are the keepers of hotels, inns, public- 
houses, ale-houses, beer-shops, wine-shops, livery-stables, 
and such-like licensed places. Those who supply food and 
lodging receive tenpence per day for each soldier. 

Bil'liards [Fr. b illard], a game played with ivory balls 
upon a rectangular table having resilient sides. The balls 
are put in motion by means of rods called cues held by the 
players. The place of the origin of this game is variously 
given as in the East, in France, and in Italy, and the date 
is entirely uncertain. Shakspeare alludes to this game in 
"Antony and Cleopatra,” but this is undoubtedly an 
anachronism. The rules of the game vary somewhat in 
different countries. Various games are played at present 
in the U. S., the French three-ball game being considered 
the best. This game requires great skill and quickuess of 
hand and accuracy of sight, and is one of the most popu¬ 
lar of games. (See Phelan, "The Game of Billiards.”) 

Bill in Eq'uity. This is a statement of the plaintiff’s 
case in a suit in court of equity. A bill is either original 
or not original. An original bill initiates the suit; a bill 
not original is used to controvert or suspend or revise a 
proceeding in the cause, as a decree or order, or for cross- 
litigation. Particular suits receive special names, vrith 
which the word bill is connected, such as "bill of peace,” 
" bill of interpleader,” " bill of discovery,” " cross bill,” 
etc., etc. 

Bil'lings (Elkanah), geologist, was born in Canada 
May 5, 1820. His father was a native of Massachusetts. 
In 1845 he was called to the bar, but since 1856 has acted 
as palaeontologist to the Canadian geological survey. He 
has published valuable scientific memoirs and other im¬ 
portant contributions to the geology and natural history of 
Canada. 

Billings (Joseph), an English navigator who entered 
the service of Catherine II. of Russia in 1785. He com¬ 
manded an exploring expedition sent out by that sovereign 
in 1787. He explored the coast of Alaska, discovered seve¬ 
ral islands in the Arctic Ocean, and returned in 1791. 


Billings, Josh, the pseudonym of Mr. A. W. Shaw 
of Poughkeepsie, N. Y., an American humorist, who is 
known by his " Allminax” and other works. 

Billings (Luther G.), U. S. N., born in New York in 
1840, entered the navy as an acting assistant paymaster 
Oct. 24, 1862, became an assistant paymaster in 1865, and 
a paymaster in 1866. He served in the steamer Waterwitch 
when she was captured by Confederates on the morning of 
June 3, 1864, and fought gallantly in her defence. Lieu¬ 
tenant-Commander Austin Pendergrast, in his detailed 
report of Oct. 22, 1864, says : " Notwithstanding the defeat 
I have sustained, I cannot close this report without recom¬ 
mending to the kind consideration of the department the 
gallant conduct of those officers and men who so bravely 
defended their ship. To C. W. Buck, acting master, Acting 
Ensigns Charles Hill and A. I). Storer, Acting Assistant 
Paymaster L. G. Billings, Acting Master’s Mate C. P. 
Weston, Coast-pilot R. B. K. Murphy, Henry Williams, 
captain of the hold, John Williams, captain of the after¬ 
guard, John Parker, gunner’s mate, and John Y. Ilazelton, 
cockswain, I am indebted for a cordial support in the de¬ 
fence of the ship ; and though every one of them was 
wounded, and many of them threatened with instant death 
unless they would say that they surrendered, I am proud 
to say that not one of them disgraced himself by doing so.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Billings (William), an American musical composer, 
was born in Boston, Mass., Oct. 7, 1746. He introduced a 
new style of church-music, which became very popular in 
New England. Died Sept. 26, 1800. 

Billingsgate, a wharf and fish-market of London, 
below London Bridge, which was made a "free and open 
market for all sorts of fish” in 1699. It is the only whole¬ 
sale fish-market in London, and all fish, fresh or cured, if 
imported in British vessels, are admitted free of duty. All 
fish are sold here by tale, except salmon and cels, which are 
sold by weight; 0 } r sters are sold by measure. No fish are 
sold on Sunday except mackerel. The women who vended 
fish here were formerly notorious for ribaldry aud vitupera¬ 
tive personalities, so that " Billingsgate ” became a syno¬ 
nym of vulgar and foul expressions. 

Bill 'ion, in the French system of numeration, is a 
thousand millions, but it is used by the English to denote 
a million millions—1,000,000,000,000. 

Billiton, or Billeton, a Dutch island in the East 
Indies, is situated between Borneo and the S. E. end of 
Sumatra, and is ^separated from Banca by Clement’s (or 
Gaspar) Strait. It is about 3° S. lat., and 108° E. Ion. 
Area, estimated at 1150 square miles. Iron ore and good 
timber abound here. Trepang, tin, birds’ nests, and tor¬ 
toise-shells are exported from it. 

Bill of Attain'der is a legislative enactment declar¬ 
ing the attainder of one or more persons. (See Attainder.) 
Formerly, persons were often attained of high treason in 
England by act of Parliament, and during the war of the 
Revolution bills of attainder were frequently passed in this 
country. The Constitution of the U. S. provides that 
neither a State nor Congress shall pass bills of attainder. 
Such a bill is usually opposed to sound legislation in four 
principal respects : It is adopted by the legislature, instead 
of being a sentence by the judiciary; it departs from judi¬ 
cial rules in establishing the commission of the alleged 
criminal act, having no regular methods of trial or rules of 
evidence; it may declare an act to be a crime which was 
not so when committed; and it admits of the infliction of 
cruel and unusual punishments. (An instance of such a 
bill is found in Froude’s "History of England,” i., 286.) 

Bill of Credit, in laiv. (1), in mercantile law, a letter 
written by one person to another authorizing or requesting 
him to give credit to a third or his order, or to bearer. 
Such a letter is either general or special. It is general 
when addressed to any one who may see fit to give the 
proposed credit, and who on giving credit may have re¬ 
course to the writer of the letter. On such a letter several 
persons may successively give credit. The letter is said to 
be special when addressed to specified persons in such a 
way that no other persons but those specified can give the 
credit. 

2. tinder the U. S. Constitution. That instrument pro¬ 
vides that no State shall " emit bills of credit.” This expres¬ 
sion is construed by the courts to mean instruments issued 
for the payment of money—issued on the credit of the States 
as such, payable at a future day, and intended to circulate 
as money. The clause does not prevent a State from issu¬ 
ing bonds for the payment of its indebtedness, payable at a 
future day; nor is it supposed to prohibit the creation of 
banks, which issue currency. The provision aims at the 
use of the credit of the State in its corporate character. 

Bill of Exceptions, a formal statement in writing 














BILL OF EXCHANGE. 


of exceptions taken to the opinion, decision, or direction 
of a judge during a trial. It sets forth the proceedings at 
such trial, the decision or ruling made, and the exception 
thereto, signed and sealed by the judge in testimony of its 
correctness. The object of a bill of exceptions is to bring 
the alleged error of the judge before the proper court for 
review, and it usually contains only such portion of the 
proceedings and evidence taken at the trial as is necessary 
for that purpose. (The details of the subject will be found 
in Tinn and other works on legal practice.) 

Bill of Exchange, an open letter of request, whereby 
one person requests another to pay a third or his order or 
bearer a sum of money, absolutely and at all events. The 
person who writes the letter is called the drawer; the one 
to whom it is addressed is termed the drawee; and the per¬ 
son who is to receive the money is the payee. A bill of ex¬ 
change is either inland or foreign. Where the parties are 
in the same State, it is inland; where the drawee resides 
in a State or country different from that of the drawer, or 
in any case where the bill is drawn in one State upon a 
person in another, it is foreign. A bill may be considered 
under the following heads—1, its nature; 2, endorsement; 
3, acceptance; 4, presentment for payment, and steps to 
be taken to charge drawer and endorsers. 

1. A bill of exchange having all the requisites referred 
to in the definition as above given is negotiable. By this 
word is meant that a transfer of it in good faith before ma¬ 
turity will give the purchaser a right of action in his own 
name in a court of law, as distinguished from a court of 
equity; and he accordingly takes a title free from defences 
that may have existed between the original parties. But 
if any of the qualities referred to in the definition are 
wanting, negotiability does not exist. The paper becomes 
assignable, and the defences between the original parties 
are let in. Negotiability, however, assumes that the in¬ 
strument has a legal existence as to its outward form, and 
is accordingly executed by a person competent to contract. 
A bill of exchange drawn by or upon a married woman or 
an infant would not create a valid obligation even as to a 
purchaser in good faith. So if the instrument were declared 
void by statute, as is sometimes the case when infected 
with usury or given for a gaming consideration. Under 
these rules, if an instrument otherwise in the form of a 
bill of exchange were payable in something other than 
money, or upon a contingency, or from a special fund, or 
to a particular person, without the addition of the words 
“order” or “bearer,” it would not be negotiable. The 
law presumes that a bill is given for a valuable considera¬ 
tion. Evidence may be offered as between the original 
parties, and as to all who cannot insist upon the protection 
of negotiability, that there is no consideration. An import¬ 
ant distinction thus arises between what may be called 
business paper and accommodation paper. The former is 
given for a valuable consideration as between the original 
parties, such as for money lent or goods sold. In accom¬ 
modation paper there is no such consideration, but the 
person who makes it intends to lend his credit to some 
person. Every party to a bill may hold this relation to it. 
Thus, there may be an accommodation acceptor, drawer, or 
endorser. This kind of paper must be distinguished from 
that which is simply without consideration, in which there 
is no intent to have the credit of the party who makes it 
used. A single illustration will show the distinction. If 
a friend should draw a bill in favor of his friend on ac¬ 
count of his affection, it would be simply without consider¬ 
ation ; if under the same circumstances it was drawn with 
intent to have it discounted by a bank, it would be “ac¬ 
commodation paper.” In the one case, if a purchaser 
should acquire it with knowledge of all the circumstances, 
he could not enforce it, while in the other case he could, 
by reason of the intent. When accommodation paper has 
been acquired for value, it is substantially equivalent, as 
far as the holder is concerned, to business paper. Between 
the original parties it would have no validity, and could 
not supply the basis of an action. On the contrary, if an 
accommodation party to the bill is obliged to pay, he has 
his remedy against the party in whose favor he acted, 
either on the bill or on an implied contract, as the case may 
be. Thus, an accommodation acceptor could not bring an 
action upon the bill against the drawer whom he had ac¬ 
commodated, but would be driven to an action on an im¬ 
plied contract on the part of the drawer to repay money 
which had been paid for the drawer’s use and benefit. When 
one party gives his acceptance to another in return for the 
other's acceptance, it is not a true case of an accommo¬ 
dation acceptance, though sometimes so called. These 
“cross” acceptances are based upon a consideration, the 
one promise being a consideration for the other. They are 
certainly dangerous contracts, as either party may be called 
on to pay to a holder not only his own acceptance, but that 
of the other party. Without further pursuing this dis¬ 


487 


tinction, attention should be called to a peculiarity in this 
branch of the law which shows its close connection with 
the subject of currency. It is a well-settled general rule 
of the common law that a person having no title to goods 
can transfer none, even to a purchaser in good faith. A 
thief or a finder, for example, can create no better title 
than he possesses. There is a marked exception to this 
rule in the case of money. One who has stolen money 
may give a perfect title to one who takes it in good faith 
and for value. This exception is demanded by the neces¬ 
sities of commerce. The rule is extended to negotiable 
paper, payable to bearer, or even to order, when so en¬ 
dorsed as to pass from hand to hand without further en- ** 
dorsement. 

It is plain that a bill when drawn imposes no obligation 
upon the drawee. It is necessary that he should assent to 
it in some legal form before he becomes liable. This act 
is termed “ acceptance.” Before acceptance the only per¬ 
son liable to the payee is the drawer. His liability is a 
contingent one, and implied by law. There is thus a 
marked distinction between the liability of a drawer and 
acceptor—one is implied, and the other is express and 
created by express contract. The implied obligation of 
the drawer is created by the custom of merchants, and is 
conditional. It requires certain acts to be performed as a 
condition precedent to recovery of the amount of the bill, 
such as presentment either for acceptance or payment, and 
due notice to be given of a failure to accept or pay, as the 
case may be. This distinction between the implied lia¬ 
bility of the drawer and the express contract of an ac¬ 
ceptor is of great consequence, and must be carefully 
attended to. The same remark may be made as to the 
liability of an endorser. This is also implied and con¬ 
ditional. The nature of a check upon a bank should be 
referred to. It resembles a bill of exchange, though it is 
not precisely equivalent to it. The check, according to the 
better opinion, creates no obligation against the bank in 
favor of the holder without acceptance. In mercantile 
phrase, a check when accepted by the act of an officer, such 
as a teller, is said to be “certified.” The bank after such 
an act is liable to the holder. The drawer of a check 
having funds on deposit has an action against the bank for 
damages for a> refusal to honor his check, on the ground of 
an implied obligation to pay checks according to the usual 
course of business. While checks are usually drawn pay¬ 
able immediately, they may be made payable at a future 
day, when their resemblance to a bill of exchange is still 
more close. 

2. Endorsement. —The payee of a bill may transfer it by 
writing his name upon the back of it. He is then termed 
an endorser. When the name is simply written the en¬ 
dorsement is said to be “in blank;” when some person is 
pointed out to whom payment is to be made, it is said to 
be “ in full.” When a bill is endorsed in blank, it will 
pass from hand to hand, as though payable to bearer; 
when endorsed in full, an endorsement by the person to 
whom it is transferred will be necessary to its further 
transfer. There may be a series of endorsers, called first, 
second, third, etc. endorsers. Under these rules no holder 
can claim a title to a bill payable to order except through 
an endorsement made by the very person to whom it is 
payable, or some one holding under him, such as his exe¬ 
cutor, administrator, or assignee in bankruptcy. Accord¬ 
ingly, if it should come into the possession of another person 
of the same name as the owner, but acting without authority, 
he could give no title to one acting in good faith. When an 
owner of a bill endorses it for value, he can impose upon 
the purchaser no valid restriction preventing its further 
transfer. The right of sale is an inseparable incident to 
ownership. On the other hand, if a person endorse a bill 
to an agent, he may place valid restrictions upon the 
agent’s authority to sell. These, if incorporated in the en¬ 
dorsement, will bind all purchasers. Where a bill is pay¬ 
able to several persons, all must, in general, unite in an 
endorsement. The regular effect of an endorsement is two¬ 
fold : one consequence is to transfer the endorser’s interest, 
and the other is to create an implied obligation on his part 
to pay the bill in case that the drawee does not accept or 
pay at maturity, and proper steps are taken to charge him. 

In an accommodation endorsement, as there would be no 
ownership, the sole effect would be to create an obligation 
to pay. This obligation closely resembles that of surety¬ 
ship. Thus, when a bill is accepted the acceptor is pri¬ 
marily liable, and the endorser is, as it were, a surety. The 
rules governing suretyship may in the main be invoked in 
his favor. An endorser may avoid this liability by making 
use of suitable words in his endorsement, such as “ without 
recourse.” The endorsement would then simply operate as 
a transfer of such interest as he might have. Endorsers 
are commonly liable in the order of time of their endorse¬ 
ments. Thus, if there were three endorsers, if the third 










488 BILL OF EXCHANGE. 


for last) was compelled to pay, lie would be entitled to sue 
the second or first, and recover in full. A holder need not 
pursue any prescribed order as between the endorsers, 
lie may select any one, who, if he pays, will be entitled 
to proceed in the same way as to any one preceding him. 
If, however, the bill is made payable to several payees, who 
endorse, they are liable jointly and not successively, and 
each, as between themselves, would be liable only for their 
respective shares. Every endorsement is a new contract. 
One of the consequences of this rule is, that though the 
original bill may be void, the endorser will still be liable, 
as if the bill be void for usury or be made by a married 
woman. Another consequence is, that the rules of private 
international law may cause a different effect to be given 
to the respective endorsements. Thus, if A should endorse 
in one country, and B should endorse the same bill in 
another, each endorsement would be governed as to its 
effect by the law of the state where it was made. The 
mere act of writing one’s name is not an endorsement; 
there must also be a delivery. Accordingly, if one should 
write his name and die before delivery, an executor could 
not deliver the bill so as to make a valid “ endorsement.” 
The proper course would be for the executor to endorse it 
in his representative character. 

3. Acceptance .—The object of acceptance is to show the 
assent of the drawee of the bill to pay it according to its 
terms. Without such assent he would not be liable. The 
regular and formal method of acceptance is to write the 
name of the drawee upon the front of the bill. But no 
particular mode of acceptance is necessary. It may be 
made by writing separate from the bill or orally. It may 
sometimes be implied, as, for example, by a detention on 
the part of the drawee beyond a reasonable time. It may 
be either absolute or conditional. A conditional acceptance 
may be illustrated by one purporting to be made “ on the 
consignment of goods to the drawee.” A holder could 
not collect in such a case if there was no such consignment. 
An acceptance should not differ from the terms of the bill. 
A holder may decline to take such an acceptance, and treat 
the case as though there Avas no acceptance. Should he 
assent to it, he would thereby discharge the drawer and 
existing endorsers. It is not always necessary that there 
should be presentment for acceptance as distinct from 
one for payment, though in some cases it is requisite. 
Where a bill is payable a fixed number of days “ after 
sight,” the Avord “ sight ” means acceptance, and it would 
be necessary to present it once for acceptance, and, if 
that act took place, again for payment. If, on the other 
hand, the bill were payable a certain number of days 
“ after date,” it would only be necessary to present it once 
for all for payment, though it would usually be an act of 
prudence to present it for acceptance, as the holder would in 
case of acceptance have an additional person to Avhom he 
could ha\ r e recourse, and in case of non-acceptance he could 
take immediate steps to charge the other parties to the bill. 
There has been great controA r ersy on the question Avhether 
bills payable “at sight” must be presented for acceptance 
as well as payment. In some of the States the doubt 
is settled by legislation. The effect of acceptance is to 
make the drawer the principal debtor. The other parties 
stand in the relation of sureties, and if they are compelled 
to pay, they have their remedy over against the acceptors. 
This is clearly the case in business paper: in the case of 
an accommodation bill the position of the parties is of 
course reversed, so that the acceptor, as already explained, 
has his remedy on an implied contract against the person 
to Avhom he lent his credit, though as to the holder of the 
bill he holds the place of a principal debtor. Under these 
rules an acceptor is bound to knoAv the handAvriting of the 
drawer, and if that be forged he is still liable to the original 
holder. If acceptance is refused, the proper course, in the 
case of foreign bills, is to have a protest made, and prompt 
notice sent to the drawer and endorsers. In case of in¬ 
land bills, protest is not essential, though presentment and 
notice are. Statutes usually allow protest in case of in¬ 
land bills as a convenient medium of proof that the neces¬ 
sary steps have been taken to charge the parties to the 
bill. The term “protest” is applied to an official act by 
an authorized person (notary public), Avhereby he affirms 
in a formal or prescribed manner, in writing, that the bill 
has been regularly presented for acceptance or payment, 
as the case may be, and that it has been refused. It is 
’used as presumptive evidence at a trial to establish the 
facts in question. The office of a “notice” is to give im¬ 
mediate information to the drawer or endorsers of failure 
of acceptance, so that they may take such steps as they 
deem necessary for their protection. The protest and no¬ 
tice are thus entirely distinct acts for different purposes, 
and must not be confounded. Assuming that acceptance 
has been refused and due protest made, mercantile law 
alloAvs any person to intervene and accept a bill “for the 


honor” of a drawer or endorser. A holder is not bound 
to take such an acceptance, though it is valid if assented 
to. It takes place before a notary public, and is termed 
an acceptance “ supra protest.” The person thus interven¬ 
ing states for whose honor he accepts. In case he pays, 
he becomes the creditor of that party, and may also have 
recourse to all Avho precede him on the bill, in opposition 
to the general rule of law that one cannot become the 
creditor of another Avithout his consent. When the bill 
matures it is again presented to the original drawee for 
payment, Avho may in the mean time have been placed in 
funds, and may now be Avilling to take up the bill. Should 
he again refuse, it is protested, and presented to the ac¬ 
ceptor supra protest for payment, which, if he refuses to 
make another and final protest, Avill be necessary to charge 
drawer or endorsers. 

4. Presentment for Payment. —It is a general rule that as 
between debtor and creditor no presentment for payment 
is necessary. It is the duty of the debtor to seek the cred¬ 
itor, and if the day for payment elapses without it, there 
is an immediate remedy by action. The better opinion in 
this country is, that this rule applies to an acceptor of a 
bill of exchange, even Avhei’e it is made payable at a par¬ 
ticular place, such as a specified bank. On this vieAv it 
Avould not be necessary for the holder to prove a present¬ 
ment, but the acceptor might show in his defence any facts 
that Avould relieve him or diminish liability, such as that 
he had left funds with the bank, which had failed. But to 
charge drawer and endorsers the case is entirely different. 
These enter into no absolute engagement, but only into an 
obligation implied by laAV. It is a part of the implied con¬ 
tract that presentment for payment shall be made, and pro¬ 
test, where that is necessary, and notice given. These acts 
must be alleged in the pleadings, and proved at the trial as 
conditions precedent to a right of recover} 7 . The modes of 
performing these various acts branch out into much detail, 
and only the leading ones can be brought within the com¬ 
pass of this article. The general rule is, that the bill, 
Avhen payable without designation of place, must be pre¬ 
sented, Avhen it matures, to the acceptor, either at his res¬ 
idence or place of business, and, if at the place of busi¬ 
ness, within business hours. If a particular place, as a 
bank, is designated, presentment must be made there Avith- 
in the usual hours devoted to banking business. This duty 
continues, though the place of business be closed or the 
acceptor be notoriously insolvent. In the case of an ac¬ 
commodation acceptance no presentment is necessary in 
behalf of the person to Avhom the accommodation is given, 
since he could have no action against such an acceptor. 
The duty of presentment, as well as of the performance of 
the succeeding acts, may be Avaived by a party to the bill 
by appropriate acts. This waiver may take place either 
before or after maturity of the bill. An instance Avould be 
a Avriting on the bill, “ I hereby Avaive demand of the 
within bill,” or “ I hereby waive notice of demand.” The 
latter expression would be imperfect, since a waiver of no¬ 
tice does not dispense with the necessity of presentment, 
while a waiver of demand is, from the nature of the case, 
a waiver of notice. 

A bill does not ordinarily actually mature on the day on 
which it apparently falls due. Three days are allowed, 
termed “ days of grace.” These have become so fully a 
part of the contract that a presentment before the last day 
of grace is nugatory. Should the last day fall on Sunday or 
a public holiday, the bill matures on the preceding day. 
This matter is sometimes regulated by statute. If present¬ 
ment is made and refused, protest should take place in the 
case of foreign bills, as already explained in reference to 
non-acceptance, and notice given to the parties to be charg¬ 
ed. The subject of notice requires a more full explanation 
than has been given in connection with non-acceptance. 
The object of notice is to give information to the respective 
parties, to the end that they may protect themselves from 
loss. The test of its sufficiency is whether it gives the re¬ 
quisite information. No particular form is necessary. It 
may be either oral or written. It is a common practice to 
reduce it to writing, and either to give it to a party person¬ 
ally or to send it to him by mail. By the general rule of 
law the mail can only be used for the purpose of transmis¬ 
sion, and accordingly cannot be resorted to where the holder 
and the person to be notified obtain their letters from the 
same post-office, though it is in some instances otherAvise 
by statute. The law requires extreme diligence in des¬ 
patching the notice. It should be sent as early as tho 
next day, and some authorities require by the first conve¬ 
nient mail on the next day. If the notice is properly sent 
by the mail, it will suffice, though never received. Any 
endorser receiving notice has a day to send it to one pre¬ 
ceding him. After notice the rights of the holder are fix¬ 
ed, and it is not necessary for him to bring his action any 
earlier than he Avould be required to do by the statute of 













BILL OF LADING—BINGHAM. , 489 


limitations. Delay to collect the bill from the acceptor 
does not of itself discharge the drawer and endorsers. If, 
however, a bargain (based upon a consideration) is made 
between the holder and acceptor, whereby the time of pay¬ 
ment is extended, the drawer and endorsers arc discharged, 
unless their consent is obtained. The drawer is not only 
liable for the face of the bill, but for damages incidental to 
non-payment. These damages are in some cases fixed by 
statute. It is sometimes necessary to take into account the 
difference in exchange between two countries; as, if a 
bill drawn in New York were payable in London, exchange 
being in its favor, and the action on the bill were brought 
in New York, and it cost a certain per cent, to place the 
funds in London, that amount should be included in the 
recovery. The article on promissory notes may be referred 
to. (See Promissory Notes.) T. W. Dwight. 

Bill of Lading, the written evidence of a contract 
for the carriage of goods by water. It is usually signed 
by the master of the vessel, either in duplicate or tripli¬ 
cate, acknowledges the receipt of the goods from a person 
(named the consignor), and undertakes to deliver them to 
a designated person (the consignee) or his assigns at a 
specified place, for the compensation and on the condi¬ 
tions therein specified. An endorsement of the bill of 
lading transfers the title to the goods, and, if made in 
good faith and for a valuable consideration, cuts off the 
right of stoppage in transitu . For most purposes, a bill of 
lading is assignable, and an assignee takes it subject to 
any defence existing between the original parties. For the 
single purpose of shutting out the right of stoppage in 
transitu it is negotiable. (See Stoppage in Transitu.) 
This instrument consists of two parts—a receipt and a con¬ 
tract. That portion of it which is a receipt can be con¬ 
tradicted, as between the original parties, by parol evi¬ 
dence. For example, if it were stated that the goods were 
in good order, evidence may be adduced to show the con¬ 
trary. This proposition would not extend to a person who 
had made advances on the faith of the statement, as he 
could invoke the doctrine of estoppel. (See Estoppel.) 
The part of the bill which is a contract cannot be contra¬ 
dicted by parol evidence, even as between the original par¬ 
ties. Although the term was originally applied only to a 
memorandum of a contract for transportation by water, it 
is now frequently used to denote the memorandum given 
by any carrier of the terms on which he agrees to carry 
the goods received by him. T. W. Dwight. 

Bill of Pains ami Penalties, a special act of the 
legislature declaring a person guilty of some offence, with¬ 
out any conviction in the regular course of judicial pro¬ 
ceedings, and inflicting upon him some punishment less 
than death. It differs from a strict bill of attainder in that 
the punishment inflicted by the latter is death. Bills of 
pains and penalties are within the provision of the U. S. 
Constitution that neither Congress nor a State shall pass a 
bill of attainder or an ex post facto law. Thus, a law of 
Congress requiring all attorneys of the Supreme Court to 
take an oath that they had not been engaged in rebellion, 
or else to be disqualified from practice, was held to be in 
the nature of “a bill of pains and penalties” as to those 
who had thus participated, and accordingly void. ( Ex 
parte Garland, 4 Wallace R., 333.) 

Bill of Rights, an English statute enacted at the time 
of the accession of William and Mary to the throne. It 
declared, among other things, the right of the subject to 
petition the king, freedom of election of members of Par¬ 
liament, and freedom of speech in Parliament. It affirmed 
that standing armies without the consent of Parliament 
are illegal, and that the king had no power of suspending 
or dispensing with laws. It provided that excessive bail 
should not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. The provisions 
of this act have had great influence in this country, and 
are deemed of high consequence, as securing liberty to the 
individual. A number of them are literally inserted among 
the amendments to the U. S. Constitution, and are also 
found in State constitutions. The phrase “ bill of rights ” 
is frequently employed in this country to designate all 
those portions of a constitution, State or national, designed 
to secure liberty to the individual. 

Bill of Sale, a writing under seal conveying the title 
to goods and chattels. The seal by the common law is 
conclusive evidence of consideration. Accordingly, a bill 
of sale formally executed passes the title without any con¬ 
sideration or delivery of the property. Where there is no 
seal, there must be a consideration or delivery. A delivery 
without consideration would amount to a gift. A bill of 
sale may pass a title which would be valid as between the 
parties, and yet not of force as to creditors or purchasers, 
as if one who was indebted should make a bill of sale with¬ 
out actual consideration, or should sell, even with consid¬ 


eration, and still retain possession of the goods. The 
transaction might be regarded as infected with fraud, even 
though there were no fraudulent intent. (See Fraud and 
Constructive Fraud. As to the general law concerning 
sales of chattels and the requisites to their validity, sec 
Sales.) 

The phrase “bill of sale” is frequently used in a more 
popular sense to indicate any written instrument, though 
not under seal, executed as evidence of a sale. In sales of 
ships the term “grand bill of sale” is sometimes employed. 
The word “grand” indicates that the sale is made by the 
builder. All subsequent transfers would be indicated by 
the ordinary phrase “ bill of sale.” 

Rilox'i, a post-village of Harrison co., Miss., on the 
Mobile New Orleans and Texas R. R., 79 miles E. N. E. 
of New Orleans, and on Biloxi Bay; lat. 30° 23.8' N., 
Ion. 88° 53.1' W. It has an iron lighthouse, with a fixed 
white light 62 feet above the level of the sea. Biloxi is a 
place of summer resort. Pop. 954. 

Hi!' son (Thomas), an eminent English prelate, born at 
Winchester in 1536, became bishop of Worcester in 1596, 
and bishop of Winchester the year following. Bilson was 
a man of great learning, and a zealous enemy of Puritan¬ 
ism. He assisted in the translation of King James’s Bible. 
He wrote, among other works, “ The True Difference be¬ 
tween Christian Subjection and Unchristian Rebellion ” 
(1585), and “The Perpetual Government of Christ’s 
Church” (1593), which is considered an able defence of the 
doctrine of apostolic succession. Died in 1616. 

Bils'ton, a market-town of England, in the county of 
Staffordshire, 2 miles by rail S. E. of Wolverhampton. It 
forms part of the parliamentary borough of Wolverhamp¬ 
ton, and is an important centre of the hardware trade. It 
is situated between numerous iron and coal mines, and has 
large manufactures of japanned ware. Pop. in 1871, 24,192. 

Bi' mana [from the Lat. bis, “twice,” “double,” and 
manu8, a “hand”], a Latin term applied by some zoolo¬ 
gists to the first or highest order of Mammalia, of which 
man is the type and sole genus. Some persons have urged 
an absurd objection to this classification, because it ignores 
the spiritual and essential part of man, and does not make 
a sufficiently wide distinction between men and brutes; 
while others, again, object to the term on the ground that 
man in his anatomy is not sufficiently distinct from the 
higher Qua % drumana to require to be placed in a separate 
order. (See Quadrumana, and also Man.) 

Bi'nary Stars. See Double Stars. 

Bi'nary The'ory, in chemistry, is the name given to an 
hypothesis proposed by Davy, and once supported by Lie¬ 
big, which assumes that all salts are compounds of a metal¬ 
lic and a non-metallic element. A large class of compounds 
(like common salt, or sodium-chloride) readily come under 
this rule. But in order to bring most salts into such a class, 
it is necessary to suppose all the non-metallic elements in 
any given salt to be combined into one compound element. 
But, according to the later theories, it is not considered at 
all necessary to try to represent the probable arrangement 
of chemical atoms in compound bodies. (See Chemistry.) 

Bin'che, a town of Belgium, province of Hainaut, well 
built on the river Haine, 6 miles E. S. E. of Mons. It has 
manufactures of cutlery, glass, pottery, etc.; also a trade 
in marble, coal, paper, and lace. Pop. 6678. 

Bindrabund', or Bindraban' (anc. Vrindavana), a 
town of British India, in the North-western Provinces, on 
the river Jumna, about 40 miles N. N. W. of Agra. It has 
several temples of Krishna, one of which is a remarkably 
massive structure. This town is visited by multitudes of 
pilgrims from distant parts of India, and their munificence 
is the chief support of the place. Pop. about 20,000. 

Bing'en (anc. Vin'cum or Bin'gium ), a town of Ger¬ 
many, in Hesse, is finely situated on the left bank of the 
Rhine, at the mouth of the Nalie, 20 miles by rail W. of 
Mentz. The Nahe is here crossed by an old bridge sup¬ 
posed to have been built by the Romans. Wine of superior 
quality is produced in the vicinity. Near Bingen the Rhine 
passes through a narrow channel called Bint/erloch (i. e. the 
“hole of Bingen”), in which the rocks and rapid current 
once rendered the navigation dangerous, but in 1834 the 
obstruction was chiefly removed. Bingen is opposite Rii- 
desheim, from which it is separated by the Rhine. It has 
manufactures of flannel, fustian, and leather. Here are in¬ 
teresting ruins of an old castle and convent. Pop. in 1871, 
5936. 

Bing'liam, a post-township of Somerset co., Me. Pop. 
826. 

Bingham, a township of Clinton co., Mich. Pop. 
2910. 

Bingham, a township of Huron co., Mich. Pop. 441. 












BINGIIAM—BINOMIAL. 


490 


Bingham, a township of Leelenau co., Mich. Pop. 637. 

Bingham, a township of Orange co., N. C. Pop. 1604. 

Bingham, a township of Potter co., Pa. Pop. 773. 

Bingham (Rev. Hiram), born in Bennington, Vt., 
about 1790, graduated at Middlebury College in 1810, at An¬ 
dover in 1819, and was one of the first Congregational mis¬ 
sionaries sent to the Sandwich Islands, where he long exer¬ 
cised a powerful and salutary influence. He returned to the 
U. S. in 1841. Died at New Havpu, Conn., Nov. 11, 1869. 

B illgham (John A.), an American legislator, born in 
Pennsylvania in 1815, removed to Ohio. He was elected a 
member of Congress by the Republicans of the Western Re¬ 
serve in 1854, and was often re-elected. He was chairman 
of the managers who conducted the impeachment of An¬ 
drew Johnson in April and May, 1868. He was again 
elected to Congress in 1870. 

Bingham (Kinsley S.), born at Camillus, Onondaga 
co., N. Y., Dec. 16, 1808, studied law, went to Michigan in 
1833, held many public offices, was a judge of probate, 
speaker of the bouse of representatives, member of Con¬ 
gress (1849-51), governor (1855-59), and U. S. Senator 
(1859-61). Died at Green Oak, Livingston co., Mich., Oct. 
5, 1861. 

Bingham (William), born in Philadelphia in 1751, 
graduated at Philadelphia College in 1768, was consul at 
St. Pierre, West Indies, in 1771, and afterwards American 
agent at Martinique. In 1787-88 he was a delegate to 
Congress, and was U. S. Senator from Pennsylvania (1795— 
1801). He was a man of wealth and of strong aristocratic 
feelings. Died in England Eeb. 7, 1804. 

Bing'hamton, the county-seat of Broome co., N. Y., 
was incorporated a citj r in 1867. It is pleasantly situated 
at the junction of the Susquehanna and Chenango rivers, 
216 miles N. W. of New York and 142 miles S. W. of 
Albany. The Erie R. R. passes through it, and it is the ter¬ 
minus of the Albany and Susquehanna, the Delaware 
Lackawanna and Western, the Syracuse Binghamton and 
New York, and the Utica Chenango and Susquehanna Val¬ 
ley R. Rs. It is also the southern terminus of the Che¬ 
nango Canal. The State inebriate asylum is situated here, 
and also a State home for orphan and indigent children of 
Broome, Tioga, Tompkins, Cortland, Delaware, and Sulli¬ 
van counties. 

The public schools are under a separate management 
from the State schools, and are controlled by, a board of 
education consisting of ten commissioners, two from each 
ward. The average annual number of pupils who attend 
the public schools are 120 in the high schbol or academic 
department, and 2200 at the seven ward school-houses. 
Five teachers are employed in the high school and forty in 
the ward schools, to whom $27,000 are annually paid in 
salaries. The school library contains 2587 volumes, valued 
at $3600, and provision is made for an increase annually 
of 400 volumes; philosophical apparatus and cabinet 
worth $2000 ,• total value of public school property, 
$260,000. Dean College, for females, a school conducted 
with private capital, employs 13 teachers and is attended 
by about 150 pupils. Board and tuition, $200 a year; 
property valued at $50,000. St. Joseph’s (Catholic) Fe¬ 
male Academy, conducted by Sisters of St. Joseph, has an 
average of 85 pupils. Tuition and board, $175 a year; 
library 300 volumes; property valued at $15,000. St. 
James’s (parochial) school for Catholic boys and girls has 
an average attendance of 350 pupils; salary of principal, 
$700. Lowell’s Commercial College and Telegraphic Insti¬ 
tute is a flourishing and important school of its class. 

The churches are—3 Presbyterian, 3 Methodist Episco¬ 
pal, 2 Protestant Episcopal, 1 Baptist, 1 Catholic, and 2 
colored Methodist. Together they have a capacity of 
seating 10,000 persons; value of church property, $700,000 ; 
church membership, about 5500. 

The city is supplied by Holly Waterworks, owned by the 
corporation. The gasworks are owned by a private com¬ 
pany. Three miles of street railway have been constructed 
and equipped at' a cost of $7500 per mile. A mile and a 
half of street are paved with wood pavement. The prin¬ 
cipal business streets are sewered. 

Much of the business capital of the city is invested in 
mercantile establishments, and the wholesale and retail 
transactions amount to not far from $6,000,000 a year. 
About $1,800,000 are invested in manufactories, which em¬ 
ploy 1400 hands of all grades, to whom about $800,000 are 
paid annually. The value of manufactured articles is about 
$3,500,000 annually. The leading articles are boots and 
shoes, tobacco and cigars, scales, combs, sewing-machines, 
machinery, and building materials, carriages, furniture, 
tools, and children’s sleighs and carriages. The banking 
institutions are three national banks, one private banking- 
house, and two savings banks. There are four weekly, one 
semi-weekly, and three daily newspapers. The city has an 


area of 972 acres. The assessors’ valuation (on a basis of 
a quarter of the real value) is $2,180,035 for real estate, 
and $430,985 for personal property. About $110,000 are 
raised annually for city and school purposes. The public 
debt for which the city is bonded, for and in the construc¬ 
tion of railroads, and for the construction of the high- 
school building, waterworks, and bridges, is nearly $400,000. 
Pop. of city, 12,692; city and township, 14,758. 

Malette & Reid, Eds. “Binghamton Republican.” 

Bing'ley, a town of England, in the West Riding of 
Yorkshire, is situated on an eminence on the river Aire, 
15 miles W. N. W. of Leeds. The Leeds and Liverpool 
Canal passes by it. Here are manufactures of worsted 
goods, paper, etc. Pop. 5019. 

Bin'ney (Amos), M.D., an American naturalist, born at 
Boston Oct. 18, 1803, graduated at Brown University in 
1821, was the owner of an ample fortune. He ivas a libe¬ 
ral patron of artists and men of science, and was president 
of the Boston Society of Natural History. He wrote “ Ter¬ 
restrial and Air-Breathing Mollusks of the United States” 
(3 vols., 1851, finely illustrated). Died at Rome Feb. 18, 
1847.—His son, W. G. Binnev, is also a distinguished con- 
chologist. 

Binney (Hibbert), D. D., born in Nova Scotia in 1819, 
was educated in London and Oxford, graduating at the latter 
university in 1842. In 1851 he was consecrated lord bishop 
(Anglican) of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward’s Island. 

Binney (Horace), LL.D., an eminent American lawyer, 
born in Philadelphia Jan. 4, 1780. He graduated at Har¬ 
vard College in 1797, and divided the first honors with 
his classmate, the late Judge White of Salem, Mass. Hav¬ 
ing studied law with Jared Ingersoll in Philadelphia, he 
was admitted to the bar in 1800, and rose in a few years 
to the highest rank in his profession. He declined high 
judicial positions which were offered him, but as a lawyer 
he took a prominent part in important cases in the higher 
courts of Pennsylvania, and was several times called to the 
Supreme Court of the U. S. Elected to Congress in the 
latter part of Jackson’s first administration, he distin¬ 
guished himself by his eloquence and ability. In 1843 he 
made his celebrated argument in the Supreme Court of the 
U. S. in the case of Yidal versus the mayor of Philadelphia. 
This admirable argument is often cited by the bench and 
bar of the U. S. as authority on questions involving the 
law of charitable uses, and has been referred to by eminent 
English jurists in the highest terms of praise. Mr. Binney 
appeared for the last time before his legal brethren on the 
occasion of the death of his friend, the Hon. John Ser¬ 
geant, whose character he delineated in terms of deep feel¬ 
ing and eloquence. Mr. Binney’s principal works, besides 
the argument in the Vidal case, are “An Inquiry into the 
Formation of Washington’s Farewell Address” (1859), 
eulogiums on Chief-Justice Tilghman (1827) and Chief- 
Justice Marshall (1836), and “Reports of Cases in the Su¬ 
preme Court of Pennsylvania” (6 vols.). 

Binney (Horace, Jr.), a son of the foregoing, born in 
Philadelphia Jan. 21, 1809, graduated at Yale in 1828, and 
was admitted to the bar in 1831. He was eminent for his 
literary knowledge, and was for a time president of the 
Union League of Philadelphia. Died Feb. 23, 1870. A 
memoir of his life by Dr. C. J. Stille was published in 1870. 

Binney (Thomas), born in 1798, an English dissenting 
minister, pastor of King’s Weigh-house Chapel in London 
(1829-69). He wrote many controversial papers, “Con¬ 
scientious Clerical Nonconformity,” “Service of Song,” 
and several books for young men, besides several volumes 
the products of a controversy with the Australian bishop 
of Adelaide. Died Feb., 1874. 


Binoc'ular Tel'escope [from the Lat. Units, “dou¬ 
ble,” and oenlua, an “eye”], a telescope to which both eyes 
may be applied at once, and by which an object may be 
observed with both eyes at the same time. There are also 
binocular microscopes, having two tubes, one for each eye. 
In some kinds of wqrk they possess superior defining power. 

Bino'mial [from the Lat. bis, “twice” and vomen, a 
“name”], in algebra, an expression having two terms 
joined by the sign + or —. The “ binomial theorem ” has 
for its object the expression of the law for the formation 
of any power of a binomial. By means of this theorem 
any power of x + a can be at once written down w ithout 
going through the actual multiplication. The older math¬ 
ematicians were acquainted Avith this method of finding 
such powers, but Newton first demonstrated the universal¬ 
ity of its application. This is considered one of his great¬ 
est discoveries, and the formula was placed upon his tomb. 
It is usually written thus: 


{x + a) m = x m + max m ~ 1 + m ——— 
3, etc. ^ 


a 2 x m-2 q. m 


(m— !)(?»—2) 
2 














BINTURONG—BIOLOGY. 

Binturong ( Tetides or Arctietis ), a genus of quad- | (2) the perpetual change during 



The Black Binturong. 


rupcds nearly allied to raccoons, comprises two species, 
natives of Java, Sumatra, and Malacca. 

Biobi' o, the largest river of Chili, rises in the Andes, 
and enters the sea at Concepcion, after a course of 200 miles. 

B iogen'esis, the origin of life from life by parentage 
or descent; a term recently used in opposition to abiogen- 
e . 8 i 8 , or the origination of life in matter before not living. 
(See Spontaneous Generation.) 

Biog'raphy [from the Gr. /3 t 'o ? , “ life,” and y P a<]>rj, a 
u writing”] is the term applied to the literature which treats 
of the lives of individual persons. Anciently, the leading 
incidents of a man’s life were narrated in their historical 
sequence, without elaborate attempts to analyze character. 
Ancient biography was possessed of a stately dignity, col¬ 
ored but sparingly with eulogy or censure. Modern biog¬ 
raphy, on the other hand, like modern history, is often 
full of criticism and disquisition. Of strictly biographical 
works, the most valuable that has come to us from the 
ancient Greeks is the “Lives” of Plutarch. Roman lit¬ 
erature also possesses an admirable “ Life of Agricola,” by 
his son-in-law, Tacitus. Besides these may be mentioned 
the “ Lives ” ascribed to Cornelius Nepos, the writings of 
Suetonius, the “Life of Alexander the Great” by Curtins, 
“Lives of the Sophists” by Philostratus, and a “Life of 
Plato” by Olympiodorus of Alexandria. Later, we en¬ 
counter St. Jerome’s “Lives of the Fathers,” while biog¬ 
raphies of saints, martyrs, etc. are scattered profusely 
through ecclesiastical literature. The monks of the Middle 
Ages worked at the manufacture of biographies in which 
the hunger for the marvellous was gratified. Modern bio¬ 
graphical literature may be said to date from the seven¬ 
teenth century. Among the most celebrated works written 
since the Reformation may be mentioned Vasari’s “ Lives 
of the Painters” (Florence, 1550) ; Tillemont’s “Mffinoires 
pour servir a l’Histoire Ecclesiastique des six Premieres 
Siecles de l’Eglise,” in 16 vols. 4to (Paris, 1693); Bayle’s 
“ Dictionnaire Historique ct Critique” (Rotterdam, 1697); 
the “Acta Sanctorum” of the Bollandist Fathers; the 
“ Lives of the Saints” by Alban Butler; the “Biographie 
Universelle” (1810-28); Charles Knight’s “English Cyclo¬ 
paedia,” Biographical Section, 1856-57. The “Nouvelle 
Biographie Generate ” (42 vols., 1857-63) is of great value. 
Among individual Lives a high place is given to Boswell’s 
“Life of Johnson” (1793), “ The Life of Charles XII.” by 
Voltaire, that of Voltaire by Condorcet, and that of Mo- 
liere and Corneille by Taschereau. The biographical 
writings of Carlyle are of the first importance. In Ameri¬ 
can literature we may mention in general biography the 
Avorks of Sparks, Sprague, Allen, and Drake, and the 
special biographical waitings of Irving and the Abbotts. 

Revised by C. W. Greene. 

Biol'ogy [from the Gr. /3to?, “life,” and Aoyo?, “dis¬ 
course”] is that branch of the study of nature which 
treats of organized beings, under their diverse relations, in 
contradistinction to mineralogy, which relates to the inor¬ 
ganic or mineral substances; its subjects are therefore 
animals (zoology) and plants (botany or phytology), living 
and extinct. These agree with each other, and differ from 
minerals in (1) the physical and chemical characteristics of 
their primitive constituents or cells, and the concomitant 
phenomena of life exhibited under certain conditions ; 


491 


life in the organism by 
loss of substance proportioned to the de¬ 
mands on the system of exertion or ex¬ 
istence, and the renewal of substance by 
derivation and assimilation of nutriment 
from without; (3) the segregation and 
specialization, w hen the demand for rapid 
growth lias been fulfilled, of certain por¬ 
tions of the organism as reproductive or¬ 
gans, differentiated as receptive and pro¬ 
creative (female), and impregnating and 
vivifying (male); from the former of 
which (after the conjunction of the two 
under certain conditions) an organism 
originates essentially like that from which 
it proceeds; and (4) the existence, for a 
vaguely determinate period, of the organ¬ 
ism, and finally a disturbance of the 
equilibrium or conditions of existence, 
death and dissolution ; (5) originating as 
above indicated, the offspring repeats the 
same cycle of phenomena as the parent, 
and in turn contributes to the perpetua¬ 
tion of the race. Our limits will only 
allow us to briefly consider, in the order 
indicated, these characteristic features of 
the great empire of organic nature. 

(1) The animal or vegetable organ¬ 
ism is in the main constituted of four 
elements, three of which are separately known only in 
a gaseous state— oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen —and one 
— carbon —in a simple condition is only known in a solid 
form. From this predominance of gaseous elements re¬ 
sults the degree of molecular mobility of the constitu¬ 
ents of the organism, and, according to Herbert Spencer, 
“that comparative readiness displayed by organic matters 
to undergo those changes in the arrangement of parts 
which we call development, and those transformations 
of motion which we call function.” The same author has 
also insisted on facts that (1) the elements in question 
(except oxygen) have affinities which are narrow in their 
range, but low in their intensity ; (2) that in all allotropism 
(or the ability to assume different states) is inherent; and 
(3) that they all present certain extreme antitheses (as, for 
example, between oxygen and nitrogen as to chemical 
affinity, and between carbon and the gases as to molecular 
mobility); and that these extreme contrasts “fulfil, in the 
highest degree, a certain further condition to facility of 
differentiation and integration.” The primary form into 
which these elements enter is a fluid substance called pro¬ 
toplasm, which may or may not be nucleated, but in most 
organisms assumes the nucleated condition (that is, of 
cells); of such elements, more or less modified and disguised 
according to circumstances (7. e. specialization and com¬ 
plexity of parts), the entire organism is built up. 

(2) By the absorption or ingestion of extraneous sub¬ 
stances the organism derives a nutriment which is assimi¬ 
lated and converted into its own substance, and supplies 
the material (1) for the power for work, (2) the repair of 
the system, and (3) for direct growth. Every action and 
exertion is attended with a 'loss of substance, and hence 
exists the necessity for a corresponding supply of nutri¬ 
ment. For a certain length of time (according to the 
species or race), in addition to the preservation of an un¬ 
stable equilibrium, there is also a demand for supply for 
increase of bulk, or growth, of the organism. The period 
and extent to which this is carried is, within certain 
limits, constant for each species. 

(3) When the full stature or phase of development has 
been more or less nearly attained, the organs of reproduction 
become functionally developed, and provision for the per¬ 
petuation of the race is made. In plants, the female ele¬ 
ment is termed a seed; in animals, an ovum or egg. The 
male and female elements may be united in the same indi¬ 
vidual, as in most plants and many animals, but in the 
highest animals the sexes are always differentiated in dis¬ 
tinct individuals. In mollusks, hermaphroditism is almost 
of ordinal value, but not more, and in at least one case 
(Valvatidae) hermaphroditism occurs in an order of which 
the other members are dioecious. Among vertebrates, true 
hermaphroditism is only known (as an exceptional develop¬ 
ment) in certain fishes (Serranidae); it is entirely unknown 
in the higher forms (mammals, etc.), all the reported cases 
to the contrary being referable to males with the genitalia 
in an embryonic condition, or females with the clitoris 
hypertrophied. The homologies of the male and female 
organs render it impossible that there shall bo a union of 
the sexes in the same individual in the mammals. Actual 
fecundation of individual germs (seeds or eggs) by the 
male element is necessary, in most cases, for their develop¬ 
ment, but in exceptional cases ( e . g. certain insects, crus- 

























492 BION OF SMYRNA—BIRCH. 


taceous inollusks), females produce broods of young without 
having had direct previous intercourse with the male. 
This peculiar capability has been designated partheno¬ 
genesis: the unimpregnated eggs (in some forms) produce 
only females. The question of the determination of sex is 
still involved in obscurity. 

(4) After a certain period, if the individual has escaped 
all the liabilities to death that occur from enemies, acci¬ 
dents, and disease, there is a decline in the activity of the 
functions, the system becomes disordered, and death ensues. 
This period, like those of growth and development of the 
reproductive power, is also, within certain limits, a con¬ 
stant term, and all reports of extreme longevity—such as 
the reputed ages of H. Jenkins (169 years), T. Parr 
(150 years), the countess Desmond (140 years), and others 
—are either based on very unsatisfactory evidence or de¬ 
monstrably false. 

(5) The offspring, although as a rule very similar to the 
parent, is never exactly alike, being always distinguishable 
by some more or less obvious difference or individuality of 
character. Occasionally, however, the offspring differs 
very markedly in some one character, which may or may 
not be co-ordinated with other correspondingly important 
differences. The newly developed peculiarity is apt to be 
transmitted either to the immediate offspring or to .a succeed¬ 
ing generation, and sometimes in an exaggerated degree. But 
such peculiarities, if the individuals so distinguished pair 
with those not exhibiting them, generally disappear in their 
descendants after a longer or shorter course. If, however, 
the individuals thus characterized are set aside, and their 
immediate and remote descendants selected in ratio to their 
possession of some peculiarity, that peculiarity will be in¬ 
definitely perpetuated, and a new race distinguished there¬ 
by will be thus originated. By means of such artificial 
selection, unintentional or studied, the various races of do¬ 
mesticated animals have been produced. And as, in most 
cases, there is an obvious fitness of organized beings to the 
conditions under which they are found, it has been assum¬ 
ed that such relations are the result of the survival of be¬ 
ings possessing characteristics which may have spontane¬ 
ously arisen, and which have gradually become (relatively) 
perpetuated in the “struggle for existence ;” and hence the 
hypothesis of natural selection has originated. Inasmuch, 
also, as no offspring is exactly like the parents, it follows 
that no generation is exactly like the preceding; and al¬ 
though there must be a certain unstable equilibrium, re¬ 
sulting from constant interbreeding, in the incessant surge 
of variations, the descendants must necessarily depart more 
and more from their progenitors. While in an historical 
epoch no very obvious changes may be perceptible, eventu¬ 
ally (unless by the interposition of miraculous agency) there 
must be a contrast between the extremes of a lineage, and 
the exhibition of such must be merely a question of time, de¬ 
termined to a greater or less degree by the changes of con¬ 
dition. The assumption of this hypothesis, and the induc¬ 
tive evidence furnished by various departments of science, 
have culminated in the theory of evolution, and for an ex¬ 
planation of the rnodus operandi of evolution, natui'al se¬ 
lection (or Darwinism) has been evoked. The evidence 
relied upon is chiefly derived from morphology (and the 
contrast between it and teleology), embryology, the geolo¬ 
gical succession and the geographical distribution of or¬ 
ganisms. 

While animals and plants differ from miuerals, and agree 
with each other in all the characters thus specified, there 
are no such salient differences between themselves. It is, 
indeed, easy to distinguish the higher animals and plants, 
and they are, to a certain extent, antetypes and complemen¬ 
tary to each other. On the one hand, plants derive their 
nourishment by absorption from the inorganic world through 
the external surfaces of their roots and leaves, and (under 
most conditions) decompose carbonic acid gas, assimilate 
carbon (and nitrogen), and eliminate oxygen. On the other 
hand, animals derive their nutriment, immediately or medi¬ 
ately, from plants, and ingest it either through a provision¬ 
al or specialized alimentary cavity, imbibe oxygen, and 
exhale carbonic acid gas. The mode of taking nutriment 
is the most characteristic feature, and specialization es¬ 
pecially tends to that end, but supplemented, in the animal, 
by a specialization of other systems to guide it in the selec¬ 
tion and pursuit of its food. Some rather high animals 
( e. <j. certain Entozoa) take their nutriment through their 
external surfaces, but this is rather a teleological modifica¬ 
tion co-ordinated with atrophy of the intestinal tube, su¬ 
perinduced by peculiar conditions of life. In view of the 
slight differences between animals and plants, and their 
contrast with minerals, it is evident that the ternary divis¬ 
ion of natural objects into animals, plants, and minerals 
does not express the degree of the relations between them; 
and hence the animal and plant kingdoms have been com¬ 
bined in an organic empire or realm on the one hand, and 


on the other minerals have been denominated an inorganic 
empire. The impossibility or great difficulty of discrimina¬ 
ting the lowest plants and animals has also led some nat¬ 
uralists to separate them from the animal and vegetable 
kingdoms, and combine them in a peculiar one, which has 
received, with some varying limits, numerous names; e. g. 
Infusory world (Infusorienwelt), regne de Zoophytes, 
regnes Psychodaire, regne chaotique, regne Plantanimal, 
regnum Amphorganicorum, regne organique Primitive, 
kingdom of Protozoa, regnum Primigenium, kingdom of 
Primalia, and Protistenreichs. Such propositions, however, 
do not remove the difficulty, but only shift and complicate the 
questions, and obscure the recognition of the tendencies of 
the two antitypically functional divisions of nature. It need 
only be added that there is also, to some extent, a contrast 
in respect to individuality in the respective kingdoms, nu¬ 
merous individuals (flowers) being developed from the out¬ 
growth of the contents of a single seed, while in all except 
some of the lower animals a single individual only origin¬ 
ates from one egg. The subject of individuality, however, 
is a somewhat obscure one, and has provoked much discus¬ 
sion ; and the question has been involved by the confusion 
of potential and actual individuality. (For more detailed 
information respecting the various subjects of biology, con¬ 
sult Evolution, Hermaphroditism, Individuality, Lon¬ 
gevity, Morphology, Paleontology, Parthenogenesis, 
Taxonomy, Teleology, Zoological Geography, and Zool¬ 
ogy and Botany, and their respective subdivisions.) 

Theo. Gill, Smithsonian Inst. 

Bi'on of Smyrna, a Greek pastoral poet, was a friend 
and contemporary of Moschus, and lived about 250 B. C. 
His style is graceful and polished. He composed bucolic 
and erotic poems, fragments of which are extant. Among 
his extant works is a lament for Adonis. 

Biot (Jean Baptiste), an eminent French natural phil¬ 
osopher and astronomer, was born in Paris April 21, 1774. 
He became in 1800 professor of physics in the College of 
France. In 1803 he was admitted into the Institute, and 
in 1805 published “An Elementary Treatise on Physical 
Astronomy” (2 vols.). An enlarged edition of this ap¬ 
peared in 5 vols., 1841—57. Having been appointed a mem¬ 
ber of the bureau of longitudes, he was sent to Spain with 
Arago to measure the arc of the meridian. He contributed 
many able articles to the “Biographie Universelle” and 
the “Annales de Chimie et de Physique,” and published, 
besides other works, a “ Treatise on Experimental Physics 
and Mathematics ” (4 vols., 1816), which is highly esteemed, 
and “ Researches in Ancient Astronomy ” (1829). In 1840 
he received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society of 
London for his researches on the circular polarization of 
light. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1856. 
Died Feb. 3, 1862. 

Bi'otite, called also Uniax'ial, or Magne'sian 

Mi' ca, occurs in six-sided tubular prisms, having a per¬ 
fect basal cleavage, and generally dark green, brown, or 
nearly black. It has a vitreous lustre, varies from trans¬ 
parent to opaque, is sectile, flexible, and elastic when re¬ 
duced to thin lamina;. It consists chiefly of silica, alu¬ 
mina, magnesia, and oxide of iron, with some potassa. 

Bi'petl [from the Lat. bis, “twice,” “double,” andpes, 
pedis, a “foot”], an animal which has two feet. Men and 
birds are almost the only animals to which the term is ap¬ 
plicable. The two-footed saurians are thought to furnish 
a link between reptiles and serpents; certain two-footed 
batracliians seem to approach the character of fishes; while 
there are fossil biped reptiles which appear to have re¬ 
sembled birds. 

Bi'pont Ecli'tions, the name of certain editions of 
the Latin classics, the publication of which was commenced 
in 1779 at the German town of Zweibriicken (Deux-Ponts), 
called in Latin Bipontium. 

Bir, or Beer [anc. Bir'tha; Turk. Bireh-jik], a town 
of Asiatic Turkey, on the left (E.) bank of the Euphrates, 
74 miles N. E. of Aleppo. It has about 2000 houses, a cita¬ 
del or castle on a steep rock, and several mosques. Cara¬ 
vans from Aleppo to Diarbekir and Bagdad cross the Eu¬ 
phrates at this point. Pop. about 6000. 

Birch (Bet'ida), a genus of trees or shrubs of the order 
Betulaceae, natives of temperate and cold regions in Asia, 
Europe, and America (several species are found among the 
Himalayas). The genus Betida is distinguished by ten to 
twelve stamens and winged seeds (achenia), has alternate, 
simple leaves, and flowers in scaly catkins. The common 
birch of Europe and Asia ( Betula alba) is a handsome tree 
with triangular or deltoid leaves, which are doubly serrate. 
The bark is smooth and chalky white, and separable in 
thin sheets or layers. This bark is very durable, and is 
used for tanning, dyeing yellow, and other purposes. In 
some countries hats, shoes, and boots are made of it. The 














BIRCH—BIRD OF PARADISE. 


49 Q 


o 


wood is firm, tough, and valuable, and is much used by 
coopers, turners, and wheelwrights. The sap is esteemed 
as a beverage in Scotland, both in a fresh state and fer¬ 
mented. Europe produces a graceful variety called weep¬ 
ing birch {Betula pendula of some botanists), which attains 
a height of sixty feet, and has very slender and pendulous 
branches. The American white birch, which, according to 
Gray, is a variety of the above, is a small, graceful tree 
with tremulous, deltoid, and shining leaves, but is not valu¬ 
able for timber. Among the other species indigenous in 
the U. S. are the Betula lenta (sweet or black birch), Betula 
excelsa (yellow birch), and Betula papyracea (canoe or 
paper birch). The Betula lenta is a rather large tree, the 
bark of which is aromatic, yielding an essential oil iden¬ 
tical with that of Gaultheria , and the timber is fine-grained 
and valuable for cabinet-work. The Betula papyracea 
grows in the Northern States to the height of about seventy 
feet, has a fine-grained wood, and a very tough, durable 
white bark, splitting freely into thin layers, which have 
been used as paper. The Indians make canoes of this bark. 
The Betula lutea (or excelsa) sometimes attains a height of 
nearly eighty feet, and is remarkable for the brilliant yel¬ 
low tint of its bark or epidermis. The leaves are from three 
to five inches long. Besides the above and several less 
important species, the U. S. have the Betula nigra, or river 
birch, which grows on the banks of streams and has re¬ 
markably tough wood. Russia leather is tanned with birch 
bark. “ Russian oil ” is a tar-like, empyreumatie substance 
obtained from birch-wood in Russia, and is useful in cer¬ 
tain skin diseases. 

Birch (Samuel), LL.D., born in London Nov. 3, 1813, 
one of the best modern Egyptologists, is the author of nearly 
all the last volume of Bunsen’s work on Egypt, and has 
published a treatise on “ Hieroglyphics” (1857), the “ Rhind 
Papyri” (1806), and numerous other treatises on archaeol¬ 
ogy, etc. His studies embrace Chinese literature and all 
departments of antiquities and ethnology. 

Birch (Thomas), D. D., F. R. S., an English biographer 
and historian, born in London Nov. 23, 1705. He took or¬ 
ders in the Anglican Church, and became rector of a parish 
in London. Among his numerous works are “ The General 
Dictionary, Historical and Critical” (10 vols., 1734-41), a 
“ Life of Archbishop Tillotson ” (1752), “Memoirs of the 
Reign of Queen Elizabeth ” (2 vols., 1754), and a “ History 
of the Royal Society” (4 vols., 1757). Died Jan. 9, 1706. 

Birch Coo'ley, a post-township of Renville co., Minn. 
Pop. 503. 

Birch-PfeiPfer (Charlotte), a German actress and 
dramatic writer, born at Stuttgart June 2, 1800, was married 
to Dr. Birch of Copenhagen in 1825. She attained success 
as a performer and a writer. Among her dramas are 
“Die Giinstlinge,” “Hinko,” “ Dorf and Stadt” (1848), 
and “Anna of Austria” (“Anna von Oestreich,” 1850). 
Died Aug. 25, 1868. 

Birch Point Plantation, a township of Somerset 
co., Me. Pop. 2. 

Birch Run, a post-township of Saginaw co., Mich., 15 
miles S. E. of Saginaw. Pop. 925. 

Birch Tree, a post-township of Shannon co., Mo. 
Pop. 312. 

Bird. See Birds. 

Bird, a township of Jackson co., Ark. Pop. 1313. 

Bird (Edavard), an English painter of genre and rural 
scenes, was born at Wolverhampton in 1772. His “Field 
of Chevy Chase the Day after the Battle” is called his 
masterpiece. Died in 1819. 

Bird (Frederick Mayer), son of Robert Montgomery 
Bird, noticed below, was born in Philadelphia June 28, 1838, 
graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1857, and 
at the Union Theological Seminary in New York City in 
1860. For several years he was a minister in the Lutheran 
Church, serving as chaplain in the Union army during the 
winter of 1862-63. In 1868 he entered the Protestant 
Episcopal Church, and in 1870 became rector of St. Peter s 
church in Spottswood, N. J. He owns the largest hymn- 
ological library, and is the best-informed hymnologist, in 
the U. S. He was main editor of the Lutheran Hymn-Book 
(1S65), published “Charles Wesley seen in his Finer and 
less Familiar Poems” (1867), assisted Bishop Odenheimer 
in compiling “Hymns of the Spirit (1872), and has con¬ 
tributed many articles to reviews and newspapers. 

Bird (Golding), M. D., an English physician and writer, 
born in Norfolk in 1815, practised in London, where he 
also lectured on medical botany. Ho published a valuable 
work on the urine. Died in 1854. 

Bird (Robert Montgomery), M. D., an American author, 
born at New Castle, Del., in 1803. He practised medicine in 
Philadelphia, and wrote, besides other works, “ The Gladi¬ 


ator,” a tragedy which was successful ; “ Calavar, a Ro¬ 
mance of Mexico ” (1834), and the “ Infidel,” a novel (1835). 
He became in 1847 one of the chief editors of “ The North 
American and United States Gazette,” a daily paper of 
Philadelphia. Died Jan. 22, 1854. 


Bird-Catching Spider {Myga le avicularia), a spider 
of Cayenne and Surinam. Its body is nearly two inches 
long, but its legs when stretched out occupy a space almost 



Bird-Catching Spider. 


a foot in diameter. The hooks of its mandibles are black 
and very strong. It does not construct a net or web for 
the capture of its prey, but it obtains it by the chase, and 
hunts only in the night. This spider and other species of 
Mygale will attack and kill small birds. It is asserted that 
in some tropical countries there are spiders which feed upon 
birds caught in their webs. 

Bird Cherry, a name given in England to the Primus 
Padus, which is a smalltree growing wild in Europe, and 
called hagberry in Scotland. It bears racemes of small 
drupes of a sweetish and bitterish taste, which are used in 
the north of Europe to make spirituous liquors. Nearly 
allied to this is the wild cherry or choke cherry of the U. S. 
(See Prunus Virginiana.) 

Birde, or Byrd (William), a distinguished English 
composer of church music, born in 1540. In conjunction 
with Thomas Tallis he became organist to Queen Eliza¬ 
beth in 1575. He produced, among other works, “Sacred 
Songs,” and a magnificent canon entitled “Non Nobis 
Domine.” Died in 1623. 

Bird Lime [Lat. vis'eus], a viscous adhesive substance 
placed on the branches of trees to catch birds which may 
perch there. It is prepared by boiling the middle bark of 
the holly {Ilex), the mistletoe ( Viscum album), or other 
glutinous plants, and concentrating the decoction by evap¬ 
oration. The gluten of wheat flour is sometimes used as a 
substitute for bird lime. A tame bird in a cage is some¬ 
times employed to decoy the birds to the tree on which the 
bird lime is smeared. 

Bird of Paradise, the name of several species of 
birds of the genus Paradisea and kindred genera, of the 
order Insessores, and of the tribe Conirostres, natives of 
Papua and the neighboring islands, remarkable for the 
beautiful form and splendor of their plumage. The namo 
was originally applied to the Paradisea apoda, which 
was supposed to be destitute of feet, because the skins, 
which are exported to Europe, are usually deprived of 
wings and feet. The older naturalists imagined that they 
passed all their lives floating in the air and ieeding on 
ethereal food or nectar. For these fabulous and iancitul 
ideas science substitutes the prosaic truth that they aio 



























494 


BIRDS. 


nearly allied to the Corvidae (crow family), and are omniv¬ 
orous. The value of these birds arises chiefly from the 
extraordinary development and light and beautiful struc- 



Bird of Paradise. 

ture of the plumes which grow from the scapular and lat¬ 
eral portions of the body. The plumage of the males is 



Red Bird of Paradise. 

remarkable not only for brightness of tints, but also for a 
velvety texture and brilliant metallic reflections. Tufts of 


feathers growing from the shoulders are so prolonged that 
they extend even beyond the tail, and they constitute the 
most beautiful part of the plumes of the bird of paradise, 
which are a highly prized article of commerce for female 
ornament. The principal species of this genus are the 
common bird of paradise ( Paradisea apoda), the royal 
bird of paradise (Paradisea regia), the red bird of paradise 
(Paradisea rubra), the magnificent bird of paradise ( Par¬ 
adisea magnijica or speeiosa), and the six-threaded (or 
golden) bird of paradise ( Paradisea sexsetacea), from the 
head of which grow six long and threadlike feathers, three 
on each side. The common bird of paradise is about as 
large as a jay, and is mostly of a cinnamon color, with a 
throat of emerald green, whence it is sometimes called “the 
emerald bird of paradise.” The royal bird of paradise 
has two long feathers or filaments, which extend behind 
the tail and terminate in disks, like the tail-feathers of a 
peacock. The red bird of paradise has two very long fila¬ 
ments, extending far bejrnnd its rich and beautiful tail- 
feathers. They are generally gregarious, and they some- 
[ times fly in flocks from one island to another. It is stated 
! that they can fly more easily against than with the wind. 
In confinement they are lively and bold, and bestow great 
care on their plumage. Eighteen species are described by 
Wallace, whose list does not include all the known species. 

A recent writer, referring to what he calls “the supremely 
glorious members of the feathered tribe which have by 
common consent been termed birds of paradise,” ob¬ 
serves that “ The plumage of these birds is wonderfully 
rich and varied, and not even the humming-birds them¬ 
selves present such an inexhaustible treasury of form and 
color as is found among the comparatively few species of 
the birds of paradise.” (See Wallace, “Malay Archipel- 
j ago.”) Revised by J. S. Newberry. 

Birds [Lat. aves ; Fr. oiseau, plu. oiseaux; Ger. Vogel Q, 
a class of oviparous vertebrate animals, which in several re¬ 
spects are peculiar, and separated from other animals by a 
very distinct line of demarcation. They are all bipeds, and 
are all covered with feathers, which nature has given to no 
animals of other classes. Nearly all birds have the power 
of flight, which is enjoyed by few other vertebrate animals. 
The most conspicuous external characteristic of birds is the 
plumage, which invests their bodies and wings, se.rves as 
clothing, and assists in motion through the air. The 
feathers entangle among their fibres a considerable quan¬ 
tity of air, and are well adapted to protect the bird from 
extremes of cold and heat. The internal temperature 
of birds is from 105° to 112° F., much higher than that 
of men and beasts. Their buoyancy and muscular en¬ 
ergy are increased by numerous air-cells which are con¬ 
nected with the lungs, penetrate the substance of the bones, 
insinuate themselves between the skin and subjacent mus¬ 
cles, and enter the quills, so that the whole organism is 
permeated by air. The general form of birds is adapted to 
aerial navigation, and the bodj T is somewhat boat-shaped. 
The number of vertebrae in the neck varies from ten to 
twenty-three, and is always greater than is found in any 
mammal. Among their peculiar organs is the hard, horny, 
toothless mouth, called a beak or bill. (See Bill.) The head 
is so articulated to the neck by a single condyle or pivot that 
a bird can turn its head round in a manner impossible to 
Mammalia. The number of toes of each foot is generally 
four, of which three extend forward and one backward; but 
the Scansores (climbers) have two before and two behind. 
The various forms of the toes are the characters w T hich dis¬ 
tinguish the five primary orders. (See Ornithology.) The 
sternum or breast-bone is very large and strong, serving 
for the attachment of the powerful muscles which move the 
expanded wings. In eagles and other rapacious birds the 
ridge or keel of the sternum is very prominent. The wing 
of a bird is the homologue of the arm of a man, and is com¬ 
posed of bones which correspond to those of a human arm 
or the fore leg of a quadruped. The wing is furnished with 
feathers called quills, which are larger and stronger than 
those of the other parts of the bird, and which display an 
admirable combination of strength and lightness. The 
names of the several varieties of wing-feathers are pri- 
maries, secondaries, tertiaries, and coverts. The primaries 
are quill-feathers arising from the first or terminal joint— 
i. e. the part of the wing which corresponds to the hand and 
fingers of a man. The form of these indicates the bird’s 
capacity of flight, and birds of powerful flight have long 
and firm primaries. Next to these are the secondaries, 
which are attached to the middle bone, the homologue of 
man’s fore arm. The tertiaries grow from the part of the 
wing between the elbow and the shoulder. The leg of a 
bird is formed of bones which are homologous to those of 
Mammalia, but are subject to modifications. The thigh¬ 
bone is very short, and is so concealed within the body or 
under the feathers that it is not apparent as a part of the 
leg on a superficial view. The next division, often mis- 

































































BIRDSALL—BIRDS OF PASSAGE. 


taken for the thigh, is the tibia or proper leg-bone, which 
is always the largest bone of the limb. The feet vary 
according to the habits of the birds, some of which have 
strong, hooked, and retractile claws fitted for seizing prey, 
and others are adapted for swimming by a membrane which 
unites their toes. 

The digestive apparatus is modified in accordance with 
the nature of their food. A large majority of birds do not 
masticate their food, which passes from the mouth into the 
crop or craw, an enlargement of the gullet. The crop, or 
first stomach, is large in birds that feed on grain and seeds, 
and is wanting in those that eat fish. The second stomach, 
or proventriculus, is largest in those birds in which the 
crop is small or wanting. The third and principal stom¬ 
ach is the gizzard, which is a powerful grinding apparatus, 
especially in those birds which feed on grain and swallow 
gravel and pebbles, as the common domestic fowl. Birds 
sleep generally with the head under their wing, and some 
prefer to stand on one foot while asleep. Others pass the 
night on branches of trees, which without effort they clasp 
with their claws, for the tendons of the muscles which close 
the claws pass over the joints of the leg in such a manner 
as to be stretched by the mere pressure when the weight 
of the bird rests on the legs. The sense of sight in this 
class is exceedingly keen, and is remarkable for its perfect 
adaptation to near or distant objects. The swallow, when 
darting through the air with a swiftness which lias become 
proverbial, is capable of accommodating its sight to the 
insect which it pursues, even in the short time which is 
occupied by its swoop at its victim. Some birds of prey 
have an acute sense of smell, and nocturnal birds, such as 
owls, have sensitive organs of hearing. Birds are distin¬ 
guished among all dumb animals for their musical powers, 
and song-birds are doubtless sensitive to sound and differ¬ 
ences of pitch. All the best singing-birds belong to the 
order Insessores. 

Among the most interesting subjects connected with the 
birds are their migrations and the vastly diversified in¬ 
stincts and ingenuity which they exhibit in building nests. 
The number of eggs in a state of nature varies from one to 
twenty, and birds generally breed only once a year, which 
is in spring. Many species of birds are gregarious, but 
large rapacious birds are quite solitary in their mode of 
life. They all moult— i. e. change their feathers once a 
year—and the summer plumage of many birds is very dif¬ 
ferent from the winter dress. The plumage of the males is 
generally richer and more brilliant than that of the females. 
Birds perform an important part in the economy of na¬ 
ture. Their flesh and eggs are valuable as food for man, 
and many species render him great service by checking the 
increase of insects. “ There are few objects,” says J. G. 
Wood, “ which will better repay investigation than the 
young bird in its various stages of development. It is so 
wonderful to see the manner in which a living creature is 
gradually evolved from the apparently lifeless substances 
that are contained within an egg. The being seems to 
grow under our very gaze, and we arise from the wondrous 
spectacle with an involuntary feeling that we have been 
present at a veritable act of creation.” (For the classifica¬ 
tion of birds, see Ornithology.) 

The earliest traces of the existence of birds on the globe 
have been supposed to be the so-called birds’ tracks in the 
triassic sandstones of the Connecticut Valley; but it is now 
generally conceded that most if not all these tracks were 
made by reptiles and amphibians. Feathers, supposed to 
have belonged to birds, have been found in the Jurassic 
rocks of England, and in the lithographic slates of Solen- 
hofen (Jurassic) a nearly complete bird has been recently 
discovered. This has been described by Prof. Owen, and 
called Archaeopteryx. It exhibits some remarkable anat¬ 
omical features, and is supposed to form a kind of connect¬ 
ing link between birds and reptiles. (See Arch.eopteryx.) 
The remains of birds have been found in the greensand of 
England, the eocene of the island of Sheppy, and’the Paris 
basin, as well as in the more recent tertiaries at various 
European localities. In America fossil birds were un¬ 
known until quite recently; they have now been found, 
however, in the greensand of New Jersey, the cretaceous 
beds of Kansas, and the tertiary deposits of Wyoming and 
Idaho. Nearly all these remains have been discovered by 
Prof. 0. C. Marsh, who has made them objects of special 
search. The most important of Prof. Marsh’s discoveries 
in this branch of paleontology is that of a bird with teeth 
in the cretaceous beds at Fort Ilarker, Kan. In the super¬ 
ficial deposits of New Zealand and Madagascar the remains 
of several kinds of extinct birds have been met with, some 
of which far exceed in dimensions the largest now living. 
The great bird of Madagascar is called JEpiornis maximns. 
It is supposed to have been at least twelve feet in height, 
and very massive. The egg of this bird was over a foot in 
length. ' The contents of one of these eggs were equal to 


495 


those of six ostrichs’ eggs or 148 hens’ eggs. The largest 
extinct birds of New Zealand have been described under 
the name of Dinornis by Prof. Owen. They were from six 
to ten feet in height; and one species, Dinornia elephan- 
topua, had legs and feet nearly as massive as those of the 
elephant. Revised by J. S. Newberry. 

Biril'sall, a post-township of Allegany co., N. Y. 
Pop. 755. 

Birds'borough, a post-village of Berks co., Pa. It 
has one weekly newspaper. 

Bird’s-Eye Limestone, a compact, dove-colored 
stone, with whitish crystalline points, belonging to the .* 
lower division of the Trenton group of the lower Silurian 
strata of North America, appai’ently corresponding to the 
Llandeilo flags. It contains many orthoceratitcs of enor¬ 
mous size, and fossil brachiopods. 

Bird’s-Eye View, a term used in the fine arts to 
denote a picture or view arranged according to the laws of 
perspective, in which the point of sight or situation of the 
eye is placed at a considerable height above the object. 
This is a convenient method of representing battles, or of 
delineating a large city or a small tract of country. In 
sketching a locality for military purposes this kind of per¬ 
spective is used. A common kind of bird’s-eye view ditfers 
from ordinary perspective only in that the horizontal line 
is placed considerably above the picture. 

Bird’s Foot ( Ornith'opua ), a genus of plants of the 
order Leguminosas, sub-order Papilionaceae, derives its 
name from the resemblance of the curved pods to birds’ 
claws. One species, the Ornithopua sativua, an annual 
plant, a native of Portugal, is cultivated in that country, 
and affords a nutritious green fodder for cattle. Its Portu¬ 
guese name is aerradilla. 

Bird’s Foot Trefoil {Lotus), a genus of plants of 
the order Leguininosm, sub-order Papilionaceae, comprises 
numerous species, natives of the temperate and cold regions 
of the Old World. They are so called because a cluster 
of their pods resembles a bird’s foot. The Lotus cornicu- 
latu8 is common in the pastures of Great Britain, and is 
eaten with avidity by cattle. It bears yellow flowers, which 
have a honey-like smell, and leaves which are trifoliate, 
like those of clover. A larger species or variety, called 
Lotus major, is also a native of England. 

Birds’ Nests, Edible, the nest of the sea-swallow 
(Hirundo esculenta) of the Malay Archipelago, a bird of 
the size of a common martin. It builds its nest of a glu¬ 
tinous substance which it is said to derive from a sea-weed. 
This weed is swallowed and partly digested, and then dis¬ 
gorged and fashioned into a nest as large as a common 
coffee-cup. When fresh these nests are of a waxy white 
color, and are said to be worth twice their weight in silver 
in the markets of China, where alone they are sold. The 
poorer sorts bring $5 or more a pound, according to the 
age of the nests. The taste of dishes prepared from these 
nests is said to be insipid, but the Chinese prize them, not 
perhaps so much for their taste as for their supposed tonic 
and aphrodisiac powers. 

Birds of Passage are birds which are migratory, 
passing instinctively and habitually from one country or 
latitude to another on account of the change of the season. 

The migration of birds is generally from north to south, or 
from south to north, in the temperate zones. They migrate 
twice in a year, moving northward in the spring, and 
southward in the autumn, directed by a sagacious instinct 
to the regions in which their proper food is then most 
abundant. Migratory birds which breed in the U. S. are 
called summer birds of passage with reference to those 
States. They return in autumn to the tropical regions, 
and are winter birds of passage in the countries where they 
pass the winter. Wild-geese and other waterfowl that 
breed in the Arctic regions in summer annually visit the 
U. S. and Great Britain in autumn, and return northward 
in the spring. Several other species that are not aquatic, 
as the woodcock, fieldfare, and snow-bird, pass the winter 
in the temperate parts of Europe or the U. S., and spend 
the summer in a more northern latitude. On the approach 
of cold weather the swallows of Europe pass across the 
Mediterranean into Africa. u Before the time ot migra¬ 
tion,” says Wood, “they may be seen assembled in great 
numbers, chattering eagerly and appearing to be holding a 
great parliament for the settlement of affairs before starting 
on their long journey. They do not migrate in flocks, but 
pass in little families of two or three in number across the 
vast space that separates them from the end ot their joui- 
ney. Although such powerful and swift fliers, they become 
fatigued in passing the sea, and will flock in great num¬ 
bers to rest upon the rigging of some ship that may hap¬ 
pen to pass their course. It is rather curious that the buds 
almost invariably fly in a line directly north and south. 








496 , BIREN—BISCHOFF. 


Bi'ren, Biron, or Bu'ren (Ernest John), duke of 
Courland, was born in 1087. Jle gained the favor of Anna 
(a niece of Peter the Great), who became empress of Rus¬ 
sia in 1730, and gave him the title of duke. He was a 
powerful favorite during her reign, and abused his power 
by the execution of many innocent persons. On the death 
of Anna in 1740 he became regent, but he was exiled to 
Siberia in 1741. When Elizabeth ascended the throne in 
1741 she permitted him to return to Russia, and in 1763 
the duchy of Courland was restored to him. Died Dec. 28, 
1772. (See Rueiil, “ Geschichte E. J. von Biron/'2 vols., 
1764.) 

Birk'cnheacl, a seaport-town of England, in Cheshire, 
is on the left bank and near the mouth of the Mersey, op¬ 
posite Liverpool, and 15 miles N. N. W. of Chester, with 
which it is connected by railway. It is about 1£ miles 
S. W. of Liverpool, and is the residence of many merchants 
who do business in that city. Steamers cross the river be¬ 
tween these places once in fifteen minutes, or oftener. 
Birkenhead was only a small fishing-village as recently as 
1824, since which it has increased rapidly in consequence 
of the construction of extensive docks and important pub¬ 
lic works. It has wide streets, a fine public park, a college 
called St. Aidan’s (designed for the education of young 
men for the Anglican ministry), and many handsome villas. 
One of the docks occupies 120 acres. Pop. in 1871, 65,980. 

Birmingham, one of the greatest manufacturing 
cities of England, is situated in the county of Warwick, 
on the river Rea, 79 miles by rail S. E. of Liverpool, and 
130 miles by rail N. W. of London. It is built on the 
eastern slope of three undulating hills, and has a gravelly 
foundation. Its suburbs extend into Staffordshire and 
Worcestershire. It returns three members to Parliament. 
Birmingham is the chief town of Great Britain for the 
manufacture of hardware and metallic products made of 
gold, silver, brass, iron, steel, and mixed metal, including 
firearms, swords, jewelry, buttons, tools, steel pens, locks, 
steam-engines, and all sorts of machinery. The value of 
the goods manufactured here in a year is estimated at more 
than £4,500,000. Here are also extensive manufactures of 
glass and papier-mache. Several railways extend from 
this city to London, Liverpool, Manchester, etc. Birming¬ 
ham contains about 100 churches; Queen’s College, con¬ 
nected with the London University; a free public library; 
a botanic garden; a Roman Catholic cathedral; and a 
town-hall, which is a handsome edifice of the classic style, 
with a very fine organ. A musical festival is held in this 
hall once in three years. In the vicinity of Birmingham 
are the famous Soho and Smethwick Works, founded by 
Watt and Boulton, who there manufactured their first steam- 
engines. Among the charitable institutions are an asylum 
for the deaf and dumb, and an asylum for the blind. Pop. 
in 1871, 343,676. 

Birmingham, a new city in Jefferson co., Ala., at the 
crossing of the South and North Alabama and Alabama 
and Chattanooga R. Rs. Other railroads are being con¬ 
structed to the same point. This will doubtless soon be a 
great railroad centre. It already (1873) claims several 
thousand inhabitants. Extensive beds of coal and iron 
ore lie in its vicinity, and contribute essentially to the pros¬ 
perity of the place. It has one national bank and one 
weekly newspaper. 

Birmingham, a manufacturing borough of New Ha¬ 
ven co., Conn., on the Housatonic River, at the mouth of 
the Naugatuck, 9 miles W. of New Haven. A bridge across 
the Naugatuck connects it with the village of Old Derby, 
which is on the Naugatuck R. R. A new railroad, the 
Derby and New Haven, connects it with New Haven. It 
has one national bank, several rolling-mills, manufactures 
of augers, chains, pins, and carriage-axles and springs, and 
one newspaper. Steamboats ply daily between this place 
and New York. Here is the first pin-factory established 
in the U. S. Pop. 2103, or, including Derby Narrows, 3364. 

Ed. “ Derby Transcript.” 

Birmingham, a post-tvvp. of Schuyler co., Ill. P. 1253. 

Birmingham, a post-village of Union township, Yan 
Buren co., Ia. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 626. 

B irmingham, a post-village of Marshall co., Ky. Pop. 
322. 

Birmingham, a former borough of Alleghany co., 
Pa., on the left (W.) bank of the Monongahcla River, 
1 mile S. of Pittsburg, with which it is connected by 
a bridge 1500 feet long. It derives its prosperity chiefly 
from manufactures of glass and iron, and has a national 
bank. The name of its post-office is Buchanan. Pop. 
8603. In 1872 it was united to Pittsburg. 

Birmingham, a township of Chester co., Pa. Pop. 450. 

B irmingham, a township of Delaware co., Pa. P. 765. 


Birmingham, a post-borough of Huntingdon co., Pa., 
77 miles N. W. of Harrisburg. Pop. 263. 

Birmingham Falls, a village of Au Sable township, 
Clinton co., and Chesterfield township, Essex co., N. Y., at 
the head of the rapids of the Au Sable River, has a paper- 
mill, two starch-factories, etc. 

B ir'nam, a hill of Scotland, in Perthshire, 12 miles 
N. W. of Perth, is 1580 feet high, and commands a fine view 
of the valley of the Tay. It was formerly covered by part 
of a royal forest, to which Shakspeare has given celebrity 
in his tragedy of “ Macbeth.” 

B ir'ney (David Bell), an American general, born at 
Huntsville, Ala., May 29, 1825, practised law in Philadel¬ 
phia. He became a brigadier-general of Union volunteers 
in 1861, and as such served at Fredericksburg, Dec., 1862. 
He was raised to the rank of major-general, and commanded 
a division at Gettysburg in July, 1863, and in several bat¬ 
tles in Virginia in 1864. Died Oct. 18, 1864. 

Birney (James G.), a distinguished opponent of slavery, 
the father of the preceding, was born at Danville, Ky., Feb. 
4, 1792, graduated at Princeton in 1812, and became a law¬ 
yer. He was the owner of about twenty slaves, whom he 
liberated, and he founded at Cincinnati an anti-slavery 
paper called “ The Philanthropist.” His office was soon 
attacked by a mob, which threw his press into the river. 
Having become secretary of the American Anti-Slavery 
Society, he removed to New York City about 1836. He was 
nominated in 1840 for the presidency of the U. S. by the 
Liberty party, which also supported him in the election of 
1844. Died Nov. 24, 1857. 

Biron, de (Charles de Gontaut), Duke, a French 
general, born in 1562, was a son of Armand (died 1592). 
He served with distinction at Ivry, 1590, became a favorite 
of Henry IV., marshal of France in 1595, and was ap¬ 
pointed governor of Burgundy. He was ambitious, and 
was convicted of forming a treasonable plot with the duke 
of Savoy, for which he was put to death July 31, 1602. 
(See De Tiiou, “ Historia sui Temporis;” Martir-Rizo, 
“ Historia de la Vida del Duque de Biron,” 1629.) 

Bisa' ccia (anc. Rnmulea), a town of Italy, in the prov¬ 
ince of Avellino, on a hill 32 miles E. N. E. of Avellino. 
Here is a mucli-frequented sulphur spring. Pop. 4977. 

Bisaqui'no, Busaqui'no, or Busacehi'no, a 
town of Sicily, in Palermo, 30 miles S. S. E. of Palermo, has 
an extensive trade in grain and oil. Pop. 8585. 

Bis'cay, or Bisca'ya [Sp. Vizca'ya], one of the four 
Basque provinces of Spain, is bounded on the N. by the 
Bay of Biscay, on the E. by Guiptizcoa, on the S. by Alava, 
and on the W. by Santander. Area, 834 square miles. 
It consists partly of mountains and partly of level plains. 
The chief products are wine, fruit, walnuts, chestnuts, figs, 
and grain. Capital, Bilbao. Pop. 778,229. 

Biscay, Bay of [Fr. Golfe de Gascoyne ; anc. Gal'li- 
cu8 Oce'anus, or Aquitan'icus Si'mis], a portion of the At¬ 
lantic Ocean bordering on France and Spain, extends from 
the French island of Ushant to Cape Ortegal. The depth, 
which is greatest near the coast of Spain, varies from 20 to 
200 fathoms. The southern or Spanish coast is bold and 
rocky, but the E. coast, from the Adour to the mouth of the 
Gironde, is low and sandy. The largest rivers that flow 
into this bay arc the Loire and the Gironde. The principal 
ports on it are Nantes, Bordeaux, Bayonne, La Rochelle, 
and Rochefort in France, and Bilbao and Santander in 
Spain. Violent currents and winds render the navigation 
of this bay difficult. 

Biscayne, formerly Miam'i, a post-village, capital 
of Dade co., Fla., on Biscayne Bay. It is celebrated for 
its healthfulness and delightful climate. It has been pro¬ 
posed to establish here a tropical botanic garden. On Key 
Biscayne there is a lighthouse with a fixed white light 100 
feet above the sea; lat. 25° 39' 51" N., Ion. 80° 09' 24" W. 
It has important sponge-fisheries. 

Bisceglia, be-sha'yS,, or Bise'glie, a fortified sea¬ 
port-town of Italy, in Bari, and on the Adriatic, 25 miles 
W. N. W. of Bari. It has a cathedral, a college, and sev¬ 
eral churches and convents. Excellent currants and olives 
are raised in the vicinity. It is connected by rail with 
Foggia and all the points along the coast S. of Barletta to 
Brindisi. Pop. in 1872, 21,371. 

Bisch'of (Karl Gustav), a German chemist, born at 
Word, near Nuremberg, Jan. 18. 1792. He became pro¬ 
fessor of chemistry at Bonn in 1822. His chief work is 
a "Manual of Chemical and Physical Geology ” (2 vols., 
1847-54; 2d ed., Bonn, 1863-66). Died Nov."30, 1870. 

Bischoff (Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm), a German phys¬ 
iologist and anatomist, born at Hanover Oct. 28, 1807. Ho 
became professor of anatomy at Heidelberg in 1836, at 
Giessen in 1S43, and obtained a chair at Munich in 1854. 




















BISCHWEILER—BISMARCIv-SCHONHAUSEN, YON. 497 


He gained distinction by his researches in embryology, on 
which he wrote several treatises. 

Bisch'weiler, a town of Alsace, on the river Moder, 
14 miles by rail E. N. E. of Strasburg. It has manufac¬ 
tures of linens, coarse woollen cloths, gloves, and earthen¬ 
ware. It is the centre of the hop-trade in Lower Alsace. 
Near it is a rich mine of iron. It was formerly fortified. 
Pop. in 1871, 9231. 

Bis'cuit [Fr. bis, “twice,” and curt, passive part., from 
cuire , to “cook” or “bake”], a hard kind of unfermented 
bread formed into small cakes or fiat pieces, and sometimes 
called ship-bread or sea-biscuit. It is composed of wheat 
flour, water, and salt, and is rendered hard and dry by 
baking, in order that it may be preserved for a long time. 
Biscuits are exposed to the heat of an oven for about twelve 
minutes, and afterwards dried in a warm room for two or 
three days. “Captain's biscuit” is prepared with butter, 
in addition to the ingredients mentioned above, and some¬ 
times contains milk. Water or hard biscuits are made of 
flour, water, with variable quantities of butter, eggs, and 
sugar. Soft biscuits contain increased proportions of but¬ 
ter and sugar. Several varieties of fermented biscuits are 
manufactured. Meat biscuit consists of wheat flour, com¬ 
bined with the essential or soluble part of beef, so that the 
nutritive qualities of the meat may be preserved for a long 
time. To prepare this biscuit large pieces of beef, with 
water sufficient to cover them, are subjected to slow ebulli¬ 
tion. The fat is skimmed off, the liquor is reduced by 
evaporation to the consistency of syrup, and is then mixed 
with wheat flour, rolled out to the thickness of ordinary 
ship-biscuit, and cut, baked, and dried in the same manner 
as common biscuits. One pound of meat biscuit contains 
about one half pound of flour and the soluble part of five 
pounds of meat. It is used in the form of soup, which is 
made by boiling the biscuit in twenty times its weight of 
water for half an hour. (See Pemmican.) 

Biscuit, in pottery, is applied to porcelain and earthen¬ 
ware after it has been hardened in the fire, and before it has 
received the glaze. In this state it is porous and perme¬ 
able to water. Biscuit in sculpture is a species of porce¬ 
lain, of which groups and figures in miniature are formed, 
which are twice passed through the furnace or oven. 

Bish Areen', a name given to several nomadic tribes 
who live in the desert between the Red Sea and the valley 
of the Nile. Their most valuable possessions are camels, 
horses, sheep, and goats. They have no firearms, but are 
armed with bows and arrows, and are addicted to robbery. 
They profess the Mohammedan religion. One tribe of 
Bishareen is the largest Arab tribe of Nubia. Like all the 
Arabs of Upper Egypt, they pay taxes to the khedive. 

Bish'op [Or. inia-Kono s (i. e. “overseer”); Lat. epis'- 
copu8; Fr. eveque; Ger. Bish'of; Dutch, bis'cop’], the name 
applied to an ecclesiastic of the highest rank in the Chris¬ 
tian Church—all archbishops, patriarchs, and the pope him¬ 
self belonging to the order of bishops. In many Protestant 
denominations the order of bishops is held to be identical 
with that of presbyters or elders; and in such sects these 
names are used in preference to that of bishop. Other 
churches claim for their bishops, by direct succession, an 
authority derived from the twelve apostles. The principal 
churches recognizing the superior rank of bishops are the 
Greek, the Roman Catholic, the Armenian, Coptic, Abys¬ 
sinian, Nestorian, and Jacobite, the various parts of the 
Anglican, the Moravian, the Mormon, the Catholic Apos¬ 
tolic (Irvingite), and a part of the Lutheran churches. The 
Methodist Episcopal churches and some others give their 
bishops a superiority of office, but not of order. In the 
Roman Catholic and Anglican churches bishops have the 
title of “right reverend.” In the former, bishops are of 
six classes: 1st, the pope; 2d, patriarchs; 3d, primates, 
who are archbishops of the principal sees of some countries; 
4th, metropolitans, who are bishops of the large cities, and 
have a certain authority over smaller sees; 5th, simple 
bishops; 6th, inferior bishops, as episcopi vacui, bishops 
without cures; bishops in partibus infidelium, who are titu¬ 
lar bishops, either without office or coadjutors to diocesan 
bishops. The assistants of metropolitans are called suffra¬ 
gans, but the bishops under a metropolitan are also termed 
his suffragans. The insignia of bishops in the Greek and 
Roman Catholic churches are the ring, staff, mitre, gloves, 
pallium (now worn only by superior bishops), and pectoral. 
In Great Britain and its dependencies bishops are called 
lord bishops ; and all English bishops, except the bishop of 
Sodor and Man, and the junior bishop in England proper, 
have votes in the House of Lords. (See \ icar Apostolic.) 

Bishop, a township of Effingham co.. Ill. Pop. 504. 

Bishop (Anna), born in London in 1814, was the 
daughter of Mr. Riviere, an artist. In 1831 she married 
Sir II. R. Bishop. Her debut was made in 1837. She has 
32 


won the highest distinction as a singer, both in classical 
music and modern opera. Her second husband is Mr. M. 
Schultz of New York, whom she married in 1858. 

Bishop (Sir Henry Rowley), Mus. Dr., an eminent 
English composer of music, born in London in 1780. He 
produced numerous popular operas, which are commended 
for their long flowing melodies and animated style. Among 
them are “Guy Mannering,” “Maid Marian,” “Native 
Land,” and “The Virgin of the Sun.” His glees are very 
fine. He was knighted in 1842, and was appointed profes¬ 
sor of music in the University of Oxford in 1848. Died 
April 30, 1855. His second wife was Anna Bishop, noticed ., 
above. 

Bishop Creek, a township of Inyo co., Cal. Pop. 624. 

Bish'op’s Auckland, an English market-town, 
county of Durham, 10 miles S. W. of Durham. It is well 
built and growing. The fine large castle of the bishop of 
Durham is here. Pop. 6480. 

Bish'op’s Stort'ford, a town of England, in Hert¬ 
fordshire, on the river Stort, 32 miles by rail N. N. E. of 
London. It is also connected by rail with Cambridge and 
Colchester. It has a corn and malt trade. In Saxon times 
it was owned by the bishop of London. Pop. 5280. 

Bish'opville, a post-township of Sumter co., S. C. 
Pop. 1701. 

Bis'inarck-Schonhau'sen, von (Karl Otto), 
Prince, a celebrated Prussian statesman, born at Schon- 
hausen on the 1st of April, 1815. He was educated at the 
universities of Gottingen and Berlin. After he had studied 
law, he resided for some years on his paternal estate in 
Pomerania, and married Johanna von Putkammer in 1847. 
lie was chosen the same year a member of the united Diet 
or parliament, in which he distinguished himself as a 
Junker and an advocate of ultra-royalist principles. In 
1851 he began his diplomatic career as Prussian secretary 
of legation at the Federal Diet in Frankfort. Here he 
manifested his hostility to Austria, and his determination 
to aggrandize the Prussian monarchy. He was sent to 
Vienna in 1852. In 1857 he had a conference with Napo¬ 
leon III. in Paris. He was sent as ambassador to St. 
Petersburg in 1859. In a letter dated St. Petersburg, May 
12, 1859, he says: “I see in our position in the Diet a de¬ 
fect of Prussia which we shall have sooner or later to heal 
ferro et igni” (with iron and fire). He had acquired the 
confidence of the king, who sent him early in 1862 on a 
mission to Paris, and in the autumn of that year he was 
appointed minister of foreign affairs and prime minister. 
His reactionary policy being resisted with success by the 
liberals, he closed or dissolved the chamber in Oct., 1862, 
and announced that he would enforce his measures without 
the sanction of the deputies. He rendered himself very 
unpopular, especially with the party of progress and the 
friends of constitutional government. Austria and Prussia 
co-operated in the spoliation of Denmark and the conquest 
of Sleswick and Holstein in 1864. 

The rivalry of Austria and Prussia was for a long time 
a great obstacle to the reunion or reconstruction of Ger¬ 
many as a nation. Bismarck adopted the axiom that Aus¬ 
tria must be excluded from the German federation, and that 
a new union of German states must be formed under the 
leadership of Prussia. Both of these rivals prepared for 
war, and as Austria was supported by a majority of the 
Federal Diet, Prussia seceded from the confederation and 
appealed to arms in June, 1866. The Prussian armies, as¬ 
suming the offensive, marched rapidly into Bohemia, and 
defeated the Austrians at the decisive battle of Sadowa, 
July 3, 1866. The war was ended by a treaty signed in 
August of that year, by which Austria was excluded from 
the German federation. Among the results of this victory 
was the annexation of Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Holstein, 
and other states to Prussia, and the formation of the North 
German Confederation, including all the states N. of the 
river Maine. Bismarck negotiated in 1866 secret treaties 
of alliance with Bavaria, Baden, and Wiirtemberg, which 
powers agreed that the king of Prussia should command 
their armies in time of war. The great and sudden increaso 
in the power of Prussia which followed the victory at Sa¬ 
dowa is ascribed chiefly to the energy and diplomatic genius 
of Bismarck, who was appointed chancellor of the North 
German Confederation in 1867. 

The prestige of Napoleon was much impaired by the 
great step which had been made in 1866 towards the unity 
of Germany, and the rise of a new military power so alarm¬ 
ing to the French. It is generally admitted that Napoleon 
III. was not an equal match for Bismarck in the diplomatic 
intrigues and contests that ensued after the war ol 1866. 

The “ Edinburgh Review ” (Oct., 1869) has the following 
estimate of Bismarck: “ We cannot consider him areally 
great statesman, though he has certainly gifts of the high- 










498 


BISMARK—BISTIIITZ 


cst order. He is a first-rate diplomatist and negotiator. 
No man can captivate more adroitly those he wants to win; 
nobody knows better to strike at the right moment, or to 
wait when the tide is running in his favor. His personal 
courage is great, physically as well as morally; he shrinks 
from nothing conducive to his end. He is not naturally 
61oquent, but his speeches are generally impressive and full 
of terse argument. He is a capital companion in society— 
witty, genial, sparkling in his conversation. . . . But by 
the side of these virtues the darker shades are not wanting. 
He can tell the very reverse of the truth with an amazing 
coolness; still oftener will he tell the plain truth when he 
knows he will not be believed.” 

In July, 1870, Napoleon declared war against Prussia, 
which was ready for the contest after a few days’ notice, 
and was aided by all the German states except those of 
Austria. Bismarck accompanied the German army which 
invaded France, and which gained a series of decisive vic¬ 
tories. He was present at the capture of Napoleon at Se¬ 
dan, and followed King William to the siege of Paris. At 
an interview with Jules Favre, the French minister of for¬ 
eign affairs, who made overtures of peace in September, 
Bismarck demanded the cession of Alsace and part of Lor¬ 
raine. He spoke contemptuously of the ministers of the 
new regime as “the gentlemen of the pavement.” After 
the surrender of Paris in Feb., 1871, he negotiated the 
treaty of peace by which France ceded to the victors Alsace 
and a part of Lorraine, including the important fortress 
of Metz, and agreed to pay in money an indemnity of five 
milliards of francs, equal to $1,000,000,000. The definitive 
treaty was signed at Frankfort in May. Bismarck received 
the title of prince and became chancellor of the new empire 
in 1871. In 1873 he resigned his position as prime min¬ 
ister of Prussia. By his recent course in opposition to the 
ultramontane and conservative party he has gained great 
popularity with the liberals. (See “Graf Bismarck, ein 
Lebensbild,” 1867; Bamberger, “Herr von Bismarck,” 
1868, also in French and English : “Fiirst Bismarck,” in 
vol. vii., part 1, 1871, of “Unsere ZeiL”) 

Revised by A. J. Schem. 

Bis'marK, a post-village of St. Francois co., Mo., on 
the St. Louis and Iron Mountain R. R., 76 miles S. of St. 
Louis. A branch railroad extends from this point 11 miles 
to Pilot Knob and to Piermont, 40 miles beyond. 

Bis'muth (symbol Bi; specific gravity about 9.8; 
equivalent 208), a brittle metal of a crystalline texture 
and of a yellowish-white color, occurs native in Germany, 
France, Cornwall, California, Texas, and Sweden. It is 
also found in combination with oxygen, sulphur, and arse¬ 
nic. Rich deposits of bismuth ore have recently been found 
in Utah. It fuses at about 500° F. When strongly heated 
it burns with a bluish-white flame, and is rapidly oxidized. 
This metal is not often used in the arts in a pure state, 
but its alloys are of considerable importance. Some of 
them are extremely fusible. A compound of eight parts 
of bismuth, five of lead, and three of tin melts in boiling 
water, and is called fusible metal. Other alloys are even 
more fusible. Bismuth is an ingredient of some kinds 
of stereotype metal. The most important of several 
compounds it forms with oxygen is the tri-oxide (Bi 2 Os), 
which is employed in the manufacture of porcelain 
as an agent for fixing the gilding and for increasing the 
fusibility of fluxes. The sub-nitrate is a tasteless, heavy 
powder of pure white color, called pearl white, pearl pow¬ 
der, blanc de fard, etc. This is used as a cosmetic. As a 
medicine it acts as a tonic and antispasmodic. Other 
medicinal preparations are the sub-carbonate, the sub¬ 
oxide, the citrate, the tannate, and the valerianate. 

Bis'muthine, a tri-sulphide of bismuth, is composed 
of 81.6 per cent, of bismuth and 18.4 of sulphur. It occurs 
in lodes and beds in the older rocks with ores of arsenic, 
copper, iron, and lead, either crystallized in acicular prisms 
or massive with a foliated structure. It is a rare mineral. 

Bi' son, a genus of animals of the order Ruminantia and 
family Bovidm, nearly al¬ 
lied to the ox, natives of 
Europe and North Amer¬ 
ica. The bisons have 
short horns, which are 
curved inward at the 
point. They are distin¬ 
guished from the ox by 
an additional pair of ribs 
(having fourteen pairs), 
and by long woolly or 
shaggy hair, which covers 
the neck and shoulders of 
the males. At least three Bison, 

species of fossil bison have been discovered. (For the 
European bison, see Aurochs.) The American bison ( Bi¬ 


son Americanus ) is known in the U. S. by the incorrect 
name of buffalo. This is the only species of the ox family 
indigenous to America, except the musk ox. It is similar 
to the European bison, but the fore parts are more shaggy, 
and it is a powerful and ferocious-looking animal, which 
no American beast can overcome or resist except the grizzly 
bear. The color of its hair is mostly brown. Vast herds of 
bisons roam over the plains and prairies between the Mis¬ 
sissippi River and the Rocky Mountains, feeding on grass 
and brushwood. They are generally inoffensive, and will 
not attack men, but prefer to run rather than to fight. 
During their migration they move in enormous herds, 
which are innumerable and irresistible. Great numbers 
of them are killed by Indians, who pursue them on horse¬ 
back and subsist on their flesh. Their hides are also valu¬ 
able, and under the name of buffalo robes are an important 
article of commerce. The flesh of the cows is highly es¬ 
teemed, and is similar to beef, being very juicy and savory. 
The bisons are swift in running, and have so keen a sense 
of smell that the hunter cannot easily approach near 
enough to shoot them. The Indians sometimes circumvent 
them by setting fire to the prairie grass on several sides, 
and thus driving them in confusion towards a central po¬ 
sition. They also drive them over precipices in large 
herds, the momentum of which is such that the leaders 
cannot stop or retreat, being forced forward by the mass 
behind them. The chase of bisons is attended with some 
danger, as they sometimes turn upon an assailant, who is 
liable to be trampled under the feet of the herd. Numerous 
tribes of aborigines are mainly dependent on the bison for 
their food and clothing. Their skins, which are covered 
with soft hair or fur, are much used for blankets, and their 
flesh and fat are converted into pemmican, the favorite food 
of the fur-hunters and voyageurs of North America. The 
bison differs from the true buffaloes in having a hump upon 
the back, and in the absence of the dewlap, which is small 
in the buffaloes. The buffaloes have cavities in their horns 
communicating with the nasal passages—the bison has not; 
the horns turn outward in the true buffaloes, and inward 
in the bisons. (See Buffalo.) 

Revised by C. W. Greene. 

Bi ssa'gos, or Bijoo'ja Islands, a group of numer¬ 
ous small volcanic islands in the Atlantic, near the W. 
coast of Africa, between lat. 10° and 12° N., and between 
Ion. 15° and 17° W. They have several good ports. Some 
of them are densely peopled with a savage negro race who 
cultivate maize, bananas, etc., and raise cattle. Bissao, 
an island of the above group, is a settlement of Portuguese, 
who formerly traded in slaves, and who export hides, wax, 
and rice; it has about 8000 inhabitants. 

B is'sell (William II.), M. D., born in Cooperstown, 
N. Y., April 1, 1811, removed to Illinois in 1837. He 
practised law for several years, served as a colonel in the 
Mexican war (1846-47), and was elected a member of Con¬ 
gress by the Democrats in 1848, and served six years. In 
1856 he was chosen governor of Illinois by the Republi¬ 
cans. Died Mar. 18, 1860. 

Bissex'tile [Lat. bissextilis, from bis, “twice,” and 
sextilis, “sixth”], called in English l»eai>-Year, a name 
given to the year which contains 366 days. In the Julian 
calendar the length of the year was fixed at 3651 days, 
about 11 minutes more than the actual length. In order 
that the year should always begin with the beginning of a 
day, it was directed that every fourth year should contain 
366 days, and the other years 365. The additional day 
was given to February, and was inserted next after the 
24th, which the Romans called Sexto Kalendas Martii. 
This was reckoned twice, and the repeated day was Bis 
Sexto Kalendas ; hence the name bissextile. 

Bistineau, bis'te-no', a lake in the N. W. part of Louis¬ 
iana, forms the boundary between Bienville and Bossier 
parishes. It is about 25 miles long, and has a mean width 
of nearly 2 miles. Its water is discharged through a short 
outlet into Red River. It is navigable by steamboats. 

Bis'tort ( Polygonum Bistorta ), a perennial herbaceous 
plant of the order Polygonacese, is a native of Europe and 
Asia. It bears flowers in a dense terminal spike. The 
whole plant is astringent, containing much tannin. The 
tortuous root is one of the most powerful vegetable as¬ 
tringents, and is used both internally and externally. 

Bis'tre, or Bis'ter, a pigment of a warm brown color 
or reddish brown, used by painters in water-colors. It is 
prepared from the soot of wood, especially the beech. 

Bistric'za, a town of Austria, in Croatia, 14 miles N. 
E. of Agram. Pop. in 1869, 6117. 

Bis'tritz, a fortified town of Transylvania, is situated 
in a beautiful valley on the Bistritz River, 52 miles N. E. 
of Klausenburg. It has two monasteries, a gymnasium, 
and several large cattle-fairs every year. Near it are the 



T 

















BIT—BITUMEN. 


499 


ruins of an ancient castle, the former residence of the 
family of Iluniades. Pop. in 1869, 7212. 

Bit, in ships, is a frame composed of two short but 
strong vertical timbers fixed upon the deck in the fore part 
of the vessel. Its main purpose is for fastening the cable 
when the ship rides at anchor, and for “leading” the prin¬ 
cipal ropes of the rigging. To “bit the cable” is to fasten 
it round the bit. Various kinds are called “ riding-bits,” 
“paul-bits,” “jeer-bits,” “topsail-sheet-bits,” etc. To re¬ 
sist strains, the bits are strongly bolted to the beams that 
support the deck. 

Bitsch [Fr. Bitche; Lat. Bicina], a small fortified town 
of Lorraine, in a pass of the Vosges, about 36 miles N. N. 
W. of Strasburg and 64 miles E. of Metz. Here is a cit¬ 
adel on a steep isolated rock that is nearly impregnable. It 
was in the French department of Moselle until 1870, when 
possession was taken of it by the Germans at the general 
cession of the country; for, in spite of a long siege and 
bombardment, it was not surrendered. Pop. in 1866, 2740. 

Bit’hoor', or Bittoor, a town of India, in the North¬ 
western Provinces, and on the right bank of the Ganges, 
about 12 miles N. W. of Cawnpore. It has numerous pago¬ 
das, and is visited by multitudes of pilgrims. During the 
mutiny of 1857 it was a stronghold of Nana Sahib, and was 
taken by Gen. Havelock in Aug., 1857. Pop. about 8000. 

Bithyn' ia, an ancient country of Asia Minor, was 
bounded on the N. by the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea), on 
the E. by Paphlagonia, on the S. by Galatia and Phrygia, 
and on the W. by the Propontis (Sea of Marmora), which 
separated it from Europe. The chief towns were Nicomedia, 
Chalcedon, Nicrna, Prusa, and Heraclea. Bithynia was 
annexed to the Persian empire in 543 B. C., and afterwards 
became an independent kingdom. Nicomcdcs I. began to 
reign over it in 278 B. C., and died in 246. Prusias II. 
was king of Bithynia in the time of Hannibal, who sought 
refuge at his court. In 74 B. C., Bithynia became a prov¬ 
ince of the Roman empire. Nicomedia was for a long 
time the capital of the kingdom. In 1298 the Turks con¬ 
quered the country, and in 1328 made Prusa the capital 
of their whole empire. 

Bit'lis, Bctlis, or Bedlis, a town of Asiatic Turkey, 
60 miles W. S. W. of Van. It is built in a wide ravine 
between limestone ridges or hills which rise about 2000 
feet higher than the town. It contains three mosques, 
several convents, and an ancient castle, and has manufac¬ 
tures of firearms, and cotton cloths of a bright-red dye. 
Pop. from 10,000 to 12,000, of which about one-third are 
Armenians. The Persians defeated the army of Solyman 
the Magnificent near Bitlis in 1554. 

Biton'to (anc. Butuntum or Bituntum), a town of Italy, 
in the province of Bari, 11 miles W. of Bari. It is well 
built, and has a fine cathedral and several monasteries. 
Good wine is made in the vicinity. The Spaniards gained 
a decisive victory over the Austrians here May 25, 1734. 
Pop. in 1872, 24,978. 

Bitter Almond Oil. See Almonds, Oil of. 

Bitter Creek, a station on the Union Pacific R. R., 
in Sweetwater co., Wy., 785 miles W. of Omaha. The 
railroad company has repair-shops at this point. Remark¬ 
ably imposing scenery abounds in the neighborhood. P. 48. 

Bit/terfeld, a town of Prussia, in the province of 
Saxony, on the Mulde River, 20 miles by rail N. of Leipsic. 
It is on the railway from Berlin to Leipsic, with branches 
to Halle and other places. It has important manufactures 
of cloth, iron, machines, etc. Pop. in 1870, 4972. 

Bitter King ( Soulaurea amara), a shrub or small tree 
of the order Polygalacem, derives its name from its intense 
bitterness. It is a native of the East Indian Islands, has 
large oval leaves and axillary racemes of regular flowers. 
It is used as a remedy for fevers and other diseases. 

Bit/tern ( Arden or Botaurus ), a bird of the order Gral- 
latores or waders, is regarded 
by some naturalists as a spe¬ 
cies of heron (Ardea). It has 
a long, straight, and sharp 
bill, long legs, and a long 
neck. The neck is furnished 
with a loose plumage or 
fringe of feathers which it can 
erect at pleasure. This hand¬ 
some bird frequents marshy 
fens and reedy shores of rivers 
and lakes, where it lies hid 
during the day, and feeds by 
night on frogs, fish, etc. The 
Ardea stellaris (common bit¬ 
tern of England) is widely dif- Bittern, 

fused in Europe, Asia, and 

Africa. It utters a peculiar hollow and booming sound, 


which is noticed in Goldsmith’s line, “ The hollow-sound¬ 
ing bittern guards its nest.” When assailed it defends 
itself bravely with its sharp bill, which is about four inches 
long. In the U. S. are found two bitterns similar in habits 
to the Ardea stellaris —viz. Botaurus minor (“bittern” or 
“bog bull”) and Ardea exilia (“least bittern”). 

Bittern, the mother-liquid remaining after the removal 
of common salt from brines which have been partially evapo¬ 
rated. The bitter taste is due to the magnesium salts pres¬ 
ent. Sea-water and many salt-wells yield a bittern whicL 
is valuable in the production of Epsom salts (sulphate of 
magnesia), and especially of bromine. 

Bitter Principle, a term applied to a great variety 
of bitter substances of vegetable origin, most of which are 
alkaloids or glucosides. Welter applies this name to car- 
bazotic or picric acid, a crystallizable bitter substance 
composed of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, obtained by 
the action of nitric acid on indigo, etc. 

Bitter Root River of Montana Territory rises in the 
Rocky Mountains, flows northward, and enters Clark’s 
River in Missoula co. Length, estimated at 110 miles. 
Gold is found near it. 

Bit'ters, the name applied to certain medicines, simple 
or compound, chiefly of vegetable origin, characterized by 
a bitter taste, and for the most part having tonic virtues. 
The simple bitter medicines are aromatic, if they have a 
fragrant odor; pare, if bitterness is their principal charac¬ 
teristic to the taste; and styp>tic, if they have an astringent 
effect upon the tongue. “ Bitters,” as popularly used, are 
generally compounds of dilute alcohol with various bitter 
drugs, as aloes if a cathartic effect be desired; if a tonic 
effect is sought, the bitters used are calisaya bark, gentian, 
quassia, columbo, and others. An aromatic is often added. 

Bitter Spar, a name given to an easily cleavable va¬ 
riety of Dolomite (which see). It usually occurs in obtuse 
rhombohedrons, and consists of about 55 per cent, of car¬ 
bonate of lime and 45 of carbonate of magnesia. Fine 
transparent crystals of it are found at Gap in France and 
Traversella in Piedmont. 

Bitter-Sweet, or Woody Nightshade ( Solanum 
Dulcamara), a perennial plant with a shrubby stem, nearly 
allied to the potato, is a native of Europe and Asia, and is 
naturalized in the U. S. It has ovate, heart-shaped leaves, 
the upper ones halberd-shaped or with two ear-like lobes 
at the base, and purple flowers. The fruit is a poisonous 
red berry. The stems or twigs gathered in autumn are 
sometimes used in medicine in chorea and some cutaneous 
disorders. 

The name bitter-sweet is frequently given in this country 
to a climbing woody vine, the Celastrus scandens, of the 
natural order Celastracem, which grows wild in the North¬ 
ern and Atlantic States. This vine is also called wax-work 
and staff tree. It has been used in medicine, and is pop¬ 
ularly believed to have great virtues as an alterative. 

Bitter Wood, a name given to several trees and shrubs 
of the genus Xylopia and the order Anonaceae, natives of 
Brazil and the West Indies. They are remarkable for the 
bitterness of their wood. The fruit of Xylopia sericea is 
aromatic and pungent like pepper. The term is also ap¬ 
plied to the Picrsena excelsa and Quassia excclsa, the wood 
of which is used in medicine as a tonic. (See Quassia.) 

Bitii'men [perhaps from the Gr. nlrvs, a “pitch-pine 
tree”]. This term applies to those mineral substances, 
both solid and liquid, of an oily or resinous nature, com¬ 
posed principally of hydrogen and carbon, sometimes 
united with oxygen, for which the general formula is 
n(C*HiQ + ?w(O'ih/0 z '). In general terms, therefore, the 
bitumens are mixtures in sundry proportions of many sim¬ 
ple carbonated hydrogens, accompanied in the solid and 
viscous varieties by many oxygenated carburets of hy¬ 
drogen. 

In general, the whole series of bitumens arrange them¬ 
selves between two extremes, represented by pit-coal and 


ihtha as types, as follows : 


Pit-coal. 


Naphtha. 

Carbon. 

.. 89.31 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

.. 4.92 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen and azote... 

... 5.77 

109.00 



Bitumen is employed as the binding substance in a va¬ 
riety of bituminous mastics and cements, which, though 
principally used as a surface-coating for timber to protect 
it from decay, and for roofs, arches, walls, area and cellar 
floors, etc., to render them watertight, is also quite often 
employed in masonry constructions, both as a matnx tor 
concrete and as a cement between bricks and stone, instea 
of lime and calcareous cements. It is also used extensn o y 

for street and other pavements, and in some ot its terms 

for fuel and for making illuminating gas and varnish. 


























500 


BITUMEN. 


A knowledge of bitumen dates back to a remote period, 
but its extensive and varied application in the builder’s art 
is of quite recent origin. It is found in numerous localities 
and in a variety of forms, principally in the secondary, terti¬ 
ary, and alluvial formations, seldom in the primitive or older 
strata. The several varieties pass into each other, from 
naphtha, the most fluid, to petroleum and mineral tar, which 
are less so, thence to maltha, which is more or less cohesive, 
to asphaltum and elastic bitumen, which are solid. They 
are insoluble in water or alcohol, but combine with the 
fixed and essential oils. They are most commonly soluble 
in ether, and generally the more solid varieties are soluble, 
to a greater or less extent, in those that are more fluid. 

Naphtha is a carburet of hydrogen (H 5 C 6 ), is fluid and 
transparent, exhales a strong odor, burns on the approach 
of a lighted taper, and will unite with pure ammonia and 
the fluid caustic alkalies. The principal use of naphtha 
as an ingredient of cements and mastics is its power of dis¬ 
solving the more solid bitumens. It also possesses the 
remarkable property of dissolving india-rubber, which 
gelatinizes when digested in it with gentle heat, and in 
this pulpy state is used to render fabrics waterproof. 
Naphtha is found near Baku, on the western shore of the 
Caspian Sea, and various parts of Persia; also at Monte 
Cain, near Piacenza in Italy, and near Amiano in the 
duchy of Parma. It is also found in Calabria, in Sicily, 
and in America. 

Petroleum is less limpid than naphtha, is unctuous to 
the touch, blackish or brownish in color, more or less trans- 
lucid, has a strong odor and a pungent, acrid taste, and is 
very inflammable, though less so than naphtha. When 
warm it is as fluid as common tar, but at the freezing-point 
of water it becomes very viscid. It is much more abundant 
than naphtha, being found in the secondary rocks, particu¬ 
larly in the coal-strata and in the vicinity of beds of coal. 
It rises in a spring on the base of Mount Vesuvius, and is 
found in a stream at Gobian, France. At Beckelbronn in 
Alsace it is found mixed with about 10 per cent, of sand, 
from which it is extracted by boiling in water. It is 
viscous, of a brown color, and is much used as a lubricator 
for machinery and carriage axles. At Amiano, Italy, it is 
extracted from a compact, greenish clay, and near Modena 
it is found on the surface of certain springs. In Transyl¬ 
vania it occurs in most of the salt-mines. The most re¬ 
markable and abundant sources of petroleum are found in 
the U. S., in the vicinity of the coal-beds of Pennsylvania, 
West Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky, w r here it is procured 
by means of artesian wells, and gives employment to im¬ 
mense capital. The aggregate yield of the oil-wells of 
Pennsylvania alone has reached as high as 18,000 barrels 
per day. 

Petroleum is a more or less perfect solvent of the more 
solid bitumens, and when rectified will dissolve india-rub¬ 
ber ; and it is in this way that it is useful for cements and 
mastics. The residuum of refined petroleum will dissolve 
solid asphaltum. 

The viscous bitumens generally, when submitted to dis¬ 
tillation, yield a more or less pale-yellow, oily liquid, called 
by Boussingault petrolene , because it is an essential in¬ 
gredient of petroleum. When pure, this oil, light yellow 
in color, has a bituminous odor, little taste, boils at 536° 
F., yielding a vapor of the density of 9.415. It is there¬ 
fore isomeric with the essential oils of lemon and turpen¬ 
tine. Petroleum at 69^° F. has a specific gravity of .891, 
and contains 1 equivalent of hydrogen and 1 of carbon, 
and dissolves sparingly in alcohol. Its composition by 
analysis is— 

Carbon. 88. == 1 equivalent. 

Hydrogen. 12. = 1 equivalent. 

Too. 

If the petroleum of Beckelbronn and other similar va¬ 
rieties be heated in an oil-bath at a temperature of 482° 
F., the petrolene is separated and passes otf as vapor, and 
there remains a brilliantly black body, heavier than water, 
with a conchoidal fracture, and which burns like the resins 
in general, leaving an abundant coke. As this body pos¬ 
sesses the character of asphaltum, and forms an essential 
part of that bitumen, it is called asphaltene. It is oxidized 
petroleum, containing by analysis— 

Carbon. 75. 

Hydrogen. 9.9 

Oxygen. 15.1 


100.00 


Mineral tar is regarded as asphaltum containing a larger 
proportion of bituminous oil than the solid asphaltum. It 
is more viscid than petroleum, and of a glossy, black color. 
The principal sources of the mineral tar of commerce are, 
in France, at Bastenne (Landes) and at Pyrimont-Seyssel 
(Ain), and in Switzerland at Val-de-Travers in the canton 
of Neufchatel, where it is found in the Jurassic limestone 


formation. At Bastenne, and also at Gaujac, the bitumen 
flows out from several openings or springs mixed with 
water, and is also found richly impregnating a quartzy 
sandstone, from which it is separated by the process of 
boiling. The Bastenne mines are nearly exhausted. At 
Seyssel the bitumen is found impregnating both sandstones 
and limestones. It is procured from the sandstone (called 
molasse) by boiling in water. The tar rises to the surface 
or adheres to the sides of the vessels in brown lumps, or in 
a semi-transparent brownish coating. Thus purified it is 
called graisse. A specimen of this sandstone, considerably 
richer than the average, gave by analysis— 

I 6 } bitumen. io.go 

Quartzy grains. 69.00 

Calcareous grains. 20.40 

100.00 

Taken in bulk, the product of the mine is much less rich 
than this specimen. 

The bituminous limestone called asphalt rock is found 
both at Seyssel and at Val-de-Travers. That from Seyssel 
contains on an average about 90 per cent, of carbonate of 
lime and 10 per cent, of bitumen. The Val-de-Travers 
asphaltic rock is richer, containing about 80 per cent, of 
carbonate of lime and 20 per cent, of bitumen. The stone 
is massive, of irregular fracture, and of a liver-brown color. 
Though easily scratched with the finger nail, it is difficult 
to break up with a hammer, showing malleable properties 
under the blows. Its specific gravity is 2.114, water being 
1000. 

Asphaltum is a dry and solid variety of bitumen, usually 
very brittle, and at ordinary temperatures too hard to be 
easily impressed with the finger nail. It is opaque, smooth, 
slightly translucent at the edges, of black or brownish color, 
and has little odor unless rubbed or heated. It is very in¬ 
flammable, melts easily, and if pure burns with little or no 
residue. It is soluble in alcohol, and not readily so in the 
fixed and essential oils or ether, but naphtha dissolves one- 
fifth of its weight of asphaltum at ordinary temperatures, 
and forms a saturated solution of a deep-black color. 

Asphaltum is found floating in the Dead Sea, and in 
veins with calcareous spar and brown iron ore at Karms- 
dorf in Saxony. In Cornwall it occurs with sulphurets of 
lead and copper; near Syrsan on the Wolga in compact 
limestone; in embedded veins in the secondary limestone 
in Fifeshire; in clay iron-stone at East Lothian ; in veins 
in Shropshire, England; and in the Hartz Mountains, Ger¬ 
many, along with sparry iron, heavy spar, and brown iron 
ore. It is also found in the Ural and Caucasus Mountains. 
It is found in many places in Mexico, and abounds in the 
islands of Barbadoes and Trinidad. In Trinidad there is 
a remarkable lake about three miles in circuit, covered 
almost entirely with a stratum of asphaltum, traversed by 
fissures and crevices filled with water. The color is ashy 
or gray, approaching to black, and in portions of the lake 
quite black. Near the shore it is generally hard, giving a 
dull conchoidal fracture. Towards the centre it is softer, 
and at some points fluid petroleum is formed, which gradu¬ 
ally indurates on exposure to the air. A gentle heat ren¬ 
ders the Trinidad asphaltum ductile, but it is quite brittle 
at the freezing-point of water. It is employed on the island 
in making roads and in paving courtyard areas, etc., and 
for covering roofs, terraces, etc. Within the last few years 
it has been imported into the U. S. to a considerable ex¬ 
tent, where it is used in the fabrication of various road and 
roof coverings, and for other kindx-ed purposes. The prod¬ 
ucts of its distillation are inflammable gas resembling that 
obtained from pit-coal, a species of bituminous oil, a tarry 
substance resembling coal-tar, and a substance resembling 
coke. 

The other forms of solid bitumen (cohesive mineral 
pitch, elastic bitumen, retinite or retin asphaltum, fossil 
copal, and hatchetine or mineral adipocere) have little or 
no useful application in the industrial arts, and require no 
extended notice. The elastic bitumen, known also as min¬ 
eral caoutchouc, possesses the property, like india-rubber, 
of effacing pencil-marks from paper, but is little used for 
that purpose, as it soils the paper. 

The bitumen employed by the ancient Babylonians was 
a semi-fluid variety, obtained from the fountains of Is (the 
modern Hit), on the right bank of the Euphrates. These 
thermal fountains still flow copiously, yielding large quan¬ 
tities of petroleum, mixed with intensely saline sulphu¬ 
reous water. It was used to unite, the sun-dried bricks 
with which the Babylonians constructed their public and 
private buildings, and the state in which the ruins of many 
colossal structures are still found indicates the imperishable 
character of the cement used. It was probably applied in 
the plastic state, and indurated gradually by the evapora¬ 
tion, and absorption of a portion of the bituminous oils. 

In the fabrication of bituminous mastics and cements the 



































BITUMINOUS COAL—BIVALVE. 501 

forms of bitumen employed are principally petroleum, min¬ 
eral tar, asphaltum, and, to a limited extent, naphtha. Of 
petroleum, it is the residuum only (known as “still bot¬ 
toms”), obtained in the refining process, that is used for 
this purpose. This is a suitable solvent for solid asphal¬ 
tum. 

Bituminous mastic (sometimes called asphaltic mastic 
or asphaltic cement) is generally composed of mineral tar 
and some calcareous, silicious, or earthy substances in pow¬ 
der. Instead of the mineral tar, solid asphaltum, that has 
been softened by a liquid bitumen or other suitable solvent, 
may be used. The bituminous mastics of Seyssel and Val- 
de-Travers are generally made by mixing the bituminous 
limestones of these localities, previously pulverized, with a 
suitable proportion of the mineral tar extracted from the 
bituminous sandstone or molasse. Seven to eight per cent, 
of mineral tar will be required for the Seyssel mastic, while 
41 to 5 per cent, will answer for that of Val-de-Travers. 
The tar is first heated in cast- or wrought-iron boilers over 
a brisk fire, until the boiling liquid begins to emit a thin 
whitish vapor. The heat is then moderated, and main¬ 
tained at a uniform state, while the powdered stone is added 
gradually, care being taken to avoid lowering the tem¬ 
perature suddenly by adding too much at once. A yellow¬ 
ish or brownish vapor indicates a degree of heat calculated 
to scorch and injure the mastic. In such case the material 
should be stirred rapidly and the fire drawn or reduced. 
For convenience of transportation the mastic is moulded 
into blocks about twenty inches long, twelve inches wide, 
and five or six inches deep. When remelted for use it is 
necessary to add 2 to 3 per cent, of mineral tar, to compen¬ 
sate for loss of oil by evaporation in reheating. 

The bituminous limestone may be reduced to powder by 
either grinding or roasting. For grinding, the stone is first 
broken up into pieces not much larger than a hen’s egg, 
and is then passed through some suitable mill. The cast- 
iron mill, consisting of two horizontal iron plates, one re¬ 
volving eccentrically upon the face of the other, answers 
very well. Cold, dry weather is the best season for this 
operation, which should be conducted under cover. If the 
weather be too warm the stone is apt to cake. For roast¬ 
ing, the stone is first broken up as for grinding; the frag¬ 
ments are then gently heated in a closed iron vessel. They 
gradually lose their coherence, and are reduced to powder 
by stirring with an iron instrument. This process is not 
only less economical than grinding when large operations 
are carried on, but there is a loss of tar by evaporation, and 
there is also danger of injury by too high heat. 

Instead of the bituminous limestone, powdered limestone, 
marl, or chalk has sometimes been used with the mineral 
tar, giving very good results, the proportion of the tar be¬ 
ing of course increased to compensate for its absence in the 
powdered mineral. 

Trinidad Bituminous Mastic. —A good mastic may be 
made from the Trinidad asphaltum, provided a suitable 
solvent for it be employed. This asphaltum melts read¬ 
ily at a gentle heat, and is very brittle when cold. When 
mixed up, without a solvent, with any pulverized material, 
whether silicious, calcareous, or argillaceous, the mastic 
produced is not, as it should be, hard, firm, and in some 
degree malleable through the wide range of tempei'ature 
peculiar to the U. S. If the proportion of mineral ingre¬ 
dient be so much increased as to give a hard and firm mas¬ 
tic at 100° F., it will be quite brittle at the freezing-point 
of water; while, on the contrary, if the proportions be ad¬ 
justed with a view to firmness and tenacity in cold weath¬ 
er, it will be much too soft at a summer heat. The residuum 
produced in refining crude petroleum is so far a solvent for 
solid Trinidad asphaltum that when the two are thorough¬ 
ly mixed together by stirring in an iron boiler over a gen¬ 
tle heat, in the proportion, by weight, of 3 of residuum to 
71 or 8 of asphaltum, a mineral tar is produced much re¬ 
sembling that of Bastennes or Seyssel, and which, like the 
latter, may be employed for making mastic, in combination 
with the bituminous limestone or other mineral substance. 

The following formulas give a good mastic for covering 
pavements, cellars, areas, and arches, and for other similar 
purposes : 

(Solid Trinidad asphaltum. 21£ lbs.) o n ii „ 

1. < Residuum of refined petroleum. 8£ ‘ J 

(Powdered marl or other amorphous limestone._70 “ 

100 “ 

(Solid Trinidad asphaltum. 171 lbs .\ _ , ,, 

2. -< Residuum of refined petroleum. 6f ‘ J 

(Powdered amorphous limestone._76 “ 

100 “ 

From the trials that have been made there appears no 
reason to doubt that the Trinidad asphaltum, suitably soft¬ 
ened with some of the liquid bitumens, or with substances 
derived from them possessing the properties of a solvent, 
is quite as good as the natural mineral tar in the fabrioa- 

tion of mastics. But it must be conceded that nothing has 
yet been discovered which can replace, with entire satisfac¬ 
tion, the bituminous limestone of Seyssel and Val-dc-Travers. 

An amorphous carbonate of lime, and even well-slacked 
quicklime, have both been used with very good results; but 
in the natural asphaltic rock the calcareous matter is so in¬ 
timately and impalpably combined with the bitumen, re¬ 
sists so thoroughly the action of air and water, and even 
muriatic acid, and is so entirely free from moisture—prop¬ 
erties due perhaps to the vast pressure and intense heat 
under which the ingredients have been incorporated by na-* 
ture—that we are forced to attribute the excellence of this 
material to the existence of certain natural conditions which 
the most skilful artificial methods fail to reproduce. 

The North American Neufchatel Rock Paving Company 
use for their pavement and other coverings in the U. S. the 
Val-de-Travers asphalt rock, Trinidad bitumen, and “still 
bottoms ” or residuum of petroleum. They manufacture 
by the following processes : 

1. Mineral tar is produced by mixing together in an iron 
boiler, with constant stirring, at a temperature of 470° F., 

Trinidad asphaltum. 85 lbs. 

Still bottoms. 15 “ 

100 “ 

2. Bituminous mastic is produced by mixing together, at 

400° F., 

Pulverized Val-de-Travers asphalt rock.98£ lbs. 

Mineral tar (No. 1, as above). 11 “ 

3. The pavement covering for sidewalks, roadways for 
light traffic, areas, cellars, warehouses, and for similar 
purposes, is made by mixing together at 400° F. the 
following: 

Bituminous mastic (No. 2, as above).98£ lbs.) 1nft 

Mineral tar INo. 1, as above). l£ “ J 

Grits or pulverized limestone.35 “ 

This is laid one-half to three-quarters of an inch thick 
on a concrete foundation four and a half to six inches 
thick, and then rubbed down smooth with a dry mixture 
of hydraulic cement and fine sand. The thickness of the 
foundation should vary to suit the kind and quantity of 
traffic to which the pavement is to be subjected. This 
mixture (No. 3) is also suitable for covering roofs, arches, 
and for watersheds generally. For pavements subjected 
to traffic with heavy vehicles the covering should be Val-de- 
Travers asphalt rock alone, and the pavement is laid as 
follows: 1, prepare a concrete foundation seven to nine 
inches thick ; 2, pulverize the Val-de-Travers rock at a 
temperature of 260° F.; 3, spread it over the foundation 
with a rake, and ram it with red-hot rammers in a layer 
one and a half to two inches thick ; 4, smooth it off with a 
hot smoothing-iron ; 5, roll it with a heavy roller, to remove 
marks of rammer and compress it more solidly. 

Q. A. Gillmore, U. S. A. 

Bitu'minous Coal, a variety of coal which is valu¬ 
able for fuel and burns with a smoky flame. It is softer 
than anthracite, and ignites more easily, but is less durable 
in combustion. It is composed of carbon, with a small pro¬ 
portion of hydrogen. Bituminous coal-fields of great ex¬ 
tent occur in Western Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illi¬ 
nois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, etc. This sub¬ 
stance is also found in several parts of Europe, especially 
in Great Britain. It is extensively used in the manufac¬ 
ture of illuminating gas, and is burned as fuel in steam¬ 
boats, manufactories, etc. (See Coal, Coke, and Gas.) 

Bituminous Limestone, carbonate of lime impreg¬ 
nated with bituminous matter, derived from decayed veg¬ 
etables or from the decomposed remains of those animals 
the hard parts of which form a large portion of the rock, 
which is sometimes very extensive. Within a few miles of 
Chicago, Ill., it has been estimated by Prof. T. S. Hunt 
that the limestone rocks contain as much petroleum as the 
oil-wells of Pennsylvania yield in ten years. It is not, 
however, believed to be separable for use. (For the uses of 
this stone, see Bitumen, by Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, U.S. A.) 

Bituminous Shale, an indurated bed of clay, or a 
tough clayey substance which occurs in many coal-fields, 
and contains portions of carbon and volatile matter. These 
shales have a slaty fracture, are often repeated like other 
beds of clay, and occupy a definite position with regard to 
coal. Oil, gas, and paraffine are obtained from them by 
distillation. 

Bi'valve [from the Lat. bis, “ twice,” “double,” and 
valva , plu. valvse , “folding doors”], a term applied in 
conchology to a shell which consists of two concave calca¬ 
reous plates or valves joined together by a hinge and an 
elastic ligament, as the oyster. . 

Bivalve Shells, or Bivalves, are those coverings ot 
mollusks which consist of two concave plates or valves, 
united by a hinge. (See Conciiology.) A majority ot 
























BIVOUAC—BLACKBERRY. 


502 


recent bivalve shells belong to the acephalous or lamelli- 
branchiate Mollusca. There are also mollusks of the class 
Brachiopoda which possess bivalve shells. The structure 
and chemical composition of the shell, however, is dif¬ 
ferent in the two classes. A very large proportion of the 
bivalve shells of the older fossiliferous rocks belong to 
the class Brachiopoda. In the Brachiopoda one valve is 
ventral and the other dorsal; in the Lamellibranchiata 
both are lateral. 

Bivouac, biv'w&k [from the Ger. bei, "near,” and 
Wnche, “ watch ”], a French word signifying an encamp¬ 
ment of soldiers by night in the open air, without tents, 
or the system by which soldiers on a march, or in expecta¬ 
tion of a battle, remain all night in the open air, resting 
with their arms by their side and ready for action. This 
practice is said to have been common among the crusaders. 
The generals of the French republic or the First Empire 
introduced the plan of dispensing with the use of tents and 
passing the night en bivouac. The same system was adopted 
by the other great powers on the continent of Europe. In 
recent times it is common for soldiers on the march to use 
the tente d’abri or shelter-tent. 

Bix'in, the coloring principle of annotto, the paste ob¬ 
tained by bruising the seeds of Bixa Orellana. 

Bizer'ta, or Benzer'ta (anc. Hippo Zarytus), a 
fortified seaport of Tunis, and the most northern town of 
Africa, about 38 miles N. W. of Tunis. The port, which 
was formerly good, has been filled up, so that it will now 
admit only small vessels. It is surrounded by walls and 
defended by two castles, but is commanded by the adjacent 
heights. This place was fortified by Agathocles about 308 
B. C. Pop. about 10,000. 

Bjorne'borg, or Biornborg, a seaport of Finland, 
at the mouth of the Kumo, 115 miles S. of Vasa; lat. 61° 
29' N., Ion. 39° 23' E. It has various manufactures and 
a considerable trade. Pop. 7270. 

Bj orn'son (Bjornstjerne) was born Dec. 8, 1832, in a 
lonesome and dreary parsonage in North-western Norway, 
where his father was a minister. He was educated in the 
Latin school at Molde, from which he went to the Univer¬ 
sity of Christiania in 1851. But already in the next year 
he broke off his scientific education and commenced a 
literary life, in which there, as yet, have been no failures 
and only a few mistakes, while its beneficial consequences 
will reach far into the future, for with him begins the Nor¬ 
wegian Literature. (See that article.) His first book, 
published in 1856, was a little novel, “Synnove Solbakken,” 
descriptive of peasant life in Norway. It made a very 
deep impression. The plot wits simple, but at every move¬ 
ment it touched the deepest laws of life, and nowhere 
smacked of any narrow tendency. The characters were 
pure psychological developments, never marred by explana¬ 
tions or remarks from a merely individual moral stand¬ 
point. The style was the short, pithy sentence from the 
Saga, with all its power of signification, all its strength of 
passion, and all its sweetness of feeling. The effect of this 
book was truly wonderful, and the impression it made was 
both deepened and widened by the novels which followed, 
“Arne,” “ En glad gut,” “ Fiskerjenten,” etc. In spite of 
the great variety of characters and situations which they 
depict, they are all so singularly alike that in the reader’s 
mind they melt together into one book, into one picture of 
life in Norway; and so touching and charming is this pic¬ 
ture that more than one reader exclaimed in delight, “ I 
wish I had been born in Norway ! ” Alternating with the 
novels he wrote dramas, and in this field he experienced 
some opposition. When his first tragedy, “ Ilalte-IIulda,” 
was published in 1858, there were people who felt that a 
new dramatic genius had arisen, greater perhaps than any 
since the days of Shakspeare; but the great public was, 
and will always be, incapable of appreciating a drama by 
reading it only. Actual representation on the stage is 
necessary, and the Scandinavian theatres were, at first, 
singularly unwilling to try the new author. Moreover, 
the expressions are, in “ Halte-Hulda,” often forced and 
obscure. The young poet had not yet learnt to say unim¬ 
portant things in an unassuming manner, which alone can 
set off the important in due relief. His next drama, 
“ Kong Sverre,” was better in this respect, but it was not 
until he published his great tragedy, “Sigurd Slembe” 
(1862), that the public thoroughly felt the eminent great¬ 
ness of his dramatical powers. “Sigurd Slembe” is a 
grand conception, masterly executed; and when in 1866 
the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen represented his lovely 
little comedy, “The Newly Married,” and next year his 
tragedy, “ Marie Stuart,” the impression was irresistible. 
Meanwhile, he worked alternately as a stage-manager and 
as an editor, and in practical life he not only experienced 
hard opposition, but he deserved it. He has ideas, and 
they are both sound and vigorous, but they are unsupported 


by that experience or knowledge which alone can make 
ideas fit for actual life. He has enthusiasm and energy, 
but ho lacks that patience with actual circumstances, and 
that respect for other people’s opinions, which constitute 
true wisdom. In practical life he is apt to make every¬ 
thing a question of party, and liable to forget that the 
other party also may comprise honest people; and this 
circumstance has now and then caused some passing trou¬ 
bles in his life, otherwise so rich and happy and blessed in 
every respect. / Clemens Petersen. 

Bjbrn'stjer'na (Magnus Fredrik Ferdinand), Count, 
a Swedish general and author, born at Dresden Oct. 10, 
1779. He fought against the French in 1809-13, and ne¬ 
gotiated the treaty by which Sweden and Norway were 
united. He was ambassador at London for many years 
(1828-46). Among his works is “ The Theogony, Philos¬ 
ophy, and Cosmogony of the Hindoos” (1843). Died Oct., 
1847. 

Blacas (Pierre Louis Jean Casimir), Duke of, a 
French statesman, born at Aups, in the department of Var, 
Jan. 12, 1771, was a faithful adherent of the Bourbons. 
He negotiated the concordat of 1817, and was employed 
on various important embassies. He founded the Egyptian 
Museum in Paris, and became a member of the Institute. 
Died Nov. 17, 1839. 

Black [Lat. ni'ger], a term applied to things that ab¬ 
sorb all the rays of light. It is considered the privation 
or negation of color, and a symbol of evil, darkness, and 
mourning. In blazonry, black (sable) denotes constancy, 
wisdom, and prudence. Black dyes are produced by log¬ 
wood, catechu, galls, or other substance containing tannic 
acid, used with iron; or by various aniline compounds. 
Black pigments are usually carbonaceous. 

Black, a township of Posey co., Ind. Pop. 6291. It 
contains the town of Mount Vernon. 

Black (Jeremiah S.), an American jurist and Demo¬ 
cratic politician, born in Somerset co., Pa., Jan. 10, 1810, 
became a judge of the supreme court of Pennsylvania in 
1851, attorney-general in the Cabinet of Buchanan in 1857, 
and secretary of state in 1860. 

Black (Joseph), an eminent chemist of Scottish extrac¬ 
tion, was born at Bordeaux in 1728. He graduated as 
doctor of medicine at Edinburgh in 1754, and became pro¬ 
fessor of anatomy at Glasgow in 1756. His reputation is 
founded chiefly on the theory of latent heat, which he pro¬ 
pounded between 1759 and 1763. He obtained in 1766 the 
chair of chemistry in the University of Edinburgh, where 
he lectured for thirty years, and acquired great popularity. 
Died Nov. 26, 1799. His “Lectures on Chemistry” were 
published by Dr. Robison (2 vols. 4to, 1803). He was a 
friend of James Watt. 

Black (William), a Wesleyan divine, born in England 
in 1760, removed to Nova Scotia in 1775, and founded there 
the Wesleyan Church. He was subsequently general su¬ 
perintendent of the Wesleyan missions in British America. 
His purity of life and eminent services to his denomination 
have made him one of its most memorable characters. He 
died Sept. 8, 1834. 

Black Acts, the acts of the Scottish Parliaments passed 
between 1425 and 1586—so called because they were printed 
in the characters known as black letter. In English law¬ 
books the term “black act” is applied to the 9 Geo. I. c. 
22 (1722), because it was occasioned by the outrages com¬ 
mitted by persons whose faces were blackened. They de¬ 
stroyed the deer in Epping Forest and committed other 
offences. The act was repealed in 1827. 

Black Art. See Magic. 

Black-ball. In the elections of clubs and other asso¬ 
ciations a black ball is deposited in the ballot-box or urn 
by each person who votes in the negative, or votes against 
a candidate for admission. Those candidates who are thus 
rejected are said to be blackballed. 

Black Band, a variety of clay iron-stone or compact 
carbonate of iron, containing 25 or 30 per cent, of carbon¬ 
aceous matter. It occurs abundantly in the coal-fields of 
Scotland, and is the ore almost exclusively used for the 
production of iron in that country. It is not very rich, 
and does not yield iron ore of the first quality when smelted 
by itself, but it is easily reduced. Black band also occurs 
in the coal-measures of Ohio, and is extensively used for 
the production of iron. Many black bands are so filled 
with fossil bone and other phosphatic matter that they 
cannot be profitably wrought. 

Black Bass, a highly esteemed game fish of the lakes 
and rivers of the U. S., of which there are two or more spe¬ 
cies —Grystes nigricans and Grystes megastoma. The name 
is locally applied to various other fishes. 

Black'berry, the common name of several species of 
















BLACKBERRY—BLACK COCK. 


503 




logical academy, and a theatre. The principal business of 
the town is the manufacture of cotton stuffs, chiefly coarse 
calicoes and muslins, in which 10,000 persons or more are 
employed. Coal and lime are abundant in the vicinity. 
James Hargreaves, who invented the spinning-jenny in 
1767, was born here. Railways extend from this point in 
various directions. Blackburn sends two members to Par¬ 
liament. It has a public park which is 700 feet above the 
level of the sea. Pop. in 1871, 76,337. 

Blackburn (William Maxwell), D. D., born at Car-" 
lisle, Ind., in 1828, graduated at Hanover College, Ind., in 
1850, and studied theology at Princeton. He has been 
professor of biblical and ecclesiastical history in the Pres¬ 
byterian Theological Seminary at Chicago since 1868, and 
been for many years an active contributor to religious 
literature in church history and books for the young. He 
has also contributed largely to the “ Princeton ” and 
“American Presbyterian” Reviews. 

Black'burn’s, a township of Lauderdale co., 
Ala. Pop. 672. 

Black Buttes, a station of the Union Pacific 
R. R., in Sweetwater co., Wy., 794 miles from Omaha. 
Mines of excellent lignitic coal abound in this region, 
and are extensively wrought. Pop. in 1870, 18. 

Black Cap, Black Cap Warbler, or Fau« 
vette ( Curruca atracapilla), a bird of the family 
Sylviadae or warblers, is nearly allied to the night¬ 
ingale. It is regarded as the sweetest song-bird in 
Great Britain, except the nightingale, to which it is 
somewhat inferior in size. The back, wings, and tail 
are of an ash-brown color, the belly is white, and 
the top of the head is jet black (in the male). Its 
note is rich in tone, and has a great variety of sweet 
and gentle modulations. It is a summer bird of pas¬ 
sage in England, which it enters in early spring, and 
from which it migrates in September. It is highly 
prized as a cage-bird, not only for its song, but for 
its pleasant manners and temper. 

Black Cap is also the name applied to a species 
of raspberry (the Rubus occidentalis), of which sev¬ 
eral varieties have recently been introduced for cul¬ 
tivation into gardens in the U. S. 

Black Chalk, a variety of shale, containing a 
large proportion of carbon, is found in France, Spain, 
Scotland, Wales, etc. It is made into artists’ crayons 
and used for drawing, and is ground to powder for paint. 

Black Cock, Heath Fowl, or Black Grouse, 


Rubus, natives of the U. S. They are shrubby plants called 
brambles, armed with stout, curved prickles. The fruit 
(which is not a berry in the botanical sense, but a collec¬ 
tion of drupes) is edible and pleasant. The common or 
high blackberry (the Rubus villosus) has compound leaves, 
with leaflets ovate, pointed, and unequally serrate. Several 
valuable varieties have been extensively introduced into 
cultivation. Among these are the sorts known as the Dor¬ 
chester, the Lawton (or New Rochelle), the Ivittatinny, and 
the Wilson. A leading requisite for success in their man¬ 
agement is to keep the bushes “ pinched in” during sum¬ 
mer, so as to prevent a loose, straggling growth, and to give 
them a neat, small, compact shape, by which their produc¬ 
tiveness is greatly increased. The low blackberry, or dew¬ 
berry, is Rubus Canadensis. Similar fruits are common in 
Asia and Europe. 

Blackberry, a post-township of Kaneco., Ill. P.1173. 

Black'bird, or Merle, a popular name given in Eng¬ 


Black Grouse. 


The Ilusty Crow-Blackbird. 


land to the Tardus merula or Merida vulgaris, a species of 
thrush which abounds in Europe. In size it is interme¬ 
diate between the song-thrush or mavis and the 
missel-thrush. The plumage of the male is all 
deep black, but that of the female is brown. It 
has a powerful voice, and its song is more mel¬ 
low than that of the song-thrush, but inferior in 
compass and variety. The blackbird is often 
kept in cages, and is very susceptible of being 
trained. It feeds on worms, insects, and fruits, 
and frequents hedges, woods, and thickets. 

Quite distinct from this bird is the blackbird of 
the U. S. ( Quiscalus versicolor ), sometimes called 
“ crow blackbird ” or purple grakle. The “ rusty 
crow-blackbird” ( Quiscalus ferrugineus ) is a 
rather less common bird of the U. S. It is a 
great depredator of corn-fields. The swamps 
and meadows of the U. S. are frequented by the 
Agelaius Phoeniceus, or red-winged blackbird. 

It is gregarious, and feeds on insects and grain. 

Blackbird, a county in Nebraska, bounded 
on the E. by the Missouri River, which separates 
it from Iowa. Area, about 522 square miles. It 
is largely occupied by the reservation for the 
Omaha Indians. The surface is undulating; the 
soil is fertile. Pop. 31. 

Black BlulF, a township of Sumter co., Ala. 

Pop. 640. 

Black'brook, a post-village and township 
of Clinton co., N. Y. It contains extensive beds 
of iron ore, and has large manufactures of ex¬ 
cellent iron. Charcoal and lumber are also man¬ 
ufactured. Pop. of township, 3561. 

Black Brook, a post-township of Polk co., 

Wis. Pop. 323. 

Black'burn, a manufacturing town of Eng¬ 
land, in Lancashire, is situated in a barren dis¬ 
trict on a small stream called “ The Brook,” 24 
miles by rail N. N. W. of Manchester. It has 
a beautiful Gothic parish Church, a fine new ex¬ 
change, also in the Gothic style, and numerous 
chapels of the dissenters, a grammar school 
founded by Queen Elizabeth, a hospital, a theo¬ 












































504 BLACK CREEK—BLACK HAWK. 


(Tetrao tetrix), a bird of the order Rasores, is abundant 
in Scotland and the north of England. It also occurs in 
the mountains and marshy parts of the continent of Eu¬ 
rope, and abounds in Scandinavia and Russia. Its favor¬ 
ite haunts are moors, bogs, and morasses covered with rank 
herbage. The male, which weighs nearly four pounds, is 
of a shining bluish-black color, with a conspicuous white 
bar on the wings below the ends of the great wing-covers. 
The outer tail-feathers on each side are elongated and 
curved outward. The female is of a rust color, and is 
called the “ gray hen.” This species of grouse is grega¬ 
rious, but in winter the males and females form separate 
flocks. They build nests of very simple construction on 
the ground, and lay in each six or eight eggs, which are 
about two inches long. Their food consists of seeds, ber¬ 
ries, insects, and the young shoots of the pine, fir, and 
birch. Their flesh is highly esteemed for food. 

Black Creek, a township of Perry co., Miss. Pop. 492. 

Black Creek, a township of Shelby co., Mo. Pop. 1418. 

Black Creek, a township of Mercer co., 0. Pop. 1087. 

Black Creek, a township of Lexington co., S. C. Pop. 
474. 

Black Creek, a post-township of Luzerne co., Pa. 
Pop. 569. 

Black Creek, a township of New Kent co., Ya. P. 998. 

Black Creek, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. P. 528. 

Black Death. See Plague, by Stephen Smith, M. D. 

Black Duck ( Anas obscura), one of the best known 
and most highly prized of American wild ducks, breeds 
abundantly throughout the continent from Mexico to Lab¬ 
rador and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It might be 
readily domesticated. It is of a generally blackish-brown 
color, with bright tints about the bill, neck, wings, etc. 

Black Earth, a post-township of Dane co., Wis. It 
has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 966. 

Black'feet, a tribe of American Indians who infest 
the Territory of Montana and Wyoming on the E. side of 
the Rocky Mountains, and between the Yellowstone and 
the Missouri Rivers. They are divided into the true Black- 
feet, the Bloods, the Piegans, and the Small Robes. They 
were once a powerful and ferocious tribe, very hostile to 
the white people, and addicted to robbery. They are dis¬ 
tinct from the “ Blackfeet Sioux,” who belong to the Da¬ 
kota confederacy. The Blackfeet are also found in British 
America, and are of Algonquin stock. A small vocabulary 
of their language was published by George Catlin in the 
second volume of his “ Letters and Notes on the Manners, 
etc. of the North American Indians” (1841). 

Blacli'fish ( Centrolophus Moris), a fish of the family 
Scomberidae, is nearly allied to the Coryphenes, which are 
called dolphins. It is found in the Mediterranean, and on 


European Blackfish. 

the western coasts of Europe, but is not abundant any¬ 
where, at least in shallow water. It sometimes measures 
thirty inches long and weighs fourteen pounds. Its body 
is covered with minute scales and a tough skin. The term 
blackfish or tautog is applied in the U. S. to the Tautoga 
Americana, which is esteemed for the table. 

Blackfish ( Physeter tursio) is also the name of a whale 
closely akin to the spermaceti whale. It is sometimes 
nearly sixty feet long, but usually much smaller. This 
huge animal has an eye about the size of that of a common 
haddock. It yields oil and spermaceti, and is found in the 
Atlantic. Quite recently the existence of the Physeter tursio 
has been denied. Several other whales are known by this 
name. 

Black Flux, a mixture of carbonate of potash and 
finely-divided carbon or powdered charcoal. It is prepared 
by mixing in a crucible one part of nitre with two or three 
parts of crude cream of tartar, and deflagrating the mix¬ 
ture by ignited charcoal; or by heating in a covered cru¬ 
cible crude cream of tartar or bitartrate of potash, when 
the tartaric acid is decomposed and charred, forming car¬ 
bonic acid, which remains in combination with the potash. 
It is a valuable flux in reducing ores. The metal potas¬ 
sium can be obtained by heating this flux in iron vessels. 

Black'ford, a county in the E. N. E. of Indiana. Area, 


180 square miles. It is drained by the Salamonie River. 
The surface is undulating or nearly level; the soil is pro¬ 
ductive. Corn, wheat, and wool are important products. 
The county is intersected by the Fort Wayne Muncie and 
Cincinnati and by the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis 
R. Rs. Capital, Hartford. Pop. 6272. 

Black Forest [Ger. Schwarzwald; anc. Hyrcima 
Sylva], a mountainous and wooded region in Baden and 
Wiirtemberg, with a chain of mountains which extends 
about 85 miles, and separates the basin of the Rhine from 
that of the Neckar. It was a part of the ancient Hercynian 
Forest. This region is remarkable for its extensive forests 
and its mines of silver, copper, zinc, lead, and iron. The 
highest point of this chain is the Feldberg, which rises 
4903 feet above the level of the sea. The Danube, Neckar, 
Kinzig, Murg, and Elz rise in the Black Forest. A num¬ 
ber of small lakes are found here at elevations of 2500-3500 
feet. Granite and gneiss form the foundations of these 
mountains, and porphyry occurs on their sides, which are 
also covered with abundance of fir trees. The descent is 
precipitous on the western side, but the eastern slope is 
very gentle. A valley called Murgthal, situated in this 
forest, is famous for its beautiful scenery. In the vicinity 
of Neustadt is the mountain-pass of Holle, which was cele¬ 
brated in connection with Moreau’s retreat in 1796. The 
soil of these highlands is not adapted to tillage. The in¬ 
habitants are extensively employed in the manufacture of 
wooden clocks and toys. 

Black Fork, a township of Scott co., Ark. Pop. 160. 

Black Fork, a post-township of Tucker co., West Ya. 
Pop. 610. 

Black'friars, a term applied, on account of the color 
of their garments, to the Dominican order of monks, who 
first came to England about A. D. 1220, and settled at Ox¬ 
ford. Their second house was the Blackfriars in London, 
and from it the district still bears the name of the order, 
which had nearly sixty houses in England and Wales at 
the time of the abolition of monasteries. (See Dominican.) 

Black'guard. It is said that when the kings of Eng¬ 
land made a progress with the court from one royal resi¬ 
dence to another, it was customary for the scullions and 
other menials to follow with loads of kitchen utensils, and 
even coals; and from their dirty appearance they received 
the derisive name of black guard, which has come to be 
applied to any person of a vile character, or one who uses 
vulgar or ruffianly language. (See Trench, “ English, 
Past and Present.”) 

Black Gum, a popular name of the Nyssa midtiflora, 
an American tree, sometimes called pepperidge, hornpipe, 
tupelo, and sour gum. It has oval or obovate leaves, com¬ 
monly acuminate, which turn bright crimson in autumn. 
The fruit is a bluish-black drupe, the wood close- 
grained, tough, and very difficult to split. It is used 
for cog-wheels, hatters’ blocks, and wheel-naves. It 
belongs to the order Cornaceae. 

Black'hammer, a township of Houston co., 
Minn. Pop. 709. 

Black Hawk, a county in N. E. Central Iowa. 
Area, 576 miles. It is traversed and nearly bisected 
by the Cedar River, which flows south-eastward. It 
is also drained by Black Hawk Creek. Extensive 
prairies occur in this county, which has a fertile soil. 
Cattle, corn, wheat, oats, and wool are important pro¬ 
ducts. It is intersected by the Illinois Central R. R. (Iowa 
division) and the Burlington Cedar Rapids and Minnesota 
R. R. Capita], Waterloo. Pop. 21,706. 

Black Hawk is a mining town of Gilpin co., Col., lo¬ 
cated about 40 miles W. of Denver, the terminus of the 
Colorado Central R. R. (narrow gauge through Clear Creek 
Canon). It contains, and is adjacent to, rich mines of gold 
and silver. It has within its limits twenty quartz-mills 
and the Boston and Colorado Smelting-Works, and is the 
principal ore-reducing point in Colorado. It has two 
churches, three hotels, forty stores, one foundry, a fine 
public school, and a daily and weekly paper. Pop. 1068. 

S. Cushman, Ed. “Journal.” 

Black Hawk, a township of Rock Island co., Ill. Pop. 
1723. * 

Black Hawk, a township of Black Hawk co., Ia. 
Pop. 716. 

Black Hawk, a township of Grundy co., Ia. Pop. 396. 

Black Hawk, a township of Jefferson co., Ia. Pop. 
1019. 1 

Black Hawk, an American Indian, chief of the Sac 
tribe, born in 1767. He waged war against the U. S. in 
1832 for the recovery of lands which certain chiefs of tho 
Sacs and Foxes had ceded to the whites. Died Oct. 3, 1838. 




















BLACKHEATH—BLACK RIVER. 


505 


Black'heath, an elevated open common in the county 
of Kent, England, 5 miles S. E. of London, adjoining Green¬ 
wich Park, is a favorite holiday resort for Londoners. It 
commands an extensive view, and is bordered by numerous 
handsome villas. The Roman Watling Street crosses this 
heath, which is the site of Morden College. This heath 
was the scene of the insurrections of Wat Tyler and Jack 
Cade, and was formerly infested by highway robbers. 

Black Hills, a mountain-range in the S. W. part of 
Dakota and the eastern part of Wyoming Territory. The 
highest point of this range, Laramie Peak, in Wyoming, 
rises about 8000 feet above the sea. It is in about lat. 42° 
10' N., and 60 miles W. of Fort Laramie. 

Black Hole, the name of a small dungeon or cell in 
Calcut ta which was the scene of a nefarious crime committed 
by the nabob Suraja Dowlah in June, 1756. Having cap¬ 
tured the English garrison of a fort at Calcutta, he confined 
the prisoners, 146 in number, in a cell twenty feet square, 
with only two windows. They suffered great agonies from 
thirst, heat, and foul air, and 123 died from suffocation in 
the first night. The twenty-three survivors were taken 
out the next morning. One of them, John Z. Holwell, 
published a narrative of their sufferings. 

Black' ie (John Stuart), a Scottish classical scholar, 
born in Glasgow in 1809, studied at Edinburgh and Got¬ 
tingen. He translated Goethe's “ Faust ” into English 
verse, and produced in 1850 an able translation of the works 
of iEschylus. In 1852 he became professor of Greek in the 
University of Edinburgh. He contributed articles to the 
“Encyclopaedia Britannica” and the “Imperial Dictionary 
of Biography.” Among his numerous other works are 
“Lays and Legends of Ancient Greece” (1857), “Lyrical 
Poems” (1860), and “Homer and the Iliad” (2 vols., 1866). 

Black'ilig, a compound of bone-black, oil, sulphuric 
acid, and sugar or molasses, employed in polishing boots, 
shoes, or leather, on which it produces a black-glazed and 
shining surface. The ingredients in Day & Martin’s black¬ 
ing are finely powdered bone-black ground with sperm oil, 
raw sugar or molasses, a little vinegar, and concentrated 
sulphuric acid, which unites with the lime of the bone-black 
to form sulphate of lime. 

Black Jack, the name given by miners to blende (sul¬ 
phide of zinc). It is also a popular name of a small species 
of American oak (Quercus nigra), sometimes called barren 
oak and iron oak. Its wood is very hard and makes a 
good firewood, but is rather perishable, and is not very 
valuable for timber. There are several varieties. 

Black Jack, a township of Richmond co., N. C. Pop. 
799. 

Black Lead. See Graphite. 

Black Letter, a term applied to the Gothic or Old 
English types or letters, which were used in the typography 
of the first books ever printed in England. Books printed 
before 1500 are generally in this character, which was com¬ 
monly used in manuscripts by Europeans long before the 
invention of the art of printing. A form of type similar 
to this is still used by the Germans. 

Blacklick, a township of Cambria co., Pa. Pop. 646. 

Black Lick, a township of Indiana co., Pa. P. 1016. 

Black Lick, a township of Wythe co., Va. P. 3489. 

Black List, the name applied in Great Britain to 
printed lists connected with insolvency, bankruptcy, and 
other matters affecting the credit of firms and individuals, 
and which are circulated for the guidance of the mercan¬ 
tile community. These lists, which serve an important 
purpose, are well known by commercial men in the United 
Kingdom. The lists are extracts from public registers, as 
are the ordinary lists of bankruptcies in the newspapers. 
Similar information is furnished in America by commercial 
agencies. 

Black Mail was an impost formerly submitted to in 
parts of Scotland and the north of England as a com¬ 
promise with robbers. A class of men, often belonging to 
families in good standing, levied a tax upon their neigh¬ 
bors (generally about 4 per cent, of the rental of their 
property), on the pretext of protecting them from cattle- 
thieves. The celebrated Rob Roy was one of these black¬ 
mailers. The practice ceased in Scotland after the rebel¬ 
lion of 1745. It had already been long extinct in England. 
In modern usage, black mail signifies money extorted from 
a person by threats of accusation or exposure in the public 
prints. Those who practise this extortion are said to “ levy 
black mail.” 

Black'man, a township of Jackson co., Mich. Pop. 
1470. 

Blackman (George Curtis), M. D., one of the first 
of American surgeons, was born at Newtown, Conn., April 


20, 1819, and graduated in medicine at the College of Phy¬ 
sicians and Surgeons, N. Y., in 1840. He afterwards studied 
in the London hospitals, “ studying covered with bed¬ 
clothes to avoid the expense of a fire, and subsisting on two 
penny rolls a day.” His excellent attainments and en¬ 
thusiasm for his profession won him many eminent friends, 
and he became a member of the Royal Medical and Chi- 
rurgical Society, an honor rarely given to foreigners. Ho 
became a resident of Cincinnati in 1854, and was appointed 
professor of the principles and practice of surgery in the 
Medical College of Ohio. He served as an army surgeon 
throughout the late civil war. He was an able writer, a 
brilliant lecturer, and a bold and skilful operator. He 
crossed the Atlantic more than thirty-six times on ac¬ 
count of his feeble health. He published numerous con¬ 
tributions to professional journals, and several valuable 
translations. Died July 21, 1871. 

Black'more (Sir Richard), a court-physician of Wil¬ 
liam III. and of Queen Anne, a voluminous writer of prose 
and verse, was born about 1650. He was the object of the 
satire of Pope and of the ridicule of the wits of his time, 
but deserves mention as an honest man and a steady friend 
of virtue at a time when virtue had but few influential 
friends. His chief works are “Prince Arthur” (1696) and 
“The Creation” (1712). Died Oct. 8, 1729. 

Black Mountain, of North Carolina, is in Yancey 
co., a few miles W. of the Blue Ridge. This group of 
mountains derives its name from the forests of dark balsam 
firs which crown its summits. It has the shape of a horse¬ 
shoe. The highest of its peaks rises to 6707 feet, and is 
called the Black Dome, or Mitchell’s High Peak in honor 
of Dr. Mitchell of the University of North Carolina, who 
perished while exploring this inhospitable region, and was 
buried on its top. This is the highest point of the U. S. 
east of the Rocky Mountains. Arnold Guyot. 

Black Oak, a large tree of the U. S., common eastward 
of the Mississippi, generally considered a distinct species 
(Quercus tinctoria), but regarded by Gray as a variety of 
Quercus coccinea. It is a handsome tree, affording useful 
timber, but is best known for its thick yellow bark, prized 
for tanning purposes, and yielding quercitron, a valuable 
yellow dye. It is also called yellow oak and dyers’ oak. 

Black Oak, a township of Mahaska co., Ia. P. 936. 

Black Quarter, Quarter Evil, or Black Leg, 

a disease which attacks animals, especially thrifty young 
neat cattle, which are kept on fertile but undrained land. 
It is characterized by swelling of a joint, leg, or quarter, diar¬ 
rhoea, extravasation of blood, and formation of abscesses. 
It is usually fatal. It is probably the same disease which 
is known in man as malignant pustule. Its causes are not 
well understood. It is a hard disease to cure, but stimu¬ 
lants, free incision in the affected part, with the application 
of weak solutions of chloride of zinc and carbolic acid, 
may prove useful. The best preventive is thorough under¬ 
drainage of pastures. 

Black River, or Big Black River, of Missouri and 
Arkansas, rises in Iron co., Mo., and flows nearly southward 
to the N. line of Arkansas. It afterwards runs south-west¬ 
ward, and enters the White River (of which it is the largest 
affluent) at Jacksonport, Ark. Length, estimated at 350 
miles. It is navigable by steamboats about 100 miles 
from its mouth, except when the water is low. 

Black River of New York rises in Herkimer co., flows 
in a general N. W. direction through Oneida, Lewis, and 
Jefferson cos., and enters Lake Ontario about 6 miles below 
Watertown. The whole length is about 125 miles. It falls 
63 feet near Turin, in Lewis co. 

Black River of Wisconsin rises in Marathon co., 
flows southward and south-westward through Clarke and 
Jackson cos., and enters the Mississippi about 15 miles above 
La Crosse. Its length is about 225 miles. Its Indian 
name is Sappah. 

Black River of Vermont [Indian name Kashatxiac] 
rises in ponds in the town of Plymouth, Windsor co., and 
flows S. by E. through Ludlow, Cavendish, Weathersfield, 
and Springfield, and empties into the Connecticut River. 
It furnishes abundant water-power, which is employed in 
numerous manufactories. 

Black River, a township of Greene co., Ark. P. 131. 

Black River, a twp. of Independence co., Ark. P. 1358. 

Black River, a township of Lawrence co., Ark. P. 1189. 

Black River, a township of Butler co., Mo. P. 492. 

Black River, a township of Reynolds co., Mo. Pop. 
1280. 

Black River, a township of Wayne co., Mo. P. <43. 

Black River, or Lockport, a post-village of Rut¬ 
land and Lo Ray townships, Jefferson oo., N.\.,outhe Lar- 

















506 BLACK RIVER—BLACKWELL’S ISLAND. 


thage Watertown and Sacketts Harbor R. It., 6 miles E. by 
N. of Watertown. Pop. 181. 

Black River, a township of Cumberland co., N. C. 
Pop. 760. 

Black River, a post-village and township of Lorain 
co., 0., the northern terminus of the Lake Shore and Tus¬ 
carawas Valley R. R., on the S. shore of Lake Erie, 8 miles 
N. of Elyria. Pop. 838. 

Black River, a township of Georgetown co., S. C. 
Pop. 960. 

Black River Falls, an incorporated village, the 
county-seat of Jackson co., Wis., on Black River and the 
West Wisconsin R. R., 50 miles N. of La Crosse. It has nu¬ 
merous saw-mills and flouring-mills, a graded high school 
with ten departments, iron in unlimited quantities, and one 
weekly newspaper. Pop. 1101. 

Cooper & Son, Pubs. “ Badger State Banner.” 

Black Rock, a former post-town of Erie co., N. Y., 
on the Niagara River, at its S. end, about 1 mile N. of 
Buffalo, of which it is now a part. The river here affords 
abundant water-power. 

Black Rood (of Scotland), a cross of gold which 
was alleged to contain a piece of the true cross, was brought 
into Scotland in 1067 by Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling, 
queen of Malcolm III. It was regarded as a national pal¬ 
ladium. It was taken twice, at least, by the English, who 
after 1346 kept it in Durham Cathedral. It disappeared 
at the Reformation. 

Black’s Bluff, a township of Wilcox co., Ala. Pop. 
1586. 

Blacks'burg, a township of Montgomery co., Va. 
Pop. 3565. 

Black Sea, or Eux'ine [anc. Pontus Euxinus; Turk. 
Kara Dengis], a large inland sea between Europe and Asia. 
It extends from lat. 40° 45' to 46° 45' N., and from Ion. 
27° 30' to 41° 50' E. The extreme length is about 700 
miles, and its greatest breadth about 380 miles. Area, es¬ 
timated at 185,000 square miles. It communicates with the 
Sea of M&rmora by the Bosphorus, and with the Sea of 
Azof by the Strait of Kertch. The shores of this sea are 
high and bold on all sides except the N. W., between the 
Crimea and the mouth of the Danube. In the middle of 
it no soundings were obtained at 160 fathoms. It en¬ 
closes no islands except a few small ones at the mouth of 
the Danube, and the Symplegades, near the Bosphorus. 
The largest rivers that flow into it are the Danube, Dnies¬ 
ter, Bug, Don, Dnieper, Kooban, and Kizil Irmak. This 
sea has no tide, but strong currents are produced by 
the influx of the large rivers, in consequence of which 
the water is fresher than that of the Mediterranean. The 
navigation of the Euxine is not dangerous except during 
violent storms. It is supposed that this sea once ex¬ 
tended much farther E. than it does now. In ancient 
times it was an important highway of commerce. The 
Turks excluded the ships of all foreign powers from it until 
1774, when the Russians obtained the right to navigate its 
waters. By the treaty of Paris, 1856, this sea was neutral¬ 
ized—that is, the Russians and Turks were not permitted 
to keep ships of war in it. In 1871 the Russians again 
were permitted to have men-of-war on this sea. 

Black'shear, a post-village, capital of Pierce co., Ga., 
on Hurricane Creek and on the Atlantic and Gulf R. R., 
86 miles S. W. of Savannah. It has one weekly newspaper. 
Pop. 490. 

Black Snake ( Bascanion constrictor ), a species of 
snake which is common in nearly all parts of the U. S. 
Its length varies from four to six or seven feet. It is 
remarkable for agility, climbs trees with ease, and moves 
along the ground very swiftly. It feeds on frogs, mice, 
lizards, eggs, birds, etc. Although it is harmless and has 
no poison-fangs, it will sometimes attack or resist its human 
enemies. The Bascanion Alleghaniensis is another large 
black snake of the same regions, easily distinguished by 
the keeled scales on its back. 

Black'stock, a post-township of Chester co., S. C. 
Pop. 479. 

Black'stone, a post-village and township of Worcester 
co., Mass., on the Boston Hartford and Erie R. R., 36 miles 
S. W. of Boston, and on the Providence and Worcester R. R. 
It has extensive manufactures, one national bank, seven 
churches, and a public library. Pop. 5421. 

Blackstone River of Massachusetts rises in Worces¬ 
ter co., flows south-eastward into Rhode Island, and enters 
through Providence River into Narraganset Bay. The 
name Pawtucket River is given to that part of it which 
is below the town of Pawtucket. It affords abundant 
water-power, and flows through several manufacturing 
villages. 


Blackstone (Sir William), an English jurist and 
eminent commentator on law, was born in London July 
10, 1723. He was admitted to the bar in 1746, but ob¬ 
tained little practice. In 1758 he became Yinerian pro¬ 
fessor of law at Oxford, of which he was a graduate, and 
in 1761 was elected to Parliament. He was appointed 
solicitor-general in 1763, and a justice of the court of com¬ 
mon pleas in 1770. His principal work is “ Commentaries 
on the Laws of England” (4 vols., 1765-69), which ac¬ 
quired a high reputation and is extensively used by stu¬ 
dents of law. His style is clear, ornate, and graceful, but 
his method is not scientific, and he was not well qualified to 
judge of the law from a legislator's point of view. Died 
Feb. 14, 1780. His “Commentaries” were severely criti¬ 
cised by Bentham. According to Horne Tooke, his work 
is “a good gentleman’s law-book—clear, but not deep.” 
(See Clitheroe, “Life of Sir W. Blackstone,” 1780; Foss, 
“ The Judges of England.”) 

Blackstone (William), a clergyman of the Church 
of England, and the first white inhabitant of Boston, Mass., 
who settled at Shawmut, now Boston, in 1623, but left the 
place in 1633, not liking his Puritan neighbors. He is 
said to have died in Rhode Island in 1675. V 

Black Swamp, a township of Winston co., Ala. P. 632. 

Black Tin, the name given by miners to tin ore ready 
for the process of smelting. 

Black'ville, a post-village, capital of Barnwell co., 
S. C., is on the South Carolina R. R., 47 miles E. S. E. of 
Augusta, Ga., and 90 miles W. N. W. of Charleston. It has 
one weekly newspaper. Pop. of township, 2327. 

Black Vomit, the name of the haemorrhagic discharge 
from the stomach peculiar to Yellow Fever (which see). 

Black Wad, a name sometimes given to the native 
black oxide of manganese. (See Manganese.) 

Black Walnut (the Juglans nigra), a valuable timber 
tree of the U. S., belonging to the order Juglandaceae, and 
growing from Florida northward, and especially westward, 
being rare at present in New England. It is a handsome 
tree, which produces a nut which, though edible, is less so 
than that of the European walnut, while its timber is even 
more valuable. The wood is employed for gunstocks, fur¬ 
niture, the finishing and flooring of rooms, and a great 
variety of purposes. 

Black War'rior, a river of Alabama, is formed by the 
junction of the Locust Fork and Mulberry Fork, which 
unite near the S. extremity of Walker county. It flows 
south-westward, and enters the Tombigbee about 2 miles 
above Demopolis. Its length is estimated at 175 miles. 
Steamboats ascend this river from its mouth to Tuscaloosa. 
Bituminous coal is found on this river. 

Black'water, a township of Cooper co., Mo. Pop. 548. 

Blackwater, a township of Pettis co., Mo. Pop. 1603. 

Blackwater, a township of Saline co., Mo. Pop. 1784. 

Blackwater, a township of Franklin co., Ya. P. 1796. 

Blackwater, a township of Prince George co., Va. 
Pop. 911. 

Blackw ater, a township of Surry co., Ya. Pop. 1235. 

Black'well (Antoinette Brown), an American lady, 
born in Henrietta, N. Y., May 20, 1825, studied theology 
at Oberlin College, 0., and was ordained pastor of a Con¬ 
gregational church at South Butler, N. Y., in 1853. She 
has taken an active part in the Woman’s Rights movement 
and other reforms. She was married in 1856 to Samuel C. 
Blackwell. 

Blackwell (Elizabeth), M. D., born at Bristol, in 
England, in 1821, was the first woman who ever obtained 
the degree of M. D. in the U. S. She came to the II. S. 
with her parents in 1831, and taught school at Cincinnati 
from 1838 to 1847. Having studied medicine in private, 
she applied for admission to the medical colleges of Phila¬ 
delphia, New York, and Boston without success. She was 
at last admitted by a unanimous vote into the College of 
Geneva, N. Y., in 1847, and graduated as M. D. with honor 
in 1849. She afterwards studied midwifery in Paris, and 
began to practise in New York-City in 1851, where she has 
for the most part since resided. In 1854, with her sister 
Emily, she opened the New York Infirmary for Women 
and Children. In 1859 she delivered a course of medical 
lectures in London. ¥ 

Black'well’s, a township of Polk co., N. C. Pop. 1179. 

Blackwell’s Island, in the East River, is a part of 
New York City, and has a lunatic asylum, workhouse, alms¬ 
house, penitentiary, smallpox, charity, and fever hospitals, 
one for incurables, one for epileptics and paralytics, and an 
asylum for the blind. The island has an area of 120 acres, 
and was named from a family which long owned it. At its 
N. end is a stone lighthouse, with a fixed red light 54 feet 











BLACK WOLF—BLAIR. 


above the sea; lat. 42° 46' 15" N., Ion. 73° 56' 08" W. Pop. 
5717. 

Black Wolf, a township of Winnebago co., Wis. Pop. 
847. 

Black'wood (William), a Scottish publisher, born in 
Edinburgh in 1776, was the founder of " Blackwood’s Mag¬ 
azine." He commenced business as a bookseller in 1804, 
and issued the first number of his magazine in 1817. It 
obtained speedy success and a high reputation, to which 
the writings of Scott, John Wilson, and J. G. Lockhart 
greatly contributed. Its editors advocated the political 
creed of the Tories with powerful sarcasm and considerable 
virulence. Mr. Blackwood was the chief manager of the 
magazine until his death in 1834, and was succeeded by his 
sons. Under their direction it has maintained its reputa¬ 
tion, and has received contributions from many eminent 
authors, including Bulwer, W. S. Landor, De Quincey, and 
W. E. Aytoun. 

Blad'der [Lat. vesica; Fr. vessie], a musculo-mem- 
branous sac contained in the anterior part of the pelvis. It 
is absent in all invertebrate animals. A few cartilaginous 
fishes possess it; so do Batrachia (frogs, etc.) and Chelonia 
(turtles). No birds have it, although the ostrich and casso¬ 
wary have a dilatation of the cloaca somewhat resembling 
it. It is present in all Mammalia. In man the bladder is 
nearly triangular when empty, oval when full. The ureters 
(one on each side) convey the urine to it from the kidneys; 
and this is voided, by the contraction of the bladder, through 
the urethra. The entrance to the latter is guarded by a 
valve, partly muscular, called by some anatomists the 
sphincter vesicse. Distension of the bladder (retention of 
urine) from any obstruction of the urethra is a very pain¬ 
ful and sometimes dangerous affection. It may be spas¬ 
modic, but it is more often the effect of a stricture or con¬ 
traction of the passage from local disease. In low fevers it 
is not uncommon for a kind of paralytic distension of the 
bladder to occur. In either of these cases the removal of 
the urine by means of a catheter is of great importance. 
The bladder is also liable to inflammation ( cystitis ) and to 
chronic irritability; either of which may cause great dis¬ 
tress. (For stone in the bladder see Calculus.) 

Blad'der-Nut ( Staphylea ), a popular name of several 
plants of the order Sapindacem. They are so called because 
the fruit is a bladdery, membranous, and inflated capsule 
enclosing hard, bony seeds. They are shrubs or small trees 
with pinnate leaves, five stamens, and five petals. The 
Staphylea pinnata is a native of Europe, and is planted as 
an ornamental tree in English shrubberies. Another species, 
the Staphylea trifolia, or American bladder-nut, is a native 
of the U. S. It is a shrub about ten feet high, having three 
ovate leaflets. The seed of these species is aperient, and 
the wood is suitable for turning. 

Blad'derwort ( Utricularia ), a genus of aquatic plants 
of the order Lentibulaceae, comprises numerous species 
which abound in tropical and temperate parts of both hemi¬ 
spheres. Their flowers adorn the surface of lakes, ponds, 
and stagnant or shallow waters. Fourteen species or more 
of them are found in the Atlantic U. S. They are remark¬ 
able for a provision by which the plant, which is ordinarily 
submerged in water, is raised to the surface, in order that 
the flowers may expand in the air. The leaves and stems 
are furnished with little bladders or vesicles, which become 
filled with air at the time of flowering. The air is after¬ 
wards removed, so that the plant sinks again, and ripens 
its seeds at the bottom. A few species which do not grow 
in the water have no bladders. 

Bla'den, a county in the S. E. of North Carolina. 
Area, 800 square miles. It is intersected by Cape Fear 
River, and bounded on the N. E. by South River. The 
surface is mostly level, and partly occupied by pine forests 
and many small lakes, which abound in fish. A portion of 
the soil is sandy, but marl occurs in considerable quantities, 
and the river-bottoms and swampy tracts are highly fertile. 
Rice, corn, and some cotton are produced. The county is 
traversed by the Wilmington Charlotte and Rutherlord 
R. R. It has manufactures of tar and turpentine. Cap¬ 
ital, Elizabethtown. Pop. 12,831. 

Bla'denboro’* apost-twp. of Bladen co., N. C. P.1005. 

Bla'densburg, a post-village of Prince George co., 
Md., on the Eastern Branch of the Potomac and on the 
Baltimore and Washington R. R., 6 miles N. E. of Wash¬ 
ington. A battle fought here Aug. 24, 1814, between the 
British and Americans, resulted in the capture of Wash¬ 
ington. Pop. 410; of Bladensburg township, 3006. 

Bladen Springs* a post-village of Choctaw co., Ala., 
3 miles from the Tombigbce River and 85 from Mobile, 
has six copious saline chalybeate springs, much resorted 
to for the cure of bowel and kidney complaints and chionic 
rheumatism and dyspepsia. The country around is hilly, 


507 


well-timbered, and healthful. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. 

Blaeuw, Blaeu, or Blauw (Willem), an eminent 
Dutch geographer and publisher, born in 1571. He was a 
pupil of Tycho Brahe. He produced a terrestrial globe 
which surpassed all former works of that kind, and a num¬ 
ber of maps. Among his publications was an " Atlas of the 
Seas or Aquatic World." Died Oct. 18, 1638. 

Blagoweshtshensk' (i. e. "good news"), the capital 
of the province of the Amoor, in Siberia, 20 miles N. of 
the Chinese city Aijun, on the Amoor. It was founded in 
1858, and consists mostly of government buildings. Some 
trade is carried on here between the Chinese and the Rus¬ 
sians. Pop. in 1867, 3107. 

Blaiu, a town of France, department of Loire-Inf^rieure, 
22 miles N. N. W. of Nantes. Here are the ruins of a 
strong castle. Pop. 6865. 

Blaine (James Gillespie), an American legislator, born 
in Washington co., Pa., Jan. 31, 1830. He graduated at 
Washington College in 1847, removed to Maine in early 
life, and became editor of the " Portland Advertiser." He 
was elected to Congress by the Republicans of Maine in 
1862, and was re-elected five times. He gained distinction 
as a debater, and was chosen Speaker of the House of Rep¬ 
resentative^ in Mar., 1869, and again in 1871 and 1873. 

Blainville* de (Henri Marie Ducrotay), M. D., 
F. R. S., a distinguished French zoologist and anatomist, 
born at Arques, near Dieppe, Sept. 12, 1777. He studied 
comparative anatomy under Cuvier, who employed him as 
his assistant. In 1808 he received the degree of doctor of 
medicine. He was appointed professor of anatomy and 
zoology in the Faculty of Sciences of Paris in 1812, and was 
admitted into the Institute in 1825. In 1832 he succeeded 
Cuvier as professor of comparative anatomy in the Museum 
of Natural History. He acquired a high reputation as a 
teacher and a writer. Among his most important works are 
" Lectures on General and Comparative Physiology" (3 
vols., 1833), and "Osteography, or a Comparative Icono- 
graphic Description of the Skeleton and Dentary System 
of the Five Classes of Yertebrated Animals" (1839—49, un¬ 
finished). Died May 1, 1850. 

Blair* a county in S. Central Pennsylvania. Area, 650 
square miles. It is intersected by the Frankstown Branch 
of the Juniata River, and also drained by the Little Juni¬ 
ata. The surface is mountainous. The main range of the 
Alleghany Mountains extends along the N. W. border of 
the county, which is traversed by a parallel ridge called 
Dunning’s Mountain. The soil of the limestone valleys is 
fertile. Grain and wool are important products. Iron is 
one of the chief articles of export. Bituminous coal is ex¬ 
tensively mined. The county is intersected by the Central 
R. R., and has various manufactures. Capital, Ilollidays- 
burg. Pop. 38,051. 

Blair* a township of Clay co., Ill. Pop. 857. 

Blair* a township of Grand Traverse co., Mich. P. 383. 

Blair* a post-village, capital of Washington co., Neb., 
in a township of the same name, on the Missouri River 
and on the Omaha and North-western R. R., 29 miles 
N. N. W. of Omaha, and on the Sioux City and Pacific 
R. R. It has a brick court-house, a jail, and is in a fine 
farming region. It has a school-house costing $20,000, and 
one weekly paper. Pop. 494; of township, 917. 

Y. G. Lantry, Ed. " Blair Times." 

Blair* a township of Blair co., Pa. Pop. 1571. 

Blair (Austin) was born at Carolina, Tompkins co., 
N. Y., Feb. 8, 1818, and graduated at Union College in 
1839, studied law, removed to Michigan, and has held 
many public offices; was governor of the State (1861-65), 
and member of Congress (1867-75). 

Blair (Francis Preston), an American journalist, born 
at Abingdon, Va., April 12,1791. He graduated at Transyl¬ 
vania University, and became in 1830 editor of the " Globe," 
a Democratic daily paper published at Washington, D. C. 
He was a personal friend and adviser of Gen. Jackson 
while the latter was President, and continued to edit the 
"Globe" until 1845. He supported Van Buren as a can¬ 
didate for the presidency in 1848, and joined the Repub¬ 
lican party in 1855. 

Blair (Francis Preston, Jr.), a lawyer, son of the 
preceding, was born at Lexington, Ky., Feb. 19, 1821. Ho 
graduated at Princeton in 1841, was elected a member of 
Congress by the Free-Soil party of St. Louis, Mo., in 1856, 
after which he acted and voted with the Republicans tor 
several years. He joined the Union army in 1861, and ob¬ 
tained the rank of major-general. In 1864 ho commanded 
a corps of Sherman’s army in the oampaign which resulted 
in the capture of Atlanta. Having joined the Democratic 
party, ho was selected as a candidate tor tho vice-presidency 











BLAIR—BLAKE. 


508 


by the convention which nominated Horatio Seymour for 
the presidency in 1868, but was not elected. He was chosen 
a U. S. Senator for Missouri in Jan., 1871. 

Blair (Hugh), D. D., an eminent Scottish divine, born 
in Edinburgh April 7, 1718, was licensed as a minister of 
the Church of Scotland in 1741. In 1758 he became one 
of the ministers of the High Church of Edinburgh, the 
highest promotion that a Scottish clergyman can obtain. 
His sermons were admired for their polished style, but 
were not remarkable for originality or profoundness. In 
1762 he was appointed professor of rhetoric and belles- 
lettres in the University of Edinburgh. He published five 
volumes of sermons (1777-1800), which were once very 
popular, but their reputation has declined. His “ Lectures 
on Rhetoric” were published in 1783, and were used in 
many schools. Died Dec. 27, 1800. (See James Finlay- 
son, “Life of Hugh Blair,” 1801.) 

Blair (James), D. D., born in Scotland in 1656, entered 
the Anglican ministry, came to America in 1685, in 1689 
became commissary of the bishop of London for Virginia 
and Maryland, was the founder and first president of 
William and Mary College (1693), and rector of Williams¬ 
burg, holding all these and other important offices till his 
death, Aug. 1, 1743. Besides other works, he published a 
commentary on the “Sermon on the Mount” (5 vols. 8vo, 
1722), highly commended by Waterland, Doddridge, and 
Bickersteth. y 

Blair (John), an American jurist, born at Williamsburg, 
Va., in 1732. He graduated at William and Mary College, 
and studied law in London. Having previously filled sev¬ 
eral high offices, he was appointed by Washington judge of 
the Supreme Court of the U. S. (1789). Died Aug. 31, 1800. 

Blair (Montgomery), an American officer and politician, 
born May 10, 1813, in Franklin co., Ky., graduated at 
West Point in 1835, serving while in artillery in Florida 
war till he resigned, May 20, 1836; counsellor at law in 
St. Louis, and U. S. attorney for the district of Missouri 
1839-43, mayor of St. Louis 1842, judge of the St. Louis 
court of common pleas 1843-49, solicitor of the U. S. in the 
court of claims 1855-58, counsellor at law in Montgomery 
co., Md., 1853-61, and since 1863, being counsel for plain¬ 
tiff in the famous Dred Scott case; president of the Repub¬ 
lican committee of Maryland 1860, and postmaster-general 
of the U. S. 1861-64. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Blair (Robert), a Scottish poet, born at Edinburgh 
in 1699, was a relative of Hugh Blair, noticed above. He 
was ordained minister of Athelstaneford in 1731. He wrote 
a poem of undoubted merit entitled “The Grave,” which 
was not printed until after his death. Died Feb. 4, 1746. 

Blairs'burg, a post-township of Hamilton co., Ia. 
Pop. 310. 

Blairs'tOAvn, a post-village of Leroy township, Benton 
co., Ia. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 682. 

Blairstown, a post-township of Warren co., N. J. 
Pop. 1379. 

Blairs'ville, a post-village, capital of Union co., Ga., 
is about 90 miles N. by E. from Atlanta. Gold and marble 
are found in the vicinity. 

Blairsville, a post-borough of Indiana co., Pa., on 
the Conemaugh River and the Pennsylvania R. R., 56 miles 
E. of Pittsburgh. A branch railroad extends northward 
16 miles to the town of Indiana. Grain, lumber, and coal 
are shipped here. Blairsville has a national bank. P. 1054. 

Blairsville, a post-village of York co., S. C. P. 487. 

Blair'ton, a post-village of Belmont township, Peter¬ 
borough co., Ontario, Canada, has extensive iron-mines 
and a postal savings bank. Pop. about 350. 

Blake, a township of Colleton co., S. C. Pop. 2255. 

Blake (Charles F.), U. S. N., born in 1842 in Penn¬ 
sylvania, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1861, became 
an ensign in 1863, a lieutenant in 1864, and a lieutenant- 
commander in 1866. He served on board the steam sloop- 
of-war Brooklyn at the battle of Mobile Bay Aug. 5, 1864, 
and is thus referred to in the report of Capt. James Alden, 
her commanding officer : “ The other division officers, Cap¬ 
tain Houston of the marines, Lieutenant Charles F. Blake, 
Ensigns Cassel and Sigsbee, with their assistants, Master’s 
Mates Duncan and Stevens, fought their guns nobly and 
well.” Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Blake (Francis B.), U. S. N., born Nov. 8, 1837, in 
Pennsylvania, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1857, 
became a lieutenant in 1861, and a lieutenant-commander in 
1863, resigned June 15, 1870. On the night of Sept. 14,1861, 
while serving on board the frigate Colorado, he participated 
in tho very gallant exploit of destroying the privateer Ju¬ 
dith, “ moored at the S. end of the Pensacola navy-yard, 
under the protection of a battery and field-piece.” He 


was attached to the steam gunboat Kennebec in her at¬ 
tempted passage of Forts St. Philip and Jackson, April 
24, 1862, and at Vicksburg, June 28, 1862. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Blake (George A. II.), colonel of U. S. cavalry and 
brevet brigadier-general U. S. army, was born in Pennsyl¬ 
vania, and became first lieutenant in the Second Dragoons 
in 1836. He served honorably in Florida, Mexico, on the 
frontiers, and in the late civil war. He was wounded at 
Gaines’s Mill in 1862, and received his brevet for his con¬ 
duct at Gettysburg. 

Blake (George Smith), a naval officer, born at Worces¬ 
ter, Mass., in 1803. He served in the Mexican war, and 
was made superintendent of the U. S. Naval Academy at 
Annapolis in 1857, and a commodore in 1862. 

Blake (Homer C.), U. S. N., born Feb. 1, 1822, in Cleve¬ 
land, O., entered the navy as a midshipman Mar. 2, 1840, 
became a passed midshipman in 1846, a lieutenant in 
1855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in 
1866, and a captain in 1871. On the evening of the 11th 
of Jan., 1863, Blake, in the merchant steamer Hatteras, 
which had been converted into a government vessel for 
blockading purposes, encountered the privateer Alabama, 
built in England with all the latest improvements of a 
man-of-war, and after a most spirited resistance was 
forced to surrender, “the Hatteras going down, bow first, 
ten minutes after the crew left her decks.” Capt. Blake, in 
his official report of the action, dated Jan. 21, 1863, says: 
“ The battery upon the Alabama brought into action against 
the Hatteras numbered seven guns, consisting of four long 
32-pounders, one 100-pounder rifled gun, one 68-pounder, 
and one 24-pounder rifled gun. The guns used in the ac¬ 
tion by the Hatteras were two short 32-pounders, one 30- 
pounder rifled Parrot, and one 20-pounder rifled Dahlgren.” 
Blake was carried in the Alabama to Port Royal, Jamaica, 
whence, after being paroled, he was permitted to return to 
the U. S., and so soon as he was regularly exchanged he 
obtained a command in the North Atlantic blockading 
squadron, where he remained, doing good service in co-op¬ 
eration with the Army of the James, until the close of the 
civil war. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Blake (John Lauris), D. D., an American biographer 
and compiler, born in Northwood, N. II., Dec. 21, 1788. He 
graduated at Brown University in 1812, became rector of 
an Episcopal church in Boston. He published many school 
books and a “ General Biographical Dictionary” (1 vol. 8vo, 
1835). Died in July, 1857. 

Blake (Robert), born at Bridgewater, in Somersetshire, 
in 1599, was elected to Parliament in 1640, and when the 
civil war began in 1642 raised a troop with which he fought 
against the royalists. He gained distinction by his defence 
of Taunton in 1645. In 1649 he was appointed “general 
of the sea.” He destroyed or captured nearly all of Prince 
Rupert’s fleet in the Tagus in 1651. In 1652 he became 
chief admiral, and in May of that year gained a victory over 
Van Tromp, who attacked Blake in the ensuing November 
near Goodwin Sands. Blake was defeated, but in Feb., 
1653, he attacked Van Tromp and gained a victory in a 
running fight of three days. In 1654 he chastised the dey 
of Tunis. He destroyed the Spanish plate-fleet at Santa 
Cruz in 1657. He died at Plymouth Aug. 17, 1657. 

Blake (William Phipps), A. M., Ph. B., was born in 
New York City June 1, 1826, and graduated at the Sheffield 
Scientific School, New Haven, Conn., in 1852. In 1853 he 
was mineralogist and geologist for the U. S. Pacific R. R. 
exploring expedition in California, in connection with which 
he wrote several reports; was editor of the “ Mining Mag¬ 
azine” 1859-60; he was 1861-63 mining engineer for the 
Japanese government; in 1863 engaged in explorations in 
California and Nevada, became professor of mineralogy, 
geology, etc. in the College of California, and geologist to 
the State board of agriculture; in 1867 was commissioner 
of California to the Paris Exposition, removed in 1867 to 
New Haven, Conn., was chosen executive commissioner of 
the Centennial Commission, and in 1873 went as special 
agent to the Vienna Exhibition. He is vice-president of 
the American Institute of Mining Engineers, and a promi¬ 
nent officer of the International Patent Congress. Among 
his numerous professional writings are “ Silver Ores and 
Silver Mines” (1861), a “Report on the Production of the 
Precious Metals,” etc., and various contributions to the 
U. S. reports on the Paris Exposition, which were edited 
by him. In 1871 he published “Mining Machinery,” etc. 

Blake (William Rufus), born in 1805 at Halifax, 
Nova Scotia, studied medicine, but in 1825 (after playing 
some time in the theatre at Halifax) he appeared at the 
Old Chatham Theatre, N. Y. He soon attained the first 
rank as a comedian, excelling particularly in eccentric cha¬ 
racters. Died at Boston April 22, 1863. 














BLAKELY—BLANK VERSE. 


509 


Blakely, a post-village, capital of Baldwin co., Ala., 
is on the Tensaw ltiver, near Mobile Bay, and on the Mo¬ 
bile and Montgomery R. R., 13 miles E. N. E. of Mobile. 

Blakely, a post-town, capital of Early co., Ga., is about 
88 miles S. of Columbus and 150 miles S. W. from Macon. 
It has two churches, Baptist and Methodist, and one news¬ 
paper. W. W. Fleming, Ed. “Early County News.” 

Blakely, a township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 767. 

Blakely, a post-borough of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 659. 

Blakely (Johnston), a naval officer, born in Ireland 
Oct., 1781. He came with his parents to the IT. S., grad¬ 
uated at the University of North Carolina in 1800, entered 
the U. S. navy in 1800, and obtained command of the sloop 
Wasp in 1813. In June, 1814, he captured the British 
sloop-of-war Reindeer, and in the ensuing September de¬ 
feated and sunk the sloop Avon. The Wasp never return¬ 
ed to port, and the fate of Captain Blakely and his crew 
was never ascertained. 

Blakely’s, a township of Chambers co., Ala. P. 1162. 

Blakesburg, a post-village of Adams township, Wa¬ 
pello co., Ia. Pop. 236. 

Blanc (Auguste-Alexandre-Philippe-Charles), a 
distinguished writer on the fine arts, born at Castres, 
France, Nov. 15, 1813. He is a brother of Louis Blanc. 
Besides a long series of valuable contributions on subjects 
connected with the fine arts to various French journals, he 
is the author of a u History of French Painters of the 
Nineteenth Century,” of which only the first volume has 
been published; of a biographical notice of Grandville, 
and of “The Works of Rembrandt,” which first appeared 
in folio in 1853, and in 1859 was republished with additions 
in 2 vols. 4to. A new edition, enriched with many addi¬ 
tional illustrations, has just been announced (1873). It is 
the best work on Rembrandt. He was the most important 
contributor to the “ History of the Painters of all the 
Schools,” a very complete and extensive work begun in 
1849 by Armengaud, and continued till its completion in 
1859, under the editorship of Blanc, with the assistance 
of able writers, such as Delaborde, Mantz, Silvestre, and 
P. Chasles. Blanc has been twice Director of Fine Arts in 
France—once in 1848, when he replaced M. Garraud, and 
again in 1871. At present he still holds the place, for 
which he is eminently fitted. Clarence Cook. 

Blanc (Jean Joseph Louis), a French historian and 
radical, born in Madrid Oct. 28, 1813, was educated in 
France. He founded in Paris in 1839 the “ Revue du Pro- 
gres,” which advocated social and political reform. In 1840 
he published an able work on the “ Organization of Labor.” 
His next important work was a “History of Ten Years— 
1830-40,” which had a very damaging influence on the pop¬ 
ularity of Louis Philippe. He was a member of the pro¬ 
visional government formed in Feb., 1848, and was very 
popular with the Socialists and workingmen of Paris, who 
revolted and were defeated in June, 1848. He then went 
into exile, and resided in England for many years. Early 
in 1871 he was elected to the National Assembly by the 
voters of Paris. Among his works is a “ History of the 
French Revolution” (12 vols. 8vo, 1847-62), the style of 
which is eloquent and dignified. 

Blan'cet, a township of Scott co., Ark. Pop. 325. 

Blanc, Le, a town of France, in the department of 
Indre, is finely situated on the river Creuse, 32 miles W. S. 
W. of Chateauroux. It has manufactures of cloth, linen, 
pottery, leather, etc. Pop. 5956. 

Blanchard, a township of Hancock co., 0. P. 1304. 

Blanchard, a township of Hardin co., 0. Pop. 1250. 

Blanchard, a township of Putnam co., 0. Pop. 1593. 

Blanchard, a post-township of Piscataquis co., Me. 
Pop. 164. 

Blanchard (Albert G.), an American general, born 
in Massachusetts about 1810, served in the Mexican war, 
and having entered the Confederate service was made a 
brigadier-general in 1861. 

Blanchard (Francois), a French aeronaut, born at 
Andelys in 1753, was noted for his mechanical ingenuity. 
He constructed a balloon with wings and a rudder, with 
which he ascended in Mar., 1784. In 1785 he crossed the 
Channel in this balloon, and landed in England, for which 
exploit the king of France gave him a pension. He made 
many other ascents. Died Mar. 7, 1809. His wife, who 
had been his companion in several aerial voyages, was 
killed in consequence of the burning of her balloon in 1819. 

Blanchard (Laman), an English litterateur, born at 
Great Yarmouth May 15,1803. He became in 1831 acting 
editor, under Bulwer, of the “New Monthly Magazine.” 
He contributed many verses and other articles to several 
periodicals and annuals, and was assistant editor of the 


“ Examiner.” His wife became insane, and he committed 
suicide Feb. 15, 1845. (See Bulwer’s “Memoir of L. 
Blanchard,” prefixed to Blanchard’s “ Essays and Sketches,” 
1849.) 

Blanchard (Thomas), an American mechanic and in¬ 
ventor, born in Sutton, Mass., June 24, 1788. He in¬ 
vented a wonderfully ingenious machine for turning gun- 
stocks, which is still in use, and he obtained twenty-four 
patents for his various inventions. Died April 16, 1864. 

Blanche of Castile, queen of France, a daughter 
of Alfonso IX. of Castile, was born in 1187. She was 
married in 1200 to the dauphin of France, who became 
King Louis VIII., and she acquired much influence in 
affairs of state. When Louis died, in 1226, she became 
regent of the kingdom, which she governed with ability 
during the minority of her son, Saint Louis. She was emi¬ 
nent for virtue and wisdom. Died Dec. 1, 1252. (See 
Macheco, “Vie de Blanche Castile,” 1820; T. Nisard, 
“Histoire de la Reine Blanche,” 1842.) 

Blan'chester, a post-village of Clinton co., 0., on the 
Marietta and Cincinnati R. R., 41 miles E. N. E. of Cin¬ 
cinnati, at the junction of the Hillsboro’ branch. Pop. 513. 

Blanch'ing [from the Fr. blanche, “ white”], a process 
by which gardeners arrest the progress of secretions in the 
leaves of plants, in order to render them more wholesome 
and palatable as food. Celery, sea-kale, and other plants 
are usually blanched by the exclusion of light from them, 
which deprives them of their natural green color and of 
certain bitter properties. The blanching is effected in va¬ 
rious modes, as heaping up the earth against the growing 
plants, or covering them with boxes or blanching-pots made 
of earthenware and perforated with many holes. 

Blan' CO, a county in Central Texas. Area, 727 square 
miles. It is intersected by the Pedernales River, and also 
drained by the Rio Blanco. The soil is mostly prairie, 
easily cultivated and productive. Stock-raising is the chief 
pursuit. Cotton and corn are raised. Capital, Blanco. 
Pop. 1187. 

Blanco, a post-village, capital of Blanco co., Tex., is 
45 miles W. S. W. of Austin City. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. 

Bland, a county in S. W. Virginia. Area, 330 square 
miles. It is drained by the North Fork of the Ilolston 
River and by several creeks. The surface is partly moun¬ 
tainous. Grain, tobacco, and wool are the chief products. 
Capital, Bland Court-house. Pop. 4000. 

Bland, a township of Prince George co., Va. P. 2260. 

Bland (Richard), an American writer and patriot, 
born in Virginia in 1708, was educated at William and 
Mary College and the University of Edinburgh, and was 
elected to Congress in 1774. He published “A Letter 
to the Clergy on the Twopenny Act” (1760) and “An In¬ 
quiry into the Rights of the British Colonies” (1766). 
Died Oct. 27, 1776. 

Bland (Col. Theodoric), M. D., born in Prince George „ 
co., Va., in 1742, was an uncle of John Randolph of Roa¬ 
noke. He entered the army in 1777, and gained the con¬ 
fidence of Washington, who employed him in several im¬ 
portant affairs. In 1780 he was elected a member of Con¬ 
gress, in which he remained till 1783. Having been again 
chosen a member of that body in 1789, he died at New York 
June 1, 1790. » 

Bland Court-house, a post-village, capital of Bland 
co., Va. 

Bland'ford, a township of Hampden co., Mass. It has 
a public library and some manufactures. Pop. 1026. 

Blan'dinsville, a post-village of McDonough co., Ill., 
on the Toledo Peoria and Warsaiv R. R., 78 miles W. by S. 
from Peoria. Pop. 1565; of Blandinsville township, 1707. 

Bland'ville, a post-village, capital of Ballard co., Ky., 
about 28 miles W. S. W. of Paducah. Pop. 385. 

Blanc (Sir Gilbert), F. R. S., a Scottish physician, 
born at Blanefield, in Ayrshire, Aug. 24,1749. He became 
private physician to Lord Rodney, who took command of 
the fleet in the West Indies in 1780. Dr. Blane served as 
chief physician to- that fleet during the war, and published 
in 1783 “ Observations on the Diseases of Seamen.” He was 
physician to St. Thomas’s Hospital, London, from 1785 to 
1795, and became first physician to William IV. in 1830. 
Among his works is “Elements of Medical Logic” (1819). 
Died June 26, 1834. 

Bla'nes, a seaport-town of Spain, in the province of 
Gerona, on the Mediterranean, 30 miles by rail S. of Ge- 
rona. It is on the railway from Barcelona to Gerona. 
Pop. 5888. 

Blank Verse, the name applied to the heroic verse of 
five feet without rhymes. Blank verso is peculiar to tho 















510 BLANQUI—BLAST FURNACE. 


Italian, English, and German languages, having been im¬ 
ported into the two latter from the first. .In Italian the line 
is of eleven syllables, and is used invariably in the drama, 
and frequently in serious poetry, epic or didactic. In Eng¬ 
land it was first adopted by the earl of Surrey in his trans¬ 
lation of the fourth book of the “iEneid” (1547), and first 
applied to dramatic uses by Lord Buckhurst in his tragedy 
of “Gorboduc” (1561). It has since been the accepted 
metre of English dramatic and heroic verse. The Miltonic 
verse is constructed with closer attention to the melody of 
the cadence and caesura than the dramatic; it admits also 
less frequently of the eleventh syllable, which in English 
poetry must be regarded as a sort of license; while Shaks- 
pcare and other dramatists occasionally double the short 
syllable at the end, and thus extend the number to twelve. 

Blanqui (Jerome Adolphe), a French political econo¬ 
mist, born at Nice Nov. 20, 1708. He became in 1833 pro¬ 
fessor of economy in the Conservatory of Arts and Trades 
in Paris. He advocated free trade. Among his works are 
a “ Summary of the History of Commerce and Industry ” 
(1826), and a “History of Political Economy in Europe 
from the Ancients to the Present Time” (2 vols., 1837-38), 
which is highly esteemed. Died Jan. 28, 1854. 

Blanqui (Louis Auguste), a French republican, born 
in 1805, brother of the preceding, took an active part in 
the revolutionary movements of 1830, 1839, and 1848, and 
was a leading spirit in various incendiary secret societies. 
He went beyond the most advanced in radical ideas. He 
was condemned to death in 1840, and afterwards repeated¬ 
ly to long terms of imprisonment, but the penalty was in 
every case relaxed. He was a leader of the insurgents who 
attempted to dissolve the National Assembly in May, 1848. 
He founded the Society Republicaine Centrale, for which 
he was condemned to four years’ imprisonment in 1861. 
In the Paris Commune, in 1870, he was a central figure, 
was captured by the Versaillists, who, it was claimed, re¬ 
fused to exchange him for Archbishop Darboy, and was 
transported in 1872. 

Blaps [probably from the Gr. 0Aa7mo, to “ injure,” so 
called on account of its supposed dangerous character; see 
below], a genus of insects of the order Coleoptera, is the 
type of a family called Blapsidse. There are numerous 
species of this genus, all of a dark color and destitute of 
wings. They feed on decayed vegetable matter, frequent 
dark and damp places, and have the power of secreting an 
acrid, irritating fluid of a peculiar and penetrating odor, 
which they can throw to a distance of six inches. A British 
species, the Blaps mortisarja, is called darkling beetle and 
churchyard beetle. In some parts of Europe the peasantry 
have a superstitious dread of this insect. No Blaps is found 
in the U. S. 

Blar'ney, a village and castle of Ireland, in Munster, 
is on a rivulet of its own name, 4 miles N. W. of Cork, and 
surrounded by beautiful scenery. The castle and groves 
of Blarney are celebrated in song. The castle, which once 
belonged to the earls of Clancarty, stands on a steep r.ock, 
at the base of which is a deep valley. Among the relics 
of this ruined castle is the famous “ Blarney stone,” which, 
according to the popular opinion, imparts to those who kiss 
it a peculiar style of eloquence, or great skill in the use of 
complimentary speech. 

Bla' ser (Gustav), an excellent German sculptor, born 
at Diisseldorf May 9, 1813. Among his numerous works 
may be mentioned equestrian statues of Frederick William 
III. and Frederick William IV., the colossal statue of 
“Borussia” (Prussia) at Berlin, and a bust of Humboldt 
in the New York Central Park. 

Blas'phemy [Gr. p\a<T<f>ripCa], an indignity offered to 
the Deity or to religion. According to Blackstone, it is 
denying the being and providence of God, contumelious 
reproaches of our Saviour Christ, and profane scoffing at 
the Holy Scripture, or exposing it to contempt and ridicule. 
It has been otherwise defined to be the act of wantonly utter¬ 
ing or publishing words casting contumelious reproach or 
profane ridicule upon God, Jesus Christ, the Holy Ghost, 
the Holy Scriptures, or the Christian religion. If the 
words were written or printed, there might be a case of 
blasphemous libel. If oral, the case would be one simply 
of blasphemy. The law does not brand as a crime serious 
discussion or the promulgation in a temperate manner of 
opinions opposed to Christianity. Blasphemy is an offence 
punishable as a misdemeanor at common law. In many 
of the States the crime is punishable by statute. 

Christianity is declared by the courts to be a part of the 
common law, which recognizes that the good morals and 
orderly conduct of the community are closely connected 
with a respect for religion, and that insults to the Author 
of Christianity and malicious attacks on his religion tend 
to the dissolution of civil government. While the law of 


this country grants the fullest enjoyment of liberty of con¬ 
science and religious belief, and free and decent discussion 
on any religious subject, it will not allow malicious and 
blasphemous revilings of the Author of the religion pro¬ 
fessed by the majority of the community, nor of the relig¬ 
ion itself, nor of the Scriptures in which it is taught. 

Blaste'ma [Gr. /3Aa<m7/xa, a “bud” or “budding”], in 
botany, the embryo in a seed, or the axis of growth of an 
embryo; that is, the plumule and the radicle, with the part 
which connects them. In biology, blastema is the name 
applied to the rudimental mass or protoplasm from which 
tissue is developed. 

Blast Furnace [Ger. Hochofen; Fr. haut fourneau ]. 
In its primary signification the term blast furnace implies 
an elevated shaft lined with a refractory material, designed 
for the reduction of metals from their ores. The shaft is 
open at the top, where the ore, fuel, and fluxes are charged, 
and supplied with a blast of air near the bottom, where 
openings are provided for removing the metal and cinder. 
The term has, however, by custom become almost entirely 
restricted to furnaces for the reduction of iron. In its 
essential details a blast furnace consists of a stack, in 
whole or in part of masonry, surrounding a vertical cham¬ 
ber or shaft of circular section. The diameter of the shaft 
usually increases from the top downward and from the 
bottom upward. The lower part of the furnace is called 
the hearth, and has the smallest diameter. At its upper 
part are one or more openings through which the blast 
of air is introduced, and in the lower part, or crucible, the 
molten iron and cinder collect. The hearth is prolonged 
towards the front of the furnace, and is closed by the dam, 
and covered in on top by the tymp-arch. The dam is formed 
of firebrick or other refractory material. It slopes inward 
towards the interior of the furnace, and has its outer ver¬ 
tical face covered with a cast-iron plate, called the dam- 
plate. At the bottom of the dam is a channel communi¬ 
cating with the interior of the furnace, through which the 
molten iron is tapped off", and on its upper edge is a notch, 

called the cinder-notch, 
over which Ihe cinder 
flows. The tymp-arch 
is covered by the tymp, 
a long, hollow casting, 
through which water 
constantly circulates. 
The blast is supplied 
through tuyeres, from 
one to eight in number, 
which are set into the 
masonry of the furnace. 
They are hollow trun¬ 
cated cones, supplied 
with a constant current 
of water to prevent the 
iron of which they are 
composed from melting. 
Into these water-tuyeres 
are fitted the nozzles of 
blast-pipes, which are 
connected with the blast 
main which encircles 
the furnace. The slop¬ 
ing walls connecting 
the hearth with the 
widest part of the fur¬ 
nace are called the 
boshes. This term is 
very generally, though 
incorrectly, used to express the greatest diameter of the 
furnace. In many cases there is no sharp line of demar-, 
cation between the hearth and the boshes, the former being 
simply a continuation of the curved walls of the boshes. 

In constructing a blast furnace, the upper portion is built 
on pillars (of iron or masonry), and is entirely independent 
of the boshes and hearth, which can be removed and re¬ 
constructed without interfering with the body of the stack. 
The top or mouth of the furnace, where the materials are 
charged, may be either entirely and permanently open, or 
provided with an arrangement which closes the furnace 
except during charging, when it is opened by some simple 
mechanism. The tunnel head is a hood or chimney, either 
of sheet iron or brick, over the mouth of the furnace, pro¬ 
vided with suitable openings to allow the charge to be 
dumped into the furnace. The gases of the furnace, which 
were formerly allowed to escape and burn at the mouth, are 
now almost universally utilized. This is effected by mak¬ 
ing openings in the walls of the furnace—some distance 
below the top in open-mouth furnaces, but as near the top 
as possible where the top is closed—and conducting the 
gases by suitable channels either to the boilers or hot-blast 


Fig. 1. 



























































































BLAST FURNACE. 


stoves, or both, where they are burned. With closed-top 
furnaces the utilization of the gases is complete; with open- 
top a considerable quantity escapes and burns at the mouth. 

The essential accessories of a blast furnace are the blow¬ 
ing-engine, hot-blast stoves, and hoist. There are three 
varieties of blast-engines in use: the vertical-beam engine, 
the horizontal, and the upright. The latter have the steam 
cylinder either directly above or below the blast cylinder. 
They are rapidly gaining in favor, owiDg to their compact¬ 
ness and efficiency. The blast, on leaving the blowing 
cylinder, passes to the hot-blast stoves. These consist of a 
series of cast-iron pipes, through which the blast passes, 
heated on the outside by the combustion of the gases of the 
furnace. The gases are usually burnt in a combustion 
chamber under the chamber containing the pipes. In this 
way the heat is more uniformly distributed, .and there is 
less danger of the pipes being injured by the heat. Re¬ 
cently Siemen’s system of regenerative heating has been 
applied to hot-blast stoves with the best results. In this 
system the gases are burned in a chamber, and the prod¬ 
ucts of combustion pass through a network of firebrick, 
which becomes intensely heated. The gases are then caused, 
by means of valves, to pass into a second stove like the first, 
and burned as before, while the blast is conducted through 
the first stove. The blast and gases are made to alternate 
in this way at regular intervals. The temperature of the 
blast as it enters 
the furnace varies 
within wide lim¬ 
its. There are 
but comparative¬ 
ly few furnaces at 
the present day 
driven with cold 
blast, the temper¬ 
ature employed 
varying from300° 
to 1000° F. With 
the firebrick stove 
above mentioned 
a temperature of 
from 1500° to 
1600° F. has been 
attained. The 
blast on leaving 
the stoves passes 
through the main 
to the furnace, 
and is there dis¬ 
tributed to the 
tuyeres. The 
pressure employ¬ 
ed varies with the 
kind of fuel used. 

Charcoal furnaces 
usually are blown 
with a half to one 
and a half pounds, 
though sometimes 
as high as four 
pounds are used. 

Coke furnaces are 
blown with three to four pounds, while anthracite furnaces 
require four to seven pounds. 

Hoists or lifts serve to raise the ore, fuel, etc. from the 
ground to the level of the mouth of the furnace, where 
they are charged. There are many varieties, as the pneu¬ 
matic, hydraulic, and steam hoist. Occasionally a furnace 
is favorably situated on a hill-side, and no hoist is needed. 

Fig. 1 is a section of a modern blast furnace in the Cleve¬ 
land district of England. Its height is 75 feet; greatest 
diameter 24 feet at an elevation of 24 feet; diameter of 
hearth, 8 feet; height of hearth, 8 feet; diameter of mouth, 
]5 feet. There are three tuyeres, 4J inches in diameter. 
Cubic capacity, 20,000 feet. Yield, 350 tons of iron per 
week. 

Figs. 2 and 3 represent an elevation and vertical section 
of a modern American furnace at Chicago. Its height is 
66 feet; greatest diameter, 17 feet; yield, 350 tons iron per 
week. The gases are taken off at the top of the furnace, and 
descend by a vertical flue, then by an underground chan¬ 
nel to the boilers and hot-blast stoves. The contrivance 
for closing the mouth of the furnace, shown in the draw¬ 
ings, is known as the cup and cone, or bell and hopper. 
This arrangement is one of the simplest, and the one most 
generally adopted. 

The blast furnace of the present day is an outgrowth of 
the small primitive furnaces still to be met with in Eastern 
countries for reducing iron ores. It differs ftom them, how¬ 
ever, in three essential particulars. The low furnaces pro¬ 
duce an unmelted mass of soft iron, and a cinder rich in 


511 


oxide of iron, and the process is intermittent. A blast 
furnace produces a compound of iron and other substances, 
principally carbon, which is fluid at the temperature of the 
furnace; the cinder is composed of earthy ingredients, and 
is almost entirely free from iron, and the process is contin¬ 
uous. Intermediate between the two is the German Blau- 
ofen, or Blaseofen, ten to sixteen feet in height, which, ac¬ 
cording to the manner in which it is worked, can be made 
to yield either soft or cast iron. These furnaces have no 
fore-hearth, but are built with closed fronts—a construc¬ 
tion which has lately been applied to large blast furnaces .. 
successfully, but the system has not been extensively 
adopted. 

The history of the development of blast-furnace con¬ 
struction for the last half century is almost entirely a 
record of increasing dimensions, both in height and diam¬ 
eter, having for a consequence greater yield, and, within 
certain limits, greater economy of fuel. The flat boshes 
of the older furnaces and the rapid narrowing upward 
towards the mouth have been generally replaced by steeper 
boshes and wider mouths. There have been, however, no 
universally accepted principles of blast-furnace construc¬ 
tion developed, as far as regards the interior outline. The 
Cleveland district of England affords a striking instance 
of the growth of furnaces in height and capacity. Fur¬ 
naces were built 

In 1851, 42 feet high, 15 feetdiam., capacity 4,566 cubic feet. 

“ 1861, 62 “ “ 20 “ “ “ 12,778 “ “ 

“ 1870, 90 “ “ 30 “ “ “ 41,149 “ “ 

The Blast-furnace Process .—The charge introduced into 
the mouth of a blast furnace consists of iron ore, which 
varies greatly in richness and purity in different regions; 
fuel, either raw coal, coke, or charcoal; and, ordinarily, 
limestone, the latter serving to unite with the earthy mat¬ 
ters of the ore and form a fluid slag or cinder. The action 
of the furnace, expressed in its simplest form, is as follows: 
Air is blown through the tuyeres, and comes in contact 
with incandescent fuel. The oxygen of the air is speedily 
converted into carbonic oxide gas, which, together with the 
nitrogen of the air, rises through the descending charge. 
The reaction of the carbonic oxide and oxide of iron of the 
ore results in the formation of metallic iron and carbonic 
acid gas; the latter, ascending, escapes at the mouth of the 
furnace, while the former descends to the hottest part of 
the furnace, where it melts and drops into the hearth. 
The earthy matters of the charge fuse likewise, and collect 
in the hearth, floating on top of the molten iron. At reg¬ 
ular intervals the slag and iron are tapped off: the former 
is thrown away, and the latter is cast in moulds of sand or 
iron, and forms “pigs.” Although this simple statement 
of the blast-furnace process is correct as far as the end 
result is concerned, yet the reactions which occur in the 
furnace are, in reality, very complex and dependent on 
many conditions. The reducibility of different varieties 
of ore is very dissimilar: while some varieties require a 
high temperature and long exposure to an atmosphere rich 
in carbonic oxide gas, other varieties yield up their oxygen 
at a comparatively low temperature and short exposure to 
an atmosphere relatively poor in carbonic oxide. Accord¬ 
ing to Bell, a gaseous mixture of 40 to 45 volumes of carbonic 
acid to 100 of carbonic oxide fails to exert any appreciable 
effect on Cleveland iron-stone at a temperature of melting 
zinc (782° F.), but the same mixture possesses decided re¬ 
ducing power at a red heat. Again, some ores are rapidly 
reduced with the above gaseous mixture at a temperature 
at which Cleveland iron-stone is unaffected. 

The reduction of iron ores, or the removal of the oxygen 
of the oxide of iron, does not simply consist in the ab¬ 
straction of oxygen by carbonic oxide. The investigations 
of Bell prove that reaction of carbonic oxide and oxide of 
iron is a very complex one. The first effect is the forma¬ 
tion of some carbonic acid and some metallic iron. The 
further action of carbonic oxide on the metallic iron thus 
formed causes the carbonic oxide to break up into carbonic 
acid and carbon, the latter being deposited in the form of 
a black powder on the reduced metal. This combined pro¬ 
cess of reduction and carbon deposition continues until the 
iron is nearly all in the metallic state; but absolute reduc¬ 
tion is never attained by the action of the carbonic oxide 
alone. As this product, composed of iron arid carbon and 
some oxide of iron, descends into the hotter regions of the 
furnace, the carbon thus deposited is partially removed by 
the carbonic acid, but it is not until the point of fusion is 
reached that the last traces of oxygen are removed. It is 
probable that the carbon found in the pig iron is a part of 
the carbon deposited in the ore. The amount and rate of 
carbon deposition depends on the temperature and the rel¬ 
ative amount of carbonic acid present in the gases. It 
may begin as low as 392° F., but decreases rapidly as soon 
as a red heat is reached. The most favorable temper¬ 
ature is between 752° F. and 842° F. The temperature of 





















































































































































BLASTING. 


512 


incipient reduction of sesquioxide of iron by carbonic oxide 
is variously given by different observers. Bell’s determin¬ 
ation is the lowest by far—viz. 284° F.—while the oxidation 
of metallic iron, according to the same observer, does not 
begin below 752° F. 

It is evident that the economical production of iron in 
the blast furnace is mainly a matter of the amount of fuel 
used. A saving of the fuel in the process can be effected 
in two ways: first, by increasing the heat of the descend¬ 
ing charge; and second, by increasing the heat of the 
ascending blast. The first of these conditions is realized 
by adding to the height or diameter of the furnace; in 
other words, increasing its capacity, so as more effectually 
to intercept the heat of the escaping gases ; and the second 
condition is accomplished by direct heating of the air forced 
into the furnace. It was long considered that there was no 
limit to the saving that could be effected by increasing the 
capacity of the furnace and temperature of the blast, but 
Bell has shown that the profitable limit has probably been 
attained in both instances, at least in so far as the smelting 
of Cleveland ore is concerned. The practical limit of ca¬ 
pacity in a blast furnace is reached when the gases which 
are given off at the mouth no longer have the power to 
abstract oxygen from the ore—a condition dependent on 
the temperature of the gases, and the relative amount of 
carbonic oxide they contain. But gases which are inactive 
on one ore at a given temperature may still have power to 
reduce another ore at the same temperature; consequently, 
the height and capacity of a blast furnace is dependent on 
the kind of ore smelted in it. In the case of Cleveland 
ore (containing in a calcined state 41 per cent, of iron), 
of difficult reducibility, Bell finds that the profitable limit 
is reached in furnaces of from 12,000 to 15,000 cubic feet 


Fig. 3. 



capacity, with temperature of blast about 900° F. The 
escaping gases then have a temperature of GOO to 700° 
F., and contain 6.58 hundredweight of carbon, in the 
form of carbonic acid, for each ton of pig iron produced, 
and 40 to 45 volumes of carbonic acid to 100 volumes of 
carbonic oxide. The consumption of fuel under these cir¬ 
cumstances is from 21£ to 22 hundredweight of coke for 
1 ton of pig iron produced. Furnaces of 30,000 and 40,000 
cubic feet capacity, driven with a blast of 1400 or 1500° F., 
do not exhibit any further economy of fuel. In smelting 
richer and more readily reducible ores a small cubic ca¬ 
pacity suffices to attain the minimum expenditure of fuel. 
A notable instance is the Urbna furnace in Austria, work¬ 
ing spathic ores. It is 36 feet high, and has a capacity of 
only 1200 cubic feet, but makes 140 tons of iron per week 
with 14 hundredweight of charcoal per ton of iron, the 
temperature of blast being 392° F. 


The cause of the great economy of fuel effected by the 
hot blast—say, on an average, 10 to 11 hundredweight per 
ton of iron—has long puzzled metallurgists, and the sub¬ 
ject cannot be said to be yet entirely removed from the 
sphere of speculation. The researches of Bell in England 
and Akerman in Sweden have, however, recently thrown 
great light on the subject. The following considerations 
show where the principal sources of economy lie; in other 
words, why the combustion of a given amount of fuel, out¬ 
side of the furnace and conveyed through the blast, is 
more than equivalent to the same amount of fuel burnt in 
the furnace itself. The fuel burnt before the tuyeres is 
oxidized merely to carbonic oxide, and gives per unit of 
carbon only 2400 heat-units; while the fuel in the hot- 
blast stoves is burnt to carbonic acid, and gives, per unit 
of carbon, 8000 heat-units, or more than three times the 
amount in the first instance. Although not more than 
one-half of this heat is available, owing to loss by the 
chimney and by radiation, yet there is still a gain from 
this source. The principal source of saving, however, is 
to be found in the fact that the heat brought into the fur¬ 
nace by the blast is unaccompanied by any increase in the 
bulk of the gases in the furnace; whereas the same amount 
of heat produced by the combustion of the fuel before the 
tuyeres would have been accompanied by the amount of 
air necessary for its combustion. This decrease in the 
bulk of the gases, consequent upon the use of hot blast, 
acts, first, by diminishing the rapidity of the upward cur¬ 
rent, thus allowing longer contact of the gases with the 
ore; and, second, as there is less gas escaping from the 
furnace, less heat will be carried off in this way. 

As the reduction of the ore is dependent upon the tem¬ 
perature and composition of the gases, it is evident that 
the amount of heat which we may supply by the blast has 
a limit, for this heat is unaccompanied by the production 
of carbonic oxide. When, therefore, the fuel used in the 
furnace has been so far reduced in amount as only to sup- 
| ply the minimum amount of carbonic oxide needed for 
reduction of any given ore, further increase of the temper¬ 
ature of the blast can be of no advantage, as the heat thus 
conveyed to the furnace will either escape at the mouth, or 
it will, by increasing the heat of the furnace, cause a loss 
of fuel by enabling the escaping carbonic acid to take off 
another equivalent of carbon. 

The product of the blast furnace is pig or cast iron. Its 
composition is dependent on the ores and fuel used. It 
always contains 3 to 4 per cent, of carbon, and in some 
varieties as high as 5 per cent. The carbon exists in two 
forms in pig iron—chemically combined, and in the form 
of graphite. The darker and more highly graphitic varie¬ 
ties are formed at the highest temperatures. The higher 
the temperature and the more silica the charge contains, 
the more silicon will be reduced and unite with the iron. 
A high temperature has also the tendency, in very basic 
charges, to reduce some of the metals of the alkaline earths. 

Sulphur is more readily removed in the cinder at an ele¬ 
vated temperature, while the total phosphorus of the charge 
goes almost entirely into the pig iron, whatever the tem¬ 
perature may be. 

The production of a blast furnace depends on its ca¬ 
pacity, the richness and reducibility of its ores, the nature 
of the fuel, and the temperature of blast. While some 
small furnaces yield but three tons daily, the production 
of some of the mammoth furnaces of England is eighty 
tons daily. The composition and character of the cinder 
or slag from a blast furnace depends on the nature of the 
ore and the temperature of the furnace. It consists mainly 
of a double silicate of lime and alumina. 

T. M. Drown, Metallurgist. 

Blast'ing [from the Ang.-Sax. blsesan, to “blow”]. 
The use of gunpowder in quarrying stone probably dates 
back almost to the invention of that explosive. In ordi¬ 
nary practice the blocks of stone are separated from the 
mass in the quarry by means of one or more blasts, each 
blast being made by first drilling a hole into the rock by 
the use of a drill, operated either by hand, or—as is now 
the practice in large works, especially large tunnels or 
shafts—by machinery driven by steam or compressed air. 

In removing very large masses of rock quickly, to make 
way for a railroad, to furnish stone in sufficient quantities 
for the rapid construction of an important breakwater, or 
to prepare the site for a fort, it has become the custom to 
run galleries into the rock, and to place in chambers pre¬ 
pared for the purpose very large charges of powder of suf¬ 
ficient power to bring down the whole face of a cliff or side 
of a mountain, as was the case at Dover and Holyhead in 
England, and at Lime Point, entrance to San Francisco 
Bay, Cal. Each of these methods for removing rock will 
be described in turn. 

In hand-drilling the operation is performed by means 
of a drill or jumper, which is formed from a bar of steel, 























































BLASTING. 


513 


or of iron tipped with steel at one end, which is flattened 
out into a fan shape, with a sharp cutting edge extending 
on each side a little beyond the body of the drill, as seen 
in Fig. 1, so that the drill may have free 
play in working. The drills are of lengths 
suited to the depths of the holes to bo 
drilled, it being customary to use a short 
drill in commencing a hole, and longer 
ones in succession as the hole is deepened. 

Their diameters also vary, generally with 
the depths of the hole, but are also much 
modified by the kind of explosive used, 
blasting powder requiring much more space 
for the charge than nitro-glycerine and its 
compounds. 

In drilling shallow holes of one inch or 
less diameter, the quarryman holds the 
drill in one hand (see Fig. 2), turning it a 
little with each blow, and with the other 
hand wields a hammer weighing from four 
to seven pounds. (See Fig. 3.) In this 
way he can drill in granite an average of 
eight feet in a day. 

In drilling holes ranging from one to 
three and a half inches in diameter, and 
two to fifteen feet in depth, three men are 
usually required (Fig. 4), one to hold and 
turn the drill, and the other two to wield 
hammers (Fig. 5) weighing from fourteen 
to eighteen pounds, striking the drill al¬ 
ternately. The progress thus made in 
granite has been from two and a half to 
twelve feet per diem, in holes varying re¬ 
spectively from three and a half to one 
and a half inches in diameter. 

To prevent the cutting edge of the drill 
becoming heated, and thereby softened, 
water is frequently poured into the hole, 
and a wisp of straw, hay, or a rag is laid 
around the drill at the mouth of the drill¬ 
hole to prevent the water spurting out 
when the drill is struck by the hammer. 

From time to time the fragments and 
powdered stone have to be taken out of the drill-hole by 
means of a spoon or scraper. (Fig. 6.) 

Another form of drill, called the churn-drill or churn- 
jumper, is frequently used, when the holes are vertical or 
nearly so. (Fig. 7.) It is usually seven or eight feet long, 
but may be as much longer as required for deeper holes. 
It is sharpened at each end into a cutting drill edge, and 
sometimes has an iron bulb in the middle to give additional 
weight in falling, and consequently greater effect in drill¬ 
ing. Two men are usually employed to operate it, raising 
it, turning it about one quarter round, and letting it fall, 
cutting the rock by the force of gravity. (Fig. 8.) Some¬ 
times a spring rod and line are used to facilitate the opera¬ 
tion, enabling one man to operate the drill. (Fig. 9.) The 
progress made is better than with the drill and hammer, 
being about sixteen feet per diem, but the cutting edges 
suffer greater injury, becoming oftener dulled or broken, 
rendering frequent sharpening necessary. 

The next step, after finishing the drilling and removing 
the chips, powdered stone, etc. from the bottom of the 
drill-hole, is to determine the strength of the char ye. In 
former times an inferior kind of gunpowder, called blast¬ 
ing powder, was generally used, and is still employed in 
many quarries in preference to the quicker and stronger 
explosives, apparently for the reason that its slower igni¬ 
tion, by allowing a gradual development of its expansive 
force, produces a greater, and, for their purposes, a better, 
effect upon the rock, breaking it into large masses, better suit¬ 
ed for “ dimension stone.” In furtherance of this idea many 
quarrymen have mixed with the powder certain propor¬ 
tions of other mate¬ 
rials, as fine dry saw¬ 
dust, in the propor¬ 
tions of one-third 
sawdust for small 
charges, and one-half 
for large, and quick¬ 
lime in the propor¬ 
tion of one-third lime ; 
and have also in some 
cases managed to have 
an air-space over or 
around the charge. 

The results are stated 
to have been satisfac¬ 
tory. At Cherbourg, 

France, in blasting rock for the breakwater, sawdust, ob¬ 
tained from the softer kinds of wood, as elm or beech, was 
33 


Fig. 2. 



Fig. 1. 



Drill. 


mixed with gunpowder in equal proportions, and the effect, 
as far as concerns the quantity of rock removed, is reported 
as having been equal to that of similar blasts in which the 
charge was wholly gunpowder. The masses 
were, however, larger, and therefore better 
suited for use upon the breakwater. 

Of late years the necessity for a more 
active agent for use in gold and silver 


Fig. 3. 



agent 

mining, and in excavating railroad tun- 


Hand Hammer. 


nels, and large cuttings in solid rock, has 
brought into use more powerful explosives. 
Nitro-glycerine, first invented and used in 
Europe, has been introduced to a consider¬ 
able extent in this country. At the Iloo- 
sac Tunnel, where its qualities have been 
much improved by Prof. Mowbray, it has 
been manufactured and used exclusively 
since the summer of 1868. The result has 
been an improvement in the rate of month¬ 
ly progress, which, including that result¬ 
ing from the use of machine drills, has in¬ 
creased from 50 to 150 feet, and the quan¬ 
tity of rock removed in the same time, from 19J T ^ cubic 
yards to 1147^ cubic yards. 

Many combinations of nitro-glycerine are also in use, 
some of which are claimed to be safer than, and almost if 
not quite as effective as, nitro-glycerine. Of these dualin, 
invented by Dittmar, and manufactured at Neponset, 
Mass., is much used. This consists essentially of dried 
sawdust soaked with as much nitro-glycerine as it will 
contain. The nitro-glycerine, being thus fixed, is not ap¬ 
parently liable to the changes incident to a liquid state, 
nor to explosion by shocks. Giant powder or dynamite, 
made by soaking nitro-glycerine into a silicious sand, or 
infusorial earth consisting of millions of microscopic shells, 
which readily absorb and retain the nitro-glycerine, is 
claimed to be safe from shocks, and is much used in the 
mines of California, Nevada, and other Western States and 
Territories. Gun-cotton has been used in England, and 
the trials of the disks prepared by Prof. Abel have shown 
marked results of its great explosive power. In the demo¬ 
lition of one of the towers erected in London for the Inter¬ 
national Exhibition of 1862, some of the charges of gun¬ 
cotton were only one-sixteenth, by weight, of the powder 
used in similar charges in other parts of the same building. 

To determine the quantity of powder or other explosive 
that must be pjaced in a mine of any kind, we should take 


Fig. 4. 



into consideration the nature of the soil or rock, its tena¬ 
city, weight, and the quantity of the explosive necessary to 
throw up a cubic yard of it. After ascertaining this by 
actual experiment, the charge necessary for another mine 
or blast in the same material may be found by what is 
called the “ miners’ rulewhich is, that “ the charges of 
two similar mines are to each other as the cubes of their 
lines of least resistance,” orc:c' :: P: l' 3 . 

The “line of least resistance” is the line along which 
the exploded charge finds the least resistance to its vent 
in the open air. Generally, it is the shortest line from the 
centre of the charge to the surface of the rock or ground. 
Quarrymen rarely understand the correct use of this lino 
in determining the quantity of powder for a charge, usually 
confounding it with the depth of the drill-hole. In some 
cases this is not far from correct, as is seen in I ig. 19, 
where the line AB is the lino of least resistance for the 
charge BC. But were the hole drilled to the depth G, FG 
being the position of the charge, the line HE becomes tlio 
line of least resistance. 

A simple rule, very generally followed, is to ‘fill the 















































































514 


BLASTING. 


hole one-third full.” This for holes of medium diameter 
may not be far wrong, but w'here the diameter is larger 
than usual an excessive charge will be the result of its 
application. This is readily seen from the fact that one- 
third of the length of a 2-inch hole will contain nearly 
twice as much powder as the same length of a 11-inch hole, 
and a 2i-mcli hole will contain nearly three times as much. 

The true line of least resistance is measured from the 
centre of the charge, and not from the bottom of the drill¬ 
hole. This distinction is important, as will be seen by 
observing in the following table—taken from Gen. Pasley’s 
“Memorandum on Mining”—the different spaces occupied 
by the same charge in holes of various diameters: 


Diameter of 
the hole. 

Powder contained 
in one inch of hole. 

Powder contained 
in one foot of hole. 

Depth of hole to con¬ 
tain one pound of 
powder. 

inches. 

lbs. 

oz. 

lbs. 

OZ . 

inches. 

1 

0 

0.419 

0 

5.028 

38.197 

n 

0 

0.942 

0 

11.304 

16.976 

2 

0 

1.676 

1 

4.112 

9.549 

<21 

^2 

0 

2.618 

1 

15.416 

6.112 

3 

0 

3.77 

2 

13.24 

4.244 

3? 

0 

5.131 

3 

13.572 

3.118 

4 

0 

6.702 

5 

0.424 

2.387 

41 

0 

8.482 

6 

5.784 

1.886 

5 

0 

10.472 

7 

13.664 

1.528 

51 

0 

12.671 

9 

8.052 

1.263 

6 

0 

15.08 

11 

4.96 

1.061 


Thus, if we have a 1-inch hole, 42 inches deep, charged, 


Fig. 5. 


Fig. 6. Fig. 7. 



Large Hammer. 



Spoon. 




according to the common rule, with 14 inches of 
powder, the centre of the charge, being seven 
inches from the bottom of the hole, will lessen, 
by that distance, the commonly understood line 
of least resistance (the depth of the hole), giving 
35 inches, which is the true line. As the diameter 
of the hole increases the two lines approximate 
more nearly, until with a 6-inch hole they differ 
only by about half an inch. m 

Aware of the unequal results from following the V 
common rule, many quarrymen are accustomed to Churn 
determine the charge by appearances, including Drill, 
in that term the nature of the rock, position of planes of 



stratification, diameter of drill-hole, and a mental com¬ 
parison with similar 
mines with which they 
have had experience. In 
those quarries and mines, 
however, which are work¬ 
ed with the best system 
and economy the charges 
are almost always deter¬ 
mined by the “miners’ 
rule,” the charge in 
pounds being obtained 
by multiplying the cube 
of the line of least resist¬ 
ance, expressed in feet, 
by a certain fractional 
number, the value of 
which depends upon the 
nature of the rock to bo 
blasted. 

The following table, ta¬ 
ken from Lieut.-Gen. Sir 
John Burgoyne’s “ Notes 
on Blasting Itock,” gives 
the charges of “ Mer¬ 
chant’s blasting powder” 
used in the granite quar¬ 
ries of Kingstown, near 
Dublin, Ireland, which were generally found to be sufficient 
to fracture the rock : 


Lines of least resist¬ 
ance, in feet. 

Charges of Merchant’s 
blasting powder. 

Remarks. 

1 

lbs. 

0 

OZ. 

oy 2 

To make sure, I or | oz. 

2 

0 

4 

should be added to so 
small a charge. 

3 

0 

13 H 


4 

2 

0 


5 

3 

14 M 


6 

6 

12 


7 

10 

11 'A 


8 

16 

0 



The above charges, according to the “ miners’ rule,” are 
all proportional to the cubes of the lines of least resistance 
in feet. 

In the demolition of the walls of the building erected for 
the International Exhibition of 1862 the charges, when ar¬ 
ranged in the wall in three-lined intervals, were equal to $ 



( l . /. r.) 3 (five-eighths of the cube of the line of least re¬ 
sistance, in feet ); for two-lined intervals the charges were 
£ (£. l.r.) 3 ; and for one-lined intervals, from I (/. 1. r.) 3 to 

In blasting rock, a hard quartzose schist, for the con¬ 
struction of a pier to form the new harbor of Holyhead, Eng¬ 
land, in 1850-51, the charges of Merchant’s blasting pow¬ 
der ranged from | ( l . 1. ?\) 3 to ( l . I . r.) 3 , depending upon 

* “ Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers,” vol. 
xiv., p. 148. 





































































































































































the positions of the charges in relation to the planes of 
stratification.'* 

In the three large charges used to blast down Round 
Down Cliff (composed of chalk) near Dover, England, in 
1843, their strength was calculated at ( l . 1. r.) 3 . f 

At Delhi, India, in blasting hard quartzose l-ock the 
charges for lines of least resistances of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and G 
feet were, respectively, 4, 8, 14, 20, 2G, and 36 ounces. J 

Fig. 10. 



Fig. 11. 




! 


In the large blast in sandstone at Lime Point, entrance 
to San Francisco Bay, Cal., in 1868, the lines of least re¬ 
sistance being between 45 and 50 feet, the charges were 
4000 pounds and 3500 pounds, or about -X- ( l . l.r.)K 

Charging the Drill-hole .—After the strength of the 
charge has been determined by any of the above rules, and 
all moisture removed from the bottom of the drill-hole by 
means of wisps of straw, hay, or bits of rags, the 
charge is introduced. If the hole be vertical, the 
powder is poured in by means of an ordinary fun¬ 
nel of tin, or, preferably, copper; but if the hole 
is inclined, the funnel is lengthened out by attach¬ 
able sections, so as to reach nearly to the bottom 
of the hole, in order that the powder may be lodged 
at the bottom, without allowing any particles to 
adhere to the sides, as they would do if poured in 
loosely. The danger of premature explosion from 
the tamping-bar striking fire against the sides of 
the hole is thereby avoided. For this purpose, 
also, the tamping-bar (Fig. 11) should be shod 
with copper. 

A wooden rod is used to press down the powder 
and to dislodge any grains that may have attached 
themselves to the sides of the hole. If the hole 
be horizontal or nearly so, the charge is placed at 
the bottom of the hole by using a semi-cylindrical 
scoop with a long handle. The charge is placed 
in the scoop, which is then carried to the bottom 
of the hole, and being turned over is then with¬ 
drawn, leaving the powder at the bottom. 

If the hole is inclined upward, a cartridge to 
contain the powder must be used; this is pressed 
home by the wooden rod, and if the inclination 
of the hole be great, a wad of straw or hay is 
pressed up against it to hold it in place until the 
tamping can be introduced. 

Tamping .—The priming-needle is next used. 

This is a long wire tapering towards the point, 
so as to be easily withdrawn after the tamping 
is rammed around it, and enlarged at the other 
end to form an eye for the introduction of an iron 
bar in withdrawing it. (Fig. 12.) It should be 
tipped with copper, and would be better if made 
entirely of that material. The needle is intro¬ 
duced so that its tip shall penetrate well into the 
charge. It is usually wrapped with paper, so that 
when withdrawn the paper may remain as a wall 
to the fuse-hole, preventing any loose particles 
of tamping from falling into and choking it. The 
needle being held firmly against one side of the 'p a 7irni n g- 
drill-hole (Fig. 12), the tamping is introduced, ‘jj./,. 
First, a wadding consisting of some loose elastic 
material, as a wisp of straw, hay, or piece of dry sod, is 
inserted over the powder; then an inch or two of broken 
brick, or dry clay, or soft stone chips without any flinty 

* “ Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers,” vol. 
ii., p. 1. 

f Ibid., vol. vi., p. 188. 

x Lieut.-Gen. Sir John Burgoyne, “Blasting and Quarrying 
Stone,” p. 76. 


substances in them, are thrown in and lightly rammed 
with the tamping-iron and hammer; then a few more 
inches of brick or stone chips are put in and well rammed, 
and so on successively to the top of the hole, when the last 
one or two inches are filled with damp clay and rammed; 
after which the needle is withdrawn. 

It is stated that if an air-space (as AB, Fig. 13) be kept 
open between the charge and the tamping, leaving the 

Fig. 12. Fig. 13. 



Priming-Needle. 

charge AC to fill one-half or two-thirds of the space BC, 
the effect will be the same as for a full charge filling the 
entire space. The expedient, however, is not often used in 
practice. 

Materials for Tamping .—Broken brick slightly moistened, 
rotten stone, quarry chips not containing any flinty sub¬ 
stances liable to strike fire, well-dried clay, and sharp pit- 
sand, are good tamping materials. Opinions have been 
much divided in this country and in Europe upon the com¬ 
parative merits of sand and clay for tamping. Elaborate 
experiments were made at Fort Adams, under the direction 
of Colonel (afterwards Brigadier-General) Totten, LT. S. En¬ 
gineers, to determine the value of sand for blasting pur¬ 
poses. Sand was forced upward through brass and iron 
tubes by means of a piston to which great power was ap¬ 
plied. The resistance of the sand to this force was so great 
as to reduce to powder the sand in contact with the inside 
of the tube before the mass could be forced out of it. Trials 
were also made with gunpowder as the expelling force. “A 
musket barrel of f-inch bore was charged with two inches 
of powder and thirteen inches of packed sand. On firing, 
the barrel was burst, but the sand was not driven out.” 
“ A piece of musket barrel taken from near the muzzle, and 
open at both ends, was charged at one end with five and a 
half inches of brick-dust, hard rammed, and at the other 
with five and a half inches of sand, well packed, with one 

inch of powder between 
them, a priming-hole be¬ 
ing bored to communi¬ 
cate the fire. The ex¬ 
plosion of the powder 
burst the barrel, but 
neither the sand nor the 
brick-dust was driven 
out.” In conclusion, the 
report of Lieut. Brown 
sa} r s : “ The experience 
at Fort Adams proves 
that the resistance of¬ 
fered by sand is quite 
sufficient for blasting 
rocks, and the advan¬ 
tages attending its use 
are, that it is much less 


Fig 



Plug and Feather. 


troublesome than the usual mode, and that it is perfectly 
safe. To ensure success, the space left above the chargo 
should have a length of ten or twelve times as great as the 
diameter of the hole.” $ 

Experiments made at the works carried on at Kingstown, 
near Dublin, Ireland, to test the relative values of sand and 
clay for tamping, exhibited in their results a marked supe¬ 
riority in the latter over the former, which was very often 
blown out without cracking the rock, w r hile the clay tamp- 

§“ Journal of the Franklin Institute,” July and Aug., 1838. 























































































BLASTING. 


Fig. 16. 


ing in another hole of the same dimensions held firmly, the 
rock being cracked. Sand well packed gave better results 
than when poured loosely into the drill-hole, but not equal 
to those given by clay. The sand was from the sea-shore, 


and of course water-worn. Sharp pit-sand would probably 
have given better results. Of the three varieties, coarse, 
fine, and medium sand, the medium proved to be the best. 
In blasting rock at Cherbourg, France, the experience 


Fig. 15. 


Fig. 18. 


Fig. 17. 


was in favor of sand-tamping, which was used with great 
success and exclusively of all others.® 

In using nitro-glycerine, sand-tamping is much prefer¬ 
able, as the shocks from ramming any other kind of tamp¬ 
ing are liable to explode the charge. 

Many contrivances, such as cones, plugs, and wedges, 
have been employed to place over the charge in the drill¬ 
hole for the purpose of increasing the resistance of the 


Fig. 19. 



tamping, but they consume time in their proper placement 
and confinement in position, and are also expensive. Their 
use, therefore, is confined to particular blasts, which require 
unusual time and trouble in their preparation, and from 
which compensating results are expected. 

* “Memoire sur la digue de Cherbourg,” par J. M. F. Cachin, 
page 51, note. 


To obtain greater effect from a given drill-hole, the bot¬ 
tom of the hole has sometimes been enlarged by the use 
of acids to form a sort of chamber for the reception of the 
charge. At Marseilles, France, in blasting a calcareous 
rock, dilute nitric acid was poured to the bottom of the 
drill-hole through a small leaden tube. The effervescence 
produced by the decomposition of the rock, escaping to the 
surface through an outer tube, carried with it the substances 
of the dissolved rock. 

Priming the Charge. —The usual way is to fill the needle- 
hole with fine powder, then place in connection with the 
powder at its mouth a slow match, made by soaking coarse 
paper in saltpetre or a solution of powder. The slow match 
is made long enough to allow the quarryman, after lighting 
one end of it, to seek a place of safety before the explosion 
takes place. Sometimes the priming is contained in straws, 
joined together end to end so as to make a tube sufficiently 
long to reach the charge. This is inserted in the needle- 
hole, and fire is communicated, as above, by a slow match 
or portfire. . 

Bickford’s safety fuse and others of similar character are 
frequently used, especially in wet localities. The fuse is cut 
so that when one end is inserted into the charge the other 
will project about an inch above the mouth of the hole. 
The wadding is then put in, and after it the tamping is 
rammed around it in the same way as around the needle. 
This fuse possesses great advantages over the common 
priming when the drill-hole is horizontal or inclined up¬ 
ward, or much water is present. In the latter case the 
charge should be contained in a waterproof cartridge, and 
the junction of the fuse with it be made watertight by 
means of a wrapping of twine covered with wax. 

At Cherbourg the use of the needle and the usual tamp¬ 
ing was dispensed with. A straw tube, such as has been 
described, filled with priming composition, was placed in 
the drill-hole, the lower end being inserted into the charge. 
Fine and thoroughly dried sand was then poured in until 
the drill-hole was full. The upper end of the straw was 
then opened and the composition ignited, the slowness of 
burning affording time for the miner to seek shelter. 

At Delhi, India, a reed filled with powder was used to fire 
the charge. The reed was inserted into the needle-hole, and 
the top being split, a piece of rock was laid upon one of the 
splits to prevent it falling into the hole. The powder being 
ignited by a piece of touch-paper and a train, the reed flew 
to the bottom of the needle-hole like a rocket, and ignited 
the charge. 

Of late years the use of electricity in blasting has much 
increased, especially since the introduction of nitro-glyce¬ 
rine and its compounds, and gun-cotton, which can best bo 
fired by the shock of a minor explosion. If ignited, they 
burn without any explosive effect. In firing a charge of 
powder all that is necessary is to make a short interruption 
of the conducting wires in connection with the charge. In 
passing the electric current a spark is produced at the point 
of interruption sufficient to ignite the powder. In firing 
nitro-glycerine or gun-cotton an “exploder” containing a 
sensitive priming composition is necessary. Those used at tho 
Iloosac Tunnel are made there by Prof. Mowbray, by first in¬ 
serting the ends of two insulated wires into a small wooden 




























































































BLASTING. 517 


cylinder, where they are accurately fixed in position, so as 
to give a spark upon the passage of the electric current. 
The wooden cylinder is then filled with the priming com¬ 
position (composed of sulphide and phosphide of copper 
and chlorate of potash), and this is then connected with a 


Fig. 20. 



copper cap containing fulminate of mercury, and the whole 
enclosed in a wooden cylindrical case made watertight. 
The resistance of the copper cap adds much to the force 
of the exploder, and ensures the effective explosion of the 
nitro-glycerine. 

A frictional electric machine made by Mr. H. Julius 
Smith of Boston is very portable, and has been found use¬ 
ful for firing mines. The ebonite disk for exciting elec¬ 
tricity is turned by a small crank between two rubbers 
covered with sulphuret of tin, and all is enclosed in a com¬ 
pact case of vulcanite. By simply turning the crank back¬ 
ward the connection of the poles of the battery with the 
conducting wires is made, and the charge is fired. 

A magneto-electric machine made by Ritchie & Sons of 
Boston is used at the Hoosac Tunnel, and possesses the 
power of firing 150 charges simultaneously. The conduct¬ 
ing wires used are of copper encased in a watertight cover¬ 
ing of gutta-percha. 

Cutting up Large Blocks. —In reducing the masses thrown 
out by a blast to the sizes of “ dimension stone ” required 
for use, lines of small holes are usually cut in the direction 
required, selecting, if possible, the natural lines of cleavage. 
These small holes are wedge-shaped, about three inches 
long, two inches deep, and three inches apart. Into these 
iron wedges are inserted, and struck with a heavy iron 
hammer, in succession, from one end of the row to the 
other. 

Splitting with the “plug and feather” is more generally 
used where it is desired to obtain a uniform split surface to 
a considerable depth. A row of circular holes, about one 
inch in diameter, five or six inches in depth, and the same 
distance apart, are drilled along the line to be split. Two 
feathers are then placed on opposite sides of each hole. 
The feather (Fig. 14), when in position, is like an inverted 
iron wedge having a smooth surface to receive the plug, 
and a circular back to fit the sides of the drill-hole. Be¬ 
tween these feathers the plug (a long narrow wedge) is in- 

Fig. 21. 



Annular Boring-Head. 


sorted, the faces of the plug and feathers being parallel to 
the desired line of cleavage. The plugs are then driven in 
succession as above, until the rock splits. 

In the large quarries at Aberdeen and Peterhead in the 


north of Scotland the charges used are merely sufficient to 
break the rock into large masses. A process called “bull¬ 
ing” is then had recourse to. This consists in filling the 
vertical cracks and fissures opened by the blast with pow¬ 
der, and firing it. The explosion throws the blocks for¬ 
ward in their beds some inches, if not several yards, into 
positions convenient for splitting up. 

Quarry Shields. —In a populous locality, or one where it 
is difficult for the quarrymen to reach a place of shelter 
from the small fragments of rock that are sent by the blast' 
flying through the air, it is usual to cover the rock around 
the hole with brush or loose plank or timbers weighted 
with stone. These prevent the fragments from flying so 
far. Shields of boiler iron and of plank strongly nailed 
together are used in very confined localities, as in drifts 
and shafts of mines. The iron shields used in the quarries 
near Glasgow, Scotland, were two and a half feet square 
by one-fourth of an inch thick. 

Steam Drilling-Machines .—The length of time required, 
as well as the great labor and expense of drilling by hand, 
has led to the introduction, in large private and public 
works, of drilling-machines driven by steam or compressed 
air. Sommeiller invented a machine which was used with 
success at the Mount Cenis Tunnel. This was driven by 
compressed air conveyed into the headings in pipes, the 
the compressors being situated near the E. and W. en¬ 
trances to the tunnel. Subsequently the Burleigh drill, 
similar to the above, was patented in this country, and is 
now manufactured largely by the Burleigh Drill Manufac¬ 
turing Company at Fitchburg, Mass. This has been used in 
the Hoosac Tunnel since the summer of 1866, giving great 
satisfaction, the progress by its use and that of nitro-gly¬ 
cerine having since increased from 50 to 150 feet per month, 
notwithstanding the size of the heading had been more than 
doubled in the mean time. The value of this machine war¬ 
rants a brief description. 


Fig. 22. 



Figs. 15 and 16 show a top and side view of the Bur¬ 
leigh drill, as now made. It consists of three parts—the 
cylinder, the cage, and the piston. “ The cage is merely a 
trough with ways on either side, in which the cylinder, by 
means of a feed-screw and an automatic feed-lever, is 
moved forward as the drill cuts away the rock. The pis¬ 
ton moves back and forth in the cylinder, propelled and 
operated substantially like the piston of an ordinary steam- 
engine. The drill-point is attached to the end of the pis¬ 
ton, which is a solid bar of steel. The piston is rotated as 
| it moves back and forth by ingenious and simple mechan¬ 
ism. The forward movement of the cylinder in the trough 
is regulated by an automatic feed as the rock is cut away, 
the advance being more or less rapid as by the variation in 
the nature of the rock the cutting is fast or slow.” When the 
drill is in operation a small jet of water is kept playing into 
the drill-hole to cool the drill-point and to soften the rock. 
“When the cylinder has been fed forward the entire length 
of the feed-screw, it may be run back, and a longer drill-point 
; inserted in the end of the piston.” The drilling-machine 
is attached to the clamp (see Figs. 17 and 18) by means of a 
circular plate (aa, Figs. 15 and 16) with a bevelled edge 
cast upon the bottom of the cage near its centre. This 
plate fits a corresponding cavity (lf>, Figs. 17 and 18) in 
one side of the clamp, and is held there firmly in any re¬ 
quired position by the tightening of a screw. By the 











































































































































































































































518 BLASTING. 


motions upon one plane of the plate in its cavity, and 
upon another, at a right angle to the first, of the clamp 
upon the bar, and the sliding endwise of the clamp upon 
the bar, it will be seen at once that any position and direc¬ 
tion of the drill is attainable. It only remains to attach 
the bar, of any reasonable length, to a convenient carriage 
or frame.”'* 

These frames are of various forms, made to suit the dif¬ 
ferent circumstances under which the drill is usually used. 
Of these various forms, the one shown in Tig. 19 is adapted 
to quarry work, open-cut, surface, or shafting work. The 
adjustable legs admit of its being placed upon uneven sur¬ 
faces of the rock. Fig. 20 shows a frame adapted for use 
in a tunnel. It mounts four drills upon two bars, the lower 
of which may be raised or lowered by means of chains, 
pulleys, and a windlass. 

In the Iloosac Tunnel the motive-power is compressed 
air, and this is much better than steam for all tunnel and 
shaft work. By its escape, upon being worked off, it cools 
the headings, refreshes the air, and creates a current out 
of the drift or shaft, which carries off the vitiated air 
caused by blasting, respiration, and burning candles. The 
results of its use upon other works have also been very sat¬ 
isfactory. The progress made in deepening the Illinois 
and Michigan Canal is reported as being from twelve to 
fifteen holes drilled daily, each hole being from 7 to 8 feet 
deep and 4^ inches in diameter, or from 90 to 110 feet per 
diem, equal to the labor of thirty to thirty-five men. At 
Poughquag, N. Y., in very hard, seamy rock, it drilled 40 
holes, 4 inches in diameter, per day, equal to the work of 
twenty men. At the works of improvement at Hallet’s 
Point, carried on by the government, it was reported for 
1868 and 1869 that the drill performed twice the amount 
of work in the same time as, and at one-third the expense 
of, hand-labor. 

Diamond Drill .—The first application of the diamond to 
drilling rock was made by Prof. Rodolphe Laschot, a civil 
engineer of Paris, who found that a rotating drill armed 
with diamond points could be made to bore holes in rock 
rapidly to great depths by forcibly injecting a stream of 


Fig. 23. 



water into the hole through the drill. He also arranged 
the diamond teeth upon the end of a cylinder or boring- 
head, so that a hole with an annular cross section could be 
bored, leaving a cylindrical core in the middle. Tig. 2If 
shows the arrangement of the black diamonds upon this 
bit or boring-head, which is a steel cylinder about four 
inches in length. They are placed in three rows—one on 
the end, one upon the inner, and one upon the outer edge. 
The diamonds in the row on the end cut the forward path 
of the drill, while those in the two other rows enlarge this 
path to admit the free ingress and egress of water to cool 
the diamond point and moisten and soften the rock. Tig. 
22 exhibits one of the numerous forms of the machine 
adapted to tunnelling purposes. 

The motive-power is furnished by two oscillating engines 


* Circular pamphlet of the Burleigh Rock-Drill Company, 
Fitchburg, Mass. 

f Circular pamphlet of Severance & Holt, manufacturers of 
diamond-pointed rock-drills, 16 Wall street, N. Y. 


AA, both attached to the same crank-shaft B. This up 
right shaft by the gear C communicates its motion, with 
double velocity, to the bevelled gears 1) and F. and from 


Fig. 24. 



thence to G and E. E is keyed to the screw-shaft H at the 
clutch M. G has a tubular axis which has a female screw 
cut inside to receive the male screw on the shaft II, thus 
forming a long nut in which the shaft revolves. The velo¬ 
cities being different, the effect of the two screws, like that 
of a differential screw, is to feed forward the drill to its 
work. By changing the diameters of the bevelled gears G 
and F any desired feed may be obtained. In extremely 
hard rock the feed of one inch for 400 revolutions is used, 
allowing the diamonds to cut only of an inch in each 
revolution. The drill-rod being rotated at the rate of 600 
revolutions per minute, the above feed will give a progress 
of 1J inches per minute or 71 feet per hour. In rock of 
ordinary hardness the drill is fed forward at the rate of 1 
inch to 300 revolutions, boring 2 inches per minute or 10 
feet per hour. 

By throwing the clutch M out of gear, the revolution of 
the drill-shaft is suspended, and by the action of the nut- 
gear G is run rapidly back, thus withdrawing the drill-rod 
from the hole bored. The drill-rod J consists of a tubular 
boring shaft made of lap welded tube, with the bit or boring- 
head described above screwed on to one end. As the drill 
cuts an annular channel into the rock, the cylindrical core 
left by the cutters passes up into the hollow drill-rod, and 
is drawn out with the drill-rod in sections of from eight to 
ten feet. The drill-rod may be extended so as to bore any 
depth required. It may also, by convenient arrangements 
provided, be turned in any direction, or raised or lowered, 
as desired. Water is injected into the drill-hole through 
the hollow drill-rod by means of a double-acting plunger 
pump situated at R. 

Fig. 23 represents a more portable form of the machine, 
adapted to use in a shaft. It is mounted upon a movable 
frame, which is fixed in position by jack-screws pressing 
against the sides of the shaft. The motive-power (steam 


Fig. 25. 



A, centre of mine. 

B, top of crater. 

C, superincumbent mass whose fall followed the removal of the 

base. 

D, debris remaining after the explosion, denoting proposed es¬ 
carpment previous to blast. 

or compressed air) is admitted through a pipe leading to 
the surface above, the quantity being regulated by a stop¬ 
cock near the hand of the attendant. The advantages 























































































































































BLASTING. 


519 


claimed for this drill are—that holes may be bored to any 
required depth, thus permitting the charge to be placed at 
the point where its effect is desired, and enabling prospect- 


Fig. 26. 

Section and Elevation 

on W. B. Plan. 



N. B. The section of the cliff at the entrance of the galleries 
is shown by thick dotted lines, and the outline of the debris is 
shown by thin dotted lines. The part removed by the explosion 
is shown by light shading. 

ing holes, or drain-holes for water, to be run in galleries or 
sunk in the bottom of shafts of mines; that the holes are 
perfectly cylindrical and of uniform diameter, thus permit¬ 
ting the use of cartridges of very nearly the diameter of the 
holes. 

At Hallet’s Point, where both drills were used by Gen. 
Newton, the Burleigh drill gave the best results in tunnel- 
work, but for prospecting or drilling long holes for other 
purposes, it is stated that the diamond drill cannot be dis¬ 
pensed with. 

Blasting by Galleries .—In cutting the way for the South¬ 
eastern Railway it became necessary to blast down a por¬ 
tion of Round Down Cliff, near Dover, England, composed 
of compact chalk.* It was decided to run a gallery into 
the cliff, and to place three large charges live feet in 
rear of the centre line of the railway, and three feet above 
its level. The gallery, 4' wide and 5' 6" high, was 
run 20 feet above the level of the railway. (Fig. 24.) 
Three shafts, made in the form of a truncated cone, 3' in 
diameter at top and 5' at bottom, to offer greater resistance 
to the tamping being blown out, were then sunk 17 feet. 
(Fig. 25.) Branches were then run at right angles to the 
drift-way, made of a wedge-shaped form, 2 feet wide at the 
shafts and 4£ feet at the chambers, for the reason stated 
above. Chambers of oblong form were excavated at right 
angles to the branch drifts. 

The charges were calculated at ^ of the cubes of the 
lines of least resistance, which for the middle charge was 
72 feet, and for the two end ones 56 feet each, giving re¬ 
spectively 7500 pounds and 5500 pounds, or a total charge 
of 18,500 pounds. The powder for the charges, in bags, was 
placed in deal boxes put together in the chambers, a vacant 
air-space being left around the boxes. The galvanic wires 
for exploding were connected with two branches within 
each chamber, each branch attached to a primer filled with 
finest rifle powder, and having the ends of the galvanic 
wires connected therein by fine platinum wires. The 
tamping consisted of blocks of chalk laid dry and com¬ 
pactly. It filled the branches, the shafts, and was extended 
in the drift ten feet on each side of the shafts. The charges 
were fired by means of three separate batteries, each con¬ 
sisting of a Daniell battery of 18 cells, and two Grove’s 
batteries of 20 plates each. These were connected with 
the charges by three separate sets of wires. The circuit 
was completed and the mines fired simultaneously by three 
attendants acting by words of command. The ignition 
was followed by a deep hollow sound. “ The bottom of 
the cliff yielded very gently to the force of the powder, 


* “ Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers,” vols. 
vi. and viii. 


assuming a curved form beyond the general face; then the 
upper part began to give way, and finally the whole slid 
out into the sea, carrying everything before it in the most 
magnificent manner.” f Four hundred thousand cubic 
yards of the chalk cliff were removed. This blast is re¬ 
markable as being the first large one, on land, at which the 
galvanic wire was used to fire several charges simultane¬ 
ously. 

In the construction of the large pier to form the new 
harbor of Holyhead, England, it was found that the ordi- ” 
nary process of blasting, even on the largest scale, could 
not supply the quantity of stone required—2500 to 3000 
tons per day. It was therefore decided to operate by 
sinking shafts and running galleries, whichever would 
soonest reach the seat of the charge, and to use large 
quantities of powder, properly distributed in several cham¬ 
bers. f The rock consisted of an extremely hard quartzose 
schist. 

The first large blast was made on the 1st of Nov., 1850, 
and by the 2d of Aug., 1851, the number had reached 58, 
with a total result of 293,890 tons of rock removed by the 
explosion of 103,092 pounds of Merchant’s blasting powder, 
or an average of 2j^ tons to a pound, at a mean cost of 
4 id. per ton. The charges of powder averaged one-four¬ 
teenth of the cube of the line of least resistance, in feet. 
They were so placed that this line should, if possible, be 
perpendicular to the planes of stratification. The results 
were so satisfactory that the method was continued. 

The galleries were from 3 to 4 feet wide and 5 to 5£ feet 
high. In excavating them, holes were drilled from 1£ to 
2 feet deep, inches diameter, which were charged with 
from 4 to 6 ounces of powder, well tamped. Two parties 
of two men each relieved each other day and night, ex¬ 
cavating 1§ feet per day. In the shafts, 6 feet by 4 feet, 
the progress was not so great. In loading, the powder in 
sacks was passed from hand to hand to the chamber, where 
it was usually poured into a deal box prepared to receive it. 
The tamping was formed of red clay, well rammed, every 6 
inches for the first 10 feet, every 12 inches for the next 10 
feet, and every 18 inches for the remaining distance. The 
charges were fired by a Grove’s voltaic battery. 

Fig. 26 represents the arrangement of galleries and 
chambers for a large blast of 12,000 pounds of fine-grained 
powder, which was fired on the 22d of Nov., 1860.$ A 
gallery was run in 34 feet from the face of the cliff; then 
a shaft was sunk 14£ feet, from the bottom of which level 
galleries were driven right and left, and four returns were 
made, at the extremities of which the chambers were 
formed, about 3 feet below the level of the ground-line 
of the quarry. The powder for the charge, in 50-pound 
bags, was passed in by hand to the chamber, where the 
^loader emptied them into larger canvas bags coated with 
tar. These were closely piled in the chamber. The tamping 
was composed of red clay, and was extended out to the 
entrance. 

Fig. 27. 



Sketch of a Drift at Lime Point, Cal., May 20,1868. 


In estimating the quantity of powder for the charges no 
specific rule founded on the lengths of the lines ot least 
resistance was followed, but the cubical contents of the 
rock to be removed was divided by the number of cubic 


f “ Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers,” vol. 
vi., p. 188. 

t Ibid., vols. ii. and vii. 

\ Ibid., vol. x. 













































520 


BLASTODERM—BLEACHING. 


feet in a ton, and this result divided by the number of tons 
of rock that had been found, in previous blasting, could be 
thrown up by one pound of powder. In this case it was 1 
pound to 3 tons. The total charge (12,000 pounds) was 
then divided into four charges, according to their lines of 
least resistance, the tenacity of the rock near each one, and 
the proximity of joints. The resulting charges averaged 
one-fourth of the cubes of the lines of least resistance. 

Fig. 28. 



_ 




J±6L 


Sketch of Powder-Chamber. 


The charges were fired by one of Grove’s batteries. The 
blast threw out 40,000 tons of rock, thus averaging 3J tons 
to the pound of powder used. 

In May, 1868, a large blast was made in the face of the 
bluff at Lime Point, entrance to San Francisco Bay, Cal., 
by Major Mendell, Corps of Engineers, to prepare the site 
for a fort at that point. The rock is described as “a meta¬ 
morphosed or changed portion of the sandstone formation.” 
Its stratification was very much bent and contorted, “ re¬ 
sembling the compressed and crumpled leaves of a book.” 
An entrance gallery was run into the cliff 45 feet (Fig. 27), 
starting twenty feet above low water, and ascending 1 inch 
in 10 feet to drain off the water; then the main gallery 
made two turns to the left to gain a direction- parallel to 
the face of the cliff, extending 80 feet farther with the same 
grade, at the end of which a chamber was formed for one 
charge. Another chamber was formed 60 feet from the first. 
The gallery was commenced with dimensions of 6' 
height by 4' width, giving space enough for two men 
to work and to swing the striking hammer. It was 
then decided to use dualin and giant powder. This 
permitted a reduction of the size of the drill-holes to 
diameters of £ inch, and depths of 18 inches, and a 
consequent reduction of the drilling force and size of 
the drift, one man being able to perform the drilling 
in a drift 4 feet high by 3 feet wide. The cartridges 
were 5 to 8 inches long, and were tamped. The prim¬ 
ing, consisting of fulminate of mercury contained in a 
copper cap, was fired by a fuse. The floor of the 
chambers P and P' were II feet above the floor of 
the gallery. (Fig. 27.) Two wooden boxes were put 
together in them, into which the gunpowder for the 
charges was emptied as it was brought in in sacks 
which had been filled from casks opened at the en¬ 
trance to the gallery : 3500 pounds were placed in the 
first and 4000 in the second chamber. Two priming 
caps, connected with two sets of branch wires from the 
main wires, were placed in each charge. The two 
main wires connecting with the battery were con¬ 
tained in a small wooden box, which also contained 
two lines of water fuse to be used if the wires failed. 

In tamping, the vacant space about the box was 
filled with sand and sods, without ramming. A wall 
of sods was then placed in front of the box; a little 
way in rear of this a second wall of sods, with the 
space between the two well rammed with clay. This 
was continued, sods and clay alternating, to the mouth 


Beardsley’s magneto-electric machine. “ The report was 
dull, and scarcely noticeable. The base ot the hill was 
upheaved, and moved slowly outward. The rock and 
earth above, left unsupported, slid in large masses, a con¬ 
siderable portion falling into the sea.” The portion of the 
hill near the entrance gallery was not displaced ; the tamp¬ 
ing of this portion was therefore removed, and a charge of 
2650 pounds of powder was placed in a third chamber at 
P". It was exploded in the same manner as the others, 
and brought down that part of the cliff. 

The dotted line (Fig. 27) shows the extent of the breach 
made by the three charges. About 5500 cubic yards of 
rock were blown down. 

The above three examples sufficiently illustrate the course 
that has been pursued in blasting by galleries since the 
first blast of the kind in 1843, and afford an excellent in¬ 
dication of the proper method to be followed in similar 
operations. (See also Submarine Blasting, by Gen. John 
Newton, U. S. Eng’rs.) J. G. Foster, U. S. A. 

Blas'toderm [from the Gr. p\a<TTdvu, to “germinate,” 
and Sep/xa, the “skin”], a minute thin membrane on that 
surface of the yelk which, whatever may be the position 
of an egg, is, by a peculiar arrangement, always upper¬ 
most; the germinal membrane or cicatricula. (See Embry¬ 
ology, by Prof. J. C. Dalton, M. D.) 

Blat'ta, a genus of insects which includes the cock¬ 
roaches, belonging to the order Orthoptera. Several species 
of this insect are disgusting household pests, of which the 
most offensive is Blattci oriental is. (See Cockroach.) 

Blau (Ernst Otto Friedrich Hermann), a German 
Orientalist, born April 20, 1821, was sent in 1852 as attache 
to the Prussian embassy in Constantinople, and in 1854 and 
1855 travelled through Asia Minor and the Greek Islands. 
He has written, besides various articles for different maga¬ 
zines, “ Conmurzielle Zustiinde Persiens” (1858). 

Blauw Boc [Dutch for “blue buck,” so named from 
its blue-black color], the Antilope leucophsea an exceed¬ 



The Blauw Boc. 


Fig. 29. 



of the gallery. The face of the cliff in front had been cut 
away (Fig. 28), to increase the effect of the blast. 

The charges were exploded simultaneously by means of 


ingly swift antelope whose habitat extends from Cape Col¬ 
ony to Senegambia. It is six feet long and three and a 
half feet high. It fights when at bay, and is then dan¬ 
gerous. Its flesh is poor. The name is also given to the 
pygmy antelope (Cephalophus pygmjra), which is only a foot 
high. It is found in South Africa. It is of a bluish-slate 
color. 

Bla'zonry, the art of deciphering coats-of-arms; also 
that of expressing or describing a coat-of-arms in appro¬ 
priate language. The word is supposed to be derived from 
the German blasen, to “blow,” and to have originated in 
the ceremonial of tournaments, from which so many other 
terms and usages in heraldry are derived, it having been 
customary on these solemn occasions for the herald to blow 
a trumpet when he called out the arms of a knight on 
ushering him into the lists. Blazonry requires a know¬ 
ledge of—1. The points of the shield, which are nine in 
number; 2. The field—that is, the tincture or tinctures 
forming the ground of the coat; 3. The charges or devices 
borne on the field; 4. The ordinaries. 

Bleach'ing [from the Ger. blei'chen, to “whiten ” (from 
bleich, “white” or “pale”); Fr. blanchir ], a process by 






















































BLEACHING. 521 


which the natural colors of various substances are dis¬ 
charged, so as to whiten them. Bleaching is extensively 
applied to the textile fibres; linen, cotton, wool, and silk; 
and to straw, paper-stock, ivory, wax, animal and vege¬ 
table oils, etc. Until the close of the last century the 
agents employed were air, light, and moisture, aided by 
weak alkalies and acids. More recently the process has 
been wonderfully hastened by the use of such powerful 
agents as chlorine and sulphurous acid. Numerous other 
agents possessing bleaching properties have been from 
time to time recommended, but they have not as yet been 
used to any extent. Such are bromine, ozone, permanga¬ 
nates, chromates, etc. The selection of the bleaching agent 
depends as much upon the properties of the article to be 
bleached as upon the coloring-matters to be removed. 
Cotton, flax, and many other vegetable fibres, being com¬ 
posed of cellulose, one of the most permanent of all organic 
bodies, are capable of withstanding the action of acids, al¬ 
kalies, and chlorine, while the animal fibres, silk and wool, 
being of very different composition, are destroyed by these 
agents, and must be bleached by the milder sulphurous 
acid. 

Modern bleaching includes much more than the mere ap- 
pilcation of chlorine or sulphurous acid. The goods are 
subjected to certain preliminary cleansing processes, such 
as washing in cold or hot water, boiling with alkaline lyes or 
soaps, and treatment with acids. By these operations many 
resinous, fatty, and other impurities, either natural or in¬ 
troduced during the preparation of the yarn, cloth, etc., 
are removed from the fibre. The more powerful agents 
are then used for removing the last traces of coloring- 
matter. 

Special Methods. 

Bleaching Linen .—This is a very ancient art. We read 
in the Scriptures of “fine linen, white and clean.” The 
old method, still practised in some localities, consisted in 
the alternate treatment of the cloth with alkaline and acid 
liquids, and exposure on the grass to air, light, and moist¬ 
ure. Holland long enjoyed the reputation of possessing 
the best bleacheries. The brown linen of Scotland was 
sent over early every spring to be bleached, and on its re¬ 
turn in the late autumn was sold under the name of “ Hol¬ 
lands,” a name still retained in the trade for certain kinds 
of bleached linen. The word “lawn” is another name of 
similar origin, having been applied to a finer quality of 
linen cloth bleached on better grass-plots, or lawns. The 
Dutch process lasted from March till September, and con¬ 
sisted of the following distinct operations, often repeated : 
(1) steeping in water four or five days, or in an alkaline 
lye forty-eight hours. (2) Bucking or bawking, boiling in 
an alkaline lye. (3) Crofting, or exposing on the grass for 
several weeks, and sprinkling from time to time with water. 
(4) Souring with buttermilk. After every dipping the 
cloth was washed with soap, then with water. The process 
was necessarily very expensive and laborious. In 1749 
the Dutch method was introduced into Scotland, where it 
was considerably shortened by the employment of dilute 
solutions of sulphuric acid in place of buttermilk. In 1784, 
Berthollet investigated chlorine, publishing his results in 
1787, and announcing the bleaching properties of this 
element. Prof. Copeland introduced this agent at Aber- 
deen. Chlorine was first used in aqueous solution, then in 
alkaline solution, and finally, in 1798, Charles Tennant of 
Glasgow introduced chloride of lime, which has been 
almost exclusively used ever since. Bleaching linen is 
still a tedious operation, as the fibres are heavily incrusted 
with impurities; the actual loss during the operations of 
bleaching being one-third the original weight, while cotton 
loses only one-twentieth. Steeping, washing, bawking, and 
crofting are still found necessary, and are several times re¬ 
peated. Souring is effected with hydrochloric or sulphuric 
acid. The goods are then chlorinated with hypochlorite of 
potash, made by mixing chloride of lime with carbonate 
of potash. Washing, souring, soaping, scalding in soap¬ 
suds and weak lye, and crofting, complete the operation. 
A fortnight is the shortest time in which the bleaching can 
be effected, and often a much longer time is necessary. 

Bleaching Cotton .—Cotton is either bleached in the yarn 
or in the cloth. The following description of the process 
employed in American print-works will sufficiently illus¬ 
trate the methods in common use : The cloth is (1) “ singed” 
by a shearing-machine or by passing over a red-hot roll 
or over a series of gas flames; (2) it is “ limed,” boiled for 
anight with milk of lime; (3) washed; (4) soured with 
dilute sulphuric acid; (5) washed; (6) bawked, boiled for 
a night with soda-ash and rosin; (7) washed; (8) bawked 
with a weak soda-ash lye for seven or eight hours; (9) 
washed; (10) chemicked with a weak solution of chloride 
of lime; (11) washed; (12) soured with dilute sulphuric acid ; 
(13) washed—the entire series of operations being com¬ 
pleted in three or four days. 


Bleaching Wool .—Wool is (1) washed on the sheep, to re¬ 
move sweat and much of the dirt, including a peculiar sub¬ 
stance called suint, which is a neutral salt of potash with 
a peculiar organic acid. Owing to the high price of potash, 
this suint has recently attracted considerable attention, and 
a special industry has been established in the French wool 
districts for its preservation and utilization. The wool 
contains from 15 to 33 per cent, of suint, a nine-pound 
fleece containing twenty ounces of suint, or six to seven 
ounces of potash. This can be recovered from the water in 
which the sheep are washed. It is estimated that 3,000,01)0 
pounds of potash can be manufactured annually in the 
French districts alone. (2) The wool is steeped in soap 
and water, weak alkaline lye, or putrid urine to re¬ 
move a peculiar lime-soap which it contains, and other im¬ 
purities. It is then oiled for spinning, and finally cleansed 
and bleached, either in the yarn or in the cloth. The oper¬ 
ations consist in passing it (3) through a weak warm solu¬ 
tion of carbonate of soda and soap ; (4) washing with luke¬ 
warm water; (5) exposing to sulphurous acid gas. Oper¬ 
ations 3, 4, and 5 are sometimes repeated once or twice. 
The goods may then be blued with carmine of indigo in a 
weak solution of soap containing a little hydrate of alu¬ 
mina. 

Silk Bleaching .—Raw silk contains about 40 per cent, of 
gummy matter, consisting of albumen, gelatinous sub¬ 
stances, wax, fat, resin, and yellow coloring-matter. This is 
removed by boiling the silk in a solution of soap, and wash¬ 
ing with pure water. Bran is sometimes added to the soap 
to neutralize by the lactic acid it yields any free alkali 
present. When the silk is to be left white, or dyed or 
printed with very light colors, it is exposed for a few hours 
to sulphurous acid gas. 

Bleaching Paper-stock .—Cotton and linen rags are bleached 
in the same manner as cotton yarn and cloth. Old paper 
is treated with caustic soda to loosen the ink, then with 
soapsuds, and finally with chloride of lime. Tow and straw 
are treated with caustic soda and lime, and finally bleached 
with chloride of lime. 

Bleaching Straw .—For the manufacture of hats, bonnets, 
etc., straw is bleached by (1) exposing it on a meadow to 
air, sunlight, and dew, with occasional turning; (2) steam¬ 
ing ; (3) fumigating with sulphurous acid gas. 

Jute is bleached by caustic soda and a chlorine bath made 
by mixing chloride of lime and sulphate of magnesia in 
equivalent proportions, and dissolving them in cold water. 
Human hair is said to be bleached on the head to a blonde 
by the action of aqua regia or of peroxide of hydrogen. 
Feathers are bleached by immersion (1) in a dilute solution 
of bichromate of potassa containing a little nitric acid, and 
(2) in a weak solution of sulphurous acid. Sponges are 
bleached by immersion in a warm solution of caustic 
soda, followed by washing in water and treatment with a 
hyposulphite of soda solution, to which a little hydro¬ 
chloric acid has been added. Ivory is bleached by rubbing 
it with pumice-stone and water, and placing it under a 
glass shade in the sun. It may also be bleached by im¬ 
mersion (1) in a solution of carbonate of soda, (2) in pure 
water, (3) in a solution of sulphite of soda; (4) to the sul¬ 
phite of soda is added dilute hydrochloric acid (5) in pure 
water. Beesxcax is bleached by exposure to air, sunlight, 
and moisture in thin ribbons. Animal and vegetable oils 
are often bleached*by heating them with a little caustic 
alkali, by which a small quantity of soap is formed, which 
settles to the bottom, carrying with it some of the coloring- 
matter. They are also bleached by exposure in shallow 
vessels to the sun under glass. Old engravings which have 
turned yellow may be cleansed or bleached by exposure to 
ozone, generated in a capacious vessel, by a stick of phos¬ 
phorus partly immersed in water. Immersion for a min¬ 
ute in Javelle water, hypochlorite of soda, is said to answer 
equally well, though, to prevent injury to the paper, it must 
be subsequently dipped in water containing hyposulphite 
of soda. 

The Chemistry of Bleaching .—The exact chemical cha¬ 
racter of the changes which occur in bleaching is not fully 
established. When the coloring-matter is absolutely de¬ 
stroyed, it is probable that it is generally due to the action 
of active oxygen, ozone, formed by the agents employed. 
In some cases, however, sulphurous acid unites with the 
coloring-matter, forming a colorless compound, the color 
of which can be restored again. A red rose bleached by 
this agent returns to its original color when placed in di¬ 
lute sulphuric acid. < 

Antichlore .—If free chlorine is allowed to remain in the 
articles bleached, it is liable to injure their strength and 
damage the metallic parts of machinery. To prevent this, 
substances such as hyposulphite or sulphite of soda, pro¬ 
tochloride of tin, coal-gas, etc. are employed, but the first 
mentioned is generally used. These are called Anth iilore 
(which see). C. ^ • Chandler. 











522 


BLEAK—BLENNERHASSETT. 


Bleak (L euciscus alburnu8 ), a small and beautiful 
fresh-water fish of the family Cyprinidse, belongs to the 



The Bleak. 


same genus as the minnow and dace. It is about six inches 
long, is found in many European rivers, and is esteemed 
as a delicate article of food. The inner surface of its 
scales is lined with a silvery substance which is used for 
making artificial pearls and white beads to adorn ladies’ 
dresses. 

Bleb, or Bulla [Lat. bulla, a “bubble”], a blister-like 
elevation of the cuticle containing a watery fluid. Blebs 
are characteristic of some skin diseases, such as pemphigus, 
and are occasionally seen in fevers and disordered condi¬ 
tions of the digestion. 

Blech'num [Gr. ^A^ov], a widespread genus of ferns 
which has representatives in Europe and North America. 

Bleck (Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel), born in Berlin 
Mar. 8, 1827, settled in Cape Town in 1856, where he be¬ 
came librarian of Sir George Grey’s valuable library. He 
wrote, among other works, a vocabulary of the Mozam¬ 
bique languages (1856), a “ Handbook of African, Aus¬ 
tralian, and Polynesian Philology” (London, 1858), “Com¬ 
parative Grammar of the South African Languages” (vol. 

1., 1862), and “Reynard the Fox in South Africa, or Hot¬ 
tentot Fables and Tales” (1864). 

Bled' soe, a county in Tennessee. Area, 330 square 
miles. It is drained by the Sequatchie River. The sur¬ 
face is hilly or mountainous. Grain, wool, and tobacco 
are the chief products. Coal is found. Capital, Pikeville. 
Pop. 4870. 

Bledsoe (Albert Taylor), LL.D., an American officer 
and teacher, born 1809 in Kentucky, graduated at West 
Point in 1830. He served as lieutenant of infantry at Fort 
Gibson till he resigned Aug. 31, 1832. He was adjunct 
professor of mathematics and teacher of French in Ivenyon 
College, 0., 1833-34, professor of mathematics in Miami 
University, 0., 1835-36, counsellor-at-law in Springfield, 

111., 1840-48, professor of mathematics in the University 
of Virginia, 1848-53, and during the civil war assistant 
secretary of war of the Southern Confederacy. He is 
author of an “Examination of Edwards on the Will,” 
1845, and “A Theodicy, or Vindication of the Divine 
Glory,” 1856, and other works ; contributor to the princi¬ 
pal literary, scientific, and theological reviews of the U. S., 
and now principal of a female academy at Baltimore, Md., 
and editor of the “Southern Review” (Methodist). 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Bleeck'er, a post-township of Fulton co., N. Y., has 
manufactures of lumber and leather. Pop. 970. 

Bleed'ing, or HiBm'orrhage [from the Gr. alfjLa, 
“blood,” and pew, to “flow”], in surgery, denotes the es¬ 
cape of blood from the vessels which normally contain it. 
When the escape takes place into the tissues it is called 
“ extravasation.” Haemorrhage into an internal cavity is 
said to be “ concealed.” A slight cut through the integu¬ 
ment is usually followed by loss of blood, chiefly from the 
capillaries. Capillary bleeding will in many cases cease 
spontaneously, or it may require compression or the appli¬ 
cation of medicines, such as persulphate of iron or tannic 
acid. These medicines are called haemostatics or styptics. 
Arterial bleeding is recognized by the fact that the blood 
escapes in jets and is of a bright-red color. Arterial 
bleeding tends spontaneously to grow less, both from the 
feebleness of the heart’s action which naturally follows, 
and from the retraction and contraction of the arterial 
walls, and the consequent formation of a clot of blood, 
which plugs the wound,- but it may be necessary to resort 
to ligation or tying, to acupressure or compression of the 
artery by needles, or to pressure, mechanical or by hand, 
upon the course of the artery between the heart and the 
wound. A handkerchief may be tied around and then twisted 
with a stick. The wounded part should be elevated if 
possible. Venous bleeding is not generally very formid¬ 
able. It may be recognized by the steady flow of dark 
blood. A great source of danger when large veins are cut 
is that air may enter the circulation; in which case death 
may immediately follow. 

Haemorrhage from an internal and inaccessible surface 


may be treated by astringents, as gallic acid, or by ergot, 
which is especially important in puerperal haemorrhage. 
Some individuals have what is known as the haemor¬ 
rhagic diathesis—a disposition to bleed excessively 
even after a slight injury. A tendency to haemorrhage 
from the mucous surfaces is characteristic of some dis¬ 
eases, such as typhoid fever. 

Bleeding, or Blood-letting, the abstraction of 
blood from the circulation as a means of curing or pre¬ 
venting disease. This operation is performed either 
by opening a vein (venesection or phlebotomy), by ab¬ 
straction from the capillaries by means of leeches or 
cups, or more rarely by opening an artery (arterio- 
tomy). Bleeding was formerly in extensive use in the 
treatment of many diseases, generally of an acute or active 
character; and though it has to a great extent been super¬ 
seded by other measures, of late years it has been attract¬ 
ing the attention of the medical profession as a valuable 
therapeutic measure in a certain limited class of diseases. 
While it is liable to abuse, and while, like many other ac¬ 
tive measures in the treatment of disease, it may become a 
source of mischief, it is nevertheless, when used with judg¬ 
ment, a valuable help in the treatment of some disorders. 

Blende [from the Ger. blenden, to “dazzle”], a name 
given to the native sulphide of zinc, which British miners 
call black jack. It abounds in primary and in secondary 
rocks, and occurs both massive and crystallized in octahe¬ 
drons and rhomboidal dodecahedrons. Pure blende is com¬ 
posed of 67 per cent, of zinc and 33 of sulphur. It is a 
valuable ore, but is more difficult to reduce than calamine. 
This is the chief ore employed in the important zinc indus¬ 
try at Friedensville and Bethlehem, Pa. The term is some¬ 
times applied to sulphides of antimony and of manganese, 
the former of which is a rare mineral called red antimony. 

Blen'don, a post-township of Ottawa co., Mich. P. 718. 

Blendon, a township of Franklin co., 0. Pop. 1771. 

Blendon, a township of Nottaway co., Va. Pop. 3026. 

Blenheim, blSn'im, or Blind'heim, the name of a 
celebrated village of Bavaria, near the Danube, 23 miles 
N. N. W. of Augsburg. From it the English have named 
the famous battle which occurred at the neighboring village 
of Hochstadt, Aug. 13, 1704. Here the allied armies, com¬ 
manded by the duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene 
(who had about 52,000 men), attacked the French and Ba¬ 
varians (about 56,000 men), who were commanded by Tal- 
lard and the elector of Bavaria. The duke of Marlborough 
and Prince Eugene gained a decisive victory, and took 
about 13,000 prisoners. The French and Bavarians also 
lost nearly 10,000 killed and wounded, besides many 
drowned in the Danube. The French and Germans call 
this the battle of Hochstadt. 

Blenheim, a thriving village of Harwich township, 
Kent co., Ontario (Canada), 12 miles from Chatham, has 
several large factories, and a large trade in grain and fruit. 
Pop. about 850. 

Blenheim, a township of Schoharie co., N. Y. Pop. 
1437. • 

Blenheim Dog, or Marlborough Dog, a small 
and beautiful variety of spaniel, much resembling the 
cocker in form and appearance, but generally of a black 
color, with flame-colored spots above the eyes and on the 
breast and feet. The muzzle is also fuller. The Blenheim 
spaniel is the Pyrame of Buffon. It derives its English 
name from Blenheim Palace, in Oxfordshire, where the 
breed has been jireserved since the beginning of the eight¬ 
eenth century. These dogs are sometimes sold at an enor¬ 
mous price. 

Blenheim House, a magnificent palace in England, 
near Oxford, was erected at the public expense for the duke 
of Marlborough as a testimony of gratitude for his services 
at the battle of Blenheim (which see). The nation at the 
same time gave him the royal estate of Woodstock, now 
called Blenheim Park, which is adjacent to Blenheim House. 
This edifice was designed by Vanbrugh, and cost more than 
£500,000. It occupies three sides of a square, and the 
principal front extends 348 feet from wing to wing. The 
collection of paintings which adorns the interior is one of 
the largest and most valuable in England. 

Blenk' er (Louis), a German patriot and soldier, born 
at Worms in 1812. After the defeat of the revolutionary 
movement of 1849, of which he had been one of the leaders, 
he took refuge in the U. S. In 1861 he became a brigadier- 
general in the Union army. Died Oct. 31, 1863. 

Blen'nerhas'sett (Harman), a rich Englishman, born 
in Hampshire Oct. 8,1767, who was ruined by his connection 
with Aaron Burr. He was educated at Trinity College, 
Dublin. In 1798 he purchased an island in the Ohio 
River, 2 miles below Parkersburg, and erected on it an ex- 










BLENNORRHCEA—BLINDAGE. 


523 


pensive mansion. He advanced money to aid Burr in his 
enterprises, and was indicted for treason in 1807 as an ac¬ 
complice of Burr, but was released without a trial. Died 
Feb. 1, 1831, in Guernsey. 

Blennorrhoi'a [Gr. f3\4>>va, “ mucous," and pew, to 
“ flow ”], an abnormally copious discharge from any mu¬ 
cous membrane. In discharges termed blennorrhoeal there 
is a mixture of epithelial scales in large quantities from the 
mucous membrane, with numerous pus-cells. After in¬ 
flammation of the urinary mucous membrane a gleety dis¬ 
charge frequently continues for a long period. The treat¬ 
ment consists in establishing health by tonics, fresh air, 
and careful regimen, with astringent lotions to lessen the 
secretion, and occasional local stimulants to alter the de¬ 
praved condition of the mucous membrane. 

Blen'ny ( Blen'nius ), a genus of fishes of the order Tele- 
ostea and family Blenniidm. To this family the wolf-fish 
and the gunnel or butter-fish are referred. They are gen¬ 
erally remarkable for the abundance of slimy matter with 
which their skin is covered. Many are destitute of scales. 
The body is generally of an elongated form. They have 
only one dorsal fin, which, however, seems in many of them 
as if composed of two parts. They are found in the seas 
of many parts of the world. The blennies are small fishes, 
living in shoals, and often found in pools left dry by the 
tide. They possess the power of using their ventral fins to 
aid them in moving about among rocks and sea-weeds. 
They are seldom used as an article of food, but are in 
request for the aquarium, on account of their tenacity 
of life and their activity. They feed chiefly on small 
crustaceans. The Blennius ocellaris (eyed blenny), called 
also the butterfly-fish, has a large and prominent dorsal 
fin, in which is a spot 
resembling an eye. This 
beautiful fish is com¬ 
mon in the Mediterra¬ 
nean, and is sometimes 
found on the coast of 
England. 

Many of the blenny 
family retain their eggs 
within the oviduct until 

they are hatched, so that Eyed Blenny 

the young are produced 
alive, and capable of seeking food for themselves. An ex¬ 
ample of this is found in the viviparous blennies (Zoarces 
rivipara) of the British seas. Several blennies are found 
on the American coasts. 

Blen’s Creek, a township of Forsyth co., N. C. 
Pop. 817. 

Bleph'aris [Gr. /3A e<J>apL<;, an “ eyelash,” referring to I 



The Blepharis. 


the long filaments attached to the fins], a genus of fishes 
allied to the mackerel and the dory, includes the hair- 
finned dory, Blepharis crinitus, a fish found, though 
rarely, on the North American Atlantic coast. 

Blere [Lat. Bliriacum\, a town of France, department 
of Indre-et-Loire, on the river Cher, 16 miles E. S. E. of 
Tours. It has a bridge built about 1150. Pop. in 1866, 
3561. Near it is the chateau of Chenonceaux, which Henry 
II. of France gave in 1535 to Diana of Poitiers, who, hav¬ 
ing sumptuously embellished it, was compelled to transfer 
it to Catherine de Medicis. In 1733 it was purchased by 
M. Dupin, the wit and beauty of whose widow caused it to 
be frequented by Fontenelle, Voltaire, Buffon, Rousseau, 
and others. The castle is in good preservation. 


Bles-Boc (Damates albifrons), an antelope of South 
Africa. Its name is derived from the blaze (Dutch, bles) of 
white in its face. 

Bles'sed This'tle (Cnicus benedictus), a plant of the 
order Composite, a native of Europe, sparingly naturalized 
in the U. S. It was formerly regarded with great vener¬ 
ation on account of its supposed medicinal virtues, which 
are celebrated by Burton in his “ Anatomy of Melancholy,” 
and by Shakspeare, under the name of Carduus benedictus. 
It is tonic and diaphoretic. „ 

Bles'sington (Margaret Gardiner), Countess of, an 
accomplished and beautiful Irish lady, born near Clonmel, 
in Tipperary county, Sept. 1, 1789. Her maiden name was 
Power. She was married in 1818 to the earl of Blessing- 
ton, who was her second husband. She travelled with him 
extensively on the Continent, and after he died in 1829 she 
lived in Gore House, London, where her soirees were at¬ 
tended by many literati and other eminent persons. She 
published “ Conversations with Lord Byron” (1834), “Tho 
Idler in France,” and other works. Died in Paris June 4, 
1849. (See R. R. Madden, “The Literary Life and Corre¬ 
spondence of Lady Blessington,” 3 vols., 1855.) 

Bli'dah, or Blida, a town of Algeria, in the province 
of Algeria, about 30 miles S. W. of Algiers. It is pleasantly 
situated on the border of the Metidjah, is a station on a 
railway, and is said to be very flourishing. It has been 
occupied by the French since 1838. Pop. in 1866, 9975. 

Bligh (William), an English naval officer, born in 1753. 
He commanded the ship “ Bounty,” with which he was sent 
to Tahiti in Dec., 1787, to procure plants of the bread¬ 
fruit tree, in order to plant them in the West Indies. Dur¬ 
ing his voyage for Jamaica with a cargo of these plants 
a part of his crew mutinied, April 28, 1789, on account of 
his harsh treatment. The captain and eighteen of his men 
were sent adrift in the launch, and after much suffering 
arrived at the island of Timor in June, having traversed 
3600 nautical miles in an open boat. The mutineers settled 
on Pitcairn’s Island. Bligh was appointed governor of 
New South Wales in 1806, but his conduct was so tyran¬ 
nical that he was expelled in 1808. Died Dec. 7, 1817. 

Blight [probably from the Anglo-Saxon be and lihtan, 
“ to fall upon ”], a term in common use for supposed atmo¬ 
spherical injuries received by plants. Before effects were 
traced to their causes with the same care that they are at 
present, the sudden discoloration of the leaves of plants, 
their death, or their being covered with minute insects or 
i small excrescences, was called by the general name of blight; 
and this blight was attributed to some mysterious influence 
in the air, to the east wind, or to thunder, because these 
states of the atmosphere commonly accompanied those phe¬ 
nomena. It is now found that what is called blight is in 
some cases the effect of insects, to the progress of which a 
peculiar state of the atmosphere often contributes,- while 
in other cases it is caused by parasitical fungi. These fungi 
on grain crops are called fireblast, bunt, smut, brand, and 
rust. The ergot or spurred rye used in medicine is a some¬ 
what similar fungus. Ergot in grain used as food may 
lead to gangrenous diseases. A fungus upon the grape 
constitutes mildew, a most destructive disease. 

The sudden death of plants without apparent cause, and 
also the withering and drying up of part of their leaves 
and branches, to which appearance the term blight should 
perhaps be restricted, are produced by the transpiration of 
water from the leaves taking place with greater rapidity 
than it can be supplied by the absorption of the roots, and 
also by the roots becoming attacked by fungus spawn. In 
very hot weather in summer branches of fruit trees trained 
against walls, or of gooseberry bushes on espaliers, are 
sometimes withered up in a few minutes from this cause. 
Blight on standard apple or other fruit trees in orchards is 
often nothing more than the injuries done to the leaves and 
buds by the caterpillars of certain moths,- that on thorn 
hedges by the caterpillar of the saw-fly or of the ermine, or 
of some other moths ; and that on roses, by the aphides or 
green-fly. 

Blind (Karl), a German liberal politician, born at 
Mannheim Sept. 4, 1820, had a prominent part in the revo¬ 
lutions of 1848 and 1849, and in 1852 took refuge in Lon¬ 
don. Having been pardoned by the government of Baden 
in 1867, he returned to Germany, where he has since dis¬ 
tinguished himself as a zealous opponent of the policy of 
Bismarck.^ 

Blind'age, in fortification, a term applied to a screen 
made of timber and earth, or any fixture designed to shelter 
the garrison or conceal their operations from the enemy. 
The blindage is sometimes formed of fascines, placed on 
the inner crest of a battery and continued over the top ot 
the embrasures. Other blindages, used to protect the gun¬ 
ners of a battery from a vertical fire, consist ot plain and 




































524 


BLIND-FISH—BLISS. 


strong timbers, one end of which is placed on the inner 
crest of tho parapet and the other end on the ground. 

Blind-fish. Sec Amblyofsis. 

Blind' ness [Lat. csecitas], the absence of the sense of 
sight, is caused by disease, defect, or injury of the eye, of 
the optic nerve, or of that part of the brain connected 
with it. Blindness may be complete or incomplete; it may 
exist from birth or may accompany extreme age. It may 
be transient or permanent. Permanent blindness may fol¬ 
low tho various eruptive fevers, especially those of child¬ 
hood, such as scarlet fever and smallpox. Congenital 
blindness is generally from deficient development of the 
nervous apparatus, and is detected by the child being 
indifferent to light and throwing its head from side to 
side. Very rarely the power of vision is subsequently 
developed, except when congenital cataract is removed. 

Opacit} 7 of the vitreous humor or of the crystalline lens 
—the latter known as cataract—causes blindness, which 
comes on gradually. The blindness from cataract is seldom 
so complete as to prevent the person from distinguishing 
day from night, or from being aware of opaque bodies 
passing between him and the light. Opacities of the 
cornea, if extensive or in the axis of vision, produce some 
degree of blindness. Advances in knowledge of anatomy 
have enabled surgeons to restore sight in cases which years 
ago would have been hopeless. 

Night blindness ( hemeralopia ) is a condition in which 
a person finds, towards evening, that objects are becoming 
less and less distinct, and at last that he is totally or 
nearly blind. This affection has attacked bodies of troops 
exposed to great fatigues and the glare of the sun. If 
there is no disease within the brain, recovery generally 
results from protecting the eyes from the light, entire 
repose, and the use of such remedies as may con'ect any 
constitutional defect in the individual attacked. 

Day blindness ( nyctalopia ) is characterized by inability 
to see in a bright light; the subjects of it see more than 
usually well at night. Captives long immured in dark 
cells are often affected with it. Among nocturnal animals, 
as owls, bats, etc., it is the normal condition. It accom¬ 
panies albinism in some instances. 

“The world of the blind,” says Prescott, “is circum¬ 
scribed by the little circle which they can span with their 
own arms. All beyond this has no real existence.” Some 
subjects of knowledge will always be beyond the blind 
man’s reach. Light, color, and space he cannot fully 
realize. Cheselden once successfully operated on a boy for 
blindness. It was two months before he discovered that 
pictures represented solid bodies; he thought them planes 
differently colored, and when he began to have some notion 
of the truth, in touching the canvas of a picture he ex¬ 
pected to find something solid upon it. The words sea and 
sky do not convey the same image to the blind which they 
convey to us, and there must be a large class of words 
in the same category. But though the circle of which 
Prescott speaks is narrow, yet within it the perceptions of 
the blind are remarkably active and accurate. The fact 
of their isolation renders their mental operations more 
concentrated. 

As a class, we find the blind to be thoughtful and quiet, 
with peculiar sensitiveness of mind and feeling; grateful 
for every kindness; equally tenacious in remembering the 
least affront, and often self-willed and opinionative. These 
are but the natural results of scanty information, and a 
narrow field of observation and acquirement. Not a few 
blind persons, however, are possessed of peculiar sweetness 
of disposition, and it is obvious that different conditions 
may produce great differences of character in such sensitive 
natures. The loss of the sense of sight, as is well known, is 
partly compensated for by a wonderfully increased sensi¬ 
tiveness of hearing and touch. 

The making of baskets, mats, rugs, list shoes, brushes, 
knitting, netting, wood-turning, and hair-work are among 
the trades which the blind practise with success. The study 
of music is often the blind man’s delight. Some blind men 
have even become famous as musicians—two of them so 
remarkable that even Handel expressed great delight at 
their skill. But a pleasing mediocrity is the average attain¬ 
ment of blind players. 

Modern civilization is distinguished for its efforts to pro¬ 
vide for the mental wants of this unfortunate class. The 
first school devoted to the instruction of the blind was 
established in Paris in 1784 by Valentine Haiiy, a generous 
and enthusiastic but impractical man. Asylums, without 
systematic instruction, had been established at various 
places in Europe during the Middle Ages, and some of 
these still exist. The first school for the blind in the 
U. S. was the New England Asylum (now the Perkins In¬ 
stitution) at Boston, Mass., founded in 1829. Among those 
who have been distinguished for their zeal afnd success 


in this work we may mention Dr. John G. Fisher, the 
founder of the above school, Dr. S. G. Howe of Boston, 
Dr. Akerley of New York, Dr. Dunglison and Robert 
Vaux of Philadelphia. Books for the blind arc at pres¬ 
ent generally printed with raised Roman letters, though 
various other alphabets, some of them stenographic, have 
been devised. Some blind persons, however, acquire such 
a nice sense of touch as to be able to read ordinary printed 
matter by the fingers alone. 

The census of 1870 reports 20,320 blind persons in the 
U. S., but there is no doubt that many cases of partial and 
some of total blindness w£re not reported to the census- 
takers. The following is a list of institutions for the blind 
in the U. S.: 


Name. 


Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind 

Institution for the Blind. 

Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind 

Academy for the Blind. 

Institution for the Blind. 


Blind.. 
Blind.. 
Blind.. 
Blind., 
for 


Instruction 


Institution for the 
Institution for the 
Institution for the 
Institution for the 
Louisiana Institution 

of the Blind. 

Institution for the Blind. 

Perkins Institute and Massachusetts 

Asylum for the Blind. 

Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind 
Minnesota Institution for Deaf, Dumb, 

and Blind. 

Institution for the Blind. 

Institution for the Blind. 

New York State Institution for the 

Blind.;. 

New York Institution for the Blind... 


Institution for the Blind. 

Institution for the Blind. . 

Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind 

Institution for the Blind. 

Institution for the Blind. 

Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind 
Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind 
Institution for the Blind. 


Location. 

Year of 

Found. 

Talladega, Ala. 

1858 

Little Rock, Ark.... 

1859 

Oakland, Cal. 

1866 

Macon, Ga. 

1853 

Jacksonville, Ill. 

1849 

Indianapolis, Ind... 

1847 

Vinton,la. 

1853 

Wyandotte, Kan... 

1868 

Louisville, Ky. 

1842 

Baton Rouge, La... 

1870 

Baltimore, Md. 

1853 

Boston, Mass. 

1829 

Flint, Mich. 

1854 

Faribault, Minn.... 

1863 

Jackson, Miss. 

1853 

St. Louis, Mo. 

1851 

Batavia, N. Y. 

1867 

New Y orkCity.N.Y. 

1831 

Raleigh, N. G. 

1846 

Columbus, O. 

1837 

Philadelphia, Pa... 

1833 

Cedar Springs, S. C. 

1869 

Nashville, Tenn.... 

1844 

Austin, Tex. 

1856 

Staunton, Va. 

1839 

Romney, W. Va. 

1870 

Janesville, Wis. 

1850 


The following list gives the names of some of the chief 
schools for the blind in Europe : 


Founded 


Paris. 1784 

Liverpool. 1791 

Edinburgh. 1791 

London. 1800 

St. Petersburg. 1806 

Berlin. 1806 

Vienna. 1804 

Prague. 1804 

Amsterdam. 1808 

Zurich. 1809 

Dresden. 1809 

Dublin. 1810 

Copenhagen. 1811 

Stockholm. 1817 

Koenigsberg. 1818 


Founded 


Breslau. 1819 

Barcelona. 1820 

Naples. 1822 

Gmiind. 1823 

Lintz. 1824 

Perth. 1825 

Manchester. 1827 

Glasgow. 1827 

Freisingen. 1828 

Bruchal. 1828 

Hamburg . 1830 

York. 1838 

Cork . 1840 

Munich. 1844 

Lausanne. 1844 


Besides the above, there is a very great number of local 
schools for the blind in Europe, some of them of the high¬ 
est excellence. Revised by Chas. W. Greene. 


Blind'story, or Trifo'rium, the second arcade in the 
wall which separates the body from the aisles of a church. 
It is so called as opposed to the clearstory, the uppermost 
arcade, the apertures of which admit light into the church, 
while the apertures of the triforium are dark. The blind- 
story serves to give access to the various parts of the build¬ 
ing, and to suspend banners on holidays. The gloom of the 
blindstory contrasts well with the brightness of the clear¬ 
story. 

BliluFworm, a popular name of the Anguis fragilis, 
which, however, is not blind nor a worm. It has been 
usually regarded as a serpent by naturalists, or a link be¬ 
tween serpents and saurians (lizards). Mr.Gray has arranged 
the Anguis and several other genera in the order Sauro- 
phidia (“lizard serpents”). The blindworm has a cylin¬ 
drical body, destitute of external limbs, but the bones of the 
shoulder and pelvis exist in a rudimentary state. It is 
found in nearly all parts of Europe, is inoffensive and 
timid, and moves very slowly; hence it is sometimes called 
slowworm. Its length varies from ten to fifteen inches or 
more. When alarmed it contracts itself forcibl} 7 and be¬ 
comes very brittle, so that it is easily broken in two by 
bending it. (See Glass Snake.) 

Bliss (William W. S.), A. M., an American officer, born 
Aug., 1815, at Whitehall, N. Y., graduated at West Point 
in 1833, and assistant adjutant-general (rank of major) 
July 7, 1846. He served in the Cherokee Nation 1833-34, 
as assistant professor at the Military Academy 1834-40, in 



























































































BLISSFIELD—BLOCK-HOUSE. 525 


the Florida war 1840-41, being chief of staff to command¬ 
ing general, as assistant adjutant-general at head-quarters 
of Western military departments 1842-45, as chief of staff 
of Maj.-Gen. Taylor in the military occupation of Texas 
1845-46, in the war with Mexico 1846-48, in command of 
the Western division 1848-49, engineer at Palo Alto, Re- 
saca de la Palma (brevet major), Monterey, and Buena Vis¬ 
ta (brevet lieutenant-colonel), as private secretary of Pres¬ 
ident Taylor Mar. 4 to July 9, 1850, and as assistant adju¬ 
tant-general of the Western division, head-quarters at New 
Orleans, La., 1850-53. He was presented in 1849, by the 
State of New York, in “ appreciation of him as a soldier 
and a man,” with a gold medal, with suitable devices, for 
his gallant services in Mexico, and honored with member¬ 
ship of learned associations at home and abroad. He was 
highly distinguished for his acquirements in science, liter¬ 
ature, and languages, was a most graceful and forcible 
writer, as shown by the celebrated despatches of Gen. Tay¬ 
lor from his pen, and his great wealth of learning and humor 
made him a most entertaining companion. Died Aug. 5, 
1853, at East Pascagoula, Miss., aged thirty-eight. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Bliss'field, a post-township of Lenawee co., Mich. 
Pop. 1766. 

Bliss'ville, or Fredericton Junction, a post-vil¬ 
lage of Sunbury co., New Brunswick (Canada), on the Oro- 
mocto River, and at the junction of the European and North 
American R. R. with the Fredericton branch, 41 miles from 
Fredericton. It has a fine railroad station, several steam- 
mills, and is a place of growing importance. 

Blistered Steel. See Steel, by A. L. Holley. 

Blis'ters are plasters which, when applied to the skin, 
raise the cuticle into vesicles filled with serous fluid. They 
have for their object a counter-irritation or diversion of in¬ 
flammatory action from an internal part to the surface of 
the body. The common blister is made of cantharides or 
Spanish fly ( Cantharie or Lytta vesicatoria), mixed with a 
convenient proportion of lard and wax. If applied too 
long it produces distressing affections of the urinary blad¬ 
der. In children and sensitive persons a layer of thin 
gauze may be placed between the blister and the skin. Un¬ 
der no circumstances should a blister be left long upon chil¬ 
dren, as it may produce sores which are difficult to heal. When 
the blister has raised, the vesicles should be pricked and 
their fluid contents allowed to trickle away, the vesicated 
surface being then dressed with simple cerate or lard. 

Blitt'ersdorf, von (Friedrich Landolin Karl), Bar¬ 
on, minister to the grand duke of Baden, a zealous support¬ 
er of the Metternich policy, born Feb. 3, 1792, wrote “ Einiges 
aus der Mappe des Freiherrn von Blittersdorf.” Died 
April 16, 1861. 

Bli'tum [Gr. p\irov], a genus of plants belonging to the 
order Chenipodiacese. The common “ strawberry blite ” 
(Blitum capitation) of North America is a plant perhaps in¬ 
troduced from the south of Europe, but probably native of 
both continents. There are several other species likewise 
common on both sides of the Atlantic. 

Block [Fr. bloc], a heavy piece of timber; a massy 
body, solid and heavy; the piece of wood on which crim¬ 
inals are beheaded; the wooden mould on which a hat is 
formed; any obstacle or obstruction ; also a continuous row 
of buildings. The term is applied in New York and other 
cities to the space and buildings between each street and 
the next street. 

Block, in architecture, is used to denote large, unworked 
masses of marble or stone; also a modillion in a cornice, 
or the small projections left on the stones of some ancient 
buildings, which are supposed to be indications of the un¬ 
finished state of the work, though they are found in elab¬ 
orately constructed buildings. 

Block, in the rigging of a ship, is the part of the appa¬ 
ratus for raising sails and yards, tightening ropes, etc. The 
uses of blocks are very numerous on shipboard, and to sub¬ 
serve these uses they are distributed about the masts and 
yards. The block comprises a shell or exterior, a sheave or 
pulley on which the rope runs, a pm on which the sheave 
turns, and a strap to fasten the block in its place. A single 
block contains only one sheave ; a double block, two ; and 
so on. Besides the designation of blocks according to the 
number of sheaves they contain (as single, double), they 
receive other names—such as cheek block, clew-garnet 
block, clew-line block, etc. Elm is used for blocks, and 
lignumvitae for sheaves. 

Until 1781 ships’ blocks were made by hand. But, it re¬ 
quired unusual skill and practice to fashion the pieces and 
put them together so as to possess the requisite strength 
and facility in working. More than 1400 blocks were re¬ 
quired for one of the old seventy-fours, and a proportionate 
number for other vessels. In 1781 a Mr. Taylor began to 


make the sheaves and shells of blocks by machinery for 
the British navy. Sir M. I. Brunei, in 1801, invented ma¬ 
chinery for making blocks, which was put into successful 
operation in 1808. The blocks were made with great rapid¬ 
ity and in a very perfect manner For his invention and 
superintending the work, Brunei received from the British 
government £20,000. 

Block (Moritz), a French writer on statistics and po¬ 
litical economy, born at Berlin Feb. 18, 1816. Among his 
works are “Statistics of France” (2 vols., 1860), “Europe, 
Political and Social ” ( 1869, both in French), “ Die" 
Bevolkerung des Franzosischen Kaiserreichs ” (1861), and 
“Die Bevolkerung Spanien’s und Portugals” (1861). Since 
1856 he has published the “Annuaire de 1’ economic politique 
et de la et statistique.” 

Blockade, in international law, is the means in time 
of war of prohibiting neutrals from all intercourse with an 
enemy’s port; and it is carried into effect by an armed 
force (ships of war or forts), which blocks up and bars ex¬ 
port or import to or from the place blockaded. This right 
is sanctioned by all civilized nations. Blockades may be¬ 
gin in the simple fact of obstructing entrance into a port, 
or in official notice. According to French doctrine, a ves¬ 
sel may approach the entrance of a port with impunity, and 
must be warned off by a blockading vessel; but according 
to English and American practice, due notice given to the 
public authority of a state makes its vessels liable to pen¬ 
alty for attempting to enter the port. Blockades without 
notification are chiefly resorted to in an emergency, and are 
temporary: they require notification at the mouth of the 
harbor. To constitute a valid blockade, declared intention 
and actual force are necessary. A blockade ends when a 
blockading force is withdrawn voluntarily, or is driven off, 
not by storm, but by a superior hostile force; and to renew 
it new notification is necessary. The Declaration of Paris 
in 1856 defines valid blockade to be such as prevents in¬ 
gress into a harbor. This is somewhat vague, but cuts off 
all paper blockades, such as those laid by the Orders in 
Council and the Berlin and Milan Decrees. Only harbors 
or forts and mouths of rivers can be blockaded, and the 
latter only so as not to prevent vessels from access to a port 
of a neutral up the stream. The breach of blockade may 
be either by coming out of the blockaded port or going in. 
The breach of blockade subjects the property so employed 
to confiscation; there is no rule of the law of nations more 
established than this, and it is universally acknowledged 
by all civilized governments. The violation of blockade 
by the master, however, affects the ship, but not the cargo, 
unless the cargo is the property of the same owner, or un¬ 
less the owner of the cargo is cognizant of the intended 
violation. 

On the proclamation of peace, or from any political or 
belligerent cause, the continuance of the investment may 
cease to be necessary, and the blockade is then said to be 
raised. The blockading force then retires, and the port is 
open as before to all other nations. 

Tiieo. D. Woolsey. 

Blockade, in military art, signifies an operation and 
effort to reduce and capture a fort or town without a bom¬ 
bardment or regular siege, relying solely upon the stop¬ 
page of supplies. The attacking party throws up redoubts 
or other works on the neighboring heights and roads. A 
part of the investing army sometimes remains in a tempo¬ 
rary camp, ready to repel a sortie of the garrison. Forts 
built on steep and rocky eminences may be reduced more 
easily by blockade, because the roads or paths by which 
supplies can be received are few, and can be guarded by a 
small force. 

Block Books. Previous to the invention of printing, 
besides the calligraphists and illuminators who prepared 
and adorned the books of scholars and clerics, there existed 
a separate guild for the fabrication of school-books and 
books of devotion, as well as calendars and popular medi¬ 
cal books for the lay public. These were ornamented with 
rude paintings. The card-painters were identical with this 
craft until the beginning of the fifteenth century. As the 
demand for the products of their art increased, they in¬ 
vented the process of block-printing, cutting iqto blocks of 
wood, and sometimes plates of metal, so as to leave the let¬ 
ters and pictures standing out, and applying colors to these 
and taking impressions. In these xylographic books, 
sometimes one, sometimes both sides of the sheet were 
printed. 

Block Creek, a township of Wilson co., N. C. P. 1474. 

Block'ers, a township of Tuscaloosa co., Ala. P. 950. 

Blockers, a township of Edgefield co., S. C. P. 1035. 

Block-House, a wooden redoubt or temporary fort, is 
always covered. It is usually rectangular, is built of logs, 
and has two stories, one of which is sunk several feet below 











BLOCK ISLAND—BLOOD-HOUND. 


526 


the surface of (he ground. The upper story projects a few 
feet beyond the lower on all sides. It is loopholed for the 
use of muskets. Block-houses have been much employed 
in the U. S. as a defence against Indians. If exposed to 
the fire of artillery, they should be formed of double rows 
of logs three feet apart, with well-rammed earth between 
them. 

IIlock Island, an island belonging to the State of Rhode 
Island, situated between Montauk Point, the E. extremity 
of Long Island, and Point Judith. It constitutes the town¬ 
ship of New Shoreham in Newport county. It is 8 miles 
long and from 2 to 5 miles wide. Block Island light, at the 
N. extremity, is in lat. 41° 13' 46" N., Ion. 71° 34' 17" W. 
Pop. 1113. 

Block'ley, a former township of Philadelphia co., Pa., 
on the W. side of the Schuylkill River, is now included in 
the city of Philadelphia. It is the site of the Blockley In- 
sane Asylum, and of a large almshouse occupied by the 
paupers of the city. 

Block-Printing. See Printing. 

Block Tin, a name of a variety of tin which is inferior 
in quality to grain tin. During the process of melting or 
reduction in a reverberatory furnace the purest tin first 
fuses, and is withdrawn. The residue, being melted at a 
higher temperature, is poured into moulds, and is called 
block tin. 

Blocl'get (Lorin), an American scientist and writer, 
born in Chautauqua co., N. Y., May 23, 1823. He received 
a thorough common-school and academical education. In 
1851 he became assistant professor at the Smithsonian In¬ 
stitution at Washington. He sent, in 1852, the results of his 
researches in climatology to the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science, and the following jmar presented 
a series of papers on the same subject at the meeting of the 
American Association at Cleveland, which may be said to 
have laid the foundation of American climatology. In 
1853-54, Mr. Blodget had direction of the observations and 
calculations of the Pacific R. R. survey. Near the close of 
1854 he was transferred to the war department, but con¬ 
tinued to have charge of the surveys. In 1855 he published 
a quarto volume of climatological observations, and in 1857, 
" Climatology in the U. S.,” a work extensively circulated 
and very favorably received in Europe. From 1859 to 1864 
he was editor of the "North American,” published in Phila¬ 
delphia, and secretary of the Philadelphia Board of Trade 
from 1858 to 1864. From 1863 to 1865 he had charge of the 
commercial bureau of the treasury department at Washing¬ 
ton, and published several volumes of official reports. In 

1865 he was made U. S. appraiser at large. He contributed 
articles on finance to the "North American Review” in 

1866 and 1867, besides making contributions to various 
other publications. Mr. Blodget’s reputation is perhaps 
even greater in Europe than in the U. S. Some of his 
writings on climatology were warmly commended by Alex¬ 
ander von Humboldt. 

Blodget (Samuel), born at Woburn, Mass., April 1, 
1724, became a judge of common pleas in Hillsboro’ co., 
N. H., and served in the Louisburg expedition of 1745. 
In 1783 he raised a sunken ship with a valuable cargo near 
Plymouth, and went to Europe to prosecute similar enter¬ 
prises, but met with small encouragement. He commenced 
the duck manufacture in New Hampshire in 1781. He after¬ 
wards undertook the construction of a canal around Amos- 
keag Falls. Died at Haverhill, N. H., Sept. 1, 1807. 

Bloem'fontein, the capital of the Orange River Free 
State, in South Africa, on a tributary of the Modder, in 
about lat. 29° 10' S., Ion. 26° 40' E. Pop. about 1200. 

Blois ( anc. Ble'aae), a town of France, capital of the de¬ 
partment of Loire-ct-Cher, is finely situated on high ground 
on both sides of the Loire, and on the railway from Orleans 
to Tours, 36 miles by rail S. W. of Orleans, and 112 miles 
by rail S. W. of Paris. It has a fine cathedral, a college, a 
public library, a botanic garden, an episcopal palace, and 
a hotel de ville. Here is the celebrated castle of Blois, the 
scene of many interesting historical events, and once the 
favorite residence of the kings of France. Francis I., Henry 
II., and Charles IX. held their courts in this castle, which 
has been inhabited by many princes. Blois is a place of 
great antiquity, and was once more important than it is 
now. It has manufactures of gloves and porcelain, and a 
trade in brandy, wine, and timber. Here is an aqueduct 
cut in the rock by the ancient Romans. Pop. 20,068. 

Blom'field (Charles James), D. D., a learned English 
prelate, born at Bury St. Edmund’s, in Suffolk, May 29, 1786, 
graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, lie edited sev¬ 
eral dramas of AEschylus and the works of Callimachus 
(1824). He became bishop of Chester in 1824, and bishop 
of London in 1828. He was an efficient promoter of the 
erection of new churches in London. His principles were 


"High Church.” Died Aug. 5, 1857. (See Dr. BibkK, 
"Bishop Blomfield and his Times,” 1857; A. Blomfield, 
"Life of C. J. Blomfield,” 1863.) 

Blom'inacrt (Philippus), an eminent Belgian author 
and philologist, born about 1S09. He published editions 
of old Flemish poems, and translated the Niebelungen into 
Dutch or Flemish iambics. His most important work is a 
"History of the Belgians” (1849). 

Blood [Ger. Blut], the principal nutritive fluid of ani¬ 
mals, and the most abundant and complex fluid in the 
animal economy. It consists of a clear, transparent plas¬ 
ma, the "liquor sanguinis,” and a great number of floating 
corpuscles, which are also nearly transparent; while the 
two together constitute in all the higher animals an opaque 
red fluid. In most of the invertebrates and in the Amphi- 
oxu8, a fish of a low type, the blood is clear and transpar¬ 
ent. In vertebrates only are the corpuscles found. The 
red color of the blood is brightest in the arteries, while in 
the veins it assumes a dark, almost blue-black tint. It has 
a faint odor, often characteristic of the animal from which 
it is taken. The temperature of human blood in health is 
probably about 100° F. in the deep-seated vessels. Its 
specific gravity is about 1060, but is not uniform. The 
blood-plasma or liquor sanguinis consists of water holding 
in solution a large proportion of albumen, a much smaller 
amount of fibrin, a variable amount of the carbonates, 
phosphates, sulphates, chlorides, and certain organic salts 
of potash and soda, and of the sulphates and phosphates 
of lime and magnesia, with a little iron, and certain un¬ 
determined organic " extractives.” Sugar exists in the 
venous blood, and so does a fatty emulsion. Urea, the 
urates, cliolesterine, creatine, carbonic acid, and other ex- 
crementitious matters are borne along by the blood until 
excreted by the proper organ. The liquor sanguinis, when 
its fibrin is removed by coagulation, is called serum—a 
term which is sometimes applied to the liquid before de¬ 
fibrination. When blood is withdrawn from the circula¬ 
tion, it rapidly separates into a rather firm clot ( coaguliun 
or crcissamentum), consisting of fibrin, which when alone is 
white and clear, but unless washed it is usually colored red 
by the red corpuscles which it entangles. 

If the plasma of blood be defibrinated and then heated, 
or nitric acid be added, a large white coagulum of albumen 
will be observed. Albumen is the most abundant, and in 
nutrition is probably the most important, of the principles 
of the blood. 

The corpuscles already alluded to arc of two kinds: (1) 
the red corpuscles, which constitute neaidy half the mass 
of the blood, to which they give its color. They are flat, 
biconcave disks, circular in all mammals, except the camels 
and llamas, in which they are oval, as in the inferior verte¬ 
brates. In man they are 3 - 2 W °f an inch in diameter. (2) 
The white corpuscles or leucocytes, which are very much 
less abundant than the others. They are identical with the 
pus-cells, the colostrum-corpuscles, and with the tissue-cells 
generally. Their function in the blood is not well known. 
The white corpuscle is a true cell, while the red corpuscle 
is not. It is believed by many that the red corpuscles are 
bearers of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. The 
greater part of the iron of the blood is contained in them. 
Their coloring-matter, hgemoglobine or cruorine, is believed 
by some theorists to owe its red color to this iron. The 
composition and physical properties of blood are quite 
variable, changing with changes of food, of health, or of 
habits. The circulating fluid of the invertebrates differs 
widely from true blood, though analogous in origin and uses. 

Chas. W. Greene. 

Blood-bird ( Myzomela sangrrinolenta), a beautiful 
little species of honeysucker, which receives its name from 
the rich scarlet color of the head, breast, and back of the 
male. It inhabits the thickets of New South Wales. 

Blood-floAver {Haem an thus), a genus of bulbous 
plants of the natural order Amaryllidacese, mostly natives 
of South Africa, derive their name from the red color of the 
flowers. They are cultivated in greenhouses for the beauty 
of their flowers, which grow in heads or clusters. The 
leaves of some species are linear, and those of others nearly 
round. The inspissated juice of Hsemanthus toxicarius is 
used by the natives of South America to poison their arrows. 

Blood-hound [so called because formerly employed 
to track wounded game by their blood], a name applied to 
several varieties of the dog, distinguished for the keenness 
of their scent and the persistency with which they will fol¬ 
low the track of game. They have been employed in many 
petty wars to track small forces of partisans, to follow es¬ 
caped prisoners, etc., as in time of peace they have been 
trained to hunt felons, poachers, and fugitive slaves. 
When kept for these purposes they acquire a peculiarly 
ferocious and bloodthirsty character, but when employed 
for the chase they are sagacious and trusty. The Cuban 




















BLOOD-MONEY—BLOOMINGDALE. 527 


and Russian hounds are celebrated for their ferocity. They 
differ much from the English hounds, but like them have 
pendulous ears and lips and a compact and muscular build. 

Blood-money, a term anciently applied to money 
paid by a person guilty of homicide to the next of kin. In 
England, before the Norman Conquest, the amount of this 
money was fixed by law, and varied with the rank of the 
person killed. Similar customs exist now among barbarous 
races. 

Blood-root (Sanguinaria Canadensis), a plant of the 
natural order Papaveraceae, growing wild in many parts of 
North America. It is one of our most beautiful early 
spring flowers. It takes its name from the orange-colored 
sap of the root, which contains the alkaloid sanguinarina, 
remarkable for the fine red color of its salts. The root of 
this plant is a valuable stimulant expectorant, but its use 
requires caution, for its administration has been followed 
by the symptoms of acro-narcotic poisoning. 

Bloodstone. See Heliotrope. 

Bloody Bun, a post-borough of Bedford co., Pa., 90 
miles W. S. W. of Harrisburg, and on the Huntingdon and 
Broad Top R. R., 43 miles S. W. of Huntingdon. Here are 
coal and iron mines. Pop. 557. 

Bloom [from the Ger. Blume, a “flower”], a flower, a 
blossom, an expanded bud, the opening of flowers in gen¬ 
eral. A plant is said to be in bloom when its flowers are 
open. Bloom is also the blue color or powder found on 
plums, grapes, and other fruits. The term is also applied 
to a state of development into the prime and vigor of life 
and beauty. 

Bloom, in fine art, an appearance on paintings resem¬ 
bling the bloom on plums and other fruits. It prevents the 
transparency and impairs the general effect of a picture. 
To obviate this defect the picture should be carefully dried 
before the application of the varnish, which should be 
heated before it is applied. 

Bloom, a post-township of Cook co., Ill. Pop. 1213. 

Bloom, a township of Fairfield co., 0. Pop. 2071. 

Bloom, a township of Morgan co., 0. Pop. 987. 

Bloom, a township of Scioto co., 0. Pop. 2203. 

Bloom, a township of Seneca co., 0. Pop. 1492. 

Bloom, a post-township of Wood co., O. Pop. 1394. 

Bloom, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 315. 

Bloom, a township of Richland co., Wis. Pop. 1171. 

Bloom'ary, or Blo'mary [from bloom, a mass of 
iron], a furnace for converting pig or cast iron into malle¬ 
able or “ wrought” iron, or for producing malleable iron 
from iron ore directly. In the latter case it differs from the 
Blast Furnace (which see), in reducing the ore and 
producing the iron in a mass or “ bloom ” without melting 
it, while the blast furnace produces an impure molten iron, 
which is tapped off and cast into pigs; the blast furnace 
working continuously, the bloomary (in many cases) inter¬ 
ruptedly. The change of cast into malleable iron by the 
bloomary process is generally superseded by Puddling 
(which see), but the former is used to some extent in the 
U. S. and Sweden in the production of the better kinds of 
metal. Bloomaries for the direct production of iron are of 
various forms. The process is one of the oldest known in 
metallurgy, and rude forms of it are at present used in 
many barbarous countries. The two best known modern 
forms of the bloomary (the Catalan furnace and the Ger¬ 
man bloomary) are at present used in Spain, Southern 
France, Sweden, Russia, and parts of the U. S. for the re¬ 
duction of ores, chiefly by means of charcoal. Only the 
richest ores can be profitably used, and the loss of iron is 
much greater than by the blast furnace. In the true Catalan 
forge the charcoal, with a great part of the charge of iron 
ore, is heaped on the small square hearth opposite to the tuy¬ 
ere, fine ore and charcoal being thrown in from time to time. 
A moderate blast is maintained, and the whole is stirred at 
proper times; and in about six hours the iron (which has 
settled to the bottom in a mass called a loup) is removed, 
and forged at once into a bloom. In the ordinary or Ger¬ 
man bloomary the ore is first made fine, and then thrown in 
small quantities upon a charcoal fire with a hot or cold 
blast (the former being much the better); the iron and 
melted slag settling down into the hearth. The slag is 
tapped off from time to time, and the iron loups are at 
proper intervals withdrawn and wrought into blooms. 

The bloomary process is an excellent one in regions 
where wood is plentiful and cheap and iron ores of a high 
grade are abundantly found. It is especially practised in 
Northern New York, where it produces iron of the very 
best quality, much sought for in the steel manufacture. 

B! oom'er, a township of Pottawatomie co., Ia. P. 611. 

Bloomer, a township of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 1422. 


Bloomer, a township of Chippewa co., Wis. P. 1559. 

Bloomer Costume, a style of dress for women, 
characterized by skirts and Turkish trousers, which Mrs. 
Ann Bloomer of New York attempted to introduce in 1849. 
It had but a temporary success. 

Bloom'field, a township of Nevada co., Cal. Pop. 636. 

Bloomfield, a post-township of Hartford co., Conn. 
Pop. 1473. f 

Bloomfield, a township of La Grange co., Ind. Pop. 
2254. 

Bloomfield, a township of Clinton co., Ia. Pop. 1231. 

Bloomfield, the county-seat of Davis co., Ia., has 
manufactures of ploughs, wagons, and furniture. It has a 
high-school building costing $30,000, and is the centre of 
a rich farming district. It is at the junction of the St. 
Louis Kansas City and Northern and Burlington and South¬ 
western R. Rs. It has a public library of 2500 vols., two 
weekly papers, a national bank, and a large trade. Pop. 
1553; of Bloomfield township, 2543. 

T. O. Walker, Ed. “Democrat.” 

Bloomfield, a township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 1132. 

Bloomfield, a township of Winneshiek co., Ia. Pop. 
1183. 

Bloomfield, a post-village, capital of Greene co., Ind., 
on the Wabash and Erie Canal, 80 miles S.W. of Indianapolis. 
It has 3 wagon and carriage shops, 3 saddlery and harness 
shops, 1 planing mill and sash and door factory, 1 steam 
flouring mill, 1 weekly paper, and an active trade. It is 
8 miles E. of the Indianapolis and Vincennes II. R. It 
is in Richland township. Pop. 656. 

W. E. Stropes, Pub. “Weekly Democrat.” 

Bloomfield, a post-village of Nelson co., Ky. P. 435. 

Bloomfield, a township of Oakland co., Mich. Pop. 
2105. 

Bloomfield, a township of Fillmore co., Minn. P. 888. 

Bloomfield, a post-village, capital of Stoddart co.. 
Mo., about 125 miles S. of St. Louis. It has one weekly 
newspaper. Pop. 379. 

Bloomfield, a post-village and township of Essex co., 
N. J., 4 miles N. N. W. of Newark, on the Newark and 
Bloomfield, the Montclair, and the Watchung R. Rs. It 
is also connected by horse-railroad with Newark. It has 
one woollen and two paper mills, an iron foundry, a cabi¬ 
net-organ factory, a weekly paper, eight churches, and is 
lighted by gas. Pop. of township, 4580. 

Stephen M. Hulin, Ed. of “Record.” 

Bloomfield, a township of Jackson co., 0. Pop. 1775. 

Bloomfield, a township of Logan co., O. Pop. 655. 

Bloomfield, a post-township of Crawford co., Pa. 
Pop. 1262. 

Bloomfield, a township of Trumbull co., 0. P. 798. 

Bloomfield, a borough, capital of Perry co., Pa., 24 
miles N. W. of Harrisburg. The name of the post-office is 
New Bloomfield. Pop. 655. 

Bloomfield, a post-township of Essex co., Vt. Pop. 
455. 

Bloomfield, a post-township of Walworth co., Wis. 
Pop. 1091. 

Bloomfield, a township of Waushara co., Wis. Pop. 
1123. 

Bloomfield (Joseph), born at Woodbridge, N. J., 
studied law, entered the Revolutionary army in the third 
regiment of New Jersey troops as captain, serving bravely 
throughout the war; became attorney-general of New Jer¬ 
sey, governor of New Jersey (1801-12), brigadier-general 
in the war with Great Britain (1812-15), and an influential 
Jeffersonian member of Congress (1817-21). Died Oct. 3, 
1823. 

Bloomfield (Robert), an English pastoral poet, born 
at Ilonington, in Suffolk, Dec. 3, 1766, was apprenticed to 
a shoemaker. He worked at that trade in London, and 
wrote in a garret “The Farmer’s Boy” (1798), a rural poem 
which obtained great popularity, and was translated into 
French, Latin, and Italian. Among his other works are 
“Wild Flowers” and “Ballads and Songs.” Died Aug. 
19, 1823. (See “Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties,” 
vol. ii.; “Blackwood’s Magazine” for June, 1822.) 

Bloom'ing, a township of Hampshire co., W. Va. Pop. 
1195. 

Bloom'inglnirg, a post-village of Paint township, 
Fayette co., 0. Pop. 312. 

Bloom'ingdale, a post-township of Du Page co., Ill. 
Pop. 1141. 

Bloomingdale, a post-township of \ an Burcn co., 
Mich. Pop. 1496. 













_ _————————————— " ■■■ 11 ■■ 

528 BLOOMINGDALE-BLOWPIPE-AND-AERO W. 


Bloomingilalc, a post-villago of St. Armand town¬ 
ship, Essex co., N. Y., has manufactures of lumber and 
starch. 

Blooming Grove, a post-township of Franklin co., 
Ind. Pop. 801. 

Blooming Grove, a post-township of Waseca co., 
Minn. Pop. 076. 

Blooming Grove, a post-township of Orange co., 
N. Y. Pop. 2502. 

Blooming Grove, a township of Richland co., 0. 
Pop. 1199. 

Blooming Grove, a township of Pike co., Pa. P. 378. 

Bl ooming Grove, a post-township of Dane co., AYis. 
Pop. 1011. 

Bloom'ington, a city and capital of McLean co., Ill., 
at the crossing of the Illinois Central, Chicago and Alton, 
and Indianapolis and Bloomington R. Rs., at the N. ter¬ 
minus of the Jacksonville branch of the Chicago and Alton, 
and the western terminus of the La Fayette and Bloom¬ 
ington division of the Toledo AYabash and AVestern R. R., 
60 miles N. N. E. of Springfield. It has 12 churches, man¬ 
ufactures of boots, shoes, paper bags, and ploughs, car- 
works and repair-shops, employing some 1200 hands, a 
coal-mine, employing 180 hands, 5 banks, 5 furnaces, 3 
weekly and 2 daily papers. It is connected by street rail¬ 
road with Normal, two miles distant, which is the seat 
of the State Normal University and the Soldiers’ Or¬ 
phans’ Home. Bloomington is the seat of Major Female 
College, the Illinois AVesleyan University, a Roman Cath¬ 
olic college, and a business college. It is one of the most 
flourishing and beautiful cities in the interior of the State. 
Pop. 11,590,- of township, 16,419. Brainard Smith. 

Bloomington, a post-village, capital of Monroe co., 
Ind., is on the Louisville New Albany and Chicago R. R., 
97 miles N. AY. of New Albany and 51 miles S. A\ r . of In¬ 
dianapolis. It is the seat of the State University, organ¬ 
ized in 1829, and has a national bank, important limestone 
quarries, and manufactures of hard wood, of which there is 
an unlimited quantity in the county. Large tanneries are 
in successful operation here, the great oak region furnish¬ 
ing unlimited supplies of bark for this purpose. It has one 
semi-monthly and two weekly newspapers. Pop. 1032,- of 
Bloomington township, 2860. Ed. “Progress.” 

Bloomington, a township of Decatur co., Ia. P. 266. 

Bloomington, a township of Muscatine co., Ia. Pop. 
1411. 

Bloomington, a post-township of Hennepin co., Minn. 
Pop. 738. 

BS oomington, a township of Buchanan co., Mo. 
Pop. 1487. 

Bl oomington, a post-township of Macon co., Mo. 
Pop. 156. 

Bloomington, a post-village, capital of Franklin co., 
Neb. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Bloomington, a post-township of Grant co., AYis. 
Pop. 1245. 

Blooms'burg, the capital of Columbia co., Pa., is on 
Fishing Creek, near the North Branch of the Susquehanna, 
and on the Lackawanna and Bloomsburg R. R., 56 miles 
S. AY. of Scranton and 25 miles N. E. of Sunbury. Iron 
and limestone abound in the vicinity. The town has one 
national bank and one private banking company, is the 
site of a normal school with buildings capable of accommo¬ 
dating 500 pupils, and has a number of iron furnaces and 
foundries, and three weekly papers. Pop. 3341. 

H. L. Dieffenbach, Ed. of “ The Columbian.” 

Bloss, a township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 4008. 

Bloss'burg, a post-village of Tioga co., Pa., on the 
Tioga River and on the Blossburg and Corning R. R., 41 
miles S. of Corning, N. Y. It has one weekly newspaper, 
and mines of semi-bituminous coal and of iron. 

Blount, a county in the N. of Alabama. Area, 950 
square miles. It is drained by the head-streams of the 
Black AVarrior River. The surface is diversified by hills 
or small mountains. Corn, cotton, and tobacco are pro¬ 
duced. It is intersected by the South and North Alabama 
R. R. Capital, Blountsville. Pop. 9945. 

Blount, a county of Tennessee, bordering on North 
Carolina. Area, 900 square miles. It is bounded on the 
N. AY. by the Ilolston River and on the S. AY. by the Little 
Tennessee. Tho surface is diversified by fertile valleys and 
mountains, one of which is called Chilhowee Mountain. 
Cattle, corn, wheat, oats, and wool are staple products. 
The county contains extensive beds of marble, limestone, 
and iron ore. Capital, Marysville. Pop. 14,237. 

Blount, a township of A r ermilion co., Ill. Pop. 1532. 


Blount (AYilliam), an American Senator, born in North 
Carolina in 1744, was a member of the Continental Con¬ 
gress, and became governor of Ohio Territory in 1790. In 

1796 he was elected a U. S. Senator for Tennessee, and in 

1797 was expelled from the Senate on a charge that he was 
implicated in a plot to surrender a part of Louisiana to the 
British. Died Mar. 21, 1800. 

Blounts'ville, a post-village, capital of Blount co., 
Ala., about 50 miles S. of Huntsville. Pop. of Blountsville 
township, 539. 

Blountsville, a post-village, capital of Sullivan co., 
Tenn., about 100 miles E. N. E. of Knoxville. Pop. 180. 

Blouse, a French term applied to a loose linen coat or 
frock which is generally worn in France by operatives, 
peasants, and the populace. It is similar to the smock- 
frock often worn by English wagoners and farm-laborers. 
In Germany the blouse is sometimes made of woollen stuff, 
and is tightened to the body by a belt. This garment is so 
characteristic of the workmen and lower classes of France 
that the French populace are often called “blouses.” This 
name is given to the loose fatigue-jacket worn by soldiers 
in the U. S. army. 

Blow (Henry T.), born in Southampton co.,A r a., July 15, 
1817, graduated at the University of St. Louis, Mo., whith¬ 
er he had removed in 1830, acquired wealth in manufac¬ 
turing, mining, and land speculation, was a prominent 
Unionist and anti-slavery man before the civil war, was 
U. S. minister to Venezuela (1861-62), member of Congress 
(1863-67), and minister to Brazil (1869-71). 

Blowing-Machines are used instead of bellows in 
furnaces and manufactories requiring a large and steady 
supply of air, and also in the ventilation of mines, where, 
without an artificial supply, the air would become charged 
with dangerous gases. These machines are of various con¬ 
struction, but in many of them the blast is made by causing 
fans enclosed in a hollow cylinder to revolve around a cen¬ 
tral axis. Others have hollow cylinders in which pistons 
work, as in the air-pump. The blast is sometimes pro¬ 
duced by causing a stream of water to fall through a long 
tube, in such a way that a large quantity of air is carried 
down with it. 

Blow'pipe [Fr. chalumeau; Ger. Lothrohr\, a tube bent 
at right angles and terminating in a fine nozzle, for direct¬ 
ing a current of air from the mouth across the flame of a 
lamp, candle, or gas-jet. It produces a conical-pointed 
flame, intensely hot, which can be readily directed upon 
small objects by the operator. It is constantly used by the 
jeweller in soldering, but in the hands of the chemist and 
mineralogist it is the basis of a distinct and comprehensive 
system of analysis, both qualitative and quantitative. By 
using a gentle current of air, and not permitting the nozzle 
to enter the flame, the entire flame is brought into a hori¬ 
zontal position, but its chemical character is not changed; 
it is still composed of combustible gases rich in carbon ; 
and as these, when directed upon many metallic oxides, 
reduce or liberate the metals, this flame is called the redu¬ 
cing flame. If, on the other hand, a more powerful current 
of air is blown into the interior of the flame, a sharp- 
pointed jet of a blue tint is the result. Many metals, 
placed just beyond the point of this flame, are rapidly 
oxidized; hence it is called the oxidizing flame. The chem¬ 
ist is thus enabled by the aid of the blowpipe to exp^je 
small quantities of minerals or other substances either To a 
reducing or an oxidizing influence. By holding the sub¬ 
stance in platinum-pointed forceps its fusibility can be de¬ 
termined, or it may communicate to the flame some cha¬ 
racteristic color. By placing it upon charcoal many im¬ 
portant facts can be learned with regard to it; i. e. it may 
produce white or colored deposits upon the eoal, or evolve 
a characteristic odor, etc. By subjecting it at the same 
time to the action of carbonate of soda it may yield me¬ 
tallic globules or powder, with or without a coating. By 
the aid of a loop of platinum wire the body under exami¬ 
nation may be exposed to the action of borax or salt of 
phosphorus, when glassy beads of characteristic colors may 
result. Thus with the aid of the blowpipe the analyst sub¬ 
jects the substance to a series of tests, by which its exact 
character is revealed. By the use of the balance, little 
clay crucibles, cupels of bone-ash, and a great variety of 
reagents, the percentages of certain metals can be accu¬ 
rately determined, such as copper, cobalt, nickel, gold, and 
especially silver. (For detailed information on this subject 
see Eldesiiorst’s “ Manual of Blowpipe Analysis,” and 
Plattner’s “ Manual of Qualitative and Quantitative 
Analysis with tho Blowpipe.”) (See Oxy-iiydrogkn Blow¬ 
pipe.) C. F. Chandler. 

Blow'pipe-aiul-Ar'row, called also Gravata'na 
and PoctVna, a weapon used by some of the Indians of 
South America, both in war and for killing game. It is a 













BLUBBER—BLUE BOOKS. 


529 


straight tube, in which a poisoned arrow is placed and 
forcibly expelled by the breath. The tube, etc. is from 
two to twelve feet long, the bore not large enough to admit 
the little finger. It is made of reed or of the stem of a 
palm. The arrows are from one or two to eighteen inches 
long, made of the spines of a palm, sharp, notched so as 
to break off in the wound, and their points covered with 
curare or other poison. A little down is twisted round 
each arrow, to fit the tube. In the hand of a practised 
Indian it is a very deadly weapon. As his weapon makes 
no noise, the hunter often does wonderful execution. 

Blub'ber y the cellular membrane in which the oil or 
fat of the whale is enclosed; the layer of fat which lies 
just beneath the skin of the whale. A single whale often 
contains thirty tons of blubber, from which about twenty 
tons of oil are extracted. The blubber serves to protect 
the whale from cold and to diminish his specific gravity. 
It is an important article of food to the Esquimaux. 

Blii'cher, von (Gebharb Leberecht), prince of Wahl- 
stadt, a celebrated Prussian general, born at Rostock Dec. 
16, 1712. He entered the service of Prussia in 1760, be¬ 
came a captain in 1771, and a colonel in 1790. In 1791 he 
distinguished himself as a cavalry officer in the war against 
the French, and was raised to the rank of major-general. 
He led the vanguard at the battle of Auerstadt (1806), 
from which he retreated to Liibeck. He was defeated and 
taken prisoner near Liibeck in Nov., 1806. When the war 
between the allies and Napoleon was renewed in Mar., 1813, 
Bliicher was appointed commander-in-chief of the Prus¬ 
sian army, which he led at Liitzen and Bautzen. He de¬ 
feated Macdonald at the Katzbach in August, and took 
many prisoners. On Oct. 16 he gained a victory over 
Marshal Marmont at Mockern, and then formed a junction 
with the allied armies, which, with his co-operation, de¬ 
feated Napoleon at the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 17-19, 1813. 
He was raised to the rank of field-marshal in 1813, and 
led the Prussian army, about 60,000 strong, which invaded 
France early in 1814. Between Feb. 10 and 15 he was 
defeated by Napoleon at Champaubert, Montmirail, Veau- 
champs, etc., and lost about 15,000 men, but he de¬ 
feated the same enemy at Laon, Mar. 9, entered Paris 
at the end of that month, and here received from his 
king the title of prince of Wahlstadt. On the re¬ 
newal of the war in 1815 he took command of the 
Prussian army, and was defeated at Ligny, June 16, 
but he reached Waterloo in time to decide the vic¬ 
tory, June 18, 1815. Died Sept. 12, 1819. He was 
noted for his energy and rapid movements, and was 
surnamed Marshal Vorwarts (“ Forward ”). In 1826 
a large bronze statue by Rauch was erected to him 
in Berlin, and another in Breslau in 1827. (See 
Foerster, ‘‘Bliicher und sein Umgebung,” 1821; 
Pischon, “Bluchers Leben, Tliaten, und Ende,” 

1842 ; Varnhagen von Ense, “ Bluchers Lebensbe- 
schreibung,” 1S27; “ Life and Campaigns of Blii- 
cher,” London, 1815; Scherr, “ Bliicher, seine Zeit 
und sein Leben,” 2 vols., 1862; Bieske, “ G. L. 
Bliicher von Wahlstadt,” 1862.) 

Blue [Lat. cseru'leus; Fr. bleu; Ger. blAu], one 
of the three primary colors, and one of the seven 
prismatic colors, of which the complementary is 
orange. The blue coloring matter of flowers has 
been called anthokyan or cyanine; little is known 
of its chemical constitution. The blue pigments are (1) 
ultramarine, obtained originally from lapis lazuli, now 
manufactured artificially; (2) Prussian or Berlin blue, the 
sesquiferrocyanide of iron; (3) smalt, glass colored blue 
by oxide of cobalt; modifications of this pigment are 
called azure blue, cerulean blue, indigo blue, deep blue, 
king’s blue, etc.; (4) Thenard’s or cobalt blue, a com¬ 
pound of alumina and oxide of cobalt; (5) verditer or 
Bremen blue, mountain blue, etc., a basic carbonate of 
copper; (6) blue ochre or iron blue, native Prussian blue, 
is a phosphate of protoxide of iron found in many local¬ 
ities. 

The blue dyes are (1) Indigo. This is applied as Saxon 
blue, or indigo extract, a solution of indigo in fuming sul¬ 
phuric acid. Chemic, or ohemic blue, is the very acid 
solution; indigo carmine is the extract neutralized by an 
alkali, as the indigo vat, indigo reduced to a colorless so¬ 
lution by protoxide of iron or grape-sugar, which becomes 
blue again in the air. (2) Prussian blue, already men¬ 
tioned as a pigment. (3) Logwood blue, produced by log¬ 
wood extract on goods mordanted with alum and cream of 
tartar. (4) Azuline, or phenol blue, prepared from phenol 
or carbolic acid. (5) Aniline blues, («) bleu de Lyons, 
triphcnyl-rosaniline; (b) Nicholson’s, or alkali blue, etc. 
(6) Toluidine blue. (7) Diphenylamine blue. (8) Chino- 
line blue, etc. (For details consult the above under their 
respective names.) C. F. Chandler. 


Blue, a township of Pottawattomie co., Kan. Pop. 544. 

Blue, a township of Jackson co., Mo. Pop. 3603. 

Blue Bayou, a township of Sevier co., Ark. Pop. 840. 

Blue'beard [Fr. Barbe-bleu; Ger. Blau'hart ], the cen¬ 
tral character of a celebrated fiction, according to which 
the chevalier Raoul, who has a blue beard, tests his wife’s 
curiosity by entrusting her, during his absence, with the 
key of a chamber which she is forbidden to enter. She 
cannot resist the temptation to explore the chamber; her 
fault is discovered, and he puts her to death. Six wives 
share this fate, but the seventh is rescued by her brothers, 
and Bluebeard is slain. The tale appears in innumer¬ 
able forms. Tieck, in his “ Phantasus,” has worked up 
this material into a drama, with romantic and satirical 
additions; Gretry has made use of it in his opera of 
“ Raoul,” and Offenbach has written an opera bouffe called 
“Barbe Bleu” (1866)- 

The historic original of Bluebeard is supposed to be 
Giles de Laval, lord of Raiz, who was made marshal of 
France in 1429, and fought valiantly against the English; 
but he is remembered chiefly for crimes which tradition has 
painted in the blackest colors. He is said to have taken a 
pleasure in corrupting young persons of both sexes, and in 
murdering them for their blood, which he used in magical 
incantations. Out of this fact, itself half mythical, the 
tale of Bluebeard has probably grown. Laval was burnt 
alive near Nantes in 1440. 

Blue'bell, a name applied in Great Britain to two wide¬ 
ly different wild flowers: (1) the Hyacinthus non-scriptus, 
a hyacinth with beautiful blue flowers, and a root which 
was formerly gathered for the starch it contains; (2) the 
Campanula ro tun difolia,the harebell,very common through¬ 
out Europe, and having a wide range in Asia and North 
America. This and other blue-flowered species of Cam¬ 
panula are sometimes called ‘(bluebell ” in the U. S., where 
the name is also in some places very incorrectly given to 
the blue fringed-gentian. 

Blue-bird, or Blue Warbler ( Sylvia sialis, Eryth- 


aca sialis, or Sialia sialis~\, a bird of the family Sylviadae, 
is a general favorite in the U. S., which it visits as a sum¬ 
mer bird of passage, and is welcomed as a harbinger of 
spring. It prefers the vicinity of human habitations, and 
often builds in orchards and gardens. It is nearly equal 
to an English robin in size. The upper part of it is a rich 
sky-blue color; the breast and throat are a reddish chest¬ 
nut. Its song is a mellow, sweet-toned, and agreeable 
warble. This bird lays about five pale blue eggs. The 
male and female both defend their nest and young with 
remarkable courage when attacked by serpents or other 
animals. 

Blue Books, the name applied to the reports and 
papers printed by the British Parliament, because they are 
usually covered with blue paper. The term is also applied 
to the reports sent annually by the governors of colonics to 
the colonial secretary. The practice of printing the pro¬ 
ceedings of the House of Commons began in 1681, when dis¬ 
putes ran high on the question of excluding the duke of 
York from tho succession. The documents printed by tho 
House of Commons accumulated gradually in bulk and 
variety, until they reached their present extent. In 18,>6 
the House adopted the practice of selling their papers at a 
cheap rate. The chief contents of these papers at present 
are the votes and proceedings of the House; the bills; the 
estimates for the public services; the accounts of expendi¬ 
tures ; any documents which the ministry may voluntarily 



The Blue-bird. 




34 

















BLUE CREEK—BLUE ROCK. 


530 


or at the demand of the House produce; reports of commit¬ 
tees or commissions appointed by the Crown and the govern¬ 
ment. The blue books of a session often fill fifty or sixty 
thick folio volumes. Their contents are heterogeneous, and 
to a great extent cumbersome and valueless. They are not 
prepared on any uniform system or subjected to general 
revision or editing. There is an official list of the person¬ 
nel of the U. S. government published annually at Wash¬ 
ington, which is entitled “ The U. S. Blue Book.” 

Blue Creek, a township of Adams co., Ind. Pop. 820. 

Blue Creek, a township of Paulding co., 0. P. 103. 

Blue Earth, a county in the S. of Minnesota. Area, 
750 square miles. It is partly bounded on the N. by the 
Minnesota River, traversed by the Mankato or Blue Earth 
River, and also drained by the Maple River. The surface 
is undulating, and diversified by fertile prairies, forests, 
and small lakes. Grain, wool, cattle, and dairy products 
are the chief staples. It is intersected by the St. Paul and 
Sioux City R. R. Capital, Mankato. Pop. 17,302. 

Blue Earth City, the capital of Faribault co., Minn., 
is on the Mankato or Blue Earth River, 100 miles in a di¬ 
rect line S. S. W. of St. Paul. It has one weekly paper. 
It is to be connected with Mankato by railroad. Pop. of 
township, 1121. Ed. of “ Post.” 

Blue Eye' ( Entomiza cyanotis), sometimes called 
Blue-Cheeked Honey-Eater, a beautiful bird 
abundant in New South Wales. It is a species of honey- 
sucker, and feeds on insects and honey, which it obtains 
chiefly from the blossoms of the Eucalyptus. It is grega¬ 
rious and remarkable for its graceful movements. 

Blue Eye, a township of Talladega co. Ala. Pop. 
1414. 

Blue'fields, or Blewfields, a river of Central Amer¬ 
ica, in the Mosquito Territory, flows eastward, and enters 
the Caribbean Sea at the town of Bluefields, which has a 
good harbor, and is in lat. 12° N., Ion. 83° W. 

Blue'fish ( Temnodon saltator ), an acanthopterygian 
fish of the family Scomberidse, is sometimes called “ horse 
mackerel.” The upper part of it is of a bluish color. It^ 
derives its specific name from a habit of leaping out of the 
water. It frequents the coasts of the U. S. in spring and 
summer, is very swift and voracious, and preys on the 
mackerel and other fishes. The weight of it varies from 
five to ten pounds. It is a fine fish for the table. 

Blue Gowns, or King’s Beadsmen, a former class 
of privileged mendicants in Scotland. There was long a 
custom of appointing beadsmen with a small royal bounty, 
who ultimately degenerated into a class of authorized men¬ 
dicants. In theory their duty was to pray for the king. 
Each of the beadsmen on the king’s birthday received a 
gown of blue, a loaf of bread, a bottle of ale, and a leathern 
purse containing a penny for every year of the king’s life. 
Every birthday another beadsman was added to the num¬ 
ber. A large pewter badge was attached to the breast of the 
gown, which, besides the name of the bearer, had the in¬ 
scription, “ Pass and Repass.” The practice of appoint¬ 
ing: beadsmen was discontinued in 1833, at which time 
there were sixty on the roll. 

Blue Grass, called also Green Meadow Grass and 
June Grass ( Poa jiratensis), a species of grass which is 
a native both of Europe and America, distinguished from 
other species of its genus by its flat panicles, smooth culms 
and sheaths, and short, blunt ligules. Though common in 
many regions, this grass attains its chief value in that part 
of Central Kentucky which is called the “ blue-grass re¬ 
gion,” where it is considered to afford the most important 
crop that can be raised by farmers. It is chiefly cultivated 
for pasturage, though on certain soils it makes excellent 
hay. To this grass Kentucky owes her great reputation as 
a stock-raising State. 

Blue Grass, a post-township of Scott co., Ia. P.1420. 

Blue Grass, a township of Highland co., Ya. Pop. 
1418. 

Blue Hill, a post-township of Hancock co., Me. It 
has an academy and some manufactures. Pop. 1707. 

Blue Lake, a post-township of Muskegon co., Mich. 
Pop. 381. 

Blue Laws, a name applied to certain enactments 
said to have been made by the legislature of the colony 
of New Haven, now a part of Connecticut. These laws 
are said to have interfered seriously with the private life, 
religious conduct, and even the dress of citizens; but 
while it is true that not only in New Haven, but in other 
parts of New England, there was undue interference in 
these affairs, it is equally certain that many of the “blue 
laws ” of which certain writers have told us never had an 
‘existence in any statute-book. 


Blue Lead, a name given by miners to galena. 

Blue Lick Springs, a village of Nicholas co., Ivy., 
where there are saline mineral springs, the waters of which 
are sold for medicinal purposes in various of the U. S. 
The waters closely resemble those of llarrowgate, in Eng¬ 
land. 

Blue Light. See Bengal Light. 

Blue Monday is said to have been so named from an 
ancient custom in some parts of Europe of decorating 
churches with blue on the Monday before Lent, this par¬ 
ticular Monday, and afterwards all Mondays, being con¬ 
sidered holidays for men whose business obliged them to 
work on Sundays. This practice led to riotous excesses 
still traditionally remembered, and it was generally sup¬ 
pressed by legal cenatments; but the blue Monday is still 
observed to some extent in certain places. 

Blue Mound, a township of Macon co., Ill. P. 1089. 

Blue Mound, a township of McLean co., Ill. P. 1219. 

Blue Mound, a post-township of Linn co., Kan. 
Pop. 341. 

Blue Mound, a post-township of Livingston co., Mo. 
Pop. 1048. 

Blue Mound, a post-township of Dane co., Wis. 
Pop. 1165. 

Blue Mountain, a post-township of Izard co., Ark. 
Pop. 454. 

Blue Mountain (Pennsylvania). See Ivittatinny. 

Blue Mountains, a range in the E. part of New 
South Wales, and N". of the Australian Alps. It is nearly 
parallel with the sea-coast, from which it is about 100 miles 
distant. The highest peaks of this range rise over 4000 
feet above the level of the sea. The range long formed a 
barrier between the settlements on the coast and the inte¬ 
rior. In 1815 a road was opened through these mountains 
to the rich pastures of Bathurst Plains; and now a rail¬ 
road connects Sidney and Bathurst, crossing the Blue 
Mountains at an elevation of over 3000 feet. 

Blue Nile, or Blue River. See Bahr-el-Azrek. 

Blue Pill ( Pilula hydrargyri ), or Blue Mass, con¬ 
sists of two parts of mercury rubbed with three parts of 
conserve of roses till globules of mercury can be no longer 
detected; to this is added powdered liquorice-root, so that 
a pill of three grains contains one grain of mercury. In 
cases of recent and mild disorder or torpor of the liver blue 
pill is much used, either alone or combined with some other 
drug, such as rhubarb. The dose is from one to three grains 
twice a day. The doses given by physicians are, however, 
much smaller now than formerly. 

Blue Rapitls, a village of Marshall co., Kan., on the 
Central branch of the Union Pacific R. R., 95 miles W. of 
Atchison, and on the Big Blue River. It has a developed 
water-power of 1700 horse-power, large flouring and woollen 
mills, beds of gypsum and water-lime, a weekly newspaper, 
and Holly waterworks. Pop. of township, 1247. 

C. E. Tibbets, Pub. of “Blue Rapids Times.” 

Blue Ridge, the range of the Alleghanies which is 
nearest to the Atlantic Ocean. It extends in a N. E. and 
S. W. direction through Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, 
North Carolina, and Georgia. The part of this ridge in 
Pennsylvania is called the South Mountain. In Virginia 
it forms the S. E. boundary of the Great Valley, and is re¬ 
markable for beautiful scenery. The Peaks of Otter, which 
are the highest points of this ridge in Virginia, rise about 
4000 feet above the level of the sea. From North Carolina, 
southward, the name of Blue Ridge is invariably applied 
to the watershed which divides the waters flowing into the 
Atlantic from those of the Gulf of Mexico. 

Blue Ridge, a township of Piatt co., Ill. Pop. 1120. 

Blue Ridge, a post-township of Henderson co., N. C. 
Pop. 1354. 

Blue Ridge, a township of Macon co., N. C. P. 157. 

Blue Ridge, a township of Watauga co., N. C. P. 460. 

Blue River of Indiana rises in Henry county in the 
E. part of the State, and flows south-westward. After it 
has united with several streams it receives the name of 
Driftwood or East Fork of White River. 

Blue River, a township of Hancock co., Ind. P. 1125. 

Blue River, a township of Harrison co., Ind. P. 1198. 

Blue River, a township of Henry co., Ind. Pop. 862. 

Blue River, a township of Johnson co., Ind. P. 2573. 

Blue River, a township of York co., Neb. Pop. 258. 

Blue River, a post-townsliip of Grant co., Wis. P.660. 

Blue Roek. a post-township of Muskingum co., 0. 
Pop. 1093. 














BLUE SPRINGS—BOA. 531 


Bine Springs, a post-village and township of Gage 
Co., Neb., on the Big Blue, 12 miles 8. of Beatrice. It has 
a fine tubular iron bridge, an extensive water-power, and 
a large plough-factory. Pop. of township, 354. 

Blue Stocking [Fr. bas bleu], a term applied to lite¬ 
rary ladies, and generally with the imputation of pedantry. 
It originated in England in Dr. Johnson’s time, when there 
existed blue-stocking clubs, at which literary ladies met to 
converse with distinguished literati. According to Boswell, 
they were so called because Mr. Stillingfleet, one of the 
prominent members, always wore blue hose. 

Blue Stone, a township of Mecklenburg, co.Ya. Pop. 
1984. 

B1 lie Sulphur, a township of Greenbrier co., West 
Va. Pop. 2148. 

Blue Sulphur Springs is a post-village of Greenbrier 
co.,W.Va., 22 miles W. of the famous White Sulphur Springs. 
The springs afford a copious supply of valuable saline chaly¬ 
beate waters, useful in the treatment of v many diseases. 

Blue Throat, sometimes called Blue Breast, or 

Blue-Throateil Robin (Pheenicura Suegica or Sylvia 
Suegica), a beautiful bird of the family Sylviadm, is com¬ 
mon on the continent of Europe as a summer bird of .pas¬ 
sage, and is supposed to pass the winter in Africa. It re¬ 
sembles a redbreast in form, but is rather larger, and has 
a brilliant sky-blue plumage on its throat, below which is 
a black bar. It sings sweetly, and imitates the notes of 
many other birds. This is one of the birds which the 
Italians call Becuafico (which see). It is esteemed as a 
delicacy, and great numbers are caught in Alsace and 
Lorraine. 

Blue Vitriol, the sulphate of copper. (See Copper.) 

Blue'wiug Duck, or Bluewing Teal, a species of 
duck {Anas discors), an abundant game-bird of America. 
Vast numbers spend the winter in the marshes near the 
mouths of the Mississippi, to which they congregate both 
from the North and the East; the summer migrations of 
the species extend as far N. as the 57th parallel, and it 
is plentiful on the Saskatchewan in the breeding-season. 
It breeds also in the marshes of the South, and is common 
in Jamaica, where it is a permanent l'esident. No duck is 
in higher esteem for the table, and it has been suggested 
that the bluewing is particularly worthy of domestication. 
In the summer plumage of the male the upper part of the 
head is black; the other parts of the head are of a deep 
purplish blue, except a patch of pure white before each eye; 
the plumage on the upper parts is brown mixed and glossed 
with green, except that the wings exhibit various shades 
of blue, the lesser wing-covers being of a rich ultramarine, 
with an almost metallic lustre; the lower parts are reddish 
orange spotted with black; the tail feathers are short and 
pointed. It is a bird of extremely rapid and well-sus¬ 
tained flight. 

Bluff, a high bank or cliff presenting a steep or abrupt 
front towards a river, lake, or sea. The term is often ap¬ 
plied to the high banks of the Mississippi and other West¬ 
ern rivers. Between the bluff' and the river sometimes 
occurs a flat tract of considerable width called a bottom. 
On the Mississippi below Lake Pepin the bluffs of mag¬ 
nesian limestone rise about 350 feet above the river, and 
present picturesque scenery. 

Bluff, a township of Johnson co., Ill. Pop. 1325. 

Bluff, a township of Monroe co., Ill. Pop. 925. 

Bluff Creek, a township of Monroe co., Ia. Pop. 1015. 

Bluff Dale, a post-township of Greene co., Ill. Pop. 
1440. 

Bluff Port, a township of Sumter co., Ala. Pop. 555. 

Bluff' ton, a township of Chambers co., Ala. Pop. 2259. 

Bluffton, capital of Wells co., Ind., on the Wabash 
River and on the Fort Wayne Muncio and Cincinnati R. R. 
It has fine church and high-school buildings, 3 planing- 
mills, corn-planter manufactory (steam), 2 barrel manufac¬ 
tories, 2 foundries and machine-shops, 2 stave and heading 
factories, 3 flouring mills, woollen mills, 2 weekly newspa¬ 
pers, and a large grain, lumber, and stock trade. Pop. 1131. 

Ed. “Bluffton Banner.” 

Bluffton, a post-township of Winneshiek co., Ia. P. 809. 

Bluffton, a post-village of Richland township, Allen 
co., 0. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 489. 

Bluffton, a post-village and township of Beaufort co., 
S. C., 16 miles S. W. of Beaufort. Pop. 2047. 

Bluh'ine (Friedrich), a German jurisconsult, born 
June 29, 1797, professor of jurisprudence at Gottingen, has 
contributed materially to modern research in the history of 
the Roman and ancient German law. lie assisted Schrader 
in his edition of Gaius, and Sevigny in the “ History of the 
Roman Law in the Middle Ages,” and published, among 


several learned works, “ Die Ordnung der Fragmente in 
den Pandectentitelu,” and an encyclopaedia of existing 
German laws. 

Blum (Robert), a German democrat and popular ora¬ 
tor, born of poor parents at Cologne Nov. 10, 1807. He 
founded the “ Schiller-Verein ” (“Schiller Society”) at 
Lcipsic in 1840, and the German Catholic Church at Leip- 
sic in 1845. In 1848 he was the master-spirit of the Saxon 
liberals or democrats, and a member of the Frankfort par¬ 
liament, in which he was the leader of the Left or moderate 
opposition. Having been sent by this party to Vienna, lie 
joined the insurgents of that city, which was soon cap¬ 
tured by the Austrian army. Blum was arrested and shot 
at Vienna Nov. 9, 1848. (See Eduard Duller, “ R. 
Blums Leben und Tod,” 1848; E. Franke, “Leben des R. 
Blum,” 1848.) 

B1 u'menbach' (Johann Friedrich), M. D., an emi¬ 
nent German naturalist, born at Gotha May 11, 1752. He 
graduated as M. D. at Gottingen in 1775, and wrote for 
that occasion a remarkable thesis “ On the Varieties of the 
Human Race.” In 1778 he became professor of medicine 
and anatomy in the University of Gottingen, where he 
lectured for fifty years. He published a “Manual of Nat¬ 
ural History” (1780), often reprinted. He may be said to 
have first placed natural history on the scientific basis of 
comparative anatomy. Among his works is a “ Manual 
of Comparative Anatomy” (1805), which was translated 
into many languages. He advocated the doctrine of the 
unity of the human species, which he divided into five 
races—the Caucasian, Mongolian, Malay, American, and 
Ethiopian. Died Jan. 22, 1840. (See C. F. II. Marx, 
“Zum Andenken an J. F. Blumenbach,” 1840.) 

Blum'field, a post-township of Saginaw co., Mich. P. 
1074. 

Rlun'dertmss [supposed to be a corruption of the Dan¬ 
ish donderbu8, from dondre , “thunder,” and bus, a “tube;” 
literally, a “thunder-tube”], a short musket or gun with a 
large calibre or bore, which has sufficient capacity for sev¬ 
eral bullets. It has a limited range, but is destructive at 
close quarters, and was formerly used in the defence of 
houses against burglars. In the army it has been super¬ 
seded by the carbine. 

Blunt (Edmund), an American hydrographer, born at 
Newburyport, Mass., Nov. 23, 1799, became in 1833 first 
assistant in the U. S. Coast Survey. Died Sept. 2, 1866. 

Blunt (Edmund March), the father of the preceding, 
was born at Portsmouth, N. H., June 20, 1770. He pub¬ 
lished, besides other valuable nautical works, “ The Amer¬ 
ican Coast Pilot” (1796). Died Jan. 2, 1862. 

Blunt (George William), born in Newburyport, Mass., 
Mar. 11, 1802, educated in New York City. He is the 
author of various charts, “Atlantic Memoir,” “ Sheet An¬ 
chor,” “Harbor Laws of New York,” “Plan to Avoid the 
Centre of Violent Gales,” and compiler of the “American 
Coast Pilot.” He was a commissioner of emigration 
(1852-54), has been pilot commissioner since 1845, and 
harbor commissioner since 1867. A man of great public 
spirit, in the various positions he has held, and still holds, 
he has been instrumental in correcting many abuses and 
effecting reforms: and to the interests of New York, as 
depending upon the preservation of its magnificent harbor 
and port, he has particularly devoted himself. 

Blunt (James G.), M.D., an American general, born at 
Trenton, Me., July 20, 1826, removed in 1856 to Kansas, 
and was appointed in 1861 brigadier-general and com¬ 
mander of the department of Kansas. He was made a 
major-general in 1862. In 1863 he commanded the army 
of the frontier. 

Blunt'sehli (Johann Ivaspar), professor of political 
science at Heidelberg, born at Zurich Mar. 7, 1808, and 
took part in the political movement of 1839 as a conserva¬ 
tive. He published a history of Zurich, a history of the 
Swiss federal laws, extensive treatises on public and private 
law, and a dictionary of politics. 

Blyth (Samuel), a British naval officer, born in 1784, 
commanded the brig Boxer in an engagement, oft Portland, 
Me., with the U. S. brig Enterprise, Sept. 5, 1813, during 
which he was killed by a cannon-ball. His remains wei c 
interred in Portland with the honors ot war by the side of 
Lieut. Burrows, who commanded the Enterprise, and vas 
also killed. G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eng’rs. 

Blythe, a township of Marion co., Ark. Pop. 190. 

Blythe, a township of Schuylkill co., Pa. Pop. 1924. 

Bo'a, the name of a genus of large non-venomous ser¬ 
pents, all natives of the warm parts of America, the sum ar 
large serpents of Asia and Africa forming the genus y ion. 
The family Bo'idse (containing the Pythons, etc. of the d 
World, as well as the true Boas, anacondas, etc. of the New) 














532 BOADICEA—BOARD OF TRADE. 


is almost exclusively tropical, and nearly all the species 
are of great size and strength. It is related by Livy that 
a serpent 120 feet in length devoured several soldiers and 
caused alarm to a Roman army in Africa; the skin is said 
to have been long preserved at Rome. The mouth of the 
boas, though destitute of poison-fangs, is so furnished with 
teeth as to make their bite severe. Their teeth are long 



Boa Constrictors attacking a Deer. 


and directed backward, to prevent the escape of the prey, 
which is first seized by the mouth, and then the serpent, 
with a rapidity of motion which the eye of the observer 
fails to follow, coils itself around it; the muscles of the 
body afterwards compress it, so that in a few minutes life 
is extinct. Deglutition then takes place, accompanied 
with a flow of saliva, not only for lubrication, but to hasten 
the process of digestion. The food is always swallowed 
entire, and the process seems to require no small effort. 
The neck is distended to an enormous degree as the prey 
passes through. After a repast these serpents spend a 
considerable time in a state of torpidity—several weeks 
elapsing before they require a new supply—and in this 
state they are easily killed. 

The lungs consist of two lobes, one much larger than the 
other, and at the extremity of the larger is a capacious air¬ 
bag, supposed to serve for the aeration of the blood during 
deglutition. The tail has great prehensile power, and its 
grasp of a tree round which it may be coiled is aided by the 
opposing action of two claws, one on each side of the anus, 
which are the representatives of the hinder limbs of the 
superior vertebrate animals, and which, on dissection, are 
found to be connected not only with strong muscles, but 
with bones entirely concealed within the serpent. The 
head is thick and somewhat elongated; the eyes small; the 
tail blunt; the scales numerous and rather small; the colors 
in many species bright and elegantly disposed. The true 
boas have the plates under the tail single, while in the 
pythons they are double. They are of four species. The 
Boa constrictor is far from being one of the largest, seldom 
attaining a length of more than twelve feet. It is common 
in parts of South America, where its skin is used for mak¬ 
ing boots and saddles. Uric acid is prepared in Europe 
from the excrement of the boa. The name boa constrictor 
is, however, popularly extended to any very large non- 
venomous serpent. The only known serpent of the boa 
family in the U. S. is a small species of Wenona, found in 
the Pacific States. Revised by C. W. Greene. 

Boadice'a, written also Voadica, a warlike British 
queen, was the wife of Prasutagus, king of the Iceni, who 
died about 60 A. D. Soon after this date she and her sub¬ 
jects, exasperated by the rapacity and outrages of the 
Roman soldiers, took arms against them. The Britons 
took the Roman colonies of Camalodunum and Londinum 
(London), and killed about 70,000 Romans. She w r as de¬ 
feated in 62 A. D. by Suetonius Paulinus, and then killed 
herself. (See Tacitus, “Annales.”) 

B oar, the male of the Sus scrofa, or swine. When ap¬ 
plied to the wild stock of swine found in various countries, 
the term is used without particular reference to the sex of 
the animals. The native country of this species is in the Old 
World, where the wild stock abounds in parts of Europe, in 
Asia, and in Africa. The wild boars found in the Southern 
States (especially in Florida) are descended from the do¬ 
mestic swine, but have reverted quite to the wild type in 
respect to the form of the body, ears, and tusks, the bristly 
crest on the back, the black or red color, and the striped 
young. Most ivritcrs make all the domestic breeds of swine 
descendants of the wild stock. Others think the small na¬ 
tive pig of the Pacific Islands is of a separate species; but it 
i3 asserted by some that no swine were known on these islands 
till after they were visited by European ships, which cer¬ 
tainly left swine and other domestic animals in many parts 


of Polynesia. A few writers regard the East Indian boar 
as of a distinct species. Swine with solid hoofs are known 
in Poland and Hungary. No true swine are native to 
America or Australia. Boar-hunting has long been re¬ 
garded as one of the most exciting sports of the chase. It 
is practised in Europe, India, and Syria—in some places 
with toils or nets, in others with dogs, which bring the boar 
to bay, when he is despatched with a spear or long knife. 
In India he is hunted on horseback and killed with a boar- 
spear. It is held unsportsmanlike to shoot the boar. 
When at bay the wild boar is a very dangerous animal. 

Board, a form of lumber; a piece of timber sawed 
thin; if more than one and a half inches thick, it is called 
a plank ; a table; entertainment or food; the deck of a ship 
or vessel; a table at which a council or court is held; a 
body of public men constituting a quorum in session. 
Board is a general term applied to persons in a collective 
capacity who have the management of some public office 
or department, bank, etc.; thus the directors of a bank or 
railroad are called the board of directors; the British lords 
of the treasury, the board of treasury. In nautical lan¬ 
guage, board is a space or portion of sea over which a ship 
passes in tacking. 

To “go aboard” or “on board” is to enter a vessel, to 
embark in it. The mast is said to “ go by the board ” when 
it breaks and falls into the water. 

To “board,” in naval warfare, signifies to enter a ship 
by force in order to capture it. The assailants sometimes 
throw on the enemy’s deck combustibles, etc., in order to 
confuse the crew, and then board the ship armed with 
boarding-pikes, pistols, and cutlasses. 

Board'inan, a township of Clayton co., Ia. Pop. 1806. 

Boardman, a post-township of Mahoning co., O. 
Pop. 817. 

Board'inan (George Dana), an American Baptist 
missionary, born in Livermore, Me., Feb. 1,1801, graduated 
at Waterville College (now Colby University) in 1822, and 
at Andover Theological Seminary in 1825. He sailed for 
Burmah July 16, 1825, and distinguished himself by his 
zeal and devotion to the work among the Karens, being, 
practically, the founder of the Karen mission. Died near 
Tavoy Feb. 11, 1831.—His son (Rev. George D. Board- 
man, D. D., of Philadelphia) is one of the most brilliant 
and scholarly clergymen of the Baptist denomination. He 
was born at Tavoy, in British Burmah, Aug. 18, 1828, and 
graduated at Brown University in 1852. 

Boardman (Henry Augustus), D. D., an able and 
eloquent American divine, was born at Troy, N. Y., Jan. 9, 
1808. He graduated at Yale College in 1829, taking the 
highest honors of his class, and afterwards studied theology 
at Princeton. Since 1833 he has been pastor of the Tenth 
Presbyterian church in Philadelphia. Chosen in 1853 by 
the General Assembly to fill the chair of pastoral theology 
at Princeton, he declined this position. He has published, 
among other works, “ The Scriptural Doctrine of Original 
Sin” (1839) and “The Bible in the Counting-house” (1853). 

Boardman (Richard), one of Wesley’s first mission¬ 
aries to America, born in England in 1738, joined Wes¬ 
ley’s conference in 1763, volunteered for America in 1769, 
preached in New York, and generally through the Middle 
States, till 1774, when he returned to England, and con¬ 
tinued his itinerant ministry till his death at Cork, Ireland, 
Oct. 4, 1782. He is justly esteemed as one of the chief 
founders of American Methodism. 

Board of Admiralty, a governmental department 
which has the management of all the affairs of the British 
navy. (See Admiralty.) It comprises six lords commis¬ 
sioners, who decide collectively on all important questions. 
Besides this collective action, each has special duties. 
There are two civil and four naval lords. The first civil 
lord (always a cabinet minister), besides a general control 
has tho management of naval estimates, finance, appoint¬ 
ments, and promotions. The first naval lord manages 
the distribution of the fleet, discipline, appointment of 
inferior officers, commissioning ships, sailing orders, and 
the naval reserve. The second naval lord attends to 
armaments, manning the navy, the coast-guard, the ma¬ 
rines, marine artillery, dockyard brigades, and naval ap¬ 
prentices. The third naval lord attends to naval architec¬ 
ture, machinery, and new inventions. The fourth naval 
lord has control over the stores, victualling ships, medical 
affairs, transports, and pensioners. The junior civil lord 
attends to accounts, mail-packets, Greenwich Hospital, 
chaplains, and schools. Under these six lords are two sec- 
retaries-in-chief, who manage the office-work. The lords 
all resign when the prime minister resigns. 

Board of Ordnance. See Ordnance, by Capt. R. 
P. Parrott. 

Board of Trade, in Great Britain, a permanent com- 




















BOARFISH—BOBOLINK. 533 


rnittee of the privy council, comprising many of the high 
functionaries of the government, who have the supervision 
of marine affairs, railways, joint-stock companies, etc., and 
who also collect and publish statistics and information of 
all kinds which have a bearing upon the commerce, rev¬ 
enues, and economic conditions of the nation, the colonies, 
and foreign countries. The results are published in monthly 
and annual reports. 

In the U. S. and Canada boards of trade are voluntary 
associations of business-men, which in most large towns are 
organized to promote the financial and commercial interests 
of the place, and to consider such questions with regard to 
railway and water communication, foreign commerce, bank¬ 
ing, insurance, exchange, supply and demand, etc. as may 
from time to time demand their attention. 

Boar'fish ( Capros ), a genus of fishes of the dory fam¬ 
ily, or Zeidrn, differing from the genus Zeus in the still 


more protractile mouth (the resemblance of which to the 
snout of a hog is supposed to have given origin to the name), 
in the want of spines at the base of the dorsal and anal 
fins, and of long filaments to the dorsal spines. The body 
has the usual oval, much-compressed form of the family. 
The common boarfish ( Capros aper) is a well-known in¬ 
habitant of the Mediterranean, rarely caught on the coasts 
of England. The flesh is little esteemed. 

Boat [Anglo-Saxon, bat; Fr. lateau; Gcr. Boot; Danish, 
baud; Sw. bat], a small open vessel moved by oars, sails, or 
horse-power. The name is also applied to a decked vessel 
moved by steam and called a steamboat. Boats differ 
greatly in form and dimensions according to the purposes 
they are intended to serve, and receive various names, as 
barge, cutter, gig, pinnace, skiff, gondola, yawl, jolly-boat, 
wherry, canal-boat, ferry-boat, scow, etc. The principal boats 
attached to a ship of war are the long-boat, launch, barge, 
pinnace, cutter, jolly-boat, yawl, and gig. The long-boat 
has a mast and sails, and is employed to fetch wood, water, 
and heavy stores from the shore to the ship. The launch 
is more flat-bottomed than the long-boat, and is adapted 
for service in shallow waters or for ascending rivers. Large 
vessels sometimes have steam launches armed with guns, 
for fighting in shallow waters. The barge is a long, narrow 
boat used to carry the principal officers to and from the 
ship. The name is also applied to quite a number of other 
kinds of craft, large and small. The pinnace has usually 
eight oars, and is intended for the inferior officers. The 
cutter is broader, deeper, and shorter than the pinnace, is 
rowed with six oars, and is chiefly employed in carrying 
light stores and the crew. The jolly-boat is similar in form 
to the cutter, but smaller, and has only four oars. The yawl 
is a small boat used for nearly the same purposes as the 
cutter and jolly-boat. The gig is a long narrow boat of 
six or eight oars, and is used to convey the chief officers 
of the ship on expeditions requiring great speed. It is 
only the larger ships of war that carry boats of all these 
varieties. Life-boats are kept at dangerous points upon 
the coasts, and are carried on board many ships. They 
are designed to be so built that they cannot be capsized or 
sunk. They were first patented in 1785, and have been 
much improved since. 

The coracle, the most ancient form of boat known in the 
British Islands, still used in Wales, is a large wickerwork 
basket, covered with skins or some thin waterproof sub¬ 
stance, strengthened by a cross-seat. The birch-bark canoe 
and skin boats of some of the Indian tribes are essentially 
identical with the coracle. The wherry is stoutly built, 
and is designed to carry about eight passengers. It is 


managed by one sculler or two oarsmen, and it is for the 
conveyance of passengers or pleasure-parties. The boats 
used for rowing as a sport are of a much lighter and sharper 
build. 

Boat-Bill ( Cancroma cochlearia), a bird of the order 
Grallatores and of the heron family. It differs from the 
heron chiefly in the form of its bill, Avhich is very broad, 
and somewhat similar in shape to a boat. The mandibles 
have been compared to the bowls of two spoons placed one 
upon the other. It is found in the tropical parts of South 
America, and feeds on fish. In size it is nearly equal to a 
domestic fowl. 

Boat-fly ( Notonecta ), a genus of aquatic insects of 
the order Hcmipetra and sub-order Heteroptera, derives 
its name from the form of the body, which resembles a 
boat, and is well adapted to movement in the water. The 
insects of this genus have a remarkable habit of always 
swimming on their backs. The Notonecta glauca, called 
water boatman, is common in England, and is about 
half an inch long. It can fly well, but seldom uses its 
wings. Many sjiecies arc found in this country. 
Boating. See Regatta. 

Boat-Lowering Apparatus is an arrangement 
of ropes and pulleys for lowering boats from ships 
quickly and safely. Every passenger-ship is compelled 
by law to carry a certain number of boats, and every 
ship of war carries boats for minor services. Many in¬ 
ventors have directed their ingenuity to this subject, 
with a hope of devising some method of rapidly low¬ 
ering boats in a storm, without the danger of accident. 
The apparatus now most approved is Clifford’s, in which 
the lowering and disengaging are effected by one man 
seated in the boat. 

Boat'swain (commonly pronounced by sailors 
bo'sn), an officer on a ship of Avar who has chai-ge of 
the boats, sails, rigging, cables, anchors, and cordage. 
He must frequently examine the masts, yards, sails, 
and ropes, and report their condition. It is also his 
duty to summon the crew to their work, and to assist 
in the necessary business of the ship and in relieving 
the watch. In the performance of his duties he is as¬ 
sisted by a boatswain’s mate. 

Bobadi'lla, tie (Francisco), a governor of Hispaniola 
and knight of Calatrava, sent in 1500 by Ferdinand and 
Isabella with plenary powers to investigate the affairs of 
that colony. He immediately put Columbus, who Avas then 
governor, in irons, and sent him to Spain. Columbus Avas, 
however, Avell i*eceived at court and by the nation, and Avas 
sent back on his fourth voyage, arriving there on the day 
when Bobadilla started to return to Spain, for he had been 
recalled. Bobadilla’s government had been very disordei-ly 
and unfortunate, and hardly had he left the port when his 
ship was lost in a hurricane, and he was drowned June 29, 
1502. 

Bob'bin, a cylindrical piece of wood, or a wooden 
roller, flanged at each end, used to hold yarn, which is 
wound on it, prepa rat ory to Avarping, in the Aveaving of cloth. 
In throstle-spinning bobbins are an essential part of the 
machinery, as they receive the thread from the rollers. The 
number of bobbins used in the various branches of busi¬ 
ness is enormous. In the thi-ead manufacture alone in Great 
Britain it is stated that 2,000,000 gross are used annually. 
Thi’ead-bobbins ai'e tui'ned by a self-acting lathe, which 
turns out one hundred gross in ten hours, a saving of six¬ 
teen-fold as compared with hand-turning; the attendant 
has to feed the machine by dropping blocks into a hopper, 
from which they pass into the lathe, where they are 
finished. 

Bob'binet (?. e. bobbin-net), a sort of lace or net- 
fabric woven by machinery, and usually made of cotton. 
It is a fine and elegant textile fabric of a peculiar texture, 
Avhich consists in the interlacing of a set of long threads, 
representing the warp in common weaving Avitli a set of 
cross ones, in such a manner as to fonn a mesh texture. 
Bobbinet is made at Nottingham, England, and in France. 

Bobcay'geon, a post-village of Verulam township, 
Victoria co., Ontario, on an island in Sturgeon and Pigeon 
lakes, 18 miles from Lindsay. The town is divided by a 
canal which, with its locks, cost $150,000. It has a large 
trade in lumber, and has daily lines of steamboats, except 
in winter. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. about 1000. 

Bobolink', Bob'link, Reed-bird, or Rice-bird 

(Dolichonyx oryzivorus ), a beautiful American migratory 
bird of the order Insessores, passes the winter in the V est 
Indies or in tropical regions. It comes northward early in 
spring, and arrives in May in the latitude of NeAv \ ork State, 
in which latitude it bi*eeds. It builds its nest in meadows 
among the grass, and renders service to farmers by the de¬ 
struction of insects and Avorms. In May and June the 






















534 


BOBRINEZ—BODE’S LAW. 


male is very musical, singing in the air with great volu¬ 
bility and hilarity, and rising and falling as if by a series 
of jerks. “ He chants out,” says Wilson, “ such a jingling 



The Bobolink. 


medley of short variable notes, uttered with such seeming 
confusion and rapidity, that it appears as if half a dozen 
birds of different kinds were singing all together.” The 
summer plumage of the male is mostly black, variegated 
with white on the scapularies and tail-coverts, and yellow, 
which it exchanges in July or August for a plumage like 
that of the female. This is marked with several shades of 
brown or dull yellow. Its length is seven or eight inches. 
About the end of June the birds cease to sing, become gre¬ 
garious, and move in large flocks to the Middle States. 
They are called reed-birds in Pennsylvania, where many of 
them .are shot for the table in autumn. In the latter part 
of autumn immense flocks of them attack the rice-crops of 
South Carolina, where they receive the name of rice-bird, 
rice bunting, or rice troopial. Many of them are kept in 
cages for their song, but they do not sing in autumn or 
winter. 

Bobrinez', a town of Russia, in the government of 
Cherson, 135 miles N. E. of Odessa. Pop. 6553. 

Bobruisk', a town of Russia, on the Berezina, in the 
government of Minsk, and 92 miles S. E. of Minsk, was 
formerly fortified. It is connected by steamboat with the 
towns on the river. Pop. 24,681. 

B o'ca Ti'gris (Chinese, Hu-men or Fumen, i. e. “ mouth 
of the tiger”), the entrance of the Canton River into tho 
Outer Waters, or Lintin Bay. It is bounded on the E. by 
the islands of Anunghoi and Chuenpee, and on the W. by 
the island of Ty-coek-tow. A number of forts and batteries 
called “ Bogue forts,” which guard the entrance to the 
river, were stormed by the British in 1841 and 1857. 

Bocca'ccio (Giovanni), or Boccaccio di Certaldo, 
a celebrated Italian novelist and poet, born in Paris or 
Florence in 1313, was the son of a Florentine merchant 
and a French woman. He collected many books, and 
copied rare ancient manuscripts which he was not able to 
purchase, and was one of the most learned men of that age. 
At Naples befell in love, about 1342, with a natural daugh¬ 
ter of King Robert of Naples, and to please her he wrote 
poems entitled “ II Filostrata,” “ L’Amorosa Visione,” and 
others. He became about 1350 an intimate friend of 
Petrarch, and returned to Florence, the government of 
which employed him in several diplomatic missions. His 
principal work is the “ Decamerone, or Hundred Talcs ” 
(1353), in prose. These tales have extraordinary literary 


merit, and are esteemed models of style, but some of them 
are extremely obscene. From the “ Decamerone” Shak- 
speare derived the subjects of several of his dramas. In 
1373, Boccaccio was appointed to lecture at Florence on 
Dante's “ Divina Commedia.” Fie wrote a “ Life of Dante.” 
He died Dec. 21, 1375. “There is,” says Ilazlitt, in Boc¬ 
caccio’s serious pieces, “a truth, a pathos, and an exquisite 
refinement of sentiment which is hardly to be met with in 
any other prose-writer whatever.” ( Characters of Sliak- 
speare’s Plays.) (See Baldelli, “Vita de Giovanni Boc¬ 
caccio,” 1806; Mazzuchelli, “ Scrittori d’ltalia;” Long¬ 
fellow, “ Poets and Poetry of Europe.”) 

Bochart (Samuel), a learned French Protestant Orien¬ 
talist and theologian, born at Rouen May 30, 1599, studied 
Arabic, Chaldee, and Syriac under Erpenius at Leyden, and 
excelled in philology. He became in 1625 pastor of the 
Protestant church at Caen, where he remained forty-two 
years, and gained a high reputation as a preacher and 
writer. His most important works are a “ Sacred Geog¬ 
raphy,” in Latin (1646), and “ Hierozoicon,” or an account 
of the animals mentioned in the Bible (1663). Died at 
Caen May 11, 1667. His Geographia Sacra displays great 
learning and sagacity. (See Morin, “De Vita et Scriptis 
S. Bocharti,” 1692; Edward II. Smith, “S. Bochart: Ile- 
cherches sur la Vie de cet Auteur illustre,” 1833.) 

Boch'nia, a town of Austria, in Galicia, 23 miles by 
rail E. S. E. of Cracow. It has several churches. Here 
are mines of salt which yield about 15,000 tons annually. 
Pop. in 1869, 8040. 

Bocli'old, or Bocliolt, a town of Prussia, in West¬ 
phalia, on the Aa, 42 miles W. S. W. of Munster. It has 
a castle, and manufactures of silk fabrics, hosiery, and cot¬ 
ton stuffs. Pop. in 1871, 6125. 

Boch'um, a Prussian town, in Westphalia, 31 miles by 
rail N. E. of Diisseldorf, has manufactures of woollens, 
paper-hangings, hardware, iron, and tobacco, and import¬ 
ant mines of coal. Pop. in 1871, 21,193. 

Bock (Karl Ernst), a German pathologist and anat¬ 
omist, born Feb. 21, 1809, became professor of pathological 
anatomy in Leipsic in 1839. His “ Buch vom Gesunden 
und Krankcn Menschen ” (9th ed. 1872) has had a wide 
circulation. 

Bock'enheim', a town in Prussia, in the province of 
Hesse-Nassau, 3 miles N. W. of Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
It has manufactures of iron-ware, jewelry, and pianos, and 
a large cattle-market. Pop. in 1871, 8476. 

Bockh, or Boeckh (August), an eminent German 
philologist and classical antiquary, born at Carlsruhe Nov. 
24, 1785. He Was educated at Halle, and obtained in 1810 
the chair of eloquence and ancient (or Greek) literature in 
the University of Berlin, where he taught for forty years 
or more. His lectures comprised archaeology and the his¬ 
tory of ancient literature, philosophy, politics, etc. Among 
his greatest works, which have formed an era in archae¬ 
ology and philology, are “The Political Economy of the 
Athenians ” (2 vols., 1817), which Sir George Cornewall 
Lewis translated into English, and “ Records of the Mari¬ 
time Affairs of Attica” (1840). He commenced in 1824 
the great work called “ Corjius Inscriptionum Gnecarum” 
(4th vol., 1867, unfinished). Died Aug. 3, 1867. 

Bock'iin (Arnold), a German landscape painter, born 
in Bale in 1827, studied under Schirmer at Diisseldorf, and 
became professor in the art-school of Weimar in 1860. 
His works are remarkable for brilliancy and harmony of 
color. 

Bode'ga, a post-village and township of Sonoma co., 
Cal. The village is at the head of Bodega Bay, the en¬ 
trance to which is in lat. 38° 18' 20.37” N., Ion. 123° 02' 
28.8” W. Pop. of township, 1407. 

Bo'denstedt' (Friedrich Martin), a German poet 
and journalist, born at Hanover April 22, 1819. He trans¬ 
lated into Gei-man the works of several Russian poets, 
published “ The Nations of the Caucasus ” (1848; 2d ed., 
2 vols., 1855), and became professor of the Slavic languages 
at Munich about 1854. Among his works is a “ Thousand 
and One Days in the Orient” (2 vols. 1854; 4th ed. 1864). 

Bode’s Law is the name given by astronomers to an 
empirical formula which seems to mark the relative dis¬ 
tances of the planets. The law, however, was not discovered 
by Bode, having been put forward before his time by Kep¬ 
ler, and by Titius in 1772. 

The law may be thus exhibited : Under the names of 
the several planets in the order of their distance set tho 
number 4. Then below this row of fours write in order 
the numbers 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, and so on, the 0 falling 
under Mercury, the 3 under Venus, and so on. Adding 
the several columns thus obtained, we have the following 
result: 





























































































































BODIN—BCEOTIA. 535 


Mer¬ 

cury. 

Venus. 

Earth. 

Mars. 

As¬ 

teroids. 

Jupi¬ 

ter. 

Sat¬ 

urn. 

Ura¬ 

nus. 

Nep¬ 

tune. 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

0 

3 

6 

12 

24 

48 

96 

192 

384 

4 

7 

10 

16 

28 

52 

100 

196 

388 


The numbers thus obtained correspond closely with the 
relative distances of the planets, except only in the case of 
Neptune. The real distances, calling the earth’s distance 
10 , are as follows : 


Mer¬ 

cury. 

Venus. 

Earth. 

Mars. 

As¬ 

teroids. 

Jupi¬ 

ter. 

Sat¬ 

urn. 

Ura¬ 

nus. 

Nep¬ 

tune. 

3.9 

7.2 

10 

15 

27.5 

52 

95 

192 

300 


It will be seen that the distance of Neptune falls far short 
of that which Bode’s law would assign to a trans-Uranian 
planet. This empirical law has rendered important ser¬ 
vices to astronomy. 

Similar relations have been detected among the distances 
of the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn. In the case of Ju¬ 
piter’s system, the constant number is 7, the number mul¬ 
tiplied is 4, and the constant multiplier 24. In the case 
of Saturn’s system, the constant number is 4, the number 
multiplied is 1, and the constant multiplier 2. 

It seems difficult to believe that a law so well marked, 
and fulfilled so closely in so many instances, is not in real¬ 
ity the result of physical relations of some sort, though it 
is by no means easy to see what those relations may be. 

Bodin (Jean), an eminent French political writer, born 
at Angers in 1530. lie published in 1576 a treatise on 
government entitled “ De la Republique,” and in 1586 a 
Latin version of the same. He advocated a limited mon¬ 
archy as the best form of government. In the latter part 
of his life he was an adherent of Henry IV. Died in 1596. 
His “Ileptaplomeres de abditis rerum sublimium arcanis ” 
(published by Noack, Schwerin, 1857) is considered one of 
the most interesting books of that age. 

Bodle'ian Library, the principal library of Oxford 
University, restored by Sir Thomas Bodley in 1597, the 
original library having been destroyed before 1556. Bodley’s 
first presentation was a collection of books, purchased on 
the Continent for £10,000. Through his influence and 
example the library was enriched by numerous contribu¬ 
tions. Among the earliest benefactors of the Bodleian 
library, which was opened in 1602 with a collection of 
about 3000 volumes, were the earl of Pembroke, who 
presented 250 volumes of valuable Greek manuscripts; 
Sir Kenehn Digby; and Archbishop Laud, who made a 
gift of 1300 manuscripts in more than twenty different 
languages. Upwards of 8000 volumes of the library of 
Selden went to the Bodleian. Gen. Fairfax presented to 
it many manuscripts, among which was Dodworth’s col¬ 
lection of 160 volumes on English history. During the 
present century important bequests have been the collec¬ 
tions of Richard Gough (1812) on British topography and 
Saxon and Northern literature; of Edmund Malone (1812); 
also £40,000 by the Rev. Robert-Mason, the interest to be 
expended on books. The library of Francis Douce was 
added in 1834. In 1870 it contained 500,000 volumes and 
30,000 MSS. 

Bod'ley (Sir Thomas), an English diplomatist, born 
at Exeter Mar. 2, 1544, graduated at Oxford in 1566. He 
was sent by Queen Elizabeth on diplomatic missions to 
France, Denmark, and Holland. He expended much 
money in collecting rare and valuable books, and endowed 
the great public library of Oxford, called the Bodleian Li¬ 
brary (which see). Died Jan. 28,1612. (See T. IIearne’s 
“Reliquiae Bodleianae.”) 

Bod/mer (Johann Jakob), a Swiss critic and poet, 
born near Zurich July 19, 1688. He founded in 1721 a 
literary journal called “ Discurse der Maler,” which pro¬ 
moted a reform in German literature, and waged a lite¬ 
rary war against Gottsched. Among his numerous works 
(which lack originality) is the “Noachide” (1752). He 
was professor of history at Zurich for fifty years. He 
translated “Paradise Lost” into German. Died Jan. 2, 
1783. (See J. J. IIottinger, “ Acroama de J. J. Bodmero,” 
1783.) 

Bod'min, a town in England, one of the capitals of 
Cornwall, 26 miles W. N. W. of Plymouth, consists chiefly 
of one long street in a valley between two hills. It was 
once an important place. It now contains a court-house, 
a jail, an ancient priory, and a grammar-school founded 
by Queen Elizabeth. It is now one of the stannary towns 
of Cornwall. Pop. in 1871, 4672. 

Body Color, a term which, in oil-painting, is applied 
to the opaque coloring produced by certain modes of com¬ 
bining pigments. When, in water-color painting, colors 


are laid on thickly, and mixed with white to render them 
opaque, instead of in tints and washes, the work is said to 
be executed in body color. 

Body’s Island, the long, low, sandy strip of land be¬ 
tween Roanoke and Albemarle Sounds and the Atlantic 
Ocean, N. of Oregon Inlet. Body’s Island lighthouse, 2 
miles N. of Oregon Inlet (lat. 35° 48' 47” N., Ion. 75° 33’ 20” 
W.), is a brick tower with a granite foundation and an iron 
top, 150 feet high, showing a first-order dioptric white fixed 
light, 156 feet above the sea. The island is here 2 miles 
wide, and is in Dare co., N. C. 

Boece, or Boyce (Hector), a Scottish historian, born 
at Dundee about 1465. He studied and graduated at the 
University of Paris, where he became in 1497 professor of 
philosophy. He was a friend of Erasmus. His chief work 
is a “ History of Scotland ” (in Latin, 1526), which is highly 
esteemed. Died about 1536. 

Bcchme'ria [from G. R. Bohmer, a German savant], a 
genus of plants of the order Urticaceae, was formerly in¬ 
cluded in the genus Urtica (nettle). The fibres of several 
species of this genus are used to make ropes, twine, nets, 
and cloth. The beautiful fabric called China grass-cloth is 
made of the fibres of Bcehmeria nivea, a perennial herba¬ 
ceous plant, with broad ovate leaves, without stings, culti¬ 
vated by the Chinese, who call it tchoo-ma. It can be pro¬ 
pagated by seeds, and it thrives best in shade and moisture. 
It grows naturally in China, Sumatra, Burmah, and other 
parts of the East Indies. The Malays call it ramie. The 
cultivation of ramie has been tried in some of the Southern 
U. S., with decided success. Nepaul produces an import¬ 
ant species, Boehmeria frutescens, which grows from six 
to eight feet high, the fibre of which is said to be equal 
to flax. The natives call it pooee, yenki, or kienki. This 
fibre also makes excellent paper, and will probably become 
an important commercial product. (See Ramie.) The 
U. S. have one native species. 

Bffio'tia [Gr. Boiam'a], a country or state of ancient 
Greece, was bounded on the N. by Locris, on the N. E. 
and E. by the Euboean Channel, on the S. by Attica and 
Megaris, on the S. W. by the Corinthian Gulf, and on the 
W. by Phocis. Area, estimated at 1100 square miles. It 
may be described as a hollow basin, enclosed on the N. by 
Mount Parnassus and the Opuntian Mountains, on the E. 
by a continuation of the Opuntian range, on the S. by 
Mount Citheeron and Mount Parnes, and on the W. by Mount 
Helicon. The surface is diversified by other mountains 
and several valleys and plains. It contained a large lake 
named Copais (now Topolias), which had no outlet except 
subterranean channels in the limestone mountains. These 
channels, now called Katalothra, were not sufficient to 
carry off the water of the lake, which sometimes inundated 
the surrounding plain. To obviate this evil the ancient 
Boeotians constructed two tunnels through the rock. One 
of these tunnels was nearly four miles long, with twenty 
vertical shafts let down into it. These two great works are 
perhaps the most remarkable monuments of what is called 
the heroic age. The largest rivers of Boeotia were the 
Asopus and the Cephissus, the latter of which rises in Pho¬ 
cis and enters Lake Copais. The Asopus flowed eastward 
through the southern part, and entered the Euripus. In¬ 
stead of the pure and transparent air of Attica, the air of 
Boeotia is rendered damp and heavy by vapors rising from 
lakes and marshes. The winters were very severe, and the 
snow sometimes lay on the mountains for many days. The 
soil, which is mostly a rich mould, was very fertile, and 
produced in ancient times, as well as in the present, abun¬ 
dant crops of grain. The plain of the Copais is especially 
remarkable for its fertility. Boeotia was famous for meadow 
and pasture-land, on which were raised the excellent horsos 
of the Boeotian cavalry. The grape and other fruits flour¬ 
ished in this region. Among the other productions was 
the aulctic or flute reed, which grew in the marshes of Lake 
Copais, and had an important influence on the development 
of Greek music. 

The most remarkable tribes that inhabited Boeotia in the 
heroic age were the Minyae, who lived at Orchomenus, and 
the Cadmeans or Cadmeones, who lived at Thebes. At 
the commencement of the historical period, the Minyans 
and other tribes had nearly disappeared, and the country 
was occupied by the Boeotians, who arc supposed to have 
come from Thessaly. The principal cities formed a confed¬ 
eracy under the presidency of Thebes. Orchomenus was 
the second city in importance. Among the other towns 
were Coroneia, Haliartus, Thespiae, Tanagra, Platoca, and 
Anthedon. The Boeotians were regarded as a dull, unm- 
tellectual people, and less refined and polished than most 
of the Hellenic tribes. Their natural dulness was ascribed 
to the dampness and ungenial quality of their climate. - ac¬ 
cording to Cornelius Nepos, they paid more attention to the 
development of their physical powers than the cultivation 






































































536 BOERHAAVE—BOGLE. 


of their minds. Yet this state produced a few great men— 
Epaminondas, Hesiod, Pindar, and Plutarch. (SeeFoRCH- 
iiammer, “ Hellenika,” 1837; Leake, “ Travels in Northern 
Greece,” 1835; Klutz, “ De Foedcre Boeotico,” 1821; 
Mure, “Travels in Greece.”) William Jacobs. 

Boer'haave (Herman), Ph. D., M. H., F. R. S., a Dutch 
physician of great eminence, was born at Voorhout, near 
Leyden, Dec. 31, 10(58. He studied the ancient languages 
anil history at Leyden, where he took the degree of doctor 
of philosophy in 1689. He began the study of medicine in 
1690, and graduated as M. D. at Harderwick in 1693, after 
which he practised at Leyden. In 1701 he was appointed 
lecturer on the theory of medicine in the University of Ley¬ 
den, and adopted the method of Hippocrates. He afterwards 
deviated from that method, and substituted mechanical and 
chemical hypotheses to explain diseases. He published in 
1708 an excellent systematic work called “Medical Insti¬ 
tutes” (“ Institutiones Medicae in Usus annum Exercita- 
tionis Domesticos ”). He became in 1709 professor of 
medicine and botany at Leyden, where he acquired great 
popularity as a teacher. Among his important works are 
“Aphorisms on the Diagnosis and Cure of Diseases” 
(“Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis,” 1709), 
which is a model for style and other merits, and “ Elements 
of Chemistry” (1724), which some persons consider his 
capital work. His reputation extended to every part of 
Christendom, and patients came to consult him from every 
country of Europe. He received, it is said, a letter from a 
Chinese mandarin, addressed “ To Boerhaave, physician in 
Europe.” He died Sept. 23, 1738, leaving one child, a 
daughter. He was a sincere Christian and a man of high 
moral character. (See Dr. S. Johnson, “Life of II. Boer¬ 
haave,” 1834; Burton, “ Life and Writings of II. Boer¬ 
haave,” 2 vols., 1743.) 

Boer'ne, a post-village, the capital of Kendall co., Tex. 
It is situated on the Upper Cibolo, in a rich and picturesque 
valley. It was founded by Germans in 1851, and was 
named in honor of the German writer Louis Borne. Pop. 
500, almost all of whom are Germans. 

Boers are the farmers in South Africa of Dutch descent. 
After the annexation of Cape Colony by Great Britain, 
troubles arose between the government and the boers, and 
in 1836 many of them left the colony and founded the 
Orange River Free State and the Transvaal Republic. 

Boe'thius (Anicius Manlius Severinus), an emi¬ 
nent Roman philosopher and statesman, was born in 470 
A. D. He was liberally educated, became a good Greek 
scholar, was chosen consul in 510, and gained the confi¬ 
dence of Theodoric, king of the Goths, who reigned at 
Rome, and appointed Boethius magister officiorum in his 
court. His political influence was exerted for the benefit 
of the country, but his probity and virtues provoked the 
enmity of powerful courtiers whose corrupt or oppressive 
conduct he had opposed. He was accused of treasonable 
designs, was confined in prison, and finally executed by 
order of Theodoric in 524 A. D. Whether he was a Chris¬ 
tian or not is a matter of uncertainty. He was considered 
such in the Middle Ages, and the Bollandists gave him the 
position of a saint. Several theological tracts are attributed 
to him, and were included in the Leyden edition (1671) of 
his “Consolation of Philosophy.” But there is a predomi¬ 
nance of argument in favor of the opinion that he was not, 
in any proper sense, a Christian, and that the tract on the 
Trinity was from another hand, probably from a monk of 
the same name. Boethius holds a place in the history of 
scholastic philosophy from the fact that a passage from 
his commentary on the “ Isagoge ” of Porphyry gave rise 
to the long-continued discussions between the Realists and 
the Nominalists. While he was in prison he wrote, partly in 
verse, “ De Consolatione Philosophise ” (“ On the Consola¬ 
tion of Philosophy”), which is his greatest work, and was 
very popular in the Middle Ages. It was translated into 
Anglo-Saxon by Alfred the Great. It contains no allusions 
to Christianity—a fact which can hardly be reconciled with 
the hypothesis of his being a Christian, considering the 
circumstances under which it was written. (See Bar- 
berini, “Exposizione della Vita de Boezio,” 1783 ; Dom 
Gervaise, “Histoire de Boece,” 1715; Heyne, “ Censura 
Ingenii Boethii,” 1806; “Life of Boethius,” prefixed to 
Ridpath’s translation of the “ De Consolatione Philoso¬ 
phic,” 1785.) M. B. Anderson. 

Boethius (Hector). See Boece. 

Bceuf, a township of Franklin co., Mo. Pop. 3910. 

Bceuf, a township of Gasconade co., Mo. Pop. 1277. 

Bceuf, Bayou, bi'oo bSf, a river or creek of Arkansas 
and Louisiana, is fed by water which it receives from the 
Mississippi River during inundations. It extends from 
Chicot co.. Ark., south-westward into Louisiana, and unites 
with the Washita River at the S. extremity of Franklin 


parish. Steamboats can ascend it 100 miles or more during 
high water. 

Bog [Gaelic, bog, “soft,” “moist”], a swamp or tract 
of wet land, covered in many cases with Peat (which see). 
Bogs, called mosses in Scotland and swamps in America, 
often contain the well-preserved trunks of trees, especially 
of the oak in Ireland and of the cypress in America. In 
many cases these tracts are higher than the surrounding 
country, and may thus be easily drained, when they often 
become very fertile land. (See Drainage.) 

Bo'gansviSle, a township of Union co., S. C. P. 1891. 

BogartU, a township of Daviess co., Ind. Pop. 1170. 

Bogard, a township of Henry co., Mo. Pop. 1117. 

Bogar'dus (Everard), second minister of New York 
(then New Amsterdam), came to America in 1633, and ob¬ 
tained by marriage a farm (the “ Dominie’s Bouwerie ”) of 
62 acres, now owned by the Trinity church corporation. 
Having much trouble with the magistrates and people, he 
resigned in 1647 and sailed for Holland, but was wrecked 
on the English coast, and with Governor Kieft and many 
others was drowned Sept. 27, 1647. 

Bogardus (James) was born at Cattskill, N. Y., Mar. 
14, 1800. In 1814 he was apprenticed to a watchmaker. 
He made important improvements in cotton-spinning in 
1828, invented a gas-meter (1832), a machine for engraving 
(1836), a pyrometer, and many other mechanical improve¬ 
ments. In 1847 he built in New York the first iron build¬ 
ing in the U. S. 

Bog Butter, a substance which is found in peaty earth 
in some of the bogs of Ireland. In composition and qual¬ 
ities it exhibits the general properties of a fat, and melts 
at 124° F. It is probably fossil butter. 

Bo'genhau'sen, a village of Bavaria, on the Iser, 2 
miles N. E. of Munich. Here is the royal observatory of 
Munich, which was erected in 1817, and is one of the best 
in Europe; lat. 48° 8' 54” N., Ion. 11° 36' 22” E. 

B oggs, a township of Centre co., Pa. Pop. 2135. 

Boggs, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 784. 

Boggs (Charles Stuart), U. S. N., born Jan. 28,1811, 
in New Brunswick, N. J., entered the navy as a midship¬ 
man Nov. 1, 1826, became a passed midshipman in 1832, a 
lieutenant'in 1837, a commander in 1855, a captain in 1862, 
a commodore in 1866, a rear-admiral in 1870, and retired 
from active service in 1873. He commanded the Varuna 
at the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jackson and capture 
of New Orleans. Admiral Farragut, in his official report 
of the affair, says: “We were now fairly past the forts, 
and the victory was ours, but still, here and there, a gun¬ 
boat making resistance. Two of them had attacked the 
Varuna, which vessel, by her greater speed, was much in 
advance of us: they ran into her and caused her to sink, 
but not before she had destroyed her adversaries; and their 
wrecks now lie side by side, a monument to the gallantry 
of Captain Boggs, his officers, and crew.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

B og'head Coal, a highly bituminous variety of the 
cannel coal of Scotland, from Boghead, in Linlithgowshire. 
The varieties of cannel pass into shale by insensible grada¬ 
tions, so that it is impossible to draw a line which shall 
properly limit the use of the term coal. The boghead is 
one of these substances, more valuable for gas-making, and 
for the oils and paraffine obtained from it by distillation, 
than for fuel. Dr. Fife found a picked specimen to yield 
on analysis 70 per cent, of volatile matter and 30 per cent, 
of ash. 

Bog-iron Ore, a mineral of variable composition, in 
which the peroxide of iron often amounts to 60 per cent., 
the water to 20, phosphoric acid from 2 to 11 per cent., 
while silicic acid, clay, and other substances make up the 
rest. Bog-iron ore occurs in alluvial soils, in bogs, lakes, 
etc. It is of a yellowish or blackish-brown color. Some 
varieties are earthy and friable; some are in masses of an 
earthy character, and some compact, with conchoidal frac¬ 
ture. It is abundant in the northern countries of Europe 
generally ; also in various parts of the U. S. When smelted 
it yields rather inferior iron, which, however, in Germany 
is largely used for wrought iron. From the large percent¬ 
age of phosphorus present, bog iron is highly prized for 
fine castings, since it makes an excellent surface with clean 
lines and edges. The ore is easily and extensively wrought. 

It is stated with confidence that bog ore consists chiefly 
of the frustules of diatomaceous plants, many of which 
incorporate into their frustules a large percentage of iron. 
Gaillonella ferruginea is one of the most important of these 
minute iron-making plants. It is well known that in some 
places bog ore will again fill up the cavities in the earth 
from which it has been removed. 

Bo'gle, a township of Gentry co., Mo. Pop. 991. 














BOGLIPOOR—BOHEMIAN BRETHREN. 


537 


Bog'lipoor, or Bhag'ulpore, a city of India, in Ben¬ 
gal, is on the right bank of the Ganges, here several miles 
wide in the rainy season. It is about 265 miles by rail N. 
W. of Calcutta. It has several mosques, and an English 
seminary,’ also manufactures of coarse silk fabrics. Here 
are two curious round towers, the origin of which is un¬ 
known. Pop. estimated at 30,000. 

Bogoduchou, a town of Russia, in the government 
of Kharkov, on the right bank of the Merla, 30 miles N. 
E. of Kharkov. Pop. 9999. 

Bog'omiles [a name said to be derived from their 
prayer in a Slavic language, “ Bog milui,” “ Lord, have 
mercy ”], a sect of the Eastern Church in the twelfth cen¬ 
tury. They were founded by Basil, a physician, who is 
said to have taught an impure Gnosticism, to have rejected 
all rites, even baptism, and to have proposed to abolish 
marriage. Basil was burned alive in 1119, but the sect 
was in existence a century later. (See Neander, “ Chris¬ 
tian History,” iv. 552.) 

B o'gos, a negro tribe inhabiting the highlands N. of 
Abyssinia, which have only recently become known by the 
explorations of Werner, Munzinger, and Th. Heuglin. 
The flora and the fauna of the country of the Bogos are 
exceedingly rich. Mighty sycamores and tamarind trees, 
and lions, elephants, buffaloes, and antelopes, as well as 
the rhinoceros and many varieties of beasts of prey, are 
found here. The total population is estimated by Mun¬ 
zinger at 10,000 persons, of whom only one-third are true 
Bogos, who speak the Belen language. The rest are tribes 
subject to them, who speak the Tigre. The Bogos are well 
formed, and profess Christianity, but have very little re¬ 
ligious knowledge. For several years they have paid a 
small annual tribute to Abyssiuia. In recent times the 
Bogos suffer much from the invasions of the inhabitants 
of Barla. 

B ogota' (formerly Santa Fe de Bogota), a city of South 
America, capital of the republic of Colombia, is pleasantly 
situated on the San Francisco River, which here joins the 
Rio de Bogota, and at the foot of two high'mountains. It 
is on an extensive plateau which is about 8800 feet above 
the level of the sea, and enjoys a mild and genial climate 
like a perpetual autumn. Lat.^l 0 35' 48” N., Ion. 74° 13' 
45” W. The adjacent table-land is very fertile, and is 
enclosed on several sides by high peaks of the Andes. 
Bogota is well built, but as it is subject to earthquakes, the 
houses are generally only two stories high. No vehicles 
are used in the streets, which are all narrow. It is the seat 
of an archbishop, and contains a cathedral and numerous 
churches, a palace of the president, a university, a national 
academy, a public library, and a theatre. It has several 
public squares adorned with fountains. Mines of coal, 
salt, and precious stones occur in the vicinity. A few miles 
below the city is the great Cataract of Tequendama, where 
the Bogota River has a perpendicular fall of 650 feet. 
Bogota was founded in 1537. Pop. about 40,000. 

Bogue, a post-township of Columbus co., N. C. Pop. 
1393. 

B ogue (David), D. D., a Scottish preacher, called the 
founder of the London Missionary Society, was born in 
Berwickshire Mar. 1, 1750. He preached at Gosport to an 
Independent church, was the first editor of the “ Evangel¬ 
ical Magazine,” and wrote an “ Essay on the Divine 
Authority of the New Testament.” He was author, in 
conjunction with James Bennett, of a “ History of Dis¬ 
senters ” (3 vols. 8vo, 1689, 1808). He and others founded 
the London Missionary Society in 1795. Died Oct. 25, 
1825. 

Bo 'gus, an American word signifying “ spurious,” 

“ fraudulent,” was originally applied to counterfeit coin, 
said by Bartlett to be a corruption of Borghese, a noted 
Western counterfeiter. 

Bo'guslaw, a town of Russia, government of Kief, on 
the river Rossa, 70 miles S. S. E. of Kief. Pop. about 6000. 
B o'gy, a township of Jefferson co., Ark. Pop. 1321. 
Bohain, a town of France, in the department of Aisne, 
16 miles N. N. E. of St.-Quentin. It manufactures clocks 
d carillon, shawls, and gauzes. Pop. 5322. 

Bohe'mia [Lat. Bohemia; Ger . Bohmen and Boheirn], 
a former kingdom of Europe, now a part of the Austro- 
Hungarian monarchy. It is bounded on the N. by Saxony 
and Prussian Silesia, on the E. by Moravia and Prussia, 
on the S. by Lower Austria, and on the W. by Bavaria. 
It is between lat. 48° 33' and 51° 3' N., and between Ion. 
12° and 16° 46' E. Its area is 20,064 square miles. It 
is enclosed on all sides by four chains of mountains, which 
constitute its natural boundaries—namely, the Erzgebirge 
(“Ore Mountains”), which separate it from Saxony on the 
N. and N. W.,* the Riesengebirge (“Giant Mountains”), 
which extend along the N. E. frontier; the Moravian 


Mountains, which separate it from Moravia on the S. E. ; 
and the Bohmerwald (“Bohemian Forest”), which extends 
along the S. W. border. The Schneekoppe, which is the 
highest peak of the Riesengebirge, rises 5275 feet above 
the level of the sea. The surface of Bohemia is mostly 
undulating, and belongs to the basin of the Elbe, which 
rises in the N. E. part. The other principal rivers are the 
Moldau, which rises in the Bohmerwald, flows northward, 
and enters the Elbe ; and the Eger, which flows through 
the N. W. part into the Elbe. The Moldau and Elbe are 
navigable for steamboats. The climate is healthy, and 
mild in the valleys or lowlands. The mean annual tempera¬ 
ture at Prague is 49° F. The soil is generally fertile. 
The staple productions are rye, oats, barley, flax, and wheat. 
The grapevine is also extensively cultivated. Nearly one- 
third of the country is covered with forests. Large num¬ 
bers of cattle and sheep are raised in some parts of the 
country. Bohemia is rich in minerals, which are found 
chiefly in the mountains. Among its mineral resources 
are copper, tin, iron, lead, cobalt, silver, nickel, zinc, 
arsenic, sulphur, coal, cinnabar, alum, and precious stones. 
Here are also quarries of marble, granite, and sandstone. 
Famous mineral springs occur at Marienbad, Carlsbad, 
and Toplitz. The manufactures of Bohemia are very 
important and varied, the principal products being linens, 
cotton goods, woollens, glass, and paper. The manufacture 
of damask, cambric, lawn, and other linen goods employs 
about 400,000 flax-spinners and 50,000 weavers. Over 
500,000 spindles are employed in the production of cotton 
yarn. Beet-sugar is extensively manufactured. The num¬ 
ber of paper-mills is over 100. Bohemia has long been 
celebrated for its glass-works, which employ about 30,000 
persons. A considerable quantity of iron is manufactured 
here. Railways extend from Prague in several directions, 
connecting it with Dresden, the cities of Bavaria, and 
those of Moravia. The chief towns are Prague, Pilsen, 
and Budweis. Bohemia has one university (Prague), 
twenty-three gymnasia, as well as numerous realschulen 
and other institutions of learning. A large majority of-the 
inhabitants belong to the Roman Catholic Church, that 
being the established religion, but other churches are tole¬ 
rated. The number of Protestants in Bohemia in 1869 was 
106,000. Pop. in 1869, 5,140,544, of whom 3,074,000 were 
Czechs, 1,941,300 Germans, 89,000 Israelites, while the 
remainder belonged to different nationalities. 

Bohemia derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic people 
who settled here before the Christian era, and were expelled 
by the Marcomanni in the time of the Roman emperor 
Augustus. It was conquered by the Cechi (or Czechs), a 
Slavic race, who first established themselves in Bohemia in 
the second half of the sixth century, and in 630 A. D. made 
themselves independent. For several centuries the family 
of the Przemyslides ruled with varying success until in 1310 
the kings of the House of Luxemburg ascended the throne, 
and ruled until 1437. John IIuss effected a religious refor¬ 
mation in this country (1400-14), and was burned by the 
Catholics. The consequence was the sixteen years’ war of 
the Hussites. In 1526, Bohemia was annexed to the domin¬ 
ions of Ferdinand I. of Austria. The majority of the Bohe¬ 
mians in the sixteenth century were Protestants, who, for the 
assertion of their religious liberty, revolted against the em¬ 
peror of Austria, and in 1619 elected as their king Frederick, 
the elector palatine. He was defeated near Prague in 1620 
by the Austrians, who then commenced a cruel persecution 
of the Protestants, and almost exterminated them. The 
population was reduced in twenty years (1617-37) from 
3,000,000 to 780,000. In recent times the country has 
been agitated by a strong political antagonism between 
the Czechs and the Germans, the former demanding the 
re-establishment of a kingdom embracing Bohemia and 
Moravia, and enjoying the same autonomy in point of ad¬ 
ministration which has been conceded to Hungary. (See 
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.) A. J. Schem. 

Bohe'mian Breth'ren, the former name of a sect of 
Christian reformers, who may be regarded as the remnant 
of the Hussites (which see). After the division of the 
Bohemian reformers into Calixtines and Taborites, the 
Council of Bale (1432) granted the new sects the use of the 
wine in the communion. This offer drew many of the Ca¬ 
lixtines into the Roman Catholic Church, where they were 
called Utraquists, from the use of both ( utraque) elements 
in the Eucharist. But the Taborites, remodelling and still 
further reforming theiFcreed, which was published in 1504, 
took the name of Bohemian Brethren. Persecutions raged 
against them for 150 years, and the vast majority were 
killed or driven away from Bohemia. In 156/ they recov¬ 
ered freedom of conscience, but numbers of them ha\ ing 
removed to Moravia, they took the name of Moravian 
Brethren (which see). The Bohemian Brethren arc looked 
upon by most Protestants as deserving high regard on ac¬ 
count of their purity, faithfulness, and the judicious mod- 




















BOHEMIAN FOREST-BOIL. 


538 


eration of their doctrines. (Seo Yon Zezschwitz, “ Dio 
Kateohismen der Waldenser und Bohmischen Briider,", 
1863; Pescheck, “ Reformation in Bohemia/' London, 
1846.) 

Bohe'mian For'est, or Boh'merwald, a chain of 
mountains in Germany, which forms the boundary between 
Bohemia and Bavaria, and separates the basin of the Dan¬ 
ube from that of the Elbe. It extends in a S. E. and 
N. W. direction, and is about 130 miles long. The rocks 
of which it is formed are granite and gneiss. The highest 
summits of this chain are the Aber, 4848 feet, and the 
ltaehelberg, 4743 feet, above the level of the sea. A large 
portion of these mountains is covered with dense forests. 
A railway extending from Bavaria to Prague crosses this 
range through the valley of the Cham. 

Bohe'mian Lan'guage, a name commonly applied 
to one of the principal dialects of the Slavic family of lan¬ 
guages. It is sometimes called the Cechic (from Cechi* 
the native name of the people who speak it); it is regarded 
not only as the harshest (most abounding in consonants), 
but also as the richest and most expressive, of all the Slavic 
dialects. The Cechic vowels, a, e, i, o, u, are essentially the 
same as those of the Italian language; y resembles in sound 
our i, but is somewhat more obscure; e, though written with 
one letter, is a diphthong pronounced ya. The consonants, 
b, d,f, k, l, m, n, p, t, v, and z, are pronounced as in Eng¬ 
lish; c (as in Polish) has the same sound as our ts, even 
before a hard vowel: thus ca is pronounced tsa ; y (like the 
Swedish y) has before the soft vowels e, i, and y the sound 
of our y consonant ;j is like i or our y consonant; w sounds 
like our v; s is always sharp, as in this; r, as in French and 
most other European languages, is always trilled. Certain 
consonants are modified in sound by placing over them this 
diacritical sign (^): thus c, d, n, r, s, t, and z are sounded 
like our ch (in child), d (in verdure, i. e. dy uttered in one 
sound), ni (uttered as one sound, as in minion), rzh (nearly), 
sh, ty (uttered as one sound, or t in nature), and zh, re¬ 
spectively. L, with a stroke through it, l (like the Polish), 
has a sound unknown to our language. Ch is pronounced 
as in German; sch nearly as in Dutch. In the variety of 
its terminations of both nouns and verbs the Cechic may 
be said to resemble the Latin and Greek. The Bohemians 
(Czechs) possess no contemptible literature. John Huss him¬ 
self not only revised the translation of the Bible into the 
Cechic tongue, but wrote tracts, and poetry in hexameter 
verse, lie appears to have been scarcely inferior to Luther 
in the impulse which he gave to the mental culture of his 
countrymen. The golden age of Cechic literature, and of 
the highest intellectual culture of the Czechs, may be placed 
between 1450 and 1620 (the opening of the Thirty Years’ 
war), after which both rapidly declined. After a period 
of depression lasting nearly two hundred years, the litera¬ 
ture of Bohemia rose again into active life, and since the 
commencement of the present century writers have ap¬ 
peared in every department of learning and science. (Seo 
Wenzig’s “ Blicke auf das bbhmische Volk, seine Geschichte 
und Literatur,” 1855.) J. Thomas. 

B o'hemoml [Lat. Bohemun'dus ] I., a famous leader 
of the first Crusade, born about 1056, was a son of Robert 
Guiscard, duke of Apulia and Calabria. He joined the 
crusade with a large army in 1095, and took part in the 
capture of Antioch in 1098. He remained at Antioch while 
the other crusaders marched to Jerusalem, and he reigned 
there as prince of Antioch. He waged war with varying 
success against the Greek emperor Alexis, and married a 
daughter of Philip 1. of France. Died in 1111. 

Bohemond Ho, a son of the preceding, was a minor 
at his father’s death. He became prince of Antioch in 
1126, and fought against the Saracens as an ally of Bald¬ 
win, king of Jerusalem. Ho was killed in battle in 1130. 

Bohemond III., a prince of Antioch, was a grandson 
of Bohemond II. He began to reign in 1163. Died in 1201. 

Boh'len (Henry), a native of Germany, removed to 
Philadelphia, where he became a wine-merchant. Ap¬ 
pointed a brigadier-general in 1862, he served under Fre¬ 
mont and Sigel, and was killed near the Rappahannock 
Aug. 22, 1862. 

Bohlen, von (Peter), a German Orientalist, born 
Mar. 13, 1796. He became professor of Oriental languages 
at Kbnigsberg in 1830, and published, besides other works, 
an able treatise on Indian antiquities entitled “Das Alte 
Indien” (2 vols., 1830). Died Feb. 6, 1840. (See his 
“Autobiography," 1841.) 

Boh'ler (Peter), a German theologian and Moravian 
bishop, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main Dec. 31, 1712. He 
is recognized, in Methodist history, as having given a de¬ 
cisive impulse to Wesley’s opinions and career. He re¬ 

* Pronounced cha'kee. 


moved to America in 1738, and in 1740 founded the 
town of Nazareth, Pa. Died in London April 27, 1775. 

Bohm (Theobald), a German musician, born in Bava¬ 
ria in 1802, is noted for an improvement in the construc¬ 
tion of the flute. The Bohm flute is more accurate and 
even in tone, and more easily fingered, than those formerly 
in use. He has also introduced improvements in other in¬ 
struments, and has composed musical pieces. 

Bohme, or Bohm (Jakob), a celebrated German 
mystic, born near Gorlitz, in Upper Lusatia, in 1575. He 
learned the trade of a shoemaker, worked at his trade at 
Gorlitz, and became a member of the Lutheran Church. 
He had a very fertile imagination and a remarkable faculty 
of intuition, and professed to be divinely inspired and 
illuminated. His first work was entitled “Aurora, or the 
Morning Redness" (about 1612). This was condemned 
by the ecclesiastical authorities of Gorlitz. He published 
several other works, which were admired by some eminent 
men, but they appear visionary and unintelligible to the 
generality of persons. He died at Gorlitz Nov. 24, 1624. 
His works (10 vols., 1682) were translated into English (2 
vols. 4to, 1764) by William Law, who was an admirer of 
Bohme. He was a religious genius of great depth, and 
can be understood only by people of strong religious feel¬ 
ing and some religious experience: to them he is as sub¬ 
lime as he is obscure to others. (See La Motte- 
Fouque, “Notice sur J. Boehm," 1831; Fechner, “ Jakob 
Bohme, sein Leben und seine Schriften," Gorlitz, 1857; 
Geiss, “Jakob Bohme, der Deutsche Philosoph," Leipsic, 
1860.) 

Boh'misch-Lei'pa, a town of Bohemia, on the Pol- 
zen, 56 miles N. of Prague. It has a gymnasium, and 
manufactures of woollen and cotton cloths, glass, and hard¬ 
ware. Pop. in 1869, 9244. 

Boh'misch-Trii'ban, a village of Austria, in Bohe¬ 
mia, 44 miles by rail N. N. W. of Briinn. P. in 1869, 5141. 

Bohn (Henry George), a London bookseller of Ger¬ 
man extraction, born Jan. 4, 1796, has promoted the popu¬ 
larization of good literature by publishing translations from 
ancient and modern languages, and has made several useful 
compilations and written a “ Handbook of Pottery.” 

Bohrahs. See Ismae&liaii. 

Bdht'lingk, or Boehtlingk (Otto), an eminent Rus¬ 
sian Orientalist, born at St. Petersburg May 30, 1815. He 
has published, among other works, the text of Kalidasa’s 
“Sakuntala,” with a translation (1842), and, conjointly 
with Roth, a “Sanscrit-German Lexicon," which is said 
to be unrivalled in this department of literature. 

Bo'hun U'pas [Malay for “poison tree "], the Antiaris 
toxicaria, a tree of the Malay and Philippine archipelagoes, 
of the order Artocarpaceee. Many grossly exaggerated re¬ 
ports of its fatal qualities have been published. Its poison 
appears to be of an acrid, not a narcotic character. The 
stories of the upas valley in Java, where nothing can grow 
but the upas tree, probably arose from the now well-ascer¬ 
tained fact that certain close mountain-ravines in that 
island so abound in poisonous volcanic gases that no plant, 
not even the upas, can live there. Besides the above, an¬ 
other bohun upas, the Strychnos Tieute, is found in that 
region. It abounds in strychnine, and is even more deadly 
than the other. 

Boiar'tlo (Matteo Maria), count of Scandiano, ah 
Italian poet, born at Scandiano about 1432. He was pat¬ 
ronized by Ercole, duke of Este, and became governor of 
Modena in 1481. His chief work is the romantic chival¬ 
rous poem “ Orlando Innamorato," which he left unfinish¬ 
ed, and which was published in 1495. He died Dec. 21, 
1494. His poem was modified or written over by Berni, 
whose version of it was so popular that it nearly supplant¬ 
ed the original, the subject of which was also continued by 
Ariosto in his “ Orlando Furioso." According to Hallam, 
Boiardo was equal to Ariosto in point of novel invention 
and just keeping of character. (See G. F. Cremona, “Elo- 
gio del Conte M. M. Bojardo,” 1827.) 

Boi'i, an ancient Celtic people who emigrated across the 
Po and occupied Umbria, where they waged war for sev¬ 
eral centuries against the Romans. They were defeated by 
the Romans in 283 B. C., and became allies of Hannibal 
when he invaded Italy in 218 B. C. Many years later the 
Romans expelled them from Umbria, and drove them be¬ 
yond the Alps. A portion of the Boii migrated to the 
country on the N. side of the Danube, and founded the king¬ 
dom of Boiohemum (Bohemia), from which they were ex¬ 
pelled by the Marcomanni in the time of Augustus. From 
them also Bavaria takes its name. 

Boil [Lat. furunculus], a hard, painful, inflammatory 
tumor on the surface of the body, which begins as a point 
of a dusky red color, and is hot, aching, and throbbing. 
























BOILDIEU—BOISE CITY. 


539 




i 


i 

i 


I 




! 


These symptoms increase in severity for several days, when 
it is of a conical form, with a broad firm base, and has 
on the apex a whitish point, which contains a little matter; 
this opens and after a few days more there is discharged 
a slough of cellular tissue, and the cavity left heals, leav¬ 
ing a depressed scar. Boils often attack young and pleth¬ 
oric persons, and their appearance is not incompatible with 
robust health, although they may be so numerous as to 
greatly reduce the strength. Men in training for athletic 
exercises, or others who have suddenly changed their hab¬ 
its, arc subject to them. Sometimes boils continue to succeed 
each other for a length of time. The treatment of boils is 
simple. The intestinal canal should be cleared by laxative 
medicines, and the digestive powers improved by tonics 
and antacids. The tincture of perchloride of iron is often 
a useful remedy. The skin should be kept healthy by fre¬ 
quent washing, while the inflamed point should be poulticed. 
Wet lint is a sufficient application after the core has been 
thrown off. Free incision of the boil greatly hastens its 
course. * 

Boildieu, orBoieldieu (Adrien Francois), a French 
composer, born at Rouen Dec. 15, 1775. He went to Rus¬ 
sia in 1803, and was there appointed chapel-master to the 
emperor Alexander, but he returned to Paris in 1811. 
Among his works are the operas “ La Dame Blanche,” 
“Jean de Paris,” and “ My Aunt Aurora.” Died Oct. 8, 
1834. (See Refuveille, “Boieldieu, sa Vie et ses CEu- 
vres,” 1851.) 

Boileau, or, more fully, Boileau-Bespreaux (Nic¬ 
olas), an eminent French poet and satirist, born near 
Paris Nov. 1, 1636. He was liberally educated, and fol¬ 
lowed no profession but that of an author. He began his 
literary career by a satire entitled “Adieu of a Poet to the 
City of Paris ” (1660), the style of which was much admired. 
In 1666 he produced “ Seven Satires,” which were very suc¬ 
cessful. He became a friend of Racine and La Fontaine. 
His “Twelve Epistles,” which appeared after 1669, indi¬ 
cate a more mature genius than his satires, and excel in 
the ease and grace of the versification. He wrote to Racine 
and other friends numerous letters, which arc very interest¬ 
ing as materials for the literary history of his time. Among 
his best works are the “Lutrin” (“Reading-desk,” 1674) 
and the “ Art of Poetry ” (“ L’Art Poetique,” 1674), which 
is an exquisite performance, and is considered by some 
French critics as equal to Horace’s “Art of Poetry.” Boi¬ 
leau was admitted into the French Academy in 1684. He 
had an immense influence on French literature. His cha¬ 
racter is represented as pure and generous. He was visit¬ 
ed in 1700 by Addison, to whom, as Macaulay remarks, he 
talked on his favorite theme, literature, long and well; in¬ 
deed, as his young hearer thought, incomparably well. He 
died in Paris Mar. 13, 1711. (See D’Alembert, “Eloge 
dc Boileau:” Desmaizeaux, “Vie de Boileau,” U712; 
Daunou, “ Eloge de Boileau,” 1787; L. S. Auger, “ Eloge 
de Boileau-Despreaux,” 1805.) 

Boiler. See Steam-Engine, by Prof. W. P. Trow¬ 
bridge. 

Boiling-Point, the temperature at which the elastic 
force of the vapor of any liquid is equal to the pressure of 
the atmosphere. When a vessel containing water is heated, 
the temperature rises and vapor silently passes off from the 
surface; but at 212° F., or 100° C. (the barometric column 
standing at 30 inches at the sea-level) steam begins to be 
formed in bursts at the bottom, and rising through the 
liquid, throws it into commotion. If the steam is allowed 
freely to escape, the temperature of the water rises no 
higher. The water is then said to boil, and the tempera¬ 
ture at which it remains is its boiling-point. Every liquid 
has a boiling-point of its own. 


Table of Boiling-Points of Various Liquids. 


Liquid sulphurous acid. 17.6° 


Aldehyde. 71.8 

Ether. 96.3 

Carbon bisulphide. 118.5 

Acetone. 133.3 

Bromine. 145.5 

Wood spirit. 151.3 

Ethylic alcohol. 173.0 

Benzole. 177.4 


Water. 212° 

Butyric ether. 238.8 

Perchloride of tin. 240.2 

Terchloride of arsenic... 273 

Bromide of silicon. 308 

Terebene. 322.9 

Naphthalin. 422.2 

Sulphuric acid. 620 

Mercury. 662 


The boiling-point of liquids is altered by various circum¬ 
stances. Water with common salt in it requires greater 
heat to make it boil than pure water. In a glass vessel 
the boiling-point is several degrees higher than in one of 
metal. But what most affects the boiling-point is variation 
of pressure. When the barometer stands at thirty inches, 
showing an atmospheric pressure of fifteen pounds on the 
square inch, tho boiling-point of water is 212°. When 
part of the pressure is removed, it boils before coming to 
212°, and when the pressure is increased the boiling-point 
rises. Thus in elevated positions, where there is less air 
above the liquid to press on it, the boiling-point is lower 


than at the level of the sea. An elevation of 510 feet makes 
a diminution of one degree F.; at higher levels tho dif¬ 
ference of elevation corresponding to a degree of tempera¬ 
ture in the boiling-point increases; and a method is thus 
furnished of measuring the heights of mountains. At the 
city of Mexico, 7471 feet above the sea, water boils at 
198.1°; at Quito, 9541 feet, at 194°; in the Himalayas, at 
the height of 18,000 feet, at 180°. Boiling water is thus 
not always equally hot, and in elevated places many sub¬ 
stances cannot be cooked by boiling. Under the receiver 
of an air-pump water may be made to boil at the tempera¬ 
ture of summer, and ether when colder than ice. This 
effect of diminished pressure is largely turned to account in 
sugar-boiling, in preparing extracts,in distilling vegetable' 
oils, and in other processes where the substances are apt 
to be injured by high temperature. By increasing the 
pressure water may be heated to any degree without boil¬ 
ing. Papin’s digester is formed on this principle. Under 
a pressure of two atmospheres the boiling-point rises to 
249° F.; of ten atmospheres, 356° F.; of fifty atmospheres, 
511° F. At a depth of thirty-four feet the pressure of water is 
equal to an atmosphere, or fifteen pounds on the square inch; 
and thus at the bottom of a vessel of that depth the water 
must be heated to 249° F. before it is at its boiling-point. 

If a small quantity of water be poured into a silver basin 
heated above the boiling-point, but below redness, it will 
begin to boil violently, or perhaps burst into steam at once. 
But if the basin is heated to redness, the water will gather 
itself into a globule, and roll about on the hot surface without 
coming to the boiling-point. It is remarkable that water 
which has been freed from air by long boiling has its boil¬ 
ing-point much raised. It has been known to reach 275° F. 
without boiling. Revised by F. A. P. Barnard. 

Boiling Spring, a twp. of Lexington co., S. C. P. 354. 

Boiling Spring, a twp. of Alleghany co., Va. P. 1388. 

B ois Blanc Island, in Lake Huron, 10 miles S. E. 
of Mackinaw, Mich., is 10 miles long and 3 wide, and has 
a lighthouse on the E. end; lat. 45° 45' N., Ion. 84° 55' W. 

Bois Brule, a post-twp. of Perry co., Mo. Pop. 1337. 

B ois de Boulogne, a grove or public park in the 
environs of Paris, on the right bank of the Seine, about 3 
miles W. of the city. It is nearly 3 miles long and 1 milo 
wide. It was the finest promenade in the vicinity of Paris, 
but many of the trees were cut down and burned when that 
city was besieged by the Germans in 1870. 

Bois d’Arc [Fr. for “bow-wood”], (popularly pro¬ 
nounced bo'dock), a name given to the Osage orange tree 
(Maclura aurantiaca, order Artocarpacem) in some parts 
of the U. S. It is often used for a hedge-plant. As a tree 
its timber is tough, elastic, and extremely useful. It is a 
near relative of the fustic tree, and its wood yields a yellow 
dye. It was used by the Indians for making bows and 
arrows. (For its use in hedge-fences, see Osage-Orange.) 

B ois d’Arc, a township of Hempstead co., Ark. P. 632. 

B ois d’Arc, a township of Montgomery co., Ill. Pop. 
1177. 

B oise, a county of Idaho, bordering on Montana, is 
bounded on the E. by the Rocky Mountains. It is drained 
by the Salmon River, the East Fork of the Salmon, and 
by several forks of the Boise River which rise within its 
limits. The surface is partly mountainous. The inhab¬ 
itants are mostly employed in mining gold, which is found 
in various parts of the county. Grain and wool are raised, 
and timber abounds. Many of the inhabitants are Chi¬ 
nese. Capital, Idaho City. Pop. 3834. 

B oise (James Robinson), Ph. D., LL.D., born in Bland- 
ford, Hampden co., Mass., Jan. 27,1815, graduated at Brown 
University in 1840, and was tutor of Latin and Greek in that 
college from 1840 to 1843, and professor of Greek till 1850. 
From 1852 till 1868 he was professor of Greek in the Uni¬ 
versity of Michigan. Since then he has filled the same posi¬ 
tion in the University of Chicago. Prof. Boise has pub¬ 
lished several classical text-books, among which are edi¬ 
tions, with English notes, of Xenophon’s “Anabasis” and 
the first six books of Homer’s “Iliad.” 

Boise City, the capital of Idaho and of Ada county, 
is in the southern portion of the Territory, on Bois6 River, 
50 miles above its confluence with the Snake, in the great 
Snake River Valley; lat. 43° 34” N., Ion., about 116° W. 
It is surrounded by a fine agricultural and grazing country, 
and derives large support from the rich placer and quartz 
mines in the mountain districts within 50 miles N., S., and 

E. The principal business-houses are fireproof brick. The 

city has a national bank, II. S. assay-office, a penitentiary, 
3 hotels, 2 churches, 1 high school, 2 grist-mills, a tri¬ 
weekly and weekly newspaper, and job printing-office, 
and various mechanical industries. Two large ditches, 
bringing the water from Bois6 River, give an abundance 
of water-power, and side ditches for irrigating purposes 


































540 BOIS-LE-DUC—BOLETUS. 


carry the water to every lot in the city. Four stages ar¬ 
rive and depart daily, N., E., W., and S. Pop. 995. 

Milton Kelly, Ed. “ Idaho Statesman.” 

B ois-le-duc [Dutch S'Hertogenbosch, i.e. “Duke’s 
Wood”], a fortified town of Holland, capital of North 
Brabant, is at the junction of the rivers Aa and Dommel, 
30 miles S. S. E. of Utrecht. It is a clean and well-built 
town, intersected by several canals, and defended by a cit¬ 
adel and two forts. It has a fine cathedral, a college, an 
academy of art, an arsenal, and a grammar-school in which 
the celebrated Erasmus studied. Here are manufactures 
of cutlery, ribbons, woollen goods, linen thread, etc. It 
was founded in 1181 by the duke of Brabant in a wood 
while hunting; hence its name. Pop. 24,579. 

Boisser^e (Sulpiz), an eminent architect and anti¬ 
quary of French extraction, was born at Cologne Aug. 2, 
1783. He devoted himself to the collection of specimens 
of early German art, in which he was aided by his brother 
Melchior (1786-1851). They collected about 200 pictures, 
which were purchased by the king of Bavaria, and are 
called the “Boisserean Collection.” He published “ Monu¬ 
ments of Architecture on the Lower Rhine from the Seventh 
to the Thirteenth Century” (1830-33), and “Views, Plans, 
and Details of the Cathedral of Cologne, etc.” (1823). 
Died May 2, 1841. 

Boissonade (Jean Francis), a distinguished French 
classical scholar, born in Paris Aug. 12, 1774. He be¬ 
came professor of Greek in the University of Paris in 

1812, was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 

1813, and became professor of Greek in the College of 
France in 1828, which position he held until a few days 
before his death. He edited several Greek classic authors, 
and published “ Sylloge Poetarum Grsecorum” (24 vols., 
1823-26). He acquired a high reputation as a Hellenist, 
and gave a powerful impulse to the study of classical liter¬ 
ature. Died Sept. 8, 1857. 

Boissy d’Anglais, de (Francis Antoine), Count, a 
French statesman, born at Saint Jean Chambre (Ardeche) 
Dec. 8, 1756. He became a moderate member of the 
States-General in 1789, and of the Convention in 1792. 
He was a member of the Committee of Public Safety in 
1794, was chosen president of the Tribunate in 1802, was 
created a senator and count by Napoleon in 1805, and a 
peer of France by Louis XVIII. He wrote several politi¬ 
cal essays and a “Life of Malesherbes” (1819). Died Oct. 
20, 1826. 

Boivin (Marie Anne Victoire Gtllain), M. D., an 
eminent French midwife, born April 9, 1773, was educated 
in a nunnery, and afterwards studied the elements of med¬ 
icine. She married in 1797, but was soon left a widow 
with one child. To gain a living she worked in the Ma- 
ternite Hospital, of which she became superintendent in 
1801. The king of Prussia gave her the civil order of 
merit, and the University of Marburg the degree of M. D. 
She wrote valuable professional works. Died May 16,1841. 

Bo'ker (George Henry), an American poet, born in 
Philadelphia in 1823, graduated at Princeton, N. J., in 
1842. He published “ The Lesson of Life and other Poems” 
(1847),' “Calaynos,” a tragedy (1848), which was performed 
with great success in England; “ Leonore de Guzman,” and 
“War Lyrics” (about 1862), which were received with favor. 
In the autumn of 1871 he was appointed minister to Turkey. 

Boke’s Creek, a township of Logan co., 0. P. 1344. 

Bokha'ra [Lat. Bucharia; anc. Sogdiana and Trans- 
oxiana ], or Uzebekistan', called also Great Bu¬ 
charia, a state of Central Asia, in Independent Toorkistan, 
is bounded on the N. and W. by Russian Toorkistan, and on 
the S. by Afghanistan and Toorkomania. Area, estimated at 
76,200 square miles. The high mountain-range of Hindoo- 
Koosh extends along the southern border of Bokhara, the 
E. part of which is occupied by offsets from the Bolor 
Tagh, but the greater part of the country is level. This 
level tract resembles the dry steppes and sandy wastes of 
the basin of the Caspian. The largest rivers of Bokhara 
are the Amoo (Oxus), the Jihoon, and the Samarcand River, 
or Kohik. Along the banks of these rivers there is arable 
and fertile land, which is about one-tenth of the whole 
country. The climate is moderate. Gold is found in the 
sands of the Oxus, but Bokhara is deficient in metals and 
timber. Among the products of the soil are cotton, rice, 
wheat, barley, silk, tobacco, and abundant fruits. The in¬ 
habitants raise great numbers of camels, sheep, goats, and 
horses. They manufacture silk stuffs, firearms, cutlery, 
shagreen, gold and silver ornaments, sabres, etc. This 
country derives commercial advantage and importance 
from its position between Russia and the south of Asia. 
The population is composed of a mixture of races, who 
mostly profess the Mohammedan religion. Bokhara partly 
corresponds to the ancient Bactria. It was conquered by 


Jengis Khan in 1222, and was famed as a seat of learn¬ 
ing under Tamerlane. The Uzbecks became masters of it 
in 1505. In 1864 the Russians moved up the Syr-Darya, 
captured several important cities, together with the northern 
half of Bokhara, and formed the government of Toorkistan. 
Between 1866-68 the Russians conquered the cities of Sam¬ 
arcand and Ivatty Kurgan, with the territory belonging to 
them. Since then Bokhara has become more and more de¬ 
pendent upon Russia. In 1870, Russia conquered Badak- 
shan and gave it to Bokhara, and in 1873, owing to the 
victory of the Russians over Khiva, the Amoo was made 
the boundary between Khiva and Bokhara. Capital, Bok¬ 
hara. Pop. estimated at 2,500,000. 

Bokhara (i. e. “treasury of sciences”), a famous city 
of Central Asia, the capital of Bokhara, is situated on a 
plain near the river Sogd or Zerafslian, 138 miles W. S. W. 
of Samarcand. The streets are very narrow and ill paved, 
the houses are small, have flat roofs, and are built of sun- 
dried bricks. Bokhara is probably the most important 
commercial town of Central Asia, and has numerous ex¬ 
tensive bazaars, in which nearly all kinds of goods can be 
procured. Among the articles exported from it are silks, 
cotton, wool, coarse chintzes, lapis-lazuli, and dried fruits. 
This city is said to have 360 mosques, some of which are 
beautiful structures. It has long been famous as a seat of 
Mohammedan learning, and is said to contain over 100 col¬ 
leges, with about 10,000 students. Among the principal 
edifices is the palace of the khan, which is enclosed by a 
wall about sixty-five feet high. Bokhara was ruined by 
Jengis Khan about 1232, and was rebuilt at the end of his 
reign. The pop. is variously estimated at from 60,000 to 
180,000. 

Bol (Ferdinand), a Dutch painter and engraver, born 
at Dort in 1611, was a pupil of Rembrandt. He painted 
history and portraits with success, and produced some good 
etchings. Died in 1681. 

BoGan Pass, a pass in the mountains of Beloochistan, 
is 50 miles long, and is on the route from Sinde to Kanda¬ 
har and Kelat. The highest part of the pass is 5793 feet 
above the level of the sea. The average ascent is ninety 
feet in a mile. The Bolan River rises here. In 1839 a 
small British army with heavy artillery marched through 
this pass from Sinde to Afghanistan. 

Bo'las (the “balls”), a Spanish-American name for a 
missile used by the Indians of the South American plains, 
and borrowed from them by the Gauchos. It consists of a 
pair of balls (formerly made of clay by the Indians, but 
now often of iron) fastened together by a thong of hide. 
The bolas are hurled with great precision at the ox, horse, 
guanaco, or ostrich, and, entangling the legs of the animal, 
detain it till it can be captured or killed. Sixty feet or 
more is a moderate range for the bolas, which are thrown 
from the saddle. 

Bolbec, a town of France, in the department of Seine- 
Inferieure, is on a small river of its own name, and 20 
miles by rail E. N. E. of Havre, on the railway which con¬ 
nects Paris with the latter place. It is well built, and is 
adorned with fountains. Here are manufactures of cot¬ 
ton, linen, and woollen fabrics, and chemicals. Pop. 9063. 

Bold Spring, a township of Shelby co., Ala. P. 537. 

Bole [Lat. bo'lus; Gr. jSwAos, a “lump or mass”], an 
earthy substance resembling clay, and consisting essen¬ 
tially of silica, alumina, and red oxide of iron. It occurs in 
nests and veins in basalt and other rocks in various coun¬ 
tries. It feels greasy between the fingers ; is white, yel- 
Jow, red, brown, or black; has a dull resinous lustre; is 
friable, and adheres to the tongue. Armenian bole has a 
red tint, is often used for coloring false anchovies, and is 
also employed in coloring tooth-powders and in veterinary 
medicine. Lemnian earth, a bole from the island of Lem¬ 
nos, was at one time prescribed as a tonic and astringent 
medicine, and acted beneficially from the large percentage 
of oxide of iron present. The boles are employed in 
veterinary practice. When bole is calcined it becomes 
hard; and when afterwards levigated, a coarse red kind 
is used as a pigment under the names of English red and 
Berlin red. French bole is pale-red; Bohemian bole, red¬ 
dish-yellow; Silesia bole, pale-yellow; and Blois bole is 
yellow. The boles are absorbent, astringent, and some¬ 
what tonic. 

Bole'ro (named from its inventor), a Spanish na¬ 
tional dance, generally in the time of a minuet, and with a 
peculiar rhythm. It is accompanied with the music of the 
guitar and castanet, and with songs. The dancer seeks to 
represent by pantomine the successive symptoms and emo¬ 
tions of amorous affection. 

Boles, a post-township of Franklin co., Mo. P. 5183. 

Bole'tus [Gr. /SwAi'ttj?], a genus of fungi of the division 
Hymenomycetes. It comprises several species, which re- 











BOLEYN—BOLIVIA. 


541 


semble the mushroom ( Agaricw) in form, but instead of 
having gills, the under side of the cap ( pileus ) is occupied 
by a layer ( hymenium) quite distinct from the body of the 
pileus in substance, and pierced by pores, so as to be com¬ 
posed of numerous small tubes united together. Boletus 
eduli8 is used as food in France and Germany, where it 
grows on the ground in woods and mossy places. In 
moist, warm summers it is very abundant. The part 
which is eaten is the liesh of the cap, which is firm, 
white, and delicate. Several other species are edible. 

Bo'leyn, or Bul'Jen (Anne), queen of England, born 
in 1507, was a daughter of Sir Thomas Bullen, afterwards 
earl of Wiltshire. Her mother was a daughter of the duke 
of Norfolk. She was educated at the French court, and be¬ 
came about 1525 one of the maids-of-honor to the English 
queen, Catherine. Henry VIII., attracted by her beauty, 
applied to the pope to obtain a divorce from Catherine, and 
married Anne privately early in 1533. She became the 
mother of the princess Elizabeth in September of that year. 
She showed favor to the cause of the Reformation. Having 
been supplanted in the favor of the king, she was accused 
of criminal intercourse with several men, was condemned 
by a jury of peers, and beheaded May 19, 1530. Some 
writers think that her crime was not proven. (See Froude, 
“History of England,” vol. ii.; Miss Benger, “Memoirs 
of Anne Boleyn ;” Miss Strickland, “ Queens of England.”) 

Bolgrad', a town of Roumania, on the river Yalpookh, 
23 miles N. of Ismail, and on the frontier between Russia 
and Turkey. In 1850 it was ceded by Russia to Turkey. 
Pop. 8415. 

II o'li, a town in Asiatic Turkey, in Anatolia, 85 miles 
N. W. of Angora, inhabited by Turks and Armenians. 
The manufactures are gold ornaments and leather. Pop. 
about 10,000. 

Hol'i gee, a township of Greene co., Ala. Pop. 1770. 

Boli' Bias, a post-township of Marin co., Cal. Pop. 625. 

BoSingliroke (Henry St. John), Viscount, a celebrated 
English author and statesman, born at Battersea Oct. 1, 
1678. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and was ex¬ 
tremely dissipated in his youth. Having entered Parlia¬ 
ment in 1700, he soon became a prominent orator of the 
Tory party, and was appointed secretary of war in 1704. 
He lost this office when the Whigs obtained power in 1708, 
but he continued to be a favorite counsellor of Queen Anne, 
who dismissed the Whigs in 1710, and placed Harley at the 
head of a ministry in which St. John was secretary for for¬ 
eign affairs. He received in 1712 the title of Viscount Bol¬ 
ingbroke, and in 1713 concluded the treaty of Utrecht, which 
ended a long war between England and France. He quar¬ 
relled with Harley (earl of Oxford), and supplanted him as 
prime minister in July, 1714. His ambitious hopes were 
blasted by the death of Queen Anne (Aug., 1714), which 
also frustrated his designs and schemes to restore the Stuart 
dynasty. He was attainted in 1715, but he had escaped to 
France, and entered the service of the Pretender as his 
prime minister. In 1724 he was permitted to return to 
England, but not to enter Paidiament. He wrote for the 
“ Craftsman ” many articles against Walpole, and published, 
besides other works, a “Dissertation on Parties” (1739) 
and “ Remarks on the History of England ” (1743). Died 
Dec. 15, 1751. He was brilliant and versatile, but not pro¬ 
found. His collected works, which have little merit except 
style, were published by Mallet in five volumes in 1754. 
(See Goldsmith, “ Life of Lord BolingbrokeG. W. Cooke, 
“ Memoirs of Lord Bolingbroke,” 1835; “ Edinburgh Re¬ 
view ” for Oct., 1835 ; F. von Raumer, “ Lord Bolingbroke 
und seine Werke,” 1841; Charles de Rem us at, “ Boling¬ 
broke, sa Vie et son Temps,” 1853.) 

B o'lnig Green, a township of Pettis co., Mo. P. 2467. 

Bol 'ivar, a county in the W. of Mississippi. Area, 800 
square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Mississippi 
River, which separates it from Arkansas. The surface is 
an alluvial plain, part of which is often inundated by the 
river. The soil is fertile and produces cotton and corn 
abundantly. Capital, Beulah. Pop. 9732. 

Bolivar, a township of Jefferson co., Ark. Pop. 1732. 

Bolivar, a township of Poinsett co., Ark. Pop. 867. 

Bolivar, a township of Benton co., Ind. Pop. 776. 

Bolivar, a post-village, capital of Polk co., Mo., 110 
miles S. W. of Jefferson City. It has a fine high-school 
building, three churches, two newspapers, a woollen mill, 
cotton-gin, flouring mill, and other manufactories, three 
hotels, and a large trade. Pop. 635. 

Jas. Dumars, Ed. “Free Press.” 

Bolivar, a post-township of Allegany co., N. Y. P. 959. 

Bolivar, a post-village of Lawrence township, Tusca¬ 
rawas co., 0. Pop. 413. 


Bolivar, a post-village of Fairfield township, West¬ 
moreland co., Pa. Pop. 298. 

Bolivar, a post-village, capital of Hardeman co., 
Tenn„ 1 mile S. of Hatchee River, on the Mississippi Cen¬ 
tral It. R., 28 miles S. of Jackson and 68 miles E. of Mem¬ 
phis, in an excellent cotton region, with fine water-power 
and plenty of timber. It has a foundry, steam saw and 
grist mill, two male and two female academies, seven 
churches, and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 889. 

M. R.JParrish, Ed. “ Bolivar Bulletin.” 

Bolivar, a township of Jefferson co., W. Va. P.2892. 

Boli'var, one of the nine states of the South American 
confederation of Colombia, is bounded on the N. by the 
Caribbean Sea, E. by Magdalena and Santander, S.byAn- 
tioquia, and on the W. by Cauca. Area, 26,600 square 
miles. Besides the Magdalena, which flows along its entire 
W. boundary, the only river of importance is the Cauca. 
The surface is mostly level, and covered with forests. The 
principal towns are Cartagena, the capital, and Mompox. 
Pop. in 1870, 225,060. 

Hol'ivar [Sp. pron. bo-lee'var], (Simon), or Boli'var 
y Poil'te, surnamed the Liberator, a South American 
patriot, born at Caracas July 25, 1783, inherited an ample 
fortune. He studied law at Madrid, and afterwards joined 
the patriots who revolted against Spain in 1810. He served 
as an officer under Miranda in several battles. Having ob¬ 
tained the command of a separate army, he defeated the 
Spaniards, and entered Caracas in triumph in Aug., 1813, 
soon after which he was appointed dictator. He was de¬ 
feated and driven out of Yenezuela in 1814, but again rallied 
to the standard of liberty near the. end of 1816, and gained 
several victories over the Spanish general Morillo in 1817. 
In Feb., 1819, a congress was opened at Angostura, and 
Bolivar was chosen president. In Dec., 1819, Venezuela 
and New Granada were united to form the republic of 
Colombia, of which Bolivar was elected the first president. 
He gained a victory at Carabobo in June, 1821, and in 
1822 led an army into Peru, which he liberated from the 
Spaniards. He became dictator of Peru in 1823, and made 
a tour through that country, in which he was received with 
triumphal demonstrations. In honor of him the southern 
part of Peru was named Bolivia, and erected in 1825 into 
a separate state, of which he became president for life. He 
was also re-elected president of Colombia in 1826. In 1829, 
Venezuela seceded from the republic of Colombia, which 
was much disturbed by faction. Bolivar had many enemies 
who denounced his ambition. lie died Dec. 17, 1830. (See 
Ducoudray-Holstein, “Memoires de S. Bolivar,” 1829, 
and English translation of the same, 2 vols., 1830.) 

Bolivar Point is at the N. side of the entrance to 
Galveston Bay, Tex., in Chambers co., lat. 29° 22' 02” N., 
Ion. 94° 45' 34” W. It lias an iron lighthouse 110 feet 
high, with a fixed white light 117 feet above the sea. 

Bol iv'ia, a South American republic, is bounded on the 
N. and E. by Brazil, on the S. by the Argentine Republic 
and Chili, and on the W. by Peru and the Pacific Ocean. 
Area, 535,000 square miles. The population is estimated 
(Behm and Wagner, “ Bevolkerung der Erde,” Gotha, 
1872) at 2,000,000. The S. W., W., and central parts of 
the republic contain the highest mountains in the New 
World, comprising the Cordilleras from lat. 24° S., with 
the plateau of Potosi, 13,000 feet high, from which two 
chains branch off, the western, containing many volcanoes, 
with its highest point, Mount Sajama, 22,760 feet high, and 
the eastern, with Mount Illampu, probably the highest in 
America, 24,744 feet, and Mount Illimani, 23,990 feet. The 
only lake of any importance, Lake Titicaca, on the N. W. 
boundary, is situated at an elevation of 12,850 feet, and 
has an area of 5300 square miles. The most important 
rivers of Bolivia are the Veni or Beni, Mamore, and Gua- 
pore, which empty into the Madeira, and the Pilcomayo and 
Paraguay, which flow to the Parana. Five climatic re¬ 
gions are distinguished : 1, the Puna brava, between the 
elevation of 13,000 feet and the snow-limit; 2, the Puna , 
between 11,000 and 13,000 feet, in which potatoes, oca, 
quinoa, and barley are cultivated, and fine forests are met 
with; 3, the Cabezera de Valle, between 9000 and 11,000 
feet, producing wheat, corn, and European vegetables; 4, 
the Valle, or Medio Yunga, between 6000 and 9000 feet, 
the finest region in Bolivia; besides the products found 
in the regions above named, many tropical fruits occur 
here, and the best cinchona is gathered; 5, the ) unga, the 
region of the tropical forests, producing cacao, coca, bana¬ 
nas, and all classes of tropical fruits. 

Bolivia is rich in precious metals and useful minerals. 
Silver is found all through the Bolivian cordillera, while 
gold is not only found in large quantities, associated with 
quartz, in the mountains, but is found in the beds of all 
the numerous rivers that come down from the mountains. 





















BOLKHOV—BOLOGNA. 


542 


Besides these, copper, tin, mercury, lead, and iron are also 
found. Balt is also produced in large quantities, while the 
rich beds of coal have as yet not been touched. Besides 
the products mentioned above, coffee, cotton, tobacco, indi¬ 
go, and sugar-cane are extensively cultivated. The inhab¬ 
itants consist of whites, Indians, and a large number of 
half-breeds, but very few negroes. The Indians are most¬ 
ly Chiquitos, Majos, and Chiriquanos. The Roman Cath¬ 
olic religion predominates, and the country contains the 
archbishopric of La Plata and the bishoprics of La Paz, 
Santa Cruz, and Cochabamba. 

The public education of the nation is on a very low 
stage as yet. It is under the direction of the presidents of 
the three universities and the minister of education. The 
state of the finances is very low indeed. The public debt 
in 1871 amounted to 10,845,520 pesos, the receipts in 1867 
to 4,529,345 pesos, and the expenses in the same year to 
5,957,275, leaving a deficit of 1,427,930 pesos. The army 
consists of 51 generals, 359 superior officers, 654 other offi¬ 
cers, and about 2000 privates. The imports are estimated 
at 6,000,000 pesos, and the exports at 5,000,000. No rail¬ 
roads exist at present. Aline has been projected from Tacna 
to La Paz, and another from Caracoles to the Pacific. The 
executive power is vested, according to the constitution of 
1868, in a president elected for four years, and the legisla¬ 
tive in a congress. Bolivia is divided into 11 departments : 
Chuquisaca, Potosi, Oruro, Tarija, Atacama, La Paz, Mejil- 
lones, Santa Cruz, Beni or Yeni, Cochabamba, and Mcl- 
gareja. The capital is Sucre. 

History .—The W. part of Bolivia belonged to the old 
empire of the incas of Cuzco, which existed from about 
1018-1524, and which had a high degree of civilization. 
In 1538 the Spaniards entered the country and conquered it, 
and in 1557 the inca Sairi Tupac resigned his power to 
Philip II. But the Spanish dominion was not firmly es¬ 
tablished until 1780. In this year Bolivia, under the name 
of Charcas, became a part of the viceroyalty of La Plata 
or Buenos Ayres. In 1809 the disorders in Spain also 
caused considerable revolutionary movements in Bolivia. 
The revolution gradually spread over the whole country, 
and was carried on with varying successes until 1824. In 
July, 1825, a congress assembled and declared the country 
independent, and called the new state Bolivia, in honor of 
Gen. Bolivar, who had materially aided them. Aug. 25, 
1826, a constitution was adopted, and Gen. Sucre was elect¬ 
ed president. In 1828 he was forced to leave the country. 
After a terrible civil war Santa Cruz became president, and 
succeeded in raising the prosperity of the country consid¬ 
erably. In 1835 he invaded Peru, defeated the rebels, and 
annexed a part of Southern Peru. A federal republic was 
formed and Santa Cruz elected protector. But Chili and 
the Argentine Republic, which had jealously watched his 
growing success, now took up arms against him, and, al¬ 
though at first victorious, he was in consequence of inter¬ 
nal disorders defeated by Chili in 1839, and fled to Guaya¬ 
quil. After some more revolutions, Gen. Ballivian suc¬ 
ceeded in sustaining himself as president in 1840. He 
conducted the government with vigor, and introduced many 
reforms. Gamarro, who tried to unite Bolivia with Peru, 
was repulsed, and the Bolivian troops even entered Peru. 
Peace was concluded June 7, 1842, and the restoration of 
the foi’mer boundaries was agreed upon. But new troubles 
arose in the interior, and Gen. Velasco superseded Balliv¬ 
ian, only to be himself superseded in Dec., 1848, by Gen. 
Belzu. Belzu ruled for over six years, having gained the 
favor of the lower classes. In 1855 he was compelled to 
resign by the popular indignation against liis arbitrary 
measures, but had enough influence left to secure the elec¬ 
tion of his son-in-law, Cordova, who continued the obnox¬ 
ious policy of Belzu, and in Nov., 1857, was defeated by 
Dr. Linares, who succeeded him. Linares’s attempts to 
introduce reforms remained futile in consequence of the 
opposition of his opponents. lie was deposed in 1861, and 
was succeeded by his minister of war, Acha. In 1864, after 
increasing internal strifes, Belzu made an invasion from 
Peru. In December of the same year Gen. Melgarejo first 
defeated Acha, and then defeated and killed Belzu. In 
1866, Bolivia joined the alliance of Peru, Ecuador, and 
Chili against Spain, and in the same year settled amicably 
the border difficulties with Chili. In 1868 a new congress 
was elected, which legalized all the acts of Melgarejo. In 
the same year a contract was made with Col. G. E. Church 
of New York to open steam-navigation on the Madeira. 
At the same time citizenship was extended to all Americans 
who declared their intention to settle permanently in 
Bolivia. In Feb., 1869, Melgarejo overthrew the constitu¬ 
tion of 1868, but in May restored it again. In 1869 anew 
revolution broke out, Melgarejo was defeated, and Morales 
declared president. In 1872, Morales was shot by his 
nephew La Fay6, and was succeeded by Don Adolfo Bal¬ 
livian. 


(See Dolence, “Bosqucjo Estadistica de Bolivia,” 1851; 
Wappaus, in Stein and Horschelinaun’s “ Handbuch der 
Geographie,” 7th ed., 1863-70; Cortes, “ Ensayo sobre la 
llistoria de Bolivia,” 1861; and Reck, “Geographie und 
Statistik der Republik Bolivia,” in Petermann’s “ Mitthei- 
lungen,” 1866 and 1867.) A. J. Schem. 

Bol'khov, a town of Russia, government of Orel, on 
the Nugra, 30 miles N. of Orel. It is built mostly of wood, 
and has about twenty churches, also manufactures of 
gloves, hosiery, hats, aud leather. Hemp, hides, oil, and 
tallow are exported. Pop. 18,491. 

Bol'landists, a term applied to certain Jesuits who 
compiled, and are compiling, a voluminous work called 
“Acta Sanctorum,” or “ Lives of the Saints” (53 vols., 
1643-1794). They derived their name from John Bol- 
landus. (See Bollandus.) After his death the work was 
continued by a number of men, among whom were Daniel 
Papebroek, Conrad Janning, P. van den Boschc, Suyskens, 
and Hubens. In 1837 a new Bollandist association was 
formed by the Jesuits in Belgium, who have continued the 
work of publication. The sixtieth volume, published in 
1867, comes down to the saints of October 29. It is stated 
that 2000 saints remain whose lives are unwritten, and that 
at least fifty volumes folio will be required to complete the 
work. As far as they have gone they have by no means 
exhausted the old calendars. According to Alban Butler, 
their work, at least in the early part, does not exhibit 
much scholarship. (See L. P. Gaciiard, “ Memoire his- 
torique sur les Bollandistcs*” 1835.) 

Bofllaii'chis, or IlolGand (John), a Flemish Jesuit, 
born at Limburg Aug. 13, 1596. In conjunction with 
Godfrey Henschen, he published in 1643—58 five volumes 
of the “Acta Sanctorum.” Died Sept. 12, 1665. (See Bol- 

LANDISTS.) 

Bollene, a French town, in Yaucluse, on a hillside, 24 
miles N. of Avignon. It manufactures silk. Pop. 5412. 

Bolies (Lucius), D. D., born at Ashford, Conn., Sept. 
25, 1779, educated at Brown University, ordained pastor 
of a Baptist church at Salem, Mass., 1805, and secretary 
of the Baptist Board of Foreign Missions from 1824. Died 
Jan. 5, 1844. 

Bol'liii ger, a county in S. E. Missouri. Area, 500 
square miles. It is drained by Castor and Crooked Creeks. 
The surface is hilly or uneven ; the soil is fertile. Cattle, 
grain, tobacco, and wool are produced. Iron ore and 
kaolin are found here. It is intersected by the St. Louis 
and Iron Mountain R. R. Capital, Marble Hill. P. 8162. 

Bolo'gna, a province of the kingdom of Italy, was 
previous to 1860 a delegation of the Papal States. It is 
bounded on the N. by Ferrara, on the E. by Ravenna, on 
the S. by. Florence, and on the W. by Mddena. Area, 1392 
square miles. The southern part is mountainous; the soil 
is mostly very fertile. Among the staple products are silk, 
wine, grain, olive oil, hemp, flax, and rice. Capital, 
Bologna. Pop. in 1871, 439,166. 

Bologna (anc. Felsina and Bononia), a famous city 
of Itaty, capital of the above province, is situated in a fer¬ 
tile plain near the northern foot of the Apennines, 23 miles 
by rail S. E. of Modena and 83 miles by rail N. of Florence; 
lat. 44° 30' N., Ion. 11° 21' E. Several railways extend 
from this point to Ferrara, Ancona, M6dena, and Florence; 
that which connects it with Florence crosses the Apennines 
by numerous tunnels. Bologna is a handsome city with 
well-paved streets, lined with rich and varied colonnades, 
which afford shelter from the rain and sun, and it is adorned 
with many beautiful churches and fine palaces of the no- 
bilitjq richly furnished with paintings of the old masters. 
Among the remarkable edifices are the Palazzo del Podesta; 
the Palazzo Maggiore del Publico; the leaning tower of 
Asinelli, built about 1110, and 256 feet high; the cathedral, 
rich in works of art; the church of San Stefano, one of the 
oldest in Italy, and containing Greek frescoes of the twelfth 
century; the church of San Petronio, a noble specimen of 
the Italian Gothic style, adorned with many masterpieces 
of painters and sculptors; and the church of San Domenico, 
in which may be seen sculptures by Michael Angelo, and 
paintings by Guido, L. Caracci, and Colonna. The num¬ 
ber of churches in Bologna is about seventy-four. 

Bologna is one of the great centres of learning in Italy. 
Its university, said to have been founded as early as 425, 
is the oldest in the peninsula. This school attained great 
celebrity, and was attended by thousands of students from 
all parts of Europe. The number of its students about the 
year 1260 is said to have amounted to 10,000. Several 
female professors have occupied chairs in this institution. 
The library of the university has about 200,000 volumes 
and 1000 valuable MSS. Bologna has an academy of fine 
arts and several theatres. Here are important manufac¬ 
tures of silk goods, velvet, crape, chemicals, paper, musical 

















BOLOGNA, DA—BOMBARDMENT. 


543 


instruments, and sausages. This city was the native placo 
of many eminent painters, including Albano, the three 
Caracci, and Guido; also of Pope Benedict XIV., Galvani, 
and Malpighi. A town called Felsina, founded here by 
the Etruscans, was perhaps as ancient as the city of Rome. 
The Romans, who obtained possession of it in 189 B. C., 
changed its name to Bononia. It was taken by Charle¬ 
magne in 800 A. I)., and was the capital of the most power¬ 
ful Italian republic from 1118 to 1274. It was annexed to 
the Papal States in 1514, and to the new kingdom of Italy 
in 1859. Pop. in 1871, 115,957. 

Bologna, da (Giovanni), a Flemish sculptor, born at 
Douay in 1524, went to Italy when quite young, where he 
won great and lasting fame. Ilis chief works are the 
“ Rape of the Sabines ” in the Loggia di Lanzi at Florence, 
the “ Mercury” of the Uffizi, and the great fountain of Bo¬ 
logna (1564). Died in 1608. 

Bologna Stone, a radiated variety of heavy spar 
(sulphate of baryta) which is found near Bologna, and is 
sometimes called “Bologna phosphorus.” When calcined, 
pulverized, and made into cakes with gum-water, these 
cakes, after exposure to the sun, emit a phosphorescent 
light. 

B o'lor Tagh, or Belnr Tagh, a high mountain- 
chain of Central Asia, extends along the W. boundary of 
the Chinese empire, which it separates from Khoondooz 
and Kaliristan. Its direction is nearly N. and S. It ex¬ 
tends from lat. 35° to 45° N., and is connected with the 
Ilindoo-Koosh on the S. The altitude of its highest peaks 
is said to be 19,000 feet or more. 

Bolse'lia (anc. Volsinii or Volsinium), a town of Italy, 
on the N. shore of Lake Bolsena, about 20 miles N. X. W. 
of Viterbo. It is now a small and mean village, but in 
ancient times it was an important Etruscan city and the 
capital of the Volsci. It was taken and destroyed in 280 
B. C. by the Romans, who built here another city. This 
was the native place of Sejanus. Pop. 2100. The lake was 
celebrated in the Middle Ages for its eels. Pope Leo X. 
visited the island in this lake, on which ruins of beautiful 
castles, built by the Farnese, are still visible. 

Bolt, a dart or pointed shaft, a thunderbolt; also a 
strong cylindrical pin of iron or other metal. Iron bolts 
are often used to fasten doors and protect dwelling-houses 
and warehouses against robbers. Metallic bolts, with a 
head at one end and a screw-thread and nut at the other, 
are extensively used in building ships and houses, in order 
to bind together timber or masonry. Bolts in shipbuilding 
are usually either iron or copper, and are of various forms 
and size3, some being many feet long. 

Bol'ton, a post-village of Albion township, Peel co., 
Ontario (Canada), on the Toronto Grey and Bruce Rail¬ 
way, 25 miles from Toronto, has a large trade in provisions, 
grain, and flour. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Bolton, a post-township of Tolland co., Conn., has 
quarries of excellent flagging-stone. Pop. 576. 

Bolton, a post-township of Worcester co., Mass., on 
the Boston Clinton and Fitchburg R. R., 43 miles W. N. W. 
from Boston. It has a public library, and is the seat of 
the Houghton School. Pop. 1014. 

Bolton, a post-village and township of Warren co., 
N. Y., on Lake George, is noted for fine scenery. P. 1135. 

Bolton, a post-township of Chittenden co., Vt., 18 
miles N. W. of Montpelier, lias manufactures of tubs, 
measures, boxes, lumber, etc. Pop. 711. 

Bolton-le-Moors, an important manufacturing town 
of England, in Lancashire, on the Croal, 11 miles by rail 
N. W. of Manchester. Several railways extend from this 
place to Liverpool, Manchester, and Blackburn. Bolton 
returns two members to Parliament. It is one of the prin¬ 
cipal seats of the cotton manufacture, and is the birthplace 
of the inventors Arkwright and Crompton. The chief prod¬ 
ucts of its manufactories are muslins, fine calicoes, counter¬ 
panes, dimities, cotton shawls, and fustians. Here are also 
paper-mills, foundries, and machine-shops. Numerous coal¬ 
mines are worked in the parish of Bolton. The manufac¬ 
ture of cotton and wool was introduced into this place by 
the Flemings about 1337. Pop. in 1871, 82,854. 

B o'lus [Gr. ps>\ O?, a “mass”], a dose of medicine given 
in a mass larger than a pill, yet small enough to be swal¬ 
lowed. The bolus is now seldom used. 

Bo'raarsimd', a fortress of Russia, on the S. E. side 
of the island of Aland; lat. 60° 12' 40“ N., Ion. 20° 15' E. 
This important fortress was taken by the allied English and 
French fleets in Aug., 1854, and was afterwards blown up 
by the allies. 

Bomb, bum [Fr. bombej Lat. bom'bus ], or Bombshell, 
a kind of shell; a hollow ball of cast-iron which is filled 
with powder or other explosive substance, is discharged 


from a mortar or heavy ordnance, and explodes when it 
strikes the ground or before it falls. The powder in it is 
usually exploded by a fuse or hollow tube filled with a slow- 
burning compound, which is ignited by the discharge of the 
mortar. The largest bomb in ordinary use is thirteen inches 
in diameter, weighs about 195 pounds, and is charged with 
seven or eight pounds of powder. Bombs are thrown at 
angles varying from twenty to forty-five degrees. (See 
Mortar.) 

Bom'ba, a surname or nickname given to Ferdinand 
II., king of the Two Sicilies, in consequence of his cruel 
bombardment of Messina Sept. 2-7, 1848. 

Bom'bard, an ancient kind of ordnance, very short, 
thick, and wide in the bore. It differed from the mortar 
in shooting forth stones instead of iron shells. Some of 
the bombards used in the fifteenth century propelled stones 
weighing from 200 to 500 pounds each. 

Bombardment. In the strict meaning of the term, 
a bombardment is the firing from mortars of bombs —(that 
is, shells or incendiary projectiles) into a fortress or place 
to compel, or aid in compelling, its surrender. “Bom¬ 
bardments,” says Bardin (Diet, de VArviee) “are an im¬ 
politic and barbarous means, since it attacks non-combat¬ 
ants, and is rather a warfare against the inhabitants than 
against the armed defenders, exasperating the people and 
nationalizing the strife.” Of the bombardments recorded 
may be mentioned that of Genoa in 1684; of Tripoli in 
1685, 1728, and 1747 ; Barcelona, 1691. Brussels was bom¬ 
barded in 1694 by Louis XIV. (“3000 bombs and three 
times as many red-hot shot” were thrown in); Prague was 
bombarded in 1759; Breda, Lille, Lyons, Maestrieht, May- 
ence in 1793, and Menin, Valenciennes, Le Quesnoy, Os¬ 
tende, Nieuwpoort, and Lecluse in 1794. Some resisted— 
as Lille and Mayence—others succumbed. That of Lille 
is most noted, this small place being subjected for 140 
hours (6 days and nights) to the fire of 12 mortars and 24 
cannons. During the siege of Antwerp in 1832 thirty-one 
thousand six hundred and eighty-nine shells were thi'own 
into the citadel without material effect in accelerating the 
surrender.* Glogau, Breslau, and Schweidnitz were bom¬ 
barded by the French in 1806 and 1807. During the long 
two years’ blockade, 1809-10, of Cadiz by the French under 
Marshal Victor it was found impossible to reach the city 
from the lines with shells from ordinary mortars: long 
bronze howitzers of 10 inches calibre were cast at Seville 
(one of which is now to be seen as a trophy (see Fig. 1) 
in St. James’s Park near the Horse Guards, London) and 
called d la Villantroys, from the French colonel of artillery 
who had proposed them. These, elevated 45°, threw their 
projectiles 5000 metres (3 miles) into the heart of the city; 
but to attain this range it was found necessary to load the 
shells (already weighing 95 lbs.) with lead, to the exclusion 
of most of the bursting-charge. In bursting they produced 
no effect, and it is stated that the inhabitants were “ scarcely 
aware of the bombardment.” 

Fig. 1. 



At the siege of Vera Cruz by Gen. Scott in Mar., 184v, 
three mortar batteries each containing four (10-in.) mor¬ 
tars and a battery of 8 large (8-in.) howitzers were estab- 

* Monster-mortars, like monster-guns, date far hack in the his¬ 
tory of artillery. One made at Ghent and used in the siege ot 


ing 7000 kilogrammes ancl throwing a such ui > 

designed by Col. Paixhans, was used. It threw 15 sliel s in the last 
two days of the siege. It was thought that if one fell on a nu g- 
azine it would destroy it; but the shells actually thrown caused 
no serious damage. (Spectateur Mil., 18&M It was fired " 
kil. of powder, but its full charge was 13 kil. I ired subsequen > 
with this charge it burst. 












































544 BOMBAKDMENT. 


listed bearing upon the quarter called “La Merced.” On 
the 23d Gen. Scott summoned the place and a conference 
was had; it proving fruitless, the 12 mortars opened on 
that day and the howitzer battery the day following. The 
fire continued throughout the 25th, 26th, and 27th. The 
La Merced quarter soon became ruinous—200 persons are 
said to have been injured. The fears of an assault caused 
Gen. Morales to surrender on the 27th. A shot from the 
Fort St. Juan entered one of our mortar batteries on the 
22d, killing by its “wind” (for though knocking otf his 
cap, the skin was not broken) Capt. Jno. R. Vinton, 3d 
artillery. During the bombardment our fleet kept up a 
cannonade on the fort which, though intact, surrendered a 
few hours after the city. 

De Blois ( Capitaine d’Artillerie) published in 1848 a 
“ Traite ties Bombar dements” to maintain that this means 
has not, as asserted, fallen into disuse; that bombardments 
reduce places with much less loss of time, munitions and 
blood than regular sieges; and, finally, to defend the 
system “against the unjust reprobation cast upon it in 
characterizing its employment as an act of barbarity.” 

The cases cited by him, nearly all of Avhich have been 
referred to in this, scarcely sustain his thesis; still very 
recent examples go to prove that it is an agent which will 
continue, under certain circumstances, to be resorted to. 
Grivel [“ La Marine dans L’attaque des Fortifications et 
le Bombardment des villes,” Paris, 1856] maintains that 
in the use of curved fires, combined with direct, naval 
armaments will in future find the most effective method of 
attacking fortified places. By the term curved fires he in¬ 
cludes fire by which projectiles from rifled guns (or even 
smooth-bores) can, by elevating the piece, be sent, at long 
ranges,- into the interior of a plage. The increase of 
calibre of modern artillery, and more especially the intro¬ 
duction of the rifled principle, has made such fires as 
effective as that from mortars, and the term “bombard¬ 
ment” is now extended to such. 

At Odessa this species of bombardment was first effect¬ 
ively employed in 1854. The results attained there sug¬ 
gested to the allies the advantages to be derived from this 
application of floating artillery, and the subsequent bom¬ 
bardment of Sweaborg was provided for, in 1855, by adding 
to the fleet 21 mortar vessels which were towed to within 
about 2 miles (3400 metres) of the centre of the Russian 
arsenal, while the gunboats of the squadron, keeping in 
constant motion, approached to distances of two or three 
thousand metres. The fire was maintained 45 hours dur¬ 
ing which 4150 projectiles (2828 of which mortar shells) 
were thrown into the place, killing and wounding 2000 
men and destroying magazines, supplies, and shipping. 

At an early period of our civil war the project of cap¬ 
turing New Orleans was mooted. The reduction of the 
Forts Jackson and St. Philip seemed a necessary prelim¬ 
inary. For this object a fleet of 20 mortar vessels bearing, 
each, one of the new model 13-inch mortars, weighing 11,500 
lbs, were prepared and under command of Commander 
(now Admiral) David D. Porter, added to Admiral Farra- 
gut’s fleet. These vessels were moored to the right bank 
of the river at distances of 3000 to 4000 yards from the 
forts, their positions being screened from view by the 
woods. The bombardment commenced on the 18th April, 
1862, continued six days and six nights during which time 
7500 bombs were fired, of which 1080 exploded in the air 
and 1113 were afterwards counted as having fallen upon 
the fort and solid ground of glacis and levees, and 3339 
were computed to have fallen in the wet ditches and over¬ 
flowed lands surrounding the fort [for the levees being 
broken by the shells the site was overflowed]. At the end 
of this bombardment Admiral Farragut forced the passage 
with his fleet, and, destroying the Confederate flotilla of 
iron-clads and gunboats, the forts surrendered. 

Fort Jackson has a portion of its guns in casemates of 
the curtains; the arches were of brick of very moderate 
thickness, roofed with concrete, affording at the crown a 
thickness of 3 feet of masonry. These were covered by 
the earthen parapet and terreplein. In the flanks of the 
bastions were flanking casemates, the brick arches of which 
were not only destitute of earth covering but of the usual 
concrete roofing. All the guns of Fort St. Philip were “ en 
barbette.” An engineer officer (Gen. Weitzel) examined 
the work immediately after its capture, and states: 

“ Fort St. Philip stands with one or two slight exceptions 
to-day without a scratch. Fort Jackson was subjected to a 
torrent of 13-inch and 11-inch shells during 144 hours. 
To an inexperienced eye it seems as if this work were 
badly cut up. It is as strong to-day as when the first shell 
was fired at it. The garrison did not bomb-proof the 
citadel” (7. e. had not placed earth over the heavy timber 
blindage spanning the Avails for that purpose) “conse¬ 
quently the roof and furring caught fire. This fire with 
subsequent shells ruined the walls so much that I am tear¬ 


ing it doAvn and removing the debris to the outside of the 
Avork. Three shot furnaces and three cisterns Avere de¬ 
stroyed. At several points the breast height walls were 
knocked down. One angle of the magazine on the north 
side of the postern Avas knocked off. Several shells went 
through the flank casemate arches (which Avere not covered 
Avith earth) and a few through the other casemate arches 
(Avhere two or more struck in the same place). At several 
points in the casemates the thirteen inch shell Avould pene¬ 
trate through the earth over the arches, be stopped by the 
latter, then explode and loosen a patch of brickwork in 
the soffit of the arch about 3 feet in diameter and three 
quarters of a brick deep, at its greatest depth.” “To resist 
an assault, and even regular approaches, it is as strong to¬ 
day as it ever was.” Gen. Abbot subsequently examined 
Fort Jackson, and reports that in one case a curtain case¬ 
mate arch Avas broken through where there was 3 feet of 
masonry and 6£ feet of earth (the earth being a very per¬ 
vious river formation). It does not appear that, other¬ 
wise, the forts Avere much injured or that the efficiency of 
their fire upon the fleet was seriously impaired. Doubtless, 
hoAvever, the loss of “morale” in the garrison Avhich in¬ 
duced the surrender Avas due not merely to the successful 
passage and the destruction of the floating defences, but to 
the physical exhaustion arising from the six days bom¬ 
bardment and subsequent furious artillery contest with our 
fleet; and the bombardment is not therefore to be reckoned 
as without influence in the final result. This conclusion 
has an important bearing; for the writer, in calling for the 
use of mortars, in a memoir prepared for the Navy Depart¬ 
ment, did not maintain that the passage could not be 
forced; but contended that “to pass these Avorks, merely, 
Avith a fleet and appear before New Orleans is merely a 
raid—no capture. New Orleans and the river cannot be 
held until communications are perfectly established.” 

Mortar vessels as well as improvised iron-clads were at 
an early date provided for our fleet in the upper Mississippi. 
After the fall of Forts Henry and Donelson and the evacua¬ 
tion of Columbus, the agency of bombardment (in conjunc¬ 
tion with the fire of the cannon of the fleet) were first 
brought to bear upon the fortified position of Island No. 10 
in the Mississippi, a short distance below NeAv Madrid 
(Missouri). The bombardment was kept up from Mar. 16 
to April 8 (1862), the mortar vessels at one time numbering 
sixteen. The works and troops being disseminated over 
an extensive area (the island being over a mile long and 14 
mile Avide), neither the bombs nor the cannonade appear to 
have had much influence in causing the surrender. A 
similar remark is applicable to Fort Pillow, situated on 
the Mississippi, about 100 miles aboA r e Memphis. 

When the course of events decided the establishment of 
a siege before Yorktown, in April 1862, the Assistant Sec¬ 
retary of the Navy, Mr. Fox, notified Gen. McClellan that 
ten of the new 13-inch mortars, which had been provided 
for naval purposes, would be placed at his disposal. As 
easy water communication made their application practi¬ 
cable, they were accepted and put in battery on the margin 
of a navigable arm of Wormley Creek, at about 2500 yards 
distance from the ramparts of the town. 


Fig. 2. 



Besides the above there were established a battery of ten 
10-in. siege mortars at 2000 yards, another of five 10-in. 
sea-coast mortars at 2500 yards, and another of five 10 
and five 8-in. siege mortars at 1600 yards. The place 
was evacuated before our siege and mortar batteries opened. 

Fort Pulaski, situated on Cockspur Island, mouth of 
Savannah River, Ga., and defending the river approach 
to Savannah, was captured by bombardment and breach¬ 
ing, April 11th 1862, by the U. S. forces under command of 
Gen. Gillmore. The fort is pentagonal in form with brick 
casemates on all sides and brick scarp-wall. It mounted 
one tier of guns in embrasure and one en barbette. 

The artillery of the besiegers consisted of thirty-six 























BOMBARDMENT 


545 


pieces distributed in eleven batteries along the shore of 
Tybee Island, at various distances from the work as follows 
(see Fig. 3) : 


No. 1—3 heavy 13-in. mortars... 

u 2_3 il u “ 

“ 3—3 10-inch columbiads. 

“ 4—3 8-in. “ . 

“ 5—1 heavy 13-inch mortar . 

“ 6—3 “ “ “ ’s. 

U y 2 u i{ u 

u a (3 10-in. columbiads j 

8 | 1 8 “ “ I . 

q_ f 5 30-pdr. Parrott rifles.1 

(1 48- “ James rifle (old 24 pdr.) J 
„ 1rt _ f 2 84- “ “ “ (old 42-pdr.) 

12 64- “ “ “ (old 32-pdr. J 

“11—4 10-inch siege mortars. 


.3,400 yards distant. 
.3,200 “ “ 

.3,100 “ “ 

.3,045 “ “ 

.2,790 “ 

.2,600 “ “ 

.2,400 “ “ 

.1,740 “ 

1,670 “ “ 

1,650 “ “ 

.1,650 “ “ 


Batteries 8, 9, and 10 were designed to breach the scarp 
wall of the work, and all the other batteries to keep down 
its fire and destroy its barbette armament. Some of the 
13-inch mortars were served with the view of breaching 
the casemate arches. 

The bombardment began about 8 o’clock on the morning 
of April 10th 1802. By half past 9 A. M. all the batteries 
were in active operation, and were so maintained until the 
dusk of evening, a period of about ten hours. Through¬ 
out the night firing was kept up with two 13-inch mortars, 
one 10-inch mortar, and one 30-pounder Parrott rifle, the 
object being to prevent the garrisons making any arrange¬ 
ment for their protection by piling sandbags behind that 
portion of the wall selected for breaching or against the 
wall of the magazine, which would be exposed to direct fire 


Fig. 3. 



as soon as the breach should be effected in the scarp-wall. 
During the first day’s firing the breach was fairly begun in 
the pan-coupe connecting the South and South-East faces. 
On the morning of the 11th, a little after sunrise, all the 
batteries were again opened, the breach was rapidly en¬ 
larged, and by 2 o’clock in the afternoon the scarp wall for 
a length of about forty-five feet had fallen into the ditch. 
The fire from the breaching batteries passed freely through 
two of the casemates, endangering the safety of the pow¬ 
der-magazine on the opposite side of the work. At two 
o’clock the fort raised a white flag and surrendered. 

The wall Avas found to be greatly shattered, much beyond 
the limits of actual breach, so that one hundred feet of its 
length had to be replaced by new brick-work. (See Fig. 4.) 



Fort Pulaski: front view of breach, from opposite side of ditch. 


The number of shots fired is shown below: 

From— 

Mortars: 1,144 13-in. shells and 588 10-in. shells. 

10-in. columbiads: 203 shots and 321 shells. 

8- “ “ : 298 “ “ 428 “ 

84-pdr. James rifles (old 42-pdr. rifled): 190 shots and 207 shells. 
64- “ “ “ ( “ 32 “ “ ): 380 “ “ 16 “ 

48-“ “ “ (“ 24“ “ ): 133 “ “ 116 “ 

30- “ Parrott “ : 150 shots and 1,101 shells. 

35 


It was estimated that 110,643 pounds of metal thrown 
from the breaching batteries struck the breached poi'tion 
of the wall, equal to 2,458 pounds per lineal foot of wall, 
the average distance of the breaching gun from the work 
being 1,687 yards. With small smooth-bore guns at 500 
yards distance, used during the Peninsular war in Spain, 
it was estimated by Sir W. Dennison that 2,544 pounds of 
metal was expended per lineal foot of wall, in breaching 
good rubble masonry backed by earth. 

The barbette armament of Fort Pulaski was so much in¬ 
jured during the first day as to render it unserviceable. 
No injury was inflicted upon the arches by mortar shells. 
Not more than one-tenth of the 13-inch shells fired fell in¬ 
side the work. 

Only twenty pieces of ordnance of the fort bore on the 
besiegers’ batteries on Tybee Island. 

The recapture of Fort Sumter and the occupation of 
Charleston was from the first deemed by the federal gov¬ 
ernment as of urgent importance. 

Fort Sumter was a strong casemated brick-work of five 
faces, designed to mount a total armament of 135 guns, 
tAVO tiers in embrasure and one en barbette, located on a 
shoal on the south side of the entrance to the inner harbor, 
at its narrowest point, and three and a half miles from the 
nearest part of Charleston City. The scarp Avail Avas 71 
feet thick and 32 feet high above the enrockment from 
Avhich it rose. The embrasures of the second tier had 
never been finished, and before the siege began had been 
walled up with brick. The fort never received its full 
armament. The nearest land is the north end of Morris 
Island, nearly due south about 1400 yards distant from the 
fort, and from this point the island—a narrow strip of 
sand—stretches along the coast in a southerly direction for 
a little more than three miles and a half. When siege 
operations began, the Confederates had possession of the 
whole of Morris Island, and had erected a strong and 
heavily-armed earthwork—Fort Wagner—1300 yards from 
the north end of it, and 2700 yards from Fort Sumter, with 
the object of holding at least the northern halt of the 
island, in order to prevent the establishment ot batteries 


















































































































































546 BOMBARDMENT. 


thereon, within effective breaching distance of Fort Sumter. 
They also had defences on the south end of the island to 
prevent its capture. The plan of attack agreed upon com¬ 
prised : 

1. The capture of the south end of Morris Island by 
assault. 

2. The siege and capture of Fort Wagner. 

3. The demolition of Fort Sumter by batteries estab¬ 
lished on the north end of Morris Island; and 

4. The entrance of the monitors into the inner harbor, 
and their passage up to the city of Charleston. 

This programme was carried out with the following 
results: 

On the 10th of July, 1863, the south end of Morris Island 
and the several batteries erected for its defence was cap¬ 
tured by a brigade of infantry, which approached in small 
boats and landed under fire. 

Two open assaults of Fort Wagner—on the 11th and 
18th of July respectively—demonstrated the impractica¬ 
bility of carrying the position by that method of attack. 

The plan of operations was then changed so as to give the 
demolition of Fort Sumter precedence, in point of time, 
over the capture of Fort Wagner, in order not to delay un¬ 
necessarily the entrance of the fleet and the capture of 
Charleston, for although Fort Wagner, in the hands of the 
besieged, was intended to prevent the erection of effective 
batteries against Fort Sumter, it did not protect the chan¬ 
nel of approach by Fort Sumter to the inner harboi’, or any 
of the channel obstructions erroneously supposed to exist 
there. 

Fir at Bombardment of Fort Sumter .—The demolition of 
Fort Sumter over the heads of the garrison of Fort Wagner 
was then the next step in the modified plan. 

The armament placed in position for this purpose, and 
their several distances from Fort Sumter, are shown in the 
following table: 

1. 2 8-inch Parrott rifles. 3,518 yards distant. 

2. 3 0.4 “ “ “ 3,447 

3. 2 0.4 “ “ “ 3,428 “ “ 

') 3 u << << i 

2 80-pdr. Whitworth rifles j "" 

5. 1 8-inch Parrott rifle. 4,172 “ “ 

{ 1 Q U U ii 

2 0.4 “ “ “ }. 4,272 “ “ 

7. 2 0.4“ “ “ 4,278 “ “ 

8. 1 10 “ “ “ 4,290 “ “ 

Firing from these batteries commenced on Aug. 17th, 1863. 
Its first stage ended Aug. 23. The firing from the most 
advanced of these batteries, which were less than 900 yards 
distant from Fort Wagner, was seriously interfered with 
and at times partially suspended, by the galling fire from 
that work, to which the cannoniers were almost constantly 
exposed. The combined fire of mortars and light pieces, 
aided by the gunboats and iron-clads, failed to subdue it, 
and it was necessary occasionally to turn the breaching 
batteries upon it. The result of this seven days’ bombard¬ 
ment is thus given in the official report of the chief of artil¬ 
lery of the siege: 

The fire from the breaching batteries upon Sumter was 
incessant, and kept up continuously from daylight till 
dark, until the evening of the 23d. For five days all the 
guns were directed upon the gorge wall, and had resulted 
it bringing it down to such an extent that on the evening 
of the 21st a practicable breach had been accomplished. 
On the morning of the 22d the fire from Batteries Nos. 1, 
2 and 3 was directed upon the south-easterly face or right 
flank of the work, with the view of dismounting the guns 
on the barbette of this face, which commanded the entrance 
to the harbor, as well as to destroy the guns on the north¬ 
easterly face, which this fire would take in reverse. The 
fire upon the gorge had, by the morning of the 23d, suc¬ 
ceeded in destroying every gun upon the parapet of it, and, 
as far as could be observed, had disabled or dismounted all 
the guns upon the parapet of the two faces looking towards 
the city, which it had taken in reverse. The parapet and 
ramparts of the gorge were, for nearly the entire length of 
the face, completely demolished, and in places every thing 
was swept off down to the arches, the debris forming an 
accessible ramp to the top of the ruins. 

There being nothing further to gain by a longer fire 
upon this face, all the guns were directed this day upon the 
south-easterly flank, and continued an incessant fire 
throughout the day. The demolition of the fort at the 
close of this day’s firing was complete, so far as its offensive 
powers were considered. Every gun upon the parapet was 
either dismounted or seriously damaged; the terre-pleine 
for the entire circuit of the place must have been shattered 
and ploughed up by our projectiles, hundreds of which had 
been seen to strike upon it. The parapet could be seen in 
many places, both on the sea and channel fronts, com¬ 
pletely torn away down to the terre-pleine. The place, in 


fine, was a ruin, and effectually disabled for any immediate 
defence of the harbor of Charleston. 

Having accomplished the end proposed, orders were 
accordingly issued, on the evening of the 23d, for the firing 
to cease, having been continuously sustained for seven 
days. There had been thrown five thousand and nine 
projectiles, of which about one-half had struck the fort. 
The weight of metal thrown during the seven days ending 
Aug. 23d was 289,986 pounds, omitting that expended by 
the four rifles in the naval battery (No. 4), say 20,000 
pounds. The enemy remained in possession of the work, 
having constructed a system of subterranean galleries 
within the ruined casemates of the fort. 

Second Bombardment of Fort Sumter .—Fort Wagner was 
captured on the morning of Sept. 7, thus giving the be¬ 
siegers possession of the whole of Morris Island. Heavy 
guns bearing upon Fort Sumter were at once established 
in Fort Wagner and on the north end of the island. Up 
to this time the gorge wall only had been breached. The 
south-east face, the only one seen from Morris Island ex¬ 
cept the gorge, remained standing, although badly shat¬ 
tered in many places. Reports having been made by 
reconnoitering parties that the garrison were attempting 
to remount guns on this face, it was determined to cut 
down that face with the rifled guns established in Fort 
Wagner and on the north end of this island, so that the 
fire of the besiegers passing over the debris of the gorge 
and north-east face would take the casemates of the oppo¬ 
site or channel fronts in reverse, and prevent the mounting 
of guns there. 

Fire was opened on the south-east face on the 26th of 
October. The armament used for this purpose comprised 
one 10-inch, two 8-inch and nine 6^-inch rifles, one 
10-in. columbiad and four 10-inch sea-coast mortars. 
The distances of these several guns from Fort Sumter 
varied from 2,500 to 1,300 yards. 

In a few days the S. E. face was more completely a ruin 
than the gorge wall. The debris formed a continuous 
and practicable ramp, reaching from the water to the sum¬ 
mit of the breach. The two faces of the work seen from 
Morris Island were both in ruins, many of the casemate 
arches of the channel fronts had fallen in from the reverse 
fire, and the entire armament of the work had been de¬ 
stroyed or removed to prevent destruction. (For these 
notices of bombardments of Forts Pulaski and Sumter, the 
writer is indebted to the distinguished officer who com¬ 
manded, Gen. Q. A. Gillmore.) A view of the work after 
the second bombardment is shown below. 


Fro. 5. 



Fort Sumter, Nov. 1, 1863, after the second bombardment. 


The recent great European war furnished numerous ex¬ 
amples of a resort to bombardment as an auxiliary to siege 
or blockade, of which the most conspicuous are the sieges 
of Strasburg and Paris. The former city, fully invested 
on the 8th of August, was attacked by regular siege ap¬ 
proaches and surrendered (Sept. 27) only after, its walls 
breached, it became exposed (according to Gen. Ulrich) to 
the “ doubtful chances of sustaining an assault.” But a 
bombardment from Ivrupp guns, howitzers and mortars 
commenced Aug. 18th and threw shells into the streets of 
the city with ruinous effect and to the serious injury of the 
venerable and magnificent cathedral. 

Paris was invested soon after the surrender at Sedan; 
and it was doubtless believed that its surrender would 
follow. No attempt or regular siege was ever made and 
it was not until late in December (probably owing to the 
difficulty of collecting siege artillery, the Strasburg and 
numerous minor sieges employing all available) that from 
the heights of Chatillon a cannonade was opened upon the 
southern forts. Early in January shells commenced to bo 
thrown from the same point into the southern quarters of 
Paris and this was continued till the 27th. On the 21st 
January a violent cannonade and bombardment was opened 
upon the detached forts of St. Denis and also upon tko 






































BOMBAX—BOMBAY. 


547 


town, 120 shells falling there in one hour (22d) and many 
hitting the ancient cathedral. The population took refuge 
in Paris. At the time (1840-48) the defenses of Paris 
were constructed the extreme rauge of projectiles did not 


exceed two and a half miles; and it w T as in relation to the 
artillery service of the day that the forts were located. 
Hence they did not perfectly protect Paris (as intended) 
from bombardment, which, however, had no important 


Fig. 6. 



Fort Sumter, Dec. 9, 1863. Interior view from the south-west angle—from a drawing made by the Confederates. The original bears 
the autograph approval of the Confederate general commanding the Department of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and may 
therefore be assumed to be correct. Morris Island and the U. S. fleet are seen on the right, and Sullivan’s Island and Fort Moul¬ 
trie on the left. The right of view shows the gorge face and the top of the adjoining face looking down the harbor. Both were 
breached by the Morris Island batteries, although oblique to the line of fire. The debris formed an easy ascent from the water 
to the crest. The left and foreground show the other faces, in ruins from the reverse fire from Morris Island. The interior 
slopes were subsequently made much steeper by the besieged than shown in the view, and were revetted with gabions. Bomb¬ 
proof quarters were also constructed under the ruins for the garrison. These quarters consisted of a continuous gallery all 
around in the ruins, protected on top and on the side next Morris Island by thick embankments of earth. Throughout the 
autumn of 1863 the ruins contained no mounted guns. It was simply an infantry outpost. It repulsed a naval assault from 
small boats Sept. 8, 1863, and was held until February, 1865. On April 14, 1865, the fourth anniversary of its capture by the 
Confederates, the U. S. flag was again raised over the ruins with imposing ceremonies. 


effect. The distance from the Prussian batteries on the 
heights of Chatillon to the nearest fort (Vanvres) is about 
one mile—to the nearest part of the “enceinte,” 2J miles; 
to the populous regions of the southern quarters 3 miles; 
to the Palace of Luxembourg, Pantheon, Hotel des Inva- 
lides, and the “ monumental” portions of Southern Paris, 
3J miles. Hence the modern rifle (Krupp’s guns of the 
Prussians) extends its range (with high elevation) to all 
these regions. 

In 13 days from 5th to 18th of January it is computed 
that about 500 shells a day fell in Paris, hitting and wound¬ 
ing 308 persons, a fourth of whom mortally, i. e., an aver¬ 
age of 25 persons each day and 25 shells for each person 
hit. The shells made little distinction of age or sex 
though it is asserted that during the latter days more 
women and children than men were struck. The number 
of private edifices hit averaged 50 a day, double the num¬ 
ber of persons hit. The surface over which the bombard¬ 
ment extended was about 2000 hectares (5000 acres) or 
one-fourth the total area of Paris. (The batteries being 
mainly on the heights of Chatillon south of Paris and of 
the southern forts this area is mostly on the left or south 
bank of the Seine.) The population of this portion may 
be estimated at about 500,000. The Pantheon, the Museum, 
the Hotel des Iuvalides (with its church and tomb of Na¬ 
poleon) are among the monumental structures of this por¬ 
tion of the city. All were more or less injured. 

It is asserted (L. Simonin, Revue des Deux Mondes, 
Feb., 1871) that in a military point of view the bombard¬ 
ment by itself was wholly inefficacious. 

Nevertheless, though a city so extensive as Paris may 
endure a protracted bombardment, the destruction of life 
and property is something serious, and it must especially 
be so in small fortified towns; hence the increased range 
and accuracy of hollow projectiles have rendered the 
old system of closely surrounding a town with a con¬ 
tinuous rampart or enceinte both useless and dangerous 
unless supplemented by a system of detached forts suffi¬ 
ciently in advance to keep an enemy’s artillery beyond 
that distance, from which lie might destroy the place by 
his shells: and it is now contemplated to supplement the 
fortifications of Paris by a second and much further re¬ 
moved cordon of detached forts. 

Small forts, by themselves, may however very safely defy 
bombardment, if reasonably provided with casemates or 
bomb-proofs. Fort, Jackson, subjected to vertical fire only, 
was materially intact after a six days’ bombardment, though 
doubtless the surrender was in some degree duo to it. Fort 


Pulaski surrendered because its walls were thrown down 
and its magazines exposed, by the agency of direct fire. 
Fort Sumter was reduced to a ruin by breaching fire di¬ 
rected against its exposed vertical walls, but it never sur¬ 
rendered: while the little sand work, Fort Wagner, defied 
both direct and curved fire for two months and was finally 
evacuated. An attempt to destroy by shells the bomb¬ 
proof or timber blindage covered witb sand which shel¬ 
tered its garrison—the exposed end of which could be 
seen over the parapet—signally failed; the sand running 
in quite as fast as it could be blown away by shells. 

Hence, though the fortification of capitals, great naval 
or military depots, must, if attempted at all, be undertaken 
on an immense scale, yet the applicability of modern rifled 
guns (in place of mortars) to the purposes of bombardment, 
and the increased range of their curved fire, has not de¬ 
stroyed the utility of small forts as elements of the outer 
cordon of great fortified places, or, used isolatedly, for the 
special purposes of guarding great military routes, rail¬ 
roads, or water approaches. 

J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

B om'bax, a genus of large soft-wooded trees of the 
natural order Sterculiacea: (which see), nearly related to 
the baobab tree. They are natives of tropical climates, 
especially America. They yield great quantities of cotton, 
but the fibre is short, docs not spin well, and is not durable. 
Nevertheless, in India- cloth is made of it to a small extent. 
It would probably make good paper. 

Bombay', a presidency of British India, is bounded on 
the W. by the Indian Ocean or Arabian Sea. Area, 87,639 
square miles. A large portion of the surface is mountain¬ 
ous. The long range of the Western Ghauts extends par¬ 
allel to the sea-coast in a direction nearly N. and S. Be¬ 
tween this range and the sea is a narrow tract called the 
North and South Concans, the climate of which is very hot 
and moist. The annual rainfall in the Concans is more 
than one hundred inches, in consequence of the vapors of 
the south-west moonsoon being intercepted by the Ghauts. 
This province is intersected by the Nerbudda and lapteo 
rivers, which flow westward into the Gulf of Cambay, and 
is also drained by the sources of the Godaverv and the 
Kishna, which run in the opposite direction. The soil of 
the valleys and plains is fertile. Cotton and rice arc the 
staple productions of this region, which contains the richest 
cotton-fields of India. Sugar and indigo are also raised hci c. 
Among the indigenous plants arc the cocoa-palm and the 
teak tree. Bombay has important manufactures ol silk stuffs 





































































548 BOMBA'Y—BONAPARTE. 


and of woollen and cotton cloths. In 1867 it had 1159 
miles of railway in operation. The administration of this 
country is vested in a governor and three councillors, sub¬ 
ject to the superintendence, direction, and control of the 
governor-general of India in council. To this province 
belongs the naval force for all the presidencies. Capital, 
Bombay. The annual revenue for the fiscal year 1864-65 
amounted to £9,393,160. Pop. in 1872, 13,983,998. 

11 oinbay [from the Port. Bom Bahia (or Boa Bahia), 
i. e. “good harbor”], a city and seaport of British India, 
the capital of the above province. It is situated on the S. 
end of the island of Bombay and on the Indian Ocean; 
lat. 18° 56' N., Ion. 72° 54' E. It has an excellent harbor, 
affording good anchorage for ships of the largest size, and 
is favorably situated for commerce, being in a direct line 
between Calcutta and Aden. It is the W. terminus of a 
railway which connects it with Calcutta. The mean tem¬ 
perature is 82° F. At the southern end of the island, which 
is eight miles long and three miles wide, is the fortified 
European town, and one mile N. of that is the Black Town, 
in w hich the Hindoos and Mohammedans reside. Between 
these two towns is the esplanade and the barracks. Among 
the most remarkable buildings are the town-hall, mint, 
cathedral, the custom-house, the library of the Asiatic So¬ 
ciety, the Elphinstone Institution, the missionary houses, 
the Grant Medical College, the great Hindoo temple of 
Momha Devi, and the Jamsetjee Hospital. The chief arti¬ 
cles of export are raw cotton, shawls, opium, coffee, pepper, 
ivory, and gums. Bombay imports raw silk, sugar, and 
silk stuffs from China, and cotton yarn, cotton cloth, hard¬ 
ware, glass, copper, etc. from England. The exports of 
Bombay for the year ending Mar., 1870, amounted to 
£24,690,819; the imports for the same year were £22,232,435. 
Bombay, excepting Calcutta and Canton, is the greatest 
commercial emporium of Asia, and is the chief Indian port 
connected with the establishment of steam navigation be¬ 
tween India and England. There is now a regular commu¬ 
nication by steamers between Bombay and England through 
the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. Steamers also ply be¬ 
tween this port and Point-de-Galle in Ceylon. Among the 
races that compose the population of Bombay, the Parsees, 
descended from the Persian fire-worshippers, are distin¬ 
guished for their respectability, wealth, and commercial 
enterprise. The Parsee family of Lowjee is extensively 
engaged in shipbuilding, which is regarded as the most im¬ 
portant interest of the city. Pop. in 1871, 646,636. 

Bombay, a post-township of Franklin co., N. Y. Pop. 
1488. It contains a part of the reservation of the St. Regis 
Indians. 

Bombay Hook Island, Delaware, is a part of Duck 
Creek hundred, Kent co., and is separated from the main¬ 
land by Duck Creek. Its N. end (lat. 39° 21' 46" N., Ion. 
75° 30' 19" W.) has a brick lighthouse 36 feet high, with 
a fixed white light 46 feet above the water. 

B om'bazine [Lat. bombyqina, “made of silk”], a 
thin fabric, of which the warp is silk and the woof is worsted. 
It is manufactured extensively at Norwich, England, for 
ladies’ dresses and for mourning apparel. 

Bomb-Ketch, an obsolete form of mortar-vessel, 
which was nearly seventy feet long and drew eight or nine 
* feet of water. It was usually rigged with two masts, and 
carried two mortars. 

Bomb Lance, an explosive missile used in the whale- 
fishery, consists of a cylindrical shell of iron armed with a 
sharp and heavy point of a triangular form. It is charged 
with powder, introduced through an opening at the rear 
end of the shell, and the opening is afterwards stopped by 
melted lead. The lance is discharged from the barrel of a 
musket, and is exploded by a fuse after it has penetrated 
the body of the whale. 

Bomb-Proof, a term applied to a military structure 
of great thickness and strength which is capable of resist¬ 
ing the explosive force of bombs falling on it. The powder- 
magazine of a fort is usually protected by a bomb-proof 
vault built of stone or brick, and covered with three or four 
feet of earth. (See Casemate.) 

Bom'ford (George), an American officer, born in New 
York in 1780, graduated at West Point in 1805, chief of 
ordnance, U. S. A., May 30, 1832, with the rank of colonel. 
He was engaged as an engineer upon the construction of 
fortifications till 1812, when he was placed on ordnance duty. 
To the skill and inventive talent of this invaluable officer 
the country was largely indebted preceding and during 
the war of 1812-15 with Great Britain, he being almost 
the only one well informed as to the manufacture of ord¬ 
nance and ordnance stores; he also introduced the boinb- 
cannon under the name of “columbiads.” Brevetted lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel Dec. 22,1814, for meritorious services in the 
ordnance department. After 1842 he was on inspection 


duty, and made many ingenious and valuable experiments on 
the best forms for heavy artillery. Died Mar. 25, 1848, at 
Boston, Mass., aged sixty-eight. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Boinford (James V.), a son of the preceding, born in 
New York, graduated at West Point in 1832, served with 
distinction in the Mexican war, winning several brevets. 
He became colonel of the Eighth Infantry in 1864, and 
served with honor in the late civil war. 

Bom Jartlin ( i . e. “good garden”), a town of Brazil, 
province of Bahia, in a rich and beautiful valley, 20 miles 
S. by E. of Crato. It has a considerable trade and large 
manufactures of millstones. Pop. about 6000. 

Bo'na, or Bonah [Fr. Bone; anc. Hippo Regius; 
called by the Arabs Beled-el-Arab], a fortified seaport- 
town of Algeria, in the province of Constantine, is on a 
bay of the Mediterranean, 74 miles N. E. of Constantine; 
lat. 36° 54' N., Ion. 7° 48' E. It is finely situated at the 
foot of a hill near the mouth of the river Seibous or Sebus, 
and is defended by Fort Cigogne, which is on the top of 
the hill. Bona was occupied by the French in 1832, since 
which it has been much improved. It has new markets, 
bazaars, and reading-rooms ; also manufactures of tapestry, 
saddles, and native clothing. Wool, hides, grain, and 
coral are exported from it by steamboats. Near Bona are 
the ruins of the great city of Hippo Regius, once the see 
of Saint Augustine. It was destroyed by the Arabs in 646 
A. D. Pop. in 1866, 17,841. 

B ona (Giovanni), a cardinal of the Roman Church, was 
born at Mondovi, in Piedmont, Oct. 10, 1609, was made 
cardinal in 1669, and died at Rome Oct. 25, 1674. His 
principal works are “ De Divina Psalmodia,” 1663, and 
“ Res Liturgicm,” 1671. He was equally distinguished for 
piety and learning. 

B o'na De'a (the “good goddess”), a Roman divinity, 
the sister or wife of Faunus, was worshipped only by the 
Roman women, who concealed her name from the men. 
According to some authorities, she was identified with Ops. 
Her annual festival was celebrated on the 1st of May, in 
the house of the consul, with mysterious rites, from which 
all males were strictly excluded. Her symbol was a ser¬ 
pent. 

Bo'na Fi'de [Lat.], “in good faith,” without fraud, 
innocently; without notice. A bona fide purchaser is one 
who purchases for a valuable considei'ation, without notice. 
This subject is of great importance in equity jurisprudence. 
It is a general rule that a court of equity will grant no re¬ 
lief against a purchaser in good faith. If, on the other 
hand, the purchaser has notice, actual or constructive, of 
the equitable rights of others, he will stand in no better 
position than the person from whom he acquired his title. 
Thus, if a mortgage of land were cancelled through mis¬ 
take by a mortgagee, a purchaser in good faith from the 
mortgagor would hold free from the mortgage. On the 
other hand, if he had notice of the facts, a court would set up 
the mortgage against him as well as against the mortgagor. 
(See Notice.) The same question is presented in fhe case 
of bills of exchange, promissory notes, and other commer¬ 
cial paper. If the acceptor or maker has a defence to it 
as to the payer, it will in general be shut off as to a pur¬ 
chaser in good faith before maturity. But if the purchaser 
had notice of the defence before the purchase, he would 
stand in the same position as the payee. 

Bonald, de (Louis Gabriel Ambroise), Yicomte, an 
eminent French publicist and ultra-royalist, born nearMil- 
hau Oct. 2, 1754. He emigrated in 1791, and published a 
“Theory of Political and Religious Power” (3 vols., 1796). 
Having returned to France about 1806, he was elected to 
the Chamber of Deputies in 1815, and acquired much influ¬ 
ence under the Bonapartes and the Bourbons. He advo¬ 
cated absolutism and the infallibility of the pope. In 
1823 he became a peer of France. Among his works is “La 
Legislation Primitive ” (3 vols., 1820). Died Nov. 23, 1840. 
(See Henri de Bonald, “Notice sur le Yicomte de Bo¬ 
nald” 1841.) 

Bo'naparte, a town of Van Buren co., Ia., on the Des 
Moines Valley R. R., 35 miles N. W. of Keokuk. It has 
one of the largest woollen factories W. of the Mississippi, 
an extensive furniture and sash, door, and blind establish¬ 
ment, flouring mill, saw-mill, pottery, etc. It possesses 
fine water-powQr. It has one weekly paper. Pop. of 
township, 1341. Ed. “Van Buren Democrat.” 

Bonaparte (Carlo), a Corsican lawyer, born Mar. 
29, 1746, was the father of Napoleon I. He married in 
1767 Letitia (Letizia) Ramolino, and had five sons and 
three daughters. He became counsellor and assessor of 
Ajaccio in 1773. Died Feb. 24, 1785. 

Bonaparte (Caroline Marie Annonciade), queen of 
Naples, a daughter of the preceding, was born at Ajaccio 














BONAPARTE—BONASA. 


549 


in 1782. She was married in 1800 to Joachim Murat, who 
became king of Naples in 1808. She was the mother of 
two sons and two daughters. After the death of her hus¬ 
band she took the title of countess of Lipona. Died in 
1839. 

B oimparte (Charles Lucien Jules Laurent), prince 
of Canino, a son of Lucien Bonaparte, was born in Paris 
May 24, 1803. He was distinguished as an ornithologist, 
and took little part in political affairs. Ilis wife was a 
daughter of Joseph Bonaparte. He resided in Philadel¬ 
phia and Italy, and published ‘•'American Ornithology, or 
a History of the Birds of the U. S.” (3 vols., 1825-33), 
which is highly commended. Died in Paris July 30, 1857. 

Bonaparte (Jerome), king of Westphalia, a brother of 
Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio Nov. 15, 1784. He en¬ 
tered the French navy in 1800, and during a visit to the 
U. S. married, in 1803, Miss Patterson of Baltimore, with¬ 
out the consent of Napoleon. This marriage was annulled 
by order of Napoleon in 1S05. Jerome served as general 
of brigade against the Prussians in 1806, and was crowned 
king of Westphalia in 1807. In the same year he married 
a daughter of the king of Wurtemberg. lie lost his throne 
in Oct., 1813, and led a division at Waterloo in June, 1815. 
After he had passed many years in exile he became a mar¬ 
shal of France in 1850. Died June 24, 1860. 

Bonaparte (Jerome Napoleon), a son of the preced¬ 
ing by his first wife, was born in England in July, 1805, 
and graduated at Harvard in 1826. He greatly resembled 
Napoleon I. in appearance. He left two sons, Jerome and 
Charles Joseph. Died June 17, 1870. 

Bonaparte (Jerome Napoleon), an American and 
French officer, grandson of Jerome Bonaparte, king of 
Westphalia, and grand-nephew of Napoleon I., born 1830 
at Baltimore, Md., graduated at West Point in 1852, and 
till his resignation of his lieutenancy in the Mounted Rifle¬ 
men, Aug. 16, 1854, served on frontier duty. He entered 
the French imperial army Sept. 5, 1854, as second lieu¬ 
tenant of the Seventh Dragoons, became chef d’escadron 
Third Cuirassiers Aug. 15, 1865, and was transferred Mar. 
16, 1857, to the Dragons de 1’Imperatrice. He served in 
the Crimean war against Russia 1854-55, engineer at Bala- 
klava, Inkerman, Tchernaia, and the siege of Sebastopol; 
for all of which active and distinguished services he was 
decorated by the sultan of Turkey with the “ Medjidie 
Order,” made knight of the Legion of Honor of France, 
and received the Crimean medal from the queen of Eng¬ 
land. He was in the Algerian campaign in 1856-57, engaged 
in several actions with the Ivabyles; in Italian campaign 
against Austria 1859, engaged at Montebello, Solferino, 
and various outpost affairs, receiving for his gallantry the 
French “medaille d’ltalie” and the decoration of “Military 
Valor” from the king of Sardinia; in garrison at various 
posts 1859-67, and in the guard of the empress of France 
1867-72. On the fall of the empire he with difficulty es¬ 
caped from the hands of the Commune in Paris. 

George AV. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Bonaparte (Joseph), king of Spain, the eldest brother 
of Napoleon I., was born in Corsica Jan. 7, 1768. He 
studied law, married Julie Marie Clary, and was elected to 
the French Council of Five Hundred in 1797. He nego¬ 
tiated the treaty of Luneville with Austria in 1801, and 
that of Amiens with England in Mar., 1802. On these and 
other occasions he showed considerable talents for di¬ 
plomacy. Urged by the imperious will of Napoleon, he 
accepted the throne of Naples in 1806, though he does not 
appear to have been ambitious of such a position. He was 
transferred in May, 1808, to the throne of Spain against 
the will of the majority of the Spanish people, who obsti¬ 
nately resisted the domination of the French. During his 
nominal reign many battles were fought between the 
French and the allied English and Spanish armies, who ex¬ 
pelled him from Spain in June, 1813. In 1815 he emi¬ 
grated to the U. S., and lived at Bordentown, N. J., under 
the name of the count de Survilliers. He died at Florence, 
in Italy, July 28, 1844. (See A. DU Casse, “Memoires et 
Correspondance du Roi Joseph,” 10 vols., 1854; Thiers, 
“ History of the Consulate and the Empire.”) 

B onaparte (Letizia Ramolino), the mother of Napo¬ 
leon I., was born in Corsica Aug. 24, 1750. She was con¬ 
sidered a beauty, and had an uncommon intellect. Accord¬ 
ing to her son Napoleon, “ she had a great character, with 
much energy, elevation, and pride.” She was married to 
Carlo Bonaparte in 1767. In 1804 she received the title 
of Madame Mere. Died Feb. 2, 1836. 

B onaparte (Louis), a brother of Napoleon I., was 
born at Ajaccio Sept. 2, 1778. He entered the army in 
youth, and served at Areola and Rivoli (1797). In com¬ 
pliance with Napoleon’s will, he married Ilortense de Bcau- 
narnais in 1802, and became king of Holland in June, 1808. 


He and his wife separated about 1807, in consequence of 
their incompatibility. As nominal king of Holland he 
was not able to pursue the policy which he preferred, but 
was compelled by Napoleon to sacrifice the interests of the 
Dutch to the designs of the emperor, who was offended be¬ 
cause Louis was not sufficiently subservient. Louis abdi¬ 
cated the throne in 1810, after which he resided in Italy. 
He was the putative father of Napoleon III. Died at Flor¬ 
ence June 29, 1846. (See Thiers, “History of the Consu¬ 
late and the Empire;” “ Memoires sur la Cour de Louis 
Napoleon et sur la Holland,” Paris, 1828.) 

B onaparte (Louis Napoleon). See Napoleon III. 

Bonaparte (Louis Lucien), a son of Lucien and a 
nephew of Napoleon I., was born Jan. 4, 1813. He was 
elected to the French National Assembly in 1849, became 
a senator in 1852, and grand officer of the Legion of Honor 
in 1855. He is distinguished for his labors in philology 
and chemistry. 

Bonaparte (Lucien), prince of Canino, a brother of 
Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio May 21, 1775. He was 
an active and energetic republican in the French Revolu¬ 
tion. In 1795 he married Christine Boyer, a woman of 
obscure birth. He was chosen in 1798 a member of the 
Council of Five Hundred, in which he opposed the Direc¬ 
tory. On the 18th Brumaire (Nov., 1799) he displayed 
great resolution, and efficiently promoted the success of 
Napoleon. Lucien became minister of the interior in Dec., 
1799, ambassador to Spain in 1800, and a tribune in 1802. 
Having lost his first wife, he married in 1803 a widow 
named Jouberthon without the consent of Napoleon, who 
was angry at the match. Lucien went into exile, and re¬ 
fused the throne of Italy, which Napoleon offered him on 
condition that he should divorce his wife. He was in 
France during the Hundred Days, 1815, and actively sup¬ 
ported Napoleon in that crisis. He passed the latter part 
of his life in Italy, and died at Viterbo June 29, 1840, 
leaving five sons and six daughters. With the exception 
of his brother Napoleon, he was undoubtedly the most emi¬ 
nent and talented member of his family. (See Lucien 
Bonaparte’s “Autobiographic Memoirs,” 1836; P. AY. 
Forciihammer, “ Denkrcde auf den Fiirsten von Canino, 
L. Bonaparte,” 1840.) 

Bonaparte (Lucien Louis), a son of Charles Lucien, 
was born at Rome Nov. 15, 1828. He entered the priest¬ 
hood, and on Mar. 13, 1868, was made a cardinal priest. 

Bonaparte (Marie Anne Elise), princess de Piombino, 
a sister of Napoleon I., was born in Corsica Jan 3, 1777. 
She was married in 1797 to Felix Bacciochi, a Corsican 
officer, and received in 1805 the title of princess of Lucca 
and Piombino. She was for about six years (1809-14) 
grand duchess of Tuscany, which she ruled with ability. 
Died Aug. 7, 1820. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon I. 

Bonaparte (Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul), 
Prince, a son of Jerome, king of Westphalia, was born 
at Trieste Sept. 9, 1822. His mother was a daughter of 
the king of AViirtemberg. As a professed democrat he was 
elected to the French Constituent Assembly in 1848. In 
1852 he received the title of prince, and was recognized as 
the heir of his cousin, Napoleon III., in case the latter 
should die without issue. He married Clotilde, a daughter 
of King A r ictor Emmanuel. His features resemble those of 
his uncle, Napoleon I. He was banished from France in 
1873. 

Bonaparte (Pauline), Princess Borghese, born at 
Ajaccio in 1780, was the most beautiful of Napoleon’s sis¬ 
ters. In 1801 she became the wife of General Leclerc, who 
died in 1802. She was married in 1803 to Prince Camille 
Borghese, an Italian, from whom she soon separated. A 
statue of Pauline, executed by Canova, is said to resemble 
the Venus of Praxiteles. Died in 1825. 

Bonaparte (Pierre Napoleon), a son of Lucien, was 
born at Rome Sept. 12, 1815. He passed his youth as an 
adventurer in America, Italy, and Greece, and committed 
several homicides. In 1869 he murdered, in his own house 
near Paris, Victor Noir, for which he was sentenced to pay 
a fine. 

Bona'sa, a genus of gallinaceous birds of the family 
Tetraonidse, and one of the genera included in the popular 
term “grouse.” It comprises the hazel-grouse, a European 
bird, the Tetrao banana of Linnaeus. 4 his bird, which is 
about as large as the common partridge, is prettity mottled 
with gray and reddish brown. It prefers the deep solitude 
of the forests. Its flesh is so highly esteemed that it is 
consistent with German etiquette to serve it twice in suc¬ 
cession on the table of a prince. Another species ot tins 
genus is the American ruffed grouse (Tonasa (or Tetrao) 
nmbellus), which is about eighteen inches long, and is called 
the pheasant in Pennsylvania and the partridge in New 
















550 BONAVENTURA—BONE. 


York and New England. The male has on each side a 
large shoulder tuft or ruff. In the breeding season it struts 
with erected ruff and tail like a turkey-cock. The loud 
thumping or “drumming” sound heard in the localities 
frequented by this bird is produced by the bird beating on 
its sides with its wings. It is heard most often in the morn¬ 
ing and evening. This handsome bird makes its nest on the 
ground in the forests. Its flesh is a favorite article of food. 

Bonaventu'ra (Giovanni di Fidanza), Saint, an emi¬ 
nent Italian scholastic theologian, born in Tuscany in 1221, 
was called the Seraphic Doctor. lie taught theology in 
Paris, became general of the order of Franciscans in 1250, 
and a cardinal in 1273. He had great influence in the 
Church, and was venerated for his ascetic piety and the 
miracles ascribed to him. Bonaventura was one of the 
most eminent of the Schoolmen. “His great mind,” says 
Neander, “grasped the whole compass of learning as it 
existed in his time.” Among his numerous works are 
“ Breviloquium,” “ Biblia Pauperum” (“Poor Man’s Bi¬ 
ble”), and “ Itinerarium Mentis in Deum” (“Progress of 
the Mind towards God”). He died July 14, 1274, was 
canonized in 1482, and was made a doctor of the Church 
in 1587. (See J. C. Boule, “ Histoire de la Yie de Saint 
Bonaventure,” 1747; Ignaz A. Fessler, “ Bonaventura’s 
mystiche Nachte, oder Leben und Meinungen desselben,” 
1807.) 

Bonaventure, a county in the E. part of Quebec, is 
bounded on the S. by the Bay of Chaleurs, and is inter¬ 
sected by the Grand Cascapediac, Matapediac, and several 
other rivers of considerable size. The Mistouche and Res- 
tigouche, forming its S. W. boundary, separate it from New 
Brunswick. Area, about 3200 square miles. Capital, New 
Carlisle. Pop. in 1871, 15,923. 

Bonavis'ta, a port of entry and capital of Bonavista 
district, Newfoundland, is one of the oldest towns on the 
island. It has a rather poor harbor, a jail, and a fine An¬ 
glican church. Its people are mostly fishermen, but agri¬ 
culture is also carried on. Pop. about 2600. The light¬ 
house on Cape Bonavista (lat. 48° 41' 56” N., Ion. 53° 5' 20” 
W.) is a catoptric revolving white and red light, 150 feet 
above the sea. 

Bond [from the root of the noun band, and the verb 
bind], in law, an instrument in writing, sealed and delivered, 
whereby a person binds himself to pay a sum of money. 
It is also called a deed. It is either simple or with a con¬ 
dition. A bond is said to be simple when the engagement 
to pay is absolute. An instrument in the form of an ordi¬ 
nary promissory note becomes a simple bond if executed 
under seal. The most common form of bond is one executed 
under a condition. The instrument in this case consists 
of two parts—the engagement to pay, and the condition 
upon which the engagement to pay will become inoperative 
and void. The condition may be either for the payment of 
money or the performance of an act, such as the faithful 
execution of the duties of a public office or of agency or 
other authority. When for the payment of money, it is 
usually called a “money bond.” In this case it is common 
to make the engagement to pay, called the penalty, double 
the amount expressed in the condition of the bond. The 
penalty will not, however, necessarily limit the amount of 
the recovery. In other words, in certain cases more may be 
recovered than the amount named in penalty of the bond; 
as, for example, the real debt and the interest accruing from 
delay in payment. At an early day, if the money named 
in the condition was not paid punctually, the whole penalty 
could be recovered. Courts of equity, however, regarded 
this result as in the nature of a forfeiture, and confined the 
recovery to the debt and the interest. When the bond is 
given for the performance of an act, the recovery is limited 
to the damages sustained by non-performance. The person 
who enters into the bond is called the obligor ; the person 
to whom the engagement is made is termed the obligee. 
When it is executed by two or more persons, they may be 
either “joint” obligors or “joint and several;” that is, 
they may either bind themselves collectively, or both collec¬ 
tively and separately. An execution of the instrument by 
two persons simply would be joint. Express words should 
be used to create a “joint and several” obligation. This 
is an important distinction where some of the obligors 
arc sureties, as is usual in bonds executed by incumbents 
of a public office. In the case of a joint bond, if one of 
the sureties should die, his estate would be discharged both 
in law and equity. This would not be the case had it 
been both joint and several, since the individual obligation 
would remain, though that which is joint would be at an 
end. A bond is otherwise termed a specialty. It is of a 
higher grade than an ordinary contract, which is termed a 
simple contract. Accordingly, if A should owe money to 
B for goods sold or services rendered, and should give his 
bond for the amount, the original claim would be merged 


in the bond, and if the debt were not paid an action could 
be brought only on the bond. This would not be the case 
if A had given B his promissory note, or other engagement 
not under seal, for the amount of the claim. If the note 
were not paid at maturity, the original cause of action 
would remain. A bond, as a general rule, is not negotia ¬ 
ble, but assignable. A purchaser would take it subject to the 
equities between the original parties. (See Assignment.) 
The obligor of the bond commonly professes not only to 
bind himself, but his heirs, executors, administrators, etc. 
However, if these words were omitted, his obligation would 
be transferred to these successors in interest to the extent 
of the assets received from the obligor, it being a general 
rule in the U. S. that a debtor’s property, both real and 
personal, is liable for his debts in the hands of heirs and 
other successors in interest. T. W. Dwight. 

Bond, a county in Central Illinois. Area, 400 square 
miles. It is traversed by Shoal Creek, an affluent of the 
Kaskaskia River, which touches the S. E. corner of the 
county. The surface is diversified by fertile, undulating 
prairies and tracts of woodland. Cattle, wool, grain, and 
butter are important products. Coal is found here. It 
is intersected by the St. Louis Vandalia and Terre Haute 
R. R. Capital, Greenville. Pop. 13,152. 

Bond, a township of Lawrence co., Ill. Pop. 1087. 

Bond (George Phillips), an American astronomer, 
born at Dorchester, Mass., May 20, 1825, graduated at 
Harvard in 1845. He aided his father, W. C. Bond, in the 
observatory at Cambridge, and wrote several works, among 
which is a “ Treatise on the Construction of the Rings of 
Saturn.” Died Feb. 17, 1865. 

Bond (Henry), M. D., born at Watertown, Mass., Mar. 
21, 1790, graduated at Dartmouth in 1813, settled in Phila¬ 
delphia as a physician in 1819, where he gained a high 
reputation. lie published, besides many professional pa¬ 
pers, a “History and Genealogies of Watertown” (1855), 
one of the best works of its class. Died May 4, 1859. 

Bond (Thomas Emerson), D. D., M. D., a physician and 
Methodist writer, born at Baltimore, Md., in Feb., 1782. 
He became a professor in the medical college of Maryland, 
and afterwards a local Methodist preacher. He edited the 
“ Christian Advocate and Journal,” an influential Method¬ 
ist publication, for twelve years, and wrote important 
pamphlets in defence of his Church. Died Mar. 19, 1856. 

Bond (William Cranch), an American astronomer, 
born at Portland, Me., Sept. 9, 1789, was a watchmaker. 
He was appointed director of the observatory of Harvard 
University. He distinguished himself by his observations 
on Saturn, and discovered a satellite of Neptune. Died 
Jan. 29, 1859. 

Bon'dager, in Scotland, a laborer who rents a cottage 
from a farmer under an obligation to work for him at cur¬ 
rent wages at certain seasons. There are male and female 
bondagers. When wanted, they are obliged to turn out, 
though at a sacrifice of wages. 

Bonded Warehouse. See Warehousing System. 

Bon'dcrs, a name given to the yeomanry of Sweden 
and Norway. The bonders often claim an aristocratic 
origin, and display a rude and antiquated hospitality to 
visitors. They have many virtues as a class, and constitute 
a large majority of the population. 

Bondoo', or Bondou, a small kingdom of Western 
Africa, in Senegambia, is about lat. 14° to 15° N. and Ion. 
11° to 13° W. It is bounded on the E. by the river Faleme, 
which separates it from Bainbook. The surface is mostly 
level; the soil is fertile, well watered, and extensively cov¬ 
ered with forests. The staple productions are cotton, in¬ 
digo, maize, tobacco, and millet. Among the forest trees 
are the baobab and acacia. Iron is abundant here, and 
wild animals are numerous. The Foolahs are the most 
numerous of the tribes which inhabit Bondoo. The gov¬ 
ernment is an absolute monarchy. Capital, Bulibani, a 
mean town on the Faleme. Pop. estimated at 1,500,000. 

B one [Ger. Bein; a word found in various forms in all 
Germanic languages], the substance of which the hard in¬ 
ternal skeleton or'framework of most vertebrate animals is 
formed, although some of the lower fishes have no bony 
skeleton, one of cartilage taking its place, while the sur¬ 
face (exoskeleton) of some of these cartilaginous fishes is 
covered with bony plates. In animals below the verte¬ 
brates there is no true bone, for the hard internal shell 
(“cuttle-fish bone”) of certain cephalopods differs in com¬ 
position from bone. 

Living bone is of a reddish-white tint externally, and is 
of a much deeper red within. It consists of two parts : (1) 
an organic substance called ostein (converted by boiling 
into gelatine), besides a little fat, nerves, and blood-vessels^ 
and some cartilage, amounting in all to about one-third of 














BONE, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF—BONGAR. 551 


the whole, though the percentage is greater in young sub¬ 
jects. If a bone be soaked in dilute hydrochloric acid for 
a sufficiently long time, the organic matter alone remains, 
having the form of the original bone, and being flexible, 
tough, and translucent. If, on the other hand, a bone be 
burned in a hot fire with a strong blast of air, the animal 
matter is all burned away, leaving (2) the earthy or in¬ 
organic matter, a white, brittle mass, with just the form 
of the original bone. It consists of calcium phosphate 
(which constitutes more than half the weight of the whole 
bone), together with calcium carbonate and fluoride, mag¬ 
nesium phosphate and sodium chloride, with traces of other 
elements. The proportions vary in different parts of the 
skeleton, in the same bone at different ages, in various dis¬ 
eases, and in the corresponding bones of different species. 
Bones are usually covered at their ends and in some other 
parts by cartilage; but the greater part of the surface is 
covered by a tough, skinny membrane called periosteum; 
and hollow bones have a similar membrane within, called 
endosteum. These membranes are of the utmost import¬ 
ance in the growth, nourishment, and repair of bones. The 
endosteum also nourishes the marrow, a substance the im- 
ortance of which in the animal economy has but recently 
een duly appreciated. It is probable that the marrow, 
like the closed glands, has, especially in the foetal state, an 
important part in the preparation of nutriment for the or¬ 
ganism generally. 

From the periosteum, arteries and nerves enter the bone, 
traversing the longitudinal “ Haversian canals,” which are 
from to of an inch in diameter, and lined with a 

delicate membrane resembling periosteum. Each canal is 
surrounded by concentric layers of bone, constituting an 
“ Haversian rod ” or “ system ” in which are certain varia¬ 
ble vacuities called “ Haversian spaces,” which appear to 
be produced by the absorption and disassimilation which 
is continually going on in all tissues. Bone also contains 
innumerable “ bone-cells,” each occupying a cavity called 
a “ lacuna.” The lacunae send out branches called “ canali- 

culi,” each ttuoo t° To^oo °f an inch in diametei', which 
communicate freely with each other, and which are filled 
with blood-plasma. Bones are said to consist of two kinds 
of tissue, the compact and the cancellous; but the two differ 
only in relative density and the relative size of the con¬ 
tained cavities, in the proportion of oily matter, and per¬ 
haps in the proportion of earthy ingredients, which appears 
to be greatest in compact bones. 

Osseous tissue is liable to several diseases, such as caries, 
necrosis, rachitis (rickets), osteomalacia, periostitis, cancer, 
exostosis, etc., each described under its own name. (For 
descriptions of the several bones and of their relations to 
each other, see Osteology and the names of particular 
bones, such as Clavicle, Humerus, etc.) 

Chas. W. Greene. 

Bone, Chemical Composition of. Bones consist 
of bone-cartilage, or ossein, and earthy salts, besides a cer¬ 
tain quantity of fat, which is easily removed by ether, and 
is not considered as a constituent of the bone. By burning 
bones till white, the ossein is destroyed, and the earthy 
salts remain as brittle bone-ash. By subjecting the bones 
to the action of dilute hydrochloric acid the earthy salts 
are dissolved and removed, and the ossein remains as a 
flexible, translucent substance retaining the forms of the 
bones. This ossein or bone-cartilage consists of about 50.13 
carbon, 7.07 hydrogen, 18.45 nitrogen, and 24.35 oxygen. 
By long boiling with water it is completely dissolved, being 
converted into gelatine, which sets to a jelly on cooling. 
The ratio of ossein to earthy salts is very variable in dif¬ 
ferent animals, and also in the bones of the same animal. 
Human bones average, perhaps, ossein 34 and earthy salts 
66 per cent. The earthy salts contain, in 100, phosphate 
of lime 83.889, phosphate of magnesia 1.039, carbonate of 
lime 13.031, fluoride of calcium 0.470, and chloride of cal¬ 
cium 0.286. M. Papillon found that the bones of pigeons 
and rats which he had fed with food containing phosphate 
of strontia and phosphate of alumina contained consider¬ 
able quantities of these compounds. Bones undergo con¬ 
siderable changes in composition in certain diseases. 

Uses of Bones .—Bones are extensively used for soup, 
though it is stated by Liebig and others that the gelatine 
derived from them is not only valueless as food, but posi¬ 
tively objectionable. Others strenuously deny the truth of 
the statement. In the arts, bones are employed as substi¬ 
tutes for ivory for buttons, handles of knives, brushes, etc., 
and for combs; they are also used as cattle food in the 
form of bone-meal; as a fertilizer, either in the form of 
bone-meal, bone-ash, or after treatment with sulphuric 
acid. They are used for the manufacture of Bone-Black 
(which sec), of gelatine, of phosphorus, of phosphate of 
soda, superphosphate of lime for raising bread, and bone- 
ash is used for cupels. C. F. Chandler. 


Bone-Ash is the residue left on burning bones; it 
amounts to about 66 per cent, of the weight of the original 
bones. It consists of the earthy salts of the bone, the com¬ 
position of which in 100 parts is given above. Bone-ash 
is largely exported from South America. It is used as 
manure, for the manufacture of superphosphates, phos¬ 
phorus, cupels, and is an important constituent of English 
china. C. F. Chandler. 

Bone-Black, or Animal Charcoal, is the residue 
left on igniting bones in close vessels. The bones are 
placed either in retorts, like those used in making coal-gas, 
or in iron pots. On the application of heat destructive dis¬ 
tillation takes place. Combustible gases escape, accompa¬ 
nied by vapors which condense to ammoniacal water and 
offensive oils. Bone or Dippel’s oil is thus produced. The 
residue in the vessels amounts to about 50 per cent, in 
weight of the original bones. It is passed between rollers, 
and separated by sieves into different sizes. Bone-black 
usually contains, after exposure to the air, from 1 to 6 or 7 
per cent, of moisture. The average composition of dry 
bone-black, in 100, is carbon, containing nitrogen, 10, 
phosphate of lime, including a little phosphate of magne¬ 
sia, 88, carbonate of lime, 8, sulphate of lime, 0.2, alkaline 
salts, 0.8, oxide of iron, 0.1, and silica, 0.3. 

Animal charcoal possesses to a high degree the property 
of absorbing gases, and also of absorbing various sub¬ 
stances from solutions. Its action is not limited to any 
one class of substances. It absorbs vegetable bases, bitter 
principles, astringent bodies, coloring-matters, iodine, me¬ 
tallic oxides, salts, etc. Its chief application in the arts is 
for the purification of sugar. The raw sugar is dissolved 
in water, more or less completely freed from suspended 
impurities by the aid of blood, and filtered through bags 
of cotton cloth, and then passed through high cylinders of 
iron containing the bone-black. It is thus almost com¬ 
pletely decolorized, and at the same time freed from lime 
and other salts, and from certain organic substances which 
interfere with crystallization. On subsequently concen¬ 
trating the solution in the vacuum-pan it readily yields 
perfectly white loaf sugar. (See Sugar.) By washing with 
warm water, and subjecting to a red heat in suitable retorts, 
the black is revivified, when it may be used again. Some¬ 
times it is also purified by fermentation and treatment with 
small quantities of dilute acids or alkalies. By repeated 
reheatings, however, the black becomes greatly condensed, 
owing to the semi-fusion of the phosphate of lime, and its 
decolorizing and purifying power is reduced to such a de¬ 
gree that it must be replaced by fresh black. This ex¬ 
hausted black, as well as the fine dust which is not suited 
for sugar-refining, finds a ready market for the manufac¬ 
ture of superphosphates to be used as fertilizers, for the 
manufacture of phosphorus, etc. In France, pulverized 
bone-black in fine powder is often boiled with the raw 
sugar before it goes to the bag filters. 

When bone-black is to be used for decolorizing acid so¬ 
lutions, the phosphate of lime is first removed from it by 
dilute hydrochloric acid. Bone-black is sometimes em¬ 
ployed to remove lime from highly calcareous waters. 
Many other forms of charcoal possess these properties, but 
none of them have been found so well adapted for the use 
of sugar-refiners as bone-black. Under the name of ivory- 
black animal charcoal is used as a pigment, especially for 
the preparation of shoe-blacking. C. F. Chandler. 

Bone Creek, a township of Butler eo., Neb. P. 384. 

Bone-Dust, a valuable manure, obtained by grinding 
bones in stamping-mills, by heavy revolving wheels, or by 
passing them through toothed iron rollers. The bone is 
sometimes subjected to the action of hot water and steam 
in a digester at a temperature of about 275° F., which dis¬ 
solves out two-thirds of the gelatine and leaves a friable 
mass. Bone-dust is applied to the soil either in its ordi¬ 
nary insoluble state or as dissolved bones, the fertilizing 
force of which is expended in the first year. 

Bone-Gelatine. See Gelatine. 

Boneset, a common name of the Eupatorinm perfo- 
liatum, an herbaceous plant, a native of the U. S., grow¬ 
ing in low or moist places. It is a bitter weed, having 
hairy leaves, which are united at the base around the stem, 
and are serrate, very veiny, and wrinkled. An infusion 
of the leaves is used as a tonic, diaphoretic, etc. 

Bon'fire [Fr. Ion, “good,” and Eng. fire], a fire kin¬ 
dled as an expression of public joy in the open air, usually 
on a conspicuous place, as the top of a hill or in the street 
of a city. The materials consumed are tar-barrels, wood, 
and other combustibles. The practice of kindling bonfires 
is very ancient. 

BoiUgar ( Bun^ants or Pseudoboa), or Rock Snake, 
a genus of venomous serpents, natives of the East Indies. 
They are allied to the naja, and are distinguished by a 











552 BONHAM—BONNER. 


much-keeled back, which has a row of hexagonal scales 
larger than the rest. The Bungarus annularis sometimes 
measures six or seven feet in length. 

Boil'ham, a city and capital of Fannin co., Tex., on 
Bois d’Arc Creek, 270 miles N. N. E. of Austin, and on the 
line of the Transcontinental It. It., has two tine flouring 
mills, two newspapers, a saw and planing mill, several 
benevolent societies, two churches, four schools, and one 
carriage factory. Pop. 928. 

W. S. Gass, Ed. “ Texas News.” 

Bonham (Milledge L.), a statesman and Confederate 
general, born in South Carolina about 1815, graduated at 
South Carolina College in 1834, became a lawyer, and served 
in the Mexican war. He was a member of Congress from 
1856 to 1860, and became governor of South Carolina in 
1862-64. 

Bonha'nis, a township of Wilcox co., Ala. Pop. 1709. 

Bonheur (Rosa), an eminent French painter of ani¬ 
mals, born at Bordeaux Mar. 22, 1822, was a pupil of her 
father, Raymond Bonheur. She produced in 1850 “ The 
Nivernais Ploughing,” in the Luxembourg gallery, “ The 
Horse Fair” (1853), “ Horses in a Meadow,” and “ Cows 
and Sheep in a Hollow Road.” 

Bonhomme, a county of Dakota, bordering on Ne¬ 
braska. Area, 450 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by 
the Missouri River. The soil is fertile, and adapted to the 
production of grain. Capital, Bonhomme. Pop. 608. 

Bonhomme, a post-village, capital of Bonhomme 
co., Dak., on the Missouri River, 36 miles W. of Yank¬ 
ton. 

Bonhomme, a post-township of St. Louis co., 

Mo. Pop. 6162. 

B o'ni, or Bony, a state in the S. W. peninsula 
. of the island of Celebes, is about 80 miles long, and 
is on the W. side of the Gulf of Boni. The surface is 
partly mountainous. The soil of the N. part is fertile, 
producing rice, sago, and cassia. The natives manu¬ 
facture cotton cloth and articles of gold and iron. The 
British attacked the Bonese in 1814, and killed their 
king as a punishment for their piracy. 

Boni, Gulf of, called also Bughis Bay, sepa¬ 
rates the two southern peninsulas of Celebes. It is nearly 
200 miles long, and from 40 to 80 miles wide. It is danger¬ 
ous to navigation from its numerous reefs. 

Bon'iface [Lat. Bonifacius] I., Saint, Pope, was 
elected in 418 A. D. Saint Augustine dedicated several 
works to him. Boniface died in 422.— Boniface II., a 
Goth, born at Rome, succeeded Pope Felix IV. in 530. 
Died in 532 A. D.— Boniface III. was chosen pope in 607, 
and died the same year. He was the first to whom the 
title of “ universal bishop ” was given by the Greek empe¬ 
ror (Phocas). —Boniface IV., Pope, born at Valeria, in 
Italy, succeeded Boniface III. in 608. He converted the 
pagan Pantheon of Rome into a church. Died in 615.— 
Boniface V., a native of Naples, became pope in 619. He 
died in 625, and was succeeded by Honorius I. —Boniface 
VI., a native of Rome, succeeded Formosus in 896, and died 
fifteen days after his election. He was an abandoned cha¬ 
racter.— Boniface VII., considered by some authors an 
anti-pope, was elected in 974 as a rival of Benedict VI. He 
was driven out of Rome in 975. He was starved to death 
in prison in 985. —Boniface VIII., Cardinal (Benedetto 
Gaetani), was born at Anagni about 1228. He became 
pope in 1294. He issued a bull forbidding all the clergy 
to pay any tax on ecclesiastical property, by which he was 
involved in a contest with Philip the Fair of France. He 
excommunicated Philip, who accused the pope of heresy 
and simony, and caused him to be imprisoned at Anagni. 
Boniface was skilled in both civil and canon law, and pub¬ 
lished the sixth book of “ Papal Decretals.” He died Oct. 
11, 1303. (See Dante, “Inferno,” canto xxvii.; W. Dru- 
mann, “ Geschichte des Papstes Bonifacius VIII.,” 2 vols., 
1852; Luigi Tosti, “ Storia di Bonifazio VIII.,” 1847.) — 
Boniface IX. (Pietro Tomacelli) succeeded Urban VI. in 
1389. He was a despotic ruler, and was accused of selling 
benefices and indulgences. He died Oct. 1, 1404, and was 
succeeded by Innocent VII. 

Boniface [Lat. Bonifacius], (Winfrid), Saint, called 
the Apostle of Germany, was born in Devonshire, Eng¬ 
land, about 680. He began in 716 to preach in Germany, 
where he converted a great number of people and founded 
schools and monasteries. He was made bishop by Pope 
Gregory II. in 723, and in 732 Gregory III. made him 
archbishop and primate of all Germany. In 718, in 723, 
and again in 738, he visited Rome, and brought the Ger¬ 
man Church into complete subjection to the papacy. Pepin 
le Bref, whom he consecrated king of the Franks in 752, 
appointed him archbishop of Mainz. June 5, 755, he was 


assassinated by a pagan mobatDockum in West Friesland, 
and his remains were finally taken to the famous abbey of 
Fulda, which was founded by him. (See Willibald, “ Life 
of Saint Boniface;” George W. Cox, “Life of Saint Bon¬ 
iface,” 1853.) 

Bonifa'cio, Strait of ( anc. Fretum Gallicum ), is be¬ 
tween Corsica and Sardinia. The narrowest part of it is 7 
miles wide. The navigation is obstructed by rocks, which 
are favorable to the production of coral, a large quantity 
of which is obtained here. 

Bo'nin, or Archbishop Islands, in the Pacific Ocean, 
extend from lat. 26° 30' to 27° 44' N., and are about Ion. 
142° E. They are divisible into three groups, the most 
northern of which are called Parry Islands, and the most 
southern, Baily Islands. Area, about 120 square miles. 
Peel Island, which is one of the middle group, is occupied 
by a small number of European and Polynesian colonists, 
the only inhabitants of the group. Spain claims this group. 

Bonito, bo-nee'to, a name given to several fishes of 
the family Scomberidae, which are allied to the mackerel. 
One of these, Thynnuspelamys, sometimes called the stripe- 
bellied tunny, is a native of tropical seas, and is often seen 
pursuing the flying-fish. It is a beautiful fish, about two 
and a half feet long, and resembles a mackerel in form. 
The color of its back and sides is a brilliant steel-blue. 
Four dark lines extend along each side of the belly from 
the throat to the tail. Its flesh, though rather dry, is eaten 


The Bonito. 

and relished by many, but is sometimes poisonous. The 
term bonito is applied to two species found in the Mediter¬ 
ranean, the Auxis vulgar is and the Pelamys Sarda. The 
former is of a uniform blue color, without stripes, and has 
an average length of about fifteen inches. It is usually 
eaten salted. The Pelamys Sarda is distinguished from tho 
tunny by large and strong teeth. It measures about two 
feet in length, and is found on our Atlantic coast. 

B o'nitz (Hermann), a German philologist, born July 
29, 1814, became professor at Vienna in 1849. He pub¬ 
lished an edition of the “Metaphysics” of Aristotle (2 
vols., 1849), “Platonic Studies,” and other works. 

Bonn (anc. Bonna), a city of Rhenish Prussia, beauti¬ 
fully situated on the left bank of the Rhine, 19 miles by 
rail S. S. E. of Cologne. It is on the railway which con¬ 
nects Cologne with Coblentz. It has an ancient cathedral, 
which is a fine specimen of the Romanesque style. Here 
are manufactures of cotton goods, earthenware, and soap. 
Bonn is the seat of a celebrated university founded in 1818, 
which has a library of 200,000 volumes, and is attended 
by nearly 1000 students. Connected with it are an observ¬ 
atory, a botanic garden, and a museum of natural history. 
The buildings of this institution are excellent and very 
extensive. Niebuhr, A. W. Schlegel, Hermes, Simrock, 
and other eminent men have been professors in this uni¬ 
versity. Here are several large and elegant hotels for the 
accommodation of tourists, who are attracted by the pic¬ 
turesque scenery of the vicinity. Bonn is a very ancient 
town. Bonna, which was an important Roman station, is 
said to have been rebuilt by the emperor Julian in the 
fourth century. It was conquered by the French in 1802, 
and annexed to Prussia in 1814. It is the native place of 
Beethoven. Pop. in 1871, 26,020. 

Bonnefemme, a township of Howard co., Mo. P. 1249. 

B on'ner (Edmund), an English prelate notorious as a 
persecutor, was born about 1495. He gained the favor of 
Henry VIII., who about 1532 sent him on a mission to the 
pope, and appointed him bishop of Hereford in 1538 and 
bishop of London in 1539. Having showed himself hostile 
to the Protestant cause, he was deprived of his bishopric 
in 1549, but he was restored on the accession of Queen 
Mary in 1553. He was the principal instigator of the 
bloody persecutions which disgraced the reign of Mary. 
Refusing to take the oath of supremacy on the accession 
of Elizabeth in 1558, he was imprisoned in the Marshalsea, 
where he died Sept. 5 1569. (See Froude, “History of 
England.”) 





























BONNER—BOODDHA. 


553 


B Oliner (Robert), proprietor of the “New York Led¬ 
ger,” was born in the north of Ireland April 28, 1824. 
He came to America in early youth and learned the trade 
of a printer, lie went to New York in 1844 and purchased 
the “New York Ledger,” which, by energy and business 
talents, he made extremely successful. He has made mu¬ 
nificent gifts of money to the College of New Jersey at 
Princeton, and is noted for liberality in charitable causes. 

Bon'net, in fortification of the old school, is a small 
defence-work constructed at salient angles of the glacis or 
larger works. It has only two faces, with a parapet three 
feet high and ten or twelve broad. A larger kind, with 
three salient angles, is called a priest’s bonnet. 

Bonnet (Charles), LL.D., F. R. S., an eminent Swiss 
naturalist and philosopher, born at Geneva Mar. 13, 1720. 
He made discoveries in the reproductive and other func¬ 
tions of insects, etc., which he announced in his “ Treatise 
on Insectology” (2 vols., 1745). He published in 1754 a 
valuable work “On the Use of the Leaves of Plants.” 
Among his other works (all in French) are “ Considerations 
on Organized Bodies” (1762) and “ Philosophical Palin¬ 
genesis” (3 vols., 1769), in which he argued that the Chris¬ 
tian revelation i$ true. Died May 20, 1793. (See II. B. 
de Saussure, “ Eloge historique do C. Bonnet,” 1787; J. 
Trembley, “Memoire de la Vie de C. Bonnet,” 1794; A. 
Lemoine, “ C. Bonnet de Geneve, Philosophe et Natural- 
iste,” 1850.) 

Bonnet Carre, a post-village in St. John the Baptist 
parish, La. It has one weekly newspaper. 

B on net Piece, a gold coin of James V. of Scotland, 
so called because the king’s head is decorated with a bonnet 
instead of a crown. It weighed seventy-two grains, and was 
struck in 1539. “In beauty and elegance of workman¬ 
ship,” says De Cardonnel, “it approaches the nearest to 
the Roman coins, and very much surpasses all the coinage 
at that period or ever since.” 

B onneval, de (Claude Alexandre), Count, a French 
adventurer, born in Limousin July 14, 1675. He deserted 
from the French army and entered the service of Austria, 
in which he distinguished himself by several daring ex¬ 
ploits, and obtained the rank of general. Having quarrelled 
with the governor of the Low Countries, he was condemned 
to death by a court-martial about 1724, but the penalty was 
commuted to exile. He entered the Turkish army, took 
the name of Achmed, and became a pasha of three tails. 
Died Mar. 27, 1745. (See D. Fassmann, “ Leben des Grafcn 
von Bonneval,” 1740; “ Memoirs of the Bagshaw Count 
Bonneval,” London, 1750.) 

Bonneville (Benjamin L. E.), an officer, born in Ten¬ 
nessee, graduated at West Point in 1815. He became a 
captain in the U. S. army, and served in the Mexican war 
(1846-47). He published a “Journal of an Expedition to 
the Rocky Mountains.” 

B on'nycastle (Charles), born at Woolwich, England, 
in 1792, was a son of John, noticed below. He was one 
of the professors brought over by Mr. Jefferson for the 
University of Virginia in 1825. He at first occupied the 
chair of natural philosophy, and afterwards that of math¬ 
ematics. He published a treatise on “Algebra,” one on 
“ Inductive Geometry,” and various scientific papers. 
Died at Charlottesville, Va., Oct., 1840. 

Bonnycastle (John), an English mathematician, born 
in Buckinghamshire. He was professor of mathematics at 
the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, and published, 
besides other works, “Elements of Geometry” (1789) and 
“Elements of Algebra” (2 vols., 1813), which were highly 
esteemed. Died May 15, 1821. 

Bonnycastle (Sir Richard Henry), a son of the fore¬ 
going, born in 1791, served in Flanders and against the 
U. S. (1812-15), becoming in 1848 lieutenant-colonel of 
British engineers. Most of his life was passed in British 
North America. He published “Canada as it Was, Is, and 
May Be,” and other works on Canada, and one on “ Span¬ 
ish America” (1818). Died in 1848. 

Bo'no, apost-township of Lawrence co., Ind. Pop. 1005. 

Bonpas, a township of Richland co., Ill. Pop. 891. 

Bonplantl (Aime), an eminent French botanist, born 
at La Rochelle Aug. 22, 1773. He studied medicine and 
botany at Paris, and formed a friendship with Humboldt. 
In 1799 he accompanied Humboldt in a scientific expedi¬ 
tion to South America, where they travelled about five 
years. After their return to France he published a splen¬ 
did work entitled “ Equinoctial Plants collected in Mexico ” 
(2 vols., Paris, 1808-16, with 140 plates). He had col¬ 
lected 6000 species of plants, of which 3500 were entirely 
new. He became professor of natural history at Buenos 
Ayres in 1816, and departed in 1821 on an excursion to 
the Andes, but as he was passing through Paraguay he 


was arrested by order of Dr. Francia, who detained him 
as a prisoner nearly ten years. After his release in 1831, 
he resided for many years in Uruguay, and died May 11, 
1858. Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth published a work 
called “Nova Genera et Species Plantarum ” (7 vols., 
1815-25, with 700 plates). 

Bonpland, Lake, of California, is in Eldorado co. 
It is about 14 miles long and 6 miles wide. 

Bo'nus (a Latin adjective signifying “good”) is used 
in English to denote a premium given for a charter or 
other privilege; also a special allowance or extra dividend 
to the shareholders of a company. If the previous divi¬ 
dend has been 4 per cent., and if the profits of the current 
year are equal to 5 per cent, of the capital, the directors 
sometimes declare a dividend of 4 per cent., and add a 
bonus of 1 per cent. 

B onus, a post-township of Boone co., Ill. P. 1164. 

Bonyhad, a town of Hungary, in the county of Tolna, 
106 miles W. of Szegedin. Pop. in 1869, 5610. 

Bony Pike ( Lepidosteus ), a genus of ganoid fishes 
found in America, especially remarkable as being examples 
of a type of fishes now almost extinct, but which in the 
old red sandstone period were extremely numerous. To 
this genus belong the gar-pike and the alligator-gar of the 
U. S. The latter is sometimes six feet in length, and re¬ 
sembles the alligator in appearance. It is thought by 
some naturalists to approach the character of the reptiles. 

Bonze, a name given to the priests of Fo (or Booddha) 
in Japan and China. They profess celibacy, and are ad¬ 
dicted to ascetic practices and superstitious notions and 
rites. They are generally very ignorant. Some of them 
live in monasteries. They usually wear a yellow dress. 
(See Gautama.) 

Boo'by (Sula fusea), a species of aquatic birds of the 
same genus as the gannet, and of the family Pelicanidae. 
It is found on the coasts of tropical and sub-tropical coun¬ 
tries. It seldom swims, but is a bird of powerful wing, 
and feeds on fish, which it catches near the surface of the 
water by a sudden plunge. It is remarkable for stupidity 
and slow movement on the land, and will sometimes re¬ 
main motionless when it is approached by a man, and 
permit itself to be killed with a club. The boobies are 
persecuted by the albatross and frigate-bird, which some¬ 
times compel them to give up the fishes they have caught, 
and even to disgorge those they have devoured. 

Bood'dha, or Buddha, the title of an Asiatic divin¬ 
ity, or rather of a series of divinities, whose votaries or 
worshippers are said to constitute more than one-tliird of 
the human race. The name is derived from the Sanscrit 
verb bud (“to know”), and signifies, literally, “wisdom,” 
and also the “wise one” or the “sage;” but it has been 
applied particularly to certain divine sages who are be¬ 
lieved to have become possessed of transcendent power as 
well as wisdom. It is one of the remarkable features of 
the Hindoo system of belief, Brahmanical as well as Booddh- 
istic, that they hold the doctrine of accumulative merit 
to an unlimited extent; not only can one in the present 
life, by persevering prayer, penance, and sacrifice, gradu¬ 
ally acquire great merit, but this merit is supposed to be 
transferred to his account in the next life. It is thus that 
those beings who become Booddhas are enabled to acquire, 
in the course of innumerable transmigrations, an amount 
of merit which for all practical purposes may be termed 
infinite; and this merit, according to a commonly-received 
belief, confers infinite wisdom and power. The asjiirants 
to the Booddhaship (called in Sanscrit BSdhissattvas) are 
supposed, in the course of their countless transmigrations, 
to be born sometimes as devas (inferior deities), and some¬ 
times in the form of various animals, even insects or ani¬ 
malcules ; but when they are about to assume the rank of 
supreme Booddha, they arc always born as men, and their 
human form becomes glorified, when they attain their 
highest perfection and take their rank as the supreme 
power of the universe. But they continue only a very 
brief period in this exalted state; they soon die and pass 
into nirvana—a term variously interpreted; according to 
the majority of Booddhists, including those of Ceylon, it 
signifies simply non-existence or annihilation, but accord¬ 
ing to others, the soul, in nirvana, does not cease to be—it 
merely ceases its separate existence, having been absorbed 
into the essence of the supreme, eternal Spirit. The latter 
view is held by the Aishwarikas of Nepaul, who call the 
eternal Spirit Adi-Booddha (i. e. “First Booddha”). It is 
supposed that there have been innumerable Booddhas in 
the eternity of the past, each being separated from bis 
nearest successor by a space of several thousand years. 
(For a more particular account of the doctrines of tho 

Booddhists, see Gautama.) 

* J. TnoMAS. 












BOODROOM—BOOKBINDING. 


554 


Bood room', Uudroum, or Bodrun, a seaport- 
town of Asiatic Turkey, in Anatolia, is finely situated on 
the N. shore of the Gulf of Cos, about 96 miles S. of 
Smyrna; lat. 37° 2' N., Ion. 27° 25' E. It has a safe har¬ 
bor, defended by a castle which was built by the Knights 
of St. John in 1402. The streets are narrow and dirty. 
Pop. estimated at 12,000. It probably occupies the site of 
the ancient Halicarnassus, a great city of Caria, the birth¬ 
place of Herodotus. Here are remains of ancient mag¬ 
nificence. 

Boofa'rik, or Boufarik, a village of Algeria, 18 miles 
S. S. W. of Algiers, on the road from Algiers to Blidah and 
Oran, is an important military station. It has a trade in 
cotton, grain, olives, oranges, etc. Pop. 5627. 

Book [Anglo-Saxon, hoc; Ger. Buck, supposed to be from 
the root of Buche, “ beech,” because thin pieces of this wood 
were used for writing before paper was invented], the gen¬ 
eral name of almost every literary composition, but in a 
more limited sense applied only to such compositions as are 
large enough to form a volume. Short and fugitive pieces 
are denominated pamphlets, in contradistinction to books, 
which are of greater length and embrace more general or 
permanent topics. According to their sizes and forms, 
books are distinguished as folios, quartos, octavos, duode¬ 
cimos, etc. The materials of which books have been com¬ 
posed have differed much in different nations and in dif¬ 
ferent stages of civilization. Plates of lead and copper, 
bricks, stone, and wood were anciently employed for this 
purpose. At a later period the bark of trees formed the 
chief material, as is indicated by the meaning of the words 
which in some languages are employed for the term book 
(liber). Materials for books were afterwards derived from 
the Egyptian plant papyrus, but as the demand increased 
more durable materials were sought for, and leather, made 
chiefly from the skins of goats or sheep, was employed for 
this purpose. Next followed the use of parchment, on which 
the ancient manuscripts were chiefly written, but all these 
systems were swallowed up by the invention of Paper, 
which, though long known in China and Japan, was not 
made in Europe until about the thirteenth century, and 
facilitated the circulation of knowledge to an incalcu¬ 
lable extent. The first books were in the form of blocks 
and tablets, but when flexible materials came into use it was 
found more convenient to roll them up in a scroll, called by 
the Romans volumen (from volvo, to “roll”). Books were 
anciently written on one side only of rolls of paper or 
parchment. When written on both sides they were called 
opisthorjraphi. To save the expense of writing materials, 
it was sometimes the custom to wash out what were con¬ 
sidered unimportant writings, and use the paper or parch¬ 
ment again. These were then called Palimpsests (which 
see). Leaves of palm-trees are still used in parts of India, 
etc. for making manuscript books. 

Revised by C. W. Greene. 

Book'binding, the art of fastening together and en¬ 
closing the leaves of a book for preservation and use, has 
been practised for many centuries. Long before the inven¬ 
tion of printing the written leaves of missals and other 
books were united together, and enclosed in covers of wood, 
parchment, and other materials. Much labor and expense 
was bestowed on a single volume, and the covers were fre¬ 
quently decorated with jewels and ornaments of gold and 
silver. Some of these volumes are still preserved in the 
monasteries and museums of the Old World, and are objects 
of interest and study. 

Since the invention of printing, and especially from the 
beginning of this century, the rapid advancement of the me¬ 
chanical arts, the extension of education, and the general 
diffusion of knowledge have made books as much a neces¬ 
sity of life as food and clothing, and their preservation is 
therefore an object of importance. 

The modern operations of bookbinding may be grouped 
in two main divisions—“forwarding” and “ finishing,”.the 
first comprehending what is necessary for the preservation 
of books, the latter pertaining to their embellishment. In 
each of these departments there are various subdivisions, 
which may be noted. The sheets are generally received 
from the printer in bundles containing a thousand, more or 
less, of one kind. 

The first operation is to fold the sheet, by means of a 
thin piece of ivory or bone, about nine inches long, called 
a “ folder.” The object of this is to bring the pages to¬ 
gether in regular order ; and on the care with which the 
folding is done much of the appearance of the book depends. 
The next process is “ gathering” and “ collating.” Gath¬ 
ering consists in putting together one each of the various 
sheets of which the book is made, and collating is the ex¬ 
amination of the numbers 1, 2, 3, etc., which are placed at 
the foot of the outside page of the folded sections, and 
which arc called “ signatures.” 


The next thing required is to make the book solid. This 
is done by placing it either in a hydraulic press or under 
some other form of pressure, such as the nature and size of 
the book may require. After being pressed the book is 
prepared for sewing by having indentations made in the 
back of the sheets by passing them over rapidly revolving 
circular saws. They are now sewed on a frame called a 
“ sewing-bench,” each sheet being sewed around twine 
bands, which are afterwards fastened to the boards. Much 
of its durability depends on the sewing being well done, 
and all large work is improved by having the sections at 
the beginning and end of the book cross or “ whip-stitched.” 

The greater part of the labor has so far been done by 
women, who by practice acquire great dexterity in the per¬ 
formance of the various processes. Machinery has been 
used with considerable success in folding, and lately a 
machine has been introduced for sewing, but all work in 
the early stages is still in great measure done by hand- 
labor. In the more advanced stages of binding machinery 
is used extensively, and our description will be in accord¬ 
ance with the methods pursued where large quantities are 
constantly being bound, and where machinery is used to 
facilitate production. The book, after being removed from 
the sewing-bench, and having about an inch of the twine 
left on either side to fasten to the pasteboard cover, has 
the end leaves applied. These are of colored, white, or 
marble paper, as the nature of the work may require. 
The book is now “cut” by being fastened tightly in a cut¬ 
ting-machine, and a vibrating knife is brought down on 
the edge, which is cut off smoothly at the point desired. 
The edges are either left white, are colored by being sprin¬ 
kled with color thrown on finely with a brush, or are 
marbled, which is done by dipping the edge on colors 
which float on the surface of gum-water. The “ comb 
edge” so much used is made by a comb being drawn 
through the colors on the surface of the gum-water before 
the book is dipped. If the book is to have gilt edges, it is 
placed in a press and a coating of red color applied. The 
edges are then sized with white of egg, and gold-leaf laid 
over the size. When the sizing is thoroughly dry, the gold 
is burnished with agate or bloodstone. 

A coating of glue is now applied to the back, and when 
partially dry by a slight hammering on the back a round 
is formed in the front and back. The book is then fastened 
firmly between iron clamps in a backing-machine, lately 
invented, and a roller is pressed heavily across the back, 
which turns part of it over either side of the clamps, 
making a groove to hold the board of which the inside of 
the cover is made. . The piece of silk braid or colored cloth 
which projects over the leaves of the back inside the cover, 
and is called the “ head-band,” is now fastened with glue, 
and the whole back has a lining of cloth or strong rope 
paper firmly applied to it with glue and paste. The open 
or spring back is now made by applying two thicknesses 
of paper, open in the centre, but fastened at the edges— 
one thickness of the paper being attached to the back of 
the book, and the other thickness to the leather or other 
material of which the outside cover may be made. The 
book is now ready for the cover, the outside of which may 
be of muslin, sheepskin, calf, Turkey morocco, or such 
other materials as may be desired. The cover, or “case,” 
is made by boards being cut larger than the leaves of the 
book, over which the outside material is fastened by glue 
or paste, a space being left between the two boards large 
enough to fit the back of the book in, the boards being re¬ 
quired to fit nicely into the grooves made in backing. 
Much of the material used for boards of common books is 
straw, but all good work should have a hard, smooth board 
made of rope. The edge of the board is frequently ground 
off on a rapidly revolving emery wheel, which makes a 
bevelled edge, now much used. 

After the cover is dry the embellishment is done by 
stamping in gold, blank, and colors. If in gold, the leather 
or cloth is sized with albumen, and gold-leaf laid on with 
oil. The ornamental die or lettering being fastened in an 
“ embossing-press ” and heated, it is brought with sufficient 
pressure on the cover to make the gold-leaf adhere. The 
surplus gold being brushed off, leaves the impression of the 
die. The dies are cut in brass or steel, and very elaborate 
and beautiful designs, which a few years ago would have 
taken many weeks to execute by hand-labor, are now pro¬ 
duced almost instantly by the embossing-press. 

The cover having received all intended ornament, the 
back of the book is glued and fitted into it, the end-papers 
are pasted to the inside of the cover, and the book is placed 
in a press to remain till dry. When removed from the 
press it is ready for the publisher and the public. 

“ Half binding,” much used for library and reference 
books, is that style of binding where the back and corners 
are covered with leather, and the sides with cloth or paper. 

The old process of “forwarding” by hand, in which each 





















BOOK-CATALOGUES—BOONDEE. 


555 


book is backed by a hammer and cut singly by press and 
plough, and the book finished by the slow method of 
former times, is still followed to some extent in small 
binderies, but requires no minute description, as the system 
is almost obsolete for books in quantities. 

In America, during the last quarter of a century, machi¬ 
nery for the binding of books has been invented, improved, 
and applied to a greater extent than in any other country; 
hence books in large editions are produced in a style of 
great elegance and durability, and at prices so moderate 
as to be within reach of all classes of the community. The 
number of persons engaged in bookbinding throughout the 
various States is very large. In the cities of New York, 
Philadelphia, and Boston many of the establishments em¬ 
ploy from 100 to 300 hands (about one-half of the number 
being women), and produce from 1000 to 5000 volumes 
per day. James Somerville, Bookbinder, New York. 

Book-Catalogues. See Catalogues of Books. 

Books, Censorship of. See Censorship of Books. 

Book-Club, a society for the purchase of books to be 
read by its members. It is customary in book-clubs, after 
the books have been read by all, to sell them at auction. 
These clubs are quite numerous in Great Britain. 

Book-keeping is the art of recording, in a regular 
and systematic manner, the transactions of merchants or 
other persons engaged in pursuits connected with money. 
There are two modes of keeping books of account—the one 
by what is termed single, and the other by double entry. 
Both are in general use. The system of single entry is 
much the simplest mode of book-keeping, and consists of 
only a day-book and a ledger. In the day-book the dealer 
enters his sales and purchases, and in his ledger he carries 
the former to the debit of his customers, and the latter to 
the credit of the merchants who supply him with goods. 
By making at any time a list of the sums due to him by 
his customers, and of those due by him to wholesale mer¬ 
chants, the dealer may, after adding to the debts due to 
him the value of his stock on hand, arrive at an approxi¬ 
mation to the real state of his debts and assets. This, 
however, is but an imperfect method of book-keeping, and 
in the case of wholesale mercantile business, where exten¬ 
sive and multifarious transactions have to be recorded, re¬ 
course is had to the system of double entry. This system 
possesses all the advantages of single entry, besides being 
so complete and comprehensive in its principles, and so 
certain in its results, as to admit of universal application. 

No authentic accounts exist of the origin of book-keep¬ 
ing. The double-entry system appears to have been first 
practised in the latter part of the fifteenth century in Italy, 
then the great centre of the mercantile world. 

The objects of book-keeping are to exhibit transactions 
in the most minute detail and in the most condensed form; 
advancing from the earliest stage to the latest by such clear 
and lucid steps as to admit of every fact being traced in its 
progress, so as to be secured at every step against error. 

The three principal books required under the system of 
double entry are a cash-book, journal, and ledger. In the 
first of these every transaction is recorded where money is 
one of the elements. The journal forms a most important 
part of the system. It exhibits a narrative of every trans¬ 
action of which an actual transfer of money does not form 
one of the elements, arranging the facts in as simple a form 
as correctness and intelligibility will admit of; and the 
results of those entries in the journal are afterwards intro¬ 
duced into the ledger, which thereby becomes a key to the 
history of every transaction. In like manner cash trans¬ 
actions are often introduced into the journal, and are at 
stated periods classed and ari’anged in a condensed form 
and transferred to the ledger. The journal is advanta¬ 
geously ruled with four columns—two for entries debtor, 
and two for entries creditor; and all the transactions being 
connected either with personal and property accounts or 
nominal accounts, such as charges, profit and loss, and so- 
forth, they are classed accordingly in the columns on the 
debtor or creditor side of the journal respectively; and as 
the debit entries are at all times equal to the credit entries, 
the aggregate of the two columns on the debtor side must 
tally with the aggregate of the two on the creditor side of 
the journal. Experience and practice are occasionally sug¬ 
gesting minor improvements upon the forms of the cash¬ 
book, journal, and ledger to suit particular cases; and in¬ 
deed an intelligent book-keeper may accomplish much by 
a judicious classification of the facts in auxiliary books; 
but the fundamental principles of the double-entry system 
of book-keeping remain perfect and unchanged; and after 
the length of time during which they have successfully 
withstood all attempts at innovation or change, it may 
safely be affirmed that the system is the best hitherto dis¬ 
covered. 

Bookselling, or the Book-Trade, may be treated 


of as consisting of two branches: 1st, the wholesale busi¬ 
ness, usually in the hands of publishers; and 2d, the retail 
branch, to which more frequently the term bookselling is 
applied. 

Booksellers are mentioned by Horace and other ancient 
writers, and they are known to have existed as a distinct 
class in university-towns of Europe during the Middle 
Ages; but the book-trade was quite unimportant until 
after the invention of printing, when a great stimulus was 
given to this branch of industry, more especially at first in 
Germany. In nearly all European countries the printing 
and vending of books were subject to a great variety of re¬ 
strictions, including a more or less strict government cen¬ 
sorship, which, in England, ceased in 1695. On the other 
hand, publishers seem about this time to have had a re¬ 
markable disregard of the rights of authors, in whom copy¬ 
right was first vested by act of Parliament in 1700. Since 
the beginning of the present century the book-trade of the 
U. S., from the smallest beginnings, has grown to a posi¬ 
tion of great importance. The retail book-trade is con¬ 
ducted both by subscription-agents and by regular dealers. 

Boo'lak, Boulac, or Bulak, a town of Egypt, on the 
right bank of the Nile, about a mile from Cairo, and at the 
origin of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile. It formerly stood on 
an island. The vessels navigating the Nile discharge their 
cargoes at Boolak, which is the port of Cairo, and contains 
a custom-house. It has manufactures of cotton and silk, 
a government printing-office, and a very valuable museum 
of Egyptian antiquities. Pop. about 13,000. 

Boolga'rin, Boulgarine, or Bulgarin (Thad- 
deus), an eminent Russian writer, born in Lithuania in 
1789. He served as an officer in the army of Napoleon I., 
after whose fall he settled in St. Petersburg and devoted 
himself to literature. He published popular novels en¬ 
titled “ Mazeppa” and “Ivan Vuizhegin ” (1829), and other 
works, among which is “Russia in its Historical, Statisti¬ 
cal, Geographical, and Literary Aspects.” Died Sept. 13, 
1859. 

Boom [that is, “beam,” from the Dutch boom and Ger¬ 
man Baum, a “tree” or “beam”], in nautical language, is 
a general name for long poles or spars employed to extend 
the bottom of sails. Some of them taper regularly from 
the middle towards each end. According to their different 
modes and places of application, they are respectively named 
jib-boom, flying-jib-boom, studding-sail-boom, main-boom, 
square-sail-boom, spanker-boom, etc. 

Boom is also the name of a strong iron chain or cable 
stretched across a river or harbor to obstruct the passage 
of hostile vessels of war. The chains are moored and are 
floated by logs. They ought to be defended by a battery. 
An iron steamer might cut or break the chain unless it is 
very strong. It is desirable that two or more chains should 
be stretched across. 

Boom, bom, a town of Belgium, in the province of 
Antwerp, is on the river Rupel at its junction with the 
Brussels Canal, 9 miles S. of Antwerp. It has a gymnasium 
and extensive brick- and tile-works, tanneries, ropewalks, 
and manufactures of sail-cloth. Pop. 10,064. 

Boo'mer (George B.), an American general, was born 
at Sutton, Mass., July 26, 1832, and became a citizen of 
St. Louis in early youth. At the battles of Iuka, Cham¬ 
pion Hills, and Vicksburg he behaved with conspicuous 
gallantry. He was killed in a charge at Vicksburg, May 
22, 1863. 

Boorn'erang, an instrument used in war and the chase 
by the aborigines of Australia. It is about two feet in 
length, flat on one side and rounded on the other, and is 
made of hard wood bent into a curve nearly resembling an 
obtuse angle. The method of using this remarkable weapon 
is very peculiar. It is taken by one end with the bulged 
side downward, and thrown forward as if to hit some ob¬ 
ject twenty-five yards in advance. Instead of continuing 
to go directly forward, as might be expected, it slowly as¬ 
cends in the air, whirling round and round, and describing 
a curved line, till it reaches a considerable height, when it 
begins to retrograde, and finally sweeps over the head of 
the projector and falls behind him. This surprising motion 
is produced by the reaction of the air upon a missile of this 
peculiar shape. The Australians are said to be very dex¬ 
terous in hitting birds and other small animals with this 
weapon, as, being behind the thrower, they are perhaps not 
aware that they are objects of attack. It is asserted that 
a kind of boomerang is employed by some of the hill-tribes 
of Southern Hindostan. 

Booil'dee, a town in East India, capital of a rajahship 
of the same name, 90 miles S. E. of Ajmeer, has an old and 
a new town, the former surrounded by a strong wall. It 
contains a palace, well-built houses, and level streets, and 
a fine temple of Krishna, other large temples, fountains, etc. 

























556 ' BOON E— BOON SBEOOK. 

Boone, a county of Arkansas, bordering on Missouri, 
is drained by the White River. Area, 696 square mileS. 
The surface is a fertile plateau, rich in minerals. Cotton, 
corn, and tobacco are the principal crops. It was formed 
in 1869 from parts of Carroll and Marion. Capital, Har¬ 
rison. Pop. 7032. 

Boone, a county of Illinois, bordering on Wisconsin. 
Area, 280 square miles. It is intersected by the Kishwau- 
kee River, an affluent of Rock River, and also drained by 
the Piskasaw Creek. The surface is undulating, and diver¬ 
sified by prairies and woodlands; the soil is very fertile. 
Cattle, grain, wool, and dairy products are raised. The 
county is traversed by several divisions of the Chicago and 
North-western R. R. Capital, Belvidere. Pop. 12,942. 

Boone, a county in Central Indiana. Area, 408 square 
miles. It is drained by the Eagle and Sugar creeks. The 
surface is undulating or nearly level, and was formerly 
covered with dense forests of the oak, ash, beech, and 
sugar-maple. The soil is fertile and deep. Grain, wool, 
cattle, and dairy products are raised. It is intersected by 
the railroad which connects Lafayette with Indianapolis. 
Capital, Lebanon. Pop. 22,693. 

Boone, a county in Central Iowa. Area, 576 square 
miles. It is traversed and nearly bisected by the I)cs 
Moines River, and also drained by Beaver Creek. The 
surface is uneven or undulating; the soil is fertile. Cattle, 
wool, and grain are the chief productions. Coal and tim¬ 
ber abound in it. The county is intersected by the Chicago 
and North-western R. R. Capital, Boonesborougli. Pop. 
14,584. 

Boone, a county in the extreme N. part of Kentucky. 
Area, 300 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and W. 
by the Ohio River, and is adjacent to the “Great North 
Bend” of that stream. The surface is hilly or undulating; 
the soil is productive, and is based on Trenton limestone. 
Live-stock, grain, and tobacco are raised. It is inter¬ 
sected by the Louisville Cincinnati and Lexington R. R. 
Capital, Burlington. Pop. 10,696. 

Boone, a county in Central Missouri. Area, 648 square 
miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Missouri River, 
and on the E. by Cedar Creek, and is traversed by Roche 
Percee River. The surface is undulating; the soil is very 
productive. Tobacco, grain, and live-stock are raised. 
Among the mineral resources are coal and limestone. It 
is intersected by the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern 
R. R. Capital, Columbia. Pop. 20,765. 

Boone, a county of the E. central part of Nebraska. 
Area, 912 square miles. The S. part constitutes a portion 
of the Pawnee reservation. The county is drained by the 
Pawnee Loup and its branches; the soil is fertile. It was 
organized since the census of 1870. Capital, Hammond. 

Boone, a county of the S. W. part of West Virginia. 
Area, 525 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by 
Coal River, and also drained by Laurel Creek. The sur¬ 
face is hilly or mountainous, and mostly covered with 
forests. The soil of the valleys is fertile. Grain, stock, 
and tobacco are extensively raised. Bituminous coal is 
found. Capital, Madison. Pop. 4553. 

Boone, a township of Columbia co., Ark. Pop. 827. 

Boone, a township of Scott co., Ark. Pop. 937. 

Boone, a township of Union co., Ark. Pop. 642. 

Boone, a township of Boone co., Ill. Pop. 1536. 

Boone, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 1262. 

Boone, a township of Crawford co., Ind. Pop. 494. 

Boone, a township of Harrison co., Ind. Pop. 1870. 

Boone, a township of Madison co., Ind. Pop. 1078. 

Boone, a township of Porter co., Ind. Pop. 1215. 

Boone, a township of Warrick co., Ind. Pop. 4042. 

Boone (called Montana in the U. S. census of 1870), 
a city of Boone co., Ia., is the end of a division of the 
Chicago and North-western R. R., and a round-house and 
machine-shops of the company are located here. It is a 
thriving town, and has two weekly newspapers, a national 
bank, six churches, and is a good manufacturing point, 
being near both coal and timber. Immense quantities of 
coal are shipped from here. Pop. 2415. 

J. Hornstein, Pub. “ Boone County Democrat.” 

Boone, a township of Dallas co., Ia. Pop. 552. 

Boone, a township of Hamilton co., Ia. Pop. 1837. 

Boone, a township of Wright co., Ia. Pop. 146. 

Boone, a township of Bates co., Mo. Pop. 1257. 

Boone, a township of Crawford co., Mo. Pop. 839. 

Boone, a township of Douglas co., Mo. Pop. 480. 

Boone, a township of Franklin co., Mo. Pop. 1655. 

Boone, a township of Greene co., Mo. Pop. 1692. 

Boone, a township of Maries co., Mo. Pop. 692. 

Boone, a township of Texas co., Mo. Pop. 323. 

Boone, a township of Wright co., Mo. Pop. 123. 

Boone, a township of Davidson co., N. C. Pop. 1311. 

Boone, a post-village, the capital of Watauga co., N. C., 
in a township of the same name, 177 miles W. by N. of 
Raleigh. Pop. of township, 737. 

Boone (Daniel), a famous American pioneer and hun¬ 
ter, born in Bucks co., Pa., Feb. 11, 1735. He emigrated 
to North Carolina, where he married. In 1769, w T ith five 
companions, he penetrated into the forests of Kentucky, 
which were then uninhabited by white men. He was cap¬ 
tured by Indians, but escaped, and continued to hunt 
in that region for more than a year. Having returned 
home early in 1771, he moved with his own and five other 
families to Kentucky in the autumn of 1773. To defend 
his colony against the savages, he built in 1775 a fort at 
Boonesborough, on the Kentucky River. The Indians at¬ 
tacked this fort several times in 1777, but were repulsed. 

Boone was surprised and captured by them in Feb., 1778. 

They took him to Detroit, and treated him with lenity, but 
he soon escaped, and returned to his fort, which he de¬ 
fended with success against 450 Indians in Aug., 1778. 

He removed in 1795 to a place which is nearly forty-five 
miles W. of St. Louis, Mo., and found there a new field for 
his favorite pursuits. Died Sept. 20, 1820. (See Sparks, 
“American Biography,” vol. xiii., second series; W. H. 
Bogart, “Life of Daniel Boone,” 1857.) 

Boone (Enoch), son of the preceding, and the first white 
male child born in Kentucky. Died Mar. 8, 1862, aged 84. 

Boonesfeorongh,a small village of Madison co., Ivy., 
on the Kentucky River, about 18 miles S. E. of Lexington. 

Here is the site of a fort built in 1775 by Daniel Boone, the 
pioneer, which was the first fort erected in the State. 

Boonesville, capital of Prentiss co., Miss., a thriving 
town on the Mobile and Ohio R. R., 20 miles S. of Corinth, 
at the highest point on that road, is the seat of Paine Male 

School (Methodist) and Booneville Male Academy. It has 
four churches, one weekly paper, one cotton-press, and one 
planing-mill. Pop. 458. 

John II. Miller, Pub. “ Prentiss Recorder.” 

Booneville, a post-village, capital of Owsley co., Ivy., 
on the South Fork of the Kentucky River, about 60 miles 

S. E. of Lexington. Pop. 111. 

Booneville, or Boonville, a river-port, capital of 

Cooper co., Mo., is situated on the right (S.) bank of the 
Missouri River, 227 miles by water and 187 miles by rail¬ 
road W. by N. of St. Louis. It stands on a bluff about 100 
feet above the river, is very healthy, and has an advanta¬ 
geous position for trade. It has a national bank. A rail¬ 
road 25 miles long extends from Booneville southward to 
the Missouri Pacific R. R. Lead, coal, marble, hydraulic 
lime, and iron are abundant here. During the recent civil 
war a Confederate camp was established at this place. On 
the 16th of June, 1861, Gen. Lyon reached Rockport, op¬ 
posite Booneville, and on the following day attacked the 
forces in camp at Booneville under Col. Marmaduke. The 
Confederate force amounted to only about 2560 raw troops, 
poorly armed and utterly deficient in drill; they were 
easily routed, abandoning two guns and a large quantity 
of clothing, camp equipage, etc. Booneville has three 
weekly newspapers. Pop. 3506; of Booneville township, 

5319. 

Boon Hill, a post-township of Johnston co., N. C. 

Pop. 1445. 

Boon Island, 10 miles E. of the harbor cf York, Me., 
is in lat. 43° 07' 16" N., Ion. 70° 28' 16'' W. It has a 
granite lighthouse 123 feet high, showing a fixed white 
dioptric light of the second order, 133 feet above the sea. 

Boons'boro’, the county-seat of Boone co., Ia., 14 
miles E. of Des Moines River, on the Chicago and North¬ 
western R. R., 121 miles W. of Cedar Rapids, 40 N. N. W. 
of Des Moines, in the edge of the best body of timber in 
the State. Coal is excellent, abundant, and extensively 
mined. The river affords good water-pow T er, and the 
scenery in this part of the Des Moines Valley is picturesque. 

It has six churches, two school edifices, a town-hall, public 
library, a literary association, a weekly newspaper, two 
farming implement factories, two furniture, two wagon and 
carriage, and one stave and baryel factory, one steam grist¬ 
mill, and two potteries. Pop. 1518. 

Means & Downing, Pubs. “Boone County Republican.” 

Boonsboro’, a post-village and township of Wash¬ 
ington co., Md. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of 
village, 835; of township, 2579. 

Boons'brook, a township of Franklin co., Va. Pop. 

2078. 











BOON'S LICK—BOOTH. 


Boon’s Lick, a township of Howard co., Mo. Pop. 
1686. 

Boon’s Station, a township of Alamance co., N. C. 
Pop. 1100. 

Boon'ton, a city of Morris co., N. J., is on the Rocka- 
way River and on the Boonton branch of the Delaware 
Lackawanna and Western R. R., about 30 miles from New 
York City and 16 miles from Paterson, N. J. It has iron¬ 
works among the largest in the U. S., if not in the world, 
the rolling-mills, nut-mills, plate-mills, nail-mills, and blast 
furnaces covering at least 50 acres of land. It has one 
weekly paper. Pop. of township, 3458. 

S. L. Garrison, Ed. “ Republican.” 

Boon'ville, the capital of Warrick co., Ind., is 11 miles 
from the Ohio River and 17 miles from the city of Evans¬ 
ville, at the crossing of the Lake Erie Evansville and 
South-western and the Vincennes and Owensboro’ R. Rs. 
It has one weekly paper. Pop. 1039. 

Wm. Swint, Ed. of “ Enquirer.” 

Boonville, a post-village of Oneida co., N. Y., on the 
Utica and Black River R. R., 35 miles N. of Utica, and on 
the Black River Canal. It has several churches and mills, 
one bank and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1418; of the 
township, 4106. 

Boonville. See Booneville. 

Boonville, a township of Yadkin co., N. C. Pop. 1058. 

Boor'hanpooU, or Burhanpoor [Hindoo, Barhan- 
poora ]. a city of Ilindostan, the ancient capital of the Can- 
deish, is on the river Taptee, 309 miles by rail N. E. of 
Bombay. It is on the Great Indian Peninsular R. R. It 
is one of the largest and best-built cities of the Deccan, 
and has wide and regular streets and brick houses. Among 
the remarkable buildings is a mosque built by Aurungzeb, 
and an old royal palace which is nearly ruined. This city 
was taken by Akbar about 1600. It has manufactures of 
gold and silver thread for brocade. Pop. 20,000. 

Boor'los, or Bourlos, a shallow lagoon of Lower 
Egypt, in the delta of the Nile, about 5 miles E. of Rosetta, 
is 38 miles long. It communicates by a single channel 
with the Mediterranean, from which it is separated by a 
narrow tongue of land. 

B oo'ro, Bum, or Bouro, an island of the Malay 
Archipelago, is about 60 miles W. N. W. of Amboyna, and 
lies between lat. 3° and 4° S., and between Ion. 126° and 
127° E. Area, estimated at 2000 square miles. The sur¬ 
face is mountainous, but the soil is fertile. It contains 
Mount Dome, which is said to be 10,400 feet high. Cajeli 
Bay, on the N. side, affords good anchorage. 

Boo roogirtl', Boorojird, or Burugird, a town 
of Persia, province of Irak-Ajemee, is in a fertile valley 
about 184 miles N. W. of Ispahan, and 74 miles S. S. E. of 
Hamadan. It has a castle and several mosques. It has 
an extensive trade in cotton goods, of which it is said to 
export over 1,000,000 francs’ worth annually. Poj). in 1868, 
10 , 000 . 

B oos'sa, or Boussa, a town of Central Africa, in 
Soodan, is on an island in the Niger, in about lat. 10° 20' 
N., Ion. 4° 30' E. It is enclosed by a wall. Pop. estimated 
at 11,000. Mungo Park died here. 

Boot [Fr. botte; Sp. bota, a “ boot,” originally a “leath¬ 
ern bottle,” and applied to a boot from its fancied similar¬ 
ity to a bottle], a covering for the foot and lower part of 
the leg, which seems to have been worn in England as far 
back as the times of the Anglo-Saxons. Various similar 
coverings for the foot are known to have been worn in 
Egypt and other countries in very ancient times, but they 
all seem to have more closely approached the shape of the 
modern shoe. Before the time of the wars of the Roses 
the boot was a part of the regular dress of knights. The 
names “top-boot,” “ Wellington boot,” “ jack-boot,” etc. 
are applied to forms of the boot that have been worn at 
various times. 

Boot, an instrument for the judicial torture of accused 
persons and recusant witnesses, once used in Scotland. It 
was a case made of wood or iron, which enclosed the leg, 
and wedges were driven between the boot and the leg until 
the questions asked were satisfactorily answered. In many 
cases the leg was crushed and still no answer was given. 
The use of this torture was not abolished until the reign of 
Queen Anne. 

Boo'tan', Bomtan, Bhotan, or Butan, a state or 
country of India, is bounded on the N. by the Himalaya 
Mountains, which separate it from Thibet, on the E. by 
Thibet, and on the S. and W. by Bengal. It extends from 
lat. 26° 18' to 28° N., and from Ion. 88° 30' to 92° 30' E. 
Area, estimated at 64,500 square miles. The surface is 
mountainous. The Peak of Shumalari on the N. border 
rises about 27,000 feet above the sea. In the central parts 


557 


are mountains from 8000 to 10,000 feet high, covered with 
forests of pine, ash, maple, birch, etc. Wheat, barley, rice, 
and maize are cultivated here. The religion of Bootan is 
Booddhism. The people practise polyandry and polyg¬ 
amy. The state is ruled by an actual sovereign called 
Deb-Rajah, and has a nominal head called Dherma-Rajah, 
who is treated as a god, but has little power. Pop. about 
1,500,000. 1 1 

Boo'tes [Gr. Bocott;?], a name of Philomelus, a son 
of Ceres and a brother of Plutus. He is said to have in¬ 
vented the plough, and used it in cultivation of the soil. 
To reward him for this service he was translated into a con¬ 
stellation, under the name of Bootes. 

Bootes, a northern constellation, is represented on 
celestial globes as a man holding in one hand a club, and 
in the other a leash by which he leads two hunting-dogs. 
This constellation comprises Arcturus, a star of the first 
magnitude. Bootes is bounded on the N. by Draco, on the 
E. by Corona Borealis and Serpens, on the S. by Virgo, 
and on the W. by Canes Venatici and Coma Berenices. 

Booth, a name which seems to have been originally 
given to tents and other temporary structures for the use 
of dealers at fairs. These afterwards became permanent, 
stall-like structures in streets and public places, and were 
for a long time much employed by respectable merchants, 
as similar structures are even now in Oriental countries. 

Booth (Abraham), born at Blackwell, Derbyshire, Eng¬ 
land, in May, 1734, from 1769 till his death pastor of the 
Baptist church in Goodman’s Fields, London. He was 
author of “The Reign of Grace” (1768) and “Pmdobap- 
tism Examined,” 2 vols. 12mo, 1784. The latter work was 
republished in 2 vols. 8vo in 1829, and is regarded by the 
Baptists as an able argument in defence of their opinions. 
Died in 1806. 

Booth. This name, long eminent on the stage, was 
first made famous by Barton Booth, born in 1681. He 
first appeared in 1698 at Dublin, Ireland, in Tlios. South¬ 
ern’s “ Oroonoko.” In 1701 he first acted in London, as 
Maximus in Lord Rochester’s “ Valentinian.” Thencefor¬ 
ward his career was prosperous and distinguished. He left 
the stage in 1728, and died in 1733. He was deemed excel¬ 
lent in such various parts as Hotspur, Antony, Othello, and 
Henry VIII. He wrote a masque entitled the “ Death of 
Dido” (1716). He was twice married, but left no children. 
He was an Englishman of good family, a good classical 
scholar, a quaint poet, and a notably handsome person. 
His grave is at Cowley, near Uxbridge, England.— Junius 
Brutus Booth, born near London May 1, 1796, first ap¬ 
peared on the stage Dec. 13, 1813, at Deptford, England, 
as Campillo, in Tobin’s “Honeymoon,” and within four 
years became famous in London as Richard III. and Sir 
Giles Overreach. These anel Pescara were his great parts. 
11c first acted in America, July 13, 1821, at Richmonel, Va., 
as Richard III. His career on the American stage was one 
long triumph—marred, however, by intemperance and in¬ 
cipient insanity. He died on a Mississippi River steamboat, 
Nov. 3, 1852, and was buried at Baltimore, Md. His wife 
was a Miss Holmes, of Reading, England. His children 
were: Junius Brutus, Rosalie Anne, Edwin Thomas, Annie 
Sydney, and Joseph Addison, Avho are. living (1873), and 
Henry Byron, Mary, Frederick, Elizabeth, and John 
Wilkes, who are dead.— Edwin Booth, a son of J. B. 
Booth, born at Baltimore Nov. 15, 1833, first appeared on 
the stage, Sept. 10, 1849, at the Boston Museum, as Tresscl, 
in “Richard III.” After several years of “strolling” in 
California and Australia, he returned to New York and 
other Northern cities, and speedily acquired a high profes¬ 
sional rank. He opened Booth’s Theatre, N. Y., Feb. 3, 
1869—one of the best theatres in the world. His name, as 
an actor, is identified with Hamlet, Richelieu, Iago, Ber- 
tuccio, and Lucius Brutus. His acting is remarkable for 
intellectual power, refinement, and gleams of passionate 
fire. Wm. AVinter, of the Nero York “Tribune.” 

Booth (John AFilkes), the assassin of Abraham Lin¬ 
coln, born in Harford co., Md., in 1838, was a brother of 
Edwin, noticed above. He became an actor, and in the 
civil war sided with the secessionists. To avenge the “lost 
cause,” he formed a conspiracy with Suratt, Powell, and 
others. On the 14th of April, 1865, he entered Ford’s 
Theatre, AFashington, and shot President Lincoln, who was 
sitting in a private box. Exclaiming, “ Sic semper ti/rannis ! ’ 
he leaped down to the stage and broke his leg, but he 
mounted a horse that was standing ready and escaped to 
Virginia. He concealed himself in a barn near Bowling 
Green, where he was discovered by the detectives, and, re¬ 
fusing to surrender, he was shot, April 26, 1865. 

Booth (Mary L.) was born at Yaphank, Long Island, 
April 19, 1831. She was for a time a school-teacher, and 
has written much for periodical literature, bho has pub- 












558 


BOOTHBAY—BORDEAUX WINES. 


lished many translations from the French, and a “ History 
of the City of New York” (1859). 

Booth'bay, a post-township of Lincoln co., Me., on 
the Atlantic Ocean. Many of the inhabitants are employed 
in coasting and the fisheries. Pop. 3200. 

Boo'thia Fe'lix, a peninsula or island of North Amer¬ 
ica, in the Arctic Ocean, extends from lat. 69° to 75° N. 
It is bounded on the E. by Boothia Gulf. It was discov¬ 
ered by Sir John Ross, and named in honor of Sir Felix 
Booth. 

Boothia Gulf, a part of the Arctic Ocean, separates 
Boothia Felix from Coekburn Island, and is a continuation 
of Prince Regent’s Inlet. It is about 300 miles long. 

Booth’s Creek, a township of Taylor co., West Va. 
Pop. 1134. 

B oo'ty [from the root of the Ger. beuten, to “buy,” to 
“capture”], in international law, personal property cap¬ 
tured on land by a public enemy in time of war. It differs 
from prize, which is captured at sea. (See Prize.) In 
the case of prize the ownership of the projierty does not 
pass to the captor until condemnation by a prize court. 
Booty belongs to the captor after an undisturbed possession 
of twenty-four hours, and the right of post liminium is at an 
end. (See Post Liminium.) In strictness of law, booty be¬ 
longs to the sovereign, and not to the individual soldier who 
captures it. It is quite common for the sovereign power to 
bestow a portion or the whole of it upon its subjects. This 
matter, however, is not governed by international rules, but 
by the municipal law of the captor. 

Bopp (Franz), an eminent German philologist, was 
born at Mentz Sept. 14, 1791. He studied languages in 
Paris and Gottingen, and became in 1821 professor of 
philology at Berlin. He published a “ Glossarium San- 
scritum ” and a “ Critical Grammar of the Sanscrit Tongue.” 
He was an efficient promoter of the study of Sanscrit, and 
is regarded as the founder of the science of comparative 
philology. His most important work is a “ Comparative 
Grammar of the Sanscrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, 
Old Sclavonian, Gothic, and German Languages” (1833), 
which has been translated into English and published at 
Oxford (3 vols., 1845-50). Died Oct. 23, 1867. (See Pre¬ 
face to the English translation of Bopp’s “Comparative 
Grammar,” 1845.) 

Bo' ra, von, or Boh' ren (Katiiarina), a German nun 
who became the wife of Martin Luther, was born in Saxony 
Jan. 29, 1499. She was converted to the Lutheran doc¬ 
trines, and escaped from her convent in 1523. She was 
married to Luther in June, 1525. In his last will he com¬ 
mended her as a good wife. She died Dec. 20, 1552. (See 
Walch, “Geschichte der Catharina von Bora,” 2 vols., 
1752-54; Hoffmann, “Catharina von Bora,” 1845.) 

Bora^'ic (or Bo'ric) A</itl (B 2 O 3 ), a compound of two 
equivalents of boron with three of oxygen. It is obtained 
in white shining scales, which are soluble in water and in 
alcohol, to the flame of which this acid imparts a beautiful 
green color. Boracic acid occurs native in certain lagoons 
of Tuscany, and in a crater in the island of Yulcano (Vol¬ 
cano), north of Sicily. The native boracic acid is of great 
commercial importance in the manufacture of borax. It 
also occurs in the form of borax (hiborate of soda) in many 
waters, especially in certain springs and lakes in Thibet 
and California. 

Bor'age ( Borago ), a genus of herbs of the order Bor- 
aginaceae, have five stamens and a wheel-shaped corolla, the 
mouth of which is closed with five teeth. The common 
borage ( Borago officinalis) is a native of Europe, has blue 
flowers, and rough, hairy leaves and stems. It is muci¬ 
laginous and emollient. It was formerly much cultivated, 
and supposed to possess valuable medicinal virtues and ex¬ 
hilarating qualities. 

Boragina'cene, a natural order of exogenous plants, 
natives of temperate climates. It comprises nearly 600 
species, mostly rough, hairy herbs, with alternate entire 
leaves. The corolla is generally regular and imbricated in 
the bud, with five stamens inserted on the tube of the cor¬ 
olla. It has a single style and a deeply 4-lobed ovary, which 
forms in fruit four seed-like nutlets or achenia. The whole 
plant is mucilaginous and emollient. Among the examples 
of this order are borage, alkanet, and comfrey {Symphytum), 
to which some botanists add the fragrant heliotrope. 

Bo'rax, or Bibo'rate of Soda (sodium-biborate or 
sodic-biborate), a compound of boracic acid and soda 
( 2 NaB 02 -B 203 . 10 H 20 ), is found native as a saline incrusta¬ 
tion on the shores of lakes in Persia, Thibet, and Italy. 
The impure borax collected on these shores is called tincal 
or crude borax, which is also found in Peru, India, Cali¬ 
fornia, Nevada, and other regions. Borax is also prepared 
from boracic acid by solution in boiling water, and the ad¬ 


dition of a boiling solution of carbonate of soda (Na 2 C(> 3 ). 
It is also prepared from borate of lime, a salt largely pro¬ 
cured from Chili, Peru, etc. The common hexagonal crys¬ 
talline borax contains ten equivalents of water, one of 
soda, and one of boracic acid. When it crystallizes in oc¬ 
tahedrons it contains only five atoms of water. Borax is 
a white salt of a sweetish taste, soluble in twice its weight 
of boiling water. It is useful as a flux in promoting the 
fusion of metallic mixtures, and producing fusible silicates 
in assaying and in welding iron. As an agent in experi¬ 
menting with the blowpipe it is valuable for the readiness 
with which it forms colored glasses with various metallic 
oxides. It is also used in medicine, and as a detergent in 
the laundry. 

B orax Lake, a small lake in California, N. of San 
Francisco, the water of which is a strong solution of borax. 
Crystals of borax are also found in large numbers in the 
muddy sediment at the bottom. Many hundreds of tons 
of these have been collected and sent to the San Francisco 
market. 

Borda (Jean Charles), an eminent French mathema¬ 
tician and astronomer, born at Dax May 4,1733. He served 
as an engineer in the army, and became a captain in the 
navy. As a naval officer he fought for the U. S. in 1778-82. 
He wrote several scientific works, contributed much to the 
progress of nautical science, and invented or improved the 
reflecting circle. Aided by Delambre and Mechain, he 
measured an arc of the meridian from Dunkirk to the Bale¬ 
aric Isles. Died Feb. 20, 1799. (See M. Biot, “Notice sur 
Borda” in the “Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences.”) 

Bord a Plouffe, a post-village of Laval co., Quebec 
(Canada), on the Isle Jesus and on the river des Prairies, 
10 miles N. of Montreal, has a very 7 large trade in lumber 
and horses. Pop. about 1200. 

B ordeaux, a city and seaport of France, capital of 
the department of Gironde, is finely situated on a plain 
on the left bank of the river Garonne, 58 miles from its 
mouth and 364 miles by rail S. S. W. of Paris; lat. 44° 
50' N., Ion. 0° 34' W. It has a capacious harbor, and is 
accessible by vessels of 600 tons at all stages of the tide. 
The river, which is here about 650 yards wide, is crossed 
by a noble bridge of seventeen arches. Bordeaux is an 
archbishop’s see. It is connected by 7 several railways with 
Paris, Toulouse, Marseilles, and other towns. It is prob¬ 
ably the most commercial city of France except Marseilles. 
The harbor is large enough to admit 1200 vessels of the 
largest size. Its commerce extends to all parts of the world. 
The newer portions of the city have wide streets and pleas¬ 
ant promenades lined with trees. Among its remarkable 
edifices are the Gothic cathedral, built or commenced about 
1100; the church of Saint Croix, more than 850 years old; 
the town-hall; the Hotel de la Marine; the bridge, which 
cost about $1,300,000 ; and the Great Theatre, which is one 
of the finest in Europe, and was built by Louis XVI. Bor¬ 
deaux contains a mint, a college, a university or Academie 
Universitaire, a normal school, a school of navigation, and 
a public library of 120,000 volumes. Here are extensive 
manufactures of wine, brandy, chemicals, printed calicoes, 
woollen goods, carpets, hats, paper, etc. The chief articles 
of export are wine, brandy, vinegar, dried fruits, turpen¬ 
tine, and glass bottles. Wine of superior quality, called 
Medoc, claret, or Bordeaux wine, is produced in this vicinity. 
The principal merchants of Bordeaux are engaged in the 
wine-trade. The Canal du Midi affords a communication 
with the Mediterranean. Pop. 194,241. 

Burdigala was founded before the Christian era, and was 
the capital of the Bituriges Yivisci. It became the capital 
of Aquitania Secunda in the reign of Hadrian. In 1152 it 
was transferred to the crown of the English kings by the 
marriage of Henry II. with Eleanor of Guienne. The 
famous Black Prince held his court here. It has belonged 
to France since 1451. Among the remains of the ancient 
city is a palace of Gallienus. During the revolution of 
1789 this city was the head-quarters of the Girondists, and 
suffered terribly at the hands of the Terrorists. In conse¬ 
quence of the damage to its commerce by the continental 
system of Napoleon, Bordeaux was one of the first cities 
to declare for the Bourbons. On Dec. 10, 1870, the seat of 
government was transferred to Bordeaux while Paris was 
besieged by the German armies and several members of 
the provisional government were shut up in the metropolis. 
The provinces were then subject to the authority of Gam- 
betta and his colleagues, who, after they had been driven 
from Tours by the approach of the enemy, removed to Bor¬ 
deaux. The National Assembly, elected in Feb., 1871, met 
first in this city, but removed to Versailles in March of 
that year. 

Bordeaux, a township of Abbeville co., S. C. Pop. 
2232. r 

Bordeaux Wines, a general name for several sorts of 















BORDEN—BORLAND. 


French wine produced in the department of Gironde. The 
red wines of Bordeaux are commonly called claret in the 
U. S., to which they are largely exported. The average 
quantity produced annually in the Gironde is about 
48,000,000 gallons. Among the best of these wines are 
the Medoc, which is red, and the Graves, which is white. 
No French wines except champagne are so largely exported. 

Borden (Gail), the inventor of that industrial product 
known as “condensed milk,” was born in Norwich, N. Y., 
in 1801. In 1829 he removed to Texas, where he was first 
a U. S. surveyor, then a journalist, and at last collector of 
the port of Galveston. In 1853 he succeeded in producing 
condensed milk, after arduous and persevering efforts; and 
after securing a patent on his invention he began to intro¬ 
duce it in the market. He died Jan. 11, 1874, at Borden- 
ville, Tex., where he had a large factory for the production 
of concentrated foods. He lived to see his inventions uti¬ 
lized very extensively. 

B orden (Simeon), a civil engineer and mechanician, 
born in Fall River, Mass., Jan. 29, 1798. He was appoint¬ 
ed in 1834 director of the geodetic survey of Mass., for which 
he invented valuable apparatus. He was an engineer in the 
construction of several railroads. Died Oct. 28, 1856. 

B or'deiltown, a city of Burlington co., N. J., on the 
Delaware River and the Camden and Amboy R. R., 30 
miles N. E. of Philadelphia and 6 miles S. E. of Trenton. 
It is the terminus of the Delaware and Raritan Canal. Its 
site is about 60 feet above the river. It has 9 churches, 
2 colleges, 1 bank, 1 weekly paper, a park, water and gas 
works, an opera-house, 2 public halls, 3 building associa¬ 
tions, 3 Masonic bodies, 2 lodges of Odd Fellows, 3 bene¬ 
ficial societies, 2 councils of American Mechanics, and sev¬ 
eral foundries and manufactories. Here is a mansion built 
by Joseph Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain. Pop. of Burling¬ 
ton township, 6041. Ed. op “Register.” 

B ore, called also Ea'gre (perhaps from the sea-jotun 
CEgir, which see). In estuaries into which large rivers 
flow, the struggle between the ascending tidal wave and 
the opposing current of the stream produces the imposing 
phenomenon of a huge wave, which, like a moving wall 
of water, advances with great rapidity and a deep roaring 
noise up the river, often for hundreds of miles, to the limit 
of tide-water. This is called the bore. In the Hoogly 
River, one of the main mouths of the Ganges, the bore 
rushes up the river with great impetuosity. In the Chi¬ 
nese river Teintang it rises to thirty feet in height, and 
travels at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour, sweeping 
everything before it. In the Amazon River, at the time 
of the equinoxes, bores of fifteen feet in height follow each 
other in quick succession, and within the space of 200 miles 
five such mighty waves may be seen travelling simulta¬ 
neously up the river. The Indians, imitating the roaring 
sound of the bore, call it pororoca. Arnold Guyot. 

Bore, the internal cavity of any kind of firearm, which 
is more commonly cylindrical, but often furrowed spirally. 
(See Gun-making, by Capt. R. P. Parrott.) 

Borel'li [Lat. Borellus ], (Giovanni Alfonso), an Ital¬ 
ian physician and astronomer, born at Naples Jan. 28, 1608. 
He is called the founder of the iatro-mathematical school, 
which proposed to apply mathematics to medicine. He re¬ 
sided for many years in Rome, and was patronized by Queen 
Christina of Sweden. His most remarkable work is “ De 
Motu Animalium” (1680). Died in Rome Dec. 31, 1679. 

Boreinan (Arthur Ingraham), born at Waynesburg, 
Pa., July 24, 1823, settled in West Virginia, where he 
practised law. He became the first governor of the new 
State in 1863, and in 1869 was elected to the U. S. Senate. 

Bo 'rer, a name applied to the larvm of many insects 
which feed upon trees and vegetables, in which they eat 
holes. Their ravages are very great. The peach tree borer is 
the larva of vEgeria exitiosa, a lepidopterous insect; and 
species kindred to the last named attack the pear tree, the 
currant bush, and many other useful plants. The locust 
tree borer is the larva of a coleopterous insect, the Clytua 
pictus, which, with other larvm, has seriously diminished 
the supply of this valuable timber tree. The apple tree is 
especially attacked by the grub of the Saperda bivittata. 
Borers are most easily destroyed by a wire or gouge while 
they are in their holes; and though many plans have been 
devised for preventing their ravages, none as yet are very 
successful. 

Borget'to, a town on the island of Sicily, in the prov¬ 
ince of Palermo, 13 miles W. S. W. of Palermo, is finely 
situated on a cliff. Pop. 5977. 

Borghese (Camillo), Prince, was born at Rome July 
19, 1775. He served in the French army in his youth, and 
married in 1803 Pauline, a sister of Napoleon. He was 
in 1806 created duko of Guastalla. He sold the Borghese 
collection of antiquities and artistic treasures to Napoleon 


559 


for 13,000,000 francs. These had been collected by his 
father, Marc Antonio. Died April 10, 1832. 

Borglie'si (Bartolommeo), Count, an Italian anti¬ 
quary and numismatist, born at Savignano June 11, 1781. 
He formed a rich collection of medals and coins, and dis¬ 
tinguished himself by his successful efforts to illustrate the 
military, political, and municipal institutions of ancient 
Rome. His chief work is “Nuovi Frammenti dei Fasti Con- 
solari Capitolini” (2 vols., 1818-20). Died April 10, 1860. 

B or'gia (Cesare), due de Valentinois, an infamous 
Italian cardinal and soldier, was a natural son of Pope 
Alexander VI. He was raised to the rank of cardinal in 
1492, and received from Louis XII. of France the title of 
due de Valentinois in 1498. He married a daughter of the 
king of Navarre in 1499. With the connivance of the 
pope, his father, he waged with success an aggressive war 
against several princes of the Romagna who were feud¬ 
atories of the Roman see. He was guilty of many acts of 
cruelty and treachery, and procured the death of several 
persons by poison. He made himself master of the duchy 
of Urbino, but his prosperity was ruined by the death of 
Pope Alexander VI. in 1503, and the accession of Julius 
II., who was an enemy of Cesare Borgia. The latter was 
arrested and imprisoned in 1504, but he escaped in 1506 
and joined the army of the king of Navarre. He was 
killed in battle Mar. 12 1507. (See Tomasi, “Vita del 
Duca di Valentino,” 1655 ; “ Leben des C. Borgia,” Berlin, 
1782 .) 

B orgia (Lucrezia), an Italian woman renowned for 
beauty, talents, and vices, was a sister of Cesare Borgia, 
noticed above. She was married in 1493 to Giovanni 
Sforza, lord of Pesaro, and in 1501 to Alfonso of Este, a 
son of the duke of Ferrara. She patronized Bembo and 
other literati, who complimented her in their works. She 
was accused by contemporaries of incest and poisoning, but 
several modern writers maintain that the charges against 
her character are greatly exaggerated. Died in 1520. (See 
Gilbert, “ Lucretia Borgia, Duchess of Ferrara,” 2 vols., 
London, 1869.) 

Borgne, a lake or bay in the S. E. part of Louisiana, 
is 12 miles E. of New Orleans. It is 60 miles long, and 25 
miles wide at the broadest part. It communicates with 
the Gulf of Mexico on the E., and is connected with Lake 
Pontchartrain by the Rigolets Pass, which is 10 miles long. 
The lake is surrounded to a great extent by marshes and 
cane-brakes, separated from it by a narrow ridge of shells. 
Steamers plying between New Orleans and Mobile traverse 
this lake. 

B or'go, an Italian word signifying “ town ” or “ castle,” 
occurs as a part of the names of many places in Italy and 
the Tyrol. 

Bor'goo, a kingdom in Central Africa, W. of the Niger, 
S. of Gourma, E. of the Fellatah country, and N. of the 
kingdoms Egga and Yarriba. The banks of the Niger 
are fertile and thickly populated, producing rice, indigo, 
grain, cotton, yams, lemons, bananas, hone}", and game in 
abundance. The sorghum-fields yield five hundred-fold. 
The forests are full of elephants of immense size. The 
population consists of the original inhabitants and Fella- 
tahs and a Mohammedan conquering tribe speaking a lan¬ 
guage cognate with the Yarriba tongues. The government 
is an hereditary monarchy. 

Bo'rie (Adolph E.), born in Philadelphia in 1809, was 
educated at the University of Pennsylvania and in Paris. 
He became a successful merchant of Philadelphia, and in 
1862 was one of the founders of the Union League, and 
was a prominent supporter of the national government 
throughout the late civil war. He was in 1869 for some 
time secretary of the navy under President Grant. 

Boring, for water, see Artesian Wells, by Prof. E. 
II. Hilgard, Ph. D.; Cannon-boring, see Gun-making, by 
Capt. R. P. Parrott; Cylinder-boring, see Machinery. 

Borissov', a town of Russia, on the Berezina, in the 
government of Minsk, 46 miles N. E. of Minsk. Near this 
place the army of Napoleon suffered a great disaster in its 
passage of the Berezina in Nov., 1812. Pop. 5233. 

Borissoglebsk', a town of Russia, in the government 
of Tambov, 100 miles E. S. E. of Tambov. Pop. 12,254. 

Bor'klim, an island in the North Sea, is at the mouth 
of the Ems, and 26 miles N. W. of Emden. It belongs to 
Prussia, is about 6 miles long and 2 miles wide. A light¬ 
house has been erected on it in lat. 53° 36' N., Ion. 7° 
12' E. 

Bor'Iand (Solon), a general in the Confederate army, 
and former U. S. Senator from Arkansas, born in A irginia, 
studied medicine and settled in Arkansas. In the Mexioan 
war he served as major of volunteers, and was taken pris¬ 
oner, Ho was elected to the U, S. Sonato 1849, appointed 
U. S. minister to Central America 1853; and it was during 










BORMIO—BORO BUDDOR. 


560 


liis term that the inhabitants of Greytown committed the 
act which he resented, and for which the town was destroyed 
by Com. Hollins, U. S. N., acting under instructions of his 
government. In April, 1861, and previous to the secession 
of Arkansas, he organized a force and captured Fort Smith, 
was appointed brigadier-general in the Confederate army, 
and died in Texas Jan. 31, 1864. 

B or'mio [Ger. Worms], a town of Italy, in the prov¬ 
ince of Sondrio, is near the Adda, and 32 miles N. E. of 
Sondrio. In its vicinity are the celebrated saline baths 
called Bagni di Bormio, having a temperature of 99° F. 
Pop. 1630. 

II or'na, a town of Saxony, 15 miles S. S. E. of Leipsic. 
It has manufactures of woollen cloths and earthenware. 
Pop. in 1871, 5751. 

Bor'ne (Ludwig), a German satirical writer, born of 
Jewish parents at Frankfort-on-the-Main May 18, 1786, 
studied at Berlin and Heidelberg, adopted the Protestant 
faith in 1818, and edited the liberal “ Waage” and “ Zeit- 
schwingen.” After 1830 he lived in Paris, was correspond¬ 
ent of the “Allgemeine Zeitung,” and edited “Le Balance.” 
His “Briefe aus Paris” and other writings on political 
and aesthetical subjects are eloquent and witty, and display 
a singularly delicate critical sense, but are marked with 
bitterness of political feeling. (“ Sammtliche Werke,” 12 
vols., 1862-63.) Died Feb. 13, 1837. (See biographies of 
Beurjiann, 1841, and Gutzow, 1840, and “ Heine iiber 
Boerne.”) 

B or'nemann (Friedrich Wilhelm Ferdinand), a 
Prussian jurist and statesman, born at Berlin Mar. 28, 1798, 
became minister of justice in 1848. He died Jan. 28, 1864, 
leaving several valuable legal works. 

Bor'neo, called by the natives Poolo-Kalaman- 
tin, an island in the Malay Archipelago, extends from lat. 
7° 1' N. to 4° 10' S., and from Ion. 108° 50' to 119° 2' E. 
Its length is 807 miles, and it is about 700 miles wide. The 
area is about 289,000 square miles. The interior is trav¬ 
ersed by chains of mountains, but has not been much ex¬ 
plored by Europeans. Near the N. extremity of the island 
is a peak called Kinibaloo, which rises 13,680 feet above 
the sea. The maritime parts of the island arc mostly 
marshes or low plains covered Avith dense forests. It is 
probable that a large portion of the interior consists of 
fertile valleys and plains. The outline is nowhere deeply 
indented by inlets. It is thought by many that the form 
of Borneo was formerly similar to that of Celebes, but that 
the bays have been filled up in the course of time, and now 
form those marshy districts on the coast so unhealthy to 
the inhabitants. Borneo is watered by numerous naviga¬ 
ble rivers—viz., the Brunai, the Sarawak, the Pontianak, 
the Ivootai, the Pembuan, the Murong, and others. These 
mostly enter the sea through extensive deltas, and their 
mouths are so obstructed that large vessels cannot enter 
them; but they afford facilities for inland navigation. 
The climate in the low grounds is hot. The rainy season 
begins about October, and continues till April, during which 
period heavy rains fall. In the higher lands of the interior 
the climate is moderate and healthy. The mountains are 
chiefly formed of granite, syenite, limestone, and quartz. 
Among the mineral resources are gold, tin, antimony, zinc, 
diamonds, iron of fine quality, and coal, which latter is 
very abundant, and is excellent and easily mined. The 
principal commercial supply of antimony is at present from 
Borneo. Diamonds are widely disseminated in the soil, at 
a depth of several feet. One diamond found in Borneo 
weighed 367 carats. The vegetation of Borneo is exceed¬ 
ingly luxuriant. Among the forest trees are the teak, the 
ironAvood, the gutta-percha tree, the ebony, the cocoa-palm, 
and various sago trees. The island produces also cinna¬ 
mon, camphor, betel, pepper, ginger, cotton, rice, and 
yams. The forests and jungles are infested Avith tigers, 
bears, leopards, buffaloes, and orang-outangs. The 
elephant also is found here. The population is composed 
chiefly of four races—Malays, Dyaks, Boogis, and Chinese. 
The Malays, Avho mostly occupy the maritime parts of the 
island, are partly Mohammedans and partly pagans. The 
Dyaks, who live farther inland, are the aboriginal inhab¬ 
itants, and are the most numerous of all the races in the 
island. They are divided into many tribes, and subsist 
mostly by hunting, fishing, and piracy. “ They are not 
all,” says Craufurd, “ in an equally abject condition; for 
Avhile some are mere naked hunters, the majority have 
fixed abodes, and have made some progress in the useful 
arts. . . . With respect to religion, they have neither 
priests nor temples, nor do they pray or fast.” The popu¬ 
lation of the Dutch colonies in 1870 amounted to 1,189,353. 
Borneo is divided into many separate states, governed by 
native sultans. Among them are Borneo proper, Ponti¬ 
anak, Sambas, Sarawak, Matan, Simpang, Sooloo, and Ban- 
jermassin. Borneo proper is a level tract which extends 


along the N. W. coast, and is bounded on the S. E. by a 
chain of mountains. A large portion of the island is sub¬ 
ject to the power of the Dutch, whose chief towns and 
centres of authority are Pontianak on the W. coast, and 
Banjermassin on the S. coast. Among the other toAvns arc 
Borneo, Sambas, SaraAvak, and Succadana. 

History .—Borneo Avas discovered in 1518 by the Portu¬ 
guese, who formed a settlement at Banjermassin in 1690. 
The Dutch, Avho first visited the island in 1598, made a 
treaty of commerce with the sultan of Sambas in 1609. 
They erected a fort and a factory at Tatis in 1643, and an¬ 
other at Pontianak in 1778. In 1841, Sir James Brooke, 
an enterprising Englishman, was appointed rajah of Sara- 
Avak by the sultan of Borneo. He took strenuous mea¬ 
sures for the suppression of piracy and the promotion of 
commerce. The prosperity of SaraAvak increased under 
his rule, and the British influence has become predominant 
on the Avestern coast of Borneo. The exports of Sarawak 
to Singapore amounted in 1858 to £300,000, and in 1864 
(according to C. Brooke), £1,155,201. (See Schavaner, 
“ Borneo,” 2 vols., 1853-54; Veth, “Borneo’s Westerafd- 
celing,” 2 vols., 1854-56; C. Brooke, “Ten Years in 
SaraAvak,” 2 vols., 1866.) 

Revised by A. J. Schem. 

B orneo, or Brunai, a seaport-town on the N. W. 
coast of Borneo, and on the river Brunai, about 10 miles 
from its mouth. It is the capital of the sultan of Borneo 
proper, and has considerable trade. The houses are built 
on posts, and canals pass through all the streets. Pop. 
about 25,000. 

Born'holm, an island of Denmark, in the Baltic Sea, 
90 miles E. of Zealand, and 25 miles from the southern ex¬ 
tremity of Sweden. It is 24 miles long by 18 miles Avide, 
and has an area of 225 square miles. Pop. in 1870, 31,894. 
The surface is mountainous, and the coasts rocky and dan¬ 
gerous to navigators. A lighthouse has been erected on 
Cape Hammeren, the most northern point of the island, in 
lat. 55° 18' N., Ion. 14° 47' E. The soil in some parts is 
fertile. Valuable porcelain clay and rock-crystals are 
found here. 

Bornoo', Bornu, or Bornou [native Kctnowra], a 
state of Central Africa, in the Soodan, is bounded on the N. 
by the Sahara Desert, on the E. by Lake Tchad, on the S. 
by Mandara (or Fumbina), and on the W. by Iloussa. 
The surface is mostly level; the soil is fertile, producing 
maize, millet, rice, cotton, indigo, pulse, etc. Cattle, horses, 
and sheep form a large part of the riches of the Bornooese. 
The climate is excessively hot, the thermometer often rising 
to 105° F. in the shade. The rainy season lasts from Oc¬ 
tober to April. The principal rivers of Bornoo are the 
Shary and Yeou, which flow into Lake Tchad. A large 
portion of the country is inundated in the rainy season. 
Lions, panthers, and other beasts infest the forests, which 
occur only in the vicinity of the rivers. Minerals are said 
to be rare in Bornoo. The natives manufacture cotton 
cloth and coats-of-mail, which they use in warfare. The 
chief exports Avere until lately slaves and gold-dust. The 
dominant race, called Shouas, are of Arab descent and are 
bigoted Mohammedans. 

History .—Bornoo was formerly a part of the kingdom of 
Kanem, which, founded in the ninth century, rose to its 
highest point of power in the tAvelfth. At the end of the 
fifteenth century, King Ali-Dunamani founded Bornoo. 
It attained its greatest poAver under Edriss Alaoma (1571- 
1603), who conquered all the surrounding tribes, and even 
extended his territory to the shores of the Atlantic. Under 
his peaceful and extravagant successors the poAver of Bor¬ 
noo again declined, until in 1808 it could no longer resist 
the continued attacks of the Fellatah, who took and de¬ 
stroyed the old capital, Birni. The king then established 
himself at Kuka. An Arab from Fezzan, however, soon 
defeated the Fellatah at Ngornu. His son Omar removed 
the old dynasty, and ascended the throne himself in 1835. 
Although not as strong and determined against his neigh¬ 
bors as his father, his rule has been extremely beneficial 
for the country, as he has encouraged trade and industry. 
He also assisted, as much as was in his poAver, the Euro¬ 
pean travellers Avho visited his country, among them Den¬ 
ham, Clapperton, Beurmann, and Rohlfs, the latter of 
whom says in his account, “No European prince could 
have assisted a traveller more than Omar, the negro prince 
of Soudan, assisted me, the white Christian.” Chief toAvn 
Kuka. Pop. about 5,000,000. A. J. Schem. * 

Bo'ro Bud'dor, orBo'roBo'do, an ancient Booddh- 
istic temple of Java, on the river Probo, 25 miles N. W. of 
Yugyakarta, believed to be the most elaborate specimen of 
Booddhist architecture now existing, and to have been 
built in 1350 A. D. It is a square pyramid, with nine ter¬ 
races or stories (116 feet high, in all), and 400 feet square at 
the base, each terrace covered with cells or small houses 
















BORODINO—BOSCA WEN. 561 


for monastics, and the whole covered with profuse carv¬ 
ings. 

Borodi/no, a village of Russia, in the government of 
Moscow, and on the Kolocza River, 70 miles W. S. W. of 
Moscow. It is celebrated as the scene of a great battle 
between the army of Napoleon (125,000 strong) and the 
Russian army, of about 130,000 men, commanded by Gen. 
Kutusof, Sept. 7, 1812. The French remained masters of 
the field and claimed the victory, but they lost nearly 
30,000 men. The loss of the Russians was still greater; 
some say 50,000 killed and wounded. The French took 
Moscow a few days after this battle, which they call the 
battle of the Moskwa; this is the name of a river near the 
battle-field. 

B o'ron [Lat. boriwni), (symbol B; equivalent 11; 
specific gravity about 2), a non-metallic element which Sir 
Humphry Davy discovered about 1808 by exposing boracic 
acid to the action of a galvanic battery. Combined with 
oxygen, it forms boracic acid, and it occurs in nature only 
in combination with oxygen, generally in the form of that 
acid or of Boiiax (which see). Boron is obtained in the 
form of an olive-brown powder, which is infusible, and has 
neither taste nor smell. It is not used in the arts in a 
separate state. It may also be obtained in a graphitoidal 
form, in six-sided crystals. Crystallized boron is one of 
the most unalterable and indestructible of all simple sub¬ 
stances. Wohler and Deville have obtained boron by 
heating in a crucible a mixture of pure dry boracic acid 
with the metal aluminium, when the latter unites with the 
oxygen, leaving the boron as minute quadratic octahedral 
crystals, called boron diamonds. These rival the real 
diamond in lustre and refractive power, and are scarcely 
inferior to it in hardness. They scratch glass and the cor¬ 
undum, and resemble diamonds so much that they can 
scarcely be distinguished by external characters. No acids, 
pure or mixed, have any effect upon the boron diamond, nor 
can it be oxidized even when raised to a high temperature. 

Borough, bur'ruh, called in Scotland Burgh (pron. 
bun’ll, almost bur'ruh), in Great Britain and some of the 
U. S. is a name applied to certain corporate municipali¬ 
ties. Places in England sending burgesses to Parliament 
are called parliamentary boroughs. 

B orough, a township of Beaver co., Pa. Pop. 379. 

Borough English is a custom that prevails in some 
ancient boroughs in England, according to which the 
youngest son inherits the property within the borough in 
preference to his elder brothers. A posthumous son is en¬ 
titled to this privilege, and dispossesses his elder brother. 

Borovit'chi, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Novgorod, on the river Msta, 92 miles E. S. E. of Novgorod. 
It has an active trade in salt, coal, etc. Pop. 9108. 

Borovsk', a town of Russia, in the government of 
Kalooga, 45 miles S. W. of Moscow. Pop. 8826. 

Borrade, a township of Richardson co., Neb. P. 886. 

Borrome'an I'slands, a group of four small islands 
of Northern Italy, in Lago Maggiore. They derive their 
name from the family of Borromeo. In 1671, Count Bor- 
romco covered them with soil, and converted them from 
barren rocks into gardens. Their beauty is such that they 
are sometimes called the “ Enchanted Islands.” The 
largest of them is named Isola Madrc, and is covered with 
orange trees and exotic plants. The most celebrated of 
the group is the Isola Bella, occupied by a beautiful palace 
of the Borromeo family, and a garden which rises in ten 
terraces, presenting the form of a truncated pyramid. 
Many tropical flowers are cultivated here. 

Borrome'o [Lat. Borrom&us], (Carlo), often called 
Saint Charles Borromeo, an illustrious Italian car¬ 
dinal, born at Arona, on Lago Maggiore, Oct. 2, 1538, was 
a nephew of Pope Pius IV. He inherited an ample fortune, 
and was appointed a cardinal and archbishop of Milan in 
1560. As legate of the pope he governed Bologna and 
Ancona with wisdom and moderation. Surrounded as he 
was with luxury and temptations, he was virtuous, studious, 
and a patron of literary men. He endeavored to reform 
the morals of the clergy and monks, and distinguished 
himself by acts of charity during the prevalence of famine 
and pestilence (1576). He wrote several religious works 
(5 vols. fob, Milan, 1747). Died Nov. 3, 1584. He was 
canonized in 1610. (See Possevino, “ Vita di Carlo Bor¬ 
romeo,” 1591; Godeau, “ Vie de Saint Charles Borrom6e,” 
1748; Touron, “Vie de Saint Charles Borrom6e,” 3 vols., 
1761; Alban Butler, “Vita di S. C. Borromeo,” 1835; 
Alexandre Martin, “Ilistoirc de la Vie de S. C. Borro- 
mee,” 1847.) 

Bor'row (George), an English author, born at Norwich 
in Feb., 1803. He became master of several modern lan¬ 
guages, for learning which he had remarkable talents. In 
36 


his youth he associated with the gypsies. As an agent of 
the British and Foreign Bible Society he travelled through 
many countries of Europe. He published in 1841 “ Tho 
Zincali, or an Account of the Gypsies in Spain,” and in 
1843 “The Bible in Spain, or Journeys, Adventures, and 
Imprisonment of an Englishman in an attempt to Circulate 
the Scriptures in the Peninsula,” which is a graphic and 
interesting work. His next work, “ Lavengro, the Scholar, 
the Gypsy, and the Priest” (3 vols., 1851), is regarded as 
an autobiography. He has also written “ Rommany Rye” 
(1857), “Wild Wales” (1862), and many other works. 

B or'rower, one to whom a chattel is loaned without 
compensation, which is to be returned in a specified time or 
on demand. (See Bailment.) The word is often used in a 
popular sense to denote a hirer of money, who pays'a com¬ 
pensation for its use. The difference between these two 
transactions should be carefully noted. In the first signi¬ 
fication the borrower agrees to return the specific thing 
loaned. He is only liable for negligence or the absence of 
due care. In the second case (loan of money) there is 
only an agreement to return an equivalent sum. The re¬ 
lation of debtor and creditor is created, and a failure to 
pay causes the debt to bear interest. 

Bor'rowstommess %°r Boness', a seaport-town of 
Scotland, in Linlithgowshire, on a low peninsula in the 
Frith of Forth, 17 miles W. N. W. of Edinburgh. It has 
a safe harbor, and manufactures of soap, salt, malt, vitriol, 
and earthenware. Here are coal-mines which extend under 
the bed of the Forth. Limestone and ironstone are found 
in the parish, which is traversed by the Roman wall of 
Antoninus. 

Borsa, a town of Hungary, in the county of Marmaros, 
50 miles S. E. of Szigeth. Pop. in 1869, 5053. 

Borsip'pa [Gr. Bo pa Lima], an ancient city, which ac¬ 
cording to Strabo was in Babylonia, but there has been 
much doubt as to its exact situation. Stephanus calls it a 
city of the Chaldaeans. It was probably situated near 
Babylon. Strabo states that it was sacred to Apollo and 
Diana. Some modern writers believe that Borsippa is rep¬ 
resented by the remarkable mound called Birs-Nimrood, 
about 5 miles S. W. of Ilillah, the site of Babylon proper. 
(See Babylon and Babel.) 

B or'sod, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. 
by the counties of Torna and Goinbr, on the E. by Aba- 
Ujvar and Szabolcs, and on the S. and W. by Heves. Area, 
1370 square miles. The county consists chiefly of vine¬ 
yards and wooded hills, except in the S. E., which is a 
plain traversed by several small rivers, while the Theiss 
forms the eastern boundary. The chief products are fruit, 
hemp, tobacco, and wine, that of Miskolcz being the best 
in Hungary. Copper, iron, and coal are found in the 
mountains. Chief town, Miskolcz. Pop. in 1869, 195,037. 

Bory tie Saint-Vincent (Jean Baptiste George 
Marie), Baron, an eminent French naturalist and traveller, 
born at Agen in 1780. He explored the island of Mauritius 
about 1800, and published a “Voyage among the African 
Islands” (3 vols., 1804). He afterwards served as a cap¬ 
tain in the army at Austerlitz and other battles, and be¬ 
came an exile in 1815. With the aid of Van Mons he edited 
at Brussels the “Annales des Sciences Physiques,” 8 vols. 
He had the chief command of a scientific expedition which 
the French government sent to Algeria in 1839. Died 
Dec. 22, 1846. (See Hericart de Thury, “Notice sur le 
Baron Bory de Saint-Vincent,” 1848.) 

Bos (gen. bovis), the Latin for an “ox” or “cow,” is 
the systematic name for the genus of ruminant animals 
which comprises the ox, buffalo, etc. (See Bovine and Ox.) 

Bos, Bosch, or Bosco (Hierom), a Dutch painter 
and engraver, born at Bois-le-Duc about 1470. Among his 
favorite subjects were spectres, demons, and incantations. 
He also painted some scriptural pieces. His picture of the 
“ Crucifixion ” is in the Escurial, in Spain. Died about 1530, 

Bo'sa, a seaport-town of the island of Sardinia, is on 
the W. coast, at the mouth of the Termo, in the province 
of Cagliari, 30 miles S. of Sassari. Its harbor is safe, but 
admits only small vessels. It is the seat of a bishop, and 
has a cathedral, an old castle, and several churches. Wine, 
oil, and grain are exported. Pop. 6329. 

Bosca'wen, a post-township of Merrimack co., N. II., 
contains the village of Boscawen, which is on the Merrimack 
and on the Northern R. R., 10 miles N. N. Vi . of Concord. 
It has manufactures of furniture, lumber, leather, shoes, 
and brick. Pop. 1637. 

Boscawen (Edward), an English admiral, a son of 
Viscount Falmouth, was born Aug. 19, 1711. lie served 
with distinction under Anson at Cape I inisterre, May, a • <, 
and commanded an expedition to the East Indies in t . 
He became a vice-admiral of the blue in l<a(>, was sent 












562 


BOSCH-BOC—BOSSI. 


to North America, and gained several victories over the 
French in 1758. In Aug., 1759, he defeated the French 
fleet in the Bay of Lagos. He received for this service an 
annual pension of £3000. Died Jan. 10, 1701. (See 
Campbell, “Lives of the British Admirals.”) 

Bosch-boc [Dutch for “ bush-buck”], the Tragelaphus 
sylvaticus, a South African antelope, which is almost always 
found in thick underbrush which is not easily penetrated by 
man. When surprised in the open country it is easily 
caught, and is prized for its fine venison. It is about four 
or five feet long, and has a voice like the barking of a dog. 
Several other African antelopes have this name. 

Bosch-vark [Dutch for “bush-pig”], a wild hog of 



Bosch-Vark, or Guinea Hog. 

Southern and Western Africa, in size and in habits much 
resembling the common hog. It has long pointed ears, a 
long tail, and is of a dull red color, with white marks. It 
goes in herds, and when at bay the stroke of the boar’s 
tusks is much dreaded. 

Bos'cobel, a post-village and township of Grant co., 
W is. The village is on the Wisconsin River and on the 
Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 70 miles W. of Madison. 
It has a national bank and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 
1509; of township, 1650. 

Bos'covich (Ruggiero Giuseppe), F. R. S., an astrono¬ 
mer and natural philosopher, born at Ragusa, in Dalmatia, 
May 18, 1701. He entered the order of Jesuits in 1725, 
and became professor of mathematics and philosophy in the 
Roman College in 1740. He was one of the first on the 
Continent who adopted the Newtonian philosophy. His 
Latin poem “ On the Eclipses of the Sun and Moon ” (1764) 
was much admired. He wrote various scientific works, 
among which we notice “ Philosophic Naturalis Theoria” 
(1758) and “Opera Pertinentia ad Opticam et Astrono- 
miam” (5 vols., 1785). The latter is a collection of treatises 
on optics and astronomy. He died at Milan Feb. 12, 1787. 
(See Fabroni, “Vitse Italorum doctrina excellentium;” 
Ricca, “ Elogio storico dell’ Abate R. G. Boscovich,” 1789.) 

B o'shart, a township of Marshall co., Ala. Pop. 464. 

B o'sio (Francois Joseph), Baron, an eminent sculp¬ 
tor, born at Monaco Mar. 19, 1767. He worked in Paris, 
and was patronized by Napoleon I., for whom he executed 
busts of Josephine and her daughter Hortense; also the 
bas-reliefs of the column of the Place Vendome. Among 
his masterpieces are the “Hyacinth” in the Luxembourg, 
“Cupid Darting Arrows,” and the “Nymph Salmacis.” 
His works are remarkable for grace and harmony. He was 
a member of the French Institute. Died July 29, 1845. 

B os'na-Serai', or Sarajevo (anc. Tiberiopolis), a 
town of European Turkey, capital of the province of Bosnia, 
is beautifully situated on the Migliazza, 115 miles S. W. of 
Belgrade. It is an important centre of commerce, and is 
the depot of the caravan trade between Salonica and 
Yanina. It is adorned with 150 mosques and churches, 
the domes, minarets, and spires of which give it an Ori¬ 
ental aspect. Here is a palace built by Mahomet II. The 
town is defended by a citadel, and has manufactures of 
cutle^, jewelry, woollen goods, and leather. Pop. about 
45,000. 

B os'nia, a province forming the N. W. extremity of 
Turkey in Europe, is bounded on the.N. by the river Save, 
on the E. by the Drin, on the S» by Albania, and on the W. 


by Austria. Area, 26,874 square miles. The surface is for 
the most part mountainous, and the Dinaric Alps extend 
along the western border. Some peaks of this range rise 
about 7000 feet above the level of the sea. The largest 
rivers, besides the Save, are the Bosna, the Yerbas, the 
Narenta, and the Drin (or Drina). The mountain-slopes 
are covered with forests of oak, beech, chestnut, and other 
trees. The soil of the plains and valleys is fertile, and pro¬ 
duces good crops of maize, wheat, hemp, and various fruits. 
Bosnia is rich in coal, iron, lead, and other metals, but 
the mines are not worked to a great extent. This prov¬ 
ince has few manufactures except firearms, sabres, and 
knives. The population is a mixture of Bosnians, Croats, 
Morlaks, Turks, Illyrians, Jews, gypsies, etc., the 
majority being of the Slavic race. The Bosnians, 
who are the most numerous, are partly Moham¬ 
medans and partly members of the Greek’ and Ro¬ 
man Catholic churches. They are brave, honest, 
and industrious, but cruel and rapacious. The 
Morlaks live mostly in the Herzegovina, and are 
Christians. In ancient times this j^rovince was 
part of Pannonia. It was annexed to the Ottoman 
empire by conquest in 1522. Capital, Bosna-Serai. 
Pop. in 1867, 1,100,000. 

B os'phorus, or Bos'porus [Gr. Boo-iropo?, 

e. the “ox-passage,” because cattle could swim 
it], the ancient name of the strait which connects 
the Black Sea (Pontus Euxinus) with the Sea of 
M&rmora (Propontis), and forms part of the bound¬ 
ary between Europe and Asia. It is about 16 miles 
long, and varies in width from a half mile to two 
miles. The Bosphorus is deep, and flows between 
high shores and cliffs, which present much pic¬ 
turesque scenery, the beauty of which is enhanced 
by many ancient ruins. Constantinople stands at 
the S. W. end of the Bosphorus, which is sometimes 
called the Strait of Constantinople. It was also 
called the Thracian Bosphorus, to distinguish it 
from the Cimmerian Bosphorus, the modern name 
of which is the Strait of Yenikale. 

B os'phorus, Cimme'rian [Gr. Boorrropo? Ktju- 
pe'pio?], the ancient name of the Strait of Yenikale (or 
Strait of Kaffa), which connects the Black Sea with the 
Sea of Azof (Palus Maeotis). The width of the narrowest 
part is about miles. On the W. side of it was a Mile¬ 
sian colony and the city of Panticapseum, which was the 
capital of a kingdom founded by the Archaeanactidm in 480 
B. C. This kingdom endured several centuries under vari¬ 
ous dynasties, whose dominions were on both sides of the 
strait. 

Bosque, a county in N. Central Texas. Area, 905 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Brazos 
River, and intersected by the Bosque River. The surface 
is undulating, and partly covered with forests; the soil is 
based on limestone, and is fertile. Cotton and corn are the 
chief crops. Wool is also raised. Capital, Meridian. Pop. 
4981. 

Bosque River, Texas, rises in Erath co., flows south¬ 
eastward through Bosque co., and enters the Brazos at or 
near Waco. Its length is estimated at 100 miles. 

Bosquet (Pierre Francis Joseph), a French general, 
born at Pau Nov. 8, 1810. He served in many campaigns 
in Algeria, became a general of brigade in 1848, and a 
general of division in 1853. In the Crimean war he com¬ 
manded a division at Alma, and rendered important ser¬ 
vices at Inkermann 1854, for which he received the thanks 
of the British Parliament. He was disabled by a wound 
at the siege of Sebastopol, Sept., 1855, and became a sen¬ 
ator and marshal of France in 1856. Died Feb. 5, 1861. 

Bo ss [Fr. bosse], a stud or knob; a protuberant orna¬ 
ment of silver, ivory, or other material used on harness, 
shields, etc.; a projecting ornament at the intersection of 
the ribs of ceilings or vaulted roofs. 

Boss, in mediaeval architecture, was a term applied to a 
piece of stone, usually carved in a fanciful manner, which 
covers the intersection of a series of arches. It is com¬ 
monly finished with a flower or a human masque, and is 
one of the most characteristic specimens of mediaeval deco¬ 
ration. 

Bossage, a French word used in architecture, denotes 
a stone in a building which is left projecting and rough, 
to be finally wrought into a sculptural decoration; also rustic 
work, consisting of stones which advance beyond the nave 
or level of the building. 

B ossi (Luigi), an Italian antiquary and historian, born 
at Milan Feb. 28, 1785. He was appointed prefect of the 
archives of the kingdom of Italy by Napoleon. Among 
his numerous works are a “History of Italy” (19 vols., 
1819-23) and an “ Introduction to the Study of the Arts of 




















BOSSIER—BOSTON. 


563 


Design.” Died April 10, 1835. (See G. B. Carta, “ Cenni 
biografici intorno al Cavaliere L. Bossi,” 1835.) 

Bossier, a parish of Louisiana, bordering on Arkan¬ 
sas. Area, 1000 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by 
Bayou Dauchite, and on the W. by the Bed River. Lake 
Bistineau forms the S. E. boundary of this parish, which 
also contains Lake Bodeau. Cotton, corn, and wool are 
raised. Capital, Bellevue. Pop. 12,675. 

Bossuet (Jacques Benigne), D. D., a celebrated French 
pulpit orator and theologian, born at Dijon Sept. 27, 1627. 
lie entered in 1612 the College of Navarre in Paris, where 
he studied Greek, Latin, philosophy, and theology. In 
1652 he was ordained a priest, received the degree of doctor, 
and became canon of Metz. Having become renowned as 
a pulpit orator, he was appointed to preach the Advent 
sermons' before the king and court in 1661. In the ensuing 
years he preached in many churches of Paris, and con¬ 
verted Marshal Turenne to the Catholic communion. He 
was appointed bishop of Condom in 1669, and preceptor 
to the dauphin in 1670. He defended his Church against 
the Protestants in an eloquent work entitled ‘‘ Exposition 
of the Doctrine of the Catholic Church on Subjects of Con¬ 
troversy ” (1671). In 1671 he was admitted into the French 
Academy. For the instruction of the dauphin he wrote a 
“Discourse on Universal History” (1681). He became 
bishop of Meaux in 1681, and was the author of four arti¬ 
cles which were adopted by an assembly of French clergy 
in 1682, and which secured the liberties of the Gallican 
Church against papal aggression. His capital polemical 
work against the Protestants is his “History of the Varia¬ 
tions/^ the Protestant Churches ” (“ Ilistoire des Variations 
des Eglises Protestantes?” 2 vols., 1688). He was involved 
in a controversy with Fenelon, whom he censured for his 
defence of Madame Guyon and her quietism. He was the 
chief French champion of the Catholic Church in that age. 
He died April 12, 1704. Among his most admired com¬ 
positions are funeral orations on the prince of Conde (1687), 
on the duchess of Orleans (1670), and other eminent per¬ 
sons. A good edition of his complete works was published 
at Paris in 59 vols., 1825. (See D’Alembert, “ Elogo de 
Bossuet ; ” M. de Bausset, “ Histoire de Bossuet,” 4 vols., 
1814.) 

Bossut (Charles), a French geometer, born near Lyons 
Aug. 11, 1730, was a friend of Fontenelle. He was admitted 
into the Academy of Sciences in 1768. Among his works 
are a “ Treatise on Mechanics and Dynamics” (1763), a 
“Complete Course of Mathematics” (7 vols., 1795-1801), 
and an “ Essay on the General History of Mathematics ” 
(2 vols., 1802). He published an edition of Pascal’s works. 
Died Jan. 14, 1814. (See Delambre, “ Eloge de Bossut.”) 

Boston', Al (t. e. the “garden”), a town of Asiatic 
Turkey, pashalic of Marash, is in a plain and on the river 
Sihun, near the northern base of Mount Tarsus, 32 miles 
N. N. E. of Marash. It has several mosques, and a trade 
in wheat. Pop. about 8000. Here the Egyptian sultan 
Bibars defeated the united Turks and Mongolians in a 
great battle on April 16, 1277. 

Bos'tick’s, a township of Pickens co., Ala. Pop. 479. 

Bos'ton, an ancient borough and seaport of England, 
in Lincolnshire, is on both sides of the river Witham. It 
is on the Great Northern Railway, 107 miles by rail N. of 
London. Vessels of 300 tons can ascend the river to this 
place, which is supposed to be identical with Icanhoe, 
where Saint Botolph founded an abbey in 654 A. D. About 
1200, Boston was one of the chief seaports of England. 
Here is the parish church of St. Botolph, built in 1309, 
which is 245 feet long, and has a tower 290 feet high, sur¬ 
mounted by a lantern which is visible nearly forty miles at 
sea. Boston has manufactures of canvas, iron, brass, 
ropes, hats, leather, etc. Pop. 15,576. 

Boston, an important commercial city, the capital of 
Massachusetts, and the most populous city of New England, 
is finely situated on the W. side of Massachusetts Bay, at 
the mouth of Charles River; lat. 42° 21’ 2<.6“ N., Ion. /1° 
3' 30“ W. It is 232 miles by railroad N. E. of New York, 
200 miles E. by S. of Albany, and 44 miles N. N. E. of 
Providence. It is the seat of justice of Suffolk county. 
The site of Boston proper, formerly a small peninsula, the 
surface of which was uneven, and the highest point about 
138 feet above the level of the sea, now in 1874 contains 
about 19,150 acres, a large portion of the territory having 
been obtained recently by annexation. 1 he former isthmus, 
known as The Neck, has recently been greatly changed, 
large areas having been filled up on both sides, and cov¬ 
ered with buildings. The city includes, besides Boston 
proper, South Boston and East Boston (which latter occu¬ 
pies an island nearly 2 miles long, and is ahout 600 yards 
from Boston proper), Roxbury (annexed to Boston in 1868), 
Dorchester (annexed in 1870), and Charlestown, West Rox¬ 


bury, and Brighton (annexed in 1874); and is about thir¬ 
teen miles in length, and eight or more in width. It has 
about 360 miles of streets, a large part of which arc paved 
or macadamized. Several bridges across Charles River con¬ 
nect the city with large suburbs named Chelsea, Everett, 
East Cambridge, and Cambridgeport. The Warren and the 
Charles River bridges, leading northward to Charlestown, 
are respectively 1390 and 1503 feet long; the bridges to 
Cambridgeport, East Cambridge, Chelsea, and Everett are 
much longer. The different railroads which converge to 
this city have other bridges constructed expressly for their 
accommodation. Washington and Tremont streets are much 
frequented thoroughfares. The city has one fine park, called 
Boston Common, which comprises nearly fifty acres, and ad¬ 
joining it there is a large Public Garden, in which is*a fine 
equestrian statue of Washington, executed by Ball; also a 
statue of Everett, by Story, and other works of the fine arts. 

Boston has a spacious and excellent harbor, sheltered 
from the sea by two peninsulas and numerous small islands, 
and defended by Forts Warren, Winthrop, and Independ¬ 
ence. The area of the harbor included between Point 
Shirley and Point Allerton, which are 4 miles apart, is es¬ 
timated at 75 square miles, about half of which affords 
good anchorage-ground for the largest ships. The wharves 
and docks are constructed on a scale of uncommon magni¬ 
tude. Long Wharf extends into the harbor about 1800 feet, 
and is lined with spacious warehouses. 

Public Buildings, etc .—The State-house occupies a com-, 
manding site on Beacon Hill, fronting Boston Common. 
The view obtained from its cupola is said to be unsurpassed 
by anything in the U. S., comprising all parts of the city and 
the harbor, with a multitude of beautiful islands. Faneuil 
IItill, called the “ Cradle of Liberty,” derives interest from 
its historical associations, and has long been used as a place 
for public meetings. It was presented to the citizens of 
Boston by Peter Faneuil in 1742, and is 110 feet long and 
80 wide. The custom-house is a granite edifice surmounted 
by a dome, with a foundation formed by 3000 piles. It 
cost $1,000,000 or more. A new city-hall, built of granite, 



The City Iiall. 


was completed about 1866. Among the other public edi¬ 
fices are the Merchants’ Exchange, which is 250 feet long, 
and has a front of Quincy granite, with four pilasters, each 
a single stone forty-five feet high; the Masonic Temple, 
Massachusetts Horticultural Hall, Quincy Market, City 
Hospital, Massachusetts General Hospital, the Public Li¬ 
brary, Odd Fellows’ Hall, court-house, United States court¬ 
house, post-office; Old State-house, jail, and those of the 
reformatory institutions, the State prison at Charlestown, 
and the Music Hall, one of the finest concert halls in the 
U. S. This hall is furnished with an organ which has 
nearly 6000 pipes, and cost $60,000. Among the best 
hotels of Boston are the Tremont House, the Revere 
House on Bowdoin Square, the Parker House, the Amer¬ 
ican House, St. James, the Commonwealth, the Wavcrley 
House, and Young’s Hotel. The Bunker Hill Monument 
is now within the city limits. The principal railroads 
that terminate here are the Boston and Albany, the Boston 
and Maine, the Eastern It. R., the Old Colony and Newport 


i 


! 



















































































The State Capitol. 


largest in the Union. The original cost of it was $363,633. 
It contains about 275,000 volumes, and has branches 
in most of the city districts. The Massachusetts Insti¬ 
tute of Technology, a school of industrial science, sit¬ 
uated near the Public Garden, is a very flourishing in¬ 
stitution, and one of the best of its class in the U. S. It 
has seven courses of study, each of four years—to wit, me¬ 
chanical engineering, civil and topographical engineering, 
geology and mining engineering, building and architecture, 
chemistry, science and literature, and natural history. There 
is also a free course of instruction in practical design and 
working draughts for both sexes. The institute is crowded 
with pupils, and it is proposed to erect additional buildings. 
Among the other important literary and scientific institu¬ 
tions are the Massachusetts Historical Society, the Massa¬ 
chusetts Horticultural Society, the Medical College, con¬ 
nected with Harvard College, and the Lowell Institute, 
founded by John Lowell, who bequeathed a legacy of 
$250,000 to maintain free lectures on chemistry, physics, 
etc.; the Boston College (Roman Catholic) and the Boston 


University (Methodist Episcopal), connected with which is 
a homoeopathic medical college. 

Boston has a well-organized system of graded public 
schools, consisting of primary, grammar, and high schools. 
The head-masters of the high schools receive a salary of 
$4000 per annum, and the masters of the grammar schools 
receive $3200. The number of the public schools since the 
annexation of the neighboring municipalities amounts to 
about 464. The principal daily papers issued here are the 
“Daily Advertiser,” the “Boston Post,” the “ Boston Trav¬ 
eller,” the “Herald,” the “Boston Journal,” the “'Boston 
News,” the “Boston Transcript,” and tho “Boston Globe.” 
Among tho benevolent institutions are the Massachusetts 
General Hospital, which is built of granite, and is liberally 
endowed; tho McLean Asylum for the Insane, which is at 
Somerville, two miles N. W. of Boston ; the Perkins In¬ 
stitution and Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind; Homo 
for Aged Men, Homo for Aged and Indigent Women, and 
the City Hospital, completed in 1864 at a cost of about 
$400,000; a homoeopathic hospital, a woman’s hospital, a 


564 BOSTON. 


R. R., the Boston and Providence R. R., the Fitchburg R. R., 
tho Boston Lowell and Nashua R. R., and the Boston Hart¬ 
ford and Erie. The navy-yard is situated in Charlestown 
district; it was established in 1798, and is one of the most 
extensive in the U. S. Among tho scenes of historic in¬ 
terest in Boston may be mentioned Breed’s and Bunker’s 
Hills; Fancuil Hall; Dorchester Heights, an important 
point in the siege of Boston by the provincial troops dur¬ 
ing the early part of the Revolution; Fort Independence, 
on Castle Island, long known as “ Castle William,” and 
once the principal seaward defence of the town, though at 
present Fort Warren, on George’s Island, and other defen¬ 
sive works are of much more importance. 

The manufactures of Boston are varied and important, 
including furniture, machinery of all kinds, shipbuilding, 
oil and sugar refining, leather-dressing, the making of 
clothing, jewelry, chemicals, boots and shoes, iron and 
brass castings, etc. It is an important centre of the boot 
and shoe and leather trade, of the wool business, and of 


the sale of domestic and foreign dry goods. It does a 
heavy business in exporting grain, flour, ice, and pro¬ 
visions. Its ancient India and China trade, destroyed by 
the civil war, has been partly restored. 

Churches , Institutions, etc .—This city contains 171 or 
more churches, of which 29 are Unitarian and 30 Orthodox 
Congregational, 26 Methodist, 27 Baptist, 20 Episcopal, 
4 Jewish, 6 Presbyterian, 22 Roman Catholic, and 6 Uni- 
versalist. Boston is distinguished among American cities 
for the number and excellence of its literary and sci¬ 
entific institutions. The Boston Athenmum, on Beacon 
street, is richly endowed, and occupies a building that cost 
$136,000, besides the cost of the ground, which was $55,000. 
It has a library of about 100,000 volumes, with a gallery of 
paintings and another of sculpture. The American Academy 
of Arts and Sciences, founded here in 1780, has a good 
library. The Boston Public Library, founded in 1852, 
and opened in its present building in 1858, fronts on Bos¬ 
ton Common, is free to every citizen, and is one of the 


















































































































































































































































































































BOSTON—BOSWELLIA. 565 


consumptives’ home (homoeopathic), a farm school on 
Thompson’s Island, and numerous other charities. 

Commerce, Banks, etc .—In foreign commerce Boston is 
considered as the second city of the U. S. Its enterprise 
in this department extends to almost every nation on the 
globe, and its trade is steadily increasing. The value of 
the foreign imports received here in 1871 was stated to be 
$62,000,000. The value of exports, which in 1870 was only 
$12,000,000, amounted in 1871 to $19,000,000. The whole 
number of arrivals in 1871, including coasting vessels, was 
about 10,000. Among the chief articles of export are fish 
and ice. The quantity of ice exported in 1864 was 104,354 
tons. Boston has sixty national banks, with a capital of 
$49,000,000, and nineteen savings banks. It is supplied 
with good water from Sudbury River anti Cochiituate Lake, 
Avhich is nearly 20 miles W. of the city, and Mystic Lake in 
the towns of Arlington and Winchester. It is divided into 
twenty-one wards. Steamships of the Cunard line depart 
from this port to Liverpool once a week or oftener. 

History .—Boston was founded in 1630, and the site was 
originally called Shawmut. The first settlers gave it the 
name of Tremont (or “ Trimountaine,” because one of its 
high hills had three points or summits). Benjamin Franklin 
was born here in 1706. In Mar., 1770, occurred a conflict 
between some British soldiers and the populace, several of 
whom were killed. This was called the “ Boston Massacre.” 
Among the memorable events in the history of this place 
was the battle of Bunker Hill (situated in Charlestown dis¬ 
trict) June 17,1775, after which the British army occupied 
Boston until Mar., 1776. They were then compelled by 
the American army to evacuate it. Boston was incorpo¬ 
rated as a city in 1822. Pop. in 1800,24,937; in 1820, 
43,298; in 1830, 61,391; in 1840, 93,383; in 1850, 136,881; 
in 1860, 177,840; and in 1870, 250,526; in 1874, about 
320,000; besides which the suburbs contain more than 
100,000. 

On the evening of the 9th of Nov., 1872, a conflagration 
broke out in a large five-story granite building at the cor¬ 
ner of Summer and Kingston streets. This building was 
surmounted by a mansard roof. The prevalence of the 
horse-disease caused a delay in bringing fire-engines to the 
spot. A strong N. W. wind prevailed at the time, and soon 
blew with great intensity, causing the fire to spread at an 
uncontrollable rate. The intense heat of the conflagra¬ 
tion, together with the height of the buildings, rendered it 
impossible for the steam fire-engines to render effective 
service. The spread of the conflagration was promoted by 
the great number of wooden roofs, covered with slate 
only. The locality of the fire was occupied to a great 
extent by wholesale warehouses of the best class, many of 
them structures of great cost and architectural excellence. 
Granite walls were disintegrated by the intense heat. Fire- 
engines soon began to arrive from other cities, but their 
most persistent and systematic efforts for the time proved 
unavailing. At two o’clock on the morning of Sunday, 
Nov. 10, attempts were made to stop the conflagration by 
the blowing up of buildings by gunpowder. This process 
was not considered successful in hindering the prog¬ 
ress of the flames. The steam fire-engines worked with 
efficiency, and by two o’clock on Sunday afternoon the 
progress of the fire had ceased, after having burned over 
sixty-five acres of ground, and destroying 776 buildings, 
709 of which were of brick or stone. These buildings were 
assessed at a valuation of $13,591,900, probably about half 
their market value. The number of dwellings destroyed 
was only sixty. The chief loss fell upon the shoe, leather, 
and wool interests, and the heavy trade of Boston in these 
commodities was for a time almost annihilated. The loss 
of personal property was estimated at $60,000,000, of which 
a large part was sustained by insurance companies. Only 
fourteen lives are known to have been lost. 

On the 30th of May, 1873, another fire broke out in Bum- 
stead court, in a great furniture warehouse, destroying 
property worth $1,500,000, including the Globe Theatre, 
Chickering’s piano-forte warerooms, and a large number 
of stores on both sides of Washington street. 

Besides the “ Back Bay lands,” above alluded to, and other 
tracts of made land which have been added to the original 
peninsula of Boston, it is proposed to fill a large tract of the 
shoal water known as “ South Boston Flats,” the material 
for the work being chiefly obtained by dredging the harbor 
to the minimum depth of twenty-three feet. The newly- 
made land is to be covered with a deep layer of clean 
gravel. It is also proposed to construct tidal reservoirs on 
the Mystic River, N. W. of Boston, so as to preserve the 
scouring effect of the tides in preserving the depth of the 
channels leading to the harbor. The harbor itself is one 
of the best on the coast. Its entrance is marked by four 
lighthouses, one on Minot’s Ledge, lat. 42° 16’ 09" N., Ion. 
70° 45' 14" W., a granite tower 100 feet high, showing a 
fixed white light of the second class. 


The Boston light, on Little Brewster Island, is a stone 
tower 80 feet high, showing a flashing white light of the 
second class, 98 feet above the sea. The Narrows light 
on the Great Brewster, and the Long Island Head light¬ 
house, an iron structure, are of smaller size, though of 
hardly less importance. The islands to the eastward are 
of the greatest importance, as they give safety to shipping 
within the harbor during the prevalence of easterly winds. 
The destructive action of the sea upon these islands has 
been very remarkable, but their eastern shores are now 
protected by heavy sea-walls. These important public 
works for the preservation and extension of the commerce 
of Boston are due not alone to the action of the general 
government, but largely to that of the State and municipal 
authorities. Natii. B. Siiurtleff, Ex-Mayor. 

Boston, a township of Franklin co., Ark. Pop. 289. 

Boston, a township of Newton co., Ark. Pop. 109. 

Boston, a township of Wayne co., Ind. Pop. 894. 

Boston, a township of Ionia co., Mich. Pop. 1947. 

Boston, a post-township of Erie co., N. Y. Pop. 1633. 

Boston, a township of Summit co., 0. Pop. 1142. 

Boston, a township of Darlington co., S. C. Pop. 1913. 

Boston, a post-village, capital of Bowie co., Tex., 65 
miles N. of Marshall. It has a good high school and a fe¬ 
male academy. Pop. 273. 

Boston (Thomas), a Scottish Presbyterian minister, 
born at Dunse, Berwickshire, Mar. 17, 1676, began to preach 
at Ettrick in 1707, and acquired much popularity as a 
preacher and a writer. Among his works are a “ Body of 
Divinity,” “Human Nature in its Fourfold State” (1720), 
and “ The Crook in the Lot.” Died May 20,1732. His 
sentiments and peculiar modes of expression are said to 
have colored the style of Scottish preaching more than those 
of any other Calvinistic writer. (See his “Autobiography.”) 

Boston Corners, a post-village, and station of the 
New York and Harlem R. R., 100 miles from New York. 
It was formerly a part of Berkshire co., Mass., but being 
nearly inaccessible from that State on account of an inter¬ 
vening steep mountain-ridge, it became for a time the re¬ 
sort of ruffians, prize-fighters, etc. In 1853 it was ceded 
to New York, and is now a part of Ancram township, Co¬ 
lumbia co., N. Y. 

B os'tra, or Bots'rah, sometimes called Boz'rah, 
a great and ancient city of Arabia, in an oasis of the Syrian 
desert, about 75 miles S. of Damascus, and about 40 miles 
E. of the Jordan. Some half-dozen families now make their 
home among the extensive ruins which mark the spot. It 
was in the southern part of the district of Auranitis, the 
modern Hauran, of which it was the capital in the Middle 
Ages. It was beautified by Trajan, who made it the cap¬ 
ital of the Roman province of Arabia about 105 A. D. The 
Roman emperor Philip gave it the title of Metropolis, prob¬ 
ably because it was his native place. It was described as 
a great and populous city about 300 A. D. The important 
ruins of Bostra are described by Burckhardt in his “ Trav¬ 
els,” and Robinson in his “ Biblical Researches,” vol. iii. 
Bostra, though sometimes called Bozrah, must not be con¬ 
founded with the Idumean city of that name. (See Bozrah.) 

Bost'wick (Rev. David), born at New r Milford, Conn., 
Jan. 8, 1721, taught in the academy at Newark, N. J., and 
entered the Presbyterian ministry and became disting¬ 
uished for eloquence. He was a pastor at Jamaica, L. I., 
and in New York City. He published several works, of 
which the best known was a defence of infant baptism. 
Died Nov. 12, 1763. 

Bostwick (Mrs. Helen Louise), born in 1826 at 
Charlestown, N. H. Her father was Dr. Putnam Barrow. 
She removed in her youth to Bucyrus, O., became a con¬ 
tributor to periodical literature, and published a volume of 
poems called “ Buds, Blossoms, and Berries.” 

Bos'well (James) of Aucliinleck, a famous Scottish 
biographer, born at Edinburgh Oct. 29, 1740. He studied 
law, and in 1763 became acquainted with Dr. Johnson, of 
whom he was a devoted admirer. Having visited Corsica, 
and espoused with ardor the cause of Paoli, he published 
an “ Account of Corsica” (1768). In 1773 he was chosen 
a member of the literary club established by Dr. Johnson 
in London. He diligently noted and recorded the sayings, 
opinions, and actions of Dr. Johnson, of whom he was an 
intimate associate. His “ Life of Samuel Johnson (2 vols., 
1791) is a remarkable and, in many respects, an admirable 
biography. Boswell w r as eccentric, and noted for his van¬ 
ity. Died May 19, 1795. (See Macaulay's review of Bos¬ 
well’s “Life of Johnson” in the “Edinburgh Review for 

1831.) . 

Boswel'lia (named in honor of John Boswell, a phys¬ 
ician), a genus of trees of the order Amvridaceai, nativ es ot 
India, Persia, and Arabia. The flowers have fi\e peta.s 




















BOSWORTH—BOTANY. 


566 


and a crenelated granular disk. The fruit is a triangular 
capsule with three valves, three cells, and one seed in each 
cell. The number of known species is small. The Boswel- 
lia thurifera (or serrata) is a large tree with pinnate leaves, 
each of which has about ten pairs of hairy, serrate leaflets 
and one odd leaflet. It has small pink flowers in axillary 
racemes. This tree yields the fragrant resin called olibanum, 
which is believed to be identical with the frankincense of 
the ancients. (See Olibanum.) 

B os'worth, a market-town of England, in Leicester¬ 
shire, on an eminence 10 miles W. of Leicester. On a moor 
near this town was fought in Aug., 1485, the battle of Bos- 
worth, or Bosworth Field, in which Richard III. was de¬ 
feated and killed. This battle terminated the civil war of 
the Hoses, and raised Henry VII. to the throne. 

Bosworth (Joseph), D. D., F. R. S., an English philolo¬ 
gist, born in Derbyshire in 1788. He graduated at Leyden, 
and received the degree of D. D. at Trinity College, Cam¬ 
bridge. In 1817 he became vicar of Horwood Parva, in Buck¬ 
inghamshire. He devoted much time to the study of Anglo- 
Saxon, and published, besides other works, a “Dictionary 
of the Anglo-Saxon Language” (1838), which is indispens¬ 
able to the thorough student of English. He resided ten 
years (1830-40) in Holland as British chaplain. V 

Boszormeny, a town of Hungary, in the county of 
Szabolcz, 16 miles N. N. W. of Debreczin. Pop. in 1869, 
19,208. 

Botanic Gardens are collections of growing plants, 
made for the purpose of instruction or for scientific observa¬ 
tion. Of late, they have also been very serviceable in in¬ 
troducing useful and ornamental plants from foreign coun¬ 
tries. The Kew Gardens in England and the Jardin des 
Plantes in France are among the most celebrated botanical 
gardens in the world. In the U. S., the garden connected 
with the Department of Agriculture at Washington prom¬ 
ises to become highly useful in bringing new plants into 
cultivation. There is also a successful botanic garden con¬ 
nected with Harvard College at Cambridge, Mass. 


Bot'any [from the Gr. /Sot dvr), a “plant;” Fr. botanique; 
Ger. Bota'nik ] is the natural history of the vegetable king¬ 
dom— i. e., the science that treats of plants. For the present 
purpose there is no need to draw out the distinctions be¬ 
tween the two kingdoms of organic nature, animal and 
vegetable, for their ordinary representatives would never 
be confounded. But the task, when attempted, is by no 
means a light one; indeed, a complete definition, discrimi¬ 
nating the lowest forms of plants from the lowest animals, 
is still a desideratum, if not an impossibility. (See on this 
subject the article Plant.) Probably the best general def¬ 
inition of plants, and that which brings prominently into 
view their nature and office, is this: they are those beings 
which derive their sustenance from the mineral kingdom, 
namely, from the earth and air. They only are capable of 
converting earth and air into nourishment. Plants create 
the food upon which animals live. Their office in the econ¬ 
omy of nature is to transform lifeless mineral materials into 
living matter, or into matter capable of supporting or com¬ 
posing the corporeal structure of a living being. Animals 
take that which plants have prepared for them, transform 
it more or less, incorporate it into structures which manifest 
powers and vitality of a higher order; but they originate 
no organic matter. 

The several departments of botany relate to the different 
kinds of inquiry which may be made respecting plants. 
They all fall under two primary divisions—namely, struc¬ 
tural or biological botany, and systematic botany, with cer¬ 
tain subsidiary inquiries. 

I. Structural or Biological Botany includes all inquiries 
into the organic structure, life, growth, action, and propa¬ 
gation of plants. The structure and the functions may be 
regarded separately, although practically they are best 
treated in connection. As to the first, pure structural bot¬ 
any is sometimes denominated organography — i.e., the study 
of the organs or members of plants. The study of the or¬ 
gans as compared with each other—as, for instance, of the 
different forms which leaf, stem, etc. may exhibit in 
the same plant or in different plants—has taken the name 
of morphology (the doctrine of forms or shapes)—a depart¬ 
ment or mode of treatment of the subject which in modern 
times has greatly enhanced the interest of botany. The 
morphological study of abnormal parts or monstrosities 
takes the name of teratology. The organs of plants in the 
most general sense are their obvious parts or members, such 
as leaf, stem, and root, flower, fruit, and seed. But each 
of these is made up of parts, and the parts themselves are 
complex : the minuter parts or organic elements of plants, 
which compose the obvious members, are in the stricter 
sense the plants’ organs. Their investigation takes the 
name of vegetable anatomy, or histology. The study of the 


actions of these organs, whether of the obvious members 
or of their minute components (which, indeed, are the parts 
that act), is the province of physiological botany or vegetable 
physiology. These are the principal departments of struc¬ 
tural and biological botany. The leading facts and tho 
leading ideas which the botanist of the present day has to 
consider under these several divisions, so far as they may 
be clearly stated in a very brief compass, are as follows: 

1. Structural Botany proper, including Morphology. —The 
natural history both of the vegetable and animal kingdoms 
in modern times is studied upon a morphological basis. 
The minds which have dominated and shaped vegetable 
morphology are those of Linnaeus, Goethe, Robert Brown, 
and De Candolle, to which several more recent names might 
be added. 

As a proper representative of an animal would be some 
species of the highest grade, rather than a polyp or an in- 
fusory animalcule, so for the plant the higher grade must 
be taken as a pattern. The following exposition therefore 
takes into account, in the first instance, ordinary plants 
only, such as our herbs, shrubs, and trees. These spring 
from seed; they take root; they develop a stem, on which 
they display leaves; and they develop flowers, the end of 
which is the production of seed. The root avoids the light, 
grows downward, fixes the plant to the soil, and ordinarily 
ramifies in it. The stem rises into the light, develops leaves 
at definite points of its surface, is at its summit capable of 
extending farther and farther, until finally it bears a blos¬ 
som or a cluster of blossoms, which end it. Stems take 
root; if they did not do so, our power of multiplying plants 
would be very much diminished. Some stems will strike 
root into the ground freely and surely whenever placed in 
favorable condition for it—namely, when screened from 
light and supplied with moisture and a fitting temperature. 
Most stems can be made to do so; hence propagation by 
laying, by slips or cuttings, etc. A stem consists of a series 
of what, in a loose way—although as to many plants (reeds, 
grasses, etc.) a very natural and correct way—of speak¬ 
ing, may be called joints; there is a point or portion from 
which leaves (one or more) are or may be developed ; this 
is a node. Between one node and another above or below 
it—a space of variable length, according to the amount of 
growth—no leaves can be produced; this intervening naked 
portion is an internode. A stem is made up of a series of 
nodes and internodes. The apex of a stem is theoretically 
supposed to be, and generally actually is, so long as it lives, 
a bud; that is, a growing point, consisting actually and 
potentially of nodes and internodes. The growth of the 
stem, as to length, is by the development of the internodes 
in succession, beginning with the lowest and oldest; this 
growth separating the nodes more or less according to the 
amount of lengthening, and so spacing apart the leaves they 
bear. This growth of the stem, accordingly, consists—1, 
of the formation of new parts at the apex of the old; 2, of 
the lengthening of the successive internodes. The length 
any internode may attain is very variable, but each one 
when it begins to grow usually acquires the length it may 
attain rather rapidly, and when its tissues are matured is 
incapable of any farther extension in length, leaving the 
stem to be carried up by the development in their turn of 
the younger internodes above it. Stems usually grow and 
rest by stages. The bud is the undeveloped apex of a stem, 
whether in a growing or resting state. Winter-buds, as 
they are termed, are formed in summer or autumn, remain 
quiescent through the winter until the coming spring, and 
then develop. The larger and best-developed ones are pro¬ 
vided with scales, which their nodes bear in place of leaves, 
and they sometimes contain, already formed, all the nodes, 
internodes, and leaves they are to develop the coming sea¬ 
son, already discernible, although rudimentary. From such 
buds there are all gradations down to those which are 
hardly or not at all apparent until they begin to grow. 

Branching takes place by the production of side-buds, 
and these, as a rule, are produced only on the nodes; that 
is, as each joint of the stem, when formed, ends with a 
bud (the terminal bud) which is to carry on the stem yet 
higher, so it also produces or may produce side or lateral 
buds also. There is a definite place on the node for such 
buds to arise (i. e., in the angle formed by the leaf with 
the stem, on the upper side): this angle is called the axil 
(arm-pit), and buds springing from thence are said to be 
axillary. Axillary buds develop into branches. As a rule, 
there is only one to each leaf. 

Arrangement of Leaves ( Phyllotaxy ) and Branches .— 
That of the latter depends upon the former. Leaves are 
symmetrically disposed upon the stern. A plant, no less 
than an animal, is symmetrical. Leaves are either single 
on each node— i. e., they follow one after another (are alter¬ 
nate) —or else there is a pair, or more than a pair, upon each 
node. When a pair only, they stand always upon exactly 
opposite sides of the stem (are said to be opqwsite); when 





















BOTANY. 567 

three, four, or any other number, they divide the circle 
equally—that is, they stand as far apart from each other as 
possible in the circle. A circle of three or more leaves, etc. 
is called a whorl or verticil; such leaves are said to be 
t ohorled. Evidently, opposite leaves present merely the 
simplest case of whorled leaves, a whorl of two leaves. The 
pairs or whorls of leaves follow each other in a fixed order; 
each pair stands over the intervals of the pair next below, 
and the leaves of the whorl of three or other number cor¬ 
respond to the intervals of those of the whorl above and 
below. In the alternate arrangement the single leaves suc¬ 
ceed one another in a definite order, maintaining a complete 
symmetry. Each leaf projects from the stem at a fixed 
angle with that which precedes and that which follows it, 
which is uniform for the species, but different in different 
species. In the simplest case the second leaf is on exactly 
the opposite side of the stem from the first—of course higher 
up ; the third leaf on the opposite side from the second, and 
therefore vertically over the first; so the leaves are in two 
vertical ranks; the angular divergence— t. e., the angle 
which successive leaves make—is one-half the circumfer¬ 
ence of the stem. Other plants have the angular diver¬ 
gence one-third— i. e., the second leaf is placed one-third 
round the stem ; the third is one-third round from that, 
completing a cycle of three, and bringing the fourth over 
the first, the fifth over the second, and so on—that is, dis¬ 
posing the leaves in three vertical ranks. A line traced on 
the stem through the base or attachment of the successive 
leaves forms a spiral ; each turn, from one leaf round to the 
one above which is placed directly over it, is termed a cycle. 
Alternate leaves are never in four ranks, but they are very 
commonly in five. In that case the angular divergence, or 
portion of the circle between any two successive leaves, is 
two-fifths of the circumference, and the spiral line ascends 
through two whole turns round the stem in completing the 
five vertical ranks of leaves, and bringing the sixth over 
the first. These several modes of arrangement may be 
designated by the fractions ^ which measure the an¬ 

gular divergence of the successive leaves in the spiral. The 
denominators likewise express the number of vertical ranks, 
and the numerators the number of turns round the stem in 
completing a cycle. An obvious relation of these fractions 
to each other is, that the sum of the numerators of the first 
two fractions is the numerator of the third, and the sum of 
the denominators is the denominator of the third fraction. 
Now, the indication thus suggested is carried out in fact 
when alternate leaves occur in more than five vertical 
ranks ; for the next higher number of vertical ranks is 
eight, and their angular divergence is three-eighths of the 
circumference ; and the next is in thirteen vertical ranks, 
with a divergence of five-thirteenths of the circumference, 
and so on ; that is^the actual arrangements are expressed by 
the series of fractions, i, §, y 5 g, fj, anc ^ so on * The 

subject is capable of very interesting mathematical devel¬ 
opment. These are all modes of equable distribution of foli¬ 
age on an axis ; and the meaning of them appears in some 
degree evident when it is understood that the work of vege¬ 
tation is done by the foliage under the light of the sun ; 
so that there is an advantage in having as large an amount 
of foliage as possible within a given space, and most fully 
displayed to the light. The study of the arrangement of 
leaves is termed phyllotaxy, which is the Greek for leaf- 
arrangement. 

Metamorphoses of Leaves and Stems. —The most fertile 
ideas in morphological botany are those which, indistinctly 
sketched by Linnaeus and afterwards by Wolff, were first 
well developed by the poet-philosopher Goethe, and since 
perfected by various minds. These ideas are best expressed 
in the following propositions: Every plant of the higher 
grade (high enough to exemplify the plan of vegetation) is 
built up of a succession of joints of stem and leaves, of 
which the embryo just developed from the seed, with its 
primary stemlet and seed-leaves ( cotyledons , one, two, or 
rarely more, as the case may be), is the archetype and the 
parent. All subsequent development consists of repetitions 
of this. The primary stemlet, at the outset of germination, 
sends out a root from its lower end, which is often the 
origin of the whole root of the plant; but any succeeding 
joint of the stem may equally send out roots, and commonly 
does so when favorably situated— i.e., when supplied with 
moisture and excluded from light. The successn e joints 
of stem, with the leaves they bear and any roots they may 
send downward, build up the plant, as it were, in a scries 
of generations, the greater part of which are capable of 
independent propagation (as cuttings, layers, etc.), or else 
they make a part of the common life and structure of the 
vegetable. A plant, therefore, is to be likened to a coral 
structure or to other compound polyps which construct 
a polypidom, rather than to an animal of the higher 
grade and complete individuality, such as a horse or a 
man. But the plant constitutes a sort of corporate whole: 

l --—--- 

it may be likened to an organized community, in which 
“ all members have not the same office,” but some are turned 
to one account, some to another. The morphological bota¬ 
nist’s view is, that, root excepted, the plant’s organs are 
all constituted of stem and leaf, and all on the plan which 
is displayed by the plantlet at the beginning of its growth. 

The cotyledons, which compose the principal bulk of any 
large embryo, and which develop in germination into the 
seed-leaves in the convolvulus, gourd, and the like, and do 
the work of leaves upon being raised above the ground by 
the lengthening of the stemlet (or first internode) beneath 
them, are equally discerned in those of the bean, although 
so much thicker, hardly turning green, and never becoming 
foliaceous : here the seed-leaves are made a storehouse of 
nourishment: in a pea and an acorn they are still more 
gorged, so as to be hemispherical, and never attempt any 
foliaceous development, but simply feed abundantly the 
bud between them (plumule), so that the succeeding joints 
of stem and their leaves develop the more rapidly and 
vigorously. So, again, where winter-buds are formed, their 
scales represent leaves relegated to the function of protec¬ 
tion. Lilac buds in their development show this well, in 
the gradual and complete transition from the outermost 
bud-scales, which fall off unchanged, to the ordinary leaves. 

In the scales of bulbs the botanist sees leaves, or the base3 
of leaves which are foliaceous above ground, converted into 
reservoirs of nourishing matter, and when this is exhausted 
the thinned and dried outermost scales serve for protection. 

Leaves of barberry develop as spines; those of pea, cobaea, 
and the like, convert a part of their leaflets into tendrils for 
climbing, while those of maurandia, lophospermum, etc. 
make their leaf-stalks, and those of clematis their partial 
leaf-stalks, serve as tendrils for climbing, the blade of the 
leaf remaining unchanged as foliage. In other cases (proba¬ 
bly in gourds and squashes) a whole leaf becomes tendril. 

Equally may stem or branches assume any of these forms 
and functions. Tendrils of the grapevine and of the passion¬ 
flower are stems or branches : so are thorns of hawthorn, 
pear, honey-locust, etc. ; the green rind of the stem of cac¬ 
tuses, or flattened leaflike expansions in many of them 
and in various other plants, take the function of foliage; 
tubers (such as potatoes), root-stocks (as of iris, sweet-flag, 
ginger, etc.), are portions of stem used as reservoirs of 
nourishment, just as the thickened roots are in radish, 
turnip, carrot, etc. 

Returning to leaves and to the ultimate development in 
the blossom as the inflorescence is approached, manifest 
leaves not rarely exchange the green of vegetation for the 
brighter hues and delicate texture of floral-leaves, as in 
painted-cup, calla, Poinsettia, etc. And in the leaves of 
the flower themselves every one recognizes the appropriate¬ 
ness of the term when the outer circle (calyx) is green, as is 
commonly the case, and hardly less so for the inner circle 
(corolla), although its members (petals) are of delicate 
texture and of other hues than green. The evidence of 
gradual transition from leaves outside of the flower (bracts), 
through those of the calyx to those of the corolla, does not 
always stop there. In water-lilies and some other flowers 
the inner petals pass by degrees into stamens, and so supply 
one of the clews which lead the botanist to his inference 
that even the interior organs of the flower equally answer 
to leaves. Cultivated flowers confirm this inference when 
by becoming “double” (to use the florist’s term) they turn, 
some the stamens only, some both stamens and pistils, into 
floral-leaves or petals, or, in some monstrosities, turn them 
all into a rosette of green leaves. Finally, the arrangement 
of the parts of the flower, of whatever shape or character, 
conforms to that of leaves on a stem ; i. e., they follow the 
laws of phyllotaxy, already described—are either in circles, 
and the members of the successive circles alternating with 
each other (decussating) after the manner of whorls of 
leaves, or in cycles according to the spiral or alternate ar¬ 
rangement of leaves. And the arrangement of the blos¬ 
soms themselves upon the stem, or in their clusters, conforms 
precisely to that of buds : flowers, like leaf-buds, are term¬ 
inal or axillary. A flower is, as all lines of evidence go to 
prove, a sort of bud with its leaves developed and the in¬ 
ternodes undeveloped or nearly so—with its leaves devel¬ 
oped in peculiar forms, not always greatly different from 
foliage in the outer parts, but very different in form and 
in office as respects the inner and essential organs. In the 
language of morphology, leaves, sepals, petals, stamens, 
etc. are homologous organs, just as the fore leg of a dog, the 
wing of a bat or bird, the flipper of the whale, etc. are ho¬ 
mologous with the arm of a man. 

The Parts of the Flower need to be briefly specified before 
its morphology can be completed. Here, again, the bota¬ 
nist places before his mind a pattern flower—one complete 
in its parts and free from complications or disguises. A 
complete flower of this sort has two kinds of organs— 1, 
Envelopes or leafy parts, “the leaves of the blossom,” and 











BOTANY 


568 


these in two circles; the outer circle is the calyx, oftener 
than otherwise green and leattike; the leaves or pieces of 
the calyx are named sepals; the inner, of delicate texture, 
and almost always of other color than green, is the corolla; 
its pieces or leaves are petals. 2, Essential organs within 
the last; these are of two sorts, and at least in two circles; 
the exterior sort are the stamens, the interior, occupying the 
centre, are pistils. These two essential organs conspire to 
the production of seed. The stamens are the fertilizing or¬ 
gans. Each consists of a filament, usually a slender body 
which may be likened to the stalk of a leaf; it is the stalk 
of the other and only essential part—namely, the anther. 
The anther is a two-celled sac, commonly opening at ma¬ 
turity by a slit from top to bottom of each cell or com¬ 
partment of the sac. In an anther the botanist thinks he 
discovers the blade of the leaf in a peculiar guise; in the 
two cells or compartments, standing side by side, he sees the 
right and left half of the blade; in the solid part that usu¬ 
ally connects them, the midrib of the blade; and the in¬ 
terior, instead of the green pulp of foliage, contains a pow¬ 
dery matter, commonly of yellow color, composed of minute 
grains. This powder is named pollen; its production is the 
essential thing ; it is discharged by the opening of the an¬ 
ther, and its office is to fertilize the pistil, or rather the im¬ 
portant contents of the pistil. A pistil, complete and sim¬ 
ple, consists of three parts—1, the ovary at the base, the cell 
or closed cavity of which contains one or more ovules, the 
bodies which after fertilization become seeds ; 2, the style, a 
column or narrowed prolongation of the summit of the 
ovary; 3, the stigma, which is sometimes a knob at the 
apex of the style, sometimes a mere point, or a line running 
down one side of it; it is always destitute of the epidermis or 
skin which covers the rest of the plant, and has either a 
roughened or a glutinous or a moist surface, to which pollen 
may adhere. The ovary is an essential part, as it contains 
the ovules or future seeds; the stigma also, for the applica¬ 
tion of the pollen to it is requisite to the maturation of the 
ovules into seeds; the style is sometimes wanting, as the 
stigma may as well be borne upon the apex of the ovary. A 
simple pistil is conceived by the botanist to answer to a leaf 
with its edges brought together and united so as to form a 
closed sac (the ovary), the outer surface of which is the 
lower surface of the leaf, the lining its upper surface; and 
the ovules are borne on some part of the line (suture) which 
represents the united edges of the leaf, or on some en¬ 
largement of this line (placenta). The style is a prolong¬ 
ation of the apex of this ideal leaf, with margins, as we may 
suppose, rolled in; the stigma answers to some portion of 
leaf-margin or apex denuded, and sometimes enlarged for 
the readier lodgment of pollen. 

To this idea and type of a flower, which is simply and 
completely realized in some, and incompletely so in others, 
the botanist refers all flowers he meets with; and he ex¬ 
plains all deviations from it, and all disguises of it, in ac¬ 
cordance with the laws that govern the arrangement, com¬ 
binations, etc. of stem and leaves. For example: when the 
calyx or corolla occurs as a cup or tube, he sees in it a con¬ 
genital coalescence, or union by their adjacent edges, of the 
leaves of a whorl or cycle; when these parts cohere below 
with the surface of the ovary, he recognizes an adnation of 
contiguous whorls. When the petals, stamens, or other 
parts are numerous, this augmentation means that addi¬ 
tional whorls or cycles (as the case may be) of metamor¬ 
phosed leaves of that order have developed. When these 
organs are fewer than the numerical plan of the flower in¬ 
dicates, the botanist perceives that some of the members of 
a cycle have failed to be produced—are suppressed, as he 
would say—and he generally may detect either the rudi¬ 
ments or vestiges of the missing organs, or the vacant places 
which they should occupy— i. e., which the symmetry of 
the blossom calls for. 

There is not only a general plan of flowers, but a par¬ 
ticular plan for those of each natural order, and a still 
more special plan for the flowers of the same genus or kind; 
and so one flower of a group helps to interpret the others— 
the more regular and complete ones throw light upon the 
irregular, incomplete, or unsymmetrical ones, by which the 
botanist secs through their disguises. 

So in the fruit, which is the ovary and its contents ma¬ 
tured, the morphological botanist sees either single leaves 
or whorls of leaves, either separate or combined, either free 
from other parts or congenitally united with them, either 
still retaining or resuming somewhat of foliaceous character, 
as in a legume or pea-pod, or hardened, as in a nut, or 
thickened and softened throughout, as in a berry, or with 
an inner stratum hardened to form the stone, and the outer 
stratum softened to form the sapid pulp or flesh of a peach 
©r cherry. In an apple it is seen that the principal edible 
pertion of the fruit consists of calyx; in a strawberry, of 
axis or the end of flower-stalk upon which the ovaries w T ere 
borne; and so on. 


The pistils, or the carpels of which a pistil is composed, end 
the morphological series, and in the seed—or rather in the 
embryo formed in the seed—the series begins anew, home 
would see in the ovule, and consequently in the seed, a bud, 
developed usually on the margin of the carpellary leaf, and 
point to bryophyllum and other plants, whose leaves are apt 
to develop leaf-buds upon their edges. In that view the 
kernel of the ovule answers to axis, and its coats to leaves. 
The other, and perhaps the better, view is, that ovules are 
special appendages or transformed lobes of leaves conse¬ 
crated to the reproduction of the species. 

The lower grades of plants would require to have their; 
structure and morphology separately explained, for which 
space is lacking; they will be treated under the heads, 
Ferns, Mosses, Lichens, Fungi, Algas (Seaweed), etc. Suf¬ 
fice it to say, that the general plan of vegetation, by stem, 
and leaves symmetrically arranged upon it, prevails in the 
higher orders of the lower grade of plants, such as ferns 
and mosses; that stem and leaves begin to be fused into a 
common foliaceous expansion in liverworts; that all dis¬ 
tinction of this sort vanishes in lichens and algae, and still 
more in fungi, which in all their multifarious diversity have 
nothing which in any sense answers to foliage, root, etc. 

As to organs of reproduction, the greatest simplification 
of the flower occurs in coniferous plants (pines, cypress, 
yew, etc.) and in the allied Cycas family. In these the 
female flower is reduced to the pistillary leaf or carpel, and 
that is open ; style and stigma are done away with, and the 
pollen falls directly upon the mouth of the ovules to fer¬ 
tilize them. Sometimes, as in yew, the whole apparatus is 
reduced to a naked ovule. Such are termed gymnosjierm- 
ou8 plants— i. e., naked-seeded; and in contradistinction 
those of the ordinary sort with ovules in a closed ovary, 
and therefore seeds in a pericarp (inside a fruit), are angio- 
spermous. But what distinguishes completely the lower 
grade of plants from the higher is a total change of type as 
to reproduction. From ferns downward, flowers (and their 
result, seeds) disappear. Their reproductive organs are 
analogous to flowers and seeds, but not homologous with 
them—not of the same type. In common language we say 
that while^ordinary plants are flowering, those of the lower 
grade are flowcrless. Linnaeus gave the technical term of 
phsenogamous or phanerogamous to plants which produce 
flowers (stamens and pistils), and cryptogamous to those 
(such as ferns, mosses, lichens, algae, and fungi) which, as 
the appellation denotes, have no obvious stamens and 
pistils. His name implied that there were organs answer¬ 
ing in function to stamens and pistils, although concealed 
at least from his view. And the correctness of his .surmise 
is now confirmed. Cryptogamous plants possess organs 
which act as stamens and pistils, as microscopical researches 
have shown. The result, however, is not & seed containing 
an embryo, but a much more simple body, called a spore, 
which by germination grows into a new plant. The appa¬ 
ratus for producing spores differs so widely in different 
orders of cryptogamous plants that it must be separately 
studied in each. To understand them requires a knowledge of 

II. Vegetable Anatomy or Histology .—The space here de¬ 
voted to morphological botany demands the curtailment of 
the other departments. The history of vegetable anatomy 
is that of microscopical research. The leading facts are, 
that plants are built up of parts or integers, all essentially 
of one nature, however diverse in form, of which a good 
general idea may be obtained by likening the integers to 
the bricks of an edifice, supposing the bricks to be hollow 
and various in shape. These organic components of plants 
are called cells. They consist of a wall of solid vegetable 
matter, circumscribing a closed cavity, which, while the 
cell is alive, contains some living vegetable matter, either 
solid or liquid. Or, going back to the beginning, a vege¬ 
table cell (not very appropriately so named) is or was a 
mass of plastic vegetable matter, mostly of minute size, 
which encases itself with a wall or shell, this wall remain¬ 
ing permanent, although the living parts within may have 
disappeared. A plant, such as an oak tree, began its exist¬ 
ence, in an ovule of the parent, as a single cell of this sort. 
The whole subsequent growth came from this ; the capital 
fact being that the living vegetable cell has the power of 
multiplication. As it grows it is capable of dividing into 
two, and these again into two, and so on. There are plants 
(chiefly aquatic) of the simplest possible structure, which 
consist of but one cell; for as the cell multiplies by succes¬ 
sive divisions into two, these separate and thus become 
so many'individuals. There are plants which consist of a 
single row of such cells developing in a chain, and remain¬ 
ing. adherent at least for a time; or of a plane of cells, di¬ 
viding as they grow in two directions. But in all the higher 
plants the cells build up a structure composed mostly of 
distinct organs (stem, leaves, roots); and the cells them¬ 
selves develop in various shapes, some round or polygonal, 
some lengthened into tubes, some with thin and delicate* 
















BOTANY 


569 


walls (as in the pith and green bark), some with thicker or 
even very thick walls (as in wood, in the stone of a cherry, 
etc,.). Woody fibres, bast of bark, dncts, and all the ana¬ 
tomical elements of a tree or herb, consist entirely of cells 
or of combinations of them, all of the same type and origin, 
however diverse in form, texture, etc. These are variously 
combined, arranged, and modified, composing the particu¬ 
lar anatomy of roots, stems, and leaves. In the stems of 
flowering plants the distribution of the woody portion 
(wood-cells with ducts, etc.) is upon two plans—one, that 
of common wood, which is in concentric layers around a 
pith and within a separable bark, and a new layer is every 
year added outside of that of the year before ; this is the 
exogenous stem, or outside-grower : the other, that of palms 
and the like, has no annual layers, but the wood is in sep¬ 
arate bundles, interspersed in the pithy or cellular part, 
without apparent order, throughout the whole diameter, 
but more accumulated towards the circumference; as the 
newer wood or new bundles were thought to be added to¬ 
wards the centre, this stem was named endogenous — i. e., 
an inside-grower. 

In the leaves, the arrangement of the Avoody portion 
forming their framework (ribs, veins, nerves, etc.) Avhich 
supports the green pulp or cellular portion, equally follows 
two plans. In one, the leaves are reticulated or netted- 
veined — i. e., the finer divisions of the framework branch 
off from a central rib, or from one or more pairs of lateral 
ribs also, and their subdivisions, or some of them, unite 
(anastomose or inosculate) Avith other divisions to form a 
netAvork of \*eins; this occurs in plants with exogenous 
stems, and only those, with some exceptions. In the other 
plan, Avhich is characteristic of plants Avith endogenous 
stems, but not absolutely so, the leaves are parallel-veined 
— i. e., the frameAvork is composed of simple and parallel 
veins (formerly called nerves), proceeding unbranched from 
the base of the blade to the apex, or else from a midrib 
to the margins. These differences are turned to much ac¬ 
count in desci'iptive botany. 

III. Physiological Botany, or Vegetable Physiology, which 
is concerned Avith the actions or functions of plants con¬ 
sidered as organisms, is a Avide subject, which may be 
treated under an independent head. The portion Avhich 
relates to nutrition connects itself with vegetable chemistry. 
The action of the roots in absorbing, of the stem in con¬ 
veying, and of the leaves in digesting or assimilating, the 
materials upon which vegetables live, the use of assimilated 
matter in growth, the expenditure of some of it in doing 
Avork, are leading topics. The most fundamental idea in 
all vegetable physiology is, that plants create all organic 
matter, and consequently provide all the food upon which 
animals live. The function of vegetation is the assimila¬ 
tion of mineral matter—earth, air, and Avater, chiefly the 
two latter—into organic matter, Avhich is alone capable of 
composing the living structure of vegetables and animals. 
Animals appropriate this, but produce none. Plants do this 
all-important Avork only in their green parts and under the 
light of the sun. Under the solar radiance they decompose 
carbonic acid and Avater, with the liberation of oxygen gas 
(therefore purifying or renovating the atmosphere for the 
breathing of animals); and they transform Avhat they 
retain into permanent plant-structure—that is, into cell- 
walls, or else into equivalent substance of Avhich cell-walls 
may be made (such as starch, sugar, and the like). They 
also convert these same mineral elements, along Avith some 
form of combined nitrogen (ammonia, nitrates, etc.), into 
proteine or protoplasm, which makes up the vitally-active 
part of living plant-cells, and is the source of, and essen¬ 
tially identical with, the flesh of animals. 

And here a most important idea, of recent conception 
and demonstration, is brought into vieAv—namely, that 
vegetable matter, produced under the influence of the sun, 
whether as plant-fabric (wood, etc.) or as prepared material 
of which fabric may be made (starch, sugar, oil, fibrine, 
etc.), as also the flesh or other fabric of animals derived 
from these, is to be regarded as matter in a state of 
energy; and energy is the power to do work. This, Avhich 
the animal derives from the food supplied by the vege¬ 
table, the vegetable has stored up in the matter Avhich the 
sun's rays, acting upon the living plant, have brought into 
this state of energy. 

In the function of reproduction, the mode in which the 
pollen acts in fertilizing the ovules and originating the 
embryo in the seed ; the arrangements through Avhich these 
minute poAvdery grains are transferred from the anthers 
in which they originate to the stigma upon Avhich they are 
to act, and by a groAvth from thence to the ovule, or, in 
some cases, the immediate application of pollen to the 
ovule; the maturation of fruit and seed; the arrangement 
for the dispersion of the latter; their germination,—these 
are some of the leading inquiries. Lastly, the vital mani¬ 
festations as displayed in the movements or changes of 


direction Avhich plants (no less really than animals) exe¬ 
cute—some of them in connection with A r egetation and 
growth, some subservient to reproductive functions—form 
extremely interesting subjects of physiological inquiry. 

IV. Systematic Botany comprises all inquiries relative to 
plants as consisting of kinds variously related to one 
another— i.e., as manifesting resemblances and differences 
in various degrees. Plants are thus considered as consti¬ 
tuting a systematic Avhole or vegetable kingdom. Common¬ 
wealth would have been a truer term, for the vegetable cre¬ 
ation does not culminate in a head or actual archetype, as 
does the animal reajm in man. There are high and Ioav 
plants in grade, but no highest and no lowest. The princi¬ 
pal departments of this great branch of botanical science 
are—1, Taxonomy, and 2, Phytograpliy, or Descriptive 
Botany. 

1. Taxonomy is the study of the principles of classifica¬ 
tion, and of the grounds upon which divisions expressive 
of the diverse grades of resemblance manifested among 
plants may be made and defined. The fundamental facts 
in nature upon which classification in natural history is 
based are these two: 1st. Plants and animals occur in 
kinds, and are reproduced true to their essential charac¬ 
teristics, from generation to generation; in other words, 
progeny is like parent. 2d. The numerous kinds exhibit 
unequal and A r ery various degrees of resemblance, some 
being very similar, others Avidely dissimilar. Upon the first 
rests the idea of species ; upon the second, that of genera, 
orders, classes, etc. Species is the unit in natural history. 
Indhdduals occur as links in the chain of generations Avhich 
have come down from the immemorial past: this “peren¬ 
nial succession of individuals,” this ensemble of individuals 
proceeding from a common stock, constitutes a species. 
Genera, orders, classes, and the like are assemblages of 
species, of A r arious degrees of likeness, according to the 
grade. Those species which are most alike are of one genus; 
for example, red oak, Avhite oak, scarlet oak, live oak, etc. 
are so many species of the oak genus. Those which concur 
in a more general resemblance, as being on the same plan 
of structure in all their important organs, with Avhatcver 
difference in details, represent an order or family (these 
terms being synonymous in botany); e.g., the oak genus, 
with the chestnut, beech, hazel, etc., are of one order. Those 
which hav T e only a more general resemblance are of one 
class. Proceeding synthetically, from the species upward, 
these are groups, successively more and more comprehen¬ 
sive. Proceeding analytically from the vegetable kingdom 
as a Avhole, distinguishable into parts, they are divisions. 
The sequence of subordination, from general to particular, 
in all natural history, invariably is— Class, Order, Genus, 
Sped es. 

This sufficed for the earlier naturalists; but in modern 
times the A r ast increase in the number of known species, and 
a more intimate knoAvledge of their structure, have called 
for the recognition of more numerous grades. The term 
tribe has been intercalated above genus, and sub-class, sub¬ 
order, sub-tribe, sub-genus next under class, order, etc.; 
the extended scaffolding to be used or not, according as 
diversities in structure and the numbers of forms to be 
classified may require. 

Although species is the recognized unit in natural history 
classification, no species in represented by absolutely iden¬ 
tical individuals. The differences may be slight, apparently 
casual and evanescent; or they may be more remarkable, in¬ 
explicable by any known causes or conditions, and more en¬ 
during. Some species are much disposed to vary; some 
maintain a general uniformity. Even the branches from 
the same stem may vary, and when A r ariations or “sports” 
of this character arise, they incline to be perpetuated in the 
offshoots. Bud variations, hoAvever, are not common ; the 
offshoot for the most part strictly reproduces the parent 
stock. Most varieties originate from seed. Here the re¬ 
sult of all observation leads to the conclusion that there are 
two opposed tendencies in every sexual reproduction: 1. 
That of the progeny to be like the parent or parents in all 
respects: this ordinarily obtains such full mastery as to 
have established the fundamental proposition that the spe¬ 
cies reproduces itself; which, more strictly analyzed, means 
that individuals reproduce their like. 2. The second is the 
tendency to be unlike the parents by varying in some minor 
particulars, to strike out something neAv and peculiar. The 
law of inheritance generally prevails, but the tendency to in¬ 
dividualize manifests itself strongly novv and then in certain 
and minor particulars, and sets up a variety. Unimportant 
as this may be in Avild plants, and in any single step, it be¬ 
comes of the highest practical consequence in horticulture, 
agriculture, and stock-breeding, in which all depends upon 
favoring, strengthening, and preserving varieties. A arie- 
ties of recent origination .are seldom directly perpetuablo 
by seed, although they are so by buds (offshoots, layering, 
grafting, etc.); the tendency of the offspring to inherit the 













570 






i 


BOTANY. 


peculiarities of the parent being likely to be overborne by 
the ancestral tendency— i. e., the disposition to take after 
grandparents, great-grandparents, etc. Also, in uncon¬ 
trolled nature, the cross-breeding with individuals of the 
unvaried stock is almost sure to obliterate the incipient 
variation. The variation is preserved and led on, under 
man’s care, by close-breeding in the first instance, and by 
selecting for seed only those of the progeny that inherit 
most of the peculiarity; then again selecting from the best 
of these, and so on for a few generations. In this way the 
force of atavism , or taking after ancestors, is weakened or 
evaded; for the new generation is far more likely to take 
after its immediate parents, grandparents, and great-grand¬ 
parents when all are similar, than after a remoter ancestry, 
the parental and the grandparental (or atavic) forces now 
acting in the same line. In this way varieties, which at 
first would come true only by bud-propagation, are devel¬ 
oped into races, or varieties of greater fixity, which come 
true from seed. Races in plants are naturally most im¬ 
portant in annuals and biennials, which are capable of per¬ 
petuation only by seed. There are perhaps no annuals or 
biennials in cultivation which refuse to diverge into races. 

Moreover, nearly related species may often, but not in all 
cases, be cross fertilized, and so their peculiarities mixed in 
the progeny, which takes after both parents; this gives 
rise to hybrids. These are of transient existence, except 
when perpetuated from buds—first, because they are com¬ 
monly sterile per se; secondly, because they are liable to be 
fertilized by the pollen of one or the other parent, and so 
brought back to that type; thirdly, because even when fer¬ 
tile per se, the progeny in a generation or two returns, some 
to one and some to the other parental type by a dissever¬ 
ance of the mixed characters, one part inheriting only the 
peculiarities of the male, the other only those of the female, 
parent of the hybrid. 

Races and varieties, of whatever sort or degree of fixity, 
have been regarded as of economical importance only, but 
merely perplexing to the systematist. Recently, however, 
they have assumed a new interest in the eyes of the philo¬ 
sophical naturalist through the investigations and reasonings 
of Mr. Darwin, which tend to the conclusion that varieties 
are incipient species, and cognate species only varieties of 
greater divergence or fixity—offshoots of higher antiquity 
from a common stock. To many of the leading naturalists 
of the present day, even those who do not recognize the 
agency of “ natural selection ” as the operative cause, the 


terms relationship, affinity, consanguinity, and the like, by 
which the resemblance of one species or one genus to an¬ 
other has always been denoted, are no longer regarded as 
metaphors, but rather as unconscious expressions of the 
idea that the resemblances are a consequence of community 
of descent. 

The Methods of Classification, by which the principles of 
taxonomy have been applied to the systematic arrangement 
of the species of plants, may here be considered only so far 
as concerns—1. The system which gave the great impulse 
to botany in the later half of the eighteenth century, and 
prevailed through the earlier part of the nineteenth; 2., 
The system which has now taken its place, and under which 
the science is attaining a truly philosophical development. 
The first, the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus, was en¬ 
tirely the work of this pre-eminent naturalist; to the sec¬ 
ond, the natural system, he made early and important con¬ 
tributions, and commended the work to his successors. The 
two great ends of a classification of the vegetable kingdom 
are—1, to exhibit the relationships which subsist among 
plants, and bind them into a systematic whole; therefore to 
arrange them in such order, and under such successive 
grades, that each species and each group of species shall 
stand next to those which it most resembles in all or in the 
most important respects— i. e., in a system which shall ex¬ 
press (so far as we can discover and express in terms) the 
plan of nature, or, more worthily, the plan of the Creator 
in the vegetable world; 2, to enable a learner readily to 
ascertain the name, place in the system, and an account of 
all that is known of any particular species. These two 
ends should be subserved by one and the same classification. 
In the last century this was not practicable. So Linnaeus 
contrived the system which bears his name as a temporary 
but much-needed expedient to subserve the latter purpose. 
He named it an artificial system, because in its classes and 
orders it did not attempt to express all or the more import¬ 
ant relationships of plants, but only those which could most 
conveniently be used for a practical purpose. He named 
it the sexual system, because he founded it upon the sta¬ 
mens and pistils, of which he had just completed the proof 
that they were the sexual apparatus; and he saw, with in¬ 
stinctive sagacity, that agreement or similarity in the or¬ 
gans and method of reproduction would furnish the best 
characters for classification. Linnmus accordingly ar¬ 
ranged the vegetable kingdom under twenty-four classes, 
characterized mainly by the stamens, as follows: 


Plants 

having 


unconnected 
with each 
other, and 


the 

stamens 
separate - 
from the 
pistils. 


of equal 
length : 


' Stamens 1. 

“ 2 . 

“ 3. 

“ 4. 

“ 5. 

“ 6 . 

“ 7. 

“ 8 . 

“ 9. 

“ 10. 

“ 11-19. 

“ 20 or more, adhe¬ 
rent to the calyx.—. 

“ 20 or more, not ad¬ 
herent to the calyx. 


1. Monandria. 

2. Diandria. 

3. Triandria. 

4. Tetrandria. 

5. Pentandria. 

6. Hexandria. 

7. Heptandria. 

8. OCTANDRIA. 

9. Enneandria. 

10. Decandria. 

11. Dodecandria. 

12. Icosandria. 

13. Polyandria. 


of unequal 
length: 


' t wo long and two short sta¬ 
mens.14. Didynamia. 

four long and two short 
„ stamens.. 15. Tetradynamia. 


r both found 
in the same 
flower, 


stamens and 
pist ils mani¬ 
fest. 


1 


i 

connected with each other 


’ by their filaments in a sin¬ 
gle set.16. Monadelphia. 

by their filaments in two 

- sets.17. Diadelphia. 

by their filaments in more 

than two sets. 18. Polyadelpiiia. 

„ by their anthers.19. Syngenesia. 


the stamens adherent to the pistil. 


20. Gynandria. 


in separate flowers 


the stamens and pistils (concealed) represented only by analogues 


' in the same individuals.21. Moncecia. 

in different individuals.22. Dicecia. 

some of the flowers perfect, 
others separated,in the 
same, or two or three dif¬ 
ferent individuals.23. Polygamia. 

...24. Cryptogamia. 


The orders were founded upon some considerations re¬ 
specting the pistils, their number, or the number of their 
styles in compound pistils— e. g., Monogynia, with one, 
Digynia, with two, and so on; and upon divers other con¬ 
siderations in the other classes, which there is not space 
here to specify. The interest of this artificial classification 
is now only historical, except that it has firmly established 
many names and terms in the science with which the bota¬ 
nist has to be familiar. 

The natural system, of which the endeavor is to arrange all 
plants according to their true relationships, has now been so 
far perfected that it is, on the whole, as easy for practical 
as it is indispensable for all thoroughly scientific use. Its 


first development as a complete system was by the Jus¬ 
sieus, uncle and nephew, in the last century. Towards its 
perfection many have contributed in the present century : 
the two names most eminently and intimately associated 
with it are those of Robert Brown and A. P. De Candolle. 
It recognizes, first of all, two great series of plants, a higher 
and a lower grade ; the higher comprising the whole twenty- 
three Linnaean artificial classes (above presented); that is, 
all plants which are sexually propagated through stamens 
and pistils (in other words, bear flowers), which result in 
seeds, of which the essential thing is that they contain an 
embryo, as stated in another part of this article. These are 
phsenogamous, or more popularly flowering plants. The 














































BOTANY BAY—BOTIIIE. 


571 


lower series, comprising the Linnaean class cryptogamia, 
has sexual propagation effected through organs which are 
only analogous in functions to stamens and pistils, result¬ 
ing (as already explained) in spores, instead of seeds: 


these are cryptogamous or Jlowerless plants. The primary 
divisions or classes of the two series can here be presented 
only in the following tabular form : 


Ser. I. Flowering or 
Ph^enogamous 
Plants, with 


Exogenous growth and a dicotyledonous embryo. Class I. Exogens, or Dicotyledons. 

Seeds in a pericarp. Subclass 1. Angiospemis. 
Seeds naked. “ 2. Gymnosperms. 

Endogenous growth and a monocotyledonous embryo. “ II. Endogens, Monocotyledons. 


Ser. II. Flowerless 
or Cryptogamous 
Plants, with 


a distinct axis, or stem and foliage, containing- 


woody and vascular tissue. Class III. Acrogens. 


cellular tissue only. 


no distinction of stem and foliage, but all confounded in a thallus. 


“ IV. Anophytes. 


V. Tiiallopiiytes. 


Under these come the natural orders or families (between 
one and two hundred in number when most comprehen¬ 
sively treated) ; under these sub-orders, tribes, etc., when¬ 
ever such have to be recognized; and finally the genera 
and species. 

V. Phytography, or Special Descriptive Botany, is the 
carrying out of the principles of classification in the actual 
arrangement and characterization of these great divisions, 
of the orders under them, of the genera and species, etc.; 
and the application of names to each according to certain 
fixed rules. This introduces Glossology (a better word than 
the mongrel one, because half Latin and half Greek, ter¬ 
minology), which prescribes the system upon which sub¬ 
stantive names are given to the organs and parts of plants, 
and adjective terms to their modifications and forms, mak¬ 
ing a technical language through which plants and their 
several parts may be compared and described with an ex¬ 
actness and brevity not otherwise possible. Also Nomen¬ 
clature, which prescribes the rules for giving names to the 
plants themselves and to the groups which they compose. 

The binomial system of nomenclature—which was one of 
the happiest hits of Linnaeus, and of a value which those 
only can rightly estimate who are aware of the inconveni¬ 
ences suffered by the ante-Linnaean botanists in their en¬ 
deavors to get on without it—has established for each plant 
a double name—namely, that of its genus and that of its 
species. A genus bears a name of one word, a substantive— 
e. g., Quercus, the oak genus, Lilium, the lily genus. Genera 
and generic names, in the modern sense, date back as far 
as Tournefort (A. D. 1700). The specific name was the 
invention of Linnaeus (say 1750), who first distinguished 
the phrase or descriptive character of a species from its 
name, making the latter consist of a single word, preferably 
an adjective; e. g., Quercus alba, for white oak, Querctis 
rubra, for red oak. The generic name answers to our sur¬ 
name, as Brown or Jones: the specific to the baptismal 
name, as John and James. If a variety has to be designated, 
its name will be appended to that of the species— e. g., 
Quercus coccinea (scarlet oak), variety tinctoria, for the 
quercitron oak. Names of groups higher than genera are 
in the nominative plural, and are mostly formed by an ex¬ 
tension of the name of a principal genus. For instance, 
Jlosa, the rose genus, gives its name llosese to the rose tribe, 
and of Rosacese to the rose family. This is a short expres¬ 
sion for Plantse Rosacese — i. e., rosaceous plants. 

Agricultural Botany, Medical Botany, and the like, sig¬ 
nify so much of systematic botany as applies to agriculture, 
medicine, etc. 

Palaeontological or Fossil Botany is the systematic and 
structural botany, as far as it can be made out from fossil 
remains, of the vegetation of former ages. Its lessons, 
although fragmentary, are of the highest interest, as show¬ 
ing that a vegetation predominantly of the lower grades 
alone existed in the earlier geological eras; that gymno- 
spermous plants long preceded angiospermous exogens; that 
the latter were apparently not introduced until the creta¬ 
ceous period; and that our existing genera largely origin¬ 
ated in tertiary times, and were then represented by species, 
some of them peculiar, but many much resembling, and 
some obviously identical with, those of the present day. So 
that it may be inferred that the actual flora of the United 
States originated in the cretaceous and tertiary periods, 
and has come down to the present day with change indeed, 
but with a continuity of type which argues genetic trans¬ 
mission. (See Fossil Botany.) 

Geographical Botany —the study of the relations of 
plants to the earth, considered in reference to the natural 
distribution of the species over its surface, and the causes 
of that distribution—connects the science of botany with 
physical geography and climatology; also with geology as 
it proceeds; and it becomes apparent that the present dis¬ 
tribution of species is only to be explained, or clearly con¬ 
ceived, by a study of the changes which the earth’s surface 


and its climates have undergone since the types of the 
actual vegetation came into existence. So that geographical 
and fossil botany are co-related as modern is to ancient 
history. Asa Gray. 

Bot'any Bay, a bay of Australia, in New South Wales, 
which was discovered by Capt. Cook in 1770, and named 
by him with reference to the great number of new plants 
found there. It is 5 miles S. of Sydney, in lat. 34° 2' S., 
and Ion. 151° 13' E. A colony of British convicts was 
planted here in 1787, and was removed to Port Jackson in 
1788, but the penal colony long continued to retain the 
name of Botany Bay. 

Bot'etourt, a county of the W. part of Virginia. Area, 
550 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the Blue 
Ridge, and is traversed by several ridges of the Allegha- 
nies, which are separated by fertile valleys. It is intersected 
by the James River, and also drained by Craig’s Creek. 
The James River Canal connects this county with Rich¬ 
mond. Grain and tobacco are the chief crops. Flour is 
manufactured. Iron ore abounds. The Peaks of Otter are 
near its S. E. border. Capital, Fincastle. Pop. 11,329. 

Botetourt (Norbonne Berkeley), Lord, was born in 
England about 1734. He was appointed royal governor of 
Virginia in 1768, and dissolved the assembly of burgesses 
in 1769 because they passed a remonstrance against some 
acts of the British Parliament. Died Oct. 15, 1770. 

Botetourt Springs, a post-village of Roanoke co., 
Va., is the seat of Hollins Institute, a flourishing school for 
ladies, and has a mild and pleasant saline spring known as 
“Johnson’s Spring.” 

Bot-Fly, a name given to various dipterous insects of 
the family GSstridae, but in the U. S. generally applied to 



Bot-fly. 


the horse bot-fly, Gastroqdiilus equi. The fly lays her eggs 
upon the hairs of the horse, and after laying her eggs 
almost immediately dies. The eggs, conveyed to the horse’s 
stomach, are hatched, and the larvae are provided with 
mouth-hooks by which they hang on to the coats of the 
stomach. In about a year’s time they are discharged with 
the excrement, and in one month they are changed into 
perfect flies. When very numerous there is reason to be¬ 
lieve that bots are very injurious to the horse; but there is 
some dispute among horse-breeders as to the extent of the 
injury done by them. 

Both (Jan), a Flemish painter, was born at Utrecht in 
1610. He was a pupil of Bloemaert, and worked in Italy. 
He excelled in landscapes, and represented the atmospheric 
effects of Italy with much fidelity. Died in 1651. 

Bo'thie [Gaelic bothag, a “hut”], the name applied in 
Scotland to a sort of barrack or large temporary structure 
for the lodging of farm-laborers, stone-cutters, and otheis. 
There are also bothies where women are lodged, rbo 
bothie system is considered by the best classes in Scotland as 
a national disgrace, for the moral results ot the plan have 
been deplorable. 
























572 BOTHNIA—BOTTLE. 


Both'uia [Sw. Botten], a name formerly given to a j 
country of Northern Europe, which belonged to Sweden, 
and was situated on both sides of the Gulf of Bothnia. Th'e 
eastern portion is now comprised in Finland, and the west¬ 
ern forms the Swedish provinces of Bites! and Umea. 

Bothnia, Gulf of, the northern portion of the 0 Baltic 
Sea, extends from Tornea southward to the island of Aland, 
and is about 400 miles long. Its width varies from 60 to 
130 miles. It is bounded on the E. by Finland and on the 
W. by Sweden. Its greatest depth is about fifty fathoms. 
The navigation of it is rendered difficult by many small 
islands and sand-banks near the shores. The gulf is usu¬ 
ally frozen in winter, so that sledges can cross it. 

Bothrioceph'alus [from the Gr. (3o6piov, a “ little 
pit,” and /ce^aArJ, the “head,” named from the depressions 
on each side of its head], a genus of cestoid intestinal 
worms, once supposed to be identical with the Taenia, or 
common tapeworm. It inhabits the bodies of the salmon, 
stickleback, and other fishes, as well as human beings. 
Two species occur in man, Bothriocephalua latus and Both- 
riocephalus cordatus. The former is common only in Rus¬ 
sia, Sweden, Norway, Lapland, Finland, Poland, and Switz¬ 
erland. It is from six to twenty feet in length, composed 
of numerous flat and wide segments, and an elongated, 
compressed, obtuse head. The mouth is small, with a lon¬ 
gitudinal depression extending from it on each side. Like 
the Tsenia, it is hermaphrodite, and besides discharging 
ova multiplies by segmentation, the fragments or proglottides 
being discharged with the faeces of the animal in which it 
lives. Probably this parasite is introduced into the human 
body not only from fish eaten as food, but in drinking 
water from lakes and rivers. Near the Gulf of Bothnia 
scarcely a family is free from it, but a few leagues from the 
coast and main water-courses it almost disappears. Both¬ 
riocephalic cordatus has been found to inhabit the human 
intestines only in North Greenland. In that country it is 
quite common in dogs. It is about a foot in length, and 
receives its name from the cordate or heart-shaped head. 

( Cobbold, Proceedings of the Zoological Society, London, 
1862.) The means of destroying or expelling the “ broad 
tapeworm,” as this parasite is sometimes called, are the 
same as in the case of Taenia.. (See Tapeworm.) 

BothAvell, a county in the S. W. part of Ontario (Can¬ 
ada), is intersected by the Great Western Railway, and 
bounded on the W. by the St. Clair River, and on the S. E. 
by Lake Erie. Large quantities of petroleum are produced. 
Area., 547 square miles. Pop. in 1871, 20,701. 

Bothwell, a post-town of Zone township, Bothwell 
co., Ontario (Canada), on the Great Western Railway, 23 
miles S. W. of Chatham. It has numerous petroleum- 
wells, and a trade in cattle, grain, and lumber, the latter 
being extensively manufactured here. It has one weekly 
paper. Pop. about 1500. 

Bothwell (James Hepburn), Earl of, a profligate 
and audacious Scottish courtier, was born about 1526. He 
inherited the title and large estate of the earl his father in 
1556. In 1562 he was imprisoned for a conspiracy to seize 
the queen’s person, but he escaped to France, after which 
he was outlawed. He returned in 1565, and became an 
enemy of Regent Murray and a favorite adviser of Queen 
Mary. The murder of Lord Darnley (1567) is generally 
imputed to him. He was indicted for this crime, but as he 
came to court with 4000 followers, he was acquitted. In 
April, 1567, many nobles signed a bond or document in 
which they commended Bothwell as a fit husband to the 
queen, whom he carried to Dunbar Castle. He married her 
in May of the same year. A strong party soon took arms 
against Bothwell, who fled to Denmark, where he was im¬ 
prisoned. Died in 1576. (See Burton, “History of Scot¬ 
land,” vol. iv.; Robertson, “ History of Scotland.”) 

Botocu'does, or AymoTes, a native tribe of Brazil. 
They live in the forests on the Rio Doce, along the bound¬ 
ary of the provinces of Espirito Santo and Minas Geraes, 
and are said to resemble the Chinese. They are brave 
but treacherous, and have caused the government consider¬ 
able trouble. They number about 4000, and are rapidly 
dying out. They pierce the lower lip and insert a block of 
wood in the hole. 

Botoshan', or Bootosha'ni, a town in Roumania, 
on the Schiska, 60 miles N. W. of Jassy, carries on a con¬ 
siderable trade with Germany in cattle, wine, wool, to¬ 
bacco, etc. Pop. in 1860, 27,147. 

Bo Tree, or Pee'pill, the Ficus religiosa or sacred 
fig tree of Ilindostan and Ceylon, a species of tree which is 
greatly venerated by the followers of Vishnu (who was 
born under this tree), and especially by the Booddhists. It 
is a large tree, whose sap abounds in caoutchouc, and which 
yields a small edible fig, not much valued. Great amounts 
of lac are gathered from its branches, for it is one of the 


favorite abodes of the lac insect. The famous bo tree of 
Anarajapoora in Ceylon is believed, on apparently good 
grounds, to have been planted in 288 B. C. 

Botrych'ium [from the Gr. /3orpu?, a “ bunch of grapes,” 
the name referring to the appearance of the fruitful fronds], 
a genus of ferns, having the spore-cases distinct, sub-glo¬ 
bose, clustered, and on one side of a pinnated rachis, 
2-valved, without any elastic ring and opening transversely. 
The Botrychium Virginicum is remarkable for its wide 
geographical distribution. It abounds in the U. S. and in 
the Himalaya Mountains, and is found in Norway, Austra¬ 
lia, Mexico, and many other countries. It is boiled and 
eaten in some countries. 

Botryoi/dal [from the Gr. /3oTpv?, a “bunch of grapes,” 
and eZSos, a “form”], a term used in mineralogy, and ap¬ 
plied to substances the surface of which consists of a group 
of clustered globular prominences which resemble grapes 
in form. Examples of such formation are often seen in 
chalcedony and hmmatite. 

Botrytis. See Mildew. 

Bot/ta (Anne Charlotte Lynch), an American poetess, 
born at Bennington, Vt. She was married to Vincenzo 
Botta in 1855. She published a volume of poems in 1849 
and a “Hand-book of Universal Literature” in 1860. 

Botta (Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo), M. D., an eminent 
Italian historian, born at San Giorgio, in Piedmont, Nov. 6, 
1766. He studied medicine, and served as surgeon in the 
French army in 1795-96. In 1803 he was elected to the 
French legislative body. He published in 1809 a “ His¬ 
tory of the American War of Independence,” and in 1825 
a “ History of the Nations of Italy from Constantine to 
Napoleon,” 3 vols. His most important works are a “His¬ 
tory of Italy from 1789 to 1814” (“Storia d’ltalia dal 1789 
al 1814,” 4 vols., 1824), and his “ Continuation of Guic¬ 
ciardini’s History of Italy to 1789” (10 vols., 1832). He 
died in Paris Aug. 10, 1837. (See F. Becciii, “ Elogia 

storico di C. Botta,” 1839.) 

* 

Botta (Paul Emile), a distinguished archaeologist and 
traveller, a son of the preceding, was born in 1794. He en¬ 
tered the service of Mehemet Ali of Egypt as a physician 
about 1830, and became French consul at Alexandria. 
Having visited Arabia in 1837, he published in French a 
“Narrative of a Journey to Yemen, etc.” (1844). He was 
next sent as consul to Mosul, and in 1843 began to exca¬ 
vate the mound at Khorsabad on the Tigris for monuments 
of ancient Assyria, and there discovered a palace with 
statues and cuneiform inscriptions. With the aid of Le- 
tronne, Burnouf, and the artist Flandrin, he published a 
magnificent work entitled “ Monuments of Nineveh, dis¬ 
covered and described by M. Botta, with designs by Flan¬ 
drin ” (5 vols. folio, 1847-50). 

Botta (Vincenzo), Ph. D., born near Turin, Italy, 
Nov. 11, 1818, became professor of philosophy at Cuneo, 
and afterwards at Turin; a member of the parliament in 
1849; in 1850 inspected the educational system of Ger¬ 
many, and in 1853 that of the U. S., and became professor 
of Italian literature in the University of the City of New 
York. Among his works are a “Life of Cavour,” “Dante 
as Philosopher, Patriot, and Poet,” and a history of modern 
philosophy in Italy. 

Bott'ger, written Bott'cher, or Bdt'tiger (Johann 
Friedrich), a German alchemist noted as the inventor of 
Meissen porcelain, was born at Schleiz Feb. 4, 1682. He 
spent much time and money in the search for the philoso¬ 
pher’s stone. Died Mar. 13, 1719. 

Botticel'li (Sandro), an early Italian painter of the 
Tuscan school (1447-1515), was the most eminent of the 
scholars of Filippo Lippi. He was the first who treated 
mythological subjects, and excelled his predecessors in 
movement and drapery. 

Bot'tiger, or Boettiger (Karl August), a German 
archaeologist and litterateur, born at Reichenbach, in Sax¬ 
ony, June 8, 1760. He was a friend of Goethe, Schiller, 
and Herder, with whom he associated at Weimar. He edit¬ 
ed several journals, and published many antiquarian trea¬ 
tises. Died Nov. 17, 1835. A collection of his essays, 
called “ Kleine Schriften,” appeared in 3 vols., 1838. 

Bot'tle [Fr. bouteille; Sp. botilla, the diminutive of 
lota, a “leather bag for carrying liquids”], a vessel for 
holding liquids, usually made of glass or earthenware. 
The bottles mentioned in the Bible were made of the skins 
of animals, and such vessels are still used for carrying 
water in Asia and Africa. In Spain, wine-bottles made of 
goats’ skins are used at the present time. The glass used 
in the manufacture of common bottles is of a coarse quality. 
The process by which they are formed is briefly as follows : 
A long iron tube is dipped into the melted glass, a portion 
of which adheres to the end of the tube. After this material 




























BOTTLE GOUKD—BOUCHETTE. 573 


is partially cooled, the glass-blower puts the end of the tube, 
with the portion of the glass adhering, into a mould, and 
blows into the tube, which lie holds in a vertical position. It 
is then passed from the hands of the blower, and is finished 
by several other workmen. 

Bottle Gourd ( Lagenaria ), a genus of plants of the* 
order Cucurbitacese, is nearly allied to the genus Cucurbitci, 
in which it was formerly included. The Lagenaria vulgaris, 
or common bottle gourd, is a native of India, but is culti¬ 
vated in many warm climates. It is a climbing annual, 
having white flowers, and a large bottle-shaped fruit with 
a hard rind, which is called a calabash, and is used for hold¬ 
ing or dipping water. This fruit is sometimes several feet 
long. Some varieties of Lagenaria have an edible pulp, 
which is an important article of food to the poorer Arabs. 

Bottle-nose Whale, sometimes called Bottlehead 

(Hgperaodon bidens), a cetaceous mammal of the family 
Physeteridae. It inhabits the North Atlantic and some¬ 
times ascends rivers. It seldom exceeds twenty feet in 
length. The name of Bottle-nose Whale is sometimes 
applied to another mammal, the Dclphinus Tursio, a 
dolphin which inhabits the North Sea. 

Bottom Heat, a term applied in horticulture to the 
temperature communicated to certain soils, either by fer¬ 
menting and decomposing substances placed underneath 
them, for which purpose leaves, fresh dung, and the refuse 
bark of the tanyard are often used, or by means of Hues or 
hot-water apparatus. The system is applied to the culti¬ 
vation of pineapples, grapes, melons, cucumbers, and other 
plants grown in hot-houses, pits, or frames. It is one of 
the most important agents in the artificial cultivation of 
tender plants of whatever kind, whether flower or fruit- 
bearing. 

Bot/tomry [from bottom, a part of the ship being put 
for the whole], the act of lending money on the pledge of 
a ship or on the bottom of a ship. It may be considered 
under the following divisions : 1, the nature of the contract; 
2, its form; 3, by whom made; 4, the mode of its enforce¬ 
ment. 

1. The Nature of the Contract. —It is a maritime contract, 
and in the nature of a wager. The substance of the con¬ 
tract is, that if the ship returns the loan is to be repaid 
with interest. If it is lost in the course of navigation, the 
debt is discharged, though the borrower may have abun¬ 
dant means for repayment. The principal of the loan being 
thus put at risk, the case does not come within the opera¬ 
tion of the usury laws. Large interest is sometimes exacted 
-*-15 or 20 per cent., or even a larger rate. The proper court, 
however, has power, in extreme cases of excessive interest, 
to grant relief. Should the ship deviate from her voyage 
and be lost, the lender would not take that risk upon him¬ 
self, but the borrower would still be liable. So if the ship 
be lost by the wrongful act of the borrower or the master, 
instead of the perils of the sea. It has been decided that 
the doctrine of constructive loss which applies in insurance 
law does not extend to a bottomry loan. This loan is not 
within the act of Congress, which requires mortgages and 
conveyances of vessels to be registered for the purpose of 
giving notice to subsequent grantors or to creditors. Should 
the ship return, the loan becomes due, and the principal and 
maritime interest together form a new principal, on which 
ordinary interest will be calculated until payment. A bot¬ 
tomry loan is strictly on the ship. A corresponding loan on 
the cargo is termed resj)ondentia. It is governed by rules 
closely resembling those applicable to bottomry. A bot¬ 
tomry loan has this marked peculiarity, applicable, how¬ 
ever, to other maritime liens: that where there are two or 
more in succession, the latest may have the preference, as 
it may be the price of the safety of the ship. In liens 
created regularly upon property on land it is a well-known 
general rule that the earliest has the preference. 

2. The Form of the Transaction. —There is usually exe¬ 
cuted a bottomry bond. This is not, however, absolutely 
essential. The courts do not look so much at the technical 
forms as at the intent of the parties. Even if there were 
a sale intended as a security for a loan, evidence to show 
the true nature of the transaction could be adduced, and it 
would be enforced accordingly. 

3. By Whom Given. —A bottomry bond may be executed 
either by the owner or the master of the ship in the owner’s 
absence. The owner can execute it, in general, whenever 
he sees fit, so long as the transaction is in its nature mari¬ 
time. A master of a ship, on the other hand, is governed 
by special rules. His leading duty is to navigate the ship, 
not to pledge nor to sell it. These latter powers are con¬ 
ferred upon him in extraordinary emergencies, where the 
exigencies require it. The lender must be prepared to show 
that the case is one which justifies the loan, such as stress 
of weather, necessity of repairs, and the like. Hue meas¬ 
ures must be taken to communicato with the owner where 


such communication is feasible. At the present time the 
telegraph must be resorted to where it is accessible. Tho 
power of the master may in like manner in extraordinary 
cases extend to a pledge, or even a sale, of the cargo. The 
general test of his authority in all these cases is that he 
must exercise the diligence of a prudent owner, and that 
there must be an apparent necessity for the pledge or sale. 

4. Enforcement. —A bottomry bond is enforceable in a 
court of admiralty—in this country in tho district courts 
of the U. S. A proceeding is instituted against the ship, 
or, in technical language, in rem. If necessary, the ship 
may be sold, and the claim paid out of its proceeds. The 
borrower is also personally responsible. The lien of seamen 
for subsequent wages is superior to that of the bottomry 
lender. Should the latter, in order to preserve his own 
claim, discharge that of the seamen, he could have a lien 
upon the proceeds of the ship for his reimbursement, as 
well as a personal claim against the owners; or, in other 
words, he would be allowed to stand in the place of the 
seamen. 

It may be added that if a ship, having incurred a bot¬ 
tomry loan, does not set out on her intended voyage, the 
property will not have incurred any maritime risk, and con¬ 
sequently the maritime interest cannot be exacted, but only 
ordinary interest. T. W. Dwight. 

Botts (John Minor), an American statesman, born at 
Dumfries, Prince William co., Va., Sept, 16, 1802. He was 
elected to Congress as a Whig in 1839, and re-elected sev¬ 
eral times. In 1844 he supported Mr. Clay for the presi¬ 
dency. He opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compro¬ 
mise in 1854, was a firm adherent of the Union during the 
civil war, and afterwards favored the Republican party. He 
wrote “The Great Rebellion” (1866). Died Jan. 8, 1869. 

Bot'zen, or Bozen [It. Bolzano], a trading town of 
the Austrian Tyrol, at the junction of the river Talf with 
the Eisach, 33 miles by rail N. N. E. of Trent. It is sit¬ 
uated in a hilly or mountainous district, is well built, and 
contains a gymnasium, a Gothic cathedral, and a castle; also 
manufactures of silk, linen, hosiery, etc. It has four an¬ 
nual fairs, and is an entrepot of the trade between Italy, 
Germany, and Switzerland. Pop. in 1869, 9357. 

Bouchardat (Apollinaire), a French pharmaceutist, 
born about 1810, commenced young the study of medicine 
and pharmacy at Paris, and became professor of hygiene 
in 1852. His most important works are “ Recherches sur 
la Vegetation ” (1846), and elementary treatises on applied 
chemistry, physical science, materia medica, therapeutics, 
agricultural economy, and several original treatises on 
wine and wine-culture. 

Bou'cher (Jonathan), an English philologist, born in 
Cumberland in 1738. He removed to Virginia in 1756, 
became rector of a parish church, and was a royalist in the 
Revolution. He returned to England in 1775, and com¬ 
piled a “ Glossary of Archaic and Provincial Words.” 
Died April 27, 1804. 

Boucher de Perthes (Jacques), a French arclnoolo- 
gist and naturalist, born at Rethel Sept. 10, 1788. His 
principal works are “The Creation” (5 vols., 1839-41) and 
“Celtic and Antediluvian Antiquities” (1847). He is re¬ 
garded as the founder of the science of archaeo-geology. 
Died Aug. 9, 1868. 

Boucherie (Auguste), a French chemist, born in 
Sept., 1801, invented a method of preserving wood. Ho 
employed sulphate of copper. 

Bouches-du-Rhone, a department in the S. E.part 
of France, was formerly included in Provence. Its area is 
1971 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Durance, 
which separates it from Vaucluse, on the E. by Var, on the 

S. by the Mediterranean, and on the W. by Gard. It is 
intersected by the Rhone, which enters the sea by several 
mouths, and forms a delta called the “lie de la Camargue.” 
The surface in the E. part is hilly, and is elsewhere diver¬ 
sified by plains, heaths, forests, and saline lakes. Tho 
grapevine and olive flourish here, and large numbers of 
silkworms and sheep are raised in this department. Among 
its public works are several canals, a railway connecting 
Marseilles with Lyons, and an aqueduct, fifty miles long, 
from the Durance to Marseilles, which is the capital. It 
has manufactures of cloth, hats, perfumes, wine, brandy, 
soap, olive oil, and chemical products. It is divided into 
3 arrondissements, 27 cantons, and 107 communes. Pop. 
in 1872, 554,911. 

Bouchette (Joseph) was born in Canada in b <4. In 
1790 he entered tho surveyor-general’s office for British 
America, and afterwards served in the volunteers and in 
the navy of the lakes. In 1804 he became surveyor-general. 
Ho served against the IJ. S. in the war of 1812. As sur¬ 
veyor-general he was afterwards employed in establishing 
the southern boundary of Canada. Ho published (1816) a 






















574 BOUCICAULT—BOULDER. 


topographical and geographical description of Canada, 
“ The British Dominions in North America” (1831), and a 
“Topographical Dictionary of Lower Canada” (1832). 
Died at Montreal April 9, 1841. 

lloucicault (Dion) was born in Dublin, Ireland, Dec. 
26, 1822, and was educated by his guardian, Dr. Dionysius 
Lardner, and at the London University. His first success¬ 
ful play was “ London Assurance,” which he wrote in con¬ 
junction with John Brougham, and which was acted in 
1841 at Covent Garden, London. lie was married to Miss 
Agnes Robertson, came to America in 1853, and remained 
till 1860, when ho returned to London, and brought out, at 
the Adelphi Theatre, his first, and still famous, Irish play, 
“The Colleen Bawn.” This is founded on Gerald Griflin’s 
novel of “The Collegians.” In 1861 was produced at the 
same theatre his play of “ The Octoroon,” which vigorously 
illustrated, and by implication denounced, the evils of sla¬ 
very in the Southern U. S. He remained in England till 
1872, and during these twelve years he furnished to the 
London stage the following plays: 1862, “Dot, ”“ The Life 
of an Actress,” “The Phantom,” “The Relief of Luck¬ 
now ;” 1863, “ The Trial of Effie Deans ;” 1864, « The Streets 
of London;” 1865, “Arrah-Na-Pogue,” “Rip Van Winkle,” 
“The Parish Clerk” (the latter, written for Joseph Jeffer¬ 
son, was not acted in London); 1866, “ The Flying Scud,” 
“Hunted Down,” “The Long Strike;” 1867, “How She 
Loves Him!” “Foul Play” (written in collaboration with 
the novelist Charles Reade); 1868, “After Dark;” 1869, 
“Lost at Sea,” “Formosa,” “Presumptive Evidence;” 
1870, “ The Rapparee,” “Jezebel;” 1871, “Elsie,” “Kerry;” 
1872, “Babil and Bijou.” In the autumn of 1872 he ap¬ 
peared at Booth’s Theatre, New York, as Shaun in “Arrah- 
Na-Pogue.” In 1873 he produced, at Booth’s Theatre, his 
beautiful Irish play of “Daddy O’Dowd;” at Wallack’s 
Theatre, his “Mora” and his “Mimi;” and at the Union 
Square Theatre, his “Led Astray.” On Dec. 25, 1873, he 
opened, in conjunction with Mr. William Stuart, the New 
Park Theatre, on Broadway, near Twenty-second street, 
New York. Among his earlier works, prior to his first ) 
visit to America, were “Old Heads and Young Hearts,” 

“ The Irish Heiress,” “ The Willow Copse,” “ The Corsican 
Brothers,” “Faust and Marguerite,” and “The Vampire.” 
The dramas of Boucicault are seldom, if ever, original in 
plot, but they are often original, and sometimes superla¬ 
tively good, in action, treatment of incidents, and bright¬ 
ness of dialogue. His melodramas excel those of the ear¬ 
lier school—which they have superseded—in vitality of 
subject, lifelike character, human interest, and pointed 
colloquy. The elevation of this class of stage literature is 
directly traceable to his influence. He has also been the 
means of great improvement and elevation to the Irish 
drama, having replaced the “ ranting, roaring Irishman,” 
with stuffed stick and black bottle, by genuine men of the 
Emerald Isle, such as Diogenes in “ How She Loves Him !” 
Johnny Reilly in “ The Long Strike,” Myles-na-Coppaleen, 
Shaun the Post, Kerry, and Daddy O’Dowd. As an actor, 
Mr. Boucicault’s best successes have been won in person¬ 
ating eccentric characters, such as Mantilini, and rustic old 
Irishmen, such as Daddy O’Dowd. He will be remembered, 
however, for his Grinaldi and his Vampire. He will also 
be remembered for having made dramatic authorship a 
remunerative profession to dramatic authors in England. 
This he did by asserting, maintaining, and finally estab¬ 
lishing the principle that among theatrical attractions the 
play should be made predominant, and should be suitably 
recompensed. The change in practice that ensued may be 
inferred from the fact that whereas, in the earlier part of 
his career, Mr. Boucicault received but £60 for his “ Corsi¬ 
can Brothers,” he obtained, in 1866, for his “ Flying Scud,” 
£6500. Boucicault was educated as an architect and civil 
engineer. As a manager he established a theatre in Wash¬ 
ington, D. C.,in 1858; reconstructed the Metropolitan The¬ 
atre, New York, and converted it into the AVinter Garden 
in 1859 ; and remodelled Astley’s Circus and built the AVest- 
minster Theatre—both in London—in 1862. He is the 
author of numerous newspaper essays and letters on dra¬ 
matic subjects, and of an unpublished work on the stage 
and kindred themes, called “ The Master of the Revels.” 

AVilliam Winter, of the “ N. Y. Tribune.” 

Bouck'ville, a post-village of Madison township, Mad¬ 
ison co., N. Y., on the New York and Oswego Midland 
R. R., 15 miles S. AY. of Clinton. It has considerable man¬ 
ufactures of lumber, cheese, and vinegar, and a distillery 
of cider-brandy. 

Bou'dinot (Elias), LL.D., an American patriot, born 
in Philadelphia May 2, 1740. He practised law in New 
Jersey, and supported the popular cause in the Revolution. 
He was chosen a delegate to the Continental Congress in 
1777, was a member of Congress (1789-95), and was direc¬ 
tor of the Mint at Philadelphia from 1796 to 1805, In 1816 


he became the first president of the American Bible Society. 
He wrote several works, and gave large sums of money for 
charitable purposes. His wife was a sister of Richard 
Stockton. He died Oct. 24, 1821. 

Boudoir, a small cabinet or private apartment, usually 
near the bed-chamber, designed as a place of retirement for 
the mistress of the house, who sometimes receives there her 
intimate friends. Boudoirs became fashionable in France 
in the reign of Louis XIV. 

Bouflers, de (Louis Francois), Duke, a famous 
French general, born Jan. 10, 1644. He served under 
Turenne and Catinat, distinguished himself at Steenkerke 
in 1692, and became a marshal of France in 1693. He 
commanded at Namur when it was besieged by AYilliam 
III. of England in 1695, and defended Lille with success 
in 1708 against Prince Eugene. He commanded a wing at 
Malplaquet (1709), from which he made a masterly retreat. 
Died Aug. 20,1711. (See “ A r ie du Marechal du Bouflers,” 
Lille, 1852.) 

Bougainville, de (Louis Antoine), a famous French 
navigator, born in Paris Nov. 11, 1729. He w\as aide-de- 
camp to Montcalm in America in 1756, and served with 
distinction in Germany in 1761. He performed a voyage 
round the world in 1767—69, and discovered several islands 
in the South Sea, being the first Frenchman who circum¬ 
navigated the globe, and he published in 1771 a narrative 
of that voyage. During the American Revolution he had 
a high command in several naval battles between the 
French and English. Died Aug. 31, 1811. 

Bought Note, a memorandum given by a broker who 
effects a sale to the purchaser, in which he is notified that 
the property therein described has been bought for him 
of the seller, the price and terms being stated. A similar 
memorandum given to the seller is called the sold note. 
According to some authorities, the bought note is given to 
the seller, and the sold note to the buyer. As a general rule, 
the notes must correspond, or there will be no contract. 

Bough'ton (George H.), a painter of great merit, born 
in Norfolk, England, in 1836, removed to Albany, N. Y. 
After a few years’ residence in America, he returned to 
England. His works, chiefly landscapes and genre pic¬ 
tures, are marked by delicacy of execution and tenderness 
of sentiment. 

Bougie, boo'zhee' [a French word signifying a “wax 
candle,” so called because sometimes made of waxed linen], 
a slender surgical instrument designed to be introduced 
into the male urethra. It is usually made of gum-elastic 
or gutta-percha, but may be made of other flexible sub¬ 
stances. Bougies are often medicated, but more commonly 
they are designed to act mechanically upon a contracted 
passage. Bougies are sometimes made of a larger size for 
the rectum or for the oesophagus. 

Bouguer (Pierre), a French mathematician and nat¬ 
ural philosopher, born in Brittany Feb. 16, 1698. He pub¬ 
lished in 1729 an “Essay on Optics and the Gradation of 
Light,” and was associated in 1736 with La Condamine in 
an expedition to Peru for the purpose of measuring a de¬ 
gree of the meridian, in which they spent several years. 
He published the results of this operation in an important 
work entitled “ Theory of the Figure of the Earth ” (1749). 
He wrote other works, and invented the heliometer. Died 
Aug. 15, 1758. 

Bouillon, de (Godefroi). See Godfrey of Bouil¬ 
lon. 

Boul'den, a township of Linn co., Ia. Pop. 937. 

Boul'der, or Bowlder, a large mass or fragment of 
rock lying on or near the surface of the ground, and found 
at a distance from the place of its origin and from the 
formation to which it belongs. Boulders are usually 
rounded by attrition. In many cases they have been 
transported hundreds of miles by the action of icebergs or 
glaciers. Large masses of Scandinavian rocks are scat¬ 
tered over the plains of Denmark and Northern Germany. 
The pedestal of the statue of Peter the Great at St. Peters¬ 
burg was hewn out of an erratic granite boulder forty-two 
feet long, twenty-seven feet broad, and twenty-one feet high. 
In the Western States occur many granite boulders which 
probably came from Canada. They abound along the coast 
of New England, where they are so large as to form a 
prominent feature in the landscape. The famous Plymouth 
Rock is a boulder of syenite. (See Drift.) 

Boul'der, a county in the N. part of Colorado. Area, 
900 square miles. It is drained by Boulder and Saint 
A lain s creeks. It is bounded on the AY. by a range of 
the Rocky Mountains which separates it from the Middlo 
ark. The soil is fertile. Grain, hay, and butter are pro¬ 
duced. Gold, silvor, iron, and coal abound here. Capital 
Boulder. Pop. 1939. ^ 

Boulder, a post-village, capital of the above county. 




















BOULDER CLAY—BOURBON. 


on Boulder Creek, near the E. base of the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains, 25 miles N. W. of Denver. The celebrated Caribou 
silver and the Gold Hill gold-mines are in the immediate 
vicinity. It is a popular resort for excursionists. It has 
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 343. 

Ed. “ Boulder County News.” 

Boulder Clay. See Geology, by Prof. J. W. Daw¬ 
son, LL.D., F. R. S. 

Bou'le [Gr. £ovArj, a “council”], the name of the an¬ 
cient Athenian senate, instituted by Solon as a check on 
the ecclesia (e/c/cArjo-ta), which was an assembly of the whole 
people. The boule was at first composed of 400 members, 
but Cleisthenes increased the number to 500 when he di¬ 
vided the Athenians into ten tribes. The number was sub¬ 
sequently raised to 600. All freeborn Athenian citizens 
above thirty years of age were eligible to this council. 

Boulevard', a French word corresponding to the 
English “bulwark” or “rampart,” was applied to the 
fortifications erected around many towns in Europe. In 
Franco and Germany these defensive works have been 
generally levelled and converted into public promenades 
or avenues lined with trees. The boulevards of Paris arc 
celebrated for their beauty, and are mostly curvilinear. 
The Inner Boulevards form a magnificent central thorough¬ 
fare, lined on each side by a double row of trees, under 
which is a wide and elevated pathway, and bordered by 
elegant shops and mansions, the whole presenting a scene 
of gayety and splendor which no other capital can equal. 
The Italian Boulevard is a fashionable promenade. 

Boulogne, a town of France, department of the Seine, 
is on the right bank of the river Seine, 5 miles W. of 
Paris, from which it is separated by the Bois ds Boulogne 
(which see). A fine stone bridge connects it with the 
ruined palace of St. Cloud. It is surrounded by beautiful 
scenery. Pop. 17,343. 

Boulogne, or BouIogne-sur-Mer, a seaport of 
France, department of Pas-de-Calais, is on the English 
Channel, at the mouth of the Lianne, 158 miles by rail 
N. N. W. of Paris and 27 miles by rail S. W. of Calais; 
lat. 50° 44' N., Ion. 1° 37' E. The railway which connects 
Calais with Amiens passes through it. It is divided into 
two parts—the upper and lower town, from the former of 
which the English coast is visible. The upper town has 
beautiful promenades, an old Gothic cathedral, a hotel de 
ville, and an episcopal palace. The lower town is newer, 
more regular, and more populous. It contains a hospital, 
a theatre, a museum, a public library, and an exchange. 
Boulogne derives much of its prosperity from English resi¬ 
dents and visitors, who are very numerous. Steamers ply 
twice a day between this port and Folkestone. The harbor 
will admit large vessels during high water. Here are 
manufactures of linen and woollen goods, sailcloth, cord¬ 
age, bottles, etc. It occupies the site of the ancient Geaori- 
acum, which after the time of Constantine the Great was 
called Bononia Oceanensis. Several centuries later the 
name was changed to Bolonia. At this place Napoleon 
assembled in 1804 an army of 180,000 men and a flotilla 
of 2400 transports for the invasion of England. To com¬ 
memorate this design, which, however, was never executed, 
a column 164 feet high was erected. Pop. 40,251. 

Boulogne (Etienne Antoine), an eloquent French 
prelate, born Dec. 26, 1747, edited during the Revolution 
the “ Annales religieuses,” which was several times sup¬ 
pressed and revived with altered title. Under the empire 
he, as bishop of Troyes, was imprisoned with two other 
bishops for declaring that the emperor had no authority to 
confine a bishop without the approval of the pope. He 
was made an archbishop in 1822. His works appeared in 
1826-28, 8 vols. Died May 13, 1825. 

Boul'ton (Matthew), an English inventor, born at 
Birmingham Sept, 3, 1728. He was noted for his energy 
and enterprise as a manufacturer, and he became a friend 
and partner of James Watt. He established at Soho, near 
Birmingham, a manufactory of steam-engines in 1765. 
Boulton invented an improved apparatus for coining 
money and a new mode of inlaying steel. He was a man 
of generous disposition. Died Aug. 17, 1809. (See “Lite 
of M. Boulton,” Birmingham, 1809.) 

Bou-Maza (Si Mohammed ben Abdallah, sumamed), 
an Arab chief, born about 1820, followed for three years 
the austere life of a dervish, and then, proclaiming that he 
was an emissary of Heaven, he stirred up the Kabyles, the 
warlike inhabitants of Dahra in Algiers, preached exter¬ 
mination to Christians, and waged war upon the allies of 
France, Hadj-Achmed and Sidi-Darribi. He surrendered 
after a protracted conflict with Gen. Herbillon, Jan. 13, 
1847, and was conveyed to Paris. He afterwards entered 
the service of the Porte, and attained the rank of colonel. 

Boul'ware, a township of Gasconado co., Mo. P. 983. 


575 


Bound, or Bound'ary, a limit; the line which in¬ 
cludes the whole of any object or space; also a leap, a 
spring, a rebound. The term “ boundary ” is applied to 
the limit line of demarcation which separates one state or 
country from another, and which is sometimes an imagi¬ 
nary line, sometimes a river, sea, or other natural barrier. 
In the mensuration and description of real estate, “ bound ” 
is used to denote the utmost limits of land by which the 
same is known and can be described, being in this sense 
synonymous with abuttals. 

Bound, or Bownd (Nicolas), D. D., a clergyman of 
the Church of England at Norton, in Suffolk, who died in 
1607. He published in 1595 (enlarged edition in 1606) his 
famous work, “ Sabbathum Veteris et Novi Testamenti,” 
in which the Puritan doctrine of the Lord’s Day was for 
the first time broadly and prominently asserted. 

Bound Bai'lifF, in England, is a sheriff’s officer whose 
duty it is to discover and arrest debtors. He is so called be¬ 
cause he is annually bound in an obligation, with sureties, 
for the due execution of his office. (See Bailiff.) The name 
is corrupted into “ bum bailiff” by the common people. 

Bound Brook, a post-village of Bridgewater town¬ 
ship, Somerset co., N. J., on the Central R. R. of New Jersey, 
31 miles W. S.W. of New York. It is pleasantly situated 
on the Raritan River and the Delaware and Raritan Canal. 
It has five churches and important manufactures. Its 
trade in lumber is very extensive. Pop. 556. 

Boun'ty [from the Fr. bontS, “ goodness,” “kindness”], 
a premium given by government to foster some branch of 
industry, or encourage enterprises which are believed to be 
of national importance and conducive to,the public in¬ 
terests. The British government formerly gave bounties 
to encourage the herring-fisheries and the exportation of 
grain and Irish linen, and for other purposes. The mod¬ 
ern political economists reject this factitious method of fos¬ 
tering commerce, agriculture, etc., and argue that it pro¬ 
motes a misdirection of capital, talent, and industry. The 
impolicy of giving bounties for such purposes appears to 
be now generally admitted. They are often given, partic¬ 
ularly in new countries, for the destruction of ferocious 
animals, as wolves, bears, etc. Some of the U. S. give 
bounties for tree-planting. Subsidies to steamship com¬ 
panies and land-grants to railways are especially common 
in the U. S. 

A bounty in money is also often given to induce men to 
enlist in the army and navy. The amount of this money 
varies according to the exigency and the difficulty of ob¬ 
taining recruits. In 1812 the British government offered 
a nominal bounty of £23 17s. 6c?., but this was subject to 
large deductions and drawbacks. The bounty given in 
Great Britain at present is about one pound sterling. In 
the American civil war the recruits of the Union army re¬ 
ceived in some cases a bounty of $500 or more. Many of 
these recruits deserted soon after they had received the 
bounty; these were called “bounty-jumpers.” 

Bouquetin, or Ibex of the Alps ( Capra Ibex), 
[Ger. Stein bock), a species of wild goat which is found on 
the Alps, and which ascends to the limit of perpetual snow. 
It is larger than the common goat, and has large horns 
which curve backward. The horns of the male are some¬ 
times twenty inches long or more. It has no beard except 
a few hairs in winter. The color of the hair is mostly 
brown. This animal feeds on shrubs, lichens, and the 
scanty herbage which is found on the confines of vegeta¬ 
tion. It has an extraordinary power of bounding from 
crag to crag, and of climbing precipices which are almost 
perpendicular. The bouquetin can be tamed if it is taken 
young, and it will breed with the common goat. 

Bourbaki (Charles Denis Sauter), a French general, 
born April 22, 1816, took part in the wars in the Crimea 
and in Italy, and in the beginning of the German-French 
war of 1870 he commanded the imperial guards before 
Metz. After the deposition of Napoleon he organized the 
Army of the North, then commanded in the E. of France, 
and was forced to cross the Swiss frontier with 84,000 men, 
Feb. 1, 1871. 

Bourbon, called also He de la Reunion, or He 
Bonaparte, an island and French Colony in the Indian 
Ocean, belongs to the Mascarene group, and is about 100 
miles S. W. of Mauritius; lat. 20° 51' 43” S., Ion. 55° 30' 
16” E. It is 38 miles long, 28 miles wide, and has an area 
of 956 square miles. Pop. in 1867, 209,688. It is volcanic, 
and is traversed by a mountain-chain the direction of which 
is N. and S. This mountain-range, of which one peak rises 
10,000 feet above the sea, divides the island into two por¬ 
tions, differing in climate and productions. The Piton do 
Fournaise, 7200 feet high, is an active volcano, the eruptions 
of which occur on an averago at least twice a year. The 
soil in some parts is very fertile, and the scenery is genor- 

























BOURBON—BOURDON. 


576 


ally extremely beautiful. The climate was formerly healthy, 
hut Europeans now suffer much from typhoid fever and 
dysentery. The mean annual temperature is about 77° F. 
It is often visited by terrific hurricanes, which demolish 
houses and tear up trees by the roots. The chief articles 
of export are sugar, coffee, and dyewoods. Maize, rice, 
and tobacco arc also cultivated. The island has no good 
harbors, and the coast is consequently dangerous. In one 
year (1843-44) eleven large vessels were wrecked here. 
Capital, St. Denis. This island was discovered in 1545 by 
the Portuguese, and was occupied by the French in 1649. 

Bourbon, a county of Kansas, bordering on Missouri. 
Area, 625 square miles. It is drained by the Little Osage 
and Marmaton rivers. The surface is undulating or nearly 
level; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool 
are produced. Excellent coal abounds. A large portion 
of the county is prairie. It is intersected by the Missouri 
River Fort Scott and Gulf and the Missouri Kansas and 
Texas R. Rs. Capital, Fort Scott. Pop. 15,076. 

Bourbon, a county of the N. central part of Kentucky. 
Area, 300 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the 
South Licking River and drained by several creeks. The 
surface is undulating; the soil is calcareous and very fer¬ 
tile. This county forms part of the “ Blue-grass region,” 
called “ the garden of Kentucky.” Live-stock, grain, and 
wool are staple products. This county gives its name to a 
celebrated brand of whisky. It has several mineral springs, 
and is intersected by the Kentucky Central R. R. Capital, 
Paris. Pop. 14,863. 

Bourbon, a township of Douglas co., Ill. Pop. 1457. 

Bourbon, a post-village of Marshall co., Ind., on the 
Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R., 53 miles from 
Fort Wayne, and 95 from Chicago. It contains 2 churches, 
1 academy, 1 graded school, 2 saw-mills, 1 large wagon 
manufactory and several smaller ones, 1 steam furniture 
manufactory, and 1 on a less extensive scale, a large flour¬ 
ing mill, several extensive boot and shoe manufactories, 
and various other mechanical enterprises ; one literary so¬ 
ciety with a librai’y. The surrounding country is very fer¬ 
tile, abounding in valuable timber, such as walnut, poplar, 
oak, maple, beech, etc. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 
874; of township, 2794. 

I. Mattingly, Ed. “ Bourbon Mirror.” 

Bourbon, a township of Boone co., Mo. Pop. 2384. 

Bourbon, a township of Callaway co., Mo. Pop. 1590. 

Bourbon, the name of a celebrated French royal 
family which reigned over France from 1589 to 1792, and 
from 1815 to 1848. A prince of the Bourbon dynasty also 
obtained the throne of Spain in 1700, and another that of 
Naples and Sicily in 1735. The Bourbons derive their 
name from the castle of Bourbon, which was built in the 
thirteenth century, and was situated in the old province of 
Bourbonnais, 16 miles W. of Moulins. The heiress of the 
seignory was married in 1272 to Robert, a younger son of 
King Louis IX. The seignory was erected into a duchy, 
and Louis, a son of Robert, became about 1327 the first 
duke of Bourbon. He died in 1341, and was succeeded by 
his son Pierre, who was killed at Poitiers in 1356. Louis, 
a son of Pierre, became the third duke of Bourbon. He 
was one of the most powerful vassals of the crown of 
France, and made large additions to the duchy by his mar¬ 
riages. Died in 1410. His son Jean, born in 1381, was 
the fourth duke. He was taken prisoner by the English at 
Agincourt, and detained until his death (1434). He was 
succeeded by his son Charles, born in 1401. He died in 
1456, leaving a son Jean, who became the sixth duke of 
Bourbon and constable of France. (See Bourbon, de, 
Charles.) 

Among the collateral branches of the Bourbon family 
were those of VendSme, Conde, Montpensier, Orleans, Conti, 
and Soissons. Antoine de Bourbon, duke of Vendome, be¬ 
came by marriage king of Navarre. His son, Henry of 
Navarre, was the first French king of the house of Bourbon, 
and began to reign as Henry IV. in 1589. He had two 
sons, Louis XIII. and Gaston, duke of Orleans; a daugh¬ 
ter, Elizabeth, who was married to Philip IV. of Spain, and 
Henrietta, who became the queen of Charles I. of England. 
Louis XIII., who died in 1643, left two sons, Louis XIV. 
and Philip, duke of Orleans, who was the ancestor of King 
Louis Philippe. The dauphin, the eldest son of Louis 
XIV., died in 1711, leaving three sons—1, Louis, duke of 
Burgundy ; 2, Philip, duke of Anjou, who became king of 
Spain as Philip V.; 3, Charles, duke of Berry. Louis of 
Burgundy, who died in 1712, was the father of Louis XV., 
who succeeded his great-grandfather, Louis XIV., in 1715. 
Louis XV. had one son, Louis, who died before his father, 
leaving three sons, who all reigned successively—namely, 
Louis XVI., Louis XVIII., and Charles X. Louis XVI. 
left one son, who by the royalists was recognized as Louis 


XVII., but perished as a child during the French Revolu¬ 
tion. As the circumstances of his death remained unknown, 
many adventurers claimed to be Louis XVII. Louis XVIIL 
had no issue. Charles X. had two sons—Louis Antoine, who 
died without issue in 1844; and Charles Ferdinand, duke 
of Berry. His only son, Ilenri, duke of Bordeaux, now 
styled Count de Chambord, is the heir to the throne, ac¬ 
cording to the Legitimists, who give him the title of Henry 
V. (See Ciiambord.) 

The House of Orleans is called the younger branch of the 
royal family of Bourbon, and is descended from Philip of 
Orleans, a younger brother of Louis XIV. Ilis son Philip 
was regent of France during the minority of Louis XV., 
and left a son, Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans. This last 
was the grandfather of the duke of Orleans w ho figured in 
the Revolution as Citizen Egalite. His eldest son, Louis 
Philippe, became king of the French in 1830. This king 
had five sons—the duke of Orleans, the duke of Nemours, 
the prince de Joinville, the duke of Aumale, and the duke 
of Montpensier. The count of Paris, the son of the eldest 
of these five, is regarded as the heir to the throne by the 
Orleanist party. 

Philip, duke of Anjou, who was placed on the throne of 
Spain in 1700, was the founder of a Spanish dynasty, 
which reigned in Spain until the dethronement of Queen 
Isabella in 1868. He was also the ancestor of the Bourbon 
dynasties of Naples and Parma. Francis II., who was de¬ 
throned in Sept., 1860, was the last Bourbon monarch of 
Naples (or the Two Sicilies). The Bourbons have also 
ceased to reign in Parma, which was annexed to the king¬ 
dom of Italy in 1860. (See Achaintre, “ Histoire Chrono- 
logique et Genealogique de la Maison Royale de Bour¬ 
bon,” 2 vols., 1825 ; Coxe, “ Memoirs of the Kings of Spain 
of the House of Bourbon,” 3 vols., 1813.) 

Revised by A. J. Schem. 

Bourbon, de (Charles), Due, usually styled Consta¬ 
ble Bourbon (Connetable de Bourbon), a famous French 
general, born Feb. 17, 1489, was a son of Gilbert Bourbon, 
count of Montpensier. He married the heiress of the duke 
of Bourbon, and became the owner of the vast estates of 
both branches of the Bourbons. He was appointed con¬ 
stable of France in 1515, and was one of the generals who 
gained a victory at Marignano in that year. He was very 
popular with the soldiers. The mother of Francis I. was 
enamored of him, but her overtures having been rejected, 
she became his enemy. At her instigation, the estates 
which he had acquired by marriage were seized by the 
king. Bourbon deeply resented this injury, renounced his 
allegiance to the king of France in 1523, and became the 
ally of the emperor Charles V., for whose service he raised 
about 6000 Germans. He contributed largely to the victory 
which the imperial army gained over the French at Pavia 
in 1525. It appears that he was distrusted by Charles V., 
who neglected to pay Bourbon’s German mercenaries, 
and these consequently became mutinous. He resolved to 
quit the service of Charles V., and in order to satisfy his 
Hoops with spoils of conquest he conducted a daring enter¬ 
prise against Rome, in which he displayed great military 
talents. His army took Rome by assault May 5, 1527, but 
he was killed as he mounted the wall. (See Robertson, 
“ History of Charles V.;” Brantome, “Vies des grands 
Capitaines.”) 

Bourbonnais, a township of Kankakee co., Ill. Pop. 
2068. 

Bourbon-Vendee, or Napoleon Vendee, a town 

of France, capital of the department of La Vendee, on the 
river Yon, 48 miles by rail S. of Nantes. It has a college, 
a normal school, town-hall, and hospital. Pop. 8710. 

Bourdaloue (Louis), an excellent French pulpit orator, 
born at Bourges Aug. 20, 1632. He entered the order of 
Jesuits in 1648, and became professor of rhetoric and phil¬ 
osophy. In 1669 he removed to Paris, where he preached 
for many years, and was often heard by Louis XIV., who 
expressed a high opinion of his sermons. He was distin¬ 
guished for the dignity of his manner, the wisdom of his 
thoughts, and the earnestness of his piety. His style of 
eloquence was less inflated and more simple than that which 
then prevailed in France. He was a general favorite with 
the common people, as well as the learned and higher classes. 
Died in Paris May 13, 1704. His sermons were published 
in 16 vols., 1707-34. (See Prigny, “Vie de Bourdaloue,” 
1705; Villenave, “Notice sur Bourdaloue,” 1812; J. 
Laboitderie, “Notice sur Bourdaloue,!’ 1825.) 

Bourtloin, a township of Texas co., Mo. Pop. 316. 

Bourdon [a French word signifying “staff”], in music, 
is applied to the humming sound produced by blowing 
through a long hollow staff. Hence the apparatus in or¬ 
gans, stringed instruments, etc. by which the deep sound 
is made. 













BOURGELAT—BOUVET. 577 


Bourgelat (Claude), a French physician and writer, 
noted as the founder of veterinary schools in France, was 
born at Lyons Mar. 17, 1712. He wrote on materia medica, 
farriery, contagious diseases, etc. In 1762 he founded a 
veterinary school at Lyons. Died Jan. 3, 1779. 

Bourg-en-Bresse, a town of France, capital of the 
department of Ain, is pleasantly situated on the Reyssouse, 
57 miles by rail N. N. E. of Lyons. Several railways con¬ 
nect it with Lyons, Macon, and Besan§on. It is well built, 
has a college, a museum, a large hospital, and a public library 
of about 20,000 volumes. Here are manufactures of linens, 
cotton stuffs, hosiery, etc. Pop. 13,733. 

Bourgeois, a French word signifying a citizen or resi¬ 
dent of a city ; a commoner, as distinguished from a noble¬ 
man ; a civilian, as distinguished from a soldier. A citizen 
of the state or republic is called citoyen. 

Bourgeois, the name of a type used in printing. It 
is one size larger than brevier, and one size smaller than 
long primer. 

B ourgeoisie, a French term, which is also much used 
in English, defined in dictionaries as “ citizens/’ “ citizen¬ 
ship,” “commonalty.” It is applied to the great middle 
class of French society, composed mostly of merchants, 
manufacturers, master mechanics, lawyers, etc., who live in 
towns and cities. They are inferior in rank to the aristoc¬ 
racy, and superior to the peasantry and to the proUtaires 
of the towns. 

Bourges (anc. Avaricum, afterwards Biturigcs), a city 
of France, near its centre, capital of the department of 
Cher, is situated in a fertile plain at the confluence of the 
Auron and the Eure, 146 miles by rail S. of Paris. It is 
connected by railway with Paris, Orleans, Moulins, and 
other cities. It was enclosed by ramparts, which have been 
converted into promenades or boulevards bordered with 
chestnut and walnut trees. The streets are crooked and 
the houses mostly antique. Bourges has a college, a nor¬ 
mal school, a public library of about 25,000 volumes, a fine 
hotel de ville, and a magnificent Gothic cathedral, which 
is considered one of the finest in Europe. It is the see of 
an archbishop. This town was formerly the seat of a 
celebrated university. It has manufactures of cutlery, 
woollen stuffs, etc. Avaricum, which occupied this site, 
was very ancient town, and was the capital of Celtic 
Gaul about 500 B. C. It was the chief town of the Bitu- 
riges in the time of Julius Csesar, who besieged and took it 
in 52 B. C., after which it became the capital of the Ro¬ 
man province of Aquitania. During the Middle Ages 
seven councils of the Church were held here, and in 1438 
the Pragmatic Sanction of the Gallican Church was estab¬ 
lished here. Pop. 30,819. 

B ourgoing, de (Jean Francis), Baron, an accom¬ 
plished and amiable French diplomatist, born Nov. 20,1748, 
was ambassador at different courts. During a nine years’ 
residence in Spain he wrote a thorough book upon that 
country, “Nouveau voyage en Espagne, etc.” (3 vols., 
1789-1808). Died July 20, 1811. 

B ourignon (Antoinette), a Flemish visionary relig¬ 
ionist, born at Lille Jan. 13, 1616, entered a convent in her 
youth, and professed that she had received special revela¬ 
tions. Having left the convent and renounced Catholicism, 
she travelled in foreign countries, wrote several religious 
works, and gained many converts to her sect, especially in 
Scotland. She was an eloquent speaker and writer. Died 
Oct. 30, 1680. (See a “Life of Antoinette Bourignon,” 
prefixed to her works, 21 vols., 1676-84.) 

Bourmont, de (Louis Auguste Victor), Comte de 
Ghaisne, a French general, born in Anjou Sept. 2, 1773, was 
a royalist in the Revolution. He fought against the repub¬ 
lic in 1794-96, and entered the service of Napoleon about 
1809. Having served with distinction in Russia, ho was 
raised to the rank of lieutenant-general in 1814. During 
the Hundred Days, 1815, he deserted Louis XVIII. and 
Napoleon by turns. He became minister of war in 1829, 
and commander-in-chief of the army sent against Algiers 
in 1830. He conquered Algiers, and was rewarded in July, 
1830, with the baton of a marshal of France. Being de¬ 
voted to Charles X., he was deprived of his command by 
the revolution of 1830, and went into exile. Died Oct. 27, 

1846. (SeeDE Lansac, “ Notice surle Comte de Bourmont,” 

1847. ) 

B ourne (Hugh), an English preacher, born in Stafford¬ 
shire April 3, 1772, was one of the founders of the sect of 
Primitive Methodists. He was “ cut off ” from the Wesleyan 
connection in 1808 for holding camp-meetings, before which 
he was a zealous layman of that denomination. His new 
sect was organized in 1810. He visited Ireland and the 
U. S. Died Oct. 11, 1852. 

Bourne (Vincent), an English scholar and elegant 


Latin poet, was born about 1698. lie was an usher of 
Westminster School. 11c wrote several short original Lat¬ 
in poems, which are remarkably graceful, and produced 
Latin versions of English ballads, which are wonderfully 
felicitous. Cowper translated some of his original Latin 
poems. Died Dec. 2, 1747. 

Bourneville, a post-village of Twin township, Ross 
co., 0. Pop. 208. 

Bour'nonite, or Endellionite, a triple sulphide of 
copper, antimony, and lead, is composed of 41.8 per cent, 
of lead, 26 of antimony, 19.4 of sulphur, and 12.8 of copper. 
It occurs in crystals and massive. 

Bournouse, or Bornouse, bor-noos', the Arabic 
name of a garment worn in Algeria and other parts of 
Northern Africa. It is a large woollen mantle, worn above 
the other clothing of the natives, and has a hood which is 
used to cover the head in rainy weather. It has been 
adopted by the Spaniards, who call it albornoz. 

Bourrienne, de (Louis Antoine Fauvelet), a French 
diplomatist, born at Sens July 9, 1769. He was a fellow- 
student and friend of Bonaparte at the school of Brienne. 
They met at Paris in 1792, and renewed their intimacy. 
In 1796 Bourrienne became private secretary to General 
Bonaparte, whom he followed to Egypt. In 1804 he was 
sent as minister to Hamburg, but he was accused of pecu¬ 
lation, and was recalled in 1811. Having deserted Napo¬ 
leon in 1814, he was appointed minister of state by Louis 
XVIII. in 1815. He published an interesting work enti¬ 
tled “Memoirs of Bourrienne” (10 vols., 1829-31), which 
is an important contribution to the history of Napoleon. 
Died Feb. 7, 1834. (See Boulay de la Meurthe, “Bour¬ 
rienne et ses Erreurs,” 2 vols., 1830.) 

Bourse. See Exchange. 

Boussingault (Jean Baptiste Joseph Dieudonne), a 
French chemist, born in Paris Feb. 2, 1802, became a mem¬ 
ber of the Institute in 1839. He was an officer under Bol¬ 
ivar in South America in his youth. He co-operated with 
Dumas in experiments to determine the composition of the 
atmosphere. In 1844 he published a valuable work enti¬ 
tled a “ Treatise on Rural Economy” (2 vols.). He was 
a moderate republican member of the National Assembly 
in 1848. 

BoussU“Sur*»Haine, a town in Belgium, on the 
Haine, in the province of Hainaut. It has machine-works 
and breweries. Pop. 6638. 

Boustroplie'don [from the Gr. (Soils, an “ox,” and 
<Trpe(f)(i>, to “turn”], a word used to describe a mode of writ¬ 
ing practised by the ancient Greeks until about 450 B. C. 
—namely, in alternate lines from right to left and from left 
to right, as fields are ploughed in furrows, having an alter¬ 
nate direction. 

Bou'terwek (Friedrich), a German philosopher and 
critic, born near Goslar, in Hanover, April 15, 1766. He 
wrote several poems and a romance called “ Count Dona- 
mar” (3 vols., 1791). He became extraordinary professor 
of philosophy at Gottingen in 1797, and ordinary professor 
in 1802. He published several works on philosophy and 
a “Treatise on ^Esthetics” (1806). His reputation is 
founded on his excellent “ History of Modern Poetry and 
Eloquence” (12 vols., 1801-19). Died Aug. 9, 1828. (See 
J. F. Blumenbacii, “ Memoria F. Bouterwekii,” 1832.) 

Bout/well (George Seavall), LL.D., an American law¬ 
yer and statesman, born in Brookline, Mass-., Jan. 28, 1818. 
His education was partly obtained in the public schools 
and by a course of thorough private study. He taught 
school in his youth, was admitted to the bar at the age of 
twenty-eight, and in 1851 and 1852 was chosen governor 
of Massachusetts. He was long a member of the Massa¬ 
chusetts board of education, of which he was secretary for 
five years. He organized the internal revenue department 
of the U. S. government, and in 1862 became its first com¬ 
missioner. He was a member of Congress from Massa¬ 
chusetts 1863-69, and secretary of the treasury 1869-73, 
under President Grant. In 1873 he was chosen U. S. Sen¬ 
ator from Massachusetts, in place of Hon. Henry AV ilson, 
Vice-President of the U. S. 

Bouvar'dia (named in honor of Bouvard, physician 
of Louis XIII.), a genus of plants of the natural order 
Cinchonaceae, is allied to the trees from which Peruvian 
bark is obtained. The corolla is tubular, 4-lobed, and has 
four stamens included in it. The fruit is a capsule, 2-celled. 
The species of this genus are natives of Mexico. The Bou- 
vardia triphylla is cultivated in gardens for its beautiful 
scarlet flowers. 

Bouvet (Francois Joseph Francisque), a French pub¬ 
licist, born Aug. 15, 1799, has supported by his writings 
the liberal party. He was editor of the “ Revue lnde- 
pendante ” and “ Reveil do l’Ain,” in which he developed 












578 BOUVIER-BOWER-BIRD. 


his ideas concerning universal peace. He has written “ Du 
Principe de l’autoritfi en France, et de la limite des pou- 
voirs; conciliation des parties" (1839), “ Du Pape" (1803), 
and “ Philalethe; le probleme europeen." 

Bouvier' (Hannah M.), born in Philadelphia in 1811, 
the only daughter of Judge John Bouvier, published “Fa¬ 
miliar Astronomy" (1857), a work which won the praise 
of Sir John Herschel, Lord Rosse, Hind, Airy, De Morgan, 
and many other eminent astronomers of Europe and the 
U. S. 

Bouvier (John), a jurist and writer, born in the French 
department of Hard in 1787. He emigrated to the U. S. 
in 1802, and practised law in Philadelphia. In 1838 he 
became a judge of the criminal court in that city. Ho pub¬ 
lished a “Law Dictionary” (1839), which has had a great 
success, and “ Institutes of American Law" (4 vols., 1851). 
Died Nov. 18, 1851. 

B ovia'num, an ancient city of Italy, founded by the 
Sanmites on or near the site of the modern Bojano, was 
surrounded by high mountains. According to Livy, it was 
a wealthy and powerful city. It was besieged and taken 
by the Romans in 311 B. C. In the second Punic war it 
was several times the head-quarters of the Roman army. 
During the Social war it was the capital of the confede¬ 
rates. 

B ov'idae [from the Lat. bos , gen. bo'vis, an “ ox "], a 
family of ruminating animals, comprises the ox, bison, buf¬ 
falo, yak, zebu, etc. The Bovida? are all large and grega¬ 
rious animals, and they generally have unbranched horns. 
This family is usually regarded as equal in extent to the 
Linnaean genus Bos. Indigenous species of Bovidse are 
found in Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America. They 
have eight cutting teeth in the lower jaw, and no cutting 
teeth in the upper, which is furnished with a fibrous and 
elastic pad. They also have twelve grinders (molar teeth) 
on each jaw. The exact number of species of Bovidae has 
not been ascertained. They are all valuable to man for 
their flesh, tallow, hides, horns, etc., and several species 
besides the ox have been domesticated. (See Arnee, Bison, 
Buffalo, Ox, Urus, Yak, and Zebu.) 

B ovi'na, a post-township of Delaware co., N. Y. Pop. 
1022. 

Bovina, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. Pop. 437. 

Bovi'no (anc. Vibinum), a fortified town of Italy, in 
the province of Foggia, 14 miles S. S. W. of Foggia. It has 
a cathedral and several churches. The imperialists de¬ 
feated the Spaniards here in 1734. Pop. 6415. 

Bow, in nautical language, is the fore part of a ship. 
In the plural the bows are the two sides of the fore extrem¬ 
ity of the vessel, as the starboard and larboard bows. The 
different shapes of these are distinguished by the terms a 
narrow or lean bow, and a broad or bluff bow. 

Bow, in music, the instrument by which the strings of 
a violin and some other instruments are set in vibration. 
It consists of a stick of elastic wood, on which horsehairs 
are stretched. 

Bow [Lat. arcus'], a weapon used in war and hunting to 
propel arrows, is made of wood or other elastic substance, 
and is bent by a string fastened to each end. It is gen¬ 
erally used by savages, but among civilized nations its use 
as a military weapon has been superseded by firearms. 
Bows have been constructed of various materials; besides 
different kinds of elastic wood, steel has sometimes, and 
horn frequently, been employed, particularly in ancient 
times. (See Arbalest, Archery, Arrow.) 

Bow, a post-township of Merrimack co., N.II. P. 745. 

Bow'den, a township of Clay co., Ala. Pop. 274. 

Bow'dich (Thomas Eiuvard), an English linguist and 
traveller, born at Bristol in 1790. Having visited Ashantee 
in 1816, he published a “ Mission to Ashantee " (1819). He 
undertook an exploring expedition into the interior of 
Africa in 1822, but he died of fever on the river Gambia 
near its mouth Jan. 10, 1824. 

Bow'ditch (Nathaniel), LL.D., F. R. S., an eminent 
American mathematician, born at Salem, Mass., Mar. 26, 
1773. He made several long voyages as an officer or super¬ 
cargo of a merchant-vessel, and learned Greek and Latin 
without a toacher. He published a valuable work called 
“The Practical Navigator," and a good translation of La¬ 
place’s “ Mecanique Celeste," with an ample commentary 
(4 vols. 4to, 1829-38). This was highly commended by the 
English “Quarterly Review" for July, 1832. He was a 
fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a member of a 
large number of the learned societies of Europe and America. 
Died Mar. 16, 1838. (See a “Memoir of N. Bowditch," by 
his son, N. I. Bowbitch, 1839.) 

Bowditch (Nathaniel Ingersoll), born at Salem, 
Mass., Jan. 17, 1805, graduated at Harvard in 1822. He 


was called to the bar in Boston in 1825, but became a con¬ 
veyancer, acquiring great reputation for accuracy and in¬ 
dustry. He wrote much for periodicals, and published a 
“Memoir of N. Bowditch" (1840), a “ History of the Mas¬ 
sachusetts General Hospital" (1851), and “Suffolk Sur¬ 
names." Died April 16, 1861. 

Bow'doin, a post-township of Sagadahoc co., Me. 
Pop. 1345. 

Bowdoin (James), LL.D., an American governor, 
born at Boston Aug. 8, 1727, graduated at Harvard in 
1745. He was president of the convention which in 1778 
formed the constitution of Massachusetts, was chosen gov¬ 
ernor of that State in 1785, and again in 1786. He sup¬ 
pressed Shay’s rebellion in 1786. Died Nov. 6, 1790. 

Bowdoin (James), a son of the preceding, was born in 
Boston Sept. 22, 1752. He graduated at Harvard in 1771. 
He was sent in 1805 on a mission to Spain, to procure the 
cession of Florida to the U. S., and to obtain indemnity for 
injuries to American commerce. He was a benefactor of 
Bowdoin College. Died Oct. 11, 1811. 

Bowdoin (bo'den) College, the oldest college in 
Maine, was founded in 1802 at Brunswick, Cumberland co., 
on the Androscoggin River, about 4 miles from the Atlan¬ 
tic Ocean. It was named in honor of James Bowdoin, 
governor of Massachusetts, whose son James gave to the 
college 1000 acres of land, over £1000 sterling, and a val¬ 
uable library and collection of paintings. The college was 
also liberally endowed by the State. The college library 
has about 17,500 volumes, and the other libraries connected 
with the college have nearly as many more. Connected 
with this flourishing college is a medical school, founded in 
1820. The number of graduates, including those of the 
medical school, amounted (June, 1872) to 2747. Much at¬ 
tention is paid to physical education; instruction is also 
given in military science. 

Bow'doinham, a post-township and village of Saga¬ 
dahoc co., Me., on the W. side of the Kennebec River. 
The village is on the Augusta division of the Maine Cen¬ 
tral R. R., 38 miles N. E. of Portland. It has been noted 
for shipbuilding. It has four churches, a national bank, 
and manufactures of lumber. Pop. 1804. 

B ow'don, a post-village of Carroll co., Ga. It is the 
seat of Bowdon College (not denominational), a flourishing 
institution with an able faculty. Pop. of village, 350. 

B ow'dre, a township of Douglas co., Ill. Pop. 1313. 

Bow'cn, a township of Madison co., Ark. Pop. 1023. 

B owen, a township of Colleton co., S. C. Pop. 1467. 

Bowen (Francis), LL.D., an American writer, born at 
Charlestown, Mass., Sept. 8, 1811, graduated at Harvard in 
1833. He edited the “North American Review” about 
eleven years (1843-54), and became in 1853 professor of 
natural religion, moral philosophy, etc. at Harvard Uni¬ 
versity. He has been an ardent defender of the philosoph¬ 
ical views of Locke and Berkeley, and a warm opponent 
of those of Kant, Fichte, and Cousin. Among his works 
are Lives of Baron Steuben, James Otis, and Benjamin 
Lincoln in Sparks’s “ American Biography," and a treatise 
on Political Economy. 

Bowen (Rt. Rev. Nathaniel), D. D., born in Boston, 
Mass., June 29, 1779, graduated at Charleston College, 
S. C., in 1794, held pastorates in Protestant Episcopal 
churches at Providence, R. I., Charleston, S. C., and New 
York City. In 1818 he was consecrated bishop of South 
Carolina. Died Aug. 25,1839. He wrote “ Christian Con¬ 
solation’’ (1831), “Private Prayers" (1837), and two vol¬ 
umes of his sermons were published. 

Bow'ensburg, a post-village of Hancock co., Ill. 

Bow'er, a shady recess; a shelter or arbor in a garden, 
formed of boughs of trees overarched or intertwined; also 
a private apartment in ancient castles or mansions, used by 
ladies as a parlor and a sleeping-chamber. 

Bower, in certain games of cards, is the name of the 
knave or jack of trumps; this word comes from the Ger. 
Bauer, a “clown" or “peasant." 

Bower (Archibald), a Scottish writer of Roman Cath¬ 
olic parentage, was born at Dundee in 1686, joined the 
Jesuits, became a Protestant, rejoined the Jesuits, and 
again became a Protestant. His “History of the Popes,” 
in seven quarto volumes (1748-66), is characterized by 
great partisan bitterness. He died in 1766. 

Bower Bank Plantation, a township of Piscataquis 
co., Me. (In 1860 the act of incorporation was repealed.) 
Pop. 83. 

Bower-bird, a name given to certain Australian birds 
of the starling family, remarkable for their making bower¬ 
like erections, adorning them with gay feathers, rags, bones, 
shells, and other brightly-colored objects. Thesfi bowers 










BOWERS—BOWSPRIT. 


are not nests. The use made of them by the birds is im¬ 
perfectly understood; their structure has been carefully ex¬ 
amined, and specimens of them deposited in the British 
Museum. The bowers of the satin bower-bird ( Ptilono - 
rhynchus holosericeus) are built in trees. The base is an 
extensivts platform of sticks, on the centre of which the 
bower is built of flexible twigs. It is chiefly at and near 
the entrance that the shells, feathers, etc. are placed. The 
bowers of the spotted bower-bird ( Ghlamydera macu- 
lata) are longer and more avenue-like than those of the 
satin bower-bird; they are placed upon the ground, and 
beautifully lined with grasses. 

Bow'ers (Theodore S.), an American officer, born in 
Pennsylvania about 1832. A printer by trade, he subse¬ 
quently edited a paper in Illinois, but laying aside his pen 
he entered the service in Oct., 1861, as a private in the 48th 
Illinois volunteers, was promoted to be first lieutenant Mar., 
1862, made aide-de-camp to Gen. Grant April, 1862, and 
appointed captain and aide-de-camp Nov., 1862, judge-ad¬ 
vocate, with the rank of major, Feb., 1863, and, after the 
surrender of Vicksburg, assistant adjutant-general of vol¬ 
unteers, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. On the 29th 
of July, 1864, he was commissioned a captain and assistant 
quartermaster in the regular army, and later, Jan., 1865, 
a major and acting adjutant-general. He served continu¬ 
ously, in the field and afterwards at Washington, on the 
staff of Gen. Grant, from April, 1862, to Mar. 6, 1866, when 
he was accidentally killed by being thrown under a train 
at Garrison’s Station, N. Y. Brevet lieutenant-colonel, 
colonel, and brigadier-general U. S. A. for gallant and meri¬ 
torious services during the war. 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eng’rs. 

Bow'ie, a county which forms the N. E. extremity of 
Texas, bordering on Arkansas. Area, 862 square miles. 
It is bounded on the N. by the Red River, and on the S. 
by the Sulphur Fork of Red River. It is extensively cov¬ 
ered with pine forests. The soil is fertile, and adapted to 
cotton, wheat, and maize. Good iron ore and lignite abound. 
There are numerous mineral springs. Stock-raising is car¬ 
ried on. Capital, Boston. Pop. 4684. 

Bowie, a township of Chicot co., Ark. Pop. 207. 

B owie (A.) was born and educated in South Carolina, 
but spent the greater part of his life in Talladega, Ala., 
where for six years he presided on the chancery bench. In 
1845 he retired from public life, retaining only his position 
as a trustee of the State University. He was a distin¬ 
guished member of the Baptist Church. In politics he 
was allied with the State Rights Democracy. In society 
he excelled by his great conversational powers. 

Bowie Knife, an American weapon, common in the 
Southern U. S., invented by Col. Bowie of Texas. It is a 
sharp-pointed knife having a single edge, and is usually 
carried in a sheath. The blade is sometimes ten inches 
long or more. Its use is less frequent than in former 
times. 

Bow'ing, an act of reverence or of worship, common 
in the Roman Catholic, the Oriental, and the Anglican 
churches. In the repetition of the creeds it is customary 
to bow whenever the name of Jesus Christ occurs; and the 
practice is said by some to be commanded by Phil. ii. 10— 
“that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow;” an 
expression regarded by many as figurative. In some rit¬ 
ualistic services it is customary to face the E. during the 
recital of the creeds; and it is certain that bowing towards 
the E. was common in ancient churches. In Roman 
Catholic and in some Anglican parishes it is customary 
to bow towards the altar when entering and leaving 
church. 

Bow'lan, a township of Shannon co., Mo. Pop. 156. 

Bowles (Samuel), an American journalist, born at 
Springfield, Mass., Feb. 9, 1826. Since 1844 he has been 
the principal conductor of the “ Springfield Republican,” 
one of the most successful journals in the U. S. He has 
published “Across the Continent” (1865), “The Switzer¬ 
land of America” (1869), and other works. 

Bow-line of a ship is a rope fastened near the middle 
of the perpendicular edge of the square sails by three or 
four subordinate ropes called bridles. It serves to tighten 
the edge of the sail during an unfavorable wind. 

Bow'ling, or Bowls, a game of skill, played upon a 
square piece of ground or “ bowling green.” Each player 
casts his ball or bowl (which is usually not a perfect sphere) 
at a smaller ball or jack, the object being to leave the bowl 
as near as possible to the jack. There are several forms 
of this game, which our narrow limits will not allow us to 
describe particularly. 

Bow'ling, a township of Rock Island co., Ill. P. 952. 

Bowling Alley, a long, narrow structure made for 


579 


playing the game of skittles, commonly called in America 
Ninepins or Tenpins (which see). 

Bowling Green, a post-township of Fayette co., Ill, 
Pop. 1097. 

Bowling Green, a post-village, capital of Clay co., 
Ind., on Eel River, 60 miles W. S. W. of Indianapolis. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 606. 

Wm. Travis, Pub. “Weekly Archives.” 

Bowling Green, the capital of Warren co., Ky., is on 
Barren River and the Louisville and Nashville R. R., 113 
miles S. by W. of Louisville and 72 miles from Nashville. 
It is at the head of navigation, and has an active trade in 
pork, tobacco, etc. Here are several mills and factories. 
Small steamboats navigate the river. It has two weekly 
newspapers. Pop. 4574. 

Bowling Green, a township of Chariton co., Mo. 
Pop. 1496. 

Bowling Green, a post-village, capital of Pike co., 
Mo., is on the Missouri division of the Chicago and Altoft 
R. R., 12 miles S. W. of Louisiana, where that railroad meets 
the Mississippi River. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 
599. 

Bowling Green, a township of Licking co., 0. Pop. 
1042. 

Bowling Green, a township of Marion co., O. P. 903. 

Bowling Green, a post-village of Centre and Plain 
townships, capital of Wood co., 0. It has one weekly 
newspaper. Pop. 906. 

Bowling Green, a post-village, capital of Caroline co., 
Va., 45 miles N. of Richmond. Pop. of Bowling Green 
township, 4765. 

Bow'man, a township of Sullivan co., Mo. Pop. 581. 

Bowman (Alexander H.), an American officer, born 
May 15, 1803, at Wilkesbarre, Pa., graduated at West Point 
in 1825, lieutenant-colonel of engineers Mar. 3, 1863. He 
served as assistant professor at the Military Academy 1825- 
26, in building defences and improving rivers and harbors 
on the Gulf of Mexico 1826-34, in constructing Memphis 
and St. Francis military road 1834-39, improvement of 
Cumberland and Tennessee rivers 1834-38, defences of 
Charleston harbor, S. C., 1838-53, as instructor of practical 
military engineering at the Military Academy 1851-52, in 
charge of improvement of Charleston harbor 1852-53, chief 
engineer U. S. treasury department and treasury building 
extension 1853-61, member of lighthouse board 1857-59, 
superintendent of Military Academy 1861-64, and member 
of engineer boards 1847-65. Died Nov. 11, 1865, at Wilkes¬ 
barre, Pa., aged sixty-two. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Bowman (Thomas), D. D., born in Berwick, Pa., in 
1819, graduated at Dickinson College in 1837. He became, 
in 1859, president of the Indiana Asbury University, which 
position he still held when he was elected a bishop of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church in 1872. 

Bowman (Samuel), D. D., born at Wilkesbarre, Pa., 
May 21, 1800, studied law, but became a deacon of the 
Protestant Episcopal Church in 1823, and a priest in 1824. 
He was long settled in Lancaster, Pa. In 1847 he was 
chosen bishop of Indiana, but declined, and afterwards re¬ 
fused the nomination for provisional bishop of New York. 
In 1858 he was chosen assistant bishop of Pennsylvania. 
He was greatly beloved by his people, and was very active 
in his parochial and episcopal duties. Died Aug. 3, 1861. 

Bow'manville, a port of entry of Durham co., On¬ 
tario (Canada), in Darlington township, has an excellent 
harbor on Lake Ontario, and is on the Grand Trunk Rail¬ 
way, 43 miles N. E. of Toronto. It has good water-power, 
and manufactures of lumber, hoop skirts, furniture, and 
castings. It is visited by daily steamers during the season 
of navigation, and has a bank and three weekly papers. 
Pop. about 3000. 

Bowne, a post-township of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1275. 

Bow / ring (Sir John), an English author and linguist, 
was born at Exeter Oct. 17, 1792. He was an intimate 
friend of Jeremy Bentham, and was well versed in modern 
languages, especially the Slavonic. In 1825 he became 
editor of the “Westminster Review.” He collected and 
translated into verse the ancient and popular poems of 
almost all the countries of Europe. In 1835 he was elected 
to Parliament, in 1854 became governor of IIong-Kong, 
China, and received the honor of knighthood. In 1859 he 
retired on a pension. Among his works is “The Kingdom 
and People of Siam ” (2 vols., 1857). He wrote a descrip¬ 
tion of his visit to the Philippine Islands (1860). He also 
wrote some excellent hymns. Died Nov. 22, 1872. 

Bow'sprit, a large boom or spar which projects over 
the stem or bow of a ship. It serves to support the fore- 








BOWSTRING HEMP—BOYDELL. 


580 


mast, which is fastened to it by large stays or ropes; also 
to carry sail forward, as a means of counteracting the effect 
of the after sails and keeping the ship well balanced. In 
many cases the bowsprit rises at an angle of about 45°. It 
supports the jib and flying-jibbooms. 

Bow'stlillg Hemp, the fibre of the Sanseviera Zey- 
lanica, a plant of the order Liliacese and tribe Hemerocal- 
lern, a native of the East Indies. The Hindoo name is 
inoorva. This fibre, which is white, silky, and elastic, is 
used to make bowstrings. A similar fibre is obtained from 
the leaves of Sanseviera Jioxburghiana, a perennial Indian 
plant which has leaves about three feet long, and from other 
Asiatic and African species. 

B owtown Plantation, a township of Somerset co., 
Me. Pop. 14. 

B ox ( Buxtts ), a genus of evergreen shrubs or small trees 
of the natural order Euphorbiacea?, with opposite leaves 
entire at the margins. It has male and female flowers 
growing on the same plant. The male flower is a perianth 
with four stamens, and the female flower is a perianth with 
an ovary surmounted by three styles. The most important 
species is the Buxus sempervirens (common box), which is 
a native of Europe and Asia, has oval, shining, and deep- 
green leaves, and is remarkable for its compact habit of 
growth. In Southern Europe it grows twenty feet high or 
more. A variety called dwarf box, which is only two or 
three feet high, is extensively cultivated in gardens, and 
is used to form edgings of flower-beds and gravel-walks, 
being reduced by clipping to the height of a few inches. 
The wood of the box, which is very hard, heavy, compact, 
and fine-grained, is the best of all materials for wood¬ 
engraving, and is highly prized by turners. It is also 
commonly used to make flutes and other wind instruments. 
It is of a pale yellow color, admits of a beautiful polish, 
and is not liable to be worm-eaten. Large quantities of 
boxwood are exported from Spain and Turkey. 

B ox, a township of Cedar co., Mo. Pop. 1307. 

B ox'borough, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass. 
Pop. 338. 

Box Elder, or Ash-leaved Maple, a small tree of 
the order Sapindacete, the Negundo aceroides, which grows 
from Florida to Pennsylvania and westward, especially 
along the banks of streams. It is very beautiful, and is 
one of the characteristic trees of the far West. In Minne¬ 
sota, Nebraska, etc. it is tapped, like the sugar-maple, for 
its sap, which affords sugar of good quality. 

Box Elder, a county which forms the N. W. extremity 
of Utah, bordering on Idaho and Nevada. It is inter¬ 
sected by Bear River, and bounded on the E. by the Wa¬ 
satch Mountains. The northern half of Great Salt Lake 
is included in this county. Grain and wool are raised. 
The Central Pacific R. R. passes through the county. Capi¬ 
tal, Brigham City. Pop. 4855. 

B ox'ford, a post-township of Essex co., Mass., on the 
Newburyport and Danvers R. R. Pop. 847. 

B ox'hauling is a mode of turning a ship when the 
swell of the sea renders tacking impossible, or when the 
ship is so near the shore that there is not room for veering. 
The operation is effected by a peculiar management of the 
helm and the sails. 

B oxing. See Pugilism. 

Boxing the Compass, a nautical phrase, means a 
recital or enumeration of the several points, half points, 
and quarter points of the mariner’s compass in their proper 
order. 

Box'tel, a village of Holland, in North Brabant, on the 
river Domrnel, 6 miles S. of Bois-le-Duc. The river flows 
through the streets and affords passage for boats. Fine 
diaper is manufactured here. Pop. 4221. 

Box-tortoise, or Lock-tortoise, popular names of 



Box-Tortoise. 


the Cistuda Virginica and Cistuda Blandingii, tortoises of the 
U. S., characterized by the division of the plastron into two 


parts by a crosswise division, united, however, by a ligament 
which serves as a hinge on which the parts of the plastron 
turn, thus enabling the animal to shut himself entirely up 
in his shell. These tortoises are very timid and of gentle 
disposition. Their legs are longer and their speed greater 
than is usual among tortoises. 

Boya'ca, one of the U. S. of Colombia, is bounded on 
the N. E. and E. by Venezuela, on the S. and S. W. by 
Cundinamarca, and on the N. W. by Santander. Area, 
32,800 square miles. While in the W. the state is exceed¬ 
ingly mountainous, the E. consists of a hot, dry plain. 
Copper and precious stones are found in the mountains. 
Capital, Tunja. Pop. in 1870, 482,874. 

Boyaca, a village of Colombia, in the department of 
its own name, is 5 miles S. W. of Tunja. Here Bolivar 
gained over the Spaniards, Aug. 7, 1819, a victory which 
secured the independence of Colombia. 

Boy'ar [from a word signifying “ battle”], a title given 
in ancient Russia to those who distinguished themselves 
in war. This afterwards came to be the title of the nobility, 
who under the grand duke of Moscow formed an aristocracy 
whose powers differed according to the character of the 
monarch, but which were so considerable that even Ivan 
the Terrible in his ukases added to the words “ The czar 
has commanded,” also “ The boyars have approved.” The 
last boyar died in 1750. 

Boyau (a French word signifying “bowel” or “gut”), 
in military engineering, is a winding or serpentine trench, 
dug to form a path or communication between the differ¬ 
ent armed trenches of a siege-work, and to prevent them 
from being enfiladed. 

Boy Bishop. During the Middle Ages the custom 
grew up of allowing the choristers of cathedrals to choose 
yearly one of their number to act the part of a bishop. The 
practice was permitted probably from the same motives 
which suffered the mummeries of the Abbot of Unreason 
(a graphic account of which may be found in Sir W. Scott’s 
romance of “The Monastery”). If the boy bishop died 
within his short period of office, he was buried in his epis¬ 
copal robes. A tomb with the effigy of a boy so clothed 
may be seen in Salisbury Cathedral. 

Boyce (James Petigru), D. D., LL.D., born Jan. 11, 
1827, at Charleston, S. C., graduated at Brown University 
in 1847, studied theology at Princeton, N. J., pastor of a 
Baptist church at Greenville, S. C., 1851-55, professor of 
theology in Furman University, Greenville, S. C., 1855-58, 
professor of theology in the Southern Baptist Theological 
Seminary (formerly Greenville, S. C., now Louisville, Ivy.) 
1858 to the present time (1873). He has published several 
sermons, addresses, and articles, which have largely con¬ 
tributed to mould the opinions of the Southern Baptists, 
and holds, as president of the Southern Baptist Conven¬ 
tion, a position of commanding influence. 

Boyd, a county of Kentucky, bordering on West Vir¬ 
ginia. Area, 225 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. 
by the Ohio River, and on the E. by the Big Sandy. The 
surface is hilly. Grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. Iron 
ore, coal, pig iron, and lumber are largely exported. Capi¬ 
tal, Catlettsburg. Pop. 8573. 

Boyd, a township of Transylvania co., N. C. Pop. 448. 

Boyd (Andrew Kennedy Hutchison), D. D., born in 
Nov., 1825, the son of the incumbent of Auchinleck, Ayr, 
was educated at King’s College, London, and at Glasgow. 
He became rector of St. Andrew’s. Under the name of 
“ Country Parson ” he has published contemplative essays 
and sermons. 

Boyd (John Parker), an American general, born in 
Newburyport, Mass., Dec. 21, 1764, entered the U. S. army 
as ensign in 1786. A spirit of adventure led him to India 
in 1789, where he obtained a command in the Mahratta 
service, and rose to the rank of commander. 
He returned to the U. S. in 1808, and was 
commissioned colonel of the Fourth U. S. 
Infantry. In the war with Great Britain he 
was a brigadier-general, distinguished him¬ 
self at Tippecanoe, at the capture of Fort 
George, Canada, and Chrysler’s Field; dis¬ 
banded in 1815. In 1830, President Jack- 
son appointed him naval officer of the port 
of Boston, Mass. Died Oct. 4, 1830. 

Boyd (Linn), an American statesman, 
born at Nashville, Tenn., Nov. 22, 1800, was 
a member of Congress from Kentucky for 
twenty years, being first elected in 1835. 
During his last term he served as Speaker of 
the House of Representatives. Died Dec. 
18, 1859. 

Boy'dell (John), an English engraver and patron of 
art, born Jan. Iff, 1719, became a printseller in London, and 
































BOYDEN—BRABANT. 


581 


amassed a large fortune. He promoted the improvement 
of British art by his liberal patronage of native engravers 
and painters. He employed Opie, Reynolds, Northcote, 
West, and other painters to illustrate Shakspeare’s works. 
The result was the “ Shakspeare Gallery,” from which was 
engraved a volume of admirable plates (1803). He was 
lord mayor in 1790. Died Dec. 11, 1804. 

Boy'den (Seth), born at Foxboro’, Mass.,Nov. 17, 1788, 
went into the leather manufacture in Newark, N. J., in 1813, 
began the making of patent leather in 1819, invented a 
process for making spelter and a machine for leather split¬ 
ting. In 1826 he made the first malleable cast iron. He also 
discovered a process for making Russia sheet iron, invented 
an excellent doming-machine for hat bodies, and built the 
first successful locomotive with cylinders outside. It is also 
claimed that he produced the first daguerreotype in the 
U. S., but the claim is also made for others. Died Mar. 31, 
1870. 

Boyil'ton, a town of Mecklenburg co., Va., and one of 
the most flourishing towns of its size in the State. It con¬ 
tains the residences of the county officers, a bank, news¬ 
paper-office, two tobacco warehouses, tobacco factory, fur¬ 
niture factory, saw and grist mills, an excellent hotel, and 
numerous stores, workshops, fine schools and churches, etc. 
The lands around are of superior quality. Boydton has a 
daily mail and a passenger service in connection with the 
Richmond and Danville R. R., via Barnesville. A railroad 
is now constructing which will pass within a few miles. 
Pop. 261 ; of township, 4708. 

Ed. “Southside Virginian.” 

Boy' er, a township of Crawford co., Ia. Pop. 135. 

Boyer, a township of Harrison co., Ia. Pop. 589. 

Boyer (Alexis), a French surgeon, born Mar. 1, 1757, 
was the son of a tailor, and acquired his profession under 
great drawbacks. He was surgeon to Napoleon I. and chi- 
rurgical professor of the university. His main works are 
“Traite complet d’anatomie” (4 vols., 1797-99) and 
“ Traite des maladies chirurgicales et des operations qui 
leur conviennent” (8 vols., 1814-22). Died Nov. 25, 1833. 

Boyer (Jean Pierre), a president of Hayti, was born 
at Port-au-Prince Feb. 28, 1776, and was a mulatto. He 
entered the French army in his youth, and as an officer in 
the army of Petion fought against Christophe. On the 
death of Petion he was elected president of the republic in 
1818. By partiality to the mulattoes and arbitrary meas¬ 
ures he offended the negroes, who revolted in 1842 and ex¬ 
pelled him from the island. He died in Paris July 9, 1850. 

Boy'ertown, a post-village of Colebrookdale township, 
Berks co., Pa., about 18 miles E. of Reading. It has one 
weekly newspaper. Pop. 690. 

Boy'kins, a village of Southampton co., Va., in a town¬ 
ship of the same name, on the Seaboard and Roanoke 
R. R., 26 miles from Portsmouth. Pop. of township, 2292. 

Boyle, a county in Central Kentucky, in the “blue-grass 
region.” Area, 180 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. 
by Dick’s River, and also drained by the sources of Salt 
River. The soil is based on limestone, and is deep and 
very fertile. Grain, tobacco, wool, and live-stock are ex¬ 
tensively raised. The county is intersected by a branch of 
the Louisville and Nashville R. R. Capital, Danville. 
Pop. 9515. 

Boyle (John Alexander), a Methodist Episcopal 
preacher, born at Baltimore, Md., May 13, 1816, removed 
to Philadelphia in youth, entered the ministry in 1839, but 
was twice compelled by ill-health to relinquish his chosen 
profession. He became a lawyer, and afterwards an editor 
in Elk co., Pa. In 1861 he became a captain and after¬ 
wards a major of Pennsylvania volunteers, served with 
great honor in Vii-ginia and Tennessee, and was killed at 
the battle of Chattanooga, Oct. 29, 1863. 

Boyle (Robert), a celebrated experimental philosopher, 
born at Lismore, in Ireland, Jan. 25, 1626, was the seventh 
son of Richard, the first earl of Cork. He was educated at 
Eton and Geneva. He took no part in political contests, 
but devoted himself to the cultivation of science, especially 
chemistry and natural philosophy. He became a resident 
of Oxford in 1654, and was one of the founders of the 
Royal Society. To qualify himself to defend the Chris¬ 
tian religion, he learned the Hebrew and Greek languages. 
He improved the air-pump, and made important discoveries 
in pneumatics. Among his works are a “Disquisition on 
Final Causes,” a “Discourse of Things above Reason,” 
“ Excellency of Theology,” and “Hydrostatical Paradoxes.” 
He declined a peerage which was offered to him repeatedly. 
He was remarkable for his benevolence and charity. By 
his last will he endowed the Boyle Lectures (which see). 
He died in London Dec. 30, 1691. His complete works 
were published by Dr. Birch in 5 vols. fol., 1744. 


Boyle Lectures were so called from Robert Boylo, 
who bequeathed an annual salary to be paid to some clergy¬ 
man for preaching eight sermons in a year in order “ to 
prove the truth of the Christian religion against Atheists, 
Deists, Pagans, Jews, and Mohammedans, not descending 
to any controversies among Christians themselves.” The 
first person selected to preach the “ Boyle Lectures ” was 
the celebrated Richard Bentley (1691),' who directed his 
arguments against Atheism. In 1739 three volumes of 
the lectures were published, and nearly 60 volumes since 
then. The “ Boyle Lectures” are still maintained. 

Boyle’s Law is a statement of the fact that “the 
volume of a gas is inversely as the pressure;” that is to 
say, if we double the pressure upon a gas we reduce its 
volume to one-half; if we make the pressure three times 
what it was at first, the bulk of the gas is reduced to one- 
third. More commonly called Marriotte's Law (which 
see). 

Boyl'ston, a post-twp. of Worcester co., Mass. P. 800. 

Boylston, a township of Oswego co., N. Y. Pop. 1053. 

Boylston (Zabdiel), F. R. S., an American physician, 
born at Brookline, Mass., in 1680, was the first who 
practised inoculation for the smallpox in America. Died 
Mar. 1, 1766. 

Boyne, the most important river in the E. of Ireland, 
rises in the Bog of Allen, flows north-eastward through 
Kildare, King’s county, Meath, and Louth, and enters the 
Irish Sea after a course of 65 miles. Many ruins of mon¬ 
asteries and castles occur on its banks. An obelisk 150 
feet high, nearly 3 miles from Drogheda, commemorates 
the great battle of the Boyne, in which William III. de¬ 
feated James II., July 1, 1690. 

Boyil'ton, a post-township of Tazewell co., Ill. P. 820. 

Boynton (Edward C.), born in Vermont, graduated 
at West Point in 1846. He entered the artillery, was 
severely wounded at Churubusco, and was brevetted cap¬ 
tain; was assistant professor of chemistry, etc. at West 
Point (1848-55), professor of chemistry, etc. in the Uni¬ 
versity of Mississippi (1856-61), and was brevetted major 
in 1865. He published a “ History of West Point” (1863) 
and a “History of the U. S. Navy.” 

Bozeman, a post-village, capital of Gallatin co., Mon¬ 
tana, on an affluent of the Gallatin Fork of Missouri River, 
100 miles S. S. E. of Helena, and 70 miles S. W. of the 
National Park on the survey of the Northern Pacific R. R. 
It has a national bank, one weekly paper, and immense 
deposits of coal. Pop. 168; of township, 574. 

Joseph Wright, Ed. “Avant Courier.” 

Boz'rah, an ancient city of Idumma (Edom), often 
mentioned in the Bible. (See Genesis xxxvi.; Isaiah 
xxxiv. and liii.) It was situated to the S. W. of the Dead 
Sea, about halfway between the latter and Petra. Its site 
is probably occupied by the modern Buneireli, a poor vil¬ 
lage consisting of about fifty wretched huts. No ancient 
ruins are visible. 

Bozrah, a post-village and township of New London 
co., Conn., on the Yantic River, about 35 miles E. S. E. of 
Hartford. Total pop. 984. 

B oz'zaris, or Bot'zaris (Marco), a famous Greek 
patriot, born at Suli, in Albania, about 1790. He enlisted 
in the French army about 1808, and served several cam¬ 
paigns. When the Greeks took arms against the Turks in 
1820, Bozzaris became the leader of a band of Suliotes, 
and gained several victories. He defended Missolonghi 
against the Turks in 1822. Aug. 20,1823, he attacked and 
defeated a superior force at Carpenisi, near the ground 
where the battle of Platasa was fought, but he was killed 
in the action. 

B ra, a town of Italy, province of Cuneo, on the river 
Stura, 38 miles S. S. E. of Turin. It has manufactures of 
silk and metal-foundries; also a trade in grain, cattle, and 
wine. Pop. 9125. 

Brabancons, a class of mercenary soldiers chiefly 
from Brabant, whence they took their name. They served 
principally in the armies of England and France from the 
eleventh to the thirteenth centuries. They had little disci¬ 
pline, and were not much better than robbers. 

Brabant', a former duchy of the Low Countries. In 
the sixth century it was conquered by the Franks. Dur¬ 
ing the Middle Ages it changed masters very often, until 
in the fifteenth century it came to the House of Habsburg. 
Charles V. left it to his son, Philip II., under whom the 
province revolted, but only the northern part succeeded in 
gaining its independence, and joined the Netherlands in 
1648, while South Brabant remained with the Spanish- 
Austrian line until 1714, when it passed into the possession 
of the imperial lino of Austria. It was conquered by the 
French in 1794, and divided into two provinces, and in 














582 BRABANT, NORTH—BRACKLESHAM BEDS. 


1810 Napoleon also conquered the Dutch part of Brabant. 
In the treaty of Paris of 1814 Brabant became a part of 
the Netherlands, and was divided into the provinces of 
North Brabant, Antwerp, and South Brabant. In conse¬ 
quence of the Belgian revolution of 1830, Antwerp and 
South Brabant came to Belgium, while North Brabant re¬ 
mained with Holland. The inhabitants in the N. are 
Dutch, in the centre, Flemish, and in the S., Walloons. 
The boundary-line between the Germanic and French 
idioms runs S. of Brussels, past the villages of Braine 
l’Alleud, Waterloo, Wavre, and Sodoigne. 

Brabant, North, a province of Holland, is bounded 
on the N. by the river Meuse (or Maas), Holland, and Gel- 
derland, on the E. by Limburg, on the S. by Belgium, and 
on the W. by Zeeland. Area, 1980 square miles. Capital, 
Bois-le-Duc. It is drained by the Dommel, the Aa, and 
the Lintel. The surface is flat,' the soil is generally fer¬ 
tile. The province is deficient in minerals and timber. 
Many cattle and sheep are raised here. It has manufac¬ 
tures of cotton, linen, and woollen goods. Pop. in 1870, 
440,302. 

Brabant, South, a province of Belgium, is bounded 
on the N. by Antwerp, on the E. by Limburg and Liege, 
on the S. by Namur and Hainaut, and on the W. by East 
Flanders. The area is 1268 square miles. Capital, Brus¬ 
sels. The principal rivers are the Dyle, Demer, and Senne. 
The surface is partly hilly and partly level; the soil is 
generally fertile and highly cultivated. This province 
contains extensive forests, mines of iron, and quarries of 
stone. It is intersected by several railways and canals. 
It has important manufactures of cotton and woollen fab¬ 
rics, fine lace, hats, leather, jewelry, fine linens, ribbons, 
paper, machinery, etc. This is one of the most densely 
peopled districts in Europe. Pop. in 1870, 879,814. 

Brace (Charles Loring), an American clergyman and 
writer, born at Litchfield, Conn., in 1826, graduated at Yale 
in 1846. Having travelled in Europe, he published “ Home- 
Life in Germany” (1853), “Races of the Old World” 
(1863), and other works. He was the principal founder 
of the Children’s Aid Society of New York. 

Brace (Julia), a blind deaf-mute, was born near Hart¬ 
ford, Conn., in 1806. When she was four years old she 
lost by sickness both sight and hearing, and not long after 
forgot all the words she had previously learned. (See an 
interesting notice of her in Dunglison’s “ Physiology,” vol. 
ii. p. 160.) 

Bracebridge, a post-village of Victoria co., Ontario 
(Canada), in the Muskoka region and in Macaulay town¬ 
ship, on the Muskoka River, 195 miles from Lindsay, the 
county-town. It is visited by steamboats, except in win¬ 
ter, and has one weekly paper. Pop. about 200. 

Bracelet [from bras (Lat. brachium), an “arm”], an 
ornament worn around the arm at or near the wrist. These 
ornaments have been worn by every nation, savage or 
civilized, from the earliest ages. They are mentioned in 
Genesis as worn by both women and men. The Medes and j 
Persians were remarkable for their love of gold ornaments 
and jewelry. They wore bracelets, armlets, earrings, and 
pearl necklaces. The ancient Greek ladies wore bracelets 
and armlets of various materials and forms. They gener¬ 
ally passed round the arm several times. 

Braceville, a post-village of Grundy co., Ill., in a 
township of the same name, on the Chicago and Alton 
R. R., 61 miles S. S. W. of Chicago. Pop. 1188. 

Braceville, a post-township of Trumbull co., 0. P. 954. 

Bra'chial [from the Lat. brachium, the “arm”] 
Ar'tery, the main artery of the arm; a continuation of 
the axillary, as the latter is of the subclavian trunk. The 
brachial vessel lies upon the inside of the humerus or arm- 
bone, just back of the biceps muscle; near the elbow it 
passes forward and divides into the radial and ulnar arte¬ 
ries. Before this, it gives off four smaller branches. The 
position of the brachial artery makes it quite practicable 
to compress it firmly against the bone in case of serious 
bleeding from a wound of the arm, fore arm, or hand. 

Brachiop'oda (plu.), [from the Gr. Ppaxiw, the “ arm,” 
and 7rou9, 7 to 66?, the “foot,” alluding to their two long fringed 
and coiled arms], or Palliobranchia'ta, a class of 
marine bivalve, molluscoid organisms which have sym¬ 
metrical dorsal and ventral valves; the former of which 
(according to the general opinion of observers) is usually 
much the smaller, being free and imperforate, but accord¬ 
ing to E. S. Morse the so-called dorsal valve is really ven¬ 
tral. The valves articulate by two curved teeth developed 
from the border of the larger valve. Brachiopods are 
among the most ancient of fossil organisms, the genus 
Lingula being found from the Cambrian to the existing 
fauna. Brachiopods have also the greatest range of cli¬ 
mate and depth. 


Brachis'tochrone [from the Gr. 0 pax<.oros, “shortest,” 
and xporog, “ time”], the plane curve down which a material 
particle must fall in order to pass in the shortest possible 
time from the upper to the lower of two given points not 
in the same vertical line. It is the common cycloid. The 
problem of the brachistochrone is celebrated in the history 
of mathematics. It was first proposed by John Bernoulli 
in 1696, and was solved by Sir Isaac Newton and James 
Bernoulli. It is often called “the curve of quickest 
descent.” 

Brach'vogel (Emil Albert), a German novelist and 
dramatist, born at Breslau April 29, 1824. Among his 
principal works are the novels entitled “A New Falstaff” 
(1862), “ Beaumarchais” (1864), “The German Michael” 
(1868), and “Narcissus,” a drama. 

Brachycephalic. See Dolichocephalic. 

Brachyp'terae, or Brachypteres [from the Gr. 
/3 paxvs, “short,” and nrepov, a “wing”], that section of the 
web-footed birds in which the wings are so short and the 
feet so far back as to compel the birds to assume an erect 
posture when on land. They are aquatic, and excel in 
diving, so that the name divers is sometimes used as equiv¬ 
alent to Brachypterai; but that name is also frequently 
applied to other birds, especially to the genus Colymbus. 
The auks, puffins, penguins, grebes, and guillemots are 
among the Brachypterae. 

Brachyu'ra [from the Gr. ppaxvs, “short,” and ovpa, a 
“tail”], a tribe of decapodous crustaceans which takes its 
name from the post-abdominal segment, which is short and 
folded beneath the trunk. (See Crab.) 

Brack'en, a county of Kentucky, separated from Ohio 
by the Ohio River. Area, 200 square miles. It is drained 
by the North Fork of Licking River. The surface is hilly. 
The soil is calcareous and productive. Tobacco, grain, 
and wool are the chief products. Capital, Brookville. 
Pop. 11,409. 

Brack'enridge (Henry M.), a judge and writer, born 
at Pittsburg, Pa., May 11, 1786. He held judgeships in 
Louisiana and Florida, and was U. S. commissioner to the 
South American republics (1817-19). Among his numerous 
writings are a “Voyage to South America” (1820) and 
“ Recollections of Persons and Places in the West” (second 
edition, 1869). He was elected to Congress from Pennsyl¬ 
vania in 1840. Died Jan. 18, 1871. 

Brackenridge (Hugh Henry), the father of the pre¬ 
ceding, was born in Scotland in 1748. He emigrated to 
the U. S. in childhood, graduated at Princeton in 1771, and 
became a judge of the supreme court of Pennsylvania in 
1799. He wrote a satirical work called “ Modern Chivalry, 
or Adventures of Captain Farrago” (1792). Died June 25, 
1816. 

Brack'et, an ornamental projection in the shape of a 
console standing isolated on the face of a wall, and used to 
support a statue, bust, or other work of art. Brackets may 
be either of wood or stone, and they are sometimes elabo¬ 
rately carved. The term bracket is applied to a piece of 
wood or metal employed to support a shelf or gallery. Also 
one of two marks [ ] used in printing to enclose a word, 
remark, explanation, etc. When a word in a classical work 
is included in brackets it implies that the word so enclosed 
does not properly belong to the original text, but has been 
either introduced by a mistake of the copyist, or has been 
inserted by the editor to supply some omission. 

Brack'ett (Albert Gallatin), an American officer, 
born in Cherry Valley, N. Y., Feb. 14, 1829. He served 
during the Mexican war as first lieutenant Fourth Indiana 
Volunteers, appointed captain Second U. S. Cavalry Mar., 
1855, engaged principally on frontier duty and against 
hostile Indians in Texas prior to 1861, when, on Twiggs’s 
surrender, he effected his escape, and was in command of 
cavalry at Blackburn’s Ford, Va„ July 18,1861, commission¬ 
ed colonel Ninth Illinois Volunteer Cavalry Aug., 1861. and 
served during the civil war in the Western and South¬ 
western armies. He was promoted to be major First Cav¬ 
alry U. S. A. July 17, 1862, and lieutenant-colonel Second 
Cavalry June 9, 1868. Since the close of the war he has 
been in command of various departments, and actively en¬ 
gaged in operating against hostile Indians. He is author 
of “ Lane’s Brigade in Mexico ” and “ History of the U. S. 
Cavalry.” G. C. Simmons, Cleric Board of Eng'rs. 

Brackett (Edwin E.), an American sculptor, born at 
Vassalborougli, Me., Oct. 1, 1819. His works are princi¬ 
pally portrait-busts. 

Brackett (Walter M.), a brother of the preceding, 
born at Unity, Me., June 14, 1823. He has won a high 
reputation as a painter. His specialty is the painting of 
fish. 

Brack'lesham Beds, a group of fossiliferous strata. 











BRACT—BRADFORD. 583 


in the middle eocene formation, overlying the London clay 
series, in England. On the coast of Hampshire they are 
500 feet thick. 

Bract [from the Lat. bractea, a “thin plate”], a floral 
leaf or an altered leaf, placed at the base of a flower on the 
outside of the calyx. It is a leaf from the axil of which a 
flower or floral axis is produced, instead of an ordinary 
leaf-bud or branch, and is regarded as the first attempt 
made by the leaves to change into floral organs. The bract 
is sometimes large and brightly colored. In several species of 
Arum it constitutes the large enveloping-leaf called a spathe. 
An involucre is a collection of bracts arranged in a whorl. 

Brac'ton, de (Henry), a distinguished English jurist 
and writer on law, lived during the reign of Henry III. 
His principal work, entitled “ De Consuetudinibus et Legi- 
bus Angliae,” is a complete treatise on jurisprudence and 
legislation. He was an arch-deacon (1263-64), and a judge 
in eyre in 1265. Died probably in 1267. 

Brad'Lurn (Samuel), the son of a soldier, was born at 
Gibraltar Oct. 5, 1751. He became a local Wesleyan 
preacher at Chester, England, in 1773, and an itinerant in 
1784. He was very eloquent, and was throughout his life 
extremely popular and influential. Died July 24, 1816. 

Brad'bury (William B.), composer of sacred music, 
born at York, Me., in 1816, and residing from 1836 till his 
death (Jan. 7, 1868) in or near New York. He published 
(sometimes in conjunction with other authors) numerous 
books for the use of choirs and Sunday-schools, the most 
celebrated of which are “The Shawm,” “The Jubilee,” 
“ The Temple Choir,” “ The Cantata of Esther,” “ The 
Golden Chain,” and “ Fresh Laurels.” The sale of the last 
two books (designed for Sunday-schools) was immense. 

Bradbury Isle, a township of Hancockco., Me. Pop. 6. 

Brad'dock, a borough of Alleghany co., Pa. Pop. 1290. 

Braddock (Edward), an English general, born about 
1715. He commanded in a war against the French and 
Indians in North America. As he was marching to attack 
Fort Duquesne he was surprised by the Indians near Pitts¬ 
burg, and was defeated and mortally wounded. Died July 
13, 1755. 

Brad'don (Mary Elizabeth), a popular English nov¬ 
elist, born in London in 1837. Among her works are “Lady 
Audley’s Secret” (1862), “Aurora Floyd,” “Eleanor’s Vic¬ 
tory,” “ Henry Dunbar,” and “ Rupert Godwin.” 

Brad'ford, an important manufacturing town of Eng¬ 
land, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, is on a small branch 
of the Aire and on the Leeds Railway, 9 miles by rail W. 
of Leeds. It is situated at the meeting of three vales, and 
is built of stone. It returns two members to Parliament. 
Among the principal buildings are a handsome exchange, 
an elegant public hall, the parish church, erected in the 
reign of Henry VI., and a cloth-hall. The Saltaire alpaca 
and mohair mills, which are three miles from Bradford, are 
said to be the most splendid manufactories in England. 
Bradford is the chief seat in England of the manufacture 
of worsted fabrics, alpaca, mohair, etc. Broadcloths and 
cotton goods are also made here. Mines of coal and iron 
are worked in this vicinity. The value of the goods ex¬ 
ported from this town to the U. S. in 1868 amounted to 
about $12,000,000. Baptist, Independent, and Wesleyan 
colleges are near this city. Pop. in 1871, 145,827. 

Bradford, a county in the N. E. of Florida. Area, 
940 square miles. The surface is but little elevated above 
the sea. It is intersected by the Florida R. R- Grain and 
live-stock, with some rice and cotton, are raised. Capital, 
Lake Butler. Pop. 3671. 

Bradford, a county of Pennsylvania, bordering on 
New York. Area, 1170 square miles. It is intersected by 
the North Branch of the Susquehanna River, and also 
drained by the Tioga River and several creeks. The sur¬ 
face is hilly, and extensively covered with forests of pine, 
sugar-maple, and other trees. Sandstone underlies the 
greater part of the county, which also contains beds of 
bituminous coal, which, with lumber, is among the chief 
articles of export. Cattle, grain, hay, and dairy products 
are largely raised. It is intersected by the Williamsport and 
Elmira R. R., and by another railroad, connecting Wilkes- 
barre with Waverley. Capital, Towanda. Pop. 53,204. 

Bradford, a post-village of Simcoe co., Ontario (Can¬ 
ada), on the Northern Railway, 41 miles N. of Toronto. 
It has a weekly paper. Pop. in 1871, 1130. 

Bradford, a township of Lee co., Ill. Pop. 1086. 

Bradford, a post-village and township of Chickasaw 
co., Ia., about 30 miles N. of Cedar Falls. Pop. 2076. 

Bradford, a post-village of Stark co., Ill. Pop. 280. 

Bradford, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. Pop. 
1487. 


Bradford, a post-village and township of Essex co., 
Mass. The village is on the S. bank of the Merrimack 
River, and on the Boston and Maine R. R., 32 miles N. of 
Boston, at the junction of the Newburyport R. R. A bridge 
across the river connects it with Haverhill. It is the seat 
of Bradford Female Academy, and has manufactures of 
shoes, etc. Pop. 2014. 

Bradford, a post-township of Merrimack co., N. II. It 
has manufactures of lumber and leather. Pop. 1081. 

Bradford, a post-township of Steuben co., N. Y. Pop. 
1080. 

Bradford, a post-village of Newberry township, Mi¬ 
ami co., 0. Pop. 166. 

Bradford, a village of Adams township, Darke co., O. 
Pop. 243. 

Bradford, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 1172. 

Bradford, a post-township of McKean co., Pa. Pop. 
1446. 

Bradford, a post-village in Bradford township, Orange 
co., Vt., on the Connecticut River and on the Connecticut 
and Passumpsic Rivers R. R., 29 miles S. E. of Montpelier. 
It has an academy, a savings bank, and manufactures of 
paper, casks, sash and blinds, machinery, woollen goods, 
etc. It has two weekly newspapers. Total pop. 1492. 

Bradford, a township of Rock co., Wis. Pop. 1006. 

Bradford (Rev. Allen), LL.D.,was born in Duxbury, 
Mass., Nov. 19, 1765, and graduated at Harvard in 1786, 
aad was a tutor there 1791-93; was successively a Con¬ 
gregational minister in Wiscasset (now in Maine), a clerk 
of the Massachusetts supreme court, a bookseller, sec¬ 
retary of state for Massachusetts (1812-24), and a jour¬ 
nalist. He published numerous historical, biographical, 
and antiquarian books and papers. Died Oct. 26, 1843. 

Bradford (Alexander Warfield), LL.D., born in 
Albany, N. Y., in 1815, graduated at Union College, be¬ 
came a prominent lawyer of New York, being especially 
well versed in the civil law. He was surrogate of New 
York 1848-51, and for a time was one of the editors of the 
“Protestant Churchman.” He published several volumes, 
mostly of legal reports. Died Nov. 5, 1867. 

Bradford, Earls of, and Viscounts Newport (1815, in 
the United Kingdom), Barons Bradford (1794, in Great 
Britain), and baronets (1660), a prominent family of Great 
Britain. —Orlando George Charles Bridgeman, the third 
earl, was born April 24, 1819, and succeeded his father in 

1865. He was member of Parliament for South Shropshire 
1842-65. 

Bradford (John), an English Protestant martyr and 
a popular preacher, was born at Manchester about 1500. 
He became a chaplain to Edward VI., and after the acces¬ 
sion of Mary was burned at the stake July 1, 1555. (See 
William Stevens, “Life of John Bradford,” 1832.) 

Bradford (Joseph M.), U. S. N., born Nov. 4, 1824, in 
Sumner co., Tenn., entered the navy as a midshipman Jan. 
10,1840, became a passed midshipman in 1846, a lieutenant 
in 1855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in 

1866, and a captain in 1871. From Nov., 1863, to June, 1865, 

he served as fleet-captain of the South Atlantic blockading 
squadron, during which period he was frequently in battle. 
Rear-Admiral Dahlgren, in his “general order” of June 
16, 1865, speaking of the services of the officers of his 
staff, says: “First is Fleet-Captain Joseph M. Bradford. 
Perhaps no one but a commander-in-chief can rightly 
understand the many and never-ceasing cares imposed by 
the proper discharge of the duties of this office, especially 
in war and in a command so large as this has been, to say 
nothing of the abnegation of all opportunity of personal 
distinction which such a position demands. I shall never 
think but with great pleasure and satisfaction of the excel¬ 
lent service which this gentleman has rendered, and the 
never-failing energy and ability with which he has dis¬ 
charged his many onerous duties.” Died at Norfolk, Va., 
April 14, 1872. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Bradford (William), one of the Pilgrim Fathers, was 
born in Yorkshire, England, in Mar., 1588. He emigrated 
to New England in the Mayflower in 1620, and was elected 
governor of Plymouth Colony in 1621. Having been re¬ 
elected annually, he held the office till his death except five 
years, when he declined the election. A patent or charter 
for the colony was granted in 1630 to William Bradford, 
his heirs and associates. Died May 9, 1657. He left a 
“ History of Plymouth Colony,” which was printed in 1856. 

Bradford (William), an American lawyer, born Jn 
Philadelphia Sept 14,1755, graduated at Princeton in 17< 2, 
served as an officer in the war of the Revolution. He was 
appointed attorney-general of the U. S. by V ashington in 
1794. Died Aug. 23, 1795. 
















584 BRADFORD—BRADLEY. 


Bradford (Wili.iam), a distinguished American painter, 
born in 1827 at New Bedford, Mass. His best pictures are 
scenes from the Northern Atlantic coast. lie was formerly 
a merchant of Fairhavcn, Mass. He is of Quaker stock, 
and is now (1874) a resident of New York City. 

Bradford (William II.), a Presbyterian minister and 
journalist, was born in Aug., 1814, at Cooperstown, N. Y., 
studied law, and afterwards theology. After serving two 
years as pastor of a church at Berkshire, N. Y., he became 
assistant editor of the “New York Evangelist,” acting a 
part of the time as its sole editor. Here he remained sev¬ 
enteen years. He was an accomplished writer and scholar. 
Died April 1, 1861. 

Bradford Clay, the middle member of the upper 
division of the lower oolite, occurring at Bradford, near 
Bath, England. It extends only a few miles, and is never 
more than fifty or sixty feet thick. It is remarkable for 
the abundance of a peculiar fossil, the Apiocrinites Parlcin- 
eonii. The surface of the calcareous rock on which the clay 
rests is encrusted with a pavement formed by the bases of 
this crinoid. 

Bradford, Great, a market-town of England, in the 
county of Wilts, on the river Avon, and on the Kennet and 
Avon Canal, 10 miles by rail E. S. E. of Bath. It has a 
fine old church, and manufactures of broadcloth, kersey¬ 
meres, and india-rubber goods. Pop. in 1871, 8032. 

Bradford Springs, a post-township of Sumter co., 
S. C. Pop. 1142. 

Brad'ish (Luther), LL.D., was born in Cummington, 
Mass., Sept. 15, 1783, and graduated at Williams in 1804. 
He studied law, and was employed as a government agent 
in affairs relating to Levantine commerce. He settled in 
Franklin co., N. Y., became prominent in State politics, 
was lieutenant-governor (1829-43), and under Fillmore was 
assistant U. S. treasurer at New York. Ho was prominent 
in religious, educational, and other charitable and benevo¬ 
lent enterprises. Died Aug. 30, 1863. 

Brad'laugh (Charles), an eminent English atheist 
and republican, was born in Hoxton, London, Sept. 26, 
1833. Owing to the extreme poverty of his parents, he 
ceased attending school before he was eleven years old. 
He developed an early taste for politics, for at the age of 
fifteen he appeared as an orator before street audiences 
during the political turmoils of 1847-48. The origin of 
his atheistical opinions dates from the same period. Study¬ 
ing to fit himself for a Sunday-school exhibition before the 
bishop of London, he became skeptical, and declared his 
inability to reconcile the Thirty-nine Articles with the 
Four Gospels. His father, influenced by the clergy, gave 
him three days in which to alter his opinions, on penalty 
of losing his situation. He accepted the penalty, and 
quitted the situation and his home for ever. For a year 
he earned an inadequate support by selling coals on com¬ 
mission, and then, becoming slightly involved in debt, he 
enlisted in the service of the East India Company, where 
he remained until a small legacy enabled him to purchase 
his discharge. He now secured a clerkship in a solicitor’s 
office in London, and entered at once upon his life-career 
of a political and atheistical writer and speaker. In 1858- 
59 he gained considerable notoriety by editing a journal 
called the “ Investigator,” which was soon suspended for 
want of capital. He was now Well known under the ap¬ 
propriate name of “Iconoclast,” which he signed to all of 
his writings, and was met with the fiercest opposition on all 
sides. A year later the journal which he now edits, the 
“National Reformer,” was established, and in the conduct 
of this his reputation for ability was greatly increased. 
By persistently attacking every opponent he could reach 
with his voice or pen, his fame as a debater and popular 
orator steadily grew until he reached the high position of 
political power which he now occupies. Systematic at¬ 
tempts were made to suppress his journal, but their only 
effect was to increase its circulation. His sympathies for 
the oppressed were not confined to his own country. When 
Italy was fighting for freedom he raised by his own exer¬ 
tions one hundred guineas and sent them to Garibaldi. He 
visited Ireland, conferred with the advocates of “ home 
rule,” and raised his voice in their justification. In 1868 
he was a candidate for Parliament in Northampton, and 
after a canvass of extraordinary excitement with five oppo¬ 
nents he succeeded in polling 1086 votes in a constituency of 
over 9300. In the following year an attempt was made by 
the Gladstone ministry to suppress his journal because he 
refused to have it licensed. He argued his own case, and 
won a brilliant victory. Since then he has pursued his 
course unmolested. The “ Reformer” claims a circulation 
of 7000. Like himself, in politics it is republican, in re¬ 
ligion atheistic, in social economy Malthusian, after the 
standard of the late John Stuart Mill. Mr. Bradlaugh’s 


republicanism is simply an advanced type of that to which 
thousands of his countrymen are irresistibly advancing. 
It assumes that the “right to deal with the throne is in¬ 
alienably vested in the English people, to be exercised by 
them through their representatives in Parliament;” argues 
that the House of Brunswick occupies it only from the acts 
of Settlement and Union, and seeks the repeal of those acts 
after the abdication or demise of the present monarch. It 
aspires to a commonwealth after the American model, to be 
attained as peaceably as possible. Mr. Bradlaugh’s per¬ 
sonal popularity is very great. Sir Charles Dilke said of 
him in 1873 that he had the largest personal following of 
any man in England. In the autumn of 1873, Mr. Brad- 
laugh visited the U. S., and delivered lectures in most of 
the prominent cities. His reception in all cases was hearty 
and cordial—notably so in New York and Boston. At his 
lecture in the latter city Wendell Phillips presided, and in¬ 
troduced him to an immense audience, and Charles Sumner 
and William Lloyd Garrison sat upon the platform. His 
subjects were “Republicanism in England,” “ The Irish 
Question,” and “English Workingmen.” While lacking 
the polish of the perfect orator, Mr. Bradlaugh’s manner 
has much of that personal magnetism which enables a man 
to be a leader of his fellows. The want of modulation in 
his strong, vibrating voice, and the absence of grace in his 
tall, powerful figure, are fully compensated for in the com¬ 
pact and skilful arrangement of his thoughts, and the un¬ 
mistakable earnestness and sincerity of his manner. 

J. B. Bishop, of the “A. Y. Tribune.” 

Brad'lee (Caleb Davis), a Unitarian minister and au¬ 
thor, born at Boston, Mass., Feb. 24, 1 S31, graduated at 
Harvard in 1852, was pastor of the Allen street church, 
Cambridge, Mass., 1854-57, and since 1864 has been pastor 
of the church of the Good Samaritan in Boston. lie has 
published occasional sermons and many contributions to 
periodical literature, and is a member of various literary 
and historical associations. 

Brad/ley, a county in the S. S. E. of Arkansas. Area, 
958 square miles. It is traversed by the Saline River, and 
bounded on the W. by Moro River. The soil is adapted to 
cotton and maize. Tobacco and wool are also raised. 
Timber, marl, gypsum, and lignite abound. The county 
is traversed by the Mississippi Ouachita and Red River 
R. R. Capital, Warren. Pop. 8646. 

Bradley, a county of East Tennessee, bordering on 
Georgia. Area, 400 square miles. It is bounded on the 
N. E. by the Hiawassee River. The surface is partly moun¬ 
tainous; the soil is mostly fertile, and well supplied with 
timber. It is a part of the beautiful valley of East Ten¬ 
nessee. Grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. It is inter¬ 
sected by the East Tennessee Virginia and Georgia R. R. 
Capital, Cleveland. Pop. 11,652. 

Bradley, a post-village of Jackson co., Ill., in a township 
of the same name, 15 miles from Murfreesboro’. Pop. 1297. 

Bradley, a township of Penobscot co., Me. It has 
manufactures of lumber and shingles. Pop. 866. 

Bradley (Edward), better known as “ Cuthbert Bede,” 
an Englist novelist and humorist, born in 1827, was edu¬ 
cated at Durham University, entered the Anglican minis¬ 
try, and received a number of church preferments. He is 
the author of many volumes of prose and verse, chiefly 
novels, of which his first venture, “Verdant Green,” is the 
best known. He has contributed largely to periodical lit¬ 
erature. 

Bradley (James), D.D., F. R. S., an eminent English 
astronomer, born at Sherborne, in Gloucestershire, in 1692, 
excelled as an observer and as a theorist. He graduated 
at Oxford, was ordained as a priest, and obtained several 
livings, but resigned them when he became Savilian pro¬ 
fessor of astronomy at Oxford in 1721. In 1727 he an¬ 
nounced the important discovery of the aberration of light, 
which serves to demonstrate the earth’s motion around the 
sun. In 1741 he was appointed astronomer-royal, and be¬ 
gan to make observations at Greenwich. His next discovery 
was that the inclination of the earth’s axis to the ecliptic is 
not constant, a fact which explained the precession of the 
equinoxes and the nutation of the earth’s axis. This dis¬ 
covery forms an important epoch in astronomy. He died 
July 13, 1762, leaving in manuscript thirteen volumes of 
observations, which were published in 1798-1805. (See 
“Biographia Britannica.”) 

Bradley (Joseph P.), LL.D., associate justice of the 
U. S. Supreme Court, was born at Berne, Albany co., N. Y., 
Mar. 14, 1813, graduated at Rutgers College, New Bruns¬ 
wick, N. J., with honors, in 1836, was admitted to the bar 
in 1839 at Newark, N. J., where he has since resided. Ho 
married in 1844 a daughter of Chief-Justice Hornblower. 
Besides his labors iu every branch of his profession, he has 
devoted much attention to mathematics and the study of 












BRADLEY 


law as a science, extending his researches to the civil law 
—researches which have been of great service in his judi¬ 
cial duties in Louisiana and Texas. Engaged in many 
important causes in the State and U. S. courts, he has 
never taken a very active part in politics. He was for¬ 
merly a Whig, warmly sustained the national cause in the 
civil war, headed the electoral ticket for Grant in 1868, 
and has ranked as a moderate Republican. He was ap¬ 
pointed to tho bench of the U. S. Supreme Court Mar. 21, 
1870. He received the degree of LL.D. from Lafayette 
College in 1859. 

Bradley (Joshua), a Baptist minister and educator, 
was born July 5, 1773, at Randolph, Mass., and graduated 
at Brown University in 1799. He was ordained at New¬ 
port, R. I., in 1801. Mr. Bradley became a kind of trav¬ 
eling missionary, chiefly in the Western States, residing for 
short times at many places, and establishing great numbers 
of churches, schools, and colleges. He died at St. Paul, 
Minn., in 1855. 

Bradley (Stephen Row), LL.D., born at Wallingford, 
Conn., Oct. 20,1754, graduated at Yalo in 1775, and served 
as an officer of the Revolutionary Avar for some time. In 
1779 he removed to Vermont, where he was an able and 
active public officer, representing that State in the U. S. 
Senate (1791-95, 1801-13). He possessed marked ability, 
but was eccentric in his manners. He was a friend of 
Ethan Allen. Died at Walpole, N. II., Dec. 16, 1830. 

Bradley (William Czar), LL.D., a son of S. R. Brad¬ 
ley (an able lawyer of Vermont), Avas born at Westminster, 
Vt., Mar. 23, 1782, and graduated at Yale. He Avas elected 
to Congress in 1813, 1817, 1823, and 1825, and held several 
other important offices. Died Mar. 3, 1867. 

Brad'shaw, a township of Greene co., Ark. Pop. 535. 

Bradshaw (John), the most prominent of the famous 
English regicides. He was born in Cheshire, probably in 

1602, became in 1627 a barrister, chief-justice of Chester in 
1647, a commissioner of the great seal in 1646, sergeant-at- 
law in 1648, and Avas in 1649 president of the High Court 
which condemned Charles I. Ho conducted that cause 
Avith unfeeling sternness and severity, but Avith dignity, and 
probably Avith a conscientious desire to do justice to the 
king and the country. He aftenvards opposed CroniAvell’s 
ambitious designs, and was removed from his chief-justice¬ 
ship, but still later held various important positions. He 
died in 1659. At the Restoration his body Avas exhumed 
from Westminster Abbey, gibbeted, and then beheaded. 

Brad'street (Anne), wife of Gov. Simon Bradstreet, 
and daughter of Gov. Thomas Dudley, Avas born in Eng¬ 
land in 1612. She published a volume of poems, which 
won her the titles of “the tenth muse” and “the morning 
star of American poetry.” These poems and her other 
writings have been several times reprinted (the last and best 
edition in 1867), and some of them are not Avithout merit. 
Died Sept. 16, 1672. 

Bradstreet (Simon), colonial governor of Massachu¬ 
setts, was born at Horbling, Lincolnshire, England, in 

1603. He studied at Cambridge, and Avas for a time the steAV- 
ard of the countess of Warwick. He came to Salem, Mass., 
in 1630, as an assistant judge, was one of the founders of 
Cambridge and Andover, and resided also at Ipswich and 
Boston. Besides holding other important positions, he was 
governor (1679—86 and 1689—92). Died Mar. 27, 1697. 

Brad'wardine (Thomas), a distinguished English 
prelate and scholastic theologian, called the Profound 
Doctor, was born in 1290. lie became confessor to Ed¬ 
ward III., and afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. His 
principal work, “ De causa Dei adversus Pelagium,” is a 
masterly argument .for the doctrine of Augustine. He was 
an able mathematician of Oxford University. Died Aug. 
26, 1349, of the plague. 

Bra'dy, a post-village of Kalamazoo co., Mich., on the 
Peninsular Railway Avhere it is crossed by the Grand 
Rapids and Indiana R. R., 68 miles S. W. of Lansing. 
Pop. of Brady toAvnship, 1382. 

Brady, a toAvnship of Saginaw co., Mich. Pop. 471. 

Brady, a township of Williams co., 0. Pop. 16S1. 

Brady, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 600. 

Brady, a toAvnship of Clarion co., Pa. Pop. 263. 

Brady, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 2009. 

Brady, a toAvnship of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 904. 

Brady, a toAvnship of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 394. 

Brady (Hugh), an American general, born in Northum¬ 
berland co., Pa., in 1768. He served under Wayne in 
1792, and won distinction by his bravery at the battle of 
ChippeAva, 1812. He was a relative of Capt. Samuel 
Brady, a famous Indian fighter. Died April 15, 1851. 

Brady (James Topham), an American lawyer and poli¬ 


BEAGG. 585 


tician, born in NeAV York City April 9, 1815, was a promi¬ 
nent leader of the “War Democrats” during the civil war. 
He held a very high position as a laAvyer, and was greatly 
beloved in private life. His literary tastes were fine and 
well cultivated. Died Feb. 9, 1869. 

Brady (Nicholas), D. D., born at Bandon, Ireland, 
Oct. 28, 1659, was educated at Oxford and Dublin, sided 
with King William against James II., and in consequence 
Avas made chaplain to the king. He received several Eng¬ 
lish church preferments, but is best known for his share in 
the metrical version of the Psalms, Avhich he made in con¬ 
junction with Nahum Tate (1652-1715), the poet-laureate. 
Tate and Brady’s Psalms, though justly ridiculed for their 
clumsiness, quaintness, and bombast, have some noble 
passages. Brady also published a “ Translation of the 
iEneid” (4 vols., 8vo, 1726). He died May 20, 1726. 

Brady (William Mazif.re), D. D., Avas born in Dublin, 
Ireland, in 1825, of a prominent family, and graduated at 
Trinity College Avith honor. Entering the Irish Stato 
Church, he received lucrative appointments, which he haz¬ 
arded, and in part lost, by his many bold and able attacks 
upon the Church establishment to which he himself be¬ 
longed. He was one of the foremost leaders of the move¬ 
ment which resulted in the disestablishment of the Irish 
Church. He is the author of several works, chiefly upon 
the ecclesiastical history and antiquities of Ireland and 
Great Britain. 

Brady’s Bend, a post-village of Armstrong co., Pa., 
on the Alleghany River and the Alleghany Valley R. R., 
68 miles N. N. E. of Pittsburg. Pop. of toAvnship, 3619. 

Bra'ga (anc. Bracara Awjusta), a town of Portugal, 
capital of the province of Minho, is on an eminence near 
the river Cavado, 39 miles N. N. E. of Oporto. It is the 
seat of an archbishop. It has a fine Gothic cathedral and 
a college. Braga is enclosed by old walls and defended by 
a castle. Here are manufactures of linen, cutlery, firearms, 
jewelry, etc. It is a A r ery ancient town, and has ruins of a 
Roman temple and amphitheatre. It was the capital of 
Lusitania after the latter had been conquered by the Suevi. 
Its archbishop is titular primate of Portugal. Church 
councils were held at Braga in 563, 572, and 672 A. D. 
Pop. in 1863, 19,514. 

Bragan'za, a fortified town of Portugal, province of 
Tras-os-Montes, situated on a small stream 35 miles N. W. 
of Mirandi. It has a citadel, a college, and a castle partly 
ruined, which was the seat of the dukes of Braganza. It 
is the seat of a Catholic bishop. The name of the reign¬ 
ing family of Portugal and Brazil, the House of Braganza, 
is derived from this town. It has manufactures of velvet 
and other silk fabrics. Pop. 5111. 

Braganza, or Caite', a seaport-toAvn of Brazil, 
province of Par6, on the river Caite, near its mouth, 106 
miles E. N. E. of Para. It has a trade in sugar. 

Bragan'za, or Braganza, the name of the royal 
family of Portugal and the imperial family of Brazil, 
Avhich is descended from Affonso, duke of Braganza, a 
natural son of John I., king of Portugal. He died in 1461. 
The first member of this family that became king of Por¬ 
tugal was the eighth duke, who began to reign as John IV. 
in 1640. The first emperor of Brazil was Dom Pedro I., 
the eldest son of King John VI. 

Brag'don (C. P.), a distinguished Methodist Episcopal 
preacher, was born at Acton, Me., Sept. 9, 1808, entered the 
ministry in 1834, and labored with great zeal and success 
in Maine, New York State, and Illinois. He was distin¬ 
guished for the power and effectiveness of his preaching. 
Died at Evanston, Ill., Jan. 8, 1861. 

Bragdon (Edmund Erastus Eastman), D.D., an emi¬ 
nent Methodist Episcopal divine and educator, was born at 
Acton, Me., Dec. 8, 1812, and graduated at the Wesleyan 
University, Middletown, Conn., in 1841. With the excep¬ 
tion of three years in the pastorate, one year of which was 
in New York City, his life was devoted to the cause of edu¬ 
cation. He held professorships of ancient languages in 
the Ohio University, Athens, 0., in the Indiana Asbury 
University at Greencastle, and in Genesee College, Lima, 
N. Y. He was a faithful and successful instructor, and a 
man of devout life. Died Mar. 20, 1862. 

Bragg (Braxton), an American officer, born in 1817 in 
Warren co., N. C., graduated at West Point in 1837, and 
became captain June 18, 1846, in the Third Artillery. 
Served at seaboard posts 1837-45, in Florida war 1837-38 
and 1838-42, in removing Cherokees to the West 1838, in 
military occupation of Texas 1845-46, in war with Mexico 
1846-48, engaged at Fort BroAvn (brevet captain), Monte¬ 
rey (brevet major), and Buena Vista (brevet lieutenant- 
colonel), and on frontier duty 1849-55. On his resignation, 
Jan. 3, 1856, he became sugar-planter at Thibodeaux, La., 
1856-61, and commissioner of public Avorks for Louisiana 











BRAGG—BRAHMAPOOTRA. 


586 


1859-61. In the civil war he was in command of the forces 
of the Southern army at Pensacola operating against Fort 
Pickens 1861, of Second Corps at Shiloh 1862, being pro¬ 
moted to general on the death of Gen. A. S. Johnston; 
movement against Buell to Kentucky 1862, from which he 
was compelled to retire after defeat at Perrysville; after a 
brief arrest opposed ltosecrans at Chickamauga 1863, re¬ 
lieved from command Dec. 2, 1863, for loss of Mission 
Ridge, and led a small force from North Carolina to Georgia 
in 1864. Resumed planting in Louisiana, and is now 
chief ongineer of Alabama of improvements in Mobile 
harbor. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Bragg (John) was a brother of Braxton and Thomas 
Bragg. In 1836 he settled in Mobile, Ala. In 1842 he was 
appointed judge of the tenth circuit, and in 1851 he was 
elected to Congress. He served but one term, then retiring 
from public employments to take care of his large plant¬ 
ing interests. 

Bragg (Thomas), a brother of Braxton Bragg, born at 
Warrenton, N. C., Nov. 9, 1810, was admitted to the bar 
in 1831, was governor of North Carolina 1854-58, U. S. 
Senator 1859-61, and attorney-general in Jefferson Davis’s 
cabinet 1861-63. Died Jan. 21, 1872. 

Braggado'cio, a township of Pemiscot co., Mo. P. 90. 

Bragg’s Store, a post-twp. of Lowndes co., Ala. P.1035. 

Bra'gi, written also Braga and Brage [from the Ice¬ 
landic bragga , to adorn”], in Norse mythology a son of 
Odin, was the god of eloquence and poetry. He is repre¬ 
sented as an old man with a long beard. His wife Iduna 
keeps'the apples of immortality, which bestow immortal 
youth on those that partake of them. This myth probably 
has allusion to the power of poetry to confer immortality. 

Bra'he (Tycho), the celebrated Danish astronomer, was 
born in 1546 at Knudstrup, in Skaane, which at that time 
was a province of Denmark. The king, Frederic II., gave 
him the island of Huena, where he built the finest observa¬ 
tory (Uranienborg) which ever had been erected in Europe. 
He enriched the science of astronomy very much, partly 
by his very numerous observations, partly by inventing 
new instruments. He formed a catalogue of 777 stars, in¬ 
creased by his pupil, Kepler, to 1000 from the records which 
he left behind, and his recorded observations of the planet 
Mars furnished to the same distinguished successor the 
material from which he deduced his famous “Laws.” He 
entered the University of Copenhagen in 1559, and was 
destined for the law, but his attention was diverted to as¬ 
tronomy by the eclipse of the sun in Aug., 1560. In 1562 
he was sent to Leipsic to pursue his studies. An uncle who 
died in 1565 left him an estate. Having passed several 
years in Augsburg, he returned to his native country in 
1570. He rejected the Copernican system, which in his 
time was not supported by the conclusive evidence we 
now have in its favor. In fact, Tycho’s theory, which made 
the sun move round the earth, and all the other planets 
round the sun, explained all the phenomena then known 
equally well with that of Copernicus. After the death of 
his royal patron in 1588, he was first neglected, and then 
so persecuted by the court that he emigrated to Germany 
in 1597, and was induced by the emperor Rudolph to settle 
at Prague, where he died Oct. 13, 1601. He published, be¬ 
sides other works, “Astronomias Instauratse Progymnas- 
mata” (1587-89). “As a practical astronomer,” says Sir 
David Brewster, “ Tycho has not been surpassed by any 
observer of ancient or modern times. The splendor and 
number of his instruments, the ingenuity which he ex¬ 
hibited in inventing new ones, and his skill and assiduity 
as an observer, have given a character to his labors and a 
value to his observations which will be appreciated to the 
latest posterity.” 

Brahilof 7 , or BrailofP [Turk. Tbraila], a fortified 
town of Wallachia, on the left bank of the Danube, about 100 
miles from its mouth and 102 miles N. E. of Bucharest. Large 
quantities of grain and other produce are shipped at this 
place, which is the chief port of Wallachia. Pop. 15,767. 

BrShm , written also Brahme(but pronounced in one 
syllable), in the Hindoo mythology, the name of the eternal, 
self-existent Spirit, whom Manu describes as follows: “He 
whom the mind alone can perceive, whose essence eludes 
the external organs, who has no visible parts, who ex¬ 
ists from eternity—even He, the soul of all beings, whom 
no being can comprehend.” His image is the external 
universe. His attributes or powers took a personal form 
in Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva (which see). “ Of that in¬ 
finite, incomprehensible, self-existent Spirit no representa¬ 
tion is made, to his direct and immediate honor no temples 
rise; nor dare a Hindoo address to him the effusions of his 
soul, otherwise than by the mediation of a personified at¬ 
tribute, or through the intervention of a priest.” (Moor’s 
“Hindu Pantheon.”) The Hindoos make no images of 


Brahm, but the devout Brahmans meditate with silent and 
unspeakable awe on his mysterious attributes. 

Brdh'ma, a Sanscrit term which literally signifies “wor¬ 
ship” or “prayer,” but now used as the name of one of the 
great Hindoo deities, called the “ Creator,” but who is in 
fact the personification of the creative power of Brahm 
(which see). Brahma, though regarded as the first of the 
gods, is much less worshipped by the Hindoos than either 
Vishnu or Siva. The votaries of the last-named gods are 
stimulated by hope and fear. (See Vishnu and Siva.) But 
the votaries of Brahma may be said to be actuated only by 
the feeble principle of gratitude. Accordingly, there are 
no temples and no rites exclusively dedicated to Brahma, 
though his images are occasionally found in the temples of 
the other gods. The all-producing earth being the most re¬ 
markable of the external types of creation, earth is taken 
as the symbol of Brahma, as water is the symbol of Vishnu, 
and fire that of . Siva. The pictures of Brahma are com¬ 
monly of a reddish hue, this being the usual color of the 
earth. Viewed in another relation, Brahma represents 
matter, while Vishnu represents spirit, and Siva time. (See 
Moor, “ Hindu Pantheon.”) 

Brah'manism, the name given to the religious system 
founded by the Brahmans of India. Scarcely any trace of 
Brahmanism is discoverable in the Vedas, the oldest writ¬ 
ings of the Hindoos. We first find it developed in a work 
of somewhat uncertain -date entitled the “ Institutes of 
Manu” (or Menu), which was probably composed between 
600 and 900 years before the Christian era. The deities of 
the Vedas are such as would naturally have been suggested 
by the phenomena or objects of external nature, such, for 
example, as the heavens, called Varuna (Uranus), Mitra, 
the Sun, Fire (Agni, Ignis), and so on. The greatest and 
most powerful of the Vedic divinities is Indra (perhaps 
allied to the Latin irnber), the god of the atmosphere, of 
clouds, and of storms, and hence the Thunderer, correspond¬ 
ing in this respect to the Jupiter of the classic, and to 
Thor of the Northern, mythology. But in the Brahmanical 
system all these deities of nature retire into the background, 
and are replaced by the great gods (the Dii mcijores ), such 
as Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, with their consorts ( sciktis), 
their various avatars, etc. 

In the primitive ages the head of each family among the 
Ary as (see Arya) appears to have acted as priest, sac¬ 
rificing to the gods in his own name; but as the people 
receded from their primitive simplicity, they employed 
professional priests, who were believed to understand the 
wishes of the gods, and to know how their favor could best 
be propitiated. Having thus become a necessary element 
in the community, the priestly class soon established them¬ 
selves as the dominant power in the state; and in order to 
secure the position which they had thus acquired, they 
founded the distinctions of Caste (which see). 

The doctrine of “ emanation,” as it is called—with its as¬ 
sociated doctrine of transmigration—may be said to form 
the philosophical basis of the Brahmanical sj^stem. Ac¬ 
cording to this doctrine, Brahm (which see) is the centre 
and source of all the various beings of the universe, these 
being nothing more than emanations from him ; and as 
He is the source whence all things have been evolved, so 
all things will ultimately return to him, and be absorbed 
into the essence of the Self-existent. This final absorption 
is regarded by the Hindoo as his salvation. His aversion 
to activity or excitement makes the notion of complete re¬ 
pose necessary to his ideal of perfect felicity. Hence the 
final aim of all the efforts of the devout Hindoo is to bring 
his transmigrations to an end, that his individual existence 
may cease, and his soul be completely swallowed up in 
Brahm. The same general doctrine, with some modifica¬ 
tions, forms also the basis of Booddhism. 

One of the most remarkable features of the Brahmanical 
system is the great importance which it attaches to the per¬ 
formance of penance and prayer. According to the Chris¬ 
tian and Hebrew Scriptures, prayer and sacrifice are of no 
avail if they are not acceptable to God. But the Brahmans 
teach that persevering prayer, if made in due form, though 
prompted by the most unworthy motives, can, especially 
when it is combined with penance and sacrifice, compel the 
gods to accede to the wishes of the suppliant. (See Moor, 
“Hindu Pantheon;” Prof. H. H. Wilson, “Essays on the 
Religion of the Hindus;” “Institutes of Menu,” translated 
by Sir W. Jones.) J. Thomas. 

Brahmapoo'tra, written also Bitrrampooter (anc. 
Dyardanes or CEdanes), a great river of Asia, rises in 
Thibet, on the N. side of the Himalaya Mountains. It 
flows nearly eastward to the E. extremity of Bootan, thence 
turns southward, and breaks through the Himalayas into 
Assam. Its general direction is nearly W. S W. until it 
passes through Assam and enters Bengal. It flows south¬ 
ward through Bengal, and enters the Bay of Bengal close 










BRAHMAPOOTRA FOWL—BRAIN. 587 


to tho mouth of the Ganges. It is connected with the 
Ganges not only by a common delta, but by a large branch 
or channel called the Jena, which leaves the Brahmapootra 
about lat. 25° N. Its entire course is estimated at 1700 
miles. It inundates the level tracts of Bengal from April 
to September, and is said to discharge into the sea more 
water than the Ganges. The violence of its current and 
its tidal bore render navigation difficult. 

Brahmapootra Fowl. See Poultry. 

Brah'mo So'maj (t. e. “worshipping assembly”) is 
the name of a society of Theists in India. Founded in 
1830 by Rammohun Roy, it increased in numbers and ac¬ 
tivity after 1842, under the leadership of Debendro Nath 
Tagore, who succeeded in emancipating it from Vedantism. 
In 1859 a new impulse was given to it by the ability and 
enthusiasm of Keshub Chunder Sen, who effected the sep¬ 
aration of those who were willing to abolish caste in their 
eoinmunion, as the “ Brahmo Somaj of India.” The more 
conservative members remained in the Somaj or Church 
of Calcutta. The whole number of Brahmos is probably 
not more than 1000. Many of them are young Hindoos 
educated at the English colleges. The first building for 
public worship of the progressive Brahmos was opened at 
Calcutta in 1869. In 1873 there were only 143 Brahmos 
registered in Calcutta, and only 40 in Bombay. 

Keshub Chunder Sen, in his sermons and published 
tracts, avows a belief in the unity of God, in immediate 
revelation, in the necessity of a new birth, in the immor¬ 
tality of the soul, and in the efficacy of prayer. His mo¬ 
rality is pure, and he inculcates reverence for the character 
of Jesus Christ, but repudiates the doctrines of his divinity, 
mediation, and atonement as taught in the New Testament. 
This “ Unitarian Theism ” is said to resemble the theolog¬ 
ical rationalism of Theodore Parker. (See “Six Months 
in India,” by Miss Carpenter ; “Hours of Work and 
Play,” by Miss F. P. Cobbe ; an article in the “ Contem¬ 
porary Review ” on “ Indian Theism,” etc., 1869 ; Dr. 
Jardin’s paper in “Proceedings of the Allahabad Confer¬ 
ence,” 1872.) 

Braid'wood, a post-village of Reed township, Will 
co., Ill., on the Chicago and Alton R. R., 58 miles from Chi¬ 
cago. It has two weekly newspapers and a national bank. 

Braill [Gr. eyKe'^aAo?; Lat. cerebrum ; Fr. cerveau or cer- 
velle; Ger. Gehirn], the encephalon or contents of the head; 
the material instrument of thought, impulse, and percep¬ 
tion in man and the higher animals. Only vertebrates 
have a true brain; in others ganglia or nerve-centres exist; 
but, in the view of anatomists, the “cephalic ganglia” of 
insects and other invertebrate animals are not strictly ho¬ 
mologous with the brain. 

The amphioxus is the only brainless vertebrate; it is a 
small oceanic fish, exceptional in many respects of struc¬ 
ture. There is an ascent in the endowment of brain from 
the fishes, batrachians, reptiles, birds and lower mammals, 
until the culmination is reached in man. The proportion, by 
weight, of the encephalon to the whole body is in fishes on 
the average (according to Leuret) about as 1 to 5668; in 
reptiles, 1 to 1321; birds, 1 to 212; mammals, 1 to 186; in 
man, 1 to 36. The elephant has the largest brain, in actual 
weight, of all animals, sometimes reaching nine or ten 
pounds; next is that of the whale, about five pounds. The 
heaviest human brains have never weighed so much as 
this. Yet the proportion of weight of the brain to the 
whole body in the elephant is as 1 to 500. In some small 
animals and birds the proportion is relatively larger; as in 
the marmoset, 1 to 22; field-mouse, 1 to 31; linnet and 
canary-bird, 1 to 20; and blue-headed tit, 1 to 12. But it 
must be remembered that the kind of brain varies also; 
and the sensori-motor portions at the base of-the brain are 
of much greater relative size in the lower animals than in 
man. There is an obvious connection between the degree 
of cerebral development in the different groups of animals 
and their intelligence; and the human brain is greatly 
superior to any other in its endowment. As Iluxiey has 
pointed out, the difference in the structure of the brains of 
men and of the higher apes is not very marked, and the 
disparity in size is less than between the highest and the 
lowest of the quadrumana. But the gap is evidently a very 
wide one; as Professor Huxley admits that an average 
European child of four years old has a brain twice as large 
as an adult gorilla, whose weight is perhaps four times as 
great. Cephalization is a term applied by Professor Dana 
to the predominance of the head and its prehensile ap¬ 
pendages, by which the higher are distinguished from the 
lower animals; and of which the erect position and large, 
evenly-balanced head of man furnish the only perfect ex¬ 
emplification. 

The typical encephalon of vertebrate animals may be 
regarded as constituted mainly of the following parts, in 
varying proportions: olfactory ganglia, cerebral hemi¬ 


spheres, optic lobes, and cerebellum, besides the medulla 
oblongata, which, as its name implies, is the continuation 
of the spinal axis within the skull. In fishes, those parts 
which (in a rudimentary manner) represent the cerebral 
hemispheres are generally no larger than the optic lobes; a 
condition to which, at a certain stage of development, the 
brain of the human embryo presents a near though not ex¬ 
act resemblance. In reptiles and batrachia, there is not 
much advancement, but the cerebral hemispheres are larger 
and the cerebellum smaller. Birds have a considerable in¬ 
crease in the size of the hemispheres, which, in them, cover 
the olfactory ganglia in front and the optic lobes behind; 
the cerebellum in them is large. To each of these the em¬ 
bryonic human brain has, at certain stages, a general resem¬ 
blance. 

Mammals present great diversity, from the smooth¬ 
brained (Lissencephala of Owen) Monotremata, Marsupi- 
alia, and Rodentia, up through the other groups to the 
highly-convoluted (Gyrencephala) and otherwise complex 
brains of the anthropoid apes, as the gorilla and chimpanzee. 
In mammals only do we find the large transverse commis¬ 
sure (connecting band) called the corpus callosum, between 
the hemispheres; and in the lowest of them, as the duck¬ 
billed platypus of Australia, it is wanting. In the higher 
apes, as well as in man, the cerebral hemispheres roof over 
and conceal, when looked at from above, the cerebellum be¬ 
hind, as well as the olfactory bulbs in front; but in the lowest 
Quadrumana (as the lemurs) the cerebellum is uncovered, 
and the surface of the cerebrum is almost devoid of convo¬ 
lutions. 

Of the different lobes into which the cerebral hemispheres 
are imperfectly divided, the last to appear in the ascent 
from lower to higher groups of vertebrates, and the last to 
be developed in the growth of the human embryo, is the pos¬ 
terior lobe. This is among the facts which suggest a dif¬ 
ferent hypothesis concerning the relative functions of the 
anterior, middle, and posterior lobes from that which is 
generally entertained. 

An adult man’s brain weighs, on the average, 48 ounces; 
a woman’s, 44 ounces; yet, as Tiedemann (Philadelphia 
translation, 1836) observes, since the female body is lighter 
than the male, there is no inferiority in the relative size of 
the brain. 

In capacity, the largest human brain of 900 measured 
(R. Wagner) was that of a woman, 115 cubic inches; the 
smallest adult male’s, 62 cubic inches. Morton, however 
(“ Crania Americana,” p. 132), mentions a skull of the Inca 
Peruvian race, 60 cubic inches. The Hindoos probably 
have the smallest skulls of all known races. The following 
table is from Morton : 


Races. 

No. of 
gkulls. 

Mean 

capacity. 

Largest. 

Smallest. 

Caucasian, . . 

52 

87 

109 

75 

Mongolian, . . 

10 

83 

93 

69 

Malay, .... 

18 

81 

89 

64 

American, . . 

147 

82 

100 

60 

Ethiopian, . . 

29 

78 

94 

65 


The human brain is enveloped, within the skull, by three 
membranes—the outer, fibrous, dura mater; the middle, 






























BRAIN. 


588 


serous, arachnoid ; the inner, pia mater, consisting of small 
blood-vessels, with connective tissue between them. As 
usually described, the parts of the encephalon are, the cere¬ 
brum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and pons varolii. 

The cerebrum is composed of the right (Fig. 1, a) and 
left (b) hemispheres, partially separated by the longitu¬ 
dinal fissure (c c). The convolutions on the two sides 
do not correspond (unless in a few principal forms) with 
each other; nor are they the same in different subjects. 
The fissure of Sylvius (Fig. 2, a a), on each side, separates 
(partly) the anterior from the middle lobe. On the surface 
of the hemispheres, gray (cineritious) vesicular nerve-sub- 
stance predominates, although thin alternating layers of 
white substance exist in the convolutions. The central 
mass of the cerebrum is mainly composed of white, fibrous 
nerve-substance. 

Laying the brain over so as to examine its base, the cere¬ 
bellum (Fig. 2, b b), pons varolii (c), and medulla oblongata 
( d) are seen posteriorly. The relative positions of these parts 



Fig. 2. The base of the Brain. 


can be understood by the aid of the figure. In front of these 
the cranial nerves. They are commonly enumerated in the 
order of their emergence from the brain, as the 1st (most 
anterior), olfactory nerve; 2d, optic; 3d, motor oculi, etc. 

To inspect the interior of the brain, it should be placed 
upon its base and sliced away above the corpus callosum, 
(Fig. 3, a) which bridges transversely the two hemispheres. 



Fig. 3. Horizontal section of the Brain, showing the lateral 

ventricles. 


The lateral ventricles (b b) may bo thus exposed, and other 
parts, the technical names of which would cumber the 


memory of the general reader, especially as the particular 
uses of all of them have not yet been clearly determined. 
The figure will suffice to locate some of them. 

The most important parts of the floor of the ventricles 
are the corpora striata (c) and the thalami (d and Fig. 4, 
a a). The former (one on each side) are anterior, the 
latter posterior. Both are rounded masses, partly of gray 
and partly of white nerve substance. 

Connected with the thalami on each side by commissural 
filaments, and lying between the cerebrum and cerebellum, 



Fig. 4. Brain, showing horizontal section of the third ( d) and 
fourth (e) ventricles. 

are the (four) tubercula quadrigemina, which correspond 
nearly with the optic lobes of birds, reptiles, and fishes. 
The optic nerves principally terminate in them. 

The cerebellum (c) is much smaller than the cerebrum, and 
lies behind and below it; they are separated by the mem¬ 
branous tentorium. The cerebellum consists of a right and 
a left hemisphere, with a fissure between them, interrupted 
by commissural connections. The outer portions of these 
hemispheres are arranged in nearly parallel delicate lamellse 
or layers of gray nerve-matter. When a vertical section is 
made, we see an arborescent internal structure of white 
nerve-substance enclosed in the gray; this is called the 
arbor vitae by anatomists. The pons varolii is principally 
composed of bands of transverse filaments, connecting the 
hemispheres of the cerebellum. The crura cerebri are bun¬ 
dles of white substance diverging from the pons varolii into 
the hemispheres of the cerebrum, widening as they pass 
forward. 

The medidla oblongata (f) is a pyramidal mass of nerve- 
substance, continuous with the spinal marrow, as well as con¬ 
nected with the cerebrum and cerebellum. It is divisible on 
each side into four portions. The anterior of these, corpora 
pyramidalia, are composed of bundles of white nerve-fibres, 
which decussate — i. e., cross each other, a little below the/jems. 
They are connected with the antero-lateral columns of the 
spinal cord, and their crossing explains some facts in con¬ 
nection with one-sided motor palsy. The posterior pyra- 
mids are continuous with the posterior tracts of the spinal 
cord. The other portions of the medulla oblongata are 
called corpora olivaria and corpora restiformia. (For a 
more detailed description, the reader is referred to works on 
special anatomy.) 

The functions of the brain, except as regards the general 
fact of its serving as the instrument of mental action, in¬ 
cluding perception, thought, emotion, and will, constitute 
a difficult subject of study, whose investigation has not yet 
been completed. We can give here only Those views upon 
which physiologists are most nearly agreed. (For the con¬ 
sideration of some others, see Phrenology.) 

The medulla oblongata, besides fibres of a commissural 
nature, is believed by most inquirers (Brown-Sequard ex¬ 
cepted) to contain the ganglionic centre, under the control 
of which, through reflex action, are performed the move¬ 
ments connected with breathing and swallowing. A serious 
injury to it is always fatal, by interruption of respiration. 

The cerebellum (believed by Gall to be the seat of the 
organ of amativeness or sexual propensity) has, since the 
inquiries and experiments of Flourens, been generally 
thought to have the office of harmonizing or co-ordinating 







































BRAINARD—BRAINTREE. 589 


voluntary movements. Animals which climb, as the ape 
and the bear, have a larger cerebellum than those of simple 
locomotion, as the dog and the hog. Among birds, those 
of rapid and varied flight, as the swallow and many birds 
of prey, have it larger than the heavily-flying pheasant 
family, of which the barn-fowl is an example. Possibly the 
cerebellum may be the seat of the “ muscular sense” of some 
physiologists. It is an unexplained fact that it has often 
been found considerably altered in persons who have died 
insane. Some recent investigations of Doctor S. Weir 
Mitchell of Philadelphia appear to throw doubt in the way 
of the acceptance of the co-ordinative theory concerning 
the cerebellum. He found that in animals which survived 
the entire removal of the cerebellum, although the order 
and balance of locomotor actions was lost for a consider¬ 
able time, it was finally restored. Doctor Mitchell suggests, 
therefore, that the cerebellum cannot be the exclusive centre 
of muscular co-ordination, however it may share this office 
with other parts of the cerebro-spinal axis, but that it may 
be a great reservoir for accumulation of motor force. 

The corpora striata are probably connected with the 
direct emanation of the motor impulses, upon which vol¬ 
untary actions depend. 

The thalami (formerly called nervorum opticorum) appear 
to be the ultimate termini of the nervous filaments which 
bring from the spinal cord impressions of common sensa¬ 
tion or touch. These, with the corpora striata, the tuber¬ 
cular quadrigemina, and other central masses at the base 
of the brain, constitute the group of sensori-motor ganglia, 
believed by Carpenter and others to be the immediate seat 
of consciousness and will. Sensori-motor actions are those 
in which motion is guided by sensation, through the medium 
of this ganglionic apparatus. The importance of such 
guidance is easily illustrated by many familiar actions. We 
walk by sight; if one closes his eyes, his steps become un¬ 
certain. So, every one speaks or sings by aid of his hear¬ 
ing; the phrase “ a good ear for music ” is justifiable. One 
born deaf is also mute, from lack of this guidance. A 
blind person learns to substitute the use of the senses of 
touch and hearing for sight, but some guidance by sensa¬ 
tion must always be had. All confused or unusual impres¬ 
sions make action difficult or Irregular, as when one en¬ 
deavors, without practice, to walk a narrow plank at a 
great height from the ground. 

The cerebral hemispheres are, by universal consent, regard¬ 
ed as the material organs of intellect and of the emotions. 
Commonly it is believed that the anterior portion of the brain 
(the “gray matter” of its convolutions) is the seat of intel¬ 
lectual activity; the emotions, if separately located at all— 
which Carpenter disputes—being connected with the mid¬ 
dle and posterior lobes. Yet the order of development, 
compared with the successive periods of maturing of the 
impulses and the reasoning powers, would point rather to 
the posterior lobes as being the organs of intellect. 

The nature of the relation between mind and brain is a 
topic of endless controversy. (See Materialism and Men¬ 
tal Philosophy.) Certain propositions may be here ad¬ 
vanced, as open to very little question at the present time: 
1. The two hemispheres of the brain, under normal condi¬ 
tions, act as one. We are not conscious of anything but 
unity in our mental activity. 2. Yet the brain is probably, 
in relation to our faculties, a multiple organ. This is shown 
by the partial consciousness of dreaming and somnambulism; 
partial insanity or monomania; limited disturbance of men¬ 
tal or moral powers after certain injuries; and the special 
gifts of mind so different in different individuals, recognized 
under the name of genius. 3. Reflex action, as pointed 
out first by Dr. Laycock, affects the brain, as well as the 
lower nervous centres. Emotional actions, excited by the 
presence of particular objects or impressions, exemplify 
this. 4. Mental action, intellectual as well as emotional, 
is often truly automatic or involuntary. The will (as all 
psychologists recognize) controls thought and feeling only 
by the directing and selective power of attention, by which 
one, rather than another, kind of impression or ratiocina¬ 
tion acquires momentum and continuance. Great mental 
capacity is, indeed, often combined with deficiency of will, 
as in such striking examples as Mozart and S. T. Coleridge. 
5. There is reason to believe, as Doctor Carpenter has 
shown, that mental activity may sometimes be unconscious 
—the “ unconscious cerebration ” of authors. During sound 
sleep, for instance, most persons are able to awake at a de¬ 
termined time. When we have forgotten a once-familiar 
name or number, our attention being withdrawn from the 
search, it frequently comes back unsought. Many other 
facts may receive the same kind of explanation. (See 
“ Human Physiology,” by W. B. Carpenter, M. D., chap¬ 
ters on the “Nervous System.”) 

Henry Hartshorne. 

Brain'aril (John Gardiner Calkins), an American 
poet of merit, born at New London, Conn., Oct. 21, 1796. 


He graduated at Yale in 1814. He published a volume of 
poems in 1825, and was for six years editor of the “ Con¬ 
necticut Mirror.” Died Sept. 26, 1828. (See “Memoir of 
Brainard,” prefixed to his works, by J. G. Whittier, 1832.) 

Brainard (Lawrence L.), a prominent citizen and 
business-man of St. Albans, Vt., born about 1794, was 
several times candidate for governor, and was U. S. Sena¬ 
tor from Vermont 1854-55. Died May 9, 1870. 

Brain Coral, a name of various corals of the order 
Madreporaria and family Mmandrinidse, especially applied 
to the Mseandrina cerebriformis, which grows in warm seas, 
and takes its name from the fact that its surface has con¬ 
volutions shaped somewhat like those of the human brain. 

Braine (Daniel L.), U. S. N., born May 18, 1829, in 
the city of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman 
May 30,1846, became a passed midshipman in 1852, a lieu¬ 
tenant in 1858, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, and a 
commander in 1866. In 1861-62 he commanded the steamer 
Monticello, taking part in the engagement with the bat¬ 
tery at Sewell’s Point, near Norfolk, Va., May 19, 1861, 
and in the capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark, N. C., Oct. 
5 of the same year. He was frequently under the fire of 
Forts Fisher and Caswell while blockading the port of 
Wilmington, and participated in both the Fort Fisher 
fights, and in the capture of Fort Anderson on the 19th of 
Feb., 1865. For the “cool performance” of his duty in 
these battles Braine was recommended for promotion by 
Rear-Admiral Porter in his “commendatory despatch” 
of Jan. 28, 1865. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Braine-l’Alleud, a town of Belgium, in Brabant. It 
has cotton-factories. Pop. 5578. 

Braine-le-Comte, a town of Belgium, in the prov¬ 
ince of Hainault, on the railway from Brussels to Valen¬ 
ciennes, 20 miles by rail N. N. E. of Mons. It has a church 
built about the year 1300, also cotton-mills and dyeworks. 
Fine flax is raised in the vicinity. Pop. 6464. 

Brain'erd, a post-village of Crow Wing co., Minn., on 
the Northern Pacific R. R. where it crosses the Mississippi 
River, 115 miles W. S. W. of Duluth. It has one weekly 
newspaper. 

Brainerd (David), an American missionary, born at 
Haddam, Conn., April 20,1718. He entered Yale College in 
1739, bul was expelled in 1742 for a very trivial offence. In 
1743 he began his famous labors among the Indians in a vil¬ 
lage about halfway between Stockbridge, Mass., and Albany, 
N. Y. The year following he went among the Delawares 
in Pennsylvania, and afterwards to Crosweeksung in New 
Jersey, where he had his most signal success. In the summer 
of 1747 he returned to Massachusetts in broken health, and 
died at Northampton Oct. 9, 1747. Jonathan Edwards, 
to whose daughter he was engaged to be married, and at 
whose house he died, published a memoir of him in 1749, 
A new (and now the standard) edition of this, with his 
journals, was published by Rev. Sereno E. Dwight in 1822. 

Brainerd (John), a younger brother of the preceding, 
was born at Haddam, Conn., Feb. 28, 1720, graduated at 
Yale College in 1746, and was for a time missionary among 
the Indians in New Jersey. In 1757 he was settled at New¬ 
ark, and in 1777 at Deerfield, N. J., where he died Mar. 17, 
1781. (See his “ Life,” by Rev. Thomas Brainerd, 1865.) 

Brainerd (Thomas), D.D., of the same stock as the 
above, was born at Weston, N.Y., June 17, 1804, graduated 
at Hamilton College and at Andover Theological Seminary 
in 1831. From 1831 to 1833 he was pastor of the Fourth 
Presbyterian church in Cincinnati, O., from 1833 to 1836 
edited the “ Cincinnati Journal” and “Youth’s Magazine,” 
and from 1837 till his death at Scranton, Pa., Aug. 21, 
1866, was pastor of the Pine Street church, Philadelphia. 
He was an accomplished and able writer. Besides various 
sermons and pamphlets, he published in 1865 the “ Life of 
John Brainerd,” referred to above. 

Brain Fever is a popular name for acute cephalic 
meningitis (see Meningitis), a dangerous disease, charac¬ 
terized in its earlier stages by very high fever and intense 
headache, usually followed by delirium and death. In¬ 
flammation of the brain itself (encephalitis) is less com¬ 
mon, but is even more fatal than the former. It is not 
easy to discriminate between the two during life. Cold 
applications to the head and mild but persistent derivative 
treatment are generally indicated. 

Brain'tree, a post-township and village of Norfolk co., 
Mass. The village is on the Old Colony and Newport R. R., 
10 miles S. of Boston. Here are manufactures ot machi¬ 
nery, woollen goods, boots and shoes, paper, tacks, cordage, 
etc. Pop. of township, 3948. 

Braintree, a post-township of Orange co., Vt., 25 miles 
S. of Montpelier. It has three churches, and manufac¬ 
tures of lumber. Pop. 1066. 













590 BRAINTRIM—BRANDENBURG. 


Brain'trim, a township of Wyoming co., Pa. P. 620. 
Braize, or Becker ( Pagrus vulgaris), a sea-fish of 


Braize. 

Europe, represented in American Atlantic waters by the 
big porgy or scup (Pagrus argyrops), which is prized both 
for the table and for its oil. 

Brake, a term with various significations : it sometimes 
denotes a thicket, a place overgrown with shrubs, bram¬ 
bles, or ferns. In the U. S. a thicket of canes is called a 
“ canebrake.” 

Brake is a name applied, especially in America, to plants 
of the order Filices. The more correct name is Fern (which 
see, by Prof. D. C. Eaton, LL.B.). 

Brake, an instrument used to break flax or hemp; the 
hand or lever by which a pump is worked; a large harrow 
used in agriculture; a sharp bit or snaffle (of a bridle). 

Brake, a machine attached to the wheels of heavy car¬ 
riages and railroad cars, which, when pressed against the 
wheels, retards or stops their motion by friction. Patents 
have been obtained in the U. S. for numerous machines or 
inventions for this purpose. Among these are “ steam car- 
brakes,” in the use of which the friction is produced by 
steam-power, and the engineer of a locomotive applies the 
brakes by the turning of a cock; and the “ Westinghouse 
air-brake,” now extensively used. 

Bra'ma, a genus of fishes of the family Chsetodontidas, 
having the body very deep and compressed, a single elon¬ 
gated dorsal fin, and a forked tail, the points of which are 
widely divergent. The Brama rail, sometimes called bream, 
is common in the Mediterranean, and is highly esteemed for 
food. 

Bra'mah (Joseph), an English machinist and inventor, 
born in Yorkshire April 13, 1749. He carried on business 
in London, and gained distinction by numerous and valu¬ 
able inventions, among which are a safety lock, a hydro¬ 
static press, and improvements in fire-engines and steam- 
engines. Died Dec. 9, 1814. 

Bramah’s Press. See Hydrostatic Press. 

Braman'te (Donato Lazzari), a celebrated Italian 
architect and painter, born near Urbino in 1444, was a rela¬ 
tive of Raphael. He studied and worked at Milan from 
1476 to 1499, and afterwards removed to Rome, where he 
was patronized by Pope Julius II. He designed the vast 
galleries which connect the Vatican with the palace of Bel¬ 
vedere, He was the first architect of St. Peter’s church, 
which he began to build in 1506. Only a small portion 
of his design had been realized when he died in 1514, and 
the succeeding architects deviated from the original plan. 
(See Vasari, “ Lives of the Painters;” Pungileoni, “ Me- 
moria intorno alia Vita di Donato Bramante,” 1837.) 

BramTHing, Bram'blefinch, or Mountain 
Finch (Fringilla montifring ilia), a small bird nearly 
allied to the chaffinch, than which it is rather larger. The 
predominant colors of the upper parts are black and brown, 
with white bands on the wings. The belly is white, and 
some of the wing-coverts are yellow. It breeds in the 
northern parts of Sweden and Norway, and visits England, 
Italy, and other countries as a winter bird of passage. 

Bramp'ton, a post-village, capital of Peel co., Ontario, 
on the Grand Trunk Railway, 21 miles W. of Toronto, has 
manufactures of flour, farming implements, pumps, etc., 
and a large trade. It has two weekly papers. Pop. in 
1871, 2090. 

Bran, the husk or outer covering of wheat, which in 
the process of flouring is separated from the fine flour. In 
100 parts of bran there are of water, 13.1; albumen, 19.3; 
oil, 4.7; husk (with a little starch), 55.6; ash or saline 
matter, 7.3. Calico-printers use bran and warm water to 
remove coloring-matter from those parts of their goods 
which are not mordanted. Bran and the flour united— 


t. e. unbolted wheat flour—make a good bread, which is 
considered more digestible than that made of fine white 
flour. 

Branch [Fr. tranche; Lat. ramus], a limb 
of a tree or plant; a bough, or division of the 
stem or trunk; .a ramification; any member or 
part of a body or system; a distinct article or 
section, as a branch of science or education. 
In geography several streams which unite to 
form a river are called its branches. The term 
“branch” is also applied to an individual of 
a family descending in a collateral line; any 
descendant of a common parent. In botany each 
branch originates in a leaf-bud, which is pro¬ 
duced at a node of the stem or of an already ex¬ 
isting branch. The arrangement of the branches 
as alternate or opposite corresponds to the re¬ 
lative position of the leaves. 

Branch, a county of Michigan, bordering 
on Indiana. Area, 528 square miles. It is trav¬ 
ersed by the St. Joseph River and is drained by 
several creeks. The surface is diversified by for¬ 
ests, oak-openings, and small lakes; the soil is a fertile 
sandy loam. Cattle, grain, and wool are staple products. 
Iron ore is found. It is intersected by the Michigan South¬ 
ern R. R. Capital, Coldwater. Pop. 26,226. 

Branch, a township of Stanislaus co., Cal. Pop. 787. 

Branch, a township of Schuylkill co., Pa. Pop. 1200. 

Branch (John), born at Halifax, N. C., Nov. 4, 1782, 
graduated at the University of North Carolina in 1801, be¬ 
came a lawyer, was made a judge of the superior court, 
governor of North Carolina (1817-20), U. S. Senator (1823- 
29), secretary of the navy (1829-31), member of Congress 
(1831-33), governor of Florida Territory (1844-45), besides 
holding other important offices. Died at Edgefield, N. C., 
Jan. 4, 1863. 

Branch (Lawrence O’Brien), son of the preceding, 
born in Halifax co., N. C., in 1820, graduated at Princeton 
in 1838, was a Democratic Representative in Congress from 
1855 to 1861. He was made a brigadier-general in the 
Confederate army in 1861, and was killed at Antietam in 
1862. 

Branch'burg, a twp. of Somerset co., N. J. Pop. 1251. 

Branchiop'oda [from the Gr. ppdyxia, the “gills,” 
and 7rovs, noS6s, a “ foot ”], an order of entomostracous 
crustaceans, deriving their name from the peculiarity of 
having the gills, which are numerous, attached to the feet. 
They are small, many of them almost microscopic, and 
abound in stagnant fresh waters. A few are found in salt 
water. Some are known by the name of water-fleas; the 
genera Cyclops and Cypris may be mentioned, the former 
on account of its frequency in stagnant waters, the latter 
because its fossil shells are abundant. Western North Amer¬ 
ica abounds in species; Eastern North America has none. 

Branch'port, a station on the Raritan and Dela¬ 
ware Bay R. R., in Ocean township, Monmouth co., N. J., 
1 mile N. of Long Branch. It has a fine bay, a coasting- 
trade in lumber and oysters, and has many summer resi¬ 
dences. 

Branchport, a post-village of Jerusalem township, 
Yates co., N. Y., at the head of the W. arm of Iveuka Lake. 
It has five churches. 

Branch'ville, a township of St. Clair co., Ala. Pop. 
1419. 

Branchville, a post-village of Orangeburg co., S. C., 
in a township of the same name, on the South Carolina 
R. R., 75 miles E. S. E. of Augusta. Pop. 1339. 

Brand, a burning piece of wood, or a stick of wood 
partly burned; a sword (this use of the word is obsolete 
except in poetry); a thunderbolt; a mark made by burn¬ 
ing with a hot iron on a criminal or on a cask, etc.; a 
stigma. (See Branding.) The term brand is applied in 
England to some diseases of plants, especially of cereal 
grains, which are also called blight, bunt, mildew, rust, or 
smut. These diseases are caused by minute parasitic vege¬ 
tation. Perhaps the most common application of this term 
is to a peculiar spotted and burnt appearance of leaves and 
bark, the cause of which is probably not known. 

Brande (Wii.liam Thomas), F. R. S., an English chem¬ 
ist, born in London in 1788. Ho lectured with success on 
chemistry at the Royal Institution, and filled for many 
years an important office in the Mint. Among his works 
are a valuable “Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art” 
(1842) and a “Manual of Chemistry.” Died in 1866. 

Brand'enburg, the most important province of Prus¬ 
sia, and that which formed the nucleus of the Prussian 
kingdom. It corresponds nearly to the old Mark of Bran- 





















BRANDENBURG—BRANDYWINE CREEK. 591 


denburg, and has an area of 15,402 square miles. It is 
mostly a level plain which has but little elevation above 
the sea. It contains numerous lakes, is intersected by the 
Oder, and also drained by the Warthe, the Spree, the Ha¬ 
vel, and the Elbe, which latter forms part of its W. bound¬ 
ary. The soil is sandy and moderately fertile. The prov¬ 
ince is traversed by several canal? and railways. It has 
extensive manufactures of cotton, wool, linen, silk, paper, 
leather, sugar, etc. The chief towns are Berlin, Potsdam, 
Konigsberg, and Frankfort-on-the-Oder. The inhabitants 
are mostly Protestants. It is divided into two regencies 
(Regierungsbegirke) and thirty-three circles. This coun¬ 
try was conquered by Charlemagne in 789 A. D. The first 
margrave of Brandenburg was Albert the Bear, who is 
called the founder of the House of Brandenburg. He be¬ 
gan to reign in 1184. Early in the fifteenth century the 
margrave became an elector of the German empire, and 
took the title of elector of Brandenburg. Frederick Wil¬ 
liam, who became elector in 1640, added the duchy of 
Prussia and part of Pomerania to his dominions, and his 
son took the title of king of Prussia in 1701. Pop. in 
1871, 2,863,461. 

Brandenburg (anc. Brennaborch or Brennabor), a 
town of Prussia, in the above province, is situated on 
both sides of the river Havel, and on the Berlin and Mag¬ 
deburg Railway, 38 miles by rail W. S. W. of Berlin. It 
is enclosed by walls, and divided by the river into the old 
and new town, between which, on an island, is a quarter 
called “Venice,” containing a castle and a mediaeval cathe¬ 
dral. The town has a ritter akademie, a gymnasium, a 
realschule, and a public library; also manufactures of 
woollen and linen goods, hosiery, paper, leather, etc. Pop. 
in 1871, 25,828. 

Brandenburg, a post-village, capital of Meade co., 
Ky., is on the Ohio River and on a high bluff, 40 miles be¬ 
low Louisville. Pop. 427. 

Brandenburg, New, a walled town of Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz, is situated near the N. end of Tollensee, 18 miles 
N. N. E. of Strelitz and 53 miles W. N. W. of Stettin. It 
has wide and regular streets, and is said to be the most 
beautiful town in Mecklenburg-Strelitz. It has a grand- 
ducal palace, and manufactures of cotton and woollen 
goods, damasks, paper, and chemical products. Pop. in 
1871, 7245. 

Brand'ing, a mode of punishment formerly practised 
in England, by burning the face or hand of an offender 
with a hot iron. This penalty was inflicted in the case of 
all clergiable offences (see Benefit of Clergy), but it was 
abolished by an act of Parliament in 1822. Branding is 
now obsolete except in the case of deserters from the army, 
who are marked with the letter D, not by a hot iron, but 
by ink or gunpowder. By the Mutiny act of 1858 it is 
enacted that the court-martial, in addition to any other 
punishment, may order the offender to be marked on the 
left side, two inches below the armpit, with the letter D, 
such letter to be not less than one inch long. 

Bran'dis (Christian August), professor at Bonn Uni¬ 
versity, born at Hildesheim, in Hanover, Feb. 15, 1790, 
was the son of Joachim Dietrich Brandis, a celebrated 
physician. He edited, with Emmanuel Bekker, a critical 
edition of Aristotle. He was the secretary of King Otho 
in Greece. Ilis main work was a history of the Greek and 
Roman philosophies (2 vols., 1835-44; the third volume 
appeared in 1860-66) and a “ History of the Development of 
Greek Philosophy” (2 vols., 1862-64). Died July 24, 1867. 

Bran'don, a township of Jackson co., Ia. Pop. 1103. 

Brandon, a post-township of Oakland co., Mich. Pop. 
1284. 

Brandon, the capital of Rankin co., Miss., on the 
Vicksburg and Meridian R. R., 13 miles E. of Jackson, 
contains twenty-one store*, a large hotel, 9 , bank, a large 
female college, five churches, and one newspaper. It is 
surrounded by numerous mineral wells, limestone and 
marl-beds. Pop. 756. 

A. J. Frantz, Ed. of “ Brandon Republican.” 

Brandon, a township of Franklin co., N. Y. P. 692. 

Brandon, a post-village of Rutland co., Vt., is in 
Brandon township, near Otter Creek, on the Vermont Cen¬ 
tral R. R. (Rutland division), 16 miles N. N. W. of Rut¬ 
land. It has a newspaper, a graded academy, two parks, 
two national banks, five churches, twenty-five stores, two 
hotels, and manufactures of Howe scales, iron castings, 
carriages, flour, lime, lumber, paint, marble, pill-boxes, 
spools, and tassel-moulds. The township contains also tho 
village of Forestdale. Pop. of the township, 3571. 

A. N. Merchant, Pub. of “ Union.” 

Brandon, a post-townBhip of Prince George co., Va. 
Pop. 1600. 


Brandon, a post-village of Fond du Lac co., Wis. It 
has one weekly newspaper. 

Brandt, a post-village of Bethel township, Miami co., 
0. Pop. 240. 

B ran'dy [Ger. Branntwein (7. e. “ burnt wine ”); Fr. eau 
de vie] is the liquid obtained by distilling the fermented juice 
of the grape. It is generally manufactured from white and 
pale-red wines. White wine yields a richer brandy than 
red wine, as it contains more of the essential oil of grapes, 
to which the flavor of the brandy is due. The peculiarities 
of the wine pass to a certain extent to the brandy. Wines 
which taste of the soil communicate the same taste, the 
gout de terre, to the brandy distilled from them. Wines of 
Selleul in Dauphiny yield a brandy having the odor and 
taste of Florentine iris; those in St. Pierre in Vivarais 
give a spirit which smells of violet. The stronger the wine 
the greater the yield. The wines of the S. of Europe, be¬ 
ing richest in alcohol, yield the most brandy. The usual 
yield is from 100 to 150 gallons from 1000 gallons of wine. 
The best brandy,that distilled in the department of Charente, 
known as cognac and armagnac (names of towns), is made 
from very choice wines. Inferior brandies are distilled from 
dark-red wines of France, Spain, and Portugal, also from 
the fermented marc or refuse of the grape, and from the 
lees of wine and the scrapings of the casks. The catawba 
brandy, made from the lees of catawba wine in Ohio, is a 
very good brandy, though it has the peculiar flavor of this 
wine. The brandy distilled from catawba marc has an un¬ 
pleasant taste, and contains much fusel oil. The wines of 
California yield brandy abundantly and of good quality. 
Various other liquors are known as bi’andies, such as 
“cider brandy” or “apple jack,” distilled from cider or 
from the “pomace” or refuse ground apples from the 
cider-press. This, when new, is a harsh, fiery liquor, but 
is much improved by age. “Peach brandy” is extensively 
made from the pulp of ripe peaches in some of the South¬ 
ern States. 

Fresh brandy is colorless, and remains so in glass vessels. 
The sherry-wine color which brandy generally exhibits is 
either derived from the cask or from burnt sugar purposely 
added. Brandy is almost pure alcohol and water, the per¬ 
centage of alcohol varying from 48 to 56 per cent. It has 
an agreeable vinous, aromatic odor, and a peculiar well- 
known taste. Its specific gravity is from 0.902 to 0.941. 
Besides alcohol and water it contains the volatile oil of the 
wine, a little acetic acid, acetic ether, aldehyde, etc., to¬ 
gether with the coloring-matter and tannic acid derived 
from the cask. 

Brandy for medical use should be free from disagreeable 
odor and taste, and should be at least four years old. The 
advantage of keeping brandy a few years in the cask is 
due to the oxidation and removal of the ranker fusel oils, 
and to the precipitation of possible traces of copper or lead 
derived from the still by the tannic acid of the cask. 

The greater part of the brandy and cognac of commerce 
is made from alcohol derived from Indian corn,—rectified 
and deodorized whisky. This is diluted to proof, 50 per 
cent., and flavored with acetic ether, oenanthic ether, oil 
of grapes, argol, and tannin, and colored with burnt sugar. 
It is inrproved by the addition of a little real brandy, and 
by keeping it a few years in the cask. The following 
recipe for cognac brandy is taken from the circular of a 
New York firm, whose business is to supply the necessary 
materials to the manufacturers of wines and liquors: “ To 
40‘ gallons of cologne spirit, double distilled and free from 
odor, and reduced to proof with distilled water, add & 
ounce of our best cognac oil, distilled from grapes, U pints 
burnt-sugar coloring, and I ounce of tannin.” At tho 
prices charged for the materials this choice brandy would 
cost the compounder $1.25 per gallon, and would sell at 
from $10 to $25. 

Brandy is an esteemed cordial and stomachic. It is fre¬ 
quently given in the sinking stages of low fevers and to 
convalescents, and to check diarrhoea. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Brandy Station, a post-village of Culpeper co., Va., 
on the Orange Alexandria and Manassas R. R., 56 miles 
S. W. of Alexandria, the scene of conflicts between the 
Federal and Confederate forces on the 9th of June and 11th 
of Oct., 1863. 

Bran'dywine, a hundred of New Castlo co., Del. Pop. 
3180. 

Brandywine, a township of Hancock co., Ind. Top. 
1061. 

Brandywine, a township of Shelby co., Ind. Pop. 
1224. 

Brandywine Creek is formed by the East and IV cst 
branches, which unite in Chester co., Pa. It flows south¬ 
eastward into tho State of Dolawaro, and enters tho Dcla- 



















592 


BRANFORD—BRATTLEBOKO’. 


ware River near Wilmington. It furnishes water-power 
for numerous mills. On its banks, in Chester county, the 
British general Howe defeated Washington Sept. 11, 1777. 

Bran'ford, a borough of New Haven co., Conn., in 
Branford township, on Long Island Sound and on the New 
Haven and New London R. R., 8 miles E. S. E. of New 
Haven. It has three churches, a foundry, etc. The harbor 
will admit vessels of 300 tons. It is a place of summer re¬ 
sort. It has various manufactures, and is the seat of an 
academy. Pop. of township, 2488. 

Branks, an instrument formerly used in England and 
Scotland for the punishment of scolding women. It was 
of various forms, but consisted essentially of a bridle of 
iron or leather, to which was attached a piece of iron which 
held the tongue firmly. It is asserted that in some obscure 
places in England its use came down to quite recent times. 

Bran'nan (John Milton), an American officer, born in 
1819 in the District of Columbia, graduated at West Point in 
1841, major First Artillery Aug. 1, 1863, and Sept. 28, 1861, 
brigadier-general U. S. volunteers. He served at seaboard 
posts 1841-73, in suppressing Canada border disturbances 
1841-42, in the war with Mexico 1846-48, engaged at Vera 
Cruz, Cerro Gordo, La Hoya, Contreras, and Churubusco 
(brevet captain), and the city of Mexico (severely wound¬ 
ed at Belen Gate), as adjutant First Artillery 1847-54, in 
Florida hostilities 1856-58. In the civil war he served in 
command of the department of Key West, Fla., 1862, in 
the department of the South 1S62-63, engaged on expedi¬ 
tion to St. John’s River, Fla. (brevet lieutenant-colonel), 
at Pocotaligo, S. C., and several minor actions, in Tennes¬ 
see campaign 1863, engaged at Hoover’s Gap, Tullahoma, 
Elk River, and Chickamauga (brevet colonel), as chief of ar¬ 
tillery department of the Cumberland 1863-65, engaged at 
Missionary Ridge, in the various operations of the Atlanta 
campaign 1864 (brevet brigadier-general), in command of 
the district of Savannah, and temporarily of department 
of Georgia 1865-66. Brevet major-general Mar. 13, 1865, 
for meritorious services in the field. 

George W. Cijllum, U. S. A. 

Brant, a county in the S. part of Ontario (Canada). 
Area, 416 square miles. It is intersected by Grand River 
and the Grand Trunk R. R. The staple productions are 
lumber, wool, potatoes, maple-sugar, butter, and cheese. 
Capital, Brantford. Pop. 32,259. 

Brant, a township of Saginaw co., Mich. Pop. 331. 

Brant, a post-township of Erie co., N. Y., on Lake 
Erie. Pop. 1359. 

Brant. See Barnacle Goose. 

Brant (Joseph Thayendanega), an Indian Mohawk 
chief, born in 1742, fought in the British army against the 
Americans in the war of the Revolution. He published 
the Gospel of Mark in Mohawk. Died Nov. 24, 1807. (See 
W. L. Stone, “ Life of Brant,” 1838.) 

Brant (Sebastian), a German poet, born at Strasburg 
in 1458. He was appointed an imperial councillor by the 
emperor Maximilian. He wrote a satirical poem entitled 
“ Das Narrenschiff” (“The Ship of Fools,” 1494). Died 
May 10, 1520. 

Brant'ford, a town of Ontario (Dominion of Canada), 
the capital of Brant county, is on Grand River and the 
Grand Trunk Railway, 24 miles W. S. W. of Hamilton and 
84 miles S. E. of Goderich. The river, an affluent of Lake 
Erie, is navigable to Brantford, which has an active trade. 
Here are large machine-shops and engine-houses of the 
railway company, and manufactures of brass and iron cast¬ 
ings, farming-implements, etc. The county buildings are 
substantial. There is an orphans’ home for girls and a 
widows’ home supported by the charitable. Brantford has 
two weekly newspapers. Pop. in 1871, 8107. 

Brant/ley (William Theophilus), D. D., born May 1, 
1816, at Beaufort, S. C., educated at Brown University, 
pastor of the First Baptist church at Augusta, Ga., 1840- 
48, professor of belles-lettres and evidences of Christianity 
in the University of Georgia 1848-56, pastor in Philadel¬ 
phia 1856-61, Atlanta, Ga., 1861-71, and of the Seventh 
Baptist church of Baltimore since 1871. 

Brantome (Pierre de Bourdeilles), a French his¬ 
torian, born of a noble family at Perigord about 1540. He 
served in the army in several campaigns, and gained 
the favor of Charles IX., at whose court he passed some 
years. He wrote “ Les Vies des Homines Ulustres et grands 
Capitaines, etc.,” a work of high reputation. His style is 
commended as charming, vivacious, naif, abounding in 
ingenious turns of expression, and sometimes rising to elo¬ 
quence. Died July 15, 1614. 

Bra'shear City, a town and port of entry of St. Mary’s 
parish, La., on the Atchafalaya River, 80 miles from New 
Orleans, is the southern terminus of Morgan’s Louisiana 


and Texas 11. R., and is connected with Galveston and 
other Texas ports by Morgan’s line of iron steamships; it 
is connected with Havana and Mexican ports by a line of 
iron steamers. Its port may be entered by vessels drawing 
15 feet. It is connected with the Tcche country by a daily 
line of steamboats, and has one of the best harbors in the 
State. It has a resident collector of customs, and is des¬ 
tined to be one of the largest commercial towns in the State 
outside of New Orleans. It was captured from the Union 
forces by Gen. Dick Taylor in 1863, with a large quantity 
of military stores. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 
776. W. B. Merchant, Ed. “ News.” 

Brash'er, a township of St. Lawrence co., N. Y., con¬ 
tains the post-village of Brasher Falls (pop. 450), which is 
on the St. Regis River, 36 miles by rail E. of Ogdensburg. 
It has important manufactures of lumber, pumps, and agri¬ 
cultural tools. Brasher Iron-works, a post-village, has a 
furnace and other shops. Pop. 250. Bog-iron ore is ob¬ 
tained in this township. Pop. of township, 3342. 

Bras'idas [Gr. Bpao-i'Sa?], an eminent Spartan general 
in the Peloponnesian war, which began in 431 B. C. He 
relieved Megara in 424, and gained several victories over 
the Athenians. He was killed in 422 B. C. at Ampliipolis, 
where he was opposed to the Athenian general Cleon. His 
memory was long honored by annual sacrifices. Plato com¬ 
pared him to Achilles. 

Brass [Lat. ses, gen. eerie; Fr. airain], an important 
alloy of copper and zinc extensively used for a great variety 
of purposes in the arts, on account of the ease of working 
and its acceptable color. It is made (1) by fusing copper 
and zinc in crucibles, placing the latter below; consider¬ 
able of the zinc is lost during the operation, owing to its 
volatility; (2) by heating copper in grains or sheets with 
oxide of zinc and charcoal; (3) the ancient method, by 
heating copper with calamine, a native ore of zinc, and 
charcoal. Different varieties of brass, adapted to special 
uses, are obtained by varying the proportions of the com¬ 
ponent metals. Common brass for ordinary purposes, 
which is cast in moulds and finished by turning and filing, 
contains about 70 parts of copper and 30 of zinc. Munz or 
yellow metal, which is rolled into sheets and used for sheath¬ 
ing ships, contains from 50 to 63 parts of copper and 37 
to 50 of zinc. Tombac, pinchbeck, prince’8 metal, Mannheim 
gold, mosaic gold, similar, etc., contain 80 parts or more 
of copper to 20 or less of zinc. A little lead diminishes 
the ductility, while tin increases the hardness of brass. 
Articles of brass are cleaned by immersion in aqua fortis 
(nitric acid), and lacquered with shell-lac in alcohol. Brass 
is harder than copper, is malleable and ductile, and can be 
readily cast, rolled, stamped, and turned in the lathe. Next 
to iron in its different forms, it is the most important metal 
used in the arts. C. F. Chandler. 

Bras'sarts, or Bras'sartls, jointed plates of steel 
which in plate-armor protected the upper part of the arms, 
and united the shoulder and elbowpieces. The ancient 
name of them was brachiale. When the front of the arm 
only was shielded the pieces were called demi-brassarts. 

Brasses, Monumental, are either plates or inlaid 
figures of brass or latten, which occur in old churches of 
Europe, generally designed to represent the figure and the 
heraldic honors of *the dead. Monumental brasses were 
often wrought with fine artistic taste. This ancient prac¬ 
tice, which had become nearly obsolete, has bren lately re¬ 
vived. 

Brasseur tie Bourbourg (Charles Etienne), a 
French priest, born Sept. 8, 1814, travelled extensively in 
North and Central America, and published, as the result of 
his travels, “ Ilistoire de Canada” (2 vols., 1851), “ His- 
toire des nations civilisecs du Mexique et de l’Amerique 
Centrale” (4 vols., 1857-59), “ Gramatica de la lengua 
Quiche ” (1862), and other works. 

Brass'field.’s, a township of Granville co., N. C. Pop. 
3015. 

Bras'sica, a genus of herbaceous plants of the order 
Cruciferae, distinguished by a round and tapering 2-valved 
pod ( silique ), globose seeds in one row in each valve, and 
conduplicate cotyledons. The species of this genus, which 
comprises the cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, turnip, rape, 
etc., are natives of the temperate and cold regions of Europe 
and Asia. The species just named are extensively culti¬ 
vated in gardens and fields. (See Cabbage and Turnip.) 

Brass'town, a township of Clay co., N. C. Pop. 395. 

Brat'tice, in mining engineering, is a term applied to 
a partition of iron plate and other fit material which di¬ 
vides the great general shaft into two chambers, which 
serve as up-cast and down-cast shafts for ventilation. 

Brat'tleboro’, a post-village of Windham co., Vt., on 
the Connecticut River and the Vermont Central R. R., 24 












BRATTON—BRAZIL. 


593 


miles S. of Bellows Falls and 127 miles by rail S. of Mont¬ 
pelier. It has seven churches, an asylum for the insane, 
three newspaper-offices, two national banks, a paper-mill, 
and important manufactures of machinery, musical instru¬ 
ments, furniture, and many other articles. West Brattle- 
boro’ has two seminaries for young ladies. Pop. of Brat- 
tleboro’ township, 4933. Valuation of taxable property in 
1873, $2,272,371; number of polls, 1330. 

Ed. op “Vermont Phcenix.” 

Brat'ton, a township of Mifflin co., Pa. Pop. 852. 

Brauns'berg, a walled town of Prussia, in the province 
of Prussia, on the river Passarge, about 35 miles S. W. of 
Konigsberg. It has manufactures of woollen and linen 
goods, and an active trade in grain, timber, etc. Pop. in 
1871, 10,471. 

Bra' vo (Nicolas), a Mexican general, born about 1792, 
fought against the Spaniards in several campaigns. Ho 
was elected vice-president of Mexico in 1824, revolted 
against Vittoria in 1827, and was defeated. He officiated 
as the executive chief and substitute of Santa Anna in the 
absence of the latter, from Oct., 1842, to Mar., 1843. Died 
April 22, 1854. 

Bra' vo-Muri'Ilo (Juan), a Spanish statesman, born in 
June, 1803, became in 1847 minister of justice, then of 
public instruction and of the finances. In 1851 he became 
the head of a new cabinet, in which position he followed 
a reactionary policy. In April, 1868, he again became 
resident of the cabinet. On the expulsion of the queen 
e followed her to Bayonne. Died in Jan., 1873. 

Braw'ley, a township of Scott co., Ark. Pop. 183. 

B rawn, the flesh of a boar, or the animal itself; the 
fleshy, protuberant muscular part of a man or animal; 
bulk, muscular strength; sometimes the arm; also a prep¬ 
aration of meat made of the head and belly of a young 
pig, with the addition of ox feet to render it gelatinous. 
The whole is rolled up tight in sheet tin and boiled for 
four or five hours. The moisture is then pressed out, and 
after it has stood about ten hours, the meat is put into 
cold salted water and is ready for use. 

B rax'ton, a county of West Virginia. Area, 646 
square miles. It is intersected by the Elk and Little 
Kanawha rivers. The surface is hilly, and extensively 
covered with forests; the soil is mostly fertile. Grain and 
wool are the staple products. Coal, iron, and salt are 
found. Capital, Braxton Court-house. Pop. 6480. 

Braxton, a township of Colleton co., S. C. Pop. 1971. 

Braxton (Carter), an American planter, born in New¬ 
ington, Va., Sept. 10, 1736. He graduated at William and 
Mary College in 1756. He was elected to the Continental 
Congress in 1775, and signed the Declaration of Independ¬ 
ence. Died Oct. 10, 1797. 

Braxton Court House, or Sutton, a post-village, 
capital of Braxton co., W. Va., on Elk River. 

Brazeau, a township of Perry co., Mo. Pop. 2281. 

Brazen Sea, a great bowl of cast metal, probably of 
copper or bronze, which stood in the priests’ court in Sol¬ 
omon’s temple. (1 Kings vii. 23-26; Josephus’s “Antiq¬ 
uities,” viii. 3, 5.) Its purpose was to hold water for the 
ablutions of the priests. The brazen sea stood upon twelve 
oxen, the latter facing outward. The exact shape and 
size of the brazen sea are not known, but the best com¬ 
mentators think its contents exceeded 11,000 wine gallons. 

Brazen Serpent, the name of a copper or bronze 
figure of a serpent erected by Moses during the journey of 
the Israelites from Egypt to the land of promise, for the 
miraculous cure of those who had been bitten by venomous 
serpents. This brazen serpent became an object of super¬ 
stitious worship among the Israelites, and was consequently 
destroyed by Hezekiah. In accordance with John iii. 14, 
the brazen serpent is regarded as a type of Christ. 

Brazil', an empire, and the only monarchy on the con¬ 
tinent of America, occupying almost one-half of South 
America, extends from Cape Orange, in lat. 4° 23' N., to 
the S. point of the peninsula of Mirim, in lat. 33° 44' S., 
and from the most eastern point on the coast near Olinda, 
in lat. 34° 40' W., to the most western part of the course 
of the river Javari, in 73° 15' W. It is bounded on the 
N. by Colombia, Venezuela, British, Dutch, and French 
Guiana, on the N. E. and E. by the Atlantic, on the S. and 
W. by Uruguay, Paraguay, the Argentine Republic, Bolivia, 
Peru, and Ecuador. Area, estimated at 3,252,900 square 
miles. 

Face of the Country, Mountains, etc. —Brazil may be 
divided into three different regions—the low coast, a table¬ 
land with an elevation of from 2000 to 2500 feet, and a 
large plain, watered by the Amazon and its tributaries, and 
having very little declination. Beginning in the S. of the 
empire, the first mountain-range we meet with is the Serra 
38 


do Mar, extending along the coast to lat. 26° 30' S., here 
separates into two branches, which enclose the valley of 
the Uruguay. The Serra de Mantiqueira, extending from 
lat. 20&° to 23° S., may be regarded as the central chain 
of the empire. This chain, mostly in the provinces of 
Minas Geraes and Goyaz, contains the highest elevations 
in Brazil. The northern continuation, under the name of 
Serra do Espinhafo, runs parallel to the coast in an almost 
N. direction. Parallel to this chain, and enclosing with it 
the valley of the Rio San Francisco, the Serra da Tabatinga 
runs from lat. 20° to 11° 20' S. Among its branches, the 
Serra Piauhy and the Serra Ibiapaba in the E. almost ex¬ 
tend to the ocean, while its western branch terminates on 
the Tocantins River. In about lat. 16§° S. the Pyreneos 
Mountains connect the Serra da Tabatinga with the Cor¬ 
dillera Grande, running parallel to it. The low chains 
along the southern branches of the Amazon (the Araguay, 
Xingu, Topayos, and Madeira) are all connected with each 
other at their southern extremity. The theory formerly 
held, that these chains running parallel to the Andes 
belonged to their system, has been shown to be erroneous, 
as the Brazilian highlands decline towards, and, as in the 
provinces of Matto Grosso, are separated by, extensive 
plains from the Andes. 

Fivers and Lakes .—Among the rivers, the Amazon is the 
most important, and at first, like all its tributaries, flows 
northward. Upon its entrance into Brazil it flows east¬ 
ward, and keeps this direction throughout its entire course. 
Its first important tributary on the right bank is the Rio 
Madeira, and then the Topayos and the Xingu. On the 
left bank we find the Rio Negro, coming from Colombia. 
Near the Amazon, the Tocantins or Para, formed by the 
junction of the Araguay and the true Tocantins, empties 
into the Atlantic. We next find the Maranhao, which 
flows through the province of the same name, and empties 
into the Bay of San Luis after a course of 650 miles. On 
the E. coast the Rio San Francisco, forming the boundary 
between the provinces of Sergipe and Pernambuco, empties 
into the ocean after a course of 1480 miles. Numerous 
smaller rivers rise on the mountains running parallel to 
the coast, and empty into the Atlantic. Among these the 
most important are the Rio Grande de Belmonte, the Rio 
Doce, the San Joao de Parahiba, and the Rio Grande do 
Sul, which connects Lakes Patos and Mirim. Among the 
rivers rising in Brazil, but having the larger part of their 
course in other states, are the Rio Parang, the Paraguay, 
and the Uruguay. There are numerous small lakes in the 
plains, but none of any great extent. The Laguna dos 
Patos and Lake Mirim, both in the province of Rio Grande 
do Sul, in the extreme S. of the empire, are the most im¬ 
portant. Steam navigation has been successfully estab¬ 
lished on the Brazilian rivers. » 

Geology and Mineralogy. —Nearly all the geological for¬ 
mations are represented in Brazil. In the highlands of the 
interior is a large area of granitic and other metamorphic 
rocks, with extensive basins of Devonian and carboniferous 
strata. These reach down the Tocantins and Xingu to 
near their mouths, and form the southern margin of the 
valley of the Amazon. The valley itself is occupied by 
tertiary rocks. At Rio and along much of the coast gra¬ 
nitic rocks prevail, but near Pernambuco are extensive areas 
of cretaceous deposits, with many of the chalk fossils of 
Europe. In the caves of Brazil are found the bones of 
many large animals now extinct ( Megatherium , Machairo- 
dus, etc.). The mineral wealth of Brazil includes gold, 
silver, iron, and diamonds and other precious stones. To 
these may be added the euclase, beautiful crystals of iron- 
glance, crystallized talc, rock-crystals with adhering to¬ 
pazes, as well as topaz-crystals with included rock-crystals, 
and kyanite. Beautiful red-lead spar or chromate of lead 
occurs, and beds of iron-glance over 1000 feet thick are 
found in some places. Among the gold-mines first discov¬ 
ered in Brazil were those of Jaragud. The whole amount 
of gold produced is less than a fourth of what it was a 
hundred years ago. Coal is found on the Amazon. 

Brazil is perhaps richer in diamonds than any other 
country in the world. The most noted mines are those of 
the Serra do Frio. The diamonds were first found in this 
district about 1730 by a colony of miners from Villa do 
Principe, 60 miles to the S.E. of Tejuco. While employed 
at this place in search of gold they frequently met with 
little shining stones, which at first they threw away. But 
one of the overseers, suspecting that they might be of value, 
transmitted specimens to the governor, who sent them to 
Lisbon, and they were pronounced genuine diamonds. The 
diamonds have hitherto been found in the beds of rivers, 
and are washed from the sand in a manner similar to that 
practised in washing gold. A diamond was found in the 
Rio Abaste in 1791 which weighs 138£ carats; another, 
worth £45,000, was found in 1847. In 1852 rich mines 
were discovered in the province of Minas Geraes. Not- 




















594 BRAZIL. 

withstanding the immense wealth of Brazil in these two 
minerals, neither of them has proved so profitable as her 
agricultural productions. In one year and a half the ex¬ 
ports of sugar and coffee amounted to more than the value 
of all the diamonds found in eighty years. (See C. F. 
Hartt, “ Geology and Physical Geography of Brazil.”) 

Climate .—In such an extensive region as Brazil both the 
climate and soil must, of course, vary greatly according to 
the locality. But these variations are by no means so large 
as under corresponding latitudes of the northern hemi¬ 
sphere. In the northern provinces of Ceara, Pernambuco, 
and their neighborhood, sometimes no rain falls at all for 
two or three years at a time. A famine ensues, cattle and 
other animals die of thirst, and numbers of the inhabitants 
of starvation. This, however, is a rare exception, as most 
of the northern provinces are subject to heavy rains, while 
in the S. the climate is healthy and settled. Over all 
Brazil, December, January, and February are the hottest 
months—June, July, and August the coolest. A great ad¬ 
vantage of Brazil over the rest of the tropics is, that a 
foreigner may without fear enjoy the gifts of nature. Most 
of the European diseases arc unknown hei’e, while the yellow 
fever, with very few exceptions, is not known in Brazil. 

Vegetable Productions .—Brazil is probably not surpassed 
by any other country in the world in natural fertility ; 
comparatively little attention, however, is given to agri¬ 
culture, and the growth of vegetation is so rank in some 
places as seriously to impede agricultural labor. It is esti¬ 
mated that less than one-hundredth part of the soil is un¬ 
der cultivation, and this portion is almost entirely limited 
to the vicinity of the coast, and to the N. E. part of the 
empire, where the soil seems peculiarly well adapted to the 
production of coffee, sugar, and maize. The pastures are of 
immense extent, and are covered with herds of honied cat¬ 
tle. The most useful plants are the sugar-cane, coffee, cot¬ 
ton, cacao, rice, tobacco, maize, manioc, beans, bananas, 
ipecacuanha, ginger, yams, lemons, oranges, figs, etc. 
Sugar and coffee are the staple products. Manioc (the 
plant which produces the tapioca) is native of Brazil, and 
its farina is used as meal by almost every household. It is 
said to produce six times as much nutriment to the acre as 
wheat. No part of the world can excel Brazil in the ex¬ 
tent and luxuriance of her forests. Many 'of the largest 
trees bear brilliant blossoms, others are clothed with a 
drapery of epiphytes and climbing plants. Many trees of 
the largest size stand so close together that it is impossible 
to clear a passage between them. The coeoanut-palm 
grows near the sea-shore, and the Beriholletia is met with 
in many localities. The kernels of this tree are exported 
in great quantities, and are called Brazil nuts. Another 
productive tree of Brazil found in the Amazonian forests is 
the» caoutchouc (Siphonia elastica), which grows to the 
height of forty or fifty feet without branches. A peculiar 
characteristic of Brazilian vegetation is the large number 
of species of myrtaceous trees which fill the air with per¬ 
fume ; other trees are the purga das Paulistas (Anda Go- 
mezii), the seeds of which yield a tasteless oil, more power¬ 
fully cathartic than castor oil; the Brazil-wood, the rose¬ 
wood, fustic, mahogany, and others well adapted to ship¬ 
building. The inhabitants of Brazil distinguish the 
different kinds of forests and woods by particular names. 
There are the Matos Virgens, or the virgin forests, such as 
those along the whole maritime cordillera; the Catingas, 
consisting for the most part of low deciduous trees ; the 
Carascos, close-growing shrubs; and the Capiveira, being 
such wooded tracts as are formed by small trees and shrubs 
springing up where virgin forests have been cleared away. 

The flowers of Brazil are no less extraordinary than its 
other vegetable products, there being the greatest abun¬ 
dance of them, representing every variety of color. Some 
of the crops come to maturity in Brazil very quickly. The 
common garden pea has, it is said, been sown and gathered 
in the neighborhood of Rio within twenty-one days. 

Animals .—The chief domestic animals of Brazil are 
horned cattle and horses; the numbers of both are im¬ 
mense. The greater part of them live in a wild state; 
those in the countries S. of the parallel of 25° S. lat. have 
multiplied to such an extent that large numbers of them 
are slaughtered chiefly for their hides, thousands of which 
are exported annually to Europe and the U. S. The immense 
number of cattle would afford extensive trade in provisions 
were not salt so dear on account of the inland carriage in 
a region wholly destitute of roads. Swine and goats are 
abundant. Many rapacious animals, such as the puma, 
the jaguar, and several native Canid®, as well as sloths 
and porcupines, are numerous. The peccary is common, 
also the capybara, a rodent animal. Monkeys and vam¬ 
pire-bats abound. Among the feathered tribes are the 
humming-bird (found in immense numbers and in great 
variety); vultures, ducks and geese, toucans, and a great 
number of large and brilliant species which are peculiar to 

the country. Among the reptiles are the anaconda, the 
boa constrictor, the corral snake, the surucucd, and the 
jararaca; the three last named are venomous and much 
dreaded by the inhabitants. The insects of Brazil are bril¬ 
liant, presenting many different shapes and colors; of all, 
the butterflies are the most beautiful; 700 species have 
been seen in the environs of the town of Pard alone, while 
the whole number known in Europe is 390. Some scor¬ 
pions attain a length of six inches. The bees of this coun¬ 
try are mostly stingless. Large numbers of fish, which 
form a principal part of the subsistence of the inhabitants, 
are caught in the Amazon and other rivers. Professor 
Agassiz found in the Amazon alone 1163 new species of fish, 
which is more than the Mediterranean Sea produces. 

Commerce .—Brazil chiefly imports breadstuff's, furniture, 
paper, linen, liquors, etc., and exports cotton, coffee, sugar, 
hides, horse-hair, caoutchouc, drugs, gums, diamonds, dye- 
woods, etc. The total amount of coffee produced in Brazil 
in 1820 was estimated at 5,312,000 pounds; in 1851 the 
amount produced was 303,550,960 pounds. In 1869 the 
imports amounted to 166,000,000 and the exports to 
202,000,000 milreis (1 milreis=54 cents). 

Population, Races, etc .—The population of the several 
provinces of Brazil in 1867, according to Packenham, was 
as follows: 

Provinces. Population. 

Rio de Janeiro. 1,370,000 

Sao Paulo. 835,000 

Santa Catharina. 140,000 

Parana. 90,000 

Rio Grande do Sul. 420,000 

Espirito Santo. 65,000 

Bahia. 1,400,000 

Parahiba do Norte. 280,000 

Pernambuco. 1,250,000 

Alagoas. 300,000 

Sergipe. 275,000 

Rio Grande do Norte. 230,000 

Ceara. 550,000 

Piauhv. 232,000 

Maranhao. 385,000 

Para. 320,000 

Minas Geraes. 1,450,000 

Goyaz. 151,000 

Matto Grosso. 46,000 

Alto Amazonas. 70,000 

Total. 9,858,000 

Of this number, 1,674,000 were slaves. The number of 
uncivilized Indians is about 200,000. The whites have 
gradually forced the natives back from the coast into the 
interior. The latter are mostly peaceable, and civilized to 
a certain degree. In the N. and in the extreme W. the 

Indians are still in a savage state, and oppose the advaneo 
of the whites. The number of tribes is very large, but it 
is not improbable that they originally belonged to one 
family and spoke one language. The most prominent are 
the Tupi, the Puris, the Guarycurnes in Matto Grosso, the 
Tapinambas in Bahia, the Taperivas in the N., and the 
Botocudoes. While the Indians predominate in the N., 
the negroes are in a majority in the S. But throughout 

Brazil the different races have mixed considerably. The 
descendants of whites and Indians are called Mamelucoes, 
of Indians and negroes, Cafuzoes, and the settled Indians, 
Caboclos. The Avhite inhabitants consist almost entirely of 
the descendants of the Portuguese settlers. While the in¬ 
habitants of Minas Geraes are farthest advanced in intel¬ 
lectual culture, manufacturing industry is most advanced 
in Bahia. The inhabitants of Pernambuco are of the true 
type of a slaveholding aristocracy, while those of Rio Grande 
do Sul are an independent race of shepherds. * 

Religion, Government, etc .—The Roman Catholic is the 
established religion of Brazil, though other religions arc 
tolerated since 1811. The number of Protestants is esti¬ 
mated at 20,000 to 25,000, mostly Germans. English are also 
found in all the commercial cities. A Presbyterian mis¬ 
sionary association has several missionaries here, and pub¬ 
lishes a paper. The Catholic Church has 986 parishes and 

11 dioceses, which are subordinate to the archbishop of 

Bahia, the metropolitan and primate of Brazil. The gov¬ 
ernment of the country is an hereditary constitutional mon¬ 
archy. The legislative power is vested in the general as¬ 
sembly, which consists of two chambers, the senate and 
the chamber of deputies; the former elected for life, and 
the latter for four years. The head of the government is 
the emperor, who belongs to the house of Braganza. 

The standing army in time of peace was fixed by the 
assembly in 1869 at 20,000 men. In 1870 the imperial 
navy consisted of 89 men-of-war, of which 52 were steamers. 

Literature, Education, etc .—Through the enlightened 
policy of the present emperor, schools have been established 
in many of the largest towns, where the first rudiments of 
education are taught. Considerable attention has been 
paid to the study of the French system. A handsome mu- 



































BRAZIL—BRAZIL-WOOD. 


595 


seum has been established at Rio Janeiro. There is a school 
for engineers, a naval college, and several fine libraries. 
Brazil has two law schools—one in Sao Paulo, the other in 
Pernambuco, and two medical schools—at Bahia and Rio 
Janeiro. In Rio there are also a military academy, a na¬ 
val academy, etc. Printing-presses are common through¬ 
out the empire. The press is free, and over 300 newspapers 
are published. The official language of the empire, and 
the language of the inhabitants of European descent, is 
Portuguese, y 

History .—Brazil was first discovered on May 3, 1500, by 
Vincente Yanez Pin 9 on, who was one of the companions 
of Columbus. It was subsequently taken possession of by 
Pedro Alvai-ez Cabral. Soon after the first discovery of 
Brazil the Portuguese made numerous settlements in that 
country, which continued gradually to extend, notwith¬ 
standing the jealousies and opposition of the English, 
Butch, and Spaniards, who repeatedly attacked and even 
destroyed some of their settlements. In 1755 a decree was 
passed by the Portuguese government, declaring all Indians 
exempt from slavery, which curse in future should rest only 
on the African race. When Portugal was invaded by 
the French in 1808, the sovereign of that kingdom, John 
VI., sailed for Brazil, accompanied by his court. Soon after 
his arrival he placed the administration on a better footing, 
threw open the ports to all nations, and improved the con¬ 
dition of the country generally. On the fall of Bonaparte 
the king raised Brazil to the rank of a kingdom, and as¬ 
sumed the title of king of Portugal, Algarve, and Brazil. 
A revolution in 1820 forced the king to return to Portugal, 
and he left Pedro, his eldest son, as regent. In 1822, Dom 
Pedro, forced by a desire on the part of the Brazilians for 
complete independence, and not wishing the control of 
Brazil to go outside of his family, declared Brazil a free 
and independent state, and assumed the title of emperor, 
arid was recognized by the king of Portugal in 1825. A 
series of disturbances and general dissatisfaction throughout 
the empire ended in the abdication of Dom Pedro, who left 
Bi-azil April 7, 1831, leaving a son, who was under age, as 
his successor. The rights of the latter were recognized and 
protected, and a regency of three persons appointed by the 
chamber of deputies to conduct the government during his 
minority. In 1840 the young emperor was declared of 
age, being then in his fifteenth year, and was crowned July 
18, 1841. The early part of his reign was disturbed by a 
servile insurrection and a war with Buenos Ayres. In 
1826, Dom Pedro I. had made a treaty with England for 
the abolition of the slave-trade. Dom Pedro II. emanci¬ 
pated the slaves of the government in 1866, and in 1871 the 
legislature provided for the gradual abolition of slavery 
throughout the entire empire. Brazil, with some aid from 
the Argentine Republic, carried on a war with Paraguay 
from 1865 to 1870, This war terminated in complete vic¬ 
tory for Brazil. In 1866 an imperial decree opened all the 
important rivers to the commerce of foreign nations. Ten 
large steamships navigated the Amazon in 1869, while 
smaller steamers carried on a trade with Peru and Ecuador. 
The construction of railways is also rapidly progressing. 
The first one was made between Rio de Janeiro and Petrop- 
olis, and was opened for commerce in 1854. The railway 
of Dom Pedro II. extends from Rio Janeiro to Sao Fran¬ 
cisco. The Bahia Railway is to unite Bahia to Sao Francisco. 
The Pernambuco Railway traverses the province diagon¬ 
ally from Recife, and is to extend to Sao Francisco. The 
Sao Paulo Railway is to connect Santos with Campinas. 
The aggregate length of Brazilian railroads in 1871 was 
503 miles; the aggregate length of telegraph lines, 920 
miles, but it has since been doubled. 

The public debt of Brazil in 1870 was 581,323,430 milreis, 
of which sum less than one-fifth was due in foreign coun¬ 
tries. The receipts of the revenue for 1869-70 were 
77,611,950 milreis, about one-half of which came from im¬ 
port duties. There are also duties on certain exports, and 
there is a system of internal taxation. The expenses of 
the o-overnment in the years 1869—70 were nearly 1 1,000,000 
milreis, of which 15,000,000 were paid towards the reduc¬ 
tion of the public debt. The government pays subsidies 
to steamboat companies, railroads, and many schools, and 
owns one railway, that of Dom Pedro II. (bee Southev, 
“ History of Brazil,” 3 vols., 1810-19 ; Handelmann, “ Ge- 
schichte von Brazilien,” I860; Wappaus, in the 7th ed. of 
Stein and Herschelmann’s “Handbuch der Geographic 
und Statistik,” 1871; Fletcher and Kidder, “ Brazil and 
the Brazilians,” 8th ed., Boston, 1868.) ✓ 

A. J. Schem. 

Brazil, a city of Clay co., Ind., on the Terre Haute and 
Indianapolis R. R., 16 miles E. N. E. of Terre Haute. It 
is an important centre of the block coal and iron business. 
It has one weekly paper. There are several blast furnaces 
and collieries in the vicinity. Pop. 2186 ; of Brazil town¬ 
ship, 2772. Ed. of “ Manufacturer and Miner.” 


Brazil Cabbage, the Galadium sagittifolium, a plant 
of the natural order Aracem, having arrow-shaped, pointed 
leaves. It is supposed to be a native of tropical America, 
but is now in cultivation throughout the tropics; not only 
the root being used for food, but also the leaves, boiled as 
greens. Both root and leaves are almost entirely destitute 
of the acridity so generally characteristic of the order. 

Brazilian Grass, a popular name of a substance used 
in the manufacture of hats, sometimes called chip hats. It 
is not grass, but the leaves of a species of palm (Ghamssrops 
argentea) which are imported from Cuba. 

Brazil-nuts, the seeds of the Bertholletia excelsa, a 



Brazil-nut. 


beautiful tree of the natural order Lecythidacem. This 
tree, which attains a height of 100 feet or more, abounds 
on the banks of the Orinoco and in the northern parts of 
Brazil, and bears a round woody pericarp nearly as large 
as a man’s head. This pericarp contains about twenty-four 
seeds or nuts, which have the form of a triangular prism, 
and a hard shell enclosing a white kernel, which is very 
agreeable when fresh, but soon becomes rancid. They yield 
a large quantity of oil, which is valuable for burning in 
lamps. Many Brazil nuts are exported from Parri to Eu¬ 
rope and the U. S. y 

Brazil-wood, an important dyewood from the Ctes- 
alpina erispa, a tree of the order Leguminosm. There are 



Brazil-wood. 

several varieties, known as Pernambuco, Lima, Santa Mar¬ 
tha, Sapan or Japan, etc. The wood contains a colorless 















































596 BRAZING—BREAD. 


principle, brazilin ( CisHu.Oe), which changes by oxidation to 
brazilein (C 18 H 14 O 7 ), which is the red coloring-matter which 
gives the wood its value. Pernambuco and Lima wood 
contain as high as 2.7 per cent, of brazilein, Sapan 1.5, and 
Santa Martha (also called Peach or Nicaragua) still less. 
Brazil-wood is very heavy and hard, is pale when freshly 
cut, but becomes red by exposure to the air. The coloring- 
matter is soluble in water, but more so in alcohol or am¬ 
monia. It is used in dyeing to produce reds with alumina, 
purples with tin, etc., for coloring wall-paper and for red 
ink. C. F. Chandler. 

Bra' zing, the joining of two or more pieces of metal 
(iron, copper, German silver, brass, etc.) by means of 
“ hard solder,” an alloy of zinc and copper, which is fused 
and fluxed with borax upon the joint, and forms a hard 
alloy with the other metals, firmly uniting them. 

B raz'law, a town of Russia, in the government of Po- 
dolia, GO miles S. E. of Bar. Pop. 5211. 

Brazo'ria, a county in the S. E. of Texas. Area, 1260 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the Gulf of 
Mexico, and intersected by the Brazos and San Bernard 
rivers and other navigable streams. The surface is nearly 
level; the soil is fertile. Cattle, wool, corn, and cotton are 
raised. A large part of the county is prairie. It is well 
timbered. It is traversed by the Houston Tap and Brazo¬ 
ria R. R. Capital, Brazoria. Pop. 7527. 

Brazoria, a post-village, capital of Brazoria co., Tex., 
is on the right (W.) bank of the Brazos River, about 30 
miles from its mouth, and 60 miles W. S. W. of Galveston. 
Pop. 725. 

B ra'zos, one of the largest rivers of Texas, rises in the 
high table-land in the N. W. part of the State, and flows 
first nearly eastward to Baylor. It afterwards pursues a 
S. E. course for about 200 miles. In the subsequent part 
of its course the general direction is S. S. E., and it enters 
the Gulf of Mexico about 40 miles S. W. of Galveston. Its 
whole length is estimated at 900 miles. In the rainy sea¬ 
son, from February to May inclusive, it is navigable for 
steamboats about 300 miles from its mouth. It flows 
through forests of live-oak and red cedar. 

Brazos, a county in Central Texas. Area, 578 square 
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Navasota River, 
and on the S. W. by the Brazos. The former river unites 
with the Brazos at the S. E. extremity of the county. The 
soil is fertile; the surface in part undulating and well 
timbered. Cattle, corn, cotton, and wool are raised. The 
county is intersected by the Houston and Texas Central 

R. R. Capital, Bryan. Pop. 9205. 

Bra'zos Santia'go, an inlet and seaport of Texas, in 
Cameron co., between the N. end of Brazos Island and the 

S. extremity of Padre Island. It has some trade, but it 
has a bad and shifting bar. The settlement is on Brazos 
Island, in lat. 26° 04' N., Ion. 97° 12' W. A railroad has 
been constructed to White Ranche, on the Rio Grande. 
Point Isabel lighthouse on the mainland is a brick tower, 
with a white flashing light; lat. 26° 04' 52" N., Ion. 97° 
11' 04" W. Brazos Island extends southward 10 miles to 
“ Boca Chica,” a small outlet of the Rio Grande. The isl¬ 
and is a waste of sand. 

Breach, as a military term, signifies a gap or opening 
made by the besiegers in a wall or defensive work of a city 
or fortress. The operation by which the gap is produced 
is called breaching, and the guns used for this purpose are 
breaching batteries. (See Assault and Bombardment, by 
Gen. J. G. Barnard, U. S. A.) 

Breach of the Peace, the offence of disturbing the 
public peace, either by actively or constructively breaking 
it. Unlawful assemblies, riots, affrays, challenges to fight, 
and libels are breaches of the peace, and by the common 
law the offender is indictable. The phrase is sometimes 
used to distinguish civil from criminal cases, as in the clause 
of the U. S. Constitution which grants to members of either 
house of Congress freedom from arrest except in cases of 
treason, felony, and “ breach of the peace.” In this con¬ 
nection it seems to include all indictable offences, not only 
those which are in fact attended with force and violence, 
but also those which are constructive breaches of the peace 
of the government, as tending to violate good order. 

Bread [Gr. apros ; Lat. panis; Fr. pain; It. pane; 
Ger. Brod; etymology uncertain], the most common kind 
of prepared food. It is made from the flour or meal of 
some grain, which is moistened with water, and mixed or 
kneaded till uniform. It may or may not be raised by 
the development in the mass of carbonic acid or other 
gas; it is then formed into loaves or cakes, and finally 
baked before a fire or in an oven. 

I. Bread ichich is not raised is often called unleavened 
bread. This may be made from the whole grain by soak¬ 


ing it in water, forming it in the hands, and either drying 
it in the sun or baking it before a fire. This is the sim¬ 
plest process of bread-making, and is still practised to 
some extent among savages. Generally, unleavened bread 
is made from grain which has been pounded or brayed in 
a mortar or between flat stones, reduced to meal in a mill, 
or even further reduced to flour. Coarse oat, barley, and 
pease meals are in Scotland made into bread by simply 
kneading with water, flavored with salt, and baking 
before a fire. Wheat bread is made in a similar manner 
in many localities. The passover cakes of the Israelites 
were thus prepared. In the U. S., especially among the 
poorer classes in the South, Indian corn meal is thus made 
into corn bread. From wheat flour sea biscuit and the 
various kinds of crackers are prepared. 

II. Raised bread is bread which is made porous and 
spongy by the aid of some gas, produced either before or 
during the baking. This gas may be carbonic acid, either 
generated by fermentation, produced by the decomposition 
in the bread of an alkaline bicarbonate, or mingled with 
the flour in solution in water under pressure. It may be 
air w hich is incorporated with the dough during the knead¬ 
ing and expanded during the baking, as in pastry, sponge 
cake, etc., or it may be carbonate of ammonia, which is 
vaporized during the baking. 

The best bread is made of wheat flour, although the flour 
of rye, oats, and other grains is used. (See Flour.) Wlieat 
flour owes its superiority to the large percentage of gluten 
which it contains. This body, when moistened with water, 
becomes adhesive, elastic, and tenacious, and holds the bub¬ 
bles of gas formed during the process of raising the loaf, 
although it be distended to a spongy mass several times the 
original volume of the dough. The other cereals contain 
scarcely any gluten; hence it is difficult to make light- 
raised bread from them. (See Gluten.) The bread from 
wheat flour is whiter than that of other grains. The com¬ 
position of the most important kinds of flour and meal is, 
according to Von Bibra, as follows: 



Wheat 

Rye 

Barley 

Oat 


Flour. 

Meal. 

Meal. 

Meal. 

Water. 

15.54 

14.60 

14.00 

11.70 

Albumen. 

1.34 

1.56 

1.20 

1.24 

Vegetable glue. 

1.76 

2.92 

3.G0 

3.25 

Casein. 

0.37 

0.90 

1.34 

0.15 

Fibrin. 

5.19 

7.36 

8.24 

14.84 

Gluten. 

3.50 




Sugar. 

2.33 

3.46 

3.04 

2.19 

Gum. 

6.25 

4.10 

6.33 

2.81 

Fat.. 

1.07 

1.80 

2.23 

5.67 

Starch . 

63.64 

64.28 

53.15 

58.13 

Sand. 



6.85 



Besides the above constituents the flour and meal contain 
small but important quantities of potash, soda, lime, mag¬ 
nesia, oxide of iron, chlorine, sulphuric and phosphoric 
acids, silica, etc., although the larger part of these sub¬ 
stances remain in the bran, which is separated by bolting 
or sifting during the milling of the grain. 

1. Fermented bread is prepared either with leaven or yeast. 
Leaven is dough— i. e. flour and water—in a state of in¬ 
cipient putrefaction. When flour is moistened with water 
and placed in a warm situation, spontaneous chemical 
action begins in the nitrogenous constituents, casein, fibrin, 
gluten, etc. This change extends later to the sugar, gum, 
and starch. At one stage of the decomposition the prod¬ 
ucts of vinous fermentation may be detected, alcohol and 
carbonic acid; at a later stage an acid fermentation super¬ 
venes, producing lactic acid. The alcohol, carbonic acid, 
and lactic acid are formed from sugar, either the small 
quantity originally contained in the flour, or an additional 
quantity formed during the decomposition from the gum 
and starch. (See Fermentation.) The change of sugar 
in the vinous and lactic acid fermentations is shown in the 
following formulae: 

Sugar. Carbonic acid. Alcohol. 

C 6 H 12 0 6 = 2 CO 2 + 2C 2 H 6 0. 

Sugar. Lactic acid. 

C 6 Hi 2 0 6 = 2C 3 H 6 0 3 . 

It is here seen that the transformation from sugar to alco¬ 
hol and carbonic acid, or to lactic acid, is very simple. 
Where leaven is used for raising bread, a portion of the 
dough is set aside at each baking to serve as leaven for the 
next. The process of making the bread is very simple. 
The proper quantity of flour is mixed with tepid water, the 
leaven, and a little salt, the whole being well incorporated 
by kneading. The mixture is placed in a warm situation 
and left over night to ferment. If the leaven is in the 
proper stage of decomposition, it will induce vinous fer¬ 
mentation, producing alcohol and carbonic acid gas; the 
latter, held by the elastic and tenacious gluten, will expand 
the mass into a light, porous sponge, which becomes in the 
oven a palatable loaf. If, however, the leaven be in a 
more advanced state of decomposition, or if some other 

























BKEAD. 


necessary condition fail, instead of alcohol and carbonic 
acid, lactic acid will be formed, and the dough will not be 
raised by gas, but will be heavy and sour. To avoid this 
latter result, sal aeratus, bicarbonate of potassa or soda, is 
added to the dough. This neutralizes the lactic acid as 
fast as it is formed, and by liberating carbonic acid gas at 
the same time inflates the sponge and makes it light and 
porous. Were there any certainty as to the quantity of 
lactic acid that would be generated, it might be possible to 
add the proper amount of sal aeratus to neutralize it, but 
in practice there is generally an excess or a deficiency. 
In the former case the bread is alkaline, yellow, and dis¬ 
agreeable ; in the latter case, sour. Leaven is also liable 
to communicate a disagreeable taste and odor. 

Notwithstanding the difficulty of making good bread with 
leaven, and the frequent failures in private families, in 
Paris, where bread-making has reached a high degree of 
perfection, the bread is raised chiefly by leaven, a little 
yeast only being added to facilitate the fermentation. 
According to Prof. Horsford, the following is the common 
method practised in Paris: At eight o’clock in the evening 
a mass of paste (leaven or sour dough) is taken, composed 
of 8 kilogrammes of flour and 4 kilogrammes of water. 
This is left until six o’clock in the morning, and consti- 
tutes the main leaven; 8 kilogrammes more of flour and 
4 kilogrammes of water are then added: this forms the 
first quality of leaven. At two o’clock in the afternoon 
16 kilogrammes of flour and 8 of water are added: this is 
the second quality of leaven. At five o’clock the complete 
leaven is prepared by adding 100 pounds of flour and 52 
kilogrammes of water, mixed with from 200-300 grammes 
of yeast. At seven o’clock 132 kilogrammes of flour and 
08 kilogrammes of water, holding in solution 2 kilo¬ 
grammes of salt, and mixed with from 300-600 grammes 
of yeast, are added to the leaven, and made into well- 
kneaded dough. 

With this quantity of paste five or six batches of bread 
are made in the following manner: 1st Batch .—This is 
composed of half the dough prepared as above, which is 
moulded and left to rise, and then set in the oven. The 
bread of this first baking is sour, rather brown, and not 
particularly light. 2d Batch .—The dough remaining of 
the first batch is mixed with 132 kilogrammes more of 
flour and 68 kilogrammes of water, mixed with the same 
proportion of salt and yeast as the preceding batch. Half 
of this dough forms the second baking, the bread of which 
is whiter and better than the first. 3 d Batch .—The same 
quantity of flour, water, and salt, with 300 grammes of 
yeast, is again added to the dough, of which half is baked 
as usual. 4th Batch .—Same proceeding as for the third. 
bth Batch .—This is prepared like the foregoing, and pro¬ 
duces what is called fancy bread, the finest quality of any. 

The use of leaven is of great antiquity. The usual agent 
for raising bread in the public bakeries in the U. S. and in 
many families is yeast, either obtained from some brewery 
or specially prepared for the purpose. (See Yeast.) The 
following is a recipe in common use in New England: 
“ Take eight good-sized potatoes, boil, mash fine, pass 
through a sieve, and work in a cup of flour. Thin to a 
cream with hot water, and add a tea-spoonful of salt and a 
table-spoonful of sugar. When cooled to lukewarm, add a 
cupful of old yeast, and set aside in a warm place. In six 
hours the yeast will be ready to use. Bottled it will keep 
for a week. Use a cupful for two loaves of bread.” (My 
Mother.) 

A very essential element of success in bread-making is 
thorough kneading. When the bread has risen sufficiently 
it is baked. There is a loss of about 25 per cent, in baking, 
chiefly water. In bread raised by fermentation some alco¬ 
hol is evolved. Liebig estimated that 150,000 gallons of 
alcohol are thus lost annually in London alone,and 12,000,000 
gallons in Germany. Efforts have been made to save it by 
condensation, but thus far without success. 

The carbonic acid which gives lightness to fermented 
bread is derived chiefly from the small amount of sugar 
contained in the flour. If wheat is exposed to dampness 
after harvesting, or if the flour has been exposed to heat 
and moisture, the albumen which it contains is transformed 
into diastase (see Beer), which possesses the property of 
changing starch to dextrine (gum) and sugar. Bread made 
from such flour is sweet, sticky, heavy, and dark-colored. 
Several substances have been used to prevent these results. 
Alum is said to have been extensively used in London; its 
use being now forbidden by law, lime-water was recom¬ 
mended by Liebig, and is largely used by the Glasgow 
bakers. Sulphate of copper is a poisonous salt, said to be 
used in Belgium, to y-gg-gg- being sufficient for the 

purpose. Mege-Mouries announced some years since 
(Compt. Rend., xxxvii., 775 ; xxxviii., 351, 505 ; xlii., 1122; 
xliv., 40, 449 ; xlvi., 126; xlviii., 431 ; 1., 467) the discovery 
of a body, “cerealine,” found almost wholly in the bran, 


597 

which possesses properties similar to those of diastase. 
He devised means for getting rid of this agent, or at least 
of its effects, and the following method of bread-making 
bears his name: It is assumed that 100 kilogrammes of 
wheaten meal have given 

72 kil. 750 grammes finest white flour, 

15 “ 750 “ dark groats, 

11 “ 500 “ bran. 

1. At six o’clock in the afternoon take 40 litres* of 
water at 18° R. (72i° F.), add 70 grammes of pure yeast, or 
700 grammes common grocer’s yeast, and 100 grammes of 
starch-sugar. (Instead of the yeast and sugar, take, if 
necessary, 26 grammes of tartaric acid.) The place where 
the mixture is set aside must be maintained nearly at the 
temperature of 18° R. 2. The next morning, at six o’clock, 
the fluid will be saturated with carbonic acid. Stir in the 
15 kilogrammes 750 grammes of groats. Fermentation 
will commence immediately. 3. At two o’clock in the after¬ 
noon add 30 litres of water, and pass the whole through a 
very fine silk or silver-wire sieve, to separate the fine bran. 
4. The 70 litres with which the groats have been treated, 
after passing through the sieve, will be reduced to about 
55 litres, with which the 72 kilogrammes 750 grammes of 
white flour and 700 grammes of salt are to be kneaded into 
a dough. (The bran is again extracted with 30 litres of 
water, and the extract employed in the next batch.) 5. The 
dough is then placed in baking-pans to ferment. 6. When 
raised, it is placed in the oven. 

The baking of bread can be effected at 212° F., but no 
crust will be formed; to secure the best result a temperature 
of 350° to 570° F. should be employed. A high heat 
should be avoided at first, lest a hard crust be formed while 
the interior of the loaf remains unbaked. 100 pounds of 
flour yield from 125 to 135 pounds of bread, the increase 
being due to the water added. The most common faults 
of wheat bread are due to its being (1) sour, from the flour 
having been partly spoiled, the yeast or leaven having been 
too old, or the dough having been allowed to stand too 
long before baking; (2) hitter, from excess of yeast or bad 
yeast; (3) heavy, from insufficient kneading, raising, or 
bad leaven; (4) mouldy, from the flour having been kept 
too long in a damp place. 

Graham bread is made from the unbolted meal of wheat, 
a mixture of bran and flour; it is used by dyspeptics. 
Rye bread is largely used in Northern Europe, and to some 
extent in the U. S. It is dark-colored, is harder than 
wheat bread, and has a peculiar taste. 

2. Substitutes for Fermentation .—Carbonic acid may 
be developed in the dough by the decomposition of bi¬ 
carbonate of potassa (sal aeratus) or of bicarbonate of 
soda by some acid. Sour milk, hydrochloric acid, tar¬ 
taric acid, bitartrate of potassa (cream of tartar), and 
the acid phosphate of lime have been used for this pur¬ 
pose. They give rise respectively to lactate, chloride, 
tartrate, double potassic tartrate (Rochelle salt) of po¬ 
tassium or sodium, or to (in the case of the last men¬ 
tioned) a mixture of phosphate of lime and soda or po¬ 
tassa. As neither of these agents causes fermentation, none 
of the elements of the flour are lost, and a greater yield 
of bread is claimed. This saving is, however, very trifling, 
as the loss in fermentation is small. The use of the acid 
phosphate of lime, suggested by Prof. Horsford, is claimed 
to restore to the flour the phosphates of the wheat which 
were removed in the bran. The process lias been com¬ 
mended by Liebig. One strong recommendation for these 
“baking-powders” is the fact that bread may be mixed 
and baked at once, without the delay of several hours 
which is necessary Avhere fermentation, is resorted to. As 
cream of tartar and acid phosphate of lime do not act on 
bicarbonate of soda in the absence of water, either of these 
acid salts may be mixed with the flour, together with the 
bicarbonate, thus producing what is now extensively sold 
in the U. S. under the name of “self-raising flour,” which 
is already salted, and merely requires to be mixed with 
water and baked to produce a palatable loaf. Carbonate 
of ammonia (sal volatile) is sometimes used alone to raise 
bread; being very volatile, it is converted into vapor dur¬ 
ing the baking and raises the loaf to a light sponge. Mr. 
Danglish introduced aerated bread, which is prepared by 
kneading flour in a closed vessel with water supersaturated 
under pressure with carbonic acid gas. On bringing the 
dough into the air, the carbonic acid gas set free by the 
removal of the pressure expands it into a sponge. “ Sponge 
cake ” is raised by means of air which is incorporated with 
the flour by first beating eggs to a froth, stirring in the 
flour, and quickly baking. “Pastry" is made flaky, but 
not really spongy like bread, by mixing flour and water to 
a dough, rolling it out into sheets, applying butter libcr- 

* A litre of water weighs 1000 grammes = 1 kilogramme = 2.2 
pounds avoirdupois. 














598 


BREADALBANE—BREAKWATER. 


ally, doubling over the sheet, rolling it out again, and 
again applying butter. These operations are repeated till 
the dough becomes a sheet of innumerable layers ot dough 
alternating with a thin coating of butter. On exposing 
this to the heat of the oven, the different layers of dough 
separate, cither from the expansion of the imprisoned air 
or from steam, and the mass becomes light and flaky. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Breailal'bane, Earls op, earls of Holland, viscounts 
of Tay and Paintland, Lords Glenorchy, Benederaloch, 
Ormelie, and Wreik (1677, in Scotland), and baronets (1625, 
in Scotland), a prominent family of Scotland.— Gavin 
Campbell, the seventh earl, was born in 1851, and suc¬ 
ceeded his father in 1871. 

Bread-fruit Tree (Artocarpus incisa), an important 
tree of the order Artocarpacem, a native of Southern Asia, 



Bread Fruit. 


of the islands of the South Pacific and of the Indian 
Archipelago, now naturalized in some of the West Indies. 
This tree grows to the height of forty or fifty feet, and has 
large, glossy, dark-green leaves, which are pinnatifid or 
deeply divided into pointed lobes. The leaves are some¬ 
times eighteen inches long. The fruit, which is a sorosis, 
is nearly spherical, and is covered with a rough rind, which 
is marked with small irregularly hexagonal divisions, hav¬ 
ing each a small prominence in the middle. The fruit 
sometimes weighs four pounds or more, contains a large 
portion of starch or fecula, and is a principal part of the 
food of the natives of the South Sea Islands. The pulp is 
juicy and yellow when it is fully ripe, but it is in a better 
condition for eating before it arrives at that stage of ma¬ 
turity. When it is gathered before ripeness and baked, 
the pulp is white and mealy, very nutritious, and resembles 
wheat bread. The usual practice is to cut the fruit into 
three or four slices, and bake them in an oven. Sometimes 
the people of a village join to make a huge oven—a pit 
twenty or thirty feet in circumference—in which several 
hundred bread-fruits are baked at once on heated stones. 
Baked in this mode, the bread will keep good for several 
weeks. The tree produces two or three crops in a year. It 
has been introduced into the West Indies with some suc¬ 
cess. The timber, which is light and of a rich yellow color, 
is used in building houses and for other purposes, but if 
exposed to the weather is not very durable. A sort of 
cloth is made of the fibrous inner bark. The tree abounds 
in a glutinous milky juice, which, when boiled with cocoanut 
oil, is used as a cement and as bird-lime. 

Breail-Nut, the fruit of the Brosimum Alicastrum, a 
tree of the order Artocarpaceae, is a native of Jamaica. It 
is allied to the bread-fruit. The genus Brosimum has male 
and female flowers on separate trees in globose catkins. Its 
fruit is a 1-seeded drupe, which is edible, and is used instead 
of bread after it has been boiled or roasted. The tree has 
ovate, lanceolate, evergreen leaves, and abounds in a gum¬ 
my milk. 

Break'water. An artificial barrier designed to break 
the force of waves in sea-ports and harbors and thus to 
protect shipping from damage; but more commonly to 
create a harbor or a secure anchorage where none existed 
before. Among ancient works the piers of the ancient 
Piraeus and of Rhodes may bo denominated Breakwaters, 


as also similar modern structures projected from the shore 
and called piers or moles ; but the term Breakwater has of 
late years been considered as more peculiarly appropriate 
to large insulated aggregations of stone, whether of regular 
masonry or sunk promiscuously in rough masses, so placed 
as to form an artificial island across the mouth of an open 
roadstead, and thereby, in obstructing and breaking the 
waves of the sea, to convert a dangerous anchorage into a 
safe and commodious harbor for the reception of ships of 
war or merchantmen. In this sense of the term the Break¬ 
water of Cherbourg (Fr. “Digue de Cherbourg”) was the 
first work entitled to the name,'* and it remains still the 
greatest. It had long formed a favorite project of the 
French government to establish a great maritime port in 
this quarter of the kingdom, in order to counterbalance in 
some measure the great naval station of Portsmouth, sit¬ 
uated on the opposite side of the Channel, and the whole 
coast had been frequently surveyed and examined by the 
most celebrated engineers for that purpose, but nothing 
definite was done until the year 1712, when a plan was pro¬ 
posed to the Minister of Marine to construct a detached 
mole or breakwater, in order to protect the roadstead of 
Cherbourg. The subject was dropped till 1777 when M. 
de la Bretonniere, a distinguished naval officer, proposed a 
plan to construct a detached breakwater, 2000 toises or 
12,792 English feet long, having three openings, viz. one 
in the centre and one at each end : these breakwaters or 
moles he proposed to make by sinking the hulls of vessels 
filled with stone, in order to form a nucleus or base for the 
work in the first instance (similar to the plan which had 
been adopted at Rochelle by Cardinal Richelieu in the year 
1629), and then to cover the hulls of the vessels with loose 
angular blocks of rubble stone or pierre perdue , so as to 
form one continued breakwater. He proposed this plan 
of commencing the work because he was fearful that the 
undercurrents and waves during storms were so strong that 
it would be impossible for the rubble to lie without some 
nucleus of the kind to bind it together in the first instance. 
The objections made to the plan of M. de Bretonniere were, 
First, that it would require a number of vessels which France 
could not furnish in ten years. Secondly, that there would 
be great difficulty in getting a sufficient number of work¬ 
men. Thirdly, that although the plan had succeeded very 
well at Rochelle, j 7 et there was no similarity between the 
two cases; for whilst at Rochelle there were only from 5 to 

6 feet at low water, at Cherbourg there were generally 40 
feet, and in some places more, and as the moles at Rochelle 
were attached to the shore, the difficulties were compara¬ 
tively trifling to what they would be at Cherbourg, where 
they would be isolated. Fourthly, that the upper part of 
the breakwater would be so much exposed that it would 
not withstand the shock of the waves. Fifthly, that it was 
not high enough to give sufficient protection to the ship¬ 
ping within. 

In 1781 the matter was referred by the Minister of Ma¬ 
rine to M. de Cessart, an engineer of reputation for hy¬ 
draulic constructions of this character. M. de Cessart en¬ 
tertained great doubts of the probability of making a con¬ 
tinuous mole of such gigantic dimensions, composed only 
of loose rubble stone, sufficiently strong to be able to with¬ 
stand the effects of the waves and currents, the more so as 
the only similar work at Rochelle had failed just after its 
completion in 1628; he therefore conceived the idea of 
breaking and destroying the effects of the waves in the first 
instance by a series of 90 detached cones, made of wood 
and filled with stone, sunk in the line of the proposed 
breakwater, touching each other, or at such distance only 
from each other as would be sufficient to break and disperse 
the waves without allowing them to pass bodily through 
between the cones, b} r which he considered that sufficient 
tranquillity would be produced within, so as to form a safe 
and secure roadstead. The plan of M. de Cessart was ap¬ 
proved and adopted and himself appointed the Chief En¬ 
gineer of the work. The cones were proposed to be 142 
feet diameter at the base 113 feet diameter at the top, the 
sides inclining at an angle of 60°, and 65 feet high: the 
total weight of each was 2,000,885 lbs., and would displace 
27,418 cubic feet of water; and in order to give as little 
resistance as possible, and to render it more buoyant, he 
proposed to attach to it 68 great casks, 12 feet long and 

7 feet diameter: it was calculated that in calm weather it 
would require 250 men in boats to tow out one of the cones; 

*Mr. George Rennie in his letter of Dec. 31, 1835, concerning 
the proposed Madras Breakwater (Engineering Oct. 18, 1872) 
enumerates many other ancient and modern w'orks as “ break¬ 
waters.” It is evident eno.ugh, from the tentative process by 
which the Cherbourg advanced, that no previous work furnished 
adequate information as to the principles of such constructions 
and hence that none was entitled to be named with these here¬ 
after described. The numerous “moles” he mentions differ 
from such breakwaters in many respects besides their connection 
with the land. 









































BREAKWATER. 


599 


this operation would occupy five or six hours, and the sink¬ 
ing 36 minutes; the depth of water where they were to be 
sunk was from 0 to 7 fathoms, and the rise of tide at or¬ 
dinary springs 18 feet, so that the upper part of the cone 
would be from 8 to 10 feet above high water. Immediately 
after the caisson was sunk, it was to be filled with stone, 
viz. rubble to the level of low water and masonry above. 
Eighteen of these 90 cones were put in place at an expense 
of about £14,000 each. Their expense and the repeated 
damage occasioned to them by storms induced the Commit¬ 
tee of Directiomto abandon the plan of M. de Cessart, not¬ 
withstanding his dissent and strong remonstrances against 
it. No more than eighteen cones were deposited, the last 
being placed on the 19th of June, 1788, and they subse¬ 
quently adopted the plan of throwing down nothing but rub¬ 
ble, wholly against the advice of M. de Cessart, who said 
that the rubble filone would never be able to resist the force 
of the sea, and that it would be utterly impossible to con¬ 
struct the mole or digue in that manner. Fortunately, how¬ 
ever, the advice of M. de Cessart was not taken, and the 
contrary opinion prevailed. 

The foregoing is interesting as showing that the funda¬ 
mental knowledge of the force and action of waves upon 
such structures being unknown at that day, how feeble and 
groping were the efforts to design an efficient breakwater. 
Says Sir John Rennie,—(“Theory and Construction of 
British and Foreign Harbours”) “ The well-known princi¬ 
ple, that all materials take their angle of repose more or 
less according to the density, tenacity, and gravity of their 
component parts, combined with the external forces acting 
upon them, does not appear to have inspired M. de Cessart 
with sufficient confidence to trust to the rubble alone; and 
the moles at Rochelle, which he seems to have studied with 
great care, did not inspire him with greater confidence, al¬ 
though the small rubble of which they were composed, the 
steep slope at which the rubble was laid, and the heavy sea 
to which they were exposed might readily have suggested 
to him the cause of their failure. It is still more extraordi¬ 
nary (if he doubted the efficiency of the small stones which 
he employed, weighing only from 30 to 100 lbs. each), that 
he did not employ blocks of much larger size, as he was 
doubtless aware that they would be moved with much 
greater difficulty by the sea; in fact, by the mere inspec¬ 
tion of the sea-shore he would have found that within the 
range of the waves it invariably takes the angle or inclina¬ 
tion according to the materials composing its surface ; for 
example, sand lies at an angle of 1° 30', or 40 to 1; beach, 
or loose pebbles, at angles of 11° or 8°, or 5 and 7 to 1; 
and heavier materials at a steeper angle, or almost perpen¬ 
dicular; but, abandoning the simple laws of nature, he 
went out of his way to invent the expensive unwieldy cones, 
which were no sooner fixed in their places, than nature, as 
it were, deriding his feeble efforts, at once destroyed and 
overturned them.” 

The cones having been abandoned small rubble continued 
to be thrown in until 1790 xvith an inside slope of forty- 
five degrees, and, outside, one upon three. In 1792 a com¬ 
mission of the French government reported that the digue 
had hitherto been constructed with small stones only one- 
fifth of a foot cube each, and that these had undergone con¬ 
siderable alteration as to the form of the mass, to the depth 
of 16 feet (English) below low water of the lowest tides, so 
that it was impossible to construct a permanent mole with 
such small materials; but they found in a small portion, 50 
toises long, where blocks of 20 cubic feet had been employ¬ 
ed, that they maintained their position tolerably well, and 
preserved the small blocks within them, although where 
there were only smaller blocks, they were sensibly damaged 
and removed, and displaced, particularly near the cones, 
which, although cut down to low water, materially increas¬ 
ed the shock or recoil of the waves, while they acted with 
greater force upon the small loose rubble near them. They 
therefore came to the unanimous conclusion, that as blocks 
of from 15 to 20 cubic feet would withstand the effects of 
the waves, still greater durability would be obtained by em- 

Fig. 


ploying larger blocks. The question as to the height to 
which the mole should be carried, in order to ensure the 
necessary tranquillity within the roadstead, was much more 
difficult to determine: it was found that the action of the 
waves was most severe two hours before and two hours 
after high water, or when the tide had risen about 16 feet ; 
and at such times, during gales of wind, vessels riding with¬ 
in the breakwater suffered great inconvenience, so that it 
was necessary to raise the breakwater or digue at least to 
that height; but even this would not ensure sufficient tran¬ 
quillity to enable boats to communicate from the shore with 
vessels in the roadstead at all times; and considering that 
this great advantage would only be obtained by raising it 
to the height of 9 feet above the level of the highest tides, 
so as to place it beyond the general reach of the waves, 
they finally resolved to recommend that it should be carried 
to that height. 

In the year 1802 the work which had at different times 
been raised nearly its whole length to the level of low water 
of spring tides, had been lowered by the violence of storms 
to a depth of from 12 to 15 feet below low water: the in¬ 
ner slope was 1 to 1, or 45°; the exterior 1^ to 1, or 33°, 
from the bottom to 18 feet above it; and from thence to 
within 6 feet of low water of spring-tides it had assumed 
the slope of nearly 8 or 10 to 1, or an angle of 7° and 5°, 
at which it seemed to be permanent. Such being the state 
of the work, notwithstanding the employment of larger 
blocks, of stone, great difficulties were anticipated in con¬ 
structing a battery upon it, which the Government never¬ 
theless determined to do. 

For the next six years operations appear to have been 
confined to the enlargement and raising of the central 
part of the dike and construction of the battery. Several 
severe storms occurred in this period doing great damage. 
The most severe was Feb. 12, 1802, when the sea covered 
the whole platform of the battery, and the barracks with 
60 men were swept away. The mass, properly speaking, 
of the battery suffered but little, although the pavement 
was torn up and the blocks were wedged into fresh slopes 
with great regularity, as if they had been cemented together 
by the hand of man. The real effect of the storm was 
generally to consolidate the mass of the work more firmly to¬ 
gether. New wooden barracks were erected, and after this 
repair the battery remained in a good condition throughout 
the war. 

Thereafter until 1830 little was done except to preserve 
the central battery and to raise the remainder by means of 
rubble to low water level; but finding it extremely difficult 
to maintain it in that position, and feeling that, in order to 
secure the desired tranquillity within the roadstead, it was 
necessary to raise the superstructure at least from 9 to 10 
feet above high water of spring-tides, it was finally resolv¬ 
ed, at the recommendation of several engineers, to construct 
a wall of solid masonry, with almost vertical sides, from 
low water upwards, upon the top of the rubble base: this 
upright wall extends from thence up to the full height of 
6 feet above the level of high water of spring tides; it is 
composed of rubble masonry faced with granite ashlar or 
dressed stone, in horizontal courses from 18 inches to 2 ft. 
thick, and 3 to 4 ft. wide, set in mortar. This part of the 
work is 36 feet 3 inches wide at the base, and 29 feet 3 
inches wide at the top, the outer slope being £ to 1, and 
the inner slope nearly the same: on the outside of this su¬ 
perstructure there is a solid parapet 8 feet 3 inches thick, 
6 feet high, and eight feet six inches wide at the top. The 
exterior base of this wall is founded on a bed of beton or 
concrete, set in wooden boxes or cases 10 feet long, 6 feet 
6 inches wide, and 3 feet 3 inches deep dove-tailed together, 
and well bedded in and covered with large blocks of rubble 
stone. 

No sooner was this vertical wall raised above the level 
of high water than it presented such a sudden resistance 
to the waves, rolling upwards along the rubble slope, that 
they broke against the face of the vertical wall with the 
greatest violence, and rising perpendicularly against it, 

I « 



fell down upon the rubble, undermining the base of the 
vertical wall and threatening to overwhelm it entirely. 
To obviate this, it became necessary to raise the rubble 


slope still higher, and to case the surface with laige >ea\ \ 

• blocks, well wedged together: still this only p;ntia. y 
remedied the evil, for, notwithstanding this casing, duxing 








































600 


BREAKWATER. 


heavy N. W. and N. E. gales at high water the waves beat 
with such violence against it, that heavy masses of water 
wash over the top, so as to render it both difficult and dan¬ 
gerous to walk along it, although nearly 10 feet above 
high water of the highest tides; and it has been proposed 
(1850) to carry the rubble slope still higher in front of it, 
also to raise the wall 8 feet higher. 

Sir John Rennie from whose great work on Harbours 
the foregoing is taken draws the following “conclusions ”: 

First. The plan of making the digue or breakwater iso¬ 
lated or detached from the shore is the best, and, if carried 
into effect with greater judgment, would have been more 
advantageous to the harbor. 

Secondly. The cone system, although ingenious, was in¬ 
applicable and failed. 

Thirdly. The rubble system for the mass of the work is 
correct, and if blocks of greater size had been employed, 
the result would have been more advantageous in economy 
of time, labor, and materials. 

Fourthly. The vertical wall system is inferior to the flat 
slope. 

The history of the Cherbourg Breakwater has been thus 
given in some detail, since, being the first work of the kind, 
the experience derived has furnished data for subsequent 
works. 

The next great breakwater in order of time and import¬ 
ance is the “ Plymouth/’ intended to render Plymouth 
Sound a safe roadstead for ships of war. It was recom¬ 
mended by Messrs. Rennie and Whidby as the most prac¬ 
ticable and best mode of constructing this great work, to 


heap together promiscuously large blocks of stone, which 
were to bo sunk in the line of the intended breakwater, 
leaving them to find their own base,* and take their own 
position; and it was conceived that stones of the weight of 
from one and a half to two tons each would be sufficiently 
large to keep their places, without being rolled about by 
the tremendous swell which, in stormy weather, is thrown 
into Plymouth Sound; and thus avoid the inconvenience 
as well as loss of time and labour ivhich the French had 
experienced at Cherbourg by throwing down small rubble 
stones. It was thought, that, in those places where the 
water was five fathoms or thirty feet deep, the base of the 
breakwater should not be less than seventy yards broad, 
and the summit ten yards, at the height of ten feet above 
the low water of an ordinary spring-tide; in other words, 
that the dimensions of the breakwater in these places 
should be forty feet high, thirty feet across the top, and 
210 feet wide at the foundation. There are in this work 
about 900,000 tons of stone of which in blocks 


Tons. 

Of one ton each stone, and under. 423,904 

Of one to three tons each. 309,706 

Of three to five tons each. 150,593 

Of five tons and upwards. 12,760 


The cost of the work was £361,000; a little over eight 
shillings per ton of stone. More recently the surface above 
low water has been covered (or “paved”) with blocks of 
stone of great size, of regular dimensions, and closely and 
smoothly laid. The work has completely answered the ex¬ 
pectations of its advocates. 


Fig. 2. 


/-/• w 


SEA FACE 



The Portland Breakwater, designed to create a harbor 
of refuge, commenced in 1849, has recently been finished. 
It commences with a pier projecting from the shore, of 1900 
feet in length. Then follows a gap or opening of 400 feet 
to admit vessels of the largest class, coming from the South¬ 
ward. Beyond this gap the breakwater proper commences, 
and extends seaward 6000 feet. The pier is formed by a 
rubble mound, composed of stone of all sizes, from 6 and 8 
tons down to small chippings; and this mound is carried 
up to a few feet above the level of high water of spring 
tides. When it has been washed by heavy seas, a trench 
is excavated within the body of the mound to the level of 
low water of spring tides, and a wall of masonry erected. 
The face course is formed by large ashlar blocks, the body 
of the wall being of heavy rubble work set in mortar made 
of blue lias lime and pozzuolana. The ashlar face courses 
up to about 6 feet above high water are of granite, all the 
remainder of the stone employed being from the quarries 
in Portland. The sea wall is strengthened by counterforts 
placed 20 feet apart, and an arch being turned between 


each, a platform is obtained 15 feet wide, exclusive of foot¬ 
way and parapet. Instead of throwing overboard from 
vessels, the deposit of stone and other operations were car¬ 
ried on from a timber staging, the rubble stone being con¬ 
veyed in waggons drawn by locomotive engines, a mode 
introduced by the late Mr. Rendel, C. E., which proved en¬ 
tirely successful. Guided by results obtained elsewhere, it 
was decided when the work was commenced to keep all the 
horizontal timbers of the staging at least 12 feet above high 
water of the highest tides ; and experience proved that this 
was necessary to ensure safety. The breakwater proper is 
simply a rubble bank, the material of which it is formed 
being for the most part the “cap-stone” which covers the 
valuable Portland stone, but wlxich of itself is valueless, 
except for this purpose. The rubble, as in the pier, in¬ 
cludes stones of all sizes, from large masses down to chips, 
which latter the action of the water has driven in between 
the larger blocks until (as is said) they have become united 
into a compact and almost solid mass. 

During the construction the 400 feet opening was bridged 


Fig. 3. 



Portland Breakwater. 


by a staging, which withstood the severest storms. It was 
designed by Mr. Rendel and consisted of piles formed of 
creosoted logs. To the lower end a Mitchell screw was at¬ 
tached which was screwed 6 or 8 feet into the clay. These, 
about 80 feet apart, supported the platform to which of 
course they were strongly bolted and bound. The cost of 
this work exceeded £1,000,000. 

The works just described illustrate the most common 
mode of breakwater construction, i. e. the “pierre perdue,” 
“long slope,” or (as we call it) the “rip-rap ” system. This 
is simply the deposit in the sea of a vast amount of loose 
rubble stone, rising to about the level of high water, allow¬ 
ing it to take its own level and to be acted upon by the sea, 
until its section assumes the permanent form which this 


action gives it. The seaward side obeys the laws of ordi¬ 
nary sea-beaches, and forms itself into a long sloping shore, 
involving the employment of an enormous amount of ma¬ 
terial before the mound reaches the height to give the 
required protection. Such a system is only applicable 
where stone is abundant, and can consequently be depos¬ 
ited at a cheap rate. But stone is not everywhere to be 
had, especially in large blocks, and experience has shown 
that unless blocks of considerable magnitude arc applied 
to the upper portions, permanence cannot be ensured. 
Hence a substitute has been found in large blocks of con- 


* It is stated by Mr. Rennie (see latter hereafter) that the orig¬ 
inal section was triangular with outer slope of 18°. * 




















































BREAKWATER. 


601 


Crete (Fr. beton). M. Poirel (see his “Memoire sur les 
Travaux d la Mer ”) was the first to introduce this system 
in the construction of a mole at Algiers, which he con¬ 
structed at first wholly of blocks of beton of 10 cubic 
metres, or about 22 tons each, launched into the sea as 
pierre perdue. M. Poirel states that although the profiles 
“ differed somewhat from each other, yet they gave gene¬ 
rally for the slopes at which the artificial blocks arranged 
themselves, a rate of 1 base to 1 perpendicular (45°) for 
the exterior, and of £ base to 1 perpendicular (57°) for the 
interior side.” lie adds “ that it appears, on a comparison* 
ot the cubic contents of the mole as given by these profiles, 
with the account kept of the quantities contained in the 
blocks immersed, that the interstices are very nearly one- 
third of the solids; or, which is the same thing, that the 
voids are equal to one-fourth of the whole mass.” In 
prolonging the mole, since 1847, the French had adopted a 
cheaper system, by forming the mass from the bottom with 
blocks ot natural stone, which were brought up till the uni¬ 
form depth of 33 feet under water was attained at slopes of 
1 to 1. This method was subsequently employed in f'orm- 


Fig. 4. 

46 


SEA FACE 
tva rcn J- f/ver 





.0 






(1 

e • 


<si 


s • 








rc»:s 


O" - ,, -<o <b* - " © • 

•“jTt \y 


154 . 3 
Mole at Algiers. 

ing the new port of La Joliette, at Marseilles ; and, more 
recently, for the jetees forming the artificial harbor of Port 
Said at the entrance to the Suez Canal. 



Mole of Joliette at Marseilles. 

In other situations destitute of suitable stone, another 
form, the vertical-wall system, is adopted. In this mode 
the walls are built upright from the bottom, and as all the 
material below low-water is put in place by diving appa¬ 
ratus, and is of an expensive nature, the cost of a work 
executed in this way is very great. The Dover breakwater 
is the most prominent example. It is built up solid from 


the bottom of the sea, the exterior facing 


being of 


ashlar 


granite blocks, and the hearting of rectangular blocks of 
concrete, built in the same way as ashlar masonry up to the 
level of high-water, above which it is filled in with concrete. 

Concrete blocks are a costly substitute at best for rough 
quarry stone (when that is at hand), and with a system of 
construction which requires each block to be “laid ” (under 
water), the expense must be very great. The Dover Break¬ 
water has cost over £400 per lineal foot. 

Fig. 6. 



It has been a subject of discussion whether the “long 
slope” or the “vertical wall” system were preferable: 


waves in deep water are chiefly oscillatory in their charac* 
ter, the fluid having little progressive motion in itself, and 
consequently exerting but little force on objects opposed 
to it; but when deep sea waves approaching the shore, feel 
the influence of gradually shoaling depth, they assume an 
entirely different character, acquire progressive motion, 
and become waves of translation, in which the fluid is car¬ 
ried bodily forward in a horizontal direction, and in con¬ 
sequence it strikes any body opposed to it with great per¬ 
cussive force. Vertical walls, therefore, which rise from 
the deep water, being only subject to the oscillatory move¬ 
ment of the waves, are least exposed to the destructive 
effect of storms. The evidence taken before the Boyal 
Commission in 1859 seemed to be conclusive on this point, 
and the opinions of the Commissioners, as developed in their 
report, may be considered to have set this subject at rest. 
But whatever difference of opinion there may still be upon 
this matter, there can be no question as to the vast saving 
of material by vertical walls, and of the great economy 
which would result, provided a simple and easy mode of 
construction could be adopted. The vertical system has, 
besides, the great advantage of being applicable in 
many cases as quays for vessels lying alongside to 
load and discharge, which may be turned to valu¬ 
able account both for commercial purposes, and in 
times of war, for the rapid shipment or debarkation 
of troops, stores, and other materials. (See Paper 
by D. Miller, “ C. E. and Arch. Journal,” 1865.) But 
it is implied that the wall springs from deep water; 
i. e. fifteen feet at least, the experience at Cherbourg, 
Alderney, Portland, and Holyhead having shown 
that the sea did not disturb rubble at a depth of 15 
feet below low water; and, hence, there may be a 
combination of the vertical wall and slope, which is 
nearly equal to a vertical wall;—as when a nearly 
perpendicular wall is built upon a rubble mound, as near 
to the edge of the slope as was consistent with the safety 
of the foundation; the surface of the mound being 15 feet 
below low water, and the slope being the 
natural one of about 1 to 1. 

It is to be observed that the vertical con¬ 
struction on the Cherbourg breakwater, in¬ 
stead of springing from great depth, com¬ 
mences at low-water mark—an arrange¬ 
ment which we believe is now generally con¬ 
demned. (The Civil Engineer and Archi¬ 
tects’ Journal of 1865 furnishes graphic 
sections of the different works alluded to 
and of others, as of Cette, La Ciotat, Cas¬ 
sis, Vendres, with interesting discussions 
as to the form and cost of breakwaters.) 

In the construction of a sub-aqueous 
mass on the “riprap” system, whether 
for a breakwater or a foundation, a ques¬ 
tion arises as to the size of the material to be used. The 
Cherbourg work was first constructed wholly of very small 
stones; it was subsequently found necessary to cover its 
more exposed surfaces with large blocks. In the Ply¬ 
mouth, the system at first was to use the largest stones ob¬ 
tainable from the quarries. At Portland and at Holyhead 
the large and small stones were used promiscuously, even 
the quarry rubbish being deposited for the purpose of fill¬ 
ing up the interstices. The French engineers, on the con¬ 
trary, considered the best system of employing rubble was 
not to mix the small with the large blocks. In one of their 
best constructed moles, that of La Joliette, at Marseilles, 
this method has been strictly adhered to. The large blocks 
being only used where required, were not unnecessarily 
wasted in the heart of the work. Small pieces of stone 
mixed with large rubble, far from consolidating the work, 
very often had the effect of allowing the larger masses to 
be more readily displaced. Stones weighing 5 tons and 
even 7 tons are thrown out of place by the waves, in con¬ 
sequence of the small stones getting in between them, and 
keeping them in motion during every storm. If, however, 
heavy blocks only are employed, so as to remain stationary 
under the greatest action of the waves, nothing would be 
gained by the interstices being filled up. 

M. Cachin deduces from the experience of Cherbourg, 
as developed by observations after exposure to the severest 
tempests, the following facts concerning the natural slopes 
assumed by the exposed face of the breakwater. Above 
the highest storm tides the talus assumes a slope of 1 upon 
1.8; between extreme high and low water 1 upon 5£; be¬ 
tween the level of lowest storm-tides and a plane 5 metres 
(161 feet) below this level, 1 upon 3; thence to the bottom 
1 upon 1^. Hence it is generally assumed that at three 
fathoms below low water the force of the waves is insig¬ 
nificant. Hence the nucleus of a breakwater may be con¬ 
structed to that height of small stones, say of blocks of I 
ton down to quarry rubbish. Larger stono is required 


.5 £3 _\ 

r 

' V // 1 

— ~ - . ~ 


a.3. 


'‘G 
























































































































602 


BREAKWATER. 


above this, say from 2 to 5 tons; but if the surface is to be 
finished with loose blocks, alone, those of the outer coating 
must bo of large dimensions. The French engineers, in 
the construction of the new mole at Algiers found by ex¬ 
perience that blocks of 10 metres cube, or about 22 tons, 
were requisite to withstand the shock of the waves. At 
Marseilles and at Cette the beton blocks weighed 25£ 
tons; but at Cassis, in a more exposed situation, with very 
deep water outside, and a long stretch of sea, the outer face 
of the mole required blocks of 20 metres cube; for on trial, 
blocks of 10 and even of 15 metres cube were found in¬ 
sufficient. 

The experience at Cherbourg gives about the same re¬ 
sults ; a block of beton of 4 metres X 2.25 X 1.40, or 12.60 
cubic metres volume and 28,980 kilogrammes weight, lying 
loosely and exposed, resisted the most violent tempests. M. 
Cachin estimates the force required to move this stone at 
3900 kil. per sq. metre (or 800 lbs. per square foot) of ex¬ 
posed surface. At Skerry vore stones of 5 tons were swept 
over the top of the rock and Mr. Stevenson’s Dynamometer 
measured pressures of 6000 lbs. per sq. foot; and this ex¬ 
treme pressure has been confirmed in a few instances else¬ 
where (see a remarkable instance in the Journal Des Ponts 
et Chausees April, 1859). 

It remains to allude to our own great work, the Delaware 
Breakwater. This, unlike those of Plymouth and Cher¬ 
bourg, mainly undertaken in reference to naval aggrandize¬ 
ment of the respective nations, was designed solely for the 
benefit of trade and commerce and the preservation of life. 
The need of a harbor of refuge near the mouth of the Dela¬ 
ware Bay was early recognized. Commissioners appointed 
by Congress in 1828 selected Cape Ilenlopen as the site. 
They said “the objects to be gained by an artificial harbor 
in this roadstead are to shelter vessels from the action of 
the waves caused by the winds blowing from east to north¬ 
west round by the north, and also to protect them against 
injuries arising from floating ice descending from the 
north-west.” Having these objects in view, the commis¬ 
sioners proposed two works—the breakwater proper, to 
secure the first object; and the ice-breaker, an auxiliary to 
the breakwater but chiefly to accomplish the second pur¬ 
pose. The first mentioned was designed with a length of 
1200 yards. The ice-breaker was designed with a length 
of 500 yards. 

Fig. 7. 


..A*?./: 


17 


3k 




'W&i: IB.'. ,J_ 

... fm, 

hz '26/.,3v 


loo Brea kero. 

n ,b 4':V; .3i, •'*. 

:,V ■ - ;16 - 


3? ghtps House 



As now constructed the length of the breakwater proper 
is 2589 feet and the ice-breaker nearly 1500 feet long. In 
designing the work the Commissioners had the two great ex¬ 
amples which we have described before them,—Cherbourg 
and Plymouth—both, originally, on the “ rip-rap ” system. 
Adopting that system they copied the slopes from the first 


but fixed a width on top 8 feet less than that of Plymouth. 
The great mass of the breakwater consists of blocks ranging 
from | ton to 3 tons; the seaward slopes being coated with 
stones of from !£ to 7£ tons. The exposure is by no means 
so severe, owing to the shoals otf the mouth of the bay, as 
at others we have noticed. Blocks of 6000 lbs. weight have 
been moved several feet, as in the gale of March, 1843; but 
the injuries inflicted by the waves have been but slight. 

In an official report of the writer when (1853) in charge 
of this work, occurs the following passage: “ I consider 
the profile and the principles upon which it is based radi¬ 
cally vicious. They are to trust to the isolated mass of 
each block of stone, exposed on the surface, to retain its 
position, while at the same time an accumulated mass is 
heaped up twice as great as necessary to resist the total 
effort of the waves. Though little attention has been paid 
to the recommendation of the Commissioners as to the ar¬ 
rangement and mass of stone above low water, the break¬ 
water has resisted every storm which has yet spent itself 
upon it; and if occasionally a block of considerable dimen¬ 
sions has been moved from its place, it has been utterly 
disconnected from the mass of the work, and generally on 
unfinished portions over which the sea swept with all its 
violence.” 

-S- 

. . . “in the future arrangement of the work I should 
urge that, from the extreme low water line, the work should 
consist of dimension stone carefully laid in courses of 
headers to the sea, having dimensions of at least nine feet 
in length, and two by three on the head, and that the top 
should be capped with stone twelve feet in length, covering 
the whole with such blocks as would, even if isolated, be 
able to maintain their stability when thus placed length¬ 
wise to the sea.” 

The method of construction above recommended in 1853 
has been sanctioned by the practice at all the more recent 
works at Holyhead, Portland, Alderney, etc., which have 
vertical walls starting from low icater. But not only is 
wave action developed with all its violence by a sloping 
surface reaching from low water to 2£ or 3 fathoms but it 
is these long slopes which render the total rip-rap mass so 
great. The vertical Avail should therefore extend below low 
water to the region of comparative quiescence. The Del¬ 
aware Breakwater contains 900,000 tons (very nearly) of 

stone costing (all expenses includ¬ 
ed) an average of $2.35 per ton. 
Previous to 1839 when 835,000 
tons had been placed the average 
was $2.27—the average has subse¬ 
quently been over $4.00. Assum¬ 
ing an average depth of 5 fathoms 
(30 ft.) and that the “rip-rap” is 
only raised 15 feet above the bot¬ 
tom, with 30 feet width at top, an 
inner slope of 1 upon 1 and an 
outer as gentle as experience might 
prove" to be necessary, the total 
length, 4000 feet (about), of break¬ 
water and ice-breaker would not, 
with large allowance for sinking 
into the sand, consume more than 
300,000 tons which, at the earlier 
rates, would have cost $675,000. 
A wall with 20 feet base and rising 
25 feet with 15 feet width at top 
built of quarried dimension stone 
in large blocks may be laid (with¬ 
out mortar), even at present more 
than doubled prices, at $10 per ton. 
For a length of 4000 feet there 
would be needed say 120,000 tons 
costing $1,200,000, and making the 
total cost say $1,875,000. The act¬ 
ual cost is officially reported to have 
been $2,123,505. The vertical-wall 
construction would, of the two, 
probably be the least expensive, 
while, instead of presenting to the 
violence of wave-action a collection 
of loose isolated blocks it would, 
with regularity of shape, possess 
the strength derived from the union 
of its elements in mutual support, 
into an integral mass. It would 
also serve as a quay Avail alongside 
Avhich vessels could haxil, if through damages received at sea, 
it were necessary to remove portions of cargo or ballast. A 
recent Avork, the Manora Breakwater (Scinde, see “Engi¬ 
neering” May 3,1872), more properly speaking, a “ Jetee,” is 
referred to in illustration of the principle of construction just 
sketched and which was contemplated in the report of 1853. 

























BREAM—BREATHITT. 


603 


The general principle of that breakwater is that of a 
bank of rubble stone laid upon the natural bottom and 
brought up to a level of 15 ft. below low water, but near 
the shore, where the original depth is less than this, to 10 
ft. below low water. Upon this bank of rubble stone a 
superstructure is raised, consisting of blocks of concrete 
each 12 ft. X 8 ft. X 4£ ft., and weighing 27 tons, set upon 
the narrowest side, so that the whole superstructure con¬ 
sists of two blocks in width and three in height, forming 
a solid wall, with vertical sides 24 ft. wide and 24 ft. high. 
The blocks are set in place by means of an overhanging 
crane. (See Fig. 9.) 

The peculiar form of structure adopted for the Manora 
Breakwater has the advantage, under these circumstances, 
that it does not depend for its strength on bonding or 
lateral connection of the several blocks as in ordinary 
masonry. Any security that this bonding may alford while 
the foundation holds good is at once lost when the founda¬ 
tion yields and the superstructure sinks unequally. In the 
present case, if the foundation under one block fails, that 
block and those immediately over it must drop, but those 
on either side are in no way affected. 

“ ft has been determined, on data based on experience, 
that the most favorable depth for the foundations of the 
superstructure is 15 ft. below low water, and for the future 
the rubble base will be in the fix’st instance kept down to 
that level so that little or no dredging or excavation by the 
divers will be required; and if, under these more favorable 
circumstances, the foundations can be prepared—as it is 
expected they may be—there is no reason why 300 ft. of 
bi'eakwater should not be built in each month of the woi’k- 
ing season.” 

The “ Monsoons” blow with great violence at Manora, 
and the wave action is described as only somewhat less 
than at Alderney, but none of the blocks on the sea-side 
have ever been forced out. 

Mr. Rennie in the letter already referred to, after stating 
that the Plymouth woi'k was “ originally designed to be on 
the triangular system with interior slope of 45° and exterior 


of 18° or 1 upon 3i (by which in 20 ft. depth the base 
would be 250 ft.) was changed (see section) in consequence 
of the top having been swept away by the storm of 1829, 
“ thus pointing out the necessity of a further augmentation 
of the base and a change in the slopes;” so that the base 
became (in that depth) 350 ft. “ The above form has been 
found to answer most effectually, and to l-emain undisturbed 
during the greatest storms. A casing of cut granite has 
been put over a considerable part of the surface, and the 
previous filling the interstices between the large stones with 
quarry rubbish has tended to consolidate the whole into 
one great mass.” Doubtless with “ a casing of granite ” 
the “long slope” system may be made stable; but that 
casing, in the case before us, consumes more lai-ge dimen¬ 
sion stones than the hypothetical wall I have mentioned in 
connection with the Delaware Breakwater. 

A mean section (for it is very iri’egular) of the Delaware 
Breakwater is given below. In the language of an official 
repoi't already refen'ed to the “harbor of refuge” which it 
creates, is in no sense a work “of mere local interest. It 
was consti-ucted for, and is resorted to by, the floating com¬ 
merce of the nation, and in this light only should it be re¬ 
garded. It has been the means of saving millions of prop¬ 
erty and countless lives from desti’uction; pi-operty whose 
owners or underwriters are as widely distributed as are the 
merchants and ship-owners of the nation, and lives whose 
preservation is a duty which a nation owes to humanity.” 
Its utility is best exhibited by the statement that since 
1833, 246,011 vessels have taken refuge from stoi’m under 
its protection, of which 17,307 in the year 1871 alone. 
“ Let a threatening sky foretell the approaching storm, and 
a few hours will suffice to fill a previously vacant harbor. 
Let a north-easterly storm continue a day or two, with 
severity, and the hax’bor becomes crowded entii'ely beyond 
its capacity. The fleet of vessels which now fill it, are seeix 
to come in, in rapid succession, from the seaward; and 
there is no single fact more capable of impressing on the 
mind the magnitude of our coasting ti’ade than the great 
number of vessels which a few hours’ time will, under the 


Fig. 8. 



above circumstances, congregate at this point.” Jetees, such 
as the interesting works at Port Said; at the sea termina- 
tion of the North Sea Canal of Holland ; and those recently 
constructed to form a new mouth to the river channel to 
Rotterdam and also at the Sulina mouth of the Danube 
have much in common with breakwaters, but in general 
their direction, normal to the shore, saves them from the 
severe exposure of breakwaters. They will be mentioned 
in the article Harbor; and l-eference is made to a Report 

Fig. 9. 



Manora Breakwater. 


on the North Sea Canal of Holland, Prof. Papers, Corps 
of Engineers, No. 22. (Works to be consulted: “Theory 
and Construction of British and Foreign Harbours,” by Sir 
John Rennie; “ La Digue de Cherbourg” (Cachin); “Cours 
de Construction dcs Ouvrages Hydrauliques des Ports de 
Mer” (Minard); “Memoire sur les Travaux a la Mer” 
(Poirel); “Civil Engineer and Architects’ Journal;” “An- 


nales des Ponts et Chaussees;” “The Engineer;” “ En- 
gineei-ing,” etc. etc.) J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Bream [Fr. breme], a name given to several species of 
fishes. One is a fresh-water fish of the family Cyprinidee, 
the Abramis brama. It is found in many rivers and lakes 
of Eui’ope. Several true breams occur in Noi’th America. 
The name sea-bream is given to various European fishes 
of the genera Pagellus, Cantharus, Brama, etc. Among 
these are the black bream ( Cantharxis griseus) and the Pa¬ 
gellus centrodontes. Bream is also a synonym of the Po-, 
motis mdgaris, or sunfish, a fresh-water fish of the U. S., 
which is remarkable for its beautiful colors, and is esteemed 
for food. It constructs a cui’ious nest, and is abundant 
throughout a great part of the U. S. 

Breast. See Mammary Glands. 

Breast Wheel, in hydraulics, the name given to a 
water-wheel so placed as to be struck by the stream of water 
nearly on a level with the axle, the lower quadrant of the 
circumference on the side opposed to the stream being 
placed in a race or channel concentric with the wheel, 
through which the water is conducted in its descent from 
the higher to the lower level. 

Breast/work, in fortification, is a hastily-constructed 
earthwork, generally without a banquette. It is sufficiently 
high to afford shelter to the soldiers standing on the level 
of the gi’ound and firing over the crest. It is usually a 
pile of earth, but may be formed of gabions, bags of sand, 
or bales of cotton. It is intermediate in size and import¬ 
ance between a parapet and an epaulement. 

Breath. See Respiration. 

Breath'itt, a county in the E. of Kentucky. Area, 
600 square miles. It is intersected by the North and Mid¬ 
dle Forks of Kentucky River. The surface is hilly and 
extensively covex'ed with forests; the soil ot the valleys is 
fertile. Cox’n and tobacco ai'e the staple crops. Coni and 
iron ore are found here. Capital, Jackson. Pop. 5672. 

Breathitt (John), born near New London, \ a., Sept. 9, 
1786, removed in youth to Kentucky, where he was a sux- 
veyor and teacher, and was admitted to the bai in IS 10, 






































































604 BRECCIA 


lie was a zealous Jacksonian Democrat, and was lieutenant- 
governor of Kentucky (1828-32) and governor (1832-34). 
Died at Frankfort, Ky., Feb. 21, 1834. 

lire' ccia, an Italian word applied by geologists to a 
collection of angular fragments of any hard rock cemented 
into a compact mass either by carbonate of lime or other 
natural cement. Hounded fragments under similar circum¬ 
stances form conglomerate or pudding-stone. The Potomac 
marble, of which some columns of the Capitol at Washington 
are made, is a breccia composed of marble, sandstone, etc. 

Bre'chin, a town of Scotland, in Forfarshire, on the 
left bank of the South Esk, 38 miles by rail S. S. W. of 
Aberdeen. It stands on an abrupt declivity, and some of 
the streets are very steep. It has a cathedral, part of which 
was built in the thirteenth century, now used as a parish 
church. Adjacent to this church is a remarkable round 
tower eighty-five feet high, and surmounted by a spire of 
twenty-five feet. Here are manufactures of linens and sail¬ 
cloth, bleaching-works, etc. It is the seat of an Anglican 
bishop. Pop. of Parliamentary borough in 1871, 7933. 

Breck (Daniel), LL.D., born at Topsfield, Mass., Feb. 
12, 1788, graduated at Dartmouth in 1812, and became a 
lawyer of Richmond, Ivy., in 1814. Besides holding other 
offices of responsibility, he was for a time judge of the 
county court, and afterwards of the supreme court of Ken¬ 
tucky. He was a member of Congress (1849-51). 

Breck'esiridge, a county of Kentucky, bordering on 
Indiana. Area, 450 square miles. It is bounded on the 
N. W. by the Ohio River, and on the S. by Rough Creek. 
The surface is rolling; the soil is based on limestone, and 
is fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, and tobacco are staple prod¬ 
ucts. Bituminous coal abounds. Sinking Creek in this 
county passes for five or six miles under the ground, and 
returns to the surface. Capital, Hardinsburg. Pop. 13,440. 

Breckenridge, a township of Jackson co., Ark. Pop. 
694. 

Breckenridge, a post-village, capital of Summit co., 
Col., is near the base of the Rocky Mountains, 70 miles 
W. S. W. of Denver. Rich gold-mines abound here. 

Breckenridge, a post-village, capital of Wilkin co., 
Minn., on the Red River of the North, at the terminus of 
the St. Paul and Pacific R. R. (main line), 217 miles W. N.W. 
of St. Paul. Steamers ply between this point and the 
Manitoba settlements. 

Breckenridge, a post-village and township of Cald¬ 
well co., Mo. Pop. of village, 515 ,• of township, 1336. 

Breckenridge (John), a native of Virginia, born in 
1760, removed to Kentucky. He was elected to the U. S. 
Senate in 1801, and was appointed attorney-general by 
President Jefferson in 1805. Died Dec. 17, 1806. 

Breckenridge (John), D. D., born at Cabell’s Dale, 
Ivy., July 4, 1797, graduated at Princeton in 1818, was an 
eminent Presbyterian preacher, an able polemic writer, and 
an influential and useful citizen. He was professor of the¬ 
ology at Princeton (1836-38). Died Aug. 4, 1841, near 
Lexington, Ky. 

Breckenridge, or Breckinridge (John Cabell), a 
statesman and general, a grandson of John, first noticed 
above, was born near Lexington, Ky., Jan. 21, 1821. He 
studied law, which he practised at Lexington, and was 
elected to Congress by the Democrats in 1851. He was 
chosen Vice-President of the U. S. in 1856, when James 
Buchanan was elected President. In 1860 he was nomi¬ 
nated for the presidency by the Anti-Douglas Democrats who 
seceded from the convention that met at Charleston. His 
competitors were Abraham Lincoln, John Bell, and Stephen 
Douglas. Breckenridge received seventy-two electoral 
votes, being supported by all the Southern States except 
Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri. Having 
been elected to the U. S. Senate, he took his seat in Mar., 
1861, but he joined the Confederate army in the autumn of 
that year. He served as major-general at the battle of 
Stone River, which ended Jan. 2, 1863, and at Chickamauga, 
Sept. 19 and 20 of that year. In May, 1864, he defeated 
Gen. Sigel at Newmarket, in Virginia. He became secre¬ 
tary of war at Richmond in Jan., 1865, visited Europe 
about five months later, and returned to the II. S. in 1868. 

Breckenridge (Robert Jefferson), D. D., LL.D., an 
eminent Presbyterian minister, born at Cabell’s Dale, Ivy., 
Mar. 8,1800, was an uncle of the preceding. He graduated 
at Union College in 1819, and practised law in Kentucky 
eight years (1823-31). Having preached for some years in 
Baltimore, he removed to Lexington, Ivy., in 1847, and be¬ 
came professor of theology at Danville in 1853. He pub¬ 
lished “Travels in Europe” (1839) and several works on 
theology. His principal work is in two volumes, “ The 
Knowledge of God, objectively considered” (1857), and 
“The Knowledge of God, subjectively considered” (1859). 


BREED. 


lie was a loyal friend of the Union in the civil war. Died 
at Danville, Ivy., Dec. 27, 1871. 

Breck'inridge (Gen. James), born in Botetourt co., 
Va., Mar. 7, 1763, was a soldier of the Revolution, gradu¬ 
ated at William and Mary College in 1785, and became an 
eminent Federalist lawyer and a public-spirited citizen of 
Virginia. He was a member of Congress (1809-17), and 
co-operated with Jefferson in establishing the University 
of Virginia. Died in Aug., 1846. 

Breck'nock, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 813. 

Brecknock, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. P. 1600. 

Brecks'ville, a township of Cuyahoga co., 0. P. 1007. 

Brec'on, or Breck'nockshire, an inland county of 
South Wales, has an area of 719 square miles. It is bounded 
on the N. by Radnor, on the E. by England, on the S. by 
Glamorgan, and on the W. by Caermarthen. The surface 
is occupied by several mountain-ranges and deep, beautiful, 
and fertile valleys. The highest point of this county is 
Brecknock Beacon, which has an altitude of 2862 feet. Old 
red sandstone underlies the southern and middle parts of 
the county, and Silurian rocks are found in the N. The 
chief rivers are the Wye (which forms the N. E. boundary), 
the Usk, Elan, and Tawe. The staple products are oats, 
barley, wheat, and cattle. It has extensive iron-works. 
Capital, Brecon. Pop. in 1871, 59,904. 

Brecon, Brecknock, or Aber-Honddu, a town 
of Wales, the capital of the above county, is finely situated 
in a valley on the river Usk, at the mouth of the Honddu, 

38 miles by rail W. S. W. of Hereford. It has beautiful 
promenades, an old castle, a collegiate church founded by 
Henry VIII., and a college; also considerable manufac¬ 
tures. Pop. in 1871, 5845. 

Breda', a fortified town of Holland, in North Brabant, 
is situated at the confluence of the navigable rivers Aa and 
Merk, 16 miles S. S. E. of Dordrecht. It is connected by 
railway with Antwerp and The Hague. It has a castle 
built in 1350, a Gothic cathedral, the spire of which is 
362 feet high, and a magnetic observatory; also manufac¬ 
tures of linens, carpets, hats, soap, leather, etc. This town 
can be protected against an invading army by inundating 
the country around it. It is celebrated as the scene of the 
“ Compromise of Breda,” by which the patriots protested 
against the tyranny of Philip II. in 1566. Pop. in 1868, * 
15,265. 

Bree (Matiiieu Ignace), an eminent Flemish historical 
painter, born at Antwerp Feb. 22, 1773. Among his works 
are “ Rubens dictating his Last Will,” and “ Van der Werff 
addressing the Famished Populace during the Siege of 
Leyden, 1574.” Died Dec. 15, 1839. 

Breech, the end of a gun which is farthest from the 
muzzle; the solid part behind the bore. The breech of a 
cannon is made very massive, to enable it to resist the 
shock caused by the explosion of the powder. 

Breech'ing of a naval gun or carronade is a strong 
rope by which the recoil of the gun is checked at such a 
point that the muzzle is brought wholly within the porthole, 
where the seamen can sponge and reload it. Breeching or 
breech-band is a part of the harness of a carriage-horse, 
by means of which he can push the carriage backward or 
support its pressure in going down hill. 

Breech-loading Firearms are those which are 
loaded by putting the cartridge directly in at the breech, 
instead of ramming it in at the muzzle. It is said that 
breech-loading guns were used early in the reign of Henry 
VI. of England, and it is certain that they were used in 
Scotland about that time. There are several ancient speci¬ 
mens in the Tower of London. Many attempts to improve 
this kind of arms have been made, and of late with much 
success. Among the most celebrated weapons of this cha¬ 
racter are the Armstrong and Whitworth guns, the Krupp 
steel guns, the mitrailleuse, and among small-arms the 
needle-gun and the Chassepot, Sharp, Snyder, Spencer, 
Ward-Burton, and Remington rifles. These will each be 
described under its own name. 

B reed, a variety produced in any animal species in conse¬ 
quence of domestication by changes somewhat analogous to 
those which occur in cultivated plants. The changes origi¬ 
nated by breeding (artificial selection) are in some species, 
as in the dog and pigeon, very marked, producing external, 
and even structural, differences, which, if they were perma¬ 
nent and originated by natural and unexplained causes, 
would confessedly be regarded as sufficient to establish dif¬ 
ference of species. But the fact that thoroughbred animals, 
when neglected or allowed to go wild, tend to revert to the 
original type, and the not less important fact that animals 
of the most widely different varieties of the same species 
will (with a few possible exceptions) breed freely with each 
other, producing fertile young (which is rarely the caso 















BREED—BREMER. 


605 


with those of different species), are by many held to show a 
radical difference between varieties or breeds and species. 
The study of the variations produced by domestication 
seems to have suggested to Mr. Darwin his doctrine of the 
origin of species by natural selection. (See Darwinism, by 
Profs. E. L. Youmans and J. H. Seelye.) 

Some of the results of artificial selection on animals are 
truly marvellous. The numerous varieties of the dog and 
the pigeon have been, to a great extent, produced by de¬ 
sign ; animals being bred to develop certain desired pecu¬ 
liarities, the principle being that “like produces like,” or 
that certain qualities possessed by the parent may be per¬ 
petuated and increased in the offspring. The milk-pro¬ 
ducing qualities of the Ayrshire cow, the butter-making 
excellence of the Jersey breed, the long-wooled Cottswold 
sheep, and the new breeds of easily fattened swine afford 
illustrations of the industrial importance of this remark¬ 
able plasticity or adaptability of the various domestic ani¬ 
mals—an adaptability which has only of late been scien¬ 
tifically studied, and the limitations of which are as yet 
not well known. (See Darwin, “ Domesticated Animals and 
Cultivated Plants,” 1867.) Ciias. W. Greene. 

Breed (William P.), D. D., born in 1816, at Greenbush, 
N. Y., removed in childhood to New York City, graduated 
in 1843 at the University of New York, and has held Pres¬ 
byterian pastorates in Steubenville, 0. (1847-56), and in 
Philadelphia. He is the author of numerous religious 
works, chiefly for the young. 

Breeds'ville, a post-village of Columbia township, Van 
Buren co., Mich. Pop. 255. 

Breese (Kidder Randolph), U. S. N., born April 14, 
1831, in Philadelphia, entered the navy as a midshipman 
Nov. 6,1846, became a passed midshipman in 1852, a lieu¬ 
tenant-commander in 1862, and a commander in 1866. At 
the close of 1861 he was placed in command of the third 
division of Porter's mortar flotilla, and took part in the 
bombardment of Forts Jackson and St. Philip prior to and 
during the passage of Farragut’s fleet by the forts on its 
way to the capture of New Orleans, and participated in 
the attacks on Vicksburg during June and July, 1862. In 
Oct., 1862, he was appointed to the command of Admiral 
Porter’s flag-ship, the Black Hawk, and in her took part 
in nearly all the severe engagements on the Mississippi 
and its tributaries during 1863 and 1864. In Sept., 1864, 
when Admiral Porter assumed command of the North At¬ 
lantic blockading squadron, he selected Breese as his fleet- 
captain, in which capacity Breese took part in the Fort 
Fisher fights, and in the fight with Fort Anderson ; and in 
the naval assault on Fort Fisher of Jan. 15, 1865, he com¬ 
manded the storming party. His services throughout the 
civil war are thus honorably mentioned by Admiral Porter 
in his “commendatory despatch” of Jan. 28, 1865 : “Lieu¬ 
tenant-Commander K. R. Breese, my fleet-captain, has 
been with me nearly all the time since the rebellion broke 
out. In command of a division of the mortar flotilla 
which opened the way to New Orleans, he made his first 
record there. In the Mississippi with me for two years, 
engaged in harassing and dangerous duties, he always ac¬ 
quitted himself to my satisfaction. In charge of the mor¬ 
tars at the siege of Vicksburg, he helped to hasten the 
surrender of that stronghold. At Fort Fisher he led the 
boarders in the assault, and though we were not successful 
in getting into the fort in the face of equal numbers, yet 
that assault gained the day, as is generally admitted on 
every side. Our troops obtained a footing without much 
resistance, and then nobly maintained what they had won. 
Lieutenant-Commander Breese did all he could to rally his 
men, and made two or three unsuccessful attempts to re¬ 
gain the parapet; but the marines having failed in their 
duty to support the gallant officers and sailors who took 
the lead, he had to retire to a place of safety. He did not, 
however, leave the ground, but remained under the para¬ 
pet in a rifle-pit, using a musket until night favored his 
escape. He is a clever, gallant officer, and I strongly 
recommend his immediate promotion to a commander.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Breese (Samuel L.), Rear-admiral, was born in New 
York in 1794, entered the navy in 1810, served against 
Great Britain and Mexico, became captain in 1841, and 
rear-admiral in 1862. Died Dec. 17, 1870, at Mount Airy, 
Pa. 

Breese (Sidney), born atWhitesboro’, Oneida co., N. Y., 
July 15, 1800, graduated at Union College in 1818. In 
1821 he was called to the Illinois bar, and attained great 
distinction, was an officer in the Black Hawk war, U. S. 
Senator from Illinois (1843-49), and was speaker of the 
Illinois legislature in 1850. He was made circuit judge in 
1835, and again in 1855, becoming chief judge of that 
bench. He was one of the originators of the Illinois Cen¬ 
tral R. R. 


Brees'port, a post-village of Ilorseheads township, 
Chemung co., N. Y. Pop. 292. 

Breeze, a soft wind, a gentle gale. Zand and Sea 
Breezes .—In a fair day, near the sea-shore, an hour or two 
after sunrise, a gentle wind begins to blow from the sea 
towards the land, gradually increasing in force during the 
day. With the declining sun the sea-breeze loses its power, 
and dies out before sunset. A lull then ensues, after which 
a land-breeze sets in from the land towards the sea, and con¬ 
tinues all night until before sunrise, when another calm oc¬ 
curs. The cause of these alternate winds is to be found in the 
fact that the land is more readily heated by the rays of the 
sun, and more quickly cooled in their absence, than the 
sea. In an island, for instance, in proportion as the sun 
rises above the horizon the land becomes warmer than the 
neighboring sea. Their respective atmospheres participate 
in these unequal temperatures; the fresh air of the sea 
rushes from all directions in the form of a sea-breeze, which 
makes itself felt along the whole coast, and the warmer and 
lighter air of the island will ascend into the atmosphere. 
During the night it is the reverse. The island loses heat 
by radiation, and cools quicker than the sea. Its atmo¬ 
sphere having become heavier, flows into that of the sea in 
the form of a land-breeze; and this interchange lasts until 
the temperature, and consequently the density, of the two 
atmospheres have again become the same. This is the phe¬ 
nomenon observed almost daily on nearly all the sea-boards. 

Mountain-Breezes .—Similar alternate breezes are ob¬ 
served to play between the great mountain-chains and the 
neighboring plains, as in the Alps. On a fair day strong 
breezes rush up the valley towards the overheated moun¬ 
tain-slopes, and descend with equal force during the night; 
for during the day the mountains absorb more heat than the 
neighboring free atmosphere, and radiate more during the 
night. (See Winds, Circulation of.) Arnold Guyot. 

Breitmann, Hans. See Leland (Charles Godfrey). 

Brem'en, a free city of Germany, situated on both 
sides of the river Weser, about 45 miles from the sea and 60 
miles S. W. of Hamburg; lat. 53° 4'36” N., Ion. 8° 48' 54” 
E. It is divided into the old and the new town, the former 
of which is on the right bank of the river, and has narrow, 
crooked streets. The new town, which is connected with the 
old by two bridges, is more regular. The old ramparts have 
been levelled and converted into beautiful promenades and 
pleasure-grounds. The most remarkable edifices are the 
cathedral, built about 1100; the fine old Gothic town-hall, 
with a famous wine-cellar; the exchange, the museum, and 
the observatory of Olbers. Bremen has a large public li¬ 
brary, a normal school, a theatre, and a hospital, also man¬ 
ufactures of woollen and cotton goods, paper, starch, and 
cigars. As a commercial city this is one of the most im¬ 
portant of Germany, having an extensive foreign trade, 
especially with the U. S. It is connected by railway with 
Hanover, Bremerhafen, and other towns. Vessels drawing 
seven feet of water can ascend to this point, and large 
ships stop at Bremerhafen. The trade of Bremen has in¬ 
creased rapidly in the last fifteen years. The chief articles 
of export are woollen goods, linens, glass, hemp, hides, rags, 
wooden toys, and wool. The imports consist of cotton, 
coffee, sugar, rice, tobacco, wines, dyewoods, oil, tea, etc. 
Shipbuilding is carried on here extensively. The imports 
in 1858 amounted to £8,232,000, and the exports to about 
£8,000,000. In 1863 the imports had increased to about 
£11,190,000, and the value of the exports was nearly 
£10,000,000. In 1868 the imports amounted to 98,130,000 
thalers (about $68,690,000), and the exports to 89,970,000 
thalers. The number of emigrants that embarked here was 
73,971 in 1867, and 66,433 in 1868. In 1871, 8,513,8S2 gal¬ 
lons of petroleum were exported from Philadelphia to 
Bremen. The total produce imported here from the U. S. 
in 1868 was valued at $23,285,000. Pop. in 1871, 82,950. 

Bremen was founded before 788 A. 1)., and was made a 
bishopric by Charlemagne. It was one of the chief towns 
of the Hanseatic League. In 1815 it was admitted into 
the Germanic confederation by the Congress of ^ ienna. 
The government of this city and the territory attached to 
it (with an area of 74 square miles) is a nominal republic, 
the total pop. of which in 1871 was 122,565. It is govern¬ 
ed by four burgomasters and twenty-four senators, who 
are elected for life. Bremen is the native place of Heeren 
and Olbers. A. J. Sciiem. 

Bremen, a township of Cook co., III. Pop. 1501. 

Bremen, a township of Lincoln co., Me. Pop. <97. 

Bremen, a post-village of Rush Creek township, lair- 
field co., 0. Pop. 265. 

Bre'mer, a county in N. E. Central Iowa. Area, 4.»0 
square miles. It is intersected by the Cedar and Wapsi- 
pinicon rivers, and also drained by several creeks. 1 he soil 
is generally fertile. Grain, cattle, and wool are raised. It 



















GOG 


BREMER—BREST. 


is traversed by a branch of the Illinois Central R-R. Cap¬ 
ital, Waverley. Pop. 12,528. 

Bremer, a township of Delaware co., Ia. Pop. 821. 

Bremer (Fredrika), a popular Swedish novelist, born 
at Abo, in Finland, Aug. 17, 1801. She was educated at 
Stockholm, and became in early youth familiar with Ger¬ 
man literature. Among her first works was “The Neigh¬ 
bors,” a novel (1842), which Mrs. Howitt translated into 
English. She afterwards produced “ The Home” (1843), 
“ The President’s Daughters,” “Nina,” “Brothers and Sis¬ 
ters,” and “Hertha” (1856), which were translated into 
English, French, and German. She visited the U. S. in 
1850, and after her return published “The Homes of the 
New World” (1853). Died Dec. 31, 1866. (See “Life, 
Letters, and Posthumous Works of Fredrika Bremer,” ed¬ 
ited by her sister Charlotte, New York, 1868.) 

Bre'merha'fcn, a town and port of Germany, on the 
right bank of the Weser, near its mouth, about 35 miles 
N. N. W. of Bremen. It is a part of the republic of Bre¬ 
men, and was built by the citizens of Bremen (1827-30) for 
the accommodation of large ships which cannot ascend the 
river. It has an outer and inner harbor. Pop. in 1871, 
10,594. 

Bre'mond, apost-village of Robertson co., Tex., at the 
junction of the Houston and Texas Central and the Waco 
and North-western R. Rs. It is in a beautiful and fertile 
region, abounding in coal and iron. It has a cotton-seed 
oil mill. 

Bren'ham, apost-village, capital of Washington co., 
Tex., on a branch of the Houston and Texas Central R. R., 
95 miles E. of Austin City. It is in a fertile region adapted 
to the growth of cotton. It has a seminary for ladies, sev¬ 
eral manufactories and two weekly newspapers. Pop. 2221. 

Bren'iier Pass, the lowest pass in the main chain of 
the Alps, is on the route between Innspruck and Botzen, 
and is 4775 feet above the level of the sea. The mountains 
on each side rise about 7500 feet above the pass, which is 
open at all seasons of the year. In 1867 a railway was 
opened through this pass from Innspruck to Botzen, at 
which point it connects with the railways of Germany and 
Italy. At the summit of the pass is the small village of 
Brenner. 

Breil'nus [Celtic bran, a “chief.” Bran, as a proper 
name, is well known both in Cymric and Erse tradition], a 
famous chief of the Senones, a tribe of ancient Gauls who 
crossed the Apennines in 390 B. C., invaded the Roman 
state, and defeated its army. Brennus then captured 
Rome, except the Capitol, which he besieged for about six 
months. During this siege he attempted to surprise the 
garrison by night, but he was repulsed by Manlius, who 
was awakened by the cackling of some geese. The Romans 
purchased peace by the payment of one thousand pounds 
of gold. To increase the price, Brennus is said to have 
thrown his sword on the scale. (See, on this subject, Ar¬ 
nold’s “ History of Rome.”) 

Brennus, a Gallic chief who invaded Greece with a 
large army about 280 B. C., and ravaged Macedonia and 
Thessaly. He was defeated at Delphi by the Greeks, who 
were said to have been aided by an earthquake. 

Brenta'no (Clemens), a German novelist and drama¬ 
tist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main Sept. 9, 1778. He was 
a brother of Goethe’s friend, Bettina von Arnim. He pro¬ 
duced dramas entitled “Ponce de Leon” (1804) and “ The 
Foundation of Prague ” (1816). Among his admired novels 
is “ The History of Caspar the Brave and the Fair Annerl.” 
In conjunction with Arnim he published the collection of 
ballads called “Des Knaben Wunderhorn” (1806-08; 2d 
ed. 1815). Died July 28, 1842. 

Brentano (Lorenz), a German jurist, born at Mann¬ 
heim in 1812. He was actively engaged in the Baden 
revolution of 1848, and afterwards removed to America, 
and became in 1860 editor of the “Illinois Staatszeitung” 
at Chicago. He sold his interest in the “Illinois Staats¬ 
zeitung” in 1867, and returned to Germany soon after. 
In 1868 he was elected a presidential elector on the Grant 
ticket. 

Brent'ford, a market-town of England, the capital of 
Middlesex, is on the Thames, at the mouth of the Brent, 7 
miles W. S. W. of London. It is connected with Kew by a 
bridge across the Thames, has large gin-distilleries, and 
the works of the West London Water Company. It con¬ 
sists mostly of one long street. Pop. 9521. 

Bren'ton, a township of Ford co., Ill. Pop. 1073. 

Brenton (Samuel), born in 1810 in Gallatin co., Ky., 
became a Methodist Episcopal preacher in 1830, and sub¬ 
sequently a lawyer. In 1841 he returned to the ministry, 
but having become disabled by paralysis, he again left the 
profession. He was a member of Congress from Indiana 


1852-57, and at the same time president of Fort Wayne 
College. Died Mar. 25, 1857. 

Brenton (William) emigrated to Boston from Ham¬ 
mersmith, England, held important offices in Massachusetts 
and Rhode Island, where he was several times lieutenant- 
governor. He was president of Rhode Island (1660-61), 
and governor (1666-69). Died at Newport in 1674. 

Brents'villc, a small village, capital of Prince Wil¬ 
liam co., Va., on the Occoquan Creek, 104 miles N. of Rich¬ 
mond. Pop. of Brentsville township, 937. 

Brent'wood, a post-township of Rockingham co., 
N. H. It has manufactures of paper, leather, lumber, etc. 
Pop. 895. 

Brentwood, a post-village of Williamson co., Tenn., 
on the railroad between Nashville and Franklin, about 9 
miles from each place. 

Brenz (Johann), [Lat. Brentius], a German Reformer, 
born at Weil, in Swabia, June 24, 1499, was educated at 
Heidelberg, and became a Protestant under Luther’s in¬ 
fluence. lie was a popular preacher at Halle, but in 1530 
had to flee to Stuttgard, to the protection of Duke Ulrich 
of Wurtemberg against Charles Y. There he died Sejit. 
11, 1570. He was a man of great ability, and wrote much, 
chiefly expository lectures on the Bible. These writings 
are still highly prized. He taught that the Lord’s body is 
everywhere present, hence his followers are called Ubiqui- 
tarians, but in the main his doctrines are those of Luther. 

Bres'cia, a province of Italy, is bounded on the N. by 
the Tyrol, on the E. by Lago di Garda and Verona, on 
the S. by Cremona, and on the W. by Bergamo. Area, 1784 
square miles. The soil is fertile. Silk and wool are among 
the staple productions. It has manufactures of woollen 
goods, firearms, and cutlery of superior quality. Capital, 
Brescia. Pop. in 1871, 450,750. 

Brescia (anc. Brixia), a handsome city of Italy, in 
Lombardy, capital of the above province, is pleasantly 
situated on a wide plain and on the river Garza, 62 miles 
by rail E. N. E. of Milan. It is on the railway which con¬ 
nects Milan with Venice. It has an old cathedral, a me¬ 
dieval structure, and a new marble cathedral (Duomo 
Nuovo) commenced in 1604; also many churches richly 
adorned with works of art by celebrated masters, an epis¬ 
copal palace, a college, a good public library, a museum of 
antiquities, a botanic garden, and a theatre. Here are 
manufactures of cutlery, silk, linen, and woollen fabrics, 
paper, and wine. The streets and public squares are 
adorned with numerous fountains. Brixia was a very 
ancient town, and was the capital of the Cenoinanni, a 
Gallic tribe. It was plundered by Attila, but soon recov¬ 
ered from this injury. The emperor Otho I. declared it a 
free city about 936. It was bombarded and taken by the 
Austrian general Haynau in 1859. Pop. in 1872, 38,906. 

Bres'lau, or Breslaw [Lat. Bratislavia; Polish, 
Wraclaw], a large city of Prussia, the capital of Silesia, is 
situated on the river Oder, at the mouth of the Ohlau, and 
on the railway from Berlin to Vienna, 221 miles by rail 
S. E. of Berlin; lat. (of observatory) 51° 6' 56.5” N., Ion. 
17° 2' 18” E. It is, next to Berlin, the most populous city 
of Prussia. It is divided by the Oder into the old and new 
towns, which are connected by numerous bridges. The 
new town has Avide and regular streets. It is the seat of a 
Roman Catholic bishop. The most remarkable edifices are 
a cathedral founded in the twelfth century, St. Elizabeth’s 
church, the theatre, the Rathhaus, exchange, mint, and 
university buildings. The university has a library of 
350,000 volumes. Breslau contains other public libraries, 
an observatory, a botanic and zoological garden, four gym¬ 
nasia, and numerous other schools of different kinds. It 
has an extensive trade, and is the greatest market for 
wool in Germany. It has manufactures of woollen, linen, 
cotton, and silk fabrics, broadcloths, lace, jewelry, soap, 
earthenware, starch, and ardent spirits. The number of 
distilleries in it is about 100. Railways extend to Dresden, 
Posen, Warsaw, and Vienna. Pop. in 1871, 208,025. 

Breslau, a thriving post-village of Babylon township, 
Suffolk co., N. Y., on the South Side R. R. of Long Island, 
33 miles E. by S. of Brooklyn. Its inhabitants are mostly 
Germans. 

Brest [Lat. Brestum], an important fortified city and 
seaport of France, department of Finistere, 314 miles W. 
of Paris, is said to be the strongest military port in France. 
It is on the N. shore of the Road of Brest, in lat. 48° 23' N., 
Ion. 4° 29' W. Its outer harbo r is one of the best and most 
capacious in the world, having ample room for 500 ships 
of the line. The harbor or road communicates with the 
ocean by a single channel called the Goulet, which is 1750 
yards wide. In the middle of this channel are the Mignan 
Rocks, which render the entrance of hostile ships very dif¬ 
ficult and dangerous. The outer harbor or roadstead is 













BREST LITOWSK—BREVIARY. 607 


about 6 miles long, and is defended by powerful batteries. 
The inner harbor is also secure and spacious. From its 
natural advantages and the strength of its defensive works, 
Brest is considered one of the first naval stations of Europe. 
Here are five large basins, extensive quays, an arsenal, vast 
magazines, large barracks, and a prison, the Bagne, which 
can accommodate 4000 convicts. Brest is the western 
terminus of a railway which extends to Paris via Rennes 
and Le Mans. The city is built on the slopes of several 
hills, and is divided into two parts, which can communi¬ 
cate only by boats. Is is encircled by ramparts, which, 
being planted with trees, form pleasant promenades. It 
has a naval school, a medical school, a communal college, 
besides numerous other schools, a public library, a botanic 
garden, an observatory, etc. This port has little trade ex¬ 
cept for the supply of the naval department, and its indus¬ 
try is confined to the equipment of the navy. This place 
was not of much importance until Cardinal Richelieu com¬ 
menced in 1631 the fortifications, which were completed by 
Vauban. A submarine telegraph cable connects this harbor 
with Duxbury, Mass. Pop. 79,847. 

Brest Litowsk', a town of Russia, in the government 
of Grodno, 92 miles S. of Grodno. It has several factories, 
and is the seat of a United Armenian bishop. Pop. 22,493. 

Bretagne [Lat. Britannia Minor], usually called 
Brit'tany by the English, or Little Brittany, a former 
province of France, is an extensive peninsula, bounded on 
the N. by the English Channel, and on the W. and S. W. by 
the Atlantic Ocean. It is now comprised in the depart¬ 
ments of Finistere, Cotes-du-Nord, Morbihan, Ile-et-Vi- 
laine, and Loire-Inf6rieure. It was divided into Haute- 
Bretagne (Upper Brittany), capital, Rennes, and Basse- 
Bretagne (Lower Brittany), capital, Yannes. Among the 
other towns are Brest, Quimper, and St. Malo. The sur¬ 
face is partly mountainous, and the scenery wild and 
beautiful. This province, which in ancient times was 
called Armorica, was settled by the Cymri, a Celtic race to 
which tho ancestors of the Welsh belonged. It contains 
large tracts of heath nearly uncultivated, and extensive 
forests. The outline is indented with numerous bays and 
inlets, which afford facilities for navigation and commerce. 
Brittany abounds in ancient monuments and cromlechs, 
which are ascribed to the Druids. The modern Bretons 
are tenacious of their ancient customs and peculiarities, 
and are generally Catholics. They are more loyal and de¬ 
vout than the majority of the French. Their language 
(the Armorican) is peculiar, and closely resembles the 
Welsh. This region and its people have a special interest 
for antiquarians. It became subject to the Franks in the 
time of Charlemagne. In 848 A. D., Nominoe, an Armor¬ 
ican chief, assumed the title of king of Bretagne, and de¬ 
feated the army of King Charles the Bald. The Normans 
conquered it in the tenth century. 

Geoffroi, count of Rennes, became in 992 the first duke 
of Bretagne, which continued to be an almost independent 
feudal duchy until it was annexed to France in 1531. Pop. 
in 1872,2,947,348. (See Daru, “ Ilistoire de Bretagne,” 
1826; Courson, “Ilistoire des Peuples Bretons, etc.,” 
1847.) 

Brethren. See Plymouth Brethren ; also Dunkers 
and United Brethren. 

Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit, a sect of 
extremely pantheistic and immoral semi-monastic enthusi¬ 
asts, who probably originated in the sect of Almericians, 
followers of Amalric of Bena, who died in 1209. They 
suffered much from the severity of the authorities, but be¬ 
came very numerous in Germany, France, and Italy. The 
sect lasted till about 1450. They were otherwise known as 
Homines Intelligent ire (“men of understanding”), also as 
Adamites, Turlupins, Schwestriones, Picards, etc.; and it 
is believed that the immoral “Adamites” now existing in 
Bohemia are their descendants. 

Brethren of the Christian Schools, an order in 
the Roman Catholic Church founded in 1679, at Rheims, 
by the Abbe La Salle, and confirmed in 1725 by Benedict 
XIII. Its members are not allowed to enter the priest¬ 
hood. They devote themselves to teaching, and especially 
to the instruction of the poor, mostly in rudimentary 
branches, but sometimes in more advanced studies. They 
are numerous in France, Ireland, Italy, the U. S., and most 
other countries. They are a branch of the Jesuits. 

Brethren of the Common Life [Lat. Fratres Vitse 
Communis], an association of pious clergymen founded in 
Holland by Gerhard Groot in 1384. They soon were joined 
by many laymen, who were associated closely with the 
priests, but had separate habitations. A semi-monastic 
discipline was maintained, generally according with the 
rule of Saint Augustine, without lifelong vows. The order 
spread to Germany, and “Sisters of the Common Life” 


afterwards appeared. The Brethren became partly identi¬ 
fied with the Canons Regular. Thomas a Kempis, Wessel, 
and Erasmus were educated by them. Luther and Melanch- 
thon esteemed the brotherhood highly, and many of them 
became Protestants, others Jesuits, etc., and before 1650 tho 
fraternity was extinct. 

Breton, a township of Washington co., Mo. Pop. 2390. 

Breton (Jules-Adolpiie), a French artist, distin¬ 
guished for his serious and sympathetic treatment of sub¬ 
jects connected with the rural life of France. He was 
born at Courrieres (Pas-de-Calais). His most important 
pictures are “Blessing the Wheatfield,” 1857, “The Call¬ 
ing Home of the Reapers,” 1859, both in the Luxem¬ 
bourg Gallery; “A Girl Guarding Turkeys,” 1864 ; “ Young 
Girls Guarding Cows,” 1872. Clarence Cook. 

Brett (Philip Milledoler), D. D., born in New York 
City July 13, 1817, graduated at Rutgers College, New 
Brunswick, N. J., was ordained to the Dutch Reformed 
ministry in 1838, held pastorates at Nyack, N. Y., St. 
Thomas, W. I., and at Mount Pleasant and Tompkins- 
ville, N. Y. He was very influential, and greatly beloved 
by his denomination. Died of cancer Jan. 14, 1860. A 
volume of his sermons has been published. 

Breu'ghel (Jan), a famous Flemish painter, born at 
Brussels in 1568, was called Velvet Breughel, in refer¬ 
ence to the material of his clothing. He painted land¬ 
scapes, animals, flowers, and small figures, which are finely 
finished. Among his chief works are “Adam and Eve in 
Paradise” and “ The Four Elements.” The figures of these 
were painted by Rubens. Died in 1625. 

Breughel (Pieter), a Flemish painter, the father of 
the preceding, was born at Breughel, near Breda. He 
painted with success village festivals, comic subjects, and 
the amusements of rustic life. Died in 1569. 

Brevard', formerly St. Lucie, a county in the S. E. 
of Florida, is bounded on the E. by the Atlantic Ocean. 
Area, 5600 square miles. Stock-raising is the chief pursuit. 
The climate is pleasant and healthful. Corn and rice are 
raised. It is intersected by the Kissimee River, and includes 
the greater part of Lake Okechobee, which is about 30 miles 
in diameter. The surface is generally low and flat. Capital, 
St. Lucie. Pop. 1216. 

Brevard, a post-village, capital of Transylvania co., 
N. C., in a township of the same name, about 240 miles 
W. S. W. of Raleigh. Pop. of Brevard township, 784. 

Breve, in music, a note formed thus |^|, or or 
||^J[, and equivalent to two semibreves. The note for a 
whole bar in modern notation is called a semibreve. The 
breve is now only used in d la capella movements, psalm- 
tunes, and fugues, or at the close of a composition. 

Breve, in printing, is a curve marked over a vowel to 
indicate that it is short, as e. 

Brevet', a French word signifying a patent, a warrant, 
a license, a commission, a royal act in writing conferring 
some privilege or distinction. 

Brevet is also a military term used in England and tho 
U. S. In the British army it is a promotion of officers 
which takes place on such special occasions as a coronation 
or the termination of a great war. By this promotion the 
officers obtain an increase of pay, even if they have never 
served in a campaign. On these occasions lieutenant-gen¬ 
erals, major-generals, colonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors, 
and captains receive a promotion of one grade. Each colonel, 
for instance, becomes a major-general. Officers below the 
rank of captain are excluded from the benefit of this brevet, 
which applies to the navy as well as the army, so that 
commanders become captains, captains become rear-ad¬ 
mirals, etc. Besides this general promotion by brevet, thero 
is (in England) brevet rank conferred on individual officers 
for special services. This does not entitle them to an in¬ 
crease of pay, but only to hold a rank next above that 
which their commission specifies. This kind of brevet is 
not used in the nav} 7 , and it does not apply in the army to 
other officers than captains, majors, and lieutenant-colonels. 
In the army of the U. S. a brevet is a commission giving 
an officer a nominal rank higher than that for which he re¬ 
ceives pay. A brevet major, for instance, only receives the 
pay of a captain or of a lieutenant. These honorary titles 
are given for meritorious services. 

Bre'viary [Lat. breviarium (from brevis, “short”); Fr. 
briviaire], an abridgment or epitome; also a book con¬ 
taining the daily service of the Church of Rome or of tho 
Greek Church. It is so called, probably, because it was 
abridged from another service-book, called Plenamum offi- 
cium, the “full service.” The Roman Catholic Church has 
several breviaries, some being used in particular dioceses 
or in special monastic orders, but the Breviarium homanum 
(“ Roman Breviary ”) is the most generally used, and is 















608 BREVIER 


rapidly taking the place of the others throughout the Latin 
rite, and it has been translated into some of the Eastern 
rites. It is in four parts : the Psaltery, or psalms for 
canonical hours, recited daily by all the beneficiary clergy ; 
the Proprium de Tempore, for festivals in honor of Christ; 
the Proprium de Sanctis, for festivals of special saints; and 
the Commune Sanctorum, for other days. The Greek Brev¬ 
iary (ipoAoyiov) or “dial ” is used in the Greek Church and 
the Roman Catholic churches of the Greek rite. (See 
Canonical Hours and Liturgy.) 

Brevier, bre-veer', in typography, a name of a type 
which is larger than minion and one size less than bour¬ 
geois. 

Brevipen'nes [from the Lat. brevis, “short,” and 
penna, a “wing”], or Brevipennates (i. e. “short¬ 
winged ”], a term applied in the system of Cuvier to that 
tribe of the order Grallatores which comprises the ostrich, 
cassowary, emeu, rhea, apteryx, and perhaps the extinct 
dodo. They have wings so short that they are not fit for 
flight, but they serve to accelerate the speed with which the 
birds run on the ground. Some ornithologists give them 
the name of Struthionidae, and some rank them among the 
gallinaceous birds. Their sternum (breast-bone) has no 
keel or ridge. The gigantic Dinornis and some other fossil 
birds exhibit the characters of the brevipennes. Birds of 
this tribe flourish only in solitudes and deserts, and are per¬ 
haps destined to extinction, as the progress of population 
is hostile to their increase or existence. (See Cursores.) 

Brew'er, a township of Pike co., Ark. Pop. 597. 

Brewer, a post-township and village of Penobscot co., 
Me., on the Penobscot River, opposite Bangor, with which 
it is connected by a bridge. It has a savings bank, and 
important manufactures of lumber, bricks, leather, boots, 
shoes, harness, carriages, sails, boats, etc. Total pop. 3214. 

Brewer (William Henry), born at Poughkeepsie, 
N. Y., Sept. 14, 1828, was educated at the scientific school 
of Yale College and at the universities of Heidelberg and 
Munich, was professor of chemistry and geology in Wash¬ 
ington College, Pa. (1858-60), first assistant in the geologi¬ 
cal survey of California (1860—64), professor of chemistry 
in the College of California, and professor of agriculture 
in the Sheffield Scientific School, New Haven, Conn., since 
1864. He has prepared a work on the “ Botany of Cali¬ 
fornia,” and various scientific papers. 

Brew'erton, a post-village of Cicero township, Onon¬ 
daga co., and of Hastings township, Oswego co., N. Y., on 
both sides of the Oneida River, at the foot of Oneida Lake, 
and on the Syracuse Northern R. R., 15 miles N. of Syra¬ 
cuse. The old British Fort Brewerton stood on the Oswego 
side. Pop. in Onondaga co., 322; in Oswego co., 196. 

Brewerton (Henry), LL.D., an American officer, born 
1801 at Newburg, N. Y., graduated at West Point 1819, colo¬ 
nel Corps of Engineers April 22, 1864, served as assistant 
professor at the Military Academy 1819-21, in construc¬ 
tion of fortifications 1821—32, Cumberland road 1832—36, 
improvement of Hudson River 1836-42, building Fort 
Montgomery, N. Y., 1841—45, superintendent ol the Mili¬ 
tary Academy 1845-52, constructing defences of Baltimore 
harbor 1852-64, of the Delaware 1862-64, of Point Look¬ 
out, Md., 1864-65, and of Hampton Roads 1864-70, im¬ 
provement of harbors in Maryland 1852—64, and member 
of engineer and other boards 1839-67. Brevet brigadier- 
general Mar. 13, 1865, for long, faithful, and meritorious 
services, and retired from active service Mar. 7, 1867. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Brew'erville, a township of Sumter co., Ala. P. 1520. 

Brew'mgton, a township of Clarendon co., S. C. P. 199. 

Brew'ster, a post-township of Barnstable, co., Mass., 
on the Cape Cod R. R., 89 miles from Boston. Pop. 1259. 

BreAVster (Sir David), LL.D., D. C. L., F. R. S., an 
eminent British natural philosopher and writer, born at 
Jedburgh, Scotland, Dec. 11, 1781. He was educated at 
the University of Edinburgh, and became in 1808 editor 
of the “ Edinburgh Encyclopaedia,” for which he wrote 
many articles. He received in 1815 the Copley medal, of 
the Royal Society for an “ Essay on the Polarization of 
Light by Reflection.” He invented the kaleidoscope in 
1816. In conjunction with Professor Jameson he founded 
the “ Edinburgh Philosophical Journal” in 1819. About 
this date the Royal Society awarded to him the Rumford 
gold and silver medals for his discoveries in optics. He 
was knighted in 1832, and elected in 1849 one of the eight 
foreign associates of the French Institute, the highest 
scientific distinction in Europe. Among his works are a 
“Treatise on Optics” (1831),“ More Worlds than One” 
(1854), and “Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Sir 
Isaac Newton” (2 vols., 1855). In 1859 he was chosen 
principal of the University of Edinburgh. His wife was 


BRIBERY. 


a daughter of Macpherson, the author of Ossian’s poems. 
Died Feb. 10, 1868. 

Brewster (James), born about 1785, was a prominent 
merchant and philanthropist of New Haven, Conn. Ho 
founded in that city Brewster Hall, the Franklin Institute, 
and the Orphan Asylum, and was the active promoter of 
many benevolent and business enterprises. Died Nov. 22, 
1866. 

Brewster (William), one of the Pilgrims of Plymouth, 
born at Scrooby, England, in 1566, was educated at Cam¬ 
bridge, entered the public service, became a non-conform¬ 
ist, and in 1607 was imprisoned at Boston, Lincolnshire. 
He was liberated with great expense and difficulty, and 
went to Leyden, where he taught English. In 1620 he 
came to America on the Mayflower’s first voyage. He was 
an elder of the Church, preaching frequently, but never 
administering the sacraments. Died at Plymouth, greatly 
venerated, April 16, 1644. 

Brewster’s Station, a post-village of South-east 
township, Putnam co., N. Y., on the Harlem R. R., 53 miles 
from New York. It has two fine mines of magnetic iron 
ore, one national bank, and one weekly newspaper. Great 
quantities of milk are sent to market from this point. 

Brew'ton, a post-twp. of Escambia co., Ala. P. 1312. 

Brezo'wa, a town of Hungary, in the county of Neu- 
tra, 19 miles N. W. of Leopoldstadt. It has several tan¬ 
neries and distilleries. Pop. in 1869, 5886. 

Brialmont (Alexis Henri), a distinguished Belgian 
officer, engineer, and military writer, born May 25, 1821, 
at Venloo, Province of Limburg, Pays-Bas; entered the 
military school of Brussels in 1839 from which he grad¬ 
uated as sous-Lieutenant du Genie (Engineers) in 1843. 
Entered the Belgian staff corps ( d’Etat major) as Captain 
in 1855 and passing through successive grades became 
Colonel in 1868, Chevalier of the Order of Leopold in 1846 
—officer, in 1859, and “Commander” in 1870. Member 
of the Belgian Academy of Sciences of Stockholm in 1865. 
As an officer of Engineers has participated in the fortifica¬ 
tion of Antwerp and Diest, and when the present magnifi¬ 
cent system of fortifications was decided upon he had the 
distinguished honor of planning works “unrivalled in Eu¬ 
rope in the intelligent application of true principles of art 
to a great practical example.” Colonel Brialmont is now 
an acknowledged authority on the modern art of fortifica¬ 
tion—his military publications are numerous; among the 
most important may be named, “ Precis d’Art Militaire,” 
1850, 4 vols., 12mo, Considerations Politiques et Militairea 
sur la Belgiques,” 1851-52, 3 vols., 8vo, “ Histoire du Due 
de Wellington,” 1856-57, 3 vols., 8vo, “ Etudes sur la Defense 
des Etats et sur la Fortification,” 1863, 3 vols., 8vo, with 
atlas, “ Etudes sur Vorganization des Armees,” 1867, 1 vol., 
Svo, “ Traite de Fortification Polygonale,” 1869, 3 vols., 
8vo, with atlas, “ La Fortification d Fosses Secs,” 1872, 3 
vols., Svo, with atlas; “ Etudes sur la Fortification des 
villes Cupitales ” (1873), besides minor works and a great 
number of pamphlets upon current military or political 
topics; and he is author of the article on Fortification in 
the present work. J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Brianchon’s Theorem, in conic sections, is the re¬ 
ciprocal of Pascal’s theorem, and was first discovered by 
Brianchon. It is thus enunciated : “ The three diagonals 
of every hexagon circumscribed to a conic meet in a point.” 

Brian^on (anc. Brigantium), a town of France, in the 
department of Hautes-Alpes, on the river Durance, 56 miles 
S. E. of Grenoble, and near the Italian frontier. It is 
strongly fortified, is the principal French arsenal among 
the Alps, and is considered almost impregnable. Pop. 3579. 

Briansk', a town of Russia, in the government of Orel, 
on the river Desna, 74 miles W. N. W. of Orel. It has 
several churches, a cannon-foundry, an imperial building- 
yard, and a manufactory of small-arms. Pop. 13,881. 

Briar Creek, a township of Columbia co., Pa. P. 1077. 

Bri'bery [from the Fr. bribe, a “piece of bread,” or a 
gift to a beggar], in criminal law, the offence of taking or 
offering any gift or reward to influence one’s behavior in a 
public office, whether executive or judicial. It is an offence 
at common law. It also includes the ease of influence or 
attempting to influence, by money, voters at an election to 
Parliament. The crime may be committed though it turn 
out that the person whose vote is thus solicited has no 
right to vote. It is an offence in any case to offer the bribe, 
though it is not received. The U. S. Constitution brands 
it as a crime of magnitude by declaring that the President 
and other civil officers are liable to impeachment for “ trea¬ 
son, bribery, and other high crimes and misdemeanors.” 
It is usual to pass statutes in the States extending the cases 
to which bribery as an offence may be applied, and fixing 
the punishment. 















BRICK. 




609 


ISrick, a species of artificial stone made by moulding 
plastic clay into blocks, and burning them. A very in¬ 
ferior quality of bricks is made by simply drying the blocks 
in the sun. The earths most employed in brickmaking are 
(1) the plastic clays, composed principally of silica and 
alumina in varying proportions; (2) the loams or sandy 
clays; .and (3) the marls, which are either sandy, clayey, 
or calcareous, according as silica in the form of sand, 
alumina, or carbonate of lime preponderates in the mixture. 
These brick-clays almost always contain a small percentage 
of oxide of iron, carbonate of lime, soda, and carbonate 
of magnesia. The purer clays contain about 1 part of 
alumina to 2 of silica, with a percentage of water varying 
greatly among the different clays. They all mix up freely 
with water in either large or small proportions, and are 
characterized by a tenacious plasticity. If moulded and 
baked, they shrink and warp greatly out of shape, and 
crack. Hence, these rich clays all have to be tempered 
with sand, ashes, or cinders before they can be used for 
bricks. Some clays contain too much sand, and are weak 
and brittle after burning; these must be mixed with the 
richer clays. From the greatly varying character of the 
raw material, it results that the methods pursued in brick¬ 
making must vary among different localities. Some clays 
require but very little change in the natural proportion of 
their ingredients, and but very little labor to prepare them 
for moulding into bricks, it being merely necessary to add 
the requisite quantity of water to render the clay plastic; 
while others, such as the fire-clays and some of the marls, 
have to be pulverized by machinery before they can be re¬ 
duced to a sufficiently plastic condition. The red color of 
burnt bricks is caused by the presence of a small per¬ 
centage of oxide of iron, generally the protoxide. When 
there is more than 10 per cent, of iron oxide present the 
clay burns to a blue and almost a black color. A large per¬ 
centage of iron, if lime also or an excess of silica be pres¬ 
ent, renders the clay fusible. Some clays contain lime and 
very little or no iron. These burn white, and require a less 
intense heat than any other ciays to produce hard brick, 
the lime being a flux on the silica. When carbonate of 
lime, whether as chalk, marl, nodules of calcareous petri¬ 
factions, or in any other form, is present in the clay, it is 
converted into quicklime in burning, and only such por¬ 
tions of it will combine with the silica and alumina as come 
into actual contact with them. The balance remains quick¬ 
lime, which will slake when the bricks become wet, and de¬ 
stroy them. Hence clay containing too much carbonate 
of lime is unfit for bricks. Other clays contain iron and 
lime with an excess of the latter, in which case the bricks 
burn to a light dun or a whitish color. Magnesia gen¬ 
erally jmoduces a brown color. 

The presence of iron pyrites is objectionable, for the 
burning expels the sulphur, leaving oxide of iron or a 
basic sulphate, which occupies less volume than the original 
pyrites, and makes the bricks porous and weak. Vegetable 
remains, such as roots, grass, etc., should be excluded for 
a similar reason. 


It is impossible to ascertain, by chemical analysis alone, 
whether or not a given clay or any mixture of two or more 
clays will make good bricks. The best chemical tests will 
furnish only a close approximation. The composition of 
four clays—two suitable for common bricks and two for 
'fire-brick—are given below. Nos. 3 (from Stourbridge, 
England) and 4 are the fire-brick clays: 



No. 1. 

No. 2. 

No. 3. 

No. 4. 

Silica. 

....50.40 

49.44 

51.80 

• 58.40 

Alumina. 

■ I 04 no 

34.26 

30.40 

35.78 

Oxide of iron. 


7.74 

4.14 

3.02 

Carbonate of lime. 

.... 2.70 

1.48 

-) 


“ of magnesia... 

.... 1.30 

5.14 

.30 y 

2.72 

Water, etc. 

....21.60 

1.94 

13.11 ) 



100. 

100. 

99.95 

99.92 


Some of the fire-clays contain as high as 651 to 66 per 
cent, of silica, 27 i to 26J per cent, of alumina, and to 6 
per cent, of oxide of iron, the balance being the alkalies 
and water. 

Fire-bricks are used for lining furnaces, kilns, ovens, etc. 
subjected to an intense heat that would destroy common 
bricks or stone. The Stourbridge fire-bricks are noted for 
their excellence. The clay is dug up and exposed from 
three to eighteen months, according to the weather, in 
“ spoil heaps/’ spread over as large an area as practicable, 
until thoroughly disintegrated by weather and frost; in 
winter three months will suffice. The clay weighs six tons 
to seven cubic yards, and some of the spoil heaps contain 
10,000 tons. After weathering, the clay is ground in a cir¬ 
cular pan under two cylindrical stone rollers, each weigh¬ 
ing two and a half to three and a quarter tons, and faced 
with iron. After grinding, the clay is carried on an end¬ 
less band to a ‘‘riddle” of 4 or 6 meshes to the inch for 
fire-bricks, 6 to 10 meshes for fine cement clay, and 12 to 
14 meshes for glass-house or pot clay. After passing the 
riddle the clay is tempered with water to a suitable degree 
of plasticity, and is then passed through a cylindrical cast- 
iron pug-mill, where it is cut and stirred by revolving 
helicoidal blades, which force it out through an opening at 
the bottom in the form of a bar, which is received and 
carried by an endless band to the moulding shed. The 
fire-bricks are moulded by hand in the usual manner, dried 
in artificially heated sheds at a temperature of 60° to 70° 
F., or by the sun in clear weather. They are burned in 
circular domed kilns or cupolas called ovens, where they 
remain from eight to fourteen days, being subject to the 
intensity of flame or white heat for about four days and 
three nights. In burning, the heat is slowly increased 
and gradually lowered, and the burnt contents require seven 
days to cool. Most of the kilns contain 12,000 bricks— 
some, exceptionally, 30,000 to 35,000. The chimney-stack 
is on the outside, and the flame burns with a down draught, 
descending through holes in the floor. Coal is used for fuel. 

Excellent fire-bricks are made in New Jersey at Perth 
Amboy, Woodbridge, South Amboy, Trenton, and other 
places in the vicinity. The process of manufacturing is 
essentially the same as for common bricks. The fire-clays 



of these localities contain generally more alumina and less 
silica than those of Stourbridge, England, and are there¬ 
fore richer, the alumina reaching in some cases as high as 
37-ro- to 39 t 7 q per cent., with only 43 x 2 q to 45 xcr per cent- 
of silica. The composition of the bricks consists of about 
§ raw clay, & cement, £ kaolin, and £ fine sand. The ce¬ 
ment is fire-clay that has been burnt; the kaolin is a clay 
consisting of very fine sand, mica, and fire-clay, found in 
the vicinity, and the fine sand is clean coarse, angular¬ 
grained quartz, found remarkably pure near by. 

Many machines have been employed for making bricks, 
of which two that have proved to be successful will be 
described. In the French machine, invented by M. Ter- 
39 


rason-Fougeres, the frame is composed of two side-pieces 
A B (Figs. 1 and 3) from sixteen to twenty feet long, 
framed together as shown in the figures, and mounted on 
wheels to permit of its being easily moved from place to 
place. The clay, being previously moistened, is fed to the 
pug-mill Y (Fig. 3) by means of an endless chain Z, the 
chain and mill being both operated by a sweep worked by 
from two to four horses. The clay, on feeding out of the 
pug-mill, is received upon a plank k (Figs. 2 and 3) sup¬ 
ported on rods, and sanded to prevent adhesion. The width 
of the plank is equal, or nearly equal, to the length of the 
bricks to be made. 

Three pairs of rollers D, E, G (Fig. 3) fastened under- 





















































































































































































































010 


BRICK. 


neath the frame give movement and direction to two end¬ 
less belts II (Fig. 3) by means of a crank and pinion on 
the shaft E. On each belt is riveted or screwed a series of 
wooden blocks h (Fig. 3) exactly equal in size. Each block 
has a hole bored in it near the belt, through which the 
rods pass from side to side. The distance between the 
two belts can be regulated by sliding the rollers on their 
shafts, so that the space between the blocks h may be ad¬ 
justed to the length of brick required. In the intervals 
between D, E, G the belts are supported on friction-rollers i 
(Fig. 3). Motion is given to the belt by means of the 
teeth e (Fig. 2), which take hold of the projecting ends of 
the rods h '. 


The endless belts being put in motion, the plank k, loaded 
with clay, is drawn forward under the cylinder L (Figs. 1, 
2, 3), which just grazes the top of the blocks h. The clay 
is thus pressed between the plank k and the cylinder L, 
and is prevented from spreading laterally by the blocks h. 
When one plank has advanced sufficiently, another is 
added, and so on. 

The prism of clay, constantly advancing, comes next 
under the cylinder M (Figs. 1 and 3), which compresses it 
down to the thickness required, while two wires n (Fig. 3), 
one on each side, cut it to the desired width. 

Passing through the die 0 (Figs. 1 and 3), the prism is 
brought to its accurate calibre. When working a prism 



two bricks thick the die contains a wire o (Fig. 3) which 
cuts the mass horizontally. 

The cylinder L is of wood; a wire j (Fig. 2) stretched 
between its lower surface and the top of the blocks H pre¬ 
vents the clay from adhering to it. The cylinder M is also 
of wood, but is surfaced with felt, kept constantly moist¬ 
ened. The die 0 is also supplied with a small stream of 
water from the same source, at its upper corners, through 
the tube o' (Fig. 3). 

When the prism, after passing through the die, has ad¬ 
vanced sufficiently far, a small chock upon the plank k 
rings a bell P, upon which the man who is turning the 
crank stops, and by means of a lever, not shown in the 
figure, allows the frame R R (Fig. 1) turning on the hinges 
q q to drop, and by means of the wires which it contains 
to cut off a certain number of bricks of the proper width. 

By means of this machine 4800 bricks per hour may be 
turned out—48,000 per day of ten hours. The actual daily 
production, however, rarely exceeds 20,000 to 25,000, unless 
the crank is relieved. 

In the drawing the pug-mill is represented as feeding 
directly into the machine. As, however, the mill can 
rarely supply the machine fast enough, it is usually de¬ 
tached, and a proper quantity of clay prepared beforehand, 
and then shoveled on to the machine as required. 

The leading type of the machines used at Haverstraw, 
N. Y., and vicinity for the manufacture of common bricks, 
where about 2,000,000 per day are made during the work¬ 
ing season, is shown in Fig. 4, and is known as the “Ver- 
valen machine.” The object of this machine is merely to 
fill the moulds more rapidly than could be done by hand, 
and not to produce a pressed brick. 

A is a wooden box or tub about 3 feet 4 inches square 
inside, and from 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet high, into which 
the clay to be moulded is cast. B is a vertical iron shaft 
about 5 inches in diameter, geared with the engine shaft 
C, which imparts to it a horizontal rotary motion. The 
lower end of B is provided with a heavy casting, shaped 
like the letter S, called the wiper, which sweeps the clay 
through a lateral opening in the front side of A into the 
cast-iron box D. 

The shaft B is provided with a number of projecting arms, 
from fourteen to twenty-two, which clear the sides of the 
tub by about one inch, and serve to mix the ingredients 
before they are expelled by the wiper. When, however, 
the clay is previously mixed by a tempering wheel, these 


arms are removed, leaving only the wiper, and the tub then 
serves merely as a hopper. The bottom of the cast-iron 
box D is provided with six openings, through which the 
prepared clay is forced into corresponding openings in the 



mould E. A sort of rectangular piston works up and down 
in the box D by means of a connecting rod F run by a 
drum G. A crank at the end of the drum-shaft H com¬ 
municates a stroke of about seven inches to the piston, 
which stroke, however, can be diminished at pleasure by 
shifting the position of a pin at the lower extremity of F. 
I he bottom of the piston does not come nearer than about 
six inches to the bottom of the box D. 

The action of the machine will now be readily under- 


























































































































































































































































BRICK, ARCHAEOLOGY OF. 611 


stood. The prepared clay is swept by the wiper out of A 
into D, whence it is expelled by a down stroke of the pis¬ 
ton into a mould placed under it. While this mould is 
being filled an empty one is inserted behind it through the 
aperture I. The drum G continuing its revolution in the 
direction of the arrow, a cam Iv strikes the lever L, throw¬ 
ing it forward, as shown in the figure. It carries with it 
the shaft M, which by means of a horizontal rod attached 
to two cranks (one of which is shown partially in the figure 
at N) and passing behind the empty mould, forces it for¬ 
ward, thrusting out the full one upon the table 0, and pla¬ 
cing the empty mould in position to be filled. The drum G 
continuing its revolution, another cam, placed so as to clear 
the top of the lever L, strikes the upper arm of the lever P, 
causing it, by means of the projection Q, to return L to its 
primitive position. A chock prevents L from falling too far 
back. And so on. 

Whenever the nature of the materials used admits, the 
mixture of the ingredients is made by the pug-mill work¬ 
ing in the tub. In this case a rectangular pit is prepared 
directly behind the machine, capable of containing the 
amount of clay required for a day’s work. The clay is 
placed over night in this pit, and is wet down with a cer¬ 
tain amount of water, varying according to the nature of 
the clay used. In the morning the other ingredients, con¬ 
sisting of sand and anthracite coal-dust, are carted to the pit 
and roughly mixed by two spaders, who afterwards throw 
it up into the tub, where the pug-mill completes the mixing. 

The proportion of sand used varies according to the 
quality of the clay and the relative proportions in which 
the two are found in the bank. It may be taken, on an 
average, at one-third sand to two-thirds clay. The Haver- 
straw sand is of excellent quality, and, more than the clay, 
gives the bricks of this locality their peculiar character. 
Coal-dust is used in the average proportion of 3 pecks to 
the 1000 bricks. For burning properly in the kilns, a cer¬ 
tain number of what are called double-coal bricks is re¬ 
quired, in which the proportion is about 5 bushels of dust 
per 1000 bricks. When mixed in a circular pit by means 
of a “tempering wheel,” the clay and coal-dust are dis¬ 
posed in alternate layers and cut up by the wheel. The 
sand is then added, and incorporated by the wheel. This 
operation consumes the entire day. 

When the moulds, which are made mostly of cherry or 
locust wood, and contain six bricks each, are thrust from 
under the press upon the table, they are placed on trucks 
and wheeled under the drying shed. The bricks are thrown 
out upon the flat. When sufficiently dry they are “edged 
up ” by means of an instrument called an edger , then 
“ spatted,” or tapped with a flat board called a “ spatter,” 
to give them a clean edge, and then “ hacked up,” or placed 
in long and narrow rows on edge. When dry enough— 
that is, in one to three days, according to weather—they 
are built up in “ arches,” set on edge in the order called 
“ three over one.” The arches contain 28,000 to 35,000 
bricks each, and are 6 bricks or 4 feet wide, about 44 
bricks or 30 feet deep, and from 45 to 55 courses high. 
Each arch has an opening at the bottom—hence the name 
—in the centre of its width, in which the wood used in 
baking is placed. On the outside are placed the “ double¬ 
coal” bricks, to the number of about 3000 per arch. Bricks 
containing only the usual proportion of coal would not burn 
properly at this distance from the fire. 

A number of arches, five, ten, or more, are built up con¬ 
tiguously, so as to form a solid mass. The whole is then 
covered with a dry wall of baked bricks, the lower courses 
being one brick thick, and the rest half a brick. At the 
bottom they leave a vacancy between the wall and the face 
of the arch, which gives a batter to the covering wall, and 
affords a better draught. Arch-irons or cast-iron frames 
having an opening of about one square foot are inserted 
in the openings, and the whole is smeared over with clay. 
The heap so prepared is called a kiln. This system of 
burning is pursued rather than that with permanent kilns, 
on account of the greater number of bricks which may be 
burned in a given space. At Ilaverstraw, yards control¬ 
ling only 200 feet frontage can thus make from 5,000,000 to 
6,000,000 bricks per season of 150 working days. 

About four cords of wood are used per arch, and the 
burning requires six days, fires being lit on Monday morn¬ 
ing and drawn on Saturday evening. Moulding is usually 
carried on during the forenoon of each day—about five to 
six hours—the rest of the day being spent in “ hacking 
up,” etc. 

The machines above mentioned turn out, in ordinary 
working, ten moulds or sixty bricks per minute, or 18,000 
to 20,000 per forenoon. They require the following plant 
and help per machine: 25 moulds, 4 trucks, and 8 men. 
If operated by steam, a machine turning out 18,000 per 
day requires eight horse-power nominal, high pressure. 

The standard of full work in this section is to turn out 


1000 bricks per day for every soul employed, from the time 
the clay is dug till the bricks are loaded in the vessels. 
Thus, an establishment employing forty hands, all told, 
should turn out 40,000 bricks per day. 

There are many other machines made besides those de¬ 
scribed; those which most merit attention are “Adams’ 
Power Moulding Machine ” and “Adams’ Hand Machine.” 

In the first of these, the clay, having been previously 
tempered and mixed in a separate machine, is placed in a 
hopper, out of which it is forced into the moulds by the 
intermittent action of a helical screw turning with a vertical 
shaft in the hopper, and gearing only every alternate half 
revolution. This machine, as it admits of a more rapid 
feed of moulds, turns out nearly double the number of 
bricks that the Vervalen machine does, but it requires a 
large number (fourteen) of men to operate it, and from 
the nature of the mechanism cannot be run at a slower 
rate with less help. 

Adams’ hand machine is used for making the Croton or 
other face bricks. It is said to be the only machine in use 
which admits of using the very fine moulding sand which 
these bricks require. It works by the alternate up-and- 
down stroke of two rods, to which is attached a pair of 
iron plates hinged in the middle, like the cover of a book, 
so as to close when the rods are raised and open when they 
come down. Therefore, at the upward stroke they fall to¬ 
gether and pass freely through the clay with which the hop¬ 
per is charged, and on the down stroke open and press the 
clay into the mould. They are worked by hand. The moulds 
contain four bricks each. These machines require 9 moulds, 
3 trucks, 4 men. Q. A. Gillmore, U. S. A. 

Brick, Archaeology of. This material has in recent 
times attracted much archaeological interest. The* Bible 
mentions brick as the material of which the tower of Babel 
was made: “ Go to, let us make brick and burn them thor¬ 
oughly ” (Gen. xi. 5); and it is precisely in this region, the 
valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris, that the most inter¬ 
esting archaeological remains of this character are found. 
The Babylonian bricks were usually burned in a kiln, while 
those of Nineveh were more frequently sun-dried. We 
learn also from the Bible that sun-dried bricks were ex¬ 
tensively employed in Egypt; and that it was one of the 
principal employments of the enslaved Israelites to make 
such bricks, in which straw was mingled with the clay so 
as to increase the durability of the mass. But Egyptian 
buildings made of Unburnt brick, even without straw, are 
still standing in good preservation. Some of these build¬ 
ings are with confidence referred to the remotest periods 
of history. Similar though scarcely parallel examples of 
the durability and excellence of unburnt bricks are afford¬ 
ed by the adobe buildings of Mexico, New Mexico, and 
Arizona, many of which were erected by the natives long 
before the advent of the white race. Adobe buildings 
erected for public uses in Santa Fe, New Mexico, by the 
Spanish authorities long before the foundation of the Eng¬ 
lish colonies of North America, are still in use, having stood 
for more than three centuries with but the most insignif¬ 
icant repairs. This durability, however, both in Egypt and 
Spanish America, is largely due to the dry weather which 
prevails in both regions, and is not observed in brick made 
from inferior clays. The ancient Peruvians made bricks 
of the greatest excellence, as well as sun-dried bricks of 
good quality. The Chinese have for ages made excellent 
bricks, to some of which they give a glazed surface, like 
that of porcelain. The people of India make bricks—those 
of some regions finely ornamented, and superior in quality 
to the bricks of Europe and America. The old ruins of 
Farther India and Java attest the antiquity of the art of 
brickmaking in those regions. 

But the great discovery of the secret of the cuneiform 
writing (see Cuneiform Inscriptions, by the Rev. W. II. 
Ward) has of late attracted renewed attention to the bricks 
of Babylon, each of which bears at least the name of some 
king (notably that of Nebuchadnezzar), the writing having 
been in most cases made upon the soft clay by a stylus of 
iron. This practice of marking bricks with some name, 
as that of the ruler or the manufacturer, has prevailed in 
other countries, notably in ancient Rome. The Romans 
made many public and private buildings of brick, often 
of excellent character; but in some of their subterranean 
water-courses, recently cleared out, the brick lining has 
disappeared, leaving a honeycomb of projecting mortar. 
It has been assumed that Roman brickmaking was derived 
from that of Greece, in the latter country a very important 
and extensive industry in ancient times; and the Greeks, 
it is stated, learned the art of brickmaking from the Egyp¬ 
tians. But if it were necessary to find any such origin tor 
so universal an art in such countries, the Greeks might per¬ 
haps be imagined to have acquired it from the Assyrian.^ 
in Cyprus, for there the two civilizations had a point ot 
contact. Charles . Greene. 














612 BRICK—BRIDGE. 


Brick, a township of Ocean co., N. J. Pop. 2724. 

Brick Creek, a township of Halifax co., Ya. Pop. 
5563. 

Brick Meeting-House, a post-township of Cecil co., 
Md. Pop. 1564. 

Bricks'burg, a post-village of Brick township, Ocean 
co., N. J., on the Raritan and Delaware Bay R. R., 44 miles 
S. by W. of New York. It is a new and thriving settle¬ 
ment, and has manufactures of lumber, sash and blinds, 
brick, etc. Considerable capital is invested in raising 
small fruits for market. It has one weekly paper, a ladies’ 
seminary, and a line public school building. 

Bridesburg, a former township of Philadelphia co., 
Pa., now included within the limits of Philadelphia. It is 
about 7 miles N. by E. of the State-house. It contains a 
U. S. arsenal. 

Bridewell, a name sometimes given to a house of cor¬ 
rection for offenders. This name was originally applied to 
a well which was dedicated to Saint Bride in London, and 
a hospital founded on that site by Edward VI. Henry 
VIII. also built here about 1522 a palace called Bridewell, 
which Edward VI. gave to the city of London to be used 
as a workhouse and house of correction " for the strumpet 
and idle person, for the rioter that consumeth all, and the 
vagabond that will abide in no place.” 

Bridge. (The etymology of the word is obscure; but, 
according to Richardson, its derivation is believed to imply 
that ivhich reaches, stretches, or extends; i. e. from bank to 
bank, across a river, from side to side, point to point — any¬ 
thing built, raised, and stretched or extended across .) If, as 
defined by Rankine (see Engineering) the engineer "is he 
who by art and science makes the mechanical properties of 
matter serve the ends of man,” it may further be said that 
the form of matter which earliest presented the problem 
of its reduction to subservience to his purposes was the 
surface of the earth. To a social being—a member of com¬ 
munities in which civilization has made any advances— 
paths of communication from place to place are among the 
earliest felt necessities,- and in connection with them the 
surmounting, by bridges, of the barriers presented by ra¬ 
vines, rivulets, and rivers. In a rude state of society the 
most obvious and simple bridge is a tree thrown across the 
stream (if but a rivulet), and hence, says Rankine, "the 
first man who bridged a torrent with a fallen tree had in 
him something of the engineer;” putting bridge building 
among the very first exhibitions of the engineering art. 
Nor should it be overlooked that from the engineer’s art, 
as exhibited in bridge-building, was derived the title of the 
Roman high priest; a title transmitted to the Roman 
Bishop and now symbolizing to the faithful of the Roman 
Church, the successor of St. Peter, the infallible head of 
the Church of Christ, otherwise styled The Pope. The 
word "Pontiff,” says Webster, is "said to be derived from 
pons, a bridge, and facere, to make, because the first bridge 
over the Tiber was constructed and consecrated by the high 
priest.” 

We have indicated the fallen tree as the rudest and, 
most probably, the earliest bridge. Singularly tho next 
step in bridge-building seems to have been one which, in 
its full development, involves the refinements of the con¬ 
structive art and of the mathematical science. " Another 
step in advance (Tomlinson’s Encya. of the Useful Arts) 
is to stretch across a river a number of ropes, made of 
rushes or leathern thongs, secured on the opposite banks 
between trees and posts, and connected and covered, so as 
to form a slight bridge. This method is practised in some 
of the mountainous districts of South America. The ropes 
are formed of thongs of ox-hide, consisting of several 
strands, about six or eight inches in thickness, and across 
these, in a transverse direction, sticks are laid, and these 
are covered with a flooring of branches of trees. In other 
cases, an ox-hide rope is extended from one side of the 
river to the other, and is secured to each bank by means 
of strong posts. On one side is a kind of wheel, or winch, 
to straighten or slacken the rope, from which hangs, by a 
clue at each end, a kind of leathern hammock, capable of 
holding a man. A rope fastened to either clue, and ex¬ 
tended to each side of the river, is used for drawing the 
hammock to the side intended. A push at its first setting 
off sends it quickly to the other side. Mules arc carried 
over in this way.” 

To use these cables in pairs and to suspend from them a 
flooring is all that is needed to make a suspension bridge. 
" Such bridges are very numerous in various parts of the 
world. In China, where the germ of nearly everything 
connected with the Useful Arts is found, suspension bridges 
are formed of five parallel chains with links one foot in 
diameter, on which a loose bamboo flooring is laid. An¬ 
other form is described as consisting of two parallel chains 
four feet apart, suspended over stone piers about eight feet 


high on each bank. The ends of the chains pass back 
from thence, turn obliquely, and are bedded in the rock, 
each being fastened round a large stone, which is kept 
down by a mass of smaller stones laid upon it. A plank 
about eight inches widfe, extending across the river, is sus¬ 
pended from the chains by bands made of roots, of such 
length that the path is four feet below the chains in the 
middle of the length of the bridge. The suspending bands 
are renewed every year, and the planks are loose, so that 
any part can be prepared separately. The length of one 
of these bridges is described as being 59 feet. It is only 
used for foot-passengers; but it is a proper suspension 
bridge, with a horizontal platform suspended from the 
main chains.” 

But to return to the "fallen tree.” Instead of "felling” 
a tree in place, the transition to stretching the trunk of a 
tree, a "log” or "beam,” over a ravine with suitable, how¬ 
ever rude, artificial bearing-points, or "abutments,” is nat¬ 
ural and obvious. As the art of " Carpentry ” developed 
itself, and as a more scientific knowledge of the "Strength 
of Materials ” was acquired—particularly in its applications 
to the resistance to flexure and stress of beams, the " Tim¬ 
ber Bridge” becomes the natural development of the fallen 
tree. It would soon be discovered that the simple "beam” 
stretched between two bearing points would receive its 
maximum bending strain at its middle point; that thence, 
towards each abutment the strain would rapidly diminish. 
Hence, to get the greatest strength, with the least weight 
(for its oicn weight is the preponderating cause of strain) 
the obvious expedient of making the beam thicker in the 
middle. 

Again, the discovery would soon be made that the upper 
or top fibres of a beam are compressed and those at tho 
bottom extended, while the middle ones are comparatively 
without strain; and the transition to the truss or framed 
girder in which the lower or tie-beams, alone, suffer ex¬ 
tension—the upper, or brace timbers, are compressed. 


Fig. 1. 



In applying the above to long spans it becomes necessary 
that the lower or tie-beam (which may indeed be made up 
of more than one piece " fished ” together) should have 
points of support intermediate between the two abutments; 
also that the upper (or tArasf-bearing pieces) should be 
stiffened by the application of intermediate bearing points. 
To meet these requirements the truss assumes more com¬ 
plicated forms, thus: 

Fig. 2. 



The latter figure exhibits nearly the principles of con¬ 
struction of the celebrated bridge over the Rhine at Schaff- 
hausen. 

Since, in a bent beam it is found that the top fibres are 
compressed, the bottom ones extended, while the middle 
ones, neither com pressed nor extended ( longitudinally) serve 
to bind the other parts together, an artificial beam on a 
large scale may be made by uniting the top and bottom 
longitudinal pieces by a web of diagonals which shall serve 
the purpose of the middle fibres of the pure beam. This is 
accomplished in the various kinds of " trusses ” in which 
the upper and lower members are connected by different 
systems of diagonal bracing combined with vertical tics : 
as in Fig. 3. 

Fig. 3. 


z 

X 

z 

z 

z 

X 

\ 

1 



mm 


Hence, also, the " lattice bridge ” so much in use for or¬ 
dinary road bridges in this country, of which the sketches 
below exhibit the "Town” lattice. 


\ 
































































BRIDGE. 


613 


The following is the inventor's statement of its merits. 

1. There is no pressure against abutments or piers, as 
arched bridges have, and, consequently, perpendicular sup¬ 


ports only arc necessary. This saving in wide arches i 3 
very great; sometimes equal to two-thirds of the wholo ex¬ 
pense of the superstructure. 


Fig. 4. 



2. The shrinking of timber has little or no effect, as the 
strain upon each plank of the trusses, both of the braces 
and string-pieces, is an end-grain strain, or lengthwise of 
the wood, that is, a tension or thrust strain. 

3. Suitable timber can be easily procured and sawed at 
common mills, as it requires no large or long timber. De¬ 
fects in timber may be discovered, and wet and dry rot 
prevented much more easily than could be in large tim¬ 
ber. 

4. There is no iron-work required, which at best is not 
safe, especially in frosty weather. This fact has, of late, 
been abundantly and most satisfactorily proved. 

8. Draws for shipping to pass through, may with perfect 
safety be introduced in any part of the bridge, without 
weakening it, as in arched bridges, where the strength and 
safety of the arches depend so much on their pressure 
against each other and the abutments, that a draw, by de¬ 
stroying the connection, weakens the whole superstructure; 
this advantage is of the greatest importance. 

9. The great number of nearly equal parts or intersec¬ 
tions, into which the strain occasioned by a great weight 
upon the bridge, is divided, is a very important advantage 
over any other mode; as by dividing the strain or stress 
into so many parts, that what falls upon any one part or 
joint is easily sustained by it, without either the mode of 
securing the joints, or the strength of the material, being 
insufficient. Such is the advantage of this mode in this 
one respect alone, that no substitute in other modes, that 
can possibly be introduced, will ever equal it; this is equal 
to mathematical truth, and cannot be erroneous. 

10. The expense of the superstructure of a bridge of this 
kind, would not be more than two-thirds that of other 
modes of constructing one over the same span or opening. 
This is a very important consideration, especially in the 
southern and western states, where there are many wide 
rivers, and a very scattered population to defray the ex¬ 
penses of bridges. 

In the “ Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufactures,” of La- 
boulaye (Paris, 1867), is the following: “the bridges thrown 
over American rivers attain dimensions of which we find 
no examples in France.” * * * “Almost universally they 
present the characters of boldness and economy which 
American constructors know so ivell how to stamp upon 
their works. We shall here examine only the ingenious 
arrangement of ‘lattice’ bridges of Mr. Ithiel Town, 
which, under the name of 1 ponts Americains’ is the only 
American bridge generally known in France. This quite 
new combination of bois de charpente offers in many cases 
incontestable advantages.” 

Familiarity with the principles by which weight-bearing 
power is obtained in the simple truss (Fig. 1) would soon 
suggest the fact that the top or thrust bearing timbers 
would sustain weight even though the bottom, or tie-beam, 


Fro. 5. 



were removed, provided a substitute were found in fixed 
abutments. From this idea proceed various forms which 


are analogous to the arch in masonry. One of the most 
simple is shown in Fig. 5. 

By dividing the span into shorter lengths than is here 
shown, little or no advantage is gained, because the angles 
of junction become more obtuse or open, and the strain in 
the direction of the pieces is much increased. Although 
such a bridge might bear a constant load, a load moving 
over it would soon derange it, because the strength of such 
a system to resist a variable load must depend wholly on 
the strength of the joinings, which cannot be made very 
strong. (Fig. 6.) 

Fig. 6. 



Combinations of this kind naturally lead to the con¬ 
tinued curved rib which possesses advantages not found in 
a series of beams merely abutting end to end; for when 
the rib is built of short lengths with the joints crossed and 
the different thicknesses firmly bolted together it becomes 
as one solid beam. (Fig. 7.) ' 


Fig. 7. 



As a bridge with a curved rib and of considerable span 
yields at the centre, by depression, and at points midway 
between the centre and abutments, by elevation, when the 
load is applied at the middle, the strength must be in¬ 
creased by increasing the depth of the rib. This leads to 
the construction of a framed rib, Fig. 8. But in such case 
the two curved ribs must be continuous, and put together 
so as to resist either extension or compression. 


Fig. 8. 



The analogy of such structures to the arch proper has 
been already suggested; it is only an analogy however 
that is, they have some of the properties ot the masoniy 
arch. But the essential characteristic of the arch proper 
is that it is composed of isolated members (voussons) 
whereas in timber, continuity is one ot the elements o 
strength and, says Tredgold, “it is losing one of the 
greatest advantages of the material to interrupt tho con¬ 
nection of the parts; besides, many joints should be avoided, 
on account of the difficulty ol making them fit so as to 













































































































































614 BKIDGE. 


bring every part alike into action, and also of the diffi¬ 
culty of preventing decay at the joinings.” 

Inasmuch as the thrust of such structures against the 
abutments, when heavily loaded, must be great, while 
their weight is, compared to that of masonry arches in¬ 
tended to bear equal loads, very small, isolated piers, 
especially if of timber or piles, would be ill-adapted to 
resist it—moreover the roadway passes above the top of 
such arches while it is often convenient to have it lower. 
Hence, the wooden ai'cli is usually provided with a tie- 
beam to take the thrust and the roadway is laid upon 
these beams, which are themselves supported (against sag¬ 
ging) at numerous points by suspension braces running up 
to the arch; while the stiffness of the whole structure is 
increased by the further insertion of diagonal braces, or 
by various combinations with the truss and the lattice. 

Although the “ fallen tree ” and its development, the 
timber bridge, must have been the earliest of bridges yet 
with the exception of drawings made by Palladio and others 
from the description given in Cmsar’s Commentaries of his 
bridge over the Rhine, we have no satisfactory account of 
any ancient bridge.* 

This famous bridge has been cited in the works of the 
most celebrated engineers and architects as worthy of 
record. It was constructed over the lower Rhine some¬ 
where between Emerich and theWesel, perhaps (and quite 
probably when the situation of Csesar’s camp at that time 
is considered) at the very place where the city first named 
is now built. Its length must have been somewhere be¬ 
tween 550 and 650 yards. Cmsar (according to Rondelet) 
describes his own work as follows: 

“ Urged by these powerful motives Caesar resolved to 
cross the Rhine with his army. The use of boats offered 
no sufficient security for such an operation, and, moreover, 
a resort to this means seemed to him unworthy of .his 
glory and of the honor of the Roman name. On the 
other hand the establishment of a bridge presented great 
difficulties on account of the width, depth, and velocity of 
the current. He persisted nevertheless in regarding this 
as the only fit means; and the bridge was executed in the 
following manner in accordance with the idea of it con¬ 
ceived in his own mind. 

“ Timbers of a foot and a half thickness, sharpened at 
the foot, and of a length corresponding to the depth of the 
river, were assembled in couples, allowing an interval of 
two feet between them. Thus united by means of suitable 
apparatus, they were let down into the water, not vertically 
like ordinary piles, but inclined in the direction of the cur¬ 
rent, and thus driven. Another couple with opposite in¬ 
clination was then fixed (or driven) 40 feet below the first. 
These double pieces, thus disposed, received at their ex¬ 
tremity a beam of 2 feet thickness which filled the interval 
between the pieces of each pair, and which was thus sup¬ 
ported at each end by double ties. 

“ This frame-woi'k composed of pieces inclined in oppos¬ 
ing directions, strongly connected with each other, formed 
a very solid combination; for the property of such a dis¬ 
position of materials is that the force of the current adds 


to its stability by exerting a strong pressure on the assem¬ 
blage. 

“After making a number of similar structures, placed at 
equal distances and extending from shore to shore, a con¬ 
tinuous flooring was added composed of beams covered 
with fascines. Besides these arrangements inclined (brace) 
piles were driven on the lower side and connected with the 
rest of the work, forming a whole capable of resisting the 
greatest impetuosity of the current. 

“ The same was done above to protect against floating 
trees or boats which the enemy might send down the 
stream with a view of destroying the structure. 

“ The tenth day after the cutting and assembling of the 
timbers, the bridge was entirely finished and the army ac¬ 
complished its passage.” 

Rondelet gives two “restorations” (as they may be 
called) of this interesting bridge (see Plate XCYIII. 
“Art de Batir”), of which the sketch herewith is one;* 
but the foregoing description is, like all the works of 
its great author, so lucid as to scarce need pictorial illus¬ 
tration. 


Fig. 9. 



Among the earlier wooden bridges of which we have 
record the boldest and most ingeniously constructed was 
that at Schaff hausen on the Rhine. 

A stone bridge that had spanned the Rhine here having 
fallen, and the project of rebuilding it being found imprac¬ 
ticable, Ulric Grubenmann, a common carpenter of Tueffen, 
produced a model for a wooden bridge, supported only by 
the abutments on the banks of the river. After some hesi¬ 
tation on the part of the committee of Schaff hausen, his 
proposal was adopted, and he completed this truly extraor¬ 
dinary work in the year 1758. The total length of the 
bridge was 364 feet, and its breadth 18 feet. It was eight 
feet out of a straight line, the angle pointing down the 
river; and 171 feet from the town abutment. This mag¬ 
nificent and ingenious bridge was destroyed by the French 
in April 1799. 


Fig. 10. 



Fig. 10 represents a single span of the bridge. 

Still more worthy of admiration, though less known, was 
the bridge of Wettingen over the Limmat, near Baden, 
constructed by the same Ulric jointly with his brother John 
Grubenmann. Its span was 366 feet, without intermediate 
support. This bridge too was destroyed in the campaign 
of 1799. “ The destruction of these bridges,” says Ronde¬ 

let, “ would have been an irreparable loss, not only to the 
public but more especially to the Art of Carpentry had not 
the plans and details, the knowledge of which cannot be 
too widely disseminated, been carefully preserved.” 

Fig. 11 represents a half span. 

In our own country, until the comparatively recent in¬ 
troduction of iron, timber has been almost exclusively em- 


* The oldest wooden bridge on record is the bridge of Sublicius 
which existed at Rome 500 years B. C. It is celebrated for the 
combat of Horatius Codes, a Roman knight, who saved the city 
by his noble defence of this bridge. It is stated to have been 
put together without iron or nails. (Tomlinson.) 


ployed in Bridge-building, the early history of which de¬ 
scribes many noteworthy structures. The most remarkable 
of these was that over the Schuylkill at Philadelphia, 
styled by its builder, Lewis Wernwag, “The Colossus of 
Fairmount.” It is thus described by Cresy. 

“ It was a beautiful piece of carpentry, composed of a 
single arch, the span of which was 340 feet, and it had no 
other support than that of the two abutments; the versed 
sine was 38 feet, and the breadth of the carriage way 30 
feet. The principal timbers, which were of large dimen¬ 
sion, were all sawn down the middle, for the purpose of as¬ 
certaining whether they were perfectly sound; and when ap¬ 
plied to the bridge'they were placed at a sufficient distance 
to allow the tenons of 29 king-posts, which radiated to the 
centre, to pass, without any mortises being cut to receive 
them; by this means the air circulated freely round all the 
timbers, and dry rot was prevented : the main ribs consisted 

* There is also one in the book of Thomas Pope, cited here, 
after. 





































































































































BRIDGE. 


615 


of three double rows of timber, laid three deep, or one above 
the other, the whole bound together strongly with wrought 
Between the tops of the king-posts straining beams 


iron. 


were introduced, which kept the heads from approaching 
each other, and in addition two other timbers, placed diag¬ 
onally like St. Andrew’s cross, were inserted in each of tho 


Fig. 11. 



divisions, strutting the king-posts more firmly and prevent¬ 
ing the arch from springing. The abutments, against 
which the timber arch pressed, were of solid masonry, and 
carried up considerably higher than the top of the arch. 
The floor of the bridge was upon girders, laid upon should¬ 
ers formed in the sides of the king-posts, to which they were 
firmly bolted : on the tops of the kings, and in the direction 
of the transverse girders, were the tie-beams of the roof; 
these latter not only served to maintain the roof securety, 

Fig. 


but also the heads of the kings in their perpendicular and 
proper position. The roof was lightly formed, and the 
sides of the bridge were close boarded, so that the timbers, 
or the principles of their construction, could not be seen.” 
Fig. 12 exhibits the arrangement described; its great 
simplicity compared with the two just before described 
is striking. The builder asserts that he can build to 500 
feet span “ by making the ribs of more pieces in depth and 
thickness and all the parts in proportion.” 

12 . 



Span, 340 ft. 3f in. 


This beautiful structure was compared by Fanny Kemble 
in her “Journal,” to “a scarf rounded by the wind and 
flung over the river.” 

The writer is informed that the upper part of the west 
abutment had yielded (receded) three or four inches under 
the thrust of the arch but, apparently, without detriment 
to stability. On one occasion an unusual load (a heavy 
stone) was allowed to pass over this single stretch of 340 
feet 3| inches (the accurate lineal span) which had been 


refused passage over the Market street triple span bridge. 
(See Fig. 13.) 

Like its famous predecessors of Schaffhausen and Wett- 
ingen, this beautiful structure has ceased to exist; not like 
them a victim of “ man’s ravage,” but of the arch enemy 
to all wooden monuments—accidental combustion (1838). 

Another notable bridge was thrown over the Schuylkill at 
a much earlier period of which a sketch is given herewith. 

It is described by Thomas Pope* as follows: 


Fig. 13. 



U ■ 


It is composed of three arcs of wood, supported by two 
stone piers, with two abutments and wing-walls. The 
western pier is sunk in an astonishing depth of water, per¬ 
haps greater than ever any bridge pier was before sunk, in 
any part of the world; the surface of the rock on which it 
is placed being forty-one feet nine inches below common 
high tides. The piers were built with coffer-dams. The 
dam for the western pier was curiously constructed, from a 
design furnished by Mr. William Weston, a celebrated 
hydraulic engineer of Gainsborough, in England. We may 
have some conception of its magnitude when we are told 
that eight hundred thousand feet of timber were employed 

• • i t • 


in it.” 




“ The eastern abutment and wing-walls are founded on a 
rock. Those on the western side are built on piles. There 
are upwards of seven thousand five hundred tons of ma¬ 
sonry in the western pier. Many of the stones composing 
both piers weigh from three to twelve tons. A number of 
massive chains’ are stretched in various positions across the 
piers. These are worked in with the masonry, the exterior 
of which is clamped, and finished in the most substantial 
and workmanlike style. 

“The frame of the superstructure was designed and 
erected by Timothy Palmer of Newburyport, Massachusetts. 
It is a masterly piece of workmanship, combining in its 
principles that of king-posts and braces with that of a stone 
arc. Half of each post, with the brace between them, will 
form the voussoir of an arc, and lines through the middle 
of each post would describe the radii or joints. 

Another notable bridge is described by the same author 

as follows : 

11 Piscataqtta Bridge. In the year one thousand seven 
hundred and ninety-four, a bridge was built over the Biver 
Piscataqua, seven miles above Portsmouth. Its length is 
twenty-six hundred feet; of which twenty-two hundred 


feet are planked. The greater part of this Bridge is built 
of piles driven into the bed of the river in the common way. 
But that part which engages the attention of travellers, is 
an arc nearly in the centre of the river, uniting two islands, 
over water forty-six feet deep. This stupendous arc of two 
hundred and forty-four feet on the chord, is allowed to be a 
masterly piece of Architecture, planned and built by the 
ingenious Mr. Timothy Palmer of Newburyport. This 
bridge cost the proprietors sixty-eight thousand dollars.” 

This bridge is alluded to in the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia 
as one over the “ Portsmouth Biver;” and by Col. Douglass 
in his work on military bridges, who says : “ It was put 
together with wooden keys, on Price’s method of construc¬ 
tion, applied to a larger span, except that there is some 
difference in the form of the keys.” The writer observes 
that the arch is extremely flexible, and that diagonal braces 
would be an improvement in it. Also that if the three ribs 
had been placed close above one another, and firmly con¬ 
nected together, the bridge would have been much better 
adapted to resist any unequal load, because, in such case, 
they would have formed a solid beam, equal in depth to tho 
sum of their depths. 

And even Tredgold treats of it, saying “it would have 
been still better to have made the same quantity of timber 
into two ribs, with cross ties and diagonal braces between 
them; that the method of connecting the parts by means 
of dove-tail keys is objectionable, as the timber must bo 
greatly weakened by such large mortices, and a very slight 
degree of shrinkage renders them useless; that it is still 
more objectionable as applied to the radial pieces, which 


much better notched on in pairs, 


and 


would have been 
bolted through.” 

* “ A Treatise on Bridge Architecture,” New A. 

verv curious, and, as a history of bridge-building up to that date, 
valuable book, 
copies. 


The Society and Mercantile Libraries possess 













































































































































BRIDGE. 

-—-■ —v 


The special object of the work of Thomas Pope was to 
promulgate the project of a “ Patent Bridge” of his own. 
“ A model was built to illustrate a Bridge suitable to span 
the East River at New York, with a single arc, the chord 
of which would be 1800 feet, the altitude or versed sine 
223 feet, the abutments were built in the form of so many 
warehouses, and the whole was erected by a scale of § of 
an inch to one foot; the length of model of half bridge, in 
real measure, is nearty fifty feet. The weight that the 
unsupported arm of this diminutive Model bore at one 
time, since finished, has been ten tons; and which has as¬ 
tonished the mind of every beholder.” 

“ The Shipwrights of New York” (among which we find 
the well-known names of Henry Eckfoiid, Christian Bergh, 
Adam and Noah Brown, Joseph Webb, Ac., Ac.) certify to 
the effect that “we have no hesitation in asserting as our 
joint opinion, that the strength thus furnished is more 
than equal to all that can be needed.” 

The plan is not without merits ; but the time when “ Riv¬ 
ers North and East may have a Bridge,” waited for a Roeb- 
ling. The inventor gives his plan of construction in great 
detail, together with a view twice repeated of the entire 
bridge spanning “the spacious Hudson.” But inasmuch as 
it was to be projected out from its abutments without aid of 
centreing or “false works,” he has given a view (Fig. 14) 
of the half bridge thus projected, with the motto : 


Fig. 14. 

| 9QQ, FT 



“ Like half a rainbow rising on yon shore 
While its twin partner spans the semi o’er 
And makes a perfect whole that need not part 
Till time has furnished us a nobler art.” 

But the frontispiece exhibits the “ perfect whole ” striding 
the “ Broad Hudson,” with the more ambitious motto : 

“Let the Broad Arch the spacious Hudson stride, 

And span Columbia’s Rivers far more wide, 

Convince the world America begins. 

To foster Arts the ancient work of Kings.” 

Of recent wooden bridges, the Railroad bridge at Bellows 
Falls, and the Susquehanna Bridge erected by the Phila¬ 
delphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore R. R. Co., are the most 
notable—the former with spans of 250 feet has been stand¬ 
ing since 1850, and has proved as efficient as any of less 
dimensions, though it has been subject to uncommon trials. 
The centre deflection, when this bridge was tested by three 
heavy locomotives, drawing a freight train at a speed of 25 
miles to the hour, was nine-tenths of an inch, the perma¬ 
nent set remaining being about one-sixteenth of an inch. 
This bridge was designed and built by Parker, and was the 
first timber bridge for a railroad of so long a span, erected 
in this or any other country. 

The Susquehanna Bridge, also designed by Mr. Parker, 
is thus described by him: 

“ The structure between the shores of the river is about 
three thousand five hundred feet in length. It has thirteen 
supporting piers and two guard piers at the draw, and two 


abutments. The piers are built in water varying from ten 
to forty-five feet in dejith. The spans arc two hundred 
and fifty feet in length between bearings. The draw span 
is one hundred and seventy-six feet long. Height of super¬ 
structure twenty-five feet. The superstructure is an im¬ 
proved form of the Howe truss. When completed each 
truss is to be encased entirely in iron, thus making it fire¬ 
proof and free from exposure to the weather. The peculi¬ 
arity of the hydraulic engineering connected with this 
work is the disuse of the Coffer dam. 

“ Instead thereof water-tight wrought-iron caissons have 
been used. 

“ The whole cost of the magnificent structure has been 
something less than $2,000,000. 

“ The bridge is approached from the main road on the 
east side by a track laid over heavy trestle work, fourteen 
hundred feet long. This trestle work is but temporary, 
and, as soon as practicable, will be replaced by an earth 
embankment, supported by retaining walls of appropriate 
masonry. At the end of this is a firm abutment of strong 
masonry, handsomely constructed of granite from the 
quarries in the vicinity of Port Deposit, only six miles 
from the structure. This granite is of a dark color, of 
elegant appearance when worked, and is said to be the 
hardest and heaviest in the world—heavier by three pounds 
to the cubic foot than that of the famous Egyptian Pyr¬ 
amids. There is one of these abutments in each end, 
similarly constructed. 

“The bridge is secured to the piers by means of bolts, 
three inches in diameter, which pass through holes drilled 
for that purpose to near the surface of the water, where 
they are, by means of a ring at the end, attached to a 
similar horizontal bar that passes through the sides of the 
pier.” The upper ends of these perpendicular bars pass 
through a heavy oak bolster, and are fastened with a nut 
at the top, by means of the screw, upon which they can be 
tightened if occasion should require. 

“ The timber of this structure has been very carefully 
selected. It has also gone through the process of Burnet- 
tizing, by which its durability is not only increased at 
least two-fold, but by which it is rendered indestructible 
by fire. This treatment was applied by Mr. Charles P. 
Bent, who has an establishment for the purpose at Perry- 
ville, and several others upon railroads in different States.” 

“ This process is familiar to our readers, and consists in 
removing air, etc., from the fibres of the wood, by placing 
it in an exhausted vessel and then injecting chloride of 
zinc.” 

“ The timbers of the bridge are secured by means of iron 
bars and butt seats. These bars are about twenty-five feet 
long, and vary in thickness from one to three inches, the 
largest weighing seven hundred pounds. In the construc¬ 
tion of the bridge nearly seventeen hundred of these bars 
are used. The immense weight of the structure may be 
estimated from the fact that there is used upon each span 
about two hundred tons of wood and iron. Iron is much 
more extensively used than is common in timber structures. 
As an instance, the bottom chords, where most exposed to 
a tensile strain, are entirely sheathed on the sides with 
plate iron three-eighths of an inch thick.” 

“ For five years from five hundred to one thousand men 
have been employed upon this great work. Upon its con¬ 
struction nearly five million feet of timber, twenty thousand 
cubic yards of masonry, three million pounds of wrought 
and cast iron have been used.” 

Fig. 15 exhibits an elevation of four spans, including 
the draw, of the bridge just described. 


Fig. 15. 



To convey an adequate idea of the relative merits of the 
different kinds of “truss” for wooden bridges (known as 
Burr’s, Long’s, Howe’s, “ McCallum’s inflexible arch,” etc.) 
would require more space than can be devoted to it in a 
work not professedly technical. The clearest description 
and analysis of merits will be found in Spon’s Dictionary 
of Engineering, or Cresy’s Encyclopaedia. 

Although, as we have seen, suspension bridges of a sim¬ 
ple character are among the primitive structures of man¬ 
kind, yet their development into important structures 
capable of meeting the needs of civilized intercourse, de¬ 
manded an advance in the scientific knowledge of materials 
and the principles of construction, which has only been 
made within the last two or three centuries. Bridges of 
rope or cordage are described in works on Military Engi¬ 


neering early in Ihe 17th century; and in 1741 the first 
European Chain Bridge was built in England across the 
Tees. It was a rude work attracting no attention at the 
time; and not until 1814 did English engineers apply 
themselves to their construction. In our own country, in 
reality, was the Suspension or (as it was called) the 
“Chain Bridge” first introduced. Thomas Pope states 
that a “ Patent Chain Bridge” was patented by James Fin¬ 
lay in 1808 and that there existed eight of these bridges. 
In the “Portfolio” of June, 1810, is the following descrip¬ 
tive notice of four of the eight: 

First bridge erected on this plan in 1801 was on Jacob’s 
Creek. 70 feet span, 121 feet wide, and warranted for 50 
years (all but flooring), cost $6,000. Exclusive right se¬ 
cured by patent 1808. Largest at Falls of Schuylkill, 306 
































































BRIDGE. 


617 


feet span, aided by intermediate pier : passage 18 feet wide, 
supported by 2 chains of II inch square bar. 

One at Cumberland, Md., supported by two chains of II 
inch bar; span 130 feet, 15 feet Avide. 


Another over the Potomack above the federal city of 
nearly the same dimensions as at Cumberland. (Fig. 16.) 

The “ Portfolio ” mentions besides the foregoing (making 
up the eight of Thomas Pope) : 


Fig. 16. 







i 


One over the Brandywine at Wilmington, 145 feet span, 
no pier, thirty feet wide, supported by four chains of inch 
and three-eighths bar. Two carriage-ways and ono foot 
path. 

One at Brownsville, Fayette County, one hundred and 
twenty feet long, eighteen feet wide, one inch and a quar¬ 
ter bar. 

One near the same place, one hundred and twelve feet 
long, fifteen feet wide, one inch and a quarter bar. 

Finlay says that he entered into an agreement with John 
Temple man"*' of Georgetown, Md., concerning the disposi¬ 
tion of his patent right, and hence we presume the attribu¬ 
ting of the Poiotowmack bridge to the latter in some publi¬ 
cations, as he was probably its builder. 

This latter bridge has a history: it was standing in the 
beginning of 1839 when the writer, in company with the 
present Quarter Master General of the U. S. Army, who 
has kindly furnished these items of information, crossed it. 
Not long after it was carried away by a freshet, replaced 
by a truss bridge (Long’s probably), and that by two spans 
of iron (by Geo. Thom) which fell before completion; 
when Randolph Coyle built a wooden bridge over the 
whole Potomac bed, doing away with the causeway which, 
in restricting the flood-water area, had caused the destruc¬ 
tion of the original “ Chain Bridge.” This last is thus 
alluded to in the “Report on the Defenses of Washing¬ 
ton.” (Prof. Papers, Corps of Eng’rs., No. 20.) 

“The Chain Bridge (for the name still holds) owed its 
name to a former suspension structure, long since carried 
away by floods. It had been replaced by a fine timber 
trussed bridge of over four hundred yards in length, rest¬ 
ing on masonry abutments and seven masonry piers. At 
ordinary stages the river, rapid and unfordable, flowed 
beneath the single span next the Virginia shore; the rest 
of the bed being dry and strewn with fragments of rocks 
of large size. At high stages the whole width spanned 
was swept over by a furious flood. This was the sole ex¬ 
isting bridge between Washington and Harper’s Ferry at 
the breaking out of the war, the one formerly existing at 
Berlin having been destroyed by fire. It connected Wash¬ 
ington with the Leesburg Turnpike and neighboring parts 
of Virginia. Its ordinary uses ceased with the outbreak 
of the Avar, but it immediately acquired a high military 
importance. Though not strictly necessary to a mere pas¬ 
sive defence of Washington, it had, nevertheless, a high 
incidental utility as a means of maintaining communica¬ 
tion Avith the Virginia theatre of war, and of throwing 
forces on the flank of an enemy menacing the lines of Ar¬ 
lington.” 

The existing timber trusses have decayed, and are soon 
to be replaced by others of iron. 

Thomas Pope, in commenting upon the accounts of the 
ancient bridge of Bootan, East Indies, says, “the mode 


* John Templeman subsequently constructed the Chain Bridge 
over the Merrimac three miles above Newburyport. This was a 
much superior work to those just described. The span Avas two 
hundred and forty-four feet, and width thirty feet, with tAvo 
roadways of fifteen feet each. The abutments were of masonry 
forty-seven feet long and thirty-seven feet high, upon which 
supporting towers were erected. Ten chains, three at each 
outer edge of the bridge, and four in the centre, were made to 
bear, with perfect safety, five hundred tons. 


of construction is so exactly similar to those we see erected 
lately in the United States that we are ready to conclude 
the ancients lived yesterday.” 

“Were the Chain Bridges erected of late in the U. S. a 
new invention, the notorious defects contained in the sys¬ 
tem Avould remain the same. 

“It i.^.an axiom that Avhen a structure of any kind de¬ 
pends Avholly on two parts, if one of these parts fail and 
the other is not competent to support the Avhole a downfall 
must ensue; hence we infer there can be no security in a 
bridge Avholly dependent on tAvo chains, <fcc., <fcc.” IvnoAV- 
ing only chain bridges he almost anticipates Roebling 
Avhen the latter says “ there is not one good suspension 
bridge in Great Britain, nor will they ever succeed as long 
as they remain attached to these chains, and present mode 
of superstructure.” 

In 1814 Telford undertook a course of experiments upon 
the tenacity of malleable iron prompted by the necessity 
of such knowledge to the testing of the feasibility of such 
bridges with large spans and thus epitomizes his results: 

“From these experiments I had reason to be satisfied 
that English iron made Avith wood charcoal, had sufficient 
tenacity to bear itself, and a portion to spare equal to the 
purposes of a bridge across an opening of 1000 feet, and 
therefore considered myself justified in proceeding to form 
designs.” 

The Menai Bridge, commenced in 1819, and finished in 
1826, was the culmination of Telford’s labor in this con¬ 
nection ; but several smaller suspension bridges had been 
previously erected in England, among others that across 
the Tiveed at Dryburgh Abbey on the system of “inclined 
wires.” In 1818, six months after the completion of the 
bridge, a violent gale of wind caused so great a vibration 
of the chains that the longest chains broke, the platform 
Avas carried away and the whole bridge destroyed. The 
vertical motion of the roadway was said to be, just before 
breaking, as great as the horizontal motion, and sufficiently 
violent to have thrown a person off the bridge. 

The Menai Bridge has a clear span between the summits 
of the main pyramids of 579 feet 101 inches. 

The deflection of the chains in the middle. 43 ft. 0 in. 

The clear height of the roadway above high water... 102 ft. 0 in. 
Breadth of the platform... 28 ft. 0 in. 

The main chains are on Capt. Brown’s plan of straight 
bars, united by coupling bolts. The main chains are 16 
in number, each containing a series of links composed of 
5 wrought-iron bars, 9 feet II inch long, 31 inches broad, and 
1 inch thick. They are disposed, four chains one under the 
other, on each side of the central footpath, and four at each 
outside of the platform. So that there are in all 80 bars 
in the main chains, and their united section is 80 X 31 = 260 
square inches of iron. The bars are united by coupling 
plates 16 inches long, 71 inches broad, by 1 inch thick, 
and screw-bolts 3 inches diameter, each bolt weighing 56 lbs. 

This bridge Avas seriously injured by a \ r iolent gale and 
has been strengthened. 

The Conway Bridge completed at the same time differs 
but little in construction from the Menai. Its span is but 
327 feet. 

The Brighton Chain-Pier on the same plan consisted of 
four spans each of 225 feet running out into the sea 1014 
feet from its origin in the esplanade wall and was built in 














































BRIDGE. 


618 


1S22-23. “It withstood the shock of many a violent tempest; 
but at length, in November, 1836, it yielded to a gale of wind. 
The roadway of the pier gave way half an hour after mid¬ 
day of the 29th, about which time Osier’s anemometer 
recorded the pressure caused by the wind’s force at Bir¬ 
mingham as equal to Hi pounds on the square foot." The 
barometer at Greenwich had sunk to 29.24; the wind’s 
force there also being denoted by lli lbs. There was a 
double motion in the pier, for both chains and roadway 
oscillated laterally, and undulated longitudinally ; but the 
latter movement increased greatly, whilst the former dimin¬ 
ished, just before the fracture took place. It Avas probably 
owing to this double motion that half the upper part of 
the roadway, and half the under part, Avere visible to the 
spectators at the same instant. As soon as the side rails 
gave way the undulations greatly increased, and almost 
immediately aftenvards the roadway broke. It was re¬ 
marked at the time that, had the side-railing been a trussed 
rail, the pier Avould probably have Avithstood the force of 
the storm.” 

The Suspension Bridge over the Esk at Montrose, com¬ 
pleted in 1829, had a span of 432 feet and a deflection of 
42 feet. The iron work built by Capt. Brown was mainly 
the same as in the two bridges just described. There Avere 
no joints to the suspending rods, and the main-chains 
rested upon detached cast-iron saddles, built into the ma¬ 
sonry of the towers, and their ends Avere secured by cast-iron 
plates let into the masonry 10 feet under ground. The road¬ 
way of this bridge, Avhich weighed 203 tons 9 cwt., Avas de¬ 
stroyed on the 11th of October, 1838, when the platform fell 
in one mass, in consequence of the failure of the susjmnsion 
rods, Avhich having no joints Avere twisted off close to the 
floor by the undulatory motion. It was afterwards repaired, 
when suspension rods of If inch diameter Avere introduced, 
with flexible joints at the leA r el of the platform. 

We need mention but one other European Bridge—a 
harbinger of our own more magnificent construction in that 
form of the suspending material which is declared by 
Roebling the only fit one for such structui’es—the bridge 
of Freyburg, in Switzerland, completed in 1834. This 
bridge has a span, from pier to pier, of 870 feet, and is 
suspended at the height of 167 feet above the river Avhich 
flows under it. It is thus 319 feet longer than the Menai 
Bridge, and 65 feet higher. It is supported on 4 cables of 
iron wire each containing 1,056 Avires, the united strength 
of which is capable of supporting three times the weight 
which the bridge Avill eA r er be likely to bear, or three times 
the weight of two rows of wagons extending entirely 
across it. 

It was completed at an expense of about $125,000, and, 
in 1834, was subjected to various se\ T ere trials, to prove its 
strength. First, 15 pieces of artillery, drawn by 50 horses, 
and accompanied by 300 people, passed OA'er it at one time, 
and Avere collected in as close a body as possible, first on 
the centre and then at the two extremities, to try the effect 
of their concentrated weight. A depression of 39J inches 
was thus produced in the part most weighed upon; but no 
sensible oscillation was occasioned. A few days after, the 
bridge Avas opened by the bishop and the authorities of the 
town, accompanied by about 2000 persons, Avho passed over 
it twice in procession, preceded by a military band, and 
keeping step. On this occasion a slight horizontal vibra¬ 
tion Avas produced; but it is A r ery improbable that the 
bridge, in its ordinary service, will ever receive such a mul¬ 
titude at once. 

“The first wire bridge,” (says Stuart) “an American in¬ 
vention, was over the Schuylkill,” and Avas constructed by 
Charles Ellet, Avhose name should be associated with that 
of Roebling as a pioneer of the Avire suspension principle. 
It succeeded the famous wooden “ Colossus ” of LeAvis 
WernAvag Avhich Ave haA r e described. This bridge, the span 
of which is 408 feet, still remains in good condition after a 
service of thirty years of constant use. 

In 1846, continues the same writer, in his sketches of the 
“ Civil and Military Engineers of America,” the attention 
of Mr. Roebling| was invited by him (Stuart) to the erec¬ 
tion of a railroad bridge across the Niagara River, who, in 
response, states: “Although the question of applying the 
principle of suspension to railroad bridges has been dis¬ 
posed of in the negative by Mr. Robert Stephenson, Avhen 
discussing the plan of the Britannia Bridge over the Menai, 
on the Chester and Holyhead Railway, I am bold enough 

*This pressure corresponds to a wind velocity of about forty- 
eight miles per hour; a violent gale. Vessels cannot “carry 
sail ” with pressure beyond 6 lbs., corresponding to a wind velo¬ 
city of 35 miles. 

fMr. Roebling had previously constructed four Suspension 
Aqueducts on the Delaware and Hudson Canal of 115,144,145,170 
feet span, and one for the Pennsylvania Canal over the Alle¬ 
ghany River of seven spans of 162 feet each ; also the wire sus¬ 
pension bridge over the Monongahela at Pittsburg, of eight 
spans of 188 feet each. 


to say that this celebrated Engineer has not at all succeeded 
in the solution of this problem. That a suspension bridge 
can be built to answer for a railroad, is proven by the 
Monongahela Bridge, Avhich is only intended for common 
travel, but with some additional expense could be made 
stiff enough (it is strong enough) for railroad trains at a 
moderate rate of speed. Castings of ten tons weight, sus¬ 
pended to two pairs of large timber wheels, have lately 
been hauled over this bridge; the six-horse coal trains 
which pass over it hourly weigh seven tons.” 

“It cannot be questioned that wire cables, Avhen well 
made, offer the safest and most economical means for the 
support of heavy Aveights. Any span within fifteen hun¬ 
dred feet, Avith the usual deflection, can be made perfectly 
safe for the support of railroad trains as Avell as common 
travel.” 

* iif *- 

“ I maintain that wire cable bridges, properly constructed, 
will be found hereafter the most durable and cheapest 
railroad bridges for spans OA'er one hundred feet.” 

To Mr. Roebling, we think, must be conceded the claim 
of practically establishing the sufficiency of the suspension 
principle for railroad bridges and of developing the man¬ 
ner of their construction. His first great work—the Niagara 
Bridge—is so well known as to need little description in 
this place. The span is 821 feet 4 inches from centre to 
centre of the towers; it forms a slightly curved hollow 
beam or box of a depth of 18 feet, width at bottom of 24 
feet, and at the top of 25 feet, the lower floor of which is 
used for common traffic, Avhilst the upper is devoted to the 
raihvay. The two floors are connected by two trusses of 
simple construction, so arranged that their resisting action 
operates both ways, up as well as down. The suspenders 
are 5 feet apart. The beams of the upper and lower floor 
are connected by posts arranged in pairs, leaving a space 
betAveen for the admission of truss rods. The ends of the 
posts are secured between the beams, in a manner that no part 
is weakened, and that any amount of strain can be throAvn 
upon them without injuring or loosening their connections. 
There are no joints to Avork loose; and if the timber should 
shrink, the truss rods simply require tightening. The de¬ 
pressing action of any loads is by these posts transmitted 
from one floor to the other. 

From the end of each pair of posts a truss rod extends 
each way to the fourth pair of posts, at an angle of 45 
degrees. The rods therefore cross each other, and form a 
diamond figure; they are 1 inch in diameter, with screw 
ends of an inch and an eighth; by these rods the pressure 
upon any pair of posts is spread 40 feet apart. All the 
nuts work on cast-iron plates placed above or below the 
posts. 

Without adding much to the weight of the structure, a con¬ 
siderable degree of stiffness has been obtained by this simple 
construction. The pressure of an engine and Avhole train of 
cars is so much distributed that the depression caused by a 
light freight or ordinary passenger train is scarcely per¬ 
ceptible. A freight train of twelve loaded cars, with a 25 
ton engine, covers about half the length of the floor; and 
its effect is more noticeable than either a smaller or larger 
train. When in the centre, the camber is a little flattened; 
but when near the towers, Avhere the grade forms nearly a 
straight line, the depression is from 3 to 4 inches. A longer 
train, of greater weight in proportion, disturbs the equilib¬ 
rium less, as it covers a greater extent. Passenger trains 
of fifteen long cars, Avhich frequently cross the bridge, make 
so little impression that the eye can scarcely detect it. 

The height of the railway track above the middle stage 
of the riv r er, is 245 feet. 

The Cincinnati and Covington Bridge over the Ohio, 
completed in 1867, was erected by the same Engineer. 
From his report, as quoted by Stuart, the following par¬ 
ticulars are extracted: 

“ The floor of the bridge is formed of a strong Avrought- 
iron frame, overlaid Avith several thicknesses of plank, and 
suspended to the tAvo Avire cables by means of suspenders 
attached every five feet, arranged betAveen roadAvay and 
footpaths; the latter seven feet Avide, and are protected by 
iron railings towards the river. The roadAvay is tAventy 
feet Avide, forming two tracks of four lines of iron trams, 
on Avhich the Avheels run, each tram being fourteen inches 
wide, to accommodate all kinds of gauges. The Avhole 
width of the floor between the outside railings is thirty-six 
feet. No stays or other obstructions are put up below the 
floor, such as may be seen under the Niagara Bridge. No 
such means to prevent the floor from rising was used in 
this Avork ; its security and stability are provided for by 
other appliances. The rock under the Niagara Bridge af¬ 
forded a very cheap mode of anchorage; it would have 
been a great oversight on my part not to avail myself of 
under-floor stays in such a favorable locality. But in the 
Ohio River no such appendages were admissible. 

















BRIDGE. 


619 


“ Great doubts are yet entertained by many engineers, 
particularly in Europe, in regard to the fitness and safety 
of suspension bridges for railway purposes. By an addi¬ 
tional expenditure of fifty thousand dollars, and a railroad 
track laid down in the centre of the floor, the Ohio bridge 
could have been made serviceable for the passage of loco¬ 
motives and trains at the highest speed. Let any person 
who doubts this, observe the very slight tremor which is 
produced on this bridge by a long line of heavily loaded 
teams, frequently ten in a row, and he will readily under¬ 
stand that but a small addition of rigidity is wanted in 
order to pass railroad trains.” 

The principal dimensions are given by Mr. Stuart as 
follows: “ Main span, from centre to centre of towers, one 
thousand and fifty-seven feet. Side spans, from abutment 
to centre of tower, two hundred and eighty-one feet. To¬ 
tal length between abutments, one thousand six hundred 
and nineteen feet. Elevation of floor above low water at 
tower, ninety-one feet. Elevation of floor above low water 
at centre, one hundred and three feet. Length of Cincin¬ 
nati approach from Front street to abutment, three hundred 
and forty-one feet. Total length, including approaches, 
two thousand two hundred and fifty-two feet. Number 
of cables, two, each twelve and one-third inches in diame¬ 
ter. Number nine wires, in each cable, five thousand two 
hundred. Ultimate strength of one cable, four thousand 
two hundred and twelve tons. Weight of main span be¬ 
tween towers, one thousand five hundred tons. Number 
of stays in main span, seventy-six—strength of each, ninety 
tons. Weight of main span between towers, as far as sup¬ 
ported by cables, one thousand three hundred tons. De¬ 
flection of cables in main span, eighty-nine feet. Perma¬ 
nent tension to strength, one-eighth. Ordinary working 
tension to strength, one-seventh. Maximum tension to 
strength, one-sixth. Section of each anchor chain in 
square inches, one hundred and ninety. Area of each 
foundation in square feet, eight thousand two hundred and 
fifty. Cubic contents of masonry of each tower, four hun¬ 
dred thousand feet. 

Although not vieing in importance with the bridges just 
named yet from its, as yet, unrivalled span, and the pecu¬ 
liarity of its site, the Clifton Bridge, Niagara Falls, de¬ 
serves a notice.* 

The end of the bridge resting on the right bank is sit¬ 
uated in Porter’s Grove, at the foot of Niagara street, 300 
yards below the American Fall. The end resting on the 
left bank, lands upon the main road running along the 
bank of the river, and is 100 yards below the Clifton House, 
and about three quarters of a mile below the great Horse- 
Shoe Fall on the Canada side. 

A section of the river on the line of the bridge gives a 
distance of 1190 ft. from rock to rock at the top cliff, and 
850 ft. at the water’s surface. The rock on the left bank 
is 175 ft. above the water, and on the right bank 180 feet. 
The American Fall is 164 feet. On the Canada side the 
rock is covered with 2 ft. of earth. It falls off perpen¬ 
dicularly 54 ft. to the debris which covers the fort and 


slopes away to the water’s edge. On the American side it 
is covered with 20 ft. of drift (clay, sand, and gravel), 
which, when removed to make room for the towers, ex¬ 
posed a water-worn surface. Here the rock overhangs 
some 10 ft., and the plumb line strikes the debris at a dis¬ 
tance of 80 ft. from the surface. 

The span between the points of suspension, or centres of 
towers, is 1268 ft. 4 in. The deflection of the cables at 
centre, or greatest depression below the horizontal line, 
varies from 89 ft. in winter to 92 ft. in summer. The dif¬ 
ference of 3 ft. is owing to the effect produced upon them 
by the changes of temperature, ranging through 100° Fahr. 
The road way is suspended at an elevation of 183 ft. above 
the water on the Canada side, and 188 ft. on the American 
side, while the centre, according to the season, varies from 
190 to 193 ft., there being a rise of 4 ft. in the curvature 
of the bridge in summer, and 7 ft. in winter. The tops 
of the towers being in the same horizontal plane, are there¬ 
fore 105 ft. high on the left bank, and 100 ft. high on the 
right bank. The length of the cables at medium temper¬ 
ature is 1286 ft. between centres of towers,* 1828 feet be¬ 
tween the anchor pins, where they are connected with the 
anchor chains, and 1888 ft. in all, between the anchors 
embedded in masonry on either side. The prolongation 
of the cables under ground is effected by anchor chains of 
Lowmoor iron 30 ft. in length, made in links of 10 feet 
each, firmly built in hydraulic masonry. 

But the crowning example of the suspension bridge— 
the last great work of John A. Roebling—is found in the 
East River Bridge, connecting the cities of New York and 
Brooklyn—the stupendous piers of which (themselves won¬ 
derful monuments of the engineering skill of the age) are, 
under the direction of Col. W. A. Roebling, the son of the 
deceased projector, far advanced toward completion. The 
superstructure is described under a special heading East 
River Bridge. Under the heading Foundations, will be 
found a further account of this work up to date. 

A transition from the suspension to the iron tubular rail¬ 
way bridge is proper here, owing to controversies which 
have prevailed among engineers as to the relative merits 
of the two constructions. The suspension principle was 
condemned by Mr. Stephenson in discussing the project 
of a bridge over the Menai Straits; and to this engineer is 
due the merit of the original conception of the tubular 
bridge, though it was owing to “ the determined persever¬ 
ance” of Mr. Fairbairn (to use his own expression) “that 
Mr. Stephenson’s original conception has been carried into 
execution.” The first work of the kind was the bridge at 
Conway on the line of railway from Chester to Holyhead. 
But the great typical work of this character is the Bridge 
over the Menai Straits on the same great railway route 
(from London to Dublin), eighteen miles distant from Con¬ 
way. It owed its creation to the necessity imposed by the 
Lords Commission of the Admiralty of preserving a clear 
height of water-way of 105 feet from pier to pier. There 
are two spans over the straits each of 460 feet; and two 
shorter (230 feet) for the land connections. (Fig. 17.) 


Fig. 17. 



The history of the experimental development and actual 
construction of this celebrated bridge has been so fully 
and so often given that we content ourselves with simply 
giving a cross section of one of the tubes. (Fig. 18.) 

But the most stupendous structure (considering merely 
magnitude )—probably the last of the kind—is the Victoria 
Bridge, over the St. Lawrence at Montreal, on the line of 
the Grand Trunk Railway to Portland, Maine. It contains 
twenty-five openings of two hundred and forty-two feet, 
with the exception of the extra span, which is three hun¬ 
dred and thirty feet, hence the length of tube is six thou¬ 
sand six hundred feet, approached by embankments, the 
Montreal end being one thousand two hundred feet, the 
southern shore of eight hundred feet, which, including the 

* There is over the Avon, near Bath, England, another im¬ 
portant suspension bridge of this name; and like this over a 
chasm of great depth, at the bottom of which flows the river. 
The central span is 70'2f ft., and height above the river 257 ft. 
Although a modern work, it is, owing to the proprietors becom¬ 
ing possessed of the chains of the Hungerford Bridge, built by 
Telford, a chain bridge. It was built under the direction of those 
eminent engineers, John Hawkshaw and W. H. Barlow. 


abutments, makes a total of nine thousand and eighty-four 
feet, or one and three-quarter miles nearly. The abut¬ 
ments are, at the base, each two hundred and seventy-eight 
feet long, divided into cells of twenty-four feet, with inter¬ 
vening tie-walls of five feet, but at the top they correspond 
exactly with the length of a tube two hundred and forty- 
two feet in length, and indeed are carried up to the same 
height, the cells being filled with gravel. To resist tho 
thrust of the ice, both the abutments and piers are fur¬ 
nished with a cutwater, which meets the pier proper thirty 
feet above summer water, the whole height of the abutment 
being thirty-six feet above summer water, the centre pier 
being sixty feet; hence the bridge rises in a grade of one 
inch in one hundred and thirty-two, or forty feet to tlio 
mile, the centre again being a pure level. The centre pier 
is twenty-four feet in w r idth, the remaining piers are but 
sixteen feet. These dimensions are directly under the gir¬ 
der, for at the foundation the piers are twenty-two icet m 
width, and at summer water sixteen feet. Transversely the 
piers are thirty-three feet under tho girder. 1 bus the di¬ 
mensions at the junction with cutwater, sixteen by thirty- 
three feet, extending outwards to the foundation up stream, 
















































BRIDGE. 


620 


make the area of the course whence the cutwater is com¬ 
menced sixteen by ninety feet. 

There are three millions of cubic feet of masonry in the 
Victoria Bridge. That is to say if turned into lineal meas¬ 
ure it would reach five hundred and ten miles, or as a solid 
would form a pyramid two hundred and fifteen feet high, 
having a base of two hundred and fifteen feet square. These 
figures will give some idea of the solidity of the structure, 
and the warrant that exists for its endurance for all time. 
The stone itself was mostly quarried from Point Claire, 
and forms the first in the series of the Lower Silurian, and 
is known by the geological term of Cliazy, resting immedi¬ 
ately on the calciferous sand-rock and the Potsdam sand¬ 
stone. At the quarry the stones were taken out in as large 
masses as in any quarry in the world. We shall be borne 
out in this statement of this fact in the dimensions of the 
piers. The courses being three feet ten inches and three 
feet to two feet six inches above water level, and thence 
verging into a course eighteen inches uuder the plates, 
being in length from seven feet to twelve feet. 

This bridge cost $7,000,000. The peculiarity of the erec¬ 
tion of these tubes is that they were built in place, on false 
works erected in the rapids. The ice which holds the sur¬ 
face of the rapids bound during many months of the win¬ 
ter, was made a useful auxiliary in the construction. 


Fio. 18. 



Mr. Peter W. Barlow, an eminent English engineer 
visited America in the summer of 1860 (a fellow-passenger 
across the Atlantic with the writer) expressly to examine 
the Niagara Suspension Bridge. His conclusions were 
given in a pamphlet published by Weale. The Civil En¬ 
gineer and Architects’ Journal, 1861, comments upon it as 
follows: “Are tubular bridges costly blunders? This is 
in effect the question raised by Mr. Barlow’s pamphlet,” 
and, referring to two papers in same Journal, (I860) says 
“from these two papers it is at least obvious, that in com¬ 
paring suspended and unsuspended girders the former have 
greatly the advantage in point of economy. And this con¬ 
clusion is supported by a very high authority on this sub¬ 
ject. Prof. Macquorn Rankine, in two letters in our numbers 
of December and January last. In the latter of these let¬ 
ters Prof. Rankine arrives at the conclusion that a sus¬ 
pended girder need have only about one-seventh of the 
strength of an unsuspended girder of the same span and 
required to sustain the same travelling load.” 

“ It is notorious that tubular bridges, of which that over 


Menai Straits and the Victoria Bridge in Canada are the 
most conspicuous examples, are enormously expensive. It 
is notorious that the cost of those two bridges has been 
ruinous to the companies which constructed them. Thero 
is not much difficulty in arriving at the reasons of this re¬ 
sult. In the first place, tubular bridges are extremely 
complicated structures, consisting of a vast number of 
parts which have to be fitted together with extreme accu¬ 
racy. In order to prevent the top of the tube from bulg¬ 
ing or ‘ buckling’ from the compression to which it is sub¬ 
ject, the expedient of a cellular structure of that part of 
the tube is adopted, and it consists of numerous cells 
formed of iron plates, with an immense number of joints 
and rivets. Now all this difficulty of counteracting the 
tendency to distortion is avoided in suspension bridges, 
for in them the strains, being tensile instead of compres¬ 
sive, tend to counteract instead of tending to cause distor¬ 
tion. Again, in suspension chains the material is so dis¬ 
posed as to more directly sustain the travelling load than 
is the case in girders or tubular bridges. In the latter the 
source of strength is rigidity;—that is, the moment of the 
elastic forces of tension and compression; and this mo¬ 
ment of forces is limited by the depth of the structure; so 
that, to speak in popular language, the elastic forces can 
never have a greater leverage than the distance between 
the top and bottom of the tube. But in suspension bridges 
the similar leverage is far greater. For the equilibrium 
of the half-span, the moment of the weight upon it about 
the abutment is equal to the moment about the same axis 
of the tension, which acts at the summit of the chain.” 

It is further observed that the Niagara Bridge “notwith¬ 
standing certain defects in its construction has proved in 
a great degree successful,” while instead of the 3000 tons 
of iron in the 460 feet span of the Britannia (Menai) Bridge, 
there is in the former, in 821 feet span, but 400 tons of 
iron, combined with 600 tons of wood. 

The extension of railways over the immense territorial 
areas of Eux-ope and America, and the quite recent appli¬ 
cation of this powerful agent to the development of new 
countries, or to the spanning of uninhabited regions in 
order to connect populous ones, has given a vehement im¬ 
pulse to bridge construction as well as to the inventive 
faculties of its engineers. Few more instructive and sug¬ 
gestive studies can be made than that of the comparative 
characteristics of the recent railway bridges of India—of 
Russia—of Holland—of England—and of our own coun¬ 
try. These countries are named as exhibiting typical con¬ 
structions which reflect the peculiar civilized status of the 
peoples, and the peculiar engineering problems offered by 
different regions, modified as they are by the different na¬ 
ture of the building materials which those regions afford. 
We cannot enter into this subject, nor can we go at length 
into modern science and practice of iron bridge construction. 

In our own country the problem is presented in almost 
every possible variety of aspect—rivers of unrivalled 
magnitude to be spanned by erections to rest upon foun¬ 
dations of the most difficult character, lvhile necessity has 
rigidly limited outlay. Hence arises a special fertility of 
invention and a special class of work. 

Russia is commencing iron railway bridge-building on a 
greater scale than any other European country. Hitherto 
her railway bridges have, for the most part, been made of 
timber, and are to be replaced. Especially on the Nicolai 
Railway it has been recently decided to reconstruct sixty- 
eight wooden viaducts—a decision hastened through the 
destruction of one 1200 feet long by fire. 

Holland has been building great bridges of a remarkable 
character. The Moerdyck Bridge on the great railway 
route connecting Antwerp, Rotterdam, and Amsterdam, 
consists of fourteen spans of 328 feet each. The framed 
iron girders for this bridge, built on shore, were floated to 
their destination and, by aid of the tidal rise, elevated to 
their final positions. The railway bridges in construction, 
or just completed, over the Maas and Lek at Bommel and 
Crevecoeur are works of the same character; the former 
has eight spans of 187 feet and three of 394 feet and has 
cost over 270,000 pounds, or $1,350,000. In England the 
great bridge over the Tay (noticed on another page) is 
styled “the most important civil engineering work now 
being carried out in Great Britain.” 

We can allude to but few of the remarkable construc¬ 
tions of our own country.* The Quincy Bridge is the 
longest bridge spanning the Mississippi, the river at the 
point of crossing being 3250 feet in width, the navigation 
channel, however, being only 800 or 900 feet broad. The 

.* The longest truss span in the U. S. is in the Newport and 
Cincinnati R. R. bridge; the span is 420 feet (400 feet clear open¬ 
ing). In Europe the bridges over the Leek at Knilenberg (Hol¬ 
land) and Moldau at Prague have 515 feet span. In each of these 
latter are used over 2000 tons of iron and steel. The longest 
pivot draw is in the just finished railroad bridge over the Mis¬ 
sissippi at Louisiana, Mo.—200 feet. 










































































































































BRIDGE. 


621 


bridge is divided into seventeen spans, two of 250 feet, three 
of 200 feet, eleven of 137 feet, and one large draw span 
360 feet long, the girder of the latter being 36 feet in 
depth. The piers of the fixed 'spans are all of masonry, 
that of the swing is formed of four wrought-iron cylinders 
14 feet in diameter, sunk through 50 feet from the water 
level; upon the top of these a turn-table, 30 feet diameter, 
rests, and carries the span. This bridge, designed and 
constructed under Mr. Thomas C. Clarke, cost over a mil¬ 
lion of dollars. 

The bridge at Omaha, over the Missouri, designed by 
Gen. Dodge, engineer of the Union Pacific Railroad, is 2800 
feet in length, divided into eleven spans of 250 feet each, 
resting upon concrete filled cast-iron cylinders 8 feet 8 
inches in diameter. Some of them require to be sunk to a 
depth of 70 feet below low water, making the total length 
of column 139 feet. The superstructure of this bridge is 
formed of ordinary wrought-trussed girders, with cast-iron 


top member. In addition to the bridge itself, approaches 
three miles in length are also required, principally formed 
of trestle work. 

The railway bridges over the Mississippi at Dubuque, 
Iowa; at Hannibal, Missouri; and the great work over the 
Missouri at Kansas City are noteworthy constructions—as 
also that over the same river at St. Joseph. The super¬ 
structure of this latter bridge is of iron throughout (with 
floors for both railway and highway tratfic) resting on stone 
piers and abutments sunk to the bed rock. Its total length 
is divided into three fixed spans of 300 feet each, one of 80 
feet, and one pivot draw-span of 365 feet. The character 
of the river bed renders the sinking of the pier foundations 
(difficult in all the works just cited) especially interesting. 

Fig. 19 represents the part of the bridge over the Ohio 
at Louisville from the Indiana shore to the nearest (Indi¬ 
ana) channel. 

This bridge is the longest iron bridge yet erected in the 


Fig. 19. 



United States, and it includes amongst its openings two of 
the largest spanned by trussed girders as yet constructed 
in America. It carries across the Ohio a line connecting 
the Louisville and Nashville with the Jeffersonville and 
Indianapolis Railroad, the line forming a connecting link 
between two immense railway systems, the northern and 
the southern. The bridge consists in all of twenty-seven 
spans, twenty-four over the river, one over the New Albany 
and Jeffersonville Railroad, and two on the Louisville side; 
and these spans, with the abutments, make up a length of 
5280 feet, or just one mile. 

The bridge includes two spans of the lengths of 370 and 
399 feet, and a pivot bridge 264 feet in length, this bridge 
giving two clear openings of 114 feet 6 inches, one on each 
side of the pivot-pier. 

The lowest point of the superstructure over the middle 
chute is 90£ feet above low water, and over the Indiana 
“chute” 96£ feet—the low water in the Indiana chute 
being 6-1 feet lower than in the middle chute. The extreme 
rise of the river at Louisville, above low water, is, we may 
mention, 401 feet. 

As will be seen by these figures the rails are, except in 
the case of the two long spans, carried at the level of the 
tops of the girders, these fieing of the class known as the 
Fink truss. In this bridge a pair of diagonal tension bars 
connects the foot of the principal strut, or “king post,” in 


each truss, with the ends of the top chord. This pair of 
diagonal bars supports one-half of the whole weight of the 
truss and its load. Each half span is subdivided by a strut, 
and two diagonal tension bars extend, one to the nearest 
end of the top chord, and the other to the top of the centre 
post. Each quarter span is again subdivided into eighths, 
and these again, for spans greater than 100 feet, into six¬ 
teenths. 

The bridge over the Hudson River at Albany connects 
the New York Central with the Hudson River, Harlem, and 
Boston and Albany roads. 

It consists altogether of fifteen spans (four of 185 feet, 
and a swing bridge 274 feet long) and has a total length of 
1740 feet, or nearly a third of a mile. 

The superstructure is entirely of wrought iron, except 
necessary bearing and joint blocks, which may be of cast 
iron, and to carry, at the bottom thereof, a double track 
railway, and also two sidewalks, each sidewalk being 6 feet 
wide. The bridge to be with two lines of main girders, 26 
feet apart in the clear on the straight portion of the bridge, 
and 271 feet apart in the clear on the curved part. 

But the most remarkable structure is the Illinois and St. 
Louis Bridge now in progress over the Mississippi River at 
St. Louis; equally remarkable whether considered in con¬ 
nection with the establishment of its piers (for account of 
which see Foundations) or its superstructure. (Fig. 20.) 


Fig. 20. 



From the report of its eminent engineer, Jas. B. Lads, 
the following account of the superstructure is taken .■ 


“ The bridge will have three spans, each formed with four 
ribbed arches made of cast steel. Tho centro span will bo 

































































































































































622 


BKIDGE. 


515 feet and the side ones 497 feet each, in the clear. The 
rise of the centre one will be one-tenth of the span; that 
of the side ones 47 feet 10 inches each. 

“ The four arches forming each of these spans will each 
consist of an upper and lower curved member or rib, extend¬ 
ing from pier to pier. Each of these members will consist 
of two parallel steel tubes, 9 inches in exterior diameter, 
placed side by side. The upper and lower members will be 
12 feet apart, measured from the centre of the upper to the 
centre of the lower tubes. At regular intervals of about 9 
feet, these members will be braced from each other by a 
vertical system of cast-steel bracing on each side of them. 
These braces will be secured at each end to cast-steel plates, 
formed something like the voussoirs of a stone arch, and 
against which the tubes will be abutted and secured every 
9 feet throughout the arches. A horizontal system of bra¬ 
cing will extend from pier to pier between the four upper 
curved members, and a similar system between the four 
lower ones, for the purpose of securing the four arches in 
their relative distances from each other, and to sustain them 
against lateral pressure. 

“ The two centre arches of each span will be 13 ft. 9£ in. 
apart from centre to centre, and will have, in addition to 
the upper and lower horizontal bracing just described, a 
system of diagonal bracing, securing the upper member 
of one arch to the lower one of the other arch, and the two 
other members in like' manner. The outside arches are 
each 15 ft. 1$ in. from the middle ones, and are joined to 
the latter by three systems of bracing similar to those 
described as between the two centre arches. These sys¬ 
tems, however, on the outside of the middle arches, extend 
only from the piers to the under side of the railways, the 
latter being carried between the two outer and the two 
inner arches near their crowns. The outside arches being 
supported in this interval against lateral movement, by 
rigid connections from both the upper and lower roadways. 

“ The roadways are formed by transverse iron beams, 12 
in. in depth, supported by iron struts of cruciform section 
resting on the arches at the points where the vertical bra¬ 
cing of the latter is secured. That portion of the railways 
which passes below the crown of the arches is suspended 
from them. Between the iron beams forming the roadways, 
four parallel systems of longitudinal wooden members are 
introduced, extending from pier to pier, and serving to 
maintain the iron beams in position. These wooden mem¬ 
bers are each about 9 ft. long, and their ends rest upon the 
flanges of the beams, and are there secured from moving. 
On these the wooden beams for the carriage-way rest in 
one roadway, and the cross-ties for the railways in the 
other. From the opposite ends of the iron beams a double 
system of diagonal horizontal iron bracing serves to bind 
the whole together, and gives additional support against 
wind pressure. 

“ The upper roadway is 34 ft. wide between the foot- 


walks. The latter are each 8 ft. wide, making the bridge 
50 feet wide between the railings. 

“The railway passages below the carriage-way will each 
be 13 ft. 0 in. in the clea.r and 18 ft. high, and will extend 
through arched openings of equal size in the abutments 
and piers.” 

This superstructure is estimated to cost over two millions 
of dollars. 

In 1870 the French Minister of Public Works, at the 
instance of the “ Conseil de l’Ecole des Ponts et Chauss6es,” 
despatched one of its engineers, M. Malczieux, to the 
United States to inspect the public works, who thus com¬ 
ments on American Bridge Engineering. 

“A distinctive feature in American Bridge engineering 
is undoubtedly the almost entire abandonment of plate or 
lattice girders, and the adoption almost universally (if we 
except the cases of unusually large spans where the sus¬ 
pension system is resorted to) of one or the other arrange¬ 
ments of trussed structures.” M. Malezieux considers that 
the practice of American engineers in this respect, and also 
their extended application of the suspension system is 
worthy of the special attention of their brethren in Europe, 
and especially in France; and after giving a summary of 
the general dimensions, etc., of a number of the more im¬ 
portant bridges in the United States, he proceeds to describe 
in detail the principal systems of trussed bridges in use. 

An exhaustive analytical discussion of the merits of the 
“principal systems” of trussing, will be found in the work 
“ Iron Truss Bridges for Railroads,” by Col. W. E. Merrill, 
U. S. Engineers. 

The subject of iron railway bridges cannot be dropped 
without allusion to one of the most remarkable of those 
structures: the “Royal Albert Bridge,” designed to carry 
the Cornwall railway across the Tamar at Saltash, a few 
miles above Ptymouth, England. 

The whole structure consists of nineteen openings, two 
of which have a clear span of 455 feet; the remaining 
seventeen are each 69 feet 6 inches in length. The River 
Tamar is crossed by the two large spans, the smaller ones 
bringing the railway from the hills on either side of the 
valley down to the banks of the river, the total length of 
the entire structure being 2240 feet. 

The main stone piers are at the water’s edge, and sup¬ 
port the ends of the great spans crossing the river. These 
are of course of the most solid construction, and more re¬ 
semble the massive columns of Egypt than the works of 
modern engineers. Each is of granite 29 feet wide by 17 
feet thick, and 190 feet in height from the foundation to 
the summit. The strength required in each of these piers 
was far surpassed by the resistance which that in the centre 
of the river must offer, and for this a column was required 
of such proportions that nothing short of the solid rock 
would suffice for its foundation. But to reach the rock 
was a matter of no ordinary difficulty, inasmuch as it lay 


Fig. 21. 



beneath 20 feet of mud and concrete gravel, over which 
flowed 70 feet of salt water. To erect a stone pier in the 
ordinary manner would be here entirely out of the question, 
but by an ingenious contrivance the granite column requisite 
to sustain the enormous load to which it is subject was 
reared. An immense wrought-iron cylinder, 100 feet high 
and 37 feet in diameter was sunk upon the site of the in¬ 
tended pier, and proper means being taken to exclude the 
water from the interior of this cylinder, the above-men¬ 
tioned column was raised within it. Upon this column 
four octagonal cast-iron pillars, each 10 feet wide and 88 
feet 9 inches high, were erected 10 feet apart, and strongly 


braced together, forming a square of about 30 feet. The 
weight of each column is 150 tons, each being in pieces 6 
feet long, 2 inches thick, and strengthened inside by stout 
ribs and brackets. As fast as these pieces were cast, planed 
down, and accurately fitted, they were sent to the centre 
pier ready for erection. Upon these columns the top fram¬ 
ing of the pier is fixed. 

Upon this centre pier, and the two side piers, rest the 
massive ribs by which the great spans are sustained. 
They consist each of an arched tube and a suspension 
chain strongly braced together, to which the small side- 
girders are attached. The arched tubes are in section of 


















































































































BRIDGE. 


623 


an elliptical form, the major axis of the ellipse being 
placed in a horizontal position; they are made of stout 
wrought-iron plates strongly riveted together, and ren¬ 
dered more rigid by stiffeners and diaphragms. The width 
of each tube is 16 feet 9 inches, and its depth is 12 feet 3 
inches, the diaphragms being placed about 20 feet apart. 

The rib complete presents the appearance of a double 
bow, and it may be regarded as such, the tensile action of 
the chain upon the bed-plates being counteracted by the 
thrust exerted upon the same by the arched tube. The 
depth of the rib from the centre of the main tube to that 
of the main chain is 66 feet 3 inches, or about J of the clear 
span. The alteration of length of the rib, by contraction 
and expansion under variations of temperature, is provided 
for to the amount of six inches (although the greatest dif¬ 
ference yet observed amounts only to three inches in the 
entire length of both spans) by placing the frames, which 
carry those ends of the main tubes which are supported by 
the side piers, upon 48 wrought-iron rollers, each 3 feet 3 
inches long and 3^ inches diameter, in a double cast-iron 
frame or bed-plate. 

The total quantity of wrought-iron used in this structure 
is 2700 tons; of cast, 1300 tons; masonry and brickwork, 
17,000 cubic yards, and about 14,000 cubic feet of timber. 

Each of the main ribs was constructed entire, adjacent 
to the site of the intended structure, and after being tested 
was floated out on pontoons and raised by hydraulic presses 
of immense power. The foundations intended to support 
the bridge were used to sustain these presses. As the spans 
were raised, by the means described, the iron columns were 
built up under them. The pressure upon the foundation 
of the centre pier will amount to more than 8 tons per square 
foot.of bearing area, or double the pressure upon the foun¬ 
dations of the Victoria Tower. (Fig. 21.) 

One more example of modern bridge-building for rail¬ 
way purposes must be introduced here. The Tay Bridge 
is styled (“The Engineer,” Apl. 4, 1873), “the most im¬ 
portant civil engineering work now being carried out in 
Great Britain. Indeed, the magnitude of the bridge, and 
the novelty and ingenuity of the means employed in its 
erection, entitle it to take rank with the most interesting 
civil engineering works ever carried to completion.” The 
Tay Bridge will be, when finished, the largest iron bridge 
in the world. It will cross the river about one and a quar¬ 
ter miles west of Dundee. The total length from shore to 
shore is 10,320 ft. Commencing from the south, or Fife 
side, there will be three spans of 60 ft., two of 80 ft., twen¬ 
ty-two of 120 ft., fourteen of 200 ft., sixteen of 120 ft., 
twenty-five of 66 ft., one of 160 ft., and six of 27 ft. The 
first three spans (60 ft.), south side, are on a descending 
gradient of 1 in 100, the two 80 ft. spans are level; the 
bridge then rises with a gradient of 1 in 353 to the centre 
of the 200 ft. spans. It again descends with a gradient of 
1 in 73.56 to the north shore, passing at a height of about 
18 ft. over Magdalen Point and the Esplanade now being 
constructed. 

The bridge thus comprises eighty-nine spans, and at the 
commencement on the south side the rails are 78 ft. above 
high water, running over the tops of the girders as far as 
the 200 ft. spans which cross the navigable channel of the 


river. Over these fourteen spans the rails run on the bot¬ 
tom of the girders, giving a clear headway of 88 ft. above 
high water. On reaching the 120 ft. spans on the north side, 
the rails are again on the top of the girders, which is con¬ 
tinued, with the exception of the 160 ft. bowstring span, to 
the north shore. From the south side the first five spans 
are on a curve of twenty chains radius. The bridge then 
runs straight across the river as far as the end of the six¬ 
teen 120 ft. spans on the north side; thence the whole of 
the 66 ft. spans, 160 ft. bowstring, and the 27 ft. spans are 
on a curve also of 20 chains radius, forming nearly a quad¬ 
rant of a circle, the length being about 2000 feet. This 
long curve is necessary to bring the bridge—which runs 
nearly due north—at right angles across the river into the 
town, alongside the Caledonian Railway. (See Founda¬ 
tions.) 

In the foregoing we have felt constrained for want of 
space to confine our notices of iron bridges to those which, 
owing to the amount and character of the moving weight 
they carry, develop more fully the art of the engineer— 
railway bridges; but there is another class of bridges, in 
which, indeed, iron construction for bridge purposes first 
developed itself, i. e. cast-iron arched bridges, which should 
at least be mentioned. 

The first cast-iron bridge erected in England was over 
the Severn at Colebrook Dale, in the year 1777; it has five 
arch ribs, with a clear span of 100 feet 6 inches, and a 
rise of 45 feet, a width of 26 feet, and a sectional area in 
each rib of 56^ square inches. 

In 1796 a more notable bridge, the Sunderland Bridge 
over the Wear, was completed, having six arch ribs, with a 
span of 236 feet, and rise of 34 feet, and a width of 32 feet, 
the sectional area of rib being 46.5 square inches. 

In 1806 the Bristol and in 1812 the Bonar bridg.es were 
built, the latter having a span of 150 feet, four ribs and 20 
feet rise. (These two bridges are described and delineated 
in the Ency. Ed.) 

The Southwark Bridge was built in 1818 with 8 ribs, 240 
feet span, and 24 feet rise. The Cauxhall, Tewkesbury, 
and Plymouth bridges have spans of 78, 170, and 100 feet. 
The Westminster (renewed in 1859, as mentioned on a later 
page) has arches partly of wrought and partly of cast iron 
of 120 feet span, and 20 feet rise. 

The foregoing (English) bridges are all still in use. The 
“ Pont de Caroussel” at Paris, built in 1836, has spans of 
187 feet, five ribs with 15^ feet rise. The bridge across the 
Neva at St. Petersburg (built by Joseph Harrison, Jr., of 
Philadelphia) though subjected to the most severe changes 
in temperature stands a monument to American profes¬ 
sional skill. It has seven spans, with 157 feet as the 
largest. 

In our own country the first example of an iron bridge 
construction, and, in the beautiful simplicity of conception 
by which purposes foreign to each other are subserved by 
the same material agents, the most remarkable one, is the 
Aqueduct Bridge, over Rock Creek, at Washington City; 
built by Captain (now Bvt. Maj.-Gcn. and Quarter Master 
General, U. S. A. ) Meigs. The engraving (Fig. 22) is an 
elevation, and its distinguished engineer has kindly fur¬ 
nished the following description. 


Fig. 22. 



“ The ribs are circular pipes forty-eight inches in interior 
diameter of cast-iron, and are 1^' inches thick. No addi¬ 
tional thickness is given to them on account of the loading 
by the bridge. 

“ The thickness, 1J inches, is the standard thickness for 
water pipes of 48 in. under the head of water which these 
bear, and all the strains caused by their being loaded with 
a bridge platform and its traffic are at right angles to those 
caused by the pressure of the water. These two sets of 
strains therefore do not affect each other plus or minus. 

“The joints are flange joints turned plain and smooth and 
held together by pressure and by screw bolts as in the or¬ 
dinary method of joining steam pipes. Originally the iron 
pipes were lined with wooden staves a-s a non-conductor 
under an apprehension of danger of injury by freezing. 
The temperature of the air sometimes, though rarely, hero 
touches 0 or even falls below 0. 

“ But the wood acted too well as a non-conductor. The 


iron took its temperature from the air and sunshine, not 
from the water, hence a diurnal motion from expansion 
and contraction, which in some of the joints produced 
never a stream, but a dropping of water. 

“ This inconvenience led me to an investigation of the 
conditions of temperature, the quantity and rate of trans¬ 
mission of heat from the water as it passed through the 
pipes to the air, which satisfied me that it would be safe to 
withdraw the non-conducting lining. I took it out and 
the bridge has now stood some 12 years and no trouble 
from ice in the pipes has ever been noted. 

“ This bridge is, or was when first erected, unique of its 

kind.”* . 

The only cast-iron arched bridge since erected we be¬ 
lieve) is the Chestnut Street Bridge, over the Schuylkill, at 


* Another arch of cast-iron, of 30 inches diameter, of 120 feet 
span, carries the water across “ College Branch. 






































































624 


M 


BRIDGE. 


Philadelphia, commenced in 1861 and opened for travel 
July 4, 1866; designed and built under direction of Mr. 
Strickland Kneass, C. E. It has two main spans (over 
the waterway) each of 185 feet, each span is composed of 
six segmental arches with versed sines of 20 ft. placed at 
distances of 8 feet 8f inches, and 7 feet 10f inches from 
centre to centre. They are four feet in depth, and 2£ 
inches thick, with upper and lower webs of same thickness, 
and 8 inches wide; thus giving a compressive area of 147.5 
square inches to each arch rib. These arches were cast in 
lengths of 12 feet 10 inches, with end flanches 12 inches 
wide, having three side-stays from body of segment, and 
were secured to each other by four screw-bolts 1^ inches in 
diameter. The outside arches or ribs are slightly reduced 
in section, and are cast with ornamental face. 

As regards strength of this structure, and treating the 
arches as built with a succession of voussoirs, and per¬ 
forming functions the same as if built of stone, we find that 
the horizontal pressure at the crown of each road-way rib 
is, with 100 lbs. per square foot of transient load, 512,585 
lbs., equal to 3,475 lbs. per square inch of section, and at 
skewback, 529,542 lbs., or 3,590 lbs. per square inch of 
section. Taking the crushing power of best iron at 107,000 
lbs. per square inch, the maximum load that would proba¬ 
bly be placed upon it, would give a pressure at crown of 
but yj- its ultimate strength. 

The cost of this bridge was about $500,000. 

We have progressed thus far without even mentioning 
that class of structures to which has seemed pre-eminently 
to attach the title of Bridge and which furnishes the prin¬ 
cipal theme of most writers, viz., the masonry arched 
bridge. The arch seems to have been known to the Chi¬ 
nese (see Tomlinson and Ency. Ed.) for many ages. The 
gateways of the great wall are arched and Kirchee speaks 
of stone bridges three or four miles long and of an arch of 
the incredible span of six hundred feet. But it is to the 
Homans that the world is really indebted for the practical 
application of the arch to bridges. Eight of these bridges 
over the Tiber are described in history. 

But perhaps the most magnificent of all the Homan 
bridges, and one of the noblest monuments of antiquity, is 
the bridge of Alcantara upon the Tagus, at the town of 
that name. The town has probably taken its name from 
that structure, as the word alcantara, in the Arabic, signi¬ 
fies “the bridge.” It consists of six arches; its whole 
length is 670 Spanish feet, and from the bottom of the river 
to the roadway the height is 205 feet. 

Whatever constructive energy was exerted during the 
Middle Ages was devoted either to religious jiurposes (wit¬ 
ness the Convents, Churches, and Cathedrals), or to the 
agencies of War, or of self-preservation, as exhibited in 
the numberless castles and walled towns. The destruc¬ 
tive tendencies of war have always seemed to be peculiarly 
directed against bridges. It could hardly be expected, 
therefore, that an age in which every man’s hand was 
against his neighbor should 'produce these adjuncts to the 
occupations of peace. In days of general insecurity there 
was no safety for travellers particularly in passing rivers, 
where violent exactions were made by banditti. 

To put a stop to these disorders, sundry persons formed 
themselves into fraternities, which became a religious order, 
under the title of Brothers of the Bridge. The object of 
this institution was to build bridges, establish ferry boats, 


and receive travellers in their hospitals on the shores of the 
rivers. It is stated “that Saint Benezet (the patron saint 
of Avignon) who proposed and directed the building of tho 
bridge of Avignon, was a shepherd, and that he was not 
twelve years of age when repeated revelations from heaven 
commanded him to quit his flock and undertake 'this en¬ 
terprise.” 

This bridge, which was composed of 18 arches, was be¬ 
gun in 1176, and completed in 1188. In 1385, during the 
contentions of the popes, some of its arches were destroyed; 
thi-ee others fell in 1602, from the neglect of repairing a 
fallen arch. In 1670, the frost was so great that the Bhone 
for several weeks bore the heaviest carriages; when the 
thaw followed, the ice destroyed the piers; but the third 
pier, with the chapel of St. Nicholas, has stood notwith¬ 
standing all these accidents ( ibid ). 

It is worthy of remark, that the bridge of Avignon was 
begun under the direction of Saint Benezet in 1176, and 
that of London begun to be built of stone under the direc¬ 
tion of Peter of Colchester, a priest, in the same year 
(1176). The French “Brothers of the Bridge ” accom¬ 
plished their magnificent and useful work in 12 years, tho 
labours of the English priest occupied 33 years; but this 
may be accounted for, by considering the interruptions 
which must be experienced in a river where the tide rises 
twice every day from 13 to 18 feet. 

In London bridge there were 19 arches, and it was 45 
feet in breadth. For many ages there were houses along each 
side of it; but these were removed, the middle pier was 
taken away, and the space including the two adjacent 
arches, converted into one arch of 72 feet span, in 1758. 
The remaining old arches are very narrow, and the piers 
enormously large, being from 15 to 25 feet in thickness 
above the sterlings. 

Some of the old piers of the Old London Bridge were 
larger than the original openings of the arches; they con¬ 
sisted of small rubble stones laid in lime-mortar, surrounded 
by a thin casing of squared stones. The Homan bridges 
were probably constructed in the same manner. In modern 
bridges, the piers consist wholly of squared stones, each 
course being of equal height quite through the body of the 
pier. The thickness ought to be regulated by the span and 
rise of the arches, combined with the height of the piers. 
At the bridge of Neuilly the thickness is only one-ninth 
part of the span from the springing of the arches. The 
height is regulated according to circumstances, attention 
being given to the highest point to which the waters have 
ever been knoivn to have risen (ibid). 

The next (in order of time) important bridge was that 
at Westminster, built in the years 1739-50, consisting of 
13 large and two small arches, semi-circular, the middle 
one having a span of 76 feet. This bridge, of which a 
Mr. Labalye was the engineer, was not only, for the time, 
the greatest work of that kind in England, but it formed, 
in what regards laying foundations in deepwater and con¬ 
structing centres for large arches upon navigable rivers, a 
new school for bridge-building (Ed. Encyc.). 

Like the Old London Bridge it has since been super¬ 
seded by another structure—in this case with iron arches 
of from 104 to 120 feet span. 

The finest of the earlier French bridges and the greatest 
work of the celebrated Perronet, is that over the Seine at 
Neuilly. (Fig. 23.) 


Fig. 23. 



It consists of five arches, each 120 French, or 128.2 Eng¬ 
lish feet span, and 30 French or 32 English feet rise; the 
breadth, including the parapets, is 45 French, or 48 English 
feet. It was begun in April 1768, and opened in October 
1773; the masonry was completed in 1774; the roads, and 
other operations connected with this bridge, were finished 
in 1780. A great peculiarity in this bridge, well deserving 
the attention of engineers employed in similar works, is 
that the soffits of the arches are shaped to suit the contract¬ 
ed vein of water, as formed in the entrance and exit of 
pipes. This is accomplished, by making the general form 
of the body of the arch elliptical, with a rise of 30 French, 
or 32 English feet, or I of the span ; but making the head¬ 
ers follow the segment of a circle, the versed sine of which 
is only 131 French or 14.5 English feet, or about 1-9 of the 
span/ This, besides affording facility for the passage of 
flood waters, gives a great appearance of lightness to the 
fabric (Ed. Encyc.). 


The construction of a magnificent stone bridge, says the 
Edinburgh Encyc., “is justly looked upon as one of tho 
greatest performances of the masonic art; for if we com¬ 
pare the enormous weight of a great arch, with the strength 
which the cohesion of the firmest cement can give, we readi¬ 
ly admit that it is only by the nicest adjustment and bal¬ 
ancing of its parts, that they are hindered from instantly 
falling to pieces.” 

And in consonance with the above dictum, the theory of 
tho arch has always formed one of the prominent compo¬ 
nents of works 6n theoretic civil engineering, while the 
main features of treatises on bridge-building have usually 
been the art of constructing arches, piers, centering and 
coffer-dams. But this class of works has now become al¬ 
most purely monumental. The “enormous weight of a great 
arch ” is rivalled by its enormous expense, and it imposes 
the necessity of proportionate care and expense in giving 
to its piers sure foundations; and these costly piles are 


































































































BRIDGE. 


multiplied, to the great detriment of the water-way of the 
river, by the limitation of span which masonry arches can 
compass; or, at least, by the enormous ratio by which cost 
increases with increase of span. In our country there are, 
naturally, few examples of masonry arched bridges, properly 
so called; but it would be an unpardonable omission in an 
account of American Engineering, and would be doing an 
injustice to its distinguished engineer (now Quarter Master 
General, IT. S. A.) to omit to notice the superb, and unrival¬ 
ed in span, bridge and aqueduct combined, over the Cabin 
John Valley*, Potomac Aqueduct. The main road, macad¬ 
amized by Act of Congress, leading up the Potomac Valley 
passes over the Cabin John Creek by the “ Union ” Arch. 
It is noteworthy as exhibiting the longest (220 feet) stone 
span in the world. The arch (circular) has a rise of 531 
feet, and is 101 feet high above the bed of the stream. 
It is of cut granite, 4 feet thick at crown, 6 feet thick at 
spring; but re-inforced by the spandrils (of coursed rubble 
and Seneca sand-stone) being laid in course normal to the 
main arch. 

When the centre was struck there was no percejjtible mo¬ 
tion of the arch which could be detected when watched 
by two cross-wire telescopes. This fact is worthy of men¬ 
tion as Engineers are ail taught to read the descriptions of 
the first long arches built over the Seine, at Paris, some of 
which, on striking the centre, moved 18 inches. In fact 
the arch of Cabin John in warm weather in a great measure, 
if not entirely, relieved itself from the centre, owing to 
expansion, before the centre was removed. Its key was 
laid in a cool season. 

The bridge is 20 feet wide. The spandrils are hollow, hav¬ 
ing the two outer walls and one wall in the middle line or 
axis of the bridge. Upon these rests a platform of mason¬ 
ry upon which the conduit of brick, 9 feet clear diameter, 
is built. Made water-tight by asphalte between the brick 
rings. (For view of this structure see Fig. 6, article Aque¬ 
duct, by Gex. M. C. Meigs, U. S. A.) 

The magnificent arched structure carrying the Croton 
Aqueduct over the Harlem River, is purely an aqueduct. 
In both these cases the resort to the masonry arch was 
natural and proper. Save these, the fine viaducts of the 
Baltimore and Ohio Railway, built in the early days of 
American Engineering, are the only considerable works of 
the kind which Ave recall; axxd it is safe to say that the fu¬ 
ture of engineering construction in our country (or in any 
other, unless for monumental purposes or for exceptional 
reasons, we might say) will never exhibit a specimen of a 
great masonry-arched bridge. 

The subject of Bridge would not be complete without a 
few Avords conceniing Military Bridges. 

Wherever Avarfare has been so far reduced to a system 
and a science, as to call into the field, for protracted cam¬ 
paigns, large and organized armies, the \ r ery necessities of 
the case call for some systematic method of passing streams, 
and, as belonging to it, special organizations of men ( per¬ 
sonnel ) for making bridges, and a portable bridge appa¬ 
ratus. 

The bridge of boats of Xerxes for passing the Helles¬ 
pont—the timber pile bridge of Caesar (of which an ac¬ 
count has been given) for passing the Rhine, were not or¬ 
dinary, but extra-ordinary constructions necessitated by 
the magnitude of the obstacles; and they owe their record 
probably to that peculiarity. It is quite likely, however, 
that during ages Avhen roads for Avheeled vehicles scarcely 
existed, and, on the other hand, forest timber was abun¬ 
dant, the felled tree (elaborated into a rude bridge), or some 
such improvised expedient, could generally be resorted to, 
and that a regular “ bridge-equipage,” in the modern sense 
of the term did not exist. The Romans are known to have 
had a species of “ ponton” (as we now call it) to carry 
Avith their armies. In fact the Avooden boat has naturally 
offered the readiest means of support to portable bridges; 
but these, generally large and heavy, arc Avith difficulty 
transported. Hence, various expedients for creating a ves¬ 
sel of considerable flotation poAver, yet lighter and more 
portable than ordinary boats (such as frame-work, covered 
by skins, canvas, etc.) have been resorted to. The French, 
the systematizers of the modern “Art of War,” were nat¬ 
urally the first to provide a regular organization and es¬ 
tablished type of construction for the military bridge, and 
to organize a “ personnel ” by which it should be operated. 

Their first ponton was of copper. Their system has un¬ 
dergone successive modifications and improvements, and 
instead of metal, wood is used in their ponton. As fixed 
in 1853 the French ponton, as described by Gen. Cullum in 
his work on Military Bridges, is a flat-bottomed Avooden 

* Previous to the construction of this Aqueduct, the bridge 
over the Dee, at Chester, England, built in 1833, exhibited the 
greatest span of any masonry arch in the world. This arch is 
circular Avith a chord (span) of 200 feet and a rise of 42 feet. The 
material is sand-stone. 

40 


625 


boat, 31 feet long; the middle part or body of which, for a 
length of 16 feet has a trapezoidal section of 5' 7” Avidth 
at top, and 4' 4" at bottom, and 2' 7” deep ; the fore part 
8' 9” long, diminishes to 2' 6.” in Avidth at the boAv, and 
has a sheer of 5£"; and the aft part, 6' 3” long, diminishes 
to 4' 7” in width at the stern, and has a sheer of 3”. 
Each bateau weighs 1,455 lbs., is borne on the shoulders of 
16 to 20 men, has a flotation of 18,700 lbs., carries 25 in¬ 
fantry soldiers, is convenient for disembai-king troops, and 
can be easily navugated in a rapid current by five men. 

The material for the French bateau bridge consists of 8 
abutments, 8 trestles, 32 bateaux, 4 mooring-boats, 339 
balks (84 abutment, 24 claAv, and 231 bateau), 784 chesses, 
32 anchors, and all the accessories for forming a bridge of 
41 bays, 262 yards long, and 12' 9£" wide. 

The Russians have a someAvhat lighter equipage; the 
ponton (of canvas) is a flat-bottomed bateau, having, ex¬ 
cept at the ends, a rectangular section. The length at top 
is 21 feet, and at bottom 18' 4" ; the Avidth 5' 4" ; and the 
depth 2' 4”. The skeleton consists of tAvo side-frames, 
connected by movable transoms—all of four inch scantling. 
The canvas cover is 10' 8" Avide, 30 feet long in the mid¬ 
dle, and 23' 3'' along the edges : both sides being tarred or 
painted black Avith a composition, applied hot, composed of 
hempseed oil, strong loam, india-rubber, soap, wax, and soot. 
The cover is brought over the ends of the frame, and lashed 
to the top-transoms; it is secured, along the sides, to the top 
string-pieces of the side-frames by small nails passing 
through eyelet-holes along the edges of the cloth. A 
plank is laid on the bottom for the pontoniers to stand 
upon. The canvas ponton, frame and cover complete, 
weighs 718 lbs.; and has a flotation of 13,428 lbs. 

The complete bridge is composed of 32 canvas pontons, 
with bridge-flooring and accessories for 33 bays ; and a sec¬ 
tion of the Birago equipage consisting of 8 trestles and 15 
wooden pontons (8 boAv and 7 body pieces), with a bridge¬ 
flooring for eight bays. 

The Austrians, after satisfactory trials in the passage of 
the broad, deep, and rapid current of the Danube, adopted, 
in 1841, a system named from its inA r enter, Col. Birago, of 
the Austrian Imperial Engineers. 

This equipage has fixed and floating bridge-supports, the 
former consisting of abutments and trestles, and the latter 
of pontons of one to six pieces assembled together accord¬ 
ing to the requirements of the bridge for the passage of 
infantry, cavalry, or artillery, and whether designed for 
one, tAvo, or three distinct roadways. 

The pontons are flat-bottomed, Avooden bateaux, of one 
piece, or from two to six assembled together, end to end, 
by suitable bolts and fixtures. The cap is adjustable ; 
being partly supported at the proper height by suspension- 
chains, at one end of which are large rings passed over 
the tops of the legs, the free ends being run through sus¬ 
pension-rings on the upper side of the cap. After the 
chains are made taut, and the cap is at its proper height, 
the latter is held in place by the toggles inserted in the 
last link Avhich has passed through the suspension-rings. 

The Birago trestle is composed of a cap and two legs, to 
the lower ends of which shoes are attached, to increase their 
bearing surface, and give greater stability to the trestle. 

Nothing like a “bridge-equipage” had belonged to our 
military service until 1846. The Engineer Department 
had long foreseen the necessity of a corps of well-drilled 
pontoniers and a bridge-equipage for our army, and year 
after year had urged their great importance upon the at¬ 
tention of Congress, but not until the 15th of May, 1846, 
Avas its sanction given to the project of the department, 
and when too late to influence the passage of the Rio 
Grande. 

With the sanction of Congress finally obtained, a com¬ 
pany of sappers, miners, and pontoniers Avas organized as 
part of the Corps of Engineers, and an india-rubber pon¬ 
ton bridge of 46 pontons was prepared by direction of 
the Chief of Engineers, but under the superintendence of 
Captain (now Bvt. Major General) G. W. Cullum. Another 
of 36 pontons Avas subsequently despatched Avith the army 
under General Scott. Owing to the lightness of these 
pontons only thirty-five six-horse carriages are necessary to 
transport, over the worst roads, a complete train for the 
fox-mation of a bridge of two hundred yards. For the 
French bateau bridge of nearly tAvo hundred and forty 
metres, seventy-seven six-horse carriages are used. 

The rubber pontons in use for drill purposes at U est 
Point having become unseniceable, and it having becomo 
evident that rubber was not adapted to their construction, 
experiments were undertaken bv the then Instructor of 
Practical Engineering, Captain J. C. Duane. (I hi- Or- 
ganization of the Bridge Equipage of the United States 
Army,” Official.) 

The immense trains with which our armies are unaA'Oid- 
ably encumbered, the long marches to be made, and the 













626 


numerous wide and rapid rivers to be crossed, demand an 
equipage of the most substantial character. On the other 
hand, the extended expeditions of light columns, which 
necessarily attend our military operations, require a train 
light enough to keep pace with the most rapid cavalry 
movements. 

Hence we require both a reserve and advance-guard train. 

The experiments included the trial of the bridge equip¬ 
ages used by those European armies most experienced in 
the art of military bridge-building. 

Pontons were constructed after the models of the French 
bateau, the Austrian sectional ponton, and the Russian 
canvas boat. Corrugated-iron boats were procured, cor¬ 
responding as nearly in form and dimensions to the French 
and Austrian boats as the nature of the material would 
permit. A number of Birago trestles were also constructed. 
All of the above material, with the exception of the iron 
boats, was prepared by the enlisted men of the Engineer 
Company (“A”) then stationed at West Point. 

The bridges formed of this material were exposed as 
much as possible to the action of heavy loads, storms, the 
tide, and floating ice. The material was also packed on 
carriages of various patterns in order to ascertain the best 
form, both of bridge material and of carriage, for trans¬ 
portation. 

The selection of the French, Russian, and Austrian 
trains for these experiments, was made after a careful study 
of the various equipages used at present by the ai-mies of 
Europe. These three nations alone appeared to have def¬ 
initely settled on their systems, and this after much experi¬ 
ence and thorough research. 

After experimenting for two years, the conclusion was 
arrived at that the French ponton should be adopted. Ex¬ 
periments followed to determine the material of which the 
ponton should be made. Life-boats having been success¬ 
fully made of corrugated-iron, it was presumed it might 
be, with equal advantage, applied to pontons. It was not 
only found that to get adequate strength, the weight must 
be increased beyond that of the wooden ponton, but that 
iron failed in other respects. In fact, it would not bear 
land transportation; as, in travelling over a rough road, 
the joints open by the yielding of either the rivets or sheet 
iron. When in the bridge, if the boat grounds on an un¬ 
even or rocky bottom, a hole is frequently punched through 
it, and such injuries cannot be repaired in the field. The 
wooden ponton is not only much less liable to such acci¬ 
dents, but can be readily repaired when they do occur. 

Previous to the battle of Gettysburg, a ponton bridge 
over the Potomac at Harper's Ferry was destroyed, the 
pontons being scuttled and set adrift above the rapids. 
About three weeks after, the water having fallen, the boats 
were recovered, repaired with pieces of hard-bread boxes 
obtained from the commissary, and used in constructing a 
bridge at Berlin, over which the entire army passed into 
Virginia. 

With regard to the canvas boat it soon became apparent 
that it was precisely what we required for our advance- 
guard train. It is light, simple, strong, easily repaired, 
and when packed can safely be transported with the super¬ 
structure of the bridge as rapidly as any column of troops 
can move. A strong argument in favor of its adoption 
was that it had been used successfully by the Russians for 
more than a hundred years, under every variety of circum¬ 
stances likely to occur in this country. 

The French ponton wagon not being adapted to our 
rough roads, further experiments ensued to fix upon the 
selection of a proper carriage for transporting our bridge- 
equipage. 

Through the information gained by these experiments 
resulted the system of bridge-equipage adopted at the com¬ 
mencement of the late Civil War. 

“ During the winter of 1861-62, five trains were con¬ 
structed, each composed of thirty-four pontons and eight 
trestles—the pontons being nearly of the same form and 
dimensions of the French bateau. The frame was some¬ 
what different, the ribs being entire and strongly ironed, 
and the ironing stronger throughout. The stern was pro¬ 
vided with a locker. There were also other alterations in 
the details of construction. The balks were stronger, and 
the Birago trestle was modified by substituting built beams, 
instead of solid timber, for the trestle caps and balks. 

“At the same time several canvas trains were organized. 
In constructing the ponton frame, the dimensions and 
form of the Russian boat were exactly retained. The 
scantling for the frame was considerably lighter, but, being 
strongly braced and ironed, the strength was about the 
same. One train was composed of canvas boats and tres¬ 
tles; being, in truth, a trestle train, with auxiliary pon¬ 
tons to be used only where the depth of water, or muddy 
bottom, prevented the use of trestles. 

“In the month of February, 1862, a ponton bridge 


composed of about sixty boats of the reserve train, was 
thrown across the Potomac at Harper’s Ferry. The river 
was then a perfect torrent, the water being fifteen feet 
above the summer level, and filled with drift-wood and 
floating ice. The greatest difficulty was experienced in 
pulling the pontons into position, and it was necessary to 
make use of ship anchors and chain cables to hold them 
in place. Notwithstanding these unfavorable circumstances, 
the bridge was completed in about eight hours, and the 
corps commanded by General Banks, with all its trains and 
artillery, passed over it without accident or delay. 

“ Several of these trains accompanied the army in the 
Peninsular campaign. The pontons were used in dis¬ 
charging quartermaster and commissary stores at Ship 
Point; in disembarking General Franklin’s command at 
West Point (York River); and in constructing bridges 
over Hampton Creek, the streams in front of Yorktown, 
and the Upper Chickahominy. Finally, a bridge was 
built over the Lower Chickahominy, about two thousand 
feet long, over which nearly the whole army of the Poto¬ 
mac, with its immense trains, artillery, and cavalry, passed 
with promptness and safety. 

“ After the army had passed the bridge was dismantled 
and the balks, chess, etc., packed into the pontons, which 
were formed into rafts and towed by steamers to Washing¬ 
ton. The bridge trains were next transported to Harper’s 
Ferry, where a bridge was constructed a second time, but 
under entirely ditferent circumstances from that built dur¬ 
ing the previous winter. The water was now not deep 
enough; and, as it continued to subside shortly after the 
bridge was laid, many of the pontons grounded on a very 
uneven and rocky bottom. Some of them were completely 
out of water, yet the heavy trains continued to move over 
the bridge without seriously injuring them; and when the 
water rose, most of them floated as well as ever. 

“ Discovering in this way that the boats were much 
stronger than we had supposed, we were enabled to im¬ 
prove the method of bridging tidal streams. 

“ It had formerly been considered necessary to build out 
to low-water mark with trestles, so that the ponton should 
always be afloat. The bridge is now commenced at high- 
water mark, building with pontons alone. As the water 
subsides, the pontons nearest shore ground successively, 
forming a gentle ramp from the abutment to the floating 
portion of the bridge, instead of making the descent in 
twenty feet as formerly. This method, of course, applies 
only to wooden pontons, and to cases where the bottom is 
favorable. 

“During the Fredericksburg campaign, it became neces¬ 
sary to force the pjassage of the Rappahannock. The 
enemy having entrenched themselves on the bank, prevented 
for some time the construction of the bridge; until, at 
length, troops were embarked in the pontons and ferried 
across, where they stormed the rifle-pits, and held them 
until the bridge was completed. 

“During the year 1863, the ponton trains accompanied 
the army in all its marches backward and forward through 
Virginia, frequently bridging the Potomac, Rapidan, and 
Rappahannock. In the latter stream, the bridges remained 
in position all winter; and, notwithstanding the frequent 
floods and the quantity of ice formed, but few interruptions 
occurred on these thoroughfares. 

“ During the campaign of 1864, trains, composed of four¬ 
teen pontons and two trestles, accompanied each of the 
three army corps of the army of the Potomac. These 
trains attended their corps in the long march from Culpep¬ 
er to the James River; and, although the roads were fre¬ 
quently very bad, in no instance did they delay the march 
of the troops, or arrive late when a bridge was to be laid. 

“ The headquarters train was followed by a canvas train ; 
which, when a crossing was to be made by surprise, was 
sent forward with the cavalry, who covered the construc¬ 
tion of the bridge and held the position till the main body 
arrived. 

“On reaching the James River, a bridge was laid, oppo¬ 
site Charles City Court-House (at a point selected by the 
writer of this article) about two thousand feet in length. 
The water was so deep and rapid that the pontons could 
not be held by their own anchors, and it was found neces¬ 
sary to attach their cables to schooners anchored above 
and below the bridge.” “For the next 40 hours a con¬ 
tinuous stream of wagons passed over the bridge, from 
4000 to 6000 wagons, some said, 50 miles of wagons, and 
nearly all the artillery of this army, and by far the larger 
portion of the, infantry and all its cavalry present, and 
even to its heads of 3000 or more of beef cattle—the most 
injurious of all—without an accident to man or beast.” 

(Report of Gen. Benham.) The length of the bridge was 
made up of 200 ft. in trestle work and 2000 ft. in pontons 
(101 in all); depth of the river 85 ft. 

“ Thus the wooden ponton train through four years of 


















- 6 -------—- 

BRIDGE. 627 


war during which the bridges constructed were without 
parallel in number and magnitude, amply fulfilled all the 
requisites of a good bridge equipage. The frequent cross¬ 
ing of the Potomac, Chickahominy, and James Rivers 
proved that, even under the most unfavorable circum¬ 
stances, it could furnish a bridge capable of passing a 
large army, with its heaviest trains over wide and rapid 
streams, with safety and despatch. 

“ Its capabilities in ferrying troops were shown at Ship 
Point, West Point, and Fredericksburg; and of the mo¬ 
bility of the equipage there was abundant proof in the 
long marches during the last two years of the war. 

“ The canvas equipage, also, was perfectly successful as 
an advance-guard train. In the cavalry raids, it was al¬ 
ways able to keep pace with the columns; and, although 
they frequently marched hundreds of miles, it was in¬ 
variably ready to furnish a prompt and secure means of 
crossing all the streams on their route. It also often fur¬ 
nished bridges for the heavy trains of the army over 
streams of moderate width and rapidity. 

“ The only part of the bridge equipage which did not 
realize all our expectations was the Birago trestle. 

“As already stated, a train was organized early in the 
war on the Austrian principle, in which the trestle is the 
main dependence, the ponton being merely auxiliary. It 
was supposed that many streams would be encountered 
which would be bridged best with trestles alone, but none 
such were met with. In fact, when a stream is more than 
two feet deep, a ponton bridge may be laid; when less than 
that depth, if the bottom is hard, it may be forded, and no 
bridge is required; should the bottom be soft, the trestle 
legs will usually settle so as to render the bridge unsafe. 
As it was not deemed advisable to transport with the army 
a train which could only be used in exceptional cases, this 
description of equipage was abandoned. The trestle was, 
however, very useful as an auxiliary, especially with the 
canvas train; for, as these boats when in the bridge should 
never be allowed to touch the bottom, it is frequently neces¬ 
sary to build out several bays from the shore before suffi¬ 
cient depth of water can be obtained to float the ponton— 
and for this purpose nothing could be better than the 
Bix*ago trestle, which is also equally useful for a similar 
purpose with the reserve train, when the river bottom is 
rough near the shore. 

“ The canvas train was extensively used by the western 
army, and with such success that it was proposed to em¬ 
ploy it exclusively. Experience, however, in the East has 
clearly proved that this train cannot fulfil all that is re¬ 
quired of the bridge equipage of a large army. The 
bridges of the Potomac and James rivers could not have 
been built with canvas boats, which will not resist ice and 
drift-wood; neither are they suited to the disembarkation 
of troops or the passage of a river by force. 

“ Experience would therefore lead us to concur with 
General Barnard in his remarks on this subject, viz.: 

“ ‘ The numerous proposers of “ flying” bridges forget 
that if a military bridge is intended to be carried with an 
army, it is also intended to carry an army, its columns of 
men, its cavalry, its countless heavy wagons, and its pon¬ 
derous artillery. It must carry all these, and it must do it 
with certainty and safety, even though a demoralized corps 
should rush upon it in throngs. No make-shift expedient, 
no “ingenious” invention not tested by severe experiment, 
no light affair of which the chief merit alleged is that it is 
light, will be likely to do what is required, and what the 
French ponton has so often done.’ ” 

The experienced engineer officers, from whose Introduc¬ 
tory History we quote, constituted a Board which, in 1870, 
established the present authorized organization. It was 
based upon the experience we have described in their lan¬ 
guage. 

As now fixed the United States bridge-equipage is com¬ 
posed of reserve and of advance-guard trains. The former 
are intended to accompany large bodies of troops in the 
field, and are provided with the material necessary for the 
construction of bridges of sufficient capacity to pass large 
armies with their heaviest trains over rivers of any size 
and rapidity. 

The advance-guard equipage is intended for the use of 
light troops, such as advance guards, cavalry expeditions, 
etc. It is organized, both as regards material and car¬ 
riages, with a view to rapidity of movement. At the same 
time it is capable of furnishing a bridge which will fulfil 
all the requirements of troops engaged on such service. 

The basal elements of these distinct equipages—the 
French wooden bateau and the Russian canvas ponton— 
are of dimensions very nearly corresponding to those 
(already given) of their original prototypes; but with modi¬ 
fications in details of construction derived from our own 
experience. 

The Reserve Equipage is divided into trains, each of 


which is composed of four ponton divisions and one supply 
division. Each division is accompanied by a tool wagon 
and travelling forge. 

Each ponton division is complete in itself, containing all 
the material necessary for constructing a bridge of eleven 
bays, or 225 feet in length. 

Each of these divisions is subdivided into four sections, 
two of which are ponton and two abutment sections; the 
former contains three ponton wagons and one chess wagon; 
the latter, one ponton, one chess, and one trestle wagon 
each. 

The ponton section contains the material for three bays, 
and should never be subdivided. The division may be in¬ 
creased or diminished at pleasure, by changing the number 
of its ponton sections. 

The supply division is provided with articles necessary to 
replace material lost or worn out, such as balk, chess, spare 
parts of carriages, a few complete carriages, etc. 

The carriages of this division consist of ponton, chess, 
and tool wagons, and of forges. Their number and pro¬ 
portion will be determined by the nature of the country 
in which the army is operating, and by the proximity of the 
main depot. 

The trains of the Advance Guard Equipage are composed 
of 4 ponton divisions, each of which consists of 8 ponton, 
2 chess, and two trestle wagons. 

The ponton wagon carries all the material necessary for 
constructing a complete bay. The division may, therefore, 
be increased or diminished by one or more ponton wagons 
without disorganizing it. When a forced march is to be 
made, and it is desirable to lighten the loads, the chess may 
be removed from the ponton wagons, the rope from the 
trestle wagons, and the load of the chess wagons be reduced 
to 40 chess. The number of the latter wagons in this case 
must be increased to 5. 

The ponton wagons of reserve train are drawn by 8 mules 
or 6 horses, those of the advance-guard train by C mules or 
4 horses; the “loads” being about 3000 and 2000 lbs. re¬ 
spectively. It would be out of place to enter more fully 
into this subject in this work; but these historical details 
concerning the development of our military bridge system 
—a matter in which we had no experience whatever—during 
the war cannot fail to be interesting. 

Another interesting branch of the subject—the remark¬ 
able constructions applied to the improvisation of railroad 
bridges, in place of destroyed ones, and the noteworthy 
system of repair and construction introduced into our mili¬ 
tary railway service, can only be alluded to. The military 
railroad construction and repair corps were a part of the 
Quartermaster’s Department, which organized, hired, and 
paid all their members, and bought and paid for all the 
material, and possessed and operated the railroads at an 
expense which at one time amounted to about $2,000,000 
per month. Under the Chief of that Department, and es¬ 
pecially charged with this duty, the principal organizer and 
conductor of military railroad transportation and repairs 
was Brig.-Gen. D. C. McCallum (who has since made a 
valuable report on this subject), well known as an able 
civil Engineer and inventor of the “Inflexible Arch Truss ;” 
but the credit of the military railroad operation, and repair 
and success belong to no individual altogether, but to the 
Quartermaster’s Department, and to the body of Railroad 
Engineers, superintendents, and operatives who came into 
its service to aid the country during the war. 

In the occupation, for protracted periods, of the same 
ground (as in investments, sieges, etc.) military bridges 
assume frequently a semi-permanent character. 

Thus, while the Army of the Potomac occupied a position 
near Richmond (May and June 1862) its wings were sep¬ 
arated by the formidable barrier of the Chickahominy 
rivulet and swamp. One of the bridges is thus described 
in the report of the Chief of Engineers of the Army of the 
Potomac: 

“ The bridge was built over the stream upon frame tres¬ 
tles; through the swamp it was supported by cribs. The 
approaches to the bridge over the low bottom-lands were 
either raised corduroy or (on the north side) simply earth 
raised two or three feet (the soil being here sandy), with a 
layer of brush one foot below the upper surface; deep lat¬ 
eral ditches being made. The whole structure of the bridge 
and approaches was about fourteen hundred yards long. 
The trestle-work and crib-work bridge was mostly done by 
troops of the Engineer brigade under General Woodbury; 
the approaches on the north, by the 9th and 22d Massa¬ 
chusetts regiments (Colonels Cass and Gove, both ol whom 
were killed in the battles following), and those on the 
south side by the 3d Vermont. The bridge was read} for 
the passage of teams on the 14th, covcredjvith earth, and 
the approaches entirely completed on the 17th. The ui< ge 
proper was 1,080 feet long; roadway, H feet wide; number 
of cribs, 40; of framed trestles, 6.” (Fig. 24.) 















' 





628 


BRIDGE CREEK—BRIDGEPORT. 


The combined armies under General Grant occupied po¬ 
sitions before Petersburg and Richmond from June 1804 to 


April 1805. The James River separated the Army of Ihe 
James (in its final position) from the centre and left. An 


Fro. 24. 


Woodbury and Alexander’s Fridge. 


assured communication was indispensable, and at the same 
time one which would not impede the navigation to our own 
vessels, whether transports or armed. 

Col. P. S. Michie, Chief of Engineers Army of the 


James, designed and submitted for approval a timber pile 
bridge with a floating draw (the floats being our ordinary 
pontons) of which an elevation of a portion, including the 
“ draw/’ of pontons is here given. (Fig. 25.) 


Fig. 25. 





The piles of trestles were guarded against ice (which in 
the winter forms freely in the upper James) by highly in¬ 
clined guard pieces, the feet of which were secured to piles 
in the bed of the river. Each trestle was made up of a cap 
piece and six piles (in pairs) driven into the bed of the 
river. This bridge constructed late in 1864 was in use up 
to the close of the war. During the period above indicated 
the gap in our lines made by the Rappahannock was occu¬ 
pied by one or more ordinary ponton bridges. 

Limiting the scope of the word bridge, by the radical 
meaning (as given in our definition) we have omitted in the 
foregoing nearly all reference to a very essential portion of 
the art of bridge-building, viz.: the establishment of pier 
and abutment foundations. For this subject see “ Founda¬ 
tions.” Consult “ Dictionary of Engineering” (Byrne). 
“Theory of Strains on girders and similar structures” 
(Stoney). “ The Strains upon Bridge Girders” (Cargill). 
“ Woodbury on the Arch.” “ Roebling on the Niagara 
Suspension Bridge.” “ Boudsot, Ponts Suspendus.” “ The 
Pesth Suspension Bridge.” “ Iron Truss Bridges ” (Col. 
W. E. Merrill). “The Theory of Strains ” (Diedrichs). 
“ Theorie elementaire des Poutres Droites ” (Collignon, an 
excellent little French work); also Humber’s great work 
on Bridges and “Modern Examples” and the published 
accounts of the Quincy and Kansas City Bridges. (See also 
Flexure of Beams, by Col. W. E. Merrill.) 

J. G. Barnard, IT. S. A. 

Bridge Creek, a twp. of Ouachita co., Ark. Pop. 375. 

Bridge Creek, a township of Eau Claire co., Wis. Pop. 
1538. 

Bridgehamp'ton, a township of Sanilac co., Mich. 
Pop. 936. 

Bridgehampton, a post-village of Southampton town¬ 
ship, Suffolk co., N. Y. Pop. 1334. 

Bridge-Head. See TSte-de-Pont. 

Bridge, Natural. See Natural Bridge. 

Bridgcnorth (anc. Bruges or Brugia), a town of 
England, in Shropshire, on both sides of the Severn, 19 
miles S. E. of Shrpwsbury, and 123 miles N. W. of London. 
The upper part of the town is picturesquely built on a rock 


sixty feet higher than the river. It has an old castle, alms¬ 
houses, a public library, a blue-coat or charity school, a 
handsome bridge, and manufactures of carpets, nails, to¬ 
bacco-pipes, boats, and worsted stuffs. It has a heavy com¬ 
merce upon the river. It is supposed to have been founded 
by a daughter of Alfred the Great. Pop. in 1871, 5871. 

Bridgeport, a post-village of Waterloo township and 
co., Ontario (Canada), 2 miles from Berlin, has extensive 
water-power and some manufactures. Pop. about 700. 

Bridgeport, a post-village of Cape Breton Island, in 
Sydney township, Cape Breton co., 13 miles from Sydney, 
with which it is connected by railway, has important coal¬ 
mines. Pop. about 300. 

Bridgeport, a post-township of Jackson co., Ala. Pop. 

1002. * 

Bridgeport, a post-village, capital of Mono co., Cal., 
about 160 miles E. of San Francisco. It is near the Sierra 
Nevada. Pop. of Bridgeport township, 174. 

Bridgeport, a township of Nevada co., Cal. Gold is 
found here. Pop. 1829. 

Bridgeport, a village of Green Valley township, So¬ 
lano co., Cal., on the California Pacific R. R., 39 miles N. E. 
of San Francisco. Pop. 80. 

Bridgeport, a city and seaport of Fairfield co., Conn., 
is situated on an inlet of Long Island Sound, at the mouth 
of Pequonnock River and on the New York and New Ha¬ 
ven R. R., 58 miles E. of New York and 18 miles W. S. W. 
of New Haven; lat. 41° 10' 30” N., Ion. 73° IP 46” W. It 
is the southern terminus of the Housatonic R. R., which 
extends to Pittsfield, Mass., and of the Naugatuck R. R., 
which connects it with Waterbury. It is mostly built on 
a small plain, behind which rises an eminence called Gold 
Hill, which is about 60 feet above high-water mark, and is 
occupied by elegant mansions. Bridgeport contains 25 
churches, 5 national and 3 savings banks, a public library, 
and an orphan asylum. It has two daily newspapers, one 
semi-weekly, and two weekly. It is the third city in 
size and importance in Connecticut. Since the census of 
1870 three square miles of the adjacent town of Fairfield 
have been added to Bridgeport, and the population has 
















































































































BRIDGEPORT—BRIDGEWATER. 


been largely increased. It derives its prosperity chiefly 
from its manufactures of carriages, sewing-machines, mis¬ 
cellaneous hardware, machinery, brass and iron castings, 
leather, cartridges, hats, shirts, saddles, springs and axles, 
etc. Here are the large manufactories of Wheeler & Wil¬ 
son’s, Elias Howe’s, and the Secor sewing-machines, with 
the Union Metallic Cartridge Co., Wood Brothers’carriage- 
factory, The New York Tap and Die Co., (Dover Sanford 
and Sons’ hat manufactory, and many others. There are 
53 corporate companies doing business within the city lim¬ 
its, on an aggregate capital of over $6,000,000. The city 
has a paid fire department and an electric fire-alarm tele¬ 
graph. It has two fine parks, and a horse-railroad con¬ 
necting its eastern, southern, and western extremes. Pop. 
(in 1870, before the annexation of a part of Fairfield), 
IS,969 ; of the township, 19,835. 

G. C. Waldo, Ed. of “ Daily Standard.” 

Bridgeport, a post-village of Christy township, Law¬ 
rence co., Ill. Pop. 435. 

Bridgeport, a post-township of Saginaw co., Mich. 
Pop. 1171. 

Bridgeport, a post-township of Warren co., Mo. Pop. 
822. 

Bridgeport, a post-village of Sullivan township, Madi¬ 
son co., N. Y. Pop. 217. 

Bridgeport, a post-village of Belmont co., 0., on the 
Ohio Biver, opposite Wheeling, with which it is connected 
by a bridge. It is on a branch of the Cleveland and Pitts¬ 
burg R. R., and has a national bank and an active trade. 
Pop. 1178. 

Bridgeport, a post-borough of Fayette co., Pa., on the 
Monongalicla, adjoining Brownsville, 35 miles S. of Pitts¬ 
burg. Pop. 1199. 

Bridgeport, a post-borough of Montgomery co., Pa., 
on the Schuylkill, opposite Norristown. Pop. 1578. 

Bridg' er’s Pass, a defile in the Rocky Mountains, in 
the S. part of Wyoming Territory, about lat. 41° 39' N., Ion. 
107° 30' W. The overland mail route passed through it be¬ 
fore the Pacific R. R. was opened. It is described by Fitz 
Hugh Ludlow as “a narrow gallery, walled by noble preci¬ 
pices of red granite and metamorphic sandstone, rising 
dii'ectly from the traveller’s side to the almost perpendicu¬ 
lar height of from 1000 to 2500 feet. In some places this 
gallery appears scarcely more than a crevice of disloca¬ 
tion, a mere crack between stupendous naked rocks, which 
would match joints exactly if slid back to their old position. 
Though the passage is in reality ample for an army, the 
vast height of its lateral walls makes it seem proportion¬ 
ally narrow. This American Simplon is Bridger’s Pass. It 
is several miles in length.” (The Heart of the Continent.) 

Brid'ges, a township of Ozark co., Mo. Pop. 532. 

Bridg'et, Saint, or Saint Bride, one of the three 
patron saints of Ireland, lived about 500-520 A. D. St. 
Bridget’s Day is Feb. 1st. 

Bridget, Brigit'ta, or Bir'get, Saint, a daughter 
of Birger, prince of Sweden, was born in 1304. She was 
the mother of Saint Catharine of Sweden, and author of a 
work entitled “ Revelations.” (See Brigittines.) Died in 
1373. (Sec Etienne Binet, “ Vie de Sainte Brigitte,” 1634.) 

Bridgeton, a post-village and township of Cumber¬ 
land co., Me., 38 miles from Portland. It has three woollen 
mills at the Centre Village, a printing-office, a weekly 
paper, sash and blind factories, etc., and is accessible by 
steamboat from the foot of Sebago Lake. Pop. 2685. 

Ed. of “Bridgeton News.” 

Bridgeton, a post-township of Newaygo co., Mich. 
Pop. 397. 

Bridgeton, a city, port of entry, and the capital of 
Cumberland co., N. J. (a rich agricultural county), is situ¬ 
ated on both sides of Cohansey River, a fine tide-water 
stream, 20 miles from Delaware Bay, 37 miles S. of Phila¬ 
delphia, and 127 miles S. of New York. Its area is 15.39 
square miles, or 9849 acres. Its population was in 1800 
about 400; 1829, 1736; 1838, 2315; 1850, 3480; 1860, 
5104; 1870, 6830; and now (1873) is 8000. As a port of 
entry it is second in the State, having a tonnage, Jan. 1, 
1873, of 16,067.33 tons. Three steamers and a large num¬ 
ber of sailing-vessels, barges, etc. are employed in the 
direct trade of the city, transporting annually over 150,000 
tons, while an equal amount is carried by the different 
railroads. The receipts of leading articles are, coal, 21,000 
tons; pig iron and iron ore, 10,200 tons; lumber, 4,000,000 
feet; lime and shells, 175,000 bushels; fertilizers, 1500 
tons ; and manufactured goods, 30,000 tons. The princi¬ 
pal shipments arc 110,000 kegs of nails, 2,200,000 feet of 
gas and water-pipe, 70,000 cases of canned fruits, 290,000 
yards of woollen goods, 20,000 boxes window-glass, $200,060 
worth of hollow-ware, and 25,000 bushels of grain, pota¬ 


629 


toes, etc. It is the leading city of Southern New Jersey 
in the variety and value of its manufactured products, 
which consist in part of nails, water and gas-pipe, cast¬ 
ings, machinery, woollen goods, glass, canned fruits, lum¬ 
ber, brick, shipbuilding, etc. Companies and firms to the 
number of 143 are engaged in 60 different branches of 
manufacture, with a capital of $1,231,350, employing 1210 
males, 637 females, and 143 children, to whom $632,821 
are annually paid as wages, using raw material worth 
$2,236,339, and producing articles to the value of $3,413,769. 
The assessed valuation of the city for 1873, about two- 
thirds of the actual value, was $3,541,000, on which the 
assessment was $1.35 on $100. The expenses were, State 
tax, $5,056.47 ; county, $13,847.29; schools, $17,741.96; 
city government, $13,301. The city is out of debt. Edu¬ 
cational facilities are fine. The South Jersey Institute, 
for both sexes, opened in 1870, has a handsome and well- 
appointed building, which cost over $65,000, on a com¬ 
manding site, with 8 teachers and 100 scholars during the 
last school year. The West Jersey Academy occupies a 
fine building on a beautiful location, and has 5 teachers 
and 50 scholars. Ivy Hall, a select boarding-school for 
young ladies, has a high reputation, and has 10 teachers 
and 54 scholars. There are 6 public schools of a high 
order, with 22 teachers (to whom are paid salaries amount¬ 
ing to $9,469.19) and 1238 scholars. A handsome building 
for a new school is now being erected at a cost of about 
$16,000. A good public library has over 1300 volumes. 
The newspapers comprise 1 daily, circulation 400; 3 weekly, 
circulation 4200; 2 monthly, circulation 7500 copies. The 
churches number 13, owning 13 church buildings, 6 chapels, 
and 8 parsonages, valued at $288,500, with sittings for 
6750 persons, and having a membership of 2833. There 
are national and savings banks, a flourishing board of 
trade, two building and loan associations, a large number 
of benevolent societies, and a children’s home for the care 
of destitute children. Three bridges span the river, and 
the streets are well laid out, graded, and lighted with gas. 
Water-works are about being erected. It is a railroad 
centre; the New Jersey Southern, from New York to Bal¬ 
timore, passes through the city; the West Jersey connects 
it with Philadelphia; the Bridgeton and Port Norris, 22 
miles long, connects it with the celebrated Maurice River 
oyster-grounds. Several others are projected. 

As the head of navigation and a fording-placc on the 
Cohansey, a settlement early grew up. Before the Revo¬ 
lution there were not over 200 inhabitants, but they were 
staunch patriots. Dr. Jonathan Elmer, a Bridgetonian, 
was a member of the Revolutionary Congress. A company 
from Bridgeton served under Gen. Schuyler, and a privateer 
schooner built here made one successful voyage, but was 
captured when returning from the second. During the 
present century the place has had a steady growth, and was 
incorporated in 1865. The climate is mild and healthy, the 
city and its surroundings most beautiful, and its inhabitants 
intelligent and social. Charles E. Sheppard, Att'y, 

Member of Board of Trade. 

Bridgeton, a borough of Bucks co., Pa. Pop. 944. 

Bridgetown, the capital of the island of Barbados, is 
on its W. coast, and extends along the N. side of Carlisle 
Bay, which forms its roadstead; lat. 13° 4' N., Ion. 59° 38' 
W. It is the residence of the bishop of Barbados and the 
governor of the Windward Islands, and has an arsenal and 
barrack in the vicinity. Pop. about 25,000. 

Bridgetown, a post-village of Granville township, 
Annapolis co., Nova Scotia, on the Windsor and An¬ 
napolis R. R., 14 miles from Annapolis, at the head of 
navigation of Annapolis River, has a fine water-power and 
one weekly paper. The surrounding country is very fertile. 
Pop. about 800. 

Bridgeville, a post-twp. of Pickens co., Ala. P. 1265. 

Bridgeville, a post-village of North-west Fork hun¬ 
dred, Sussex co., Del. Pop. 300. 

Bridgewater, a town and river-port of England, in 
Somersetshire, on both sides of the river Parrot, 33 miles 
by rail S. W. of Bristol. It is neatly built, and the houses 
are mostly of brick. Vessels of 200 tons can ascend the 
river to this town. Here is St. Mary’s Church, which has 
a remarkable and lofty spire. This is the native place of 
Admiral Blake. Bridgewater became a free borough in 
1200. Pop. in 1871, 12,101. 

Bridgewater, a post-village of New Dublin township, 
Lunenburg co., 12 miles from Lunenburg, Nova Scotia, 
has manufactures of lumber, etc., an active trade, and one 
weekly newspaper. Pop. about 1000. 

Bridgewater, apost-village of Elzevir township, Hast¬ 
ings co., Ontario, has mines of iron, copper, and other min- 
orals, and quite extensive water-power and manufactures. 
White marble is found here. Pop. 450. 

















BRIDGEWATER—BRIG. 


630 


Brid gewater, a post-township of Litchfield co., Conn. 
Pop. 877. 

Brid gewater, a post-township of Aroostook co., Me. 
It has manufactures of lumber, leather, etc. Pop. 605. 

Brid gewater, a post-village and township of Plymouth 
co., Mass., is on the Old Colony and Newport R. R., 27 
miles S. of Boston. It contains a State normal school, 
academy, State almshouse, extensive iron-works, cotton- 
gin, and other manufacturing establishments, and is the 
seat of the county agricultural fair. It has a weekly paper 
and a savings bank. Pop. 3660. 

Pratt & Co., Pubs. k Banner.” 

Brid gewater, a post-township of Washtenaw co., 
Mich. Pop. 1379. 

B ridgewater, a township of Rice co., Minn. Pop. 957. 

Brid gew r ater, a post-twp. of Grafton co., N. H. P. 453. 

Bridgewater, a township of Somerset co., N. J., con¬ 
tains Somerville, the county-seat. Pop. 5883. 

Brid gewater, a post-township of Oneida co.. N. Y. 
The village is on the Utica branch of the Delaware Lacka¬ 
wanna and Western R. R., 15 miles S. of Utica. Pop. 1258. 

Bridgewater, a post-township of Williams co., 0. 
Pop. 1207. 

Brid gewater, a borough of Beaver co., Pa. Pop. 1119. 

Bridgewater, a township of Susquehanna co., Pa., 
contains Montrose, the county-seat. Pop., exclusive of 
Montrose, 1459. 

Bridgewater, a post-township of Windsor co., Vt. 
It has manufactures of woollen goods, etc. Pop. 1141. 

Bridge.Avater (Francis Henry Egerton), Earl of, 
born Nov. 11, 1758, was a son of John Egerton, bishop of 
Durham. He inherited the earldom in 1823, and died with¬ 
out issue in 1829. By his last will he left £8000 to be paid 
to the author of the best treatise “ On the Power, Wisdom, 
and Goodness of God as manifested in the Creation.” He 
was an Anglican priest. (See Bridgewater Treatises.) 

Bridgewater Treatises, a celebrated series of works 
named in honor of the earl of Bridgewater. (See preceding 
article.) The trustees who had the control of his bequest 
of £8000 pounds placed it at the disposal of Gilbert Davies, 
president of the Royal Society, who appointed eight gentle¬ 
men to write separate treatises illustrative of the power, 
wisdom, and goodness of God. They are—1. “ The Adapta¬ 
tion of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Con¬ 
stitution of Man,” by Thomas Chalmers, D. D. (1833); 2. 
“Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion 
considered with Reference to Natural Theology,” by Wil¬ 
liam Prout, M. D. (1834); 3. “ On the History, Habits, and 
Instincts of Animals,” by the Rev. William Kirby (1835); 
4. “ On Geology and Mineralogy,” by the Rev. Dr. Buck- 
land (1837); 5. “The Hand, its Mechanism and Vital En¬ 
dowments, as Evincing Design,” by Sir Charles Bell (1837); 
6. “The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical 
Condition of Man,” by John Kidd, M. D. (1837); 7. “ As¬ 
tronomy and General Physics considered with Reference 
to Natural Theology,” by the Rev. William Whewell (1839); 
8. “Animal and Vegetable Physiology considered with 
Reference to Natural Theology,” by Peter Mark Roget 
(1840). 

Britlg'man (Laura), a blind deaf-mute, affording a 
remarkable instance of the development of intellectual and 
moral powers under the most adverse circumstances. She 
was born at Hanover, N. H., Dec. 21, 1829. When two 
years old, through a severe illness, she lost her sight, hear¬ 
ing, and smell ; her sense of taste being at the same time 
greatly impaired. At the age of eight she was placed under 
the instruction of Dr. Howe of Boston, principal of the Per¬ 
kins Institution. She soon learned to read and spell with 
a manual alphabet; and she afterwards learned to write 
and to sew, and to play very well on the piano. 

Bridgman (William R.), U. S.N., born Nov. 28,1844, in 
Iowa, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1861, became an 
ensign in 1862, a lieutenant in 1864, and a lieutenant-com¬ 
mander in 1866. He served in various vessels of the West 
Gulf and Mississippi River squadrons during 1862 and 
1863, participating in the action with Forts Jackson and 
St. Philip and capture of New Orleans, and in many of the 
most important fights on the Mississippi. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Brid'lington, or Bur'lington, a market-town of 
England, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, and on the North 
Sea, 54 miles by rail E. by N. of York. Here are remains 
of a rich priory founded by a grand-nephew of William the 
Conqueror. Numerous ancient tumuli or barrows occur in 
this vicinity. Bridlington Quay, a seaport and bathing- 
place, is on the sea 1 mile S. E. of the town. It has a 
chalybeate spring and several hotels; also an active trade 


in corn, which is exported from it. This place is noted for 
chalk-flint fossils. Pop. of Bridlington and Quay, 5775. 

Brid'port, a seaport-town of England, in Dorsetshire, 
on the Brit or Bride River, 16 miles N. W. of Dorchester. 
It is surrounded by hills, and consists chiefly of three spa¬ 
cious streets. It has a Gothic church, an almshouse, a 
town-hall; also manufactures of cordage, sail-cloth, shoe- 
thread, and fish-nets. The vicinity is celebrated for its 
butter and cheese. Pop. in 1871, 7666. 

Bridport, a post-township of Addison co., Vt. P. 1171. 

B riec, a village of France, department of FinistSre, 9 
miles N. N. E. of Quimper. Pop. 5726. 

Brief [Lat. breve], Papal, a letter addressed by the 
pope to temporal princes or communities on subjects of 
discipline or public affairs. It differs from the papal bull 
in several respects, giving decisions on matters of inferior 
importance, which do not require the deliberations and 
assent of a conclave of cardinals. It is not signed by the 
pope, but by the segretario de’ brevi, an officer of the papal 
chancery. It is written on parchment, and sealed in red 
wax with the pope’s private seal, called the “ Fishermen’s 
Ring” (Annulus Piscatoris). 

Brief [from the Lat. brevis, “short”], in law, an abridged 
statement of the plaintiff’s or defendant’s case, prepared by 
his attorney for the use of counsel. It should contain a 
summary of the pleadings, a concise statement of the facts 
involved, the names of the witnesses, the substance of their 
testimony, and usually observations by the attorney in the 
nature of suggestions to counsel. 

The word “brief” is also employed in this country to 
indicate the sketch of the argument of counsel, which is 
either used by him or submitted to the court under its rules. 
“Brief” is also sometimes employed in the sense of breve, 
to denote one of the writs by which all suits in the higher 
courts were originally begun. 

B rieg, a town of Prussia, in Silesia, on the Oder, and 
on the railway from Breslau to Oppeln, 29 miles by rail 
N. of Neisse. It is well built, and has a gymnasium, a 
good library, and manufactures of hosiery, ribbons, lin¬ 
ens, and woollens. Pop. in 1871, 15,367. 

Briel, or The Brill, a fortified seaport-town of Hol¬ 
land, in the province of South Holland, and near the mouth 
of the river Meuse, 13 miles S. S. W. of The Hague; lat. 
of lighthouse, 51° 54' 11" N., Ion. 4° 9' 51" E. It has a 
good harbor, is intersected by several canals, and contains 
several magazines. The capture of this town by William 
de la Marck in 1572 was the first important event in the 
long contest between the Dutch and Philip II. of Spain. 
Admirals van Tromp and de Witt were born here. Pop. 
4168. 

Brieime, or Brienne-le-Chateau, called also 
Brienne-Napoleon, a small town of France, in the 
department of Aube, on the river Aube, 23 miles E. N. E. 
of Troyes. Here was a military school in which Napoleon 
I. was educated. The place derived its name from a cha¬ 
teau built by the last count de Brienne. In Jan., 1814, a 
battle was fought here between Napoleon and the allies, 
commanded by Bliicher and Schwarzenberg, in which the 
latter were victorious. Pop. in 1866, 2078. 

. Brienz, Bake of [Ger. Brienzer-See], in Switzerland, 
is formed by the river Aar, at the foot of the Hasli Valley. 
It is 8 miles long, 2 miles wide, and from 500 to 2100 feet 
deep. The surface is 1847 feet above the level of the sea. 
It is surrounded by high mountains, one of which, called 
the Rotliorn, commands a grand view of the Alps. The 
surplus water of this lake flows through the Aar into Lake 
Thun. A small steamer plies on the lake daily. 

Brier Creek of Georgia rises in Warren county, flows 
south-eastward, and after a course of about 100 miles enters 
the Savannah near Jacksonborougli. Mar. 4, 1779, the 
British, under Prevost, defeated a force of Americans, under 
Gen. Ashe, on this creek. 

Brier Hill, a post-village of Morristown township, St. 
Lawrence co., N. Y., on the Black River and Morristown 
R. R., is an active business-place. 

Brierre tie Boismont (Alexandre Jacques Fran- 
9018 ), a French physician, born Oct. IS, 1797, has published 
numerous treatises on medico-psychological subjects; amono- 
others, “ De l’Ennui,” “ Sur le Suicide et la folie-suicide ” 
(rev. ed. 1865), and “ Des Maladies Montales ” (1866). 

Bries [Ilun. Breznobcinya], a royal free city of Hun¬ 
gary, in the county of Solil, 20 miles N. E. of New Sohl. 
Pop. in 1869, 11,766. 

Brig, a square-rigged vessel with two masts. It has a 
boom mainsail, and is otherwise square-rigged— i.e. having 
the sails brought to yards hung horizontally by the middle. 
The hermaphrodite brig is the same with the Brigantine 
(which see). 











BRIGADE—BRIGHTON. 


Brigade [It. brigcita, a “company”], a group of regi¬ 
ments or battalions combined into one body. In the Brit¬ 
ish army it denotes a body formed by the union of two or 
more regiments or battalions under one commander, called 
a brigadier. It is a temporary grouping which can be 
broken up whenever the commander of the army thinks 
proper. In the U. S. army two or more regiments of 
infantry or cavalry may constitute a brigade; two or more 
brigades under one command constitute a division, and two 
or more divisions an army corps. 

Brigade-Major, an officer of the British army whose 
duties in a brigade are analogous to those of the adjutant 
in a regiment. When regiments or battalions are formed 
into a brigade, a brigade-major is detailed, usually from 
among the captains. He conveys orders, keeps the roster, 
inspects guards and pickets, directs exercises, etc. 

Brigadier', or Brigadier-General, the commander 
of a brigade; an officer who is one degree higher than a 
colonel, and one lower than a major-general. In the Brit¬ 
ish army a brigadier is an officer (usually a colonel] who 
for a limited time and for a special service is appointed to 
the command of a brigade. When this is broken up he 
either falls back to his colonelcy, or is raised to the rank of 
major-general. 

Brigandine, a part of the defensive armor of the Mid¬ 
dle Ages, was an assemblage of small plates of iron sewed 
upon quilted leather or linen. It formed a sort of coat or 
tunic, and derived its name from the irregular, light-armed 
troops called brigans or brigands, who were addicted to 
marauding and plundering. 

Bri gail'tes, a powerful nation of ancient Britain, in¬ 
habiting what is now the north of England, including the 
counties of Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, York, 
and Lancaster. 

Brigantine, or Hermaph'rodite Brig, a two- 
masted A^essel, with the mainmast of a schooner and the 
foremast like that of a brig. The mainsail of a brigantine 
is a fore-and-aft sail, like that of a schooner. 

Briggs (Charles Frederick), an American writer, 
born at Nantucket, Mass. He became an editor of the 
“New York Times,” and published, besides other works, 
“ The Adventures of Harry Franco, a tale of the Great 
Panic” (1339), “The Haunted Merchant” (1844), and 
“The Trippings of Tom Pepper” (1847). 

Briggs (George Nixon), LL.D., an American lawyer 
and judge, born in Adams, Mass., April 13, 1796. He was 
a member of Congress for two years, and governor of Mas¬ 
sachusetts from 1844 to 1851, and afterwards judge of the 
court of common pleas. He was a distinguished philan¬ 
thropist, and for many years president of the Baptist Mis¬ 
sionary Union. Died Sept. 12, 1861. 

Briggs (Henry), an English mathematician, born near 
Halifax, Yorkshire, in 1556, was educated at Cambridge. 
He became in 1619 Savilian professor of geometry at Ox¬ 
ford. He made important contributions to the theory of 
logarithms, and published in 1624 a great work entitled 
“Arithmetica Logarithmica,” giving the logarithms of 
natural numbers from 1 to 20,000, and from 90,000 to 
100,000, calculated to fourteen places. Died in 1631. 

Brig'ham (Amariah), M. D., an American physician, 
born near New Marlborough, Mass., Dec. 26, 1798. He 
became superintendent of the lunatic asylum at Utica, 
N. Y., in 1842. Among his works is “The Anatomy, Phy¬ 
siology, and Pathology of the Brain ” (1840). Died Sept. 
8, 1849. 

Brigham (Rev. Charles H.), born in Boston, Mass., 
July 27, 1820, graduated at Harvard, was from 1844 to 1866 
pastor of the First Congregational church in Taunton, 
Mass., and since 1865 has been pastor of the Unitarian 
church at Ann Arbor, Mich. Since 1866 he has been pro¬ 
fessor of biblical archaeology and ecclesiastical history in 
the Meadville (Pa.) Theological School. He is a prominent 
member of the American Oriental Society, of the Philologi¬ 
cal Society, and of the American Association for the Ad¬ 
vancement of Science, and is the author of a very great 
number of contributions to periodical literature. 

Brigham City, a post-village, capital of Box Elder 
co., Utah, near Bear River, and near the Central Pacific 
R. R., about 50 miles N. of Salt Lake City. It has manu¬ 
factures of leather, woollen goods, etc. Pop. 1315. 

Bright, a post-village of Oxford co., Ontario (Canada), 
on the Buffalo and Goderich branch of the Grand Trunk 
Railway, has some manufactures and a postal savings 
bank. Pop. about 500. 

Bright (Jesse D.), born at Norwich, Chenango co., 
N. Y., Dec. 18, 1812, became a lawyer of Indiana, circuit 
judge in the State courts, lieutenant-go\crnor, etc., and 
U. S. Senator from Indiana (1845-62). 


631 

Bright (John), an eminent English orator and states¬ 
man, born near Rochdale on the 16th of Nov., 1811. He 
is a member of the Society of Friends. About 1840 he 
became a personal and political friend of Richard Cobden, 
and gained distinction as an orator of the Anti-Corn Law 
League, in advocacy of which he addressed many public 
meetings. He was elected a member of Parliament for the 
city of Durham in 1843, and was returned for Manchester 
in the general election of 1847. Cobden and Bright be¬ 
came the principal leaders of the Manchester school or 
party, which was not identified with either of the great 
political parties, but advocated a pacific foreign policy and 
electoral reform. He was defeated in the election of 1857, 
because he had opposed the Crimean war against Russia 
and the Chinese war, but he was elected in the same year 
by the Liberal voters of Birmingham, which he continued 
to represent for many years. During the great civil war 
in the U. S. he expressed his sympathy with the Union 
cause in several eloquent speeches. After the Reform bill 
of Russell and Gladstone had been rejected by the House 
of Commons in 1866, Mr. Bright advocated the cause of 
electoral reform by vehement speeches at immense public 
meetings in London, Manchester, Birmingham, and other 
places. Referring to these speeches, the “ European Times ” 
of Dec. 8, 1866, remarked: “ In all Mr. Bright’s previous 
career he has never put forth such extraordinary power, 
such floods of the very highest order of eloquence, on the 
great question of the day, as during the last four months.” 
In 1867 the friends of reform triumphed, and procured the 
passage of a bill granting the right of suffrage to every 
householder in a borough. He entered the cabinet formed 
by Mr. Gladstone in Dec., 1868, as president of the board 
of trade, and resigned office on account of ill health about 
Mar., 1871. As an orator he is distinguished for racy hu¬ 
mor, passionate declamation, and nervous diction. 

Bright'on, formerly Brighthelmstone, a town and 
fashionable watering-place of England, in Sussex, and on 
the English Channel, 50 miles S. of London. It is the 
southern terminus of the London and Brighton Railway. 
Lat. of lighthouse, 50° 50' N., Ion. 0° 8' W. It extends 3 
miles along the coast, and is sheltered on the N. and N. E. 
by the South Downs. To resist the inroads of the sea, 
which formerly undermined the chalk-cliffs at Brighton, a 
sea-wall of great strength has been constructed. It is 60 
feet high, and forms an admirable promenade. In the 
middle of the town, in an open space called the Steyne, is 
the Pavilion or Marine Palace, a fantastic structure of 
Oriental style built by the prince of Wales (George IV.). 
It was finished in 1827, and is now owned by the corpora¬ 
tion of Brighton. The town is well built, and consists 
mostly of new and elegant streets and terraces. It is a 
favorite resort for the aristocracy and the opulent classes, 
has numerous magnificent hotels, two theatres, assembly- 
rooms, and many boarding-schools. Among its institutions 
are Brighton College, founded in 1847 for the education of 
the sons of noblemen, a hospital, and the Sussex Literary 
and Scientific Institution. Brighton returns two members 
to Parliament. Steamers ply between this place and Dieppe. 
A fine terrace, called the Marine Parade, extends about a 
mile between the Steyne and Kempton, an eastern suburb 
of Brighton. It has little or no maritime trade, and owes 
its rapid increase to the salubrity of the air and its attrac¬ 
tions to persons in pursuit of health and pleasure. It en¬ 
tertains, on an average, about 20,000 visitors. Pop. in 
1871, 90,013. 

Brighton, a port of entry of Northumberland co., On¬ 
tario, Dominion of Canada, on Lake Ontario and on the 
Grand Trunk Railway, 69 miles W. S. W. of Kingston. 
Pop. in 1871, 1357. 

Brighton, a post-township of Sacramento co., Cal., 
on the Central Pacific R. R., 5 miles E. of Sacramento. Pop. 
909. 

Brighton, a township of Cass co., Ia. Pop. 337. 

Brighton, a post-village of Washington co., Ia., is in 
Brighton township, 50 miles by railroad W. S. W. of Mus¬ 
catine. It has a national bank and one weekly newspaper. 
Pop. 785 ; of the township, 1384. 

Brighton, a post-village of Macoupin co., Ill. It has 
one weekly newspaper. 

Brighton, a post-twp. of Somerset co., Me. Pop. 627. 

Brighton, a former post-township and village of Mid¬ 
dlesex co., Mass. The village is on the Boston and Albany 
R. R., 5 miles W. of Boston, and has a public library, two 
national and one savings bank, and one weekly newspaper. 
Brighton has a celebrated cattle-market and abattoir, to¬ 
tal pop. 4967. The town of Brighton, and also the city of 
Charlestown and town of West Roxbury, were annexed to 
Boston Oct. 13, 1873, to become a part of that municipality 
Jan. 5, 1874. 














632 


BRIGHTON—BRISSOT BE WARVILLE. 


from which it may be distinguished by its want of tuber¬ 
cles on the upper surface, and by the color, which is a 
reddish sandy brown on the upper side, varied with darker 
brown, and sprinkled with white pearly sjiots. It seldom 
weighs more than eight pounds. 

Bril'liant [Fr. brillant], a diamond of fine quality 
formed into a number of facets, so as to refract and reflect 
the light, by which it is rendered more brilliant. It has a 
face or flat table in the middle on the top. (See Diamond.) 

BriFlion, a post-township of Calumet co., Wis. P. 672. 

Brim'fielil, a post-village and township of Peoria co., 
Ill., about 20 miles W. N. IV. of Peoria. Pop. 1517. 

Brimfield, a post-township of Hampden co., Mass. 
Pop. 1288. 

Brimfield, a post-township of Portage co., 0. Pop. 
913. 

BriiiPstonc, a commercial and common name for Sul¬ 
phur (which see), by Prof. C. F. Chandler. 

Brin'disi, a fortified seaport of Italy, province of 
Lecce, situated at the head of a bay of the Adriatic, 38 
miles by rail X. X. W. of Lecce; lat. of fort, 40° 39' X., 
Ion. 18° 1' E. The ancient Brundiaium was taken from 
the Sallentines by the Romans in 267 B. C., and was 
afterwards the principal naval station of the Piomans 
on the Adriatic. It had an excellent landlocked har¬ 
bor, and was long one of the most important maritime 
cities of Italy. It was the port from which the Romans 
embarked on the voyage to Greece. Virgil died here in 19 
B. C. The crusaders used it as their chief port of embarka¬ 
tion to the Holy Land. The harbor having become choked 
with sand, its importance greatly declined. Here is a medi¬ 
eval cathedral and an ancient castle. The large steamers 
of the Peninsular and Oriental Company now enter this 
port, which has recently been improved. Since 1860 the 
government has dredged the harbor, so that a depth of 
nearly six fathoms has been obtained, and has constructed 
two breakwaters and about 3000 feet of quay. The posi¬ 
tion of Brindisi has been rendered very advantageous 
for commerce by the opening of the Suez Canal. A rail¬ 
way extends from this town along the coast to Ancona, 
Milan, etc. Pop. 8403. 

Brind'ley (James), an eminent English mechanic and 
engineer, born at Thornset, in Derbyshire, in 1716. He 
made improvements in the machinery of mills, and was the 
engineer of a canal projected by the duke of Bridgewater 
from IVorsley to Manchester, and completed in 1761. This 
was the first navigable canal made in England. He was 
employed as engineer of other canals. Died Sejit. 27, 
1772. 

Brine Shrimp, an active, translucent crustacean, the 
Artemia salina, a branchiopod one inch long, found espe¬ 
cially in the half-evaporated sea-water of the salt-works 
of Lymington, England. The workmen believe that these 
animals clarify the brines, and they therefore are careful to 
put them into such brines as appear to be without them. 
They breed rapidly and become very numerous. Artemia 
fertilis is extremely abundant in the Great Salt Lake. 
Brink'ley’s, a twp. of Somerset co., Md. Pop. 2536.. 
Brinvilliers (Marie Marguerite d’Aubray), Mar¬ 
chioness of, a French woman notorious as a poisoner, was 
married in 1651 to the marquis de Brinvilliers. She poisoned 
her father, her sisters, and two of her brothers. For these 
crimes she was tried and put to death July 16, 1676. 

Brion (Gustave), a French artist of considerable repu¬ 
tation, was born at Rothau (Vosges) in 1824. His princi¬ 
pal pictures are the “ Potato Harvest during the Inunda¬ 
tion,” 1853 ; “ A Funeral in the Vosges,” 1855; 
“ A Marriage in Alsace ;” “ Jesus and Peter on the 
Water,” 1863 ; “The Dance of the Cock” (Alsace), 
1872. A picture by M. Brion, “ The Sixth Day of 
Creation,” exhibited in the Salon in 1867, was 
brought to Xew York in 1872, where it attracted 
much attention. Brion is an earnest painter, most 
at home in scenes in which the half-German, half 
French peasantry of Alsace take part. C. C. 

Bris'bane, a seaport and the capital of Queens¬ 
land, Australia, on Brisbane River, about 20 miles 
from its entrance into Moreton Bay, and about 600 
miles N. by E. of Sidney. Wool and other pro¬ 
duce are exported from this place. It is connected 
by rail with Ipswich and Dalby, and is in direct 
steamship communication with London and Liver¬ 
pool. It is the seat of an Anglican and a Roman 
Catholic bishop. Pop. in 1871, 19,413. 

Brissot de Warville (Jean Pierre), an emi¬ 
nent French Girondist and political writer, born 
coasts, and esteemed as food, though inferior to the turbot, | near Chartres Jan. 14,1754. Hepublishedin 1780a“Theory 


Brighton, a post-village and township of Livingston 
co., Mich., 43 miles S. E. of Lansing, on the Detroit Lan¬ 
sing and Lake Michigan R. R. The village is rapidly 
growing, has good water-power, a manufactory of pumps 
and cradles, a planing-mill, a foundry, a weekly newspaper, 
a graded school, and a public library. Pop. 454 ; of town¬ 
ship, 1440. G. IV. Axtell, Ed. “ Citizen.” 

B righton, a township of Franklin co., N. Y. Pop. 204. 

B righton, a post-village of Monroe co., X. Y., is in 
Brighton township, on the Erie Canal and the Central R. Pt., 
about 4 miles E. S. E. of Rochester. Pop. of township, 4304. 

B righton, a post-township of Lorain co., 0. Pop. 508. 

B righton, a township of Beaver co., Pa. The village 
of Brighton is on the IV. bank of Beaver River, nearly op¬ 
posite New Brighton (which see). Pop. 844. 

B righton, a post-township of Essex co., Vt. Pop. 
1535. It has manufactures of flour and lumber. 

Brighton, a post-village and township of Kenosha co., 
IVis., about 16 miles IV. S. IV. of Racine. Pop. 1185. 

Bright’s Disease (or Ne'phria), so called after the 
English physician, Dr. Bright, who first investigated its 
character, consists essentially of a degeneration of epithe¬ 
lium of the kidneys. This impairs the excreting powers 
of the organ, so that the urea is not properly removed from 
the blood. The disease is characterized by albuminuria. 
When we apply heat and nitric acid to the urine from a kid¬ 
ney so affected, albumen is coagulated; under the micro¬ 
scope we observe moulds of the tubules of the diseased organ. 
Headache and sickness of stomach are common symptoms, 
and dropsy usually attends the disease. The retina is usu¬ 
ally attacked by a degenerative inflammatory disease, which 
impairs the sight, and is detected by the ophthalmoscope. 

The causes are, indulgence in strong drinks, exposure 
to wet and cold, gout, and syphilis. The indications for 
treatment are, to remove any of those causes which may 
be present, relieve congestion of the kidneys, at the same 
time endeavoring to increase strength by iron and other 
tonics. When considerable dropsy occurs, cathartics may 
be called for. Bright’s disease may be either acute or 
chronic. The prospect of recovery is small, but jiatients 
sometimes attain a comfortable, but generally a precarious, 
degree of health. Revised by Willard Parker. 

B rights / ville,a township of Marlboro’ co., S. C. P. 857. 

Brigittines, or Order of the Saviour, a monastic 
order affiliated with the Augustiuians, founded by Saint 
Bridget of Sweden in 1344. It originally included monks 
and nuns, who lived in the same house, but were forbidden 
to see each other. There are at present few if any Brigit- 
tinc monks, and not many nuns. Sion House was the only 
English convent. (Ecolampadius, the Reformer, was once 
a Brigittine monk. 

Brignoles, a town in the S. E. of France, department 
of Var, is beautifully situated in a valley on the small 
river Calami, 23 miles S. IV. of Draguignan. It has a 
normal school, a public library, and manufactures of broad¬ 
cloth, silk twist, pottery, soap, and leather. Pop. 5945. 

B ri'gus, a port of entry and post-town, capital'of 
Brigus district, Xewfoundland. It has a small but good 
harbor, having over 820 cod-fishing boats and 30 trading 
vessels, and is visited by steamers from St. John’s. It has 
a convent of Sisters of Mercy and a jail. It has consider¬ 
able agriculture. Pop. about 2000. 

Bril (Paul) , fin eminent landscape-painter, was born at 
Antwerp in 1556. He was a pupil of his brother Mattheus, 
and worked for many years in Rome, where he died in 1626. 

Brill (Rhombus vubjaris), a fish found on the British 



The Brill. 
















BRISTED—BRISTOL CHANNEL. 


of Criminal Laws.” In 1785 he was unjustly imprisoned in 
the Bastile for about four months. With the aid of his friends 
he founded about 1788 the “ Society of the Friends of the 
Negroes,” and visited the U. S. to promote the abolition of 
the slave-trade. After his return to France he founded and 
edited the “ Patriote Frangais,” an able republican journal. 
In 1791 he was elected to the National Assembly by the 
voters of Paris. He was so prominent a leader of the 
Girondists that they were often called Brissotins. Having 
been elected to the Convention, he opposed the execution 
of the king. He w'as guillotined in Paris Oct. 31, 1793. 
(See Brissot’s “ Memoires pour servir a l’Histoire de la 
Revolution,” published by his son, 4 vols., 1830.) 

Bris'ted (Charles Astor), son of the following, born 
in New York Oct. 6, 1820, educated at Yale College, New 
Haven, and Trinity College, Cambridge, author of an edition 
of Catullus (1849), “ Five Years in an English University” 
(1851, revised 1872), “The Upper Ten Thousand” (1852), 
“Pieces of a Broken-down Critic” (1858), “The Inter¬ 
ference Theory of Government” (1867), “Anacreontics” 
(1872), and a frequent contributor to leading periodicals. 
Died at Washington, D. C., Jan. 14, 1874. 

Bristed (John), an Episcopal clergyman, born in 1779 
in Dorsetshire, England, educated at Winchester School, re¬ 
moved to America in 1806, and practised law in New York, 
studied divinity and was ordained in the Episcopal Church. 
He was author of “Resources of the British Empire,” “ Re¬ 
sources of the U. S.,” and “Anglo-American Churches.” 
Died at Bristol, R. I., in 1854. 

B ris'tle [Lat. seta], the name of the stiff* strong hairs 
which grow on the backs of swine, and are used exten¬ 
sively in the manufacture of brushes; also by shoemakers 
and saddlers as substitutes for needles. Bristles are an 
important article of commerce. There is a great variety 
in their color and quality. The white are considered the 
most valuable. The best bristles are obtained from the 
hogs of cold climates, as from Russia. 

Bris'tol, an important maritime city of England, situ¬ 
ated on the Avon at its confluence with the Frome, 8 miles 
from the sea, lli miles by rail N. W. of Bath, and 118 miles 
by rail W. of London; lat. 51° 27' N., Ion. 2° 35' W. It 
is chiefly in the county of Gloucester, and partly in Somer¬ 
setshire, and it occupies several hills and valleys. It is 
the terminus of the Great Western, the Bristol and Exeter, 
and the Midland Railways. Bristol returns two members 
to Parliament. Among its remarkable buildings are the 
cathedral, which was founded about 1150; the fine church 
of St. Mary Redcliffe, which was completed in 1376; the 
Temple church, which has a leaning tower; the guildhall; 
the exchange, used as a corn-market; and the new general 
hospital. The modern portions of Bristol, including Clif¬ 
ton and other suburbs, consist of handsome residences in 
squares, terraces, crescents, and detached villas. This city 
has a public library, a bishop's college, a medical school, 
an infirmary, an asylum for the blind, an asylum for deaf- 
mutes, and other benevolent institutions. The Avon here, 
though narrow, is deep enough for large vessels. About 
£650,000 have been expended in turning this river into a 
new course, and its old channel now forms a harbor fur¬ 
nished with locks and qua 3 T s 6000 feet long. Bristol was 
the first British port between which and the U. S. a regular 
communication by steam was established. It has an exten¬ 
sive trade with Canada, the U. S., the West Indies, France, 
Russia, the shores of the Mediterranean, etc. The chief 
articles of export are copper, iron, brass, coal, salt, and 
manufactured goods. The manufactures of this city are 
chiefly cotton goods, refined sugar, glass, woollen goods, 
chemical products, machinery, and earthenware. Here are 
extensive shipyards, which turn out excellent vessels. This 
place was called Caer-oder by the Britons, and Bricstoice or 
Briestow by the Anglo-Saxons. A fortified town existed 
here as early as 500 A. D. It was formerly the second com¬ 
mercial city in England. During the civil war it was taken 
alternately by Royalists and Roundheads. Among the dis¬ 
tinguished natives of Bristol were Sebastian Cabot and the 
poets Chatterton and Southey. Pop. in 1871, 182,524. 

Bris'tol, a county in the S. E. of Massachusetts. Area, 
517 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by Buzzard’s 
Bay, and is drained by the Taunton River and other 
streams, which afford water-power. It has many good 
harbors on the sea-coast. The surface is nearly level; the 
soil is partly fertile. Garden products, wool, and grain 
are raised. The manufactures of iron, cotton and woollen 
goods, etc. are very important. It is intersected by several 
railroads. Capitals, Taunton and New Bedford. Pop. 
102 , 886 . 

Bristol, a county in the E. of Rhode Island. Area, 25 
square miles. It is washed on several sides by Narragan- 
sett Bay and Mount Hope Bay, and has great facilities for 
navigation and the fisheries. The soil is fertile, and the 


633 


surface is finely diversified. Hay, grain, garden products, 
and wool are raised. It is intersected by the Providence 
Warren and Bristol R. R. Capital, Bristol. Pop. 9421. 

Bristol, a post-village of Hartford co., Conn., in Bris¬ 
tol township, on the Hartford Providence and Fishkill R.R., 
18 miles W. S. W. of Hartford. It has one weekly paper, 
a large manufacture of clocks, several foundries, machine- 
shops, stocking-mills, and a printing-office. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 3788. Ed. of “ Bristol Press.” 

Bristol, a post-village, capital of Liberty co., Fla., 59 
miles S. W. of Tallahassee. 

Bristol, a post-village and township of Kendall co., 
Ill., on Fox River and the Chicago Burlington and Quincy 
R. R., 49 miles W. S. W. of Chicago. Pop. 1352. 

Bristol, a post-village and township of Worth co., Ia., 
is about 20 miles S. of Albert Lea, Minn. Pop. 503. 

Bristol, a post-village of Washington township, Elk¬ 
hart co., Ind. Pop. 681. 

Bristol, a post-township of Lincoln co., Me., on the 
Atlantic Ocean. It has important manufactures of lum¬ 
ber, fish oil, barrels, etc. It is on the site of the old city 
and port of Pemaquid, and was first settled in 1625, unless, 
as is believed by some, the Dutch settled here still earlier. 
Pop. 2916. 

Bristol, a township of Fillmore co., Minn. Pop. 993. 

Bristol, a post-township of Grafton co., N. II., on the 
Bristol branch of the Northern R. R. This town has a 
deposit of good graphite, and a mineral spring. It has 
manufactures of leather, lumber, gloves, paper, hosiery, 
flannels, etc. It has a high school and a savings bank. 
Pop. 1416. 

Bristol, a post-township of Ontario co., N. Y. P. 1551. 

Bristol, a post-township of Morgan co., O. Pop. 1469. 

Bristol, a township of Trumbull co., 0. Pop. 983. 

Bristol, a post-borough of Bucks co., Pa., on the Dela¬ 
ware River, 19 miles above Philadelphia, and nearly oppo¬ 
site Burlington, N. J. It is on the Philadelphia and 
Trenton R. R., and has almost hourly communication with 
Philadelphia by steamboats. Here is a national bank, a 
valuable mineral spring, and one quarterly and one weekly 
newspaper. Pop. 3269; of township, 2040. 

Bristol, a port of entry and capital of Bristol co., R. I., 
is on Narragansett Bay, 16 miles S. S. E. of Providence 
and 7 miles S. W. of Fall River. It has a good harbor, 
which is easy of access and will admit large vessels. It is 
on the Providence Warren and Bristol R. R. A beautiful 
eminence called Mount Hope rises about 300 feet high in 
Bristol township, which has an area of 12 square miles. 
It has two national banks, and manufactures of cotton 
goods and other articles. It has one weekly newspaper. 
Pop. of Bristol township, 5302. 

Bristol, a city of Sullivan co., Tenn., is situated partly 
in Washington co., Va., on the East Tennessee Virginia and 
Georgia R. R., 130 miles E. N. E. of Knoxville. It is a 
thriving place, and the seat of King College. It has one 
weekly and one monthly newspaper in Tennessee, and one 
weekty newspaper in Virginia. 

Bristol, a post-township and village of Addison co., 
Vt., about 25 miles S. of Burlington. It has an academy, 
and manufactures of lumber, furniture, barrel staves, boxes, 
sash and blinds, agricultural tools, etc. Pop. 1365. 

Bristol, a township of Dane co., Wis. Pop. 1274. 

Bristol, a post-village in Bristol township, Kenosha 
co., Wis., is on a railroad, 12 miles W. by S. of Kenosha. 
Pop. of the township, 1140. 

Bristol, Marquesses of (1826, in the United King¬ 
dom), earls of Bristol (1714, in Great Britain), Earls Jer- 
myn (1826, in the United Kingdom!, and Barons Ilervey 
(1703, in England), a noble family of Great Britain.— 
Frederick William John Heryey, the third marquess, 
born June 28, 1834, succeeded his father in 1864. He was 
member of Parliament for West Suffolk 1859-64. 

Bristol Bay, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, in North 
America, between Cape Newnham and the peninsula of 
Alaska. 

Bristol Brick, or Bath Brick, a variety of brick 
used for scouring steel table-cutlery and other polished 
steel surfaces. It is made at various places in England 
and the U. S., a peculiar fine sand being used in the 
manufacture. 

Bristol Channel, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, in 
the S. W. part of England, is bounded on the N. by Wales 
and on the S. by Somerset and Devonshire. At the E. end 
it communicates with the estuary of the Severn.. It is the 
largest inlet of Great Britain, and has a coast-line ot -20 
miles. The tides rise hero to an extraordinary height at 










634 


BRISTOW STATION—BRIVE. 


Bristol about forty, and at Chepstow sometimes seventy, 
feet. The principal bays and harbors of this channel are 
Swansea Bay, Caermarthen Bay, Cardiff Road, the Severn 
Estuary, and Barnstable Bay. 

Bris'tow Sta'tion, a post-village of Prince William 
co., Va., on the Orange and Alexandria It. R., 4 miles 
W. S. W. of Manassas Junction. A severe engagement 
took place here the afternoon of Aug. 27, 1862, between the 
U. S. forces under Gen. Hooker and the Confederates under 
Gen. Ewell, darkness closing the conflict, with severe loss 
on both sides. On Oct. 14,1863, the Confederate general A. 
P. Hill attacked the force under command of Gen. G. Iv. 
Warren, U. S. A., at this place; the attack was handsomely 
repulsed by Warren, who captured several pieces of artil¬ 
lery and many prisoners. 

Brit, the Clupea minima, a very small species of herring 
found on the coasts of New England and the British prov¬ 
inces of North America. It occurs in immense shoals, but 
is only from one to four inches long, and is chiefly import¬ 
ant as furnishing food to larger fishes. 

Britan'nia, the ancient name of the island of Great 
Britain. It was inhabited by rude, uncivilized tribes of 
Britons (Lat. Britanni), who were perhaps, but not prob¬ 
ably, the aborigines, when Julius Cmsar invaded the island 
in 55 B. C. Their religion was a sanguinary Druidism. 
Many of the Britons were Cymric Celts, while those 
of the northei'n part were probably largely Gaelic. (See 
Briton.) They obstinately resisted the Roman invaders, 
but without success, and the southern half of the island 
was conquered by the armies of Vespasian. In the reign 
of Domitian, Agricola extended Roman power to Scotland, 
and erected a chain of forts between the friths of Clyde 
and Forth about 84 A. D. The northern part of the island 
was inhabited by the Caledonians and Piets, whom the Ro¬ 
mans failed to subdue. These warlike barbarians made 
frequent inroads into the southern province, to obviate 
which the Romans built the wall of Antoninus about 140 
A. D. Another rampart, called the Wall of Hadrian, ex¬ 
tending from Solway Frith to the mouth of the Tyne, was 
completed by Severus about 210 A. D. The part of the 
island S. of this wall was for several centuries under the 
dominion of the Romans, who founded many towns ( muni - 
cipia), and diffused Roman culture, arts, and civilization 
in the country. They made numerous roads from London 
to the provinces, the remains of which are still visible. 
Many parts of England abound in Roman antiquities, in¬ 
cluding remains of camps, baths, mosaic pavements, weap¬ 
ons, ornaments, utensils, pottery, sculptures, and coins. It 
appears that the Romans intended to keep Britain as a 
permanent conquest, but in consequence of the internal 
disorders and external dangers that menaced the stability 
of the Roman empire, the legions were withdrawn from 
the island about 420 A. D., soon after which it was invaded 
and conquered by the Saxons. It is said that Caesar was 
the first who gave the name Britannia to this island, which 
before his time was called Albion. The term Britannicse 
Insulte, however, was applied to the British Islands collec¬ 
tively before Caesar invaded Albion. Britannia is usually 
personified in the fine arts as a woman seated on an insu¬ 
lated rock, leaning on a shield and holding in her hand a 
spear or trident. (See Camden, “ Britannia; ” Horseley, 
“ Britannia Romana.”) 

Britan'nia Met'al, an alloy of tin with a little anti¬ 
mony, zinc, and copper, is largely used in the manufacture 
of coffee-pots, tea-pots, and other vessels. It is harder than 
pewter, and not so easily indented or bent. The propor¬ 
tions of the metals combined to make this alloy are various. 
The average composition in 100 parts is—tin, 85£; anti¬ 
mony, 101; zinc, 3; and copper, 1. The present composi¬ 
tion of the alloy used at Birmingham, England, is stated 
to be 90 of tin, 8 of antimony, 2 of copper. 

Brit'ish Amer'ica is usually applied to that portion 
of North America which lies N. of the parallel 49° N., ex¬ 
cept Alaska. It also extends several degrees farther S., 
where the great lakes form the boundary between it and 
the U. S. It is bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean, 
on the E. by the Atlantic and Davis Strait, on the S. by 
the U. S., and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean and Alaska. 
The Rocky Mountain chain extends through the western 
part. The principal rivers are the St. Lawrence, the 
Mackenzie, the Saskatchewan, and the Churchill. It con¬ 
tains several large lakes—namely, Winnipeg, Athabasca, 
and Great Slave Lake, and includes a large inland sea, 
named Hudson’s Bay. This vast region was formerly di¬ 
vided into numerous territories or provinces, but in 1873 
the whole of it had been admitted into the Dominion of 
Canada, with the exception of Newfoundland and Labrador. 

British America, in a more extended sense, comprises 
all the British possessions in America, including British 
Guiana, the British West Indies, etc. 


British Burmali. See Burmah, British. 

British Colinn'Ma, a province of the Dominion of 
Canada, is bounded on the S. by the U. S. (Washington, 
Idaho, and Montana), on the E. by the Rocky Mountains, 
and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. It includes the im¬ 
portant islands of Queen Charlotte and Vancouver (which 
last was formerly by itself a British colony). British Co¬ 
lumbia was united to Canada in 1871. The soil of portions 
of the province near the sea is good, and the climate mild, 
though rainy ; but in the interior the surface is extremely 
rugged and the climate is severe. The coast-line is cha¬ 
racterized by remarkable fiords, called “ canals,” which are 
often walled in by mountains. Furs are largely exported. 
There is much valuable timber, and the fisheries promise 
to become important. Cod, haddock, herring, halibut, 
trout, sturgeon, anchovies, and especially salmon, abound. 
There is much fine grazing-land. Large amounts of gold 
have been obtained here, and silver, copper, zinc, mercury, 
coal, and marble are found. Estimated area, 240,000 square 
miles. Capital, Victoria. Pop. in 1871, exclusive of In¬ 
dians, 14,043. Total pop. estimated at 50,000. The best 
harbor is at Esquimault. British Columbia has an Angli¬ 
can bishop, whose seat is at New Westminster. 

Certain islands in the Strait of San Juan de Fuca, hav¬ 
ing been claimed by both the U. S. and Great Britain, were 
held under joint military occupation until Oct., 1872, when 
by a decision of the emperor William I. of Germany, to 
whom the dispute was referred, they became L T . S. territory. 
These islands, of which San Juan is the most important, 
are ten in number. Their entire population in 1870, ex¬ 
clusive of the garrisons, was 554. 

British Empire. See Great Britain and Ireland. 

British Guiana. See Guiana. 

British Gum. See Dextrine, by Prof. C. F. Chan¬ 
dler, Ph. D., LL.D. 

British India. See India. 

Brit'ish Muse'um, The, in London, was established 
in 1753 by act of Parliament in pursuance of a bequest of 
Sir Hans Sloane to the nation of his cabinets of natural 
history and library, numbering 50,000 volumes, in return for 
a sum of £20,000 to be paid to his heirs. The palace of 
the duke of Montague on Russel street was purchased for 
the reception of the collection. In 1801 the Elgin Marbles, 
in 1823 the library of George III., containing 80,000 vol¬ 
umes, were added to the museum, and it has been subse¬ 
quently enriched.by the Granville library, the Sir William 
Temple coin cabinets, the Layard and Loftus collection of 
Assyrian, and the Lady Webster collection of Mexican, an¬ 
tiquities, and other extensive accessions. The building was 
in 1823-47 enlarged and renovated at a cost of £150,000. 
The library numbers at present 750,000 volumes, besides 
41,180 MSS. and 33,000 documents and state papers. The 
collections of antiquities are altogether the completest in 
Europe. The museum contains also the finest collection 
of vases, among them the famous Portland Vase, and the 
largest collections of Greek and Roman sculpture in the 
world, and the cabinets of natural objects embrace every 
province of science. 

Brit'on, a native or citizen of ancient Britain or Bri¬ 
tannia (which see); a name given to the aboriginal or 
ancient inhabitants of that island. When Caesar invaded 
Albion about 54 B. C., he found in it two different peoples. 
The interior was occupied by the primitive or indigenous 
Celtic inhabitants, who had been driven back from the 
coasts by a people of probable Gothic descent. The latter 
had colonized the S. E.part of the island, and were less 
numerous than the Celtic Britons. The language of the 
Southern Celtic Britons was very similar to the present 
Welsh. ‘‘ The Gaels and Britons,” says R. G. Latham, 

“ are the fundamental populations of the British Isles. The 
Piets were either aboriginal or intrusive. If aboriginal, 
they were like the Gaels and Britons, Keltic.” (See Picts.) 
When Csesar invaded the island, the Britons were divided 
into a number of petty kingdoms or states. Some of these 
were called Silures, Brig antes, Ordovices, Trinob antes, and 
Cantii. Their religion was Druidism. (See Druids.) The 
primitive Britons were brave and warlike, but, in conse¬ 
quence of their divisions, they were conquered by the Ro¬ 
mans without much difficulty. They were rude barbarians, 
who painted their bodies blue. The term Briton is often 
applied to a modern inhabitant of Great Britain. 

Brittany. See Bretagne. 

Brit'ton’s Neck, a post-township of Marion co., S. C. 
Pop. 884. 

Britt’s, a township of Robeson co., N. C. Pop. 1159. 

Brive, or Brives-la-Gaillarde, a town of France, 
department of Correze, is situated in a rich plain on the 
river Correze, 44 miles by rail E. of P6rigueux. It has 













BROADALBIN—BROCKEN, THE. 635 


manufactures of muslins, woollen stuffs, silk handkerchiefs, 
etc.; also a college and public library. Pop. 10,389. 

Broadal'bin, a post-township of Fulton co., N. Y. 
It contains several mills and factories. Pop. 2492. 

Broad Arrow, the British government mark placed 
upon all solid materials used in ships or dockyards, to pre¬ 
vent embezzlement of royal stores. The origin of the mark 
is obscure. Before 1698 the authorities prosecuted a dealer 
in marine-stores for having in his possession certain stores 
bearing the broad arrow of his majesty. The defendant, 
when asked what he had to say, replied that it was very 
curious that the king and he should both have the same 
private mark on their property. The man was acquitted, 
and this led to the passing of a law that persons in pos¬ 
session of stores or goods of any kind marked with the 
broad arrow shall forfeit all such goods, with £200 and 
costs. 

Broad Bay, a township of Forsyth co., N. C. Pop. 993. 

Broad'cast, in agriculture, is a method of sowing 
seeds by casting or scattering them abroad, so as to dis¬ 
tribute them evenly over the entire surface of the soil, in¬ 
stead of planting them in drills or rows. The operation 
of sowing broadcast is generally performed by the hand 
of a man, who carries the seeds in a bag or basket. Clover 
and timothy seeds are usually sown in this method. In 
the U. S., wheat, barley, and oats are often sown broadcast. 

Broad'cloth, a woollen fabric about four and a half 
feet wide, extensively used for coats. The best quality of 
this article is manufactured in France, Cermany, and 
England. 

Broad Creek, a hundred of Sussex co., Del. Pop. 3480. 

Broad'dus (Rev. Andrew), D. D., born in Caroline co., 
Va., Nov. 4, 1770, died Dec. 1, 1848. The “Dover Selec¬ 
tion” of hymns and the “Virginia Collection,” compiled 
by him, were long popular in several States; and he “ was 
commonly regarded as the most eloquent preacher ever 
known in Virginia.” A rare timidity led him to decline 
the pastorate of leading Baptist churches in Boston, New 
York, Philadelphia, and various Southern cities, and he 
lived and died a country pastor. Some of his sermons, 
with a memoir by J. B. Jeter, D. D., were published in 
New York in 1852. 

Broad'hagen, a post-village of Logan township, 
Perth co., Ontario (Canada), 60 miles N. of London. It 
has a weekly paper. Pop. about 200. 

Broad'kiln, a hundred of Sussex co., Del. Pop. 2419. 

Broad Mountain, a high ridge in the anthracite 
coal-region of Pennsylvania, in Carbon and Schuylkill 
cos. It has an altitude of about 2000 feet above the sea, 
and is nearly 50 miles long. Its direction is nearly N. E. 
and S. W. The Mine Hill R. R. crosses this mountain. 

Broad River of the U. S. rises at the foot of the Blue 
Ridge, in the W. part of North Carolina. Having entered 
South Carolina, it flows in a S. S. E. direction through fer¬ 
tile uplands, and unites with the Saluda at Columbia to 
form the Congaree. Total length, estimated at 150 miles. 

Broad River, a township of McDowell co., N. C. Pop. 
399. 

Broad River, a township of Lexington co., S. C. 
Pop. 1116. 

Broad River, a township of York co., S. C. Pop. 1455. 

Broad Run, a township of Loudon co., Va. Pop. 2582. 

Broad'side, in naval warfare, is the simultaneous dis¬ 
charge of all the guns on one side of a ship of war. The 
fighting power of a ship is sometimes estimated by the 
weight of her broadside. That of some British war- 
steamers amounts to 2400 pounds. In printing, a broad¬ 
side is a sheet of paper containing one large page or 
printed on one side only. 

Broad/sword, a sword with a broad blade, adapted 
for cutting, but not for stabbing. It is not sharp-pointed. 
The broadsword was especially used in Scotland. 

Broad Top, a township of Bedford co., Pa. Pop. 1626. 

Broad Top, a post-village of Carbon township, Hunt¬ 
ingdon co., Pa., near the E. terminus of the Broad Top 
City branch of the Huntingdon and Broad Top R. R. 
Pop. 327. 

Broad Top Mountain, Pennsylvania, is in the N. E. 
part of Bedford co. and the S. part of Huntingdon. It 
rises about 2500 feet above the level of the sea. Here are 
extensive beds of bituminous coal, for the transportation 
of which a railroad has been opened from this mountain to 
Huntingdon. 

Rroad'us (John Albert), D. D., LL. D., born Jan. 24, 
1827, in Culpeper co., Va., graduated at the University 
of Virginia in 1850, was assistant professor in that univer¬ 


sity in 1851-53, its chaplain in 1855-57, and pastor of 
the Baptist church in Charlottesville, Va. (the seat of the 
university), from 1851 to 1859, since which time he has 
been professor of the interpretation of the New Testament 
and of homiletics in the Southern Baptist Theological 
Seminary, Greenville, S. C. In 1870 he published an ex¬ 
cellent “ Treatise on the Preparation and Delivery of Ser¬ 
mons,” which has passed through several editions, and was 
republished in London. 

Broad'way, a township of Anderson co., S. C. Pop. 
1378. 

BroadAvell, a post-township of Logan co., Ill. Pop. 
920. 

Brocade [It. broccatd], a silk fabric variegated with 
gold and silver threads, or a silk fabric on which figures of 
flowers, foliage, or other objects are formed by the threads 
of the warp and woof being raised by the Jacquard loom or 
other means. Brocade bears nearly the same relation to 
silk textures as damask to linen fabrics. 

Broc'chi (Giovanni Battista), an Italian naturalist, 
born at Bassano Feb. 18, 1772. He published, besides 
other works, “ Sub-Apennine Fossil Conchology, with 
Geological Observations on the Apennines, etc.” (2 vols., 
1814). During a journey to Sennaar he died at Ivhartoom, 
on the Nile, Sept. 28, 1826. 

B roc'coli, a highly-esteemed garden vegetable, a va¬ 
riety of the cabbage (Brassica olercicea ). It has consider¬ 
able resemblance to cauliflower, from which it differs by the 
purple or green color of its heads, and its greater hardness. 
It is propagated by sowing the seeds in the spring or in 
autumn, and transplanting the young plants once or twice. 
The leaves are often tinged with purple. There are several 
kinds of broccoli, some of which are preferred for soAving in 
early spring. Others are sown in autumn, and are ready 
for use in the ensuing spring. 

Brock (Sir Isaac), a British general, born Oct. 6, 1769, 
who in 1812 captured General Hull and his army at De¬ 
troit. He was killed at the battle of Queenstown Oct. 13, 
1812. 

Brock'en, The, or Blocks'berg (anc. Mona Jiruc- 
terua), a mountain of Prussia, in the province of Saxony, 20 
miles W. S. W. of Halberstadt, is the highest summit of the 
Ilartz Mountains, and is 3740 feet aboA^e the level of the 
sea. It is cultivated nearly to the top, which commands a 
fine vieAv in clear Aveather. The Brocken is the cradle of 
many popular superstitions. It is, according to an ancient 



The Spectre of the Brocken. 

belief, the scene of the annual dance of the Avitches on V al- 
purgis Night (May 1st). This superstition, in all proba¬ 
bility, owes its origin to tho phenomenon knoAvn as “ The 
Spectre of the Brocken,” seen hero and clsoAvhere, which is 








































BROCKETT—BROILING. 



simply the reflection of the forms of men and other objects 
against the sky, the vapors of the atmosphere acting as a 
vast concave mirror ; hence the objects reflected are seen 
greatly magnified. 

Brock'ett (Linits Pierpont), A. M., M. D., born Oct. 16, 
1820, at Canton, Hartford co., Conn., educated at Suffield 
Literary Institution and Ilrown University, entering the 
latter in 1887. He studied medicine in New Haven, Conn., 
Washington, D. C., and New York City, and graduated as 

M. D. from Yale Medical College in 1843. After practising 
his profession for some years, he devoted himself to literary 
pursuits at Hartford, Conn., and from 1847 to 1857 was 
partner in a publishing-house in that city. Resuming 
literary labor in 1856, he has been since connected with 
several religious newspapers, was a large contributor to the 
“New American Cyclopaedia/’ and has had charge of 
several departments in the “American Annual Cyclopaedia” 
from its beginning in 1862 to the present time. In 1857, 
Amherst College conferred on him the honorary degree of 
A. M. He has published many works, among which the 
following are best known : “ Geographical History of New 
York,” 1847 (with J. H. Mather); “ History of Education,” 
1859; “The National Almanac for 1863/’ “History of the 
Civil War” (with S. M. Schmucker), 3 vols., and 1 vol. 8vo, 
1866; “Our Great Captains,” 1865; “Philanthropic Re¬ 
sults of the Civil War,” 1864; “Woman’s AVork in the 
Civil AA r ar,” 1867; “Men of Our Day,” 1868 (revised and 
mostly written anew, 1872); “ AVoman, her Rights, AA r rongs, 
Privileges, and Responsibilities,” 1869; “ The Year of 
Battles, a History of the Franco-German AVar of 1870-71,” 
1871; and “Epidemic and Contagious Diseases: their His¬ 
tory, Symptoms, and Treatment,” 1873. He has also edited 
and largely rewritten “A Hundred Years’ Progress of the 
U. S.,” 1871-73; the American biographies of “Men of 
the Time,” 8th ed., London, 1872; “Una and her Pau¬ 
pers,” 1872; “The Thorough Business-Man: Life of 
Walter Powell,” 1873; and has been a frequent contributor 
to magazine and review literature, etc. 

Brockett’s Bridge, a post-village of Manheim town¬ 
ship, Herkimer co., and Oppenheim township, Fulton co., 

N. Y., on East Canada Creek, has a cheese-factory, box- 
shop, tannery, and two churches. 

Brock'haus (Friedrich Arnold), an eminent German 
publisher, born at Dortmund May 4, 1772. He was the 
founder of the firm of Brockhaus in Leipsic, and imblished 
six editions of the “ Conversations-Lexikou.” He was 
distinguished for his literary culture, enterprise, and 
patriotism. He became a citizen of Leipsic in 1817. Died 
Aug. 20, 1823.— Heinrich, a son of the preceding, was 
born at Amsterdam Feb. 4, 1804. He succeeded his father 
as proprietor of the publishing-house, and published new 
editions of the “ Conversations-Lexikon.” — Herman, a 
brother of the preceding, was born at Amsterdam Jan. 
28, 1806. He became professor of Sanscrit at Leipsic in 
1848. Since 1856 he has been editor-in-chief of Ersch and 
Gruber’s “Allgcmeine Encyklopadie.” 

Brock'port, a post-village of Monroe co., N. Y., on the 
Erie Canal and the New York Central R. R., 17 miles A4 r . 
of Rochester. It is in the heart of a wealthy and populous 
farming country. It has two well-sustained newspapers, 
eight churches, and two banks. It has an extensive trade 
in beans. A State normal school, accommodating from 
400 to 500 students, is located here; also the Johnston 
harvester works (200 men employed) and Seymour & 
Morgan mower and reaper works (150 men employed), 
Ithaca wheel-rake works, and other manufactories. Pop. 
2817. JonNSON Brigham, Ed. “Brockport Democrat.” 

Brock’s, a township of Etowah co., Ala. Pop. 490. 

Brock’s, a township of Henry co., Ala. Pop. 663. 

Brock’s Gap, a township of Rockingham co., Va. 
Pop. 1366. 

Brock'ville, a port of entry of Ontario, Canada, cap¬ 
ital of the county of Leeds, on the St. Lawrence River and 
the Grand Trunk Railway, 125 miles by railway S. AA r . of 
Montreal and 75 miles by railway S. of Ottawa. Hardware, 
chemicals, white lead, gloves, farming tools, steam-engines, 
and machinery are manufactured here. It is the southern 
terminus of the Brockville and Ottawa Railway. It is 
connected by ferry with Morristown, N. Y., and has three 
weekly papers. Pop. in 1871, 5102. 

Brock'way, a post-township of St. Clair co., Mich. 
Pop. 1330. 

Brock'wayville, a post-village of Jefferson co., Pa. 
It has one weekly newspaper. 

Broc'ton, a post-village of Portland township, Chatau- 
qua co., N. Y., at the junction of the Lake Shore and Buf¬ 
falo Corry and Pittsburg R. Rs. It is the seat of a religious 
community established here in 1847 by T. L. Harris. P. 329. 




Bro'derick (David Colbretii), an American Senator, 
born at Washington, D. C., in 1818. Having removed to 
California in 1849, he was elected a Senator of the U.S. by 
the Democrats in 1856. He opposed the extension of 
slavery, and in 1858 ceased to act with the Democratic 
party. He was killed in a duel by Judge Terry, a political 
opponent, near San Francisco, Sept. 21, 1859. 

Brod'head, an incorporated village of Decatur town¬ 
ship, Green co., AVis., beautifully situated on Sugar River 
and on the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 90 miles AV. of 
Milwaukee, has a large graded school, five churches, a 
printing-office, a national bank, a foundry, machine-shops, 
wagon and carriage factories, large flouring mill, etc., one 
weekly paper, and an extensive trade. The country sur¬ 
rounding is exceedingly fertile. Pop. 1548. 

E. O. Kimberley, Pub. “Brodiiead Independent.” 

Brod'head (John Romeyn), LL.D., an American his¬ 
torian, son of Rev. Dr. Jacob Brodhead, was born in 
Philadelphia Jan. 2, 1814, graduated at Rutgers College in 
1831, and was admitted to the bar in New York City in 
1835. After two years he began to devote himself to the 
study of American history. In 1839 he went to Holland 
as secretary of the U. S. legation at The Hague. In 1841 
he was appointed by Governor Seward to search out and 
copy documents relating to the early history of New York. 
When he returned in 1844 he brought with him more than 
5000 separate documents, which led Mr. Bancroft to say that 
“the ship in which he returned was more richly freighted 
with new materials for American history than any that had 
ever crossed the Atlantic.” These documents were after¬ 
wards pmblished in eleven quarto volumes. From 1846 to 
1849 he was secretary of legation under Mr. Bancroft in 
London. From 1853 to 1857 he was naval officer of the 
port of New York, and in 1855 declined the appointment of 
consul-general to Japan. Years of patient labor were be¬ 
stowed upon his “ History of the State of New York,” the 
first volume of which appeared in 1853, and the second in 
1871. After two or three years of declining health, he died 
in New York City May 6, 1873. He was a high-toned 
Christian scholar and gentleman. As an historian he was 
scrupulously exact and fair. 

Bro'die (Sir Benjamin Collins), D. C. L., F. R. S., an 
English surgeon, born in AAGltshire June 9, 1783, became in 
1832 surgeon to AA'illiam IV., and was created a baronet in 
1834. Among his works are “Lectures on Local Nervous 
Affections” (1837) and “Psychological Inquiries as to the 
Mental Faculties” (1854). He received the Copley medal of 
the Royal Society in 1811 for his contributions to physiol¬ 
ogy. Died Oct. 21, 1862. (See his “Autobiography,” 1865.) 

■—His son, Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, Bart., F. R. S., 
born Feb. 5, 1817, is professor of chemistry at Oxford. 

Bro'dy, formerly called Lubicz, a trading town of 
Austria, in Galicia, is near the Russian frontier, 50 miles 
E. N. E. of Lemberg. It has an imperial chamber, a the¬ 
atre, and a castle; also manufactures of linen and leather. 
The majority of its inhabitants are Jews. It has an exten¬ 
sive trade with Russia, Poland, and Turkey. Pop. 18,733. 

Broffe'rio (Angelo), a celebrated Italian poet, dram¬ 
atist, and radical politician, born Dec. 6, 1802. Among 
his works are a “ History of Piedmont,” the dramas of “ Sal¬ 
vator Rosa” and “ The Return of the Exile,” and a num¬ 
ber of lyrics; among them, “ L’lnno di Guerra,” called the 
Italian Marseillaise. Died May 25, 1866. 

Brog'den, a township of AA'ayne co., N. C. Pop. 2560. 

Broglie, de (Achille Leonce A’ictor Charles), Due, 
a French statesman, was born in Paris Nov. 28, 1785. He 
married in 1816 the daughter of Madame de Stael. He was 
a friend of Guizot, and co-operated with him as a leader of 
the party called Doctrinaires. He was minister of foreign 
affairs from Oct., 1832, to April, 1834. In 1849 he was a 
conservative member of the Legislative Assembly. He was 
elected to the Academy in 1856. Died Jan. 26, 1870. 

Broglie, de (Albert), Prince, a writer and diplomat¬ 
ist, a son of the preceding, was born June 15, 1821. He 
wrote, besides other works, “ The Church and the Ro¬ 
man Empire in the Fourth Century” (2 vols., 1856), “La 
Souvcrainct6 pontificale ct la Liberte ” (1861), and “La 
Liberte divine et la Liberte humaine” (1865). He was ap¬ 
pointed minister to London by M. Thiers in Feb., 1871, and 
became minister of foreign affairs in the MacMalion admin¬ 
istration in 1873, and favored the royalist cause. 

Broil'ing is a simple and expeditious mode of cooking 
pieces of meat, by laying them on a gridiron over a bright 
fire or on the coals themselves. Broiling is a quicker sort 
of roasting. The albumen of the outside being sealed up 
at once, the meat is rendered extremely nutritious. But to 
broil meat so as to preserve its odor, juice, and fat requires 
care and skill. 

















BROKEN ARROW—BROMOFORM. 


637 


Broken Arrow, a post-township of St. Clair co., Ala. 


Pop. 760. 

Broken Straw, a township of Warren co., Pa. Pop. 
1048. 

Broken Wind, a disease of the horse, the nature of 
which is not well understood, though it is characterized by 
difficulty in the act of expiration, the horse making a spas¬ 
modic effort to expel the air from the lungs. The symptoms 
are best observ ed when the horse is exercised, the breathing 
becoming labored, the nostrils dilated, the eyes bloodshot, 
showing imperfect purification of blood in the lungs. A 
broken-winded horse has a bad hollow cough. When the 
animal is oppressed by work, the pulse is excessively rapid 
and the heart beats energetically. From this circumstance 
it is regarded by some as a disease of the heart. Low-bred 
horses are especially liable to broken wind if fed on innu¬ 
tritions and bulky food, and at the same time kept at hard 
work. The treatment is unsatisfactory, and we can only 
hope for palliation by keeping the alimentary canal in 
order, administering occasional purgatives, and feeding on 
a proper quantity of the best oats, which should always be 
bruised; also allowing the best hay in spare quantities— 
ten to twelve pounds daily. The hay should be cut and 
wet. Fresh grass in its season is the proper food. Dusty 
hay and dry meal as food should especially be avoided. 

Broker [Norman Fr. broggout], in general, a species of 
agent emjdoycd to act as a middleman or negotiator be¬ 
tween distinct parties, such as buyer or seller, though this 
statement would not include a pawnbroker. He differs 
from a factor, since he does not have possession of the 
property with which he deals. He is in a certain sense the 
agent for both parties, though primarily of the party by 
whom he is employed. Accordingly, until he'closes the 
negotiation he is the agent of the party who employs him. 
If he were employed to buy, he could not sell his own goods, 
but must buy of a third person, even though his engage¬ 
ment be gratuitous. Regularly, a broker discloses his 
agency on the face of the transaction; should he fail to do 
so, he would, bv the general principles of the law of agen¬ 
cy, make himself personally liable. When he has closed 
the negotiation, he usually gives to either party a memo¬ 
randum of the transaction, and in the case of the sale of 
goods gives a “ bought-and-sokl note.” For the purpose 
of complying with the rule of law requiring in certain sales 
a written memorandum, he is the agent of both parties. A 
broker is to be distinguished from an auctioneer; a broker 
may both sell and buy—an auctioneer only sells. A broker 
buys and sells at private sale—an auctioneer only sells 
at public sale. His compensation is usually derived from 
commissions upon the transaction, termed “ brokerage.” 
The commission is earned when the negotiation is complet¬ 
ed. The real inquiry in such a case is, Did the broker’s 
services result in bringing the buyer and seller together ? 
If that be the case, he will be entitled to his commissions, 
though the contract, from subsequent causes, was not in 
fact carried out. On the other hand, if the negotiation 
failed at the time, and the parties were subsequently brought 
together by other means, his commissions would not be 
payable. 

In the large cities brokers form a distinct class of per¬ 
sons, devoting themselves to special departments of agency, 
such as insurance-brokers, stock-brokers, real-estate brokers, 
produce-brokers, and the like. A person, however, may 
act as a broker in a single transaction without following 
the business, and be governed in the main by the rules al¬ 
ready stated. (See Agent for the more general principles 
governing this subject.) T. W. Dwight. 

B ro'mal, C 2 HBr,sO = C 2 Br 3 O.II, a compound analogous 
to chloral, produced by the action of bromine on alcohol. 

B rom'berg [Polish Bydgoszcz], a town of Prussia, in 
the province of Posen, on the river Brahe, about G miles 
from its junction with the Vistula, and 65 miles N. E. of 
Posen. It is on the railway from Berlin to Dantzic, and 
on the Bromberg Canal, which connects the Vistula with 
the Oder. It has a normal school and a gymnasium ; also 
manufactures of linen and woollen fabrics, tobacco, Prus¬ 
sian blue, etc. Here are several distilleries, potteries, and 
breweries. Pop. in 1871, 27,734. 

B rome, a county in the S. part of Quebec (Canada), is 
bounded on the E. by Memphremagog Lake. The soil is 
fertile. Copper ore is found. Capital, Knowlton. Area, 
470 square miles. Pop. in 1871, 13,757. 

Brome Grass (Bromus), a genus of plants of the 
order Graminaceae, with flowers in panicles, spikelets many- 
flowered, glumes unequal, membranaceous, the outer palet 
bifid at the extremity and awned beneath. It comprises 
numerous species, natives of both continents. The Bromus 
mollis grows well on poor soils, and is readily eaten by 
cattle, but is not much esteemed by farmers. The tall 
brome grass ( Bromus giganteus), a native of Europe, grows 


nearly five feet high, and affords a large bulk of foliage, not 
much relished by cattle. The Bromus secalinus, commonly 
called chess or cheat, is a troublesome weed which infests 
grain-fields both in Europe and the U. S. In the latter it 
is a naturalized or adventive exotic. It resembles rye 
(secale) when it is young, hence the specific name secalinus. 
The seeds retain their power of germinating for years. 
This weed is so common in wheat-fields that many farmers 
believe that wheat will turn into chess. 

Broine'lia, a genus of plants of the order Bromeliacea?, 
named after the Swedish botanist Bromel, are natives of 
tropical America, though many have naturalized themselves 
in Asia and Africa. The fruit is succulent, and the leaves 
have spiny serratures on the margins. The genus com¬ 
prises a number of species, the fibres of which are used for 
cordage, ropes, nets, etc. Among them are Bromeliapigna, 
which abounds in the Philippine Islands, and is cultivated 
for its fibre by the Chinese; and the Bromelia pinguis of 
the West Indies, from the fruit of which a vinous liquor is 
prepared. 

Gromelia'cese, a natural order of endogenous plants, 
natives of tropical climates. (See Bromelia.) They have 
six stamens and a single style, with a 3-celled ovary. The 
leaves are hard, rigid, channeled, and often spiny. Some 
of the species have beautiful flowers. The order comprises 
more than 150 species, among which arc the pineapple (An¬ 
anas sativus) and the Tillandsia mneoides , which is called 
Spanish moss or old man’s beard. It grows in the Southern 
U. S. on forest trees, from the branches of which it hangs 
down in long gray threads. The fibre of this is used to 
stuff mattresses. Many of the species are epiphytic, grow¬ 
ing on trees, and are capable of vegetating for a long time 
without contact with the earth, and will flower if suspended 
in the air after being severed from their roots. The leaves 
of some arc so formed as to retain near their base a quan¬ 
tity of water, and thus supply travellers with refreshment. 
Many plants of this order afford valuable fibres, which are 
used in the fabrication of cordage, cloth, etc. The fibre of 
the leaves of Ananas sativus has been made into a fabric 
resembling white muslin. 

Bro'mide, a chemical term applied to a salt formed by 
the combination of bromine with a metal. Several bro¬ 
mides, especially bromide of potassium, are used in medi¬ 
cine ; others are used in photography. 

Bro'miite, or Bro'rciium [from Gr. Ppco^os, a “ strong 
and fetid odor”], symbol Br, a chemical element discovered 
in 1826 by Balard. It resembles chlorine in chemical hab¬ 
itudes, and exists in minute quantity in sea-water and the 
ashes of marine plants. It is also found in many mineral 
springs, especially those of Kissingen, Ivreuznach, and 
Arnstadt (13.6 gi'ains per imperial gallon), in Germany, 
Tenbury in Worcestershire (12J grains), Saratoga and 
Ballston, N. Y., and in many brines, especially those of 
Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and in the waters of the 
Dead Sea (121 grains). Bromine also occurs as a bromide 
of silver in the mines of Chili and other countries. It is 
usually extracted from the mother-liquors or bitterns of 
brines, or from the purification of rock salt and chloride 
of potassium by the agency of chlorine or of binoxide of 
manganese and sulphuric acid. Formerly, most of the 
bromine was obtained at Schoenbicli, Prussia; since the 
discovery of the Stassfurth deposits larger quantities 
(21,000 pounds per annum) have been made there. In the 
U. S. much bromine is made at Tarentum, Sligo, and 
Natrona, Pa., at Pomeroy, O., and Kanawha, West Va. 
The total product of these localities is estimated at 125,000 
pounds for 1870. To obviate the danger attending the 
transportation of bromine, much of the bromine of Stass¬ 
furth is shipped as bromide of ethyl, from which it is easily 
set free. 

Bromine is a dark reddish-brown liquid, having a pow¬ 
erful suffocating odor and emitting heavy red fumes. Its 
specific gravity is 2.976; it boils at 145.4° F., and freezes 
at 19i4°. It is very poisonous; is soluble in alcohol and 
ether, slightly so in water. Its equivalent is 80. It com¬ 
bines readily with metals; forms hydrobromic acid (IIBr) 
with hydrogen, and with oxygen bromic acid (IIBrOs) and 
hypobromous acid (HBrO), all of which are analogous in 
their properties to the corresponding compounds of chlorine. 
Bromine possesses bleaching and disinfecting properties. 
It is used to a limited extent as a disinfectant, but its most 
important application is for the manufacture of bromide of 
potassium (KBr), which is used in medicine and in pho¬ 
tography. Bromide of ammonium, cadmium, etc. are also 
prepared for the latter purpose. The high price of bromine 

is the chief obstacle to its more extensive use. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Bro'moform, the ter-bromide of formyl (CIIB 13 ), a 
compound analogous to chlorolorm and iodofonn. It is a 
heavy, volatile liquid. 



















638 BROMPTON FALLS—BRONZING. 


Bromp'ton Falls, a post-village of Brompton town¬ 
ship, Richmond co., Quebec (Canada), on the Grand Trunk 
Railway, 94 miles E. of Montreal, has extensive manufac¬ 
tures of lumber. Pop. about 500. 

Broms'grovc, a market-town of England, in Wor¬ 
cestershire, 16 miles by rail S. W. of Birmingham, is in a 
richly-wooded valley on the Birmingham and Bristol 
Railway. It has a fine old church, and a grammar-school 
founded by Edward VI.; also manufactures of buttons and 
nails. Pop. 5262. 

Bron'chi [plural of the Lat. bronchus; Gr. Pp6y\os, the 
“ windpipe”], sometimes called Bron'chia [Gr. Tapp6yxi.a], 
are the subdivisions of the trachea or windpipe. Opposite 
the third dorsal vertebra the latter divides into two branches 
or bronchi of similar structure to itself. (See Trachea.) 
Of these bronchi, one goes to each lung, the right being 
little more than an inch, the left, about two inches, in 
length. A foreign body entering the windpipe is more 
likely to fall into the right than into the left bronchus. 
On entering the lung, the bronchi divide into smaller 
branches, which again subdivide, until they terminate in 
small cells, which seem to cluster round their extremities 
and open into them. These are the air-vesicles. (See 
Lungs.) 

Bronchi'tis [from bronchus, and -itis, a suffix denoting 
inflammation], a diseased condition characterized by in¬ 
flammation or hypermmia (congestion) of the mucous mem¬ 
brane lining the air-passages, and usually accompanied by 
a more or less excessive secretion of mucus from that mem¬ 
brane. Young children, old people, and those who are 
feeble or ill-nourished are especially liable to it. More or 
less bronchitis is usually associated with pulmonary con¬ 
sumption, with obstructive heart disease, and with asthma. 
It is often seen in patients with intermittent fever, ty¬ 
phoid, measles, and smallpox. Perhaps the most fruitful 
cause is exposure to sudden and extreme changes of the 
weather, leading primarily to that form of acute bronchitis 
which is known as a “ cold on the lungs.” Influenza is an 
epidemic bronchitis caused by some unknown influence 
probably existing in the air. 

The symptoms of bronchitis are of various character, 
varying according as the disease is seated in the larger or 
the smaller bronchi; the disease is also much more for¬ 
midable in young children and in aged persons than in 
others. There is especial danger in the case of infants 
that collapse of small portions of the lung may ensue. 
Bronchitis may be either chronic or acute. Uncompli¬ 
cated chronic bronchitis may require the use of seda¬ 
tives or tonics, with systematic exercise and careful atten¬ 
tion to the other hygienic conditions, but the treatment of 
individual cases will vary with the circumstances and spe¬ 
cial condition of the patient. The inhalation of medicated 
vapors and atomized liquids is especially recommended in 
some cases. Acute bronchitis is in general to be treated 
by expectorants or emetics, to remove the secretion, and 
by diaphoretics and counter-irritants, such as mustard, on 
the extremities and the chest, to relieve the congested 
blood-vessels of the bronchi. When the case is extreme 
and suffocation threatened, an infant may be often relieved 
by a warm bath. There are other special remedial mea¬ 
sures which may be resorted to under the advice of the 
physician. 

The diagnosis of bronchitis may be somewhat obscure, but 
to the practitioner the stethoscope reveals the extent and 
character of the disease by signs which to the untrained 
observer might appear insignificant. It may be observed 
that, except in children and old persons, the great propor¬ 
tion of cases of acute bronchitis recover spontaneously. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Bronchocele. See Goitre. 

Brongniart (Alexandre), an eminent French savant, 
born in Paris Feb. 5, 1770. He became in 1800 director of 
the porcelain manufactory at Sevres. In 1815 he wa^ ad¬ 
mitted into the Institute. He wrote, besides other works, 
an “Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy” (1807) and a 
“Treatise on the Art of Pottery” (1845). He classified 
reptiles, to the divisions of which he gave the names of 
Saurians, Batrachians, Chelonians, and Ophidians. Died 
Oct. 14, 1847. 

B ron'son, a township of Branch co., Mich. Pop. 2100. 

Bronson, a post-township of Huron co., 0. Pop. 980. 

Bron'te, a town of Italy, in Sicily, in the province of 
Catania, near the W. base of Mount Etna, 28 miles N. N. 
W. of Catania. It has manufactures of paper and woollen 
goods. Pop. 11,760. 

Bronte, a port and post-village of Trafalgar township, 
Halton co., Ontario (Canada), on Lake Ontario, at the 
mouth of Twelve Mile Creek and on the Great Western 
Railway, 26 miles S. W. of Toronto. It has a good harbor 


for vessels of 300 tons, and has one weekly paper. Pop. 
about 550. 

Bron'te (Charlotte), “Currer Bell,” an English nov¬ 
elist, born at Thornton, in Yorkshire, April 21, 1816. Her 
eccentric father, Patrick Bront6, originally Prunty, became 
curate of Haworth (Yorkshire) in 1820. She lost her 
mother in 1821, and was sent to a boarding-school, where 
her health was impaired by impure air and unwholesome 
food, and then taught until in 1842 she and her sister 
Emily went to Brussels to learn French. In 1846, Charlotte 
and her sisters Emily and Anne published a volume enti¬ 
tled “ Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell.” Her first 
successful work was “Jane Eyre, an Autobiography, edited 
by Currer Bell ” (1847), which was very popular. Her other 
chief works are “Shirley” (1849) and “Villette” (1852). 
She was married in 1854 to the Rev. A. B. Nichols, her 
father’s curate, and died Mar. 31, 1855. (See E. C. Gas- 
kell, “Life of Charlotte Bronte,” 2 vols., 1857.) 

Bronx'dale, a village of Westchester and West Farms 
townships, Westchester co., N. Y., has manufactures of 
importance. 

Bronx'ville, a post-village of East Chester township, 
Westchester co., N. Y., on the Harlem R. R., 16 miles from 
the Grand Central depot in New York. It has a large 
cutlery establishment, good hotels, etc. 

Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin in variable propor¬ 
tions, is harder and more fusible than copper, but less mal¬ 
leable. Bell-metal is a variety of bronze, and the cannon 
commonly called brass are made of this alloy. Bronze was 
used by the ancients for weapons and utensils before the 
art of working iron had been invented. The metal which 
the Romans called res was probably bronze. The brass 
mentioned in the Bible is supposed to have been either 
pure copper or an alloy of copper and tin. Bronze is exten¬ 
sively used in the form of statues, machinery, and ordnance. 
Its hardness and durability render it well adapted for the 
speculums of telescopes. Bronze when well prepared is 
the most durable of metallic materials, except gold, pla¬ 
tinum, and some rare metals. The French and English 
have recently issued bronze coins for currency. Tempering 
produces on bronze an effect directly opposite to that on 
steel; and in order to render bronze malleable it must be 
heated to redness and quenched in water. A mixture of 
90 parts of copper with 10 of aluminium produces a valu¬ 
able alloy which is used as a substitute for bronze. The 
varieties of bronze are composed of the following propor¬ 
tions : Bronze cannon, copper 9, tin 1 ; Chinese gongs, 
copper 5, tin 1; musical bells, copper 6, tin 1; house bells, 
copper 4, tin 1; large bells, copper 3, tin 1; bronze for 
toothed wheels, copper 10, tin 1; telescope or speculum 
metal, copper 2, tin 1; bronze for mathematical instru¬ 
ments, copper 12, tin 1. 

Bronze, Age of. It is held by some archaeologists 
that when primeval man first began to become civilized, 
the first weapons of war and utensils for industry were 
made of stone; that in the next stage of progress (in most 
nations before the beginning of history) there succeeded a 
time when copper and its alloys were used in the place of 
stone for many purposes, as is known to have been true 
among the Peruvians, and also among some of the ancient 
races of North America; and that in the third stage men 
learned how to smelt and work iron. Hence these three 
hypothetical stages are respectively termed the Age of 
Stone, the Age of Bronze, and the Age of Iron. These 
terms are convenient, though it is certain that the so-called 
ages interpenetrated and overlapped each other. In Den¬ 
mark and Scandinavia especially there have been inter¬ 
esting and extensive collections made of the relics of the 
“Age of Bronze,” and it appears certain that a large part 
of these curious weapons and tools (which are in many cases 
finely wrought) were made in pre-historic times; neverthe¬ 
less there are many able men who deny that the facts, so 
far as known, sustain the above-mentioned theory of the 
origin of civilization. 

Bronze Wing, or Bronze Pigeon, the name of 
several species of pigeons, natives of Australia, mostly 
belonging to the genus Peristera of Swainson. They have 
wings marked with lustrous bronze-colored plumage. The 
common bronze-wing ( Peristera chalcoptera ) is distributed 
over all the Australian colonies. It weighs about one 
pound, and is esteemed as food. 

Bron'zing is the covering of articles made of clay, 
metal, wood, or other material with a substance which 
gives them the appearance of being made of bronze. 
Sometimes bronze or some other alloy of copper is actually 
spread upon the articles to be bronzed; which may be done 
by the electrotype process, or by applying the powdered 
alloy by means of gold size, which is a mixture of linseed 
oil and gum anime. There are also certain chemical re- 

















BKONZITE—BROOKLYN. 


agents which, when applied to various metals will give 
them a bronzed appearance. 

Bronzite, a name which has been given to varieties 
of Eustatite and Pyroxene (which see). 

Brook'dale, a post-village, capital of Rice co., Kan. 

Brooke, a county of West Virginia, bordering on 
Pennsylvania. Area, 75 square miles. It is part of the 
“ Pan Handle,” and is bounded on the W. by the Ohio 
River. The surface is hilly; the soil is fertile. Wool, 
grain, and dairy products are extensively raised, and the 
manufacturing interests are important. Coal and iron ore 
arc found in it. Capital, Wellsburg. Pop. 5464. 

Brooke (Francis J.) was born at Smithfield, Va., Aug. 
27, 1763, served as an officer in the Revolutionary war, be¬ 
came a lawyer in 1788, held various offices, was elected to 
the Virginia senate in 1800, and became its Speaker, and 
was for many years a judge of the court of appeals, of 
which he was for some time president. Died Mar. 3,1851.— 
His son, Francis J. Brooke, an officer of the U. S. army, 
was killed at the battle of Okeechobee, Fla., Dec. 25, 1827. 

Brooke (Gustayus Vaughan), born in Dublin, Ireland, 
about 1818, was educated for the law, but went upon the 
stage in 1833, and attained eminence as a tragedian, play¬ 
ing with success in the principal cities of Great Britain 
and the U. S. He was lost on the steamer London while 
on a voyage to Australia, Jan. 11, 1866. 

Brooke (Henry), a dramatist and novelist, born in the 
county of Cavan, Ireland, in 1706, was a friend of Pope. 
He wrote, besides other works, “ Universal Beauty,” a 
poem, a novel called “The Fool of Quality” (1767), and 
tragedies entitled the “Earl of Essex” and “ Gustavus 
Vasa.” Died Oct. 10, 1783. 

Brooke (Sir James), rajah of Sarawak, was born of 
English parents in Bengal April 29, 1803. He served in 
the British army in India, and having formed a project to 
suppress piracy in the Malay Archipelago, went to Borneo 
in 1838. He rendered some service to the sultan of Bor¬ 
neo, who in 1841 appointed him governor of Sarawak. He 
framed a code of laws for the natives of Sarawak, and dis¬ 
played great energy in the extirpation of pirates. He and 
his coadjutors received £20,000 as “head-money” for the 
pirates whom they killed. In 1847 he was created a knight 
by Queen Victoria. Died in England June 11, 1868. 

Brook'field, a post-township of Fairfield co., Conn. 
Pop. 1193. 

Brookfield, a township of La Salle co., Ill. Pop. 1230. 

Brookfield, a post-townsliip of Clinton co., Ia. Pop. 
1040. 

Brookfield, a township of Worth co., Ia. Pop. 274. 

Brookfield, a post-township of Worcester co., Mass. 
It is on the Boston and Albany R. R., 67 miles W. by S. of 
Boston. It has extensive manufactures of boots and shoes, 
cottons, leather, brick, iron-wares, etc. Pop. 2527. 

Brookfield, a post-township of Eaton co., Mich. Pop. 
1057. 

Brookfield, a township of Huron oo., Mich. Pop. 116. 

Brookfield, a post-village of Linn co., Mo., on the 
Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R., is the central station and 
division head-quarters of the road. Several of its offices, 
its round-house, and extensive shops are located here. It 
has a weekly paper, fine schools and churches. There is a 
coal-mine near the town. Pop. of village, 402; of Brook¬ 
field township, 2321. W. D. Crandall, Ed. “ Gazette.” 

Brookfield, a post-township of Carroll co., N. H. Pop. 
416. 

Brookfield, a post-township of Madison co., N. Y., 
about 18 miles S. of Utica. It contains the villages of 
North and South Brookfield, Leonardsville, Clarksville, 
etc., and has an academy and several manufactories. Pop. 
3565. 

Brookfield, a township of Noble co., 0. Pop. 978. 

Brookfield, a post-village and township of Trumbull 
co., 0., near the Erie and Pittsburg R. R., and 180 miles 
N. E. of Columbus. Pop. 2657. 

Brookfield, a post-township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 
895. 

Brookfield, a post-township of Orange co., Vt., 16 
miles S. of Montpelier. It has five churches and manufac¬ 
tures of axes, forks, hoes, rakes, etc., and two cheese-fac¬ 
tories. Pop. 1269. 

Brookfield, a post-township of Waukesha co., Wis. 
Pop., containing the village of Brookfield Centre, 2281. 

Brookhaven, a city, capital of Lincoln co., Miss., on 
the New Orleans Jackson and Great Northern R. R., 54 
miles S. by W. of Jackson. It is an important point in 
the lumber trade and manufacture. It has a weekly paper, 


639 


a foundry and machine-shops, and a flourishing female col¬ 
lege. Pop. 1614. J. S. Magee, Ed. of “ Citizen.” 

Brook'haven, a township of Suffolk co., N. Y. This 
township extends across Long Island, and has thirty-three 
churches, a large number of small villages, and consider¬ 
able. manufactures. Pop. 10,159. 

Brook'ings, a county of Dakota, bordering on Min¬ 
nesota. It is drained by the Big Sioux River, which rises 
within its limits, and it contains several small lakes. Area, 
750 square miles. Pop. 163. 

Brook'ite, a mineral named in honor of Brooke the 
crystallographer, is pure native titanic anhydride. It oc¬ 
curs in reddish, yellowish, or hair-brown crystals, which 
are more or less translucent and have a brilliant lustre, in¬ 
clining to metallic. It is found in Perthshire, Scotland, at 
Tavistock, in Savoy, and other places. A variety found in 
the Ozark Mountains, Ark., is called arkamite. 

Brook'land, a township of Henrico co., Va. P. 3612. 

Brook'lime ( Veronica Beccabunga), a perennial plant, 
a native of Europe, grows in ditches and wet places. It 
has a procumbent stem and elliptical serrate leaves, which 
are succulent, and are used in England as an ingredient in 
spring salads. They are sometimes sold with water-cresses. 
In the U. S. is found a similar plant, the Veronica Amer¬ 
icana, or American brooklime. 

Brook'lin, a post-village of Whitby township, county 
and province of Ontario (Canada), 7 miles from Whitby. 
It has large manufactures of furniture. Pop. about 650. 


Brook'lime, a post-village and township of Norfolk co., 
Mass., on the Charles River, which separates it from Bos¬ 
ton and Cambridge, and on the Boston and Albany and 
Boston Hartford and Erie R. Rs. It is a place of resi¬ 
dence for people doing business in Boston, and has many 
fine villas and country-seats. A small part of this town¬ 
ship has been annexed to Boston since the census of 1870. 
Brookline has a public library building costing $50,000, 
and a granite town-house costing $150,000. It is connected 
with Boston by a horse railroad, and has one weekly news¬ 
paper. Pop. 6650. B. Kingman, Ed. “ Transcript.” 

Brookline, a post-township of Hillsborough co., N. II. 
Pop. 741. 

Brookline, a township of Windham co., Vt. P. 203. 

Brooklyn, a post-township of Conecuh co., Ala. 
Pop. 937. 

Brooklyn, a post-village in Brooklyn township, Ala¬ 
meda co., Cal., is on the E. side of the Bay of San Fran¬ 
cisco and 10 miles E. of the city of San Francisco. It is 
on the Central Pacific R. R. It has a good harbor, a cot¬ 
ton-factory, a pottery, and a lai-ge shoe-factory. Pop. 
1603; of the township, 2816. 

Brooklyn, a post-village, capital of Windham co., 
Conn., is about 40 miles E. of Hartford and 2 miles W. of 
the Quinebaug River, which is the E. boundary of Brook¬ 
lyn township. It has a national bank. Pop. of the town¬ 
ship, 2354. 

Brooklyn, a township of Lee co., Ill. Pop. 1235. 

Brooklyn, a post-township and small village of Schuy¬ 
ler co., Ill., about 40 miles N. E. of Quincy. Pop. 1071. 

Brooklyn, the commercial centre of Poweshiek co., 
Ia., close to the centre of the county, is the end of the rail- 
road division of the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific 
R. R., 104 miles W. of Davenport. It has a large brick 
round-house, 7 church buildings, 2 graded schools, 4 grain- 
elevators, 1 foundry, 1 flour-mill, 4 hotels, and 2 weekly 
papers. Pop. 971. Henry Martin, Pub. “ Journal.” 

Brooklyn, a post-township of Hancock co., Me. Pop. 
966. 


Brooklyn, a post-village of Jackson co., Mich., on the 
Raisin River and on the Detroit and Hillsdale R. It., 15 
miles S. E. of Jackson. Pop. 544; of township, 1691. 

Brooklyn, a township of Hennepin co., Minn. Pop. 
1024. 


Brooklyn, a city, seaport, and capital of Kings co., 
N. Y., situated at the W. end of Long Island, on New 
York Bay and the East River, an arm of the sea or estuary 
which divides it from New Yoi'k City and connects Long 
Island Sound with the Atlantic Ocean. Brooklyn is the 
third bity of the Union in population, and is distant from 
Albany 147 miles, and from Washington 226 miles. Its 
latitude (at the navy-yard) is 40° 51' 30“ N., longitude 
73° 59' 30" W. from Greenwich. Its area as at present 
constituted is about 16,000 acres or 25 square miles, but it 
is expected that in 1874 the other towus of the county ni l 
be annexed, and its area will then include the whole ol 
Kings county, which is 72 square miles. 

Population. —In 1698, Breuckclen had 509 inhabitants; 












640 


BROOKLYN. 


in 1800, 3298 ; in 1810, 4402;in 1820, 7545; in 1825, 8800; 
in 1830, 15,292; in 1835, 24,310; in 1840, 36,233; in 1845, 
59,574; in 1850,96,850; in 1855,205,250 ; in 1860, 266,661; 
in 1865, 296,112; in 1870, 396,350. In 1873 its population 
is estimated, on the basis of school censuses and directory 
returns, at 520,000. 

Commerce. —Brooklyn is a commercial port of great and 
constantly increasing importance. The city of New York, 
naturally desirous of concentrating on its own shores and 
at its own docks, slips, and piers its vast commerce so 
long as it could find room for it, discouraged all efforts for 
the election of wharves, piers, docks, or warehouses on the 
Brooklyn side for many years. There had been a govern¬ 
ment navy-yard in the city limits since 1801, and it had 
ranked as first class since 1824, but the commerce of the 
city had no existence beyond a moderate coasting-trade 
prior to about 1844. In that year the Atlantic Docks Com¬ 
pany, incorporated in 1840, completed their first warehouse. 
This company, after passing through many discourage¬ 
ments, has now 3 miles of wharf accommodation, 40 acres 
of water-area, warehouses covering 20 acres, 9 steam-ele¬ 
vators, and every facility for shipping and storing cargoes. 
There have been in this dock at one time 130 sea-going 
vessels. The Erie Basin, S. of this, has a water-area of 60 
acres, and the Brooklyn Basin, still farther S., a surface of 
40 acres. Both are surrounded with warehouses, and are 
thoroughly equipped for accommodating shipping of the 
largest class. Since 1844 there has been invested in docks 
and warehouses a private capital of more than $125,000,000 
on the shore-line of Brooklyn, which extends 8£ miles, and 
has 25 miles of dockage, with vast warehouses, piers, slips, 
docks, and basins along the whole distance. The follow¬ 
ing statistics, gathered by careful examination in 1872, 
will give some idea of the extent of this commerce : 

In the warehouses of the Atlantic Dock Company, and 
others S. therefrom to Red Hook Point, there is stored— 
grain, $20,000,000 ; sugar and molasses, $15,000,000 ; pro¬ 
visions, $2,200,000; flour, $1,000,000; lumber and stone, 
$1,200,000 ; cotton, $1,500,000; guano, $1,500,000; rags, 
$500,000; saltpetre and brimstone, $100,000; salt, $500,000; 
iron, $2,000,000; miscellaneous, including resin, turpen¬ 
tine, etc., $4,000,000 ; total, $50,000,000 ; in the section N. 
from Atlantic Docks to South Ferry, $60,000,000. That 
which diverges to the Gowanus Canal, comprising coal, 
-building, and other material, valued at $4,000,000; from 
South to Fulton Ferry, $126,000,000; from Fulton Ferry to 
Main street, $25,000,000; making an aggregate to this 
point of $261,000,000 annually stored. These figures seem 
enormous, but are borne out by facts. The warehouses 
from Red Ilook to Main street are full of merchandise, 
and literally overflowing. A number of other large ware¬ 
houses are now (Sept., 1873) in process of erection. From 
Main street, N. E. to the bridge over Newtown Creek, a dis¬ 
tance of 4 miles, there is an extensive commerce. Many 
shipyards, gas-works, lumber-yards, coal-yards, sugar-re¬ 
fineries, and most of the vast petroleum-refineries and 
shipping-houses, are on this part of the coast-line. The 
annual commerce from this section, aside from the navy- 
yard, is somewhat more than $40,000,000. All through 
the year, with more or less activity, the business of load¬ 
ing and unloading vessels is going on. It is estimated 
that 2500 vessels are unloaded every year between Red 
Hook and Main street. In the business of warehousing 
alone some 5000 men are engaged along the shore-line. 

Brooklyn is already the largest grain depot in the world. 
Immense steam-elevators are employed to lift and deliver 
the grain. The stores of E. C. Lockwood & Co. have stor¬ 
age for 3,000,000 bushels at a time, employ 1000 hands, 
and pay to the city a tax of $50,000. The flour-mills of 
F. E. Smith & Co. deliver 1200 barrels per day. During 
the receiving season, from October to December, canal- 
boats arrive by the hundred to be discharged. On the 
closing of navigation as many as 600 canal-boats loaded 
with grain lie up for the winter in the basins, in many 
cases with the captains and their families on board until 
the cargoes can be sold. The value of the boats engaged 
in the grain-carrying trade is estimated at $18,000,000. 
The bulk of grain afloat seeking port frequently amounts 
to 5,000,000 bushels at one time. 

Continuing the shore-line from Main street to the navy- 
yard, and beyond to the north-eastern boundary, including 
the large interior dockage made by the Wallabout improve¬ 
ments, on Newtown Creek and at Gowanus Creek and Canal, 
it is apparent that the capacities of the city for extensive 
commerce can hardly be over-estimated. These are likely 
to be greatly aided by the removal of the obstacles at Hell 
Gate, at the confluence of the East River with the Sound. 
Five lines of steamships now ply between Brooklyn and 
their respective ports: The State line, to and from Glas¬ 
gow ; the North American line, to and from London, New¬ 
castle, Christiania, and Bergen; the South American line, 


with U. S. mail, to and from Rio and other ports; the 
White Cross line, to and from Antwerp; the Netherlands 
and Rotterdam line, to and from Rotterdam. The “ Brook¬ 
lyn Eagle” now gives daily reports of arrivals and de¬ 
partures to and from this port. 

Manufactures .—Brooklyn is a great manufacturing city. 
A very large proportion of the goods and wares professedly 
manufactured in New York City are really produced in 
Brooklyn, and sent from thence to the New York warehouses. 
In some classes of goods and wares, such as pianos, cabinet 
organs, hats, caps, men’s and children’s clothing, oil-cloths, 
iron castings and ware, carpets, lace, etc., from one-fourth 
to one-half of all that is credited to New York City is actu¬ 
ally produced in Brooklyn. Considerable quantities of all 
these wares are also produced and sold direct by Brooklyn 
dealers and manufacturers. According to the census of 
1870, Kings county had 1043 manufacturing establishments, 
employing 286 steam-engines. The internal revenue office 
reported for the year ending July 1, 1873, 1440 stationary 
steam-engines; the same census reported 18,545 persons 
employed in manufactories ; capital employed, $25,287,981; 
wages paid, $9,273,994; raw material used, $39,899,971; 
and annual product, $60,848,673. That these statistics very 
imperfectly represent the manufacturing industry of Brook¬ 
lyn will appear from an analysis of a few items of this ag¬ 
gregate. The census reports the production of stoves, heat¬ 
ers, etc., at $120,000; at the industrial exposition of Kings 
county in Sept., 1873, one manufacturer in Brooklyn re¬ 
ports a production of these wares of over $2,000,000 the 
previous year; tobacco, snuff, and cigar manufacturers re¬ 
ported in the census as producing $4,414,000, paid in the 
year ending July 1, 1873, a tax of $2,042,016.17, and their 
entire production was over $8,000,000. The census reported 
seven establishments for refining sugar and molasses, pro¬ 
ducing an annual amount of $16,706,851, while at the in¬ 
dustrial exposition of Sept., 1873, one of these sugar- 
refiners reported a production from July, 1872, to July, 
1873, of $12,300,000, and another of over $5,000,000; and 
the production of the whole seven was somewhat more than 
$24,000,000. Ropes, cordage, and twine, reported by the 
census as producing $688,641, reported to the internal reve¬ 
nue office for the year ending July, 1873, a production of 
over $3,000,000 ; carpets, not specified in the census report, 
were produced in 1873 to the value of over $1,000,000 ; hats 
and caps, put down in the census at $1,074,948, were pro- 
duced in 1872—73 to the value of $4,100,000 ; lace, guipure, 
thread, Nottingham, etc., not mentioned in the census, are 
produced to the extent of about $1,200,000 ; artificial stone, 
not mentioned in the census, is produced to the extent of 
over $3,000,000 ; distilled and malt liquors, reported by the 
census at $2,220,929, paid revenue-tax in 1872-73 on a 
production of $7,500,000; camphene, not specified in the 
census, is produced to the extent of over $2,000,000; steel 
is produced to the extent of $1,500,000 ; flouring-mill prod¬ 
ucts, in which there are now six large houses engaged, pro¬ 
duce annually over $7,000,000, instead of $2,692,000, as re¬ 
ported by the census. The rectification and packing of 
coal oil, petroleum, and petroleum products in Brooklyn 
make use of a capital of over $4,000,000, and produce annu¬ 
ally of these various articles to the value of over $8,000,000; 
gas is produced to the extent of about $3,500,000 ;• oil-cloths, 
about $1,500,000; paper-hangings, $1,300,000 ; the book, 
job, and newspaper printing establishments turn out work 
annually to the value of over $2,300,000; woollen goods 
are manufactured to the extent of $1,800,000 ; linseed oil is 
produced of the value of nearly $2,000,000; drugs and 
chemicals, including the production of sulphuric acid (of 
which there are several factories), produce goods to the 
value of more than $5,000,000. Other large manufactures 
are of men’s, women’s, and children’s clothing, machinery, 
shipbuilding, lumber, sawed and planed, sash, doors, and 
blinds, hardware, marble and stone work, gas and lamp 
fixtures, tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware, and soap and 
candles. As the result of careful and thorough examination, 
continued for several months, the annual production of the 
Brooklyn manufacturing establishments, aside from those 
owned in and run from New York City, is stated as be¬ 
tween $125,000,000 and $130,000,000. 

Finances .— 

Tax levy in 1872 for 1873: 

For State purposes.$1,086,530.78 

county “ 1,336,177.94 

«ty “ 5,550,981.18 

$8,023,739.90 

Assessed value of real estate and personal property...$216,073,170 

The census gives, as the true valuation of Kings county 
in 1870, $700,000,000. The valuation of the other towns 
of the county in 1873 was $11,626,043. The assessed valu¬ 
ation of 1872 was $207,952,332. The budget of expenditure 
for the city government in 1873 was— 



























BROOKLYN. 


Principal of city debt. 

“ of certificates. 

Interest on city bonds. 

“ on certificates. 

One-fifth of one-third of assessments 

General purposes. 

Salaries city officers. 

Wells and pumps. 

Health department. 

Department city works. 

Fire department. 

Police department. 

Board of education. 

Park commissioners. 

Less revenue fund. 

Less surplus and tax arrears. 


.$ 2 , 002 , 540.72 

. 31 , 000.00 

. 1 , 021 , 290.00 

. 11 , 377.57 

. 110 , 353.91 

. 891 , 500.00 

. 295 , 000.00 

. 8 , 700.00 

. 50 , 000.00 

. 325 , 000.00 

. 661 , 050.00 

. 661 , 650.00 

. 929 , 666.46 

. 45 , 000.00 

$ 4 , 900 , 878.68 

.$ 471 , 981.27 

341 , 134.56 813 , 115.83 

$ 4 , 087 , 762.85 


The debt of the city, funded and unfunded, is about 
$32,000,000. 

Courts. —The principal court of Brooklyn is “ the city 
court,” with three judges at salaries of $10,000 each per 
annum, with civil jurisdiction equal to that of the supreme 
court, and also criminal jurisdiction. It holds both gen¬ 
eral and special terms. Number of arraignments and con¬ 
victions from Jan. 1, 1872, to Jan. 1, 1S73, 289; years sen¬ 
tenced, 353; from Jan. 23d to May 23d, 1873, 148 arraign¬ 
ments. In 1872 judgments entered, 1561; motions, 2183; 
naturalizations, 693. The city has also six district justices’ 
courts and one police court. Terms are also held, in the 
city, of U. S. circuit and district courts, the supreme court, 
and county court. The city jail is on Raymond street; 
the penitentiary, at the corner of Nostrand and Flatbush 
avenues ; the almshouse, hospital, and lunatic asylum are at 
Flatbush; the city hospital, on Raymond street; the Long 
Island College Hospital, on Henry street, near Atlantic. 

Education .—The public school system of Brooklyn is 
managed by a board of education of forty-five members. 
It has under its charge 52 distinct organizations, 46 school- 
houses, 4 colored schools, and 11 evening schools. Number 
of children in 1870 within the legal school age, resident in 
the city, between the ages of five and fourteen, 86,842; be¬ 
tween the ages of fourteen and twenty-one, 38,355; total, 
136,769. This number is now (1873) 175,000. Total school 
registration to Jan. 1, 1873, 104,628. Daily attendance, 
including evening schools, 50,500 ; number of sittings, 
48,622; number of teachers, exclusive of evening schools, 
915; evening schools, 109; teachers’ wages, $563,940.67; 
value of school property, $1,986,114; average cost of tu¬ 
ition, $10.18; total expenses for all purposes, $812,969.20. 
This year (1873) upwards of $900,000 will be required. 
The Catholic schools have a separate organization, attended 
by religious as well as secular instruction, which comprises 
2 colleges, 3 academies, 1 select school, 1 asylum school, 2 
industrial schools, 20 parish schools, 2 night schools—30 
in all, with a registry of 16,144 scholars. The grades of 
study are primary, intermediate, and collegiate. Of private 
schools there are 200. Of schools for female education 
none stand higher than the Packer Collegiate Institute, or¬ 
ganized in 1845, and largely endowed by Mrs. Harriet S. 
Packer and others. This institute has 38 teachers, 5 males 
and 33 females; 793 pupils, of whom 153 are in the pre¬ 
paratory department ; 53 free scholarships ; and had grad¬ 
uated 628 alumnae in 1872. Its preparatory course occupies 
five years, and the collegiate course four years. The build¬ 
ing and grounds are admirably adapted to their purpose, 
and have a fine chapel for public worship. The library 
contains 4000 volumes. The Brooklyn Heights Female 
Seminary, the Athenaeum Seminary, and many others have 
a high reputation for the instruction of young ladies, add 
the Adelphi Academy, a more recent institution, on “ the 
Hill,” receives pupils of both sexes, and has already at¬ 
tained a high reputation. Its pupils numbered in 1872-73 
a little more than 600. For boys and young men, the 
Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute has a de¬ 
servedly high character. In 1872 it had 27 teachers, of 
whom 25 were males and 2 females; 562 pupils, of whom 
400 were in the preparatory department, and 162 in the 
collegiate. Each course (preparatory and collegiate) is for 
four years. The institute has fine buildings, and a li¬ 
brary of 3000 volumes. The Juvenile High School is in 
some sense a tender for the Polytechnic, being intended for 
boys under twelve. Mr. Lockwood’s academy in Adelphi 
street and many other of the private schools are of high 
character. There are two business and commercial colleges 
in the city—Clarke, Bryant, and Stratton’s and Brown’s. 
The Polytechnic has also a commercial and business de¬ 
partment. A college or university has been chartered by 
the Catholics, and buildings are now erecting for it, but it 
lias not yet been organized. There is a medical college, 
the Long Island College Hospital, founded in 1859, which 
has 8 professors and 5 other instructors. 

Libraries .—The principal libraries of the city arc the 
41 


641 


Mercantile Library, with 45,959 volumes, and rapidly grow¬ 
ing ; the Long Island Historical Society’s Library, with 
24,000 volumes ; the library of the Brooklyn E. D. Library 
Association, with 20,000 volumes; the Youths’ Free Library 
at the Brooklyn Institute, 11,000 volumes; the Young Men’s 
Christian Association Library, 6000 volumes; the Law 
Library, 8000 volumes; Consolidated Public School Li¬ 
brary of the Eastern District, 8000 volumes; and the thirty 
public school libraries of the Western District, numbering 
together over 37,000 volumes. 

Newspapers. —Brooklyn has four daily papers, nine week¬ 
lies, and several monthlies, mostly advertising journals. 
There are, however, two monthly magazines, not of very 
large circulation. The morning papers of New York City 
circulate almost as largely in Brooklyn as in New York, 
but the Brooklyn evening papers have a very large circu¬ 
lation. 

Churches. —The first denomination which planted a 
church in Brooklyn (or, as it was then called, Breuckelen) 
was the Reformed (late Dutch) Church. Their first church 
in Kings county was built at Flatbush, then called Mid- 
wout, in 1654, but though their dominie, Rev. Theodoras 
Polhemus, ministered to the few settlers scattered over the 
present limits of Brooklyn, there was no church edifice in 
the present city till 1666, when one was built in Fulton street, 
near the present Hoyt street. A hundred years later (in 
1766) this gave place to a second on the same site; in 1807 
the third church edifice was erected on Joralemon street, and 
this was replaced by the present tasteful edifice of that 
church on the same site in 1835. In 1787 the first Episco¬ 
pal church was consecrated. It stood on Fulton street, on 
the present site of St. Ann’s building. In 1795 it was 
reorganized and incorporated as St. Ann’s church. The 
first Methodist Episcopal church was erected in Sands 
street, and dedicated June 1, 1795. The Protestant Method¬ 
ists had a church here in 1833, and the Primitive Method¬ 
ists in 1839. The Roman Catholics erected their first 
church (St. James’s) on the corner of Jay and Chapel streets 
in 1823. The first Presbyterian church on the present site 
of Plymouth church was erected in 1822-23. The first 
Baptist church was organized in 1823, but their church 
edifice, on Pearl street between Nassau and Concord, 
wasnoterectedtilll826. The first Unitarian church (Church 
of the Saviour) was organized in 1833; and purchased the 
Second Presbyterian church in Adams street in 1835. An 
effort was made to establish an Independent or Congrega¬ 
tional church in this city in 1785, but it failed, and the first 
Congregationalist church (the Church of the Pilgrims) 
was organized in Dec., 1844, but the church on the corner 
of Remsen and Henry streets was not completed till May, 
1846. The first Universalist society was organized in 1842, 
and their church on the corner of Fulton and Pineapple 
streets was completed in 1843. The first Lutheran church 
was incorporated and its edifice erected in 1847, in Graham 
avenue, corner Wyckoff street, E. D., and the first Evan¬ 
gelical Lutheran in Brooklyn on Henry street in 1856. The 
first Jewish synagogue was built in 1862. The Swedenbor- 
gian society was organized in 1859, but did not obtain their 
present place of worship till 1869. The Moravian church 
in Jay street is older, but their present church edifice was 
built in 1869. There are now in the city 250 churches— 
viz., Methodist Episcopal, 40; Methodist, not Episcopal, 
4; Episcopal, 38; Baptist, 33; Roman Catholic, 34; 
Jewish synagogues, 6; Universalist, 4; Congregationalist, 
18; Lutheran, 12; Presbyterian of various connections, 
32; Reformed (Dutch), 15: Unitarian, 3; miscellane¬ 
ous, 11. Many of these church edifices are remarkable for 
their architectural beauty. The new Roman Catholic 
cathedral, on Lafayette avenue between Vanderbilt and 
Clermont avenues, will, when completed, be one of the 
stateliest ecclesiastical structures in the U. S.; the church 
of St. Charles Borromeo in Sidney place, St. Peter’s, corner* 
of Hicks and Warren, and St. Vincent de Paul, on N. Sixth 
street, are all very fine edifices. The church of the Holy 
Trinity (Protestant Episcopal), St. Anu’s-on-the-lleights, 
St. Paul’s, Clinton corner Carroll street, St. Peter’s, on State 
street, and Christ church, E. D.; the Lafayette avenue 
Presbyterian church, Westminster Presbyterian church, and 
the Ross street Presbyterian church; the Church-ou-the- 
Heights, First Reformed (Dutch), on Joralemon street, the 
Bedford avenue Reformed church, E. D., and the East 
Reformed church, also on Bedford avenue, corner Madison 
street; the Church of the Pilgrims, the South Congrega¬ 
tional church, the Central Congregational church on Han¬ 
cock street, and the Church of the Puritans; the Simpson 
Memorial M. E. church, the Pacific street M. E. church, 
First place M. E. church, and Summerfield M. E. church; 
and the Strong place and the Washington avenue Baptist 
churches,—are all church edifices noteworthy lor architect¬ 
ural taste and beauty. . . . 

Benevolent and Charitable Institutions. The city lia> 




































G42 


BROOKLYN. 


eight hospitals—viz., The Brooklyn City Hospital, on Fort 
Greene; the Long Island College Hospital, corner of 
Pacific and Henry streets; the King’s County Almshouse 
and Hospital at Flatbush; St. Mary’s Female Hospital and 
St. Peter’s Hospital, both under the care of the Roman 
Catholic Sisters; the U. S. Naval Hospital; the Brooklyn 
Eye and Ear Hospital, 190 Washington street; and the 
Homoeopathic Maternity Hospital. There are thirteen in¬ 
firmaries and dispensaries; three nurseries or creches; 
seven orphan asylums, of which four are Roman Catholic, 
one general, one Episcopal, and one colored. The Chil¬ 
dren’s Aid Society of Brooklyn sustains also a newsboys’ 
home, a home for friendless and unprotected girls, and a 
nursery. There are also the House of the Good Shepherd, 
the Home for Poor Boys, the Helping Hand, the “ Home” 
in Concord street, the Association for Improving the Con¬ 
dition of the Poor, the Truant Home, the Industrial School 
Home, and the Temporary Home for Friendless Women— 
all benevolent institutions. For the aged and infirm there 
are the Graham Home for Respectable Aged Iudigent Fe¬ 
males, the Church Charity Foundation, the “Home” of 
the Little Sisters of the Poor, and the Baptist “ Home,” 
now erecting in the eastern part of the city. The Kings 
County Inebriates’ Home is also one of the city charities. 
There are also numerous local relief and benefit societies, 
among them 44 Masonic lodges, 26 Odd Fellows’ lodges, 
28 United American lodges, and a large number of Good 
Templars, Sons of Temperance, Father Matthew Total 
Abstinence Benevolent societies, Hibernian Benevolent, 
Sons of Erin, German Mutual Benefit, Trades Unions, etc. 
There is also a society for the prevention of cruelty to ani¬ 
mals, three Young Men’s Christian associations, an asso¬ 
ciation for Christian work, numerous local, literary, and 
Christian associations. 

Principal Buildings. — The Brooklyn City Hall; the 
Kings County court-house, costing $550,000, and the ad¬ 
jacent grounds about $650,000 more; the Williamsburg 
Savings Bank, $450,000; Kings County Savings Bank, 
$195,000 ; the Mercantile Library buildings, $219,932; 
Academy of Music, $200,000 ; Long Island Safe Deposit 
building, $150,000; the Academy of Design, in Montague 
street; the Packer Collegiate Institute, in Joralemon street; 
the Adelphi Academy; the Church Charity Foundation; 
the new Brooklyn Orphans’ Asylum; the College of St. 
John the Baptist, Lewis and Willoughby avenues, are all 
fine buildings. 

Public Parks and Cemeteries. —Since the consolidation 
of 1855 the city has increased the magnitude of its enter¬ 
prises, public and private, in every direction. Of its parks 
the principal is Prospect Park, which consists of 522 acres, 
and is laid out and improved upon a plan of beauty, con¬ 
venience, and magnificence which will compare with any 
other in the Union. It has lakes, drives, and boulevards, 
one of the latter, 202 feet in width, and six miles in length, 
is adorned with trees, and is intended to reach the ocean; 
and another extends to East New York. Cost of land 
taken $2,268,909.70, and expenditure for improvements 
$1,169,604.70 ; entire cost to Jan., 1868, $3,438,514.40. 
A fine parade-ground of 40 acres for the exercise of troops 
has been added. Washington Park, taken in 1837 (com¬ 
prising 30 acres), is the remaining height and grounds of 
old Fort Green or Putnam of the Revolution and of the 
line of works of 1812. It has been surrounded by an ele¬ 
gant and substantial wall, neatly buttressed and coped, 
the height itself terraced and laid out in convenient walks 
and avenues, properly shaded with appropriate shrubbery. 
The object of these grounds, which will enlist an interest 
as wide as the Union, is the preservation of the tombs of 
the martyrs of the prison-ships of the Revolution, of 
whom 11,000 were buried on the shores surrounding the 
Brooklyn navy-yard. In the excavation for this work 
many were unburied and enclosed in large coffins. In 1808 
these coffins were borne through the streets on catafalques, 
orations were made, after which they were deposited in a 
temporary vault on Jackson street (now Hudson avenue), 
adjoining the navy-yard wall. Here they rested till June 
17, 1873, when they were privately taken up by the park 
commissioners and placed in their present permanent tomb 
fronting on Myrtle avenue. There are also five other small 
parks in the city. 

Of the cemeteries, Greenwood is well known as peerless 
in extent, having 413 acres enclosed, as well as in the 
beauty of its grounds, the number of burials, and the mag¬ 
nificence of its monuments. The Evergreens, 207 acres, 
and others, make Brooklyn as eminent in this regard as in 
her churches. 

Railroads and Rapid Transit .—No city is better pro¬ 
vided with local railroads traversing it in every direction. 
Steam does not come within the limits, except in a few 
cases by dummy-engines. To provide rapid transit by 
means of tunnelling, a company has been formed, to which 


$502,000 have been subscribed. While two of the Long 
Island railroads discharge their passengers at Hunter’s 
Point, the South Side R. II. passes through Williamsburg 
by a dummy, and has its depot in Brooklyn at the foot 
of S. Seventh street. From all these roads the travel 
reaches the City Hall and ferries by cross-town cars. 
There are 26 city railroad companies in the city (one of 
them, the Brooklyn City, having thirteen routes), and 
their aggregate length is about 135 miles. There are five 
ferry companies with twelve ferries; over these ferries 
nearly 80,000,000 of persons are carried annually. The 
New York Bridge Company is erecting a suspension bridge 
over the East River, to connect Brooklyn and New York 
City. Its estimated cost is about $10,000,000. The trial 
boring began in 1867, and the last of four anchor-plates 
was fixed in place July 29, 1873. Two lofty towers stand 
on either side of the river, the Brooklyn tower now being 
184 feet above high water. The New York terminus is 
opposite the City Hall in Chatham street, the Brooklyn 
terminus in the square bounded by Brooklyn, Sands, 
Washington, and Prospect streets. Total length, 5989 
feet. The central span will cross the river from pier-line 
to pier-line, without impeding navigation, in one single 
span of 1595 feet 6 inches from centre to centre of tow r ers. 
There has been received up to Sept. 1, 1873, about 
$4,000,000, and expended about $3,800,000. All the stock, 
except $500,000 subscribed by citizens, is held by the 
cities of New York and Brooklyn. 

Waterworks .—These are now managed by a board of 
commissioners of city works. The water is derived from 
a number of ponds and streams on the S. side of Long 
Island, and is raised to its reservoirs by powerful steam- 
engines. Time has vindicated the completeness of the 
system and the fine quality of the water for all purposes. 
Cost $7,000,000. From Jan. 1, 1871, to Jan. 1, 1872— 


Total gallons. 8,288,509,360 

Daily supply.•.. 22,708,245 

Amount of receipts. $971,414.98 

Expenses of man¬ 
agement. $297,225.23 

Number of miles of 
streets. 546 


Miles of sewerage. 232 

Amount expended 

to Jan. 1, 1872. $239,533.21 

Streets paved, miles. 298 

Unpaved, “ . 210 

Intersections, “ . 38 


The New City Charter. —This was passed at the recent 
session of the legislature, June 28, 1873. It increases the 
salary of the mayor to $10,000, and divides the city into 
twenty-five wards with thirty-six aldermen till the new 
census of 1875, after which the representation will be 
12,000 to each alderman. This charter has gone into 
operation. 

Annexation Commission. —A legislative commission which 
sat in Aug. and Sept., 1873, in Brooklyn, composed of six 
commissioners from Brooklyn and five from the county 
towns, with power to agree upon terms of annexing the 
other five towns, Flatbush, Flatlands, New Utrecht, New 
Lots, and Gravesend to Brooklyn as one city, reported a 
plan of consolidation which is to be voted upon early in 
1874, and will doubtless result in the extension of the city 
limits over the entire county. 

Banks and Associations. —The city has 12 banks of 
discount, 17 savings banks, 1 trust company, 3 safe-deposit 
companies, 6 gaslight companies, 2 art associations, 7 clubs, 
1 philharmonic society, 1 academy of music, 3 musical 
conservatories, 2 theatres, 2 minstrel operas, 33 religious 
and benevolent societies, 1 industrial exposition, 1 gym¬ 
nasium, 7 libraries and literary societies, 6 public parks, 8 
cemeteries, a paid fire department, 8 regiments of the 
national guard, etc. 

History .—Brooklyn was named from Breuckelen (“ marshy 
land”), in the province of Utrecht in Holland, 6 miles from 
the city of Utrecht, from which some of its earliest settlers 
came. The first step towards its settlement was the pur¬ 
chase from the Indians in 1636, by Willem Arianse Bennet 
and Jaques Bentyn, of a tract of 630 acres, lying at 
Gowanus, between Twenty-seventh street and the New 
Utrecht line; the second step, the purchase by Joris 
(George) Jansen de Rapalje of 325 acres at the Wallabout 
Bay, June 16, 1637. 

At the time of the discovery of the Long Island shores 
in 1609 by Hendrik Hudson, several tribes or settlements 
occupied Long Island, one of which was at Canarsie, and 
another, the Mareckawick tribe, at Brooklyn, which, from 
the spot where they were located (sandy place or shore) at 
the Wallabout, gave the name Mareckawick to that locality. 
Brooklyn Heights, overlooking the East River, was called 
in the Indian dialect Ihpetonga (highlands). Families 
of these Indians were at New Utrecht and Gowanus in 
1680, on the visit of the Labadists to those places in that 
year. The first ferry was established by license in 1642, 
running from Peck Slip to a point near the present Fulton 
ferry, from this period named “ The Ferry.” There were 
at that time five hamlets—“The Ferry;” “Breuckelyn,” 


























BROOKLYN—BROOKS. 


643 


near present Hoyt on Fulton street, where stood the church ; 
“Gowanus,” around Gowanus Bay; “Bedford,” inland; 
and “the Wallabout,” around Wallabout Bay. The first 
house known to have been built in Brooklyn was that of 
Willem Arianse Bennet, located on his purchase, with 
Jaques Bentyn, from the Indians, prior to 1643, as in that 
year it was burnt by the Indians in the Indian wars, and 
replaced by the Schermerhorn House, on or near the same 
site; and the second probably that yet standing, and known 
as the De Hart or Bergen house, which was existing and 
visited by the Labadists in 1680, being then occupied by 
Simon Aertsen de Hart, grantee of Bennet. George Jansen 
de Rapalje did not come over from New Amsterdam to 
occupy his farm till about 1654. Later history has entirely 
exploded the story that his daughter, Sarah Rapalje, was 
the first Christian born child in New Netherlands, and also 
that her birthplace was Brooklyn at the Wallabout. The 
Labadist manuscript, published by the Long Island His¬ 
torical Society, shows that this distinction of first birth in 
the colony probably belongs to a male person, Jean Vigne, 
who was born in New Amsterdam in 1614, eleven years 
before the birth of Sarah, who -was born in 1625. Besides, 
it is clear that Sarah, instead of being born at the Wall¬ 
about, as often asserted by early historians, was born in 
Albany (Fort Orange) in 1625, removed with her parents 
to New Amsterdam in 1626, lived there till after her mar¬ 
riage, between the age of fourteen and fifteen, was a church 
member in New York, and united with the Brooklyn church 
by certificate in 1661 ; was twice married in the Wallabout, 
gave birth to fourteen children, and died in 1685, aged 
about sixty. There is no proof that any white person 
lived upon Long Island prior to 1636. 

Immediately upon the establishment of the ferry in 1642, 
grants of building lots at that point began, and that local¬ 
ity, as well as the other hamlets, increased. The union of 
all the hamlets into one incorporated jurisdiction named 
Breuckelen took place in 1646, under Director-General 
Kieft. The Labadists, who crossed this ferry in Sept., 
1679, speak of it as “a considerable thoroughfare,” and 
say, “a considerable number of Indians live upon Long 
Island, who gain their subsistence by hunting and fishing; 
and they as well as others must carry their articles to mar¬ 
ket over this ferry, or boat themselves over, as it is free to 
every one to use his own boat if lie have one, or to hire one 
for the purpose. The fare over the ferry is three stuivers 
in German (less than half a cent English) for each person.” 

In 1665, Breuckelen had attained the leading position 
among the towns in point of population and wealth, and 
was granted the privilege yearly of “a fayre and market 
near the ferry for all graine, cattle, or other produce of the 
country.” Whatever the increase of population, it must 
have been very gradual, as (to skip a long period) the can¬ 
vasser for the “New York and Brooklyn Directory” in 
1796, passing up “the old road” (Fulton street), and down 
“New Ferry” (Main street), and through the intervening 
streets, giwis but 125 names. The statistics of population, 
and the picture painted by Francis Guy of its condition up 
to 1820, also show that, up to this time, it held but the 
rank of an inconsiderable village, without institutions, 
commerce, or manufactures. 

Over the spaces now occupied by Prospect Park, Wash¬ 
ington Park, Greenwood Cemetery, Evergreen and Cypress 
Hills Cemeteries, was fought on the 27th of Aug., 1776, the 
important battle which has been properly designated “the 
battle of Brooklyn,” the first great battle of the Revolution 
after the Declaration of Independence. The British army 
was under the command of Lord Howe, the Hessians under 
Gen. von Heister. Gen. Greene being ill, Gen. Putnam 
was in command of the American forces. The result is 
well known. An important pass was left unguarded in 
Howard’s Hills, just beyond Bedford, by which the English 
troops gained the rear of the American army, and defeated 
it with heavy loss. Those who escaped within the lines 
were rescued by the masterly retreat effected by Gen. 
Washington on the 28th to New York by means of boats 
and under cover of a heavy fog, by which their movements 
were concealed. A memorable incident of this battle was 
the death of Gen. Nathaniel Woodhull of Suffolk co., L. I., 
while engaged on the 28th, the day after the battle, in 
driving the cattle eastward. lie had entered the “ Increase 
Carpenter house,” two miles E. of Jamaica. While there 
a body of horsemen rode up, commanded by Captain Oliver 
de Lancey, who struck the general several times with his 
sword, and wounded him so severely that he died a few 
days after at New Utrecht, where lie had been conveyed as 
a prisoner. 

The Brooklyn navy-yard was begun with the purchase 
by the U. S. government of 40 acres in 1801, which wero 
converted into a navy-yard, and which was designated in 
1824 by the secretary of the navy as one of the first-class 
navy-yards of the nation. It has since added largely to 


its domain by other valuable purchases, upon which arc 
placed the U. S. hospital, a dry-dock, and costly buildings 
for the repair and construction of the largest vessels. 

The War of 1812.—On Aug. 9, 1814, the patriotic citi¬ 
zens of Brooklyn and the surrounding country flocked to 
Fort Greene, and aided in rehabilitating that old fortifica¬ 
tion and following out the line of earthworks across the 
island, conformably to the plans of Gen. Joseph G. Swift, 
after whom one of the forts which cornered on Atlantic 
street (the “Cobble Hill Fort” of 1776) was named “Fort 
Swift.” Every preparation was made to meet the dangers 
to which New York was liable from her exposed situation 
by sea and land. By these precautions or otherwise Brook¬ 
lyn did not, as in the Revolution, bear the brunt of the first 
systematic strategic conflict. 

The Civil War of 1861-65.—In this emergency the city 
of Brooklyn was not exceeded by any other city in raising 
regiments and supplying material aid. Her Sanitary Fair 
of Feb. 22, 1864, was extraordinary as an effort of local 
unity and successful effort, the pecuniary realization reach¬ 
ing the magnificent sum of $402,943.74. This was aptly 
characterized as the first great act of self-assertion ever 
made by the city of Brooklyn, and did much to bring her 
citizens together for other efforts. 

The village charter of Brooklyn is dated April 12, 1816; 
the first city charter was passed April 8, 1834; the consoli¬ 
dation act uniting Williamsburg and Greenpoint with it 
passed April 17, 1854, and took effect Jan. 1, 1855. The 
new charter was passed in 1873, and went into effect the 
same year. The institutions which have had the greatest 
influence upon the social organization and material pro¬ 
gress of the city have been the Apprentices’ Library and 
Graham Institute (founded July 4, 1825), the Academy of 
Music (opened Jan. 15, 1861), the Mercantile Library As¬ 
sociation, the Atlantic Docks, and the Long Island His¬ 
torical Society. Alden J. Spooner, 

Late Ed. of “The Long Island Star.” 

Brooklyn, a post-village and township of Cuyahoga 
co., O. The village is about 3 miles S. of Cleveland. Pop. 
648; of township, 3712. 

Brooklyn, a post-township of Susquehanna co., Pa. 
Pop. 1128. 

Brooklyn, a post-twp. of Green co., Wis. Pop. 1111. 

Brooklyn, a twp. of Green Lake co., Wis. Pop. 1339. 

Brooks, a county of Georgia, bordering on Florida. 
Area, 550 square miles. It is intersected by the Ocopilco 
River. The surface is level and the soil sandy. Corn, 
oats, rice, cotton, and wool are raised. It is traversed by 
the Atlantic and Gulf R. R. Capital, Quitman. Pop. 8342. 

Brooks, a township of Buena Vista co., Ia. Pop. 71. 

B rooks, a post-township of Waldo co., Me., on the Bel¬ 
fast branch of the Maine Central R. R., 13 miles N. by W. 
of Belfast. It has manufactures of lumber, spools, car¬ 
riage-wheels, etc. Pop. 868. 

Brooks, a township of Newaygo co., Mich. Pop. 974. 

Brooks, a township of Cedar co., Neb. Pop. 40. 

Brooks (Charles Shirley), an English journalist, lec¬ 
turer, dramatist, and novelist, born in Oxfordshire in 1815. 
He produced dramas entitled “ The Creole,” “ Our New 
Governess,” etc. Among his novels are “Aspen Court” 
(1857), “The Silver Cord,” and “Sooner or Later.” He 
was for several years editor of “ Punch.” His style was 
delightfully genial and witty, and he was personally greatly 
beloved. Died Feb., 1874. 

Brooks (Charles Timothy), a Unitarian minister and 
poet, born at Salem, Mass., June 20, 1813. He graduated 
at Harvard in 1832, and became in 1837 pastor at Newport, 
Ii. I. He is eminent as a translator of “ Faust,” “ Hes¬ 
perus,” “ Titan,” and many small poems from the German. 

Brooks (Elbridge Gerry), D. D., born at Dover, N. II., 
July 29, 1816, studied law (1833-35) with Chief-Justice 
Tenney of Maine, began preaching in 1836, was ordained 
over a Universalist church in West Amesbury, Mass., 1837, 
has been pastor in East Cambridge, Lowell, and Lynn, 
Mass., in Bath, Me., in New York City, and since 1868 in 
Philadelphia, Pa. He was general secretary of the Uni¬ 
versalist General Convention (1867-68). 

Brooks (Erastus), an American journalist, born at 
Portland, Me., Jan. 31, 1815. He graduated at Brown Uni¬ 
versity, and became editor of the “ N. Y. Express ” in 1836. 

Brooks (Horace), U. S. A., born in Boston, Mass., was 
a son of Maria G. Brooks, the poet. He graduated at V est 
Point in 1835, and was assistant professor of mathematics 
there 1836-39 ; served with distinction in Florida, Mexico, 
and the civil war, becoming in 1863 colonel ot the Tourth 
Artillery, and in 1865 brevet brigadier-general. 

Brooks (James) was born in Portland, Me., Nov. 10, 



























644 


BROOKS—BROOME. 


1810, and graduated at Waterville in 1831. He was edu¬ 
cated by his own industry and self-denying efforts. lie 
studied law with John Neal the novelist, taught school, 
and at the same time engaged in political journalism. 
When twenty-one years of age he was elected to the State 
legislature, and in the following year became a newspaper 
correspondent at Washington, lie afterwards travelled in 
the South and in Europe. In 1836 he established the “New 
York Express.” He was a member of Congress 1849-53, 

1864- 67, his seat being at last successfully contested by 
Hon. W. E. Dodge, and 1868-73. He died April 30, 1873. 

Brooks (John), M. D., LL.D., born in Medford, Mass., 
May 31, 1752, practised medicine at Reading, fought with 
the greatest honor as an officer at Lexington, White Plains, 
Saratoga, Monmouth, etc., becoming a colonel and adjutant- 
general. He practised medicine at Medford, Mass., after 
the war, and held many important offices. He was governor 
of Massachusetts (1816-23), and president of the Massa¬ 
chusetts Medical Society (1817-25). Died Mar. 1, 1825. 

Brooks (Kendall), D. D., born at Roxbury, Mass., 
Sept. 3, 1821, graduated at Brown University 1841, New¬ 
ton Theological Institute 1845, tutor in Columbian College 
1811-43, pastor of the Baptist church at Eastport, Me., 
1845-52, professor of mathematics and natural philosophy 
in Waterville College 1852-55, pastor at Fitchburg, Mass., 
1855-65, editor of the “ National Baptist,” Philadelphia, 

1865- 68, and since 1868 president of Kalamazoo College, 
Mich. 

Brooks (Maria Gowen), a poetess, born at Medford, 
Mass., about 1795. She was married } 7 oung to a Mr. Brooks, 
a merchant of Boston. Her chief work is “ Zophiel, or the 
Bride of Seven” (1825), which was praised by the poet 
Southey, who called her Maria del Occidente (“ Maria of 
the West”). She died at Matanzas Nov. 11, 1845. 

Brooks (Peter Chardon), born in North Yarmouth, 
Me., Jan. 6, 1767. He engaged in marine insurance in 
Boston, and attained great wealth. He held many public 
offices of trust. Edward Everett, Charles Francis Adams, 
and N. L. Frothingham, D. D., were sons-in-law of Mr. 
Brooks. Died Jan. 1, 1849. 

Brooks (Rev. Phillips), an eloquent American divine, 
born in Boston Dec. 13, 1835, and graduated at Harvard in 
1855. He studied in the Episcopal Theological Seminary 
at Alexandria, Va., was ordained in 1859, became the same 
year pastor of the Church of the Advent in Philadelphia, 
and in 1862 of the Church of the Holy Trinity, where he 
remained until 1870, when he accepted the pastoral charge 
of Trinity church in Boston. 

Brooks (Nathan Covington), LL.D., an American 
scholar, born in Cecil co., Md., Aug. 12, 1809, became presi¬ 
dent of the Baltimore Female College in 1848. He has 
published a number of poems and a popular “History of 
the Mexican War,” besides numerous school-books of 
merit. 

Brooks (Preston S.), a politician, born in Edgefield co., 
S. C., Aug. 4, 1819, graduated at South Carolina College in 
1839. He was elected a member of Congress in 1853 and 
1855. He violently assaulted Senator Sumner (for words 
spoken in debate) in the Senate chamber in May, 1856. He 
was censured by the majority of the Representatives, and 
resigned his seat, but was re-elected. Died Jan. 27, 1857. 

Brooks (William T. H.), an American officer, born 
in Ohio in 1821, gi'aduated at West Point in 1841, major 
Eighteenth Infantry Mar. 12,1862, and Sept. 28,1861, briga¬ 
dier-general U. S. volunteers. He served in the Florida war 
1841-42, on frontier duty 1843-45, in the military occupa¬ 
tion of Texas 1S45-46, in the war with Mexico 1846-48, was 
engaged at Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterey (bre¬ 
vet captain), Yera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Churu- 
busco (brevet major), and the city of Mexico, as aide-de- 
camp to Brevet Major-general Twiggs 1848-51, in active 
operations in New Mexico in 1838, and engaged in several 
skirmishes against Navajos. In the civil war he served in 
the Virginia Peninsula campaign 1862, engaged at York- 
town, Golden’s Farm, Savage Station (wounded), and Glen¬ 
dale, in the Maryland campaign 1862, engaged at Crampton 
Pass and Antietam (wounded), and commanding division 
in the Rappahannock campaign 1862-63, in command of 
the department of the Monongahela 1863-64, when Pittsburg 
was threatened by a raid, in command of the Tenth Corps 
before Richmond 1864, engaged at Swift’s Creek, Drury’s 
Bluff", Bermuda Hundred, Cold Harbor, and the siege of 
Petersburg. Failing health from exposure and wounds 
caused him to resign from the army July 14, 1864, and in 
1866 he retired to a farm in Huntsville, Ala., where he re¬ 
posed upon his well-earned laurels till his death, July 19, 
1870, aged forty-nine. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Brooks'ton, a post-village of Prairie township, White 
co., Ind. Pop. 406. 


Brooks'ville, a post-township of Hancock co., Me. 
Pop. 1275. It has four churches and manufactures of lum¬ 
ber, etc. 

Brook'ville, a post-townshij) of Blount co., Ala. Pop. 
510. 

Brookville, a township of Coosa co., Ala. Pop. 689. 

Brookville, a post-village, capital of Hernando co., 
Fla. 

Brookville, a post-township of Ogle co., Ill. Pop. 746. 

Brookville, a post-village, capital of Franklin co., Ind., 
is at the confluence of the forks of the White Water River, 
and on the White Water Valley R. R., 42 miles N. W. of 
Cincinnati. It has water-power in abundance, a national 
bank, two paper-mills, two flouring mills, two weekly 
papers, and one grain distillery. Pop. of Brookville town¬ 
ship, 4207. Wm. A. Beasley & Co., 

Eds. and Pubs. “Brookville American.” 

Brookville, a post-village of Spring Creek township. 
Saline co., Kan. Pop. 201. 

Brookville, a post-village, capital of Bracken co., Ky. 
Pop. 348. 

Brookville, a village of Oyster Bay township, Queen’s 
co., N. Y., is the seat of “Jones Institute ” for the support 
of the poor of Oyster Bay and North Hempstead. 

Brookville, a post-village, capital of Jefferson co., Pa., 
on Red Bank Creek, 170 miles W. N. W. of Harrisburg. 
It has a national bank and two weekly newspapers. Coal, 
timber, and iron abound. Pop. 1942. 

Brookville, a township of Campbell co., Va. P.4960. 

Broom, a name given to several shrubs of the order 
Leguminosm. They belong to the allied genera of Spar- 
tium, Genista, and Cytisus. The common broom of Europe 
(Cytisus Scoparius) grows on dry and sandy soils and heaths, 
and bears handsome yellow flowers. The branches, which 
are very tough and angular, are used for making brooms. 
The young tops and seeds, being strongly diuretic, are 
used in medicine, and are beneficial in dropsy. All kinds 
of broom have long, slender branches. The Spanish 
broom ( Spartium junceum) grows wild in the south of Eu¬ 
rope, and possesses medical properties like the common 
broom. The fibre of its branchlets is used in Italy and 
Spain for making cloths and ropes. The Cytisus aibus, or 
white broom, also a native of Europe, is cultivated in Eng¬ 
land as an ornamental shrub, and bears white flowers which 
are much admired. It sometimes attains a height of fifteen 
feet or more. The broom (Fr. genet) gave name to the 
royal family of Plantagenet, one of its ancestors having 
the broom for his crest. 

Broom Corn ( Sorghum vulgare), a plant of the order 
Graminacem, is a native of the East Indies, and is culti¬ 
vated in the U. S. It has a jointed stem, which grows to 
the height of eight or ten feet, and bears spikelets, two and 
thi*ee together, on the ramifications of an open panicle. 
Only the middle or terminal one of these is fertile; stamens 
three. The panicle is extensively used in the manufacture 
of brooms, and the seeds are valuable as food for domestic 
animals. It is stated that this plant was first introduced 
into the U. S. by Dr. Franklin, who, finding a seed on a 
whisk that had been imported, planted it and propagated 
it. It succeeds best in alluvial soils, but will generally pro¬ 
duce a fair crop on any land that is adapted to maize. 
Broom corn is largely cultivated by the Shakers, who make 
brooms of a good quality. It is planted in rows about three 
feet apart, and in hills about eighteen inches apart. The 
weeds are removed from the growing crop by the cultivator 
or the hoe. The average produce of an acre is about 500 
pounds of the brush or material for brooms. The usual 
practice in harvesting is to bend the stalks about three feet 
from the ground, leave them for a few days to dry, and then 
cut them six or eight inches below the brush or panicle. 

Broome, a county of New York, bordering on Penn¬ 
sylvania. Area, 706 square miles. It is intersected by 
the Susquehanna River, and also drained by the Chenango 
and Otselic rivers. The surface is hilly or undulating; the 
soil in some parts is fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, 
hay, fruit, and dairy products are extensively raised. It 
has manufactures of leather, lumber, flour, wagons, etc. It 
is traversed by the Erie R. R., and other railroads extend 
from this county to Albany and Syracuse. Capital, Bing¬ 
hamton. Pop. 44,103. 

Broome, a township of Schoharie co., N. Y. Pop. 
1834. 

Broome (John L.), U. S. M. C., born Mar. 8, 1824, in 
the State of New York, was appointed a second lieutenant 
in the marine corps Jan. 12, 1848, became a first lieutenant 
in 1857, a captain in 1861, and a major in 1864. He served 
with the marine battalion in Mexico during the Mexican 
war. While in command of the marine guard of the Hart- 
















BROOMFIELD—BROUGHAM. 


ford during 1862 and 1863 he participated in the attack on 
Forts St. Philip and Jackson and capture of New Orleans, 
and in all the many actions of that famous vessel in the 
waters of the Mississippi. In his official report of the 
action of June 28,1862, with the Vicksburg batteries, Com¬ 
mander Richard Wainwright writes : “The marine guard,, 
under the command of Captain J. L. Broome, had charge 
of two broadside, guns, and fought them well, thus sustain¬ 
ing the reputation of that distinguished corps.” At the 
close of the war, Captain Broome, who had been twice 
wounded, received the brevets of major and lieutenant- 
colonel “ for gallant and meritorious conduct.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Brooin'fielil, a post-township of Isabella co., Mich. 
Pop. 118. 

Bro'ra Beds, a series of strata at Brora, a village in 
the county of Sutherland, Scotland. Here is a seam of 
good coal three and a half feet thick, and the thickest bed 
of true coal hitherto discovered in any secondary strata of 
Great Britain. The fossils indicate that it belongs to the 
lower oolitic series. 

Broth'ers, Lay, an inferior class of Roman Catholic 
monks, not in holy orders, but bound by monastic rules, 
and employed as servants in monasteries. 

Broth'ers’ VaFley, a township of Somerset co., Pa. 
Pop. 1597. 

Broth'ertown, a post-township of Calumet co., Wis. 
Pop. 1605. 

Brough (John), born in Marietta, 0., Sept. 17, 1811, 
was a printer in his youth, and studied at Ohio University, 
lie edited several political journals, became a powerful 
Democratic orator, and held important public offices. In 
1846 he became a lawyer. In 1848 he left political life for 
a time and became a railroad president. In 1864 he be¬ 
came governor of Ohio, receiving the joint vote of all par¬ 
ties who were in favor of prosecuting the war against the 
insurgent States. Died at Cleveland Aug. 29, 1865. 

Brough'am (Henry), Lord, an eminent and learned 
British orator, lawyer, and writer, was born in Edinburgh 
Sept. 19, 1779. His mother was a niece of Dr. Robertson, 
the historian. He graduated in the University of Edin¬ 
burgh, studied law, and was admitted to the Scottish bar 
in 1800. He was intimate with Francis Jeffrey and Syd¬ 
ney Smith, whom he aided in founding the “ Edinburgh 
Review ” in 1802, and he continued to contribute to that 
review for many years. In 1808 he removed to London, 
was called to the English bar, and chose the common-law 
courts as the scene of his practice. He became a Whig 
member of Parliament in 1810, and soon acquired a high 
reputation as a debater as well as a forensic pleader. He 
was considered at that period the most powerful speaker in 
the House of Commons except Canning, who was his polit¬ 
ical opponent. As a parliamentary orator he was distin¬ 
guished for vehemence and energy, and the rather free use 
of sarcasm and invective. He represented Winchelsea from 
1816 to 1830. Among his famous performances as an ad¬ 
vocate was his defence of Queen Caroline (1821), by which 
he gained great popularity. In 1819 he married Miss Eden, 
a daughter of Thomas Eden and niece of Lord Auckland. 
He distinguished himself as a promoter of popular educa¬ 
tion, as a reformer of laws, and a friend of political reform 
and progress. In 1825 he published “ Practical Observa¬ 
tions on the Education of the People.” He took a prom¬ 
inent part in founding the Society for the Diffusion of Use¬ 
ful Knowledge, of which he became in 1827 the first chair¬ 
man. In a great speech which he delivered in 1827 he 
enumerated the defects in nearly every branch of English 
law, and made proposals for dealing with law reform on a 
proper scale. He made a powerful speech against slavery 
in 1830, soon after which he was returned to Parliament by 
the great popular constituency of Yorkshire. In the same 
year he was appointed lord chancellor in the new Whig 
ministry, and was raised to the peerage as Baron Brough¬ 
am and Vaux. He retired from office with his colleagues 
in Nov., 1834, after which he ceased to act with the Whigs, 
without joining any other party, but pursued an independ¬ 
ent political course. 

Having cultivated various sciences with success, and 
written many and various works, he was chosen a foreign 
associate of the French Institute in 1833. Among his 
writings are a “ Treatise on the Objects, Advantages, and 
Pleasures of Science;” “Sketches of Statesmen of the Time 
of George III.” (3vols., 1839-43); “ Political Philosophy ” 
(3 vols., 1840-44); and “Contributions to the 1 Edinburgh 
Review,’ Political, Historical, and Miscellaneous” (3 vols., 
1857). He had only two children, who died before their 
father. He died at Cannes, in France, May 9, 1868. Ho 
had published an edition of his collected works in 10 vols., 
1857. (See Lord Campbell, “ Life of Lord Brougham,” 


6 LI 


1869; “ Quarterly Review” for April, 1859 ; “Edinburgh 
Review” for April, 1858.) William Jacobs.^ 

Brougham (John), actor and author. Brilliance of 
mind, warmth of heart, and genial courtliness of manners 
have seldom been united to form so fascinating a public 
character as this comedian. John Brougham was born at 
Dublin, Ireland, in 1810, and there he passed his child¬ 
hood and went to school. He was educated well, and was 
trained to be a surgeon. He walked the Peter Street Hos¬ 
pital, in Dublin, for eight months. Reverses of fortune, 
affecting his family, led, however, to a change of plan, and 
threw him upon his own resources, whereupon he drifted into 
the dramatic profession, making his entrance upon the stage 
at the Tottenham Theatre, London, in 1830. His first effort 
was characteristic of his prodigious mental force and vi¬ 
vacity, since he undertook twelve or fourteen parts in the 
play of “Tom and Jerry,” then new and a popular favor¬ 
ite. After this he was engaged by Madame Vestris to act 
in her stock company at the London Olympic Theatre. 
Here he rose rapidly, both in talent and favor. His first 
dramatic composition was a burlesque, written for Mr. Wil¬ 
liam E. Burton, then an actor at the Pavilion Theatre, Lon¬ 
don, afterwards famous in the U. S. It succeeded, and he 
wrote many similar pieces of a light description. Madame 
Vestris, having been wedded by Mr. Charles Mathews, re¬ 
moved from the Olympic to Covent Garden, and Brougham 
acted for a while at that theatre. It was at this period that 
he wrote, in conjunction with Mr. Dion Boucicault, the 
comedy of “ London Assurance,” the authorship of which 
is commonly ascribed to Mr. Boucicault alone. A little 
later he undertook the management of the London Lyceum 
during several seasons, and for this stage he wrote “Life 
in the Clouds,” “Love’s Livery,” “Enthusiasm,” “Tom 
Thumb the Second,” and—in association with Mr. Mark 
Lemon—“ The Demon Gift.” 

In 1842 Brougham came to America, accompanied by his 
first wife, an English actress, known to the London stage 
as Miss Emma Williams. They acted at the Park Theatre 
Oct. 4 in that year—one as O’Callaghan in “ His Last 
Legs,” and the other as Lady Teazle. Afterwards they 
made a professional tour of the theatrical cities of America. 
Brougham then settled down as a member of the stock com¬ 
pany of Burton’s Theatre, New York. Here he wrote 
“Bunsby’s Wedding,” “The Confidence Man,” “Don Cae¬ 
sar de Bassoon,” “Vanity Fail-,” “The Irish Yankee,” 
“Benjamin Franklin,” “All’s Fair in Love,” “ The Irish 
Emigrant,” and a dramatization of “ Dombey and Son.” 
He then undertook the management of Niblo’s Garden, and 
wrote a fairy play called “ Home,” and a piece for Made¬ 
moiselle Blazy called “Ambrose Germain.” On Dec. 23, 
1850, he opened Brougham’s Lyceum. This building stood 
on the W. side of Broadway, and was the second structure 
S. of the corner of Broome street. It afterwards became 
Wallack’s Theatre, and so remained till 1860. Brougham 
did not keep it long, but while there he wrote “The World’s 
Fair,” “Faustus,” “The Spirit of Air,” “Row at the Ly¬ 
ceum,” a dramatization of “ David Copperfield,” and, for 
Charlotte Cushman, a new version of “ The Actress of 
Padua.” His next venture was made at the Old Bowery 
Theatre (1856-57), where he brought out “ King John,” 
with a cast of parts that included Mr. and Mrs. Edward 
L. Davenport, Mr. William Wheatley, Mr. J. B. Howe, and 
Miss Kate Reignolds. Afterwards he wrote, and produced 
at the Bowery, “ The Pirates of the Mississippi,” “ The 
Red Mask,” “Tom and Jerry in America,” “The Miller 
of New Jersey,” and other dramas of a common sort, but 
profitable. Then he accepted an engagement at Wallack’s 
Theatre, and while there he wrote “ The Game of Love,” a 
version of “Bleak House,” “My Cousin German,” “A De¬ 
cided Case,” “ The Game of Life,” “ Pocahontas,” “ Nep¬ 
tune’s Defeat,” “ Love and Murder,” “ Romance and Real¬ 
ity,” “ The Ruling Passion,” and “ Playing with Fire.” A 
little later he left Wallack’s and rejoined Burton at the 
Metropolitan Theatre—first known as Tripler Hall, and 
last as the Winter Garden, burned in 1866—and here he 
produced his burlesque of “ Columbus.” 

In 1861-62, Brougham went to London, where he re¬ 
mained upwards of four years. During this time lie wrote 
“The Duke’s Motto” and “Bel Demonio ”—based on 
French originals—for Mr. Charles Fechter; dramatic ver¬ 
sions of two novels by Miss M. E. Braddon called “Lady 
Audley’s Secret” and* “Only a Clod,” for Miss Herbert; 
“While There’s Life There’s Hope,” played at the Strand 
Theatre; “ The Might of Right,” played at Astley’s The¬ 
atre; and “The Golden Dream,” jilayed at Manchester. 
He also lvrotc the words of three operas “Blanche de 
Nevers,” “ The Demon Lovers,” and « The Brides of V cil¬ 
ice.” Shortly after his return to America, in 1866-67, ho 
appeared in one of the finest of his compositions, an Irish 
drama, entitled “ O’Donnell’s Mission.” On the 25th of 
Jan., 1869, he opened Brougham’s 'I heatre, on the S. side 


























C46 BKOUGIITON—BROWN. 


of Twenty-fourth street, N. Y., adjacent to the Fifth Av¬ 
enue Hotel. This afterwards became Daly's Fifth Avenue 
Theatre, and was destroyed by tire Jan. 1, 1873. Brough¬ 
am kept it ten weeks, when he was dispossessed of his 
lease by the owner, the notorious adventurer James Fisk, 
Jr. At this place he brought out, among other pieces, his 
burlesque called “Much Ado about a Merchant of Venice.” 
Among his later works are “The Lottery of Life,” “Little 
Nell and the Marchioness”—dramatized from Charles Dick¬ 
ens’s novel of “ The Old Curiosity Shop ”—“ The Lily of 
France,” a play on the story of Joan of Arc, and a melo¬ 
drama called “ Atherley Court.” 

Brougham started in New York a comic paper called 
“ The Lantern,” and he is the author of two volumes of 
miscellaneous writings, entitled “A Basket of Chips” and 
“ The Bunsby Papers.” He was separated from his first 
wife in 1845. The lady died near New York in 1865, under 
the name of Mrs. Robertson. His second wife, Miss Nel¬ 
son, whom he wedded in 1847, was known as an actress and 
celebrated as a person of extraordinary beauty. This lady 
died in Twenty-fourth street, N. Y., in 1870. Brougham 
has latterly acted at Wallack’s Theatre, at Daly’s Grand 
Opera-House, and miscellaneously at provincial theatres. 
In Oct., 1873, he appeared for the first time in the lyceum, 
giving, at Boston, Mass., a reading from his own works. 
In earlier times he was noted for his personal beauty, and 
he won many successes in light-comedy characters, to 
which his immense animal spirits, grace of motion, polish 
of manners, and drollery of temperament made him ad¬ 
mirably suitable. In maturer years he was excellent as a 
delineator of Irish character, and possessed in this a very 
wide range of power and skill, being equally at home in 
Dennis Bulgruddery, Sir Lucius O’Trigger, Maurice Fitz 
Maurice, and Tim O’Brien, which it- seems fair to denote as 
representative parts. His engaging personal qualities and 
mental attributes, however, account, better than his artis¬ 
tic powers, for his great popularity. Magnanimity, charity, 
scholarship, wit, a charming ease in conversation, the spon¬ 
taneous habit of sympathy with weakness, sorrow, worth 
of character, and worth of effort, and the frank, off-hand 
demeanor of rugged yet gentle manliness, shown in a long 
career of steady usefulness to the stage and to society, have 
won affection and respect, as well as reputation and com¬ 
petent fortune, for John Brougham. 

William Winter, of the “ N. Y. Tribune.” 

I? roilgh'ton, a twp. of Livingston co., Ill. Pop. 823. 

B roussa. See Brusa. 

Broussais (Francois Joseph Victor), M. D., an emi¬ 
nent French medical writer, born at Saint-Malo Dec. 17, 
1772, is called the founder of the so-called physiological 
school of medicine. He became in 1832 professor of pa¬ 
thology in the faculty of Paris, and was a member of the 
Institute. His chief works are a “History of Chronic In¬ 
flammations” (1808), and an “Examination of the Medical 
Doctrine generally adopted” (1816). Died Nov. 17, 1838. 
(See J. B. Priou, “Notice historique sur F. J. V. Brous¬ 
sais,” 1841.) 

Broussone'tia, a genus of trees allied to the mulberry, 
comprises the paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera), 
the fibrous bark of which is used by the Chinese and Japan¬ 
ese in the manufacture of paper. It is a small tree with 
deciduous leaves of variable shape. It is planted as a 
shade tree in some American cities. 

Brow'ers, a township of Randolph co., N. C. P. 781. 

Browil [Fr. bruri], in painting, a dark dusky color, 
inclined to red, of various degrees of depth. It belongs 
to the tertiary colors known as russets and olives, in which 
the hue is modified by an admixture of black or a dark 
pigment. Among the brown pigments are bistre, umber, 
raw and burnt sienna, and brown madder. 

B rOAVn, a county in the W. part of Illinois. Area, 320 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Illinois Riv¬ 
er, and on the N. E. by the La Moin or Crooked River. 
The surface is undulating or level; the soil is fertile. Coal 
is found in some parts. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, and 
hay are raised extensively. Stone and earthen ware is 
manufactured at various points. It is intersected by the 
Toledo Wabash and AV'estern R. R. Capital, Mount Ster¬ 
ling. Pop. 12,205. 

Brown, a county in the S. part of Indiana. Area, 
325 square miles. It is drained by Bean Blossom and Salt 
creeks. The surface is diversified with hills of moderate 
height; the soil is mostly fertile. Grain, tobacco, and wool 
are the staple products. Capital, Nashville. Pop. 8681. 

Brown, a county of Kansas, bordering on Nebraska. 
Area, 576 square miles. It is drained by the Sauterclle, 
Wolf, and Webster creeks. The surface is somewhat di¬ 
versified : the soil is productive. It is intersected by the 
St. Joseph and Denver City R. R. Grain, wool, and to¬ 


bacco are the staple products. Capital, Hiawatha. Pop. 
6823. 

Brown, a county in the S. part of Minnesota. Area, 
450 square miles, it is bounded on the N. E. by the Min¬ 
nesota River, and intersected by the Big Cottonwood River. 
The county contains several small lakes. The soil is fer¬ 
tile. Grain and wool are the staple products. Capital, 
New Ulm. Pop. 6396. 

Brown, a county of Ohio, bordering on Kentucky. 
Area, 500 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Ohio 
River, and drained by the Eagle and White Oak creeks. 
The surface is mostly undulating; the soil is based on lime¬ 
stone, and is very fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool 
are largely raised. Lumber, saddlery, etc. are manufac¬ 
tured extensively. Capital, Georgetown. Pop. 30,802. 

Brown, a county in the central part of Texas. Area, 
1050 square miles. It is nearly all prairie. Stock-raising 
is the principal pursuit. It is bounded on the S. W, by the 
Colorado River, and drained by Pecan and Jim Ned creeks. 
Capital, Brownwood. Pop. 544. 

Brown, a county in the E. part of Wisconsin. Area, 
525 square miles. It is partly bounded on the N. by Green 
Bajq and intersected by Fox or Neenah River, which is 
navigable for steamboats. This county was originally 
covered with dense forests. The soil is fertile. Grain and 
wool are largely raised. It is intersected by the Chicago 
and North-western R. R. Capital, Green Bay. P. 25,168. 

Brown, a township of Sanford co., Ala. Pop. 459. 

Brown, a township of Columbia co., Ark. Pop. 1090. 

Brown, a township of Champaign co., Ill. Pop. 486. 

Brown, a township of Hancock co., Ind. Pop. 1329. 

BroAVn, a township of Hendricks co., Ind. Pop. 1233. 

Brown, a township of Martin co., Ind. Pop. 1048. 

Brown, a township of Montgomery co., Ind. Pop. 
2126. 

Brown, a township of Morgan co., Ind. Pop. 1673. 

Brown, a township of Ripley co., Ind. Pop. 2234. 

Brown, a township of Washington co., Ind. Pop. 1521. 

Brown, a township of Linn co., Ia. Pop. 1581. 

Brown, a township of Manistee co., Mich. Pop. 459. 

Brown, a township of Carroll co., O. Pop. 2022. 

Brown, a township of Darke co., O. Pop. 1239. 

BroAVn, a township of Delaware co., O. Pop. 1108. 

BroA\ r n, a township of Franklin co., 0. Pop. 819. 

BroAAm, a township of Knox co., 0. Pop. 1242. 

BroAVn, a township of Miami co., O. Pop. 1639. 

BroAA r n, a township of Paulding co., O. Pop. 1140. 

B roAVn, a township of Vinton co., 0. Pop. 1297. 

BroAArn, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 347. 

BroAVn, a township of Mifflin co., Pa. Pop. 1192. 

B roAVli, a township of Darlington co., S. C. P. 1598. 

BroAA r n (Aaron V.), an American statesman, born in 
Brunswick co., Va., Aug. 15, 1795, graduated at Chapel 
Hill in 1814, removed to Tennessee in 1815, was a member 
of Congress 1839-45, and was elected governor of the State 
in 1845. He became jiostmaster-general of the U. S. in 
1857. Died in 1859. 

BroAArn (Albert G.), born in Chester district, S. C., May 
31, 1813, was chosen governor of Mississippi in 1843, and 
elected to the U. S. Senate in 1853. He was re-elected in 
1858 for six years, but withdrew from the Senate in 1861. 

BroAVn (Benjamin Gratz), born in Lexington, Ivy., 
May 28, 1826, graduated at Yale in 1847. He commenced 
the practice of law at St. Louis, Mo., was a member of the 
State legislature (1852-58), and edited the Missouri “ Dem¬ 
ocrat” (1854-59). On the breaking out of the war in 1861, 
he raised a regiment and fought on the side of the Union. 
He afterwards commanded a brigade of militia. He was 
among the most active and influential in procuring the 
adoption of the ordinance of freedom in 1864 by the State 
of Missouri. He was U. S. Senator in 1863-67, and was 
made governor of Missouri in 1871. He was nominated at 
the Cincinnati Convention, May, 1872, for the office of Vice- 
President of the IJ. S., the Hon. Horace Greeley being the 
nominee for President. 

BrovA'n (Chad) went from Massachusetts to Rhode 
Island in 1636, on account of his religious opinions, and in 
1642 became one of the elders of the Baptist church at 
Providence. He was the ancestor of many distinguished 
citizens. Died in 1665. 

BroAVn (Charles Brockden), an American novelist, 
born at Philadelphia Jan. 17, 1771. He published “Wie- 
land ” (1798), “Ormond, or the Secret Witness” (1799), 


















BROWN. 


and “ Arthur Mervyn ” (1800). He founded in 1803 “ The 
Literary Magazine and American Register,” which he edit¬ 
ed for nearly five years. His mind was remarkable for in¬ 
genuity and imagination. Among his other works are 
“ Clara Howard” (1801) and “Jane Talbot” (1804). He 
married a Miss Linn in 1804, and died Feb. 22,1810. “ His 
peculiar merits,” says Prescott, “appeal to a higher order 
ot criticism than is to be found in ordinary and superficial 
readers.” (See Prescott, “Life of C. B. Brown,” in 
Sparks’s “American Biography,” vol. i.; W. Dunlap’s 
“ Life of Charles B. Brown,” prefixed to an edition of his 
works, 1827.) 

Brown (David Paul), a distinguished American law¬ 
yer, born in Philadelphia in 1795. He published in 1856 
“The Forum, or Forty Years’ Full Practice at the Phila¬ 
delphia Bar,” besides several dramatic and other works. 
Died July 11, 1872. 

Brown (Francis), D. D., was born at Chester, N. JL, 
Jan. 11, 1784, graduated at Dartmouth College in 1805, 
was tutor from 1806 to 1809, was settled over the Congre¬ 
gational church in North Yarmouth, Me., in 1810, and was 
chosen president of his alma mater in 1815. It was during 
his presidency that the famous Dartmouth College case 
was carried up to the U. S. Supreme Court. Jeremiah 
Mason and Daniel Webster admired the ability with which 
he served them in their management of the case. Rufus 
Choate, one of his pupils, speaks in the highest terms of 
his genius, character, and culture. He published only 
pamphlets and sermons. Died July 27, 1820. 

Brown (Sir George), a British general, born near 
Elgin, Scotland, in 1790, served in the Peninsular war. In 
the Crimean war he commanded a division, and was se¬ 
verely wounded at Inkerman in Nov., 1854. He directed 
a storming-party which attacked the Redan of Sebastopol 
in 1855. Died A-ug. 27, 1865. 

Brown (George), U. S. N., born June 19, 1835, in 
Indiana, entered the navy as a midshipman Feb. 5, 1849, 
became a passed midshipman in 1855, a lieutenant in 1856, 
and a enmmander in 1866. He was in command of Admi¬ 
ral Porter’s flag-ship, the Octorora, at the attack on Vicks¬ 
burg, June 28, 1862, and is thus commended by the admi¬ 
ral in his official report of that battle: “ The officers and 
crew of the Octorora behaved like veterans; and I am 
much indebted to that excellent officer, Lieutenant George 
Brown, for the drill of the crew and the perfect arrange¬ 
ments made for going into action.” On the night of Feb. 
24, 1863, Brown, in the steamer Indianola, defended his 
vessel for an hour and twenty-seven minutes against the 
rams Queen of the West and William H. Webb, and two 
large “ cotton-clads,” surrendering the Indianola only 
when she was “fast filling with water.” He commanded 
the steamer Itasca at the battle of Mobile Bay Aug. 5, 
1864, and during the subsequent operations against the de¬ 
fences of Mobile. Foxiiall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Btoavii (George L.), an eminent American landscape- 
painter, born in Boston in 1814. Among his masterpieces 
are a view in the White Mountains entitled “ The Crown 
of New England,” and “New York Harbor” (both in pos¬ 
session of the prince of Wales). 

B rown(GooLD), an American grammarian and teacher, 
born in Providence, R. I., Mar. 7, 1791. He published 
“ Institutes of English Grammar” (1823), which was very 
successful, and “Grammar of English Grammars ” (1850). 
Died Mar. 31, 1857. 

Brown (Harvey), an American officer, born in 1795 
at Rahway, N. J., graduated at West Point in 1818, colo¬ 
nel Fifth Artillery May 5,1861. He served chiefly at sea¬ 
board posts 1818-61, as aide-de-camp to Maj.-Gen. Brown 
1824—25, on quartermaster duty 1826-29, in the Black 
Hawk expedition 1832, in the Florida war 1836-38; en¬ 
gaged at Wahoo Swamp, suppressing Canada border dis¬ 
turbances 1839-41, in the war with Mexico 1846-48; en¬ 
gaged at Monterey, Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras 
(brevet lieutenant-colonel), Molino del Rey, and the City 
of Mexico (brevet colonel), on recruiting service 1848-52, 
being superintendent 1851-52, in Florida hostilities 1852-53, 
in command of the artillery school for practice 1857-58, 
and inspector of artillery i8o9—60. In the civil war he 
was engaged in the defence of Fort Pickens, Fla., 1861-62 
(brevet brigadier-general), and as military commander of 
the city of New York Jan. 15-July 16, 1863, suppressed 
the draft riots (brevet major-general). Retired from ac¬ 
tive service Aug. 1, 1863. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

B rown (Henry Kirke), an American sculptor and I 
painter, born at Leyden, Mass., in 1814. Among his best 
works are the equestrian statue of Washington in Union 
Square, New York, a colossal statue of Governor Clinton 
at Greenwood Cemetery, the “Angel of the Resurrcc- 


647 


tion,” also at Greenwood, and a colossal equestrian statue 
of Gen. Winfield Scott. His statue of Gov. Clinton at 
Washington is perhaps the finest. He is also a painter of 
no mean ability. His versatility is remarkable. 

Brown (Jacob), born in Bucks co., Pa., May 9, 1775, 
removed to New York in 1798. He joined the army in 
1812, and defended Sackett’s Harbor in 1813. Having 
been raised to the rank of major-general, he invaded 
Canada in the spring of 1814, and commanded with suc¬ 
cess at Chippewa and Niagara Falls in July of that year. 
He became commander-in-chief of the U. S. army in 1821. 
Died Feb. 24, 1828. 

Brown (James), born near Staunton, Va., Sept. 11, 
1766, graduated at William and Mary College, became an 
eminent lawyer of Kentucky and Louisiana, representing 
the latter State in the U. S. Senate (1812-17 and 1819-24), 
and was minister to France 1824-29. Died April 7, 1835. 
He was one of the compilers of the Louisiana code. 

B rown (John), a Scottish religious writer, was born in 
Perthshire in 1722. He preached at Haddington, and had 
a high reputation for piety and learning. It is stated that 
he knew nine languages. Among his works are a “ Dic¬ 
tionary of the Bible” (1769), and a “Self-Interpreting 
Bible” (1778). Died June 19, 1787. 

Brown (John), M. D., a Scottish physician, the author 
of the Brunonian system of medicine, was born at Dunse 
in 1735. He published in 1780 “Elementa Medicinae,” in 
which he propounded his new system. This was received 
with favor by many physicians. His favorite medicines 
were alcohol and opium. Died in London in 1788. 

Brown (John), born in Providence, R. I.) Jan. 27, 1736, 
became a partner with his three brothers in a mercantile 
firm. He was leader of the men who on the night of June 
17, 1772, destroyed the “ Gaspe ” sloop-of-war, for which 
he was arrested and put in irons, but escaped. He supplied 
the troops around Boston with powder during the siege. 
He was a man of wealth, a liberal patron of Brown Uni¬ 
versity, and a member of Congress from Rhode Island 
(1799-1801). Died Sept. 20, 1803. 

Brown (John), a patriot, born in Sandisfield, Mass., 
Oct. 19, 1744, graduated at Yale in 1761. He became 
king’s attorney in the New York colony, and afterwards 
practised law at Pittsfield, Mass. In 1774 and 1775 he 
operated for the cause of freedom in Canada, aided in the 
capture of Ticonderoga, took Fort Chambly, fought at 
Quebec, became a lieutenant-colonel, and in 1777 surprised 
the outposts at Ticonderoga, and made important captures. 
He left the service for a time from hostility to Arnold the 
traitor. He was killed by the Indians in the Mohawk Val¬ 
ley campaign Oct. 19, 1780. 

Brown (John), a brother of Senator James Brown, was 
born at Staunton, Va., Sept. 12, 1757, served in the Revo¬ 
lutionary war, studied at Princeton and at William and 
Mary College, removed to Kentucky in 1782, was a mem¬ 
ber of Congress from Virginia (1787-88 and 1789-93), and 
U. S. Senator from Kentucky (1793-1805). Died Aug. 29, 
1837. 

Brown (John), M. D., a son of Rev. Dr. John Brown 
(1784—1858), a celebrated preacher, was born in Scotland 
Sept., 1810. He practised in Edinburgh, and published a 
work entitled “Horm Subsecivee ” (1858), containing the 
well-known “ Our Dogs” and “ Rab and his Friends.” 

Brown (John) of Ossawatoinie, a zealous oppo¬ 
nent of slavery, was born at Torrington, Conn., May 9, 
1800. He removed to Ohio in early youth, and married 
and worked at the trade of a tanner. In 1855 he emi¬ 
grated to Kansas, where he fought against the pro-slavery 
party, and lived at Ossawatomie. He was the master¬ 
spirit of the convention which met at Chatham, Canada, 
in May, 1859, and organized an invasion of Virginia in 
order to liberate the slaves. In July of that year he rented 
a farmhouse about six miles from Harper’s Ferry. On the 
16th of October, aided by about twenty friends, he sur¬ 
prised Harper’s Ferry, and captured the arsenal and ar¬ 
mory. He was wounded and taken prisoner by the Vir¬ 
ginia militia on the next day, and was hung at Charles¬ 
town Dec. 2, 1859. (See Redpatii, “Life of Captain John 
Brown,” 1860; Webb, “Life and Letters of John Brown.”) 

Brown (John A.) was a son of Alexander Brown, a 
banker of Baltimore. He was born in Ballymena, Ireland, 
May 21, 1788, came in youth to the U. S., and became 
manager of the Philadelphia branch of the great banking 
firm of Brown Brothers. He was eminent lor upright dealing 
and benevolence. Among numerous other gilts, lie pre¬ 
sented $300,000 to the Presbyterian Hospital of Philadel¬ 
phia. Died Dec. 21, 1872. 

Brown (John G.), a painter, born in the north of 
England, settled at Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1856. llis portraits 
of children are greatly admired. 














648 BROWN—BROWNIE. 


11 rown (John Newton), I). D., a Baptist divine, born 
at New London, Conn., June 29, 1803, published in 1831 
an “ Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge,” and in 1834 
“ Memorials of Baptist Martyrs.” Died May 15, 1868. 

11 rown (Joseph E.), a distinguished citizen of Georgia, 
was born in Pickens co., S. C., April 15, 1821. Duilng 
his youth his father moved to Georgia. He was elected 
governor of that State for two years, and was re-elected 
four times. While he was in the executive chair he took 
a leading part in the secession movement in 1801. When 
the war was over he took a prominent part in support of 
the reconstruction measures of Congress. Under the new 
State constitution he became chief-justice of the supreme 
court in 1868, and supported Gen. Grant for President of the 
U. S. that year. He resigned his position in 1871 to as¬ 
sume the presidency of the Western and Atlantic R. R. 
Company. He supported Mr. Greeley for President in 
1872. 

Brown (Mason), LL.D., father of B. Gratz Brown, was 
born in Philadelphia Nov. 10, 1799, graduated at Yale in 
1820, was a judge of a Kentucky circuit court for many 
years, and secretary of state of Kentucky (1855-59). He 
was one of the authors of “Morehead and Brown’s Digest.” 
Died at Frankfort, Ivy., Jan. 27, 1867. 

Brown (Milton), born in Ohio, became a resident of 
Tennessee, and was a member of Congress from that State 
(1841-47). He was in 1845 the author of the resolution 
for incorporating Texas into the Union. 

Brown (Nicholas), a benevolent merchant, born at 
Providence, R. I., April 4, 1769, graduated at Rhode Island 
College in 1786. He gave to that college about $100,000 at 
various times, and in 1804 it took the name of Brown Uni¬ 
versity in his honor. He gave largely to other institutions. 
Died Sept. 27, 1841. 

B rown, or BroAvnc (Robert), an English theologian, 
the founder of the sect of Brownists, was born in 1549. 
His doctrines differed little from those of the Anglican 
Church, but he maintained that the congregation has a 
right to elect its own minister. Died after 1630. 

Brown (Robert), F. R. S., D. C. L., an eminent botan¬ 
ist, was born at Montrose, Scotland, Dec. 21, 1773. He 
studied medicine in the University of Edinburgh, but did 
not practise it long, preferring to devote himself to botany. 
He was employed as naturalist of the expedition which Cap¬ 
tain Flinders conducted to Australia in 1801. In 1805 he 
returned with a collection of 4000 species of Australian 
plants, and in 1810 he published a Flora of that region, 
“ Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandise.” He also wrote 
“ General Remarks, Geographical and Systematical, on the 
Botany of Terra Australis” (1814). He adopted the nat¬ 
ural system of Jussieu, and made important discoveries in 
vegetable physiology. In 1827 he became keeper of the 
botanical department of the British Museum, and in 1833 
was chosen one of the eight foreign associates of the French 
Academy of Sciences. Humboldt styled him “ Botanicorum 
facile princeps.” Died in London June 10, 1858. 

B rown (Samuel Gilman), D. D., LL.D., son of Presi¬ 
dent Francis Brown, noticed above, was born at North 
Yarmouth, Me., Jan. 4, 1813, graduated at Dartmouth 
College in 1831, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 
1837, travelled in Europe from 1838 to 1840, was professor 
in Dartmouth College, first of oratory from 1840 to 1863, 
and then of intellectual philosophy from 1863 to 1867, 
when he was chosen president of Hamilton College. Be¬ 
sides numerous addresses and articles in reviews, he has 
published a “ Biography of Self-Taught Men,” 1847, and 
“ The Life of Hon. Rufus Choate,” 1862. He has also lec¬ 
tured with marked success on “ British Orators.” 

Brown (Thomas), M. D., an eminent Scottish meta¬ 
physician, born near Dumfries Jan. 9, 1778. He was a 
pupil of Dugald Stewart in Edinburgh. In 1798 he pub¬ 
lished an able refutation of Darwin’s “ Zoonomia.” Hav¬ 
ing studied medicine, he graduated in 1803, and practised 
medicine about seven years. In 1810 he was appointed 
colleague of Dugald Stewart as professor of moral philos¬ 
ophy in the University of Edinburgh. He was very pop¬ 
ular as a lecturer, and published “Lectures on the Philos¬ 
ophy of the Human Mind” (4 vols., 1820). His other 
chief work is “ Observations on the Relation of Cause and 
Effect” (1804; 3d ed., enlarged, 1818). His chief contri¬ 
bution to psychology is an explication of the sixth or mus ¬ 
cular sense. Died April, 1820. (See Dr. Welsh, “Account 
of the Life and Writings of Thomas Brown,” 1825 ; Mack¬ 
intosh, “View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy.”) 

Brown (Thompson S.), an American officer and engineer, 
born 1807 in New York, graduated at West Point in 1825. 
He served, while lieutenant of engineers, as assistant pro¬ 
fessor at the Military Academy, 1825, in the construction 
of Fort Adams, R. I., 1825-26, and 1828-33 as aide-de-camp 


to his uncle, Maj.-Gen. Brown, 1826-28, in the improvement 
of Arkansas River, 1833, in charge of Cumberland road in 
Illinois, 1833-34, in the construction and repair of defences 
of Charleston harbor, S. C., 1834-35, and the improvement 
of Lake Erie harbors and lighthouses, 1835-36. He re¬ 
signed Oct. 31, 1836, and till his death was an eminent civil 
engineer. He was chief engineer of Buffalo, N. Y., and 
Erie, Pa. (Lake Shore), R. R., 1836-38, of Lake Erie har¬ 
bor improvements, 1836-38, of western division of the New 
York and Erie R. R., 1838-42, and of the entire road, 
1842-49. Upon the invitation of the czar of Russia he 
became consulting engineer of the St. Petersburg and 
Moscow Railway. Died Jan. 30, 1855, at Naples, Italy, 
aged forty-eight. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Brown (W. M.), a jiopular American painter, born at 
Troy, N. Y., in 1827. His works are chiefly landscapes 
and fruit-pieces. 

Brown Coal. See Lignite. 

Browne (Charles Farrar), known as Artemus 
Ward, a humorous writer, born at Waterford, Me., April 
26, 1834. He learned the business of a printer, and gained 
distinction by writing for the public journals a series of 
“ Letters from Artemus Ward, Showman.” He became a 
popular lecturer, visited California in 1863, and London in 
1866. Died at Southampton, England, Mar. 6, 1867. He 
had published “Artemus Ward his Book,” and other works. 

^Browne (John Ross), an American writer, born in Ire¬ 
land in 1817. Among his works is “ Yusef, or the Journey 
of a Frangi: a Crusade in the East.” He was minister to 
China in 1868-70. He is a citizen of Oakland, Cal. i/ 

Browne (Samuel J.), born in England Mar. 19, 1788, 
became in 1798 a resident of Cincinnati, 0. He was long 
a minister of the United Brethren, and afterwards of the 
Presbyterians. Died Sept. 10, 1872, leaving a large amount 
of money to found a church, a university, and a free school. 

Browne (Sir Thomas), M. D., an English philosopher 
and writer, born in London Nov. 19, 1605. He practised 
medicine at Norwich for many years. He published, be¬ 
sides other works, “ Religio Medici ” (1642), which is highly 
esteemed, and “ Inquiries into Vulgar and Common Errors ” 
(1646). He was knighted by Charles II. in 1671. Died 
Nov. 19, 1682. 

Brownell (Henry Howard), born in Providence, R. I., 
Feb. 6, 1820, graduated at Washington College, Hartford, 
Conn., in 1841, was admitted to the bar, but became the 
author of numerous works, such as “ The Old World,” 
“ The New World,” and several other historical works, a 
volume of “Poems” (1847), “ Lyrics of a Day ” (1864), 
“War Lyrics” (1866). His poetry has more than ordinary 
merit. In the civil war he was a volunteer naval officer, 
serving on Farragut’s staff. Died Oct. 31, 1872. 

Brownell (Rt. Rev. Thomas Church), D. D., LL.D., 
was born at Westford, Mass., Oct. 19, 1779, and graduated 
at Union College in 1804. He held various professorships, 
etc. in the college until 1816, when he took orders in the 
Protestant Episcopal Church. In 1819 he was consecrated 
bishop of Connecticut, and was the first president of Trinity 
College, Hartford (1824-31). He published an “Exposi¬ 
tor” of the New Testament, a “Commentary on the Book 
of Common Prayer,” “Religion of the Heart and Life” 
(5 vols., 1839-40), and other works. Died Jan. 13, 1865. 

Brown'field, a post-township of Oxford co., Me., on 
the Portland and Ogdensburg R. R., 43 miles N. W. of 
Portland, has manufactures of leather, tubs, etc. P. 1323. 

Brown'helm, a post-twp of Lorain co., 0. Pop. 1461. 

Brown'hill, a township of Franklin co., Va. P. 1692. 

Brownian Movements are those seen with the mi¬ 
croscope among minute particles (not living) in a limpid 
liquid. Robert Brown the botanist first described them in 
1827. These molecular movements have often been mis¬ 
taken for vital motions. When the minute organisms called 
Bacteria are exposed to a heat of 200° F. they are killed, 
but molecular motion still goes on in a manner obviously 
different from their living movements. The same phenom¬ 
enon can be exhibited by rubbing fine powder of gamboge 
in water, and placing it under a microscope. Beale con¬ 
siders of the same nature the motions of very minute bub¬ 
bles {^ohol) °f an inch in diameter) within certain crystals. 
These movements have not been satisfactorily explained. 
Beale suggests their possible connection with heat. 

Brown'ie, a spirit of the fairy order in the old super¬ 
stitions of Scotland. The tradition is that he was a good- 
humored goblin, who attached himself to farmhouses, and 
occupied himself when the family were in bed in perform¬ 
ing any work, such as churning, threshing, etc.—a spirit 
not seen or spoken to, and only known by the performance 
of voluntary labors. In Cornwall a goblin known as 
Browny is called to assist at tho swarming of bees. 














BROWNING—BROWN UNIVERSITY. 649 


Brown'ing, a post-township of Schuyler co., Ill. Pop. 
2139. 

Browning (Elizabeth Barrett), an eminent English 
poetess, born in Herts in 1809. She was liberally educated, 
and studied the Greek and Latin languages with success. 
She published in 1826 a volume entitled an “ Essay on 
Mind, and other Poems,” and in 1833 translated from the 
Greek of JEschylus “ Prometheus Bound.” Her next pro¬ 
duction was “ The Seraphim, and other Poems” (1838). 
Her health having been impaired by the rupture of a 
blood-vessel, she passed several years in seclusion. In 1846 
she was married to the poet Robert Browning, and went 
with him to reside in Italy. She published in 1850 her 
collected works, including “ The Drama of Exile,” and a 
new poem called “ Lady Geraldine’s Courtship.” Among 
her other poems are “Casa Guidi Windows” (1851), “Au¬ 
rora Leigh” (1856), and « Poems before Congress” (I860). 
She died at Florence June 29, 1861, with the reputation of 
being the greatest poetess England had ever produced. 

Browning (0 rville H.), a statesman, was born in 
Harrison co., Ky., was educated at Augusta College, studied 
law, was called to the bar in 1831, and removed to Quincy, 
Ill. He served in the Black Hawk war, became a promi¬ 
nent State politician, was U. S. Senator (1861-63), secre¬ 
tary of the interior (1866-68), and acting attorney-general 
of the U. S. (1868-69). 

BroAvning (Robert), an eminent English poet, born 
at Camberwell, a suburb of London, in 1812, was educated 
in the University of London. He published in 1835 the 
drama of “ Paracelsus,” a poem remarkable for subtlety of 
thought. His tragedy of “ Strafford ” (1837) was performed 
without success. He married Miss Barrett in 1846, after 
which he resided in Italy until 1861. In 1855 he pro¬ 
duced two volumes entitled “Men and Women,” which arc 
much admired. According to an anonymous critic, “ they 
are unsurpassed in the English language for depth and 
subtlety of conception and profound analysis of the human 
mind.” Among his other works are “ Pippa Passes,” “The 
Ring and the Book ” (1869), “ Fifine at the Fair, and other 
Poems” (1872), and the “Red Cotton Night-cap Country” 
(1873). His poetry is too obscure to please the general 
public. 

BrOAY^n'ingf oil, a post-township of Orleans co., Vt., 
2 miles from Barton Landing. It has three churches, an 
academy, and manufactures of lumber, starch, and car¬ 
riages. Pop. 901. 

Brown'low (William Gannoway), an American 
Methodist divine and politician, born in Wythe co., Va., 
Aug. 29, 1805, removed to Tennessee, where ho edited the 
“ Knoxville Whig.” After the breaking out of the war of 
1861 he was a firm adherent of the Union party, and in 
1865 was elected governor of Tennessee by the Republi¬ 
cans, and re-elected in 1867. He became a member of the 
U. S. Senate in 1869. 

Brownlow> Earls, and Viscounts Alford (1815, in the 
United Kingdom), Barons Brownlow (1776, in Great 
Britain), and Baronets (1677), a prominent family of Great 
Britain. — Adelbert Wellington Brownlow, the third 
earl, born Aug. 19, 1844, succeeded his brother in 1867. He 
was member of Parliament for North Shropshire 1866-67. 

Brown'marsh, a post-township of Bladen co., N. C. 
Pop. 800. 

BroAViis'burg, a post-village of Lincoln township, 
Hendricks co., Ind. Pop. 551. 

Brown- Seqiiard (C. Edouard), M. D., a distinguished 
physiologist, was born in the island of Mauritius in 1818. 
He was the son of Edward Brown, a Philadelphian, and a 
French lady named Sequard. He studied in Paris, where 
he graduated as M. I), in 1840. He gained distinction by 
experiments on blood, animal heat, and the spinal cord. 
These highly important researches are believed to have 
thrown as much light as those of any other observer upon 
the physiology and diseases of the nervous system. In 
1869 he was appointed professor in the School of Medicine 
in Paris. He has published valuable professional works, 
and resides chiefly in the U. S. 

BroAVii'son (Nathan), a physician and statesman of 
Georgia, graduated at Yale in 1761, was a member of the 
provincial Congress (1775), a surgeon of the Revolution¬ 
ary army, member of the Continental Congress (1776 
and 1778), was chosen governor of Georgia in 1781, and 
was afterwards a prominent official of the State. Died in 
Liberty co., Ga., in 1796. 

BroAvnson (Orestes Augustus), LL.D., an American 
journalist and theologian, born at Stockbridge, ^ t., Sept. 
16, 1803. lie founded in 1838 “ The Boston Quarterly Re¬ 
view,” of which he was editor for five years, and was a fre¬ 
quent contributor to the “ Democratic Review.” lie joined 


the Catholic communion in 1844, having previously been a 
member of the Presbyterian, Universalist, and Unitarian 
churches. He has published “ Charles Elwood, or the In¬ 
fidel Converted,” a novel, and other works. 

Bro\A r n Spar, a name given to a variety of dolomite or 
magnesian limestone, which is tinged with oxide of iron and 
manganese, and is sometimes called pearl spar. 

Brown’s Store, a township of Lunenburg co., Va. 
Pop. 2147. 

Browns'town, a post-village, capital of Jackson co., 
Ind., on the Ohio and Mississippi R. R., 98 miles W. of 
Cincinnati and 70 miles S. of Indianapolis. Iron ore and 
timber abound here. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 
572; of Brownstown township, 2580. 

Brownsto\\ r li, a post-township of Wayne co., Mich. 
Pop. 2037. 

BrownstoAvn,atownshipofDavidson co., N. C. P.9S7. 

BroA\ r ns'ville, a township of Lee co., Ala. Pop. 1425. 

Brownsville, a post-village of Prairie co., Ark., 27 
miles E. of Little Rock, on the road to Memphis, Tenn. 
Here an engagement took place, Aug. 25, 1863, between a 
division of U. S. cavalry under Gen. J. W. Davidson and 
the Confederate force under Gens. Marmaduke and Walker. 
The Confederates were driven from the town after a brief 
struggle. 

BroAAiisville, a post-township of Union co., Ind. 
Pop. 900. 

llroAvnsville, a post-village, capital of Edmondson co., 
Ky., on Green River, 130 miles S. W. of Frankfort and 10 
miles W. of the Mammoth Cave. 

Brownsville, a post-village of Saline co., Mo. It has 
one weekly newspaper. 

BroAAiisville, a post-village and township of Houston 
co., Minn. The village is on the Mississippi River, about 
11 miles below La Crosse. Pop. 615; total pop. 1589. Grain 
is shipped here in steamboats. 

Brownsville, a post-borough of Fayette co., Pa., on 
the Monongahela, 35 miles S. of Pittsburg, has four banks, 
nine churches, large glass-factories, coal-mines, iron-foun¬ 
dries, machine-shops, distilleries, planing-mills, and nume¬ 
rous other industries. It has one weekly newspaper, and 
is connected with Pittsburg by steamboat navigation. It 
is in a very wealthy agricultural and mineral region. It 
has a fine bridge across the river. Pop. 1749. 

Seth T. Hurd, Ed. “ Clipper.” 

Brownsville, a post-township of Marlborough co., 
S. C. Pop. 1597. 

BroAA r nsville, a post-village, capital of Haywood co., 
Tenn., is on the Memphis and Louisville R. R., 57 miles 
N. E. of Memphis. It is in a rich cotton-growing district, 
5 miles N. of the navigable river Hatchie. It ships 23,000 
bales of cotton yearly, and has a $500,000 cotton factory, 
4 colleges (3 female, 1 male), 2 weekly newspapers, and 
gas-works. Pop. 2457. Ed. “ Bee.” 

BroAVnsville, a river-port, capital of Cameron co., 
Tex., is on the left bank of the Rio Grande, opposite Mat- 
amoras (Mexico), and about 40 miles from the mouth of the 
river. It is about 280 miles S. W. of Galveston. It has 
the advantage of steam-navigation on the Rio Grande, and 
has an extensive trade with the Mexicans. Here is a cus¬ 
tom-house and a Roman Catholic college. Brownsvillo 
was" taken from the Confederates by General Banks in 
Nov., 1863. It has one daily, one semi-weekly, and two 
weekly newspapers. Pop. 4905. 

BroA\ r n University, an institution of learning founded 
in 1764 at Warren, R. I., and removed to Providence, its 
present seat, in 1770. Its first name was Rhode Island 
College, but in 1804 it received its present name, in honor 
of Nicholas Brown, one of its chief benefactors. James Man¬ 
ning, D. D., was its first president (1765-90); Jonathan 
Maxcy, D. D., was president 1792-1802, and Asa Messer, 
1). D., 1802-27. From 1827 to 1855, the Rev. Francis Way- 
land, D. D., was president of this university, and contributed 
greatly to its reputation. He was succeeded by the Rev. 
Dr. Barnas Sears, who resigned in 1867 to accept the presi¬ 
dency of the Peabody Educational Fund. His immediate 
successor was Dr. Caswell, who had maintained almost a 
lifelong connection with the university. He gave place, in 
1872, to the Rev. E. G. Robinson, D. D., for many years presi¬ 
dent of Rochester Theological Seminary. Brown Univer¬ 
sity is distinguished by its unsectarian character, though 
the Baptists are its chief patrons, and a majority of tho 
board of trustees must be of that denomination. One of 
tho chief attractions of this seat of learning is its choice 
library of 38,000 volumes, one of tho very best in America 
for educational purposes. Its statistics for 1873 are as 
follows: instructors, 13; undergraduates, 204; alumni, 












I 


G50 BROWNVILLE 


2554; invested funds, $602,653; property (at least), 

$ 1 , 200 , 000 . 

Brownville, a township of Clay co., Ala. Pop. 795. 

Brownville, a township of Piscataquis co., Me. P. 860. 

Brownville, a city, capital of Nemaha co., Neb., on 
the W. side of the Missouri ltiver, 95 miles by water S. B. 
of Omaha, or 65 by rail, and at the same distance N. W. of 
St. Joseph, Mo. It has Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist, 
Episcopal, and Roman Catholic churches, and a congrega¬ 
tion of Christians, 3 benevolent societies, 1 national and 1 
private bank, graded schools, 2 weekly papers, 3 manufac¬ 
tories of tobacco and cigars, 2 of wagons, 1 brewery, 1 soap- 
factory, and 1 flouring mill, besides other less important 
industries. Five railroads are projected to this point. Pop. 
1305; of Brownville precinct, 2386. 

R. O. Whitehead, Ed. “ Democrat.” 

Brownville, a post-village of Jefferson co., N. Y., on 
the right bank of Black River, and on the Rome and Wa¬ 
tertown R. R., 4 miles N. W. of Watertown, and about 5 
miles from Lake Ontario. It has several manufactories and 
mills. Pop. of Brownville township, 3219. 

Brown'wood, a post-village, capital of Brown co., 
Tex., about 125 miles N. W. of Austin City. 

B ruce, a county in the W. part of Ontario (Canada). 
It is bounded on the N. W. by Lake Huron, and inter¬ 
sected by the Saugeen River. Area, 922 square miles. Pop. 
48,515. Capital, Walkerton. 

Bruce, a township of La Salle co., Ill. Pop. 1921. 

Bruce, a township of Benton co., Ia. Pop. 567. 

B ruce, a township of Macomb co., Mich. Pop. 2145. 

Bruce, a township of Guilford co., N. C. Pop. 1034. 

Brace, the name of a noble family of Scotland, de¬ 
scended from Robert de Bruis (or de Brus), a Norman 
knight who followed William the Conqueror to England in 
1066. He derived his lineage from Brusi, a Northman, a 
son of the famous Sigurd. His younger son, Adam, who 
acquired a large estate in Yorkshire, left a son, Robert, who 
received from David I. of Scotland a grant of the lordship 
of Annandale, held by the tenure of military service. He 
died in 1141, and left a son, Robert, who was the second lord 
of Annandale. This second lord had a grandson, Robert, 
who was the fourth lord of Annandale. He married Isa¬ 
bel, a daughter of David, earl of Huntingdon, younger 
brother of King William the Lion, and thus laid the foun¬ 
dation of the royal house of Bruce. lie died in 1245. Rob¬ 
ert de Bruce, a son of the preceding, and the fifth lord of 
Annandale, was born in 1210. When the Scottish throne 
became vacant by the death of Queen Margaret in 1290, 
this Robert de Bruce and Baliol claimed the throne. The 
dispute was referred to Edward I. of England, who decided 
in favor of Baliol. Robert died in 1295, leaving a son, 
Robert, who by his marriage with the countess of Carrick 
obtained the title of earl of Carrick (1271). He fought in 
the English army against Baliol at the battle of Dunbar. 
He died in 1304, and left a son, Robert, who became king 
of Scotland. 

Brace (Archibald), M. D., born in New York in 1777, 
was the son of a British army surgeon. He graduated at 
Columbia College in 1795, and studied medicine and min¬ 
eralogy five years in Europe. He was (1807-11) professor 
of materia medica and mineralogy in the College of 
Physicians and Surgeons, N. Y., became a member of many 
learned societies, and in 1810 edited the “Journal of 
American Mineralogy.” Died Feb. 22, 1818. 

Bruce (Sir Frederick William Adolphus), a British 
diplomatist, born at Elgin Castle in 1814, was a brother of 
Lord Elgin. He was consul-general in Egypt in 1849, and 
in 1865 succeeded Lord Lyons as ambassador at Washing¬ 
ton. Died in Boston in 1867. 

Brace (George), born in Edinburgh, Scotland, June 
26, 1781, came in 1795 to the U. S., and became a printer 
in Philadelphia. In 1803 he became publisher and printer 
of the New York “ Daily Advertiser ; ” in 1806, with his 
brother David, he began printing books; in 1812 they in¬ 
troduced stereotyping into the U. S., and soon after estab¬ 
lished an extensive type and stereotype founding business, 
in which they acquired great reputation. George, with 
his nephew David, invented a successful type-casting 
machine. Died July 6, 1866. 

Bruce (James), a Scottish traveller, born in the county 
of Stirling Dec. 14, 1730. He was appointed consul-gen¬ 
eral at Algiers in 1763, after which he studied several 
Oriental languages, and explored the antiquities of Bar¬ 
bary. In 1768 he departed from Cairo on a journey to 
Abyssinia, in order to discover the source of the Nile. 
Passing through Syene, Cosseir, and Jidda, he reached 
Gondar in Feb,, 1770. Ho discovered the source of the 


BRUEL LETTS. 


Blue Nile in November of that year, and remained about 
two years in Abyssinia, the king of which treated him 
kindly. He passed through great dangers and hardships 
in his return, and arrived in England in 1774. In 1790 he 
published “ Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile” 
(5 vols.). His veracity was at first doubted by many, but 
his statements have been confirmed by Salt, Belzoni, and 
others. Died April 27, 1794. (Sec A. Murray, “Life of 
Bruce.”) 

Brace (Michael), a Scottish poet, whose productions 
(mostly hymns) are characterized by singular pathos and 
beauty, was born at Ivinneswood, in the county of Kin¬ 
ross, Mar. 27, 1746. He died of consumption July 5, 1767. 
In 1770 his “friend,” the Rev. John Logan (1748-88), pub¬ 
lished what purported to be his literary remains. In 1781 
this same Logan published another volume of poems, which 
he called his own. The best of these, it is now almost ab¬ 
solutely certain, came from the pen of Michael Bruce. A 
baser act of literary piracy was never perpetrated. (See 
“The Works of Michael Bruce,” edited by Rev. Alexan¬ 
der B. Grosart, 1865.) 

Brace (Robert), a heroic and famous king of Scotland, 
born Mar. 21, 1274, was a son of Robert de Bruce, earl 
of Carrick. In 1296, as earl of Carrick, he swore fealty to 
Edward I. of England, but he soon joined the Scottish 
leaders who were fighting for the independence of Scot¬ 
land. Having made peace with Edward I., he became in 
1299 one of the four regents who ruled the kingdom. In 
1305 he was involved in a quarrel with the Red Comyn, 
who was a nephew of Baliol and was a claimant of the 
throne. Bi'uce killed Comyn, and then assembled his vas¬ 
sals and was crowned at Scone in the spring of 1306. His 
small army was soon defeated by the English, and he was 
compelled to take refuge in the island of Ratlilin, on the 
coast of Ireland, where he remained all winter. Renewing 
the contest in the spring, he defeated the English at Lou¬ 
don Hill in May, 1307. In less than two years he made 
himself master of nearly all Scotland, and in 1309 he drove 
back an invading army of Edward II. The latter invaded 
Scotland again in 1314 with an army of about 100,000 
men. Bruce, who had less than half as many, gained a 
complete victory at Bannockburn, June 24, 1314. In 1318 
the Scots invaded England, and after several other cam¬ 
paigns the war was suspended- in 1323 by a truce. By a 
treaty of peace concluded in 1328 the English king recog¬ 
nized the independence of Scotland. Bruce died in June, 
1329, and was succeeded by his son David. 

Bru'cca, a genus of shrubs which has been referred to 
the order Rutaceae. A sjiecies called Brucea untidysen- 
terica is a native of Abyssinia. Its leaves are said to be 
tonic, astringent, and efficacious in dysentery. The leaves 
of Brucea Sumatrana, a native of Sumatra and China, 
have similar medicinal virtues, and are very bitter. 

Brace Mines, a port of entry of the Algoma district, 
Ontario (Canada), near the N. end of Lake Huron, 35 miles 
below Sault Ste. Marie. It has very productive mines of 
copper, and exports considerable quantities of fish. Pop. 
about 1250. 

Bruceville, a post-township of Bullock co., Ala. P. 862. 

Bruch'sal, a town of Germany, in Baden, on the river 
Salzbacli, and on the railway from Heidelberg to Carls- 
rulie, 14 miles by rail N. E. of the latter. It is the north¬ 
western terminus of a railway which extends to Fried- 
richshafen, on Lake Constance. It has an old castle, a fine 
palace, a gymnasium, and a paper-mill. Pop. in 1871, 9786. 

BriPcia, or Brucine, a very bitter and poisonous 
vegetable alkaloid found in Strychnoa mix vomica. It is 
characterized by giving a blood-red color with concentrated 
nitric acid. It was discovered in bark incorrectly sup¬ 
posed to be that of Brucea untidy sent erica, whence its 
name. Its toxicological effects arc like those of strychnia, 
but it is far less active. 

Bru'cite, the native magnesic hydrate, MgILCQ. It is 
found in serpentine at Hoboken, N- J. The finest speci¬ 
mens occur in the chrome-mines of Texas, Pa. 

Briick'e (Ernst Wilhelm), a German physiologist, 
born at Berlin June 6, 1819, became in 1846 teacher of an¬ 
atomy at the Berlin Art Academy, and in 1849 professor of 
physiology in Vienna. He is the author of “Anatomische 
Bcschreibung des Augenapfels” (1847), and “Grundziige 
der Physiologie und Systematik der Sprachlaute” (1856). 

Bmck'er (Johann Jakob), a German historian and 
Protestant minister, born at Augsburg Jan. 22, 1696. 
Among his works is a “ Critical History of Philosophy” 
(in Latin, 5 vols., 1741-44), which has a high reputation. 
It contains valuable biographical materials, but is deficient 
in critical analysis. Died Nov. 26, 1770. 

Bruel'lett’s, a township of Edgar co., Ill. Pop. 1086. 




















BRUGES 


Bru'ges [Dutch Brugge, or Bruggen (i. e. “bridges”); 
Lat. Brugx], a fortified city of Belgium, capital of the 
province of West Flanders, is situated on a fertile plain 
about 8 miles from the ocean, and 64 miles by rail N. W. 
of Brussels; lat. 51° 12' N., Ion. 3° 14' E. The railway 
from Ostencl to Brussels passes through Bruges, which is 
connected with the ocean by several canals. It derives its 
name from the numerous bridges (about fifty-four) which 
here cross the canals. It contains many fine Gothic edi¬ 
fices, some of which were built in the fourteenth century, 
and are richly adorned with works of art. Among these 
are the church of Notre Dame, which has a spire 450 feet 
high, and contains a splendid monument of Charles the 
Bold; the town-hall, with a lofty tower and a celebrated 
chime of forty-eight bells; and the cathedral of St. Sau- 
veur, furnished with paintings of eminent artists. Bruges 
has an academy of painting, a public library, a museum, 
an .episcopal college, a hospital, a school of surgery, and 
an institution for the blind. Here are manufactures of 
cotton, linen, and woollen fabrics, lace, leather, cordage, 
tobacco, and soap. Several thousand females are employed 
in the manufacture of lace of fine quality. Bruges was 
an important commercial town before the Norman conquest 
(1066), after which it continued to increase in riches and 
population. In the thirteenth century it was the great 
central mart of the Hanseatic League. Its manufactures 
were also very extensive. The tapestry and cloths of 
Bruges were celebrated for their excellence. The popula¬ 
tion once exceeded 200,000. Its prosperity was injured by 
a popular revolt in 1488, and by the persecutions and vex¬ 
ations which it suffered under Philip II. of Spain, in con¬ 
sequence of which many traders and manufacturers emi¬ 
grated tdfrEngland. Pop. in 1866, 47,621. 

Brugsch (Heinrich Karl), Ph. D., a German archm- 
ologist, born at Berlin Feb. 18, 1827. He was Prussian 
consul to Cairo in 1864, and in 1868 was charged by the 
viceroy of Egypt with the organization of the first Egyp¬ 
tian university in Cairo, where he now (1873) resides. He 
has published a “ Grainmaire Demotique,” “ Monuments 
of Egypt,” a “Hieroglyphic Demotic Dictionary” (4 vols., 
1867-68), and other similar works. 

Briihl, von (Heinrich), Count, a German courtier, 
born in Saxony Aug. 13, 1700. He became in 1747 prime 
minister of Augustus III., elector of Saxony and king of 
Poland. He was very extravagant in his style of living, 
and impoverished the country in order to enrich himself 
and gratify the passions of the dissolute king. His library 
of 62,000 volumes forms a part of the royal library of Dres¬ 
den. Died Oct. 28, 1763. 

Bru maire, the second month in the calendar of the 
French Republic, is perhaps derived from brume, a “mist,” 
a “fog.” It comprised the time from Oct. 23 to Nov. 21. 
The 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9), 1799, was a famous epoch in 
French history. Then occurred the coup-d’Stnt which 
subverted the power of the Directory and raised Bona¬ 
parte to supreme power as first consul. The Directory 
was not popular, and was weakened by dissensions among 
the directors themselves, two of whom, Sieyes and Ducos, 
promoted the design of Bonaparte by resigning on the eve 
of the crisis. The Council of Elders and Council of Five 
Hundred were dispersed or overawed by the soldiery, and 
the new regime was established with little fighting and 
loss of life. 

Brii'inath, a town of Germany, in Alsace-Lorraine, 
10 miles by rail N. N. IV. of Strasburg. Pop. in 1871, 
5601. 

Brum'mel (George Bryan), “Beau Brummel,” a 
famous fop, born in London in 1778, was educated at Ox¬ 
ford. He had an elegant taste in dress, became an inti¬ 
mate associate of the prince of Wales, and lived in a sump¬ 
tuous style. He was recognized as the leader of the haut 
ton, and as an oracle in questions of etiquette and dress. 
Having squandered a fortune, he went into exile in 1815, 
and lived in France. Died at Caen Mar. 29, 1840. 

Brum'met’s CreeSi, a township of Mitchell co., N. C. 
Pop. 217. 

Brunai, or Borneo, a state and seaport of the island 
of Borneo (which see). 

Bninck (Richard Francois Philippe), an eminent 
classical scholar, born at Strasburg, in Alsace, Dec. 30, 
1729. He was liberally educated in Paris, and became an 
ingenious critic and bold emendator of the classics. He 
edited Anacreon, Aristophanes, Sophocles, and Terence, 
and published “Analecta Veterum Poetaruin Graecorum” 
(1772-76). His editions are highly esteemed. In the 
French revolution he warmly supported the popular cause. 
Died June 12, 1803. 

Brundisium. See Brindisi. 

Brunehaut, or Brunehikle, a famous queen, was a 


BRUNO. 651 


daughter of Athanagildus, king of the Visigoths. She was 
married in 568 A. D. to Sigebert, king of Austrasia. She 
was beautiful, ambitious, and high-spirited. Her husband 
was assassinated in 575 by the order of Fredegonda, queen 
of Neustria. She afterwards governed the kingdom with 
ability, and obtained an ascendency over her son Childe- 
bert, who was the nominal king. Having been defeated in 
battle and captured by Clotaire II., she was murdered in 
613 A. D. ' 

Brunei' (Isambard Kingdom), D. C. L., F. R. S., a 
British engineer, born at Portsmouth April 9, 1806. He 
was employed under his father as assistant engineer of 
the Thames Tunnel, in the construction of which he dis¬ 
played great energy and ability. In 1833 he was appointed 
chief engineer of the Great Western Railway. He was 
the designer and engineer of the Great Western steamship 
and of the Great Eastern, said to be the largest vessel ever 
built in the world, and of the Royal Albert Bridge, Saltash. 
(See Bridge, by Gen. J. G. Barnard, U. S. A.) Died 
Sept. 14, 1859. 

Brunei (Sir Mark Isambard), F. R. S., a celebrated 
engineer, born near Rouen, in France, April 25, 1769, was 
the father of the preceding. Driven from France by the 
Reign of Terror, he removed to New York in 1793, and 
designed the Bowery Theatre of that city. In 1799 he 
went to England, and married a Miss Kingdom. He was 
distinguished for his mechanical ingenuity, and invented 
several useful machines. His most important work is the 
Thames Tunnel, which was commenced in 1825 and opened 
in 1843. Died Dec. 12, 1849. (See R. Beamish, “Life of 
M. I. Brunei.”) 

Brunelles'chi (Filippo), an eminent Italian architect 
and sculptor, born at Florence in 1377. He improved the 
theory of perspective, and efficiently promoted the restora¬ 
tion of the ancient style of architecture as a substitute for 
the Gothic, which in his youth prevailed in Italy. About 
1418 he was appointed architect of the cathedral of Flor¬ 
ence (Santa Maria del Fiore), which had been commenced 
about 1296, and was unfinished. He raised over it a grand 
and beautiful dome, which is one of the largest in the world. 
Among his other works is the Pitti Palace of Florence. 
Died in 1444. (See Baldinucci, “ Vita di F. di Ser Bru- 
nellesco,” 1812.) 

Bru'ni (Leonardo), a learned Italian writer, a native 
of Arezzo, and hence called Leonardo Aretino, was born 
in 1369. He obtained a high office at Florence, promoted 
the study of Greek literature, and translated into Latin 
some works of Aristotle and other classics. Among his 
original writings is a “History of Florence,” in Latin. 
Died Mar. 9, 1444. 

Briinu [Slavic, Brno, the “ford”], a fortified city of 
Austria, and the capital of Moravia, is beautifully situated 
at the confluence of the Schwarza and the Zwittawa, 94 
miles by rail N. N. E. of Vienna and 159 miles by rail S. E. 
of Prague; lat. 49° 11' 39" N., Ion. 16° 36' 39" E. Here 
is the castle of Spielberg, used as a state prison. Among 
the remarkable public buildings are the cathedral, the 
Gothic church of St. James, the Landhaus, formerly a rich 
Augustine convent, several palaces of the nobility, and a 
theatre. Briinn also contains a museum, a public library, 
and a botanic garden. It has important manufactures of 
woollen, cotton, and silk fabrics, ribbons, glass, soap, and 
tobacco. It is the seat of the highest civil and military 
authorities of Moravia and Austrian Silesia and of a Roman 
Catholic bishop. Its manufactures of woollens are said to 
be the most extensive in the Austrian entire. Over 15,000 
persons are employed in the factories, according to the 
census of 1869. Napoleon used Briinn as his head-quarters 
before the battle of Austerlitz. Pop. in 1869, 73,464. 

Brun'now, von (Philipp), a diplomatist, was born at 
Dresden Aug. 31, 1797. He entered the Russian civil ser¬ 
vice in his youth, and was employed in several important 
offices and missions. He was sent as ambassador to Lon¬ 
don in 1840, was transferred to Frankfort in 1854, and at¬ 
tended the Conference of Paris in 1856. In 1858 he re¬ 
sumed his former position in London, and took part in the 
Conference of London in 1862. 

Bru'no [Lat. Brunus], (Giordano), an eminent Italian 
philosopher, born at Nola, in the kingdom of Naples, in 
1548. He was a man of independent and speculative spirit, 
and rejected the orthodox doctrines of the Church. On ac¬ 
count of his opinions he was obliged to flee to Geneva in 
1580, a few years after which he removed to Paris, and 
passed some time in England. His principal works aie 
“Spaccio della Bestia trionfante” (1584), “ Della Causa 
Principio e Uno,” and “Del Infinito Universe e Mondi 
About 1592 he returned to Italy and became a resident ot 
Pavia. Having been accused of heresy, he was imprisoned 
at Rome for nearly two years, and was buined as a heretic 











652 BRUNO 


Feb. 17, 1600. Ilis system is called Pantheism, and has 
had much influence in modern philosophy. (See C. G. von 
Murk, “Leben und Schriften des G. Bruno,” 1805; N. 
Moeller, “G. Bruno, sa Vie et ses Doctrines,” 1840 ; 
Berti, “ Vita d\ Giordano Bruno,” 1868.) 

B runo, Saint, founder of the Carthusians, was born at 
Cologne about 1040. In 1086 he retired from the world, 
and with a few friends began to live in solitude near Gre¬ 
noble. lie founded there the order of Carthusians, who 
adopted the rule of Saint Benedict. The monastery of the 
Grande Chartreuse was afterwards built at the same place. 
He died Oct. 6, 1101. 

Bruno the Great, archbishop of Cologne, born 925 
A. D., was a younger brother of the emperor Otho I. He 
was a man of great talents, virtue, and learning, and had 
a powerful influence in the Church and State. He became 
lord high chancellor of the empire. Died in 965. 

Bruno City, a township of Elko co., Nev. Pop. 122. 

Brunol'ic Acid, a substance which occurs in oil of 
coal-tar, associated with carbolic, cresylic, and rosolic acids. 

Bruns'wick, a duchy of the German empire, consists 
of three larger parts and several enclaves. Area, 1425 
square miles. The larger part, containing the capital, is 
entirely surrounded by Prussia. The chief mountain-range 
is a part of the Hartz Mountains in the S., the highest point 
of which in the duchy is the Wormberg, 3245 feet high. It 
is traversed by the Ocker in the N., and the Leine, Aller, 
and Bode. The chief products are grain, flax, and hops. 
Among the mineral products are silver, lead, iron, lignite, 
salt, etc. It has extensive manufactures of linen, wooden 
wares, glass, sugar, tobacco, paper, cloths, etc., also large 
beer-breweries. It has five gymnasia, one polytechnic school, 
a theological seminary, two normal, and numerous other 
schools. The government is a constitutional monarchy, 
and the supreme power is vested in a duke and a legislative 
body of forty-six members. The receipts and expenses for 
the three years 1870-72 were each estimated at 7,196,400 
thalers. The public debt in 1871 amounted to 23,765,768 
thalers. Brunswick is represented by two members in the 
Bundesrath of the empire, and three deputies in the im¬ 
perial Reichstag. Its contingent to the German army forms 
part of the tenth army corps. Pop. in 1871, 311,819. 

History .—Brunswick formed originally a part of the 
duchy of Saxony, and was given in 1194 to Henry the 
Lion. His grandson Otto became first duke of Brunswick 
in 1235. After having been divided and reunited by the 
descendants of Otto, they were again united under Ernest 
the Confessor (died 1546). His two sons, Henry and Wil¬ 
liam, again divided the country, and formed the two 
branches Brunswick-Oels and Brunswick-Liineburg, the 
latter of which reigned as electors of Hanover, and in the 
person of George I. ascended the British throne. Bruns¬ 
wick was annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia in conse¬ 
quence of the treaty of Tilsit, but in 1813 it again became 
an independent state under Frederick William, who was 
killed in the battle of Quatrebras in 1815. He was suc¬ 
ceeded by his son Karl, who was expelled from the country in 
1830, and was succeeded by his brother Wilhelm, who is the 
present duke. Brunswick joined the German customs- 
union in 1844, assisted Prussia in the war of 1866, joined 
the North German Confederation in the same year, and 
became a member of the German empire upon its revival 
in 1870. With the death of Duke Wilhelm the ducal line 
of Brunswick will become extinct, Duke Charles having 
died in Aug., 1873, without issue. While the duke desires 
the ex-king of Hanover or his son for his successor, it is 
believed that Prussia would favor the succession of one of 
the sons of Queen Victoria. A. J. Schem. 

B runs wick [Ger. Braunschweig; anc. Brunonis Vi- 
cus\, a city of Germany, capital of the duchy of the same 
name, is on the river Oker and in a level district, 47 miles 
by rail E. S. E. of Hanover; lat. 52° 16' 11” N., Ion. 10° 
32' 09” E. The old fortifications have been demolished and 
converted into pleasant promenades. It contains a magnif¬ 
icent ducal palace, an ancient cathedral, the church of St. 
Andrew, with a steeple 316 feet high, a mint, an opera- 
house, a town-hall, and a museum which contains paintings 
by Albert Diirer, Bembrandt, Holbein, and other great 
masters. Railways extend from this town to Hanover, 
Magdeburg, and other places. Here are manufactures of 
linen and woollen goods, lacquered wares, papier-machi, 
tobacco, hardware, etc. A great annual fair is held here. 
Among its institutions are a college, a gymnasium, a real- 
schule, and an asylum for deaf-mutes. This is a very old 
town. It was enlarged and beautified by Henry the Lion 
in the twelfth century. It formerly belonged to the Hanso 
League. Pop. in 1871, 57,883. 

Brunswick, a county of North Carolina, bordering 
on South Carolina. Area, 950 square miles. It is bounded 


BRUSA. 


on the S. by the Atlantic Ocean, on the E. by the Cape Fear 
River, and on the W. by the Waccamaw. The surface is 
level, and partly occupied by swamps. Corn, rice, cotton, 
and wool are produced. It is intersected by the Carolina 
Central and the Wilmington Columbia and Augusta R. Its. 
Capital, Smithville. Pop. 7754. 

Brunswick, a county of Virginia, bordering on North 
Carolina. Area, 600 square miles. It is intersected by the 
Meherrin River, and bounded on the N. by the Nottowa} r . 
The surface is undulating ; the soil is productive. Grain, 
tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital, Lawrenceville. 
Pop. 13,427. 

Brunswick, a port of entry, capital of Glynn co., Ga., 
on St. Simon’s Sound, 8 miles from the Atlantic Ocean and 
80 miles S. S. W. of Savannah. It is the S. E. terminus 
of the Macon and Brunswick R. R., and the E. terminus 
of the Brunswick and Albany R. R. It has a safe and 
spacious harbor, and is chiefly engaged in the manufacture 
and export of yellow-pine lumber. It has one weekly 
paper. At the S. end of St. Simon’s Island, and on the N. 
side of the entrance to the sound, is St. Simon’s light¬ 
house; lat. 31° 08' 03” N., Ion. 81° 23' 26” W. It is of 
brick, 108 feet high, and shows a fixed light varied by red 
and white flashes. Pop. 2348. 

T. F. Smith, Ed. “ Seaport Appeal.” 

Brunswick, a post-village of Cumberland co., Me., on 
the right bank of the Androscoggin River, and on the Maine 
Central R. R., 30 miles N. E. of Portland and about 8 miles 
W. of Bath ; lat. 43° 54' 5” N., Ion. 69° 57' 4” W. It is 
the S. terminus of the Androscoggin R. R., and is the site 
of Bowdoin College (which see). The river here falls 
nearly 50 feet in the distance of half a mile, affording 
abundant water-power. Brunswick has six churches, three 
national banks, a cotton-mill, and other manufactories. It 
has a weekly paper. Many ships are built and owned here. 
Pop. 1449; of Brunswick township, 4687. 

Brunswick, a post-village, capital of Kanabec co., 
Minn., on Snake River, 64 miles N. of St. Anthony. P. 93. 

Brunswick, a post-village of Chariton co., Mo., on the 
N. bank of the Missouri River, 292 miles by water from St. 
Louis, and on the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R., 
90 miles E. by N. from Kansas City. A branch railroad 
extends from this place north-westward to Chillicothe. It is 
situated on a level, fertile prairie. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. Pop. 1645 ; of Brunswick township, 4576. 

Brunswick, a township of Rensselaer co., N. Y., con¬ 
tains a part of the suburbs of Troy. Pop. 3128. 

Brunswick, a post-township of Medina co., 0. Pop. 
980. 

Brunswick, a post-township of Essex co., Vt. It con¬ 
tains a mineral spring of some note. Pop. 221. 

Brunswick, a township of Eau Claire co., Wis. Pop. 
575. 

Brunswick-Bevern (August Wilhelm), Duke of, 
a Prussian general, born Oct. 15,1715, took part in the wars 
of Frederick the Great against Austria. He distinguished 
himself in the battles of Lowasitz, Reichenberg, Prague, 
and Kollin. He was defeated and taken prisoner at Bres¬ 
lau in 1757, and was released in 1758. Died Aug. 1, 1781. 
He was the tallest soldier of his time in the Prussian army. 

BrunsAvick Black is a varnish employed to coat over 
coarsely-finished iron grates, fenders, etc. It is composed 
mainly of lampblack and turpentine. It is applied with a 
brush, dries quickly, and leaves a shining, jet black surface. 

Brunswick Green, a pigment used in the arts, con¬ 
sisting of the hydrated chloride and the oxide of copper. It 
is obtained by exposing metallic copper to the action of mu¬ 
riate of ammonia, or by mixing sulphate of copper and 
common salt into a paste with water. It is also generated 
by the action of sea-water on copper, and occurs native in 
Atacama in the form of green sand, hence called atacamite. 

Bruns'wick-Lu'neburg (Karl Wilhelm Ferdi¬ 
nand), Duke of, a German general, born Oct. 9, 1735, was 
a nephew of Frederick the Great, and the eldest son of Duke 
Karl. He fought for his uncle in the Seven Years’ war, and 
succeeded to the dukedom in 1780. He became in 1792 
commander-in-chief of the allied armies of Austria and 
Prussia, which invaded France and were repulsed by Du- 
mouriez. In 1793 he resigned the command. He took 
command of the Prussian army in 1806, and was defeated 
by the French at Jena in October of that year. In this 
battle he was mortally wounded. Died Nov. 10, 1806. 

B rtl'sa, or Bur'sa (anc. Prusa ad Olympum ), a city 
of Asia Minor, in Anatolia, is pleasantly situated at the N. 
base of Mount Olympus, about 60 miles S. by E. from Con¬ 
stantinople. It is on a beautiful and fertile plain, and pre¬ 
sents a magnificent external appearance, having more than 
200 mosques and minarets, some of which are very hand- 

















BRUSANTINI—BRUSSELS. 


(io3 


some. The streets are narrow, but are kept clean by run¬ 
ning water. Here are many colleges and schools, several 
Armenian churches, and large bazaars supplied with Eu¬ 
ropean goods. Brusa is one of the most commercial cities 
in Asiatic Turkey, and raw silk is the chief article of ex¬ 
port. It has manufactures of silk, satin, gauze, cotton 
cloths, and tapestry. The silks of Brusa are highly esteem¬ 
ed in the European markets. Here are warm mineral springs 
which were celebrated in ancient times. Prusa was the cap¬ 
ital of ancient Bithynia. It was taken by the Turkish 
sultan Orkhan in 1326, after which it was the capital of 
the Turkish empire until 1453. Feb. 28, 1855, the town 
was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. Pop. about 70,000. 

Brusanti'ni (Vincenzo), Count, an Italian poet of the 
sixteenth century. He went in youth to Rome to seek his 
fortune, but forgot his purpose, and was put into prison on 
account of certain indiscreet acts. In prison he suffered 
much. He afterwards made a long tour throughout Italy, 
and his talents won him the patronage of many princes. 
Ilis indiscretion, however, lost him whatever favors he had 
gained, and in 1570 he died at Ferrara, his native town. 
He is known by his “Angelica Inamorata” and “Cento 
Novelle,” imitations, the one of the “Orlando Furioso ” of 
Ariosto, and the other of the “Decameron” of Boccaccio. 
Both are clumsy, cold, and untasteful performances. 

Brusasor'ci (properly Domenico Ri/ccio), a painter, 
born at Verona, Italy, in 1494. His title of “ the Titian 
of Verona” was conferred upon him on account of his 
imitation of the style of that master. His works, which 
have been greatly overpraised, are chiefly at Verona. 
Many of them are in fresco. Died in 1567.—His son, 
Felice Riccio, called the Younger Brusasorci (1540- 
1605), was a skilful painter on marble and alabaster. 

B rus'chius, or B rusch (Gaspard), a German his¬ 
torian, born Aug. 19, 1518, at Schlakenwald in Bohemia, 
was in 1552 made a count palatine and poet laureate by 
Ferdinand, king of the Romans. He favored Luther and 
Melanchthon, and in 1559 was murdered in a forest by some 
gentlemen who thought themselves satirized by him. His 
chief historical works are “De Germanise episcopatibus 
epitome” (1549) and “ Monasteriorum Germanise prsecip- 
uorum Chronologia” (1551). 

Brush, an instrument for removing dirt from various 
surfaces by friction, for adjusting the hair, or for polish¬ 
ing, or applying paints, whitewashes, and the like. Hogs’ 
bristles furnish a large part of the material for the friction 
surface of the best brushes, but for delicate work camel’s, 
badger’s, sable’s, and rabbit’s hair is used. Wire brushes 
are used in various departments of manufacturing industry. 
Split whalebone is sometimes employed as a substitute for 
bristles. Broom-corn and twigs of trees are often employed 
for stiff brushes, and the coarse instruments used in clean¬ 
ing streets are partly made from piassaba and other im¬ 
ported palm fibres. Most brushes are made by joining 
some of the above materials to a stock of wood, leather, 
bone, or metal, by various methods—a business which gives 
employment to many thousands in Europe and the U. S. 
Ingenious machines have been invented for the performance 
of various parts of the work of making brushes ; and these 
machines have greatly reduced the labor and expense of 
making some kinds of brushes. Other kinds are still made 
by hand. 

Brush (George Jarvis), born at Brooklyn, N. Y., Dec. 
15, 1831, was educated at Yale College, at the University 
of Munich, the Mining Academy of Freiberg, Saxony, and 
the School of Mines in London. He became in 1855 pro¬ 
fessor of metallurgy in Yale, to which the professorship of 
mineralogy was added in 1864. He is executive officer of 
the Sheffield Scientific School, and has published numerous 
papers in the “ American Journal of Science,” and is author 
of parts of the fifth edition of Dana’s “ Mineralogy.” 

Brush Creek, a twp. of Washington co., Ark. P. 740. 

Brush Creek, a township of Faribault co., Minn. 
Pop. 422. 

Brush Creek, a township of Yancyco., N. C. P. 495. 

Brush Creek, a township of Jefferson co., 0. P. 697. 

Brush Creek, a post-township of Muskingum co., 0. 
Pop. 1292. 

Brush Creek, a township of Scioto co., 0. P. 1410. 

Brush Creek, a township of Fulton co., Pa. P. 876. 

Brush Turkey (Tallega lla Lathami), sometimes call¬ 
ed Wattled Tallegalla and New Holland Vulture, 
a bird of Australia remarkable for the peculiar manner in 
which its eggs are hatched. Several pairs of these birds 
having united to build a nest, collect leaves, grass, etc. into 
a heap, sometimes to the amount of several cart-loads. In 
this mass the several females deposit their eggs, where they 
remain till hatched by the artificial heat of the mound. 


The bird is about the size of our common turkey, and has 
wattles on its head and neck. When pursued, it endeavors 



Brush Turkey. 


to make its escape by running through the tangled brush 
or by flying into the low branches of a neighboring tree. 

Besides the above, there are several other species and gen¬ 
era, all Australian, and nearly all closely resembling the 
above bird in its peculiar habits. These now constitute the 
family Megapodidas, which is now regarded as gallinaceous. 
The birds are edible, and are much sought as game. 

Brush Valley, a post-township of Indiana co., Pa. 
Pop. 1606. 

Brushy Creek, a post-township of Anderson co., S. C. 
Pop. 1752. 

Brushy Lake, a township of Cross co., Ark. Pop. 313. 

B rushy Mountain, a township of Wilkes co., N. C. 
Pop. 434. 

Bruso'ni (Girolamo), an Italian historian and poet, 
born at Legnano Dec. 10, 1610. He wrote many Latin 
and Italian poems, and was for a time confined in prison at 
Venice for assuming improperly the dress of a Carthusian 
monk. He wrote many historical and other works, of 
which the most celebrated is “ Istoria d’ltalia” (1656-80). 
Died after 1679. 

Brus'sels, a post-township of Door co., Wis. P. 406. 

Brus'sels [Dutch, Brussel; Fr. Bruxelles'], the capital of 
Belgium, is situated in the province of Brabant, on the river 
Senne, 27 miles by rail S. of Antwerp, and 227 miles by rail 
N. N. E. of Paris; lat. 50° 51' 10” N., Ion. 4° 22' 13” E. 
It is built partly on the slope of a hill which rises 220 feet 
above the level of the sea, and partly on a fertile plain. 
The upper town on the hill is the most modern and fashion¬ 
able, and contains the royal palace, public offices, and the 
finest hotels. Brussels is the most important and populous 
city of Belgium, is remarkable for the number and richness 
of its antique buildings, and ranks among the finest cities 
of Europe. The walls which formerly surrounded this 
city have been converted into boulevards, broad promen¬ 
ades lined with double rows of shade trees. The Allee 
Verte is a fashionable promenade along the Scheldt Canal, 
and extends to the royal palace of Laeken, about 3 miles 
N. of the city. The principal public squares are the Place 
Royale, the Grande Place, in which stands the hotel de 
ville, and the Place de la Monnaie, which contains the 
mint, the theatre, and the exchange. Among its remark¬ 
able edifices are the hfitel de ville, a fine Gothic structure, 
with a spire 364 feet high, in the grand hall of which the 
emperor Charles V. abdicated in 1555; the Gothic cathe¬ 
dral of St. Gudule, which was built about 1270, and is cele¬ 
brated for its painted windows, numerous statues, and 
carved pulpit; the church of Notre Dame de la Chapelle, 
commenced in 1134; the royal palace; the modern church 
of Notre Dame de Bon Secours; the former palace of the 
prince of Orange; and the Palace of the Fine Arts, which 
contains a large collection of paintings of the Flemish 
school. Brussels has a public library of about 200,000 
volumes; a botanic garden; an astronomical observatory, 
one of the finest in Europe; a magnetic observatory; a 
free university, founded in 1834, with four faculties—viz. 
law, medicine, mathematical and physical sciences, and 
belles-lettres; a normal school, a polytechnic school, and in¬ 
stitutions for the blind and for deaf-mutes. The only mint 
of the kingdom is situated here. Brussels is one ot the 
great centres of Belgian industry, and is celebrated for the 
manufacture of lace which is considered the finest in the 
world. The other chief products of its manufactories aro 
fine linens, damasks, ribbons, gold and silver embroidery, 
glass mirrors, jewelry, paper, porcelain, hats, mathemati¬ 
cal and musical instruments, carriages, and chemical piod- 
ucts. Its trade is facilitated by a canal which connects 
it with Antwerp, and by railways which radiate in many 




























654 BRUSSELS CARPETS—BUBALUS. 


directions. About one-third of the people of this city 
speak French, and the others Flemish or Dutch. Pop. in 
1869, with the suburbs, 314,077. 

History. —Brussels became a fortified town about 1044, 
but was not 'a very important place until the House of 
Austria began to reign over Flanders. In 1507 the seat of 
government of the Low Countries was fixed here. Under 
the emperor Charles Y. it was a residence of the court and 
capital of a vicerojmlty. Here he abdicated in 1555 in 
favor of his son, Philip II., in whose reign Brussels was 
the scene of the atrocities committed by the duke of Alva 
and the Inquisition. It was taken by the French in 1747, 
restored to the Austrians in 1748, and annexed by conquest 
to France in 1792. It was a part of the kingdom of the 
Netherlands 1815-30, and then became the capital of the new 
kingdom of Belgium. Revised by A. J. Schem. 

Brussels Carpets, a name of carpets of excellent 
quality manufactured mostly at Tournay. They were prob¬ 
ably so named because extensively sold at Brussels, which 
has long been a great centre of trade. (See Carpet, by 
William Berri, Jr., editor of “ The Carpet.”) 

B ru'ton, a township of York co., Va. Pop. 1839. 

B ru'tus, a township of Cayuga co., N. Y. It contains 
the village of Weedsport. Pop. 2021. 

Brutus (Lucius Junius), a famous Roman patriot, was 
a son of Tarquinia and a nephew of Tarquin the Proud. 
According to tradition, that tyrant was about to put him 
to death, but he saved his life by feigning idiocy, which 
was the origin of his surname Brutus — i. e. “ stupid or 
brutish.” Aruns and Titus, the sons of Tarquin, for their 
amusement took him with them to consult the oracle of 
Delphi. In answer to the question which of those three 
should be king of Rome, the oracle replied, “ He who 
shall first kiss his motl^er.” On landing in Italy, Brutus, 
pretending to stumble, kissed the earth. When the tragic 
fate of Lucretia had prepared the people to revolt, Brutus 
became their leader, expelled the Tarquins, and founded a 
republic (509 B. C.). He was then elected one of the con¬ 
suls. He ordered the execution of his own sons, Titus and 
Tiberius, who were convicted of treason. About 507 he 
was killed in a battle against the Tarquins. (See Chom- 
pre, “Vie de Brutus, Premier Consul de Rome,” 1730; 
Arnold’s “ History of Rome.”) 

Brutus (Marcus Junius), a Roman republican, a 
descendant of the preceding, was born in 85 B. C. He mar¬ 
ried Porcia, the daughter of Cato Uticensis, who Avas his 
maternal uncle. In the civil Avar he fought under Pom- 
pey against Caesar, but after the battle of Pharsalia he 
Avas kindly treated by the dictator, with Avhom he en¬ 
tered into friendly relations; he was appointed governor 
of Cisalpine Gaul. His zeal for republican liberty and the 
influence of his friend Cassius induced him to join the 
conspiracy against Caesar. After the death of the latter 
(44 B. C.), Brutus and Cassius were the most prominent 
leaders of the republican party. They raised a large army 
in Macedonia, and encountered that of Antony and Octa¬ 
vius at Philippi (42 B. C.). Brutus, who commanded the 
right Aving, gained the advantage over Octavius, whom he 
imprudently pursued. In the mean time, Antony defeated 
Cassius so completely that Brutus killed himself on the 
field. (See Plutarch’s “ Lives.”) 

Briix, or Brix, a toAvn of Bohemia, on the river Bila, 
14 miles N. of Saaz. It has a gymnasium, a realschule, 
numerous churches, coal-mines, and manufactures of salts 
from the famous mineral spring of Seidlitz. P. in 1869, 6308. 

Bry'an,a county of Georgia, bordering on the Atlantic. 
Area, 472 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the 
Ogeechee River, and intersected by the Cannouchee. The 
surface is nearly level; the soil is sandy. Rice, corn, oats, 
cotton, and wool are raised. The Atlantic and Gulf R. R. 
passes through it. Capital, Eden. Pop. 5252. 

Bryan, a post-village of SweetAvater co., Wy. It is on 
the Union Pacific R. R., 858 miles W. of Omaha, Neb., 
and has machine-shops of the railroad. 

Bryan, a toAvnship of Surry co., N. C. Pop. 1032. 

Bryan, capital of Williams co., 0., on the Air-Line 
R. R., 54 miles W. of Toledo. It has two banks, an 
academy, and important manufactures, and is noted for its 
artesian Avells. Two newspapers are issued here. Pop. 
2284. P. C. IIeyes, Pub. “Press.” 

Bryan, a city, capital of Brazos co., Tex., on the Texas 
Central R. R., 100 miles N. W: of Houston and 8 E. of 
Brazos River, has a cotton-gin and mill-factory, a manu¬ 
factory of tobacco, one of carriages, one of soap, and one 
of cotton-seed oil. It has a college, a newspaper, tAvo 
academies, three benevolent societies, eight churches, and 
is the seat of the State Agricultural and Mechanical Col¬ 
lege. Goodwin & Smith, Eds. “Bryan Appeal.” 


Bryanites. See Bible Christians. 

Bry'ant (AFilliam Cullen), LL.D., an American poet, 
was born in Cummington, Mass., Nov. 3, 1794. He published 
at the age of thirteen “The Embargo,” a political satire in 
verse. He was educated at AYilliams College, studied Irav, 
and was admitted to the bar in 1815. In 1816 he produced 
“ Thanatopsis,” a poem Avhich is greatly admired. He prac¬ 
tised laiv nearly ten years, and removed to NeAV York City 
in 1825. In 1826 he began to edit the “NeAV York Even¬ 
ing Post,” which he conducted with great ability. This 
paper has advocated free trade and opposed the extension 
of slavery. A complete edition of his poems was published 
in 1832. He visited Europe in 1834 and at several subse¬ 
quent periods, and published “ Letters of a Traveller in 
Europe, etc.” During the civil Avar he supported vigor¬ 
ously the cause of the Union. He produced in 1869 a 
translation of the “Iliad,” and later, 1871, a translation 
of the “Odyssey,” which are regarded by competent critics 
as the best metrical translations of Homer. 

Bry'antown, a post-twp. of Charles co., Md. P.3629. 

Brytl' ges (Sir Samuel Egerton), an English Avriter and 
bibliographer, born in Kent Nov. 30, 1762, published, be¬ 
sides many novels, letters, poems, etc., “ Censura Literaria, 
containing Titles and Opinions of Old English Books ” 
(10 vols., 1805-09), “The British Bibliographer” (4 vols. 
8vo, 1810-14), and “Res Literariae ” (3 vols., 1821). He 
claimed that he Avas the laAvful heir to the barony of Chan- 
dos, but his title Avas not recognized. Many of his Avorks 
Avere privately printed. His Avorks on bibliography are 
highly prized. Died at Geneva Sept. 8, 1837. (See his 
“Autobiography,” 2 vols., 1834.) 

Bryen'nius (Nicephorus), a Byzantine historian and 
general, was a minister of Alexis Comnenus, whose daughter, 
Anna Comnena, he married. Died about 1137. His “ His¬ 
tory of Constantinople” was edited by Meineke (1836). 

Bryn'hild, or Brynhil'da, a beautiful maiden, cele¬ 
brated in the Norse mythology. Though called a valkyria, 
she is e\ r idently the same person as the Princess Brunhild 
of the “Nibelungen Lied.” (See Thorp’s “Northern My¬ 
thology,” vol. i.; see also Nibelungen Lied, in this Avork.) 

Bry'ony [Bryonia), a genus of plants of the order 
Cucurbitacese, haAung triadelphous stamens, Avith distinct 
anthers, and stems Avhich climb by means of lateral ten¬ 
drils. The flowers are campanulate, 5-partite, and uni¬ 
sexual. The common bryony [Bryonia dioica) is a native 
of England, has palmate or 5-lobed leaves, and bears red 
berries about as large as a pea. It abounds in a fetid and 
acrid juice. The large perennial root is a purgative and 
emetic, and is employed in medicine, especially in homoe¬ 
opathic practice. The root of Bryonia alba possesses simi¬ 
lar properties, and contains a bitter poisonous principle 
called bryonine. The Bryonia Boykinii groAVS in the 
Southern U. S. 

Bryony, Black [Tavius communis), a plant of the 
order Dioscoreacese, is a native of many parts of Europe. 
It has long tAvining stems, cordate, undivided leaves, and 
red berries which are succulent but unwholesome. The 
whole plant is acrid, but the young suckers, in which the 
acrid principle is not fully developed, are eaten in Greece 
like asparagus. 

Bryozo'a [Gr. fipvov, “moss,” and ^wor, “an animal”], 
an order of animals which appear to occupy an interme¬ 
diate place between mollusks and articulates. Most Avriters 
have called them mollusks; others class them Avith the “ mol- 
luscoids;” while some refer them to the Articulata. They 
are very small, and moss-like or polyp-like in appearance, 
mostly marine, but some species live in fresh Avater. 

Bry' son, a village of Pontiac co., Quebec (Canada), has 
one weekly newspaper. 

Bryson (Andreav J.), U. S. N., born July 25, 1823, in 
the city of NeAV York, entered the navy as a midshipman 
Dec. 21, 1837, became a passed midshipman in 1843, a lieu¬ 
tenant, in 1851, a commander in 1862, and a captain in 1866. 
He commanded the iron-clad Lehigh in 1863 and 1864 at 
the reduction of Fort Macon, and Avas in all the important 
fights Avith the defences of Charleston harbor. On the 17th 
of Nov., 1863, the Lehigh, having grounded, was exposed 
for an hour to the fire of nine batteries on Sullivan’s Island. 
Rear-Admiral Dahlgren, in his official report of this affair, 
says: “Commander Bryson and Lieutenant-Commander 
Cornwell, with their officers, did their duty handsomely on 
the occasion.” Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Bu 'aze, an African plant, of which the botanical rela¬ 
tions are not yet knoAvn, but Avhich is likely to prove of 
importance on account of its fibre. Dr. Livingstone found 
it growing in large quantities north of the Zambesi, and 
thinks its fibre stronger and finer than that of flax. 

Bu bains, Bubalis, or Bubalc [Gr. flovjSaAo?, a term 













BUBASTIS—BUCHANAN. 655 


anciently applied to a species of antelope], a genus of 
Bovidae which is formed by the buffaloes of India and 
Africa, the anoa, and perhaps the musk-ox of North Amer¬ 
ica ( Bubalus or Ovibos moschatus). It includes those species 
which have the bony core of the horn excavated, with 
large cells or sinuses communicating with the cavity of the 
nose. The horus are flattened, and bend laterally with a 
backward direction. The Antilope Bubalus , a native of 
Barbary, is about the size of a large stag, and has a head 
and muzzle like an ox. Its horns are furnished with a 
number of thickened rings, and are curved so that the 
points are directed backward. It is gregarious. The figure 
of this animal is found on the monuments of ancient Egypt. 

Bubas'tis (the Pi-beseth of Scripture and, modern Tel- 
basta), a ruined city of Lower Egypt, in the Delta of the 
Nile, about 75 miles a little E. of N. from Cairo; lat. 30° 
36' N., Ion. 31° 33' E. The site is now occupied by ex¬ 
tensive mounds containing the remains of brick houses 
and broken pottery. 

Bubastis, a goddess of ancient Egypt, a deification 
of the moon corresponding to the Greek Artemis, said to 
signify literally “ she who multiplies her aspects;” so called 
in allusion to the changes of the moon. According to other 
authorities, Bubastis was the deification of the, cat, which 
animal, as is well known, was an object of worship in an¬ 
cient Egypt. Her name, according to modern Egyptolo¬ 
gists, was Pecht or Pasht. 

Bub'ble [Lat. b ulla ; Fr. bulle~\, a globular film or ves¬ 
icle of water or other liquid inflated with air, vapor, or gas. 
The air usually expands until the film is burst by the dis¬ 
tension. Bubbles formed with a mixture of water and 
soap will float in the air and exhibit interesting optical 
phenomena. “The colors,” says Sir J. Ilerschel, “which 
glitter on a soap-bubble are the immediate consequence of 
a principle the most important from the variety of phe¬ 
nomena it explains, and the most beautiful from its sim¬ 
plicity and compendious neatness, in the w r hole science of 
optics.” (See Tiiin Plates, Colors of.) The formation 
of bubbles of steam (ebullition) always occurs when water 
is heated to the boiling-point. 

Buccaneer'' [Fr. boucanier], a name applied to the 
famous adventurers or filibusters who in the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries infested the West Indies and the 
Spanish colonies of South America. They were mostly 
English and French, and were united by a common hos¬ 
tility to the Spaniards, to plunder whom was their princi¬ 
pal object and business. For mutual protection against the 
cruelty of the Spaniards, they organized themselves into an 
association or community bound by a simple code of laws. 
The island of Tortuga was at one time occupied by them, 
and was their chief base of operations. They took immense 
booty from the Spanish galleons which conveyed precious 
metals to Spain, and often attacked towns on the coasts. 
Among the famous and able leaders of the buccaneers were 
the French Montbar, surnamed the Exterminator, and 
Henry Morgan, a Welshman, who was born about 1637. 
He organized fleets and armaments, took strong fortresses, 
and displayed remarkable military talents. He was knighted 
by Charles II. The navigator Dampier also took part with 
the buccaneers in some expeditions against the Spaniards. 
(See James Burney, “History of the Buccaneers.”) 

Buccisia'tor [Lat. buccino, “to swell the cheeks,” as 
in blowing a trumpet, from bucca, the “cheek”], the name 
of a muscle situated in the substance of the cheeks; so 
called because, when the checks arc distended with air, the 
contraction of the buccinator muscle forces it out. Its 
principal use is to compress the food during mastication. 

Bucci'no, a town of Italy, in the province of Salerno, 
is on the river Botta, here crossed by an old Roman bridge, 
23 miles W. of Potenza. Here are quarries of fine marble. 
Pop. in 1861, 5493. 

Buc'^iimm [a Latin word signifying a “trumpet”], a 
genus of gasteropod mollusks, characterized by a shell with 
a smooth nonplicated columella, and with a fissure or short 
respiratory canal inflected towards the left. The shape of 
some species of this genus resembles that of a trumpet. 
Buccinum undatum is the systematic name of the shell 
called whelk. Most of the living species are found in the 
cold zones; many are fossil. 

Buc'cleugh, Dukes of (1663), dukes of Queensberry, 
marquesses of Duinfriess-shire, earls of Drumlanrigand 
Sanquhar (1684), ear's of Buccleugh (1619), earls of Dal¬ 
keith (1663), viscounts of Nith, Torthorwold, and Ross, 
and Barons Douglass (1684), Barons Scott of Buccleugh 
(1606), Barons Scott of Eskdale (1619), Lords Scott of 
Winchester (1663, in Scotland), earls of Doncaster, and 
Barons Tynedale (1662, in England), a noble family of 
Scotland, descended from Sir Walter Scott of Branxholm 
and Buccleugh, a brave and powerful chieftain who lived 


in the reign of James V. He fought at the battle of Pinkie 
in 1547, and died in 1552. Some incidents of his life 
formed the subject of Scott’s poem, the “ Lay of the Last 
Minstrel.” His great-grandson, also named Sir Walter, 
was raised to the peerage as Lord Scott of Buccleugh in 
1606. The first duke was beheaded in 1685, but the duchess 
retained the title and estates. Henry, the third duke, born 
in 1746, was a pupil and friend of Adam Smith. He dis¬ 
tinguished himself by his efforts to improve his extensive 
estates by planting trees, enriching the soil, making roads, 
and improving the breed of sheep. Died in 1812.—His 
grandson, Walter Francis, born Nov. 25, 1806, the fifth 
duke of Buccleugh and the seventh of Queensberry, is said 
to have spent £320,000 in improving the harbor of Granton, 
about two miles from Edinburgh, the greatest public work 
ever executed in Scotland by an individual at his own ex¬ 
pense. He succeeded his father in 1819, was lord of the 
privy seal 1842-46, and president of the council in 1846. 

Bucen'taur [It. Bucentoro ], the name of a celebrated 
Venetian galley which was gilded and sumptuously fur¬ 
nished, and was used only once a year in a splendid aquatic 
procession when the doge performed the ceremony of es¬ 
pousing the Adriatic on Ascension Day by dropping a ring 
into the water. It was about 100 feet long, and was pro¬ 
pelled by oars. In the annual procession the Bucentaur, 
which conveyed the doge and other high functionaries, 
was followed by many gondolas and feluccas. It was 
burned in 1797, having been kept for this service since 
1177. 

BuCGplValllS [Macedonian Gr. B 0VKe(f>a.\a<;, for Bov/ce<f>a- 
Ao?, i. e. “ox-head ” or “big-head”], the favorite horse of 
Alexander the Great, who rode on him in all his campaigns. 
He was purchased in Thessaly by King Philip, and cost, 
according to Pliny, sixteen talents, equal to $20,000, 
nearly, of our money. The royal grooms were unable to 
manage him, but Alexander, then very young, tried and 
succeeded; and Bucephalus would never permit anyone 
but Alexander to ride him. Bucephalus died in India 
from the effect of wounds received in battle about 326 B. C., 
and Alexander built in his honor the city Bucephala on the 
Hydaspes. 

Bu' cer [from the Gr. 0oC?, a “cow,” and Kepa s, a “horn,” 
being a literal translation of his German name, Kuhhoni], 
(Martin), a German Reformer, was born near Strasburg 
in 1491, and was for a time a Dominican friar. He be¬ 
came a Protestant in 1521. He was a friend of Luther, 
and studied Greek and Hebrew at Heidelberg. He intro¬ 
duced the Reformed doctrines at Strasburg 1523, and was 
for many years professor of theology at that city. When 
dissensions arose between Luther and Zwingle, Bucer acted 
the part of mediator. His opinions in relation to the sac¬ 
rament accorded more nearly with those of Zwingle than 
those of Luther. He attended the Diet of Augsburg in 
1548, and there conducted himself with moderation, but 
he refused to subscribe to the “ Interim.” At the invita¬ 
tion of Archbishop Cranmer he went to England in 1549, 
and became professor of theology at Cambridge. He wrote 
in Latin and German numerous religious works and com¬ 
mentaries on Scripture. Died Feb. 27, 1551. 

Bu'ceros [from 0oO?, an “ox,” and Ke'pas, a “horn”], 
a genus of birds of the order Insessores, remarkable for 
the excessive size of the mandibles, of which the upper in 
some species supports a large horn-like protuberance. 
These birds are called horn-bills. They are natives of the 
Olcl World. 

Buch, von (Leopold), a celebrated Prussian geologist, 
born at Stolpe-on-the-Oder April 25, 1774. He studied 
mineralogy under Werner at Freiberg. He explored the 
geology of many countries of Europe, generally travelling 
on foot. In 1805 he witnessed an eruption of Mount Ve¬ 
suvius, which converted him to the Plutonic theory. 
Among his principal works are “ Geognostic Observations 
during Travels in Germany and Italy” (2 vols., 1802-09), 
“Travels in Norway and Lapland” (1810), and “On the 
Mountain-Systems of Russia” (1840). He published an 
excellent geological map of Germany (1824). He was 
the author of the doctrine of the slow upheaval of conti¬ 
nents. Died in Berlin Mar. 4, 1853. (See the English 
translation of Flourens’ “ Eulogy on L. von Buch,” in the 
Smithsonian Report for 1862, p. 358.) 

Buch'an, a district of Scotland, in the north-eastern 
part of Aberdeenshire, consisting of about one-fourth of 
the county lying between the Doveran and the \tham. 

Buchan, Earls of, and Lords Auchterhouse (1469), 
Barons Cardross (1606, in Scotland), a noble family of 
Scotland.— David Stuart Erskine, the thirteenth earl, 
was born in Nov., 1815, and succeeded his father m 1S5/. 

Buchan'an, a county in N.E. Central Iowa. Area, 
576 square miles. It is ‘intersected by the Wapsipimcon 
















656 BUCHANAN—BUCHEZ. 


River, and also drained by Buffalo Creek. The soil is fer¬ 
tile. Cattle, grain, and wool are raised. The Dubuque 
and Sioux City 11.11. passes through this county. Capital, 
Independence. Pop. 17,034. 

Buchanan, a county of Missouri, bordering on Kan¬ 
sas. Area, 400 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by 
the Missouri River, and intersected by the Platte or Little 
Platte. The soil is very productive. Cattle, grain, to¬ 
bacco, and wool are raised. This county is traversed by 
the Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R., the Kansas City St. 
Joseph and Council Bluffs, and the St. Joseph branch of 
the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. Rs. Capital, 
St. Joseph. Pop. 35,109. 

Buchanan, a county of Virginia, bordering on Ken¬ 
tucky. Area, 500 square miles. It is drained by the 
Louisa Fork and Russell Fork of Sandy River. The 
Cumberland or Big Black Mountain extends along the 
N. W. border of this county, the surface of which is moun¬ 
tainous. Grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital, 
Grundy. Pop. 3777. 

Buchanan, a post-village, capital of Haralson co., 
Ga., about 50 miles W. of Atlanta. Pop. 768. 

Buchanan, a township of Jefferson co., Ia. P. 1499. 

Buchanan, a township of Page co., Ia. Pop. 771. 

Buchanan, a flourishing village of Berrien co., Mich., 
on the St. Joseph River and on the Michigan Central R. R., 
87 miles E. of Chicago and 197 miles W. of Detroit. It is 
situated in the midst of a rich agricultural and fruit re¬ 
gion, has a large trade, and contains a national bank, two 
large bedstead and furniture factories, a zinc collar-pad 
factory, a large wagon factory, several flouring and saw 
mills, one sash and blind factory, one foundry and machine- 
shop, a large washing-machine and clothes-wringer factory, 
and a weekly newspaper and steam printing establishment. 
Pop. 1702; of township, 2857. Wagner & Kingery, 

Pubs. “Berrien County Record.” 

Buchanan, a township of Atchison co., Mo. Pop. 905. 

Buchanan, a township of Douglas co., Mo. Pop. 430. 

Buchanan, a township of Sullivan co., Mo. Pop. 1104. 

Buchanan, Alleghany co., Pa. See Birmingham. 

Buchanan, a post-village and township of Botetourt 
co., Va. The village is on the S. bank of James River, 135 
miles W. of Richmond. Pop. of township, 4000. 

Buchanan, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. P.823. 

Buchanan (Claudius), D. D., a Scottish preacher, born 
near Glasgow Mar. 12, 1766. He was professor in the Col¬ 
lege of Fort William in Bengal. He wrote “Christian 
Researches in Asia” (1811), and promoted the spread of 
the gospel in India. Died Feb. 9, 1815. 

Buchanan (Franklin), born at Baltimore, Md., be¬ 
came a midshipman of the U. S. navy in 1815, and passed 
through the various grades of the service, becoming a cap¬ 
tain in 1855. In 1861 he resigned, intending to enter the 
Confederate service, but subsequently he asked to be re¬ 
stored. His request was refused, and he then joined the 
Southern navy. He fitted up the Merrimack frigate as an 
iron-clad, and with her sunk the Cumberland and Congress, 
but was severely wounded in the fight with the Monitor. 
When the national troops occupied Norfolk he blew up his 
ship. He became a rear-admiral. He was defeated and 
made prisoner by Farragut in the battle of Mobile Bay, 
Aug. 5, 1864, when he fought on board the Tennessee iron¬ 
clad, and lost a leg. 

Buchanan (George), an eminent Scottish poet and his¬ 
torian, born at Ivillearn, in the county of Sterling, in Feb., 
1506. He was well educated in Paris, and became a pro¬ 
fessor in a college of that city. Having adopted the Re¬ 
formed doctrines, he returned to Scotland in 1537, and 
wrote “ Somnium,” a satire against the monks, for which 
he was persecuted. He took refuge in England, and passed 
over to France about 1540. lie was employed as a teacher 
in Bordeaux and Paris for several years, during which he 
wrote some Latin tragedies. After several changes of resi¬ 
dence and adventures, he returned to Scotland in 1560. 
In 1562 he was appointed classical tutor to Mary queen of 
Scots. His religious and political principles rendered him 
a supporter of Regent Murray in the civil war that ensued. 
He became preceptor to the young king, James VI., in 
1570, and keeper of the privy seal in the same year. Died 
Sept. 28, 1582. As a scholar he was almost unrivalled by 
any of his contemporaries. He wrote Latin verse with 
great purity, and was humorous, sarcastic, and profound. 
His chief works are a “History of Scotland” (“Rerum 
Scoticarum Ilistoria,” 1582), a metrical Latin version of 
the Psalms (1570), and “ Franciscanus,” a poetical satire. 
(See his “Autobiography,” 1 608; David Irving, “Memoirs 
of the Life of George Buchanan,” 1807.) 


Buchanan (Isaac), a Canadian politician, born in 
1810, became a leading merchant and president of the 
board of trade of Hamilton, Ontario. He was active in 
putting down the rebellion of 1837, and has for many years 
been prominently engaged in public affairs. He has pub¬ 
lished “ The Relations of the Industry of Canada with the 
Mother-country and the U. S.” 

Buchanan (James), fifteenth President of the U. S., 
born in Franklin co., Pa., April 23, 1791, graduated at 
Dickinson College, Carlisle, in 1809, and was admitted to 
the bar in 1812. He was a Federalist in his youth, but 
A r oted for General Jackson in 1828, and was then elected to 
Congress. In 1831 he was sent as minister to Russia, and 
in 1833 was elected to the Senate of the U. S. He remained 
in the Senate until 1845, and was then appointed secretary 
of state. After he had passed four years in private life, he 
was sent as minister to England in 1853. He was nomi¬ 
nated by the Democrats and elected President of the U. S. 
in 1856. The other candidates in this election were John 
C. Fremont, Republican, and Millard Fillmore, “Ameri¬ 
can.” Mr. Buchanan received 174 electoral votes. His 
policy was hostile to those who opposed the extension of 
slavery. In his message of Dec., 1860, he blamed the 
Northern people for the disruption of the Union, and af¬ 
firmed that the Executive had no power or right to prevent 
the secession of a State. Died June 1, 1868. 

Buchanan (Robert C.), an American officer, born in 
1811 in Maryland, graduated at West Point in 1830, and 
Feb. 8, 1864, colonel Tenth Infantry. He served at fron¬ 
tier posts 1830-70, in Black Hawk war 1832, engaged in 
command of gunboats in the battle of Bad Axe River, as 
adjutant Fourth Infantry 1835-38, in Florida war 1836-38 
—1841-42, engaged at Camp Izard, Oloklikaha, and Okee- 
clio-bee, emigrating Cherokees to the West 1838, in the 
military occupation of Texas 1845-46, in the war with 
Mexico 1846-48, engaged at Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma 
(brevet major), Monterey, San Antonio, Churubusco, Moli- 
no del Rey (brevet lieutenant-colonel), Chapultepec, and 
the city of Mexico; in command of district of Oregon and 
Northern California 1856, engaged against Rogue River 
Indians, and as superintendent of Western recruiting 1857- 
59. In the civil war he served in the Virginia Peninsula 
1862, engaged at Yorktown, Gaines’ Mill (brevet colonel), 
Glendale, and Malvern Hill (brevet brigadier-general), in 
Northern Virginia campaign 1862, engaged at Manassas, 
in the Maryland campaign 1862, engaged at Antietam and 
Potomac Run, in the Rappahannock campaign 1862-63, 
engaged at Fredericksburg (brevet major-general), as 
assistant provost marshal, etc. for New York 1864, and 
member of commissions, 1865-68. Retired from active ser¬ 
vice Dec. 31, 1870. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Buchanan (Thomas McKean), U. S. N., born Sept. 10, 
1837, at Bellefonte, Pa., graduated at the Naval Academy 
in 1855, and became a lieutenant in 1860, and a lieutenant- 
commander in 1862. He was in many engagements wfith 
the enemy on the lower Mississippi in co-operation with 
our army, and on the 15th of Jan. fell, with a bullet 
through his head, while “encouraging in his own person 
his officers and men to fight courageously” in the sharp 
action at Bayou Teche. In his report to the navy depart¬ 
ment of this battle Rear-Admiral Farragut writes: 
“ Lieutenant-Commander Buchanan was one of our most 
gallant and persevering young officers. He informed me 
two days ago that he thought the enemy was about to 
make an attack on him, and that he would anticipate 
them. In reply to my letter, in which I enjoined him to 
do his whole duty on this occasion, he assured me that I 
need give myself no uneasiness upon that score, as they 
had all determined to go down rather than surrender.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Bucli'anites, a Scotch fanatical sect, now extinct, 
which derived its existence (in 1783) and its name from a 
Mrs. Buchan, whose maiden name was Elspeth Simpson. 
She was born in 1738, and claimed to be the woman men¬ 
tioned in Rev. xii. The last of the sect died in 1846. 

Bu'charest, the capital of Wallachia, is situated in 
a fertile plain on the river Dimbovetza, about 140 miles 
N. W. of Varna; lat. 44° 25' 30” N., Ion. 26° 5' 24” E. 
The houses are mostly mean, and the streets dirty and not 
well paved. It is said to contain ninety-five churches, one 
college, a public library, several hospitals, and an exces¬ 
sive number of gaming-houses. This city has the reputa¬ 
tion of being the most dissolute capital in Europe. It is 
the entrepot for the trade between Austria and Turkey, 
the chief articles of which are grain, wool, salt, building 
timber, cattle, and wax. The treaty of peace by which 
the sultan ceded Bessarabia and part of Moldavia to Rus¬ 
sia was concluded here in May, 1812. Pop., according to 
the “Almanach de Gotha” for 1872, 141,754. 

Buchez (Philippe Joseph Benjamin), an able French 



















BUCHHOLZ—BUCKLAND. 


philosophical writer and republican, was born in Ardennes 
in 1796. Ho studied medicine, and took part in several 
plots against the Bourbons. He wrote, besides other 
works, “ The Science of the Development of Humanity ” 
(1833), and a “ Complete Treatise on Philosophy from the 
Catholic and Progressive Point of View” (3 vols., 1840). 
Buchez and Roux published “ The Parliamentary History 
of the French Revolution” (40 vols., 1833-38). He was 
president of the National Assembly in May, 1848. Died 
in 1865. 

Buch'holz, a town of Germany, in Saxony, 46 miles 
S. W. of Dresden. Pop. in 1871, 5247. 

Biich'ner (Friedrich Karl Christian Ludwig), born 
at Darmstadt, in Germany, Mar. 29, 1824, is a leading 
writer of the present time in advocacy of “ humanitarian*” 
materialistic, and atheistic opinions. His best-known 
work is entitled “ Kraft und Stoff” (“Force and Matter,” 
1854). He has written also two volumes Avith the title 
“Physiological Pictures ” (1861) ,• one on “ Natural Phil¬ 
osophy,” “Six Lectures on DarvVln ” (1868), and a work 
on “Man in the Past, Present, and Future” (1869-70). 
The latter has been translated (1872) into English by W. 
S. Dallas, F. L. S. With considerable acquaintance with 
recent science, an easy style, and some ingenuity of argu¬ 
ment, the principal attraction of Buchner’s works to most 
readers is, probably, his audacity. In 1872-73 Buchner 
made a leejuring-tour in the U. S., under the auspices of 
the German Turnverein, but without marked results in the 
propagation of his opinions. 

Bu'cliu [a South African word], the leaves of Barosma 
crenata , crenatula, and serratifolia, and of other strong¬ 
smelling South African plants used in medicine for their 
diuretic properties. They belong to the order Rutacem, 
and are used by the Hottentots for many diseases. The 
natives also prize them for their fragrance, and use them 
in perfuming their bodies. In commerce the various kinds 
of buchu are known as “round” and “long” buchu, etc. 
They all contain a volatile oil. 

Buck, a name given to the male of the fallow deer and 
other species of deer; also to the male of sheep, goats, and 
antelopes. The term is not properly applied to the male 
of red deer or American deer, which is called a stag. The 
term doe is applied to the females of those species of deer 
the males of which are called bucks. 

Buck, a township of Edgar co., Ill. Pop. 794. 

Buck, a township of Hardin co., 0. Pop. 1259. 

Buck, a township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 574. 

Bucka'ria, a township of Halifax co., N. C. Pop. 1782. 

Buck'au, a town of Prussia, in the province of Saxony, 
forms a suburb of Magdeburg. Pop. in 1871, 9696. 

Buck Bean, or Marsh Trefoil ( Menyanthes trifo- 
licita), a plant of the order Gentianacem, the only known 
species of its genus. It is indigenous in Europe and the 
U. S., and is widely distributed in the colder parts of the 
northern hemisphere. It groivs in bogs and marshes. The 
leaves are ternate, the corolla funnel-shaped and 5-parted, 
and the fruit is a pod or 2-valved capsule. A bitter ex¬ 
tract obtained from the leaves is a valuable remedy for 
dyspepsia and disorders of the bowels. The Avhole plant 
is tonic, and is used in Germany as a substitute for hops. 

Buck Creek, a toAvnship of Hancock co., Ind. P. 1227. 

Buck'eye, the popular name of certain American ex¬ 
ogenous trees and shrubs of the genus ^Esenins and the 
order Sapindacem. The Ohio buckeye (sEsculus ylabra), 
growing in the Valley of the Mississippi, is a large tree 
Avith a strong-smelling bark, small, obscure flowers, and 
prickly fruit containing the seed, which is a large nut re¬ 
sembling that of the horse-chestnut tree, which is a near 
relative of this buckeye. The sweet buckeye {JEsculus 
flava), a tree, sometimes a shrub, of a range rather more 
to the S. than that of the preceding, has yelloAV or some¬ 
times dull purple flowers. The red buckeye (zEsculus 
Pavia ) has a still more southern habitat, ranging south¬ 
ward from the Ohio River to Florida. It is generally 
small, and has bright-red flowers. The white buckeye 
( yEnculxi8 parviflora) is a shrub of the mountains of the 
.Southern States, Avith panicles of white floAvers. There 
are various other species in Asia. 

Buckeye, a post-township of Yolo co., Cal. Pop. 860. 

Buckeye, a township of Stephenson co., Ill. Pop. 1761. 

Buckeye, a toAvnship of Hardin co., Ia. Pop. 159. 

Buckeye, a post-township of Frederick co., Md. Pop. 
2414. 

Buck'field, a post-village of Oxford co., Me., on the 
Portland and Oxford Central R. R., 48 miles N. of Port¬ 
land. It has considerable manufactures. Pop. of Buck- 
field township, 1494. 

42 


657 


Buckhan'non, a post-village, the county-seat of Up¬ 
shur co., West Va., on Buckhannon River, 28 miles S. of 
the lino of the Baltimore and Ohio R. R., and near the cen¬ 
tre of the State. It has one weekly paper. Pop. 475; of 
Buckhannon township, 1674. 

C. G. Rapp, for Ed. “ Delta.” 

Bucli/hart, a post-township of Christian co., 111. 
Pop. 2028. 

Buckhart, a toAvnship of Fulton co., Ill. Pop. 1577. 

Buck'horn, a township of Talladega co., Ala. P. 1614. 

Bucldiorii, a post-toAvnship of Brown co., Ill. P. 1050. 

Buckhorn, a township of Harnett co., N. C. P. 1438. 

Buckhorn, a toAvnship of Wake co., N. C. Pop. 1694. 

Buckingham, a post-village and toAvnship of Ottawa 
co., Quebec (Canada), on the river du Lievre. It has an 
academy of the Sisters of Charity, and manufactures and 
trade in lumber and leather. Pop. of village about 1200. 

Buckingham, a county in the central part of Vir¬ 
ginia. Area, 680 square miles. It is bounded on the N. 
and N. W. by the James River, and on the S. by the Ap¬ 
pomattox, and also drained by Slate River. The surface 
is partly hilly; the soil near the rivers is fertile. Tobacco, 
grain, and wool are raised. Valuable gold-mines and slate- 
quarries have been opened in this county. Capital, Mays- 
ville, or Buckingham Court-house. Pop. 13,371. 

Buckingham, a post-township of Tamaco., Ia. P. 634. 

Buckingham, a post-toAvnship of Bucks co., Pa., 
about 27 miles N. by E. of Philadelphia. Pop. 2910. 

Buckingham, a toAvnship of Wayne co., Pa. Pop. 
1127. 

Buckingham (George Villiers), Duke of, the fa¬ 
vorite of James I. of England, Avas born in Leicestershire 
Aug. 20, 1592. He became in 1617 a gentleman of the 
bed-chamber, and obtained in the space of two years the 
titles of baron, viscount, and earl. In 1616 he was ap¬ 
pointed lord admiral of England. He accompanied Charles, 
prince of Wales, Avhen he went to Madrid in 1623 to obtain 
in marriage the infanta of Spain. The failure of this suit 
Avas ascribed to the arrogance of Villiers, Avho in his ab¬ 
sence was created duke of Buckingham. After the death 
of James I. he became the favorite and prime minister of 
Charles I., but he made himself odious to the nation. He 
was assassinated by John Felton Aug. 23, 1628. 

Buckingham (George Villiers), Duke of, a son of 
the preceding, was born in Westminster Jan. 30, 1627. H"e 
Avas an adroit courtier, but profligate and unprincipled. 
On the defeat of the royalist party in 1651 he went into 
exile. At the Restoration (1660) he became a member of 
the privy council and an enemy of Lord Clarendon, after 
whose fall (1667) he was a confidential minister of Charles 
II. He was the president of the ministry called the 
“ Cabal.” He wrote the “ Rehearsal,” a comedy, and other 
plays. Died April 16, 1688. 

Buckingham (Joseph Tinker), an American writer, 
born at Windham, Conn., Dec. 21, 1779, published “ Speci¬ 
mens of Newspaper Literature, etc.,” and became succes¬ 
sively editor of the “New England Galaxy,” the “Boston 
Courier,” and the “ New England Magazine.” Died April 
11, 1861. 

Buckingham (Willtam Alfred), LL.D., born at 
Lebanon, Conn., May 28, 1804, Avas governor of the State 
(1858-66), and in 1869 was elected to the U. S. Senate by 
the Republicans. 

Buckinghamshire (England). See Bucks. 

Buckingham and Chandos, Dukes of, marquesses 
of Chandos and Earls Temple of Stowe (1822, in the United 
Kingdom), marquesses of Buckingham (1784), Earls Tem¬ 
ple (1749), Viscounts and Barons Cobham (1718, in Great 
Britain), Earls Nugent (1776, in Ireland), Barons Kinloss 
(1601, in Scotland), a noble family of Great Britain.— 
Richard Plantagenet Campbell Temple Nugent- 
Brydges Chandos Grenville, the third duke of this 
family, born in 1823, succeeded his father in 1861. He 
Avas lord president of the council 1866—67, secretary ot 
state for the colonies 1867-68, and is at present lord lieu¬ 
tenant of Bucks. 

Buckingham Court-house, or Maysville, a post- 
village, capital of Buckingham co., Va. 

Buckinghamshire, Earls of (1746, in England), 
Barons Hobart (1728, in Great Britain), and baronets 
(1611, in England), a noblo family of Great Britain.— 
Augustus Edavard Hobart, the sixth earl, born Nov. 1, 
1793, succeeded his brother in 1849. 

Buck'land, a post-township of Franklin co., Mass. 
The village of Shelburne Falls is partly in this tOAvn. 
Pop. 1946. 












658 


BUCK LAND—B UCK W HEAT. 


Buckland (Cyrus), an American inventor and ma¬ 
chinist, born at Manchester, Conn., Aug. 10, 1799, invented 
machines for working gunstocks, and a machine to cut the 
grooves in the barrel of a rifle. 

JBucklaiul (William), D. D., F. It. S., an English geol¬ 
ogist, born at Axminster in 1785, was educated at Oxford. 
His principal work is the Bridgewater Treatise entitled 
“ Geology and Mineralogy, considered with reference to 
Natural Theology’' (2 vols., 1836). In 1825 he became a 
canon of Christ Church, Oxford. Died Aug. 14, 1856. 

Bucklan'dia, a large and beautiful evergreen tree of 
the order Hamamelacem, a native of the Himalaya Moun¬ 
tains. The trunk is sometimes seven feet in diameter at 
five feet from the ground, and grows to the height of forty 
feet before it branches. The foliage is thick and glossy, 
but the timber is not very valuable. 

Buck'le (Henry Thomas), a popular English author, 
born at Lee, in Kent, Nov. 24, 1822. His father was a 
merchant, at whose death he came into the possession of an 
ample fortune, and was enabled to gratify his fondness for 
books, forming, it is said, one of the finest private libraries 
to be found in all Europe. He published in 1857 the first 
volume of the “History of Civilization in England,” a 
work displaying great boldness as well as affluence of 
thought, and characterized by an easy and vigorous style. 
It is, however, wanting in that accuracy of knowledge and 
closeness of reasoning which are so important in the treat¬ 
ment of those profound and recondite inquiries which form 
the subject of his work. The second volume of Mr. Buckle’s 
“History” appeared in 1861, but having been written un¬ 
der the great disadvantage of declining health, it attracted 
less attention than the first had done. To recruit his fail¬ 
ing health, Mr. Buckle set out on an Eastern tour in 1861. 
He died at Damascus May 29, 1862. 

Buck'ley, a post-village of Iroquois co., Ill. 

Biick'lin, a post-village of Linn co., Mo. 

Buck'minster (Joseph), D. D., an orthodox divine, 
was born at Rutland, Mass., Oct. 14, 1751, graduated at 
Yale in 1770, became pastor of a church at Portsmouth, 
N. II., in 1779, and an eloquent and popular preacher. 
Died June 10, 1812. 

Buckminster (Joseph StevenS), D. D., a Unitarian 
minister, a son of the preceding, born at Portsmouth, N. H., 
May 26, 1784. He graduated at Harvard in 1800, and be¬ 
came minister of the Brattle Street church, Boston, in 
1804. He sailed to Europe for his health in 1806. Died 
June 9, 1812. 

Buck'ner (Simon Bolivar), born 1823 in Kentucky, 
graduated at West Point in 1844, in infantry 1844-52, 
and subsequently as commissary of subsistence, rank of 
captain. He served at frontier posts 1844-52, as assistant 
professor at the Military Academy 1846, in the war with 
Mexico 1846-48, engaged on the march through Coahuila, 
at Yera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Amazoque, San Antonio, Churu- 
busco (wounded and brevet first lieutenant), Molino del 
Rey (brevet captain), Chapultepec, and the city of Mexico, 
and quartermaster Sixth Infantry, as assistant instructor at 
the Military Academy 1848-50, and on commissary duty at 
New York City 1852-55. Resigned Mar. 26, 1855. He 
was superintendent of construction of Chicago custom¬ 
house 1855, adjutant-general, rank of colonel, of Illinois 
1857, colonel of Illinois volunteers for Utah expedition 
(not mustered into service), inspector-general commanding 
Kentucky home guards 1860-61, and farmer near Louis¬ 
ville 1860-61. He joined the Southern army in the civil 
war, and was in command of Bowling Green, which he 
evacuated on the capture of Fort Henry, falling back to 
Fort Donelson (surrendered Feb. 16, 1862, to Gen. Grant, 
with 16,000 troops and vast stores); prisoner of war at 
Fort Warren till Aug., 1862, in command of a division of 
Hardee’s corps in Bragg’s army in Tennessee, as major- 
general assigned to the third grand division, engaged at 
Murfreesboro’ and Chickamauga, and included, May 26, 
1865, in Kirby Smith’s surrender to Gen. Canby. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Buck Prairie, a township of Lawrence co., Mo. Pop. 
1514. 

Bucks, or BuclUinghamshire, an inland county of 
England, is bounded on the N. by Northampton, on the E. 
by Bedford and Hertford, on the S. by Berks, and on the 
W. by Berks and Oxford. It has an area of 730 square 
miles. The surface is diversified by valleys and hills of 
moderate height. The Chiltern range of chalk-hills, about 
900 feet high, extends across the county in a N. E. and 
S. W. direction. Near the middlo of the county is the 
fertile Vale of Aylesbury, which is farther N. than the 
Chiltern Hills; the soil is generally fertile, and contains a 
large portion of clay. It is drained by the Ouse, the 
Thame, and other small rivers. The staple products aro 


wheat, beans, butter, cattle, and mutton. The sheep of 
the Yale of Aylesbury are noted for their fine and heavy 
fleeces. Bucks county is intersected by the Great Western 
and North-western Railways. The chief towns are Ayles¬ 
bury, Buckingham, and Marlow. Pop. in 1871, 175,870. 

Bucks, a county of Pennsylvania, bordering on New 
Jersey. Area, 600 square miles. It is bounded on the 
N. E. and S. E. by the Delaware River, and is drained by 
the Neshaminy and Perkiomen creeks. The surface is 
mostly undulating or hilly; the soil is productive and well 
cultivated. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, and hay arc staple 
products. Quarries of limestone and sandstone, valuable 
for building, have been opened in this county, and iron, 
titanium, and zircon are found in it. The manufacturing 
interests include lumber, leather, cigars, wagons, clothing, 
and many other commodities. It is intersected by the 
North Pennsylvania R. R. aqd the Philadelphia and Tren¬ 
ton R. R. Capital, Doylestown. Pop. 64,336. 

Bucks, a township of Tuscarawas co., 0. Pop. 1127. 

Buck’s, a township of Horry co., S. C. Pop. 1481. 

Buck'shoal, a township of Yadkin co., N. C. Pop. 
1390. 

Bucks'port, a township and village of Humboldt co., 
Cal. The village is on Humboldt Bay; lat. 40° 46' 37.09" 
N., Ion. 124° 10' 43.8" W. Pop. 388. 

Bucksport, a post-village of Hancock co., Me., in 
Bucksport township, and ou the left (E.) bank of the Pen¬ 
obscot River, 18 miles S. of Bangor. It derives its support 
from shipbuilding, fisheries, and commerce. It has a na¬ 
tional bank, manufactures of various kinds, and is the seat 
of the East Maine Conference Seminary. Pop. of the 
township, 3433. 

Buck'skin, a township of Ross co., 0. Pop. 2229. 

Buck'stone (John B.), an English dramatist and comic 
actor, born in 1802. He performed with success in Lon¬ 
don, and wrote a great number of popular dramas, among 
which are “The Green Bushes,” “ The Rough Diamond,” 
“ The Wreck Ashore,” and “ Good for Nothing.” 

Bucks'wort, a township of Marshall co., Ala. P. 390. 

Buck'thorn, a township of Mecklenburg co., Ya. Pop. 
2046. 

Buckthorn ( Rhamnus ), a genus of shrubs or small 
trees of the order Rhamnaceae, distinguished by a bell¬ 
shaped calyx which is four or five cleft, and petals which 
are small and sometimes wanting. The fruit is a berry¬ 
like drupe, containing two to four separate seed-like nutlets. 
The species are numerous, and natives of many temperate 
and tropical regions. The common buckthorn ( Rhamnus 
catharticus) is a deciduous shrub, a native of Europe, and 
naturalized in the U. S. It has spiny branches, ovate 
leaves, and small black berries (or drupes) which are nau¬ 
seous and purgative, and which yield the pigment called 
sap-green (or bladder-green). This shrub is planted for 
hedges in the U. S. The Atlantic U. S. have two native 
species. The alder buckthorn ( Rhamnus Frangula) is a 
European shrub which is not armed with spines, and has 
ovate, entire leaves. The berries are violently cathartic. 
The bark has been employed in medicine, and is used for 
dyeing yellow. The unripe fruit of dyers’ buckthorn 
(Rhamnus infectorius), a shrub which grows in Southern 
Europe, yields a bright yellow dye. The so-called French 
berries or Avignon berries used by dyers are the fruit of 
the last and other species. 

Buck'tOAVn, a townshiji of Dorchester co., Md. P. S85. 

Buck'wheat* ( Fagopyrum esculentum or Polygonum 
Fagopyrum), an annual plant of the order Polygonacem, is 
said to be a native of Central Asia and the basin of the 
Volga. It is cultivated for food in Europe and the U. S., 
thrives on poor soils, and grows to the height of two feet 
or more. It has triangular, heart-shaped or halberd¬ 
shaped leaves. The seeds are triangular and resemble a 
beech-nut in form. Cakes of buckwheat eaten warm are a 
favorite article of food, which is very nutritious. Buck¬ 
wheat meal contains about 10 per cent, of gluten and 50 
per cent, of starch. Bees are partial to the flowers of this 
plant, which secrete a large portion of honey, which, how¬ 
ever, is not of the first quality. Buckwdieat comes to 
maturity in a shorter time than most other grains, and 
may be sown late. In the U. S. the seeds are usually 
sown broadcast. The quantity of seed required for one 
acre is a bushel or one bushel and a half. It requires little 
manure, and does not exhaust the soil. A good crop of 
this grain yields about forty bushels on an acre, and a 
bushel of it weighs from forty-five to forty-eight pounds. 

* Originally “beech-wheat,” because its seeds are shaped like 
beech-nuts; in German it is Buchiveizen, which is literallv 
“ beech-wheat.” 













BUCKWHEAT 


Another species, called Tartarian buckwheat (Fagopyrum 
Tartaricum ), is a hardy native of Siberia, and is adapted to 
cold climates. It is distinguished from the common buck¬ 
wheat by the toothed edges of its seeds, and is inferior in 
quality. 

Buckwheat Tree, a small tree or shrub of Georgia 
and the Gulf States (the Cliftonia Ugmtrina), a smooth, 
elegant evergreen of the order Cyrillacem. It has clusters 
of white, fragrant blossoms in March, April, and May. It 
grows around swamps, ponds, and streams, and is often 
called titi. Its pendulous winged fruit is sometimes shaped 
like a kernel of buckwheat; whence the name. 

Bucol'ic [Gr. PovkoXikos (from /3 ovk6Ao?, an “ox-herd,” 
derived from /3o0?, an “ox,” and /coAew, to “care for,” a 
word which only occurs in compounds, but whose root is 
seen in the Lat. colo) ; Lat. bucolicus], pastoral or pertain¬ 
ing to herdsmen. This term is applied to a kind of pastoral 
poetry written in hexameter verse. The poems of Theocri¬ 
tus and the “ Eclogues ” of Virgil are the most perfect models 
of bucolic poetry. 

Buctouche, a port of Wellington township, Kent co., 
New Brunswick, on Buctouche River, has considerable 
shipbuilding, and a trade in oystei’s and lumber. Pop. 
about 500. 

Bucy'rus, the county-seat of Crawford co., 0., on San¬ 
dusky River, on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago 
R. R., 62 miles N. of Columbus. It is the seat of a large 
farming and manufacturing community, has the Largest 
union school-house in the State, and is well supplied with 
churches. There are mineral springs in the town andneigh- 
boi’hood. The skeleton of a mastodon was found in the 
vicinity in 1838. It has one national bank and two weekly 
and one semi-weekly paper. Pop. 3066 ; of township, 4184. 

J. R. Clymer, Ed. “Crawford County Forum.” 

Buczacz, a town of Austria, in Eastern Galicia, often 
mentioned in the wars between Poland, Hungary, and 
Turkey. Pop. 8523. 

Bu'da [Ger. Ofen; Slavonic, Budin; Lat. Buda], a free 
city of the Austrian empire, capital of Hungary, is on the 
right bank of the Danube, opposite Pesth, with which it is 
connected by a magnificent suspension bridge. It is 130 
miles S. E. of Vienna, and in lat. 47° 29' N., Ion. 19° 3' E. 
It is built in the form of an amphitheati’e around a hill 
which rises 485 feet above the level of the sea, and presents 
a picturesque appearance. This hill is crowned by a cit¬ 
adel and a royal palace. The other remarkable edifices 
are the cathedral, the palaces of the nobility, and the ob¬ 
servatory, which is on the top of a hill called Blocksberg. 
Here ai'e hot sulphur springs, from which Buda derives its 
German name of Ofen — i. e. “oven.” It has manufactures 
of silks, velvets, cotton and woollen goods, leather, and 
gunpowder. Lai’ge quantities of excellent wine, called 
Ofner, are produced in this vicinity. Buda was formerly 
considered the key of Christendom. It was taken by Soly- 
man the Magnificent in 1541, and occupied by the Turks 
until 1686. Pop. in 1869, 53,998. 

Buda, Old [Ger. Alt Ofen; Hun. O'Buda], a muni¬ 
cipal town of Hungary, in the county of Pesth, on the 
Danube, almost adjoining the suburbs of Buda. It is sup¬ 
posed to be the ancient Sicambria. Pop. in 1869, 16,002. 

Buddre'us (John Francis), a distinguished Lutheran 
theologian and philosopher, born at Anclain June 25, 1667. 
At the age of twenty he was master of arts and adjunct 
professor in the philosophical faculty at Wittenberg, and in 
1689 at Jena. He was elected in 1692 professor of the 
Greek language at Coburg, and in 1693 he was invited to 
take the chair of moi*al philosophy at Halle. In 1705 he 
became professor of theology at Jena. His position was one 
which harmonized orthodoxy and pietism. His erudition 
was enormous (he was the most universal scholar among 
the theologians of his time), yet accurate, and his judg¬ 
ment was of the most solid kind. He wrote more than a 
hundred books, most of which are still sought by scholars, 
and several of which are acknowledged standards. His 
practical skill as an instructor was of a high order, and 
many of his pupils rose to great eminence. His writings 
which are most read in our day are “ Institutiones Phil- 
osoph. eclecticae,” “Theologia Moralis,” “Historia Eccle- 
sim Veteris Testamenti,” “ Theologia Dogmatica,” “ Isagoge 
ad Theologiam Universam,” “ Ecclesia Apostolica.” In 
philosophy he was an eclectic. His writings are marked 
by tact, clearness, logical arrangement, and ease of style. 
His Latin is above the common standard. He was distin¬ 
guished for his eminent purity of character, his fidelity to 
the faith of the Church, and his firmness and moderation 
towards those who dissented from it. Died at Jena Nov. 
19, 1729. C. P. Kiiauth. 

Buddha, or Buddhism. See Booddha. 

Biul'diug, or Inocula'tion, is a mode of propagating 


TREE—BUELL. 659 


improved and choice varieties of fruit which cannot be re¬ 
produced by seeds. It is the best mode of propagating 
peaches, and is convenient in the case of plums, cherries, 
apples, pears, roses, etc. The best time for budding is the 
last half of summer. The operation is performed by open¬ 
ing the bai’k of the stock with a vertical and transverse cut, 
nearly like a letter T, and inserting into it a leaf-bud of 
another variety. The length of the bark and wood cut otf 
with the bud is about one inch. These buds are taken from 
a branch fox-med in the present or preceding year. They 
should be cut squarely at the top, so as to fit the transverse 
section of the bark of the stock. The leaf growing close to 
the bud should be cut off. The process is finished by tying 
the bud with bass matting, soft cotton twine, or woollen 
yarn. The operation just described is called “shield-bud¬ 
ding,” and is more rapidly performed than grafting. 

Bud/dlea, a genus of shrubs of the natural order Scroph- 
ulariaceae, compi'ises many species,which are natives of warm 
climates. Some of them are prized for the beauty of their 
flowers. Buddlea globosa, a native of Chili, is cultivated 
in gardens, and is hardy enough to bear the climate of Eng¬ 
land. It has globose heads of orange-colored flowers. Bud¬ 
dlea Neemda, a native of India, has beautiful flowers. 

Bude Light, a name originally applied to a brilliant 
light invented by a Mr. Gurney of Bude, in Cornwall, Eng¬ 
land. He introduced a stream of oxygen into a flaming jet 
of oil or gas. The expense of this system has prevented 
its general use. The same name is sometimes inappropri- 
ately given in England to other similar inventions. 

Budg'ell (Eustace), an English essayist, born at Ex¬ 
eter in 1685, was a friend of Addison. He contributed to 
the “Spectator” a number of essays signed “X.” Having 
lost about £20,000 by the South Sea Bubble, he committed 
suicide May 4, 1737. 

Bud'get [Fr. bougette], originally a bag, a small sack 
with its contents; hence a stock, a store, or collection of 
things. In England the term is applied to a condensed 
statement of the revenue and expenditure of the nation; 
an annual financial statement which the chancellor of the 
exchequer presents in a speech to the House of Commons. 
It compi-ises an exposition of the relative amounts of money 
received and expended during the past year, an estimate 
of the probable expenditures of the ensuing year, and some¬ 
times a scheme to meet by a loan or new taxes the actual 
or anticipated deficit. Budget is also used in France to 
denote the annual financial statement.# 

Bud/ington (William Ives), D. D., a Congregational 
clei'gyman, boi'n April 21, 1815, at New Haven, Conn., 
graduated at Yale College in 1834, studied theology at the 
Yale Divinity School and at Andover, leaving the latter 
institution in 1839. He was ordained pastor of the First 
church, Chai'lestown, Mass., April 22, 1840, where he re¬ 
mained fourteen years. In 1855 (April 22) he took charge 
of the Clinton avenue Congregational church, Brooklyn, 
N. Y. In 1845 he published “ History of the First Church, 
Charlestown, Mass.,” and has also published occasional 
seimons. He is an eloquent and acknowledged leader in 
the denomination to which he belongs. 

BudYiklishan, or Fy'zabad, a town of Independent 
Tartai-y, is on the river Budukhshan, 180 miles N. N. E. of 
Cabool. It was once an important place, having valuable 
mines of rubies in the vicinity. 

Bud'weis, or BudAvitz, a town of Bohemia, on the 
Moldhu, 77 miles S. of Prague. It is well built, has a 
cathedral, a gymnasium, and an academy; also manufac¬ 
tures of woollen cloths, muslins, damasks, etc. A railway 
extends from this town to Linz. Pop. in 1869, 17,413. 

Bu'el, a post-township of Sanilac co., Mich. Pop. 216. 

Buel (Jesse), a journalist, born at Coventry, Conn., 
Jan. 4, 17.78. He founded the “ Albany Argus,” a Demo¬ 
cratic journal, in 1813, and in 1834 became the first editor 
of the “ Albany Cultivator,” an agricultural paper, lie also 
published the “ Farmer’s Companion.” Died Oct. 6, 1839. 

Bii/ell (Don Carlos), an American officer, born Mar. 23, 
1818, near Marietta, 0., graduated at West Point in 1841, 
and after serving in the infantry till 1848, became, July 17, 
1862, assistant adjutant-genei’al U. S. A., rank of colonel, 
and Mar. 21, 1862, major-genei’al U. S. volunteers. He 
served in the Florida war 1841-42, on frontier duty 1S43- 
45, in the military occupation of Texas 1845-46, in the war 
with Mexico 1846-48, engaged at Palo Alto, Resaca^ dc la 
Palma, Monterey (brevet captain), Yera Cruz, Cerro Goi-do, 
and Churubusco (severely wounded and brevet major), and 
as adjutant of the Third Infantry 1847-48, as assistant 
adjutant-general at Washington, D. C., 1848-49, and at 
head-quarters of various departments 1849-61. In the 
civil war he was in command of the department of the Ohio 
1861-62, in command of the anny of the Ohio 1862, engaged 












GGO 


BUEL’S GORE—BUFFALO. 




i 








at the battle of Shiloh, siege of Corinth, operations in 
Northern Alabama, and the retreat to Louisville to cut off 
the army of Bragg, which he drove from Kentucky, and 
before a commission to investigate his operations 1802-63. 
llo resigned from the army June 1, 1864, and since 1865 
has been president of the Green River (Ky.) Iron-works. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

IS n el’s (.ore, a township of Chittenden co., A t. P■ 26. 

Bue'lia Vis'ta, a county in the N. W. of Iowa. Area, 
600 square miles. It is drained by the Little Sioux and 
Raccoon rivers. The surface is undulating; the soil is 
fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are raised. It is inter¬ 
sected by the Dubuque and Sioux City R. R. Capital, Sioux 
Rapids. Pop. 1585. 

Buena Vista, a township of Columbia co., Ark. P. 538. 

Buena Vista, a township of Stanislaus co., Cal. Pop. 
357. 

B uena Vista, a post-village, capital of Marion co., 
Ga., 33 miles S. E. of Columbus. Pop. 525. 

Buena Vista, a township of Schuyler co., Ill. Pop. 
1152. 

B uena Vista, a township of Clayton co., Ia. P. 308. 

Buena Vista, a township of Jasper co., Ia. P. 1073. 

B uena Vista, a post-township of Saginaw co., Mich. 
Pop. 1005. 

Buena Vista, a township of Humboldt co., Nev. Pop. 
520. 

Buena Vista, a township of Atlantic co., N. J. Pop. 
948. 

Buena Vista, a township of King and Queen co., Va. 
Pop. 2985. 

Buena Vista, a post-township of Portage co., Wis. 
Pop. 624. 

Buena Vista, a township of Richland co., Wis. Pop. 
1044. 

Buena Vista, a hamlet in Mexico, situated about 90 
miles S. W. of Monterey and 7 miles S. of Saltillo, famous 
for the battle fought in its vicinity between the American 
forces under Gen. Zachary Taylor and the Mexican army 
under Santa Anna, Feb. 22-23, 1847. Gen. Taylor, having 
become assured, from reconnoissances on Feb. 20, that the 
enemy was in heavy force at Encarnacion, 30 miles in front 
of Agua Nueva, with the evident intention of attacking his 
position, withdrew his army on the 21st from the camp at 
Agua Nueva, which could be turned on either flank, and 
took up a strong line a little in front of Buena Vista, 7 
miles south of Saltillo. A cavalry force left at Agua Nueva 
for the purpose of covering the removal of supplies was 
driven in during the night, and on the morning of the 22d 
the Mexican army appeared immediately in front of Buena 
Vista, and at 11 A. M. (Feb. 23) a flag was sent from Santa 
Anna with a summons of unconditional surrender, to which 
Gen. Taylor laconically replied that he “ declined to accede 
to the request.” 

The line occupied by the American troops was one of re¬ 
markable strength. The road at this point becomes a nar¬ 
row defile, the valley on its right being rendered imprac¬ 
ticable for artillery by a system of deep and impassable 
gullies, while on the left a succession of rugged ridges and 
precipitous ravines extends back towards the mountain 
which bounds the valley. The features of the ground were 
such as nearly to paralyze the artillery and cavalry of the 
enemy, while his infantry could not derive all the advan¬ 
tage of his numerical superiority. The action was com¬ 
menced about 3 o’clock in the afternoon of the 22d, between 
the light troops on the left, and skirmishing continued till 
dark, but no serious attack was made until the morning of 
the 23d. During the night of the 22d the Mexicans had 
occupied the mountain-side by light troops, with .the inten¬ 
tion of forcing the left flank of the American army, and it 
was here that the action commenced on the 23d, and an 
obstinate and sanguinary conflict was maintained, with 
short intervals and varying success, throughout the day, 
resulting in the repulse of the enemy from our lines, which, 
however, had been much contracted since mornipg. An 
attack of cavalry upon Buena Vista and a demonstration 
upon Saltillo were also repelled, and during the night Santa 
Anna' abandoned his position and fell back upon Agua 
Nueva. A reconnoissance made on the 26th disclosed the 
fact that the retreat had been continued in the direction of 
San Luis Potosi, and Gen. Taylor resumed his former camp 
at Agua Nueva on the 27th. 

The American force engaged was about 5200, while the 
Mexican army was stated by Santa Anna in his summons 
to be 20,000 strong. The American loss was 746, of which 
267 were killed; the Mexican loss in killed and wounded 
was about 2000. Much of the credit of final success in this 


unequal contest is due to the uniform bravery and efficiency 
of the regular artillery; the volunteers, though at times 
displaying the greatest courage, were wanting indiscipline 
and experience, and but for the steady behavior of the 
regular troops the result must at least have been less decis¬ 
ive and complete. 

B ue n Ay re, one of the Dutch West India Islands, is 
near the coast of Venezuela, 30 miles E. of Curayoa. Length, 
20 miles; average width, 4 miles. It has a tolerable har¬ 
bor, and produces cattle and salt. Pop. in 1870, 3870. 

Bue'nos Ay'res, a province of the Argentine Republic, 
is bounded on the N. E. by the Rio de la Plata, on the E. 
and S. E. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the S. W. by the 
Rio Negro, which separates it from Patagonia. The area 
is estimated at 72,400 square miles. The surface is an al¬ 
luvial plain, in which timber and stones are scarce; the 
soil is mostly fertile. Here are vast treeless, grassy plains, 
called Pampas, which afford pasture to immense herds of 
cattle and horses. These constitute the principal riches of 
the inhabitants. This province is not liberally supplied 
with rivers or running streams, but contains a great num¬ 
ber of salt lakes. The principal river besides the Parang 
(La Plata) is the Rio Colorado, which traverses the S. W. 
part of the province. The climate in the N. part is mild, 
and has a mean summer temperature of 90° F. It be¬ 
came independent of Spain in 1810, seceded from the Ar¬ 
gentine Republic in 1853, and was reunited to it in June, 
1860. A large number of Europeans have recent!}' emi¬ 
grated to this province. Capital, Buenos Ayres. Pop. in 
1869, 495,107. 1 


Buenos Ayres, a seaport of South America, and the 
largest city of the Argentine Republic, is situated on the 
right bank of the La Plata, and 150 miles from the ocean ; 
lat. 34° 36' S., Ion. 58° 22' W. It is the capital of the state 
or province of Buenos Ayres, and is nearly opposite to Mon¬ 
tevideo, which is 100 miles distant. The streets cross each 
other at right angles, are paved with granite, and bordered by 
low brick houses,which usually have each a garden adjoining. 
The princijml public buildings are a large cathedral, nume¬ 
rous churches, the house of representatives, and a college, 
with which are connected a large library, an observatory, 
and a normal school. The adjacent country is alluvial, and 
nearly destitute of timber. The climate is dry and healthy, 
but variable. Among the disadvantages of this city is a 
scarcity of fresh water, which can be obtained only from 
the river, and is conveyed about the streets in carts. The 
trade and prosperity of Buenos Ayres are impeded by 
the ivant of a safe and commodious hai’bor. Vessels draw¬ 
ing more than twelve feet of water cannot come within five 
miles of the city, and smaller vessels usually anchor one 
mile from the shore. During a S. E. wind vessels are here 
exposed to a violent surf. The chief articles of export are 
precious metals, hides, beef, wool, tallow, horns, and skins. 
In 1866 the exports amounted to $22,312,400, and the im¬ 
ports to $31,218,000. Several English and French news¬ 
papers are published here. This city was founded by the 
Spaniards in 1580, and became the capital of the vice- 
royalty in 1776. Its growth has been retarded by civil 
wars and political commotions. Pop. in 1868, 180,000. 

Buf'falo, a name given to two species of ruminant 
animals of the family Bovidm, the Bubalus Buffelus and 

Bubalus Caffer. The for¬ 
mer is a native of India, 
where it has been long 
domesticated, and is an 
important and useful ani¬ 
mal. It is generally used 
as a beast of burden in 
India and also in Italy, 
where it was introduced 
about 600 A. D. It is 
larger and more powerful 
than an ox, and has a 
larger head in proportion 



mm 


mm 

Cape Buffalo. 

to the size of the body; the dorsal line rises into a consid¬ 
erable elevation above the shoulders. It has large crooked 
horns, which are curved first outward and downward, and 
next backward and upward. The buffalo is partial to 
marshy places, and is addicted to wallowing in the mud 
and shallow water. Its flesh is inferior to that of the ox, 
but the milk of the female is said to be excellent in quality. 
The tame buffaloes of India are easily managed and guided 
by a mere rope, and the driver often rides on their backs. 
The jungles of India are also infested by wild buffaloes of 
the same species, sometimes called arna or arnee, a fierce 
and dangerous animal, which is more than a match for a 
tiger. The Cape buffalo (Bubalus Caffer ) is a native of 
South Africa, and has not been domesticated. It has large 
horns, the bases of which are close together. The horns 
spread or diverge laterally, are next bent downward, and 
























BUFFALO. 


661 


have the point curved upward and inward. The ani¬ 
mal measures about eight feet from the base of its 
horns to its tail, and is about five and a half feet in height. 
It is a dangerous animal, which will attack men without 
provocation, but it is sometimes mastered by the lion. Its 
bide is so thick and tough that the Caffers make of it 
shields impenetrable to a musket-ball. Vast herds are 
found in S. Africa. (For the American buffalo see Bison.) 

Buffalo, a county of Central Dakota, bounded on the 
W. by the Missouri River. Area, 750 square miles. Iron 
ore is found. Pop. 246. 

Buffalo, a county of Central Nebraska. Area, 850 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Platte River, 
and also drained by Wood River and a stream called South 
Branch. The soil is fertile. The county is intersected by 
the Union Pacific R. R. Capital, Gibbon. Pop. 193. 

Buffalo, a county of Wisconsin, bordering on Min¬ 
nesota. Area, 650 square miles. It is bounded on the 
S. W. by the Mississippi River, on the W. by the Chippewa. 
The surface is diversified; the soil is fertile. Grain and 
wool are staple products. Capital, Alma. Pop. 11,123. 

Buffalo, a township of Craighead co., Ark. Pop. 221. 

Buffalo, a township of Marion co., Ark. Pop. 268. 

Buffalo, a township of Searcy co., Ark. Pop. 195. 

Buffalo, a township of Ogle co., Ill. Pop. 3524. 

Buffalo, a township of Buchanan co., Ia. Pop. 598. 

Buffalo, a township of Linn co., Ia. Pop. 508. 

Buffalo, a post-township of Scott co., Ia. Pop. 1435. 

Buffal o, a township of Cloud co., Kan. Pop. 303. 

B uffalo, a post-village, capital of Wright co., Minn., 
in a township of its own name, on a small lake about 45 
miles W. N. W. of St. Paul. Pop. of the township, 508. 

Buffal o, the capital of Dallas co., Mo., 4 miles W. of 
Niaugua River and 33 miles N. E. of Springfield, has 
fine iron and lead ore, several mines in operation, and 
also has coal. It is on the lino of the Laclede and Fort 
Scott R. R., and has a fine court-house and two weekly 
papers. P. 278. A. G. Hollenbeck, Ed. “ Reflex.” 

Buffalo, a township of Morgan co., Mo. Pop. 543. 

Buffalo, a township of Newton co., Mo. Pop. 785. 

Buffalo, a township of Pike co., Mo. Pop. 2880. 

Buffalo, a township of Caldwell co., N. C. Pop. 792. 

Buffalo, a city, port of entry, and shire-town of Erie 
co., N. Y., in lat. 42° 53' N., Ion. 78° 55' W., at the foot 
of Lake Erie, and at the head of Niagara River. It is 
also the western terminus of the Erie Canal. In popula¬ 
tion and wealth it is the third city in the State. The city 
is delightfully situated, having a water-front of about five 
miles, with numerous substantial and oxtensive piers, 
breakwaters, basins, and canals, constructed at an ex¬ 
pense of several millions of dollars, partly by the Federal 
government and partly by the State and municipal authori¬ 
ties. The city extends down the Niagara River five miles, 
and at right angles with it about the same distance, but 
the northerly and easterly portions are sparsely settled. 

On the 31st of Dec., 1813, Buffalo, then containing about 
200 inhabitants, was burned by the British. After the war 
it speedily began to increase, and in 1828 contained about 
7000 inhabitants, the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825 
giving a strong impetus to its growth. It became a city 
in 1832, and then had 15,000 inhabitants; in 1835 it con¬ 
tained 15,700: in 1840, 18,200; in 1845, 30,200; in 1850, 
42,300; in 1855, 74,200; in 1860, 81,130; in 1865, 94,210; 
and in 1870, 117,714. A private enumeration in 1873 indi¬ 
cated that the population had reached 161,782. The re¬ 
port of the State assessors for 1873 puts the valuation, for 
the purpose of taxation, at $38,000,000. The “ true valua¬ 
tion,” according to the census of 1870, was $110,100,000. 

Buffalo is noted for its wide and beautiful streets, and the 
profusion of trees and shrubbery with which they are dec¬ 
orated. It claims to be the best paved, best lighted, and 
best sewered city in the U. S. It has long been a most 
important commercial entrepot, especially in the receipt, 
handling, and shipment of grain. In 1872 there were re¬ 
ceived by lake over 62,000,000 bushels of grain (includ¬ 
ing flour estimated as wheat), and at least 30,000,000 bush¬ 
els by rail, making 92,000,000 bushels in a single year. In 
addition there were receipts of lumber, live-stock, and 
other property, estimated to equal the grain receipts in 
value. In addition to the water-communication by lake 
and canal, which is practically unlimited, Buffalo has 
railroad trunk-lines in almost every direction—viz. the 
New York Central, the Erie, the Lake Shore, the Buf¬ 
falo New York and Philadelphia, the Grand Trunk and 
the Great Western, the Canada Southern, and the Buffalo 
and Jamestown R. Rs. The New York and Oswego Mid¬ 
land, the Lake Ontario Shore, and the Northern Pacific 


R. Rs. will be important auxiliaries to Buffalo’s growth 
and commerce. The Niagara is here crossed by a fine iron 
truss railroad bridge. 

In the public works essential to a large city Buffalo is 
either already well supplied or is rapidly becoming so. It 
has extensive waterworks, the property of the city; three 
gas companies; a magnificent park, and boulevards almost 
surrounding the city; a State normal school, a central 
grammar school, and thirty-six first-class district schools. 
A city and county hall will be completed in 1875. It is to 
be of granite, and the estimated cost is $1,250,000. The 
State is erecting an insane asylum, to accommodate 1000 
patients, and to cost over a million dollars. The city 
contains a penitentiary and a county almshouse. There 
are four large markets; thirty grain-elevators; a stone 
post-office belonging to the U. S. government; a State 
arsenal; a commodious hall and library building belonging 
to the Young Men’s Association; and over seventy church 
edifices. Of the latter, two (one Roman Catholic and the 
other Episcopalian) are imposing cathedrals. With liter¬ 
ary, benevolent, and educational institutions Buffalo is 
well supplied. Among them may be named the Young 
Men’s Association, with a library of 20,000 volumes, and 
real estate and buildings worth $250,000; the Society of 
Natural Science, with an extensive collection and a largo 
museum of casts of fossil remains; a well-endowed art- 
gallery: an historical society, law T library, mechanics’ in¬ 
stitute, Young Men’s Christian Union, Grosvenor Library 
(free), a general hospital, orphan asylums, special hos¬ 
pitals, a medical college, a female seminary, and several 
Catholic colleges. There are ten lodges of Free Masons, 
four chapters of Royal Arch Masons, two councils, two com- 
manderies, and a Masonic brotherhood of 2000. The Odd 
Fellows have ten lodges and two encampments. There are 
a number of singing societies and three clubs. Buffalo 
has twenty newspapers and periodicals, seven of them 
dailies. Their aggregate circulation, aside from adver¬ 
tising sheets, is about 75,000. There are eleven banks 
of discount, with an aggregate capital of $3,150,000; four sav¬ 
ings banks, with deposits amounting to about $15,000,000 ; 
one fire insurance company, with $200,000 capital and 
$352,857 assets in July, 1873. 

Buffalo is divided into thirteen wards, and its city gov¬ 
ernment is composed of a mayor and twenty-six aldermen. 
It has a paid fire department, with twelve steam fire- 
engiues, seven hose companies, three hook-and-ladder 
companies, one ladder-and-bucket company, and one tar¬ 
paulin-protection company. 

At present the most important interest of the city is its 
commerce. The registered marine of the port on the 1st 
of Jan., 1873, was 726 vessels, of 145,116 tons, repre¬ 
senting an investment of $54,000,000, and doing a busi¬ 
ness of $250,000,000 per annum. The lake tonnage was 
valued at but $24,000,000 in 1862, showing the remark¬ 
able growth of thirty millions in a single decade. The 
manufactures are rapidly increasing, especially those of 
iron. There are upwards of thirty large establishments, 
employing at least 5000 men, to say nothing of the smaller 
enterprises. The city has four blast furnaces, two largo 
rolling-mills, several machine-shops, stove-foundries, iron 
shipyards, forges, etc. etc. It has large manufactories of 
agricultural implements, car-shops, tanneries, flouring- 
mills, etc. The opening of the Buffalo New York and 
Philadelphia Railway to the bituminous coal-fields of 
Pennsylvania has given a largely added impetus to man¬ 
ufactures. The census of 1870 gives the statistics of man¬ 
ufactures only by counties. We have therefore only the 
estimated manufactures of Erie county, and not those of 
Buffalo by itself; yet as most of the manufacturing of 
the county is conducted within its limits, we should not 
exceed the truth if we regarded the statistics of Erie county 
in 1870 as representing those of Buffalo in 1873. The 
growth of some manufactures within three years is un¬ 
doubtedly greater than the total amount of manufacturing 
out of Buffalo in Erie county in 1870, when there were 1429 
establishments, employing 13,274 persons and a capital of 
$13,043,790, paying wages to the amount of $4,946,414, 
using raw material to the value of $15,274,440, and pro¬ 
ducing annually $27,446,683. Iron and iron wares were 
produced to the value of $5,471,000 ; flour, etc., $1,981,932; 
clothing, $1,481,485 ; malt and distilled liquors, $2,240,330 ; 
lumber, planed and sawed, $1,786,441, besides $225,950 in 
sash, doors, and blinds; machinery, $1,252,445; leather, 
tanned and dressed, $1,701,044; metallic wares, $502,244; 
boots and shoes, $696,010 ; agricultural implements, 
$499,305; furniture, $590,719; tobacco, snuff, and cigars, 
$400,711; gas, $427,481; carriages and wagons, $363,257; 
malt, $600,821; boats, $311,820; cooperage, $286,800; 
vinegar, $271,000; bricks, $278,800; soap and candles, 
$341,599. S. M. Chamberlain, 

of tiie “ Courier and Republic.” 


































662 BUFFALO—BUGULMA. 


Bulf'al o, a township of Noble co., 0. Pop. 780. 

Buffalo, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 1495. 

Buffalo, a township of Perry co., Pa. Pop. 779. 

Bulfal o, a township of Union co., Pa. Pop. 1521. 

Buffalo, a post-township of Washington co., Pa. Pop. 
1189. 

Butfal o, a township of Kershaw co., S. C. Pop. 1704. 

Buffalo, a township of Prince Edward co., Va. Pop. 
3415. 

Buffalo, a township of Bockbridge co., Va. P. 2445. 

Buffalo, a township of Brooke co., West Va. Pop. 
2191. 

Buffalo, a township of Clay co., West Va. Pop. 790. 

Buffalo, a post-township of Putnam co., West Va. Pop. 
1448. 

Buffalo, a post-township of Buffalo co., Wis. P. 1594. 

Buffalo, a township of Marquette co., Wis. Pop. 712. 

Buffalo Bayou (or River) of Texas flows eastward 
through Harris co., passes by Houston, and enters Galves¬ 
ton Bay. Steamboats can ascend from its mouth to Hous¬ 
ton, w’hich is about 40 miles from the bay. 

Buffalo Heart, a township of Sangamon co., Ill. 
Pop. 538. 

Buffalo Lick, a township of Chariton co., Mo. Pop. 
1267. 

Buffalo Prairie, a post-township of Rook Island co., 
Ill. Pop. 1291. 

Buffalo Springs, mineral springs of Mecklenburg co., 
Va., 7 miles W. of Clarksville. The waters of the springs 
are remarkably stimulant, and belong to the saline chalyb¬ 
eate class. They are especially recommended for various 
disoases of the mucous membranes. 

Buffalo Station, a township of Wallace co., Kan. 
Pop. 10. 

Buffer, an elastic cushion attached to a railway car or 
carriage, in order to break or moderate the shock when 
one car is pushed against another. It is usually formed of 
horse-hair covered with leather, of vulcanized caoutchouc, 
or of strong iron springs. 

Buffington, a township of Indiana co., Pa. Pop. 877. 

Buffon, tie (Georges Louis Leclerc), Comte, a cele¬ 
brated French naturalist and philosopher, born at Mont- 
bar, in Burgundy, Sept. 7, 1707. He was liberally educated, 
and travelled in his youth in Italy and England. In 1739 
he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, and appointed 
intendant of the royal garden in Paris. He published in 
1749 the first three volumes of his “Natural History” 
(“Histoire naturelle, generale et particuliere ”), in which 
he was assisted by Daubenton. Twelve other volumes of 
it appeared between 1749 and 1767. This work, which made 
an epoch in the study of the natural sciences, displays a 
brilliant imagination and presents many ingenious ideas. 
Ilis writings obtained great celebrity, due partly to the fas¬ 
cination of his style. “ Like all great poets,” says Condor- 
cet, “ he knows how to render interesting the delineations 
of natural objects, by blending with them moral ideas which 
affect the soul at the same time that the imagination is 
amused or astonished.” He was admitted into the French 
Academy in 1753, and married a lady named Saint-Belin 
in 1762. Among his most admired works is the “Epochs 
of Nature” (“ Epoques de la Nature”), which appeared in 
a supplement to his “ Natural History.” He received from 
the king the title of Count de Buffon^in 1776. Died in Paris 
April 16 v 1788. (See Conhorcet, “Elogede Buffon;” Cu¬ 
vier, “ Eloge de Buffon,” prefixed to an edition of the “Nat¬ 
ural History,” 36 vols., 1826; Flourens, “Buffon: Histoire 
de sa Vie, etc.,” 1844.) 

Bu'ford, a township of Union co., N. C. Pop. 1158. 

Buford (John), an American officer, born in 1826 in 
Kentucky, graduated at West Point in 1848, captain Sec¬ 
ond Dragoons Mar. 9, 1859, and Dec. 16, 1863, major-gen¬ 
eral U. S. volunteers. lie served on frontier duty 1848-61, 
as quartermaster of the Second Dragoons 1855-58, in the 
Sioux expedition 1855, engaged at Blue Water, in quelling 
the Kansas disturbances 1856-57, on the Utah expedition 
1857-58. In the civil war he served as assistant inspector- 
general (major), making inspections 1861-62, in command 
of cavalry brigade in Northern Virginia campaign 1862, 
engaged at Madison Court-house, Kelley’s Ford, Thorough¬ 
fare Gap, and Manassas (wounded), as chief of cavalry of 
the Army of the Potomac in Maryland campaign, engaged 
at South Mountain and Antietam, in Rappahannock cam¬ 
paign, commanding cavalry brigade, 1862-63, engaged at 
Fredericksburg, Stoncman’s raid, and Beverly Ford, in com¬ 
mand of a division of cavalry in the Pennsylvania cam¬ 
paign 1863,engaged at Gettysburg and numerous skirmishes, 


in Central Virginia 1863, engaged at Culpeper, Bristow 
Station, and numerous movements and skirmishes. He was 
an admirable cavalry officer, and from the effects of expo¬ 
sure aud wounds died Dec. 16, 1863, at Washington, 1). C. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Buford (Napoleon B.), an American officer and en¬ 
gineer, born Jan. 13, 1807, in Woodford co., Ky., gradu¬ 
ated at West Point in 1827, and April 15, 1862, brigadier- 
general U. S. volunteers. He served, while lieutenant of 
artillery, on garrison and topographical duty, and as assist¬ 
ant professor at the Military Academy till Dec. 31, 1835, 
when he resigned. He was civil engineer on the Licking 
River improvement 1835-42, iron-founder at Rock Island, 
Ill., 1843-61, president of the Rock Island and Peoria R. R. 
1857-61, and president of the bank of the Federal Union, 
Rock Island, 1858-61. In the civil war he was colonel of 
the Twenty-seventh Illinois Volunteers till promoted brig¬ 
adier-general, engaged in the battle of Belmont, demonstra¬ 
tion on Columbus, Ky., attack of Island No. 10, capture of 
Union City, Ky., expedition to Fort Pillow, siege and bat¬ 
tle of Corinth, Miss., siege of Vicksburg, and in command 
of Helena, Ark. Brevet major-general U. S. volunteers 
Mar. 13, 1865, for gallant and meritorious services, and 
Aug. 24, 1865, mustered out of volunteer service. He was 
superintendent of a mining company in Colorado, special 
U. S. Indian commissioner 1867-68, and Union Pacific 
Railway commissioner 1868-69. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Buford Bridge, a post-township of Barnwell co., 
S. C. Pop. 1385. 

Bug, or Bog, a river of Russian Poland, rises in Gali¬ 
cia, flows nearly northward and north-westward, and after 
a course of about 400 miles enters the Vistula at the fort¬ 
ress of Modlin, about 18 miles N. W. of Warsaw. 

Bug, or Bog (anc. Hypanis ), a river of Russia, rises 
in Podolia, flows nearly south-eastward, and enters the es¬ 
tuary of the Dnieper 30 miles W. of Kherson. Its whole 
length is estimated at 400 miles. It is navigable for small 
vessels from its mouth to Vosnescnsk, upwards of 100 miles. 

Bug'bie’s Mill, a township of Baker co., Ala. Pop. 
1436. 

Bugeaud (Thomas Robert), due d’Isly, a French gen¬ 
eral, born Oct. 15, 1784. Soon after the revolution of 1830 
he was created a marshal of France. Having won several 
victories in Algeria, he was appointed governor-general of 
the same in 1840. He defeated the army of the emperor of 
Morocco at Isly in 1844. During the revolution of Feb., 
1848, he commanded the army at Paris. Died of cholera 
in Paris June 10, 1849. 

Bu'genhageu (Johann), surnamed Pomeranus, a 
learned German Protestant Reformer, born at Wollin, in 
Pomerania, June 24, 1485. He was converted to the doc¬ 
trines of Luther in 1520, and became professor of theology 
at Wittenberg in 1522. He was a devoted friend of Lu¬ 
ther, whom he assisted in the translation of the Bible, 
and he wrote several religious works. He organized 
churches in Hamburg, Brunswick, and Denmark. Died 
April 20, 1558. 

Bug'hall, a township of Bullock co., Ala. Pop. 1823. 

JBug'hill, a township of Columbus co., N. C. Pop. 513. 

Bu'gis, a people of the Malay Archipelago, chiefly in¬ 
habiting Celebes and Macassar. They are noted for their 
commercial enterprise, and own many vessels employed in 
the navigation of the East Indian seas. They are muscu¬ 
lar, middle-sized, and of a light-brown color, and have 
made considerable progress in civilization. They manu¬ 
facture cotton cloth, build durable sailing-vessels, and are 
said to be skilful workers in copper and iron. 

Bu'gle, a brass musical wind instrument, which has 
been improved by keys so as to be capable of all the inflec¬ 
tions of the scale. 

Bugle ( Ajuga ), a genus of plants of the natural order 
Labiatm, has an irregular corolla with a very short upper 
lip and trifid lower lip. The species are mostly natives of 
the colder parts of Europe or Asia. The Ajuyu veptcins is 
common in British pastures and woods. The Alpine bugle 
(Ajuga. Alpina) has beautiful flowers. 

Bu'gloss [Gr. 0ov-yAwa-o-o?, i. e. “ ox tongue,” perhaps 
from the shape and roughness of its leaves], a common 
name given to several species of plants of the order Bora- 
ginaceae and of the genera Anchusa and Lycopsis. The 
Lycopsis arvensis is a common weed in the grain-fields of 
Great Britain. The Lycopsis has a funnel-shaped corolla 
with a, curiously curved tube. The Echium vulgctre, called 
viper’s bugloss, is a native of Europe and naturalized in 
the U. S. 

Bugul mu 9 a town of Russia, in the government of 
Samara, 170 miles S. E. of Kasan. Pop. 5455. 


















BUGURUSSLAU—BULL-DOG. 663 


Buguruss'lau, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Samara, G5 miles S. of Bugulma. Pop. 7440. 

Buhl-Work, or Boule-Work, a kind of marquetry 
or inlaid work in wood, gilt metal, or tortoise-shell, the 
name of which is derived from its inventor, Boule, a French 
cabinetmaker (1642-1732). lie employed veneers of dark- 
colored tortoise-shell, inlaid with brass, and was patronized 
by several sovereigns. A German named Reisner made 
cabinets which were highly prized, in which he used woods 
of contrasted colors. 

Bujalan'ce, a town of Spain, in the province of C6r- 
dova, about 18 miles E. of Cdrdova. It is surrounded by 
a wall flanked with old towers, and has an old Arabian 
castle and a college. Here are manufactures of woollen 
goods, glass, and pottery. Pop. 8312. 

Buka’ a, the modern Arabic name of the ancient Ccele- 
Syuia (which see). 

Bukovi'ua, a province of Austria, is bounded on the 
N. by Galicia, on the E. and S. by Roumania, and on the 
W. by Hungary, Transylvania, and Galicia. Area, 4035 
square miles. With the exception of both banks of the 
Pruth, its chief river, the country is mountainous through¬ 
out. The climate is severe, but healthy. It has very little 
commerce and industry. The chief occupations of the in¬ 
habitants are agriculture and cattle-raising. Iron, copper, 
and rock-salt are mined in large quantities. Bukovina 
was originally a part of Transylvania, with which country 
it passed under Turkish rule in 1520, was ceded to Austria 
in 1777, united with Galicia in 1786, and organized as a 
separate crown-land in 1849. Pop. in 1869, 513,404. 

Bula'ma Boil, a painful affection of the skin some¬ 
what resembling an ordinary boil in appearance. It pre¬ 
vails in Bulama and the neighboring islands, known as the 
Bissagos (which see). It is said to be caused by the larva 
of some insect, and that the only cure for it is to remove 
the larva, which burrows beneath the skin. 

Bulb [Gr. /3oA/3o?; Lat. bulbns], in botany, a short stem 
or bud (usually subterraneous), covered with imbricated 
scales, having at their base a disk, from which the roots 
grow downward, while from the middle of the scales an 
annual herbaceous stem grows upward. The scales are 
regarded as modified leaves, and are sometimes all fleshy; 
sometimes the outer scales are membranous, as in the onion. 
The corm of the crocus is often called a solid bulb. Plants 
which are produced from bulbs aro usually called bulbous- 
rooted. The bulb is generally subterranean, but sometimes 
grows above ground in the axils of the leaves, as in the 
tiger lily. When the scales are broad and enwrap all that 
is within, so as to form a succession of coats one over an¬ 
other, the bulb is said to be tunicated. The onion, tulip, 
and hyacinth are familiar examples of such bulbs. Most 
bulbs, if removed from the ground when vegetation is most 
dormant, may be kept in a dry place without injury. The 
flora of the Cape of Good Hope is remarkable for the 
abundance of bulbous-rooted plants, many of which bear 
beautiful flowers. 

The term “bulb” is also applied to the round cavity at 
the lower end of the tube of a thermometer. 

Bul'bul, the Persian name of the nightingale, is some¬ 
times used by English poets. The same name is given by 
the people of India to a different species of bird, the Pyc- 
nonotus hsemorrhous, of the tribe Dentirostres. It is a small 
bird of brilliant plumage, and remarkable for its pugnacity 
and its sweet song. 

Bulga'ria (anc. Mcesia Inferior), a province of Euro¬ 
pean Turkey, is bounded on the N. by the Danube, on the 
E. by the Black Sea, and on the S. by the Balkan Moun¬ 
tain range, which separates it from Rumili, and on the W. 
by Servia. Area, 28,700 square miles. The surface is 
level in the N., and mountainous in the S., and is gene¬ 
rally well wooded. The soil in some parts is fertile. It 
is drained by numerous small tributaries of the Danube. 
The chief articles of export are horned cattle, grain, wine, 
iron, wood, hides, wax, and attar of roses. The principal 
towns are Varna, Widin, Silistria, Sophia, and Schoomla. 
The Bulgarians belong to the Greek Church, but have for 
many years been endeavoring to become independent of 
the patriarchate of Constantinople, and to have all the 
Bulgarian dioceses of Turkey united under one Bulgarian 
exarch. The demand was granted by the Turkish govern¬ 
ment in 1872. They are of the Slavic race, as is shown by 
their language. This province was conquered by the 
Turks in 1392. Pop. about 2,250,000. 

Bulk'heads, in a ship, are the partitions between the 
several portions of the interior, whether to separate it into 
rooms or as a safeguard in case of wreck. In ships of 
war, the bulkheads or partitions hetween the several cabins 
or storerooms are chiefly of wood, and most or many of 
these are removed when preparing for action, in order to 


obtain clear space for working the guns. In emigrant 
ships the bulkheads between the cabins are frequently 
mere lattice-work. 

Watertight bulkheads are among the improvements in 
modern shipbuilding; they are iron walls running athwart 
the hold, as a means of dividing it into several portions; 
the interior is thus cut off into cells, each watertight in 
reference to its neighbors. When such a ship is leaking 
in any one of the compartments, there is thus a chance 
that the others may be kept dry until the damage is re¬ 
paired. Most of the large passenger-steamers are to some 
extent provided with these bulkheads. 

Bulk'ley (Eliphalet Adams), born at Colchester, Conn., 
June 29, 1803, graduated at Yale in 1824, became a lawyer 
of Hartford, Conn., was for many years the president of 
life insurance companies, and accumulated a large fortune. 
Died Feb. 13, 1872. 

Bull [Lat. tauru8; Fr. taureau], the male of animals 
belonging to the family Bovidoe and genus Bos. (See Bo- 
viD/E and Ox.) Also the name of one of the twelve signs 
of the Zodiac, and of a constellation which does not coin¬ 
cide with the sign. (See Taurus.) 

Bull [Lat. bulla , a “seal;” so called from the seal men¬ 
tioned below], or Papal Bull, an ordinance or decree 
of the pope, equivalent to the edicts, proclamations, or 
letters-patent of secular sovereigns, some of which are, 
however, called bulls. (See Bull, Golden.) All bulls are 
written in Latin, except those addressed to the United 
Greek churches. They are generally designated by the 
first words of the text; thus the bull issued in 1536 against 
heretics was called the bull “ In Ccena Domini,” and that 
directed against the Jansenists in 1713 was the bull “Uni- 
genitus.” The publication of a bull is termed fulmination 
(from the Lat. fulmino , fulminatum, to “hurl a thunder¬ 
bolt,” fulmen). Bulls are written on parchment, and the 
leaden seal of the Church is appended to every bull by 
means of a silken cord if the bull be a gracious one, but if 
it be severe the cord is of hemp. A collection of papal 
bulls is called a “ bullarium.” 

Bull (Ole Bornemann), a famous Norwegian violinist, 
born at Bergen Feb. 5, 1810. He visited Paris in his youth, 
and afterwards performed in Italy and England with great 
applause. In 1845 he came to the U. S., purchased a large 
tract of land in Pennsylvania, and founded the colony of 
Oleona. This proved to be a failure, and he returned to 
Europe. He has since resided in the U. S. several times. 

BuI'Ia, a Latin word signifying a “ bubble,” also a stud 
or boss with which the ancient Romans ornamented their 
dress or military equipments; an amulet or ornament, in 
the shape of a heart, worn round the neck by noble Roman 
children until they were seventeen years old, when the bulla 
was consecrated to the Lares. 

Bulla, a genus of gasteropodous mollusks, having the 

male and female organs of sex 
in the same individual. They 
have a convoluted and gene¬ 
rally thin shell, which serves as 
a protection for the gills, and 
which in some species is largo 
enough for the entire animal; 
in others it is itself enveloped 
in the mantle. The mouth of 
the shell is large, extending the 
whole length, widening towards 
one end, the lip being acute. 
The gizzard is very muscular, 
and among its thick coats, in 
some species, are found calcare¬ 
ous plates, which, being moved 
against each other by muscles, serve to grind the food. All 
the species are marine, and some are found on the Ameri¬ 
can coasts. Some, from their form and fragility, are called 
bubble-shells. The Bulla velum of the Indian and Euro¬ 
pean seas is one of the most elegant. 

Bull-baiting, a sport once very common in England, 
and in which all classes delighted, but now rare even 
among the lowest. It consists in causing a bull to be 
attacked by dogs; and that the bull may be made as 
furious as possible, his nose is sometimes blown full ot 
pepper. Another form of this sport is to fasten the bull 
by a rope, and to send bull-dogs against him, one at a 
time, to seize him by the nose; this is called pinning the 
bull. No small enjoyment is derived from the success 
with which the attacks of the dogs are met by the bull 
lowering his head and receiving them on his horns, otten 
tossing them to a great distance. 

Bull-dog [so-called from the now obsolete practice ot 
causing this animal to fight with the bull], a variety ot the 
dog especially bx’ed in England, and more remarkable for 



Bulla velum. 



















064 


BULLET—BULLOCK. 


courage, persistency, and strength than for docility or in¬ 
telligence. It is now much less frequently bred than in 
past times. The size of the neck and fore quarters of this 
dog is quite in excess of the development of the other parts. 
The bull-dog is one of the most fierce, and even dangerous, 
of his species. Its chief value at present is for crossing 
with other breeds. The greyhound, the terrier, and the 
pointer, each have their courage and persistency much im¬ 
proved by this cross, if judiciously made. 

Bui Bet [Fr. balle; Ger. Kugel), a projectile of lead to 
be discharged from various kinds of small-arms. For 
smooth-bore arms bullets are usually spherical, but for 
rilled musketry various forms of the elongated bullet are 
used. Most of these bullets have an expansive base, 
cither hollow or plugged with wood; the design being to 
force the soft lead outward, so as to cause it to fit the 
grooves of the rifle, and thus give the bullet a rotation 
around its long axis during the motion forward. This 
rotation, as is well known, increases the range and pre¬ 
cision. Bullets were formerly always cast, but now they 
are more frequently stamped in steel dies. Copper bullets 
are used by the Circassians. 

Bulletin [Fr.], in diplomatics, a term equivalent to 
schedule, and variously applied to different public acts. 
In recent times the word is often used to denote an official 
report, a despatch of a military commander, and in a wider 
sense any public notice or announcement, especially of 
recent events. In France the ticket or slip of paper which 
each elector uses in voting at elections is called a bulletin. 
In the U. S. official bulletins of the weather are issued daily 
by the war department. 

Bull-fight [Sp. corrida de toros or fiesta de toros ], a 
combat of men with bulls for public entertainment. They 
were common in Thessaly and in Rome under the empe¬ 
rors, where they were introduced by Julius Csesar B. C. 45, 
though in later times they were forbidden. They were in¬ 
troduced into Spain by the Moors before 800 A. D. They 
are still a favorite pastime in Spain, Spanish America, etc. 
In Spain they were abolished by Charles IV., but Joseph 
Bonaparte re-established them, the mass of the population 
being passionately fond of the sport. Bull-fights were at 
one time instituted by the monarchs themselves; at pres¬ 
ent they are held either as private speculations or for the 
benefit of public institutions. In Madrid the proceeds go 
to the hospital. The fights take place in the Plaza de Toros, 
round which the seats rise like the steps of a stair, with a 
tier of boxes over them. This plaza at Madrid is capable 
of containing 10,000 people, who pay a high price for ad¬ 
mission. The men employed in the fight have generally 
been bred to it, but amateurs may take paid. The bull¬ 
fight is divided into three acts. The performers in the 
first are the picadores ; in the second, the chulos; the last 
act devolves on the matador. The picadores are mounted, 
dressed like knights of the olden time, and armed with a 
lance ; they take position in the middle of the arena. The 
chulos, on foot, are gay with ribbons and bright-colored 
cloaks. The matador, or chief combatant, is on foot. He 
is handsomely dressed, and holds a sword and a muleta, a 
stick with a piece of scarlet silk attached. On a sign given 
by the magistrate a bull is let out; the picadores stand 
waiting his charge. With a brave bull they act on the de¬ 
fensive; with a cowardly one, on the offensive; and should 
their stabs be ineffectual in rousing the animal, the beast 
is hooted by the crowd, and stabbed ingloriously. The 
bull frequently kills several horses, and sometimes one or 
more men. When the bull begins to tire the picadores are 
succeeded by the chulos with banderillas —darts about two 
feet long, ornamented with flags—which they stick into the 
animal. Sometimes these darts have fire-crackers attached. 
The matador now enters alone. As soon as the bull sees 
the muleta, he generally rushes at it, and the matador dex¬ 
terously plunges the sword in before the left shoulder, and 
the animal falls. The matador is greeted with acclama¬ 
tions, and not less so the bull should he wound or kill the 
matador, in which case another matador steps into the 
arena. Ten and sometimes even twenty bulls are des¬ 
patched in a day, twenty minutes being about the time 
taken for one. 

Billl-Finch (Pyrrhula vulgaris), a European bird of 
the family of Fringillidac, is a little larger than the com¬ 
mon linnet, now naturalized to some extent in the U. S., 
and often kept as a cage-bird, especially by the Germans. 
It is easily trained. The genus is characterized by its short, 
thick, rounded bill, of which the sides are inflated and bulg¬ 
ing, and the tip of the upper mandible overhangs that of the 
lower. The plumage is bluish-gray above, the breast is 
of a bright tile red, and the crown of the head and the 
greater wing-coverts arc black. It builds on bushes or 
trees near the ground, and feeds chiefly on seeds, berries, 
and buds. Its song is not naturally very agreeable, but it 


can be improved by education, and trained bull-finclies are 
sold for high prices. The pine bull-finch (Orythus cuclea- 



tor ), is a beautiful northern bird of both hemispheres. 
The male is of a splendid red, the female an orange-green. 

Bull-frog (liana pipiens), a frog found in the U. S., 
is of an olive-green color, and is generally eight to twelve 
inches long, though in some cases it attains the length of 
nineteen to twenty-one inches. It dei’ives its name from 
the remarkable loudness of its voice, which is bass and 
resembles the bellowing of a bull. It is almost wholly 
aquatic. The hind legs of this frog are often used as food. 

Bull, Golden, a term applied to a decree or enact¬ 
ment of Charles IV., emperor of Germany, published in 
1356, in two diets held in succession at Nux-emberg and 
Metz, in order to fix the laws in the election of emperor 
and to regulate the number and privileges of electors. It 
is preserved at Frankfort-on-the-Main. Another “ golden 
bull,” of Andrew II. of Hungary in 1222, fixed the priv¬ 
ileges of the nobles, and was regarded as a national con¬ 
stitution. 

Bull'liead, the popular name of small fishes of the 
genus Cottus, of which there ai-e several species in Europe 
and America. Another name commonly given them is 
“millei-’s thumb.” The common catfish and sevei’al others 
are locally known as bullheads. 

Bullion, uncoined gold and silver in bars or other 
masses. In political economy the term is also used to 
denote gold and silver coin. The word was originally 
applied to the mint, or place whei-e the precious metals 
were alloyed and converted into stamped money. In 1810 
a celebrated bullion report was made to the British Par¬ 
liament by Francis Horner and Sir Robert Peel, who pro¬ 
moted the resumption of specie payments, which had long 
been suspended. 

Bul'lion, a post-village, capital of Piute co., Ut. P. 82. 

Bullions (Peter), D. D., a learned divine and edu¬ 
cational writer, born in Perthshire, Scotland, in 1791, re¬ 
moved to America in 1817, and became in 1824 professor 
of Latin and Greek in the Albany academy. He published 
a “ Latin Reader,” a “ Greek Reader,” a “ Latin-English 
Lexicon,” etc., which are highly esteemed. Died Feb. 12, 
1864. 

BlllFitt, a county of Kentucky, near the Ohio River. 
Ai*ea, 300 square miles. It is bounded on the S. IV. by 
Salt River, and is intersected by the East Fork of that 
river. The surface is moderately hilly; the soil is pro¬ 
ductive. Grain and wool are the chief products. It is 
traversed by the Louisville and Nashville R. R. Capital, 
Shepherdsville. Pop. 7781. 

Bullitt (Alexander Scott), born in Prince William co., 
Va., in 1761, emigrated to Kentucky in 1784, became a 
prominent politician, was president of the State senate for 
several years, and lieutenant-governor (1800-04). Died in 
Jefferson co., Ky., April 13, 1816. 

Bull'ock, a county in S. E. Alabama. Area, 600 
square miles. It is drained by the sources of Pea River. 
The soil is mostly fertile. Corn, oats, and cotton arc raised. 
It is intersected by the Mobile and Girard R. R. and the 
Montgomei'y and Eufaula R. R. Capital, Union Springs. 
Pop. 24,474. 

Bullock, a county in the E. of Georgia. Area, 900 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Ogeechee, 
and on the S. W. by the Cannouchee River. The surface 
is level; the soil is sandy, and partly covered with forests 





















^X Mrv °p^ 


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BULLOCK—BULL KUN, BATTLE OF. 


665 


of pine. Corn, oats, rice, cotton, and wool are raised. 
Capital, Statesborough. Pop. 5610. 

Bullock (Alexander Hamilton), LL.D., was born in 
Royalston, Mass., Mar. 2, 1816, and graduated at Amherst 
in 1836. Ho was called to the bar in 1841, became a res¬ 
ident of Worcester’, Mass., and held many important public 
offices. He was governor of Massachusetts (1866-69). 

Bullock (Archibald), a native of Charleston, S. C., 
was a delegate to the Philadelphia Congress from Georgia 
in 1775, and in the following year president of the execu¬ 
tive council of Georgia, the highest office in the State. 
Died in 1777.— Ilis son, William B. Bullock (died Mar. 
6, 1852), was in 1813 U. S. Senator from Georgia. 

Bullock (Rufus B.), the first governor of Georgia 
under the new constitution adopted in pursuance of the 
reconstruction measures of Congress. He was a native of 
New York, but had resided some years before and during 
the war in the city of Augusta, Ga. He was a member of 
the constitutional convention which was called in 1867, and 
took an active part in its proceedings. On the adoption 
of the constitution formed by it, he was declared to be duly 
chosen at the same election in 1868 governor of the State 
under it for the term of four years. This office he held 
until the fall of 1871, when he resigned it and abandoned 
the State. 

Bullock’s Creek, a post-township of York co., S. C. 
Pop. 3068. 

Bull Pond, a township of Barnwell co., S. C. Pop. 
2400. 

Bull Run, a township of Elko co., Nev. Pop. 43. 

Bull Run, Battle of. The battle of Bull Run has, 
with propriety, been classed as one of the “ Decisive bat¬ 
tles of the War.” As the first pitched battle—the first 
trial of strength between the North and South—its incep¬ 
tion and issue were pregnant with grave consequences to 
the future of a struggle in which the two combatants were 


yet hesitating to engage. In its purely military results it 
has been well said that “the cannon of Bull Run echoed 
henceforth on every battle-field of the Avar.” The bom¬ 
bardment of Fort Sumter found the government completely 
destitute of an organized force—the army scattered on 
distant frontiers (a large portion indeed captured through 
the agency of its commander), and the navy dispersed to 
remote quarters of the earth. For no inconsiderable period 
the possession of the national capital seemed to be due 
rather to hesitation or irresolution of the Confederates than 
to its capability of vigorous defence. But the President's 
call for 75,000 volunteers for “three months” (his poiver 
to call out the militia to “suppress insurrection” being 
thus legally limited) had assembled in Washington and 
elsewhere a large militia force which, strengthened by 
such portions of the regular force as could be made avail¬ 
able, had been diligently trained under direction of army 
officers. 

Simultaneously with our occupation of the Virginia 
shore of the Potomac, the Confederates had established 
themselves at “Manassas Junction,” a point on the rail¬ 
road twenty-tWe miles west from Alexandria, and the junc¬ 
tion of the great southern railroad route (connecting Wash¬ 
ington Avith Richmond and the South) and the Manassas 
Gap Railroad, leading to the valley of the Shenandoah, 
where another Confederate force under Johnston confronted 
Patterson, who had recently crossed the Potomac at Har¬ 
per’s Ferry. 

The occupation of Manassas was recommended to the 
Confederates by the fact that it controlled the railroad 
routes, and Avas itself a strong position. An elevated 
plateau, in the crotch, formed by the Occoquan and its 
principal tributary from the north, Bull Run, of which the 
beds are canal-like cuts in horizontal strata of red sand¬ 
stone, it was of difficult approach to an attacking army, 
Avhile the general character of the country, broken, wooded, 
Avith feiv roads fit for the movement of an army, Avas fa¬ 
vorable to the defence. 


SUDLEY SPRING 


A? 




Map of the Battle of Bull Run, July 21,1861. 


Leading almost directly Avest from Alexandria, diverg¬ 
ing slightly to the north from the railroad, a macadamized 
road led to Centreville, tAventy-two miles distant. 

From Centreville, a little west of south and six or seven 
miles distant, lay Manassas Junction. About midway be¬ 
tween these two points floAved the rivulet of Bull Run (the 
real defensive line of the enemy) in a general direction 
from north-Avest to south-east. 

A road led from Centreville almost directly to the “Junc¬ 
tion,” crossing Bull Run three miles from Centreville at 
“ Blackburn’s Ford” (sometimes called by the Confederates 
“ Mitchell’s Ford ”). The turnpike before mentioned con¬ 


tinued its westerly course toAvards Warrcnton, in a nearly 
straight line beyond Centreville, crossing Bull Run at the 
“Stone Bridge,” four miles distant. Somewhat eastwardly 
of south, a country road from Centreville crossed Bull Run 
and the railroad at “ Union Mills.” 

The Confederate force was distributed along Bull Run 
from Union Mills to the Stone Bridge (nearly eight miles), 
with reserves and a fortified position at or near the Junction. 

The lino was a strong one, for the stream, though con¬ 
taining but little water at that season, was, owing to the 
character of the bed and to the abrupt and wooded slopeB 
of its right bank, a formidable obstacle. 



























666 BULL RUN, BATTLE OF. 


The army of General McDowell, which marched to the 
attack of this position, numbered about 30,000 men. Save 
perhaps 700 or S00 regular troops (fragments of regiments) 
of the old army, it was composed wholly of raw volunteers, 
none of whom had been in a soldier’s garb more than two 
or three months, and at least half of whom were enlisted 
only for a term of three months, then just about expiring. 
Such an army as this Avas certainly not the best suited for 
an offensive campaign. Troops utterly raw; brigades and 
divisions, the component parts of Avhich had never been 
brought in contact before, commanded by officers who, 
though generally of ability, were for the first time exer¬ 
cising these extensiA r e commands, and Avho had hardly 
seen the troops they commanded. 

Such was the army Avhich marched from the banks of the 
Potomac on the afternoon of July lGth. It moved in four 
columns, one by the turnpike, one by the lateral country 
roads on the right, one on the left of the railroad, and 
another between the turnpike and railroad, following what 
is known as the “ Braddock ” road, from its having been 
made by that general on his memorable march to Fort 
Duquesne in 1754, Avhich terminated in his disastrous de¬ 
feat and death. 

The “ plan ” of the campaign organized by General 
McDowell had been carefully studied by him in conjunction 
Avith his staff officers for a week or two before the move¬ 
ment commenced. It Avas a feature of it, after reaching 
Fairfax Court-house, to make a sudden movement to the 
left, crossing the Occoquan just beloAv the junction of that 
stream Avith Bull Run, aiming at the enemy’s railroad com¬ 
munications. His personal reconnaissances in that direc¬ 
tion, made on the 18th, led him to consider the country im¬ 
practicable for the operations of his army. 

IIoAvever imperative it Avas (for many reasons) to lose no 
time (a regiment the term of Avhich expired on the eve of 
the battle, actually marched “to the rear,” as Gen. McDow¬ 
ell expressed it, “to the sound of the enemy’s cannon”) it 
was out of the question to attack until some plan could be 
devised which Avould promise success. A day Avas accord¬ 
ingly spent in reconnaissances. 

The “ Stone Bridge,” already mentioned as forming the 
left of the enemy’s defensive position, was a single arched 
structure over the narrow stream. The passage Avas found 
to be guarded by batteries, and the road and adjacent 
ground beyond obstructed by formidable abattis. Several 
roads Avere ascertained to lead to fords between Blackburn’s 
and the Stone Bridge, but they Avere mere by-paths, the 
opposite banks of the stream generally steep and tangled, 
and probably obstructed. 

It was found that a couple of miles above the Stone 
Bridge there was a good ford at “ Sudley Spring,” Avhich 
was but slightly guarded, and that above that point the 
stream was, almost everyAvhere, easily passable. No contin¬ 
uous road communicated from the turnpike Avith the “ Sud¬ 
ley ” ford, but our reconnaissances shoAved that the inter¬ 
vening country Avas almost eA r eryAvhere practicable to all 
arms. 

The writer finds in his note book the folloAving memoran¬ 
dum of a “plan of battle” or attack, which, founded upon 
the above results of reconnaissance, was submitted to Gen. 
McDoAvell. 

1st.—One division to advance on Warrenton Turnpike 
at 3 o’clock to-morroAv morning. The leading brigade to 
threaten the bridge over Bull Run—throwing skirmishers 
into the Avoods on both flanks. No serious effort will be 
made on the bridge but artillery may be opened upon it, 
as if to open the way for an assault, and the operation to be 
conducted as if an assault Avere intended. 

The 2d, 3d, and 4th Brigades to turn to the right at the 
road i to | of a mile beyond “ Cub Run.” On reaching 
the forks to the two fords a Brigade will turn off on the 
left fork advancing on it just enough to clear the route for 
the passage of the two following Brigades Avhich take the 
right fork towards Sudley Spring. The ford at Sudley j 
Springs Avill be turned by a march around and some 200 
yards above it. The leading brigade Avill be followed by 
the one in rear and the Avhole force advance rapidly by the 
road from Sudley Spring soutlmard to reach the Warren- 
ton ’Pike by the shortest route. The brigade left on the 
road to the lower ford Avill then pass over. Detachments 
from the advanced brigades should be sent to take in rear 
the defenders of the lower ford and Warrenton ’pike bridge. 
The brigade left at the Stone Bridge will cross over and 
join the other two. 

2d.—Another division should follow to take position be¬ 
hind Bull Run to be ready to pass over if necessary—but 
unless ordered from Hd. Qrs. to remain on the E. side. 

3d.—Another division should simultaneously with the 
commencement of the first operation commence the sem¬ 
blance of an attack on Blackburn’s Ford. Every appearance 
of a formidable assault should be made, but no attempt to 


force the passage, unless the enemy shoAVS unmistakable 
signs of retiring. 

4th.—Another division should remain in reserve at Ccn- 
treville. 

This plan was adopted by the General, modifying the 
composition only of the different columns thus, 

One division under Colonel Miles to remain in reser\ r e at 
Centrevdlle, and to make, with one of its brigades, a false 
attack on Blackburn’s Ford ; another division (Tyler’s) to 
move by the turnpike up to the Stone Bridge and threaten 
that point, and, at the proper time, to carry it and unite 
with the principal column, which, consisting of the two 
divisions (of Hunter and Heintzelman) of about 12,000 
men, was to diverge from the turnpike, and, by a flank 
movement, reach the Sudley Ford, and descending the right 
bank of the stream, take the defences of the Stone Bridge 
in the rear. The united force would then give battle, strike 
at the enemy’s railroad communication, or act otherAvise, as 
circumstances might dictate. 

This plan was carried out in its main features, but it 
failed in one important particular. It was calculated that 
the mai’ching column should diverge from the turnpike by 
early daylight (the route being so Avooded that a night 
march Avas deemed imprudent) and reach Sudley Ford by 
six or seven A. M. The Stone Bridge division did not 
clear the road over Avhich both, for a certain distance, had 
to pass, so that the column could take up its march until 
near six o’clock. The route through fields and woods to 
Sudley proved to be far longer and more difficult than was 
belie\ T ed. The column did not reach the Sudley Ford till 
near half-past nine, three or four hours “ behind time.” 
When it reached the ford the heads of the enemy’s columns 
were visible, on the march to meet the attack. 

This loss of time caused the loss of the battle. It might 
haA r e been unwarrantable to have counted on punctuality 
with an army so utterly inexperienced in tactical man¬ 
oeuvres and in marching; nevertheless the immediate end 
aimed at was gained—the passage of Bull Run was ac¬ 
complished ai^d the Confedei’ate left turned. While the 
appearance of Tyler’s column in the front of the Stone 
Bridge had disconcerted his plan of attacking our left 
by crossing at the lower fords. Hunter, having crossed 
at Sudley Spring, led his column down to take in reA r erse 
the Stone Bridge position. Evans who held the con¬ 
federate left at that point had had his attention occupied 
through the morning hours by Tyler in his front; but 
the march of Hunter’s column became evident long before 
the ford Avas reached and ere it reached the bridge, Evans, 
sending for re-inforcements, had formed “ en potence” 
across Hunter’s line of march. A sharp combat ensued 
which resulted in forcing the confederate position and in 
opening the Stone Bridge to Tyler’s division, two of the 
brigades (W. T. Sherman’s and Keyes’) immediately passed 
and joined their force Avith Hunter’s. Thus had been 
gained the immediate end of the tactical plan of the oper¬ 
ation. The Confederate left had been turned, the Warrenton 
turnpike taken from them (opening to us the Stone Bridge); 
and their line had been driven back a mile and a half. 
Gen. McDowell had thus bx-ought nearly all his three divis¬ 
ions into position on the enemies left flank and was ad¬ 
vancing nearly 18,000 strong. The Confederate left (all his 
troops that had been engaged) had been thrown into con¬ 
fusion. Gen’ls Johnston and Beauregard hastened to the 
scene, ordering up to their routed left all the brigades 
Avhich could be spared from the centre and left of their 
line. “We came,” says Johnston, “not a moment too 
soon,” for “the long contest had greatly discouraged the 
troops of Bee and Evans.” He found “that the aspect of 
affairs was criticalbut by great efforts, “ and some ex¬ 
ample,” the “battle Avas re-established,” and, after a time, 
“ many of the broken troops, fragments of companies, 
and individual stragglers, were re-formed and brought 
into action.” 

The position on which a stand was now made was a 
broad table land in Avhich the slopes from Young’s Creek 
(crossing our line of march at right angles and emptying 
into Bull Run near the Stone Bridge) terminate in the 
general level of the country. To carry the position, Mc¬ 
Dowell advanced the brigades of Wilcox and Howard on 
the right, supported by part of Porter’s brigade, and the 
cavalry under Palmer ; the brigades of Franklin and Sher¬ 
man in the centre and up the road, and Keyes’ brigade on 
the left. Schenck’s brigade (of Tyler’s division) was still 
at Centreville; but the positions of these troops, coupled 
with the demonstrations made, still detained several Con¬ 
federate brigades confronting them. 

A severe contest ensued for this position with varying 
success; the result of which was at 3 p. M., the possession 
of the hill; the fighting having commenced at 10.30 A. ir. 
of a July day. The men Avho had been up since tAvo o’clock 
in the morning Avere exhausted by fatigue, want of food 

















BULL RUN, SECOND BATTLE OF. 


and water, and somewhat demoralized by the vigorous re¬ 
sistance they had encountered. 

“It was at this time,” says Gen. McDowell, “that our 
adversary’s reinforcements came to his aid from the rail¬ 
road train, understood to have just arrived from the valley 
with the residue of Johnston’s army. They threw them¬ 
selves in the woods on our right, and toward the rear of 
our right, and opened a fire of musketry on our men, which 
caused them to break and retire down the hill-side. This 
soou degenerated into disorder, for which there was no 
remedy. Every effort was made to rally them, even beyond 
the roach of the enemy’s fire, but in vain. The battalion 
of regular infantry alone moved up the hill opposite to one 
with a house on it, and there maintained itself until our 
men could get down to and across the Warrenton turnpike, 
on the way back to the position we occupied in the morn¬ 
ing. The plain was covered with the retreating troops, and 
the} 1- seemed to infect those with whom they came in con¬ 
tact. The retreat soon became a rout, and this soon de¬ 
generated still further in a panic.” 

Enough has been written to show how grossly misrepre¬ 
sented in the popular mind has been this battle. It was one 
(and the first) of the few pitched battles of the whole war 
deliberately planned, before hand, executed in full accord¬ 
ance with its plan (save the loss of time already alluded to); 
and successful up to a point when an element, excluded by 
the preliminary conditions under which the campaign was 
undertaken, (the arrival of Johnston’s troops) was thrown 
in which turned victory into defeat. The confederate Presi¬ 
dent—himself a soldier, who at Buena Vista had learned 
the meaning of such words—pronounced the battle “ahard 
fought field.” Gen. Johnston the confederate commander, 
reports the demoralization of his own troops in words 
already quoted, and, further, he says, “We were almost as 
much disorganized by victory as the Fedcrals by defeat,” 
and hence “pursuit was out of the question;” but the dis¬ 
organization, so candidly acknowledged and so artfully 
explained, was due rather to the gloomy hours of actual 
defeat, and the severe handling with which ;t Avas accom¬ 
panied, than to the elation of victory. “ It is right to say,” 
says a distinguished English officer in his review of Cooke’s 
Life of Lee, “that the surprise of the Confederates on their 
flank Avas a real one, and their defeat at one time very 
near, being only averted by the superiority in steadiness 
of Jackson’s troops to their comrades.” “ Although com¬ 
pletely defeated in his attack, McDoAvell yet left his enemy 
so shattered as to be not only quite incapable of an advance 
upon the capital of the Union, but according to the confession 
of the best Southern officers, unfit for some time later for any 
serious operations .” 

And concerning the “panic” Avhich, although military 
Avriters have generally been free from this injustice, has 
been so commonly held up as the pictui’e of the battle the 
instances even Avith armies of veteran troops like Napo¬ 
leon’s (Albuhera and Vittoria, Ac.) are so numerous that 
the exceptional case of Bull Run, when the army was 
almost Avholly made of three months’ men, should excite 
no surprise : moreover, it was not such as to prevent a 
stand at Centreville, “the apparent firmness” of Avhich, 
says Gen. Johnston, “checked our pursuit.” The dis¬ 
order and mob-like appearance was rather, as described by 
Major (now Brevet Major-General) H. J. Hunt, the result 
of “ sheer fatigue.” They were, says he “ footsore, hungry, 
and tired; but had we been attacked I have little doubt 
that a stout resistance Avould have been made.” 

Let us rather admire the courage and fortitude Avith which 
meri just from their farms and firesides, for Avhom the bat¬ 
tle-field and the cannon’s roar had been divested of none 
of their horrors, unsustained by the confidence in each 
other Avhich association and discipline engender, vindi¬ 
cated, in this the first great battle of the long and sadden¬ 
ing series, the American claim to those qualities, and to 
the patriotism Avhich could call forth their exhibition. 

J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Bull Run, Second Battle of. A junction, upon 
the Rappahannock, of the forces under Gens. McClellan 
and Pope having been determined upon, orders were sent 
to McClellan Aug. 3, 1862, to AvithdraAV his army from 
Harrison’s Landing, on the James river, and transfer it 
to Acquia creek; Burnside was ordered (Aug. 1) to em¬ 
bark his troops at Newport News, transfer them to Acquia 
Creek, and take position opposite Fredericksburg. Burn¬ 
side moved promptly, reaching Acquia Creek Aug. 3; but 
the evacuation of Harrison’s Landing Avas not commenced 
until Aug. 14, though McClellan had been repeatedly noti¬ 
fied of the necessity of promptly uniting his forces Avith 
those of Gen. Pope, as reliable information had been re¬ 
ceived of the preparation of the enemy, with a large force, 
to drive back Gen. Pope and attack either Washington or 
Baltimore. (hving to this delay the main forces of Gen. 
Cox Avere ordered to Pope’s aid from Western Virginia. 


667 


To gain time and facilitate the withdrawal of the Army 
of the Potomac, Pope crossed the Rappahannock, occupied 
Culpeper and threatened Gordonsville. Jackson’s and Ew¬ 
ell’s forces were hurried back to the Rapidan where on the 9th 
of August they encountered Bank’s corps at Cedar Moun¬ 
tain, a severe contest ensuing resulting in the defeat of the 
latter, Jackson holding his position on the mountain for 
two days Avhen he Avithdrew across the Rapidan. As in¬ 
formation received shoAved that Lee Avas moving the main 
body of his army by forced marches, to attack Pope before 
a junction could be formed between him and the Army of 
the Potomac, Pope Avas advised by the Gen.-in-Chief to 
take up his position in rear of the Rappahannock, which 
he accordingly did Aug. 17-18, prepared to hold its passes 
as long as possible; he had been reinforced by King’s di¬ 
vision, and a part of Burnside’s corps under Gen. Reno. 
Burnside occupied Barnett’s and Richard’s fords betAveen 
him and Pope, and though repeated attempts were made 
by the Confederates to cross at different points on the Rap¬ 
pahannock they were all repulsed and the line of this river 
was held for eight days, during Avhich time it Avas hoped 
sufficient forces from the Army of the Potomac Avould reach 
Acquia Creek, and prevent any further advance of Lee and 
eventually Avith the combined armies to drive him back 
upon Richmond; but the expected aid not arriving Pope 
telegraphed to Washington that he was overmatched and 
unless reinforced must retreat. He Avas directed on the 21st 
to maintain his position tAvo days longej when he would be 
reinforced; but though he held his ground for four days he 
received during that time but about 7000 men. On the 21st 
a portion of Confederate cavalry under Gen. Stuart crossed 
the river at Waterloo Bridge and on the night of the 22d, 
during a furious storm, surprised Pope’s headquarters at 
Catlett’s station capturing his despatch books, and much 
of his personal baggage, numerous horses and Avagons ; the 
latter were burned. Pope’s actual Headquai’ters at this 
time were at Rappahannock Station. 

On the 24th by a flank movement Lee crossed a portion 
of his forces under Jackson above Waterloo bridge; but 
being repulsed here moved further up the river and en¬ 
tered the valley which lies between the Blue Ridge and 
Bull Run mountains; the object of this movement being to 
gain Pope’s rear and cut off his supplies, at the same time 
gaining a position by Avhich Washington could be attacked 
or Maryland invaded. Jackson passed through Thorough¬ 
fare Gap and reached Bristow Station Aug. 26, from whence 
he sent Stuart Avith a detachment of cavalry to capture 
Manassas Junction which was accomplished that night, 
immense quantities of commissary and quartermaster’s 
stores, besides 8 pieces of artillery, 10 locomotWes, and 
large trains falling into their hands: the main body of the 
Confederate army in the meantime engaging Pope at Sul¬ 
phur Springs and Waterloo Bridge. The Confederate army 
at this time numbered probably 80,000, Avhilc Pope had 
barely 40,000; but, relying, with reason, on being rein¬ 
forced by as many more veterans from the peninsula, he 
indicated the positions to be taken up by them on arrival 
and laid his plans for the impending struggle with the firm 
belief that it was to be fought by the combined armies. 

Discovering the movement on his right flank, and failing 
to receive any adequate reinforcements, Pope fell back in 
three columns from Warrenton and Warrenton Junction, 
and Avas at this time joined by Ileintzelman’s corps of 
10,000 (but without artillery, wagons, or horses for officers) 
arid Porter’s corps, foot-sore and fatigued by long marching 
night and day. Under these circumstances Pope could not 
maintain his front, after detaching a sufficient force to meet 
Jackson operating on his flank. 

Gen. Pope’s disposition of his troops at this juncture 
(27th) was as follows: the corps of McDovvell and Sigel 
and the Pennsylvania Reserves under Reynolds were ad¬ 
vanced to Gainesville, Reno and Kearny vvere directed upon 
Greenvvich, while Hooker’s division Avas sent against EAvell 
along the railroad; the movement hoAvever was too late, as 
a large part of Lee’s army was already east of Thorough¬ 
fare Gap. 

Hooker encountered the Confederates near Kettle Run 
(27th) and a sharp engagement ensued, resulting in driving 
EavcII from the field. 

As McDowell, Sigel and Reynolds had reached their 
positions there was every prospect that Jackson could be 
overwhelmed before reinforcements could reach him. On 
the evening of the 27th Gen. Pope ordered Gen. Porter to 
be at Bristow Station by daylight on the morning of the 
28th, Avith Morcll, and also directed him to communicate 
to Banks the order to move forAvard to Warrenton Junc¬ 
tion. All trains were ordered this side ot Cedar Run and 
to be protected by a regiment of infantry and section ot 
artillery. For some reasons Porter did not comply Avith 
this order and his corps was not in the battles ot the 28th 
and 29th. (Porter was aftenvard tried and cashiered.) 




















668 


BULL’S EYE—BUNCE. 


Ileintzelman’s corps pressed forward to Manassas on the 
morning of the 28th and forced Jackson to retreat across 
Bull Run by the Centreville turnpike. McDowell had suc¬ 
ceeded in checking Lee at Thoroughfare Gap, but the latter 
took the road from Hopevillc to Newmarket and hastened 
to the relief of Jackson who was already in rapid retreat. 
A portion of McDowell’s corps encountered the retreating 
column on the afternoon of the 28th near the Warrenton 
turnpike and a severe but successful contest ensued. Jack- 
son was again attacked on the 29th near the old battle 
ground of July, 1861. Knowing that Longstreet was not 
distant he made a most desperate stand,* the fight con¬ 
tinued nearly all day, and was terminated only by dark¬ 
ness. It Avas renewed in the morning (30th), and a des¬ 
perate battle continued all through the day, but Pope 
could not hold out against the combined strength of Lee’s 
army, now united, and after a hard day’s fighting was forced 
to fall back behind Bull Run. Pope’s loss during this 
campaign was nearly 30,000 men; the Confederate loss 
about 15,000. 

Bull’s Eye, in architecture, the technical name given 
to a glass lens used for the purpose of concentrating the 
light of a given centre upon an object. It is also applied to 
a circular window of plain glass. On shipboard the bull’s 
eye is a small pulley in the form of a ring, with a rope 
spliced round the outer edge, and another sliding through 
a hole in the centre. In rifle practice the small black cen¬ 
tre in the circle on the target is called the bull’s eye. In 
astronomy, the bull’s eye is Aldebaran, a bright star in 
Taurus. 

Bull'skin, a township of Fayette co., Pa. Pop. 1657. 

Bull Swamp, a township of Lexington co., S. C. P.933. 

Bull-terrier, a dog bred by a cross, more or less re¬ 
mote, between the bull-dog and some one of the terriers, 
and frequently uniting in a remarkable degree the courage 
and strength of the bull-dog with the docility, activity, 
quick scent, and intelligence of the terrier. This little an¬ 
imal is especially famous for its zeal and success in killing 
rats. 

Bull Trout, Gray Trout, Whitling, or Sewen, i 


Bull Trout. 

the Salmo Eriox, a fish of Europe closely resembling the 
salmon in size, appearance, and habits, but much inferior 
as food. It is common in England and Wales. It affords 
good sport to anglers. 

Bulsar', or Bulsaur, a seaport of India, on the Gulf 
of Cambay, and in the presidency of Bombay, 44 miles S. 
of Surat. It has manufactures of ginghams, and an active 
trade in grain, salt, and sugar. Pop. about 8000. 

Bul'ti, Iskar'do, or Little Thibet, the upper end 
of the Indus Valley, subject to Cashmere, having Chinese 
Tartary on the N., Afghanistan on the W., and Cashmere 
on the S., between lat. 34° 30' and 36° N. and Ion. 74° 40' 
and 76° 30' E. The inhabitants are Mohammedans of 
Thibetan origin. The climate has greater extremes than 
that of Cashmere; the soil produces grains and fruits in 
abundance. This region is also called Baltistan. 

Bul'wark [Fr. boulevard], in fortification, a rampart 
or bastion; an outwork for defence; that which secures 
against an enemy; a shelter or means of protection. On 
shipboard a bulwark is the parapet raised round the deck 
for the purpose of protecting men and goods from slipping 
overboard, and of excluding the waves from the deck. In 
ships of war the bulwark is sufficiently high and solid to 
afford the crew some protection against the shot of the 

enem}\ 

Bulwer (Edward George Earle Lytton), Baron 
Lytton, a celebrated English novelist, born in Norfolk in 
May, 1805, was the youngest of the three sons of William 
Earle Bulwer and Elizabeth Lytton. Both parents were de¬ 
scended from ancient families. His early education was 
superintended by his mother, a woman of intellectual tastes 
and culture. Having entered Cambridge, he gained the 
chancellor’s prize for English verse by his poem on “ Sculp¬ 
ture” (1825), and in 1826 graduated at Trinity Hall. He 
soon after visited France, and published after his return 
his novel of “Falkland” (1827), which was followed by 


“ Pelham, or the Adventures of a Gentleman ” (1828), “ The 
Disowned” (1828), « Devereux ” (1829), “Paul Clifford” 
(1830), “The Siamese Twins,” a poem (1831), and “Eu¬ 
gene Aram” (1832). In 1831 he was returned to Parlia¬ 
ment for St. Ives, and from 1832 to 1841 he represented 
the city of Lincoln. He published in 1833 “ England and 
the English,” and the same year visited Germany and Italy. 
He produced in rapid succession “ The Pilgrims of the 
Rhine,” “The Last Days of Pompeii,” “Rienzi, the Last 
of the Tribunes” (1835), and “The Student,” a series of 
contributions to the “New Monthly Magazine,” of which 
he was for some time editor. His drama entitled “The 
Duchess of La Valliere” (1836) was not well received. In 
1837 he brought out “Athens, its Rise and Fall,” and 
“ Ernest Maltravers,” a novel, which was continued under 
the title of “Alice, or the Mysteries.” His dramas entitled 
“ The Lady of Lyons” (1838) and “Richelieu ” were very 
successful, as well as the comedy of “Money,” which came 
out soon after. His “Night and Morning,” a novel, pub¬ 
lished in 1841, w*as followed by “Zanoni” (1842), “The 
Last of the Barons” (1843), “Lucretia, or the Children of 
the Night” (1846), and “Harold, the Last of the Saxon 
Kings” (1848). Ilis novels entitled “ The Caxtons ” (1850), 
“My Novel” (1851), and “"What will he Do with It?” 
(1858) first appeared in “Blackwood’s Magazine,” to 
which Bulwer has been a frequent contributor. “A Strange 
Story” came out in “All the Year Round ” in 1861. Although 
his reputation rests chiefly on his novels, he has distin¬ 
guished himself in various departments of literature. His 
translations of Schiller’s poems (1844) were received with 
favor, and he has published original poems—“ O’Niel, or 
the Rebel ” (1827), “The New Timon ” (1846), and “King 
Arthur ” (1848). His novels have great popularity in Eng¬ 
land, America, and on the Continent, and have been trans¬ 
lated into several languages. Bulwer was made a baronet 
in 1838, and in 1844, on the death of his mother, came into 
possession of the Knebworth estates and assumed the name 
of Bulwer-Lytton. He had published in 1835 a liberal 
political pamphlet entitled “ The Crisis,” which caused a 
great sensation. He was elected lord rector of the Uni¬ 
versity of Glasgow in 1856, and in 1858 he held for a time 
the office of secretary of state for the colo¬ 
nies. He was made a peer in 1866 with the 
title of Baron Lytton. In 1827 he married 
Miss Rosina Wheeler of Limerick, who Avrote 
“Bianca Capello,” “The Budget of the Bub¬ 
ble Family,” and other books. The union 
Avas unhappy, and the parties were divorced. 
Died Jan. 18, 1873.—His son, Edward Rob¬ 
ert Bulaver Lytton, born Nov. 8,1831, pub¬ 
lished “Lucile” and other poems under the 
pseudonym of “ Owen Meredith,” besides 
other works. J. Thomas. 

BuU wer (Henry Lytton Earle), Baron 
Dalling and Bulaver, an English diplomatist and author, 
a brother of the preceding, Avas born in 1804. He Avas 
elected to Parliament in 1830, and Avas sent as ambassador 
to Madrid in 1843. In 1849 he was transferred to Wash¬ 
ington, and in 1851 was created a knight grand cross of 
the Bath. He became minister jJenipotentiary at Con¬ 
stantinople in 1858. He was afterAvards ennobled. Among 
his Avorks are “France, Social and Literary,” and a “ Life 
of Lord Byron.” Died May 27, 1872. 

Binnmalo'ti ( Saurus ophiodon), a fish of the family 
Scopelidae, Avhich is regarded as a subdivision of the family 
Salmonidan It is a native of the seas of India, from 
Avhich it is exported in large quantities, salted and dried, 
being highly esteemed for its flavor. In commerce it is 
known by the appellation of “Bombay duck.” It is long, 
with a very large mouth, the gape of which extends behind 
the eyes, and Avhich is furnished with a great number of 
long, slender, barbed teeth. 

Binn'mingtoAvn, a township of Macon co., N. C. Pop. 
320. 1 

Bum'stead (Freeman Josiaii), M. D.,born at Boston, 
Mass., April 21, 1826, graduated at Williams College in 
1847, studied medicine in Paris, and became a practitioner 
in New York, where he was appointed professor of vene¬ 
real diseases in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, 
also surgeon to the Eye and Ear Hospital and the Charity 
Hospital. He has published “ Pathology and Treatment of 
Venereal Diseases” (1861), and valuable translations from 
Ricord and Cullerier. 

Bunce (Francis M.), U. S. N., born Dec. 25, 1836, in 
Hartford, Conn., graduated at the Naval Academy in 1857, 
became a lieutenant in 1861, a lieutenant commander in 
1863, a commander in 1871. Had charge of the naval 
howitzers in the combined army and navy expedition of 
July 10, 1863, which resulted in the capture of a part of 
Morris Island. Participated in all the important attacks 





















BUNCOMBE—BUNKER HILL. 669 


on the defences of Charleston harbor during the summer 
and fall of 1863, and was in the disastrous assault upon 
Fort Sumter of Sept. 18, 1863, where, for his “ gallant 
support and zealous co-operation,” he received the thanks 
of his commanding officer, Captain Thomas H. Stevens. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Bim'combe, a county in the W. of North Carolina. 
Area, 450 square miles. It is intersected by the French 
Broad River, and bounded on the E. by the Blue Ridge. 
The surface is partly mountainous; the soil of the valleys 
is fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. 
Capital, Asheville. Pop. 15,412. The phrase “talking 
for Buncombe,” often heard among politicians, was first 
used by a member of Congress from this district. During 
a long speech which he made, several members, who had 
not patience to listen, retired from the hall. lie then told 
the remaining members that they also might go, for he 
“ was only talking for Buncombe.” 

Buncombe, a post-township of Johnson co., Ill. Pop. 
1385. 

Bun'delcund', or Bundlecund, a territory of Hin- 
dostan, is bounded on the N. E. by the river Jumna. It 
extends from lat. 24° to 26° 26' N., and from Ion. 78° to 
81° 36' E. Area, about 18,000 square miles, of which 
about 8700 square miles are subject to the British, while 
the rest of the country is governed by numerous native 
princes, who are tributary to the British. It is situated in 
the North-western Provinces. The surface is diversified by 
many hills or isolated precipitous rocks. The soil is fer¬ 
tile, but requires irrigation. It is said to contain dia¬ 
monds and rich beds of iron ore. The chief towns *are 
Calpe, Banda, Jhansi, and Callinger. Pop. 2,592,800. 

Bundemeer' (anc. Araxes), a river of Persia. It flows 
through a richly wooded valley, emptying into the Bakh- 
tegan Lake after a course of 150 miles. 

Bun'galow [from the Ilindostanee bdncjld , a “summer¬ 
house ”], the name of a kind of rural dwelling very common 
among the Europeans in India. Bungalows usually have 
but one story, and are always surrounded with a verandah, 
the covering of which affords shelter from the sun. Be¬ 
sides private bungalows, there are military bungalows for 
the use of soldiers in cantonments, and for the accommo¬ 
dation of travellers there are public bungalows belonging 
to the government on all the principal roads in India. 
Travellers sometimes carry their provisions, servants, etc. 
with them, paying a rupee (a half dollar of our money) per 
day for the use of the bungalow. But on the most fre¬ 
quented roads one can nearly always find native cooks, or 
rather “stewards” (khdnsdmdn), as they are called, who 
furnish food for travellers, and cook it. 

Bun'ion, or Bunyon [said to be from the Gr. povviov, 
the “earth-nut,” from its fancied resemblance in shape], is 
a painful inflammation of the bursa mucosa, or membranous 
sac of the joint which connects the great toe with its meta¬ 
tarsal bone. The pressure of a boot causes this bursa to 
inflame and swell, and this may go on to suppuration. 
Rest and poulticing are generally sufficient to subdue the 
attack, and wearing a shoe so constructed as to save the 
bunion from pressure will generally prevent a recurrence. 

Bunka'ra, or Blue River, of Colorado, rises in the 
Middle Park, among the Rocky Mountains, flows nearly 
south-westward, and unites with the Gunnison River to 
form the Grand River. Total length, estimated at 200 
miles. 

Bun'ker Hill, a post-village of Macoupin co., Ill. It 
has one weekly newspaper. 

Bunker Hill, a post-township of Ingham co., Mich. 
Pop. 957. 

Bunker Hill, the county-seat of Russell co., Ivan., on 
the Kansas Pacific R. R., 176 miles W. of Topeka, has one 
weekly paper. J. B. Carbolt, Ed. “New Republic.” 

Bunker Hill, a rounded eminence in Charlestown, now 
a part of Boston, Mass. It is about 110 feet high and con¬ 
nected by a ridge with another small eminence 700 yards 
distant called Breed’s Ilill. These two elevations are fa¬ 
mous for the battle fought here between the British and 
American forces June 17, 1775. The American redoubt was 
on Breed’s Hill, but by common usage the event is known 
as the battle of Bunker Hill. 

After the stirring events of the spring of that year the 
troops organized in New England had taken up a line ex¬ 
tending from Roxbury to Cambridge under command of 
Gen. Artemas Ward; Putnam, Starke, Prescott, Gridley, 
and Pomeroy were there, and by the middle of June not 
less than 20,000 men had assembled. 

Gen*. Gage was in chief command of the British at Bos¬ 
ton, and had been recently largely reinforced by Gen’ls 
Howe, Burgoyne and Clinton. 

It having been ascertained by the provincial army that 


Gage meditated seizing and fortifying Bunker Hill and the 
heights of Dorchester on the night of the 18th, it was deter¬ 
mined by the Americans to forestall this design, and, on the 
night of the 16th, a detachment of 1000 men under command 
of Col. Wm. Prescott, was despatched from Cambridge to 
Charlestown for the purpose of fortifying Bunker Hill. 
They were joined at Charlestown Neck by Gen. Putnam 
and Major Brooks and at a council it was decided to fortify 
Breed’s Hill not as high as Bunker Hill but nearer Boston. 
By daylight a formidable work had been thrown up on the 
spot now marked by the Bunker Hill Monument. This be¬ 
ing discovered by daylight the “ Lively” opened fire upon 
it which soon extended to all the shipping and the bat¬ 
tery on Copp’s Hill in Boston; the British troops were call¬ 
ed to arms and preparations for an attack were made ; 
Prescott meanwhile continued to strengthen his position 
and sent to Cambridge for reinforcements; the entire Amer¬ 
ican force engaged, however, did not probably exceed, at 
any time, 1500. 

A force of British under Gcn’ls Howe and Pigot, covered 
by the guns of their shipping, had embarked in boats and 
landed at Morton’s Point east of the foot of Breed’s Hill. This 
movement produced the greatest excitement in Cambridge 
and reinforcements were hastened to Charlestown, Gen’ls 
Warren and Pomeroy arriving at 2 p. jr. at the moment 
Howe, whose force by this time had been increased to about 
4000,began his advance around the eastern slopes of Breed’s 
Hill and along the Mystic river with the intention of gain¬ 
ing the rear of the American lines ; but this movement hav¬ 
ing been anticipated Ivnowlton had taken up a position 
near Bunker Hill and thrown up a breastwork nearly two 
hundred and fifty yards in length, and another line had 
been built in front of a stone and rail fence between which 
was placed new mown hay, and between the breast work 
and the rail fence the artillery was placed. The Conn, and 
N. H. troops were west of the redoubt and a force was post¬ 
ed at the foot of the S. W. side of Breed’s Hill, near Charles¬ 
town, and a work had been commenced on Bunker Hill. 
Gen. Warren, who was with Prescott in the redoubt, having 
refused to take command from either Prescott or Putnam, 
saying he came to fight as a volunteer. Howe was foiled 
in his flank movement and compelled to make a direct attack 
and having ordered the guns of the shipping and the bat¬ 
tery at Copp’s Hill to open fire on the redoubt moved for¬ 
ward under its cover up the slopes of Breed’s Hill in two 
wings, the right under his own command the left under 
Pigot: Gen. Howe with his command to carry the position 
at the rail fence while Pigot attacked the redoubt. Pres¬ 
cott’s orders to his men were to reserve their fire on the ad¬ 
vancing columns till the whites of the men’s eyes could be 
seen. The British opened fire when within gunshot but 
no reply was heard from the breastworks till they were 
within close range when volley after volley was poured into 
their ranks causing them to fly in disorder toward their 
boats. Howe succeeded, however, in quickly rallying his 
troops and being reinforced by some 400 marines and pro¬ 
vided with artillery, of which latter they were deficient in 
the first attack, a second advance was made over the same 
ground. 

In the meantime reinforcements had been sent to Prescott 
but those sent from Cambridge were prevented from cross¬ 
ing Charlestown Neck by the severe fire of the batteries 
and shipping of the British, and but few additional troops 
reached the redoubt before the second attack. 

As before the Americans reserved their fire till the British 
line was at short range when it was delivered with the same 
deadly effect. 

Hot shot from Copp’s hill having meanwhile set fire to 
some houses in Charlestown the whole town was soon in 
flames and Gen. Howe hoped to storm the redoubt under 
cover of the smoke; but a light wind which had just sprung 
up cleared away the smoke and disclosed the advancing col¬ 
umns which were again broken and driven in confusion by 
the fatal fire from the patriots within the redoubt. Howe 
was now reinforced by Clinton and a third attack was made 
upon this little band whose ammunition was now nearly 
exhausted and Howe, having discovered the weakness of 
this part of the line, attacked the position between the rail 
fence on the east of the redoubt and the breastwork, sweep¬ 
ing it with his artillery and forcing its defenders within the 
redoubt. The ammunition of the Americans was now com¬ 
pletely exhausted and the British advancing scaled the 
work but were met by the Americans with muskets clubbed 
and a hand to hand conflict ensued. But the superiority 
of the British in numbers was too great and Prescott was 
compelled to order a retreat, himself and Warren being the 
last to leave the works. Stark and Knowlton maintained 
their position at the rail fence until the retreat had been 
effected, when they retired slowly and in good order. ar- 
ren had hardly left the redoubt when he fell shot through 
the head; Prescott escaped uninjured. Falling back across 















670 


BUNODES GEMMACEA—BUNYAN. 


Bunker Hill, Putnam here made an ineffectual attempt to 
rally the retreating army within the partially finished 
works. The retreat continued across Charlestown Neck 
where many were killed by a severe lire from the shipping 
and batteries; but the British did not continue their pur¬ 
suit beyond this point. 

The British loss in killed and wounded was about 1050 ; 
the American loss was not over 450. 

A granite obelisk 221 feet in height now marks the sceno 
of this important struggle on Breed’s Hill, and is known as 
Bunker Hill Monument. Gen. Lafayette laid the corner 
stone June 17, 1825, and Daniel Webster delivered one of 
his most memorable orations on the occasion. The mon¬ 
ument was completed in 1842 and was dedicated June 17, 
1843 in the presence of the President of the U. S. and his 
Cabinet, Daniel Webster being, as before, the orator of the 
occasion. 




Bunodes, open. 


Buno'des Gemma'cea, called in English gem pimp- 
let, a zoophyte of the or¬ 
der Actinoida (sea ane¬ 
mones ; see Anemone, 

Sea). When open it 
bears a striking resem¬ 
blance to a flower, but 
when closed it assumes a 
spherical form, having 
the appearance of an 
echinus stripped of its 
spines. The generic name 
is from the Greek f3ov- 
vtx)8r)<;, signifying “ resem¬ 
bling an eminence or a 
woman’s breast” (refer¬ 
ring to its form when 
closed); the specific name 
is from the Latin gemma, 
a “ bud,” or small pro¬ 
tuberance, and has allu¬ 
sion to the wart-like pro¬ 
tuberances on the exte¬ 
rior surfac^. 

Bun'sen (Robert 
Wilhelm), a very distin¬ 
guished German chemist, 
born at Gottingen Mar. 

31, 1811, became in 1851 
professor of chemistry at 
Breslau, and in 1852 at 

Heidelberg. He is the . 

author of several works, 

the most important perhaps being on gas analysis. His in¬ 
vestigations on organic compounds of arsenic, kakodyl, etc., 
in 1841, attracted much attention. He has invented several 
most important pieces of apparatus, several of which bear 
his name, as the Bunsen battery, gas-burner, photometer, 
filter pump, etc. His most brilliant discovery was prob¬ 
ably that of spectrum analysis and the Spectroscope (which 
see), made in connection with KirchofF. This instrument 
established a new era in astronomy, and has already led 
to most valuable discoveries in chemistry. By its aid 
Bunsen himself discovered two new alkaline metals, caesium 
and rubidium, and Lamy and Crookes discovered thallium 
and Rich and Richter indium. He also devised a new sys¬ 
tem of analysis by flame reactions. His laboratory is still 
a favorite resort for Americans studying chemistry in 
Europe. C. F. Chandler. 

Bunsen, von (Christian Karl Josias), Ph. D., D. C. L., 
Chevalier, an eminent German writer and diplomatist, 
born at Korbach, in Westphalia, Aug. 25, 1791. He studied 
the Oriental languages in his youth. He was appointed 
secretary to the Prussian embassy at Rome in 1818, where 
he remained many years and devoted much time to philol¬ 
ogy and historical research. In 1827 he succeeded Niebuhr 
as Prussian minister at Rome. Ho was sent as ambas¬ 
sador to London in 1841, and acquired a greater influence 
and a higher position in English society than any German 
diplomatist had ever enjoyed. His principal works are 
“Die Verfassung der Kirche der Zukunft” ( 1845), “Egyp- 
tens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte ” (5 vols., 1845-57), 
“Christianity and Mankind” (7 vols., 1854), and “ Gott 
in der Geschichte” (2 vols., 1868). He had a high repu¬ 
tation as an Egyptologist, and was liberal in religion and 
politics. He was recalled from the court of St. James in 
1854, and was raised to the peerage as Freiherr (baron) in 
1858. Died at Bonn Nov. 29, 1860. (Seo “Memoirs of 
Baron Bunsen,” by his wife, 2 vols., 1868.) 


Bunt. See Mildew. 

Bun'ter Sanil'stein (“variegated sandstone”), a Ger¬ 
man term imported into English geology, and applied to 
the “new red sandstone,” the lowest portion of the tri- 


i assic series, called gres bigarri by French geologists. As 
the trias is more perfectly developed in Germany than in 
Great Britain, the German beds are considered the typical 
group of the triassic period. Large quantities of bunter 
sandstein flank the Vosges Mountains. It is there gene¬ 
rally a fine-grained, solid sandstone, useful as a material 
for building, and is often of a blue, red, or greenish tint. 
The most remarkable fossils of this formation are the re¬ 
mains of huge batrachians, including the Labyrinthodon. 

Bun'ting [cognate with the Ger. bunt, “variegated,” a 
term appropriate to many of the species], a name properly 



Tlie Girl Bunting (Emberiza cirlus ). 


given to numerous small birds of the genera Emberiza, 
Eusjnza, and Plectrophanes. These birds are mostly Euro¬ 
pean, but some are found in America. One of their num¬ 
ber is the ortolan of Europe, so highly prized for the table. 
The bobolink is sometimes called rice-bunting, and several 
other birds are often improperly called buntings. 

Bunting (Jabez), D. D., an English Wesleyan minis¬ 
ter, born at Manchester May 13, 1779. He gained dis¬ 
tinction as an eloquent preacher, and had much influence 
in the Church. Died June 16, 1858. (See his Life by T. 
P. Bunting, 1859.) 

Built of a Sail is that portion nearest the central per¬ 
pendicular line. If a sail be divided into four equal por¬ 
tions from side to side, the bunt would comprise the two 
middle strips. 

Builtz'lau, or Bunzlau, a town of Prussia, in Sile¬ 
sia, is on the Bober, 28 miles by rail W. N. W. of Liegnitz. 
It has a normal school, and manufactures of woollen goods, 
hosiery, linens, etc. Pop. in 1871, 8817. 

Buntzlau, or Bunzlau, Jung (i. e. “Young Buntz- 
lau”), a town of Bohemia, on the river Iser, 37 miles N. E. 
of Prague. It has an old castle, a gymnasium, and man¬ 
ufactures of cotton and woollen fabrics, leather, and soap. 
Pop. in 1869, 8695. 

Bun'yan (John), author of “Pilgrim’s Progress/’ was 
born near Bedford, England, in 1628, and learned the trade 
of a tinker. He was dissipated in his youth, and enlisted 
in the army of the Parliament about 1645. He married 
about the age of twenty, soon quitted the army, and 
joined the Baptists. After passing through severe spiritual 
conflicts he became a preacher in 1655. He preached at 
Bedford until 1660, and was then committed to Bedford 
jail, in which he was confined twelve years. In this jail 
he wrote “Pilgrim’s Progress” (1678), and other religious 
works, amounting in all to sixty volumes, large and small. 
After his liberation he resumed his ministerial labors at 
Bedford. Died Aug. 31, 1688. “ We are not afraid to 

say,” says Macaulay, “that though there were many clever 
men in England during the latter half of the seventeenth 
century, there were only two great creative minds. One 
of these produced the ‘ Paradise Lost,’ and the other the 












































BUOL-SCHAUENSTEIN—BURCKHARDT. 


671 


‘Pilgrim’s Progress.’” (See Macaulay, “Essay on 
Southey’s edition of‘Pilgrim’s Progress/” Ivimey, “Life 
of John Bunyan,” 1809.) 

Bu'ol-Schau'enstein, von (Karl Ferdinand), 
Count, an Austrian diplomatist, born in Switzerland May 
17, 1797. He was sent as ambassador to St. Petersburg in 
1848, and was transferred to the court of St. James in 
1851. He was minister of foreign affairs from 1852 to 
May, 1859. Hied Oct. 28, 1865. 

Buoy (pron. bwoy or boy), a floating body usually in¬ 
tended as a mark for the guidance of mariners. It is 
made either of wood or metal, and is often hollow. Buoys 
are generally moored by chains to the bed of the channel. 
They are of various shapes, sizes, and colors, partly to 
render them conspicuous, and partly to distinguish them 
one from another. Sometimes buoys point out the best 
channel; sometimes they warn the mariner away from 
shoals; sometimes they form a continuous double line be¬ 
tween which ships can with safety pass. A hollow conical 
buoy is called a “ can-buoy,” a double conical buoy is 
called a “ nun-buoy,” a floating wooden spar is a 
“spar-buoy.” The bell-buoy is a contrivance for 
rendering a buoy audible, whether it is visible or 
not; so long as any stream of water, caused by a tide 
or current, passes through the lower part of the buoy, 
it moves an undershot wheel, which rings a bell. In 
laying submarine telegrajihs buoys are used when 
cables are thrown overboard in stormy weather. Such 
weather might severely strain the telegraphic cable, 
but it may be cut, buoyed, and abandoned during the 
rough weather, and afterwards picked up and repaired, and 
the work of laying the cable can go on as before the storm. 

A buoy-rope, on shipboard, is the rope which connects 
the anchor with a buoy floating above it. It is simply in¬ 
tended to point out the locality of the anchor, but if it be 
strong it is useful in assisting to raise the anchor at times 


B ur'bank, a post-township of Monongalia co., Minn. 
Pop. 523. 

Burbank, a post-village of Canaan township, Wayne 

co., 0. Pop. 258. 

Bur'beck (Henry), an American officer, born in Bos¬ 
ton June 8, 1754. He was a soldier in the Revolution, 
and was appointed captain under the Confederation May 
1, 1787. In 1789 he was commissioned a captain of artil¬ 
lery, major in 1791, lieutenant-colonel in 1798, and colonel 
in 1802. He served with distinction in the Revolutionary 
war, that of 1812 with Great Britain, and on frontier ser¬ 
vice. He was brevetted brigadier-general 1813, and re¬ 
tired from the army June, 1815. Hied at New London, 
Conn., Oct. 2, 1848. 

Bur'bois, a post-township of Gasconade co., Mo. 
Pop. 800. 

Bur'bot (Lota vulgaris), a fish of the same genus as 
the ling, is found in certain rivers of England, and is the 
only British fresh-water species of the family Gadidm. It 


is also found in the northern parts of the continent of 
Europe, and in Asia. The larger specimens weigh eight 
or ten pounds. It has two dorsal fins, the second of which 
is very long, and a very long anal fin. Its flesh is white, 
firm, and is esteemed as food. It is capable of living a 
long time out of water. Several burbots are found in the 




when the proper cable is cut or injured. 

Buphaga. See Beefeater. 

Bupres'tis [from the Gr. povn-pr/a-Tig, the name of an 


REDMANK ENWv .EWERS-Wif. 

The Giant Buprestis. 

insect whose bite is said to have caused cattle to swell up; 
derived from /3o09, an “ox,” and to “puff up” by 

blowing], a genus of coleopterous insects of the family 
Buprestidae, which includes more than 1000 species. They 
are remarkable for the splendor and richness of their colors. 
They are found in Europe, but are more abundant in trop¬ 
ical countries. The Buprestis gigas, of Cayenne, is about 
two inches long, and is larger than any of the European 
species. 

Bur, a rough, prickly covering (involucre) of the seeds 
of some plants, as the chestnut. The term is also applied 
to the flower-head or involucre of the Arctium lappa (bur- 
•dock), the prickles of which are hooked at the point. In 
engraving on steel or copper, bur is a slight ridge raised 
on the edges of a lino by the graver or the dry-point. 

Bura'no, an island and town of Italy, in the Adriatic, 
5 miles N. E. of VenicU. The inhabitants are employed in 
fishing and cultivating vegetables for the market of Venice. 
Pop. 5693. 

Burbage (Richard), an English actor, one of Shaks- 
pearo’s associates. Hied in 1619. 


U. S. 

Bur'bridge (Stephen Gano), an American general of 
volunteers, born in Scott co., Ky., Aug. 19,1831; educated 

at Georgetown College and at 
Kentucky Military Institute, 
Frankfort; studied law in the 
office of the late Senator Gar¬ 
rett Havis at Paris, Ky. In 
1849 he returned to Georgetown, 
and engaged in mercantile busi¬ 
ness till 1853, when he turned 
his attention to farming, and at 
the outbreak of the recent civil 
war was conducting a large farm 
in Logan county. He at once 
ardently espoused the cause 
of the U. S., and by his voice 
and influence raised the famous 
Twenty-sixth Kentucky, which 
he led in the field until the bat¬ 
tle of Shiloh, where, for distin- 
\ guished gallantry, he was pro¬ 
moted to be a brigadier-general 
\ of U. S. volunteers. Upon 
Bragg’s invasion of Kentucky 
in 1862 he was ordered there, 
remaining till Bragg was driven 
from the State, when he was 
ordered to join the expedition 
against Vicksburg. He led the 
charge at Arkansas Post and 
at Port Gibson, being among 
the first to enter each place. In the various actions about, 
and at the siege of, Vicksburg he was conspicuous. He 
subsequently commanded the military district of Kentucky, 
and it was during this time that he defeated John Morgan 
in his raids, and drove him into Tenness^. For this ser¬ 
vice he received the thanks of President Lincoln, and was 
brevetted major-general. He resigned from the army in 
1865. G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eng’rs. 

Burch'dale, a township of Todd co., Minn. Pop. 124. 

Burch'ville, a township of Lawrence co., Ala. P. 656. 

Burchville, a township of St. Clair co., Mich. Pop. 726. 

Burck'hardt (Johann Ludwig), an enterprising Swiss 
traveller, born at Lausanne Nov. 24, 1784. lie went to 
London in 1806, and entered the service of the African 
Association, which in 1809 sent him to explore the interior 
of Africa. He spent about two years in Syria, and pre¬ 
pared himself by the study of Arabic and medicine. Ho 
travelled through Cairo and Nubia to Mecca, where ho 
arrived in 1814. Bisguised as a Moslem hfiji, ho made a 
pilgrimage to Mount Ararat and to Medina. Ho (lied at 
Cairo Oct. 15, 1817. Ho was eminently qualified for the 
























672 BURDEN—BURGLARY. 


part of a traveller and explorer. His “Travels in Nubia” 
(in English, 1819), “Travels in Syria and Palestine” (1822), 
“Travels in Arabia” (1829), “Notes on the Bedouins and 
Wahabis” (1830), and “ Manners and Customs of the Mod¬ 
ern Egyptians” (1830), are highly esteemed. 

Bur'den (Henry), born at Dumblane, Scotland, April 
20, 1791, was educated at Edinburgh, and in 1819 came to 
the U. S., where he linally became a large iron manufac¬ 
turer at Troy, N. Y. He made the first cultivator used in 
America, and invented several useful machines. His horse¬ 
shoe machine he brought out in 1835, and the hook-headed 
spike used on railroad tracks in 1843. Died Jan. 19, 1871. 

Burden of Proof, the obligation or necessity of prov¬ 
ing the fact in dispute in an issue joined in a court of jus¬ 
tice. The general rule is, that the burden of proof is with 
the party who asserts the affirmative of the issue. The 
same rule is applied if he grounds his case on negative 
statements or allegations. The rules concerning the bur¬ 
den of proof are of great importance in criminal prosecu¬ 
tions. The burden of proof is on the government through¬ 
out the Avhole case. 

Burdett/, a post-village of Hector township, Schuyler 
co., N. Y., has a tannery, foundry, a factory of agricultural 
tools, a woollen mill, and three churches. 

Burdett (Sir Francis), a popular and liberal English 
legislator, was born Jan. 25, 1770. In 1793 he married a 
rich heiress, Sophia Coutts. He was elected to Parliament 
about 1795, became an effective speaker, opposed the min¬ 
istry, and advocated parliamentary reform. He represented 
Westminster for many years (1807-36), and was the idol of 
the London populace. Died Jan. 23, 1844. 

Burdett-Coutts (Angela Georgiana), Baroness, a 
daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, born April 25,1814. She 
gained distinction by the liberal use of her vast fortune. 
She is now a baroness in her own right. 

Bur'dock (Lappa officinalis), a plant of the order 
Composite, has a globular involucre with imbricated coria¬ 
ceous scales, each tipped with an abrupt and spreading, awl- 
shaped, hook-pointed appendage. This involucre, which is 
called a bur, catches hold of the clothes of persons who come 
into contact with it. It is a native of Europe and natural¬ 
ized in the U. S., growing as a weed in waste places, fence- 
corners, and near dwellings. It is used in medicine as a 
diuretic and diaphoretic. 

Burd'wan, a town of India, in Bengal, is on the Dum- 
modah, and on the Grand Trunk Road, 68 miles by rail 
N. W. of Calcutta. It has manufactures of silk and cotton 
) fabrics, and a large palace, but the houses are generally 
rather mean. Pop. estimated at 50,000. 

\ Bu 'reau, a French word, much used also in various 
Wher languages. In France it signifies a writing-table, a 
dtesk, an office in which public business is transacted. It 
is\]so applied to each one of the numerous committees of 
the Wrench National Assembly. The treasury office is called 
bureau cles finances. The parliamentary phrase deposer sur 
le bureau signifies “to lay upon the table.” In the U. S. 
th/b term bureau is commonly applied to a chest of drawers, 
a7piece of furniture for a bed-chamber. Soon after the end 
<bf the civil war in the U. S., a department called the Freed- 
-men’s Bureau was organized, in order to protect, feed, and 
clothe the liberated slaves. The term is also applied to the 
minor divisions of the executive departments at Washington. 

Bureau, a county of Illinois. Area, 800 square miles. 
It is bounded on the S. E. by the Illinois River, and inter¬ 
sected by Green River and Bureau Creek. The surface is 
undulating or nearly level ; the soil is fertile. The greater 
portion of the county is prairie-land. It has important 
mines of coal. Cotton, grain, dairy products, wool, and 
hay are raised extensively. The chief manufactures are 
carriages, wagons, saddlery, etc. It is traversed by the 
Chicago Burlington and Quincy and Chicago Rock Island 
and Pacific R. Rs. Capital, Princeton. Pop. 32,415. 

Bureau, a township of Bureau co., Ill. Pop. 1145. 

Burg, a German word signifying a “castle,” a “fort¬ 
ress,” occurs as the termination of the names of many towns 
of Europe. 

Burg, a town of Prussian Saxony, is on the river Ihle, 
17 miles by rail N. E. of Magdeburg, and on the railway 
which connects Magdeburg with Berlin. It was settled by 
French and Walloon colonists, and in one of the churches 
the service is in French. It has been for many centuries 
celebrated for its manufactures of woollen cloth, which are 
still flourishing. The annual value of the cloth made here 
is about 7,500,000 thalers. Here are also manufactures of 
linen, machinery, pottery, etc. Pop. in 1871, 15,184. 

Burg'dorf [Fr, Bertkoud], a town of Switzerland, in the 
canton of Berne, on the river Emmen, 13J miles by rail N. 
E. of Berne. It has a castle and manufactures of ribbons 


and silk. Pestalozzi opened a school here in 1798. The 
Sommerhaus baths are in the vicinity. Pop. in 1870, 5078. 

Biir'ger (Gottfried August), a popular German poet, 
born near Halberstadt Dec. 31, 1747. He studied at Got¬ 
tingen, and his literary career was greatly influenced by 
reading Shakspeare. ilis works consist chiefly of ballads 
and songs, which, though very popular, did not relieve him 
from poverty. Among his best productions are “Lenore” 
(1772) and the “Wild Huntsman.” Died June 8, 1794. 

Bur'ges (Tristam), LL.D., an American statesman and 
orator, born at Rochester, Mass., Feb. 26, 1770, and grad¬ 
uated at Brown University in 1796. He studied law, which 
he practised with success at Providence, R. I., and became 
a leader of the Federal party. He was for a time chief- 
justice of Rhode Island, and afterwards a professor in 
Brown University. In 1825 he was elected a member of 
Congress, in which he continued ten years, and gained a 
high reputation. He was eminently logical and terribly 
sarcastic. Died Oct. 13, 1853. 

Bur'gess, a citizen or freeman of a borough,* a repre¬ 
sentative or magistrate of a borough. This title was for¬ 
merly given to members of the lower branch of the Vir¬ 
ginia legislature. 

Burgess (Rt. Rev. George), D. D., born at Providence, 
R. I., Oct. 31, 1809, graduated at Brown University in 
1826, and was a tutor there for a time. He studied in 
Germany two years, was rector of Christ church (Protest¬ 
ant Episcopal), Hartford, Conn. (1834-47), and was in 
1847 consecrated bishop of Maine, acting also as rector of 
Christ church, Gardiner. He went to Hayti to found a 
mission, and died there of apoplexy April 3, 1866. He 
published “ Pages from the Ecclesiastical History of New 
England,” “The Last Enemy Conquering and Conquered,” 
a volume of sermons, and other works. (See his Life, by 
Alexander Burgess, his brother.) 

Burgk'mair (Hans), a noted German painter and en¬ 
graver on wood, was born in Augsburg in 1472. He was 
a friend of Albert Diirer. Died in 1531. 

Bur'glary [from burg, a “town,” and the Old Fr. laire 
(Lat. latro ), a “thief”], in criminal law, the act of break¬ 
ing and entering into a dwelling-house of another or a 
church in the night-time, with intent to commit a felony 
therein. There are four circumstances necessary to consti¬ 
tute the offence, referring to place, time, the acts done, and 
the intent. The place is a dwelling-house or a church. It is 
not necessarjq in order to constitute a “ dwelling-house,” 
that there should be any person residing in the house at 
the time. It is enough if it be habitually used as a dwell¬ 
ing, though it may at the time be closed, as in the case of 
a person having two or more residences. Difficult questions 
sometimes arise as to buildings connected with the house 
and within the curtilage, and as to the case of lodgers 
having separate rooms and entering by a common door. In 
the last instance the inquiry would be whether each lodger 
has a distinct dwelling-house. (Consult Bishop or Whar¬ 
ton on “ Criminal Law.”) 

As to time, the rule is that the offence must be committed 
by night. The better opinion is, that both the breaking 
and entering must be by night, though the two acts, so far 
as they are distinct in their nature, may be committed on 
separate nights. It is held to be night when a person can¬ 
not by the light of the sun clearly discern the face of 
another. This is quite indefinite, and as burglary is a 
heinous offence, some fixed though arbitrary rule seems 
desirable. In some of the States the time is fixed by stat¬ 
ute. The fact that the face can be seen by moonlight does 
not affect the question. 

The acts to be done are breaking and an entry. The 
word “ breaking ” is not to be construed so as to require 
any great degree of force or violence. Unlatching a door 
or raising a window is sufficient. If a door or window 
be left open, an entry through them would not be a 
breaking, though the act of coming down a chimney 
would be. Any entry will suffice, such as thrusting the 
hand or an instrument through a broken pane of glass. 
The act of discharging a loaded pistol or gun through a 
door or the glass of a window would be both a breaking 
and an entry. It is doubtful whether the act of breaking 
out of a house will be sufficient, though the other ingre¬ 
dients of the offence, except breaking in, be present. 

Finally, there must be an intent to commit a felony. If 
a felony be actually committed, the intent may be inferred. 
Tt will be immaterial whether the felony exists at common 
law or is created by statute. An intent to commit a tres¬ 
pass will not suffice. 

The common-law ingredients of this crime have been 
modified in this country by statute. Burglary is some¬ 
times divided into degrees ,* some of these degrees would 
include breaking and entry in the daytime, or into build- 






















BURGOS—BURI. 


ings other than dwelling-houses and churches, or breaking 
out of a building, as well as into it. In some of the States, 
statute law makes the intent to commit any crime sufficient. 

T. W. Dwight. 

Bur'gos, a province of Spain, in Old Castile, is bounded 
on the N. by Santander, on the E. by Biscay, Alava, and 
Logrono, on the S. E. by Soria, on the S. by Segovia, and 
on the W. by Valladolid and Valencia. Area, 5651 square 
miles. It is drained by the Douro and the Ebro, which 
rises within its limits. The surface is partly mountainous. 
Gold, silver, copper, iron, and lead are found in it. Pop. 
in 1867, 357,846. 

Burgos [Lat. Burgi ], a city of Spain, capital of the 
above province, is situated on the river Arlanzon, at the 
foot of the Sierra de Oca, 140 miles by rail N. of Madrid; 
lat. 42° 20' N., Ion. 3° 45' W. It was formerly the capital 
of Old Castile, and was far more populous than it is now. 
It was founded in 844 A. D., and has many antique build¬ 
ings. The court was removed from Burgos to Madrid in 
the sixteenth century, after which the importance of the 
former declined. The most remarkable edifice here is the 
cathedral of white marble, which is one of the noblest 
specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe. This was 
commenced in 1221. Burgos is the seat of an archbishop, 
and has a college and some manufactures of woollen and 
linen fabrics. The railway which connects Bayonne with 
Valladolid passes through this town. Pop. 25,721. 

Burgoyne (John), a British general and dramatist, 
born in 1730. He commanded a force which captured 
Alc&ntara, in Spain, in 1762. In the summer of 1777 he 
took command in Canada of an army of about 8000 men, 
which was ordered to enter New York State and operate 
against the revolted colonists. He was repulsed at Stillwater 
in September, and was captured with his whole army at 
Saratoga in Oct., 1777, by Gen. Gates. He Avrote successful 
dramas called “ The Maid of the Oaks" (1780), “Bon 
Ton,” and “The Heiress” (1786). Died June 4, 1792. 

Burgoyne (Field-Marshal Sir John Fox), son of the 
general above named, and godson of Charles Janies Fox, 
was born in London July 24, 1782, entered the Royal En¬ 
gineers as second lieutenant in 1798. “ During a period 

of 73 years’ service, he slowly but steadily ascended, until 
at an age far beyond the scriptural limit of the life of man, 
he reached that summit of his professional career, which, 
in a published letter, dated Wilhelmshohe, Oct. 29, 1870, 
earned for him from the French Emperor, Napoleon III., 
the designation of 

“ Le Moltke he l’Angleterre.” 

He served as Commanding Engineer under General Frazer 
at the assault of Alexandria and siege of Rosetta (Egypt) 
in 1807 ; and under Sir John Moore in his Portuguese cam¬ 
paign and retreat, in 1808. Through the Peninsular war, 
as an engineer officer he took a prominent part in its greater 
sieges and battles, e. g. the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, the two 
sieges of Badajoz, as Commanding Engineer at the desperate 
siege of Burgos and of that of Sebastian (shot through the 
neck in the assault) and the battles of Busaco, Salamanca, 
Bidassoa, Nivelle, &c. He came out of the Peninsular war, 
aged 32, the senior officer of Engineers Avho had been en¬ 
gaged in the sieges of Spain. As commanding engineer 
under Gen. Pakenham he was present at the assault of 
Gen. Jackson’s lines below New Orleans, January 8, 1815, 
as also at the capture of Fort Bowyer (Mobile Point) Feb¬ 
ruary 11. He Avas called again to the field (aged 72) for 
the Crimean war, rendering distinguished services both in 
the debarkation, the battle of the Alma and subsequent 
march, and in the siege. Against the opinion of the French 
engineers he pointed out at the beginning the Malakoff as 
the proper and decisive object of the siege operations. On 
his recall he resumed his position at the War office as In¬ 
spector General of Fortifications, to Avhich place he had 
been appointed in 1845. His services in this capacity and 
his home services during the long interval between the 
Peninsular and Crimean Avars are numerous and important 
and his various reports and official Avritings have been 
deemed of such importance as to justify the publication 
of a Avork entitled “ Military Opinions ” of Sir John Bur¬ 
goyne. After 70 years’ service he retired in 1868 with pro¬ 
motion to the rank of Field Marshal, and the appointment 
of Constable of the Tower of London. Though then aged 
86 his physical powers were good and his mind unimpaired. 
“ Seventy years of work have left in me,” he writes, “ a 
train of thought that I now continue to indulge in.” A 
past history and experience of 70 years had had no effect 
in blunting his mind to the present and its progress. His 
interest in all that concerned our oavti great war Avas un¬ 
flagging and his mind keenly open to every “ improve¬ 
ment” he could discern. Our reports on military bridges, 
military railway transportation, sieges, torpedoes, sub¬ 
marine blasting, &c., he sought for and appreciated. How 

43 


673 


much longer a noble life and a grand career might havo 
been protracted it is useless to speculate, for a IjIoav fell in 
September, 1870, in the loss of his only son, Capt. Hugh 
Burgoyne, V. C., Commander of the ill-fated “Captain,” 
from the effects of which he never rallied. He died Oct. 
7, 1871. For one who “has done more under fire than any 
soldier in Europe,” even though, to use his own modest ex¬ 
planation, he “had been a long time about it,” whose life 
is a shining illustration of the motto of the Royal Engi¬ 
neers, “ Quo fas et gloria ducunt Ubique,” this tribute from 
one Avho was honored Avith his friendship and Avho rev¬ 
erently followed his remains to their last resting place, in 
the historic ToAver of London, is due. 

J. G. Barnard, IJ. S. A. 

Bur'gUlldy [Fr. Bourgogne ; Lat. Bnrgundia ], one of 
the most important of the former provinces of France, noAV 
forming the departments of. Cote d’Or, Saone-et-Loire, 
Yonne, part of Ain, and part of Aube. The whole popu¬ 
lation of the departments of Ain, Saone-et-Loire, Cote 
d’Or, Yonne, Aube, Haute-Marne, and Ilaute-Sa&ne amounts 
to 2,460,730. The name Avas derived from an ancient Ger¬ 
man tribe called in Latin Burgundi or Burgundiones, who 
settled in this part of Gaul about 408 A. D. Gondemar, 
king of Burgundy, Avas defeated and killed in 534 by the 
Franks, who then obtained possession of Burgundy. The 
kingdom of Burgundy re-established in 561 Avas much 
more extensive than the province of that name, and its 
extent \ r aried in different periods. It included the prov¬ 
inces of Burgundy, Franche-Comte, Dauphine, a part of 
Switzerland, Lyonnais, and nearly all the basin of the 
Rhone. In 879 A. D., Burgundy renounced its allegiance 
to the Aveak Carkmngian king, and became an independent 
state ruled by King Boso. It afterwards in part belonged 
to the kingdom of Arles (933-1032). Upper Burgundy 
was a kingdom from 888 to 933. In these ages there were 
often several lines of princes claiming the title of king 
of Burgundy, and ruling over parts of the country. King 
Rudolf III., dying without male issue in 1032, bequeathed 
his kingdom to the emperor Conrad II. Conrad’s son, 
Henry, erected it into a duchy, feudal to Germany, some¬ 
times called Little Burgundy. Meanwhile the north-western 
portion of old Burgundy remained a fee of the French 
crown, governed by a line of dukes. This line became ex¬ 
tinct in 1361, but John II. of France made his son, Philip 
the Bold, duke in 1364. After this Burgundy became an 
important state, which was much of the time virtually in¬ 
dependent. Several of the dukes who reigned over it Averc 
poAverful and famous princes. On the death of Charles the 
Bold, in 1477, the ducal line became extinct, and the duchy 
was annexed to France. From 915 to 1384 Franche-Comte 
was under a line of counts of Burgundy, but Philip the 
Bold made it a part of his dominions in 1384. (See De 
Barante, “'History of the Dukes of Burgundy,” 13 vols., 
1826.) 

Burgundy, Dukes of. See Charles the Bold, Philip 
the Bold, Philip the Good. 

Burgundy (Louis), Duke of, dauphin of France, born 
in 1682, was a grandson of Louis XIV. and the father of 
Louis XV. He was a youth of violent passions and ex¬ 
tremely haughty, but his character was, it is said, reformed 
by Fenelon, who was his preceptor. He married Adelaide 
of Savoy about 1698. On the death of his father he be¬ 
came dauphin and heir-apparent to the throne. Died in 
1712.- 

Burgundy Pitch (Pix Burgundica), a resinous sub¬ 
stance, is a concrete exudation from the Abies excelsa or 
Norway fir. It is prepared by melting it in hot water, by 
which process part of the volatile oil Avhich it contains is 
separated from it. By straining it through a coarse cloth 
sonie impurities are removed. It is of a yellowish-Avhite 
color, is hard and brittle Avhen cold, but is softened by a 
moderate degree of heat. It has a pleasant resinous odor 
and a slightly bitter taste. It is used in medicine as an' 
external application in the form of a plaster. The Bur¬ 
gundy pitch of commerce comes chiefly from the neighbor¬ 
hood of Neufchatel, Switzerland. 

Burgundy Wines, the name of excellent French 
wines produced in the former province of Burgundy, chiefly 
on the range of hills called Cote d’Or, betAveen Dijon and 
Chalons. These hills are about S00 to 1000 feet high. 
The wines are celebrated for richness of flavor and per¬ 
fume. The best red Avines of Burgundy are called Clos- 
Vougeot, Chambertin, Romane-Conti, Volnay, Poniard, 
and Richebourg. The white Avines of Burgundy are said 
to be the finest in France, but the quantity produced is 
less than that of the red. The total annual product ol 
Burgundy Avines is from 2,500,000 to 3,500,000 hectolitres. 

Bu'ri, a name of a species of palm, a native of the Phil¬ 
ippine Islands. Its trunk is employed in the construction 
of houses; sugar and spirituous liquors are made of the 













674 


BUKI—BURKE. 


sap ; the pith yields a valuable articlo of food (sago) ; and 
mats and sails are made from its fibre. This palm is the 
Saguerus saccharifer. 

Bu'ri, or 15 ure [from a root cognate with the Anglo- 
Saxon bora, “one who bears” or produces, because, being 
the first of the gods, he was the progenitor of all the others], 
the first of the gods of the Norse mythology (iEsir). It is 
related that when the mythic cow Audhumla (whose name, 
from audr, “ desert,” and hum, “ darkness,” may be said to 
symbolize the original chaotic darkness) began to lick the 
frost-covered rocks of the primeval chaos, there came forth 
a beautiful and mighty being in human form called Buri, 
whose son Bor (that is “born,” and hence, like the Latin 
natus, signifying a “ son ”) was the father of Odin. 

B nridan (Jean), a French scholastic philosopher, born 
at Bethune, in Artois, flourished about 1350. He was a 
pupil of Occam, lectured at Paris, and belonged to the 
Nominalist school. He wrote commentaries on Aristotle’s 
“ Metaphysica,” and other works, and was the reputed au¬ 
thor of a celebrated sophism called “ Buridan’s Ass.” The 
subject of this was an ass placed between two equidistant 
and equal bundles of hay, and starving on account of the 
equal balance of the two motives. 

Bu'rin, a post-town and port of entry of Newfound¬ 
land, capital of Burin district, has a fine harbor on the W. 
side of Placentia Bay, and has a jail. Pop. 1850. 

Burke, a county of Georgia, bordering on South Caro¬ 
lina. Area, 1640 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. 
by the Savannah River, and on the S. by the Ogeechee, and 
is intersected by Brier Creek. The surface is undulating or 
nearly level; the soil is fertile. Corn and cotton are staple 
crops. Limestone abounds here. Burke county is inter¬ 
sected by the Central R. R. Capital, Waynesborough. 
Pop. 17,679. 

Burke, a county in the W. of North Carolina. Area, 
450 square miles. It is intersected by the Catawba River, 
and also drained by Linville River. The Blue Ridge 
extends along the N. W. border of this county, which pre¬ 
sents beautiful mountain-scenery. Grain, tobacco, and 
wool are raised. It contains gold, native antimony, and 
small quantities of silver and platinum. True diamonds 
have been found here. The soil of the valley is fertile. It 
is traversed by the Western R. R. Capital, Morganton. 
Pop. 9777. 

Burke, a post-township of Franklin co., N. Y. P. 2141. 

Burke, a post-township of Caledonia co., Vt. It has 
five churches, and manufactures of lumber, shingles, and 
starch. Pop. 1162. 

Burke, a township of Dane co., Wis. Pop. 1127. 

Burke (Edmund), LL.D., an eminent statesman, orator, 
and writer, born in Dublin Jan. 1, 1728, or, according to 
some writers, in 1730. He was the son of Richard Burke, 
a distinguished attorney, and Miss Nagle, a lady of a Ro¬ 
man Catholic family. He was one of four children, the 
only survivors of a numerous family, and at an early age 
became the pupil of Abraham Shackleton, a Quaker of 
superior attainments and excellent character, Avho taught 
a school at Ballitore. Having entered Trinity College, 
Dublin, he devoted himself to history, philosophy, the 
classics, etc., not neglecting poetry and other works of 
imagination. He afterwards studied law at the Middle 
Temple, but returned to Ireland in 1751, and took the de¬ 
gree of A. M. His “Vindication of Natural Society,” an 
ironical criticism of Lord Bolingbroke’s attacks on Chris¬ 
tianity, came out anonymously in 1756. “The imitation 
of Bolingbroke’s style and manner was so perfect,” says 
Prior, “ as to constitute identity, rather than resemblance.” 
This was followed by a “ Philosophical Inquiry into the 
Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful,” which 
was highly commended by Dr. Johnson. Burke married, 
in 1757, Mary Jane, daughter of Dr: Nugent of Bath, and 
the union appears to have been a very happy one. Soon 
after this he formed an intimacy with Dr. Johnson and 
Garrick; the former, from his first acquaintance with 
Burke, felt the warmest admiration for his talents, and was 
accustomed to say that “no man of sense could meet Mr. 
Burke, by accident under a gateway, to avoid a shower, 
without being convinced that he was the first man in Eng¬ 
land.” In 1759 he became private secretary to William 
Gerard Hamilton, through whose influence chiefly he re¬ 
ceived a pension from the government of £300 per annum; 
but finding that his political independence would be com¬ 
promised by its acceptance, he threw it up at the end of 
the year. He was returned to Parliament for Wendover, 
in Buckinghamshire, about 1765, and re-elected in 1768. 
Having soon after purchased an estate, he wrote to his 
friend Shackleton, “ I have made a push with all I could 
collect of my own, and the aid of my friends, to cast a little 
root into this country. I have purchased a house with 


600 acres of land in Buckinghamshire, 24 miles from Lon¬ 
don.” The “Letters of Junius,” which appeared about 
this time, were almost universally ascribed to Burke, but 
his repeated denials were not generally believed until the 
publication of the “ Grenville Papers.” His “Thoughts on 
the Cause of the Present Discontent” came out in 1770, and 
in 1771 he was appointed agent to the colony of New York. 
In 1772, Sir Charles Colebrook, in the name of the directors 
of the East India Company, offered to Burke, who had al¬ 
ready considerable knowledge of Indian affairs, “the first 
position in a supervisorship of three, empowered to trace 
out in detail the whole administrative system of India, and 
to remedy all they could find amiss.” This offer he de¬ 
clined, feeling perhaps unwilling to leave Parliament at a 
time when American affairs were becoming more compli¬ 
cated, and the condition of France filled him with anxious 
forebodings. Soon after his return from a short residence 
in Paris he said in a speech in Parliament, “ I see propa¬ 
gated principles which will not leave to religion even a tol¬ 
eration, and make Virtue herself less than a name.” In 
April, 1774, he made a speech on American taxation, and 
he appears to have been the only member of Parliament 
who fully comprehended the dangers which threatened the 
American colonies. An intelligent American gentleman, 
who was present on this occasion, is said to have exclaimed, 
“ You have got a most wonderful man here; he under¬ 
stands more of America than all the rest of your House put 
together.” In Nov., 1774, Burke represented the city of 
Bristol in Parliament, and in Mar., 1775, made an admi¬ 
rable speech in favor of conciliatory measures towards the 
American colonies. Fox said of this oration, “ Let gentle¬ 
men read this speech by day and meditate upon it by 
night; they would there learn that representation was the 
sovereign remedy for every evil.” In 1780 he delivered his 
speech “On the Economical Reform,” and in 1782 became 
a privy-councillor and paymaster-general of the forces 
under the Rockingham ministry. His speech on the “ East 
India Bill” in Dec., 1783, is esteemed one of his best. 
The bill was lost in the House of Lords, although it passed 
that of the Commons. Burke retired from office soon after 
the accession of Pitt as prime minister, and held no position 
afterwards under the government. In Feb., 1785, ho 
made a speech on the debts of the nabob of Areot, which, 
says Prior, “was one of those outpourings of a fertile and 
vigorous intellect which on an unpromising theme seemed 
to combine all that could instruct, dazzle, and even over¬ 
power the reader.” His prosecution of Hastings, the most 
arduous enterprise of his life, was commenced in Jan., 
1786. The articles containing the different charges were 
so numerous and extensive as to require the attention of 
the House for a considerable part of two sessions. After 
Sheridan’s speech on the Begum case in Jan., 1787, a com¬ 
mittee of impeachment was formed, and on the 10th of 
May, Burke, as chairman of the committee, accused Hast¬ 
ings at the bar of the House of Lords in the name of the 
Commons of England. On the 15th of Feb., 1788, Burke 
made his memorable speech in Westminster Hall, in the 
presence of an immense assembly. Although a verdict of 
acquittal was passed in 1795, the noble efforts of Burke 
led the way to great reforms in the government of India. 

“ Never,” says Lord John Russell, “has the great object of 
punishment, the prevention of crime, been attained more 
completely than by this trial—Hastings was acquitted, but 
tyranny, deceit, and injustice were condemned.” In 1790 
Burke published his “ Reflections on the Revolution in 
France,” of which more than 30,000 copies are said to have 
been sold within a few months. It was translated into 
French, and received with enthusiasm in all parts of 
Europe. Soon after this he published “An Appeal from 
the New to the Old Whigs,” in which he refutes the charge 
brought against him by Fox of having abandoned tho 
principles of his party. About 1795, Burke received con¬ 
siderable pensions granted at the desire of the king, and 
without solicitation on his part or that of his friends. 
His acceptance of these well-merited rewards exposed him 
to severe attacks upon his character, in reply to which he 
wrote his “Letter to a Noble Lord,” which was received 
with great favor. Burke’s only son, Richard, a young man 
of great promise, had died in 1794, and this severe afflic¬ 
tion probably hastened the father’s death, which took place 
July 9,1797. “ If we are to praise a man in proportion to his 
usefulness,” says Schlegel, “ I am persuaded that no task 
can be more difficult than to do justice to the statesman and 
orator Burke. This man has been to his own country, and 
to all Europe, a new light of political wisdom and moral 
experience. He corrected his age when it was at its 
height of revolutionary frenzy; and without maintaining 
any system of philosophy, he seems to have seen farther 
into the true nature of society, and to have more clearly 
comprehended the effect of religion in connecting indi¬ 
vidual security with national welfare, than any philosopher 






























BURK E—BURLINGTON. 


675 


of any preceding age.” A writer in the “ London Quar¬ 
terly Review” observes of Burke’s speeches on the Stamp 
Act, “ This was the appropriate start of a man who, 
whether as a statesman, a thinker, or an orator, was with¬ 
out an equal. Pitt and Fox were great, but Burke belongs 
to another order of beings, and ranks with the Shakspeares, 
the Bacons, and the Newtons. . . . By the incessant prac¬ 
tice of composition he learned to embody his conclusions 
in a style more grandly beautiful than has ever been 
reached by any other Englishman with either the tongue 
or the pen ” ( London Quarterly Review for January and 
April, 1858). (See Prior, “Life of Burke;” Dr. Geo. 
Crolv, “ Political Life of Edmund Burke;” Lord Jeffrey, 
“Miscellanies.”) J. Thomas. 

Burke (Sir John), a genealogist, born in Ireland in 
1786. lie published, besides other works, a “Dictionary 
of the Peerage and Baronetage of the British Empire” 
(1826), often reprinted. lie was for some time Ulster King 
of Arms. Died in 1848.—Ilis second son, Sir John Ber¬ 
nard Burke, LL.D., born in 1815, is (1873) Ulster King of 
Arms, an office which he has held since 1853. He has writ¬ 
ten a large number of works on heraldry and kindred sub¬ 
jects. 

Burke’s Fork, a township of FlDyd co., Va. P. 671. 

B urkesville, a post-village, capital of Cumberland co., 
Ky., on the Cumberland River, about 125 miles S. by W. 
of Frankfort. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Burkesville, a post-village of Nottoway co., Va. It 
is situated at the crossing of the Richmond and Danville 
and the South Side R. Rs. It has one weekly newspaper. 

B ur'kittsville, a post-village of Petersville township, 
Frederick co., Md. Pop. 293. 

B ur'leigh (William Cecil), Lord, an able English 
statesman, born at Bourne, in Lincolnshire, in 1520. He 
graduated at Cambridge, studied law, and married Mildred, 
a daughter of Sir Anthony Cook. In 1548 he was appointed 
secretary of state. As he was a Protestant, he resigned 
office on the accession of Queen Mary in 1553. He was 
one of the few eminent Protestants who escaped from per¬ 
secution in that reign. He was again appointed secretary 
of state by Queen Elizabeth in Nov., 1558, and he was 
virtually prime minister for forty years from that date. In 
1571 he received the title of Baron Burleigh, and in 1572 
became lord treasurer. According to Hume, “ he was the 
most vigilant, active, and prudent minister ever known in 
England.” He died in 1598, and left no less than 300 
landed estates. “ Lord Burleigh,” says Macaulay, “can 
hardly be called a great man. He was not one of those 
whose genius and energy change the fate of empires. 
Nothing that is recorded either of his words or actions in¬ 
dicates intellectual or moral elevation. But his talents, 
though not brilliant, were of an eminently useful kind. 
He had a cool temper, a sound judgment, great powers of 
application, and a constant eye to the main chance.” (See 
Arthur Collins, “Life of William Cecil,” 1732; Motley, 
“ History of the United Netherlands,” chaps, vi., viii., and 
xviii.; Froude, “ History of England,” vol. v.) 

Burleigh (William Henry), an American poet, born 
at Woodstock, Conn., Feb. 2, 1S12. He was an opponent 
of slavery and editor of several journals. In 1848 he pro¬ 
duced a volume of poems. Died Mar. 18, 1871. 

Bur'Ieson, a county of the S. central part of Texas. 
Area, 976 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the 
Brazos River, and on the S. by Yegua Creek. The soil is 
fertile. Great numbers of cattle are raised. Wool, cotton, 
and corn are staple products. Capital, Caldwell. P. 80 1 2. 

Burleson, a post-township of Franklin co., Ala. Pop. 
1050. 

Burlesque [It. burleseo, from bur la, a “jest,” “mock¬ 
ery ”], a species of ludicrous composition. The Italian 
“poesia burlesca” signifies comic or sportive poetry. The 
term in French and English is commonly restricted to com¬ 
positions of which the humor consists in a ludicrous mix¬ 
ture of things high and low, as high thoughts clothed in 
low expressions, or, vice versd, ordinary or mean topics in¬ 
vested with the artificial dignity of poetic diction. Scar- 
ron’s works and Butler’s “Hudibras” are remarkable ex¬ 
amples of the burlesque. 

Burlet/ta, an Italian word, signifies a comic operetta 
or musical farce. 

Bur'lingame, the county-seat of Osage co., Kan., on 
the Atchison Topeka and Santa Fe R. R., 24 miles S. S. W, 
of Topeka. Coal is found in abundance here, also a fine 
quality of fire-clay. It has four churches and a fine brick 
school-house. The surrounding country is unsurpassed in 
productiveness. The climate is healthy. It has one news¬ 
paper. Pop. 655; of Burlingame township, 1549. 

Ed. of Osage County “Chronicle.” 


Burlingame (Anson), LL.D., an American diplomatist, 
born at New Berlin in Chenango co., N. Y., Nov. 14, 1822, 
and graduated at Harvard in 1846. He became a lawyer 
and a resident of Boston, and represented the fifth district 
of Massachusetts in Congress from 1854 to 1860. He acted 
with the Republicans, and gained distinction as an orator. 
In 1861 he was sent as commissioner to China, and in 1867 
was appointed ambassador from China to the U. S. and the 
great powers of Europe. Died Feb. 23, 1870. 

Burlington, a county of New Jersey. Area, 600 square 
miles. It extends entirely across the State. It is bounded 
on the N. W. by the Delaware River, and on the S. E. by 
the Atlantic Ocean. It is drained by Little Egg Harbor 
River and Rancocus Creek. The surface is mostly level; 
the soil is fertile in the N. W. part, and sandy in the other 
portions. Grain, cattle, hay, and dairy and garden prod¬ 
ucts are the chief staples. It has manufactures of lumber, 
clothing, boots, shoes, etc. It is intersected by the Cam¬ 
den and Amboy R. R. and the New Jersey Southern R. R. 
Capital, Mount Holly. Pop. 53,639. 

Burlington, a post-village of Boulder co., Col., on the 
St. Vrain River, 42 miles N. W. of Denver. 

Burlington, a post-township of Hartford co., Conn. 
Pop. 1319. 

Burlington, a post-township of Kane co., Ill. P. 919. 

Burlington, a post-township of Carroll co., Ind. Pop. 
1198. 

Burl ington, a city and river-port of Iowa, capital of 
Des Moines co., is situated on the Mississippi River, 45 
miles above Keokuk, 207 miles W. S. W. of Chicago, 250 
miles by water above St. Louis, and 296 miles by railroad 
E. of Omaha. The river is here a broad, deep, and beauti¬ 
ful stream. The plan of the city is regular, and the houses 
are mostly of brick or stone. Many of the private resi¬ 
dences are built on high bluffs which afford extensive views 
of river-scenery. This place is the seat of Burlington Uni¬ 
versity. It contains about foui'teen churches, three national 
banks, and several manufactories. It is the eastern terminus 
of the Burlington and Missouri River R. R., and is con¬ 
nected with Chicago by the Chicago Burlington and Quincy 
R. R. The Burlington Cedar Rapids and Minnesota R. R. 
connects it with Cedar Rapids and St. Paul. Here occurs 
a valuable variety of carboniferous limestone. (See Bur¬ 
lington Limestone.) Burlington is sometimes called the 
“ Orchard City.” It has two daily, one tri-weekly, one 
semi-weekly, and three weekly newspapers. Pop. in 1860, 
6706; in 1870, 14,930. 

Burlington, a post-village, capital of Coffee co., Ivan., 
on the right bank of the Neosho River, and on the Missouri 
Kansas and Texas R. R., 28 miles S. E. of Emporia and 
65 miles S. of Topeka. It has an abundant water-power, a 
national bank, a weekly paper, a public school-house cost¬ 
ing $30,000, and first-class mills. Pop. 960; of Burlington 
township, 1600. A. D. Brown, Pub. of “Patriot.” 

Burlington, a post-village, capital of Boone co., Ky., 
is 16 miles S. W. of Cincinnati. It has four churches. Pop. 
277. 

Burlington, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. 
Pop. 553. 

Burlington, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass., 
has a public library and woollen print-works. Pop. 626. 

Burlington, a post-township of Calhoun co., Mich. 
Pop. 1485. 

Burlington, a township of Lapeer co., Mich. P. 880. 

Burlington, a city of Burlington co., N. J., is on the 
Delaware Rivey, nearly opposite Bristol, 20 miles above 
Philadelphia and 12 miles S. W. of Trenton. It is on the 
Camden and Amboy R. R. The river is here nearly 1 mile 
wide, and encloses an island of 300 acres. The city is the 
seat of Burlington College (Episcopalian), founded in 1846, 
and contains ten churches, a public library, a national 
bank, and two weekly newspapers. • Pop. 5817; of Bur¬ 
lington township, 1025. 

Burlington, a post-township of Otsego co., N. Y. Pop. 
1476. 

Burlington, a township of Licking co., 0. Pop. 1061. 

Burlington, a post-village in Burlington township, 
Bradford co., Pa., 8 miles W. of Towanda. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 1375. 

Burlington, a city and capital of Chittenden co., 1 t., 
is situated on Burlington Bay of Lake Champlain, 40 miles 
W. from Montpelier, the capital of the State. It was in¬ 
corporated as a city in 1865, and is the largest place in (he 
State. Pop. in 1840, 4271; in 1850, 7585; in 1860, 7713; 
in 1870, 14,387; in 1873, estimated from registered vote, 
17,000. Area of original township, 6 square miles; about 
two-fifths were included in the municipal limits, the rest 




















67 C BURLINGTON—BURMAH. 


forming a new town called South Burlington. Estimated 
value of property in the city (April 1, 1873), $9,307,500; 
city and State taxes for 1873, $95,391; city debt, Feb. 1, 
1873, bonded and floating, $214,000; expenses of city 
government, 1872, $78,000. 

The heaviest trade in the city is in lumber. There are 
five planing-mills, one of which alone dresses 50,000,000 
feet a year, and the whole amount dressed is 8,000,000 or 
10,000,000 feet per month. The capital invested is over 
$1,000,000, and, including the sales made by firms here of 
lumber which goes elsewhere, Burlington is the third mar¬ 
ket in the IT. S. for size. There are large quarries of 
building-stone, of limestone, and fine marble within or 
near the city limits; lime-kilns and brick-yards are in 
active operation, and steam marble-mills, machine-shops, 
foundries, sash-factories, chair and furniture factories, 
paper-mills, and many smaller manufacturing trades, are 
thriving. On the N. E. limit of the city the abundant 
water-power of the Winooski is utilized for woollen and 
cotton mills, Hour-mills, machine-shops, chair-factories, etc. 
A line of passenger steamers and a large fleet of tugs and 
barges ply between Burlington and every port on the lake. 

The University of Vermont and State Agricultural Col¬ 
lege is situated here; it was chartered in 1791, has 8 pro¬ 
fessors and an average attendance of 100 students, besides 
a flourishing medical department, and ranks as one of the 
best institutions in the country. Since 1872 young women 
have been admitted to the classical and scientific depart¬ 
ments on the same terms as young men. The college 
buildings stand on the crown of the hill on whose side the 
city is built, overlooking the lake in a most beautiful and 
commanding position. The library and museum are in a 
fireproof building, and the third story of the edifice con¬ 
tains an art-gallery. A park of 7 acres lies in front of the 
college buildings, and lands of the univei’sity in the rear. 
The city schools are 14 in number, having 37 teachers and 
800 pupils, divided in three grades, besides the high school, 
and are under control of a board of commissioners elected 
by the people. The high-school building, erected in 1871 
at a cost of $20,000, is one of the best in the State. The 
cost of maintaining schools in 1872 was $22,720. There 
are also two large Roman Catholic schools and an Episco¬ 
pal institute for boys within the city limits, and several 
private schools. The churches are—two Congregational, 
one each Baptist, Methodist, Episcopal, and Unitarian, and 
two Roman Catholic, besides several mission chapels. The 
edifices are all good, and most of them new, all but one of 
stone or brick; and St. Mary’s (Roman Catholic) cathedral 
is one of the finest church edifices in this part of the 
country. There are two orphan asylums—one Roman 
Catholic, accommodating 60 children, and one Protestant, 
with 35 inmates. The chief public buildings are the city 
hall, the county court-house (a handsome stone building, 
erected in 1872), the county jail, and the U. S. post-office 
and custom-house (a large fireproof brick building, erected 
in 1858). The banks are the Merchants’ National and 
Howard National, united capital $1,100,000, the Burlington 
Savings Bank, deposits $214,000, and the Farmers’ and 
Mechanics’ Trust Company, capital $100,000. The libraries 
are the University Library, 15,000 volumes; Young Men’s 
Association, 2000 volumes; Young Men’s Christian Asso¬ 
ciation, 1000 volumes, and the Fletcher Free Librax-y, to be 
under control of the city, and not yet opened, fund $20,000. 
There are three newspapers, one daily and weekly, and two 
weekly. The Vermont Life and Champlain Mutual Fire 
Insurance Companies have their head offices in this city. 

The city is supplied with water from the lake, raised by 
steam-pumps to a reservoir on the hill, which gives a head of 
280 feet; the water-works are under the control of the city, 
but the gas-works are the property of a corporation. Some of 
the streets are sewered and paved, and $20,000 was appro¬ 
priated by the city council for the street department for 
1873. Lakeview Cemetery, opened by the city in 1868, on 
the bluff overlooking the lake, is already a beautiful spot, 
and Green Mount Cemetery, on the eastern side of the city, 
ovei-looking the valley of the Winooski, a magnificent lo¬ 
cation, contains the monument to Ethan Allen, who was 
one of the early settlers and buried here—a shaft of granite 
surmounted by a heroic statue of Allen in marble, which 
was unveiled with imposing ceremonies July 4, 1873. 

Burlington was first settled in 1773, but no permanent 
•residences were made till the close of the Revolutionary 
war, and in 1800 the population was 600. The principal 
streets are four rods wide, laid out at right angles, many 
of them well shaded with elm and maple trees. The loca¬ 
tion of the city is unequalled in this part of the country, 
and the beauty of its scenery unsurpassed anywhere. The 
geographical position of the city, midway of the eastern 
shore of Lake Champlain, and the facilities for transporta¬ 
tion by rail and water, make the whole valley of the lako 
tributary to it in the way of business. Railroads run di¬ 


rect to Boston, Albany, and New York, Montreal, Ogdens- 
bui’g, and the West, while other lines are under construc¬ 
tion to centre here or connect with x’oads already built. 
When the proposed Caughnawaga Ship Canal is completed 
Lake Champlain must become a portion of the great high¬ 
way between West and East, and Burlington a chief place 
of transshipment of goods for the Easteim cities and Eui’ope. 

B. L. Benedict, 

of the City Directory and “ Free Press.” 

Burlington, a post-village of Racine co., Wis., on the 
Pishtaka or Fox River, and on the Western Union R. R., 
27 miles W. by S. of Racine. It has several factoi’ies and 
mills, one national and one State bank, and one weekly 
paper. Pop. 1589; of Burlington township, 2762. 

Ed. “Burlington Standard.” 

Burlington Limestone, a variety of sub-carbon¬ 
iferous magnesian limestone, which derives its name from 
Burlington, la., the typical locality where it was first 
studied. It also occurs as a surface-rock in Missouri and 
Illinois, adjacent to the Mississippi River. It is a valu¬ 
able building-stone, and is peculiarly interesting to natu¬ 
ralists. The upper bed is of a light gray coloi', and is 
nearly pure carbonate of lime. The lower bed contains 
more magnesia. “It is,” says A. H. Worthen, “exceed¬ 
ingly rich in fossils, especially Crinoidea, and has afforded 
a greater number both of species and individuals than all 
the other palaeozoic rocks of this continent combined.” 

Bur'mah, Birmah, or Birma, sometimes called 
the Burmese Empire or Kingdom of Ava [native 

Myamma or Bramma; Chinese Meen-teeii], a country of 
Farther India, mostly included between lat. 19° and 27° N. 
It is bounded on the N. W. by Assam, on the N. by Thibet, 
on the E. by China and the river Salwen, on the S. by the 
British province of Pegu, and on the W. by Munnipoor and 
Aracan. Area, estimated at 190,500 English squai-e miles. 
It is enclosed on several sides by mountain-ranges. The 
sui'face is diversified by high ridges, rolling uplands, and 
alluvial basins. The soil is generally fertile, and the cli¬ 
mate in most parts is healthy. The rainy season in the 
southern part lasts from May to October, and is followed 
by several months of cool, dry, and pleasant weather. It 
is intersected by the river Irrawaddy, which divides it into 
two nearly equal parts. Burmah is rich in minerals, in¬ 
cluding gold, silver, copper, antimony, lead, tin, iron, mar¬ 
ble, coal, and sulphur. It has valuable mines of rubies 
and sapphires, and wells of petroleum. The annual value 
of the gems found in Burmah is estimated at about £14,000. 
The staple productions of the cultivated soil are rice, maize, 
millet, pulse, cotton, indigo, tobacco, yams, and bananas. 
Among the indigenous plants are the bamboo, the cocoa- 
nut palm, the palmyra palm, the betel, the oak, and the 
teak tree, of which last Burmah has inexhaustible for¬ 
ests. The principal wild animals found here are -the ele¬ 
phant, rhinoceros, tigei', leopard, and buffalo. The elephant 
and buffalo are tamed and employed as domestic animals. 
The Bunnese belong to that branch of the Mongolian race 
which is characterized by a monosyllabic language. Their 
figure is short, squat, and robust; their hair is black, 
coarse, and lank ; and their complexion is light-brown or 
yellowish. They have eyes obliquely placed and lozenge- 
shaped faces. A large majority of them profess the relig¬ 
ion of Booddha, to which a great number of pagodas and 
temples are dedicated in Burmah. Connected with this 
religion is a monastic system and a multitude of monks 
bound by vows of poverty and celibacy. Besides the Bur¬ 
mese proper there are a great variety of other peoples, 
among which are the Siians and Karens (which see). The 
government is an hereditary despotism. The Burmese 
excel in boatbuilding, and ai'e skilful workers in metals. 
They weave cotton fabi-ics and manufacture, lacquered 
wares. They expoi't teak-timber, petroleum, gold-leaf, 
silver, copper, indigo, tobacco, cotton, horns, and gums. 
Capitals, Mandelay and Ava. The total population is es¬ 
timated at 4,000,000. 

History .—This empire was formerly much more exten¬ 
sive than it is now. In this region the rival kingdoms of 
Ava and Pegu long contended for mastei-y. The seat of 
government was fixed about 1364 at Ava, which continued 
to be the capital for 369 years. The most celebrated mar¬ 
tial king in Burmese history was Alompra, the founder of 
the present dynasty of Burmah, who conquered Pegu about 
1756 and died in 1760. The empire attained its greatest 
extension about 1822, soon after which date the Burmese 
were involved in war with the British, who reduced the 
limits of the empire by the conquest of Aracan, Martaban, 
Pegu, and the Tenasserim provinces. In 1873 the Chineso 
troops invaded Northern Burmah and burned some towns. 
(See Winter, “Six Months in Burmah,” 1858; Malcom, 
“Travels in the Burman Empire;” J. W. Palmer, “The 
Golden Dagon,” 1853.) Revised by A. J. Schem. 















BURMAH, BRITISH—BURNING GLASSES AND BURNING MIRRORS. 


677 


Burmah, British, a collective term applied to sev¬ 
eral provinces of the Anglo-Indian empire conquered from 
the kings of Burmah. These are Aracan, Martaban, Pegu, 
and the Tenasserim provinces of Maulmain (or Amherst), 
Tavoy, and Mergui. Aracan and the Tenasserim prov¬ 
inces were ceded to the British by a treaty signed in Feb., 
1826, at the end of the first war with Burmah. Pegu and 
Martaban were retained as compensation after the war of 
1852. The American Baptist missionaries have in British 
Burmah one of the most successful missions of modern 
times. The area of British Burmah is 93,879 square miles. 
Pop. in 1869, 2,392,312. (See Aracan and Pegu.) 

Bur' maim (Peter), an eminent philologist, was born 
at Utrecht July 6, 1668. He became professor of history, 
eloquence, and the Greek language at Leyden in 1715. He 
edited Horace, Ovid, Virgil, Quintilian, Lucan, and other 
classics, and wrote several works, among which is a treatise 
“ On the Revenues of Rome” (“ De Vectigalibus Populi 
Romani,” 1694). His writings are esteemed for their ac¬ 
curate erudition. Died Mar. 31, 1741. 

Bur'meister (Hermann), a German naturalist, born 
at Stralsund Jan. 15, 1807, became professor of zoology at 
Halle in 1842, and in 1860 director of a museum of natural 
history in Buenos Ayres. Among his works are a “ Manual 
of Entomology” (4 vols., 1832-44) and “ The Animals of 
Brazil” (2 vols., 1854-56). 

B ur'nap (George W.), D. D., born at Merrimack, N. H., 
Nov. 20, 1802, graduated at Harvard in 1824, became in 
1828 pastor of a church in Baltimore, and was the author 
of numerous works, principally for the defence and ex¬ 
position of the school of Unitarianism to which he belonged. 
Died at Philadelphia Sept. 8, 1859. 

Burnes (Sir Alexander), a noted traveller and Orien¬ 
talist, born at Montrose, Scotland, May 16, 1805. He en¬ 
tered the army of India in his youth, and by his knowledge 
of Oriental languages gained a rapid promotion. In 1832 
he started from Lahore on an exploring expedition in Cen¬ 
tral Asia, and visited Balkh, Bokhara, Astrabad, Teheran, 
etc. Having returned to England in 1833, he published 
“ Travels into Bokhara.” In 1838 he was sent on a mis¬ 
sion to Cabool, where he passed some years as political 
resident. He was murdered there Nov. 2, 1842, by the 
Afghan insurgents. 

Bur'net, the popular name of two genera of plants, 
the Sanguisorba and Poterium, generally referred to the 
natural order Rosacese. The great burnet (Sanguisorba 
officinalis) is cultivated in Germany as a forage-plant, and 
yields a good crop on poor soils. A similar species grows 
wild in North America. The common burnet (Poterium 
Sanguisorba ) furnishes valuable pasturage for sheep on 
the English downs. It is sometimes seen in American 
gardens, and is used in salads. 

Burnet, a county in Central Texas. Area, 995 square 
miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Colorado River, by 
which the southern part of the county is intersected. The 
surface is partly hilly; the soil is productive. Good iron 
ore, petroleum, and marble abound. The water-power is 
great. Cedar timber is plentiful. Cattle, corn, cotton, and 
wool are largely produced. Capital, Burnet, Pop. 3688. 

Burnet, a village, capital of the above county, is 45 
miles N. W. of Austin, and 10 miles E. of the Colorado 
River. Pop. 280. 

Burnet (Gilbert), F. R. S., an eminent British his¬ 
torian and prelate, born in Edinburgh Sept. 18, 1643. He 
became professor of divinity in the University of Glasgow 
in 1668, resigned that chair in 1675, and removed to Lon¬ 
don. In 1679 he published therfirst volume of his “ History 
of the Reformation in England” (3 vols., 1679-1715). He 
refused a bishopric which was offered to him by Charles II. 
He was a courageous and able asserter of civil liberty in 
the important crisis which preceded the revolution of 1688, 
and gained the favor of William III., who appointed him 
his chaplain, and in 1689 bishop of Salisbury. Among his 
works are a “ Life of Sir Matthew Hale” (1682) and a 
“History of his Own Times” (2 vols., 1724-34). Died 
Mar. 17, 1715. “The utmost malevolence of faction,” says 
Macaulay, “ could not deny that he served his flock with a 
zeal, diligence, and disinterestedness worthy of the purest 
ages of the Church.” (History of England.) if 

Burnet (Jacob), LL.D., an American jurist, born at 
Newark, N. J., Feb. 22, 1770. He graduated at Princeton 
in 1791. He was one of the founders of Cincinnati, whither 
he removed in 1796. He became a judge of the supreme 
court of Ohio in 1821, and was elected to the Senate of the 
U. S. in 1828. He wrote “Notes on the Early Settlement 
of the North-west Territory.” Died April 27, 1853. 

Bur'nctt, a county of Wisconsin, bordering on Min¬ 
nesota. Area, 1100 square miles. It is bounded on the 


N. W. by the St. Croix River, and is drained by the Name- 
kagon and Shell rivers. The surface is uneven, and partly 
covered with forests of pine. Capital, Grantsburg. Pop. 
706. 

Burnett, a township of Santa Clara co., Cal. Pop. 802. 

Burnett, a post-township of Dodge co., Wis. Pop. 981. 

Burnett (Waldo Irving), M. D., a naturalist and mi- 
croscopist, born at Southborough, Mass., July 12,1828. He 
wrote, besides other works, “The Cell; its Physiology, 
Pathology,” etc. Died July 1, 1854. 

Burnett Prizes, The, are two premiums founded by 
Mr. Burnett, a merchant in Aberdeen, who for many years 
spent £300 annually on the poor. On his death in 1784 
he bequeathed his fortune to found the above prizes, as well 
as to relieve poor persons and to support a jail-chaplain in 
Aberdeen. He directed the prize-fund to be accumulated 
for forty years at a time, and the prizes (not less than 
£1200 and £400) to be awarded to the authors of the two 
best treatises on the evidence that there is a Being all- 
powerful, wise, and good, by whom everything exists; 
“and particularly to obviate difficulties regarding the wis¬ 
dom and goodness of the Deity, and this independent of 
written revelation and of the revelation of the Lord Jesus; 
and from the whole to point out the inferences most neces¬ 
sary and useful to mankind.” The competition is open to 
the whole world, and the prizes are adjudicated by three per¬ 
sons appointed by the trustees, with the ministers of the 
Established Church of Aberdeen, and the principals and 
professors of King’s and Marischal Colleges. On the first 
competition in 1815 the judges awarded the first prize, 
£1200, to Dr. Wm. L. Brown of Aberdeen for an essay en¬ 
titled “The Existence of a Supreme Creator;” and the 
second prize, £400, to the Rev. J. B. Sumner, afterwards 
archbishop of Canterbury, for an essay entitled “ Records 
of Creation.” In 1855 the judges awarded the first prize, 
£1800, to the Rev. R. A. Thompson, for an essay entitled 
“Christian Theism;” and the second prize, £600, to the 
Rev. Dr. John Tulloch of St. Mary’s College, St. Andrew’s, 
for an essay on “ Theism.” The above four essays have 
been published. 

Burnett’s Disinfecting Fluid is a strong solution 
of chloride of zinc, with a small amount of iron, and when 
used it is mixed with water in the proportion of one pint 
to five gallons of water. The liquid acts only as a deodori¬ 
zer and antiseptic, and does not exhibit the properties of a 
true disinfectant. It is of service in preserving dead ani¬ 
mal tissues, as in the dissecting-room and in jars contain¬ 
ing anatomical specimens. It has little action on steel 
instruments. When added to sewage water, the chloride 
of zinc mainly acts by decomposing the sulphide of am¬ 
monium, forming the sulphide of zinc and chloride of 
ammonium, both of wdiich are odorless. It has been ap¬ 
plied to the preservation of timber bj T a process called 
burnettizing. Crewe’s disinfectant liquid is the same. 

Bur'nettsville, a village of Jackson township, White 
co., Ind. Pop. 270. 

Bur'ney (Charles), F. R. S., Mus. Dr., an English com¬ 
poser, born at Shrewsbury in 1726, was a friend of Dr. 
Johnson and Edmund Burke. He wrote, besides other 
works, a “ General History of Music from the Earliest 
Ages” (4 vols., 1776-89), which is highly esteemed, and a 
“ Life of Handel.” He was the father of Madame d’Arblay. 
Died in 1815. 

Burney (Frances). See D’Arblay, Madame. 

B urn'ham, a village township of Waldo co., Me., at the 
junction of the Maine Central and Belfast and Moosehead 
Lake R. Rs., 30 miles N. W. of Belfast. It has manufac¬ 
tures of leather and lumber. Pop. 788. 

Burnham (Hiram), an American general of volunteers, 
entered the army as colonel Sixth Maine Volunteers, lead¬ 
ing his regiment with daring and ability through the Pen¬ 
insula campaign, at Antietam, Fredericksburg, and Gettys¬ 
burg. Appointed brigadier-general of volunteers 1864, 
and in the memorable “Wilderness” campaign of that 
year he took a prominent part. His entire military career 
was conspicuous for gallantry and coolness; at the battle 
of Chapin’s Farm, Sept. 29, 1864, he fell in the noble per¬ 
formance of his duty. 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Enfrs. 

Burning Glasses and Burning Mirrors, the 

names given to glasses or mirrors so formed as to collect the 
sun’s rays which fall on them into a point or focus, and 
thereby produce intense heat. The rays of light or heat 
may be concentrated either by refraction or reflection ; in 
the former case they must pass through a transparent re¬ 
fracting substance, as glass formed into a proper shape; in 
the latter they fall on a concave polished surface ol silvered 
glass or bright metal. 










678 BURNING SPRINGS—BURNS. 


The method of exciting heat or producing fire by the 
concentration of the sun’s rays was known from remote 
antiquity, but the most famous recorded achievement of 
this kind is that of Archimedes, who is reported to have 
burned by means of mirrors the Roman fleet in the harbor 
of Syracuse. The celebrated Bulfon, with 168 mirrors, 
each about six inches square, set lire to planks of beech 150 
feet distant, and this with the faint rays of the sun at Paris 
in the month of March. 

In preparing a burning glass, the first thing to be con¬ 
sidered is the figure necessary to collect all the rays into 
the smallest possible space. Descartes, in his “ Optics,” 
showed that a disk of glass convex on the one side and 
concave on the other, the convex side being a portion of an 
elliptic surface, and the concave a portion of a sphere, 
would cause parallel rays falling on its convex side to con¬ 
verge in a single point. But as the practical difficulties of 
forming a glass accurately into this shape are insuperable, 
both sides arc ground into portions of a sphere. In a lens 
the focal length depends on the curvature, or the radius of 
the sphere, and on the refractive power of the substance 
of which the lens is formed. 

The proper form for a burning mirror is the parabola, 
but as a parabolic curve is exceedingly difficult to obtain 
either upon metal or glass, opticians frequently rest con¬ 
tent with a spherical curvature of long focus. Recently, 
burning mirrors have been constructed of glass, upon the 
curved surface of which pure silver is precipitated by 
chemical means. By this plan the curved surface is pro¬ 
duced upon glass, and thus becomes permanent, whilst the 
reflection is effected by the polished surface of the silver, 
which can be easily renewed from time to time. The focus 
of a burning mirror is one-half of the radius of curvature. 

Among those who have experimented, in modern times, 
upon the effects of burning glasses or mirrors, are reckoned 
Baron Napier, the illustrious inventor of the logarithms, 
Kircher, Dr. James Gregory, Sir Isaac Newton, and many 
others. The most powerful solid lens ever constructed was 
the work of Mr. Parker, an ingenious London artist. It was 
made of flint glass, was three feet in diameter, 3J inches 
thick at the centre, its focal distance 6 feet 8 inches, the 
diameter of the burning focus 1 inch, and its weight 212 
pounds. The rays refracted by this lens were received on 
a second, the diameter of which in the frame was 13 inches, 
and its focal length 29 inches. The diameter of the focus 
of the combined lenses was half an inch, consequently, by 
the addition of the second lens, the burning power was in¬ 
creased four times. With this lens some of the most re¬ 
fractory substances were fused in a very short space of 
time: for example, 10 grains of common slate in 2 seconds; 
10 grains of cast iron in 3 seconds; 10 grains of lava in 7 
seconds; 10 grains of jasper in 25 seconds, etc. One ac¬ 
count says, “ the most infusible metals were instantly 
melted and dissipated in vapor.” The difference in the 
statements may be reconciled by supposing the circum¬ 
stances attending the use of the glass to be different, as 
there is a very great difference in the power of the sun’s 
rays at different times, and especially in different countries. 
This glass was afterwards carried to China by one of the 
officers who accompanied Lord Macartney, and left at 
Pekin. A remarkable lens, formed by bending or mould¬ 
ing two plates of glass over a parabolic mould, and filling 
the cavity between with ninety quai'ts of spirits, was con¬ 
structed by Rossini of Gratz, in Styria. The diameter of 
the plates was three feet three inches, and they were united 
by a strong ring of metal. The whole was mounted on a 
heliostat. In its focus a diamond was instantly kindled 
and dissipated, and a piece of platinum twenty-nine grains 
in weight was melted and thrown into violent ebullition. 
This lens now belongs to the French government. (For 
detailed information on this subject the reader may con¬ 
sult the article “Burning Glasses” in the “Encyclopedia 
Britannica,” 8th edition.) 

Revised by J. Thomas. 

Burning Springs, a post-township of Wirt co., West 
Ya. Pop. 1368. 

Burn'Iey, a market-town of England, in Lancashire, 
on the Brun, near its entrance into the North Calder and 
20 miles N. of Manchester. It is connected by railway 
with Blackburn, Liverpool, and other cities. It has 
manufactures of cotton and woollen fabrics, calico-printing 
works, brass and iron foundries, machine-shops, tanneries, 
and rope-walks. Its prosperity is partly derived from 
the collieries in the vicinity. Pop. in 1871, 31,608. 

Burnouf (Eugene), Dr. Lit., an eminent French Ori¬ 
entalist, born in Paris Aug. 12, 1801. He studied the lan¬ 
guages of Persia and India, was admitted into the Academy 
of Inscriptions, and became in 1832 professor of Sanscrit 
in the College of France. Among his works are a “ Com¬ 
mentary on the Ya^na, one of the Liturgic Books of 


Persia” (1834), and an “Introduction to the History of 
Booddhism” (1845), which is highly commended. Died 
May 28, 1852. (See Charles Lenormant, “Eugene 
Burnouf,” 1852.) 

Burns, a post-township of Henry co., Ill. Pop. 1144. 

Burns, a post-township of Shiawassee co., Mich. Pop. 
1557. 

Burns, a township of Anoka co., Minn. Pop. 340. 

Burns, a post-township of Allegany co., N. Y., on the 
Buffalo division of the Erie R. R. It contains Canaseraga 
Academy and several mills. Pop. 1340. 

B urns, a post-township of La Crosse co., Wis. P. 743. 

Burns (Francis), D. D., a colored bishop of the Meth¬ 
odist Episcopal Church, was born in Albany, N. Y., Dec. 5, 
1809, was sent as missionary to Liberia, Africa, in 1834, 
taught in a school at Cape Palmas, joined the Liberia 
Conference in 1838, founded the Monrovia Academy in 
1851, was ordained bishop of his denomination, in Liberia, 
in 1858, and, after nearly five years of eminent episcopal 
service, died in 1863. 

Burns (Robert), a gifted Scottish poet, was born near 
the town of Ayr on the 25th of Jan., 1759. His father was 
the son of a farmer, and “was thrown by early misfor¬ 
tunes,” says the poet, “ on the world at large, where, after 
many years’ wanderings and sojournings, he picked up a 
pretty large quantity of observation and experience, to 
which I am indebted for most of my little pretensions to 
wisdom.” Although his life seems to have been one long 
struggle with misfortune, Burns’s father was at great pains 
to give his children a good education. When he was able 
he sent them to school; and not unfrequently when the 
day’s work was ended he taught his children himself. “ I 
owed much,” says Burns, “to an old woman who resided in 
the family. . . . She had, I suppose, the largest collection 
in the country of tales and songs concerning devils, ghosts, 
fairies, brownies, witches, warlocks, enchanted towers, and 
other trumpery. This cultivated the latent seeds of 
poetry.” Burns was early familiarized with those trials 
and hardships to which the poor are so often exposed, and 
to which he sometimes alludes with such power and pathos 
in his poetry. “ My father,” says the poet, “ was advanced 
in life when he married; I was the oldest of seven chil¬ 
dren, and he, worn-out with early hardships, was unfit for 
labor. ... We lived very poorly. I was a dexterous 
ploughman for my age.” The poet had a robust frame 
and active body, as well as a strong intellect and acute sen¬ 
sibilities. He is said to have done at the age of fifteen the 
work of a man. In a touching account which his brother 
Gilbert wrote of the troubles of their early years, he says: 
“I doubt not but the hard labor and sorrow of this period 
of his life were in a great measure the cause of that de¬ 
pression of spirits with which Robert was so often afflicted 
through his whole life afterwards.” 

In the case of Burns, as in that of Sappho, it was love 
that taught him song. A little before he reached his 
sixteenth year he “first committed the sin of rhyme.” A 
“bonnie sweet sonsie lass ” had been associated with him 
in the labors of the harvest-field. Her singing “made his 
heart-strings thrill like an iEolian harp,” and first inspired 
him with the idea of writing songs. An irresistible attrac¬ 
tion towards what he calls the “ adorable half of the human 
species ” was perhaps his most remarkable characteristic; 
and hence it was as an amatory poet that he was especially 
distinguished. Unhappily, this remarkable susceptibility 
to the tender passion degenerated, under the influence of 
evil company, from its first purity, and led him into illicit 
amours, which were the cause of his principal misfortunes. 
In proportion as he cast off the restraints of morality, he 
seems to have lost his reverence for religion. He was one 
day seen, says Lockhart, “at the door of a public-house 
holding forth on religious topics to a whole crowd of coun¬ 
try-people, who presently became so shocked with his levi¬ 
ties that they fairly hissed him from the ground.” With 
his other faults and vices, intemperance went hand in 
hand. But he had too much sense of right, and too much 
feeling, to be able to drown altogether the reproving voice 
of conscience. He sometimes alluded to his faults in a 
manner full of pathos and self-reproach; and he had at 
least the merit of not seeking to defend his errors. 

He had formed in 1785 a liaison (which was, according 
to the usage of Scotland, virtually a marriage) with Jean 
Armour, a person somewhat above his own position in life. 
She bore him twins, and although he had previously given 
her a written acknowledgment of marriage, her father was 
greatly incensed against the poet, so that he determined to 
leave Scotland and seek his fortune in the New World. 
But before quitting his native country for ever, he resolved 
(1786) to publish his poems. The success of the experi¬ 
ment induced him to change his plans. He was encouraged 



















BURNS—BURR. 


679 


to visit Edinburgh, where he made the acquaintance of 
many men at that time distinguished in literature, including 
Dugald Stewart and Dr. Blair, besides many others. It 
was during Burns’s visit to the capital that Scott, then a 
very young man, had an opportunity of beholding and 
listening to the gifted stranger. He has left a very inter¬ 
esting account of Burns’s appearance. He seems to have 
been most struck with the eye of the rustic poet. “ I never 
saw,” says Scott, “ such another eye in a human head, 
though I have seen the most distinguished men of my 
time. It was large and of a dark cast,” and “literally 
glowed when he spoke with feeling or interest.” “ His 
conversation expressed perfect self-confidence, without the 
slightest presumption.” 

Among men of rank who interested themselves in the 
poet, Lord Glencairn was especially prominent. Burns 
always remembered his kindness with the most heartfelt 
gratitude, and afterwards dedicated to his memory the 
beautiful and touching lines entitled the “ Lament for 
James, earl of Glencairn.” Soon after his visit to Edin¬ 
burgh he published (1787) a new edition of his poems. In 
1788 he openly declared his marriage with Jean Armour, 
and about this time was appointed an officer of the excise, 
with a salary of fifty pounds a year; it was subsequently 
increased to seventy-five pounds. His intemperate habits, 
which had been aggravated by the excitement and irregu¬ 
larities of his recent life in Edinburgh, and his subsequent 
pecuniary distresses, gradually gained a great ascendency 
over him, but rarely if ever to the extent of rendering him 
incapable of performing the duties of his office. He re¬ 
moved in 1791 to Dumfries, where he passed the remainder 
of his life. He died July 21, 1796. Nearly twenty years 
after his death a splendid mausoleum was erected to his 
memory in the churchyard at Dumfries, whither his remains 
wore removed on the 5th of June, 1815. (See Lockhart’s 
“ Life of Burns,” 1828 ; Currie’s “ Life of Burns,” prefixed 
to the “Correspondence” of the poet; A. Cunningham, 
“ Life and Land of Robert Burns,” 1840; Carlyle, “ Mis¬ 
cellanies ;” also F. G. Halleck’s and Thomas Campbell’s 
beautiful lines to Burns’s memory.) 

J. Thomas. 

Burns (William W.), General, was born in Ohio, and 
graduated at West Point in 1847. He became a brigadier- 
general of volunteers in 1861, major-general volunteers in 
1862, and brevet brigadier-general U. S. A. in 1865. He 
served in the Army of the Potomac until 1863. 

Burns and Scalds of the body differ in the mode of 
application of the excessive heat which is the cause of in¬ 
jury—burns arising from the application of a hot solid body 
or flame, and scalds from hot water or steam. Severe burns 
are often fatal, especially to children; quite as much, per¬ 
haps, from the shock which attends them as from any appre¬ 
ciable injury. Burns which are not fatal frequently leave 
extensive scars, which often have a tendency to contract in 
such a way as to lead to frightful disfiguration. When the 
clothes take fire, the flames should be extinguished if pos¬ 
sible by wrapping in a blanket or rug, that being usually 
the most available means at hand. In all cases the clothes 
should be removed with great care, so as not to remove the 
cuticle with them. If cold water be agreeable to the pa¬ 
tient, it may be cautiously applied. Pain and shock may 
often be relieved by opiates or stimulants. The injured 
surfaces are to be dressed with carron oil (a mixture of olive 
oil and lime-water), with collodion, with oiled cotton, or 
they may simply have flour dredged over them. When the 
surface takes on an unhealthy action and granulations are 
excessive, a weak solution of nitrate of silver or other local 
stimulant may produce good results. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Burn'sitle, a post-township of Lapeer co., Mich. Pop. 
1173. 

Burnside, a township of Goodhue co., Minn. Pop. 396. 

Burnside, a township of Centre co., Pa. Pop. 386. 

Burnside, a post-township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 
1624. 

Burnside, a township of Trempealeau co., Wis. P. 542. 

Burnside (Ambrose Everett), an American officer and 
governor, born May 23, 1824, at Liberty, Ind., graduated 
at West Point 1847, and as lieutenant of artillery served in 
war with Mexico 1847-48; at various posts 1848-53; on 
frontier duty in New Mexico 1849-50, engaged with Jaca- 
rillo Apaches (wounded); and with Mexican boundary com¬ 
mission 1851-52. Resigned Oct. 2, 1853. Manufacturer at 
Bristol, R. I., 1853-58, of breech-loading rifles, which he 
had invented; cashier of land department Illinois Central 
R. R. Company 1858-59; and treasurer Illinois Central 
r! It. Company 1860-61. In the civil war, as colonel 
Rhode Island three-months’ volunteers, served in Maj.- 
Gen. Patterson’s operations about Cumberland, Md., and 


in the Manassas campaign 1861, engaged at Bull Run. 
Appointed brigadier-general U. S. volunteers Aug. 6, 1861, 
and promoted to major-general May 18, 1862, serving in 
organizing the coast division and in command of depart¬ 
ment of North Carolina 1862, engaged at Roanoke Island, 
Newborn, Camden, and Fort Macon ; in command of forces 
(Ninth army corps) at Newport News and Fredericksburg 
1862; in Maryland campaign, engaged at South Mountain 
and Antietam, in command of left wing ; in general charge 
of Harper’s Ferry 1862; in command of Army of Potomac 
Nov. 7, 1862, to Jan. 28, 1863, defeated at Fredericksburg; 
in command of department of Ohio 1863, engaged against 
Morgan’s raiders, capture of Cumberland Gap, occupation 
of East Tennessee, in several actions and siege of Knox¬ 
ville; in command of Ninth corps in Richmond campaign 
1864, engaged at Wilderness, Spottsylvania, North Anna, 
Tolopotomy, Bethesda Church, and Petersburg, including 
Mine assault. Resigned April 15, 1865, from volunteer 
service. Civil engineer 1865-66; president of Cincinnati 
and Martinsville R. R. Company since 1865; of Rhode 
Island Locomotive Works since 1866, and of Indianapolis 
and Vincennes R. R. Company since 1867; and governor 
of the State of Rhode Island 1866-71. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Burns'ville, a post-township of Dallas co., Ala. Pop. 
1497. 

Burnsville, a township of Dakota co., Minn. Pop. 361. 

Burnsville, a township of Anson co., N. C. Pop. 1038. 

Burnsville, a post-village, the capital of Yancey co., 
N. C., 120 miles W. of Lexington. 

Burnt Corn, a post-township of Monroe co., Ala. Pop. 
959. 

Burnt Offerings. See Sacrifice. 

Burnt Prairie, a post-township of White co., Ill. 
Pop. 2186. 

Burnt Sien'na, a fine orange-red pigment, transpar¬ 
ent and permanent, obtained by burning the ferruginous 
ochreous earth called terra di Sienna. It is used both in 
oil-painting and painting with water-colors. Mixed with 
Prussian blue, it produces a beautiful green. 

Burnt Swamp, a township of Robeson co., N. C. Pop. 
1511. 

Burnt Um'ber, a pigment of a russet-brown color, is 
semi-transparent, mixes well with other pigments, and 
dries quickly. It is prepared by burning umber, an ochre¬ 
ous earth first discovered in Umbria, Italy. 

B ur Oak (the Quercus macrocarjxx), a species of oak of 
medium size found in the U. S., principally E. of the Mis¬ 
sissippi. It is also called over-cup oak and mossy-cup oak. 
Its timber is valuable. 

B urr (Aaron), father of the Vice-President, was born at 
Fairfield, Conn., Jan. 4, 1716, graduated at Yale in 1735, 
licensed to preach in 1736, settled over the Presbyterian 
church in Newark, N. J., in 1738, chosen president of the 
College of New Jersey in 1748, and died Sept. 24, 1757. 
In 1752 he married Esther, daughter of the elder President 
Edwards. She died April 7, 1758, in the 27th year of her 
age. They left two children—a daughter, who married 
Hon. Tapping Reeve, chief-justice of the supreme court 
of Connecticut, and a son, Aaron, noticed below. He 
was both a scholarly and an eloquent man. He published 
a Latin Grammar, 1752, known as “The Newark Gram¬ 
mar,” a pamphlet on “ The Supreme Divinity of our Lord 
Jesus Christ,” reprinted in 1791, and several discourses. 

Burr (Aaron), born at Newark, N. J., Feb. 6, 1756, was 
a son of the preceding and a grandson of Jonathan Edwards. 
He graduated at Princeton in 1772, joined the Provincial 
army at Cambridge, Mass., in 1775, served as a private 
soldier, and afterwards as aide to Montgomery on the 
Quebec expedition, served on the staffs of Arnold, Wash¬ 
ington (whom he disliked), and Putnam, becoming a lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel, and commanding a brigade at Monmouth. 
He resigned from the army by reason of ill-health in 1789. 
He practised law at Albany in 1782 and in New \ork City 
in 1783, and became attorney-general of New York in 1789. 
He was a Republican U. S. Senator 1791-97. In 1800 he 
and Jefferson each had 73 electoral votes for the office of 
President of the U. S. The choice was thus left to Con¬ 
gress, which, on the thirty-sixth ballot, chose Jeflerson for 
President and Burr for Vice-President. In 1804 he mor¬ 
tally wounded in a duel his rival Alexander Hamilton, and 
in consequence lost greatly in political and social influence, 
and soon after embarked in a wild attempt upon Mexico 
and, as was asserted, upon the South-western territoues ot 
the U. S., thereby involving in ruin his friend Blennerhas- 
sett. Ho was in 1807 tried at Richmond, Va., on a charge 
of treason, but was acquitted. To escape his creditors ho 
retired to Europe for a time, but returned to New Lork in 


























680 


BUKR-BUESLEM. 


1812, and again practised law. Died Sept. 14,1836. Burr was 
a man of much ability and very brilliant and popular talents, 
but his influence was destroyed by his unscrupulous politi¬ 
cal acts and his grossly immoral conduct in private life. 
(See his “ Life,” by M. L. Davis, 1836-37 ; by James Par- 
ton, 1857.) 

Burr (Enoch Fitch), D. D., a kinsman of President 
Burr of the College of New Jersey, was born at Greens 
Farms, Fairfield, Conn., Oct. 21, 1818, graduated at Yale 
in 1839, spent several years in New Haven in scientific and 
other studies, became greatly broken in health, obtained 
partial relief by a year of foreign travel, and was settled 
over the Congregational church in Lyme, Conn., in 1850. 
After nearly twenty years of secluded and patient study, 
his reputation was suddenly made by several works of 
marked ability. He has published “ A Treatise on the 
Application of the Calculus to the Theory of Neptune,” 
1848, “Ecce Coelum,” 1867, “Pater Mundi,” 1870, “Ad 
Fidem,” 1871, “ Doctrine of Evolution,” 1873, “A Song of 
the Sea” (an illustrated poem), 1873, and “ Pasce Agnos, 
or What I have to Say to the Children,” 1873. 

Burrampooter. See Brahmapootra. 

Bur'rell, a township of Decatur co., Ia. Pop. 852. 

Burrell, a township of Armstrong co., Pa. Pop. 964. 

Burrell, a township of Indiana co., Pa. Pop. 1374. 

B urrell, a post-township of Westmoreland co., Pa. 
Pop. 1819. 

B urria'na, a town of Spain, in the province of Cas- 
tellon de la Plana, on the Rio Seco, near the Mediterranean, 
8 miles S. of Castellon de la Plana. It exports wine, oil, 
and fruit. Pop. about 6200. 

Bur'rill (Alexander M.), born about 1S07, graduated 
at Columbia College with the highest honors in 1824, studied 
law with Chancellor Kent, and published a number of legal 
works, including a “ Law Dictionary.” Died at Kearney, 
N. J., Feb. 7, 1869. 

Burrill (James), LL.D., born in Providence, R. I., 
April 25, 1772, graduated at Brown University in 1788, 
was called to the bar in 1791, and attained eminence. Ho 
was attorney-general of Rhode Island (1797-1813), chief- 
justice of the State supreme court (1816), U. S. Senator 
(1817-20), besides holding other important ofiices. Died 
Dec. 25, 1820. 

Bur'rillville, a post-township of Providence co., R. I. 
It has numerous manufactures, and a national bank at 
Pascoag village. Pop. 4674. 

B ur'ritt, a post-township of Winnebago co., Ill. P. 991. 

Bur'ritt (Elihu), a reformer and linguist, called the 
Learned Blacksmith, was born in New Britain, Conn., 
Dec. 8, 1811. He worked for many years at the trade of 
a blacksmith, and became a self-taught master of many 
ancient and modern languages. As a public lecturer he 
advocated temperance and peace in the IT. S. and in Eng¬ 
land. Among his ivorks are “Sparks from the Anvil” 
(1848) and “Thoughts on Things at Home and Abroad” 
(1854). 

Burr Oak. See Bur Oak. 

Burr Oak, a township of Mitchell co., Ia. Pop. 425. 

Burr Oak, a post-township of Winneshiek co., Ia. 
Pop. 960. 

Burr Oak, a township of Doniphan co., Kan. Pop. 
1015. 

Burr Oak, a post-village and township of St. Joseph 
co., Mich. Pop. of village, 724; of township, 1911. 

Burroughs (George), a victim of the witchcraft de¬ 
lusion, graduated at Harvard College in 1670, and was a 
preacher in Salem, Mass., in 1681. He soon after went to 
Falmouth (now Portland), Me., where he remained until 
the Indians sacked the town in 1690; returning to Salem, 
he was accused in 1692 of witchcraft, placed on trial, and, 
owing to the infatuation then prevailing, was declared 
guilty of exercising diabolical powers, and executed Aug. 
19, 1692. At the scene of execution he declared his inno¬ 
cence, his appeal moving the spectators to tears; and 
though he repeated the Lord’s Prayer, which no witch was 
supposed to be able to do without mistake, he was doomed 
to suffer. 

Burroughs (Stephen), a famous adventurer, the son 
of a Congregational minister of Hanover, N. H., was born 
in 1765, and early became noted for mischievous conduct. 
When fpurteen years old he enlisted in the Revolutionary 
army, deserted, and entered Dartmouth College, which he 
soon left to serve on a privateer. He became a ship’s sur¬ 
geon and schoolmaster, and under an assumed name was 
for a time minister of the church at Pelham, Mass. He was 
soon convicted of passing counterfeit money, and was con¬ 
fined at Northampton, Mass., in irons, but set fire to the 


jail, and was removed to Castle William (now Fort Inde¬ 
pendence) in Boston harbor, whence he escaped, but was 
retaken. After his sentence was served out he again be¬ 
came a counterfeiter in Canada, but reformed, and was for 
several years an exemplary Roman Catholic instructor of 
youth. He appears to have always possessed engaging 
and popular qualities. He published a remarkable auto¬ 
biography in two volumes. Died at Three Rivers, Canada, 
Jan. 28, *1840. 

Bur'rowillg Owl (Strix cunicularia or Athene cunic- 
ularia), called also the Coquimbo Owl, is a remark¬ 
able bird, which, “ disdaining all the traditions of its fam¬ 
ily,” hunts for its prey (consisting chiefly of beetles and 
other insects) in broad daylight, facing the glare of the 
noonday sun without any inconvenience. It is a small, 



Burrowing Owls. 


lively bird, and is found in many parts of America, being 
especially abundant beyond the Mississippi, and inhabit¬ 
ing the same localities as the marmot (or prairie dog), 
whose dwelling it often shares, the rattlesnake sometimes 
making the third member of this singular family. On the 
Pacific slope a green snake ( Bascanion ) makes a fourth 
member of this group. Although the Coquimbo owl pre¬ 
fers to dwell in the holes already excavated by the marmot, 
it will, if obliged to do so, dig burrows for itself; but these 
are not so deep nor so neatly made as those of its friends 
and neighbors the prairie dogs. 

Bur'rows (William), an American naval officer, born 
near Philadelphia Oct. 6, 1785. He entered the navy at 
the age of fourteen and served on the Barbary coast; on 
the outbreak of war with Great Britain (1812), while on 
his way to the U. S., he was taken prisoner. He reached 
home in June, 1813, and immediately resumed his duty. 
He commanded the brig Enterprise in an engagement with 
the British brig Boxer off Portland, Me., Sept. 5, 1813, 
during which he was mortally wounded. He lived, how¬ 
ever, long enough to receive the surrender of the British 
vessel. His remains were interred in Portland by the side 
of the commander of the Boxer, who was also killed in 
the same action. 

Burr'stone, or Buhrstone, a silicious rock contain¬ 
ing small cells, which give it a roughness of surface adapt¬ 
ing it for millstones. It is a sedimentary rock, and its 
cavities are often produced by the removal, through solu¬ 
tion, of its calcareous fossil shells. Burrstone occurs in 
several geological formations. That which comes from 
Paris is eocene. The Alabama burrstone is of the same 
age. That of Ohio, West Virginia, etc. is of the carbon¬ 
iferous age. There are different varieties; those in which 
the cells are small and regularly distributed are most es¬ 
teemed. Good burrstone is found in Wales, Scotland, Ger¬ 
many, and Italy, also in Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Caro¬ 
lina, and Alabama, but the finest stones are obtained from 
La Ferte-sous-Jouarre, near Paris. It is not unusual to 
form millstones of pieces of burrstone, bound together by 
iron hoops. The stone is found in beds or detached masses. 
It is cut out into the form of a cylinder; around this 
grooves are cut at the intended thickness of the millstones; 
into these grooves wooden wedges are driven, and water is 
thrown upon the wedges, which, causing the wood to swell, 
splits the cylinder into the slices required. Millstones are 
not always made of burrstone, but sometimes of silicious 
gritstones, of sandstone, and even of granite. Burr-mill¬ 
stones are extremely durable. 

Burs'lem, a market-town of England, in Staffordshire, 
2^ miles N. W. of Newcastle-under-Line, on an eminence 
near the Trent Canal. The occupation of the inhabitants 
is earthenware manufacture, and it is the principal placo 
in the district called the Potteries. Pop. 17,821. 




























BURSONS—BUSHIRE. 


681 


Bur' sons, a township of Randolph co., Ala. Pop. 1214. 

Burt, a county of Nebraska, bordering on Iowa. Area, 
500 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missouri 
River, and intersected by Logan’s Creek. The surface is 
undulating; the soil is fertile. Grain and wool are raised. 
Capital, Tekama. Pop. 2847. 

Burt, a township of Cheboygan co., Mich. Pop. 72. 

Burt (William A.), born in Worcester, Mass., June 13, 
1792, became a surveyor of Erie co., N. Y., and in 1824 re¬ 
moved to Michigan, surveyed Northern Michigan (1840-47), 
introducing important improvements in surveying. At 
the World's Fair in London, 1851, he obtained a medal for 
his solar compass. He was for a time a judge in one of 
the Michigan State courts, and one of the originators of 
the canal at Sault Stc. Marie. Died Ausr. 18, 1858. 

Bur'ton, a post-township of Adams co., Ill. Pop. 1423. 

Burton, a township of McHenry co., Ill. Pop. 218. 

Burton, a township of Genesee co., Mich. Pop. 1667. 

Burton, a post-village, capital of Sunbury co., New 
Brunswick, is on the St. John’s River, about 45 miles by 
land N. N. W. of St. John’s. 

Burton, a post-township of Geauga co., 0. Pop. 1004. 

Burton (Asa), D. D., was born at Stonington, Conn., 
Aug. 25, 1752, graduated at Dartmouth College in 1777, 
and on Jan. 19, 1779, was settled over the Congregational 
church in Thetford, Vt., where he died May 1, 1836. He 
was the champion of the so-called “ Taste scheme,” in op¬ 
position to the “Exercise scheme” of Dr. Emmons, and 
conducted the controversy with great ability. Besides 
occasional sermons, he published, in 1824, a volume of 
“ Essays on Some of the First Principles of Metaphysics, 
Ethics, and Theology.” 

Burton (John Hill), LL.D., F. R. S. E., a Scottish 
historian and advocate, born at Aberdeen Aug. 22, 1809. 
He published, besides other works, “ The Life and Corre¬ 
spondence of David Hume” (2 vols., 1846), “Political and 
Social Economy” (1849), and “ The History of Scotland 
from Agricola’s Invasion to the Revolution of 1688 ” (1867), 
which is highly esteemed. \ 

Burton (Richard Francis), an eminent English trav¬ 
eller, born in Norfolk in 1821. Having served many years 
in the Indian army, he published in 1851 “ Sindh, and the 
Races that inhabit the Valley of the Indus.” Disguised 
as a Mussulman,, he performed a perilous exploration of 
Arabia in 1853, and published a “ Personal Narrative of a 
Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah” (3 vols., 1856). 
Among his other works are “ The Lake Regions of Central 
Africa” (1860) and “The Highlands of Brazil” (2 vols., 
1869). 

Burton (Robert), an English clergyman, born at 
Lindley, in Leicestershire, Feb. 8, 1576, was educated at 
Oxford. He became rector of Segrave in 1628. He was 
author of a quaint and popular work entitled “ The Anat¬ 
omy of Melancholy; what it is, with all the Kinds, Causes, 
Symptoms, Prognostics, and several Cures of it: Philo¬ 
sophically, Medicinally, Historically opened and cut up, 
by Democritus Junior” (1621). It is an amusing medley 
of quotations and reflections. Died Jan., 1640. 

Burton (William Evans), a comedian and writer, born 
in London in Sept., 1802. He acted with distinguished 
success both in England and America. While in England 
he wrote a drama, “Ellen Warcham,” which for a time 
enjoyed a great popularity. He compiled the “ Cyclo¬ 
paedia of Wit and Humor.” He was also very successful 
as a manager. He built the National Theatre in Philadel¬ 
phia, and in New York purchased Palmo’s Opera-house, 
and afterwards the Metropolitan Theatre on Broadway. 
Died in New York Feb. 10, 1860. 

Burton-on-Trent, a town of England, in Stafford¬ 
shire, on the river Trent, 11 miles by rail S. W. of Derby. 
The Trent is here crossed by a stone bridge of thirty-six 
arches, which was built before the Norman conquest, and 
is 1545 feet long. Burton has large breweries of celebrated 
ale; also iron-works and manufactures of cotton goods. It 
is on the Grand Trunk Canal. Pop. 13,671. 

Bur'tonville, a post-village of Charleston township, 
Montgomery co., N. Y., on Schoharie Creek. Pop. 160. 

Burt/scheicl, or Borcette, a town of Rhenish Prus¬ 
sia, about half a mile from Aix-la-Chapellc, of which it is 
properly a suburb. Here are warm sulphur springs and 
manufactures of woollen cloths and cassimeres. Pop. in 
1871, 10,079. 

Bu'ry, a manufacturing town of England, in Lancashire, 
on the river Irwell, 10 miles by rail N. W. of Manchester. 
It is on a railway which connects it with Bolton and Liv¬ 
erpool. It contains more than twenty churches and dis¬ 
senting chapels, several public libraries and literary insti¬ 


tutions. Here are important manufactures of cotton and 
woollen goods, machinery, and paper, also calico-printing 
works and dye-works. Mines of coal and quarries of good 
freestone have been opened in the vicinity. Bury returns 
one member to Parliament. The eminent statesman Sir 
Robert Peel was born near Bury. Pop. of the parliamentary 
borough in 1871, 41,517. 

Burying Beetles are certain insects of the order 
Coleoptera and family Sylphidas, famous for their valuable 
habits of interring the bodies of dead animals. When the 
carcass of a mouse or other small animal is found, several 
of them collect around it, and by digging the earth from 
beneath gradually sink it several inches below the surface. 
In it the female deposits her eggs, and when the larva) are 
hatched, they find themselves in the midst of suitable food. 

Bury St. Edmunds, or St. Edmundsbury, an 

ancient borough of England, in the county of Suffolk, is 
finely situated on the river Larke, 26 miles by rail N. W. 
of Ipswich and 95 miles by rail N. E. of London. It is 
well built and remarkably clean. It has a botanic garden, 
a guildhall, a fine Gothic church (St. Mary’s), a celebrated 
grammar-school founded in 1550, and some remains of a 
large Benedictine abbey (505 feet by 212), which was found¬ 
ed by Canute, and became the richest (except one) in 
England. Here is an old belfry or quadrangular tower 
about eighty-five feet high, which is one of the finest re¬ 
mains of Saxon architecture extant in Britain. Parliaments 
were held here in 1272, 1296, and 1446. Bury has a large 
trade in wool, butter, grain, and cheese. Sir Nicholas Bacon 
was born here. Pop. in 1871, 14,928. 

Bus'becq, or Bousbecq (Augier Giiislen), [Lat. 
Busbequius], an eminent Flemish scholar and traveller, 
born at Commines in 1522. He was employed on several 
important diplomatic missions, and was sent as ambassador 
from the emperor Ferdinand to Solyman II. of Turkey. 
He wrote a valuable account of this embassy, entitled 
“Legationis Turcica) Epistolm Quatuor” (1589). Died Oct. 
28, 1592. 

B us'by (Dr. Richard), a famous English schoolmaster, 
born at Lutton, Northamptonshire, Sept. 22, 1606. He was 
head-master of Westminster School for about fifty-five years 
(1640-95), was a very successful teacher, and a strict dis¬ 
ciplinarian. He is said to have educated a larger number 
of eminent men than any other teacher who ever lived. 
Died April 6, 1695. 

BiischHiig (Anton Friedrich), an eminent German 
geographer, born in Schaumburg-Lippe Sept. 27, 1724. 
He became in 1761 minister of a Protestant ^congregation 
in St. Petersburg, and in 1766 removed to Berlin, where he 
was employed as director of a gymnasium. He published 
a “Description of the Earth” (1754), which was the most 
complete work on geography that had then appeared; also 
a “ Magazine for History and Geography ” (25 vols., 1767- 
93). Died May 28, 1793. 

Busen'to [Gr. Tlvfoi)?; Lat. Buxentum J, a river of Italy, 
in the province of Salerno, empties into the Gulf of Busento 
at the city of Policastro. Upon the death of Alaric, the 
Visigoth king, his followers turned the course of the river, 
and after having buried him, again led the river into its old 
course, thus covering all trace of Alaric’s grave from the 
eyes of his enemies. 

Bush (George), a theologian and biblical scholar, was 
born at Norwich, Vt., June 12, 1796, graduated at Dart¬ 
mouth College in 1818, at Princeton Theological Seminary 
in 1821, in the same class with Albert Barnes, and from 
1824 to 1829 was pastor of a Presbyterian church in In¬ 
dianapolis, Ind. He became in 1831 professor of Hebrew 
and Oriental literature in the University of New York, and 
was converted to the doctrines of Swedenborg in 1847. 
Among his works are a “Life of Mohammed” (1832), a 
“Hebrew Grammar” (1835), and “ Bible Commentaries” 
(8 vols., 1840 et seq.). Died Sept. 19, 1859. 

Bush Creek, a township of Wayne co., Ill. P. 1470. 

Bush Creek, a twp. of Gasconade co., Mo. Pop. 566. 

Bush Creek, a township of Highland co., 0. P.1601. 

Bush'el [Fr. boisseau ], an English measure of capacity, 
containing eight gallons or four pecks. Each gallon holds 
ten pounds avoirdupois of distilled water, and measures 
277.274 cubic inches; consequently the imperial bushel 
contains eighty pounds of distilled w r ater, and is equal to 
2218.192 cubic inchos. The old Winchester bushel con¬ 
tains 2150.42 cubic inches. The State of New Fork, by 
statute of 1829, adopted the imperial bushel, but in the 
revised statutes of 1851 this was abolished, and the V iu- 
chester bushel substituted. 

Bushire, or Aboo-shehr, a seaport of Persia, on the 
Persian Gulf, about 120 miles W. S. W. of Sheeraz; lat. 
29° N., Ion. 50° 50' E. It is at the N. extremity of a sandy 

















682 


BUSHKILL—BUSTARD. 


peninsula, and is the principal commercial emporium on the 
coast of Persia. The anchorage, which is the best on the 
coast, consists of an outer harbor, exposed to the N. W. 
winds, and a safe inner harbor. It has a large trade with 
British India, from which it imports rice, indigo, sugar, 
and English cotton goods. The chief articles of export are 
raw silk, shawls, horses, carpets, silk goods, grain, Sheeraz 
wine, pearls, dried fruits, etc. Pop. about 18,000. 

Bush'kill, a township of Northampton co., Pa. P. 1901. 

Bush'men, or Bosjesmans, a name given to some 
roaming tribes of savages who live in Southern Africa, 
along the Orange River. They are similar to the Hotten¬ 
tots, are very diminutive in stature, and of a dark-brown 
complexion. They build no houses and have no tents. They 
are said to be malicious and intractable. 

Bush'nell, a city of McDonough co., Ill., at the junction 
of the Chicago Burlington and Quincy, the Toledo Peoria 
and Warsaw, and the Rockford Rock Island and St. Louis 
R. Rs., 60 miles W. of Peoria, 70 miles N. E. of Quincy, 
and 191 S. W. of Chicago. It has one national bank, four 
hotels, good schools, a publishing-house, several manufac¬ 
tories, and a good supply of timber, coal, and excellent 
water. It is in a fine, high, and healthy prairie region, and 
has two weekly papers. Pop. 2003 ; of Bushnell township, 
exclusive of the city, 578. Ed. of “Bushnell Record.” 

Bushnell, a post-township of Montcalm co., Mich. 
Pop. 1266. 

Bushnell (Horace), D. D., a Congregational clergy¬ 
man, was born at Litchfield, Conn., April 14, 1802, gradu¬ 
ated at Yale College in 1827, was tutor from 1829 to 1831, 
and was settled over the North church in Hartford, Conn., 
from 1833 to 1859, when the failure of his health compelled 
him to resign his pastorate, though he was still able to do 
literary work and preach occasionally. He is distinguished 
for the originality and boldness of his thinking, and for the 
brilliancy and vigor of his style. Among his published 
works are a Phi Beta Kappa oration in 1837 on “ The 
Principles of National Greatness,” “Christian Nurture” 
(1847), “God in Christ” (1849), “Nature and the Super¬ 
natural ” (1858), “ The Vicarious Sacrifice ” (1865 ; revised 
in 1873). 

Bush'whackers (in the language of our late civil war) 
were those men who rarely or never wore a uniform, and 
claimed to be peaceful farmers or herdsmen when in pres¬ 
ence of a superior hostile force, but had firearms concealed 
at a convenient distance, and did not 
scruple to use them on any opportunity 
to pick off a soldier from an ambush 
while he was moving in fancied secur¬ 
ity. Bushwhackers were especially 
murderous in Missouri, and were often 
treated, when captured, with unrelent¬ 
ing severity. 

Bush'y, a township of Saline co., 

Ill. Pop. 1040. 

B ushy Fork, a post-township of 
Person co., N. C. Pop. 1425. 

Busi'ris [Gr. BouVipw], in Greek 
mythology, a fabulous personage, sup¬ 
posed to have been a son of Neptune, 
and a king of Egypt, who sacrificed all 
the foreigners who entered his domin¬ 
ions, and was killed by Hercules. 

Bus'kin [Lat. cothurnus], a cover¬ 
ing for the leg or for the ankle and foot; 
a shoe reaching up to the middle of the 
calf and tightly laced. The word bus¬ 
kin is used by English writers as a 
translation of cothurnus, which was a 
high shoe worn by ancient tragic actors, 
and had thick cork soles. The term is 
also used to denote the tragic drama or 
tragic style, having been used in con¬ 
tradistinction to soccus , a sock or flat- 
soled shoe worn by comedians. 

Bus'seron, a post-township of 
Knox co., Ind. Pop. 1283. 

B us'sey (Benjamin), born at Can¬ 
ton, Mass., Mar. 1, 1757, served in the 
Revolutionary army at Burgoyne’s cap¬ 
ture. lie was a silversmith of Ded¬ 
ham, Mass., and afterwards a very suc¬ 
cessful merchant of Boston. Died Jan. 

13, 1842, leaving $350,000 to Harvard 
University, half to found the Bussey 
School of Agriculture, and half to sustain the Law and 
Divinity Schools. 


B us'su Palm (Manicaria saccifera), a palm growing 
in the tidal swamps of the Amazon, the only known species 
of its genus. The stem is ten to fifteen feet high, curved 
and deeply ringed. The leaves are undivided, and are the 
largest of the kind produced by any known palm, being 
often thirty feet long and four or five feet wide. The leaves 
make excellent and durable thatch, being split down the 
midrib, and laid obliquely on the rafters, so that the furrows 
formed by the veins lie in a vertical direction, and serve as 
gutters to carry olf the water. The spathe is used by the 
Indians as a bag, and the larger ones to make caps. 

Bust [It. busto; Fr. buste], a sculptured representation 
of the head and upper part of the human body. The'ear- 
liest busts formed by the Greeks were probably heads of 
Mercury, which, when elevated on quadrangular blocks ot 
stone, received the name of Hermae. These blocks were 
afterwards frequently surmounted by representations of 
other divinities; and they gradually assume more of the 
human form, but they still were called Hennas even after 
Alexander’s time, when busts began to be used for por¬ 
traiture in Greece. During the learned period of Greece, 
which commenced with Aristotle, portrait-busts formed an 
important department of art. The artists of this period 
exhibited remarkable ability in expressing the character. 
We have well-authenticated busts of Socrates, Plato, and 
other philosophers; of Isocrates and Demosthenes; of 
Athenian statesmen and distinguished women. In Rome, 
representations of the kings and persons of distinction be¬ 
longing to the earlier period were probably made from the 
images of his ancestors which every patrician preserved, 
and which were commonly made of wax. These were often 
fanciful representations. The earliest well-authenticated 
Roman bust which we possess is probably that of Scipio 
Africanus the Elder, but we possess many examples of 
later date. In recent times portrait busts constitute an im¬ 
portant department of plastic art. 

BustamanTe (often incorrectly written Busta- 
mente), (Anastasius), M. D., a patriotic Mexican gen¬ 
eral, born in 1782. He was a physician by occupation. 
He obtained power as president of Mexico in 1830, was 
banished by Santa Anna about 1833, and was elected 
president in 1837. He was again banished in 1841. Died 
in 1851. 

B us'tard ( Otis), a genus of birds which belongs to the 
order Cursores. They have three toes, which arc all di- 



Jffl/Q/VOT 


Little European Bustard. 

reoted forward, long naked legs, and bills of 
length. They are mostly inhabitants of open 


moderate 
plains, to 






















































BUSTI—BUTLER 


683 


which all their habits are adapted. Although they are 
capable of flying, they often endeavor to escape from danger 
by running. The great bustard ( Otis tarda) is the largest 
of European land-birds, and sometimes weighs thirty 
pounds. It is found in the eastern and southern parts of 
Europe, and abounds in the open plains or steppes of Tar¬ 
tary. The plumage is of a pale chestnut color on the upper 
parts, finely variegated with black. The wings are diver¬ 
sified with black and white, and the tail is tipped with 
white. The male has on each side of the chin or neck a 
tuft of feathers nearly nine inches long, under which is a 
spot ot naked skin, and in the throat a sac or pouch capa¬ 
ble of holding three or four pints of water. Their flesh is 
highly esteemed as food. The little bustard ( Otis tetrax) 
is common in Southern Europe and Northern Africa, and 
is not half so large as the Otis tarda. South Africa pro¬ 
duces a species called Otis Kori , or Kori bustard, which is 
five feet high or more, and is a noble-looking bird. Its 
flesh is good. Macqueen’s bustard is a fine Asiatic bird. 
Several other bustards are known, all Old World species, 
except one, which is Australian. 

B us'ti, a post-township of Chautauqua co., N. Y. P. 1844. 
Bus'to Arsiz'io, a town of Italy, in the province of 
Milan, 23 miles by rail N. W. of Milan, is situated on a fer¬ 
tile plain. It has several churches, one of which is adorned 
with fine old frescoes by Ferrari. Here are manufactures 
of cotton thread. Pop. 9978. 

Busuluk', a town of Russia, in the government of Sa¬ 
mara, CO miles S. of Bugurusslau. Pop. 9932. 

Butcher’s Broom ( Ruscus aculeatus), a biennial 
evergreen plant of the natural order Liliacem, has a stem 
from one to three feet high, and ovate, alternate, sharp- 
pointed leaves. The fruit is a red berry nearly as large as 
a wild cherry. It is indigenous in the south of Europe, and 
is cultivated for ornamental purposes. The root is aperient 
and diuretic. 

Bute, an island of Scotland, in the Frith of Clyde, sepa¬ 
rated from the mainland by a narrow strait called the 
Kyles of Bute, which is about 1 mile wide. The island is 
about 16 miles long, and has an area of nearly 60 square 
miles. The mildness of the climate renders it a favorite 
resort for invalids. The chief town is Rothesay. Here are 
Rothesay Castle and Dungyle, a vitrified fort on the S. W. 
coast. 

Bute, or Buteshire, a county in the S. W. part of 
Scotland, comprises the islands of Bute, Arran, the Cum- 
brays, Holy Isle, Pladda, and Inchmax-nock. Area, 171 
square miles, or 109,375 acres, of which 60,000 are culti¬ 
vated. Chief town, Rothesay. Pop. in 1871, 16,977. 

Bute, Marquesses of, earls of Windsor and Viscounts 
Mountjoy (1796), Barons Mountstuart (1761), Bai’ons Car- 
diff (1766, in Great Britain), earls of Dumfries (1633), earls 
of Bute (1703), viscounts of Ayr (1622), Viscounts King- 
airth, Lords Mountstuart, Cumbrm, and Inchmarnock 
(1703), Lords Crichton and Cumnock (1633), Barons Crich¬ 
ton of Sanquhar (1488, in Scotland), and baronets (1627, in 
Scotland).— John Patrick Crichton Stuart, the third 
marquess, born Sept. 12, 1847, succeeded his father in 1848. 
He is said to be the richest man in England. 

Bute (John Stuart), Earl of, a minister of state, born 
in Scotland in 1713. He became groom of the stole to the 
prince of Wales, who was afterwards George III., over 
whom he acquired a great influence. In Mar., 1761, he was 
appointed one of the principal secretaries of state. He was 
prime minister from May, 1762, to April 8, 1763, and be¬ 
came very unpopular. His policy tended to exalt the royal 
prerogative. He was a liberal patron of literature and art. 
Died Tn 1792. 

Bu'tea [named in honor of the earl of Bute], a genus 
of trees and shrubs of the natural order Leguminosae, re¬ 
markable for the length of the standard of the flower, and 
having a compressed, 1-seeded pod. The Butea frondosa , 
called dhak tree, and Butea superba, are natives of India, 
and bear racemes of large and beautiful scarlet flowers, 
which present a gorgeous spectacle. The twigs yield a re¬ 
sinous exudation in the form of lurid red tears, which is 
one variety of lac. The sap of the trunk also yields gum- 
kino. A beautiful dye is obtained from the flowers, and 
the bark has a useful fibre. 

But'ler [Old English bolder ( i . e. “ bottle-er ”), a man 
who has charge of the bottles], a servant or household offi¬ 
cer who has care of the wines, plate, etc. The “ chief but¬ 
ler” of Pharaoh, mentioned in the Bible, an officer of high 
rank, was more properly a cup-bearer to the king. 

Butler, a county in the S. of Alabama. Area, 850 
square miles. It is drained by tho Sepulga and Pigeon 
rivers. The soil is moderately fertile, and adapted to cot¬ 
ton. Oats, corn, and wool are also raised. Forests of 


pine timber abound. It is intersected by the Mobile and 
Montgomery R. R. Capital, Greenville. Pop. 14,981. 

Butler, a county in Central Iowa. Area, 576 square 
miles. It is intersected by Shell Rock River and the West 
Fork of Cedar River. It contains extensive prairies. Tho 
soil is productive. Grain and wool are staple products. 
It is traversed by the Burlington Cedar Rapids and Min¬ 
nesota and the Dubuque and Sioux City R. R. Capital, 
Butler Centre. Pop. 9951. 

Butler, a county in the S. of Kansas. Area, 720 square 
miles. It is drained by the Walnut and Whitewater creeks. 
The surface is undulating ; the soil is fertile. Cattle and 
grain are raised. Capital, Eldorado. Pop. 3035. 

Butler, a county in S. W. Kentucky. Area, 500 square 
miles. It is intersected by Green River, which is here 
navigable for steamboats. The surface is hilly ; the soil 
moderately fertile. Tobacco, grain, and wool arc staple 
products. Coal is mined in this county. Capital, Mor¬ 
gantown. Pop. 9404. 

Butler, a county of Missouri, bordering on Arkansas. 
Area, 560 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the 
St. Francis, and intersected by the Big Black River. The 
surface is nearly level. Grain, tobacco, and wool are sta¬ 
ple products. Capital, Poplar Bluff. Pop. 4298. 

Butler, a county in the E. of Nebraska. Area, 576 
squai-e miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Platte River, 
and drained by the Big Blue River. The soil is produc¬ 
tive. Grain and wool are the staple products. The county 
contains a lax-ge proportion of prairie. Capital, Savannah. 
Pop. 1290. 

Butler, a county of Ohio, bordering on Indiana. Area, 
455 square miles. It is intersected by the Great Miami 
River and the Miami Canal. The surface is nearly level ; 
the soil is very productive. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, 
hay, and butter are largely raised. Trenton limestone, 
valuable for building, is abundant here. The manufac¬ 
tures are varied, including flour, metallic wai-es, carriages, 
clothing, saddlery, etc. The county is traversed by the Cin¬ 
cinnati Hamilton and Dayton, the Cincinnati Richmond and 
Chicago, and the Cincinnati and Indianapolis R. Rs. Capi¬ 
tal, Hamilton. Pop. 39,912. 

Butler, a county in the W. of Pennsylvania. Area, 
800 square miles. It touches the Alleghany River on the 
N. E. and the S. E., and is drained by the Conequenessing 
Creek. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. Cat¬ 
tle, grain, dairy products, wool, and hay are largely raised. 
Bituminous coal, ii-on, and limestone ai'e found here. The 
manufactures include lumber, furniture, leather, carriages, 
brick, saddlery, etc. Capital, Butler. Pop. 36,510. 

Butler, a post-village, capital of Choctaw co., Ala., 
about 110 miles N. of Mobile. 

Butler, a post-village, capital of Taylor co., Ga., on 
the South-western R. R., 50 miles W. S. W. of Macon. 

Butl er, a post-village of Montgomery co., Ill., on the 
Indianapolis and St. Louis R. R., 63 miles N. E. of St. 
Louis, and 3 miles N. W. of Hillsborough. Pop. 1648 ; of 
the township, 2107. 

Butler, a township of Vermilion co., Ill. Pop. 925. 
Butler, a post-township of De Kalb co., Ind. P. 1209. 
Butler, a township of Franklin co., Ind. Pop. 1488. 
Butler, a township of Miami co., Ind. Pop. 1535. 
Butler, a township of Butler co., Ia. Pop. 1329. 
Butler, a township of Jackson co., Ia. Pop. 857. 
Butler, a township of Scott co., Ia. Pop. 889. 
Butler, a post-village of Pendleton co., Ky. Pop. 144. 
Butler, a post-townslxip of Branch co., Mich. P. 1430. 
Butler, a post-village, capital of Bates co., Mo., is in 
a fertile prairie, about 75 miles S. by E. from Kansas City. 
It has a national bank and two weekly papers. Pop. 1064. 

Butler, a township of Harrison co., Mo. Pop. 748. 
Butler, a township of Pemiscot co., Mo. Pop. 298. 
Butler, a township of St. Clair co., Mo. Pop. 646. 
Butler, a township of Platte co., Neb. Pop. 328. 
Butler, a township of Wayne co., N. Y. Pop. 2023. 
Butler, a township of Columbiana co., O. Pop. 1558. 
Butler, a township of Darke co., 0. Pop. 1524. 
Butler, a township of Knox co., O. Pop. 701. 

Butler, a township of Mercer co., 0. Pop. 1301. 
Butler, a township of Montgomery co., O. Pop. 2153. 
Butler, a post-township of Richland co., 0. 1 . 768. 

Butler, a township of Adams co., Pa. Pop. 

Butler, capital of Butler co., Pa., on the Conequenes¬ 
sing Creek, 31 miles N. of Pittsburg. A branch railroad 































BUTLER. 


684 


extends from the Alleghany River to the town. It has 
four banks, an educational institute, and a fine school 
building. It is situated in the “ oil region,” and two lines 
of pipe bring petroleum ten miles to the railroad. There 
are several machine-shops, two planing mills, two steam- 
grist-mills, and three weekly papers. Pop. of borough, 
1935; of Butler township, 984. J. Ziegler, 

Ed. of “ Democratic Herald.” 

Butler, a township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 1423. 

Butler, a township of Schuylkill co., Pa. Pop. 5905. 

Butler, a township of Darlington co., S. C. Pop. 1099. 

Butler, a township of Edgefield co., S. C. Pop. 2080. 

Butler, a township of Greenville co., S. C. Pop. 1046. 

Butler, a township of Hancock co., W. Va. Pop. 979. 

Butler, a township of Wayne co., W. Va. Pop. 1992. 

Butler (Alban), a learned Roman Catholic divine, born 
at Northampton, England, in 1710 ; died May 15, 1773. He 
wrote “Lives of the Saints” (5 vols., 1745) and other 
works. 

B utler (Andrew Pickens), born in Edgefield district, 
S. C., Nov. 18, 1796, graduated at South Carolina College 
in 1817, was admitted to the bar in 1818, became a judge in 
1833, and was TJ. S. Senator from South Carolina (1846-57). 
—His father, William Butler (1759-1821), wasabravesol- 
dier of the Revolution. A. P. Butler died May 25, 1857. 

Butler (Benjamin Franklin), lawyer and statesman, 
born at Deerfield, N. II., Nov. 5,1818, son of Captain John 
Butler, who commanded a company of dragoons during the 
war of 1812, and served under Jackson at New Orleans. 
Reared by an excellent mother, B. F. Butler graduated at 
Waterville College, Me., and in 1840 was admitted to the bar 
at Lowell, Mass., where he rapidly advanced to an exten¬ 
sive and lucrative practice, in which he acquired a con¬ 
siderable fortune. He served in the State militia through 
all grades from private to brigadier-general. A Democrat 
by inheritance and conviction, he took an active part in 
politics, and in 1853 represented Lowell in the legislature, 
where he lent powerful aid to the bill for reducing the hours 
of labor in the factories of the State from thirteen to eleven. 
In 1853 he was a member of the constitutional convention, 
and in 1859 a member of the senate of Massachusetts. On 
April 15, 1861, upon a call for troops to hasten to the de¬ 
fence of Fortress Monroe and Washington, Brigadier-gen¬ 
eral Butler, who at 5 p. m. was in court in Boston trying a 
cause, issued the requisite orders for mustering the regi¬ 
ments of his brigade. April 16, the Sixth regiment left 
Boston, and on the 18t,h General Butler, at the head of the 
Eighth, took his departure, having been ordered to proceed 
to Washington by way of Baltimore. Two regiments of 
his brigade had, in the mean time, sailed for Fortress Mon¬ 
roe, which they garrisoned, and saved from falling into the 
hands of the enemy. Prevented from reaching Washington 
by way of Baltimore in consequence of the burning of 
bridges, he seized Annapolis, repaired the railroad between 
that city and Washington, and thus the Eighth Massachu¬ 
setts and Seventh New York reached the capital in time to 
prevent all attempts on the part of hostile forces to seize 
it. May 13, 1861, at the head of 900 men, he marched 
upon Baltimore, and encamped on Federal Hill, in the 
midst of the city, without opposition—a service immedi¬ 
ately (May 16) rewarded by President Lincoln with the 
commission of major-general in the service of the U. S., 
and by assigning him to the command of Fortress Monroe, 
where he arrived May 22. He here refused to send back 
the runaway slaves to their masters, on the ground, origi¬ 
nated by him, that the slaves were “ property contraband 
of war.” Feb. 23, 1862, he was assigned to the command 
of the troops, 18,000 in number, forming part of the ex¬ 
pedition against New Orleans, Captain Farragut command¬ 
ing the naval force. After the heroic passing of the forts 
defending the Mississippi by Captain Farragut, General 
Butler (May 1, 1862) landed and took possession of the 
city, where he remained until Dec. 16 following, when he 
was relieved by Major-general N. P. Banks. During his 
administration of the department of the Gulf he taxed 
the wealthy Confederate citizens to support the' thousands 
of inhabitants reduced to destitution by the war, and gov¬ 
erned the city with an ability and justice never surpassed. 
Nov., 1863, he was appointed commander of the depart¬ 
ment of Virginia and North Carolina. In the winter he 
conceived the project of attacking Richmond from City 
Point and Bermuda Hundred. On May 5, 1864, he occu- 

{ )ied City Point and Bermuda Hundred, and intrenched 
iimself upon that peninsula, holding it with supplies, aid¬ 
ing the movement of General Grant upon Petersburg, after 
the repulse of the Wilderness and Cold Harbor. He 
went with a detachment of his forces in Nov., 1864, to New 
York during the presidential election, a rising being ex¬ 


pected in New York City by which the election was to be 
carried by the Democracy. With a small force he held 
the city in peace and quiet, and compelled an orderly elec¬ 
tion. He was sent against Fort Fisher in Dec., 1864, but 
the navy not having reduced the fort by bombardment, a 
storm arising so that he could not land his troops, he took 
the responsibility of disobeying orders and returning; 
the enemy withdrew their troops, deeming all further at¬ 
tack upon that point to be given up ; so that when another 
command was sent down against Fort Fisher, the enemy 
were found unprepared. Before the second expedition 
Gen. Butler was relieved of his command. In 1866 he 
was elected to Congress from the Essex district in Massa¬ 
chusetts, in which he had become a resident for that pur¬ 
pose, and has remained in Congress ever since. 

James Parton. 

Butler (Benjamin F.), an American lawyer and resi¬ 
dent of Albany, N. Y., born Dec. 15, 1795, was attorney- 
general of the U. S. under President Jackson from Dec., 
1831, to June, 1834. Died Nov. 8, 1858. (See his “Life” 
by W. L. Mackenzie.) 

ButS er (Charles), a learned English jurist and writer, 
born in London in 1750, was a Roman Catholic. He wrote, 
besides other works, “Horae Biblicac ” (1797), “Historical 
Memoirs of the English, Irish, and Scottish Catholics,” 
and a continuation of his uncle’s (Alban Butler’s) “ Lives 
of the Saints.” Died in 1832. 

Butler (Clement M.), D. D., an American divine and 
scholar, was born in Troy, N. Y., Oct. 16, 1810. He was 
ordained a minister of the Protestant Episcopal Church 
in 1836, was rector of St. John’s Church at Georgetown, 
D. C., from 1841 to 1844, rector of Grace Church, Boston, 
from 1844 to 1847, and rector of Trinity Church at Wash¬ 
ington from 1847 to 1854. He officiated as chaplain of the 
Senate of the U. S. from 1849 to 1853. He was subse¬ 
quently rector of Grace Church at Rome (in Italy) from 
1862 to 1864; in the last-named year he was appointed 
professor of ecclesiastical history in the Divinity School 
of the Protestant Episcopal Church in West Philadelphia. 
Besides numerous sermons and lectures, Dr. Butler has 
published “ The Book of Common Prayer Interpreted by 
its History” (1849), “Old Truths and New Errors” (1850), 
“ The Flock Fed,” etc. (1859), “St. Paul in Rome” (1865), 
“Inner Rome” (1866), “Manual of Ecclesiastical History 
from the First to the Thirteenth Century” (1868); also a 
“ Continuation of the same from the Thirteenth to the 
Eighteenth Century,” and various other works. 

Butler (Ezra), born about 1762, was in the early years 
of Vermont history a prominent Jeffersonian of Weathers- 
field and Waterbury. He held justiceships and chief-jus¬ 
ticeships of the courts of Chittenden and Jefferson coun¬ 
ties, Vt., 1803-26, was a member of Congress (1813-15), 
and governor 1826-28. Died July 19, 1838. 

Butler (George), U. S. M. C., born Jan. 20, 1839, in 
the District of Columbia, appointed a second lieutenant in 
the Marine Corps Feb. 11, 1859, became a first lieutenant 
in 1861, and a captain in 1862. Led the marines of the 
Minnesota in the assault upon Fort Fisher Jan. 15, 1865, 
and is thus honorably referred to by Lieut.-Commander 
James Parker, in his official report of the assault: “Cap¬ 
tain George Butler of the marines also deserves mention 
for coolness and bravery. He reached and remained near 
the ‘palisades/ a short distance inside of them.” At the 
close of the rebellion Captain Butler was brevetted major 
“ for gallant and meritorious conduct.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Butler (John J.), D. D., a Free-will Baptist minister, 
born at Berwick, Me., in 1814, graduated at Bowdoin Col¬ 
lege in 1837, studied theology at Andover, Mass., w r as pro¬ 
fessor of sacred literature in Whitestown Theological Semi¬ 
nary (1844-54), of systematic theology at the Theological 
School of New Hampton, N. H. (1854-70), when he was 
appointed professor of sacred rhetoric and homiletics in 
Bates College Theological Seminary, Lewiston, Me. For 
many years he has been connected with the “ Morning 
Star,” a religious paper of Dover, N. H. He has published 
several commentaries on parts of the Bible, and a work on 
natural and revealed theology. 

Butler (Joseph), an English bishop and eminent writer, 
was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, in 1692. About 1714 
he wrote an able refutation of Dr. Samuel Clarke’s cele¬ 
brated a priori argument. He entered Oriel College, Ox¬ 
ford, in 1714, was appointed preacher at the Rolls Chapel 
in 1718, and obtained the rich benefice of Stanhope in 1725. 
He became chaplain to Lord Chancellor Talbot in 1733, and 
bishop of Bristol in 1738. In 1750 he was translated to the 
see of Durham. His chief work is “ The Analogy of Relig¬ 
ion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course 
of Nature” (1736). He died unmarried June 16, 1752. (See 






















BUTLER—BUTTER. 


T. Bartlett, “ Memoirs of the Life of Joseph Butler, Bish¬ 
op of Durham.") 

Butler (Pierce), born in Ireland in 1744, was a rela¬ 
tive ot the Ormond family and an officer of the British 
army. While stationed at Boston, Mass., he resigned his 
major's commission, removed to South Carolina, was a 
member ot Congress (1787), a member of the convention 
which drew up the Federal Constitution (1788), and U. S. 
Senator from South Carolina (1789-96 and 1802-04). Died 
Feb. 15, 1822. 

Butler (Pierce M.), Colonel, and former governor of 
South Carolina, born in Edgefield district, S. C., April 11, 
1798. lie entered the army in 1819 as second lieutenant 
ot infantry, was promoted to first lieutenant 1822, captain 
1825, resigned from the army in 1829, and was president 
of a bank at Columbia until 1836, when he accepted the 
appointment of lieutenant-colonel in Goodwin’s regiment 
ot South Carolina volunteers, and served against the Semi¬ 
nole Indians in Florida. On his return was elected (1838) 
governor of South Carolina; at the end of his term became 
Indian agent, and was acting as such at the outbreak of 
the Mexican war, when he was elected colonel of the 
“ Palmetto regiment" of South Carolina volunteers, which 
regiment he gallantly led to the seat of war, distinguishing 
himself at Cerro Gordo and subsequent battles; at the bat¬ 
tle of Churubusco Aug. 20, 1847, he continued to lead his 
men after being wounded, when ho was shot a second time, 
through the head, and killed. 

Butler (Samuel), a witty English poet, born in Wor¬ 
cestershire in 1612. He was liberally educated, and became 
in early youth clerk to a justice of the peace, and after¬ 
wards entered the service of Sir Samuel Luke, who is sup¬ 
posed to be the prototype of Hudibras. About 1661 he 
married a widow named Herbert, who had an easy fortune, 
but it was lost by investment in unsound securities. He 
published in 1663 the first part of “ Hudibras," a witty and 
satirical poem which obtained great popularity. The sec¬ 
ond part appeared in 1664, and the third in 1678. He died 
poor Sept. 25, 1680. He was hostile to the Puritans, whom 
he satirized in his famous poem. “ The sense of Butler,” 
says Ilallam, “is masculine, his wit inexhaustible, and it 
is supplied from every source of reading and observation. 
But these sources are often so little known to the reader 
that his wit loses its effect through the obscurity of the 
allusions.” (See A. Ramsay, “ Butler and his Hudibras.”) 

Butler (William Allen), an American lawyer and 
poet, born at Albany, N. Y., 1825, graduated at the Uni¬ 
versity of New York in 1843. He wrote, besides other 
works, an admirable poem, “Nothing to Wear, an Episode 
of City Life" (1857). 

Butler (William Archer), a philosopher, born near 
Clonmel, Ireland, in 1814, was a writer of high promise. 
He became professor of moral philosophy in Trinity Col¬ 
lege, Dublin, in 1837. Among his works arc “Lectures on 
the History of Ancient Philosophy” (2 vols., 1846). Died 
July 5, 1848. 

Butler (William Orlando), an American general, born 
in Kentucky in 1793. He served in the war of 1812 and 
the Mexican war, and became a major-general in 1846. 
He was the Democratic candidate for the office of Vice- 
President in 1848, but was not elected. 

But'lerage, an ancient duty belonging to the Crown of 
England, otherwise called the prisage of wines. This duty 
is mentioned in the Great Roll of Exchequer, 8 Richard I. 
The Crown could take two tuns of wine from every ship 
(English or foreign) importing into England twenty tuns 
or more, one before and one behind the mast; by charter 
of Edward I., it was changed into a duty of two shillings 
for every tun imported by strangers. 

Butler Centre, a post-village, capital of Butler co., 
Ia., near the West Fork of Cedar River, about 95 miles 
N. N. E. of Des Moines. Pop. 152. 

Butler’s Isle, a township of Hancock co., Me. P. 12. 

Butler’s Landing, a post-village of Clay co., Tenn. 

Butoina'cete, a natural order of endogenous aquatic 
plants, nearly related to the Alismacem. It derives its name 
from the Butomus umbellatus (Gr. /Sovs, an “ox,” and re/xvw, 
to “ cut,” because the edges of its leaves cut the mouths of 
cattle), an aquatic plant which grows in ditches and ponds 
in many parts of Europe and Asia, commonly called flow¬ 
ering rush. The leaves are all radical, linear, triangular, 
and about two feet long. The scape terminates in a large 
umbel of beautiful rose-colored flowers, each of which has 
nine stamens. This plant was formerly used in medicine. 
Its root is eaten in Asia. None of these plants are found 
in North America. 

Butte, a French word signifying a “small hill,” a 
“knoll,” a “rising ground.” In parts of the U. S. the 


_ — —| 
685 

term is applied to mountains, as the Downieville Buttes, 

8840 feet high. 

Butte, a county in the N. part of California. Area, 

1200 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Sacra¬ 
mento River, and is intersected by Feather River and its 
forks. The surface is hilly or mountainous, and the scenery 
picturesque. The name of the county is derived from the 
Butte Mountains on the Sacramento River. Gold is found 
imbedded here in quartz rock. Cattle, wool, hay, grain, 
and dairy products are raised, and lumber is sawed. It is 
intersected by the Oregon division of the Central Pacific 
R. R. Capital, Oroville. Pop. 11,403. 

Butte, a township of Colusa co., Cal. Pop. 604. 

Butte, a township of Sierra co., Cal. Pop. 1182. 

Butte, a township of Siskiyou co., Cal. Poji. 410. 

Butte, a township of Sutter co., Cal. Pop. 1359. 

Butte City, a post-village of Deer Lodge co., Mon. 

Bllt/ter [Ger. Butter; Fr. beurre; Lat. butyrum; Gr. 

/3o vrvpov, supposed to be from 0oOs, a “cow,” and rvpos 
“cheese”] is the fatty substance extracted from milk. In 
ancient times the Hebrews made use of butter as food, but 
the Greeks and the Romans used it only as an ointment in 
their baths; and it is probable that the Greeks obtained 
their knowledge of the substance from the Scythians, Thra¬ 
cians, and Phrygians, whilst the Romans obtained it from 
Germany. In Southern Europe, at the present time, butter 
is very sparingly used, olive oil often taking its place; and 
in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Southern France it is sold 
by apothecaries as a medicinal agent for external applica¬ 
tion. In the East Indies the natives use ghee, which is 
butter clarified by boiling. Butter is usually made from 
cow’s milk, which has the following average composition: 


Fat (butter). 3.83 

Caseine. 3.88 

Sugar (lactose)..’. 4.08 

Salts (alkaline and earthy). 0.76 

Water. 87.45 


100.00 

The composition varies, however, with the breed, age, and 
food of the cow, the age of the calf, the time and frequency 
of milking, etc. The last milk drawn at a milking is 
richer in butter than the first. (See Milk.) The caseine, 
sugar, and most of the salts are in solution, while the fat 
is in suspension in the form of minute globules, which are 
rqadily seen by the aid of the microscope. They vary in 
size from -g-jyo to of an inch in diameter. They are 
quite transparent, refract light strongly, and give the milk 
its white color. It was formerly supposed that each globule 
was covered with a thin membrane or envelope, but this 
has been disproved by Von Baumhauer and F. Knapp. 

Cream .—When milk is allowed to stand, the fat globules 
rise to the surface and form a layer of cream, while below 
remains a blue transparent fluid, serum, containing the 
other constituents of the milk. The separation of fat and 
serum is never complete; each retains a certain quantity 
of the other. Dr. Voelcker gives the composition of cream 
as follows: 


Fat (butter). 

Caseine. 

. 33.43 

. 2.62 ) 

25.40 

7.61 

Sugar. 

. 1.56) 

Salts.. 


2.19 

Water. 

. 61.67 

64.80 

** 

100.00 

100.00 


To allow the cream to rise for the manufacture of butter, 
the milk is placed in a cool cellar, at a temperature of 55° 
to 59° F. If much cooler than this, the cream rises too 
slowly; if warmer, the milk sours rapidly. The pans for 
holding the milk should be perfectly clean and dry. Two 
inches is considered the best depth for the milk. In from 
twenty-four to thirty-six hours the separation of the cream 
will be complete, when it is skimmed off and put into a 
stone pot, or, if a sufficient quantity is at hand, it may be 
churned at once. Owing to a kind of fermentation (see 
Fermentation) that takes place in milk on standing, it 
becomes somewhat sour before all the fat globules have 
separated, and as it thickens or partially coagulates the 
further separation of cream is prevented. In zinc pans it 
remains sweet four or five hours longer than in wooden or 
earthen vessels, and consequently yields a somewhat larger 
proportion of cream; but the poisonous character of zinc 
salts makes the use of such pans dangerous. Glass vessels 
are really the best, but tin (tinned iron) is the material 
usually employed. When the cream is to be kept for a few 
days before churning, it is poured into a clean stonewaio 
vessel; and some butter-makers add a little saltpetre, 
which prevents moulding and keeps the cream tree from a 
cheesy t&ste# 

Churning'—The butter is obtained from the cream by the 
process of churning —violent agitation in a wooden icsstl, 


















BUTTER. 


G86 


- 


a churn. The fat-globules are thus caused to unite in 
larger masses, and finally to separate entirely from the 
watery liquid, called buttermilk. The temperature of the 
cream when it enters the churn should be between 53° and 
55° F. During the churning it rises several degrees. If 
the cream is too cold, the fat is hard and will not coalesce; 
if it be too warm, the fat is semi-liquid and will not unite. 
The time at which the butter separates, as well as its quan¬ 
tity and the quality, depends largely upon the temperature. 
From forty-five minutes to one hour should be occupied in 
churning; if the butter comes much sooner, it is generally 
soft and frothy; if a much longer churning is required, it 
is badly flavored. The butter is separated from the liquid, 
thoroughly washed with cold water, and kneaded or worked 
to expel the buttermilk as completely as possible. It is 
then fashioned into rolls or moulded into forms for imme¬ 
diate use, or it is packed in stone jars or wooden firkins for 
winter use. A little salt is generally added to improve the 
flavor—about a quarter of an ounce to a pound if the 
butter is intended for immediate use, but when it is to be 
packed for winter use as much as an ounce to the pound is 
used. Great care is necessary in selecting the salt for this 
purpose, as even minute quantities of the chlorides of cal¬ 
cium and magnesium, which are common impurities of salt, 
give the butter a bitter, disagreeable taste. The English 
Ashton and the Syracuse factory-filled dairy salt are spe¬ 
cially adapted for dairy use. The buttermilk is never com¬ 
pletely expelled from the butter, and although it gives an 
agreeable taste to the butter, it also causes it to rapidly 
become rancid unless some means are adopted to prevent 
this result. The caseine of the buttermilk acts as a ferment 
both upon the sugar and the butter. The former is changed 
to lactic acid; a little of the latter to free fatty acids and 
glycerine. The pure fat of butter may be kept for months 
without becoming rancid. To protect the butter from ran¬ 
cidity it is generally salted as above mentioned, or, in addi¬ 
tion to salt, white sugar and saltpetre are added. Two 
tablespoonfuls of a mixture of 3 pounds of salt, 1 pound 
of sugar, and 1 pound of saltpetre to a pound of butter is 
suflieient to keep it sweet and good for a year. Butter may 
be completely purified, though with a serious loss of flavor, 
by melting it at as low a temperature as possible and allow¬ 
ing the buttermilk to settle out. 

The average yield of butter is about one pound from 
twenty-four pounds or twelve quarts of milk, or about a 
pound of butter from two quarts of cream. It is computed 
that a cow will give 1800 quarts of milk per annum, pro¬ 
ducing 140 pounds of butter. In the same time she will 
eat 8000 pounds of hay, tvhich contain, as shown by analy¬ 
sis, 168 pounds of fat. Butter is made in many localities 
from the whole milk, which is allowed to stand till it be¬ 
comes sour. The churning is more laborious, owing to the 
large quantity of material and the longer time required to 
bring the butter. The yield is greater, however, than when 
cream is used, and the butter is very good. Great success 
has attended the establishment of butter and cheese factories 
in some parts of the U. S., which receive the milk daily 
from the farmers and manufacture butter or cheese, or both, 
on a large scale in the most approved manner. It is claim¬ 
ed that owing to the possibility of regulating temperatures 
with more certainty on a large scale, to the advantage of 
steam for cleansing vessels, and to the ability of large 
establishments to employ more skilful labor, the products 
are obtained of better quality and at less cost than when 
each farmer handles the milk of his own farm. At the fac¬ 
tory of the“Wallkill Milk Association,” in Orange co., 
N. Y., the milk is set in tin pails twenty-two inches deep 
and eight inches in diameter. These pails are placed in 
running spring-water at 48° to 56° F., where they remain 
over night. The cream is then skimmed with a conical cup 
having an upright handle. The cream is put immediately 
into the churns, and the skimmed milk i-s made into cheese. 
Each churn receives fifty quarts of cream and one pail of 
cold spring-water. The temperature is always between 66 
and 64° F. The churning is effected by horse-power, and 
is continued forty-five to sixty minutes. The butter is then 
taken out, washed with spring-water, salted with 18 ounces 
of salt to 22 pounds of butter, and well worked. It stands 
till evening, when it is worked again, then packed in sixty- 
pound pails and sent to New York. For winter butter a 
small teaspoonful of pulverized saltpetre and a large table¬ 
spoonful of white sugar is added to every twenty-two 
pounds. The butter is worked on an inclined slab with a 
wooden lever. The yield was— 


May 18, 
May 23, 
Sept. 12, 
Oct. 14, 



Milk, qts. 

Butter, lbs. 

Cheese, lb3. 

from 

3512 

213 

560 

it. 

3300 

210 

550 

it 

3128 

200 

546 

it 

2027 

120 

407 


The “ Orange County Milk Association ” find that it requires 


an average of 14 quarts (wine) or 28 pounds of milk to 
make 1 pound of butter and 2 pounds of cheese. 

When newly prepared, butter is of a yellow color, which 
is deeper as the pasture on which the cow is fed is richer. 
Hence the poorer kinds of butter are often colored with 
annatto, turmeric, infusion of calendula flowers, or the juice 
of carrots. 

Butter differs very much in composition according to the 
care taken in working it. The pure fat varies from 77 to 
95 per cent., the buttermilk from 5 to 23 per cent. The fat 
is a mixture of several neutral fats or glycerides, chiefly 
the liquid, oily fat oleine and the solid fats palmitine and 
stearine, with smaller quantities of myristine, butyrine, 
caproine, capryline, and caprine. To these latter bodies 
the peculiar odor and flavor which distinguish butter from 
other fats are due. Prof. E. N. Horsford has detected phos¬ 
phorus in butter. Butter melts at from 85° to 90° F. It 
is generally harder and less fusible in winter than in sum¬ 
mer, owing to the relative increase in summer of the oily 
constituent, oleine. 

The adulterations most frequently found in butter are ex¬ 
cess of water and salt. They may be detected and esti¬ 
mated by melting a weighed quantity of the butter and 
allowing them to settle out. Lard is said to be added 
to butter. Lactate of zinc, derived from the zinc pails and 
pans used in the dairy, has been reported; when present in 
sensible quantities, it produces violent vomiting. 

Butter ‘powders for largely increasing the yield of butter 
are advertised to some extent in the U. S. One of these, 
the “ Star Butter Powder,” is a mixture of equal parts of 
alum and sugar. The directions for its use are: “ To one 
quart of milk, twelve hours old, add one pound of butter; 
warm by setting the churn in blood-warm water. Add one 
teaspoonful of the powder, and churn as usual. You will 
have two and a half pounds of delicious fresh butter.” 
The effect of this and similar powders is to coagulate the 
milk and enable the operator to mix it with the butter, 
forming a frothy mixture (emulsion) of butter and sour 
milk, which is anything but fresh and delicious. 

Artificial Butter. —M6ge-Mouri6z, investigating the pro¬ 
duction of milk, noticed that cows deprived of food con¬ 
tinued to give milk in some quantity, and that the milk 
continued to contain butter. This led him to infer that the 
fat of the animal was changed to butter, and, acting upon 
this hint, he succeeded in extracting from beef tallow (suet) 
a fat having the consistence of butter, which he converted 
into an excellent substitute for genuine butter. As already 
mentioned, butter consists chiefly of oleine, palmitine, and 
stearine. The same is true of suet, but the oily oleine is 
not present in so large a proportion as in butter. Mouriez, 
therefore, removes such a proportion of the palmitine and 
stearine as to leave a mixed fat having the consistence of 
butter. His process is as follows: Fresh suet is cut very 
fine, placed in a vessel containing water, a little carbonate 
of potash, and fresh sheeps’ stomachs cut in pieces are 
added. The whole is warmed to 112° F. Under the in¬ 
fluence of the heat and the pepsin of the stomachs the fat 
separates from the cellular tissue. This fat is allowed to 
cool till it solidifies, when it is subjected to pressure in a 
hydraulic press, when it separates into two portions—a hard 
white stearine and palmitine, suitable for the manufacture 
of candles, and a liquid oil, which on cooling further solidi¬ 
fies into a white fat having the consistence of butter. 
Mouriez calls this oleo-margarine, from the old idea, now 
disproved, that a fat margarine existed in butter and suet. 

To produce butter, the oleo-margarine is poured into a 
churn whilo still liquid with about half its volume of fresh 
milk and nearly as much water. A little annatto is added 
for color, and a little water in which pieces of cows’ udder 
and milk glands haA r e been soaked. The mixture is then 
churned, yielding a sweet, palatable butter which may be 
salted as usual. As nothing unwholesome is used in the 
manufacture of this butter, its use in place of real butter is 
a mere matter of taste. As it can be made for from one- 
fifth to one-third the cost of real butter, and does not readily 
become rancid, it bids fair to become an important article 
of manufacture. It is certainly a good substitute for the 
olive oil so freely used in Southern Europe, or the lard 
which is used on bread in place of butter in many families 
in Germany. Mr. Alfred Paraf has simplified the process, 
and erected a large factory for making this butter in New 
York, under the name of the “ Oleo-margarine Company.” 

Vegetable Butters .—The name te butter” is applied to 
several vegetable fats, such as palm, cacao, cocoanut, nut¬ 
meg, and shea butter. The latter is made from a nut like 
the olive, and is used in Africa as a substitute for butter. 

Metallic Butters. —In chemistry the name butter was for¬ 
merly applied to certain oily compounds which resembled 
melted butter; as the butter of antimony, bismuth, zinc, 
and tin, which were the chlorides of the respective metals. 
Bog butter is a fossil butter found occasionally in the Irish 















BUTTEKCUP—BUTTON. 


peat-bogs. It is believed to have been made by man. 
Bock butter is an iron alum which appears as a pasty 
exudation on alum slates. C. F. Chandler. 

Buttercup. See Ranunculus. 

But'terfield (Daniel), born in Oneida co., N. Y., in 
1831, was educated at Union College. Soon after the break¬ 
ing out of the civil war he was made brigadier-general of 
volunteers, and took part in many actions under Generals 
McClellan, Pope, and Burnside, and was chief of General 
Hooker’s staff at Lookout Mountain, and afterwards. He 
was brevetted major-general for gallant and meritorious 
conduct. 

Butterfield (John), born at Helderberg, N. Y., about 
1783, became an extensive proprietor of passenger stages, 
and after the construction of railroads and telegraphs was 
largely interested in the railroad, express, and telegraph 
business. He removed to Utica, N. Y., in 1822, and died 
there Nov. 15, 1869. He was one of the founders of the 
American Express Company. 

But'terfly, the name of the Papilionidae, diurnal lepi- 
dopterous. insects, forming many genera in the recent en¬ 
tomological systems. Butterflies exhibit a great similarity 
in most respects to other lepidopterous insects. They are 
distinguished in most cases without difficulty by their 
knobbed antennas, and by brilliancy of coloring, which in 
butterflies belongs to both sides of the wings, whilst the 
beauty of moths appears chiefly on the upper side. The 
abdomen is shorter and smaller than in other families. 
Butterflies, at rest, hold their wings erect, the under side 
being thus chiefly exhibited; while the other lepidopterous 
insects hold their wings in a horizontal or inclined position, 
and some have them wrapped round the body. Butterflies 
are the only insects of their order which have no sockets, 
spines, bristles, or hooks by which the second wing on each 
side can be attached to the first, but both when flying and 
at rest have all their wings quite separate. Their cater¬ 
pillars have always sixteen feet, ten of which are abdomi¬ 
nal. The pupa or chrysalis is angular, especially on the 
thorax, is seldom enveloped in a cocoon, is generally sus¬ 
pended by the tail by means of a silky substance, but is 
sometimes supported by bands around the middle, and 
generally exhibits more or less of that golden color from 
which both the names nurel'ia (from the Lat. aurum, “ gold ”) 
and chrysalis (from the Gr. xpvaos, “gold”) are derived. 

Some species of butterflies possess no small power of 
flight. Short-lived as they are generally believed to be, 
some of the tropical species perform wonderful migrations. 
The number of species is very great; not less than 5000 
species being known, and the number will doubtless be 
increased. There are probably 1000 species in North 
America. Their arrangement is difficult, on account of the 
similarity which prevails among them. 

Some butterflies measure almost a foot across the ex¬ 
panded wings. The largest species are tropical. Some 
species are widely distributed: Cynthia carclui is found 
throughout nearly all the world. The geographical limits 
of other species are restricted. Caterpillars of some species 
are furnished with spines, those of others have fleshy 
prominences, horny at the tip, perhaps intended as means 
of defence. The hinder wings of many butterflies are 
prolonged into tail-like appendages, one or more on each 
wing, which vary in form. 

These insects are objects of admiration, associated with 
the most lovely scenes, but they are also a cause of annoy¬ 
ance and vexation by the ravages of their caterpillars. 
There is, however, one species, the bugong (Euploea ham- 
ata ), which affords food to the aborigines of Australia. 
Butterflies of this species congregate in such vast num¬ 
bers in rocky crevices that they are collected by simply 
making fires under the rocks, in the smoke of which they 
are suffocated. Bushels of them are thus procured, and 
baked by placing them on the heated ground, the down 
and wings removed, and the bodies made into cakes which 
resemble lumps of fat. It is probable that the oil of this 
species may become commercially important. As an ar¬ 
ticle of food it is irritant and nauseating, even to the na¬ 
tives. Revised by C. W. Greene. 

But'terfly-Weed, a common name of the Asclepias 
tuberosa, an herbaceous plant which is indigenous in many 
parts of the U. S., and is sometimes called Pleurisy 
Root. It has nearly sessile leaves, varying from linear 
to oblong-lanceolate, and has showy orange-colored flowers. 
The root is diaphoretic and expectorant, and has been used 
in medicine. (See Asclepias.) 

But'termilk, the part of milk that remains after the 
butter has been separated from it. It contains casein, 
sugar, water, and all the original ingredients of milk, ex¬ 
cept the oily matter. It is a nutritious beverage, and is 
extensively used in many places as lood. 


687 


Buttermilk Falls, a cataract in Le Roy township, 
Genesee co., N. Y. The Oatka Creek falls 90 feet over a 
cliff of limestone. Also a series of cascades on Bog Meadow 
Creek in Cornwall township, Orange co., N.Y., below West 
Point, and near the Hudson River. 

But'ternut, or White Walnut, a name given to the 
Juglans cinerea, and its fruit, which is indigenous in the 
U. S. The tree grows to the height of from thirty to fifty 
feet, and has oblong-lanceolate leaflets, which are serrate, 
pointed, and rounded at the base. The fruit is oblong and 
clammy, and contains an oily, edible kernel. The wood 
is valuable in the arts. 

But'ternuts, a post-township of Otsego co., N. Y. 
It contains four churches and several manufacturing estab¬ 
lishments. Pop. 2174. 

Butternut Valley, a post-townshij> of Blue Earth co., 
Minn. Pop. 590. 

Butter Tree, a name given to several tropical trees, 
the fruits of which yield concrete fixed oils which are sim¬ 
ilar to butter and used as food. The butter trees of India 
and Africa belong to the genus Bassia and the order 
Sapotaceas. Those of Brazil and Guiana belong to the 
genus Caryocar. 

But'terwort ( Pinguicula ), a genus of herbaceous 
plants of the natural order Lentibulariaceas, distinguished 
by a 2-lipped calyx, the upper lip trifid, the lower bifid; 
and a spurred corolla, 2-lipped and gaping, the upper lip 
arched. The Pinguicula vulgaris is a small stemless peren¬ 
nial, growing in marshes and on wet rocks in Europe and 
the U. S. It has the power of coagulating milk, and is 
used for that purpose by the Laplanders. 

But'terworth (John), well known as the author of a 
concordance and dictionary of the Scriptures, born in Lan¬ 
cashire Dec. 13, 1727. He was pastor of the Baptist 
church at Coventry for fifty-two years. Died in 1803. 

Butt Hinge, a hinge of iron or brass, the flaps of which 
close like a book. It is usually let in flush with the bead 
of a joint left for the purpose of concealing it. Such hinges 
are commonly used for doors. 

Butt'mann (Philipp Karl), an eminent and profound 
German philologist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in Dec., 
1764. He was appointed secretary of the Royal Library 
of Berlin in 1796, and chief librarian of the same in 1811. 
He was a friend of Niebuhr, and an excellent Greek 
scholar. He edited several Greek classics, and published, 
besides other works, a “Greek Grammar for Schools” 
(1792), a large “Greek Grammar” (“Ausfiihrliche Grie- 
chische Sprachlehre,” unfinished), and “ Lexilogus, or 
Explanation of the Greek Words” (1818). Died June 21, 
1829. 

But'ton [Fr. bouton, a “button;” originally, a “bud”], 
a well-known appendage to dress used for fastening or for 
ornament. Buttons are of various kinds and materials. 
Military buttons are for the most part of brass. Circular 
disks, called “ blanks,” are cut from sheet brass by ma¬ 
chines, which cut a row of eight or ten blanks at once, the 
machine itself pushing the metal forward. The edges are 
trimmed, and the blank planished by stamping with a die. 
The shanks are made by a machine which is fed with wire, 
which it pushes in short lengths to a pair of shears. The 
pieces of wire are forced into a vice which bends them to 
the required shape, the ends are made flat with a hammer, 
the shanks soldered to the blanks, and the buttons finished 
in the lathe and lacquered or gilded. “Shell” buttons 
are made of two blanks, that forming the face being larger 
than the back to which the shank is attached. These 
blanks are pressed into the required shape by dies, and 
then, by another die, the edge of the larger blank is lapped 
over the smaller, and thus attached without soldering. 
Common metal buttons are cast in moulds in which the 
shanks are previously placed, and are thereby attached 
without soldering. When the body of the button is of 
pearl-shell, bone, or wood, the blanks are cut by means of 
a tubular saw. The shanks are fixed by cutting a hole 
half through the blank ; this is enlarged as it deepens, 
and after inserting the shank a blow spreads it out, so as 
to fill up the inner and larger part of the cavity. Buttons 
with holes, when of shell, wood, bone, or ivory, are cut 
with the tubular saw, and drilled. Covered buttons are 
often made by sewing cloth upon “moulds”— i. e. flat bone 
or wooden disks with a hole in the middle. These have 
been to a great extent superseded by various patented 
buttons. Many of these are made of combinations ot 
metal and cloth. 

Many buttons are now made of plastic materials, liko 
vulcanized rubber, papier machth etc. which are pressed in 
moulds to the shape required. Horn buttons arc made by 
pressure, the horn having been softened by heat. A ^eiy 
cheap substitute for pearl buttons is made by lorcibl} com- 












BUTTON—BY-BIDDING. 


pressing clay into moulds. There are several compositions 
of this kind used. Buttons of horn, vegetable ivory, bone, 
mother of pearl, the coquilla nut, hard wood, glass, etc. are 
largely manufactured. 

Revised dy C. W. Greene. 

Button, a township of Ford co., Ill. Pop. 610. 

Button (Sir Thomas), an English sailor who in 1614 
sailed to discover the N. W. passage, wintered in Hudson’s 
Bay, which he called ‘‘Carey’s Swan’s Nest,” and named 
many places on its shores. For these services he was 
knighted. 

Button-bush ( Cephalanthus occidentalis), a common 
American shrub of the Cinchona family, has a white flower 
in globose heads, whence its name. When in flower it is 
much frequented by bees. 

Bllt'tonwood, a common name of the Platanus occi¬ 
dentalism a tree which is a native of the U. S., and is also 
called Plane Tree (which see). 

But'tress [Fr. arc-boutant J, in architecture, a projection 
for the purpose of giving additional support or strength to 
a wall; a mass of masonry or brickwork built to resist the 
horizontal thrust of another mass. In the classical style no 
buttresses were used, their place being to some extent sup¬ 
plied by pilasters, antae, etc. ,• but in Gothic architecture 
they are much used to counteract the outward thrust of the 
arches or of the vaulting which covers the naves and aisles 
of cathedrals. The different stages of Gothic architecture 
are marked by the form of the buttresses employed almost 
as distinctly as by the form of the arch. The Norman but¬ 
tress was broad, often semicircular, never projecting from 
the wall to any great extent. Early English buttresses 
project more boldly, and are narrower than the Norman. 
They are frequently broken into stages, which diminish in 
size as they ascend. Buttresses of which the upper portion 
or the whole upright part is detached from the wall (with 
which they are connected by an arch) are called flying but¬ 
tresses or arch-buttresses. 

Butts, a county in Central Georgia. Area, 180 square 
miles. It is bounded on the E. and N. E. by the Ocmulgee 
River, and drained by Tussahaw and Sandy creeks. The 
surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Corn, cotton, 
and wool are produced. Capital, Jackson. Pop. 6941. 

Butts Road, a township of Norfolk co., Ya. P. 2039. 

Butyl. See Trityl. 

Butyr'ic [from the Lat. butyrum, “butter”] Acid, 
IIC4II7O2, may be obtained by saponifying butter with 
potash, adding dilute sulphuric acid, and distilling about 
one half of the mixture, adding water, and continuing the 
distillation till the residue is not acid. Butyric acid may 
also be obtained by allowing a small quantity of milk-curd 
to act upon a solution of sugar at a temperature of 77° to 
86°. Chalk is added to take up the butyric acid when 
produced. The butyrate of lime is left in the vessel, and 
on acting upon that by dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric 
acid, and distilling, the free butyric acid passes over, and 
is condensed. Butyric acid is a transparent, thin, oily 
liquid, with a most persistent rancid odor. It is miscible 
in all proportions in water, alcohol, ether, and sulphuric 
acid; has a specific gravity of .973, boils at 314°. 

Butyr'ic E'ther, or Ethyl'ic Bu'tyrate, C2H5.C4- 
H7O2, an exceedingly fragrant liquid obtained by distilling 
butyric acid (or the butyrate of lime), alcohol, and sulphuric 
acid. Butyric ether is mixed with alcohol, and sold as 
artificial pineapple oil. There is little doubt that pine¬ 
apples owe their flavor to the presence of natural butyric 
ether. A small quantity is also found in rum. The arti¬ 
ficial variety is used for flavoring various articles and for 
sophisticating bad rum. Butyric ether alone cannot be 
used in perfumery, as, when inhaled in even a small quan¬ 
tity, it tends to cause irritation of the lungs and intense 
headache, but it is employed in the manufacture of com¬ 
pound perfumes. Other butyric ethers are the methylic, 
butylic, propylic, amylic butyrates, etc. 

Buxbaum'ia [named in honor of J. C. Buxbaum, a 
German botanist], a genus of mosses, of which only one 
species is known, Buxbaumia aphylla, a rare European 
and American plant, apparently destitute of leaves. The 
part of it visible above the ground is merely a little conical 
bulb, with minute scales, which are its leaves. 

Bux'ton, a town and watering-place of England, in 
Derbyshire, is situated in a deep valley near the source of 
the Wye, 32 miles N. W. of Derby, and 160 miles N. N. W. 
of London. Here are calcareous and chalybeate springs, 
which are annually visited by about 14,000 persons. Bux¬ 
ton is surrounded by beautiful scenery, has several good 
hotels, and baths which are regarded as among the finest 
in Europe. One of the dukes of Devonshire expended 
£120,000 here in the erection of a pile of stone buildings 


called the Crescent. Buxton was once the residence of 
Mary queen of Scots, then a captive. Near this town is 
Diamond Hill, famous for its crystals. Pop. 1877. 

Buxton, a post-township of York co., Me., on the 
Portland and Rochester R. R., 17 miles W. of Portland. 
It has a savings’ bank, and manufactures of lumber, fur¬ 
niture, woollen goods, etc. Pop. 2546. 

Buxton (Rev. Jarvis Barry), born at Newbern, N. C., 
Jan. 17, 1792, was ordained pastor of a Protestant Episco¬ 
pal church at Elizabeth City, N. C., in 1827, and removed 
in 1831 to Fayetteville, N. C., where he was distinguished 
for his devotion to his work as a minister. Died May 30, 
1851. A volume of his “ Discourses,” with a memoir of 
his life, was published by his son in 1853. 

Buxton (Jedidiah), an Englishman, born near Ches¬ 
ter in 1705. Though below mediocrity in respect of intel¬ 
lect, he possessed such marvellous powers of arithmetical 
calculation that he was regarded as one of the wonders of 
his time. His insight into the relations of numbers was so 
far intuitive that he never could explain the processes by 
which he arrived at his conclusions, which were almost 
always correct. Died about 1774. 

Buxton (Sir Thomas Fowell), an English philanthro¬ 
pist, born in Essex April 1, 1786, was the son of opulent 
parents. He married in 1807 Hannah Gurney, a sister of 
Joseph John Gurney and of Mrs. Fry, and was elected a 
member of Parliament in 1818 by the voters of Weymouth, 
which he represented nineteen years. He was an eminent 
advocate of the abolition of slavery and other humani¬ 
tarian measures, and had much influence in public affairs. 
Died Feb. 19, 1845. (See “Life of T. F. Buxton,” by his 
son, Sir Charles.) 

Bux'torf [Lat. Buxtorfius~\, (Johann), an eminent Ger¬ 
man scholar, born at Kamen, in Westphalia, Dec. 25, 1564. 
He was well versed in the Hebrew language and rabbinical 
literature. In 1591 he became professor of Hebrew at 
Bale. His chief works are a “ Lexicon Hebraicum et 
Chaldaicum” (1607) and “Biblia Hebraica Rabbinica” 
(1618). Died Sept. 13, 1629. 

Buxtorf (Johann, Jr.), a son of the foregoing and 
father of the following, was born Aug. 13, 1599, became in 
1630 professor of Hebrew at Bale, where he later held other 
professorships. Died Aug. 16, 1664. He published various 
learned works, among which are a treatise on the Hebrew 
vowel-points and a Chaldee and Syriac lexicon. 

Buxtorf (Johann Jakob) was born Sept. 4, 1645, and 
died April 1, 1704. He also was a good Hebraist, but 
published nothing except a preface to his grandfather’s 
“ Tiberias ” (1665), and a revised edition of his “ Synagoga 
Judaica” (1680). He was professor at Bale from 1669. 

Buxtorf (Johann, Tertius), nephew of the preceding, 
was born Jan. 8, 1663, became professor at Bale in 1704, 
and died June 19, 1732. His principal work is the “ Cata- 
lecta Philologico-theologica,” etc. 

Buxus, See Box. 

Buyck'ville, a township of Elmore co., Ala. Pop. 806. 

Buzan^ais, a town of France, department of Indre, 
on the river Indre, 46 miles S. E. of Tours. Here are ex¬ 
tensive iron-works. Pop. in 1866, 5145. 

Buz'zartl ( Buteo ), a genus of birds of the order Rap- 
tores and family Falconidae, having a small bill, which 
bends from the base and is not notched. They resemble 
the eagle and falcon in form, but are inferior in size and 
courage. The common buzzard ( Buteo vulgaris), a native 
of Europe and North America, measures nearly four feet 
from tip to tip of the wings. It is sluggish and inactive 
compared with other birds of prey. The prevailing color 
of its plumage on the upper parts is brown, with a mixture 
of black. The rough-legged buzzard ( Buteo lagopns) is 
similar to the Buteo vulgaris, but it may be distinguished 
by its having the tarsi feathered to the toes. It is widely 
distributed in Europe and Africa, and is found in North 
America. Among the other species of this genus is the 
red-tailed hawk of the U. S. ( Buteo borealis), which often 
kills poultry. The American bird called turkey-buzzard 
belongs to the genus Cathartes (which see). 

Buzzard’s Bay, in the S. part of Massachusetts, is 30 
miles long, has an average width of 7 miles, and contains 
the harbors of New Bedford, Fairhaven, and Wareham. 

. It is sheltered from the ocean by the Elizabeth Islands. 

By-bidding, bidding at an auction sale by a person 
on behalf of the owner of the property sold, and with no 
intent of purchasing it. It may be for either one of two 
purposes—either to prevent the property from being sold 
below its value, or to raise its price beyond! its value. The 
former act is supposed to be lawful; the latter is illegal, 
and the buyer may make use of it to avoid the sale. By¬ 
bidders are sometimes called “puffers.” (See Auction.) 

















BYBLOS—BYKON. 


Byb'los, or Byblus [Gr. Bu'/3Aos], an ancient city of 
Phoenicia, on the Mediterranean, about 22 miles N. N. E. 
of Berytus, was called Giblali by the Hebrew writers. It 
was near the base of Mount Lebanon, and was said to be 
the native place of Adonis or Thammuz. This site is oc¬ 
cupied by the modern town of Jubeil, and ruins of a Ro¬ 
man theatre. 

Byblos [Gr. Bu/3Aos], an ancient town in the delta of 
Egypt, was celebrated for its manufacture of papyrus, the 
chief writing-material of the civilized world. It stood in 
a marshy tract which produced in abundance the byblus 
or papyrus plant ( Cyperus antiquorum). 

By'forcl (William Heath), M. 1)., was born at Eaton, 
Preble co., 0., Mar. 20, 1817, was self-educated, became an 
active practitioner in Chicago, president of faculty and 
professor of clinical surgery in the Woman’s Hospital 
Medical College, was twice president of the American 
Medical Association, author of “ Philosophy of Domestic 
Life,” “Chronic Inflammation of the Unimpregnated Ute¬ 
rus,” “Practice of Medicine and Surgery applied to Dis¬ 
eases and Accidents peculiar to Women,” “Theory and 
Practice of Obstetrics,” etc. 

By "ltlWSy regulations made by a corporation for its own 
government or that of its members. It is a general rule 
that the power to make by-laws is incidental to the exist¬ 
ence of a corporation. It is sometimes conferred expressly 
in the charter upon the corporation, or vested in a select 
body of persons, such as directors. Where the charter is 
silent, the power appertains to the corporation itself. By¬ 
laws must be reasonable and consistent with law. If a 
penalty for breach of a by-law be imposed, it may be col¬ 
lected by action. The by-laws of municipal corporations are 
usually termed “ordinances.” A city in making such an 
ordinance usually acts in a quasi legislative character. It 
would not, for example, be responsible if the ordinance 
should be broken by one of the citizens and a person should 
suffer damage by the breach. Thus, if there were an ordi¬ 
nance that no owner of swine should allow them to run at 
large, yet if an owner did so permit them to run to the in¬ 
jury of his neighbor, an action would not lie against the 
city, but only against the wrong-doer. 

By I es (Mather), D. D., born in Boston, Mass., Mar. 
26, 1706. His father was a native of England; on his 
mother’s side he descended from the Rev. Richard Mather 
and the Rev. John Cotton. He graduated at Harvard Col¬ 
lege in 1725, and was ordained first pastor of Hollis street 
church, Boston, 1733. He soon attained eminence in his 
profession, and also attracted considerable attention by his 
poetical talents. He continued happily with his parish 
till the excitement preceding the Revolution created a dis¬ 
trust against him, and he was accused of being a Tory, 
and separated from his parish. Charges were afterwards 
made against him that he prayed for the king and received 
visits from British officers, and in May, 1777, he was pub¬ 
licly denounced in town-meeting. On the 2d of June fol¬ 
lowing he was placed on trial, pronounced guilty and 
ordered to be confined on a guardship, and in forty days 
to be sent to England with his family; this sentence, how¬ 
ever, was not executed, but he was confined to his own 
house, where a guard was placed over it, which was after¬ 
wards removed, but again replaced and again dismissed, 
causing him to say that he was “ guarded, reguarded, and 
disregarded.” His literary talent was recognized by many 
men of genius in England, and among his correspondents 
were Pope, Swift, Lansdowne, and Watts. He continued 
to reside in Boston, but was not again connected with any 
parish, till his death, which occurred July 5, 1788. 

Bynae'us (Anthony), a Dutch Orientalist, born at 
Utrecht Aug. 6, 1654, became a Protestant minister and a 
proficient in Hebrew and Syriac literature, and published a 
treatise on Hebrew vowel-points and several sermons and 
commentaries. Died at Deventer Nov. 8, 1698. 

Byng (John), an admiral, a son of Lord Torrington, 
was born in 1704. He gained the rank of admiral of the 
red in 1748. In 1756 he commanded an expedition sent 
to relieve Minorca, then blockaded by the French. He 
failed, and was accused of cowardice by the ministers, who 
sought to divert attention from their own inefficient meas¬ 
ures by sacrificing him to the public indignation. He was 
tried by a court-martial and shot Mar. 14, 1757. i 

Byng Inlet, a port of entry of the province of On¬ 
tario (Canada), on the N. side of Georgian Bay, Lake 
Huron, has very extensive saw-mills, whence 20,000,000 
feet of lumber are yearly sent to the U. S. It is visited in 
winter by dog-sledges, and in summer by regular steamers. 
Pop. about 200. 

By'ram, a township of Sussex co., N. J. Pop. 1332. 

Byrd, a township of Cape Girardeau co., Mo. P. 2112. 

Byrd, a township of Brown co., 0. Pop. 1251. 

44 


689 


Byrd, a township of Goochland co., Va. Pop. 3216. 

Byrd (William), F. R. S., born at Westover, Va., Mar. 

28, 1674, studied law in London, and long held important 
offices in Virginia. He was a patron of literature, and 
laid out in 1733 the towns of Petersburg and Richmond. 

He wrote many valuable sketches of his travels in Vir¬ 
ginia. Some of his writings were published by Edmund 
Ruffin as “The Westover Manuscripts” (1841). Died 
Aug. 26, 1744. 

By'rom (John), F. R. S., an English writer, born near 
Manchester in 1691, was educated at Cambridge. He 
wrote prose and verse, contributed to Addison’s “ Specta¬ 
tor,” and invented a system of shorthand. Died Sept. 

28, 1763. 

By'ron, a post-village of Shiawassee co., Mich. 

Byron, a post-township of Ogle co., Ill. Pop. 1093. 

Byron, a township of Buchanan co., Ia. Pop. 1195. 

Byron, a post-township of Oxford co., Me. It has 
manufactures of lumber. Pop. 242. 

Byron, a township of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1326. 

Byron, a township of Wauseca co., Minn. Pop. 253. 

Byron, a post-township of Genesee co., N. Y., contains 
several mineral springs. Pop. 1734. 

Byron, a post-township of Fond du Lac co., Wis. Pop. 
1441. 

Byron (George Gordon Noel), Lord, an eminent Eng¬ 
lish poet, was born in London the 22d of Jan., 1788. He 
belonged to an ancient Norman family whose name was 
variously written Burun, Biron, and Byron. John Byron, 
the poet’s grandfather, was a noted English admiral. Cap¬ 
tain Byron, the son of the admiral, married Catherine Gor¬ 
don, a Scottish heiress, who had only one son, the subject of 
this notice. Captain Byron was distinguished for nothing 
but his vices. Having squandered a large portion of his 
wife’s property, he deserted her, after which she retired to 
Scotland, and resided for some time at Aberdeen, where 
young Byron received the first rudiments of his education. 
Before he was seven years old, with his mother he visited 
the Highlands, the picturesque beauty of which, even at 
that age, made, it is said, a powerful impression on his 
mind. When he was ten years old he succeeded to the 
estate and title of his grand-uncle, William, fifth Lord 
Byron, who had resided at Newstead Abbey, where he died 
in 1^798. The poet had a congenital deformity of his feet, 
which rendered him lame, and which was during his whole 
life a bitter mortification to him. When he was about 
twelve years old he was sent to school at Harrow. While 
here he became acquainted with Miss Chaworth, for whom 
he conceived a romantic and passionate love. She was the 
heiress of Annesley, which was adjacent to Newstead, the 
estate to which Byron had succeeded. This appears to 
have been one of the truest and deepest attachments of his 
life, and he seems to have fully persuaded himself that if he 
had married Miss Chaworth he would have been a far bet¬ 
ter as well as a happier man. He went in 1805 to Cam¬ 
bridge, which he left two years afterwards without taking 
a degree. While at the university he published (1807) a 
volume of poems, “Hours of Idleness,” which was criticised 
in the “Edinburgh Review.” This critique was written by 
Mr. (afterwards Lord) Brougham, but Byron always sup¬ 
posed thaL Jeffrey was the author. In retaliation he wrote 
“English Bards and Scotch Reviewers,” which may be said 
to have laid the foundation of his fame. This satire, though 
evincing great talent in its way, is in many parts egre- 
giously unjust, as, for example, where the satirist speaks 
of Scott. It is but just to add that Byron himself after¬ 
wards deeply regretted the publication of the poem, and 
did everything in his power to suppress it. f 

In 1809, in company with his friend Mr. Ilobhouse, By¬ 
ron commenced his travels through different parts of Europe, , 
Spain, Portugal, European Turkey, and Greece. After an 
absence of about two years, he returned to England and 
published the first two cantos of “Cliilde Harold’s Pilgrim¬ 
age,” which were received with extraordinary favor, so that, 
as he himself informs us, he “awoke one morning and found 
himself famous.” He soon after took his seat in the Brit¬ 
ish House of Peers. At one time it would appear that he 
thought seriously of giving himself up to politics, but he 
soon changed his purpose and turned his attention again 
to poetry. Within the next two or three years he pro¬ 
duced several minor poems of exquisite beauty—namely, 

“ The Giaour,” “ The Bride of Abydos,” “ The Corsair,” 
“Lara,” “The Siege of Corinth,” “ Parisina,” and “The 
Prisoner of Chillon.” On the 2d of Jan., 1815, he was 
married to Miss Isabella Millbanke, only daughter ot Sir 
Ralph Millbanke, afterwards Noel. She was regarded as a 
great heiress. But, if Byron may be believed, his fortune 
was but little improved by this marriage. He saj s, All 














690 BYRON—BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 


I have ever received or am likely to receive (and that has 
been twice paid back, too) was £10,000.” The union was 
a very unhappy one, as well on account of Lord Byron’s 
licentious habits as the incompatibility of temper of the 
two parties.* 

Lady Byron gave birth to a daughter, Ada, who became 
afterwards the countess of Lovelace. She was Lord Byron’s 
only legitimate child; he addresses her in “ Childe Harold ” 
as “ sole daughter of my house and heart.” 

•Not long after the birth of Ada, his wife left him, and, 
taking the child with her, went to her father’s. He left 
England early in 1816, resolved never again to return to 
his native land. Passing through Belgium, he visited the 
field of Waterloo; he subsequently went to Switzerland, 
and resided near Geneva. Here he wrote the third canto 
of “ Childe Harold.” He afterwards abode some time in 
Venice. He next visited Ravenna, where he formed a 
liaison with the countess of Guiccioli, whose sprightly and 
imaginative character, no less than her personal beauty, 
powerfully attracted him. While at Pisa in 1822 he expe¬ 
rienced a great sorrow in the tragic death of his friend, 
the poet Shelley. Early in 1822, Byron, Shelley, and Leigh 
Hunt were associated in the publication of a journal styled 
“ The Liberal,” but Byron and Hunt quarrelled soon after 
the death of Shelley, and “The Liberal” was discontinued .x 

While in Italy, Byron wrote several of his most admired 
poems, including the fourth canto of “ Childe Harold,” 
“ Mazeppa,” “ Manfred,” “ Cain, a Mystery,” “ Marino 
Faliero,” “The Two Foscari,” “Sardanapalus,” “Werner,” 
and “ Don Juan.” He espoused with enthusiasm the cause 
of Greek independence, and in 1823 passed over from Italy 
to Cephalonia, where he spent several months. In the early 
part of 1824 he arrived at Missolonghi. He took, April 9, 
a severe cold, which caused his death on the 19th of April, 
1824. 

Byron’s poetic genius was of a very high order, but he 
was more distinguished for the clearness and intensity of 
his intellect (if we may use this expression) than for its 
breadth or versatility. It has been said that Brougham’s 
galling article in the “Edinburgh Review” “stung Byron 
into a poet,” but this expression of course implies that 
he previously possessed the potentiality of genius. But 
whether the above remark be true or not, it is certain that 
Byron’s intellect partook in a remarkable degree of the 
character of his emotional nature. It was only under the 
influence of intense feeling or passion that he could put 
forth his poetical powers with any success. And hence it 
is that everything he has written is so strongly colored with 
his own personal feelings. He was perhaps the most in¬ 
tensely subjective of all the great poets that ever lived. 
This explains why he had no genius for dramatic com¬ 
position. He could only represent successfully those cha¬ 
racters which resembled his own. His soul was not capa¬ 
cious nor calm enough to reflect without distortion the 
infinitely varied pictures presented by the comedy and 
tragedy of human life. But in his own department he has 
probably never been equalled—certainly never surpassed— 
by any poet either in ancient or modern times. His two 
most remarkable characteristics are, first, his power of ex¬ 
pressing intense passion, particularly of the darker and 
fiercer kinds. “Never,” says Macaulay, “had any writer 
so vast a command of the whole eloquence of scorn, mis¬ 
anthropy, and despair.” Again, no poet ever displayed a 
more exquisite taste in the choice of his expressions, or a 
more admirable art in his manner of presenting to the im¬ 
agination of his readers any subject, whether of the delight¬ 
ful or of the opposite kind. (See Moore’s “ Life of Byron;” 
“ Recollections of the Last Days of Shelley and Byron,” by 
E. J. Trelawney, 1858.) r - J. Thomas. 

Byron (Henry James), an English writer of burlesque 
dramas, is a lawyer by profession, and has contributed 
much to “ London Fun,” of which he was for a time the 
editor. His principal works are travesties of various pop¬ 
ular and standard dramas and operas, but he has produced 
several comedies, pantomimes, and novels. He has also 
acquired distinction as an actor in London. 

Byron (John), Vice-Admiral, grandfather of the poet 
and son of the fourth Lord Byron, born at Newstead Nov. 
8, 1723, entered the navy, served in Anson’s expedition of 
1740, served against Louisburg in 1760, circumnavigated 
tho globe (1764-66), and fought D’Estaing off Granada 
July 6, 1779, in the American war. Died April 10, 1786. 
Ho was familiarly known as “ Foulweather Jack,” and was 
a popular hero. 

Bys'sus [Gr. jSiwo?], a Greek word which occurs in the 
New Testament, and is translated “fine linen.” (See Luke 
xvi. 19; Itcv. xviii. 12.) Some suppose it was cotton or 
silk. 

Byssus, a name given to a bundle of silky or shining, 
semi-transparent, horny filaments by which many bivalve 


mollusks attach themselves to rocks or other fixed sub¬ 
stances. These filaments are secreted by a gland at the 
base of the foot of the animal. They are guided to their 
place by the foot, and expand into a sort of disk at the 
point of attachment. An example of the byssus may be 
seen in common mussels. The Pinna of the Mediterranean 
produces long and strong filaments of a silky lustre, which 
can be woven into cloth. This cloth is highly prized, but 
the Pinna has become so rare that it cannot be produced in 
large quantities. 

By'strom (Johan Nils), a Swedish sculptor, born at 
Philippstad Dec. 18, 1783, studied at Rome. He became a 
resident of Stockholm in 1816. Among his works are 
“ Pandora Combing her Hair,” a statue of Linnmus, and a 
colossal statue of Gustavus Adolphus. Died at Rome Mar. 
13, 1848. 

Byttneria'ceaB [from Byttneria, one of the genera], 
a natural order of exogenous plants, closely allied to the 
Malvaceae, consists of trees and shrubs, mostly tropical 
or sub-tropical, with simple leaves and monadelphous 
stamens, the anthers of which are turned inward. The 
order comprises nearly 400 species, many of which have 
beautiful flowers; Florida has a few unimportant spe¬ 
cies. The Guazuma ulmifolia, a native of Brazil, bears an 
edible fruit. The fibrous bark of this and other species 
is used in the manufacture of cordage. The Abronia au- 
gustum, an East Indian tree, is commended as worthy of 
cultivation for its fibre, which is beautiful, fine, and strong, 
and is produced in abundance. This tree bears beautiful 
purple flowers. Among the other species of the order is 
Theobroma Cacao, from the seeds of which chocolate and 
cacao are obtained. Several others arc useful, as yielding 
fibres, fruits, or medicines. 

Bvz'aiitine, or Bezant [from Byzantium, the old 
name of Constantinople], in numismatics, is a term ap¬ 
plied to a coin of the Byzantine empire. These coins were 
of gold, silver, and bronze, bore impressions distinct from 
the earlier Roman coins, and were copied in several coun¬ 
tries. They were current in the north of Europe, and even 
in India. The silver bezant was worth about 10s. sterling. 
The gold bezant was worth at one time fifteen pounds 
sterling. 

Byzantine Art, in ornament and architecture, is that 
symbolic system which originated at Byzantirftn (or Con¬ 
stantinople), and was developed by the Greek artists out 
of the Christian symbolism. During the Dark Ages, after 
Rome had been conquered by the Goths and Huns, and the 
fine arts had been nearly extinguished by the influx of bar¬ 
barism, many Western artists retired to Constantinople, 
and founded a school by which the traditions of antique 
and classical art were cherished, and modified by whatever 
was new and peculiar in the Christian system. The great 
features of this style are the circle and dome, the round 
arch, and all the various details of form which are derived 
from the lily, the cross, the nimbus, and other symbols. 
Among the finest specimens of this style of architecture 
are the mosque of St. Sophia at Constantinople and the 
church of St. Mark at Venice. 

At the Renaissance, Italian and other artists in every 
department derived from living Greek or Byzantine artists 
the technical rudiments of their respective arts, which could 
scarcely have been learned by a mere examination of ancient 
works. The school of Byzantine art, as modified by Chris¬ 
tian ideas and symbols, commenced in the time of Justin¬ 
ian, and continued to flourish until 1200 or later. After it 
had been banished from Constantinople by the Turks, who 
captured that city in 1453, it was cherished by the Greek 
Church to form the basis of artistic life in Russia. 

Byzantine Empire, also called the Eastern or 
Greek Empire, is the name of a former empire of Europe 
which came into existence in 395 A. D., upon the death of 
the Roman emperor Theodosius the Great, who divided his 
empire between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius. 
While the latter received the western half as his portion, 
Arcadius became ruler of the Eastern empire, then com¬ 
prising Syria, Asia Minor, Pontus, Egypt, Thrace, Moesia, 
Macedonia, Crete, and Greece, with the capital, Constanti¬ 
nople. The history of the Byzantine empire extends from 
395 A. D. to 1453. During the reign of Arcadius ambitious 
politicians wielded an unlimited power, and oppressed the 
people to satisfy their rapacity. Arcadius was followed by 
his seven-year-old son, Theodosius II. (408-450), for whom 
a prefect ruled with wisdom and strength. In 415 he took 
his sister Pulcheria as co-regent, who from that time took 
charge of the entire administration. Peace and prosperity 
reigned during Theodosius’s rule, and were only interrupted, 
by a short w r ar with Persia in 422, which led to the acquisi¬ 
tion of a part of Armenia. But peace with Attila, king of 
tho Huns, could only be purchased by large tracts of land 
on the Danube and large sums of money. Upon the death 














BYZANTINE HISTORIANS—BZOVIUS. . 691 

of Theodosius he was succeeded by his sister Pulcheria. She 
married the senator Marcianus, who reigned until 457. Under 
Justinian (527-565), who became famous by his legislation 
and the victories of his generals, Belisarius and Narses, the 
Byzantine empire gained great influence and power among 
the other nations, while in the interior the dissensions of 
the parties were quelled effectually. Under the nephew 
and successor of Justinian (Justinus II., 565-578) the em¬ 
pire suffered from invasions of the Lombards and Per¬ 
sians. In 718, Leo III. ascended the throne, and continued 
to sustain himself in spite of the contest concerning the 
worship of images, which continued for over a century, 
and the attacks of the Arabs. He died in 741. He con¬ 
quered Phrygia from the Arabs, but lost the last remnant 
of territory in Italy. Basilius I. Macedo, the founder of 
the Macedonian dynasty, ascended the throne in 867. He 
introduced reforms in all branches of the administration, 
and revised the laws of Justinian. He was succeeded by 
his son, Leo VI., who called upon the Turks to aid him 
against the Saracens, and thus opened the way for the 
Turks. After the extinction of the Macedonian dynasty, 
in 1057, Isaac Comnenus was raised to the throne by the 
unanimous vote of the army. He introduced many re¬ 
forms, and entered a monastery in 1059. Among his suc¬ 
cessors, Alexius I., who began to rule in 1081, was the 
most important. He increased the area of the empire con¬ 
siderably. The dynasty of the Comnenian emperors con¬ 
tinued to rule until 1204. In 1204, Constantinople was 
taken by the French and Venetians (called the Latins), 
who then became masters of the whole empire. They 
divided it into four parts, giving the first, with the capital, 
to Baldwin, count of Flanders, who was made emperor, 
and whom the other participants in the expedition recog¬ 
nized as their sovereign. The Venetians received as their 
share the countries bordering on the Adriatic and Aegean 
Seas, a part of the Morea, together with several islands ; 
Bonifacius, count of Montferrat, Macedonia and part of 
Greece; dukedoms, countships, principalities, etc. were 
established at various places; while a number of Greek 
princes maintained their independence. Under Theodoras 
Lascaris, who had been elected emperor at Constantinople, 
an empire was formed atNicsea (Nice), and in Trebizond 
Alexius Comnenus ruled with absolute power. One of his 
successors, John Comnenus, became emperor of Trebizond. . 
Neither Baldwin nor his successors could do anything to 
avert the impending ruin. Baldwin was taken prisoner by 
the Bulgarians, and died in 1206. His brother Henry 
ruled bravely and wisely till 1216, when the empire became 
a prey to utter anarchy. 

The dynasty of the Palaeologi began with Michael VIII. 
Palmologus, who, by the help of the Genoese, captured Con¬ 
stantinople in 1261. Michael, the first of the Palaeologi, 
was an able prince, but offended both clergy and people by 
an attempt to unite the Greek and Latin churches. An- 
dronicus III., a great-grandson of Michael, became em¬ 
peror in 1328. During his reign the Turks took Nicaea 
and Nicomedia and devastated the European coasts. In 
the reign of his son, Johannes V., the Turks began to gain 
ground in Europe, and in 1362 Sultan Amurath had made 
Adrianople his capital. Under the following rulers the 
empire rapidly declined, giving way more and more to the 
advancing forces of Turks, until on May 28, 1453, with the 
capture of Constantinople by Mohammed II. and the death 
of Constantine XI., the Byzantine empire came to an end, 
and the Turkish rule was, after centuries of fierce warfare, 
firmly established in Europe. A. J. Schem. 

Byzantine Historians are those Greek writers who 
have treated of the history of the Byzantine empire. They 
are divided into three classes : 1. Those whose works refer 
exclusively to Byzantine history; 2. Those who professedly 
occupy themselves with universal history, but at the same 
time treat Byzantine history at disproportionate length; 3. 
Those who write on Byzantine customs, antiquities, archi¬ 
tecture, etc. The most interesting and instructive among 
them are those who confine their attention to a limited 
number of years, and to the events which transpired under 
their own observation or in which they took part. The Byz¬ 
antine historians flourished from about 300 A. D. to 1453, 
the date of the capture of their city by the Turks. Among 
the most eminent of these very numerous writers we may 
reckon Procopius (about 500-565 A. D.), an excellent his¬ 
torian ; Acropolita (1220-83), whose chronicle is but short; 
Cinnamus (twelfth century), an able but strongly preju¬ 
diced writer; Georgius Pachymeres (1242-1310), one of 
the best of the later Byzantines; Anna Comnena (1083— 
1148), a romantic and untrustworthy writer; Nicephorus 
Bryennius (died 1137), the husband of the last named, and 
one of the most accomplished historians of his age; the 
emperor John (V.) Cantacuzenus (about 1300-55), a very 
partial historian; Nicephorus the patriarch (758 828), one 
of the best of all; Nicetas (twelfth and thirteenth centuries), 

whose writings are highly valued; and Nicholas Chalco- 
condyles (who was alive late in the fifteenth century), one 
of the latest, treating of the history both of his own people 
and of the Turks. Of some of these, and of others, there 
are many writings yet unpublished, so that this field of 
historical research contains much fresh, if perhaps unpro¬ 
ductive, soil. As a class, the Byzantine writers are turgid 
and bombastic, full of prejudice and conceit, and the proper 
estimation of their value requires much labor and dis¬ 
crimination. The principal Byzantine histories were col¬ 
lected and published at Paris in 36 vols., with Latin trans¬ 
lations, under the editorship of P. Philippe Labb6, a Jesuit, 
and his successors (1648-1711). This magnificent collection 
was reprinted, with additions, at Venice (1727-33). In 

1828, Niebuhr, assisted by Bekker, the two Dindorfs, Scho- 
pen, Meinecke, and Lachmann, began a new “ Corpus Scrip- 
torum Historic Byzantinae,” the forty-eighth volume of 
which appeared in 1855. 

Byzantine Rescension is a Greek text of the New 
Testament, which was used in Constantinople after it be¬ 
came a metropolitan see in the Eastern Church. It is cited 
by several Greek Fathers, and was used as the basis of the 
old Slavic version. It corresponded quite nearly with the 
present “ received text” and with many existing MSS. 

Byzan'tium [Gr. Bt^ch/Tior], an ancient Greek city, 
situated on the Thracian Bosporus and on the site of the 
modern Constantinople. It is said to have been founded 
by a colony of Megarians in 667 B. C. It increased rap¬ 
idly, and soon became an important commercial city. Few 
cities could boast so magnificent a position. Commanding, 
as it did, the two shores of both Europe and Asia, at the 
same time secure and advantageously situated for com¬ 
merce, it liad at its command the choicest gifts of nature 
and the most charming scenery. Byzantium ivas very 
anciently the site of extensive tunny-fisheries, the fishes 
visiting the port periodically in immense numbers, as they 
do at the present day. The fish were salted and exported. 

The name “ Golden Horn,” still applied to a part of the 
channel of Constantinople, was probably derived from the 
great revenue flowing from this fishery. The Byzantines 
also levied a considerable toll on vessels passing from sea 
to sea. The levying of these tolls once involved them in 
war with the Rhodians. They also derived much profit 
from their rich corn-fields, not far from the city. On the 

S. it was bathed by the Propontis (Sea of Marmora), and 
on the N. by the waters of the Golden Horn. Having been 
captured by a general of Darius Hystaspis, it was liberated 
by Pausanias about 478 B. C. A few years later Byzantium 
became an ally or tributary of Athens, against which it 
revolted in 440 B. C. It was besieged and taken by Alci- 
biades in 408. Philip of Macedon besieged it in 340 B. C., 
but Demosthenes persuaded the Athenians to send a fleet 
which compelled him to raise the siege. This repulse of 

Philip was one of the proudest feats of the great orator, 
who often recurs to it in his speech “ On the Crown.” By¬ 
zantium was for ages especially exposed to the attacks of 
barbarians, but the long wars did not beget much valor in 
the people. From their great commercial prosperity they 
early became corrupted, and they were proverbially indo¬ 
lent, cowardly, and luxurious. Byzantium was probably 
either a kingdom or the seat of a tyrannus; afterwards it 
became an aristocracy, and later a crude democracy. 

The Byzantians suffered much from the predatory incur¬ 
sions of the Gauls, and being unable to resist them in bat¬ 
tle, agreed about 279 B. C. to pay them an annual tribute. 

This city supported Pescennius Niger in the civil war against 
Septimius Severus, who captured it in 196 A. D., after a 
brave resistance of three years’ duration. He then re¬ 
duced it almost to ruin, but afterwards relented and par¬ 
tially restored it. The name of Augusta Antonina was given 
to it in his time. The Greek Christians ascribe the foun¬ 
dation of the Byzantine Church to the labors of Saint 
Andrew the apostle, but this statement is unsupported by 
trustworthy evidence. It is, however, certain that soon 
after 200 A. D. there were numerous Christians in the city. 

In 330 A. D. Constantine the Great selected this place as 
the capital of his empire, and founded a new city, to which 
he gave the name of New Rome. This city of Constantine 
was much more extensive than Byzantium, which occupied 
in all probability only the most eastern of the seven hills on 
which the modern capital is built. (See Constantinople.) 

Revised bv C. W. Greene. 

Bzo'vius, or Bzowski (Abraham), a Roman Catho¬ 
lic historian, born at Proczovic, Poland, in 1597. He was 
a zealous Dominican prior, and was called to home y 

Pius V., where he wrote nine volumes of a continuation ot 
the “ Annals of Baronius,” an “ Ecclesiastical History 
(3 vols. folio, 1817), and other historical works, besides nu¬ 
merous sermons and biographies of several popes. Died 

Jan. 31, 1637. 

















692 


C—CABINET. 


C, the third letter of most European alphabets, is in 
English either a palatal mute, with the sound of lc, a sound 
which it has before a, o, u, and the consonants (except h), 
unless marked with the cedilla, thus, <•, as in facade and 
other words, mostly from the French and Portuguese. 
When marked with the cedilla, or when occurring before e, 
i, or y, it has the sibilant sound of s. (7/ihas (l) the Span¬ 
ish sound, as in the word church ; (2) the French sound 
(equivalent to sh, the German sch), as in chaise; and (3) 
the hard sound, equivalent to k, as in chord. The German 
guttural ch is never used in English. C in music is the 
first note of the natural diatonic scale. C in Latin stood 
for 100, and also for the praenomen Caius. In chemistry 
it is the symbol of carbon ; and c. c. is an abbreviation for 
“ cubic centimetre.” 

Caa'ing Whale [Scottish for “driving whale ”], the 
Globiocephalus deductor , a large porpoise which abounds in 
large herds on the coasts of Great Britain, North America, 
Iceland, etc. It takes its name from the fact that when one 
of the herd is stranded, the rest all follow it, sometimes as 
many as 100 at once rushing to their own destruction in 
this manner. They are the source of rich booty to fisher¬ 
men. Other species of the genus inhabit the Mediterranean, 
the Pacific, etc. It is one of the “ bottle-head ” whales of 
North America, and is most frequently caught in Scotland. 

Cabal', a secret council formed under the reign of 
Charles II. (1667), consisted of the following members: 
Sir Thomas, afterwards Lord Clifford, Lord Arlington, tho 
duke of Buckingham, Lord Ashley, afterwards earl of 
Shaftesbury, and the earl of Lauderdale. The Cabal was 
dissolved in 1674. The prevailing opinion, that the word 
was formed from the initials of the names of its members, 
is perhaps erroneous, as it had been used before to denote 
a secret cabinet, and is said to be derived from the Hebrew 
(see Cabbala), but this accidental association of the initial 
letters may have suggested this particular application of 
the name. 

Cabanel (Alexandre), a French historical painter, 
born at Montpellier Sept. 28, 1823, obtained a first medal 
at the Paris exhibition of 1855. Among his masterpieces 
we may name “ The Florentine Poet ” and “ The Lost 
Paradise.” 

Cabanis (Pierre Jean George), an eminent French 
philosopher and physician, born near Saintes (Correze) 
June 5, 1757. He was a friend and political partisan of 
Mirabeau, whom he attended in his last illness. He was 
admitted into the Institute in 1796, and became professor 
of medicine in Paris in 1797. In the early part of his life 
he was an atheist. His principal work is the “ Relations 
between the Physical System and Mental Faculties of 
Man” (“ Rapports du Physique etdu Moral de l’Homme,” 
1802), in which he maintained that “the brain secretes 
thought as the liver secretes bile.” But he afterwards 
changed his opinions in this respect, and adopted theistic 
views. Died May 5, 1808. 

Cabar'rus, a county in S. W. Central North Carolina. 
Area, 350 square miles. It is drained by branches of Rocky 
River. The surface is hilly ; the soil in some parts is fer¬ 
tile. Gold and copper are found. Cattle, grain, cotton, 
and wool are the chief products. It is intersected by the 
North Carolina R. R. Capital, Concord. Pop. 11,954. 

Cab'bage [Fr. chou; Ger. Kohl], a variety of the Bras- 
sica oleracea, a plant of the order Cruciferm. Other va¬ 
rieties of this species are the broccoli, cauliflower, and kale. 
Cabbages are of many sorts, which are divided into com¬ 
mon and Savoy cabbages, the latter being characterized by 
wrinkled leaves. They are also divided into early and late 
cabbages,which differ remarkably in their periods of growth. 
The cabbage requires a good soil and clean culture, and 
furnishes not only a cheap, palatable food for mankind, but 
is very useful as a forage plant. It may be remarked that 
although boiled cabbage occasionally acts as a poison on 
•certain peculiar constitutions, uncooked cabbage in the form 
of a salad is generally very wholesome. 

Cab'bage But'terfly, a name common to several 
species of butterfly, the larva? of which devour the leaves 
of plants of the cabbage tribe, and arc popularly known as 
cabbage worms. They belong mostly to the genus Pier is, 
are natives of Europe, but have been introduced into 
America. The excessive multiplication of these insects is 
generally prevented by small birds, which devour them and 


their caterpillars, and by insects of the ichneumon tribe, 
which lay their eggs in the caterpillars, that their own lar¬ 
va) may feed on them. 

Cabbage-Fly ( Anthomyia brassicse), a fly of the same 
family with the house-fly, flesh-fly, etc., of which the mag¬ 
gots often do injury to the roots of cabbages. It is of the 
same genus with the turnip-fly, onion-fly, etc. They are 
found in both continents, and are very destructive. 

Cabbage-Palm, or Cabbage Tree, a name given 
to several species of palm, the great terminal bud of which 
is eaten like cabbage. The cabbage-palm of the West In¬ 
dies is the Areca oleracea, which grows to the height of 
130 feet or more. (See Areca.) The palmetto (Chamserojis 
p>almetto) is sometimes called cabbage-palm. 

Cab'bala [Heb., “that which is received” (by 

tradition), from ( lcibbel ), to “ receive”], an ancient 

Jewish system of religious philosophy or theosophy. Those 
who have studied the subject with the greatest care are not 
fully agreed among themselves as to its origin and charac¬ 
ter. The Cabbala attempted to explain the nature of God 
and of the universe. Some of the late writers of this school 
taught that God has neither will, intention, desire, nor 
action, but that ten Sephiroth, or intelligences, emanated 
from God. The first Sepliirah is called the Inscrutable 
Height (from which the second was derived, as the third 
from the second, and so on). The names of the other in¬ 
telligences in order are wisdom, intellect, grace, jmwer, 
beauty, firmness, splendor, foundation, and authority. As 
God became active in these Sephiroth, so these become exter¬ 
nally manifested in the universe. 

The psychology of the Cabbala teaches the doctrine of 
the transmigration of souls, but as the literature of the sys¬ 
tem is immense, and its teachings recondite and often 
puerile, it is difficult and unnecessary to state exactly what 
this philosophy taught. It probably influenced and was 
influenced by the Greek philosophy known as Neo-Platon¬ 
ism. According to Hallam, the Cabbala originated with 
the Alexandrian Jews near the beginning of the Christian 
era. 

Cab'balists, the name given to those Jews who believe 
in the Cabbala, or traditional interpretation of the Penta¬ 
teuch, said to have been received by Moses from God on 
Mount Sinai. (See preceding article.) 

Cab'ell, a county in the W. part of West Virginia. 
Area, 448 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the 
Ohio River, and intersected by the Guyandotte. The sur¬ 
face is hilly or uneven ; the soil is partly fertile. Tobacco 
and grain are the chief products. Capital, Cabell Court¬ 
house. It is intersected by the Chesapeake and Ohio R. R. 
Pop. 6429. 

Cabell Court-house. See Barboursville. 

Cabet (Etienne), a French socialist, born at Dijon Jan. 
2, 1788. He was a radical democrat in politics and a leader 
of the Carbonari. In 1842 he published a romantic work 
called “ Travels in Icaria,” which was very popular among 
the workingmen of Paris. He planted in 1840 a colony on 
the communist system in Texas, from which he and his 
followers removed in 1849 to Nauvoo, Ill., after that town 
had been deserted by the Mormons. Died Nov. 9, 1856. 
His colony was broken uji in 1857. 

Cabe'za del Buey, a town of Spain, in the province 
of Badajos, on the northern slope of the Sierra Pedregoso, 
112 miles by rail E. S. E. of Badajos. It has manufactures 
of linen and woollen goods. Pop. 6294. 

Cab'in [Fr. cabane ], a small room or enclosure; a cot¬ 
tage, small house, or rudely-built temporary residence. 
Also an apartment in a ship or steamboat for the use of 
the officers and passengers. These apartments in steam¬ 
boats are often called saloons. In ships of war the rooms 
of the admirals and captains are called state cabins, and 
are fitted up with muclrelegance, with a gallery or balcony 
projecting at the stern. All the cabins of a ship of war 
are enclosed by light panelling, so that the partitions are 
readily removed when it is necessary to clear the decks for 
action. 

Cabin Creek, a township of Kanawha co., West Va. 
Pop. 2437. 

Cab'inet, a closet; a small room or retired apartment, 
a private room in which consultations are held: a piece of 
furniture, consisting of a chest or box with drawers and 




















CABINET—CACERES. 


doors ; a small room used as a repository for works of art, 
antiquities, medals, specimens of natural history, etc. The 
term cabinet is also applied to a collection of such objects. 
A cabinet picture is a painting suitable for a cabinet or 
small room. These are generally of small dimensions and 
finely finished. 

Cabinet, in politics, a select council of an executive 
chief; a committee of ministers or the governing council 
of a country, so called from the cabinet or apartment in 
which the ruler assembles his privy council. In the U. S. 
the cabinet is composed of seven heads of departments— 
namely, secretary of state, secretary of the treasury, secre¬ 
tary of war, secretary of the navy, secretary of the interior, 
postmaster-general, and attorney-general. In England a 
variable number of ministers (usually about fifteen) are by 
official usage members of the cabinet, and are called cabi¬ 
net ministers, but they have no recognized legal character. 
The names of the members who compose the cabinet are 
never officially announced: no record is kept of its resolu¬ 
tions or meetings, nor has its existence been recognized by 
any act of Parliament. The British cabinet always includes 
the first lord of the treasury (who is prime minister), the 
lord chancellor, the chancellor of the exchequer, the presi¬ 
dent of the council, and five secretaries of state. 

Cabin Run, a township of Mineral co., West Ya. Pop. 
822. 

Cabi'ri, or Cabeiri [Gr. Kd/3eipoi], ancient divinities 
worshipped in Samothrace, Phoenicia, Greece, and other 
countries. The myth of the Cabiri is obscure, and not 
well explained by ancient writers. Their worship was per¬ 
formed with much solemnity and mystery. 

Ca'ble, a rope or a chain, employed on shipboard to 
suspend and retain the anchors, and for other purposes. 
The name is often applied to wire ropes, especially such as 
are used in suspension bridges, to submarine telegraph 
lines, etc. Rope cables are made of the best hemp, of 
manilla, or of coir. The circumference varies from about 
three inches to twenty-six. A number of yarns are twisted 
to form a l is sum; three lissums, twisted in an opposite 
direction, form a plain-laid or strand; and three or four 
strands twisted in the direction of the yarns in a lissum 
form a cable. The strength of a cable eighteen inches in 
circumference is about sixty tons; the strength varies ac¬ 
cording to the cube of the diameter. On shipboard, cables 
receive the names of chief cables, bower cables, etc., accord¬ 
ing to the anchor to which they are attached. Hempen 
cables are now generally spun by the wonderfully ingenious 
machinery invented by the late Prof. Treadwell of Harvard 
College. 

Chain cables consist of links, the length of each of 
which is about six diameters of the iron of which it is 
made, and the breadth about three and a half diameters. 
The stay-pins, to strengthen the links, are of cast-iron. 
The sizes of chain cables are denoted by the thickness of 
the rod-iron for the links. 

The defects in chain cables as compared with those of 
hemp are the greater weight, the less elasticity, and the 
greater care required in management; but the advantages 
more than counterbalance these defects, and have led to the 
very extensive adoption of chain cables. Wire cables are 
sometimes used for the standing rigging of ships. 

Cable City, a post-township of Deer Lodge co., Mon. 
Pop. 280. 

Cabochiens, a number of journeymen butchers who 
took their name from their leader, Jean Caboche. They 
were partisans of John, duke of Burgundy, whose cause 
they maintained against the Armagnacs. Their outrages 
in Paris caused the citizens to rise against them in 1418. 

Ca'bo Fri'o (i. e. “cool cape”), a city and seaport of 
Brazil, is on the Atlantic, near a cape of its own name, 75 
miles N. E. of Rio Janeiro. It is at the S. E. extremity of 
Lake Araruama. 

Cabomba'cere [from Cabomba, one ,of the genera], a 
small natural order of exogenous aquatic plants, allied to 
the Nympheaceae. They are indigenous in North and South 
America and Australia, and are distinguished by their dis¬ 
tinct carpels, abundant albumen in the seeds, and the ab¬ 
sence of a torus. They are included in the order Nymphe¬ 
aceae by some botanists. 

Cabool', or Cabul, a fortified city of Afghanistan, on 
the Cabool River, here crossed by three bridges, is 80 miles 
N. N. E. of Ghuznce, and is elevated about 6400 feet above 
the level of the sea; lat. 34° 30' N., Ion. 69° 6' E. The cli¬ 
mate in winter is very severe. The citadel, called Bala His- 
sar, includes the palace of the khan, the government offices, 
royal gardens, and numerous dwellings. The streets are 
narrow; the houses are two or three stories high, and have 
flat roofs. The public buildings are not remarkable. Cabool 
is widely celebrated for the variety and excellent quality of 


693 


its fruits, apples, pears, pomegranates, grapes, etc. It has 
an extensive trade as. an entrepot between India and 
Toorkistan. The people of Cabool are Mohammedans and 
a mixture of several races. Under the emperor Baber, 
Cabool was the capital of the Mogul empire. It was taken 
by Tamerlane about 1400, and by Nadir Shah in 1738. The 
British captured it in 1839, but in Jan., 1842, the Afghans 
revolted and massacred the British army. Pop. estimated 
at 60,000. 

Caboose, or Camboose [Ger. Kabuse], a name of 
the kitchen or cook-room in a merchant-ship. In coasting- 
vessels the term is applied to a portable cast-iron cooking- 
stove on the deck. 

Cab'ot, a post-township of Washington co., Yt. It 
has manufactures of lumber, woollens, etc. Pop. 1279. 

Cabot (George), a statesman and Federalist, born at 
Salem, Mass., Dec. 3, 1752. He was elected to the Senate 
of the U. S. in 1790, and was president of the Hartford 
Convention in 1814. He was distinguished for sound judg¬ 
ment, and was well versed in political economy. Died 
April 18, 1823. 

Cabot (John), a foreign merchant of Bristol who after 
the discovery of America by Columbus was placed in com¬ 
mand of a fleet of five vessels, which sailed in the spring 
of 1497. They reached the coast of Newfoundland June 
24, and were in England again in August. 

Cabot (Sebastian), an eminent navigator, a son of the 
preceding, was born in Bristol about 1477. He commanded 
a ship in his father’s voyage, and in 1499 conducted 
another expedition, and visited the Gulf of Mexico. Hav¬ 
ing entered the service of Ferdinand, king of Spain, in 
1512, he commanded an expedition which examined the 
coasts of Brazil and La Plata in 1.526. He returned to 
England in 1548, after which a pension was granted to 
him by Edward YI. Died about 1557. (See Richard Bid¬ 
dle, “Memoir of Sebastian Cabot,” 1831.) 

Ca'bra (anc. sEr/abrum), a town of Spain, in the prov¬ 
ince of Cordova, 30 miles S. S. E. of the city of Cdrdova. 
It has a college, a cathedral, a convent, and manufactures 
• of linens, hats, soap, bricks, etc. The neighboring region 
is volcanic, and produces excellent wine. Pop. 11,500. 

Cabral' (Pedro Alvarez), a Portuguese navigator 
noted as the discoverer of Brazil, was born about 1460. 
He commanded a fleet which Emmanuel of Portugal sent 
to the East Indies in 1500. Having been carried out of 
his course by a westward ocean current, he discovered 
Brazil in April, 1500. He afterwards pursued his voyage 
to Calicut, and made conquests in India, where he founded 
the first Portuguese factory. He returned to Lisbon, where 
he arrived in June, 1501. Died about 1526. 

Cabre'ra (Ramon), a Spanish general and Carlist, 
noted for his cruelty, was born at Tortosa Aug. 31, 1810. 
In the civil war which began about 1834 he fought for 
Don Carlos against the Christinos, and became a leader of 
guerillas. He gained a victory at Bunol in Feb., 1837, 
and took Valencia, but he was driven out of Spain by Es- 
partero in 1840, and retired to France. He returned in 
1848 and renewed the contest, but he was defeated and 
went into exile in Jan., 1849. 

Caca'o, the fruit of the Theobroma Cacao, a tree of 
tropical America, of the order Byttneriacese. Chocolate 
is made of the roasted oily kernels of the cacao nut, which 
also yields cacao butter. This tree should not be con¬ 
founded with the cocoanut tree nor with the coca of Peru. 

Cacao Butter, a fixed oil, hard and solid at ordinary 
temperatures, which is yielded in large quantities by the 
fruit of Theobroma Cacao. It is extracted by heat and 
pressure. It contains a very large proportion of stearin, 
with some olein and palmitin. It is largely used in the 
preparation of cosmetics, and is especially useful in phar¬ 
macy in the preparation of suppositories. The mafurra 
tallow which is brought from Madagascar closely resembles 
the above in chemical and physical properties. Cacao but¬ 
ter is not to be confounded with cocoa butter, which is a 
kind of palm oil, used in the manufacture of soap. 

Cac'apon, or Great Cacapon, a river of West Vir¬ 
ginia, rises near the S. extremity of Hardy county, flows 
nearly north-eastward through Hampshire and Morgan 
counties, and enters the Potomac. Length, about 140 miles. 

Cacapon, a township of Morgan co., West Va. P. 958. 

Cacca'mo, a town of Sicily, in the province of Pa¬ 
lermo, about 18 miles W. of the city of Palermo. P. 7233. 

Caceres, a province of Spain, bounded on the A. by 
Salamanca, on the E. by Avila, Toledo, and Ciudad Real, 
on the S. by Badajoz, and on the W. by Portugal. Area, 
8014 square miles. It is intersected by the river Tagus. 
The surface is diversified by several ranges of mountains. 
Capital, CtLceres. Pop. 303,700. 









694 


CACERES—CACHICAMA. 


Caceres (anc. Castro, Csecilia), a town of Spain, cap¬ 
ital of the above province, is situated on high ground 25 
miles W. by N. from Trujillo. It contains an old castle, 
an episcopal palace, several convents and hospitals, a 
theatre, a Jesuits’ college, and a bull-ring which is one of 
the largest in Spain. It has manufactures of linens, 
woollen goods, hats, soap, wine, etc. Interesting Roman 
and Moorish antiquities are found here. Pop. 13,406. 

Ca'ceres, Nue'va (t. e. “New C&ceres”), a town of 
the Philippine Islands, in Luzon, on its S. E. coast, 184 
miles S. or S. E. of Manila, a seat of a bishop. Pop. in¬ 
cluding suburbs, about 12,000. 

Cachalot, kasha-lot, or Sperm Whale (Catodon 



Cachalot, or Sperm Whale. 

macrocephalm), one of the largest of all the Cetacea, is 
much sought after, not only on account of the oil, but 
also for the spermaceti and ambergris which it yields. 
Unlike the right-whale family, it affords no whalebone. 
The cachalot belongs to the family of Cetacea called Phy- 
seteridm, of which there are three or four existing genera. 
The common cachalot has a very.wide geographical range. 
It may be said to inhabit all seas, except those near the 
poles, although most abundant in the southern hemisphere. 
The cachalot sometimes attains the length of seventy or 
eighty feet. The head is enormous, forming about one- 
half of the entire bulk of the animal, and more than one- 
third of the length. The body tapers from the head to the 
tail. The color is dark gray, nearly black on the upper 
parts, but lighter beneath. Old males, or bull-whales, 
have a large gray spot on the front of the head. The 
muzzle is obtuse, as if suddenly cut off in front. In a 
protuberance on the front surface of the head is the blow¬ 
hole, which is single, and situated a little on the left side. 
The mouth is very large; and the throat, unlike that of the 
Greenland whale, is sufficiently wide to admit the body of 
a man. The upper jaw projects beyond the lower, and is 
destitute of teeth and whalebone, though rudimentary teeth 
exist within the gums; the lower jaw has from twenty to 
twenty-five teeth on each side, according to the age of the 
animal. The teeth are conical, projecting about two inches 
from the gum. The lower jaw is very narrow, the two 
branches being in contact throughout the greater part of 
its length. The cervical vertebrae, except the first, are 
consolidated into one. The dorsal fin is represented by a 
protuberance halfway between the neck and the tail; and 
these parts are seen above water in the ordinary swim¬ 
ming of the animal. The pectoral fins are small, and seem 
scarcely to aid in progression, which is accomplished by 
the large and powerful tail-fin, which is very broad, and is 
divided into two lobes, called flukes. 

The head is in part occupied by a cartilaginous cavity 
in front of and above the skull, called by whalers the case, 
which is the chief receptacle for spermaceti. This sub¬ 
stance being light, the animal in swimming raises its head 
above the surface of the water, which it also does even 
when at rest. The case frequently holds as much as ten 
large barrels of spermaceti. It is divided into compart¬ 
ments communicating with each other. The substanco 
which it contains is a semi-fluid, but hardens on cooling; 
it consists of spermaceti and oil; the oil is separated by 


draining and squeezing. What purpose the spermaceti 
serves is not well known, except that of giving buoyancy 
to the fore part of the body; it is distinct from the brain, 
which is small. Cavities filled with spermaceti are dis¬ 
tributed over the body and through the external fat or 
blubber. The blubber of the cachalot is not nearly equal 
in thickness to that of the Greenland whale, being only 
from eight to fourteen inches thick. It is removed from 
the body in great strips, and is heated in large pots, the 
skin of the whale serving for fuel. The junk, a thick 
elastic mass which lies immediately under the case, yields 
also considerable oil. 

Squids and cuttle-fishes appear to be its chief food. Its 

herds are called schools or 
^ pods by whalers. Five hun¬ 

dred or more have been seen 
in a single herd. Large herds 
generally consist of females, 
with a few males; herds of 
young males also occur; soli¬ 
tary individuals are almost 
always old males. Terrible 
conflicts take place among the 
males, and it is not unusual to 
find the lower jaw dislocated 
or broken in consequence of 
these fights. 

Revised by C. W. Greene. 

Cache, k&sh, a French 
word signifying a “ hiding- 
place,” is a name given in 
the Western U. S. to subter¬ 
ranean holes in which trav¬ 
ellers and trappers hide pro¬ 
visions and other property, 
to preserve them from the 
depredations of the Indians 
and wild animals. They are 
carefully covered with sods, 
and the surface is made close¬ 
ly to resemble the surround¬ 
ing earth, care being taken to 
leave no trace of the work. 

Cache, a county of Utah, 
bordering on Idaho. Area, about 2000 square miles. It 
is intersected by Bear River, and bounded on the W. by 
the Wasatch range of mountains. The soil is partly pro¬ 
ductive. Some wool is raised. Capital, Logan. Pop. 
8229. 

Cache, a township of Green co. Ark. Pop. 766. 

Cache, a township of Jackson co., Ark. Pop. 377. 

Cache, a township of Lawrence co., Ark. Pop. 128. 

Cache, a township of Monroe co., Ark. Pop. 1452. 

Cache Creek, a post-township of Yolo co., Cal. Pop. 
3067. 

Cache River of Arkansas rises near the N. E. extremity 
of the State. It flows in a S. S. W. direction, and enters 
the White River near Clarendon. Length, about 150 miles. 

Cachet, Liettres tie, l£tr deh kft'shil', was a term ap¬ 
plied in France under the old regime to letters or orders 
signed with the private seal of the king and used as instru¬ 
ments of despotic power. Before the seventeenth century 
they were not often employed, but in the reign of Louis 

XIV. they became very common. Many persons were ar¬ 
rested by such warrants and imprisoned without trial in the 
eighteenth century. It is stated that in the reign of Louis 

XV. lettres de cachet were sold by one of the mistresses of 
the king to any one who would pay money for them. About 
twenty-two of these warrants were issued against the famous 
Mirabeau. They were abolished in Jan., 1790. 

Cachex'ia [from the Gr. Ka\e$ia, a “bad habit” of 
body], in medical practice, a diseased or abnormal condi¬ 
tion of the body. Cullen having given extensive circula¬ 
tion to the word as indicating a large group of chronic dis¬ 
eases, cachexia has come to be chiefly employed with refer¬ 
ence to conditions in which the general nutrition of the 
body is at fault. Thus, cancerous cachexia indicates the 
state of ill-health associated with the growth of cancer in 
various parts of the body ; gouty cachexia, the state of the 
general system in gout, as opposed to the mere local attack. 
All cachexias are associated with constitutional diseases, 
and most of them tend to become hereditary. The term 
is nearly synonymous with dyscrasia. 

Cachica'ma, called also Tatou-pe'ba, the “nine- 
banded armadillo” (Dasypus novem-cinctus), an edentate 
mammal found from Texas to Paraguay. It is sixteen 
inches long, and has a long tail. Both body and tail are 
covered with plates, those of the tail in horny rings, and 

























CACHOLONG—CADENCE. 


695 


those of the body (in part) disposed in nine bands, so | 
united as to admit of some motion. This animal can be 



readily tamed. Its food is principally ants, but it also is 
fond of vegetables and of carrion. 

Cach'olong, a beautiful mineral, sometimes called 
Pearl Opal, is a milk-white variety of opal, nearly al¬ 
lied to hydrophane. It is opaque and pearly, has a con- 
choidal fracture, and sometimes has a reddish tinge. The 
name is derived from the river Cach, in Bucharia, where it 
was first discovered. 

Cac'otlyle, or Arsendimethyl, is an extremely 
poisonous organic substance containing carbon, hydrogen, 
and arsenic (C 4 H 6 AS). It has been proposed to employ the 
oxide of cacodyle as a deadly agent in war. This com¬ 
pound, known as Cadet's fuming liquor, has the property 
of taking fire spontaneously when exposed to the air, evolv¬ 
ing abundant deadly fumes. Thus, a shell filled with it 
would, on bursting, cover the deck of a man-of-war with 
a liquid which would take fire of its own accord, and would 
likewise spread death by its fumes. The term cacodyle is 
from the Greek kc xko?, “ bad,” o£a>, to “ smell,” and vAij, 
“ matter ” or “ stuff.” 

Cacou'na, a post-village and parish of Temiscouata 
co., province of Quebec (Canada), on the S. E. bank of the St. 
Lawrence, is the terminus of the Riviere du Loup division 
of the Grand Trunk Railway, and is a place of summer re¬ 
sort for salt-water bathing and for fishing and hunting. 
Pop. of village in 1871, 641; of parish, 1335. 

Cacta'ceae (named from Cactus, one of the genera), a 
natural order of exogenous plants remarkable for their 
gay and large flowers, and for the grotesque forms of some 
of the species, which are nearly all succulent. It comprises 
about 500 species, all native^ of America, growing in hot 
climates and arid situations, to which they are well adapted 
by their thick skins, almost impervious to moisture. The 
so-called cactuses of the Old World are often Euphorbiace® ; 
or, if they are really cactaceous, they are naturalized plants. 
The Cactacese for the most part are easily naturalized, and 
hence some species abound in Southern Europe and Asia. 
Most of them are leafless, and instead of leaves have 
clusters of hairs or prickles. Among their characteristic 
features are the numerous undistinguishable sepals and 
petals, the scattered stamens, the confluent styles, and the 
exalbuminous seeds. Their curious and vastly diversified 
forms constitute a remarkable feature in the vegetation of 
the warm regions of America. In some species, as the melon 
cactus or melon thistle, the stem swells into a globe. 
Other species have long creeping or trailing stems. This 
order comprises the night-blooming cereus, the Opuntia or 
prickly pear, which bears an edible fruit, and the nopal, on 
which the cochineal insect feeds. The stems of the Cac¬ 
tacese abound in a juice which affords a wholesome and 
valuable beverage to men and animals in the long dry 
season which prevails where they grow. Many speoies 
occur as epiphytes on forest trees. The Cactacese are ex¬ 
tensively cultivated in greenhouses and hothouses in Eng¬ 
land and the U. S. Most of them are easily propagated 
by branches, which are allowed to dry a little before they 
are planted. Numerous species are natives of the U. S., 
especially in the extreme S. W. 

Cactus. See Cacta c?we. 


Ca'cus, in classic mythology, an Italian robber and 
giant, said to be a son of Vulcan. He stole some oxen of 
Hercules, and dragged them by their tails into the cave 
which he usually inhabited, so that they could not be dis¬ 
covered by their tracks. Hercules, however, heard them 
bellow, and killed Cacus.* 

Cailam'ba, or Kmlum'ba, the wood of several spe¬ 
cies of Nauclea, a genus of East Indian trees of the order 
Cinchonace®. The Nauclea Cadamba is a noble tree which 
bears orange-colored fragrant flowers, and is highly prized 
for its shade. The wood, which is yellow, soft, and fine¬ 
grained, is useful for several purposes. The wood of Nau¬ 
clea cordifolia, a large tree which grows in the mountains 
of Hindostan, is used for flooring-planks. 

Ca'tla Mos'to, da (Luigi), a navigator, born at Ven¬ 
ice in 1432. Having entered the service of Prince Henry 
of Portugal, he explored in 1455-56 the W. coast of Africa 
as far as the mouth of the Gambia. He wrote a narrative 
of his voyage (1507). Died in 1464. 

Cadas'tral Sur'vey [Fr. cadastre ], a term recently 
adopted by the English and other European nations, is 
used to denote a survey on a large scale. A cadastral as 
opposed to a topographical map may be defined as one on 
which the objects represented agree as to their relative 
positions and dimensions with the objects on the face of the 
country, while a topographical map, usually drawn on a 
small scale, exaggerates the dimensions of houses and the 
width of roads and streams, for the sake of distinctness. 
The usual scale of cadastral maps is nearly twenty-five 
inches to a mile. 

Caddett’s Pass, a township of Lewis and Clarke co., 
Mon. Pop. 71. 

Cad'dice-fly, or Caddis-fly (Phryganeidse), a family 
of insects of the order Neuroptera, considered by Mr. Kirby 
a distinct order, Trichoptera. The caddice-flies differ in 
important particulars from the other neuropterous insects, 
and exhibit points of intimate resemblance to the Lepidop- 
tera. These insects are most interesting, however, on ac¬ 
count of their larv®, of which the larger kinds are the cad- 
dice-worms or cad-bait of British anglers. The species of 
caddice-fly are numerous in the U. S., and they are more 
so in the north than in the south of Europe. The angler 
looks for cad-bait about the edges of streams and under 
stones, or on the stalks of aquatic plants. As a bait, the 
caddice is almost as deadly as the May-fly, and more so, in 
running streams, than the ordinary worm. 

Cad'do, a parish which forms the N. W. extremity of 
Louisiana, has an area of 1200 square miles. It is bounded 
on the E. by the Red River and the Great Raft, and is 
partly occupied by Caddo and Soda lakes, which are navi¬ 
gable and communicate with Red River. Cotton and corn 
are the chief crops. It is intersected by the Texas and 
Pacific R. R. Capital, Shreveport. Pop. 21,714. 

Caddo, a township of Clarke co., Ark. Pop. 2717. 

Caddo, a township of Montgomery co., Ark. Pop. 234. 

Cade (Jack), an Irishman who called himself Morti¬ 
mer, the leader of an insurrection which broke out in Kent 
in June, 1450. He marched with about 16,000 insurgents 
towards London, and encamped on Blackheath. Among 
their motives for rebellion was oppressive taxation. Hav¬ 
ing defeated a royal army which was sent against him, 
he entered London, in which he maintained strict order, but 
he caused Lord Say, a royal favorite, to be put to death. 
Many of his followers were induced to disperse by a prom¬ 
ise of pardon. Cade fled, but was pursued and killed July 
11, 1450. 

Cade, Oil of [Fr. h uile de cade], a thin tar distilled 
from the wood of Juniperus oxycedrus, is used in the medi¬ 
cal treatment of diseases of the skin. 


Ca'dence [from the Lat. cado, to “fall”], a fall, a de¬ 
cline, a state of sinking; a fall of the voice at the end of a 
sentence; a sound or tone. In horsemanship, an equal 
measure or proportion observed by a horse in all his mo¬ 
tions. 

Cadence, in music, the conclusion of a song or of some 
parts in certain places of the piece, dividing it into so many 
numbers or periods. The cadence takes place when the 
parts fall on a note or chord naturally expected by the ear, 
just as a period completes the sense in a discourse. A 
cadence is either perfect or imperfect—the former, when it 
consists of two notes sung after each other, or by degrees 
conjoined in each of the two parts, the harmony of the fifth 
preceding that of the key-note; and it is called perfect, be¬ 
cause it satisfies the ear. It is imperfect when the key-note 
with its harmony precedes that of the fifth without its 


t has been suggested that this name is from the Greek saxos, 
” having been given in contradistinction to Evander 
i. e. “good man.” (See Virgil, vEneid, book viu.) 


I 


























696 


CADENCY—CADUCEUS. 


added seventh. A cadence is said to be broken or inter¬ 
rupted when the bass rises a major or minor second, instead 
of falling a fifth. 

Ca'dency [from the Lat. cado, to “ fall ” or “ descend ”], 
in heraldry, the marks by which the shields of the younger 
members of families are distinguished from those of the 
elder and from each other. No distinction is usually made 
between marks of cadency, differences, distinctions, or bri- 
sures, though the last term is used to include not only dif¬ 
ferences in general, but also the so-called abatements. 
There is convenience in the practice followed in Scotland, 
of appropriating the marks of cadency to distinguishing 
the sons from the father, and from each other during the 
father’s lifetime, and of adopting other distinctions after 
the death of their father. Another mode of differencing 
the shields of brothers in early times was by changing the 
tinctures, but this is now regarded as too exteusive a change. 

The differences used by the British royal family are found 
in some peerages. The label of the prince of Wales is 
plain, whilst those of the other princes and princesses are 
charged with crosses, fleurs-de-lis, hearts, or other figures 
for the sake of distinction. Labels, crescents, mullets, 
martlets, etc. are the usual marks of cadency, and the rules 
governing their use are complicated and fanciful. 

Caden'za, in music, an ornamental succession of notes 
introduced at pleasure by the performer at the end of a 
phrase. 

Cadet' (fern, cadette), [a French word signifying 
“ younger,” “junior ”]. Cadet as a noun means younger 
son, younger brother: a military officer who is junior to 
another is a cadet in respect to him. The term is also ap¬ 
plied in France and other countries to a student of the art 
of war and military science. The students of the Military 
Academy at West Point, N. Y., are called cadets, as are 
those of the Naval Academy at Annapolis. There are also 
medical cadets, recognized as of a distinct rank in the U. S. 
“ Army Regulations.” 

Cadet, Naval, is the lowest grade of officer in the 
British navy. Cadets enter the naval service at twelve to 
fourteen years of age. Every captain on being appointed 
to a ship has a right to nominate a cadet, and every flag- 
officer can nominate two on x’eceiving his flag. The others 
are nominated by the first lord of the admiralty, subject to 
the regulations for competitive examination. They first 
pass three months on a training-ship in port to learn the 
rudiments of seamanship, and are thence transferred to sea¬ 
going ships. After the cadet has served fifteen months in 
a sea-going ship he is eligible for promotion to the rank of 
midshipman. 

Ca'di, an Arabic word signifying judge or jurist, is the 
title of an inferior judge among the Turks and other Mo¬ 
hammedan nations. They must be chosen from the ranks 
of the priesthood, as the precepts.of the Koran constitute 
their code of laws. 

Ca'dion, a township of Van Buren co., Ark. Pop. 587. 

Ca'diz, a province which forms the S. W. extremity of 
Spain, is bounded on the N. by Seville, on the E. b.v Malaga, 
on the S. by the Strait of Gibraltar, and on the W. by the 
Atlantic and Huelva. Area, 2809 square miles. The soil 
is fertile, and the province contains large forests. Capital, 
Cadiz. Pop. 417,346. 

Cadiz ( anc. Gades), an important city and seaport of 
Spain, capital of the above province, is situated on the 
Atlantic Ocean and on the N. W. extremity of the isle of 
Leon, about 94 miles by rail S. by W. of Seville; lat. 36° 
32' N., Ion. 6° 18' W. Its site is a long narrow isthmus 
or tongue of land surrounded by water on three sides, hav¬ 
ing on the N. and N. E. an inlet called the Bay of Cadiz, 
which forms a good and capacious harbor. It is accessible 
from the mainland only by a tongue of land, which in 
some places is only 200 yards wide, and is strongly de¬ 
fended by several forts. The houses, built of white free¬ 
stone, present a bright appearance from the sea. The 
streets are narrow, but well paved and regular. Among 
the principal edifices are two cathedrals, an old and a new, 
the lighthouse of San Sebastian, 172 feet high, and a hos¬ 
pital called Casa de Misericordia. The convent of the 
Capuchins possesses two excellent pictures by Murillo. 
The city contains two theatres, a medical school, a botanic 
garden, and an academy of fine arts. Cadiz is one of the 
first commercial cities of Spain, but is probably inferior to 
Barcelona in the value of its imports. The chief articles 
of export are sherry wine, olive oil, salt, metals, and fruits. 
Among the imports are tobacco,' sugar, coffee, hides, indigo, 
cotton, dyewoods, fish, and coal. The commerce of this 
port is much less extensive than it was formerly. Cadiz 
is the southern terminus of a railway which connects it 
with Seville. The isle-of Leon is separated from the main¬ 
land by a narrow channel, which is crossed by a bridge. 


Here are manufactures of mantillas, fans, glass, soap, cot¬ 
ton and silk stuffs, hats, etc. Cadiz, which is one of the 
most ancient towns of Europe, was founded by the Phoe¬ 
nicians, probably before the foundation of Rome. The 
Carthaginians became masters of it during the first Punic 
war, but the Romans obtained possession of it in 206 B. C., 
after which it became a city of great wealth and import¬ 
ance. It was taken and pillaged by the earl of Essex in 
1596, and was blockaded in 1656 by Admiral Blake, who 
captured two rich galleons. It was besieged by the 
French from Feb., 1810, until Aug., 1812. Pop. 61,750./ 

Cadiz, a post-village, capital of Trigg co., Ky., on 
Little River, 230 miles W. S. W. of Frankfort. It has one 
weekly paper. Pop. 680. 

Cadiz, a post-village, capital of Harrison co., O., is 
about 22 miles N. W. of Wheeling, and 120 miles E. N. E. 
of Columbus. A branch railroad, six miles long, connects 
it with the Pan Handle route from Pittsburg to Cincinnati. 
It has two national banks, two private banks, two news¬ 
papers, and is the commercial centre of a great wool-grow¬ 
ing district. Pop. 1639. Ed. “Republican.” 

Cadiz, a post-township of Green co., Wis. Pop. 1401. 

Cad'mmm, a white metal having a slight bluish cast, 
discovered in 1817 by Stromeyer, and also independently 
by Hermann, named from cadmia fosxilis, a name given to 
an ore of zinc mentioned by Dioscorides and Pliny. The 
name is said by some to have come from that of Cadmus. 
Symbol, Cd; atomic weight, 112; sp. gr. after fusion, 8.6; 
hammered, 8.7, nearly. Cadmium is lustrous, takee a fine 
polish, and possesses a fibrous fracture. It tarnishes very 
slightly in the air, and only burns at a high heat. It is 
more tenacious than tin, though, like that metal, a bar of 
it gives a “cry” when bent. It melts below 260°, and vola¬ 
tilizes at about 360° C. It occurs in nature as the sulphide 
“greenockite” at Bishopstown, Renfrewshire, Scotland, and 
incidentally as a constituent of various zinc ores, as the car¬ 
bonate, silicate, etc., as well as the sulphide in several local¬ 
ities. The zinc flowers in the flues of zinc-reducing furnaces 
contain even as much as 11 per cent, of cadmium. Commer¬ 
cial English zinc often contains cadmium. The metal is read¬ 
ily soluble in nitric acid, and but slightly so in other acids, 
except at a boiling temperature. It forms two oxides, CdO 
and Cd 20 , of which the former (the monoxide) is the basis 
of a series of salts. The suboxide is greenish. The mon¬ 
oxide varies in color from brownish to blackish yellow, ac¬ 
cording to the mode of preparation. It is infusible and 
not volatile. Its salts are mostly colorless, and when taken 
into the stomach act as emetics ; their taste is disagreeably 
metallic. The cadmium chloride forms double salts with 
hydrochlorates ot many of the alkaloids. Cadmium is pre¬ 
pared by collecting the first products of distillation from the 
zinc ores containing it, and subjecting them, when mixed 
with charcoal, to two successive distillations in iron retorts 
at a low red heat. Instead of the last distillation, solution 
in acid and purification in the wet way is resorted to. The 
demand for cadmium is, however, so small that the working 
up of the furnace products containing considerable amounts 
of that metal has been discontinued in some places in Sile¬ 
sia. It is necessary, however, to remove it from the zinc, 
as it renders that metal brittle when 3 per cent, or more is 
present. Cadmium finds its chief application in the arts 
in the form of the sulphide, which has an intense yellow 
color, and is used for coloring soaps, and in paints, etc. It 
is known as cadmium yellow and jaune brillant. The 
iodide and bromide of cadmium are used in photography. 
The metal is used for forming a fusible with lead, tin. and 
bismuth for filling teeth. This element is recognized in 
the laboratory by being the only one which affords a yel¬ 
low sulphide, insoluble in ammonium sulphide. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Cad'mus [Gr. KaS/ao?], in classical mythology, was a 
son of Agenor, king of Sidon, and a brother of Europa. 
After Europa had been carried off by Jupiter, Cadmus was 
tent in quest of her. According to tradition, he founded 
she city of Thebes, in Boeotia, and invented sixteen letters 
of the Greek alphabet, or introduced them from Phoenicia 
into Greece. 

Cad'ron, a post-toAvnship of Conway co., Ark. P. 502. 

Cadu'cetis, in classic mythology, the symbol and 
winged staff of Mercury (Hermes), to whom it was pre¬ 
sented by Apollo. From this staff Mercury derived the 
surname of Oaducifer. The term caducous was also applied 
by the ancients to a staff or rod of laurel or olive which 
was carried by ambassadors and heralds as a symbol of 
peace. It had the figures of two serpents twisted around 
it. Among the moderns the caducous is used as an emblem 
of commerce, over which Mercury was supposed to preside. 
Still more frequently it is the emblem of health and of the 
healing art. 










CADWALADER—CLESAR. 


697 


Cadwal'ader (Gen. George), a native of Philadelphia, 
where he practised law, served as a brigadier-general in 
the Mexican war, and was brevetted xnajor-general for 
services at Chapultepec. He was major-general of Penn¬ 
sylvania troops 1861-62, and in 1862 became major-general 
of U. S. volunteers. 

Cadwalader, or Cadwallader (John), an Amer¬ 
ican general, born in Philadelphia in 1743. He served as a 
brigadier-general at the battles of Princeton, Brandywine, 
and Monmouth (1778). Died Feb. 10, 1786. 

Ca'dy (Albemarle), an American officer, born in 1807 
in New Hampshire, graduated at West Point 1829, and 
Oct. 20, 1863, colonel Eighth U. S. Infantry. He served 
chiefly at frontier posts 1829-61; on engineer duty 1834—37; 
in Florida war 1838-42; in war with Mexico 1846-48, en¬ 
gaged at Vera Cruz. Cerro Gordo, Amazoque, San Antonio, 
Churubusco, and Molino del Rey (wounded and brevet 
major); on Sioux expedition 1855, engaged at Blue Waters, 
Dak.; and superintendent of general recruiting 1857-59. 
In the civil war was in command of the district of Oregon 
1861-62; acting inspector-general of the department of 
the Pacific 1863, and in command of draft rendezvous at 
New Haven, Conn., 1864-65. Brevet brigadier-general 
U. S. A. Mar. 13, 1865, for long and faithful services; and 
retired from active service May 18, 1864. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

CfEcil'ia [from the Lat. csecus, “blind”], a genus of 
batrachians formerly placed among serpents on account of 
their form, although breathing by gills when young and 
undergoing a metamorphosis. The body is almost cylin¬ 
drical, the head small, the eyes very small, and in some 
species imperfect or wanting; on which account the name 
was given. The skin is viscous and annularly wrinkled, 
appearing naked, although minute scales are found be¬ 
tween its wrinkles. The vertebras are articulated as in 
fishes and not as in serpents, and the skull is united to 
the first vertebra by two condyles. The ribs are short. 
The original genus has been subdivided, now forming a 
family, Caeciliadae. The species are inhabitants of marshy 
or moist places, chiefly in Africa and South America. 

Caecil'ius Sta'tius, a Roman comic poet of high 
reputation, was a native of Milan and a friend of Ennius. 
He wrote nearly forty comedies, of which only small frag¬ 
ments are extant. Died in 168 B. C. He was regarded by 
ancient critics as a comic poet of the first rank. 

Cscci'na Alie'nus (Aulus), or A. Licinius Caeci- 
na, a Roman general who entered the service of Vitellius 
in 68 A. D., and obtained command of an army. In the 
year 69, Cmcina and Valens defeated thg army of Otho at 
Bedriacum. He soon deserted Vitellius, and became an 
officer of Vespasian, but he formed a conspiracy against 
the latter, and was put to death in 79 A. D. 

Cae'cum [the neuter gender of the Lat. adjective cse'- 
cu8, “blind”], literally, the “blind intestine,” applied to a 
sac or branch of an intestine having only one opening. 
In man there is only one caecum, not very large, at the 
extremity of the small intestine, where it terminates in the 
colon. In the herbivorous Mammalia it is comparatively 
large, and secretes an acid fluid, perhaps supplementing 
the gastric juice in completing digestion. The caecum is 
wanting in bats and in the bear and weasel families. 
Birds have two caeca, generally long and capacious in 
those that are omnivorous or granivorous. Reptiles sel¬ 
dom have a caecum. Fishes have the caeca attached to 
the intestine at its uppermost part. The number of these 
is extremely various; sometimes there are only two, and 
sometimes more than a hundred. The number is different 
even in nearly allied species. In some fishes, as the cod, 
the caeca divide into smaller branches. The intestinal 
canal of some of the infusoria is furnished throughout its 
length with caeca. 

Caed'mon, an ancient Anglo-Saxon poet, was originally 
a cowherd attached to the monastery of Whitby, in Eng¬ 
land. He afterwards became a monk, and composed, pro¬ 
fessedly under divine inspiration, poems on religious sub¬ 
jects, which are thought to have suggested to Milton his 
“ Paradise Lost.” Some of these are the oldest extant 
specimens of Anglo-Saxon metrical composition. Died 
about 680 A. D. 

Cue'lius Aurelia'nus, an eminent medical writer who 
belonged to the sect of Methodici, was born at Sicca, in 
Africa. Ho is supposed to have lived between 100 and 300 
A. I). He wrote two Latin works, “ De Morbis Chronicis” 
(“On Chronic Diseases”), and “ De Morbis Acutis” (“On 
Acute Diseases ”), which are extant and are highly prized. 

Caen [Lat. Cadomm or Ca do muni], a city of France, 
capital of the department of Calvados, is situated on the 
river Orne, 10 miles from the sea, and 148 miles by rail 
W. N. W. from Paris; lat. 49° 11' 12“ N., Ion. 0° 21' W. 


It was formerly the capital of Lower Normandy. It has 
wide, regular, and clean streets, several fine public squares, 
and many noble specimens of ancient Norman architecture. 
The houses are generally built of an excellent cream- 
colored freestone which is quarried in the vicinity, and is 
called Caen Stone (which see). Caen is connected with 
Paris by a railway, and with the sea by a navigable canal. 
Among its remarkable edifices are the cathedral of St. 
Etienne, founded by William the Conqueror; the church 
of La Trinite, or Abbaye-aux-Dames, founded by Queen 
Matilda in the eleventh century; and the church of St. 
Pierre, the tower or spire of which is much admired. The 
castle, commenced by William the Conquei*or and finished 
by his son, Henry I., was partially destroyed in 1793. 
This city contains a large public library, a museum, a 
botanic garden, a custom-house, the hotel of the prefecture, 
an academy of arts and sciences., a medical school, a nor¬ 
mal school, and axx asylum for deaf-mutes. It has manu¬ 
factures of lace, crape, linens, cotton fabric^, porcelain, 
cutlery, flannel, hats, and gloves. Caen has long been 
celebrated for its manufacture of Angora and woollen 
gloves. This was an important place as early as 912, 
when it became subject to the Nonnans. It was the resi- 
dence of William, duke of Nonnandy, befoi*e he conquered 
England. In 1346 it was taken and pillaged by Edward 
IIL of England. The poet Malherbe and Auber the com¬ 
poser wei-e born here. Pop. 41,564. 

Caen Stone, a fine cream-colored or light yellow 
building-stone which is exported from Caen to England 
and the U. S. It is an oolite or sandstone, and is easily 
worked. It was extensively used in England in the fifteenth 
and sixteenth centuries. The cathedrals of Winchester 
and Cantei'bury are built of this stone. 

Caerle'on (anc. Isca Silurum), an old town of Eng¬ 
land, in Monmouthshire, on the river Usk, here crossed by 
a bridge, 2 miles N. E. of Newport. It is supposed to have 
been the capital of the Roman province Britannia Secunda 
(modera Wales), and, according to tradition, was a resi¬ 
dence of King Arthur. Many Roman antiquities and 
relics have been found here, as baths, altars, statues, coins, 
insci’iptions, and aqueducts. Here is also a ruined amphi¬ 
theatre 222 feet in length. Pop. 1281. 

Caernarvon, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 927. 

Caernarvon, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop. 
1566. 

CcBsalpin'ia, a genus of trees of the oi-der Legumi- 
nosse, the type of the sub-order Caesalpiniese. This sub¬ 
order is characterized by irregular flowers which are not 
papilionaceous, and compx-ises numerous species, some 
of which have purgative properties, as senna (Cassia). 
Others bear edible fruits, as the tamarind and the carob. 
Among the products of the sub-order are Copaiba, Log¬ 
wood, and Camwood (which see). They are mostly natives 
of warm climates. The genus Cesalpinia has pinnate or 
bi-pinnate leaves, and ten stamens in each flower. The 
red dyewood called sappan-wood is obtained from the Cses- 
alpinia Sappan. Other species yield the Brazil-wood of 
commerce. Among the species of the above sub-order 
that grow wild in the U. S. are the Cercis Canadensis, the 
Gleditschia triancanthos and monosperma (honey locust). 

Coc'sar, the cognomen of a patrician Roman family of 
the Julia gens, which was one of the most ancient in the 
state, and claimed a descent from lulus, a son of JEneas. 
The first member of the family mentioned in history is 
Sextus Julius Caesai’, who was praetor in 208 B. C. After 
the family had become extinct (at the death of Nero), the 
succeeding emperors of Rome assumed the name of Caesar 
as a title. It subsequently became the title of the heir- 
presumptive to the throne. 

Cte'sar (Julius), or, more fully, Caius Julius Cae¬ 
sar, one of the most remarkable men that ever lived, 
was born on the 12th of July, 100 B. C. He belonged to 
the Julian tribe (gens Julia), which boasted its descent 
from lulus (or Julus), the son of jEneas. In 83 Caesar di¬ 
vorced Cossutia and married Cornelia, the daughter of 
Cinna. This act offended Sulla (then in the height of his 
power), who commanded Caesar to divorce the latter. On 
his refusal to obey he was proscribed. He was under the 
necessity of concealing himself for a time, but on the inter¬ 
cession of mutual and influential friends the dictator re¬ 
luctantly pardoned him. Sulla is repoi'ted to have said to 
some of his fi’iends who intei’ceded for him, that Cxesar 
would some day bo the ruin of the aristocracy, adding, 
“In that young man there are many Mariuses.* (Marius 
had proved himself the most formidable enemy that the 
aristocratic party had ever encountered.) Soon after, Cmsar 
went to Asia Minor, and served with distinction in tie 
Roman army. Afterwards, while on his journey to Rhodes 
with a viow to study oratory under Apollonius Molo, ho 














. . . . . . ... .. . ■ ■ .■i n . .. . ■ _» ■■■ ■■ ■ _ .— _ _ " "_ _ 

G98 CiESAK. 


was taken by pirates. While detained by them he often 
threatened (in jest, as they supposed) that he would put 
them to death when he got his liberty. The required ran¬ 
som having at last been paid, he manned some vessels, 
pursued and took the pirates, and crucified them all. 

Having returned to Rome, he became a candidate for 
popular honors. He was elected quaestor in 08 B. C. This 
same year his wife Cornelia died, and the next he married 
Pompeia, a relative of Pompey the Great and a grand¬ 
daughter of Sulla. This was done to ingratiate himself 
with Pompey, who, since the death of Sulla, was all-pow¬ 
erful at Rome. He was made an aedile in 65 B. C., and 
sought to render himself popular by the exhibition of pub¬ 
lic games which are said to have surpassed in magnificence 
everything of the kind ever before seen at Rome. He was 
elected pontifex maximus in 63 B. C. In 63 occurred the 
conspiracy of Catiline, and many suspected Caesar of being 
accessory to it. When Cicero asked the opinion of the 
senate respecting the punishment which ought to be in¬ 
flicted on the conspirators, all the senators gave judgment 
in favor of their death, until it came to Caesar’s turn to 
speak. He maintained that it was contrary to justice 
and highly inexpedient to put men of their rank to death 
without a full trial. His argument had great weight with 
the senators. But Cato followed in a powerful speech, 
accusing Caesar of complicity with the conspirators, and 
carried a large majority of the senate with him. The 
conspirators were condemned to death; Caesar himself 
narrowly escaped. 

In 62 B. C. he was made praetor, and was sent the next 
year as propraetor to Spain, where he greatly distinguished 
himself both as a magistrate and general, and was saluted 
as imperator by the army. In 60 he was elected consul, L. 
Calpurnius Bibulus being his colleague. One of his lead¬ 
ing measures was to propose an agrarian law, by which a 
considerable tract of the public land was to be divided 
among the poorer citizens, particularly those who had a 
number of children. This measure was carried, in spite of 
the opposition of Bibulus. With a view to strengthen his 
interest with Pompey, Caesar gave him in marriage his 
daughter Julia, though she had already been affianced to S. 
Caepio. He formed in 60 B. C., with Pompey and Crassus, 
a secret alliance known in history as the first triumvirate. 
Supported by such powerful influence, Caesar was enabled 
to carry through the senate whatever laws or measures he 
pleased. The government of Cisalpine and Transalpine 
Gaul having been decreed to him for five years, he left 
Rome in the spring (of 58 B. C.), and before the ensuing 
winter he had ended successfully two important wars in 
Transalpine Gaul—one with the Helvetii, a nation inhab¬ 
iting what is now Switzerland; the other with Ariovistus, 
the king of a powerful German nation who had a few years 
before crossed the Rhine and established themselves in 
Gaul. In the next seven years he not only subdued the 
greater part of Gaul, but crossed over (55 B. C.) into 
Britain, defeated Cassivelaunus, one of the kings of that 
country, took hostages, and fixed the tribute the Britons 
were to pay to Rome. 

Caesar’s daughter Julia, whom he had given in marriage 
to Pompey, had died in 54 B. C. The triumvir Crassus 
had been killed in the war with the Parthians. A coolness 
gradually arose between Caesar and Pompey. The latter 
appears to have become jealous of the new favorite of for¬ 
tune, since all his own exploits, splendid and unparalleled 
as they were at the time they were performed, had been 
eclipsed by the more recent and more glorious achievements 
of his great rival. Pompey had succeeded to the position 
of Sulla as the leader of the aristocracy, while Caesar’s 
policy had been from the first to cultivate the favor of the 
common people. The two parties became more and more 
hostile to each other. Some of the more violent of the pa¬ 
tricians were determined to crush Caesar at all hazards. It 
was at length proposed in the senate, in 50 B. C., by Mar- 
cellus, that Caesar, the Gallic war having been brought to 
an end, should lay down his command and disband his 
army; but Curio, a tribune whom Caesar had gained over to 
his interests, vetoed the decision of the senate; Caesar, how¬ 
ever, was deprived of two of his legions. But desirous, 
by the moderation of his conduct, to fasten upon his oppo¬ 
nents the responsibility and odium of beginning the quar¬ 
rel, he sent a proposition to the senate that he would agree 
to dismiss his array if Pompey would do the same. But 
the senate even refused to consider the proposal. It was 
afterwards decreed that Caesar should disband his army by 
a certain day or be considered a public enemy. This was 
virtually a declaration of war, for no one could believe that 
Caesar would thus tamely abandon the contest. On learn¬ 
ing the decision of the senate, Caesar assembled his army, 
and in an eloquent harangue inspired them with his own 
indignant spirit. Accompanied by only 5000 infantry and 
300 cavalry (for his other troops wero beyond the Alps), he 


advanced to the river Ptubicon, which then marked the limit 
between Italy and Cisalpine Gaul. After revolving in his 
mind for some time his perilous enterprise, he at length ex¬ 
claimed, “The die is cast!” He instantly crossed the river, 
and proceeded with rapid strides through Ariminum, Ar- 
retium, and Ancona towards Rome. Every town seemed 
ready to open its gates as he approached. In the general 
consternation, Pompey, with the two consuls and many of 
the senators, fled from the city towards Brundisium, closely 
pursued by Caesar. He passed over into Greece, whither 
Caesar, for want of ships, was unable to follow him. Caesar 
soon after set out for Spain, where Afranius and Petreius, 
Pompey’s lieutenants, had a formidable army under their 
command. Having compelled them to sue for and accept 
peace on his own terms, and captured Massilia (Marseilles), 
he returned to Rome, whence he proceeded to Brundisium. 
After some delay he evaded the vigilance of Pompey’s fleet, 
and succeeded in transporting his army into Greece. In 
his first engagement with Pompey, near Dyrrhachium, Cae¬ 
sar was worsted, and was obliged to retreat. He withdrew, 
pursued by Pompey, to Thessaly. At length the two armies 
met on the plains of Pharsalia. Caesar had only 22,000 
foot-soldiers and 1000 horse, while the army of Pompey 
amounted to 45,000 infantry and 7000 horse. The latter 
sustained a disastrous defeat; 15,000 men fell in battle, and 
upwards of 24,000 were taken prisoners. Pompey escaped 
to Egypt, where he was basely assassinated. (See Pompey.) 
The power of his enemies having been utterly broken in 
Greece, Caesar followed Pompey to Egypt, where he was 
detained for a time, captivated by the charms of Cleopatra, 
whose pretensions to the throne of Egypt he supported 
against those of her brother Ptolemy. He next marched 
against Pharnaces, a son of Mithridates the Great, king of 
Pontus. Having defeated and destroyed the army of Phar- 
naccs, he wrote to the senate his celebrated letter of three 
words only— Veni, vidi, vici. He next turned his arms 
against the Pompeians in Africa, who were under the com¬ 
mand of Cato and Scipio, whose forces were defeated and 
almost exterminated at Thapsus, not far from Carthage 
(46 B.'C.). Caesar returned to Italy the undisputed master 
of the Roman world. But he had scarcely time to cele¬ 
brate his recent triumphs when word was brought that the 
sons of Pompey, Cneius and Sextus, had collected a for¬ 
midable army in Spain. Csesar advanced to meet them 
with his usual celerity. After a severe and bloody battle 
he gained a complete victory. He said afterwards to his 
friends that he had often fought for victory, but then only 
for his life. 

Having thus risen to power on the ruins of the republic, 
Caesar appears sincerely to have sought to promote the true 
interests of his country. He procured the enactment of 
several salutary laws. One of the subjects which claimed 
his earnest attention was the regulation of the calendar. 
His improvements have been adopted, with some modifica¬ 
tions, by all the European nations. (See Calendar.) He is 
said to have contemplated the preparation of a complete 
digest of the Roman laws, the draining of the Pontine 
Marshes, and other important public works, when death put 
an end to all his schemes. The senate had conferred upon 
him the title imperator (whence our “emperor”), for life; 
he was also made dictator and praefectus morum (“ chief or 
ruler of manners or customs ”), and pontifex maximus. To 
these dignities he wished to add that of king, that he might 
transmit his power to his successor. Having no legitimate 
children of his own, he had adopted his grand-nephew, 
Octavius, the son of Attia, who was a daughter of Caesar’s 
sister Julia. On a certain public festival, the Lupercalia 
(sometimes called in English the Lupercal), Antony, a 
zealous adherent of Caesar, publicly offered him a regal 
crown, but he, perceiving that it displeased the people, re¬ 
fused it, but very reluctantly, according to some accounts. 
From the time of Tarquin the Proud the name of king 
had always been particularly odious to Romans of every 
class. Caesar’s evident desire to be a king stimulated the 
hostility of his enemies, who were encouraged to hope that 
the taking of his life would be approved even by many of 
the people. A conspiracy in which sixty persons were 
implicated was formed. Caesar had many warnings, it is 
said, of his approaching fate, but as he scorned to live in 
constant terror of death, he disregarded all the admoni¬ 
tions of his friends, saying it was better to die at once 
than to suffer the anguish of death many times by con¬ 
stantly fearing it. It had been planned that when Caesar 
came into the senate on the ides of March, Cimber, one of 
the conspirators, should present a petition to him, and that 
while the paper was being read the others should crowd 
around, as if very anxious that Cimber should obtain his 
request, and make an attack upon their victim all at once. 
At first Caesar resisted with great spirit, but when he 
perceived the number of his enemies he resigned him¬ 
self to his fate, and, wrapping his toga about him, fell at 


















CAESAREA—CAGLIOSTRO. 699 

the foot of Pompey’s statue, the base of which was bathed 
in Caesar’s blood. One account states that he resolutely 
defended himself until he saw the dagger of M. Bi'utus 
among those of the other conspirators, when, exclaiming 
“ Thou too, Brutus !” he yielded without any further strug¬ 
gle. He was assassinated 44 B. C., in the fifty-sixth year 
of his age. In person, Caesar was tall and of a command¬ 
ing presence. His constitution was naturally delicate, but 
by exercise and exposure he became so hardy that none of 
his soldiers could better bear the fatigues and privations 
incident to a military life. He was sometimes, though 
rarely, subject to attacks of epilepsy. 

As a geueral, Csesar was probably superior in genius to 
every other commander of whom history makes mention, 
excepting, perhaps, Hannibal alone. (See Hannibal.) In 
the fertility of his resources, indeed, he appears to have 
surpassed all other generals that ever lived. It has been 
said that Napoleon taught his enemies how to conquer him, 
but Caesar’s enemies never learned how to conquer him, be¬ 
cause he had not a mere system of tactics, but a new strat¬ 
agem for every new emergency. But he was not only a 
great general, but a pre-eminent statesman, and the great¬ 
est orator of his age except Cicero. Cmsar was also distin¬ 
guished as a historian ; he wrote the first seven books of 
the commentaries treating of the Gallic war, and three 
books relating to the civil war. His style is remarkable 
for ease, clearness, and simplicity. 

Referring to those remarkable men in history who have 
compelled “ nations unaccustomed to control” to bow obe¬ 
dient to their will, Macaulay observes : “ In this class three 
men stand pre-eminent—Caesar, Cromwell, and Bonaparte; 
the highest place in this remarkable triumvirate belongs 
undoubtedly to Caesar. He united the talents of Bonaparte 
to those of Cromwell, and he possessed also what neither 
Cromwell nor Bonaparte possessed—learning, taste, wit, 
eloquence, the sentiments and manners of an accomplished 
gentleman.” William Jacobs. 

Cresare'a [Gr. Kai<rapeia; anciently called Turns Stra- 
tonis\, an ancient city and seaport of Palestine, now in 
ruins, was situated on the Mediterranean, about 37 miles 
N. of Jaffa, and 55 miles N. N. W. of Jerusalem. It was 
founded by Herod the Great (22 B. C.), who erected here 
several magnificent edifices, and protected its port by a 
semicircular mole, which is said to have been one of the 
most wonderful works of antiquity. Caesarea was the 
scene of several events recorded in the book of Acts. (See 
Acts, chaps, x., xxiii., xxv.) It was taken by the crusaders 
in 1101. The site is now covered with shapeless ruins. 

Caesarean Operation. See Hysterotomy. 

Caesare'a Philip'pi, or Pa'neas, an ancient town 
of Palestine, situated about 20 miles N. of the Sea of Gali¬ 
lee and 45 miles W. S. W. of Damascus. It is mentioned 
in Matthew xvi. 13. This site is now occupied by the vil¬ 
lage of Banias. in which some ancient ruins are visible. 

Caesar’s Creek, a township of Greene co., 0. Pop. 
1114. 

Cae'sinm (symbol Cs; atomic weight, 133), an alkali 
metal discovered with the spectroscope by Bunsen and 
Kirchoff in 1860 in the water of some saline springs in 
Germany. The salt spring of Diirkheim contains 0.17 
parts of the chloride in 1,000,000. The hot spring of 
Wheal Clifford was found to contain 0.12 grains of the 
chloride in a gallon. Caesium is widely diffused in nature, 
though in exceedingly small quantities; it has been found 
with rubidium in lepidolite, petalite, and some felspars. 
The mineral pollux of Elba is reported to contain 34 per 
cent, of caesium. In its chemical relations caesium is closely 
analogous to potassium, though it is more electro-positive, 
being, indeed, the most electro-positive element known. A 
fused mass of caesium chloride may be decomposed by the 
electric current, but the caesium rises to the surface and 
burns with a reddish flame. Bunsen obtained it as an 
amalgam with mercury, but even in amalgam or alloy it 
absorbs oxygen with great rapidity. The platin-chloride 
is more insoluble than that of potassium, and this fact has 
formed the basis of its separation from that element. The 
spectrum of caesium is characterized by two blue lines. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Caffraria. See Kaffraria. 

Caffeine, an alkaloid existing in coffee, tea, Paraguay 
tea ( Rex Paraguayensis), and guarana ( Guar ana officinalis, 
or Paullinia sorbilis), called also Theine and Guara- 
liine. Chemical formula, C 8 IIioN 40 2 . It was discovered 
by Runge in 1820, and almost simultaneously by Pelletier, 
Caventou, and Robiquet. Oudry in 1827 extracted an al¬ 
kaloid from tea which he supposed to be a distinct com¬ 
pound, and called it theine, but in 1838 Jobst proved caf¬ 
feine and theine to be identical. Stenhouse extracted caf¬ 
feine or theine from the leaves and twigs of Paraguay tea, 

while Martius extracted it from the dry pulp of the Paul¬ 
linia sorbilis or guarana, and called it guaranine, but after¬ 
wards proved the alkaloid to be identical with caffeine. 

Van Corput first showed that the leaves of the coffee-plant, 
as well as the berries, contained caffeine. It probably also 
exists in other plants. 

Caffeine occurs in the raw and also in the roasted coffee, 
the amount varying with the variety of coffee, the ripeness 
of the sample, the season of the harvest, etc. The mean 
amount of caffeine, as determined by Stenhouse in samples 
of various coffees, was 0.8 to 1 per cent. Domingo coffee 
contains the least and Martinique coffee the most caffeine. 

Tea contains somewhat more caffeine than coffee, 2.5 to 3.4 
per cent, having been found in hyson tea, 2.2 to 4.1 in gun¬ 
powder tea, and 0.9 to 2.1 per cent, in various black teas. 

( Stenhouse .) Mean, about 2 per cent. The Paraguay tea 
used in several South American countries to prepare the 
drink known by the natives as “mate” contains 1.1 to 1.2 
per cent, of caffeine. The guarana, which is a sort of 
chocolate, the seeds of the plant being roasted and ground 
to a paste with water, contains about 5 per cent, of caffeine. 
Guarana is used by the Brazilians to counteract dysentery, 
retention of urine, etc. Caffeine is supposed to exist in cof¬ 
fee-berries and tea-leaves, combined with tannic acid and 
potassa— i. e. as potassium caffeo-tannate. 

Several methods of extraction have been practised, as 
precipitating the infusion of tea or coffee with basic lead 
acetate, freeing from excess of lead salt by hydrosulphuric 
acid, and then crystallizing out from the solution, precipi¬ 
tating by milk of lime, and extracting the caffeine from 
the precipitate by water or alcohol. Another process is 
based on the volatility of the alkaloid. 

When pure, caffeine appears in white silky needles hav¬ 
ing no oclor, containing 8.4 per cent, of water of crystalli¬ 
zation, which it parts with at 150° C.; sparingly soluble 
in cold water, and much more so in hot, less soluble in al¬ 
cohol, and still less so in ether. It acts as a weak base, 
dissolving in acids, from which it may be crystallized by 
evaporation. Boiled with fixed caustic alkalies, it decom¬ 
poses, giving methylamine. Heating with basic hydrate 
alters it to a stronger base—caffeidine. Boiled with an ex¬ 
cess of nitric acid and then evaporated at a gentle heat, it 
gives a red color, resembling that obtained from murexide, 
on the addition of ammonia, which is quite characteristic. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Ca'gliari, one of the two provinces into which the island 
of Sardinia is divided, is bounded on the N. by the province 
of Sassari, and on the E., S., and W. by the Mediterranean 

Sea. Area, 5224 square miles. The ground is marshy and 
the climate unhealthy. The chief articles of export are 
grain, oil, almonds, sugar, molasses, and wine. Chief town, 
Cagliari. Pop. in 1871, 392,958. 

Cagliari (anc. Calaris or Caralis), a city of Sardinia, 
the capital of the above province, is situated on a spacious 
bay on the S. coast; lat. 39° 13' N., Ion. 9° 7' E. It has a 
large and secure harbor, which is defended by several forts, 
and is the emporium through which nearly all the foreign 
trade of the island passes. It contains a cathedral, about 
thirty churches, numerous convents, a public library, sev¬ 
eral hospitals, an arsenal, a mint, and a college. Here are 
manufactures of cotton fabrics, soap, gunpowder, leather, 
and furniture. Among the articles of export are grain, 
wine, oil, salt, saffron, and rags. Pop. in 1871, 32,834. 

Cagliari (Paoli), an eminent Italian painter of the 
Venetian school, often called Paul Veronese, was born at 
Verona 1530. He was a pupil of his uncle, Antonio Badile, 
and he worked successively in Venice, Rome, and other 
cities of Italy. He was an excellent colorist, and was dis¬ 
tinguished by the richness and fertility of his imagination. 

Among his masterpieces are “The Marriage at Cana” 

(which is now in the Louvre), “'The Calling of Saint An¬ 
drew to the Apostleship,” “ The Rape of Europa,” and 
“ The Presentation of the Family of Darius to Alexan¬ 
der.” He was a contemporary of Titian. Died April 

19, 1588. 

Caglios'tro (Alexander), Count, a famous Italian 
charlatan and impostor, whose proper name was Giuseppe 
Balsamo, was born at Palermo June 2, 1743. He learned 
a little chemistry and medicine in a monastery, where he 
was assistant apothecary. Having assumed the title of 
count and become a Freemason, ho tra velled through many 
countries, professing to be a physician and alchemist, and 
raising money by quackery and other forms of imposture. 

In some of his adventures he was attended by his wife, and 
travelled in his own coach in an ostentatious style. About 

1780 he visited Paris, where he made many dupes among 
the higher classes, and revived an old Egyptian Masonic 
order, of which he became grand kophta. He was patron¬ 
ized by Cardinal do Rohan, with whom ho was implicated 
in the affair of the “ diamond necklace, and was impris- 









700 CAGNOLA—CAIRO. 


oned in the Bastile in 1785. Having been liberated in 
1786, he visited England, where he obtained little success. 
He afterwards went to Home, where he was arrested in 1789 
as a Freemason, and condemned to imprisonment for life. 
Hied in 1795. (See Carlyle, “ Miscellanies,” vol. iv.) 

Cagno'la (Luigi), Marquis, an eminent Italian archi¬ 
tect, born in Milan June 9, 1762. He became president 
of the Institute of Milan. His greatest works are two 
triumphal arches of Milan—viz. the Porto del Ticino (once 
called Porta di Marengo) and the Arco della Pace or Porta 
del Sempione, commenced in 1807 and finished about 1837. 
The latter is built of white marble, and is seventy-eight 
feet high. Died Aug. 12, 1833. 

Cagots [Fr.], a despised race of social outcasts (re¬ 
sembling in some respects the gypsies) who have wandered 
over parts of France for centuries, and were considered de¬ 
scendants of the Visigoths, whom Clovis nearly annihilated 
in battle in the fifth century. Before the great French 
Revolution they were bound by law to wear a peculiar 
dress, to live apart, to labor in none but menial occupa¬ 
tions, and only to enter churches by a special door in each. 
The Revolution relieved them from all legal disabilities, 
but could not release them at once from social outlawry 
and general detestation. Vulgar prejudice still regarded 
them with abhorrence as foul and depraved, and they were 
still objects of aversion and loathing. Of late, however, 
they would seem to have sunk out of sight, being either 
absorbed into the lower class of the peasants or dwindled 
to a handful. (See Michel, ‘‘ History of Outcast Races in 
France and Spain,” 1847.) 

Cahaw'ba, a river of Alabama, rises in the N. central 
part of the State, flows in a general S. S. W. direction, and 
enters the Alabama at Cahawba, in Dallas co. Length, 
estimated at 150 miles. 

Cahawba, a post-village, capital of Dallas co., Ala., 
is on the Alabama River just below the mouth of the Ca¬ 
hawba, about 8 miles S. W. of Selma. Cotton is shipped 
here in steamboats. Pop. of Cahawba township, 1859. 

Cahier, ki/yi', a French word signifying primarily a 
copy-book; a bundle of writing-paper or manuscript; a 
number of sheets of paper loosely tied together. The term 
is also applied to the memorial or report of a public assem¬ 
bly or body, and the official instructions of the electors to 
the deputies who were sent to the States-General in 1789. 

Caho'ka, a post-village of Clark co., Mo. It has one 
weekly newspaper. 

Caho'kia, a post-village of St. Clair co., Ill., on the 
Mississippi River, 10 miles N. W. of Belleville. It was 
settled by the French about 1683, and its present inhabit¬ 
ants are of French descent, and preserve many of their 
old ancestral customs. Coal is found in the neighborhood. 
The name is derived from a tribe of Indians long extinct. 

Cahors (anc. Divona), a town of France, the capital 
of the department of Lot, is on the river Lot, 57 miles N. 
of Toulouse. The site is a rocky eminence enclosed on 
several sides by the river. It contains a large cathedral, a 
college, a theatre, a public library, and a normal school; 
and has manufactures of glass, paper, woollen goods, cot¬ 
ton yarn, etc. Here are remains of a magnificent Roman 
aqueduct. Pop. 13,846. 

Cailliaud (Frederic), a French traveller, born at 
Nantes Mar. 17, 1787. He discovered in Mount Zabarah, 
in Egypt, the emerald-mines which were worked in ancient 
times. He published a “Journey to the Oasis of Thebes” 
(1821), and “Researches into the Arts and Trades and the 
Civil and Domestic Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, 
Nubians, and Ethiopians” (1831). Died May 1, 1869. 

Caillie, or Caille (Rene), a French traveller, born in 
Deux-Sevres Sept. 19, 1799. He gained a prize of 10,000 
francs which the Geographical Society of Paris offered to 
the first traveller who should visit Timbuctoo. He per¬ 
formed the journey from Sierra Leone to Timbuctoo in 
1827-28, and published a narrative of his adventures 
(1830). Died May 25, 1838. 

Cain, a township of Fountain co., Ind. Pop. 1802. 

Cain'ites, or Cain'ians, a Gnostic sect of the second 
century, who maintained that Cain was superior to Abel, 
since the latter was easily overcome by him. They also 
professed reverence for Judas and all the worst characters 
mentioned in the Bible. 

Cainozo'ic, Kainozo'ic, or Cnenozo'ic [from the 
Gr. no.Lvoi, “new,” and £ 069 , “living”], a geological term 
synonymous with tertiary, and applied by some writers to 
rocks which were formed after the mesozoic. 

Cain’s, a township of Marion co., S. C. Pop. 1007. 

Caique, a small boat for conveying passengers, used 
principally on the Bosphorus near Constantinople. 


Caird (John), an eloquent Scottish pulpit-orator and 
Presbyterian, was born at Greenock in 1823. He was or¬ 
dained a minister in 1845, and became pastor at Errol, 
Perthshire, in 1849. He gained a wide reputation by a 
sermon on “ Religion in Every Day Life,” preached before 
Queen Victoria in 1855. He removed to Glasgow in 1858. 

Cairn, a Celtic word signifying a “heap or pile,” is 
applied to artificial and conical heaps of unhewn stones 
which are frequently found in Europe on tops of hills. 
Many cairns are found near the circles of unhewn stone 
pillars which are sometimes called Druidical. In some 
cases the heaps of stones are girdled round by large unhewn 
stones set upright in the ground. It appears that the ma¬ 
jority of them were raised as sepulchres and monuments 
for the dead. Human bones are often found buried under 
them, together with stone hammers, flint arrow-heads, flint 
axes, bronze weapons, etc. In Scotland and Ireland oc¬ 
cur largo cairns called “ chambered cairns.” The most 
remarkable of these is at New Grange, on the river Boyne, 
near Drogheda. It is 400 paces in circumference, about 
eighty feet high, and is supposed to contain about 180,000 
tons of stones. It presents the appearance of a grassy hill 
partially wooded, but on examination the coating of earth 
is found to be superficial. An opening accidentally dis¬ 
covered is the external entrance of a gallery leading to a 
large cruciform chamber containing three granite basins 
or urns. The sides or walls of the chamber are formed of 
immense blocks of stone, some of which are covered with 
carved figures, supposed to be symbolical. In countries 
where stones are scarce the place of the cairn is supplied 
by the barrow or earthen mound, which differs from a cairn 
only in the material of which it is made. 

Cairngorm Stones, a name given by jewellers to 
brown or yellow quartz or rock-crystal found at Cairn¬ 
gorm, in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. The color is produced 
by a little oxide of iron or manganese. They are used as 
ornamental stones, and the yellow variety is often called 
topaz, but it is inferior to the true topaz in hardness and 
brilliancy. 

Cairns (Hugh McCalmont), Lord, a distinguished 
orator and lawyer, born near Belfast, Ireland, in 1819. 
He was returned to Parliament for Belfast in 1852, and 
was appointed attorney-general by Lord Derby in 1866. 
He was lord chancellor of England from Feb., 1868, until 
December of that year, and was leader of the Conservative 
party in the House of Lords in 1869. 

Cai'ro [called by the Arabs Al Masr or Musr ; also 
Al Kahireh (or Qahera), i. e. “the victorious ”], a famous 
city, the capital of modern Egypt, is situated in a sandy 
plain on the right (E.) bank of the Nile, 5 miles S. of the 
commencement of the Delta; lat. 30° 3' N., Ion. 31° IS' E. 
Elevation, forty feet above the level of the sea. The cli¬ 
mate is warm, dry, and healthy, with a mean annual tem¬ 
perature of about 72° F. The mean temperature of sum¬ 
mer is 85°, and that of winter, 58°. Cairo is bounded on 
the E. by the ridge of Mokattam, and is surrounded by 
stone walls with antique battlements. The streets are narrow, 
crooked, and ill-paved. The houses, which are mostly built 
of brick, are substantial, have flat roofs, and two or three 
stories. The city is divided into quarters, which are ap¬ 
propriated to the several religious sects, and occupied re¬ 
spectively by the Mussulmans, the Jews, the Christians, 
etc. These quarters are separated by gates that are closed 
at night. Cairo is connected with Alexandria by a railway. 

The most remarkable edifices of Cairo, which comprise 
many of the finest remains of Arabian architecture, are 
the mosques and minarets; the latter, which are very lofty, 
and built of alternate layers of red and white stone, are 
considered the most beautiful in the Levant. The city con¬ 
tains about 350 mosques, one of which, the great mosque 
of Sultan Tooloon, was built 879 A. D. It exhibits the 
oldest specimens of the pointed arch. The magnificent 
mosque of Sultan Hassan has two very high and graceful 
minarets. The majestic “ Tombs of the Caliphs,” which 
are in the environs without the walls, are beautiful speci¬ 
mens of Saracenic architecture. Here are handsome pub¬ 
lic gardens with groves of orange, citron, and palm trees. 
Among the remarkable objects in the vicinity of Cairo are 
the palace of the viceroy, the obelisk of Heliopolis, and the 
old and celebrated Nilometer, on the island of Rodah, which 
is a graduated column indicating the height of the inunda¬ 
tions of the Nile. The Great Pyramid is about 10 miles 
S. W. of this city. Cairo has long been celebrated as a seat 
of Oriental learning and Mohammedan theology. It has a 
university or college which is attended by nearly 2000 stu¬ 
dents. Here are numerous iron-foundries, calico-printing 
works, and extensive manufactures of cotton and silk fab¬ 
rics. The Arabs are the most numerous of the races which 
compose the population. Cairo, which is supposed to oo- 
cupy the site of the anciont Latopolis, was founded by the 















CAIRO—CALAIS. 701 


Arabs about 970 A. D., and was ruled by the Fatimite ca¬ 
liphs until 1171, when Saladin became master of Egypt. It 
was the capital of the sultans of Egypt until it was cap¬ 
tured by the Turks in 1518. Pop. in 1871, 353,851. 

Cairo, ka/ro, a river-port of Illinois, capital of Alex¬ 
ander county, situated at the southern extremity of the State, 
upon the point formed by the junction of the Ohio and Mis¬ 
sissippi rivers, 175 miles below St. Louis. It is the termi¬ 
nus of the Illinois Central, Cairo and St. Louis, Mississippi 
Central, and Cairo Arkansas and Texas R. Rs., and a mar¬ 
ket for the supply of a large portion of Southern Illinois, 
South-east Missouri, and Western Kentucky. It is an im¬ 
portant d6pot for the products of Northern Illinois, Iowa, 
and Wisconsin seeking southern markets. Over 4000 steam¬ 
boats land at its wharf annually. It has a considerable 
manufacturing industry, costly public-school buildings, and 
a fine custom-house. It has two national banks and three 
daily and three weekly papers. The low site of the city 
necessitated the construction of a levee to protect it from 
inundations. Pop. in 1870, 6267 ; local census of 1873, 8315. 

M. B. Harrell, Ed. “ Gazette.” 

Cairo, a township of Renville co., Minn. Pop, 326. 

Cairo, a post-village and township of Greene co., N. Y., 
has four churches and some manufactures, and contains the 
county poorhouse. Pop. of township, 2283. 

Caisse, a French word, the primary meaning of which 
is a “ chest,” “ box,” “ case,” or “ coffer.” It has important 
applications in commerce, finance, etc. In mercantile busi¬ 
ness it signifies “ cash ” or “ cash-box.” In anatomy, caisse 
is the drum of the ear. In financial affairs the tejm is ap¬ 
plied to a fund ; also to the pay-office. “ Caisse d’Epargne ” 
signifies a savings fund or savings bank. 

Caisson, a French word which in architecture signifies 
a coffer, a sunken panel in a flat or vaulted ceiling or in the 
soffit of a cornice. In civil engineering the term is applied 
to an enclosure or large vessel in which the foundations of 
the piers of a bridge are built and gradually lowered to the 
bottom of a stream. Caisson is also a name given to a 
tumbril or ammunition-cart used in the artillery service. 
In maritime affairs it is applied to an apparatus for lifting a 
vessel out of the water for repairs or inspection. It is usu¬ 
ally a hollow structure which contains an air-chamber, and 
is sunk by letting water into it. After it has been placed 
under the vessel the water is pumped out, and the caisson 
rises with the vessel. (See Foundations.) 

Caitli'uess, the northernmost county of Scotland, is 
bounded on the W. by the county of Sutherland and by 
the ocean on the other three sides. Area, 712 square miles. 
The sea-coast is bold and rocky, with many inlets or bays. 
The surface is nearly level, except a mountain-range formed 
of granite and gneiss, which extends along the western 
border, and rises to the height of 2300 feet. A large part 
of the county is moorland, destitute of trees. The staple 
products of the soil are oats, potatoes, and turnips. Many 
of the inhabitants are employed in the herring, cod, and 
salmon fisheries, and over 150,000 barrels of cured fish are 
annually exported from this county. Chief towns, Wick 
and Thurso. In the Middle Ages the kings of Norway 
ruled over this part of Scotland. Pop. in 1871, 39,989. 4 

Caithness, Earls of, and Barons Berriedale (1455, in 
Scotland), Barons Barrogill (1866, in the United Kingdom), 
and baronets (1629, in Scotland).— James Sinclair, the 
fourteenth earl, was born Dec. 16, 1821, and succeeded his 
father in 1855. 

Caithness Flagstones are dark-colored bituminous 
schists, slightly micaceous and calcareous, found in Caith¬ 
ness, Scotland. Their great toughness and durability ren¬ 
der them valuable for pavements, cisterns and other pur¬ 
poses. They belong to the old red sandstone formation. 

Ca'ius [the Latinized form of Kaye, Key, or Cay], 
(John), M. D., a learned English physician, born at Nor¬ 
wich Oct. 6, 1510. He practised medicine at Cambridge 
and in London, and was appointed physician successively 
to Edward VI., Queen Mary, and Elizabeth. In 1557 he 
founded Caius College, Cambridge. He wrote, besides other 
works, a "Treatise on the Sweating Sickness” (1552). 
Died July 29, 1572. 

Caiva'no, a town of Italy, in the province of Naples, 8 
miles N. of Naples, was fortified in the Middle Ages. It 
has remains of its old walls and towers. Pop. 9441. 

Caj'etan [It. Cajetano or Caietano; Lat. Caetanua ], 
the surname of Thomas he Vio, an Italian prelate, born at 
Gaeta (Caieta) Feb. 20, 1470. He became the general of 
the Dominican order in 1508, and a cardinal in 1517, soon 
after which Leo X. sent him as legate to Germany in order 
to induce Luther to recant. In 1519 he became bishop of 
Gaeta. He was one of the first who maintained without 
reserve the infallibility of the pope. Died Aug. 9, 1534. 


Caj'uput, or Cajeput ( Melaleuca Cajeputi), a tree of 
the order Myrtacem, sub-order Leptospermeae, from the 
leaves of which the pungent, aromatic volatile oil of cajuput 
is obtained by distillation. The cajuput is common on the 
Moluccas and in the southern part of Borneo. It is rather 
a small tree, with a crooked trunk, thick spongy bark, white 
wood (whence the name cajuput, properly kayvputi, signi¬ 
fying white wood), and terminal spikes of white flowers. 
The greater number of the species of this genus are natives 
of Australia, some of them very beautiful ornaments of hot¬ 
houses. Much of the oil of cajuput of commerce is pre¬ 
pared in the island of Banda, and at Amboyna and Bouro. 
Several other species yield this oil. Two sackfuls of leaves 
yield scarcely three drachms of the oil, which is green, 
transparent, limpid, with a strong odor, agreeable only 
when much diffused. It is sometimes used as a stimulating 
aromatic in medicine, and is considered very efficacious in 
rheumatism. 

Cal'abar Bean, the seed of the Physostigma veneuoaum, 
a twining, half-shrubby leguminous plant, a native of 
Western Africa. It belongs to the sub-order Papilionaceao, 
and is nearly allied to the kidney bean. The bean is used 
as an ordeal among the Africans. It is very poisonous; 
fifteen of the beans have produced death in an hour. It is 
used by surgeons, in small amounts, to cause contraction 
of the pupil of the eye, the opposite of the effect of bella¬ 
donna. It is also sometimes given in tetanus and some 
other diseases. It is a powerful depressant to the nervous 
action. # 

Cal'abash Tree ( Crescentia Cujete), a tree of the 
order Bignoniacem, is a native of the tropical parts of 
America. It bears a large fruit, sometimes one foot in 
diameter, the hard shell of which is used as a substitute for 
bottles and other vessels. These shells are so hard that 
water may be boiled in them. They are sometimes polished, 
carved with figures, and converted into ornamental vessels. 
The wood of this tree is tough and flexible, and a suitable 
material for coaches. The term calabash is also applied to 
the fruit of the gourd, which is used for holding water. 

Calabo'zo, a town of Venezuela, in the province of 
Guarico, on the Guarico River, 106 miles S. S. W. of Ca¬ 
racas. It has considerable trade with the interior. The 
valley in which it is situated is subject to great inundations. 
The city is the residence of many wealthy cattle-graziers 
(hatos ), and has a fine church. Pop. 10,000. 

Cala'bria, the ancient name of the south-eastern part 
of Italy, coinciding nearly with the modern province of 
Lecce. It was bounded on the N. E. by the Adriatic, on 
the S. W. by the Sinus Tarentinus (Gulf of Taranto), and 
on the N. W. by Apulia. Among its chief towns were 
Brundisium and Tarentum. 

Calabria (anc. Brnttium), a region of Southern Italy, 
forming the southern part of the former kingdom of Naples, 
is a long peninsula enclosed by the sea on all sides except 
the N., and separated from Sicily by the Strait of Messina. 
Area, 6663 square miles. It is divided into three prov¬ 
inces, Cosenza, Reggio Calabria, and Catanzaro. It is 
traversed by the Apennines through its whole extent. 
These mountains, which are here nearly 4000 feet high, are 
partly covered with forests of pine, oak, and beech trees. 
Between the Apennines and the sea are fertile and beau¬ 
tiful valleys, which produce wheat, cotton, rice, sugar, 
oranges, figs, grapes, and olives. This region is subject 
to earthquakes. Chief towns, Cosenza, Reggio, and Catan¬ 
zaro. Pop. in 1871, 1,209,315. 

Cal'ahaln, a post-township of Davie co., N. C. Pop. 
1232. 

Calahor'ra (anc. Calagurris), a town of Spain, in the 
province of Logrono, on the river Ebro, 19 miles E. S. E. 
of Logrono. It has an old cathedral and some ancient re- 
mains. It is the seat of a bishop. Quintilian was born 
here. Calagurris was taken by Pompey or Afranius about 
78 B. C., after a long and famous siege. The sufferings 
of the inhabitants were extreme: hence the Romans gave 
the name “ Calagurritan famine” to any severe famine. 
Pop. 7104. 

Calais [Lat. Calctum, from the ancient tribe Caleti], 
a fortified seaport-town of France, department of Pas-de- 
Calais, on the Strait of Dover, 122 miles by rail N. N. E. 
of Amiens, 19 miles N. E. of Boulogne, and 26 miles E. S. E. 
of Dover; lat. of the lighthouse, 50° 57' 45” N., Ion. 
1° 51' 18” E. The town and harbor are defended by a 
castle and several forts, and can be rendered inaccessible 
by land by flooding the adjacent ground, which is low and 
marshy. The harbor, which is formed by two moles, is 
nearly dry at ebb-tide. The town is regularly built, mos y 
of brick, and has wide, well-paved streets. It has a Gothic 
cathedral, a public library, and a theatre. A large portion 
of tho English tourists wlio visit the Continent pass through 













702 CALAIS—CALATAFIMI. 


Calais, which has daily communication with Dover by steam¬ 
boats. The number of persons who arrived here from Eng¬ 
land in 1865 is said to have been 133,562. Calais is the 
terminus of a railway which connects it with Amiens and 
Paris. Here are flourishing manufactures of bobbinet, 
hosiery, soap, leather, etc. In 1347 this town was taken 
after a long siege by Edward III. of England, who was 
then persuaded by his queen, Philippa, to spare the lives 
of six devoted citizens of Calais. It remained in the power 
of the English until 1558, when it was taken by the duke 
of Guise. Pop. in 1866, 12,934. 

Calais, k&l'is, a city and port of Washington co., Me., 
is on the St. Croix River, at the head of navigation, 28 
miles N. by W. from Eastport, and 264 miles N. E. of 
Portland. It is the S. E. terminus of the St. Croix and Pe¬ 
nobscot R. R. Rridges across the river connect it with St. 
Stephen’s, in New Erunswick. Calais derives its prosper¬ 
ity from the lumber-trade and shipbuilding. It has one 
national bank, nine churches, a savings bank, a public 
library, thirteen school-houses, one academy, an opera- 
house, a dry dock, two marine railways, a planing-mill, a 
sash-and-biind factory, three machine-shops, two foun¬ 
dries, ten shipyards, and two weekly papers. The river, 
which affords water-power, is part of the eastern bound¬ 
ary of the U. S. Pop. 5944. Ed. “ Advertiser.” 

Calais, a post-township of Washington co., Yt. Pop. 
1309. It has some manufactures. 

Calaman / tler Wood, a valuable cabinet-wood which 
resembles rosewood, but is fair more beautiful and durable. 
It is produced by the Diosjjyrus hirsuta, a tree of the order 
Ebenaceae, a native of Ceylon and Southern Hiiulostan, 
which belongs to the same genus as the ebony and per¬ 
simmon tree. This wood is very dense, takes an exquisite 
polish, and exhibits great richness and variety of colors, 
among which is chocolate or fawn-color. It is said to be 
so hard that it cannot be worked with edge tools. The 
tree has become rare in consequence of the wasteful opera¬ 
tions of the Dutch and English. Several similar species 
are found in the Indian Archipelago. 

Calamary. See Squid. 

Calamat'ta (Luigi), a French engraver of Italian 
birth and of great merit, born at Civita Vecchia in 1802. 
Died in 1869. 

Calambu'co, a valuable timber tree which grows in 
the northern part of the island of Luzon. It is an excel¬ 
lent material for shipbuilding, and resembles the teak in 
appearance. It is very durable, and is never eaten by the 
white ant, which is so destructive in the Malay Archi¬ 
pelago. Calambuco-wood is also used in the manufacture 
of farming-implements and other articles. It is also a 
name of aloes-wood. 

Calamia'nes, a group of islands in the Malay Archi¬ 
pelago, about midway between Mindoro and Palawan; lat. 
12° N., Ion. 120° E. Calamianes, the largest of the group, 
is about 35 miles long and 15 miles wide. It is fertile, and 
has a Spanish settlement. 

Calamich'thys [Gr. k6l\olij.os, a “rush,” and 
“fish”], a ganoid fish found in the rivers of Western 
Africa. It takes its name from its slender, cylindrical 
form. It is closely allied to the Polypterus of the Nile. 

Cal'amine {Lapis calaminaris), an important and 
abundant ore of zinc, a native carbonate, containing, 
when pure, 52 per cent, of zinc. Crystals of this mineral 
are rare. It is opaque or translucent, has a vitreous lustre, 
and occurs in kidney-shaped, botryoidal, cellular, and other 
imitative forms. It is found in veins, beds, and lai'ge de¬ 
posits termed pockets in metamorphic limestone and in the 
Devonian and carboniferous formations. Large quantities 
of it are exported from Spain. This ore is called Smith- 
sonite by Dana and other mineralogists, who apply the 
term calamine to the silicate of zinc, the primary form of 
which is a rhomboid. 

CaPamint {Calamintha), a genus of plants of the order 
Labiatae. The common calamint ( Calamintha officinalis) is 
indigenous in England. It has serrated leaves, with an 
agreeable aromatic odor, and is used in domestic prac¬ 
tice as a pectoral medicine. The U. S. have several spe¬ 
cies. 

Cal'amis [KdAa^i?], an eminent Greek sculptor and 
embosser who worked at Athens about 450 R. C. He re¬ 
produced the forms of horses with success, and executed 
a bronze statue of Apollo, which Lucullus transported to 
Rome. Among his works was a marble statue of Apollo, 
which some persons identify with the Apollo Belvedere. 

CaPamite. an extinct genus ( Calamites) of great plants, 
perhaps of the order Equisetaceae, approaching in character 
(in the opinion of some observers) the dicotyledonous plants 
and the conifers. The remains of nearly sixty species have 


been observed, chiefly in carboniferous strata (none later 
than the Jurassic) in both continents. These plants must 
have contributed largely to the production of coal. 

Cal'amus [Gr. /cd-W^o?], a Latin word signifying a 
“reed,” a “stalk” (of a plant), was used by the ancient 
Romans to denote an arrow, a musical pipe, and a pen 
which was made of a reed. This reed is supposed to have 
been the Arundo donax. Calamus also denotes the golden 
tube through which, in some church services, the eucha- 
ristic wine is taken. 

Calamus, a name of the sweet flag. (See Acorus.) 

Calamus, a genus of Palmaceae, yields a great part of 
the canes and rattans of commerce, which are used in Eu¬ 
rope and the U. S. for the seats of chairs and other purposes. 
Among the species of this genus are Calamus Rotang and 
Calamus viminalis, which are natives of the warm or tropi¬ 
cal parts of Asia. The Calamus rudentum has been found 
500 feet long (Humboldt). Calamus Draco yields the best 
dragon’s blood. Several species are climbers. 

Calamus, a township of Dodge co., Wis. Pop. 1140. 

Cal'amy (Edmund), an English divine, born in London 
in Feb., 1600. He became an eloquent Presbyterian minis¬ 
ter, and preached for many years in London. In the civil 
war he sympathized with the royalist party. He was one 
of the authors of a famous treatise against episcopacy called 
“ Smectymnuus ” (1641). Died Oct. 29, 1666. 

Cal'aiul (Pieter), an engineer of Holland, born in Zie- 
rikzee in 1826. His father, A. Caland, was an engineer-in¬ 
chief of the “Waterstaat” of Holland, and author of a 
work on dyke-construction, embracing the methods of 
Dutch engineering as exhibited in the works of protection 
against the encroachments of the ocean and the inundations 
of rivers, etc. JTie son above named was educated at the 
Royal Military Academy at Breda, was appointed a sub¬ 
engineer of the “ waterstaat ” in 1845, and passing through 
successive grades became engineer-in-chief of the second 
class in 1867, then in 1873 promoted over the intermediate 
grade to be inspector (the highest grade, of which there are 
but two) of the “ waterstaat.” x 

He is author of a work (in French), “ Etude sur FEffet 
des Marties dans la partie maritime des fleuves;” also (in 
Dutch) of a work on the protection of the coast against 
the encroachments of the sea, and of numerous reports. 
Knight of the order of the Netherlands Lion, and vice- 
chairman of the Royal Institution of Engineers of Hol¬ 
land. As a member of a commission upon the “improve¬ 
ment of the water-communication from Rotterdam to the 
sea,” and as the executive engineer of the work by which 
an existing mouth of the combined Rhine and Meuse has 
been closed and another made, and a channel navigable for 
ships of the greatest draught (600 passing per month) 
created where before naught but light-draught vessels (10 
to 12 feet) could under favorable circumstances of wind and 
tide venture, M. Caland’s highest claim to fame as an 
engineer will be founded on the great seaport of Rotterdam, 
through the works with which he is thus identified in giv¬ 
ing an easy and direct water-communication with the sea, in 
place of the tedious and circuitous ones (see “ Prof. Papers 
Corps of Engineers,” No. 22) before available. For this 
important work M. Caland received from the Vienna Expo¬ 
sition the first prize—a certificate of honor. 

J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Calail'do, an Italian musical term, signifies diminish¬ 
ing gradually from forte to piano. It differs from decres¬ 
cendo and diminuendo, as the tempo at the same time is 
slightly retarded, but not so much as in ritardando. 

Cala'nus [Gr. KdAavo?], an ancient Hindoo philosopher, 
was one of those whom the Greeks called Gymnosophists. 
According to Plutarch, his proper name was Sphines. Ho 
passed some time in the camp of Alexander the Great in 
India. Having become sick at Pasargadae, he was at his 
own request burned alive. 

Calas (Jean), a French Protestant and victim of fanat¬ 
icism, born in Languedoc in 1698, lived at Toulouse. He 
was condemned and executed Mar. 9, 1765, by eight judges 
of Toulouse on a false charge that he had murdered his own 
son. Voltaire exposed the iniquity of this outrage, and in¬ 
duced the king to give 30,000 livres to the family of Calas. 
(See Coquered, “Jean Calas et sa famille,” Paris, 1869.) 

Calascibet/ta, a town of Sicily, in Caltanisetta, about 
60 miles S. E. of Palermo, is on an isolated hill which rises 
nearly 2500 feet above the sea. It is said to have been 
founded in 1080. Pop. 5255. 

Cala'tabello'ta, a town of Sicily, province of Gir- 
genti, 25 miles N. W. of the city of Girgenti. It is very 
near the site of the ancient Tricala, and is on the ancient 
river Crimisus. Here is a fine mediaeval church. Pop. 5572. 

Calatafi'mi, a town of Sicily, province of Trapani, is 














CALATANAZOK—CALCULUS. 


703 


in a fertile valley 5 miles S. W. of Alcamo. Here in 1860 
Garibaldi defeated the royalist troops. Pop. 8731. 

Calatanazor', a small town of Spain, in Old Castile, 
10 miles S. W. of Soria. Here Al-Mansoor gained a great 
victory over the Christians in 1101. 

Calatayml', a town of Spain, province of Saragossa, 
on the river Jalon, 45 miles S. W. of Saragossa. It has an 
episcopal palace, a noble old castle, and several churches, 
convents, and hospitals; also manufactures of linen and 
woollen fabrics, paper, leather, etc. About 2 miles E. of 
this place is the site of the ancient Bilbilis. Pop. in 1860, 
9823. 

Calatra'va (Jose Maria), a Spanish statesman and 
eloquent lawyer, born at Merida Feb. 26, 1781. He was a 
leader of the liberal party and a member of the Cortes. 
He passed many years in exile between 1814 and 1830. 
Died Jan. 24, 1846. 

Calatra'va, the Order of, was founded in 1158 by 
Sancho III. of Castile, and confirmed by Pope Alexander 
III. in 1164. After the death of Sancho the knights elected 
as grand-master Don Garcias de Redon. For a long period 
the war against the Moors w r as carried on almost entirely 
by the Knights of Calatrava. The influence exercised by 
the grand-master on public affairs at length excited the 
jealousy of the king, and in 1487 the grand-mastership 
was united to the crown. 

Calave'ras, a small river of California, rises in Calave¬ 
ras county, flows nearly south-westward, and enters the 
San Joaquin River about 15 miles below Stockton. 

Calaveras, a county in N. Central California. Area, 
1100 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the 
Mokelumne River, and on the S. E. by the Stanislaus. 
It is also drained by the Calaveras River. The Sierra 
Nevada extends along the eastern border. The surface is 
finely diversified with mountains and valleys. Cattle, bar¬ 
ley, and wool are the chief products. It has rich copper- 
mines. Gold is found here imbedded in quartz i-ock. In 
the eastern part is the famous grove of mammoth trees, in 
which was found a Sequoia gigantea about thirty feet in 
diameter and 300 feet high. Capital, Mokelumne Hill. 
Pop. 8895. 

Calbnr'ga, or Kulbur'ga, a town of India, in the 
Nizam’s dominions, on an affluent of the Beemah, 110 miles 
W. of Hyderabad. It is now unimportant, but was for¬ 
merly the capital of several Hindoo and Mohammedan 
sovereigns. 

Calca'reoits [Fr. calcaire, from Lat. calx, gen. calcis, 
“lime”], containing much lime. The term “calcareous” 
is applied to rocks which are chiefly composed of lime— 
i. c. to limestone, marble, and chalk, which are carbonates 
of lime. They are sedimentary and stratified rocks, and 
consist chiefly of shells of marine animals, corals, and en- 
crinites. The presence of lime in rocks can easily be de¬ 
tected by the application of nitric or hydrochloric acid, 
which produces an effervescence in any of the various forms 
of carbonate of lime. Calcareous soils are derived from the 
disintegration of limestone, chalk, etc., but they often con¬ 
tain a portion of clay, which increases their fertility. The 
term calcareous is applied to springs and to water which 
hold in solution carbonate or sulphate of lime. Such water 
is commonly called hard, and is not so good for washing 
as soft Avater. 

Calcareous Spar, or Calc Spar, a common name 
of crystallized carbonate of lime, composed, when pure, of 
44 per cent, of carbonic acid and 56 of lime. It is one of 
the most abundant of all minerals, and is found in all geo¬ 
logical formations and in every part of the world. The 
primary form of its crystals is a rhomb or rhombohedron. 
Its secondary forms are more numerous than those of any 
other mineral, and are said to amount to 700 or more. In 
a pure state this mineral is colorless and transparent, but it 
often contains impurities which render it red, green, brown, 
yellow, etc. The purest and most limpid variety of this 
crystal is called Iceland spar, which is found in Iceland, 
and exhibits double refraction in a remarkable degree. 

Calcasieu, kal'ka-shu, a river of Louisiana, rises in 
the Avestern part of the State, flows in a general S. S. W. 
direction through Calcasieu parish, and enters the Gulf of 
Mexico. At its mouth stands an iron lighthouse 53 feet 
high ; lat. 29° 45' N., Ion. 93° 17' E. Length, estimated at 
200 miles, including Calcasieu Lake, which is an expan¬ 
sion of the river. The lake is about 18 miles long and 5 
wide, and the foot of it is nearly 5 miles from the Gulf of 
Mexico. 

Calcasieu, a parish in the W. of Louisiana. Area, 
1500 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Sabine 
River, and is intersected by the Calcasieu River. The 
surface is nearly level, and occupied by extensive savannas 


or grassy plains. Corn and rice are the chief products. 
Capital, Lake Charles. Pop. 6733. 

Calceola'ria [from Lat. calceolus, a “little shoe,” a 
“ slipper”], a genus of plants of the order Scrophulariaceas, 
comprises numerous species, natives of South America. 
They mostly groiv on that part of the Andes which is more 
than 9500 feet above the level of the sea, and are herba¬ 
ceous plants or shrubs with beautiful flowers. The corolla 
is 2-lipped, and the lower lip is inflated, so as to form a 
bag Avhich has some resemblance to a slipper. They are 
so abundant in some parts of Chili and Peru as to give a 
peculiar aspect to the scenery. They are cultivated by 
florists in Europe and the U. S. 

Cal'chas [KaAxcw], a celebrated Greek soothsayer who 
was present at the siege of Troy. He Avas consulted by the 
Grecian chiefs in the most important affairs during that 
siege. 

Cal'cite [from calx, “lime”], a general term under 
which are comprised all the varieties of carbonate of lime. 

Cal'cium (symbol Ca), the metal present in lime, dis¬ 
covered in 1808 by Sir Humphry Da\ r y. Its atomic weight 
or equivalent is 20. Combined with oxygen it forms lime 
or oxide of calcium, which consists of 20 parts of cal¬ 
cium + 8 of oxygen. It is a yellowish-white malleable 
metal, having a specific gravity of 1.578. It does not occur 
naturally in a separate state, but may be obtained by pass¬ 
ing a powerful current of A'oltaic electricity through fused 
chloride of calcium, when the metal separates in minute 
globules. When brought into contact with Avater, it rapidly 
decomposes the water and is converted into lime. At a red 
heat it melts and burns Avith a dazzling Avhite light and 
Avith scintillations. 

Cal'culating Machine, a machine for performing 
arithmetical operations, or for computing logarithmic or 
other mathematical tables in which the successive results 
are to be obtained by substituting, in an invariable formula, 
the consecutive numbers of a simple series, uniformly in¬ 
creasing. The two kinds of work here mentioned are es¬ 
sentially different, and require different machinery. For 
simple arithmetic the most successful machine yet con¬ 
structed is that of M. Thomas of Colmar in France. For 
tabular numbers, the computations are made by the “ method 
of differences;” and the machines are called “difference- 
engines.” Such are those of Babbage (which was never 
finished) and of the Messrs. Scheutz of Stockholm, of which 
there is an example at the Dudley Observatory, Albany, 
and another in the office of the registrar-general, London. 
(See Mechanical Calculation, by F. A. P. Barnard.) 

Cal'culus [Lat. a “little stone” or “pebble”]. The 
term is derived from the ancient use of pebbles as counters 
or for making computations, and it, in general, denotes some 
particular method of performing mathematical investiga¬ 
tions. Those, e. g., of arithmetic, algebra, logarithms, etc., 
have received the name of calculus, as the Arithmetical, 
the Algebraic, the Exponential, the Trignometrical (which 
latter, according to De Morgan, “contains that of undulat¬ 
ing magnitude;” or of Circular Functions ); but the term 
applies, in modern usage, more appropriately to mathe¬ 
matical methods of peculiar power involving unusual re¬ 
finements of reasoning, or reference to relations of mag¬ 
nitude, which may be styled “transcendental.” Among 
such are the “ Antecedental Calculus ” of Mr. Glenie,* the 
“Calculus of Derivations” of M. Arbogast, the “Calcu¬ 
lus of Probabilities” (see this head), and the more mod¬ 
ern creation of Sir Wm. Rowan Hamilton, “ Quaternions.” 
But, pre-eminently, by the word calculus is denoted the 
Differential Calculus, including under this head the com¬ 
plementary branches of “ Differential and Integral,” of the 
Leibnitz system of symbolization, or the “Fluxions” and 
“Inverse Method of Fluxions” of the Newtonian. The 
calculi of Leibnitz and NeAvton are essentially the same, 
though the logical basis on Avhich Newton places his 
method is generally considered more satisfactory than that 
of Leibnitz. The method of Leibnitz was first to make 
its appearance before the public in 1684; but Newton’s 
method of drawing tangents (wherein the method of flux¬ 
ions was sufficiently explained) was communicated in a 
letter to a Mr. Collins in 1682. Upon the allegation that 
Leibnitz had seen this letter was based the charge (sus¬ 
tained by the Royal Society of London) that Leibnitz had 
plagiarized therefrom. This charge is now considered un¬ 
founded, and the glory is conceded to him ol having been 
a contemporaneous discoverer of a calculus that has been 
styled “one of the greatest, most subtle, and sublime dis- 

* Jas. Glenie, F. R. S. of London and Edinburgh, invented 
this calculus in 1774; it was published in 1794 According to the 
writer in Ree’s Encyclopedia, “ both the differential and flux- 
ional calculi may be derived from the doctrine ot proportions 
(therein expounded) in a manner altogether unexceptionable. 















704 CALCULUS. 

coveries of this or, perhaps, of any age: opening a new 
world to us, and extending our knowledge, as it were, to 
infinity; and carrying us beyond the bounds that seemed 
to have been prescribed to the human mind; at least in¬ 
finitely beyond those to which ancient geometry was con¬ 
fined.’' 

The Continental mathematicians usually defined the cal¬ 
culus as the arithmetic or analysis of infinitely, or rather 
indefinitely small quantities. (“Analyse des Infiniment 
Petits.”) Sir Isaac Newton and the English authors 
styled these infinitely small quantities moments — i. e. the 
momentary increments of variable quantities ; e. g. of a 
line considered as generated by the movement ( fiux ) of a 
point, or of a surface by the “ flux ” of a line. Although 
it may have been impracticable to expound the rationale 
of the calculus, or of fluxions, without allusion to “infin¬ 
itely small ” or “ indefinitely small” or “ vanishing ” quan¬ 
tities ; nevertheless, all the mystification attending these sub¬ 
jects and nearly all the contests about the logical basis have 
had their raison d’ etre in the use of these words. There can be 
nothing “ small,” nothing “ great,” except relatively. “ The 
expression infinitely little magnitude,” says Mr.Glenie, author 
of the “ Antecedental Calculus,” “implies a contradiction, 
since what has magnitude cannot be infinitely little.” And 
furthermore, it may be said that the relations of magnitude 
(which form the subjects of all mathematical reasonings) 
can be of but one kind: we must either discard the infin¬ 
itely little, or treat it quantitatively (if we assign it mag¬ 
nitude), as we treat other quantities. No elaborate discus¬ 
sion of the differential method can be attempted here, but 
most briefly I think it can be defined as the method by 
which, from the law of growth, the “ full stature,” that is, 
the complete expression for the value of a function, is ob¬ 
tained ; or vice versa. A quantity or magnitude is said, in 
mathematics, to be a function of another quantity when 
it depends for its value upon the value of that other 
quantity. Thus, the particular ordinate, y, of a parabola, 
at any point of which the abscissa is x, depends for its 
actual value or magnitude, upon the arbitrary value we 
may give to x, and (referred to its axis of ordinates and 
vertex) the expression for y in terms of x is py = x 1 , or y 

= —x 2 . The ordinate, y, is here a function of the arbitra¬ 
rily assumed magnitude x (hence called, as well as y, which 
varies with it, a variable) and of the parameter, p, which, 
remaining the same for the same parabola, is called a con¬ 
stant. As distinguished from y (the function), x is an inde¬ 
pendent variable. 

If ONN' be a branch of the parabola, let x= OM, then 
y is represented by MN. If ( , 

we add the magnitude MM', | I 

which we will call dx (al- [ jtf’/l 

hiding thereby to the dif- ! / !"$ 

ferencc between the original j / J 

and the new abscissa), to '< —-|p 

OM (or a;), the ordinate cor- . ; !,, j 

responding, M'N', will differ -, j _ j 

from MN by the magnitude o x M M' 

PN', which we will call dy. 

Thus, to an arbitrary increment dx of x, corresponds an 
increment dy of y; and the value of this last increment 
depends — 1st, upon the nature of the function, or the al¬ 
gebraic relation between y and x; and 2d, upon the arbi¬ 
trary value of dx. 

In the equation y = ~fix 2 we substitute y + dy for y and 

x + dx for x, develop and subtract y and its value from 
the two members respectively, then divide by dx, we have 

— = — (2x + dx); which gives the ratio of the increment 
dx p 

dy of the function y to that of the variable x; and this 
ratio depends upon the value we may assign to dx, which, 
so far, may have been any lineal magnitude whatever. In 
fact, from the curvature of the line ONN' to which the 
ordinates are drawn, it is clear that the ratio of dy to dx 
must vary with the greater or less distance of M' from M. 
Let us suppose that the point M' is moved towards M 
until MM' or dx becomes indefinitely small (compared with 
OM or with our unit of linear dimension or with some 
dimension to which we attribute ordinary magnitude, 
such as that of the parameter), “ smaller than any as¬ 
signable quantity,” “ infinitely small,” or zero ; that is, 
“vanishes.” So must also dy; but the value of the ratio, 

, does not vanish, but becomes (as its algebraic ex- 
dx 

pression shows) = 2 — x; that is, it has a finite determ¬ 
inable value which depends upon the form of the func¬ 
tion alone. Had y been given as a multiple of some 
other power, say = px n , we should have found the limit- 

ing value of ~to be npx n ~ etc. etc. By this it is seen 

\XJC> 

that the ratio of two mutually dependent variable quan¬ 
tities does not necessarily vanish, nor even necessarily 
become small, as the quantities themselves diminish ; but 
that it approaches more and more nearly a determinate 

0 

limit, just as in algebra and geometry the expression — 

takes ( generally) a finite and determinable value. Although 
it is, in general, with this limit, called the differential co¬ 
efficient, that we have to deal, yet the symbols dy, dx, etc. 

(styled differential of y, etc.) are often met with separately 
and treated as real, though indefinitely small, quantities.'* 

It is also to be remarked that in the exemplar expressions 

dy 1 dy , dy .... . . . . 

~ = 2—x, -ff = nx n - l eic.,~ is itself a function of the 
dx p dx dx 

variable x, and would yield (by the repetition of the same 

process) 2— and n(n— 1) as” -2 , as their differential coeffi¬ 
cients; styled second differential coefficients of the original 
function, and expressed, by reference to its symbol y, as 
(Py 

implying a second differentiation of y, as a function of 

x. The process may be continued (to a third and fourth, 
etc.) so long as the resulting expression continues to be a 
function of the variable. 

Geometrically, the idea of limit may be illustrated by 
supposing, in the figure, a secant to be drawn through the 
given point N of the curve, cutting it again in some other 
point N\ The nearer this second point is made to ap¬ 
proach the first, the more nearly will the secant approach 
to coincidence with the tangent drawn at N. Thus, “the 
tangent to a curve is the right line which limits the po¬ 
sition of all the secants which can be drawn through the 
point of contact, though, strictly speaking, it be no secant; 
so, also, a ratio may limit the variable ratio of increments, 
though it cannot be said to be the ratio of any real incre- 

dy 

ments.” In fact, the limit of the ratio -y" is the trigono¬ 
metrical tangent of the angle which the tangent line at N 
makes with the axis of abscissas. Newton’s “method of 
drawing tangents” of 1682, in which the method of flux¬ 
ions is said to be “ sufficiently explained,” is founded on > 
this relation of tangents to this limit-ratio of increments. 

This ratio, now known as the “ Differential Coefficient,” is 
really the expression for what I have styled the law of 
growth of the function as depending upon the growth or 
increase (or decrease) of the variable. To determine the 
differential coefficients, knowing the integral expression for 
the function, and to deduce by aid of them unknown prop¬ 
erties of the functions themselves, is the object of the 
“Differential Calculus.” On the other hand, given this 
law of growth, the integral expression for the function is 
determined by the methods of the “Integral Calculus.” 

The peculiar power of the calculus as an instrument of 
mathematical investigation depends upon this, that the 
more difficult problems of pure Mathematics, and far the 
greater proportion of those of Mechanics or Physico- 
Mathematics (in which the action of forces is concerned), 
can only be stated in terms involving not merely rela¬ 
tions between integral quantities known and sought, but 
between their simultaneous and mutually dependent in¬ 
crements — i. e. the data involve besides, perhaps, the quan¬ 
tities themselves, their law of groioth, in the form of their 
differential coefficients ; and, hence, can only be solved by 
the processes of the Calculus. 

Thus, in mechanics, the velocity generated by a constant 
or uniformly accelerating force is proportional to the time 

dv 

it acts, whether finite or indefinitely small, or v = gt or — 

d t 

= g (if the force be gravity). Also the distance traversed 
is proportional to the velocity; and this, though the A-eloci- 
ty constantly increases, is the law of growth, as a function 

of the time ; hence, — v = gt, and hence (by integration) 

Cl V 

y (the distance fallen in the time t) = %gt, 2 , the well-known 
expression for the height of fall in terms of the time. The 
expression can be arrived at without the use or even the 
knowledge of the formal methods of the calculus, but it 
will be found that its fundamental principles are involved 
in such solutions. 

These fundamental principles are in much more common 

* In the modern improved system these illogical symbols are 
wholly discarded (e. g. Prof. Peirce’s “Analytic Mechanics ”), 
and the real element of the calculus—the differential coefficient 
—is symbolized by the letter D, with the independent variable 
sub-fixed; followed by the symbol of the function; e. g. D x y, 

instead of 

dx 


















CALCULUS. 705 


use than is supposed. When we assign, for example, a 
specified velocity to a cannon-ball at a given instant of 
time or at a certain point of its trajectory, we speak of a 
thing which has no permanent—indeed, I might almost 
say no real —existence; for there is no portion of that tra¬ 
jectory, however minute, which the ball really traverses at 
the supposed rate. It would travel, e. g., 1000 feet per 
second, if at the given instant its variable velocity were 
made invariable; and this is what we mean. The result¬ 
ing direction would be the tangent to the actual trajectory; 
the invariable velocity, the differential coefficient of the space 
traversed as a function of the time. The practical meas¬ 
urement of the velocity involves the same conceptions. AVe 
place two screens along the path of the ball, and by skil¬ 
fully-devised instrumental agencies, measure the minute 
time of transit. The quotient of the distance apart of 
the screens, divided by the time, gives us the required ve¬ 
locity. If this distance were “ infinitely small,” the quo¬ 
tient would be the true “ differential coefficient.” The 
nearer we place the screens (and we place them as near as 
the practical difficulties of measuring the time will permit), 
the more nearly do we approximate to that coefficient. 
Even with a very measurable ( finite ) distance, we obtain 
results of error less than we can assign any expression for. 

If, instead of placing screens very close together, they 
were many hundred feet apart, the distance divided by the 
time of transit would still give us the mean velocity be¬ 
tween the screens, but evidently not (accurately) the velo¬ 
city at any one point; for the variation or differential of 
velocity from one screen to the other is considerable, com¬ 
pared with its total value. Hence, by diminishing indef¬ 
initely the distance, this variation becomes less and less 
appreciable, and the ratio of the indefinitely diminished 
space and time becomes the ultimate ratio—the differential 
coefficient —which (in this particular case) is the velocity 
sought. AVe have then, in this practical operation, an illus¬ 
tration of peculiar notions and fundamental principles of 
the calculus: indefinitely small — vanishing, or infinitesimal, 
quantities; ultimate ratios, limits, or (what is equivalent) 
d iffe ren tia l co efficien ts. 

Besides the direct solution of problems, the calculus has 
been the most effective and indispensable of agents in 
widening the sphere of mathematical investigation, and 
in enhancing the power of its instruments. Scarce one 
of the modern methods of analysis but depend on it for 
their development. The Calculus of Variations, origi¬ 
nating with Lagrange, is but an extension of the methods 
of the calculus to the discovering of functions, in cases in 
which, instead of the law of growth, some condition (such 
as that of producing a maximum or minimum under cer¬ 
tain conditions) which the function when found must fulfil, 
is given. The Calculus of Operations is but an exten- 
sion of algebra to the symbols of operation of the calculus : 
algebra itself being really a calculus of operations, since 
it deals only with symbols with a view to reduce the ope¬ 
rations they indicate to their simplest expression. The 
modern method of Determinants is but an extension of 
algebraic “ operations.” (See these heads.) 

The mathematical method (another development of the 
Differential Calculus), commonly referred to by English 
writers as that of Laplace’s Coefficients, is, generalized 
and enlarged, now termed “ Spherical Harmonic Analy¬ 
sis,” and is a calculus of great power for a large class of 
plqysical problems involving arbitrary data over a spher¬ 
ical surface. Hence its applicability to the calculation 
of the “tides” and other problems connected with the 
“figure” and “attraction” of the earth; also to certain 
problems relating to the distribution of electricity and 
magnetism, etc. 

Sir AVilliam Rowan Hamilton’s “Calculus of Quater¬ 
nions,” by many believed to be an invention of importance 
vieing with that of the calculus itself, has indeed a ration¬ 
ale, or logical basis, radically distinct from and independ¬ 
ent of the calculus; yet for its full development it has re¬ 
course to the methods and principles of the Calculus. 

Mr. Cauchy has shown that for the explanation of cer¬ 
tain properties of functions, even for real values of the 
independent variable, it is indispensable to generalize the 
investigation by including the case of imaginary values for 
that variable (i. e. values involving the well-known expres¬ 
sion of imposeibilty, V—I). All geometricians are aware of 
the service which the consideration of imaginary quanti¬ 
ties has rendered to Algebra. The theory of equations is 
dependent upon it, and it seems destined to render yet 
greater service to the theory of “ functions.” It would be 
impossible to attempt any explanation of the method or 
Calctdus of Imaginaries, an outline of which may be found 
in Book I. of “ Thcorie des Fonctions Doublement Period- 
iques,” Briot and Bouquet, Paris, 1859. Resulting from 
it is the Residuary Calcidus, or Residuation by which (see 
45 


the “ Integral Calculus,” of Prof. B. Peirce) developments 
are obtained for functions where Taylor’s theorem fails in 
consequence of its first term becoming infinite. 

In an antecedent paragraph we found the expression 
for the algebraic relation between the finite increments 
(or “differences”) of the co-ordinates of the parabola 
when one of these is “any lineal magnitude whatever.” 
The “ Calculus of Finite Differences,” invaluable in the 
practical application of analytic formulm to numerical cal¬ 
culations, for the summation of infinite series, and for In¬ 
terpolation, results from such relations between finite in¬ 
crements or “differences,” and is defined by Lacroix to 
have for its object “the determination of the values of in¬ 
crements, by deducing them not merely from the analytic 
expression of the functions, but also from their numerical 
(or particular) values, when that expression fails or is too 
complicated.” Except a general similarity in notation and 
terms employed, it has little in common with the Differ¬ 
ential Calculus ; the fundamental element of which latter— 
the Differential Coefficient—having no place in it. 

J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Calculus, or Stone, in medicine, a concretion formed 
within the b6dy from the deposition of matters which nor¬ 
mally remain in solution. The most important calculi are 
those formed in the kidneys or bladder (urinary calculus), 
and those formed in the gall-bladder or biliary ducts (bil¬ 
iary calculus, or gall-stone). Both of these give rise to 
intense pain, and may even threaten life. Calculi of less 
importance may form in the salivary ducts and elsewhere. 

Biliary calculus may generally be assumed to exist when 
excessive pain suddenly arises in the right side beneath the 
ribs, and when in a few hours jaundice comes on. But 
absolute proof that these symptoms depend on calculus is 
often wanting. The pain is more severe while it lasts than 
almost any other form of suffering. It may be relieved by 
large doses of opium or by the inhalation of ether, but 
such a remedy requires to be cautiously given. Gall-stones 
impacted in the ducts sometimes have proved fatal, but 
much more frequently they find their way, sooner or later, 
into the intestines. They are, in the human subject, almost 
invariably composed of cholesterine, with coloring-matter 
and mucus arranged in layers. The Oriental bezoar-stone 
is a biliary calculus from an antelope. It consists chiefly 
of crystalline lithofellic acid. 

Urinary calculus is a disease most common in advanced 
life and in the male sex. It is frequent in gouty persons, 
or among those who pursue sedentary occupations and live 
freely. Among sailors it is rare. Certain local conditions 
promote it, especially an excess of mineral matter in drink¬ 
ing-water. It is common in England, Ireland, Russia, 
France, Northern Italy, and Egypt. In the U. S. it is 
most frequent in Kentucky, Tennessee, AA r est \ r irginia, 
Ohio, and Indiana. In its early stages the disease not un- 
frequently presents itself in the form of gravel, shown by 
the passage of numerous small gritty concretions, observed 
in the urine as a deposit like sand. AA r hen such deposits 
are present at the time of passing the urine, and not merely 
after it has cooled, there is reason to apprehend the forma¬ 
tion of calculus. If in these circumstances there are pains 
of a dull character in the loins, with occasional twinges, 
no time should be lost in seeking medical advice. Calculus 
in the bladder is at first attended with little pain, as com¬ 
pared with that caused by the stone in its passage down¬ 
ward from the kidney; but unless removed the calculus is 
sure to enlarge, and it then becomes the cause of most in¬ 
tense distress. Perhaps the most trustworthy evidence of 
stone in the bladder, apart from the use of the sound, i3 
smarting and burning pain experienced after the bladder 
has been emptied, with occasional temporary stoppages of 
the urine. 

The chief varieties of urinary calculus are—1. Uric acid, 
urates of ammonia, soda, lime, etc. (brick-dust sediment, 
red sand); 2. Phosphates of ammonia and magnesia, lime, 
etc. (the lime phosphate, mixed with ammonio-magnesian 
phosphate, constitutes the “fusible calculus,” one of the 
commonest kinds); 3. Oxalate of lime (mulberry calculus); 
4. Carbonate of lime (chiefly in domestic animals); 5. Cys¬ 
tine ; 6. Xanthic oxide (very rare); 7. A r ery rarely indeed 
do leucine, tyrosine, and other disease-products form cal¬ 
culous concretions. 8. Calculi of fibrine, etc. are also re¬ 
ported. 9. Calculi are frequently composed of numerous 
layers, having perfectly distinct chemical composition. 
AVhen calculus has once formed in the urinary organs no 
cure exists except the removal of it from the body (seo 
Lithotomy and Lithotrity), but in the earlier stages much 
may be done to check the malady by careful regulation of 
the diet and mode of living, with the use of solvents 
adapted to the particular form of deposit found. 

Urinary calculi have been often observed in horses, cat¬ 
tle, and pigs, and are verv frequent in the common rat. 

Revised dy AYillard Parker. 










706 


CALCUTTA—CALDWELL. 


Calciit'ta [Sanscrit, Kalikata, “dwelling of Kali,” an 
Indian deity], the capital of British India, situated in the 
province of Bengal, on the E. bank of the Iloogly, an arm 
of the Ganges, about 75 miles from the sea; lat. 22° 34' 
N., Ion. 88° 20' E. The city extends along the river about 
6 miles, and has an average breadth of 1J? miles. The 
river, here a mile wide, is constantly full of shipping. In 
the southern part of the city, called Chowringhee, are the 
residences of the Europeans, which in a great part are finely 
built in Grecian style, and many of them surrounded by 
groves of fruit trees. A quarter of a mile to the S. W. is 
Fort William, built at a cost of £2,000,000, the largest 
fortress in the British dominions, octagonal in form, re¬ 
quiring a garrison of 10,000 men and mounting 619 guns. 
Its usual garrison consists of one English and two native 
regiments. Between the fort and the city is the Maidan 
or glacis, a handsome park, and the Esplanade, on which 
is the Government House, a magnificent building sur¬ 
mounted by a dome, and in a line with it a row of hand¬ 
some dwellings. Beyond Chowringhee is the native or 
“ Black Town,” consisting mostly of mud or bamboo cabins 
and narrow dirty streets. Here and there an idol of painted 
wood or plaster is set up in the street. The principal build¬ 
ings of Calcutta are the Government House, the mint, the 
town-hall, the cathedral, the Hindoo college, and the hos¬ 
pital. On the other side of the river, opposite the citadel, 
is the botanic garden. Calcutta is the residence of an Eng¬ 
lish bishop. The Asiatic Society have a valuable museum 
and library of Oriental MSS. There are several educational 
institutes, supported by the government—the Hindoo, the 
t Madriassa or Mohammedan, the Sanscrit, and the Fort Wil¬ 
liam Colleges. Calcutta has the largest commerce of any 
city in Asia, and commands the entire inland trade of Ben¬ 
gal. Ships of 1400 tons can anchor in the river. It has 
railway connection with Bombay, 1420 miles distant by 
rail, and with Delhi, and through the Punjab with the In¬ 
dus. The chief articles of export are opium, indigo, sugar, 
saltpetre, rice, raw cotton, raw silk, piece goods, hides, lac, 
etc. The exports in 1868-69 were estimated at £20,728,159, 
and the imports for tfhe same year at £16,934,771. Euro¬ 
pean society at Calcutta is very convivial and fond of 
amusement. Calcutta was founded by Job Charnock, agent 
of the East India Company, about 1690. In 1756 it was 
captured by Surajah Dowlah, who confined 123 prisoners 
in the horrible “ Black Hole.” Lord Clive retook it in 
1757, and built the fortress. Pop. 616,249 ; of these 238,325 
are in the suburbs. Of the 377,924 inhabitants in the inner 
city, 239,190 are Hindoos and 113,059 Mohammedans. 

Calda'ni (Leopoldo Marco Antonio), an eminent Ital¬ 
ian anatomist, born at Bologna Nov. 21, 1725. He suc¬ 
ceeded Morgagni as professor of anatomy at Padua in 1771. 
He published several works on anatomy and physiology, 
and a series of accurate plates entitled “ leones Anato- 
micae” (4 vols., 1801-14). Died Dec. 20, 1813. 

Calda'ra (Polidoro), an Italian painter, born in the 
Milanese about 1495, was often called Caravaggio, from 
the name of his native place. He went to Rome, and was 
employed by Raphael to paint the friezes in the Vatican. 
He was a skilful painter of landscapes and historical 
pieces. He was murdered by his servants in 1543. 

Cal'das, or Calde'tas, a Spanish term applied to 
warm springs, and forming part of the name of many 
places in Spain. Among these the most noted is Caklas 
de Mombuy, 18 miles N. of Barcelona. Here are thermal 
baths and some antiquities. 

Calderon' de la Bar'ca (Pedro), the most eminent 
Spanish dramatic author, born in Madrid Jan. 17, 1600, 
was educated at the University of Salamanca. He began 
to write dramas about the age of thirteen, and having en¬ 
tered the army in 1625, served several campaigns in Italy 
and Flanders. After he had gained distinction as an 
author, he was patronized by Philip IV., who invited him 
to his court in 1636, and created him a knight of Santiago. 
He was a very prolific author, and produced about 500 
dramas. In 1651 he entered the Church, and became chap¬ 
lain in the royal chapel at Madrid 1663. Among his great¬ 
est works are a tragedy entitled “ The Constant Prince” 
(“El Principe Constante”), “Love is no Joke,” “Life is a 
Dream,” and “ The Physician of his Own Honor.” In the 
latter part of his life he wrote many religious poems called 
“Autos Sacramentales.” His imagination was brilliant, 
and not restrained by conventional rules. He is ranked 
among the greatest Spanish poets by native critics, and 
his dramas are popular in Germany. His works display 
great fertility of invention, and abound in beautiful pas¬ 
sages, but are deficient in fidelity to nature. Died May 
25, 1681. (See Richard C. Trench, “ The Life and Genius 
of Calderon,” 1836; Ticknor, “History of Spanish Litera¬ 
ture.”) 

Cal'derwood (David), a Scottish Presbyterian minis¬ 


ter and historian, born in 1575. He was banished for his 
opposition to episcopacy in 1619, and then retired to Hol¬ 
land, where he published a controversial work called “ The 
Altar of Damascus” (1623). He returned to Scotland in 
1636, and wrote a “History of the Kirk of Scotland.” 
Died in 1651. 

Cal'dicot (Thomas Ford), D. D., born at Buckby, Eng¬ 
land, in 1803, removed to Canada in 1824, held Baptist 
pastorates in Hamilton, Lockport, and Brooklyn, N. Y., 
Boston, Mass., and Toronto, Canada, where he died July 9, 
1869. As a scholar, writer, and orator he was alike dis¬ 
tinguished. 

Caldie'ro (anc. Caldarium), a town of Northern Italy, 
where Napoleon I. was defeated by the Austrians under 
Alvinzi, Nov. 11, 1796. It is 12 miles by rail E. of Verona, 
and is noted for its thermal springs. Massena was re¬ 
pulsed here by the archduke Charles in 1805. 

Cald'well, a county in the W. of Kentucky. Area, 
275 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Trade- 
water Creek. The surface is nearly level; the soil is fer¬ 
tile. Grain, tobacco, cattle, and wool are raised. It is in¬ 
tersected by the Elizabethtown and Paducah R. R. Capi¬ 
tal, Princeton. Pop. 10,826. 

Caldwell, a parish in N. Central Louisiana. Area, 528 
square miles. It is intersected by the Washita River, navi¬ 
gable for steamboats, and bounded on the E. by Boeuf 
Bayou. Wool and cotton are the chief products. Capital, 
Columbia. Pop. 4820. 

Caldwell, a county in the N. W. of Missouri. Area, 
435 square miles. It is intersected by Shoal Creek. The 
surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Grain, wool, 
and cattle are raised. The county is traversed by the 
Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R. Capital, Kingston. Pop. 
11,390. 

Caldwell, a county in the N. W. of North Carolina. 
Area, 450 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the 
Catawba River, and drained by the Yadkin, which rises 
within its limits. The Blue Ridge extends along its N. W. 
border. The soil is mostly fertile. Corn, wheat, tobacco, 
and wool arc raised. Excellent iron ore is found. Cap¬ 
ital, Lenoir. Pop. 8476. 

CaldAvell, a county of the S. central part of Texas. 
Area, 535 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the 
San Marcos River, and drained by several creeks. The 
surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. It is an excellent 
region both for farming and grazing. Corn and tobacco 
are the chief crops. Capital, Lockhart. Pop. 6572. 

Caldwell, a township of White co., Ark. Pop. 451. 

Caldwell, a post-township of Appanoose co., Ia. Pop. 
1201. 

Caldwell, a post-village in Caldwell township, Essex 
co., N. J., is about 10 miles N. W. of Newark. Pop. of the 
township, 2727. 

CaldAvell, the capital of Warren co., N. Y., is situated 
near the head of Lake George, 62 miles from Albany. It 
has two churches and four hotels, and is a place of summer 
resort. Steamers ply upon the lake. Fort William Henry 
and Fort George were situated within the limits of this 
township. Pop. of township, 2329. 

CaldAvell , capital of Noble co., 0., on the Marietta and 
Pittsburg R. R., 35 miles N. of Marietta, is situated in the 
centre of the Duck Creek oil-region. The vicinity yields 
coal and iron. It has one national bank and two weekly 
newspapers. P. 318. Ed. “ Noble County Republican.” 

CaldAvell, a township of Newberry co., S. C. P. 1791. 

CaldAvell, a post-village, capital of Burleson co., Tex., 
about 85 miles E. by N. from Austin. It has a male and 
female academy. 

CaldAvell (Charles), M. D., an American physician, 
born in Caswell co., N. C., May 14, 1772. He was for 
many years professor of medicine in Transylvania Univer¬ 
sity in Kentucky. He wrote, besides other works, a “Life 
of General Greene” (1819). Died July 9, 1853. 

CaldAvell (Charles H. B.), U. S. N., born June 11, 
1828, in Massachusetts, entered the navy as a midshipman 
Feb. 27, 1838, became a passed midshipman in 1844, a 
lieutenant in 1852, a commander in 1862, and a captain in 
1867. In 1858, while attached to the sloop-of-war Vandalia, 
Caldwell had charge of an expedition against a tribe of 
cannibals inhabiting Wega, one of the Fejee Islands, which 
lie conducted with ability, defeating the Wegans in a pitched 
battle and burning their town. While commanding the 
steamer Itasca he took part in the bombardment of Forts 
Jackson and St. Philip April 24, 1862, but was unable to 
pass the forts with the rest of the fleet, “owing to a 42- 
pound shot entering the boiler, the steam from which filled 
the fire and engine-room, driving every one up from below, 














CALDWELL—CALENDAR. 707 


and almost suffocating those on the quarter-deck.” He 
participated in the action with the Grand Gulf batteries, 
Mississippi River, June 9, 1862, and in command of the 
iron-clad Essex took part in all the operations at Port 
Hudson during the spring and summer of 1863. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Caldwell (James), a patriot, born in Charlotte co., Va., 
in April, 1734. He graduated at Princeton in 1759, became 
pastor of a Presbyterian church at Elizabethtown, N. J., 
and efficiently promoted the popular cause during the Rev¬ 
olution. Ho served in the army as chaplain and also as a 
soldier. He was murdered by a sentinel June 6, 1780. 

Caldwell (Joseph), D. D., born in Leamington, N. J., 
April 21, 1773, graduated at Princeton in 1791, became in 
1796 principal professor in the University of North Caro¬ 
lina, and its first president in 1804. Died Jan. 24, 1835. 

Caldwell (Merritt), A. M., a distinguished author 
and educator in the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born 
at Hebron, Me., Nov. 29, 1806, graduated at Bowdoin Col¬ 
lege in 1828, became principal of the Maine Wesleyan 
Academy at Readfield in 1828, was elected professor of 
mathematics and vice-president of Dickinson College, Pa., 
in 1834, professor of metaphysics and English literature at 
Dickinson in 1837, visited England, and assisted in found¬ 
ing the Evangelical Alliance at the “World’s Convention,” 
London, 1846. Died June 6, 1848. He was a distinguished 
and able advocate of total abstinence, a gifted and indus¬ 
trious writer, and was author of a “ Manual of Elocution ” 
(1846), “ Philosophy of Christian Perfection” (1847), 
“Christianity Tested by Eminent Men” (1852), “The 
Doctrine of the English Verb” (1857), and numerous re¬ 
views. He was a man of great talents and excellence of 
character.—His brother, Zenas Caldwell (born Mar. 31, 
1800; died Dec. 26, 1826), was a brilliant and able instruc¬ 
tor, whose early death was widely lamented. A volume of 
his writings has been published. 

Cald'well’s, a township of Catawba co., N. C. P. 1101. 

Cal'edon, Earls of (1800), Viscount Alexander (1797), 
Baron Caledon (1789), all of the Irish peerage.— James 
Alexander, fourth earl, was born July 11, 1846, and suc¬ 
ceeded his father in 1855. 

Caledo'nia, the ancient name of Scotland, probably 
first given to that country by the Romans. It was inhab¬ 
ited by a rude and warlike people called Caledonii, who are 
supposed to have been a Gaelic race. The first Roman 
general who invaded Caledonia was Agricola, who defeated 
a chief named Galgacus in 84 A. D. Pliny is the first au¬ 
thor who mentions Caledonia. Tacitus describes the natives 
as having red or sandy hair, as living in tents without cities, 
as addicted to predatory warfare, and fighting in chariots. 
The Romans made several unsuccessful efforts to subdue 
these barbarians, who not only repulsed the invaders, but 
harassed the Roman colonies in Britain by frequent in¬ 
roads. To defend themselves against these inroads, the 
Romans built about 140 A. D. the Wall of Antonine from 
the Frith of Forth to that of the Clyde. 

Caledonia, a village of Cape Breton co. and island, 
Nova Scotia, 10 miles from Sidney, has mines of coal. 
Pop. about 250. 

Caledonia, a county in the E. N. E. of Vermont. 
Area, 650 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the 
Connecticut River, and drained by the Passumpsic, La¬ 
moille, and Wells rivers. The surface in the W. part is 
mountainous; the soil is fertile. Oats, wool, maple-sugar, 
and hay are the chief products. Lumber, carriages, sad¬ 
dlery, and a great variety of articles are manufactured. 
It is intersected by the Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers 
and Portland and Ogdensburg R. Rs. Capital, St. Johns- 
bury. Pop. 22,235. 

Caledonia, a village of Ontario, Canada, in Haldi- 
mand co., on Grand River and the Grand Trunk Railway, 
59 miles W. N. W. of Buffalo, N. Y., and about 16 miles 
S. S. IV. of Hamilton. Pop. in 1871, 1247. 

Caledonia, a village and township of Boone co., Ill. 
The village is on a branch of the Chicago and North-west¬ 
ern R. R., where it is crossed by the Kenosha and Rockford 

R. R., 13 miles S. E. of Beloit. Pop. of township, 1345. 

Caledonia, a post-village, capital of Pulaski co., Ill., 

on the Ohio River and on the Cairo and Vincennes R. R., 
14 miles above Cairo. Pop. 222. 

Caledonia, a post-twp. of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1599. 

Caledonia, a township of Shiawassee co., Mich. P. 891. 

Caledonia, a post-village, capital of Houston co., 
Minn., is 14 miles W. of the Mississippi River and 20 miles 

S. W. of La Crosse. It has four churches, one academy, 
two public schools, and one plough and two wagon manu¬ 
factories. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 1628. J. L. Christie, Ed. and Prop. “Journal.” 


Caledonia, a post-village and township of Livingston 
co., N. Y., on the Attica branch of the Erie Railway, 17 
miles E. by S. of Batavia. The township yields excellent 
lime and limestone for building purposes. Caledonia 
Spring, two acres in area, affords good water-power. Pop. 
597; of township, 1813. 

Caledonia, a township of Halifax co., N. C. P. 2118. 

Caledonia, a post-village of Marion co., 0., on tho 
Whetstone River, and on the Atlantic and Great Western 
R. R., 94 miles N. E. of Dayton. Pop. 419. 

Caledonia, a township of Columbia co., Wis. P. 1180. 

Caledonia, a township of Racine co., Wis. P. 2800. 

Caledonia, a twp. of Trempealeau co., Wis. P. 507. 

Caledonia, a township of Waupacca co., Wis. P. 661. 

Caledo'nian Canal', The, in Scotland, connecting 
the Atlantic Ocean with the North Sea near Inverness, was 
built by Telford, and opened in 1823. It is 61-J- miles in 
length, and is formed by cuts 120 feet broad at the surface, 
50 feet at the bottom, and 17 feet deep, connecting tho 
Lochs Ness, Oich, Lochy, and Eil. The combined length 
of the artificial portions is 23 miles. This canal saves ves¬ 
sels the stormy passage by the Hebrides, which takes nine 
or ten days longer. Ships of 600 tons can pass through. 
The highest part is Loch Oich, 94 feet above the sea-level. 

Caledo'nia Springs, in Caledonia township, Prescott 
co., province of Ontario (Canada), are 40 miles from Mon¬ 
treal and 9 miles S. W. of L’Orignal. They are resorted to 
especially for the cure of cutaneous, scrofulous, and rheu¬ 
matic diseases. There are four principal springs, all 
strongly alkaline, one with considerable iodine and bromine 
in its waters. 

Cal'endar [Lat. ealendarium, the “money-lender’s ac¬ 
count-book,” because interest was payable on the calends; 
hence, a register of times and seasons—an almanac], a 
term applied to any systematic and comprehensive method 
of dividing, distributing, and reckoning time, or to a book 
or table exhibiting such a method. There are two natural 
divisions of time, or regularly recurring periods, which all 
calendars must recognize—the day and the year. The 
month seems to have been suggested by the period of the 
moon’s revolution (29J days nearly), to which in some 
calendars (as the Jewish and the Greek) it has been made 
closely conformable. The week is, approximately, one 
quarter of a lunation. It is found in the Oriental and 
Egyptian calendars, and in that of the Israelites, from 
whom we have received it, but it was not known to the 
Greeks or the Romans. The Greeks instead employed 
decades of ten days each, and the Romans periods of eight 
days, the last of which was called nundinse (novem , “ nine;” 
dies, “day”), or ninth day; the count including both the 
nundine at the beginning and that at the end of the period. 
In the ancient calendars the nundine periods were distin¬ 
guished by setting opposite the successive days the first 
eight letters of the alphabet (A to H inclusive), repeating 
these letters throughout the year. From this usage was 
derived that of the Christian calendar of marking the days 
by the first seven letters (A to G), similarly repeated. 
The manner of denoting days of the month was peculiar. 
The first day was always called kalendse, “calends;” the 
fifth or seventh, norue, “ nones;” and the thirteenth or fif¬ 
teenth, idus, “ides.” The nones were the seventh, and 
the ides the fifteenth in March, May, July, and October, 
the first, third, fifth, and eighth months of the Roman 
year (easily remembered by associating them with tho 
notes of the common chord in music); in the remaining 
months they fell on the fifth and thirteenth. Any other 
day was denoted by its distance counted backward from 
one of these points of reference, the reference-day itself 
counting one. Thus, the 31st day of March is Pridie Kal 
Apr., or II. Kal Apr.; the 30th day of March is III. Kal 
Apr.; the 6th of July is Pridie Non. Juh; the 5th, III. 
Non. Jul., etc. It is difficult to understand how so cum¬ 
brous a system as this could have maintained itself for 
centuries among a cultivated people. 

In the regulation of the year we find the calendars of 
different peoples materially differing. The Egyptian year 
had 12 months of 30 days each, and counted five unallotted 
days at the end. It was too short by nearly a quarter of 
a day; and hence the beginning of the year went back¬ 
ward through the seasons once in 1460 natural years or 
1461 Egyptian years. This was known as the Sotiiiac 
Period (which see). Because of this incessant movement 
the Egyptian year is called vague or wandering. I be 
Greek year consisted of 12 lunar months of 30 and 29 
days alternately. This made the length of the year 354 
days, or 11£ days too small. To compensate for the defi¬ 
ciency, an intercalary month of 30 or 29 days was intin¬ 
duced every alternate year, which made the average length 
seven days too great; for which reason the intercalary 













708 CALENDERING. 


month was omitted once in about eight years. The earliest 
Roman year, attributed to Romulus, had only ten months, 
of which the first, third, fifth, and eighth (those in which, 
as above mentioned, the nones fell on the ninth and the 
ides on the fifteenth) had 31 days, and the rest 30 each. 
This year of only 304 days was shorter than the natural 
year by about one-sixth. Each Romulian year therefore 
began two months earlier in the season than the last, and 
the sixth came to an end at the same time with the fifth 
natural year. This circumstance, according to Niebuhr, 
determined the period of the lustrum. (See Lustrum.) 

The months of the original Roman year were named 
Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius, Quintilis, Sextilis, Sep¬ 
tember, October, November, December. Numa Pompilius, 
second king of Rome, added, according to Solinus, Janu- 
arius to the beginning and Februarius to the end of the 
year. This year was a lunar year of 354 days, but it was 
made a day longer, or 355, because there was supposed to 
be luck in odd numbers. To prevent displacement, an in¬ 
tercalary month of 22 and 23 days, alternately, was intro¬ 
duced every second year. This made the year to consist 
in effect of 3661 days. About the year 450 B. C. the decem¬ 
viri regulated the calendar once more, and placed February 
between January and March, both at the end of the year. 
The months were now—whether so settled by Numa or the 
decemvirs is uncertain—Martius, 31 days; Aprilis, 29; 
Maius, 31; Junius, 29; Quintilis, 31; Sextilis, 29; Sep¬ 
tember, 29; October, 31; November, 29; December, 29; 
Januarius, 29 ; Februarius, 28. The intercalary month was 
inserted between the 23d and 24th days (as we count them) 
of February, or, in the Roman manner of speaking, before 
the sixth calends of March. The reason for so placing it 
was, that the seventh calends of March, or the 23d day of 
February, was the last day of a round year of 360 days, 
and was celebrated as the festival of Terminus, the god of 
limits, under the name Terminalia. The Romans, like the 
Egyptians, seem to have regarded the remaining five days 
as hardly belonging to the year, but as being a sort of in¬ 
terval between two years. The odd day added to the 354 
for luck was not, however, intercalated in this place, but 
was introduced wherever it might be necessary to prevent 
the nundinse from falling on the calends of January or the 
nones of any month—such a coincidence being deemed inau¬ 
spicious. The year on this system being, as we have seen, 
a day too long, added twenty-four days too much in twenty- 
four years. It was provided, therefore, that during the last 
eight years of this period these twenty-four days should be 
deducted in making the intercalations. The pontiffs, how¬ 
ever, who had the control of the intercalation, used their 
power capriciously for personal ends—sometimes to lengthen 
or shorten the term of a magistrate, sometimes to benefit or 
injure the farmer of the public revenues. As a natural 
consequence, the calendar fell into extreme confusion; so 
that in the time of Julius Caesar the civil differed from 
the astronomical equinox by nearly three months. This 
powerful ruler resolved on a thorough reform. Under the 
advice of the astronomer Sosigenes he abolished the lunar 
year. He readjusted the months to their proper seasons by 
making the year 708 A. U. C. 445 days long, extending from 
October 13, inclusive (according to our present count), to 
the 31st day of the second ensuing December. This year 
is known in chronology as the year of confusion. He re¬ 
constructed the months, giving 31 days each to the first, 
third, fifth, seventh, ninth, and eleventh, and 30 days each 
to the rest, except February, which had 29 only, but every 
fourth year received an intercalary day, making 30. The 
intercalation took place, for a reason already given above, 
immediately after the feast of Terminalia, and was made 
by repeating the sexto Kalendas Martius; whence the year 
in which it occurred came to be called bissextile. Finally, 
the beginning of the year was transferred from the first of 
March to the first of January. To flatter the vanity of 
Octavius after he had secured the supreme power and had 
received the title of Augustus, a day was taken from Feb¬ 
ruary by a sycophantic senate and given to August, which 
had been named from him, for the frivolous purpose of 
giving to his month no less dignity in point of numbers 
than July, which had received its name from the first 
Caesar. The lengths of the later months were then altered 
to prevent three long months from occurring consecutively. 

The Julian year consisted of 3651 days, and consequently 
differed in excess by 11 minutes 13.95 seconds from the true 
solar year, which consists of 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 
46.05 seconds. In consequence of this difference the equi¬ 
nox, in the course of a few centuries, fell back sensibly 
towards the beginning of the year. In the time of Julius 
Caesar it corresponded to the 25th of March; in the six¬ 
teenth century it had retrograded to the 11th. The cor¬ 
rection of this error was one of the purposes sought by the 
reformation of the calendar effected by Pope Gregory XIII. 
in 1582. By suppressing ten days in the calendar, Gregory 


restored the equinox to the 21st of March, the day on which 
it fell at the time of the Council of Nice in 325. This 
council determined that the Eastern churches should cele¬ 
brate Easter at the same time as the Western— i. e. on the 
Sunday following the Paschal full moon, and not on the 
fourteenth day of the Paschal moon. The Gregorian rule 
of intercalation may be expressed as follows: Every year 
of which the number is divisible by 4 without a remainder 
is a leap year, excepting the centesimal years, which are 
only leap years when divisible by 4 after suppressing the 
two zeros. Thus, 1600 was a leap year; 1700 and 1800 
were common years; 1900 will be a common year, 2000 a 
leap year, and so on. The length of the mean year thus 
fixed is 365.2425 days, or 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes 12 
seconds, which exceeds the true solar year by 25.95 seconds, 
an error which amounts only to one day in 3325 years. 
The intercalations might be so made as to make the calen¬ 
dar year correspond even more closely than it does now 
with the solar year, but no other method could be as con¬ 
venient as the Gregorian. 

The new calendar was received immediately or shortly 
after its promulgation by all Roman Catholic countries. 
The Protestant states of Germany and the kingdom of 
Denmark adhered to the Julian calendar till 1700; and in 
England the alteration was successfully opposed by popular 
prejudices till 1752. In that year the Julian calendar, or 
old style , as it was called, was abolished by act of Parlia¬ 
ment, and the date used in all public transactions rendered 
coincident with that followed in other European countries, 
by enacting that the day following the 2d of Sept., 1752, 
should be called the 14th of that month. When the altera¬ 
tion was made by Gregory it was only necessary to drop ten 
days; the year 1700 having intervened, which was a com¬ 
mon year in the Gregorian, but a leap year in the Julian 
calendar, it was now necessary to drop eleven days. The 
old style is still adhered to in Russia and the countries 
following the communion of the Greek Church; the differ¬ 
ence of date in the present century amounts to twelve days. 
For fuller information on this subject, see Delambre, “As¬ 
tronomic Theorique et Pratique,” tom. iii., chap, xxxviii.; 
Ideler, “ Lehrbuch der Chronologie;” and Anthon, “Greek 
and Roman Antiquities.” 

Ecclesiastical Calendar .—The adaptation of the civil to 
the solar year is attended with no difficulty, but the church 
calendar for regulating the movable feasts imposes condi¬ 
tions less easily satisfied. The festival of Easter commem¬ 
orates the resurrection of our Lord, which momentous event 
having occurred near the time of the Jewish Passover, was 
naturally associated in the minds of the early disciples with 
that anniversary, and its annual returns were made depend¬ 
ent upon the same calendar regulations. The Passover was 
observed on the fourteenth day of the moon—that is, near 
the full moon. The question what day is most proper for 
the observance of Easter became early a subject of warm 
controversy. In order to put an end to an unseemly con¬ 
tention, the Council of Nice ordered that Easter should be 
celebrated on the Sunday which immediately follows the full 
moon that happens upon or next after the vernal equinox. 
In order to determine Easter according to this rule for any 
year, it is necessary to reconcile three periods—namely, the 
week, the lunar month, and the solar year. To find the 
day of the week on which any given day of the year falls, 
it is necessary to know on what day of the week the year 
began. In the Julian calendar this was easily found by 
means of a short period or cycle of twenty-eight years, 
after which the year begins with the same day of the week. 
In the Gregorian calendar this order is interrupted by the 
omission of the intercalation three times out of four in the 
last year of the century. But to render calculation unneces¬ 
sary, a table is given in the prayer-books, showing the 
correspondence of the days of the year and the week for 
the current century. The connection of the lunar month 
with the solar year is an ancient problem, for the resolution 
of which the Greeks invented cycles or periods, which re¬ 
mained in use with some modifications till the time of the 
Gregorian reformation. See, on this subject, Delambre, 
“ Ilistoire de l’Astronomie Moderne,” tom. i., liv. i.; also 
De Morgan, “Companion to the British Almanac,” 1845; 
also, Barnard, “How to Find the Church Festivals,” New 
York, 1872. 

A new reform of the calendar was introduced in France 
during the period of the Revolution. The commencement 
of the year was fixed at the autumnal equinox, which 
nearly coincided with the epoch of the foundation of the 
republic. The names of the ancient months were abolished, 
and others substituted having reference to agricultural 
labors or the state of nature in different seasons of the year. 
But the alteration was found to be inconvenient and im¬ 
practicable, and after a few years was formally abandoned. 

F. A. P. Barnard. 

Calendering [a corruption of the word cylindering ]. 




















CALENDS 


tho process of finishing by pressure the surface of linen, 
cotton goods, or paper, by passing the material between 
cylinders pressed together with force; the domestic pro¬ 
cesses of starching and ironing afford simple illustrations 
of the object and result of calendering. Tho mangle effects 
tho same object as the flat-iron, and is a near approach in 
construction to the calendering-engine. The calenders 
were originally of wood. Hollow iron and copper cylinders 
are used where heat as well as pressure is required, the cyl¬ 
inders being heated by steam passed through the interior or 
by red-hot heaters; but it is desirable that one of the cylin¬ 
ders shall be of material combining considerable hardness 
with a degree of elasticity; for this purpose solid paper 
cylinders are used. 

Beforo the final calendering the fabric is flatly smoothed 
by passing over warm cylinders. Cotton goods are starch¬ 
ed with flour, thickened with plaster of Paris, porcelain clay, 
etc., to give an appearance of stoutness, which of course 
vanishes when the article is washed. The fabric is then 
simply passed between plain cylinders, which produces tho 
desired effect by flattening the threads. When, by means 
of a cylinder with a pattern raised upon it, the amount of 
this flattening is unequal on different parts of the cloth, 
the effect known as watering is the result. Glazing is pro¬ 
duced by the rollers being made to move with different 
velocities, so that one side of the fabric is rubbed as well 
as pressed by the roller whose surface moves with the great¬ 
er rapidity. A copper roller is used for glazing, so hot that 
if the machine stops it burns the goods. For glazing on a 
small scale a polished flint is rubbed over the fabric, which 
is laid upon a smooth wooden table. 

Cal'eilds [Lat. calenclse, from calo (Gr./caAe'co), “I call ”], 
the first day of each Roman month, because, according to 
Macrobius, before Cn. Flavius the scribe, against the will 
of the patricians, made the fasti (propitious days—days 
when courts were open) known to all the people (about 
300 years B. C.j, it was the duty of one of the minor 
priests, on the first appearance of each new moon, to sum¬ 
mon the plebeians to a place in the Capitol near the Curia 
Calabria, and there to announce the number of days before 
the nones (always five or seven, including the day of call¬ 
ing and the day of the nones itself), by so many times re¬ 
peating the word calo. If the part of this statement which 
makes the beginning of each month dependent on direct 
observation of the moon is correct, it is impossible that 
the months of the early Roman calendar should have had 
the fixed and rather arbitrary lengths usually assigned to 
them. As to this question historians differ, some asserting 
that the Roman months were strictly lunar down to A. U. C. 
448 ; others, as Censorinus, that their lengths were fixed by 
Numa, the second king. (See Calendar, by Pres. F. A. P. 
Barnard/ S. T. D., LL.D., L. II. D.) 

Cal'enture [Sp. calentura, a “fever,” a “heat”], a 
species of temporary delirium occurring on board ship in 
hot climates, and probably due to the effect of exposure to 
the direct rays of the sun. The descriptions of the disease 
seem rather fanciful and,contradictory, and the term is near¬ 
ly obsolete. It is said that persons having a calenture fan¬ 
cied the sea was a green field, and leaped overboard. 

Cale'ra, a post-village of Shelby co., Ala., at the cross¬ 
ing: of the Selma Rome and Dalton and South and North 

o 

Alabama R. Rs., 10 miles W. by S. of Columbiana. 

Calf Creek, a post-township of Searcy co., Ark. Pop. 
511. 

Calhoun', a county in the E. N. E. of Alabama. 
Area, 700 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the 
Coosa River. The surface is diversified by hills and fertile 
valleys. Cotton, corn, and wool are the staple products. 
It is intersected by the Selma Rome and Dalton R. R. 
Capital, Jacksonville. Pop. 13,980. 

Calhoun, a county in the S. of Arkansas Area, 650 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Moro River, and 
on the S. W. by the Washita. The surface is undulating 
and well timbered; the soil is fertile. Chief products, 
corn and wool. Capital, Hampton. Pop. 3853. 

Calhoun, a county of Florida. Area, 464 square miles. 
It is bounded on the E. by the Appalachicola River, and on 
the S. W. by St. Joseph’s Bay, a part of the Gulf of Mex¬ 
ico. The surface is low and nearly level. Tobacco, rice, 
and corn are the chief crops. Capital, Ocheesee. P. 998. 

Calhoun, a county in the S. W. of Georgia. Area, 
300 square miles. It is intersected by the Ichawaynoch- 
away Creek. The surface is level; the soil is productive. 
Chief crops, cotton and corn. Capital, Morgan. Pop. 
5501. 

Calhoun, a county of Illinois, bordering on Missouri. 
Area, 260 square miles. It is a narrow peninsula, bounded 
on all sides except the N. by tho Mississippi and Illinois 
rivers, which unite at the S. E. extremity of the county. 


CALHOUN. 7Q9 


The surface is uneven. Grain, wool, live-stock, and pota¬ 
toes are largely raised. Capital, Hardin. Pop. 6562. 

Calhoun, a county in N. AY. Central Iowa. Area, 
570 square miles. Grain and stock are raised. Capital, 
Lake City. Pop. 1602. 

Calhoun, a county in S. W. Central Michigan. Area, 
720 square miles. It is intersected by the Kalamazoo and 
St. Joseph rivers, and is also drained by Battle Creek. 
The surface is undulating; the soil is a rich sandy loam. 
It is intersected by the Michigan Central R. R. Quarries 
of sandstone occur here. Grain, dairy crops, wool, fruit, 
and potatoes are very extensively raised. Carriages and 
wagons, lumber sawed, flouring-mill products, clothing, 
cooperage, saddlery, and harness arc chief manufactures. 
Capital, Marshall. Pop. 36,569. 

Calhoun, a county in N. Central Mississippi. Area, 
560 square miles. It is intersected by the Yallobusha Riv¬ 
er and Loosascoona Creek. The surface is undulating or 
nearly level; the soil is fertile. Corn, cotton, cattle, wool, 
and grain are the chief products. Flouring-mill produce 
is extensively manufactured. Capital, Pittsboro’. Pop. 
10,561. 

Calhoun, a county of Texas, bordering on the Gulf 
of Mexico. Area, 684 square miles. It is bounded on 
the N. E. by Lavacca Bay, and on the S. AY. by Espiritu 
Santo Bay and the Guadalupe River. The surface is 
nearly level. Cattle and wool are largely raised. The 
county is traversed by the San Antonio and Mexican Gulf 
R. R. Capital, Indianola. Pop. 3443. 

Calhoun, a county in Central AA'est Virginia. Area, 
300 square miles. It is intersected by the Little Kanawha 
River. The surface is hilly. Grain and wool are the chief 
products. Capital, Grantsville. Pop. 2939. 

Calhoun, a post-village and township of Lowndes co., 
Ala., about 30 miles S. S. AY. of Montgomery. Pop. 2781. 

Calhoun, a post-village of Columbia co., Ark. P. 806. 

Calhoun, a post-village, capital of Gordon co., Ga., 
on the AVestern and Atlantic R. R., 78 miles N. AY. of At¬ 
lanta. It ha.s one weekly newspaper. Pop. 427. 

Calhoun, a township of Calhoun co., Ia. Pop. 263. 

Calhoun, a post-township of Harrison co., Ia. P. 371. 

Calhoun, a post-village, capital of McLean co., Ivy., 
is on Green River, about 40 miles S. S. E. of Evansville, Ind. 

Calhoun (James M.), a nephew of J. C. Calhoun, was 
born in South Carolina, but removed to Alabama, where in 
1831 he was elected a member of the House. He served 
for several years, then retired for fifteen years, but served 
once more in the Senate from 1857 to 1861. 

Calhoun (John Caldwell), LL.D., an eminent Ameri¬ 
can statesman, born in Abbeville district, S. C., Mar. 18, 
1782. He graduated at Yale College in 1804, studied law, 
and was sent to Congress in 1811. He began his political 
career as a Democrat and a leader of the war-party. He 
supported the tariff of 1816 and the U. S. Bank. In Oct., 
1817, he became secretary of war in the cabinet of Presi¬ 
dent Monroe. He approved the Missouri Compromise of 
1820, and was elected Vice-President of the U. S. in 1824, 
in which canvass he was supported by the friends of Jack- 
son and those of Adams. Having joined the Jackson 
party, he was again elected Vice-President in 1828, when 
General Jackson was chosen President. About this time 
he became an advocate of free trade and of the doctrine 
of the sovereignty of the States. He was the author of 
the “ South Carolina Exposition,” which affirmed that any 
State can nullify unconstitutional laws of Congress. Cal¬ 
houn and A'an Buren having become aspirants for the office 
of President of the U. S., Gen. Jackson, by promoting the 
nomination of the latter, incurred the enmity of Calhoun. 
He resigned the office of Vice-President in 1832, and was 
then elected a Senator of the U. S. for South Carolina. A 
convention held in South Carolina near the end of 1832 
adopted what was known as the Nullification ordinance. 
Its object was to test the constitutionality of the protective 
tariff policy through the instrumentality of the State in¬ 
stead of the Federal courts, and to prevent the collection 
of duties on imposts in that State under the act of Con¬ 
gress of 1832, levied, as was alleged, with a direct view 
rather to the protection of American manufactures than 
the collection of revenue, until the protective principle, 
so-called, should be so tested and decided by the State 
courts. This was in pursuance of Mr. Calhoun s peculiar 
doctrines, known as nullification. He held that under tho 
Federal system the judiciary of each State had the reserved 
sovereign right to decide in the last resort upon the extent 
of the powers delegated under tho Constitution by the 
States respectively. This ordinance was to go into effect 
on the 12th of Feb., 1833. The determined attitude of 
Gen. Jackson against these nullification doctrines caused 













710 CALHOUN—CALICO-PRINTING. 


general and serious alarm lest a conflict of forces should 
ensue between the Federal and State authorities. It was 
in this condition of affairs that Mr. Clay, as a mediator, 
came forward with his famous “ tariff compromise” of 1833, 
which was founded upon the avowed principle of an 
abandonment of the protective policy after 1843. To this 
measure Mr. Calhoun gave his cordial support, and in this 
Avay the anticipated perils of the crisis were averted. 

As a debater, Mr. Calhoun occupied the foremost rank 
among the American Senators, and was scarcely equalled 
by any of his contemporaries, except Mr. Clay and Mr. 
Webster. These three were known as “the Great Trio.” 
The debate between Mr. Calhoun and Mr. Webster on the 
nature of the Federal government and the doctrine of nul¬ 
lification, so-called, in Feb., 1833, was one of the most 
noted for ability and eloquence in the annals of this coun¬ 
try. Mr. Calhoun retired from the Senate in Mar., 1843, 
and was appointed secretary of state by Mr. Tyler in Mar., 
1844. It was under his auspices that the “Tyler treaty,” 
as it was called, for the annexation of Texas, was nego¬ 
tiated in the same year. He was re-elected to the Senate 
in 1845, and opposed the Mexican war in 1846. lie con¬ 
tinued in the Senate until his death, which occurred 31st 
of Mar., 1850. His mind was eminently metaphysical, 
and his private character was without reproach. Among 
his writings are two posthumous works—one, a “Disqui¬ 
sition on Government,” and the other, “A Discourse on the 
Constitution and Government of the U. S.” These are 
both held in high estimation by his admirers and men of 
his school of politics. Alex. II. Stephens. 

Calhoun (William Barron), LL.D., born at Boston, 
Mass., Dec. 29, 1795, graduated at Yale in 1814, became a 
prominent lawyer of Springfield, Mass., was speaker of the 
Massachusetts house of representatives (1834-35), member 
of Congress (1835-43), president of the Massachusetts 
senate (1846-47), and State secretary 1848-51, besides 
holding other important offices. Died Nov. 8, 1865. 

Calhoun Mills, a post-village and township of Abbe¬ 
ville co., S. C., about 87 miles W. of Columbia. Pop. 2208. 

Ca'li, a town of the United States of Colombia, 70 miles 
N. by E. of Popayan, is on a western declivity of the An¬ 
des. It has two fine churches and an active trade. Pop. 
about 5000. 

Cal'ihre, or Caliber, a French word which is also 
much used in English, signifies the diameter of the bore 
of a gun or any firearm. It is usually measured and de- 
cribed in inches or parts of inches. The cannon in which 
solid shot is used are often denoted by the weight of each 
shot, as a twenty-four pounder, but mortars which throw 
shells or hollow shot are usually designated by such terms 
as a thirteen-inch mortar, etc. 

Cal'ico, a kind of cotton cloth, said to be so named 
from Calicut, a city of India, where it was first manufac¬ 
tured. It was imported into England by the East India 
Company in 1631. 

Calico-Printing is the art of producing patterns on 
cotton cloth, either by printing in colors, or in mordants 
which become colors when subsequently dyed. Cloth made 
from cotton and wool, when similarly printed, is known as 
mousseline de laine. Calico-printing originated in India 
in very ancient times. Pliny describes the art as prac¬ 
tised by the Egyptians. For a long time chintz counter¬ 
panes were imported into England from India. The art 
spread westward to Asia Minor and the Levant. It was 
imported into Holland by the Dutch East India Company, 
and spread into Germany. At the close of the seventeenth 
century Augsburg in Bavaria was noted for its printed 
linens and cottons. Calico-printing was introduced into 
England during the seventeenth century, but the develop¬ 
ment of the art was for a long time seriously retarded by 
the opposition of the silk and woollen weavers. At their 
instigation the importation of chintz from Calicut was pro¬ 
hibited, and a heavy revenue tax was placed upon English 
calicoes. Finally, in 1720 a law was enacted prohibiting 
the wearing of any printed calicoes whatever, either of 
foreign or domestic origin. This law was repealed in 
1736, but a duty of 6c?. per yard was still levied. In 1831 all 
duties were repealed. England is now the largest producer 
of calicoes ; the U. S. stand second. The finest calicoes are 
made in Alsace, at Miihlhausen. Calico-printing involves 
a variety of operations, some of which are peculiar to cer¬ 
tain styles, while others are common to all. 

Singeing. —The first operation is the removal from the 
surface of the cloth of the fibrous nap or down, which, if 
not removed, would seriously interfere with the uniform 
application of the colors. The removal of the nap is ef¬ 
fected either by passing the cloth rapidly over a red-hot 
plate (Fig. 1) or between lines of gas-jets. A shearing- 
machine is also in use for this purpose. 


Fig. 1. 



Hot-plate Singeing .—G is the grate; C is the semi-cylindrical red- 
hot plate of iron or copper; F and D are rolls on which the 
cloth is wound; M and N are brushes for raising the nap; L is 
a lever for raising the cloth from the plate, slots being made 
in the hood H to permit its being raised to the position indi¬ 
cated by the dotted line. C' is a ridged plate used in some 
establishments. 

Bleaching is then effected by boiling the cloth with lime, 
souring with sulphuric acid, boiling with soda-ash and 
rosin, boiling with soda-ash alone, treating with bleaching- 
powder, souring again, and finally washing thoroughly 
with water. (See Bleaching.) 

Calendering is resorted to in order to make the cloth 
smooth and even. It is effected by passing it between very 
heavy rolls. 

Fixing the colors upon the cloth is effected (1) by the aid 
of mordants, substances which have an affinity for both 
fibre and color, as madder, logwood, Brazil-wood, etc., 
fixed by alumina or oxide of iron; Persian berries, fixed 
by chloride of tin; aniline colors, fixed by gluten, etc. 
Sumach and cutch, which produce drabs and blacks with 
oxide of iron by the action of the tannic acid they contain, 
belong to this class. It is impossible to make a distinc¬ 
tion between the action of true mordants and of agents 
which simply produce insoluble colors in the tissue of the 
cloth, as the two classes pass into each other by insensible 
gradations. These insoluble colors are produced by double 
or simple decomposition, by the successive treatment of the 
cloth with the necessary reagents. Thus, Prussian blue is 
fixed on the cloth either by first applying an iron salt and 
then treating it with ferrocyanide of potassium, or it is 
produced by the decomposition of ferrocyanide of potas¬ 
sium alone, under the influence o£ certain acids. Chrome 
yellow is produced by the successive application of a lead 
salt and bichromate of potassa. Indigo is fixed by apply¬ 
ing it in solution as colorless reduced indigo, and develop¬ 
ing it as insoluble blue pigment by oxidation in the air. 
Brown oxide of manganese is formed by applying sulphate 
of manganese, withdrawing the sulphuric acid by an alkali, 
and oxidizing to a brown oxide by hypochlorite of lime. 
Aniline black is produced by the oxidation of an aniline 
salt in the cloth. (2) Colors are fixed by agents which, 
being first mixed with the color, are applied to the cloth 
and then rendered insoluble, when they hold the color upon 
the fibres mechanically, as ultramarine blue, Guignet green, 
chrome yellow, madder lake, and aniline colors, fixed by 
albumen coagulated by heat. 

Patterns are produced (1) by printing the mordant in 
figures, and subsequently producing the colors in the dye- 
liquors : madder styles. (2) By printing one component of 
the color, and then passing the cloth through a solution of 
the other component, or of the agent necessary to develop 
the color -.padding, bronzing, indigo, pencil blue, and China 
blue styles. (3) By printing the color together with the 
mordant or fixing agent, and rendering it insoluble or de¬ 
veloping it by air or steam. This is called topical or sur¬ 
face printing: steam colors, spirit colors, aniline black, 
aniline colors by albumen, pigment printing, metallic glint¬ 
ing. (4) By printing resist or reserve pastes, which protect 
certain portions of the cloth, and prevent the fixing of the 
color in the subsequent dyeing operations : resist styles. 
(5) By discharging the color from portions of the cloth 
previously dyed : discharge styles. 

The colors most frequently employed in calico-printing 
are (1) the dyestuffs proper—madder in the various forms 
of powdered root, garancine, extract, alizarine, etc.; log- 


























































































CALICO-PRINTING. 


wood, Brazil-wood, sandal, cam, and bar wood, and fustic; 
quercitron bark, indigo, Persian berries, cochineal and ani¬ 
line colors ; (2) the astringents which contain tannic acid, 
catechu, sumach, nutgalls, etc.; (3) the pigments chrome 
yellow and orange, Prussian blue, Guignet green, ultrama¬ 
rine, Scheele’s green, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese. 
(For details see each under its own name, also Dyeing and 
Dyestuffs.) 

The mordants most frequently used are salts of alumina, 
iron, and tin, caseine, albumen, and gluten. 

Thickenings .—In preparing the colors and mordants for 
printing it is necessary to thicken them to prevent spread¬ 
ing and running. The agents generally used for this pur¬ 
pose are wheat flour, starch, dextrine, gum-arabic, Senegal, 
and tragacanth, and glue. 

Fig. 2. 


Fig. 4. machine. The pieces of cloth, 

measuring each about forty yards, 
are stitched together, and the pro¬ 
cess becomes continuous, miles of 
calico being printed without stop¬ 
ping the machine. A similar ma¬ 
chine is now employed in printing 
wall-paper. As each roll prints 
only a portion of the pattern, it is 
of course very important to regu¬ 
late the tension of the cloth to 
secure the proper location of the 
parts of the figure. It is found 
that the cloth stretches in length, 
and consequently diminishes in 
width, in the machine; so each roll 
must be made to print a slightly 
narrower pattern than those which 
precede it. To prevent the run¬ 
ning of the mordants or colors, the 
cloth passes directly from the ma¬ 
chine to a heated drying-room. 

Madder Style .—This is the most 
important and extensively prac¬ 
tised style of calico-printing, ap¬ 
plicable not only to the coloring- 
matter from which it derives its 
name, but to nearly all organic 

are soluble 
of forming 
with mor- 

to the ‘roll B, which dants. The thickened mordants 
transfers it to the end- are printed on the cloth, and the 
less web N, by which co i org are produced by passing 
it is applied to the re- ., , ,, j ^ i 

lief cylinder P, which the cloth through the dye-beck, 

prints it upon the cloth which contains the dyestuffs and 
as it passes over the water. For pinks the mordant 
drum G. employed is acetate of alumina; 


, . . coloring-matters whicl 

Plombme Printing .—R is • , oana ui e 

the color-trough. The ! n ana ca P AK > le 

roll A applies the color insoluble compounds 


Fig. 5. 


Fig. 6. 


Ten-Roll Machine. 

* 


BlooK-printing by hand. 

Printing Apparatus .—The mordants and colors are ap¬ 
plied to the cloth either by wooden blocks or cylinders 
with raised patterns, or by copper plates or cylinders with 
sunken patterns; the copper cylinders being most generally 
used for common calicoes. Each color or tint requires a 

separate block, plate, or cyl¬ 
inder. In the printing of 
cloth very nearly the same 
principles apply as in the 
printing of paper. Blocks 
are applied by hand (Fig. 2) 
or by presses (Fig. 3). The 
Perrotine is a machine for 
applying three blocks succes¬ 
sively ; it was invented by 
M. Perrot of Rouen. The 
plombine (Fig. 4) was a ma¬ 
chine invented by Ebinger of 
St. Denis for the printing of 
calico by a continuous pro¬ 
cess with wooden relief cyl¬ 
inders. The introduction of 
copper cylinders or rolls upon 
which the pattern is engraved 
has led to a wonderful expan¬ 
sion of the calico-printing 
industry. Figs. 5 and 6 ex- 

h 


Press for Block Printing. 

hibit the disposition of the more essential parts in printing 
with engraved cylinders. The cloth F passes over a huge 
drum B, against which the rolls A are pressed. Each roll 
is supplied with thickened mordant or color by a wooden 
cylinder C, which dips into a vessel E containing it. A 
blunt knife D, called the color doctor, scrapes off the super¬ 
fluous mordant or color from the unengraved portion of 
the roll; another knife, called the lint doctor, cleanses the 
roll as it leaves the cloth. By enlarging the drum the 
capacity of the machine may be increased from one to 
twenty'colors by adding to the number of rolls. Fig. 7 
exhibits a ten-color machine; I ig. 8 an eighteen-color 


Single Roll. 


Three Rolls. 

Fig. 7. 












































































































712 CALICO-PRINTING. 


for reds, the same, more concentrated, with an addi¬ 
tion of chloride of tin; for purple, acetate of iron; 
for chocolate, acetate of alumina, with a little acetate of 
iron; for brown, catechu, with a little nitrate of copper; 
for drab, catechu, with a little nitrate of copper and chlo¬ 
ride of iron ; for black, a strong solution of acetate of iron ; 
for orange, acetate of lead, chloride of ammonium, and 
chloride of tin. After the mordants have been printed on 
the cloth, it is run into the drying-room, and then exposed 
to the process of ageing. This has for its object the setting 
or rendering insoluble of the mordants. It is effected by 
hanging the cloth in a room where it is exposed to air, 
warmth, and a certain degree of moisture. The alumina 
loses most of its acetic acid, and passes into the condition 
of an insoluble basic salt; the iron loses acetic acid and 
takes up oxygen, passing into the condition of an insoluble 
basic salt of the sesquioxide. The goods are next exposed 
to a cleansing process called dunging. Formerly, cow-dung 
was used for this purpose; it was mixed with water, and 
the goods were passed through the mixture and subjected 
to a kind of scouring. Phosphate of soda, arseniate 'of 
soda, and silicate of soda have now almost entirely dis¬ 
placed the dung. The effect of the treatment is to remove 
the excess of mordant, render what is left quite insoluble, 


and clear the unmordanted portions of the cloth. The next 
step is the dyeing, which is effected in the dye-beck. Water 
and the proper coloring-matters are introduced, and by 
means of steam the whole is heated to the proper tempera¬ 
ture. The dyestuffs employed depend somewhat upon the 
tints to be produced. Madder alone is used for pinks; for 
reds, purples, chocolates, etc., a portion of the madder is 
replaced by Brazil-wood. For orange Persian berries are 
added, with quercitron and fustic; for blacks, logwood. 
In order to brighten the colors, to render them more per¬ 
manent, and to clear the whites, the cloth is next subjected 
to the clearing process. This consists in exposing it to a 
bath containing bran and soap, and then to a very weak 
solution of bleaching-powder, hypochlorite of liine. If the 
colors employed include Persian-berry orange, the cloth is 
passed through a very weak bath of chloride of tin. The 
cloth is then washed, starched, and calendered, when it is 
ready for market. Calico dyed in madder styles is the 
most durable, resisting the action of light and soap better 
than any other style. Garancine styles are mordanted in 
the same manner, but are dyed with garancine—madder 
which has been treated with sulphuric acid. (See Madder.) 
This is a more economical way of using madder. It is 
preferred for dark, heavy colors where the cloth is much 


Fig. 8. 



Eighteen-color Machine. 


covered. The soaping operation is omitted, and the colors 
are not as fast as those dyed with madder. Carbonate of 
lime, whiting, is added to the dye-beck, to neutralize the 
free acid in the garancine. Artificial alizarine madder 
red is now extensively manufactured from anthracene, a 
hydro-carbon obtained from coal-tar. It is employed as a 
substitute for the various preparations of the madder root, 
both in the dye-beck and in topical printing. (See Ali¬ 
zarine.) Padded styles are specially adapted to min¬ 
eral colors. Sometimes padding is resorted to for the 
production of a ground of a uniform tint, the figures 
to be subsequently applied by topical printing. In 
this case the cloth is first passed through a mordant, 
then dried, and passed through the dye. To produce a 
pale blue ground the cloth is first passed through a 
weak iron solution, then dried, passed through chalk sus¬ 
pended in water to fix the iron, then through ferrocyanide 
of iron to produce Prussian blue. To produce a design in 
chrome yellow the cloth is printed with a thickened solu¬ 
tion of acetate of lead, dried, passed through a carbonato- 
of-soda solution to fix the lead, and then through a solu¬ 
tion of bichromate of potassa. A common padded stylo is 
iron buff, produced by passing through an iron solution 
and fixing by an alkaline bath. Bronzes were once a favor¬ 


ite style. They were prepared by padding with chloride of 
manganese, then through caustic soda, and finally through 
hypochlorite of lime. A uniform brown ground was thus 
produced. By printing figures with protocliloride of tin 
mixed with pigments or decoctions, the brown color was 
discharged, and colored patterns on a brown ground were 
produced. Topical printing has displaced to a considerable 
degree the old madder styles. The colors and the mordant 
or fixing agent being applied to the cloth together, the 
operations of dunging and dyeing are rendered unneces¬ 
sary, and a much greater variety of colors and shades can 
be employed; and as the colors do not come in contact with 
the whites, there is a great economy of materials. Woollen 
fabrics and de laines are always printed in this manner, as 
they are not well adapted for mordanting and dyeing in the 
madder style, owing to the affinity which wool possesses for 
most coloring-matters. Steam colors are produced by print¬ 
ing upon the cloth the madder and dyewood extracts, mixed 
with the mordants, to fix them and to produce the desired 
tints, and jiropcrly thickened. On exposing the dried and 
aged cloth to steam, an intimate union of the color, mor¬ 
dant, and fibre is offected. Such goods are very brilliant 
and permanent to light,, but do not withstand hot soap so¬ 
lution, Avhich alters the shades. For steam reds, prepara- 

















































































































































































































































































































































































































































CALICO-PRINTING. 


tions of madder, cochineal, and various dyewood extracts, 
especially Brazil-wood, are employed. Madder extract, 
nearly pure alizarine, prepared from madder root by va¬ 
rious processes, is extensively used, not only for pinks and 
reds, but also for purples and chocolates. Artificial ali¬ 
zarine is now largely used in place of madder extract. 
For reds and pinks it is mixed, in the form of paste, with 
solutions of acetate of alumina and acetate of lime, and a 
thickening composed of wheat starch, acetic acid, gum 
tragacanth, and olive oil boiled to a paste with water. 
For purples, pyrolignate of iron is used in place of acetate 
of alumina. Cochineal is prepared for steam-printing by 
boiling the cochineal liquor with starch, and adding oxalic 
acid and protochloride of tin. 

For steam yellows, either decoction of quercitron bark 
mixed with alum and gum Senegal, or a decoction of Per¬ 
sian berries with alum, protochloride of tin, and gum Sene¬ 
gal, is employed. Prussian blue is ground with chloride 
of tin and thickened for topical printing. To convert it 
into green the cloth, after rinsing, is passed through a 
solution of bichromate of potash. Spirit colors are extremely 
brilliant topical tints, obtained by the use of larger propor¬ 
tions of the spirits or metallic mordants. As they are ap¬ 
plied very strong and acid, they cannot be steamed, but are 
simply dried in the air, aged, and rinsed with water. For 
a spirit purple a mixture of logwood liquor, thickened with 
starch, to which some perchloride of tin is added as a mor¬ 
dant, is employed. For chocolate, extract of Brazil-wood 
and extract of logwood, with the chlorides of tin and cop¬ 
per, properly thickened, is used. For red, peach-wood 
liquor, with starch, nitrate of copper, perchloride of tin, 
chloride of tin and ammonium, and oil. Aniline black 
is a topical style i*ecently introduced, which has almost 
entirely displaced logwood and other blacks for certain 
kinds of patterns. It is produced by printing a thick¬ 
ened mixture of an aniline salt with a powerful oxidizing 
agent, such as chlorate of potassa, with chloride of am¬ 
monium, sulphate of copper, etc. The color is developed 
by steaming, and the goods ai'e finally passed through a 
weak solution of carbonate of soda. When applied to 
large surfaces this black injures the strength of the fabric; 
its use is consequently restricted to light patterns show¬ 
ing a large proportion of white. It is also specially 
adapted for use with other topical styles. It is practically 
indelible. By substituting naphthylamine for the aniline 
salt the beautiful naphthylamine violet is produced. 

Aniline Styles.— While the different aniline colors are 
more especially adapted to wool and silk dyeing and print¬ 
ing, they are nevertheless employed to some extent in 
calico-printing, either in the dye-beck or by topical appli¬ 
cation as steam colors. In the former case the cloth is 
printed with (1) albumen, caseine, gluten, or chloride of 
tin, followed by a nutgall decoction to produce insoluble 
tannates, and then passed through an acid solution of the 
aniline color; or the cloth is mordanted with either of the 
above-mentioned substances, the nutgall decoction printed 
on, and then passed through the acidulated color. Single 
tints are thus produced. For use as topical colors, to be 
fixed by steam, the aniline colors are mixed with albumen, 
gluten (either putrid or dissolved in soda-lye, weak acid 
or saccharate of lime), caseine in lye or weak acid, glue, 
tannate of glue, tannic acid, oleo-sulphuric acid, shell-lac 
in borax, arsenious acid in glycerine (method of Alfred 
Paraf), or with a solution of arsenite of alumina in acetate 
of alumina. The last process, devised by Perkin and 
Schultz, is more extensively employed than any other, 
except perhaps that with albumen. Of course in topical 
printing any desired number of aniline colors may be used 
at the same time. Pigment printing involves the applica¬ 
tion of the pigments used in painting to the surface of the 
cloth by means of some cementing agent. Caoutchouc 
dissolved in naphtha was first employed with excellent 
results, but the danger of fire attending the use of naphtha 
has caused the substitution of albumen, caseine, or gluten 
for the caoutchouc. The pigments generally used are 
ultramarine, chrome yellow and orange, Guignet green, 
and lampblack for drabs. Metallic precipitates, as tin pre¬ 
cipitated by zinc, are sometimes printed on cloth. 

Indigo Styles. —Indigo is in some respects a very peculiar 
dye; it is insoluble in its ordinary blue form, C 16 H 10 N 2 O 2 , 
but is changed by reducing agents, such as grape-sugar in 
soda-lye, or protoxide of iron, produced by the action of 
lime on copperas, to colorless, soluble, hydrogenized indigo, 
C 16 II 12 N 2 O 2 . By passing the cloth through such a solu¬ 
tion, and exposing it to the air, the indigo is oxidized and 
becomes blue again, being fixed as an insoluble pigment 
in the fabric. By repeating the treatment any desired 
shade is obtained. By the use of reserve pastes or dis¬ 
charges, with topical printing, white or colored figures on 
a blue ground are produced. Pencil blue is a name given 
to a style of calicoes which were prepared by printing on 


713 


by hand, with a piece of wood called a pencil, the colorless 
reduced indigo. On oxidizing it produced figures in fast 
blue. The China blue or pottery style (so called from its 
resemblance to old china) was once very popular, but, 
owing to its cost and the ease of imitating it with Prussian 
blue, is now almost obsolete. The blue indigo was printed 
on the cloth, forming blue figures on a white ground. To 
render the color fast, the indigo was worked into the cloth 
by treating it alternately with lime and copperas. Resist 
styles involve the use of a resist or reserve which protects 
the cloth in mordanting, dyeing, padding or covering, so 
that the mordant or color does not adhere. Some resists 
act mechanically, as clay, fat, oil, resin, wax, and sulphate 
of lead. Others act chemically, as citric, tartaric, or oxalic 
acid, or bisulphate of potassa, which are printed on cloth 
mordanted with alumina or iron to remove them and pre¬ 
vent the fixing of the color. Sulphate of zinc, sulphate 
and acetate of copper, and chloride of mercury are special 
resists used in indigo styles. White resist, for cylinder 
printing, consists of a mixture of acetate or sulphate of 
copper thickened with gum or dextrine. It is printed on 
the white cloth and allowed to dry. When the cloth is 
handled in the indigo vat containing the soluble colorless 
indigo, it is dyed a uniform blue, the insoluble indigo 
being precipitated as insoluble blue pigment in the fibres, 
except where the resist has been applied. Here the copper 
salt having been changed to oxide of copper by the alkali 
of the vat, the colorless indigo is oxidized by the oxide of 
copper (which becomes suboxide), and deposited on the 
surface. On subsequently passing the dyed goods through 
dilute sulphuric acid, the suboxide of copper is dissolved 
and the indigo detached, leaving white figures on a blue 
ground. Often the resist is mixed so as to contain a mor¬ 
dant for some other color; thus, the resist applied to cloth 
to be dyed in the indigo vat may contain an iron or 
alumina mordant; so that after the ground with the white 
figures is produced, the white becomes colored red, purple, 
or black in the dye-beck with madder, woods, or bark. 
This style is sometimes called lapis, from a remote re¬ 
semblance to lapis lazuli. 

Discharge Style .—After cloth has been uniformly dyed of 
one color, agents called discharges are sometimes emplo} 7 ed 
to remove the color and produce a white pattern , or by 
adding to the discharge certain agents the original color is 
not only removed, but another color takes its place. By 
printing a mixture of tartaric acid with pipeclay and gum 
on a piece of cloth dyed red or purple with madder or wood, 
or blue with indigo, and passing it through weak hypo¬ 
chlorite of lime, the color will be discharged, leaving a 
white pattern. Were a salt of lead added to the mixture, 
it would be fixed by the hypochlorite of lime, and on sub¬ 
sequently passing the cloth through bichromate of potassa, 
would develop chrome yellow in place of the whites. A 
modification of this style is the well-known bandanna 
style for handkerchiefs. Several folds of cloth dyed Tur¬ 
key red with madder are placed between perforated lead 
plates, and firmly squeezed together in a hydraulic press. 
A solution of chlorine is forced through the perforations, 
destroying the color. This is followed by water, and on 
removing the cloth from the press it is found to present 
white figures on a red ground. Indigo is oxidized to solu¬ 
ble isatine (C 16 H 10 N 2 O 4 .H 20 ), which is removed by washing, 
by the action of chromic acid (applied in the form of bi¬ 
chromate of potash), or by a mixture of potash and ferri- 
cyanide of potassium. Keducing agents are also employed 
as dischargers, especially the protochloride of tin, or tin 
salt. When this compound comes in contact with oxide 
of iron, a soluble protochloride of iron is formed, which is 
readily removed by washing, while at the same time the 
sesquioxide of tin (SuO,SuC> 2 ) is fixed upon the cloth, and 
is ready to fix red or yellow dyes on the spots treated. 

Combination Styles .—By combining two or more of the 
above styles the greatest variety of result may be obtained. 
Some of the finest French and English cretonnes exhibit the 
most elaborate designs and most pure and brilliant colors, 
and are really works of art. (For further details see 
Ure’s “ Dictionary;” Muspratt’s “ Dictionary,” especially 
the last German edition, from which the cuts used to illus¬ 
trate this article were obtained; Schutzenberger’s “ Traits 
des Matieres Colorantes,” especially the German edition; 
O’Neill’s “ Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico-Printing,” 
and Krieg’s “Theorie und Practische Anwendung von 
Anilin in der Farberei und Druckerci;” the annual vol¬ 
umes of Wagner’s “ Jahresbericht ueber die Fortschritte 
der Chemischen Technologic.” The following periodicals 
are especially devoted to dyeing and calico-printing: 
“Moniteur de la Tcinture;” 11 Bulletin de la Soci6tc In- 
dustriello do Mulhouse;” Reimann’s “Farberzeitung; 
“Die Musterzeitung fur Farberei, Druckerei, etc. bee 
also Mousseline de laine, Silk-Printing, and \\ ool- 
Printing.) C. F Chandler. 











CALICUT—CALIFORNIA. 


714 


Cal'icut, or Kalikat, a seaport-town of British In¬ 
dia, presidency of Madras, on the Indian Ocean, 102 miles 
S. W. of Seringapatam, and about 570 miles S. S. E. of 
Bombay; lat. 11° 15' N., Ion. 75° 46' E. It was the first 
place in India visited by Vasco da Gama, who arrived 
here in May, 1498. It was then a populous and important 
city, and it continued to be for nearly two centuries a 
flourishing emporium. Its prosperity afterwards declined, 
partly because its harbor became filled with sand. Pop. 
about 24,000. 

Califor'nia, one of the Pacific States of the American 
Union, lying between the parallels of 32° 28' and 42° N. 



California Seal. 


lat., and between the meridians of 114° 30' and 124° 45' 
W. Ion., from Greenwich. It formed a part of the cession 
and purchase from Mexico after the Mexican war, and is 
bounded on the N. by Oregon, E. by Nevada and Arizona, 
the Colorado River being the dividing-line between it and 
Arizona, S. by Lower California, and W. by the Pacific 
Ocean, which along the whole California coast trends from 
N. W. to S. E. Its area is 188,981 square miles, or 
120,947,840 acres, or somewhat more than the combined 
area of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania. Its 
length is 700 statute miles, and its average breadth more 
than 200 miles. 

Face of the Country .—The mountain-system of Califor¬ 
nia, vast in extent, diversified in character, abounding in 
mineral wealth, and unsurpassed in beauty and grandeur 
of scenery, deserves our first attention. It may be classed 
under two grand divisions: the Sierra Nevada, extending 
along the eastern border, and the Coast Range, along the 
western—near the sea, as its name implies. These ranges, 
uniting on the S. near Fort Tejon, in latitude 35° N., and 
again in latitude 40° 35', form the extensive and fertile 
valleys of the San Joaquin and Sacramento. These divis¬ 
ions embrace many separate groups of mountain-chains 
differing in geological formation and mineral character. 
The Sierras, or Snowy Mountains, comprise a series of 
ranges 70 miles in width, while the several chains of the 
Coast Range aggregate 40 miles in width, and extend from 
the northern to the southern limits of California. The 
Sierras may be traced in regular order for a great distance 
in two lines of culminating crests, but there is no apparent 
order in the position and direction of the peaks of the 
Coast Range, and many of the high mountains in close 
proximity to each other are remarkably different in their 
mineral composition. The peaks of this range rise to a 
height of 1500 to 8000 feet above the level of the sea. The 
peaks of the Sierra Nevada—Mount Shasta, Lassens Butte, 
Spanish Peak, Pyramid Peak, Mounts Dana, Lyell, 
Brewer, Tyndall, Whitney, and a number of others— 
reach from 10,000 to 15,000 feet above the sea. E. of the 
culminating crest of the Sierras is situated a series of 
lakes—of which Klamath, Pyramid, Mono, and Owens 
lakes, wholly E. of the mountains, and Lake Tahoe— 
occupying an elevated valley at a point where the range 
separates into two summits. The southern limit of the 
depression in which these lakes are located is at the con¬ 
fluence of the Colorado and Gila rivers. A similar de¬ 
pression exists on the western slope of these mountains, 
about 50 miles in width, also containing a series of lakes. 

The section of country lying E. of the range of cul¬ 
minating peaks of the Sierras is termed the Eastern Slope. 
The depression between the foot-hills of the Sierras and 
the Coast Range is called the California Valley, while the 
Coast Range forms still another section. A further geo¬ 
graphical division is made by drawing an E. and W. line 
across the State in the latitude of Fort Tejon, that part 
lying S. of this line being termed Southern California. 


The country between this line and one extending E. and 
W. through Trinity, Humboldt, Tehama, and Plumas 
counties, is called Central California; all N. of this is con¬ 
sidered as Northern California. Central California contains 
nearly seven-eighths of the known wealth and population 
of the State. 

The most thoroughly explored division of the Coast 
Mountains is the Mount Diablo Range, about 150 miles in 
length by 50 in width. The peak from which this range 
takes its name was selected as one of the three initial 
points governing the public surveys in the State, its iso¬ 
lated position rendering it a marked feature of the land¬ 
scape, whether viewed by land or sea, while from its sum¬ 
mit may be had a more extended view than from almost 
any other point in the State. On the N., E., and S. may 
be seen a large portion of the magnificent valleys of the 
Sacramento and San Joaquin, with the numerous flourish¬ 
ing towns and villages, surrounded by highly cultivated 
farms. Stretching away in the distance are the verdant 
plains and hill-sides, dotted with ranches and teeming 
with countless flocks and herds. Bordei’ing this extensive 
vista on the E., and stretching along the horizon for more 
than 300 miles, rise the Sierras, range above range, their 
rugged peaks extending upward to the regions of perpetual 
snow. On the W. are the beautiful valleys of the Coast 
Range; the busy city of San Francisco, with its broad bay, 
in which the ships of every commercial nation ride at an¬ 
chor, and in the distance the blue waters of the Pacific, 
flecked with the white sails of numerous vessels jflying to 
and fro on the peaceful errands of commerce. 

The most interesting and picturesque feature of Califor¬ 
nia mountain-scenery is the Yosemite Valley, six or eight 
miles in length, with an average width oX not more than 
half a mile, enclosed by perpendicular walls of granite 
rising from 3000 to 5000 feet. Over these walls pour 
streams of water from the narrow valleys above, some of 
them passing into mist long before they reach the bottom 
of the valley; others leaping by a series of falls from 400 
to 600 feet each ; the Yosemite Fall is 2600 feet in height, 
or fifteen times that of Niagara. Through the centre of 
the valley, among verdant meadows, groves of majestic 
oaks and pines, and thickets of willow, birch, and bay 
trees, winds the Merced River, which enters the valley by 
a descent of 2000 feet in two miles. This valley has been 
ceded by Congress to the State of California, to be held as 
a place of public resort. 

On the whole coast of California but one navigable river, 
the Salinas, connects directly with the ocean; but a num¬ 
ber, navigable for steamers, flow into San Francisco, San 
Pablo, and Suisun bays, and are hence equally important 
for the purposes of trade and commerce as if they emptied 
directly into the ocean. Of these the principal are the 
Sacramento and San Joaquin, the former navigable for 
steamers and sailing vessels as far as Sacramento City at 
all seasons of the year, and by small steamers far beyond, 
into the interior of the country. The San Joaquin, which 
traverses one of the most beautiful and fertile regions in 
all California, is navigable for moderate-sized steamers 
within a few miles of Fort Miller, near the foot of the 
Sierras. N. of the Golden Gate are a number of rivers 
of considerable magnitude, but their rapid descent from 
the interior precludes their use for the purpose of navi¬ 
gation. 

Of the harbors of California, that of San Francisco ranks 
fh'st—indeed it is the most commodious on the Pacific 
coast—being 50 miles in length and 9 in width, securely 
landlocked, protected by surrounding hills from the violent 
winds of every quarter, and approached by the Golden 
Gate, 5 miles in length, with a width of 1 mile, in which, 
notwithstanding the rapid outward current at ebb tide, there 
is never less than 30 feet of water. Next in importance is 
San Diego, 456 miles S. of San Francisco, and near the 
southern boundary of the State. It is protected on all 
sides from violent winds, easily approached through a chan¬ 
nel half a mile in width, and of sufficient depth to float the 
largest vessels at all times. It has not, however, the ad¬ 
vantages of San Francisco for inland traffic, though, if 
connected with the East by a continental railway, it might 
prove a formidable rival. The harbor of San Pedro, 370 
miles S. of the Golden Gate, is formed by a spur from Point 
St. Vincent and Deadman’s Island. This harbor is shelter¬ 
ed from all but southerly winds, yet the water for several 
miles from the mainland is very shallow, vessels being com¬ 
pelled to anchor two miles from the shore, and to receive 
and discharge their cargoes by means of lighters. The 
other harbors are San Luis Obispo, 200 miles, Monterey 
Bay, 92 miles, Santa Cruz Harbor, 80 miles, and Half 
Moon Bay, 46 miles, S. of San Francisco; and Drake’s, 
Tomales, Bodega, and Trinidad bays, and Crescent City 
Harbor, N. of the Golden Gate. These are all more or less 
exposed to gales from certain points of the compass, and 

























CALIFORNIA. 


in order to render them perfectly secure breakwaters and 
other improvements are needed. 

There are a number of islands off the coast of California, 
varying in size from a few acres to 150 square miles, the 
smaller ones being extremely rugged, and inhabited only 
by seals, sea-lions, and aquatic birds, Avhile several of the 
larger are adapted to grazing; and on Santa Catalina Isl¬ 
and several of the small valleys are under cultivation. 

The arable lands of the State, including those which only 
need irrigation to make them largely productive, and the 
reclaimed title or swamp-lands, which when reclaimed and 
protected from overflow yield the largest crops in the world, 
comprise nearly 60,000,000 acres, or almost one-half the area 
of the State; while those adapted to grazing and vinicul¬ 
ture are estimated at nearly 40,000,000 more. The remainder 
of the surface is covered by lakes, rivers, bays, salt lakes, 
etc., and by mountain-ranges, which, too steejA for cultiva¬ 
tion, are often covered with heavy timber. Still, the State 
has but a vei-y small proportion (only 477,880 in farms, and 
but 9,604,607 acres in all; only about one-thirteentli of 
her territory) in woodland, and this is rapidly diminishing. 

Geology .—The Coast Range and its foot-hills belong in 
general to the tertiary formation, but at San Pedro Bay 
the cretaceous rocks come to the coast, and these in turn, 
from the mouth of the Margarita River southward, are re¬ 
placed by the recent alluvial formation, which extends S. E. 
to the head of the Gulf of California. At two points of 
the Coast Range there crop out beds of tertiary coal or lig¬ 
nite—viz. at the Monte Diablo coal-mines, in Contra Cos¬ 
ta co., in the vicinity of the San Joaquin River, though 
about 800 or 900 feet above it; these are the only coal¬ 
mines as yet worked to any extent in the State, and yield 
about 120,000 tons annually; and a second and more recent¬ 
ly discovered outcrop of similar character in Mendocino 
co., not yet exploited. The valley, or rather succession of 
valleys, already described as lying between the Coast Range 
and the Sierras are mostly of the cretaceous formation, 
though in the extreme S. they rise into the alluvial sands. 
But a small portion of these valleys contain gold, except 
in placers washed down from the mountains ; but occasion¬ 
ally there have been found considerable quantities of gold 
and silver in metamorphic rocks belonging as high up in 
the series as the cretaceous. Still, the greater portion of 
the auriferous and argentiferous rocks of the State belong 
to the triassic and Jurassic strata, which form the surface- 
rocks of the Sierra Nevada, and extend from the Columbia 
River nearly to the head of the- Gulf of California. It is 
in the rocks of these strata that the greater part of the 
gold and silver deposits of the region, from the foot-hills 
of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, occur. W. of the 
Sierras, in the vicinity of the upper waters of Kern River 
and its tributaries, is a volcanic region, where basaltic and 
porphyritic rocks, sulphur and chalybeate springs, deposits 
of sulphur, and extensive tracts of lava and lava-ashes are 
found. A somewhat similar region exists in Sonoma co., 
in what are known as the Geysers. Much of the region E. 
of the Sierras is of recent formation, and is sterile and for¬ 
bidding to the last degree. The lakes or sinks, often very 
deep, are always salt and bitter, and often without water 
most of the year, but the beds of the lakes are covered with 
alkaline deposits. The famous Death Valley, the Dry 
Lakes, Dry Salt Lake, Owen’s Lake, and other sinks of 
this region give striking evidence of its former volcanic 
character, and of the great changes which have taken place, 
some of them within modern times, in this part of the State. 
The earthquakes of 1871 were most violent in this section. 

Mineralogy .—Gold is found pure in scales, nuggets, 
crystals, and in combination with cinnabar, bitumen, tel¬ 
lurium, iridosmine, etc. The yield of the California gold¬ 
mines has been immense. Silver is found native, though 
rarely, but largely in combination with copper, as copper 
glance, with galena, as proustite, or red silver ore, kuargy- 
rite, etc. Copper exists native at various localities, as 
malachite, copper glance, eubescite, azurite, chalcopyrite, 
and chrysocolla, and in combination with sulphur, etc. 
Mercury in the cinnabar ore is very abundant throughout 
the Coast Range, as coccinite in Santa Barbara, and native 
in the “ Pioneer Claim” and elsewhere. Lead is abundant 
as galena ore all over the State, and the molybdate of lead 
(wulfenite) is found at one or two localities. Tin, in the 
form of cassiterite or binoxide of tin, is found in the Tem- 
escal Range, about 60 miles from Los Angeles. Arsenic 
occurs pure in Monterey co., and as arsenilite in one or two 
localities; iron as chromic iron, as hematite; tellurium, 
native, and in combination. Diamonds are found in sev¬ 
eral localities; graphite in Tuolumne co. and elsewhere; 
borax and boracic acid, salt as rock-salt, sulphur, carbon¬ 
ate of soda, gypsum, barytes, antimony, ochre, alabaster, 
fluor spar, corundum and cobalt, in the form of erythrine, 
abound in various parts of the State. Magnesite, iridos¬ 
mine, magnetite, limonite, tourmaline, pyrolusite (bin- 


715 


oxide of manganese), zircon, garnets, chrysolite, and liay- 
sine are the other principal minerals. Coal, as has been 
already mentioned, occurs in two or more localities. Petro¬ 
leum and bitumen are found all along the coast counties. 

Vegetation .—There are 48 genera and 105 species of 
forest trees in California, the greater pai't not only in¬ 
digenous, but peculiar to the Pacific slope. Of these, 40 
species are evergreens, found mostly on the mountain's of 
the Coast Range and the Sierras. Most remarkable of 
these are the two species of Sequoia (the Sequoia gigantea 
or mammoth tree), of which there are seven or eight groves 
known in the State. Some of these trees have attained a 
height of 450 feet, with a circumference near the ground of 
120 feet or more. The largest now standing is said to be 
376 feet in height and about 106 feet in circumference. This 
tree seems to belong to the cedar family; its wood is soft, 
elastic, straight-grained, light when dry, and red in color. 
The Sequoia sempervirens, or California redwood, is a very 
stately tree, attaining a height of 300 feet and from 75 to 80 
feet in circumference. This is the most valuable timber-tree 
of California, though confined to the upper portion of the 
Coast Range, not appearing below San Luis de Obispo, and 
but sparingly below San Francisco. When felled, it is re¬ 
placed by other trees. The sugar-pine (Pinus Lambertiana) 
is the peer of the redwood in size and commercial value. 
Its wood is white, straight-grained, clear, and free-split- 
ting. Its height is sometimes 300 feet and its circumfer¬ 
ence 45. It has cones eighteen inches long and four thick; 
a sweetish resinous gum exudes from the harder portion of 
the wood, tasting much like manna and having cathartic 
properties. There are fifteen other species of pine, of 
which the Pinus ponderosa, or yellow pine, 225 feet high, 
the Sabiniana, or Sabine’s pine, 140 feet, and the insignis, 
or Monterey jnne, 100 feet, are the most remarkable. The 
yellow and Monterey pine are similar to our yellow or 
pitch-pines at the East, and are in demand for flooring 
purposes. Sabine’s pine is the nut-pine, having an edible 
cone or nut, much valued by the Indians. The other spe¬ 
cies rise from 30 to 100 feet in height, but are not so much 
prized as those we have named. There are six species of 
true fir, one of them (Abies Douglasii, Douglas’s spruce) 
300 feet in height, and three of the others stately trees 100 
feet or more in height; the Western balsam fir (Picea 
grandis) grows to the height of 150 feet. The California 
white cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) is a very stately tree, 
140 to 150 feet in height. There are also four species of 
cypress, three of juniper, two of arborvitae, and one of yew 
(Taxus brevifolia), which attains to the height of 75 feet. 
The wild nutmeg (Torreya Californica ), the California 
laurel (Oreodaphne Calif ornica), the Arbutus Menziesii, or 
madrona, and the Arctostaphylos glauca, or manzanita, 
are all beautiful and remarkable evergreens. There are 
twelve species of oak, two of them live-oaks or evergreens, 
the rest deciduous. The burr-oak is the largest and state¬ 
liest, but its wood, like most of the others, is principally 
A r aluable for fuel. The Quercus Garryana, sometimes called 
white oak, though not a large tree, has a dense, fine-grained 
Avood, used for making agricultural implements. There is 
one member of the chestnut family, the Western chinqua¬ 
pin, Avhich is a fine tree, sometimes attaining a height of 
125 feet. There are four acacias, none of them remark¬ 
able; three poplars or cottonwoods, one of them a fine 
shade-tree; two alders; the Mexican sycamore; one species 
of walnut (Juglam rupestris), a fine tree; three species of 
cornel or dogwood, all differing from the Eastern cornels; 
four of the wild lilac; two of the wild cherry, both shrubs 
rather than trees; two maples, Acer macrophyllum, here 
called Avhite maple, a stately and beautiful tree, and Acer 
circinatum , or vine maple, a smaller tree, found only in the 
mountains. There are three yuccas, two species of wil¬ 
low, a box elder, an Oregon ash, and the flowering ash, 
Avhich is not a true ash; a species of buckeye, one of iron- 
wood, a Parkinsonia or greemvood, small but elegant; two 
species of cactus, a persimmon, the pistachio-nut, and 
many species of semi-tropical trees which are unknown 
elsewhere. The shrubs and small fruits are numerous. 
There is but one species of native grape, which is found 
in Southern California, but most of the European and 
Eastern A r ines flourish well in the foot-hills, and the cul¬ 
ture of the vine is becoming one of the great industries of 
California. The edible berries and fruits of California aro 
A r ery abundant, though in the wild state most of them are 
inferior in size and flaA r or to those of the Atlantic coast. 
Medicinal plants and shrubs abound, and many of them 
possess very valuable qualities. Grasses are very numer¬ 
ous, and many of them highly nutritious, but except in the 
foggy regions along the coast there are hardly any native 
grasses which will make a sod or Avhich are adapted lor 
hay. The wild oat (Arena fatua ) is the principal depend¬ 
ence of the farmer (except cereals sown expressly ten that 
purpose) for fodder. There are twenty-six knoAvn species 











716 CALIFORNIA. 


of these indigenous grasses and grains, but not more than 
four or five of them are of much value for pasturage. Al¬ 
falfa, a species of lucerne clover from Chili, has been largely 
introduced, and is regarded as the best plant for pasture 
and fodder found in the State. The native clovers are 
good, but do not grow very freely or abundantly. Wild 
flowers abound in California, most of them remarkable for 
their beauty of form and color, and a few of them exceed¬ 
ingly fragrant. The lily and syringa families, many of 
them shrubs and even trees, are conspicuous both for beauty 
and fragrancy, filling the air for long distances with their 
perfume. Of cryptogamous plants the quantity and variety 
is simply boundless. More than 100 species of mosses have 
been described, while the mushrooms, sea-weeds, lichens, 
and fungi are still more abundant. 

Zoology .—There are 115 species of mammals in California, 
of which twenty-seven are carnivorous, including the grizzly, 
black, and brown or Mexican bear, the raccoon, badger, 
two species of skunk, the wolverine fisher, American sable 
or marten, mink, and j^ellow-cheeked weasel, California 
otter and sea-otter, the cougar, jaguar, wild-cat or red lynx 
and banded lynx, raccoon fox or mountain cat, gray wolf, 
coyote or barking wolf, five species of fox, three or four 
species of sea-lion, two species of seal, and the sea-elephant. 
Of the insect-eaters there are two species of mole and two 
of shrew; of the bats, sixteen species. Of the rodents 
there are the beaver, the sewellel or mammoth mole, five 
species of ground-squirrels, and five of tree-squirrels. Of 
the mouse family there are eighteen species, including 
three naturalized ones; the muskrat, jumping mouse, four 
species of kangaroo mice, and five of gophers; the yellow¬ 
haired porcupine; six species of hares and rabbits, and a 
coney or rat-rabbit. Of ruminants there are the elk, the 
white-tailed, black-tailed, and mule deer, the American 
antelope, and the mountain-sheep or bighorn. Of the 
Cetacea, there are the right and California gray whale, the 
humpback and finback, two of the beaked whales, the 
sperm whale, the black-fish, and three species of porpoise. 
Of birds there are 350 species recognized as native to Cali¬ 
fornia. There are twenty species of climbers, fifteen of 
them woodpeckers; of birds of prey there are thirty-seven 
species, including five of the eagle family, ten species of 
buzzard-hawks, four hawks, and four falcons; twelve 
species of owls; the king of the vultures, and the turkey- 
buzzard or turkey-vulture. Of the perchers there are 
eleven species in the first group, including the crows, ravens, 
magpies, jays, and kingfishers; in the second and third 
groups, the insectivorous and granivorous perchers, there 
are 148 species, including the flycatchers, humming-birds, 
swallows, waxwings, shrikes, tanagers, robins and thrushes, 
wrens, chickadees, grosbeaks, finches, linnets, larks, orioles, 
and sparrows. The pigeon tribe has but three species in 
the State—the band-tailed pigeon and the turtle and ground 
doves. The grouse family are more numerous—blue grouse, 
sage-fowl, prairie-hen, and ruffed grouse, and three species 
of quail, all distinct from the quails of the Atlantic coast. 
Of the waders there is a great variety, fifty-one species hav¬ 
ing been described. These include cranes, herons, bitterns, 
ibises, plover, kill-deer, avocets, snipes, sandpipers, curlews, 
rails, and coots. The swimmers are still more numerous, 
ninety species having been described, including a great 
variety of geese, brants, teal, ducks, scooters, coots, shel¬ 
drakes, mergansers, pelicans, cormorants, albatrosses, ful¬ 
mars, petrels, gulls, terns, loons, dippers, auks, sea-pigeons, 
and murres. Of the reptiles there are great numbers, though 
there are no true saurians (alligators or crocodiles) in the 
State, and the rattlesnake is the only poisonous serpent. 
There are three tortoises, thirty-one lizards, five rattlesnakes, 
twenty-five species of harmless snakes, twenty-three frogs, 
toads, salamanders, etc. One hundred and ninety-four 
species of fish had been discovered in the lakes, bays, rivers, 
and on the sea-coast of California in 1868, and since that 
time the number has been greatly increased. About 180 
species are edible. These include nine species of the sal¬ 
mon family, four of the cod family, a dozen eels, seven 
species of mackerel, numerous species of the perch family, 
and its congeners; two tautogs—viz. the redlish and kelp- 
fish; thirteen flatfish and flounders; seven species of shad, 
herring, and anchovies; twenty-two carps, and thirty-two 
species of cartilaginous fishes, sturgeons, sharks, rays, sun- 
fish, etc. etc. There are fifty-five species of mollusks, in¬ 
cluding a great variety of clams, oysters, mussels, scollops, 
whelks, limpets, sea-snails, cuttle-fish, squids, nautiluses, 
etc. Of crustaceans there are seven species, including 
crabs, lobsters, shrimps, and crawfish. 

Climate .—Extending over almost ten degrees of latitude, 
the climate of California is too varied to be regarded as a 
whole. It may be divided, in the first place, into the land 
climate and the sea climate. W. of the Coast Range, and 
extending to the sea-shore, the climate is governed by the 
temperature of the ocean. The cold current of water which 


flows out from Behring Strait, and hugs the W. coast of 
the American continent inside of the Kuro-sievo or Pacific 
Gulf Stream, has a temperature of from 52° to 54° the year 
round. From April to October, inclusive, N. or N. W. 
winds prevail, and almost daily during this period a deluge 
of cold damp air, of nearly the same temperature as the 
ocean over which it Has passed, is poured upon the land. 
It is mostly laden with mist in dense clouds, which it de¬ 
posits at the foot-hills and on the slopes of the highlands, or 
carries a short distance into the interior wherever there is 
a break in the mountain-wall which shuts off these mists 
from the sunny valleys of Middle California. The land 
climate is as nearly as possible the opposite of this in every 
respect. It is modified by the configuration of its surface. 
In summer and autumn it is hot and dry. Even the moun¬ 
tains, which retain the snow till a late period in the season, 
have a high temperature in the middle of the day, and the 
presence of snow on their summits in June is due rather to 
the great mass which has accumulated on them than to the 
lowness of the temperature at this season. ' The great in¬ 
terior valleys, as of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, 
have a most torrid temperature in summer. The thermo¬ 
meter in June, July, and August marks at 2 or 3 p. m. 
from 104° to 117° F., sometimes for several successive days. 
Yet this intense heat is not as prostrating as a considerably 
lower temperature on the Atlantic coast, for two reasons: 
1st, the heat is dry, and accompanied by a considerable 
breeze: during those three months the aggregate rainfall 
is seldom more than -^oo °f an inch > au d 2d, the nights 
and mornings are always cool, the average of the nights 
never rising above 70°, and in June not above 65° F. In 
South-eastern California, in the A r alley of the Coloi’ado and 
its vicinity, there is still more intense heat, the mean for 
the month of July for twelve years being upwards of 100° 
at noon, and 91.5° at 9 p. m. The maximum temperature 
of these twelve years was 130° in the shade at 12 m. to 3 
p. m. —a heat unsurpassed, we believe, in any part of the 
torrid zone. In San Francisco, on the contrary, and in 
most of the towns on the coast N. of that port, the summer 
temperature is almost too cool for comfort, from the cause 
we have already assigned. A table of the temperature and 
rainfall in that city for each day of July, 1872, from the 
signal service bureau, gives the monthly average tempe¬ 
rature as only 58°, and the highest mean daily thermom¬ 
eter, that of July 13, was only 63.2°, while on several 
days of the month it was as low as 54°. The entire rain¬ 
fall for the month was only one one-hundredth of an inch. 
It should be said, however, that the range of the thermom¬ 
eter in San Francisco during the year is very small. The 
mean temperature of the year is 56.6°; the mean tempe¬ 
rature of the year at sunrise is 49.5°; and the mean at 
noon 63.7°. The minimum temperature of the year is sel¬ 
dom below 32°, and in some years not below 40°; in the 
average of seventeen years the mercury rose to 90° only 
six times, and but two of these were in the summer months. 
Usually, the maximum is not above 82° or 83°, and the 
entire range of the thermometer for the year seldom ex¬ 
ceeds 50°. This small range and uniform mean of the 
thermometer characterizes the climate of the whole coast- 
region lying W. of the Coast Range. In the nine degrees 
of latitude between the mouth of the Columbia River and 
Monterey the mean temperature of the year varies not 
more than three or four degrees at most, but the summers 
arc hotter and the winters cooler in the northern part than 
in the S. In Yreka, in the extreme noidhern portion of 
the State, an elevated district, the winters are very severe; 
in Jan., 1868, the mercury stood below zero for several 
days in succession, and sometimes twelve to fifteen degrees 
below. Between the coast and the interior valleys there is 
a large district under the joint influence of the two climates, 
and consequently enjoying the most delightful climate in 
the world. This is composed chiefly of valleys surround¬ 
ing the Bay of San Francisco and penetrating into the 
interior in every direction. The sea-breeze, with its clouds 
and abundant moisture, prevents these valleys from being 
parched with drought, tempers the fierceness of the heat, 
and moderates the cold of winter. Except in the northern 
counties there is nothing which can legitimately be called 
winter, the year being divided into the rainy and the dry 
seasons. The rainy season commences in November and 
lasts through April, and the dry season, beginning with 
May, continues to the end of October. These terms, how¬ 
ever, are not used in any absolute sense. During the rainy 
season, oven in San Francisco and on the coast generally, 
no more rain falls than in the Atlantic States during the 
summer. The mean rainfall of eaoh of the rainy months 
for seventeen years (1850-67) in San Francisco was No¬ 
vember, 2.74 inches; December, 5.37 inches; January, 4.51 
inches; February, 3.08 inches; March, 2.76 inches; April, 
1.74 inches. The dry season for the same term of years 
showed the following mean: May, 0.82 inch; June, .05 













CALIFORNIA. 717 


inch; July, .02 inch: August, .01 inch; September, .09 
inch; October, 0.57 inch; or for June, July, August, and 
September, of an inch, and for the whole six months 
1.5G inches. The mean rainfall of the year was 20.79 
inches. In many of the interior towns the yearly average 
is less than this. At Sacramento the yearly mean was 
18.23 inches; at Benicia, 22.86 inches; at Monterey, 12.20; 
at San Diego, 10.43; at Fort Yuma, 3.24. On the other 
hand, among the foot-hills of the Sierras the precipitation 
was very great. At Red Dog, Nevada co., the average 
mean of three years was 64 inches; at South Yuba the 
rainfall of 1866-67 (not an exceptional year) was 81.56. 
Klamath co., in the N. of California, seems to partake of 
the characteristics of the Oregon climate. In 1861-62, 
which was a year of remarkable rains all over the Pacific 
coast, the rainfall in Hoopa Valley, Klamath co., was 
129.15 inches, or almost thirteen feet. The following table 
gives the average temperature and rainfall for each quarter 
and the whole year in several widely separated towns of 
the State for a period of from twelve to seventeen years: 


Places. 

Spring. 

Sum’r. 

Aut'n. 

Winter. 

Year. 

Rainfall. 

San Francisco.... 

56.5° 

60.0° 

59.0° 

51.0° 

56.6° 

20.79 

in. 

Sacramento. 

56.0° 

69.05 

61.0° 

46.5° 

58.0° 

18.23 

tf 

Benicia. 

58.5° 

67.0° 

60.5° 

49.0° 

58.0° 

22.86 

tf 

Monterey. 

54.0° 

59.0° 

57.0° 

51.0° 

55.5° 

12.20 

tf 

San Diego. 

80.0° 

71.0° 

64.5° 

52.5° 

62.0° 

10.43 

u 

Fort Yuma. 

72.0° 

90.0° 

75.5° 

57.0° 

73.5° 

3.24 

if 

Humboldt Bay... 

52.0° 

57.5° 

53.0° 

43.5° 

51.5° 

57.24 

ft 


Agricultural Products .—The assessors of the counties of 
the State reported to the surveyor-general the following as 
the agricultural products of the State in the year 1872: 


Pumpkins and 



Rye, 2899 ac.... 

35,955 “ 

squashes. 

24,535 

ft 

Corn, 39,996 ac. 

1,356,372 “ 

Silk cocoons ... 

106,168 pounds. 

Buckwheat,464 


Broom corn.... 

917 acres. 

acres. 

7,598 “ 

Butter. 

7,734,469 pounds. 

Peas, 2258 ac... 

91,164 “ 

Cheese. 

2,741,198 

ft 

Beets. 

9,647 tons. 

Wool. 

24,255,468 

ft 

Onions, 1645f 


Honev. 

400,922 

ft 

acres . 

143,966 bushels 

Apple* trees. 

1,370,971 number 

Hay, 352,867 ac 

411,420 tons. 

Peach . 

882,338 

ff 

Flax, 4287 ac. 


Pear. 

297,841 

tf 

(seed). 

2,052,200 pounds. 

Plum. 

249,464 

ft 

Hops, 534 ac... 

445,036 “ 

Cherry. 

144,120 

ft 

Tobacco, 1511 


Nectarine. 

43,776 

tf 

acres . 

53,050 “ 

Quince. 

33,940 

ft 

Peanuts, 442 ac 

435,648 “ 

Apricot. 

92,326 

ff 

Beans, 7275 ac. 

137,438 bushels 

Fig. 

52,550 

ff 

Castor beans, 


Lemon. 

8,973 

ft 

765 acres. 

642,800 pounds. 

Orange. 

5,156 

tf 

Potatoes, 


Olive. 

13,282 

it 

31,035s acres 

1,067,256 tons. 

Prunes. 

15,325 

ff 

Sweet potatoes 


Mulberry. 

553,032 

ff 

8974 acres... 

5,2674 tons. 

Almond. 

484,868 

ft 

Brandy. 

147,135 gallons. 

Walnut. 

127,615 

ft 

Wine.. 

4,542,879 “ 

Gooseberry 



Breweries, 137 

3,770,464 “ 

bushes. 

21,187 

ft 

To which are 


Raspberry 



to be added, 


bushes. 

79,084 

ff 

Wheat.13,360,302 bushels 

S t r a w b erry 



Barley. 

528,494 “ 

vines. 

7,524,688 

ft 

Cotton. 

360,000 pounds. 

Grape vines....! 

10,889,366 

tf 




The arrivals of wheat at San Francisco from July to 
Dec., 1872, were 7,069,600 centals = 11,782,666 bushels; 
which indicates what is probably true, that these returns 
of the assessors are considerably below the actual produc¬ 
tion. Four counties made no return of agricultural prod¬ 
ucts. 


The assessors’ report of live-stock for the year 1872 was 


as follows: 

No. 


No. 

Horses. 

. 237,280 

Total neat cattle. 

816,897 

Mules. 

. 24,176 

Sheep . 

3,158,193 

Asses. 

. 1,356 

Cashmere and Angora 


Cows. 

. 260,145 

goats . 

18,073 

Calves. 

. 200,726 

Hogs. 

219,057 

Beef cattle. 

Oxen. 

. 218,454 

7,529 

Hives of bees. 

23,118 | 


The estimates of some kinds of live-stock by the agri¬ 
cultural department at Washington for Jan., 1873, were: 
horses, 250,000, valued at $11,037,500; mules, 25,000, 
valued at $1,776,500 ; oxen and other cattle, 442,200, valued 
at $10,042,362 ; milch cows, 270,000, valued at $11,728,800 ; 
sheep, 4,002,800, valued at $11,888,316; and 427,300 hogs, 
valued at $2,610,803. 

The agricultural products of the State, as was to be ex¬ 
pected from its varied climate and its very rich and deep 
soil, are many of them very different from those of other 
portions of the country. In some sections there are exten¬ 
sive vineyards, and the best of European grapes have been 
planted here and yield bountifully; in the valleys of the 
interior there arc vast crops of the cereals; and the culture 
of the mulberry and rearing of silkworms have become a 


prominent industry. The culture of cotton is also becom¬ 
ing very popular. In Southern California the best-paying 
crops are oranges, lemons, olives, almonds, English walnuts, 
figs, prunes, nectarines, apricots, and pomegranates. The 
culture of the sugar-beet is also becoming an important in¬ 
dustry, and a successful beginning has been made in the 
cultivation of tea and in the raising of coffee. In the 
northern counties butter, cheese, and the hardier fruits 
are produced, and large flocks of sheep are kept, over 
24,000,000 pounds of wool being grown in 1872. In 
short, in one part of the State or another, all the trees, 
fruits, vegetables, and shrubs of the tropical, sub-tropical, 
and temperate regions can be cultivated with success. 

Manufactures and Mining Industry. —The assessors’ re¬ 
turns on these topics are very incomplete, and we are un¬ 
der the necessity of taking those of the census of 1870, 
except on a few points, though these are known to be im¬ 
perfect and under-estimated. The manufacturing statistics 
of California, according to the census, are: manufacturing 
establishments, 3984; steam-engines, 604, of 18,493 horse¬ 
power; water-wheels, 271, of 6877 horse-power; operatives 
employed, 25,392, of whom 24,040 were men, 873 women, 
479 children; capital employed, estimated at $39,728,202; 
wages paid, $13,136,722; raw material used, $35,351,193 ; 
annual product, $66,594,556. More than four-sevenths 
of the entire manufactures ($21,170,956 capital, $7,238,528 
wages, $20,046,321 raw material, and $37,410,829 annual 
product) belonged to San Francisco. The heaviest item 
was flouring and grist-mill products, $9,036,386 of annual 
product; the next largest were those of lumber, sawed and 
planed, and sash doors and blinds, yielding a product of 
$7,066,924. The quartz-mills were either understated or 
have greatly increased since 1870. The census reports 
114, the assessors 311; the census reports the annual pro¬ 
duct at $3,405,708, while the assessors report 572,913 tons 
crushed, which, at the very low rate of $25 per ton (which 
is below probability), would yield $14,322,800. Refined 
sugar was produced, according to the census, in three re¬ 
fineries, to the annual amount of $3,904,645. Of liquors, 
distilled, malt, and vinous, there were produced $3,342,934 
worth in 1870. The production of wines and brandy from 
wines has greatly increased each year since, and in 1872 
these two items alone amounted to $3,944,287. Boots and 
shoes were reported as manufactured to the value of 
$2,214,807 in 1870; tobacco and cigars of the value of 
$1,967,717 were reported in 1870, doubtless an under¬ 
estimate, as the import of unmanufactured tobacco in 1872 
was valued at over $2,000,000, aside from that grown in 
the State, and the expense of manufacture. Printing and 
publishing yielded an annual product in 1870 of $2,279,339 ; 
machinery of various kinds was produced to the value of 
$3,814,817; iron and iron castings and wares to the value 
of $1,715,141; carriages and wagons, $1,309,443 ; carpenter 
work and building, $1,391,163; gas, $1,356,753; brick, 
$1,185,820; blacksmithing, $1,161,790; clothing, $1,828,609; 
woollen goods, $1,102,754 — an evident under-estimate, as 
in 1872 the seven mills reported by the assessors used 
4,191,000 pounds of wool, which, at the ruling price, 32 
cents, made the cost of raw material $1,341,120, and the 
annual product nearly double that sum; and yet this did 
not include all the woollen mills of the State. The only 
other considerable manufactures of the State were cordage 
and twine, $850,000; gunpowder, $526,487; drugs and 
chemicals, $617,870 ; and bags other than paper, $501,310. 

The census of 1870 reports the mining industry of 
California as employing 7589 persons and a capital of 
$20,079,975, producing $8,281,623. Of this amount, 
$817,700 is said to be yielded by cinnabar and other quick¬ 
silver ores, gold in placer, hydraulic, and quartz mining, 
$7,365,833, and silver, $98,100. How far below the truth 
these statistics are will appear from the production of theso 
metals in 1872. Gold and silver were produced in Cali¬ 
fornia in that year to the known value of $19,049,098; the 
export of quicksilver that year was $861,795, which was 
less than one-half the yield; copper ores were exported to 
the value of $120,261. There is also a very considerable 
amount of lignitic coal obtained from the mines already 
mentioned. The greater part of the coal-supply of the 
State is from the lignitic mines of Oregon, British Colum¬ 
bia, Washington Territory, and Wyoming. It is of very 
fair quality, but is generally quite inferior to true coal 
of the carboniferous period. The amount raised is un¬ 
known. 

Railroads. —On the 1st of Jan., 1873, there were 1102 
miles of completed railroad in the State in actual operation, 
nearly all of it controlled, either by lease or purchase, by 
the Central Pacific II. R. Company. The following sum¬ 
mary shows the length of each line and its present termini. 
Of the 882 miles of the Central Pacific R. R. proper, 276 
are comprised between the State lino of Nevada and San 
Francisco. The other lines under its control are: 



















































































718 


CALIFORNIA. 


San Francisco to Holister 94 m. 


Gilroy to Salinas. 37 “ 

Niles to San Josfi. 18 “ 

Lathrop to Tipton.167 “ 

Stockton to Milton. 30 “ 

Peters to Oakdale. 19 “ 

Sacramento to Yallejo. 60 “ 

Davisville to Yuba City.. 50 “ 

Vaca to Vacaville. 7 “ 

Napa Junction to Calis- 
toga. 34 “ 


Roseville Junction to 

Redding.153 m. 

Donahue to Cloverdale.... 56 “ 
San Quentin to San Rafael 4 “ 
Wilmington to Los An¬ 
geles . 22 “ 

Sacramento to Folsom. 23 “ 

Folsom to Shingle Springs 26 “ 
Marysville to Oroville. 26 “ 

Total.1102 “ 


These roads do a fair though not a large passenger 
traffic—the through passengers arriving in California from 
the East over the Central Pacific and Western Pacific in 
1872 being 34,040, and those returning to the East number¬ 
ing 21,645—but their principal business is a freight traffic. 
The through freight sent eastward over the Central Pacific 
in 1872 was 60,120,497 pounds; the westward-bound 
through freight weighed 160,370,044 pounds; while the 
local freight amounted to 1,676,436,753 pounds, making a 
grand aggregate of 948,463.65 tons moved over these 
roads. This is wholly independent of the express freight, 
a large proportion of it bullion and ores, sent over these 
lines by Wells, Fargo & Company’s express. 

Ocean Steamers and Sailing Vessels .—The number of 
passengers arriving in California by ocean routes (Panama 
and China lines) in 1872 was 17,651; the number leaving* 
the State by ocean steamers was 11,305. The freight 
landed at San Francisco in 1872 by the two lines was— 
from Panama, 27,071 tons; from the China line, 26,850 
tons. Notwithstanding the existence of the Pacific R. R. 
and the Panama steamers, there is still considerable freight 
business done by sailing-vessels from New York Ivy way 
of Cape Horn. The freight money received for cargoes of 
all inward-bound vessels, sail and steam, for the year, was 
$5,331,762. 

Finances .—The funded indebtedness of the State Jan. 1, 
1873, was $3,372,500, bearing 7 per cent, interest, payable 
semi-annually, a reduction of $750,000 since 1871. In 
1870 the total assessed valuation of personal and real 
estate in California was $269,644,068; the estimated true 
valuation by the U. S. marshal was $638,767,017. In Jan., 
1873, the assessed valuation of real and personal estate 
liable to taxation for the year 1872 was $636,907,181. In¬ 
cluding property not subject to taxes, and the low valua¬ 
tion, the real amount of real and personal property in the 
State must be more than double this amount. The funded 
debt of the counties at the close of 1872 was $5,701,000, 
and the floating debt $1,448,000. The taxes of all classes 
for 1872 were in round numbers, $9,500,000. 

Commerce and Navigation .—We have no returns of en¬ 
tries or departures of vessels from the smaller ports of Cal¬ 
ifornia, but as these must have been mostly coasting-ves¬ 
sels, and as the district of San Francisco covers the entire 
California coast, the following statement may be relied 
upon as accurate so far as arrivals in 1872 were concerned. 
The clearances of coasting-vessels sailing under a coasting 
license are not reported at the custom-house. 

Arrived. Cleared. 



Vessels. 

Tons. 

Vessels. 

Tons. 

Domestic Atlantic ports. 

84 

96,739 

8 

6,845 

Domestic Pacific ports. 

3,018 

634,872 

213 

143,577 

Great Britain. 

74 

71,623 

201 

197,726 

France. 

8 

4,771 



Germany. 

8 

3,522 



China. 

67 

109,531 

9 

7,783 

Japan . 

12 

4,795 

22 

77(822 

Peru. 

32 

21,063 

56 

32,905 

Chili. 

7 

4,572 

10 

6,772 

Other South American ports. 

4 

1,645 

5 

1,284 

Hawaiian Islands. 

36 

25,160 

36 

26(078 

Society Islands. 

29 

4,454 

28 

3,642 

Philippine Islands. 

11 

8,472 

12 

11,021 

East Indies. 

16 

8,520 

5 

4,985 

Australia. 

78 

87,848 

38 

40,415 

Central America. 

18 

5,078 

13 

2.973 

Mexico. 

34 

13,858 

42 

16(580 

British Columbia. 

51 

40,267 

72 

48,480 

Russian Possessions. 

10 

1,372 

8 

1,423 

Panama. 

28 

77,243 

30 

81(139 

New Zealand. 

... 


1 

1,042 

Other foreign ports. 

9 

1,870 

9 

5(798 

Whaling voyages. 

28 

9,078 

19 

5,947 

Codfishing voyages. 

7 

793 

6 

744 

Salmon-fishing voyages. 

1 

110 



Totals. 

3,670 

1,237,257 

876 

729,981 


The freights on inwai’d cargoes were thus distributed, 
as between American and foreign vessels : 


American vessels from American ports were paid for 

freight. $1,938,383 

American vessels from foreign ports were paid for 

freight. 1,616,973 

Foreign vessels from foreign ports were paid for 

freight. 1,776,406 

Total paid for freights. $5,331,762 


The total domestic exports by sea, except coin and bul¬ 
lion, were as follows, showing the great variety of the pro¬ 
ductions of the State: 


Quantity. Value. 
1,573 $16,123 


Articles. 

Albalones, sks. 

Asphaltum, pkgs. 72 
Barley, 100 lb. 

sks.176,085 

Beans, sks. 5,311 

Bones, pkgs. 727 

Borax, cs. 3,297 

Bran, etc., pkgs. 15,808 
Brandy, gallons 58,155 ) 190 K7n 
Brandy, cases... 94 J 

Bread, pkgs. 10,902 

Brick, M. 51 

Brooms, doz. 9,516 

Broom corn, 

centals. 103 

Coal, pkgs. 247 

Corn, sks. 690 

Fish, salmon, p. 30,717 


227 

222,949 

14,477 

1,300 

94,563 

22,942 


34,974 

577 

24,070 

615 

802 

1,302 

206,675 


Articles. 
Lumber, M. 


Flour, bbls.246,843 1,336,985 


Fruit, bxs. 5,360 

Glue, pkgs. 16 

Hay, bales. 3,603 

Hides, No. 86,683 

Horns, No. 82,494 

Laths, M. 4 

Leather, pkgs.... 4,402 

Lime, bbls. 2,112 

Live-stock, No.. 337 


10,423 

257 

9,358 

380,783 

2,475 

66 

258,778 

4,029 

30,587 


ft... 

Macaroni, bxs... 
Mustard seed, 

100 lb. sks.... 

Oats, 100 lb. sks. 

Onions, pkgs. 

Ores, Copper, ts. 

“ Silver, ts.. 

“ Various, ts 

Pickets, No. 58,856 

4,300 
33,969 
13,098 
73 
428 
120 


Quantity. Value. 

16,517 $309,325 
7,836 


21,041 

18,086 

3,790 

120,261 

206,412 


Posts, No 
Potatoes, pkgs... 
Quicksilver, flks 

Rosin, pkgs. 

Salt, pkgs. 

Seeds, pkgs. 

Shingles, M. 4,243 

Skins, etc. pkgs. 473 

Spars, No. 73 

Spirits turpen¬ 
tine, pkgs. 136 

Tallow, pkgs. 253 

Vegetables, pks 720 


3,653 

5,143 
10,170 
1,575 
2,106 
751 

6,410 1,714,249 
1,104 
537 
54,723 
861,795 
726 
924 
4,574 
11,252 
110,170 
1,392 


1,316 

5,322 

1,872 


Wheat, 100 lb. s. 

6,071,383 10,671,180 
Wine, gallons... 532,241) Sft 9 

Wine, cases. 9,147 j 

Wool, lbs.3,607,71 7 1,124,799 

Total. a.$18,466,495 

The following statements show the articles and amount 
of through and local freight shipped by railroad from Cal¬ 
ifornia in 1872, but not its value : 

Number of pounds through freight moved west-bound over the Central 
Pacific Railroads during the twelve months ending Dec. 31, 1872 : 


Agric’l implements 

Bullion. 

Butter. 

Cheese. 

Coal. 

Crude metal. 

Cartridges. 

Corn meal. 

Car (street). 

Eggs. 

Engines. 

Furniture. 

Fish. 

Game... 

Hogs. 

Hides. 

Ice. 

Iron, bar. 

Iron, sheet. 

Lard. 


4,810,145 

1,903.898 

1,127,662 

858,898 

6,868,135 

903,606 

24,436 

414,546 

21.818 

287.291 

220,364 

702,545 

1,342,974 

21,818 

2,315,476 

376,740 

283,637 

332,411 

87,611 

823,374 


Lumber. 1,947,522 

Mowers. 77,607 

Machinery. 1,445,138 

Meats. 12,968,313 

Merchandise. 100,799,291 


Oil. 

Oysters. 

Ore. 

Paper. 

Staves.. 

Spokes. 

Shovels. 

Sheep . 

Spirits. 

Stock. 

Tobacco. 

Whisky. 

Wagons. 

Wool. 

Yeast powders. 


3.369.184 
658,266 

6,349,132 

757.135 

987,272 

21,818 

161,673 

109,090 

1,091,684 

785.455 

2.430.185 
390,993 

2,694,927 

76,256 

21,818 


Aggregate. 160,370,044 

The tonnage for the month of December is estimated. 

Number of pounds local freight fomvarded over the Central Pacific 
Railroads during the twelve months ending Dec. 31, 1872 : 

Ore. 12,121,295 


21,818 
70,909 
14,560,949 


Bark. 

Brick. 

Base metal. 

Broom corn. 30,448 

Coke. 216,000 

Charcoal. 2,487,273 

Coal. 18,882,302 

Fruit. 1,081,985 

Flour. 519,107 

Grain. 311,039,069 

Hay. 6,882,459 

Ice. 14,613,341 

Lime. 6,282,356 

Lumber. 201,887,950 

Laths.:. 1,492,357 

Mill-stuff... 1,153,964 

Machinery.,. 145,611 

Merchandise. 807,263,935 


Posts. 
Powder. 
Pig iron. 


6,627,897 
458,181 
3,490,590 

Railroad iron. 57,271,646 

Scrap 
Sand . 

Salt... 


iron. 


21,818 
271,691 
4,311,385 
Stone. 16,117,304 


Shingles. 

Shakes. 

Stave bolts. 


5,955,774 
2.926,067 
6,024,677 

Stock. 63,980,000 

Telegraph poles 329.090 


Ties. 37,392,916 

Wine. 110,480 

Wool. 7,321,305 


Wood. 62,692,694 


Total. 1,676,436,753 

The number of pounds for December estimated. 


The shipments of coin, bullion, gold-dust and ores of the 
precious metals from California in 1872, by express and 
other conveyances, except that sent by mail, was $19,049,048. 
The custom-house duties in 1872 were $8,184,481. 

Banks, Savings Banks, Insurance Companies, etc .—There 
were in the State in Nov., 1872, three national gold banks 
and nine State banks; the national banks had an aggregate 
capital of $2,800,000; nine State banks, one, the Bank of 
California, having a capital of $5,000,000, and the other 
eight an aggregate of $3,100,000. There were 20 savings 
banks, ten of them in San Francisco, and the other ten in 
the interior towns. The ten savings banks of San Fran¬ 
cisco had on the 1st of Jan., 1873, 46,060 depositors; the 
amount of the deposits was $42,474,935, their gross earn¬ 
ings were $2,091,113, the reserve fund $1,852,771, the 
amount of their dividends $1,818,406, and the average rate 
of dividend between 9 and 10 per cent. The ten interior 
savings banks had 18,441 depositors; the amount of de¬ 
posits was $8,956,391, the gross earnings were $642,991, 
the reserve fund was $1,870,212, the amount of dividend 
$469,898, and the rate of dividend an average of a little 
more than 11 per cent. There are about sixty private 
banking-houses and agencies of banking companies in the 


















































































































































































CALIFORNIA. 


State. There are seven fire and marine insurance com¬ 
panies in the State, with an aggregate capital of $2,304,725 
capital and about $3,968,000 of assets. There is one 
mutual life insurance company, the Pacific Mutual Life, 
at Sacramento, with $100,000 capital and $1,064,320 assets. 
There are numerous mining and other incorporated com¬ 
panies, of which a part pay regular dividends. 

Education .—Much attention is paid to education in Cali¬ 
fornia. The following table gives a summary of the latest 
report of the superintendent of public instruction, so far 
as public and private schools are concerned, in 1871 and 
1872. The State has a State superintendent, and county 
superintendents of schools for each county: 


School Children. 

1871. 

1872. 

Increase. 

White boys between 5 and 15. 

65,359 

68,840 

3,481 

White girls between 5 and 15. 

62,549 

66,368 

3,819 

Total whites between 5 and 15... 

127,908 

135,208 

7,300 

Negro boys between 5 and 15. 

480 

489 

9 

Negro girls between 5 and 15. 

421 

385 

dec.36 

Total negroes between 5 and 15.. 

901 

874 

dec.27 

Indian boys between 5 and 15. 

765 

708 

dec.57 

Indian girls between 5 and 15. 

542 

571 

29 

Total Indians between 5 and 15. 

1,307 

1,279 

dec.28' 

Total children between 5 and 15 

130,116 

137,361 

7,245 

Whites under 5 years. 

65,799 

69,222 

3,423 

Negroes under 5 vears. 

249 

254 

5 

Indians under 5 years. 

254 

247 

dec.7 

Total children under 5 years. 

66,302 

69,723 

3,421 

Whites between 5 and 15 at public 



9,226 

school. 

83,039 

92,265 

Negroes between 5 and 15 at public 


385 

dec.64 

school. 

449 

Indians between 5 and 15 at public 


144 


school. 

140 

3 

Total bet. 5 and 15 at pub. school 

83,628 

92,794 

9,166 

Number of children in Chinese 




schools. 

1,800 

1,850 

50 

Whites between 5 and 15 at private 




school. 

15,452 

13,677 

dec ...1,775 

Negroes between 5 and 15 at pri- 




vate school. 

58 

90 

32 

Indians between 5 and 15 at private 


20 


school. 

14 

6 

Total bet. 5 and 15 at pri. school 

15,524 

13,787 

dec... 1,737 

Whites between 5 and 15 at no 




school. 

28,587 

29,266 

679 

Negroes between 5 and 15 at no 

399 


school. 

270 

129 

Indians between 5 and 15 at no 




school. 

602 

1,115 

513 

Total bet. 5 and 15 at no school.... 

29,459 

30,780 

1,321 

Total number enrolled. 

91,332 

94,720 

3,388 

Average number belonging. 

72.031 

72,972 

941 

Average daily attendance. 

64,286 

65,700 

1,414 

Percentage of attendance on aver- 

89 

90 


age number belonging. 

1 

Total number of schools. 

1,550 

1,612 

62 

Total male teachers. 

820 

881 

61 

Total female teachers. 

1,232 

1,420 

188 

Total number of teachers. 

2,052 

2,301 

249 

New school-houses erected. 

125 

124 

dec....1 

Number of school-houses. 

1,326 

1,450 

124 

Number of schools maintained 




nine months and over. 

388 

421 

33 

Number of volumes in teachers’ 




libraries. 

10,570 

11,380 

810 


Receipts. 

1871. 

1872. 

Increase. 

State apportionment *... 

County taxes. 

Miscellaneous. 

$423,550 89 
889,622 86 
571,413 09 

$424,021 85 
988,636-21 
719,125 52 

$470 96 
99,013 35 
147,712 43 

Total receipts. 

Expenditures. 

$1,884,586 84 

$2,131,783 58 

$247,196 74 

Teachers’ salaries. 

Sites, etc. 

Libraries . 

Apparatus. 

Rent, fuel, etc.. 

Total expenditures. 

Value of property. 

$1,103,125 14 
390,158 40 
26,766 30 
3,689 46 
204,094 19 

$1,727,833 49 

$3,362,580 18 

$1,282,799 15 
290,119 01 
25,793 54 
4,720 13 
277,900 99 

$1,881,332 82 

$3,822,663 15 

$179,674 01 
f!00,039 39 
|972 76 
1,030 67 
73,806 80 

$153,499 33 

$460,082 97 


The number of inhabitants of all races 10 years old and 
over, unable to write, in 1870, was 31,716, including 2853 
Chinese and 1789 Indians. Of these, 22,196 were of foreign 


* 10 cents on every hundred dollars of taxable property, 
f Decrease. 


719 


birth. Of 1941 white illiterates from ten to fifteen years of 
age, 1092 were males and 849 females; of 2018 white illit¬ 
erates between the ages of fifteen and twenty-one, 1179 
were males and 839 females; and of 22,199 white illiterates 
twenty-one years old and over, 12,362 were males and 9837 
females ; making 26,158 white illiterates in all. Of the col¬ 
ored illiterates, 24 males and 21 females were under fifteen, 
30 males and 34 females between fifteen and twenty-one, 
and 468 males and 339 females over twenty-one; making 
916 colored illiterates in all. 

California is very well supplied with universities, col¬ 
leges, academies, and seminaries for superior and secondary 
instruction. The State Normal School at San Jose is in 
reality a teachers’ college, and is liberally sustained by the 
State government. It has 6 teachers and 181 students, and 
has graduated 270 teachers. There are about twenty insti¬ 
tutions bearing the name of college or university in the 
State, some of them as yet unorganized, except in the pre¬ 
paratory departments, but others institutions of a high 
grade. The University of California, formerly at Oakland, 
but now permanently established at Berkeley, is already an 
institution of great merit, and with some claims to the high 
title of a university. Its president, D. C. Gilman, LL.D., is 
an able and distinguished scientist, and its corps of eigh¬ 
teen professors contains many eminent names. It had in 
1872, 355 students. It is liberally endowed by the State, 
and has also a grant of 150,000 acres of land from the U. S. 
government. The Agricultural College, also situated at 
Berkeley, is to be a department of the university, which 
has a well-endowed professorship of the languages of 
Eastern Asia—a professorship eminently appropriate for a 
California university, since through its Golden Gate the 
nations of Eastern Asia are probably to enter the Western 
World. The California Military Academy at Oakland, 
under the charge of President David McClure, has 10 pro¬ 
fessors and 125 students. The other colleges of the State 
are the Missionary College of St. Augustine at Benicia 
(Protestant Episcopal), with 8 instructors and 94 students; 
St. Vincent’s College, Los Angeles (Roman Catholic), with 
4 instructors and 45 students; St. Ignatius College at San 
Francisco (Roman Catholic), with 19 professors and 450 
students; St. Mary’s College at San Francisco (Roman 
Catholic), with 12 professors and 218 students; University 
College (Presbyterian), also at San Francisco, with 28 in¬ 
structors and 180 students; Franciscan College (Roman 
Catholic), at Santa Barbara, with 9 professors and 40 stu¬ 
dents, all in the preparatory departments; Santa Clara 
College (Roman Catholic), at Santa Clara, with 16 profes¬ 
sors and 80 students, all in the preparatory department; 
University of the Pacific (Methodist Episcopal), at San Jose, 
for both sexes, with 7 instructors; Pacific Methodist College 
(M. E. Church South), at Santa Rosa, with 9 professors 
and 160 students of both sexes; College of Our Lady of 
Guadalupe (Roman Catholic), at Santa Inez, with 5 instruc¬ 
tors and 20 students, all in the preparatory department; 
California College (Baptist), at Vacaville, with 4 professors 
and 68 students; Hesperian College (Disciples), at Wood¬ 
land (female), with 6 professors and 193 students; College 
of Notre Dame at San Jose (Roman Catholic, female), with 
25 professors and 486 students; Female College of the Pa¬ 
cific at Oakland, now, we believe, merged in the State 
university ; Washington College at Washington, for both 
sexes, with 80 students. Of Petaluma College at Peta¬ 
luma, Union College at San Francisco, San Rafael Col¬ 
lege at San Rafael, and Sonoma College at Sonoma, we 
have no recent information. In addition to the agricultural 
and scientific departments of the University of California, 
which receives the Congressional land-grant, there is a 
scientific department to St. Mary’s College, San Francisco, 
which has 5 instructors and 32 students. There are two 
theological seminaries in California—the Pacific Theolog¬ 
ical Seminary at Oakland (Congregational), with 3 profes¬ 
sors and 5 students, and an endowment of $75,000 ; and the 
San Francisco Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), with 
4 professors and 6 students, and 7000 volumes in its library. 
Some of the Roman Catholic colleges have also seminaries 
of theology connected with them. There are two medical 
colleges in the State, both at San Francisco—Toland Med¬ 
ical College, with 10 professors and many students, and the 
Medical College of the Pacific, connected with University 
College, with 10 professors and 28 students. The Califor¬ 
nia Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, at Oakland, 
has 23 instructors and employes, 37 blind and 59 deaf-mute 
pupils. Its property is valued at $250,000, and its annual 
receipts from the State $30,000, and from other sources $100(. 
There arc four or five orphan asylums in the State, all in a 
prosperous condition. There is an industrial school oi re¬ 
formatory for boys at San Francisco, with 243 mm.i cs * 
The Mechanics’ Institute at San Francisco is a very efficient 
institution, having a library of 19,000 volumes, a cabinet, a 
reading-room, and scientific apparatus, and holds biennial 















































































































720 


CALIFORNIA. 


exhibitions, which have always been successful. Its prop¬ 
erty is estimated at $150,000. 

Libraries .—The colleges, schools of higher instruction, 
professional and scientific schools have libraries amounting 
to about 32,000 volumes; and beside these there are the 
following public and society libraries, not including school 
or Sunday-school libraries: 


Location. 

No. 

Vols. 

Location. 

No. 

Vols. 

Sacramento. 

. 1 

42,000 

Stockton. 

. 5 

8,500 

Oakland. 

. 4 

8,000 

Redwood City. 

. 3 

800 

Jackson. 

. 1 

1,200 

Woodside. 

. ... 1 

600 

Pacheco. 

. 1 

300 

San Jos6. 

. 2 

2,800 

Oroville. 

. 1 

1,500 

Santa Clara. 

. 2 

13,300 

Crescent City. 

. 1 

300 

Santa Cruz. 

. 2 

850 

Placerville. 

. 1 

1,800 

Watsonville. 

. 1 

500 

Areata. 

. 1 

300 

Shasta. 

. 1 

500 

Eureka. 

. 1 

200 

Oro Fino. 

. 1 

600 

Sawyer’s Bar. 

. 1 

350 

Scott River. 

. 1 

700 

Los Angeles. 

. 3 

800 

Yreka. 

. 1 

300 

San Quentin. 

. 1 

560 

Benicia. 

. ... 4 

2,200 

Monterey. 

. 1 

1,000 

Vallejo. 

.... 3 

3,200 

Napa City. 

. 1 

400 

Petaluma . 

. 1 

1,000 

Grass Valley. 

. 1 

500 

Knight’s Ferry.... 

. 1 

1,000 

Nevada. 

2 

3,300 

Yuba City. 

. 1 

450 

Auburn. 

. 1 

300 

Red Bluff. 

.... 1 

200 

Spanish Ranch... 

. 1 

500 

Weaverville. 

.... 1 

240 

Meadow Valley.. 

. 1 

400 

Woodland. 

.... 1 

200 

San Diego. 

. 2 

GOO 

Marysville. 

. 4 

6,500 

San Francisco. 


94,000 

Totals. 

.88 

202,450 


Newspapers and Periodicals. —The census of 1870 states 
the entire number of newspapers and periodicals in Cali¬ 
fornia at that time as 201, having an aggregate circulation 
of 491,903, and issuing annually 47,472,756 copies. Of 
these, 33 were dailies, having 94,100 circulation; 4 were tri¬ 
weeklies, having 9500 circulation; 4 semi-weeklies, with 
2700 circulation; 140 weeklies, having an aggregate circu¬ 
lation of 298,603 ; 1 semi-monthly, with 300 circulation; 17 
monthlies, with 82,200 circulation; 2 quarterlies, with 
4500 circulation. Four of these papers (1 weekly and 3 
monthlies) were advertising sheets, having an aggregate 
circulation of 26,000, and issuing 432,000 copies annually; 
two (1 weekly and 1 monthly) were agricultural and hor¬ 
ticultural, with a circulation of 3800, and issuing 165,600 
copies annually; four (3 weeklies and 1 monthly) were the 
organs of benevolent or secret societies, and had a circula¬ 
tion of 18,000, and issued 536,000 copies annually; fifteen 
(2 dailies, 2 tri-weeklies, 8 weeklies, 2 monthlies, and 1 
quarterly) were commercial and financial, with an aggre¬ 
gate circulation of 31,600, and issuing 2,906,600 copies 
annually; six (4 weeklies and 2 monthlies) were illustrated 
literary or miscellaneous periodicals, having a circulation 
of 47,000, and a total annual issue of 2,084,000 copies; 
seven (2 dailies, 1 tri-weekly, 2 semi-weeklies, and 2 week¬ 
lies) were devoted to the different nationalities represented 
in California; these had a total circulation of 13,950, and 
an annual issue of 2,697,800 copies. One hundred and 
forty-one (viz. 28 dailies, 1 tri-weekly, 2 semi-weeklies, 108 
weeklies, and 2 monthlies, the whole having a circulation 
of 239,253, and an annual issue of 33,849,556) were politi¬ 
cal and the organs of the great parties. Fourteen (11 
weeklies, 1 semi-monthly, and 2 monthlies) were religious; 
these had a circulation of 93,400, and a total annual issue 
of 3,968,400 copies. There was one weekly sporting paper 
with a circulation of 4000, and an annual issue of 208,000 
copies ; there were seven technical and professional journals 
(1 daily, 1 weekly, 4 monthly, and 1 quarterly), with a 
circulation of 14,900, and a total annual issue of 624,800. 

Churches. —The census of 1870 reports 643 churches of 
all denominations in the State, 532 church edifices, 195,558 
sittings, and $7,404,235 of church property. Of these, 
there are reported 60 Baptist churches, 44 church edifices, 
16,775 sittings, and $271,600 church property. The Bap¬ 
tist “ Year Book” for 1873 reports, in 1872, 5 associations, 
82 Baptist churches, 74 ordained ministers, and 3628 mem¬ 
bers; 62 Sabbath schools, 1240 teachers, 3200 scholars; 
$34,318 of benevolent contributions. The census reports 
30 “ Christian ” churches, 22 church edifices, 6380 sittings, 
$34,160 of church property. It also reports 40 Congrega¬ 
tional churches, 36 church edifices, 11,915 sittings, $282,400 
church property; the “ Congregational Quarterly ” for Jan., 
1873, reports, in 1872, 55 churches, 55 ordained ministers, 
2577 members, 5274 children in Sabbath schools; church 
property, $378,270; benevolent contributions, $44,616. 
The census reports 45 Episcopal churches, 38 church edi¬ 
fices, 13,095 sittings, $398,200 of church property. The 
“ Episcopal Almanac ” for 1873 reports, in 1872, 41 parishes 
and missions, 53 clergymen, 2741 communicants, 357 S. S. 
teachers, 3398 S. S. scholars, $50,460 of benevolent contri¬ 
butions. There was in 1870 one church and one church 
edifice of the Evangelical Association, with 200 sittings 
and $5000 property. There were the same year 2 societies 
and 2 meeting-houses of Friends, with 500 sittings and 
$16,000 property. There were also 7 Jewish congregations 
and 7 synagogues, with 3610 sittings and $314,600 of church 


property. There were 6 Lutheran churches, with 6 church 
edifices, 5350 sittings, and $54,000 church property. The 
census reported 184 Methodist churches, 155 church edifices, 
43,035 sittings, $677,625 of church property. In 1872 the 
Methodist Episcopal Church North reported 147 churches, 
134 travelling and 109 local preachers, 6242 members, 
$679,950 of church property, 133 Sunday-schools, 1417 
teachers, 9730 scholars, and about $7200 in benevolent con¬ 
tributions* The Methodist Episcopal Church South the 
same year reported 60 travelling and 69 local preachers, 63 
churches, 3749 members, and $2340 collections for benev¬ 
olent objects. The census reports 7 Chinese congregations, 
with 5 temples, sittings 2600, property $22,500; two con¬ 
gregations of the Greek Church, 2 church edifices, $6000 
of property; 4 Mormon societies, 3 edifices, 550 sittings, 
$3100 property; 1 New Jerusalem (Swedcnborgian) con¬ 
gregation, 1 church edifice, 400 sittings, $12,000 property; 
79 Presbyterian (regular) churches, 59 church edifices, 
21,798 sittings, $453,050 of church property. In 1872 the 
“ Presbyterian Almanac ” gave in the S} r nod of the Pacific 
(General Assembly of the Church North), -which embraces 
somewhat more than the limits of California, 89 ministers, 
83 churches, 5292 communicants, 7157 S. S. scholars, and 
$140,400 benevolent contributions and church support. The 
census reported, in 1870, 160 Roman Catholic churches, 144 
church edifices, 66,640 sittings, $4,692,200 of church prop¬ 
erty. The “ Catholic Almanac” for 1873 gives, in 1872, 
181 churches, chapels, and stations, 161 church edifices, 173 
priests, and over 100,000 estimated adherent Catholic pop¬ 
ulation. The census also reports 3 Second Advent churches, 
3 church edifices, 300 sittings, $4000 of church prop¬ 
erty; 6 Spiritualist organizations, with 2 edifices, 750 sit¬ 
tings, and $3300 of property; two Unitarian societies, 
with 2 church edifices, 1400 sittings, $151,000 church prop- 
erty; 3 churches of United Brethren in Christ (German 
Methodists), with 1 church edifice, 100 sittings, $500 of 
church property; 1 IJniversalist society, with 1 church edi¬ 
fice, 160 sittings, $3000 of property. 

Population .—The true population of California in 1870, 
including nomadic Indians and Indians sustaining tribal 
relations, was 582,031. The Indiaus in the State number 
29,025, of whom 21,784 sustain tribal relations, and are 
not usually reckoned among the population of the State. 
As the State came into the Union in 1848, the census of 
1850 was the first in which it appeared; its population 
was then 92,597, of whom 91,635 were whites, 962 colored, 
and no enumeration was made of the Indians. In 1860 the 
population was 379,994, of whom 323,177 were whites, 
4086 colored, 34,933 Chinese, 17,798 Indians. In 1870 
there were, excluding tribal Indians, 560,247 inhabitants, 
of whom 499,424 were whites, 4272 colored, 49,310 Chinese 
and Japanese, and 7241 civilized Indians. The density 
of the population to the square mile in 1850 was .049; in 
1860, 2.01; in 1870, 2.29. Of the 560,247 inhabitants in 
1870, 349,479 were males and 210,768 females; 350,416 
(199,421 males and 150,995 females) were native born; 
209,831 (150,058 males and 59,773 females) wei'e of foreign 
birth. Of the 499,424 whites, 297,648 were males and 
201,776 females. Of the 4272 colored, 2514 were males 
and 1758 females. Of the 49,310 Chinese and Japanese, 
45,429 were males and 3881 females; 487 of these (290 
males and 197 females) were born in California. Of the 
7241 civilized Indians, 3888 were males and 3353 females; 
of these, 6895 were natives and 346 of foreign birth. Of 
the entire population, 71,086 males and 66,043 females 
wei’e between five and eighteen years of age; of these, 
64,203 males and 62,083 females were native born, and 
6883 males and 3960 females of foreign birth; 66,446 
males and 64,340 females were white; 484 males and 464 
females colored; 3123 males and 449 females Chinese; and 
1033 males and 790 females Indians. There were 194,935 
males of all races between eighteen and forty-five years of 
age; of these, 77,828 were natives, 117,107 foreigners, 
154,200 whites, 1264 colored, 37,800 Chinese, 1671 Indians. 
There were 227,256 males of all classes of twenty-one 
years old and upward; of these, 145,802 were citizens, 
1812 Indians, 36,890 Chinese, and the remainder foreigners 
not naturalized. 

Constitution, Courts, etc .—The constitution of the State 
was adopted in 1850, and, though it has been modified and 
amended in a few particulars, is still the organic law of the 
State. By its provisions all legal distinctions between in¬ 
dividuals on religious grounds are prohibited; the utmost 
freedom of assembling, of speech, and of the press is al¬ 
lowed, subject only to restraint for abuse; in trials for libel 
the jury are required to judge upon the law and the fact, 
and proof of the truth of the charges and of the good in¬ 
tentions of the writer is made a bar to damages ; foreigners 
who are actual residents have the same rights in regard to 
property as citizens; there is to be no imprisonment for 
debt, except where fraud can be proved; slavery and in- 




























































CALIFOKNIA. 


voluntary servitude, except for crime, were prohibited; 
wives were secured in their separate rights of property 
beyond their husbands’ control; the exemption of apart 
of the homestead and of other property of heads of fam¬ 
ilies from forced sale was recognized; no public debt was 
to be created exceeding at any time the sum of $300,000, 
except upon a specific vote of the people, and then only 
within certain specified limits (this provision was subse¬ 
quently modified by vote of the people); no divorce could 
be granted by the legislature; lotteries and the sale of 
lottery-tickets were prohibited; corporations and joint- 
stock companies were to be organized only under general 
laws, and the stockholders were to be individually liable 
for corporate debts; no charters for banking purposes were 
ever to be granted (this was subsequently modified), and 
the circulation of paper money in any form was prohibited 
(this, too, has been modified, though the circulating me¬ 
dium of the State has always been gold and silver); the 
credit of the State was not to be loaned to any individual 
or corporation, nor was the State ever to become a stock¬ 
holder in any corporation. On the qualifications of electors 
the constitution provides that every white male citizen of 
the U. S., and every white male citizen of Mexico who shall 
have elected to become a citizen of the U. S. under the 
treaty of peace exchanged and ratified at Queretaro May 
30, 1848, of the age of twenty-one years, who shall have 
been a resident of the State six months next preceding the 
election, and of the county or district in which he claims 
his vote thirty days, shall be entitled to vote at all elections 
which are now or hereafter may be authorized by law. The 
ratification of the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to 
the Constitution of the U. S. led to such a modification of 
this provision as permitted the negroes to vote, but the 
elective franchise has not yet been permitted to the Chinese. 
Convicts and idiotic persons are excluded from the fran¬ 
chise. The legislative department of the State government 
consists of a senate of 40 persons, elected for four years, 
one-half being elected every second year; and a House of 
Representatives, 80 in number, elected for two years. All 
citizens who have resided for one year in the State, and for 
six months in the district, are eligible for membership. The 
executive department consists of a governor, lieutenant- 
governor, comptroller, treasurer, attorney-general, sur¬ 
veyor-general, and superintendent of public instruction, all 
of whom are chosen for the term of four years, commencing 
with the first Monday in December after the election. The 
judiciary consists—1st, of a supreme court, with a chief- 
justice and four associate justices, having appellate juris¬ 
diction in all cases in equity, in all cases at law involving 
the title or possession of real estate, or the legality of any 
tax, toll, fine, etc., or in which the matter in controversy 
exceeds $300 ; also in all cases arising in the probate courts, 
and in all criminal cases amounting to felony on questions 
of law alone. It has power to issue writs of mandamus, 
cei'tiorari, prohibition, and habeas corpus, and all writs 
necessary and proper to the exercise of its appellate juris¬ 
diction. 2d, of district courts, of which there are now 
fourteen, one to each judicial district. Those courts have 
original and co-ordinate jurisdiction in all cases in equity 
and law in which the supreme court has appellate jurisdic¬ 
tion. They have criminal jurisdiction in criminal cases 
not otherwise provided for. 3d, of county courts, having 
original jurisdiction of actions of forcible entry and de¬ 
tainer, insolvency, nuisance, and of all such special cases 
as are not otherwise provided for. A justice of the supreme 
court may issue writs of habeas corpus in and to any part 
of the State; a district judge in and to any part of his 
district; and a county judge in and to any part of his 
county. The justices of the supreme court are elected by 
the qualified electors of the State at special elections for 
judicial officers, and no others, except the superintendent 
of public instruction, for a term of ten years; judges of 
district courts by the qualified electors of their district, at 
similar elections, for six years; and judges of county courts 
by the qualified electors of their county, at similar elec¬ 
tions, for four years. California has four representatives 
in Congress under the new apportionment law. 

Objects of Interest .—California has numerous natural 
wonders, so remarkable that they attract visitors from all 
parts of the world. We have already alluded to the Val¬ 
ley of the Yosemite. This valley, one of the wonders of 
the world, is elsewhere more fully described. (See Yo¬ 
semite.) It is sufficient to say here that it is a deep valley 
8 miles long by 2 wide, with walls averaging nearly 4000 
feet in height; that there are seventeen sentinel peaks 
keeping guard over the valley, and ranging from 1800 to 
6034 feet in height, while the outlying summit-mountains, 
Lyell, Dana, and Cathedral, rise to the height of over 
13,000 feet; and eleven waterfalls, the lowest 350 feet, in 
height, and the highest 3000 feet; and in the various 
scenery of mountain-peak and valley, of the gentle flowing 
46 


721 


river and the endless variety of cataract, rapid, spray, 
and mist, of the precipitous mountain-spires and gentle 
grassy slopes, nature seems to have exhausted all forms of 
the beautiful. Near this wondrous valley are two of the 
groves of the sequoias or monster trees—the Calaveras and 
the Mariposa groves. These are visited by many tourists. 
The Geysers or hot springs of Calistoga, at the head of 
Napa Valley, are in a narrow valley or canon which is 
filled with flowing (not spouting) hot springs, and the 
whole soil is covered with a crust of sulphur, iron-rust, 
and other mineral deposits, and filled with steam from the 
boiling water. The surface of the ground is so hot as to 
render walking over it uncomfortable. There has recently 
been discovered another of these deep valleys with its sur¬ 
rounding peaks and waterfalls, N. W. of Yosemite, which 
has a larger volume of water and falls equally lofty, and 
bids fair to rival the Yosemite Valley. The natural bridges 
and the Chyote caves in Calaveras co., with their bell¬ 
sounding rocks, the beautiful Lake Tahoe, and the smaller 
but romantic Donner Lake, on the boundary-line of Ne¬ 
vada, Mono (salt) Lake, near Yosemite; the wild volcanic 
region with its horrors in Mono, Fresno, and Kern coun¬ 
ties, and the terrible Death Valley in the last-named 
county; Tulare Lake and the tule swamps and lakes of 
the southern counties, some of them covered with bitumen; 
and the wild and waterless region bordering on the Colo¬ 
rado River in S. E. California,—all have their attractions 
for those who desire to witness Nature in her unknown 
haunts and in her strangest attire. 

Counties .—There are now 51 counties in the State, the 
last, Ventura, having been organized from the southern 
part of Santa Barbara in Jan., 1873. The table appended 
gives the population in 1860 of each county then organized, 
the population of each race, and the entire population of 
each county in 1870, and the population as estimated by 
the assessors and surveyor-general at the close of 1872: 


Counties . 

Populaticn in 

1860. 

White, 1870. 

Colored, 1870. 

Indian, 1870. 

Asiatic, 1870. 

Totals, *1870. 

Estimated total 

population 1872. 

Alameda. 

8,927 

22,106 

86 

Ill 

1,934 

24,237 

35,000 

Alpine. 


676 

] 


8 

085 

800 

Amador. 

10 Oof) 

7 870 

81 


1 631 

9 582 

11 360 

Butte. 

12.107 

9 J 85 

84 

40 

2,094 

11.403 

12.500 

Calaveras. 

16,299 

7.400 

45 

18 

1.432 

8,895 

9,986 

Colusa. 

2,274 

5,389 

81 

424 

271 

6,165 

8,000 

Contra Costa.... 

5,328 

8.271 

21 

9 

160 

8,461 

10,000 

Del Norte. 

1,993 

1,009 

22 

774 

217 

2.022 

2 500 

El Dorado. 

20.562 

8.589 

133 

6 

1,581 

10,309 

9,600 

Fresno. 

4,605 

3,259 

15 

2,635 

427 

6,336 

4.250 

Humboldt. 

2,694 

6,025 


76 

39 

6,140 

11,500 

Inyo. 


1 608 

87 

232 

29 

1 956 

2 100 

Kern. 


2 193 

4 

585 

143 

9 

4’()00 

Klamath. 

1,803 

L 009 

2 

61 

542 

1.674 

3*300 

Lake. 


2 825 

8 

17 

119 

2 96 ( * 

2 969 

Lassen. 


1 309 

i 

17 

1 327 

1500 

Los Angeles.... 

11,333 

14 J 20 

184 

219 

236 

15,309 

17,400 

Marin. 

3,334 

6.394 

22 

126 

361 

6,903 


Mariposa. 

6,243 

3,344 

116 

8 

1,104 

4,572 

4.560 

Mendocino. 

3,967 

6,865 

9 

542 

129 

7,545 

11,000 

Merced. 

11,141 

2,548 

37 

36 

186 

2,807 

3.500 

Mono. 


386 


9 

42 

430 

550 

Monterey. 

4,739 

9,428 

15 

203 

230 

9,876 

10,887 

Napa. 

5,521 

6,725 

112 

66 

260 

7,163 

11,200 

Nevada. 

16,446 

16,334 

162 

9 

2,629 

19,134 

19,134 

Placer. 

13,270 

8,850 

99 

• 1 

2,407 

11,357 

14,000 

Plumas. 

4,363 

3,571 

2 

5 

911 

4,489 

7,000 

Sacramento. 

24,142 

22,725 

479 

28 

3,598 

26,830 

35,000 

, S. Bernardino.. 

5,551 

3,964 

8 


16 

3,989 

7,000 

San Diego. 

4,324 

4,838 

15 

28 

70 

4,951 

7,359 

San Francisco.. 

56,802 

136,069 

1 341 

55 

12,018 

149,473 

175,000 

San Joaquin. 

9,4115 

19,192 

230 


1,628 

21,050 

25,000 

S. Luis Obispo. 

1,782 

4,567 

9 

137 

59 

4,772 

6,000 

San Mateo. 

3,214 

6,099 

10 

7 

519 

6,635 

7,370 

Santa Barbara 

3,543 

7,483 

109 

163 

29 

7,784 

8,400 

Santa Clara. 

11,912 

24,537 

179 

12 

1,518 

26.246 

27.000 

Santa Cruz. 

4,944 

8,532 

53 

2 

156 

8,743 

9,000 

Shasta. 

4.360 

3,529 

44 

26 

574 

4.173 

6.000 

Sierra. 

11 387 

4 781 

29 


809 

5 619 

5 800 

Siskiyou. 

7.629 

5,312 

32 

47 

1,457 

6,848 

8,000 

Solano. 

7,169 

15,871 

78 

3 

919 

16, S 71 

16,571 

Sonoma. 

11,867 

19184 

80 

82 

473 

19.819 

25.000 

Stanislaus. 

2,245 

6,189 

4 


306 

6,499 

6,500 

Sutter. 

3 390 

4 791 

31 


208 

5 030 

6,550 

Tehama. 

4 044 

3 166 

146 


275 

3.587 

6,500 

Trinity. 

5,125 

1.950 

29 

139 

1,095 

3,213 

3,775 

Tulare. 

4,638 

4,379 

39 

4 

99 

4,521 

7,400 

Tuolumne. 

16,229 

6,540 

68 

3 

1,539 

8,150 

8,000 

Ventura*. 








Yolo. 

4,716 

9,321 

69 

117 

392 

9.899 

11,000 

Yuba. 

13.668 

8.367 

151 


2,333 

10,851 

11,500 

Total. 

379,994 

499,324 4,611 

7,059 

49,229 

560.223 

657,821 


Principal Toicns .—San Francisco, the principal seapoit 
and commercial metropplis of our Pacific coast, has a pop- 


* New county, organized from Santa Barbara in 1S< 3. 





















































































































722 CALIFORNIA. 


ulation of 149,473; Sacramento, the capital of the State, 
in the Sacramento Valley, has 16,283 inhabitants; Oakland, 
across the bay from San Francisco, 10,500; and Stockton, 
in the San Joaquin Valley, 10,066, are the only other towns 
of the State which had over 10,000 inhabitants in 1870. 
San Jos6, 9089; Los Angeles, 5728; Marysville, 4738; 
Santa Cruz, 2561; and San Diego, 2300, were the only 
other towns having more than 2000 inhabitants. 

History .—By the treaty of Feb. 2, 1848, with Mexico, 
the territory comprising the present States of California 
and Nevada and the Territories of Utah, Arizona, and 
New Mexico (except the strip S. of the Gila River), part 
of Colorado and part of Texas, were ceded to the U. S. 
Of all this region California was best known, and, though 
its mineral wealth was as yet undiscovered, it had long 
been celebrated as the El Dorado of the Pacific. Origin¬ 
ally, the name California embraced the long peninsula now 
called Lower or Old California (which still belongs to Mex¬ 
ico) and an indefinite extent of territory northward along 
the coast, to which the name of Upper or New California 
was given. The Spaniards claimed to the Arctic Circle, 
but their settlements never extended N. of San Francisco. 
The origin of the name is involved in doubt. It is first 
found in an old Spanish romance published at Seville in 
1510, entitled the “ Sugas of Esplandian, the son of Ama- 
dis of Gaul.” It is twice named in the book, as follows: 
“ Know that on the right hand of the Indies there is an 
island called California, very near to the Terrestrial Para¬ 
dise, which was peopled by black women, without any 
men among them, because they were accustomed to live 
after the manner of the Amazons. They were of strong 
and hardened bodies, of ardent courage, and of great 
forces. The island was the strongest in the world, from 
its steep rocks and great cliffs. Their arms were all of 
gold, and so were the caparisons of the wild beasts they 
rode.” Another passage reads : “ In the island called Cal¬ 
ifornia are many griffins, on account of the great savage¬ 
ness of the country, and the immense quantity of wild 
game to be found there.”® The present State of California 
(not the peninsula—that was discovered considerably ear¬ 
lier) was first discovered and partially described by Juan 
Rodriguez Cabrillo in the year 1542. Cabrillo was a Por¬ 
tuguese by birth, but was a navigator in the Spanish ser¬ 
vice. The highest latitude reached by him was 40° 30', 
where he encountered the great western headland which he 
called Cape Mendoza, now known as Cape Mendocino. 
He also discovered and named the Farallones Islands, from 
his pilot Farallo. In 1578, Sir Francis Drake passed along 
this coast, landed at what is now known as Drake’s Bay, 
N. lat. 37° 59' 5”, and, ignorant of any previous discovery, 
took possession of it in the name of Queen Elizabeth, call¬ 
ing it New Albion. In 1602, General Sebastian Viscayno, 
under orders from Philip III. of Spain, explored the coast 
from San Diego northward as far as the Bay of Monterey 
and the islands which form the Santa Barbara channel. 
There is no record of any successful attempt to plant a 
colony on this territory for 167 years after this exploration 
of Viscayno. There had been numerous unsuccessful ex¬ 
peditions prompted by the thirst for gold, for there was a 
strong though vague impression that there were gold, silver, 
and precious stones among its mountains, but in every case 
they had failed miserably. 

In 1767 the Jesuit missionaries were expelled from Lower 
California (the peninsula) by order of Charles III. of 
Spain, and their missions and property granted the Fathers 
of the order of St. Francis. These zealous propagandists 
began the next year to take measures for extending their 
missions into Upper or New California, and in the winter 
and spring of 1769 organized expeditions, both by sea and 
land, to found colonies and missions in that hitherto un¬ 
known region. After great suffering and heavy loss by 
scurvy and starvation, two of the three vessels reached 
San Diego—one April 11th, the other May 1st. The land 
expedition was in two divisions, the first of which reached 
San Diego May 15, and the second on the 1st of July. 
From San Diego a new party was organized, which pro¬ 
ceeded northward along the coast to find Monterey. Miss¬ 
ing this, they continued northward and discovered the Bay 
of San Francisco (which till then had been unknown to 
white men) on the 25th of Oct., 1769. They gave it its 
present name after their patron saint, but presently re¬ 
turned to San Diego, which they reached Jan. 24, 1770. 
It was not until Oct. 9, 1776, that these Fathers founded a 
mission at San Francisco—the Mission Dolores, as it is 
now called. It was tho sixth they had founded within the 
present limits of the State. Within about fifty years they 
had founded twenty-one of these missions, the farthest N. 
being that of San Francisco de Solano de Sonoma, in lat. 
38° 30' N. These missions, at first instituted for the con¬ 


* Cronise’s “ Natural Wealth of California,” page 2. 


version and civilization of the Indians, soon became the 
means of reducing these hapless aborigines to a condition 
of slavery for the benefit of the Franciscan lathers and 
their dependents. Within fifty-five years from the time 
of the planting of the first mission at San Diego the 
Fathers had accumulated enormous wealth. They owned 
all the land along the coast, the landed estate of one mis¬ 
sion joining another, though they were twenty-five to thirty 
miles apart; according to the report of Rev. Calvin Colton, 
who made very thorough investigation of their condition 
in 1825, they had more than 1,200,000 head of cattle, over 
100,000 horses and mares, from 12,000 to 15,000 mules, 
more than 1,000,000 sheep, many thousand hogs, and not 
less than $1,000,000 in specie and bullion, besides the rich 
gold and silver ornaments, statues, crucifixes, etc. in their 
churches. They carried on a thriving trade in hides and 
tallow, wool and wine, with the Russians and other traders 
who came to Yerba Buena (now San Francisco), Monterey, 
and San Diego in ships, for their produce. Nearly 20,000 
Indians were domesticated at the missions, whipped and 
tortured if they did not perform the work allotted to them, 
and in the most abject condition of fear and degradation. 
Only a very few of these were taught to read, or even in¬ 
structed in the elements of Christianity. They were merely 
farm-slaves. They were to defend the missions, which 
were strong, walled villages, and to prevent any free settlers 
from coming into the territory. The Indians of the inte¬ 
rior, at that time numbering 100,000 or more, were left to 
their ignorance and heathenism, and no efforts were made 
to civilize or convert them. 

With the downfall of the Spanish power in Mexico in 
1822, the missions began to wane, and after years of decay 
they were at last formally abolished and their property 
confiscated in 1845. For fifteen or twenty years previous 
to this time a large and constantly increasing number of 
settlers had been pouring into California—Mexicans, at¬ 
tracted by the fine climate and fertile soil; trappers and 
hunters, who had emerged from the deserts E. of the 
Sierras, and who found game abundant, the lands fertile, 
and the Indians less warlike and ferocious than those they 
had before encountered; Russians from Russian America; 
sailors and adventurers of all nations, who had escaped 
from merchant-ships or had been left here at their own 
request; and now and then citizens of the Eastern States, 
who had come in search of health. Between 1840 and 
1845 more than 5000 persons crossed tht Plains and scaled 
the mountains to make their homes in California, some of 
the parties, like that of Captain Donner in 1846, perishing 
by the way from encountering terrific snow-storms, or, as 
in other instances, from drought and starvation in S. E. 
California. Great numbers, too, came by sea. In Oct., 
1842, Commodore Jones, U. S. N., under the impression 
that there was actual war between Mexico and the U. S., 
entered the harbor of Monterey, captured the fort, hoisted 
the Stars and Stripes, and declared California a territory 
of the U. S., greatly to the satisfaction of most of the in¬ 
habitants; but finding himself in error, he next day hauled 
down his colors and apologized to the Mexican authorities 
for his conduct. The expeditions of Lieut, (since Major- 
G-en.) John C. Fremont to the Pacific aroused great inter¬ 
est in this region, and, in spite of the hardships to be 
endured, led thousands of emigrants to undertake the 
perilous journey. Before the close of 1846 there were 
2000 American citizens in California, about 3000 foreign¬ 
ers who were friendly to them, and about 3000 more who 
were neutral or hostile. In Mar., 1847, Col. Stevenson’s 
picked regiment of California volunteers, nearly 1000 
strong, was added to this number, and other U. S. troops 
came in soon after. On the 7th of July, 1846 (war having 
already commenced between the U. S. and Mexico), Com¬ 
modore John D. Sloat took possession of Monterey, and 
issued a proclamation as governor of the territory. Two 
days later, the U. S. troops took possession of San Fran¬ 
cisco, July 10th of Sonoma, and July 12th of Sutter’s Fort. 
Commodore Sloat acted as governor until Aug. 17, 1846, 
when Commodore Robert F. Stockton was jjroclaimed his 
successor. Commodore Stockton gave his immediate at¬ 
tention to fighting the Mexican forces under Flores, who 
had recaptured Los Angeles and Santa Barbara, and whom 
he defeated in two battles—at Rio San Gabriel and on the 
plains of Mesa, Jan. 8 and 9, 1847—and drove out of the 
country. In Jan., 1847, Commodore Stockton appointed 
Col. John C. Fremont governor. This was a blunder, as 
Gen. Stephen W. Kearney, as commander of the forces, 
was rightfully governor, and assumed command Mar. 1, 
1847. Fremont was afterwards tried by court-martial for 
this offence, but was cleared, it being proved that he had 
acted in good faith and without a knowledge of Gen. 
Kearney’s rights in the matter. Col. Richard B. Mason 
was appointed governor May 31, 1847, and held office till 
April 13, 1849; Capt. (afterward Maj.-Gen.) Henry W. 

















CALIFORNIA. 


723 


Jlallcck was secretary of the territory under Col. Mason, 
and rendered great services to the country then and subse¬ 
quently. On the 13th of April, 1849, Gen. Bennet Riley 
was appointed military governor, and on the 3d of Juno 
following called a convention to meet at Monterey on the 
1st of Sept, to frame a State constitution. This conven¬ 
tion, consisting of forty-eight members, assembled at the 
time appointed, and after six weeks of deliberation re¬ 
ported, adopted, and signed a constitution (Oct. 13, 1849), 
which was submitted to the people for ratification on the 
13th of Nov., 1849, when 12,064 votes were polled in favor 
of its adoption, 811 against it, and 1200 were set aside for 
informality. In Dec., 1849, Peter II. Burnett was elected 
governor under this constitution, and application was 
made in due form for the admission of the State into the 
Union. After a long and acrimonious struggle in Con¬ 
gress between the advocates of slavery and free soil, which 
lasted from Dec. 22, 1849, to Sept. 7, 1850, California 
was admitted into the Union as a State Sept. 9, 1850. 

In Feb., 1848, gold was discovered on the estate of Gen. 
Sutter in Coloma co., and as the news of its discovery 
spread the gold-hunters flocked in from all parts of the 
world, and in a very short time (in 1852) California had a 
population of over 250,000, a large proportion of them 
energetic, daring, reckless men, capable of almost any 
crime, and mad in their pursuit of gold. Gambling and 
its concomitant vices bore almost universal sway. Whole 
squares were devoted to gambling-houses in San Fran¬ 
cisco, and theft and murder were rife in its streets. It was 
found that the courts protected instead of punishing 
rogues and ruffians, and in 1851 a “ vigilance committee” 
of some of the best citizens was formed, which seized, 
tried, and hanged in the streets some of the worst villains. 
This alarmed the dangerous classes for a time, but the 
courts and civil authorities were all thoroughly corrupt, 
and some of the worst men in the community were occupy¬ 
ing high offices, upon which they had seized by the most 
open and unblushing frauds. The vigilance committee 
was revived in May, 1855, and for eight months held 
sway in San Francisco, arresting, trying, hanging, and 
banishing those whose crimes had rendered them obnox¬ 
ious to the community. It was a desperate remedy, and 
one fitted only to a desperate condition of affairs; but it is 
the universal testimony of the best citizens that the com¬ 
mittee used their absolute powers wisely and well, and 
disbanded as soon as the occasion for which they were 
called into action had passed. They executed four, one 
of their prisoners committed suicide while they were de¬ 
liberating on his case, and nearly twenty were banished 
from the State. One of their prisoners, who was at the 
time one of the justices of the supreme court of the State, 
was released by them after trial, but his subsequent course 
verified their judgment of his ruffianly character. The 
State has passed through many vicissitudes, the succession 
of excitements in regard to new gold-fields depopulating 
some districts and causing a rapid growth of others. Of 
late years, however, it has been developing its other re¬ 
sources—the culture of grain and the production of wine, 
of silk, and semi-tropical fruits, and of some descriptions 
of manufactures; and though the yield of gold in the 
State has partially fallen off, it has been much more than 
made up in the increase of the crops and manufactured 
goods, and these afford a better and more certain return to 
the producer than mining products. During the late war 
California contributed her full share both in men and 
money towards achieving the success of the Union arms; 
her magnificent gifts to the Sanitary Commission and to 
all organizations for the welfare of the soldiers will never 
be forgotten. By the completion of the Union and Central 
Pacific R. Rs. the State was brought into closer connection 
with the Eastern States, and all danger of the creation of 


a separate Pacific empire, if such danger ever existed, was 
for ever removed from the thoughts of its people. 

Gold Product of California .—Mr. T. F. Cronise, in his 
“ Natural AFealth of California,” gives the following table 
of the-gold product of California, which we have brought 
down to the beginning of 1873. It is in round numbers, 
but is the closest approximation to the truth: 


Year. Amount. 

1848 .#10,000,000 

1849 . 40,000,000 

1850 . 50,000,000 

1851 . 55,000,000 

1852 . 60,000,000 

1853 . 65,000,000 

1854 . 60,000,000 

1855 . 55,000,000 

1S56 . 55,000,000 

1857 . 55.000,000 

1858 . 50.000,000 

1859 . 50,000,000 

1860 . 45,000,000 


Total for 25 years 


Year. Amount. 

1861 .$40,000,000 

1862 . 34,700,000 

1863 . 30,000,000 

1864 . 26,600,000 

1865 . 28.600,000 

I860. 26.500.000 

1867 . 25,000,000 

1868 . 28,000.000 

1869 . 27,800,000 

1870 . 28,500,000 

1871 . 25,000,000 

1872 . 20,000,000 


$990,600,000 


Governors of the State, Territory, and Province .—Cali¬ 
fornia. has been within the past 106 years under the gov¬ 
ernment of four different powers—viz. 1st, the Spanish 
rule from 1767 to 1823 (previous to 1767 it was parceled 
ofl among numerous tribes of Indians, some of them Pue¬ 
blos or dwellers in towns and villages, and others nomadic); 
2d, the Mexican rule; 3d, the American territorial and 
military government; 4th, the State government. 


Spanish Rule. 

Caspar de Portala.1767-71] Jose J. de Arrillava.1792-94 

Felipe de Barri.1771-74, Diego de Borica.1794-1800 

Felipe de Neve.1774-821 Jose J. de Arrillaga.1800-14 

Pedro Fajes.1782-90 Jose Arguello.1814-15 

Jose Antonio Romen.1790-92) Pablo Vicente de Sola.... 1815-22 


* Mexican Rule. 

Pablo Vicente de Sola. 

Luis Arguello. 

Jose Maria de Echeaudia. 

Manuel Victoria. 

Pio Pico. 

Jose Figueroa. 

Jos§ Castro. 

Nicolas Gutierrez. 

Mariano Chico. 

Nicolas Gutierrez. 

Juan B. Alvarado. 

Manuel Micheltorena. 

Pio Pico. 


.1822-23 

.1823-25 

.June, 1825-Jan., 1831 
...Jan., 1831-Jan., 1832 
...Jan., 1832-Jan., 1833 
..Jan., 1833-Aug., 1835 
-.Aug., 1835-Jan., 1836 
.Jan., 1836-April, 1836 
April, 1836-Aug., 1836 
..Aug., 1836-Nov., 1836 
..Nov., 1836-Dec., 1842 
...Dec., 1842-Feb., 1845 
..Feb., 1845-July, 1846 


American Military and Territorial Rule. 

Com. John D. Sloat.July 7, 1846-Aug. 17, 1846 

Com. Robert F. Stockton.Aug. 7, 1846-Jan., 1847 

Col. John C. Fremont.Jan., 1847-Mar. 1, 1847 

Gen. Stephen W. Kearney.Mar. 1, 1847-May 31, 1847 

Col. Richard B. Mason.May 31, 1847-April 13, 1849 

Gen. Bennet Riley.April 13, 1849-Dec., 1849 


State Government. 


Peter IT. Burnett...Dec., 1849-51 
John McDougall (acting)1851-52 

John Bigler.1852-56 

J. Neely Johnson.1856-58 

John B. Weller.1858-60 

Milton S. Latham.1860-60 


John G. Downey.. 
Leland Stanford.., 
Frederick F. Low 
Henry H. Haight. 
Newton Booth. 


1860-62 

1862-63 

,1863-68 

1868-72 

1872-75 


Electoral Vote for President and Vice-President.—The 
first presidential election in which California participated 
was that of 1852, and her electoral votes have been cast 
from that time as follows : 


Year. 

Candidates. 

Electoral vote. 

1852 

Pierce and King. 

4 

1856 

Buchanan and Breckenridge. 

4 

1860 

Lincoln and Hamlin. 

4 

1864 

Lincoln and Johnson.,. 

5 

1868 

Grant and Colfax. 

5 

1872 

Grant and Wilson. 

6 


Popular Vote for President and Vice-President. 


Elcc. 

year. 

Candidates. 

Popular 

vote. 

Candidates. 

Popular 

vote. 

Candidates. 

r 

Popular 

vote. 

Candidates. 

Pop. 

vote. 

1852 

1856 

1860 

1864 

1868 

1872 

Scott and Graham. 

Fremont and Dayton. 

Lincoln and Hamlin. 

McClellan and Pendleton 

Seymour and Blair. 

Greeley and Brown. 

35,407 

20,691 

39,173 

43,841 

54,077 

40,718 

Pierce and King. 

Buchanan and Breckenridge.. 

Douglas and Johnson. 

Lincoln and Johnson. 

Grant and Colfax. 

Grant and Wilson. 

40,626 

53,365 

38,516 

62,134 

54.583 

54.020 

Hale and Julian. 

Fillmore and Do’nelson.... 
Breckenridge and Lane... 

100 

36,165 

34,334 

Bell and Everett... 

6817 


(For the recent statistics of this article we are indebted to the Hon. Drury Melone, secretary of state of California.) 

L. P. Bkockett. 


California, a township of Madison co., Ark. Pop. 313. 
California, a township of Starke co., Ind. Pop. 251. 
California, a township of Coffey co., Kan. Pop. 645. 
California, a post-township of Branch co., Mich. 
Pop. 803. 

California, a city, capital of Moniteau co., Mo., on the 


[issouri Pacific R. R., 150 miles W. of St. Louis. It is tho 
eographical centre of the State, and has fine count} bui d- 
igs, seven churches, four hotels, graded schoo s, mn ', 
ublic library, and two weekly papers, and is surrounded 
y a rich agricultural district, abounding in lead and other 
linerals. R.E. Huntington, Ed. “ Moniteau Journal. 

California, a township of Pitt co., N. C. Pop. 3626. 













































































































































724 CALIFORNIA—CALLAWAY. 


California, a post-borough of Washington co., Pa. 
Pop. 659. 

California, Gulf of, or Sea of Cortes [Sp. Mar 
Bermejo], an arm of the Pacific Ocean, separates the penin¬ 
sula of Lower California from the Mexican pi-ovinces of 
Sinaloa and Sonora. It is about 700 miles long, and varies 
in width from 40 to 100 miles. It encloses many islands. 
The river Colorado enters it at the N. extremity. This 
gulf was once famous for its pearl-fisheries, and mother-of- 
pearl is still obtained here. 

California, Lower or Old, along, narrow peninsula, 
a territory of Mexico, is bounded on the N. E. by the Gulf 
of California, and on the S. W. by the Pacific Ocean. It is 
about 750 miles long, and varies in width from 30 to 150 
miles. Its most southern point, Cape Lucas, is in lat. 22° 
52' N., from which it extends in a N. N. W. direction to lat. 
32° 30' N. It is a mountainous, arid region of volcanic 
formation, having a sparse population. Capital, La Paz. 
This peninsula was discovered by Grijalva in 1534. Pop. 
in 1868, 21,645. 

California, University of, was established by an 
act of the State legislature, approved Mar. 23, 1868. It 
was an outgrowth of the College of California, which was 
chartered in 1855, and maintained on a non-sectarian 
basis. Prof. Henry Durant opened its preparatory school 
at Oakland, and thus became one of the earliest pioneers 
of education in the State. In 1860 the college admitted its 
first class, and it graduated classes yearly from 1864 to 
1869. It had no president. From 1863 to 1869, Rev. S. 
H. Willey was vice-president. Finding the college fettered 
by its want of endowments, and wishing to see a larger 
and stronger institution, the trustees in 1867 offered all 
their property to the State. This included a new, unoccu¬ 
pied site of 160 acres at Berkeley, 5 miles N. of Oakland, 
and 9 miles from San Francisco. The State had accepted 
the Congressional provision for an agricultural college. It 
was now proposed to unite all interests in a university 
adequate to the wants and worthy of the name of the State. 
The proposition was agreed to. The first board of regents, 
appointed in 1868, kept the college in existence another 
year. In 1869 the university was organized for instruc¬ 
tion, and received its first class. That class graduated in 
the summer of 1873. The classes have steadily increased, 
and the university now numbers 180 students. The uni¬ 
versity has already two lai’ge buildings at Berkeley. 

The first president of the university, elected in 1870, was 
Henry Durant, LL.D., formerly of the College of Cali¬ 
fornia. The present president is Daniel C. Gilman, late of 
Yale College. Daniel C. Gilman. 

Calig'ula (Caius Cassar), a Roman emperor, born at 
Antium in 12 A. D., was a son of Germanicus. His mother 
was Agrippina, a granddaughter of the emperor Augustus. 
He succeeded to the throne 37 A. D., at the death of Tibe¬ 
rius, against whose cruel jealousy he had guarded himself 
by habitual dissimulation. His reign was at first mild and 
popular, with an ostentation of generosity, but he soon 
showed himself a monster of cruelty, and indulged his 
vicious propensities without restraint. He expressed a 
wish that all the Roman people had but one head, that he 
might decapitate them at one blow. He ordered that sac¬ 
rifices should be offered to himself as a god. In 41 A. D. 
he was assassinated by conspirators, and was succeeded by 
his uncle Claudius. 

Ca'liph [Arab. Jchalifah, a “ successor"], the “com¬ 
mander of the faithful,’’ the spiritual and temporal head 
of orthodox Mohammedanism—so called as being the 
“successor” of Mohammed. The caliphs are usually 
classed as follows: (1) The four “Arabian caliphs” of 
Medina, A. D. 632-661; (2) the fourteen “ Ominyiades ” of 
Damascus, 661-750; (3) the twenty-seven “Abbasides” of 
Bagdad, 750-1258; besides these there were rival caliph¬ 
ates; (4) in Egypt the “ Fatimites,” fourteen in number, 
909-1171 ; and (5) in Cordova, 756-1031, there were twenty- 
seven successive caliphs (Abbasides) who had authority in 
Spain and N. W. Africa. The later Moorish dynasties, such 
as the “ Almoravides” (1050-1145) and the “Almohades” 
(1129-1269), are not usually reckoned as caliphs, that term 
being, in strict language, only applicable to sultans of the 
family of Mohammed. Nevertheless, the Turkish sultans 
have long claimed the caliphate, and the claim is generally 
admitted by orthodox Mohammedans. The Shiite Mo¬ 
hammedans recognize of the above only Ali, the fourth 
Arabian caliph, as the lawful heir of the prophet, and 
from him the present royal house of Persia claims a lineal 
descent. 

Calisthenics. See Callisthenics. 

Calisto'ga, a beautiful post-village of Napa co.,Cal., the 
N. terminus of the Napa Valley R. li., 42 miles from Val¬ 
lejo, is celebrated for its warm springs and its picturesque 


scenery. The town is supplied with water from the adja¬ 
cent mountains, and is a place of considerable business. 
Five miles to the S. E. is a famous petrified forest. 

Cali'tri, a town of Italy, in Principato Ulteriore, near 
the Ofanto, 23 miles S. E. of Ariano. Pop. 6208. 

CaEix'tines, the name given to a party of the Hussites, 
because they insisted on giving the cup (calyx) in the Eu¬ 
charist to all who were not guilty of mortal sins. They 
defeated the Taborites (the other branch of the Hussites) 
in a battle at Lippau (1434). The Calixtines had been 
reconciled to the pope in 1433. The term Calixtines 
has also been applied to the adherents of G. Calixtus, 
a Lutheran professor of theology at Ilelmstedt. (See Ca¬ 
lixtus.) 

Calix'tus, originally Callisen (George), an eminent 
Protestant theologian, born at Medelbye, in Sleswick, Dec. 
14, 1586. lie became professor of theology at Ilelmstedt 
in 1614, and wrote several treatises against the doctrines of 
the Roman Catholics. He was distinguished for his learn¬ 
ing and tolerance as well as his talents. Among his works 
arc an “Epitome of Moral Theology” (1634) and “ De 
Tolerantia Reformatorum” (“On the Tolerance of Re¬ 
formers,” 1658). He was accused of heresy and cryp¬ 
topapism by some Lutherans, but his doctrines were ac¬ 
cepted by many followers, ivho were called Calixtines. 
Died Mar. 19, 1656. (See W. C. Dowding, “Life of Calix¬ 
tus,” 1864.) 

Calixtus I. (Pope), Saint, succeeded Zephyrinus 219 
A. D. Died 223.— Calixtus II. succeeded Gelasius II. in 
1119. He concluded the concordat of Worms with the em¬ 
peror Henry V., which ended the difficulty with respect to 
investitures. Died Dec. 12,1124. —Calixtus III. (Alonzo 
Borgia), born in 1379 in Valencia, succeeded Nicholas V. 
in 1455. He attempted to institute a crusade, without suc¬ 
cess. Died Aug. 6, 1458. 

Cal'ken, a village of Belgium, in East Flanders, on the 
Scheldt, 8 miles E. of Ghent. Pop. 5227. 

Calk'ing, or Caulking, the process of filling with 
tarred oakum the seams between the planks of ships, in 
order to render the joints impervious to water. The oakum 
is driven into the seams by a wedge-shaped tool called a 
calking-iron. The seams are finally payed over or coated 
with melted pitch or resin. The quantity of oakum used 
in a ship of the largest size is about thirty tons. 

Call, a military musical term, signifies a signal given 
by a trumpet, bugle, or drum. 

Call, a metallic whistle used on shipboard by the boat¬ 
swain and his mate. Various kinds of sounds denote sig¬ 
nals or orders for hoisting, lowering, veering, etc. 

Call to the Bar is the formal expression by which the 
admission of students of law to the rights and privileges of 
the degree of barrister in England and Ireland is publicly 
announced. In Scotland the corresponding expression is 
“ passing advocate.” 

Cal'la, a genus of plants of the natural order Araceae. 
The genus is characterized by a fiat spathe, within which 
is a cylindrical spadix covered with naked flowers, appear¬ 
ing as a mere mixture of stamens and pistils, and a 1-celled 
ovary. The Calla palustris is a native of Europe and the 
IT. S., growing in swamps and bogs. It has cordate leaves, 
a white spathe, and very acrid rhizomes, which are cooked 
for food by the Laplanders. The Calla yEtlnopica or Ilich- 
ardia uEthiopica is prized for the beauty of its flowers. 

Cal'lahan, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 900 
square miles. It is drained by several affluents of the 
Colorado and Brazos rivers. The surface is hilly or moun¬ 
tainous. Here are two peaks, called the East Caddo and 
West Caddo. Timber is scarce. Stock-raising is the only 
pursuit. Returned as having no population by U. S. cen¬ 
sus of 1870. 

Cal'laml’s, a post-village and township of Pittsylvania 
co., Va., 45 miles S. W. of Lynchburg. Pop. 2848. 

Calla'o, a fortified town of Northern Peru, on the Pa¬ 
cific Ocean, 6 miles W. of Lima, of which it is the port; lat. 
12° 4' S., Ion. 77° 13' W. It is connected with Lima by a 
railway, and lias a commodious quay and a fine fortress. 
The harbor or roadstead, which is sheltered by the island 
of San Lorenzo, is the best on the coast of Peru. The chief 
exports are specie, copper, cotton, hides, and bark. The 
town was destroyed by an earthquake in 1746. Pop. about 
10 , 000 . 

Cal'lao, a post-village of Macon co., Mo., on the Han¬ 
nibal and St. Joseph R. R., 9 miles W. of Macon City. 
Pop. of Callao township, 1643. 

Cal'laway, a county of Kentucky, bordering on Ten¬ 
nessee. Area., 450 square miles. It is bounded on the E. * 
by the Tennessee River, and is drained by Clark’s River. 
The surface is hilly, except the extensive river-bottoms; 















CALLAWAY—CALMET. 725 


the soil is fertile. Tobacco, corn, wheat, and wool arc sta¬ 
ple products. Capital, Murray. Pop. 9410. 

Callaway, a county in E. Central Missouri. Area, 743 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Missouri 
River, and on the W. by Cedar Creek. The surface is un¬ 
dulating ; the soil is very fertile. About one-third of it is 
prairie-land. Bituminous coal, iron, fictile clay, and fine 
limestone are abundant here. Tobacco, grain, wool, and 
cattle are extensively raised. Capital, Fulton. Pop. 19,202. 

Callaway, a township of St. Charles co., Mo. P. 1745. 

Call cott (Sir Augustus Wall), an English landscape 
painter, born at Kensington (London) Feb. 20, 1779. He 
was chosen a member of the Royal Academy in 1810, was 
knighted in 1837, and became conservator of royal pictures 
in 1844. Among his works are “Morning,” “Evening,” 
and “Harvest in the Highlands.” Died Nov. 25, 1844. 

Callcott (John Wall), Mus. Dr., an eminent English 
composer, a brother of the preceding, was born at Kensing¬ 
ton in 1766. He composed many anthems, glees, and other 
pieces of music. He published a “Musical Grammar” 
(1805). In the latter part of his life he was insane. Died 
in May, 1821. 

Calle'ja (Don Felix del Rey), a Spanish general, 
horn in 1750. He commanded the royal army in Mexico 
against the insurgents who revolted in 1810, and he became 
viceroy of Mexico in 1813. Died in 1820. 

Cal'lender (John), born in Boston, Mass., in 1706, 
graduated at Harvard in 1723, became pastor of the Bap¬ 
tist church of Swansey, Mass., in 1728, and in 1731 of the 
church at Newport, R. I. His best-known work is a cen¬ 
tennial historical discourse, delivered in 1738, which is of 
great value in the early history of Rhode Island. Died 
Jan. 26, 1748. 

Cal'lensburg, a post-village of Licking township, 
Clarion co., Pa. Pop. 255. 

Cal'licoon, a post-township of Sullivan co., N. Y., has 
manufactures of lumber and leather. The soil is good. 
Sand for glass-making has been procured here. Jefferson¬ 
ville, which is partly in this township, has a weekly paper. 
Pop. of township, 2763. 

Callic'rates [Gr. KaAA iKparr??], an eminent Greek archi¬ 
tect who flourished about 440 B. C. Among his works was 
the Parthenon of Athens, in which he was assisted by Icti¬ 
nus. It was adorned with sculptures by Phidias, and was 
surrounded by forty-six Doric columns. 

Callicrat'idas [Gr. KaAAucpan'Sa?], a Spartan general 
who obtained command of the fleet in 406 B. C. He de¬ 
feated the Athenian general Conon, and blockaded him at 
Mitylene. The Athenians soon sent to the relief of Conon 
another fleet, which defeated the Spartans at Arginusae in 
406 B. C. Callicratidas was killed in this action. 

Callig'onum, a genus of plants of the order Poly- 
gonaceas, having a quadrangular fruit ( achenium) winged at 
the angles. The Calligonum Pallasia, a succulent shrub, is 
found in the sandy steppes near the Caspian Sea. Its acid 
fruit and shoots serve to allay the thirst of travellers. From 
its root exudes a nutritious gum which is similar to traga- 
canth, and is used as food by the Calmucks. 

Calligraphy [Gr. /caAAiypa<f>ta, from /eaAAo?, “beauty,” 
and ypa<f>r?, “writing”], the art of beautiful writing. The 
scribes who copied manuscripts before the invention of 
printing have been termed calligraphers or calligraphists. 
Their art consisted not merely in writing, but also in em¬ 
bellishing their work with ornamental devices. (See Illu¬ 
mination.) Some extant manuscripts, written in the early 
part of the Middle Ages, exhibit admirable specimens of 
the art, with letters of gold, vermilion, etc. 

Callim'achiis, a Greek sculptor and architect who is 
supposed to have lived about 450-400 B. C. His statues 
were finely finished. The invention of the Corinthian 
capital is ascribed to him. 

Callimachus [Gr. KaAAi>axos], a celebrated Greek 
poet and grammarian, was born at Cyrene, and flourished 
about 260-240 B. C. He was patronized by Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus, and was appointed chief librarian of the great 
Alexandrian library. He was a prolific writer and an emi¬ 
nent teacher; among his pupils was Eratosthenes. He 
wrote an epic poem entitled “ Galatea,” several important 
prose works, and tragedies, elegies, comedies, etc. His 
works are nearly all lost, except his epigrams and hymns. 
Quintilian regarded him as the best of the Greek elegiac 
poets. 

Calli'nus [KaAAiW] of Ephesus, the earliest of the 
Greek elegiac poets, is supposed to have lived about 600 or 
650 B. C. Only small fragments of his poems are extant. 

Calli'ope [Gr. KaAAioirr?], one of the Nine Muses, pre¬ 
sided over epic poetry, and was said to be the mother of 


Orpheus and Linus. She was represented as holding a 
tablet or closely-rolled parchment in her hand. 

Calliope, a post-village, capital of Sioux co., Ia., is on 
the left bank of the Sioux River (which is here the western 
boundary of the State), about 38 miles N. of Sioux City. 
Pop. 40. 

Callip'pic Period, a correction of the Metonic cycle, 
proposed by Callippus. The Metonic cycle was a period 
of nineteen solar years, at the end of which the new moons 
return again on the same days of the year. The period 
contained exactly 6940 days. Now, 6940 days exceed 235 
lunations by only seven hours and a half. At the end of 
four cycles, or seventy-six years, the accumulated excess of 
seven and a half hours amounts to one day and six hours. 
Callippus proposed to quadruple the period of Meton, and 
to deduct a day at the end of it. 

Callip'pus, Ol’ ClllippUS [Gr. KaAA(.7r7ro? Or KaAtTnro?], 
an ancient Greek astronomer, born at Cyzicus, lived about 
330 B. C. at Athens. He associated with Aristotle. He 
invented a new cycle of seventy-six years, which was 
adopted by astronomers, and was called the “ Callippic 
Period.” It began 331 B. C. 

Callis'theues [Gr. KaAAur0eVr??], an historian, born at 
Olynthus, in Thrace, about 365 B. C., was a relative and 
pupil of Aristotle. He accompanied Alexander the Great 
in his expedition against Persia in 334 B. C., and gained 
the favor of that prince, but afterwards offended him by 
his boldness of speech, and was put to death on a charge 
of treason in 328 B. C. He left a history of Alexander’s 
expedition against Persia, which is not extant. 

Callisthenics, or Calisthenics [from the Gr. 
(caAAos, “ beauty,” and aOevos, “ strength ”], a system of 
exercises designed to promote beauty and strength; in 
other words, to impart grace of movement and physical 
strength at the same time. These exercises are better 
adapted to girls than ordinary gymnastics, as they do not 
subject the muscles to so violent a tension. The apparatus 
used in these exercises consists of a light wooden staff 
about four feet long, a pair of light dumb-bells, parallel 
bars, two square weights, and a short roller fixed in sockets 
near the top of an open doorway. Good substitutes lor 
this apparatus may be found in the game of battledoor, in 
swimming, riding on horseback, etc. 

Callis'tratus [Gr. KaAAi'o-TpaTo?], an eloquent Athenian 
orator who lived about 380-360 B. C. His eloquence and 
the applause which he received excited the emulation of 
Demosthenes, and induced him to cultivate the art of 
oratory. Callistratus was banished from Athens in 361 
B. C. Having returned without permission, he was put to 
death. 

Cal'litris, a genus of trees of the order Coniferae. 
The cones consist of four to six woody scales, which sepa¬ 
rate one from another, each scale having from three to six 
winged seeds. Callitris quadrivalvis, a large tree of Bar¬ 
bary, called arar, yields a very hard, almost indestructible, 
fragrant wood, and the aromatic gum-resin called san- 
darach. The timber is highly prized, and is used for the 
floors of mosques. 

Callot (Jacques), a French engraver, born at Nancy in 
1592. His plates are most of them small, and deal with 
familiar and grotesque subjects. Among his works are 
notable the series of etchings “ Les Miseres de la Guerre.” 
Died Mar. 24, 1635. 

Callima. See Heath. 

Cal'lus [Lat.], the exuded material by which fractured 
bones are consolidated together. If the broken ends are 
accurately adjusted, there is merely a slight deposition of 
callus between the two surfaces; if, however, the adjust¬ 
ment is not accurate, it is effused in such quantity as often 
to form a considerable hard swelling round the seat of the 
fracture; any excess is, however, usually absorbed during 
the last stage of the repair of a fracture. The term callus 
is also applied to the thick skin formed on hands or feet 
which are exposed to much rubbing and pressure. 

Calinar, or Kalmar, a town of Sweden, is situated 
on an island in the Calmar Sound, 198 miles S. S. W. 
of Stockholm. It is regularly built, and was formerly 
strongly fortified. It has a good harbor, considerable 
trade, large factories, and a beautiful cathedral. It is the 
seat of a Lutheran bishop. Pop. in 1864, 8813. 

Cal'raar, a post-village of Winneshiek co., Ia., on the 
Milwaukee and St. Paul R. Pi., 43 miles W. by N. from 
Prairie du Chien. It is the eastern terminus of a branch 
of the same railroad. Pop. of Calmar township, 1864. 

Cal met (Augustine), a learned French Benedictine 
and commentator on Scripture, was born near Commercy, 
in Lorraine, Feb. 26, 1672. He became in 1728 abbot of 
Senones, where ho resided for many years. He published, 













726 


CALMS—CALTROP. 


besides other works, a “Commentary on the Bible” (23 
vols., 1707-16), and a “Historical and Critical Dictionary 
of the Bible” (2 vols. folio, 1720), which was translated 
into several languages. Died Oct. 20, 1757. 

Calms. Equatorial Calms .—A belt of calms, variable 
winds, sudden squalls, and tornadoes, and almost daily 
thunder-showers, situated about and somewhat N. of the 
equator, 4° to 6° of latitude in breadth, and separating the 
two bodies of N. E. and S. E. trade-winds. This is the region 
where the heated air at the equator ascends to return from 
the height of the atmosphere towards the poles. (See 
Winds, General Circulation of.) 

Calms of the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn .—Two 
belts of calms and light winds, almost rainless, situated in 
the neighborhood of, but outside, the tropics. They are 
found at the polar limit of the trade-winds, which they 
separate from the region of variable winds of the temperate 
zones. Each belt occupies but a few degrees in latitude, 
but the position and limits of both are less defined than 
those of the equatorial belt. The region of the calms of 
Cancer, in the Atlantic, is called by American mariners the 
horse latitudes. It is said that in colonial times the nu¬ 
merous vessels freighted with horses from New England 
for the West Indies were often long detained in these 
dreaded calms, under the burning rays of the sun of these 
latitudes, causing a great mortality among their living 
freight. Hence the name. (See Winds, General Circu¬ 
lation of.) Arnold Guyot. 

Cal'mucks, called by the Tartars Khalimick (“rene¬ 
gades”), the largest of the Mongolian peoples, inhabiting 
large regions of the Chinese and also Russian dominions. 
They are divided into four tribes: the Choshots, ruled by 
descendants of Gengis Khan; the Soongars, in the seven¬ 
teenth and eighteenth centuries the masters of the other 
races; oppressed by the Chinese, they migrated in great 
numbers in 1758 to Russia, but, finding the new yoke still 
more grievous, returned in 1770 to Soongaria; the Derbets, 
who dwell in the valleys of the Don and Ili ,• the Torgots, 
formerly united with the Soongars. The former in 1616 
removed to the plains of the Volga, but a large part sought 
their native regions again. The Calmucks are a nomadic 
race. Their wealth consists in herds of horses, camels, 
sheep, and cattle. In Russia there are at present about 
120,000, the greater part of whom are found in Astrakhan. 
The European Calmucks are mostly Booddhists, but some 
are Mohammedans and some are Christians. 

Cain, a post-township of Chester co., Pa. Pop. 984. 

Calomar'de (Francisco Tadeo), Count, a Spanish 
minister of state, born at Villel in 1775. He studied law, 
joined the absolutist party, and became in 1823 minister 
of grace and justice. He persecuted the liberals, favored 
the Jesuits, and abused his power with cruelty. In 1833 he 
was disgraced and exiled in consequence of his abortive 
intrigues to raise Don Carlos to the throne. Died in 1842. 

Cal'omel [from the Gr. /caAos, “beautiful,” “good,” 
and jmeAas, “black,” perhaps so named because it was sup¬ 
posed to be good for black bile] is one of the compounds 
of mercury (Hg) and chlorine (Cl), known to chemists as 
the subchloride of mercury, or, according to the new 
nomenclature, mercurous chloride (IIg 2 Cl 2 ). It is prepared 
by taking two equal portions of mercury, dissolving one 
portion in hot sulphuric acid, which forms sulphate of 
mercury, then adding the second part, and triturating the 
whole in a mortar till the metal becomes incorporated with 
the sulphate. This mixture is added to one-half its weight 
of common salt, and heated in a retort, when calomel con¬ 
denses in the cool part of the receiver as a white powder. 
It is also sometimes prepared by precipitation. A minute 
quantity of corrosive sublimate which accompanies it is 
removed by washing. Calomel is very heavy. It is not 
soluble in water, and sparingly so in acids. It turns 
black on the addition of lime-water, potash, soda, or am¬ 
monia. When heated it sublimes unaltered, and readily 
condenses again on any cool surface held near it. Its 
medicinal properties are of a decided character, and 
though capable of being misused, and thus doing great 
harm, it is still of great value in the treatment of certain 
diseases. Revised by Willard Parker. 

Calonne, de (Charles Alexandre)^ French courtier, 
born at Douayin 1734. He was appointed controller-gen¬ 
eral of finances in 1783, at a time when the public revenue 
was not equal to the expenses of the state, lie was profuse 
in the expenditure of the public money, and supplied the 
deficit by loans, extraordinary taxes, and other temporizing 
expedients, in which he showed himself fertile. In 1786 he 
advised the king to convoko an assembly of the Notables, 
in order to devise some remedy for the financial crisis. He 
was removed from office in 1787. Died Oct. 30, 1802. 

Calophyl'lum [from the Gr. kol\6<;, “beautiful,” and 


4>v\\ov, a “leaf”], a genus of trees of the order Guttiferao, 
natives of warm climates. Some of the species produce 
• edible fruits and valuable timber. The resin called East 
Indian tacamahac exudes from the trunk of Calophyllum 
Inophyllum, a beautiful tree, which has large shining leaves 
and fragrant white flowers. This is one of the most valu¬ 
able timber trees of the South Sea Islands. The timber is 
very durable, and resembles mahogany, but is of a lighter 
color. It is used for building and for the masts of vessels. 
The fruit of this and the other species is a drupe. 

Caloric. See Heat, by Prof. W. Gibbs, M. D., LL.D. 

Caloric Engine. See Hot-Air Engine, by Pres. F. 
A. P. Barnard, S. T. D., LL.D., L. II. D. 

Calorimo'tor [from calor, “heat,” and moveo, motum , 
“to move,”], a name given to a peculiar form of the vol¬ 
taic apparatus, invented by Dr. Hare, composed of one pair 
of plates, which have great extent of surface, the electric¬ 
ity of which, when transmitted through good conductors, 
produces intense heat. 

Calottistes (Le Regiment de la Calotte ), an association 
of wits and satirists under the reign of Louis XIV. They 
were so called from their custom of sending to a public cha¬ 
racter who had made himself ridiculous a “ patent,” au¬ 
thorizing him to wear the calotte, a small cap, to protect 
the weak part of his head. The society ivas dissolved un¬ 
der the ministry of Cardinal Fleury. 

C’aloy'ers (i. e. “good old men”), [from the Gr. icaAoj, 
“good,” and yepw, an “old man”], a name applied to the 
monks of the Greek Church. They mostly follow the rule 
of Saint Basil, but those at Mount Sinai and Mount Lebanon 
follow the rule of Saint Anthony; from the caloyers the 
bishops and patriarchs are chosen. Among their numerous 
monasteries those of Mount Sinai in Asia and Mount Ath- 
os in Europe are the most celebrated. 

Cal'pee, or Kalpee, a city of India, in Bundelcund, 
is on the right bank of the Jumna, in lat. 26° 7' N., Ion. 
97° 28' E. It is 46 miles S. W. of Cawnpore. Paper and 
refined sugar of superior quality are made here. Calpeo 
was conquered by the British in 1803. In May, 1858, it 
was captured by Gen. Rose from the mutinous Sepoys, 
of whom Calpee was one of the head-quarters. Pop. 
21,812. 

Calpel'la, a township of Mendocino co., Cal. P. 807. 

Calpur'nia, the fourth wife of Julius Csesar, was mar¬ 
ried to him in 59 B. C. She was a daughter of L. Calpur- 
nius Piso, who was consul in 58 B. C. She urged her hus¬ 
band not to leave home on the day of his assassination, the 
ides of March, 44 B. C. 

Calpur'nius (Titus Julius), a Latin poet, surnamed 
Siculus, is supposed to have lived about 280-300 A. D. 
The events of his life are unknown. Several of his eclogues 
are extant, and have some merit. 

Caltagil’o'ne (anc. Calata Hieronis?) a city of Sici¬ 
ly, in the province of Catania, on the slope of a hill about 
32 miles S. W. of Catania. It is the see of a bishop, and 
has a college, a hospital, and several convents; also man¬ 
ufactures of cotton fabrics and pottery. The inhabitants 
are esteemed the best workmen in Sicily in the useful arts. 
Pop. in 1872, 25,978. 

Caltaniset'ta, an Italian province, bounded on the 
N. by Palermo, on the E. by Catania and Siracusa, on the 
S. by the Mediterranean, and on the W. by Girgenti, in the 
central part of Sicily. Area, 1455 square miles. Pop. in 
1872, 226,156. 

Caltanisetta, a fortified town of Sicily, capital of the 
above province, in a fertile plain near the Salso, 23 miles 
N. E. of Girgenti. Here are mineral springs and extensive 
sulphur-works. This place is supposed to be the site of the 
ancient Nissse. Pop. in 1872, 26,156. 

Caltavutu'ro, a town of Sicily, province of Palermo, 
30 miles S. E. of the city of Palermo, is of Saracenic origin. 
Jasper is found in this vicinity. Pop. 5119. 

Cal'tlia, the Latin name of the marigold. Caltha p>a- 
lustris is the systematic name of the marsh marigold, often 
called in America “cowslip,” a plant of the natural order 
Ranunculacege, which grows in swamps and wet meadows 
in Asia, Europe, the U. S;, and even in Alaska. It is 
boiled and eaten in the spring as a potherb, the poisonous 
properties which it is said to possess being destroyed by 
cooking. 

Cai'trop, or Calthrop, a thistle of the genus Tribu- 
lus, growing in the S. of Europe; its burs are armed with 
strong spines, which inflict wounds upon the feet of men 
and beasts if trodden upon. This name is also applied to 
a tour-pointed piece of steel, so shaped that one prong al¬ 
ways points upward. It is used in military operations to 
annoy an advancing enemy. 
























CALUIEE-ET-CUIRE—CALVINISM. 727 


Caluire-et-Cuire, a village of France, in the depart¬ 
ment of Rhone, a suburb of Lyons, on the Saone, 3 miles 
N. N. E. of that city. Pop. 9182. 

Cal'umet [said to he of French origin], the pipe of 
peace used by the North American Indians in the ratifica¬ 
tion of treaties. It is a tobacco-pipe, having a long stem 
made of hollow reed and ornamented with feathers. Some 
tribes of the aborigines appear to think that a treaty is not 
valid or complete until both parties have smoked the calu¬ 
met together. 

Calumet, a county in the E. of Wisconsin. Area, 300 
square miles. It is bounded on the W. by Winnebago Lake, 
and is drained by the sources of Manitoowoc River. The 
rocks which underlie this county are limestone and sand¬ 
stone. Grain, wool, and dairy products are largely raised. 
Capital, Chilton. Pop. 12,335. 

Calumet, a post-township of Cook co., Ill. Pop. 1253. 

Calumet, a post-township of Houghton co., Mich. 
Pop. 3182. 

Calumet, a township of Pikeco., Mo. Pop. 5185. 

Calumet, a township of Fond du Lac co., Wis. Pop. 
1460. 

Calvados, a maritime department of France, formed 
of part of the old province of Normandy, is bounded on 
the N. by the English Channel, on the E. by Eure, on the 
S. by Orne, and on the W. by Manche. Area, 2181 square 
miles. The southern part is hilly, but extensive plains oc¬ 
cur in other portions. The soil is fertile. The chief rivers 
are the Orne, Dromme, and Vire. Among the mineral pro¬ 
ductions are iron, coal, marble, and slate. Many horses, 
cattle, and sheep are raised here. Capital, Caen. Pop. in 
1866, 474,909. 

Cal'vary, Mount, the scene of our Saviour’s cruci¬ 
fixion, is commonly thought to be an eminence which lay at 
the north-west, and just on the outside, of the ancient city 
of Jerusalem, but the locality is by no means certainly 
known. Calvary, or Calvaria, is a translation into Latin 
of the Hebrew word Golgotha, signifying a “ skull,” either 
because the mount was a place of public execution, or be¬ 
cause it was shaped like a human skull. The word occurs 
but once in our authorized version of the New Testament 
(Luke xxiii. 33); the term in the Greek being Kpaviov. It 
was not improbably so named from its shape. 

Calvary, a township of Clarendon co., S. C. P. 1152. 

Calvel'lo, a town of Italy, in the province of Basili¬ 
cata, 12 miles S. of Potenza. It has two convents. P. 5172. 

Cal'vert, a county in the S. of Maryland. Area, 250 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Chesapeake Bay, 
and on the W. by the Patuxent River, which enters that 
bay at the S. extremity of the county. The soil is fertile. 
Tobacco, corn, wheat, and wool are the chief products. 
Capital, Prince Fredericktown. Pop. 9865. 

Calvert, a township of Grant co., Ark. Pop. 476. 

Calvert, a city, the capital of Robertson co., Tex., on 
the Houston and Texas Central R. R., 130 miles N. N. W. 
of Houston. It has a weekly newspaper. 

Calvert (George and Cecil). See Baltimore, Lord, 
by Hon. Henry Stockbridge. 

Calvert (George Henry), born at Baltimore, Md., Jan. 
2,1803, is a descendant of Lord Baltimore and of the painter 
Rubens. He graduated at Harvard in 1823, studied at Got¬ 
tingen, and became a journalist of Baltimore. Besides many 
dramas, translations, and poems, he has published “Scenes 
and Thoughts in Europe” (1846-52), “An Introduction to 
Social Science (1856), “ The Gentleman” (1861), and other 
works. Since 1843 he has been a citizen of Newport, R. I. 

Calvert (Leonard), younger brother of Cecil, second 
Lord Baltimore. He was the first governor of Maryland, 
whither he led the first colony in 1634. He was a Roman 
Catholic, and appears to have been a man of liberal views, 
but existing details of his life are few. Died June 9, 1647. 

Cal'vi, a seaport and fortified town of Corsica, on a 
peninsula of its N. W. coast, 38 miles W. S. W. of Bastia. 
It has a good harbor and a strong citadel. Calvi was be¬ 
sieged and taken by the English in 1794. Pop. 2069. 

Calvi (anc. Cales), a decayed town of Italy, 7£ miles 
N. N. W. of Capua, is a bishop’s see. It was formerly im¬ 
portant, and was celebrated for its baths. 

Calvin, a post-township of Cass co., Mich. Pop. 1788. 

Cal'vin, written also Cauvin, and Chauvin (John), 
the great Protestant Reformer, was born at Noyon, in Pic¬ 
ardy, July 10, 1509. When Calvin was about sixteen years 
old he was made cure of Marteville, and subsequently of 
Pont l’Eveque. He began early to preach openly the doc¬ 
trines of the Reformed religion. In 1532 he published a 
commentary on Seneca’s treatise “ De dementia.” Hav¬ 
ing incurred the displeasure of the Sorbonne, ho withdrew 


from Paris to Angouleme. For a brief period he was pro¬ 
tected by Margaret of Navarre, a sister of Francis I., but 
was soon obliged to fly to Bale, where he published in 1536 
his most important work, “ Christianae Religionis Insti- 
tutio,” the object of which is to explain and vindicate the 
doctrines of the Reformers. The same year, with a view 
to promote the cause of the Reformation, he visited Fer¬ 
rara, where he was kindly received by the duchess Renata, 
a daughter of Louis XII. of France, and consort of Ercole 
d’Este. But she was unable to protect him against the 
power of the Inquisition, and he again sought safety in 
flight. Having sold his patrimonial estate, with his sister, 
his brother, and some devoted friends, he escaped to Swit¬ 
zerland in Aug., 1536, expecting to proceed to Germany. 
But Farel prevailed on him to remain at Geneva. In con¬ 
junction with Farel, he composed a confession of faith and 
a system of ecclesiastical discipline. But Calvin and Farel 
were in 1538 banished from the city. Calvin retired to 
Strasburg, and founded there a church which was regarded 
as a pattern for all Protestant churches. After the banish¬ 
ment of Calvin, Cardinal Sadolet made great efforts to bring 
Geneva back to his Church. A letter of Calvin’s, designed 
as a refutation of an epistle by Sadolet, made a powerful 
impression on the Genevese, and in 1540 he received from 
the senate of Geneva a pressing invitation to return. Al¬ 
though reluctant to leave Strasburg, he appears always to 
have regarded the church of Geneva as especially his care. 
In Sept., 1541, he returned to Geneva, and was received 
by all classes with every demonstration of affection. The 
rest of Calvin’s life was spent in efforts to establish the 
church and civil government of Geneva. The effects of 
his exertions in promoting learning and morality (not to 
speak of religion) are visible in Geneva after a lapse of 
more than three hundred years. 

At Strasburg he had married (in 1539) a widow named 
Idelette de Bures, a woman of rare virtues. Their only 
child, a son, died in infancy. Calvin died in 1564. 

Nothing perhaps in the history of this great man is more 
admirable than the self-denying simplicity of his life. He 
received what was barely sufficient to support him with the 
utmost parsimony, and yet he would never accept a present 
except for the poor. Once in his sickness the council sent 
him twenty-five thalers as a gift, but he insisted on repay¬ 
ing it. 

The central doctrine in Calvin’s system of theology was 
unconditional election and reprobation. (See Calvinism.) 
As a writer on theology he is distinguished for his clearness, 
method, scientific precision, and logical acuteness. Scali- 
ger regarded him as the greatest of all theologians, using 
this forcible language : “ Solus inter theologos Calvinus.” 

Calvin has been much censured, and not without cause, 
for the part he took in the condemnation and death of Ser- 
vetus. Calvin regarded Servetus as a dangerous man, not 
merely on account of his heresies, but also of his arrogant 
and reckless spirit, joined as these were with abilities of 
no common order; he exerted his utmost influence to pre¬ 
vent his being burned; for, though he deemed Servetus 
worthy of the punishment of death, he wished to save him 
from a death so dreadful as that by fire. (See Henry, 
“ Life of Calvin;” Theodore de Beze, “ Histoire de la Vie 
et la Mort de Calvin.” J. Thomas. 

Cal'vinism. Calvinism, as also Pelagianism and Luther¬ 
anism, is a term used to designate, not the opinions of an 
individual, but a mode of religious thought or a system of 
religious doctrines, of which the person whose name it bears 
was an eminent expounder. There have from the beginning 
coexisted in the Christian Church three, and only three, 
generically distinct systems of doctrine, or modes of con¬ 
ceiving and adjusting the facts and principles understood 
to be revealed in the Scriptures. One of these is the Pela¬ 
gian, which denies the guilt, pollution, and moral impotence 
of man, and makes him independent of the supernatural 
assistance of God. At the other pole is the Calvinistic sys¬ 
tem, which emphasizes the guilt and impotence of man, 
exalts the absolute justice and sovereignty of God, and 
refers salvation absolutely to the undeserved favor and the 
new creative energy of God. Between these comes the 
manifold and elastic system of compromise once known as 
Semi-Pelagianism, and in modern times as Arminianism, 
which admits man’s original pollution, but denies his guilt, 
regards redemption as a compensation for innate and con¬ 
sequently irresponsible disabilities, and refers the moral 
restoration of the individual to the co-operation of the 
human with the Divine energy, the determining factor being 
the human will. The system to which this article is devoted 
was known originally, and is now designated more gener¬ 
ally and indefinitely, by the title Augustimanism , from its 
earliest champion, the illustrious Augustine, bishop ot Hippo 
Regius in Northern Africa (395-430 A. D.); while the more 
modern and specific title is Calvinism,from the tact that it was 
developed into a perfect form, and inlused into the creeds 











728 CALVINISM. 


of all Protestant churches, and into the life of modern na¬ 
tions, through the instrumentality of John Calvin, the Re¬ 
former of Geneva (1509-1564). The authentic statement 
of its constituent doctrines is not to be drawn exclusively 
from the writings of either of the great men mentioned, but 
from the public confessions of those churches which have 
professed this form of doctrine, and from the classical 
writings of their representative theologians. 

It is proposed in this article to present, in necessarily 
meagre outline, a statement (1) of the fundamental charac¬ 
teristics of the system; (2) of the history of its develop¬ 
ment and prevalence both before and after Calvin ; and (3) 
of its practical moral influence upon individuals and upon 
communities. 

A. Statement of Principles. —Calvinism, as a system of 
doctrines, derives its character from the following funda¬ 
mental positions or foci of organization : 

I. The Relation of the Creator to the Creation .—There are 
three generically distinct views as to the relation of the 
Creator to the creation, each, of course, embracing many 
specific varieties under it. 

1st. The Deistical view, which admits a creation ex nihilo, 
and an original endowment of the elements with their active 
powers, and the subjection of the whole system of things to 
certain general laws, adapted to the evolution of certain 
fixed plans. The general plan and order of the creation is 
attributed to the Creator, and all events are referred to Him 
in a general sense as the indefinitely x*emote First Cause, 
who inaugurated the ever-onflowing line of second causes. 
This view, however, denies the continued immanence of the 
Creator in the creation, and the momentary dependence of 
the creature on the Creator for the continuance of its sub¬ 
stance, the possession of its properties, and the exercise of 
its powers. 

2d. The opposite extreme is the Pantheistic mode of 
thought, which identifies God and the universe as His ex¬ 
istence-form, or at least so confines Him to it as to deny His 
transcendence beyond the universe as an extra-mundane 
Spirit and conscious Person whose actions are rationally- 
determined volitions. 

3d. Between these extremes stands Christian Theism. It 
emphasizes at once the transience of God beyond, and the 
immanence of God within, the world. He remains ever a 
conscious personal Spirit, without and above the world, 
able, in the exercise of His free volitions, sovereignly to ex¬ 
ercise a supernatural influence (potestas libera) upon any 
part of that system of nature which He has established, 
ordinarily working through second causes, “yet free to 
work without, above, and against them at His pleasure.” 
At the same time He continues to interpenetrate the inmost 
being of every element of every creature with the infinite 
energies of His free intelligent will, and His creatures mo¬ 
mentarily continue absolutely dependent upon the energy 
of that will for substance and for the possession of the 
powers communicated to them as second causes in all their 
exercises. 

All Christians, of course, are Theists in the sense thus 
defined, but the different schools of Christian theology take 
their points of departure here, as, on the one hand, they 
press the essential dependence of the creature upon the 
Creator in substance, properties, and actions, or as, on the 
other hand, they press the self-active power of second 
causes, and by consequence their self-sufficiency and inde¬ 
pendence. Here we have the ultimate antithetical grounds 
of Pelagianism and Augustinianism. Pelagius, who was 
characterized by a rationalistic habit of thought and a su¬ 
perficial religious experience, believing that power to the 
contrary is an inalienable attribute of every act of free-will, 
necessary to render it responsible and therefore moral, 
maintained, in the supposed interests of morals, that every 
free agent is so adequately endowed by God as to be self- 
sufficient for action, each in a manner appropriate to his 
kind. Augustine, on the contrary, held that every creature 
exists and acts only as its substance is momentarily sus¬ 
tained, and its action conditioned, by the omnipresent 
and omnipotent energy of God. While admitting the free 
self-determining power of the human soul, he referred the 
moral character of the volition to the disposition which 
prompted it, and the moral nature of man to the influences 
of the Spirit of God. Anterior to apostasy, therefore, the 
spirit of man depended for spiritual life and moral integrity 
upon the concursus of the Spirit of God, the withdrawal 
of which is the immediate cause of spiritual death and 
moral impotence. This Divine influence, in one degree and 
in one mode or another, is common to all creatures and all 
their actions, and it is called “grace” when, as an unde¬ 
served favor, it is in a supernatural manner restored to the 
souls of sinful men with the design of affecting their moral 
character and action. This view of Augustine was subse¬ 
quently elaborated by his disciples into the theory of the 
“previous,” “simultaneous,” and “determining” concursus 


of the Thomists and Reformed theologians. (Summa of 
Tho. Aquinas, 2. 1. 10; and Turretin, 6. 6. 6 and 7.) 

II. The End or Design of God in Creation .—Every in¬ 
telligent Theist must regard the universe as one system, 
and must therefore believe that the Creator had from the 
beginning one general end, for the accomplishment of which 
the whole and all its parts were intended. This general end 
must have determined the Creator in every step He has 
taken in the evolution of the universe, and hence our con¬ 
ception of it will give shape to any speculations we may 
form with respect to the relations of God and His works. 
It is evident that no solution of this transcendent question 
can be reached by reasoning from a priori principles, or by 
generalizations drawn from the comparatively few facts at 
present accessible to our observation, and that it can be 
rationally sought for only in a direct revelation. For the 
most part, this general end has been referred to the essen¬ 
tial benevolence of God, prompting Him to confer the great¬ 
est possible amount of blessedness, in the highest forms of 
excellence, upon innumerable objects of His love. Leibnitz, 
in his “Theodicee” (1710), which has exerted a wide influ¬ 
ence on all modern speculation, lowered this view by em¬ 
phasizing the “ happiness ” of the creatures as the great 
end of the creative goodness. 

The Scriptures, on the contrary, emphatically declare 
that the manifestation of His own glorious perfections is 
the actual and most worthy possible end of the great De¬ 
signer in all His works of creation, providence, and re¬ 
demption, and hence likewise the final end of all His intel¬ 
ligent creatures in all moral action. The recognition of 
this great principle, and its application to the interpretation 
of all God’s dealings with man, and of all man’s duties to 
God, has always been an essential characteristic of Calvin¬ 
ism. Pelagians and Semi-pelagians, w T ith more or less de¬ 
cision, place the general end of the system of things in the 
well-being of the creature: Calvinists place it absolutely in 
the glory of the Creator, which carries with it, not as a co¬ 
ordinate design, but as a subordinate yet certain effect, the 
blessedness of all loyal creatures. 

III. The Relation which the Eternal Plan of God sustains 
to the Actual Evolution of Events in Time .—Every Theist 
believes that the eternal and absolutely perfect intelligence 
of the Creator must have formed from the beginning a plan 
comprehending the entire system of creation and providence 
in reference to the great end for which they were designed. 
Pelagius himself admitted that the absolute foreknowledge 
of God embraced the future volitions of free agents, as well 
as all other classes of events, while he denied their fore¬ 
ordination. The Socinians, who have developed Pelagian¬ 
ism into a complete system, more consistently deny fore¬ 
knowledge, as well as foreordination, since, if it is essential 
that a volition should be purely contingent in order that it 
should be responsible, it must be indeterminate before the 
event, and while indeterminate it cannot be certainly fore¬ 
known. The Arminians admit foreknowledge, but deny 
foreordination. The Calvinists maintain the following po¬ 
sitions: 1. This eternal and immutable plan of God has 
constituted man a free agent, and consequently can never 
interfere with the exercise of that freedom of which it is 
itself the foundation. 2. However, according to the prin¬ 
ciples above stated, this created free-will is not independent, 
but ever continues to have its ground in the conserving 
energies of the omnipresent Creator. 3. In the case of an 
infinitely wise, powerful, and free Creator of all things ex 
nihilo, it is obvious that the certain foreknowledge of all 
events from the absolute beginning virtually involves the 
predetermination of each event, without exception; for all 
the causes and consequences, direct and contingent, which 
are foreseen in creation, are, of course, determined by crea¬ 
tion. As Sir William Hamilton asserts (Discussions, Ap¬ 
pendix 1, A.), “the two great articles of foreknowledgo 
and predestination are both embarassed by the selfsame 
difficulties.” 4. Since all events constitute a single system, 
the Creator must embrace the system as a whole, and every 
infinitesimal element of it, in one all-comprehensive in¬ 
tention. Ends more or less general must be determined as 
ends, and means and conditions in all their several rela¬ 
tions to the ends which are made dependent upon them. 
Hence, while every event remains dependent upon its causes 
and contingent upon its conditions, none of God’s purposes 
can possibly be contingent, because in turn every cause 
and condition is determined in that purpose, as well as tho 
ends which are suspended upon them. All the decrees of 
God are hence called absolute, because they are ultimately 
determined always by “ the counsel of His own will,” and 
never by anything exterior to Him which has not in turn 
been previously determined by Him. 5. This determina¬ 
tion, however, instead of interfering with, maintains the 
true causality of the creature, and the free self-determina¬ 
tion of men and angels. Since the holiness of the created 
moral agent is conditioned upon the indwelling of Divine 
















CALVINISM. 729 


grace, and its turning from grace is the cause of sin, it fol¬ 
lows that all the good in the volitions of free agents is to 
be referred to God as its positive source, but all the evil 
(which originates in defect, privation) is to be referred sim¬ 
ply to Ilis permission. In this view, all events, without 
exception, are embraced in God’s eternal purpose; even 
the primal apostasies of Satan and of Adam, as well as all 
those consequences which have flowed from them. 

It is in view of these principles that Calvinism has been 
so often confounded Avith fatalism, and held up as distin¬ 
guished from the majority of human opinions by its pre¬ 
eminent offensiveness. It should be remembered, however, 
that the philosophy which has underlain the religions and 
the speculations of the immeasurable preponderance of the 
most intelligent nations in the past (Augustinian Chris¬ 
tianity excepted), as well as of the advanced thinkers of the 
present, has been fatalistic. Witness the fatalism of the 
ancient Stoics and the modern Mohammedans and Deists 
—the etei'nal and necessary conflicts of the dualism of 
Zoroaster, perpetuated among the Gnostics and Manichaeans 
—the ceaseless modifications of the one eternal essence in 
the pantheism of the Booddhists, the Brahmanists, the an¬ 
cient Greeks, and the modern disciples of Spinoza—the 
eternal interplay of unconscious and immutable natural 
laws as held by Positivists, Humists, and all modern scien¬ 
tific materialists, after the manner of the ancient Epicureans. 
How infinitely superior to all this is the Calvinistic con¬ 
ception of the all-penetrating and all-energizing will of the 
personal Jehovah, who, being at once perfect Love and 
perfect Light, constitutes and conserves our free agency, 
and through its free spontaneity works continually the 
ever-blessed counsel of His oavia will, weaving even rebel¬ 
lious volitions into the instrumentalities of His purpose, 
and making every consenting soul a conscious co-worker 
with Himself. 

As to the bearing of this principle upon the question of 
the design of God in the application of redemption (pre¬ 
destination), see beloAV. 

IV. The Manner in which the Divine Attributes of Be¬ 
nevolence, Justice, and Grace are illustrated in the Scheme 
of Redemption .—Arminians have generally held, with Leib¬ 
nitz, that “justice is benevolence acting according to wis¬ 
dom ”— i. e., inflicting a lesser pain in order to effect a 
greater or more general happiness. The necessity for pun¬ 
ishment therefore lies not in the essential and inexorable de¬ 
mands of righteousness, but in its being the best means to 
secure the moral reformation of the sinner, and the best 
motive to restrain the community from disobedience. Gro- 
tius maintained that the moral law is a product of the Di¬ 
vine Avill, and therefore capable of being relaxed by that 
will. In the gospel scheme, therefore, God, in the exercise 
of His sovereign prerogative, relaxes His kuv by forgiving 
sinners upon repentance and reformation, Avhile as an ad¬ 
ministrative precaution He makes an exhibition of severe 
suffering in the person of His Bon, in order that all other 
subjects of His moral government may be deterred from 
making the impunity of repentant men an encouragement 
to disobedience. The atonement, therefore, Avas an exhi¬ 
bition solely of the Divine benevolence, but not of justice 
in the ordinary sense of that word. 

Calvinists, on the contrary, hold that justice as well as 
bene\ r olence is an essential and ultimate property of the 
Divine nature, and hence lies back of, and determines the 
character of, the Divine volitions. By the perfection of 
God’s nature He is always benevolent to the innocent, and 
just as certainly is He determined to punish the guilty. 
In the gospel, God has sovereignly separated the sin from 
the sinner in certain cases ; in the vicarious penal sufferings 
of His Son punishing sin in strict rigor of justice, and then 
treating the believing sinner as a righteous person—that 
is, as a person Avith regard to Avhom all the demands of 
justice are fully satisfied. Hence He has exercised both 
justice and benevolence—justice to the sin and to the Lav, 
benevolence to the sinner; which benevolence to the unde¬ 
serving is sovereign grace. While Arminians in their vieAv 
of the gospel emphasize benevolence, Calvinists in their 
view emphasize justice and grace. 

V. The Degree of Guilt and Moral Damage entailed 
through the Apostasy of Adam upon his Posterity .—The 
answers respectively given to this question impose form 
and character upon all the various systems of theology. 

1. Pelagius held that free-will ( liberum arbitrium), in the 
sense of an absolutely unconditioned power of choice be¬ 
tween good and evil, is essential to responsible moral 
agency, and hence inalienable from human nature. Since, 
then, all men continue after the apostasy to be responsible 
moral agents, their nature in this essential respect must 
remain in the same condition in Avhich it Avas created. The 
moral agency of a man at any one moment cannot deter¬ 
mine the character of his moral agency at any other moment, 
and he possesses throughout his entire existence ability 


to will and to do all that God has any right to require of 
him. Hence Pelagians deny—(1.) All original sin or cor¬ 
ruption of nature, because sinfulness can be predicated only 
of free acts, and man in order to be responsible must always 
possess plenary ability to Avill aright. (2.) All original 
guilt or desert of punishment common to the race, and prior 
to actual transgression, since it would be a Adolation of 
justice to hold one moral agent responsible for the wrong 
volitions of another. (3.) Hence men need redemption 
through Christ only to deliver them from the guilt of actual 
and personal transgression, and only those need it aaIio have 
thus sinned. Those dying in infancy can be benefited by 
Christ only by being raised to a higher plane of blessed¬ 
ness—the regnum coelorum as distinguished from the vita 
seterna. 

2. Augustinians and Calvinists, on the contrary, main¬ 
tain—(1.) That the entire soul, with all its constitutional 
faculties and acquired habits, is the organ of volition, the 
agent willing. (2.) That this soul possesses the inalienable 
property of self-determination, the moral character of which 
determination always depends upon the moral condition 
of the soul acting. (3.) That the holy moral condition of 
the soul, and hence its spontaneous disposition to Avill that 
Avhich is right, depends upon the indwelling of the Divine 
Spirit. The free agency of God is an absolute self-existent 
and self-sufficient perfection, self-determined to good and 
incapable of evil. The freedom of saints and angels is de¬ 
pendent upon DAine assistance, but, like that of God him¬ 
self, it is the very opposite to the “ liberty of indifference” 
or “poAver to the contrary,” being a non posse peccare, a 
felix necessitas boni. Adam was created in fellowship with 
God, and hence with a holy tendency of heart, with full 
poAver not to sin ( posse non peccare), but also, during a 
limited period of probation, with poAver to sin (posse pec¬ 
care). He did sin. As a punishment, the Holy Spirit is 
withdrawn from the race, and he and his descendants lost 
the posse non peccare, and retained only the posse peccare, 
which thus became the fatal non posse non peccare. 

This theological doctrine of total moral inability has 
nothing whatever to do Avith the psychological theory of 
“ philosophical necessity” as an attribute of voluntary ac¬ 
tion, Avhich, since the time of President EdAvards, has been 
too frequently regarded essential to the defence of Calvin¬ 
ism. It has been conclusively shoAvn by Principal Cun¬ 
ningham ( Theology of the' Reformers, Essay IX.) that this 
metaphysical doctrine is not essential to Calvinism; Avhile 
Sir William Hamilton ( Discussions, Appendix, 1, A.) and 
Sir James Macintosh ( Dissertations on the Progress of Ethi¬ 
cal Philosophy, Note 0) propose to prove that it is abso¬ 
lutely inconsistent with Calvinism as historically taught. 
The phrases “bondage of the will,” etc., so frequently 
used by all classes of Augustinian theologians, and above 
all by Luther in his treatise “ De Servo Arbitrio,” are in¬ 
tended to apply only to the corrupt spontaneous tendency 
of fallen man to evil, Avhich can be reversed only by a new 
creating energy from above. At the same time, eA r ery Cal¬ 
vinist holds devoutly to the free self-determination of the 
soul in every moral action, and is at liberty to give what- 
eA’er psychological explanation of that fact may seem to 
him most reasonable. (See Confession of Faith, ch. 9, and 
Calvin’s De Servitute et Liberatione Hnmani Arbitrii.) 

Hence Calvinists hold—First. As to original guilt. (1.) 
Human sin, having originated in the free apostatizing act of 
Adam, deserves God’s wrath and curse, and immutable jus¬ 
tice demands their infliction. (2.) Such, moreover, was the 
relation subsisting between Adam and his descendants that 
God righteously regards and treats each one as he comes 
into being as worthy of the punishment of that sin, and 
consequently withdraws his life-giving felloAVship from him. 
Some refer this responsibility of Adam’s descendants for 
his apostatizing act to a purely sovereign “ divine constitu¬ 
tion ” (New England vIcav) ; others hold that we all Avere in 
our generic essence guilty coagents with him in that act 
(Realistic view); while the common opinion is that God, as 
the guardian of our interests, gave to us all the most favor¬ 
able probation possible for beings so constituted in Adam 
as our covenant representative (Federal view). The whole 
race, therefore, and each individual it embraces, is under 
the just condemnation of God, and hence the gift of Christ, 
and the entire scheme of redemption, in its conception, ex¬ 
ecution, and application, are throughout and in every sense 
a product of sovereign grace. God was free to provide it 
for few or many, for all or none, just as he pleased. And 
in every case of its application the motives determining 
God cannot be found in the object, but only in the good 
pleasure of the will of the Divine Agent. 

Calvinists also hold—Secondly. As to original sin. (1.) 
Since every man thus comes into the Avorld in a condition of 
antenatal forfeiture because of Adam’s apostasy, he is ju¬ 
dicially excluded from the morally quickening energy of 
the Holy Ghost, and hence begins to think, leel, and act 











730 CALVINISM. 


without a spontaneous bias to moral good. (2.) But since 
moral obligation is positive, and the soul is essentially act¬ 
ive, it instantly develops in action a spiritual blindness and 
deadness to divine things, and a positive inclination to evil. 
This involves the corruption of the whole nature, and abso¬ 
lute iinpotency of the will to good, is, humanly speaking, 
without remedy, and necessarily tends to the indefinite in¬ 
crease both of depravity and of guilt. It is therefore said 
to be total. Some Calvinists hold original guilt to be con¬ 
ditioned upon original depravity (e. g., the advocates of 
mediate imputation and the ex traduce origin of souls). 
Others, as the writer of this article, hold original depravity 
to be the penal consequence of Adam’s apostatizing act, and 
therefore to be conditioned upon original guilt (hence im¬ 
mediate imputation and creationism). 

3. The advocates of the middle scheme have, of course, 
varied very much from the almost Pelagian extreme occu¬ 
pied by many of the Jesuits and the later Remonstrants, 
to the almost Augustinian position of the Lutherans and of 
the great Wesleyan Richard Watson. The Semi-pelagians 
admitted that the nature of man was so far injured by the 
fall that he could do nothing in his own strength morally 
good in God’s sight. But they held that man is able to in¬ 
cline himself unto good, though he is not able to effect it; 
so that in every case of spiritual reformation the first move¬ 
ment towards good is from the soul itself, while the per¬ 
formance of it is the result of the co-operation of Divine 
grace with the human will. They consequently denied the 
gratiap>rseveniens, but admitted the gratia co-operans. 

The modern Protestant Arminians (Limborch, Episco- 
pius, etc.) admit original sin, while they deny original 
guilt, and regard innate corruption rather as a vice or fault 
of nature than as a sin in the full sense of that term. Dr. 
D.D. Whedon (“ Bibliotheca Sacra,” April, 1862) admits— 
1. That Adam and Eve by their apostasy morally corrupted 
their own nature and that of all their descendants ; 2. That 
every child of Adam is born with an inherent tendency to 
sin which he cannot remove by his own power; 3. That Adam 
and Eve were fully responsible for their apostasy, because 
they sinned in spite of possessing power to the contrary, 
and therefore might justly have been damned; 4. Never¬ 
theless, their descendants, although coi'rupt and prone to sin 
from birth, are neither responsible nor punishable until 
there has first been bestowed upon them redemptively a 
gracious ability to the right; 5. After Adam sinned, there¬ 
fore, only one alternative was open to Divine justice—either 
that Adam should be punished at once without issue, or 
that he should be allowed to generate seed-in his own moral 
likeness, when equity required that an adequate redemption 
should be provided for all ; 6. Hence Christ died for all 
men, and sufficient grace (including gratia prseveniens and 
gratia co-operans) is given to all men, which is essential to 
render them responsible, and they become guilty only when 
they abuse (by failing to co-operate with) that gracious 
power to the contrary ( posse non pecare ) which has been 
conferred on them in the gospel. 

Quoting the dictum of Pres. Edwards ( Will, pt. 4, $ 1), 
“ The essence of the virtue or vice of dispositions of the 
heart and actions of the will lies not in their cause, but in 
their nature,” Whedon says : “To this we oppose the coun¬ 
ter-maxim, that in order to responsibility for a given actor 
state, power in the agent for a contrary act or state is requi¬ 
site. In other words, power underlies responsibility.” The 
only limit he allows to this principle is in the case of that 
moral inability which results from the previous abuse of 
freedom by the agent himself. This he declares is the funda¬ 
mental ground upon which all the issues between Armin- 
ianism and Calvinism depend. Thus, while Calvinism ex¬ 
alts the redemption of Christ in its execution and in each 
moment of its application as an adorable act of transcend¬ 
ent grace to the ill-deserving, Arminianism, in its last 
analysis, make? it a compensation brought in by the equit¬ 
able Governor of the world to balance the disabilities 
brought upon them without their fault by the apostasy of 
Adam. This difference is the practical reason that Calvin¬ 
ism has such a strong hold upon the religious experience 
of Christians, and that it finds such frequent irrepressible 
expression in the hymns and prayers of evangelical Ar¬ 
minians. 

VI. The Nature and Necessity of that Divine Grace which 
is exercised in the Moral Recovery of Human Nature .— 
Grace is free sovereign favor to the ill-deserving. It is the 
motive to redemption in the mind of God. It is exercised 
in the sacrifice of His Son, in the free justification of the 
believing sinner on the ground of His vicarious obedience 
and sufferings, and in the total change wrought in that sin¬ 
ner’s moral character and actions by the energy of the Holy 
Ghost. While the word grace applies equally to tho ob¬ 
jective change of relations and the subjective change of 
character, it is used in this connection to designate that en¬ 
ergy of the Holy Ghost whereby tho moral naturo of tho 


human soul is renewed, and the soul, thus renewed, is en¬ 
abled to act in compliance with the will of God. 

Pelagius found in his system neither need nor room for 
this Divine energy, except in the way of objective revela¬ 
tions and educational and providential influences. 

Semi-pelagians admitted its necessity to help man to com¬ 
plete that which he had himself commenced, and that it is 
actually given to all those who had thus prepared themselves 
for it and made themselves worthy of it. 

Arminians admit that it is necessary in order that the 
corrupt will shall be even predisposed to good, but they re¬ 
gard it as a compensation for the irresponsible defects of an 
inherited nature, which restores the native power for either 
good or evil, and which depends for its effects wholly upon 
the use made of it by the soul in which it acts. This is 
styled the theory of co-operation as held by the Arminians, 
and of “synergism” as held by the followers of Melanch- 
thon in Germany. Regeneration is the result of the co¬ 
working of two energies, but the determining factor is the 
human will. Hence grace is sujficiens in every case, and 
efficax ab eventu vel congruitate. 

Augustinians and Calvinists, on the other hand, hold— 
1. That, for Christ’s sake, and in spite of all human de¬ 
merit, a gracious influence is excited on the minds of all 
men of various intensities. This is “common grace,” and 
is a moral and suasory influence on the soul, tending to 
good, restraining evil passions, and adorning the soul with 
the natural virtues; which may be resisted, and is always 
prevailingly resisted, by the unregenei’ate. 2. But at His 
pleasure, in certain cases, God exerts a new creative energy, 
which in a single act changes the moral character of the 
will of the subject, and implants a prevailing tendency to 
co-operate with future grace in all forms of holy obedience. 
This is gratia efficax, “effectual calling,” which is always 
effectual because it consists in effecting a regenerative 
change in the moral nature of the will itself. The change 
which this grace effects is the “ new heart ” of Scripture, 
the conversio habitualis seu passiva, of which God is the 
agent and man the subject, which as a new habit of soul 
lays the foundation for all holy activities. Augustine has 
been followed by many in styling this grace “ irresistible,” 
because it cannot be resisted. But this is as incongruous 
as it would bo to call the creation of the world or the gen¬ 
eration of a child irresistible. Effectual calling consists in 
a new creative energy within the soul, making it willing, 
upon which it spontaneously embraces Christ and turns to 
God (the conversio actualis seu activa). It merges itself 
into the very spontaneity of the will, and enfranchises it 
from the corruption which had hitherto held it in bondage, 
and restores it to its normal equilibrium, in harmony with 
reason and conscience and the indwelling Spirit of God. 
3. Afterwards this same Divine energy continues to sup¬ 
port the soul, and prepare it for, and to concur with it in, 
every good work. This grace is now prevailingly co-operated 
with by the regenerated soul, and at times resisted, until the 
status of grace is succeeded by the status of glory. 

Calvinists hold that this “ grace” in all its stages is purely 
undeserved favor, and therefore sovereignly exercised by 
God upon whom and at what times He pleases; hence it is 
called gratia gratuita et gratis data, otherwise grace would 
be no more grace. It also works in its various stages pro¬ 
gressively, except in the single regenerative act. It is at 
first the gratia prseveniens, then the gratia operans, then 
the gratia co-operans, and finally the gratia perficiens, in¬ 
cluding the donum perseverantise, infallibly securing perse¬ 
verance in faith, and obedience unto the conrplete redemp¬ 
tion of soul and body in glory. 

VII. The Relation which the Eternal Plan of God bears 
to the Application of Redemption to Individuals .—Predes¬ 
tination, or the purpose of God to secure the salvation of 
some men and not of all, has been popularly regarded as 
the distinguishing feature of Calvinism, and one most re¬ 
volting to the moral sense. Some Calvinists, reasoning 
downward from the nature of, God as absolute, and develop¬ 
ing this doctrine in a strictly speculative manner, have 
made it the foundation of their whole system. These have 
necessarily conceived of it in the high and logically coherent 
Supralapsarian sense, which, in a speculative point of view, 
is impregnable. The vast majority of Calvinists, however, 
are brought to this point by practical rather than specula¬ 
tive considerations, such as the explicit authority of Scrip¬ 
ture and the personal sense of absolute unworthiness and 
moral impotency, and therefore of absolute dependence 
upon grace. These are all willing to stop in the Infralap- 
sarian view of the decree of redemption, which, if less logic¬ 
ally complete, is nevertheless exactly conformed to all tho 
facts open to our inspection or embraced in our experience, 
and to all tho representations of Scripture. The Scriptures 
never speak of God as creating men in order either to savo 
or damn them, nor of electing certain individuals consid¬ 
ered merely as croatablo, and then allowing them to fall in 














CALVINISM. 731 


order that they might be redeemed; but they uniformly 
represent God as electing His people out of the mass of 
guilty sinners, and then as providing redemption for them 
in order to carry out the purpose of election. Arminians 
maintain that this decree of election is conditioned on God’s 
foresight of faith and repentance; but Calvinists insist that 
if faith and repentance are the gifts of God and the fruits 
of His Spirit, they cannot be the conditions upon which 
election is suspended, but rather its predetermined and 
graciously effected results. Augustine held the Infralap- 
sarian scheme. The position of Calvin has been disputed. 
Beza, his successor in Geneva; Gomarus and Voetius, the 
great opponents of the Remonstrants of Holland; Twiss, 
the prolocutor of the Westminster Assembly, have been the 
most conspicuous advocates of Supralapsarianism. On the 
other hand, the canons of the Synod of Dort (1619), the 
Confession and Catechisms of the Westminster Assembly 
(1618), the Formula Consensus Helvetica (1675), and the 
vast majority of Calvinists, ancient and modern, are de¬ 
cided Infralapsarians. 

Gottschalk (848-868) insisted much upon a predestinatio 
duplex of the elect to salvation and of the reprobate to 
damnation, and this view has often been offensively in¬ 
sisted upon as essential to Calvinism by its enemies. It is, 
however, a gratuitous assumption and without scrip¬ 
tural warrant, and not taught in the recognized standards 
of Calvinism. God positively decrees grace, and thus pro¬ 
duces all that is good. He only determines the permission 
of sin, and punishes it because he forbids and in every way 
morally discountenances it. He elects of free grace all 
those he purposes to save, and actually saves them, while 
those whom he does not elect are simply left under the 
operation of the law of exact justice, whatever that may be. 
Archbishop Whately, himself an Arminian, in his “Essays 
on Some of the Difficulties in the Writings of the Apostle 
Paul,” honorably admits that the apparent harshness of 
Calvinism lies in the facts of the case as admitted by all 
Christians. All infants, idiots, and all believers in Christ 
are saved by grace—all others are left to the operation of 
pure justice. It is obvious that all who are born, sin and 
die, that all do not believe, and that all are not saved. 
Calvinistic “ particularism ” admits the actual results of 
salvation in their widest scope, and refers all to the gracious 
purpose and power of God, but does not restrict it one iota 
within the limits determined by the facts themselves. 

B. The History of Calvinism .—Pantheism, which is the only 
philosophical basis of polytheism (in the forms of Booddh- 
ism, Brahmanism, and underlying all forms of Greek 
philosophy), and the Dualism of Zoroaster (which was re¬ 
vived in the second and third centuries in a Christianized 
form in the various systems of the Gnostics and Manichaeans), 
together constituted the substratum of all ancient philos¬ 
ophies and religions. All such systems were consequently 
essentially fatalistic, and made sin either an essential attri¬ 
bute of an eternal self-existent Principle, or a necessary 
condition of the eternal evolution of the infinite and abso¬ 
lute into the finite and contingent. In necessary antagon¬ 
ism to these fundamental heresies, the early Fathers, espe¬ 
cially Origen and all his colleagues and followers of the Alex¬ 
andrian school from the reaction of Neo Platonism (200-350 
A. D.), were led in a very unqualified manner to insist upon 
the independent, self-determining power of the human will, 
and to maintain that sin is the product of'that freedom 
abused. They universally held that human nature was 
morally ruined by Adam’s sin, and that it was redeemed 
by the blood and restored by the Spirit of Christ; but they 
conceived of these great principles in a crude and indefinite 
manner, without determining their relations to each other. 
All the ancient Fathers were induced to render special at¬ 
tention to the defence of human self-determining power as 
the basis of responsibility. As a general fact, the Greeks 
were specially distinguished for emphasizing the autocracy 
of the will, without denying the need of grace, while the 
Latins especially emphasized inherited depravity, without 
denying the freedom of the will. And the anthropology 
of the Greek Church has continued to preserve the same 
characteristics to the present day ( Athanasius , Expos, in 
Psalmo8, Ps. 1. 7; Orthodox Confession of Peter Mogilas, 
1642). On the other hand, there was during the third cen¬ 
tury a marked tendency in the Latin Church to more pro¬ 
found views as to the moral and spiritual nature and rela¬ 
tions of mail. This characteristic was developed most 
obviously in Tertullian of Carthage (220 A. D.), who taught 
the propagation (ex traduce) of a corrupt nature from 
Adam to each of his descendants; in Hillary of Poictiers 
(368); and in Ambrose of Milan (397), the most explicit 
defender in that age of the sovereignty of God and tho 
moral impotence of man, and tho immediate teacher of 
Augustine. But the “ history ” of all systematic theology 
properly commences with the great controversy of Augustine 
and Pelagius in the first quarter of the fifth century. On 


the one hand we have Augustine (354—430), a native of 
Tagaste, in Numidia, the son of a heathen father and of 
the sainted Monica, in turn a prodigal, unbeliever, Mani- 
chaean, Platonist, disciple of Ambrose, Christian of pro¬ 
found experience, preacher and teacher of transcendent 
genius, bishop of Hippo Regius from 395 to 430, and the 
greatest theologian of all time. On the other hand we have 
Pelagius (Morgan), a.British monk, student of the Greek 
Fathers, a man of pure life, clear, practical intellect, and 
earnest zeal for the moral interests of human life. lie was 
the moral author of the system which bears his name, while 
its intellectual constructor was Coelestius, a youthful Roman 
advocate; and its most effective advocate was Julian, the 
deposed bishop of Eclanum, in Campania. The opinious 
of Pelagius were universally condemned by the whole 
Church, Eastern and Western, at the councils held at Car¬ 
thage, 407 and 416 A. D., at the council at Mileve, 416 A. D., 
by the popes Innocent and Zosimus, and by the oecumenical 
council held at Ephesus, 431 A. D. This rapid and univer¬ 
sal condemnation of Pelagianism, after making all due 
allowance for extraneous influences, proves that, however 
indefinite the views of the ancient Greek Fathers may have 
been, nevertheless the system taught by Augustine was in 
all essentials the common and original faith of the Church. 
In the history of the entire Church to the present moment, 
Pelagianism has been never adopted into the public creed 
of any ecclesiastical body except that of the Socinians 
(llacovian Catechism, 1605), and it has prevailed practically 
only among Rationalists, whose Christianity was disente¬ 
grating into Heism. 

In the mean time, John Cassian, a disciple of Chrj'sostom, 
abbot of the monastery at Marseilles, brought into promi¬ 
nence the middle system of compromise, whose advocates 
were at first styled Massilians; during the Middle Ages and 
at present in the Romish Church, Semi-pelagians; among 
Lutherans, Synergists ; and among the Reformed, Armin¬ 
ians. His most influential supporters and followers were 
Vincentius of Lerinum (434), Faustus, bishop of Rhegium 
(475), Gennadius, and Arnobius ; and his opinions pre¬ 
vailed in France for a long time, and were confirmed by the 
provincial synods of Arles (472) and of Lyons (475). 
Against this party Augustine wrote his great works “ De 
Prredestinatione Sanctorum,” and “De Dono Perseveran- 
tiae,” and he was ably represented by Prosper and Hilarius, 
and the unknown author of the great work “ De Vocatione 
Omnium Gentium,” ascribed to Pope Leo I. (461); by Avitus, 
archbishop of Vienne (490-523), Caesarius, archbishop of 
Arles (502-542), and by Fulgentius of Ruspe (1533). Semi- 
pelagianism was condemned by the decree of Pope Gelasius 
(496), and finally in the synods of Orange and Valence 

(529) , which were confirmed by the edict of Pope Boniface 

(530) ; from which time a moderate form of Augustinian- 
ism became the recognized orthodoxy of the entire Western 
Church. It was taught by Gregory the Great, and held by 
the emperor Charlemagne, the two persons who exerted 
the greatest influence in the reconstruction of Europe at 
the commencement of the Middle Ages. It was held through¬ 
out those ages by all the greatest Church teachers and or¬ 
naments, as the Venerable Bede (673-735), Alcuin (804), and 
Claudius of Turin (839). The history of the persecution 
and condemnation of Gottschalk, under the influence of 
Rabanus Maurus and Hinckmar, with which Scotus Erigena 
was involved (about 850), prove beyond question that the 
entire Church of that age, and even the part most opposed 
to Gottschalk, was agreed in adopting the Augustinian 
system (as they understood it), and all the consequences 
that flowed from it. ( Neander .) All the most illustrious 
teachers of the scholastic age, making allowance for the 
extravagance of many of their speculations, were disciples of 
Augustine; as, for example, Anselm, archbishop of Canter¬ 
bury (910); St. Bernard, bishop of Clairvaux (1140); Peter 
Lombard, “Magister Sententiarum;” Hugo de St. Victor; 
and, above all, Thomas Aquinas, “ Doctor Angelicus ” (1247), 
and Thomas Bradwardine, archlsishop of Canterbury (1348). 
The Dominicans as a class followed Aquinas, while the 
Franciscans followed their champion, Duns Scotus (1265), 
“ Doctor Subtilis,” and in that age the ablest advocate of 
Semi-pelagianism. The controversies then revived have 
continued to agitate the Romish Church up to the present 
time, when they have been annihilated by the capitulation 
of the whole body to the Jesuits in the Council ot the ^ at- 
ican (1870). The Council of Trent (1546) attempted to 
satisfy both parties by indefinite decrees, and accordingly 
both Augustinians and Semi-pelagians, Thomists and Scot- 
ists, have claimed that their respective views were sanctioned. 
The truth is, that while the general statements of doctrines 
which are to be found among tho canons are Augustinian 
in form, the more detailed explanations which follow are 
uniformly Semi-pelagian in sense. ’The Jesuit society, 
whose doctrines and casuistry have been signally ventilated 
in tho (C Provincial Letters” of tho immortal 1 asoal, has 












732 


CALVINISM. 


always advocated Semi-pelagianism. The illustrious gen¬ 
tlemen of Port lloyal, Paris, called Jansenists from Jan- 
senius, bishop of Ypres (Tilleinont, Arnauld, Nicole, Pas¬ 
cal, Quesnel, etc.), were at the same time devout Catho¬ 
lics, and in the matters of grace and predestination earn¬ 
est Calvinists. They were persecuted by the Jesuits, and 
finally outlawed by the bulls of Popes Innocent X. and 
Alexander VII. (1653 and 1656 A. ]>.), and of Clement XI. 
(1713). By the suicidal action of the (Ecumenical Council 
of the Vatican (1870) all Scripture, traditions, canons of 
councils, and classical theology have been superseded by the 
plenary inspiration of a pope who in turn is a creature of 
the Society of Jesus. Thus at last Popery has become 
definitely Semi-pelagian. 

All the great evangelical teachers and forerunners of the 
Reformers in the century immediately preceding the Re¬ 
formation were decided Augustinians ( Neander’s Hist. Doc., 
vol. ii., p. 609). This is most conspicuously true of Wick- 
liffe (1384), Jerome of Prague, John IIuss (1415), John of 
Goch (1475), John of Wesalia, Jerome Savonarola, a Domi¬ 
nican (1498), John Wessel (1499), “the Light of the World/' 
and his disciple, the great Grecian, John Reuchlin, in his 
turn the teacher of Melanchthon,and Staupitz, vicar-general 
of the Augustines and the spiritual teacher of Luther. 

All of the great national Reformers, Zwingle of Switz¬ 
erland, Luther of Germany, Calvin of France, Cranmer of 
England, and Knox of Scotland, although each movement 
was self-originated and different from the others in many 
permanent characteristics, were alike strictly Calvinistic. 
The complete agreement of Zwingle with wtiat was after¬ 
wards called Calvinism on the point of absolute predesti¬ 
nation, although denied by Mosheim and Milner, is beyond 
question. (See his work “ De Providentia Dei," written 
when Calvin was twenty years old; also Scott’s “Continua¬ 
tion of Milner," vol. iii., p. 142-231; Neander’s “Christ. 
Doc.," vol ii., p. 668 ; and Cunningham’s “ Theology of the 
Reformers," Essay V.) That Luther agreed with Calvin 
on all points considered characteristic of his system, with 
the exception of the sacraments, is demonstrated by his 
great work, “De Servo Arbitrio" (1525), written against 
the “De Libero Arbitrio" of Erasmus, the sentiments of 
which were never retracted, and are obviously in harmony 
with all his religious opinions in their entirety. Melanch- 
thon, in the earliest editions of his “Loci Communes" 
(1521), took extreme ground as to the moral impotence of 
the human will and absolute predestination, which, how¬ 
ever, he gradually and radically modified in subsequent edi¬ 
tions, until he finally assumed Synergistic or Arminian 
ground. The personal followers of Melanchthon excited the 
strong opposition of the stricter Lutherans, and the struggle 
came to an explosion in the Weimar Confutation (1558). 
The result was the triumph of the stricter party, who left 
to posterity that grandest monument of Lutheran symbol¬ 
ism, the “Formula Concordae ” (1580). The system here 
presented agrees in all its deepest positions with Calvinism 
as presented in this paper. It differs from it (a) by making 
the sacrament of baptism the efficient means by which ordi¬ 
narily regeneration is effected; (b) by making the difference 
between the saved and the lost to be ultimately determined 
by the “ non-resistance ’’ to grace of the former in contrast 
with the resistance of the latter. In all other respects, as 
to the guilt, pollution, and helplessness of the condition 
into which all children are born, as to justification, and the 
necessity and the efficacy of regenerating and sanctifying 
grace, it is one with Calvinism. 

By far the greatest of the Reformers, viewed either as a 
theologian, an interpreter of Scripture, as a social organizer, 
and founder of churches and republics, was John Calvin. 
His “Institutes" (1530), written when he was twenty-seven 
years old, the first and grandest work of systematic di¬ 
vinity the world has seen, has recast Augustinianism in its 
final Protestant form, and handed it over to the modern 
world stamped with its great author’s name. His “ Com¬ 
mentaries” are acknowledged by the most advanced mod¬ 
ern scholars of every school to be upon the whole the ablest 
and most complete work of the kind ever achieved by a 
single hand. His “Tractatus” consists of various contro¬ 
versial treatises in defence of the truth, and his “ Epistolse ” 
consist of his voluminous correspondence with princes, 
nobles and commoners, statesmen and churchmen in every 
part of the Protestant world, concerning the important 
movements then revolutionizing Europe, both in Church 
and State. By him Calvinism and its correlates, Presby¬ 
terianism in the Church and republicanism in the State, 
were not invented, but advocated and disseminated with 
transcendent ability and success. His doctrines have been 
most consistently developed and illustrated in the writings 
of such men as Bullingcr, Martin Bucer, Theodore Beza, 
Diodati, Heidegger, Turretin, Cocceius, Witsius, Vitringa, 
Markius, De Moor, Pictet, John Owen, and Jonathan Ed¬ 
wards ; in the deliverance of the international Synod of 


Dort (1618-19), of the national Assembly of Westminster 
(1648), of the French synods of Charenton and Alez, and 
in the following creeds and confessions of the Church : The 
Creed of the Waldensian pastors at Angrogne (1532), tho 
two Helvetic, the Gallic, Belgic, and Scotch Confessions, the 
Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England, the Lambeth 
Articles (1595), the Articles of Religion of the Dublin Con¬ 
vocation (1615), the Heidelberg Catechism, the Savoy Con¬ 
fession of the English (1658), and the Boston Confession 
(1680) of the American Independents. Calvinism is pro¬ 
fessed by all those Protestants of Germany who embrace the 
Heidelberg Catechism, the national (Protestant) churches 
of France, Switzerland, Holland, England, and Scotland, 
the Independents and Baptists of England and America, 
and the various branches of the the Presbyterian Church 
in England, Ireland, and America,—in all about thirty-six 
millions of adherents, if the Episcopal churches are in¬ 
cluded. From the time of Archbishop Laud (1644) a large 
proportion of the clergy and influential writers of the Epis¬ 
copal chui’ches have been Arminian, and it has even been 
disputed whether the Church of England was originally 
Calvinistic or not. The fact that the founders and leading 
ministers of that Church were thorough Calvinists during 
the first hundred years of its history, and that its creed 
remains such to this day, is as certain and as conspicuous 
as any other fact in the history of mankind. The seven¬ 
teenth article, “On Predestination," corresponds in spirit, 
design, and expression with all the other Calvinistic creeds 
in the world. Tyndal, Frith, Barnes, who suffered under 
Henry VIII.; Hooper, Latimer, Ridley, who suffered under 
Bloody Mary; Cranmer, the real author, and Jewel, who gave 
the finishing touch to the Thirty-nine Articles, were all Cal¬ 
vinists. Jewel wrote to Peter Martyr of Zurich, “We do 
not differ from your doctrine by a hair’s breadth.” Cran¬ 
mer put Martin Bucer and Peter Martyr into the divinity 
chairs of Oxford and Cambridge. “The same is proved 
by the whole history of the proceedings connected with the 
Lambeth Articles, the cases of Baro and Barret (1595), the 
Irish Articles (1615), and the Synod of Dort (1619).’’ (Cun¬ 
ningham.) The sources of information, and the arguments 
on both sides of this controversy, may be found in the 
“ Works of the Parker Society,” Richmond’s “Fathers of the 
English Church," the “ Zurich Letters,” the works of Hey- 
lin, Winchester, Daubeny, Tomline, and Lawrence on the 
Arminian side, and the works of Prynne, Hickman, Top- 
lady, Overton, Goode, and Principal Cunningham on the 
Calvinistic side. 

Over this vast area of time, and under all these various 
conditions of national and ecclesiastical life, Calvinism pre¬ 
serves its essential identity as a system of theological prin¬ 
ciples. It has, of course, undergone within these limits 
very various modifications as to details of structure and 
modes of statement. In Germany it has been rendered 
less thorough and definite through the influence of the com¬ 
promising school of Melanchthon. In Holland, England, 
and Scotland it has been modified in form by the “ Federal 
Scheme” introduced by Cocceius and the Westminster di¬ 
vines (1650). In France it was temporarily modified by the 
“ Universalismus Hypotlieticus,” or the universal impetra- 
tion and limited application of redemption (1642), as held 
by Amyraldus, Daille, and Placeus on the Continent, and 
by Baxter, Davenant, and in modern times by Wardlaw and 
others, in England. In America it has been coerced through 
more radical and more transient transformations in the 
speculations of Hopkins, the younger Edwards, Emmons, 
N. W. Taylor, and others of the New England school. 

C. The Practical Effects of Calvinism on Personal Moral 
Character, and zipon the Social and Political Interests of 
Men. —From the time of Coelestius and Julian, in the fifth 
century, to that of Ileylin (1659) and Tomline (1811), the 
a priori objection has always been brought against Calvin¬ 
ism that its principles are necessarily immoral, and must 
lead either to licentious liberty or to abject subserviency, to 
discouragement in the use of means, and to undue dispar¬ 
agement and neglect of human reason. It is argued that 
the doctrine of the absolute moral impotence of man’s will 
must desti’oy all sense of accountability, and that the doc¬ 
trine of absolute decrees must cause the use of means to ap¬ 
pear either unnecessary or ineffectual, and to lead to despair 
upon the one hand, or to licentiousness upon the other. 

The advocates of Calvinism have triumphantly vindicated 
the moral character of their system in two ways: 1st, on 
the ground of reason. The recognition of the true ( i. e., 
actual) condition of man’s nature and relations to God, as 
this is revealed in Scripture and experience, must be more 
moral in its effect than the most skillful misrepresentation 
possible of that actual condition can be. The historian 
Froude, himself held by no trammels of sect or party, says 
in his late address at St. Andrew’s (1871): “ If Arminianism 
most commends itself to our feelings, Calvinism is nearer to 
the facts, however harsh or forbidding those facts may 














CALVINISM. 733 


seem.” Archbishop Whately, himself an Arminian (in his 
essay on “Some of the Difficulties in the Writings of St. 
Paul”), acknowledges that the ordinary objections against 
the moral attributes of Calvinism are in effect objections to 
the open facts of the case. That standard of morals which 
places the ground of obligation in tho supreme will of the 
All-perfect, instead of a tendency to promote happiness, 
and which utterly condemns fallen man, is obviously higher, 
and therefore more moral, than a more self-pleasing one 
which either justifies or excuses him. The system which 
teaches the total depravity and guiltiness of human nature 
from birth, its absolute dependence upon Divine grace, to¬ 
gether with the universal sweep of God’s absolute decrees, 
at once maintaining the free agency of man and the infal¬ 
libility of the Divine purpose, must of course empty man 
of self, make all men equal before the law, and exalt the all¬ 
wise and all-powerful Father to the control of all events; 
such a system must make the highest attainments the con¬ 
dition and the fruit of God’s favor, and must raise even the 
weakest believer to the position of an invincible champion 
for God and the right, “ a co-worker together with God.” 
2d, In the second place, Calvinists claim that on the ground 
of an illustrious and unparalleled historical record they can 
show that their system has been eminently distinguished by 
the effects produced by it upon all the communities which 
have embraced it in its purer forms, as to the following par¬ 
ticulars : (a) the general standard of moral character prac¬ 
tically realized in personal and social life; ( b) the amount 
of rationally regulated liberty realized both in Church and 
State; (c) the standard of popular intelligence and educa¬ 
tion actually attained; (cl) the testimony yielded to the 
power of the truth by the number and illustrious character 
of its martyrs; and ( e ) the zeal and devotion expressed in 
sustained missionary efforts for the extension of the king¬ 
dom of Christ. 

1st. As to the influence of Calvinism on the moral cha¬ 
racter of individuals, it is only necessary here to quote the 
ex-rector Froude’s citation of the names of “William the 
Silent, Luther, Calvin, Knox, Andrew Melville, the regent 
Murray, Coligny, Cromwell, Milton, John Bunyan—men 
possessed of all the qualities which give nobility and 
grandeur to human nature.” As to its effect upon the 
general moral character of communities, it will be sufficient 
to cite the Waldensians ; the little radiant state of Geneva, 
whose Protestant reconstruction began with the establish¬ 
ment of a Court of Morals; the Huguenots, as compared with 
their Catholic fellow-citizens; the Jansenists, as compared 
with the Jesuits; the Dutch Protestants prior to the latter 
half of the seventeenth century; the Scotch Covenanters ; 
the English Puritans, whose very name signalizes their emi¬ 
nent moral character, in contrast with the unparalleled cor¬ 
ruption brought in at the Restoration in association with 
the ecclesiastical revolution effected by the despot Laud 
(see Macaulay’s “Essays on Milton” and Ilallam’s “Con¬ 
stitutional History”); and finally, all those sections of 
America settled by English Puritan New Englanders, by 
the Scbtch and Scotch-Irish, and by Presbyterians from 
France and Holland. 

Mr. Froude (Address, p. 7) says : “ The first symptom of 
its operation, wherever it established itself, was to oblit¬ 
erate the distinction between sins and crimes, and to make 
the moral law the rule for states as well as persons.” Pas¬ 
cal, the sublime avenger of the persecuted religionists of 
Port Royal, shows in the first nine of his “ Provincial Let¬ 
ters ” the connection between the infamous morality of the 
Jesuits and their Semi-pelagian views as to sin and grace. 
Sir James Macintosh, in vol. xxxvi. of the “ Edinburgh Re¬ 
view,” vindicates at length the morality of the theological 
doctrine of predestination by a general review of the his¬ 
tory of its most conspicuous professors. 

2d. It appears superfluous to prove the tendency of Cal¬ 
vinism to promote freedom and popular government, both 
in Church and State. Its principles strip the ministry of 
all sacerdotal powers ; they make all men and all Christians 
equal before God; they make God absolute and supreme 
over all, and the immediate controller and disposer of hu¬ 
man affairs. Hence all churches accepting Calvinism, un¬ 
less prevented by external conditions, have immediately 
adopted popular constitutions, either Presbyterian or Inde¬ 
pendent. This is true of all the churches of Switzerland, 
France, Holland, the Palatinate, Scotland, America, and the 
free churches of England and Ireland. The apparent ex¬ 
ception is the English Establishment. The history of its 
political relations explains its prelatical character. Cran- 
mer and the other Calvinistic founders of that Church held, 
as did Archbishop Usher, a very moderate theory of the 
espiscopate, and submitted to the constitution actually es¬ 
tablished only for state reasons. Afterwards, as Calvinism 
became more thoroughly incorporated in the public faith, 
Presbyterianism was established by the Long Parliament, 
and Independency by the Puritan army and Protector. It 


is a conspicuous fact of English history that high views 
as to the prerogatives of the ministry have always an¬ 
tagonized Calvinistic doctrine. 

The political influence of Calvinism was at an early pe¬ 
riod discerned by kings as w r ell as by the people. The 
Waldenses were the freemen of the ante-Reformation pe¬ 
riod. The republic was established at the same time with 
Presbytery at Geneva. The Hollanders, grouped around 
the sublime figure of William the Silent (Calvus ct Calvin- 
ista), performed deeds of heroism against odds of tyranny 
unparalleled utterly in all foregoing and subsequent his¬ 
tory. This battle was fought by Calvinistic Holland, and 
the victory won (1590) completely before the Arminian 
controversies had commenced. Add to these the French 
Huguenots, the Scotch Covenanters, the English Puritans in 
the Old and in the New World, and we make good our claim 
that Calvinists have been successful champions of regu¬ 
lated freedom among men. 

Bancroft, the historian of our republic, attributes over 
and over again the modern impulse to republican liberty to 
the little republic of Geneva and to its Calvinistic theology 
(vol. i., 266 ; ii., 461-464). Ho credits the moulding of 
American institutions chiefly to New England Independ¬ 
ents, and to Dutch, French, and Scotch-Irish Presbyterians. 
“ The Mecklenburg Declaration, signed on tho 20th of 
May, 1775, more than a year before that of July 4, 1776, 
signed in Philadelphia, was tho first voice publicly raised 
for American independence. And the convention by which 
it was adopted and signed consisted of twenty-seven dele¬ 
gates, nine of whom, including the president and secretary, 
wero ruling ciders, and one, Rev. II. J. Balch, was a Pres¬ 
byterian minister.” Tucker, in his life of Jefferson, says: 
“Every one must be persuaded that one of these papers 
must have been borrowed from the other;” and Bancroft 
has made it certain that the Declaration of Jefferson was 
written a year after that of Mecklenburg. The corre- 
spondcnce between the representative system and the grada¬ 
tions of sessions, presbyteries, provincial synods, and na¬ 
tional general assemblies, developed in tho Westminster 
Confession, to the federal system of State and national gov¬ 
ernments in the Constitution of the United States, is too 
remarkable to have been accidental. 

3d. The relation of Calvinism to education is no less con¬ 
spicuous and illustrious. The little republic of Geneva be¬ 
came the sun of the European world. The Calvinists of 
France, in spite of all their embarrassments, immediately 
founded and sustained three illustrious theological schools at 
Montauban, Saumur, and Sedan. The Huguenots so far sur¬ 
passed their fellow-countrymen in intelligence and skill that 
their banishment on the occasion of the Revocation of the 
Edict of Nantes (1685) quickened the manufactures and 
1 trades of Germany, England, and America, and for a time 
almost paralyzed the skilled industries of France. (See 
Weiss’s “ History French Protestant Refugees.”) The frag¬ 
ment of marshy sea-coast constituting Holland became the 
commercial focus of the world, one of the most powerful 
communities in the society of nations, and the mother of 
flourishing colonies in both hemispheres. The peasantry of 
Scotland has been raised far above that of any other Eu¬ 
ropean nation by the universal education afforded by her 
parish schools. The common-school system of Puritan 
New England is opening up a new era of human history. 
In this country, for the first two hundred years of its his¬ 
tory, “ almost every college and seminary of learning, and 
almost every academy and common school even, which ex¬ 
isted, had been built up and sustained by Calvinists.” (See 
“New Englander,” October, 1845.) 

4th. The martyrology of Calvinism is pre-eminent in the 
history even of the entire Church. We call to witness John 
IIuss and Jerome of Prague, who perished for their adhe¬ 
rence to this faith one hundred years before Luther. The 
Waldenses, of whom were the “slaughtered saints whose 
bones lie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold,” the vic¬ 
tims of the reign of “ Bloody Mary,” John Rodgers and Bish¬ 
ops Hooper, Ferrar, Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer, and their 
fellow-martyrs, were all Calvinists, as well as Hamilton 
and Wishart, the victims of Claverhouse and the “Killing 
Time” of 1684 in Scotland, and the victims of the High 
Commission and of the “ Bloody Assizes ” of England (1685). 
Under Charles Y. and Philip of Spain, Holland had been 
made a spectacle to all nations by her sufferings, and had 
surpassed all other Christian communities with the number 
and steadfastness of her martyrs. When the duke of Alva 
left the Netherlands, December, 1573, he boasted that within 
five years lie had delivered eighteen thousand six hundred 
heretics to the executioner. (Motley s “ Rise of the Dutch 
Republic,” vol. ii., p. 497.) Moreover, Calvinists claim tho 
victims of the Inquisition in Spain and Italy ; tho history 
of the Huguenots of France, from the martyr-doom of Le- 
clerc (1523) to the promulgation of the Edict of .Nantes, 
1598; the victims of the unparalleled atrocity of tho mas- 

















734 


CALVINISTIC METHODISTS—CALYX. 


sacre of St. Bartholomew, August 22, 1572, when some 
fifty thousand princes, noblemen, and commoners perished 
at one time by the hand of assassins; and all the hundreds 
of thousands of the very flower of France who fell victims 
cither to the wars which raged with comparatively short 
exceptions from the Reformation to 1685, or to the dra- 
goonings, the galleys, and the expatriation which preceded 
and followed that dreadful time. 

5th. Calvinism has been proved an eminent incentive to 
all missionary enterprises, domestic and foreign. It is, of 
course, acknowledged that several Christian bodies not 
characterized by what are generally regarded as the pecu¬ 
liarities of Calvinism have been in the highest degree dis¬ 
tinguished by missionary zeal and efficiency. The most 
remarkable instances of this kind have been the Nostorians 
in "Western and Central Asia from the fifth to the ninth 
century, the Moravians from 1732, and the Wesleyan Meth¬ 
odists from about 1769 to the present time. These bodies 
(except the Nestorian) may be said to be eminently evan¬ 
gelical and Augustinian in the general usage of that term, 
neai'ly agreeing with the Calvinism set forth in this article 
in its most essential principles of total depravity, moral 
inability 1 ", and dependence upon divine grace. And it is ob¬ 
vious that these evangelical principles, common to these 
great missionary churches, with others whose Augustinian- 
ism is more pronounced, must supply the strongest incen¬ 
tives and encouragements possible to urge all Christians to 
the rescue of their perishing fellow-men. 

In the early Church, St. Patrick, the missionary of Ire¬ 
land, fifth century; Augustine, the missionary of Gi'egory 
the Great to England; and Columba and his missionary 
college at Iona in the Hebrides, and his disciples the Cul- 
dees, in the sixth century, as well as the Lollards, the fol¬ 
lowers of Wickliffe, in the fourteenth century, were all of 
the general school of St. Augustine. In 1555, through Ad¬ 
miral Coligny, Calvin sent two ministers to the heathen in 
Brazil. Cromwell in the next century proposed to appoint 
a council to promote the Protestant religion in opposition 
to the congregation De Propaganda Fide in Rome. One 
of the principal objects of the promoters of the Plymouth 
and Massachusetts colonies was the conversion of savages 
and the extension of the Church. The charter of the “ So¬ 
ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts ” 
was granted by the Calvinistic prince William III. As to 
the number of missionaries to the heathen employed by 
the different branches of the Protestant Church at present, 
the following may be regarded as a fair statement as to the 
proportion of the several confessions in England and 
America and on the Continent: Congregational, including 
the Baptists (all Calvinists), about 400; Episcopal, a 
majority of those supporting missions being of the Evan¬ 
gelical school, and many of these being Calvinists, about 
310; Presbyterians, about 430; Moravians, about 160; 
Methodists, about 300. 

I). *Literature .—This is so immeasurable that only a few 
books of the greatest interest from the stand-point of this 
article will be mentioned: “S. Aurelii Augustini Hippo- 
nensis episcopi Opera,” of different editions, especially his 
Anti-pelagian writings collected in the the tenth tome of 
Ed. Bened, Par. 1690 ; “ The Works of John Calvin,” espe¬ 
cially his “ Institutes,” his “ Consensus Genevensis,” and 
his “Letters,” by Bonnet; “The Treatise on Predestina¬ 
tion,” by Moses Amyraldus, Saumur, 1634, and his “An¬ 
swer to Hoard’s “ Doctrinae J. Calvin Hefensio;” “ The 
Works of John Owen,” Edinburgh, 1850; “The Institutes 
of Theology” of Francis Turretin, Geneva, 1682; “ Col- 
lectio Confessionum in Ecclesiis Reformatis Publicatarum,” 
Nierneyer, and “ Libri Symbolici Ecclesiae Evangelicce sive 
Concordia,” Ilase; Wigger’s “Historical Presentations of 
Augustinianism and Pelagianism,” translated by Ralph 
Emerson; “The Works of the Parker Society,” 1841-55; 
Mozlcy’s “Treatise on the Augustinian Doctrine of Pre¬ 
destination ;” Goode’s “ Vindication of the Defence of the 
Thirty-nine Articles,”and his “Effects of Infant Baptism ;” 
“The Works of Jonathan Edwards;” “The Reformers and 
the Theology of the Reformation,” and “ Historical The- 
ology,” by William Cunningham, D. D.; “ Calvinism,” an 
address by James Anthony Froude, M. A., delivered at St. 
Andrew’s, March 17, 1871; “History of the Christian Re¬ 
ligion and Church,” by Augustus Neandcr, translated by 
Torrey ; Neandcrs “History of Christian Dogmas,” trans¬ 
lated by Ryland; “History of the Christian Church,” by 
Philip Schaff, D. D.; Pascal’s “ Provincial Letters,” trans¬ 
lated by Thomas McCrie, D. D.; Motley’s “History of the 
Rise of the Dutch Republic;” Neal’s “History of the Puri¬ 
tans;” Macaulay’s “History of England” and “Miscel¬ 
lanies;” “Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philos¬ 
ophy,” note 0, included in the miscellaneous works of Sir 
James Macintosh ;” “ Our Theology and its Developments,” 
by Dr. E. P. Humphrey, Presbyterian Board of Publica¬ 
tion ; “Comparative Influence of Calvinism and Arminian- 


1 ism on Civil Liberty;” “The New Englander,” Oct., 1845; 
Bancroft’s “flistory of the U. S.” (See also the article 
Arminius, Auminianism, by D. D. Wiiedon, I). D., LL.D.) 

A. A. Hodge. 

Calvinistic Methodists, in Great Britain, are in 
three divisions: (1) “Whitefield’s Connection,” dating from 
1741; (2) “Lady Huntingdon’s Connection,” dating from 
1748; (3) “Welsh Methodists,” from about 1750. 

Cal'vy, a post-village and township of Franklin co., 
Mo., about 55 miles E. S. E. of Jefferson City. Pop. 2100. 

Calx (gen. calcis), the Latin name of quicklime, was 
applied by the alchemists to many products of combustion 
or oxidation, especially to those obtained from metals and 
other minerals, which were supposed to be converted into 
earths. 


Calycan'thus [from the Gr. k«Av£, a “cup,” and ar0or, 
a “flower;” the bottom of the flower being cup-shaped], a 
genus of plants of the order Calycanthaceae, allied to 
Rosaceae. It comprises only a few known species, which 
are natives of the U. S. and Japan, and are shrubs with 
square stems. The flowers, bark, and leaves are fragrant 
and aromatic. The Calycanthus Jloridus, a native of Caro¬ 
lina, called Carolina allspice and sweet-scented shrub, is 
cultivated in many gardens of the U. S. Its flowers are of 
a lurid purple or rich-brown color. 

Cal'ydon [Gr. KaAv&oj/], an ancient and celebrated city 
of AEtolia, on the river Evenus, a few miles from its en¬ 
trance into the sea. It is often mentioned by Homer, and 
continued to be an important city in the historical period. 

Calydo'uian limit, The, in classic mythology, was 
a celebrated enterprise against a wild boar which ravaged 
the dominions of GEneus, king of Calydon. Among the 
heroes who took part in this hunt were Meleager, Theseus, 
Jason, and Nestor. 

Calym'eiie, a genus of fossil trilobites, which is distin¬ 
guished from the other 
genera of that order by the 
faculty which the animal 
had of rolling itself up into 
a ball, in which form they 
are often found. This ge¬ 
nus is characteristic of the 
Silurian formation. The 
Calymene Blumenbachii , 

sometimes called “ Dudley 
locust,” is remarkable as 



Calymene Blumenbachii. 


a long-surviving species which is found in beds of several 
successive periods in England and the U. S. 

Calyp'so [Gr. KaAv>//c6], a beautiful nymph and demi- 
goddess of classic mythology, who was, according to Homer, 
a daughter of Atlas. She reigned over the island of Ogvgia, 
on which Ulysses landed after he had been shipwrecked. 
She treated him kindly, and tempted him to marry her with 
the promise of immortality, which he declined for the sake 
of Penelope. 

Calyp'so Borea'lis, a rare and beautiful plant of the 
natural order Orchidacem, growing in cold bogs and wet 
woods of the Northern U. S. and Canada. The flower is 
variegated with purple, pink, and yellow. It has a single, 
nearly heart-shaped leaf. 

Calyp'tra, the hood which covers the urnlike spore- 
case of certain mosses. 


Calyptrfe'a [Gr. KaXvnrpa, a “head-dress or veil”], a 
genus of gasteropod mollusks, the type of a family, Calyp- 
trseidas, formerly included in the genus Patella, or limpet, 
and still known as chambered limpets, bonnet limpets, and 
slipper limpets. The shell is limpet-shaped, but the apex is 
spiral, and has a calcareous process from its inner surface 
for the attachment of a muscle. The Calyptrseidse differ in 
shape, some being very flat, and others very conical; some 
are elongated and slipper-like. The species are generally 
natives of the shores of warm climates. Calyptrscidse are 
common in the older fossiliferous rocks. Fifty living spe¬ 
cies are known. 


Ca'lyx, plu. Cal'yces [Gr. k<xAv£. a “cup;” Fr. calice ], 
a botanical term applied to the flower-cup, which is the 
outermost of the proper floral envelopes, or of the circles 
of modified leaves which surround the organs of reproduc¬ 
tion, and along with them constitute the flower. The leaves 
or separate parts of the calyx are called sepals. They are 
generally green, but in some cases are richly colored and 
petaloid, as in the Miraiilis, Salvia splendcns , and Fuchsia. 
The calyx serves to protect the interior organs of the flower. 
If it falls off before the corolla, it is called caducous, and 
if it remains until the fruit is ripe it is called gwsistent. 
When the calyx is adherent to the sides of the ovary, it is 
superior, and when quite free from the sides of the ovary, 
it is inferior. 















CAM—CAMBODIA. 


Cam, or Granta, a river of England, rises in Essex, 
flows north-eastward through Cambridgeshire, and enters 
the Ouse 31 miles above Ely. Length, about 40 miles. It 
is navigable from its mouth to Cambridge, which derives 
its name from it. The Cam is considered as a classic 
stream, on account of its associations with Cambridge 
University. 

Cam, or Camfo, in machinery, is a contrivance for 
converting a uniform rotatory motion into a varied rec¬ 
tilinear motion. The end of a rod which is free to move 
only in the direction of its length is held in contact, by 
the action of a spring or weight, with the edge of an ir¬ 
regularly-shaped mass which revolves uniformly upon an 
axis. A varied motion is thus communicated to the rod, 
which carries with it the machinery by which the motion 
is to be applied. 

Cam (Diogo), a Portuguese navigator who in 1484 ex¬ 
plored the W. coast of Africa S. of the equator. 

Camaieu. See Camayed. 

Camaldulen'sians, or Camal'dolites, an order 
of monks founded about 1018 by Saint Romuald at Camal- 
doli, in the Apennines, about 30 miles from Florence. 
They are divided into two classes—Cienobites and Ere¬ 
mites—and follow the rule of Saint Benedict. There are 
also a few houses of Camaldolite nuns. 

Caman'che, a post-village of Clinton co., Ia., on the 
Mississippi River, about 35 miles above Davenport. It 
is on a railroad which extends from Clinton to the Mis¬ 
souri River, and is 5 miles S. W. of Clinton. Pop. 840; 
of Camanche township, 1453. 

Camanche Indians. See Comanche Indians. 

Camar'go, a post-township of Douglas co., Ill. P. 1808. 

Camargue, La, a populous island of France, depai’t- 
ment of Bouchcs-du-Rhone, is at the mouth of the Rhone, 
and enclosed on two sides by the arms of that river. It is 
an alluvial fertile delta, partly occupied by marshes. Area, 
about 240 square miles. Large quantities of salt are ob¬ 
tained here. 

Camari'lla, a Spanish word, the diminutive of camara, 
a “ chamber,” signifies, literally, a “ little chamber.” It is 
applied to the private chamber or cabinet of the king of 
Spain, or to his courtiers and confidential advisers, who 
usually had great power in the government and exerted a 
pernicious influence. The term is also used in other Euro¬ 
pean countries and languages to denote the influence of 
courtiers and secret counsellors, counteracting the opinions 
and policy of the legitimate ministers. 

Camari'na, a celebrated Greek city of Sicily, on the 
southern coast, about 20 miles E. of Gela. It was founded 
by a colony of Syracusans in 599 B. C. It is said that no 
trace of it now exists. 

Camas'sia [from its Nootka Indian name, camass or 
quamatih], a genus of plants of the natural order Liliaceae, 
consists of a single species, the Camassia esculenta, the qua- 
mash of the Nootka Indians. It grows in swampy places 
in the U. S. west of the Rocky Mountains, and resembles 
the Sc ilia, having bulbs which the savages use as food. 

Camayeu (or Camaieu) and Mon'ochrome are 
French terms used to denote a painting in a single color. 
Pictures of several tints, which do not represent the natural 
colors of objects, are said to be en camayeu. The same 
term may be properly applied to drawings in India ink 
and red chalk, as well as engravings. 

Camb. See Cam. 

Cambaceres (Jean Jacques Regis), duke of Parma, 
an able French statesman and lawyer, born at Montpellier 
Oct. 18, 1753. He was elected in 1792 a member of the 
National Convention, in which he acted a cautious and 
moderate part. After the death of Robespierre (9th Ther- 
midor, 1794) he was president of the Committee of Public 
Safety, and opposed the continuance of the Reign of Ter¬ 
ror. He became a member of the Institute about 1796. 
About the end of 1799 he was appointed second consul by 
Bonaparte, of whom he became a faithful adherent. He 
took a prominent part in the redaction of the civil code. 
Under the empire he was arch-chancellor and president of 
the council of state. During the Hundred Days he was 
Napoleon’s minister of justice. He held no office after the 
Restoration of 1816. Died Mar. 5, 1824. 

Cambay', a seaport-town of Hindostan, is at the head 
of the Gulf of Cambay, and on the right bank of the Myhee, 
82 miles N. N. W. of Surat. It has a fine mosque, several 
Hindoo temples, and a curious subterranean Booddhist 
temple. Ruined palaces and mosques attest the former 
magnificence and extent of this town, which was once 
much more populous than it is now. One cause of its 
decline was the increasing shallowness of the gulf. It still 
exports cotton, grain, ivory, etc. Pop. about 10,000. 


735 


Cambay, Gulf of, is an inlet of the Arabian Sea, in 
the W. part of Hindostan. It is about 75 miles long, and 
extends in a nearly N. and S. direction. The width of the 
entrance, which is the widest part, is 32 miles or more. It 
receives the rivers Nerbudda, Tap tee, Myhee, and Subber- 
muttee. The tide here is very rapid, and rises about thirty 
feet. 

Cam'ber [Fr. cambre ], a term applied by builders to 
the slight degree of arching which is usually given to 
beams or other parts of a frame in order to compensate the 
settlement of the various parts or the subsidence of the 
joints. Camber in shipbuilding signifies a curvature up¬ 
ward, or a convexity. A deck is said to be “ cambered ” 
when it is higher amidships than at the bow or stern. 

Cambis'ta, an Italian word signifying “a banker,” 
“ a money-changer.” It is also used as the title of a book 
in which the moneys, weights, and measures of various 
nations are given in the equivalents of some particular 
nation. 

Cam'bium, in botany, a mucilaginous, viscid sub¬ 
stance which is secreted between the liber and alburnum of 
exogenous trees and other plants in early spring. It is 
supposed by some physiologists to be the matter out of 
which new wood and bark are formed; by others, to be a 
preparation of organizable matter out of which the hori¬ 
zontal growth of the cellular system and the vertical growth 
of the woody system may be -nourished during their re¬ 
spective developments. Delicate cells (cambium cells) are 
formed in it, which certainly fulfil important functions in 
the production of new wood. 

Cambo'dia is known under three different names: first, 
Kampootcha, which is given to it in the sacred books; Yoa- 
dra Skan, the appellation by which it is best known to for¬ 
eigners ; and Khamain, the common name used among the 
natives themselves. This vast kingdom lies between Laos 
on the N. and Cochin China on the E., the China Sea and 
the Gulf of Siam on the S., and the kingdom of Siam proper 
on the W. The country between Cambodia and Siam is an 
inclined plane falling off to the sea, beginning from the 
Khoa Dong Reke, or the highlands of Korat, which con¬ 
stitutes the first platform of the terraces that gradually 
ascend to the mountain-chain of Laos. Khoa Dong Reke, 
the Cambodian Atlas, includes in its domain a magnificent 
and extensive forest, Dong P’hya Fai, or “ the forest of the 
Lord of Fire,” whence issue many beautiful streams to flow 
into the Pachim River. Its area is about 250,900 square 
kilometres. Its population is estimated at a little over 
1,000,000. The religion is Booddhism, with a small but 
rapidly growing proportion of converts to Roman Catholic¬ 
ism. It is subdivided into Northern and Southern Cam¬ 
bodia, and the great province of Cancao on the S. E., and 
it teems with every species of mineral and vegetable wealth. 
Near the coast the country is covered with woods; a little 
farther inland, especially along the banks of the rivers and 
lakes, the land is well cultivated. But in the interior it 
abounds with impenetrable jungles, where elephants, lions, 
tigers, and wild buffaloes find shelter and afford excellent 
sport to the natives, who hunt them in large parties for 
their ivory and skins. Deer, hogs, goats, and a great many 
species of wild fowl abound in the forests, as well as in the 
more cultivated districts. The country abounds in iron, 
tin, precious stones, teak, sandal, and other wood, gam¬ 
boge and numerous other dj'estuffs. The finest gamboge is 
produced by the tree Garcinia gambogoides ; and Bantabang 
is noted for its gold-mines. Saigon annually exports quan¬ 
tities of pepper, rice, cardamoms, cotton, hides, horns, and 
cocoanut oil. 

The climate is warm but wholesome, the scenery varied 
and beautiful; the navigation of the Gulf of Siam and the 
China Sea, along with such splendid rivers as the Meikong 
and the Saikong, magnificent forests of fine woods, endless 
crops of rice, Indian corn, sugar-cane, and tea, and vast 
planl^itions of mulberry trees for the rearing of silkworms, 
producing the finest article of silk, are some of the pros¬ 
pective advantages of the superb region to which Saigon 
is the key. The export of rice alone for the month of 
Aug., 1870, amounted to 130,000 piculs, sent- to Europe, 
Mauritius, Singapore, Malacca, China, and Japan. The 
arrivals for that month at the port of Saigon alone were 
thirty-two vessels, of from 200 to 2000 tons, and there were 
twenty vessels loading under the British, French, and Ber¬ 
man flags, aggregating 9000 tons; and indigo and silk are 
now cultivated with splendid prospects of success. 

The kingdom of Cambodia was in its day not only inde¬ 
pendent, but powerful. As to its antiquity, two opinions 
prevail; one ascribing to it a duration of 1300 yeais, tho 
other 2400. The native historians reckon 2400 years from 
the building of the wonderful temples found in the neigh¬ 
borhood of Angkor, near the great lake Talasap. Angkor 
has even at this day sufficient proof, in its memoiable luins. 















736 CAMBON—CAMBRIDGE. 


that it was at some remote period the centre of a wealthy, 
powerful, and highly civilized state. Its decline probably 
dates from the dispersion of the Indian Booddhists, which 
took place from seven to five centuries before Christ. The 
ruins of Angkor Tom or wall are still in a tolerable state 
of preservation, and are composed of a central tower sur¬ 
rounded by four turrets and flanked by two other towers, 
all connected together by extensive galleries. At the top 
of the central tower are four immense heads in the Egyptian 
style, and every available space on these buildings is filled 
with exquisite sculptures in bas-relief. The scenes are 
drawn from the ancient mythological books of the Cam¬ 
bodians. There are here, also, several gigantic stone 
bridges of almost superhuman magnitude and solidity. 

During the reign of His Siamese Majesty Phra-Chow- 
Maha-Chakraphat, who reigned in Ayodhia, the ancient 
capital of Siam, in the Siamese civil era 900 (correspond¬ 
ing to 1540 of our Christian era), the Cambodians fitted out 
an immense army and attacked Siam, marched their forces 
as far as Bangnah and Phrakanong, ancient seaport-towns 
of Siam, which they pillaged and destroyed. The Siamese 
thereupon set out with a powerful army and took possession 
of Inthapataburee, the ancient capital of Cambodia, and 
remained masters of the citadel until the emperor of Cam¬ 
bodia acknowledged himself penitent and willing to become 
tributary to Siam. About a hundred years ago dissensions 
among the reigning family led to weakness, and Cambodia 
fell under the control of the Annamites, who exacted heavy 
tribute, and at last, in 1809, unblushingly divided its prov¬ 
inces between themselves and the Siamese. 

The name Cochin China was applied to it by the Portu¬ 
guese, who thought they saw a likeness in it to Cochin on 
the coast of Malabar. In 1471 it was reunited to the groat 
province of Tonkin. In the sixteenth century it broke 
away, and in 1774, after a long and terrific war, Tonkin 
was reduced to submission and incorporated that fine coun¬ 
try with the kingdom of Annam. It was about this time 
that European influence first began to be felt in this region. 
The emperor of Cambodia, Chow Ngayen,felt the need of 
some support, and offered, through a Christian missionary 
who was a bishop in the country, to place himself under the 
protection of France. On this many French officers went 
to the new kingdom in the East, disciplined its armies, and 
took a share in the government. In 182Q the old-school 
Booddhists, in order to revenge the indiscriminate pillage 
of the French officers on the property of the simple inhab¬ 
itants, instituted a ferocious persecution of the Christians. 
Since then, French fleets have been sent out to demand in¬ 
demnities and protect the Catholic missionaries. Thus, 
France and other European nations have made their way 
into Annam, until now France holds the best part of South¬ 
ern Cochin China and the whole of the fine province of Cam¬ 
bodia. Mrs. Anna II. Leonowens. 

Camboil (Joseph), a French statesman and financier, 
born at Montpellier June 17, 1756. He was elected to the 
National Convention in 1792, voted for the death of the 
king, and became a member of the Committee of Public 
Safety in 1793. He promoted the fall of Robespierre in 
1794. As a member of the committee on finance he made 
several able reports, and is said to have laid the foundation 
of the modern financial system of France. He procured 
the adoption of the great book or register of the public 
debt. He held no office under the empire, was exiled in 
1816, and died Feb. 15, 1820. 

Cam'borne, a town of England, in Cornwall, 11 miles 
N. W. of Falmouth. Here is a church which has a stone 
inscription of the tenth century. Productive mines of cop¬ 
per, tin, and lead are worked in this vicinity. Pop. 7500. 

Cambray [Lat. Cnmaracnni], a fortified city of France, 
in the department of Nord, on the Schelde, 45 miles by rail 
N. N. E. of St.-Quentin, the seat of an archbishop, cele¬ 
brated for its fine linens, called cambrics. Cambray is an 
ancient city, with gabled houses, handsome streets, and is 
surrounded by a wall with ancient towers and gates. It 
has manufactures of laces, tulles, leather, soap, etc. Pop. 
22,207. 

Cam'bria, the ancient and Latin name of Wales, which 
the Romans called Britannia Secunda. Cambria is derived 
from Cymry, by which name the Welsh people have always 
called themselves. 

Cambria, a county in S. W. Central Pennsylvania. 
Area, 670 square miles. It is drained by the West Branch 
of the Susquehanna and Conemaugh Creek, both of which 
rise within its limits. The surface is elevated and uneven, 
and traversed by precipitous ravines. Grain, wool, pota¬ 
toes, and dairy products are extensively raised. Bitu¬ 
minous coal and iron are abundant here, and lumber is the 
chief article of export. It is intersected by the Central 
R. R. Capital, Ebensburg. Pop. 36,569. 


Cambria, a township of Hillsdale co., Mich. P. 1683. 

Cambria, a township of Blue Earth co., Minn. P. 339. 

Cambria, a post-township of Niagara co., N. Y. With¬ 
in its limits there are pre-historic remains of a fortification, 
etc. covering six acres. Pop. 2145. 

Cambria, a post-borough of Cambria co., Pa. P. 1744. 

Cambria, a township of Cambria co., Pa. Pop. 1086. 

Cambria, a post-village of Courtland and Randolph 
townships, Columbia co., Wis. Pop. 502. 

Cam'brian Rocks (or System), a name given by 
Prof. Sedgwick to the oldest known fossiliferous rocks, on 
account of their extensive development in North Wales 
[Cambria). They are in part the equivalents of rocks de¬ 
scribed by Murchison as lower Silurian. The Cambrian 
is therefore regarded by some geologists as a subordinate 
member of the Silurian group. The government geological 
surveyors confined the term to a series of sandstones, slates, 
and gritstones which underlie the Silurian lingula beds. 

Cam/bric, the name generally given to the lightest and 
finest of linen and cotton fabrics, originally made at Cam- 
brai, in France, whence the name is derived. In 1563 Dutch 
emigrants introduced the manufacture into England. 

Cain'bridge [anc. Granta; Lat. Cantabrigia], a town 
of England, capital of Cambridgeshire, is situated on both 
sides of the river Cam, and on the Eastern Counties Rail¬ 
way, 48 miles N. N. E. of London. The site is level, and 
the town is embosomed among lofty trees. It is the seat 
of one of the great universities of England, and contains 
many noble edifices belonging to that institution. Among 
the remarkable buildings of the town are Trinity church 
and the church of the Holy Sepulchre, which was built in 
the reign of Henry I., and has a round tower. It is said 
that Cambridge was destroyed by the Danes in 871 A. D. 
The Doomsday Book mentions it as an important place 
under the name of Grentebrige. It obtained a charter from 
King John in 1200. Jeremy Taylor was born here. Cam¬ 
bridge returns two members to Parliament, besides those 
who represent the university. Pop. in 1871, 30,074. 

Cambridge, a post-village of Union township, Storey 
co., Ia. Pop. 200. 

Cambridge, a post-village, capital of Henry co., Ill., 
140 miles N. by W. from Springfield, is the chief inter¬ 
mediate station and grain-market on the Peoria and Rock 
Island Railway. It has two weekly papers. Pop. 1200. 

Geo. C. Smith, Ed. “Henry County Chronicle.” 

Cambridge, a post-township of Somerset co., Me. 
Pop. 472. 

Cambridge, a post-village, capital of Dorchester co., 
Md., is on the S. side of the Choptank River, 50 miles S. 
E. of Annapolis. The river is here about 2 miles wide. 
Cambridge is the western terminus of the Dorchester and 
Delaware R. R., which extends 33 miles to Seaford. It 
has academies for both sexes, four hotels, five churches— 
four M. E. and one Episcopal—a flouring mill, a tobacco 
and a stave factory, and four canning establishments. 
It has three weekly papers. Pop. 1692. 

Joseph P. Johnson, Ed. “News.” 

Cambridge, a city of Massachusetts, and one of the 
sliire-towns of Middlesex co., is on the N. W. bank of the 
Charles River, which is here about 1 mile wide, and sepa¬ 
rates Cambridge from Boston. Cambridge, though incor¬ 
porated as one city, was formerly divided into several 
villages, the local names of which still survive; these are 
Old Cambridge, Cambridgeport, East Cambridge, and North 
Cambridge. Harvard University is in Old Cambridge. 
Cambridgeport and East Cambridge contain many mer¬ 
cantile houses and manufactories, mostly of glass, furni¬ 
ture, organs, steam-engines, and boilers. East Cambridge 
is connected with Boston and Charlestown by bridges. 
West Boston Bridge connects Cambridgeport with Boston. 
In the whole city there are thirty churches, six national 
banks, and four savings banks. Extensive printing estab¬ 
lishments exist here, and the first printing-office in America 
was located in Cambridge. There are two weekly news¬ 
papers. Near Harvard University is a fine soldiers’ monu¬ 
ment, erected in 1869-70 at a cost of $35,000. The city 
hall is in Cambridgeport. Cambridge is beautifully situated 
on a plain, contains some handsome public buildings, and 
a great number of elegant private residences, with spacious 
grounds ornamented with shrubbery and flowering plants. 
The city is furnished with water from Fresh Pond, the con¬ 
sumption being about 2,000,000 gallons daily. Pop. in 
1850, 15,215; in 1870, 39,634; in 1873 (estimated), 50,000. 
Valuation of real and personal property in 1873, $62,421,215. 
The town is one of the oldest in New England, having been 
settled in 1630. (See Harvard University.) 

II. R. Harding, Ed. “ Cambridge Press.” 


















CAMBRIDGE—CAMBRIDGE, UNIVERSITY OF. 737 


Cambridge, a post-township of Lenawee co., Mich. 
Pop. 1110. 

Cambridge, a post-village, capital of Isanti co., Minn., 
on Rum River, about 44 miles N. of Minneapolis. Pop. of 
Cambridge township, 374. 

Cambridge, a post-village of Blackwater township, 
Saline co., Mo. Pop. 375. 

Cambridge, a township of Coos co., N. H. Pop. 28. 

Cambridge, a post-village of Washington co., N. Y., 
on the Rensselaer and Saratoga R. R., 35 miles N. E. of Al¬ 
bany. It has a national bank, a fine academy, a foundry 
and machine-shop, two tanneries, a cigar-factory, seven 
churches, four hotels, and one weekly newspaper. It has 
also a fine driving park. Pop. 1530, of which 967 are in 
White Creek township ; pop. of Cambridge township, 2589. 

Ed. “Washington County Post.” 

Cambridge, a post-village, capital of Guernsey co., 
0., situated on Will’s Creek and the Baltimore and Ohio 
(Central Ohio division) and Marietta and Pittsburg R. Rs., 
in a good agricultural and mineral region, 85 miles E. of 
Columbus and 65 miles N. of Marietta. It has five churches, 
two monthly and three weekly newspapers, a national bank, 
and several mills. P. 2193 ; of Cambridge township, 3624. 

Lenfesty & Gooderl, Pubs. “ Guernsey Times.” 

Cambridge, a post-borough and township of Crawford 
co., Pa., on French Creek and on the Atlantic and Great 
Western R. R., 14 miles N. N. E. of Meadville. It has one 
weekly paper. Total pop. 1199. 

Cambridge, a post-township of Lamoille co., Vt., sit¬ 
uated at the foot of Mount Mansfield on the Lamoille River 
and the Lamoille Valley R. R. It contains two villages, 
Cambridge Borough and Jeffersonville. Surrounded by 
fine scenery, it is extensively visited by pleasure-seekers 
in summer. It has one newspaper. Pop. 1651. 

A. N. Merchant, Pub. “ Valley Sentinel.” 

Cambridge (Adolphus Frederick), Duke of, the 
seventh son of George III. of England, was born Feb. 25, 
1774. He entered the army about 1790, was appointed 
governor of Hanover in 1816, and viceroy of that king¬ 
dom in 1831. Died July 8, 1850. 

Cambridge (George William Frederick Charles), 
Duke of, a British general, a son of the preceding, was 
born Mar. 26, 1819. lie became a major-general in 1845, 
served in the Crimean war in 1854, and was appointed 
acting commander-in-chief of the British army in 1856, 
and field-marshal in 1862. 

Cambridge City, a post-village of Wayne co., Ind., 
on the Whitewater River, 15 miles W. of Richmond, and 
at the junction of the Pan-Handle R. R. with the White 
Water Valley, the Fort Wayne Muncie and Cincinnati and 
the Jeffersonville branch roads. It has a national bank 
with a capital stock of $350,000, the car-shops of the Indiana 
Car Company, employing 300 hands and manufacturing 
six cars a day, and other manufactures. There is one 
newspaper. P.2162. Ed. “ Cambridge City Tribune.” 

Cambridge Platform, a system of church govern¬ 
ment drawn up by a synod at Cambridge, in the colony of 
Massachusetts Bay, in 1648. The Congregational churches 
of New England at that time differed somewhat in regard 
to discipline, some being inclined to Presbyterianism and 
others to Independency, while the majority avoided both 
extremes. The synod reaffirmed the doctrines taught in 
the Westminster Confession, but recommended a form of 
church discipline substantially the same as that which now 
prevails in the Congregational churches. 

Cambridgeshire, a county of England, is bounded 
on the N. by the river Nen, on the E. by Norfolk and Suf¬ 
folk, on the S. by Essex and Hertford, and on the AT. by 
Bedford and Huntingdon. Area, 820 square miles. Pop. 
in 1871,186,363. The surface is mostly flat, and about one- 
fourth of the county is occupied by fens or marshes. The 
northern portion is part of the Bedford Level (which see). 
The soil is fertile, and the inhabitants are mostly engaged 
in agriculture. Among the staple products are wheat, 
beans, hay, oats, butter, and cheese. It is intersected by 
the river Ouse, and also drained by the Cam. In the N. 
part is a tract called the Isle of Ely. The chief towns are 
Cambridge, Ely, and Newmarket. 

Cambridge, University of, one of the two ancient 
universities of England. In 1110, Joffrid, abbot of Croy- 
land, sent to his manor of Cottenham, near Cambridge, 
Gislebert, a professor in divinity, with three other learned 
monks. They in a short time drew together so great a 
number of scholars that in the second year no single build¬ 
ing was able to contain them. When Alfred of Beverly 
was there, in 1129 A.D., there were no public halls, but 
each one lived in his own lodgings. About the year 1257 
students began to live together in hostels, under a princi¬ 


pal, at their own charges. The hostels were named after 
saints or the churches which they adjoined, or the persons 
who built them. Trinity hostel survived to 1540. The 
hostels were the beginning of the college system, which 
distinguishes the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. 

A hostel for medical students was opened in 1859, and an¬ 
other has been opened in connection with Trinity College. * 
Before the close of the sixteenth century nearly all the 
foundations were endowed which now constitute the uni¬ 
versity. The predominance of the religious element in 
the discipline is to be attributed to the usage of the times 
in which the colleges were founded. There had been, from 
very early times, “ religious houses,” which were in many 
cases united with collegiate foundations, as, for example, 
the Dominicans, whose house is now Emmanuel College. 
The friars who lived in these convents kept their “acts” 
or exercises for degrees like other university-men. To the 
same cause is traced the condition of celibacy, upon which, 
with scarcely an exception, the fellowships are tenable. 
With some exceptions, the fellows are obliged to take holy 
orders within a limited period or to vacate their fellowships. 

The present statutes were confirmed July 31, 1858. The 
governing body is a senate of eight members. All uni¬ 
versity laws are approved by the council, consisting of a 
chancellor and vice-chancellor, before they are submitted 
to the senate. The executive powers are a chancellor, high 
steward, vice-chancellor, commissary, and assessor. There 
are three terms—Michaelmas, Lent, and Easter. Dissent¬ 
ers are not excluded from taking degrees, except in divinity. / 
There are four classes, or orders, of students—viz. fel¬ 
low-commoners and noblemen, pensioners, sizars, and 
scholars on the foundation of their college. The first are 
so called from their dining at the fellows’ table; they wear 
silk or embroidered gowns and pay heavier fees. The 
pensioners are the students not on the foundation, who 
pay for their own commons and for their chambers. The 
sizars are the poorer students, who are admitted at lower 
charges than the pensioners, but wear the same dress, and 
no longer perform menial offices, as they once did. St. 
John’s and Trinity have very liberal endowments for sizars, 
and pecuniary assistance is given. All students coming 
to the university are entered in one of the above classes. 
The scholars are elected, by examination, from the pen¬ 
sioners and sizars; they have rooms and commons free, 
and other emoluments. The fellows are generally elected 
from the scholars. The fellowships are given to members 
of the college, and are not, as at Oxford, open to the whole 
university. Before a student can be admitted he must be 
sufficiently instructed in Latin, Greek, and mathematics.'' 

When the undergraduate comes in he is called a “ fresh¬ 
man ;” in his second year, a “junior soph;” in his third 
year, a “ senior soph.” The degree of bachelor of arts 
requires usually nine terms, or three years, of residence. 
The master’s degree is conferred three years later. The 
candidates for degrees are called questionists.v 

The mathematical examination embraces the whole range 
of mathematics. The successful candidates are arranged 
in a tripos— i. e. in three classes, called respectively wrang¬ 
lers, senior optimes, and junior optimes; the first mathe¬ 
matician is called the senior wrangler. In the examina¬ 
tion for classical honors the candidates are arranged in a 
tripos, and distinguished as first, second, and third class. 
The examinations for degrees are called the “ great go.” 
The previous examination, which comes in the second year 
of residence, is called the “little go.” There is also a 
tripos for the natural sciences. The pecuniary value of 
the first place in either the classical or the mathematical 
tripos has been estimated at £10,000, for it secures to its 
possessor high social position, as well as lucrative emploj 7 - 
ment. The next prizes are the fellowships, of which there 
are 430 tenable for life. The office of tutor is one of great 
honor and emolument. In 1870 the members of the uni¬ 
versity amounted to 9241. The undergraduates for the 
same year numbered 2019.' 

The following is a list of the colleges and halls: 

Name. 

St. Peter’s College. 

Clare College. 

Pembroke College. 

Gonville Hall and Caius College 

Trinity Hall. 

Corpus Christi College. 

King’s College. 

Queen’s College..'.. 

St. Catherine’s College.,. 

Jesus College. 

Christ’s College. 

St. John’s College. 

Magdalene College. 

Trinity College. 

Emmanuel College. 

Sidney Sussex College. 

Downing College. 


Founded 

. 1257 
. 1326 
. 1347 
. 1348 
. 1350 
. 1351 
. 1441 
. 1448 
. 1473 
. 1496 
. 1505 
. 1511 
, 1519 
. 1546 
, 1584 
, 1598 
1800 






























738 CAMBYSES—CAMDEN COURT-HOUSE. 


The Fitzwilliam Museum is the finest modern addition 
to the university. Viscount Fitzwilliam bequeathed, in 
1816, £100,000, the interest of which was to build and 
support a museum. lie bequeathed also a valuable collec¬ 
tion of books, paintings, etc. The University Library is a 
fine mass of buildings of different periods, and contains at 
present more than 230,000 volumes, without reckoning those 
in the college libraries, some of which are very important. 
The Geological Museum contains the collection of Hr. 
Woodward, with recent numerous and interesting acquisi¬ 
tions. Besides this, there arc other valuable scientific mu¬ 
seums. (For full information about the university see the 
“Cambridge Calendar.”) Revised by T. D. Woolsey. *' 

Camby'ses [Gr. Ka^uVrj?; Old Persian cuneiform in¬ 
scriptions, Kabujiya], king of the Modes and Persians, and 
a son of Cyrus the Great, whom he succeeded about 630 
B. C. lie invaded Egypt in 525, defeated Psammenitus, 
its king, in battle, and captured Memphis, the capital of 
Egypt. Having completed the conquest of that country, 
he led an army to Ethiopia, but was compelled by famine 
to retire before he had conquered it. He afterwards in¬ 
dulged in violent and capricious acts of tyranny and 
cruelty in Egypt, so that many believed him to be insane. 
Cambyses was an epileptic, but a man of strong though 
very cruel character. By his Egyptian subjects he was 
utterly detested. Died in 522 B. C. 

Cam'den, a county which forms the S. E. extremity 
of Georgia. Area, COO square miles. It is bounded on the 
E. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the S. by the St. Mary’s 
River, and is intersected by the Santilla (or Satilla) River. 
The surface is level; the soil is sandy. Rice and corn are 
the chief crops. It embraces some of the Sea Islands. 
Capital, St. Mary’s. Pop. 4615. 

Camden, a county in S. Central Missouri. Area, COO 
square miles. It is intersected by the Osage River, and 
also drained by the Niangua. The surface is diversified 
by hills and valleys; the soil is moderately fertile. Lead 
is found in this county. Grain, tobacco, and wool are the 
chief products. Capital, Linn Creek. Pop. 6108. 

Camden, a county in the S. W. of New Jersey. Area, 
235 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the Del¬ 
aware River, which separates it from Philadelphia, and is 
drained by Big Timber and Cooper’s creeks, and other 
streams. The surface is nearly level; the soil is mostly 
sandy, and in the W. part is a fertile loam. Marl is abun¬ 
dant in this county, which is intersected by the Camden 
and Atlantic R. R. Corn, wheat, fruit, and garden and 
dairy products are extensively raised. It has manufac¬ 
tures of flour, machinery, and a great variety of goods. 
Capital, Camden. Pop. 46,193. 

Camden, a county of North Carolina, bordering on 
Virginia and Albemarle Sound. Area, 280 square miles. 
It is bounded on the S. W. by the Pasquotank River. The 
surface is level, and partly covered with forests of cedar 
and cypress. Indian corn is the chief crop. The northern 
portion of the county is part of the Dismal Swamp. Cap¬ 
ital, Camden Court-house. Pop. 5361. 

Camden, a post-village, capital of Wilcox co., Ala., is 
about 4 miles S. of the Alabama River and 80 miles S. W. 
of Montgomery. It has a weekly paper. Pop. of Camden 
township, 3060. 

Camden, a post-village, capital of Ouachita co., Ark., 
is on the right bank of the Washita River, 110 miles S. by 
W. from Little Rock. Steamboats ascend the river to this 
point, which is connected by navigable water with New 
Orleans, and for two-thirds of the year steamers ascend 
the river to Arkadelphia. There are two weekly papers. 
Camden^is an important commercial centre. It was once 
called Ecore a Fabre, and was a great hunting rendezvous. 
Pop. 1612. 

Camden, a post-village of North Murderkill hundred, 
Kent co., Del., near Wyoming Station, on the Delaware 
R. R., 3 miles S. of Dover. Pop. 657. 

Camden, a post-township of Schuyler co., Ill. P. 1173. 

Camden, a post-village of Jackson township, Carroll 
co., Ind., on the Logansport Crawfordsville and South¬ 
western R. R., 14 miles S. W. of Logansport. Pop. 476. 

Camden, a post-village of Knox co., Me., on the W. 
side of Penobscot Bay, about 8 miles N. N. E. of Rockland. 
It derives its support from the burning of lime, shipbuild¬ 
ing, commerce, and manufacture of cars, car-wheels, rail¬ 
road spikes, and ship’s furniture of various kinds. It has 
a weekly paper. Pop. including Camden township, 4512. 

Dunton Bros., Pubs. Camden “Herald.” 

Camden, a post-township of Hillsdale co., Mich. The 
township is on the Ohio and Indiana State line, and on the 
Fort Wayne Jackson and Saginaw R. R. Pop. 1883. 

Camden, a township of Carver co., Minn. Pop. 414. 


Camden, a township of De Kalb co., Mo. Pop. 1359. 

Camden, a post-village and township of Ray co., Mo., 
on the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R., 5 miles 
S. W. of Richmond, and on the N. bank of the Missouri 
River. Pop. of village, 357; of township, 3347. 

Camden, a post-township of Seward co., Neb. P. 309. 

Camden, a city and river-port of New Jersey, and the 
capital of Camden co., is situated in a plain on the Dela¬ 
ware River opposite Philadelphia, and 32 miles by railroad 
S. W. of Trenton. It is the terminus of the Camden and 
Amboy R. R. and the Camden and Atlantic R. R., and of 
the West Jersey R. R., which extends to Cape May, Mill¬ 
ville, etc. The plan of the city is regular. It contains a 
court-house, near thirty churches, and two national banks; 
also several iron-foundries and manufactures of machinery, 
chemicals, and other goods. There is a large manufactory 
of steel pens. Numerous steam ferry-boats cross the river 
at various points, and connect Camden with Philadelphia. 
It has three weekly papers. Pop. 20,045. 

Camden, a post-village of Oneida co., N. Y., on the 
Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg R. R., 18 miles N. W. 
of Rome. It has three churches, one weekly paper, and 
manufactures of lumber, leather, pumps, and sash and 
blinds, etc. Pop. 1703; of township, 3687. 

Camden, a township of Lorain co., O. Pop. 858. 

Camden, a post-village of Somers township, Preble 
co., 0., on the Cincinnati Richmond and Chicago R. R., 
44 miles N. of Cincinnati. Pop. 648. 

Camden, a post-village, capital of Kershaw co., S. C., 
is on the E. bank of the navigable Wateree River, 33 miles 
N. E. of Columbia. Camden is the terminus of a railroad 
which extends southward and connects it with Charleston. 
It contains seven churches and four academies, and has 
good water-power. Gen. Gates was defeated here Aug. 16, 
1780, by Lord Cornwallis, and April 25, 1781, Gen. Greene 
was defeated by Lord Rawdon at Hobkirk’s Hill, near 
Camden. During the recent civil War this place was cap¬ 
tured, Feb. 24,1865, by the Federal forces under Gen. Sher¬ 
man after a lively skirmish; 2000 bales of cotton and a 
large quantity of tobacco were destroyed by burning. Cam¬ 
den has two weekly papers. There are ancient mounds 
near this town. Pop. 1007. 

J. B. Kershaw, Ed. op Camden “Journal.” 

Camden, a post-village, capital of Benton co., Tenn., 
on the Nashville and North-western R. R., 82 miles W. of 
Nashville. Pop. 148. 

Camden, Marquesses of, earls of Brecknock (United 
Kingdom, 1812), Earls Camden (1786), Viscounts Bavham 
(1836), Barons Camden (1765, Great Britain).— John 
Charles Pratt, born June 30, 1840, was member of Par¬ 
liament for Brecon in 1866, and succeeded to the marquisate 
in the same year. 

Camden (Charles Pratt), first earl of, an eminent 
English statesman and lawyer, born in 1713, was a son of 
Chief-Justice Sir John Pratt. He was called to the bar in 
1738, became attorney-general about 1758, and chief-jus¬ 
tice of the court of common pleas in 1762. His decision 
against the legality of general warrants, which he gave in 
the trial of John Wilkes, rendered him very popular. He 
received the title of Baron Camden in 1765, and was ap¬ 
pointed lord chancellor, but he resigned that office in Jan., 
1770. He afterwards distinguished himself as a champion 
of constitutional liberty, and acted with Lord Chatham in 
opposition to the American policy of Lord North. In 1783 
he became president of the council. He was created Earl 
Camden in 1786. Died April 18, 1794. “Among the names 
that adorn the legal profession,” says Lord Brougham, 
“there are few which stand so high as that of Camden.” 
On account of his liberal policy during the Revolutionary 
war his name became very popular in the U. S., and was 
given to several counties and many towns and villages. 

Camden (William), an eminent English antiquary, 
born in London May 2, 1551, graduated at Oxford. He was 
appointed second master of Westminster School in 1575. 
His most important work is a description of Great Britain 
in Latin, entitled “Britannia sive Regnorum Angliae, 
Scotiae, et Hiberniae, ex intima Antiquitate Chorographica 
Descriptio” (1586). He published several new editions of 
it, enlarged and improved. Among his works is “ Annals 
of the Reign of Elizabeth” (in Latin), highly commended 
by Hume. He became head-master of Westminster School 
in 1593, and Clarenceux king of arms in 1597. His pro¬ 
motion to this position over the heads of all the College of 
Heralds led to many heart-burnings and recriminations, 
and embittered many years of the life of this worthy man, 
who has been called “the judicious Camden” and “the 
British Pausanias.” He was buried in Westminster Ab¬ 
bey. Died Nov. 9, 1623. 

Camden Court-house, a post-village, capital of 



















CAMDEN SOCIETY—CAMEL’S TIIOKN. 


Camden co., N. C. It is a port of entry, and is on the 
navigable Pasquotank River. 

Camden Society, an association organized in 1838 
in London for the purpose of publishing the MSS. of old 
British authors, historical documents of importance, old 
records, visitations, both heraldic and ecclesiastical, and 
other matter of antiquarian, literary, or historical interest 
relating to England. Some of their materials are not very 
ancient, but are published for their general interest. The 
results of their work ax-e contained in a large number of 
volumes, which are, as a whole, of very gi’eat value. The 
rooms of the society are in Parliament street, London. The 
name was given in honor of William Camden, the historian. 

Cam'el [Lat. camelus / Ger. Kameel; Gr. Ka/u»]Ao?; Ara¬ 
bic, gammelj, a genus of ruminant quadrupeds of which 



Dromedary, or Arabian Camel. 


only two species now exist. This genus is the type of the 
family Camelid®, which includes tlie genus Auchenia, the 
llama, alpaca, etc. The Camelid® exhibit a wonderful 
adaptation to their native regions both in the Old World 
and the New. The dentition cliffei's from that of all other 
rixminating animals in the presence of incisor teeth in the 
upper jaws, camels having canine teeth in both jaws, and 
the Auchenia in the lower jaw ; the feet have not the cloven 
hoof of the rest of the order, but two elongated toes, each 
tipped with a nail-like hoof, the feet resting not upon the 
hoofs, but upon elastic cushions. In the camels the toes 
are united by a common sole, instead of having each a sepa¬ 
rate one, as in the genus Auchenia; the broad foot enabling 
the animals of the one genus easily to traverse the sand of 
the desert, while the separation of the toes in the other is 
suited to rocky heights. Camels have a hump or humps 
upon the back, of which the others exhibit no trace. Witfi 
similarity of foi’in the Camelidae of the Andes exhibit a 
gracefulness which strongly conti-asts with the gaunt angu¬ 
larity of those of the East. The Arabian camel (Camelus 
dromedarius) has only one hump on the back, while the 
Bactrian camel (Camelus Bactrianus ) has two. The first- 
named species is found chiefly in Arabia, Syria, and North¬ 
ern Africa. The other is a native of Central Asia, where 
it is still found wild. The Arabian camel is bred to some 
extent in Italy; the Bactrian in the Crimea. The two are 
sometimes crossed. The Bactrian is the larger, being often 
ten feet high. It is much hardier than the otlier. Confu¬ 
sion has arisen from the employment of the name drome¬ 
dary as a designation of the former species, it being prop¬ 
erly limited to a slender, gi'aceful, and fleet variety of that 
species. The hump on the camel's back is chiefly a store 
of fat, from which the animal draws as the wants of its 
system require; and the Arab is careful to see that the 
hump is in good condition before a long journey. Another 
interesting adaptation is the thick sole which protects the 
foot of the camel from the burning sand. The nostrils may 
be closed by valves against blasts of sand. Most interest¬ 
ing is the provision for drought made by providing the 
second stomach and a portion of the first with great cells, 
in which water is long retained. This store of water is 
known to the Arabs, who sometimes avail themselves of it 
by killing some of the camels of the caravan. Sight and 
smell are extremely acute in the camel. 

The Arabian camel carries about 500 pounds. The Bac¬ 
trian camel is sometimes loaded with 1000 or even 1600 
pounds weight, but can carry the latter weight but a short 
distance. The East India Company had at one time a corps 
of camels, each mounted by two armed men. The Persians 
mount light swivel guns upon the saddle of the camel. The 
pace of the loaded camel is steady and uniform : it proceeds 
from day to day at a rate of about two and a half miles per 


739 


hour. Some of the dromedaries, however, can carry a rider 
more than 100 miles in a day. The motion of the camel is 
peculiar, jolting the rider in a manner extremely disagree¬ 
able to those who are unaccustomed to it. The camel pro¬ 
duces a single young one at a time, or rarely two. It lives 
thirty or forty years. The patience of the camel has been 
celebrated by authors. But with all its general submissive¬ 
ness, it is resentful of injury, and, according to some ob¬ 
servers, is always ill-humored and morose, and during the 
rutting season is particularly vicious. The flesh and milk 
of the camel are valued by the Arabs as food. Its dung is 
a very useful fuel in the desert. The hair is used for the 
manufacture of cloth, some kinds of which are coarse, and 
others soft and fine. Camel’s hair is also imported for the 
manufacture of pencils or small brushes used by painters. 
A fossil camel (Camelus Sivalensis), larger than either ex¬ 
isting species, has been discovered in miocene deposits in 
Hindostan. Numerous remains of fossil Camelidae occur in 
the tei'tiary of Dakota and Nebraska. These are of many 
species and several genera. The U. S. government in 1857 
introduced a number of camels for service in the arid re¬ 
gions along the South-western frontier. These were owned 
and employed by the government, and performed good ser¬ 
vice ; but, owing to the civil war and the unsettled condition 
of that region, the attempt to naturalize them for general use 
has not been successful. Revised by J. S. Newberry. 

Camel, a contrivance by which ships are floated over 
sandbars and shoals. A long caisson, or “ camel,” nearly 
filled with water, is fastened to each side of the ship: 
when the water is pumped out the caissons rise and lift the 
ship with them. The principle is more fully explained in the 
article Dock (which see, by Samuel H. Siireve, C. E.), for 
it is essentially the principle of all floating docks. Camels 
were formerly used at Nantucket and New Bedford, Mass. 
A similar machine is employed in l'aising sunken ships. 

Camel'lia [named in honor of G. J. Kamel or Camelli, 
D. D., a botanist, natural historian, and a German Jesuit 
missionary to. Luzon in the last century], a genus of ever¬ 
green plants of the order Camelliace®, natives of China, 
India, and Japan, and extensively cultivated in green¬ 
houses in Europe and the U. S. for the beauty of their 
flowers. The most admired species is the Camellia Japon- 
ica, a shrub which has ovate-elliptical, serrate, and shining 
leaves, and lai’ge, polypetalous flowers, which resemble a 
rose. Many others belong to Camellia reticulata and to 
hybrid varieties. In the wild state it bears red and single 
flowers, but the flowers of the cultivated varieties are gen¬ 
erally double. Among their various coloi’s are red, white, 
and yellow. Many of the varieties originated in China or 
Japan, and others have been raised by European and 
American florists. New varieties of them are annually 
produced. The value of the camellia is increased by the 
fact that it flowei'S in autumn and winter. The single 
camellia is propagated by seed, and the cultivated or 
double vai-ieties by grafting, cuttings, or layers. The 
proper soil for these is a loose, black mould. They should 
be protected from frost, and libei-ally supplied with water, 
but are liable to be injured with an excess of moisture. It 
is impox-tant that they should receive a free access of fresh 
air and light. The Camellia oleifera and Camellia Sasan- 
qua ai-e cultivated in China for their seeds, which yield an 
oil similar to olive oil. Some writers l'efer the tea-plant to 
this genus, to which it is very nearly allied. 

Camellia'ceiE, a natural order of exogenous trees and 
shrubs, mostly natives of Southern and Eastern Asia and 
South America. North America has four species (loblolly 
bays and Stuartias), while Africa has .also a few. They 
generally have beautiful flowers. The Camellia and the 
tea-plant are the most important. 

Camelopard. See Giraffe. 

Cameloparda'Iis, a constellation of the northern 
hemisphere of the celestial globe called the Giraffe. It 
contains only sparsely scattered stars. It is situated be¬ 
tween Cassiopeia, Perseus, Ursa Major, etc. It was added 
by Hevelius to the list of constellations. 

Camel’s Hair is used by the Arabs and Persians, 
who weave it into stuff for tents and clothing. A fine 
quality of camel’s hair is imported from Persia, and is 
used to make pencils for artists. Camel’s hair was exten¬ 
sively worn by monastics in the Middle Ages for the mor¬ 
tification of the body. It was harsh and rough. Camel’s 
hair is woven to some extent in Eui'ope, but most of the 
goods now so called are of wool. 

Camel’s Ramp, or Camel’s Back Mountain, 
in Vermont, is one of the highest peaks of the Green 
Mountains, and is 17 miles W. of Montpelier. Its height 
is 4188 feet. 

Camel’s Thorn [Dutch, kameel-dooni], ( Alhagi ), a 
genus of plants of the order Leguminos®, comprises nu- 





















740 


CAMENiE—CAMERON. 


merous herbaceous and shrubby species, mostly natives of 
the deserts of Asia and Africa. They havo simple leaves 
and jointed pods, with one seed in each joint. These plants 
grow where other vegetation is scarce, and afford valua¬ 
ble food for camels, which are fond of them. The Alhagi 
camelorum yields a kind of manna, which appears in the 
form of drops on the leaves. In South Africa fences of 
the camel’s thorn are used to protect camps by night from 
wild beasts. 

Came'li®, the general name of four prophetic nymphs 
of Roman mythology—viz. Antevorta, Postvorta, Car- 
menta, and Egeria. The Nino Muses were also called Ca- 
meme by the Latin poets. 

Ca'menz, or Kamenz, a town of the kingdom of 
Saxony, on the Black Elster, 20 miles N. E. of Dresden. 
It has manufactures of earthenware, tobacco, starch, etc. 
Lessing was born here in 1729. Pop. in 1871, 6406. 

Cam'eo [Fr. camaieu ], a term applied to gems of vari¬ 
ous colors carved in relief, especially to diminutive pieces 
of sculpture, which are formed of precious stones having 
two strata or layers of different colors, the uppermost of 
which is partly removed so as to expose the lower stratum, 
which forms the background of the figure. The art of cut¬ 
ting cameos is of great antiquity, having been practised by 
the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. It was brought 
to great perfection by the Greeks, and practised with suc¬ 
cess in ancient Rome. The cameos of the ancients were 
formed mostly of the onyx, agate, and sard, and were some¬ 
times executed on a factitious stone called vitrum obsid- 
ianurn . The famous Barberini or Portland Vase is a beau¬ 
tiful specimen of cameo in glass. The ancients used cameos 
as personal ornaments, and as cups, vases, and other articles. 
Many of the antique cameos now extant are marvellously 
beautiful in design and perfect in execution. Among the 
finest antique specimens are the Gonzaga cameo, which rep¬ 
resents the head of a king and his queen, and is now at St. 
Petersburg; “ The Judgment of Paris/’in the cabinet of 
Prince Piombino at Rome ; and the onyx called the “ Apo¬ 
theosis of Augustus,” which is now in Paris. The last is 
twelve inches high and ten inches wide. The art revived 
in Italy in the fifteenth century, and was patronized by the 
Medici. Some specimens of this period are perhaps as per¬ 
fect as the antique. The fabrication of cameos, both in 
pietra dura and in shell, has become in Italy an important 
branch of art. 

Shell Cameos are made from such shells as have layers 
of differently-colored material, such as the conch-shells of 
the Bahamas. The art—a modern one—of cutting these 
shells has been carried to a high degree of perfection. 
These cameos began to be cut at Rome about 1805, and the 
best work is done there now ,• but many shells are cut at 
Paris, especially for exportation to England and America. 

Cam'era lui'ciila [Lat. a “light chamber”], an in¬ 
strument invented by 

Wollaston, and intended Ai _ 

to facilitate the delinea¬ 
tion of objects, consists 
of a quadrilateral prism 
of glass (A B) in a frame 
attached to an upright 
rod, having at its lower 
end a clamp to fix it to 
the edge of a table. The 
prism has its upper face Camera Lucida. 

horizontal, and two of its faces are at a right angle at A. 
Rays from an object (P Q) falling nearly perpendicularly 
on the first surface enter the prism and undergo reflection at 
the contiguous surface; they then fall at the same angle 
on the next surface, and are reflected again; finally they 
emerge nearly perpendicularly to the remaining surface. 
The eye receives the emergent light in such a way that an 
image of the object is seen projected upon a sheet of paper 
upon the table. The pencil and image being seen together 
upon the paper, a sketch of the latter can be taken. But 
the image and the pencil are at different distances from the 
eye, and cannot be seen together distinctly at the same 
time. To obviate this, a plate of metal with a small eye¬ 
hole is placed under the eye, so that the rays through the 
prism and those from the drawing-pencil, which both pass 
through the eyehole, form only very small beams of light. 
By this the difficulty is diminished. It is, however, diffi¬ 
cult to use the instrument satisfactorily, though many ac¬ 
quire readiness in its use. Besides this form of the camera 
lucida, which is the most common, there are others. Its 
simplest form is a piece of smooth glass fixed at an angle 
of 45° to the horizon. An image from a horizontal object 
falling on this glass will be perfectly reflected, so that the 
eye looking vertically down will see the image, and the 
artist will be able to trace it upon paper. The name has 
been applied to other optical instruments. 



Cam'cra Obscu'ra [Lat. a “dark chamber”], an in¬ 
strument whose invention is ascribed to Baptista Porta in 
the sixteenth century, but Roger Bacon described it 300 
years before. It is known in a simple form as a box furnished 
at one end with a lens whose focal length is equal to the 
length and depth of the box, at the opposite end of which 
a plane reflector is placed at an angle of 45°, which throws 
the image of any objects to which the lens may be directed 
upon an opaque surface which is viewed through a slit in 
the box. 

The camera obscura, being indispensable in photography, 
has received improvements which make it rank as a scien¬ 
tific instrument. The principle involved in all forms may 
be made intelligible by the following experiment: Let a 
hole be bored in a window-shutter and the room darkened. 
If the light entering the room by this hole be intercepted 
by a sheet of white paper at a small distance from the hole, 
an inverted image of objects without will be seen upon the 
paper. By placing a convex lens in the hole this image is 
rendered much more distinct. At a certain distance from 
the hole the image attains a maximum degree of sharp¬ 
ness, and if the paper be removed to a position either 
nearer to the hole or farther from it, the image becomes 
indistinct. 

Camera’rius (Joachim), an eminent German scholar, 
born at Bamberg April 12, 1500. His proper name was 
Liebhard. Ilis ancestors were chamberlains to the bishops 
of Bamberg; hence he took the Latin name Camerarius, 
which signifies a “chamberlain.” He was a friend of Me- 
lanchthon, and became president or principal of the Uni¬ 
versity of Tubingen in 1535. He was rector of the Univer¬ 
sity of Leipsic for many years after 1541. Among his works 
are numerous translations of Greek authors, a “ Life of Me- 
lanchthon ” (1566), “ Elements of Rhetoric,” and Latin 
“ Commentaries on the Greek and Latin Languages ” (1551). 
Died April 17, 1574. 

Cam'eron, a new parish in the S. W. part of Louisi¬ 
ana, made from parts of Calcasieu and Vermilion parishes. 
Cotton, corn, and stock are raised. Capital, Grand Che- 
niere. Pop. 1591. 

Cameron, a county in N. W. Central Pennsylvania. 
Area, 400 square miles. It is drained by Sinnemahoning 
Creek. The surface is hilly, and mostly covered by forests. 
Grain, timber, potatoes, and butter are the chief products. 
Coal, irdn, and salt are found. It is intersected by the 
Philadelphia and Erie R. R. Capital, Emporium. Pop. 
4273. 

Cameron, a county which forms the S. extremity of 
Texas, bordering on Mexico. Area, 3000 square miles. It 
is bounded on the E. by the Gulf of Mexico, and on the S. 
by the Rio Grande. The surface is nearly level; the soil 
is partly productive. Cattle, corn, and wool are raised. 
Several saline lakes occur in this county. Capital, Browns¬ 
ville. Pop. 10,999. 

'Cameron, a post-village of Clinton co., Mo., on the 
Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R., where it is crossed by the 
Chicago and South-western R. R., 35 miles E. of St. Joseph. 
It has a weekly paper. Pop. 1428. 

Cameron, a post-village and township of Steuben co., 
N. Y., on the Erie R. R., 22 miles N. W. by W. of Corning. 
Pop. 161; of township, 1334. 

Cameron, a thriving post-village of Lumber township, 
Cameron co., Pa., on the Philadelphia and Erie R. R., 6 
miles S. E. by S. of Emporium. Here are valuable mines of 
gas-coal and beds of iron ore. Lumber is manufactured 
here. 

Cameron, a township of Northumberland co., Pa. 
Pop. 603. 

Cameron, a post-village, capital of Milam co., Tex., 
on Leon River, 63 miles N. E. of Austin, has a weekly 
paper. 

Cameron, a post-township of Marshall co., West Va. 
Pop. 1627. 

Cameron (Donald) of Lochiel, a Highland Scottish 
chief who fought for the Pretender in 1745. He was wound¬ 
ed at the battle of Culloden, and escaped to France in 1746. 
Died in 1748. He was the subject of Campbell’s poem en¬ 
titled “ Lochiel’s Warning.” 

Cameron (James), brother of Simon Cameron, born at 
Maytown, Pa., Mar. 1, 1801, learned the trade of a printer, 
subsequently became an editor, and studied law. He enter¬ 
ed the army at the beginning of the civil war as colonel of 
the Seventy-ninth New York Highlanders. In the battle 
of Bull Run, July, 1861, he was killed while gallantly 
leading his men in a charge. 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Engineers. 

Cameron (Richard), a Scottish minister, born at Falk¬ 
land, was the founder of the sect of Cameronians or “ Cov- 























CAMEKON—CAMPAGNA. 741 


enanters.” He strenuously opposed the measures by which 
the government endeavored to establish the Episcopal 
Church in Scotland. He persisted in preaching in fields, 
which was prohibited by law. In June, 1680, he, with about 
twenty armed adherents, entered the town of Sanquhar 
and formally renounced their allegiance to Charles II. He 
was killed in a fight with the royal troops July 20, 1680. 
(See Cameronians.) 

Cameron (Simon), an American Senator, born in Lan¬ 
caster co., Pa., in 1799. He was elected Senator of the 
U. S. by the Democrats in 1845, and having joined the Re¬ 
publican party, he was re-elected a Senator in 1856. He 
was secretary of war from Mar., 1861, to Jan., 1862, and 
was then sent as minister to Russia, from which he return¬ 
ed in 1863. In 1866 he was again elected to the Senate of 
the U. S. He was elected to the national Senate for another 
term (1873-79). 

Camero'nians, the followers of Richard Cameron, who 
in 1680 made a public declaration that Charles II., by his 
suppression of civil and religious liberty,’had forfeited all 
right to the crown. They were also called Covenanters, 
from their having demanded the strict observance of the 
Solemn League and Covenant received by the Parliament 
in 1643. The Cameronians still exist as a sect, both in 
Great Britain and America, under the name of Reformed 
Presbyterians (which see). 

Cam'eronites were the adherents of John Cameron, a 
native of Scotland, who went to France in 1600, and be¬ 
came professor of theology at Saumur. “He devised a 
method,” says Mosheim, “of uniting the doctrines of the 
Genevans, as expounded at Dort, with the views of those 
who hold that the love of God embraces the whole human 
race.” They have sometimes been called Hypothetical 
Universalists. 

Cameroons', or Camerones, a river of Africa, in 
Upper Guinea, enters the Bight of Biafra about lat. 4° N. 
and Ion. 9° 40' E. by an estuary 20 miles wide. Its length 
is not known. It has a cataract 90 miles from its mouth. 

Cameroons Mountains, of Western Africa, culmi¬ 
nate in a peak which is near 13,000 feet high, and about 
lat. 4° 13' N. and Ion. 9° 10' E. 

Camilla, a fabulous Italian virgin, celebrated for 
swiftness of foot, was said to be a daughter of the Volscian 
king Metabus, and aided Turnus against iEneas. 

Camilla, the capital of Mitchel co., Ga., is on the At¬ 
lantic and Gulf R. R., 28 miles S. of Albany. It has two 
churches, an academy, and a newspaper. From 6000 to 
8000 bales of cotton are shipped from here annually. Pop. 
289. T. M. Mason, Ed. Camilla “ Enterprise.” 

CamiUlns, apost-village of Onondaga co., N. Y., on the 
New York Central R. R., 8 miles W. of Syracuse, has three 
churches. Camillus township contains valuable limestone 
and gypsum, and several sulphur springs. Pop. of village, 
598; of township, 2423. 

Camillus (Marcus Furius), a celebrated Roman dic¬ 
tator and patrician, who became a tribune in 403 B. C. He 
was chosen dictator in 396, and soon captured Yeii. About 
390 he was exiled, and retired to Ardea. After Brennus 
and the Gauls had captured Rome in 390 B. C., Camillus 
was recalled and appointed dictator. According to the 
popular tradition, which is perhaps mixed with fable, he 
defeated the Gauls, and afterwards gained victories over 
the Volsci and other enemies. In 367 he was chosen dic¬ 
tator for the fifth time. Died in 364 B. C. (See Plutarch’s 
“Life of Camillus ;” Arnold’s “History of Rome.”) 

Camisards, French Protestants who lived in the Ce- 
vennes early in the eighteenth century, so named from 
the camise or loose outer garment which they wore. They 
strove to obtain the religious liberty which had been sacri¬ 
ficed by the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, but although 
they gained several victories over the royal troops, they 
were subdued by the duke of Berwick in 1705. (See Schultz, 
“ Geschichte der Camisarden,” Weimar, 1790.) 

Cam'Iet, a fabric originally made of camel’s hair, but 
in more recent times of the hair of the Angora goat. It is 
also made of wool, or a mixture of wool with other mate¬ 
rials. Camlets are mentioned in Marco Polo’s narrative 
as among the articles manufactured in Thibet. 

Camo'ens (Luis or Lutz), a celebrated Portuguese epic 
poet, was born of a noble family, probably at Lisbon, in 
1524. He was educated at Coimbra, and soon after he left 
college fell in love with a lady of honor at court. He was 
consequently banished to Santarem. Having joined the 
army, he served with valor in several battles against the 
Moors. Before this time he had written some verses, which, 
like his military services, had been treated with neglect. 
He therefore resolved to emigrate, and embarked for India 
in 1553, exclaiming with Scipio, “Ingrata patria, non pos- 


sidebis ossa mea.” He wrote a political satire called 
“Follies in India,” for which he was banished in 1556 
from Goa to Macao, where ho composed his great epic poem 
“ TheLusiad” (“ Os Lusiadas”), which celebrates the mar¬ 
tial exploits of the Portuguese warriors and heroes, and is 
pervaded by patriotic sentiments. It was first printed in 
1572. He was recalled from exile in 1561, and returned in 
1569 to Lisbon, where he passed his later years in great 
poverty, and died June 10, 1580. Among his works are 
elegies, sonnets, odes, satires, and epigrams. The versifi¬ 
cation of “The Lusiad” is remarkably stately. (See John 
Adamson, “ Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Luis de 
Camoens,” 1820; Souza Botelho, “ Yida de L. Camoens,” 
1817.) 

Camor'ra, the name of a secret society of outlaws and 
robbers called Camorristi who infested the former king¬ 
dom of Naples. This society had a rendezvous in every 
large town. Under the Bourbon dynasty its members 
openly presented themselves at markets and public spec¬ 
tacles, where they extorted a portion of the money that 
passed from hand to hand. They were also addicted to 
violent crimes, and could be hired to commit murder. 
The society was thoroughly organized and subject to a 
strict discipline. Candidates for membership were not ad¬ 
mitted until they had passed through a probation for a 
year, and given proofs of courage and obedience. They 
are said to have been tolerated by King Ferdinand II. 

Camp [from the Latin campus , a “plain;” Fr. camp ; 
Ger. Lager '], in a general sense the ground (constructions 
included) upon which tents, huts, etc. are erected for the 
shelter of any collection of human beings ; in a military 
sense, that occupied by an army under tents or temporary 
shelter in the field. It is usually distinguished from 
bivouac by the use of shelter (such as tents), as distin¬ 
guished from passing the night in the open air (« la belle 
itoile ). More exclusively yet, the ground and shelter of 
an army in tents ; but in our “Army Regulations” a camp 
is the place where troops are established in tents, in huts, 
or in bivouac. The Roman camp (Lat. castra , a word 
which in the form of the termination cester or Chester in¬ 
dicates the origin of numerous English towns, as arising 
from a Roman camp, and to which also are due the words 
chateau and castle ), described with great detail in most 
cyclopedias, was in reality an intrenched camp (see Bardin, 
“ Dictionnaire de l’Armee de Terre”). Such were con¬ 
structed in the heart of invaded countries to secure for the 
troops a place of retreat, to control the district, to provide 
secure depots for provisions of all kinds, and to protect the 
communications with the frontier. A Roman army might 
occupy its camp several winters. In the mean time it 
sallied forth to resume its operations. Most commonly, 
when the legions had thus vacated them to undertake long 
marches, veterans remained behind to guard the ramparts, 
and thus became a kind of permanent garrison, which, by 
intermarriage, became the origin of a town or colony; c . g . 
the English “Chesters” and the German Cologne or Koln 
( Colonia ). 

The Romans necessarily had, besides these, temporary 
camps, sometimes of huts, but more generally tents of skins 
of animals. The details of these Roman camps are of 
little interest (unless to antiquarians); neither indeed, ex¬ 
cept to soldiers, those of the modern military camp. Its 
arrangements (as practised with us) are set forth in our 
“Army Regulations.” Strictly speaking, the arrangements 
of a camp for a regiment of infantry or cavalry are gov¬ 
erned purely by considerations of discipline and adminis¬ 
tration. The encampment of an army must indeed be 
sedulously governed by tactical considerations, such as the 
defence of the position and the formation of line of battle, 
the character of the issues, the approaches, etc. But these 
arrangements belong to “Tactics.” An Intrenched Camp 
is a fortified position of greater or less extent, usually of 
field-works to be occupied during a campaign or the dura¬ 
tion of a war. In this sense the subject belongs to Field 
Fortification (which see). J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Camp, a township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 1558. 

Camp, a township of Renville co., Minn. Pop. 418. 

Camp-aml-Gamson Equipage is a general name 
for the tents, furniture, utensils, etc. used in an army which 
serve to supply the wants of the soldiers, rather than to 
aid their military operations. 

Camp-Followers, the sutlers and dealers who follow 
an army, and carry a variety of articles which they sell to 
the soldiers. In India the camp-followers of British armies 
are very numerous, comprising sutlers, servants, hostlers, 
water-carriers, snake-charmers, conjurers, and women. An 
army of 15,000 men which invaded Afghanistan in 1 S3 J is 
said to have been accompanied with 85,000 camp-followeis. 

Campa'gna, a town of Italy, in Principato Citra, is 








742 CAMPAGNA DI ROMA—CAMPBELL. 


situated amidst high mountains, 18 miles E. of Salerno. It 
is a bishop’s see, has a fine cathedral, a college, and several 
convents. Pop. 8776. 

Campa'gna cli lio'ma, an extensive undulating, 
desolate plain of Central Italy, nearly coinciding in limits 
with the ancient Latium , was formerly a province of the 
Pontifical States. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Medi¬ 
terranean, extends along the coast from Civita Vecchia to 
Astura and the Pontine Marshes, and surrounds the city of 
Rome, which is near its centre. Its length is estimated at 
75 miles, and its width varies from 27 to 40 miles. The 
highest parts of it rise about 200 feet above the level of the 
sea. The soil is of volcanic formation, and the climate is 
rendered unhealthy by pestilential malaria or miasmatic 
effluvia. This region, once rich and populous, is now 
almost deserted and uncultivated. In autumn the inhab¬ 
itants of the Apennines descend into the Campagna with 
their flocks and herds, for which some parts of it afford good 
pasture. Numerous ancient monuments, aqueducts, and 
other ruins are scattered over this plain. It contains sev¬ 
eral lakes, which occupy craters of extinct volcanoes. 

Campaign' [Fr. campagne], a connected series of mil¬ 
itary operations forming a distinct stage in a war; the time 
that an army keeps the field, either in fighting or marching, 
without entering into winter quarters. The term had a 
more definite meaning formerly, when armies kept the field 
only in the summer and autumn, than it has now, when the 
operations of armies are not interrupted by winter or any 
ordinary degree of cold. 

Campan (Jeanne Louis Genest), born Oct. C, 1752, 
was reader to the daughters of Louis XV. and a companion 
and friend of Marie Antoinette. After the Revolution she 
was an instructress of high reputation. Died May 16, 
1822. She wrote, among other works, “ Memoirs of the 
Private Life of Marie Antoinette.” 

Campa'na, La, a town of Spain, in the province of 
Sevilla, on the river Madre Viega, 80 miles E. N. E. of 
Seville. It has a trade in grain, wine, and fruit. Pop. 
about 5500. 

Campana'rio, a town of Spain, in Estremadura, 72 
miles E. of Badajos. It has manufactures of linen fabrics, 
wine, oil, and ropes. Pop. 6145. 

Campanel'la (Tommaso), an eminent Italian phil¬ 
osopher and Dominican monk, born in Calabria Sept. 5, 
1568. He published in 1591 “ Philosophy Demonstrated 
by the Senses,” which opposed the scholastic philosophy 
and gave offence to the partisans of Aristotle. On a charge 
of heresy and conspiracy against the Spanish government, 
he was in 1599 committed to prison in Naples, where he 
was confined about twenty-seven years, during which he 
wrote several works. Pope Urban VIII. procured his re¬ 
lease in 1626. Campanella, after passing several years in 
Rome, retired to France in 1634, in order to avoid the re¬ 
newed persecution of the Spaniards. He was kindly treated 
by Cardinal Richelieu. Among his important works are 
“ Civitas Solis,” etc. (“ The City of the Sun, or the Idea of 
a Philosophic Republic,” 1623), “ The Five Parts of Ra¬ 
tional Philosophy” (1638), and a “Discourse on the Spanish 
Monarchy” (in Latin, 1640). Died in Paris Mar. 21, 1639. 
(See Baldacchini, “Vita e Filosofia di T. Campanella,” 
1840; Dareste, “Thomas Morus et Campanella,” 1843.) 

Campa'ilha, a town of Brazil, in the province of 
Minas Geraes, about 156 miles N. W. of Rio de Janeiro. 
It has several churches, a hospital, and a theatre. Gold is 
found in the vicinity. Pop. about 6000. 

Campa'nia, a province of ancient Italy, was bounded 
on the N. E. by Samnium, on the E. and S. by Lucania, on 
the S. W. by the Mediterranean, and on the N. W. by 
Latium. The .Apennines extended along the N. E. border. 
Between these mountains and the sea was an extensive and 
very fertile plain, which produced abundance of corn, wine, 
and oil. Ancient writers concur in extolling the fertile 
soil, the genial climate, and the beautiful landscapes of 
Campania, which was the Regio felix of the Romans. It 
was traversed by the Appian Way ( Via Appia), the greatest 
thoroughfare of ancient Italy. Its principal cities were 
Capua, Pompeii, Neapolis (Naples), Cumae, Salernum, and 
Herculaneum. Among its physical features was Mount 
Vesuvius. During the Roman empire, Campania was the 
favorite resort of wealthy Romans, who adorned its shores 
with villas and palaces. It is supposed that the original 
population of this region was an Oscan or Ausonian race. 
The earliest fact which can be affirmed as historical in rela¬ 
tion to Campania is the foundation of the Greek colony of 
Cumae, which is said to have been the most ancient of the 
Greek colonies in Italy. The Campanians were conquered 
by the Samnites about 430 B. C., but they continued to 
speak the Oscan language after that event. The Romans 
gained a decisive victory over the allied Latins and Cam¬ 


panians in 340 B. C., when Campania became subject to 
Rome. It embraces the modern provinces of Benevento, 
Naples, Principato Citeriore, Principato Ultcriore, and 
Terra di Lavoro, with an area of 6937 square miles and 
2,625,830 inhabitants. 

Campani'le, a structure standing by the side of the 
main church in many Italian cities, is a lofty belfry tower, 
often of elaborate, but of a lighter, profaner architecture 
than the sacred edifice. The finest of the campaniles 
are—that at Florence, designed by Giotto, the Leaning 
Tower of Pisa, and in Spain the beautiful Giralda of 
Seville, built by Guever the Moor. 

Campan'ula, a Latin word signifying a “little bell,” 
from campana, a “ bell,” is the name of a genus of hardy 
herbaceous plants, the type of the natural order Campanu- 
laceje (which see). The genus is characterized by a bell¬ 
shaped, 5-lobed corolla, five stamens, the filaments of which 
are dilated at the base, and a top-shaped capsule, with two 
to five cells opening by lateral clefts. It comprises nume¬ 
rous species, with beautiful blue or white flowers, to many 
of which the common name of bell-flower is given. Among 
the remarkable species are the Campanula medium or Can¬ 
terbury bell, a native of Europe, and the Campamda ro- 
tundifolia, or harebell, which is indigenous both in Eng¬ 
land and the U. S. 

Campanula'ceoe [from Campamda, one of the genera], 
a natural order of exogenous plants, herbaceous or suffruti- 
cose, with a milky juice, alternate leaves, and a calyx ad¬ 
herent to the ovary. The corolla is regular, monopetalous, 
bell-shaped, and valvate in the bud. The stamens, five in 
number, are free from the corolla, which is generally blue 
and showy. This order comprises nearly 500 known species, 
mostly natives of the temperate and cool climates of the 
northern hemisphere. Two genera are indigenous in the 
U. S.—viz. Campanula and Specularia. 

Campbell, kam'el, a county in N. W. Central Georgia. 
Area, 360 square miles. It is intersected by the Chatta¬ 
hoochee River. The surface is hilly or undulating; the 
soil is fertile. Corn, cotton, and wool are staple products. 
Gold has been found in the county. Capital, Campbellton. 
Pop. 9176. 

Campbell, a county in Northern Kentucky, borders on 
the Ohio, and is bounded on the W. by the Licking River. 
Area, 120 square miles. Grain, wool, and tobacco are the 
chief products. The soil is based on Trenton limestone, 
and is fertile. Capital, Newport. Pop. 27,406. 

Campbell, a county in N. N. E. Tennessee, bordering 
on Kentucky. Area, 450 square miles. It is drained by 
New River and other streams. Coal is found. Wool, grain, 
and tobacco are the chief products. The surface is hilly 
or mountainous. Capital, Jacksboro’. Pop. 7445. 

Campbell, a county in the S. of Virginia. Area, 576 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by James River, 
and on the S. by Staunton River. The surface is hilly; 
the soil is mostly productive. Grain, wool, and tobacco are 
the chief products. Granite is found here. The Atlantic 
Mississippi and Ohio R. R. passes through the N. part of 
the county. Capital, Campbell Court-house. Pop. 28,384. 

Campbell, a township of Lawrence co., Ark. P. 576. 

Campbell, a post-township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 
1304. 

Campbell, a township of Searcy co., Ark. Pop. 359. 

Campbell, a township of Jennings co., Ind. P. 1563. 

Campbell, a township of Warrick co., Ind. P. 1437. 

Campbell, a post-township of Ionia co., Mich. P. 1120. 

Campbell, a township of Douglas co., Mo. Pop. 413. 

Campbell, a township of Greene co., Mo., contains the 
town of Springfield. Pop. 8694. 

Campbell, a post-village and township of Steuben co., 
N. Y., on the Rochester division of the Erie R. R., 9 miles 
N. AT. of Corning. Pop. of the township, 1989. 

Campbell, a township of La Crosse co., Wis., 5 miles 
N. of La Crosse. Pop. 2084. 

Campbell (Alexander), D. D., a theologian, born in 
the county of Antrim, Ireland, in June, 1788, emigrated to 
the U. S. in 1809, after studying at the University of Glas¬ 
gow. He founded a sect called Disciples of Christ, who 
accept the Bible as their only creed. In 1841 he founded 
Bethany College, West Va., of which he was long president. 
Died Mar. 4, 1866. (See Disciples of Christ.) 

Campbell (Archibald), an American officer and en¬ 
gineer, born 1813 in New York, graduated at West Point 
1835, serving while in infantry at frontier posts till he re¬ 
signed, Sept. 30, 1836. Civil engineer 1837-44, chief clerk 
U. S. war department 1846-49 and 1853-57, and commis¬ 
sioner to establish the North-western boundary of the U. S. 
between Washington Territory and British America 1857- 



















CAMPBELL—CAMPHENE. 743 


09, and to run the 49th parallel from the Lake of the 
Woods to the Rocky Mountains, since 1872. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Campbell (Sir Colin), Lord Clyde, a British general, 
born in Glasgow Oct. 20, 1792. He entered the army in 
1808, and served in the Peninsular war (1809-14). In 1842 
he obtained the rank of colonel. Having served with dis¬ 
tinction in India, he was appointed in 1854 to the command 
of the Highland brigade, which he led at the battles of 
Alma and Balaklava in the Crimea. In 1855 he was raised 
to the rank of major-general, and created a knight grand 
cross of the Bath. He was appointed in July, 1857, com¬ 
mander of the army in India, then fighting against the 
mutinous Sepoys. He relieved Lucknow in Nov., 1857, 
defeated the Sepoys at Cawnpore, and quelled the mutiny 
in 1858. He was raised to the peerage as Baron Clyde in 
the same year. Died Aug. 14, 1863. 

Campbell (Duncan R.), D. D., born in Scotland about 
1797, received a university education, came while young 
to the U. S., was ordained to the Baptist ministry, and 
was president of Georgetown College, Ky. (1849-65). 
Died Aug. 11, 1865. 

Campbell (George Washington), born in Tennessee 
in 1768, graduated at Princeton in 1794, was a member of 
Congress 1803-09, U. S. Senator (1811-14 and 1815-18), 
became secretary of the treasury in 18L5, and minister to 
Russia in 1818. Died Feb. 17, 1848. / 

Campbell (James), an American jurist and statesman, 
born in Philadelphia in 1813, was a judge of the court of 
common pleas (1841-50), and became attorney-general of 
the State in 1852, and postmaster-general under President 
Pierce in 1853. 

Campbell (John), Lord, an eminent British lawyer, 
was born in Fifeshire, Scotland, Sept. 15, 1779. He was 
called to the English bar in 1806, and soon obtained an 
extensive practice. In 1830 he became a Whig member 
of Parliament, and in 1834 attorney-general. He was 
made chancellor of Ireland and a peer of the United King¬ 
dom in 1841. He was appointed chief-justice of the court 
of queen’s bench in 1850, and lord chancellor of England 
in 1859. He published “ Lives of the Lord Chancellors 
and Keepers of the Great Seal of England” (7 vols., 1846), 
which obtained much popularity, and “ Lives of the Chief- 
Justices of England” (3 vols., 1849-57). Died June 23, 
1861. 

Campbell (John A.), an eminent jurist, born in Wash¬ 
ington, Ga., June 24, 1811, was the son of Duncan G. Camp¬ 
bell, a distinguished lawyer of that State. He was educated 
in the Georgia University, where he graduated with dis¬ 
tinction in 1826, and was admitted to the bar by special 
act of the legislature in 1829, some time before his majority. 
He moved to Alabama, where he soon took high rank in 
his profession, and was appointed associate justice of the 
U. S. Supreme Court by President Pierce in 1853. This 
position he resigned in 1861, after the outbreak of the con¬ 
flict between the two sections. While he had opposed the 
policy of secession, he yet believed in its rightfulness. 
He was afterwards appointed assistant secretary of war of 
the Confederate States. He was one of the commissioners 
appointed by Mr. Davis to meet Mr. Lincoln and Mr. 
Seward at the Fortress Monroe conference in Feb., 1865. 
After the fall of Richmond and the surrender of the South¬ 
ern arms, he was arrested and imprisoned for some time at 
Fort Pulaski, but was finally discharged on parol. Since 
then he has been engaged in the practice of the law in 
New Orleans. 

Campbell (Thomas), a popular British poet, born in 
Glasgow July 27, 1777. He was educated at the university 
of his native city, and became a good classical scholar. He 
produced in 1799 his admirable poem, “ The Pleasures of 
Hope,” which was considered by Lord Bryon as “one of 
the most beautiful didactic poems in the English language.” 
During a visit to the Continent he witnessed the battle of 
Hohenlinden, Dec., 1800, on which he composed a lyrical 
poem of great beauty and celebrity. He soon afterwards 
published short poems entitled “ The Exile of Erin” and 
“Ye Mariners of England.” Having married his cousin, 
Miss Sinclair, he removed to London in 1803, and adopted 
literature as a profession. In 1809 he produced “ Gertrude 
of Wyoming,” which is generally and greatly admired. 
He became editor of the “New Monthly Magazine” in 
1820, and was elected lord rector of the University of 
Glasgow in 1827. He published, besides other works in 
prose, “ The Life and Times of Petrarch ” and a “ Life of 
Frederick the Great,” Among his finest poems is a spir¬ 
ited ode called “The Battle of the Baltic.” He died June 
15, 1844, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. “No 
poet at such an age,” says Moir, referring to the “ Pleas¬ 
ures of Hope,” “ever produced such an exquisite specimen 


of poetic mastery—that is, of fine conception and high art 
combined.” (See “The Life and Letters of Thomas Camp¬ 
bell,” by William Beattie, 3 vols., 1850.) 

Campbell Court-house, a post-village, capital of 
Campbell co., Ya. 

Camp'bellford, a post-village of Seymour township, 
Northumberland co., Ontario (Canada), on the river Trent, 
has great water-power and considerable manufactures. 
Pop. about 1000. * 

Campbellites. See Disciples op Christ. 

Camp'bell’s, a township of Clarke co., Ala. Pop. 401. 

Campbell’s Station, a post-village of Knox co., Tenn. 
Here Gen. Burnside’s army was attacked Nov. 16,1S63, by 
the Confederates under command of Gen. Longstreet. Tho 
engagement lasted from noon till dark, the Confederates 
being repulsed. Pop. in 1870, 1807. 

Camp'bcllsville, a post-village, capital of Taylor co., 
Ky., 75 miles S. S. W. of Frankfort. Pop. 512. 

Camp'bellton, a post-village, capital of Campbell co., 
Ga., on the Chattahoochee River, about 20 miles S. W. of 
Atlanta. Pop. 119. 

Campbelton, a royal borough and seaport of Scot¬ 
land, in the county of Argyle, and near the S. end of the 
peninsula of Cantire, 65 miles W. S. W. of Glasgow. It 
has a good harbor on the E. coast of Cantire, is the chief 
town in Argyleshire, and is a favorite resort in summer. 
Here are more than twenty distilleries of whisky. Pop. in 
1871, 6628. 

Camp Branch, a township of Shelby co., Ala. P. 637. 

Camp Branch, a township of Cass co., Mo. P. 1258. 

Camp Branch, a township of Warren co., Mo. P. 901. 

Camp Colora'tlo, a post-village, capital of Coleman 
co., Tex. 

Camp Creek, a township of Rutherford co., N. C. 
Pop. 1007. 

Camp Creek, a township of Pike co., 0. Pop. 743. 

Cam'pe (Joachim Heinrich), a German philanthropist 
and writer on education, was born in Brunswick in 1746. 
He was appointed superintendent of schools in the duchy 
of Brunswick in 1787, after which he was the proprietor of 
a publishing-house. He wrote several popular books for 
the instruction of youth, among which is “ Robinson the 
Younger.” Died Oct. 22, 1818. 

Campeach'y, a state of Mexico, is bounded on the N. 
by Yucatan, on the E. by the Caribbean Sea, on the S. by 
Belize and Guatemala, and on the W. by the Gulf of Cam- 
peachy. Area, 23,958 square miles. Many ruins of ancient 
cities have been found in this province, the most extensive 
of which are the ruins of Tckel. Chief town, Campeachy. 
Pop. in 1868, 80,366. 

Campeachy, a city of Central America and the prin¬ 
cipal seaport of Yucatan, is situated on the Gulf of Mexico 
and the W. coast of that peninsula, 90 miles S. S. W. of 
Merida; lat. 19° 50' N., Ion. 90° 33' W. It contains many 
good stone houses, a college, about six churches, several 
convents, and a theatre. The harbor is capacious, but 
shallow. Logwood, wax, and cotton are exported from 
this port. Pop. about 18,000. 

Campeachy Wood, a name of Logwood (which see). 

Cam'per (Pieter), M. D., Ph. D., born at Leyden May 
11, 1722. He became professor of medicine at Amsterdam 
in 1755, and at Groningen in 1765. He wrote a number 
of works on anatomy and physiology, and gained distinc¬ 
tion as a lecturer as well as a writer. Among his works is 
“ Anatomico-Pathological Demonstrations” (1760-61). lie 
discovered the presence of air in the bones of birds. In 
1785 he was chosen a foreign associate of the Academy of 
Sciences in Paris. Died April 7, 1789. 

Cam'perdown, a village of Holland, 27 miles N. W. 
of Amsterdam, famous for the victory gained off its coast 
by the English, under Admiral Duncan, over the Dutch, 
commanded by Admiral de Winter, Oct. 11, 1797. 

Camp Ilalleck, a post-township of Elko co., Nev. 
Pop. 160. 

Camp'hausen (Ludolf), a Prussian statesman, born 
at Hiinshoven in 1803. lie became president of the coun¬ 
cil of ministers in Berlin in Mar., 1848, resigned in Juno 
of that year, and was soon appointed ambassador to the 
Diet at Frankfort. In 1851 he retired from political life. 

Camphausen (Otto), a Prussian statesman, born 
Oct. 12, 1812, was appointed minister of finance in 1869. 
Through him the corn-tax and other burdensome taxes 
have been removed and replaced. 

Camphene, or Campliine, a term applied to puri¬ 
fied oil of turpentine, obtained by rectifying it o\ er dry 









744 CAMPHILENE—CAMPUS MARTIUS. 


chloride of lime. It consists of 10 atoms of carbon com¬ 
bined with 8 of hydrogen, and is represented by the equiv¬ 
alent number G8. Camphene has been burned in lamps 
for the purpose of illumination, but many fatal accidents 
having resulted from its use, it has been superseded by 
coal oil or rectified petroleum. Ordinary camphor is a 
protoxide of camphene, which is sometimes called cam- 
phogen. Borneo camphor is by some chemists considered 
to be a binoxide of camphene. 

Cam'philene, or Artificial Camphor, is obtained 
from the oil of turpentine, by acting on it with dry vapor 
of hydrochloric acid, and keeping the whole at a low tem¬ 
perature by immersing the vessel in a freezing mixture. A 
solid substance is produced in the form of white crystals, 
with the taste and aromatic smell of natural camphor. It 
is regarded as a hydrochlorate of camphene. 

Camp Hill, a post-township of Tallapoosa co., Ala. 
Pop. 373. 

Camphine. See Camphene. 

Cam'phogen [from camphor , and the Gr. yewdu>, to 
“ produce/’ because from it is obtained artificial camphor], 
a synonym of Camphene (which see). 

Carn'phor [Lat. camphor a; . Sp. alcanfor or can/or; 
Arabic al kdfoor, not improbably derived from the Sanscrit 
khapur , a name applied to several fragrant plants] is a 
concrete substance found in many plants, particularly 
those of the order Lauraceas. The greater part of the 
camphor of commerce is the produce of the camphor laurel 
or camphor tree (Camphora officinarum, formerly known 
as Lauras camphora), a native of China, Japan, Formosa, 
and Cochin-China, and which has been introduced into 
Java and the West Indies. The camphor laurel is a tree 
of considerable height, with evergreen leaves and yellowish- 
white flowers in panicles. The fruit is not unlike a black 
currant. Every part of the tree smells strongly of cam¬ 
phor. The wood is much valued for carpenter’s work. In 
the extraction of camphor the wood is chopped up and then 
steeped and boiled in water, when the steam carries off the 
camphor in vapor. The camphor is deposited around the 
straw (with which the head of the still is filled) in minute 
grains. The crude camphor is heated in a vessel, from which 
the steam is allowed to escape at a small aperture. The cam¬ 
phor sublimes as a semi-transparent cake. Camphor was 
unknown to the Greeks and Romans, and was first brought 
to Europe by the Arabs. It is a white, tough solid, slightly 
lighter than water. It is sparingly soluble in water, but 
freely soluble in alcohol, ether, acetic acid and the essen¬ 
tial oils. It fuses at 347°, and boils at 399°, is very in¬ 
flammable, and burns with a white smoky flame. When 
set fire to upon water it floats with a curious rotary motion. 
It has a peculiar aromatic taste and a characteristic odor. 

Camphor is used in medicine, internally and externally, 
as a stimulant. In small doses it is an anodyne and anti- 
spasmodic ; in very large doses a narcotic poison. Its alco¬ 
holic solution (spirits of camphor) and liniments in which 
it is an ingredient are much used in sprains and bruises, 
chilblains, and chronic rheumatism. Paregoric is a cam¬ 
phorated tincture of opium. The effluvium of camphor is 
very noxious to insects, and it is therefore much used for 
preserving specimens in natural history, as well as clothing. 

The Borneo camphor, sometimes called hard camphor, is 
the produce of Dryobalanops aromatica, a large tree of the 
order Dipteraceae. The camphor is obtained by cutting 
down the tree and splitting it into small pieces, being 
found in crystalline masses in natural cavities of the wood. 
To this substance the Chinese ascribe extraordinary medi¬ 
cinal virtues, so that it is taken in exchange by them for 
more than fifty times its weight of common camphor. It is 
seldom brought to Europe as an article of commerce. The 
tree yields also a pale-yellowish limpid fluid, which gushes 
out when deep incisions are made in the tree with an axe, 
and which is called liquid camphor, camphor oil, or borne- 
ole. When this oil is distilled it yields a light fragrant 
liquid called borneene, which is used in perfumery. It is 
sometimes imported into Europe. It has a smell somewhat 
resembling that of camphor, but more like oil of cajuput. 
It is supposed that from this fluid the hard camphor is 
deposited. Revised by C. W. Greene. 

Campido'glio, Fala'zzo de!, the name of a palace 
or pile of buildings erected by Michael Angelo on the 
Capitoline Ilill in Rome, on the site of the ancient Capitol. 
Campidoglio appears to be a corruption of Capitolium. 

Campi'nas, or Sao Carlos, a city of Brazil, about 
65 miles N. of Sao Paulo. Much sugar is produced here. 
Pop. about 6000. 

Cam'pion, or Campian (Edmund), a learned Catho¬ 
lic priest, born in London in 1540. He visited Rome in 
1573, and having joined the Jesuits returned to England 
on a mission. He challenged the clergy of the Anglican 


Church to dispute with him. In 1581 he was convicted on 
a charge of treason, and put to death Dec. 1. lie was 
author of a “History of Ireland” and other works. 

Cam'po Bas'so (formerly called Molise), a province 
of Central Italy, is bounded on the N. by Chieti, on the 
N. E. by the Adriatic Sea, on the S. E. by Foggia, on the 
S. by Benevento, and on the W. by Caserta. Area, 1778 
square miles. The country is mountainous and sterile, 
and there is very little industry. Chief town, Campo Basso. 
Pop. in 1871, 363,943. 

Campo Basso, a fortified city of Italy, capital of 
the province of Campo Basso (formerly Molise), is on the 
declivity of a mountain, about 55 miles N. N. E. of Naples. 
It has a fine cathedral, a ruined castle, a college, several 
convents and palaces of the nobility; also celebrated 
manufactures of cutlery and arms. Pop. 13,354. 

Campobel'lo, a town of Sicily, in the province of Tra¬ 
pani, 50 miles S. W. of Palermo. Pop. 5141. 

Cainpobello, an island in Passamaquoddy Bay, 2 
miles E. of Eastport, Me. It is a part of Charlotte co., 
New Brunswick. It is 8 miles long, its N. point being in 
lat. 44° 57' N., Ion. 66° 55' W. Copper and lead ores exist 
in the island. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the 
herring, cod, and mackerel fisheries. Pop. in 1871, 1073. 

Campo Bello, a post-township of Spartanburg co., 
S. C. Pop. 2951. 

Campobel'lo di Lica'ta, a town of Sicily, in the 
province of Girgenti, 15 miles N. W. of Licata. Here are 
mines of sulphur. Pop. 5764. 

Cam'po de Cripta'na, a town of Spain, in the prov¬ 
ince of Ciudad Real, about 50 miles N. E. of Ciudad Real. 
It has manufactures of coarse cloths, and a trade in grain 
and fruit. Pop. about 5500. 

Cam'po For'mio, Campio Formio, or Campo 
Formido, a village of Northern Italy, in Friuli, about 
66 miles N. E. of Venice and 7 miles S. W. of Udine. An 
important treaty of peace was concluded here between 
Austria and the French republic, Oct. 17, 1797. Alarmed 
by the recent victories gained by Bonaparte in Italy, Aus¬ 
tria was inclined to peace, and negotiated with the French 
general this treaty, by which she ceded the Netherlands 
and recognized the independence of the Cisalpine republic, 
including Milan, Mantua, and other parts of Austrian 
Italy. In return for these concessions the French gave 
up Venice, Istria, and Dalmatia to Austria. 

Camp of Seventh Cavalry on Saline, a township 
of Ellis co., Kan. Pop. 80. 

Campoma'nes (Pedro Rodriguez), Count, an emi¬ 
nent Spanish author and minister of state, was born in the 
Asturias July 1, 1723. lie gained a high reputation by his 
writings on political economy, and was distinguished for 
his probity and enlightened policy. He became president 
of the royal council of Castile in 1788, and afterwards a 
minister of state. Among his works are a “ Discourse on 
the Promotion of Popular Industry” (1774) and a “Dis¬ 
course on the Popular Education of Mechanics ” (1775). 
Died Feb. 3, 1802. 

Cam'po Mayor', a fortified town of Portugal, in Alern- 
tejo, about 16 miles N. IV. of Badajos. Pop. 5277. 

Camp Point, a village and township of Adams co.. 
Ill. It has two mills, a manufactory of agricultural imple¬ 
ments, and one weekly newspaper. There is a fine public- 
school building. Pop. 2130. 

Geo. W. Cyrus, Ed. Camp Point “ Journal.” 

Camp Stur'gis, a township of Ellis co., Kan. P. 320. 

Camp'ton, a township of Kane co., Ill. Pop. 957. 

Campton, a post-village, capital of Wolfe co., Ivy., 
about 65 miles E. S. E. of Lexington. Pop. 67. 

Campton, a post-township of Grafton co., N. II. It 
has four churches and manufactures of woollens, lumber, 
etc. Pop. 1226. 

Camp'tonville, a post-village of Yuba co., Cal. 

Cam'pus, a Latin word signifying a “ plain,” “ an open 
field,” any level surface, as of the sea. It was sometimes 
used to denote a field of battle, and was applied figuratively 
to a subject of discourse, a field of debate or speculation. 
The grounds about college buildings in some places are 
called the campus. 

Cam'pus Mar'tius (7. e. the “ field of Mars”), a cele¬ 
brated plain and open field of ancient Rome, was on the 
left bank of the Tiber, outside of the walls of the city. It 
was the place in which the Roman youth performed military 
exercises and evolutions, and in which the comitia assem¬ 
bled for the purpose of enacting laws and electing magis¬ 
trates. It was subsequently used as a public park or pleas¬ 
ure-ground. 

















CAMP VEER—CANADA, DOMINION OF. 


Campveer', Karapveer, or Veer, a decayed mari¬ 
time town of the Netherlands, province of Zeeland, on the 
N. E. coast of the island of Walcheren, 4 miles N. N. E. of 
Middelburg. It has a beautiful cathedral, and a town- 
house with an elegant tower. The Scotch Staple was trans¬ 
ferred from Bruges to Campveer in 1444, after which this 
town had peculiar trading relations with Scotland for seve¬ 
ral centuries. 

Camus (Charles Etienne Louis), a French mathema¬ 
tician, born at Crecy-en-Brie Aug. 25, 1679. He was a 
member of the Academy of Sciences, which in 1727 sent 
him, with Maupertuis, to Lapland, to determine the figure 
of the earth. He wrote scientific works. Hied Feb. 2, 1768. 

Cam'wood, or Bar'wood, a dyewood which yields 
a brilliant but not permanent red color, and is used along 
with sulphate of iron as a dyestuff. It is the wood of the 
Baphia nitida , a tree of the order Leguminosm, a native of 
Angola. 

Ca'ua, a village of Galilee, was the scene of Christ’s 
first miracle. (Johnii.) Its site is supposed to bo indicated 
by some ruins 6 miles N. of Nazareth. The natives call 
this place Cana-el-Jelil. 

Ca'naan, an ancient patriarch, was a son of Ham and 
the ancestor of the Canaanites, who lived in Palestine before 
the Israelites conquered it. Palestine was called the land 
of Canaan by the Hebrew writers. It was bounded on the 
E. by the Jordan and on the W. by the Mediterranean Sea. 
(See Palestine, by Howard Crosby, D. D., LL.D.) 

Canaan, a post-township of Litchfield co., Conn., at the 
crossing of the Connecticut Western and Housatonic R. Rs. 
The scenery here is very fine. It has a national bank at 
Falls Village. Pop. 1257. 

Canaan, a township of Henry co., Ia. Pop. 784. 

Canaan, a post-village of Somerset co., Me., about 35 
miles N. by E. from Augusta. It has manufactures of 
lumber and cloth. Pop. of Canaan township, 1472. 

Canaan, a post-township of Gasconade co., Mo. Pop. 
1107. 

Canaan, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H. It has 
manufactures of straw-board and boots and shoes, and has 
one newspaper. Pop. 1877. 

Canaan, a post-township of Columbia co., N. Y., on the 
Boston and Albany R. R., 34 miles S. E. of Albany, con¬ 
tains several villages, has valuable water-power, several 
paper-mills and other manufactories, four churches, and a 
slate quarry. The township has two communities of Sha¬ 
kers, who have a farm of 1400 acres, where they raise gar- 
den-seeds and manufacture brooms, etc. Pop. 1877. 

Canaan, a township of Athens co., 0. Pop. 1543. 

Canaan, a township of Madison co., 0. Pop. 729. 

Canaan, a township of Morrow co., 0. Pop. 1109. 

Canaan, a post-township of Wayne co., 0. Pop. 1997. 

Canaan, a post-township of Wayne co., Pa. Pop. 680. 

Canaan, a post-township of Essex co., Vt. It has 
manufactures of starch and lumber. Pop. 419. 

Can'ada, Dominion of, a country of North America 
which is to embrace all of the American possessions of 
Great Britain lying N. of the U. S. Founded in 1867 by 
the union of the provinces of Canada West, Canada East, 
New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, it embraced in 1872, 
besides these four provinces named, also the provinces of 
Manitoba and British Columbia and the North-west Ter¬ 
ritory. The only portion of British North America which 
in 1873 had not yet joined the Dominion of Canada was 
the province of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island 
having joined the Dominion in June of that year. It is 
bounded on the S. by the U. S., on the E. by the Atlantic, 
on the N. by the Arctic Ocean, and on the W. by the Pa¬ 
cific. It comprises the whole country N. of the U. S., with 
the only exception of the Territory of Alaska and of Green¬ 
land. A part of the southern frontier is formed by the 
lakes Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario. The frontier- 
line which separates it from the State of Maine was fixed 
in 1843 by the Ashburton Treaty. The long-pending dis¬ 
pute between Great Britain and the U. S. as to the island 
of San Juan in the Pacific was in 1872 decided by the 
arbitration of the emperor of Germany. The principal 
rivers on the Atlantic side are the St. Lawrence, the Ot¬ 
tawa, the St. Maurice, and the Saguenay, which enter the 
St. Lawrence from the left. On the Pacific side the most 
important rivers are the Columbia and the Frazer. The 
Saskatchewan, rising in the Rocky Mountains, traverses 
fifteen degrees of longitude, or a distance of at least 900 
miles, and falls into the great Lake Winnipeg in 53° N. 
lat. This lake is connected with Hudson’s Bay, the most 
remarkable indentation of the American coast, by the Nel¬ 
son or Port Nelson, about 500 miles in length. Lake 


745 


Athabasca, situated about lat. 58° N. and Ion. 110° W. 
receives, among others, the Peace River and the Athabasca, 
a large stream rising in the Rocky Mountains near the 
source of the Columbia. The Mackenzie, entering the 
Arctic Ocean, is one of the largest rivers on the globe. 

Climate and Soil. —The climate of the Atlantic provinces 
is similar to that of Sweden and Norway. The heat of 
summer and the cold of winter are greater here than in the 
corresponding latitudes in Europe. At Montreal the mer¬ 
cury in winter often sinks to 24° or 30° below zero, and 
rises in summer to 96° or 100°. The climate of Ontario 
(Canada West) is milder than that of Quebec (Canada 
East), because it is farther S., and is modified by the vicin¬ 
ity of the great lakes. Peaches flourish and ripen on the 
N. shore of Lake Erie, and near Toronto on Lake Ontario. 
The transition from winter to summer is sudden, especially 
in the north-eastern parts of Canada. The most fertile 
portion of this part of the Dominion is Ontario, especially 
the peninsula formed by Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario. 
The climate of British Columbia, like that of the Pacific 
coast in general, is more uniform and moderate than that 
of the Atlantic provinces. The soil of the peninsula formed 
by Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario produces good crops 
of wheat and other grains. The greater part of Canada is 
covered with forests of good timber, from which large 
quantities of pine lumber are exported. The province of 
Quebec abounds in romantic and picturesque scenery. 
Seven miles below Quebec is the cataract of the Montmo- 
renci, with a perpendicular descent of 240 feet. Among 
other remarkable objects is the sublime scenery of the Sag¬ 
uenay, which flows between high and precipitous rocks. 
The northern portion of the Dominion will undoubtedly be 
doomed to everlasting sterility on account of the severity 
of the climate. The country on the lower Saskatchewan 
and on the Red River, it is believed, will belong among the 
most fertile regions of the Dominion. 

Area and Population .—The area of the Dominion in 1872 
was estimated at 3,389,442 square miles, being almost equal 
to the extent of the U. S. The population of the four old 
provinces of the Dominion (Ontario, Quebec, New Bruns¬ 
wick, and Nova Scotia), according to the census of 1871, 
was 3,484,924, against 3,089,659 in 1861—an increase in 
ten years of 12.79 per cent. The population of Manitoba, 
according to the census of 1S70, was 11,953. The popula¬ 
tion of British Columbia was in 1871 estimated at 50,000, 
and that of the North-west Territory at 28,700; total for 
the whole Dominion in 1871, 3,575,577. The number of 
immigrants entering the St. Lawrence in 1870 was 44,475; 
the number who entered from the U. S. was estimated at 
24,544; making a total immigration during the year of 
69,019—a figure considerably exceeding the immigration 
of any previous year. During the period from 1851 to 1870 
the aggregate number of arrivals by the St. Lawrence was 
560,996, and of arrivals from the U. S. 399,461. The num¬ 
ber of those who settled in Canada was calculated to be 
418,910, while the remainder went on to the U. S. The 
large majority of the population of Quebec (847,615 out of 
1,111,566) are of French origin; in all the other provinces 
the descendants of the British largely predominate. The 
city of Ottawa has been made the capital and seat of legis¬ 
lation. The largest cities are Montreal, Quebec, Toronto, 
St. John, Halifax, and Hamilton. The Indian population 
in Canada proper is estimated at 25,673; of the former 
Hudson’s Bay Territory, 42,870; of British Columbia, 
18,000; total, 86,543. 

Church and Education. —There is no state Church in the 
Dominion and in the whole of British North America. 
According to the census returns of 1861, there were in the 
four original provinces of the Dominion, 1,372,913 Roman 
Catholics, 471,946 Presbyterians, 465,572 Anglicans, 431,927 
Wesleyans and Methodists, 189,080 Baptists, 29,651 Lu¬ 
therans, 17,757 Congregationalists, 76,176 of miscellaneous 
creeds, 18,860 of “no religion,” and 16,682 “no creed 
stated.” Roman Catholics were most numerous in the 
province of Quebec, and they also constituted a plurality 
in New Brunswick; the leading religious denomination of 
Ontario is the Wesleyans, and the leading denomination 
of Nova Scotia the Presbyterians. The provinces of Que¬ 
bec and Ontario have separate school laws adapted to 
the religious elements prevailing in either. The common 
schools are supported partly by government and partly by 
local self-imposed taxation, and occasionally by the pay¬ 
ment of a small fee for each scholar. All common-school 
teachers must pass an examination before a county board 
of education or receive a license from the provincial normal 
school. Similar arrangements exist in the other provinces, 
nearly all the public schools of which possess endowments 
of land and personal property. 

Commerce, etc. —Canada enjoys great advantages foi com¬ 
merce by the navigation of the great lakes and the ri\er 
St. Lawrence, which give the Canadians ready access to the 












746 CANADA—CANADIAN RIVER. 


markets of the U. S. The greater portion of the Canadian 
exports go to the U. S., while the greater part of the im¬ 
ports are from Great Britain. The trade is also facilitated 
by several canals and railways. The Itideau Canal, 135 miles 
long, extends from Kingston, on Lake Ontario, to the Ot¬ 
tawa River, and the Welland Canal connects Lake Erie with 
Lake Ontario. The principal railways of Canada are the 
Grand Trunk Railway (1377 miles),which connects Montreal 
with Detroit (Mich.) on one hand, and with Portland (Me.) 
on the other; the Great Western (351 miles), which with 
several branches traverses the south-western part of Onta¬ 
rio ; the European and North American Railway (108 miles), 
which extends from Bangor (Me.), via St. John, to Point 
du Chene, in New Brunswick; the Nova Scotia Railway 
(145 miles), which extends from Halifax to Pictou, on the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence, with a branch line (32 miles) from 
Halifax to Windsor, on the Bay of Minas; the New Bruns¬ 
wick and Canada Ptailway (116 miles), which extends from 
St. Andrew’s on the sea-coast to Richmond, with branch 
lines to St. Stephen, Woodstock, and Houlton. At the be¬ 
ginning of the year 1872 over 3000 miles were in operation, 
besides which 1100 more were in the process of construc¬ 
tion, and charters had been obtained for more than 800 
miles in addition, apart from the Canadian Pacific Railway, 
which is to be 2500 miles long, will connect Lake Nipissing 
with some port in British Columbia, and is to be completed 
in ten years. The longest among the railways in the course 
of construction is the Intercolonial Railway, which will ex¬ 
tend from the Grand Trunk at Riviere du Loup to Truro, 
Nova Scotia, a distance of 499 miles. The receipts and 
expenditures for the financial year ending June 20, 1S70, 
amounted to $22,895,077.87, each. The monthly publications 
of the revenue and expenditure for the fiscal year ending 
June 30, 1871, showed a very large surplus of revenue over 
expenditure. The debt of the Dominion on July 1, 1870, 
amounted to $115,993,706 ; total assets, $37,783,964; net 
debt, $78,209,742. The fisheries of British North America 
are the finest in the world, and inexhaustible. The value 
of fish exported in 1871 exceeded $7,000,000, and the min¬ 
ister of marine and fisheries states the aggregate annual 
value of the fish-produet of the provincial fisheries at nearly 
$17,000,000. The total exports of Canada in 1870 were 
valued at $73,573,540, of which $28,772,312 were exported 
to the U. S. The imports for that year amounted to 
$71,239,187, of which $24,724,071 were imported from the 
U. S. The merchant-navy of the Dominion consisted in 
1868 of 5822 vessels', of a total burden of 776,343 tons. 

Government .—The constitution of the Dominion, which 
was adopted in 1867, is formed after the model of the 
mother-country. The Parliament consists of the queen of 
Great Britain, an upper house, styled the senate, and a 
house of commons. The queen is represented by a gov¬ 
ernor-general, who is appointed by the Crown, and exer¬ 
cises his authority with the aid and advice of a council 
appointed by himself. The senate consists of not more than 
seventy-two members, who are chosen by the governor- 
general, and hold the appointment for life. The house of 
commons consists of about 180 members, elected by the 
people. Each of the provinces has also its local or pro¬ 
vincial legislature and administration, with a lieutenant- 
governor at the head of the executive. The troops main¬ 
tained by the imperial government have been reduced to 
5000 men. The militia, which was organized in 1868 by a 
statute of the first federal Parliament, consists of all male 
British subjects between eighteen and sixty, divided into 
an active and a reserve force. In 1870 the number of men 
on the rolls was 675,000. The naval forces of Canada in 
1871 consisted of eight armed screw steamers, maintained 
on the great lakes and the river St. Lawrence, and two 
coast-steamers, which are available as gunboats. 

History .—The first settlement made by Europeans in 
Canada was made in 1541 at St. Croix’s Harbor by Jacques 
Cartier, a French navigator, who sailed up the St. Lawrence. 
The French founded Quebec in 1608, after which numerous 
French colonists settled in Lower Canada, near the St. Law¬ 
rence River. The English general Wolfe captured Quebec 
in 1759, and the conquest of Canada was completed in 1760. 
Upper Canada was settled mostly by English emigrants. In 
1791 Canada was divided into two provinces, called Upper 
and Lower Canada (afterwards called Canada West and Can¬ 
ada East). Both of these provinces were disturbed by an in¬ 
surrection in 1837, and were reunited in 1840. By an act 
of the British Parliament, which was passed Mar. 29, 1867, 
and came into force June 1 of that year, the Canadian prov¬ 
inces, Ontario and Quebec, and New Brunswick and Nova 
Scotia, were federally united into one Dominion of Canada. 
The legislature of Newfoundland declared in favor of 
joining the Dominion, .but the people, in Nov., 1869, by a 
large majority, declared against it. From the Hudson’s 
Bay Company the government of the Dominion purchased 
in the same year its vast territory. An insurrection of col¬ 


onists and natives, who protested against having their land 
treated as a dependent territory, induced the government 
to organize in 1870 that part of the newly-purchased terri¬ 
tory which is situated between Ion. 96° and 99' W., and tho 
U. S. boundary-line and lat. 50° 38' N., as an independent 
province of the Dominion, under the name of Manitoba. 
The immense unorganized territory beyond the limits of 
Manitoba is called the North-western Territory. On Mar. 
31, 1871, British Columbia was received into the Dominion. 
Invasions of Canada by armed Fenians from the U. S. were 
attempted in 1866 and 1870, but wero repelled without dif¬ 
ficulty. The long-pending controversies with the U. S. 
were mostly settled by the Washington treaty of 1871. In 
1873 Prince Edward Island joined the Dominion. 

A. J. Schem. 

Canada, a township of Labette co., Kan. Pop. 480. 

Canada Balsam [Lat. Balsamum Canadense ] is a 
turpentine or oleoresin obtained from the Abies lalsarnea , a 
species of fir which grows in Canada and the U. S., and is 
sometimes called balsam fir. It is a pale yellow, trans¬ 
parent liquid, having a peculiar and agreeable odor. 
When it exudes from the bark it has the consistence of 
honey, but by age and exposure to air it becomes solid. It 
is used in medicine, in photography, in mounting objects 
for the microscope, and is an ingredient in varnishes. It 
is also valuable to opticians, who use it as a cement. 

Canada Goose, or Wild Goose (Anser Canaden- 



Canada Goose, or Wild Goose. 


sis), an inhabitant of the entire continent of North Amer¬ 
ica, belonging to the order Natatores, family Anatidm, is 
thirty-five inches long, brownish above, lighter beneath, 
with the head, neck, bill, and feet black. “It spends the 
winter in the warmer regions, chiefly in the South-western 
States and in the everglades of Florida, but in spi'ing 
moves northward in large flocks.” While on the wing the 
birds generally arrange themselves in a <-shaped figure 
(though sometimes they fly in a straight line), led by an 
experienced gander, who frequently gives utterance to his 
familiar honk. “ Their spring migrations usually take 
place from the 20th of March to the last of April, but are 
wholly dependent upon the state of the season. They breed 
at the north, and linger there till the hard frosts warn 
them that the lakes and streams will soon be frozen over.” 
While performing their long journeys they usually fly at a 
great height, probably a quarter of a mile or more. • 

Canadian, a township of Mississippi co., Ark. Pop. 

330. 

Canadian River rises in the N. E. part of New Mex¬ 
ico, and flows through the N. part of Texas into the Indian 
Territory. Its general direction is nearly eastward. After 
a course of about 900 miles it enters the Arkansas River 
about 50 miles W. of Fort Smith. The North Fork of the 
Canadian is sometimes called Rio Nutria. It rises in the 
N. E. part of New Mexico, flows in an E. S. E. direction, 
and enters the Canadian about 50 miles from its mouth. 
Length, estimated at 600 miles. 


































CANADICE—CANALS OF CANADA, THE. 747 


Can'adice, a post-township of Ontario co., N. Y. Pop. 
905. 

Canajohar'ie, a post-village and township of Mont¬ 
gomery co., N. Y., on the S. bank of the Mohawk River 
and on the Erie Canal, and opposite Palatine Bridge on 
the New York Central R. R., 55 miles W. N. W. of Albany. 
The village has five churches, an academy, a school district 
library of 800 volumes, a weekly paper, two national banks, 
a planing mill, two malt-houses and an extensive paper- 
bag factory. The township has another academy, six other 
churches, six cheese-factories, and a woollen mill. Pop. of 
village, 1822; of township, 4256. 

Ed. “ Radii and Tax-Payers’ Journal.” 

Canal', a post-township of Venango co., Pa. P. 1205. 

Canal. See Inland Navigation, by Wm. J. McAlpine. 

Canal', or Canalet'to (Antonio), an Italian painter, 
was born at Venice Oct. 18, 1697. He worked in his native 
city, and acquired a high reputation. He painted many 
views of Venetian palaces, canals, etc., which are highly 
commended by some critics, but others charge him with 
mannerism. He. is said to have been the first who used 
the camera obscura for artistic purposes. Died Aug. 20, 
1768. 

Canalet'to, a surname of Bernardo Belotto, a Vene¬ 
tian painter, born in 1724. He was a nephew and pupil of 
the preceding. He worked in Rome, London, Dresden, and 
other places, and excelled in perspective. He painted 
many buildings and the environs of cities. Died at War¬ 
saw in 1780. 

Canal' Do 'ver, a post-village of Dover township, Tus¬ 
carawas co., O., on the Tuscarawas River, the Ohio Canal, 
the Lake Shore and Tuscarawas Valley R. R., and the 
Tuscarawas branch of the Cleveland and Pittsburg R. R. 
It has several mills and iron-furnaces, and one weekly 
paper. Pop. 1593. 

Canal' Ful'ton, a post-village of Stark co., 0., on the 
Ohio Canal and on the Lake Shore and Tuscarawas Val¬ 
ley R. R., and on the Tuscarawas branch of the Cleveland 
and Pittsburg R. R., 56 miles S. of Cleveland. Pop. 1048. 

Canals' of Can'ada, The, may be classed under the 
following heads : 

1st, The St. Lawrence and lake navigation, including 
the Lachine Canal, the Beauharnois, Cornwall, Earran’s 
Point, Rapide Plat, and Galops canals, commonly desig¬ 
nated the St. Lawrence canals, in the river St. Lawrence, 
surmounting its rapids between Montreal and Kingston; 
and the Welland Canal, between Lake Ontario and Lake 
Erie, sunnounting the falls and rapids of Niagara; to 
which may be added the Burlington Bay Canal, through a 
sandbar at the mouth of that bay, at the head of Lake 
Ontario. 

2d, The Ottawa and Rideau navigation, including St. 
Anne’s Lock, the Carillon, Chute a Blondeau, and Gren¬ 
ville canals, surmounting the rapids of the Ottawa be¬ 
tween Montreal and the city of Ottawa; and the Rideau 
Canal, connecting the river Ottawa with the St. Lawrence 
at Kingston, through the rivers Rideau and Cataraqui. 

3d, The Richelieu and Champlain navigation, being the 
St. Ours Lock and Chambly Canal, surmounting obstacles 
on the river Richelieu from the St. Lawrence to Lake 
Champlain. 

4th, The river Trent navigation, consisting of locks and 
dams on the river Trent, a large tributary of Lake Ontario, 
extending into the interior of the Newcastle district, orig¬ 
inally proposed as a line of communication with Lake 
Huron. 

5th, The St. Peter’s Canal, connecting the Bras d’Or, a 
bay of the sea in the interior of the island of Cape Breton, 
with St. Peter’s Bay, on the S. coast of the island. 

Along with the foregoing may be noticed the following 
projected canals: the Caughnawaga Canal, to connect 
Lake Champlain with the river St. Lawrence above the 
Lachine Rapids; the Ottawa and Huron Canal, to form a 
direct and short route between Montreal and Lake Huron 
by the Ottawa and French River; a canal at Sault Ste. 
Marie; the Huron and Ontario, or Georgian Bay Canal; 
the Bay Vert Canal, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the 
Bay of Fundy; and the Shebandowan and Lake of the 
Woods navigation, forming 311 miles of the route from 
Lake Superior to Red River. 

The canals of Canada derive an extraordinary import¬ 
ance from the vast extent and importance of that great 
system of inland navigation, the river St. Lawrence and 
its lakes, the obstructions in which they are almost exclu¬ 
sively designed to overcome. 

When we consider the great extent of fertile lands of 
the States and provinces adjoining it, and the still vaster 
territories behind them of fertile prairies and wooded lands 
in the U. S. and Canada, for the traffic of which this great 


water-system must be the highway; and also that as the 
western extremity of Lake Superior reaches the middle of 
the continent, a considerable trade with the Pacific will 
naturally be directed to it to gain the advantage of cheaper 
transport by water,—it will be seen how enormous must be 
the amount of future traffic passing through the canals 
constructed to avoid or surmount the obstacles in its 
course. 

With the extent and character of the great North-west¬ 
ern States and Territories of the Union the public are 
already familiar. The States of Wisconsin, Iowa, Minne¬ 
sota, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, for whose 
surplus produce the St. Lawrence and its great lakes are 
more or less the natural highway to the ocean and Euro¬ 
pean markets, embrace a grain-growing region unequalled 
on this continent, or perhaps in the world. It may be 
sufficient to remind the reader that it is but little more than 
thirty years since settlement and cultivation had advanced 
sufficiently in the territories on the Western lakes to have 
any considerable amount of surplus produce to export, 
but that their progress since has been so great that in 
1871 the grain or its equivalent in flour brought to the five 
principal ports on these lakes for shipment amounted to 
upwards of 140,000,000 bushels, though the productive 
capacity of the region that yielded it is still far from being 
fully developed, and the territories in rear of it as yet 
comparatively unoccupied. 

The country on the Canadian side of the boundary, being 
hitherto much less known, may require a little more notice. 
The valley of the Saskatchewan or Nelson River and its 
tributaries resembles very much in formation, soil, and 
climate, as well as extent, that of the Volga of Russia, the 
greatest river in Europe. The region N. W. of it, drained 
by the Athabasca and the Peace River, the main arms of 
the river Mackenzie, each about a thousand miles in length, 
is fully as suitable for settlement; the Peace River country 
especially being superior in soil, both richly wooded and 
interspersed with rich, well-watered prairies, with a cli¬ 
mate better than that of Red River Settlement or Northern 
Minnesota. 

The extent of country within the valleys of these three 
rivers, and within the limits of successful cultivation of 
wheat, estimated on carefully selected evidence confirmed 
by recent explorations, is equal to ten times the area of 
the State of New York. It is remarkable for the great 
extent of very fertile and arable prairie and wooded land 
it contains, its vast coal-fields, and its abundance of petro¬ 
leum. Iron ore is found in it, and gold that promises to 
afford profitable diggings has recently been definitely as¬ 
certained to exist on Peace River, besides what was already 
found on the Saskatchewan. 

The cost of transport will no doubt check the exporta¬ 
tion of heavy produce from the remote parts of these ter¬ 
ritories especially; but there are farm products, such as 
flax, wool, cured meats, etc., that can be carried with profit 
much farther than grain, which has hitherto been the chief 
export of the West; and every improvement in our means 
of transport, by canals or otherwise, that reduces the cost 
of it, will extend the distance from which grain can be ex¬ 
ported. The gold of the mountain countries westward, 
alike in the U. S. and Canada, will encourage settlement 
and stimulate commerce, compensating as a remittance, in 
payment for imports, for the reduced value, as such, of 
heavier products. The outward and inward traffic, from 
all sources, by the Northern Pacific and Canadian Pacific 
R. Rs. will, from the greater economy of transport by water, 
to the utmost possible extent, consistent with the destina¬ 
tion of the freight, use the route by the great lakes, the St. 
Lawrence, and its canals. 

Reverting to the North-west territories of Canada, it may 
be worth noticing here, as connected though remotely with 
the route by the great lakes and the St. Lawrence as a 
commercial highway, that it has been ascertained, by a 
recent exploration for the Canadian government by Mr. 
Horetzki, C. E., of Ottawa, that the valley of the Peace 
River offers a site for the Canadian Pacific Railway pre¬ 
senting several important advantages over any other route 
known or surveyed. Its summit-level in passing through 
the Rocky Mountains is less than 1700 feet in elevation 
over the sea (the Peace River being there large and nav¬ 
igable) ; that is, less than half the summit-elevation of the 
Yellow Head Pass, which previously was justly considered 
the most favorable known. The Peace River route, by 
passing farther N., avoids the exceedingly rugged, almost 
insurmountable, region between the Yellow Head Pass and 
the Frazer River, the caput mortuum on that route, and 
which would entail great crookedness and extraordinary 
cost. It also avoids the necessity for bridging that river 
and the chasm in which it flows. It has the advantage 
also of being free from the heavy falls of snow which the 
other passes at higher levels aro subject to; and, as was 












748 CANALS OF CANADA, THE. 


previously known as to the general character of the coun¬ 
try, traverses to a greater extent the best lands for settle¬ 
ment. 

From Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie, about 400 miles 
N. of this route, that great river is navigable uninter¬ 
ruptedly downward for about 800 miles,® with a depth suffi¬ 
cient for the largost sea-going ships, to the Arctic Sea at 
its mouth, where there are whales in great abundance. 
The country between the Peace River and Fort Simpson is 
generally very fertile, arable land, and two-thirds of it is 
within the limits of successful wheat cultivation. Whale¬ 
fishing, as now carried on, has ceased to be profitable, 
owing to the competition of mineral and other oils, the in¬ 
creasing scarcity of whales, and their having to be sought 
farther into the Arctic, the dangers of the voyage, and the 
great distance the oil has to be carried—from the Arctic 
within Behring Strait to the Sandwich Islands, and thence 
home, in all about 24,000 miles. Were the Mackenzie 
connected by rail with the Canada Pacific Railway, the 
richest whale-fishing in the world could be rendered avail¬ 
able, and 800 miles of transport on the Mackenzie, where 
coal and wood abound for steamers that might be used 
with great advantage in the fishing, and 1800 miles by 
rail, would bring the products of the fishing to Duluth on 
Lake Superior. Though the prospect of such communica¬ 
tion be remote, it may be noticed in considering the area 
for which the St. Lawrence may be the commercial outlet. 

The acquisition by Canada of the great territories former¬ 
ly held by the Hudson’s Bay Co., including so much val¬ 
uable country, has greatly changed the position of Canada 
in relation to the improvement of the navigation of the St. 
Lawrence. Previously, it might be argued that it was ab¬ 
surd for the Canadian people to task their resources for 
the construction of a gigantic system of canals on the St. 
Lawrence to render it the great highway of the West, as 
the benefit of it would chiefly be to reduce the cost of 
transport and increase the value of the produce of the great 
Western grain-growing regions of the U. S.; but now that 
Canada has acquired an equal share of the vast fertile re¬ 
gions of the West, she has a common interest with the 
U. S. in the improvement of that great inland route of nav¬ 
igation, which must more or less be their common outlet. 
Though there may be antagonism between rival shipping- 
ports and routes of transport on the one side of the inter¬ 
national boundary and the other, and large though such 
interests may be, they cannot be considered otherwise than 
secondary to that of the millions of producers, present and 
future, having a common interest in every work of im¬ 
provement that tends to reduce the cost of transport, and 
thereby enhance the value of the products of the great re¬ 
gions of the West. With this view, the canals of Canada 
may be considered of important interest to the American 
people, especially now, since the right of using them for 
commercial purposes has been secured by the treaty of 
Washington. 

Before describing the canals of Canada it may be suit¬ 
able to take a brief view of the general character of the 
river St. Lawrence, and of the obstruct ions in its course 
which they are chiefly intended to overcome. 

Notwithstanding these obstructions, it has certain speci¬ 
alities as a water-system which otherwise render it pecu¬ 
liarly suitable as a commercial highway for trade of the 
greatest magnitude. Its course is so free from minor sinu¬ 
osities that though scarcely 2000 miles in length from its 
mouth at Anticosti to the W. end of Lake Superior, it ex¬ 
tends as far into the continent as the Mississippi does with 
its course of 3160 miles; the upper part of which, even 
where navigable, is of insignificant capacity for transport 
compared with the great lakes of the St. Lawrence. Direct¬ 
ness (which means shortness of route) and great capacity 
are most important advantages. The great proportion of 
it that consists of lakes and wide water—that is, three- 
quarters of its whole length—affording sea-room admitting 
of free navigation by sailing-vessels, is another important 
advantage. So also is the uniform height of its waters; 
from their being held in reserve in the great lakes, it 
never falls one-twentieth below its mean volume; and its 
navigation is free from all the disadvantages arising from 
low water that other rivers are liable to. 

Its enormous volume also is attended with an important 
commercial advantage in the depth of water it affords on 
its rapids, which is such as to admit of large passenger 
steamers and lake vessels of 500 or COO tons, if lightly 
loaded, passing as freely down through its vast swaying 
surges as the lightest bark canoe of the Indian descends 
the rapids of an ordinary river, and with an increased 
speed, instead of the delay necessarily attending the pas- 


* With the exception of the Stony Rapid above Fort Simpson, 
the Mackenzie is navigable throughout its course of 1000 miles 
into Slave Lake. 


sage through the canals and locks which are so essential for 
vessels going upward. 

The St. Lawrence drains an area of 565,000 superficial 
statute miles. The mean volumo passing Niagara is given 
in the New York State reports as 389,000 cubic feet per 
second. But this is the drainage of only 237,300 square 
miles of the basin of the St. Lawrence. Before reaching 
the Galops Rapid it is augmented by that of the basin of 
Lake Ontario and all its tributaries, and has an average 
width of about a mile. Before reaching the Lachine Ra¬ 
pids it receives nearly half of the waters of the Ottawa; 
the remainder passes N. of the island of Montreal. The 
Ottawa, according to the careful measurements taken in 
the canal survey of it, has a mean discharge of 83,000 
cubic feet per second.f 

Between the seaports of Montreal and Quebec the St. 
Lawrence has an average width of a mile and three-quar¬ 
ters. Midway it receives the St. Maurice (which discharges 
as much water as the Ottawa) and other large tributaries. 
From Quebec it increases rapidly in width ; below the 
island of Orleans, where still fresh water, it is eleven miles 
wide. At 100 miles lower it receives the Saguenay, nearly 
equal to the Ottawa in volume of discharge, besides other 
large rivers below it. Taking the 327,700 square miles of 
the basin of the St. Lawrence as yielding as much water 
in proportion to its area as the 273,000 above it, the total 
discharge of the St. Lawrence past Anticosti must at least 
be 926,035 cubic feet per second. But it is known by all 
observers that the tributaries of the lower St. Lawrence, 
coming from mountainous wooded regions, where the snow 
falls from four to eight feet in depth, deliver more water 
comparatively than its upper tributaries. With the smallest 
addition admissible for that difference, the total discharge 
of the St. Lawrence must be upwards of 1,000,000 cubic 
feet per second. Darby, the great American hydrographer, 
who surveyed the Mississippi, computed the mean dis¬ 
charge of the St. Lawrence as fully one-half greater than 
the Mississippi, but afterwards thought he had under-esti¬ 
mated the former. 

Other rivers after their floods shrink to comparative 
littleness, but the St. Lawrence flows on at all seasons with 
unabated grandeur; and it remains to be determined by 
scientific observation how far any other river in the world 
exceeds the mass it pours to the Gulf, where the stern 
Laurentides and the lofty mountains of Notre Dame faintly 
skirt its remote horizon on the one side and the other. 

As the treaty of Washington, besides securing the right 
of using the canals of Canada, provides that the river St. 
Lawrence, to and from the sea, “ shall for ever remain free 
and open for the purposes of commerce to the citizens of 
the U. S.,” the lower course of that river, with which the 
treaty secures unbroken communication, may now be con¬ 
sidered as a subject of greater interest to Americans than 
heretofore. The right of in-shore fishing in the St. Law¬ 
rence and the Gulf, and of having fishing establishments 
along their coasts, will doubtless lead to great extension of 
the fisheries there and business connected with them. As 
the provisions necessary for their use can be supplied with 
much greater advantage from lake ports by the way of the 
St. Lawrence than otherwise, a considerable trade in that 
way will no doubt arise. This new interest in the lower 
St. Lawrence may justify its being noticed here in connec¬ 
tion with its canals. 

To ascend the St. Lawrence from the Atlantic we traverse 
the Gulf for 426 miles from the entrance of the Straits of 
Belle-Isle to the mouth of the river St. Lawrence, which 
is at an imaginary line from Cape Gaspe to the head of 
the island of Anticosti, and thence to the N. shore. 

To Quebec, 400 miles, the river is navigable for the largest 
ships that float, including the Great Eastern. Thence to 
Montreal the distance is 160 miles; midway is Lake St. 
Peter. Extensive shoals in the upper part of it had orig¬ 
inally a depth of only 11£ feet at low water. A channel has 
been dredged through them to the depth of nearly if not 
quite 20 feet at low water. It is 11£ miles in length and 
300 feet wide at bottom. It was begun in 1844, and com¬ 
pleted in 1865, and cost $1,347,018. Many large vessels, 
drawing from 18 to 23 feet laden, now ascend to Montreal 
harbor. The parliamentary commission recommend deep¬ 
ening this channel to 22, and ultimately to 24 feet. 

The seaport of Montreal, 586 miles from the mouth of 
the St. Lawrence, is situated at the foot of the Lachine 
Rapids, which are surmounted by the Lachine Canal, 8J 
miles in length, the first of the series of St. Lawrence 
canals. From the head of it, at Lachine, it is 15J miles 
through Lake St. Louis to the “Casoades,” which, together 


f This seems an under-calculation, being only two-tliirds of 
the rate of discharge to its area in proportion to the St. Law¬ 
rence, which, being exposed to much evaporation, should be less 
for its area than the Ottawa. 





















CANALS OF CANADA, THE. 


749 


with the “ Cedars ” and “Coteau” Rapids, are overcome 
by the Beauharuois Canal, lli miles in length. Thence 
through Lake St. Francis it is 32j miles to the foot of the 
“Longue Sault” Rapids, which are surmounted by the 
Cornwall Canal, lli miles in length. At 5 miles farther, 
ascending the river, is “ Farran’s Point Rapid ” and canal, 
$ of a mile in length. At ltH miles farther by the river is 
the “ Rapide Plat” and its canal, 4 miles in length. At 4£ 
miles is Galops Canal, 7f miles in length, surmounting the 
“ Pointe aux Iroquois,” “ Pointe Cardinal,” and “ Galops” 
Rapids. These, from Farran’s to the “ Galops ” inclusively, 
are called the Williamsburg canals, terminating 7f miles 
below Prescott. The descent from the head of the “ Galops ” 
to Montreal harbor, 1 Hi miles, is 234 feet; Kingston, 178 
miles from Montreal, is 59 miles above Prescott. From 
Kingston, where we enter Lake Ontario, to Port Dalhousie, 
at the foot of the Welland Canal, 27 miles from the head 
of that lake, the distance is 170 miles. 

By the Welland Canal it is 27 miles to Lake Erie at Port 
Colborne, from which to the head of the lake, at the mouth 
of the Detroit River, as the entrance of the St. Lawrence 
is there called, is 232 miles. The Detroit River, 18 miles, 
Lake St. Claire, 25, and St. Claire River, 33 miles, reach to 
Lake Huron. 

Lake Huron to its head at river St. Mary is 270 miles in 
length, river St. Mary up to the Sault, 47 miles; in all 625 
miles of unbroken navigation from the head of the Wel¬ 
land Canal to the Sault Ste. Marie Canal, which is 1 mile 
in length; thence it is 7 miles to Lake Superior, which is 
390 miles long to Fond du Lac, at the head of it; making 
in all the total distance of 2384 miles from the Atlantic at 
the entrance of the Straits of Belle-Isle, of which 71J miles 
are artificial navigation, and 2312| open navigation. 

Reverting to the rapids between Montreal and Kingston, 
the navigation of them by steamboats was not attempted 
till 1842. Daily passenger steamers have run these rapids 
from Kingston to Montreal during open navigation for 
many years past. These steamers in returning ascend the 
Lachine, Beauharnois, and Cornwall canals, but ascend the 
Iroquois Rapid, Rapide Plat, and the Galops without en¬ 
tering the canals. It is not usual for freight vessels to run 
the lower rapids; but as the saving of time is very great 
in descending the rapids, compared with passing through 
the canals at much lower speed, besides detention in lock¬ 
age, the improvement of the channel there necessary, so as 
to admit of the largest freight vessels fully laden descend¬ 
ing the rapids at lowest w T ater with perfect safety, has long 
been advocated, and is one of the works recommended to 
be prosecuted by the canal commission of the Canadian 
Parliament in 1871. In the “Galops Rapid” there is a 
short shoal, having not more than 9 or 10 feet water over 
it when lowest. In the “Longue Sault” the water is often 
over 50 feet in depth, but there is one shoal in it with only 
12 feet of water over it. On the “ Coteau Rapid” the depth 
is often over 20 feet, but there are two shoals with only 
from 7£ to 10 feet depth at lowest water. The “Cedars” 
are generally 12 to 25 feet in depth, but one or two shoals 
have been found with only 9J to 10 feet depth at lowest 
water. In the “ Cascades ” there is a shoal having 6 or 7 
feet in depth in dry weather; this is the shallowest spot in 
all the rapids of the St. Lawrence. In the lower part of the 
Lachine Rapids there are two shoals having not more than 
8 feet over them at lowest water. The cost of completing a 
12 to 13 feet channel from Lake Ontario level to Lachine 
by blasting has been estimated at $720,000, which probably 
might be much reduced by adopting a system of side-dams 
to gorge the channel as far as practicable. 

Taking the works constructed to surmount the obstacles 
in the navigation of the St. Lawrence in the order in which 
they have been mentioned, the first is the Lachine Canal. 

The Lachine Canal is 8£ miles in length, extending 
from the harbor of Montreal to the village of Lachine on 
Lake St. Louis. It surmounts the St. Louis or Lachine 
Rapids. Its construction was urged as a necessity as early 
as 1791; a grant by the legislature of £25,000 was obtained 
in aid of the project in 1815, on the recommendation of the 
governor-general, Sir George Prevost, who considered it 
important in a military point of view. In 1819 the grant 
of 1815 was repealed, and an act passed incorporating a 
joint-stock company for carrying out the design; but it 
proved abortive. In May, 1821, a bill was passed repeal¬ 
ing its incorporation, and authorizing the construction of 
it °by government in the month of July following. In 
1825 the canal was opened for the passage of vessels. Its 
dimensions as then constructed were 28 feet in width at 
bottom and 48 feet at the water-line, with 4£ feet depth of 
water. It had seven locks, 100 feet long and 20 wide, built 
substantially of stone. The cost of that canal up to Mar., 
1826, was $438,404.15, of which the British government 
contributed $50,000 and the province the remainder. This 
canal being found insufficient, a little before the union of 


the provinces of Lower and Upper Canada, Lieut.-Col. 
Phillpotts, R. E., at the instance of Earl Durham, made a 
report and estimate for the construction of a new line of 
canal, with locks 200 feet by 45, and 9 feet depth of water. 
After careful consideration of what were then considered to 
be the requirements -of the trade of the great lakes, and 
with a view of satisfying the wants of Upper Canada, it 
was decide^ that the canal should be continued in the same 
site, and that it should be enlarged to its present dimen¬ 
sions (with the exception of the lowest two locks), which 
are as follows : 

Breadth of the canal at bottom. 80 feet. 

“ “ “ at water-surface. 120 “ 

Dimensions of locks.200 by 45 “ 

Depth of water on sills, 2 locks. 16 “ 

u a u g u . g u 

No. of locks.5 

Total rise of lockage. 44J feet. 

Length of canal. 8i miles. 

The two locks of 16 feet depth of water on sills were so 
made to allow the largest vessels then trading to Montreal 
to enter the first basin of the canal. During the enlarge¬ 
ment navigation was not discontinued, the new locks being 
built by the side of the old ones. The total cost of this 
work, up to 1st July, 1867, is given, in the report of the 
department of works of Canada, for that year, as being 
$2,587,532.85 ; cost since for works and repairs to 1st 
July, 1870, $42,640.30. It was not till early in 1862 that 
the excavation of the enlargement was completed to its 
full width. 

But, though this enlargement has been but so recently 
completed, the increase of trade by the St. Lawrence in 
the products of the West has been such as again to call for 
further enlargement and increased accommodation. It 
having been shown in evidence before the Canadian canal 
commission of 1871 that the Montreal entrance to this canal 
was quite insufficient, especially in view of the enlarge¬ 
ment of the Welland Canal, and even now causing much 
delay, and that an additional entrance was necessary, so 
as to admit of one being used for vessels ascending and 
the other for those descending the canal, contracts have 
been entered into for the construction of a new entrance 
to the canal, with two locks, and of two new basins, and 
for the enlargement of present basin No. 2. One of the 
new basins is to be 1250 feet in length and- 225 feet in 
breadth; the other is to be 540 feet in length by 260 in 
breadth. Both are to be 19 feet in depth. The locks are 
to be 270 feet long and 45 feet wide, with a depth of 18 
feet of water on the mitre sills; the locks, and also the 
walls of the basins, to be of the most substantial structure 
and best quality of masonry, laid in hydraulic cement 
mortar, as usual. This is mentioned as indicating the 
common character of work of the Canadian canals. But 
though the length of 270 and breadth of 45 feet has been 
adopted for these locks, in accordance with the scale rec¬ 
ommended by the Canadian canal commission for the St. 
Lawrence canals throughout, as well as the Welland Canal, 
the depth of 18 feet is exceptional, 12 feet being the stand¬ 
ard depth recommended by the commissioners, together 
with the improvement of the channel of the St. Lawrence 
above Montreal, so as to give 14 feet of water throughout. 
The Canadian government will no doubt be governed by 
the practicability of obtaining that depth throughout with¬ 
out unreasonable outlay. But the depth of water in the. 
locks should not be limited to the capacity of lowest water, 
but be made to correspond with the greater depth of chan¬ 
nel that may be obtained in future. 

It is to be observed that the scale of 200 feet by 45, 
with 12 feet of water on the sills, recommended by the com¬ 
missioners, will admit vessels of about 1300 tons, instead 
of 700, which is the limit of the capacity of the lesser locks 
on this canal and others on the St. Lawrence, excepting 
the Cornwall Canal. 

The navigation of the Lachine Canal is open in general 
for 210 to 220 days during the year, and may be safely 
counted upon from the last week in April to the last week 
in November. In some years its period of navigation is 
considerably longer. In 1839 it opened on the 11th of 
April; in 1852 it was open till December 16th; in 1849 
it was open 234 days. The freight that passes through the 
Lachine Canal is much greater than that passing by the 
canals between Lake St. Louis and Lake Ontario, as the 
trade of the Ottawa and the Rideau Canal joins that ot 
the St. Lawrence in Lake St. Louis, and the export ot sawn 
lumber from the Ottawa is very great. 

The next in succession of the St. Lawrence canals is the 
Beauharnois Canal, Hi miles in length, connecting jh e 
St. Louis with Lake St. Francis, and surmounting the 
« Cascades,” « Cedars,” and “ Coteau ” rapids. 1 revious to 
the construction of the Beauharnois Canal tour short canals 
had been made which admitted of boats carrying thu v 






































750 


CANALS OF CANADA, THE. 


ban-els of flour, descending from Lake St. Francis to Lake 
St. Louis. Several small improvements were subsequently 
made on this part of the navigation of the St. Lawrence. 
In 1833 the increasing importance of the subject led the 
government of Lower Canada to appoint commissioners 
for the improvement of the navigation from Lake St. Louis 
to Lake St. Francis. Their engineer, Mr. Mills, made a 
survey with that view, and his reports and plans, which 
were for the construction of three short canals at the rapids, 
were approved of by a committee of the house of assembly, 
who recommended a grant of $960,000 for that purpose. 
The report, however, fell to the ground, and in 1839 Col. 
Phillpotts, before mentioned, recommended a canal on the 
N. side of the river for military reasons. After other proj¬ 
ects had been entertained and abandoned, the present site, 
on the S. side, after much discussion, was adopted as the 
most favorable, on the recommendation of the chief en¬ 
gineer of the department of public works of Canada, and 
in 1842 contracts were entered into for the construction of 
it. The canal was opened at the close of the season of 
1845, but it was found that its upper entrance was imper¬ 
fect, its channel crooked, too shallow in dry seasons, and 
impeded by cross currents. On account of these and other 
difficulties, in the course of years up to a recent date con¬ 
siderable sums have been expended in constructing dams, 
regulating weirs, and dykes to give the required facilities 
for the trade passing through it, and the original difference 
of opinion as to which side is the best canal route exists up 
to this day. The work, however, was constructed in the 
same substantial manner and superior quality of masonry 
and workmanship as the Lachine Canal. 

/ The present dimensions of the Beauharnois Canal are as 
follows: 

Breadth at bottom. 80 feet. 

“ “ surface. 120 “ 

Length of canal. 11^ miles. 

Total rise of lockage. 824 feet. 

Dimensions of locks.200 by 45 “ 

No. of locks 9; depth of water on sills 9 feet. 

Total cost to 1st July, 1867, $1,611,424.11,- works and re¬ 
pairs since to 1st July, 1870, $26,120.03. 

The navigation of this canal is open on an average for 
221 days of the year, opening about the 20tli of April and 
closing about the 28th of November. Earliest opening on 
record, 12th of April; latest, 5th of May. Earliest closing, 
24th of November; latest, 13th of December. 

The Cornwall Canal is the next in ascending the St. 
Lawrence. It is on the N. side of the river, and extends 
from the town of Cornwall. It is 114 miles in length, and 
surmounts the Longue Sault Rapids. This is the first of 
the St. Lawrence canals that was constructed on the present 
scale. In 1817 the governor of Upper Canada called the 
attention of the legislature of that province to the import¬ 
ance of improving the navigation of the river below Pres¬ 
cott, which is situated a few miles above the head of the 
rapids of the St. Lawrence. In 1818 a joint commission 
was appointed by the governments of Upper and Lower 
Canada, and reported favorably on the subject, recommend¬ 
ing the construction of small canals of 4 feet depth of 
water. In this report the cost of transport from Montreal to 
Prescott, a distance of 119 miles, is stated as being then $16 
a ton, and thence to Niagara $8. Nothing further was done 
till 1826, when, at the instance of the legislature of Upper 
Canada, a report was laid before it with estimates for such 
canals, and also others of larger dimensions, 8 feet in depth. 
In 1832 an appropriation was made for a scale of canals 9 
feet in depth. In 1834 the work was put under contract, 
but its progress was retarded by the insurrection and finan¬ 
cial difficulties, and it was not completed till 1843. This 
canal is similar in construction to the others already de¬ 
scribed, excepting that instead of striking back for a direct 
route, it winds along the shore of the river, having neces¬ 
sarily heavy embankments towards it, in which breaks have 
taken place that have been repaired at considerable cost. 

Its present dimensions are: 

Breadth at bottom. 100 feet. 

“ at water-surface. 150 “ 

Length.~. 1H miles. 

Locks, 7 in number.200 by 55 feet. 

Depth of water on sills. 9 “ 

Total lockage. 48 “ 

Cost to 1st July, 1867, $1,933,152.69; cost since for works 
and repairs to 1st July, 1870, $46,962.79. 

On an average this canal is open for 230 days of the year, 
opening about four days sooner and closing as much later 
than the Cornwall Canal. It has been known to open as 
early as the 7th of April, and the latest closing was on the 
18th of December. 

The next in the order of succession are the Farran’s 
Point, “ Rapide Plat,” and “ Galops ” canals, known col¬ 
lectively as the Williamsburg canals. 

Farran’s Point Canal commences 5 miles above the head 


of the Cornwall Canal. It surmounts the Farran’s Point 
Rapid, and is only three-quarters of a mile in length. Its 
dimensions are: 

Breadth at bottom.50 feet. 

“ at water-surface.90 “ 

1 lock.200 by 45 “ 

Total rise of lockage. 4 “ 

Depth of water on sills . 9 “ 

Less breadth was considered necessary for this canal 
than the others below it, as it is used principally by ves¬ 
sels ascending. Descending vessels run down the rapids 
with ease and safety. Though proposed and surveys made 
of a site for it, this canal was not commenced till four years 
after the union of Upper and Lower Canada. It was com¬ 
pleted for traffic in Oct., 1847. 

The “ Rapide Plat ” Canal commences 104 miles above 
the head of Farran’s Point Canal. It surmounts the rapids 
after which it is named. Its other dimensions are the same 
as the preceding ; it is narrow in width for the same reason. 
It has two locks, and a total lockage of 114 feet. 

The “ Galops” Canal commences 44 miles above the 
“ Rapide Plat ” Canal. It surmounts the rapids at “ Pointe 
aux Iroquois” and the “Galops.” It originally was in 
two parts, that were opened in Sept., 1847. The connect¬ 
ing portion was comjDleted in 1856. It is 7£- miles in 
length. Its other dimensions are the same as the two pre¬ 
ceding, for the same reason. It has three locks, and a 
total lockage of 15J feet. 

These three canals are on an average open for navigation 
233 days in the year; the dates of opening and closing close¬ 
ly resemble those given for the Cornwall Canal. The total 
cost of these three canals to 1st July, 1867, was $1,320,655.54; 
cost since for repairs to 1st July, 1870, $20,975.60. 

For the year to 30th June, 1872, on the St. Lawrence 
canals, including the Lachine Canal: 

The total of tolls accrued was.$84,675.09 

Of tonnage of vessels passed.{ 1 > 1 |^ j“ Canadian vessels. 

Of goods transported, tons. 940,645 

The Welland Canal is the next that occurs in ascending 
the St. Lawrence navigation. The distance to it from the 
last is 226 miles. It is the most important of Canadian 
canals. It leaves Lake Ontario at Port Dalhousie, 12 miles 
westward of the mouth of the Niagara River, and at Port 
Colborne, 17 miles westward of the head of that river, 
it enters Lake Erie, surmounting the falls and rapids of 
Niagara. Its length, apart from that of its branches, is 
27 miles. 

In 1816 the project of connecting these lakes by a canal 
was first taken into consideration, and reported upon by a 
committee of both houses of the Upper Canada Parliament. 
In 1821 a commission appointed to consider the subject 
of inland navigation reported favorably upon it, and sug¬ 
gested the formation of a commission to carry out the 
work. This led to the incorporation of a company, on the 
petition of W. H. Merritt and others, in 1824, who proposed 
constructing a combined canal and railway, the canal to 
admit of passing boats of 40 tons. In 1825 this scheme 
was abandoned, and another adopted of connecting the 
Welland River with Lake Ontario by a canal, with wooden 
locks 110 feet by 22, and 8 feet of water on the sills, to 
admit of the passage of sloops and schooners. The com¬ 
pany went into operation in 1825 with limited capital and 
partial assistance from the imperial and provincial govern¬ 
ments, encountering many difficulties, financial and phys¬ 
ical ; among others, a land-slide caused them to abandon 
the river Welland as a feeder and adopt the Grand River 
instead of it. In 1829 water was let into the canal, and 
two schooners ascended by it to the river Welland. Subse¬ 
quently, the company obtained an extension of capital, and 
adopted the design of carrying the canal over the Welland 
River to Port Colborne, nearly on its present site, which 
was completed accordingly in 1833, but with small wooden 
locks. In 1839 an act was passed authorizing government 
to purchase all the private stock, which was not done till 
1841, when the canal was placed under the board of works 
of Canada, and the enlargement of it decided upon. It 
was determined to rebuild all the locks in stone, 120 feet 
by 24, with 84 feet water; the aqueduct to be rebuilt in 
stone; the Grand River feeder to be converted into a navi¬ 
gable canal; the harbors of Port Colborne and Port Dal¬ 
housie, one lock at the former and two at the latter, to bo 
200 feet by 45, with 9 feet of water; the Port Maitland 
branch to be constructed with a similar lock at its Lake 
Erie entrance. This led to the works being carried out in 
their present dimensions, Avhich are as follows, the main 
line from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie: 

Length of canal.27 miles 1099 feet. 

3 pairs of guard gates. 

2 lift-locks.200 by 45 feet. 

24 “ .150 by 264 “ 

1 “ .230 by 45 « 
































CANALS OF CANADA, THE. 751 

Total rise of lockage to Lake Erie.330 feet. 

8 feet by 2 feet Grand River level. 1(5 “ 

Total lockage up and down.346 feet. 

Depth of water on sills. 101 “ 

For 14 miles the summit-level is 8 feet above Lake Erie, 
making 16 feet of lockage up and down, in addition to the 
difference in level of 330 feet between the lakes. The sum¬ 
mit-level receives the branch from Grand River, which is 
the feeder of the main canal, besides being a navigable arm 
of it. But as the supply from it is found inadequate to 
meet the requirements of the steadily increasing traffic, the 
lowering of this summit-reach to the level of Lake Erie, 
which is to be the feeder of the canal, has been for some 
years in progress. 

The breadth of the main canal varies in different parts 
of it from 26 feet at bottom and 66 at surface to 70 feet at 
bottom and 110 at surface. The enlargement of this canal 
to a uniform scale of dimension of 100 feet breadth at bottom 
and 12 to 13 feet depth of water, with locks of 270 feet in 
length between the gate-quoins, and 45 feet in breadth, 
with 12 feet depth of water on the sills, has been decided 
upon in accordance with the recommendation of such di¬ 
mensions by the Canada canal commission of 1871, as a 
general scale to be adopted throughout all the Canadian 
canals on the St. Lawrence navigation. In pursuance of 
this decision, the Canadian government has advertised for 
tenders to be received on Oct. 18, 1873, for the enlargement 
and deepening to the above dimensions of a great part of this 
canal (including the Deep Cut, which is 1J miles in length 
and 60 feet deep in parts), together with the construction 
of new portions of canal between Thorold and Port Dal- 
housie, and of fourteen new locks of the above size and 
depth, and their weirs ; and also for the deepening and en¬ 
largement of Port Colborne. When enlarged to this the 
Welland Canal will admit of vessels of 1300 tons burden 
passing through it. 

The existing twenty-seven lift-locks and their weirs, and 
three guard-locks, are all substantially constructed of du¬ 
rable stone masonry, excepting a guard-lock at Port Rob¬ 
inson, which is of wood and masonry. There is on it a 
substantial stone aqueduct, which carries this canal over 
the river Welland. A lock into the Welland above the 
aqueduct, and the connection by another below Port Rob¬ 
inson, enable vessels to pass down that river without serious 
obstruction from the aqueduct. 

The Welland Canal has two branches—the Welland 
River or Chippewa branch, and the Grand River feeder; 
the latter has a short branch connecting it near its termina¬ 
tion with Port Maitland on Lake Erie. The Welland Riv¬ 
er or Chippewa branch descends from the main line into the 
Welland River by means of a lock at Port Robinson. The 
river Welland is then descended 8f miles, with a short cut 
to the Niagara River at Chippewa. The canalling on this 
branch consists of— 

The cut from Port Robinson to Welland River 2622 feet. 

Length of lock above aqueduct. 300 “ 

“ “ Chippewa Cut to Niagara River. 1020 “ 

2 locks, each. 150 by 26 J “ 

Depth of water on sills.9 feet 10 inches. 

The Grand River feeder is 26 feet wide at bottom and 
60 to 70 at the surface, and 8 feet deep. It taps the Grand 
River at Dunnville, where a dam 564 feet long raises the 
water of the river, making it navigable for 16 miles up to 
Cayuga. 

Length of Grand River feeder. 21 miles. 

Locks | j 0 f . 200 by 45 “ 

Depth of water on sills. 10i “ 

Total rise of lockage. 7 to 8 

Its branch to Port Maitland is H miles long, with one 
lock of 185 by 45 feet, and 11 feet depth of water on sills, 
with a total lift of 8^ feet. 

For the year ending June 30, 1872, on the Welland 
Canal— 

The total of tolls accrued was.. $254,781.92 

„ , , f 565,207 in Canadian vessels. 

Of tonnage of vessels passed j 812,608 in U. S. vessels. 

Of goods transported, tons. 1,319,996 

The total cost of the Welland Canal and its branches to 
July 1, 1867, was $7,638,239.83; cost since to July 1, 1870, 
for works and repairs, $224,375.07. 

It is on an average open for 241 days in the year. Its 
earliest opening on record was 25th of March; the latest, 
5th of May. Its earliest closing, 15th of November; its 
latest, 19th of December. 

The Burlington Bay Canal is generally classed in the St. 
Lawrence navigation. It is merely a cutting oi hall a mile 
in length through a piece of low land which separates Lake 
Ontario from a large sheet of deep water, called Burling¬ 
ton Bay, at the W. end of it. It enables vessels to reach 
the city of Hamilton and the Desjardin Canal (a deepen¬ 
ed channel), the property of a private company, leading | 

up 5 miles to the town of Dundas. The canal is navigable 
for vessels drawing 12 feet of water; its width is from 108 
to 138 feet between the piers on each side of it, that are of 
cribwork filled with stone. The outer end of the S. pier 
extends 309 feet into Lake Ontario. This work was begun 
in 1843; the upper part of the piers has been rebuilt since 

1855. The total cost of this canal to July 1, 1867, was 
$432,684.40; cost since to July 1, 1870, for repairs, $682.53. 

This completes the list of existing Canadian canals on 
the St. Lawrence and its lakes. 

The second part of the canals of Canada that presents 
itself for consideration is the Ottawa and Rideau naviga- 
tion, which includes the St. Anne’s, Carillon, Chute a Blon- 
deau, and Grenville canals on the Ottawa, surmounting the 
rapids on that river between Montreal and the city of Otta¬ 
wa, and the Rideau Canal, connecting the Ottawa with the 

St. Lawrence, at Kingston, by the rivers Rideau and Cat- 
araqui. 

The Lacliine Canal already described forms the first link 
in this line of navigation, as it serves alike the traffic of 
the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence between Lake St. Louis, 
where these rivers meet, and the harbor of Montreal. From 
the head of the Lachine Canal, 8£ miles from Montreal, 
there is a channel of fifteen feet and upwards in depth, but 
crooked in parts, through Lake St. Louis for fifteen miles, 
nearly to the St. Anne’s lock. The formation of anew and 
direct channel of 120 feet in width and of ample depth, 
flanked with a guide-pier of cribwork, through the shoal 
below the entrance, has been contracted for and is in 
progress. 

St. Anne’s Canal is situated on the N. side of a channel 
of the Ottawa between lie Perrot and the head of the isl¬ 
and of Montreal. It overcomes a short rapid with a fall 
of 3 feet, the difference of level between Lake St. Louis 
and the Lake of the Two Mountains above it. The canal 
is half a mile in length, and the lock is 190 feet by 45, and 
has a depth of from 6 to 7 feet of water on the sill. It is 
built of substantial masonry. The lock was contracted for 
in 1840, and opened for use in 1843. The total cost of these 
works to July 1, 1867, was $134,456.51; cost since to July 

1, 1870, for repairs, $3528.44. 

For the year to June 30, 1872, on St. Anne’s lock— 

The total of tolls accrued was.. $2,991.98 

Of tonnage of vessels passed.{ 9 ^g £ Snadffifvessels. 

Tons of goods transported. 100,865 

It is generally open from the last week in April to the last 
week in November. 

From St. Anne’s lock, with the exception of the imper¬ 
fect upper entrance to it, and a shoal with 13 feet of water 
a little above it, the Lake of the Two Mountains is 20 to 

30 feet deep; the distance through it and a short part of 
the Ottawa above it to the foot of the Carillon Canal is 27 
miles. 

The “ Carillon,” “ Chute a Blondeau,” and “Grenville” 
canals were constructed by the imperial government of 

Great Britain. They were projected in 1819, but it was 
not till April, 1834, that the Grenville Canal, the latest of 
them in being completed, was opened for navigation. In 

1856 they were transferred to the province of Canada. It 
would be difficult to ascertain the cost of the original con¬ 
struction of these works under the direction of the royal 
staff corps. The expenditure upon them by the provincial 
government up to 30th June, 1867, was $63,053.64. 

The Carillon Canal, as it at present exists, is of the fol¬ 
lowing dimensions : 

Breadth at bottom. 30 feet. 

“ “ surface. 50 “ 

Length of canal. 2} miles. 

3 locks, two rising; in all. 21? feet. 

one falling. 13 “ 

Total rise. 8? “ 

Dimensions of locks from 126? to 128 by 32| “ 

Depth of water on sills. 6 “ 

All built of substantial masonry. 

The inadequacy of this canal for the requirements of the 
increasing trade of the Ottawa, the lockage up and down 
of 34f feet to overcome a rise of 8f feet, and the insuffi¬ 
ciency of the supply by the summit-feeder were reasons 
for abandoning the present canal; especially as, in accord¬ 
ance with the recommendation of the canal commission of 

1871, the Canadian government decided on adopting an 
increased scale of dimensions for the Ottawa canals, with 
locks of 200 feet by 45, and 9 feet depth of water on the 
sills, and as the designed improvement could be better 
effected by damming the rivers. 

Acting accordingly, the Canadian government lias (in 

1873) contracted for the construction of a wooden dam 
across the Ottawa on the Carillon Rapids of sufficient 
height to flood them out, and also the Chute a Blondeau 
Rapids, with three-quarters of a milo of canal, with tvo 



































752 


CANALS OF CANADA, THE. 


locks descending from it, on the N. side, and a raft-slide 
220 feet in width and 550 long on the S. side. The locks 
are to be built of the above dimensions and of the most 
substantial masonry. The canal is to be made by embank¬ 
ment in the river-bed, faced with substantial masonry, and 
all to be completed by the 1st of Nov., 1875. This dam 
will afford an enormously great and very available water¬ 
power in a commanding position on a great line of naviga¬ 
tion. But the chief advantage of it is that by flooding 
out both of these rapids it will supersede the “Carillon” 
and “ Chute a Blondeau ” canals, and the necessity of en¬ 
larging them; and by substituting its lockage of 12£ feet 
and the broad river for the narrow canals and their 38£ 
feet of lockage, it will much reduce the time of vessels 
passing. 

The “ Chute a Blondeau” Canal commences 4 miles above 
the head of the present Carillon Canal. It surmounts the 
rapid of that name, and is half a mile long, cut through 
solid rock, on the N. side of the river. It is 30 feet in 
breadth at top and bottom, has one lock, 130® feet by 32f 
at the upper and 36^ at the lower end, and 6 feet depth of 
water on the sills. The total rise of lockage is 35 feet. 

The Grenville Canal commences If miles above the pre¬ 
ceding. It is 5| miles long, and surmounts the “ Longue 
Sault” Rapid. As originally constructed, its breadth at 
bottom was from 20 to 30 feet and at surface 30 to 60 feet, 
but much of it has been very recently enlarged. It has 
seven locks. The first and second are combined, and also 
the third and fourth. They vary from 128 to 130 feet by 31f 
to 32J, with 6J feet of water on sills. The remaining three 
locks originally were about 107 feet by 19, with 6 feet of 
water on sills, but two of them have been already rebuilt 
on the enlarged scale of 200 feet by 45, with 9 feet of water 
on sills, recommended for the Ottawa, and the third is now 
being so enlarged. The total rise of lockage is 45f feet. 

The cost of these three canals since their transfer to 
Canada, to 1st July, 1867, was $63,053.64; for repairs and 
work to 1st July, 1870, $47,034.56. 

The navigation of the Ottawa and the works upon it arc 
noticed so fully here because they form part of the pro¬ 
posed Ottawa and Huron navigation, which, when the 
Caughnawaga Canal is constructed between Lake Cham¬ 
plain and Lake St. Louis, will offer by far the shortest and 
apparently the most advantageous line of navigation be¬ 
tween New York and Chicago. These Ottawa canals are 
generally open from the 25tli of April to the 30th of No¬ 
vember. 

From the head of the Grenville Canal to the entrance 
of the Rideau Canal, at the city of Ottawa, is, by the course 
of the river, 56 miles, making a total distance of 120 miles 
from the city of Montreal. The ordinary breadth of the 
river between Grenville and Ottawa is about half a mile, 
and its depth of channel 30 feet, excepting one short shoal 
of 8 feet at low water. 

The Rideau Canal is 126| miles in length. Fi-om Ottawa 
to Kingston it is a system of continuous slack-water navi¬ 
gation, obtained by damming the rivers Rideau and Cat- 
araqui between the river Ottawa and Lake Ontario. It 
was constructed by the British government, chiefly with a 
view to the defence of the province, by securing, in connec¬ 
tion with the Ottawa, an interior route of water-communi¬ 
cation between Montreal and Lake Ontario, avoiding alike 
the rapids of the St. Lawrence and the danger in time of 
war of transporting stores along that river where it formed 
the international boundary. Though fortunately never- 
required for use under such circumstances, it was of great 
use commercially to the provinces from 1834, when the 
Ottawa canals were first opened to the public, till the open¬ 
ing of the St. Lawrence canals. Steamers with long lines 
of barges with up-freights ascended to Kingston by the 
Ottawa and Rideau, and the barges returned down through 
the St. Lawrence laden to Montreal. Since the opening 
of the St. Lawrence canals that traffic has been altogether 
discontinued, and the Rideau Canal has become of com¬ 
paratively little importance. With respect to the Ottawa 
canals the case is otherwise in a very great degree, owing 
to the growth of the city of Ottawa, the progress of settle¬ 
ment, and the great development of the lumber-trade of 
the Ottawa, especially the manufacture of sawn lumber. 
During the year ending on 30th June, 1872, the traffic 
through the Ottawa and Rideau canals amounted to up¬ 
wards of 500,000 tons, three-fourths of which was sawn 
lumber. 

For the year to 30th June, 1872, on the Ottawa and 
Rideau Canals— 


The total of tolls accrued was....$38,017.14 

Of tonnage of vessels passed.{in S jesseH.^^ 

Of goods transported, tons.519,040 

The construction of the Rideau Canal was first taken 
into consideration in 1814, after various reports and proj¬ 


ects respecting it had been submitted. The construction 
of it was decided on by the British government in 1825. 
In Sept., 1826, Colonel By was sent out to superintend 
the work, and on the 21st of the same month the excava¬ 
tion for ten locks was begun. It was completed and 
opened to the public in the spring of 1832. The works are 
all of the most substantial description, no expense being 
spared in their construction. 

The length of the Rideau Canal from Ottawa to Kings¬ 
ton is 1261 miles, but the total length of actual canals con¬ 
necting the slack-water reaches is only 8i miles. It has 
forty-seven locks, of which thirty-three ascend 2821 feet 
from the Ottawa level to Rideau Lake, the summit, from 
which fourteen locks descend 164 feet to the Lake Ontario 
level at Kingston. The locks are all of the most sub¬ 
stantial masonry, 134 feet by 33, with 5 feet of water on 
the sills. The breadth of the canal cuttings is at bottom 
60 feet in earth and 54 in rock; at surface of water it is 80 
feet in earth and 54 in rock. The line throughout admits 
of vessels passing of 4+ feet draft. Between Ottawa and 
the summit there are seven stone dams, from 200 to 548 
feet in length and from 5 to 29 feet in height, and 11 of 
wood or earth, from 108 to 1616 feet long and 6 to 45 in 
height. Between the summit and Kingston there are four 
stone dams, 130 to 300 feet long and from 16 to 60 feet 
high. The extent of flooded lands caused by the dams and 
the broad lakes upon the line of the Rideau Canal made it 
impracticable to have a towpath along it. 

The total cost of it to 1st July, 1867, was $4,064,764.47, 
of which the original outlay by the imperial government 
was £758,966 12s. llfr/. sterling, apart from land damages. 
This canal was transferred to the Canadian government in 
1856, and the cost for works and repairs from 1st July, 
1867, to 1st July, 1870, was $58,666.51. 

The distance from Montreal to Kingston is 6SJ miles 
longer by the Ottawa and the Rideau Canal than by the 
St. Lawrence. The Rideau Canal is generally opened in 
the last week of April, and closed at the end of November. 

3. The Richelieu and Champlain navigation is the next 
to be considered. 

The river Richelieu enters the St. Lawrence 46 miles 
below Montreal. It is rendered navigable from the St. 
Lawrence to Lake Champlain by a dam and lock at St. 
Ours, 14 miles above its mouth, and a canal of 12 miles in 
length 32 miles farther up the river, known as the Chambly 
Canal. 

The St. Ours Locks and Dams .—At St. Ours the river 
divides into two deep channels. In the eastern channel a 
lock in cut stone, with a dam 300 feet long of earthwork, 
has been constructed, and in the western channel a dam 
600 feet long, of cribwork filled with stone, has been made. 
The length of canal is one-eighth of a mile. The lock is 
200 feet by 45, with 7 feet water on the sills at lowest; its 
total lift is 5 feet. These works raise the river from 4 to 
7 feet above its natural level, and give a depth of not less 
than 7 feet up to the entrance of the Chambly Canal. They 
were commenced in 1844, and finally completed in 1851. 

The Chambly Canal is 12 miles in length. It has nine 
locks of cut stone, varying from 118 to 125 feet in length 
and about 2'Sh feet in width, with 7 feet of water on their 
sills. The total rise is 74 feet. The canal is 36 feet wide 
at bottom and 60 at the surface of the water. 

The construction of this canal commenced in Oct., 1831. 
After much delay in the progress of the work the charge 
of it was assumed by the department of public works of the 
united provinces, and in 1843 it was opened for use. The 
lock walls having proved weak, and the excavation of the 
canal being imperfect, an expenditure of $69,758 was found 
necessary for completing and repairing the work. 

The account of cost of the St. Ours and Chambly canals 
is undivided in the public accounts. The total expenditure 
before and since the union of the provinces, up to 1st July, 
1867, is given by the department of public works report 
as $756,249.41, of which $634,711.76 is stated to be for the 
Chambly Canal and $121,537.65 for the St. Ours works. 
The further cost for repairs to 1st July, 1870, for the St. Ours 
locks is $3159.24, and for the Chambly Canal, $43,179.38. 

For the year to 30th June, 1872, on these works— 


The total of tolls accrued was....$30,610.38 

Of tonnage of vessels passed.^ ^81 998 in ^ T ai g at ^ an Tes ® e ^ s * 

Of tons of goods transported.346,148 

The St. Ours lock generally opens about the middle of 
April and closes in the beginning of December. The 
Chambly Canal closes about the same time, but opens a 
little later. 

The trade of the Richelieu Canal is steadily increasing, 
being swollen by sawn lumber from the Ottawa passing 
through to Lake Champlain for markets in the U.'S. It is 
now taxed to nearly its utmost capacity of transport; dur- 
ing the year to 30th June, 1872, the freight that passed 






































CANALS OF CANADA, THE. 753 


through it amounted to 340,128 tons. This large trade will 
continue till the Caughnawaga Canal from the St. Lawrence 
to Lake Champlain is constructed. Then the Ottawa lum¬ 
ber will go by it instead of the Richelieu; the latter, Iioav- 
ever, will still have the transport of lumber from the St. 
Maurice and other tributaries of the St. Lawrence below 
Montreal, which will steadily increase, as the exhaustion 
of the pine forests will bring the spruce lumber of Lower 
Canada more into demand. 

The Canadian canal commission have recommended the 
enlargement of the Chambly Canal locks to the Ottawa 
standard of 200 feet by 45, which doubtless will be done 
before long in the required rebuilding of them. 

4. The river Trent navigation is the next subject in suc¬ 
cession. It has to be noticed separately, not from its im¬ 
portance, but because it does not properly come under any 
other head. 

The river Trent discharges into the Bay Quints, Lake 
Ontario, about G7 miles above Kingston. It was originally 
proposed to form a line of slack-water navigation by it and 
the lakes of the New Castle district of Upper Canada through 
to Lake Huron, as a means of shortening the distance by 
water from Kingston to the far West. But that idea had 
to be abandoned, as the summit-level was found to have an 
elevation at Balsam Lake of 589£ feet, and the route is so 
crooked as to be more than double the direct one of 112 
miles from Kingston to Lake Huron. In Feb., 1833, how¬ 
ever, the legislature of Upper Canada appointed commis¬ 
sioners and authorized the raising of a loan for the im¬ 
provement of this route, as a line of inland communication 
and for the descent of timber, as far as Lake Scugog, a dis¬ 
tance of 190 miles, including the length of that lake. Work 
was commenced in 1833, and a short piece of canal and a 
wooden lock (since rebuilt in stone) were completed in 1855 
at the rapid below Sturgeon Lake, 140 miles up the route, 
which permitted vessels navigating Chemong, Buckhorn, 
and Pigeon lakes to pass through Sturgeon Lake up to the 
town of Lindsay. 

Afterwards several grants of money were obtained, and 
dams and other works constructed. After the union of the 
provinces various unfinished works were completed and 
others made, including four stone locks, 133 feet by 33, 
with 6 feet of water on the sills, and one of Avood; also 
nine dams, one of Avhich is of stone, and some short pieces 
of canal. 

The total expenditure on these works, apart from timber- 
slides, roads, and bridges, up to 1st Juty, 1867, amounts to 
$319,371.31. There is no account of tolls and tonnage in 
the public accounts for the Trent navigation. 

Steamers navigate the upper lakes above mentioned, 
chiefly for the towing of rafts and other purposes of the 
lumber-trade. Of the Avhole distance of 190 miles to the 
head of Scugog Lake, 152J miles are navigable, and 37I 
not practicable, even for boats. The Peterboro’ and Port 
Hope Railway has diverted traffic from part of this route, 
and for some years the works Avere neglected. The open¬ 
ing and closing of this navigation may be taken to be nearly 
the same as of the Rideau Canal. 

5th. The St. Peter’s Canal is the only existing Canadian 
canal remaining to be noticed. It is the only canal in ac¬ 
tual operation in the maritime provinces of Canada. It 
connects the Bras d’Or Lake of Cape Breton with the At¬ 
lantic at St. Peter’s Bay on the S. coast of that island. The 
Bras d’Or is a large landlocked arm of the sea in the in¬ 
terior of the island. It is 60 miles long from its entrance 
on the N. E. coast to its southern extremity, and 15 miles 
in greatest breadth. It has several bays or arms that reach 
far inland in different directions. Its southern extremity 
reaches Avithin half a mile of St. Peter’s Bay, and it is 
across this narroAV isthmus that the St. Peter’s Canal is cut. 

The project of constructing this canal Avas adopted by 
the legislature as designed by Captain Barry, and the Avork 
commenced in Sept., 1854. It Avas suspended for a time, 
and resumed at the instance of the Cape Breton represent¬ 
atives in 1864. It was handed over to the Dominion in 
1867. It is 2400 feet in length and 26 feet wide at bottom. 
It has one tidal lock 122 feet by 26, with 13 feet depth of 
water on the sills at lowest tide. The lock has four pairs 
of gates. The extreme rise and fall of the tide in St. Peter’s 
Bay is 9 feet. The total cost of it up to 30th June, 1870, 
Avas $302,037.53, including $138,433.09 since confederation 
for further Avork. 

The Bras d’Or and its arms abound in fish, and the sur¬ 
rounding country is rich in mineral and agricultural re¬ 
sources. The traffic on this canal during the year ending 
30th June, 1871, consisted of 656 vessels, freighted with 
coal, limestone, marble, fish, and flour, making an aggre¬ 
gate of 26,757 tons; besides 262 open boats. The canal 
opens about the 20th of April, and closes about the last of 
December. 

The projected canals of Canada claim consideration, not 
48 


only for the unusual magnitude of most of them as en¬ 
gineering works, and the importance of the objects to be 
attained by them, but especially because they are all cal¬ 
culated more or less to benefit the people of the U. S. by 
giving them improved outlets for the products of the great 
West, and otherwise facilitating their commerce and fish¬ 
eries—some of them, indeed, to a greater degree than they 
can benefit the Canadian people. This is decidedly the 
case as to the Caughnawaga Canal. It Avas first brought 
prominently before the public by Messrs. John Young, L. 
H. Holton, and other merchants of Montreal in 1848. Mr. 
J. B. Mills, by direction of the governor-general, made a 
survey and reported in favor of a line from the Indian vil¬ 
lage of Caughnawaga, on the St. Lawrence opposite the 
head of the Lachine Canal, to St. John on the Richelieu, at 
the head of the Lake Champlain navigation. It was re¬ 
commended by the commissioner of the public works in 
1852, but no action was taken about it by government, ex¬ 
cepting the obtaining of further surveys and reports by 
Mr. Jarvis and others of various routes. In 1870, at the 
instance of Mr. Young and others, a bill Avas passed incor¬ 
porating a company to build the Caughnawaga Ship Canal 
from Lake St. Louis on the St. Lawrence to Lake Cham¬ 
plain, the locks not to be less than those of the Beauharnois 
Canal—that is, 200 feet by 45—and 9 feet of water on the 
sills; the canal to be completed in five years, otherwise the 
charter to expire. 

Lake Champlain is only 29 feet above the St. Lawrence 
at CaughnaAvaga in Lake St. Louis. One of the proposed 
routes Avould be about 34F miles long, with Lake Champlain 
as its summit-level and feeder; another of 25£ miles in 
length would have its summit 37£ feet above Lake Cham¬ 
plain, Avith a feeder from the St. Lawrence; and a third 
route, 37J miles long, would connect Lake Champlain with 
the loAver part of the Beauharnois Canal, of Avhich it would, 
in a manner, form a branch. The opening of this canal 
would have very important results. It Avould very greatly 
benefit and expand the lumber-trade of the Ottawa. Its 
saAvn lumber in barges, on reaching the mouth of the OttaAva 
in Lake St. Louis, instead of descending the Lachine Canal 
and St. Lawrence, 55 miles, and ascending the Richelieu and 
its canals, 58 miles, to St. John’s, Avould pass from Lake St. 
Louis to St. John’s, 28 miles, or thereby, by this canal, 
saving about 85 miles in distance and 86 feet of lockage. 
During the year ending June 30, 1869, 220,000,000 feet of 
sawn lumber passed down through the Ottawa canals, be¬ 
sides what descended through the rapids; 150,000,000 of 
this probably passed by the Richelieu to Lake Champlain. 
Had the Caughnawaga Canal been in operation, the sav¬ 
ing by it on the freight on that quantity would have been, 
at reasonable rates, $100,000, besides a corresponding re¬ 
duction in the cost of transport of return cargoes of coal 
and other merchandise. When it is made and in operation, 
much inferior timber, and of A r arious kinds, that would 
not now pay its freight, will be manufactured and taken to 
market with profit. 

When the New York Champlain Canal is enlarged and 
this canal opened, they, Avith the enlarged Welland Canal, 
will no doubt form a more eligible route for the trans¬ 
port of the grain of the West to New York than the Erie 
Canal ever can, eA T en if it were enlarged to the utmost ca¬ 
pacity its summit-supply of water will permit. It is true 
that the distance from Lake Erie to New York will be 
about 217 miles longer by this route than by the Erie 
Canal, but as the Welland and the St. LaAvrence canals, 
when enlarged on the scale begun, will pass vessels of 1300 
tons (the latter already can pass \ r essels of 700 tons, and 
one passed in 1872 of 760), the much quicker trips, far less 
lockage, and the great economy of the very much larger 
cargoes, either by propellers or barges going through to 
New York Avithout transshipment at Albany, must obviously 
give the route by the CaughnaAvaga Canal a most decided 
advantage. In short, the opening of such a route Avould 
render every improvement on the St. Lawrence by the people 
of Canada for the purpose of draAving the trade of the West 
to Montreal necessarily equally effective in favor of New 
York, and draw to it much trade Avhich Montreal, in virtue 
of the advantages of the St. Lawrence route, is noAv rapidly 
appropriating. That Avould be so far advantageous to 
Montreal; but it is alike the interest of the U. S. and 
Canada that the producers of both countries on the great 
lakes and in the Western territories should have the cheap¬ 
est transport of their produce to market, irrespective of the 
interest of either city; and that the rivalry on equal terms 
would certainly ensure. 

A glance at a map will show that tho entrance of this 
Caughnawaga route is directly opposite the mouth of the 
river Ottawa, the entrance to the proposed line of the Ot¬ 
tawa and Huron navigation, tho next projected work to be 
noticed. 

The projected OttaAva and Huron Canal, as it is called, 












754 CANALS OF CANADA, THE. 


offers, according to the report of that eminent engineer, 
Mr. Walter Shanly, a route to Chicago 368 miles shorter 
than that by the St. Lawrence. It is true that the recent 
correction of the reputed distance by the lakes to Chicago 
by U. S. engineers will reduce this difference, but will no 
doubt more or less affect the lake portion of both routes: 
and the difference to Lake Superior and Duluth will in any 
case be 40 miles more in favor of the Ottawa and Huron 
route. The lockage by this route would be 157 miles more 
than by the St. Lawrence; nevertheless, by Mr. Shanly’s 
calculations, based upon McAlpine’s well-known rates for 
comparison, the movement of freight would cost fully one- 
ninth part less from Montreal to Chicago than by the St. 
Lawrence and Welland canals, or by the St. Lawrence and 
the Georgian Bay canals. The saving of time he estimates 
at 44 hours as compared with the St. Lawrence and Welland 
route, and 22 hours as compared with the route by the 
Georgian Bay Canal. 

The Ottawa and the French River, which the route fol¬ 
lows to Lake Huron, offer great facilities for canalization 
in the lakes and long trench-like reaches of deep navigable 
water which characterize their courses, and both are re¬ 
markable for their great volume of water, well sustained in 
dry weather. Lake Nippiseongue, the proposed summit- 
feeder of this route, presents an enormously redundant sup¬ 
ply. The navigable reaches of the Ottawa vary from 10 
or 15 to 50 or 60 miles in length. They are navigable now 
by steamers for upwards of 300 miles above its mouth. 
One of the upper boats draws 9J feet, plying on a reach of 
40 miles. 

Mr. Clarke, who completed the canal survey of the Ottawa 
for government, estimated that canalling, where required, 
the whole route through to Lake Huron, 431 miles, with 
locks 250 feet by 45, with 12 feet of water on the sills, would 
cost $12,057,680, to be effected chiefly by damming ; 21 miles 
of actual canalling only being required. Locks of 200 feet 
by 45, with 9 feet of water on the sills, is the scale adopted 
on the recommendation of the Canada canal commission for 
the progressive improvement of the Ottawa. 

No doubt this route would be very advantageous, espe¬ 
cially as a barge route, as the dangers of the lakes would be 
avoided between St. Joseph Island and Montreal, while the 
great size of the river navigation would give room for the 
utmost speed. But as the Canadians have constructed 
gi'eat works for the perfecting of the St. Lawrence route, 
and are enlarging and completing them, it would seem un¬ 
wise for them to undertake the task of opening another 
rival route before the trade of the country needed it. The 
requirement of the lumber-trade, and the increasing settle¬ 
ment and prosperity of the Ottawa country, will lead gradu¬ 
ally to the construction, successively, of the requisite works 
for surmounting the obstacles on this route, till little be 
needed to complete it as a highway to the West. It will 
then afford, in conjunction with the Caughnawaga Canal, a 
most direct and favorable route from Duluth and Chicago 
to New Yoi'k. Two locks are being built by government 
now, 200 feet by 45, at L’Islet’s Rapids, 213 miles up the 
Ottawa, that by connecting two reaches will give 70 miles 
of uninterrupted navigation. 

It is argued that as the dams to be built to flood out the 
rapids, together with the falls on the Ottawa and French 
rivers, will, from the great volume of the rivers, afford un¬ 
limited water-power at numerous points on the route, they 
will become the sites of important manufactories, as on the 
Erie Canal, but with incomparably greater available water¬ 
power ; and that the grain of the West may, with great ad¬ 
vantage, be manufactured there into flour while on its way 
to market. 

This route is deservedly advocated by the inhabitants of 
the Ottawa valley; but they are a minority, and it was not 
to be expected that the inhabitants of the far more popu¬ 
lous districts of Canada upon the St. Lawrence, and their 
parliamentary representatives, who would chiefly have to 
bear the burden of the cost, should readily consent to the 
Ottawa, far from them, which they cannot use, being, at 
great outlay, made the commercial highway of the West, 
instead of their own route, the St. Lawrence, in the im¬ 
provement of which they are so deeply interested. 

Apart from its claims as a highway to the West, the im¬ 
provement of the Ottawa route is of great importance to the 
provinces of Ontario and Quebec in opening up their inte¬ 
rior country, as the Ottawa is the boundary between them 
for 400 miles of its course. In that respect the Georgian 
Bay Canal, the next projected work to be noticed, is very 
different. Connecting Lake Ontario at Toronto with the 
S. extremity of the Georgian Bay of Lake Huron, it would 
be almost, perhaps quite, equal to the Ottawa and Huron 
route in shortening the distance for the trade of the West. 
It would feed the Erie Canal eastward of Oswego, but it 
would be of no use to the country around Lake Erie, and 
passing through an already occupied country, that has a 


railway connecting the same points as the canal, would, in 
its 100 miles of course, develop nothing new of importance. 
The chief objection to it is its impracticability except at 
enormous cost. 

The canal commission of Canada in 1871 state in their 
report “that the public should be reminded of the facts 
that the proposed canal is of equal length with the Suez 
Canal, that has cost $80,000,000 and occupied fifteen years 
in construction. But it is encompassed with difficulties in¬ 
finitely greater. While the Suez, being on a dead level 
from sea to sea, is unencumbered by a single lock, the Huron 
and Ontario has an intermediate summit of 470 feet above 
Ontario to surmount, which requires forty-two locks and 
600 feet of lockage. It has also no less than three deep 
cuts, the least of which is larger than the celebrated deep 
cut on the Welland, and the largest of which exceeds it in 
volume of material eighty-fold.” 

The commission concludes with the opinion that, “ad¬ 
mitting it to be physically possible, the cost of carrying 
out such a project would render it commercially worthless.” 

A canal at Sault Ste. Marie is the next Canadian project 
to be noticed. It is stated that a canal on the Canadian 
side of the river St. Mary would be much more commodious 
and secure, especially at the upper entrance, than the ex¬ 
isting canal on the U. S. side of the river; that it would 
have deeper approaches and be one-third shorter; in short, 
that it would have every advantage over the latter. There 
was strong testimony in favor of it given before the Cana¬ 
dian canal commission, already mentioned, and the com¬ 
mission recommended it as a work of the first class in im¬ 
portance. This arose, no doubt, chiefly from the passage 
of vessels with troops for Red River Settlement through the 
Sault Ste. Marie Canal having been refused at the time of 
the disturbances there. Possibly, the better understanding 
and agreement as to the use of canals in common through 
the treaty of AVashington may abate the urgency for this 
work. But it is not unlikely that the necessity of having 
a passage through Canadian ground for the transmission 
of troops in case of disturbances between Indians and set¬ 
tlers, or other necessity, will ultimately lead to the construc¬ 
tion of the proposed canal. 

The next project proposed to be noticed is the Bay A r erte 
Canal, which also has been included as of first-class im¬ 
portance by the canal commission. The object of this 
canal is to connect the waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
at Bay A r erte with those of the Bay of Fundy at Cumber¬ 
land Basin, by cutting across the isthmus of Chignecto, 
which unites Nova Scotia with New Brunswick, so as to 
admit of vessels engaged in the coal-trade of Pictou and 
the fisheries of the Gulf, and the coasting-trade of the St. 
Lawrence, the Gulf, and the Bay of Fundy, passing directly 
between these waters, which are only 15j miles apart, in¬ 
stead of having to make a circuit of 600 miles out through 
the Gut of Canso to the Atlantic, and round the peninsula 
of Nova Scotia. In addition to former surveys, one has 
just been made by order of the government of the Do¬ 
minion of Canada for a site for this canal. It will present 
serious and unusual difficulties in its construction, owing 
to the great difference in the height to which the tide rises 
on each side of the isthmus. Spring tides rise 451 feet in 
the Bay of Fundy, and but 10^ in Bay Verte. The canal com¬ 
mission recommended a canal with locks of 270 feet length 
of chamber, by 40 feet in width, having 15 feet in depth of 
water on the sills. The estimated cost is $3,250,000. 

The last route of communication proposed to be noticed 
in this article is the Shcbandowan and Lake of the Woods 
navigation, which forms about 311J miles of the line of 
communication established by the Canadian government 
between Thunder Bay of Lake Superior and Fort Garry in 
Manitoba, known as the Dawson route, which is 451^ miles 
in length. This is the route by which the military expe¬ 
dition under Col. AFolsey passed through to Red River 
Settlement in 1870. Since then the route has been much 
improved by the Canadian government, and emigrants 
and their luggage are conveyed over it at moderate rates. 
The 311J miles of water-conveyance on this route, though 
not, strictly speaking, a canal, are admirably adapted for 
canalization. The connection of its principal reaches has 
been proposed, and will no doubt before long be carried 
into effect to a considerable extent. It consists of ten nav¬ 
igable reaches, A r arying from 8 to 120 miles in length. 
The last and greatest is formed by Rainy River and the 
Lake of the AA r oods, separated only by the falls at Fort 
Francis from Rainy Lake, which is navigated for 44 miles. 
On the Lake of the AVoods and Rainy River a steamer of 
120 feet keel and 20 feet beam plies from the falls to the 
N. W. angle of the Lake of the AVoods; on Rainy Lake 
one of 100 feet keel and 19 feet beam. On the eight other 
reaches the transport is effected by barges towed by small 
steam-launches. The smallness of the crafts is not caused 
by want of depth of water. On the contrary, the slack 


«- 


















CANAL WINCHESTER—CANARY GRASS. 


755 


water consists of deep trench-like lakes generally, with the 
exception of Rainy River, which is large and deep. The 
ten portages amount together to nearly miles. 

The total fall to be overcome by lockage in the distance 
of 311J miles from the summit-level at the commencement, 
to be obtained by damming, to the N. W. angle of the 
Lake of the Woods, is 425 feet, or an average of lxVo 
per mile. This is more favorable than the Erie Canal, 
which has an average of 1 yVq 5 ^ ie Rideau Canal has 3j$jp 
There is much valuable pine and other timber on the trib¬ 
utaries of Rainy Lake. As the supply of water is abun¬ 
dant and permanent, with prevailing deepness, it could be 
made a line of water-communication of great capacity. 


For the W. half of its extent it is the boundary of the 
U. S. Its eastern extremity reaches within 45 miles of 
Lake Superior. An important lumber-trade for the sup¬ 
ply of the prairie country beyond will necessarily arise in 
this wooded region. From the Lake of the Woods west¬ 
ward the Canadian Pacific Railway and its connections 
will give the means of distributing the manufactured 
lumber. 

The following table of tonnage and tolls levied on freight 
and passengers on all Canadian canals from 1850 to 1870, 
shows the progress of traffic upon them during that period; 
it also shows the extent to which they were used by Ameri¬ 
can commerce: 


Tonnage, and Tolls levied on Freight and Passengers passed through all the Canadian Canals from 1850 to 1870, inclusive, distinguishing 
whether from or to Canadian or U. S. Ports. (Abridged from the il Report of the Canada Canal Commission” of 1871.) 


Remarks. 

Year. 

From Cana¬ 
dian to Cana¬ 
dian ports. 

From Cana¬ 
dian to Amer¬ 
ican ports. 

From Ameri¬ 
can to Cana¬ 
dian ports. 

From Ameri¬ 
can to Ameri¬ 
can ports. 

Total Freight. 

Tolls Collected on 
Freight and A'essels. 

Net Revenue on 
Freight and Vessels 
after deductions and 
refunds. 

Ottawa canals, 
not included 
under control ■ 
of imperial gov¬ 
ernment. 

Season of naviga-< 
tion. 

Fiscal years.■ 

- 

1850 

1851 

1852 

1853 

1854 

1855 

1856 

1857 

1858 

1859 

1860 
1861 
1862 
1863 
1864* 

1865 

1866 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 

Tons. 

538,477 

830,212 

896,030 

1,015,202 

1,006,006 

849,007 

922,626 

856,093 

1,424,313 

1,563,599 

1,351,186 

1,522,029 

1.545,219 

1,664,908 

498,449 

1,390,930 

1,538,111 

1,690,316 

1,752,425 

1,716,529 

2,368,871 

Tons. 

224,835 

217,500 

153,006 

241,801 

149,636 

203,923 

258,761 

264,141 

259,537 

338,437 

473,365 

246,742 

552,606 

491,112 

127,756 

433,575 

671,042 

736,057 

810,939 

743,946 

•858,870 

Tons. 

52,183 

103,962 

38,858 

85,211 

118,663 

181,851 

220,343 

215,566 

162,936 

126,707 

169,671 

299,798 

371,510 

274,897 

69,112 

346,463 

194,404 

234,223 

278,706 

305,221 

330,794 

Tons. 

221,895 

265,120 

409,720 

463,495 

412,999 

437,623 

542,842 

423,825 

471,432 

380,601 

589,479 

546,323 

644,393 

621,358 

158,764 

257,846 

465,715 

461,074 

644,946 

690,881 

685,350 

Tons. 

1,037,390 

1,416,794 

1,497,614 

1,805,709 

1,687,304 

1,714,642 

2,007,263 

1,837,007 

2,335,480 

2,447,766 

2,583,701 

2,614,892 

3,113,728 

3,052,275 

812,496 

2,537,897 

2,955,386 

3,235,754 

3,599,043 

3,605,039 

4,276,820 

$ 

258,123 

304,864 

343,306 

390,487 

333,101 

335.690 
398,259 

355.691 
314,447 
228,962 
333,262 
419,385 
497,305 
385,220 
106,611 
299,905 
318,597 
325,283 
381,129 
369,982 
444,932 

cts. 

58 

90 

96 

02 

85 

21 

58 

28 

51 

41 
56 
02 
96 
21 
80 
47 
74 

42 
18 
10 
25 

$ 

258,123 

304,864 

338.409 
382,915 
332,081 
324,691 
381,582 
330,107 

302.410 
223,427 
205,921 
185,521 
213,487 
385,220 
102,078 
282,757 
304,312 
318,439 
365,776 
367,556 
407,463 

cts. 

58 
90 

32 
50 
57 
42 
08 

33 

59 
38 
93 
75 
41 
21 
75 
17 
24 
54 
32 
82 
22 


Canal' Win'chester, or Winchester, a post-village 
of Madison township, Franklin co., 0. It has one weekly 
paper. Pop. 633. 

Canandai'gua, capital of Ontario co., N. Y., on the 
Auburn branch of the New York Central R. R., the E. 
terminus of the Niagara Falls Branch R. R., and the N. 
terminus of the Northern Central R. R. It is 28 miles 
S. E. of Rochester, at the N. extremity of Canandaigua 
Lake, which is navigated by daily lines of steamers. It 
is picturesquely situated on high ground which commands 
an extensive view of the lake. The beautiful scenery of 
the lake and the fishing and boating accommodations make 
Canandaigua a popular pleasure resort. Canandaigua (or, 
as originally, Canandarqua, signifying in the Indian tongue 
the “chosen spot”) is .a beautiful village with Avide shaded 
streets, fine public buildings, and handsome residences. 
There are t\vo weekly newspapers, seven churches, an acad¬ 
emy, a female seminary, a library association and museum, 
four banks, various manufactures, two orphan asylums (one 
public and one private), a private lunatic asylum, a jail, 
and a fine court-house built jointly by the county and the 
U. S. government. Pop. 4862; of tOAvnship, 7274. 

N. J. Milliken, En. “ Times.” 

Canandaigua Lake of Western New York is mostly 
included within Ontario co. It is 15 miles long, and varies 
in Avidth from three-fourths of a mile to 1£ miles. It is 
surrounded by high banks which present beautiful and 
diversified scenery. The Avater is discharged at the north¬ 
ern extremity of the lake by an outlet Avhich communicates 
Avith Clyde River, an affluent of the Seneca River. The 
surface of this lake is 437 feet higher than that of Lake 
Ontario, and 668 above the sea. The lake is navigable by 
steamers. 

Cana'ries, or Cana'ry Islands (anc. Fortunatse 
Insula), a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, belong¬ 
ing to Spain, are about 60 miles W. from the coast of 
Africa. They are between lat. 27° 49' and 29° 26' 30'' N., 
and between Ion. 13° 25' and 18° 16' W. The names of 
the seven largest islands are Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, 
Gran Canaria, Teneriffe, Gomera, Palma, and Ferro (or 
Hierro); besides which there are several small islets. Their 
total area is 2806 square miles. The Canaries are of vol¬ 
canic formation, and have high rocky coasts. The surface 
is mountainous, and the highest point, the Pico de Teyde, 
in Teneriffe, rises 12,182 feet above the level of the sea. 
The climate is mild and equable, the heat being moderated 
by the sea-breezes. The vegetation is arranged in zones, 


* Half year. 


A. J. Russell. 

according to the height above the sea. The first or lowest 
zone produces the date-palm, sugar-cane, etc.; in the second 
flourish the grapevine, olive, and maize. The highest 
summits are barren and naked rocks. The largest island 
of the group is Teneriffe, which is nearly 60 miles long, 
and has an area of about 900 square miles. The Canaries 
have belonged to Spain since 1493, and the population is 
Spanish. The aboriginal race, called Guanches, was con¬ 
quered in the latter year. The meridian of the island of 
Ferro (17° 39' 51" W. of Greenwich) is usually taken as 
the dividing-line between the eastern and western hemi¬ 
spheres. Pop. 267,036. 

Cana'rium, a genus of trees of the order Amyridacese, 
natives of the East Indies, having compound leaves and 
dioecious flowers. The fruit is a drupe. The Canarium 
commune is cultivated in Java and the Moluccas for the 
sake of its fruit, Avhich is edible and yields a lamp oil. 
This tree grows about fifty feet high, and is supposed to be 
one of the trees which produce elemi. 

Cana'ry Bird, a small singing-bird of the family Frin- 
gillidae, is nearly related to the finches, and is a native of 
the Canary Islands. The species of canary bird which is 
commonly kept in cages is called Carduelis Canaria by 
some naturalists, but others place it in the genus Linota or 
Fringilla. In its Avild state it builds on shrubs or trees, 
and produces five broods in a year. In confinement it 
seems to be contented, and breeds readily several times in 
a year. The color of its plumage is mostly a rich and 
delicate yellow. Its favorite articles of food are canary 
seed, hempseed, sugar, and bland green leaves, such as 
those of chickAveed or lettuce. It has great imitative 
powers, and can be trained to sing various notes. Some 
of the Avild canary birds arc said to surpass the best trained 
singers in loudness and clearness of note. 

Canary Grass (Phalaris Canariensis), a grass the 
seed of which is used as food for cage-birds. It is a native 
of the Canary Islands, and is cultivated for its seed in 
England and continental Europe. This plant is sparingly 
naturalized in the U. S., and is also somewhat cultivated 
for its seed. A fine flour is prepared from canary seed, 
Avhich is employed as dressing in fine cotton-weaving and 
for the finishing of silks. The groats and flour of this 
seed are also used in the Canary Islands, in Barbary, and 
in Italy as food, the flour being made into bread which is 
very nutritious and palatable. The reed canary grass 
(Phalaris arundinacea) is very common on the banks of 
lakes and rivers and in other places in Europe and Amer¬ 
ica. It yields a great bulk of coarse grass, very nutritious 
when cut early, but it is stated that its seeds are so infested 









































CANARY SEED—CANCRUM ORIS. 


756 


with ergot as to render it sometimes poisonous to cattle. 
A variety with curiously striped leaves is well known in 
gardens as ribbon grans. 

Canary Seed, the product of Canary Grass (which 
see). 

Canary Wine, or Teneriffe Wine, is produced in 
the Canaries, and so much resembles Madeira wine that it 
is often sold for that article. It is improved by a long 
voyage. The term Canary is properly applied to the Bi- 
dogue wine, which is the juice of grapes gathered before 
they are ripe, and is not good until it is rendered mellow 
by age. 

Canascra'ga, a post-village of Burns township. Al¬ 
legany co., N. Y., on the Buffalo division of the Erie li. It., 
has an academy and several manufactories. 

Canasto'ta, an incorporated village of Madison co., 
N. Y., on the Erie Canal and the Central B. R., 20 miles 
E. of Syracuse. It has one national bank, four churches, 
a high school, and an academy. Salt brine in paying 
quantities has been found by boring. There are sulphur 
and sulphur-and-iron springs within the village. It has a 
weekly paper. Pop. 1102. 

A. R. Barlow, Pub. “Herald.” 

Can'by (Edward Richard Sprigg), LL.D., born in 
1817 in Kentucky, graduated at West Point 1839, major- 
general U. S. volunteers May 7, 1861, and July 28, 1866, 
brigadier-general U. S. A.; being in infantry till June 18, 
1846, assistant adjutant-general to Mar. 3, 1855, and in 
infantry till July 28, 1866. He served in Florida 1839-42 
on quartermaster duty; in emigrating Indians, garrison 
duty, etc., 1S42-46; as adjutant Second Infantry 1846-47; 
in war with Mexico 1846-48, engaged at Vera Cruz, Cerro 
Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco (brevet major), and city of 
Mexico (brevet lieutenant-colonel); as assistant adjutant- 
general of Pacific division 1849-51; in.adjutant-general’s 
office, Washington, D. C., 1851-55; on Utah expedition 
1857-60; and in command of Navajo expedition 1860-61. 
In the civil war he served in command of the department 
of New Mexico 1861-62, where, after the defection of his 
seniors, he displayed great energy and skill in defending 
the country at Fort Craig, Valverde (brevet brigadier-gen¬ 
eral), and Peralta against a formidable inroad from the 
South; on special duty in war department at Washington 
and suppressing New York draft riots 1863-64 ; in com¬ 
mand of division of West Mississippi 1864-65 (wounded 
on White River); in command of the expedition which 
captured Mobile and its defences (brevet major-general), 
Montgomery, Ala., and received the surrender of the armies 
of Gen. R. Taylor and E. K. Smith; in command of various 
Gulf departments 1865-66, and of department of Wash¬ 
ington 1866-67. After the war he was placed on various 
important special duties, and when fatigued by a long and 
laborious career in 1869 he voluntarily consented to take 
command of the department of the Columbia, which he held 
till treacherously shot dead April 11, 1873, by the chief 
“Jack” while he was endeavoring to mediate for the re¬ 
moval of the Modocs from their rocky fastness on the 
northern border of California. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Cancale, a seaport-town of France, in the department 
of Ile-et-Vilaine, is situated on the English Channel, 9 
miles E. N. E. of St. Malo. It has good anchorage. Large 
quantities of good oysters are procured from a chain of 
rocks, called Rochers de Cancale, which partly enclose the 
port. Pop. 6400. 

Cancan, a French word, the primary signification of 
which is noise, pother. It is also the name of an irregular 
French dance which is not restrained by conventional'pro¬ 
prieties. 

Cancella'ria, a genus of univalve mollusks of the 
class Gasteropoda and order Prosobranchiata. The shell 
is oval or turreted, the spire is prominent, the last whorl is 
ventricose, the surface reticulated, and the columella pli¬ 
cated. All the recent species are natives of tropical or 
sub-tropical seas. Numerous fossil species are found in 
the strata above the chalk. 


local for a considerable time, and may be removed with 
good hope of a permanent recovery. 

The practical distinction or diagnosis of these tumors is 
founded upon a careful comparison of the characters of 
malignant and non-malignant tumors, and also upon a 
thorough knowledge of the anatomy and relations of the 
textures in which they arise. The attempts to distinguish 
these from other growths call for the highest qualities of 
the surgeon, including a knowledge of minute structure as 
obtained by the use of the microscope. What the charac¬ 
teristic microscopical element of cancer is it is, however, 
not easy to define. But Billroth confidently asserts that 
it always springs from true epithelium, and that the modi¬ 
fied epithelial cell is the constant characteristic element 
of cancer. 

The most common scats of cancer are, among external 
parts, the female breast, the eye, the tongue, the lip, the 
male genital organs; among internal organs, the liver, 
stomach, uterus, rectum, gullet, peritoneum, and lymphatic 
glands. Scirrhus or hard cancer, observed most frequently 
in the breast, uterus, and stomach, is more frequently 
solitary than encephaloid (brain-like), otherwise called 
medullary or soft cancer; the rare colloid cancer is of a 
glue-like consistency ; melanosis, or melanic cancer, a va¬ 
riety charged with brown or black pigment, is almost 
always multiple in its occurrence; while epithelial cancer, 
or epithelioma, of which examples are frequently found in 
the lip, scrotum, or tongue, is so generally solitary as to 
have led some pathologists to place it in a class altogether 
apart from the truly cancerous growths. Again, there are 
varieties of fibrous and of cartilaginous tumor, as well as 
certain tumors of bone and bone-like tumors in soft parts 
(osteoid), which occupy a doubtful position between the 
malignant and non-malignant growths, the so-called “cauli¬ 
flower excrescence” being one of the number. 

A tumor falls under the suspicion of being cancer when 
it infiltrates the texture in which it arises and passes into 
the surrounding textures; when it invades the lymphatic 
glands; when it is attended by stinging or darting pains, 
or by obstinate and slowly extending ulceration; when it 
occurs in a person having impaired health or past middle 
life, and is not traceable to any known cause of inflamma¬ 
tory disease or local irritation, nor to any other known con¬ 
stitutional disease, such as syphilis or scrofula. But the 
elements of diagnosis here referred to ought to be early 
submitted to the scrutiny and judgment of a well-educated 
medical adviser. 

The removal of cancerous tumors is resorted to by sur¬ 
geons, and when performed early in well-selected cases it 
has been followed by long-continued exemption. Opera¬ 
tions are rarely performed after the lymphatic glands are in¬ 
volved, or when there is evidence of a deteriorated consti¬ 
tution or of internal disease; but sometimes great pain or 
profuse and exhausting discharge from an external tumor 
may justify its removal, as a palliative measure, even under 
these unfavorable circumstances. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Cancer, the Latin name of a crab. In astronomy, it 
is the fourth sign of the Zodiac, and is denoted by the fig¬ 
ure 2 ^. The sun enters this sign about the 21st of June. 
The first point of Cancer is 90° distant from the first point 
of Aries, and is called the summer solstice. Cancer is also 
the name of a constellation of the Zodiac, which does not 
coincide with the sign just described. (See Precession 
of the Equinoxes, by Gen. J. G. Barnard, U. S. A.) 

Cancer Root, or Eeech Drops, a name given to 
the EpipJiegus Virginiana, a parasitic plant of the natural 
order Orobanchacese. It is a native of the U. S., and 
grows on the roots of beech. The plant is astringent, and 
the root has been reputed a remedy for cancer, but it has 
no favorable effect upon that disease. 

Cancer, Tropic of, in geography, one of the lesser 
circles of the earth, a parallel about 23° 27' N. of the equa¬ 
tor. At the summer solstice (June 21st) the sun is vertical 
over this line. There is a corresponding circle on the as¬ 
tronomical globe. This circle touches the ecliptic in the 
first point of the sign Cancer. Hence the name. 

Cancrin' (Georg), Count, a German financier, born at 
Hanau Dec. 8, 1774. He entered the service of Russia in 
1796, became a councillor of state in 1811, and lieutenant- 
general in 1815. He was Russian -minister of finance for 
twenty-one years (1823-44), and performed the duties of 
that office with ability and success. Died Sept. 22, 1845. 

Can'crinite, a silicate of alumina and soda with car¬ 
bonate of lime, is found in Norway and at Litchfield, Me. 
It is remarkable as an instance of a silicate containing 
carbonic acid. 

Can'crum O'ris (synonyms, noma , aqueous cancer \ 
a mortification of the cheek, mostly in children who have 


Can'cer [from the Lat. cancer , a “crab,” the swollen 
veins around it being likened to crabs’ claws], the popular 
name for carcinoma, a disease characterized by tumors or 
slow ulcerations in various parts, occurring either simultane¬ 
ously or in succession, and having a malignant character; 
that is, a tendency to spread to other parts, and to grow 
worse, resisting medication, and usually ending in the 
death of the patient. 

Among the tumors admitted by general consent into the 
order of cancers there are widely different degrees of malig¬ 
nancy ; some having the tendency to spread rapidly and 
infect the system at an early period, while others remain 















CANDAHAR—CANEA. 757 


long suffered from poverty, moist or close air, or fever. 
The proximate cause is generally found in an imprudent 
administration of mercury, or in the inanition and disso¬ 
lution of the blood from measles, typhoid fever, hooping- 
cough, or dysentery. It is almost always fatal. Usually 
but one cheek is affected. A small vesicle shows itself half 
an inch or an inch from the angle (mostly the left) of the 
mouth ; it soon bursts and gives way to a yellow hardening 
surface. The surrounding parts swell and exhibit a waxy 
color. A day or two after a hard spot is felt in the cheek 
which extends rapidly. The skin become black and fetid, 
and the whole cheek is perforated. The destruction spreads 
rapidly over the cheek, nose, upper lip to the median line, 
eyelids, neck, and jaw-bones. The teeth fall out, the stench 
is intolerable. Haemorrhages are rare. While in this man¬ 
ner half of the face is being destroyed, the patient may be 
without fever, inclined to play and to eat. After about a 
week has elapsed fever will set in, depression will take the 
place of indifference ; pneumonia or diarrhoea, with swelling 
of the feet, will make its appearance and accelerate the 
fatal termination. Recoveries have been observed, but are 
rare. Amongst the best preventives early attendance in 
cases of the common forms of ulcerous inflammations of 
the mouth, restriction in the use of mercurial medicines, 
and the improvement in the condition of the poor, take 
prominent places. When the malady is developed the dis¬ 
eased portion must be disinfected by hvpermanganate of 
potassaor carbolic acid, or destroyed by concentrated min¬ 
eral acids, chloride of zinc, arsenic paste, or the red-hot 
iron. The gcnei*al condition of the patient requires a gen¬ 
erous diet, and the administration of stimulants and iron, 
or quinia, or both combined. Abraham Jacobi. 

Candahar', or Kandahar, called by the Afghans 
Ah med Shahee, the capital of Central Afghanistan, is 
situated in a fertile plain, 220 miles S. W. of Cabool. It 
is well supplied with water by two canals. The houses are 
mostly mean and built of wood. Candahar has an exten¬ 
sive trade and some manufactures. About 2 miles N. of 
this town is a precipitous rock which is crowned by a strong 
fortress or citadel. Candahar is supposed to have been 
founded by Alexander the Great. It was captured by 
Tamerlane in 1384, and by Shah Abbfls of Persia in 1620. 
The British army occupied it in 1839-42. Pop. estimated 
at from 50,000 to 80,000. 

Candela'brum [Lat., plu. candelabra], a “ candle¬ 
stick,” a support for lamps. There were perhaps few 
articles in which the ancients so combined the beautiful 
with the useful as in their candlesticks and lamps. Can¬ 
delabra usually were of wood, but marble and metals 
were used for their construction, and sometimes they were 
adorned with gems. The candelabra found at Hercula¬ 
neum and Pompeii are mostly of bronze; they were also 
frequently of marble. The base in many instances con¬ 
sists of three feet of a lion, goat, or other animal, real or 
imaginary. In addition to the various kinds of candela¬ 
bra which seem to have stood on the floor, the ancients had 
others intended to be placed on a table. These consisted 
either of a pillar or of a tree, and from the capital in the 
former case, or from the branches in the latter, lamps were 
suspended. 

Can'dia, or Megalo-Cas'tro, a fortified seaport 
and capital of the island of Crete, is on the N. coast; lat. 
35° 21' N., Ion. 25° 8' E. It contains several mosques, a 
cathedral, a pasha’s palace, and an arsenal. Its massive 
fortifications and its cathedral were erected by the Vene¬ 
tians, who owned the island until it was captured by the 
Turks in 1669. Pop. 15,000. 

Camlia, a post-township of Rockingham co., N. II. 
Pop. 1456. 

Camlia. See Crete. 

Can'didate [Lat. candidatus], the name given by the 
Romans to a person soliciting the office of quaestor, consul, 
etc., from his appearing in public dressed in a white (Can¬ 
dida) toga. Among the early Christians converts newly 
baptized were called candidates, on account of the white 
robes worn by them eight days after baptism. In Ger¬ 
many, at the present time, a theological student who has 
been approved before the highest authorities in the Church 
is called a candidate, and the term is generally given to 
any applicant for office, religious or secular. 

Can'dle [Lat. candela (from candeo, to “shine”); Fr. 
chandelle], a cylinder of wax or fat with a central wick, 
intended for giving light, and used in various religious 
ceremonies. Candles are made of tallow, of stearine, 
bleached wax, spermaceti, and paraffine. They are either 
dipped, moulded, or rolled. “Dips” arc made by hanging 
wicks upon a frame, at a distance from each other equal to 
about double the intended thickness of the candle; these 
are then dipped in melted tallow, and hung upon a rack 


until cooled, then dipped again and again, until the re¬ 
quired thickness is obtained. Mould candles are cast by 
pouring the tallow down a tube, along the axis of which 
the wick has been previously adjusted. These tubes are 
smooth inside, and several are fitted in a frame, the upper 
part of which forms a trough into which the moulds all 
open ; and by pouring into the trough all the moulds are 
filled at once. Wax candles are not moulded, on account 
of the contraction which wax undergoes in cooling, and 
the difficulty of drawing it from the moulds. The wicks 
are warmed, and melted wax is poured over them until 
they acquire the proper thickness; they are then rolled 
between flat pieces of wet hard wood. 

Certain fatty acids are also used in making the best can¬ 
dles. Lime is used to separate the glycerine from the fatty 
acid of tallow, palm oil, etc. The lime forms an insoluble 
soap by combining with the fatty acid, and the gtycerinc 
remains in solution with the water. This lime-soap is then 
reduced to powder, and the fatty acid separated by means 
of sulphuric acid, which combines with the lime. The 
whole being heated, the fatty acid is skimmed off, and the 
candles moulded from it. These are called star or compo¬ 
site candles ; they give a purer light than ordinary tallow. 
Stearic acid, the principal fatty acid of tallow, is a hard 
crystalline substance, perfectly dry and free from any greasi¬ 
ness, with a somewhat pearly lustre. Its crystalline struc¬ 
ture presents a difficulty in the manufacture of candles, for 
when cast in moulds it contracts on cooling and leaves 
small spaces between the crystals. This is obviated by 
mixing the “ stearine ” with a little wax. 

Various ingenious arrangements have been introduced 
to obviate the necessity of snuffing candles; in nearly all 
of them the object is effected by causing the wick to bend 
over and its end to fall outside of the flame, and thus, by 
coming in contact with the oxygen of the air, to be com¬ 
pletely burned, for such combustion cannot take place 
within the flame. This bending over is variously brought 
about. One method is by braiding the wick with one 
strand shorter than the rest. Another process loads the 
wick with metallic bismuth, which fuses to a bead in the 
flame, and the weight of the bead bends the wick. 

Revised bv 0. W. Greene. 

Can'dl emas, a festival to commemorate the purifica¬ 
tion of the Virgin Mary, is observed by the Roman Catholics 
on the 2d of February, when they form a procession with 
many lighted candles. On this day all the church candles 
for the year are blessed. 

Candle-Nut ( Aleurites triloba), a tree of the order 
Euphorbiaccse, a native of Java, the Moluccas, and the 
Pacific islands. It bears a nut as large as a walnut, having 
a hard shell and a kernel which is edible when roasted. It 
yields an excellent bland oil, which is used for food and is 
burned in lamps. The natives of the Society Islands ar¬ 
range the perforated kernels on a string or rush and use 
them as torches. 

Cand'lish (Robert Smith), D. D., a Scottish preacher, 
born in Glasgow Mar. 23, 1807. He was licensed as a min¬ 
ister in 1831, and began to preach in Edinburgh in 1834. 
He was one of the prominent leaders of the popular party, 
and co-operated with Dr. Chalmers in organizing the Free 
Church after the disruption which occurred in 1843. He 
acquired much distinction as a pulpit-orator and a debater 
in religious assemblies. He published several religious 
works. Died Oct. 19, 1873. 

Can'dor* a post-village of Tioga co., N. Y., on the 
Cayuga and Susquehanna R. R., has four churches, a 
weekly paper, a bank, and some manufactures. Pop. of 
Candor township, 4250. 

Candy, a town of Ceylon. See Kandy. 

Can'dytuft (lberis), a genus of plants of the natural 
order Cruciferse, are indigenous in the countries bordering 
on the Mediterranean. The flowers have unequal petals 
and grow in dense corymbs. Some of the species are cul¬ 
tivated in gardens for the beauty of their flowers. 

Cane [Lat. canna ], a name given to several species of 
plants, and to the stems of the smaller palms and the larger 
grasses. The canes or rattans of commerce, which are used 
in making cane-seats of chairs, etc., arc the product of the 
palmaceous plants Calamus Rotang and Calamus viminalis. 
The term cane is also applied to the Arundtnaria macro- 
sperma, an arborescent grass which grows in the Southern 
U. S. on the alluvial banks of rivers, and forms thickets 
called canebrakes which are almost impenetrable. This 
plant often grows to the height of fifteen or twenty leet. 
(Sec Rattan and Sugar-Cane.) 

Cane'a, or Can'na, called Khani'a by the modern 
Greeks, a seaport-town of Candia or Crete, is on the IS. 
coast, about 70 miles W. of Candia. It occupies the site 
of the ancient Cydonia. It is the most commercial town 
















758 


CANEADEA—CANNABIS. 


in the island, and has a safo but shallow harbor, which 
will admit vessels of 300 tons. It has a lighthouse, an 
arsenal, and a fort. Oil, soap, wax, etc. are the chief ar¬ 
ticles of export. Pop. about 7000. 

Canca'tlca, a post-village and township of Allegany 
co., N. Y., contains valuable stone-quarries. Pop. of vil¬ 
lage, 236; of township, 1869. 

Cane Creek, a township of Clarke co., Ala. Pop. 480. 

Cane Creek, a post-township of Butler co., Mo. P. 323. 

Cane Creek, a township of Lancaster co., S. C. Pop. 
1759. 

Cane Hill, a township of Washington co., Ark. Pop. 
1611. It is the seat of Cane Hill College. 

Canel'la Al'ba, a large tree which grows in Florida 
and the West Indies, and is called wild cinnamon. It has 
fragrant flowers and an aromatic bark, which is exported 
in quilled pieces of a pale buff color and a pungent taste. 
This is sometimes used in medicine as a stimulant tonic. 
The genus Canella belongs to the order Clusiaceae. 

Ca'nes Venat'ici (i. e. the “Hunting Dogs”), the 
Latin name of a constellation of the northern hemisphere. 
It is represented on the celestial globe by the figures of two 
dogs named Asterion and Chara, which are held in leash 
by Bootes, and appear as if pursuing Ursa Major. 

Ca'ney, a township of Independence co., Ark. Pop. 
177. 

Caney, a post-township of Ouachita co., Ai’k. Pop. 845. 

Caney Fork, a township of Pike co., Ark. Pop. 199. 

Caney Fork, a township of Jackson co., N. C. Pop. 
951. 

Caney River, a township of Yancy co., N.-C. Pop. 
1202. 

Can'field, a post-village, capital of Mahoning co., 0., 
on the Niles and New Lisbon It. R., 69 miles S. E. of Cleve¬ 
land. It has one large leather-belt factory, a good ma¬ 
chine-shop, and one weekly paper. The exhibition grounds 
of the Mahoning Agricultural Society are located here. 
Pop. 640; of Canfield township, 1513. 

Wm. R. Brownlee, Ed. “Mahoning County News.” 

Can'gas de Tine'o, a town of Spain, in the province 
of Oviedo, 37 miles S. W. of Oviedo, on the Narcea. Pop. 
21,337. 

Canicat'ti, a town of Sicily, in the province of Gir- 
genti, on the river Naro, 15 miles E. N. E. of Girgenti. It 
is well built, and has sulphur-mines in the vicinity. Pop. 
in 1871, 20,908. 

Canic'ula, a name formerly given to Sirius, the dog- 
star, a star in the constellation Canis Major. This name 
signifies in Latin “ little dog.” 

Canic'ular Year, the ancient year of the Egyptians, 
so called because its commencement was determined by 
the heliacal rising of Sirius (or Canicula). Their reason 
for computing time from the rising of that star was perhaps 
because it occurred about the same date as the annual in¬ 
undation of the Nile. The common year of the Egyptians 
consisted of 365 days, and every fourth year of 366. 

Can'idfe [from the Lat. canis, a “dog”], a family of 
the digitigrade carnivorous Mammalia, to which belong 
the dog, fox, wolf, etc. The hygenas are sometimes re¬ 
ferred to this family, and sometimes to the Viverridse 
(civets, ichneumons, etc.). These families are closely con¬ 
nected, and hyaenas may be said to form a connecting link 
between them. The Canidae have two flat tuberculous 
molar teeth on each side behind the great cheek tooth of 
the upper jaw, a dentition resembling that of the bear fam¬ 
ily, or Ursidae, to which they exhibit a further resemblance 
in their power of adapting themselves to the use of vegeta¬ 
ble food. They have generally three incisors or cutting 
teeth, with one large canine tooth, and four pracmolars on 
each side in each jaw, two true molars on each side in the 
upper jaw, and three in the lower. 

Cani'na (Luigi), Cavaliere, an Italian architect and 
antiquary, born at Casal Oct. 23, 1795. He was professor 
of architecture at Turin, and published, besides other 
works, “ Ancient Architecture Described and Illustrated 
by Monuments” (9 vols., 1844). Died Oct. 17, 1856. 

Ca'nines, or Canine Teeth [Lat. dentes canini, from 
cams, a “dog”], a name given to four teeth which are 
pointed and are placed between the incisors and bicuspi- 
date teeth. Each jaw has two of these, which are some¬ 
times called eye-teeth or stomach-teeth. In the Carnivora 
they are very large and adapted to tearing flesh. 

Canis'ius (Petrus), Saint, a Dutch Jesuit, born at 
Nimeguen May 8, 1521. His proper name was Pieter de 
IIondt. He became in 1549 professor and rector of the 
University of Ingolstadt, and was also a prominent mem¬ 


ber of the Council of Trent in 1545. He wrote, besides 
other works, “Summa Doctrina? Christiana?. Died Dec. 
21, 1597. He was canonized by Pope Pius IX. in 1864. 

Ca'nis Ma'jor (?. e. the “Greater Dog”), a constella¬ 
tion which appears in the celestial globe under the feet of 
Orion. It comprises Sirius, the dog-star, which surpasses 
all the stars of the firmament in splendor and apparent 
magnitude. 

Ca'nis Mi'nor (the “Lesser Dog”), a constellation 
adjacent to Canis Major and to Gemini. It comprises 
Procyon, a star of the first magnitude, which is nearly in a 
direct line between Sirius and Pollux. 

Caniste'o, a post-village of Steuben co., N. Y., on the 
Canisteo River and the Erie R. R., 55 miles W. N. W. of 
Elmira. It has some manufactures and a weekly paper. 
Pop. of Canisieo township, 2435. 

Ed. Canisteo “ Reporter.” 

Canister, a township of Dodge co., Minn. Pop. 880. 

Canister Shot. See Case Shot. 

Cank'er [from the same root as cancer ]. Canker in 
plants is especially injurious to fruit trees. It is a kind of 
gangrene, usually beginning in the young branches and 
gradually descending to the trunk. Wet subsoils appear 
to cause canker in some cases. Varieties of fruit trees 
which have been long propagated by grafting and budding 
are most liable to this disease. (For the diseases of the 
human mouth known as canker, see Stomatitis and 
Aphtha:.) 

Canker-Worm {Anisopteryx), a genus of destructive 
insects, of the order Lepidoptera and family Phalaenida? or 
Geometridse. The common American species ( Anisopteryx 
vernata) is rather smaller than the European, and with 
darker wings. The female is wingless. The male has four 
thin, silky wings, which have an extent of about an inch 
and a quarter when expanded. The moths come out of the 
ground principally in the spring, sometimes also in the 
autumn. The female lays from sixty to one hundred eggs, 
glued in clusters to branches of trees; they hatch in the 
early part of May. The larva? then feed upon the leaves, 
especially of apple and elm trees, which they pierce with 
multitudes of holes. When fully grown the larva is nearly 
or quite an inch in length. After about four weeks of 
feeding, the larvae descend, by crawling or hanging down 
by their threads, to the ground, burrowing generally to the 
depth of a few inches. Within twenty-four hours after¬ 
wards they are changed to light-brown chrysalids. From 
these the moths emerge after a variable time. As the female 
canker-worms are wingless, trees may be protected from 
them by leaden troughs containing tar or fish oil being 
placed around their trunks. It is also desirable, however, 
to destroy as many of the caterpillars as possible. Shak¬ 
ing the trees will often dislodge them. (See Harris, “ On 
Insects Destructive to Vegetation,” Boston, 1862.) 

Can'na [a Latin word signifying a “ cane ” or “ reed ”], 
the name of a genus of plants of the order Marantacem. 
The fruit is a capsule containing hard black seeds, which 
are called Indian shot. The flower has one fertile petal¬ 
like stamen, and a petaloid style. One or more species are 
extensively cultivated as ornamental plants. The starch 
of Carina coccinea is used sometimes instead of arrow-root, 
under the name tous-les-mois. The Carina Jlaccicla is a na¬ 
tive of the Southern U. S., near the coast. 

Cannabina'cese [from Cannabis, “ hemp ”], a small 
natural order of exogenous plants which most botanists in¬ 
clude in the order Urticaceac. They are distinguished by 
solitary suspended ovules and a hooked or spiral embryo. 
This order comprises only two genera of plants, the hemp 
(Cannabis) and the hop ( Hunihlus). 

Can'nabis [Gr. KawaPu;'], the typical genus of plants 
of the order Cannabinacege. The only known species of it 
is Cannabis sativa, or hemp, a tall dioecious annual with 
elegant palmate leaves, which grows wild in India, and is 
cultivated for its fibre, etc. (See Hemp, by Prof. Geo. C. 
Schaeffer, M. D.) 

The intoxicating drug called hasheesh by the Arabs and 
bhany by the Hindoos is procured from a variety called Can¬ 
nabis Indica. Under the name of gunjah the dried female 
flowering hemp-plants are sold in bundles for smoking. 
The resinous extract called churrus is swallowed for intoxi¬ 
cating effect. Several native African tribes use it. There 
appears to be more of the active resinoid ( cannabin ) in the 
Indian than in the European variety, owing probably 
to the difference of climate. It has been proved by the 
experiments of Dr. H. C. Wood, Jr., of Philadelphia, that 
the extract of American hemp has the same kind of influence 
on the brain and nervous system as that from India. Trans¬ 
portation must induce some change in the latter, as the 
medicinal dose found to be safe by physicians in England 



























CANNAE—CANO. 


759 


is about ten times as large as that used by Dr. O’Shaugh- 
nessy and others in Bengal. The effects of Indian hemp 
vary considerably with different persons. Mostly, they are 
agreeably exciting, the plant being known in India as the 
“ increaser of pleasure/’ the “cementer of friendship,” and 
the ‘‘ laughter-mover.” Some persons become violent under 
its use. The word assassin is said to be derived from the 
Arabic hashishin, one who drinks or smokes hasheesh. 
With many there is an exaggeration of ordinary impres¬ 
sions, so that slight sounds are taken for thunder, one’s head 
seems as large as a house, etc. Others have their sensi¬ 
bility diminished or suspended by it. The pupil of the 
eye is dilated under its internal use. It does not, like 
opium, affect the secretions, and seldom produces nausea. 
As with other stimulants, the habit of taking it beconles a 
pernicious slavery. 

The ancients possessed some knowledge of the narcotic 
powers of hemp. Dioscorides and Galen mention its juice 
as a remedy for earache. The Scythians made a vapor- 
bath of its fumes by throwing the seeds on red-hot stones. 
Dr. Royle suggests that it may have been the nepenthes 
((t>ap/Aa>coi' vr)nevQi<;) which, according to Homer, Helen re¬ 
ceived from an Egyptian woman and gave to Telemachus 
in the house of Menelaus. 

Extract of hemp (Extraction cannabis Indicse) is now 
used as a medicine for neuralgia and some other nervous 
affections. The variability of its effects, however, has 
hitherto interfered with its extensive employment. (See 
Pereira, “ Materia Medica and Therapeutics,” Philada. 
ed., 1886 .) Revised by Willard Parker. 

Can'mae, an ancient Roman town in Apulia, on the 
river Aufklus (Ofanto), near its entrance into the Adriatic 
Sea. Here, on Aug. 2, 216 B. C., Hannibal gained a deci¬ 
sive victory over the Roman army commanded by C. Ter- 
entius Yarro. According to Livy, the Romans on this day 
lost about 45,000 infantry and 3000 cavalry. The site of 
Canme is occupied by a village called Canne, about 10 
miles W. S. \V. of Barietta. 

Can'net Coal [originally candle coal, because its bright 
flame was a substitute for candle-light], a variety of bitu¬ 
minous coal which is very dense and compact, and breaks 
with an uneven or largely conchoidal fracture. It some¬ 
times exhibits a brilliant waxy lustre, and is generally of 
a brown or black color. It burns with a bright flame, and 
during the process of combustion splits and crackles with¬ 
out melting. This coal, which is found in England and 
the U. S., is used for fuel and is valuable for making gas. 
(See Coal, by Prof. J. S. Newberry, M. D., LL.D.) 

Can'nelton, a post-village, capital and principal town 
of Perry co., Ind., is on the Ohio River, about 68 miles 
above Evansville. It has a large cotton factory, built of 
sandstone, about 300 feet long and five stories high, which 
employs over 400 operatives; also manufactories of draining- 
tiles, pottery, chairs, flour, etc. Bituminous coal abounds 
in the adjacent hills, and is supplied in large quantities to 
steamboats. It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 2481. 

C. II. Mason, Ed. “ Reporter.” 

Cannes, a seaport-town of France, in the department 
of Alpes-Maritimes, on the Mediterranean Sea, 25 miles 
S. E. of Draguignan. It has an old Gothic castle and a 
good quay. The mildness and salubrity of the climate 
render this a favorite winter resort for English families. 
Napoleon landed at Frejus, near Cannes, after his escape 
from Elba on Mar. 1, 1815, and Lord Brougham died here 
in 1868. Pop. 9618. 

Can'nibal [etymology doubtful], a person who feeds 
on human flesh. The practice appears to have prevailed 
in ancient as well as in modern times. Facts show that 
the people addicted to the eating of human flesh are not 
always the most degraded of the human race. For in¬ 
stance, in Australia, where the large animals are scarce, 
there are tribes of an extremely degraded type, who have 
only been known in exceptional conditions to feed on 
human flesh. The New Zealanders, on the other hand, 
who are one of the most highly developed aboriginal races 
with which civilization has had to compete, were, down to 
a late period, habitual cannibals. Cannibalism is chiefly 
found in the islands of the Pacific and in Africa. Among 
certain tribes of aborigines of America cannibalism is said 
to have formerly prevailed. It is also believed by some 
archieologists that the inhabitants of Europe in the pre¬ 
historic stone-period were to some extent cannibals. 

Can'ning (Charles John), Earl, an English states¬ 
man, a son of George Canning, noticed below, was born 
Dec. 14, 1812. He succeeded to the peerage on the death 
of his mother in 1837, and began his public life as a con- 
servafive. In 1852 he became postmaster-general in the 
ministry of Lord Aberdeen. He was appointed governor- 
generaf of India in 1855. During his administration oc¬ 


curred the great Sepoy mutiny (1857-58;. Died in Eng¬ 
land June 17, 1862. 

Camming (George), an eminent English statesman and 
orator, born in London April 11, 1770. He was educated 
at Christ’s Church College, Oxford, where he distinguished 
himself as a classical scholar. In 1793 he entered Parlia¬ 
ment as a supporter of Pitt, who was then prime minister, 
and he became an under secretary of state in 1796. About 
1797, Canning, Ellis, and others began to publish the witty 
and famous political satires called “The Anti-Jacobin.” 
He married a daughter of General John Scott. After the 
resignation of Mr. Pitt, in 1801, Canning joined the oppo¬ 
sition against the ministry of Addington. In April, 1807, 
he became minister of foreign affairs in the Tory cabinet 
formed by the duke of Portland. Ho fought a duel in 1809 
with Lord Castlcreagh, who was the favorite leader of the 
Tories. Soon after this duel he ceased to be a cabinet min¬ 
ister. He advocated Catholic emancipation in 1812, was 
returned to Parliament for Liverpool in that year, and was 
appointed president of the board of control in 1816. In 
the latter part of his life Canning and Lord Brougham 
were considered the most eloquent and powerful orators in 
the House of Commons. On the death of Lord Castle- 
reagh, in 1822, Canning succeeded him as secretary of for¬ 
eign affairs in the cabinet of Lord Liverpool. He infused 
a more liberal spirit into the cabinet, and rendered an im¬ 
portant service to his country by pursuing a foreign policy 
that was not subservient to the interests and designs of 
the Holy Alliance. In April, 1827, he became first lord of 
the treasury as the successor of Lord Liverpool, who was 
disabled by paralysis. He formed a cabinet partly of 
Tories and partly of Whigs. Died Aug. 8, 1827. (See 
Robert Bell, “ Life of George Canning,” 1846 ; A. G. Sta¬ 
pleton, “ The Political Life of G. Canning,” 1859; Rueder, 
“ G. Canning, seine Leben, etc.,” 1827.) 

Canning (Stratford). See Stratford de Redcliffe. 

Can'ningtoii, a post-village of Brock township, On¬ 
tario co. and province (Canada), on the Toronto and 
Nipissing Railway, 59 miles N. of Toronto. It has a 
weekly paper and some manufactures. Pop. about 800. 

Cannon. See Artillery, by Gen. William F. Barry, 
U. S. A. 

Can'non, a county of Middle Tennessee. Area, 220 
square miles. It is drained by Stone River and other 
small streams. The surface is undulating or hilly; the 
soil is mostly fertile. Grain, wool, and tobacco are the 
chief products. Capital, Woodbury. Pop. 10,502. 

Cannon, a township of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1206. 

Cannon (Newton), born in Guilford co., N. C., about 
1781, served in the Tennessee mounted riflemen as colonel 
at Tallahatchie (Nov. 3, 1813), was a member of Congress 
from Tennessee (1814-17 and 1819-23), and was governor 
(1835-39). Died Sept. 29, 1841. 

Cannon (William), born at Bridgeville, Del., in 1809, 
was governor of Delaware in 1864-65. Died Mar. 1, 1865. 

Cannonade, in general, is the discharge of balls or 
shells from cannon or great guns; the act of firing artil¬ 
lery in a battle or a siege. As a technical term it is some¬ 
times used to denote an action between two armies in which 
the artillery is employed almost exclusively. 

Cannon-ball Tree (Couroupita Guianensis ), a large 
tree of the order Lecythidaceae, a native of Guiana. It 
bears racemes of white and rose-colored flowers, and a 
fruit which has a hard woody shell and is nearly round. 
This fruit is about the size of a thirty-six pound cannon¬ 
ball. 

Cannon City, a post-township of Rice co., Minn. 
Pop. 510. 

Cannon Falls, a township of Goodhue co., Minn. 
Pop. 957. 

Can'non’s, a township of Newberry co., S. C. P. 1224. 

Cannonsburg, Pa. See Canonsburg. 

Can'nonsville, a post-village of Tompkins township, 
Delaware co., N. Y., on the Delaware River, 8 miles above 
Deposit, has three churches, and manufactures of leather, 
flour, etc. Pop. 319. 

Cann'stadt, a town of Wiirtemberg, is situated in a 
beautiful and fertile valley, on the river Neckar, 21 miles 
by rail N. E. of Stuttgart. It is connected by railways 
with Carlsruhe, Heilbronn, and other cities. It has manu¬ 
factures of cotton and woollen fabrics and an active trade, 
for which the navigable Neckar affords facilities. Hero 
are many mineral springs, which are much frequented in 
the summer. Pop. in 1871, 11,904. 

Ca'no, a township of Iowa co., la. Pop. 235. 

Cano (Alonzo), a celebrated Spanish painter, sculptor, 
and architect, was born at Granada Mar. 19, 1601. He 















760 


CANOE—CANOPUS. 


studied painting under Pacheco and Juan de Castillo, and 
became the founder of the school of Granada. In 1038 he 
was appointed court-painter by Philip IV. Among his 
chief works is a “ Conception of the Virgin.” Died Oct. 
5, 1665. 

Canoe [etymology uncertain], a rude boat made of the 
trunk of a single tree hollowed out. Canoes are generally 
open boats, propelled by paddles and steered by oars. The 
length and other dimensions vary greatly. On sea-coasts 
canoes are sometimes made of light wooden frames covered 
with seal skins, which are drawn across as a deck, with 
only a hole large enough for one man to sit in. The name 
is also applied to boats made of birch bark, and to other 
rude craft, and of late to a pleasure-boat designed for long 
excursions by a single person. 

Canoe, a township of Escambia co., Ala. Pop. 479. 

Canoe, a post-township of Winneshiek co., Ia. P. 864. 

Canoe, a township of Indiana co., Pa. Pop. 998. 

Canoe Creek, a township of Rock Island co., Ill. P.413. 

Cano'ga, a post-village of Fayette township, Seneca 
co., N. Y., has an extensive water-power furnished by an 
immense spring, which discharges also nitrogen gas. The 
village is on the W. shore of Cayuga Lake. Pop. 197. 

Can'on [Gr. /caiw, a “rule”], a term of various signi¬ 
fications in theology, science, and art, means, in general, a 
law, rule, or standard. In ecclesiastical language it is 
applied to a law or rule of doctrine or discipline, or the de¬ 
cree of a general council; also to the genuine books of the 
Holy Scripture, called the Sacred Canon. The Roman 
Catholic Church recognizes as parts of the canon of Scrip¬ 
ture the apocryphal books, which Protestants reject. In 
the canon of the New Testament the agreement of the 
Christian churches may be said to be unanimous. (See 
Bible, The, by Prof. W. G. Sumner.) 

Can'on [Lat. canonicus], the name of a dignitary of 
the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches. In each 
cathedral and collegiate church there are canons, who per¬ 
form some parts of the services and receive a portion of the 
revenue of the church. In a collective capacity the canons 
are called a chapter, and form the council of the bishop. 
Canons (in England) must reside at the cathedral for three 
months in each year. Canons were originally monks or 
priests who lived in a community or monastery. They are 
historically known as Canons Regular, and followed the 
rule of Saint Augustine, Saint Benedict, Saint Anthony, 
etc. They were once the most numerous of the religious 
orders. They are still found in some parts of Europe. 

Can'on, in music, a perpetual fugue; a kind of fugue 
in which not merely a certain period or phrase is to be 
imitated or answered, but the whole of the first part with 
which the canon begins is imitated throughout by all the 
other parts. The canon is composed for two, three, four, 
or more voices. 

Canon (Sacred). See Bible, The, by Prof. W. G. 
Sumner. 

Canon, a Spanish word, pronounced canyon, meaning 
a tube, and applied by the American Spaniards to long and 
narrow mountain-gorges, or deep ravines with precipitous 
slopes assuming almost a tubular form. The Rocky Moun¬ 
tains, the Sierra Nevada, and the great Western plateaus 
of North America furnish numerous and striking examples. 
The Great Canon of the Colorado, in the middle course of 
the river, above its last great bend, between 111° and 115° 
W. Ion., is the most remarkable of its kind, and may serve 
as a type. It is hollowed out below the general surface of 
a vast plateau to the depth of 3000 to 5000 feet, opening 
to view, in its perpendicular walls, all the series of geolog¬ 
ical strata down to their granite foundation. At the bottom 
of this vertiginous chasm, occupying its whole width, roll 
the waters of the stream, now foaming through wild rapids, 
now flowing peacefully in its deep and narrow channel. 
Its tributaries, Grand River, the Little Colorado, and others, 
are hardly less remarkable. 

The Snake River, or Lewis branch of the Columbia, runs 
through a deep valley full a thousand feet below the surface 
of the surrounding country. The nature of these chasms, 
their winding course, the disposition of their affluents, seem 
to force us to ascribe their origin to the erosive action of 
the flowing waters, and these wonderful structures prove 
the enormous power of the agent which was capable of 
scooping out such channels. In the far West the name of 
canon has been extended to almost every narrow mountain- 
gorge, whatever be its origin and character. 

Arnold Guyot. 

Canon City, capital of Fremont co., Col., situated on 
the Arkansas River where it emerges from the Rocky 
Mountains, on a branch of the Denver and Rio Grande 
R. It is a resort for invalids, having both cold and warm 


mineral springs and a healthful climate. In this vicinity 
is fine scenery. It has unlimited water-power, and in the 
neighborhood are coal, iron, oil-wells, marble and lime¬ 
stone quarries, and rich copper and silver mines. It con¬ 
tains a planing mill, a grist-mill, three churches, a public 
school and seminary, and contains the Colorado peniten¬ 
tiary. It has one weekly newspaper. The city is 5280 
feet above the sea-level. Pop. 229. 

Henry Ripley, Ed. Canon City “Times.” 

Canon City, a post-village, capital of Grant co., Or., 
about 150 miles S. E. of Dalles City. It contains several 
fine fireproof buildings. Gold-mines have been opened 
in the adjacent hills. 

Canon Creek, a post-township of Lewis and Clark 
co./Mon. Pop. 39. 

Can'oness [Lat. canontuna']. The canonesses were 
members of certain religious orders of the Roman Catholic 
Church, who often took no monastic vows, though they 
lived in common and usually observed the rule of Saint 
Augustine. Many noblemen sought well-endowed canon¬ 
ical livings for their daughters, who were at liberty to 
marry when they chose. The custom prevailed in Ger¬ 
many even after the Reformation, and there were many 
houses ( Stifter ) of Protestant canonesses, especially in 
Westphalia and Mecklenburg. 

Canon'ical, according to the canon or rule. The 
canonical books of Scripture are those which are admitted 
to be genuine and of divine origin. (See Bible, The.) 

Canonical Honrs, in the Roman Catholic Church, 
are certain fixed times in the day for devotions. These 
hours are called nocturnes, matins, lauds, tierce, nones, 
vespers, and complines. The breviary has seven canonical 
hours, because the Psalter says “Seven times in the day 
will I praise Thee.” In England the hours between 8 A. m. 
and 12 m. are canonical, and no marriage can take place in 
any church except in canonical time. 

Canonical Virgins, in the early ages of the Church, 
were young women who, remaining in their homes, took 
upon themselves vows of perpetual virginity. They were 
enrolled in a list or canon, whence their name. 

Canon'icus, an American Indian, chief of the Narra- 
gansetts, who, though at first hostile to the Pilgrims who 
landed at Plymouth in 1620, subsequently became friendly 
to the whites, and especially to the inhabitants of the col¬ 
ony of Roger Williams. Died June 4, 1647. 

Canon'icut, or Conanicut, a beautiful island in 
Narragansett Day, nearly 8 miles long and 1 mile wide. 
The island constitutes the township of Jamestown, in New¬ 
port co., R. I. Pop. 378. 

Canoniza'tion, the act of declaring a person a saint; 
a ceremony in the Roman Catholic and Greek churches by 
which deceased beatified persons are enrolled in the cata¬ 
logue or canon of saints. In the Roman Catholic Church 
the pope has exclusive authority to canonize since the year 
1170, but before that date other bishops had the same right 
or power. When it is proposed to canonize a person, a 
formal process is instituted by which his merits and cha¬ 
racter are investigated. After it has been proved that he 
died in the odor of sanctity, the ceremony is performed in 
St. Peter’s church, Rome. The day of his death is annu¬ 
ally celebrated by the Church. 

Canon Law, a system of rules for the discipline of the 
Church. The name is especially applied to the rules of the 
Roman Catholic Church, which are also in force to some 
extent in the churches of England, Scotland, and Germany. 
This system of laws is based largely upon decisions of an¬ 
cient councils, and also shows marks of the influence of the 
Bible and of the Roman jurisprudence. It received fre¬ 
quent additions and other modifications from the decre¬ 
tals, bulls, and extravagants of the popes. In England, 
the kings and parliaments were always jealous of the intro¬ 
duction of foreign canons, but permitted to some extent 
their introduction in cases where they did not interfere 
with the statutes of the land. In this way the common law 
came to receive the influence of the papal decretals; which 
are sometimes cited as of authority in matters of marriage, 
divorce, inheritance, etc., since these affairs were under the 
control of the ecclesiastical courts. In Scottish jurispru¬ 
dence the influence of canon law is very great, it having 
been originally received as of equal force with the statutes 
of the realm. (See Law, by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Can'onshurg, a post-borough of Washington co., Pa., 
on the Chartiers Valley R. W., 22 miles S. W. of Pittsburg. 
It is the seat of Jefferson College. It has one newspaper, 
a planing mill, and a woollen factory. The Pennsylvania 
Reform School is near by. Pop. 641. • 

T. M. Potts & Co., Pubs. Canonsburg “ Herald.” 

Cano'pus, or Cano'bus [Gr. Karom©?], a very briL 















CANOPUS— 


liant star of the first magnitude iu Argo, a constellation of 
the southern hemisphere. It is never visible in the North¬ 
ern or Middle U. S., being only 371° from the South Pole. 

Canopus, or Canobus, an ancient city of Lower 
Egypt, was situated on the Mediterranean, near the west¬ 
ern mouth of the Nile, 15 miles E. of Alexandria. Before 
the foundation of Alexandria it was the principal seaport 
of the Delta. Here was a famous shrine and oracle of 
Serapis. Canopus was notorious for the dissolute morals 
of its people and the number of its religious festivals. Its 
ruins are still visible about three miles from Aboukir. 

Can'opy [Gr. Kiovwirelov, from kuivio^, a “ gnat,” because 
canopies were used to keep off gnats, like our mosquito- 
curtains ; Lat. canopeum], an ornamental covering over a 
throne or bed; also a covering which is carried over the 
heads of kings on journeys, and over the holy sacrament 
in Roman Catholic processions. The latter is called Bal¬ 
dachin (which see). In architecture and sculpture, canopy 
is a magnificent decoration which covers an altar, throne, 
pulpit, or tribunal. In Gothic architecture, the term is 
applied to the rich coverings which are often seen over 
niches and tombs. 

Cano'sa (anc. Canusium), a town of Italy, in the prov¬ 
ince of Bari, is situated on the declivity of a steep lull 14 
miles S. W. of Barletta. It has an ancient cathedral. Here 
are interesting ruins of the ancient Canusium, an important 
city of Apulia. In the subterranean tombs of this place 
were found painted vases and magnificent funereal furni¬ 
ture, with precious stones and jewels. Pop. 12,709. 

Cano'va (Antonio), a celebrated Italian sculptor, born 
at Possagno, in Venctia, Nov. 1, 1757. He studied art in 
Venice and Rome, and aspired to restore the pure and 
classic style of the antique. Among his early works were 
a statue of Apollo and a group of “ Dmdalus and Icarus.” 
He settled in Rome in 1782, and acquired celebrity by his 
“ Theseus and the Minotaur.” He did not adhere strictly 
to the severe simplicity of the antique, but modified it by 
a peculiar grace, which is apparent in his “ Cupid and 
Psyche” and his “ Venus and Adonis.” Having been in¬ 
vited by Napoleon, he went to Paris in 1802, and executed 
an admirable statue of that emperor. Among his other 
works are a “Venus Victorious,” a monument to Clement 
XIII., erected in St. Peter’s church, a statue of Washing¬ 
ton, and a “ Perseus with the Head of Medusa.” In 1810 
he received the title of marquis of Ischia. He was the 
founder of a new school of sculpture, and was reputed the 
greatest sculptor of his age. Sentiment appears to be the 
most characteristic quality of his works. Died at Venice 
Oct. 13, 1822. (See Cicognara, “Vita di Canova,” 1823; 
J. S. Memes, “Memoirs of Antonio Canova,” 1825; Missi- 
uini, “Vita di Canova,” 1827.) / 

Canrobert (Francis Certain), a French general, 
born at St. Cere, Lot, June 27, 1809. Having served many 
campaigns in Algeria, he became a general of brigade in 
1850, and a general of division in 1853. He commanded 
a division in the Crimea in 1854, and was wounded at 
Alma. In Sept., 1854, he succeeded Marshal St.-Arnaud 
as commander-in-chief of the French army, and he began 
the siege of Sebastopol. He resigned the command to 
General Pelissier in May, 1855, and was made a marshal 
of France in 1856. In June, 1859, he commanded a corps 
at Solferino. He was taken prisoner by the Germans at 
Metz in Oct., 1870. 

Can'so, Gut of, a strait which separates Nova Scotia 
from the island of Cape Breton, and connects the Atlantic 
with the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is 17 miles long, and 
has an average width of 21 miles. 

Cant, a term used in architecture to express the sides 
of a polygon turned from the spectator, or an angular deflec¬ 
tion of a straight line which is neither in the same direction 
to the horizontal nor to the perpendicular line of the base. 

Cant, on shipboard, is a term applied to timbers which 
lie obliquely to the line of the keel, and are near the bow or 
stern. It is also applied to anything sloping or inclined. 

Cant also signifies an impulse with a sudden jerk; ob¬ 
liquity of position ; a whining or affected tone a whining 
pretension to goodness; the peculiar words and phrases of 
professional men ; any barbarous jargon in speech. 

Canta'bri, a rude race of ancient mountaineers who 
lived in Cantabria, the northern part of Spain, near the 
Bay of Biscay. Their chief towns were Juliobrigas, Con- 
cana, and Vellica. They made a brave resistance to the 
Romans in the Cantabrian war (25-19 B. C.). They are 
said to have been of Iberian origin. 

Canta'brian Mountains, a general name of several 
ranges .in the N. part of Spain. They arc connected with 

* Cunt in this sense is probably derived from the Latin canto, 
to “ sing,” in allusion to the singing tone made use of. 


761 


the Pyrenees, from which they extend westward to Cape 
Finisterre. The highest summits are estimated at 10,000 
feet high. Several portions of these mountains receive the 
local names of Salvada, Ordunte, Pena, Anana, Mellara, etc. 

Cantacuze'nus, Anglicised as Cantacuzene [Gr. 

KarTaicov^os], (John), a Byzantine emperor and historian. 
He was prime minister under Andronicus III. (who died 
in 1341), and he became emperor in 1342. lie was in¬ 
volved in a civil war with Anna, the wife of Andronicus 
III., and abdicated in 1355. He wrote a work on Byzan¬ 
tine history from 1320 to 1357. Died Nov. 20, 1411. 

Cantal, a central department of France, formed of the 
S. part of the old province of Auvergne. It is bounded ou 
the N. by Puy de Dome, on the E. by Ilaute-Loire, on the 
S. E. by Lozere, on the S. by Aveyron, and on the W. by 
Lot and Correze. Area, 2217 square miles. It is drained 
by the sources of the Dordogne. The surface is moun¬ 
tainous, and mostly occupied by the debris of extinct vol¬ 
canoes. The soil is mostly sterile. Among the staple prod¬ 
ucts are cattle, butter, cheese, and chestnuts. Capital, 
Aurillac. It is divided into 4 arrondissements, 23 cantons, 
and 200 communes. Pop. in 1872, 231,867. 

Can'taloupe (commonly pronounced kan'ta-lop) Mel¬ 
on, or Musk-melon, named from Cantalupo, in Italy, 
the Cucumis melo of botanists, is of the same genus with 
the cucumber, family Cucurbitaceae. It has round, heart- 
shaped leaves, a creeping stem, yellowish flowers, and 
fleshy fruit, which is much esteemed. It is largely culti¬ 
vated in New Jersey. 

Canta'ta [Fr. cautate ], an Italian musical term, de¬ 
rived from canlare, “to sing.” It is the name of a local 
composition, not easily defined, which consists of choruses, 
arias, and recitatives with instrumental accompaniment. 
Later forms of it are much simpler. 

Canteen' [Fr. cantine], a military term used in several 
senses: 1, a small tin or wooden vessel, which each soldier 
carries and uses for holding water ; 2, a small wooden or 
leathern chest or coffer containing the table equipage and 
utensils of an officer when he is in active service; 3, a pub¬ 
lic-house licensed in British garrisons and barracks for the 
sale of malt liquor, ardent spirits, and groceries, in order 
that the soldiers may obtain such articles without going 
beyond the precincts of the barracks. 

Cantemir' (Demetrius), an historian, was born in 1673. 
He was appointed vaivode of Moldavia by the sultan of 
Turkey in 1710. Having become an ally of Peter the 
Great, he was expelled from Moldavia by the Turks in 1711. 
lie wrote in Latin a “ History of the Origin and Decay of 
the Ottoman Empire.” Died in 1723. 

Canterbury, a city and county of England, in Kent, 
on the river Stour, 56 miles E. S. E. of London, with which 
it is connected by railway. It is the metropolitan see of 
England, being the seat of the archbishop of Canterbury, 
who is primate of all England and the first peer of the 
realm. It stands in a vale or level space between hills of 
moderate height. It contains fourteen old churches, mostly 
built of flint; also remains of St. Augustine’s Benedictine 
abbey, and the ruins of a Norman castle. Among its in¬ 
stitutions are several hospitals, a museum, and a theatre. 
Canterbury returns two members to Parliament. It has 
manufactures of linen damask, and is noted for its brawn. 
St. Augustine became the first archbishop of Canterbury in 
597 A. D. About this time the town was the capital of the 
kingdom of Kent, and was called Caer Cant (?. c. “city of 
Kent”). Archbishop Cuthbert built here, about 740 A. D., 
a church which received numerous additions in succeeding 
ages. The choir having been destroyed by fire in 1174, it 
was soon rebuilt by William of Sens. This restored choir 
is probably one of the oldest parts of the cathedral, which 
presents a magnificent union of almost every style of Chris¬ 
tian architecture. The central tower is 234 feet high, and 
the total exterior length of the cathedral is 545 feet. Im¬ 
mense numbers of pilgrims came here to worship at the 
shrine of Thomas a Becket, who was killed here in 1170. 
Pop. in 1871, 20,961. 

Canterbury, a post-village of Windham co., Conn., on 
the Quinebaug River and on the Hartford Providence and 
Fishkill R. R., 40 miles W. S. W. of Providence. Pop. of 
Canterbury township, 1543. 

Canterbury, a post-township of Merrimack co., N. II., 
on the Boston Concord and Montreal R. R., 8 miles N. of 
Concord. It has a community of Shakers and some manu¬ 
factures. Pop. 1169. 

Canterbury, a villago of Cornwall township, Orange 
co., N. Y., has six churches, and manufactures of cord, fish¬ 
lines, and woollen yarn. 

Canterbury, a settlement of about 2400 square miles 
on the E. coast of the N. island of the New Zealand group. 


CANTERBURY. 













762 CANTERBURY—CANTON. 


Capital, Christchurch; Lyttleton is its chief port. The 
products are potatoes, oil, whalebone, gold-dust, and hides. 

Canterbury, Viscounts (United Kingdom, 1835).— 
John Henry Thomas Manneiis-Sutton, third viscount, 
K. C. B., governer of Victoria colony, born May 27, 1814, 
was member of Parliament for Cambridge borough 1841- 
47, under-secretary for the home department 1841-46, has 
been lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick and governor 
of Trinidad, and succeeded his brother Nov. 13, 1869. 

Canterbury Hell* See Campanula. 

Can'tharis [Gr. KavOapk], plu. Canthar'ides, a genus 
of insects of tho order Coleoptera and family Meloidm. 
The Spanish fly, or blister beetle ( Cantharis or Lytta vesi- 
catoria ), the most important of the genus, is about an inch 
long; has a large head and 
long antennae,and soft wing- 
covers concealing the ab¬ 
domen. It is of a bright 
green. Its brilliancy is of 
use in detecting cases of 
poisoning by cantharides, 
golden-green particles be¬ 
ing always seen in powders 
made of these insects, and 
these particles remaining 
long unchanged. The com¬ 
mon blister fly is found in the south of Europe and in 
Asia. It is rare in England. They are imported from 
Spain, France, Italy, Russia, and the Levant. The perfect 
insect is taken by beating the branches of trees in the 
morning or evening, when it is comparatively lethargic, a 
cloth being spread below to receive the insects as they fall. 
Those who collect them wear gloves and veils. Unpleasant 
effects have been experienced from even sitting under trees 
on the leaves of which cantharides were numerous. They 
are killed with the vapor of vinegar, sulphurous acid, or 
oil of turpentine. Unless kept with great care, they lose 
their active properties. They are liable to be injured by 
mites. Some of the species of the genera Melne and Myla- 
bris are occasionally used as vesicants. The American 
Lytta vittata (potato-fly) and other native species have very 
similar properties. 

The active principle of the flies is cantharidin, of which 
of a grain placed on the lip rapidly causes the rise of 
blisters. Internally, the flies cause heat in the throat, 
stomach, kidneys, etc., and in large doses they give rise to 
inflammation of a serious nature. There are various prepa¬ 
rations of blistering flies, such as tincture of cantharides, 
cantharidal collodion, etc., but that most commonly em¬ 
ployed is blistering plaster, made by mixing powdered flies, 
yellow wax, resin, and lard. 

Can'ticles [in the Vulgate, Canticum Canticorum, the 
“Song of Songs ”], called in the common English version of 
the Bible Solomon’s Song, the Hebrew D’VBtn TSP 
(t. e. “ Song of the Songs ”), is a collection of poems, per¬ 
haps with a dramatic arrangement, whose subject is chaste 
love. The rabbis first began to interpret it allegorically 
of God and His people, and this interpretation was so 
established before the time of the Massoretes that they 
did not hesitate to recognize the book as canonical. The 
same method of interpretation passed into the Christian 
Church, only that the allegory was there accepted as refer¬ 
ring to Christ and the Church. The more crass forms of 
this method of interpretation have been abandoned, but the 
effort is still made by types or symbols or other devices to 
give to the book another significance than that which it 
bears on its face. Not a syllable appears in the book to 
suggest any such hidden significance, and this interpreta¬ 
tion rests on the assumption that, since the book is in the 
canon, it must be something more than it appears to be. 
Niebuhr is said to have replied to a young man, who re¬ 
gretted its place in the canon, that he would not consider the 
Bible complete as “the book of humanity,” if it contained 
no representation of pure and faithful love. The book 
probably belongs to the time of Solomon, though there are 
no satisfactory data for deciding as to its date and author. 

Cantire, kan-tir', or Kintyre, a long narrow penin¬ 
sula of Scotland, forms the S. end of the county of Argylc. 
It is bounded on the E. by the Frith of Clyde or Kilbran- 
nan Sound, and on the W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Its length 
is 40 miles, and its average width 6£ miles. It contains a 
large portion of arable land. A lighthouse stands at the 
S. W. extremity, which is called the Mull of Cantire. 

Can'to Fer'mo, in music, the subject-song or theme. 
Every part that is the subject of counterpoint, whether 
plain or figured, is called canto fermo by the Italians. In 
church music this term means plain song or choral song in 
unison, and in notes all of equal length. 

Can'ton [from the It. canto, a “corner”], a small 


piece of territory; the name of each of the states or in¬ 
dependent provinces which united form the federal repub¬ 
lic of Switzerland, each retaining its autonomy in matters 
of internal administration. 

Canton, in heraldry, occupies a corner of the shield, 
either dexter or sinister, and in size is the third of the chief. 
It is one of the nine honorable ordinaries. 

Canton' [a corruption of Quang-Tong, the name of 
the province; Chinese Sany-Ching], a populous city, the 
greatest commercial emporium of China, and the capital of 
the province of Quang-Tong, is on the left (N.) bank of 
the Canton or Pearl River, about 70 miles from its entrance 
into the China Sea; lat. 23° 7' N., Ion. 113° 14' E. The mean 
annual temperature is 69° F. The city is enclosed by a 
brick wall about seven miles in extent, and is entered by 
twelve gates. It is also defended by four strong forts, 
erected on the hills which rise on its northern side. Several 
islands in the river below Canton are also fortified. Tho 
city is divided into the old and new town, the former of 
which is occupied by Tartars, and the latter by the Chinese. 
The European merchants occupy one of the suburbs called 
hongs, which face the river and are separated from it by a 
quay 100 feet wide. The streets of Canton are crooked 
and narrow, having an average width of about eight feet. 
The houses are built of brick, stone, or wood, and are sel¬ 
dom more than two stories high. Many thousands of peo¬ 
ple called Tankia, having no homes on the land, live on 
boats and rafts, and gain a subsistence by fishing and rear¬ 
ing poultry. Canton contains several many-storied pago¬ 
das, a Mohammedan mosque, and about 120 joss-houses or 
Booddhist temples. The most remarkable of these is on 
the island of Honam, which is opposite the city. This tem¬ 
ple covers about seven acres. Canton has extensive man¬ 
ufactures of silk, cotton, brass, iron, and Avood. 

The city has an advantageous position for foreign and in¬ 
ternal trade, and has access to the rich provinces of Quang- 
Sec and Quang-Tong by its large navigable river. The chief 
articles of export are tea and silk goods, of the former of 
which 24,477,411 pounds were exported in 1863. Sugar, 
porcelain, and precious metals are also exported. All the 
legitimate foreign trade of China was confined to Canton 
before 1843, when the more northern ports of Amoy, Foo- 
choo, Ningpo, and Shanghai were opened to foreigners, 
since when the importance of Canton has declined. The 
exports from this city to Europe and America in 1844 were 
valued at $26,755,626, and in 1871 they Avere valued at 
about $13,840,000. The quantity of tea exported in 1847 
is said to have been more than 72,000,000 pounds. Large 
quantities of opium, produced in llindostan, are imported 
into Canton contrary to laAV. 

Canton is supposed to be the oldest city of China. Its 
population is notorious for profligacy, turbulence, dishon¬ 
esty, and other vices. The European factories have been 
more than once attacked by mobs of Cantonese, actuated 
by a violent hostility to foreigners. The police is render¬ 
ed inefficient or worse by the A r enality and rapacity of its 
officers, who share in the profits of robberies, and are often 
bribed to liberate offenders. In May, 1841, the British 
forces captured the defences of Canton, but before they en¬ 
tered the city they were induced to retire by the payment 
of £6,000,000. The city Avas occupied by the British and 
French armies in Dec., 1857. Pop. about 800,000. 

A. J. Schem. 

Canton, a township of Wilcox co., Ala. Pop. 1528. 

Canton, a post-village and township of Hartford co., 
Conn., 15 miles N. W. of Hartford. Pop. 2639. 

Canton, a post-village, capital of Lincoln co.. Dak., on 
the Sioux River, in a good farming region. It has good 
water-power, and one weekly neAvspaper. 

R. II. Miller, Ed. Sioux Valley “Neavs.” 

Canton, a small post-village, capital of Cherokee co., 
Ga., on the EtoAvah River, about 37 miles N. of Atlanta. 
Gold is found in this county. Pop. 214. 

Canton, an incorporated city in Fulton co., Ill., 28 
miles W. S. W. of Peoria, 12 miles W. of Illinois River, at 
the crossing of the Toledo Peoria and Warsaw R. R., and 
the Rushville and Buda branch of the Chicago Burlington 
and Quincy R. R., is situated in a coal-region Avith mines 
within the city. It has 7 churches, 1 national and 2 private 
banks, 3 iron-foundries, large agricultural implement and 
wagon manufactories, 4 cigar manufactories, and a large 
packing-house, putting up meat for the English market. 
There is a good library, four ward and one high school, 
erected at a cost of $10,500 each, a good fire department, 
etc. It has two Aveekly newspapers. Pop. 3308; of town¬ 
ship, 4472. W. P. Tanquary, Ed. “ Register.” 

Canton, a toAvnship of Benton co., Ia. Pop. 1509. 

Canton, a post-township of Oxford co., Me., on the 
Androscoggin River, at the N. terminus of the Portland 



Cantharis, or Spanish Fly. 













CANTON—CAPACITY. 763 


and Oxford Central E. R., 50 miles from Portland. It has 
manufactures of furniture and carriages. Pop. 984. 

Canton, a post-village of Norfolk co., Mass., on the Bos¬ 
ton and Providence R. R., 14 miles S. of Boston. Canton 
township has one national bank, and manufactures of cotton 
and woollen goods, sewing silk, machinery, etc. Pop. 3879. 

Canton, a post-twp. of Wayne co., Mich. Pop. 1392. 

Canton, a township of Fillmore co., Minn. Pop. 1012. 

Canton, a post-village, capital of Madison co., Miss., 
is the southern terminus of the Mississippi Central R. R., 
which here connects with the New Orleans Jackson and 
Great Northern R. R. It is 23 miles N. N. E. of Jackson. 
It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 1963. 

Canton, a post-village of Lewis co., Mo., on the Mis¬ 
sissippi River, about 185 miles above St. Louis. The Mis¬ 
sissippi Valley and Western R. R. connects it with Quincy, 
Ill., 17 miles distant, Keokuk, and St. Louis. It is one of 
the chief shipping-points of the county, and contains Can¬ 
ton University, an institution of the “ Christian ” connec¬ 
tion. There are two public schools, two banks, two wagon 
and plough factories, and various other manufactures. It 
has one weekly and one monthly newspaper. Pop. 2363; 
of Canton township, 3434. Ed. “ Press.” 

Canton, a village of Van Buren township, Onondaga 
co., N. Y. Pop. 223. 

Canton, a post-village, and capital of St. Lawrence co., 
N. Y., on the Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg R. R., 60 
miles N. E. of Watertown, and on Grass River, which af¬ 
fords valuable water-power, used in manufacturing lumber, 
flour, machinery, leather, castings, etc. Canton contains a 
court-house, jail, almshouse, good graded schools, and nine 
churches, and is the seat of St. Lawrence University (Uni- 
versalist) r having law and theological schools connected 
with it. The university buildings are very elegant. It has 
one weekly newspaper. P. 1681; of Canton township, 6014. 

Canton, the capital of Stark co., 0., is a handsome city 
at the confluence of the East and West branches of Nimi- 
shillen Creek, and on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chi¬ 
cago R. R., 102 miles W. N. W. of Pittsburg and 54 miles 
S. S. E. of Cleveland. It is on the line of the Valley R. R., 
now in course of construction, from Cleveland, 0., to Wheel¬ 
ing, W. Va. It contains 14 churches, 6 banks, 1 academy, 
St. Vincent’s College (Roman Catholic), 4 weekly news¬ 
papers (1 German), 3 manufactories of mowers and reapers, 
1 printing-press works, 1 manufactory of safes, 1 saw and 
spring manufactory, 2 woollen and 5 flouring mills, 2 plough 
manufactories, and a variety of smaller manufactures. The 
city is supplied with water from a lake three miles N. AY. 
of the town by means of a Holly engine. Coal is abundant 
in the vicinity, and the city derives its prosperity chiefly 
from its manufactures, though the surrounding country is 
a very rich agricultural one. Canton is rapidly increasing 
in population and business. Pop. 8660; including Canton 
township, 10,612. Ed. “ Repository and Republican.” 

Canton, a township and post-borough of Bradford co., 
Pa. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of township, 
1840; of borough, 710. 

Canton, a township of AYashington co., Pa. Pop. 592. 

Canton, a post-village, capital of Van Zandt co., Tex., 
about 200 miles N. N. E. of Austin City. It has two 
weekly newspapers. Pop. 183. 

Canton, a township of Buffalo co., AYis. Pop. 648. 

Canton (John), F. R. S., an English natural philoso¬ 
pher, born at Stroud in 1718. He made some discoveries 
in electricity, and received from the Royal Society a gold 
medal in 1765 for his demonstration that water is compres¬ 
sible. Died in 1772. 

Can'tonment* [Fr. cantonnement], a military term 
applied to temporary resting-places of European armies. 
AYhen troops are detached and quartered in several adjacent 
towns or villages they arc said to be in cantonments. In 
India the term is applied to permanent military stations 
of the British army, or to regular military towns at a con¬ 
siderable distance from any city. A cantonment on a large 
scale comprises, besides barracks for European soldiers and 
huts for native troops, magazines, public offices, and bunga¬ 
lows for the officers. 

Cantii (Cesare), a popular Italian historian and poet, 
born near Milan Sept. 5, 1805. He wrote “ Storia Uni¬ 
versale” (20 vols., 1837-42), which has been translated into 
English and French, and “ Della Indipendenza Italiana” 
(1872). He supported the liberal cause in 1848. 

Canu'sium [Gr. Kavvaiov], an important and very an¬ 
cient city of Apulia, in Italy, on the river Aufidus (Ofanto), 
about 15 miles from its mouth. It was probably founded 


* Frequently pronounced kan-too'ment in the British army. 


by the Greeks. The inhabitants were called bilingues by 
Horace, because they spoke Greek and Latin. It was 
captured by the Romans in 318 B. C. Its site is occupied 
by the modern Canos A (which see). Here were found, 
about 1803, remarkable remains of ancient art, among which 
were painted vases, marble statues, and jewels of exquisite 
workmanship. 

Canute, Knut, or Knud, king of Denmaik and tho 
conqueror of England, was the son and successor of Sweyn, 
king of Denmark, who died in 1014. After the death of 
Edmund Ironsides, in 1016, Canute reigned as sole mon¬ 
arch of all England, having completed by arms the subju¬ 
gation of the Anglo-Saxons. He confirmed his power by 
mildness and prudent policy, and became the most power¬ 
ful European monarch of his time. He founded monaste¬ 
ries, patronized minstrels, and wrote verses or ballads him¬ 
self. He died in 1036, leaving three sons, Sweyn, Harold, 
and Hardicanute. 

Can'vas [from the Lat. cannabis, “hemp ”], a coarse 
hempen or linen cloth which is extensively used in the form 
of tents and the sails of ships. It is also the principal 
material on which artists paint oil-pictures. The word is 
sometimes employed as synonymous with sail. In Old Eng¬ 
lish it meant also a straining-cloth or sieve. 

Can'vas-back (Fuligula valisneria), a species of 
North American duck, the flesh of which is highly prized. 
It is considered by some persons as the most delicious of 
all waterfowl. It is not found in Europe. It frequents the 
bays of the sea and the estuaries of rivers. The plumage 
is diversified with black, white, chestnut-brown, and slate- 
color. The length is about twenty inches. These birds, 
after breeding in the northern parts of the continent, mi¬ 
grate southward about November. During the winter 
many of them are shot on Chesapeake and Delaware bays. 
Those found on the Chesapeake are considered better than 
any others. 

Canzo'ne, a form of Italian lyrical poem adopted, 
with some alteration, from the poetry of the Troubadours. 
The canzone is divided, like the Greek strophic ode, into 
stanzas, in which the number and place of rhymes and 
metre of verses respectively correspond. The last stanza, 
commonly shorter than the others, is called congedo or ri- 
jyressa. This form of poetry was adapted by Petrarch to 
the expression of different veins of thought—elevated and 
heroic. 

Caoutchouc, Gum Elastic, or India-Rubber, a 

valuable substance used in the arts for a great variety of 
purposes, is the inspissated juice or sap of several species 
of plants of the natural orders Euphorbiacese, Moraceao, 
Artocarpaceae, and Apocynacem. It is produced chiefly in 
tropical and sub-tropical countries, especially in the East In¬ 
dies and South America. The milky juice of the tree is ob¬ 
tained by incisions in the bark, and is dried on clay moulds 
over smoky fires, which gives it its usual black color. Pure 
caoutchouc is a hydrocarbon, CsHu. It is extremely valu¬ 
able in the arts on account of its elastic and waterproof 
properties. By combining it with less than 25 per cent, 
of sulphur, and exposing it to a temperature of about 
270° F., it is converted into soft vulcanized rubber, a sub¬ 
stance much more valuable than the original caoutchouc. 
By adding 50 per cent, or more of sulphur, and heating to 
300° F., it forms hard vulcanized rubber or ebonite. (See 
elaborate article on the manufacture of caoutchouc prod¬ 
ucts by Prof. C. F. Chandler, under India-Rubber.) 

Cap, in shipbuilding, is a strong, thick block of wood 
fixed near the top of each mast. It has a hole to receive 
the upper end of the lower mast, and another to receive the 
lower end of the topmast, with eyebolts to aid in hoisting 
the topmast. AYhen made of iron the cap is called a crance. 

Ca'pac, a post-village of St. Clair co., Mich. 

Capacity [from the Lat. copox, “capable”], in law, 
ability or power to do a particular thing, such as to take or 
to hold laud, to sue and to be sued, and the like. Capacity 
may sometimes exist to do one of these acts, and not to do 
another. Thus, one may be able to take and hold land, 
and not have capacity to dispose of it, as in the case of an 
infant; or one may be able to take, and not have the pow¬ 
er to hold against another, as in the case of an alien, who 
may at common law take land as between himself and his 
grantor, but cannot hold it as against the state. Capacity 
may be conveniently considered under two general heads 
—capacity to have rights, and capacity to act. Some rules 
as to incapacity depend upon natural disabilities; others 
rest upon arbitrary grounds. This subject is closely con¬ 
nected with the doctrine of status, as treated by writers on 
public law. This has been shown by Mr. Maine in his 
work on “ Ancient Law ” to have had its principal origin 
in the early idea of the family. The arbitrary rules of 
archaic law have been, to a considerable extent, gradually 














764 


CAPANNORI—CAPE DUCATO. 


supplanted by the modern idea of fixing one’s relations to 
another by contract, so that the movement of modern pro¬ 
gressive society has been from status to contract. This doc¬ 
trine is well illustrated in the case of master and servant. 
In ancient law the position of the servant was fixed by an 
arbitrary rule, so that he was a slave. In modern times 
the relation depends on contract. Still, there always will 
be a class of cases where legal capacity is denied, as where 
persons have not the mental power to enter into a con¬ 
tract, including infants, insane persons, and habitual drunk¬ 
ards, or where a supposed rule of public policy may inter¬ 
vene, as in the case of aliens. These are still in some of 
the American States denied the power to hold land by pur¬ 
chase, or even to take it at all by descent. In fact, capa¬ 
city to have rights largely depends on the general convic¬ 
tions of the people of a state, while the capacity to act is com¬ 
monly determined by a desire to protect one who has rights 
from an improvident surrender of them. (See as to the re¬ 
lations of this subject to private international law, West- 
lake’s or Savigny’s treatises on that topic, and Phillimore 
or Wheaton on international law.) T. W. Dwight. 

Capamio'ri, a city of Italy, in the province of Lucca, 
and 5 miles E. of Lucca. It is situated in a fertile plain 
on the railway from Florence to Pisa, and has considerable 
trade. Pop. ih 1871, 48,313. 

Cape Ami, the eastern point of Essex co., Mass., is 31 
miles X. E. of Boston. Here is a rocky headland, in which, 
at Itockport, valuable quarries of syenite are worked. Lat. 
42° 38' 3" X., Ion. 70° 34' 2" W. Two stone lighthouses 
stand on Thatcher's Island, § of a mile distant, each 112^ 
feet high, showing fixed white dioptric lights of the first 
class, 165£ feet above the sea. 

Cape Ar'ago, or Greg'ory, is a point at the S. side of 
the entrance to Coos Bay, in Coos co., Or. Its lighthouse 
stands on a small island, lat. 43° 20' 38" X., Ion. 124° 22' 
11" W., and shows a flashing light 75 feet above the sea. 

Cape Bab-el-Man'deb, on the Arabian side of the 
strait of that name, lat. 12° 40' N., Ion. 43° 31' E., is a 
rock of basalt 865 feet high. 

Cape Bearn, a promontory of France, in the Mediter¬ 
ranean; lat. 42° 31' X., Ion. 3° 7' 30" E. Here is a light¬ 
house of the first class, 751 feet above the sea. 

Cape Bianco, lat. 37° 20' X., Ion. 9° 48' E. This is 
the most northern point of Africa. 

Cape Blan'co (i. e. “ White Cape”), on the Atlantic, 
is, next to Cape Verde, the westernmost point of Africa; lat. 
20° 47' X., Ion. 17° 4' W. 

Cape Blanco, or Orford, on the Pacific, is the most 
western point of Oregon ; lat. 42° 50' X., Ion. 124° 32' 29" 
W. Its lighthouse shows a fixed white dioptric light of the 
first order, 256 feet above the sea. 

Cape Boe'o (anc. Lilybseum Promontorium ) is the 
most western point of Sicily. It was in ancient times an 
important naval station, near which the Romans gained a 
great naval victory in the First Punic war. Lat. 37° 4S / X., 
Ion. 12° 25' E. 

Cape Bojador', a bold headland of Western Africa, 
is the termination of a range of Mount Atlas, in lat. 26° 
7' X., Ion. 14° 29' W. 

Cape Bon, or Has Adder, on the X. coast of Africa, 
58 miles X. E. of Tunis ; lat. 37° 6' X., Ion. 11° 3' E. 

Cape 15reton (brit'tn), an island of Xorth America, be¬ 
longing to Great Britain, and forming a part of the prov¬ 
ince of Xova Scotia, is in the Atlantic Ocean, and is sepa¬ 
rated from the north-eastern extremity of Xova Scotia by 
a narrow strait called the Gut of Canso. It is a rocky 
island of very irregular shape, and has an area of 3120 
square miles. The chief articles of export are fish, coal, 
and lumber. It is noted for its fisheries of cod and mack¬ 
erel. It is divided into four counties. Cape Breton, Inver¬ 
ness, Richmond, and Victoria. The climate is severe. Pop. 
in 1871, 75,483. 

Cape Breton, a county of Xova Scotia, Dominion of 
Canada, is a part of the island of Cape Breton, and borders 
on the Atlantic Ocean. Bituminous coal is the chief prod¬ 
uct. Capital, Sidney. Pop. in 1871, 26,454. 

Cape Canav'eral," on the E. coast of Florida, in Vo¬ 
lusia co., lat. 28° 27' X., Ion. 80° 33' W., is nearly surrounded 
by dangerous shoals, and has on its X. E. pitch a revolving 
light of the first order, 139 feet above the sea. 

Cape Canso, the most easterly point of Xova Scotia, 
has a lighthouse on Cranberry Island; lat, 45° 19.5/ X., 
Ion. 60° 55' 3" W. It is also a port of entry in Wilmot town¬ 
ship, Guysborough co., having active trade and fishing in¬ 
terests. It has a U. S. consul. Gold has been found here. 
Pop. about 1000. 

Cape Cato'che, the north-eastern extremity of Yuca¬ 


tan, is on the Gulf of Mexico. This was the part of the 
American continent on which the Spaniards first landed; 
lat. 21° 34' X., Ion. 86° 57' 51" W. 

Cape Charles, Va., is the southern point of the "East¬ 
ern Shore,” a peninsula which separates Chesapeake Bay 
from the Atlantic Ocean. A lighthouse stands on Smith’s 
Island near this cape with a Hashing light of the first 
order; lat. 37° 07' 08" X., Ion. 75° 53' 12" W. 

Cape Clear, the most southern point of Ireland, is in 
the county of Cork. Here is a lighthouse on a cliff 455 feet 
above the sea; lat. 51° 26' X., Ion. 9° 29' W. 

Cape Coast Castle, a British settlement and town on 
the W. coast of Africa, in Upper Guinea; lat. 5° 6' X., Ion. 
1° 15' W. This is the capital of the British colonies on the 
coast of Guinea. It is defended by several forts. The cli¬ 
mate is unhealthy. The chief articles of export are palm 
oil, gold-dust, and tortoise-shell. Pop. about 10,000. 

Cape Cod, Mass., is a long and narrow sandy penin¬ 
sula, which nearly coincides with Barnstable county. It is 
about 65 miles long, and from 1 to 20 miles wide. The form 
of it is similar to a man’s arm bent at the elbow. On the 
northern extremity, which is called Race Point, is a revolv¬ 
ing light 47 feet above the sea; lat. 42° 03.7' X., Ion. 70° 
14.3' W. 

Cape CoJon'na (anc. Sunium Promontorium), the 
most southern point of Attica, on the Mediterranean; lat. 
37° 39' X., Ion. 24° 2' E. Its summit is crowned by the 
ruins of a marble temple 269 feet above the sea. 

Cape Col'ony, or Cape of Good Hope, a British 

territory which forms the southern extremity of Africa, is 
bounded on the X. by the Orange River, on the E. and S. 
by the Indian Ocean, and on the W. by the Atlantic. Area, 
221,311 square miles. The interior of this region is de¬ 
scribed as a succession of plateaus and mountain-ranges, 
which increase in elevation as they recede from the coast. 
The highest mountains are estimated at nearly 10,000 feet 
above the level of the sea. The sea-coast presents several 
comparatively safe and commodious harbors, among which 
the most frequented are Table Bay and Algoa Bay. Cape 
Colony has no rivers that are of much value for na vigation. 
The climate is healthy, but the extremes of temperature 
have a wide range. But little rain falls in the interior. 
The vegetation of this region is peculiar, and rich in beau¬ 
tiful flowers, among which are the ixia, gladiolus, tritonia, 
strelitzia, pelargonium or Cape geranium, and xeranthe- 
mum. The characteristic vegetation of the vicinity of Cape 
Town consists of Ericacege (heaths), Stapelise or carrion 
flowers, and Proteacem. Here are about 400 species of 
Ericaceae. Among the indigenous animals of Cape Colony 
are the elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, lion, buffalo, panther, 
wild-boar, hyaena, antelope, quagga, springbok, and ostrich. 
Many cattle and sheep are raised here. The soil in some 
parts is fertile, but a large portion of it is arid and barren 
without irrigation. "Wheat and other cereals are cultivated 
extensively. The chief articles of export are wool, wine, 
copper, hides, horses, flour, aloes, fish, fruits, and maize. 
The value of the exports in 1870 amounted to £2,603,000, 
and that of the imports to £2,502,000. In 1870, 28,813,583 
pounds of wool were exported, valued at £1,835,390. 

The colony is divided into two provinces—the eastern 
and western, the respective capitals of which are Graham’s 
Town and Cape Town. The pop. in 1865 was 496,381, of 
which 81,598 were Hottentots, 100,536 were Kaffers, and 
181,592 were Europeans. 

History —The Dutch were the first Europeans who col¬ 
onized this region. They founded Cape Town in 1652. The 
colony was captured in 1806 by the British, to whom it was 
formally ceded in 1814. The European colonists have been 
often disturbed by the hostility of the Kaffers, a warlike race 
of negroes. In 1836 the Boers (which see) left the country 
in great numbers, and founded the independent Transvaal 
Republic and Orange Free State. In 1866, British Kaffraria, 
and in 1868 a part of the Basuto country, were annexed to 
the colony, v A. J. Schem. 

Cape Com'orin, in the Indian Ocean, is the southern 
extremity of Ilindostan; lat. 8° 5' X., Ion. 77° 30' E. 

Cape Di'amond, in Canada, is at the confluence of the 
St. Charles River with the St. Lawrence. It is 333 feet above 
the river, to which it presents a precipitous bluff. On this 
point stands the citadel of Quebec. 

Cape Disappointment, or Cape Hancock, the 
S. W. point of Washington Territory and of Pacific co., at 
the mouth of the Columbia; lat. 46° 16' 33" X., Ion. 124° 
02' 13" W., has a lighthouse 40 feet high, showing a fixed 
white light of the first order 232 feet above the sea. 

Cape Buca'to, or the Leuca'dian Prom'ontory, 

sometimes called The Lover’sLeap, is the S. point of the 
Greek island of Leucadia or Santa Maura ; lat. 38° 34' X., 
Ion. 20° 32' 45" E. It is a perpendicular white cliff over 












CAPE ELIZABETH—CAPE PRINCE OF WALES. 765 


2000 feet high, whence Sappho is said to have cast herself 
for love of Phaon. From this precipice the ancients once 
a year cast a criminal, first tying a great number of birds 
to him. If the flight of the birds was strong enough, so 
that the man was alive when he reached the sea, he was 
taken up in a boat and set at liberty. Mariners have 
always regarded this cape with dread. 

Cape Eliz'abeth, a township of Cumberlandco., Me., 
1 mile from Portland, contains seven churches, and has a 
rolling-mill, oil-refinery, a dry-dock, and important man¬ 
ufactures. Cape Elizabeth is a suburb of Portland, and a 
place of summer resort. The township takes its name from 
the cape; in lat. 43° 33' 56" N.,lon. 70° IP 41" W. It has 
two stone lighthouses, one with a fixed and one with a flash¬ 
ing light. Pop. 5106. 

Cape Farewell', the southern extremity of Greenland, 
is in lat. 59° 49' N., Ion. 43° 54' W. 

Cape Fear, on the Atlantic, is the southern extremity 
of Smith’s Island, N. C., and is the most southern point of 
the State; lat. 33° 52.3' N., Ion. 77° 59.8' W. 

Cape Fear, a township of Chatham co., N. C. Pop. 
2285. 

Cape Fear, a township of New Hanover co., N. C. 
Pop. 996. 

Cape Fear River is formed by the Haw and Deep 
rivers, which unite at Haywood in Chatham co., N. C. It 
flows south-eastward, passes Fayetteville and Wilmington, 
and enters the Atlantic near Cape Fear. The length, ex¬ 
cluding the branches above named, is estimated at 200 
miles. Steamboats can ascend it to Fayetteville, 120 miles. 

Capefigue (Baptiste Honors Raymond), a French his¬ 
torian, born at Marseilles in 1802. He became a royalist 
and editor of several journals of Paris. Among his numer¬ 
ous works on French history are " Europe during the Con¬ 
sulate and the Empire" (1839-41), a "History of the Re¬ 
storation” (1842), and (hishest work) a "History of Philippe 
Auguste" (1831-34, 4 vols.). 

Cape Flat'tery, the N. W. point,of Washington Terri¬ 
tory and of Clallam co. On Tatoosh Island, half a mile 
distant, is a small lighthouse, in lat. 48° 23' 20" N., Ion. 
124° 43' 48" W. This is the most western point of the 
U. S., exclusive of Alaska. 

Cape Flor'ida, the S. point of Key Biscayne, off the 
S. E. point of Florida, has a lighthouse standing in a grove 
of cocoanut trees; lat. 25° 39' 56" N., Ion. 80° 09' 24" W., 
with a fixed white light. 

Cape Foulweath'er, or Yaqui'na Head, thewest- 
ernmost point of Tullamook co., Or., has a brick lighthouse 
81 feet high, showing a fixed white light of the first order 
150 feet above the sea; lat. 44° 16' 33" N., Ion. 124° 05' W. 

Cape Gas'pe, the point of land at the N. side of the 
entrance to Gaspe Bay, Quebec (Canada). It is in lat. 48° 
45' N., Ion. 64° 12' W. 

Cape Girardeau, a county in E. S. E. Missouri. Area, 
875 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Mississippi 
River, and drained by the Whitewater. The surface is nearly 
level; the soil is fertile. Grain, wool, tobacco, cattle, and 
timber are among the chief products. Lumber, cooperage, 
saddlery, harness, etc. are the principal manufactures. Cap¬ 
ital, Jackson. Pop. 17,558. 

Cape Girardeau, a city in Cape Girardeau co., Mo., 
on the W. bank of the Mississippi, 150 miles S. of St. Louis, 
is the seat of St. Vincent’s College, and contains also a fe¬ 
male academy and a public school. There are four news¬ 
papers, one of them German. Its exports are cotton, ploughs, 
lime, mineral paints, etc. There are seven churches in the 
city, two of them Catholic. Pop. 3585; outside township, 
1651. A. M. Casebolt, Pub. "Marble City News." 

Cape Guar'dafui, or Gardafui, the easternmost 
point of Africa, is in lat. 11° 50' N., Ion. 51° 21' E. 

Cape Hat'teras, the eastern extremity of North Caro¬ 
lina, is a point of a low sandy island, separated from the 
mainland by Pamlico Sound. The navigation is dangerous 
in this vicinity, on account of shoals which extend far out 
into the sea; lat. 35° 15.2' N., Ion. 75° 30.9' W. Two miles 
N. of the extremity stands the lighthouse, 190 feet in height, 
showing a flashing dioptric light of the first order. 

Cape Hay'tien, formerly Cape Francais, a sea¬ 
port of Hayti, 90 miles N. of Port-au-Prince. It has a safe 
harbor and some handsome squares. It has some trade with 
the U. S. and England. Lat. 19° 46.4' N., Ion. 72° 11' W. 
Pop. estimated at 10,000. 

Cape Henlo'pen, Del., is at the entrance of Delaware 
Bay, 13 miles S. S. W. of Cape May; lat. 38° 46.6' N., Ion. 
75° 04.7' W. It has a stone lighthouse, showing a fixed 
white dioptric light of the first order, 128 feet above the sea. 

Cape Henry, Va., is at the entrance of Chesapeake 


Bay, 12 miles S. of Cape Charles. Here is a fixed light 129 
feet above the level of the sea; lat. 36° 55.5' N., Ion. 76° 
0.2' W. 

Cape Horn, the southernmost point of America, is an 
island of the archipelago of Terra del Fuego; lat. 55° 59' 
S., Ion. 67° 16' W. It is a high, steep, naked rock. Vessels 
which pass from the Atlantic to the Pacific, or the reverse, 
usually double this cape, rather than pass through the Strait 
of Magellan. 

Cape la Hague, a headland of France, in Normandy, 
on the English Channel, is the N. W. extremity of the 
peninsula of Cotentin, and about 16 miles N. N. W. of 
Cherbourg. On the E. side of Cotentin is Cape la Hogue, 
near which the English and Dutch fleets defeated the French 
in 1692. Lat. 49° 44' N., Ion. 1° 56' W. 

Ca'pelin, or Caplin, a little marine fish of the salmon 
family (the Mallotns Grcenlandicus), which visits the coasts 
of Labrador and Newfoundland in vast shoals, furnishing 
bait for the cod-fishermen. Capelins are also taken and 
dried for the European market, and arc very good eating. 
They are about the size of the smelt. 

Cap'ell (Edward), an English Shakspearian critic, 
born at Troston in 1713. He published the works of Shaks- 
peare in 10 vols. 8vo, 1767, " Notes and Various Readings 
of Shakspeare" (1775), and the "School of Shakspeare," 3 
vols. 4to (1783). Died Feb. 24, 1781. 

Capel'la (7. e. the "Kid"), a bright star of the first 
magnitude in the constellation of Auriga, is also called a 
Aurigse. It is a double star. 

Cape Lookout', the S. E. extremity of the islands off 
Carteret co., N. C., has a lighthouse 150 feet high near its 
extremity, in lat. 34° 37' 16" N., Ion. 76° 31' 07" W., with 
a fixed white light of the first order. 

Cape May, the southernmost county of New Jersey. 
Area, 250 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the 
Atlantic Ocean and on the W. by Delaware Bay. The sur¬ 
face is level; the soil is alluvial, and partly sandy. The 
chief crops are grain, potatoes, and dairy products. The 
county is intersected by the West Jersey R. R. It con¬ 
tains a deposit of cedar-wood which is still sound, although 
it has probably been buried many centuries. Capital, 
Cape May Court-house. Pop. 8349. 

Cape May, or Cape Island, a celebrated watering- 
place of Cape May co., N. J., is on a small island in the 
Atlantic Ocean, 81 miles by railroad S. of Philadelphia. 
The distance from that city by water is nearly 100 miles. 
This place is the southern terminus of the West Jersey 
R. R., and lias daily communication with Philadelphia by 
steamboats in summer. It has two weekly newspapers. 
It is one of the most fashionable summer-resorts in the 
U. S., and contains numerous hotels. 

Cape May, the southern extremity of New Jersey, is 
at the entrance of Delaware Bay. Here is a revolving 
light elevated 152 feet above the sea, in lat. 38° 55.8' N., 
Ion. 74° 57.3' W. 

Cape May Court-house, capital of the above county, 
is on the West Jersey R. R., 68 miles S. of Camden. Pop. 
1248. 

Cape Mendoci'no, a lofty headland of Humboldt co., 
Cal., is the westernmost point of that State. It has a 
wrought-iron lighthouse, with a flashing white light of 
the first order, 428 feet above the sea; lat. 40° 26' 24" N., 
Ion. 124° 23' 27" W. 

Cape North, a promontory in the Arctic Ocean, is the 
northernmost point of Europe. It is the N. extremity of 
the island of Magero, separated by a narrow channel from 
the mainland of Norway ; lat. 71° 10' 12" N., Ion. 25° 46' E. 

Cape of Good Hope, a promontory near the south¬ 
ern extremity of Africa, is the termination of Table Moun¬ 
tain, rising about 1000 feet above the level of the sea; lat. 
34° 22' S., Ion. 18° 30' E. It is about 30 miles S. of Cape 
Town. This cape was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz in 
1486, and was first doubled by Vasco da Gama in 1497. 

Cape Pal'mas, the S. extremity of Liberia, lat. 4° 22' 
N., Ion. 7° 44' W., is a high point with a lighthouse. It is 
also the popular name of that part of the country. It is 
included in the Liberian state of Maryland. Cape Palmas 
is the diocese of a bishop of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church. 

Cape Pine, Newfoundland, lat. 46° 37'4" N., Ion. 53° 
31' 45" W., has an iron lighthouse with a fixed catoptric 
white light of the first order, 314 feet above the sea. 

Cape Poge, the N. E. point of Chappequiddick Island, 
in Edgartown, Dukes co., Mass., lat. 41° 25' 14" N., Ion. 
70° 26' 44" W., has a wooden lighthouse 36 feet high, with 
a fixed white light of the fourth order. 

Cape Prince of W ales, the westernmost point ol the 













"66 CAPER—CAPE TITMOUSE. 


American continent, on the E. side of Behring- Strait; 
Iat. 65° 45' N., Ion. 168° 17' W. It is a lofty headland, 
with dangerous shoals in the vicinity. 

Ca'per, the common name of the pickled llower-buds 
of the Capparia spinosa, of Southern Europe and Barbary. 
Several other species yield buds which are similarly used. 
It is a trailing shrub of the order Capparidacese, growing 
on rocks and walls, and extensively cultivated in Sicily 
and the south of France. The flowers are large and beau- 
tiful. Capers have an agreeable pungency of taste, and 
are used as a condiment and ingredient of sauces. They 
have medicinal properties, being anti-scorbutic, stimulant, 
and laxative. The buds are gathered every morning, and 
immediately put into vinegar. They are sorted, and the 
best are sent to market in jars. Florida has two native 
species of the caper tree, which are erect and not trailing. 
The plant called “ caper ’’ in England is the caper spurge, 
a Euphorbia. 

Cape Race, near the S. E. extremity of Newfoundland, 
lat. 46° 89' 80" N., Ion. 53° 4' 30" W., is a point very dan¬ 
gerous to ships sailing in foggy weather between the U. S. 
and Europe. It has a revolving light 180 feet above the 
sea. It was established by the British government, and 
(with Cape Pine light) is sustained by a tax upon all ships 
sailing from or to Great Britain to or from Canada and the 
North-eastern U. S. 

Capercail'zie, Capercailzie, Wood Grouse, or 
Cock of the Woods (Tetrao uroyallus), a large galli¬ 



The Capercailzie. 


naceous bird, a native of Europe, is a species of grouse. 
The male sometimes weighs fifteen pounds or more. The 
plumage of the male is variegated with black, brown, and 
white, and the chest is dark green. Above the eye is a 
scarlet patch of naked skin. The legs and feet are feathered 
to the toes. This bird is found in the pine-covered moun¬ 
tains of several countx-ies of Europe and Northern Asia, 
and feeds on berries, seeds, insects, and young shoots of 
the fir and pine. It builds on the ground. The flesh is 
highly esteemed for food. 

Caper'naum, an ancient city of Palestine, situated on 
the N. W. coast of the Sea of Galilee. Some authorities 
identify it with the modern Tel-Hfim. 

Cape Romain', on Raccoon Key, Charleston co., S. C., 
has a brick lighthouse 150 feet high, with a flashing light 
of the first order; lat. 33° 01' 08" N., Ion. 79° 22' 12" W. 


Ca'pers (William), D. D., an eloquent preacher and 
bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, born in 
St. Thomas parish, S. C., Jan. 20, 1790, educated at South 
Carolina College, studied law, entered the Methodist min¬ 
istry in 1809, was sent as delegate from his denomination 
to the Wesleyan Conference, in England, in 1828, professor 
of evidences of Christianity in Columbia College 1835, edi¬ 
tor of the “ Southern Christian Advocate" 1836-40, mis¬ 
sionary secretary of the M. E. Church 1840-44, and super¬ 
intendent of colored missions in the Southern States 1844. 
lie took an active part in the proceedings of the Meth¬ 
odist General Conference of 1S44, which resulted in the 
division of the Church, and was elected bishop by the 
Southeim division in 1844. Died in Anderson, S. C., Jan. 
29, 1855. lie was author of an “ Autobiography ” (in 
Wightman’s “ Life of Capers"), “Catechisms for the Ne¬ 
gro Missions," and “ Short Sermons and True Tales for 
Children." He was an able and highly venerated man. 

Cape Sa'ble, the S. E. point of Nova Scotia, is in lat. 
43° 26' N., Ion. 65° 38' W. It has a lighthouse, and is on 
Cape Sable Island, in Barrington township, Shelburne co. 
The island has ’some 600 inhabitants, mostly fishermen, 
descended from loyalists who left the U. S. during the 
Revolution. A ferry connects it with the mainland. The 
name Cape Sable Island is also given to Sable Island 
(which see). 

Cape Sable is the most southern point of the peninsula 
of Florida ; lat. 25° 06' N., Ion. 81° 09' W. It is sandy and 
low, and is the site of Fort Poinsett. 

Cape San Bias, the S. extremity of Calhoun 
co., Fla., has a brick lighthouse 96 feet high, with 
a flashing white light of the third order 102 feet 
above the sea, in lat. 29° 39' 46" N., Ion. 85° 21' 
38" W. 

Cape San Lucas, the southernmost point 
of the peninsula of Old California; lat. 22° 44' 
N., Ion. 109° 54' W. 

Cape Spear, Newfoundland, lat. 47° 31' 11" 
N., Ion. 52° 36' 59 // W., has a colonial lighthouse, 
showing a revolving catoptric light of the first 
order, 264 feet above the sea. 

Cape St. George, the S. point of St. George’s 
Island, Franklin co., Fla.; lat 29° 35' 15" N., 
Ion. 85° 02' 40" W., has a brick lighthouse 68 
feet high, with a fixed white light of the third 
order 73 feet above the sea. 

Cape St. Mary’s, Newfoundland, lat. 46° 
49' 30" N., Ion. 54° 11' 34" W., has a bidck (co¬ 
lonial) lighthouse, with a flashing red and white 
catodioptric light of the first order, 300 feet above 
the sea. 

Cape St. Roque, a promontory on the coast 
of Brazil; lat. 5° 28' S., Ion. 35° 16' W. 

Cape St. Vin'cent ( anc. Promontorhim Sac¬ 
rum), the S. W. extremity of Portugal; lat. 37° 
3' N., Ion. 9° W. Near this cape the British ad¬ 
miral Jervis defeated the Spanish fleet on Feb. 
14, 1797. 

Capet (Hugh), king of France, was the 
founder of the Capetian dynasty. lie was a son 
of Hugh the Great, count of Paris, and was horn 
about 940 A. D. The throne having become 
«vacant by the death of Louis V., the last Cai-lo- 
vingian king, in 987, Hugh assumed the royal 
power with the consent of many of the barons. 
He ruled with moderation, and selected Paris as 
the capital of France. He died in 996, and was 
succeeded by his son Robert. 

Cape'tian Dy'nasty, the third dynasty of 
French kings, was founded by Hugh Capet, who 
ascended the throne in 987 A. D. (see Capet), 
and is said to have been the ancestor of thirty-two kings 
of France. According to some authorities, the last of the 
direct line of Capetian kings was Charles IV., who died in 
1328, without male issue. He was succeeded by his cousin 
Philippe, who founded the house of Valois. The Bour¬ 
bon line, from Henry IV. onward, were descendants of 
the youngest son of Saint Louis, or Louis IX., and so of 
Capet. 

Cape Tit'mouse (Pams Capenaia), a small bird be¬ 
longing to the order Insessores, family Paridm, found at the 
Cape of Good Hope. It is remarkable for the ingenuity it 
displays in constructing its nest, which is made chiefly of 
cotton, and is shaped like a bottle, as shown in the accom¬ 
panying illustration. Whilst the female is hatching inside, 
the male, a most watchful sentinel, remains outside, resting 
in a pouch made for the purpose fixed to one side of tho 




























CAPE TOWN—CAPILLARY ACTION. 


7G7 


neck of the nest. But when his mate moves off, and he 
wishes to iollow her, he beats the opening of the nest vio- 



Cape Titmouse. 


Iently with his wing, and succeeds in closing it, in order to 
protect his young from enemies. 

Cape Town, a seaport of South Africa, the capital 
of Cape Colony, is on the S. W. shore of Table Bay, and 
between that bay and Table Mountain ; lat. of observatory 
33° 56' 3.2" S., Ion. 18° 28' 45" E. It is intersected by 
several canals, is built on a regular plan, and lighted with 
gas. Close behind rise the perpendicular rocks of Table 
Mountain. The town contains an exchange, a college, an 
observatory, a public library, and a botanic garden. It 
is the see of a bishop of the Church of England. This port 
is visited by a large number of vessels, and is a convenient 
place for mariners to stop for rest and provisions in the 
voyage between Europe and India. The Constantia wine 
is produced in this vicinity. Cape Town was founded by 
the Dutch in 1652, and ceded to Great Britain in 1815. 
Pop. 28,457. 

Cape Trafalgar', a headland of Spain, on the Atlan¬ 
tic Ocean, between Cadiz and Gibraltar; lat. 36° 10' N., 
Ion. 6° E.. Near this cape, on Oct. 21, 1805, the English 
fleet gained a great victory over the French, and Lord 
Nelson, who commanded the former, was killed. 

Cape Verd, or Verde ("Green Cape"), the most 
western point of Africa, projects into the Atlantic Ocean 
between the rivers Senegal and Gambia; lat. 14° 44' N., 
Ion. 17° 33' W. 

Cape Verd, or Verde (called also Cape de Verd) 
Islands [Port. Ilhas Verdes'], a group belonging to Port¬ 
ugal, in the Atlantic, 320 miles W. of Cape Verd. They 
are between lat. 14° 47' and 17° 12' N., and between Ion. 
22° 45' and 25° 25' W. Area, 1650 square miles. The 
group consists of fourteen islands, nine of which are in¬ 
habited—namely, Sal, Boavista, Mavo, Fogo, Brava, Sao 
Nicolao, Sao Tliiago, Sao Antao, and Sao Vicente. They 
are all mountainous and of volcanic formation, and the 
highest point is the peak of Fogo, which rises 9157 feet, 
and is an active volcano. The climate is hot. They have 
mostly a fertile soil, and are covered with luxuriant vege¬ 
tation. Sugar, cotton, coffee, maize, indigo, salt, and to¬ 
bacco are the staples. The majority of the inhabitants are 
negroes. Pop. in 1867, 67,347. 

Capeville, a post-village and township of Northamp¬ 
ton co., Va. The village is 3 miles from Chesapeake Bay. 
Pop. of township, 2381. 

Cape Vin'ccnt, a port of entry of Jefferson co., N. Y., 
on the St. Lawrence River and the Rome Watertown and 
Ogdensburg R. R., 25 miles W. N. W. of Watertown. Ex¬ 
tensive shingle manufactories and flouring mills are located 
here. It has one weekly paper. In the vicinity is good 
fishing, and it is a favorite resort for summer tourists. 
Pop. 1450 ; of township, 3390. 

W. W. Ames, Prop. "Cape Vincent Eagle." 


Cape Wrath, the north-western extremity of Scotland, 
projects from Sutherland into the Atlantic Ocean. It is a 
pyramid of gneiss about 600 feet high, and is remarkable 
for the wildness and grandeur of its scenery. Here is a 
lighthouse 400 feet above the sea, in lat. 58° 37' N., Ion. 
4° 58' W. 

Ca'pias [Lat. "you may take"], in law, a writ to take a 
person into custody. It assumes a number of forms, still 
designated by the leading words in the old writs, which were 
framed in Latin, such as (1) Capias ad audiendum, or (2) 
ad respondendum, (3) ad satisfaciendum, (4) m withernam, 
(5) utlagatum. The first of these writs is issued to bring 
up for judgment a defendant who has been found guilty of 
a misdemeanor or minor crime; the second is resorted to 
as a mode of commencing an action. This was originally 
the most important of all these writs, and is frequently 
called a "capias,” without additional words. It has been 
much modified in England, and altogether abolished in 
some of the American States. The third writ designates 
an execution against the person, and commands the sheriff 
to take the person named, and to have his body before the 
court on a specified day to satisfy the claim of the party 
resorting to it. The result is that the party is retained in 
custody until discharged by due course of law. The writ 
is frequently called, by way of abbreviation, ca. sa. The 
fourth writ {in withernam) is used in an action of replevin 
where the goods in question cannot be found by the sheriff. 
By means of it he seizes other goods belonging to the 
party who has removed them, and detains them until res¬ 
titution is made. These goods cannot be replevied until 
those which are the subject of the action are restored. 
The writ utlagatum is used to arrest an outlaw. 

CapiUlaire, a name given to simple syrup flavored 
with orange flowers or orange-flower water; also to a med¬ 
icinal syrup which is used as a pectoral in chronic catarrhs, 
and is prepared by adding sugar and orange-flower water 
to an infusion of the European fern called maiden-hair 
(Adiantum capillus-veneris), the French name of which 
fern is capillaire. This species also grows in the Southern 
U. S. Its virtues are said to be shared by the common 
maiden-hair ( Adiantum pedatum), and by several European 
species. 

Cap'illaries [from the Lat. capillus, a "hair"], the 
minute blood-vessels intermediate between arteries and 
veins. They have but a single coat, which is elastic, but 
not muscular. In size they vary considerably, most of 
them being too small to admit the passage of more than 
one or two blood-corpuscles at a time. Their arrangement 
differs very much in the different tissues and organs. They 
can be examined only by the aid of the microscope after 
their injection with colored fluid; hence their existence 
was not known to the ancients. During life the capillary 
movement of the blood may be seen in the web of the frog, 
the tail of the tadpole, or the wing of a bat. The use of 
the capillaries is to subdivide and distribute the blood 
among all the organs and tissues of the body. Their im¬ 
portance in nutrition and in the performance of all the 
organic functions is very great. (See Circulation of the 
Blood, by Prof. Henry Hartshorne.) 

Cap'illary Ac'tion in its primary signification denotes 
the elevation or depression of liquids in fine hair-like tubes, 
as compared with the level of liquids in equilibrium in ves¬ 
sels or in wide tubes. If a clean wide open tube be plunged 
into water, nice observation will show an elevation of the 
fluid both within and without the tube; but if the tube be 
very fine the water within rises very considerably above its 
level outside, and the finer the bore the higher the rise. 
Careful examination will show that the upper surface of the 
water in the capillary tube is concave. The concavity, or 
" meniscus," is greatest in the finest tubes. If two glass 
plates are united at one edge, the opposite edges being 
slightly separated, and the plates are placed in water with 
the united edges vertical, the water will rise between the 
plates, forming a curve which assumes the form of a right- 
angled hyperbola, of which the asymptotes are the common 
vertical edge and a line at right angles to this edge so 
drawn as to be equidistant from the two panes of glass. If 
mercury be substituted for water, the c.apillary action is re¬ 
versed; the mercury not rising in the tube or between the 
plates, but being depressed. The meniscus, too, is convex 
in this case, and the hyperbola is likewise reversed. In the 
barometer and eudiometer it is necessary to make correc¬ 
tions for this capillarity. 

The cause of oapillarity is well understood, and its results 
can bo mathematically explained. It depends on the ad¬ 
hesion (or repulsion) which exists between the fluid and the 
material of the tube; while the degree of cohesion between 
the particles of the fluid itself must affect the result. As 
the size of tubes increases, the column within increases 
with the square of the diameter, while the attracting surtace 
















768 


CAPITA—CAPITALS. 




increases only with the diameter. Attraction is therefore 
relatively much greater in fine tubes. 

The following table exhibits the relative capillary eleva¬ 
tion of certain fluids in glass tubes one millimetre in diam¬ 
eter at zero C., according to Frankenheim : 


Liquid. 

Water. 

Acetic acid. 

Sulphuric acid. 

Oil of lemons. 

“ “ turpentine... 

Alcohol. 

Ether. 

Carbon disulphide 


Height of cap. column 
iu millimetres. 

.15.336 

. 8.510 

. 8.40 

. 7.23 

. G.7G 

. 6.05 

. 5.40 

. 5.10 


The temperature of the tubes and the liquid exercises an 
important influence upon capillarity. Heat diminishes the 
cohesion of the particles of the liquid among themselves, 
and hence greatly favors capillary action. 

Capillarity is, however, not confined to tubes, but is seen 
in pounded glass, sand, sponge, bread, and other porous 
substances. The principle in these cases is obviously the 
same as in the case of fine tubes. It has been proved that 
the principle of attractive and repulsive capillarity exer¬ 
cises a most important influence upon the circulation of 
nutritive fluids in both plants and animals. 

Cap'ita [Lat. “heads”], in law, is principally used to 
denote the mode of taking cither real or personal property 
from an intestate in case of several claimants. Personal 
property is taken under the provisions of statute law, 
based on a well-known English act termed the “statute of 
distributions,” the provisions of which were derived from 
the civil or Roman law. Primogeniture having disappeared 
in the main in the U. S. as to the inheritance of land, the 
laws of descent also recognize division per capita. These 
words are contrasted with “ per stirpes.” Persons are said to 
take in the former manner {per capita) when, standing in 
an equal degree of relationship to the intestate, they re¬ 
ceive equal shares, as if he had left four children. They 
take in the latter manner, or per stirpes, when the claim¬ 
ants, not being in equal relationship to the intestate, some 
of them represent one who if he had lived would have 
stood on an equality with others of nearer relationship to 
the intestate than themselves. Thus, if the claimants were 
A, a son, and C, D, E, and F, children of B, a deceased 
son of the intestate, these children representing B would 
take his share and no more. 


Cap'ital [Lat. capitalis (from caput, “head”); Fr. 
capitate], pertaining to the head or life; important, prin¬ 
cipal, chief; affecting life, as capital punishment; large, as 
capital letters. Capital crimes are those which are punish¬ 
able with death. 

Capital, in geography, the chief city or town of a state, 
empire, province, or county; the seat of government or 
residence of the court. 

Capital [Lat . capitulnm; Fr. chapiteau], in architecture, 
is a term applied to the head or uppermost part of a column 
or pilaster. Each of the orders of ancient classic architec¬ 
ture—viz., Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Compos¬ 
ite—had a peculiar form of capital. The capitals were the 
prominent characteristic features of the Corinthian and 
Ionic orders. They became more ornate in proportion to 
the development of art, the Doric, the most ancient, being 
very plain and simple compared with the Corinthian cap¬ 
ital. (See Corinthian, Doric, Ionic, etc., respectively.) 

Capital, in political economy, denotes whatever, apart 
from human skill or labor, is used (active capital) or can 
be used in production. In commerce and manufactures, 
it signifies the sum of money or the value of the property 
which a merchant, banker, or manufacturer owns and em¬ 
ploys in his business. Some writers define it as “stock,” 
or accumulated and productive riches, whether in the form 
of money, land, or personal property. In the widest sense 
the term may even include the skill of an artist or the edu¬ 
cation of a physician. But generally the word denotes, 
more narrowly, all that from which profit or interest can 
be derived, and thus land drawing rent is excluded. The 
growing antagonism between capital and labor—the great 
agents or prime moving forces of prosperity and civiliza¬ 
tion—is one of the most important and exciting problems 
of political economy and social science. This antagonism 
has been manifested in the formation of trades unions and 
in the frequent strikes of mechanics and operatives. Among 
its more formidable manifestations were the rebellion of the 
Commune of Paris in 1871, and the projects of the Inter¬ 
national Society. 

Capital Account, a term used especially in connec¬ 
tion with railroad or other stock companies, as distinguished 
from the revenue account. It includes the money obtained 
for shares of stock and that borrowed upon mortgages (de¬ 
bentures) or the property of the company, and begins with 
the first preparatory operations of the company; whereas 


the revenue account commences with the returns from ac¬ 
tual traffic or other productive business. 

Capitalist, a person who owns or possesses capital, 
usually applied to a rich man or one who has a large cap¬ 
ital employed in trade or manufactures. 

Capital Punishment, the punishment of death (so 
called from the Latin caput, “head,” also “life”). As the 
penalty for murder it has prevailed from the earliest times 
in all parts of the world. In most nations treason or rebel¬ 
lion against lawful government has also been thus punished; 
and in England and elsewhere, down to a very recent period, 
the same has been true of counterfeiting, forgery, mail- 
robbery, and several other crimes. The manner of execu¬ 
tion varies greatly. Military criminals, in modern times, 
are usually shot. In civil administration the modes most 
prevalent have been decapitation upon the “ block,” used 
for political criminals of rank in Great Britain; the Guil¬ 
lotine (which see) in France; in Spanish countries the 
Garrote (which see); and hanging. In Japan, for some 
offences, the criminal is condemned to take his own life in 
the presence of officials. (See Hara-kiri.) 

In Christendom the tendency has been in the present 
century to limit capital punishment to the greatest crimes 
only, and many intelligent persons believe that it should 
be abolished altogether. The grounds upon which the 
question is argued are chiefly—1, common right; 2, Scrip¬ 
ture ; 3, expediency. The marquis of Beccaria (“ Essay on 
Crimes and Punishments,” 1775) denies the right of govern¬ 
ments to take human life, under any circumstances, in 
punishment of crime. It appears to be evident, however, 
on any theory of society, that such a right exists in all 
cases in which the safety of the community requires it. 
As to Scripture, the Old Testament, in accordance with the 
words, “Whoso sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall his 
blood be shed” (Gen. ix. 6), affords very numerous exam¬ 
ples of its enforcement under Divine authority ; and the 
New Testament contains no prohibition of it. It is urged, 
nevertheless, that the benevolence of Christianity and its 
high regard for human life oppose the continuance of the 
death-penalty. In William Penn’s code of laws for Penn¬ 
sylvania it was prescribed for two crimes only—murder and 
treason. The chief reason for its retention in Christendom 
is, perhaps, its biblical injunction, especially as this injunc¬ 
tion (as above) was given to Noah when he represented the 
whole human race, and is not therefore merely a Mosaic or 
Jewish statute, which might be supposed to be superseded, 
like the Mosaic system generally, by Christianity. It has 
been plausibly replied, however, that the Noachic law may 
reasonably be supposed to be subject to modification by 
the progress of the race, like the Mosaic; and that Christen¬ 
dom has practically recognized this fact by abolishing the 
capital punishment of brutes, which was enjoined in the 
same Noachic law that enjoins it for man, and without any 
discriminative qualification whatever. In the early train¬ 
ing of the race such means of teaching the value of human 
life, it is argued, might be necessary; but as one part of 
the law is now deemed unnecessary, and its. execution 
would be esteemed preposterous, it is inferable that the 
other is equally subject to change. Beccaria and many 
others deny the expediency of capital punishment, assert¬ 
ing that it does not lessen the amount of crime. It is well 
known that in the crowds often assembled in England to 
witness a public execution, manslaughter has been several 
times committed. There is no doubt reasonable objection 
to publicity on such occasions, but this is not necessary. 
Other objections to capital punishment are the occasional 
uncertainty of evidence, and the frequent unwillingness of 
juries to convict in cases where it will follow. On the 
whole, while the death-penalty would seem to be needful, 
at least in all imperfectly-settled countries not provided 
with secure prisons, it may be regarded as an open question 
whether imprisonment for life might not, with advantage, 
be substituted for it in the great centres of advanced civil¬ 
ization. This experiment has been tried for a number of 
years in one or two European countries and in some of the 
U. S., but the time has not yet been sufficient to afford 
decisive results. (See Basil Montagu, “On the Punish¬ 
ment of Death,” 1809-13; “Memoirs of Sir S. Romilly,” 
1840 ; Jeremy Bentiiam, “Rationale of Punishment,” 
1830; E. G. Wakefield, “Facts Relating to the Punish¬ 
ment of Death in the Metropolis,” 1831; F. Hill, “ Crime: 
its Amount, Causes, and Remedies,” 1853; Bovee, “Rea¬ 
sons against Capital Punishment.”) (See Punishment, by 
Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) Abel Stevens. 

Cap'itals, or Capital Letters [Lat. majuscula], a 
term applied in typography and chirography to letters 
which are larger than the others, and also different in form, 
except in a few cases, as O, S, V, and W. Every sentence 
and every proper name should begin with a capital, which 
is a modern invention. No distinction of capitals and 


























CAPITOL—CAPRIMULGIDJS. 


small letters was made by the writers and scribes of the 
Middle Ages or by the ancients, but distinction existed be¬ 
tween uncial and cursive writing. In German books every 
substantive (or noun) begins with a capital. 

Cap'itol [Lat. Capitolium], a term originally applied 
to the magnificent temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and the 
citadel or fortress which occupied the Capitoline Ilill (Mons 
Capitolinas), in ancient Home. These edifices were founded 
by the Tarquins about 600 B. C., and dedicated in 507 
B. C. The temple was burned in the time of Sulla, in 83 
B. C., but was soon rebuilt. Here was also the Tabidarium , 
containing the public archives. The site of the Capitol is 
now occupied by the palace called Palazzo del Cainpi- 
doglio, built by Michael Angelo. The term Capitol is also 
applied to the magnificent edifice in which the Congress 
of the U. S. holds its sessions at Washington, and to the 
State-houses which are erected at the capitals of the several 
States. 

Cap'itoline Hill (Mons Capitolinus or Mons Tar- 
peius), one of the seven hills of ancient Rome, was very 
near the left bank of the Tiber, and adjacent to the Campus 
Martius. It was occupied by the great temple of Jupiter 
and the citadel, or Capitol, with some other public build¬ 
ings. The steepness of its sides rendered it a natural fort¬ 
ress. On one side of it was the Tarpeian Rock, from which 
traitors and state criminals were thrown. This hill is now 
occupied by the church Ara Coeli and the Palazzo del 
Campidoglio. (See Capitol.) 

Capitoli'mis (Julius), a Latin biographer, one of the 
authors of the “ Historia Augusta,” lived about 300 A. D. 
The biographies of the emperors Antoninus Pius, Marcus 
Aurelius, Pertinax, Opilius Macrinus, the two Maximins, 
and others, are ascribed to him. 

Capit'ularies [Lat. capitularia\, a name applied to 
the laws enacted by the Prankish kings from the time of 
Childebert. These laws were general for all the states of 
the kingdom, while those called leges were issued for the 
several states. The most celebrated capitularies were those 
of Charlemagne and St. Louis. After Charles the Simple, 
in 922, they were no longer issued. The best collections 
of them are those of Baluze (Paris, 1677 and 1780), and of 
Pertz, in the “ Monumenta Germanise.” 

Capitula'tion [from the Lat. capitula, “ heads or 
chapters”], the act of capitulating or surrendering to an 
enemy upon stipulated terms; a treaty of surrender to an 
enemy, which ,is concluded when the garrison or besieged 
force does not surrender at discretion or unconditionally. 
The treaty often consists of several specified conditions or 
articles, and those who surrender are sometimes permitted 
to retain their arms and to march out with the honors of war. 

Ca'po d’Is'tria (anc. JEgida ), a fortified seaport- 
town of Austria, in Trieste, is situated on a rocky island 
in the Gulf of Trieste, 8 miles S. W. of Trieste. It was 
formerly the capital of Istria. It is connected with the 
mainland by a bridge about half a mile long. It is the 
seat of a bishop, has a cathedral and other churches; also 
manufactures of soap and leather. Pop. 9186. 

Capo d’Istria (John Anthony), Count, the first 
president of Greece, was born at Corfil in 1776. He en¬ 
tered the diplomatic service of Russia in 1808, and repre¬ 
sented that power at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15. 
In 1816 he became secretary of foreign affairs in Russia. 
Though he had little or no sympathy with republican prin¬ 
ciples, he was elected president of the new republic of 
Greece in 1827 for five years. His policy was arbitrary, 
and gave offence to the liberal party. He was assassinated 
Oct. 9, 1831, by George and Constantine Mauromichali. 

Ca'pon [Gr. Kamhv; Lat. capo], a domestic cock castrated 
when young to improve his size and the flavor of his flesh. 
Capons’ flesh is regarded as much superior to that of or¬ 
dinary fowls, but is inferior to that of the poularde or spay¬ 
ed pullet. 

Caj)Oli, a township in Hampshire co., West Va. Pop. 
1160. 

Capon, a township of Hardy co., West Va. P. 1541. 

Capoiliere, kap-o-neer' [Fr. caponniere], in fortifica¬ 
tion, is a parapet eight or ten feet in height, with a supe¬ 
rior slope extending to the ground like a glacis. It is 
placed in the ditch of a fortified place, to screen its de¬ 
fenders while passing from one part of the works to another. 
If there is a passage between two such parapets, it is a 
full caponiere—if on one side only, a half caponiere. 
Another kind, the casemated caponiere, constitutes one of 
the most essential features in the modern German (or poly¬ 
gonal) system of fortification. It is a large casemated 
structure in the main ditch, and usually opposite the mid¬ 
dle of the curtain, by which the entire front is defended 
by flanking artillery fires. 

49 


769 


Capon Springs, Hampshire co., WestVa., 17 miles E. 
of Romney and 22 N.W. of Winchester, has celebrated and 
very valuable warm springs, alterative, and useful in a 
very wide range of diseases. The scenery is fine and the 
’trout-fishing excellent. The hotels and bathing-houses aro 
extensive. 

Cappado'cia [Gr. Ka7r7raSofda], an ancient province of 
Asia Minor, was bounded on the N. by Pontus and Galatia, 
on the E. by Armenia, on the S. by Mount Taurus (which 
separated it from Syria and Cilicia), and on the W. by Ly- 
caonia. It was traversed by the river Halys. Among its 
chief towns were Comana, Ariarathia, and Tyana. It was 
conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia, and was ruled by 
independent kings from the time of Alexander the Great 
until 17 A. D., when Tiberius reduced it to a Roman prov- 
ince. The greater part of it is included in the modern 
Karamania. 

Cappaiida'ceie [from Capparis, the typical genus], 
a natural order of exogenous plants akin to the Cruciferae, 
mostly of tropical and sub-tropical countries, and having 
four-parted flowers, which are generally very beautiful. 
The leaves are mostly alternate, and undivided or palmate. 
The order comprises about 350 species, herbaceous plants, 
shrubs, and trees. They have a strong pungent or acrid 
taste, and some species are poisonous. They have long 
silken stamens, which are in some cases gayly colored, as 
in the Caper (which see). Among the interesting species 
of this order is the Capparis sodata, or siwak, a bush or 
small tree which is a characteristic feature of the vegeta¬ 
tion of Africa. It bears pungent berries, which are used 
as a condiment by the natives. Several species of the caper- 
bush, grow in Florida and the West Indies, and a num¬ 
ber of herbaceous plants of the order are found in the U. S. 

Capre'ra (literally, “ Goat Island”), one of the Bucci- 
narian Islands, in the Mediterranean, 4 or 5 miles from the 
N. E. coast of Sardinia, belongs to Italy. It is nearly 6 
miles long, and abounds in goats and rabbits. The patriot 
Garibaldi since reaching middle life has often resided here. 
He built a house here about 1854. 

Ca'pri ( anc. Caprese), a charming island of Italy, in the 
Mediterranean, at the entrance of the Bay of Naples and 
20 miles S. of the city of Naples. It is about 41 miles long 
and 3 miles wide. The shores of the island are steep and 
inaccessible. The town of Capri is the seat of a bishop. 
Upon this island is a remarkable cavern called the “ Grotto 
of the Nymphs” or the “Blue Grotto.” The emperor Ti¬ 
berius passed the last ten years of his life here, and built 
twelve villas or palaces, of which the ruins are still visible. 
Pop. 3911. 

Capri'ccio, an Italian wor$ signifying “caprice,” 
“ whim,” or “ fancy,” is a musical term applied to a species 
of free composition which is not subject to rule as to form 
or measure. 

Capriccio, in art, is a picture or other work which in¬ 
tentionally violates the ordinary rules of composition. 

Cap'ocorn [Lat. Capricornus], the “ Goat,” the name 
of the tenth sign of the Zodiac, which the sun enters at 
the winter solstice, about the 21st of December. It is de¬ 
noted by this figure, Capricorn is also the name of a 
constellation. 

Capricorn, Tropic of, in geography, one of the less¬ 
er circles of the earth, a parallel nearly 23° 27' S. of the 
equator. At the winter solstice (Dec. 21st) the sun is ver¬ 
tical over this line. There is a corresponding circle on the 
astronomical sphere. This circle touches the ecliptic in 
the first point of the sign Capricorn, which therefore gives 
name to this tropic. 

Cap'ridtE [from capra, a “goat”], a family of ruminant 
quadrupeds which, according to some naturalists, consists 
of the two genera Ovis (sheep) and Cajyra (goat). Other 
naturalists extend the term so as to include the antelope. 

Caprifolia'cese (see Caprifolium), a natural order 
of exogenous plants which have opposite leaves without 
stipules, epipetalous stamens, and monopetalous flowers. 
The fruit is generally a berry, sometimes dry, but not split¬ 
ting open when ripe. This order is nearly allied to Ru- 
biaceae, and comprises more than 200 species, mostly na¬ 
tives of temperate and cold climates. Among those that 
are indigenous in the U. S. are the Sambucus (elder), 
several species of Viburnum, and many species of Lonice- 
ra, called woodbine, honeysuckle, etc. 

Caprifo'linm [from capra, a “goat;” also a “branch 
with tendrils ” (from the fancied resemblance ot the tendrils 
to a goat’s horns), and folium, a “ leaf”], a genus of plants 
(twining shrubs) which are natives of Europe and other 
parts of the northern hemisphere. They mostly have La- 
grant tubular flowers. The honeysuckle is an examp e. 

CapriinuUgidiE [named from the Caprimuglus, or 









770 


CAPRINO—CAPYBARA. 


“goatsucker ”], a family of insectivorous birds of the order 
Insessores and tribe Fissirostres. They have long wings, 
short legs, and toes united at the base by a membrane. 
The base of the bill is furnished with long stiff bristles. 
This family includes the goatsucker ( Caprimulgus) and the 
American whippoorwill, as well as the night-hawk, the 
chuck-will’s-widow, the poor-will of the Western States, and 
other native species. 

Capri'no, a town of Italy, in the province of Verona, 
15 miles N. W. of Verona. It has a beautiful church and 
many fine country-seats. Pop. 5111. 

Cap Rouge, a post-village of Quebec and Portneuf 
cos., province of Quebec (Canada), has extensive manufac¬ 
tures of pottery. Pop. about 800. 

Caps and Hats, the name applied to the political 
parties in Sweden in 1738. The former favored the alli¬ 
ance with Russia, while the latter opposed it. They were 
both suppressed by Gustavus III. in 1772. 

Cap Sante, a post-village, capital of Portneuf co., 
Quebec (Canada), 30 miles above Quebec, on the N. shore of 
the St. Lawrence. Pop. about 400. 

Cap'sicin, an exceedingly acrid, soft, resinous alkaloid 
of a reddish color, obtained from the seed-pods of the Cap¬ 
sicum annuum or Cayenne pepper, of which it is the active 
principle. 

Cap'sicum, a genus of plants of the order Solanacese, 
natives of the warm parts of America, Africa, and Asia. 
They are mostly annual or biennial plants, with more or 
less woody stems, and have a wheel-shaped corolla, with 
five convergent protruding anthers. The fruits of Capsi¬ 
cum annuum, frutescens, fastigiatum, baccatum, grossum, and 
cerasiforme, with perhaps those of other species, form, when 
pulverized, the Cayenne pepper which is extensively used 
as a condiment. It is extremely pungent, and is often 
employed with excellent results in medicine as a derivative 
ancl stimulant. The Capsicum annuum is a hardy plant, 
cultivated in the U. S., where pickles are made of its un¬ 
ripe fruit. It is stated that the fruit of Capsicum toxica- 
rium of tropical America is a narcotic poison. The Cap¬ 
sicum frutescens grows wild in Florida, as well as in most 
warm countries. It is the true Cayenne pepper. 

Cap'stan [Fr. cabestan ], a strong, massive column of 
timber, shaped somewhat like a truncated cone, and having 
its upper part pierced to receive bars or levers for the pur¬ 
pose of winding a rope round it, to raise heavy weights or 
otherwise exert great power. It is chiefly used in vessels 
for drawing in cables in order to raise anchors, etc. There 
are several improved forms in use on ships. 

Cap'sule [Lat. capsula, dimin. of capsa, “a box or 
case ”], in botany, a dry, syncarpous, dehiscent fruit or 
seed-vessel. The term is applied to all dry fruits which 
are dehiscent, whether simple or compound, one-celled or 
many-celled, and whether they open by valves or by pores. 
The capsule or pod is a general name of dry seed-vessels 
which split or burst open at maturity. The capsule is the 
pod of a compound pistil. The poppy, lobelia, iris, and 
snapdragon afford examples of it. 

Cap'tain [Low Lat. capitaneus or capitanus, a " head¬ 
man ” (from caput, the “head”); Fr. capitaine], a military 
term which in a general sense signifies a commander, a man 
skilled in war or the military art. In some countries the 
commander-in-chief is called captain-general. In a more 
limited and technical sense, captain is the title of an officer 
who commands a troop of cavalry, a company of infantry, 
or a battery of artillery. He is the next in rank below a 
major. In the U. S. army a captain is responsible for the 
cainp-and-garrison equipage, the arms, ammunition, and 
clothing of his companj*. A captain of the U. S. marines 
is of a rank corresponding with that of a captain in the 
army, and that of a lieutenant in the navy. 

Captain (of the navy) is an officer of higher rank and 
holds a more responsible position than a captain of the 
land forces. He has the command of a ship, and is respon¬ 
sible for everything on board—all that relates to the per¬ 
sonnel or the materiel of the vessel. The commanders of 
all British vessels, from first-rates down to ship-rigged 
sloops, are captains. A captain in the royal navy is the 
next in rank above a commander. A captain in the U. S. 
navy takes rank with a colonel in the armj r , and next below 
a flag-officer. He rises by regular succession to the rank 
of rear-admiral, but he cannot attain that rank unless he 
has first served for six years in a sea-going vessel with the 
rank of captain. Before the civil war (1801-65) there was 
no definite rank in the U. 8. navy higher than that of cap¬ 
tain. (See Commodore.) The term captain is also applied 
to the master of a merchant-vessel. 

Cap'tion [Lat. captio, a "taking”], in law, is that part 
of a legal document, such as an indictment or commission, 
which shows the time and place where, and the authority 


by which, it was made or executed. It is of considerable 
consequence in the case of indictments. While a caption 
is not strictly a part of an indictment, its absence or im¬ 
perfection may be of serious import. Its office in this case 
is to state the style of the court, and the time and the place 
of its meeting, and the time and place where the indictment 
was found, and the number of the jurors who found it, though 
their names need not be mentioned. Care that it be prop¬ 
erly drawn is particularly requisite where the indictment is 
removed into a higher court (see Certiorari), in which 
case it is said that there must be enough in the caption to 
show that the inferior court has jurisdiction in the case. 
(The details of the subject will be found in Wharton’s 
"Criminal Law” and in Archbold’s "Criminal Pleading 
and Practice,” where useful forms of captions are given.) 

Capture. See International Law, by Pres. Theo. D. 
Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D. 

Cap'ua [Gr. Kam^], an important city of ancient Italy, 
the capital of Campania, was situated on a plain about 2 
miles from the river Vulturnus, and about 18 miles N. of 
Naples. It is supposed to have been founded by the Etrus¬ 
cans, who called it Vulturnum. It was probably nearly as 
ancient as Rome itself. Capua was the greatest and most 
opulent city of Italy about 350 B. C. It was conquered by 
the Romans in 340 B. C., but it continued to prosper under 
the Roman power, and in the time of the second Punic 
war was scarcely inferior to the great cities of Rome and 
Carthage. Capua was noted for its luxury and refinement. 
After Hannibal had defeated the Roman army at Cannre in 
216 B. C., the popular party of Capua, in hopes of render¬ 
ing their city independent of Rome, opened their gates to 
the Carthaginians, who spent the winter in Capua and be¬ 
came enervated by its luxury. The Romans, having be¬ 
sieged the city and captured it in 211, punished its revolt 
with severity, nullified its political importance, and reduced 
it to the condition of a provincial town of the most degraded 
class. It continued, however, to be a popular city for sev¬ 
eral centuries, but it was taken and ruined in 456 A. D. by 
Genseric the Vandal. The site is now partly occupied by a 
large village called Santa Maria di Capua, with 9733 in¬ 
habitants. Here are visible the remains of a grand amphi¬ 
theatre. 

Capua (anc. Casilinum ), a fortified city of Italy, in the 
province of Caserta, is beautifully situated on the river 
Volturno, 27 miles by rail N. of Naples. It is on the 
railway which connects Naples with Rome, and is a mili¬ 
tary station of the first class. It was considered one of 
the keys of the former kingdom of Naples. Capua con¬ 
tains a remarkable old cathedral, a college, and several 
convents. It was founded on the site of Casilinum, 2 or 3 
miles E. of the ancient Capua, in 856 A. D. Pop. 12,548. 

Capuchin' [Fr. Cappucin; It. Cappuccino ] Friars, a 
branch of the order of Franciscan monks which originated 
in Italy in 1525. They derived their name from a hood or 
head-dress (in Italian cappuccio). They are a branch of 
the Minorites of the strictest observance. In 1859 they 
numbered about 11,300. They are found in most countries 
of Christendom, and are said to be increasing in numbers. 
They have a few convents in the U. S. The Capuchins 
are remarkable for their austere discipline. They have 
never cultivated learning, and have produced few eminent 
men. One of the best known of its recent members was 
the late Father Matthew, the distinguished advocate of 
total abstinence. There is also an order of Capuchin nuns 
who are also Franciscans of the strictest observance. 

Capuchin Monkey, a species of South American 
monkeys, Cebus capucinus, which receives its specific name 
from the cowl-like appearance of the hairy covering of 
its head. Other species of the genus receive the same 
name. 

Capudan' Pasha (i. e. "captain-pasha,” capudan 
being a corruption of the It. cajntano), the high admiral 
or commander-in-chief of the Turkish navy. He has the 
control of all naval affairs, appoints all the officers of 
the navy, and is governor of the Turkish islands in the 
Archipelago. 

Ca'put Mor'tuum [Lat.], i. e. literally, "dead head,” 
the inert residue of distillation and sublimation. When 
sulphate of iron is distilled at a red heat, it leaves a res¬ 
idue of red oxide of iron, which the alchemists called 
caput mortuum vitrioli. Its symbol was a death’s head and 
cross-bones; hence caput mortuum signified also a "bug¬ 
bear,” a source of groundless terror. 

Capyba'ra, or Capiba'ra (Hydrochcerus Capybara ), 
is the largest known quadruped of the order Rodentia, and 
belongs to the family Cavidoe. It is an aquatic animal, a 
native of South America, and feeds on vegetable food ex¬ 
clusively. Its dentition resembles that of the cavy, except 
that the grinding teeth are formed of many transverse 



















CAR—CARACCI. 


771 




plates, the number of plates increasing as the animal ad¬ 
vances in age. It is inoffensive and easily tamed. The 


Capybara. 

flesh is esteemed good food. It is somewhat smaller than 
the common hog. 

Car. See Railroad Equipment. 

Carab'idse, a family of coleopterous or beetle-like in¬ 
sects, equivalent to the Linnaean genus Carabus. Its species 
are very numerous and of various habits. Most of them 
are voracious devourers of other insects and of worms ; the 
larvae have similar propensities. Some of them are more 
than an inch in length, and with rather long legs, used in 
pursuing their prey. A few species have only rudimentary 
wings. Several have considerable beauty of color and 
lustre. 

Carabo'bo, a province of Venezuela, is bounded on the 
N. by the Caribbean Sea, on the E. by Caracas, Aragua, 
and Guarico, on the S. by Portugueza, and on the W. by 
Barinas, Barquisimeto, and Coro. The province of Cojedes 
has lately been detached from this province, but nothing 
definite being known of the boundaries of Cojedes, we treat 
of the two as one. Area, 7300 square miles. The northern 
part of the province is 
mountainous, while it is 
level in the S. The coun¬ 
try around Lake Valen¬ 
cia is one of the most 
fertile districts of the re¬ 
public. The climate is 
very warm, but is only 
unhealthy on the sea¬ 
shore. The chief prod¬ 
ucts are coffee, ca6ao, and 
sugar. Chief town, Va¬ 
lencia. Pop. 230,509. 

Car'acai (Felis Car¬ 
acal), a species of lynx 
found in the warm parts 
of Asia and in Africa, 
supposed to be the same 
animal as that which the 
ancients called lynx. It 
is larger than a fox, and 
is powerful enough to kill 
a hound with ease. The 
fur of the upper part is 
of a deep brown or wine- 
red, its ears being tufted 
with long black hair. It 
is naturally fierce, but is 
capable of being tamed, 
and has been employed 
in hunting. 

Caracal'Ia (Marcus 
Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus), a Roman emperor, a son 
of Septimius Soverus, was born at Lyons in 188 A. L>. On 


the death of his father, in 211 A. D., ho ascended the throne, 
and caused his brother Geta to be murdered. He also mas¬ 
sacred several thousand friends of Geta, 
including Papinian, the great jurist. His 
reign was disgraced by many acts of 
cruelty and infamy. He was assassinated 
near Edessa in 217 A. D., at the instiga¬ 
tion of Macrinus, who became his suc¬ 
cessor. The Baths of Caracalla are among 
the most striking ruins of Rome. 

Caraca'ra, or Caracara Eagle 
( Polyborus ), a genus of rapacious birds 
peculiar to America, and regarded as a 
connecting link between the eagle and 
the vulture. They feed on carrion, like 
the vulture. The Polyborus Praziliensis, 
which is found in Brazil and other parts 
of America, has fine plumage, and meas¬ 
ures about four feet from tip to tip of the 
wings. Other species are known. 

Carac'as, a state of Venezuela, South 
America, is bounded on the N. by the 
Caribbean Sea, on the E. by Barcelona, 
on the S. by Guarico, and on the W. by 
Aragua and Carabobo. Area, 6038 square 
miles. The surface is mostly mountain¬ 
ous, with fertile valleys in the interior. 
This state contains the best cultivated 
districts of the republic. Capital, Car¬ 
acas. Pop. 173,042. 

Caracas, a city, the capital of the 
above province and of the republic of 
Venezuela, is situated 12 miles S. of La 
Guayra, and nearly 3000 feet above the 
level of the sea; lat. 10° 30' 50" N., Ion. 
67° 5' W. It is separated from La Guayra, its seaport, by 
a high mountain-x-idge. It is liberally supplied with water 
by several streams which run through or near the city. The 
streets are narrow, straight, and well paved. Among the 
principal edifices are the cathedral and the church of Alta 
Gracia. Caracas is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop, 
and contains a college and several hospitals. The climate 
is healthy, but the place is subject to earthquakes, one of 
which in 1812 destroyed about 12,000 people. The chief 
articles of export are cacao, cotton, indigo, coffee, hides, 
etc. Pop. in 1869, 47,597. / 

Cara'cci, or Carracci (Annibal or Annibale), an 
excellent painter, was born in Bologna in 1560. He was 
a pupil of his uncle, Ludovico Caracci, with whom he was 
associated as a founder of the Bolognese school of paint¬ 
ing. The pictures which he painted in the Farnese Gallery 
in Rome, on which he expended eight years, are considered 
his best works. He is generally regarded as the greatest 
painter of the Caracci family. Died at Rome in 1609. (See 
Kugler’s “ Schools of Painting in Italy.”) 


CaracaL 

Caracci, or Carracci (Ludovico), the founder of the 
Bolognese school of painting, the son of a butcher ot Lo- 




















































































































































CAEACCIOLI—CARAUSIUS. 


r* r* r> 

t12 


logna, was born in 1555. He was noted for his fidelity to 
nature. Among his works are a “ Transfiguration ” and 
“The Preaching of John the Baptist.” He had several 
eminent pupils, including Domenichino and Guido Beni. 
Died in 1619. 

Caraccio'Ii (Francesco), Prtnce, an Italian admiral, 
born at Naples about 1748. He entered the service of 
the Parthenopian Republic formed at Naples in 1798, and 
obtained the command of a small fleet, lie repulsed the 
Anglo-Sicilian fleet in 1799. After Naples had surrendered 
to the royalists he was arrested and hung by the order 
of Lord Nelson in 1799. 

Car'acolc [Sp. caracoV], a French term used in horse¬ 
manship or the manege to denote a semi-round or half¬ 
turn. When cavalry advance to chai’ge in battle they 
sometimes perform caracoles in order to perplex the 
enemy, and excite a doubt whether they will attack the 
flank or the front. 

Carac'tacus, or Cara'doc, a brave king of the Si- 
lures, a tribe of ancient Britons who lived in Wales. lie 
resisted the Roman invading armies for nine years, but 
was at length defeated, and was carried a captive to Rome 
in 51 A. D. His deportment in the presence of the em¬ 
peror Claudius was admired by the Romans, who treated 
him with clemency. 

Cara'doc Saiul'stone, a deposit originally described 
by Murchison as one of the principal members of his 
lower Silurian series. It is found at Caer Caradoc, in 
Shropshire, and is remarkably rich in trilobites. Among 
the other fossils of this deposit are Brachiopoda and Grap- 
tolites. The thickness of the beds in some places reaches 
9000 feet. 

Cara'fa de Colobra'no (Michele), an Italian musi¬ 
cian and composer, born at' Naples Nov. 28, 1785. He be¬ 
came a resident of Paris about 1821. Among his works 
are operas entitled “II Sonnambulo” and “Massaniello.” 
Died July 28, 1872. 

Ca'raites, or Ka'raites [from cara, “to read”], the 
modern Jewish Sadducees, founded by'Anan ben David, 
and dating from about 760 A. D., though they are disposed 
to claim for themselves a much higher antiquity. Like the 
old Sadducees, they cling to the letter of Scripture and re¬ 
ject Talmudical traditions. They are found chiefly in 
South-western Russia, also in Asia Minor and Persia, and 
number less than 10,000. 

Car'alis, or Cal'aris, the capital or chief town of 
ancient Sardinia, is said to have been founded by the Car¬ 
thaginians before the Second Punic war. It had a good 
port, and was for many centuries an important place. The 
site of it is now occupied by Cagliari. 

Carambo'la, an East India fruit produced by the 
Averrhoa Carambola, a small evergreen tree of the natural 
order Oxalidacem. The fruit is about as large as a duck’s 
egg, and has five longitudinal ribs, with a thin, smooth, 
yellow rind. The pulp has an agreeable flavor (sweet or 
acid), and is used in making sherbets, tarts, etc. It is 
one of the most generally-cultivated fruits in India, and is 
sometimes called Coromandel gooseberry. The tree has 
irritable or sensitive leaves, and exhibits in a remarkable 
degree the phenomenon called sleep of plants. The acid 
fruit called bilimbi grows on another species of Averrhoa. 

Car'amel [said to be from Lat. canna, “cane,” and mel , 
“honey” or “ sugar,” i. e. “cane-sugar”], a name given to 
the dark-brown substance produced by burning sugar or 
exposing it to a great heat. It is-also formed in the pro¬ 
cess of roasting coffee and malt. It is used to color wine 
and to adulterate coffee. Caramel is also a sort of confec¬ 
tionery. 

Cara'na Resin, or Gum-Cara'na, the product of 
an unknown South American tree. It is soluble in alcohol, 
and melts at a low temperature. 

Cara'pa, a genus of plants of the order Meliacem, na¬ 
tives of warm climates. Carapa Guianentsis is a large tree 
called anderaba, which grows in Guiana, and has large 
pinnate leaves. Its bark is reputed a valuable febrifuge, 
and is used in tanning. Masts of ships are made of the 
trunks. Lamp oil is obtained from the seeds of this tree 
and from those of the Carapa Guineensis, which is a native 
of Guinea. Its oil is used to protect the bodies of the na¬ 
tives from the bites of insects. 

Car'apace, the upper shell or dorsal shield of chelo- 
nian reptiles (turtles and tortoises) and of the Crustacea 
Malacostraca (crabs and lobsters). In the Chelonia it is 
chiefly an expansion of the ribs covered by a thick layer 
of horny substance. The latter is most peculiar in the 
hawk’s-bill turtle, furnishing the tortoise-shell of commerce. 

Caraquette, Lower, a port of entry in Gloucester 
co., New Brunswick, has a good harbor and extensive fish¬ 


eries. Pop. about 1500.—The settlement of Upper Cara¬ 
quette, in the same parish, has about 600 inhabitants. 

Car'at [from the Gr. Kepa.Ti.ov, a “little horn;” a “pod” 
of the locust tree; also a minute weight], a term used by 
jewellers in weighing gold and precious stones. For dia¬ 
monds a carat is three and one-sixth troy grains, a “carat 
grain” being one-fourth of this. In assaying gold, either 
the pound, ounce, or any other weight is divided into 
twenty-four parts, in order to designate the proportion of 
pure gold in an alloy with another metal or metals. That 
which contains f| of gold is said to be “twenty-two carats 
fine.” There is here no absolute designation of weight. 

Carau'sius, one of the three Augusti who shared the 
rule of the Roman world between the years A. D. 286 and 
294, and emperor of Britain, was one of the most re¬ 
markable men of whom so little is known, except results, 
that scarcely any history does justice to the extraordinary 
ability which first discovered and developed tiie real bent 
of Saxon and Dutch genius for the naval service. He was 
a Menapian, that is, a member of a confederation (Meen- 
aft) which inhabited the debatable or sea-land at the mouth 
of the Rhine, Maas, and Schelde, a coast which has given 
birth to the greatest admiral of the. world, Ruyter, and to 
Tromp, in Holland, and in France, to John Bart and Du- 
quesne. Whether he was of noble and conspicuous or of 
humble parentage is not certain, neither his real name, for 
Carausius is most probably a Latin corruption of one whose 
base was Karl. Nothing is stated of his birth, youth, and 
education, nor of tile steps by which he rose to high rank, 
extensive influence, and vast power, except a brief notice 
of his co-operation in putting down the rebellion of the 
Bagaudae, A. D. 285, in Gaul. His name, indeed, in gen¬ 
eral history; is first mentioned in connection with the ex¬ 
alted position of “count of the Saxon shore” “and admiral 
of the northern seas ”—a maritime jurisdiction which would 
have satisfied even the towering ambition of a Wallenstein. 
His services were so bi’illiant in this connection that the 
Britons, suffering from the depredations of the Saxon and 
Frank pirates, Avhom he had first beaten into submission' 
and then converted through admiration into devoted allies, 
besought him to assume the sovereignty of their island. 
Having organized a marine victorious against the pirates, 
which before his advent had filled the “narrow seas,” and once 
in possession of Britain, he established a navy which over¬ 
threw so triumphantly all that Rome could marshal against 
him that the two Augusti, Diocletian and Maximian, ac¬ 
knowledged him as the Third, as contemporary coins attest. 
Space being denied to do more than flash a telegraphic 
indication of the magnitude and brilliancy of Carausius, 
the curious reader is referred to three books which contain 
all that is known of this wonderful man : Dr. William 
Stukeley’s “Medallic History of Marcus Aurelius Valer¬ 
ius Carausius, emperor in Britain,” 1757 ; Guenebrier’s 
less extensive but even more satisfactory treatise, both 
in the De Peyster alcove N. Y. Historical Society; and 
“Carausius,” 1858, and “Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern 
Netherlands,” 1859, by the author of this article, the two last 
the result of the labors of years, without regard to expense 
in the collection of authorities. Carausius maintained him¬ 
self as independent monarch of Britain and of a Frank con¬ 
federation at the mouth of the Rhine for about seven years, 
during which time he destroyed two Roman fleets or navies; 
carried his arms into the Highlands of Scotland; chastised 
the Piets and Scots, leaving a name whose mention in their 
songs anddraditions testified the respect he inspired. Ossian 
in his poems gives him the most appropriate title of “King 
of Ships.” He rebuilt the wall of Severus, constructed a 
trophy or triumphal memorial which excited the curiosity 
of the learned, until it was wantonly destroyed within a 
century, on the banks of the Carron, a stream which takes 
its name from him. His munificence attracted the finest 
artists of the day to his island empire, of whose ability nu¬ 
merous specimens exist in coins exquisite for the period, 
some of which bear the effigies of Carausius and his em¬ 
press, Queen Oriuna. He established a fair at Sturbich 
or Stourbridge, near Cambridge, that continues to exist 
until this day, and a water-communication between the 
Humber and the Peterborough rivers by means of a canal 
known as the Car-die or dyke, which served for the three¬ 
fold purpose of obviating the dangerous navigation of the 
Cimbric Ocean, for military communication, and for drain¬ 
age, especially of the Lincolnshire fens. Of this vestiges 
still exist. In the midst of his developing military power, 
administrative sagacity, general munificence, and prescient 
organization, he was assassinated at York, the vicarian or 
Roman capital of Britain, A. D. 293-294, by his prime min¬ 
ister and confidential friend, Alleotus—a name by some con¬ 
sidered rather as a title indicative of office than a proper 
appellation. The military and naval preparation of Carau¬ 
sius enabled the traitor to maintain his usurped dominion 













CARA VACA—CARBON. 


for three years, when the Roman power, under the cacsar 
Constantius Chlorus and his lieutenant-general Asclepioda- 
tus, made a triple invasion up the Bristol Channel from the 
W., across the Channel from the S., and up the Thames from 
the E., and put an end to the independent sovereignty of 
Britain, and reunited it to the empire by a series of con¬ 
flicts, the last in the streets of London. In the most im¬ 
portant, in the W., Allectus was slain. Of all the series 
of monarchs, two decidedly among the greatest or ablest 
who have honored the British crown by the wearing of it 
were the Hollanders Carausius of Mcnapia and William 
III. of Orange. J. Watts de Peyster. 

Carava'ca, a town of Spain, in the province of Murcia, 
is on the slope of a hill 40 miles N. W. of Murcia. It has 
an old castle, a college, and a fine church. Excellent wine 
is produced in the neighborhood. Pop. 6839. 

Carava'ggio, a walled town of Italy, in the province 
of Bergamo, 38 miles by rail E. of Milan. Here are two 
handsome churches. The melons of this place are noted 
throughout Italy. Pop. 5535. 

Caravaggio, da (Michael Angelo), an Italian 
painter, born at Caravaggio in 1569. His proper name 
was Michael Angelo AmerhJhi (or Morigi). He imitated 
no model except nature, and formed an original style. He 
excelled in chiaroscuro and coloring. His wild and 
gloomy character is reflected in his works. Among his 
masterpieces are a “ Supper at Emmaus” and “ The Fraud¬ 
ulent Gamblers.” His temper was quarrelsome. Died in 
1609. 

Car'avail [Arabic and Persian lcarawdn ], a company 
of merchants or pilgrims who associate together in order 
to traverse with greater security the deserts of Africa and 
Asia. The commercial intercourse of those regions has 
been from the remotest ages carried on chiefly by caravans 
of camels. In Mohammedan countries large caravans of 
pilgrims are annually assembled to perform the journey to 
Mecca. The most important regular caravans are those 
which annually travel to Mecca from the three following 
points—Damascus, Cairo, and Babylon. The caravan of 
Damascus is said to consist of more than 30,000 pilgrims 
and merchants, many of whom are Europeans. Each 
caravan is under the command of a chief. 

Caravan'serai', or Caravan'sary [Arabic lcarawdn, 
a “ caravan,” and serai, a “palace” or “inn”], also called 
Khan, an Oriental public-house or unfurnished inn for 
the shelter and lodging of travellers in Asia and Africa. 
The travellers in those regions usually carry their own 
food with them. Each of these inns is commonly a square 
building of four wings built round a courtyard, in which 
the beasts of burden are confined. There is always a well 
or spring of water in it. The wings are divided into small 
lodging-rooms, in which the traveller finds no bed or furni¬ 
ture but that which he carries with him. In many caravan¬ 
serais the hospitality is gratuitous. It was in the stable 
of one of them (called inns in the Bible) that our Saviour 
was born. 

Car'away (Carum Carui), a plant of the order Ubn- 
belliferse, grows wild in Southern Europe and in some parts 
of Asia. It is cultivated in Europe and America for its 
aromatic seeds (carpels), which are used in medicine as a 
carminative and tonic. They are also used as a condiment 
by confectioners, pastry-cooks, and perfumers. Their aro¬ 
matic principles depend on a volatile oil called oil of cara¬ 
way, which is obtained by distilling the crushed seeds 
with water. It is administered by physicians to correct 
the nauseating and griping tendencies of some cathartic 
medicines. 

Carbazo'tic Ac'id, or Pi'cric Acid (CoH 3 (N 0 2 ) 03 ), 
a bitter crystallizable acid, composed of carbon, nitrogen 
(azote), and oxygen, and obtained by the action of nitric 
acid on indigo, on carbolic acid, and on many other orgapic 
substances. It occurs in the form of yellow crystals, which 
are soluble in alcohol, and dissolve in eighty or ninety 
times their weight of cold water. It is an important dye¬ 
stuff. When silk which has been treated with a mordant 
of alum is immersed in a solution of this acid, it is dyed 
of a beautiful permanent yellow color. The picrate (car- 
bazotate) of potassium, when heated, explodes with tre¬ 
mendous violence, and was used in the Franco-Prussian 
war in blowing up bridges, etc. As this salt is nearly in¬ 
soluble in water, the acid has been proposed as a test for 
potash. It is sometimes called nitro-phenisic acid. 

Car'bides, formerly called Carburets, are chemical 
compounds ot carbon with a metal. None ot them occur 
in a natural state. 

Car'bine, or Car'abine [It. caralino, probably from 
carabin, a light-horseman among the Arabs], a light mus¬ 
ket, a firearm used by cavalry and artillery, is shorter in 


773 


the barrel than the infantry musket or rifle. The best car¬ 
bines are now rifled. The American breech-loading ear- 
bine has usually a barrel about twenty-two inches long, is 
simple in construction, has a long range, and may be fired 
with rapidity. 

Car'bo (Cneius PapiriEs), a Roman general who was 
elected consul in 86 B. C., and w r as a partisan of Marius in 
the civil war that ensued. He commanded in a battle 
against Sulla at Clusium, and soon after that event was de¬ 
feated by Metellus at Faventia. Having fled to Africa, he 
was taken prisoner and put to death in 82 B. C. 

Carbohy'drogens, or Ilydrocar'bons, in organic 
chemistry, a series of compounds, composed of carbon and 
hydrogen in such proportions that the members of the 
group differ from each other in definite and regular num¬ 
bers of atoms. The best-marked group of carbohydrogens 
commences with methylene (CH 2 ), which may be regarded 
as the first step in the series, and by the successive addi¬ 
tion of two atoms of carbon and hydrogen we obtain ethy¬ 
lene or olefiant gas (C 2 H 4 ), propylene or propene (C 4 H 6 ), etc. 

Carbol'ic Acid, also called Phen'ic Acid, Phe'- 
110I, and Car'bol, a substance discovered by Runge in 
1834, is obtained by repeated distillation of coal-tar at a 
moderately elevated temperature. Its formula (new nota¬ 
tion) is C 6 H 5 . 0 H. When pure it crystallizes in colorless 
needles, which liquefy on the addition of a small amount 
of water. It dissolves in twenty parts of water by weight, 
and also in alcohol, ether, and the oils. Specific gravity, 
1.066. It melts at 95° F., and boils at 356°, and is inflam¬ 
mable. In odor, taste, and caustic property it resembles 
wood-creasote, for which, indeed, it is often sold. It is 
not, chemically, an acid, being more allied to the aromatic 
alcohols. When applied to the skin it causes at first a 
sense of burning, with the appearance of a white spot, and 
then the loss of sensibility in the part. This anaesthetic 
action has been recently applied in medicine and surgery. 

The most important property of carbolic acid is its in¬ 
fluence upon organic matter and living organisms as an 
antiseptic and disinfectant. It coagulates albumen (when 
warm) by abstracting its water. This enables it to pre¬ 
serve animal tissues from putrefaction for some time, but 
not so effectually as alcohol. It is destructive to minute 
forms of life, and has hence been generally supposed to be 
one of the most useful of disinfectants. Lister of Glasgow 
has especially advocated its use in connection with the 
“ germ-theory ” of disease. Doubts have been recently cast 
upon its value by the observations of Dr. Parkes in Eng¬ 
land, Dr. Bill in the U. S., and others. It is certainly a 
feeble deodorizer as compared with chlorine. Internally, 
it has been used in the treatment of many diseases with 
benefit, especially in cancer. Locally applied, in solution 
with water or oil, it lessens considerably the tendency to 
suppuration. (See Angus Smith, M. D., “ On Disinfection,” 
Edinburgh, 1869; A. E. Sansom, M. D., “The Antiseptic 
System,” London, 1871; and I. II. Bill, M.D., “American 
Journal of Medical Sciences,” July, 1872.) (See also the 
article Phenol, by Prof. C. F. Chandler, Ph. D., LL.D.) 

Henry IIartshorne. 

Car'bon [Lat. carlo, “a coal”], symbol C, an im¬ 
portant chemical element or simple substance which is 
abundant in the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms. 
It occurs in a great variety of forms and combinations, 
being the combustible base of charcoal and fossil coal. It 
also occurs uncombined in the diamond, which is pure crys¬ 
tallized carbon, and in graphite or plumbago. Its atomic 
weight is 6 , or, according to the new notation, 12. It is 
remarkable for its allotropic character, and is extremely 
infusible and unalterable at ordinary temperatures. It is 
the only element that is always present in animal and 
vegetable substances. In its ordinary forms it is a good 
conductor of electricity, but the diamond is a non-conduc¬ 
tor. United with oxygen, it forms carbonic acid (C0 2 ), 
which occurs in the atmosphere, in limestone, marble, dolo¬ 
mite, etc. (See Carbonic Acid.) With nitrogen it forms 
an important compound called cyanogen. In plants and 
animals it occurs as one of the principal constituents ot 
wood, gum, starch, sugar, oil, gelatin, fibrin, etc., in which 
it is combined with hydrogen and oxygen. The various 
forms of carbon are combustible, but they are not affected 
by any degree of heat except in the presence of air or 
oxygen. Carbon resists the action of many reagents which 
alter other simple substances. It is insoluble in all known 
liquids. In the classification of the elements it is arranged 
with sulphur, phosphorus, and boron, which are called 
tetratomic metaloids, or non-metallic substances. A com¬ 
pound of carbon with a metal is called a carbide or cai bui e . 
Coke and lampblack are more or less impure artificial forms 
of carbon. 

Carbon, a county in Eastern Pennsylvania. Area, 400 














CAKBON—CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 


r-r — i 


square miles. It is intersected by the Lehigh River, and 
also drained by the Mahoning and other creeks. It is 
bounded on the S. E. by the Kittatinny or Blue Mountain, 
and traversed by several other high ridges. This county 
derives its name and its prosperity from its rich mines of 
good anthracite coal. The stratum or bed of coal near the 
top of Mauch Chuuk Mountain is about fifty feet thick. 
Wheat, corn, rye, buckwheat, and potatoes are the chief 
crops raised. Lumber is manufactured quite extensively. 
Carbon county is intersected by the Lehigh Valley It. R. 
Capital, Mauch Chunk. Pop. 28,144. 

Carbon, a county of Wyoming Territory, bordering on 
Colorado. It is intersected by the North Fork of the Platte 
River, and also drained by the Medicine Bow River. The 
surface is diversified and mountainous, and partly occupied 
by elevated plains. The southern part is traversed by the 
Medicine Bow Mountains. Iron and good lignitic coal 
abound here. The Union Pacific R. R. passes through this 
county. Capital, Rawlings Springs. Pop. 1368. 

Carbon, a township of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 
2233. - 

Carbon, a post-village of Carbon co., Wy., on the 
Union Pacific R. R., 83 miles N. W. of Laramie, has coal¬ 
mines which give employment to a large number of men. 
It is 7008 feet above the sea. 

Carbona'ri is the name of a secret political society, 
founded during the French rule in Naples in the beginning 
of the present century. After the restoration of the Bour¬ 
bons in Naples the society rapidly increased. In 1820 
they organized branches in France, and after the defeat of 
the revolutionary party in Naples and Piedmont, Paris 
became their head-quarters. After the revolution of 1830 
the society disappeared, although as late as 1841 a society 
of Carbonari was found to exist in Southern France. In 
the revolution of 1848 they took no part. 

Car'bonated (or Acid'ulous) Wa'ters are those 
which contain a large proportion of carbonic acid gas. The 
term is applied to mineral springs, as those of Seltzer, Pyr- 
mont, Salzbrunn, and Reinerz. Such waters sparkle much 
when poured from one vessel to another. They are re¬ 
freshing and exhilarating, and are useful in some disordered 
states of the stomach. At St. Nectaire, in France (Puy-de- 
D6me), the proportion of gas condensed in the water is 
said to be as four volumes to one; in most waters it is 
much less. 

Car'bonates, salts containing carbonic acid. They 
may be easily identified by the effervescence which results 
when they are brought into contact with dilute hydrochloric 
or nitric acid. Of this numerous class of salts the most 
important are carbonate of lime, which occurs in the form 
of limestone, marble, etc., carbonate of potash, and car¬ 
bonate of soda. (See Potash and Soda, by Prof. C. F. 
Chandler.) Crystallized carbonate of lime is called Cal¬ 
careous Spar (which see). 

Carbon Bisulphide is a heavy, clear liquid com¬ 
pound of cai’bon and sulphur, very volatile and very in¬ 
flammable. It is composed of one atom of carbon and two 
of sulphur, and is obtained by passing the vapor of sulphur 
over red-hot charcoal. Its symbol is CS 2 . It has great 
solvent power, and is largely used in chemistry and the 
arts as a solvent of caoutchouc and other organic matters. 
This compound is a sulphur acid, and when combined with 
sulphur bases it produces compounds of the class known 
as sulpho-carbonates. 

Car'bondale, a city of Jackson co., Ill., at the junc¬ 
tion of the Illinois Central, Grand Tower and Carbondale, 
and Carbondale and Shawneetown R. Rs., 27 miles E. of 
the Mississippi, is the seat of the Southern Illinois Normal 
University. It has an active trade in cotton, tobacco, fruit, 
lumber, building-stone, and farm produce, and has one 
weekly newspaper. Pop. 2400; of township, 3370. 

Andrew Luce, Ed. “ Observer.” 

Carbondale, a post-village of Osage co., Kan., at the 
junction of the Atchison Topeka and Santa Fe and the 
Lawrence and South-eastern R. Rs., 6S miles from Atchi¬ 
son. It has extensive mines of coal. 

Carbondale, a city of Luzerne co., Pa., is on the 
Lackawanna River, and at the head or north-eastern end 
of the Lackawanna Valley. It is on the Delaware and 
Hudson R. R., about 17 miles N. E. of Scranton, and is the 
southern terminus of a branch railroad which connects 
with the Erie R. R. at Susquehanna. It contains about 
nine churches, one national bank, one savings bank, and 
two newspaper-offices. Large quantities of anthracite coal 
are mined in this vicinity. Pop. 0393, or, including Car¬ 
bondale township, 7114. Ed. Carbondale “ Advance.” 

Carbonear', a port of entry of Newfoundland, on the 
N. side of Conception Bay, 31 miles from St. John’s. It 


has an extensive trade in fish, a commercial and a gram¬ 
mar school. Pop. about 2000. 

Carbon'ic Acid is the popular and former scientific 
name of a compound of carbon and oxygen, in the propor¬ 
tion of one atom of carbon to two of oxygen. It is called 
in the new chemical nomenclature Carbonic oxide, Carbon 
dioxide, or Carbonic anhydride. It is easily prepared by 
putting marble-dust or chalk into dilute sulphuric or hydro¬ 
chloric acid. The latter acid, combining with the lime, 
sets free the carbonic acid as a colorless, slightly pungent 
gas of the specific gravity 1.524. When this gas is sub¬ 
mitted to a pressure of thirty-six atmospheres at 32° F., it 
becomes a light limpid liquid, without acid properties, 
readily miscible with alcohol and ether, but not with water 
or fixed oils. When this liquid is allowed to evaporate in 
the open air, it produces cold so intense that the unevap¬ 
orated residue of the liquid solidifies into a snow-like sub¬ 
stance, below 100° F. in temperature. By evaporating this 
substance in a vacuum the spirit-thermometer can be made 
to fall to —166° F. Carbonic acid gas is regarded by many 
authorities as poisonous, while others assert that it destroys 
life by exclusion of oxygen, like water in drowning. These 
last authorities state that the narcotic effects attributed to 
this gas are really due to the presence of carbonous oxide 
(CO), which is an undoubted poison. (See article next be¬ 
low.) The choke-damp of coal-mines contains both these 
gases. Carbonic acid is a constant result of ordinary com¬ 
bustion and fermentation, and of the respiration of animals. 
It furnishes to plants, through their leaves, a very import¬ 
ant part of their nourishment. 

Carbon'ic Ox'ide, called in the new nomenclature 
Carbonous Oxide or Carbon Monoxide (symbol 
CO), a compound of one atom of carbon with one atom of 
oxygen, has the atomic weight of 14 or (new) 28. It is 
fatally deleterious to animals if they inhale it, and extin¬ 
guishes flame, but it burns with a blue flame in contact with 
air, and thus forms carbonic acid. It is a colorless and 
insipid gas, which has never been liquefied nor solidified. 
Specific gravity, .967. It does not occur naturally, but 
may be obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on-oxalic 
acid, by passing carbonic acid over red-hot charcoal, or by 
heating to redness chalk or pounded marble with iron- 
filings or zinc. Even when largely diluted with air, it acts 
as a narcotic poison to those who inhale it. This gas does 
not perform any active part in natural phenomena, but in 
the reduction of ores, as in the blast furnace, it is of the 
greatest importance. 

Carbonic oxide, in the new nomenclature, is a name for 
Carbonic Acid (which see). 

Carbonif'erous [from the Lat. carlo, “coal,” and 
fero, to “bear”], producing or containing carbon or coal, 
a geological term applied to the strata of rocks which are 
connected with the coal-beds and are interstratified with 
them. The period which followed the Devonian age is 
called by some geologists the carboniferous age. It was the 
third and last age of the palaeozoic era. 

Carboniferous Formation, the series of rocks 
(sandstones, shales, limestones, etc.) which occur in con¬ 
nection and alternation with the coal-beds, and were depos¬ 
ited during the carboniferous age. (See Coal and An¬ 
thracite, by Prof. J. S. Newberry, M. D. LL.D.) 

Carboniferous Limestone, sometimes called Sub- 
Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone, is one of 

the lower and older rocks of the carboniferous system. It 
mostly contains magnesia, is of coralline formation, and is 
rich in organic remains, among which are many encrinites 
or Crinoidea and marine shells. This limestone is largely 
developed in Yorkshire and Derbyshire in England, in 
Russia, Germany, Illinois, Missouri, and other parts of the 
U. S. Some varieties of it are valuable for building-stone. 

Carboniferous System, the name given to the strata 
which were deposited during the carboniferous age of geol¬ 
ogy, and which are interposed between the Devonian sys¬ 
tem and the Permian strata. Most of the great coal-fields 
of the world belong to this system of formation, which is 
largely developed in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and other 
States of the Union. 

The chief characteristic of the lower and older member 
of the carboniferous system in England and Western Eu¬ 
rope generally, as well as in North America, is a vast de¬ 
posit of coralline limestone, crystalline for the most part, 
and abounding in shells, encrinites, and corals. It has 
long been known as the mountain limestone, from its large 
development in the mountain districts of Yorkshire, Derby¬ 
shire, and Lancashire, where it is the source of much pictu¬ 
resque beauty. (See Cabboniferous Limestone.) Among 
the limestones are many bands of coal, some thick enough 
and good enough to pay for working. In other parts of 
England, and in Russia, very poor and imperfect coal- 





























CA RBOY—CARDIFF. 


775 


measures represent the carboniferous limestone. In Ireland 
there is a peculiar sandy deposit of the same age. 

Over the carboniferous limestone lies the millstone grit, 
a rock occasionally represented by bituminous shales and 
covered by pebbly grits. Here come in some of those 
valuable deposits of iron more common among the coal- 
measures, but helping to give value to the middle part of 
the carboniferous system. Here also are valuable building- 
stones. 

The natural divisions between the beds of limestone and 
its numerous crevices and caverns are often tilled, more or 
less completely, with ores of lead and zinc. Rich masses 
of galena occupy the fissures, large deposits of calamine 
fill the interspaces between the beds, and where none of 
these valuable minerals exist, large bodies of water accu¬ 
mulate, and occasionally make their way out in springs or 
are available when tapped by accident or intention. 

Much of the carboniferous limestone is of organic origin, 
and appears to have been deposited in a coral sea, not far 
from islands covered with luxuriant vegetation. The 
almost perfect identity of species observable when fossils 
obtained from the quarries in Central Europe are com¬ 
pared with others from high northern districts either in 
Europe or North America renders it highly probable that 
a remarkable uniformity of climate prevailed at that time 
over the whole northern hemisphere. The nature of the 
prevailing fossils—goniatites, orthoceratites, etc. among 
the univalves, and the numerous species of terebrsitula 
and spirifer among the bivalves—points to conditions dif¬ 
ferent from any that have since affected the same districts. 

Over the millstone grit come the sandstones and shales 
that contain the coal-measures, the lower part of which in 
England is most prolific in coal. At least a quarter of a 
million of square miles of the earth’s surface in the various 
tracts of land now above the water are covered with sand¬ 
stones and shales of the carboniferous period, among which 
coal is buried; and this coal is for the most part accessible. 
As in each square mile of country there are upwards of 
three millions of square yards of surface, and a cubic yard 
of coal weighs nearly a ton, while in many coal-fields there 
is an average of workable coal from ten to twenty yards 
thick, the reader may obtain for himself a rough but suf¬ 
ficient estimate of the possible extent of supply of this 
mineral. (See Coal, by Prof. J. S. Newberry.) 

The coal-measures abound in the remains of plants of 
extinct species, which mostly grow in marshes or low 
places. The principal fossil plants found in this system 
are Coniferae, Equisetaceae, the Lepidodendrons, the Sigil- 
laria, Calamites, and ferns of colossal size. 

Revised by J. S. Newberry. 

Car'boy, a large globular bottle of green glass pro¬ 
tected by basket-work or enclosed in a wooden box. Car¬ 
boys are used to contain acids and other corrosive liquids. 
A carboy of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) usually contains 
about 1(50 pounds of that acid. 

Car'buncle [Lat. carbunculus], a name given by lapi¬ 
daries to a beautiful mineral which mineralogists call 
pyrope. The carbuncle of the ancients appears to have 
been either pyrope or a deep-red variety of precious garnet 
which is very similar to pyrope. 

Carbuncle [Lat. carbunculus, a “ small coal”], the 
anthrax of surgical writers, is a violent and painful inflam¬ 
mation, larger than a boil, on any part of the skin, most 
frequently on the back. The part swells and hardens, and, 
as the disease advances, assumes a livid redness. The 
cuticle often rises in blisters, and a number of small open¬ 
ings may occur, through which matter escapes. The ori¬ 
gin of carbuncle seems to be constitutional, and it is usually 
attended by great suffering and considerable prostration. 
It is sometimes fatal, especially to old people. In its 
treatment, besides supporting the patient’s strength and 
softening the skin by warm poultices, it is usual to divide 
the skin early and freely with a knife, or to destroy its 
surface with caustic. 

Car'buret [Fr. carburc ], the generic term formerly ap¬ 
plied to compounds of carbon with the simple elements. 
(See Carbides.) 

CaFburetted Hy'drogen, a chemical term applied 
to two gaseous compounds of carbon and hydrogen. The 
light carburetted hydrogen or methane is known by the 
popular names of marsh-gas and fire-damp. It is a nearly 
odorless gas, evolved abundantly in some coal-mines, where 
it has caused tremendous and fatal explosions. When 
pure it is not poisonous. Its symbol is CH 4 . A mixture 
of one volume of this with three volumes of oxygen ex¬ 
plodes with great violence when inflamed. It is one of the 
principal constituents of the coal-gas which is used for 
illuminating houses and streets. The bicarburetted hy¬ 
drogen or cthene (C 2 II 4 ) is the same as Olefiant Gas 
(which see). 


Carcajen'te, a town of Spain, in the province of Va¬ 
lencia, 22 miles by rail S. S. W. of Valencia. It is. on a 
fertile plain near the river Juncar, and is well built. Here 
are manufactures of linen and woollen fabrics. Pop. 8842. 

Carcassonne (anc. Carcaso ), a city in the S. of France, 
capital of the department of Aude, is on the river Audo 
and the Canal du Midi, 56 miles by rail E. S. E. of 
Toulouse. The river is here crossed by a bridge of ten 
arches, and separates the old from the new town. The old 
town, which stands on high ground, is enclosed by walls 
of great solidity, has an ancient castle, and retains in a 
remarkable degree the aspect of a fortress of the Middle 
Ages. Carcassonne is the seat of a bishop, and has a ca¬ 
thedral, a town-hall, a theatre, a public library with about 
22,000 volumes, and a college. Here are extensive manu¬ 
factures of fine woollen cloth which have long been cele¬ 
brated. This city suffered much in the crusades against 
the Albigenses. Pop. 22,173. 

Car'cel Lamp, one in which oil is pumped up by in¬ 
ternal machinery, so as to be constantly overflowing the 
wick. The invention originated in France. 

Carcinoma. See Cancer. 

Car'damom [Lat. Cardamomum], a name of the cap¬ 
sule and seed of several species of plants of the genera Amo- 
mum and Elettaria and natural order Zingiberaceae. The 
capsules are three-celled, and contain numerous seeds, 
which are aromatic and pungent, with a peculiar and 
agreeable taste. They are used as a condiment in Asia 
and Germany. Having mild cordial and stimulant proper¬ 
ties, they are used in medicine and in combination with 
cathartics. The officinal cardamom of the U. S. and British 
Pharmacopoeias is the seed of the Elettaria Cardamomum,a 
native of India. The cardamoms of commerce are pro¬ 
duced in India, Ceylon, Madagascar, and the Malayan 
Archipelago. 

Car'dan [It. Cardano'], (Jerome), a celebrated Italian 
philosopher, author, and physician, was born at Pavia 
Sept. 24,1501, graduated as M. D. at Padua in 1525, and be¬ 
came professor of mathematics at Milan. He also prac¬ 
tised medicine, and acquired a wide reputation as a physi¬ 
cian. In 1552 he visited Scotland and cured the primate 
of that country of asthma. He afterwards resided succes¬ 
sively at Pavia, Bologna, and Rome. He was an astrologer, 
and professed to be an adept in magical arts. In 1545 he 
published in his “Ars Magna” a formula for the solution 
of cubic equations, which is called “ Cardan’s Formula.” 
He wrote numerous works on physics, astrology, medicine, 
astronomy, etc. Among them are “ De Rerum Subtilitate” 
(“On the Subtilty of Things”) and “De Rerum Varie- 
tate” (“On the Variety of Things”). He died at Rome 
Sept. 20, 1576. (See his autobiography, entitled “ De Vita 
Propria,” 1643; H. Morley, “Life of Cardan,” 1854.) 

CartFboard is made by pasting and pressing together 
a number of layers of paper, making either three-, foui*-, 
six-, or eight-sheet boards. Bristol board, used by artists, 
is entirely of white paper; common card-board is white on 
the outside only. Mill-board, employed in bookbinding, 
is composed of coarse brown paper, glued and pressed be¬ 
tween iron rollers. The enamelling of cardboard is effected 
by brushing over it a mixture of white lead (China or 
Kremnitz white) with size. After drying, the surface is 
lightly rubbed with flannel which has been dipped in pow¬ 
dered talc; it is then polished with a hard, fine brush. 

Car'denas, a seaport-town of Cuba, on the N. coast of 
the island, 120 miles E. by S. from Havana, with which it 
is connected by railroad. It has a good harbor. P. 7225. 

Car'diac [Lat. cardiacus], belonging to the heart or 
connected with the heart. Stomachic and stimulating 
remedies or cordials are called cardiac medicines ; the car¬ 
diac orifice is the superior opening of the stomach. 

Cardi'adae, a numerous family of lamellibrancliiato 
bivalve mollusks, includes those species in which the man¬ 
tle is open anteriorly for the foot, and has two orifices, one 
for respiration and the other for excretion, as the cockle 
(Cardium edide). 

Cardial'gia,or Car'dialgy [from icapSia, the “heart,” 
and aAyo?, “pain”], literally, “pain in the heart.” The 
term is commonly applied, however, to the uneasiness 
(heartburn) connected with indigestion, the seat 0 1 which 
is really in the stomach. 

Car'diff, a seaport-town of South Wales, the capital of 
Glamorganshire, is on the river Taff, 171 miles by rail V. 
of London. It contains a town-hall, a fine old castlo 
owned by the marquis of Bute, a theatre, and about thirty 
churches and chapels. Railways extend from this town to 
the mining districts of South Wales, the products ot which 
are exported from Cardiff. It has a good harbor, im¬ 
proved by the construction of a magnificent basin and 







776 


CARDIFF— CAREX. 


docks. Coal and iron are tlie chief articles of export. The 
population has increased rapidly since 1840. Cardiff 
Castle, built in the eleventh century, is partly in ruins. 
Robert, duke of Normandy, was confined in it about 
twenty-seven years by Henry I. Cromwell obtained pos¬ 
session of it in 1648 by stratagem, after bombarding it for 
three days. Pop. in 1.871, 39,675. 

Cardiff, a post-village of Lafayette township, Onon¬ 
daga co., N. Y., on Onondaga Creek, is the place of the 
pretended discovery of the “ Cardiff giant,” a statue of a 
man ten and a half feet long, which was cut from a block 
of gypsum quarried at Fort Dodge, la., sculptured at Chi¬ 
cago, buried for some months at Cardiff, and “ accidentally ” 
discovered Oct. 16, 1869. It was exhibited for many months 
with great success as a petrified giant, but the fraud was 
finally confessed by its perpetrators. Pop. 147. 

Car'digan, a seaport of South Wales, the capital of 
Cardiganshire, is on the river Teify, 240 miles by rail W. 
by N. from London. It has an old and stately church, and 
the ruins of a castle which is supposed to have been founded 
in 1160. Romantic scenery occurs in the vicinity of Car¬ 
digan. Pop. in 1871, 3535. 

Cardigan (James Thomas Briulenell), Earl of, an 
English general, born Oct. 16, 1797, was obliged to leave 
the service when a lieutenant-colonel on account of bul¬ 
lying conduct towards a brother officer, but was restored 
to his rank, became known as a daring dragoon officer, and 
rose in India to be a major-general. At the battle of Bala- 
klava Lord Cardigan led the famous charge of the “six hun¬ 
dred.” Died Mar. 27, 1868. 

Cardiganshire, a maritime county of South Wales, 
is bounded on the N. by Merioneth, on the N. E. by Mont¬ 
gomery, on the E. by Radnor and Brecknock, on the S. by 
Carmarthen and Pembroke, and on the W. by Cardigan Bay. 
Area, 693 square miles. The surface is diversified with 
rugged hills, fertile valleys, and small lakes. The rocks 
which underlie this county are lower Silurian slates and 
shales, in which rich veins of copper, lead, and zinc occur. 
The chief articles of export are cattle, sheep, oats, barley, 
butter, slates, and pigs. Capital, Cardigan. Pop. in 1871, 
72,245. 

Car'dmal [Lat. cardinalis, from cardo, cardinis, a 
“hinge ”], an epithet implying importance, and applied to 
the principal virtues, the four points of the compass, and 
other objects. The numbers 1, 2, 3, etc. are called “car¬ 
dinal” numbers, to distinguish them from 1st, 2d, 3d, etc., 
which are called “ ordinal ” numbers. 

Cardinal [It. cardinale; for etymology see above], 
the tile of an ecclesiastic in the Roman Catholic Church. 
The cardinals are the highest dignitaries of the Church, 
except the pope, of whom they are the electors and the 
counsellors. They are distinguished by a scarlet hat and 
a short purple mantle worn over the rochet. Pope Urban 
VIII., in 1630, gave them the title of Eminence, which is 
still used. They are appointed by the pope, who often em¬ 
ploys them as ambassadors, and a cardinal so employed is 
called a legate a latere. The body of cardinals is called 
the Sacred College. The total number of these prelates 
has been for several centuries limited to seventy, of whom 
six are bishops of certain Italian dioceses ; fifty, styled 
cardinal-priests, hold their titles from parishes in Rome 
(many of them being at the same time bishops of foreign 
dioceses); and fourteen are cardinal-deacons. The actual 
number of cardinals is often less than seventy. When the 
pope dies, a successor is chosen by the cardinals, who are 
assembled in conclave at Rome, and who must elect one of 
their own number to the vacant pontificate. During the 
election, which is sometimes protracted several months by 
their inability to agree, they are confined in a certain 
building, usually the Quirinal Palace, and debarred from 
intercourse with the public. (See Conclave.) 

Cardinal, a post-village of Boulder co., Col., 2 miles 
from Caribou. It has rich silver-mines. 

Cardinal Bird (Cardinal or Cardinalis Virginianus ), 
called also Red Bird, Cardinal GrosLeak, Cardi¬ 
nal Finch, and Virginia Nightingale, a native of 
the U. S., is one of the finest of American song-birds, and 
is remarkable for the beauty of its form and plumage. 
The bill is thick and broad, but not long. It belongs to 
the family Fringillidae. The back of the male is a dusky 
red, and the rest of the plumage is a bright, vivid scarlet. 
It has on the crown long feathers erected into a conical or 
pointed crest, which it is said to raise and lower at pleas¬ 
ure. The total length is about eight inches. It visits the 
Northern States as a summer bird of passage, and passes 
the winter in the Southern States, where some of them re¬ 
main all the year. Many of them are taken to England 
and kept in cages. 

Cardinal Flower [so called from its bright red flow¬ 


ers, in color like a cardinal’s hat], the name of the Lobelia 
cardinalis, a perennial herbaceous plant of the order Lo- 
beliacem, common in most parts of the U. S. in wet places. 
It usually has a very rich red corolla, but the Mexican car¬ 
dinal (Lobelia fulgens ) and other foreign species are still 
richer. All the above are prized in cultivation. 

Cardinal Virtues, those regarded as of primary im¬ 
portance to character. Among the ancients they were jus¬ 
tice, prudence, temperance, and fortitude. 

Car’dington, a post-village of Morrow co., 0., on the 
E. branch of the Olentangy River, and on the railroad 
which connects Cleveland with Columbus, 41 miles N. by E. 
from Columbus. It has a national bank. Pop. 918; of 
Cardington township, 2199. 

Cardin'ia, a genus of fossil Conchiferse, comprising 
about eighty-five species, which extend from the Silurian 
formation to the lower oolite. They have an oval or ob¬ 
long shell, attenuated posteriorly, and marked with lines 
of growth and an external ligament. 

Cardi'tis, inflammation of the heart. (See Endocardi¬ 
tis and Pericarditis.) 

Cardoon' (Gynara cardunculus), a perennial plant of 
the same genus as the artichoke, is a native of Southern 
Europe. It is cultivated for the sake of the leaf-stalks and 
midribs of the leaves, which are blanched and used as a 
salad or as a boiled vegetable. 

Cardo'zo (Isaac N.), born at Savannah, Ga., June 17, 
1786, became in 1816 editor, and some years later propri¬ 
etor, of the “Southern Patriot,” a free-trade journal of his 
native town. In 1820 he published “Notes on Political Econ¬ 
omy.” He established the “Evening News” in 1845. He 
was active in commercial affairs, and, though opposed to 
the tariff of 1828, was not of the extreme nullification party. 
He was drowned in Virginia Aug. 26, 1850. 

Cards. See Playing Cards. 

Cards, a device for preparing the fibres of wool, cotton, 
or other textile material for the spinning prdeess. The ope¬ 
ration was formerly performed by hand-cards, but at pres¬ 
ent machines of surprising ingenuity are emjdoyed. The 
manufacture of cards is itself accomplished by wonderfully 
perfect mechanism. The subject is more fully discussed un¬ 
der Spinning (which see). Other forms of cards are employed 
for currying or cleaning the hair of domestic animals. 

Cardans Bencdictas. See Blessed Thistle. 

Card'well, a county in the Dominion of Canada, in 
the central part of Ontario, was formed out of parts of 
Simcoe and Peel counties. Pop. in 1871, 16,500. 

Cardwell (Edward), an English statesman, born in 
Liverpool in 1813. He was elected to Parliament in 1842, 
joined the party called Peelites, and was president of the 
board of trade from 1852 to 1855. In the latter year he 
was returned to Parliament for Oxford. He became secre¬ 
tary for Ireland in 1859, and secretary of state for the col¬ 
onies in April, 1864. Having resigned with his colleagues 
in June, 1866, he entered the cabinet of Gladstone as sec¬ 
retary of state for war in Dec., 1868. 

Career' [Fr. carriere , literally, a “track or course for 
carriages or cars ”], the ground on which a race is run ; a 
course; a race; the entire course of one’s public life. The 
term was often applied to the course which was run in a 
tournament or tilt by two mounted knights from the start¬ 
ing-place to the place where they encountered in the mid¬ 
dle of the lists. 

Ca'ret [from Lat. careo ] signifies “it is lacking.” It 
is the name of a character formed thus a, and denotes that 
some word or letter has been omitted. 

Carew' (Thomas), an English poet and courtier, born 
in 1589. He was patronized by Charles I., in whose court 
he served as gentleman of the chamber. He wrote sonnets 
and short lyrical poems which are remarkable for elegance 
and ease. Died in 1639. (The name Carew is by some Eng¬ 
lish families of the name pronounced like Carey.) 

Ca'rex (gen. caricis ), [a classical Latin word signifying 
“ sedge”], is the botanical name of a vast genus of coarse 
grass-like plants of the order Cyperacem. They abound 
in temperate and cold climates, and are perennial herbs, 
often growing in dense tufts in swamps and wet places. 
The genus is characterized by male and female flowers, 
separated (mostly monoecious), with an ovary enclosed in 
an inflated sac called a perigynium. Stamens three, rarely 
two. More than 450 species of Carex are known, and 150 
species aro described in Gray’s “Manual of Botany” as 
natives of the Northern U. S. The Carex arenaria is 
planted in Holland on the dikes for the purpose of binding 
the sandy shores with its spreading roots (rhizomes) and 
resisting the encroachments of the sea. Few of the spe¬ 
cies are good for pasture, but they tend to convert swamps 


















CAREY—CARIES. 


777 


gradually into fertile soil. In the U. S. they are harvested 
in large quantities from wet lands, but produce a poor 
quality of hay. 

Ca'rey, a post-village of Crawford township, Wyandot 
co., 0., at the junction of the Findlay branch with the 
Cincinnati Sandusky and Cleveland R. R., 50 miles S. by 
W. of Sandusky. Pop. 692. 

Carey (Henry Charles), a political economist and 
writer of distinction, was born in Philadelphia Dec. 15, 
1793. He became in 1821 the head of the firm of Carey 
& Lea, publishers. He has advocated a protective tariff, 
and has written, besides other works, “ The Principles of 
Political Economy” (3 vols., 1837-40), “The Past, the 
Present, and the Future” (1848), and “The Principles of 
Social Science” (3 vols., 1858-59). He is the founder of 
a school of political economy whose principles are consid¬ 
ered more progressive and liberal than those of Malthus 
and Ricardo. He has been distinguished especially for 
the zeal with which he has urged the principle of protec¬ 
tion as opposed to that of free trade. 

Carey (Matthew), a writer, born in Dublin, Ireland, 
Jan. 28, 1760, was the father of the preceding. He emi¬ 
grated to Philadelphia in 1784, and became a bookseller. 
He published “The American Museum” (1787-93), wrote 
several political pamphlets and “ Essays on Political Econ¬ 
omy,” and had much influence in public affairs. Died 
Sept. 16, 1839. 

Carey (William), D.D., born in Northamptonshire, 
England, in Aug., 1761, was a shoemaker in early life, but 
becoming impressed with the duty of giving the gospel to 
the heathen, he went to India in 1794 and founded the 
Baptist mission at Serampore; became (1800) professor of 
Sanscrit, Bengalee, and Mahratta at the College of Fort 
William; published a Sanscrit grammar, a Bengalee-Eng- 
lish dictionary, and other works, besides assuming the 
principal labor in the translation of the Scriptures into 
several Oriental languages. Died in 1834. He takes rank 
among the most distinguished of modern missionaries for 
his fidelity, success, and learning. (See “ Life,” by J. C. 
Marshman, also by F. Carey.) 

Car'go [Sp. cargo, i. e. “load”], a general name 
for all the merchandise carried by a merchant-vessel. 

It is nearly synonymous with freight. The master 
of every British coasting-vessel is required to keep 
a cargo-book, in which are recorded the name of the 
vessel, the name of the owner, the port of departure, 
the port of destination, the goods which constitute 
the cargo, etc. 

Ca'ria [Hr. Kapia], an ancient province in the 
extreme S. W. part of Asia Minor, was bounded on 
the N. by Lydia, on the E. by Phrygia, on the S. by 
the Mediterranean, and on the W. by the JEgean Sea. 

The surface is mountainous. It was drained by the 
river Meander. The chief towns were Miletus, Hali¬ 
carnassus, and Cnidus, which were founded by the 
Greeks, and were important places. The natives of 
Caria were called Cares. 

Caria'ma, a wading bird of South America, akin 
to the cranes, is thirty inches high, brown above and 
whitish beneath. It is easily domesticated, and asso¬ 
ciates peaceably with other fowls. It is the Micro¬ 
dactylies cristatus. 

Caribbe'an Sea, a grand inlet of the Atlantic 
Ocean, is between North and South America, and 
is separated from the Pacific by the Isthmus of Da¬ 
rien (or Panama) and by Central America. It sep¬ 
arates the West India Islands from South America, 
and communicates with the Gulf of Mexico by a pas¬ 
sage about 120 miles wide, which divides Cuba from 
Yucatan, and is called the Channel of Yucatan. The 
water accumulated in the Caribbean Sea by an oceanic 
current flows continually into the Gulf of Mexico, 
from which it can only escape by the narrow passage 
between Florida and the Bahamas, thus forming the 
great Gulf Stream. The depth of this sea is generally 
more than 500 fathoms. Its navigation is not ob¬ 
structed by reefs, rocks, or islands. 

Car'ibkee Bark, or Piton Bark, is obtained 

from the Exostemma Caribbreum, a small tree of Mex¬ 
ico, Florida, and the West Indies. It belongs to the 
cinchona tribe, and, although possessing none of the 
active principles of cinchona, it resembles it so much as to 
be sometimes substituted for it. The flower differs from 
that of the cinchona in having its stamens exserted, instead 
of their being included in the corolla. 

Caribou', or Cariboo (Raugifer caribou), the Ameri¬ 
can reindeer, inhabits Maine, New Brunswick, and other 
cold regions of North America. The caribou is remarkable 


for the great development of the brow-antlers or branches, 
which extend in both sexes forward over the forehead. 
The color of its hair in summer is a rich reddish-brown. 
The average weight of this animal is about 250 or 300 
pounds. Its flesh is much esteemed as food, and its skin 
is of value. The “barren ground caribou” (Rangifer 
grcenlandicus) is found farther N. 

Caribou, a post-village of Boulder co., Col., in the 
“ Grand Island District,” has valuable placer gold-mines 
and one weekly newspaper. 

Caribou, a post-village of Lyndon township, Aroostook 
co., Me. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Ca'ribs, the former Indian inhabitants of the Caribbeo 
Islands. Remnants of the Caribs exist at the present time 
in the West Indies, Guiana, Honduras, and near Panama. 

Ca'ries, a Latin term signifying “rottenness,” applied 
to a disease of the bones analogous to the ulceration of 
the soft tissues; a term used to designate both open ulcer 
of bone and chronic ostitis or inflammation of the con¬ 
nective tissue of bone, with solution of the earthy part. 
It begins as an inflammation, accompanied by periostitis, 
followed by exudation of new materials and softening. 
Sometimes the bone-cells are filled with a reddish fluid, 
and there are masses of tubercle. After caries has existed 
for some time the abscess bursts; its aperture remains open, 
discharging a fluid which contains particles of bone. If 
a probe be passed through this opening, it will be felt to 
sink into a soft, gritty substance; this is carious bone. 
Pathologists give different names to the somewhat various 
forms of the disease. Thus we have “osteoplastic,” “tu¬ 
berculous,” and “suppurative” caries, etc. It is mole¬ 
cular death of bone, while necrosis is death of a large 
mass of bone. 

Caries usually selects the vertebrae, the bones* of the 
wrist and foot, and the soft ends of long bones forming 
joints. Carious vertebrae yield under the weight of the 
trunk, and the spine curves forward or to one side. In 
joints the part enlarges, the cartilages become affected, 
matter forms, and amputation of the limb or excision of 
the joint is frequently necessary. The causes of caries 


are constitutional, such as bad nutrition, syphilis, old age, 
and other depressing conditions. It may be accidentally 
determined by any irritation, such as a blow or exposure to 
atmospheric changes. The treatment consists in suppoi - 
ing the patient by judicious change of air, by the use 
of tonics, such as cod-liver oil, which in scrofula ap¬ 
pears to combat the constitutional predisposition. In 



Cariama. 


I 































CARILLON—CARLISLE SPRINGS. 


778 


those parts whero the diseased bone can be reached it may 
be carefully removed, so as to leave a healthy surface. 

Caries of the teeth is a very common disease. It is be¬ 
lieved to be caused by dyspepsia and the use of too hot 
food and drink, but especially by neglect to clean the teeth 
after eating. (For its treatment see Dentistry, by Dr. 
C. N. Pierce.) Revised by Willard Parker. 

Carillon, a post-village of Argenteuil co., Quebec 
(Canada), on the Ottawa River, has an academy, and is 
connected with Grenville by canal and railway. Pop. 
about 500. 

Carima'ta, a group of small islands in the passage be¬ 
tween Borneo and Billiton. 

Carimo'na, a post-township of Fillmore co., Minn. 
Pop. 788. 

Cari'na, a Latin word signifying the keel of a ship or 
boat; also a botanical term applied to the sharp thin ridge 
or keel of any organ, and to the two anterior petals of a 
papilionaceous flower, which adhere by their lower edges 
and form a body somewhat like a boat. 

Carina'ria [from the Lat. carina, a “keel”], a genus 
of gasteropodous mollusks, characterized by having the 
heart, liver, generative organs, etc. protruded from the 
body, and encased in an extremely fragile and beautiful 
shell, which is sub-transparent, symmetrical, and com- 
pressed. The convexity of the shell is terminated by a ‘ 
single keel. 

Cari'ni, a town of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, 
beautifully situated 10 miles W. N. W. of Palermo. It has 
a Gothic castle. Near it are the ruins of the ancient 
Hycccira. Pop. 12,539. 

Carin'thia [Ger. Karnthen\, a division of the Austrian 
empire* is bounded on the N. by Salzburg and Styria, on the 
E. by Styria, on the S. by Carniola and Italy, and on the 
W. by the Tyrol. Area, 4006 square miles. It is inter¬ 
sected by the river Drave, the valley of which separates the 
Noric from the Carinthian Alps. The Noric Alps extend 
along the N. border of Carinthia, which is mostly moun¬ 
tainous. It was comprised in the ancient Noricum. Its 
inhabitants were anciently called Carni. Chief town, Ivlag- 
enfurt. Pop. in 1869, 337,058. 

Cari'mis (Marcus Aurelius), a Roman emperor, was 
the son of the emperor Cams. On the death of Carus, 
in 284 A. D., Carinus and Diocletian became competitors 
for the throne. The former gained an advantage in Moesia 
over Diocletian in 285, but was killed by his own soldiers, 
whom he bad offended by his cruelty. 

Caris'sa, a genus of plants of the family Apocynacem. 
Carissa Carendas is a thorny shrub much used for fences in 
India, and its fruit is eaten. 

Carl, a post-township of Adams co., Ia. Pop. 301. 

Carlen' (Emtlie Flygare), a popular Swedish novelist, 
born at Stockholm Aug. 8, 1807. She published in 1838 
her first novel, “Waldemar Klein.” She was married a 
second time in 1841 to a lawyer named Carlen. Translated 
into English, among her works, are “ Home in the Valley,” 

“ The Lover’s Stratagem,” “ The Professor,” and “ Woman’s 
Life.” 

Carleton, a county of New Brunswick (Dominion of 
Canada), bordering on Maine. Area, about 900 square 
miles. It is intersected by the river St. John and the New 
Brunswick and Canada Railway. The soil is fertile. Lum¬ 
ber is produced, and excellent iron ore is mined and 
smelted. Manganese is also found. Capital, Woodstock. 
Pop. 19,938. 

Carleton, a thriving suburb of St. John, New Bruns¬ 
wick, and within the city limits, but separated from the 
main city by the St. John River. It is the S. E. terminus 
of the European and North American Railway, and has 
seven churches, a large foundry, and several steam saw¬ 
mills. A steam ferry here crosses the river. Carleton has 
extensive fisheries. 

Carleton, a county in the E. part of Ontario (Canada). 
Area, 647 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the 
Ottawa River, and drained by the Rideau. It is intersected 
by the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Railway. The county- 
town is Ottawa, which is also the capital of the Dominion 
of Canada. Pop. 21,739. 

Carleton, a small post-village and township of Bona- 
venture co., Quebec (Canada), on the Bay of Chaleurs. It 
is a port of refuge, has fine mountain-scenery, extensive 
herring-fisheries, a convent of Sisters of Charity, and is a 
place for holding the circuit courts. 

Carleton (Sir Guy), Lord Dorchester, a British gen¬ 
eral, born at Strabane, in Ireland, Sept. 3, 1724. He be¬ 
came governor of Quebec in 1772, which he defended 
against the American army in Dec., 1775. He invaded 


New York in 1776, and fought a battle against Arnold on 
Lake Champlain. In 1777 he was relieved of the command, 
but he succeeded Sir Henry Clinton as commander-in-chief 
in North America in 1781. Died Nov. 10, 1808. 

Carleton (William), an Irish novelist, born in Tyrone 
county in 1798. His first work was “Traits and Stories of 
the Irish Peasantry” (1830), which was received with favor. 
In 1839 he published “ Fardorougha the Miser,” which was 
very successful. He described Irish life and manners with 
much vigor and accuracy in other works, among which are 
“ Rody the Rover” (1846) and “Willie Reilly” (3 vols., 
1855). Died Jan. 30, 1869. 

Carleton Place, a post-village of Beckwith township, 
Lanark co., Ontario (Canada), at the junction of the Brock- 
ville and Ottawa and the Canada Central Railways, 28 
miles from Ottawa, on a navigable stream called the Mis¬ 
sissippi River. It has manufactures of woollen cloth and 
iron castings, and very extensive lumber-mills. It has one 
weekly paper. Pop. about 1500. 

Car'li, or Car'li Rub'bi (Giovanni Rinaldo), Count, 
an Italian political economist, born at Capo d’lstria April 

II, 1720. He acquired a high reputation by an important 
work entitled “ Delle Monete e delle Instituzione delle Zecche 
d’ltalia” (“On Italian Coins and the Institution of Mints 
in Italy,” 4 vols., 1754-60). He was appointed president 
of the council of commerce and public economy at Milan. 
Among his other works is a treatise “ On Italian Antiqui¬ 
ties” (1788). Died Feb. 22, 1795. 

Car'lin, a township of Calhoun co., Ill. Pop. 534. 

Carlin, a post-village of Elko co., Nev.,is on the Hum¬ 
boldt River and the Central Pacific R. R., 583 miles N. E. 
of San Francisco. Pop. of township, 295. 

Car'linville, a post-village, capital of Macoupin co., 

III. , on the Chicago and Alton R. R., 57 miles N. N. E. of St. 
Lpuis and 38 miles S. W. of Springfield. It has one national 
bank, six churches, and is the seat of Blackburn University, 
connected with which is a theological seminary. Its court¬ 
house cost $1,800,000, and is said to be the finest in the 
U. S. Coal is mined here. It has one semi-weekly and 
two weekly newspapers. P. of Carlinville township, 5808. 

Carlisle, kar-lil' (anc. Luguvallio or Luguvallum), an 
ancient episcopal city of England, the capital of Cumber¬ 
land county, is situated on an eminence at the confluence 
of the Eden and Caldew rivers, by which it is nearly sur¬ 
rounded. It is 301 miles by rail N. N. W. of London, 
98J miles by rail S. of Edinburgh, and 12 miles E. of 
Solway Frith. Several railways converge to this point, 
which also has communication by steamboats with Liver¬ 
pool and Belfast. It has a cathedral founded by William 
Rufus, dedicated in 1101, greatly damaged by fire in 1292, 
and restored about 1854. The choir, which is 138 feet long 
and 72 feet high, is one of the finest in England. Here is 
a castle founded in 1092. Carlisle sends two members to 
Parliament. It has manufactures of ginghams and cotton 
checks, print-works, iron-foundries, etc. It was the resi¬ 
dence of the ancient kings of Cumbria, and was destroyed 
by the Danes in 900. During the wars between the Eng¬ 
lish and Scotch it was an important fortified border-town, 
and was often besieged. Pop. in 1871, 31,074. 

Carlisle, capital of Cumberland co., Pa., is situated in 
the fertile limestone valley between the Kittatinny and 
South Mountains, and on the Cumberland Valley R. R., 18 
miles W. by S. from Harrisburg and 125 miles W. of Phila¬ 
delphia. It is well built, and has wide streets and a pub¬ 
lic square. It contains about twelve churches, one national 
bank, one other bank, two weekly newspapers, one car- 
factory, and two machine-shops. Carlisle is the seat of 
Dickinson College, founded in 1783. This town was shelled 
by the Confederates July 1, 1863. It contains also Carlisle 
(U. S. A.) Barracks. Pop. 6650. 

Carlisle, a post-village of Haddon township, Sullivan 
co., Ind. Pop. 499. 

Carlisle, a post-village of Warren co., Ia. Pop. 200. 

Carlisle, a post-village, capital of Nicholas co., Ky., 
about 35 miles N. E. of Lexington. It has one weekly 
newspaper. Pop. 606. 

Carlisle, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass. 
Pop. 569. 

Carlisle, a post-township of Schoharie co., N. Y. Pop. 
1730. 

Carlisle, a township of Lorain co., O. Pop. 1219. 

Carlisle,- Earls of, Viscounts Howard of Morpeth 
and Barons Dacre of Gillesland (England, 1661).— William 
George Howard, eighth earl, rector of Londesborough, 
born Feb. 23, 1808, succeeded his brother in 1864. 

Carlisle Springs, a post-village of Cumberland co., 
Pa, It has good hotels and mild sulphurous waters. 















CARLISTS 


Car'lists, a political party of Spain, consisting of the 
followers ot Carlos of Bourbon and his descendants. (See 
Carlos of Bourbon.) 

Car'loman, or Karloman, a French prince, was a 
son of Charles Martel, at whose death, in 741 A. D., he be¬ 
came king of Austrasia, Suabia, and Thuringia. He abdi¬ 
cated in favor of his brother, Pepin le Bref, in 747, and 
became a monk. Died in 755 A. D. 

Carl Oman, a son of Pepin le Bref and a brother of 
Charlemagne, was born in 751 A. D. On the death of his 
father in 768 he began to rule over Neustria and Burgundy. 
He died in 771, and Charlemagne then obtained possession 
of Carloman’s dominions. 

Car'los, a township of Douglas co., Minn. Pop. 116. 

Carlos, Don, infante of Spain, the son and heir-appa¬ 
rent ot Philip II., was born July 8, 1545. He was a youth 
of violent temper and sickly constitution, and appears to 
have been deficient in intellect. He attacked or menaced 
the duke of Alva with a poniard in 1567. The king re¬ 
garded him with suspicion, and ordered him to be tried by 
the Inquisition, which pronounced him guilty. He died in 
1568, but the cause and manner of his death are involved 
in mystery. He is the subject of Schiller’s tragedy of “ Don 
Carlos.” (See Prescott, “ History of Philip II.”) 

Carlos of Bourbon, Don, count de Molina, born Mar. 
29, 1788, was the second son of King Charles IV. of Spain. 
He was the heir-presumptive to the throne until the birth 
of Isabella in 1830. On the death of his brother, Ferdi¬ 
nand VII., in 1833, Don Carlos claimed the throne, and 
was supported by a party called Carlists, between whom 
and the partisans of Isabella a civil war ensued. The 
priests and absolutists mostly preferred Don Carlos, but his 
claim was rejected by the Cortes in 1836. The Carlist army 
was defeated in 1839, and Don Carlos fled to France. He 
abdicated in favor of his son, Don Carlos, count de Monte- 
molin, in 1845. Died Mar. 10, 1855. 

Carlos, Don, count de Montemolin, a son of the preced¬ 
ing, was born Jan. 31, 1818. After the death of his father 
he was a pretender to the throne of Spain, and was recog¬ 
nized as Charles VI. by the Carlists, who revolted in 1860 
without success. Died in 1861. 

Carlos, Don, duke of Madrid, a nephew of the preceding, 
son of Don Juan of Bourbon and grandson of Don Carlos, 
count of Molina, was born in 1848. His father, Don Juan, 
abdicated in his favor on Oct. 3, 1868, and from that time 
he was recognized by the Carlists as Charles VII. Ho made 
in 1869, 1870, and again in 1872, unsuccessful efforts to 
overthrow the government of King Amadeus, and in 1873 
waged war against the republican government. His eldest 
son, Jayme, prince of Asturias, was born June 27, 1870. 

Carlovin'gian [Fr. Carlovingien], the name of the 
second dynasty of French or Frankish kings. The origin 
of the family is traced to Arnulph, bishop of Metz, who 
died in 631. The dynasty derived its name from Charles 
Martel or his grandson Charlemagne. Charles Martel be¬ 
came in 714 A. D. mayor of the palace and king in reality, 
but he permitted Childeric to retain the name and form of 
royalty. The Merovingian dynasty ended in Childeric, a 
roi faineant, who after a merely nominal reign was deposed 
in 752 by Pepin le Bref, a son of Charles Martel. Pepin 
usurped the throne, and was the first Carlovingian who 
took the title of king. He was succeeded by his son Char¬ 
lemagne, who began to reign in 771, extended his domin¬ 
ions by conquest, was the most powerful European monarch 
of his time, and the founder of the Germanic empire. He 
was crowned as emperor of the West by Pope Leo III. in 
800 A. D., and died in 814. Under his descendants the 
empire continually declined in power. His son and suc¬ 
cessor, Louis le Debonnaire, divided his dominion among 
his three sons, Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis. Louis le De¬ 
bonnaire, who died in 840, had another son, Charles the 
Bald, who became king of France. He died in 877, and 
was followed by a succession of feeble princes. The last 
of the Carlovingian dynasty was Louis V., who died in 987. 
Hugh Capet then assumed the royal power. This house in¬ 
cluded a number of German and Italian monarchs. 

Car'Iow, a county of Ireland, in Leinster, is bounded 
on the N. by Kildare and Wicklow, on the E. by Wicklow, 
on the S. E. by Wexford, on the W. by Queens county and 
Kilkenny. Area, 353 square miles. The surface is mostly 
level or undulating; the soil is fertile. The rocks found near 
the surface are granite and limestone. It contains many 
dairies, and exports grain, flour, and butter. Coal is mined 
near the western border of this county. Chief town, Carlow. 
Pop. in 1871, 51,472. 

Carlow, a town of Ireland, capital of the above county, 
is on the navigable river Barrow, at the mouth of the Bur- 
ren, 57 miles by rail S. S. W. of Dublin. It is well built, 
has two bridges, a Roman Catholic cathedral, a college for 


CARLTON. * 779 


students of divinity, a lunatic asylum, and a handsome 
court-house; also extensive flour-mills. Here are the pic¬ 
turesque ruins of a large Anglo-Norman castle founded in 
1180. This castle was taken and dismantled by the army 
of Gen. Ireton in 1650. Pop. in 1871, 7773. 

Car'lowitz, a town of Austria, on the right bank of 
the Danube, 8 miles S. E. of Peterwardein. It contains 
a Greek cathedral, and is the seat of the Greek arch¬ 
bishop of the Serbian nationality. It is noted for its ex¬ 
cellent wine, the product of which sometimes amounts to 
1,750,000 gallons in a year. An important treaty was con¬ 
cluded here in 1699, between Turkey on one side and Austria, 
Russia, and Venice on the other. Pop. in 1869, 4419. 

Car'Towvilie, a post-township of Dallas co., Ala. Pop. 
800. 

Carls'batl, or Karlsbad (i.e. “ Charles’s Bath”), a 
town in Bohemia famous for its hot springs, is on the right 
bank of the river Eger, about 76 miles W. N. W. of Prague. 
It belongs to the emperor of Austria, and is said to be the 
most aristocratic watering-place in Europe. It is in a nar¬ 
row valley between steep granite mountains, and is sur¬ 
rounded by very beautiful scenery. It contains a theatre, 
several reading-rooms, and good hotels. The temperature 
of the waters varies from 117° to 165° F. They contain 
sulphate of soda and other salts, and about 2,000,000 gal¬ 
lons are discharged daily. The number of annual visitors 
here is from 12,000 to 15,000. Carlsbad was a favorite re¬ 
sort of Goethe. A congress of German powers was held 
here in 1819. Pop. in 1869, 7291. 

Carls'bsirg, or Karlsbtarg, a fortified town of Aus¬ 
tria, in Transylvania, on the right bank of the Maros, 46 
miles S. S. E. of Klausenburg. Saltpetre is manufactured 
here. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and has 
a gymnasium, a theological seminax-y, a normal school, and 
several convents. Pop. in 1869, 7955. 

Carlscro'na, or KarlskroTia (?. e. “ Charles’s 
Crown’’), sometimes called in English CarlscroGm', a 
seaport in the S. of Sweden, is situated on sevei-al small 
islands, which are connected by bridges with each other 
and with the mainland, 258 miles S. S. W. of Stockholm ; 
lat. 56° 10' N., Ion. 15° 36' E. It has an excellent and 
safe hax-bor, with sufficient depth of water to float the 
largest ships, and is the principal station of the Swedish 
navy. The entrance to the harbor is defended by two 
strong forts. Here are dry-docks blasted out of the granite 
rock, and a naval arsenal. It has manufactui-es of linen 
cloths, naval equipments, etc. Pop. 17,564. 

Carls'hamn, a seaport of Sweden, on the Baltic, 27 
miles W. of Carlscrona. It has a small but secure harbor, 
and an active trade in iron, timber, etc.: also manufactui’cs 
of sailcloth, hats, soap, and tobacco. Pop. in 1868, 5578. 

Carls'rwhe, or Karlsrahe (7. e. “ Chai-les’s Rest”), a 
city of Germany, capital of the grand duchy of Baden, 46 
miles by rail S. of Mannheim. It is connected by l-ail- 
ways with all parts of Germany. The streets are arranged 
like the radii of a semicircle, converging towards a central 
point, which is occupied by the palace of the grand duke. 
Connected with this palace is a museum and a library of 
80,000 volumes. The town also contains a large public 
library, a botanic garden, a mint, a theatre, an arsenal, and 
several hospitals. Here are manufactures of carpets, jew¬ 
elry, chemical products, carriages, etc. Carlsruhe was 
founded in 1715 by Charles William, margrave of Baden. 
Pop. in 1871, 36,622. 

CarUstad, a town of Sweden, on the island of Ting- 
valla, in Lake Wener, about 141 miles W. of Stockholm. 
It is connected with the mainland by a large and hand¬ 
some bridge. It has a cathedral, a college with an obser¬ 
vatory, and a cabinet of natui'al history. Copper, ii'on, 
timber, and grain are exported from this town through 
Lake Wener and the Gotha Canal. Pop. 5433. 

CarUstadt, a fortified town of Croatia, in the county 
of Agram, 33 miles S. W. of Agram, has a large garrison 
and an active transit trade. Pop. in 1870, 5175. 

Carlstadt, a post-village of Bergen co., N. J. It has 
two weekly newspapers. 

Carl'ton, a county of Minnesota, bordering on Wis¬ 
consin. Area, 860 square miles. It is drained by the St. 
Louis and Nemadji Rivers. The surface is moderately 
diversified, and partly covered with forests of pine and 
other trees. It is intersected by tho Northern Pacific R. R. 
Capital, Thomson. Pop. 286. 

Carlton, a township of Tama co., Ia. Pop. 812. 

Carlton, a township of Barry co., Mich. Pop. 1125. 

Carlton, a township of Freeborn co., Minn. Pop. 
378. 

Carlton, a post-village and township of Oi'leans co., 











780 


CARLTON—CARMI. 


N. Y., 33 miles N. W. of Rochester and 1 mile from Lake 
Ontario. Pop. 2327. 

Carlton, a post-township of Kewaunee eo., Wis. P. 1185. 

Carlton (Thomas), D.D., a clergyman of the Metho¬ 
dist Episcopal Church, was born at Derry, N. II., in 1809. 
He began his ministry in the Genesee (now Western New 
York) Conference in 1829, and occupied important pulpits 
in Rochester, Buffalo, and other places during some years, 
llis superior administrative and financial abilities led to 
his appointment as agent, for three years, of the Genesee 
Wesleyan Seminary, as presiding elder of important dis¬ 
tricts for seven years, and at last as principal agent or pub¬ 
lisher of the “Methodist Book Concern” in New York, 
and treasurer of the Methodist Missionary Society, in 
which functions he has served his Church lor twenty years. 

Carludovi'ca Palma'ta, a tree or shrub of the order 
Pandanacere, grows in the tropical parts of South America. 
It produces the leaves of which Panama hats are made. 
Those of the best quality are plaited from a single leaf 
without any joints. As this process requires several 
months, the price of such a hat is very high. 

Carlyle, kar-lil', a post-village, capital of Clinton co., 
Ill., on the Kaskaskia River and the Ohio and Mississippi 
R. R., 47 miles E. of St. Louis, has fine churches and 
school-houses, two newspapers, and considerable iron man¬ 
ufactures. The public library contains 5000 volumes. It 
has a new female seminary. Pop. 1364. 

Hardin Case, Ed. Carlyle “ Constitution and Banner.” 

Carlyle, a post-village of Allen co., Kan., on the 
Leavenworth Lawrence and Galveston R. R., 73 miles S. 
of Lawrence. 

Carlyle (Thomas), the famous English historian and 
philo'sopher, was bormin 1795 at Ecclefechan in Scotland. 
He was educated in the University of Edinburgh, which he 
entered at the age of fourteen, and very early he embraced 
literature as a profession. In 1824 he wrote a “ Life of 
Schiller.” Soon after he translated Goethe’s romance 
u Wilhelm Meister;” and these books, as well as his biogra¬ 
phical essays on Fichte and Jean Paul, contributed very 
much to call the attention of the English public to the Ger¬ 
man literature, of whose ideas he himself is the English 
representative. In 1834 he moved from Craigenputtock, 
near Dumfries, where he had led a very secluded and 
almost solitary life, to London, and his literary activity 
soon widened and became more varied. In 1837 he wrote 
the “History of the French Revolution” (3 vols.). In 
1840 he delivered his celebrated course of lectures on “He¬ 
roes and Hero-Worship.” In 1845 he published “Oliver 
Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches, with Elucidations and a 
Connecting Narrative” (5 vols.). In 1851 he wrote “ The 
Life of John Sterling,” and from 1858 to 1864 published the 
“Life of Frederick the Great” (6 vols.), besides producing 
a great number of essays, reviews, and pamphlets of a 
miscellaneous character. Carlyle’s stand-point as a histo¬ 
rian and philosopher is not one of conviction, but of tem¬ 
perament. He can only write when in the attitude of an 
opponent. What all the world hates he will defend, admire, 
and love. What all people strive after he will mock and 
scorn and deride. But he can keep the attitude through 
six volumes without vacillating, and he is as eloquent and 
brilliant when he defends as he is grotesque and sardonic 
when he attacks. Taken as a whole, his writings are one 
maze of glaring confusion. In 1837 he represented history 
as an evolution of natural forces according to necessary 
laws, against which all efforts of individual passion or 
shrewdness are ridiculous. In 1840 he represented history 
as the work of the great men, of the heroes, in whose track 
the mass of the people have to follow like sheep. In all 
his writings he tells us that human greatness is truth, and 
truth alone. A man is great in proportion to the amount 
of truth there is in him. But his heroes happen to be 
among the greatest liars history knows of—as, for instance, 
Frederick the Great and Mirabeau. With Carlyle his ideas 
contradict his ideals. His ideas are those of the German 
philosophy as it culminated with Hegel—lofty, but without 
power of progress, radiant like the stars, but like them in¬ 
different to what they shine upon. His ideals are those of 
the English middle class : what has power must be revered; 
what is successful, must be admired. To bring these ideas 
into harmony with these ideals is impossible, and the under¬ 
current of sadness and sourness which flows through all 
Carlyle’s writings, and which now and then bursts forth to 
the surface with weird chants, is the natural result of such 
an attempt. But the almost violent mental vigor which is 
Carlyle’s nature, and the perfect veracity which is his cha¬ 
racter, have produced a combination of these inconsistent 
elements which, in the details, is always stirring and excit¬ 
ing, even when it makes us sick at heart, and which in our 
days of harmony of mediocrity is exceedingly refreshing. 


Carlyle is never mediocre. Even when he plays the part 
of a clown, he is unsurpassed. Indeed, there is only one 
thing in history which he cannot master—the fact. He 
likes to mock the German historians, and addresses them 
generally as Mr. Dryasdust; but whenever he himself tries 
to state a fact and keep it intact, he at once becomes a Mr. 
Drierthandust. Clemens Petersen. 

Carmagnole, the name of a political song which was 
sung by the popular party of Jacobins in the French Revo¬ 
lution. The term was also applied to a popular dance of 
that period, and to a jacket which was worn by the revo¬ 
lutionists as a symbol of patriotism. 

Carmarthen, or Caermarthen (anc. Maridunum), 
[Welsh, Caer Fyrddyn ], a seaport-town of South Wales, 
the capital of Carmarthenshire, is on the river Towy, 8 
miles from its entrance into the Bristol Channel. It has a 
picturesque situation, but the streets are steep and narrow. 
The Towy, which is here crossed by a bridge, is navigable 
for vessels of 200 tons from its mouth to this point. Tin 
plates, cast iron, timber, slates, lead ore, marble, and grain 
are exported from it. The famous prophet Merlin is said 
to have been born here. Pop. in 1871, 10,499. 

Carmarthenshire, or Caermarthensliire, a 

county of South Wales, is bounded on the N. by-Cardigan, 
on the E. by Brecon, on the S. E. by Glamorgan, on the 
S. by the Bristol Channel (here called Carmarthen Bay), 
and on the W. by Pembroke. Area, 974 square miles. The 
surface in the northern and eastern parts is mountainous; 
the soil of the valley is fertile. It is bounded on the N. by 
the river Teify, and intersected by the Towy, which flows 
through the celebrated Vale of Towy, 30 miles long. 
Among its mineral resources are copper, coal, iron, lead, 
slate, and marble. Capital, Carmarthen. Pop. in 1871, 
116,944. 

Car'mei, a post-village of Penobscot co., Me., on the 
Maine Central R. R., 15 miles W. of Bangor. Pop. of 
Carmel township, 1348. 

Carmel, a township of Eaton co., Mich. Pop. 2504. 

Carmel, a post-village, capital of Putnam co., N. Y., is 
in Carmel township, about 50 miles N. by E. from New 
York City and 15 miles E. of the Hudson River, on the 
New York Boston and Montreal R. R. It has one national 
bank, three churches, two newspapers, and a young ladies’ 
seminary. Pop. 590; of township, 2796. 

J. D. Little, Ed. “ Putnam County Courier.” 

Car'melites, or the Order of St. Mary of Mount 
Carmel, a celebrated monastic order of the Roman Cath¬ 
olic Church. It was probably founded on Mount Carmel 
in the twelfth century, but the Carmelites claim to have 
been instituted by the prophet Elijah. They were com¬ 
pelled by the Saracens to wear a striped dress, whence they 
were formerly called in England Barred Friars. They were 
at first under the rule of Saint Basil, but afterwards a part 
of them came under the mitigated rule of Innocent IV.; hence 
these were called Mitigated Carmelites. In the tenth cen¬ 
tury a part of the Carmelites sought and obtained a severer 
rule. These arc called Barefooted Carmelites ( Discalceati ). 
They are entirely independent of the former. Their man¬ 
ner of life is very austere. The Carmelite monks and nuns 
(who were first admitted to the order in 1452) are found, 
both Mitigated and Discalceate, in almost every country, 
though in numbers they are much reduced. The best 
known member of the order in modern times is the French 
pulpit orator, Father Ilyacinthe. 

Car'mei, Mount, a mountain-ridge of Palestine, ex¬ 
tends from the plain of Esdraelon to the Mediterranean, 
and terminates in a steep promontory in that sea, about 9 
miles S. W. of Acre; lat. 32° 51' 10" N., Ion. 34° 57' 42'' E. 
It is formed of limestone, and has an altitude of nearly 
1400 feet above the sea. Oaks, pines, olives, and laurels 
grow on its summit and sides. Carmel is mentioned in 
Scripture as the place where the prophet Elijah slew the 
priests of Baal. The meaning of the word in Hebrew is a 
park or garden. Near the top of this mountain is a mon¬ 
astery, the inmates of which are called Carmelites (which 
see). The Order of Mount Carmel was a body of one 
hundred knights, all of noble descent, instituted by Henry 
IV. of France. 

Carmen'ta, a prophetic divinity of ancient Italy, was 
one of the Cameme, and was worshipped by the Roman 
matrons at a festival called Carmentalia. 

Car'mi, a city, capital of White co., Ill., at the junction 
of the St. Louis and South-eastern and the Cairo and Vin¬ 
cennes R. Rs., is at the head of navigation on the Little 
Wabash River, 150 miles S. E. of Springfield. It has iron 
and woollen manufactures and several flour-mills. It has 
two weekly newspapers. Pop. 1369 ; of township, 3669. 

W. F. Palmer, Ed. “ Carmi Courier.” 













CARMICHAEL- 

Car'miehacl, a township of Marion co., S. C. P. 910. 

Car'michael’s, apost-boroughof Greene co., Pa. P.491. 

Carmin'atives [from Lat. carmen, a “charm”], med¬ 
icines to relieve flatulence and pain in the bowels, such as 
cardamoms, peppermint, ginger, and other stimulating aro¬ 
matics. 

Car'mine [Fr. carmin, from the Arabic Kermes (which 
see)], a beautiful red pigment composed chiefly of cochineal, 
mixed with alumina and a little oxide of tin. It is em¬ 
ployed by artists and silk-dyers, and is an ingredient in 
the best red inks. It is considered the most beautiful of 
all red pigments, and has been in use since the middle of 
the seventeenth century. Under the name of rouge it is 
used by ladies to paint their cheeks. One of the processes 
by which it is prepared is as follows : Digest one pound of 
cochineal in three gallons of water for fifteen minutes ; add 
one ounce of cream of tartar, heat gently for ten minutes, 
add half an ounce of alum, and boil it for several min¬ 
utes. After the impurities have settled, the clear liquid is 
placed in clean glass pans or shallow glazed dishes, in 
which it is allowed to stand while the carmine is slowly de¬ 
posited. Imitations of carmine are made of red sandal-wood, 
Brazil-wood, and other substances, and are often sold as 
rouge. 

Carsno'na (anc. Carmo), a town of Spain, in the prov¬ 
ince of Seville, is picturesquely situated on a hill or high 
ridge 21 miles N. E. of Seville. It is near the railway 
which connects Seville with Cordova. It contains a fine 
old Gothic church, a ruined castle, and a university. Here 
are manufactures of woollen fabrics, hats, soap, leather, etc. 
It has a large annual cattle fair. Pop. 20,074. 

Carnac, a village of France, department of Morbihan, 
19 miles S. E. of Lorient. On a wide plain adjacent to 
Carnac, and near the sea, is a remarkable monument, con¬ 
sisting of about 1100 to 1200 (formerly over 4000) rude 
obelisks of granite, standing with their smaller ends on the 
ground, arranged in eleven parallel rows and from six to 
twenty-one feet high. Most writers have called these re¬ 
mains Druidical or Celtic, but late authorities ascribe them 
to a pre-historic race. Pop. 2864. 

Car'nahan (James), D. D., LL.D., a Presbyterian di¬ 
vine, born near Carlisle, Pa., Nov. 15, 1775, graduated at 
Princeton in 1800, and was a tutor there 1801-04. After 
holding several pastorates, he became in 1823 president of 
Princeton College, performing his duties with fidelity and 
wisdom till his resignation in 1854. Died Mar. 2, 1859. 

Carnahu'ba Palm, or Caranai'ba Palm {Coper- 
nicia cerifera), a beautiful | aim which abounds in the N. 



Carnahuba Palm. 


part of Brazil. It seldom attains a height of more than 
forty feet. The fruit is edible, and the timber is valuable 
for several purposes. The leaves of this tree are covered 
beneath w ith wax, which is collected, and, like the wax of 
certain other species of palm, is an article of commerce. 
Its timber is exported to England, where it is used for 
veneering. 


CARNELIAN. 781 


Car'nallite, a hydrated chloride of potassium and 
magnesium, which occurs in coarse granular masses, mixed 
with rock-salt, near Magdeburg, in Prussia. It is used as 
a fertilizer of the soil. 

Carnarvon, or Caernarvon (anc. Segontium), a sea¬ 
port-town of North Wales, capital of Carnarvonshire, is 
on the E. side and near the S. W. end of the Menai Strait, 
which separates it from the island of Anglesey. It is 7 
miles S. W. of the Menai Bridge, and about 60 miles 
W. S. W. of Liverpool. The harbor will admit vessels of 
400 tons, and steamboats ply between this j)ort and Liver¬ 
pool. Carnarvon is a much-frequented watering-place, and 
has beautiful scenery in the vicinity. Here is a castle 
founded by Edward I. in 1282, which now forms one of 
the most imposing ruins in the kingdom. It has thirteen 
embattled towers surmounted by turrets. Carnarvon is 
about half a mile from the site of Segontium , an ancient 
Roman town or station. Pop. in 1871, 9370. 

Carnarvon (Henry Howard Molyneux Herbert), 
Earl of, an English conservative statesman, born in Lon¬ 
don June 24, 1831. He was appointed secretary of state 
for the colonics in June, 1866, and he framed a plan for the 
confederation of the British North American colonies, 
which was approved by Parliament. He resigned in Mar., 
1867, because he was opposed to the Reform bill which 
Disraeli introduced. 

Carnarvonshire, or Carnarvon, a county of 
North Wales, bordering on the Irish Sea, has an area of 
544 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by Menai 
Strait and Carnarvon Bay, on the N. by the Irish Sea, on 
the E. by Denbigh, and on the S. by Merioneth and Car¬ 
digan Bay. The surface is very mountainous, and the 
scenery is remarkably gi'and. Here is Snowdon, which is 
the highest mountain in Wales, and rises 3571 feet above 
the level of the sea. Among the minerals of this county are 
copper, lead, zinc, coal, and roofing-slate. The chief branch 
of rural industry is the rearing of black cattle for the 
dairy. Carnarvonshire is traversed by the Chester and 
Holyhead Railway, which crosses the Menai Strait. Capi¬ 
tal, Carnarvon. Pop. in 1871, 106,122. 

Carnat'ic, The, a former division or region of India, 
on the coast of Coromandel, was bounded on the E. by 
the Indian Ocean or Bay of Bengal, and extended from 
Cape Comorin to about 16° N. lat. Its other dimensions 
were not well defined. It contains numerous large temples, 
and other monuments w.hich attest its former spdendor. 

Carna'tion [Lat. earnatio, from caro, gen. carnis, 
“flesh”], “flesh-color.” This term is used in painting, and 
is applied to the flesh-tints or natural color of flesh, also to 
the parts of a picture which represent the nude human fig¬ 
ure. The art of producing a good carnation appears to be 
difficult, and not well understood by most modem painters. 

Carnation, a beautiful and fragrant double-flowering 
variety of the Dianihus Caryophyllus, or clove pink. It is 
a universal favorite of florists, and exists only in a state of 
cultivation. Scarlet, purple, and pink are the prevailing 
colors of the flowers, which are often three inches in diam¬ 
eter. Florists prefer those in which the colors are perfectly 
distinct. The numerous varieties which have been pro¬ 
duced by the florist’s art are arranged in three classes— 
flakes, bizarres, and picotees. The flakes have only two 
colors, disposed in broad stripes; the bizarres have three 
colors, in irregular spots and stripes, and the picotees have 
an edging of scarlet, red, or purple on a white or yellow 
ground. Carnations prefer a rich soil, and should have 
free access to the fresh air. They are propagated either by 
layers or pipings — i. e. short cuttings. 

Carne'ades [Gr. KapveaSrjs], a Greek philosopher and 
orator, born at Cyrene, in Africa, in 213 B. C. He opposed 
the doctrines of the Stoics, was the founder of a school 
called the New Academy, and maintained that man has no 
criterion of truth. He was distinguished for his subtle 
dialectic and powerful and specious eloquence. In 155 
B. C. he was sent as ambassador from Athens to Rome, 
where he gained much applause by his orations. One day 
he eulogized justice, and the next day refuted himself by a 
sophistical argument tending to confound the distinction 
between justice and injustice. This offended Cato, who 
caused him to be expelled from Rome. Died at Athens 
about 129 B. C. 

Carne'lian, or Corne'lian [Fr. comaline ], a name 
given to a fine variety of chalcedony which is composed 
chiefly of quartz. The color is red or flesh-color, and rarely 
milky white. It has a conchoidal fracture. Fine speci¬ 
mens of it arc found in Hindostan, where they are highly 
prized, and are manufactured into various ornamental arti¬ 
cles. Carnelians are also found in Europe and the U. fe. 
The bright, clear red are most valued. 















































CARNESVILLE—CAROB. 


782 


Carncsville, a post-village, capital of Franklin co., 
Ga., about 90 miles N. E. of Atlanta. Pop. 266. 

Car'nifex Ferry, over the Gauley River, Nicholas co., 
Va., about 8 miles below Summerville, gives its name to 
the severe action on the N. bank of the river near this ferry, 
Sept. 10, 1861. The Confederates under Gen. Floyd, num¬ 
bering about 5000, had strongly intrenched themselves in 
this position, where they were attacked by the forces under 
Gen. Rosecrans on the afternoon of the 10th Sept. Dark¬ 
ness terminated the battle of the day, and during the night 
Gen. Floyd, being largely outnumbered, escaped with his 
command across the Gauley River, destroying his bridge 
behind him, which prevented pursuit. All the camp equip¬ 
age and munitions of war fell into the hands of the Federal 
forces. 

Carnio'la [Ger. Kraiii], a division or crown-land of 
the Austrian empire, is bounded on the N. by Carinthia, 
on the N. E. by Styria, on the S. E. and S. by Croatia, and 
on the S. W. by the Adriatic Sea and the Littoral prov¬ 
ince. It was formerly a part of the kingdom of Illyria. 
Area, 3857 square miles. The surface is mountainous, and 
partly occupied by the Carinthian Alps. Among its re¬ 
markable physical features is Lake Zirknitz, and the rock- 
bridge of St. Kanzian, which is 130 feet high. The chief 
river is the Save. Carniola contains the quicksilver-mine 
of Idria, which is one of the richest in the world. Iron, 
coal, and marble also occur here. Among the products are 
flax, silk, honey, and wine. The chief town is Laybach. 
Pop. in 1870, 466,334. 

Car'nival [from the Lat. caro, gen. carnis, “ flesh,” 
and vale, “ farewell”], a festival in the Roman Catholic 
countries of Europe just preceding Lent. It was formerly 
most brilliantly celebrated at Venice; later, especially in 
Rome. Like many other usages in modern Europe, the 
customs connected with the Carnival prob’ably originated in 
the heathen spring-time festivals, as the Lupercalia and 
Bacchanalia of the Romans, and the Yule-feasts of the 
Germans. During the Middle Ages costly banquets with 
the rich, and drinking-bouts amongst others, marked the 
time. Recently, the Carnival at Rome has lasted eight 
days, during which the whole city is given up to revelry, 
the centre of which is the street called the Corso. In this 
all the houses are hung with crimson drapery, and each 
afternoon a constant line of carriages and pi-omenaders is 
passing through it. Most of those who appear in the street 
are masked, and an incessant interchange of bouquets, 
confetti, and other harmless missiles makes a scene of ex¬ 
treme liveliness. At six o’clock, after the firing of cannon 
and the clearing of the Corso by troopers, a number of 
horses are let loose at one end of the street, and are urged 
by the shouts of the people to full speed. The last event 
of the Carnival week is the celebration of the Moccoletti. 
For this, after dark, all the revellers, on foot, in carriages, 
and at the windows of the Corso, provide themselves with 
a number of small lighted tapers, which each endeavors to 
preserve, while he puts out as many as possible of those 
of his neighbors. The political disturbances of Italy threw, 
for a time at least, somewhat of a cloud over these festiv¬ 
ities from 1859 to 1870. 

Carniv'ora [Fr. carnivores, from Lat. caro, gen. carnis, 
“ flesh,” and voro, to “ devour”], devouring flesh, feeding 
on flesh; applied to animals which prefer flesh and eat 
little or no vegetable food. They belong to the class Mam¬ 
malia, and are synonymous with the old order Ferae. It is 
characteristic of them to have sharp cutting teeth, simple 
stomachs, very muscular bodies, and active habits. This 
order includes, among other animals, all those quadrupeds 
which are properly called beasts of prey, excepting a few 
of the marsupials of Australasia, which are carnivorous in 
their habits, and resemble in their external characters cer¬ 
tain animals of this order, which they may be said to rep¬ 
resent in the native fauna of that region. Interesting 
fossil remains of Carnivora are referred to the eras just 
preceding and just following the glacial period. The order 
is divided into several families, as Felidae, Mustelida:, 
Ursid.e, Canid.e, Phocidje, etc. (which see). 

Car'nochan (John Murray), M. D., born in Savan¬ 
nah, Ga., in 1817, received a university education at Edin¬ 
burgh, and studied surgery with Dr. Valentine Mott, and 
afterwards in Europe. He began practice in New York in 
1847, and soon gained distinction for his bold and success¬ 
ful surgical operations. In 1851 he became professor of 
surgery at the New York Medical College and surgeon-in¬ 
chief to the State Immigrant Hospital. He has published 
many valuable professional monographs and lectures, a 
treatise on “ Congenital Dislocations” (1850), a translation 
of Rokitansky’s “ Pathological Anatomy,” and other trans¬ 
lations and original works. 

Carnot (Lazare Hippolyte), a French radical repub¬ 
lican, son of the following, born at Saint-Omer April 6, 


1801. He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies from 
1840 to 1848, and was minister of public instruction from 
February to July of that year. From 1864 to 1868 he was 
again a member of the legislative assembly. In 1871 he 
was again elected to the Assembly, where he voted with the 
extreme left. He wrote an able work on Saint-Simonism, 
and published the memoirs of his father (2 vols., 1860-64). 

Carnot (Lazare Nicolas Marguerite), Count, a cele¬ 
brated French statesman and geometer, born at Nolay, in 
Burgundy, on the 13th of May, 1753. He was educated at 
the military school of Mezieres, and published in 1783 an 
“ Essay on Machines,” in which he gave a new and im¬ 
portant theorem on the loss of force. As an earnest friend 
of the popular cause he was elected to the National Con¬ 
vention in 1792. He voted for the execution of Louis XVI., 
and was chosen a member of the Committee of Public 
Safety in Aug., 1793; but he took no part in the contest 
between the Girondists and Jacobins, nor in the cruel ex¬ 
cesses of the Reign of Terror. He rendered important 
services to the republic as war minister by the formation 
of plans of the campaigns, the selection of generals, and 
the organization of the army. In this arduous labor he 
displayed administrative abilities of the highest order. In 
1795 he was elected a member of the Institute, and also 
one of the five members of the Directory. He was pro¬ 
scribed by Barras and the majority of the Directors, and 
condemned in 1797 to deportation, but escaped to Ger¬ 
many. He was Bonaparte’s minister of war in 1800, but 
he soon resigned, being too independent and too earnestly 
republican to serve under that chief. After the emperor 
had suffered reverses, he returned to his aid, .and defended 
Antwerp heroically in 1814. During the Hundred Days 
(1815) he was Napoleon’s minister of the interior. He 
went into exile on the restoration of 1815, and died at 
Magdeburg Aug. 3, 1823. He published, besides other able 
works, “Geometry of Position” (ISO-3), which contains 
several new theorems. (See D. F. Arago, “Biographie de 
Carnot,” 1850; P. F. Tissot, “Memoires historiques sur 
Carnot,” 1824.) As a military engineer he is referred to 
by all subsequent writers upon the art of fortification. His 
own “ system,” and his great work, “ Sur la defense des 
places fortes” (the latter written to stimulate a more pro¬ 
tracted defence of fortresses during the decline of Na¬ 
poleon’s power), though open to criticism, have exerted no 
small influence upon the progress of the art. 

Revised by J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Carn'wath, Earls of (1639), Barons Dalzell (Scotland, 
1628), and baronets (1666). —Henry Arthur Hew Dal¬ 
zell, twelfth earl, born in 1858, succeeded his father in 1867. 

Car'ny, a township of Montgomery co., Kan. Pop. 361. 

Ca'ro, a post-village, capital of Tuscola co., Mich., on 
Cass River, about 80 miles N. E. of Lansing. It has two 
weekly newspapers. 

Car'ob, or Algaro'ba [Arabic, kharoob ], (Ceratonia 



Carob. 

Siliqua), a tree of the natural order Leguminosso, is a na¬ 
tive of the countries around the Mediterranean. It has 





























CAROGA—CARPENTER. 


pinnate, evergreen leaves, with two or three pairs of large 
oval leaflets. The fruit is a brown pod, four to eight inches 
long, having a fleshy or mealy pulp of an agreeable taste, 
which is extensively used as food by the Arabs, Moors, and 
Italians. This fruit or pod is supposed to be the same as 
the article translated “husks” in the parable of the Prod¬ 
igal Son; and it is thought by some that the locusts eaten 
by John the Baptist were these pods. They are imported 
into England and the U. S. under the name of locust beans; 
also called “St. John’s bread.” The wood of the carob is 
hard and valuable. 

Caro'ga, a township of Fulton co., N. Y., contains nu¬ 
merous lakes and forests, and has manufactures of lumber 
and leather. Pop. 828. 

Carolina Mari'a, queen of Naples, born Aug. 13, 
1752, was a daughter of Francis I. and Maria Theresa of 
Austria. She was married in 1768 to Ferdinand, king of 
the Two Sicilies, over whom she obtained great influence. 
She persuaded him to join the coalition against Bonaparte, 
who expelled King Ferdinand from his kingdom in 1806. 
She died in Vienna Sept. 8, 1814. 

Carolina, North. See North Carolina. 

Carolina, South. See South Carolina. 

Car'oline, a county of Maryland, bordering on Dela¬ 
ware. Area, 330 square miles. It is intersected by the 
Choptank River, and partly bounded on the W. by the 
Tuckahoe. The surface is level; the soil is mostly sandy. 
Wheat, corn, and fruit are the chief crops. It is inter¬ 
sected by the Maryland and Delaware 11. R. Capital, 
Denton. Pop. 12,101. 

Caroline, a county in the E. of Virginia. Area, 480 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Rappahan¬ 
nock, and on the S. W. by the North Anna River, and is 
intersected by the Mattapony. The surface is undulating. 
Corn, tobacco, and wheat are raised. The county is trav¬ 
ersed by the Richmond and Fredericksburg R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Bowling Green. Pop. 15,128. 

.Caroline, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 2802. 

Caroline, a post-township of Tompkins co., N. Y., has 
several villages, ten churches, and is on the Delaware Lacka¬ 
wanna and Western R. R. It has beds of iron ore. P. 2175. 

Car'oline Ame'lia Eliz'albeth, queen of England, 
born May 17, 1768, was a daughter of the duko of Bruns¬ 
wick and a niece of George III. of England. She was 
married in 1795 to the prince of Wales, afterwards George 
IV., who regarded her with aversion, and separated from 
her soon after the birth of their daughter, the princess 
Charlotte. On the accession of George IV. in 1820, she 
was prosecuted on a charge of adultery, was defended by 
Mr. Brougham, and was not convicted. Died Aug. 7,1821. 

Car'oline Islands, or New Philippines, an archi¬ 
pelago of Oceanica, is situated between the Philippines, the 
Ladrones, the Marshall Islands, and New Guinea, and ex¬ 
tends from lat. 3° 5' to 12° N. Area, 872 square miles. 
They number about 500 islands. The greater portion of 
the inhabitants are of the Malay race. They are ruled by 
numerous petty chiefs, and are noted for their commercial 
enterprise. The islands were discovered in 1543, and named 
after Charles V. The Spaniards have always claimed them 
as forming part of the Philippines. On July 9, 1868, this 
archipelago was taken possession of by England. Pop. 
estimated by Dr. Gulick in 1872 at 25,000—30,000. 

Caron'delet, a former village of Missouri, on the Mis¬ 
sissippi River, about 5 miles S. of St. Louis. In 1860 it 
was annexed to St. Louis. 

Carondelet, a township of St. Louis co., Mo. Pop. 5387. 

Carot'id [perhaps from the Gr. Kapa, the “head, ’ and 
ov?, gen. (iro?, the “ ear,” because it passes to the head under 
the ear] Ar'tery, the great anterior artery which on each 
side distributes blood to the head. In man, each primitive 
or common carotid at the upper margin of the larynx or 
organ of voice separates into two of nearly equal size— 
the external and the internal carotid. The external 
carotid supplies the larynx, tongue, face, and scalp; its 
principal branches are the superior thyroid, the lingual, 
the facial, the occipital, the posterior aural, the internal 
maxillary, and the temporal. The internal carotid enters 
the cavity of the skull through a tortuous canal in the 
temporal bone, and separates into the anterior and middle 
cerebral arteries, which are the principal arteries of the 
brain ; in its course through the dura mater it gives off the 
ophthalmic artery, which subdivides into small branches 
which afford the eye its principal supply of blood. 

Wounds of the carotids are generally from stabs or cuts. 
Those attempting suicide often try to cut them, but raiely 
cut sufficiently deep by the side of the windpipe. But 
should either vessel be wounded, death results almost im¬ 
mediately. Punctured wounds may not bo immediately 
fatal: they may heal, or a false aneurism may result. 


783 


Sir Astley Cooper was the first to tie the common carotid 
for aneurism, in Nov., 1805; Abernethy had tied it for a 
wound in 1798, and others probably had tied it before him, 
and the operation has been successfully performed in a num¬ 
ber of cases. Owing to the interchange of branches between 
the two sides, cutting off the blood through one carotid is 
seldom followed by affections of the brain. Dr. Mussey 
tied both carotids within twelve days of each other without 
any such result. Revised by Willard Parker. 

Carouge, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of 
Geneva, on the river Arve, 1£ miles S. of Geneva, is beauti¬ 
fully situated, and surrounded by elegant villas and or¬ 
chards. It has manufactures of watches, leather, pottery, 
and thread. Pop. in 1870, 5873. 

Carouse, a township of Ouachita co., Ark. Pop. 528. 

Carp (Cyprinus Carpio), a fresh-water fish of the family 

Cyprinidte, is a native 
of Europe and Asia, and 
has been long natural¬ 
ized in countries in which 
it is not indigenous. It 
is found in lakes and 
rivers, prefers still wa¬ 
ters, and feeds on aquatic 
plants, worms, insects, 
^ ar P* etc. Its length in some 

cases is two feet or more, but it is generally less than a 
foot long. It is very tenacious of life, and is said to attain 
the age of 200 years. The flesh of the carp is highly 
esteemed as food, but it is not a very valuable fish to the 
angler, because it does not bite freely. It is remarkable 
for its fecundity, and 700,000 eggs have been found in a 
carp of moderate size. The gold-fish is a species of carp. 

Carpathian (or Karpathian) Mountains [Ger. 

Karpathen; anc. Carpates\, a long curvilinear range of 
mountains, chiefly in the Austrian empire. It separates 
Hungary from Galicia, and Transylvania from Moldavia 
and Wallachia, and is neaidy in the form of a semicircle, 
one end of which meets the Danube at Presburg, and the 
other touches the same river at New Orsova. This chain, 
which is about 800 miles long, is divisible into two por¬ 
tions, called the Eastern and the Western Carpathians, the 
latter of which extend along the N. border of Hungary. 
The highest points of the Eastern Carpathians, which are 
of primitive formation, are Negui, 8573 feet, and the Kuh- 
horn, 7303 feet. Among the Western Carpathians the 
Eisthalerspitze rises 8875 feet above the sea. Many of the 
Hungarian mountains are formed of limestone. The sides 
of the Carpathians are mostly covered with forests of pine, 
beech, and other trees. They are rich in minerals, includ¬ 
ing gold, silver, copper, iron, and quicksilver. 

Carpeaux (Jean Baptiste), a French sculptor, born 
in Valenciennes in 1827. He established his reputation in 
1863 by the group “ Ugolino and his Children.” His most 
celebrated works are a group representing “ The French 
Empire spreading Light over the World, and protecting 
Agriculture and Science,” made for one of the pediments 
of the Flora Pavilion of the Tuileries in 1865, and another 
representing “ La Danse,” made in 1869 for the New Opera. 
He is one of the most prominent representatives of the 
naturalistic school. 

Car'pel [from the Gr. Kaprros, “fruit”], a botanical 
term applied to a transformed leaf which becomes a simple 
pistil or one of the elements of a compound pistil. The 
upper surface of the leaf forms the inner surface of the 
carpel. The number of ovaries and stigmas of a pistil 
depends on the number of carpels of which it is composed, 
but several are often united so as to appear as one. 

Carpenta'ria, Gulf of, is a broad and deep indent¬ 
ation of the N. coast of Australia, and is a portion of the 
South Pacific Ocean. It extends from Cape Arnhem to 
Capo York, and is about 500 miles long from N. to S. and 
350 miles wide. It is mostly included between lat. 10° 40' 
and 17° 30' S., and between Ion. 138° and 142° E. Its 
shores are generally low. It. encloses numerous islands.’ 
It is visited by vessels for the beche cle mer, which is found 
in its waters. It was named in honor of Peter Carpenter, 
who from 1623 to 1627 was governor-general of the Dutch 
possessions in the East Indies. It has been explored by 
Cook (1770), Flinders (1802), Stoke (1841), Leichardt 
(1845), Gregorv (1856), Landsborough (1861-62), and 
Mclvinlay (1862). 

Car'penter, a township of Jackson co., Ala. Pop. 903. 

Carpenter, a township of Jasper co., Ind. Pop. 1081. 

Carpenter (Charles C.), U. S. N., born Feb. 27.1834, 
in Greenfield, Mass., entered the navy as a midshipman 
Oct. 1, 1850, became a passed midshipman in 1856, a lieu¬ 
tenant in 1858, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, and a 
oommander in 1869. W hilo attached to the iron-clad Cats- 























784 


CAKPENTEE—CARPENTRY. 


kill as executive officer he participated in the attacks upon 
the forts of Charleston harbor of April 7 and July 10, 1863, 
and is honorably mentioned in the reports of his command¬ 
ing officer, Commander George W. Rodgers. He was in 
the severe engagement with Fort Wagner on the 17th of 
Aug., 1863, when the Catskill was struck thirteen times 
and Commander Rodgers killed, and bore himself bravely 
and well. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Carpenter (Francis B.), an American artist, born at 
Homer, Cortland co., N. Y., Aug. 6, 1830. His portrait of 
President Lincoln and his “ Emancipation Proclamation ” 
are esteemed his best works. He published an interesting 
narrative entitled “ Six Months at the White House.” 

Carpenter (George W.), born at Germantown, Pa., 
July 31, 1802, became a successful merchant of Philadel¬ 
phia, and was from 1823 till his death treasurer of the 
Academy of Natural Sciences in that city. He took a great 
interest in science, particularly in geology, mineralogy, and 
the medical sciences. He was a member of many learned 
societies. Died June 7, 1860. 

Carpenter (Lant), LL.D., an English theologian, born 
at Kidderminster April 5, 1780. He published an “ Intro¬ 
duction to the Geography of the New Testament” and 
“ Unitarianism the Doctrine of the Gospel.” In 1817 he 
became minister of a Unitarian church at Bristol. He was 
drowned in 1840 in the passage from Naples to Leghorn. 

Carpenter (Matthew II.), an American lawyer, born 
at Moretown, Vt., in 1824, was at the U. S. Military Acad¬ 
emy two years, studied law with Rufus Choate, and was 
admitted to the bar in 1845. In 1848 he removed to Wis¬ 
consin, where he resumed his profession ) elected to the 
U. S. Senate Mar. 4, 1869. 

Carpenter (William Benjamin), M. D., LL.D., F. R. S., 
an eminent English physiologist, a son of Dr. Lant Car¬ 
penter, born in 1813, studied medicine and graduated as 
M. D. in Edinburgh in 1839. In the same year he pub¬ 
lished an important work entitled “ Principles of General 
and Comparative Physiology.” His reputation was widely 
extended by an excellent work called “ Principles of 
Human Physiology” (1846). This has gone through sev¬ 
eral editions, and is considered by many to be the best work 
extant on that subject. He became professor of medical 
jurisprudence in University College, London, and for many 
years edited the “British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical 
Review.” Among his works are “ Zoology, and the Instinct 
of Animals” (2 vols., 1838), and “The Microscope: its 
Revelation and Uses” (1856). He has few living equals 
in acquaintance with natural science, capacity for original 
inquiry, and skill as a scientific writer. Some of his latest 
investigations have been in regard to oceanic currents. He 
was president of the British Association for the Advancement 
of Science in 1872. 

Mary Carpenter, sister of the above, born in 1807, 
a distinguished philanthropist, has been especially known 
in connection with “ragged schools,” and other agencies 
for juvenile reform. She visited the U. S. in 1873. 

Car'penter Bee is a name popularly applied to vari- 



Carpenter Bee. 

ous hymenopterous insects of the bee family, distinguished 
from other bees by their skill in working wood. They 


mostly inhabit warm countries. Perhaps the most cele¬ 
brated of the tribe is the Xylocopa purpurea of Southern 
Europe, a beautiful insect of a rich blue color, about the 
size of a large humble bee. It attacks dry wood, especially 
when partly decayed, cutting a longitudinal canal about a 
foot deep and more than a third of an inch wide. After 
finishing one of these canals, it lays an egg at one extremity 
of the hole, and places near it a mass of pollen and honey 
as food for the future larva. The egg and its accompany¬ 
ing store of food are then hermetically sealed up by a thin 
wall composed of powdered wood, formed into a very hard 
compound by being mixed with a substance secreted by the 
insect. In this manner the mother-bee divides her house 
into many little chambers with one egg in each. In due 
time the eggs hatch, each of the larvae devours the food 
prepared for it, and then passes into the chrysalis state. 
At last, when the perfect insects are developed, they de¬ 
stroy the partitions made by the parent bee, and escape 
into the air; the one produced from the egg first laid 
escaping first, through an opening made for it by the 
mother, and the others following in order. 

Carpenter, Ship’s, is a warrant officer whose duty 
it is to repair the hull, masts, and spars of a ship of war. 
During a battle he watches for shot-holes, and is prepared 
to stop them with plugs. He attends constantly to the 
state of the pumps. 

Car'pentersville, a post-village of Ivane co., Ill. 

Carpeiltras (anc. Carpentoracte), a town of France, de¬ 
partment of Vaucluse, is on the river Auzon, 15 miles by 
rail N. E. of Avignon, and near the base of Mont Yentoux. 
It is surrounded by walls which were built about 1365, and 
are flanked by towers, and is mostly well built. It has a 
Gothic cathedral, part of which was erected in the tenth 
century, and a public library of 22,000 volumes, containing 
also a large collection of medals and antiquities ; also manu¬ 
factures of cotton and woollen fabrics, brandy, etc. Here 
are remains of a Roman triumphal arch. Pope Clement 
V. removed the papal court to this town in 1313. Pop. 
10,848. 

Car'pentry implies the art of building structures in 
wood, and signifies more especially that branch of industry 
which is applied to the construction of wooden buildings, 
wooden bridges, and the framings of heavy machines. The 
labors of the carpenter are necessarily directed by some 
knowledge of the forces which may be brought to act upon 
the structure when completed; that is, by some knowledge 
of the principles of engineering. 

The lesser and lighter works of wood, such as furnish 
the interiors of dwellings, are the products of another 
branch of labor, termed joinery. The work of the joiner 
is guided more or less directly by the artist, and bears less 
reference to strength, rigidity, and the forces concerned 
than to external proportion and aesthetic fitness to sur¬ 
roundings. 

The skill of the carpenter is directed towards giving two 
distinct qualities to the structures he builds—viz. strength 
and rigidity. The first is secured mainly by dimensions 
assigned to the different parts, and the skill with which 
these parts are united,* and the latter depends largely upon 
the arrangement of the several members. 

We will treat these two topics more fully. 

Strength .—Timbers designed for structures are subjected 
to one or more of the following varieties of strain : trans¬ 
verse, tensile, compressive. A transverse strain is a force 
applied to a beam in a direction more or less perpendicular 
to its length; the timbers of a floor afford examples. A 
tensile strain is one that tends to elongate, and a compres¬ 
sive strain one that, acting in the direction of the length 
of the member, tends to shorten or crush it. 

When the entire structure is of such dimensions that each 
member of it may be formed of a single stick of timber, 
the work of the artisan is comparatively simple, and is 
guided by plain and brief rules. But when by reason of 
the size of the entire work single parts are required of 
greater dimensions than can be supplied by single pieces 
of timber, then skilful joining of smaller parts must be 
relied upon to meet the emergency. Now, to so combine 
separate pieces of timber as to form a single member, and 
thereby employ the available strength of the component 
parts, at the same time to form such a connection with ad¬ 
jacent portions of the structure as to transmit properly 
the force assigned to the position, is to ajiply in the fullest 
sense the science of carpentry. 

It may be remarked hero that even in our most important 
bridges no special effort is made to secure solid timbers for 
the larger members, because the quality of thorough sound¬ 
ness can be more easily secured by a judicious selection of 
smaller parts, and then a proper combination can be made 
to ensure tho requisite strength. 

When a beam is subjected to transverse strain the fibres 

















785 


CARPENTRY. 


upon the side that tends to become convex under the action 
oi the strain are subjected to a tensile or pulling force, while 
upon the opposite side they are at the same time compressed. 
The simple experiment of bending a twig that has bark 
upon it will illustrate this fact. The bark on the convex 
side is torn asunder and on the other side compressed into 
wrinkles. It becomes evident upon slight reflection—1st, 
that the extreme upper and lower fibres are most severely 
strained; and 2d, that the central portion of the stick is 
acted upon by forces comparatively slight. The obvious 
conclusion is, that the original force is best sustained by 
portions of the stick at some distance from the middle of 
its depth, and consequently that beams acted upon by trans¬ 
verse forces should present considerable width in the direc¬ 
tion of the bearing force. It is easily demonstrated that 
the strength of a beam of given length and breadth, to 
bear a weight between two supports, varies as the square 
of the depth of the beam. Floor-beams are accordingly 
made narrow and deep. 

To secure depth ot beam without employing material 
which is comparatively of little use the method has been 
employed of joining two sticks by blocks and bolts, as 
shown in Fig. 1. Frr , i 


It will readily be seen that the condition of providing ma¬ 
terial where the strains are greatest has been secured, pro¬ 
vided the combination when under strain acts as a single 
stick. The plan fails when through want of secure bolting 
there is any motion among the component parts. The 
chances of failure increase very rapidly as the halves of 
the compound beam are separated by larger space, as the 
point is soon reached where each half acts like a simple 
beam; and whereas in the perfect system the upper half 
is urged by compressive and the lower by tensile strains 
only, when by insecure joining there is a slipping among 
the parts, each of these halves is acted upon by both kinds 
of force, and has near its centre material of but little use. 

Fig. 2. 




Another method of making a compound beam, though not 
often employed, is represented in Fig. 2. In either of the 
cases above represented some advantage is gained by em¬ 
ploying different kinds of timber for the upper and lower 
members. 

The most common way of reinforcing the strength of a 
simple beam is by the addition of iron rods, as shown by 

Fig. 3. 



Fig. 3. The consideration of such a combination belongs to 
the subject of trusses. 

AVhen a stick of timber is employed so as to resist a ten¬ 
sile force, the manner of connecting it with the portions of 
the structure through which or to which the force is to be 
transmitted becomes a matter of great importance. In the 
case of an iron rod, which can be furnished with a head, an 
eye, or a nut, the problem of attaching it so as to resist a 
tensile force is easily solved; but when the conditions re¬ 
quire a wooden tie-beam, the problem of uniting the various 
parts so that the strength of the stick shall not be too largely 
sacrificed requires consideration, because to join timbers 
implies more or less cutting of their substance, and this in 
turn sacrifices material. 

In the common king-post truss, as the combination rep¬ 
resented in Fig. 4 is termed, the methods of uniting parts 
that fulfil different functions are employed. This truss is 

Fig. 4. 



frequently employed in roofs, and also bridges of moderate 
span. In the latter case the flooring is sustained by the 
horizontal member or tie-beam ; a large portion of the 
weight sustained is transmitted through the upright, and is 
received by the inclined pieces or struts and conveyed to the 
extremities of the tie-beam. The tie-beam and post are thus 
subjected to tensilo, and the struts to compressive, strain. 

50 


In order that the tie-beam shall properly receive the 
thrust of the struts, the former must be notched to receive 
the ends of the latter. Fig. 4 shows the method usually 
employed; an enlarged view of the ends of the strut and 
tie-beam are given in Fig. 5. In constructing this truss it 


Fig. 5. 



is necessary to regard the tendency which the strut exerts 
to split off the portion ABC. It is considered sufficiently 
secure in most kinds of timber if the length BC is ten times 
the depth AB, as, when this proportion is observed, the 
cohesion which resists splitting off is equal to that which 
resists the crushing of the fibres exposed to the direct pres¬ 
sure on the lesser surface. 

When the length of the tie-beam is such as to require the 
uniting of two or more pieces, the skill of the carpenter is 
again called in requisition to produce such a joint as shall 
safely resist the forces to be met. 

The simplest of all is the so-called fish-joint (Fig. 6), the 
strength of which depends partly upon the few fibres of the 

Fig. 6. 



timber that bear upon the bolts, and partly upon the fric¬ 
tion arising from the pressure of the fish-plates. These 
latter are sometimes made of iron, and furnished with pro¬ 
jections that are let or forced into the timber when bolted 
on. But the expedient is regarded as a clumsy one, and is 
only tolerated where, as in some roofs, the subsequent ad¬ 
ditions to the structure hide it from view. 

Another and a common form is the single-lock joint or scarf, 
shown in Fig. 7, in which the resistance to direct tensile 
strain depends upon the surfaces opposed to each other at 
a, and which may be one-third the sectional area of the 
beam. A modification of this method of scarfing is exhib- 


Fig. 7. 



ited in Fig. 8, in which one-half of the beam is made avail¬ 
able in resisting tensile strain, as the j-oints A and B are each 

Fig. 8. 



one-fourth of the depth of the beam. The method of Fig. 8 
has the advantage over Fig. 7 of greater strength, but it is 
also far more difficult of construction, as there are two 
bearing surfaces that must act together; the fitting of the 
joint therefore requires especial care. This difficulty is 
sometimes met by leaving spaces at A and B, into which 
wedges or keys are driven as the scarf is bolted together. 

Fig. 9 represents a form of scarf in which no bolts are 
used, the method of locking at C being employed instead: 
the key at A is made of hard wood, and forced in so as to 
bring the surfaces of the scarf to a firm bearing. Of course 
this method of locking the scarf can be equally well applied 
to the methods shown in Figs. 7 and 8. 


Fig. 9. 



Many intricate forms of scarfing have been devised, and 













































































786 CARPET-BAGGER—CAEPETS. 


arc exhibited in treatises on carpentry. They belong most¬ 
ly to the time when but little iron was employed as an ad¬ 
junct to timber construction; and even then most of the 
elaborate forms were rather fanciful than useful. 

When timbers are united to resist thrust or compressive 
strain only, less skill is required than in the constructions 
just described. But little more is required than to bring 
the opposing surfaces fairly together, and secure them by the 
simplest possible means. Hence the “ fished joint” shown 
in Fig. 6 will fully satisfy the conditions, and will employ 
the full available strength of the timber. Care must be 
taken, however, that the joint is not strained by a tendency 
which is manifested in long columns or struts to bend side¬ 
ways when under pressure. 

When a strut is joined to its neighboring member at an 
angle, as in the case shown in Fig. 4, the precaution is 
taken to so form the joint as to present either the whole of 
the end surface to the end pressure, as in the upper end of 
the strut of the king-post truss, or a part of it, as in the 
lower end shown more fully in Fig. 5. To prevent any dis¬ 
placement in such joints through accidental forces, they are 
secured by various methods, either a bolt, a notch, a tenon, 
or even a few nails, being employed according to the liabil¬ 
ity to lateral forces. 

The tenon employed is exhibited in Fig. 10 ; the cut which 
receives it is called the mortise. 


Fig. 10, 



If the joint is liable to be urged by a force tending to pull 
it asunder, some security is obtained by the use of a stout 
pin through the tenon. A dove-tail joint is also employed 
for the same purpose (see Fig. 11). This form is common 
in joinery, but should not be relied upon in carpentry. 

Fig. 11. 




Rigidity, a quality which was referred to as somewhat 
distinct from strength in structures, is secured by such a 
disposition of material that no change of form of the en¬ 
tire system can occur without bringing into action the ten¬ 
sile or compressive resistances of certain members of it. A 
plain square frame, fastened however securely at the cor¬ 
ners, may be lengthened and shortened cornerwise without 
calling into action the strength of the materials of the 
framing, except such as is concerned in fastening the 
corners. If, however, a stick be firmly secured to the 
frame, diagonally across it, no change of form can take 
place without extending or compressing this added brace. 
A triangular frame will not admit of change of form with¬ 
out a change in the length of at least one of its sides 
Hence diagonal braces are important members of timber 
framings, inasmuch as they ensure stiffness or rigidity 


The braces themselves are secured by mortising, by iron 
straps, or more rudely by outside pieces fastened after the 
manner of the joint shown in Fig. 6. 

(For extended treatises on carpentry see Tret>gold’s 
«Carpentry,” by Hurst; also Emy’s “Traite de la Char- 
pent6rie.”) * Geo. W. Plympton. 

Car'pet-Bag'ger (in recent American politics) is a 
Republican born and reared in the North or West, who 
went South with or after the Federal armies, planted him¬ 
self in one of the States lately reconstructed, and aided in 
organizing and drilling the negroes to vote the Republican 
ticket. Of course the term originated with those of adverse 
politics, who applied it as a stigma, and with considerable 
looseness, any one not a native of the South being de¬ 
nounced as a “ carpet-bagger ” if an active Republican; if 
“ native there and to the manor born,” he was termed a 
“ scalawag.” Horace Greeley. 

Car'pets. The word “ carpet,” denoting floor-covering, 
is of unknown origin; it is supposed, by some, to be de¬ 
rived from “ Cairo,” probably because Egypt is the country 
credited with first using floor-coverings as articles of lux¬ 
ury in her ancient days of splendor. 

As a commercial term, “ carpet ” or “ carpeting ” is the 
generic name for the various grades of goods in that line, 
whatever their material, mode of construction, or technical 
appellation. The original form of the carpet was that of 
a large rug, which was spread upon the floor when occa¬ 
sion required; and the Eastern carpets, the manner of 
whose manufacture has undergone but little change for 
many centuries, are invariably made so to this day. The 
modern way of weaving carpeting in long, narrow strips, to 
be sewn together, doubtless had its origin in the greater 
convenience and cheapness which that form admits of 
through its adaptation to the ordinary loom. 

Before the invention of the Jacquard loom, however, 
carpets were either of very simple pattern, or, if elaborate 
in their designs, necessarily very expensive. The ancient 
royal manufactory of the Gobelins in Paris has always oc¬ 
cupied the first place in regard to artistic perfection. Some 
of the carpets produced there cost from 100,000 to 200,000 
francs, requiring five to ten years for their completion. 
None of them have been for sale since the year 1791; they 
have been presented to the different sovereigns of Europe, 
and are only to be found in the palaces of courts. The in¬ 
vention of Jacquard, so peculiarly adapted to the weaving 
of various grades of carpets, together with the still more recent 
improvements in looms, has greatly facilitated the produc¬ 
tion of carpeting at once beautiful and durable, and at the 
same time cheap enough for persons of moderate means or 
economical tastes ; so that the use of carpets has probably 
increased more during the last fifty years than that of any 
other commodity of equally ancient origin. At present, the 
U. S., in proportion to population, is by far the greatest 
consumer of carpets of all the nations in the world. 

The principal grades of carpeting known to commerce 
(leaving out the Gobelins, Turkish, Persian, and others of 
similar rug-like make) are Aubusson, Moquette, Axminster, 
Wilton, velvet, Brussels, tapestry Brussels, ingrain (two or 
three ply), and Venetian, taking rank, as to value and gen¬ 
eral desirability, in the order named. 

Aubusson, Moquette, and Axminster are very similar in 
appearance and construction, and are made with a high, 
tufted pile, thick, durable, and expensive. They are con¬ 
structed with a firm groundwork of linen or cotton, upon 
which the pile, containing the design, is fastened in tufts 
of soft woollen yarn. As these tufts are supplied from a 
series of rollers corresponding in number to the picks or 
wefts completing one pattern, and in length to the width 
of the carpet, and in their action entirely independent of 
the warp and woof composing the body of the fabric, the 
employment of an almost unlimited number of colors is 
admissible, and the designs in those grades are therefore 
generally of the most perfect and elegant description. They 
are principally manufactured in England and France. One 
factory of Axminster carpets is in operation in the U. S.; 
it has been very successful, and its productions rank well 
with the imported articles as regards quality and beauty. 

Wilton and Brussels are woven alike and of the same 
materials (linen back and worsted face); the face of both 
is formed by inserting wires between the warp threads in 
such a manner that on their withdrawal a series of raised 
loops of the worsted warp is formed, upon which the de¬ 
sign appears. In Wilton these loops are cut open and 
sheared smooth, while in Brussels they remain uncut. The 
worsted portion of the carpet being exclusively in the warp, 
the threads of which are of continuous color throughout 
the piece, each particular color requires a special set of 
threads, worked in an independent manner by what is 
technically called “ frame.” This arrangement secures great 
perfection and clearness of design, for each color being 









































CARPI—CARRAGEEN. 


787 


brought to the surface entirely by itself, while the others 
are carried under or through the linen back until brought 
up in their turn, the work has the appearance of em¬ 
broidery on canvas. But as the colors in the direction of 
the warp are limited to five (no larger number of frames 
being convenient), the designs in these goods are of neces¬ 
sity simple, and no patterns requiring elaborate shading 
can be attempted in them. From the number of colors 
thus employed, the different qualities of these carpets re¬ 
ceive the names of two, three, four, and five frame respect¬ 
ively. 

Velvets and tapestry Brussels are also manufactured 
alike in a manner corresponding to Wilton and Brussels, 
with the difference that only one set of worsted warp 
threads is used, upon which all the colors are printed by 
means of color-rollers before the fabric is woven, and upon 
the correct proportioning of spaces of the various colors 
the perfection of the goods is in a great measure dependent. 
In designing patterns for these goods the artist is allowed 
free scope as to the number and arrangement of colors, and 
profuseness in that respect does not add very greatly to 
the cost; hence we find these goods usually much more 
elaborate of design and more lavishly colored and shaded 
off than Wilton and Brussels. The manufacture of tapestry 
(both velvet and Brussels) was commenced in England in 
1842. It was soon after introduced in this country, but 
for twenty years, by reason of patent restrictions, two 
establishments monopolized the business here. Since the 
expiration of the patents new concerns are rapidly organ¬ 
izing, and the indications are that in a few years this will 
be the most important branch of carpet manufacture in 
the country. Tapestry carpets are now. used to an extent 
greater than that of all other grades combined, with the 
exception of ingrains. The largest concern in the world 
manufacturing these goods (in connection with the other 
principal grades) is that of John Crossley & Sons’, Halifax, 
England, a stock company. They employ nearly 6000 
hands. 

The ingrain carpet (also called Kidderminster, after the 
city which formerly manufactured it largely) is the only 
kind of carpet made exclusively of all wool, and it may be 
worn on either side, though usually one side is more de¬ 
sirable in coloring than the other. The names “ ingrain ” 
and “three-ply” are derived from the modes of their con¬ 
struction. The former is composed of two distinct thick¬ 
nesses, interwoven or “ingrained” wherever the colors 
change or mingle; the latter of three layers, also inter¬ 
lacing each other. The design is very similar on both 
sides, but the colors are reversed. The American con¬ 
sumption of these goods is supplied by home manufacture. 
Philadelphia has upwards of 5000 looms employed on them, 
and very large establishments in Connecticut, Massachu¬ 
setts, and New York State turn out the better qualities. 
Venetian is the name given to a fabric composed of woollen 
warp and coarse hemp filling, usually striped in color, and 
made in widths suitable for stair coverings. Philadelphia 
furnishes in that grade nearly all the cheap stair carpets 
used throughout the country. 

The carpet manufacturing business of the U. S. has been 
rapidly growing since the close of the civil war, and is now 
a very important industry. The capital invested is up¬ 
wards of $15,000,000; the last census sums up the principal 
products per annum: 

Ingrains (two and three ply), yards.16,924,711 

Tapestry Brussels, “ 1,711,000 

Venetian, “ 1,350,017 

Brussels, “ 806,505 

Felt, “ 586,000 

Velvet, “ 107,000 

William Berri, Jr., Editor of “The Carpet.” 

Car'pi, a fortified town of Northern Italy, province of 
Mddena, is on the canal of Carpi, 12 miles N. N. W. of 
Modena. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a citadel, a 
fine cathedral, a seminary for priests, and manufactures of 
silk. Pop. 5076. 

Carpi'no, a town of Italy, in the province of Foggia, 
and on Mont Gargano, 30 miles N. E. of Foggia. P. 6264. 

Carp Lake, a township of Ontonagon co., Mich. P. 25. 

Carpoc'rates, or Car'pocras, a heretic who lived 
at Alexandria in the reign of the emperor Hadrian, and 
founded a Gnostic sect about 130 A. D. He believed in 
the transmigration of souls, and maintained that the world 
was created^by angels. He is accused of teaching princi¬ 
ples that tend to subvert morality. His followers existed 
as late as the sixth century. 

Car'polite [from the Gr. Kaprro<r, “fruit,” and A(0o?, a 
“stone”], a name applied to fossil fruits. Many such 
have been described, mostly belonging to the carboniferous 
formation. 

Car'pus, a Latin term signifying the wrist, in anatomy 


denotes the series of bones between the fore arm and hand. 
In man there are eight small bones in two rows; the upper 
row consists of the scaphoides, lunare, cuneiforme, and pisi- 
forme; the lower, of the trapezium, trapezoides, magnum, 
and unciforme. The upper row is articulated with the 
radius of the fore arm ; the lower with the metacarpal bones 
of the Hand (which see). The number and form of the 
bones of the carpus vary much in different animals, but 
rudiments of them, at least, appear in all mammals. They 
are quite distinct in the flipper or paddle of the whale, as 
well as in the fore leg of the ox and the horse. 

Carp'zov, a Saxon family of the seventeenth century 
celebrated for learning, of which the most distinguished 
members were Benedict, professor of Wittenberg, author 
of “ Definitiones forensis,” “ Practica nova rerum crimi- 
nalurn,” “Jurisprudents consistorialis,” and “Processus 
juris”—works which had an extended influence on Ger¬ 
man laws; died Aug. 30, 1666 ; Johann Benedict, pro- 
fessor of theology at Leipsic, brother of the above, who 
wrote “ Systema theologicum,” born in 1607 ; died in 1657; 
Johann Gottlob, born Sept. 20, 1679, grandson of the 
above, professor of Oriental languages at Leipsic, who 
wrote “ Introductio in libros canonicos ” and “ Critica 
sacra Veteris Testamenti.” Died April 7, 1667. 

Carqui'nez (written also Karquenas), a strait of 
California which connects the Bay of San Pablo with 
Suisun Bay; lat. 38° 04' 16” N., Ion. 122° 15' 19” W. It 
is from 1 to 2 miles wide and 7 miles long, and is naviga¬ 
ble for steamboats. Large ships can ascend it to Benicia. 
It has sixteen feet of water at low tide. It forms the 
boundary between Solano and Contra Costa counties. 

Carr, a township of Clarke co., Ind. Pop. 692. 

Carr, a township of Jackson co., Ind. Pop. 1665. 

Carr (Eugene A.), an American officer, born Mar. 20, 
1830, in Erie co., N. Y., graduated at West Point 1853, and 
July 17,1862, major Fifth Cavalry. He served on frontier 
duty 1850-61; scouting against Lipan Indians 1854 (se¬ 
verely wounded in skirmish near Diablo Mountain); on 
Sioux expedition 1855, Utah 1858, and Kiowa and Ca- 
inanche expedition 1860, engaged in several skirmishes. 
In the civil war became colonel Third Illinois Volunteer 
Cavalry Aug. 15, 1861, and was promoted brigadier-general 
U. S. volunteers Mar. 7, 1862, serving in operations in 
Missouri 1861-62, engaged at Wilson’s Creek; in command 
of division in pursuit of Price into Arkansas 1862, engaged 
at Pea Ridge (thrice wounded); in command of the army 
of S. W. Missouri 1862, and of district of St. Louis 1862-63 ; 
in command of division in ATcksburg campaign, engaged 
in operations against the place; at Port Gibson, Champion 
Hill, Edward’s Station, Black River Bridge (brevet col¬ 
onel), and capture of Vicksburg; in the department of 
Arkansas, commanding cavalry division on Camden expe¬ 
dition 1864, engaged at crossing of Little Missouri; in 
command of the district of Little Rock 1864 (brevet briga¬ 
dier-general), engaged at Clarendon and Camden; in com¬ 
mand of a division of the Sixteenth corps in operations 
against Mobile 1865, engaged at Spanish Fort; and in vari¬ 
ous districts and post commands since 1865. Brevet major- 
general U. S. A. Mar. 13, 1865, for gallant and meritorious 
services in the field. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Carr (Joseph B.), an American general of volunteers, 
born in Albany, N. Y., Aug. 16, 1828, educated at Troy, 
N. Y. On the outbreak of the recent civil war he was 
commissioned (April 14, 1861) lieutenant-colonel of the 
Second New York Volunteers, and colonel May 10, 1861. 
The second regiment was the first volunteer regiment to 
leave the State. In 1862 Carr was commissioned a briga¬ 
dier-general of volunteers; he was at the battle of Big 
Bethel, and bore a conspicuous part in all the battles of the 
Army of the Potomac up to the final surrender of Lee’s 
army, Ajiril, 1865. He was brevetted major-general Mar., 
1865, and mustered out of service Sept., 1865. He holds 
at present the commission of major-general third division 
National Guard State of New York, head-quarters at Troy, 
where he is engaged in the manufacture of chain cable. 

Carr (Sir Robert), a British gentleman who was ap¬ 
pointed by Charles II. in 1664 one of the royal commis¬ 
sioners to New England. He assisted in the capture of 
New Amsterdam from the Dutch, and changed its name to 
New York in honor of the duke of York, afterwards James 
II. Died June 1, 1667. 

Car'rageen', or Irish Moss, is a name given to sev¬ 
eral species of sea-weed which are not mosses, but algm. 
The species which yields the greater part of the carrageen 
of commerce is the Chondrus crispus. It is used as med¬ 
icine and as an article of food, and is esteemed for its 
emollient and demulcent properties. It grows on the 
rocky coasts of several countries of Europe and on ie 
eastern shores of North America. It is from two to twelve 






















788 CARRARA—CARRIAGES, COACHES, 


inches long, branched, cartilaginous, flexible, and reddish- 
brown in color. It is considered easy of digestion. Jelly 
and blanc-mange are made by boiling the carrageen in 
water or milk, with an addition of sugar and spices. The 
Iceland moss (Cetraria Itslandica ) is a wholly different 
plant, though used in a similar way. It is not a true moss, 
but a lichen. 

Carra'ra (anc. Cararia ), a town of Italy, in the prov¬ 
ince of Massa-Carrara, is on the Avenza, near the Mediter¬ 
ranean, 133 miles by rail N. W. of Pisa. It has an old 
collegiate church, a ducal palace, and an academy of fine 
arts. Here are celebrated quarries of white statuary mar¬ 
ble, which have been worked for two thousand years or 
more. Many foreign artists come here to work, in order 
to save the expense of transporting the marble. The quar¬ 
ries, of which there are more than thirty in the vicinity, 
are in high hills or mountains formed chiefly or entirely of 
marble. Pop. 6797. 

Carram Marble is a white, fine-grained, saccharine 
marble obtained at Carrara, Italy, and well adapted for 
statuary. It is a metamorphic limestone of the oolitic 
formation. Besides this fine white marble, several inferior 
varieties are obtained in the quarries of Carrara. Some of 
these are veined and blue. 

Carratra'ca Springs, a post-village of Plantagenet 
township, Prescott co., Ontario (Canada), has large hotel 
accommodations, and a copious mineral spring whose waters 
are very highly esteemed for their alterative effects. 

Carratunk Plantation, a township of Somerset co., 
Me. Pop. 214. 

Carrel (Nicolas Armand), an eminent French writer 
and leader of the republican party, was born at Rouen 
May 8, 1800. He served in the army in his youth. Ho 
gained distinction by an able “ History of the Counter- 
Revolution in England.” Carrel, Mignet, and Thiers be¬ 
came in 1830 chief editors of the “National,” a liberal 
daily paper of Paris. In 1830 Thiers and Mignet retired 
from the editorship, and Carrel obtained the control of the 
“National,” which he edited with great ability. He was 
an eloquent and popular writer, and was qualified by 
sound jitdgment and moderation to be the leader of a pai’ty. 
He was mortally wounded in a duel by Emile de Girardin, 
and died two days after, July 24, 1836. 

Car'rell (Rt. Rev. George Aloystus), D. D., born at 
Philadelphia, Pa., June 13, 1803, studied at Mount St. 
Mary’s College, became in 1829 a Roman Catholic priest, 
was stationed in Philadelphia, Pa., Wilmington, Del., and 
St. Louis, Mo., where he was a professor and afterwards 
rector in the university; in 1849-53 was president of the 
Purcell Mansion College at Cincinnati, 0.; in 1853 he was 
consecrated bishop of Covington, Ky. Died Sept. 25,1868. 

Carre'ra (Rafael), a general of mixed Indian and 
negro extraction, was born in Guatemala in 1814. He 
fought against the federal party in the civil war (1837-39), 
and became the general-in-chief of the insurgents. He was 
chosen president of Guatemala in 1847, and re-elected in 
1851 president for life. He was an absolute monarch 
while in power. Died April 14, 1865. 

Carriacou, kar'e-a-koo', the largest of the Grenadine 
Islands, in the British West Indies, 20 miles N. E. of Gre¬ 
nada. It is 7 miles in length and about 3 miles in breadth. 
Chief crop, cotton. Hillsboro’ is on its western side. 

Carriages, Coaches, Chariots, Wagons, and 

Carts. We have chosen to place all these vehicles under 
one head, since they are so closely connected that it is al¬ 
most impossible to make any other satisfactory classifica¬ 
tion. It is probable that the idea of a vehicle with wheels, 
to be drawn by animals, must have occurred to man soon 
after the domestication of the horse and the ox. The first 
attempts in this direction must have been very rude, much 
like the bullock-carts of India and South Central Africa 
of the present day—the wheels solid pieces of wood, thin 
slices of the trunk of a tree, and the axle a solid .beam, 
with the ends rounded and thrust through the rude 
wheels, which creaked horribly as they revolved. From 
this cumbrous axle a pole or shafts extended forward, 
while attached directly to it was the body of the cart or 
wagon, no springs or intervening elastic substance miti¬ 
gating its inevitable jolting. The cart was undoubtedly of 
earlier origin than the chariot; but though progress in 
those days was slow, yet within 600 years after the Flood 
the Egyptians, and probably the Assyrians also (for the 
two nations kept pace with each other in mechanical in¬ 
ventions), were constructing both chariots and carts or 
wagons, which indicated a great advance in mechanical 
knowledge. They were at first, and indeed for several 
centuries, two-wheeled vehicles, but the wheels were no 
longer solid pieces of wood, but had a hub in which the 
axle was inserted, and at first four, then six, then eight, 


CHARIOTS, WAGONS, AND CARTS. 


| and finally (though not till near the close of the Assyrian 
or Medo-Persian monarchy) twelve spokes, the diverging 
ends of which were inserted in a rim of wood, which was 
bound with a tire of bronze. Whether this rim was origin¬ 
ally whole or composed of several pieces or felloes is uncer¬ 
tain, but at the period of the Assyrian monarchy felloes 
were in use. The chariot was box-shaped, but open in the 
rear, the front being about four feet in height. It was 
probably three or four hundred years later that those in¬ 
tended as state carriages were provided with a back, and a 
seat in which the nobles or royal personages sat or reclined, 
while a charioteer stood in front and drove the horses. 

The chariots were used for two purposes: first, as an 
evidence of the great dignity and exalted station of the 
king or prince who occupied them, as when Pharaoh made 
Joseph “ride in the second chariot which he had” (Gen. 
xli. 43), and as when the funeral procession for Jacob went 
up out of the land of Egypt, and “ there went up with 
Joseph both chariots and horsemen,” in token of the high 
rank of the deceased (Gen. 1. 10). It is noteworthy that 
during the time which elapsed between these two incidents 
we find Joseph sending wagons (probably carts, or simple 
two-wheeled vehicles, drawn by oxen) from Egypt to 
Canaan for his brethren to bring their wives and children 
to Egypt (Gen. xlv. 19). A second use of these chariots 
was for war-purposes. It is hardly probable that they 
were used in this way so soon as for regal pomp and dis¬ 
play. There is a tradition that Erichthonius of Athens 
built the first war-chariot about 1586 B. C. At the time 
of the Exodus (B. C. 1491) Pharaoh had 600 war-chariots, 
and it is implied (Ex. xiv. 7) that besides these there were 
other chariots in Egypt which were employed for the same 
purpose. These war-chariots had on their sides cases for 
the bow and sheaf of arrows, and also for the spears or 
lances, and usually an archer or a spearman stood on either 
side of the charioteer, and shot his arrows or hurled his 
spears at the enemy as the charioteer drove furiously to 
the conflict. The Canaanitish kings and the kings of 


Fig. 1. 



Moab in the next 150 years after the Exodus are often 
spoken of as having numerous chariots of iron; by which 
is generally understood, not chariots constructed of iron, 
but having iron or bronze scythes attached to the axles of 
their chariots. These, driven at great speed against a force 
of footmen or cavalry, proved terribly destructive. The 
Israelites under the theocracy were prohibited the use of 
chariots, but in the time of David, and still more in that 
of Solomon, they began to accumulate them, and Solomon 
maintained a force of 1400 chariots; these and the horses 
which drew them were mostly imported from Egypt at a 
cost of about 1050 shekels for each chariot—about $650, or, 
reckoning the difference in the value of money then and 
now, equivalent to at least $3000 of our money ; so that his 
force of chariots must have been worth at least $4,200,000. 
But another item in the cost of these establishments were 
the richly embroidered housings and trappings for the 
horses and the cloths for the chariots, manufactured for a 
long period in Tyre or in some of its tributary states (Ezek. 
xxvii. 20). 

Until near the close of the Assyrian monarchy the char¬ 
iot was generally drawn by three horses. At that time the 
third horse was withdrawn, but the Persians a little later 
drove four horses, attached, like our stage horses, to the 
chariot in pairs. The chariot continued to bo a two¬ 
wheeled vehicle until near the Christian era, when its use 
for war-purposes was discontinued, and among the Romans, 
Greeks, and the Sybaritic nations of the Orient it became 
the synonym of luxury and effeminacy. It was mounted 
on four wheels, and drawn by four or six horses elegantly 
caparisoned, and the chariot itself was trimmed and cush¬ 
ioned with the most luxurious embroidered cloths of the 
East. Usually but two persons besides the driver occupied 
it, though there was often room for six. There were 
chariot-races in the Olympian and Isthmian games, and 
the nobles of Greece and Romo drove at full speed along 
the magnificent Roman roads and highways. It was prob^ 
























CARRIAGES, COACHES, CHARIOTS, WAGONS, AND CARTS. 


789 


ably in one of the more modest of these vehicles that the 
Ethiopian treasurer of Candace, queen of Ethiopia, was re¬ 
turning to his country from his visit at Jerusalem when he 
met Philip (Acts viii. 27, 28). During the period of the 
later Roman empire and the decline of its power these richly 
decorated carriages multiplied, with the other indications 
of the luxury and effeminacy of the people. There was 
not, however, even in the most costly of these vehicles, 
anything answering to the springs of our modern coaches 
and carriages. Leather and steel of the best quality were 
both abundant, but the idea of using either for rendering 
the motion of these carriages easier did not occur to the 
carriage-builders of those days. 

During the Dark Ages the roads were so rough and poor 
that carriages were almost entirely abandoned as a means 
for the conveyance of persons, the only method of land- 
travel being on horseback, and even the broad-wheeled 
heavy wagons or wains, used to some extent for the trans¬ 
portation of goods, moved over the highways with the 
greatest difficulty. On the Continent, asses, mules, and the 
large but slow and sure-footed Norman horses were used 
for the packing of goods from one country to another, the 
huge panniers on either side of the animal almost conceal¬ 
ing him from sight. In 1280, according to Beckman, 
Charles of Anjou and his queen entered Naples in a carettci, 
a small but highly decorated chariot. Fourteen years later, 
in 1291, Philip the Fair issued an ordinance forbidding 
the wives of citizens to use carriages, or perhaps more ac¬ 
curately cars, probably open two or four-wheeled vehicles, 
which seem to have come into use about that time. For 
the next 200 years their use was very infrequent, and seems 
to have been confined to royal personages. Yet in this 
time there had been introduced one change which was per¬ 
haps an improvement. The canopy (probably borrowed 
from the Oriental umbrella held over the monarch in his 
chariot), which had hitherto been sustained by four pillars, 
and had been open at the sides, now gave place to a close 


drapery, which concealed the occupant from view except 
when looped up. The emperor Frederic III. attended the 
council or diet at Frankfort in 1474 and 1475 in close or 
covered carriages, that of the latter year being magnifi¬ 
cently decorated. Soon after this time the German princes 
seem to have entered upon a rivalry to outshine each other 
in the splendor of their equipages. In 1509, at a tourna¬ 
ment in Rappin, the electress of Brandenburg’s carriage 
was completely covered with gold, and those of the other 
duchesses were ornamented with crimson and purple cur¬ 
tains and draperies of the richest satin. From this time 
the use of coaches by the nobility, and especially by the 
feudal lords, spread gradually over continental Europe ; 
but, though the coaches were low and broad-wheeled, the 
condition of the roads was a serious obstacle to their use. 
In 1550 there were only three coaches in Paris. In 1610, 
Henry IV. was assassinated in his coach. Rude carriages 

Fig. 2. 



called whirlicotes, two-wheeled vehicles without straps or 
springs, and having the horses attached to them by ropes, 
had been occasionally seen in England as early as the time 
of Richard II. (1377-99), and it is recorded that his mother 
was conveyed in one at the time of the rebellion of 1399. 
But the state coach was first introduced in the time of 
Queen Elizabeth, in the year 1555, it is said, by Walter 
Rippon, a Dutchman, who built one in that year for the 
carl of Rutland, and in 1564 another for the queen, who 
made him her coachman. Of this coach, and a later one 
built by the same man for her when attended by her maids 
of honor or her ministers, we give an illustration copied 


Fig. 3. 



Queen Elizabeth’s State Carriage. 


from Hbfnagel's print of Nonsuch Palace. These coaches 
were without springs of any kind, though that of Henry 
IV., figured above, appears to have been suspended on 
heavy bands of leather or steel. 

The English nobility soon set up their carriages, and, as 
Buckingham quaintly expresses it, “within twentie years 
there became a great trade of coachmaking.” Some of the 
nobles increased the number of horses attached to these 
coaches to six, or even eight. The use of private carriages 
was confined to the aristocracy for the next hundred years, 


Fig. 4. 



Private Carriage of the Seventeenth Century. 


but a few hackney-coaches (so called from the French 
cochc-d-haquenee, a vehicle with a hired horse) were kept 
for hire after 1625. Fifty years later there were twenty 
of these in Edinburgh, but such was the condition of the 
roads and streets that there was not much demand for 
them, and a hundred years later the number had dwindled 
to nine. During nearly the wholo of the eighteenth cen¬ 
tury these hackney-coaches, the heavy and slow-going 
stage-coaches, and the post-chaises, were the only vehicles 
in England for the accommodation of thoso travellers who 


did not own horses or coaches. There was, indeed, one 
other mode of travelling, very slow and inconvenient, which 
was resorted to by the common people, and sometimes by 
the middle classes. The huge broad-wheeled covered wag¬ 
ons used for the transportation of goods, and drawn by 
six, eight, or twelve of the great Normandy horses, had a 
space partitioned off at the hinder end and strewn with 
straw, in which they could carry six or eight passengers, 
all of whom had to sit on the straw on the floor of the 
wagon. This was called “ riding in the tail of the wagon.” 
But even this limited accommodation was only to be found 
on the great thoroughfares, as away from these goods were 
carried on pack-horses. Even as late as in 1750 the journey 
from London to Birmingham by stage-coach, a distance of 
116 miles, occupied nearly the whole of three days and 
nights. In 1754 the first line of stage-coaches was estab¬ 
lished between London and Edinburgh, and the advertise¬ 
ment stated that “a two-end glass coach machine, hung 
on steel springs, exceeding light and easy, would go 
through in ten days in summer and twelve in winter, the 
passengers lying over during the Sabbath at one of the 
villages on the route.” The distance between the two 
cities is about 400 miles, and it is now run by the ordinary 
fast trains of the Great Northern Railway in ten or eleven 
hours. The introduction of steel springs for coaches dates 
from about 1750, but these were not at that time the elliptic 
or the C spring, but a bow of steel, the two ends of which 
were secured to the axle, and the centre reinforced by 
shorter strips of steel, much like the heavy springs we see 
on some of the passenger cars on the railways. The leather 
thorough-braces, whether attached to a crossbar, as they 
were at first, or to the C spring, as was done later, did not 
come into use till near the close of the eighteenth century. 

The great improvement in the public highways in Great 
Britain, which was the result of the labors of Macadam, 
Telford, and other civil engineers at the close of the last and 

































































790 


CARRIAGES, COACHES, CHARIOTS, WAGONS, AND CARTS. 


tlio commencement of the present century, and the reor¬ 
ganization of the postal arrangements, led to the establish¬ 
ment of those lines of stage-coaches on all the principal 
thoroughfares which Dc Quincey has so eloquently described 
as “the glory of England” and “the poetry of motion.” 
These coaches were well built, strong, and so well provided 
with springs that their motion was easy, and did not weary 
the traveller even on long journeys. They were run by 
time-tables, and made their ten miles an hour regularly. 


From about 1795 to 1835 these vehicles were the favorites 
of travellers, and carried hundreds of thousands ol pas¬ 
sengers annually j but when the railway lines were con¬ 
structed between the large towns the stage-coaches began 
to fall into disuse, and they are now only employed on short 
and subordinate routes, and their number is decreasing 
every year. But with their decrease there has been a vast 
increase in the number of private carriages of all descrip¬ 
tions, till now these are numbered by hundreds of thou- 

. 5. 



intum 


The Viceroy of Egypt’s Carriage, built in Paris in 1867; cost $15,000. 


sands. They are of a great variety of designs, and are in¬ 
tended for one, two, four, or even six horses, and vary in 
their capacity from the skeleton or sulky for a single pas¬ 
senger, who is his own driver, to the family coach, phaeton, 
or carryall, into which from eight to a dozen can be stowed. 
The hackney-coaches have very generally given place to 
cabriolets or cabs, as they are generally called, vehicles 
drawn by a single horse and carrying two or four passen¬ 
gers besides the driver, which were introduced about 1820. 
There are now nearly 60,000 of these vehicles in use in 
London. Omnibuses, introduced about 1831 from France, 
have been used to some extent. 

In this country the prevalent mode of travelling for the 
first two centuries was on horseback, the roads preventing 
any very extensive use of wheeled vehicles. There were, how¬ 
ever, even at the time of the Revolution and for some de¬ 
cades before, a few family coaches, maintained by the 
wealthy and aristocratic families of the larger towns. These 
were heavy, lumbering affairs, drawn by six large horses, 
and seldom moved faster than a very slow trot. In New 


Fig. 6. 



Washington’s Carriage. 


York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey the great Conestoga 
wagon, broad-wheeled, and with its huge canvas-covered 
body elevated both in front and rear, drawn sometimes by 
the Normandy horses, sometimes by four or six yokes of 
oxen, crept at a slow pace over the rough roads to carry 
goods from the seaports into the rural districts. These 
same wagons in our times have been used in the Mississippi 
Valley and on the Western plains, as well as in Western 
Pennsylvania, West Virginia, the mountain districts of 
North and South Carolina, Georgia, and East Tennessee, to 
transport both goods and emigrants, and have received the 


name of “prairie schooners.” At the time of the Revolu¬ 
tion the stage-coach was unknown on this continent. In 
1791 there were but 1905 miles of post-roads in the U. S., 
and over the greater part of these the mails were carried 
in heavy wagons, occupying three or four days in the trip 
from Philadelphia to New York, or making the round trip 
in a week, while they took ten days for the journey from 
New York to Boston. The improvements in the roads led 
to improvements in the vehicles, and on the great thorough¬ 
fares from 1810 to 1845 the stage-coaches were, of their 
kind, admirable vehicles. Accommodating nine inside, and 
usually six, including the driver, on the outside, with a 
good supply of baggage covered with a heavy leather boot 
in the rear, and drawn by four or six spirited horses, these 
vehicles, though not making quite as good time as the Eng¬ 
lish stage-coaches, were the admiration of all beholders. 
Troy, N. Y., became celebrated for its coaches, as it has 
since for its horse-cars, and the stage-proprietor who could 
assure his customers that he used only the best Troy coaches 
was sure of ample patronage. For the travel in newer 
regions and over somewhat rougher roads what were called 
the Concord wagons or coaches, originally made in Con¬ 
cord, N. II., but now manufactured also in Chicago and in 
other Western cities and towns, were preferred. The coaches 
of the Overland Mail, and indeed most of those in use in 
the Pacific States, are of this description. They are fur¬ 
nished with strong brakes to check their too rapid descent 
of the mountain declivities. We give an illustration of 
one of the Overland coaches. 

The omnibus has not been used to any great extent ex¬ 
cept in cities and large towns, but in these, until the street¬ 
cars of the horse-railroads began to take its place, it was 
the favorite vehicle for public travel. At one time, about 
1857 or 1858, there were nearly 500 plying on the streets 
of New York City. The present number is not more than 
120. The omnibus is too well known to need description 
or illustration. It is a French invention, introduced into 
Paris about 1827, and into New York in 1830. 

The other public carriages for hire have been hackney- 
coaches, or hacks, as they are generally called, four-wheeled 
close carriages, drawn by two horses, and of which there 
are now several styles, such as the close coach, the caleche, 
the quarter coach, the C-spring coach, the double caleche, 
the barouche, the six-seat rockaway, and the clarence, the 
last having a glass front and sides. Cabriolets or cabs, either 
two or four-wheel vehicles drawn by one horse, are also used 
to some extent, but have never been as popular here as in 
London. The hansom cab, with a caleche top and the 
driver’s seat at the back, the reins extending over the top, 
has been very little used here. A style called crystal cabs. 
























































































































































































CARRIAGES, COACHES, CHARIOTS, WAGONS, AND CARTS. 791 


having a glass front like the clarence, but on a very much 
smaller scale, was for a time much liked. 

As the country has increased in wealth, and the highways, 
drives, boulevards, and city and town streets have improved, 
the demand for private carriages has grown, until now this 
constitutes by far the largest department of the trade. It is 
stated by the organ of the trade that there are now about 
1,000,000 carriages and wagons of all descriptions sold annu¬ 
ally, and the annual product is valued at nearly or quite 
$100,000,000. The variety as well as the quality of these 
vehicles is almost infinite. A single manufacturing house 
had in their catalogue in 1862 more than 300 styles, and 


now number about 500, yet there are hundreds of styles 
which they never attempt to manufacture. The great seats 
of carriage manufacture are—for strong and heavy top- 
wagons, Concord, N. H.; for buggies, open wagons, and 
light cheap wagons, which are yet very serviceable, Ames- 
bury and Belchertown, Mass.; for private coaches and car¬ 
riages of all styles, New Haven and Bridgeport, Conn, (there 
are in the former of these cities thirty-six manufacturing es¬ 
tablishments ); Troy, now mostly restricted to stage-coaches, 
street-railroad cars, and omnibuses, but doing a moderate 
share of other work; New York City, which has a high 
reputation for the excellence of the work of some of its 


Fig. 7. 



Overland Mail Coach. 


Fig. 8. 



A Glass-Quartered Coach. 


manufactories ; Newark, N. J., where are manufactured 
many of the lighter class of carriages ; Philadelphia, which 
has long maintained a reputation for good work in some 
styles; Wilmington, Del.; Pittsburg and Chicago, both 
largely engaged in the manufacture of various styles, both 
heavy and light. But there are very few cities or large 
towns in the U. S. in which there is not a considerable 
number of carriages and wagons produced. 

It would occupy too much of our space to enumerate a 
tenth of the styles of carriages which aro now or have 
recently been most popular. For family use, to be drawn 
by two horses, the preference seems to be for some form of 


the clarence, the phaeton, the brett, the coupS, the landau, 
or of late the landaulette, or the higher grades of four or 
six-seat rockaways. Some of the latter are very light and 
graceful. For a single horse there are rockaways with four 
or five sittings, light octagon-front coupes, broughams, 
stanhope-phaetons, victorias, chariotees, English, French, 
and American styles, top buggies, with or without jump 
seats, tilburies, doctors’ gigs and carriages; and among 
the open wagons the French, English, and American dog¬ 
carts, the dos-a-dos, the two-wheeled dog-carts and stan¬ 
hopes, the turn-out seat and drop-front buggies, the road 
sulky, etc. etc. The illustrations show a few of these styles. 


































































































































































792 


CARRICAL—CARRICKFERGUS. 


The manufacture of children’s carriages on any consider¬ 
able scale has been only attempted within the past twenty - 

Fig. 9. 


The “ Deacon’s One-Horse Shay.” 


Fig. 11. 



English Six-Seat Rockaway. 
Fig. 13. 



within that time the production of dolls’ carriages, which 
is also rapidly extending. The following table exhibits 


For many of the facts and estimates in this article, as 
well as for a considerable number of the illustrations, we 
are indebted to the courtesy of Messrs. William H. Bradley 
& Co. of New Haven, successors to Brewster & Lawrence. 

L. P. Brockett. 

Carrical', or Karrical, a French town and seaport 
of Ilindostan, on the Bay of Bengal, 152 miles S. of Mad¬ 
ras. It was formerly fortified, and was captured by the 
British, who restored it to the French in 1814, on condition 
that it should not be fortified or garrisoned. 

Car'rick, Earls of (1748), Viscounts Ikerrin (1829), 
and Barons Butler (Ireland, 1607).— Somerset Arthur 

* Estimated by editors of the “ Hub.” This is exclusive of the 
manufacture of sleighs, which is of itself a vast industry. 


five years, and has only become an extensive industry 
within the last fifteen years. There has been added to it 


Fig. 10. 



English Box Landau. 


Fig. 12. 



A New Haven built Brougham. 


Fig. 14. 



the progress of the carriage manufacture in the U. S. within 
the past thirty-four years : 


Butler, fifth earl, born Jan. 30,1835, succeeded his brother 
in 1846. 

Carrickfer'gus, a seaport-town and borough of Ire¬ 
land, on Belfast Lough, 10 miles by rail N. N. E. of Belfast, 
is situated in the county of Antrim, but forms a county by 
itself, called “the county of the town of Carrickfergus.” 
It has a fine old parish church, said to have been founded 
in 1164; also several spinning-mills and manufactures of 
linen and starch. Here is a remarkable and picturesque 
castle, supposed to be 700 years old, standing on a high 
rock and on the sea. It is used as an arsenal, barracks, 
and a fort for the defence of the harbor. Carrickfergus 
has important fisheries, and is celebrated for its oysters, 
lobsters, and scollops. It has considerable trade with 




Census 

Year. 

No. of Estab¬ 
lishments. 

Persons 

Employed. 

Wages Paid. 

Carriages Produced. 

Value of Raw Material. 

Value of Annual Product. 

1840 

1850 

18(50 

1870 

1873 

92 

1,822 

7,234 

11,944 

*12,500 

2,274 

14,000 

37,457 

56,294 

75,000 


13,331 

95,000 

270,000 

800,000 

1,000,000 


$1,708,741 

12,000,000 

35,927,192 

67,003,730 

100,000,000 



$13,547,356 

21,749,625 

29,500,000 

$12,008,675 

23,385,683 

30,000,000 






















































































































































CARRICKMACROSS 


Liverpool, though its harbor is shallow and poor; it might, 
however, be easily improved. The people are mostly Prot¬ 
estants of Scotch descent. A part of the ancient wall is 
still standing. The town is connected with Larne by rail¬ 
way. It returns one member to Parliament. There are 
mines of salt in the vicinity. Pop. in 1871, 9452. 

Carrickmacross', a town of Ireland, in the county 
Monaghan, Ulster, is 46 miles N. W. of Dublin. One of 
its churches serves as the cathedral for the Roman Catho¬ 
lic archbishop of Clogher. It has a savings bank and a 
well-endowed grammar school, and has a fair held five 
times a year. Pop. 2063. 

Carrick-on-Shannon, a town of Ireland, the cap¬ 
ital of the county Leitrim, Connaught, is situated on both 
sides of the navigable Shannon River, 85 miles W. N. W. 
of Dublin. It is partly in the county Roscommon, and is 
on the Midland Great Western Railway. It has consider¬ 
able trade, chiefly in provisions. A canal has been cut 
from this place to Lough Erne. Pop. 15S7. 

Car'rick-on-Suir, a town of Ireland, in the county 
of Tipperary, is on the river Suir, 13 miles by rail E. of 
Clonmel. It has an old bridge, a parish church of high 
antiquity, a hospital, a convent, and a picturesque ruined 
castle built about 1310. Grain and other products of tho 
soil are exported from this place by the navigation of the 
river. Pop. in 1871, 4986. 

Car'rick’s Ford, a point on the Cheat River near St. 
George, Tucker co., West Va. The Confederate forces under 
Gen. R. B. Garnett, in retreat from Laurel Hill, where they 
had abandoned most of their artillery and stores, were here 
attacked by three regiments of U. S. troops under Gen. 
T. A. Morris. A brisk engagement emsued, in which the 
Confederates were routed and Gen. Garnett killed. The 
Unionists captured the Confederate wagon-train and one 
piece of artillery. This affair occurred July 13, 1861. 

Carrier (Jean Baptiste), a French Jacobin notorious 
for his cruelty, was born near Aurillac in 1756. He was 
elected to the National Convention in 1792, and was sent in 
1793 to Nantes, where he found many Yendean prisoners. 
He murdered multitudes of men, women, and children by 
various modes. Many of these victims were crowded into 
boats which were scuttled and sunk in the Loire. This was 
called republican baptism. The cruelties and obscenities 
related of this worst of Jacobin leaders are almost incred¬ 
ible. More than 15,000 persons were put to death by him 
in a single month. He was guillotined Dec. 16, 1794. 

Carrier (Joseph Auguste), a French painter of por¬ 
traits, miniatures, and forest scenery, was born in 1800 at 
Paris, and studied under Gros, Prud’hon, and the chevalier 
Saint. He first exhibited in 1824, has won several medals, 
and in 1866 was decorated with the cross of the Legion of 
Honor. 

Carrier (Thomas), died May 16, 1735, at Colchester, 
Conn., aged 109. He was a native of the west of England, 
settled in Andover, Mass., and married Martha Allen in 
1664. His wife was hung at Salem in 1692 on a charge of 
witchcraft, she having, it was alleged, appeared to her 
daughter in the form of a black cat. About 1715, Carrier 
removed to Colchester. He retained his strength and fac¬ 
ulties in a surprising degree till his death. 

Carriere (Joseph), a French abbe and theologian, born 
at Aveyron Feb. 19, 1795, was especially noted for a Latin 
work treating upon marriage, upon justice and law, and 
upon contracts. This work is highly esteemed. Died 
April 23, 1864. 

Carriere (Moritz), a German litterateur , born at Grie- 
dcl, in Hesse, Mar. 5, 1817, studied philosophy at Giessen, 
Gottingen, Berlin, and in Italy. In 1849 he became pro¬ 
fessor of philosophy at Giessen, and after 1853 held that 
position at Munich. He has published “ Der Kolner Dom 
als frie deutsche Kirche ” (Stuttgart, 1843), “ Abelard und 
Heloise ” (Giessen, 1844), “ Die Religion in ihrem Begriff,” 
etc. (1841), “ Die philosophische Weltanschauung der Rc- 
formationzeit” (1847), “ Die letzte Nachtder Girondisten” 
(a poem, 1849), “ Religiose Reden und Etractungen fiir 
das deutsche Volk” (1850), “Das Characterbild Crom¬ 
wells” (1851), “Das Wesen und die Form der Poesie” 
(1853), “Deutsche Geiteshelden im Elsass” (1871), “Die 
Kunst im Zusammenhange der Culturentwickelung und die 
Ideale del Menschheit” (1863-71), and other works. He 
defends Christianity, opposes Ultramontanism, and is of 
the liberal school. As an art-critic he takes a high rank. 

Car'rior Pig'eon, a variety of the domestic pigeon 
(Golumba livia), is remarkable for the sagacity with which 
it returns to its home after it has been conveyed to a dis¬ 
tant place. It is trained to carry messages in various 
countries. The letter sent by this mode is sometimes en¬ 


CARRIERS, COMMON. 793 


closed in a quill and tied to the bird’s leg, neck, or wing. 
Pigeons are trained by a progressive system, the young 
birds being at first taken to a small distance from their 
home and set loose. The distance to which they are taken 
is gradually increased to thirty miles or more. When they 
are liberated and thrown up for a journey, they first rise 
spirally to a great height in the air. Before the invention 
of the electric telegraph they were often employed to carry 
news of the changes in the prices of stocks. The balloons 
which the Parisians sent up during the siege of Paris in 
the winter of 1870-71 carried each a number of these birds, 
which were employed as bearers of despatches in the pub¬ 
lic service. Some of them, after being taken more than 
100 miles, returned to Paris, notwithstanding the inclem¬ 
ency of the season. They have been known to fly 1000 
miles or more, and at times to fly more than 100 miles an 
hour. They have been sent home from great distances at 
sea, with no possible guide as to direction—a seeming dem¬ 
onstration of the theory that these birds are prompted as 
to the direction in which to fly by some instinct at present 
altogether inexplicable. Some birds, however, are puzzled 
by foggy weather or by a coating of snow upon the ground. 
Many pigeons fly well only in a general N. and S. direc¬ 
tion, others E. and W. There are several breeds of the 
carrier pigeon, the Belgian stock being generally regarded 
as affording the best messenger birds. There are, however, 
various forms of the Belgian breed, but most of the birds 
have considerable family likeness. They should be over 
fourteen inches long, and in weight should exceed one 
pound. A wattle of larger or smaller size generally ex¬ 
tends across the bill. Most Belgian birds have a short 
head, long neck, and very broad, muscular shoulders. 
Many have a wide circle, without feathers, around the eye. 
The Turks are regarded as training this bird most success¬ 
fully. The Asiatics, it is stated, have employed the carrier 
pigeon from the earliest times. Anacreon mentions it as a 
carrier of letters; Pliny mentions its use at the siege of 
Modena. The Turks employed it during the Crusades, 
but tho crusaders kept falcons which were flown at the 
pigeons with some success. The English merchants in 
Aleppo, in the palmy days of the Turkey Company, had 
regular communication with Scanderoon, 80 miles distant, 
by means of this bird. It is related that in the East reg¬ 
ular relays of pigeons were formerly flown from towers 
thirty or forty miles apart, the birds being trained to carry 
messages both ways. The message was transferred from 
bird to bird, and thus great distances were traversed in a 
short time. Before the electric telegraph was invented 
there were lines of birds flown from Halifax, N. S., to 
Boston, Mass., and from Sandy Hook to New York, with 
the European news. In the Franco-German war very long 
documents were micro-photographed, and sent in packages 
of only a few grains weight with complete success. 

Revised by Charles W. Greene. 

Carrieres, de (Louis), a Roman Catholic theologian, 
was born in 1662 at Cluvile, near Angers, France. He be¬ 
came a soldier, and in 1689 joined the Congregation of the 
Oratory. He became distinguished as a theologian, and 
published, at the request of Bossuet, a “ Commentaire 
Litteral” (24 vols. 12mo, 1701-16). This work is very 
popular in France even at the present day. Most of the 
comments are made in the translated words of the Bible 
itself. It has been often reprinted. Died at Paris June 
11, 1717. 

Car'riers, Com'mon, those who undertake for hire 
to transport from one place to another the goods or persons 
of such as choose to employ them. They are distinguished 
from private carriers by this readiness to afford accommo¬ 
dation to the public generally, and are subjected in law to 
a different responsibility. They may be either carriers by 
land or carriers by water. Familiar examples of the former 
kind are stage-coach proprietors, railway companies, ex¬ 
press companies, wagoners, and teamsters, etc.; of tho 
latter, the owners and masters of steamships, ferry-boats, 
and vessels of all kinds engaged in a general transporta¬ 
tion business. The principles of law exhibiting the rights 
and duties of common carriers form a subordinate depart¬ 
ment under the general subject of Bailment, and, as in 
other varieties of the same legal relation, the degree of 
care necessary in the custody and treatment of whatever is 
received by the bailee is not dependent in all respects for 
its determination upon the contract of the parties, but 
arises by force of established legal rules. The difference 
in theso requirements, depending upon the circumstance 
whether there be a carriage of goods or a carriage of pas¬ 
sengers, demands that these two branches of the subject be 
examined separately. 

Common carriers of goods are placed under a responsi¬ 
bility of excessive stringency. They are held lia >lo for all 
loss or damage which occurs during transportation except 












794 CARRIERS, COMMON. 


that occasioned by “ the act of God or the public enemy.” 
They are made virtually insurers of the goods against all 
perils except those arising from these two sources, and the 
infrequency of exemption must be so great as to afford re¬ 
lief but very rarely. The reasons for imposing a duty so 
severe grow out of considerations of public policy. The 
facility with which the carrier or those who may collude 
with him can purloin or injure goods entrusted to his over¬ 
sight and disposal, and the difficulty of ascertaining the true 
cause of the loss, are thought to place the members of the 
community so entirely at his mercy that their interests de¬ 
mand the most ample protection. Moreover, the fact that 
the application of this rule has not proved detrimental to 
the growth and prosperity of transportation companies in¬ 
dicates that its apparent undue severity, while conducing 
greatly to the advantage of the public, has worked no 
practical injustice even to the carriers themselves. The 
phrase “ act of God ” is held to extend only to such in¬ 
evitable accidents as occur without the intervention of 
human agency. Thus, losses directly occasioned by winds, 
floods, lightning, and earthquakes would be properly in¬ 
cluded under this designation, and the carrier would be 
relieved from liability. But robbery, even if committed 
unexpectedly and by an irresistible force, or fire occasioned 
by some incendiary, wholly without the carrier’s negligence 
or connivance, would be causes of loss containing that ele¬ 
ment of human agency which makes the exemption inap¬ 
plicable. Damage resulting from natural causes, such as 
frost, fermentation, evaporation, the natural decay of perish¬ 
able articles, or the inherent viciousness of animals, are 
placed upon the same footing as losses caused by the “act 
of God.” By the phrase “public enemies” is meant those 
with whom the nation is at war or pirates on the high 
seas. Thieves, robbers, and mobs would not be included 
under this term. 

It is a carrier’s duty to receive for transportation all 
goods offered of the kind which it is his usual custom to 
carry. He may, however, demand the payment of freight 
in advance, and may refuse all articles of a dangei’ous 
quality. All persons who engage his services must be 
charged for the same service equably. Suitable vehicles 
for transportation must be provided, in charge of competent 
servants; the goods must be carried safely to the proper 
place of destination by the usual route and with all rea¬ 
sonable despatch, and there delivered, or held ready for 
delivery, to the owner or consignee. Reasonable instruc¬ 
tions given by the owner or his agent relative to the mode 
of carriage of the goods must be followed, unless com¬ 
pliance is impracticable. The carrier is also held account¬ 
able for all acts of his employes within the scope of their 
employment, even though they violate his instructions as 
to the mode of performance. He cannot escape from his 
obligations as to the carriage of the goods by attributing 
default to his own agents. 

The responsibility of common carriers begins upon the 
delivery of the goods for transportation. A delivery at the 
usual place of receiving freight or to the employes in the 
usual course of business is sufficient. But where goods 
are transferred to carriers with instructions not to transport 
them until further notice, the extraordinary liability already 
considered does not attach in the mean time, and it is only 
necessary that the ordinary care which is obligatory upon 
warehousemen be exercised until carriage really commences. 
The responsibility terminates when the goods have reached 
their destination and been actually delivered. But if, upon 
the lapse of a reasonable time after arrival, they are not 
claimed and removed, the carrier’s liability is not entirely 
ended, but only modified in degree. It is then his duty to 
store the property in a safe and secure warehouse to await 
the owner’s demand, and he is only accountable thereafter for 
ordinary care. Important distinctions are drawn between 
various classes of carriers in reference to the proper mode of 
delivery. These are rendered necessary by the different 
kinds of transportation adopted in the several cases. Thus, 
express companies employ conveyances which can be readily 
sent from dwelling to dwelling, and they are consequently 
held bound to make actual personal delivery at the owner’s 
place of business or residence. Carriers by water, on the 
other hand, can proceed no farther than the wharf. Hence, 
according to a well-settled usage clearly applicable to sea¬ 
going ships, no other delivery is demanded than can be 
made there; but the convenience of the consignee is still 
regarded, as far as practicable, by imposing upon the car¬ 
rier the obligation, rendored necessary by the uncertain 
time of arrival, that notice be given when the vessel has 
reached her place of discharge of the cargo. In railway 
transportation, again, the circumstances are still different. 
The cars are confined to a given line, have a regular ter¬ 
minus, and trains are run uniformly in accordance with 
published time-tables. Hence, according to some author¬ 
ities, personal delivery is so completely excused that not 


even notice of arrival is necessary. The better opinion 
seems to be that notice is required, and that the consignee 
has a reasonable time within which to take the goods beforo 
the strict liability of the carrier is modified into that of 
the warehouseman. 

The purpose of these various regulations manifestly is, 
that the interests of both carrier and owner be promoted. 
The “reasonable time” after arrival during which the car¬ 
rier’s heavy responsibility as insurer is to continue will be 
most speedily terminated when the owner has immediate 
knowledge that the goods lie at his disposal. 

There are instances, however, in which delivery is suffi¬ 
cient to discharge the carrier, though not made to the owner 
himself. This occurs when several parties are engaged suc¬ 
cessively in the transportation of the same articles. The 
liability of each, in the absence of special circumstances, 
terminates when the next undertakes the duty of carriage. 
At least, such is the doctrine upheld generally by the de¬ 
cisions of the American courts. In England, on the con¬ 
trary, the rule is maintained that the first carrier who 
receives the goods, if he accepts them for a destination be¬ 
yond his own route, continues liable until the entire journey 
is completed, and the subsequent parties, though the injury 
or loss may occur on their own lines of travel, are exempted 
from liability on the contract. This proceeds upon the notion 
that the contract for transportation is tacitly made with 
the first carrier. According to the prevailing opinion in 
the U. S., the cases in which these views should be followed 
are those in which the first carrier engages by special con¬ 
tract for the entire route. It should be added that there 
may be such a business connection between various parties 
concerned in continuous transportation as to make them all 
liable as partners for the entire transportation. 

Questions of much importance arise as to how far a car¬ 
rier’s duty and responsibility may be modified by usage or 
custom, or by specific contract entered into with the owner, 
or by notice given him. It is well established that com¬ 
mon usage, if uniform and reasonable, may be pleaded in 
justification of peculiar regulations adopted. Thus, the 
nature of the goods which will be received or the route 
which will be generally pursued may be determined in this 
manner. 

But these common modes of reducing responsibility are 
comparatively insignificant in view of those qualifications 
established by contract or notice. The policy of allowing 
the carrier to so limit his liability has been much ques¬ 
tioned, but the validity of such agreements is now gener¬ 
ally recognized. Bills of lading and instruments of an 
analogous character, given by the carrier on accepting 
goods for transportation, contain almost invariably stip¬ 
ulations in regard to exemptions from loss by fire and 
other enumerated perils, and are regarded as constituting 
a contract between the carrier and shipper. In like man¬ 
ner, notice brought home to the knowledge of the owner of 
the goods and assented to by him will have in general the 
same effect. At this point there is a great practical diffi¬ 
culty. The question is, What will be sufficient evidence 
of assent on the owner’s part to a notice ? It is plain, at 
least, that the notice must be so given by the carrier as 
naturally to attract the attention of the shipper, and must 
be so precise and clear that he can readily acquaint himself 
with its contents. Assuming this to be so, can the carrier 
shake off his extraordinary responsibility by notice? It is 
now quite clear that he cannot. He may make in this 
manner reasonable regulations in the nature of by-laws, 
pointing out the articles that he will carry, or requiring a 
statement of their value, so as to know what care will bo 
properly demanded of him, and what reasonable charge 
he should make. But when all this is done he cannot 
shake off his character of insurer by notice. To do this 
there must be a contract—some evidence of assent; and 
notice by the carrier is no evidence of assent by the ship¬ 
per. He, by his silence, should fairly be assumed to insist 
on the carrier’s common-law responsibility. The English 
courts held otherwise at one time, but the salutary doctrine 
here maintained is now substantially established in Eng¬ 
land by statute. Under its legislation the carrier may re¬ 
lieve himself to a considerable extent by notice, but cannot 
escape entirely the consequences of his own neglect or mis¬ 
conduct. The notice must not only be really or presump¬ 
tively known to the owner of the goods, but must also be 
reasonable in its character. 

Common Carriers of Passengers .—These are not held to 
as stringent a liability as.carriers of goods. They are not 
made insurers of the passengers’ safety, but are neverthe¬ 
less required to use the utmost care, and are responsible 
lor even the slightest negligence. The reason for this 
difference is, that they can have no such complete control 
ovor persons as over goods. Passenger's must largely re¬ 
tain Ireedom of movement and self-direction. It is no 
more than just, therefore, that tho carrier’s duty should be 
















CARRION FLOWERS—CARROLL. 


795 


correspondingly modified. Extreme vigilance may be de¬ 
manded, but not the duty of preventing injuries to which 
the passenger’s own heedlessness may expose him. In 
accordance with this principle, injuries occurring from any 
defect in the construction of machinery or vehicles which 
proper care could have guarded against, or from their un¬ 
skilful management, subject the carrier to responsibility, 
lie is answerable for the acts of his agents, whether negli¬ 
gent or wilful, done within the scope of their employment. 
It is his duty to exclude lawless and disorderly persons 
from his conveyances, or, failing to do so, he may, accord¬ 
ing to soixxe authorities, be held i*esponsible for any violence 
they may perpetrate on the passengers. 

When, however, the passenger’s own negligence is the 
proximate cause of the injury, the carrier is not liable. 
Thus, if an attempt should be made to get upon a train 
while the cars were in motion, or a passenger’s head or arm 
should be thrust from a window, and accidents occur in 
consequence, his own imprudence would be fatal to any 
claim lor damages. This proposition leads to an important 
bi*anch of the law termed “ contributory negligence,” 
which may be defined to be that negligence without which 
the injui'y would not have happened, while at the same 
time, on the part of the carrier, on being made aware of 
the passenger’s negligence, there must be reasonable cai'e 
used to avert its effects. 

The common duties of passenger carriers are, to receive 
all who offer to take passage as long as their vehicles 
suffice, to carry them the entire l’oute, to treat all with 
civility and propriety, and bring them to their destination 
within the stipulated time. They ai - e not, however, com¬ 
pelled to receive persons of offensive or disorderly conduct, 
or any who by reason of disease or disgusting habits are 
unfit associates for the other passengers. Reasonable reg¬ 
ulations may be adopted concerning the control of passen¬ 
gers, such as that fares must be paid in advance, tickets 
must be exhibited when called for, and the like. Expul¬ 
sions of persons in a suitable manner and without unneces¬ 
sary force from their vehicles for refusing to comply with 
such rules are considered justifiable. 

The liability of passenger earners for baggage committed 
to their charge is in general the same as that of common 
carriers of goods. In other words, they are held bound as 
insurers. If, however, the passenger prefers to retain ex¬ 
clusive control of his own property, as a coat, an umbrella, 
or a satchel, the carrier’s responsibility is modified. The 
liability continues until delivei-y is made, either to the 
owner at the final destination or to another earner in a 
continuous line of transit, and the duty of storing and pre¬ 
serving goods is the same that has been already detailed 
in the ordinary case of carriage of goods. The effect of 
contract or notice is also similar. The obligation to con¬ 
vey baggage arises independently of any special agree¬ 
ment in relation thereto, being considered as incidentally 
connected with the undertaking to cai’ry the passenger 
himself, and no additional payment is necessaiy. But 
some measure of relief is granted to the carrier on ac¬ 
count of this lack of remuneration by defining his account¬ 
ability more narrowly. He is only liable for articles prop¬ 
erly denominated baggage, and not for everything which the 
passenger may choose to consider such. Articles of neces¬ 
sity or personal convenience are reasonably included within 
the meaning of the term, but not merchandise or lai-ge 
sums of money or silver plate, and the like. For instance, 
jewelry used for personal ornament, a reasonable amount 
of money for travelling expenses, the instruments of a sur¬ 
geon required in practice in the course of his journey, 
have all been considered “baggage,” and the carrier made 
accountable for the loss. But the samples of a traveller 
acting for a commercial house would not be baggage, but 
merchandise, unless the carrier was made aware of their 
nature, and then without objection received them as bag¬ 
gage. The principle governing this rnatter is that con¬ 
cealment of the true nature of the package presented as 
baggage is a fraud on the earner. All inference of fraud 
is dispelled if the contents be disclosed, and there is no 
objection to the carrier accepting merchandise in trunks if 
he see fit. 

Appropriate remedies exist in favor of carriers. They 
may detain goods for the freight. They have an action 
against strangers who interfere with their possession, and 
may even recover the full value of the goods, holding the 
surplus above their charges in trust for the owner. 

In this brief summary of the rights and duties of com¬ 
mon carriers attempt has only been made to exhibit com¬ 
mon-law provisions and principles. Statutory enactments 
exist in England and in various States relating to the 
subject, the details of which must be sought by reference 
to tho acts themselves. In particular, the so-called Eng¬ 
lish “Carriers’ Act” may be referred to. (Tho subject is 
treated in much detail in such works as Redfield “ On 


Railways,” and Angell “ On Common Carriers.” Tho 
rules of damages will be found in Sedgwick or Mayne 
“ On Damages.”) T. W. Dwight. 

Car'rion Flowers, a name given to the flowers of 
sevei'al species of Stapelia, the smell of which resembles 
that of carrion. They are natives of the Cape of Good 
Hope. The genus Stapelia belongs to the order Asclepia- 
dacese, and is remarkable for an excessive development of 
the cellular tissue of the stem at the expense of the leaves. 

Car roll, a county of Arkansas, bordering on Missouri. 
Area, 700 square miles. It is drained by King’s River and 
other small affluents of White River, which touches its 
N. E. extremity. The soil is fertile, producing excellent 
crops of grain. Tobacco and wool ai-e also staple products. 
The timber and pasturage are unsui-passed. Fine varie¬ 
gated marble, iron, and lead ore are found here. Capital, 
Carrollton. Pop. 5780. 

Carroll, a county of Georgia, bordering on Alabama. 
Area, 572 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the 
Chattahoochee River. The surface is partly hilly. Grain, 
wool, and cotton are staple crops. Among the minci-als 
found here are gold and granite. Capital, Carrollton. 
Pop. 11,782. 

Carroll, a county of Illinois, bordering on Iowa. Area, 
425 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Missis¬ 
sippi River. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. 
Lead is found here. A large portion of the county is 
prairie. Grain, cattle, and wool ai'e lai'gely produced. The 
most numerous manufactories are those of saddlery and 
harnesses. It is intersected by the Western Union R. II. 
Capital, Mount Cari’oll. Pop. i6,705. 

Carroll, a county in N. W. Central Indiana. Area, 378 
square miles. It is intersected by the Wabash River, and 
also di’aihed by the Tippecanoe. The sui’face is nearly 
level; the soil is productive. Wheat, corn, wool, and dairy 
products are staple exports. Lumber and flour are man¬ 
ufactured. The Toledo Wabash and Western R. R. passes 
through it. Capital, Delphi. Pop. 16,152. 

Carroll, a county in W. Central Iowa. Area, 576 square 
miles. It is drained by the Raccoon River and the Middle 
Coon. The soil is fertile. Gi-ain and cattle are raised ex¬ 
tensively. It is intersected by the l-ailroad which extends 
from Cedar Rapids to the Missouri River. Capital, Car¬ 
rollton. Pop. 2451. 

Carroll, a county in the N. of Kentucky. Area, 200 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Ohio River, 
and intersected by the Kentucky River. The surface is 
mostly undulating ; the soil is fertile. Wheat, corn, wool, 
and tobacco are the chief products. Limestone occurs here 
as a surface-rock. It is intersected by the Louisville Cin¬ 
cinnati and Lexington R. R. Capital, Carrollton. P. 6189. 

Carroll, a parish which forms the N. E. extremity of 
Louisiana. Area, 1000 square miles. It is bounded on the 
E. by the Mississippi River and on the N. W. by Boeuf 
Bayou. The surface is nearly level; the soil produces cot¬ 
ton and maize. Capital, Lake Providence. Pop. 10,110. 

Carroll, a county of Maryland, bordering on Pennsyl¬ 
vania. Area, 453 square miles. It is drained by the sources 
of the Patapsco and Gunpowder rivers. The surface is 
hilly; the soil is good. Tobacco, gi’ain, and butter are ex¬ 
tensively produced. It has manufactures of leather, me¬ 
tallic wares, flour, clothing, carriages, saddlery, etc. Soap¬ 
stone quarries and iron and copper mines have been opened. 
It is intersected by the Western Maryland R. R. Capital, 
Westminster. Pop. 28,619. 

Carroll, a county in N. W. Central Mississippi. Area, 
900 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Talla¬ 
hatchie and Yazoo rivers, and also drained by the Yallo- 
busha. The soil is fertile. Corn and cotton are the chief crops. 
Cattle and wool are largely raised. It is intersected by the 
Mississippi Centi'al R. R. Capital, Carrollton. P. 21,047. 


Carroll, a county in N. W. Central Missouri. Area, 
>70 squai’e miles. It is bounded on the E. by Grand River, 
xnd on the S. by the Missouri. The surface is partly un- 
lulating ; the soil is fertile. Corn, tobacco, and dairy prod- 
lcts are the staple crops. It contains prairies, with groves 
)f oak, hickory, and other trees. Limestone abounds here. 
I branch of the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R. 
xasses through it. Capital, Carrollton. Pop. 17,446. 

Carroll, a county in E. Central New Hampshire. Area, 
• 00 square miles. It is^ partly bounded on the S. IV. by 
Ake Winnipiseogee, and drained by the Ossipee and Saco 
ivers. The surface is hilly; the soil is productive. Giain, 
vool, and butter are the chief products. The mamifactur- 
ng interests are varied. It is intersected by the loi Hand 
ind Ogdensburg R. R. Capital, Ossipee. Pop. R,332. 

Carroll, a county in the E. of Ohio. Area, .>M> square 
niles. It is drained by Conotten and Sandy creeks. Ihe 





















CARROLL—CARSON. 


796 


surface is diversified by hills of moderate height; the soil 
is fertile. Wool, grain, and dairy products are extensively 
produced. Coal and iron ore abound in this county, which 
is traversed by a branch of the Cleveland and Pittsburg 
R. R. Capital, Carrollton. Pop. 14,491. 

Carroll, a county of West Tennessee. Area, 625 square 
miles. It is intersected by the Big Sandy River, and also 
drained by the South Pork of the Obion. The surface is 
nearly level; the soil is very fertile. Cotton, corn, tobacco, 
and wool are staple products. It is traversed by the Nash¬ 
ville and North-western and Memphis and Louisville R. Rs. 
Capital, Huntingdon. Pop. 19,447. 

Carroll, a county in the S. W. of Virginia. Area, 440 
square miles. It is drained by the New River or Kanawha, 
and bounded on the S. E. by the Blue Ridge. The surface 
is hilly. Grain and wool are the chief products. Copper, 
lead, and iron are found here. Capital, Ilillsville. Pop. 
9147. 

Carroll, a township of Ouachita co., Ark. Pop. 713. 

Carroll, a township of Vermilion co., Ill. Pop. 2032. 

Carroll, a post-village and township of Carroll co., Ia. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 384; of townshij), 578. 

Carroll, a township of Tama co., Ia. Pop. 382. 

Carroll, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. P. 632. 

Carroll, a township of Platte co., Mo. Pop. 2691. 

Carroll, a township of Reynolds co., Mo. Pop. 605. 

Carroll, a township of Texas co., Mo. Pop. 519. 

Carroll, a post-township of Coos co., N. H. It has 
manufactures of lumber and starch, and is one of the prin¬ 
cipal places of resort in the White Mountain region. P. 378. 

Carroll, a township of Chautauqua co., N. Y. It has 
manufactures of lumber. Pop. 1548. 

Carroll, a post-village of Greenfield township, Fair- 
field co., 0. Pop. 187. 

Carroll, a township of Ottawa co., 0. Pop. 1036. 

Carroll, a township of Cambria co., Pa. Pop. 1780. 

Carroll, a township of Perry co., Pa. Pop. 1425. 

Carroll, a township of Washington co., Pa. Pop. 3178. 

Carroll, a township of York co., Pa. Pop. 898. 

Carroll, a township of Lincoln co., West Va. P. 1123. 

Car'roll (Charles) of Carrollton, an American pa¬ 
triot, born at Annapolis, Md., Sept. 20, 1737. He inherited 
a large estate in land, and was regarded as the richest man 
in Maryland. He was chosen a delegate to the Continental 
Congress in 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independ¬ 
ence. To distinguish himself from another man of the same 
name, he signed himself “ Charles Carroll of Carrollton.” 
He was elected to the Senate of the U. S. in 1788. He was 
of the Roman Catholic faith, and was a man of great dig¬ 
nity and worth. He was a lawyer by profession, educated 
in France and England, and was especially honored as the 
last survivor of the signers of the Declaration of Independ¬ 
ence. Died Nov. 4, 1832. 

Carroll (John), D. D., LL.D., first Roman Catholic 
bishop of the U. S., and cousin of the preceding, born Jan. 
8, 1735, at Upper Marlborough, Md., became in 1773 pro¬ 
fessor at Bruges, in Belgium. In 1786 he was, at the in¬ 
stance of Franklin, appointed vicar-general, and in 1790 
he was consecrated as bishop of Baltimore. In 1791 he 
founded St. Mary’s College. A few years before his death 
he was raised to the archiepiscopacy. Died Dec. 3, 1815. 

Car'rollton, a post-village, capital of Pickens co., Ala., 
on Lubbub Creek, 172 miles W. N. W. of Montgomery. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of Carrollton town¬ 
ship, 1841. 

Carrollton, a township of Boone co., Ark. Pop. 577. 

Carrollton, a post-village in a township of the same 
name, capital of Carroll co., Ark., on Long Creek, 125 miles 
N. N. W. of Little Rock. Pop. of township, 808. 

Carrollton, a post-village, capital of Carroll co., Ga., 
is on the Little Tallapoosa River, about 50 miles W. S. W. 
of Atlanta, at the intersection of three railroads, one re¬ 
cently completed. It has two schools and one weekly news¬ 
paper. Edwin R. Sharpe, 

Ed. “ Carroll County Times.” 

Carrollton, a city, capital of Greene co., Ill., on the 
Chicago and Alton R. R., 34 miles N. N. W. of Alton. It 
has a fine public-school building, an academy, seven 
churches, two newspapers, a library association, and va¬ 
rious manufacturing industries. It has two weekly news¬ 
papers. Pop. of township, 2760. 

G. B. Price’s Sons, Pubs. “ Carrollton Gazette.” 

Carrollton, a township of Carroll co., Iqd. Pop. 1046. 

Carrollton, a post-village, capital of Carroll co., Ia., 


is on the Middle Coon (or Raccoon) River, about 70 miles 
W. N. W. of Des Moines. Pop. 384. 

Carrollton, a post-village, capital of Carroll co., Ky., 
on the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Kentucky River, 62 
miles above Louisville, manufactures cloth, flour, etc. It 
has five churches and a newspaper. Pop. 1098. 

Ed. Carrollton “ Democrat.” 

Carrollton, a city in Jctferson parish, La., on the left 
bank of the Mississippi River, above and adjoining New 
Orleans. It contains the court-house and public buildings 
of Jefferson parish, and is connected with the centre of New 
Orleans by street-cars, which start every three minutes. 
Here are public gardens which attract many visitors. It 
has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of ward, 6495. 

Amos S. Collins, Ed. “ Louisiana State Register.” 

Carrollton, a post-township of Saginaw co., Mich. 
Pop. 1564. 

Carrollton, a post-township of Fillmore co., Minn. 
Pop. 1646. 

Carrollton, a post-village, capital of Carroll co., Miss., 
will be soon connected with the Mississippi by a railroad. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 377. 

P. W. Robertson, Ed. “ Mississippi Conservative.” 

Carrollton, a post-village, capital of Carroll co., Mo., 
on the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R., 207 miles 
N. W. of St. Louis and 66 miles E. N. E. of Kansas City. 
It contains nine churches, a school-house built at a cost of 
$40,000, two banks, two Hour-mills, a woollen factory, and 
two weekly newspapers. Pop. 1832. 

Jos. H. Turner, Ed. “Wakanda Record.” 

Carrollton, a township of Cattaraugus co., N. Y., has 
manufactures of leather and lumber and an oil-well. Pop. 
1142. 

Carrollton, a post-village, capital of Carroll co., 0., is 
about 125 miles E. N. E. of Columbus. A branch railroad, 
twelve and a half miles long, extends from this place to 
Oneida, which is on a branch of the Cleveland and Pitts¬ 
burg R. R., and the Ohio and Toledo R. R. is being built 
through it. It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 813. 

. J. Y. Lawler, Pub. Carroll County “ Chronicle.” 

Car'rolltown, a post-borough of Cambria co., Pa. 
Pop. 416. 

Carronade, a short iron cannon for naval service, in¬ 
vented by Mr. Gascoigne, and named after the Carron Iron¬ 
works in Scotland, where it was first made. It is lighter 
than the ordinary guns, and has a chamber for powder like 
a mortar. Carronades are now little used, and are nearly 
obsolete. In the war of 1812 the carronades of the Amer¬ 
ican navy did excellent service. They have a short range, 
and are only suitable for fighting at close quarters. 

Car'ron Brook, a post-village of Hibbert township, 
Perth co., Ontario (Canada), on the Buffalo and Goderich 
branch of the Grand Trunk Railway. It has various manu¬ 
factures, of which the most important is that of salt from 
salt-wells. There is one weekly paper. Pop. about 1000. 

Carroll Oil, a mixture of lime-water and oil, useful as 
an application to burns. It was named from the Carron 
Iron-works, where it has been much used. 

Car'rot ( Daucus ), a genus of plants of the order Um- 
belliferre. The common carrot (Daucus carota) is a bien¬ 
nial plant, a native of the East, but naturalized both in 
Europe and America. Its leaves are pinnately compound; 
the flowers creamy white. The root of the cultivated plant 
is much thicker and more agreeable to the taste than the 
wild. It is largely given to cattle, for which, as well as for 
men, it is a wholesome and moderately nutritious article of 
food. The plant has some beauty, its leaves having been, 
during the reign of Charles I., worn in England by ladies 
instead of feathers. The root is sometimes used for poul¬ 
tices. 

Carron'sel, a knightly exercise, in imitation of the 
tournament, common in Europe until the beginning of the 
eighteenth century. It consisted in contests of skill, in 
horsemanship, and in the use of the sword, lance, or other 
weapon. The Place du Carrousel in Paris was named from 
a fete of this kind held in honor of Mademoiselle de la Val- 
liere in 1662. The Eglinton tournament, so called, at Eg- 
linton Castle, in Scotland, in 1839, was really a carrousel. 

Car'ryall, a post-township of Paulding co., O. Pop. 
1087. 

Carse, a term applied in Scotland to low alluvial land 
adjacent to rivers. In Perthshire it is extended to the whole 
of the slightly undulating land on the north of the Tay, 
which is called the Carse of Gowrie. Carse soils usually 
consist of argillaceous deposits, which produce crops of 
great luxuriance, but in some cases they are rather sterile. 

Car'son (Alexander), LL.D., of Tubbermore, descend- 

























CARSON—CARSTAIRS. 


797 


ed from the Covenanters who sought the same kind of an 
asylum in North Ireland as the Puritans found in North 
America. Probably the world has had no grander type of 
men than those produced by colonizing Scots in Ireland; 
and perhaps of all the men that grew from this rugged 
grafting, no one was a more characteristic scion than Alex¬ 
ander Carson. He was born in 1776, in county Tyrone, 
Ireland. His father and mother were Presbyterians, and 
in his youth they set him apart for the ministry, and gave 
him his education at the University of Glasgow. Here he 
was facile princeps. He paid especial attention to Greek, 
and drove his studies in all departments so hard that his 
firm constitution seemed ready to sink. His tremendous 
power of concentration was fuily shown in his college life, 
and was of the highest service in all his life’s work. He 
became pastor of the Presbyterian church in Tubbermore 
when he was in his twenty-second year. In the same year 
he was married to the companion of his life, Margaret 
Ledlie. The Unitarian controversy which shook the Pres¬ 
byterian churches in North Ireland during the early part 
of this century Avas to him a cause of great mental anguish. 
The prevailing Avorldliness and evil practices of many 
members of the synod of Ulster constrained him at last to 
say that all the Avealth of the Indies could not induce him 
to celebrate another communion service when he must 
share in the responsibility of such doctrines and practices. 
About the year 1805 he drew up his “ Reasons for Separat¬ 
ing from the Synod of Ulster.” In this he argues for the 
independence of each church from all others. Thus he 
became a Congregationalist, or an Independent, as the 
term is used in Great Britain. In doing this he resigned 
all the earthly support he had. The majority of his con¬ 
gregation clave to him, and the law decided that the church 
property should be theirs, but as they could not retain it 
Avithout strife, he gax r e it up, and “preached for many years 
in cold, incommodious barns, and often in the open fields.” 
Afterwards a rude stone building was raised in the \ r illage 
of Tubbermore. Its interior was neither painted nor plas¬ 
tered, and the seats were hard benches. Here he preached 
for thirty years. Not long after his views on church gov¬ 
ernment Avere changed, one of the Baptist missionaries 
supported by the Haldanes of Scotland came OA r er to the 
north of Ireland, and Carson’s congregation were much 
troubled in mind by the new-comer. The pastor attempted 
to confute the Baptists, but after a month spent in prayer, 
reading the New Testament, and ransacking the Greek 
language, he burned his manuscripts and proclaimed him¬ 
self a Baptist. He devoted all his scholarship and much 
of his time to enforcing the views of the Baptists. 

His preaching Avas entirely expository. During his long 
ministry in Tubbermoi'e he expounded the entire Scriptures, 
and was well on his way through them a second time when 
death silenced him. His custom was to take a chapter in 
course, in the Old Testament, for his morning discourse, 
and a verse or tAvo of the New Testament, in course, for the 
afternoon. He Avas scrupulous to observe Avhatever was 
ordained by Christ and the apostles and practised in the 
Church, including the ceremony of the kiss of holiness and 
love. The singing of his great congregation was of the 
most artless kind. A few of the old minor tunes and the 
Scotch metrical Psalms, with Watts’ and some other hymns, 
was the whole apparatus from year to year. He taught 
that the ordinance of the Lord’s Supper should be observed 
every Lord’s Day, and the church, in common Avith 
nearly all the Baptist churches in Ireland, so practised. 
It is said that the salary ho received from the church did 
not average more than thirty pounds a year. He sustained 
his large family chiefly by farming, teaching, and whatever 
he realized from time to time by the sale of his books. He 
was a Avonder to many, in that he Avas able to educate his 
sons and provide for his daughters. He had thirteen chil¬ 
dren. Many of his congregation came many miles every 
Lord’s Day to hear him. Old women there were who 
walked, on going and returning, distances varying from 
five to twenty miles. In the doctrines of the gospel Dr. 
Carson held the very highest ground. He maintained the 
federal headship of Christ, the actual imputation of his 
righteousness to the redeemed, and the actual imputation 
of their sins to the atoning Saviour. He believed and 
maintained the verbal inspiration of the Scriptures; that 
the atonement of Christ was made for his Church only; 
that man is entirely powerless to do good, yet entirely re¬ 
sponsible for sin; that the gospel is to be preached to all; 
and that the sinner’s guilt is increased by rejecting it. 
There were five great subjects Avhich chiefly occupied his 
pen: the mode and subjects of baptism, the Godhead of 
Jesus Christ, the Romish controversy, the inspiration of 
the Scriptures, the harmony of God’s attributes in the gos¬ 
pel, and the wonders of God’s providence towards his 
Church. He Avas most diligent in the use of his time, and 
testified of himself that he had scarcely ever lost an hour. 


He had such a poxver of abstraction that lie Avrotc some of 
his profoundest treatises Avhile his children Avere climbing 
over his chair. His style of Avriting is remarkable. His 
sentences are short, and of the simplest possible construc¬ 
tion. He Avas a reasoner who would as soon be guilty of a 
larceny as of an intentional fallacy. He very rarely at¬ 
tempted anything like fine writing, but sometimes a few 
words are so used as to produce a sublime effect. He 
preached always entirely without notes. His eloquence 
has been described as “ volcanic.” He threxv such light 
upon the most recondite parts even of the Old Testament 
that there greAV up under his ministry a multitude of people 
unlearned in everything else, but mighty in the Scriptures. 
So rapt was his auditory in his discourses that many times 
they half rose from their seats. The common people 
thronged to hear a man who hardly ever spoke a xvord they 
could not understand, and yet Avho dealt with the deepest 
things that can busy the mind of man. In unfolding the 
glory of the gospel his face absolutely shone; he seemed 
to be caught up to heaven, and to be ministering betAveen 
a living God and a dying Avorld. 

In person, Dr. Carson ax' as well fitted for his laborious life. 
He Avas of middle height, broad-shouldered, deep-chested, 
stout-limbed. His eye was clear and piercing, his features 
of a noble Roman cast, and when he died, nearly seventy 
years old, he had scarcely a gray hair. His voice was very 
powerful, and so tireless that four hours of almost continu¬ 
ous exercise did not xveary it, week after week. His deliv¬ 
ery Avas lively and natural. Those who only knew him from 
his controversial Avritings, thought of him as a fiery and 
unrelenting polemic, and indeed he treated any thing like 
a weak argument Avithout mercy; yet in private life he was 
gentle and kindly, without a tincture of pride or vanity. His 
Christian character was remarkable. He prayed like a little 
child. His spirit may be judged from the Avords with xvliich 
he closed his essay on the “ Doctrine of the Trinity 
“Lord Jesus, I own thee before men—deny me not before 
thy Father and the holy angels !” He resolved at one time 
to come to America, but after his preparations were well 
advanced his congregation were so apparently broken¬ 
hearted at the thought of his leaving them that, to use one 
of the beautiful, homely idioms of the north of Ireland, “ he 
could not find it in his heart to leave them.” 

He died in Belfast in 1844; his death was the result of a 
fall into the xvater from a steamer’s plank. He was making 
Avay for a lady to go aboard, and lost his balance; he was 
rescued, but somewhat injured, and a fever ensued, which 
in a fexv days ended his life. He was a man of rare and 
saintly self-denial, of zeal that was bounded only by 
strength, of learning vast and varied, of logic keen to divide 
between truth and error, and of singleness of purpose to knoxv 
nothing but Christ crucified. And this man lived for thirty 
years the pastor of a humble village church in Ireland, and 
desired no title among men but that of “ minister of the 
gospel!” Thomas Armitage. 

Carson (Christopher), an American trapper, commonly 
called Kit Carson, was born in Kentucky Dec. 24, 1809. 
He served as a guide to Fremont in his Rocky Mountain 
explorations. He Avas an officer in the U. S. service in both 
the Mexican war and the great civil Avar. In the latter he 
received a brevet of brigadier-general. Died May 23, 1868. 

Carson City, the capital of the State of Nevada and 
county-seat of Ormsby co., is situated near the E. base of 
the Sierra Nevada, about 3 miles W. of Carson River and 
15 miles S. S. W. of Virginia City. It is surrounded by 
grand and picturesque scenery, and is about 10 miles E. 
of Lake Tahoe. Here are rich silver-mines, which in 1864 
yielded $1,994,884. It has one daily paper. Pop. of the 
township, 3042. 

Carson Lake, a township of Mississippi co., Ark. 
Pop. 74. 

Carson River, Nevada, rises in the Sierra Nevada, 
floAvs nearly north-eastAvard, passes through Ormsby and 
Lyon counties, and enters Carson Lake in Churchill county. 
Length, estimated at 150 miles. Carson Lake has no out¬ 
let, and is about 15 miles long. 

Car'stairs, or Carstares (William), a Scottish nego¬ 
tiator distinguished for learning and sagacity, xvas born 
near Glasgoxv Feb. 11, 1649. He became chaplain to Wil¬ 
liam, prince of Orange, xvho trusted him as a confidential 
adviser in affairs relating to Great Britain. Having been 
sent to England in 1682 as the secret agent of William of 
Orange, he Avas arrested as an accomplice in the Rye-House 
plot, and xvas put to the torture, which could not extort 
from him any confession, although he xvas the depository 
of important secrets. After the accession of A\ illiam to the 
throne, Carstairs had great influence in Scottish affairs, and 
xvas five times chosen moderator of the General Assembly. 
He became minister of Gray Friars’ Church, Edinburgh, in 
1704. Died Dec. 28, 1715. His virtues and abilities are 















798 CAKSTENS—CAKTESIAN PHILOSOPHY. 


highly extolled by Macaulay. (See McCormick, “Life of 
W. Carstairs,” 1774.) 

Car'stens (Asmus Jakob), a German painter, born May 
10, 1754, at St. JUrgen, Sleswick, the son of a poor miller, 
travelled on foot to Rome to study art. Ilis great drawing, 
“The Fall of the Angels,” procured him a professorship at 
the Berlin Academy of Arts. He took the lead in reforming 
taste in Germany, but painted few pictures. His drawings 
have been engraved by Muller, 43 plates, 1809. Hied May 
25, 1798. 

Cart. See Carriages, etc., by L. P. Brockett, M. D. 

Cartage'na, a city and fortified seaport of Spain, is in 
the province of Murcia and on a bay of the Mediterranean, 
27 miles S.S.E. of Murcia; lat. 37° 36' N., Ion. 1° V W. 
It occupies the declivity of a hill, and a small plain which 
is between the hill and the sea. The harbor, which is one 
of the best in the Mediterranean, is capacio'us enough to hold 
the largest fleets, and is protected from winds by highlands 
which enclose it on several sides. The entrance to the har¬ 
bor is defended by a fortified island. Cartagena was for¬ 
merly the chief naval arsenal of Spain, and had a popula¬ 
tion of 60,000, but its importance has declined. It has a 
Moorish cathedral, numerous churches and convents, a 
theatre, and an observatory; also manufactures of sailcloth 
and glass. Red marble is abundant here, and is used for 
building. Mines of silver and lead have been opened in the 
vicinity. Pop. 54,315. The ancient Carthago Nova was 
founded by Hasdrubal in 242 B. C. (See Carthago Nova.) 

Cartage'na, written also Cartliagena, a fortified 
city and seaport of the United States of Colombia, in South 
America, the capital of the state of Bolivar, is on the Carib¬ 
bean Sea, about 275 miles E. N. E. of Panama; lat. 10°25' 
36“ N., Ion. 75° 38' W. It was founded in 1532, and was 
formerly the chief mart of New Granada and Central Amer¬ 
ica, with over 25,000 inhabitants. It stands on a sandy 
peninsula, is well built, and has well-paved streets. The 
houses are mostly stone, and two stories high. It contains 
numerous churches, some of which are said to be splendid, 
several convents, a theatre, and a college. The climate is 
very hot, damp, and unhealthy. Cartagena has a good 
landlocked harbor. Sugar, coffee, tobacco, hides, and bul¬ 
lion are exported from this place. Pop. estimated at 9000. 

Carta'go, a town of Central America, the former cap¬ 
ital of Costa Rica, one of the oldest cities in Central Amer¬ 
ica, having in 1823 over 37,000 inhabitants, is about 20 miles 
E. of San Jose. It once contained eight churches and about 
3000 houses, but it was ruined by an earthquake in Sept., 
1841, which is said to have destroyed seven churches 
and 2900 houses. Present pop. estimated at from 3000 to 
5000. Near this place is Mount Cartago, 11,480 feet high. 

Cartago, a t&wn of the United States of Colombia, in 
the state of Cauca, and on the river Cauca, about 135 miles 
W. of Bogotd. It has a cathedral, and a trade in coffee, 
cacao, dried beef, tobacco, etc. Pop. 7000. 

Carte, a French word, signifies a “card,” a “ticket,” a 
“map,” a “chart.” Carte blanche (literally, “white card”) 
is a blank paper signed by a person and given to another, 
that he may prescribe or insert such conditions as he pleases. 

Carte (Thomas), an English historian, born at Clifton 
in April, 1686. He became a priest and Jacobite. During 
the rebellion of 1715 a large reward was offered for his arrest, 
but he escaped to France. His chief work is a “ History 
of England” (4vols., 1747-55), which is prized for its facts, 
but is not well written. Many volumes of his manuscripts 
are preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Died 
April 2, 1754. 

Car'teJ, an Anglicised French word which in France 
signifies a “ challenge.” As a military term it is used to 
denote an agreement between two belligerents for the ex¬ 
change of prisoners. A vessel used in exchanging prison¬ 
ers or carrying proposals to*m enemy is called a cartel-ship. 

Car'ter, a county in the N. E. of Kentucky. Area, 550 
square miles. It is intersected by the Little Sandy River. 
The surface is hilly. Iron ore and coal are found here. 
Indian corn is the chief agricultural product. Capital, 
Grayson. Pop. 7509. 

Cartel - , a county in the S. E. of Missouri. Area, 500 
square miles. It is intei - sected by the Current River. The 
surface is diversified by hills and valleys. It contains 
mines of copper and quarries of limestone. Corn, wool, 
and tobacco are the chief products. Capital, Van Buren. 
Pop. 1455. 

Carter, a county of Tennessee, bordering on North 
Carolina. Area, 350 square miles. It is intersected by Wa¬ 
tauga River, and bounded on the S. E. by the Iron Moun¬ 
tain. The surface is mountainous. Corn, wool, oats, and 
wheat arc raised. Iron abounds here. Capital, Elizabeth¬ 
town. Pop. 7909. 


Carter, a township of Ashley co., Ark. Pop. 960. 

Carter, a township of Spencer co., Ind. Pop. 1420. 

Carter, a township of Carter co., Mo. Pop. 760. 

Carter, an important military and commercial point 
on the Union Pacific R. R., in Uintah co., Wy. Ter., 53 
miles N. E. of Evanston, has a large warehouse for the 
Montana trade. 

Carter (Elizabeth), a learned English authoress, born 
at Deal, in Kent, Dec. 16, 1717, was a friend of Dr. John¬ 
son. She was a good classical scholar, and gained a wide 
reputation by a translation of Epictetus from the Greek 
(1758), which, according to Warton, is better than the 
original. She wrote two numbers of Johnson’s “Rambler” 
(Nos. 44 and 106) and a number of poems, among which 
is an “Ode to Wisdom” (1746). Died Feb. 19, 1806. 

Carter (James Gordon), an American educator, born 
at Leominster, Mass., Sept. 7, 1795, and graduated at Har¬ 
vard in 1820. He was chairman of the committee on edu¬ 
cation in the legislature of Massachusetts, and drafted the 
bill which appointed the Massachusetts board of education. 
He became chairman of that board. Died July 22, 1849. 

Carter (Nathaniel Hazeltine), an American author, 
born at Concord, N. II., Sept. 17, 1787, and graduated at 
Dartmouth in 1811. In 1820 he became editor of the “New 
York Statesman.” He afterwards published “Letters from 
Europe,” in two volumes. Died at Marseilles Jan. 2,1830. 

Carter (S. P.), U. S. N., born Aug. 6, 1819, in Carter 
co., Tenn., entered the navy as a midshipman Feb. 14,1840, 
became a passed midshipman in 1846, a lieutenant in 1855, 
a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in 1865, and 
a captain in 1870. - He served on the E. coast of Mexico 
during the Mexican war. While attached to the steamer 
San Jacinto in 1856 he participated in the attack on the 
Barrier Forts at the mouth of the Canton River, China, 
which resulted in their capture. In July, 1861, Carter was 
ordered to report to the secretary of war for duty, and pro¬ 
ceeded at once to East Tennessee, where he organized the 
Tennessee brigade. He was now appointed a brigadier- 
general of volunteers, and continued on active duty with 
the army during the entire war, doing most important and 
gallant service in Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, and North 
Carolina, and receiving the brevet of major-general “for 
gallant and distinguished services.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Car'teret, a county in the S. E. of North Carolina. 
Area, 450 square miles. It is bounded on the E. and S. by 
the Atlantic Ocean. The surface is level, and partly covered 
with pine forests. Indian corn is the principal crop. It is 
intersected by the Atlantic and North Carolina R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Beaufort. Pop. 9010. 

Carteret (Philip), an English navigator who took part 
in the expedition to the South Sea commanded by Wallis, 
in 1766. He discovered a number of small islands, one of 
which he called by his own name. 

Carter’s Crossing, a township of Sumter co., S. C. 
Pop. 947. 

Car'tersville, a post-village, capital of Bartow co., 
Ga., is on the Western and Atlantic R. R., 48 miles N. N. 
W. of Atlanta. Gold, copper, and other minerals are 
found in this vicinity. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 
2232. 

Carte'sian Philos'ojihy, the name of the system of 
philosophy brought forward by Rene Descartes (1596-1650), 
one of the most original thinkers of France or of any coun¬ 
try. The scholastic philosophy which had prevailed in the 
Middle Ages, though based upon the teachings of Aristotle, 
had so far departed from the spirit of its great master as to 
have become almost vain and fruitless. What Descartes 
and his contemporary, Bacon, did, was, each in his own 
way, to help arouse a spirit of independent research in 
philosophy and in science. It must not be forgotten, how¬ 
ever, that the independence of Bacon and Descartes was 
a result as well as a cause of this new spirit. The new 
current had begun to flow before their day, but they each 
contributed largely to swell that current. 

Descartes proposed as a basis for his system, and as a 
ground for all knowledge, the act of conscious thought, as 
necessarily involving the idea of existence. His celebrated 
dictum, “Ego cogito, ergo sum ” — i. e. “ I think, therefore I ex¬ 
ist ”—is the starting-point of his philosoph}\ And although 
the dictum itself has been severely criticised, it may be 
fairly questioned whether the fault be not in the expression 
rather than in the thought intended to be expressed, and 
whether the appeal to our consciousness be not indeed the 
ultimate ground of philosophy. Those writers who deny 
the validity of the testimony of consciousness are neverthe¬ 
less continually appealing to the same testimony when it 
serves their purpose. Descartes was a firm believer in the 













CARTESIANS—CARTHAGE. 


existence of a personal God, and attributed all the phe¬ 
nomena of nature to the continual and actual presence of 
an all-pervading Deity. 

The ultimate conclusions reached by Descartes need not 
be stated here. Founded to some extent upon unwarranted 
hypotheses, many of his opinions are now known to have 
been fallacious. But the great value of his philosophy has 
been in the grand stimulus of thought which it has given 
to others. Spinoza, Malebranche, and even the modern 
German philosophers, are confessedly much indebted to 
him. 

Carte'sians [from Cartesius, the Latin name of Des¬ 
cartes], the name given to the disciples of Descartes, or to 
those who adopted his system of philosophy. In the sev¬ 
enteenth century nearly all the philosophers of France were 
ranged under two parties, Cartesians and Gassendists. 

Car'thage [Gr. 17 Kapxr)Swv; Lat. Carthago], an ancient 
and celebrated commercial city of Africa, and the capital 
of the republic of Carthage, was a Phoenician colony 
founded by emigrants from Tyre about 850 B. C. It was 
situated on a bay of the Mediterranean about 20 miles S. 
of Utica, and near the site of the modern town of Tunis. 
Lat. about 36° 47' N., Ion. 10° 6 ' E. The Punic or native 
name of Carthage is said to have been Carthada or Karth 
Hadtha. According to a tradition which has been immor¬ 
talized by the genius of Virgil, it was founded by Dido, a 
sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, and she purchased of the 
natives the site of the new city. Ancient authorities con¬ 
cur in affirming that it was founded many years later than 
Utica, which was also a Phoenician colony. No record of 
the early history of Carthage has been preserved. “ This 
great city,” says P. Smith, “ furnishes the most striking 
example in the annals of the world of a mighty power 
which, having long ruled over subject peoples, taught them 
the arts of commerce and civilization, and created for it¬ 
self an imperishable name, has left little more than that 
name behind it, and even that in the keeping of the very 
enemies to whom she at last succumbed. Vast as is the 
space which her fame fills in ancient history, the details 
of her origin, her rise, her constitution, commerce, arts, and 
religion, are all but unknown. Of her native literature 
we have barely the scantiest fragments left. The treas¬ 
ures of her libraries were disdained by the blind hatred of 
the Roman aristocracy, who made them a present to the 
princes of Numidia, reserving only the thirty-two books of 
Mago on agriculture for translation, as all that could be 
useful to the republic.” Our information respecting the 
Carthaginians is derived mostly from Roman historians, 
who were deficient in impartiality, and from Polybius, who 
has preserved some genuine Punic documents. 

Carthage seems to have been almost from its foundation 
independent of Tyre, but friendly relations* were main¬ 
tained between the colony and the metropolis, and the re¬ 
ligious supremacy of the latter was recognized by an an¬ 
nual offering to the temple of Hercules at Tyre of a tithe 
of all the revenues of Carthage. The Carthaginians grad¬ 
ually acquired a dominion over the other Phoenician col¬ 
onies of Northern Africa, and also over the Libyans and 
Numidians or nomadic tribes who occupied this region be¬ 
fore the foundation of Carthage. This city became one of 
the greatest commercial emporiums of the world before the 
first Punic war. During the period of her greatest pros¬ 
perity, Carthage was probably the greatest maritime power 
in the world. The population of the city amounted to 
about 700,000 in 150 B. C. The Carthaginian (or Punic) 
language resembled the Hebrew, and belonged to the Se¬ 
mitic or Aramaic family. The government was a republic 
or an oligarchy, in relation to which our information is 
very scanty. 

A condensed summary of all that is known on this sub¬ 
ject is given by Grote, from which we extract the chief 
points: “ Respecting the political constitution of Carthage, 
the facts known are too few and too indistinct to enable us 
to comprehend its real working. The magistrates most 
conspicuous in rank and precedence were two kings or 
stiffetes, who presided Over the senate. They seem to have 
been renewed annually, though how far the same persons 
were re-eligible we do not know; but they were always se¬ 
lected out of some few principal families or gentes. There 
is reason for believing that the genuine Carthaginian citi¬ 
zens were distributed into three tribes, thirty curim, and 
300 gentes. From these gentes emanated a senate of 300, 
out of which, again, was formed a smaller council or com¬ 
mittee of thirty principes, representing the ctirise. . . . 
The purposes of government were determined, -its powers 
wielded, and the great offices held—suffetes, senators, gen¬ 
erals or judges—by the members of a small number of 
wealthy families. In the main, the government was con¬ 
ducted with skill and steadiness, as well for internal tran¬ 
quillity as for systematic foreign and commercial aggran¬ 


799 


dizement. Within the knowledge of Aristotle, Carthago 
had never suffered either the successful usurpation of°a 
despot or any violent intestine commotion.” 

At a period little later than her first distinct appearanco 
on the stage of recorded history, Carthage possessed an 
imperial authority, in a greater or less degree, over the 
northern coast of Africa from the Pillars of Hercules to the 
Great Syrtis, a distance of about 16,000 stadia (2000 miles). 
But the only part of this extensive territory that was en¬ 
tirely subject to the dominion of Carthage was the country 
which extended S. of the city about ninety miles, and 
the boundaries of which were nearly the same as those of 
Zeugitana, and the strip of coast along which lay Byzacium 
and Emporia. Like other great commercial states, Car¬ 
thage found that her maritime enterprise led her on almost 
inevitably to engage in foreign conquests and to contend 
for the dominion of the sea. The first foreign province 
that she acquired appears to have been the island of Sar¬ 
dinia, which belonged to Carthage at the time of her first 
treaty with Rome, 509 B. C. This island was the principal 
emporium of her trade with Western Europe, and always 
ranked as the chief among her foreign possessions. Among 
the earliest objects of the military enterprise of the Cartha¬ 
ginians was Sicily, then occupied by several Greek colonies. 
For the conquest of this island they sent a fleet of 3000 
ships, with an army of 300,000 men, commanded by Ha- 
milcar. He was defeated by Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, at 
Himera, in 480 B. C., and was killed in this action, which 
was one of “ the decisive battles of the world,” and was 
important in a degree which no contemporary could esti¬ 
mate. The Carthaginians in 410 B. C. renewed the war 
against the Greeks of Sicily, and obtained possession of 
part of that island, where they were involved in a long con¬ 
test with Dionysius of Syracuse. They planted colonies in 
Hispania (Spain), and derived much riches from the gold 
and silver mines of that peninsnla, but their relations with 
the natives were peaceful, and they did not attempt to sub¬ 
jugate Spain before the Punic wars. Polybius states that 
all the islands of the Western Mediterranean belonged to 
Carthage at the commencement of the Punic wars, 264 B. C. 
In 509 B. C. a commercial treaty was concluded between 
Carthage and Rome. This celebrated document has been 
preserved by Polybius. The second treaty between these 
two powers was made in 348 B. C. It appears that the 
Carthaginians never came into hostile contact with the Athe¬ 
nian republic, although the latter was a great maritime 
power while Carthage was near the zenith of her prosperity. 

The army of Carthage was composed chiefly of Libyan 
conscripts and slaves and foreign mercenaries. This defect 
in her military system was probably one of the chief causes 
of her ruin. This system could not afford the republic in¬ 
ternal security, for the soldiers had little devotion to the 
cause for which they fought, and the enemies of Carthage 
found it their best policy to “ carry the war into Africa.” 
It would be an error to regard the Carthaginians as a 
merely commercial people. Agriculture was a favorite 
pursuit of the nobles, citizens, and colonists, and the soil 
of her African territory was extremely fertile. Her pros¬ 
perity was also promoted by manufactures and mechanical 
arts. Gold and silver were the standard of value at Car¬ 
thage, but we have no evidence that the republic coined 
money, as no Punic coins are now extant which were struck 
before the Romans conquered that state. Her merchant- 
ships passed beyond the Pillars of Hercules and made 
voyages to the British Islands. The Carthaginians also 
carried on an extensive inland trade by caravans, which 
traversed the deserts to the valleys of the Nile and Niger. 

Carthage and Rome were the two greatest powers of the 
world when their competition for the rich island of Sicily 
involved them in the first Punic war, 264 B. C. The Ro¬ 
mans, who had no navy when the war began, suffered 
several defeats at sea, and one of their generals, M'arcus 
Regulus, who invaded Africa, was taken prisoner. They 
gained a great naval victory near Lilyboeum in 241 B. C., 
which ended the war. The Carthaginians obtained peace 
by ceding Sicily and Sardinia to the victors. Carthage 
was so impoverished by this long war that she could not 
pay her armies. The mercenaries revolted in 240 B. C., 
and were joined by most of the subject Libyans in a civil 
war which brought Carthage to the brink of ruin. After 
the suppression of this revolt the peace and stability of the 
state were menaced by a feud between Hanno and Hamil- 
car Barca, who became respectively the leaders of the 
aristocratic and democratic parties. The great abilities 
and sagacity of Hamilcar restored the prosperity of the 
republic by the conquest of Spain, which, says Hecrcn, 
“was then the richest country of the known world. He 
invaded Spain in 237 B. C., and gained several victories, 
but he subdued the Spaniards by kindness rather than 
force. Before he had conquered all the Peninsula lie died 
in 229, leaving the completion of the enterprise to his son- 











800 


CAKTHAGE—CARTOON. 


in-law, Hasdrubal, and liis own son, the famous Hannibal. 
The latter succeeded to the chief command of the army in 
Spain in 221 B. C. His conquests provoked the hostility 
of the Romans, and he began the second Punic war by 
marching across the Alps and invading Italy in 218 B. C. 
After he had defeated the Romans at several places in 
Northern Italy, he gained a most signal and complete vic¬ 
tory at the great battle of Cannae in the summer of 216 
B. C. The second Punic war seems to have been con¬ 
ducted by Hannibal rather than the state, from which he 
received little aid or co-operation. By his military genius 
and personal resources he maintained himself in Italy for 
about fifteen years. (For the details of this Avar, which 
was ended by the victory of the Roman general Scipio at 
Zama in 202 B. C., the reader is referred to the article 
Hannibal.) The treaty which the victors dictated in 201 
B. C. depri\ r ed Carthage of all her dominions outside of 
Africa. Hannibal, who soon obtained the ascendency in 
Carthage, made important reforms, Avhich reduced the 
power of the aristocracy and the judges, but he was driven 
into exile by a hostile faction in 195 B. C. The Romans, 
Avho resolved to destroy Carthage, found a pretext to com¬ 
mence the third Punic Avar in 150 B.C. The Carthaginians 
made an heroic and desperate resistance, but their capital 
Avas taken and utterly ruined in 146 B. C. On the com¬ 
manding site of the Punic Carthage the emperor Augustus 
founded a Roman town, which was also called Carthage, 
and became a very rich and populous city. Herodian states 
that in his time it was next to Rome in population and 
wealth. In 439 A. D. it Avas taken by Genseric, Avho made 
it the capital of the Vandal kingdom in Africa. It Avas 
captured and finally destroyed by the Arabs in 647 A. B. 
Few A r estiges of its ancient grandeur remain to indicate its 
site, except some broken arches of a great aqueduct which 
was fifty miles long. (See Arnold, “ History of Rome,” 
A’ol. ii.; IIeeren, “ Historical Researches into the Politics, 
Commerce, etc. of the Ancient Nations of Africa,” 1824; Bot- 
tiger, “ Geschichte der Carthager,” 1827; Munter, “ Re¬ 
ligion der Kartliager,” 1821.) William Jacobs. 

Car'thage, a post-township of Hale co., Ala. P. 960. 

Carthage, a post-village, capital of Hancock co., Ill., 
is at the crossing of the Keokuk branch of the Toledo 
Wabash and Western R. R. and the Burlington and Quincy 
R. R., 13 miles E. of Keokuk. It has one national bank, 
seA r en churches, one academy, and two newspapers. Pop. 
1448; of Carthage township, 2448. 

Thos. C. Sharpe, Ed. Carthage “ Gazette.” 

Carthage, a post-village of Ripley township, Rush co., 
Ind. Pop. 481. 

Carthage, a township of Franklin co., Me. Pop. 486. 

Carthage, a small town, capital of Leake co., Miss., is 
about 60 miles N. E. of Jackson, and is on the line of the 
Natchez Jackson and Columbus R. R., which is noiv in 
course of construction. It has one weekly newspaper. 

L. M. Garrett, Ed. of “ The Carthaginian.” 

Carthage, a city, capital of Jasper co., Mo., on Spring 
River and on the line of the Memphis Carthage and North¬ 
west R. R., situated in the centre of the rich lead-regions 
of South-Avest Missouri, with numerous manufactories, an 
academy, tAvo public schools, two parks, a public library, 
and one national bank. Four newspapers are published in 
this place. On the morning of July 5, 1861, a force of Con¬ 
federates under Gov. Jackson and Gen. Price, numbering 
about 3500 men, Avhile retreating from‘the army of Gen. 
Lyon, Avere confronted about 7 miles E. of this town by a 
body of Federal troops under Gen. Sigel, numbering about 
1500. Gen. Sigel was superior in artillery, while the Con¬ 
federates, largely outnumbering him, had the advantage also 
of a body of cavalry. Gen. Sigel, availing himself of his 
superior strength, opened fire with his artillery, Avhich he 
continued, to the severe loss of the Confederates, for several 
hours, Avhen, to avoid being outflanked by the Confederate 
cavalry, and to protect his baggage-train, he Avas obliged 
to fall back, which he accomplished in good order, con¬ 
tinuing his retreat to Carthage and to Sarcoxie, 15 miles 
eastward. The Federal loss was less than 50 killed and 
wounded, Avhile the Confederate loss Avas reported to be 50 
killed and about 150 wounded. 

J. A. Bodenhamer, Ed. “ Peoplf/s Press.” 

Carthage, a post-village of Wilna and (West Carthage) 
of Champion townships, Jefferson co., N. Y., on the Utica 
and Black River R. R., and on Black River and its canal, 
23 miles by rail E. of Watertown. It has extensive water- 
poAver, lumber-mills, forges, foundries, and manufactories 
of nails, machinery, leather, furniture, wooden-Avare, etc., 
and has also a bank, a weekly newspaper, and seven churches. 

Carthage, a post-village, capital of Moore co., N. C., 
about 60 miles S. W. of Raleigh. Pop. of Carthage town¬ 
ship, 1786. 


Carthage, a township of Athens co., 0. Pop. 1272. 

Carthage, a post-village, capital of Smith co., Tcnn., 
is on the Cumberland River, 50 miles by land E. N. E. of 
Nashville. Pop. 477. 

Carthage, a post-village, capital of Panola co., Tex., 
about 45 miles S. of Jefferson. 

Cartha'go No'va [the Lat. for “Neiv Carthage”], an 
ancient and celebrated city of Hispania (Spain), on the 
Mediterranean, was founded by Hasdrubal in 242 B. C. It 
had an excellent harbor, and became a great commercial 
city of the Carthaginians. It also derived much prosperity 
from its rich silver-mines, in which 40,000 men are said to 
have been employed, In 210 B. C. it was captured by 
Scipio Africanus. Strabo informs us that it was in his time 
a great emporium of exports and imports. It Avas destroyed 
by the Goths before 550 A. D. The site is occupied by 
Cartagena (which see). 

Car'thaminc, a dyestuff obtained from the Carthamus 
tinctoriua, a plant Avhich is a native of India and Egypt, 
and is sometimes called saffron or safflower. This is the 
plant used in domestic medicine and known as saffron, but 
it is very different from the true saffron, or Crocus sativus. 
It is used to dye cotton and silk, to Avhich it imparts a 
beautiful red color which is not very permanent. 

Cartlui'sians [Lat. Carthusiani; Fr. Chartreux (fem. 
sing. Chartreuse )], a monastic order founded in France by 
Saint Bruno in 1086. It Avas sanctioned by the pope in 1170, 
and Avas propagated in England and Italy. The monas¬ 
teries of these monks in England were called Charter¬ 
houses, a corruption of the French Chartreuse. Their rules 
require them to perform manual labor, to abstain from eat¬ 
ing flesh, and to observe ascetic practices, among which is 
a voav of continual silence. They built near Grenoble a 
magnificent convent called La Grande Chartreuse. Their 
houses are feAv at present. The Carthusian nuns Avere dis¬ 
persed during the French Revolution. They have been 
restored, but are very feAv in number. 

Cartier (Sir George Etienne), Bart., an eminent Ca¬ 
nadian statesman, a descendant of the following, Avas born 
Sept. 6, 1814. He became distinguished as the leader of 
the French Canadian conservatives, and was the author of 
many legal and political reforms. Hied May 20, 1873. 

Cartier (Jacques), a French navigator, born at St. 
Malo Dec. 31, 1494. He discovered the river St. LaAvrence 
in 1534, and ascended it as far as the site of Montreal. He 
returned to France in 1536. Died about 1554. 

Cartilage [Lat. cartihigo] is a firm, opaque, highly 
elastic substance of a pearly white or bluish-white color 
(rarely yellow), presenting to the eye a homogeneous ap¬ 
pearance, but in reality composed of cells (corpuscles) a- ari- 
ously combined with a fibrous, granular, or structureless in¬ 
tercellular substance. Cartilages may be classified as the 
temporary, the permanent, and the accidental. The tem¬ 
porary cartilages are substitutes for bone in the earlier 
periods of life, and after a time become ossified. At birth 
the extremities and larger eminences of the long hones and 
the margins of the flat bones are still cartilaginous, and 
this cartilage does not altogether disappear till puberty. 
Permanent cartilages are articular or non-articular. Artic¬ 
ular cartilages are attached to the extremities of bones and 
enter into the formation of joints. Non-articular cartilages 
are usually more flexible than the articular. They are some¬ 
times attached to bones to lengthen them out, as, for in¬ 
stance, in the nose and some of the ribs. In other cases 
they form the basis of distinct organs, as the larnyx, the 
Eustachian tubes, the external ear, the trachea, and the 
eyelids. Accidental cartilages are cartilaginous concretions 
Avhich are occasionally found in situations where they do 
not normally occur, and are of little general interest, ex¬ 
cept as the basis of chondromata or cartilage-tumors. 
There is also a substance called fibro-cartilage, composed 
of cartilage mixed with white fibrous tissue. There is 
another substance known as spongy cartilage found in a 
few organs. Osseine (ostein) is frequently but incorrectly 
called bone-cartilage. 

Cartilaginous Fishes, those Avhose skeletons aro 
destitute of true bone. (See Fishes.) 

Cartoogaclia'yo, atoAvnship of Macon co., N. C. Pop. 
480. V 

Cartoon' [Fr. carton ; It. cartone, from the Lat. charta, 
“ paper”*], a term applied in the fine arts to a design draAvn 
on paper for a fresco, oil picture, or a tapestry. The 
cartoon is of the same size as the subsequent work, and is 
sometimes primed or washed with ground-color. The ar¬ 
tist draws the cartoon in order that he may adjust the 

* The French carton and the Italian cartone are properly aug- 
mentatives from carta, “ paper,” and signified originally large, 
coarse, strong paper. 






























CARTRIDGE—CARY. 


801 


drawing and composition of his subject in circumstances 
in which alterations can be made with facility. The draw¬ 
ing is made either in chalk or in distemper. The cartoon 
when finished is transferred to the canvas or plaster, either 
by tracing with a hard point or by pricking with pins, char¬ 
coal in both cases being used. 

The use of cartoons is particularly important in fresco 
paintings, of which only a small portion can be executed 
at a time, because the plaster must be moist when the pig¬ 
ment is applied to it, and it would be impossible to sketch 
the whole design on the plaster in the first instance. There¬ 
fore the cartoon must be traced in compartments so small 
that the artist can finish one before the plaster becomes 
dry. The most famous works of this kind are seven car¬ 
toons of Raphael which are preserved at Hampton Court in 
England. These are a part of a set of twenty-five in num¬ 
ber which were sent to Flanders to be copied in tapestry 
for Pope Leo X. After the fabrication of the tapestry, 
which is said to be extant in Rome, the cartoons lay neg¬ 
lected at Brussels, and many of them were destroyed. The 
seven which were purchased by Rubens for Charles I. of 
England represent the following subjects : 1, Saint Paul 
preaching at Athens ; 2, the death of Ananias ; 3, Elymas 
the sorcerer struck with blindness; 4, Christ delivering 
the keys to Saint Peter; 5, the sacrifice at Lystra; 6, the 
apostles healing the sick in the temple; 7, the miraculous 
draught of fishes. These have been engraved by Dorigny 
and Audran. When the collection of Charles I. was sold 
these cartoons were purchased for the nation by Cromwell’s 
special command. 

Cartridge, a case containing the proper quantity of 
powder or ammunition required to charge a gun or firearm. 
Cartridges for muskets are usually paper tubes, each con¬ 
taining a small amount of powder and a leaden ball. These 
are called ball cartridges. The paper used for this purpose 
is strong, and is made into a tube by means of a mandrel. 
Thinner paper is applied to certain parts of the tube, so 
that the powder has two or three thicknesses of paper 
around it, but the ball has only one. Besides this form 
there are several patent cartridges. A cartridge which 
contains powder only is called a blank cartridge. Cartridges 
for cannon or large guns are chiefly made of serge or flan¬ 
nel sewed up in the form of a bag, which, filled with a 
given weight of powder, is tied around the neck and 
strengthened by iron hoops. Cartridges for pistols are 
usually copper cylinders, having at the base the proper 
amount of fulminating powder, which inflames the charge 
of gunpowder upon being struck by the hammer, and these 
cartridges are used in most breech-loading firearms. 

Cart/wright, a twp. of Sangamon co., Ill. Pop. 1851. 

Cartwright (Edmund), an English clergyman, noted 
as the inventor of the power-loom, was born at Marnham 
April 24, 1743. He wrote “ Arminia and Elvira” and 
other poems. In 1785 he exhibited his first power-loom, 
the introduction of which was violently opposed by the 
operatives, who burned a mill containing 500 of his looms. 
In 1809 he received a gift of £10,000 for his invention. 
Died Oct. 30, 1823. 

Cartwright (John), Major, a brother of the preceding, 
was born at Marnham Sept. 28, 1740. He became an offi¬ 
cer in the navy, but he refused to fight against the U. S. 
He gained distinction as an advocate of parliamentary re¬ 
form and as a friend of liberty. Died Sept. 23, 1824. 

Cartwright (Peter), D. D., a Methodist preacher, born 
in Amherst co., Va., Sept. 1, 1785. He labored with great 
success for upwards of sixty years, and is said to have 
preached 18,000 sermons. His labors were chiefly in the 
Mississippi Valley. Died Sept. 25, 1872. 

Cartwright (Samuel A.), M. D., one of the most distin¬ 
guished physicians of the South-west, and who was chief 
surgeon during Andrew Jackson’s campaigns. He was 
born in Virginia in 1793, studied medicine under the cel¬ 
ebrated Dr. Rush, and graduated at the University of 
Pennsylvania. He commenced the practice of his profes¬ 
sion in Huntsville, Ala., but soon moved to Natchez, Miss., 
which became his field of labor for a quarter of a century. 
His numerous contributions to medical science may be 
found scattered through the journals of his day; he re¬ 
ceived valuable medals and prizes on medical topics—for 
he was a vigorous writer—especially for his labors on 
yellow fever, cholera infantum, etc., and a golden testi¬ 
monial from the planters of his own county for his success¬ 
ful treatment of the Asiatic cholera. In 1836 he visited 
Europe, and in 1848 he removed to New Orleans. During 
1862 he was consulted by Mr. Davis how to improve the 
sanitary condition of the Southern troops stationed near 
Port Hudson and Vicksburg. It was while in the dis¬ 
charge of this duty that he contracted the disease of which 
he died. Cartwright’s treatment of haemorrhoids by the 
sulphate of iron was generally adopted in the army; and 


that for prevention of the constitutional symptoms of syph¬ 
ilis was confirmed in the New York Hospital. Of him it 
has been said, “Full of charity and good-will towards all 
men, he fulfilled faithfully his station in all the relations 
of life.” His last days, as all his life had been, were 
passed in doing good. Paul F. Eve. 

Cams (Karl Gustav), a celebrated German physiol¬ 
ogist, was born at Leipsic in 1789. His lectures on com¬ 
parative anatomy, delivered in his native town in 1812, 
attracted great attention, and still more his book on the 
circulation of the blood in insects. It is, however, his 
writings on subjects belonging partly to science, partly to 
art—as, for instance, “Psyche”—which have gathered a 
brilliant circle of the greatest scientists and artists to his 
house in Dresden, where he lives as court-physician. 

Car'ver, a county in S. E. Central Minnesota. Area, 
375 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the Min¬ 
nesota River, and is also drained by the South Fork of the 
Crow River. The surface is undulating and the soil is fer¬ 
tile. Wheat, corn, wool, and oats are extensively raised. 
It contains several small lakes. Cap., Chaska. P. 11,586. 

Carver, a post-township of Plymouth co., Mass. Iron 
ore is here obtained, and castings extensively manufactured. 
Pop. 1092. 

Carver, a post-township of Carver co., Minn., on the 
N. Pacific and the Hastings and Dakota R. Rs., and on tl\e 
Minnesota River, 25 miles S. W. of Minneapolis. P. 521. 

Carver (John), a native of England, came in the May¬ 
flower to America in 1620, and was elected first governor 
of the Plymouth Colony. Died in 1621. 

Carver (Jonathan), an American traveller, born in 
Connecticut in 1732. He made an exploring expedition 
across North America to the Pacific Ocean in 1766-68, and 
published “Travels through the Interior Parts of North 
America.” Died in London in 1780. 

Carver’s Creek, a twp. of Bladen co., N. C. P. 996. 

Carver’sCreek, a twp.of Cumberland co., N. C. P. 1391. 

Carvin-Epinoy, a town of France, in the department 
of Pas-de-Calais, is on a railway 11 miles S. S. W. of Lille. 
It has manufactures of beet-root sugar, starch, and earthen¬ 
ware. Pop. 6546. 

Car'ving, a branch of sculpture, performed on metals, 
bone, stone, wood, and ivory. It is a branch of sculpture, 
but the latter term more especiall}' denotes the construction 
of independent figures of men and animals, while carving 
represents designs of all kinds on the surface of various 
objects, such as furniture, doors, walls, goblets, crucifixes, 
etc. Ivory was the favorite material in the East from an 
early period. During the palmy days of Grecian art ivory 
was largely employed. The earliest statues of the gods 
were generally of wood, different kinds of wood being ap¬ 
propriated to different divinities. Carvings in ivory form 
an important branch of early Christian sculptui’e. During 
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries w r e find ivory 
again extensively employed. Ornamental carving is now 
executed on a large scale by various machines. (See Wood 
Carving, by Pres. A. D. White, LL.D.) 

Ca'ry (Alice), a talented poet and prose-writer, born 
April 26, 1820, 8 miles from Cincinnati, O., was the daugh¬ 
ter of one of the first settlers of Cincinnati. Her family 
was of New England origin, and her parents were persons 
of cultivation and in good circumstances, but, as they lived 
in a newly-settled country, the daughters had but imper¬ 
fect school advantages. When eighteen years of age she 
commenced writing for the press, both in prose and verse. 
Her sketches, signed “ Patty Lee,” in the “National Era,” at¬ 
tracted much attention. In 1850, with her sister Phoebe, no¬ 
ticed below, she published a successful volume of poems. In 
1851 the first series of her “ Clovernook Papers” appeared. 
In 1852 the two sisters removed to New York and devoted 
themselves to literature. In this they were successful, for, 
without becoming wealthy, they were able to maintain a 
pleasant and comfortable home, made not less pleasant by 
the genial hospitality and good taste which distinguished its 
owners—a hospitality which was highly prized by all who 
had the good fortune to share it. Among her earliest and 
most constant friends was the late Hon. Horace Greeley. A 
place at the tea-table of the Cary sisters was always re¬ 
served for him, and he was one of their most frequent and 
welcome guests. Their Sunday evening receptions were 
for years the resort of members of the guild of letters, both 
authors and publishers making it a place of pleasant 
social intercourse. Besides several volumes of poetry and 
a great number of contributions to periodical literature, she 
published two additional series of “Clovernook (18o3- 
54), “Hagar, a Story of To-day” (1852), “Married not 
Mated” (1856), “Pictures of Country Life” (18o7), ‘ 4 he 
Lover’s Diary” (1867), “ Snowbcrries ” (1869), and several 











802 


CARY—CASAREEP. 




other works. Her poetical style is graceful and of a high 
order of merit. Her prose is perhaps even better than her 
verse. She delighted in the description of simple domestic 
scenes, which she presented with much felicity. She was 
an untiring worker, though many years of her life were 
passed in great suffering, which she endured with remark¬ 
able patience. She died at New York Feb. 12, 1871. 

Cary (Col. Archibald), an American patriot, born in 
Virginia about 1730, took an active part in the convention 
of 1776 which framed the constitution of Virginia, and 
was afterwards a member of the Senate. Died in Sept., 
1786. 

Cary (Rev. Henry Francis), an English poet, born at 
Birmingham in 1772, was educated at Oxford. He became 
in 1797 vicar of Bromley Abbots. His reputation is 
founded on an admirable translation of Dante’s “Divina 
Commedia” (1814), which is very accurate and expressive, 
and is generally considered the best translation of that 
celebrated poem. He was for some years assistant librarian 
of the British Museum. Died Aug. 14, 1844. 

Cary (Phcebe), a younger sister of Alice Cary, noticed 
above, was born near Cincinnati, 0., Sept. 4, 1824. One 
of her earliest productions, written at the age of seventeen, 
was the well-known poem commencing “ One sweetly solemn 
thought comes to me o’er and o’er.” Of the first volume 
of poems published by the two sisters, her share was much 
the smaller in bulk, though in the opinion of many critics 
her poetry was in no way inferior to that of her sister, 
being characterized by more variety, spirit, and humor 
than that of Alice. She published “ Poems and Parodies ” 
(1854), “ Poems of Faith, Hope, and Love” (1868), besides 
numerous hymns and occasional contributions to period¬ 
icals. Phoebe Cary was remarkable for genial and ready 
wit in conversation. She did not long survive the death 
of Alice. Worn out by anxiety during her sister’s long ill¬ 
ness, and overwhelmed by grief after her death, her system 
was unable to throw otf an attack of malarial fever, of which 
she died at Newport, R. I., July 31, 1871. The sisters were 
buried in Greenwood Cemetery, where a beautiful monu¬ 
ment has been erected to their memory at a cost of about 
$1000, Mr. Greeley heading the subscription for the pur¬ 
pose. (See “Alice and Phoebe Cary,” by Mary Clemmer 
Ames, 1873.) 

Caryat'ides [Gr. KapvtmSes], the Latin plu. of Caryatis, 



Caryatides, from the Erechtheum at Athens. 


i. e. a woman of Caryae (a city of Laconia), or a virgin 


dedicated to the service of tho Caryan Diana. The term 
is applied in Greek architecture to female figures which 
were used instead of columns to support a roof or entabla¬ 
ture. They were usually dressed in long robes. The cor¬ 
responding male figures are called Atlantes and Telamones. 

Cary'ocar, a genus of large trees of tho order Rhizo- 
bolacese, which comprises but few other genera. They are 
natives of Brazil and Guiana, and are sometimes called 
pekea trees and butter trees. The fruit is a drupe or nut 
which has a soft, edible, and delicious kernel, and is known 
by the names of butter-nut and souari-nut. The drupe 
contains, besides the kernel, a pulp which is like butter, 
and is used in cookery as a substitute for it. Oil of good 
quality is obtained from the kernels. The timber of the 
carvocar is good for shipbuilding. The Caryocar nucifera 
is cultivated in the island of St. Vincent. 

Caryophylla'cese [from the specific name of the carna¬ 
tion ( Dianthus Caryophyllus)], a natural order of exogen¬ 
ous plants, mostly herbaceous and natives of temperate and 
cold countries. They have opposite, entire leaves, often 
united at the base, regular flowers, and stems usually swol¬ 
len at the articulations. The fruit is a 1-celled capsule or 
pod. The order comprises nearly 1000 species, some of 
which have beautiful flowers, as the pink {Dianthus). 
Among the other genera are the Silene, Lychnis , Arenaria, 
Stellaria (chickweed), and Saponaria (soapwort), which is 
said to be a substitute for soap. 

Caryop'sis [from the Gr. napvov, a “nut,” and oi/u?, 
“ appearance ”], in botany, a fruit in which the seed and 
pericarp are so closely united as to be inseparable and un- 
distinguishable. The fruit or grain of wheat, barley, maize, 
and other graminaceous plants is a caryopsis. It is a 
1-celled, 1-seeded, and indchiscent pericarp. 

Caryo'ta, a genus of palm, sometimes called the jag¬ 
gery-palm or sugar-palm, growing in India and Ceylon. 
Caryota urens, a lofty, spreading tree, yields a large amount 
of fermentable juice (toddy) when its spathes are incised; 
this is boiled down to produce sugar. Its farinaceous pith 
resembles sago, and its fibres are used for making ropes. 

The quantity of sugar produced in India from this and 
a few other palm trees is very great, but the quality is in¬ 
ferior. The cultivation of the jaggery-palm is entirely in 
the hands of a caste, or sub-caste, of Soodras, who devote 
their whole labor to this crop. The genus Caryota is botani- 
cally very distinct from all other known palms. 

Ca'rysfort Reef, a dangerous coral-reef at the edge 
of the Gulf Stream, near the S. point of Florida, lat. 25° 
13' 15" N., Ion. 80° 12' 45" W., has an iron-pile lighthouse 
112 feet high, with a flashing light of the first order 106 
feet above the sea. 

Ca'ryville, a village of Oakfield township, Genesee co., 
N. Y., is the seat of Cary Collegiate Institute (Episco¬ 
palian). 

Ca'sa, an Italian and Spanish word signifying a 
“ house,” a “ home,” a “ family,” and forming a part of 
many Italian and Spanish names. 

Casacalen'da, a town of Italy, in the province of 
Campobasso, is about 18 miles N. E. of Campobasso. It 
has three churches aud a convent. Silk and wine of good 
quality are produced in this vicinity. Pop. 6000. 

Casa'le, a fortified town of Italy, in the province of 
Alessandria, is on the river Po, 37 miles E. of Turin. It 
has an iron bridge across the river, an old castle, and a 
cathedral founded in 1474 ; also several convents, a college, 
a public library, a theatre, and two hospitals. Here are 
manufactures of silk twist. Casale is the seat of a bishop¬ 
ric, and was formerly the capital of the duchy of Mont- 
ferrat. Many Roman remains are found here. Pop. in 
1871, 27,514. 

Casal' Pusterlen'go, a town of Italy, in the prov¬ 
ince of Milano, on the Brembolo, 29 miles S. E. of Milan. 
It has manufactures of silk and linen and earthenware, and 
a trade in Parmesan cheese, which is made here. Pop. 
5437. 

Casamas'sima, a town of Italy, in the province of 
Bari, 12 miles S. E. of Bari. It has a convent and two 
abbeys. Pop. 5941. 

Casano'va de Seingalt/ (Giovanni Giacomo), a cele¬ 
brated Italian adventurer, born at Venice April 2, 1725. 
He travelled extensively, passed his life successively in 
many European capitals, and mixed with aristocratic so¬ 
ciety. He fought several duels, and was confined in the 
dungeons of Venice for nearly two years. About 1790 he 
became librarian to Count Waldstein in Bohemia. He is 
said to have been witty, dissipated, and greatly addicted to 
intrigues. Died June 4, 1798. He left entertaining auto¬ 
biographic memoirs, which were published in 1822. 

Cas'areep', Cassareep, or Casaripe, a sauce or 
























































































































































































































































































































































































CASAS, DE LAS—CASEINE. 803 


condiment made of the juice of the bitter cassava or manioc 
root. It is highly esteemed in Guiana, where it is em¬ 
ployed to flavor nearly every dish. It is the basis of the 
West Indian pepper-pot, and is imported into Great Britain. 
It is a powerful antiseptic, by means of which meat can be 
kept fresh for a long time. The fresh juice is poisonous, 
but its noxious properties are removed by cooking. 

Ca'sas, (le las (Bartolome), a benevolent Spanish 
Dominican missionary, born at Seville in 1474. He ac¬ 
companied Nicolas d’Ovando, governor of San Domingo, 
to America in 1502, and preached the gospel in Hispaniola. 
His sympathies were excited by the cruelty with which he 
found that the Indians were treated, and he directed un¬ 
tiring efforts to the improvement of their condition, inter¬ 
ceding with the governor, Velasquez, and the emperor a 
C harles V. The statement that he suggested the introduc¬ 
tion of African slaves is not now accepted. After he had 
officiated as bishop of Chiapa in Mexico, he returned to 
Spain in 1551. Died July, 1566. (See Arthur Helps, 
“Life of Las Casas,” 1868.) 

Casaubon (Isaac), an eminent Protestant scholar and 
critic, born of French parents at Geneva Feb. 18, 1559. 
He was appointed professor of Greek at Geneva in 1582, 
and married, about the year 1585, Florence, a daughter of 
the well-known Henri Etienne (or Stephanus). He dis¬ 
played great critical sagacity and learning in editions of 
classical authors, including Athenaeus, Polybius, and Aris¬ 
totle. In 1599 he removed to Paris, where he taught Greek, 
and was made royal librarian by Henry IV. Among his 
works is a treatise on religious liberty, “ De Libertate Ec- 
clesiastica ” (1607). Having emigrated to England in 
1610, he was appointed prebendary of Canterbury by 
James I. Died July 1, 1614. (See C. Nisard, “ Le Tri¬ 
umvirate litteraire, Juste Lipse, Scaliger, et Casaubon,” 
1851.) ✓ 

Cascade, a post-township of Dubuque co., Ia. Pop. 
1289. 

Cascade, a post-township of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 
1157. 

Cascade, a post-township of Olmsted co., Minn. Pop. 
812. 

Cascade, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 595. 

Cascade Range, a chain of mountains in Oregon and 
Washington Territory, is nearly parallel with the coast of the 
Pacific Ocean, and is a continuation of the Sierra Nevada 
of California. The direction of the range is nearly N. and S. 
Its distance from the sea-coast is in Oregon about 120 miles. 
The Columbia River breaks through this range, forming 
the cascades from which the name is derived. Among the 
highest summits of this range are Mount Hood, which rises 
about 14,000 feet above the sea, and Mount Jefferson, both 
in Oregon. Some of the peaks are volcanic, as Mount St. 
Helen, about 12,000 feet high. 

Cascades, a post-village, capital of Skamania co., 
Washington Territory, on the N. bank of the Columbia 
River, about 50 miles W. of Dalles City. 

Cascaril'la [diminutive of cdscara, the Spanish word 
for “ bark ”], a name given in South America to different 
kinds of bitter medicinal barks, including Peruvian bark. 
European and American physicians and apothecaries ap¬ 
ply the term to the bark of the Croton Elentherici, a small 
West Indian tree. This bark is imported into Europe and 
the U. S., and is used in medicine as a stimulant tonic. 

Cas'co, a post-township of Cumberland co., Me. It 
has manufactures of canned goods, leather, lumber, stareh, 
etc. Pop. 998. 

Casco, a township of Allegan co., Mich. Pop. 1264. 

Casco, a post-township of St. Clair co., Mich. Pop. 
1991. 

Casco, a post-township of Kewaunee co., Wis. Pop. 
794. 

Cas'co Bay, in Maine, washes the shore of Cumber¬ 
land county, and is about 20 miles long. The city of Port¬ 
land is at the western extremity of this bay, which encloses 
about 300 islands. 

Case [Fr. cas ; Lat. casus, a “ fall,” an “ accident,” a 
“casualty,” from cado, casum, to “fall”], a term used in 
various senses, signifies an event; a condition in which a 
person is placed; the state of the body with respect to health 
or disease ; a predicament; a situation or contingency ; in 
grammar, the inflection of nouns or a change of termina¬ 
tion ; in law, a cause or a suit in a court. A wooden box 
in which dry goods and hardware are packed is called a 
case. To be in good case signifies “ to be fat.” Case, in 
printing, is a receptacle for types; this is divided into com¬ 
partments, each of which contains the types of but one 
letter. Commonly there is an upper and a lower case; the 


upper holding the capitals, small capitals, and sorts little 
used; the lower, the small letters, points, figures, etc. 

Case, in law, is used in a number of significations. 
(1) It indicates a form of action, called “an action on the 
case.” This action did not exist in the early English law, 
but was introduced by a statute of the reign of Edward I. 
(Westminster 2d). It is founded on the peculiar circum¬ 
stances of the case, and supplies a remedy for such wrongs 
as cannot be included under the term “ tresjiass,” and 
which are in their nature indirect and consequential. It 
applies to such wrongs either committed against one’s per¬ 
son or property, whether real or personal. The action is 
sometimes called “ trespass on the case,” and at other 
times simply “ case.” Out of this action grew the modern 
action of “assumpsit,” which is really instituted to re¬ 
cover damages for breach of contract. (2) It sometimes 
means a suit or action in court. Thus, in the U. S. Con¬ 
stitution it is said that the judicial power of the Federal 
courts shall extend to all cases in law and equity. The 
meaning of the word has been settled by adjudication, as 
shown in approved treatises on the Constitution. (3) 
Another sense is a written or printed statement of facts for 
the opinion of counsel or for the decision of a court with¬ 
out regular trial. The question then to be decided is a 
question of law, and the facts are sometimes presented by 
agreement, and at other times through the formal interven¬ 
tion of a jury. This is frequently called a “ case stated.” 
(4) In legal practice the word is used to denote the mode 
of presenting the facts which occurred at a trial to an ap¬ 
pellate court for review. If the respective parties fail to 
agree on a statement of facts, the court before which the 
trial occurred passes definitively upon them in a prescribed 
manner, and is thereupon said to “settle” the case. 

Case (Augustus Ludlow), U. S. N., born Feb. 3, 1831, 
in Newburg, N. Y., entered the navy as a midshipman 
April 1, 1828, became a passed midshipman in 1834, a lieu¬ 
tenant in 1838, a commander in 1855, a captain in 1863, a 
commodore in 1867, and a rear-admiral in 1872. He served 
on the E. coast of Mexico during the Mexican war, par¬ 
ticipating in the capture of Vera Cruz and Tobasco. Early 
in 1861, Commander Case was appointed fleet-captain of 
the North Atlantic blockading squadron, in which capacity 
he took part in the capture of Forts Hatteras and Clarke, 
Aug. 29, 1861, and in the operations in the sounds of North 
Carolina in the winter of 1862. In 1863, in command of 
the Iroquois, and assisted by the steamers James Adger 
and Mount Vernon, he cut out the blockade-runner Kate, 
under the fire of the forts and batteries at New Inlet, N. C. 
Referring to the capture of Forts Hatteras and Clarke, Flag- 
officer Stringham, in his official report of Sept. 2, 1861, 
writes: “I here take the opportunity of mentioning with 
great pleasure the name of Commander A. Ludlow Case, 
my fleet-captain, for very prompt and efficient services 
during all the time we have been occupied in the expe¬ 
dition so successfully terminated.” And Flag-officer Golds- 
borough, in a letter to the navy department dated Feb. 18, 
1862, says: “ It is really difficult for me to state, in ade¬ 
quate terms, how largely I feel myself indebted to Com¬ 
manders Rowan and Case for their constant and signal 
services. They, hand in hand, with their marked ability 
and sound sense, and in the absence of all ordinary facil¬ 
ities, brought about, at Hampton Roads, the arming, man¬ 
ning, and equipment of the many vessels sent to us, from 
necessity, in an unprepared condition; and subsequently 
they both labored, most conspicuously and faithfully, in 
their respective spheres of action, to vanquish difficulties 
... at Roanoke. In short, their assistance has been in¬ 
valuable to me.” He was chief of the bureau of ordnance 
from Aug., 1869, to May, 1873; in June, 1873, he was ap¬ 
pointed to the command of the European squadron. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Case-hardening is forming a covering of steel on the 
surfaces of gun-locks, tools, the upper surface of railroad 
iron, grates, fenders, etc. The articles are first heated to 
redness, sprinkled with yellow prussiate of potash, and 
heated again. The heat decomposes the prussiate of pot¬ 
ash, and the liberated carbon combines Avith the iron, form¬ 
ing a coating of steel on the surface. Another mode is to 
surround the articles with a layer of animal matter, such 
as powder from charred hoofs or waste leather, with a little 
common salt, and heat them in an iron case to redness, re¬ 
taining them at that temperature for half an hour or more; 
the articles are then taken out and cooled in cold water or 
in oil. The coating of steel is very thin, seldom exceed¬ 
ing one-sixteenth of an inch. The steel covering makes 
the articles more durable, and admits of a better polish. 

Ca'scine [from the Lat. caseus, “ cheese ”], a nitrogen¬ 
ous organic substance allied to albumen, found in milk, 
and most abundantly in that of flesh-eating animals, it, 
is said to be occasionally found in the fluid ot cysts. It is 













804 CASEMATE-CASHMERE. 


also found (as legumine, and probably as amandine, both 
being regarded as identical with it) in peas, beans, almonds, 
and other seeds. Vegetable and animal caseines behave 
exactly alike with chemical tests, and when pure cannot 
be distinguished by the taste. The proportion in cow’s milk 
is about 4 per cent.; in dried peas, 25 per cent. Caseine 
is coagulated (curdled) by acids or by rennet, and is the 
chief constituent of Cheese (which see). It also forms in¬ 
soluble precipitates with corrosive sublimate, with nitrate 
of silver, and with acetate of lead. Hence, copious draughts 
of milk atford a ready antidote in cases of poisoning with 
either of the above salts. Caseine is also used in calico- 
printing. The probable proportions of the constituent ele¬ 
ments of caseine in 100 parts have been given as follows : 
carbon, 53.83 parts; oxygen, 22.52; nitrogen, 15.65; hy¬ 
drogen, 7.15; sulphur, 0.85, with perhaps a little phos¬ 
phorus ; but its composition is not exactly known. 

Charles W. Greene. 

Casemate [from the Sp. casa, ‘‘house,” and matar, “to 
kill ”] was originally a loopholed gallery excavated in a 
bastion, from which the garrison could fire on an enemy 
who had obtained possession of the ditch. The term was 
afterwards applied to a bomb-proof vault in a fortress, 
which is designed for the protection of the garrison, and is 
sometimes used as a barrack or hospital. A casemated bat¬ 
tery consists of such a vault or vaults, with openings for 
the guns, called “embrasures” or ports. The term case¬ 
mate is also applied to the part of an iron-clad vessel 
armored to protect broadside guns. 

Casement, a portion of a window-sash made to open 
or turn on hinges; a frame with hinges enclosing part of 
the glazing of a window. Such windows are very common 
on the continent of Europe. The term is also applied to a 
deep, hollow circular moulding, similar to the scotia of clas¬ 
sical and the cavetto of Italian architecture. 

Caseno'via, a township of Muskegon co., Mich. Pop. 
1094. 

Caserta. See Terra di Lavoro. 

Caser'ta, a town of Italy, capital of Terra di Lavoro, 
is situated on a plain about 21 miles by rail N. E. of Naples. 
It has, besides numerous churches and a military school, a 
magnificent royal palace, which was built by Vanvitelli 
about 1755, and is one of the largest in Europe. Con¬ 
nected with the palace is a fine park and an aqueduct. 
Here is a royal silk-factory, in which about 700 persons 
are employed. Pop. in 1871, 29,142. 

Case-Shot [Fr. mitraille; Ger. Kartatschenschitss (t. e. 
“cartridge-shot”)] is the name of a projectile, consisting 
of several balls or bullets of lead or iron packed in a case. 
When the case is a cylinder of tin with a wooden bottom, 
the whole is called cylindrical-case or canister. The num¬ 
ber of shot in each canister varies from 40 to 126. Some 
armies use canister with an explosive charge in the centre, 
but more commonly it has no such charge. When the balls 
are affixed to a central spindle without a case, or enclosed 
in a canvas bag, they are called grape-shot. This is espe¬ 
cially used in garrison-artillery. Against advancing lines 
the effect of grape and canister at close range is often ter¬ 
rible, but solid shot and shell are preferred against columns. 
Spherical-case or shrapnel (so named from its inventor) is 
a thin cast-iron shell, containing a chamber with a light or 
bursting charge of gunpowder, around which are packed 
bullets of lead or iron. It should burst at least forty yards 
in advance of the enemy. This missile is effective at three 
times the range of canister, but at long distances its effect 
is often lost from lack of precision in the aim or in the cut¬ 
ting of the fuse. 

Caseville, a post-township of Huron co., Mich. P. 382. 

Ca'sey, a county in S. Central Kentucky. Area, 350 
square miles. It is intersected by Green River. The sur¬ 
face is uneven or hilly. Wheat, tobacco, and corn are the 
chief crops; cattle and wool are also raised. Capital, Lib¬ 
erty. Pop. 8884. 

Casey, a post-village of Cumberland township, Clark 
co., Ill., on the St. Louis Vandalia Terre Haute and Indian¬ 
apolis R. R., 18 miles W. S. W. of Marshall. It has one 
weekly newspaper. 

Casey, a post-village of Thompson township, Guthrie 
co., Ia., on the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R., 82 
miles E. by N. of Council Bluffs. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. 

Casey (Silas), an American officer, born July 12, 1807, 
at East Greenwich, R. I., graduated at West Point 1826, 
and Oct. 9, 1861, became colonel Fourth Infantry, and May 
31, 1862, major-general U. S. volunteers. He served on 
western and northern frontiers 1826-36, in Florida war 
1837-41, engaged at Pilaklikaka, on northern frontier 1842- 
47, in war with Mexico 1847-48, engaged at Contreras and 


Churubusco (brevet major), Molino del Rey, and Chapul- 
tepec (wounded in leading assault, and brevet lieutenant- 
colonel), on the Pacific frontier 1848-54, on tactical and 
arms boards 1854-55, and at Puget Sound post 1856-61, 
engaged in several Indian skirmishes. During the civil war 
he served in preparing volunteers for the field at AVashing- 
ton, D. C., 1861-62, in the Virginia peninsula 1862, engaged 
at Fair Oaks (brevet brigadier-general), as president of 
board for examination of officers of colored troops 1863-65, 
in command at Detroit, Mich., 1865-67, and commissioner 
to examine war-claims of Ohio. Brevet major-general 
U. S. A. Mar. 31, 1866, for gallant and meritorious services. 
Compiled and edited a system of “ Infantry Tactics ” for 
the U. S. service 1862, and “ Infantry Tactics for Colored 
Troops,” 1863, and was retired from active service July 8, 
1868. George AY. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Casey (Silas, Jr.), U. S. N., born Sept. 11, 1841, in 
Rhode Island, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1860, 
became a master in 1861, a lieutenant in 1862, a lieutenant- 
commander in 1866. In 1861 he was attached to the steamer 
Wissahickon, South Atlantic blockading squadron, and 
participated in the first attack on Fort Sumter, and in 
various engagements with the forts and batteries in 
Charleston harbor. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Ca'seyville, a post-village of St. Clair co., Ill., on the 
Ohio and Mississippi R. R., 9 miles E. of St. Louis. Coal 
is here extensively mined. 

Caseyville, a post-village of Union co., Ivy., on the Ohio 
River, 13 miles below Shawneetown. Pop. 560. 

Cash [Fr, caisse; Ger. A’asse], money ; coin or current 
bank-notes; ready money. It is often used to denote im¬ 
mediate payment, and goods are said to be sold for cash 
when they are not sold on credit. 

Cash-book, a book in which merchants, bankers, and 
others keep an exact and methodical account of each sum 
of money received or paid by them. It is a book of orig¬ 
inal entry. 

Cash'd, a town of Ireland, in the county of Tipperary, 
is 105 miles by railway S. W. of Dublin and 49 miles 
N. N. E. of Cork. It is built on the slopes of an isolated 
limestone hill rising abruptly from a rich plain. Cashel 
was the residence of the kings of Munster, and is now a 
bishop’s see. The top of the hill called the “ Rock of 
Cashel ” is occupied by the most interesting ruins in Ire¬ 
land. These consist of a round tower ninety feet high, the 
palace of the kings of Munster, a chapel of Saxon and Nor¬ 
man architecture, and a cathedral which was founded in 
1169, and is said to have been the largest in the country. 
It was built of limestone. Pop. in 1871, 3976. 

Cash'er’s Val'ley, a post-township of Jackson co., 
N. C. Pop. 509. 

Cashew'-imt ( Anacardium occidentale), a tree of the 
order Anacardiacese, is a native of the tropical parts of 
America, and perhaps of Asia. It abounds in a clammy, 
milky, and acrid juice which turns black on exposure to the 
air, and is used in India as a varnish. The fruit is a kid¬ 
ney-shaped nut attached to the larger end of a pear-shaped, 
fleshy stem, from which the botanical character of the genus 
is derived. The shell, which is double, encloses an oily 
kernel which is very agreeable and wholesome, and is a 
common article of food in tropical countries. The fleshy 
stem, sometimes called the cashew-apple, is also edible and 
refreshing, having an acid taste. In size it is nearly equal 
to an orange. A pleasant vinous beverage is prepared from 
its fermented juice. The oil is used as a remedy for leprosy. 
Cashew is a corruption of the French acajou. 

Cash'gar, the former capital of Chinese Toorkistan, on 
the side of a mountain and on a stream 140 miles N. AAL 
of Yarkund. It is encircled by an earthen wall, and is 
divided into the Chinese and Mohammedan cities, the 
latter much the larger. There is considerable luxury 
among the people, as well as an industrious and skilful 
artisan class, workers in gold and jasper, weavers of silk 
and carpets, and dyers of calico. It has a trade with Bok¬ 
hara, exchanging tea, porcelain, silk, etc. for European 
merchandise. The Chinese acquired dominion over this 
place about eighty years ago, and have here a garrison of 
8000 men. Pop. 40,000 to 50,000. 

Cashier' [Fr. caissier], a cash-keeper, a person who 
has charge of the cash in a bank, counting-house, or other 
place of business. The president and the cashier are the 
highest officers of a bank, and they write their signatures 
on each bank-note. The cashier superintends the books 
and transactions of the bank, under the order of the direc¬ 
tors. 

Cashmere, kash-meer', written also Kaschmir and 
Kachemir (anc. Caspira), a country and valley of North¬ 
ern Hindostan, bordering on Thibet, belongs to the domin- 













CASHMERE 


ion of Gholab Sing, which comprises Baltistan, Cashmere, 
and Loday, the whole of which is sometimes called the 
empire of Cashmere, and has an area of 60,100 square 
miles, and a population of 3,000,000. The valley of Cash- 
mere is surrounded on all sides by lofty mountains (the Him¬ 
alayas). It is mostly included between 33° 30' and 34° 35' 
N., and between 74° 20' and 75° 40' E. Area, estimated at 
5100 square miles. Pop. about 400,000. The bottom of 
the valley is about 5500 feet above the level of the sea. 
Among the highest peaks on the frontier of Cashmere is 
the Pir Panjal, which rises about 15,000 feet above the 
level of the sea. The mountains are partly of basaltic 
formation, and limestone is abundant in the valley. The 
mountain-barrier is indented by several passes, none of 
which are practicable for wheel-carriages. The chief river 
is the Jhylum, which rises in the S. E. part, traverses the 
middle of the valley, and flows out through the Baramoola 
Pass. Cashmere may be said to equal or surpass almost 
every other portion of the earth in the beauty of its scenery. 
Cashmere contains several lakes, and is admirably supplied 
with the means of irrigation. The soil is mostly alluvial 
and exceedingly fertile. The staple production is rice, be¬ 
sides which wheat, maize, and barley are cultivated here. 
This valley is renowned for the abundance and fine quality 
of its fruits—apples, pears, apricots, cherries, etc. Among 
the forest trees is the deodar (Cedras Deodara ), the pine, 
and the walnut. The inhabitants are mostly Mohammedans. 
In physical qualities they excel the natives of the other 
parts of Hindostan. They manufacture shawls which are 
widely celebrated and bring high prices. The material of 
these is the wool of the Cashmere Goat (which see). The 
Cashmerians are excellent lapidaries, and are noted for the 
fabrication of firearms. Chief town, Serinagur or Cashmere. 

Cashmere was conquered by the emperor Akbar in 1586, 
and annexed to the Mogul empire. The Afghans became 
masters of it in 1752, and held it until 1819, when it was 
subjugated by the Sikhs. In 1849 it was ceded to the 
British, who transferred it to Gholab Sing. 

Revised by A. J. Sciiem. 

Cashmere Goat, a variety of the goat remarkable for 
its long, fine, and silky hair, from which Cashmere shawls 
are made. This goat is found in Thibet, from which the 
finest hair is imported into Cashmere, to be there manu¬ 
factured. The hair is longer than that of the Angora goat, 
and not, like it, curled, but straight, and about eighteen 
inches long. A single goat does not yield more than three 
ounces, and the fleeces of ten goats are requisite for a shawl 
a yard and a half square. The hair is spun by women, and 
dyed after it is spun. Some 16,000 looms are in constant 
employment in Cashmere, producing annually about 30,000 
shawls. Woven in rude looms, a pair of shawls sometimes 
occupy three or four men a year in weaving. Plain shawls 
are simply woven, but those with varied patterns are worked 
with wooden needles. These shawls are in the highest re¬ 
quest, but the hair of other breeds of goats is employed for 
the manufacture of shawls called by the same name. Im¬ 
itations are manufactured in France, some from the Thibet 
wool, and others of a mixture of this with silk and cotton. 

Attempts have been made to introduce the Cashmere 
goat into Europe and America. In Northern South Caro¬ 
lina and the neighboring regions it thrives well, as also in 
California. A mixed race, produced by crossing the Cash- 
mere and the Angora goat, possesses valuable qualities, the 
hair being long, fine, and more abundant than in the parent 
breeds. 

Cas'linir III., surnamed the Great, king of Poland, 
born in 1309, was a son of Ladislaus, king of Poland, 
whom he succeeded in 1333. He enlarged his dominions 
by the conquest of Red Russia about 1366, and repelled the 
aggressions of the Tartars. He promoted education and 
founded colleges and hospitals. He died Nov. 8, 1370, 
and was succeeded by his nephew, Louis of Hungary. 

Casimir IV., son of the prince Jagello of Lithuania, 
born Nov. 29, 1427, was in 1444 elected king of Poland. 
He carried on, for nearly twenty years, a war with the 
Teutonic Order, which in the peace of Thorn (1466) had to 
cede West Prussia to Poland; and by convoking in 1468 
the nobility became founder of the Polish constitution. 
Died June 7, 1492. 

Casi'no [diminutive of Italian ca*a, a "house”] signi¬ 
fies a place for social reunions. Italian nobles have long 
had casinos detached from their palaces, and public casinos 
were the result of an attempt made by the middle classes 
to imitate them. A casino is generally a place where 
musical or dancing soirees are held, containing a conver¬ 
sation-room and rooms for amusement, as well as apart¬ 
ments where refreshments may be had. They are numer¬ 
ous in Italy and Germany, and have been introduced into 
England. In general, they are not believed to exert a 
good moral influence. 


GOAT—CASS. 805 


Casi'no, or Mon/te Casi'no, a mountain of Italy, 
in Terra di Lavoro, about 55 miles N. N. W. of Naples! 
It is close to the town of San Germano, and is the site of a 
celebrated Benedictine abbey founded in 529 A. D. by 
Saint Benedict. This abbey is remarkable for its archi¬ 
tecture, its wealth, its library, and the learning of its 
monks. Several valuable works have been issued from the 
press of Monte Casino. 

Cask’s, a township of Talladega co., Ala. Pop. 737. 

Caso'ria, a town of Italy, in the province of Napoli, 
6 miles N. N. E. of Naples. It has four fine churches. 
Silk is produced in this vicinity. Pop. 6934. 

Cas'pe, a town of Spain, in Aragon, province of Sara¬ 
gossa, is situated near the river Ebro, 53 miles S. E. of 
Saragossa. It has three churches, a town-hall, and man¬ 
ufactures of oil and soap. Pop. 9402. 

Cas'per, a township of Union co., Ill. Pop. 2718. 

Cas'pian Sea [Lat. Mare Caspium, or Mare Hyrca- 
nium; Gr. Kaania ®a\acraa], a large inland sea forming 
part of the boundary between Europe and Asia. It has on 
the N. European Russia, on the E. the Khirgeez steppe, or 
Toorkomania, on the S. Persia, and on the W. Persia and 
Georgia. It is about 690 miles long from N. to S., and has 
an average width of near 200 miles. The area is esti¬ 
mated by Berghaus at 156,800 square miles. The depth 
of water towards the S. is said to be 3000 feet, but 
towards the N. it is generally shallow, seldom being more 
than 3 feet deep at a distance of 100 yards from the shore. 
According to some authorities, the greatest depth is only 
600 feet. The depression of the surface of the Caspian be¬ 
low that of the Black Sea is about eighty-four feet. The 
Caspian receives several large rivers—viz. the Volga, the 
Ural, and the Koor. It has no outlet, and its superfluous 
water can only escape by evaporation. Between the Cas¬ 
pian and the Sea of Aral is a low flat tract forming part 
of the steppes of Western Asia. This tract, which is said 
to be lower than the surface of the Atlantic Ocean, was 
probably once covered by the Caspian Sea. This region 
is considered one of the most interesting subjects in the 
physical geography of the globe. That the Caspian and 
the Sea of Aral were once connected is rendered evident 
by the nature of the rocks in the vast plains which extend 
from them in several directions. Great numbers of Stur¬ 
geons and salmon are caught in this sea, in which various 
other kinds of fish are also abundant. A communication 
has been opened between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic 
by a canal which connects the Volga with the rivers 
Tvertza and Schlina. Steam-packets navigate the Caspian, 
the commerce of which is mostly in the hands of the Rus¬ 
sians. The chief ports on its coasts are Astrakhan and 
Derbend. 

Cass, a county-in W. Central Illinois. Area, 350 square 
miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the Illinois River 
and on the N. by the Sangamon. The surface is nearly 
level; the soil is very fertile. Corn, oats, wool, and live¬ 
stock are largely raised. It is intersected by the Peoria 
Pekin and Jacksonville and the Rockford Rock Island 
and St. Louis R. Rs. Capital, Beardstown. Pop. 11,580. 

Cass, a county in N. Central Indiana. Area, 420 
square miles. It is intersected by the Wabash River, and 
also drained by the Eel River. The surface is nearly level; 
the soil is fertile. Grain, wool, and dairy products are ex¬ 
tensively raised. Iron ore and good building-stone are 
found here. The most numerous manufactories are of 
cooperage. The county is traversed by the Toledo Wa¬ 
bash and Western R. R., and by a railroad which connects 
Chicago with Cincinnati. Capital, Logansport. Pop. 24,193. 

Cass, a county in S. W. Iowa. Ai'ea, 576 square miles. 
It is intersected by the East Nishnabatona River, and also 
drained by Turkey and other creeks. The surface is un¬ 
dulating ; the soil is fertile. Grain and dairy products are 
staple crops. It is traversed by the railroad which con¬ 
nects Des Moines with Council Bluffs. Capital, Lewis. 
Pop. 5464. 

Cass, a county of Michigan, bordering on Indiana. 
Area, 528 square miles. It is drained by the Dowagiac 
River, and contains several small lakes. The surface is 
nearly level; the soil is very fertile. Grain, cattle, and 
wool are largely produced. The county has extensive 
prairies and "oak openings.” Lumber, wagons, etc. are 
manufactured. It is intersected by the Central and Penin¬ 
sular R. Rs. Capital, Cassopolis. Pop. 21,094. 

Cass, a large county in N. Central Minnesota. A largo 
part of its boundary is formed by the Mississippi River, 
which rises on its north-western border. It contains 
numerous lakes, among which are Leech and Itasca Lakes. 
The surface is partly covered with forests. Pop. 380. 

Cass, a county of Missouri, bordering on Kansas. 












806 CASS—CASSEL. 


Area, 700 square miles. It is drained by the two main 
branches of Grand River. The surface is undulating, and 
diversified with groves and extensive prairies; the soil is 
fertile. Corn, oats, tobacco, wool, and live-stock are ex¬ 
tensively raised. Limestone is abundant here. The 
county is intersected by the Osage division of the Missouri 
Kansas and Texas R. R. Capital, Ilarrisonville. Pop. 
19,296. 

Cass, a county in the E. of Nebraska. Area, 570 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missouri 
River, and on the N. by the Platte River. The greater 
part of it is undulating prairie, the soil of which is calca¬ 
reous and fertile. Grain and wool are staple products. 
Limestone occurs here as a surface-rock. The county is 
traversed by the Burlington and Missouri River R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Plattsmouth. Pop. 8151. 

Cass, a township of Fulton co., Ill. Pop. 1283. 

Cass, a township of Clay co., Ind. Pop. 470. 

Cass, a township of Greene co., Ind. Pop. 819. 

Cass, a township of La Porte co., Ind. Pop. 1214. 

Cass, a township of Ohio co., Ind. Pop. 772. 

Cass, a township of Pulaski co., Ind. Pop. 460. 

Cass, a township of Sullivan co., Ind. Pop. 1488. 

Cass, a township of White co., Ind. Pop. 451. 

Cass, a township of Boone co., Ia. Pop. 895. 

Cass, a township of Cass co., Ia. Pop. 1200. 

Cass, a township of Cedar co., Ia. Pop. 591. 

Cass, a township of Clayton co., la. Pop. 1272. 

Cass, a township of Guthrie co., Ia. Pop. 1754. 

Cass, a township of Hamilton co., Ia. Pop. 433. 

Cass, a township of Harrison co., Ia. Pop. 217. 

Cass, a township of Jones co., la. Pop. 913. 

Cass, a township of Shelby co., Ia. Pop. 120. 

Cass, a township of Wapello co., Ia. Pop. 859. 

Cass, a township of Douglas co., Mo. Pop. 410. 

Cass, a township of Greene co., Mo. Pop. 1531. 

Cass, a township of Stone co., Mo. Pop. 592. 

Cass, a township of Texas co., Mo. Pop. 779. 

Cass, a township of Hancock co., O. Pop. 759. 

Cass, a township of Muskingum co., 0. Pop. 851. 

Cass, a township of Richland co., 0. Pop. 1274. 

Cass, a township of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 599. 

Cass, a township of Schuylkill co., Pa. Pop. 4621. 

Cass, a township of Monongalia co., West Va. Pop. 
1449. 

Cass (George W.), an American officer and engineer, 
born in 1810 in Ohio, graduated at West Point in 1832. 
He served while lieutenant of infantry on topographical 
and engineer duty till he resigned Oct. 26, 1836. Civil 
engineer 1836-41; merchant at Brownsville, Pa., 1842-52; 
president of Adams’ Express Co. 1854-57; of Ohio and 
Pennsylvania R. R. 1856; of Pittsburg Fort Wayne and 
Chicago R. R. 1856-58 and since 1859, and of Northern 
Pacific R. R. since 1873. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Cass (Lewis), LL.D., an American statesman, born at 
Exeter, N. H., Oct. 9, 1782. He studied law, which he 
began to practise at Zanesville, O., in 1802. Having 
entered the army as a colonel in 1812, he served in Canada 
under Gen. Hull, and was taken prisoner. He was raised 
to the rank of brigadier-general in 1813, and appointed 
governor of Michigan Territory in 1814. After he had 
held that office sixteen years, and negotiated many treaties 
with the Indians, he was appointed secretary of war by 
President Jackson in 1831. He was sent as minister to 
France in 1836, returned home in 1842, and was elected a 
Senator of the U. S. for Michigan in 1844. Having opposed 
the Wilmot Proviso, he was nominated as Democratic can¬ 
didate for the presidency of the U. S. in 1848, but he was 
defeated by Gen. Taylor, the Whig candidate, who received 
163 electoral votes; Gen. Cass received 137 electoral votes. 
In the winter of 1850-51 he was re-elected to the Senate 
of the U. S. He supported Douglas’s Kansas-Nebraska 
bill in 1854, and became secretary of state in Mar., 1857. 
He resigned in Dec., 1860. Died June 17, 1866. 

Gen. Cass’s history well illustrates the great possibilities 
which have justly served as an encouragement to young 
men of this country born in humble circumstances. With¬ 
out fortune or friends, and with an imperfect education, he 
went to Ohio on foot when seventeen years old. Elected 
to the legislature, his zeal against the suspected treason of 
Burr brought him to the favorable notice of President Jef¬ 
ferson and the people. His services in the war with Great 
Britain were useful to the nation, and greatly increased 


his popularity. During his long governorship of Michi¬ 
gan his success in managing the disaffected Indians, and 
in developing the resources of the Territory, demonstrated 
his great abilities. To his power of making strong per¬ 
sonal friends much of his success was due. He was demo¬ 
cratic in his tastes and habits, as well as in his political 
opinions. He attainqd a large fortune and much political 
influence. Throughout the civil war he was in favor of the 
maintenance of the Federal union. Gen. Cass was a 
man of literary tastes. His published writings are not 
numerous, but are well written and display much ability. 
(See II. R. Schoolcraft, “Life of General Cass,” 1848; 
W. L. G. Smith, “Life of Lewis Cass,” 1856.) 

Cassaila'ga, a post-village of Stockton township, Chau¬ 
tauqua co., N. ¥., on Cassadaga Lake. Pop. 225. 

Cassan'der [Gr. Kaa-o-aySpos], a Macedonian prince, 
was a son of Antipater, regent of Macedonia. When An¬ 
tipater died, in 318 B. C., Cassander and Polysperchon 
became competitors for the regency, and appealed to arms. 
Cassander was victorious, and having taken Athens, re¬ 
stored the aristocracy under Demetrius Phalereus in 316 
B. C. He married Thessalonice, a sister of Alexander the 
Great, and obtained possession of Alexander’s infant son, 
whom he put to death in 309, and usurped the throne. He 
joined Seleucus and Ptolemy in a coalition against Antig- 
onus, whom these allies defeated at the battle of Ipsus in 
301 B. C. He died in 297, and was succeeded by his son 
Philip. 

Cassan'dra [Kacro-dvSpa], an ancient Trojan princess, 
a daughter of Priam, was celebrated for her prophetic in¬ 
spiration. .According to the poetical legend, Apollo was 
enamored of her, and taught her the secrets of fate, but he 
ordained that her prophecies should not be credited. Dur¬ 
ing the siege of Troy she predicted the ruin of that city, 
but she was regarded as a lunatic by the Trojans. She 
was carried away as a captive by Agamemnon. 

Cassandra, Gulf of (anc. Toronaicus Sinus), is a 
part of the Aegean Sea, in European Turkey, and extends 
between two peninsulas, the extremities of which are called 
Cape Drepano and Cape Pailluri. It is nearly 25 miles 
long. 

Cassa'no, a town of Italy, in the province of Calabria 
Citeriore, 30 miles N. of Cosenza. It stands in the concave 
recess of a steep mountain, in the midst of beautiful 
scenery. It has a cathedral, several convents, and an old 
castle; also manufactures of silk, linen, cotton, and leather. 
Pop. 7456. 

Cassation. See Courts, by George Chase, LL.B. 

Cassa'va, a West Indian name of the plant called 
manioc or manihot, and of the starch or fecula prepared 
from its root. It is known in the U. S. by the name of 
Tapioca (which sec). 

Cassay', Munnipoor', or Mimepoor, a country 

of Farther India, is bounded on the N. W. by Assam, and 
E. and S. by the Burmese dominions and the country of 
the independent Rookies. It is mostly included between 
lat. 24° and 26° N., and between Ion. 93° and 95° E. The 
area is said to be 7584 square miles. The surface is diversi¬ 
fied by valleys and high mountains which are covered with 
forests. The staple productions are tea, rice, cotton, indigo, 
sugar, opium, and tobacco. The finest pineapples in the 
world are produced here. The Cassay ponies are celebrated 
throughout the East, and much sought in Burmah for cav¬ 
alry horses. Capital, Munipoor. Cassay became independ¬ 
ent in 1826, before which it was part of the Burmese 
empire. It is governed by a native rajah. 

Cass co., Tex. See Davis co., Tex. 

Cassel (anc. Ccistellum), a town of France, department 
of Nord, is on an isolated hill 550 feet in height, 27 miles 
N. W. of Lille, with which it is connected by a railway. 
It was formerly fortified, and was the scene of several 
military events. Here are manufactures of lace, hosiery, 
and linen thread. It commands a very extensive view of 
the level surrounding country. Pop. 4242. 

Cas'sel (anc. Castellum Cattorum), a walled citv of 
Prussia, the capital of the province of Ilesse-Cassel, is 
pleasantly situated on both sides of the river Fulda, about 
132 miles W. of Leipsic and 28 miles S. W. of Gottingen. 
It is connected by railways with Leipsic, Frankfort, and 
other towns. It has several public squares, in the largest 
of which, called Friedrichsplatz, stands the palace of the 
electors of Hesse. Near this palace is a handsome museum 
with a library of about 100,000 volumes. Cassel contains 
an observatory, a valuable picture-gallery, a theatre, sev¬ 
eral hospitals, a normal school, and academies of painting 
and sculpture. It has manufactures of cotton, silk, and 
woollen fabrics, lace, gloves, carpets, hardware, etc. In 
the environs of Cassel is the royal palace of Wilhelmshbhe, 
















CASSEL—CASSOPOLIS. 


with beautiful gardens and fountains. This palace was 
occupied by the emperor Napoleon III. while he was a 
captive in the autumn of 1870 and the ensuing winter. 
Pop. in 1871, 46,375. 

Cas'sel (Douglas R.), U. S. N., born Oct. 9, 1845, in 
Ohio, graduated at the Naval Academy as ensign in 1863, 
became a lieutenant in 1866, and a lieutenant-commander 
in 1868. While attached to the steam-sloop Brooklyn was 
slightly wounded at the battle of Mobile Bay, but remained 
at his quarters until the close of the action. He is thus 
honorably noticed by his commanding officer, Capt. James 
Alden, in his report of Aug. 6, 1864: “The other division 
officers—Capt. Houston of the marines, Lieut. Charles F. 
Blake, Ensigns Cassel and Sigsbee, with their assistants, 
Master’s Mates Duncan and Stevens—fought their guns 
nobly and well.” He served in the Brooklyn during both 
the Fort Fisher fights, and led the seamen of the Brooklyn 
in the assault on the fort of Jan. 15, 1865. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Cas'serly (Eugene), born in Ireland in 1822. In 1824 
he emigrated to America with his parents, became a lawyer 
and journalist of New York, and removed to California in 
1850, where he became a Democratic politician and editor 
in San Francisco. In 1869 he was chosen U. S. Senator 
from that State, but resigned in 1873. 

Cas'sia, a fragrant bark mentioned in the Bible, and 
supposed to be the cassia-bark of the shops, a coarse 
variety of cinnamon from China, Anam, and other eastern 
countries. It is generally sold as cinnamon, which it 
much resembles, though cheaper and generally inferior in 
quality. It yields the oil of cinnamon. “Cassia buds” 
are the dried flower-buds which are brought from China 
and used in confectionery. 

Cassia is the name of a genus of leguminous herbs, 
shrubs, and trees, natives of both continents. Several 
African and Asiatic species are valuable for their leaves, 
which when dried constitute the drug senna. The U. S. 
have numerous species, one of which (Cassia Marilandica) 
yields leaves which have the cathartic properties of senna 
in a milder degree. “Cassia pulp” or “purging cassia” 
comes from the pods of Cath’artocarpus Fistula or Cassia 
Fistula, a tree of India and Egypt, now naturalized in 
most tropical countries. It contains a large percentage of 
sugar, and is used in making laxative conserves for med¬ 
icinal use. 

Cas'sian [Lat. Cassianus ], (John), a monk noted as a 
promoter of monachism and as an opponent of Saint 
Augustine, was born about 350 A. D. He founded a large 
monastery at Marseilles (about the year 415), which was a 
model for many others in Gaul and Spain. He differed 
from Saint Augustine respecting grace, and taught doc¬ 
trines which were called semi-Pelagian. Among his works 
is a “ Treatise on Monastic Institutions.” Died about 433 
A. D. 

Cas'sican, a name applied to the baritas of Australa¬ 
sia and other birds, but appropriately belonging to the 
genus Cassicus, resembling the orioles. The best known 
species is the Cassicus cristatus of South America, a bird 
twenty inches long, which makes a large nest exhibiting 
great skill in construction. The nests are often three feet 
long, and are hung upon the branches of trees. They are 
gregarious birds, and often build several of their huge 
nests upon the same tree. 

Cas / simere [formerly kerseymere, not improbably de¬ 
rived from Cashmere; Fr. easimir; Ger. Kasimir], a twilled 
woollen or cotton and woollen fabric, either plain or figured, 
much used for men’s clothing. Cassimeres are largely 
woven in England and the U. S., but especially on the 
continent of Europe. 

Cas'sin (John), an American naturalist, born in Dela¬ 
ware co., Pa., Sept. 6, 1813. He published, besides other 
works, “American Ornithology: a General Synopsis of 
North American Ornithology, containing Descriptions and 
Figures of all North American Birds not given by former 
American Authors” (1856). Died Jan. 10, 1869. 

Cassi'ni (Giovanni Domenico), an eminent astronomer, 
born near Nice, June 8, 1625. He discovered in 1665 that 
Jupiter performs a rotation in nine hours and fifty-six 
minutes, and published in 1668 his ephemcrides of the 
satellites of Jupiter. Invited by Colbert, he removed to 
Paris in 1669, and became director of the observatory of 
that city. In 1684 he discovered four satellites of Saturn. 
His descendants for several generations were able astrono¬ 
mers. Died Sept. 14, 1712. (See his “Autobiography 
also Fontenelle, “Eloge de J. I). Cassini.”) 

Cassi'no, a town of Italy, in the province of Caserta, 
49 miles by rail N. W. of Caserta. Large ruins of Roman 
theatres and palaces are in the neighborhood. Just above 
the city, on a high mountain, is the celebrated monastery 


807 


Monte Cassino, connected with which is a seminary, a gym¬ 
nasium, and a large library containing many valuable 
manuscripts. Pop. 5641. 

Cassioclo'rus (Magnus Aurelius), a Latin historian 
and minister of state, was born at Scylacium (Squillace), in 
Italy, about 468 A. D. He entered the service of Tlieodoric, 
king of the Ostrogoths, about 494, and became his chief 
minister. He had a high reputation for ability and learn¬ 
ing, and continued in power for many years. He wrote, 
besides works on grammar and rhetoric, a “ History of the 
Goths,” and a valuable collection of state pajjers entitled 
“Variarum Epistolarum Libri XII.,” which was printed 
in 1533. 

Cassiope'a, or -pia, Cassiepe'a, or Cassi'ope 

[Gr. Kacro-ioTma, Kacraieireia, Kacraion-rj], in classic mythology, 
the wife of Cephcus and the mother of Andromeda. She 
was said to have been transformed into a constellation. 

Cassiope'ia, or “ Lady in the Chair,” a constellation 
in the northern hemisphere, has several stars of the third 
magnitude. It is represented on the celestial globe as a 
lady sitting in a chair. Five of its most conspicuous stars 
are arranged in a figure like a W. In 1572 a new .and 
brilliant star suddenly appeared in Cassiopeia. It was ob¬ 
served by Tycho Brahe in November, and is said to have 
surpassed all the fixed stars in splendor. It disappeared 
in Mar., 1574, after a gradual diminution of lustre. 

Cassiquia're, or Cassiquia'ri, a river of South 
America, in Venezuela, is a deep and rapid stream, forming 
the S. bifurcation of the Orinoco. It issues from the Ori¬ 
noco about lat. 3° 10' N. and Ion. 66° 20' W., and flowing 
south-westward about 130 miles, enters the Rio Negro near 
San Carlos. This remarkable river opens a navigable com¬ 
munication between the Orinoco and the Rio Negro. It is 
600 yards wide at its entrance into the latter. 

Cassis, the French name of the black currant bush and 
its fruit. A liqueur called liqueur de cassis is made from 
the fruit, and is used in Europe very extensively. 

Cassiter'ides [from the Gr. KaacrcTepos, “tin”], the 
ancient name of certain islands (supposed to be the Scilly 
Isles) from which the Phoenicians procured tin. 

Cas'siterite [from the Gr. Kao-o-iVepo?, “tin,” and Ai'0o?, 
a “stone”], native peroxide of tin, composed, when pure, 
of 21.62 per cent, of oxygen and 78.38 of tin. It is the 
common ore of tin, and the only one from which the metal 
is obtained. It occurs massive (as tin-stone), disseminated 
and fibrous (as wood tin), in rolled pieces, and in grains 
as sand (stream tin); also crystallized in quadrangular 
prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids. Its lustre is 
splendent. It is obtained chiefly in Cornwall, Banca, 
Sweden, France, Spain, Chili, and California. 

Cas'sius LongiYius (Caius), a famous Roman con¬ 
spirator and general, was a friend of Marcus Brutus, whose 
sister he married. He served as qumstor under M. Cras- 
sus, and distinguished himself in the expedition against the 
Parthians in 53 B. C. After the death of Crassus he de¬ 
feated the Parthians. In the civil war that ensued he 
fought for Pompey against Caesar. He was one of the 
conspirators who killed Coesar in 44 B. C., soon after which 
event he commanded with success in Syria. His army was 
subsequently united with that of Brutus. Brutus and Cas¬ 
sius, who were the principal leaders of the republican 
party, were defeated by Antony and Octavius at Philippi 
m 42 B. C., and then killed themselves. (See Plutarch, 
“ Life of Brutus.”) 

Cas'sius Parmen'sis, or Ca'ius Cas'sius Se- 
ve'rus, a Latin poet who wrote epigrams and elegies. He 
was one of the conspirators who killed the dictator Caesar, 
44 B. C. Having entered the service of Mark Antony, he 
fought against Augustus, by whose order he was put to 
death about 30 B. C. Only small fragments of his works 
are extant. 

Cassivelau'nus, or Cassibelau'nus, sometimes 
Anglicised as Cassib'elan, a chief of the ancient Britons 
who ruled over the country N. of the Thames. He fought 
bravely against Caesar when the latter invaded Britain in 
54 B. C., but Caesar took his capital and compelled him to 
pay tribute. 

Cas'sock,a long loose garment like a frock-coat, worn 
under the surplice by the clergymen of the Anglican and 
Roman Catholic churches. It has a single upright collar. 
The Catholic priests wear cassocks of various colors, but 
those of the Anglican clergy are always black, except the 
purple cassocks which are sometimes used by bishops. 

Cassop'olis, a post-village of Cass co., Mich., at the 
junction of the Chicago and Lake Huron and the Michigan 
Central R. Rs., 98 miles S. W. of Lansing. It has a na¬ 
tional bank, three churches, and two newspapers. P. 728. 

Prop. “ Vigilant.” 












808 


CASSOWARY—CASTE. 


Cas'sowary ( Casuarius), a genus of birds nearly allied 
to the ostrich (see Brevipennes and Ostrich), but dis¬ 
tinctively characterized by still greater shortness of wing, 
by a laterally compressed bill, by a bony crest, by pendent 
wattles on the naked neck, and by three toes on each foot, 
all furnished with claws, the inner toe short, and armed 
with a very long and sharp claw. Only one species is 
known, Casuarius galeatus, sometimes called emu by the 
older naturalists before that name was appropriated to the 
Australian bird, which now alone receives it. The casso¬ 
wary is a native of the Moluccas, New Guinea, and other 
Asiatic islands, chiefly inhabiting deep forests. In appear¬ 
ance it is not unlike the ostrich, but has a much shorter 
neck. It is the largest known bird except the ostrich, and 
its height is about five feet. It feeds on fruit, eggs, and 
succulent herbage. When attacked, it defends itself by 
kicking obliquely backward with its feet, and by striking 
with its short wings, the rigid barbless shafts of which are 
otherwise useless, even to aid it in running. 

Cass'town, a post-village of Lost Creek township, Mi¬ 
ami co., 0. Pop. 241. 

Cass'ville, a township of Neosho co., Kan. P. 1070. 

Cassville, a post-village and capital of Barry co., Mo., 
200 miles S. W. of Jefferson City. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. P. 287. John Ray, Ed. Cassville “ Democrat.” 

Cassville, a post-village of Paris township, Oneida co., 
N. Y. Pop. 152. 

Cassville, a post-borough of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 
416. 

Cassville, a post-village of Grant co., Wis., on the 
Mississippi River, about 32 miles above Dubuque. Lead 
is shipped here in steamboats. Pop. 551, or, including Cass¬ 
ville township, 1318. 

Casta'lia, or Cas'taly [Gr. Kao-raMa], a fountain which 
issued at the base of Mount Parnassus, near Delphi, and 
was sacred to Apollo and the Muses. The ancient poets im¬ 
agined that it filled the minds of those who drank of it with 
poetic inspiration. All persons who visited the temple of 
Delphi for any religious object were obliged to purify them¬ 
selves by bathing their bodies or their hair in this sacred 
fountain. It is now called the fountain of St. John. 

Casta'lia, a post-village of Erie co., 0., on the Cincin¬ 
nati Sandusky and Cleveland R. R., 5 miles S. W. of San¬ 
dusky. Here is a spring tvhich petrifies vegetable sub¬ 
stances. 

Casta'nea, the classical Latin name of the chestnut; 
also the botanical name of a genus of trees of the order 
Cupuliferte. Three species of this genus are indigenous in 
the U. S.—viz. Castanea vesca (chestnut tree), the Castanea 
2 nnnila (chinquapin), and the golden chinquapin, or chest¬ 
nut of the Pacific coast. (See Chestnut.) 

Cas'tanets, a musical instrument consisting of two 
hollow shells of ivory or wood, which are bound together 
on the thumb, and struck by the fingers to produce a trill¬ 
ing sound in keeping with the rhythm of dances. Castanets 
were introduced into Spain by the Moors. They take their 
name from the Lat. castanea, a “ chestnut,” from their being 
made of chestnut wood. The castanets are used in the 
ballet and in the opera. 

Casta'iios, de (Francisco Xavier), duke of Baylen, 
a Spanish general, born April 22, 1756. He obtained the 
command of a corps in 1808, and defeated the French gen¬ 
eral Dupont at Baylen in July of that year. Dupont then 
surrendered his army, amounting to 18,000 men. Castanos 
distinguished himself at the battle of Vitoria, June, 1813. 
He was appointed captain-general in 1823. Died Sept. 
24, 1852. 

Caste [from the Port, casta, a “race”], a term origin¬ 
ally applied to the distinct classes of society established 
under the Brahmanical regime in India. When the Portu¬ 
guese first visited that country, at the close of the fifteenth 
century, they found their intercourse with the natives seri¬ 
ously interfered with by arbitrary social laws; certain pur¬ 
suits were invariably followed by persons of a certain class, 
and any attempt to induce a man to perform offices which 
did not, according to the prevailing notions of the country, 
belong to his class, was obstinately resisted. The difference 
in appearance between some of these classes—as, for exam¬ 
ple, between the Soodras and persons of the priestly or mili¬ 
tary class—was so striking as to suggest the idea of an 
original difference of race; and hence the Portuguese em¬ 
ployed the word casta (“race”) as a general term to desig¬ 
nate the distinctions above referred to. 

According to the “Institutes of Manu” (considered by 
the Hindoos to be a work of divine authority, and regarded 
by them, indeed, in much the same light as the Law of 
Moses was regarded by the Israelites), there are four pure 
castes or classes : 1st, the priestly class, fabled by the Brah¬ 


mans to have proceeded from the mouth of Brahma, the 
Creator; 2dly, the military class (called Kshatriyas, or Chut- 
trees), supposed to have sprung from his arm; 3dly, the 
mercantile class (Vaisyas), said to have been produced from 
his thigh ; and lastly, the servile class (Soodras or Sudras), 
fabled to have sprung from his foot. There is reason to 
believe that the three higher classes were composed of per¬ 
sons of the original Aryan race (see Arya), but that the 
Soodras came from the tribes which the Aryas had con¬ 
quered. Besides the four pure classes, there are various 
mixed or impure classes, some of which (the Chandalas, for 
example) are so vile that their very shadow is pollution, 
and a Brahman is forbidden to take shelter under the same 
tree with one of these miserable outcasts. The term pariah 
(a word said to be derived from the Tamul, and to signify 
“inhabitant of the mountains;” see Pariah) is used in the 
south of India in a more general sense to denote any of the 
impure or degraded classes. 

The Brahmans or priestly caste having (as they claim) 
proceeded from the mouth of Brahma, became his spokes¬ 
men or the interpreters of his will. The appropriate occu¬ 
pation of a Brahman is to teach the Veda. It is proper to 
observe that the Brahmans are not all priests, but from 
their class alone priests are to be chosen. Many of them at 
the present day follow the profession of arms. 

The military class is composed of warriors, chieftains, and 
kings. To the members of this class (Kshatriyas) only 
is the executive power of the state properly to be entrusted, 
though in some rare instances Brahmans have performed 
the part of princes, and, as already intimated, they share, 
at the present time, the profession of arms with the Ksha¬ 
triyas. 

The Vaisyas are supposed to compose the mercantile 
class, and also to include agriculturists, herdsmen, etc.; but 
in point of fact members of the two upper classes also not 
unfrequently engage in mercantile pursuits. Manu ex¬ 
pressly states that in case a Brahman is unable to support 
himself by the offices appropriate to his calling—viz. 
“assisting to sacrifice, teaching the Vedas, and receiving 
gifts from a pure-handed giver”—he may follow the pro¬ 
fession of a soldier or engage in mercantile pursuits. 

It is the duty of Soodras ’to serve the superior classes, 
and especially the Brahmans. It is their place to perform 
various menial duties, but the lowest offices in the commu¬ 
nity (that of scavenger, for example) are invariably per¬ 
formed by persons of the impure or mixed classes. 

With respect to the first origin of caste, there can be no 
reasonable doubt that the institution was the invention of 
the Brahmans. This is shown by the manner in which the 
Brahmans are spoken of in the “Institutes,” more particu¬ 
larly in those parts which treat of the duties of the other 
classes. “From his high birth alone a Brahman is an 
object of veneration even to the gods” (chap. xi. 85). 
“ Though Brahmans occupy themselves with all sorts of 
mean occupations, they must invariably be honored, for 
they are something transcendentally divine” (ix. 319). 
“Let not a king, although in the greatest distress for 
money, provoke Brahmans to anger by taking their prop¬ 
erty ; for they, once enraged, could immediately, by sacri¬ 
fices and imprecations, destroy him, with his troops, ele¬ 
phants, horses, and cars ” (ix. 313). “ No greater crime is 
known on earth than slaying a Brahman” (viii. 381). “A 
Brahman is born above the world, the chief of all creatures. 

. . . Whatever exists in the universe is all, in effect, 
though not in form, the wealth of the Brahman” (i. 100). 
In order to guard the sanctity of the priestly caste against 
all encroachments, a man of any of the lower castes is 
strictly prohibited from marrying a Brahmani (a Brahman 
woman), and the children of such marriages are irredeem¬ 
ably base. The offspring of a Brahmani and Soodra (called 
a Chandala) is accounted the vilest of mortals. By thus 
affixing an indelible mark of abhorrence upon the children, 
they inspire perhaps a stronger fear of such marriages than 
they could do by the most terrible punishments inflicted 
upon the parents themselves. 

Whether the regulations respecting caste, as they are 
laid down in the “ Institutes of Manu,” were ever strictly 
enforced, has been doubted by many. Respecting this in¬ 
teresting question, in the entire absence of all historical 
testimony,* we can only reason from probabilities. The 
great reverence with which the “Institutes of Manu” seem 
to have been always regarded among the Hindoos who ac¬ 
cept the Brahmanical religion renders it not improbable 
that at one time those regulations may have been as strictly 
observed as the ritual of the Levitical law was observed by 
the ancient Israelites. It would certainly be unreasonable 
to infer that because such an observance has not obtained 

* It is scarcely necessary to inform the intelligent reader that 
nothing deserving the name of history can be found in any of 
the ancient Hindoo writings, if we except those relating to the 
little state of Cashmere. 

















CASTEL-A-MARE—CASTILE, OLD. 


in modern times, when the entire Hindoo nation has been 
subjugated first to one foreign despotism and then to an¬ 
other, it may not have prevailed in a remote antiquity, 
when (as there is every reason to believe) a large part of 
India was under the rule of sovereigns professing the Brah- 
manical religion. Nor can we safely argue against such an 
observance from the state of society represented in Hindoo 
dramas written near the time of the Christian era, for that 
was after the rise of Booddliism had broken the Brahman- 
ical yoke, and though the new religion was subsequently 
displaced, the influence of the freedom which it had intro¬ 
duced was not wholly lost upon the people of India; in the 
same manner as the influence of the Revolution was felt in 
France even after the restoration of the Bourbons. 

The doctrine of the transmigration of souls (which ap¬ 
pears to have been almost universally accepted in India 
among all classes and in all ages of which we have any 
definite knowledge) became the principal and a most ter¬ 
rible engine in the hands of the Brahmans for curbing and 
breaking the spirit of the other classes. It may well be 
doubted whether the comparatively vague fear of eternal 
punishment taught among the nations of the West was cal¬ 
culated to exert anything like so powerful an influence on 
the mind as the definite, though infinitely varied, terrors 
which the priests of India presented to the imagination of 
the laity. Thus, one who steals the gold of a priest (un¬ 
less he makes expiation in this life by some voluntary and 
cruel penance) will be born a thousand times in the form 
of a spider or some disgusting reptile; he who kills a 
Brahman, after having passed a long period in terrible 
torture will be born as a boar or some other low animal, 
or as a Chandala. The poet Lucretius expressed his anx¬ 
iety lest his friend Memmius, through fear of “ eternal 
punishment after death,” should be prevented from a can¬ 
did and dispassionate examination into the false X'eligious 
views then prevailing, because in the face of such awful 
terrors the mind has no means or power of standing firm. 
But the terrors to which the Hindoos were exposed were 
still more difficult to be resisted, because they appeared 
naturally, if not inseparably, connected with a belief (that 
of transmigration) which seemed indigenous, so to speak, 
in the Hindoo mind. There is great reason to believe that 
it was the intolerable tyranny of caste under the Brahmans 
which prepared the people of India for the rise and rapid 
spread of Booddliism. (See Gautama.) At all events, there 
can scarcely, we think, be a reasonable doubt that the rise 
of Booddhism, which absolutely rejected all the distinctions 
of caste, has essentially contributed to mitigate the extreme 
rigor of the system as it originally prevailed. 

J. Thomas. 

Castel'-a-Ma're (i. e. “fortress on the sea”), or Cas- 
tellama're cli Stabia, a fortified city and seaport of 
Italy, in the province of Naples, is finely situated on the 
Gulf of Naples, 17 miles by rail S. E. of Naples. It has a 
royal palace, a cathedral, several convents, a military hos¬ 
pital, and a royal dockyard; also manufactures of cotton, 
linen, silk, and sailcloth. The castle from which the town 
takes its name was built in the thirteenth century by the 
emperor Frederic II. It is near the site of the ancient 
Stabile, where Pliny was killed by an eruption of Vesuvius 
in 79 A. D. Pop. in 1872, 26,381. 

Castel-a-Mare del Golfo, a seaport-town of Sicily, 
in the province of Trapani, is on a gulf of its own name, 20 
miles E. of Trapani, near the site of the ancient Segesta. 
It exports cotton, wine, fruit, and manna. Pop. 8986. 

Castelar' (Emilio), an eminent Spanish orator and re¬ 
publican, was born in 1832. He founded in 1864 a journal 
called “ La Democracia,” in which he developed his social 
and political principles. He was condemned to death in 
1866, but he escaped to France. In 1868 he returned to 
Spain, and became a member of the Cortes and a leader 
of the republican party. He is considered the most elo¬ 
quent political orator in Spain. He has contributed articles 
to the “ Fortnightly Review,” published in London. He be¬ 
came minister of foreign affairs Feb. 12,18/ .5, and president 
of the Spanish republic Sept., 1873 to Jan. 3, 1874. 

Castel'-Buo'no (i. e. “good castle”), a town of Sicily, 
in the province of Palermo, is in the Madonian Mountains, 
4 miles S. S. E. of Cefalii. It has mineral springs, and a 
trade in manna. Pop. 7948. 

Castel'- Gandol'fo, a village of Italy, picturesquely 
situated on the N. W. side of Mont Albano, about 13 miles 
S. E. of Rome. Here are numerous villas and the pope’s 
summer residence. 

Castel la'na, a town of Italy, in the province of Bari, 
24 miles S. E. of Bari. Pop. 9061. 

Castellane'ta, a town of Italy, in the province of 
Lecce, 21 miles N. W. of Taranto. It has a cathedral and 
several convents. Pop. 6363. 


809 


Castel'lo Braa'co (/. e. “white castle”), a town of 
Portugal, in the province of Beira, 55 miles S. E. of Coim¬ 
bra. It is a bishop’s seat, and has a ruined castle. Pop. 
6585. 

Castel'lo de Vi'de, a walled town of Portugal, in 
Alemtejo, about 124 miles E. N. E. of Lisbon. It has a 
castle, and manufactures of woollen cloth. Pop. 5285. 

Castellon', a province of Spain, bounded on the N. by 
Tarragona, on the E. by the Mediterranean, on the S. by 
Valencia, and on the W. by Teruel. It is a wild moun¬ 
tainous region, and contains many mines and mineral 
springs. Area, 2447 square miles. Capital, Castellon de 
la Plana. Pop. 288,981. 

Castellon' de la Pi a'lia, a town of Spain, capital 
of the province of the same name, is in an extensive and 
fertile plain about 2 miles from the Mediterranean, and 40 
miles N. N. E. of Valencia, with which it is connected by a 
railway. It is well built, with wide and straight streets, and 
is supplied with water by a magnificent aqueduct. It has a 
handsome episcopal palace, a theatre, a hospital, and sev¬ 
eral convents; also manufactures of linen, woollen, and 
hempen fabrics, sailcloth, paper, firearms, glass, soap, etc. 
Francisco Ribalta, the famous painter, was a native of this 
town. Pop. 20,123. 

Castelnaudary (anc. Sostomagus), a town of France, 
department of Aude, is on an eminence near the Canal du 
Midi, 22 miles W. N. W. of Carcassonne. It has manufac¬ 
tures of silk and woollen fabrics and earthenware. The 
canal here expands into a commodious basin 1300 yards in 
circumference. This town was founded on the site of Sos- 
tomagus by the Visigoths, who called it Castrum Novum 
Arianorum. It was taken by the English Black Prince in 
1355. Pop. 9075. 

Casteliuio'vo, a city in Austria, province of Dalmatia, 
on the canal of Cattaro and the Bay of Topla, has ancient 
walls and towers. Pop. 7423. 

Castelnuovo, a market-town of Northern Italy, in the 
province of Alessandria, 14 miles N. W. of Asti. It lias a 
mineral spring. Pop. 5011. 

Castel-Sarrasin, a town of France, department of 
Tarn-et-Garonne, is near the river Garonne, 14 miles W. 
of Montauban. It was formerly fortified. It has manu¬ 
factures of serge and worsted stockings. Pop. 6838. 

Castel Ter'mini, a town of Sicily, in the province 
of Girgenti, 16 miles N. of the city of Girgenti. It has 
mines of rock-salt and sulphur. Pop. 7346. 

Castel'-Vetra'no, a town of Sicily, province of Tr£- 
pani, 23 miles S. E. of Trapani. It has several convents 
and an old castle and cathedral. Articles of coral and ala¬ 
baster are made here. Pop. in 1872, 20,420. 

Castiglio'ni (Carlo Ottavio), Count, an Italian 
philologist, known as the editor of Ulfila’s Gothic Bible 
(1819), was born in 1784. He also wrote a memoir upon 
the history of the Arab cities of Africa (1826). Died April 
10, 1849. 

Castile, kas-teel' [Sp. Castilla, the “land of castles”], 
a former kingdom of Spain, occupied the central table-land 
of the peninsula, and was the nucleus and central seat of 
the Spanish monarchy. The kingdom of Castile was found¬ 
ed about 1035 by Ferdinand I., who conquered Leon and 
annexed it to Castile. By the marriage of Ferdinand the 
Catholic with Isabella of Castile in 1469, Castile and Ar¬ 
agon were united into one kingdom. The Castilians have 
been long distinguished for their pride or haughtiness. 
The Castilian dialect is considered purer than the dialects 
spoken in other parts of Spain. Pop. 3,270,516. Castile 
was divided into two portions, Old and New Castile (see 
below). 

Castile, a post-village and township of Wyoming co., 
N. Y., on the Erie R. R., 75 miles N. W. of Corning. Pop. 
of village 712 ; of township, 2186. 

Castile, New [Sp. Castilla la Nueva], an old province 
of Spain, the S. portion of the kingdom of Castile, has an 
area of 21,081 square miles. Former capital, Madrid. 
It is a table-land, bounded on the N. by the Sierra Guadar- 
rama and on the S. by the Sierra Morena. This range of 
mountains is rich in minerals. The soil of this region is 
partly sterile and not well watered. The plains receive 
little rain, and are nearly destitute of trees. Large flocks 
of sheep are raised here. New Castile is divided into lour 
provinces—viz. Madrid, Toledo, Cuenca, and Guadalajara. 
Pop. 1,289,145. 

Castile, Old [Sp. Castilla la Vieja ], an old provinco 
of Spain, is bounded on the N. by the Cantabrian Moun¬ 
tains, on the E. by Aragon, on the S. by New Castile, and 
on the W. by Leon. Area, 25,412 square miles. The sur- 
face is diversified by several ranges of mountains and high 
table-lands, which are arid and nearly destitute ot forests. 








810 CASTILLA—CASTOR AND POLLUX. 


Tho soil in many parts is rendered sterile by deficiency of 
water. The chief rivers of this region are the Douro and 
the Ebro. Sheep and cattle constitute the principal riches 
of the inhabitants. Old Castile is divided into the prov¬ 
inces of Burgos, Valladolid, Palencia, Avila, Logrono, Se¬ 
govia, Santander, and Soria. Pop. 1,716,193. 

Casti'lla (Don Ramon), a general in the Peruvian war 
of independence, born Jan. 31, 1797, after the annexation 
of Peru to Bolivia in 1835 fled the country. He returned 
upon the restoration of independence in 1839, and became 
finance minister. In the second war with Bolivia he was 
taken prisoner and exiled; he returned in 1844, deposed 
the dictator Vivanco, and became president of Peru 1845-51, 
to which dignity he was re-elected in 1855, and again in 
1858. Died May 30, 1867. 

Castille (Charles Hippolyte), a French author, born 
Nov. 8, 1820. lie wrote a number of romances in which the 
interest is of a dreadful character, and later biographical 
parallels, a history of the Second Republic (1854), and 
political portraits (1856-60). 

Castine, kas-teen', a port of entry of Hancock co., 
Me., is on the E. side of Penobscot Bay, at the mouth of 
the Penobscot River, 34 miles S. of Bangor. It is 9 miles 
E. of Belfast, which is on the opposite side of the bay. It 
has a good harbor, a custom-house, and manufactures of 
boats, ships and ship furniture, cordage, brick, etc. It has 
a State normal school. Pop. including Castinc township, 
1303. 

Cast/ing Vote, the vote of the president or chairman 
of a public assembly, or the Speaker of a legislative body. 
This vote decides the question whenever there is a tie— 
i. e. when the votes of the assembly are equally divided. 
The Vice-President of the U. S. never votes except in 
case the Senators are equally divided. The Speaker of 
the British House of Commons never votes except in a 
similar contingency. It is usual for the Speaker to give a 
casting vote in such a way that the House will have an 
opportunity of reconsidering its decision. 

Cast Iron. See Iron, by A. S. Hewitt, A. M. 

Castle (kas’l), [Sax. castel; Lat. castellum, dimin. from 
castrum, a “ camp ”], a name given to a building con¬ 
structed as a dwelling, as well as for the purpose of repel¬ 
ling attack. The name is especially given to buildings of 
this kind constructed in Europe in the Middle Ages. The 
castella of the Romans were constructed on the model of 
their stationary encampments, and may have suggested 
the castles of the Middle Ages, though designed for mili¬ 
tary purposes only. Traces are found in various parts of 
Great Britain of castles which are ascribed to its aboriginal 
or early inhabitants. Traces of Saxon, and even Norman, 
workmanship are found in structures originally Roman. 
But of castles for residence as well as defence few are of 
higher antiquity than the Conquest. The absence of strong¬ 
holds was one reason why William the Conqueror so easily 
became master of England; as a protection against the 
resentment which the conquest occasioned most of the 
great Norman castles were built. As these castles grew in 
strength they afforded their possessors not only security 
from their fellow-subjects and their subordinates, but inde¬ 
pendence as regarded the monarch. Similar conditions in 
other countries led to similar results. No small portion of 
the history of Europe during the feudal period consists of 
an account of the attempts which were made by the mon- 
archs to extirpate these dens of thieves. 

The castle was generally surrounded by a moat, foss, or 
ditch; and that the ditch might be readily filled with 
water, the site was usually the bank of a river or a lake. 
Inside the ditch mounds were constructed, with walls and 
towers, both supplied with battlements and bastions. The 
gates were protected by towers usually of great strength. 
The bridge across the moat was made to draw up and down, 
and the entrance, in addition to thick doors, was protected 
by a portcullis, dropped down through grooves at the sides. 
The gate was further defended by a barbican and by machico¬ 
lations. Passing the external wall, one entered the bailey, 
or ballium, which consisted of several courts, and contain¬ 
ed the barracks, magazine, well, and chapel. Within the 
ballium was the donjon, keep, or citadel, a species of in¬ 
ternal castle, placed in tho most advantageous position to 
afford a last chance to the garrison when driven from the 
external works. The protection which the castle afforded 
to the retainers of a baron led to the construction of houses 
around tho moat, and to this custom a very large number 
of the towns in Europe owe their origin. 

Cas'tlebar, a town of Ireland, capital of the county 
of Mayo, is on the Castlebar River, about 160 miles W. N. W. 
of Dublin. It has an old castle, once a stronghold of the 
De Burgh family; also manufactures of coarse linen. The 
earl of Lucan has a country-seat near this town. Castlebar 


was taken by the French general Humbert in 1798. Pop. 
2960. 

Castle Grove, a post-township of Jones co., Ia. Pop. 

839. 

Castle Hill Plantation, a township of Aroostook 
co., Me. Pop. 237. 

Cas'tlemaine, a city in Australia, province of Victoria, 
in the neighborhood of rich gold-mines, connected by rail 
with Melbourne, 70 miles distant. Pop. 9683. 

Cas'tle Peak, California, is a peak of the Sierra Ne¬ 
vada, about lat. 38° 10' N. Its height is estimated at 
13,000 feet. 

Cas'tlereagh (Robert Steavart), Viscount, marquis 
of Londonderry, an able British Tory statesman, born in 
the county of Down, Ireland, June 18, 1769. He was the 
eldest son of the first marquis of Londonderry. He entered 
the House of Commons in 1794, and efficiently promoted 
the union of Ireland Avith England in 1800. In 1802 ho 
Avas appointed president of the board of control by Mr. Pitt. 
He became secretary of state for the department of Avar and 
the colonies in 1805, and fought a duel with George Can¬ 
ning in 1809. About this time he was the favorite leader 
of the Tory party, and a political rival of Canning. He 
entered the ministry of Lord Liverpool as secretary for 
foreign affairs in Feb., 1812, and as such was a powerful 
director of the coalition against Napoleon. He represented 
Great Britain at the Congress of Vienna, 1814, and the 
Congress of Paris, 1815. On the death of his father, in 
1821, he inherited the title of marquis of Londonderry. Ho 
committed suicide Aug. 12, 1822, and left no issue. (See 
his “ Memoirs and Correspondence,” 8 vols., 1848.) 

Castle Rock, a post-township of Dakota co., Minn. 
Pop. 703. 

Castlestu'art, Earls of (1800), Viscounts Stuart 
(1793), Barons Castlestuart (1619, Ireland), and baronets 
(Scotland, 1637).— Charles Andreav Knox, fourth earl, 
born 23d April, 1S10, succeeded his brother Feb. 20, 1857. 

Cas'tleton, a township of Barry co., Mich. Pop. 1738. 

Castleton, a toAvnship of Richmond co., N. Y., on the 
N. side of Staten Island. The township contains the vil¬ 
lages of Neiv Brighton and Tompkinsville, and a “Sailor’s 
Snug Harbor,” an asylum for the children of seamen, 
several extensive dyeing and color-printing establishments, 
and other manufacturing interests. It has many elegant 
residences of New York merchants and manufacturers. 
Pop. 9504. 

Castleton, a post-village of Schodack township, Rens¬ 
selaer co., N. Y., on the Hudson River and the Hudson 
River R. R., 9 miles S. E. of Albany. It has a national 
bank. Pop. 580. 

Castleton, a post-village of Rutland co., Vt., on Cas¬ 
tleton River and on the Rensselaer and Saratoga R. R., 11 
miles W. of Rutland. It is the seat of Castleton Seminary 
and a State normal school, and has five churches, a 
national bank, and manufactures of agricultural imple¬ 
ments, marbleized slate, etc. Pop. of Castleton township, 
3243. 

Cas'tletowil, an English town, capital of the Isle of 
Man. It has a Danish fortress, Castle Rushen. 

Cas'tlewood’s, a toAvnship of Russell co., Va. Pop. 

1886. 

Castor. See Beaver. 

Cas'tor, a remarkable binary or double star of the 
second magnitude in the constellation Gemini, is called also 
a Geminorum. The two stars rotate around their common 
centre of gravity, and according to Sir John Herschel per¬ 
form a rotation in 253 years. 

Castor, a township of Madison co., Mo. Pop. 1000. 

Castor, a township of Stoddard co., Mo. Pop. 2785. 

Castor and Pol'lux [Gr. Kacrrcop and noAvSei)^], 
heroes of classic mythology, called also Dioscu'ri (“ sons 
of Jove”), Avere twin brothers. They were supposed to be 
sons of Jupiter and Leda, or, as some say, of Tyndareus 
and Leda. They took part in the Argonautic expedition 
and the Calydonian hunt. Castor excelled in horseman¬ 
ship, and Pollux in pugilistic contests. According to tra¬ 
dition, Pollux was immortal, and when Castor Avas killed 
offered to share his fate, and they were permitted to enjoy 
life by turns. They were translated into or identified Avith 
the constellation Gemini, “ The Twins.” 

Castor anti Pollux, the name gn r en to an electrical 
meteor which sometimes appears at sea, attached to the 
extremities of the masts of ships, under the form of two 
balls of fire. Sailors consider this phenomenon a sign of 
fair weather, but a single ball, Avhieh is called Helena, is 
supposed to portend a storm. 















CASTOR—CAT. 811 


Castor (Antonius), an ancient physician of high repu¬ 
tation who lived at Rome in the Augustan age, and died 
about 80 A. I). Pliny states that he had a botanic garden, 
the first mentioned in history. 

Casto'reum, or Cas'tor, a substance secreted in 
glandular sacs closely connected with the reproductive 
organs of the beaver [Castorfiber). Each beaver produces 
two of these sacs or pouches. This substance is used by 
perfumers, and was formerly esteemed a valuable remedy 
for hysteria, catalepsy, and other diseases. It is an anti- 
spasmodic. 

Casto'ria, a township of San Joaquin co., Cal. Pop. 
1184. 

Castor'iclne, a family of Mammalia of the order Ro- 
dentia, comprises the beaver [Castor), which is the typical 
genus, the coypu [Myopotamus), and the musquash. 

Cas'tor Oil [Oleum Riqini), a fixed oil from the seeds 
of the castor-oil plant. Tho best variety is obtained by 
pressure in the cold, and is known as cold-pressed castor 
oil. But the warm-pressed Italian oils are the pleasantest 
as a medicine. In the Indies great quantities are prepared 
by boiling the seeds, but the oil is irritating, dark in color, 
and not fit to use as a medicine. Exposure to the sun’s 
light bleaches the oil. When pure, castor-oil is of a light- 
yellow color, but when of inferior quality, it has a greenish, 
and occasionally a brownish, tinge. It is sometimes thick 
and viscid. Its specific gravity is about 960 (water being 
taken as 1000). It has a nauseous smell and a disagree¬ 
able taste. The principal acid present in it is ricinolic, 
allied to oleic acid. 

The best castor oil is one of the mildest of purgatives. In 
doses of one or two tea-spoonfuls it forms a gentle laxative, 
while a dose of a table-spoonful will almost always open the 
bowels freely. The only objection to the use of castor oil 
is its disagreeable flavor; some attempt to get over this diffi¬ 
culty by floating the oil on hot coffee, or mixing it with 
twice its bulk of spiced syrup of rhubarb. It is also much 
used in the arts as a lubricant for machinery, carriage- 
wheels, and leather. In Hindostan it is extensively em¬ 
ployed as a lamp oil. 

The Castor-oil Plant [Rifinus communis) is a native 
of the south of Asia and of Northern Africa, naturalized 
in the south of Europe and in other warm regions. It 
belongs to the order Euphorbiacese, and has panicled 
flowers; the fruit a three-celled capsule, with one seed in 
each cell. The castor-oil plant is often cultivated in gar¬ 
dens in Europe and the U. S., where except in Southern 
Florida it is only an annual, attaining a height of three 
to ten feet, highly ornamental by its stately growth, its 
large, broad, palmate peltate leaves and its purplish hue. 
In warmer climates it is perennial, and becomes arbores¬ 
cent, attaining even thirty feet in height. From the re¬ 
semblance of its seeds to an insect called ricinus, it re¬ 
ceived that name from the Romans. The seeds are oval, 
and about four lines long. They are chiefly valued for the 
oil which they yield, on account of which the plant is cul¬ 
tivated in the Levant, Spain, Provence, the Indies, Brazil, 
and the U. S. Illinois and Missouri are the chief seats of 
its culture, and St. Louis of the oil manufacture in the U. S. 

Castres, an ancient town in the S. of France, depart¬ 
ment of Tarn, on the river Agout, 34 miles by rail N. E. 
of Castelnaudary. It is the most populous town in the 
department, and is the seat of a Protestant consistory, 
having been one of the strongholds of the early Hugue¬ 
nots. Castres has important manufactures of cassimeres, 
military clothing, cotton goods, paper, soap, and copper- 
ware. Pop. 21,357. 

Cas'tro (anc. Mitylene), a seaport-town of Asiatic 
Turkey, capital of the island of Mitylene, is on its E. 
coast, 55 miles N. W. of Smyrna. It has a large castle 
and several churches and mosques. Some remains of the 
ancient Mitylene are visible here. Pop. 6000. 

Cas'tro del Ri'o, a town of Spain, in C6rdova, on 
the river Guadajoz, 21 miles S. E. of Cordova. The streets 
are mostly wide and regular, and lined with well-built 
houses. It has a spacious church with a high tower, two 
colleges, two hospitals, and several convents; also manu¬ 
factures of linen and woollen fabrics, brandy, wine, etc. 
Pop. 8852. 

Cas'tro Giovan'sii (anc. Enna), a town of Sicily, in 
the province of Caltauisetta, is on a fertile plateau 4000 
feet above the level of the sea, 14 miles N. E. of Caltani- 
setta. Here is a feudal fortress of Saracenic origin. The 
ancient Enna was the site of the most famous temple of 
Ceres, and was supposed to be a favorite resort ol that 
goddess. Pop. 14,084. 

Castrovilla'ri, a fortified town of Italy, in the prov¬ 
ince of Cosenza, 32 miles N. of Cosenza. It has an old 
castle, and a trade in silk, manna, and wine. Pop. <931. 


Cas'troville, a post-township of Monterey co., Cal., 
near the mouth of the Salinas River. It is connected with 
San Francisco by steamboat. Pop. 1302. 

Castroville, a post-village, capital of Medina co., 
Tex., on the Medina River, 25 miles W. S. W. of San An¬ 
tonio. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 515. 

Cast Steel. See Steel, by A. L. Holley, C. E. 

Castue'ra, a town of Spain, in the province of Badajoz, 
75 miles E. S. E. of Badajoz, near the river Guadiana. It 
has manufactures of earthenware and a trade in fruit and 
wine. Pop. 6221. 

Casuari'na, “the cassowary tree,” a genus of trees of 
the order Amentacem, sub-order Casuarinem, mostly natives 
of Australia. Some of them are large trees, producing 
hard and heavy timber of excellent quality, which is called 
beef-wood, from its resemblance to the color of raw beef. 
One species, the Casuarina equisetifolia, grows wild in the 
South Sea Islands, the peninsula of Malacca, and other 
places. It is a lofty tree, which is valued in India for its 
timber, which is very durable and hard. All the trees of 
this genus have a peculiar appearance, having long, slender 
creeping or drooping branches, which are jointed, and 
bear scales instead of leaves. The flowers have neither 
calyx nor corolla, and the stamens and pistils are in 
separate flowers. 

Cas'uistry [from the Lat. casus, a “situation”] is 
that branch of ethics which deals with delicate or per¬ 
plexing moral questions, and which supplies rules for re¬ 
solving the same, partly from natural equity, and partly 
from the authority of Scripture, the councils, Fathers, etc. 
Casuistry has been studied chiefly by ancient Jewish, and 
later by Roman Catholic writers, who generally call it 
“ moral theology.” Traces of it are, however, found in tho 
philosophers of ancient Greece, but the healthy reason of an¬ 
tiquity could not enter into the refinement of morals found 
in certain Jewish and Christian writers. The Schoolmen 
elaborated it into a science, and the Jesuits Molina, Escobar, 
Sanchez, 'tetc. became notorious for their ingenuity in the 
construction of moral puzzles, and for the immorality of 
their solutions. Certain Protestant writers, as Baxter, 
Jeremy Taylor, and others, have written much on these 
subjects with a different animus. The University of Cam¬ 
bridge has a professorship of this science, which is now gen¬ 
erally regarded as practically obsolete, for most modern 
authorities are of the opinion that an educated moral sense 
is the best practical guide in cases of conscience. 

Ca'sus Bel'li (a “ case of war,” or, in other words, a 
“case justifying war”), a Latin phrase used to denote an 
act or event which involves war or justifies a declaration 
of war. It is the reason alleged by one power for waging 
or declaring war against another. 

Cas'well, a county of North Carolina, bordering on 
Virginia. Area, 400 square miles. It is drained by the 
Dan and Hvcootee rivers. The surface is undulating; the 
soil is fertile, i/on ore is found. Grain, tobacco, and 
wool are important products. The Richmond and Dan¬ 
ville R. R. crosses the N. W. part of the county. Capital, 
Yanceyville. Pop. 16,081. 

CasAVell, a township of Calhoun co., Ark. Pop. 220. 

Caswell, a township of New Hanover co., N. C. Pop. 
1087. 

Caswell (Alexis), D. D., LL.D., an American edu¬ 
cator, born about 1805, was a professor of mathematics in 
Brown University from 1828 to 1864. He was president 
of that institution from 1868 to 1871. 

Caswell (Richard), an American patriot and states¬ 
man, born in Maryland Aug. 3, 1729, removed to North 
Carolina, where he served with distinction against the 
British, and subsequently became governor of the State. 
He assisted in framing the Federal Constitution in 1787. 
Died Nov. 9, 1789. 

Cat [a word found in various forms in many Indo- 
European and in some other languages], a name sometimes 
extended to the whole family Felidm, including the lion, 
tiger, lynx, etc., sometimes limited to the smaller species 
of that family, and sometimes to the genus Felis proper, 
which is distinguished from the rest of the family by hav¬ 
ing a longer tail and four molar teeth on each side of tho 
upper jaw, while the others have but three. This genus 
includes the lion, tiger, and all the larger Felidae, as well 
as the domestic cat and tho wild-oat ot Europe, but not 
the wild-cat of America, which is a lynx. 

It is not easy to say what was the original abode of tho 
domestic cat [Felis domestica). It not unfrequent Iy escapes 
to a wild state, but no properly wild species exactly lesem- 
bles it. It is assorted that tho domestic cat of ancient 
Eo-ypt was the Felis maniculata, a species diffcung consid¬ 
erably from ours. The cat is scarcely mentioned in the 












812 


CATACAUSTICS—CATALOGUE. 


authors of ancient Greece, Borne, and Judaea, and it is 
known that in the earlier mediaeval period of Europe cats 
were comparatively rare and costly animals. They seem 
to have been long known in China, which affords a fine 
variety with a soft and beautiful fur and pendulous ears. 
It is, however, regarded as probable that the wild-cat of 



European Wild Cat. 

Europe and Asia, though somewhat different anatomically, 
may be the progenitor of the domestic cat. Among the 
more remarkable varieties are the Manx or Cornish cat, 
with a merely rudimentary tail; the Angora cat, with long 
hair; the Maltese and Chartreuse cats, with a bluish-slate 
color, etc. 

Catacaus'tics [from the Gr. Kara, “ down ” or “ back,” 
and KaCoi, “to burn”] are the caustic curves formed by the 
reflection of the rays of light, and are so called to distin¬ 
guish them from the diacaustic, which are formed by re¬ 
fracted rays. (See Caustic.) 

Catacombs [probably from the Gr. Kara, “ down,” and 
KVfx^ri, a “hollow”], a pit or excavation under ground, em¬ 
ployed usually as a receptacle for the dead. The name is 
applied especially to those at Rome, but also to those of 
Egypt, Naples, Syracuse, Malta, and other places. Even 
the quarries under Paris, now used as charnel-houses, are 
often called by this name. The earliest catacombs of Rome 
are believed by many to date from the persecution of Nero, 
and they were probably all finished before the fifth century. 
It has been held that the catacombs of Rome were orig¬ 
inally quarries, but most writers now admit that they were 
executed principally to serve the purpose of burial-places 
for the dead, tombs or loculi being cut on either side of the 
long galleries and transverse corridors, which run to great 
distances through the tufa. Some writers assign them a 
Jewish origin. They were also places of refuge in times 
of persecution, and Christian worship was no doubt often 
held there. Still, the traditions of the “ Church in the 
catacombs,” of Pope Stephen’s subterranean court, and his 
final martyrdom there, are thought by many to be greatly 
exaggerated. The catacombs abound in symbols and in¬ 
scriptions, mostly of Christian origin and commemorative 
of the dead. They have been of late explored with much 
care, and the results are very important in the study of 
Christian archaeology. (See Bosio, “Roma Sotterranea,” 
1532; Perret, “ Les Catacombes de Rome,” 1852-53; 
Rossi, “ Roma Sotterranea Christiana,” 1864 seq .; Kip, 
“The Catacombs of Rome,” 1854.) 

Catahou'la, a parish of Louisiana. Area, 1200 square 
miles. It is bounded on the E. and S. E. by the navigable 
Tensas and Washita Rivers, and also drained by other 
streams. The soil in some parts is fertile. Cotton, corn, 
and live-stock are raised. This parish contains Catahoula 
Lake, which is nearly twenty miles long. Capital Har¬ 
risonburg. Pop. 8475. 

Catala'ni (Angelica), a celebrated Italian singer, born 
at Sinigaglia in 1784. She had a voice of immense vol¬ 
ume, range, and flexibility. Having made her debut in 
Italy at an early age, she afterwards performed with great 
applause in Paris and London, and amassed large sums of 
money. She was married to a Frenchman named Vala- 
bregue, with whom she resided for some years in Paris. 
In 1830 she retired from the stage. Died June 13, 1849. 

Catalau'nian Plain [Lat. Campi Catalaunici], the 
ancient name of the Avide plain surrounding ChtUons-sur- 
Marne, in France. On this plain the Roman general 


Aetius and his ally, Theodoric the Visigoth, gained a great 
victory over Attila in 451 A. D. 

Cat/alepsy [from the Gr. Kara, intensive, and Xa^dvu), 
to “take”], a condition in which a person becomes more 
or less completely unconscious, but does not fall. If stand¬ 
ing at the commencement, he remains so during the attack, 
the countenance retaining the expression the patient 
wore at the outset. If the limbs of the patient be 
placed in a new position by attendants, the position 
is retained. This disease is a rare one, and indeed is 
N probably not so much a peculiar disease as a symp¬ 
tom of other diseases. It has been observed in both 
sexes, and may occur in insane persons or in those 
suffering with chorea and other nervous affections. 
It has been described as sometimes epidemic. The 
immediate attack is seldom fatal, and is usually short, 
but may be indefinitely prolonged. Treatment must 
be addressed to the general condition. Catalepsy is 
so rare that its character is not well understood. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 
Catali'na, a port of entry of Newfoundland, on 
the N. side of Trinity Bay, has an excellent harbor, 
though difficult to approach. It has a lighthouse and 
a fine Anglican church. Pop. 1300. 

Cat'aloglie {Gr. KardXoyos ; Lat. catalogue], a list; 
an enumeration of the names of books, stars, or other 
things. The term is used to denote a list of the books 
contained in a library, or of the works kept for sale 
by a bookseller. 

Catalogue Raisonne (lA-zon-a'), a French term 
used in statistics, natural science, bibliography, etc., 
signifies a catalogue of objects arranged in appropri¬ 
ate classes. For example, books are arranged under their 
several subjects, with a general abstract of the contents of 
the works where the title does not sufficiently indicate it, 
thus serving to direct the reader to the sources of informa¬ 
tion on any topic. The want of alphabetical arrangement 
is supplied by an index at the end. 

Catalogues of Books. —There is nothing connected with 
the management of any large public library which can 
compare in importance with the character of its catalogues 
of books. However large and select its stores, however 
able its administration, however accessible its contents to 
the student, its usefulness will be much diminished if its 
catalogues be not well arranged, frequently revised, and 
thoroughly at the command of those who use them. “A 
library,” says Carlyle, “ is not worth anything without a 
catalogue; it is a Polyphemus without any eye in his head; 
and you must front the difficulties, whatever they may be, 
of making proper catalogues.” 

And these difficulties are neither few nor small. “ There 
is,” says the late Mr. C. C. Jewett (a most competent au¬ 
thority), “no species of literary labor so arduous and per¬ 
plexing.” Indeed, many of the largest libraries of this 
country and Europe have entirely abandoned the issue of 
catalogues; and the trustees of the New York State Li¬ 
brary in 1872 contented themselves with issuing a catalogue 
of the authors whose works are in their library, the names 
of the authors being arranged under the various subjects 
treated of. Even this meagre subject-catalogue is a large 
volume. Not one of the first-class libraries of Europe, it 
is said, has a complete catalogue ; and many of those which 
are most complete are, from their defective arrangement, 
of little value to the student. 

Catalogues may be arranged in an alphabetical table of 
the names of books and of their authors. But the same 
author may have issued books under two names, as White 
and Albius. It is the librarian’s duty to be so well in¬ 
formed in bibliography as to be able to bring the works of 
such an author under one head, and make all necessary 
references. Again, the number of anonymous, pseudon¬ 
ymous, apocrypha], and supposititious works is very great. 
Even Voltaire saw fit to publish works under the names of 
other famous men. All such matters it is the part of the 
catalogue to explain. Others, again, prefer to have books 
catalogued under the heads of the various subjects of which 
they treat. This plan is of very great use to editors and 
compilers, and indeed to all literary men. Much discus¬ 
sion has prevailed, especially in France, as to the relative 
merits of the two plans just referred to; and among the 
numerous class who prefer the arrangement by subjects 
there is great difference of opinion as to how the subjects 
themselves shall be arranged. For example, under the 
head of theological books, there must be many minor heads 
to enable the reader conveniently to find in a large library 
the book he may desire. 

The plan of combining into one both the above systems 
of cataloguing was perfected by Mr. Lloyd P. Smith, the 
accomplished librarian of the Philadelphia Library. His 
catalogues are arranged according to subjects, and at the 






























CATALONIA—CATARACT. 813 


end of the volume is a full alphabetical index, as well of 
authors as of all the important words of each title. Good 
judges pronounce his catalogues the best yet published. 

In rapidly-growing libraries there is much difficulty and 
expense in keeping the catalogues up with the times. Va¬ 
rious plans have been proposed to overcome the difficulty. 
The British Museum has catalogues interleaved with blank 
pages, on which the names of new books are written—a 
clumsy and unsatisfactory arrangement. Mr. Jewett in 
1850 brought forward the plan of having the name of each 
book stereotyped on a separate block, so that it is easy to 
insert the names of new books in their proper places in a 
new catalogue without the great expense of setting up type 
anew for the whole volume. 

The present approved plan of keeping up a manuscript 
catalogue is to write the title of each book on a card, and 
to keep the cards so prepared, together with those contain¬ 
ing the necessary cross references, arranged alphabetically 
in drawers. (For the subject of general catalogues of books, 
see Bibliography.) Chas. W. Greene. 

Catalo'nia [Sp. Cataluna], an old province of Spain, 
is bounded on the N. by France, on the E. by the Mediter¬ 
ranean, on the S. by Valencia, and on the W. by Aragon. 
Area, 12,514 square miles. Pop. in 1867,1,744,052. Capital, 
Barcelona. The Pyrenees extend along the northern border 
of this region, which is extremely mountainous. The high¬ 
est summits are covered with perpetual snow. The soil of 
the valleys is fertile, and this is said to be the best culti¬ 
vated part of Spain. The orange, the olive, the grape, and 
cereal grains flourish here. The principal rivers are the 
Ebro and Llobregat. Among its minerals are copper, co¬ 
balt, lead, zinc, coal, sulphur, and marble. Catalonia sur¬ 
passes every other province of Spain in the importance of 
its manufactures, the chief products of which are cotton, 
silk, and woollen fabrics, paper, firearms, cordage, and 
leather. Catalonia is divided into the provinces of Barce¬ 
lona, Tarragona, Lerida, and Gerona. The Catalans speak 
a peculiar language, different from the Castilian, and nearly 
related to the Provencal. They surpass the otliei; Spaniards 
in energy and industry. This region was in ancient times 
a Roman province called Hispania Tarraconensia. The 
Goths and Moors successively became masters of it. In 
1137 it was united with Aragon by a marriage of the sov¬ 
ereigns. 

Cataloo'cha, a township of Haywood eo., N. C. P. 198. 

Catal'pa, a genus of trees of the order Bignoniacem. 
The Cutalpa bujnonioides is indigenous in the Southern 
U. S., and is planted as an ornamental tree in the Northern 
States and in Europe. It has large cordate and pointed 
leaves, and showy flowers in open compound panicles. The 
fruit is a pod which is often one foot long, and usually re¬ 
mains on the tree all winter. 

Catalpa, a township of Culpeper co., Va. Pop. 3388. 

Catal'ysis [from the Gr. Kara, intensive, and Av'u >, to 
“ dissolve ”] is a term applied in chemical physics to a forco 
exerted by one substance upon a second, whereby the lat¬ 
ter is subjected to change or decomposition, whilst the 
former, or acting substance, remains comparatively unal¬ 
tered, and does not combine with it. The force, indeed, 
has been ascribed to the mere “action of contact.” No 
satisfactory theory has been brought forward to account for 
these changes, or to define what the force of catalysis is. 

Catamaran' [said to mean “floating trees” in Sin¬ 
ghalese], a sort of raft used by the Hindoos of the Coro¬ 
mandel coast, is formed of three planks or pieces of wood 
lashed together. The middle piece is longer than the others. 
The catamaran, which is propelled by a paddle, is used by 
the people of Madras to maintain communication between 
the shore and ships where the surf is so violent that 
ordinary boats are unsafe. The catamaran is also used on 
the coast of Brazil. 

Catamar'ca, a province or department of the Argen¬ 
tine Republic, is bounded on the W. by the Andes. The 
soil is mostly fertile, producing grain and cotton. Area, 
35,760 square miles. Capital, Catamarca. Pop. 110,000. 

Catainarca, San Fernando tie, the capital of the 
above province, is about 650 miles N. W. of Buenos Ayres. 
Pop. 5150. 

Cataine'nia (phi.), [Gr. from Kara, “according to,” 
and tx-qv, “month”], the monthly sanguineous uterine dis¬ 
charges. They commence in hot climates usually from the 
age of ten or eleven, and considerably later in collier re¬ 
gions. Each period in a state of health commonly lasts 
from three to six days. The final cessation occurs, with 
some exceptions, at the age of forty-five or fifty. 

Catamount. See Puma. 

Cata'nia, a province of Italy, in Sicily, is bounded on 
the E. by the Mediterranean, on the N. by Messina, on 


the W. by Caltanisetta, and on the S. by Noto. Area, 1948 
square miles. The surface is partly mountainous. Among 
its prominent features is Mount Etna. Capital, Catania, 
Pop. in 1871, 479,850. 

Catania (anc. Catana), a city of Sicily, capital of the 
above province, is beautifully situated on the E. coast, at 
the foot of Mount Etna, 31 miles N. N. W. of Syracuse; lat. 
37° 28' N., Ion. 15° 5' E. It presents a noble appearance 
from the sea, and is internally handsome, being well built, 
with wide and straight streets, which are paved with lava. 
Some of the public buildings are also constructed of lava. 
It has been several times nearly ruined by earthquakes 
and eruptions of Mount Etna, but it has risen again with 
greater beauty and splendor, and is now perhaps the finest 
city of Sicily. The most remarkable edifices are the cathe¬ 
dral, rebuilt after the great earthquake of 1693; the town- 
hall; the university, founded in 1445 ; and the grand Bene¬ 
dictine convent and church of San Niccolo. Catania has 
about fifty churches, several hospitals, and a college of arts. 
In a fine square adjacent to the cathedral is a statue of an 
elephant formed of lava. The harbor, which was formerly 
good, has been partly choked by lava from Mount Etna. 
This city has manufactures of silk and linen fabrics, and 
of articles and wares formed of amber and lava. The chief 
articles of export are grain, wine, silk, olives, manna, figs, 
soda, and snow from Mount Etna. The ancient Catana was 
founded by the Phoenicians or Greeks, and was nearly as 
old as Rome. It was taken by the Athenian general Nicias 
about 413 B. C., anti was an imjiortant city under the Ro¬ 
mans, who adorned it with magnificent edifices. The re¬ 
mains of an aqueduct, a temple of Ceres, and a large am¬ 
phitheatre arc still visible here. Catania was severely in¬ 
jured by earthquakes in 1693, 1783, and 1818. Pop. in 
1872, 84,397. 

Catanza'ro (formerly called Calabria IJlteriore 

II .), a province of Southern Italy, is bounded on the N. by 
the province of Cosenza, on the E. by the Gulf of Taranto, 
on the S. by the province of Reggio, and on the W. by the 
Mediterranean Sea. Area, 2158 square miles. The soil is 
fertile and the climate healthy. The chief products are 
wool, cotton, linen, cheese, butter, hemp, oil, silk, wine, and 
lumber. Chief town, Catanzaro. Pop. in 1871, 412,226. 

Catanza'ro, a city of Italy, in the province of the 
same name, is finely situated on a mountain near the 
Gulf of Squillace, 33 miles S. S. E. of Cosenza. It has an 
old castle of the Norman period, a cathedral, a large col¬ 
lege, and a royal academy of sciences. Many of its public 
buildings were destroyed by the earthquake of 1783. Here 
are manufactures of velvet and of silk and woollen fabrics. 
Pop. in 1872, 24,901. 

Cataplasm, See Poultice. 

Cat'apnlt [Lat. catapxdta, from the Gr. Kara, intensive, 
and 7raAAo>, to “hurl”], an engine of war used by the an¬ 
cients for discharging arrows. We are not able, from any 
descriptions the ancients have left us, to form any exact idea 
of either the catapult or the ballista. It appears that in the 
catapult a rope, suddenly freed from great tension, gave 
impulse to an arrow placed in a groove. There were great 
catapults, fixed upon a scaffold with wheels, which were 
used in sieges, and small ones, carried in the hand, which 
were employed in the field. Originally, ballistic were em¬ 
ployed to throw stones, and catapults to shoot darts; but 
the terms were often confounded by the later Roman writers. 

Cat'aract [Gr. Karappaarq^, from Kara, “down,” and 
pqyvvtxL, to “ break,” so named because the ancients be- 
' lieved that a kind of veil fell down within the eye, obscur¬ 
ing vision], an opaque state of the crystalline lens of the 
eye, of its capsule, or both. Cataracts are thus lenticular, 
capsular, or lenticulo-capsular. Various other kinds are 
enumerated, such as the soft cataract, in which the lens is 
soft, and sometimes even liquid; the hard cataract, when 
the lens may be as hard as bone, with many of intermediate 
consistency. Lamellar cataract affects a limited part of 
one or more of the lamellae, or layers of the lens. “ Gold- 
leaf cataract” is of a shining yellow, and contains choles- 
terine and crystalline degeneration products. Cataract is 
generally white, but sometimes is brown, black, bluish, 
silvery, etc. It sometimes has a pearly lustre. 

Cataract begins in a gradual impairment of vision, some 
months generally elapsing before sight is lost. The pupil 
is sensitive to light and atropia, vision being clearest when 
the pupil is large. There is no pain or intolerance ot light. 
The patient sees as in a mist, but almost always can per¬ 
ceive at least the presence of light. The pupil on examina¬ 
tion is seen to be opaque, but the eye is neither haidened 
nor softened and the expression of the face is quite natural. 
One or both eyes may have cataract. It is most frequent 
in elderly persons, but may occur at any age; children are 
sometimes born with it. Medical treatment lor cataract is 
















814 


CATARACTS AND RAPIDS—CATECHISM. 


useless, but the skilful surgeon can treat the disease often 
with the happiest results. The operation is either (1) ex¬ 
traction of the lens and its capsule, (2) depression or 
couching of the same, or (3) laceration with appropriate 
instruments, with a view of inducing absorption of the 
diseased part. This last operation is the most common, 
and often is the only one admissible. Great care should 
bo taken for a long time to prevent inflammatory action. 
The place of the lens is supplied by a kind of spectacles 
called cataract glasses. By these means the sight is often 
to a great degree restored. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Cataracts and Rapids. The regular slope of the 
river-bed is sometimes interrupted by more inclined and 
rocky planes, over which the stream, flowing with increased 
velocity, forms rapids, or by abrupt and nearly perpendic¬ 
ular walls, from which the foaming water descends from 
rock to rock, or in a single leap, in imposing cataracts or 
picturesque waterfalls. Usage, however, often confounds 
these names. The famous cataracts of the Nile are merely 
rapids, which impede, but do not entirely prevent, naviga¬ 
tion. The Falls of St. Anthony, in the Upper Mississippi, 
the great falls of the Upper Missouri, and, the grandest 
of all, the rapids of the St. Lawrence at Long Sault and 
Lachine, above Montreal, are among the noblest examples 
in our American rivers. 

The highest waterfalls are found in mountainous regions 
in the upper course of rivers; the largest in their middle 
course. Among the first, that of the Yosemite, in Califor¬ 
nia, is perhaps the most remarkable. It falls from an al¬ 
most perpendicular ledge of rock over 2500 feet high to 
the bottom of the valley of the same name, forming three 
cataracts, the first descending by a single leap of 1500 feet 
on a shelf of rock, from which it makes a series of cascades 
and a final plunge of 450 feet to the base of the precipice. 
The Keelfoss, in Norway, near the Sognefiord, the highest 
fall in Europe, has an uninterrupted descent of 2000 feet, 
and the Cascade of Gavarnie, in the Central Pyrenees, falls 
from a height of over 1300 feet; the Staubbach, in the 
Swiss Alps, from a 900-feet wall, and is reduced to spray 
before reaching the ground. In the Falls of Tequendama, 
in the Andes of New Granada, the river Bogota, compressed 
in a chasm thirty feet wide, precipitates itself 560 feet into 
a deep recess amidst the most gorgeous tropical vegetation. 

Among the great cataracts of the middle course of rivers 
Niagara takes the first rank by the volume of its waters, 
presenting the grand spectacle of a river over half a mile 
wide pouring itself in two magnificent sheets from a height 
of 160 feet into the whiidpool beloiv. The Shoshonee 
Falls in the Snake River branch of the Columbia in Idaho, 
the Victoria Falls of the Zambese in the heart of South 
Africa, the Falls of the Cavery in Southern India, which 
fall 500 feet in seven magnificent cascades, the newly dis¬ 
covered and splendid Cataract of Kaieteur, in British Gui¬ 
ana, formed by a large affluent of the Essequibo, which jumps 
in a single foaming sheet of water into a vast basin 740 feet 
below, the Falls of the Rhine, though but 60 feet high, all 
are said to equal in picturesque beauty, though not in 
grandeur, the Falls of Niagara. Arnold Guyot. 

Catarrh' [from the Gr. Kara, “ down,” and p«o, to 
“flow”], in medical language is a condition characterized 
by hypersemia (or congestion) of the blood-vessels of any 
mucous surface, with great increase of the proper secretion 
of the part. Thus, there may be catarrh of the nose, the 
throat, the air-passages, the bowels, the vagina, the blad¬ 
der, or the urethra; but in popular language “catarrh” 
designates either a “ cold” in general, a “ cold in the head,” 
or a chronic catarrh of the posterior nares (nostrils) and 
throat. Catarrhs in general arise from exposure to cold 
and wet and to sudden atmospheric changes. They are 
most common in persons who are ill-fed, and who are not 
accustomed to out-of-door exercise. The variety of ca¬ 
tarrh known as a “cold” is by no means always easy of 
cure. The popular belief that “a cold must have its run ” 
has some foundation. Hot foot-baths, laxatives, sedatives, 
demulcents, mild stimulants, or diaphoretics may, however, 
prove useful in many cases. Judicious exercise, bathing, 
and life in the open air tend to overcome the morbid in¬ 
clination to take cold from which some patients suffer. 
Chronic catarrh of the posterior nostrils is an obstinate 
disease, best treated by systematic exercise and attention 
to other hygienic conditions, and by the use of water as a 
nasal douche. Revised by Willard Parker. 

Catasau'qua, a post-borough of Lehigh co., Pa., on 
the Lehigh River and the Lehigh Valley R. R., 3 miles N. 
of Allentown; it is also on the Lehigh and Susquehanna 
R. R., and is the E. terminus of the Catasauqua and 
Fogelsville R. Rs. It contains about seven churches, one 
national bank, two machine-shops, two rolling-mills, and 
five blast furnaces. It has two weekly newspapers. P. 2853. 


Catas'trophe [Gr. Karaarpo^rj, from KaTa(TTpeif)u), “ to 
overturn ”], the final event of a drama or romance, to which 
the other events are subsidiary ; a disastrous revolution or 
event; a calamity ; an unfortunate conclusion. The term 
is used by geologists to denote a violent convulsion or phys¬ 
ical revolution, causing the elevation or subsidence of por¬ 
tions of the globe, and the destruction of large tribes or 
multitudes of animals. 

Cataw'ba, the name of an excellent wine of a rich 
muscadine flavor which is produced in various parts of the 
U. S. It is made of the Catawba grape, which originated 
probably near the Catawba River in North Carolina. This 
grape, which is highly esteemed for dessert, is red or cop¬ 
per-colored. The first person who cultivated it extensively 
lor wine was Nicholas Longworth of Cincinnati, whose 
vineyards covered the southern slopes of the hills in the 
environs of that city. The Catawba grape flourishes in 
the Middle, Southern, and Western States. A large quan¬ 
tity of this wine is produced in the Ohio Valley, the climate 
and soil of which are especially adapted to the culture of the 
grape. The best sparkling Catawba is considered nearly 
equal to champagne. 

Catawba, or Great Catawba, a river of the U. S., 

rises in McDowell co., N. C., and flows nearly eastward to 
Iredell co. It afterwards runs southward into South Caro¬ 
lina, and forms the E. boundary of York and Chester 
counties. Below Rocky Mount it is called the Wateree. 
Its length from its source to Rocky Mount is 250 miles. 

CataAvba, a county in the W. of North Carolina. Area, 
250 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and E. by the 
Catawba River, and is also drained by the Little Catawba. 
The surface is diversified; the soil is fertile. Corn, wheat, 
and wool are important products. Iron ore and marble are 
found. It is intersected by the Western R. R. Capital, 
Newton. Pop. 10,984. 

Catawba, a township of York co., S. C. Pop. 2893. 

Catawba, a post-twp. of Roanoke co., Va. Pop. 845. 

Catawba Indians, a once warlike tribe in the Car- 
olinas, now represented by a few half-breeds on a reserva¬ 
tion near the Catawba River. They were always friendly 
to the whites and hostile to their Indian enemies. Their 
language was akin to that of the Creeks. 

Catawba Island, a post-twp. of Ottawa co., O. P. 515. 

Catawba Springs, a twp. of Lincoln co., N. C. P. 2097. 

Catawis'sa, a post-village of Columbia co., Pa., on the 
North Branch of the Susquehanna, and on the Danville 
Hazelton and Wilkesbarre and the Catawissa R. Rs., 52 miles 
S. E. of Williamsport. Here are several iron-works. The 
scenery is very fine. Pop., including township, 1614. 

Cat-Bird ( Txirdus felivox), a bird common in the U. S., 
is related to the mocking-bird, which it resembles in its 
vocal powers. It derives its common name from a note or 
cry which it utters. It occurs in the Middle States as a 
summer bird of passage, and breeds in gardens or in the 
vicinity of dwelling-houses. The color of its upper plu¬ 
mage is dark gray or slate-color. It is serviceable to man 
in devouring insects and worms. It sometimes imitates 
the song of other birds, and is remarkable for its boldness 
and vivacity. 

Catch, a kind of music for men’s voices; a sort of 
round or fugue intended for convivial parties. This kind 
of music is chiefly English, and was especially popular in 
Charles II.’s time. The effect of the best catches is very 
fine. 

Catch-drains, open drains across a declivity to inter¬ 
cept the surface-water. The term is sometimes applied to 
under-drains across a declivity. 

Cateau, Le, or Catean-Cambresis, a town of 
France, department of Nord, on the river Selle, 14 miles 
E. S. E. of Cambrai. It is well built, and was formerly 
fortified. It has manufactures of shawls, merinoes, and 
calicoes. The important treaty of Cateau-Cambresis was 
concluded here between Henry II. of France and Philip 
II. of Spain, in 1559. Pop. 9974. 

Catechetical Schools, a name given to the ancient 
Christian schools of theology, of which the principal were 
those of Alexandria (160-400 A. D.) and Antioch (from 290 
A. D. through the fifth century). The most noted teachers 
in the great school of Alexandria were Clement and Origen. 

Cat'echism [from the Gr. Karrixeia, to “ sound into” 
one’s ears, to “instruct orally”], an arrangement of ques¬ 
tions and answers, generally designed to teach religious 
doctrine to the young. Catechetic instruction has long 
prevailed among the Jews, and in the early Christian 
Church the catechumens (or persons receiving instruction 
preparatory to baptism) constituted, according to several 
of the Fathers, a separate order in the membership of the 
Church. This order comprised both the children of be- 
















CATECHU—CATHARINE. 


815 


lie vers and adults from heathen society who desired, admis¬ 
sion into the Church. What would now be called catechisms 
were used to some extent in those remote times. Catechisms 
were used in the Middle Ages by the Waldenses, and later 
by the Bohemian Brethren. It has been said that the 
catechisms of Luther (1518-29) were the first which re¬ 
ceived this name, but this point is not quite certain. The 
Roman Catholic Church had long used catechisms, though 
called by other names. Ivero of St. Gall in the eighth 
century prepared one of the earliest in the German lan¬ 
guage. The principal catechisms of later times have been 
those of Luther (the Exposition of 1518, the Catechism of 
1520, the Smaller and Larger Catechism of 1529), still ex¬ 
tensively used in the Lutheran Church; Calvin’s cate¬ 
chisms, the Smaller and Larger (1536-39); the Heidelberg 
Catechism (1562), (Reformed); that of (Ecolampadius 
(1545), of Erasmus (1547), of Leo Judm (1553); the Triden¬ 
tine Catechism (1566), a standard in the Roman Catholic 
Church; the Anglican catechisms—the Larger (Latin, 
1570), the Shorter or Middle Catechism, and the Smaller, 
which, with a few changes, is published in the Book of 
Common Prayer; the British Presbyterian catechisms— 
the Shorter (1647) and Larger (1648), which, with the 
Westminster Confession (1646), are standard books with 
most Presbyterian churches in the U. S. and Great Britain. 
The Russian Church has a “ Primer for Children” (1720) 
and a “Shorter” and “Longer Catechism” (1839). Besides 
these may be mentioned the three Wesleyan catechisms 
prepared by Richard Watson, and the three Methodist 
Episcopal Church catechisms (New York, 1852). The num¬ 
ber of symbolical or authorized standard catechisms of the 
various churches is quite large, besides an immense num¬ 
ber of private or unauthorized works of the kind. 

Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Cat'eclm [etymology uncertain], a material employed 
in tanning leather, as a coloring-matter, and medicinally 
as an astringent. The catechu of commerce is derived 
from East Indian trees, such as the catechu tree ( Acacia 
Catechu)’, also from the areca-palm and various other trees. 
It is known in India by the name kutt (our cutch). The 
heart-wood of the former (now naturalized in Jamaica) 
yields catechu by cutting it into chips and boiling in water, 
straining the liquid from time to time, and adding fresh 
chips, till the extract is of sufficient consistence to be poured 
into moulds of a square or circular shape; or when of the 
thickness of tar it is allowed to harden, and is formed into 
balls about the size of oranges. The catechu manufacturers 
in India move to different parts of the country at different 
seasons, and erect huts in the jungles, where they carry on 
their operations. The catechu tree abounds in Bombay 
and Bengal and in Burmah and Siam, and is a small 
thorny tree, with a roundish head. Its sap wood is yellow, 
the heart dark red. Catechu is brittle, soluble in water, 
and possesses an astringent taste, but no odor. It affords 
permanent colors, and is employed in the dyeing of blacks, 
browns, fawns, drabs, and greens. It contains much tannin, 
which is of a peculiar kind, called mimo-tannic acid, also 
catechuic acid, which can be isolated in white silky crys¬ 
tals. This latter acid is often called catecliine, and is of 
important use when catechu is employed as a dyestnff. It 
is sometimes adulterated with earthy substances, but its 
solubility in water and alcohol at once show their presence. 
The catechu of the betel-nut is obtained by boiling first the 
nuts, and then the extract. A first boiling of the nuts 
yields a black catechu, called kassu; and a second boiling, 
after the nuts are dried, a yellowish kind, called coury, 
which is the best. The former appears in commerce under 
the name of Ceylon catechu, in circular flat cakes. Gam- 
bir may be regarded as a kind of catechu, and is frequently 
called “pale catechu.” Kino is sometimes confounded 
with catechu, which it much resembles. 

Catechu'men [Gr. fcarrjxov>ei'o?], a person who is 
learning the elements of any science, but especially one who 
is receiving instruction preparatory to admission into the 
Christian Church. Catechumens were anciently divided 
into three, or, as some writers say, four classes. The pro¬ 
bation commonly lasted from two to three years, although 
it was frequently reduced to a much smaller compass. It 
was assumed that the children of Christian parents required 
less instruction than Jewish converts, and Jewish converts 
less than the heathen. 

Cat'egory [from the Gr. Karnyopeuy, to “accuse,” and 
hence to “ affirm strongly ;” Lat. prscdicamentuni]. In 
philosophical terminology the categories are the ultimate 
classes in which all objects of knowledge can be systemat¬ 
ically arranged. Philosophy and science, acknowledging 
the impossibility of knowing all things individually, re¬ 
duce objects to classes; and when we gain knowledge of 
the class, we have a formal or general knowledge of its con¬ 
stituent objects. This attempt to render knowledge in some 


sense universal has been made in the philosophy of all ages, 
and has given rise to various systems of categories—liter¬ 
ally, things that may be affirmed. Aristotle seems to have 
been the first of the Greeks to make anything like a com¬ 
plete classification of them. He makes them ten in num¬ 
ber—viz. substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, 
time, position, possession, action, passivity. This system 
was uuquestioningly received for a long time, but modern 
criticism has shown that there may be many predicates 
which could not be contained in any of these categories. 
Accordingly, Kant and others have attempted to make 
better classes. Kant makes twelve categories, in four 
classes of three species each—viz., singularity, plurality, 
and universality; realit}’, unreality, and indefiniteness; 
substance, dependence, and reaction; possibility, exist¬ 
ence, and necessity. Various other arrangements have 
been proposed, but criticism has shown that thus far, per¬ 
haps, none are perfect. It is remarkable that the cate¬ 
gories of the Hindoo philosopher Ivanada are almost iden¬ 
tical with those of Aristotle. Kan ad a probably lived before 
the time of Aristotle. (See Max MUller’s paper on “In¬ 
dian Logic,” appended to Archbishop Thomson’s “ Laws of 
Thought.”) 

Cate'lia [Lat. catena, a “ chain ”], in biblical literature, 
is a commentary made up of selections from various writers. 
The number of catenas is very considerable, and some are 
of great antiquity. Perhaps the most celebrated is the 
“Catena Aurea” ( i . e. “Golden Chain”) of Thomas Aquinas. 

Cat'enary [from the Lat. catena, a “chain”], the curve 
formed by a cord or flexible chain of uniform density and 
size when suspended or allowed to hang freely from two 
fixed points. This curve was first noticed by Galileo, but 
he imagined it to be the same as the parabola. Its true 
nature was first demonstrated by James Bernoulli. It has 
several remarkable properties, one of which is that its cen¬ 
tre of gravity is lower than that of any curve of equal peri¬ 
meter and with the same fixed points for its extremities. It 
is interesting on account of the light it throws on the theory 
of arches, and by reason of its application to the construc¬ 
tion of suspension bridges. 

Cat'erpilkir. See Entomology, by Prof. Saneorn 
Tenney, A. M. 

Catesby (Mark), F. R. S., an English naturalist and 
artist, born in 1679. He visited America in 1710, and after 
his return to England published a “Natural History of 
Carolina, Florida, etc.,” with colored figures drawn and 
etched by himself. Died Dec. 24, 1749. 

Cat-fish ( Pimelodus), a well-known genus of fresh¬ 
water fishes, of the family Siluridae, comprising, it is said, 
thirty or more species in the U. S., divided by some of the 
later authors into several genera, as Arniurus, Ichthselurm , 
Hojiladelus, etc. They are also called bull-heads and pouts. 
Some of them are armed with sharp spines. It is said that 
cat-fish have been taken in the Mississippi weighing more 
than two hundred pounds. As a rule, they are not very 
savory as food. The sea cat-fish ( Galeicthys marinus) is 
kindred to the above genus, and is a fine fish for the table. 

Cat/gut, a material employed for the strings of violins 
and other musical instruments, for the cords used by clock- 
makers, bow-strings, fishing-lines, and for belt-stitching in 
mills, etc. It is generally prepared from the intestines of 
sheep, and sometimes from those of the horse and ass. It 
is prepared by an elaborate process, and preserved from 
putrefaction by treating it with a dilute solution of alkali. 
The best violin-strings are manufactured in Italy, and are 
called Roman strings. 

Ca'tha, a genus of plants of the natural order Celas- 
tracese. The Catha edulis, which the Arabs call khdt, is 
a shrub, a native of Arabia, having narcotic and stimulat¬ 
ing leaves, which are eaten by the Arabs. They also make 
a decoction of the leaves, which is used as a beverage. 

Cath'ari [Gr. K a.6apoL, the “pure”], a name applied at 
different times to various sects of Christians, such as the 
Novatians of the third century, and to the Albigenses, 
Patarenes, Waldenses, and others in the twelfth century. 
The name is analogous to “Puritans,” and was apparently 
in some cases assumed, and in others ironically conferred 
in consequence of their professed aim at greater purity of 
life than was ordinarily attained. The Cathari proper were 
Dualists, and were perhaps of Slavonic, possibly of remote 
Gnostic, origin. They appeared in Italy in the elcv enth 
century, and attained their greatest prosperity in Southern 
France, where they were confounded with the Albigenses, 
and were exterminated with them in the thirteenth century. 
The strict Cathari held no property, abstained from mar¬ 
riage, war, and the killing of animals, and rejected water- 
baptism. 

Catherine, a post-township of Schuyler co., N. Y. 
Pop. 1629. 










CATHARINE—CATHCAET. 


816 


Catharine, a township of Blair co., Pa. Pop. 907. 

Catharine de Medici [Fr. Catherine de Medicis], 
queen of France, was born at Florence in 1519. Sho was 
a daughter of the duke of Urbino, who was a nephew of 
Pope Leo X. She was married in 1533 to a son of Francis 

1. of France, who ascended the throne as Henry II. in 1547. 
On the death of her son, Francis II., in 15G0, she became 
regent of France during the minority of Charles IX., who 
was her son. She was ambitious, crafty, and perfidious, 
and made bad use of her power. Iler intrigues promoted 
the civil or religious war by which France was for many 
years afflicted. She also appears to have been one of the 
instigators of the massacre of St. Bartholomew (Aug., 
1572). Died Jan. 5, 1589. (See Eugenio Albert, “Vita 
de Caterina de’ Medici,” 1834.) 

Catharine Howard. See Henry VIII. 

Cath'arine [Buss. Ekaterina] I., empress of Russia, 
was born of poor parents at Bingen, near Dorpat, in Livonia, 
April 15, 1684. Iler first husband was a subaltern Swedish 
officer. She was taken a captive by the Russians in 1702, 
and was married to Peter the Great in 1711. Peter, hav¬ 
ing invaded Turkey in 1711, was reduced by want of pro¬ 
visions to a critical position, from which he was extricated 
by Catherine, who bribed the Turkish vizier. She was 
crowned as empress in 1724, and died May 17, 1727. Her 
daughter Elizabeth became empress. 

Catharine II., empress of Russia, born at Stettin May 

2, 1729, was a daughter of the prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. She 
was married in 1745 to Peter, a nephew and heir of Eliza¬ 
beth, empress of Russia. They soon quarrelled and became 
estranged from each other. On the death of Elizabeth, in 
1761, he ascended the throne as Peter III. In July, 1762, 
he was assassinated by conspirators, of whom Catherine 
was probably an accomplice, and she assumed sovereign 
power, for which she was qualified by superior talents ; but 
she was a woman of very dissolute character. She admin¬ 
istered the government with energy and success, and in¬ 
creased both the extent and power of the empire. She 
co-operated with Austria and Prussia in the partition of 
Poland in 1772, and in the second partition of 1793. The 
Russians were victorious in a war against tllfc Turks, which 
was ended by the treaty of Ivainardji in 1774. She was a 
liberal patron of scientific men. She died Nov. 17, 1796, and 
was succeeded by her son, Paul I. “ Her capacity,” says 
Lord Brougham, “was of an exalted order. Iler judgment 
was clear and sure. The history of princes affords few ex¬ 
amples of such force of character on a throne perverted to 
the working of so much mischief.” ( Statesmen of the Time 
of George III.) (Sec Tooke, “History of Catherine II.,” 
1803 ; Castera, “Vie de Catherine II.,” 1796; Tannen- 
BERG, “Leben Catherinens II.,” 1797.) 

Catharine of Aragon, queen of England, a daugh¬ 
ter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, was born in 1486. 
In 1501 she was married to Arthur, who was the eldest son 
of Henry VII. of England, and who died in 1502. She 
was married in 1509 to Arthur’s brother, Henry VIII., who 
was six years younger than herself. She gave birth in 1516 
to a daughter, Mary, who became queen. The king, who 
had conceived a passion for Anne Boleyn about 1527, ex¬ 
pressed doubts of the legality of his marriage with Cath¬ 
arine, and applied to the pope for a divorce. The disagree¬ 
ment between the pope and Henry VIII. on this subject 
was one of the causes of the prevalence of Protestantism 
in England. Cranmer declared the marriage void in 1533. 
She died in 1536. 

Catharine of Braganza, the queen of Charles II. 
of England, born in 1638, was a daughter of John IV., 
king of Portugal, and brought in dower Tangiers and 
Bombay. She had been religiously bred, and the licentious 
customs of the English court sho found strange. After 
the death of Charles (1685) sho returned to Portugal in 
1693, and was made regent by her brother Pedro in 1704. 
Died Dec. 31, 1705. 

Catharine of Valois, queen of Henry V. of Eng¬ 
land and daughter of Charles VI. of France, was born 
Oct. 27, 1401. Her hand, together with the right of suc¬ 
cession to the French throne, was given to Henry by the 
treaty of Troyes. After the death of the king, Catharine 
became the wife of Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman. She 
died Jan. 3, 1437. 

Catharine Parr, the sixth wife of Henry VIII. of 
England, was born in 1513. She was married to Lord Lat¬ 
imer, and after his death became, in 1543, the queen of 
Henry VIII. She was a woman of considerable learning 
and no little tact. After the death of the king she was 
married to Sir Thomas Seymour. Died Sept. 30, 1548. 

Cathar'tes An'ra, the turkey-buzzard, a vulture which 
is so called from its close resemblance to the common turkey. 
It mostly inhabits North America, but is sometimes found 


in Jamaica, where it is called the John crow. The adult 
bird measures about two feet and a half in length, and is 



Cathartes Aura. 


six feet between the tips of the wings. The general color 
of the plumage is black mingled with brown. Turkey-buz¬ 
zards as scavengers are of much service to man, devouring 
all refuse substances that are injurious to health. When 
gorged they perch themselves on some neighboring tree, 
where they sit with their wings half open, apparently too 
lazy to hold them in their proper position. They do not 
construct much of a nest, but generally deposit their eggs 
in some hollow tree or log. Another species, Cathartes 
atratm, commonly known as the carrion crow or black 
vulture, is smaller than the above, and is found in the 
Southern States. In the Southern towns, especially Charles¬ 
ton and Savannah, large numbers may be seen sauntering 
about the market-places, or, if the weather be cool, perched 
on the chimney-tops, the heat from which they greatly en¬ 
joy. Both species are protected by law, and are in an al¬ 
most perfect state of domestication. 

Cathar'tics [from the Gr. Kadaipm, to “purify”], a 
name at first given to medicines supposed to purify the 
body from the matter of disease, assumed by the ancients 
to exist in cases of acute disorder, and to require to be 
thrown off by the excretions. Ultimately, the term cathar¬ 
tics became limited to remedies acting on the bowels, which 
are popularly called purgatives. Among the principal 
cathartics are aloes, colocynth, rhubarb, scammony, jalap, 
senna, Epsom and Rochelle salts, and castor oil. Sulphur 
and cream of tartar form a useful mild laxative; mag¬ 
nesia is also administered in cases of indigestion with 
acidity. The resin of podophyllum (may-apple) is now 
sometimes used. The most agreeable of all cathartic med¬ 
icines is the effervescent solution of citrate of magnesia. 
Croton oil and elaterium belong to a dangerous class of 
cathartics, as also does the favorite remedy of the ancients, 
the black hellebore. The number of cathartic medicines 
is very great. 

Cathar'tin is the supposed active principle in senna. 
It can be isolated as a yellowish-red uncrystallizable sub¬ 
stance, which is deliquescent, and has a very bitter taste, 
a characteristic odor, and purging powers, causing nausea 
and griping. Three grains of cathartin are a full dose. It 
is not much used, and is perhaps not a definite compound. 
The same name is given to a purgative principle obtained 
from buckthorn berries. 

Cath'cart, Earls of (1814), Viscounts Cathcart and 
Barons Greenock (United Kingdom, 1807), Barons Cath¬ 
cart (Scotland, 1447).— Alan Frederick Cathcart, third 
earl, born Nov. 15, 1828, succeeded his father July 16,1859. 

Cathcart (William Shaw), Earl of, a British general 
and diplomatist, born Sept. 17, 1755. He became a major- 
general in 1794, and was sent on a mission to the court of 
Russia in 1805. He commanded the land forces which, 
with aid of the fleet, captured Copenhagen in 1807. In 
1813 he was sent as ambassador to St. Petersburg. He was 
raised to the rank of earl in 1814. His eldest son, Charles 























CATHEDRAL—CATLIN. 817 


Murray, born in 1783, became a general, and inherited the 
title of earl. Died June 17, 1843. 

Cathe'dral [from Gr. xaOeSpa, a “ chair,” a “seat”], 
the principal church of a diocese, in which is the cathedra 
or throne of the bishop. It is the parish church of the 
whole diocese. The difference between a cathedral and a 
collegiate church consists chiefly in the fact that the for¬ 
mer is the see of a bishop. The governing body of a cathe¬ 
dral is called the dean and chapter— i. e. the dean and 
canons. In the Anglican Church all the members of the 
cathedrals, except the dean, are styled canons, and their 
seat in the cathedral is called their stall. Among the re¬ 
markable cathedrals of the world are the Duomo at Flor¬ 
ence, the cathedral of Milan, that of Notre Dame in Paris, 
the Strasburg cathedral, and St. Paul’s in London. The 
church of St. John Lateran in Rome is the cathedral or 
episcopal church of the pope. 

Catherine, Saint, of Alexandria in Egypt, suffered 
martyrdom about 307 A. D. She is supposed to have been 
a patroness of learning and philosophy. 

Cath'eter [Gr. saOerrjp, from /caGi^c, to “send down” 
or “thrust into”], in surgery, the name of various instru¬ 
ments used for passing along mucous canals. It is, how¬ 
ever, generally applied to tubes through which fluids may 
pass, and which may give exit to the accumulated contents 
of such organs as the urinary bladder. The ancients made 
catheters of copper. In the ninth century silver was sub¬ 
stituted by the Arabian surgeons, and still generally used. 
The urinary catheter for the male varies in length from ten 
to twelve inches,* the female catheter need not be more than 
four or five inches, and is nearly straight. For the male 
urethra most surgeons prefer an instrument straight to 
within the last few inches of its length; the latter should 
be curved into the segment of a small circle. Others, how¬ 
ever, use a double curve. A vertebrated catheter, consist¬ 
ing of short, hollow joints of silver, united into a continuous 
flexible tube, is often extremely useful. Flexible catheters 
of gum elastic are used either alone or supported on a wire. 
Great tact and care are required in introducing catheters into 
the urinary bladder. It must not be done by force, but by 
gentle management. Violence in the operation may cause 
serious injury. Revised by Willard Parker. 

Cath'ey’s Creek, a township of Transylvania co., 
N. C. Pop. 515. 

Cathlam'et, a post-village, capital of Wahkiakum co., 
Wash. Ter. 

Cathade. See Electricity, by Pres. Henry Mor¬ 
ton, Ph. I). 

Catholic or United Copts, that portion of the 
Coptic Church in Egypt which acknowledges the supremacy 
of the pope. They number about 13,000. (See Copts.) 

Cath'olic Apostol'ic Church, The, is the name of 
a body of Christians popularly known as the Irvingites, 
being followers of the Rev. Edward Irving, who died in 
1834. They are distinguished by their claim to the ex¬ 
ercise of apostolic gifts, such as prophecy, the use of un¬ 
known tongues, and the miraculous healing of disease. 
They receive only the Apostles’, the Nicene, and the Atha- 
nasian creeds; their officers are called apostles, prophets, 
evangelists, angels, pastors, deacons, under-deacons, and 
deaconesses; they are ritualists, imitating closely the ser¬ 
vice of the Roman Catholic Church, professing to select all 
that is desirable from all Christian churches. This sect 
originated in London, but it is found in small numbers in 
most Protestant countries. (See Irving, Edward.) 

Cath'olic [Gr. *a0oAi/<o<r, “universal,” from sard , 
“throughout,” and SAo?, “all”] Church. The phrase 
Catholic Church is equivalent to “universal church,” and 
cannot properly be limited to any particular sect or body. 
It was once employed to distinguish the Christian Church 
from the Jewish, the latter being restricted to a single na¬ 
tion, while the former was intended for the world. After¬ 
wards, it served to mark the difference between the so-called 
orthodox Church and the sects which sprang from it, such 
as the Arians, Gnostics, etc. The name has been especially 
claimed by the Church of Rome. Protestant divines have 
been careful to deny its applicability, yet the term Catholic 
is still popularly used as synonymous with Roman Catholic. 
(See Roman Catholics.) 

Cath'olic Emancipation, in British history, the 
measure enacted April 13, 1829, by which the political dis¬ 
abilities previously resting upon Roman Catholics were 
chiefly removed. These disabilities weighed most heavily 
upon "the Roman Catholics of Ireland, and the history of 
the oppressions of Irish Catholics is almost identical with 
the history of English rule in Ireland, for these oppressions 
had their origin quite as much in political and social as in 
religious prejudice. 

52 


After the subjugation of Ireland in 1691 by the forces 
of William III., the whole people were disarmed; priests 
were banished the country; no Roman Catholic could 
act as guardian for any child; after 1704 a son turning 
Protestant could dispossess his father and take his estate; 
a Catholic heir to landed property was to be set aside in 
favor of the next Protestant heir; no office, military or 
civil, could be held by a Roman Catholic; he could not 
vote or marry a Protestant wife; his son might force him 
to settle an allowance upon him (the son) at the discretion 
of a court of chancery; no Roman Catholic could practise 
law or teach school; no Protestant lawyer could marry a 
Catholic wife ; a priest marrying a Catholic and Protestant 
was to be hanged. Many of these measures became obso¬ 
lete in practice, and more were repealed by the Irish Par¬ 
liament of 1790 ; and at the union (1800) Mr. Pitt pledged 
himself to secure an act of emancipation, but through the 
opposition of George III. he failed. Subsequently, in con¬ 
sequence of the agitation of O'Connell and the Catholic 
Association, the subject was again taken up, was brought 
forward in Parliament by Mr. Peel Mar. 5, 1829, and was 
carried by large majorities in both houses. The only dis¬ 
abilities left upon Catholics were their exclusion from the 
regency, the chancellorship of England or Ireland, the 
viceroyship of Ireland, and from the offices and patronage 
of the Anglican Church, the universities and the Church 
schools; the prohibition of episcopal titles, the public use 
of clerical insignia, the extension of monasticism, and the 
increase of the number of Jesuits. These latter prohibi¬ 
tions are, however, practically overlooked. 

Catli'oSic Epis'tles ,the name given to certain epistles 
of the New Testament addressed not to particular churches 
or individuals, but to the Church universal or to a large and 
indefinite circle of readers. Originally the Catholic Epis¬ 
tles comprised only the first Epistle of John and the first 
of Peter, but as early as the fourth century the term W'as 
applied also to the Epistle of James, of Jude, the second 
of Peter, and the second and third of John. These seven 
thus constitute the Catholic Epistles. 

Cathol'icos, the title of the patriarchs or chief eccle¬ 
siastics in the hierarchy of the Armenian Church, and also 
of the prelates of the Christians of Georgia and Mingrelia. 

Cat'iline [Lat. Catilina\, (Lucius Sergius), a famous 
Roman demagogue and conspirator, born about 108 B. C. 
In his youth he was a partisan of Sulla in the civil w r ar. 
He was elected prmtor in 68 B. C., and afterwards aspired 
to the office of consul. He was notorious for his crimes, 
and was ruined in fortune, but his talents and his audacity 
combined to render him a popular favorite of a large party, 
many of which were insolvent debtors and desperate adven¬ 
turers. Having been defeated in the election for consul, he 
formed a conspiracy against the state. It appears that he 
and his numerous accomplices proposed to massacre the 
senators and the friends of order, and to involve Rome in a 
general conflagration. The leaders of this plot met on the 
6tli of Nov., 63 B. C., and made arrangements for its speedy 
execution; but the secret was revealed by Fulvia, the mis¬ 
tress of one of the conspirators, who were baffled by the 
vigilance and energy of Cicero. On the 8th of November, 
Cicero uttered in the senate his first oration against Cati¬ 
line, who was present and attempted to reply, but his voice 
was drowned by cries of “ Traitor!” and “ Parricide !” 
Catiline left Rome in the next night, and went to the camp 
of Manlius, who was his accomplice and was at the head 
of an army in Etruria. Lentulus and other conspirators 
who remained in Rome were put to death in Dec., 63 B. C. 
The army of the senate encountered that of Catiline near 
Pistoria (now Pistoia) in 62 B. C, He stimulated the courage 
of his soldiers with an eloquent harangue, and a desperate 
battle ensued, in which Catiline was defeated and killed, 
with about 3000 of his partisans. (Sec Sallust, “ Bellum 
Catilinarium;” Rose, “History of Catiline’s Conspiracy,” 
1813; Cicero, “Orationes in Catilinam.”) J 

Cat'kin, or A'ment (amentum), in botany, a term ap¬ 
plied to a form of inflorescence of which the willow, poplar, 
birch, and alder afford examples. It is a close spike of 
numerous small, unisexual flowers, destitute of calyx and 
corolla, and furnished with scale-like bracts. The trees 
which bear catkins form the natural order AmentacEjE 
(which see). 

Cat'Iettsburg, a post-village, capital of Boyd co., 
Ky., on the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Big Sandy, 
about 150 miles E. N. E. of Frankfort. It has a trade in 
lumber and various manufactures. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. Pop. 1019. Ed. “Central Methodist. 

Cat'lin, a post-township of Vermilion co., Ill. P. 1826. 

Cat! in, a township of Chemung co., N. \. Pop. 1342. 

Catlin (George), an American traveller and artist, 
born in Wilkcsbarre, Pa., in 1796. He passed many years 


























818 CATMINT—CATTEGAT. 


among the North American Indians, and published “ Illus¬ 
trations of the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the 
North American Indians,” with engravings (2 vols., 1841). 
He exhibited in Europe his Indian gallery and collection. 
Died in Jersey City Dec. 23, 1872, aged seventy-eight. 

Cat'mint, or Cat'nip (Nepeta Gat-aria), an herbaceous 
plant of the natural order Labiatm, is a native of Europe, 
and is a common weed in the U. S., but not indigenous 
here. It has cordate and crenate leaves, which are whitish, 
downy underneath, and emit a peculiar odor. Cats are 
extremely fond of tins' plant, which they eat with avidity 
and signs of excitement. 

Ca'to, a post-township of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 523. 

Cato, a post-township of Cayuga co., N. Y. P. 2091. 

Cato, a post-township of Manitowoc co., Wis. P.1675. 

Cato (Dionysius), a Latin moralist of the third cen¬ 
tury, of whom nothing is known, is the reputed author of 
a small volume of moral precepts, entitled “ Disticha do 
Moribus ad Filium,” which was a popular book in the 
Middle Ages. Each precept is expressed in two hexameter 
verses. Great difference of opinion exists respecting the 
merit of this work. 

Cato (Marcus Porcius), often called Cato Censorius 
(i.e. “Cato the Censor”), a celebrated Roman statesman 
and patriot, born of a plebeian family at Tusculum in 234 
B. C. He was surnamed the Elder, to distinguish him 
from Cato Uticensis. He fought against Hannibal in the 
second Punic war, after the end of which he cultivated a 
small Sabine farm, adopted a simple and frugal mode of 
life, and became a model of austere and pristine Roman 
virtue. Having removed to Rome, he gained distinction 
as an advocate in the courts of justice, and was elected 
praetor in 198 B. C. He was chosen consul in 195, and 
commanded an army in Spain, where ho displayed superior 
military talents, and was so successful that he received a 
triumph on his return to Rome. In the year 184 he was 
elected censor, in which capacity he acted with uncommon 
rigor. He was a zealous asserter of old-fashioned princi¬ 
ples, and opposed the growing tendency to luxury, and all 
innovations, good or bad. Ho was an implacable enemy 
of Carthage, and often repeated in the senate the phrase 
Delenda est Carthago (“ Carthage must be destroyed”). He 
wrote, besides other works, a treatise on agriculture (“Do 
Re Rustica”), which is extant. Died in 149 B. C. (See 
PuuTARcn, “Life of Cato;” Cornelius Nepos, “Cato;” 
Livy, “History of Rome;” Weber, “ Programma de M. 
P. Catonis Yita et Moribus.”) v 

Cato (Marcus Porcius), surnamed the Younger and 
Uticensis (7. e. “ of Utica”), an eminent Roman patriot and 
statesman, born in 95 B. C., was a great-grandson of the 
preceding. He studied and adopted the doctrines and dis¬ 
cipline of the Stoic philosophers. In 72 B. C. he served 
in the campaign against Spartacus. Having been elected 
quaestor (treasurer), he effected some reforms in the treasury 
department. He became tribune of the people in 63 B. C., 
and heartily co-operated with Cicero, who was then consul, 
in his efforts to defeat the treason of Catiline and his ac¬ 
complices. He opposed the triumvirs, Caesar, Pompey, and 
Crassus, after they had formed a coalition. In 54 B. C. he 
was chosen praetor, and used his power to prevent bribery 
in elections. He was an uncompromising opponent of cor¬ 
ruption, and inflexible in his adherence to what he consid¬ 
ered the right and the patriotic policy. As a candidate for 
the consulship he was defeated, because he declined to gain 
votes by bribery and other means which were customary, 
but not strictly right. In the civil war which began about 
49 B. C. he adhered to the side of the senate and Pompey. 
He was not present at the battle of Pharsalia, soon after 
which he was appointed commander of the army in Africa, 
but he resigned the command to Scipio. The republican 
cause having been ruined by the defeat of that army at 
Thapsus in 46 B. C., Cato killed himself at Utica in the 
same year. He was regarded as a model of pure and dis¬ 
interested virtue. (Sec Drumann, “Geschichte Roms;” 
Plutarch, “Life of Cato the Younger.”) / 

Catoc'tiil, a township of Frederick co., Md. P. 1326. 

Ca'ton, a post-township of Steuben co., N. Y. P. 1544. 

Catoo'sa, a county of Georgia, bordering on Tennes¬ 
see. Area, 175 square miles. It is drained by Chicka- 
mauga Creek. The surface is hilly. Wool and grain arc 
important products. It is intersected by the Western and 
Atlantic R. R. Capital, Ringgold. Pop. 4409. 

Catoosa Springs, a saline chalybeate spring of Ca¬ 
toosa co., Ga. There are accommodations for several hun¬ 
dred visitors, and the springs are extensively patronized 
in the summer. 

Catoptrics. See Reflection of Light. 

Cats [Lat. Catsius ], (Jakob), an eminent Dutch poet, 


born at Brouwershaven, in Zealand, in 1577. He studied 
law, which he practised. He also filled several high civil 
offices. He was grand-pensionary of Holland from 1636 
to 1648, when he became keeper of the grand seal. Ilis 
poems were very popular. He wrote “Moral Emblems,” 
fables, songs, allegories, etc., which are distinguished by 
simplicity of style and good moral tendency. Died in 
1660. (See Alsciie, “ Commentatio de J. Catsio,” 1828.) 

Cat’s Eye, a beautiful variety of chalcedonic quartz 
of various shades of greenish-gray or brownish-red. It 
displays, when polished, a peculiar pearly opalescence 
(chatoyance) or floating internal light, much resembling 
the mutable reflections exhibited by the contracted pupil 
of the eye of a cat. This results from the parallel arrange¬ 
ment of the minute fibres of the rhineral or of the fibres of 
amianthus or asbestos which it contains. It is obtained 
chiefly in Ceylon, and is found in Scotland. It is used in 
jewelry, and is cut en cabochon. 

Cats'kill, a post-village, capital of Greene co., N. Y., 
on the W. bank of the Hudson River, at the mouth of Cats- 
kill Creek, 34 miles below Albany, and 109 miles by rail 
N. of New York. It contains a court-house, seven churches, 
two national banks, and two newspaper-offices. Pop. 3791; 
of Catskill township, 7677. The Hudson River R. R. passes 
on the other side of the river. 

Catskill Group, the uppermost division of the Devo¬ 
nian system in America. It was named from the Catskill 
Mountains, which were supposed to be formed of these 
rocks, but are now known to be mainly composed of strata 
of the Chemung group. The Catskill rocks are best seen 
in the northern counties of Pennsylvania—Tioga, Bradford, 
Potter, htc. They are mainly red sandstones and shales, 
and contain as characteristic fossils the scales and bones 
of large ganoid fishes. 

Catskill Mountains, of New York, a group of the 
great Appalachian system, included mostly in Greene 
county. The highest summit, Hunter Mountain, has an 
altitude of 4050 feet. On the border of the eastern ter¬ 
races are the Overlook House, placed at an elevation of 
2977 feet, and the Catskill Mountain House, at 2235 feet 
above the Hudson. The last, which has long been a favor¬ 
ite summer resort, is about 12 miles W. of the village of 
Catskill. The summits of the mountains command exten¬ 
sive and beautiful prospects. The view at sunrise from 
these mountain-houses is magnificent and beautiful in 
the highest degree. The scenery of this group is diver¬ 
sified by cascades, rocky precipices, small lakes, and deep 
ravines. 

Cat’s-Tail Grass, a name of the Phleum jjratense. 
(See Timothy.) 

Cat Tail, or Cat’s Tail ( Typha latifolia), ah aquatic 
herbaceous plant of the order Typhaceae, is indigenous in 
the U. S. and Europe. It bears flowers in a long and very 
dense cylindrical spike terminating the stem. Its leaves 
are of late employed with success in France as a material 
for paper-making. 

Cattarau'gus, a county of Western New York, bor¬ 
dering on Pennsylvania. Area, 1334 square miles. It is 
intersected by the Alleghany River, and bounded partly 
on the N. by Cattaraugus Creek. The surface is uneven 
or hilly; the soil is fertile. Dairy products, grain, and 
potatoes are largely produced. Leather, lumber, cooper¬ 
age, metallic ivares, flour, cheese, saddlery, etc. are among 
the manufactures. It is traversed by the Erie, the Atlantic 
and Great Western, and the Buffalo New York and Phila¬ 
delphia R. Rs. Capitftl, Little Valley. Pop. 43,909. y 

Cattaraugus, a post-village of New Albion township, 
Cattaraugus co., N. Y., on the Erie R. R., 22 miles E. of 
Dunkirk. 

Cat'taro, a seaport-town of Austria, in Dalmatia, on 
the Gulf of Cattaro, about 37 miles S. E. of Ragusa. It is 
situated at the base of a steep limestone hill, is strongly 
fortified, and is surrounded with walls. It has a castle on 
a precipitous rock, a cathedral, and several churches. It 
was formerly the capital of a small republic of the sarno 
name. Pop. 3589. 

Cat'taro, Boc'ca di (i.e. “Gulf of”), a tortuous 
inlet of the Adriatic, at the S. extremity of the coast of 
Dalmatia, is 30 miles long. It is protected from winds by 
high mountains on several sides, and forms the best harbor 
in the Adriatic. The entrance from the sea into this gulf 
is about 14 miles wide. 

Cat'tegat, or Kattegat (anc. Codanus Sinus), a part 
of the ocean which separates Denmark from Sweden and 
washes the eastern side of Jutland. It communicates with 
the Baltic by three channels—the Great Belt, the Little 
Belt, and the Sound. On the other side the Skager-Rack 
connects it with the German Ocean. It is about 150 miles 
long and 85 miles wide. Dangerous sand-banks occur in it. 


a 











CATTELL 


CattelT (Alexander G.), born in Salem, N. J., Feb. 12, 
1816. He became a successful merchant of Philadelphia 
in 1846, becoming president of the Corn Exchange and of 
the Corn Exchange Bank. In 1855 he removed to Mer- 
chantville, N. J., and was U. S. Senator from N. J. 1866-71. 

Cattell (William Cassiday), D. D., a brother of the 
preceding, was born at Salem, N. J., Aug. 30, 1827, grad¬ 
uated at Princeton College in 1848, at Princeton Theolog¬ 
ical Seminary in 1852, became professor of ancient languages 
at Lafayette College in 1855, pastor of a Presbyterian church 
at Harrisburg, Pa., in 1860, and president of Lafayette Col¬ 
lege in 1864. His administration of the affairs of the col¬ 
lege has been marked by energy and success. 

Cat'tle [Old Eng. catel, “ chattels,” “goods,” because 
in ancient times a man’s cattle were his principal goods], 
a collective term which in its widest sense includes all 
domestic animals, and in the usage of some writers includes 
also deer and other wild grazing animals. In America, 
however, its application is limited very generally to beasts 
of the species Bos taurus, the domestic ox, the “neat cat¬ 
tle ” or “ black cattle ” of British writers. There are many 
varieties or “ breeds ” of cattle, some of which, in Southern 
Asia, are distinguished by a large hump or mass of fat 
upon the shoulders. The original wild stock from which 
cattle are descended is not well known. The principal 
breeds in the U. S. are of British origin. The old “na¬ 
tive ” stock is of extremely mixed descent, but of late years 
much attention has been paid, with the best results, to the 
rearing of pure-blooded and “ grade” stock. The best are 
the “short-horn” or “Durham” breed, which produce ex¬ 
cellent beef-cattle, and are extensively reared in the U. S., 
chiefly for fattening purposes; the “ Herefords,” for work¬ 
ing oxen and beef; the beautiful “Devons;” the“Ayr- 
shires,” prized for milking qualities; the “Jerseys” or 
“ Alderneys,” which yield extremely rich and excellent 
milk. The continent of Europe has many fine breeds which 
are little known in the U. S., though the “ Dutch ” and 
“ Holstein ” cattle have been introduced. The Texas cattle 
are descended chiefly from Spanish stock. (See Solon 
Robinson, “ Facts for Farmers.”) 

Cattol'ica, a town of Sicily, in the province of Gir- 
genti, 14 miles N. W. of the city of Girgenti. It has pro¬ 
ductive sulphur-mines. Pop. 5749. 

CatuPlus (Valerius), a Roman lyric poet of high 
reputation, was born at or near Verona about 87 B. C. He 
became in early life a resident of Rome, and enjoyed the 
society of Cicero and Ccesar. He was the first Roman who 
excelled in lyric poetry. He wrote, besides numerous odes 
and epigrams, a heroic or narrative poem entitled “ The 
Nuptials of Peleus and Thetis,” which is his longest ivork, 
and a poem called “Atys,” which is highly commended. 
The date of his death is unknown. One hundred and six¬ 
teen of his poems are extant. They are admired for the 
exquisite grace and beauty of their style, but are grossly 
licentious. Died about 47 B. C. 

Cat'ulus (Quintus Lutatius), a Roman general and 
writer. He was chosen consul and a colleague of Caius 
Marius in 102 B. C. Catulus and Marius commanded two 
armies, which united and defeated the Cimbri near Vercelli 
in 101 B. C. He was a partisan of Sulla in the civil war. 
Having been condemned to death by the Marian party, he 
killed himself in 87 B. C. His works are lost except two 
epigrams. 

Catulus (Quintus Lutatius), a son of the preceding, 
was a conservative and meritorious statesman. He became 
consul in 78 B. C., and censor in the year 65. Cicero ap¬ 
plied to him the epithet “clarissimus ” (“illustrious”). 
Died in 60 B. C. 

Cau'ca, a river of South America, rises in the Andes 
and flows nearly northward through Popayan, Cauca, and 
Antioqufa. After a course of 600 miles it enters the Mag¬ 
dalena in lat. 9° 25' N. The valley of the Cauca is one of 
the most fertile and populous districts of South America. 

Cauca, a state of the republic of Colombia. The sur¬ 
face is partly mountainous. Area, 68,300 English square 
miles. It is traversed by the river Cauca. Capital, Po¬ 
payan. Pop. in 1870, 435,708. 

Caucasian (i.e. “pertaining to Caucasus”), a term 
somewhat loosely employed to designate the principal white 
races of mankind. The Circassians and Georgians dwell¬ 
ing at the foot of Mount Caucasus have been taken as the 
type of the Caucasian race, and suggested the name. Ac¬ 
cording to Blumenbach, the Caucasian race is the principal 
of the five divisions of the human family, and the original 
stock from which the other races have sprung. It also 
forms one of the three varieties of Cuvier. It comprises 
the most enlightened and powerful nations of the earth, in¬ 
cluding, besides the Aryan races (see Arya), the Hebrews, 
Phoenicians, and Arabs. But the inhabitants of the Cau- 


CAUCUS. 819 


casus, so long held to be types of the European variety, 
are now by some excluded from it altogether, and classed 
with the Mongols. The question of their relationship is a 
ver} r obscure one. The basis upon which the theory of tho 
Caucasian type was formed is thus stated by Latham : 
“Blumenbach had a solitary Georgian skull, and that 
skull was the finest in his collection, that of a Greek being 
the next. Hence it was taken as the type of the skull of 
the more organized divisions of our species. More than 
this, it gave its name to the type, and introduced the term 
Caucasian. Never has a single head done more harm to 
science than was done in the way of posthumous mischief 
by this well-shaped head of a female from Georgia.” As 
commonly used, the term Caucasian is objectionable, as 
confounding under one name nations (as, for example, the 
Arabs and Germans) who have at best a very remote rela¬ 
tionship ; while it has often led to a, still greater error— 
that of separating, on trivial and superficial grounds, na¬ 
tions who are unquestionably closely related, such as the 
dark-complexioned Hindoos and the light-complexioned 
Teutons and Celts. It is as if a botanist, instead of class¬ 
ifying fruits according to their internal structure and es¬ 
sential nature, should divide them into classes according 
to their color, putting the yellow fruits into one division, 
the red into another, and so on. 

Caucasian Provinces, or Cauca'sia, a portion 
of the Russian empire, situated on both sides of the cen¬ 
tral chain of the Caucasus. It is bounded on the E. by 
the Caspian Sea, and on the W. by the Black Sea, being 
partly in Europe and partly in Asia. The European por¬ 
tion, called Cis-Caucasia, comprises Circassia, Caucasus, 
and Daghestan. The Asiatic part, called Trans-Caucasia, 
comprises Georgia, Mingrelia, and Russian Armenia, and 
has an area of 169,632 square miles. The chief towns arc 
Tiflis, Stavropol, Derbend, and Erivan. (For the physical 
geography of this region, see Caucasus.) Pop. 4,661,824. 

Cau'casus [Gr. 6 KavKacro? or 6 Kav/<a<7i.s], an important 
and lofty mountain-range which extends between the Black 
Sea and the Caspian, and forms part of the boundary be¬ 
tween Europe and Asia. It is 690 miles long, and extends 
from the Peninsula of Taman on the Black Sea, in an 
E. S. E. direction, to the peninsula of Apsheron on the 
Caspian. Connected with this central chain are several 
branches or transverse ridges on both sides. The culmina¬ 
ting point of the Caucasus is Mount Elboorz, which is near 
the middle of the central chain, and has an altitude of 
about 18,570 feet. Its base is 7660 above the sea-level. 
The next highest is Mount Ivasbek, 16,552 feet, east of 
which is the Dariel Pass. This is said to be the only pass 
by which carriages can cross the Caucasus. The highest 
summits of this chain are formed of trachyte or porphyry, 
below which occur granite, syenite, etc. Limestone, slate, 
and other stratified rocks appear at the base and on the 
sides of these mountains. The limit of perpetual snow is 
here about 11,000 feet above the level of the sea. Some 
parts of the Caucasus are destitute of trees, but the second¬ 
ary ranges near the Black Sea are covered with magnificent 
forests of oak, beech, ash, maple, and walnut. The cereal 
grains flourish 7000 feet above the level of the sea, and the 
lower valleys produce rice, cotton, indigo, and the grape. 
The principal rivers that rise among these mountains are 
the Kooban, Ivoor, and Terek. The scenery of this region 
is said to be very beautiful and picturesque. Among its 
minerals are copper, iron, and lead. The inhabitants of 
the Caucasus comprise a variety of tribes, who speak dif¬ 
ferent languages and are subject to Russia. Among these 
tribes are the Circassians, Georgians, and Lesghians. 
They are noted for their love of freedom; and to maintain 
their independence they waged a long war against the 
Russian invaders, which was terminated by the capture of 
their leader, Schamyl, in 1859. The Caucasus Mountains 
have been celebrated from a remote antiquity. From them 
the finest physical type of man derives its name, the Cau¬ 
casian race. (See Caucasian.) 

Caucasus, Indian. See Hindoo-Koosii. 

Cauchy (Augustin Louis), a French mathematician, 
born in Paris in 1789. He gained a prize of the Institute 
in 1815 for his “ Memoir on the Theory of Waves.” He 
became a member of the Academy of Sciences and profes¬ 
sor of mechanics in the Polytechnic School in 1816. 11c 

published, besides other works, “Lectures on the Differen¬ 
tial Calculus” (1826), and succeeded Biot as professor of 
astronomy in 1848. Died in 1857. 

Cau'cus, a meeting of legislators or citizens for the 
selection of candidates to be supported at a pending elec¬ 
tion, or to shape and direct political movements ot v unl¬ 
ever kind. The word is of American coinage, and Boston 
gave it being about a century ago, during the popular dis¬ 
content and agitation which culminated in our lathers 
Revolutionary struggle—Boston, the cradle and locus of 






















CAUDEBEC 


this, agitation, being then a straggling maritime village, 
mainly supported by commerce and the seaboard fisheries, 
which gave importance to the arts subsidiary to naviga¬ 
tion. The calkers of vessels were thus relatively numer¬ 
ous ; they were robust, active citizens in the prime of life, 
and they were enlisted, heart and soul, in the patriot cause. 
Their work was done at the North End, where but few 
houses had yet been built, and their dwellings were mainly 
in that neighborhood. If they had a place of meeting as 
a craft, it would naturally be chosen for their political 
gatherings as well; and the Tories or loyalists, seeing 
these convened at the calkers’ head-quarters, would call 
them calkers’ meetings, implying that none but low-bred 
mechanics and their like were hostile to the royal cause. 
Caucus —at first a corruption of calkers —thus became the 
received designation of a political meeting, especially if 
held with closed doors. The word first appears in the 
diary of John Adams, under date of Feb., 1753, as follows : 
“ This day found that the Caucxis Club meets at certain 
times in the garret of Tom Dawes, adjutant of the Boston 
(militia) regiment.” Adams adds that the town-officers 
and representatives were first chosen in this club before 
they were elected in town meeting. Gordon’s “ History 
of the Revolution ” asserts that the caucus dates back at 
least to 1725, and that Samuel Adams's father and some 
twenty others devised and employed it to concentrate the 
power of the town in their own hands. He adds that 
Samuel Adams was first made representative of Boston 
through the instrumentality of the caucus, which thence¬ 
forth formed an important part of the machinery whereby 
the Revolution was incited and maintained. 

That the majority of a legislative body should hold a 
caucus for the selection of the officers of that body cannot 
be reasonably gainsaid, the minority being at perfect lib¬ 
erty to do likewise; while any member of the majority, 
dissatisfied with its choice, may claim and exercise, if he 
will, the right to bolt. But when, about 1804, a caucus of 
the Republican (Jeffersonian) members of Congress was 
held expressly to recommend persons to be supported at 
the polls by Republicans living in districts represented by 
Federalists, thus giving to the people of those districts no 
voice in the selection of their candidates, the legitimacy of 
the assumption involved in such nominations was gravely 
questioned. Yet the candidates of the caucus continued 
to be chosen—with docility, if not with alacrity—until 
1824, when the system broke down ignominiously upon 
William H. Crawford of Georgia being nominated for 
President, with Albert Gallatin of Pennsylvania for Vice- 
President. This ticket was badly defeated, the friends of 
John Quincy Adams, General Andrew Jackson, and Henry 
Clay, forming two-thirds of those elected to either House, 
uniting in a public recommendation that the fiat of the 
caucus be disregarded—in fact, defied. Mr. Crawford re¬ 
ceived less than a fourth of the electoral votes; the vote 
standing Jackson 99, Adams 84, Crawford 41, Clay 37. 
This sent the election to the House of Representatives, 
which elected Adams by a coalition of the supporters of 
Adams and Clay; the vote standing—for Adams, 13 States ; 
Jackson, 7; Crawford, 4. This was the last caucus of 
members of Congress which assumed to nominate candi¬ 
dates for the people, and legislative caucuses with like 
purposes have also been discarded by all parties, though 
caucuses continue to be held for the choice of candidates to 
be supported by the body whose members make the nomi¬ 
nation. 

The first nominating national convention was held in 
1832 by the Anti-Masons, who presented William Wirt of 
Maryland for President, with Nathaniel Ellmaker of Penn¬ 
sylvania for Vice-President. In 1836 the Democrats held 
a like convention, which nominated Martin Van Buren of 
New York for President, with Richard M. Johnson of Ken¬ 
tucky for Vice-President. The Whigs held their first na¬ 
tional convention at Harrisburg in Dec., 1839, and pre¬ 
sented General William Henry Harrison of Ohio for Presi¬ 
dent, with John Tyler of Virginia for Vice-President. 
These were elected over Van Buren and Richard M. John¬ 
son, the Democratic incumbents, who had triumphed four 
years previously. Each and every national party has 
since selected its candidates mainly by a delegated con¬ 
vention. 

But this in time develops abuses, especially in the case 
of a party whose nomination all but ensures an election ; 
and the latest fashion is that called “the Crawford county 
(Pennsylvania) system,” whereby all the members of a 
party residing in a designated district are invited to attend 
a poll in their respective precincts and cast a ballot directly 
for sheriff, clerk, etc., he who polls the largest vote for any 
office being the whole party’s candidate for that post. But 
such preliminary elections, being unsanctioned by law, are 
often corrupted by systematic frauds; and it is manifest 
that, while a caucus may serve for the choice of Speaker, 


CAULONIA. 


clerk, etc., of a legislative body, or even of U. S. Senators 
by a legislature, a perfect modo of selecting candidates for 
tho popular suffrage has not yet been devised. 

Horace Greeley. 

Caiulebec, a handsome seaport town of France, on 
the right bank of tho Seine, 26 miles E. of Havre, was 
formerly fortified. It has a remarkable Gothic church 
built in the fifteenth century, and manufactures of cotton 
stuffs. Pop. 2181. 

Caiulebeoles-Elbeuf, a town of France, depart¬ 
ment of Seine-Inferieure, on the river Oison, 12 miles S. of 
Rouen. It has manufactures of cloth. Pop. 9184. 

Cautle'te, a town of Spain, in Murcia, 50 miles E. S. E. 
of Albacete, was formerly fortified. Here arc some Roman 
remains. Pop. 6413. 

Cau'dex, a Latin word signifying a “trunk of a tree,” 
was also a botanical term applied by Linnaeus to the axis 
of vegetation, or the woody centre around which the leafy 
organs are arranged. He called the stem caudex ascendens, 
and the root caudex descendens. 

Cau'dine Forks [Lat. Furculse Caudinse ], two nar¬ 
row mountain-gorges or defiles near the town of Caudium, 
in ancient Samnium. They are celebrated in connection 
with a humiliating disaster which the Roman army suf¬ 
fered in 321 B. C. A large army commanded by the con¬ 
suls Titus Veturius and Spurius Postumius were marching 
against the Samnites. According to Livy, this army, sup¬ 
posing the Samnites to be far distant, marched through 
one gorge or pass into a small valley enclosed by high 
mountains, and soon found that both of the passes were 
blocked up with trees and stones. The Romans were com¬ 
pelled by famine to surrender unconditionally to Caius 
Pontius, the Samnite general, who required them to pass 
under the yoke, and then permitted them to return to 
Rome. Caudium was on the Appian Way, 21 Roman miles 
E. of Capua. Niebuhr expresses an opinion that the Ro¬ 
mans must have been defeated in battle before they were 
shut up between the two passes, and Cicero twice alludes 
to the battle and defeat of the Romans at Caudium. In 
one place he says, “ Cum male pugnatum ad Caudium 
esset.” (Be Officiis, iii., 30.) 

C'aiigh'denoy, a post-village of Hastings township, 
Oswego co., N. Y. Pop. 220. 

Caughiiawa'ga, a village of Laprairio co., province 
of Quebec (Canada), at the foot of Lachine Rapids and on 
the S. side of the St. Lawrence, 9 miles from Montreal. It 
is on the Montreal Lachine and Province Line Railway, 
and is entirely inhabited by Iroquois Indians, who num¬ 
ber about 500. It is to be the terminus of the great Caugh- 
nawaga Ship Canal. (See Canals of Canada, by A. J. 
Russell, C. E., Crown Inspector of Timber Agencies.) 

Caul. See Omentum. 

Caulaincourt, de (Armand Augustin Louis), duke 
of Vicenza, a French diplomatist, born in Picardy in 1773, 
entered the army about 1789, and obtained the rank of 
general. In 1807 or 1808 he was sent as ambassador to 
Russia, from which he returned in 1811. He afterwards 
served in the army, and was the travelling companion of 
Napoleon in his hurried journey from Russia to Paris in 

1812. He was appointed minister of foreign affair’s in 

1813. Died in 1827. 

Cau'lifloAver [Sp. coliflor; Ger. Blumenkohl, i. e. 
“flowering cole”], a highly-prized variety of the cabbage 
(Brassica oleracea). The cauliflower differs from the other 
varieties of its species, its leaves being not fit for use. The 
parts eaten are the flower-buds and the stalks of the plant 
transformed by cultivation, and forming a compact mass, 
generally of a white color. There are many sub-varieties 
which are more tender than the ordinary forms, and re¬ 
quire protection during winter. The seed is sown in hot¬ 
beds, that the plants may be ready for planting out in 
spring. Later sowings are made in the open ground. The 
cauliflower requires a moist, rich, loamy soil, with abun¬ 
dance of manure, and careful cultivation. 

Cau'line [from Lat. caulis , a “stem”], a botanical 
term applied to any parts or organs which grow on the 
stem of a plant. Leaves which arise directly from tho 
stems are called canline, to distinguish them from radical 
leaves. 

Caulo'nia, an ancient Greek city and seaport of Italy, 
in Bruttium, between Locri and the Gulf of Scyllacium. It 
was an important city about 500 B. C. According to Por¬ 
phyry, Pythagoras sought refuge in Caulonia after his ex¬ 
pulsion from Crotona. The people of Caulonia formed a 
league with those of Crotona and Sybaris. In 389 B. C. 
Dionysius the Elder invaded Magna Graecia with a large 
army, and besieged Caulonia, which he took. He then re¬ 
moved the inhabitants to Syracuse. 
























821 


CAULOPTEEIS—CAVAIGNAC. 


Cauiop'teris, a generic name for the stems of fossil 
tree-ferns louud in the carboniferous and triassic measures. 
They are hollow, and covered with markings similar to the 
leaf-scars on recent tree-ferns. Twelve species have been 
described. 

Caus, de (Salomon), a French engineer, born in Nor¬ 
mandy, is considered by his countrymen as one of the in¬ 
ventors of the steam-engine. He published in 1615 a work 
on motive-powers entitled “Les liaisons des Forces mou- 
vantes,” etc., which gives a theorem on the expansion and 
. condensation of steam. He is supposed to have died about 
1630. 

Cau'sa, a Latin word extensively used by the ancient 
Romans as a legal and political term. Its meanings and 
applications were nearly the same as those of the word 
cause in English. It signified in law a “lawsuit,” a “ju¬ 
dicial process;” in politics, the measures or principles 
adopted by one party and opposed by another; in general, 
a subject, affair, reason, etc.; efficient cause, or that which 
produces any effect. 

Cause, in law, an action at law or suit in equity or in 
a court of probate. It is found in such connections as 
the following : “ matrimonial cause,” “testamentary cause,” 
“ calendar of causes,” “ title of a cause,” etc. etc. 

Cause, in Ontology (which see), means in general any 
Principle (which see) which in any way whatever em¬ 
braces the Ground (which see) or Reason (which see) why 
anything diverse from itself exists. The principle cor¬ 
respondent with this principle is called Effect (which 
see), and the relation which exists between cause and effect 
is casuality. 

Causes have been divided into five classes (four by Aris¬ 
totle) : I. The efficient or operative cause. Its activity 
may be intransitive—that is, immanent —or transitive or 
transient—that is, emanent. The efficient cause is by 
pre-eminence the cause, and is usually meant if the word 
cause is not qualified. There may be requisites or con¬ 
ditions, even to the degree of sine qua non, and there may 
be occasion, but these ideas are not to be confounded, as 
they often are, with that of cause. Efficient causes are 
subdivided into primary and secondary; universal or gen¬ 
eral, and particular; principal and instrumental; univocal 
and equivocal; causes per se and per accidens; adequate 
and inadequate; free and necessary; physical and moral; 
proximate, remote, and ultimate; relative and absolute. 
There is in the train of causes a subordination, and this is 
Material or Formal (which see). 

The ontological principles deduced are : There is no 
effect without a cause; out of nothing nothing comes; 
nothing can be the efficient cause of itself; two things can¬ 
not be the reciprocal cause of each other; the effect and 
the cause are always proportioned to each other; whatever 
is in the effect must in some sense be in the cause; the 
cause of the cause is also the cause of the effect; the same 
causes always produce the same effects; the cause must be 
present, either immediately or mediately, with that which 
it effects. 

II. The Material; III. The Formal; IV. The Exemplary 
(Plato); and V. The Final Cause. 

The names most distinguished in connection with the 
philosophical theories of cause are—Heraclitus and Por- 
tagoras (denial of the notion), Plato (idea, matter, opera¬ 
tive principle; immediately evident, free and physical; 
conditional and absolute), Aristotle (fourfold division; first 
cause of motion), Bruno (principle, internal; cause, ex¬ 
ternal; first cause, final), Hobbes (potency and act), Des¬ 
cartes (assistance), De la Forge, Malebranche (occasional 
causes), Spinoza (adequate cause; cause of divine acts iden¬ 
tical with cause of divine existence), Locke (appearance 
of changes), Leibnitz (pre-established harmony), Hume, 
Brown (observation of sequence, habit, not by, buff after, 
natural instinct, apart from reason, blind belief), Kant (a 
fundamental, synthetical, a priori judgment, a postulate of 
pure reason, category of relation), Reid, Stewart (intuition), 
De Biran, Cousin (self-consciousness, personal causation), 
Fichte (positings of the Ego, self-originated subjective 
modification), Schelling, Ilegel (spontaneity, all being has 
in it the internal impulse and power to become), Hamilton 
(the conditioned; mental impotence), Schopenhauer (the 
occasion for the phenomenon of Will). Among later points 
made, the most important is that each sphere of nature is 
controlled by a specific modification of the law of causality. 
All the views arc reducible to two : the conception of cause 
is either a priori or a posteriori, and each of these is either 
original or derivative. In the application of the idea of 
cause arise the terms causal principle, causal judgment, 
causal nexus, causal connection, causal union, causal rela¬ 
tion. 

One of the most specious and widely accepted fallacies 
is that cause precedes effect. Cause and effect are absolute 


correlates, so that in point of time cause cannot be before 
effect, but the two sides of the relation come into simulta¬ 
neous being. Nor can cause, as such, exist without effect. 
As a term of relation, cause is as dependent on effect as 
effect on cause. The order of priority is therefore purely 
logical and mental. Nor is it true that a thing must be (in 
time) before it becomes a cause. It is only necessary that 
it shall be when it becomes a cause. Hence the thoughts 
of an eternal mind, the acts of an eternal being, may be 
eternal. In the world about us all that becomes cause exists 
in deed before it becomes cause, but the reason of this is that 
every source of cause, in our sphere, is also an effect, and 
must be as an effect before it can act as a cause. Neverthe¬ 
less, it becomes cause strictly simultaneously with the effect, 
not before it. The true conception of cause therefore is de¬ 
monstrably not that of sequence in time, as Hume contends, 
but the one we have given—to wit, that cause is that which 
contains the reason of the effect, and hence that the relation 
is a necessary one, and is as certain where we cannot observe 
its result as where we can. Innumerable instances can be 
given of the invariable sequence, in time, of one thing. 

That in virtue of which a causal agent can become cause, 
we call power. Some of the postulates which hold good as 
to cause and effect in the inorganic world are not demon¬ 
strably valid in the organic, and seem to fail entirely in 
the sphere of freedom and of intellect. 

So complete is the mind's recognition of the nature of 
cause that on a statement of any number of purely hypo¬ 
thetical cases it will at once decide which of the two terms 
is cause, which is effect, if the statement is such as to help 
the mind to see which of the terms must contain the reason 
of the other. C. P. Krauth. 

Caus'tic [from the Gr. nalw, to “burn”], a term ap¬ 
plied to substances which exert a disintegrating or destruc¬ 
tive effect upon animal tissues. They usually pi'oduce a 
sensation as of burning, whence the name. “ Lunar caus¬ 
tic” is the silver-nitrate, so called because luna (the “ moon ”) 
is the old alchemical name for silver. Caustic lime, pot¬ 
ash, soda, and magnesia are these substances when pure, so 
called to distinguish them from their less active carbon¬ 
ates. Many other chemical reagents are used in surgery 
as caustics, notably the nitric, chromic, and arsenious acids. 

Caustic, in optics, is a term applied to curved lines and 
surfaces formed by a series of points where (from the inter¬ 
section of reflected or refracted rays) the heat and light 
are most intense. Reflected rays produce catacaustics 
—refracted rays, diacaustics. The study of caustic sur¬ 
faces and curves is of the greatest importance in the con¬ 
struction of lenses and mirrors. For example, it has been 
found that the caustic by reflection from a paraboloid of 
revolution is reduced to a point when the incident rays arc 
parallel to the axis of the paraboloid. For this reason 
parabolic reflectors halve been introduced with great suc¬ 
cess into many optical instruments. 

Can't ery [Gr. Kavrrtpiov, a “branding-iron ”],in surgery, 
the application of a white-hot iron or of a moxa. It is 
otherwise called “actual cautery,” to distinguish it from 
“ potential cautery,” or the application of a chemical re¬ 
agent as a caustic. “Cautery” is also the small iron instru¬ 
ment which is heated and applied in this operation. The ac¬ 
tual cautery is useful in destroying certain morbid and gan¬ 
grenous tissues, in staying hemorrhages, and in relieving 
severe local pain. It has a valuable derivative effect in 
many cases, and when properly applied produces com¬ 
paratively little pain. It is sometimes used to produce 
a slight, and sometimes a profound local effect. 

Cau'tion [from the Lat. caveo, cautum, to “be on one's 
guard”], a legal term derived from the Roman law, and 
employed in the admiralty courts. It is substantially 
equivalent in meaning to security or bail. When security 
is given under oath, it is called “ juratory caution.” The 
word caution is employed in the same general sense in 
Scotch law. 

Cavaignac (Godefroy), a French republican journal¬ 
ist, son of Jean Baptiste Cavaignac (1762-1829), who fig¬ 
ured in the Revolution, born in Paris in 1801. He was 
driven into exile in 1835, returned in 1841, and became one 
of the editors of “ La R^forme.” He was one of the most 
popular leaders of the liberal party. Died May 5, 1845. 

Cavaignac (Louis Eugene), an eminent French gene¬ 
ral and statesman, brother of the preceding, was born in 
Paris Oct. 15, 1802. He served with distinction in Algeria, 
to which he was sent in 1832. became a colonel in 1841, and 
governor of the province of Oran in 1847. In Mar., 1848, 
he was appointed governor-general of Algeria, and in the 
next month was invited by Lamartine to come to Paris and 
defend the government against the mob. He reached that 
capital on the 17th of May, and was then appointed minis¬ 
ter of war. lie displayed much energy, skill, and presence 
of mind in his operations against the socialists and Com- 





























822 CAYAILLON—CAVALIER. 


munists, who began a great insurrection in Paris June 23, 
and were defeated in a battle which lasted three days. 
About the 2Sth of June he was chosen chef du pouvoir ext¬ 
ent)/, or president of the republic, by the National Assem¬ 
bly. 11c was a moderate republican, and used his power 
with clemency. In the autumn of 1848 he was a candidate 
for the offico of president, and received 1,448,302 votes, 
but was defeated by Louis Napoleon. lie retired from 
power on the 20th of Dec., and took his seat in the Nation¬ 
al Assembly. lie was excluded from political life by the 
conp-d’etat of Dec., 1851, and by his refusal to take the 
oath of allegiance to Napoleon III. Died Oct. 28, 1857. 
(See Henri Montfort, “Biographic du General Cavai- 
gnac,” 1848.) 

Cavailloil (anc. Cabcllio), a town of France, depart¬ 
ment of Vaucluse, on the river Durance, 16 miles S. E. of 
Avignon. It has an old cathedral and remains ot a Roman 
triumphal arch. Here are manufactures of silk twist and 
vermicelli. Pop. 8034. Cabellio was a city of the ancient 
Cavares, and Pliny calls it an oppidum Latinum. 

Cavalier' [Sp. cab oiler o ; It. cavaliere, from the Lat. 
caballus, a “ horse ”], an Anglicized French word, signifies 
a horseman, a knight, an armed horseman, a gentleman (at¬ 
tendant on a lady), a gallant, a soldier who fights on horse¬ 
back. In English history it is applied to the royalist party 
which fought for Charles I. against the Roundheads. Ca¬ 
valier is the French for the knight in the game of chess. 

Cavalier, in fortification of the old school, is a defence- 
work constructed on the terre-plein or level ground of a 
bastion. It rises to a height varying from eight to twelve 
feet above the rampart, and has a parapet about six feet 
high. Its uses are to command any rising ground held by 
the enemy within cannon shot, and to guard the curtain, 
or plain wall between two bastions, from being enfiladed. 

Cavalier (John), (1679-81 (Morel says 1685) 1740), 
often styled the “ Baker’s boy of Anduze,” because at one 
time appenticed to that trade, was the son of a Protestant 
peasant of the Cevennes, of the village of Ribaute near 
Anduze (Gard), and in his early youth served as a shep¬ 
herd lad or herdsman. When the Cevenol uprising in 
defence of the Protestant religious rights broke out in 
Languedoc in 1702, Cavalier, who had fled in 1701 for safety 
to Geneva, returned to share the lot of his persecuted 
brethren, and was soon after recognized as their military 
commander-in-chief. Such was his instinctive military 
genius that although he knew nothing more of tactics than 
what he had picked up by watching the drill of the militia 
of his district in the streets of his native town, he soon had 
his rude volunteers under a rigid system of discipline, such 
as Martinet would have envied, and made them a match for 
triple (if not quintuple) their number of the very best reg¬ 
ulars opposed to them. His grand tactics were unexcep¬ 
tionable, and his handling of troops on the field of battle 
perfection itself. He could make them perform with re- 
sultivo effect the most complicated evolutions under the 
severest fire, demonstrating that he was one of the rarest 
of mortal phenomena, uniting a power of control, in¬ 
struction, and influence such as scarcely any general on 
record has proved equal to. Very shortly after he first ex¬ 
ercised any command he undoubtedly became by election 
or unanimous choice commander-in-chief (commandant- 
general) of all the Camisard or Cevenol insurgents in arms. 
Michelet and others question this fact, and attribute the 
chieftainship to the charming or exquisite Roland, but the 
facts as set forth by Morel (i., vii., viii.), and the language 
used by Roland himself, who addresses Cavalier as “com¬ 
mandant les troupes religionaires, ou il se trouvera, en 
Languedoc,’' would set the question at rest, were it not 
further established by his possession of absolute power of 
life and death in all cases upon his own personal judg¬ 
ment, without calling a council of war. That he never 
abused this enormous prerogative, at the same time that 
he did exercise it, testifies to a remarkable self-control 
in a young man of twenty. In the organization of the 
Cevenol forces Cavalier was called upon to draw upon 
the almost obsolete resources of the past as to weapons, 
as well as to improvise them until his men were armed 
with the best firearms of the day, captured from his ad¬ 
versaries. He even improvised cannon, but never had time 
to bring them into the field. 

To enter closely into all the details of the career of this 
Cromwell in miniature, or of a mountain-warfai-c which 
under his supreme command did not last ov : er two years, 
is impossible within the space accorded. His greatest and 
most glorious engagement was that of Nages (16th April, 
1704), which was deemed of sufficient importance by the cele¬ 
brated engineer and map-maker, Cassini, for a special indi¬ 
cation upon his map of the district in which it occurred. 
Upon this field, surprised through the physical prostration 
of his men, and no fault of his own, and surrounded by 


six or seven to his one, Cavalier extricated himself, and in 
so far defeated the finest soldiery in France that he foiled 
all the plans of their best commanders. His tactics were 
not only astonishing in their precision, but sufficiently ad¬ 
mirable in their originality to extort the praise of his ad¬ 
versaries; and, if such a thing were possible, the military 
capacity of this comparative youth exceeded the heroic 
courage and unsurpassable devotion of the troops he had 
made and commanded. Although he enjoyed the triumph of 
treating with Yillars, the superb representative of the mag¬ 
nificent Louis XIV., Cavalier certainly betrayed his trust 
in that he capitulated under stipulations for his own per¬ 
sonal benefit, without insisting upon reliable guarantees to 
ensure the maintenance of the treaty he extorted in behalf 
of his religious brethren. There is no question but that 
Villars and Louis both deceived the Cevenol leader, more 
loyal to his pledges than either marshal or king. More¬ 
over, Louis wounded his pride in a personal interview, and 
alarmed him for his personal safety. Like Prince Eugene, 
he quitted the French service for that of his enemies, and 
with that prince and the duke of Savoy took part in the 
invasion of France in 1707; and it is questionable if either 
imperial prince or royal duke inspired more apprehension 
to the government authorities than the former Cevenol- 
peasant-generalissimo. From the Dutch he passed into 
the British service, and remained in it until his death in 
1740. He distinguished himself at Almanza (25th April, 
1707), where his regiment, composed of Cevenol refugees, 
was opposed to a French organization in which the Hugue¬ 
nots recognized a portion of their former persecutors. There¬ 
upon this mutual recognition led to such a fearful conflict 
with the bayonet, that only three hundred of the combat¬ 
ants survived. This is according to the statement of the 
impassible bigot the duke of Berwick, who never could re¬ 
call the circumstance without horror. Morel (i., 389) says, 
“This (Cavalier’s) terrible Camisard regiment rushed with 
the bayonet on the Franco-Spanish army, and made the 
balance of victory tremble.” 

The distinguished Malesherbes, after a full consideration 
of the character of Cavalier, pronounces him “one of the 
rarest characters which history presents for our contempla¬ 
tion.” Villars, no better judge, concedes his vast military 
capacity. His treating with Cavalier as equal with equal 
would attest the latter’s influence, had we not the marshal’s 
very words to establish the fact. The same is admitted in 
more or less eloquent language by all the historians of this 
struggle for religious freedom. Whether Cavalier needed 
only a wider stage to demonsti-ate his worthiness to rank 
with the most distinguished commanders of olden or modern 
times, or whether his lights were not strong enough to il¬ 
luminate a vaster space, he had no opportunity to determine. 
That he did not rise higher and more quickly than he did in 
the English army is easily explained. William of Orange 
preferred purely professional soldiers, and his verj T sense 
of religious inspiration doubtless marred his prospects, 
even under the succeeding monarch, Anne. That he was 
deemed worthy of confidence is shown by his elevation to 
the rank of major-general in the British service, and his 
appointment as governor of Jersey, one of the Channel 
Islands, an outpost of her dominions and nearest their 
most dangerous enemy. In this position he died in 1740. 

Without one man—an obscure citizen of Nijni-Novgorod 
—Kosma Minin, a butcher, “ distinguished by nothing but 
a sound head (strong common sense) and a brave, honest, 
unselfish heart,” Russia, in 1611-12, would have become a 
Swedish or a Polish jmssession; and without another one, 
an equally obscure man, this John Cavalier, a peasant, 
imbued with instinctive capacity for war and the govern¬ 
ment of men, France, in 1704, would have acquired such 
authority in Europe, and resultively in America, that the 
preponderance of the Latin race would not have been a 
question for Napoleon III. to attempt to solve, and fail in 
solving, as in Mexico. Indeed, Cavalier’s career exemplifies 
the rule of great events depending on “ small things.” The 
Cevenol uprising and his successes in Languedoc attracted 
to the south, into Languedoc, 10,000 to 20,000 veteran in¬ 
fantry, besides dragoons, and a large body of artillery, the 
latter of no use in the mountains of the Cevennes, but sorely 
needed, to the cast, on the Rhone, and to the north, in Flan¬ 
ders. A cabal of women aggravated the evil as regarded 
the Roman Catholic cause by sending the favored Villeroy 
where men and a man were most needed, and a man, Villars, 
into Languedoc. This alone made Blenheim a possibility. 
Had no Cavalier arisen, Villars would have been in Flanders 
to prevent Marlborough’s flank march into Germany, or to 
remedy Marson’s and Tallard’s blunders, there, in 1704. 
It is admitted that the effect of the Cevenol-Huguenot in¬ 
surrection, in which Cavalier w T as the prominent figure, had 
a momentous effect on the fortunes of the war elsewhere, on 
the prospects of Louis XIV., and on the future of France. 

J. Watts i>e Peyster. 













CAVALRY—CAVEAT EMPTOR. 


823 


Cavalry. See Mounted Troops, by Gen. J. Watts de 
Peyster. 

Cav'an, a county of Ireland, in Ulster, has an area of 
746 square miles, with Fermanagh and Monaghan counties 
on the N. E., and Leitrim, Longford, Westmeath, and Meath 
on the W. and S. The surface is partly hilly and partly 
occupied by bogs. It is drained by the rivers Erne and 
Woodford. About three-fourths of the land is arable, but 
the soil is mostly poor, except near the rivers. Among the 
rocks found here are clay-slate, gray wacke, and carbonife¬ 
rous strata. It contains coal, iron, copper, and lead. There 
are many mineral springs, and numerous highly picturesque 
lakes. There are some linen manufactures. -Capital, Cavan. 
Pop. in 1871, 140,565. 

Cavan, a town of Ireland, capital of the above county, 
is situated in a fertile vale on the railway from Dublin to 
Enniskillen, 65 miles N. W. of Dublin. It is mostly ill- 
built, but has a fine public garden. Pop. 3107. 

Cava'nas, or Cabanas, a port of Cuba, on the N. W. 
coast, 38 miles S. W. of Havana. Here is a deep bay 
which affords anchorage for several hundred ships. 

Cavani'lles y Cen'ti (Don Antonio), a prominent 
Spanish historian, born at Coruna, in Galicia, in 1805, be¬ 
came in 1841 a member of the lloyal Academy of- History, 
and soon after also a member of the Academy of Moral 
and Political Sciences. His “History of Spain” (5 vols., 
1860-64, not finished) is among the best historical works 
of Spanish literature. Died in 1864. 

Cavarze're, a town of Italy, in the province of Ve- 
netia, on the river Adige, 25 miles S. W. of Venice. It 
has an active trade in silk, cattle, and firewood. Pop. with 
suburbs, 11,903. 

Cavati'na [It.], a short operatic air, differing from the 
aria in consisting only of one part, and that more in the 
form of a song. Many composers, however, disregard this 
difference. 

Cave, or Cav'ern [Lat. caverna, from cavus, “hollow 
Fr. caverne], a hollow place beneath the surface of the 
earth. Natural caves have been produced by the upheaval 
of the strata, by water, or by both combined. The eroding 
power of water has formed caverns in the courses of rivers 
and on the coast-line of the sea. 

By far the greatei;number of caves are found in limestone, 
and they are here formed by the solution of the limestone by 
atmospheric water, which always contains carbonic acid. 
The most extensive caves known are subterranean water¬ 
courses which have been excavated in limestone by the 
dissolving power of the stream or streams which flow or 
have flowed through them. They especially abound in the 
oolitic limestone, which on this account is sometimes called 
by geologists “cavernous limestone.” The caves of Fran¬ 
conia, of Kentucky, and many others occur in this form¬ 
ation. Next to limestone, caves are mostly found in the 
strata containing rock-salt, a substance easily removed 
by water. They are also sometimes met with in igneous 
rocks; the cave of Fingal, in Statta, is formed in basalt, 
and in some places recent lava contains large caverns. 
Many caves have a calcareous lining, giving them a gor¬ 
geous appearance. Sometimes this deposit is pure white, 
and has, when the cave is lighted up, a wonderful richness 
and transparency. It is, however, generally colored. To 
incrustations descending from the roof like icicles the name 
stalactite is given; those rising from the floor are stalag¬ 
mites. Sometimes the stalactite meets the ascending stal¬ 
agmite and forms a column, as if to support the roof. The 
material of the stalactites and stalagmites originates as 
follows: The superficial soil, acted upon by moisture and 
air, evolves carbonic acid, which is dissolved by rain-water, 
which, permeating the calcareous strata, has the power of 
taking up lime, until from evaporation the excess f)f car¬ 
bonic acid and water is parted with, when the lime returns 
to its solid state and forms a crust. Caves are inhabited 
by peculiar species of fishes (such as the blind fish of the 
Mammoth Cave), by remarkable reptiles (such as the Pro¬ 
teus), and by various characteristic insects and crustaceans. 
They also have an interest from the occurrence, in many, 
of fossil remains under the incrustations of the floor, fre¬ 
quently concreted into a firm breccia. They belong to the 
pleistocene period, when Europe was inhabited by hyaenas, 
bears, and lions. Portions of other animals were dragged 
into their dens as food. In this way the bones of herbiv¬ 
orous animals are mixed with those of the beasts of prey; 
they have a gnawed appearance, similar to what is pro¬ 
duced on bones by the hyaena. Remains of thirty-three 
species of mammals and five of birds have been discovered 
in the caves of the British Islands, of which about one- 
half still survive in Europe, Asia, Africa, and perhaps in 
America, for the cave-bear has been pronounced to be iden¬ 
tical with the living grizzly bear. Among the mammals 


are species of ox, deer, horse, wolf, dog, fox, bat, hippo¬ 
potamus, rhinoceros, hyaena, bear, and lion. It is confi¬ 
dently asserted by some geologists that the bones of men 
are also found in these caves, in circumstances showing 
that man was coeval with the cave-bear and the mammoth, 
and lived before the glacial period. The most famous 
ossiferous cavern*in Great Britain is at Kirkdale, 25 miles 
from York. Ossiferous caves occur in many parts of the 
globe. The fossils of those in Australia show that the 
fauna of the pleistocene period in that country had a re¬ 
markable resemblance to that of the present day. The re¬ 
mains are chiefly those of kangaroos and other marsupials. 
The caves of Brazil have yielded many interesting remains. 

Revised by J. S. Newberry. 

Cave (Edward), an English printer, born at Newton in 
1691, was the founder of the “Gentleman’s Magazine,” 
first issued in 1731. He was a friend and patron of Dr. 
Johnson. Died in 1754. 

Cave (William), an English scholar and writer, born in 
Leicestershire in Dec., 1637. He became canon of Windsor 
in 1684, and vicar of Isleworth in 1690. Ho published 
“ Primitive Christianity” (1672), a “History of Christ and 
the Apostles” (1675), and “Lives of the Fathers of the 
Church in the Fourth Century” (1682), which were highly 
esteemed. Died Aug. 4, 1713. 

Ca'veat [Lat. “let him beware”]. This word is used 
in law in two senses. (1) A notice given to a court or judge 
to stay the performance of certain acts, judicial or min¬ 
isterial. It is used to prevent the enrolment of a decree 
in chancery, or the issuing of a commission of lunacy, or 
the grant of letters testamentary to an executor. (2) In 
patent law it has a statutory effect. It is filed in the office 
of the commissioner of patents. An inventor makes use 
of it to obtain time to perfect his invention. It should set 
forth the design, and pray protection of the inventor’s right 
until the invention is matured. The caveat is filed in the 
confidential archives of the patent office, and preserved in 
secresy. It is operative for one year after its filing. When, 
however, an application is made within the year by an¬ 
other person for a patent interfering with the caveat, it is 
treated as confidential, and notice given by mail to the cave¬ 
ator, who must thereupon file his specifications prepared for 
a patent within three months from the time of mailing the 
notice, added to the time usually required for the transmis¬ 
sion of mail-matter from Washington to the caveator. Resi¬ 
dent aliens, under certain regulations, may avail them¬ 
selves of the privilege of a caveat. (See section 40 of 
chap. 230 of “ Laws of Congress,” 1870.) 

Ca'veat Einp'tor (“ let the purchaser beware”). This 
is an important rule in the law of sales of personal prop¬ 
erty. Its general meaning is, that a purchaser must judge 
for himself of the quality of goods purchased. He will ac¬ 
cordingly have no remedy against the seller if the goods 
turn out to be of an inferior character and of much less 
value than the price paid. The common law of England 
differs widely from the civil or Roman law, where the rule 
prevailed that a “sound price warrants a sound article.” 
The rule ( caveat emptor) must be confined to the quality 
of the goods. In the case of failure of the title to chattels 
sold by a person in possession, there is, according to the 
American decisions, an action against the seller, on the 
theory of an implied warranty. To the general doctrine of 
“caveat emptor” there are important qualifications. (1) 
The rule does not extend to cases of fraud. Where there is 
positive or active fraud, this is extremely clear. There is 
more doubt in the case where there is only concealment on 
the part of the seller. A distinction has here been taken 
between intrinsic and extrinsic defects. The latter would 
refer to cases where external circumstances affect the value 
of a chattel, as the outbreak of war or the conclusion of 
peace. The rule in such cases is that concealment is not 
a legal fraud, unless there is an active attempt to mislead. 
In the case of intrinsic defects there is great diversity of 
opinion. Some authors of repute hold that “ the seller may 
allow the buyer to cheat himself ad libitum, but that he 
must use no effort to mislead.” It is to be regretted that a 
view of the law should be taken so widely at variance with 
the dictates of common morality, and an effort should be 
made to find some satisfactory ground upon which they can 
be reconciled. It is believed that the seller is bound, in 
laic, to disclose any facts within his knowledge of the na¬ 
ture referred to which cannot be discerned by the exercise 
of ordinary'observation and good judgment on the part of 
the buyer, and which materially affect the value of the chat¬ 
tel in ordinary estimation. To use a familiar illustration, it 
a seller knew that a horse which lie exposed for sale in the 
ordinary manner had a secret defect not discernible by a 
careful purchaser, it would be a fraud on his part not to dis¬ 
close it. Of course, this conclusion would not be arrived at 
if he expressly stated that the sale was “ with all taults, etc. 
















824 CAVE CITY—CAVY. 


(2) When a sale is made by a manufacturer for a special pur¬ 
pose, the better opinion is that the rule in question has no 
application. In other words, there is an implied warranty 
that the chattel is reasonably fit for the purpose for which it 
is bought. Some authorities of weight maintain that there 
is an implied warranty in all sales by manufacturers that 
there is no defect in the process of manufacturing, though 
they would not extend the doctrine to the materials used. 

(3) Wherever the reason on which the rule is founded fails, 

the rule itself gives Avay. The only rational ground of the 
doctrine of caveat emptor is, that when a purchaser has an 
opportunity to examine goods he should act in the way in 
which a prudent man usually manages his affairs, and 
should notice such defects as he may be able to discover. 
Where there is no such opportunity for inspection, or where 
the seller takes the burden of selection upon himself, there 
is no room for the application of the rule. Accordingly, it 
does not apply to a true sale by sample; that is, where the 
bulk of the commodity is not present. In this case, the 
seller impliedly warrants that the bulk of the commodity is 
equal to the sample. The purchaser must examine the 
sample for himself. If, however, that course is not open to 
him, the bulk of the commodity must be equal to the ap¬ 
parent qualities of the sample. Thus, if an article like 
madder were sold by a sample contained in a sealed bottle, 
the bulk must equal the sample as it appears to the eye. 
The same general rule would apply to so called executory 
contracts of sale, as where goods are sold at sea “ to arrive ” 
at a prescribed time. In the special case where the selection 
is made by the seller, the rule also fails. The distinction 
is put by one of the English judges in an apt form. He 
says : If the buyer says to the seller, “ Sell me a gray 
horse to ride,” there must bo a horse supplied which the 
purchaser can ride. If, however, he had said, “Sell me 
that gray horse to ride,” pointing to a particular animal, 
there would be no remedy, in the absence of fraud, if the 
horse were unfit to ride. In these cases another view might 
be taken. There is really no contract if the stipulated 
article is not supplied, the minds of the parties not having 
met. It seems very clear that if A proposes to sell B wheat 
by sample, and he furnishes on delivery wheat that does not 
correspond with the sample, there has been no agreement 
to buy the thing furnished, and it may accordingly be re¬ 
turned to A when its true character is discovered. (4) 
There is an exception to the rule in American law resting 
upon peculiar grounds, and it may be maintained though 
there be no fraud or other special circumstances. This is 
the sale of provisions for domestic use. There is an implied 
warranty that the goods are wholesome. The exception is 
not extended to sales by one dealer to another. It may be 
added that there is a corresponding rule ( caveat venditor) 
applicable to the seller, who is bound in like manner to be 
on his guard in dealing with the purchaser, though this 
would also give way in cases of fraud. An instance is 
where the buyer, having learned that a war has ended, 
takes advantage of his superior knowledge to make pur¬ 
chases. Such a purchase would be legally valid, though if 
he misled the seller the fraud would vitiate the transaction. 
(See also, on this subject, Sales.) T. W. Dwight. 

Cave City, a post-village of Barren co., Ivy., on the 
Louisville and Nashville It. R., 85 miles S. of Louisville 
and about G miles S. E. of the Mammoth Cave. Pop. 387. 

Cave ill Rock, a post-township of Hardin co., Ill., on 
the Ohio River, 51 miles above Paducah, Ivy., was once the 
haunt of a baud of river-pirates under one Mason, an out¬ 
law. Pop. 8G9. 

Cav'emlish, a post-township of Windsor co., Vt., on 
the Rutland and Burlington division of the Vermont Cen¬ 
tral R. R., 23 miles N. by W. of Bellows Falls. It has 
manufactures of woollen cloth, leather, lumber, furniture, 
etc. It includes the village of Proctorsville, which has a 
national bank and important manufactures. Pop. 1823. 

Cavendish (Henry), an eminent English chemist and 
philosopher, born at Nice Oct. 10, 1731, was a son of Lord 
Charles Cavendish and a grandson of the duke of Devon¬ 
shire. He was a man of eccentric and unsocial habits, who 
devoted himself exclusively to science. From an uncle 
who died about 1773 he inherited a very large fortune. As 
a chemical philosopher he occupies the first rank. He was 
one of the founders of pneumatic chemistry, ascertained 
the proportions of oxygen and nitrogen in common air in 
1783, and discovered the composition of water in 1784 by 
burning oxygen and hydrogen in a glass vessel. lie was 
profoundly versed in geometry and mathematics. In 1803 
he was chosen an associate of the French Institute. He 
died in London without issue Feb. 24, 1810, and left a for¬ 
tune of one million pounds sterling. (See G-. Wilson, “ Life 
of II. Cavendish.”) 

Cavendish Experiment, an experiment for deter¬ 


mining the mean density of the earth. (See Density op 
the Earth.) 

Caver'na, a post-village of Ilart co., Ivy. Pop. 479. 

Cave Rock, a township of Douglas co., Ncv. P.120. 

Cave Spring, a township of Jackson co., Ala. P. 378. 

Cave Spring, a post-village of Floyd co., Ga., is the 
seat of the State asylum for deaf-mutes, and has an exten¬ 
sive cavern and a medicinal spring. It is also the seat of 
Ilarn School for young men. 

Cave Spring, a post-township of Roanoke co., Va. 
Pop. 2261. 

Cavetown, a post-twp. of Washington co., Md. P. 1899. 

Ca'very, or Caav'ery (anc. Chaheris), a river of In¬ 
dia, in the Deccan, rises near lat. 13° N. and Ion. 76° E. 

It flows south-eastward through Mysore, and after a course 
of about 470 miles enters the sea by many mouths. Its 
delta is mostly in the district of Tanjore. It is eminently 
available for irrigation and useful in agriculture. 

Caviare, kav'iar or kaveer', the prepared and salted 
roe of the sturgeon, made chiefly in Russia, the Caspian 
fishery alone sometimes yielding several hundred tons an¬ 
nually. There are six or seven species of sturgeon caught 
for their yield of caviare—species chiefly living in the Cas¬ 
pian and Black seas and their tributary streams. The roe 
of the sterlet ( Acipenser ruthenus ) is the best, and its cavi¬ 
are is reserved for the imperial court. Caviare is proverb¬ 
ially disagreeable to the uneducated palate, though highly 
esteemed by the initiated. It is now manufactured quite 
extensively in the U. S. 

Cavi'te, a fortified seaport-town of Luzon, one of the 
Philippine Islands, is on the Bay of Manila, 3 miles S. W. 
of the city of Manila. It has an arsenal, and is the chief 
naval depot of the Spanish possessions in the East. Here 
is a manufactory of cigars. Pop. about 6500. 

Cavour', di (Camillo Benso), Count, an illustrious 
Italian statesman, born Aug. 1, 1810, of an aristocratic 
Piedmontese family, the son of the marchese Michele di 
Cavour and his wife Adelaide Syllon d’Allamar, an ac¬ 
complished Swiss lady. Camillo, a younger son, was des¬ 
tined for the army, In the military academy at Turin ho 
showed such proficiency in mathematical studies that he 
was made an engineer officer at the age of sixteen and > 
given responsible commands. Military life was repugnant 
to his tastes, and he entertained radical opinions which he 
did not hesitate to utter, and thereby displeased the king, 
Charles Albert. He therefore left the army in 1831, and 
turned his attention to agriculture, taking part also in the 
reform agitations of the time. He pursued a zealous in¬ 
quiry into social and industrial questions, visiting England 
and France for that purpose. lie was one of the founders 
of the “ Associazione Agraria,” an energetic reform society, 
and started the liberal journal “ II Risorgimento ” in 1847. 
When in 1848 the liberal party came into power and a 
constitutional frame of government was accorded to Sar¬ 
dinia, Cavour stood at the head of the^moderate republican 
press, and, elected to the Chamber, he took an important 
part in the debates, supporting the moderate ministry of 
D’Azeglio and opposing the violent demands of the Left, 
whereby he lost in great measure his popularity. In 1850 
he was appointed minister of commerce, in 1851 of finance, 
and in 1852 became premier, accomplishing a fusion of the 
Right Centre with the Left Centre under Ratazzi. From 
that time forth he conducted the policy of Italy, bringing 
about finally its political consolidation amid stormy in¬ 
ternal commotions and foreign complications. He promoted 
free trade and religious toleration, opposed the encroach¬ 
ments of the papal power, and formed an alliance with 
England and France in the war against Russia, 1854-55. 
The grand aim of his diplomacy was to promote the union 
of the Italian peoples and the liberation of Italy from 
foreign domination. He thus provoked the hostility of 
Austria, which invaded Italy in April, 1859. The Austrians 
were defeated, and obtained peace by ceding Lombardy, 
which was annexed to the Sardinian states. Cavour re¬ 
signed office in July, 1859, because he disapproved the 
treaty of Yillafranca, but he resumed the position of prime 
minister in Jan., 1860. In consequence of the victories 
of Garibaldi and the general uprising of Italian patriots 
in 1859 and 1860, nearly all Italy was liberated and united. 
Cavour was prime minister of the new kingdom of Italy 
when he died on the 6th of June, 1861. He was never 
married. He left the reputation of being one of the greatest 
statesmen of modern times. (See “Reminiscences of the 
Life of Cavour,” translated from the French by Edward 
Romilly ; also Edward Dicey, “Cavour, a Memoir.”) 

Ca'vy, the name of various South American tailless 
rodent mammals, closely related to the porcupine family, 
and by most naturalists referred to the Hystricidse, but 



















CAW CAW—CAYUGA LAKE. 


825 


by others to the family Cavidae, differing from the hare 
family in the want of clavicles, and in having the incisors 
situated not in the manner characteristic of the hares. 
There are four molar teeth in each jaw, and in the genus 
Cavia these are compound; there are four toes on each of 
the fore feet, and three on the hind feet, the feet not being 
webbed. The females have only two teats. One species, 
Cavia Cobaya, has long been domesticated as a pet and 
plaything of children. It is called the “ restless cavy,” or 
more frequently the “ Guinea pig,” although it is neither 
a pig nor a native of Guinea. The Guinea pig multiplies 
with rapidity, producing young ones when only two months 
old, and afterwards at intervals of two months, from four 
to twelve in a litter. This fecundity serves for the preser¬ 
vation of the race in a wild state, the little animal being 
very defenceless. The other species are very numerous in 
parts of South America. 

Caw Caw, a township of Orangeburg co., S. C. Pop. 
934. 

Cawker City, a post-village and township of Mitchel 
co., Kan. It is the seat of the U. S. land-office for the 
north-western district of Kansas, and is favorably situated 
at the junction of the two 
branches of the Solomon Paver. 

It has one weekly newspaper, a 
high school, three churches, and 
a large wholesale and retail 
trade. Pop. of township, 38. 

Flavius Macmillan, 

Ed. and Pub. op “Sentinel.” 

Cawn'poor, or Cawn- 
pore, a town of Hindostan, on 
the right bank of the Ganges, 
which is here nearly a mile wide, 
about 96 miles S. W. of Luck¬ 
now; lat. 26° 29' N., Ion. 80° 

25' E. It is an important Brit¬ 
ish military station, having can¬ 
tonments which accommodate 
about 7000 men. It is not well 
built, and contains few remark¬ 
able public edifices. Connected 
with the cantonments are several 
hundred bungalows for the offi¬ 
cers, which are fitted up luxu¬ 
riously and have large gardens. 

During the mutiny of the Se¬ 
poys in 1857, Nana Sahib mas¬ 
sacred here a number of English 
captives, including women and 
children. Pop. 108,796. 

Caxamarca, or Caja- 
marca, k&-n3,-nAii / kS, (7. e. a ‘'place of frost ”), a depart¬ 
ment of Peru, is bounded on the N. by Ecuador, on the E. 
by Amazonas, on the S. by Libertad, and on the IV. by 
Libertad and Piura. The department, with the exception 
of the extreme N., is crossed by mountain-ranges, in con¬ 
sequence of which the climate is cool and pleasant. It is 
irrigated by the Maranon, which flows along its eastern 
boundary. All products of the tropics and the temperate 
zones are raised here, as wheat, barley, potatoes, tobacco, 
etc. Chief town, Caxamarca. Pop. about 120,000. 

Caxamar'ca, or Cajamarca, a town of Peru, cap¬ 
ital of a province of its own name, is near the eastern foot 
of the Andes, about 83 miles N. N. E. of Trujillo. It has 
several churches, and manufactures of cutlery and woollen 
cloth. Silver-mines have been opened in the vicinity. 
Caxamarca is celebrated in the history ot the Spanish con¬ 
quest. The ruined palace in which Pizarro confined the 
inca Atahualpa is still to be seen. Pop. 18,330. 

Caxatam'bo, or Cajatambo, a town of Peru, capital 
of a province of its own name, is on the IV. slope of the 
Andes, 140 miles N. of Lima. Pop. about 6500. 

Cax'ton (William), an English merchant, born in 
Kent about 1412, was the first to introduce printing into 
England. In 1464 he was employed to negotiate a treaty 
of commerce between Edward IV. of England and the 
duke of Burgundy. He translated from the French a 
u History of Troy,” which he printed probably in 1471, 
but perhaps earlier. This is said to be the first book ever 
printed in the English language. After he had resided for 
some time at the court of the duchess of Burgundy, he 
returned to England and established a printing-office in 
Westminster in 1476, where he printed several other books. 
Died about 1492. 

Cayam'be, or Cayambe-Urcu', a mountain in Ecua¬ 
dor, a peak of the Colombian Andes, is directly under the 
equator, and about 45 miles N. E. of Quito. It has a beau¬ 


tiful conical form, and an altitude of 19,541 feet. It is 
covered with perpetual snow, and forms one of the most 
remarkable landmarks on the globe. 

Cayenne, a seaport-town of South America, capital 
of French Guiana, is on the Atlantic, and on an island of 
its own name at the mouth of the Cayenne River; lat. 4° 
56' N., Ion. 52° 13' W. It has a shallow harbor, and is 
defended by a fort and batteries. Considerable quantities 
of coffee, sugar, cotton, indigo, and cacao are exported 
from this place. Pop. about 6000. Cayenne Island is 
about 30 miles in circumference, and is separated by a 
narrow channel from the mainland. Cayenne is a penal 
colony to which political offenders are transported. 

Cayenne Pepper. See Capsicum. 

Cayes, a seaport-town of Hayti, on its southern coast, 
92 miles W. S. W. of Port-au-Prince. Pop. 3000. 

Cayman' [said to be an African word, introduced by 
slaves], a name used either as the distinctive appellation 
of some, or as a common name for all the Crocodilidao of 
South America and the West Indies. The genus Alligator 
is by some naturalists divided into three genera, to one of 
which the name Caiman is given. The eye-browed cayman 


(Alligator palpebrosus), to which the name cayman is ap¬ 
plied in Guiana, is not the largest of its tribe. The three 
bony plates which form each eyebrow, projecting as large 
knobs, and the scarcely webbed feet, constitute the charac¬ 
ters of the genus or sub-genus Caiman, to which belong 
also Alligator trigonatus and Alligator gibbiceps. 

Caymans, The, three small islands in the Caribbean 
Sea, belonging to Great Britain, 130 miles N. W. of Ja¬ 
maica. They have few inhabitants, and chiefly produce 
turtles. 

Cayu'ga, a county in W. Central New York. Area, 
756 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Lake Ontario, 
and partly on the W. by Cayuga Lake. It also contains 
Owasco Lake, and is traversed by Seneca River. The sur¬ 
face is undulating; the soil is very fertile. Wool, cattle, 
butter, cheese, fruit, grain, and tobacco are extensively 
raised. Among the minerals found here are gypsum and 
cornifcrous limestone. The rocks of this county are of the 
Silurian and Devonian formations. The county has various 
manufactures, including metallic wares, castings, lumber, 
flour, carriages, agricultural tools, etc. It is intersected 
by the Central, the Southern Central, and the Cayuga Lake 
R. Rs. Capital, Auburn. Pop. 59,550. 

Cayuga, a post-town of Ontario (Canada), capital of 
Haldimand co., is on Grand River, which is navigable, 14 
miles from its entrance into Lake Erie and 25 miles S. of 
Hamilton. It has two newspapers and a heavy trade in 
grain and plaster. 

Cayuga, or Cayuga Bridge, a post-village of Aure¬ 
lius township, Cayuga co., New York, on Cayuga Lake 
near its outlet, and on the New York Central R. R-, 11 miles 
W. of Auburn at its junction with the Cayuga Lake R. li¬ 
lt has four churches. The railroad here crosses the lako 
by a bridge nearly a mile long. Pop. 435. 

Cayuga Lake, a beautiful lake of New \ ork, forms 
the boundary between Cayuga and Seneca counties, and is 



Cayman. 




















































82G 


CAYUGAS—CECROPIA. 


about 38 miles long. Its width varies from one to three 
miles, and its greatest depth is supposed to be above 500 
feet. The surface is 387 feet above the level of the sea. Its 
banks are formed of Silurian and Devonian rocks. White- 
fish and many other species of fish are caught in it. Steam¬ 
boats ply daily between Cayuga Bridge and Ithaca, which 
is at the head of the lake. The outlet of this lake flows 
into Seneca River, which separates Central from Western 
New York. 

Cayugas. See Six Nations. 

Cayu'ta, a post-township of Schuyler co., N. Y T . P. 641. 

Caza'lla tie la Sier'ra, a town of Spain, province 
of Seville, 39 miles N. N. E. of the city of Seville. It is 
on a declivity of the Sierra Morena, and in a district which 
abounds in silver, copper, iron, and marble. It has manu¬ 
factures of linen, machinery, etc. Here are several ruined 
villas and Roman and Arabic antiquities. Pop. 6852. 

Cazem'be, or Kazembe, the name of a country in 
the S. E. of Africa. It is between Lake Tanganyika and 
the river Zambesi, but its limits are not definitely known. 
Its fortified capital, Lucenda, is between lat. 8° and 9° S., 
and between Ion. 28° and 29° E. The soil is well watered 
and fertile. Among the chief productions are maize, manioc 
or cassava, sugar, palm wine, ivory, copper, and sesamum. 

Cazeno'via, a post-township of Woodford co., Ill. 
Pop. 990. 

Cazenovia, a post-village of Madison co., N. Y., is on 
a small lake 18 miles S. E. of Syracuse. The Cazenovia 
and Canastota R. R., 15 miles long, connects it with the 
Central R. R. The Syracuse and Chenango Valley R. R. 
connects it with Syracuse on the N., and with the New 
York and Oswego Midland R. R., at Earlville on the S. 
It is the seat of Central New York Conference Seminary. 
It has a woollen-mill, a pasteboard-factory, a paper-mill, a 
lock-factory, and a machine-shop, one national bank, and 
one newspaper-office. Pop. 1718; of Cazenovia township, 
4265. IrvingC. Foote, Pub. Cazenovia “Republican.” 

Ceano'thus America'nus, New Jersey Tea, or 

Red Root, a shrubby plant of the order Celastraceas, is 
a native of the U. S. It is about two feet high, and has 
ovate, serrate leaves, which were used as a substitute for 
tea during the Revolutionary war. It has small white 
flowers in clusters, which are crowded in dense panicles. 
The beautiful native shrubs called in California wild lilac 
belong to this genus. 

Ceara, or Ciara, a maritime province in the N. E. 
of Brazil, has a coast-line of nearly 350 miles. Area, 
36,887 square miles. Pop. in 1867, 550,000. Gold, copper, 
and iron are found here. Ceara is covered by fine forests, 
and.produces balsams and resins. Capital, Fortaleza. 

Ce'bes [Gr. Ke'^s], sometimes written Kebes, a Greek 
philosopher, born at Thebes, was a disciple and friend of 
Socrates. One of his works, entitled “Pinax” (the “Tab¬ 
let or Picture”), is extant. It is a dialogue on human life, 
which is highly commended, and has been translated into 
many languages. 

Ce'bus [Gr. ky)[3os, a “monkey”], a genus of American 



Cebus, or Sajou Monkey. 

monkeys characterized by a round head, long thumbs, and 
a long prehensile tail covered with hair. The species are 


numerous, remarkably intelligent and active, and live in 
trees. They feed chiefly on fruits, but also on eggs, insects, 
worms, and mollusks. They are included under the desig¬ 
nation sapajou in its wider sense, and among them are the 
monkeys to which this name is more strictly applied. The 
names capuchin, sajou, weeper, and sai are also given to 
them. The name Ccbidae is given to the American mon¬ 
keys as a family by those who recognize the limits of this 
family as being the same as those of the tribe Platyrrhinm. 

Cecidoinyi'a [from the Gr. k-^kCSlov, a “gall-nut,” and 
ixvla , a “fly”], a genus of two-winged insects of the gnat 
and mosquito family, having downy wings, which are hor¬ 
izontal when at rest; antennae as long as the body, with 
joints, and whorls of hairs at the joints; long legs, and the 
first joint of the tarsi very short. The species are numer¬ 
ous, of small size, but some of them are very important on 
account of the ravages which their maggots effect in grain 
crops. Cecidomyia cercalis, called the barley midge, a 
brownish-red fly with silvery wings, of which the maggot 
is vermilion-colored, is very destructive to barley and 
spelt. The maggots live in families between the stalk and 
the sheath of the leaf, abstracting the juice of the plant. 
The wheat-fly and the Hessian-fly belong to this genus. 
Some of the species of Cecidomyia deposit their eggs on the 
young buds of trees, which the larvae transform into galls. 

Ce'cil, a county which forms the N. E. extremity of 
Maryland, is at the head of Chesapeake Bay. Area, 409 
square miles. It is partly bounded on the W. by the Sus¬ 
quehanna River, and is intersected by the Elk River. The 
soil is productive. Wheat, corn, oats, fruit, and wool are 
extensively raised. The county contains large quarries of 
granite and valuable mines of chromium, iron, and fire¬ 
clay. The manufactures include flour, iron, paper, etc. It 
is traversed by the Philadelphia Wilmington and Baltimore 
and the Philadelphia and Baltimore Central R. Rs. Cap¬ 
ital, Elkton. Pop. 25,874. 

Cecil, a township of Washington co., Pa. Pop. 1102. 

Cecil (Rev. Richard), an eminent evangelical clergy¬ 
man of the Church of England, born in London in 1748, 
died in 1810. He was a devout, fervent Christian, and an 
impassioned pulpit orator. His works were published 
(London, 1811) in 4 vols. 8vo. The fourth volume, con¬ 
taining his “Remains,” is considered the most valuable. 
There is also an American edition (New l"ork, 1845) in 
3 vols. 8vo. 

Cecil, Lord Robert. See Salisbury, Marquis of. 

Cecil. See Burleigh. 

Cecil'ia, Saint, a Roman virgin who is supjiosed to 
have suffered martyrdom in the second or third century. 
She is regarded as the patroness of musicians and the in¬ 
ventor of the organ. Raphael, Domenicliino, and other 
great artists painted pictures of her, and Dryden wrote a 
celebrated “ Ode for St. Cecilia’s Day,” which is the 22d 
of November. 

Cecil'ian Col'lege, a Catholic male boarding school 
at Cecilian, Hardin co., Ivy., on the Elizabethtown and 
Paducah R. R. It was founded in 1860, and chartered in 

1867. Its proprietors and profes¬ 
sors are laymen. Its average num¬ 
ber of matriculants for thirteen 
years is 150. No uniform is requir¬ 
ed. The discipline is firm and strict, 
the students being at all times in the 
care of the officers of the school. 
Degrees are conferred by this collego 
both in the classical and business de¬ 
partments. The school term is of 
fa forty weeks, at a charge of $5 per 

week, covering all expenses. 

II. A., S. G., and A. D. Cecil, 
Proprietors. 

Cecilius. See Caccilius. 
Ce'cilton, a post-village and 
township of Cecil co., Md. Pop. 
462 ; of township, 3337. 

Cecro'pia, a genus of trees of 
the order Artocarpaceae. The Ce¬ 
cro'pia peltata, a very common tree 
of the West Indies and South Amer¬ 
ica, called trumpet-wood and snake- 
wood, is remarkable for its hollow 
stem and branches, with membranous 
partitions at the joints. The small 
branches are made into wind instru¬ 
ments. The wood is very light, 
readily takes fire by friction against 
hard wood, and is much used by the Indians for procuring 
fire. The fruit is agreeable, and resembles a mulberry. 




































CECROPIA MOTH—CEDAR CREEK. 


The trunk and branches yield a large quantity of saline 
matter, employed by planters in the purification of sugar. 
The bark is strong and fibrous, and is used for cordage. 
It is also astringent, and is employed in diarrhoea and 
gonorrhoea. The juice yields caoutchouc. 

Cecro'pia Moth, a lepidopterous insect of the family 
Bombycidm, and nearly related to the silkworm. The 
systematic arrangement of this family is unsettled, but of 
the numerous names proposed for this insect perhaps 
Platysamia cecropia is the best. This is the largest North 
American moth yet known. When expanded it often 
measures six inches and a half across. It is of a dusky- 
gray color, variegated with white, black, and various neu¬ 
tral tints. It appears in the U. S. in June, and is a most 
striking and beautiful object. Its larva is over three 
inches long, of a light-green color, with red and yellow 
warts armed with bristles. The cocoon is of a very strong 
silk, which is abundant in quantity, but it cannot be reeled. 
It has, however, been carded and spun into an excellent 
thread, and but for the delicate character of the larvae, 
which are hard to raise, it would become an important 
article of commerce. The Telea polyphemus, an American 
relative of this moth, has attracted much attention from the 
excellence of its silk and the hardiness of its young. The 
ailanthus silkworm of China also closely resembles the 
larva of the cecropia moth. From the fact that the com¬ 
mon silkworm has become subject to several destructive 
diseases, the scientific world is much interested in the effort 
to find another silkworm which shall be hardy and pro¬ 
ductive of useful cocoons. 

Ce'erops, or Kekrops [Gr. Ke/<paji//], a semi-fabulous 
hero of the Pelasgian race, was called the first king and 
legislator of Attica. According to tradition, he instituted 
marriage and instructed the Athenians in agriculture, nav¬ 
igation, religion, etc. The people of Attica were some¬ 
times called Cecropidse. 

Ce'dar [Gr. xeSpo?; Lat. cedrus; Fr. cedre], the com¬ 
mon name of several species of evergreen trees of the order 
Coniferae. They afford durable and valuable timber. The 
name red cedar is given to the Juniperus Virginiana, a na¬ 
tive of the U. S., which is prized for its durable, compact, 
and odorous wood, and is used by cabinet-makers. It 
grows mostly in dry and sterile soils. In the Western 
States it attains the height of seventy feet or more, but in 
the Eastern States it is a small tree. The American white 
cedar (Cupressus thyo'ides), an evergreen tree, abounds in 
the swamps of the U. S., and grows from thirty to seventy 
feet high. The timber of this tree will remain for a long 
time under water without decaying, and is an excellent 
material for posts of fences and for shingles. Various other 
coniferous trees are called cedars in the U. S. The name 
white cedar is given in America to the wood of Cupressus 
thyo'idea and Thuya Occident alia —the latter throughout the 
Northern States. 

The cedar of Lebanon, perhaps the most celebrated 
of the cedars, is now assigned to the genus Cedrus, which 
differs from Larix, the larch, in having evergreen leaves 
and in other less conspicuous characters. This famous 
tree is not confined to Lebanon, but grows in the Atlas 
Mountains, and is half naturalized in parks and landscape 
gardens in Europe and America, thriving well even in the 
north of Scotland. According to Dr. Hooker, it is highly 
probable that the deodar of the Himalaya Mountains is spe¬ 
cifically identical with the cedar of Lebanon, though the trees 
differ considerably in growth, aspect, and size of cones. The 
deodar is much larger. It is prized for its timber and its 
resin, tar, and pitch; which were also once produced by 
the cedar of Lebanon. Its timber is much better than that 
of the latter. Of the celebrated cedars on Mount Lebanon, 
eleven groves still remain, two of them numbering thou¬ 
sands of trees. The famous B’Sherreli grove is three-quar¬ 
ters of a mile in circumference, containing some 400 trees, 
young and old. Twelve of these are of an extreme age, esti¬ 
mated by some at 2000 years. The largest is 63 feet in 
girth and 50 feet high, one-third the maximum height 
of the deodar. 

The so-called “cedar” of the West Indies and South 
America, much used for cigar-boxes, and sometimes for lead- 
pencils, is the fragrant red wood of the Cedrela odorata of the 
order Codrelaceae. 

Cedar, a county in the E. of Iowa. Area, 576 square 
miles. It is intersected by the Cedar and Wapsipinicon 
rivers. The surface is diversified by woodlands and undu¬ 
lating prairies, the soil of which is very fertile. Grain, 
wool and beef-cattle are very largely raised. It is trav¬ 
ersed by a branch of the Chicago and North-western It. R., 
and contains quarries of good Devonian limestone. Cap¬ 
ital, Tipton. Pop. 19,731. 

Cedar, a county in the W. S. W. of Missouri. Area, 
435 square miles. It is intersected by Sac River, and also 


drained by Horse Creek. The surface is uneven ; the soil 
is fertile. Corn, tobacco, and wool are staple products. 
Capital, Stockton. Pop. 9474. 

Cedar, a county of Nebraska, bordering on Dakota, has 
an area estimated at 700 square miles. It is bounded on 
the N. by the Missouri River, and also drained by Big Bow 
Creek. The soil is productive. Wool, wheat, and corn aro 
the chief products. Capital, St. James. Pop. 1032. 

Cedar, a township of Clarke co., Ark. Pop. 897. 

Cedar, a township of Knox co., Ill. Pop. 2153. 

Cedar, a township of Benton co., Ia. Pop. 1041. 

Cedar, a township of Black Hawk co., Ia. Pojn 731. 

Cedar, a township of Cherokee co., Ia. Pop. 250. 

Cedar, a township of Floyd co., Ia. Pop. 415. 

Cedar, a township of Greene co., Ia. Pop. 306. 

Cedar, a township of Jefferson co., Ia. Pop. S16. 

Cedar, a township of Johnson co., Ia. Pop. 1094. 

Cedar, a township of Lee co., Ia. Pop. 1196. 

Cedar, a township of Lucas co., Ia. Pop. 764. 

Cedar, a township of Mahaska co., Ia. Pop. 1265. 

Cedar, a township of Mitchell co., Ia. Pop. 733. 

Cedar, a township of Monroe co., Ia. Pop. 831. 

Cedar, a township of Muscatine co., Ia. Pop. 421. 

Cedar, a township of Van Buren co., Ia. Pop. 1090. 

Cedar, a township of Washington co., Ia. Pop. 957. 

Cedar, a township of Wilson co., Kan. Pop. 539. 

Cedar, a township of Boone 6o., Mo. Pop. 5020. 

Cedar, a township of Callaway co., Mo. Pop. 2453. 

Cedar, a township of Cedar co., Mo. Pop. 788. 

Ce'darburg, a post-village of Ozaukee co., Wis., on 
Cedar Creek and on the Milwaukee and Northern R. R., 
20 miles N. of Milwaukee. It has a national bank. Pop. 
of Cedarburg township, 2557. 

Cedar Creek, in the N. part of Virginia, rises in 
Shenandoah co., and enters the North Fork of the Shenan¬ 
doah about 4 miles below Strasburg. On this creek the army 
of Gen. Sheridan was encamped when, Oct. 19, 1864, during 
Sheridan’s absence, it was surprised at daylight, at Alacken, 
by the Confederate army under Gen. Early, its left flank 
turned and driven in confusion, the remainder of the army 
retiring, yet in good order. Gen. Wright, in command at 
the time, after having succeeded in restoring something 
like order among the surprised troops, seeing that the posi¬ 
tion they had fallen back to was an exposed one, ordered a 
general retreat, to enable him to restore communications. 
The retreat was conducted in good order, and Gen. Wright 
had halted and restored his line when, at 10 a. m., Gen. 
Sheridan, who had heard of the disaster at Winchester, 
arrived on the field. He was informed by Gen. Wright of 
the dispositions made by him, to which Sheridan gave his 
approval. The pursuit by the Confederate army had ceased, 
the men being occupied plundering the camps of the Eighth 
and Nineteenth corps. Gen. Sheridan arrived, then, to find 
that his army had been surprised and routed; but he found 
i that the worst was over, the line reformed, and the army 
not demoralized. His presence lent an inspiring effect, so 
that, after making his line as compact as possible, an attack 
made upon it at 1 p. m. was successfully repulsed. At 3 r. m., 
after making some charges with his cavalry, he attacked 
the Confederates with great vigor, driving and routing 
them, and capturing over fifty pieces of artillery, including 
twenty of his own lost in the morning, about 2000 prison¬ 
ers, and releasing many of our men captured in the morn¬ 
ing. The cavalry drove them still farther next day, the 
20th, and during that night Early retreated, and the mil¬ 
itary operations in the Shenandoah Valley were at an end. 

Cedar Creek, a township of Carroll co., Ark. Pop. 
511. 

Cedar Creek, a township of Crawford co., Ark. Pop. 
952. 

Cedar Creek, a township of Sevier co., Ark. P. 117. 

Cedar Creek, a village and hundred of Sussex co., 
Del. The village is about 30 miles S. S. E. of Dover, and 
near the Delaware R. R. Pop. 3544. 

Cedar Creek, a township of Allen co., Ind. P. 1713. 

Cedar Creek, a township of Lake co., Ind. P. 1326. 

Cedar Creek, a township of Cowley co., Kan. P. 79. 

Cedar Creek, a township of Marion co., Kan. P. 105. 

Cedar Creek, a township of Muskegon co., Mich. 
Pop. 660. 

Cedar Creek, a township of Wayne co., Mo. P. 319. 

Cedar Creek, a post-township of Cumberland co., 
N. C. Pop. 2358. 




























828 CEDAR CREEK—CELEBES. 


Cedar Creek, o twp. of Lancaster co., S. C. Pop. 1505. 

Cedar Creek, a township of Bath co., Va. Pop. 90S. 

Cedar Creek Mines, a township of Missoula co., 
Mon. Pop. 1486. 

Cedar Dale, a village of Whitby township, Ontario 
co., province of Ontario (Canada), on the Grand Trunk 
Railway, 33 miles from Toronto. 

Cedar Falls, a city and township of Black Hawk co., 
Ia., on the Cedar River and the Illinois Central and the 
Burlington Cedar Rapids and Minnesota R. Rs. It has 
eight churches, two newspapers, and several mills, and 
other manufactories. P. 3070; including township, 4381. 

C. W. & E. A. Snyder, Eds. Cedar Falls “ Gazette." 

Cedar Fork, a township of Wake co., N. C. P. 1533. 

Cedar Grove, a post-twp. of Orange co., N. C. P. 2047. 

Cedar Island, in the township of East Hampton, 
Suffolk co., N. Y., at the entrance to Sag Harbor, Long 
Island; lat. 41° 02' 26" N., Ion. 72° 15' 19" W., has a granite 
lighthouse, with a fixed white light 34 feet above the sea. 

Cedar Keys, a seaport of Levy co., Fla., on the Gulf 
of Mexico, at the S. W. terminus of the Florida R. R., on 
Way Key, a small island, 154 miles from Fernandina. Its 
harbor is formed by a group of keys, or small islands, 
which give name to the town. It has a lighthouse on Sea¬ 
horse Key; lat. 29° 05' 49" N., Ion. 83°' 04' 46" W. It 
shows a revolving light 75 feet above the sea. The lum¬ 
ber-trade is the chief industry. Pop. 440. 

Cedar Lake, a post-twp. of Scott co., Minn. P. 756. 

Cedar Mills, a post-twp. of Renville co., Minn. P. 205. 

Cedar Mountain, a twp. of Culpeper co., Va. P. 1708. 

Cedar Mountain, Va., about 2 miles W. of Mitchell’s 
Station, Culpeper co., on the Orange Alexandria and Ma¬ 
nassas R. R., was the scene of a desperate and sanguinary 
conflict on the 9th of Aug., 1862, between the forces of 
Gens. Pope and Jackson, in which the Federal forces un¬ 
der the immediate command of Gen. Banks were outnum¬ 
bered and defeated with a loss of nearly 2000 in killed, 
wounded, and missing, and a large quantity of war-mate¬ 
rial; the Confederate loss was about 1300. 

Cedar Mountains, of South Africa, are in Cape 
Colony. This range extends nearly parallel with the At¬ 
lantic, and is near the meridian of 19° E. The highest 
summits of it rise about 6590 feet above the level of the 
sea. They are partly covered with forests of cedar. 

Cedar Rapids, a city of Linn co., Ia., on Cedar 
River, 219 miles W. of Chicago and 265 miles S. of St. 
Paul, on the Chicago and North-western, the Burlington 
Cedar Rapids and Minnesota (also the Milwaukee and 
Pacific divisions of that road), and the Dubuque and 
South-western R. Rs. It is the head-quarters of the Iowa 

R. R. Land Company, of the Sioux City and Pacific R. R., 

of a coal company, and of the Burlington Cedar Rapids 
and Minnesota R. R., whose shops are here. It has a 
valuable water-power, two national and one savings bank, 
two weekly, one monthly, and one daily newspaper, flour- 
ing-mills, steam bakery, foundries, planing-mills, manu¬ 
factories of furniture, confectionery, paper, oil and lint, 
beer, oatmeal, woollens, knit goods, agricultural tools, 
wagons, carriages, door-latches, etc. Pork-packing is ex¬ 
tensively carried on. The wholesale trade is important. 
The city is lighted with gas, has excellent schools and 
churches, and is increasing in population and prosperity. 
Pop. 5940. F. McClelland, Ed. “ Times.” 

Cedar (or Red Cedar) River, of Iowa, rises in the 

S. part of Minnesota. It flows nearly south-eastward 
through Mitchel, Floyd, Bremer, Black Hawk, Benton, 
Linn, and Cedar counties of Iowa. Then turning to the 
S. W., it enters the Iowa River about 15 miles above Wa¬ 
pello. Total length, estimated at 350 miles. Devonian 
and magnesian limestones are abundant along its banks. 

Cedar Rock, a post-twp. of Franklin co., N. C. P. 1112. 

Cedar Run, a township of Fauquier co., Va. P. 2145. 

Cedar Springs, a post-village of Kent co., Mich. It 
has one weekly newspaper. 

Cedar Springs, a twp. of Abbeville co., S. C. P. 1503. 

Cedar Springs, a post-village in Spartanburg co., S. C., 
on the Spartanburg and Union R. R. It contains the State 
institution for the deaf, dumb, and blind, founded in 1849. 

Ce'dartown, a post-village, capital of Polk co., Ga., 
about 60 miles W. N. W. of Atlanta. Pop. 323. 

Ce'darville, a township of Hale co., Ala. Pop. 1920. 

Cedarville, a post-village of Smith co., Kan. It has 
one weekly newspaper. 

Cedarville, a twp. of Menominee co., Mich. P. 194. 

Cedarville, a post-village of Greene co., 0., in a town¬ 


ship of the same name, on the Columbus and Xenia R. R., 
47 miles S. W. of Columbus. Pop. 753; of township, 2361. 

Cedarville, a township of Warren co., Va. Pop. 1734. 

Cedrela'cea; [from Cedrcla, one of the genera], a 
natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, very nearly 
allied to Meliacem, and chiefly distinguished by the winged 
seeds, numerous in each cell of the fruit, which is a cap¬ 
sule. The known species are few, all tropical or sub-tropi¬ 
cal, most of them trees valuable for their timber. To this 
order belong mahogany, satin-wood, toon, Barbadoes cedar, 
the yellow-wood of New South Wales, etc. 

Cefalu (anc. Cephaloedium), a town of Sicily, in the 
province of Palermo, situated on the Mediterranean, 40 
miles E. S. E. of Palermo. Here is a fine cathedral of 
Norman architecture. The town is situated at the foot of 
a mountain or high rock, on which are the ruins of an 
ancient Phoenician structure and of a Saracenic castle. It 
has marble-quarries and sardine-fisheries. Pop. in 1872, 
11,799. 

Ceglie, clA'lyA a town of Italy, province of Lecce, 23 
miles W. of Brindisi. It has several churches, one of which 
is collegiate, and two annual fairs. Pop. 11,261. 

Cehegin, thi-sYneen', a town of Spain, in the province 
of Murcia, 35 miles W. N. W. of the city of Murcia. It 
has manufactures of cloth, paper, soap, and pottery, and a 
trade in wine and fruits. It is partly built of marble quar¬ 
ried in the vicinity. Pop. 6186. 

Ceil'ing [perhaps from the Fr. del, “ heaven,” referring 
to its vaulted shape, and possibly to the blue color and 
stars of gold common in mediaeval ceilings], the covering 
or upper surface of a room. Ceilings among the ancients 
were usually flat, but crossed at right angles by beams, 
forming square lacunse or panels, often ornamented with 
rich designs. Similar ceilings were common in Middle- 
Age structures, but the arched ceiling, barrel-vaulted, made 
of “ cants ” or a succession of flat surfaces, plastered, 
wainscoted, ribbed, plain, gilt, embossed, or otherwise or¬ 
namented, was a much more common form than in ancient 
Rome, where, however, arched ceilings were not unknown. 

C’el'andine ( Chelidonium ), a genus of herbs of the 
order Papaveraceae. The common celandine (Chelidonium 
majus ) is a perennial, with yellow flowers in simple umbels, 
frequent in waste places in most parts of Europe and in the 
U. S. The root, stem, and leaves have a disagreeable smell, 
and are full of a yellow juice which is very acrid. Celan¬ 
dine in medicine is a drastic purgative, and in large doses 
an active poison; in small doses it is said to be useful in 
scrofulous diseases, disease of the glands, etc. The fresh 
juice, applied to warts, sometimes removes them. 

Celano Lake. See Fucino. 

Ceflastra'ceae, a natural order of exogenous shrubs, 
having simple leaves and seeds furnished with arils. They 
have acrid properties, sometimes stimulant. Two genera 
of this order, Celastrus and Euonymus (spindle tree), are 
natives of the U. S. (See Euonymus.) The Celastrus scan- 
dens, called bittersweet or waxwork, has five stamens and 
alternate serrate leaves. The orange-colored pod and seeds, 
enclosed in a scarlet aril, are ornamental in autumn. 

Cel'ebes [native, JYegree-Orang-Booyis], a large island 
of the Malay Archipelago, is about 75 miles E. of Borneo, 
from which it is separated by Macassar Strait. It extends 
from lat. 1° 50' N. to 5° 30' S., and is mostly included be¬ 
tween Ion. 119° and 125° E. It has a very irregular form, 
being divided by deep bays into four peninsulas, one of 
which (called Menado) is about 400 miles long and very 
narrow. These peninsulas are formed by chains of moun¬ 
tains radiating from the central part of the island. The 
highest summit rises about 7000 feet above the level of the 
sea. Though the area of Celebes is only 72,647 square 
miles, it has a coast-line of nearly 2500 miles. The penin¬ 
sula of Menado is bounded on the N. by the Sea of Celebes, 
and on the S. by the Bay of Tomini. The two southern 
peninsulas are separated by the large bay of Boni. The 
vegetation is luxuriant, and the island is partly covered 
with forests of oak, teak, palm, cedar, and upas trees, and 
partly by vast grassy champaigns which are used in com¬ 
mon by the natives. The nutmeg, the clove, and the bam¬ 
boo also flourish here. Among the minerals are gold, cop¬ 
per, tin, and iron. Coffee, rice, sugar, indigo, and manioc 
are cultivated. Chief town, Macassar. Celebes is partly 
occupied by a race called Boogis, who are strong and well 
built, revengeful in character, and fond of the chase. The 
tribe of Wadjus are an intelligent race who pursue com¬ 
merce ; the Arafuras inhabit the central regions, and are 
the aborigines of this archipelago. This island was visited 
by the Portuguese in 1512. The Dutch expelled the Por¬ 
tuguese in 1660, and planted there colonies, which they still 
possess. Pop. of the residency of Celebes in 1869, 341,000 ; 
and of the residency of Menado, 508,000. 


























CELERY—CELL. 


Cel'ery, a plant of tho order Umbelliferae. The com¬ 
mon celery (Apium graveolens) is found wild in most parts 
of Europe, in wet saline soils. The wild plant, called small- 
age, has a stem about two feet high, a slender root, a pene¬ 
trating odor, and a bitterish acrid taste. By cultivation its 
taste becomes agreeably sweetish and aromatic, and either 
the leaf-stalks increase in thickness or the root-stalk as¬ 
sumes a form resembling that of the turnip. The latter 
variety is called celenac. The stalks of the former va¬ 
riety, blanched, are used as a salad or to impart flavor to 
soups, etc. They contain sugar, mucilage, starch, and a sub¬ 
stance resembling manna-sugar, which sometimes acts as a 
stimulant on the urino-genital organs. The blanching of 
the stalks is accomplished by drawing up earth to the 
plants, which are transplanted from the seed-bed into 
richly-manured trenches, and as they grow the trenches 
are filled, and the earth finally raised into ridges. Another 
species (Apium australe) grows abundantly in wet places 
about Cape Horn and in Staten Land. It is a large and 
luxuriant plant, and is described as wholesome, and nearly 
equal in its wild state to garden celery. 

Celeste (Madame), a danseuse, born in Paris Aug. 6, 
1814, became in childhood a pupil at the Royal Academy 
of Music. When fifteen years old she came to the U. S., 
and soon after married a Mr. Elliot. After her husband’s 
death she went to England, where she met with great pro¬ 
fessional success. She subsequently passed several years 
in the U. S. (1834-37 and 1865-68), where she was received 
with the greatest enthusiasm. The greater part of her life 
has been passed in England, where she was successful as 
an actress and a theatrical manager. 

Cel'estine [from the Lat. cceltim, the “sky,” in allusion 
to its color], a mineral which is essentially sulphate of stron- 
tia, with occasional mixture of sulphate of baryta and car¬ 
bonate of lime in small proportions. Its color is often a 
beautiful indigo-blue. It resembles heavy spar, but is not 
quite equal to it in specific gravity. Fine specimens of crys¬ 
tallized celestine are found in Sicily. It is useful as a source 
of strontia. The finest crystals of celestine are found on 
Strontian Island, Lake Erie. 

Cel'estine (or Cflelesti'ims) I., Saint, a native of 
Rome, became pope in 422 A. D. He promoted the meet¬ 
ing of a council which deposed Nestorius. He died in 432, 
and was succeeded by Sixtus III.— Celestine II., Pope, 
originally Guido di Castello, was born in Tuscany. He 
succeeded Innocent II. in 1143, and died in 1144. —Celes¬ 
tine III. (Giacinto Orsini) was elected pope in 1191 as 
the successor of Clement III. He promoted the first Cru¬ 
sade, and excommunicated Leopold, duke of Austria, for 
detaining Richard Coeur de Lion in prison. He died in 
1198, aged about ninety-two years.— Celestine IV. (Gof- 
fredo Castiglioxe) succeeded Pope Gregory IX. in Sept., 
1241, but he died in October of the same year. —Celestine 
V., Saint (Pietro da Murrone or Morone), Pope, was 
born at Apulia in 1215. He was elected in 1294 as the 
successor of Nicholas IV. Before that event he had founded 
an order of hermits called Celestines (which see). He 
abdicated the office before the end of 1294, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by Boniface VIII. Died in 1296. 

Cel'estines, an order of hermits or monks founded in 
1264 by Pietro da Murrone, who became Pope Celestine Y. 
This order spread rapidly in France, Italy, and Germany 
between 1264 and 1400, but it is now nearly extinct. These 
monks followed the rule of Saint Benedict, and preferred a 
contemplative life. 

Cel'ibacy [from the Lat. ccelebs , an “ unmarried man ”], 
the condition of a person never married; applied often to 
the voluntary life of abstinence from marriage assumed by 
religious devotees and the clergy of some churches, such as 
the Roman Catholic. Practised in ancient Rome in the 
case of the vestal virgins, in Judaea by the Essenes, and in 
the East by the priests of Booddhism, it is probable that 
it took its origin in the belief that the material body is the 
source of evil and the prison of the soul; while the passages 
of Saint Paul recommending the celibate condition as desir¬ 
able during the stormy years which preceded the destruc¬ 
tion of Jerusalem were used among early Christians as au¬ 
thority for advocating religious celibacy. Accordingly, 
virginity was held in peculiar honor in the early Church. 
But it is certain from the inscriptions found in the cata¬ 
combs, from passages in the canon law, and from the pos¬ 
itive testimony of history that celibacy was not enforced, 
even among the higher clergy. For centuries this matter 
was a subject of discussion in the councils. The Council 
of Tours (566) suspended from their functions for one year 
all secular priests and deacons with wives; but in 692 the 
Council of Constantinople allowed priests and deacons to 
marry once only; and in parts of the Greek Church their 
marriage is compulsory, though bishops and patriarchs are 
celibates. In the West, decretals were from time to time 


829 


issued against the marriage of the clergy, leading to many 
struggles within the Church. These struggles culminated 
in the eleventh century, and the point was finally settled 
by the vigor and determination of Gregory VII. in 1074, 
positively forbidding the marriage of the clergy. The 
Council of Trent (1593) finally set at rest the controversy 
by imposing the same prohibition. There is, however, an 
exception made in favor of priests and deacons of the East¬ 
ern rites, who are allowed to retain their wives if married 
before ordination. 

Celi'na, a post-village, capital of Mercer co., 0., is on 
the N. W. bank of the Great Reservoir, near the source of 
the Wabash River, 115 miles W. N. W. of Columbus. It 
has seven manufactories, four churches, and two news¬ 
papers. Pop. 859. 

C. Bidlack, Ed. Celina “Journal and Standard.” 

Celina, a post-village, capital of Jackson co., Tenn., on 
the Cumberland River, at the mouth of the Obey. 

Cell [Lat. cellct], a term applied in anatomy primarily 
to lacunae in tissues of any kind, such as the air-vesicles in 
the lungs, the minute sacs in which fats are contained, and 
the hollows in cancellated bone. But of late the term espe¬ 
cially designates the simplest of the histological elements 
of which animals and plants are built up, some of the low¬ 
est plants and animals ( Protococcus , Gregarina) consisting 
of single cells and their contents, and many others consist¬ 
ing of a mere aggregation of cells. The animal or veget¬ 
able character of these low forms can only be determined 
by careful observation of their functions (see Animal), < 
but it is observed that animal structures have more gener¬ 
ally an interstitial substance lying between the constituent 
cells; while plants often have their cells jiacked together 
with no intermediate substance, or with only air between. 
This intermediate substance, when fluid, plastic, and nu¬ 
tritive, is called a blastema; when solid, it is a matrix. 

Cells are propagated (1) by division of the parent cell; 
(2) by free formation within the parent cell, the contents 
assuming the cell-form, and ultimately escaping from the 
original cell—a process observed especially in the lower 
plants; and (3) by free formation in a fluid plasma, 
as observed chiefly in animal life. 

The primary form of the cell is spherical or nearly so, 
but by mutual pressure and by other conditions (some of 
them unexplained by science) their shape is often modified, 
especially in the solid tissues; cells which are stellate, 
spindle-shaped, flat, conical, etc. being well known to 
every observer. The cell consists usually of a membranous 
“cell-wall” enclosing “cell-contents,” which are fluid, 
granular, or solid. The diameter of animal cells varies 
(without noticing exceptional cases) between xoW*h aDC l 
SoVoth of an inch. Vegetable cells are sometimes much 
smaller and often much larger than animal cells (from g^th 
to ^oVoth an inch). The vegetable cell-wall is of cellu¬ 
lose, a non-nitrogenous substance; the animal cell is of somo 
nitrogenized protein compound. The vegetable cell-wall 
is lined by a peculiar layer called the primordial utricle. 

The “cell-contents” usually contain a “nucleus,” which 
is regarded by many theorists as the essential part of the 
cell. Thus, Schultze says: “ The cell is only the proto¬ 
plasm surrounding a nucleus;” but on the other hand it 
has been demonstrated that the nucleus is not always 
present in the cell, and it is believed by some that it is not 
an essential element. Sometimes there are several nuclei 
in a cell. Each nucleus is a hollow spheroid, often con¬ 
taining one or more round “nucleoli,” but the nucleolus is 
by no means a constant element. Animal cells may con¬ 
tain water, salts, pigments, various secretion or excretion 
compounds, oils, fats, and granules of various kinds, etc. 
Vegetable cells may contain salts, water, oils, resin, starch, 
sugar; and all these substances (except excretive matters, 
water, and the salts) are produced, it is believed, in great 
part, through the agency of cells. It is known that a great 
part of the functional activity of organized bodies is car¬ 
ried on by means of cells, such as excretion, secretion, ab¬ 
sorption, etc. The ovum, the spermatozoon, the pollen 
grain, is but a cell. Many animal cells are ciliated, or 
provided with a vibratile tail or cilium, which assists by 
its motion in some most important functions. Cells are 
also in many cases so transformed and metamorphosed 
that it is difficult to recognize them at all as cells; tor ex¬ 
ample, the muscle-fibres, the tubules of dentine in the teeth, 
wood-fibre, flax and other vegetable fibre, hollow tubes and 
vessels, etc., are held to be transformed cells; and in some 
such cases the nucleus is yet visible. It is generally be¬ 
lieved that the cell is the ultimate structural element ot all 
organized tissues, though this is denied by some recent 
biologists. The red blood-corpuscle is at present not 
generally regarded as a true cell, but the white corpuscle 
is undoubtedly so. It is regarded as identical wit i t ic 
tissue-cell, the pus-cell, the mucus-cell, and the colostium 




















CELLE—CELLULOSE. 


830 


corpuscle; and the whole group have been named “leuco¬ 
cytes.” (See Kolliker, “Human Histology;” Leydig, 
“Lehrbuch der Histologic;” Virchow, “Cellular Patho¬ 
logy;” Tyson, “Cell Doctrine;” Burnett, “The Cell;”, 
and the works of Von Moiil, BrAcke, Unger, Remak, and 
Haeckel.) </ CnAS. W. Greene. 

Cel'le, or ZelSc, a town of Germany, in Hanover, 
is on a sandy plain on the river Aller at the head of navi¬ 
gation, and on the Hanover and Brunswick Railway, 22 
miles N. E. of Hanover. Here is a noted government 
breeding stud. It has an old castle, a gymnasium, and a 
library of 60,000 volumes; also manufactures of wax can¬ 
dles, printers’ ink, thread and yarn, pianofortes, tobacco, 
matches, etc. Pop. in 1871, 16,117* 

Celli'ni (Benvenuto), a celebrated Italian artist, born 
at Florence in 1500. He was a skilful engraver, gold- 
worker, and sculptor. He was in Rome in 1527 when it 
was attacked by the army of Constable Bourbon, and ac¬ 
cording to his own statement he killed that commander on 
that occasion. He was a man of passionate and quarrel¬ 
some temper, and much inclined to egotism. Among his 
patrons were Pope Clement VII., Francis I. of France, and 
Cosiino de’ Medici. He worked in Rome, Paris, and Flor¬ 
ence, produced, besides other works, a bronze of “ Perseus 
with the head of Medusa.” His interesting autobiography 
is translated into German by Goethe and into English by 
Roscoe (1822). The first complete edition was issued by 
Tassi, Florence, in 1829. Died Feb. 25, 1571. 

Cel'lular Tis'siie, moreproperly Are'olar Tis'sue, 
in animals, is the soft, elastic, filamentous substance which 
underlies the skin and the serous and mucous membranes, 
and which fills the spaces between muscles and between 
their fibres, and indeed surrounds almost all important 
organs, such as nerves, glands, blood-vessels, etc., through¬ 
out the body. It normally contains a small quantity of 
serous fluid, which in certain diseased conditions becomes 
increased, constituting anasarca, a form of dropsy.—Cellu¬ 
lar tissue in botany is simply non-vascular substance com¬ 
posed entirely of untransformed cells. It forms the soft 
substance of plants, and is called parenchyma. 

Cel'lulose (C 18 H 30 O 15 ) is the term applied to the sub¬ 
stance which forms the mass of the cell-membranes of 
plants. Cellulose forms the framework or skeleton of all 
plants; next to water it is the most abundant substance in 
the vegetable kingdom. During the early stages of the 
development of the plant the cell-walls consist entirely of 
cellulose, but as the plant grows the walls become iucrusted 
with resins, coloring-matters, etc. Some tissues consist 
almost entirely of cellulose, as the pith of the Chinese rice- 
paper plant (the JEscliynomene paludosa, or perhaps the 
Aralia papyri/era) and the vegetable ivory. Cotton, linen, 
hemp, and unsized paper consist of almost pure cellulose. 

The following percentages of cellulose are found in some 
of the most common vegetable matters in the air-dry state ; 


Potato tubers. 

Per cent. 
. 1.1 

Red clover hay.... 

Per cent. 

Wheat kernels. 

. 3.0 

Timothy hay. 

.23. 

Maize kernels. 

. 5.5 

Oat straw. 

.40. 

Oat kernels. 

.10.3 • 

Wheat straw. 

.48. 

Buckwheat kernels 

.15.0 

Rye straw. 

.54. 

Cellulose is said 

to exist in the animal kin 

gdom in the 


mantle of Mollusca (Tunicata) and the integuments of in¬ 
sects and Crustacea. It is more probable, however, that 
these tissues consist of the nitrogenized body Ciiitin 
(which see). Virchow (Compt. Rend,., xxxvi., 492, 860) 
found cellulose in degenerated human spleen and in the 
brain. De Luca ( Compt. Rend., lii., 102, lvii., 43) found 
cellulose in the skin of the silkworm and of the serpent. V 
Preparation. —Owing to the insolubility of cellulose in 
water, alcohol, ether, dilute alkalies, and dilute acids, it is 
generally prepared by subjecting vegetable tissues to the 
successive action of these agents, by which all foreign sub¬ 
stances—sugar, starch, gum, resins, oils, fats, etc.—arc 
removed. It may then be bleached by the action of 
chlorine water. Thus prepared, it retains more or less 
perfectly the structure from which it was obtained. Skele¬ 
ton leaves, which are made up into the beautiful “ phan¬ 
tom bouquets,” consist of nearly pure cellulose. They are 
prepared either ( 1 ) by boiling the leaves in a dilute solu¬ 
tion of caustic soda till the epidermis and parenchyma 
separate readily, removing them to a vessel of cold water, 
and carefully rubbing them with the fingers, and then 
bleaching by immersion in a solution of hypochlorite of 
lime, to which a little acid has been added; or ( 2 ) by add¬ 
ing to a pint of nitric acid, of a specific gravity of 1 . 1 , an 
ounce of chlorate of potassa in fine powder, and suspending 
the leaves in the mixture for ten to twenty days. They 
are then thoroughly washed, and dried between sheets of 
blotting-paper. In the conversion of rags, straw, wood, 
etc. into paper the cellulose is rendered nearly pure by 


treatment with caustic soda, hypochlorite of lime, and sul¬ 
phuric acid. Swedish filter-paper is almost chemically 
pure cellulose. Common paper receives an addition of a 
considerable proportion of kaolin (china clay), and is 
sized on the surface. (See Paper.) In bleaching the textile 
fibres cotton, flax, and hemp the process has for its object 
the purification of the fibrous cellulose by the removal of 
resinous and coloring matters. (See Bleaching.) 

Composition. —Cellulose usually contains about 10 per 
cent, of moisture, which may be removed by drying. It 
then contains, in 100 parts, carbon 44.44, hydrogen 6.17, 
oxygen 49.39. Its composition is represented by the 
formula C 18 H 30 O 15 . This is also the composition of starch, 
a body possessing totally different properties. Sugar and 
gum are nearly allied to cellulose in composition. All 
these bodies are called carbohydrates, because they consist 
of cai-bon in combination with hydrogen and oxygen in 
the proportions in which they exist in water, II 2 0. v 

Properties. —When pure, cellulose is fibrous or spongy, 
white, and translucent, and often silky. Under the micro¬ 
scope the fibrous varieties appear like spun glass. It is 
tough and elastic. Its specific gravity is 1.5. AVhen pure 
it is unalterable in the air, but when associated with albu¬ 
minous and other easily alterable bodies, it gradually de¬ 
composes (decays) in moist air, undergoing a slow com¬ 
bustion, and changing to a yellow or brown friable substance 
called touchwood, and finally to humus. (See Decay, 
Putrefaction, Preservation of Timber.) Cellulose is 
insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, and oils—both volatile 
and fixed. It is not sensibly affected by boiling in water, 
unless it has been derived from a very soft or imperfectly 
developed portion of a plant, when it becomes pulpy; and 
in the case of cellulose from Iceland moss, which is easily 
disintegrated and finally converted into soluble dextrine. 
Mulder observed that on boiling Swedish filter-paper with 
water under pressure at 400° F. a little glucose was pro¬ 
duced. V 

Solution of Cellulose. —An ammoniacal solution of oxide 
of copper was discovered by Schweitzer to dissolve cellu¬ 
lose without changing its character. The solvent is pre¬ 
pared by dissolving hydrated oxide of copper in ammonia, 
or partially immersing copper turnings in ammonia. The 
cellulose is precipitated from the solution in amorphous 
flakes by boiling, diluting, or the addition of acids in 
excess. By dipping paper or cotton or linen fabrics in the 
copper ammonia solution, and then passing them between 
rolls, they are rendered waterproof. Several layers of such 
sheets or cloths pressed together form an artificial wood of 
great strength. A plastic mass can be prepared of this 
material suitable for the manufacture of water-pipes, gas- 
pipes, hats, clothing, boats, etc.* 

Action of Acids, etc. —Cold dilute acids and alkalies have 
little action on cellulose. Long boiling with dilute hydro¬ 
chloric or sulphuric acid converts cellulose into glucose. 
In concentrated hydrochloric and sulphuric acids it dis¬ 
solves, exhibiting different products according to the tem¬ 
perature and the duration of the treatment: ( 1 ) disaggre¬ 
gated, dissolved cellulose, precipitated by dilution; ( 2 ) an 
amyloid body; (3) dextrine, which differs from starch dex¬ 
trine in having little action on polarized light. Strong 
boiling hydrochloric acid converts it into a fine powder, 
without change of composition. Boiled for a short time 
with dilute sulphuric acid, it is converted into a pulpy mass, 
still exhibiting the composition of cellulose, and not sensi- . 
bly soluble in water. By dipping unsized paper for a few 
seconds into a mixture of 2 volumes of sulphuric acid and 
1 volume of water, and then thoroughly washing with 
water and dilute ammonia, it is converted into “parchment- 
paper,” a substance of the appearance and properties of 
animal parchment. Neumann proposes to make cotton 
and linen fabrics stronger, more compact, and waterproof 
by subjecting them to the above treatment and pressing 
between rolls. Parchment-paper is an excellent material 
for the septa used in dialysis. (See Endosmosis.) If cel¬ 
lulose is ground with concentrated sulphuric acid, with¬ 
out allowing the mixture to become heated, it forms a 
pasty mass, which when largely diluted deposits an amor¬ 
phous body which is blued by iodine, and is hence called 
amyloid. Longer digestion with sulphuric acid converts 
cellulose into dextrine, and, on diluting with water and 
boiling, into glucose. Strong nitric acid, or a mixture of 
nitric and sulphuric acids, or of nitre and sulphuric acid, 
converts cellulose into nitro-substitution products, such as 
Gun Cotton (which see). Moist chlorine gas and warm solu¬ 
tions of hypochlorites rapidly cause the oxidation of cel¬ 
lulose. For this reason care must be observed in bleaching 
paper-stock and fabrics by chlorine. (See Bleaching and 
Anticiilore.) . 

Cellulose in its more compact forms is not rendered blue 
by iodine until it has been disintegrated by sulphuric acid 
or caustic alkalies. Some lichens and algge—Iceland moss, 


























CELSIUS—CEMBRA PINE. 

# 


for example—give the blue color after being boiled with 
water. Caustic alkalies disintegrate cellulose very slowly, 
except when heated under pressure to about 400° F., when 
hydrogen is evolved, and methylic alcohol (wood-naphtha), 
lormate, acetate, propionate, and carbonate of potassa are 
formed. No carbon is set free. By heating cellulose with 
a mixture of potassic and sodic hydrates, at a temperature of 
400° to 500° F., for several hours, it is converted into Oxai.ic 
Acid (which see). Cellulose is immediately blackened by 
lluoride of boron, being carbonized. Heated in close ves¬ 
sels, cellulose, in all its forms, undergoes destructive distil¬ 
lation, yielding charcoal, which remains behind, and com¬ 
bustible gases, tar, and a mixture of water, acetic acid, and 
methylic alcohol, all of which distil over. (See Acetic 
Acid, Charcoal, and Tar.)* 7 

Digestibility of Cellulose. —Although wood and straw are 
not easily digestible by most animals, the cellulose of young 
and succulent stems, leaves, and fruits is digested to a large 
extent; and therefore cellulose, which forms a large pro¬ 
portion of the food of herbivorous animals, contributes 
directly to their nutrition. Fungin from fungi, and medul- 
lin from the pith of various trees, arc mere modifications 
of cellulose. Hordein from barley is a mixture of cellulose 
with starch and a nitrogenized body, 

C. F. Chandler. 

Cel'sius (Anders), a Swedish mathematician, born 
Nov. 27, 1701, was the nephew of Olof Celsius, professor 
of theology at Upsala and author of “ Hierobotanicon.” 
llis father was professor of mathematics at Upsala, and at 
the same university Anders became professor of astronomy 
in 1730—a position which he left in 1732 in order to pursue 
the study of astronomy ivhere he could have the advantages 
of an observatory and instruments. He remained some 
time at Nuremberg with Doppelmayer, in which city he 
published “ Observationes luminis borealis.” He then 
visited Rome, determining with greater exactitude the 
meridian drawn by Bianchini and Maraldi. Here he made 
observations upon the intensity of light, and established 
the true size of the ancient Roman lineal measures. In 
1734 he went to Paris, and with Maupertuis went to Lap- 
land to determine the measure of a degree of latitude. lie 
afterwards returned to Upsala, wrote “ He observationihus 
pro figura telluris determinanda in Gallia” (1738), and 
worked out a theory regarding Jupiter’s satellites. At his 
instance the observatory at Upsala was constructed. The 
centigrade division of the thermometer, called sometimes 
the Celsius scale, which divides the difference of temper¬ 
ature between freezing and boiling water into one hundred 
equal parts, was first proposed by Celsius. Died April 25, 
1744. v* 

Cel'sns, a celebrated writer who lived about 150-170 
A. D., and is supposed by some to have been an Epicurean 
philosopher, mentioned by Lucian as his friend. He may, 
however, not improbably have been another person of the 
same name. He was the reputed author of a work against 
Christianity and Judaism entitled Aoyos dArjtfj}?, a “True 
Discourse,” which is not extant, but some fragments of it 
have been preserved by Origen, who to confute it wrote a 
book, “Contra Celsum.” These fragments indicate inge¬ 
nuity and a talent for sophistry. But his objections are 
not generally regarded by Christian students as very for¬ 
midable, though he has brought forward some acknow¬ 
ledged difficulties. The effect of his argument is marred 
by his sophistries, and especially by his calumnious spirit. 

Celsus (Aurelius Cornelius), an eminent Latin med¬ 
ical writer who is supposed to have lived at Rome in the 
reign of Augustus. The events of his life are mostly un¬ 
known, except that he wrote works on various subjects, in¬ 
cluding philosophy and rhetoric. These are all lost except 
his excellent work on medicine, “ De Medicina,” in eight 
books, the style of which is remarkably elegant and pure. 
He adopted most of the medical doctrines of Hippocrates. 
(See F. Valori, “ Dissertatio de A. C. Celso,” 1835.) 

Celt [Lat. celtis, a “chisel ”], the name given by archae¬ 
ologists of Europe to certain instruments of stone or bronze 
which were used by pre-historic peoples. Similar stone 
tools are found in the U. S., but are not often called “celts.” 
They are generally of a kind of chisel shape, but vary 
greatly in this respect, some being extremely rude and 
simple; others, especially the bronze ones, are sometimes 
ornamented with some taste with cut lines. In length they 
vary from two inches to two feet. They often had handles, 
and seem to have served for axes and domestic utensils, as 
well as for weapons of war and the chase. 

Celtibe'ri, or Celtibe'rians, an ancient and power¬ 
ful people who inhabited the northern or north-eastern part 
of Spain. They were supposed to have been a mixture of 
indigenous Iberians with Celtic people who came from Gaul. 
Their country was called Celtiberia (Gr. KeknPripia). They 
were a warlike nation, and were subdued by Hannibal with 


831 


great difficulty. In the second Punic war they fought for 
the Carthaginians. They made a brave and long resistance 
to the Romans, who conquered them about 143-133 B. C., 
and they renewed the war under Sertorius. Among their 
chief towns were Segobriga and Numantia. Celtiberia 
proper comprised the south-western part of Aragon, Cuenca, 
Soria, and the greater part of Burgos, but the name was 
sometimes applied by the Romans to a more extensive re¬ 
gion. 

Celts, or Kelts [Lat. Celtse; Gr. KeArai], one of the 
great divisions of the Indo-European family of mankind, 
itself divided into at least two groups—the Western, Erse, 
or Gaelic Celts (now marked by the use of the Irish, Gaelic, 
and Manx languages), and the Cymric or Kvmric Celts, to 
whom belong the Welsh and Armorican (extant) and the 
Cornish (extinct) languages. But the Celtic blood is much 
more widely diffused than those relics of their language 
would seem to indicate. Certain critics hold that the Cim- 
bri and Cimmerii were Cymric Celts. Almost all France 
(Gallia) was inhabited by Celts. The Belgm are thought 
to have been partially Cymric, as the ancient Britons un¬ 
doubtedly were. The name Celtiberi indicates that in 
Spain the Celtic was probably long ago mixed with the 
Basque or Iberian blood. Northern Italy was long so 
entirely Celtic as to be called Cisalpine Gaul. The Celts 
under Brennus invaded Gi - eece. In Asia Minor they set¬ 
tled and gave name to Galatia. In Germany the Boii gave 
name to Bohemia and Bavaria. In Great Britain the 
Cymri long had sway in Cornwall, Cumberland, and Strath¬ 
clyde. It is probable that the present Cymric clement of 
North-western France, though generally traced to a sup¬ 
posed Welsh immigration, is largely of direct Gaulish de¬ 
scent. Many of the Latin and Germanic races have a 
strong infusion of Celtic blood. The relationship between 
the two branches of the Celtic race seems never to have 
been intimate, and is not very clearly determined. The 
two groups of languages are distinct, having some com¬ 
mon roots, with but little else in common. The languages 
of each group are, however, possessed of strong family 
likeness to the others of their own group. 

The ancient Celtic religion was a rude polytheism, the 
mythology and doctrines of which are now for the most 
part unknown. The priestly caste of Druids were law r - 
givers, poets, and prophets as well. Human sacrifices 
were common. The common people were grossly super¬ 
stitious and ignorant. Weakened by the workings of their 
rude social system of clans and septs, oppressed by the ex¬ 
actions of their priesthood, and harassed by the constant in¬ 
roads of Rome and the Germanic tribes, the Celts, after the 
dawn of history, are almost constantly seen to be the losing 
race. But they yielded nothing except to force, and among 
all the races of mankind none were ever more distin¬ 
guished for valor. Among their other characteristics may 
be mentioned profound religious feeling and acute sensi¬ 
bilities. 

The Celtic literature is of very ancient origin, all the 
old Celts having a literary class called “ bards,” sometimes 
of noble and sometimes of sacerdotal rank. The ancient 
Irish wrote in a rude alphabet called the Ogham. The 
people of Gaul have left comparatively few inscriptions, 
and these are often much Latinized. Some have appar¬ 
ently Gaelic roots, but Cymric roots appear in the names 
of places. The chief existing Celtic literature consists of 
the hymns, martyrologies, annals, and laws of Ireland (see 
Gaelic Language and Ireland); the Welsh poems and 
laws, and many historical and theological works, mostly of 
a somewhat later date than the Irish; with the Mabino- 
gion, a collection of tales. There are also a feiv extant Cor¬ 
nish religious dramas. The Manx literature is not exten¬ 
sive, and is quite recent. The number of people speaking 
the Irish, Manx, and Gaelic languages is rapidly diminish¬ 
ing, while the number of persons of Celtic blood seems to 
be increasing. The English language is fast displacing 
the others in Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man. In 
Wales, however, the use of the Cymric language is prob¬ 
ably much more extensive now than for many centuries past. 
Intense national feeling and systematic, persistent, and 
widely sustained effort have caused the old language to 
maintain its ground and make head against the English. 

Cem'Ura Pine, called also Swiss Stone Pine, the 

Pinus Cembra, a noble and stately forest tree of Asia and 
Europe, cultivated to some extent in parks and arboretums 
in the U. S. It is prized for its seeds, which, though hard 
to extract from the cone, are very agreeable, and are used 
for dessert, and with those of Pinus Pinea (the stone pine 
of Southern Europe and Barbary) are sold under the name 
of pine-nuts. The Cembra pine yields also a thin Iragrant 
turpentine, called Riga balsam, Carpathian balsam, or 
balsam of Lebanon. It is caught in bottles as it flows 
from the wounded twigs, and is used in medicine. 










832 CEMENTS. 


Cem'ents [from the Lat. csementum, literally, a “ cut¬ 
ting” or “chip;” a name applied both to building-stone 
and to the fragments of marble used in making mortar], 
a term applied to fluid, semi-fluid, or plastic substances 
which are capable of uniting solid bodies together when 
interposed between the surfaces, and afterwards solidifying. 
There are many kinds of cements, either animal, vegetable, 
or mineral substances, used separately or in combination 
with each other. 

Glue is an animal cement in common use. It is a hard, 
brittle, brownish gelatine, obtained by boiling to a soft 
jelly the skins, hoofs, etc. of animals. When heated gently 
with water it becomes viscid, and is employed for uniting 
solid bodies, mostly wood. In drying it becomes very tough 
and hard, but is easily softened again by water. Marine 
glue is formed by dissolving 1 pound of india-rubber in 5 
gallons of coal-naphtha, and adding to this solution an equal 
weight of shellac. The mixture is then placed over a gen¬ 
tle tire, and thoroughly incorporated by stirring. This glue 
is insoluble in water, and is very tenacious and adhesive. 
A cement for iron pipe, etc. is made as follows: mix to¬ 
gether in a mortar 2 ounces of muriate of ammonia in pow¬ 
der, 1 ounce of flowers of sulphur, and 16 ounces of cast- 
iron filings, and keep the mixture dry for use. When the 
cement is to be used, take 1 part of this mixture, 20 parts 
of clear iron borings or filings, pound them together in a 
mortar, mix them with water to a proper consistency, and 
apply the compound between the joints. A good cement 
for resisting moisture is made by mixing 8 parts of melted 
glue, of the consistency used by joiners, with 4 parts of 
linseed oil, boiled into varnish with litharge. This cement 
hardens in forty-five to fifty hours, and renders the joints 
of wooden cisterns and casks air and water tight. A good 
cement for coating the outside of buildings consists of lin¬ 
seed oil, rendered dry by boiling with litharge, and mixed 
with porcelain clay or well-dried pipeclay in fine powder, 
to give the consistency of stiff mortar. Oil of turpentine 
added in small quantity to thin the cement aids its cohesion 
to stone, brick, or wood. A cement designed to improve 
the composition of artificial stone, stucco, etc. is made by 
dissolving 1 pound of gum shellac in 3 to 4 ounces of con¬ 
centrated alkali in aqueous solution. This mixture is then 
diluted with water, and used for mixing up the materials— 
hydraulic cement, lime, and sand—of which the artificial 
stone or stucco is made. The tvater required to mix one 
cubic foot of the materials should contain 1 to 2 ounces of 
gum shellac. Shellac dissolved in a concentrated solution 
of borax gives a good cement for uniting broken stone. 
Singer’s cement for joints between brass and glass is made 
by melting together 5 pounds of rosin, 1 pound of beeswax, 

1 pound of red ochre, and 2 table-spoonfuls of gypsum. 
Ure recommends for cementing voltaic plates into wooden 
troughs, and for similar uses, a cement made of 6 pounds of 
rosin, 1 pound of red ochre, half a pound of gypsum, and 
a quarter of a pound of linseed oil; the ochre and gypsum 
to be calcined beforehand, and added to the other ingre¬ 
dients while in fusion. French plumbers employ for the 
joints of glazed pottery pipes, used for distributing water, 
a cold cement made of quicklime, cheese, milk, and the 
white of eggs, or a hot cement made by melting rosin, bees¬ 
wax, and lime together. There are a great variety of cements 
composed of vegetable, mineral, and animal substances 
mixed, which it is not deemed necessary to mention. 

There is a class of cements of which plaster of Paris or 
gypsum is the basis, the hardening of which is due to the 
union of the plaster with water, and not to the formation of 
silicates, as in the hydraulic cements hereinafter described. 
Plaster of Paris, however, never attains sufficient hardness 
and tenacity to be used with water alone. It may be ad¬ 
vantageously combined with alum. Keene’s cement is 
made by mixing powdered gypsum with an aqueous solu¬ 
tion of alum, then heating the mixture until the water of 
combination is driven off. It is then finely ground in a 
suitable mill, and slaked with a solution of 1 part of alum 
to 12 or 13 parts of water, by weight. Martin’s cement 
differs from Keene’s in adding to the original mixture a 
portion of carbonate of soda or of potassa. It is burnt 
with a higher degree of heat. In Parian cement borax is 
used instead of the carbonate of soda or of potassa. 

Cement—Common Lime, Hydraulic Lime, and Hydraulic 
Cement. —Considered as materials for use in the builder’s 
art, the products derived from the calcination of pure and 
impure limestones are classified into common or fat lime, 
hydraulic lime, and hydraulic cement. Common lime is 
sometimes called air lime, because a paste or mortar made 
from it requires exposure to the air to enable it to “set” 
or harden. The hydraulic limes and cements are also called 
water limes and water cements, from their property of hard¬ 
ening under water. 

Common Lime. —The limestones which furnish the com¬ 
mon lime of commerce are seldom if ever pure, but usually j 


contain, besides the carbonate of lime, from 3 per cent, to 
10 per cent, of impurities, such as silica, alumina, magne¬ 
sia, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese, and traces of the 
alkalies. Lime, common lime, quicklime, or caustic lime 
(synonymous terms) is a protoxide of calcium, and is pro¬ 
duced when marble or any other variety of pure or nearly 
pure carbonate of lime is calcined with a heat of sufficient 
intensity and duration to expel the carbonic acid. It has 
a specific gravity of 2.3, is amorphous, highly caustic, has 
a great avidity for water, and when brought into contact 
with it will rapidly absorb nearly a quarter of its weight 
of that substance, accompanied and followed by a great 
elevation of temperature, the evolution of hot and slightly 
caustic vapor, the bursting of the lime into pieces, and 
finally its reduction to a powder, of which the volume is 
from two and a half to three and a half times that of the 
original lime. In this condition the lime is said to be 
slaked, and is ready for use in making mortar. The purer 
the limestone the larger is its growth or increase of volume 
in slaking. The paste of common lime is unctuous and 
impalpable to the sight and touch; hence these limes aro 
sometimes called fat or rich limes, as distinguished from 
others known as poor or meagre limes. These latter usually 
contain more or less silica in the form of sand, and a greater 
proportion of other impurities than the fat limes, and in 
slaking exhibit a more moderate elevation of temperature, 
evolve less hot vapor, are seldom reduced to an impalpable, 
homogeneous powder, yield thin paste, and are character¬ 
ized by less groioth of volume. They are less valuable for 
mortar than the fat limes, but have an extensive applica¬ 
tion as a fertilizer. When used for building purposes they 
should, if practicable, be reduced to powder by grinding, 
in order to remove all danger of subsequent slaking. 

Water dissolves, according to Sir H. Davy, about 
of its weight of lime, or, according to Thomson, yl^, while 
Dalton states it to be, at 60° F., y ^ ¥ , and at 212°, 

The solutions commonly called lime-water are valuable re¬ 
agents and antacids. Lime being more soluble in cold 
than in hot water, its solution becomes turbid when boiled. 

A similar result is produced by breathing into a solution 
through a tube, owing to the carbonate of lime formed by 
respiration; which, however, is dissolved by an excess of 
carbonic acid gas. A paste of the slaked lime is therefore 
a mixture of the hydrate of lime and lime-water. 

Lime may be distinguished by its dilute solution giving 
a white precipitate of oxalate of lime when a solution of 
oxalic acid is added to it, which is not redissolved by an 
excess of oxalic acid, and by not yielding a precipitate with 
sulphuric acid and sulphate of soda. 

The purest minerals of the calcareous class are the 
rhombohedral prisms of calcareous spar, the transparent 
double refracting Iceland spar, and white or statuary mar¬ 
ble. They are entirely dissolved in dilute hydrochloric 
acid, with a brisk effervescence, due to the escape of 
carbonic acid, and contain, according to an analysis of a 
specimen of white marble by Gen. Treussart, about 33 per 
cent, of carbonic acid, 64 per cent, of lime, and 3 per cent, 
of water. 

Common lime, when mixed into a paste with water, or 
when slaked with sufficient water to produce a paste, may 
be kept for an indefinite time in that condition without 
deterioration, if protected from contact with the air so 
that it will not dry up. It is customary to keep the lime- 
paste in casks, or in wide, shallow boxes in which it was 
slaked, or heaped up on the ground, covered over with the 
sand to be subsequently incorporated with it in making 
mortar. It is convenient, for some purposes, to keep the 
slaked lime on hand in a state of powder, which may be 
done in casks under cover, or in bulk, in a room set apart 
for that purpose. Most common limes contain impurities . 
which prevent a thorough, uniform, and prompt slaking 
of the entire mass, and hence the necessity of slaking some 
days before the lime is to be used, to avoid all danger to 
the masonry by subsequent enlargement of volume and 
change of condition. 

A paste or mortar of common lime will not harden under 
water, or in continuously damp places excluded from con¬ 
tact with the air. It will slowly harden in the air, from 
the surface towards the interior, by desiccation and the 
gradual absorption of carbonic acid gas, by which a sub¬ 
carbonate with an excess of hydrated base is formed, or 
Ca0.C0 2 + CaO.HO. 

The pastes of fat lime shrink, in hardening, to such a 
degree that they cannot be employed as mortar without a 
large dose of sand, and are unsuitable for masonry con¬ 
structions under water, or in soils that are constantly wet. 

In other situations they have a very extensive application, 
possessing, as they do, a great advantage in economy over 
the hydraulic limes and cements, on account of the large 
augmentation of their volume in slaking, their extensive 
distribution over the surface of the globe, and the simplicity 












CEMENTS. 


833 


attending their manufacture. For masonry constructions 
of importance, and particularly upon our public works, a 
mortar or a concrete containing common lime only as the 
cementing medium is seldom used at the present day. 
Hydraulic lime or hydraulic cement is usually added, to a 
greater or less extent, in order to hasten the induration 
and secure greater ultimate strength and hardness. 

The Hydraulic Property .—A lime is said to possess 
hydraulic properties when, after being calcined, reduced to 
powder, and made into a paste with water, it will harden 
or set under water, or in damp places excluded from con¬ 
tact with the atmospheric air. If the calcined stone can 
be slaked to powder in the presence of water, it is cus¬ 
tomary to call it hydraulic lime. The cements possess the 
hydraulic property to a greater degree than the hydraulic 
limes, and are reduced to powder by grinding. In both 
initial and ultimate strength and hardness, the hydraulic 
mixtures are greatly superior to those of common lime, 
even when the latter are employed under the most advan¬ 
tageous circumstances, but their maximum strength is not 
reached under a period of several years. The best cements, 
when mixed to a paste without sand, attain during the first 
month, or month and a half, fully one-half their greatest 
ultimate strength and hardness. After the first two j'ears, 
the increase in strength and hardness proceeds very slowly, 
and at the end of three years the monthly increment 
requires the use of delicate instruments for its measure¬ 
ment. This principle, of slow and gradually diminishing 
induration, is characteristic ‘of all hydraulic mortars, 
whether derived from the cements or the hydraulic limes, 
either natural or artificial. The most active hydraulic 
limes or cements, or those which set the most quickly, are 
not necessarily those which attain the greatest ultimate 
strength and hardness. The latter are characterized as 
possessing the greatest hydraulic energy. 

The argillaceous hydraulic limes of commerce arc gener¬ 
ally derived from limestones containing from 10 to 20 per 
cent, of clay, homogeneously mixed with carbonate of lime 
as the principal ingredient. Traces of the alkalies, and a 
small percentage of the oxides of iron and carbonate of 
magnesia, are also present in most cases. The clay in¬ 
gredient usually contains from 11 to 2 of silica to 1 of 
alumina. During the burning, which is conducted at a 
heat just sufficient to expel the carbonic acid, all the silica 
and alumina is neutralized by entering into combination 
with a portion of the lime, forming both the silicate of 
lime and the aluminate of lime, leaving in the burnt prod¬ 
uct an excess of quick or caustic lime, which induces 
slaking, and becomes hydrate of lime when brought into 
contact with water. As this lime is burnt at a low heat, the 
double silicate of lime and alumina, which is formed only 
at a high heat, is not produced. The silicate of lime is first 
formed, and the alumina, reacting upon the quicklime as 
an acid, produces aluminate of lime. When slaked by 
sprinkling, the quicklime alone is hydrated. 

Argillaceous hydraulic lime is therefore composed of— 

Anhydrous silicate of lime.SiC>3.3CaO, or | 43 

Anhydrous aluminate of lime..Al2C>3.3CaO, or j Lime 28 

And hydrate of lime.CaO.HO, or j ^ater ' 

When argillaceous hydraulic lime is mixed into a paste with 
water or made into mortar, the anhydrous silicate and alu¬ 
minate of lime form hydro-silicates and hydro-aluminates 
of lime by combining with six equivalents of water, and 
subsequently undergo a species of crystallization techni¬ 
cally called setting. This setting will ensue under water, 
and constitutes the hydraulic property. 

If, in the general case, more than 20 per cent, of clay bo 
present in a homogeneous limestone, a larger proportion of 
the lime will combine with silica or alumina during the 
burning, leaving insufficient quicklime present to induce 
slaking; and such stone may be expected to furnish a hy¬ 
draulic cement. Some heterogeneous limestones, however, 
containing as high as 30 to 35 per cent, of clay, will slake 
more or less thoroughly after burning, for the reason that 
the ingredients are not in sufficiently close contact to com¬ 
bine in the kiln in the formation of the hydraulic elements. 
In such cases the burnt product contains an excess of lime, 
of silica, and of alumina, and, after slaking as much as 
possible, there still remains a lumpy residue. 

Limes containing 10 per cent, of clay are moderately hy¬ 
draulic. If made into a paste and immersed in water in 
small cakes, they will harden so as to resist crushing be¬ 
tween the thumb and finger in from twelve to fifteen days. 
The eminently hydraulic limes , derived from homogeneous 
stones containing from 18 to 20 per cent, of clay, will 
harden under water in from twelve to twenty hours. If 
the stone contains more clay than this, and still yields hy¬ 
draulic lime by slaking, the excess of clay does not combine 
53 


with lime, and therefore confers no additional hydraulic 
energy. On the contrary, it impairs the strength and 
value of the lime for building purposes. 

In consequence of their peculiar properties, the hydraulic 
limes cannot be kept on hand in a state of paste, like com¬ 
mon lime. They are preserved in casks or sacks in the 
condition of powder, and in using them for mortar or con¬ 
crete, especially those that are eminently hydraulic, it is 
not Avell to mix more than one day’s supply in advance. 
The lime and the sand may be mixed together dry, and 
kept on hand a long time in that condition if protected 
from the weather, but the water should not be added until 
a few hours before the material is to be used, whether for 
mortar or concrete. 

The method usually pursued in manufacturing hydraulic 
limes is as follows: The stone, after being quarried and 
broken up into pieces not exceeding generally twelve or 
fifteen pounds in weight, is burnt in any suitable kiln at a 
heat just sufficient to expel the carbonic acid, and then, 
after being drawn from the kiln and while still warm, is 
sprinkled with from 15 to 20 per cent, of its own weight of 
water. The slaking soon begins, and the stone falls to 
pieces, some of it in fine powder, and the rest in unslaked 
lumps of various sizes. The mass is then thrown together 
in large heaps, where it remains undisturbed for six or 
eight days, in order that the slaking may be completed by 
the steam evolved. It is then screened through fine wire- 
cloth to get rid of the unslaked lumps, packed in sacks or 
barrels, and sent to market. 

With some varieties of argillaceous limestones, the lumpy, 
unslaked x-esidue, which does not pass through the screen, is 
natural hydraulic cement, in which case it is reduced to 
powder by grinding, and is either incorporated with the 
lime in order to improve its quality, or is marketed sep¬ 
arately as hydraulic cement. The lumpy portion either 
contains too much clay, or has been burnt at too high or 
too low a heat, to be susceptible of thorough slaking by 
exposure to the air or sprinkling with water; and its quan¬ 
tity will be great in proportion to the amount of clay in 
the stone, or the extent to which the heat in burning has 
been improperly regulated. In some localities the residue 
is thrown away as dangerous or worthless, while in others 
it is customary to grind it up separately and mix it with 
the powder obtained by slaking. 

When the burning has taken place at a heat suitable for 
common lime, the residue owes its origin to the presence of 
too much clay, and may be, for all useful purposes, inert, 
or it may be a light, quick-setting cement like the Roman. 
If the former, it should be rejected; if the latter, its incor¬ 
poration with the lime-powder will augment its hydraulic 
activity and energy. When the residue is due to insuf¬ 
ficient burning, it may cause damage by subsequent slaking 
in the masonry, and should be rejected. When the burn¬ 
ing has been conducted at a high heat, the residue may be 
slow-setting Portland cement, or it may be clinker, par¬ 
tially or wholly vitrified, and inert. For these reasons the 
utilization of the unslaked lumps, arising, from whatever 
cause, in manufacturing hydraulic limes, requires watchful 
care, in order that the introduction of ingredients that are 
either worthless or dangerous may be avoided. 

It is not known that any deposits of argillaceous lime¬ 
stones capable of furnishing good hydraulic lime exist in 
the U. S. It is manufactured in several localities in France, 
notably at Seilley, about 70 miles from Paris. The Seilley 
lime has recently been brought to the U. S. in small quan¬ 
tities for use in making artificial stone. When fresh it 
weighs about fifty pounds to the struck U. S. bushel, loosely 
measured. If made into a stiff paste, it will set in the air 
in ten or twelve hours, and will resist crushing between the 
thumb and finger in from twenty to twenty-four hours. It 
is not active enough for laying masonry under water, but 
will harden under water after the initial set has taken 
place in the open air. 

The silicious hydraulic limes are generally derived from 
silicious limestones containing from 12 to 18 per cent, of 
silica, less than 90 per cent, of carbonate of lime, with a 
small proportion of alumina and oxide of iron. The pro¬ 
cess folloAved in their manufacture is similar, in all essen¬ 
tial respects, to that described for producing argillaceous 
hydraulic lime. They owe their hydraulic property, when 
mixed to a paste with water, to the crystallizing energy 
of the anhydrous silicate of lime, formed during the cal¬ 
cination: Si0 3 .3Ca0 = j Lime,’43.' The best ty P e ° f sili_ 

cious hydraulic lime is derived from the quarries at Teil 
on the river Rhone, department of Ardeche, I ranee. It is 
known as hydraulic lime of Teil. The raw stone contains 
from 11. to 15 per cent, of silica, from 1 to 2 per cent, ot 
alumina, from 80 to 84 per cent, ot carbonate ot lime, and 
a trace of oxide of iron. When newly made this lime 
weighs about fifty-six pounds to the struck U. 8. bushel, 






































CEMENTS. 


834 


loosely measured, but if exposed to the air it absorbs 
moisture so that its weight is considerably augmented. 
In initial hydraulic energy, the Teil lime does not ma¬ 
terially differ from the lime of Seilley, but in ultimate 
strength and hardness it is believed to bo superior to it. 
Analyses of the Teil hydraulic lime after burning, by Pro¬ 
fessor Rivot, gave the following composition : 


Lime . 

... 78.29 . 

... 78.60 

Silica. 

... 18.20) . 

.. 17.20) 

Alumina. 

... 1.80 >21.70.... 

... 1.70 > 

Quartz sand . 

... 1.70 ) . 

.. 1.60 ) 

Oxide of iron. 


.. traces. 

Water and carbonic acid ... 


.. 5.00 


99.60 

99.10 


The elements of hydraulic energy in this lime may be 
stated to be 60 per cent, of the whole immediately after 
calcination, as indicated below, neglecting a small quan¬ 
tity of alumina and oxide of iron : 


Silicate of lime... 66 
Free lime.34 

“Too 


Silica.23 

Combined lime. 43 
34 

100 


Si0 3 .3Ca0. 

CaO. 


Artificial hydraulic lime can be manufactured by mixing 
together, in suitable proportions, thoroughly slaked common 
lime and unburnt clay, tempering the mixture with water, 
and then burning it in the form of bricks or rounded balls 
in an ordinary lime-kiln. The burnt material can be slaked 
in the ordinary way. For the common lime, powdered 
limestone, preferably chalk, may be substituted. It is bet¬ 
ter, however, when it becomes necessary to resort to arti¬ 
ficial mixtures to produce the hydraulic ingredient of 
mortar, to make hydraulic cement at once, on account of 
its superior hydraulic energy. 

Heavy, Slow-setting, Argillaceous Cement (Portland Ce¬ 
ment ).—When a homogeneous, argillaceous limestone con¬ 
tains so large a proportion of clay, usually exceeding 20 
per cent., that it will not slake after calcination, it may be 
expected to furnish some grade of hydraulic cement. The 
stone from which the celebrated Portland cement is derived 
contains from 20 to 22 per cent, of clay and 78 to 80 per 
cent, of carbonate of lime. The clay itself is composed of 
1£ to 2 parts of silica to 1 of alumina. When calcined at 
a high, long-continued heat, all or nearly all the silica and 
alumina of the clay combines with a portion of the lime, 
producing both silicate of lime, represented by the formula 

Si(> 3 . 3 CaO | 43 ’ an d double silicate of lime and alu¬ 

mina, as expressed by the formula 

{ Silica, 15, 

Alumina, 51, 

Lime, 28. 

The burnt product does not contain any uncombined, and 
therefore inert, silica and alumina to adulterate the cement 
and impair its hydraulic properties ; while the quantity of 
uncombined lime is not sufficient to cause the mass to slake 
to powder in the presence of water. After calcination the 
cement is therefore reduced to powder by grinding between 
ordinary mill-stones. 

Good Portland cement, when made into paste and formed 
into small cakes, will set under water in from two to four 
hours, so as to resist crushing between the thumb and 
finger. When stone suitable for Portland cement is cal¬ 
cined at a low heat, barely sufficient to expel the carbonic 
acid, the silicate of lime (as above) and the aluminate of 
lime (Al‘ 203 . 3 Ca 0 ) are formed, and a light, quick-setting 
cement is usually the result, greatly inferior to Portland 
cement in weight as well as in ultimate strength and hard¬ 
ness. 

The superior quality of Portland cement appears to de¬ 
pend in a great measure upon the presence of the double 
silicate of lime and alumina, which is formed only at a 
high heat. The weight of Portland cement, as well as its 
hydraulic energy and its ultimate strength and hardness, is 
increased by augmenting the intensity and duration of the 
heat employed in burning, within the limit of vitrification. 
The initial hydraulic activity, however, is diminished by 
high burning, so that the best Portland cements are slowest 
in setting. A cement weighing 100 pounds to the struck 
U. S. bushel may be burnt to weigh 125 pounds to the 
bushel, and its strength will be nearly doubled thereby. 

It is not known that any deposit of argillaceous lime¬ 
stone suitable for making the best quality of Portland 
cement exists in the U. S., and there is only one such in 
Europe now worked. It is found at Seilley, in France, 
intermixed with the layers from which the argillaceous 
hydraulic lime is dei'ived. Near Boulogne-sur-Mer, in 
France, there is a deposit of calcareous clay, from which 
very excellent Portland cement is manufactured. In its 
manufacture the wet process, described below, is followed. 
Artificial Portland Cement. —Fully nineteen-twentieths 


of all the Portland cement used at the present day is arti¬ 
ficial. It is made by thoroughly mixing together, in suit¬ 
able proportions, clay and finely pulverized carbonate of 
lime (either chalk, marl, or compact limestone), burning 
the mixture in kilns at a high heat, and then grinding the 
burnt product to fine powder between ordinary mill-stones. 
There are two methods of manufacture, both well adapted 
to the character of the materials employed, and known re¬ 
spectively as the “wet process” and as the “ dry process.” 

Portland Cement by the Wet Process. —The works in the 
vicinity of Loudon, England, employ the wet process. The 
carbonate of lime is furnished by both the white and gray 
chalks of the neighboi'hood. The clay procured from the 
shores of the Medway and Thames, and from the adjoining 
marshes and inlets, contains about 2 parts of silica to 1 of 
all the other ingredients, comprising alumina, oxide of iron, 
soda, carbonate of lime, etc. 

First. The clay and chalk are mixed together with a 
large quantity of water, in a circular wash-mill or basin, 
provided with heavy harrows attached to the horizontal 
arms of a revolving vertical shaft. By this means the 
chalk is thoroughly pulverized and incorpoi-ated with the 
clay in a semi-fluid state. The proportions are about 1 of 
clay to 3 of chalk, by weight. Second. When a thorough 
mixture of the ingredients is thus effected, the liquid mass, 
resembling xvhitewash in appearance, is conducted into 
large reservoirs called backs, where it is left to settle. 
When the heavier material, or raw cement, has settled to the 
bottom, and the surplus water has become clear on top, the 
latter is drained off. By subsequent evaporation the dry¬ 
ing process is continued, until the raw cement has attained 
the requisite stiffness. During the time the mixture re¬ 
mains in the backs samples of it are taken from time to 
time and made into cement by burning in sample kilns, in 
order to test the accuracy of the proportions. If any 
error in this respect is discovered, it is corrected by con¬ 
veying from the wash-mills additional material containing 
an excess of either clay or chalk, as the case may require. 
Sometimes the needed correction is secured by mixing 
together the contents of two or more backs. Third. When, 
by evaporation, the raw cement mixture has attained the 
consistency of butter, or rather of stiff clay, it is taken 
out of the backs by shovelfuls, and in that form and con¬ 
dition is removed to rooms artificially heated, or spread 
out around the tops of the kilns, and further dried. 
Fourth. After being dried, although it is not necessary to 
expel all the moisture, the cement is burnt in suitable kilns 
with nearly a white heat, just below the point of incipient 
vitrification. The kilns may be intermittent or perpetual, 
the latter being most economical in current expenses, 
though somewhat more costly in original outlay for con¬ 
struction. When properly burnt, the pieces of cement, 
called clinker, are of a gi'eenish-brown color, contorted and 
much shrunken from the effect of the heat. Fifth. The 
cement clinker is then finely ground between ordinary 
mill-stones, packed in ban'els, each containing 400 pounds 
net, and sent to market. 

Portland Cement by the Dry Process .—By the dry process 
any of the compact limestones, as well as the chalks and 
marls, may be used in making Portland cement. First. The 
raw materials—the carbonate of lime and the clay—are 
kiln-dried at 212° F., in order to expel the moisture and 
prevent caking in the kiln, and otherwise facilitate gi'ind¬ 
ing and sifting. Second. After drying, the clay and the 
carbonate of lime are mixed together in suitable propor- 
tions, and reduced to a fine powdei'. In most localities the 
propoi'tion will vary from 20 to 23 per cent, of clay and 
80 to 77 per cent, of the cai'bonate. One kind of machine 
will not suffice for grinding the raw material economically. 
In Germany, whence most of the artificial Portland cement 
made by the dry process is dei'ived, three machines arfe 
used—viz. (1) A stone-breaking machine of the kind 
usually employed in breaking stone for roadways or for 
concrete. Through this the dried and mixed materials are 
passed, issuing therefrom in pieces varying from the size 
of a pea to that of a hen’s egg. (2) A further reduction 
is effected by a vertical mill or edge-runner. (3) The 
material is then finely ground between horizontal mill¬ 
stones. Third. The powdered material is then tendered 
to a rather stiff paste in a brick-making machine, and 
made into bricks of a suitable size for burning. During 
this mixing the material is kept warm by coils of steam- 
pipe or otherwise, and the water used for tempering is ren¬ 
dered strongly alkaline by adding 3 to 6 per cent, of cal¬ 
cined soda, and an equal amount of newly burnt slaked 
lime. Fourth. The bricks are dried by artificial means, 
and are then burnt at a high heat and ground to a fine 
powder, as in the wet process. The same number of mills 
is necessary for grinding the cement as for pulverizing the 
raw materials. The clinker is first put through a stone- 
breaking machine, then into a vertical mill or edge-runner. 






























CEMENTS. 


and lastly is ground to an impalpable powder in a hori¬ 
zontal mill. The dry process is followed in manufacturing 
Portland cement in Germany. 

Jests for Portland Cement .—Portland cement should bo 
ground so fine that at least 90 per cent, of it will pass a 
No. 30 wire sieve of 36 wires to the lineal inch, both ways, 
and should weigh not less than 106 pounds to the struck 
bushel, loosely measured. When made into a stiff paste 
without sand, it should sustain without rupture a tensile 
strain of 400 pounds on a sectional area I f inches square, or 
2 f square inches (equal to 178 pounds to the sectional 
square inch), seven days after being moulded, the sample 
having been in water six of these days. The composition 
of 1000 parts of the natural Boulogne Portland cement, 
after burning, is as follows : 


Lime. 651 

Magnesia. 6 

Silica.204 

Alumina, and small quantity of oxide of iron"....'.'..'. 139 
Sulphate of lime. a trace 

1000 


When burnt at the high heat essential in manufacturing 
Portland cement, the double silicate of lime and alumina is 
first formed by 139 of alumina combining with 40 of silica, 
and this compound, with 75 of lime, thus producing 254 of 
the double silicate of lime and alumina. The balance of 
the silica (164 parts) then takes up 304 of lime, producing 
468 of silicate of lime, leaving 272 of uncombined lime. 

The composition of Boulogne Portland cement, just after 
calcination, with reference to its hydraulic properties, is 
therefore as follows: 


254 parts of double silicate of lime and alumina, SiC> 3 (Al 2 
O 3 + CaO) 3 , 

468 parts silicate of lime, Si 03 . 3 Ca 0 , 

272 parts free hydrate of lime, CaO.IIO, 

A fraction of compounds of magnesia. 

The artificial Portland cement of London contains— 


Lime. 681 

Silica. 206 

Alumina. 104 

Oxide of iron. 9 


1000 


The elements are combined as follows: 


238 parts double silicate of lime and alumina, 
506 “ silicate of lime, 

295 “ free hydrate of lime and oxide of iron. 

1039 


Light, Quick-setting, Argillaceous Cements. — When an 
argillaceous limestone, containing more than 23 per cent, 
of clay homogeneously mixed through the mass, is burnt 
with the great intensity and duration of heat necessary to 
produce Portland cement, it generally fuses into a species 
of slag or glass, in consequence of the large amount of 
silica present, and becomes nearly destitute of hydraulic 
energy. But if the calcination be kept below the point of 
vitrification, it may be expected to yield a quick-setting 
hydraulic cement, weighing about seventy pounds to the 
struck bushel, loosely measured. In the burning, a portion, 
and in some cases all, of the lime enters into combination 
with a portion of the silica and alumina of the clay, pro¬ 
ducing silicate and aluminate of lime, leaving generally an 
excess of uncombined clay, but more especially of silica, 
which, being inert, adulterates the cement, injuring its 
hydraulic energy, and consequently impairing its strength. 
Cements of this class, if mixed into a paste and immersed 
in water, will set so as to lose their plastic condition in ten 
or fifteen minutes, but are far inferor in ultimate strength 
and hardness to Portland cement of average quality. 
Some of these contain as high as 10 or 15 per cent, of the 
oxides of iron, the proportion of clay in such cases being 
generally below 23 per cent. 

The cement of Vassy, Grenoble, Camp Rond, and Cor- 
bigny, in France, and the English and French Roman 
cements made from nodules of septaria, belong to this class. 
No deposits of this type of argillaceous limestones have 
been discovered in the U. S. 

This grade of cement may also be produced artificially, 
by burning at a low heat a mixture of lime and clay, and 
was manufactured largely in England and France by this 
method, before the superior and peculiar qualities of the 
Portland cement were discovered. 

Argillo-Magnesian Cements. —All the natural hydraulic 
cements of the U. S. are made from argillo-magnesian 
limestones—that is, limestones of which the principal in¬ 
gredients are carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia 
(Mg 0 .C 02 ), and clay. The Rosendale cements, from the 
valfey of Rondout Creek, in Ulster co., N. Y., and those 
found at Shepherdstown, Va., Cumberland, Md., Louisville, 
Ivy., and at different points on the line of the Erie Canal, 


835 


and at Sandusky, 0., Utica, Ill., and other localities in the 
West, belong to this class. The process followed in their 
manufacture is essentially the same for all. The stone is 
quarried, and then broken up into pieces of irregular size, 
seldom exceeding twelve or fifteen pounds in weight, and 
burnt in an ordinary kiln (either intermittent or perpetual), 
with either wood or coal as fuel. Where coal is used the 
perpetual method of burning is usually followed, the kiln 
being filled, in starting, with alternate layers of coal and 
stone, and then fired with wood at the bottom. As the 
burning proceeds, the charge settles down, the burnt stone 
is drawn at the bottom of the kiln, and alternate layers of 
coal and stone added at the top. The burnt cement is then 
crushed up into small fragments by suitable machinery, 
ground between ordinary mill-stones, packed in ban-els of 
300 pounds each, and sent to market. 

In burning the argillo-magnesian cement both the lime 
and the magnesia combine with the silica and alumina of 
the clay. The result is the formation of the silicate and 
aluminate of lime and magnesia—compounds which become 
hydrates when water is added, and are capable of under¬ 
going the species of crystallization or hardening under 
water called setting. The argillo-magnesian cements can¬ 
not be burnt with that intensity and duration of heat neces¬ 
sary in making Portland cement without fusing into slag, 
destitute of hydraulic energ} r . Those manufactured in the 
U. S. are all quick-setting, and their weight does not ordi¬ 
narily exceed seventy pounds to the struck bushel, loosely 
measured. The Rosendale cement is regarded as the most 
valuable of them all, but even this will never attain, under 
the most favorable circumstances, more than one-third the 
ultimate strength and hardness of the best Portland cement. 

Test for Rosendale Cement. — This cement should be 
ground so that 90 per cent, of it can pass a No. 30 wire 
sieve of thirty-six wires to the lineal inch, should weigh not 
less than sixty-eight pounds to the struck bushel, loosely 
measured, and when made into a stiff paste, without sand, 
should sustain, without rupture, a tensile strain of 135 
pounds on a sectional area of 1 J inches square, or 2 | square 
inches (equal to 60 pounds to the sectional square inch), 
when seven days old, the sample having been six days in 
water. 

The elements of hydraulic energy in limes and cements 
are composed as follows, the proportions being given by 
weight: 

Silicate of lime, Si 03 . 3 Ca 0 


Aluminate of lime, Al 203 . 3 Ca 0 


Silicate of alumina, 2 Si 03 .Al 203 ... 

Double silicate of lime ) 0 r\ \ n n\ 
and alumina.} S.0 s .(AI 2 0 3 +Ca0 ) 3 


Silicate of magnesia, Si 03 . 3 Mg 0 

Magnesian Cement .—Pure carbonate of magnesia, called 
magnesite, when burnt at a heat of moderate intensity, 
about cherry-red, ground to a fine powder, and made into 
a paste with water, possesses considerable hydraulic energy. 
This calcined magnesite has been patented under the name 
of Union cement. Its characteristic property, however, 
upon which it depends for its peculiar value, is not de¬ 
veloped when mixed with water alone, for in that case the 
induration or setting is due to the crystallization of the 
hydrated magnesia or oxide of magnesium. But if the 
burnt and pulverized magnesite, or Union cement, be mixed 
up with the chloride of magnesium—for which the bittern 
water of seaside salt-works has been found to be a cheap 
and suitable substitute—a chemical combination takes 
place between the oxide and the chloride of magnesium, 
and oxychloride of magnesium is formed. This is a very 
remarkable hydraulic cement, being greatly superior to any 
other known cement in strength and hardness, not except¬ 
ing even Portland cement. 

Dolomite, or the double carbonate of lime and magnesia, 
when burnt at a low heat, reduced to powder, and made 
into mortar, also exhibits hydraulic properties. But if the 
heat be carried sufficiently high—say about 400° C.—to re¬ 
duce the carbonate of lime also, thus forming caustic or 
quicklime, the addition of water causes slaking, and the 
hydraulic energy is destroyed or impaired by the presence 
of the hydrate of lime. 

Any magnesian limestone containing as high as 60 per 
cent, of carbonate of magnesia may be presumed to be 
capable of yielding hydraulic cement of greater or less 
value, if properly underburnt, no matter whether clay be 
present or not. If clay exists as one of the principal in¬ 
gredients, there are formed in the kiln silicate and olu- 
minate of magnesia, as well as silicate and aluminate ot 


f Silica.23 

j Lime. 43 

( Alumina... 17 

{ Lime. 28 

| Silica. 30 

| Alumina... 17 

f Silica.15 

< Alumina... 51 

( Lime. 28 

J Silica. 23 

( Magnesia.. 30 






































836 


CEMENTS. 




| 

| 


lime. All of these compounds become hydrated when 
brought in contact with water, and are then in condition 
to undergo that species of crystallization called setting. 

Mortar .—Mortar is a mixture of the paste of lime or ce¬ 
ment with sand. The paste may be made before adding the 
sand, or the materials may be incorporated di - 3 7 , and after¬ 
wards tempered to a plastic condition with water. In com¬ 
mon mortar the cementing substance is common lime. 
Hydraulic mortar may be made by mixing a paste of 
hydraulic lime or cement with sand, or by adding hydraulic 
materials to common mortar. 

Common Mortar .—As a paste of common lime hardens 
or sets very slowly, even in the open air, unless it be sub¬ 
divided into small particles or thin films, it is important 
that the volume of lime-paste in common mortar should be 
but slightly in excess of what is sufficient to coat all the grains 
of sand and fill the voids between them. If this limit 
be exceeded the strength of the mortar will be impaired. 
With most sands the proper proportion will be from 2y 5 0 - 
to 3 volumes of sand to 1 volume of lime-paste. Gener¬ 
ally, if either less or more sand than is herein indicated be 
used, the mortar will be injured; in the former case from 
excess of lime-paste, and in the latter from porosity. 

Hydraulic-Lime Mortar .—With mortars of hydraulic 
lime the volume of sand should not be less that 1 -G times 
that of the lime-paste, in order to secure the best results 
regardless of cost. The usual proportions are, however, 
for ordinary work, the same as in common mortars, care 
being taken to incorporate sufficient paste to coat all the 
grains of sand and to fill up the voids between them. 

Hydraulic-Cement Mortar .—A paste of good hydraulic 
cement hardens simultaneously and uniformly throughout 
the mass, and its strength is impaired by any addition of 
sand. For ordinary use, however, it is customary to add 
as much sand as possible without making the mortar 
porous: 1 barrel of cement, as packed for market, to 3 
barrels of sand, is the proportion usually followed. The 
usual practice is to mix the cement and sand together dry, 
and afterwards temper to a plastic condition with water. 


Tensile or Cohesive Strength of Mortar per square inch, in 

pounds. 


Composition of the Mortar. 


Portland cement mixed to 

paste without sand... 

Good Portland cement. 1 vol.. 

Sand. 3 “ 

Rosendale cement mixed to 

paste without sand. 

Rosendale cement........ 1 vol. 

Sand. 3 “ 

Portland cement paste., i vol. 

Fat lime paste. i “ 

Sand. 3 “ j 

Rosendale cement paste, 4vol/j 

Fat lime paste. 4 “ 

Sand. 3 “ J 

Tiel hydraulic lime dry 3 vol. 

Sand. 5 “ 

Good common mortar .' 

Common lime-paste. 1 vol. 

Sand. 3 “ 


One Month Old. 


300 to 400 
50 to 80 

80 to 100 
15 to 20 


21 to 35 


Two Years Old. 


500 to 600 
200 to 230 

180 to 220 
75 to 85 

95 to 110 

45 to 60 
120 to 160 
40 to 60 


Crushing Strength of Mortars and Concretes, from Trials 
upon Cubes and Parallelopipedons of various sizes, in 
pounds per square inch of top surface. 


Composition of the Mortar. 


Portland cement without sand.. 
Dry Portland cement... 1 vol. 

Sand.. 3 “ 

Mixed to a stiff mortar. 

Dry Portland cement... 1 vol. 

Sand. 5 “ 

Mixed as above. 

Rosendale cement without sand 
Dry Rosendale cement, 1 vol.) 

Sand. 3 “ V 

Mixed to a stiff mortar.) 

Good hydraulic lime, ') 

like Tiel. 3 vol. S 

Sand. 5 “ j 

Common lime-paste. 1 vol. 1 

Sand.... 3 “ j 

Poor common lime-mortar. 


Composition of Concrete. 

(1 Portland I 

Mortar-; cement.>1 vol. 

(.3 Sand.) 

Broken stone. 3 “ 

(1 Rosendale j 

Mortar-; cement.f 1 vol. 

(3 Sand.) 

Broken stone. 3 “ 


Six Months Old. 


4500 to 5300 
1500 to 2200 

1200 to 1600 
1500 to 1800 
450 to 600 

450 to 590 


Two Years Old. 


5000 to 6000 
2000 to 2600 

1600 to 2000 
1S00 to 2000 
550 to 700 

550 to 600 

400 to 500 
200 to 250 

2000 to 2500 

700 to 800 


Cement and Lime Mortar .—When it is desirable, from 


any cause, to lessen the cost of cement mortar, the best 
way is to add a portion of common lime to the cement, 
rather than to increase the quantity of sand, as this last 
method produces a porous mortar. The volume of the 
cementing paste, whether of pure cement or a mixture of 
cement and lime, should be slightly in excess of what is 
theoretically necessary to coat all the grains of sand and 
completely fill the voids. A mortar of cement and sand 
loses about four-tenths of its strength if one-half of the 
cement paste is replaced by an equal volume of common 
lime-paste, but is then quite suitable for ordinary work. 

Concrete or Beton .—These terms in modern practice are 
synonymous, and apply to any mixture of mortar (gene¬ 
rally hydraulic) with coarse materials, such as fragments 
of brick or stone, gravel, pebbles, or shells. The volume 
of mortar should be slightly in excess of the volume of 
voids in the coarse materials. Among American engineers 
it is customary, in making concrete by hand, to (1) mix the 
cement and sand, or cement, lime, and sand, together, dry; 
(2) then add water, and mix to a stiff mortar; and (3) then 
spread the mortar evenly over the platform; (4) the coarse 
fragments are then spread out upon the mortar, and the 
whole mixed together thoroughly with shovels. The coarse 
materials should be kept damp, or sprinkled with water 
before they are incorporated with the cement and sand. 
After mixing, the concrete is conveyed away in wheel¬ 
barrows, and compacted in position by ramming in layers 
six inches to eight inches thick. Concrete should not be 
mixed with too much water, but when ready for use should 
be quite coherent, and capable of standing at a steep slope 
without the water running from it; otherwise it will be 
impossible to compact it by ramming. It should not be 
plastic and jelly-like under the rammer. 

In carrying on large operations it is advantageous, on 
many accounts, to make the concrete in a mill, of which 
there are several kinds. Any box or cylinder to receive 
the ingredients, revolving slowly about either a diagonal 
or concentric axis, will answer the purpose. A cubical 
box, measuring four feet in length on each edge, Avas used 
by the writer upon the fortifications on Staten Island with 
entire success. The box Avas rigidly mounted upon an iron 
axle passing through opposite diagonal corners, and was 
provided Avith a trap-door, about two feet square, close to 
one of the angles farthest from the axis, through which 
the materials were introduced. Eight revolutions of the 
box, made in less than one minute, were found to be quite 
sufficient to secure a thorough incorporation of the mortar 
Avith the coarse material (broken stone and pebbles). In 
using a mill of this description, it is not necessary that the 
mortar should be first prepared by a distinct and separate 
process, but all the ingredients of the concrete—the cement, 
lime (if lime be used), sand, water, and coarse materials— 
may be introduced promiscuously into the box. The mill 
may be charged by wheelbarroAvs from a platform ar¬ 
ranged at the proper height, or preferably by a large tub 
manoeuvred by a derrick. The proper charge for the 
box, in order to ensure thorough mixing, should not ex¬ 
ceed one-half to five-eighths of its total capacity. One tub¬ 
ful (thirty-six to forty cubic feet) should charge the box. 

The standard formula for making Rosendale cement con¬ 
crete upon government Avorks is: 


Concrete No. 1. 


1 barrel of cement) „ - 

3 “ “ sand = barrels of concrete mortar; 

5 “ “ broken stone, or brick, gravel, oyster-shells, or 

a mixture of two or more of them. 

This batch will make 21.75 cubic feet of concrete rammed 
in place. The mortar of this concrete, tested by itself, pos¬ 
sesses a crushing strength of 130 pounds per square inch 
Avhen tAvo months old, the test being applied to 5-inch or 
0-inch cubes. For unimportant Avorks, six to six and a 
half barrels of broken stone, instead of five, may be incor¬ 
porated, and the concrete may be cheapened still further 
by replacing a portion of the cement by common lime, as 
in No. 2. 

Concrete No. 2 .—In foundation above Avater the con¬ 
crete mortar may be composed as follows: 

1 barrel of Rosendale cement = 3.70 cubic feet of paste, 

A “ “ common lime == 2.50 “ “ 

3J to 4 “ sand, loosely measured. 

The concrete should contain 1 volume of this mortar to 
about 2^ volumes of ballast. 

Concrete No. 8 .—Portland cement concrete possessing a 
little more strength than the No. 1 abo\ r e may be made as 
follows: 


1 barrel of 
1 a u 

10 « “ 

16 “ “ 

This batch 


Portland cement ) 
slaked lime-powder j- 
sand 


—10.37 barrels of con¬ 
crete mortar; 

broken stone or other good ballast. 

Avill produce G9£ cubic feet of concrete rammed 



































































































CEMENTATION OF STEEL—CEMETERY. 


837 


1 barrel 
5J “ 


6 

9 


u 


of 

a 


<< 


gravel and pebbles 
broken stone 


in position. The mortar of this concrete will sustain a 
crushing weight of 154 pounds to the square inch when two 
months old. 

Omitting the common lime, the following formula will 
give a good concrete : 

Concrete Ao. If.. 

Portland cement j = 5.4 barrels of concrete 
sand j mortar. 

= 121 barrels mixed and 
shaken down, contain¬ 
ing 26£ per cent, of 
voids. 

This batch of concrete produces 50 cubic feet rammed in 
position, and is suitable for the best quality of concrete work. 

It is desirable, in all cases, that the mortar for concrete 
should be hydraulic, in order to secure simultaneous indu¬ 
ration throughout the entire mass after it has been com¬ 
pacted in position. Having established the quality of the 
mortar, whether of cement and sand, or cement, lime, and 
sand, the proportion of mortar to the coarse materials 
should be adjusted, so that the volume of the former should 
bo somewhat in excess of the volume of voids in the latter. 

The natural pozzuolanas comprise pozauolanas proper, 
tras or terras, the arenes, some of the ochreous earths, and 
the sands - of certain graywackes, granites, basalts, etc. 
Thqir principal ingredients are silica and alumina, the 
former largely preponderating, and most of them contain 
small quan tities of soda and potash, and the oxides of iron 
and manganese. They possess the peculiar property that 
when finely pulverized, even without previous roasting, 
and combined with a paste of common lime, a hydraulic 
mixture is produced which will compare favorably with the 
mortars of hydraulic lime and sand. Pozzuolana itself 
was first discovered near the village of Pozzuola, near the 
base of Mount Vesuvius, and its properties were known to 
both Vitruvius and Pliny. It was extensively used by the 
Romans before their day. Vitruvius gives a formula for 
its use in monolithic or pise masonry, which, with slight 
variations, has been followed in Italy ever since. It is as 
follows: 

12 parts of pozzuolana, well pulverized, 

6 “ “ quartzose sand, well washed, 

9 “ “ rich lime, recently slaked. 

This constitutes the mortar. To this is added 6 parts of 
broken stone, porous and angular, when it is intended for 
a pise or filling in. 

Tras closely resembles pozzuolana, and is employed sub¬ 
stantially in the same way. It is found on the Pthine be¬ 
tween Mayence and Cologne, and in various localities in 
Holland. The arenes are a species of ochreous sand, con¬ 
taining so large a proportion of clay that they can be 
mixed into a paste with water without the addition of 
lime, and used in that state for pise work, as well as for 
common mortar. Mixed with rich lime, they yield hy¬ 
draulic mortars of considerable energy. Many of the nat¬ 
ural pozzuolanas are improved by a slight roasting, and an 
artificial pozzuolana may be produced by subjecting clay to 
a slight calcination. Brick-dust mixed with common lime 
gives a feebly hydraulic mortar. Forge scales from the 
smith’s anvil, the slags from iron-foundries, and the ashes 
from lime-kilns, containing cinders, coal, and lime, are arti¬ 
ficial pozzuolanas. (For bituminous cements, mastics, etc., 
see Bitumex.) Q. A. Gillmoue, U. S.A. 

Cemeilta'tion of Steel is the process followed in the 
production of blistered steel or steel of cementation. The 
term cementation is also applied to other cases of incorpo¬ 
ration together of two solids, under the influence of high 
heat without fusion. (See Steel, by A. L. Holley, C. E.) 

Cem'etery [Lat. coemeterium; Gr. /coe/a^Tr/pior, from 
Koiudo,aai, to “sleep,” to “repose;” Fr. cimcticrc]. In all 
a ges the disposition of the human body after death has en¬ 
gaged the thoughts of mankind. 

The earliest records of our race indicate an interest in 
the interment of the deceased. “Bury me not, I pray 
thee,” said the patriarch Jacob—“bury mo not in Egypt, 
but I will lie with my fathers. And thou shalt carry me 
out of Egypt, and bury me in their burying-place. . . . 
There they buried Abraham, and Sarah his wife ; there they 
buried Isaac, and Rebekah his wife, and there I buried 
Leah.” Such are the natural expressions of human feel- | 
ing; it is a matter of instinct, a spiritual impulse, which 
supersedes belief and disdains question. Even the Amer¬ 
ican Indians have been known to burden themselves with 
the bones-of their ancestors when removing to new reser¬ 
vations. These feelings are common to all ages—to the 
barbarian and the civilized, to the bond and free, to the 
heathen, to the Christian. They are manifested by the 
barrows, cairns, and mounds of olden times; and every¬ 
where spots seem to have been so selected that the mag¬ 


nificence of nature might administer comfort to human 
sorrow and incite to human sympathy. 

The aboriginal Germans interred their dead in groves 
consecrated by their priests. The Egyptians soothed their 
grief by embalming the dead and interring them in vast 
catacombs or enclosing them in stupendous pyramids. The 
Hebrews watched with religious care over their places of 
burial. They usually selected for this purpose ornamental 
gardens, deep forests, fertile valleys, or rocky mountains; 
and they still designate them, with a sad emphasis, as the 
“house of the living.” The ancient Asiatics lined the ap¬ 
proaches to their cities with sculptured sarcophagi and 
mausoleums embosomed in shrubbery. The Greeks ex¬ 
hausted the resources of their exquisite art in adorning the 
habitations of the dead. They discouraged interments 
within the limits of their cities, and consigned their relics 
to shaded groves in the neighborhood of streams and foun¬ 
tains, and called them “places of repose” ( Koi^v^P'-a .). 
The Romans erected the monuments of the dead in the sub¬ 
urbs of the city, on the sides of their spacious roads, in 
the midst of trees and ornamental walks. The Appian 
Way was crowded with columns and obelisks in memory 
of their heroes, and at every turn the short and touching 
inscription met the eye— Siste, viator (“Pause, traveller”), 
inviting at once to sympathy and thoughtfulness. These 
suggestions must have given formerly, as they may do still, 
to the language of the senseless stone a voice enforced by 
the benignity of that nature with which it is in unison. 
The Moslems placed their burial-grounds in rural retreats 
and embellished them as a religious duty. 

The Greek term cemetery, signifying a place of rest or 
repose, was applied to the usual places of interment of the 
early Christians, who followed the customs of the Romans; 
but the desire to lie under the religious sanction of the 
Church afterwards transfex'red their burial-places to the 
vicinity of religious buildings or within towns; and still 
in some countries the Church derives l'evenue from inter¬ 
ments. The practice is now happily changed, and few com¬ 
paratively attach importance to the protection which 
churches were supposed to afford; indeed, the protection 
has proved fallacious, religious sects having almost ceased 
to provide for the dead. When their ground becomes valu¬ 
able or the site of the church is to be changed, disinterment 
too often takes place, without a symptom of the tenderness 
with which the remains were deposited. The extension of 
cities has been too often attended by the painful spectacle 
of burial-grounds torn up and the occupants removed. In 
the rural cemetery this cannot occur, for each lot-holder 
possesses a deed in fee for burial purposes, and he is as 
positively the owner of his lot as he is of his dwelling-house, 
and he cannot by law be dispossessed. The desire so long 
cherished to be interred under the shadow of the church 
has nearly passed away, and there can be no doubt as to 
the advantages of the new rural inode. The refining in¬ 
fluences of a well-kept cemetery arc too obvious to need to 
be dwelt upon. 

Chadwick, in 1843, had demonstrated the unhealthful- 
ness of church and city interments, and the world woke up 
to the necessity of a change. America led the way. Bos¬ 
ton instituted Mount Auburn, on which occasion Judge 
Story delivered a beautiful and appropriate dedicatory ad¬ 
dress ; Laurel Hill, Philadelphia, immediately followed ; 
Greenwood, New York, came next, and others succeeded, 
tiil now nearly every city (as well as many villages) lias its 
rural burial-place. It was a fortunate thing that the first 
examples were governed by cultivated men; they inaugu¬ 
rated a taste for fine planting that culminated in a general 
demand for ornamental grounds. Boston, Philadelphia, 
and New York were fortunate, also, in the location of their 
cemeteries, having chosen grounds capable of high embel¬ 
lishment, and now these cities arc establishing still more 
desirable places of sepulture in Forest Hills, West Laurel 
Hill, and Woodlawn, where the improvements suggested 
by experience are introduced, such as receiving-tombs care¬ 
fully constructed, and the selection of trees and shrubs 
adapted for permanence, or such as when fully grown will 
not interfere with the monuments. Much depends on the 
first planting of a cemetery. 

The great body of English poetry is more rich on the 
subject of sepulture than the poetry of any other nation, 
and abounds with references to the practice of ornament¬ 
ing graves with flowers, shrubs, and trees. A rich vegeta¬ 
tion exercises a powerful influence in preventing the escape 
of deleterious miasmata, though this is not to be feared 
where graves are single and of a depth of seven or eight 
feet, as they always should be. Trees should be chiefly 
of fastigiate growth, which neither cover .a largo space 
Avith their branches nor give so much shade as to prevent 
the growth of grasses. Of these, are all the arborv it<e 
family, the junipers, the yews, hollies, and a few specie: of 
oaks, magnolias, and in general the trees of middle size 















838 CENCI—CENSUS. 


suitable to each particular climate. The attempt made at 
Laurel Hill to introduce as many varieties as possible has 
been attended with partial success; its specimens of the 
cedar of Lebanon and other historical and rare trees are 
justly admired. 

How to lay out a cemetery is an important topic. It 
should conform to the character of the ground and be made 
as cheerful as possible. The so-called landscape plan, lately 
introduced at Cincinnati, has no enclosures, the lots only 
marked by a sunken post at each corner, with but one mon¬ 
ument in the centre, and the interments surrounding this 
on all sides; the advantages claimed arc a park-like ap¬ 
pearance and more open space, with more facility for neat 
keeping, etc. To this it is replied that where there is no 
impediment the footprints of visitors and habitues will 
soon create paths in various directions; short cuts will in¬ 
evitably follow, and paths be made over the graves. The 
correct way will be found to devote a portion of each cem¬ 
etery to the new plan, and let individual wishes be con¬ 
sulted; this has been done at Woodlawn and West Laurel 
Hill with advantage. 

The rules to be observed in cemeteries in common use in 
America indicate a general desire to promote good order, 
and are in the main judicious. Bricked vaults under 
ground of greater or less size are not uncommon, and a 
more general desire for those above the surface is observ¬ 
able. These latter should never be allowed unless provision 
is made to etfectually seal the crypts in which bodies are 
deposited; otherwise the vicinity is liable to be infected 
with unhealthy odors which the. wonderful purifying power 
of sufficient earth entirely prevents. Iron railings, which 
prevailed in the early period of our rural burying, arc hap¬ 
pily disappearing, and should no longer be permitted, as 
indeed all perishable materials should be discarded. A 
hedge, however, is allowable, provided it be of an enduring 
kind, such as the slow-growing holly. Permanency should 
be aimed at, and this cannot be commanded by even iron, 
which perishes by rust, and all unions of iron and stone 
become disfigured. Granite is much used as a curbing; 
this suffices for the enclosure, and marks the possession of 
each family, and is the most enduring; the best burnt bricks 
for underground structures are also lasting; marble or other 
veneering must soon give out by the introduction of water 
in the interstices, which in freezing it opens with great force. 

The best material for monuments is granite, either the 
expensive Aberdeen or the American. Italian marbles are 
not adapted to a cold climate; they inevitably split and 
crumble, while the American will do the same if not laid 
in the position of its natural bed. 

John Jay Smith, Siqrt . Laurel Hill Cemetery . 

Cen'ci (Beatrice), a beautiful Roman lady whose fa¬ 
ther was very depraved and treated his children with great 
cruelty. Her father having been found dead under suspi¬ 
cious circumstances, Beatrice, her brother, and her step¬ 
mother were accused of his murder, and for that crime were 
executed at Rome Sept. 11, 1599. Her story is the subject 
of one of Shelley’s tragedies and of a novel by Guerazzi. 
The portrait of her by Guido Reni is well known. 

Cenis, Mont. Sec Mont Cenis. 

Cenon-la-Bastide, a town of France, province of 
Gironde, in which are carried on shipbuilding and plaster 
manufacture. Pop. 0817. 

Cenozoic. See Cainozoic. 

Cen'ser [Fr. encensnir, from the Lat. incendo, incensum, 
"to burn;” Lat. acerra], a vase or other vessel used for 
burning perfumes and incense in temples and churches. 
Censers were used by the ancient Hebrews and Greeks, and 
are now employed in the Roman Catholic Church at mass, 
vespers, and other services. The censer is suspended by 
chains which are held in the hand, and is tossed or swung 
in the air. It is frequently called the Thurible (which see). 

Ceil'sor [Fr. censeur ; from Lat. censeo, to "judge or 
estimate ”], the title of two magistrates of high rank in an¬ 
cient Rome, who were appointed to take the census — i. e. 
to make an enumeration of the citizens and a valuation of 
their property—also to inspect and regulate their manners 
and moral conduct. In the early ages of the republic these 
duties were performed by the consuls, and no special mag¬ 
istrates were elected for the purpose until 443 B. C. The 
censors were originally chosen for a term of five years 
(which was soon reduced to eighteen months), and only 
patricians were eligible to the office. About 340 B. C. a law 
was enacted that one of the censors must be a plebeian. 
The censorship (in Lat. censura) was regarded as the high¬ 
est dignity in the republic except the office of dictator. 
The power of the censors was in a great measure undefined 
and irresponsible, especially in the regulation of morals 
(regimen morwni). They had power to expel a senator from 
the senate for a misdemeanor, and to punish with marks of 
ignominy those whose conduct did not accord with their 


own ideas of rectitude. They could degrade persons from 
a higher to a lower rank, and fill vacancies in the senate. 
Among their duties was the administration of the finances 
of the state and the erection of new public buildings. As a 
general rule, the only persons eligible to the office were 
those who had previously been consuls. No person could 
be elected censor for a second term. 

Cen'sorship of Books, the term applied to inter¬ 
ference by a government with the freedom of the press, ex¬ 
ercised formerly over books alone, but since the rise of 
journalism extended to periodicals also. The censorship 
of books did not come into operation until the invention 
of printing (except that heretical books were prohibited 
by the Church). It soon became common to all European 
countries, Great Britain included. The censorship of books 
was established by act of Parliament in 1662, and renew¬ 
ed from time to time : but its renewal was refused in 1693. 
In 1766 it was abolished in Sweden; in 1770, in Denmark ; 
in 1791 in France, where it was restored in 1805, again 
abolished in 1814, and after having again been in turn restor¬ 
ed and abolished, was finally suppressed in 1827, but has 
since been from time to time, to some extent, revived. In 
Germany and Austria freedom of the press was promised 
in article 18 of the Federal act (1815), but not established 
until 1848. In 1872, Russia was the only country of Eu¬ 
rope in which it formally existed, but in several others the 
police authorities have a supervision of books and period¬ 
icals. In the republics of North and South America a cen¬ 
sorship of books has never been known. 

The Church of Rome has long claimed the right of cen¬ 
sorship over books. Some of the early provincial councils 
prohibited the reading of suspicious or heretical works, but 
the first catalogue of the kind now known was issued in 
494 A. D., in the time of Pope Gelasius. 

The Index Librorum Prohibitorum, a list of fully pro¬ 
hibited books, was first authoritatively issued by Pope Pius 
IV. (1557-59), though previously lists more or less com¬ 
plete were published in various parts of Europe. The work 
was vigorously pushed on by the Council of Trent, and has 
been kept up by the subsequent popes. The best-known 
edition of the Index is that of 1819, published at Rome. 
Frequent additions to the Index are made b} r decree. 

The Index Expurgatorius is a list published, like the 
above catalogue, by the “Congregation of the Index” at 
Rome, and contains the names of books which cannot be 
read until certain specified passages are expunged. Bishops 
have power to give the learned the privilege of reading 
prohibited books. The ecclesiastical censorship of books 
does not command much respect, even in countries bound 
by concordat to accept and enforce it. The Russian Greek 
Church has also a catalogue of prohibited books, and the 
influence of the sj^stem is greater and worse in the East¬ 
ern than in the Roman Catholic Church. 

Cen'sus [a Latin word, from censeo, eensum, to “ weigh, 
estimate, tax, assess;” a registering and rating of Roman 
citizens; the censors’ lists; the registered property of Ro¬ 
man citizens; Fr. recensement, a “statement, return, veri¬ 
fication;” cens, “census,” or amount of direct tax qualify¬ 
ing one to be an elector; Eng. cense (obsolete), a “public 
rate,” “rank,” “condition ;” also cess (obsolete), to “ rate,” 
to “assess”], an official enumeration of the inhabitants 
of a state or municipality. The various forms and signifi¬ 
cations of the word, as given above, indicate the chief ob¬ 
jects for which the census has been used in the different 
periods of history, though in many cases other objects 
have been associated with these. (For a discussion of the 
origin and progress of statistical inquiry, in its more gen¬ 
eral bearings, see Statistics. The census proper is a 
branch of this more general subject.) 

I. The Census of Ancient Nations. —An inquiry into 
the censuses of ancient nations is valuable only in so far 
as it exhibits the objects had in view and the methods em¬ 
ployed. It is alleged that China ordained a census more 
than twenty centuries before Christ; also, that a census 
was taken in Japan a century before the Christian era; 
also, that statistical information was taken by officials in 
Peru under the reign of the Incas. But these and similar 
notices of ancient censuses are too vague and uncertain to 
possess much value. This article will be directed chiefly 
to those nations of which history speaks with definiteness 
and reasonable certainty. 

1. The Jewish Census .— It was ordered in the Jewish law 
that the first-born of man and beast, as well as the first 
fruits of agricultural produce, should be set apart for re¬ 
ligious purposes; the first-born of man to be redeemed— 
the first-born of the beasts, excepting the ass, and the first 
fruits of the earth, to be offered unto the Lord (Ex. xiii. 
11-13; xxii. 29). According to Archbishop Ussher’s chro- 
nology, this enactment must be referred to the year 1491 
B. C. The law further provided that when the sum of tho 











CENSUS. 


children of Israel was taken they should give every man a 
ransom for his soul, amounting to a half shekel of silver 
(Ex. xxx. 12-16). So far as appears, this is the original 
institution of the Jewish census. It is clear that it was pri¬ 
marily for religious purposes. The Hebrew word answer¬ 
ing to census or enumeration means a “ numbering com¬ 
bined with lustration,” from a verb signifying to “ survey, 
in order to purge.” The four most notable enumerations 
recorded in the Old Testament were—1st. In the third or 
fourth month after the exodus the males of the Hebrews, 
twenty years of age and upwards, were enumerated by 
Divine command, chiefly for the purpose of raising money 
for the tabernacle (Ex. xxxviii. 26). The enumeration 
amounted to 603,555. The number of men at the time of 
leaving Egypt is stated (Ex. xii. 37), but it is hardly prob¬ 
able that a formal enumeration was made at that time. 
Probably the result, 600,000, was retrospectively inferred 
from the first numbering at Sinai. 2d. A second enumer¬ 
ation was made at Sinai in the second month of the second 
year after the exodus (Num. i. 2, 3). Here a new idea ap¬ 
pears, as this numbering was to ascertain—1, the number 
of fighting men between the ages of twenty and fifty; and 
2, the amount of the redemption-offering. Exclusive of the 
Levites, the result was the same as the first. 3d. The next 
enumeration was made just before the tribes entered Ca¬ 
naan, thirty-eight years after the one just mentioned (Num. 
xxvi. 63-65). The number of men had slightly fallen off. 
4th. The most notable of the Jewish censuses was that taken 
in the reign of King David. Its history can be gathered 
from 2 Sam. xxiv. 1-9 ; 1 Chron. xxi. 1-7,14; xxvii. 23, 24. 
This enumeration was followed by a three days’ pestilence, 
which destroyed 70,000 men. The pestilence is credited to 
David’s presumption. It is not altogether clear in what 
his offence consisted. According to Josephus {Ant. vii. 13, 
$ 1), the king’s transgression was in not collecting the re¬ 
demption-offering required by the law. This account is 
more generally followed by biblical scholars, but some at¬ 
tribute the pestilence to David’s presumption and pride, of 
which the enumeration is regarded as an indication. It 
appears from Ex. xxx. 12, either that the customary ran¬ 
som was to avert a plague among the people, or that such 
plague was to be the penalty for neglecting to require the 
offering. The pestilence made a lasting impression on the 
minds of men; for to this day, in both Mohammedan and 
Christian countries, especially in the former, there are su¬ 
perstitious fears attending enumerations of the people. 
David’s enumeration of the people was not recorded. 

All the objects comprehended in the Jewish census are 
stated above. It does not appear that the law made any 
provision as to the time or manner of making the enumer¬ 
ations. The censuses referred to in the New Testament were 
taken under Roman authority, and were in no proper sense 
Jewish. 

2. The Greek Census .—History gives us no definite 
knowledge of a census in any portion of Greece except at 
Athens, where the census was established by Solon, who 
held the office of Archon from 558 to 549 B. C. He made 
a radical change in the constitution of Attica. Before his 
time the honors and duties of the citizen were based on 
birth; he introduced what was called the timocracy, or 
government based on wealth. He distributed all free citi¬ 
zens, without regard to birth or rank, into four classes, ac¬ 
cording to the amount of property they owned. The classes 
were—1st. Those whose annual income was equal to or ex¬ 
ceeded 500 medimni of corn (about 700 English bushels). 
2d. Those whose income was less than 500 and more than 
300 medimni. 3d. Those whose income was less than 300 
and more than 200 medimni. 4th. All whose property 
yielded an income less than 200 medimni. The medimnus 
of corn was valued in the time of Solon at about one 
drachma, or 9^(7. 

The first class (nevraKomon-eStnyoi) alone were eligible to 
the principal public offices. The second class (Tn-n-ei?) were 
knights, or those having sufficient income to keep horses 
and perform cavalry service. The third class ( Zevyirai , so 
named from their being able to keep a yoke of oxen) formed 
the heavy-armed infantry. The fourth class (©f/re?), which 
comprised the great body of the people, were ineligible to 
any office, paid but little if any tax, and in case of war 
served only as light-armed infantry, with weapons fur¬ 
nished by the state. 

The census was instituted for the double purpose of mak¬ 
ing this classification of citizens, and of laying the founda¬ 
tion of the Athenian system of taxation. The idea of as¬ 
sessment was as much a part of the census as that of 
enumeration. The Greek word for assessment (reAeiv) has 
also the general meaning of rank or class; and the phrase 
rekeiv to reAos, which signifies “to comply with the requisi¬ 
tion assessed,” signifies also to belong to a class. The 
census was taken, at, first, by the Naucrari, and after¬ 
wards by the Demarchi. A record was kept, showing the 


839 


class to which each citizen belonged, and the list of his 
taxable property. The census was taken sometimes once a 
year, and sometimes once in four years, according as prop¬ 
erty fluctuated in value. The classification of Solon lasted 
with some modification, to the close of the Peloponnesian war 
(404 B. C.), and was in part preserved after the renovation 
of the democracy in the following year. The classification 
of citizens and the mode of assessment were changed dur¬ 
ing the archonship of Nausinicus (in 378 B. C.), in order 
to levy increased taxes for carrying on the war against 
Sparta. 

(For the latest and fullest discussion of the Greek census 
see Bceckh’s “ Political Economy of the Athenians” (Eng¬ 
lish trans., Boston, 1857), book iv., chap. 5; Grote’s 
“History of Greece,” vol. iii., chap. 11, and vol. x., chap. 
87; Plutarch’s “Solon,” i., p. 168; and Smith’s “Dic¬ 
tionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,” words Censor 
and Census.) 

3. The Homan Census .—The institution of the census at 
Rome was intimately connected with the great reform in 
the Roman constitution consummated by Servius Tullius. 
Before his time all the political and military authority was 
wielded by a few powerful Roman families, and clans or 
groups of families, called gentes. The word j) 0 ]yulus applied 
to these families alone. Around the members of this rul¬ 
ing class were gathered, under the name of clients, a large 
number of foreigners ( metoeci ) residing at Rome, subju¬ 
gated people, and freedmen, who possessed no political 
rights, paid no regular taxes, and were neither compelled 
nor permitted to serve in the army. Most of them were 
farmers, and many were wealthy. As the city grew this 
plebeian class rapidly increased. In order to equalize the 
burdens of the state, but particularly to strengthen the 
army and make it more national, Servius Tullius so 
changed the constitution as to place the burdens of taxa¬ 
tion and the duties and honors of military service, not 
upon the patricians as such, but upon freeholders between* 
the ages of seventeen and sixty, without regard to family 
or rank. All these were distributed into five classes, ac¬ 
cording to the amount of land owned by each. It has been 
held by most writers that the classification was based upon 
the amount of wealth, in any form, possessed by the citi¬ 
zen; but Mommsen and other late authorities insist that the 
basis was land. 

The first class comprised those who owned an entire hide 
of land—a full Roman farm—not less than twenty jugera 
(about fourteen acres). The second, third, fourth, and 
fifth classes consisted of those who owned respectively 
three-fourths, one-half, one-fourth, and one-eighth of a 
hide of land. The non-freeholders (proletarii), counted 
by some authorities as the sixth class, were called capite 
censi (t. e., “counted by the head”). They could not vote, 
paid no taxes, and were not liable to perform military 
service. The rights and duties of all Romans were deter¬ 
mined by the class to which they were thus assigned. 

In order to effect these changes in his government, Ser¬ 
vius Tullius instituted the census (555 B. C.). Every cit¬ 
izen was compelled to declare his name, age, and tribe, the 
name of his father, the number of his children, the value 
of his estate, and the number of his slaves. The record 
thus made was both a land-register and a roster or rank- 
roll of the Roman people. When the enumeration and 
registration were completed the people were assembled in 
the Campus Martius, where the religious solemnities of the 
lustration were performed. The sacrifices attending it were 
called suovetaurilia, because a pig, a sheep, and an ox, 
after being led three times around the campus, were sacri¬ 
ficed for the purification of the people. This was called 
the closing of the lustrum. As the census was taken quin- 
quennially, the word lustrum came to signify a period of 
five years. 

At first, the census was taken by the kings in person. 
After the expulsion of the kings it was taken by the con¬ 
suls ; but the duties accompanying the census became so 
important that in 443 B. C. two magistrates, called censors, 
were chosen from the patricians, to whom this duty was en¬ 
trusted. The office of the censors ranked next to that of dic¬ 
tator. Their powers and duties were threefold : 1st. They 
took the census and made and kept the official record. In 
performing this duty they were the sole judges of the qual¬ 
ifications required by law for the rank or class to which a 
citizen should be assigned. 2d. They were conservators 
of public and private morals. This branch of their power 
was called regimen morum. If in their judgment a citizen 
was guilty of immoral or unworthy conduct, they placed 
him in a lower class. They could even degrade a senator 
by omitting his name from the senatorial list. T lpiati says 
in his “Digest” (tit. 1-6): “ Roman citizens are free who 
have been made free by the act of manumission, b} r tho 
census, or by a lawful will.” (See also Cicero, Top. ii. 10.) 
Any one known to absent himself from tho registration was 

















840 


CENSUS. 


called incensus, and was subject to the severest punishment. 
In the time of Servius Tullius this punishment might be 
imprisonment or death. In the days of the republic the 
incensus might be sold as a slave: “Maxima capitis dimi- 
nutio est, per quam et civitas et libertas amittitur, veluti cum 
incensus aliquis venerit.” ( Ulpian, “ Digest,” tit. xi. 11.) 
3d. They were charged with the administration of the 
finances of the state. The tribute assessed upon a Roman 
citizen depended upon the amount of his property, as reg¬ 
istered in the census; and the regulation of taxes was 
placed in their hands, though they did not receive nor dis¬ 
burse the revenues. 

The censorship continued 421 years, when its powers were 
absorbed by the emperors. Augustus extended the census 
to the provinces, and ordered a general enumeration of 
persons and property throughout the empire. Domitian 
assumed the title of “perpetual censor.” The enumeration 
continued to be made for several centuries, but the cere¬ 
mony of lustration was not observed after the reign of Ves¬ 
pasian ; and later, the censuses were taken but once in fif¬ 
teen years. With the dissolution of the Roman empire, the 
census seems to have disappeared from history; and in the 
general decline of intellectual life that followed, even the 
original meaning of the word was practically lost from the 
customs of nations. 

II. The Census during the Middle Ages. —In medi¬ 
aeval times the word “ census ” was still employed, but it 
was applied almost exclusively to the records of landed 
estates and the assessment of taxes. Until the thirteenth 
century there is no record of a distinct enumeration of the 
population in the annals of any mediaeval people. In that 
dreary waste of history a few attempts were made to learn 
something concerning the people and their condition. In 
the year 780, Charlemagne appointed officers called missi 
dominici, or royal commissioners, who travelled from prov¬ 
ince to province to examine the condition of his empire. 
Their reports contained some valuable statistics concerning 
the people, the soil, and the products of his vast dominions. 
(See Martin’s “Histoii’e de France,” tom. ii. 277-284.) 
These reports were not kept up after the death of Charle¬ 
magne. 

A more elaborate and successful effort in the same direc¬ 
tion was made in England in 1081, by William the Con¬ 
queror, in the institution of the famous “ Doomsday Book.” 
An inquisition was made throughout the kingdom concern¬ 
ing the quantity of land contained in each county, the 
name of each Saxon and Norman proprietor of land, and 
the slaves and cattle belonging to each. All these wero 
registered in a book, each article beginning with the king’s 
property, and proceeding downward according to the rank 
of the proprietors. By this register the king could know 
the wealth, rank, and position of all his subjects. It served 
as the basis of taxation, and was used in the courts as the 
evidence of property. Of this book Burke says : “ It was 
a work in all respects useful, and worthy of a better age.” 

Several early attempts at a census were made in Spain— 
one by Peter the Ceremonious, king of Aragon, in the 
fourteenth century, the results of which were not published 
until the present century; and another in the fifteenth cen¬ 
tury, by order of the Crown of Castile. 

In different parts of Europe a few statistical works ap¬ 
peared; but their scope was narrow and their materials were 
scanty and inaccurate. 

It would appear that a comprehensive census is found 
only in enlightened despotisms or in free communities. 
Neither of these were frequent in the Middle Ages, and 
this may account for the absence of enumerations of the 
people during that period. 

III. The Census in Modern Times. —The modern cen¬ 
sus is of slow growth, and seems to have developed only as 
nations came to appreciate the fact that the strength and 
glory of a state depend upon the condition of its people 
and their industries. While rulers were unwilling to allow 
their people any share in public affairs, there was little at¬ 
tention paid to the population and its condition. Till with¬ 
in the last two centuries scarcely an effort was made in any 
modern country to obtain any comprehensive knowledge 
of the people. 

Sweden lias the honor of being the first modern govern¬ 
ment to establish a systematic plan, and to record import¬ 
ant facts concerning its population. The frequent recur¬ 
rence of famine and pestilence in that country near the be¬ 
ginning of the sixteenth century led the clergy to keep a 
register of the marriages, baptisms, and burials within their 
several parishes. The keeping of this register was made 
obligatory by an ecclesiastical law of 1080, which is still in 
force. That law required a register of marriages, births, and 
deaths, with many accompanying particulars; a record of 
all persons removing to or from each parish; a list of the 
inhabitants by houses and households; and a record of all 
extraordinary accidents occurring during the year. These 


registers were intended to serve the requirements of religion, 
and also to afford the means of correcting the register of 
landed property and households kept by the tax-collectors. 
As these registers were made on a uniform plan, and by a 
body of intelligent and cultivated men, who were well ac¬ 
quainted with the people of their parishes, the records wero 
exceedingly accurate and valuable. For a long time the 
results were not collected; but inconsequence of a memorial 
presented to the Diet in 1746 by the Academy of Sciences 
of Stockholm, schedules of questions concerning the move¬ 
ment and condition of the population were distributed 
among the parishes, with orders to the pastors to make re¬ 
turns from their registers for the previous twenty-five years. 
In the year 1749 a return was made, which contained a large 
number of valuable details concerning the condition of the 
population, but it was many years before these facts were 
published. The number of inhabitants was long regarded 
as one of the most important state secrets; and it was for¬ 
bidden under heavy penalties to reveal to the public any¬ 
thing respecting it. It was only in 1762 that permission 
was given to publish some extracts from the official reports 
concerning the progress of the population. It was from 
facts thus obtained that Doctor Price prepared his first 
essay in the form of a letter to Doctor Franklin, which laid 
the basis for the famous life-tables founded on the statis¬ 
tics of Sweden. 

From 1749 to 1751 the reports of population were made 
annually; from 1754 to 1772, triennially; from 1775 to the 
present time the census has been taken once in five years. 
In towns the head of the household, in accordance with in¬ 
structions, fills up the schedules, which are collected by the 
agents of the police. In the country districts the census is 
still taken by the pastors as a part of their parochial duties. 

England was very slow in achieving a census. In 1592, 
when the plague was in London, records were kept of the 
number of deaths in the city; but the practice soon fell into 
disuse, and was not revived until 1603, the first year of the 
reign of James I., when a weekly account was ordered to be 
kept of burials and christenings in London. These records 
were regularly kept thereafter, but little attention was paid 
to them until the year 1661, when Sir William Pettjq writ¬ 
ing under the name of Captain John Graunt, published a 
tract entitled “Natural and Political Observations, men¬ 
tioned in a following index, and made upon the Bills of 
Mortality of London, with reference to the Government, 
Religion, Trade, Growth, Air, Diseases, and several changes 
of said City.” This work attracted much attention, and the 
author followed it up by several similar works—one on the 
mortality bills of Dublin; another in 1686, entitled “An 
Essay concerning the Multiplication of Mankind,” together 
with an “ Essay on Political Arithmetick,” concerning the 
growth of the city of London. 

It is curious to observe what vague and erroneous opin¬ 
ions prevailed, even among the most intelligent thinkers 
of that time, concerning the number of people in any state 
or city. A striking illustration of this may be seen in the 
fact that when Sir William began his investigation of the 
population of London, he mentions it as a matter of general 
belief that the city then contained several millions of peo¬ 
ple. The imperfections of the statistical methods employed 
in his day may be seen in the following passage from Sir 
William’s “Third Essay in Political Arithmetic,” 1686, pp. 
21 and 22 : 

“ Proofs that the number of people in the 134 Parishes 
of the London Bills of Mortality, without reference to other 
cities, is about 696 thousand—viz.: 

“ I know but three ways of finding the same : 

“ 1. By the houses, and families, and heads living in each. 

“ 2. By the number of burials in healthful times, and by 
the proportion of those that live to those that die. 

“ 3. By the number of those who die of the plague in pes¬ 
tilential years, in proportion to those that ’scape.” s 

In applying his first method he has no count of the houses, 
but, as he says, “pitches upon a number” as a rough esti¬ 
mate, then guesses at the average number of families to a 
house and persons in a family, and finally applies his arith¬ 
metic. His second and third methods were even more vague. 

During the eighteenth century several efforts were made 
to guess at the population of England, but nothing of value 
was accomplished till near the close of that century. Con¬ 
sidering the fact that economic science had already attained 
a high degree of development in England, that many wri¬ 
ters had successfully investigated and ably discussed statis¬ 
tical subjects, and that censuses had been ordered in the 
American colonies by the home government since the sev¬ 
enteenth century, it is surprising that no attempt was mado 
to ascertain the population of any one of the three united 
kingdoms by actual inquiry until 1790 ; when Sir John Sin¬ 
clair, a high authority in matters of public finance in his 
time, and a man of rare intelligence, enterprise, and perse¬ 
verance, undertook the compilation of a complete popula- 














CENSUS. 


841 


tion, agricultural, commercial, and industrial census of 
Scotland. For this purpose he addressed one hundred and 
sixty questions, on as many different subjects, to all the 
clergymen of the Established Church. He had much diffi¬ 
culty in obtaining answers from them, but by dint of per¬ 
sistently-repeated appeals he succeeded, after several years, 
in securing returns from nearly all the parishes. The re¬ 
turns were published by him successively in a series of 
twenty-one volumes. The energy of this remarkable man 
may be judged from the fact that he secured no- less than 
900 contributors to his census, and that the whole compila¬ 
tion and publication was completed in just seven years. 
He subsequently prepared a masterly compendium of the 
series, entitled an “ Analysis of the Statistics of Scotland.” 
His statistics were not absolutely accurate, but they formed, 
although the work of a single individual, a more complete 
census than any yet undertaken by any government. Sir 
John Sinclair may be said to be the founder of British pub¬ 
lic statistics; for it was mainly at his suggestion that Par¬ 
liament, on December 31, 1800, passed an act providing for 
a general enumeration of the population of England, Wales, 
and Scotland in the following spring, and every tenth year 
thereafter. The bill was offered in the Commons by Charles 
Abbott (afterwards Lord Tenterden), and the motion for 
leave to introduce it was seconded by Mr. Wilberforce. The 
first census was taken on the 10th of March, 1801, in Eng¬ 
land and Wales; for Scotland a later day was assigned, 
owing to the inclemency of the season. The law contained 
but one schedule, and the following inquiries were made: 
The number of houses, inhabited and uninhabited; the 
number of families ; the number of inhabitants, male and 
female; a classification of the population according to oc¬ 
cupation, in three divisions: 1st, persons chiefly employed 
in agriculture; 2d, persons chiefly employed in trade and 
manufactures or handicrafts ; 3d, all other persons not com¬ 
prised in these two classes; the number of baptisms and 
burials each tenth year from 1700 to 1800; and the num¬ 
ber of marriages from 1754 to 1801. In the two subsequent 
enumerations, in 1811 and 1821, the same schedule was fol¬ 
lowed, except that the occupations of the heads of families 
only were entered. In that of 1821 a classification of ages 
was also adopted. In 1831 a uniform system of registra¬ 
tion of births, marriages, and deaths was established by act 
of Parliament for England and Wales, under the supervis¬ 
ion of the registrar-general’s office. Under the act the ter¬ 
ritory to which it was applied was divided into over two 
thousand registration districts. The same act provided that 
subsequent enumerations in England and Wales should be 
taken by the local registrars under the direction of the reg¬ 
istrar-general. The creation of a regular statistical service 
greatly facilitated the census of 1841 in England and Wales. 
In Scotland the less efficient method of employing the par¬ 
ish schoolmasters as local censors was continued. 

In Ireland the first attempt at a general census was made 
in 1811, with very unsatisfactory results. It was repeated, 
in 1821, but pi-oduced nothing but a mere enumeration of 
doubtful accuracy. The next census, taken in 1831, was 
subjected to a correction in 1834. In 1841 the constabu¬ 
lary force was employed as census-takers, with better re¬ 
sults. An attempt w r as made, in connection with the census 
of the year last named, to obtain statistics of the rural 
economy of the Irish kingdom, which proved very suc¬ 
cessful. 

Great efforts were made to render the sixth census of 
England, Wales, and Scotland, in 1851, superior in results 
to the preceding enumerations. The special law enacted 
for the purpose provided that the census should be taken 
on one and the same day—31st of March—in the three 
parts of the kingdom named. For that purpose 30,610 
competent enumerators were appointed, with the author¬ 
ity of the registrar-general, by the 2190 district registrars 
then in function in England and Wales. Only as much 
territory was assigned to each enumerator in the registra¬ 
tion districts as could be conveniently canvassed by one 
person. There being no uniform system of registration in 
Scotland, the thirty-two sheriffs of that kingdom were 
authorized to appoint 1010 temporary registrars—generally 
parochial schoolmasters—and 8130'enumerators; the gov¬ 
ernment appointed 257 enumerators for the smaller islands. 
Some days before the census-day the enumerators delivered 
to every occupier of a house or tenement a “ householder’s 
schedule,” containing inquiries as to the name, the head of 
family, condition, sex, age, occupation, and birthplace of 
every person in Great Britain, and also as to the number 
of blind, deaf, and dumb. For the use of the lower classes 
of Wales schedules were printed in Welsh. The schedule 
was to be filled up in the night of March 30-31. No one 
present on that night was to be omitted except workingmen 
and others performing night-labor away from their habita¬ 
tions. Travellers were enumerated at the hotels and houses 
at which they arrived on the following morning. Simul¬ 


taneously with the household schedules the enumerators 
distributed in the proper quarters forms for collecting in¬ 
formation respecting places of worship, scholastic establish¬ 
ments, and miscellaneous institutions. The schedules were 
taken up by the enumerators at an early hour on the 31st 
of March. The collectors filled up those parts which per¬ 
sons had either neglected or were unable to fill. They were 
also required to note all the unoccupied houses and build¬ 
ings in course of construction. The floating population— 
that is, such persons as spent the night named in barges 
or boats on canals or small streams, in barns, sheds, tents, 
and the like—the enumerators were required to estimate 
according to the best information they could obtain. Special 
notice was to be taken of all extraordinary assemblages of 
people anywhere at the time of the census. 

The enumerators were allowed one week for the trans¬ 
cription of their schedules and the completion of summaries 
and estimates called for in their very full instructions. The 
revision of the returns by the district registrars, in which 
the latter were to pay particular attention to nine specially- 
defined points, had to be completed in a fortnight. The 
revised returns were subjected to another revision by the 
superintendent registrars before they were finally trans¬ 
mitted to the census office. 

The custom-house officers took the census of sea-going 
vessels in port. Persons belonging to the navy and com¬ 
mercial marine were also separately enumerated by the 
proper authorities. The government furnished the statis¬ 
tics of the army, half-pay officers, and pensioners, the civil 
service, the civilians and Europeans in the East India 
Company’s service, and of all British subjects living in 
foreign parts, as far as they could be ascertained through 
consular and diplomatic organs. 

The British census of 1851 was the most successful sta¬ 
tistical operation, both as regards quickness and accuracy of 
execution, performed up to that time in any country where 
public statistics were cultivated. The plan of the census 
of 1861 did notvary in any essential respect from that of 
the preceding one. Its execution was equally rapid and 
fruitful of satisfactory results, in spite of the greater diffi¬ 
culty of the task from the growth of population, etc. 

In Ireland the censuses of 1851 and 1861 were again 
taken by the constabulary force. The mode of enumeration 
was essentially the same as in England, except that the 
schedules represented a wider field of inquiry. The addi¬ 
tional interrogatories related to insanity, idiocy, degree of 
education, attendance at school, buildings other than habi¬ 
tations, and language. Since 1804 a general registration of 
births and deaths in Ireland is made by civil officers; up 
to that time registers were kept only for the Protestant 
population. * 

While both in Ireland and in Scotland an agricultural 
census, which serves to determine the area devoted to the 
culture of different products of the soil, and the number of 
live-stock, had been required for many years, a first cattle 
census was taken in England and Wales only in May, 
1866; it was followed soon after by a comprehensive agri¬ 
cultural census. 

The digestion of the English and Irish census-reports 
by the central statistical authorities is conducted in a 
thoroughly scientific manner. The general reports and the 
special compilations therefrom on a variety of subjects are 
unsurpassed by the corresponding records of any other 
country. Their great value to statisticians and economists 
is universally acknowledged. The movement of the popu¬ 
lation of the United Kingdom is annually determined by 
the registrar-general’s office through the agency of the dis¬ 
trict registrars. 

In 1871 the eighth census of the United Kingdom was 
taken. Over 32,000 enumerators were employed in taking 
it. Several minor inquiries were added to the schedules, 
and some important inquiries concerning education were 
made to supply the demand for information by the school 
board established under the Elementary Education act of 
1870. In London alone the school board was supplied with 
certain particulars concerning the 700,000 children between 
the age of three and thirteen living within the limits of the 
London school board district. 

France established a census only after many ineffectual 
attempts and against formidable obstacles. The first com¬ 
prehensive suggestion of a census was made by Vauban, 
the great engineer and scholar of the seventeenth century. 
Seeing the distress into which France had been plunged 
by the long wars of Louis XIV., and deploring the heavy 
and unequal burdens of taxation which had been laid upon 
the people, he entered upon a careful survey of the con¬ 
dition of France, and in the first years of the eighteenth 
century developed a plan to sweep away the great army ot 
fiscal officers and establish a uniform tax on all the piop- 
erty of the realm. 

this ho called the “ projet d’unc dixme royale, which ho 
























842 CENSUS. 


published in 1707 in a volume addressed to the king. In 
order to apply his plan, it was necessary to know the num¬ 
ber and classes of the population. His method of esti¬ 
mating the number was peculiar. Selecting a portion of 
France which he regarded as having an average density 
of population, he caused it to be accurately measured and 
its population estimated. From this he calculated the area 
of France and its population: but near the conclusion of 
his book he appealed to the king to provide by law for the 
numbering of the people, and set forth in strong and elo¬ 
quent language the advantages of such an enumeration. 
“There is no battalion,” said he, “in the kingdom, how¬ 
ever insignificant it may be, that is not subject at least to 
a dozen reviews and inspections during each year. If such 
pains be taken with one battalion, of how much greater 
importance it is. to enumerate and review the condition of 
that great body of the people from which the king draws 
all his glory and all his riches!” This book appeared in 
January, 1707. It gave great offence to Louis XIV., be¬ 
cause it assumed that the glory of the realm consisted of 
the people and their wealth, and it further assumed that 
kings and ministers needed to study the people and their 
wants, in order to the proper performance of their duties. 
By a royal decree of February 14, 1707, the book was or¬ 
dered to be seized and burned in the pillory, and all the 
booksellers were forbidden, under heavy, penalties, to keep 
or sell it. Vauban survived the shock of this disgrace but 
six weeks. He died of a broken heart. The treatment he 
received is a striking illustration of that arrogant igno¬ 
rance which refuses to draw instruction from the only true 
source of knowledge and statesmanship. 

Several attempts were made at different times to ascer¬ 
tain such facts relating to the people as would aid the 
French monarchs in making their military levies; but noth¬ 
ing of value was accomplished except by individual effort. 
In the latter part of the reign of Louis XV., M. D. Gour- 
ney, minister of commerce, organized a bureau of informa¬ 
tion, which gave some attention to the subject of popula¬ 
tion. M. Moheau, who was attached to this bureau, col¬ 
lected some important statistics, which were published by 
order of the government in 1774. In 1784 appeared the 
work of M. Necker, minister of finance of Louis XVI., 
entitled “ Traite de l’Administration des Finances,” in 
which the number and condition of the population were 
discussed. But nothing was done to establish a census 
until after the Revolution of 1792. Before the close of the 
eighteenth century a law was passed requiring prefects of 
the departments to prepare from the civil registers exact 
annual abstracts of the number of marriages, births, and 
deaths. This law, with some modifications, is still in force. 
In 1801 the legislature decreed that national censuses 
should be taken once in five years. A census was taken in 
1801, and another in 1806. No other was taken under the 
first Napoleon. The next general enumeration was taken 
six years after the final restoration of the Bourbons. 
Since that year quinquennial censuses have been the rule. 

Belgium has carried the work of census-taking to a high 
degree of thoroughness and completeness since the revolu¬ 
tion which made her an independent sovereignty. This 
revolution was immediately followed by active efforts in the 
direction of statistics. One of the first acts of the provis¬ 
ional government in 1831 was the creation of a special 
statistical service. In 1841 a central commission of statis¬ 
tics was established by royal decree, with which M. Quete- 
let and other distinguished statisticians have been con¬ 
nected from its organization. In 1843 provincial statisti¬ 
cal commissions were instituted throughout the kingdom. 
In 1856 a law was enacted newly regulating the mode of 
taking the census and keeping the civil register. It pro¬ 
vided that a general census should be taken every ten years 
throughout the kingdom, and that the population-returns 
should form the basis of representation. The census was 
to be taken in such a manner as to give the actual as well 
as the legal population. The prescribed inquiries included 
surnames and Christian names, sex, age by year and 
month, birthplace, civil status, occupation or condition, 
habitual domicil, and town and country population. 
Three schedules, printed in the French, German, and 
Flemish languages, were distributed and collected through¬ 
out tho kingdom by special census-agents. Both the dis¬ 
tribution and collection were to be made in one day. Tem¬ 
porary census bureaus were established, one for each prov¬ 
ince, which were to receive the returns of the agents after 
they bad been revised by the communal juries—-bodies ap¬ 
pointed for each community, and consisting of officials and 
private citizens. The statistics of schools and public in¬ 
stitutions wero taken by means of special schedules. Tho 
military authorities were charged with the army census. 
The refusal to give information to the oensus-agents was 
punishable by fine and imprisonment. The law of 1856 
also contained provisions regarding tho keeping of civil 


registers, which ensured greater accuracy in the recording 
of the movement of the population. 

Two general censuses have been taken under the law of 
1856—one in that year and another in 1866. In the latter, 
comprehensive inquiries into the agricultural, mining, and 
manufacturing industries of the kingdom were made. In 
185S a special census of deaf-mutes and the blind was taken. 
The central statistical commission receives the returns of 
the successive censuses, yearly abstracts from the civil reg¬ 
isters, and the results of special inquiries, and prepares the 
whole for publication. 

Prussia .—As in many European countries, Prussia ob¬ 
tains her population-reports through a central bureau of 
statistics, which was established in 1805, and continues to 
the present day, though with some modifications. The 
labors of the bureau are directed to—1, general statistics; 
2, births, marriages, and deaths; 3, schools and churches; 
4, medical statistics; and 5, statistics of mechanical trades 
and manufactures. From 1805 to 1820 these inquiries were 
made annually, but since the latter date, information x-elative 
to the first, third, and fourth subjects was collected but 
once in three years. When the customs union of 1834 was 
established, triennial censuses of the population were au¬ 
thorized, and have been taken regularly since that date. 

At first, the inquiries concerning population were the 
actual population, according to sex, age, birthplace, relig¬ 
ion, immigration, and emigration. In 1840 the enumera¬ 
tion was made nominative, which resulted immediately in a 
large increase in the population-returns. In 1846 the num¬ 
ber of families was determined, and in 1849 the distribu¬ 
tion of the population by habitations. In 1858 the persons 
of the two sexes between seventeen and forty-five years of 
age were returned in five classes. In 1861 the unmarried 
and widowed were specially classified. With the census of 
the same year an inquiry was added in reference to the lan¬ 
guage sjxoken and the social condition and occupations of 
the population. The Prussian census is taken by civil offi¬ 
cers, in the month of December, on one day, by means of 
printed schedules. Great expedition is shown in the publi¬ 
cation of the returns. In addition to the statistics of popu¬ 
lation, many statistics are obtained showing the nature, ex¬ 
tent, and distribution of real property, wages and salaries, 
insurance, aid and co-operative societies, and the numer¬ 
ical strength of the Catholic and Protestant churches. 

Austria .—During the last half of the eighteenth and the 
first half of the nineteenth century no censuses were taken 
in Austria, except such as were connected with military 
conscription and inquiries to ascertain what portion of the 
population were liable to do military duty. Separate sys¬ 
tems of enumeration prevailed in the different provinces, 
and the materials for a general knowledge of the whole popu¬ 
lation of the empire were very meagre. A uniform enumer¬ 
ation was made throughout the empire for the first time in 
1851, but its results were so imperfect that in 1855 a com¬ 
mission of high administrative officers was appointed for 
the preparation of a new census law, which received the 
imperial sanction in 1857. By its provisions the military 
needs of the state were no longer the main motive for a cen¬ 
sus; but statistics of population, wealth, and industry were 
to be obtained as a basis for the safe conduct of public af¬ 
fairs. It provided that a census, based on the actual popu¬ 
lation, should be taken once in six years, exclusively by the 
civil authorities. Printed schedules were distributed by 
municipal and administrative officers, to be filled up by the 
heads of families, owners of tenement-houses, and those 
in charge of convents, schools, and public institutions. 
Detailed printed instructions accompanied the schedules. 
Those that intentionally failed to furnish the desired infor¬ 
mation were punished by fine and imprisonment. The 
schedules called for information under the following heads: 
Composition of families, including servants; age; sex; 
names and titles; civil status; social condition; religion; 
occupation ; marriages, births, and deaths ; the number of 
cities, towns, hamlets, villages, dwellings, and renters. The 
number of Austrian subjects living in foreign parts was ob¬ 
tained through the imperial legations. The census of the 
naval and military population was separately taken by the 
proper authorities. In 1828 a central bureau of statistics 
was created, and charged with the duty of consolidating tho 
census-returns and preparing them for publication. 

Russia .—Partial censuses were taken by order of the 
Russian government in 1700, 1704, 1705, and 1710. In 
1718, Peter the Great required all landed proprietors to 
make a declaration of the number of serfs belonging to each. 
The same year he organized a special commission to visit the 
separate provinces of his empire for the purpose of making 
a general census. No enumeration of females was made in 
theso early censuses, which wero taken solely for the pur¬ 
poses of revenue and military conscription. A decree of 
1722 directed that a census should bo taken onoo in twenty 
years; but this interval of time xvas not regularly observed 














CENSUS. 


843 


during the remainder of the eighteenth century. In 1802 
a central bureau ot statistics was organized under the direc¬ 
tion of the minister of the interior, who superintended 
the returns of population, agriculture, commerce, and in¬ 
dustry. This bureau was reorganized in 1852 under the 
name of the statistical commission. The commission has 
taken censuses in 1812, 1815, 1834, 1850, 1860, and 1870. 
The census is taken by means of printed schedules dis¬ 
tributed by the local authorities, who are made responsible 
for the proper returns. The work of consolidating and 
publishing the returns devolves upon the statistical com¬ 
mission. 

Norway. A decennial census was instituted in Norway 
in 1815, and has continued up to the present time, comjms- 
ing inquiries as to age, sex, civil status, number of families 
and habitations, useful domestic animals, and the territo¬ 
rial area of each district. A bureau of statistics superin¬ 
tends all forms of public statistics except those pertaining 
to the administration of justice, public education, and finan¬ 
cial administration. Inquiries are made once in five years 
in regard to the condition of industry. Annual exhibits 
arc made of births, marriages, and deaths, of commerce 
and navigation, of the administration of justice, and of 
the population suffering from physical and mental disa¬ 
bilities. 

Spain paid but little attention to public statistics after 
her census of 1798 until 1856, when a central statistical 
commission was organized, under whose supervision a gen¬ 
eral census was taken in 1857, and since then once in three 
years. The census is taken in one night by government 
officials charged with the collection, verification, and con¬ 
solidation of the returns. A final revision is made by the 
statistical commission. 

Switzerland .—The original constitution of the Swiss fed¬ 
eration required a census to be taken once in twenty years. 
Most of the inquiries were conducted by the several can¬ 
tonal governments. The returns were not uniform, and 
were generally inaccurate. In 1860 a law of the Federal 
assembly prescribed a decennial census for the whole federa¬ 
tion, and instituted a federal bureau of statistics under the 
direction of the interior department. The first census under 
the new law was in 1860. The inquiries included sex, age, 
civil condition, origin, birthplace, domicil, religion, lan¬ 
guage, physical disabilities, immigration, the distribution of 
real property, the number of families, and the number of 
habitations and other buildings. The statistical bureau is 
endeavoring to extend the range of the census, but finds its 
efforts somewhat impeded by the difficulty of dealing with 
twenty-five cantonal governments. The cantonal statistics 
collected by the local governments are consolidated and 
published by the central bureau. The latter is endeavor¬ 
ing to give a more national character to the statistical ser¬ 
vice. Until a few years ago, the different cantons followed 
different methods in the collection of vital and mortuary 
statistics, but at the instance of the bureau they have 
now adopted a uniform plan. In 1866 the central bureau 
initiated the census of live-stock, and later collected very 
full statistics of railways, savings banks, and fire-insurance 
companies. 

Italy .—Soon after the establishment of the modern king¬ 
dom of Italy, in 1859 and 1860, a bureau of statistics was 
created with ample powers, under the direction of Doctor 
Maestri, an eminent statistician. The first general census, 
which was to afford the basis of representation in the na¬ 
tional parliament, was taken December 31, 1861, under a 
law prescribing general enumerations once in ten years. 
The census is taken in one day by means of previously dis¬ 
tributed schedules. Since 1861 the central bureau has been 
charged with additional inquiries relative to mutual-aid 
societies, savings banks, public charities, industrial corpo¬ 
rations, libraries, and institutions of education. 

The census in modern Greece dates from her last struggle 
for independence. The first general enumeration of the 
people was made in 1836. From that date censuses were 
taken annually until 1845; since when they have been 
taken at irregular intervals—viz., 1848, 1853, 1856, 1861, 
and 1868. 

Statistical Congress. —The work of taking modern 
censuses has been greatly facilitated, and the value of the 
results greatly increased, by the efforts of the “ International 
Statistical Congress,” an organization which resulted from 
the great exposition held in London in 1851. The congress 
is composed principally of men from all civilized nations, 
who in their own countries are members, leaders, and chiefs 
of bureaus of statistics, or who have charge of the census. 
Sessions of the congress were held in Brussels in 1853, 
Paris in 1855, Vienna in 1857, London in I860, Berlin in 
1863, Florence in 1867, at The Hague in 1869, and the 
eighth and last at St. Petersburg, August, 1872. 

The census has been a leading topic of disoussion by the 
congress. Statements have been made of the condition of 


the census movement in the various countries, and the con¬ 
gress earnestly recommended uniformity in the census in¬ 
quiries, in order that comparisons could be made of the vital 
statistics of the different countries. Many valuable modi¬ 
fications have been made in the censuses of nearly all the 
nations, in consequence of the suggestions of the congress. 
As a result of these efforts, Messrs. Quetelet and lleusch- 
ling published at Brussels in 1865 a volume of interna¬ 
tional statistics, in which the population reports of the 
United States and all the leading states of Europe are col¬ 
lected and arranged in comparative tables. 

The Census of the United States. —Considering the 
character of the present work, the census of the United 
States should receive much more attention than that of any 
other country. The matter will be distributed under three 
heads: 

I. The Colonial Period. —The American census originated 
in the colonial period of our history. The British board 
of trade played an important part in colonial affairs. At 
times it was almost the supreme directing power, and under 
its instructions several enumerations of the population of 
the colonies were attempted. The tables were prepared 
under the immediate direction of the colonial governors by 
the sheriffs and justices of the peace, and were exceedingly 
inaccurate. Mr. Bancroft, speaking of enumerations in 
the latter jiart of the seventeenth century, says : “ The po¬ 
sitive data in those days are half the time notoriously false.” 
[History, vol. ii., p. 450, note.) Speaking of the same ma¬ 
terials in the middle of the eighteenth century, he says: 
“ Nearly all are imperfect.” (Vol. iv., p. 128 , note.) The 
so-called enumerations should rather be called computa¬ 
tions. No general examination, embracing all the colonies, 
was ever attempted. The tables prepared for the board of 
trade were in great part based on muster-rolls and returns 
of taxables. “Enumeration is a slow and laborious pro¬ 
cess,” says Sir G. C. Lewis, “and until experience has 
taught us its necessity, where correctness is required there 
is a disposition, especially among uncultivated people, to 
rely upon computation.” Besides, the aggregates found in 
the tables were no doubt generally too large. “ To count,” 
says Doctor Johnson, “is a modern practice; the ancient 
method was to guess; and when numbers are guessed they 
are always magnified.” That no accurate enumerations of 
population were made in the colonial period should excite 
no surprise. The census had not yet assumed scientific 
form and definiteness. England took her first census in 
1801, and even then the work was so imperfectly done that 
the results were of no great value. On general grounds it 
would be absurd to suppose that the board of trade took 
accurate enumerations of the British colonists in America 
a half century or century before England counted her own 
people. Besides, the directing authority was three thou¬ 
sand miles distant from the people to be enumerated, and 
the sparseness of the population, scattered over immense 
areas, as well as the free and independent modes of life pre¬ 
vailing in many localities, made thoroughness and accuracy 
impossible. Superstition also opposed census-taking. In 
1712, Governor Hunter undertook an enumeration of the in¬ 
habitants of New York. In writing to the home government 
he excused the imperfection of the returns in part by say¬ 
ing that “ the people were deterred by a simple superstition 
and observation that the sickness followed upon the last 
numbering of the people.” ( Colonial History of New York, 
vol. v., p. 339.) Governor Burnett of New Jersey, in a 
communication to the English board in 1726, alluding to 
an enumeration made in New York three years before, 
said : “ I would have then ordered the like accounts to be 
taken in New Jersey, but I was advised that it might make 
the people uneasy, they being generally of a New Eugland 
extraction, and thereby enthusiasts; and that they would 
take it for a repetition of the same sin that David com¬ 
mitted in numbering the people, and might bring on the 
same judgments. This notion put me off at that time, but, 
since your lordships require it, I will give the orders to 
the sheriffs that it may be done as soon as may be.” (Ib., 
vol. v., p. 777.) 

The tables prepared under the direction of the board of 
trade aro so inaccurate that the more careful of recent 
writers have generally preferred to construct new tables 
rather than rely on them. Mr. Bancroft constructs a valu¬ 
able table, showing the population at different dates from 
1750 to 1790. ( History of the United States, vol. iv., pp. 127, 
128, note.) He uses as data the returns, computations, and 
official papers of current history, and also private letters 
and journals. Mr. Bancroft says : “ Ho who will construct 
retrospectively general tables from the rate of increase in 
America since 1790 will err very little. In 1688, the 
period of the English Revolution, the population ot the 
colonies was about 200,000. The aggregates found in three 
tables propared for the board of trade aro hero presented 
(see Bancroft, vol. iv., p. 12S, note) : 





















CENSUS. 


844 


Year. 

Whites. 

Blacks. 

Total. 

1714 

375,750 

58,850 

434,600 

1727 

502,000 

78,000 

580,000 

1754 

1,192,896 

292,738 

1,485,634 


Mr. J. D. B. DcBow, following “ Holmes’s Annals” as his 
chief authority, gives three other tables: 


Year. 

Total. 

1701. 

262,000 

1,046,000 

2,803,000 

1740. 

1775. 



II. The Continental Period .—In the Continental Con¬ 
gress the question early arose, How shall the burdens of the 
war be distributed? During the whole struggle for inde¬ 
pendence Congress found no more perplexing question. On 
the 2Gth of Decmnber, 1775, that body authorized and di¬ 
rected the emission of $3,000,000 in bills of credit. It also 
resolved that the thirteen United Colonies be pledged for 
the redemption of these bills; that each colony provide 
ways and means to sink its proportion in such manner as 
it sees tit; that the proportion of each colony be deter¬ 
mined according to the number of its inhabitants of all 
ages, including negroes and mulattoes; and that it be re¬ 
commended to the colonial authorities to ascertain in the 
most effectual manner their respective populations, and to 
send the returns to Congress properly authenticated. Most 
of the colonies failed to comply with this recommendation. 
Immediately after the adoption of the Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence, Congress began to discuss the form of a confed¬ 
eration to be entered into by the States. After long discus¬ 
sion the Articles of Confederation were perfected and sub¬ 
mitted to the States in 1777, but failing of an earlier rati¬ 
fication, they did not go into operation until 1781. The 
ninth article declared : “ The United States in Congress 
assembled shall have authority ... to agree upon the num¬ 
ber of land forces, and to make requisition from each State 
for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhab¬ 
itants in such State.” In November, 1781, a resolution was 
introduced into the Congress recommending to the several 
States that they cause to be taken and transmitted to Con¬ 
gress the number of their white inhabitants, pursuant to 
the ninth article of the Confederation. The resolution 
failed to pass, and the article was inoperative. The finan¬ 
cial machinery provided by the eighth article of the Con¬ 
federation wholly broke down; rather, it was never set in 
motion. In 1783, Congress sought to induce the States to 
provide new machinery. An amendment to the eighth ar¬ 
ticle was proposed, which declared that “ All charges of 
war and other expenses that have been or shall be incurred 
for the common defence or general welfare, and allowed by 
the United States in Congress assembled, except so far as 
shall be otherwise provided for, shall be defrayed out of a 
common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several 
States in proportion to the whole number of white and 
other free citizens and inhabitants, of every age, sex, and 
condition, including those bound to servitude for a term of 
years, and three-fifths of all other persons not compre¬ 
hended in the foregoing description, except Indians not 
paying taxes in each State; which number shall be trien- 
nially taken and transmitted to the United States in Con¬ 
gress assembled, in such mode as they shall direct and ap¬ 
point.” This amendment did not prevail, and the Articles 
of Confederation remained unchanged until they were su¬ 
perseded by the present national Constitution. The pro¬ 
posed amendment, however, contains the original sugges¬ 
tion of the “ three-fifths rule.” During the continental 
period no general enumeration of population was secured. 
Various estimates and computations were produced in Con¬ 
gress from time to time, but they came no nearer accuracy 
than those made in the colonial period. Thus far, no com¬ 
plete enumeration had been effected. But it had become 
clear that there never could be such enumeration until the 
work was done by a central directing authority. It was 
left to the Constitution to give us first an enumeration of 
population, and afterwards a national census. 

III. The Constitutional Period .—The framers of the Con¬ 
stitution had few, if any, more difficult questions to deal 
Avith than the apportionment of representatives and direct 
taxes. After long deliberation the matured opinion of the 
convention assumed the well-known form : “ Kepresonta- 
tives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the sev¬ 
eral States which may be included within this Union ac¬ 
cording to their respective numbers, which shall be deter¬ 
mined by adding to the whole number of free persons, in¬ 
cluding those bound to service fora term of years, and ex¬ 
cluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. 
The actual enumeration shall bo made within three years 


after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, 
and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such 
manner as they shall by law direct.” In a subsequent 
clause this enumeration is called a census, but it did not 
contemplate a census in the present received sense of that 
word. Enumerations of the people have almost always 
originated in military or fiscal necessities, and have been 
used for immediate practical ends. The varied and im¬ 
portant uses for which statistics are now employed are alto¬ 
gether modern. But while the framers of the national Con¬ 
stitution never contemplated a census that should answer 
the thousand questions of social and political science, they 
nevertheless provided an instrument by which many of those 
questions are now answered. At its second session, the first 
Congress passed a law to carry the constitutional provision 
into effect. It was approved March 1, 1790. As this law 
was the model of subsequent legislation upon the same sub¬ 
ject for fifty years, its leading provisions are here stated. 
The marshals of the several judicial districts were author¬ 
ized and required to cause the inhabitants within their dis¬ 
tricts, excluding Indians not taxed, to be enumerated; the 
marshals were empowered to appoint as many assistants as 
the service required; the enumeration was to commence 
August 1, 1790, and was to be completed within nine months 
thereafter; the marshals were to file the returns with the 
clerks of their respective district courts, who were directed 
to receive and carefully preserve the same; the aggregates 
were to be transmitted to the President of the United States 
by September 1,1791; each assistant marshal was required 
to cause a correct schedule of the inhabitants enumerated 
within his division, duly signed, to be set up for inspection 
at two of the most public places within said division; and 
every person above sixteen years of age was required to 
give the census-taker all necessary information in his pos¬ 
session. The law further prescribed the necessary oaths, 
penalties, forms, and compensation. Although all inquiries 
strictly pertained to population, the schedule incorporated 
in the law covered two or three items of information not 
strictly required by the Constitution. The inquiries were 
six in number: 1, Names of the heads of families; 2, free 
white males of sixteen years and upwards, including heads 
of families; 3, free white males under sixteen years; 4, free 
white females, including heads of families; 5, all other free 
persons; 6, slaves. Under this law the first real enumera¬ 
tion of population within the United States was made. 

Just before the census law of 1800 w r as enacted, two 
learned societies memorialized Congress on the subject. 
The American Philosophical Society, Thomas Jefferson its 
president, represented that the decennial census offered an 
occasion of great value for ascertaining sundry facts highly 
important to society, and not otherwise to be obtained. It 
therefore prayed that the next census might be so taken as 
to present a more detailed view of the inhabitants of the 
United States under several different aspects; such as the 
effect of soil and climate on human life; the increase of 
population by birth and emigration; and the conditions 
and vocations of the people. To gain the first of these 
ends, the society suggested that the population should be 
much more minutely analyzed with respect to age. To 
gain the second, it was proposed that a table should be used 
presenting in separate columns the respective numbers of 
native citizens, citizens of foreign birth, and aliens. To reach 
the third end, id was proposed that the number of free male 
inhabitants of all ages engaged in different professions and 
pursuits should be ascertained, such as merchants, agricul¬ 
turists, handicraftsmen, mariners, etc. The other memorial 
came from the Connecticut Academy of Aids and Sciences, 
Timothy Dwight president. It had in contemplation to 
collect the materials for a complete view of the natural his¬ 
tory of man and society in this country. Its suggestions 
were similar to those contained in the former memorial, 
but were less detailed. Both memorials were pi'esen^ed to 
the Senate January 10, 1800, and were referred to the com¬ 
mittee already charged with drafting a census bill. They 
do not seem to have attracted any attention. In the year 
1800 the national legislature was poorly prepared to ap¬ 
preciate the value of such a census as these memorialists 
prayed for; but it is interesting to note the fact that there 
were then thoughtful men in the country, who appreciated 
the importance of statistical investigation, and who saw 
the national Constitution had provided all necessary ma¬ 
chinery to gather its materials. The law of 1800 contained 
some new r features of minor importance. The schedule was 
considerably extended. It registered the name of the 
county, parish, town, etc. where the family resided; the 
name of the head of each family ; free white males under ten 
years of age; free white males of ten and under sixteen; 
iree white males of sixteen and under twenty-six; free 
white males of twenty-six and under forty-five; free white 
males of forty-five and upwards. The last five inquiries 
were duplicated in reference to females. All other persons, 




































CENSUS. 


845 


except Indians not taxed, and slaves, were also enumerated, 
but without distinction of age. 

The general direction of the census was placed in the 
state department, where it remained until the passage of 
the present census law. 

In 1810 the population schedule of 1800 was used with¬ 
out change or modification. The scope of the census was 
enlarged so as to embrace other statistics than those relat¬ 
ing to population. An act approved May 1, 1810, amenda¬ 
tory of the census act approved March 1, 1810—thereby 
showing that the enlargement was an afterthought—re¬ 
quired the marshals and their assistants at the time for 
taking the enumeration to take, under the direction of the 
secretary of the treasury, and according to such instruc¬ 
tions as he should give, an account of the several manu¬ 
facturing establishments within their several districts and 
divisions. The construction of the schedule was left to the 
discretion of the secretary of (he treasury. The one used 
was a mere aggregation of items, and evinced no skill in 
selecting and classifying the inquiries. For this reason, 
as well as the further one that the manufacturers were but 
poorly prepared to co-operate with the census-takers, the 
results obtained were of no great value. 

The census of 1820 presents no new features of marked 
importance. The population schedule discriminated between 
foreigners naturalized and not naturalized, while slaves and 
free colored persons were classified with respect to age. A 
new manufacturers’ schedule was introduced, which was an 
improvement upon that of 1810. It comprehended fewer 
details, but was much more discriminating in inquiries and 
more scientific in arrangement. This part of the work, 
however, was so imperfectly done by the census-takers, 
that the results obtained possessed but little value. 

In the census of 1830 no attempt was made to obtain 
industrial statistics of any sort. The schedule made a 
more minute classification of population than had been 
before attempted. The number of the deaf and dumb and 
the blind in the three great classes of white, free colored, 
and slave population was ascertained as far as practicable 
in conducting a new experiment. 

In 1840 still other statistics of population were collected, 
the number of insane and idiotic people was recorded, the 
number of persons engaged in the great industries, such as 
agriculture, mining, manufactures, and commerce, was as¬ 
certained ; likewise the number of Revolutionary pension¬ 
ers. Several columns were added to the schedule for educa¬ 
tional statistics of universities or colleges, academies, and 
grammar, primary, and common schools; the number of 
scholars in these schools; together with the number of 
white persons over twenty years of age who could not read 
and write. The attempt to obtain statistics of industry 
was renewed, and an extended though badly-arranged list 
of questions was incorporated in the population schedule. 
As there was no penalty for refusing to answer these ques¬ 
tions, in some localities the people refused to answer them, 
on the ground that they were illegal and inquisitorial. A 
leading journal asked: “Is this Federal prying into the 
domestic economy of the people a precursor to direct taxes? 
Is nothing to escape its inquisitors or tax-gatherers ? Is it 
worthy of the dignity and high functions of the Federal 
government to pursue such petty investigations?” (See 
“Compendium of the United States Census,” 1850, p. 12.) 
The industrial statistics obtained, however* were the most 
valuable yet procured. 

There have been two important events in the history 
of the American census: first, the incorporation in the 
national Constitution of the clause requiring a decennial 
enumeration of the people; secondly, the passage of the 
law under which the last three censuses have been taken. 

As the time for taking the seventh census drew near, the 
subject began to attract an unusual degree of attention. A 
census board, consisting of the secretary of state, the at¬ 
torney-general, and the postmaster-general, was created by 
an act approved March 3, 1849. This board was empowered 
to appoint a secretary, and was charged with the duty of 
preparing forms, schedules, etc. for taking the next census, 
but was instructed not to incorporate into the schedules 
more than one hundred questions of all kinds. At the next 
session of Congress the Senate raised a special committee 
on the census, and imposed upon it a similar task. Several 
eminent statisticians were called to Washington for consul¬ 
tation. As the result of this preparatory work a bill was 
finally matured and passed which greatly extended the 
sphere of the census. This act, approved May 23, 1850, is en¬ 
titled “A general act providing for the census of 1850, and 
for every subsequent census.” It created a census office in 
the newly-created department of the interior, and placed the 
taking of the seventh and each succeeding census under 
the charge of an officer known as the superintendent of the 
census. The six schedules incorporated in the law bore the 
following names by number: 1, “ Free inhabitants;” 2, 


“Slave inhabitants;” 3, “Persons who died during the 
year ending June 1;” 4, “ Productions of agriculture;” 5, 
“Products of industry;” 6, “Social statistics.” Two im¬ 
portant new features were incorporated in the first schedule : 
the name, age, sex, and color of each person, together with 
the place of his birth, whether State, Territory, or country, 
were required. 

The third or mortality schedule contained a class of in¬ 
quiries wholly new in the American census, and which led to 
valuable results. The fourth, fifth, and sixth schedules re¬ 
lated to subjects that had received some attention in pre¬ 
vious censuses, but they were now for the first time investi¬ 
gated with much thoroughness. The census of 1850 was a 
great improvement on all its predecessors, and went far to 
place our census in the front rank of national enumera¬ 
tions. 

The census of 1860 was taken, under the superintendence 
of Mr. J. C. G. Kennedy, on the same plan as that of 1850, 
with but few modifications. Its statistics, however, were 
more complete than those of 1850. 

Before the census of 1870 was taken, an attempt was mado 
to procure a new law which should provide new machinery 
and remodel the old schedules. An elaborate bill passed the 
House of Representatives, but failed to receive the sanction 
of the Senate. The census of 1870 was taken under the law 
of 1850, with such modifications as were required by the 
amendments to the Federal Constitution. Some important 
additions to the inquiries Avere also made by the census 
office, under the superintendence of Mr. Francis A. "Walker. 
In consequence of the abolition of slavery the old schedule 
relating to statistics of slaves was dropped. To meet the 
requirements of the fourteenth amendment to the Constitu¬ 
tion, two columns were added to the population schedule— 
the first to obtain the number of male citizens of the United 
States in each Stale of tAventy-one years and upwards; the 
second to obtain the number of such citizens whose right 
to vote is denied or abridged on other grounds than re¬ 
bellion or crime. Many changes were made by the census 
office in the forms of the inquiries, by Avhich they were 
rendered more definite and more easily understood. Be¬ 
sides the inquiries concerning “place of birth,” tAVO columns 
Avere added requiring a statement of the parentage of each 
person. This has enabled us to knoAV the number of our 
people born of foreign parents. An inquiry Avas also added 
concerning the public debt of toAvns, cities, counties, and 
States, the results of Avhich are very interesting. A strik¬ 
ing feature has been added in the publication of results by 
the construction of fourteen finely-cngraA r ed, graphic maps, 
illustrating the various classes of statistics. They repre¬ 
sent the density of the total population ; the distribution 
of the colored and foreign elements of population ; the dis¬ 
persion over the States of natives of the leading European 
countries; the illiteracy and the wealth of each section in 
contrast; the geographical and political divisions of the 
United States at each period from the organization of the 
government to 1870; the range in degree of four leading 
groups of diseases; and the range in degree of five prin¬ 
cipal agricultural products. 

The ninth census was completed in a much shorter space 
of time than any of its predecessors. The actual enumer¬ 
ation of inhabitants began June 1, 1870, and was com¬ 
pleted on the 9th of January, 1871. On the 1st of Novem¬ 
ber, 1872, the superintendent announced the completion of 
his report. It is not tod much to say that the reports of the 
ninth census form one of the noblest contributions Avhich 
any country has ever made to statistical science. 

It clearly appears from this historical revieAV that the 
census of the United States is the result of a uniform and 
steady development. Its germ is found in the national 
Constitution, and its epochs of groAvth are the periods of 
the recurring decennial enumerations. Instead of one 
schedule, comprehending six inquiries, as in 1790, Ave now 
have six schedules, comprehending about one hundred in¬ 
quiries. Tavo other series of facts exhibit this groAvth in a 
manner equally striking—viz., the official publication of 
the results of successive censuses, and the total cost of each 
census. These facts are shown in the folloAving exhibit i 

1790. “ Return of the whole number of persons Avithin 
the several districts of the United States, etc.”—an octavo 
pamphlet of 52 pages, published in 1792. Cost of this cen¬ 
sus, $44,377.18. 

1800. “Return of the whole number of persons Avithin 
the seA r eral districts of the United States, etc.”—a folio of 
78 pages, published in 1801. Cost of second census, 
$66,609.04. 

1S10. The report of this census Avas in tAVo folio volumes: 
I. “Aggregate amount of each description of persons Avith¬ 
in the United States, etc.”—an oblong folio of 90 pages, 
the date of publication not named. II. “ A series of tables 
showing the several branches of American manufactures, 
exhibiting them in every county of the Union, so far as 




u 












846 


they are returned in the reports of the marshals and the 
secretaries of the Territories, and of their respective assist¬ 
ants, in the autumn of 1810 ; together with returns of cer¬ 
tain doubtful goods, productions of the soil, and agricul¬ 
tural stock, so far as they have been received”—170 pp., 
4to. Cost of third census, $178,444.67. 

1820. I. “ Census for 1820, etc.”—a folio of 164 pp., pub¬ 
lished in 1821. II. “ Digest of accounts of manufacturing 
establishments, etc.”—a folio of 100 pp., 1823. Cost of 
fourth census, $208,525.99. 

1830. “Fifth census of enumeration of the inhabitants 
of the United States ”—a folio of 163 pp., 1832. (This re¬ 
port Avas so wretchedly printed that Congress required by 
law a republication, which was made the same year under 
the immediate direction of the secretary of state.) Cost of 
the fifth census, $378,543.13. 

1840. I. “ Compendium of the enumeration of the in¬ 
habitants and statistics of the United States”—a folio of 
378 pp., 1841. II. “Sixth census or enumeration of the 
inhabitants of the United States”—folio, 470 pp., 1841. 
III. “Statistics of the United States, etc.”—folio, 410 pp., 
1841. IV. “ Census of pensioners of Revolutionary and 
military service, with their names, ages, and places of resi¬ 
dence, etc.”—4to, 196 pp. Cost of sixth census, $833,370.95. 

1850. I. “The seventh census of the United States”—• 
quarto of 1022 pp., 1853. II. “Statistical vieAV of the 
United States”—octavo, 400 pp., 1854. III. “Mortality 
statistics of the seventh census, etc.”—octavo, 304 pp., 
1855. IV. “Digest of the statistics of manufactures”— 
octavo, 143 pp., 1859. Cost of seventh census, $1,329,027.53. 

1860. I. “ Preliminary report of the eighth census, 1860 ” 
—octavo, 294 pp., 1862. II. “ Final report:” vol. I. “ Pop¬ 
ulation,” pp. 694, 1864; II. “Agriculture,” pp. 292, 1864; 
III. “Manufactures,” pp. 746, 1865; IV. “Mortality and 
miscellaneous statistics,” pp. 584, 1866. Cost of eighth 
census, $1,922,272.42. 

1870. “ Ninth census of the United States.” Vol. I. “ The 
statistics of the population of the United States, embracing 
the tables of race, nationality, sex, selected ages, and oc¬ 
cupations, to which are added the statistics of school at¬ 
tendance and illiteracy, of schools, libraries, newspapers, 
and periodicals, churches, pauperism and crime, and of 
areas, families, and dwellings”—quarto, pp. 804, 1872; II. 
“The vital statistics of the United States, embracing the 
tables of deaths, births, sex, and age, to which are added 
the statistics of the blind, the deaf and dumb, the insane, 
and the idiotic,” 1872; III. “ The statistics of the Avealth 
and industry of the United States, embracing the tables of 
wealth, taxation, and public indebtedness, agriculture, 
manufactures, mining, and the fisheries, with Avhich are 
reproduced, from the volume on population, the major 
tables of occupations,” 1872; also, “A compendium of the 
ninth census, compiled pursuant to a concurrent resolution 
of Congress.” Cost of the ninth census, $3,336,511.41. 

State Censuses.— In most of the States of the Union a 
census is required at some time Avithin the interval between 
the national censuses, for the purpose of ascertaining the 
basis of representation in their legislatures. In some of 
the States (for example, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and 
New York) the enumerations are made Avith great care, and 
many valuable statistics are obtained in connection Avith 
them. But in most of the States nothing but a simple 
enumeration is attempted, and this is made Avith but little 
accuracy. In all the States, except Connecticut, Georgia, 
and West Virginia, a census is authorized or required by 
their constitutions. The constitution of Indiana, adopted 
in 1851, required a census in 1853, and every six years 
thereafter. The constitution of Pennsylvania requires a 
census to be taken once in seven years, in such manner as 
the legislature may direct. In Kentucky a census Avas re¬ 
quired to be taken in 1857, and every eight years there¬ 
after. In the folloAving States censuses are required once 
in ten years, beginning as follows : Tennessee, 1841; Mich¬ 
igan, 1854; Illinois, New York, Wisconsin, and California, 
1855; Massachusetts, Kansas, Minnesota, and Oregon, 
1865 ; Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, IoAva, Louisiana, Ne¬ 
braska, Nevada, North Carolina, South Carolina, and 
Texas, 1875; and Missouri, 1876. The constitutions of 
Maryland, New Jersey, and Rhode Island permit the tak¬ 
ing of a census once in ten years. The constitution of 
Mississippi requires a census to be taken once in ten years, 
after a day to be fixed by the legislature. The constitution 
of Maine permits a census once in five years, and requires 
it once in ten years. Delaware and New Hampshire have 
no provisions in their constitutions requiring a census. 
The constitution of Ohio permits a State census; for many 
years the legislature has provided for a State statistician, 
who makes annual reports on vital and other statistics. 

The classes enumerated in the several State censuses are 
as follows : In Kentucky and Tennessee, qualified voters ; 
in Pennsylvania, taxable inhabitants; in Michigan, white 


inhabitants and civilized persons of Indian descent not 
belonging to Indian tribes; in Indiana, white male inhab¬ 
itants over twenty-one years of age; in Illinois, Oregon, 
and Texas, Avhite inhabitants; in Maine, the Avliole popula¬ 
tion except foreigners not naturalized, and Indians not 
taxed; in Nebraska and Wisconsin, the whole population 
except Indians not taxed and soldiers and sailors in the 
army and naA r y of the United States; in NeAV York, the 
Avhole population except aliens and colored persons not 
taxed. In all the other States AA r here a census is required 
the Avhole population is taken. 

Besides the Avorks already referred to, the following may 
be consulted on the general subject: Sinclair (Sir John), 
“ Analysis of the Statistical Account of Scotland,” 8vo, 
Edinburgh, 1825; Macaulay’s “History of England,” 
vol. i., chap. iii.; McClintock and Strong, “Encyclopedia 
of Biblical, Ecclesiastical, and Theological Literature;” 
Smith, “Dictionary of the Bible,” 3 vols. 8vo, London, 
1860-63; Smith, “Dictionary of Greek and Roman An¬ 
tiquities,” 8vo, London, 1842; Babbage, “Ninth Bridge- 
water Treatise,” 8vo, London, 1837; “Journal of the Sta¬ 
tistical Society of London,” vols. i. to xxxiv., 8vo, London, 
1839; Hume, “Essay on the Populousness of Ancient Na¬ 
tions,” Philosophical Works, vol. iii., Boston edition, 1854; 
Captain John Graunt (Sir William Pettit), “Natural and 
Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality,” 5th 
edition, 16mo, London, 1676; “Annuaire de l’Economie 
Politique et de la Statistique,” l e -28 e annee, Paris, 1844-72 ; 
“Journal des Economistes,” l e -28 e annee, Paris, 1841-69; 
“ Report of the Proceedings of the International Statistical 
Congress, Fourth Session, at London, 1860,” quarto, Lon¬ 
don, 1861; “British Almanac for the year 1872,” 12mo, 
London, 1873; Ad. Quetelet, “Statistique Internation¬ 
ale” (Population), 4°, Bruxelles, 1865; Ad. Quetelet, 
“ Physique Soeiale, ou Essai sur le Developpement des 
Facultes de L’Homme,” Bruxelles, 1869, 2 vols., 8vo. 

General James A. Garfield, 

B. A. Hinsdale, 

President of Hiram College, Ohio. 

Cent [Lat. centum, a “hundred”], a coin of the U. S. 
worth the one-hundredth part of a dollar, or nearly one 
halfpenny sterling. It is noAV coined of an alloy of copper, 
tin, and zinc, and is legal tender for the payment of sums 
not exceeding twenty-five cents. The Dutch cent is the 
one-hundredth of a guilder, and is worth about one-third 
of the American cent. 

Centamre'a [Lat.], a genus of herbs of the order Com¬ 
posite, several species of which are naturalized from Eu¬ 
rope in the U. S. It includes the blue bottle ( Ccntaurca 
Cyanis ), common in corn-fields, of which the floAvers yield 
a fine blue dye; the SAveet sultan ( Centaurea moschata), a 
fragrant garden-floAver; the knapAveed (Centaurea Jacea), 
sometimes culti\*ated for the fine yelloAV color it affords the 
dyer. 

Cen'taurs [Gr. KevTavpoi; Lat. Centauri ], fabulous 
animals which the ancient Greek poets imagined to be 
half men and half horses, the head and anterior part being 
human. They Avere supposed to be the offspring of Ixion 
and a cloud, and to have lived in Thessaly. The battle 
of the Centaurs Avith the Lapithte was celebrated in Greek 
mythology, and Avas a favorite subject of the ancient 
Greek artists. 

Centaii'rus (the “Centaur”), a constellation of the 
southern hemisphere, contains two stars of the first magni¬ 
tude, designated respectively as a Centauri and /3 Centauri. 

Cen'taiiry, a popular name of several Old World herbs 
of the genus Erythrsea and order Gentianaceae; and also 
of the Sabhatia angularis, their American representative, 
all valuable bitter tonics, used in dyspepsia and intermit¬ 
tent feA T ers. The Erythrsea Chilensis of Chili has similar 
uses. Tho Erythrsea acaulis of Barbary is extensively 
used for dyeing yellow. 

Centeil'llial [Lat. centennis, from centum, “ a hundred,” 
and annus, “ a year ”], occurring once in a hundred years, 
or completing the period of a hundred years. The term is 
used chiefly to denote tho anniversary of an event which 
is celebrated one hundred years after it occurred, and at 
the end of each subsequent period of one hundred years. 

Centennial Exhibition. The Congress of tho U. S., 
by tAvo acts, approved Mar. 3, 1871, and June I, 1872, 
provided for the celebration in the year 1876 of the one- 
hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of American 
Independence by an “ international and universal exhibi¬ 
tion,” designed to be of the most cosmopolitan character. 
It is intended that the exhibition shall be held in Fair- 
mount Park in the city of Philadelphia. The first of tho 
above-mentioned acts of Congress provides for the appoint¬ 
ment (by the President) of the “ U. S. Centennial Commis- 


CENT—CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. 


t 















CENTER—CENTRAL PARK. 


sion,” consisting of two commissioners from each State 
and Territory. The second act incorporates the Centen¬ 
nial Board of Finance, and provides for the issue of stock 
to the amount of ten millions of dollars, in one million 
shares of ten dollars each. It also has been proposed to 
distribute the stock among the people of the different 
States and Lerritories in the ratio of their population, but 
subscriptions are received without regard to the amount 
allotted to each State. The stockholders organized a board 
of directors on April 1, 1873. 

The stimulus given to industrial pursuits by the great 
exhibitions already held in London, Paris, etc. has been 
very remarkable; and it is believed this undertaking, even 
as a business investment, will be profitable to the country. 
It is designed to make it a “comprehensive display of the 
industrial, intellectual, and moral progress of the nation 
during the first century of its existence.” 

Center. See Centre. 

Ceil tering, the framework upon which an arch or 
vault of stone, brick, or iron is supported during its con¬ 
struction. The simplest form of centering is that used by 
masons and bricklayers for the arches of common windows 
and doors. This is merely a board of the required shape, 
upon the curved edge of which the bricks or stones of the 
arch are supported until they are keyed in. In building 
bridges or other structures where arches of great span are 
to be constructed, the centering is usually made of framed 
timbers or timbers and iron combined. 

Centerville. See Centreville. 

Cen'tigrade [from the Lat. centum, a “ hundred,” and 
gradus, a “ step,” “ degree ”] Thermometer, the name of 
a thermometer having its scale between the freezing and the 
boiling-point of water divided into one hundred equal parts, 
or degrees, the freezing-point being taken as zero, and the 
boiling-point as 100°. This scale was invented about the 
year 1741 by Prof. Anders Celsius of Upsala in Sweden, and 
hence it is often called Celsius’s thermometer. Its use was 
for many years mostly limited to Sweden and Russia, but 
it is now the scale generally used in France; and its excel¬ 
lencies so commend it that it will probably come into almost 
universal use. In Germany it is rapidly superseding the 
scale of Reaumur, while in England, Holland, and the U. S., 
where Fahrenheit’s scale is more generally known, the cen¬ 
tigrade is used in chemical and other scientific operations, 
and thermometers are often marked with both scales, one 
on each side of the mercurial column. The advantages of 
the centigrade scale are that its zero and its hundredth de¬ 
gree are natural, and not arbitrary, and, above all, that its 
divisions are in harmony with the decimal system of meas¬ 
urement. The objection to the centigrade, that its degree 
is too large, is obviated by dividing the degree into deci¬ 
mals, which are marked on the scale, thus greatly increas¬ 
ing its precision. One degree centigrade is equal to 1.8 
Fahrenheit, or, conversely, one degree Fahrenheit nearly 
equals .55 of a degree centigrade; but there are some prac¬ 
tical difficulties in reducing temperatures from one to the 
other, which will be noticed under the article Thermometer 
(which see, by Prof. W. Gibbs, M. D., LL.D.). 

Cen'tipetle [Lat. centum, a “hundred,” and pedes, 
“feet”], a popular name for various insects of the order 
Myriapoda, but properly given to those of the sub-order 
Chilopoda, and especially to the family Scolopendridm. 
They have long slender bodies, and twenty-one to twenty- 
three pairs of feet. Some tropical species are nearly a foot 
long. The bite of many species is poisonous, and even dan¬ 
gerous. Scolo 2 )endra heros is the largest U. S. species, and 
is found in the South. 

Cen'to [from the Lat. cento, “patchwork”], a name 
applied to literary trivialities in the form of poems manu¬ 
factured by putting together distinct verses or passages of 
one author, or of several authors, so as to make a new 
meaning. The cento was a favorite recreation in the Mid¬ 
dle Ages. 

Cen'tral, a township of Franklin co., Mo. Pop. 2271. 

Central, a township of Jefferson co., Mo. Pop. 1789. 

Central, a post-township of St. Louis co., Mo. P. 8923. 

Central, a township of Humboldt co., Nev. Pop. 23. 

Central, a township of Essex co., Va. Pop. 3449. 

Central, a township of Rockingham co., Va. P. 2882. 

Central, a township of Doddridge co., W. Va. P. 833. 

Central America. See America, revised by Prof. 
J. S. Newberry, M. D., LL.D. 

Central Bridge, a post-village of Schoharie township, 
Schoharie co., N. Y., at the junction of the Schoharie Valley 
and the Albany and Susquehanna R. Rs., 36 miles W. of 
Albany. 

Cen'tral City, the capital of Gilpin co., Col., is situ¬ 


847 


ated among the Rocky Mountains, 40 miles W. by N. from 
Denver, on the Colorado Central R. R. It derives its pros¬ 
perity from its gold-mines, which produced $1,650,000 in 
1870. It has many fine stone and brick buildings, several 
quartz-mills, a national bank, six churches, and a fine 
school building. Two daily and weekly papers are issued 
here. Pop. 2360. 

Central City, a post-township of Marion co., Ill. Pop. 

833. 

Central Falls, a post-village of Lincoln township, 
Providence co., R. I. It is situated on the Blackstone 
River, about 6 miles N. of Providence, and has one weekly 
newspaper and extensive manufactures. 

Central Forces, in mechanics, are those which radiate 
from a point or centre. A body impelled by a constantly act¬ 
ing force towards a fixed centre will move up to that point 
with a constantly increasing velocity ; but if it have an in¬ 
itial motion in a direction towards some point other than 
the centre, the constantly acting central force will deflect it 
from its original path, but will not draw it to the centre of 
force. The resultant path will be a curve. The straight 
line from the moving body to its centre of force is called a 
“ radius vector,” and it is found, mathematically, that radii 
vectores of a body moving in a curve under the influence 
of a central force will pass over equal areas in equal times, 
whatever the rate of motion. We further find that the 
velocity of such a body is at all times inversely proportional 
to the perpendicular from the fixed point on the tangent 
to the curve at the point considered. Therefore, if the 
motion be uniform, the path of motion is a circle. If the 
path be an ellipse, and the centre of force be the centre of 
the curve, the central force is directly proportional to the 
distance; but if the centre of force be at a focus of the 
ellipse (or of a hyperbolic or parabolic path), the force acts 
with an energy inversely proportional to the square of the 
distance. 

The laws of central forces are abundantly verified by the 
observed motions of the planets; and the same laws show 
that unless some disturbing force interfere the planets can 
never be drawn into the sun by gravitation. 

Centra'lia, a city of Marion co., Ill., at the junction of 
the main line and the Chicago division of the Illinois Cen¬ 
tral R. R., 253 miles S. of Chicago. It has a national bank, 
two newspapers, machine-shops of the Illinois Central R. R. 
Company, a coal-mine, an iron-foundry, and various other 
manufactories. There are in Centralia several parks, a 
public library, six churches, a high school, and graded 
schools. The Southern Illinois fair-grounds are situated 
in the city. Pop. 3190; of township, 3579. 

Fletcher & Willcox, Pubs. “Sentinel.” 

Centralia, a post-village of Nemaha co., Kan., on the 
Central branch of the Union Pacific R. R., 62 miles W. of 
Atchison. It is one of the most thriving towns in that re¬ 
gion. 

Centralia, a post-village of Boone co., Mo. It has 
one weekly newspaper. 

Centralia, a post-borough of Columbia co., Pa., on the 
railroad which connects Mauch Chunk with Mount Carmel, 
12 miles W. of Mahanoy City. Pop. 1342. 

Centralia, a post-township of Wood co., Wis. P. 893. 

Cen'tral In'stitute, a township of Elmore co., Ala. 
Pop. 907. 

Central Park. The Central Park, the most important 
public work undertaken by New York City, next to the 
Croton Aqueduct, was the first place deliberately provided 
for the inhabitants of any city or town in the U. S. for ex¬ 
clusive use as a pleasure-ground, for rest and exercise in 
the open air. The well-known Boston Common, it is true, 
dates back to 1634, and by a clause in the city charter it is 
made public property for ever, and cannot be sold or ex¬ 
changed. Its original purpose, however, was not as a 
place for exercise and recreation, but for a “common,” such 
as the earlier settlers had known in the villages of the 
mother-country, and such as still exist there—places on 
which the owners of cattle, horses, sheep, and geese pas¬ 
ture them in common; and it is only since Boston and 
other New England towns, such as Salem and Lynn, have 
increased so greatly in size, that these tracts—all compara¬ 
tively small; the Common in Boston is only 48 acres—have 
been appropriated to their present use. 

New York, we believe, never had a common, but the city 
remained for so many years confined to the lower part of the 
long and narrow island on which it is built that there was no 
need felt for any ground being set apart, either for the pastur¬ 
ing of cattle or for the recreation of the inhabitants. The 
Battery supplied, for many years, a most charming prome¬ 
nade, many of the streets long retained a semi-rural oi \ il- 
lage character, and the immediate suburbs of thecity, which, 
within the easy memory of men now living, began as low 














CENTRAL PARK. 


848 


down as Canal street, were as pleasant places for strolling, 
on foot or in the homely vehicles of the time, as could be 
desired. The very name of the Bowery tells us what was 
the look of the old country-road with its overarching trees; 
it is not long since an old pear tree stood to mark where 
once the old Stuyvesant farm sunned its broad acres, that 
now show ranks of houses where once waved ranks of corn ; 
and not a few of the hugest of New York fortunes are the 
result of the rise in the value of land once cultivated as 
market-gardens by the fathers of its present aristocratic 
owners. 

It was not till more than two hundred years had elapsed 
since the founding of the city that the inhabitants of New 
York began to feel the need of some place specially devoted 
to open-air enjoyment. The late A. J. Downing was the 
first to propose the establishment of a great public park, 
and the articles he wrote in 1850 on the subject in the 
“ Horticulturist,” a journal devoted to rural affairs he was 
at that time editing, gave eloquent expression to the public 
feeling, and soon bore practical fruit. In 1851, Mr. A. C. 
Kingsland, then mayor of New York, in a message to the 
common council, strongly recommended the establishment 
of a public park within the limits of the city, and it was 
at once referred to the committee on land and places. This 
committee reported in favor of adopting the mayor’s rec¬ 
ommendation, but the report gave rise to an unfortunate 
controversy that postponed for two years the undertaking 
of the so-much needed improvement. When it was first 
determined in the popular mind that New York must have 
a public park, two rival schemes presented themselves for 
consideration. One of these was the Jones’s Wood scheme, 
the other the Central Park scheme, and the advocates of 
each measure mustered such good argument and such pow¬ 
erful influence that the legislature itself was puzzled for a 
time, and after having on the 21st of July, 1853, passed an 
act authorizing the city to take possession of the land now 
known as the Central Park, it actually on the same day 
passed another act authorizing the city to take possession 
of Jones’s Wood! But the opinion of the public was too 
plainly in favor of the central site, and the next year 
(April 11, 1854) the act relative to Jones’s Wood was re¬ 
pealed, and no further attempt was made to revive it. The 
site known as Jones’s Wood had very little to recommend 
it, and it had two serious defects—its insufficient size and 
its position at one side of the city. Its recommendations 
were, the undulating character of its surface, the fact that 
it was already covered with a good growth of forest trees, 
and, above all, that it lay along the East River, always an 
animated scene with its steamboats, shipping, the islands, 
and the neighboring shore. Unfortunately, one of these 
islands, Blackwell’s, extended along the whole water-front 
of the proposed park, which was bounded on the N. and S. 
by Seventy-fifth and Sixty-sixth streets, and on the W. by 
the Third avenue; and an island inhabited by convicts 
would not have been an edifying prospect. There is little 
to be gained by thinking of what might have been, but the 
Jones’s Wood scheme might have had a better chance if, 
instead of limiting itself to the narrow area of 150 acres 
included between the above-named streets and the East 
River, it had boldly proposed to take possession of Black¬ 
well’s Island, and even to pass over to the shore of Long 
Island itself by means of (eventually) several bridges. 
Engineering difficulties we do not pretend to have thought 
about may have stood in the way of such a project; but, 
apart from any such lions in the way, the plan itself had 
many obvious advantages. It would have given us much 
more variety than we have at present, together with a 
water-view, always a delightful addition to a public pleas¬ 
ure-ground, and as much land, with as irregular an outline, 
as was needed. For in truth it would appear that the only 
recommendations the Central Park site had to offer were 
just its more central position and its greater size. And it is 
not to be denied that these were very considerable advan¬ 
tages, and that, on the whole, no better solution of the 
problem than this offered could have been found within 
the limits of the island. If the project for a park had 
been mooted either earlier or later, we might have avoided 
what we think will generally be admitted a serious draw¬ 
back to the beauty of the park—the presence of the two 
huge reservoirs, which no ingenuity could make agree with 
any design in landscape gardening. Earlier, we might have 
secured our park below the small reservoir at Fortieth street; 
later, we might have had it upon the Harlem River. In 
either case it would not have been necessary to lose 150 
acres out of a little more than 800, as we do in the Central 
Park to-day. 

As we have said, the popular preference for the larger 
and more generally accessible site was plainly expressed, 
and great gratification was manifested when the legislature 
had settled the matter in such a way that a beginning 
might reasonably be looked forward to in carrying out the 


long-wished-for scheme. On the 17th of Nov., 1853, five 
commissioners were appointed by the supreme court, 
through Judge William Mitchell, to take the land for the 
Central Park. These commissioners were William Kent, 
Michael Ulshoeffer, Luther Bradish, Warren Brady, and 
Jeremiah Towle. All these gentlemen were well known in 
the community, and a general confidence was felt that their 
difficult task would be performed with fairness and judg¬ 
ment. Nor did this confidence prove to be ill-grounded. 
The commissioners employed nearly three years in the work 
of estimating and assessing, sending in their report on the 
4th of Oct., 1856, and, as Judge Harris remarked in con¬ 
firming their report, it is an evidence of the success with 
which they accomplished their intricate task that but about 
one in forty of the owners of the lots taken for the park 
appeared before him to object to the award of the commis¬ 
sioners. The supreme court confirmed the report of the 
commissioners, and in Feb., 1856, the common council 
passed an ordinance for the payment of $5,160,369.60, of 
which $1,657,590 were to be paid by the owners of lands 
adjacent to the park, in view of the benefit they would re¬ 
ceive from their neighborhood to it. 

As the legislature had done nothing during its winter 
session towards arranging a government for the park, the 
city authorities took the matter into their own hands, and 
on the 19th of May, 1856, the board of aldermen adopted 
an ordinance appointing the mayor and the street commis¬ 
sioner commissioners with full authority to govern the 
park, to determine upon a plan for its improvement, and 
to appoint such persons as they might see fit to carry out 
their intentions. At that time Mr. Fernando Wood was 
mayor and Mr. Joseph S. Taylor street commissioner, and 
they sought the best advice they could obtain from gentle¬ 
men who held public and social positions—such as, taken 
with their reputation for taste and judgment, necessarily 
gave their opinions weight. These gentlemen, Washing¬ 
ton Irving, George Bancroft, James E. Cooley, Charles F. 
Briggs, James Phalon, Charles A. Dana, and Stewart 
Brown, were invited to attend the meetings of the commis¬ 
sioners, and to form a board of consultation for the pur¬ 
pose of discussing what course had best be pursued in order 
to secure a suitable design for laying out the park. The 
first of these meetings was held on the 29th of May, 1856. 
Mr. Irving was made president of the board, and the pre¬ 
liminaries were settled for carrying out the objects of the 
commission. Many plans were presented at subsequent 
meetings for the improvement of the park, but nothing 
suitable, and matters dragged until a plan was presented 
by Mr. Egbert L. Viele, a gentleman who had been ap¬ 
pointed engineer of the park. This plan was strongly rec¬ 
ommended by Mayor Wood, and was adopted, but for¬ 
tunately nothing further was done towards carrying it out. 
No money was appropriated for the use of the commission, 
and the body accomplished nothing whatever of benefit to 
the public. It was soon found that unless either the legis¬ 
lature or the city authorities took more active measures for 
securing a plan for laying out the park, the enterprise must 
fall through ; and accordingly, on the 17th of April, 1857, the 
legislature appointed a new commission, consisting of eleven 
members, who were to hold office for five years, and who 
were empowered to spend a sum of money the interest on 
which was not to exceed $30,000. To raise this money the 
common council of the city issued stock having thirty 
years to run. This stock was highly popular, and was 
immediately taken up by the public. 

The new commission went vigorously to work, and after 
discarding Mr. Yiele’s crude and insufficient plan, adver¬ 
tised for new plans to be sent in in competition. On the 
1st of April, 1858, the latest day on which plans were to 
be sent in, thirty-three had been received. These were 
placed upon public exhibition, and up to the 21st of April 
the board held frequent meetings in the room in which the 
plans were hung, in order to make easier a careful exam¬ 
ination and full discussion of the merits of the designs. 
On the 21st of April the plan No. 33, bearing the motto 
“ Greensward,” was declared on the first ballot, by the 
votes of seven out of the eleven members, to be entitled to 
the first prize of $2000. 

The authors of “ Greensward,” the successful plan, 
proved to be Mr. Frederick Law Olmsted and Mr. Calvert 
Vaux; both well known and highly esteemed by a large 
and cultivated circle in this community. Mr. Olmsted, 
young as he was, had already a national reputation. He 
had long been a successful practical farmer, and while still 
engaged in that pursuit had published a remarkable little 
book, the record of a vacation ramble, called “ Walks and 
Talks ot an American Farmer in England.” He became 
more widely known by a series of letters written from the 
Southern States to the New York “ Times” newspaper, un¬ 
der the signature of “Yeoman,” and afterwards repub¬ 
lished in book-form with the title “ The Seaboard Slave 










CENTRAL PARK. 


849 


States.” This book contained the first trustworthy account 
ot the condition of society in the South, especially in the 
regions remote from the great cities, that had, up to that 
time, been published at the North. To write such a book 
as this last required energy and courage in no small meas¬ 
ure : to these qualities were added a love of natural scenery 
and the power to trace the secret of the combinations to 
which a landscape owes its charms, a singular faculty for 
observation, and, as was afterwards shown in the manage¬ 
ment of the Central Park, an ability altogether exceptional 
for administration. 

Mr. Calvert Yaux is an Englishman by birth and train- 
ing, who came to this country and adopted it for his per¬ 
manent home in 1852. He was the partner in business of 
the late A. J. Downing, and after Mr. Downing’s death in 
1853 he succeeded to his large and profitable clientage. At 
the time of the acceptance of his and Mr. Olmsted’s de¬ 
sign for the park he was successfully established as an 
architect, and had published a valuable and popular book 
on domestic architecture. 



54 



Fig. 1. Map of Central Park. 


Here, then, were two men thoroughly fitted for the work 
that was put into their hands, and that work one the im¬ 
portance of which can hardly be estimated, not merely to 
the city which owns it, but to the whole country. It was 
our first great public park ; it has already proved the parent 
of others, two of them, at least, of far greater importance 
than their original, and in the end no doubt every city on 
the continent of any considerable size will have a public 
park. What a piece of good fortune, then, that the Cen¬ 
tral Park, from which they all date, should have been, 
from the first, the fruit of a pure and manly taste, of sound 
sense, and of practical knowledge ! It has been a first-rate 
example, according to its opportunities, and no matter how 
much it may be improved upon by other communities with 
ampler space and a more varied and picturesque conforma¬ 
tion of ground to begin upon than fell to us, the Central 
Park will always be looked upon with a sort of affectionate 
pride, as having been the first to point out the way and to 
show us the possibility of walking in it. 

The Central Park is two and a half miles long and half 
a mile wide. It extends from Fifty-ninth street on the S. 
to One-hundrcd-and-tenth street on the N., and is bounded 
on the E. and W. by the Fifth and Eighth avenues. It is 
thus a perfect parallelogram, but it is virtually divided 
into two unequal parts, between which are the two great 
reservoirs of Croton water—one a quadrangular basin of 
masonry, the other much larger, with an irregular outline, 
and confined in an embankment of earth lined with stone. 
The two basins cover in all nearly 150 acres. The smaller 
of the two is nearly a third of the short diameter of the 
park in width, while the larger nearly touches the eastern 
and western boundaries of the park, and extends N. and S. 
from Eighty-fifth street nearly to Ninety-eighth street. 
The original park enclosure contains 776 acres, to which 
have been added 68 acres at one time, and, more recently, 
Manhattan Square, so that it now contains 862 acres. It 
follows that nearly one-sixth of the ground covered by the 
Central Park is occupied by these unsightly embankments, 
which obstruct the view and offer nothing in return, since 
the water they contain cannot be seen except by mounting 
to a level with their summits. If the park were large 
enough, there could be no objection to such a division as 
wo now have into Upper and Lower Parks, particularly it 
it were made by a sheet of water or by any picturesque 
feature—a ravine, for instance. But, as it is, thcro is no 
compensation for the loss of the ground, and moreover the 
communication between the two divisions is narrowed, 
especially by the larger reservoir, to such a point that all 
dignity is quite lost. 

































































































































































































850 


CENTRAL PARK. 


The two divisions of the park which we have called 
“the Upper” and “the Lower” are not only separated 
artificially from one another by the two reservoirs; they 
are really quite diverse in character. The Upper Park is 
distinguished by the freer sweep and greater variety of its 
horizon lines, by the fine views that it commands of the 
surrounding country, and by the greater play of the sur¬ 
face, making it easy for the landscape-gardener to produce 
his legitimate effects with grass and trees, rocks and water, 
and not obliging him to make up for want of interest in 
the natural features of the place by a resort to architec¬ 
ture. Up to the present time the Upper Park must have 
called for a much smaller expenditure of time and money 
than has been found necessary in the lower portion, since 
that is almost entirely artificial. The park lies along the 
eastern slope of a long ridge of rock which crops out ot 
the ground somewhere about Thirtieth street, and extends 
thence to Manhattanville. This ledge is not continuous, 
but is broken by several transverse ridges with answering 
depressions, which indicate, we suppose, the points where 
the ends of the inclined strata would be found as they lie 
overlapping one another. There are four of these irregular 


ridges, the chief of them crossing the park diagonally, 
and the greatest elevation will be found in the central, 
westerly, and north-westerly portions. In the Lower Park 
were two swampy valleys lying between three ot these 
ridges, and into these has been collected all the surface- 
drainage, with the happy result of producing two sheets 
of water—one, the smaller, a picturesque pond with steep 
rocky banks intermingled with patches of grass and shrub¬ 
bery ; the other a sheet of water nearly twenty acres in 
extent, the view across which from the most favorable 
point is of considerable breadth, and entirely unbroken 
for at least a quarter of a mile. The ridge that divides 
these two valleys has been treated with great skill. One 
large boggy tract has been filled in to an average depth 
of two feet, all the rocks that stuck out of the ground have 
been removed by blasting, and some large adjoining ledges 
reduced in the same way, and the depressions filled up; so 
that there have been secured thirty acres of level, or but 
slightly undulating, ground. East of this fine green ex¬ 
tends another level space eighty rods in length and twelve 
in width, separated from the first by a carriage-drive. 
This tract is occupied by a broad w T alk, with two row r s of 



Fig. 2. Mall and Ward’s Shakspeare, 


American elms on each side, called “ The Mall,” which 
leads directly to the Terrace, the chief attraction to most 
persons in this portion of the park, and which we shall 
presently describe. 

These are the main features of the landscape of the 
southern part of the Central Park—the “ Lower Park,” as 
it is conveniently called—but the designers have known 
how to introduce great variety in the treatment, and they 
have been so successful that this portion of the grounds 
must long be the favorite with the general public over the 
less finished and more natural upper half. 

To the Lower Park there are nine entrances. Four of 
these are on the southern side, answering to the four ave¬ 
nues that touch the park there—viz. the Fifth, the Sixth, 
the Seventh, and the Eighth. Of these the Sixth and 
Seventh stop at the park, while the Fifth and Eighth con¬ 
tinue along its eastern and western sides respectively. Of 
the five other entrances, three are on the Fifth avenue at 
Sixty-fourth, Seventy-second, and Seventy-ninth streets— 
although that at Sixty-fourth street is rather an entrance 
to the Museum than to the park proper—and two are on 
the Eighth avenue, at Seventy-second and Seventy-ninth 
streets, opposite, as will be noticed, two of the gates on the 
Fifth avenue. These entrances are at present merely open¬ 
ings in the boundary-wall, and as the erection of formal 
gateways is a very unimportant feature, so far as the decora¬ 
tion of the park is concerned, and practically is a matter 
of very little importance, it is to be hoped that it may bo 
put off for some considerable time longer, until the growth 
of public culture shall make good taste in the design more 
certain than probably could be hoped for now. M hoever 
is in the habit of using the park, not merely as a place of 
recreation, but as an episode in his daily walk to his place 


of business, or as an introduction to the long ride thither 
in the cars or omnibus, or whoever, having no such in¬ 
timate acquaintance with it, has examined a plan of it, 
must have remarked with how much skill the walks are 
arranged to unite the different entrances and to lead to 
places of interest. There is no twisting and winding of 
the paths and drives merely for the sake of irregularity. 
Every path and drive has a well-defined purpose : it unites 
two points or leads to some thing it is supposed will in¬ 
terest the visitor. In general, it may be stated that, as far 
as possible, the walks and drives lead in, for it is plainly 
to be desired that the attention of those who come to the 
park should not be drawn to the boundaries any more than 
can be avoided. The park is so narrow in proportion to its 
length that no skill will avail to hide the defect altogether; 
for though the planting-out of the walls is merely a ques¬ 
tion of time, the houses could never be planted-out. People 
who build on the Fifth and Eighth avenues are determined 
that their houses shall command the park from their win¬ 
dows, and, lest the tree? should shut out their view, they 
build their houses so high as to make that danger impos¬ 
sible, and with a superfluous caution set turrets on their 
roofs. It is a misfortune, but it is now too late to avoid 
it, that in time the park will be shut in by a nearly solid 
wall of city houses. This was easy to foresee, and it was 
so manifest an objection to the site that “it ought to have 
been taken into serious consideration. However, the men 
who designed the park were of a practical turn, and crying 
after spilt milk was not in their books; they made the best 
they could of what they had. They drew the walks and 
drives as much as possible towards the long axis of the 
park, and kept the striking points of interest mainly on 
I the same line. Yet they so contrived it that there should 











































































CENTRAL PARK. 


851 


be also a circuit-drive for the pleasure of those who should 
come to the park rather for exercise than for sight-seeing, 
and who would naturally prefer as long a stretch as possible. 

Along this central line of the Lower Park, then, are found 
the Children’s Shelter, an immense tent of rustic wood¬ 
work, handsome, solid, well-contrived, with abundance of 


seats and benches and capacious fixed tables for the ac¬ 
commodation of children and their nurses; the Swings, 
and, near both these, the Dairy, where a good plain lunch 
may always be had, with excellent milk; then, passing 
under the Marble Archway, we reach the Mall with the 
statues of Shakspeare and “The Indian Hunter” by Ward 


Fig. 3, Lake from Circle. 


—statues of which any park in the world might be justly 
proud; farther on, the Casino, a restaurant close by the 
Carriage-concourse, where horses and carriages wait while 
their owners walk about, or take refreshments as they listen 
to the music in the pretty Pavilion sitting under the Vine- 
trellis, which is rather affectedly called in the latest report 
“ the Pergola”—an Italian name for the thing. We notice 
a slight tendency on the part of the commissioners to give 
fine names to common things. For our part, we should 


like to get rid of such names as Casino, Carrousel, Per¬ 
gola, Concourse, Esplanade, Plaza, Belvedere, and to have 
in their places plain English titles. Perhaps “Casino” 
and “Esplanade” are naturalized, or at least well enough 
understood to be allowed, but for the rest we are sure it 
would be better to take more homely names. Finally, we 
have, near the centre of the park, the Terrace, thus far, the 
only instance in our country of that treatment of a bluff or 
of a hillside sloping to a level ground which is so common 


Fig. 4. Terrace. 


in Europe, and which, as an opportunity, has been made 
so much of by foreign landscape-gardeners. When well 
treated it is very effective and very popular. Everybody 
likes “a view” (and many a mistako in house-building 
and in house-buying has been made under the impression 
that if a thing is desirable now and then, it is desirable 


always) ; and one that is obtained, not by climbing, but by 
walking to the edge of a terrace or out upon a balcony, 
owes some of the pleasure that it gives to its unexpected¬ 
ness. The Terrace at the park is small and insignificant, 
of course, compared with those at St. Germain, at Meudon, 
or at Perugia; but few modern public parks have so line a 











































































852 


CENTRAL PARK. 


one. It looks out upon the Lake, a handsome irregular 
piece of water always alive with boats, .and across it to the 
Ramble. It consists of two flights of ample steps of light- 
colored freestone, with noble ramps, elaborately sculptured 
with arabesques of birds and flowers, and with rails equally 
handsome terminating in stone pedestal-posts, which will 
at some distant day be the support of statues. All the 
railings that enclose the Terrace are similar in design to 
the stair-rails, though the carving in no two of the panels is 
alike; and wherever the design calls for them the pedestal- 
posts are repeated, so that, if ever they are all crowned 
with statues, the effect ought to be singularly imposing. 
The only obstacle to one’s complete enjoyment of the Ter¬ 
race ax a terrace is the fact that it is crossed l*y a carriage- 
drive ; but it is only on very crowded days that this can 
make it dangerous or troublesome to pass directly from the 
Mall to the platform that overlooks the Lake. The lower 
level is reached either by passing underneath the carriage- 
drive through a well-lighted and prettily decorated hall, or 
by crossing the drive and descending the steps above al¬ 



kie. 5. Terrace Detail. 


luded to. People take one or the other as convenience or 
inclination prompts, but here, as everywhere in the park, it 
has been made impossible for accidents to occur to pedes¬ 
trians unless by their own fault. The carriage-drives, 
horseback-drives, and walks are kept distinct through¬ 
out, and at convenient points, wherever it has been found 
necessary, the walks are carried over or under the drive. 
There is no part of the park where a child or an old person 
or an invalid cannot move about in safety by simply keep¬ 
ing to the walks; and there are several points in the park 
where areas of considerable extent have been arranged 
with a particular view to the complete security of all per¬ 
sons, whether young or old, who come to amuse themselves 
with playing or strolling about, unconfined by formal 
pathways. Such are “the Ball-ground,” “the Green,” 
“the Children’s Quarter” near the “Dairy,” and the 
“Ramble.” The “Mall,” too, and the “Esplanade” are 
capital places for children and nurses; they may spend tho 
whole day hero without interruption, and refreshments 
may be had close at hand in tho Casino. 


These are the principal points to be noted in the Lower 
Park, with the exception of the Ramble, which, to many 
people, is, and must always be, one of the pleasantest 
features of the place. It is a rocky hill that rises from the 
northern side of the Lake, and w'hich the art of the land¬ 
scape-gardener has transformed from barrenness into rural 
beauty. Pretty walks run in every direction, with good 
seats conveniently placed; and what with abundant shrub¬ 
bery, charmingly varied in character, and allowed to grow 
as freely as it will, a plenty of the commonest wild flowers, 
and a running stream where ducks of the finer breeds and 
a crane or two to pique curiosity have their quarters, there 
are not many places near the city where so much of the 
charm of wildness may be enjoyed as in these few acres. 
Our wild birds of this region build and breed freely here, 
and before “the Ring” entered on their brief but dis¬ 
astrous rule quail were abundant. But these men, who 
were as ignorant in all practical matters connected with 
the proper management of the park grounds as they were 
in matters of taste, cut away a great deal of the under¬ 
brush, much of which had been 
carefully planted, and all of it 
encouraged to grow. Many 
of the trees, too, that feathered 
naturally to the ground, and 
whose growth no one, with 
any knowledge of what con¬ 
stitutes beauty in a tree, would 
think for a moment of inter¬ 
fering with, have been depriv¬ 
ed of their lower branches. 
Trees such as the ash, the elm, 
the lime, and the beech, with 
almost all the Coniferae—firs, 
pines, spruces, and hemlocks— 
have this beautiful habit of 
feathering to the ground ; and 
perhaps there is no surer test 
of the mere cit than the liking 
he has for trimming up the 
lower limbs, thus depriving 
the tree not only of a chief 
beauty, but of a feature essen¬ 
tial to its well-being, for, as is 
often seen, a tree, especially 
if it be an evergreen called 
upon to support a weight of 
snow or to resist a strong wind, 
will succumb if by the cutting 
away of its broad base all the 
weight has been thrown to the 
top. And these limbs, once 
removed, are never supplied 
again, so that the loss is ir¬ 
remediable. The pranks of 
“ the Ring ” in the park were 
||] wild and various, but in noth¬ 
ing did they offend so seriously 
as in this matter. One of the 
immediate results has been that 
the quail and many other birds, 
who depend upon the shelter 
afforded by the lower branches 
of these trees and by the un- 
!jr derbrush, have either died or 
left for other places where 
“ Rings” are unknown, or too 
well known to be allowed to 
meddle with public interests. 

The Ramble is laid out, as 
we have said, upon a hill¬ 
side, and this hill has been tunnelled to admit the passage 
of one of those traffic-roads that make so important a fea¬ 
ture in the design of the park. The park, lying as it will 
in the midst of a thickly populated region, ought not, it is 
evident, to lay itself open to the charge of being an obstruc¬ 
tion to the daily business of the neighboring region; and 
this was plainly seen by the designers, who also saw, how¬ 
ever, that it was of equal importance that the traffic of the 
neighborhood ought not to be allowed to obtrude itself 
upon the park. The ingenuity which has met both diffi¬ 
culties and both wants, as they have been met by the 
traffic-road, is its own best commendation. Four of these 
roads cross the park, uniting, E. and W., Sixty-fifth, 
Seventy-ninth, Eighty-fifth, and Ninety-seventh streets, re¬ 
spectively. They are only so much curved as has been 
found necessary to accommodate them to the surfaces of 
the park,.nor are they sunk any farther than is made ne¬ 
cessary by the same conditions. Indeed, it is not correct 
to say that they are over sunk at all, tho road-bed bein'* 
always on a level with the avenues that bound the park"; 



























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































CENTRAL PARK. 


853 


they only appear in certain cases to be sunk because they 
cut through rising ground. They are paved, lighted, and 
provided with sidewalks like ordinary streets, and they 
are in common use as traffic-roads, though not of course to 
the extent that they will be when the region about the 
Central Park becomes more densely populated. The object 
of the designers has been to make them completely inde¬ 
pendent ot the park as a pleasure-ground, and they are so; 
indeed, in only a few cases can they be entered at all from 
the park, except where their terminations are coincident 
with the park gateways, and in no case can they be so en¬ 


tered by carriages. The gates that here and there com¬ 
municate with them are to facilitate the removal of rub¬ 
bish or the bringing in of materials. These communica¬ 
tions are, however, not for the use of the public, and visitors 
to the park are not supposed to be aware of their exist¬ 
ence. In no instance do these roads ever cross the surface 
of the park on a level with the walks and drives, but al¬ 
ways under them or over them—generally by the former 
mode—and they are well planted-out by shrubbery where, 
without it, they would obtrude themselves upon the view. 

The Ramble has a central point of interest to those who 



do not care for the solitude and quiet that make it attract¬ 
ive to so many, in the Belvedere, a picturesque edifice com¬ 
posed of a balustraded platform, with a tower from which 
a view of no mean extent can be had by those who like a 
moderate climb. The platform itself commands a pretty 
view, into which the rectangular tank of the smaller reser¬ 
voir, on the edge of which it is built, enters as the most 
important feature. 

It will thus be seen that almost all the special attractions 
of the Lower Park—we mean those apart from what may 
properly be called the landscape—are brought near the long 
axis running N. and S. This arrangement draws the main 
body of the visitors away from the boundaries, and thus 
prevents them from being forced upon our observation. Yet 
this result is brought about quite naturally and without 
effort; no one perhaps would perceive it if his attention 
were not called to it. There are, however, other points of 
interest in this Lower Park, and no doubt every year will 
see the attractions more and more distributed, until the 
present centralization will be overcome and forgotten. 
There are the collections of the Natural History Society, 
temporarily exhibited in the old Arsenal building, with 
the cages near it—some exposed and some under shelter— 
containing the animals which have from time to time been 
presented or loaned to the city. The latest report of the 
commissioners informs us that the collections of the Natu¬ 
ral History Society have been open to the public every 
week-day during the year (1872), and that the attendance 
on many days may be estimated at 10,000. By the joint 
action of the park department and the trustees of the 
Museum two days in each week, Monday and Tuesday, are 
reserved for special students and for teachers and pupils of 
public schools; by this means opportunities are given for 
lecturing to classes with abundant illustration, and the Mu¬ 
seum becomes an important part of the educational sys¬ 
tem of the city. The collections are constantly increasing 
in value, partly by purchase and partly by presents from 
those who are interested in the success of the institution. 
Manhattan Square, a piece of ground lying between Eighth 
and Ninth avenues and between Seventy-seventh and 
Eighty-first streets, was some time ago added to the park, 
and it is now decided to carry out a plan long contem¬ 
plated for establishing a Zoological Garden and a Museum 
of Natural History upon this site. The plans for the new 
building for the accommodation of the Natural History 
Society "have been already designed and accepted, and the 
work will be begun without delay. We suspect, however, 
that it will be found necessary to establish the Zoological 


Garden in some other place. Either institution would need 
all the room that the square affords. 

The present collection of living animals belonging to the 
park, with those loaned to the trustees by private owners 
or by proprietors of travelling-shows, though compara¬ 
tively small, is of great interest and gives an immense deal 
of pleasure. The animals are well housed and cared for 
under the direction of an intelligent keeper, whose special 
report makes one of the most valuable features of the 
annual report of the trustees. “ The department lias 
already received specimens of many of the most valuable 
foreign tropical animals, and now desires additions to its 
collections of our native species. Of the various American 
deer, only two, the common Virginia deer (Cervns Virgin- 
iami8 ) and the American elk (Cervus Canadensis), are found 
in the park. Specimens of the black-tailed deer, the mule- 
deer, the reindeer, the Mexican deer, the moose, the cari¬ 
bou, and the prong-horned antelope would be much valued. 
Specimens of almost any of the smaller animals of the Ear 
West, the squirrels, gophers, rabbits, and hares, would be 
desirable acquisitions. Thirteen species of foxes are enu¬ 
merated as peculiar to this continent, of which but two, 
the common gray and red fox of the East, have as yet 
reached the park. The department usually pays the trans¬ 
portation-expenses of animals given to it, and it is found 
that when sent by express, with proper directions as to the 
supply of air, water, and food, they come by rail and boat 
from the more distant parts of the country with safety.” 

The sheets of water which in summer add so much to the 
landscape effect of the park are thronged in winter by 
skaters, for whose comfort and safety every provision is 
made by the park authorities. The ice is flooded, scraped, 
and swept with great skill and promptness, information as 
to the state of the ice is conveyed by signal to all parts of 
the city, temporary structures of wood, sufficiently warmed, 
are provided for putting on skates and for refreshment, 
and the means of cheap and healthful exercise are supplied 
to thousands of people, men and women, boys and girls. 
A visitor who watches these crowds of skaters from (lie 
banks or from the bridge that commands so wide a view 
of the lake, will surely be struck with the good behavior 
of the crowd; he will see no rudeness, no coarse manners, 
but a general good-nature and civility; and though the ex¬ 
cellent park-police are always on hand, they have hardly 
ever any occasion to make an arrest, or even to administer 
a rebuke. 

The building for the Metropolitan Museum of the line 
Arts is to be erected in the park on the ground between 













































854 


CENTRAL PARK. 


the smaller reservoir and the Fifth avenue—a decision 
greatly to be regretted, we think, both because of the effect 
the building will have of still further closing up the already 
scrimped communication on that side between the Upper and 
Lower Parks, and from the injury to the appearance of the 
building itself, placed alongside or under the shadow of 
these immense water-tanks. We have to resrret that land 
outside the park could not have been obtained on the east¬ 
ern side, answering to Manhattan Square on the W., and 
the new Museum have been built on that. Besides giving 
a better and freer site for the building, it would have given 


greater apparent breadth to the park itself at the point 
near the reservoirs, where it presents an unfortunately 
cramped aspect. 

Long before the Central Park was finished—and in the 
main it may be said to be finished now—it was found too 
small for the immediate demand upon it, especially in the 
way of drives and horseback rides; and it was plain that 
ampler provision must be made for the needs of the future. 
What was felt to be wanted was not merely room for more 
extended drives and rides than are possible within its pres¬ 
ent limits, but a more continuous park accommodation for 



Fig. 7. Ball Ground. 


the region N. of One Hundred and Tenth street, which 
region is rapidly being built up and settled. It was felt 
very early that the park was too far away from the popu¬ 
lous part of the city, too much time was consumed merely 
in getting to it, and the approaches to it were devoid of all 
interest and variety. It has long ceased to be possible to 
control the southern approaches to the park; the land is 
all taken up, and is too valuable, but the disposition of 
the upper part of the island is within our own control, 
and the problem, How to provide for the future in this 
direction, has been solved in a most satisfactory manner 
by Messrs. Vaux and Olmsted in the Park-way System. 
(See Park-ways.) This system, if it could have been 
taken in hand a little earlier, would have made the park 
begin, in fact, at Madison Square, by the simple plan of 
changing Fifth avenue or Broadway into a stately Mall, 
with a plantation of trees along the middle, a double car¬ 
riage-track, a horseback-ride, and ample sidewalks; in 
short, a finer Champs Elysees. There might easilj T , at 
small expense, have been a Circus or Round at Thirty- 
fourth and Forty-second streets. The reach between Mad¬ 
ison Square and the Central Park having been thus trans¬ 
formed from a dull walk between nearly unbroken lines of 
stone walls to an open promenade for exercise and enjoy¬ 
ment, the work now in hand of enlarging and planting the 
park-ways (called by the unmeaning name of “ boulevards,” 
in our New York love of French names), by which the 
western side of the upper part of the island is being saved 
from the monotony and meanness of the lower part, would 
have been only an extension of the plan, and would have 
made the Central Park merely a beautiful incident in the 
long line of drives, rides, and walks, with delightful ac¬ 
companiments of grass and trees, stretching from Madison 
Square to the Westchester suburb now being laid out under 
the control and management of the Park Commission. No 
city in the world would have had such ample accommoda¬ 
tion for enjoyment and exercise—convenient, too, to the 
great majority of her inhabitants—as New York, if this 
plan, once easy of execution, could have been carried out. 
The portion of it that covers the land S. of the Central 
Park has long ceased to be possible, but the connections N. 
of the park, between it and the Westchester suburb, are 
now being created, and when finished will make an era in 


the material and social history of our island. The plan 
will be fully explained in the article on Park-ways; it 
has been thus cursorily alluded to here to show that a need 
widely felt and often expressed, of more park accommoda¬ 
tion, has been attentively considered, and that there is 
every prospect of its being satisfactorily met, in the upper 
part of the island at least, by those who have the park in 
charge. 

The park has been a great civilizer, and its mission in 
this respect is only just begun. When it was first estab¬ 
lished it was the only park in the county; now there are 
a dozen, and there will be more and more. Without the 
Central Park we should not have had in this generation 
the Brooklyn Park, the Fairmount Park in Philadelphia— 
a noble undertaking—the Chicago Park; nor would those 
stupendous projects of the Yosemite Valley Park and the 
Park of the Great Canon of the Yellowstone have been 
conceived and carried out. Indeed, they are Gargantua’s 
play-grounds, and make Hyde Park and Versailles look 
pinched and mean. They have been laughed at as bits of 
brag, but, in truth, they are the merest good sense and wise 
provision, with no trace of exaggeration. Would that the 
founders of New York could have so looked ahead, even 
fifty years ago ! Would that we ourselves could le>ok ahead 
in season, and, forecasting the time when our city shall 
cover the lower half of Westchester county, seize promptly 
on at least 3000 acres (the area of the Philadelphia Park) 
of that region. 

We must not forget that if it was a great piece of good- 
fortune to get the Central Park at all—and who can 
doubt it?—it was an inestimable happiness that it was en¬ 
trusted to the hands that have made it what we see it. 
New York can never honor the men enough who, with the 
exception of a brief time of nightmare, when “the Ring” 
tried to make it their stye, have cared for it with disin¬ 
terested devotion from the beginning. They deserve our 
gratitude for this, that, in a dark time, when public honor, 
and even common honesty in public men, seemed thrown 
overboard, they helped us to support our self-respect, and 
to make a return to better things seem possible by keeping 
steadily in view the sight of at least one civic department 
administered with good sense, economy, and honesty, and 
with a single eye to the public good. Clarence Cook. 





























































CENTRAL POINT—CENTRE COLLEGE. 855 


Cen'tral Point, a township of Goodhue co., Minn. 
Pop. 160. 

Cen'tral Prov'inces, The, one of the great admin¬ 
istrative divisions ot British India, are situated between 
lat. 18° and 24° N., and between Ion. 77° and 83° E. Area, 
82,838 square miles. They were formed into a chief com- 
missionership in 1861, and they are divided into four com- 
missionerships and nineteen districts. The line of railway 
connecting Bombay with Calcutta passes through these 
provinces, and has completely altered the condition of the 
country, which, up to the time when it was formed into a 
chief commissionership, was almost unknown. The traffic 
that passes through the capital, Jubbulpore, is larger than 
that of any other city in India, except Bombay. The reve¬ 
nue of the provinces in 1869-70 amounted to £1,043,954. 
Pop. in 1871, 7,987,476. 

Cen'tral Square, a post-village of Hastings township, 
Oswego co., N. Y., at the crossing of the New York and 
Oswego Midland and the Syracuse Northern R. Its. Pop. 
359. 

Cen'tral Vil'lage, a post-village of Windham co., 
Conn., is on the Boston Hartford and Erie R. R., 20 miles 
N. N. E. of Norwich. It is on the Moosup River, at or 
near its entrance into the Quinebaug. It has water-power 
and a number of cotton-mills. Pop. about 2000. 

Cen'tre, or Center [Gr. KeVrpoi', - Lat. centrum ], orig¬ 
inally a “ point;’’ hence the point of a compass which re¬ 
mains fixed while the other is moved round to describe a 
circle. The centre of a circle is a point within it equally 
distant from every part of the circumference. The centre 
of a sphere is a point equally distant from every point of 
the surface. In war, the term centre is applied to the main 
body of an army located between the two wings. In French 
politics the Centre is used to designate a party of moderate 
royalists or conservatives who support a policy intermediate 
between that of the Droit, “ right,” and that of the Gauche , 
“ left,” 

Cen'tre, a county which is the most central part of 
Pennsylvania. Area, 1000 square miles. It is partly 
bounded on the N. W. by the West Branch of the Susque¬ 
hanna, and is intersected by Bald Eagle Creek. The sur¬ 
face is diversified by several ridges, one of which is called 
Bald Eagle Mountain. The soil of the valleys is fertile. 
Grain, hay, butter, wool, and potatoes are the chief crops. 
Among the manufactures are those of flour, lumber, leather, 
carriages, harnesses, etc. Coal, iron, and limestone abound. 
This county is traversed by the railroad which connects 
Lockhaven with Tyrone. Capital, Bellefonte. Pop. 34,418. 

Cen'tre, a post-village, capital of Cherokee co., Ala., is 
near the Coosa River, about 140 miles N. by E. from Mont¬ 
gomery, near a steamboat landing. It has two churches, an 
academy, and one newspaper-office. 

W. C. Stiff, Pub. “ Cherokee Advertiser.” 

Centre, a township of Polk co., Ark. Pop. 614. 

Centre, a township of Prairie co., Ark. Pop. 772. 

Centre, a township of Sebastian co., Ark. Pop. 1903. 

Centre, a township of Sacramento co., Cal. Pop. 461. 

Centre, a township of Boone co., Ind. Pop. 3885. 

Centre, a township of Dearborn co., Ind. Pop. 4699. 

Centre, a township of Delaware co., Ind. Pop. 4375. 

Centre, a township of Grant co., Ind. Pop. 2641. 

Centre, a township of Greene co., Ind. Pop. 1870. 

Centre, a township of Hancock co., Ind. Pop. 3495. 

Centre, a township of Hendricks co., Ind. Pop. 2795. 

Centre, a post-township of Howard co., Ind. Pop. 
2857. 

Centre, a township of Jennings co., Ind. Pop. 2633. 

Centre, a township of Lake co., Ind. Pop. 1932. 

Centre, a township of La Porte co., Ind. Pop. 1147. 

Centre, a township of Marion co., Ind. Pop. 4274. 

Centre, a township of Marshall co., Ind. Pop. 4830. 

Centre, a township of Martin co., Ind. Pop. 1170. 

Centre, a township of Porter co., Ind. Pop. 1394. 

Centre, a township of Posey co., Ind. Pop. 955. 

Centre, a township of Ripley co., Ind. Pop. 1581. 

Centre, a township of Rush co., Ind. Pop. 1645. 

Centre, a township of Starke co., Ind. Pop. 555. 

Centre, a township of St. Joseph’s co., Ind. Pop. 717. 

Centre, a township of Union co., Ind. Pop. 1896. 

Centre, a township of Vanderburgh co., Ind. P. 1689. 

Centre, a township of Wayne co., Ind. Pop. 2855. 

Centre, a township of Allamakee co., Ia. Pop. 1048. 

Centre, a township of Appanoose co., Ia. Pop. 1723. 


Centre, a township of Cedar co., Ia. Pop. 2899. 

Centre, a township of Clinton co., Ia. Pop. 1317. 

Centre, a township of Decatur co., Ia. Pop. 1738. 

Centre, a township of Dubuque co., Ia. Pop. 1039. 

Centre, a township of Emmett co., Ia. Pop. 146. 

Centre, a township of Fayette co., Ia. Pop. 504. 

Centre, a township of Guthrie co., Ia. Pop. 924. 

Centre, a township of Henry co., Ia. Pop. 6310. 

Centre, a township of Monona co., Ia. Pop. 138. 

Centre, a township of Pottawattamie co., Ia. P. 528. 

Centre, a township of Wapello co., Ia. Pop. 1693. 

Centre, a township of Winnebago co., Ia. Pop. 432. 

Centre, a township of Atchison co., Kan. Pop. 1605. 

Centre, a township of Doniphan co., Kan. Pop. 2248. 

Centre, a township of Lyon co., Kan. Pop. 126. 

Centre, a township of Marion co., Kan. Pop. 539. 

Centre, a township of Wilson co., Kan. Pop. 855. 

Centre, a township of Buchanan co., Mo. Pop. 1918. 

Centre, a township of Dade co., Mo. Pop. 1568. 

Centre, a township of Greene co., Mo. Pop. 1681. 

Centre, a township of Hickory co., Mo. Pop. 1245. 

Centre, a township of Knox co., Mo. Pop. 2416. 

Centre, a township of Ralls co., Mo. Pop. 726. 

Centre, a township of Vernon co., Mo. Pop. 2603. 

Centre, a township of Camden co., N. J. Pop. 1718. 

Centre, a township of Chatham co., N. C. Pop. 1255. 

Centre, a township of Stanley co., N. C. Pop. 1065. 

Centre, a township of Carroll co., 0. Pop. 1227. 

Centre, a township of Columbiana co., 0. Pop. 2895. 

Centre, a township of Guernsey co., 0. Pop. 1016. 

Centre, a township of Mercer co., 0. Pop. 1255. 

Centre, a township of Monroe co., 0. Pop. 2585. 

Centre, a township of Morgan co., 0. Pop. 1353. 

Centre, a township of Noble co., 0. Pop. 1703. 

Centre, a township of Williams co., 0. Pop. 1628. 

Centre, a township of Wood co., 0. Pop. 1331. 

Centre, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 1529. 

Centre, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 843. 

Centre, a township of Columbia co., Pa. Pop. 1322. 

Centre, a township of Greene co., Pa. Pop. 1777. 

Centre, a township of Indiana co., Pa. Pop. 1555. 

Centre, a post-township of Perry co., Pa. Pop. 1121. 

Centre, a township of Snyder co., Pa. Pop. 885. 

Centre, a township of Oconee co., S. C. Pop. 1910. 

Centre, a township of Richland co., S. C. Pop. 1124. 

Centre, a township of Fauquier co., Va. Pop. 4356. 

Centre, a township of Calhoun co., West Va. P. 520. 

Centre, a township of Gilmore co., West Va. P. 1201. 

Centre, a township of Wetzel co., West Va. P. 1336. 

Centre, a township of Wyoming co., WestVa. P. 622. 

Centre, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. P. 1201. 

Centre, a post-township of Rock co., Wis. Pop. 1064. 

Cen'tre Col'lege, Danville, Ky., was chartered as a 
State institution in 1819. An amendment to the charter 
gave the control of the school to the Presbyterian synod 
of Kentucky, upon condition of synod’s paying $20,000 
towards the endowment. The condition was fulfilled, and 
Centre College became a synodical school in 1831. The 
following list gives the names of its presidents and the 
dates of their election : Rev. Samuel Findlay (pro tem.), 
1822; Rev. J. Chamberlain, D. D., 1822; Rev. D. C. Proc¬ 
tor, D. D. (pro tem.), 1826; Rev. Gideon Blackburn, I). D., 
1827; Rev. J. C. Young, 1). D., 1830; Rev. L. W. Green, 
D. D., 1857 ; Rev. W. L. Breckinridge, D. D., 1863; Ormond 
Beatty, LL.D., 1872. Under the long presidency of Dr. 
Young the college rose to great eminence among Western 
schools. It retained both its numbers and reputation until 
the civil war, when the number of students was reduced 
from 200 to less than 50. The close of the war did not 
bring peace to the Church. The synod of Kentucky was 
rent asunder, the larger body joining the Southern Presby¬ 
terian Church—the smaller, and with it Centre College, 
adhering to the General Assembly. Litigation ensued, and 
all the courts, both State and Federal, decided that the 
Assembly had the rightful control. Amidst this litigation 
(now closed) the number of students steadily increased, the 
last annual catalogue giving a roll of 91, with a training- 
school of 95 pupils; total, 186. Centre ( ollege anus to 
give simply a liberal education. The college corn sc cm- 













856 


CENTRE CREEK—CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCES. 


braces the usual curriculum, along with special advantages 
for acquiring the leading languages of modern Europe. 
Other features of interest are a four years’ course of lectures 
on the history, structure, and literature of the English lan¬ 
guage, and a daily lecture by the professor of ethics on 
biblical themes or on subjects relating to the development 
of a true Christian manhood. Students find boarding in 
private families. The village is quiet and healthful, and 
there is a high degree of culture among the citizens. Tui¬ 
tion to ministers’ sons and young men of limited means is 
$5, to all others $50. The faculty consists of a president, 
vice-president, and seven other instructors. The libraries 
of the college contain about 8000 volumes. Facilities for 
instruction in the sciences are good and increasing. The 
alumni at the close of 1872 numbered 754. Among them 
are some of the most distinguished men of the land. The 
college year begins the first Monday in September, and 
closes the last Thursday in June. The endowment yield¬ 
ing an income amounts to about $140,000 ; the buildings 
and grounds are estimated at $75,000 additional. 

Ormond Beatty. 

Cen'tre Creek, a post-township of Martin co., Minn. 
Pop. 377. 

Centre Creek, a post-township of Jasper co., Mo. 
Pop. 7G5. 

Cen'tre Grove, a township of Dickinson co., Ia. 
Pop. 283. 

Centre Grove, a township of Guilford co., N. C. 
Pop. 1110. 

Cen'tre Hall, a post-village of Centre co., Pa. It has 
one weekly newspaper. 

Cen'tre Har'bor, a post-township of Belknap co., 
N. H., 37 miles N. of Concord, on Lake Winnipiseogee, is a 
place of summer resort. It is visited by the steamboats 
which ply on the lake, and is noted for its fine scenery. 
Pop. 446. 

Cen'tre of Grav'ity, the point in a body which is al¬ 
ways in the line of the resultant of the weights of all the 
particles composing that body, no matter in what position 
the body be placed. Each particle of a body held above 
the surface of the earth is acted upon by gravitation, and 
we may look upon the gravitation of each particle as being 
one of a system of parallel forces, and the gravitation of 
the whole as a resultant of those forces. Whatever be the 
direction of these forces with respect to the mass, the re¬ 
sultant will always pass through a fixed point within the 
mass, which point is the centre of gravity for the body. 
Every mass which is supported above the earth must have 
its centre of gravity so placed that a line drawn from it 
perpendicularly downwai'd will fall within the base; other¬ 
wise the body will fall. The centre of gravity of many 
bodies may be found by geometrical rules, but with the 
supposition that the bodies are of homogeneous or uniform 
specific gravity—a condition which is not often found ex¬ 
actly fulfilled in pi'actice. 

Cen'tre of Mag'nitotle, The, is a point so situated 
that all straight lines passing through it, and terminated 
by the eii'cumfei'ence or superficies of the figui'e or surface, 
are bisected in it. 

Cen'tre Point, a post-village of Washington township, 
Linn co., Ia. Pop. 443. 

Cen'treport, a post-village of Huntington township, 
Suffolk co., N. Y., on the Northport bi-anch of the Long 
Island R. R., 37 miles from New York. 

Cen'tre Star, a post-township of Lauderdale co., Ala. 
Pop. 1627. 

Cen'tre Vil'lagc, a post-village of Colesville township, 
Broome co., N. Y., on the Susquehanna River, has an ex¬ 
tensive tannery. Pop. 146. 

Ccn'treville, a post-village, capital of Bibb co., Ala., 
on the Cahawba Rivei-, at the Lower Falls, 38 miles S. E. 
of Tuscaloosa. Pop. of Centreville township, 1285. 

CentreviUJc, a village in Hamden township, New Ha¬ 
ven co., Conn., on the New Haven and Northampton R. R., 
about 6 miles N. of New Haven. It has manufactures of 
various kinds. 

CentrcviHiUv, a post-village of St. Clair co., Ill., 7 miles 
S. S. E. of St. Louis, on the St. Louis and Cairo and the 
Illinois and St. Louis R. Rs. It has two steam flouring 
mills. Coal is mined in the vicinity. Pop. 1116. 

CentrevilBc, a post-village, capital of Wayne co., Ind., 
on the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. It., 5 miles 
W. of Richmond. It has a female college, a national bank, 
and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1077. 

Centreville, a post-village, capital of Appanoose co., 
Ia., on the Chicago and South-western R. R., 125 miles W. 
S. W. of Muscatine. It has a national bank and two news¬ 


paper-offices. It is the present terminus of the Missouri 
Iowa and Nebraska Railway, has a tine court-house, sev¬ 
eral churches in process of building, and manufactures of 
various kinds, it is underlaid with an abundant supply 
of coal of very fine quality. Pop. 1037. Ed. oe “ Citizen.” 

Centreville, a post-township of Linn co., Kan. Pop. 
1034. 

Centreville, a township of Neosho co., Kan. Pop. 

889. 

Centreville, a post-village and seaport in Barnstable 
township, Barnstable co., Mass., on the S. side of fape 
Cod. 

Centreville, a township of Washington co., Me. Pop. 
145. 

Centreville, a post-village, the shire-town of Queen 
Anne co., Md., 30 miles E. by N. from Annapolis, in a 
township of the same name, situated in a large peach- 
gi-owing region. Steamboats leave twice a day for Balti¬ 
more. It has an academy, an agricultural implement fac¬ 
tory, a foundry, and two newspapers. It is the terminus 
of the Queen Anne’s and Kent R. R. Pop. of township, 
5360; of village, 915. Ed. “Observer.” 

Centreville, a township of Delta co., Mich. Pop. 86. 

Centreville, a twp. of Leelenaw co., Mich. Pop. 939. 

Centreville, a post-village, capital of St. Joseph co., 
Mich., on Prairie River and on the Air-Line division of 
the Central R. R., 132 nxiles E. of Chicago. It has one 
newspaper-office, a lai'ge knitting factory, good schools, and 
one national bank. Pop. 749. 

Ed. “ St. Joseph Republican.” 

Centreville, a post-village of Anoka co., Minn., on 
the Lake Superior and Mississippi R. R., 17 miles N. of 
St. Paul, in a township of the same name, on the Rice 
Lakes. It is a famous resort for spoilsmen. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 687. 

Centreville, a post-village, capital of Reynolds co., 
Mo., on the West Fork of Black River, about 40 miles S. 
by W. of Potosi. Pop. 32. 

Centreville, a township of Dixon co., Neb. Pop. 168. 

Centreville, a station in Jersey City, N. J., on the 
Central R. It. of New Jersey, 7 miles from Nexv York. It 
is a thriving place, inhabited by people doing business in 
New York. 

Centreville, a post-village and township of Allegany 
co., N. Y. Pop. 167; of township, 1043. 

Centreville, a village of Portland township, Chautau¬ 
qua co., N. Y. Pop. 141. 

Centreville, a. village of Mooers township, Clinton 
co., N. Y., on Chazy River and on the Ogdensburg and Lake 
Champlain R. R., 15 miles W. of Rouse’s Point. It has 
three cliui'ches, and an active trade aixd manufactures. 

Centreville, a village of Clay and Cicei'o townships, 
Onondaga co., N. Y. Pop. 288. 

Centreville, a borough of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 3C6. 

Centreville, a post-borougli of Crawford co., Pa. Pop. 
322. 

Centreville, a post-village of Warwick township, 
Kent co., R. I., has one national bank, and manufactures 
of cotton goods. 

Centreville, a township of Anderson co., S. C. Pop. 
1880. 

' Centreville, a post-village, capital of Hickman co., 
Tenn., on Duck Rivei', 50 miles S. W. of Nashville. P. 175. 

Centreville, a post-village, capital of Leon co., Tex., 
130 miles N. E. of Austin City, has one newspaper. Pop. 
221 . 

Centreville, a post-village of Fairfax co., Va., 27 miles 
W. of Washington. Pop. of Centi-evillc township, 1721. 

Centreville, a township of Tyler co., West Va. Pop. 
1079. 

Centreville, a township of Manitowoc co., Wis. Pop. 
1650. 1 

Centrip'ctal and Centrif'ngal, terms used in bot¬ 
any, and applied to two modes of infloi-escence. When the 
terminal flower-bud is the lirst to expand, the inflorescence 
is said to be centrifugal. When the expansion begins with 
the bud which is nearest the base of the floi-al axis (or 
nearest the circumference in a cyme or corymb), and pro¬ 
ceeds towards the terminal or central bud, the inflorescence 
is centripetal. 

Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces. If we sup¬ 
pose a body to move in a circle with a uniform velocity, 
it is shown by the laws of motion that it must be acted upon 
continually by a uniform force directed towards the centre' 
which force expends itself each instant in deflecting the 












CENTROPOLIS—CEPHALIZATION. 857 


moving body from the straight line in which it would nor¬ 
mally move, this lino being a tangent of the circle in which 
motion takes place. The force with which the body is im¬ 
pelled towards the centre is called centripetal; the equal 
and opposite forco which tends to make it fly from the cen¬ 
tre is the centrifugal force. Both together are the central 
forces. Each is equal to the weight of the body multiplied 
by the square of the velocity, and divided by the accelera¬ 
tion of gravity and the radius. 

Centrop'olis, a post-township of Franklin co., Kan. 
Pop. 1034. 

i’cn'turies of Mag'deburg, the first church history 
by the Protestants, the preparation of which occupied many 
eminent scholars for a long period. The plan of an extended 
work, which should reveal the deviations of the Roman 
Church from the practices of the early Christians, was 
first conceived by Matthew Flacius of Magdeburg in 1552. 
The labor begun by him was carried forward by Wigand, 
Matthew Judex, Basil Faber, Andreas Corvinus, and 
Thomas Holzhutcr, and the means therefor were provided 
by the evangelical princes and great men. The work ap¬ 
peared at Bale in 13 vols., each volume covering a century 
(1559-74). The centuriatores , as the authors were called, 
never brought it down beyond the year 1300. In refuta¬ 
tion of the “ Centuries,” Baronius wrote the “Annales Ec- 
clesiastici.” 

Centu'rion [Lat. centurio , from centuria , a “ hundred 
men ”], an officer of the ancient Roman army who com¬ 
manded one hundred men or a company called centuria . 

CeiPtury [Lat. centuria , from centum , a “ hundred”], 
a company of one hundred men in the Roman army; also 
a civil division of the Roman people formed for the pur¬ 
pose of voting. According to this division, which was 
founded on property, the people voted in the comitia ccn - 
turiata . (See Comitia.) Servius Tullius divided the citi¬ 
zens of Rome into 193 centuries. In modern times the term 
is mostly used to denote a period of 100 years. 

Century Plant. See Agave. 

Cephalas'pis [from the Gr. <ee<f>a \r), “head,” and ao-iris, 
a “ shield ”], a genus of fossil fishes armed with rhomboidal 
ganoid plates of enamelled bony structure. Several spe¬ 
cies are found in the upper Silurian and in the Devonian 
rocks. They had large heterocercal tails, and appear to 
have been rapidly moving, predaceous fishes. The name 
is derived from the large plate which covered the head, the 
sharp anterior edge of which may have served the fish as 
an offensive weapon. 

Ccphaliza'tioii [from the Gr. ne<f>a\rj, “head”]. As 
the head is the seat of power in an animal, the part that 
gives honor to the whole, it is natural that among species 
rank should be marked by means of variations in the 
structure of the head; and not only by variations in struc¬ 
ture, but also in the extent to which the rest of the body 
directly contributes, by its members, to the uses or pur¬ 
poses of the head. Ccphalization is, then, simply the de¬ 
gree of head domination in the structure, as implied in the 
derivation of the term. The following are some of the ways 
or methods in which it is manifested: 

1. With superior cephalization—that is, as species rise in 
grade or rank—more and more of the anterior part of the 
body or of its members render service to the head; with 
inferior , less and less. In many cases, part of the organs 
that serve as feet in the lower tribes serve as jaws in the 
higher, or, in other words, arc transferred from the loco¬ 
motive to the cephalic series, and thus the structuie indi¬ 
cates higher cephalization. 

2. With superior cephalization the structure of the head 
or of the anterior portion of the body becomes more and 
more compacted, perfected, and condensed or abbrc\iated; 
with inferior , the same portion becomes more and moie lax 
in its parts or loosely put together, and impeifcct in the 
parts or members themselves, and at the same time the 
whole is more and more elongated and spaced out or 
enlarged. 

3. With superior cephalization the posterior portion of 
the body becomes more and more compacted, or firmly put 
together and abbreviated; that is, as concentration goes on 
anteriorly there is abbreviation posteriorly . Even the tail 
shows grade; for great length or size or functional import¬ 
ance is actually a mark of inferior grade, other things 

being equal. . 

4. With superior cephalization there is an upward rise 
in the head-extremity of the nervous system; and this 
reaches its limit in man, in which it becomes erect and 
points heavenward. With inferior , there is the reverse 
condition, and the limit is seen in the horizontal fish. 

5. With inferior cephalization there is not only a less 
and less concentrated or compacted and perfected state of 
the whole structure before and behind, but in its lower 


stages the degradation of the structure extends to an ab¬ 
sence of essential parts, as teeth, members, senses; and 
often also to a gross enlargement of the body beyond the 
sizo which the system of life within can properly wield, 
and in this case the body is stupid and sluggish. 

The laws of cephalization act conjointly with another 
principle in animal life—that of the oppositeness subsisting 
between the cephalic or anterior and the posterior extremities 
of the animal structure, which is a kind of antero-posterior 
or fore-and-aft polarity. This oppositeness or polarity is 
up and, down in the plant, and fore and aft in the animal. 
The fore and aft becomes strictly up and down in position 
in man; and this by elevating heavenward the cephalic 
extremity, not by a change of the axis of symmetry to that 
of the plant. 

The following are examples of cephalization, and of de- 
ccphalization as the reverse steps arc properly designated, 
in some of the classes of animals: 

The subdivisions of the division of brute mammals (or 
quadrupeds) containing the larger species are four: 

First, the Quadrumanes, or monkeys. 

Second, the Carnivores, or flesh-eaters, including the lion, 
cat, dog, bear, and the like. 

Third, the Herbivores, or plant-eaters, including the 
elephant, rhinoceros, horse, hog, ox, deer, etc. 

Fourth, the Mutilates, including the whales, dolphins, 
etc., in which the limbs are degraded to the structure and 
uses of fins, and part are wanting, and therefore the species 
are in a sense, mutilated, whence the term Mutilates. Such 
forms are appropriately styled degradational forms, since 
they correspond to a degradation of the mammalian struc¬ 
ture or type. These several subdivisions have their dis¬ 
tinctions, and also their naturalness, strongly exhibited in 
characters based on this principle of cephalization. Illus¬ 
trations of this fact may be drawn first from the fore limbs. 

In the Quadrumanes or monkeys the fore limbs are so 
constructed and arranged that they serve (1) for carrying 
their young, (2) for supplying the mouth with food, (3) for 
taking their prey, and (4) for locomotion; in the Carniv¬ 
ores, they serve (1) for taking their prey, and (2) for loco¬ 
motion ; in the Herbivores, only for locomotion—for cattle 
use their fore legs for their simple legitimate object of 
walking, nothing higher, nothing lower; in the Mutilates, 
or whales ( degradational species, as before styled), they are 
fit only for something lower, for they are merely fins, like 
those of fishes. It thus appears that in the passage from 
Carnivores to Herbivores the fore limbs lose all cephalic 
use, they not even serving in the latter to get or carry food 
to the mouth; and lower down, in the whales and related 
species, they are degraded into swimming organs. 

Passing, now, from the highest of these four subdivisions 
—that of the monkeys—up to man, there is a sudden ele¬ 
vation of structure, corresponding well with the spiritual 
elevation. The fore limbs are taken out of the foot-series, 
and thus rescued from the inferior service of locomotion. 
As in some brutes, these members serve to carry the young 
and to collect food and convey it to the mouth. But along 
with such uses there are others more exalted, demanded by 
the spirit within. Moreover, far the larger part of the 
body is thus made to belong to the anterior portion, and 
this anterior portion is consequently much increased, while 
the posterior stands on its narrow base of two feet, and is 
reduced to a minimum. 

Let us now look at the above four subdivisions of mam¬ 
mals with reference to other methods of cephalization, and 
see how they exhibit, in accordance with this principle, 
their differences of grade. 

The Quadrumanes, or monkeys—the highest of the brute 
species—have the body most raised from the horizontal; 
the head in the typical species shortest and most com¬ 
pacted; and tho superior species among them—the man- 
apes, as the gorilla and orang—have no tail, so that this 
kind of posterior abbreviation is at its extreme limit. 

The Carnivores, as the cat, lion, etc., also have a short, 
well-compacted head, but one more projecting than that of 
the higher monkey; tho hind feet, as well as fore feet, are 
provided with claws to aid in climbing; and the mouth is 
prostituted from the proper or normal use of the organ to 
that of carrying its young or its prey. 

The Herbivores, as the ox, horse, tapir, etc., have the 
head very much elongated (a strong mark of dccephaliza- 
tion), and in some appropriated to the inferior use ot self- 
defence; part of the teeth usually wanting; and the feet 
fitted for locomotion, and not in any case for grasping. 
Moreover, in the ox, goat, deer, and allied species, and in 
the horse, the hind legs are very much the stronger, on 
which account from this group come the draft-animals 
used by man; and this characteristic indicates a backward 
transfer of force, which is a prominent mark ot decophal- 
ization. 

The Mutilates, or the whales, have a head sometimes 
















CEPHALIZATION. 


waBaaaai 

858 


many yards in length, made of bones imperfectly united; 
the teeth often entirely wanting, and sometimes excessively 
numerous—the latter a mark of feeble concentration in the 
life-system, in consequence of which the parts grow or 
multiply to excess (something as a treo grows in size, 
because given up to the uncontrolled power of growth) ; 
and not only the fore legs reduced to fins and feeble in 
locomotion, but the hind limbs wanting ; the body behind 
enormously enlarged and prolonged; and the prolonged 
tail, thus made, serving as the main organ of locomotion—• 
a low, fish-like condition of the structure, indicating in a 
striking manner its extreme decephalization. If the Car¬ 
nivore is a prosthenic animal, or strong before, the whale, 
like a fish, is eminently metasthenic , or strong behind. 

The four grand divisions of mammals are thus strikingly 
marked off by characters based on this principle of ceph- 
alization. 

Turn now to man, at the head of the system of life. He 
is vastly above even the man-apes in the form of the head, 
as well as in its perfection of make, for the jaws project 
but slightly, when at all, beyond the forehead, and his 
back, in his natural position, only a little behind the pos¬ 
terior side of the brain. His nervous system stands verti¬ 
cal, with the brain at the summit; and in average specimens 
of the race the brain is nearly treble the size of the brain 
of a gorilla. His teeth are simply for cutting soft food 
and for chewing, not for tearing flesh or branches of trees, 
of for carrying his young. His fore limbs take no part in 
locomotion; they are transferred completely from the loco¬ 
motive series to the cephalic. His feet may be thought to 
be inferior to a monkey’s, since they cannot clasp a stick or 
branch, like a hand. But this latter quality makes a good 
climber, and serves well a being with the monkey’s pro¬ 
pensities and necessities, but is not befitting man’s erect 
body and higher purposes, which are best served by feet 
that give a firm support. 

The question as to the condition of the life-forces thus 
passes from the sphere of speculation to one of direct 
observation. A lion, for example, exhibits to the eye the 
high degree of cephalization of its structure by its strength 
anteriorly, or that of its head and fore limbs, and the cor¬ 
relate form and structure of these and other parts of the 
body; and a whale manifests its low degree by its degraded 
head and senses, its feeble limbs partly obsolete, and the 
immense size and strength of the tail; and this is so 
obvious that the muscular or motorial force of the two 
might be sufficiently well represented by the annexed 
figures; Fig. 1 corresponding to that of the lion, and 2 to 
that of the right whale, A being the anterior or cephalic 
extremity, and P the posterior 
or caudal extremity. The fig¬ 
ures give a faint idea of what 
is meant by cephalization and 
decephalization. If the senso¬ 
rial forces of the lion were taken 
into consideration, the con¬ 
trast between the two would be 
still greater. C is the position 
of the prime systemic centre; 
its remoteness from the front 
margin in the right whale 

(Fig. 2) is one of the marks of the extreme decephaliza¬ 
tion of the structure. The arrangement of the muscular 
force in different Herbivores might be represented by fig¬ 
ures intermediate between I and 2. 

For further illustration, the Articulates may be referred 
to; that is, the sub-kingdom of animals, including insects, 
spiders, centipedes, crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, etc.), and 
worms, the body and members of which are jointed. The 
three classes are—1, Insecteans; 2, Crustaceans; 3, Worms. 
The transfer of members from the locomotive to the 
cephalic series, or the reverse—one of the most striking 
marks of cephalization in animals having limbs—is well 
shown in the two higher of these classes. The three orders 
or grand divisions of Insecteans are—1, Insects; 2, Spiders; 
3, Myriapods or Centipedes. 

Insects, the highest, have three pairs of feet and three 
pairs of mouth-organs. Spiders have four pairs of feet 
and two of mouth-organs. Here one pair out of the series 
of head-organs in insects is transferred in spiders to the 
locomotive series. Insects and spiders are hence very dis¬ 
tinct types of structure; and the higher is based on superior 
cephalization ; for in insects a larger part of the structure 
is embraced in the cephalic or anterior portion than in 
spiders. 

Both insects and spiders are structures with fixed or 
closed limits, for the number of pairs of feet is limited, 
and the segments of which the body is made admit of no 
increase beyond the normal or regular number. But 
Myriapods are not limited in the number of segments of 
the body, or in that of the pairs of feet; on the contrary, 



they allow of any number of feet and of indefinite length¬ 
ening behind. The order is distinguished by the degrada- 
tional character of indefinite posterior elongation, and as 
indefinite a number of legs—an evidence of low decephali¬ 
zation. 

It appears, then, that in passing from Myriapods to 
typical spiders there is first posterior abbreviation—one 
mark of cephalization ; and in addition the body of the 
spider is not worm-like in being made up of a large num¬ 
ber of similar segments, but has an anterior part set off for 
the purposes of the head and locomotion (called the cephalo- 
thorax) distinct from the abdomen. Next, in passing from 
spiders to insects, one pair of locomotive organs, the an¬ 
terior, becomes a pair of jaws—that is, it is given over to 
head-uses; and, moreover, the head becomes a separate seg¬ 
ment from the thorax, which shows further concentration 
of the forces anteriorly, or a higher grade of cephalization. 

The orders of Crustaceans are three: 1, Decapods, or 
the ten-footed; 2, Tctradecapods, or the fourteen-footed; 
3, Entomostracans, or species with defective feet. In the 
highest, the Decapods, there are five pairs of feet and six 
pairs of mouth-organs; while in the next order, that of 
Tctradecapods, there are seven pairs of feet and four pairs 
of mouth-organs. In the latter, then, the feet have gained 
two pairs, the mouth has lost tivo; or, in other words, two 
pairs have passed from the cephalic to the locomotive 
series. Hence, the Decapods and Tctradecapods differ on 
the same principle as insects and spiders; that is, in the 
transfer of part of the mouth-oi’gans of insects to the loco¬ 
motive series. Like the latter, also, the feet are perfect 
and fixed or limited in number, the regular or normal 
number never being exceeded. They are, therefore, regu¬ 
lar or normal types. 

In descending to the third order, or the Entomostracan, 
from the Tctradecapods, the mouth loses other pairs of 
organs by this method of transfer—in some one pair, in 
others two, in others three, in others four (or all). The 
Entomostracans are defective in both their feet and seg¬ 
ments, and are degradational forms; and hence these 
several grades of transfer have not separately the import¬ 
ance which belongs to them in the regular or normal types. 
In going up from Entomostracans to Tetradecapods, the 
system of structure becomes normal and the number of 
mouth-organs or jaws four pairs, the locomotive number¬ 
ing seven pairs; and then in passing from Tetradecapods 
to Decapods, the two of the seven pairs of locomotive 
organs become jaws, or are turned over to the head. 

Again, among Decapods, or ten-footed Crustaceans, the 
prime difference between the crab and the lobster or shrimp 
is, that in the former the head of the latter is shortened, 
and its parts abbreviated and more compacted together, and 
the abdomen or tail-portion reduced from great length and 
great strength (which makes an organ of locomotion) to a 
very short, narrow, and feeble organ packed away under 
the rest of the body. There is concentration and compact¬ 
ing of the whole structure—a shortening in before and be¬ 
hind—on an extraordinary scale, and thus the crab exhibits 
its higher grade of cephalization. 

Again, an insect and a crab are both Articulates, and 
are built on a common fundamental type of structure. At 
the same time, the insect, though very much the smaller, is 
greatly higher in degree of cephalization. The head and 
thorax of the insect answer together to the head alone of 
the crab, its three pairs of jaws and three pairs of legs cor¬ 
responding to simply the six pairs of jaws in the Decapod. 
Thus, abbreviation before and behind, and concentration 
of the system, are here carried to an extreme perhaps not 
exceeded in the whole animal kingdom. We appreciate 
this when we consider the minuteness of the brain—or, 
more properly, of the cephalic ganglion—of a bee or an 
ant, and the wonderful instinctive intelligence, and also 
mechanical power, which proceed from it. > 

The varieties of the human race afford other illustrations 
of the principle of cephalization. The lower races of men 
have projecting jaws, a retreating forehead, and generally 
a head elongated behind. With upward progress in cephal¬ 
ization, the jaws shorten in, and the head changes in pro¬ 
portions from elongation liindward to fulness in front, with 
increasing breadth and height and verticality of forehead. 
There is an increase of head-power accompanying this 
shortening before and behind, and the bringing of the 
mouth directly under the vertical forehead; and all is an 
effect of upward progress in cephalization. It has been 
stated by American dentists that it is not uncommon for 
the outer incisor to be crowded out, and the posterior molar 
to fail of development; and this, if true, may be a direct 
effect of the shortening of the jaws still going on. Whether 
so or not, it is certain that the jaws of man are made short 
through the rejection of twelve of the forty-four teeth that 
belong to the typical mammals, man having but thirty-two, 
so that the progress in cephalization of the mammalian 











CEPHALONIA—CERCARIA. 


859 


typo has apparently forced out three from either side of 
either jaw—viz. one incisor and two premolars. Another 
effect of cephalization, or concentration headward, in the 
highest type of mammals has been a shortening of the 
arms, the arms being extra long in the apes, man-apes in¬ 
cluded. Dr. B. A. Gould found in his measurements of 
soldiers (to which work he was called by the Christian 
Commission during the war) that the negroes had the arm 
on an average an inch longer than the whites. We may 
hence conclude that cephalization has presided over the 
greater part of the changes in form which man has under¬ 
gone in passing from the savage to the civilized state. 

It follows from the facts that have been presented, that 
if the animal races have made progress through the ages 
as a consequence of a struggle for life and natural selection, 
as claimed by Darwin, or if there has been any system of 
natural causes at the basis of evolution, the progress must 
have been subordinated to this law of cephalization. The 
brain is the part of an animal that, in one way or another, 
comes most into contact with the outer world; for all the 
senses react upon it, and hence all outside influences and 
the whole constitution of the being bear upon its condition. 
It would be likely, therefore, to undergo modifications for 
better or worse according as the conditions favor progress 
or the reverse. This may not unfrequently be the source 
of new varieties of animals—that is, the means by which 
an impress is made on the embryo and a new. variety 
initiated. 

The evidences of the connection of grade, and also of 
classification, with cephalization, might be traced through 
all the grand divisions of the animal kingdom. But to 
give full illustrations of the subject in the various depart¬ 
ments of zoology would require a mention of details that 
would here be out of place. Sufficient has been brought 
forward to explain the principle, and givo some idea of its 
importance. J. D. Dana. 

Cephalo'nia [anc. Cephallenia ; Gr. Ke^aAATjvi'a], the 
largest of the Ionian Islands, and now constituting one of 
the nomarchies of the kingdom of Greece, is in the Medi¬ 
terranean near the W. coast of Greece. It is about lat. 38° 
N. and Ion. 20° 30' E. The greatest length is 32 miles, and 
the area 300 square miles. The surface is mountainous, 
the climate is pleasant, and the soil is mostly thin. The 
highest summit rises about 5000 feet above the level of the 
sea. The chief articles of export are currants and olive oil. 
The principal towns are Argostoli and Lixuri. There are 
many ancient ruins upon the island. This island was call¬ 
ed Samos by Homer. Pop. in 1870, 77,382. 

Cephalop'oda, or Ceph'alopods [from the Gr. 
Ke<f>a\ij, “ head,” and tiWs (gen. tto 56?), the “ foot,” because 
the “arms” or “feet” surround the mouth], the highest 
class of the Mollusca, including the cuttle-fishes, nautili, 
argonauts, ammonites, etc., all marine and carnivorous, and 
all laterally symmetrical, having a shell usually straight, 
but sometimes coiled in a vertical plane. The nautili and 
argonauts alone have external shells, though many extinct 
species had them ; but the other living species have gen¬ 
erally an internal shell, of which “ cuttle-fish bone ” affords 
an example. The cephalopods have muscular arms or ten¬ 
tacles, used in prehension and locomotion ; many have fins, 
and all have the power of locomotion by forcibly expelling 
water from the gill-chamber. They generally have two 
large eyes, ear cavities, each containing an otolite, two jaws, 
and a fleshy, spinous tongue. The nervous system is well 
developed. The brain is a peri-oesophageal ring. The 
gills are either two or four in number, placed in a chamber 
into which water is admitted by a slit, and from which it is 
expelled through a “ siphon ” or “ funnel.” The class is 
divided into two orders—Dibranchiata and Tetrabranchiata, 
2-gillcd and 4-gilled cephalopods. 

The Dibranchiata are swimmers, having (except the ar¬ 
gonauts) an internal shell, or rarely none at all; eight or 
ten arms, with suckers and sometimes sharp hooks upon 
them; and an ink-bag filled with a dark fluid for coloring 
the water, concealing the animal in times of danger. The 
Dibranchiata are divided into octopods, having eight arms 
only (argonauts and Octopodidae), and decapods, having 
ten arms, two of which are longer and used as tentacles 
(squids, belemnites (fossil), cuttle-fishes, and spirulm). 

The Tetrabranchiata are mostly extinct. They have 
external chambered shells, are creepers instead of swim¬ 
mers, have four gills instead of two, have very numerous 
arms, eyes on a stem instead of being sessile, and ha\ e 
one heart with a single chamber, while the Dibranchiates 
have also two gill-hearts. The Tetrabranchiata have no 
ink-bag. The Nautilus proper (not the argonaut or paper 
nautilus) is the only living genus. The fossil species are 
very numerous, and include Nautilidie, Oithoccratidse, and 
Ammonitidae. 

Cephalop'tera [from the Gr. fce<£>aA»i, the “ head,” and 


nrepov, a “ fin ” or “ wing ”], a genus of cartilaginous marine 
fishes belonging to the ray family, and including the 
Cephaloptera vampirus, called sea-devil or vampire, some¬ 
times weighing several tons. It is much wider than it is 
long, measuring some seventeen feet by ten. Each side of 
the head has a pre-cephalic fin coiled upon itself in the 
shape of a horn. It is sometimes found on the southern 
coast of the U. S., and is said to have been known to seize 
the cables of small vessels and tow them for miles at a 
great speed. 

Ce'pheus, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, 
comprises about thirty-five stars, the largest of which is 
Aldcramin, a star of the third magnitude. 

Cerac'chi (Giuseppe), a skilful Italian sculptor, born 
about 1760, came to Philadelphia in 1701, and executed 
fine busts of Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and others. 
Among his works is a statue of Bonaparte. As an accom¬ 
plice of Arena in a conspiracy against the life of Bona¬ 
parte, he was executed in 1802. 

Ceram', or Zcram', an island of the Malay Archi¬ 
pelago, is the largest of the Moluccas except one. It is 
between Booroo and Papua, about 3° S. of the equator. 
Its length E. and W. is nearly 2C0 miles, and its area about 
0500 square miles. Pop. 67,000. It is partly occupied by 
mountains, the highest points of which rise 8000 feet or 
more above the level of the sea. The vegetation here is 
luxuriant, and the highlands are mostly covered with 
forests. The clove and nutmeg grow wild in Ceram, which 
also produces the sago-palm in abundance. The lowlands 
are peopled by Malays, who are bold sailors and pursue 
trade. The mountains arc inhabited by fierce Alfooroos. 
The Dutch claim the sovereignty of this island. 

Ccramia'cese, a natural order of cryptogamous plants, 
or a sub-order of Algm, consisting of sea-weeds of a rose 
color, with fronds formed of cells arranged in rows or in a 
single row; the sporocarps contain cells or spores, often in 
fours, with a transparent perispore, and enclosed in recep¬ 
tacles. They arc found in the seas of the northern tem¬ 
perate zone. Many of them are beautiful, and some spe¬ 
cies afford food, as dulse and Carrageen (which see). 
The edible birds’ nests of the Chinese market are supposed 
to derive their value from a plant of this order. 

Ceram'ic [from the Gr. sipapos, “potter’s clay,” an 
“earthen vessel” or “pottery”], pertaining to pottery, fic¬ 
tile. The term ceramic art is applied to the department 
of plastic art, which comprises all objects made of baked 
clay, as Abases, urns, bassi-rilievi, etc. 

Cerami'cus [Gr. Kepapeisos ; see last article], a place 
near Athens and without the walls where citizens who fell 
in battle were buried at the public expense; the potter's 
field or quarter. 

Ceras'tes [from the Gr. Ke'pas. a “horn ”], or Horned 

Snake, a genus of ven¬ 
omous serpents of North¬ 
ern Africa, having a flat¬ 
tened head, two roevs of 
plates under the tail, and 
keeled but not spinous 
scales. The nostril is 
small and semi-lunar. Its 
Cerastes. name is derived from the 

horned scale which grows 
upon the eyelids of the male. Several deadly species of 
Clotho of West and South Africa have somewhat similar 
horns, and are by some included in this cognate genus. 

Ce'rate [Lat. ceratum, from cera, “wax”], a compound 
of Avax Avith other oily and medicinal substances in such 
proportions as to haA’e the consistence of an ointment. 
Simple cerate is made by melting together equal parts of 
white Avax and olive oil; they are to be heated together, 
and carefully stirred into a uniform consistence Avhilc 
cooling. 

Cerati'tes [from the Gr. k e'pa?, a “horn,” and Ai'0os, a 
“stone”],-a genus of fossil Aminonitidm characteristic of 
the trias formation, to which it is peculiar. It is distin¬ 
guished by having the lobes of the sutures serrated, Avhilc 
the intervening curves, directed towards the aperture, are 
simple. 

Cer'bertis [Gr. Ktp/Scpos], the triple-headed dog which, 
as the ancient Greeks imagined, guarded the portal of the 
infernal regions. He resisted only those who attempted 
to come out of Hades. Hercules is said to have over])OAA r - 
ered him and dragged him out. The name Cerberus was 
given by Hevelius to a northern constellation. 

Cerca'ria, the larval form of various trematodc Ayorms 
( Distoma , llilharzia , etc.). The perfect worm deposits an 
egg, which hatches into a curious little sac, formerly known 
as Opalina , itself often cntozoic, and onco believed to be 
















860 


CERCIS CANADENSIS—CERIGNOLA. 




language, cereal means pertaining to edible grain or bread- 
stuffs, as wheat, rye, maize, and barley; as a noun it de¬ 
notes those articles of food. 


Cerea'Iia, or Cereal Plants, the plants which 
produce edible grains, and are cultivated for their seeds, 
which are used as breadstuff's. With the exception of 
buckwheat, they belong to the order Graminaceai (true 
grasses), but differ widely in structure and characters. 
Having been cultivated from a very remote antiquity and 
modified by cultivation, their original forms and native 
countries cannot be ascertained. Difficulty is found in 
arranging the numerous varieties in their proper species. 
The most important cereal grasses are wheat ( Triticum), 
barley ( Hordeum ), maize (Zea), rye ( Secale ), rice ( Oryza ), 
and oats {Arena). Rice is the chief food of a greater num¬ 
ber of the human family than any other grain, 
but wheat is generally admitted to be superior 
as a material for bread to all the other cereals. 
Maize will thrive in regions which are too warm 
for wheat. The cereal grains are extensively 
used in the manufacture of fermented and dis¬ 
tilled liquors. 

Cerebellum. See Brain, by Prof. Henry 
Hartshorne, A. M. 

Cer'ebro-spi'nal Flu'id, a serous liquid, 
of alkaline reaction, containing a small percent¬ 
age of saline and animal matters. It fills the 
subarachnoid space, between the arachnoid mem¬ 
brane and pia-mater, both within the skull and 
the vertebral canal. It prevents injury from con¬ 
cussions and shocks, and perhaps prevents undue 
pressure upon the brain by withdrawing itself 
into the spinal canal at times when the brain 
contains more blood than usual. In certain dis¬ 
eases it is secreted in great excess. 

Cerebro-spinal Meningitis. See Men¬ 
ingitis. 


Cere'do, a post-village of Wayne co., West 
Va., on the Ohio River, about 12 miles S. E. of Ironton 
(0.). It has a manufactory of glass bottles. Pop. includ¬ 
ing Ceredo township, 1297. 

Cereop'sis, a genus of Australian geese, extremely 
common on the continent and islands of its native region. 
They are large and easily domesticated, but are quarrel¬ 
some, and when tamed are so fierce and so 
tyrannical in the poultry-yard that they have 
not been generally bred. Unlike other geese, 
they seldom seek the water. The Cereopsis 
Norse Hollandise, or Capo Barron goose, is 
the best known species. 

Ce'res, the Roman name of the goddess 
of agriculture, whom the Greeks called De¬ 
meter, and to whom men were supposed to 
be indebted for the gift of breadstutfs. She 
was said to be the daughter of Cronos (Sat¬ 
urn) and the mother of Proserpine. The 
most remarkable part of the myth of Ceres 
was the abduction of her daughter by Pluto, 
and the long search which Ceres made for her. 
(Sec Proserpine.) 

Ceres, the name of an asteroid discovered 
by Piazzi at Palermo in Jan., 1801. It was 
the first asteroid ever discovered. Its ap¬ 
parent size is nearly equal to that of a star 
of the seventh magnitude. 

Ceres, a township of McKean co., Pa. 
Pop. 798. 

Ccres'co, a township of Blue Earth co., 
Minn. Pop. 313. > 

Ceresole (Paul), a Swiss statesman, born 
Nov. 16, 1832, son of a clergyman, studied law in Lau¬ 
sanne. He held several offices in the cantonal government 
of Yaud, and became a member of the Swiss Federal As¬ 
sembly in 1870, of which he became vice-president in 1872, 
and president in 1873. He was identified with a move¬ 
ment by which the central government was greatly strength¬ 
ened. 


Cercopithecus cynosurus. 


nL0r)Ko<>, an “ ape ”], a genus of small, long-tailed African 
monkeys of the family Simiadae. The species arc very nu¬ 
merous. They have mostly long hair, and long and large 
tails, which they carry over the back. They are collective¬ 
ly called guenons by some authors. One of the best known 
is the malbrouck (Cercopithecus cynosurus ), or dog-tailed 
monkey. 


an infusorian. The opalina in turn gives birth by in¬ 
ternal gemmation to one or more Cercarise, which are oval 
tailed organisms which swim actively in water, and finally 
enter, if possible, into the bodies of insect larvae, mollusks, 
fishes, etc., and are thus often indirectly, or in many cases 
directly, introduced into the stomachs of men and various 
vertebrate animals. Here they become developed into 
trematode worms. 

Cer'cis Canaden'sis, Red Bud, or Judas Tree, 

a small tree of the natural order Leguminosae, is a native 
of the U. S., and is cultivated as an ornamental tree. It 
has cordate, pointed leaves, and red-purple flowers in 
umbel-like clusters. It flowers early in the spring, before 
its leaves are opened. (See Judas Tree.) 

Cexcoce'bus [from the Gr. k e'pKo?, a “tail,” and k^os, 


Cercocebus fuliginosus. 

a “monkey”], a genus of long-tailed African monkeys, 
collectively called “mangabeys ” by Buffon. They are re¬ 
markable for their ludicrous antics, their almost constant 
grotesque grinning, and their general good temper. The 
sooty monkey (Cercocebus fuliginosus) is the best known. 
Cercopithe'cus [from the Gr. /ceparos, a “tail,” and 




Cere, a river of Southern France, noted for the pictur¬ 
esque beauty of its valley, flows through Cantal and Lot, 
and enters the Dordogne. It is about 55 miles long. 

Ccre'a, a market-town of Italy, in the province of 
Verona, in Lombardy, 19 miles S. S. E. of Verona. It has 
the ruins of an ancient castle. Pop. 5518. 

Cc'real [Lat. cerealis, from Ceres, the goddess of agri¬ 
culture]. Originally, cerealis signified pertaining to Ceres 
or sacred to Ceres. Bread or grain was called cerealia 
munera (“cereal gifts,” or “gifts of Ceres”). In modern 


Cc'reus, a genus of plants of the order Cactaceas, com¬ 
prises about 100 species, some of which have beautiful 
flowers. The Cereus speciosissimus, a native of Mexico, is 
cultivated in greenhouses. Its flowers arc large and of a 
fine scarlet color, and its fruit, when well ripened, is de¬ 
licious. The night-blooming cereus ( Cereus grandijlorus ), 
a native of South America, bears large, beautiful, and fra¬ 
grant flowers, which expand and fade in the course of one 
night. It has been used in medicine as an antispasmodic. 

Ccrigno'Sa, an episcopal town of Italy, in the prov- 
















CERIGO—CERTIORARI. 861 


ince of Foggia, 24 miles S. E. of Foggia. It has a college 
and several convents; also manufactures of linen. The 
Spaniards gained here a decided victory over the French 
in 1503, and the French commander, the duke of Nemours, 
was killed in that action. Pop. 17,242. 

Cer'igo [anc. Cythera ; Gr. KvOypa], one of the Ionian 
Islands, now constituting, with the neighboring small isl¬ 
ands, an eparchy of the nomarchy of Argolis and Corinth, 
in the kingdom of Greece, is in the Mediterranean, and is 
separated by a narrow strait from the Morea. Area, 107 
square miles. The surface is mountainous and rocky. The 
soil is not rich, but produces some wheat, olives, grapes, etc. 
Here is a remarkable stalactitic cavern. The ancient Cytliera 
was sacred to Venus, and said to be her favorite residence. 
Capital, Capsali. Pop. in 1870, 10,637. 

Cerin'thus [Gr. Ki}p«/0os], a heretic who lived in Asia 
Minor and Syria between 50 and 100 A. 1). He was the 
founder of a sect called Cerinthians, and appears to have 
been a Gnostic. He taught that the righteous shall arise 
from the dead and enjoy a millennium in this world. 
The statements of the early Christian writers on the sub¬ 
ject of his doctrines are contradictory. It is supposed 
that St. John wrote his Gospel to confute the errors of 
Cerinthus. 

Ce'rite, or Och'roite, a name of a mineral which con¬ 
tains a silicate of cerium, and is found in Sweden. It occurs 
in granular pieces of a clove-brown, cherry-red, or gray 
color, and has a splintery fracture and adamantine lustre. It 
contains in 100 parts—peroxide of cerium, 26.55; oxide of 
lanthanum, 33.38; silica, 16; carbonic acid, 4.62; peroxide 
of iron, 3.53 ; alumina, 1.68 ; lime, 3.56; water, 9.1. 

Ce'rilim (symbol Ce; equivalent 92), a rare metal 
which is obtained from cerite. It is not employed in 
the arts and manufactures, but its oxalate is a valuable 
anti-emetic medicine in certain cases. Combined with 
oxygen, it forms two oxides. It is difficult to procure it in 
a separate or metallic state.* 

Cerre'to Sanni'ta, a town of Italy, in the province 
of Benevento, is on a slope of the Apennines, 22 miles N. 
E. of Capua. It has a cathedral with fine paintings, a col¬ 
legiate church, and manufactures of coarse woollen cloth. 
Pop. 5168. 

Cer'ro-tle-Pas'co, or Pasco, a town of Peru, de¬ 
partment of Junin, is 138 miles N. E. of Lima, and 13,673 
feet above the level of the sea. It is ill-built and irregular. 
The population is variable, and consists of miners. Here 
are rich silver-mines. Pop. 14,000. 

Cer'ro Gor'ilo, a county in the N. of Iowa. Area, 
576 square miles. It is drained hy Shell Rock River and 
Lime Creek. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. 
Corn, wheat, and wool are staple crops. It is intersected 
by a branch of the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., and by 
the Central R. R. of Iowa. Capital, Mason City. Pop. 4722. 

Cerro Gordo, a post-village, capital of Holmes co., 
Fla., 105 miles W. N. W. of Tallahassee, on the navigable 
Ckoctawhatchie River. Pop. 672. 

Cerro Gordo, apost-township of Inyo co., Cal. P. 474. 

Cerro Gordo, a township of Piatt co., Ill. Pop. 1650. 

Cerro Gordo, a celebrated battle-field and mountain- 
pass in Mexico, through which the National road from 
Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico passes. Here Gen. Scott 
defeated a greatly superior force of Mexicans under Santa 
Anna, April 18, 1847. Following up his success at Vera 
Cruz, Scott’s army had arrived at Plan del Rio, a small 
plain 50 miles from Vera Cruz, when intelligence reached 
him that the pass of Cerro Gordo had been fortified by Santa 
Anna. The level ground terminates at Plan del Rio, from 
which the road ascends in a long circuit among lofty hills, 
whose commanding points had been fortified by the enemy. 
His right rested on a precipice overhanging an impassable 
ravine, his entrenchments extending to the road, on which 
was placed a battery. On the other side the lofty and diffi¬ 
cult height of Cerro Gordo commanded the approaches in 
all directions. Half a mile to the rear of this height the 
Mexican army, numbering upwards of 13,000, with five 
pieces of artillery, were encamped. Resolving to attempt 
to turn the enemy’s left and attack in rear while threaten¬ 
ing his front, Scott caused daily reconnoissances to be made 
in the hope of finding a route by which to reach the Jalapa 
road and cut off the retreat of the Mexicans. A road was 
made through difficult slopes and over chasms, which was 
only abandoned when a further prosecution of the work 

* This metal takes its name from the planet Ceres, following 
the analogy of the names Mercury, Palladium, etc. Old writers 
speak of gold as “Sol,” the Latin for “Sun,” silver as “Luna,” 
the “ Moon.” Copper was called Venus; lead, Saturn; tin, Jupi¬ 
ter ; and iron, Mars. These terms were used by the alchemists, 
and seem to have had some reference to astrology. 


would have brought on an action. Scott now determined 
to gain the Jalapa road by assaulting and carrying the 
height of Cerro Gordo, and on the night of April 17 issued 
his plan of battle, which provided for the attack in front of 
the enemy’s whole line of intrenchments, at the same time 
turning them. At an early hour on the morning of the 18th, 
Twiggs’ (second) division of regulars, already far advanced 
towards the enemy’s left, was to move before daylight and 
take up position across the National road in the enemy’s 
rear, to cut off retreat towards Jalapa ; reinforcements were 
also provided for for Twiggs; Worth’s (first) division to 
follow at sunrise ; Pillow’s brigade to march at 6 A. M. along 
an already carefully reconnoitred road, and hold itself in 
readiness as soon as the attack on our right commenced to 
pierce the enemy’s line of batteries at a point to be selected 
by him, and once in the rear of that line to attack the 
enemy in reverse, or pursue with vigor if the enemy aban¬ 
doned their line. The cavalry to be held in reserve, also 
Wall’s battery; and, looking to the success of the move¬ 
ment, a vigorous pursuit of the enemy was to be continued 
until stopped by darkness or fortifications. 

This plan of attack was successfully executed. Twiggs 
was reinforced during the night by Shields’ brigade, con¬ 
sisting of one New York and two Illinois regiments. In 
selecting their ground for bivouacking and an opposing 
height for a battery, a sharp combat took place, but the 
height was occupied and a battery of three 24-pounders 
placed thereon. During the night an 8-inch howitzer was 
with great difficulty and labor placed opposite the enemy’s 
right battery. 

Early on the 18tli the general attack commenced. Pil¬ 
low’s brigade twice assaulted the enemy’s line of batteries 
on the left; but, though unsuccessful, they served to dis¬ 
tract their opponents; Twiggs’ division, storming the strong 
and vital point of Cerro Gordo, pierced the centre, gained 
command of all the intrenchments, and cut them oil' from 
support; Riley’s brigade of infantry pushed on against the 
main body of the enemy, and the guns of their own fort 
being turned on them, they fled in confusion; Shields’ 
brigade bravely assaulted the left, carried the rear battery 
of five guns on the Jalapa road, and rendered important 
aid in completing the rout of the enemy. At an early part 
of the engagement Gen. Shields received a severe but not 
fatal wound, being shot through the lungs. The moment 
the fate of the day was decided the reserve forces were 
pushed on towards Jalapa in advance of the pursuing col¬ 
umns of Twiggs’ division and Shields’ brigade (the latter 
now under Col. E. D. Baker), and Gen. Patterson was sent 
to take command. The rout was complete; 3000 prison¬ 
ers were taken, 4000 or 5000 stand of arms, and 43 pieces 
of artillery. Our loss in the two days was 431, of whom 63 
were killed. The immediate results of this important battle 
were the occupation of Jalapa the next day, the abandon¬ 
ment of the works and artillery at La Hoya, and the occu¬ 
pation by Worth’s division of the castle and town of Perote, 
with fifty-four guns and immense supplies of ammunition. 

Cer'ro Gor'do de Potosi', a famous mountain of 
Bolivia, is immediately S. W. of PotosL It contains rich 
silver-mines. Altitude, 16,150 feet. 

Certal'do, a town of Italy, in the province of Florence, 
is pictui’esquely situated on the Elsa, 18 miles S. W. of 
Florence. It was the birthplace of Boccaccio, whose house 
is still preserved. Pop. 6562. 

Certificate [from the Lat. certus, “certain,” and facia , 
to “make”], in law. (1) A writing made by a court, or 
signed by a judge or officer, giving notice of the existence 
of certain facts. A certificate of a judge is frequently re¬ 
sorted to for the purpose of determining the amount of 
costs to be recovered in an action, as, for example, to state 
whether the title to real property came in question at a 
trial. (2) A writing issued by any one, though not a judge 
or officer of court, having the means of knowledge, stating 
certain facts, such as a “ certificate of registry ” by custom¬ 
house officers setting forth the national character of a ship. 
Certificates of various kinds became of much importance 
under the recent stamp acts of Congress, stamps being im¬ 
posed upon them by law. (See the stamp laws passim.) 

Certiora'ri [Lat. “to be made more certain ”], a writ is¬ 
sued from a supreme court to an inferior court or a special 
body having judicial powers, such as commissioners, magis¬ 
trates, assessors of taxes, etc., acting in a summary manner or 
in a method different from the common law. Its object is to 
review the proceedings of the inferior court or tribunal, or 
to remove them before trial and judgment, and it is appli¬ 
cable either to civil or criminal cases. When used as a 
means of review of an actual decision or determination 
made by the inferior tribunal, its office is to correct errors 
made in point of law, rather than to reconsider the subject 
on matters of fact. Thus, if a board ot assessors of taxes 
should decide that a bank could be taxed under State au- 














862 


CEKTOSA DI PAVIA, LA—CESNOLA, DI. 


tliority upon that portion of its property which is invested 
in the bonds of the U. S. government, it would decide a 
point of law which might, by means of a writ of certiorari, 
be submitted to the various State courts, and finally to the 
Supreme Court of the U. S. This writ may also be resorted 
to for the purpose of supplying any defects in the return 
of its proceedings by the inferior tribunal to the superior 
court. It may be considered in this aspect as auxiliary to 
the main purpose of removing the record itself. 

Certo'sa di Pavi'a, La, a celebrated monastery 
near Pavfa, in Italy, in the province of Pavia, in the Gothic 
style, was founded in 1396 by Visconti, the first duke of 
Milan. Here is a magnificent church 235 feet long, adorned 
with fine paintings, sculptures, and mosaics. 

Ceru'men [from the Lat. cera, “ wax ”], a Latin term 
denoting the yellow waxy matter secreted by certain glands 
lying in the passage that leads from the external opening 
of the ear to the membrane of the tympanum. It possesses 
a peculiarly bitter taste, and physiologists have believed 
that in consequence of this property it prevents insects from 
entering the auditory canal. 

Ce'ruse [Lat. cerusa ], a name of white lead, which is 
a carbonate of lead, and is extensively used by house- 
painters, who mix it with linseed oil. It has been employed 
by ladies as a cosmetic. 

Ce'rusite, or Cerussite, native carbonate of lead, 
occurs in fibrous, compact, and earthy masses, and in nu¬ 
merous crystalline forms which may be referred to a right 
rhombic prism. When pui - e, it consists of 16.42 per cent, 
of carbonic acid and 83.58 of oxide of lead, or 77 per cent, 
of metallic lead. When perfectly pure, it is colorless and 
transparent, with an adamantine lustre, which is resinous 
on fractured surfaces. Next to galena, cei'usite is the most 
common ore of lead. 

Cerut'ti (Giuseppe Antonio), an Italian Jesuit, born 
June 13, 1738. Ilis principal work is an “Apology for the 
Order of Jesuits.” He was a fi-iend of Mirabeau, whom 
he assisted in some of his works. Died Feb. 2, 1792. 

Cervan'tes Saave'dra, de (Miguel), a celebrated 
Spanish author, born at Alcala de Henares Oct. 9, 1547. 
He was educated in the universities of Salamanca and 
Madrid. He enlisted about 1570 in the papal army, and 
was wounded at the famous naval battle of Lepanto in 
1571. Having been captured by the Algerines about 1575, 
ho was detained in slavery at Algiers and endured great 
sufferings. He was i*ansomed in 1580, retux-ned to Spain, 
and served sevei’al campaigns in the Spanish army. In 
1584 he produced “ Galatea,” a pastoral romance; the same 
year he married Catalina de Palacios Salazar y Vozmediano. 
He afterwards wrote numerous dramas, among which was 
a tragedy called “ Numancia.” Some of these were per¬ 
formed with success, but they did not em-ich him, and he 
continued to suffer from poverty. He resided at Seville 
between 1588 and 1600. His celebidty is founded on a 
satirical work called “ Don Quixote de la Mancha,” which 
was designed to correct the taste of his countrymen, 
who delighted in the extravagant romances of chivalry. 
The first part of “Don Quixote” appeared in 1605, and 
obtained immediate and immense popularity. The second 
part was published in 1615. Cervantes resided at Madrid 
from 1605 until his death. Among his other woi-ks are 
his “Novelas Exemplares” (“Moral Tales,” 1613), and a 
poem entitled “Viaje al Parnaso” (“Journey to Parnas¬ 
sus,” 1614), which is greatly admired. He died on the 
same day as Shakspeare, April 23, 1616. 

“‘Don Quixote,’” says Hallarn, “is the only book in the 
Spanish language which can now be said to possess much 
of a European reputation. It is to Europe in general what 
Ariosto is to Italy and Shakspeare to England. Numei-ous 
translations, and countless editions of them, in every lan¬ 
guage, bespeak its adaptation to mankind; and no critic 
has been found paradoxical enough to withhold his admira¬ 
tion. . . . Few books of moi-al philosophy display so deep 
an insight into the mechanism of the mind as ‘ Don Quix¬ 
ote.’ And when we look also at the fertility of invention, 
the general pi'obability of events, and the great simplicity 
of the story, we shall think Cervantes fully deserving of 
the glory that attends this monument of his genius.” (In¬ 
troduction to the Literature of Europe.) (See T. Roscoe, 
“Life and Writings of Cervantes,” 1839; Lockhart, “Life 
of Cervantes,” 1822; Pellicer, “Vida de Cervantes,” 
1800; Ticicnor, “History of Spanish Literature,” vol. ii. ; 
Merimee, “Notice sur Cervantes,” 1806.) 

Cer'via, a town of Italy, in the province of Ravenna, 
on the Adriatic, 12 miles S. S. E. of Ravenna. It has a 
cathedral and several convents; also salt-works, from which 
about 50,000 tons of salt are annually obtained. Pop. 5820. 

Ccr'vidfB [from cervus, a “deer”], a family of animals 
of which tho deer is the type. 


Cervin, Mont [Ger. Matterhorii], a sublime peak of 
the Pennine Alps, is on the frontier between Piedmont and 
Switzerland, and 12 miles W. N. W. of Monte Rosa. It 
has an altitude of 14,825 feet above the level of the sea. 
The part which is above the height of 11,000 feet is almost 
inaccessibly steep, and is described as an obelisk of naked 
rock. The pass of Mont Cervin is practicable in summer 
for horses and mules at an elevation of 10,938 feet. 

Cesalpi'no, often Anglicized as Caesal'pin (Andrea), 
an eminent Italian physiologist and botanist, born at 
Arezzo, in Tuscany, in 1519. He was professor of medicine 
and botany at Pisa, and became about 1595 physician to 
Pope Clement VIII. He wrote several medical treatises, 
among which is “ Ars Medica” (1601), and an important 
work “ On Plants” (“De Plantis,” 1583), in which he pro¬ 
pounded an improved system of botany. He was the first 
who pi’oposed a natural system of classification on philo¬ 
sophical principles. Died Feb. 23, 1603. (See Fuciis, 
“Andi-eas Ca3salpinus,” etc., 1798.) 

Ce'sar Creek, a township of Dearboim co., Ind. Pop. 

556. 

Ces'ari (Giuseppe), an Italian painter, sometimes called 
II Cavaliere d’Arpino and Giuseppino (Fr. Lc Josephin), 
was born at Arpino or Rome about 1565. Ho woi-ked 
mostly in Rome, was patronized by several popes, and was 
very successful and popular. He was the chief of the con¬ 
ventional school, opposed by the naturalists, the Caracci, 
Caravaggio, and their scholars. His works display much 
skill in execution, but are deficient in simplicity. Died in 
1640. 

Cese'na, a town of Italy, in the province of Forli, and 
on the railway between Bologna and Ancona, 18 miles by 
rail S. E. of Forli. It is situated on the slope of a hill 
which is close to the river Savio. It has a cathedral; a 
Capuchin church, in which is a fine painting by Guei-ciuo; 
a libi'ary founded in 1452; and sevei’al convents. It has 
sulphur-mines in the vicinity. Pop. 7777. 

Cesenat/ico, a seaport-town of Italy, in the province 
of Forli, on the Adriatic, 8 miles E. N. E. of Cesena. It 
is pai-tly enclosed by walls. Pop. 5725. 

Cesnola, di (Luigi Palma), Count, was born near Tu¬ 
rin July 29, 1832. He belongs to an old family; his uncle. 
Count Alarino Palma, who was distinguished in the Italian 
revolution of 1821, fought for Greek independence, was 
president of the tribunal at Missolonghi, and a judge of 
the supreme court at Athens. Di Cesnola graduated at 
the Italian Royal Military Academy, after having fought 
in the war of Italian independence, and was afterwards on 
the staff of General Ansaldi in the Crimea. In 1860 he 
came to America, and after the battle of Bull Run in 1861 
he entered the volunteer service, and was made colonel of 
the Fourth New York Cavalry. “His regiment entered 
the service 1200 strong, received 800 recruits, and retui'ned 
at the close of its term 190 men. Di Cesnola distinguished 
himself upon many occasions, especially at Perryville, 
Brandy Station, and Aldie. At the last-named battle his 
gallantry so impressed Major-General Kilpatrick that he 
presented him his own sword upon the field. That day he 
led five chai'ges, and at the last his horse was shot under 
him; he was wounded, and fell into the hands of the enemy. 
Ho was confined many months in Libby Prison, where he 
acted as military instructor to his fellow-prisonei-s. He was 
specially exchanged upon the unanimous request of the 
officers of his i-egiment, and was thus enabled to take part 
in the closing scenes of the war. The Avar over, he \vas 
brevetted brigadier-general, became an American citizen, 
and l’eceived the appointment of consul at Cyprus, Avhere 
ho made a successful resistance to Turkish tyranny. In 
1869 lie took sides with Greece against Turkey, and in the 
absence from Cyprus of the Greek consul he acted for him 
Avitli great tact and discretion, closing in’three days the 
civil and criminal affairs of 300 Hellenic subjects and 
issuing passports to 500. The Greek population of the isl¬ 
and showed the liveliest appreciation of his services, and 
the pi-esident of the Greek cabinet, M. Boulgaris, tendered 
him the chief command of the Gi'eclc cavalry in the event 
of a Avar with Turkey.” 

Such wci-e the distinguished antecedents of Di Cesnola 
Avhen he began those explorations which have mado his 
name famous wherever the serious art and the scientific 
investigation of the soui'ces of history arc held in honor. 
Instead of resting in ease in his quiet consular post, his 
active mind and body sought occupation, and soon found 
it in the task of exploring the soil of Larnica, a seaport 
of the island of Cyprus, and long reputed the site of the 
ancient Citium. Upon reaching Cyprus, Di Cesnola had 
heard of the great bronze tazza recently discovered at 
Amathunta, and presented by Napoleon III. to the Lou¬ 
vre. He at once began his researches among tombs that 
had been opened years before, and Avas rcAvardcd Avith 













CESPEDES—CESTUI QUE TRUST. 


863 


the discovery of many terra-cottas. Besides many statu¬ 
ettes of the crowned Venus, he found a number of little 
figures bearing plain marks of Assyrian, Egyptian, and 
Phoenician influences, such indeed as the varying history 
of the island might have led him to expect to come across ; 
and he now pushed on his diggings eagerly, seeing that the 
result of them must surely be to throw new light upon the 
ethnography, history, religion, and art of the East. His 
excavations were not confined to Larnica. He soon dis¬ 
covered the necropolis of the ancient Idalium, and in these 
tombs made discoveries of marbles, coins, bronzes, en¬ 
graved gems, and objects in gold, with hundreds and hun¬ 
dreds of terra-cottas. The mere catalogue of these things 
would take up many pages of this book; and it does not 
need to be said that the report of discoveries so important 
to the historian, the archaeologist, and the artist roused au 
enthusiasm among the learned and cultivated classes every¬ 
where such as has not been known since the discovery of 
Herculaneum or the later finding of Nineveh. 

Di Cesnola kept on his plodding work with high hopes 
and quiet zeal, and soon made his crowning discovery of 
the necropolis and temple of ancient Golgos—a discovery 
made under the very noses of the French archaeologists, 
the count de Vogiie, Mas-Latrie, and others, who had spent 
several hundred thousand francs in searching for the 
temple of Venus, but had only succeeded in defining the 
site of the ancient city, now occupied in part by the vil¬ 
lage of Athieno. In the temple of Venus, which had been 
thrown down, were found buried in the ruins a thousand 
statues, and no less than thirty-four inscriptions in tho 
Cypriote language — a most important addition to our 
means of studying this tongue, since, according to the due 
de Luynes in his “ Numismatique ct Inscriptions Cyp¬ 
riotes,” Paris, 1852, there existed only three Cypriote in¬ 
scriptions, and they were not deciphered. It is impossible 
to sta f e exactly the number of articles brought away from 
Cyprus by Di Cesnola, and included in the now famous 
collection known over the civilized world by his name. In 
Aug., 1870, when the representative of the Russian Im¬ 
perial Museum examined it, there were about 13,000 pieces, 
comprising sta.tues and small figures, 1800 lamps, 5000 
vases, 2000 coins, 600 gold ornaments, 1700 pieces of glass, 
300 pieces of bronze, and 100 inscriptions. 

The collection was coveted by every country in Europe; 
but though Di Cesnola was ready to sell it to any pur¬ 
chaser who would keep it together and call it by his name, 
the “Di Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Antiquities,” yet 
he desired above all things that it should belong to 
America—a country to which he was bound by the name 
of citizen and by tenderest domestic ties. For a long time 
it seemed most probable that the British Museum would 
become the purchaser, but as the authorities refused to 
comply with Di Cesnola’s conditions, efforts were made to 
secure it for America. Mr. Hitchcock, who had been the 
companion of Di Cesnola in Cyprus, and who warmly de¬ 
sired to see the collection lodged in some institution of 
America, prepared an admirably complete and interesting 
account of Di Cesnola and his discoveries, which he first 
delivered as a lecture in several places, notably in New 
York before an audience invited by the trustees of tho 
Metropolitan Museum of Fine Art, and also before the 
students of Dartmouth College. Ihis lecture was after¬ 
wards printed in “Harper’s Monthly Magazine” for July, 
1872, with many effective illustrations. To Mr. Hitchcock, 
more than to any other American, is due the wide interest 
excited in our country by Di Cesnola s discoveries. An¬ 
other American, Mr. W. T. Blodgett, being in London 
while the British Museum was debating the purchase of 
the collection, wrote to a public-spirited citizen of New 
York, Mr. John Taylor Johnston, the president of the 
Metropolitan Museum of Fine Art, strongly advising the 
purchase of the whole collection; and Mr. Johnston, who 
had been already much interested in Mr. Hitchcock’s de¬ 
scription, directed the purchase by Mr. Blodgett of the 
whole collection on his own personal account. The bar¬ 
gain was struck without delay, and Di Cesnola came at 
once to New York, bringing a large part of his noble trophy 
with him, tho rest following not long after. During the 
whole of the winter of 1872-73, and the greater part of the 
following summer, he was occupied in arranging, classify¬ 
ing and°cataloguing the articles, some of which had been 
broken in the transit. After this labor was completed, and 
the whole made ready for the public, Di Cesnola returned 
tc Cvprus in the autumn of 1873, to take possession of his 
consular office again and to renew his diggings; the re¬ 
sults of which cannot fail to be of the highest interest to 
the learned and the artistic world. (This article is mainly 
drawn from Mr. Hitchcock’s paper in “Harper’s Maga¬ 
zine,” above alluded to. See also “ L. P. di Cesnola, Ge- 
ncrale e Console Americano in Cipro,” Di Agostino e 
Gallo, Vercelli, 1869; and « L. P. di Cesnola in Cipro,” 


Narrazione di Giov. m Agostino Vercelli, 1871. For a 
fuller account of the discoveries in Cyprus see article Cy¬ 
prus and the works cited there.) Clarence Cook. 

Cespe'des (Manuel Carlos), the leader of the Cuban 
insurrection, and president of the Cuban republic, born 
April 18, 1819, was educated at the University of Havana, 
became a lawyer at Bayamo, issued in Oct., 1868, an ad¬ 
dress to tho Cubans, in which he proclaimed the republic 
and the independence of Cuba. On April 10, 1869, Ces- 
pedes was elected by the Constituent Cortes president of 
the republic. Killed by the Spaniards Feb. 27, 1874. 

Cessart, de (Louis Alexandre), a French engineer, 
born in Paris in 1719, planned the naval works at Cher¬ 
bourg, and published a valuable treatise on hydraulic 
works. Died in 1806. 

Ces'sio Bono'rum [Lat., the “giving up of goods”]. 
This is a proceeding derived from the civil or Roman law, 
whereby a debtor surrendered his property for the benefit 
of his creditors. The effect of it in the later law was to 
exempt the debtor’s person from imprisonment. The same 
phrase is used in modern times to denote the surrender of 
his property by an insolvent for the benefit of his creditors. 
It will be observed that it is much more limited in its effect 
than a modern bankrupt law as adopted in England and the 
U. S., which not only relieves the debtor from imprison¬ 
ment, but discharges him, if his assets amount to a certain 
percentage of his debts, from the residue which they do 
not suffice to pay. 

Cess'na, a township of Hardin co., 0. Pop. 732. 

Cesspool, a well for the reception of the drainage of 
a localitju It is apt to be a source of very unwholesome 
emanations. 

Ces'tius, Pyr'amid of, an antique Roman monu¬ 
ment standing close to the Porta San Paolo of Rome, is 125 
feet high. It is built of brick and tufa, faced with Carrara 
marble. The internal walls were decorated with paintings. 
This pyramid is supposed to have been erected before tho 
Christian era. 

Ces'toid Worms [from the Lat. cestus, a “band,” al¬ 
luding to their ribbon- or tape-like form], a family of 
entozoa, including the tapeworms (of which some ten 
species are found in man) and nearly 200 smaller species, 
some barely visible, some 100 feet or more in length. They 
are found in all classes of vertebrate animals, living when 
perfect in the intestines, but in the scolex or larva state 
inhabiting the living tissues. Cestoid worms are divided 
into more or less perfectly marked androgynous or bisexual 
segments (proglottides), which are formed successively be¬ 
hind the neck of the cestoid, each segment acquiring a sort 
of individual life. Cestoid worms are remarkable for hav¬ 
ing no mouth or digestive apparatus; the animal which 
they inhabit performs the operation of digestion for them, 
so that they have only to absorb nutriment by osmotic 
action. Each segment impregnates itself, becomes in time 
detached, passes out of the intestine, and finally bursts and 
discharges its numerous ova; which, scattered by wind and 
water over grass, etc., arc devoured by various animals. 
Then the ovum hatches into a free embryo or “proscolex,” 
which pierces the walls of the intestinal canal, enters the 
blood-vessels, finds a lodgment in an appropriate tissue, 
where it encysts itself, and changes into the “scolex” or 
“ hydatid” state, as in “'measly pork.” Now, if the living 
scolex is swallowed in food, it is almost sure to develop into 
the complete tapeworm. Sometimes it imperfectly devel¬ 
ops its segments even while in the cystic state, and is then 
called a strobila. 

Cestra'ciom, a genus of sharks including the “nurse” 
or Port Jackson shark (Cestracion Philippi) and the cat 
shark (Cestracion Zebra ) of the China Sea, interesting to 
naturalists as the sole surviving relics of the once extensive 
family Ccstraciontidm, the family of sharks whose remains 
first appear in the lowest Devonian rocks. They differ 
from the true sharks in having the mouth at the anterior 
extremity, instead of under the head, and in having the 
mouth paved with solid bony plates for crushing their 
victims. 

Cestui que Trust, in Iuav. This is a jihrase derived 
from the Norman French, and means the person for whose 
benefit property, either real or personal, is held in trust. 
The phrase grows out of tho distinction which English 
jurisprudence maintains between courts of law and equity. 

Property may be owned in such a manner that in a court 
of law one person will be recognized as the owner, while in 
tho view of a court of equity his ownership will be deemed 
to bo formal and for the benefit of another. I he formal 
owner can in that court be called to an account by the 
beneficial owner. The legal owner is called a trustee, while 
the beneficial owner is the cestui (pie trust. Sometimes this 
relation is created by express words; at other times it is 





























864 


CESTUI QUE VIE—CEYLON. 


implied by law from the relations of the parties. There 
has been an attempt on the part of some legal writers to 
substitute in tho place of the somewhat barbarous term 
“cestui que trust” a supposed equivalent, “beneficiary.” 
This courso has not met tho approval of the legal profes¬ 
sion, and its members still adhere tenaciously to the an¬ 
cient form. The topic is of growing importance in law, 
and the whole subject will be more fully considered under 
the terms Trust and Trustee. 

Cestui que Vie, in law, a person for whose life an es¬ 
tate in land is granted or devised. An example is an estate 
granted to A during the life of B. The latter person is 
termed cestui que vie, and the owner is termed tenant pur 
autre vie (“for the life of another”). Though such an 
estate is a freehold, it is not of so high a character as an 
estate for one’s own life. 

Ces'tus [Fr. ceste, from the (dr. /ceoros, “embroidered”], 
a girdle or band which women wore round the waist in 
ancient times. The cestus of Venus was supposed to have 
the power of exciting love. The gauntlet used by ancient 
pugilists to protect their hands was called cestus or csestus. 

Ceta'cea, or Cetaceans [from the (dr. /ojros, a 
“whale”], an order of mammals characterized by a fish¬ 
like form and adapted to strictly aquatic life. Regarded 
as of a “ degradational ” type, they are by some associated 
with the Sirenia in a subdivision called Mutilata. Many 
writers call the Sirenia “herbivorous cetacea,” but some 
assign them to the pachyderms, while others assign them 
a position as an independent order. Whatever their posi¬ 
tion, the extinct Zeuglodontia appear to furnish a connect¬ 
ing link between them and the true Cetacea. (See Sirenta.) 
The true Cetacea have the hind legs reduced to two small 
bones concealed in the flesh, the fore legs transformed into 
fins; a fish-like tail which spreads horizontally; warm 
blood; respiration by lungs (though in some species it can 
be suspended for a considerable time); and the young arc 
born alive and nourished by the mother’s milk. The right 
whales and fin-backs are reckoned as constituting a sub¬ 
order called Toothless cetaceans (Mysticete), while the 
other living species are placed in the sub-order of Toothed 
cetaceans (Denticete). The restricted order comprises tho 
Balasnidae, or right whale family, the BalaenopterkLe, or 
fin-backs, the Physiteridm, or sperm whales, the Ziphiidse, 
the Delphinidae, or true dolphins, the Iniidse and Platanis- 
tidse, or fresh-water dolphins, and the extinct sub-order 
Zeuglodontia; to which many authors add the sub-order 
Sirenia or “ herbivorous cetacea.” Fossil cetaceans first 
appear in the eocene, and are found in all tho cenozoic 
formations. Nearly all the families are represented by ex¬ 
tinct species. Among the more remarkable may be men¬ 
tioned a huge Zeuglodon, whose vertebrae abound in the 
Gulf States. 

Cetot'olites [from the Gr. /cfjro?, a “whale,” ovs, wro?, 
an “car,” and At0o?, a “stone”], fossil cetacean teeth and 
ear-bones found in the red crag of Suffolk (England), be¬ 
longing to the pleiocene period. They appear to have been 
washed out of some earlier stratum. They are valuable as 
a source of superphosphate manure. 

Cetraria. See Iceland Moss. 

Cette, a fortified seaport of France, in tho department 
of Herault, on the Mediterranean, on a strip of land be¬ 
tween the sea and tho broad inlet of Thau, tho outlet of 
the Canal du Midi, and on tho railway to Bordeaux, IS 
miles S. W. of Montpellier. It has a good harbor and a 
considerable coasting and inland trade, largo fisheries, 
manufactures of made wines, perfumery, glass, soap, etc., 
large shipyards and salt-works, and the extensive export 
trade of the Canal du Midi, of which it is tho port, and 
with which it is connected by the canal of Cette across the 
tongue of land. The harbor is protected by two largo 
moles and a breakwater. The city was founded in 1666. 
It forms a half circle about the cliff-like hill, on which is 
the fortress. Pop. 24,177. 

Cetti'gne, the capital of the principality of Monte¬ 
negro, is situated 19 miles E. of the Austrian town of Cat- 
taro, about 3000 feet above the sea. It contains a convent, 
which was founded in 1458, and is the residence of the 
bishop ; the state prison, and the palace of the prince. In 
the Peace of Cettigne of Sept., 1862, Montenegro recog¬ 
nized the sovereignty of the Porte. Pop. 700. 

Ce'tms [Gr., “ the Whale ”], a great constellation, one of 
those called southern by Ptolemy. It contains a number 
of nebulae and the variable star Mira, or o Ccti. 

Ceu'ta (anc. Septa or Septum), a fortified seaport-town 
on the N. coast of Africa and on tho Mediterranean, opposite 
to Gibraltar, which is 17 miles distant. It is in Morocco 
or Fez, but it has belonged to Spain since 1640. Tho castle 
occupies tho summit of a mountain which is tho ancient 
Afrjla and one of tho Pillars of Hercules. Ceuta is tho 


chief of the Spanish presidios on tho African coast. It is 
the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and has several con¬ 
vents and a convict establishment. Pop., without the gar¬ 
rison and convicts, 7114. 

Cevennes (anc. Gehenna Mons), a mountain-rango in 
the S. of France, forms the watershed between the Rhone 
and the Garonne. It extends from the vicinity of Carcas¬ 
sonne in a N. N. E. direction to the Canal du Centre. The 
central mass of the Cevennes is in the departments of 
Ardeche, Lozere, and Upper Loire. The highest summit 
is Mont Mezin or Mezen, which has an altitude of 5764 
feet. Some of the peaks arc extinct volcanoes. These 
mountains were a stronghold of the Protestants called 
Camisards, and were the scenes of several religious wars. 

Ceylon, see'lon [native Singhala; anc. Taprobane\ an 
island of Asia, belonging to the British, in the Indian 
Ocean, about 55 miles from the S. extremity of Ilindostan, 
from which it is separated by Palk Strait. It lies between 
lat. 5° 56' and 9° 50' N., and between Ion. 80° and 82° E. 
Length from N. to S., 271 miles. Area, 24,705 square miles. 
The southern and eastern coasts are bold and rocky, and 
present a very picturesque appearance, which is increased 
by the luxuriant tropical vegetation, the verdant slopes of 
its mountains, and groves of noble palms draped in per¬ 
ennial green. The surface is finely diversified by moun¬ 
tains, valleys, and plains. The highest summit is Pcdro- 
tallagalla, which rises 8280 feet above the level of the sea. 
The celebrated mountain called Adam’s Peak is 7240 feet 
high, and is remarkable for its conical form and the sacred 
associations with which it is connected. The Singhalese 
have a tradition that Booddha ascended to heaven from 
this peak. The mountains of Ceylon are mostly formed of 
gneiss and granite, and dolomite occurs in the more level 
parts of the island. Among the minerals arc iron, tin, coal, 
plumbago, and salt. Many sapphires, rubies, amethysts, 
and other precious stones are found here. The climate is 
humid and hot, but more pleasant and moderate than the 
mainland of India. The average annual rainfall is about 
eighty inches. 

Ceylon is remarkable for the luxuriance and variety of 
its flora. Among its indigenous tfees arc the cocoa-palm, 
palmyra, and other species of palms, the coral tree ( Eury- 
thrina Indica), the bread-fruit, the cinnamon, the satin- 
wood, and ebony. The bo tree or peepul ( Ficus religiosa) 
attains a great age, and is deemed sacred by the natives. 
Coffee, cotton, rice, tobacco, and pepper are cultivated here. 
The chief articles of export are coffee, cinnamon, cocoanuts, 
cocoanut oil, coir, hides, pearls, and plumbago. Among the 
wild animals found hero arc the buffalo, bear, deer, leopard, 
and elephant. The last arc very numerous. 

The native population is composed mostly of Singhalese, 
whose historical records, extending back through many cen¬ 
turies, arc partially corroborated by existing ruins of cities 
and temples, which indicate that Ceylon in a remote an¬ 
tiquity was inhabited by a numerous and civilized people. 
The most celebrated among its monuments is the cavc-tcm- 
plo of Dambool, which was built about 100 B. C., and is 
profusely adorned with images and sculpture. It was ded¬ 
icated to Booddha. Booddhism is still the prevailing re¬ 
ligion of the island. The Roman Catholic Church has two 
vicariates apostolic, with an aggregatcpopulation of 157,000, 
while the native Christians connected with the Protestant 
missions number 16,000. There are also many Mohammed¬ 
ans, called Moors. Among the remarkable antiquities of 
Ceylon are numerous colossal ruined tanks, constructed for 
the irrigation of the soil. 

Among the peoples of the island are the singular Ved- 
dalis, one of the most degraded races of mankind. Besides 
the above races, there are many Kandyans in the interior, 
and Hindoos, Malabarians, and naturalized descendants of 
tho old Dutch and Portuguese colonists on the coast. 

Ceylon has two harbors—Point de Gallo on the S. coast, 
and Trincomaleo on the N. E. coast. The latter is one of 
the finest harbors in the world, and is capable of admitting 
any number of tho largest ships. The Oriental mail-steam¬ 
ers, which ply between England and Calcutta, touch at this 
island, which lias an extensive commerce. The value of 
tho exports from Ceylon to the United Kingdom in 1870 
was £3,450,974; of the imports from the United Kingdom, 
£941,344; public revenue in 1S69, £946,494; expenditures, 
£881,373 ; public debt, £701,000. In ancient times it was 
visited for the purpose of traffic by the Egyptians, Greeks, 
and Romans. The Portuguese formed a settlement at Co¬ 
lombo in 1517, and were expelled from the island by the 
Dutch and natives in 1658. Tho British invaded the isl¬ 
and in 1795, and captured the Dutch forts and towns. The 
islant] was formally annexed to the British crown in 1802. 
Civil pop. in 1871,2,405,287. Ceylon is divided into six ad¬ 
ministrative provinces, called tho Western, Central, South¬ 
ern, Northern, North-wostorn, and Eastern provinces. Cap- 
























CEYLON—CHAIN-SHOT. 


865 


ital, Colombo. Siu James E. Tennent, “ Ceylon, 
Physical, Historic nd Topographical.”) 

Revised by A. J. Schem. 

Ceylon, a to m p of St. Croix co., Wis. Pop. 348. 

Cezim'bra, iport-town of Portugal, in Estrema- 
dura, on a bay leditcrranean, 19 miles S. of Lisbon. 

It has valuable fismes. Pop. 5797. 

Chablais, th :-i northern part of Savoy, bordering 
on Lake Geneva. . as the oldest possession of the IIouso 
of Savoy, and was cal to France by King Victor Emman¬ 
uel in 1860. Cap; . Thonon. 

Cha'brias \ . ;a -. ], an able Athenian general, who 
had command of ; my in 392 B. C. In 378 he com¬ 
manded in a tr . st the Spartans. He gained a naval 
victory over the Spit anas at Naxos in 376, and was killed 
at the sieg' < here he commanded a fleet, in 357 
B. C. He wa tin .ontorof a famous manoeuvre, which 
consisted in ; a charge in a kneeling posture, with 

shields rest i: i - round and the spears pointed against 

the enemy. 

Chacha . 'a . town of Peru, capital of the depart¬ 
ment of A i miles N. E. of Lima, was founded 

by Francisc 1536, and was formerly flourishing, 

but in conseipi nc the continued revolutions has grad¬ 
ually decrc: t io seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, 

and has a -eminary and a beautiful cathedral. 

Pop. about 8000. 

Cha'co, El Gm. an extensive region of South Amer¬ 
ica, is near t * m of the continent. It is partly in 
Bolivia an ; Argentine Republic. It is bounded 

on the E. : ay River, and traversed by the Pil- 

comayo. T! • sur u is generally level, and the S. portion 
is said to b d desert plain, but the soil in some 

parts is fer i 1 i ; few civilized inhabitants. 

Chacormic (■ji:*), a French astronomer, born at 
Lyons, Fran" . Ju: ■ L, 1823. During the years 1853-54 
he was in c y lie observatory of Marseilles, and 

in the lattei ye; as appointed astronomer of the 

Paris Ob sen e was an astronomer of reputation, 

and distingi - discoveries of asteroids, as well as 

for his writi danetary systems. Napoleon III. 

made him chi the Legion of Honor 1858. He con¬ 

tributed the is io “Annals of the Observatory of 
Paris,” 1858 and 1 ! Died at Paris Sept. 26, 1873. 

•Chad/boa ie f jl Ansel), an American naturalist, 
born at Augu . , . n 1823, has been successively pro¬ 
fessor of nal :e in Bowdoin College, Me., and Wil¬ 
liams College, i.i, id president of the University of 

Wisconsin. Ilelm lished “Natural Theology ” (1868), 

and other works, i oacame in 1872 president of Williams 
College. 

Chadd’s Fori „ post-village of Birmingham town¬ 
ship, Delaware -o.. / . 30 miles S. W. of Philadelphia, on 
the Brandyw ( it the junction of the Wilmington 
and Reading : hiladelphia and Baltimore Central 

R. Rs. Ne.i fought the battle of Brandywine, 

Sept. 11, 1777. 

Chad'wir' ), an Englishman, noted as a sani¬ 
tary reform' ! a in the environs of Manchester Jan. 

24,1801. He r,ed secretary to the poor-law board 

in 1834, and - in 1842 an important “Report on 

the Sanitary Cm id of the Laboring Population.” As 

a member of > ooard of health appointed in 1848, 

he distinguish by his efficient efforts to improve 

the sanitary i condition of the people, and to re¬ 

form the distribute the poor-law funds. 

Chaere'mo , iienian tragic poet, from several of 

whose dramas i - are quoted by Athenmus, although 

Suidas in his brief ice of him calls him a comic poet. 

Little is known < i ; fe, but he is referred to by Ephip- 
pus, who see n to of him as a contemporary, and he 

is criticised b\ A v t. Ho may be placed therefore 

about 380 B. C. 11 below the dignity of the great 

tragic poets of the •iding century, and wrote dramas 
better fitted to be i an to be acted. Ten titles of plays 

written by him , u, besides the “ Centaurus,” which 

is called by Athen: “ drama in many metres,” and by 

Aristotle a “ mix id ;ody of all metres.” Theroarealso 

three epigrams in lthology bearing his name. . (The 

fragments of his ti s are collected in Wagner’s and 
in Naucic’s “ Frag . Tragicorum Graecoruin.”) 

Henry Drisler. 

ChaBre'mon o: ' s landria, a Stoic philosopher and 
historian who flour i in the times ot the early Roman 
emperors. He iso; i • >oken of as librarian of the Alex¬ 
andrian Library, bu - is probably an incorrect inference 
from the language lidas, wlio calls him the teacher 
of Dionysius, who v librarian of this library, and who 
55 


succeeded Chmremon in his philosophical school. He went 
from Alexandria to Rome to take charge, along with Alex¬ 
ander of A3ga}, of the education of Nero. He wrote a work 
on hieroglyphics, and one on the history and religion of 
Egypt, a fragment from which, concerning the Egyptian 
priests, is preserved, and makes the loss of the rest regretted. 
He wrote a treatise on comets and a grammatical work. 
(The fragments of his writings are collected in Muller’s 
“Hist. Grsecorum Fragmenta,” vol. iii., pp. 495-499.) 

Henry Drisler. 

Chaerone'a [Gr. Xaipwi/eia], an ancient town of Boeotia, 
5 miles N. of Lebadea, was the native place of Plutarch, 
Here Philip of Macedon gained an important victory over 
the Athenians and Thebans in 338 B. C., and Sulla defeated 
the army of Mithridates in 86 B. C. The site is occupied 
by the modern village of Kapurna. A few years ago a 
colossal lion was excavated from the mound which was 
raised in honor of the Thebans who were killed in battle 
here in 338 B. C. This lion is described by Colonel Mure 
as a “noble piece of sculpture, and the most interesting 
sepulchral monument in Greece.” 

Chuetodon'tidae, a family of the acanthopterous marine 

fishes named Squami- 
pennes (“scaly-finned”), 
because of the incrus¬ 
tation of parts of the 
dorsal and anal fins with 
scales. The scales are 
strongly ctenoid (comb¬ 
shaped). The typical 
genus Chcetodon, and 
those nearly allied to it, 
have hair-like teeth ; 
some of the family, how¬ 
ever, have trenchant 
teeth, and some have 
teeth both on the jaws 
and palate. Their colors 
are often gay, and disposed in stripes or bands. Many 
singularities of form occur in this family. The flesh of 
most of the Chsetodontidae is of fine flavor. Chelmon ros- 
tratus and Toxotes jaculator, both Asiatic fishes, are re¬ 
markable for catching insects by shooting drops of water 
at them from their mouths ; but some of the latest authori¬ 
ties exclude these fishes from the family, of which the 
southern coasts of the U. S. have several species. 

Chaff [Lat. pctlea; Fr. paille], the common name of the 
dry and membranaceous scales which constitute the floral 
envelopes of the graminaceous plants, and enclose the grain 
or seed. These scales are the glumes and palets (paleve) of 
botanical language. 

Chaf'finch [from chaff and finch, because the bird 
searches in chaff for grain], a common European, Asiatic, 
and African song-bird, the Fringilla ccelebs, which devours 
not only seeds, but young plants, but is very valuable as a 
destroyer of noxious insects. It is esteemed for the table 
in Southern Europe, and in Germany is prized for its loud 
song, in which some birds greatly excel. Good singers aro 
sold for extraordinary prices. 

Cha'gres, a small seaport-town of Colombia, on the 
Isthmus of Panama and on the Caribbean Sea, at the 
mouth of the Chagres River, about 9 miles W. S. W. of 
Aspinwall. It is a miserable collection of huts, with a 
shallow harbor. 

Chagrin' Falls, a post-village of Cuyahoga co., 0., on 
the Chagrin River, 17 miles E. S. E. of Cleveland. It has 
several iron-foundries and paper-mills. Pop. 1016 ; of the 
township, 1321. 

Chain, or Gunter’s Chain, in surveying, is a meas¬ 
ure twenty-two yards long, composed of 100 iron links, each 
of which is 7.92 inches long. Ten square chains make an 
acre = 4840 square yards. 

Chain Cable. See Cable. 

Chain Mail, or Chain Armor, consisted of ham¬ 
mered iron links connected together in the form of a gar¬ 
ment. Such armor, which was much used in the twelfth 
and thirteenth centuries, was more flexible and convenient 
to the wearer than that which was formed of plates. 

Chains, Hanging in. It was once customary for 
judges in England to direct the bodies of malefactors, 
after execution, to be hung in chains upon a gibbet, in 
order to strike terror into other offenders, and that it might 
afford “a comfortable sight to the relations and friends ot 
the deceased.” An act to abolish the practice was passed 
July 25, 1834, by Parliament. 

Chain-Shot, a name of missiles used in naval warfare, 
consisting of two balls which are connected by a chain about 
eight inches long, and aro discharged from a cannon. 



Chaetodon. 



































866 CHALAZA—CHALMERS. 


Clmla'za [Gr. xaAa£a, a “hailstone”], in botany, a 
membrane which unites the nucleus and integuments at the 
base of the ovule. It often differs in color from the rest 
of the integuments, and is conspicuous in the ripened seed. 
The cords which attach the yolk of an egg to the lining 
membrane at the ends of the shell are also called chalazao. 

Chfllce'don [Gr. XaAfnj&ai'], an ancient Greek city of 
Bithynia, on the Bosphorus, opposite to Byzantium, from 
which it was about 1+ miles distant. On all the coins of 
Chalcedon the name is written KaXxriSdv. It was founded 
6S5 B. C., and became a large town, containing numerous 
temples. The Itomans obtained possession of it in 74 
B. 0., and under the Roman empire it was a free city. 
The philosopher Xenocrates was boru here about 396 B. C. 
In 451 A. I). a general council of the Church was held at 
Chalcedon, on the subject of the doctrinal disputes of the 
Nestorians and Monophysites. This, the fourth oecumen¬ 
ical council, condemned the heresy of Eutyches. 

Chalced/ony [Gr. a precious stone which 

was so named because it was found near the ancient Chal¬ 
cedon, is a beautiful variety of quartz. It is identical with 
common quartz or silex in chemical composition. It 
occurs in trap and other rocks in many parts of the world. 
It is generally translucent, sometimes semi-transparent, and 
exhibits various colors, among which are milk-white, red¬ 
dish-white, blue, green, and brown. Chalcedony is much 
used in jewelry for necklaces, brooches, etc. Among col¬ 
lections of antique gems are many beautiful engraved 
specimens of chalcedony. 

Chalced'onyx, a name given to agates formed of 
caeholong, or a white opaque chalcedony, alternating with 
a grayish translucent chalcedony. 

Chal'cis [Gr. XaA/a's], an ancient maritime town of 
Greece, on the island of Euboea and on the Euripus, which 
is here only 40 yards wide, 18 miles N. E. of Thebes. A 
bridge across the Euripus connects the town with the coast 
of Boeotia. Chalcis was a city of great antiquity, and re¬ 
tained its importance down to recent times. Its greatness 
was attested by the numerous colonies which it planted on 
the coasts of Macedonia, Italy, and Sicily. Its first colony 
was Cumae, in Campania, which it is said to have founded 
about 1050 B. C. Chalcis was successively subject to the 
Athenians, Romans, and Venetians, and as an important 
military point was often taken and retaken by armies. It 
contained numerous temples and theatres, and was about 
nine miles in circumference. Here the orator Isams was 
born and Aristotle died. The site is occupied by the 
modern Egripo or Negropont, which is the chief town of 
the island, and has an old castle built on a rock in the mid¬ 
dle of the Euripus. 

Chalcis, a genus of reptiles found in warm regions in 
both continents, which gives its name to the family Chal- 
cidae. This family is by some made to include the glass- 
snakes, the blind-worms, the amphisbaena, etc., but is gen¬ 
erally limited so as to include a few tropical species. Many 
of these reptiles are popularly considered snakes, but they 
are really saurians, having generally no visible legs, those 
members when they exist being in most cases concealed 
beneath the skin. They have movable eyelids, small ears, 
and a short thick tongue. In spite of these facts, some few 
naturalists still class them with serpents. 

Chalcis is also the name of a genus allied to the ich¬ 
neumon-flies, and the type of the great family Chalcididae. 
These insects are of great service in the destruction of nox¬ 
ious insects upon which their larvae feed. 

Cliaklre'a [Gr. XaAScua], the ancient name of a country 
of Asia, bordering on the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf, 
and bounded on the S. W. by Arabia Deserta. Chaldsea 
proper was the southern part of Babylonia, but the name 
was sometimes used to designate a more extensive region. 
The term Chaldaeans (or Chaldees) was applied by the 
Hebrew prophets and other ancient writers to the inhab¬ 
itants of the city of Babylon and all the subjects of the 
Babylonian empire. Thus, Isaiah calls Babylon “the 
beauty of the Chaldees’ excellency” (chap. xvii. 19), and 
Pliny speaks of Babylon as Chaldaicarum gentium caput. 
The Chaldmans appear to have been the great pioneers in 
the cultivation of astronomy. They were also famous as 
astrologers and magicians. (See Babylonia.) 

CJialdaUaii Cliris'tians, a branch of the Church of 
Rome, consisting of those Nestorians who acknowledge the 
pope. They are of the Eastcrti rite, and are under the 
patriarch of Babylon and twelve bishops, three of whom 
reside in Persia. They number about 70,000 souls. 

Chal'dee Lan'guage, or East'ern Arama'ic, a 
Semitic dialect, in which parts of the books of Daniel and 
Ezra were written, as well as several verses in Genesis, 
Judges, etc. It resembled the Hebrew and Syriac. It 
does not appear to be certain that this was the common 


language of ancient Babylon. The Targums were written 
in a later Chaldee. (See Winer’s “Chaldee Grammar,” 
and IIupfeld in the “ Thcologische Studien ” for 1830.) 

Chal'der, an old Scottish dry measure containing six¬ 
teen bolls. 

Chaldron, chaul'dron or chau'dron [Lat. caldarium ; 
Fr. chaudron], a dry measure used for coals, and contain¬ 
ing thirty-six bushels. Coal is now sold by weight in the 
U. S. 

* 

Chaleurs Bay, an inlet of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
Canada, separates Quebec from New Brunswick. It ex¬ 
tends E. and W. about 90 miles, and is about 22 miles wide 
at the broadest part. It affords good anchorage, and can 
be navigated without danger. It has important mackerel 
fisheries. 

Chal'icc [Lat. calix, a “cup, a goblet;” Fr. calice, a 
“drinking-cup,” a “bowl”]. This term was formerly used 
as a name for an ordinary drinking-cup, but it is now 
almost exclusively applied to a communion-cup, a vessel 
used for the wine in the sacrament of the Eucharist. 
Chalices are commonly made of silver or gold. 

Chalk, cliawk [Lat. creta; Fr. crate], a calcareous 
earth, a soft variety of limestone or carbonate of lime. 
Its color is generally white. It is friable, easily pulverized, 
has an earthy fracture, and is very meagre to the touch. 
In geology, it is a sedimentary rock of great extent and 
importance, and a member of the cretaceous formation, 
which is more recent than the Jurassic and older than the 
tertiary formation. Chalk is abundant in England and in 
several other countries of Europe, and good commercial 
chalk is reported to exist in Dakota. The strata often con¬ 
tain flint nodules, distributed in layers through it like the 
hornstone in the earlier limestone. They are more or less 
rounded, and are all of concretionary origin. Chalk is a 
mineral of animal origin, and is mostly composed of the 
shells or carapaces of microscopic marine animals. Ac¬ 
cording to Ehrcnberg, a cubic inch of chalk often contains 
more than a million of microscopic organisms, among 
which far the most abundant are the rhizopods (called also 
Foraminifera). Chalk is extensively used in the prepara¬ 
tion of lime, and is commonly employed bj r carpenters to 
mark boards. The material sold under the name of whit¬ 
ing or Spanish white, and used to make putty, is chalk in 
a purified state. Purified chalk is also employed by •artists 
as a pigment, and is administered in medicine as an ant¬ 
acid. (See Cretaceous System.) 

Chalk, Black, also called Drawing Slate, a min¬ 
eral used by artists for drawing and writing, is a variety 
of clay which derives its color from the carbon which it 
contains. It is easily cut or broken, and makes a black 
mark on white paper. 

Chalk Bluff, a township of Greene co., Ark. Pop. 1030. 

Chalk Bevel, a post-township of St. Clair co., Mo. 
Pop. 851. 

Chalk, Bed, or Meddle, is an argillaceous oxide of 
iron, of a brownish-red color, containing a large portion 
of clay. It is used by carpenters and painters. 

Challenges. See Jury, by Prof. T. W. Dwight. 

Chal'mers, a township of McDonough co., Ill. Pop. 
1484. 

Chalmers (Alexander), a Scottish writer, born at 
Aberdeen Mar. 29, 1759. He is famous as the author of a 
“ General Biographical Dictionary,” in 32 A r ols. (1812-17), 
and as the editor of a well-known edition of the British 
poets, with notes. Died Dec. 10, 1834. 

Chalmers (George), a Scottish antiquary and lawyer, 
born at Fochabers in 1742. He was clerk to the board of 
trade from 1786 to 1825. His greatest work is entitled 
“ Caledonia: An Account, Historical dnd Topographical, 
of North Britain” (3 vols., 1807-24), which displays pro¬ 
found research and much erudition. Among his other 
Avorks is a “Life of Mary Queen of Scots” (1818). Died 
in 1825. 

Chalmers (Thomas), D.D., LL.D., D. C. L., a Scottish 
divine, was born at Anstruther, Fifeshire, Mar. 17, 1780, and 
Avas educated in the University of St. Andrew’s. In 1803 he 
was ordained minister of the parish of Kilmany. His fa¬ 
vorite studies for some years before and after this event 
were mathematics and natural philosophy. He published 
in 1808 an “ Inquiry into the Extent and Stability of the 
National Resources.” While composing an article on 
“ Christianity ” for Brewster’s “Encyclopedia” in 1809, 
he examined the evidences of its truth, and acquired con- 
A'ictions which rendered him a more earnest and devout 
preacher of the gospel. He married Miss Grace Pratt in 
1812, and Avas elected minister of the Tron Church, Glas¬ 
gow, in 1815. He soon gained distinction as an eloquent 
and powerful pulpit orator, and delivered a series of dis- 


\ 
















867 


CHALONNES-SUR-LOIKE—CHAMBERLAIN. 


courses on astronomy in connection with religion, which 
were published in 1817, and were immensely popular. 
In 1819 he became minister of St. John’s parish, Glasgow, 
in which he established schools and made strenuous efforts 
to improve the morals of his parishioners. He was ap¬ 
pointed professor of moral philosophy in the University of 
St. Andrew’s in 1823, and obtained the chair of theology 
in the University of Edinburgh in 1828. He published in 
1832 a work entitled “ Political Economy,” and in 1833 his 
Bridgewater treatise “On the Adaptation of External Na¬ 
ture to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man,” 
which was received with great favor. Dr. Chalmers was 
the leader of the Evangelical party, which was involved 
with the “ Moderate” party in a contest in relation to pa¬ 
tronage. This contest resulted in the disruption of the 
Church of Scotland in May, 1843. Dr. Chalmers and 470 
other clergymen then seceded and organized the “ Free 
Church.” He expended the latter years of his life in per¬ 
fecting his “ Institutes of Theology” and in officiating as 
principal of the Free Church College. He died May 30, 
1847. (See “ Memoirs of his Life and Writings ” (4 vols., 
1850-52), published by his son-in-law, Rev. William 
Hanna ; Francis Wayland, “ Memoirs of the Christian 
Labors of Thomas Chalmers.”) 

Chaloimes-sur-lLoire, a town of France, depart¬ 
ment of Maine-et-Loire, on the river Loire, here crossed 
by a suspension bridge, 11 miles S. W. of Angers. Pop. 
6505. 

Chalons-sur»Marne (anc. Catalauni or Catalaunum), 
a city of France, capital of the department of Marne, is 
on the right bank of the Marne and on the railway from 
Paris to Strasburg, 107 miles E. of Paris. It is situated 
in a fertile plain, which is part of the former province of 
Champagne, and has a stone bridge across the river. It is 
a bishop’s see, and contains a fine cathedral, a botanic 
garden, and a public library of about 25,000 volumes; also 
manufactures of cotton, linen, and woollen fabrics. Cham¬ 
pagne wine is produced in tho vicinity. In the Catalaunian 
Plain adjacent to Chalons the Roman general Aetius and 
Theodoric the Visigoth gained a great victory over Attila 
in 451 A. D. In the early part of the Dark Ages, Chalons 
was one of the most important commercial cities of Europe, 
and had about 60,000 inhabitants. In 1857 the celebrated 
Camp de Chalons was established near Chalons, in which 
always one or two French army corps were kept for drill¬ 
ing; it was evacuated by the French in Aug., 1870, and en¬ 
tirely abandoned in 1871. Pop. 17,692. 

Ch&lon - sur- Saone, or Chalons - sur - Saone 

(anc. Cabillonum), a town of France, department of Saone- 
et-Loire, is on the right bank of the Saone and on the 
railway from Dijon to Lyons, 77 miles by rail N. of Lyons. 
It is at the head of steamboat navigation, and has an active 
trade, being the eastern terminus of the Canal du Centre, 
which connects the Saone with the Loire. The chief pub¬ 
lic buildings are a cathedral founded in the thirteenth cen¬ 
tury, St. Peter’s church, and the town-hall. It has a the¬ 
atre and a large public library; also manufactures of glass, 
jewelry, hosiery, linen fabrics, pottery, etc. Pop. 19,982. 
Cabillonum became the capital of Burgundy under Gontran, 
who died in 593 A. D. 

Chalyb'eate [from the Gr. xaAvi// (gen. yaAv^o?), “iron ” 
or “steel”], containing iron in solution, applied to waters 
which are impregnated with iron. There are two kinds 
of chalybeate water—the carbonated, which contains car¬ 
bonate of iron, and may be recognized by forming an 
ochreous deposit of red oxide of iron on the stones near 
the mouth of the spring; and the sulphated, which con¬ 
tains sulphate of iron (copperas) in solution. 

Cham [French for Ham, son of Noah], assumed name 
of Amedee de Noe, a French caricaturist, born Jan. 26, 
1819, studied with Paul Delaroche and Charlet. His first 
grotesque sketches appeared in 1842, and since then has 
followed an uninterrupted series in various almanacs, and 
principally in “ Charivari.” 

ChamaUIeon [Gr. for “ground-lion ”], a genus ( Chamse- 
leo) of saurian reptiles constituting a family (Chamaeleon- 
tidee), and according to some writers a separate tribe 
(Dcndrosaura) of lizards. Ten or twenty species are known, 
of which one is found in Southern Europe. None are Amer¬ 
ican. They have a compressed body, with granular scales 
in circular bands; the head almost fixed, but the eyes with 
a wonderful power of motion, each eye being covered by a 
lid pierced with one small hole; ears concealed beneath 
the skin; the tail prehensile; the movements extremely 
slow; the tongue cylindrical and extensile, in appearance 
resembling a common angle-worm; the toes in two opposa¬ 
ble sets, fitted for grasping boughs, etc. Many fables have 
been related of the chamseleon, such as that it lives upon 
air, has the power of changing color at will, or assuming 





Chamseleon. 


the color of the object upon which it is placed. The food 

of the chammleon is in¬ 
sects, which it catches by 
darting out its long, 
sticky tongue; but its 
lungs are large, and it 
has a habit of enormous¬ 
ly dilating itself with air. 
Its changes of color are 
not altogether voluntary, 
and it does not appear to 
assimilate its color to the 
object upon which it is 
placed. But its colors 
are somewhat change¬ 
able. This has been ex¬ 
plained (1) by the action of the nervous energy, which, as 
in blushing, may perhaps affect the circulation of the blood 
in the skin, and it is certain that fear or other emotions 
will cause the color to change; (2) by the varied amount 
of air in the animal’s lungs; (3) by the action of light; (4) 
by the presence of two differently colored layers of pig¬ 
ment-cells in the skin, so arranged as to move upon each 
other and produce various effects of color. It is probable 
that all these conditions may contribute to the result. 

It is said that that lack of nervous co-ordination be¬ 
tween the two sides which in most animals is only seen in 
diseased or defective organizations, is either normal to the 
chammleon or is very easily produced in it. It is even 
asserted that one side of the reptile may be awake while 
the other is asleep. If modern science finds this creature 
so remarkable, it is not strange that the ancients made the 
chamaileon the possessor of many marvellous powers. 

Chain aeleon, of Heraclea on the Pontus, a Peripatetic 
philosopher, a disciple of Aristotle or Theophrastus. He 
was the author of several philosojihical treatises, chiefly 
on moral subjects, and of a variety of writings on the 
ancient Greek poets— e. </. iEschylus, Anacreon, Thespis, 
Homer, Lasus, Pindar, Sappho, Simonides, and Stesichorus. 
These essays seem to have treated of the lives of the poets, 
as well as to have entered into the criticism of their works. 
His commentary on Homer must have been of considerable 
extent, as the fifth book is referred to by Tatian. Titles 
of fifteen different works, with a few fragments, are pre¬ 
served by Athenseus and others. (An account of his life 
and writings is given by Kopke, Berlin, 1856; Clinton, 
“Fasti Hellenici,” vol. iii., p. 493.) 


Henry Drisler. 

Chamae'rops, a genus of palms having fan-shaped 
leaves and flowers in spathes about six to eight inches long. 
The Chameerops liumilis, often called palmetto, is the only 
species of palm indigenous in Europe. The fruit is a 
triple, spongy drupe, which is edible. The leaves are used 
for making brooms, hats, and seats of chairs. The fibre 
of the leaves is a valuable material for cordage and paper, 
and is imported into France to be used in the manufacture 
of carpets. The blue palmetto of the- Southern U. S. is 
Chamserops Hystrix. Other species of this genus are found 
in tropical countries. 

ChaiiUlber, an apartment of a house, a private apart¬ 
ment, a lodging-room; a hollow or cavity, as the chamber 
of the ear. In jiolitics, the term is applied to a legislative 
assembly, as the (former) Chamber of Deputies in France. 
The room which the U. S. Senate occupies is called the Sen¬ 
ate Chamber. Chamber of commerce is the title of an 
association or body of merchants which is commonly formed 
in each large commercial city for the promotion of the 
mercantile interests and general prosperity of the place. 

Chamber of a cannon or of a small firearm is a contracted 
part of the bore at the breech end. The chamber contains 
the charge of powder, but it is too small to admit the shot 
or shell. These cavities are of various forms, spherical, 
cylindrical, conical, etc. Carronades and mortars aro 
usually chambered. 

Chamber-Counsel, a lawyer or counscllor-at-law 
who gives opinions in his private chamber, but does not 
conduct causes in court. 

ChamCberlain [Lat. earnerarius; Fr. chambellan >I; It. 
camerlingo ], an officer attached to the court of a monarch, 
and who formerly had charge of the private apartments of 
the palace. He was originally the keeper of the treasure- 
chambcr. The office of chamberlain was one of the/grand 
offices of the Crown in France. The lord chamberlain of 
England is an officer of high rank in the royal household, 
and has the function of endorsing the king’s ans/wer on 
petitions presented to him, and often communica/tes llis 
(or Her) Majesty’s pleasure to Parliament and J to the 
council. He has control over all the officers and servants 
of the royal chambers except those of the bed-phamber. 
/ill tradesmen and artificers in the service ot the soi creign 


/ 













868 


CHAMBEKLAIN—CHAMBLY BASIN. 


are appointed by him. He is a member of the privy 
council. 

The lord great chamberlain, another officer, is an official 
of the British court of noble birth and holding the title by 
inheritance. lie has charge of the House of Lords during 
sessions, walks by the right hand of the sovereign in cer¬ 
tain processions, and performs many other duties, chiefly 
of a ceremonial character. 

Chamberlain (Joshua L.), LL.D., a distinguished 
American general and educator, born in Bangor, Me., Sept. 
8, 1828. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1852, entered 
the volunteer service of the U. S. in 1862, and became a 
major-general in 1865. He received six wounds while in 
the army. From 1866 to 1870, inclusive, ho was governor 
of Maine, and in 1871 he became president of Bowdoin 
College. 

Cham'berlen (Hugh), an English physician, born in 
1661, practised in London. He invented the obstetric for¬ 
ceps. Died in 1728. 

Cham'bers, in law. A judge is said to act at “cham¬ 
bers ” when a legal proceeding is carried on before him out 
of court, either at his office or residence or other convenient 
place, including the court-room itself. Business done be¬ 
fore a judge at chambers, as distinguished from that trans¬ 
acted in court, is increasing in modern times. The codes 
of procedure in some of the American States expressly pro¬ 
vide that certain acts shall be done by the court, and others 
by a judge, referring in the last instance to an act done at 
chambers. Through the same medium a great change has 
been worked in England in the practice of the court of 
chancery. Formerly the details of business in that court 
were transacted by an officer termed “master in chancery,” 
who exercised an almost independent jurisdiction, acting 
without communicating with the judge until he made his 
report of his conclusions, which was then submitted to the 
court as a basis for its decree. By the 16 Viet., ch. 80, 
the office of master was abolished, and the business for¬ 
merly committed to him was directed to be transacted 
under the direction and control of the judge, or, in other 
words, at chambers. Under this system each of the judges 
has under his control chief clerks and junior clerks, who 
act in his behalf in taking accounts and making inquiries, 
and who are more directly responsible to him than were 
the masters under the earlier practice. Under the law of 
1873 for the reorganization of the English courts (36 and 
37 Viet., ch. 66), the duties of chamber clerks after that act 
goes into effect (Nov. 2, 1874-) are to be performed by offi¬ 
cers of the court in the permanent civil service of the 
Crown. The same law also provides for official and special 
referees, who may, under the direction of a court or judge, 
perform acts similar to those formerly entrusted to masters 
in chancery. T. W. Dwight. 

Cham'bers, a county of Alabama, bordering on Geor¬ 
gia. Area, 700 square miles. It is partly bounded on the 
E. by the Chattahoochee Biver, and is traversed by the 
Tallapoosa. The soil is mostly fertile. Cotton, grain, and 
wool are the staples. This county is intersected by the 
East Alabama and Cincinnati, the Savannah and Memphis, 
and the Atlanta and West Point It. Its. Capital, Chambers 
Court-house (or La Fayette). Pop. 17,562. 

Chambers, a county of Texas, bordering on the Gulf 
of Mexico. Area, 900 square miles. It is bounded on the 
W. by Galveston Bay, and intersected by Trinity Biver. 
The surface is nearly level. Cotton, corn, fruit, cattle, 
swine, and sugar-cane are raised. The county is well tim¬ 
bered. Capital, Wallisville. Pop. 1503. 

Chambers (Ezekiel F.), LL.D., born in Kent co., Md., 
Feb. 28, 1788, graduated at Washington College, Md., in 
1805, became a lawyer, served in the war of 1812-15, and 
was made a brigadier-general of militia. He was U. S. 
Senator from Maryland (1826-35), taking a prominent 
position; was a judge in the State courts (1834-51), and 
in 1852 declined the secretaryship of the navy. Died Jan 
30, 1867. 

Chambers (George), LL.D., born in 1786 at Cham- 
bsrsburg, Pa., graduated at Princeton in 1804, became a 
very prominent lawyer, was a member of Congress (1833- 
37), and became in 1851 a justice in the supreme court of 
Pennsylvania. He prepared a number of valuable papers 
on the early history of the Ststte, some of which were de¬ 
stroyed at the burning of Chambersburg in 1863. Died 
Mar. 25, 1866. 

Chambers (Bobert), LL.D., a Scottish writer and 
publisher, born at Peebles July 10, 1802. He became a 
bookseller in Edinburgh, and wrote several works, among 
which is “Traditions of Edinburgh” (1824). He entered 
into partnership with his brother William in 1832, after 
which they published many cheap and popular works enti¬ 
tled “ Information for the People,” “ Cyclopcedia of English 


Literature,” “ Papers for the People,” “ Chambers’s En¬ 
cyclopedia” (1859-68), etc. Died in 1871. 

Chambers (William), a Scottish author and editor, a 
brother of the preceding, was born at Peebles April 16, 
1800. He founded Chambers’s “ Edinburgh Journal” in 
1832, and became a partner with his brother in an extensive 
publishing-house of Edinburgh. They were distinguished 
for their enterprise and their successful efforts to supply the 
people with cheap and instructive literature. (See Cham¬ 
bers, Bobert.) He was the author of several works, among 
which is “ Things as they are in America.” He was chosen 
lord provost of Edinburgh in 1865. 

Ciiam'bersburg, a post-township of Pike co., Ill. 
Pop. 788. 

Chambersburg, a township of Iredell co., N. C. P. 949. 

Chambersburg, the capital of Franklin co., Pa., on 
the Conococbcague and Falling Spring creeks, at the ter¬ 
minus of the Cumberland Valley and Franklin B. Bs., 52 
miles S. W. of Harrisburg. It is in the southern portion 
of the fertile limestone valley between Blue and South 
mountains. It has three newspapers, a national bank, 
manufactories of wool, paper, and iron, an academy, a 
female seminary, and well-conducted public schools. It 
was settled by the Scotch-Irish. On the 30th of July, 1S63, 
a body of Confederate cavalry under Gen. McCausland 
entered the town and laid it under tribute of $200,000 in 
gold or half a million in currency; this demand not being 
complied with by the inhabitants, McCausland ordered the 
town to be fired. About two-thirds of the place was de¬ 
stroyed, 2500 persons were deprived of homes, and prop¬ 
erty to the value of $1,000,000 was destroyed. It has been 
entirely rebuilt. Pop. 6308. 

Jean Cook, Ed. “ Bepository.” 

Chambers Court-house, or ]La Fayette, a post¬ 
village, capital of Chambers co., Ala., is about 70 miles E. 
N. E. of Montgomery. Pop. 1382. 

Chambery [It. Ciamberi], a city of France, capital of 
the department of Savoy, is beautifully situated on the 
river Leysse, in a rich vine-clad valley about 60 miles E. 
S. E. of Lyons. It is on the railway which connects France 
with Italy and passes through a tunnel near Mont Cenis. 
It contains an old castle of the dukes of Savoy, a cathedral, 
several convents, and a public library. Here are manufac¬ 
tures of silk gauze, lace, hats, etc. It was formerly subject 
to the king of the Sardinian States, but was ceded to France 
in 1860. Pop. 18,279. 

Cham'bliss (John B.), an American Confederate officer, 
born in Virginia in 1833; graduated at West Point 1853, 
and resigned from the army in 1854 to devote himself to 
agricultural pursuits in Virginia. He was actively identi¬ 
fied with the State militia, being colonel, etc. At the out¬ 
break of the civil war he espoused the Confederate cause, 
and was appointed a brigadier-general, serving with gal¬ 
lantry. At the battle of Deep Bottom, Va., Aug. 16, 1864, 
while leading a brigade of cavalry, he was killed. 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eng’ re . 

Cbambliss (William P.), an American lawyer and 
soldier, born in Virginia; served during the war with 
Mexico as lieutenant, subsequently captain, Third Tennes¬ 
see Volunteers. At the close of the war he resumed the 
practice of his profession at Pulaski, Tenn.; was elected 
member of the State legislature 1853-54; Mar., 1855, he 
was commissioned in the army a first lieutenant Second 
Cavalry, and stationed in Texas, where he was mainly en¬ 
gaged, till 1861, against the Camanches and other hostile 
Indians ; promoted captain Fifth Cavalry April, 1861, and 
major Fourth Cavalry 1864. He was engaged in the ac¬ 
tions of Manassas and Peninsular campaigns of 1862 up 
to June 27, when, at the battle of Gaines’s Mill, after hav¬ 
ing been wounded six times, he was taken prisoner while 
leading a cavalry charge. Designed from the army Nov., 
1867, and became superintendent of a railway and mining 
company in Canada. 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eng’ re . 

Cham'folissbiirg, a township and post-village of Bed¬ 
ford co., Va. The village is 35 miles W. S. W. of Lynch¬ 
burg. Pop. 3428. 

Cham'bly, a county of Canada, in Quebec, has an area 
of 211 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Sorel 
Biver, and on the W. by the St. Lawrence, which separates 
it from Montreal. It is intersected by the Grand Trunk 
B. B. Capital, Longeuil. Pop. in 1871, 10,498. 

Cham'bly JHa'sini, a beautiful post-village of Cham- 
bly co., province of Quebec (Canada), at the mouth of the 
Chambly and St. John’s Canal and on Bichelieu Biver, 16 
miles E. of Montreal, has an important trade with Lake 
Champlain, and is the seat of Chambly College. It has a 
large hospital for the sick and poor, under the care of the 
Sisters of Charity. Pop. about 800. 















































CHAMBLY CANTON—CHAMPAGNE WINE. 


869 


Cham'bly Can'ton, a manufacturing village of Cham- 
bly co., province of Quebec (Canada), 1 mile above Cham- 
bly Basin, at the rapids of the Richelieu, which furnishes 
water-power for extensive lumber and woollen mills, a 
foundry, etc. Pop. about TOO. 

Chambon-FeugeroSIes, Le, a French town in the 
department of Loire. Its manufactures consist chiefly of 
iron and steel fabrics. Pop. 0954. 

Chambord, a village and royal chateau of France, de¬ 
partment of Loir-et-Cher, 8 miles E. of Blois. Here is a 
magnificent chateau begun by Francis I. in 1526, and 
finished by Louis XIV. It is in the midst of a beautiful 
park 21 miles in circumference. This castle was given to 
Marshal Saxe by Louis XV., and was presented to Marshal 
Berthier by Napoleon I. In 1821 it was purchased by 
subscription for the duke of Bordeaux, who is usually 
styled Count de Chambord. It is surmounted by a great 
number of turrets and minarets. Its most prominent fea¬ 
tures are six enormous round towers, each sixty feet in 
diameter. Pop. 332. 

Chambord, de (Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie 
Dieudonne d’Artois), Comte and Due de Bordeaux, was 
born in Paris Sept. 29, 1820. His father was the duke of 
Berry, a son of King Charles X., who abdicated in his 
favor in Aug., 1830. Since that date he has been recog¬ 
nized by the French legitimists as the heir to the throne, 
and has received the title of Henry V. He married in 
1846 a daughter of the duke of Modena, but he has no 
children, and remains the only surviving member of the 
elder branch of the Bourbon family. He passed many 
years at the castle of Frohsdorf, near Vienna. He claims 
the throne by divine right, and avows his devotion to the 
antiquated political ideas of which the white flag is the 
symbol. After the deposition of Napoleon III. (18T0) he 
issued a proclamation to the French people, which was not 
approved even by the royalists. 

Chambre Ardente [Fr. “fiery chamber”], an extra¬ 
ordinary court, chiefly held for the trial of heretics, was 
first convened by Francis I. of France in 1535. Its name 
was given on account of the unusual severity of its sen¬ 
tences, burning alive being one of its most common pun¬ 
ishments. Henry II.’s reign was especially distinguished 
for the cruelties practised by this court against the Hugue¬ 
nots. The last victim of the Chambre Ardente was one 
Voisin, executed in 1680, in the reign of Louis XIV., on a 
charge of sorcery. 

Chambre Introuvable, a sarcastic name given to 
the French Chamber of Deputies which was elected after 
the second restoration of Louis XVIII., in July, 1815. 
The majority of it were fanatical royalists, were hostile to 
the ministry, and supported an extremely reactionary 
policy. They showed no inclination to repress the outrages 
committed in the south of France by mobs of royalists and 
fanatics, who massacred many Protestants and liberals. 
This chamber was dissolved in 1816. 


delicate power of scent. It is highly prized as food, and 
chamois-hunting is a favorite though perilous amusement 
in Switzerland and the Tyrol. Its summer haunts are in 
the high Alps, near the snow-line. Its skin furnishes true 
chamois leather, but the article generally sold under that 
name is made of sheep skin. 

Chamois, a post-village of Osage co., Mo. It is situ¬ 
ated on the Missouri River and the Missouri Pacific R. R., 
100 miles W. of St. Louis. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Cham'omile, a name given to several herbs of the 
order Compositae, but especially to An them is nobilis and 
Matricaria Chamomilla , both European herbs closely re¬ 
sembling each other, and nearly identical in order and 
properties, though the latter is milder, and in Germany is 
more generally esteemed as a medicine. The one first men¬ 
tioned is common in American gardens. Chamomile is 
much used in domestic medicine, has tonic, stimulant, and 
diaphoretic powers, and was once used as a febrifuge. Its 
smell is agreeable, and depends upon the presence of a 
volatile oil. The chamomile flowers imported from England 
are of the first, those from Germany of the second, species. 
They are largely, but illegally, used in England in flavor¬ 
ing beer—a practice which is said to be injurious to health. 

Chamouni, Valley of, in the French department of 
Haute-Savoie, a wonderful valley in the Alps, 15 miles long 
and three-quarters of a mile broad, traversed by a small 
stream, the Arve, 3400 feet above the sea. It is entered on 
the N. E., from Martigny, by the Col de Tete Noire, and at 
the other end by diligence from Geneva, 53 miles distant, 
through the valley of the Arve. It is enclosed by Mont 
Blanc and the Aiguilles Rouges and Mont Breven. The 
glaciers Mer de Glace and Argentiere are the most remark¬ 
able in Switzerland. This beautiful vale, now visited by 
innumerable travellers each summer, was scarcely known 
until it was explored and described by the Englishmen 
Pococke and Wyndham in 1740. Many peculiar plants 
grow in the valley, and furnish a remarkably rich-flavored 
honey. In 1099 a Benedictine monastery was established 
at the village Chamonix or PrieurS. In early times this 
region was known as Les Montagues Maudites —a name 
still retained for the roughest part between the Dome of 
Mont Blanc and the Mer de Glace. 

Champagne, a former province in the N. E. part of 
France, was bounded on the E. by Lorraine and on the S. 
by Burgundy. It was drained by the Marne, Seine, Aube, 
and other rivers. It is now mostly comprised in the de¬ 
partments of Marne, Aube, Ardennes, Haute-Marne, and 
Yonne. The surface is diversified with plains and hills, 
on which latter is grown the famous Champagne Wins 
(which see). In the twelfth century Champagne was inde¬ 
pendent or governed by native princes. Thibaud, count 
of Champagne and king of Navarre, who died in 1253, was 
the most powerful feudatory of the French king. By the 
marriage of Philip IV. of France with Joanna, the heir¬ 
ess of the king of Navarre about 1285, Champagne was 
annexed to France. 


Chamis'so, von (Adel- 
bert), a poet and naturalist, 
born in Champagne, in France, 
Jan. 27, 1781. He removed 
with his parents to Berlin 
in 1790, learned the German 
language (in which all his 
works are written), and served 
for some years in the Prus¬ 
sian army. In the capacity 
of naturalist he accompanied 
an exploring expedition which 
sailed from Russia in 1814, 
and circumnavigated the globe. 
He wrote several works on nat¬ 
ural history, but his reputa¬ 
tion rests chiefly on his lyrical 
poems and ballads)-which are 
very popular, and the highly 
original talc of “ Peter Schle- 
mihl” (1814), translated by 
William Ilowitt (1843). Died 
Aug. 28, 1838. (See J. E. IIit- 
ZIG, “Leben und Briefevon A. 
von Chamisso,” 2 vols., 1839.) 

Chamois [Ger. Gemse'], a 
goat-like antelope (Rupicapra 
Tragus) of the mountains of 
Central and Southern Europe 
and Western Asia, found es¬ 
pecially in the Alps. It is 
about the size of a large goat, 
and is remarkable for its great 


%fJk 

f Vi 

V P. 



- - s fc s ,v. — . tv 


peed, for its ability to leap enormous chasms, and for its 


Chamois. 

Champagne Wine, a name applied to wines of vari- 



































870 


CHAMPAGNOLLE—CHAMPION HILLS. 


i 

ous kinds, white or red, still or sparkling, which are pro¬ 
duced in Champagne. Of these the sparkling and foam¬ 
ing varieties (sin mousseux and demi-mousseux ) are best 
known. After the vintage-season this wine stands till De¬ 
cember, is then racked off, and lined or purged with isin¬ 
glass; in the following March it is bottled and corked with 
care, the bottles being placed with the corks downward, so 
that the sediment may bo drawn off. When this has been 
removed, some brandy and sugar are introduced, and the 
bottles are recorkcd. While this process is going on the 
breakage of bottles is often very great, and buyei’s esti¬ 
mate the value of the wines partly by the breakage—the 
best wines breaking the most bottles. 

Even in France, but still more in other countries, a very 
large part of the so-called champagne wine is factitious, 
being made of cider, light Rhenish and other cheap wines, 
and other substances. Happily, in most cases these prep¬ 
arations are quite as harmless, and often quite as palatable, 
as the genuine product of the Champagne vineyards; for 
some of the imitations are nearly perfect representatives 
of the appearance, taste, and bouquet of the original 
article. 

Champagne wine is prized in medicine as a restorative 
in certain low conditions, especially when the stomach is 
very irritable and will hardly tolerate any other stimulant, 
the carbonic acid present acting as a sedative to that organ. 

Champagnolle, a township of Calhoun co., Ark. 
Pop. 505. 

Champaign', a county in the E. of Illinois. Area, 
1000 square miles. It is drained by the Sangamon and 
Vermilion Rivers. The surface is nearly level; the soil is 
deep and very fertile. A large proportion of the county 
is prairie. Live-stock, grain, wool, tobacco, and dairy 
products are extensively raised. Its manufactures are of 
growing importance, those of carriages, lumber, and flour 
being at present the largest. It is intersected by the Cen¬ 
tral, the Indianapolis Bloomington and Western, and the 
Toledo Wabash and Western R. Rs. Capital, Urbanna. 
Pop. 32,737. 

Champaign, a county in the central part of Ohio. 
Area, 390 square miles. It is intersected by Mad River. 
The surface is partly undulating, and in some parts nearly 
level; the soil is highly productive. Cattle, grain, wool, 
and dairy products are the most important staples. The 
manufactures are increasing in extent, those of flour, lum¬ 
ber, and carriages being at present the largest. It is trav¬ 
ersed by the Atlantic and Great Western, the Pittsburg 
Cincinnati and St. Louis, the Cleveland Columbus Cincin¬ 
nati and Indianapolis, and the Cincinnati Sandusky and 
Cleveland R. Rs. Capital, Urbana. Pop. 24,188. 

Champaign, a city of Champaign co., Ill., on the 
Chicago division of the Central R. R., 128 miles S. S. W. 
of Chicago, and on the Indianapolis Bloomington and 
Western R. R., 48 miles S. E. of Bloomington. The State 
Industrial University is located at this point, with an at¬ 
tendance of about 600 students. There is a finely improved 
park of ten acres in the place. Street-cars connect it with 
Urbanna, the county-seat, 2 miles E. The public library 
contains about 1000 volumes. There are four banks, 
eleven churches, three public-school buildings, a young 
ladies’ seminary, and three newspapers. It has increased 
rapidly in the last decade. Pop. 4625, or, including tho 
township, 5335. Ed. Champaign County “ Gazette.” 

Cham'pak, or Chum'pac ( Michelia Champaca), an 
East Indian tree remarkable for the beauty of its flowers 
and foliage. The flowers are of a pale yellow tint, and 
have a sweet, oppressive perfume, much celebrated in 
Oriental poetry, and alluded to in the writings of Shelley. 
This tree is venerated by the Brahmans and Booddliists. 

Champ de Mars, a large oblong park or public square 
in the environs of Paris, between the Seine and the Mili¬ 
tary School. It is devoted to military exercises and public 
gatherings, and was the site of the great temporary build¬ 
ings of the Exposition Universelle of 1867. Its name has 
a double reference to the Campus Martins of ancient Rome 
and other Italian cities, and to the old Frankish field- 
meetings for legislative and other purposes, held annually 
in March or May, and historically known as Champs de 
Mars or de Mai. 

Cham'perty [remotely from the Lat. campipars, “part 
of the field”], in law, is the act of aiding a person in the 
prosecution of a lawsuit or other legal proceeding, with an 
agreement to share in the proceeds of the litigation or to 
make some profit from it. It is distinguished from “main¬ 
tenance,” in which there is no such clement of gain. The 
two acts are, however, closely allied, and governed by sub¬ 
stantially the same principles. Champerty may present 
itself either in the civil or criminal law. Criminal pro¬ 
ceedings are not frequently prosecuted against champcrtors, 


as they scarcely accord with existing public opinion. The 
topic is of most importance in the civil law. A contract 
affected by champerty is usually void, though sometimes 
this rule is modified by statute. It was a doctrine of the 
English common law, based on this general idea of opposi¬ 
tion to champerty, that a right of action cannot be as¬ 
signed. This proposition has long been discarded in equity 
courts, both in England and America, and the assigneo 
has been regarded as a beneficiary, and the assignor as a 
trustee, so that an action can only be brought in a common- 
law coui’t in the name of the assignor. This mere for¬ 
mality has been abolished in a number of the American 
States under the lead of the legislation of New York, and 
the assignee is now permitted to sue in his own name. Tho 
old doctrine has been wholly swept away in England dur¬ 
ing this year (1873), and the assignee is now declared to 
have the title both in law and equity, acquiring, however, 
in substance the same rights as before in equity. Ac¬ 
cordingly, the assignee can there sue in his own name, and 
in general act as legal owner (36 and 37 Viet., ch. 66, $ 25). 
There has not been a disposition to extend the doctrine of 
assignability to pretended titles to land. Should an owner 
who has been evicted from his land by one claiming title 
assume to transfer it, the act would be void. This doctrine 
is recognized in a considerable number of the American 
States; and even in New York, under the legislation 
already referred to, the assignee in this case cannot ac¬ 
quire a right to sue in his own name. This doctrine is in 
part grounded on the opinions of an English statute passed 
in the time of Henry VIII., and recognized here. The doc¬ 
trines of champerty would prevent an attorney from enter¬ 
ing into an agreement with his client to receive a portion 
of the subject in litigation as a compensation for his ser¬ 
vices. This rule has been changed in a number of the 
American States by legislation, though even there it might 
be considered as illegal for an attorney to take an assign¬ 
ment of a claim with a view to its jirosecution. The rules 
of the ancient law on this subject would seem to be giving 
way, and the modern view would seem to tend to allow 
freedom to deal in rights of action as well as in tangible 
property. In the progress of time it is probable that 
scarcely any trace of the old law will remain, except so far 
as to prohibit attorneys from purchasing claims with intent 
to collect them, and to prevent combinations or conspiracies 
to promote litigation, which should be dealt with in the 
same manner as other conspiracies are treated. (See Main¬ 
tenance.) T. W. Dwight. 

Champfieury, the assumed name of Jules Fleury, 
a French author, chief of tho realistic school, born Sept. 
10, 1821. He was a companion of Miirger, Dupont, and 
De Banville, and produced in 1847 “ Chien-Caillu,” imme¬ 
diately pronounced by Victor Hugo a chef d’oeuvre. Among 
his numerous works are “Les Excentriques” (1852), “Aven- 
tm*es de Mariette” (1853), and “Les Bourgeois de Molin- 
chart” (1854). 

Champigny, a village near Paris, France, on the 
Marne, was on Nov. 30 and Dec. 2, 1870, the scene of pro¬ 
tracted and bloody encounters between the French troops 
under Ducrot and the Germans. On Dec. 3 the French re¬ 
crossed the Marne. 

Chare'pion [from the Lat. campus , a “field” of battle], 
a person in the Middle Ages, and even in more recent 
times, who appeared and took part in judicial combats (see 
Battel) as the hired representative of women, children, 
feeble persons, and other non-combatants. The practice 
was of very ancient origin, but the occupation of the pro¬ 
fessional champion came to be looked upon as very disrep¬ 
utable. In the more romantic periods of chivalry, how¬ 
ever, knights and gentlemen might contend, especially 
with those of their own rank, in behalf of injured ladies 
and children, and were called champioAS. The crown of 
England since the time of William the Conqueror has had 
a champion at coronations—a mounted yeoman, armed to 
tho teeth, who challenges all who deny the king to be the 
true sovereign. 

Champion, a post-village and township of Jefferson 
co., N. Y., about 15 miles E. of Watertown, and on the 
Utica and Black River R. R. Pop. of the township, 2156. 

Champion, a township of Trumbull co., 0. Pop. 820. 

Champion Hills, Hinds co., Miss., about midway be¬ 
tween Jackson and Vicksburg, the scene of a desperate 
struggle May 16, 1863. The forces under Gen. Grant were 
marching from Jackson, Miss., towards Vicksburg, when 
they were met at this point by a Confederate force under 
Gen. Pemberton. A desperate "battle of five hours’ duration 
ensued, the Confederates being forced to retire to the Big 
Black River. The Confederate loss was heavy in men and 
artillery. Tho battle was mainly fought on the side of the 
U. S. forces by Ilovey’s division of McClernand’s, and Lo- 



















CHAMPLAIN—CHANCELLOR, THE LORD HIGH. 871 



gan’s and Crocker’s division of McPherson’s corps, which 
suffered heavily in killed and wounded. This battle is also 
known as Baker’s Creek. 

Champlain'', a county of Canada, in Quebec, is bounded 
on the S. E. by the St. Lawrence, and intersected by the 
river St. Maurice. Among its products are oats, flax, and 
maple-sugar. Pop. in 1871, 22,052. 

Champlain, a post-village of Champlain co., Quebec 
(Canada), on tho N. side of the St. Lawrence, 75 miles 
above Quebec. It has a lighthouse. Pop. about 400. 

Chamjilain, a post-village of Clinton co., New York, 
on the Chazy River and on the Ogdensburg and Lake Cham¬ 
plain R. R., about 20 miles N. of Plattsburg. It has a na¬ 
tional bank, a newspaper, and manufactures of iron, etc. 
Pop. 1850. Champlain township is on Lake Champlain, 
at its N. extremity. It contains four villages—Champlain, 
Perry’s Mills, Cooperville, and Rouse’s Point. Pop. 5080. 

A. N. Merchant, Prop. Champlain “ Journal.” 

Champlain (Samuel), al’rench navigator and pioneer, 
the founder of Quebec, was born at Brouage, in France, 
about 1570. He made a voyage to Canada in 1603, and 
soon returned to France. In 1608 he ascended the river 
St. Lawrence to the site of Quebec, where he planted a col¬ 
ony. He discovered Lake Champlain in 1610, after which 
he passed several years in Canada. He was appointed gov¬ 
ernor of Canada in 1620. He wrote several narratives of 
his voyages. Died at Quebec in 1635. 

Champlain, Lake, forms part of the boundary be¬ 
tween New York and Vermont, and extends from White¬ 
hall, N. Y., northward to Canada. It is about 125 miles 
long, and is narrow in proportion to its length. The 
southern half averages less than two miles wide, and in 
many places is less than a mile. In the northern part, where 
large islands occur in it, the width is ten miles or more. 
The greatest depth is about 280 feet. The water of this 
lake is discharged by the Sorel or Richelieu River, which 
issues from its N. extremity. The chief towns on its shores 
are Burlington and Plattsburg. Occupying a basin between 
the Adirondacks and the Green Mountains, this lake is re¬ 
markable for its beautiful and picturesque scenery. Nume¬ 
rous steamboats ply daily between Whitehall and Canada 
in the summer. A naval battle was fought on Lake Cham¬ 
plain between Gen. Arnold and the British Oct. 13, 1776, 
in which the latter had the advantage. Sept. 11, 1814, 
Com. McDonough gained an important victory over the 
British fleet near Plattsburg. This lake is connected with 
the Hudson River by the Champlain Canal. 

Cham'plin, a post-township of Hennepin co., Minn. 
Pop. 292. 

Champlin (James Tift), D. D., born in Colchester, 
Conn., June 9, 1811, valedictorian of the class of 1834 
Brown University, where he was tutor 1835-38. From 
1838 to 1841 pastor of Baptist church Portland, Me.; from 
1841 to 1857 professor of ancient languages in Waterville 
College (now Colby University ); from 1857 to 1872 presi¬ 
dent of that institution. During his connection with the 
college (which contributed greatly to its prosperity) Dr. 
Champlin published an edition of “ Demosthenes on the 
Crown” (1843), “ Demosthenes’ Select Orations” (1848), 
“iEschines on the Crown” (1850), “A Text Book on In¬ 
tellectual Philosophy ” (1860), “ First Principles of Ethics ” 
(1861), “ A Text Book of Political Economy” (1868), be¬ 
sides other works which are in less general use. 

Champlin (Gen. Stephen G.) entered the U. S. service 
at the outbreak of the late civil war as major of the Third 
Michigan Volunteers, was severely wounded at Fair Oaks, 
became a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862, and took 
part in the battles of Antietam and Fredericksburg. Died 
Jan. 29, 1864. 

Champ'ney (Benjamin), artist, born at New Ipswich, 
N. H., Nov. 20, 1817, practised lithography in Boston, and 
studied art in Europe, which he visited several times. He 
has painted many'landscapes of the Alps and the White 
Mountains. 

Champney (James Wells), a genre painter, born at 
Boston, Mass., July 16, 1843, practised wood-engraving 
and designing, served for a. time as a volunteer in the late 
civil war, taught drawing for some years, practised paint¬ 
ing in Europe four years, and returned to the U. S. in 1870. 

Champollion (Jean Francois), a celebrated French 
linguist and Egyptologist, born at Figeac (Lot) Dec. 23, 
1790. He studied several Oriental languages in Paris, and 
became in 1809 professor of history in the academy of 
Grenoble. In 1814 he published a “ Geographical Descrip¬ 
tion of Egypt under the Pharaohs.” From the inscriptions 
on the Rosetta Stone he obtained a key to the mysterious 
symbols and hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt. His reputa¬ 
tion is founded chiefly on this important discovery, which 
he announced to tho Academy of inscriptions in 1822. In 


1824 he published a “ Summary of the Hieroglyphic Sys¬ 
tem of the Ancient Egyptians,” in which he proves that 
the phonetic alphabet is the key to the whole hieroglyphic 
system. In 1828 he visited Egypt, tho monuments of 
which he explored in company with Rosellini. Having 
spent sixteen months in Egypt, he returned home, and was 
admitted into the Institute in 1830. A chair of Egyptian 
antiquities was founded for him in the College of France. 
He died Mar. 4, 1832. Among his chief works (published 
after his death by his brother Jean Jacques) are an 
“Egyptian Grammar” (1836-41) and an “Egyptian Dic¬ 
tionary” (1842-44). The results of the researches of 
Champollion and Rosellini in Egypt appeared in a great 
work entitled “Monuments of Egypt and Nubia considered 
in Relation to History, Religion, etc.” (4 vols., 1835-45). 
Bunsen expressed the opinion that his discovery of the art 
of deciphering the hieroglyphics was the greatest discovery 
of the century. (See Silvestre he Sacy, “ Notice sur 
Champollion,” 1833 ,• Rosellini, “ Tributo di Riconosccnza 
alia Mcmoria di G. F. Champollion,” 1832.) 

Champollion-Figeac (Jean Jacques), a French an¬ 
tiquary, a brother of the preceding, was born at Figeac 
in 1778. He published, besides other works, “ Chronicles 
of the Greek Kings of Egypt” (1819), a “Treatise on 
Archmology” (1843), and “Paleographic Documents Re¬ 
lating to the History of Fine Arts and Belles Lettres in the 
Middle Ages” (1868). He became in 1849 librarian to 
Louis Napoleon. Ho edited some jiosthumous works of 
his brother. Died May 9, 1867. 

ChanahatclUee, a post-township of Elmore co., Ala. 
Pop. 1095. 

Chance [from the late Lat. cadentia, a “ fall ” or “ throw” 
of the dice], a word popularly used to denote that which 
happens without special causation or evident design ; a 
convenient term which does not, however, correspond to tho 
real facts of any supposable case. To the religious mind 
the idea of chance is objectionable, as not harmonizing 
with the doctrine of the Divine providence; to the philos¬ 
opher it is equally objectionable, as being inconsistent with 
the uniform operation of natural laws. The word as used 
in the expression “theory of chances” is simply synon¬ 
ymous with Probability (which see). 

Chanceford, a post-village and township of York co., 
Pa., about 40 miles S. E. of Harrisburg and 6 from the 
Susquehanna River. Total pop. 2501. 

Chan'cel [from the Lat. cancelli, “lattice-work”], the 
part of a church where the altar or communion-table is 
placed, or the portion of a church occupied by the clergy, 
and usually separated from the nave by a screen of lattice¬ 
work. The chancel of Gothic churches corresponds in po¬ 
sition to the apsis of the ancient basilicas. In England 
the term chancel is usually confined to parish churches 
which have no aisles or chapels around the choir. 

Chancellor, a township of Spottsylvania co., Va. 
Pop. 1446. 

Chancellor [Lat. cancellarius; Fr. chancelier; Ger. 
Kanzler'], the title of a civil officer of high rank in several 
countries. The cancellarius was a notary or scribe under 
the Roman emperors. The chancelier of France was for 
several centuries one of the most powerful ministers of state 
and keeper of the seal. His office was abolished about 
1790, and the functions of chancellor were transferred to the 
minister of justice. In the new German empire, established 
in 1871, the Kanzler is one of the chief functionaries, and 
Prince Bismarck now holds the office. The British cabinet 
always includes two ministers of state, called respectively 
chancellor of the exchequer and lord chancellor. Tho 
former acts as minister of finance (see Exchequer), and 
the latter is keeper of the great seal. (See Chancellor, 
Lord High.) 

Chancellor of a University is the chief officer of a 
collegiate institution, sometimes elected for a term of years, 
and sometimes for life. 

Chan'cel lor, an American law officer in some of tho 
American States who has the powers of a court of equity, 
and whose proceedings are based on the practice and juris¬ 
diction of the English court of chancery. In other States 
jurisdiction in law and equity is vested in the same court, 
as in the State of New York, where the sujireme court has 
this compound jurisdiction. 

Chancellor, The Lord High, an officer in England 
who presides over the high court of chancery, and who 
also has various special powers of a legal nature. . Ho is 
also prolocutor of the House of Lords. His office is con¬ 
ferred upon him by the delivery of the great seal. There 
may also bo an officer termed “the lord keeper ot tho great 
seal,” whose functions are substantially the same. Tho 
duties of the office are sometimes discharged by commis¬ 
sioners, instead of by a single person, when the great seal 














872 CHANCELLORS'VILLE. 


is said to bo “ in commission.” Some of the powors of the 
chancellor are in that case, by statute, exercised by the 
senior commissioner. The judicial powers of the chancel¬ 
lor arc considerably changed by 36 and 37 Viet., ch. 66, 
which goes fully into effect on Nov. 2, 1874. After the 
chancellor then in office ceases to hold it the duties at¬ 
tached to it will be principally of an appellate character, 
the chancellor becoming president of “Her Majesty’s 
court of appeal,” which tribunal will exercise the appellate 
powers at present vested in the House of Lords and in the 
judicial committee of the privy council. (See Foss, “Judges 
of England,” Campbell’s “ Lives of the Lord Chancel¬ 
lors,” and Blackstone’s “ Commentaries,” for further in¬ 
formation.) The chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster 
may also be referred to in this connection. He has a juris¬ 
diction in certain matters of equity resembling that exer¬ 
cised by the lord chancellor, though not so general in its 
nature. 

Chan'cellorsville, a small village of Spottsylvania 
co., Va., near the Rappahannock River, about 65 miles N. 
by W. from Richmond. 

On assuming command of the Army of the Potomac Jan., 
1863, Gen. Hooker found it in a weakened and despondent 
condition; its numerical force had been greatly decreased 
by sickness and desertions, which latter were still frequent. 
On the contrary the recent successes of the confederates had 
inspired them with boldness and enthusiasm. Hooker de¬ 
voted the remaining winter months to repairing the de¬ 
moralized condition of his army, and gathering back those 
away from duty; and his efforts were so successful that by 
April he had not only restored confidence, but by additions 
found himself in command of a well equipped army of up¬ 
wards of 120,000 men, composed of (about) 100,000 infan¬ 
try, 10,000 artillery, and the remainder cavalry, encamped 
around Falmouth, Va. The confederate army under Lee, 
which was still encamped on the opposite bank of the Rap¬ 
pahannock, held a line running north-east to south-west, 
its right wing extending to Port Royal on the Rappahan¬ 
nock, its left wing resting about two miles above Freder¬ 
icksburg on the same river; thus affording only two lines 
of retreat—one to Richmond, the other to Gordonsville. 
Its strength was probably upwards of 60,000 men. 

Everything being in readiness Hooker decided to move 
at once upon Lee. The larger portion of the cavalry was 
placed under Gen. Stoneman and (April 13) he was des¬ 
patched in advance of the main army for the purpose of 
destroying the confederate communications and harassing 
their retreat which it was deemed must result from the 
contemplated advance. Owing to frequent rains, which 
swelled the rivers Stoneman did not get fairly away till the 
27th and Hooker gave orders for his general movement to 
commence the next day. 

Gen. Hooker’s plan of attack was as follows: His army 
was divided into seven corps—of these three were to be 
massed about two miles below Fredericksburg, to cross 
there and make a bold feint, two of the corps to imme¬ 
diately return and join Hooker; in the meanwhile the re¬ 
maining four corps were to cross above Fredericksburg. 

This plan was successfully executed. The 1st Corps 
(Reynolds) 3d (Sickles) and 6th (Sedgwick), all under 
command of Sedgwick, were moved on the 28th to the 
position assigned them, and on the 29th one division of 
the 6th crossed the river about two miles below Fredericks¬ 
burg and drove in the pickets; a division of the 1st cross¬ 
ing about two miles lower down; the other divisions, with 
the 3d Corps, remaining on the north bank in plain view 
of Lee’s army, whose columns were soon seen coming up 
from Port Royal. On the 30th Sickles silently withdrew 
his Corps and proceeded to join Hooker. In the mean¬ 
while the crossing of the Rappahannock above had been 
going on; the 11th Corps crossed first (28th), followed by 
the 12th, then the 5th (29th); this column moved along, 
crossed the Rapidan at Germania and Ely’s Ford; both 
columns then advancing towards Chancellorsville, at the 
junction of the Gordonsville turnpike with the Culpeper 
and Orange C. II. plank road. By the evening of the 30th 
the 2d Corps had crossed and the four corps were massed 
at the same point and Gen. Hooker had arrived and taken 
up his headquarters at Chancellorsville. Lee though thus 
far outgeneraled appears to have been undismayed, and 
quickly realizing the movement below to be a feint, con¬ 
centrated his army in front of Hooker, leaving but a small 
force in his works on the Fredericksburg heights. 

Reconnaissances having been made by Hooker on Friday 
morning (May 1) towards Fredericksburg without opposi¬ 
tion, an advance of the 5th and 12th Corps was ordered 
to be made on two roads leading towards Fredericksburg, 
which was soon met by the confederates and after a sharp 
engagement Gen. Hooker ordered the advance to fall back 
to their intrenchments which in the meantime had been 
thrown up. The right of Hooker’s army was held by 


Howard (11th Corps) then a division of Sickles (3d Corps), 
who had now arrived from below, then Slocum (12th 
Corps) Couch (2d Corps) with Meade (5th Corps) on the 
left. 

During the night and on Saturday a movement of Con¬ 
federates was observed along Sickles’ front and in direction 
of our right, which being continued Birney (in command 
1st div. 3d Corjxs) reported to Sickles who received orders 
to make a reconnaissance in force and ascertain the nature 
of the movement which being promptly executed an en¬ 
gagement soon ensued, mostly skirmishing. From prison¬ 
ers here captured intelligence was gained that the movement 
was under command of Stonewall Jackson ; it was at once 
comprehended that it contemplated one of his sudden at¬ 
tacks, and arrangements were immediately made to check 
it. Sickles was ordered to push on and Williams’ division 
of Slocum’s corps to co-operate. This order was executed 
vigorously and attacked the column moving up the road 
cutting it in two and Williams had commenced a flank at¬ 
tack on Jackson’s right when the furious discharge of mus¬ 
ketry announced (5 p. m.) that Jackson’s attack had been 
commenced. Although anticipated, it was believed that 
the attack would be resisted; but Schurz’s division (11th 
Corps), the first assailed, at once gave way flying in con¬ 
fusion, quickly followed by Devens’ (who was wounded) 
division; the brigades of Bushbeck and McLean gallantly 
resisting but finally compelled to fall back before greatly 
superior numbers. The 2d division of the 3d Corps (Berry’s) 
was sent to Howard’s aid; the batteries of Captain Best 
were placed on a ridge across the road and after a short 
but severe contest succeeded in checking the further ad¬ 
vance of Jackson. This disaster compelled the recall of 
the divisions of Slocum and Sickles; Williams returning 
found his works partially filled by the confederates; while 
Sickles with his two divisions found himself with the vic¬ 
torious army of Jackson in his rear and between him and 
Hooker. He had also about 1000 cavalry under Pleasonton. 
He had barely got his guns in position, when, at nearly 
dark, furious and successive charges were made upon his 
position, all of which were repelled with great loss to the 
confederates from the artillery of Sickles and Pleasonton 
which poured their fire into the advancing columns. It 
was at this juncture that Stonewall Jackson received his 
fatal wound at the hands of his own men, it is reported; 
his loss being the greatest the South had yet been called 
upon to bear. A portion of the ground lost dux-ing the 
day was regained by a successful charge at midnight and 
communications were restored; during the night Hooker 
determined to contract and reform his lines. Reynolds 
(1st Corps) had anfived on Saturday afternoon and was 
posted on the l'ight with Meade (5th); which portion of 
the line they fortified strongly during the night; the 11th 
which had been re-organized were placed on the left in the 
intrenchments. The army of Lee received sti'ong rein¬ 
forcements during the night and preparations were made 
for a fierce conflict the next day (Sunday). 

At daylight the attack was renewed, the confederates 
opening a musketry fire along the whole line; but the 
great effort was in tlie same direction as the day before, the 
possession of the plank road to Chancellorsville; and here 
they met the same troops which had sustained and repelled 
their assaults of the day before. Berry’s and Birney’s 
divisions (3d Corps) supported by Whipple’s (3d) and Wil¬ 
liams’ (12th Corps) supported the artillery of Sickles, against 
which the confederates threw themselves again and again 
only to be cut down and hurled back until Sickles for want 
of ammunition was compelled to retire to a second line. 
Sickles had before retiring sent for assistance to cnablo 
him to hold his position; but his appeal was unheeded. 
Hooker had been stunned by a ball which struck a pillar 
against which he was leaning, and was unconscious at the 
time, and his appeal was unnoticed. French and Hancock 
of the 2d Coi’ps had done gallant work, in charging and 
driving back the confederate left; but Sickles was not re- 
enfoi'ced; yet though his ammunition was exhausted he 
continued to maintain his position, repelling successive 
charges at the point of the bayonet when he was again 
compelled to retire, and the whole line was now withdrawn 
a mile back from Chancellorsville, which position was 
strongly fortified. 

Sedgwick meanwhile (May 2) had received orders to 
crass the Rappahannock and advance on Chancellorsville 
until he should come up with the l'car of Lee’s army which 
he was to attack simultaneously with Hooker’s attack on 
the front. This order was not received by Sedgwick till 
nearly midnight but he soon had his eoi-ps in motion and 
by noon had stormed and carried Cemetery and Maryo 
heights, and after reforming his command moved on the 
raad to Chancellorsville ; but he was soon met by the force 
ho had driven from the heights, reinfoi*ced by a portion of 
the army of Lee who being now disengaged from Hooker 













CHANCE-MEDLEY—CHANK SHELL. 


873 


turned to check Sedgwick’s advance; severe fighting con¬ 
tinued till dark Sedgwick being unable to force the confeder¬ 
ates from the strong position they had taken; the chance 
of joining Hooker was now small and the next day made it 
impossible, for the army of Lee now concentrated against 
him in large numbers forcing him by night time across the 
river at Bank’s ford he having rescued his corps from its 
critical position by desperate fighting but with fearful loss. 

On the 5th Hooker recrossed his whole army over the 
Rappahannock without opposition and the terrible struggle 
was ended. The losses are estimated at about 13,000 on 
each side. 

Stoneman returned on the 8th having been nine days in 
the rear of Lee’s army, and had advanced to within two 
miles of Richmond but his operations conferred no benefit 
to the Federal army. 

Chance-Medley, in law, the killing of a person in 
self-defence upon a sudden and unpremeditated encounter 
or a casual affray. 

Chancery, Court of. See Courts, by George 
Chase, LL.B. 

Chan'da, or Chandah, a town of Hindostan, on the 
Upper Godavery, 105 miles by the Peninsular Railway S. 
of Nagpoor. High stone walls flanked with round towers 
enclose a space seven miles in circuit, occupied by houses, 
plantations, and a citadel. 

Chandal'a, the name given in India to a member of the 
lowest of all the impure classes. (See Caste.) 

Chandeleur Islands, a range of low islands in the 
Gulf of Mexico, off the E. coast of St. Bernard’s parish, La., 
separating Chandeleur Sound from the Gulf. The sound 
ha3 also numerous small islands. At the N. end of the 
northernmost island stands Chandeleur lighthouse, in lat. 
30° 3’ 8" N., Ion. 88° 51' 38" W. It is built of brick, and 
i3 56 feet high, with a fixed Avhite light. 

Chan'deree', a decayed town of India, in Malwah, 
near the river Betwa, about 110 miles S. of Gwalior. Here 
is a hill-fort which was formerly deemed impregnable. The 
ruins seen here indicate former splendor and inqiortance. 

Chandernagore, a French town in India, on the riv¬ 
er Hoogley, about 20 miles above Calcutta ; lat. 22° 50' N., 
Ion. 88° 23' E. It was founded by the French in 1616, 
and for some time rivalled Calcutta, but it is now decaying. 
It was taken by Lord Clive in 1757, and restored to the 
French in 1816. Pop. 28,512. 

Chand'ler, a township of Manitou co., Mich. P. 190. 

Chandler (Abiel), born at Concord, N. H., Feb. 26, 
1777, graduated at Harvard in 1806, taught school eleven 
years, and became a successful merchant of Boston, Mass. 
He died at Walpole, N. H., Mar. 22, 1851, and left $50,000 
to found the scientific school connected with Dartmouth 
College, and bequeathed a considerable sum to the New 
Hampshire Insane Asylum. 

Chandler (Prof. Charles Frederick), Ph. D., M. D., 
LL.D., was born at Lancaster, Mass., Dec. 6, 1836, was ed¬ 
ucated at the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard Col¬ 
lege, at Gottingen, and Berlin, and received the degree, of 
doctor of philosophy in Gottingen in 1856. In 1857 he 
took charge of the chemical department of Union College 
at Schenectady, N. Y. In 1864 ho was appointed professor 
of analytical and applied chemistry in the School of Mines 
of Columbia College, about to be organized in New York, 
which position he still holds. In 1858 he was appointed to 
the chair of chemistry in the New York College of Phar¬ 
macy, and in 1872 a portion of the duties of the chair of 
chemistry in the College of Physicians and Surgeons was 
assigned to him. In 1865 he became chemist to the metro¬ 
politan Board of Health, which position he retained till 
1873, when he was appointed president of the board. In 
the same year he received the degrees of M. D. from the 
University of New York and LL.D. from Union College. 
In 1869 he was elected a member of the Chemical Society 
of Berlin, in 1871 of London, in 1872 of Paris. In 1870 
ho established, with his brother, Prof. W. H. Chandler of 
the Lehigh University of Bethlehem, Pa., the “ American 
Chemist,’’ a monthly journal devoted to chemical science. 
Though chiefly devoted to the work of instruction, he has 
published a number of papers on chemical subjects, among 
which are “ The Inaugural Dissertation,” Gottingen, 1856, 
containing miscellaneous chemical researches; “ Report on 
Waters for Locomotives and Boiler Incrustations,” 1865 ; 
“ Examinations of Various Rocks and Minerals,” published 
in the geological reports of Iowa and Wisconsin ; “ Investi¬ 
gations on Numerous Mineral Waters of tearatoga, Ballston, 
Chittenango,” etc., and of various waters designed for the 
supply of "cities; as well as papers on the purification of 
coal-gas, on petroleum, and on milk. Most of these 
papers have appeared in the “ American Chemist ” and in 
the annual reports of the health department of New York. 


Chandler (John), born in what is now Monmouth* 
Kennebec co., Me., then a part of Massachusetts, in 1760. 
He was the son of parents in the most humble circum¬ 
stances, and although apprenticed to learn the trade of a 
blacksmith, he became afterwards, by his own industry and 
perseverance, very wealthy. On the outbreak of war with 
Great Britain in 1812, he was commissioned a brigadier- 
general, being at that time a major-general of militia. He 
represented his district in Congress from 1805 to 1808, and 
was U. S. Senator from Maine from 1820 to 1829. Died at 
Augusta, Me., Sept. 25,1841. 

Chandler (Joseph R.), a distinguished philanthropist 
and diplomat, born in Kingston, Mass., in 1792. He was 
for several years a member of Congress from Philadelphia, 
where he was a lawyer and journalist, and was U. S. min¬ 
ister at Naples at the time of the expulsion of the Bourbon 
monarchy (1858-61). 

Chandler (Ralph), U. S. N.,born Aug. 23,1829, in the 
State of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman 
Sept. 27, 1845. He served on the W. coast of Mexico during 
the Mexican wai*, and participated in several slight engage¬ 
ments with the enemy near Mazatlan. In the sloop-of- 
war Vandalia at the battle of Port Royal,. Nov. 7, 1861, 
commanded the steamer Maumee in both attacks on Fort 
Fisher, and was recommended for promotion by Rear-Ad¬ 
miral Porter. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Chandler (Richard), an English antiquary and travel¬ 
ler, born in Hampshire in 1738. He explored Asia Minor 
and Greece in company with the artists Revett and Pars 
in 1763-66. They published in 1769 “ Ionian Antiquities, 
or Ruins of Famous Buildings in Ionia.” Chandler was the 
author of “Travels in Asia Minor” (1775) and “Travels 
in Greece” (1776), which are highly esteemed. Died in 
1810. 

Chandler (Zachary), born at Bedford, N. II., Dec. 10, 
1813, became U. S. Senator from Michigan in 1855, and 
has been twice re-elected. 

Chand'lerville, a post-twp. of Cass co., Ill. P. 1047. 

Chan'dore, a fortified town of British India, in the 
presidency of Bombay, is on a hill-range, and commands 
an important pass about 130 miles N. E. of Bombay. It 
was taken by the British in 1804. Pop. about 7000. 

Chamd'poosr', a town of British India, in the North¬ 
west Provinces, about 75 miles N. E. of Delhi. P. 12,000. 

Chang and Eng. See Eng and Chang, by Prof. 
Abraham Jacobi, M. D. 

Changarnier (Nicolas Anne Theodule), a French 
general, born at Autun April 26, 1793. He served with 
distinction in Algeria, to which he went in 1830, became a 
colonel in 1838, and a general of division in 1843. In May, 
1848, he was appointed governor-general of Algeria, but 
before the end of the year he obtained the command of the 
national guard at Paris and of the first military division. 
He became a member of the National Assembly in 1849, 
but continued to command the army or garrison of Paris 
until 1851. At the coup-d’etcit of Dec. 2, 1851, lie was ar¬ 
rested and confined for a short time. He afterwards passed 
many years in exile. After the outbreak of the Franco- 
German war he offered his services to the emperor, and 
although he did not receive a command, he took a leading 
part in the defence of Metz, and signed, with Bazaine and 
other generals, the capitulation. 

Chang-Chau-Foo, a city in China, in the province 
of Fo-Kien, 25 miles N. W. from the port Amoy, on a 
tributary of the Kian-Long-Kiang. The city is surrounded 
by a wall four and a half miles in circumference. The en¬ 
trance is over a bridge 780 feet in length, with twenty-two 
water-passages. In the city is a magnificent Booddhist 
temple built in the eighth century, which has two towers 
of seven stories. The streets are unusually broad, and are • 
adorned with fine shops, ornamented arches, and trees. 
The inhabitants are amiable. There is a considerable 
manufacture of silk, besides sugar, mirrors, crystal, and 
quicksilver. The exports consist mostly of tea, sugar, 
jiorcelain, and paper. Pop. 1,000,000. 

Chang-Choo-Foo, a large city of China, province of 
Kiang-Soo, 75 miles S. E. of Nankin; lat. 31° 55' N., Jon. 
121° 43' E. 

Chang-Sha/, a city of China, capital of the province 
of Honan, on the river Heng-Kiang, about 360 miles N. 
of Canton. 

Chanhas'sen, a township of Carver co., Minn. Pop. 
1084. 

Cliank Shell, the popular name of the shell of several 
species of Turbinella, a genus of gasteropodous mollusks, 
natives chiefly of the Indian and Pacific oceans. Iliese 
shells are worn as ornaments by Hindoo women, and some 
specimens aro said to bo valued at £100 sterling. Moro 
























874 


CHANNAHON—CHANZY. 


than two million of them have been exported from Madras 
in one year. Some of them are used as medicine-cups, and 
are held sacred. 

Chan'iiahon, a township and post-village of Will co., 
Ill., 35 miles E. N. E. of Ottawa and 45 miles S. W. of Chi¬ 
cago. Pop. 1164. 

Chan'nel, a port of entry in Newfoundland, is the most 
western town of any importance in that island. The cod 
and halibut fishery is carried on here. It is connected by 
steamers with St. John’s, 300 miles distant. It has con¬ 
siderable trade. Pop. 584. 

Chan'nel Isl'ands, a group of islands off the N. W. 
coast of France, belonging to Great Britain, but governed 
by their own laws. They are the only parts of the duke¬ 
dom of Normandy now belonging to the English crown. 
King John in 1204 lost all the rest. The chief islands of 
the group are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark. The 
area of the whole is 73 square miles. Pop. in 1871, 90,563. 

Chan'lling (Edward Tyrrel), LL.D., an American 
scholar, born at Newport, R. I., Dec. 12, 1790. He was 
one of the founders of the “ North American Review,” to 
which he contributed many critical and biographical arti¬ 
cles. He became professor of rhetoric at Harvard in 1819, 
and retained that position nearly thirty-two years. Died 
Feb. 8, 1856. 

Channing (Walter), M. D., an American physician, a 
brother of the preceding, was born at Newport, R.I., April 
15, 1786. He studied medicine in Edinburgh, and began 
its practice in Boston in 1812. He was professor of obstet¬ 
rics and medical jurisprudence at Harvard from 1815 to 
1854. He published several works. / 

Channing (William Ellery), D. D., eminent alike in 
the Unitarian ministry and as one of the first of American 
writers, was born at Newport, R. I., on the 7th of April, 
1780. The surroundings of his childhood and early youth 
seem to have favored the early development of that spirit¬ 
uality and moral dignity which marked his character in 
after life. He entered Harvard in 1794, where he graduated 
in 1798 with the highest honors. The oration delivered by 
him on this occasion was received by the audience with 
tumultuous acclamations. Soon after this, while living in 
Richmond, Va., in the capacity of tutor, the evils of sla¬ 
very seem to have impressed him most painfully: at this 
time also he writes in a letter (showing that he already 
looked forward to entering the ministry), “Religion is the 
only treasure worth pursuing. I consider the man who 
recommends it to society as more useful than the greatest 
sage and patriot who adorns the page of history.” In the 
summer of 1800 he returned by sea to Newport, and to the 
hardships he endured on that voyage may be ascribed the 
permanent indisposition with which he had to contend dur¬ 
ing all his after life. In 1802 he took the position of regent 
at Harvard, meantime continuing his theological studies. 
In 1803 he became pastor of the Federal Street church in 
Boston. As a preacher he attained at once a brilliant dis¬ 
tinction, and he was soon recognized as standing in the 
foremost rank of the Unitarian ministry, both as respects 
eloquence and personal influence. In 1814 he delivered, 
on the fall of Napoleon, what is perhaps the finest of all 
his efforts as an orator—viz. a discourse on “The goodness 
of God in delivering the Christian world from military des¬ 
potism.” In 1820 Harvard College conferred upon him the 
degree of doctor of divinity. In 1822 he visited Europe, 
and while in England made the acquaintance of Words¬ 
worth, Coleridge, and many others. The rare sweetness 
and earnestness of his character caused Coleridge to say 
of him, “He has the love of wisdom and the wisdom of 
love.” He was deeply interested in the peace movement, 
to which he lent his support, without, however, taking the 
'extreme ground of entire non-resistance. His “Remarks 
on the Life and Character of Napoleon Bonaparte,” which 
appeared in the “ Christian Examiner” in 1828, probably 
contributed more than any other of his writings to carry 
his fame into all civilized countries. Perhaps the greatest 
of his theological discourses is that on the “ Evidences of 
Christianity,” delivered in 1821 at Harvard; the subject 
has seldom, if ever, been more admirably treated. He gave 
his earnest sympathy to the anti-slavery and temperance 
movements, and his last public discourse was in commem¬ 
oration of the abolition of slavery in the British West India 
Islands. He died Oct. 2, 1842, and was buried at Mount 
Auburn. 

Channing’s range both of thought and study was very 
large, and he appears to have possessed in an eminent de¬ 
gree that comprehensive sympathy which belongs only to 
great and gifted natures. He was averse to controversy, 
fearing to be led or to lead others away, by the excitement 
of such discussions, from the simple quest of truth. He 
appears to have been, moreover, most anxious not to bias 


the convictions of others by his personal influence or by 
his eloquence, but to leave every mind in the enjoyment 
of absolute freedom. So deep, indeed, was his sense of the 
sacredness of the human mind and conscience, that he was 
unwilling to force them even with the power of irresistible 
persuasion. He sought, above all, to teach the love of 
truth, and desired not so much that others should accept 
his opinions or convictions as that they should be perfectly 
true to their own. 

It has been said, by a writer in “Frazer’s Magazine,” 
“Channing is unquestionably the finest writer of the age.” 
Ilis style is always forcible, clear, and elegant, and it often 
rises into graceful and lofty eloquence. “ I do not believe,” 
says Dr. Peabody, “there is a line in all his writings which 
ever received a different coloring from any thought of its 
influence on his own reputation. . . . He wrote not for him¬ 
self, but as one dedicated to truth.” His works have been 
collected in six 12mo volumes, published in Boston (1848), 
and again in crown 8vo (London, 1855). Some of his writ¬ 
ings have also been translated into French and German. 
(See “Memoirs,” by his nephew, W. II. Channing, 1848.) 

J. Thomas. 

Chainiing (William Ellery), a son of Dr. Walter 
Channing, born June 10, 1818, has been connected with 
various journals, has published several volumes of poems, 
and has written much prose, including “ Thoreau, the Poet- 
Naturalist” (1873). 

Channmg (William Henry), a Unitarian minister, a 
nephew of William E. Channing, was born in Boston May 
25, 1810. He graduated at Harvard in 1829, and preached 
in the cities of New York, Boston, Cincinnati, and Liver¬ 
pool, England. He contributed to the “ North American 
Review,” and published, besides other works, a “Memoir 
of William Ellery Channing” (3 vols., 1848). 

Chant [from the Lat. cantus, a “song;” Fr. chant; It. 
canto], a name originally given to plain vocal musie, espe¬ 
cially to such as was used in Christian congregations. It 
is now limited to such musical compositions as are sung to 
words which are not metrical, or if metrical words are used, 
the verbal cadences are not observed in the music. St. 
Ambrose and Pope Gregory the Great greatly improved the 
chant, which was, and still is, chiefly used in liturgical 
worship, though in non-liturgical services passages of 
Scripture are often chanted in simple harmonies. 

The reading of the service in a half-chanting style by the 
clergyman is called intonation; and a somewhat similar 
method of reading the Scripture in Jewish synagogues is 
called cantillation. 

Chantenay, a town of France, in Loire-Inferieure, on 
the Loire, 1 mile S. W. of Nantes. Pop. 9066. 

Chantilly, a beautiful town of France, department of 
Oise, on the railway from Paris to Amiens, 23 miles N. N. 
E. of Paris. It has a fine hospital, and celebrated man¬ 
ufactures of blond lace and porcelain. Annual races are 
held here. Here is a ruined castle which was the residence 
of the great prince of Condti. This castle, which was one 
of the finest in France, was destroyed during the Revolu¬ 
tion in 1793. The forest contains 6500 acres. Pop. 3322. 

Chantil'ly, a post-village of Fairfax co., Va., about 20 
miles W. of Washington. On the afternoon of the 1st of 
Sept., 1862, the right of Gen. Pope's army was attacked by 
the Confederate army under “Stonewall” Jackson. A 
severe struggle ensued, which was continued in the midst 
of a terrific thunder-storm till dark. Gens. I. I. Stevens 
and Phil Kearney of the U. S. army were both killed in 
this engagement. 

Chan'trey (Sir Francis), an English sculptor, born in 
Derbyshire April 7, 1781, was a son of poor parents. He 
learned the trade of carver in Sheffield, and removed to 
London about 1804, after which he devoted himself to 
sculpture. He was a pupil of Nollekens, and excelled in 
portraits and monumental sculpture. In 1S18 he was 
chosen a member of the Royal Academy. Among his best 
works are a bronze statue of William Pitt in London, a 
statue of Canning at Liverpool, and a statue of Washing¬ 
ton in the State House at Boston, Mass. He was knighted 
in 1837. Died Nov. 15, 1841. 

Cha.ll/try [Fr. chantrerie , from chanter, to “ sing ”], a 
term signifying (1) an endowment or bequest to provide 
masses to be sung for the soul of the testator or the souls 
of others; (2) the office or position held by one who cele¬ 
brates such masses; (3) a chapel erected especially for the 
celebration of the masses thus provided for. Such chan¬ 
tries are sometimes within, or perhaps more frequently out¬ 
side, but attached to, some church or monastery, and are 
often richly adorned with paintings and statuary. 

Channte, a village of Neosho co., Kan. It has one 
weekly newspaper. 

Chanzy (Auguste), a French general, born Mar. 18, 













CHAPA LA—CHAPMAN. 


875 


1823, in the department of Ardennes, distinguished him¬ 
self in the Italian campaign of 1859, became a colonel and 
commander of a subdivision of the Algerian province of 
Oran in 1864, and a general of brigade in 1868. In Oct., 
1870, he was called to Prance with the rank of a general 
of division, and in December he so distinguished himself 
in the battles near Orleans that the provisional government 
appointed him commander-in-chief of the Army of the 
West, consisting of four corps. In Jan., 1871, his army 
was almost annihilated by Prince Frederic Charles in the 
battles at Le Mans. In Feb., 1871, he was elected a mem¬ 
ber of the National Assembly, and in March he was for a 
time held as a prisoner by the insurgents of Paris. He 
wrote “The Second Army of the Loire” (1871). 

Chapa'la, a lake in Mexico, is an expansion of the 
Bio Grande de Lerma, and lies on the table-land of Ana- 
huac. It is mostly included in the state of Jalisco. Area, 
estimated at 1350 square miles. 

Chap-Books, the name given to a humble variety of 
literature which was formerly vended by itinerant chap¬ 
men. They were small volumes printed on coarse paper, 
dealing with popular theology or history, the lives of godly 
or famous personages, fortune-telling and the reading of 
dreams, and giant, witch, and goblin tales in verse or in 
prose. The older black-letter chap-books, without dates, 
are extremely rare. , 

Chap'el [Lat. capella; Ger. Kapcl; Fr. c hapelle], a 
building erected for the purposes of public worship, but not 
possessing the full characteristics of a church. In this sense 
places of worship erected by dissenters are called chapels 
in England, and the term is hlso applied to supplementary 
places of worship in the Established Church, such as paro¬ 
chial chapels, chapels-of-ease, free chapels, and the like. 
It is sometimes applied to a domestic oratory or to a place 
of worship erected by a private individual. Chapels-of- 
ease are structures built to accommodate parishioners who 
live at a great distance from the church. 

Chapel, a township of Talbot co., Md. Pop. 2791. 

Chapel, a township of Clarke co., Ya. Pop. 1793. 

Chapel Hill, a post-village of Orange co., N. C., on 
New Hope Biver, 28 miles W. N. W. of B,aleigh. It-is the 
seat of the University of North Carolina, founded in 1789. 
Pop. of township, 2799. 

Chapel Hill, a post-village of Washington co., Tex., 
is on the Houston and Texas Central B. B., 60 miles N. 
W. of Houston. Pop. 1 602. 

Cha'pin, a post-village of Morgan co., Ill., on the 
Toledo Wabash and Western B. B. where it is crossed by 
the Bockford Bock Island and St. Louis B. B., 44 miles W. 
of Springfield. 

Chapin, a township of Saginaw co., Mich. Pop. 258. 

Chapin (Alonzo Bowen), I). D., an American Episco¬ 
palian divine, born in Connecticut Mar. 10, 1808. He be¬ 
came a lawyer when a young man, but was ordained in 
1838, and afterwards became distinguished as an author 
and editor of religious periodicals. Died July 9, 1858. 

Chapin (Aaron Lucius), D. D., an American clergyman, 
born Feb. 6, 1817, in Hartford, Conn., graduated at Yale in 
1837, and at the Union Theological Seminary in New York 
in 1842. He was professor in the New York Institution for 
the Deaf and Dumb 1838-43. He was ordained pastor of 
the First Presbyterian church in Milwaukee, Wis., Jan. 24, 
1844, and was inaugurated as the first president of Beloit 
College, Wis., July 24, 1850, which office he still retains. 
He received the degree of D. D. from Williams College in 
1853, was for some years one of^he editors of the “ Con¬ 
gregational Beview,” and has contributed several articles 
to that and other like journals, and published occasional 
sermons. 

Chapin (Calvin), D. D., an American Congregational 
divine, born at Springfield, Mass., July 22, 1763, gradu¬ 
ated at Yale in 1788, and was eminent for his services in 
the missionary, Bible, and temperance societies. Died Mar. 
17, 1851. 

Chapin (Emvra Hubbell), D. D., born in Union Vil¬ 
lage, Washington co., N. Y., Dec. 29, 1814, educated at the 
seminary in Bennington, Vt., was made D.D. at Harvard 
University in 1856, commenced preaching in 1837, first 
settled over a society of Universalists and Unitarians in 
Bichmond, Ya.; removed to Charlestown, Mass., in 1830; 
thence to Boston in 1846, to New York in 1848,where he is still 
pastor of the Fourth Universalist church, corner Fifth ave¬ 
nue and Forty-fifth street, one of the wealthiest societies 
in the city. Dr. Chapin is a powerful and effective pulpit 
orator, has been a frequent lecturer before lyceums, etc., 
and has exercised great influence for good. His speech be¬ 
fore the Peace Convention at Frankfort-on-the-Main, in 


1850, commanded great attention. He is the author of 
“Moral Aspects of City Life” (1853), “True Manliness” 
(1854), several volumes of sermons and religious lectures, 
and some occasional discourses. His “Crown of Thorns” 
had a large circulation. 

ChapGain [Lat. capellanus, from capella, a “chapel”], 
a clergyman attached to a chapel without a parish, to the 
household of any dignitary or nobleman, to a public insti¬ 
tution, regiment, or an army post, or ship of war. Army 
chaplains once carried the relics of a pati*on saint at the 
head of the troops. The U. S. army has both post and 
regimental chaplains. The U. S. Senate and House of 
Bepresentatives, as well as most State legislatures, also 
have chaplains. Many prisons and large almshouses have 
chaplains attached. The British army and navy have 
chaplains from the churches of England and Scotland and 
the Boman Catholic Church. Forty-eight Anglican and 
six Scottish ministers are chaplains to the British sovereign. 

Chap'let [Fr. chapelet], a garland or wreath to be worn 
on the head; the circle of a crown ; a string of beads used 
by the Boman Catholics (see Bos ary) by which they enu¬ 
merate their prayers ; in architecture, a little moulding 
carved into round beads, pearls, olives, etc. 

Chap'lin, a post-township of Windham co., Conn. 
Pop. 704. 

Chaplin (Daniel), an American olficer of volunteers, 
born in Bridgeton, Me., Jan. 22, 1820. During the civil 
war Col. Chaplin displayed admirable qualities, and rose 
to the command of the first regiment of Maine heavy artil¬ 
lery, which b^ame, through his strict discipline, one of the 
finest artillery regiments in the defences of Washington. 
On the opening of Gen. Grant’s campaign in 1864, Col. 
Chaplin’s regiment was attached to the Army of the Poto¬ 
mac, and participated in all the battles of that memorable 
campaign; and it was at the head of his men, in the battle 
of Weldon B. B., Aug. 20, 1864, that Col. Chaplin was 
mortally wounded. He was brevetted brigadier and major- 
general for gallant and meritorious conduct. 

G. C. Simmons, Cleric, Board of Engr’s. 

Chaplin (Jeremiah), D.D., born at Bowley, Mass., Jan. 
2, 1776, graduated at Brown University in 1799, was three 
years tutor in Brown University, pastor of Baptist church 
Danvers, Mass., 1802-18, and president of Waterville Col¬ 
lege 1820-32. Died at Hamilton, N. Y., May, 1841. 

Chap'line, a twp. of Jefferson co., West Ya. P. 1867. 

Chap'man, a township of Clinton co., Pa. Pop. 1301. 

Chapman, a borough of Northampton co., Pa. P. 388. 

Chapman, a post-township of Snyder co., Pa. P. 1007. 

Chapman (Alvan Wentworth), M. D., born at South¬ 
ampton, Mass., Sept. 26, 1809, graduated at Amherst Col¬ 
lege, and removed to Appalachicola, Fla., where he attained 
fame as a botanist. He was a judge of the probate and 
county courts (1865-66), collector of U. S. internal revenue 
(1865-66), and collector of customs at Appalachicola (1866— 
69). The genus Chapmannia was named in his honor. He 
has published “ Flora of the Southern U. S.” (1860). 

Chapman (George), an English poet aftd translator, 
born in 1557. He became a resident of London and a 
friend of Shakspeare and Spenser. He produced numerous 
comedies and tragedies, and was the first translator of 
Homer into English verse. His version of the “Iliad” 
was published in 1598, and that of the “ Odyssey ” in 1614. 
These versions have been highly commended by Dr. John¬ 
son, Coleridge, and other critics. Died in 1634. 

Chapman (George Thomas), D. D., an Episcopalian 
minister, born in England Sept. 21, 1786, came to the U. S. 
in 1795, and graduated at Dartmouth in 1804. He received 
ordination in 1816, became a popular preacher, and pub¬ 
lished several volumes of sermons, etc. 

Chapman (John Gadsby), an American artist, was 
born in Alexandria, Ya., and received his training as a 
painter in Italy, which was for many years his home. He 
executed the painting called the “ Baptism of Pocahontas,” 
in the Capitol at Washington, and published a drawing-book. 

Chapman (Nathaniel), M. D., born in Alexandria 
co., Va., May 28, 1780, was educated at Philadelphia and 
in Europe. In 1804 he settled in Philadelphia, where he 
was professor of materia medica (1813-16) and of the prac¬ 
tice and institutes of medicine and clinical medicine (1816— 
50) in the University of Pennsylvania. Ho wrote several 
medical works, among which was “ Lectures on the Theory 
and Practice of Medicine.” Died July 1, 1853. 

Chapman (Beuben) was elected governor of Alabama 
in 1847, and served his term with tho sympathy of his 
party and the respect of all. 

Chapman (William), an American officer, born in 1810 
in Maryland, graduated at West Point in 1831, and Feb. 
20. 1862. became lieutenant-colonel of Third Infantry. He 






























876 


CHAPMANVILLE—CHARADE. 


served chiefly at frontier posts 1831-61; in Black Hawk 
expedition 1832; at Military Academy as assistant in¬ 
structor 1832-33; as adjutant Fifth Infantry 1833-38; in 
military occupation of Texas 1845-46; in the war with 
Mexico 1846-48 ; engaged at Palo Alto, Resaca de la 
Palma, Monterey, Vera Cruz, San Antonio (wounded), 
Churubusco (brevet major), Molino del Rey (brevet lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel), Chapultcpec, and city of Mexico; in 
Florida hostilities 1857 ; on Utah' expedition 1857-60. In 
the civil war he served in the Virginia Peninsula 1862; en¬ 
gaged at Yorktown and Malvern Hill; in North Virginia 
campaign 1862, engaged at Manassas (brevet colonel). Re¬ 
tired from active service Aug. 26, 1863, and chiefly em¬ 
ployed in command of draft rendezvous at Madison, AYis., 
1S63-65, and various special duties. 

George AY. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Chap'manviSle, a post-township of Logan co., West 
Va. Pop. 924. 

Chapoo, a town of China, in the province of Che-Kiang, 
on the estuary of the Tshen-Tang. Although its harbor is 
shallow and the tides very rapid, Chapoo has become a 
place of great commercial importance, as the whole Chi¬ 
nese trade with Japan is carried on from this town. 

Chap'paqua, a post-village of New Castle township, 
Westchester co., N. Y., on the Harlem R. R., 32 miles from 
New York. This place is known as the country residence 
of the late Hon. Horace Greeley, and also that of I. T. 
Williams, for twenty years his friend and legal counsellor. 
It has one shoe establishment employing some forty-five 
hands, one sash and blind factory, three stores, and one 
hotel. It has an excellent boarding-school, under the 
patronage of the Society of Friends; there is also a saline 
chalybeate spring near the place. 

Chappe (Claude), a French engineer, born at Brfllon 
in 1763, was the inventor of a telegraph. He produced in 
1792 a system of signals and a machine which he called a 
telegraph, by which a despatch was transmitted from Paris 
to Lille, 48 leagues, in thirteen minutes and forty seconds. 
Numerous lines of his telegraph were soon extended through 
other parts of France. Died Jan. 23, 1805. 

Chapped Hands are sometimes a sort of chilblain on 
the hands, and, like chilblain, this disease appears to pass 
by insensible gradations into a form of eczema, while many 
cases of chapped hands are simply eczematous, without 
any recognizable connection with chilblain. Glycerine, 
borax, benzoated oxide-of-zinc ointment, and various like 
applications are useful. 

Chaptal (Jean Antoine), Comte de Chanteloup, an 
eminent French chemist, born at Nogaret, Lozere, June 5, 
1756. He graduated as M. D. at Montpellier in 1777, and 
became professor of chemistry at that place in 1781. He 
supported the popular cause in the Revolution, and intro¬ 
duced the manufacture of certain chemicals for which 
France had previously been dependent on foreigners. 
About 1796 he was chosen a member of the Institute. He 
was minister of the interior for five years (1801-05), and 
afterwards a senator. His chief works are “ Chemistry 
Applied to the Arts” (1806) and ‘(.Elements of Chemistry.” 
Died in 1832. (See Flourens, “ Eloge historique de Chap- 
tal,” 1835.) 

Chap'ter [Fr. cTiapitre , from the Lat. ccipitulum, a 
diminutive of cct'put, a “head”], a division of a book. 
The division of the Bible into chapters as at present is 
commonly ascribed to the cardinal Hugo de St. Cher, who 
lived in the thirteenth century, but there is reason to sup¬ 
pose that it may be much older. In many histories the 
chapter is the principal division. The term is also applied 
to the canons of a cathedral, who in a collective capacity 
form a chapter, over which the dean presides. This chap¬ 
ter is the bishop's council. The place in which it meets is 
called the chapter-house. 

Chapter-house, a building or apartment where the 
monks of an ecclesiastical establishment, or the dean, 
canons, and prebendaries of a cathedral or collegiate 
church are convened. Chapter-houses are often joined to 
or built near a church, and sometimes are richly adorned. 
In some cases they are used merely as burial-places. 

Chap'tico, a post-village and township of St. Mary’s 
co., Md., 40 miles S. S. E. of Washington. Pop. 3553. 

Chapul'tepec, a strong Mexican fortress, stormed by 
the American forces under Gen. Scott Sept. 13, 1847. It is 
situated about 2 miles S. AY. of the city of Mexico, and 
consists of an isolated eminence about 150 feet high, forti¬ 
fied by a strong citadel which crowns the hill, designed to 
protect the causeway forming the approach to the city. 
Its approaches were also strongly guarded by outworks at 
its base and on its acclivities. The castle contained, be¬ 
sides a strong garrison, the military school of the republic. 


In the plan for the capture of the city of Mexico the 
reduction of Chapultepcc was considered indispensable to 
success. The extraordinary natural strength of this place, 
and the skill and money which had been expended to make 
it impregnable, rendered this a hazardous undertaking. 
To mask the intended attack, Twiggs, with Riley's brigade 
and Taylor’s and Steptoe’s batteries, was left at the southern 
gates of the city, and kept up an effectual fire during the 
12th Sept., and down to the afternoon of the 13th, com¬ 
pelling the enemy to withdraw within the walls of the city, 
and thus holding a good part of the Mexican army, under 
Santa Anna, on the defensive. Heavy batteries at well- 
selected points were established on the night of the 11th, 
and a vigorous fire was opened on the castle and outworks 
on the morning of the 12th, continuing with good effect 
throughout the day and on the morning of the 13th, while 
preparations for the attack were being made. Pillow’s and 
Quitman’s divisions were to assault the former on the AY., 
and Quitman on the S. E. side, AYorth's division to support 
Pillow, and Smith’s brigade of Twiggs’ division to support 
Quitman. An assaulting party of 260 men, under Capt. 
McKenzie, Second Artillery, was furnished Pillow, and 
Twiggs’ division supplied a similar one, under Capt. Casey, 
Second Infantry, to Quitman. The signal for attack was 
to be the momentary cessation of firing from the heavy 
batteries. About 8 A. M. of the 13th notice was sent to 
Pillow and Quitman that the concerted signal was about to 
be given, and both columns shortly after moved forward 
with great vigor, the batteries throwing shot and shell upon 
the enemy over the heads of the attacking columns. 

Pillow’s approach on the AY. side lay through an open 
grove filled with sharpshooters, who were quickly dislodged; 
on emerging into an open space at the foot of a rocky hill, 
Pillow was severely wounded, the immediate command 
devolving upon Gen. Cadwalader. Clark’s brigade of 
AYorth’s division was now sent to Pillow’s support. A 
strong redoubt, midway, was to be carried before reaching 
the heights. The advance was over rocks, chasms, and 
mines, and in the face of a heavy fire of cannon and mus¬ 
ketry. AYithout wavering the redoubt was carried, and the 
enemy driven from shelter to shelter, without time to fire a 
single mine unless endangering the lives of their own 
men. The ditch and main wall of the work was reached, 
scaling-ladders were brought in use, and a lodgment soon 
made, followed by streams of troops. 

Simultaneously with Pillow’s advance on the AY., Quit- 
man ajiproached the S. E. of the same works over a cause¬ 
way strongly fortified and defended. Smith’s brigade had 
been thrown out to the right to turn the batteries near the 
foot of Chapultepec and support Quitman’s storming-party. 
The contest was desperate for a short time, but the valor 
of the Americans overcame every obstacle, the batteries 
and works were carried, and the ascent was continued ; the 
enemy were driven from their stronghold, and the Stars 
and Stripes floated from the heights of Chapultepec. This 
victory virtually ended the war, the city of Mexico being 
entered the next day, the 14th. The American loss in killed 
and wounded during the 12th, 13th, and 14th was 863; the 
Mexican loss was much greater. 

Chara'cere [from Chara, one of the genera], a natural 
order of aquatic cryptogamous plants, approaching the 
Equisetaceae in their acrogenous habits and their verticil- 
late tubular branches, but differing from them in having 
lateral, scattered fruit of two kinds. Some of the species 
have also incrustations of carbonate of lime, analogous to 
the siliceous coating of some Equisetaceae. But their sim¬ 
ple cell-structure is believed by many theorists to ally them 
with the lower Algae. The phenomena of cyclosis were 
first observed in the cells of characeous plants. The fossils 
called gyrogonites are calcareous incrustations which once 
covered the reproductive organs (nucu'es) of these plants. 
The Characeae are abundant in fresh and salt stagnant 
water, especially in temperate regions. The species are few. 

Char'acter [Gr. xapaKTrjp ; Fr. caracth’e ; Ger. Charak- 
ter ], a mark or figure engraven on an object; a letter or 
type used in writing or printing; the peculiar qualities 
impressed on a person by nature or habit; distinctive 
qualities of heart, mind, and manners. The term is often 
used to denote a person or actor in an epic poem or drama. 
In art, the expression of character, either of animate or in¬ 
animate objects, is, after correct delineation, the most im¬ 
portant part of the work. In botany, and other branches 
of natural history, character is an enumeration or brief 
description in scientific terms of the essential and distinc¬ 
tive marks of a species, genus, order, etc. 

Charade [Fr.], a social amusement, consisting some¬ 
times of the division of a word into its constituent sylla¬ 
bles or letters, and then making some statement as to each 
syllable and the whole word, the company being required 
to guess the word. In “ acting charades ” each syllable is 


/ 














CHARADRIADJG—CHARGE. 


877 


introduced prominently, but not too conspicuously, into the 
successive scenes ot a dialogue, the whole word being 
brought into the last scene. Sometimes the name charade 
is used to designate any parlor drama. 

Charadri'atlae [from Charadrius, one of the genera], 
a family of wading birds which includes several genera of 
plovers, lapwings, turnstones, etc., mostly found in the 
temperate climates of both continents. Many of its species 
are prized as game-birds. 

Cha'rax of Per'gainus, priest and philosopher, flou¬ 
rished probably in the times of Antoninus Pius and M. 
Aurelius. He wrote a Greek history in forty books, in 
which he speaks of Augustus as having lived long ago, 
and of Nero and his successors. This history must have 
been very prolix, as in the ninth book he is treating of the 
return of the Heraclidae. He wrote also a work entitled 
Xporuca, in at least sixteen books, and philosophical treatises. 
(The fragments of his writings are collected in Muller’s 
“Fragmenta Historic. Graecorum,” vol. iii., pp. 636-645.) 

Henry Drisler. 

Char'coa! [Fr. charbon; Lat. carbo], a common name 
of a variety of carbon ; a carbonaceous substance obtained 
by the partial combustion of wood. The term is also ap¬ 
plied to the solid residuum which results from the destruc¬ 
tive distillation of animal matter and peat. (See Bone 
Black or Animal Charcoal.) Except the diamond, charcoal 
is the substance in which carbon exists nearest to purity. 
It burns without flame or smoke, and produces a greater 
heat than an equal weight of wood. It is used as an in¬ 
gredient in the composition of gunpowder, as an agent in 
clarifying liquors, and for other purposes, among which is 
the smelting of ores. Charcoal contains, besides carbon, 
oxygen and hydrogen, with a small proportion of ashes. 
It has an extraordinary capacity for absorbing gases. It 
is said that it will absorb ninety times its bulk of ammo- 
niacal gas. It is infusible, is not soluble in acids or other 
liquids, is not liable to decay, and is not altered by any de¬ 
gree of heat if it be not exposed to the air or to oxygen. 
It is a very bad conductor of heat, and hence powdered 
charcoal is placed round tubes to prevent the escape of 
heat. Powdered charcoal is used to preserve or sweeten 
tainted flesh. Common charcoal intended for fuel is made 
by burning or heating a pile of wood without free access of 
air. The sticks of wood, which are not more than four feet 
long, are arranged in a conical pile around a central aper¬ 
ture, and covered with turf, sods, or other material which 
prevents the free access of air. Charcoal-dust, mixed with 
earth and moistened, makes a good outer covering. An 
opening is left at the top for the escape of smoke and 
vapor. The pile is usually ignited at the top, and con¬ 
tinues burning with a slow smouldering fire for a week or 
more. The charcoal used as an ingredient of gunpow¬ 
der is made from wood which is free from resin. Char¬ 
coal is often prepared by roasting wood in iron cylinders. 
By this method there is a larger proportion of charcoal 
saved, and the product is of better quality; there is also a 
large quantity of pyroligneous acid produced, which is of 
great value in the arts. 

Charbon Roux ( i. e. “ red charcoal ”), is charcoal obtained 
by subjecting wood to heated air or steam raised to the 
temperature of 572° F. By this process from 36 to 42 per 
cent, of charbon rouge is obtained, whereas not more than 
25 per cent, of charcoal is obtained by the ordinary method. 
It has a dark-red color, and contains 75 per cent, of carbon. 
It is extensively used in Europe in the manufacture of gun¬ 
powder and iron blooms. Henry Hartshorne. 

Charcoal Blacks are made both from animal and 
vegetable substances— e. g. burnt ivory, bones, vine-twigs, 
peach-stones, nut-shells, the smoke of oil or rosin con¬ 
densed, etc. Those which are derived from vegetable sub¬ 
stances when mixed with white are usually of a blue tint. 
(See Lampblack.) 

Chanliii (Sir John), a French traveller, born in Paris 
Nov. 26, 1643. As a dealer in jewels and gems he made a 
journey to India and Persia in 1664. Having passed many 
years in Persia, and studied its language, history and cus¬ 
toms, he became a resident of London in 1681, and was 
knighted by Charles II., who sent him on a mission to 
Holland about 1682. lie published “ Travels in Persia 
and the East Indies” (3 vols., 1686-1711), a work of much 
merit. Died Jan. 26, 1713. 

Char'tlon, a post-village, capital of Geauga co., 0., is 
situated on a ridge about 14 miles from Lake Erie and 
170 miles N. E. of Columbus. It is on the Painesville and 
Youngstown R. II., 12 miles S. by E. from Painesville. It 
has three or more churches and two weekly newspapers. 
Pop. 885 ; including Chardon township, 1772. 

Charente, a river of France, rises in Haute-Vienne, 
and flows in a very tortuous course westward through the 


departments of Charente and Charente-Inf6rieure, and en¬ 
ters the Atlantic opposite the Isle of Oleron. Total length, 
about 157 miles. It is navigable for steamboats from its 
mouth to Saintes, and by means of twenty-seven locks is 
navigable for 102 miles. 

Charente, a department in the W. part of France, 
has an area of 2294 square miles. It is intersected by the 
rivers Charente and Vienne. The surface is undulating, 
and in some parts hilly; the soil is mostly calcareous and 
dry. Several deep limestone caverns occur here. Exten¬ 
sive forests of chestnut trees grow on the hills. Truffles 
are found in abundance. A large part of Charente is oc¬ 
cupied by vineyards, the product of which is mostly con¬ 
verted into brandy. The chief article of export is Cognac 
and Jarnac brandy. Here are manufactures of iron, paper, 
and leather. Capital, Angouleme. Pop. 378,218. 

Charente-Iiiferieure, a department in the W. part 
of France, is bounded on the AY. by the Atlantic, and on 
the S. AY? by the estuary of the Gironde, and is intersected 
by the river Charente. Area, 2635 square miles. The 
surface is nearly level; the soil is very fertile. The staple 
products are grain, wine (which is mostly converted into 
brandy), hemp, and flax. The salt-works on the sea- 
coast are the most valuable in France. It has manufactures 
of glass, earthenware, and leather. Capital, La Rochelle. 
Pop. 479,559. 

Charenton, a town of France, department of Seine, on 
the right bank of the Marne, 5 miles S. E. of Paris. It has 
large chemical-works. A bridge across the river connects 
this town with Charenton St..Maurice, where is the largo 
national asylum for lunatics. This bridge has been the 
scene of several conflicts between armies contending for the 
possession of Paris. Pop. 6190; of St. Maurice, 4931. 

Cha'res [XdpTjs], an Athenian general notorious for his 
corruption and incompetence, was chosen commander-in- 
chief in the Social war, which began in 358 B. C. This war 
was provoked by his extortions. 

Chares, a Greek statuary, born at Lindus, was a pupil 
of Lysippus and the founder of the Rhodian school of 
sculpture. He lived about 300 B. C. Among his works 
was the Colossus at Bhodes, regarded as one of the Seven 
AYonders of the AVorld. It was a bronze statue of Apollo, 
or rather of the sun-god, about 105 feet high, and was 
thrown down by an earthquake in 224 B. C. 

Chares of Mytilene is mentioned by Plutarch in his 
Life of Alexander as holding the office of ewayyeAev? (one 
who bears messages and introduces persons to the royal 
presence) to that monarch. His position gave him the op¬ 
portunity of collecting many facts and anecdotes about 
Alexander, which he afterwards published in a work, of 
which the tenth book is quoted by Athenaeus, and which is 
several times referred to as authority by Plutarch. (The 
fragments of his works are collected in Muller’s “Scrip¬ 
tures de Rebus Alexandri,” p. 114-120 : “Alexandri Magni 
Historiarum Script.,” ed. Geier, pp. 290-308.) 

Henry Drisler. 

Charge, in heraldry. The ordinaries and figures de¬ 
picted on an escutcheon or shield are called charges, and 
a shield with such figures is said to be charged. The 
charges ought to be few and strongly marked. The shield 
belonging to the head of the house has fewer charges than 
the shields of collateral or junior members. 

Charge, in law, a burden imposed on a thing; a duty 
or obligation imposed upon a person; sometimes merely a 
formal and distinct allegation. More specifically, it is used 
in the following connections: (1) A burden imposed upon 
land, particularly in a court of equity. It is a common 
course in a will to “charge” the devisor’s estate with the 
general payment of debts or legacies, or with the payment 
of a particular debt or legacy. In such a case the land is 
burdened with the debt, so that it is a lien or encumbrance 
upon it; and this would follow it into the hands of a pur¬ 
chaser. A charge of this kind may be created by implica¬ 
tion. Thus, if a testator should provide as follows, “ After 
the payment of $1000 to A, I devise my mansion-house 
to B,” that sum would be charged upon the land as owned 
by B, and would follow it in case of sale or other transfer. 
(2) A charge upon the person. A will or other instrument 
may be so drawn as to confer a benefit upon a person, and 
at the same time impose upon him an obligation. Should 
he accept the benefit, he will by implication take upon 
himself the burden or obligation, though it may outweigh 
the benefit. No person is bound to accept such a devise or 
provision, so that the charge in the case supposed is in 
truth created by the grantee’s or devisee’s own act, in con- 
iunction with the grantor’s or testator’s direction. (. ) 1 i- 
rections to ajury. In a jury trial, as the decision of questions 
of law appertains to a judge, and matters of fact belong to 
the jury, it is a common practice for the judge to instruct 










878 CHARGE D ’AFFAIRES—CHARLEMAGNE. 


or “charge” the jury upon the questions of law. These 
instructions the jury are legally bound to follow. The idea 
lying at the root of the word “ charge ” in this case would 
seem to be the obligation or duty of the jury to accept the 
version of the law propounded by the judge. (4) In equity 
practice the words “charge and discharge” are found in 
connection with the taking of accounts in that court of 
moneys paid and received. The charge means the statement 
of debts duo by the party against whom the account is ren¬ 
dered, and discharge means the items of credit presented 
by the latter. These might be so presented as to make 
counter-statements necessary. This practice, in its details, 
is disfigured by much technicality, and has been abandon¬ 
ed both in England and in some of the American States, 
and much simpler methods are now resorted to. (5) In 
equity pleadings there is a statement made by the plain¬ 
tiff, known as the charging part of the bill (or complaint), 
in which he sets forth certain facts, anticipatory of a de¬ 
fence which he supposes that the defendant will make. The 
word charge here means a distinct and formal affirmation, 
and the pleader sets forth the defendant’s claim as a mere 
pretence on his part, and alleges on his own part the facts 
in opposition to it. T. W. Dwight. 

Charge «F Affaires, a French phrase used by many 
nations as the title of a diplomatic agent of lower grade 
than a minister. He is accredited, not to the sovereign, 
but to the department of foreign affairs. lie sometimes 
acts as deputy or substitute of the ambassador in the ab¬ 
sence of the latter. 

Char'iot [Lat. currus or bigse; Fr. char or chariot], a 
vehicle used by the ancients in war and in journeys of 
pleasure. The ancient chariot had only two wheels, which 
revolved on axles, and was generally drawn by two horses. 
It was closed in front and open behind. War-chariots were 
used by the ancient Greeks, Romans, Philistines, Britons, 
and other nations. The four-horse chariot in which Ro¬ 
man generals rode when they entered Rome in triumph was 
called a quadriga. (See Carriages, etc., by L. P. Brock- 
ett, M. D.) 

Charis'ius, an Attic orator, a contemporary of Demo- 
chares, nephew of Demosthenes. lie wrote, like Isocrates, 
orations for others, and in this, as Cicero says in his 
“Brutus,” he imitated Lysias. His orations must have 
been extant in the time of Quintilian, for he speaks favor¬ 
ably of them. Three passages are quoted by Rutilius 
Lupus, in his work “ De Figuris,” in a Latin translation to 
illustrate certain rhetorical figures. Henry Drisler. 

Oiarisius (Aurelius Arcadius), a learned jurist who 
lived under Constantine and his sons, and filled the office 
of “ magister libellorum.” He wrote several works on legal 
subjects. Extracts from three of his writings are contained 
in the “ Digest.” Henry Drisler. 

Charisius (Flavius Sosipater), of Campania, a 
celebrated grammarian, whose date is uncertain, but who 
preceded Priscian, as the latter quotes from him, and he 
flourished in the latter part of the fifth century. He was a 
man of some distinction, and is styled “magister urbis ” 
in the inscription of his work, which is a Latin grammar in 
five books, “Institutionum Grammaticarum libri quinque,” 
written for the use of his son. Portions of the work have 
been lost; the remainder is given in the various collections 
of Latin grammarians, most recently by Lindemann and 
Keil. Henry Drisler. 

Cliar'itable U' ses, property, either real or personal, 
held by a trustee to be devoted by him to charitable pur¬ 
poses. The word “ charitable ” in this connection is nearly 
synonymous with public. Trusts for charitable purposes 
would include funds in the hands of trustees devoted to 
the repair of highways or streets in cities, the support of 
paupers, the foundation of colleges, churches, and hos¬ 
pitals, etc. etc. (The subject will be more fully treated 
under Trusts, by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Char'ites (sing. Clia'ris), [Gr. x<ipi?, Xapu-e?; Lat. 
Gratise], the Graces of classic mythology, were said to be 
the daughters of Jupiter. They were patrons of poetry and 
art, and presided over festivals and social enjoyments. 
There were three Graces, whose respective names were 
Aglaia, Euphrosyne, and Thalia. 

Char'iton, a river of the U. S., rises in the S. part of 
Iowa. Having crossed the boundary between Iowa and 
Missouri, it flows southward through Adair, Macon, and 
Chariton counties of the latter State, and enters the Mis¬ 
souri River 3 miles above Glasgow. Total length, about 
250 miles. 

Chariton, a county of Missouri. Area, 740 square 
miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Missouri, on the 
W. by Grand River, and intersected by the Chariton River. 
The surface is undulating, and diversified by forests and 
fertile prairies. Grain, wool, tobacco, and live-stock are 


extensively raised. Timber, coal, and limestone abound 
here. It is traversed by the St. Louis, Kansas City and 
Northern R. It. Capital, Keytesvilie. Pop. 19,136. 

Chariton, a post-village, capital of Lucas eo., Ia., is 
on the Chariton River and on the Burlington and Missouri 
River R. R., 55 miles W. of Ottumwa. It has a national 
bank, six churches, a largo public hall, and two newspaper- 
offices. Pop. 1728 ; of Chariton township, 2601. 

Maple & Folsom, Props. Chariton “ Patriot.” 

Chariton, a township of Appanoose co., Ia. Pojl 888. 

Chariton, a township and village of Chariton co., Mo. 
Pop. 651. 

Chariton, a township of Howard co., Mo. Pop. 4043. 

Chariton, a township of Macon co., Mo. Pop. 1269. 

Chariton, a township of Randolph co., Mo. P. 1699. 

Chariton, a township of Schuyler co., Mo. Pop. 833. 

ChaEiton, of Aphrodisias in Caria, is the probably 
assumed designation of the writer of a Greek romance. 
Neither his name nor his real country is known, and the 
jiosition which he assigns himself, that of secretary to the 
orator Athenagoras of Syracuse, mentioned in Thucydides, 
cannot be true. His work, which treats of the loves of 
Chmreas and Callirrhoe, and of the mishaps and adven¬ 
tures thence arising, is in eight books, and lias come down 
to us almost entire. An outline of the incidents is given 
in Dunlop’s “History of Fiction.” It has been edited 
with copious notes by D’Orville, with a Latin translation 
by Reiske, revised edition, Leipsic, 1783. 

Henry Drisler. 

Char'ity, Sisters of [Fr. soeurs (or filles) de la chariti, 
or soeurs grises, i. e. “ Gray Sisters,” so called from their 
dress], a name applied to several orders of celibate women 
in the Roman Catholic Church. The first congregation of 
this name was established at Chatillon, in France, by Saint 
Vincent de Paul in 1629. Confirmed by the see of Rome, 
this congregation greatly multiplied, and its houses are now 
found in all parts of the world. This order is devoted to 
the care of the sick and the protection of foundling or des¬ 
titute children and aged persons, and hence is popularly * 
regarded with more favor than almost any other order of 
nuns. 

Mrs. Eliza Ann Seton of Maryland in 1809 founded a 
congregation of Sisters of Charity under a distinct rule, 
which is still followed to a considerable extent in the U. S., 
though many of its houses have united with the French 
order. Several congregations of Augustinian nuns and of 
other Roman Catholic orders are called Sisters of Charity 
and Sistei's of Mercy, and have branches in the U. S. The 
Sisters of Charity have many claims to the gratitude of 
mankind, and, besides the direct good accomplished by 
them, their example has led many who do not profess celi¬ 
bacy, and who do not belong to their Church, to engage in 
acts and lives of benevolence. 

Charlemagne [Lat. Carolus Magnus ], king cf the 
Franks and Roman emperor, born April 2, 742, probably at 
Aix-la-Chapelle, was a son of Pepin le Bref. After his 
father’s death, in 768, he reigned over the Franks, jointly 
with his brother Carloman, until the death of the latter in 
772. From that time sole ruler, during a reign of forty- 
three years he carried on incessant wars on all his borders, 
extending his domains, and at the same time spreading 
Christianity, subduing rebellions, and building up the vast 
dominion over which he was crowned as a successor of tho 
Roman caesars by Pope Leo III. in 800. In 772 he began 
a thirty years’ war against the determined Saxons, after 
the successful opening of which Charlemagne was called to 
the assistance of Pope Hadrian I. against Desiderius, king 
of the Lombards, who had demanded the banning of Char¬ 
lemagne and the coronation of the sons of Carloman, be¬ 
cause the former had put away the daughter of Desiderius 
on account of sterility, and taken the Swabian princess 
Hildegard to his bed. Charlemagne marched two armies 
over the Alps and conquered Lombardy in 774; returned 
and beat the Saxons again, and hastened into Spain in 
778 to help the Arabian rulers of that country against tho 
Osman caliph of Cordova. It was in this war that tho 
hero of romance, Roland or Orlando, fell in the pass of 
Roncesvalles. The extensive domain of Charlemagne was 
only rendered secure by ceaseless vigilance and warfare. 

In 799 the Romans revolted against Pope Leo III., and 
were again brought into subjection by Charlemagne, who 
in return, while he was praying on the steps of St. Peter’s 
church, was crowned by Leo with the iron crown of the 
Western empire, unexpectedly to him, as he pretended, on 
Christmas Day, 800. Charlemagne laid tho foundations of 
his empire securely. He was sagacious, energetic, and 
vigilant, as a ruler and commander alike. He watched 
over and fostered agriculture, trade, art, and letters with 
untiring zeal, clearing away forests, draining swamps, 













CHARLEMONT—CHARLES I. OF GREAT BRITAIN. 879 


founding monasteries and schools, building up cities, con¬ 
structing splendid palaces, as at Aix, Worms, and Ingel- 
heirn, and drawing to his court scholars and poets from all 
nations, as Alcuin, Paulus Diaconus, and Turpin. lie was 
himself proficient in science as well as all hardy accom¬ 
plishments, speaking Latin and knowing Greek. He was 
tall and stately, measuring seven of his own foot-lengths, 
simple in his life, “ excelling all men of the time, to all 
alike dread and beloved, by all alike admired,” as ho was 
described by the historian Nithard. His fame spread 
through all lands. He was about to become united by 
marriage with the Byzantine empress Irene, but after her 
fall was not on friendly terms with her successor, Niceph- 
orus. The caliph Haroun-al-Rashid sent an embassy to 
the court of Charlemagne, with gifts in token of good-will. 
He had three sons, Pepin, Charles, and Louis, among whom 
he intended to divide his empire, but Pepin and Charles 
died before their father. In 813 he associated his son, 
Louis lc Debonnaire, with himself in the empire. He died 
at Aix-la-Chapelle Jan. 28, 814, and was succeeded by 
his son Louis. His descendants were called Carlovingians. 
(See Haureau, “ Charlemagne etsa Cour,” 1854; G. P. R. 
James, “Life of Charlemagne,” 1832; Eginhard, “Vita 
Caroli Magni,” 1521; Bredow, “Carl der Grosse,” 1814; 
Theodore Nisard, “Histoire de Charlemagne,” 1843; 
Abel, “ Jahrbiicher des Frankischen Reiches unter Karl 
dem Grossen,” Berlin, 1866.) 

Char'lemont, a post-township and village of Frank¬ 
lin co., Mass. The Adllage is on the Vermont and Mas¬ 
sachusetts R. R., 128 miles W. N. W. from Boston. Pop. 
1005. 

Charlemont, a township of Bedford co., Va. Pop. 
2820. 

Charleroi, a strongly fortified town of Belgium, in 
Hainaut, is on the river Sambre and on the railway be¬ 
tween Brussels and Namur, 33 miles S. of Brussels. This 
place was fortified by Vauban, and was held alternately by 
the French and Spaniards. It has important manufactures 
of cutlery, glass, nails, etc. In this vicinity are extensive 
coal-mines, and smelting furnaces which produce cast 
iron. Railways extending in various directions connect it 
with Paris and other towns. Pop. 13,294. 

Charles, a county in the S. of Maryland. Area, 499 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. and W. by the Po¬ 
tomac Paver, which is here navigable. The surface is un¬ 
even, and partly covered with forests of oak, ash, chestnut, 
etc. Tobacco, grain, and wool arc staple products. Cap¬ 
ital, Port Tobacco. Pop. 15,738. 

Charles I., emperor. See Charlemagne. 

Charles IS., emperor. See Charles the Bald (of 
France). 

Charles III., surnamed the Fat [Fr. Charles le Gros], 
emperor of the Franks, born in 822 A. D., was a younger 
son of Louis II., Avho at his death, in 876, divided the em¬ 
pire between his three sons, Carloman, Louis, and Charles. 
After the death of his brothers, which occurred before 884, 
Charles inherited their dominions, and was the nominal 
ruler of a large empire, but he was imbecile and had little 
real power. He was deposed by his nephew Arnulph in 
888, and died in the same year. 

Charles IV«, emperor of Germany, born in 1316, was 
a son of John de Luxembourg, king of Bohemia. He was 
elected emperor in 1346 as the successor of Louis V., whom 
the pope had deposed. He issued in 1356 the Golden Bull, 
which for more than four centuries was the fundamental 
law to regulate the election of German emperors. lie died 
in 1378, and was succeeded by his son Wenceslaus. 

Charles V., Don Carlos I. of Spain, afterwards em¬ 
peror of Germany, was the eldest son of the archduke 
Philip of Austria, and a grandson of the emperor Max¬ 
imilian I. His mother was Joanna, the daughter and sole 
heiress of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. 
He was born at Ghent Feb. 24, 1500, and educated in 
Flanders, having as his preceptor Adrian of Utrecht. On 
the death of his father in 1506, Charles inherited the Low 
Countries and Franche-Comte, and in 1516 he succeeded 
Ferdinand as king of Spain, to which he removed his court 
in 1517. In 1519 he was elected emperor of Germany, de¬ 
feating Francis I. of France, who was also a competitor for 
that dignity. He was crowned as emperor at Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle Oct. 22, 1520. Charles V. and Francis I. of France 
were then the most powerful sovereigns on the continent of 
Europe, and were rivals. Their ambitious designs against 
Italy led to hostilities, which commenced in 1522. In this 
warllenry VIII. of England was the ally of Charles V., 
whose army defeated Francis at the battle of Pavia (1525), 
and took him prisoner. The war was suspended by the treaty 
of Madrid in 1526. Charles married in that year Isabella, 
a daughter of Immanuel, king of Portugal. The war was 


renewed in 1527 by Francis I. and Pope Clement VII., who 
had formed an alliance against the emperor. Under the 
constable of Bourbon the army of Charles assaulted Rome 
and took the pope prisoner in 1527. Peace was restored 
by the treaty of Cambrai in 1529. Charles employed his 
power to check the progress of the Protestant Reforma¬ 
tion, for which purpose he assembled the Diet of Augsbur^ 
in 1530. This Diet ordained that severe penalties should 
be inflicted on the Protestants. In 1531 the German 
Protestant princes formed, for mutual defence, the League 
of Schmalkalden, and extorted some concessions from 
Charles, who, being then engaged in a war against the 
Turks, thought it expedient to temporize. In 1535 he con¬ 
ducted in person an expedition against Barbarossa, whom 
he defeated at Tunis. In 1536 his army invaded the south 
of France, but was not successful, and was soon forced to 
retreat. A truce of ten years was concluded between 
Charles and Francis I. in 1538, but it was broken in 1542. 
The French gained a victory at Ceresole, in Italy, in 1544, 
soon after which the war was ended by a treaty of peace. 
Resolving to extirpate heresy among his subjects, he pub¬ 
lished in 1546 the ban of the empire against the elector of 
Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse, who were chiefs of the 
Protestant part3 r . They took arms in self-defence, but were 
defeated at Miihlberg in April, 1547. Their cause, how¬ 
ever, found an able defender in Maurice of Saxony, who, 
as the head of a league, took arms against Charles early in 
1552. Charles, surprised by his rapid and skilful move¬ 
ments, was compelled to flee, and hostilities were ended by 
the important treaty of Passau, Aug. 22, 1552, which se¬ 
cured religious liberty to the German Protestants. In the 
autumn of 1575 he formally resigned to his son Philip the 
sovereignty of the Low Countries, Spain, and his other 
hereditary dominions. He also abdicated the imperial 
crown, and was succeeded as emperor by his brother 
Ferdinand. His motive for abdicating appears to have 
been partly ill-health. lie retired to the monastery of St. 
Yuste, near Plasencia, in Spain, where he died Sept. 21, 
1558. (See E.obertson, “History of the R,eign of Charles 
V.;” Prescott, “History of Philip II. of Spain,” vol. i.; 
Luigi Dolce, “ Vita di Carolo V.,” 1561; A. Pichot, 
“ Charles Quint,” 1S54; Stirling, “ The Cloister Life of 
the Emperor Charles V.,” 1852; Sandoval, “Historia de 
la Vida (J e Carlos V.,” 1606; Ivervyn de Lettenhove, 
“ Commentaries de Charles V.,” Brussels, 1862.) 

Cliasies VI., emperor of Germany, the second son of 
the emperor Leopold I., was born Oct. 1, 1685. He claimed 
the throne of Spain as a relative of Charles II., who died 
without issue in 1700, and who appointed Philip of Anjou 
as his heir. In the war of the Spanish succession, which 
ensued, the cause of Charles was supported by Austria, 
England, and a portion of the Spaniards. These allies were 
defeated at Almanza in 1707 by the army of Philip, who 
finally obtained the throne by the aid of Louis XIV. of 
France. On the death of his brother, Joseph I., in 1711, 
Charles was chosen emperor of Germany. Having no son, 
he wished to secure for his daughter, Maria Theresa, the 
succession to his hereditary dominions, and appointed her 
his heir by a Pragmatic sanction (1724). Died Oct. 20, 
1740. (See Schirach, “ Biographie Kaiser Karl’s VI.,” 
1778.) 

Charles VII. (Charles Albert), emperor of Germany, 
a son of Maximilian Emmanuel, elector of Bavaria, was born 
at Brussels in 1697. He married a daughter of the empe¬ 
ror Joseph I. in 1722, and became elector of Bavaria on tho 
death of his father in 1726. When Charles VI. died, in 
1740, this elector claimed part of the Austrian dominions. 
To obtain these he and his allies, France and Prussia, waged 
war against Maria Theresa. He was elected emperor in 
1742, but his army was defeated by that of Maria Theresa. 
Died Jan. 20, 1745. 

Charles I. (Charles Stuart), king of Great Britain, 
born at Dunfermline, Scotland, Nov. 19, 1600, was the 
third son of James I. and Anne of Denmark. He became 
heir-apparent to the throne on the death of his brother 
Henry in 1612. He inherited extreme notions in relation 
to royal prerogatives from his father, whom he succeeded 
in Mar., 1625. He married Henrietta Maria, a daughter 
of Henry IV. of France, in the same year, and in disregard 
of public opinion chose for his prime minister and adviser 
the unpopular duke of Buckingham, who had been his 
father’s favorite. The Parliament, animated by a growing 
spirit of liberty, was sparing in its grants of supplies, and 
was soon involved in a contest with the court. Charles 
dissolved several Parliaments in the first five years of his 
reign, and had recourse to arbitrary methods ot raising 
money. He governed for eleven years without a Parlia¬ 
ment, and after the death of Buckingham employed Laud 
and the earl of Strafford as his chief ministers. During this 
period the Puritans were severely persecuted, and the pa- 













880 CHARLES II. OF GREAT BRITAIN—CHARLES IX. OF FRANCE. 


triot Hampden was prosecuted because be refused to pay the 
illegal tax called ship-money. In 1638 the Scottish people, 
on whom he attempted to impose the Liturgy, rose in arms 
to assert their liberty, and subscribed the National Cove¬ 
nant. Charles, who had not power to enforce his policy in 
Scotland, summoned a Parliament, which met in A.pril, 
1640, but, as it was not subservient, it was dissolved in the 
next month. The Scottish insurgents invaded England in 
August, and defeated the royal army at Newburn-on-Tyne. 
This disaster and the want of money induced the king to 
call a new Parliament, which met in Nov., 1640, and was 
the famous Long Parliament. Both Houses were resolute 
in resistance to despotic j>ower. They impeached the earl 
of Strafford, who was executed in 1641, and they imprison¬ 
ed Laud. In Jan., 1642, the king made a rash and abortive 
attempt to arrest Pym, Hampden, and three other members 
of the House of Commons. Provoked by this outrage, the 
Parliament appealed to arms. The royalists at first gained 
several victories, but they were defeated at Marston Moor 
in 1644, and again in June, 1645, at the battle of Naseby, 
where Charles commanded in person and Cromwell led the 
right wing of the Roundhead army. He was here so com¬ 
pletely beaten that he soon gave himself up to the Scottish 
army, which transferred him in 1647 to the custody of the 
English Parliament. Having been tried and convicted in 
a high court appointed for the occasion, he was beheaded 
Jan. 30, 1649. He was distinguished for his literary cul¬ 
ture and good taste in the fine arts. He was regarded as a 
martyr by a large portion of his subjects. (See IIume, 
“ History of England ;” William Harris, “ Life of Charles 
I.,” 1758; Disraeli, “ Life and Character of Charles I.,” 
1828.) 

Charles II., king of Great Britain, son of Charles I., 
was born May 29, 1630. He went into exile in 1645, and 
joined his mother in Paris. In 1649 he assumed the title 
of king, and he was proclaimed king by the Scottish Par¬ 
liament “ on condition of his good behavior.” He landed 
in Scotland in June, 1650, and was crowned at Scone early 
in 1651. The austere Covenanters required him to sign 
“articles of repentance,” and subjected him to restraints 
which were very irksome to a man who was naturally fond 
of ease and pleasure. A Scottish army fighting for the 
king was defeated by Cromwell at Dunbar in Sept., 1650. 
Charles, having recruited his army, led it into England, 
hoping that many English royalists would rally to his sup¬ 
port. He was pursued by Cromwell, who gained a decisive 
victory over the royal army at Worcester, Sept. 3, 1651. 
Charles then became a fugitive, and after several narrow 
escapes took refuge in France. 

After the death of Cromwell, the royalist party, which 
was always the most numerous, and was now favored by the 
law of reaction, easily regained the ascendency. Charles 
was restored in 1660 to almost unlimited power. He ap¬ 
pointed Lord Clarendon prime minister, and married in 
1662 Catherine, a daughter of the king of Portugal. In 
1665, without good reason, he declared war against the 
Dutch—a war which was contrary alike to the feelings and 
commercial interests of the English people. The Dutch 
admiral De Ruyter, by entering the Medway and burning 
some ships of war at Chatham, induced him to make peace 
in 1667. Lord Clarendon was removed from power in 
1667, and was succeeded by a corrupt ministry called the 
Cabal (which see). These ministers abused their power 
to promote popery and absolute monarchy, and in their 
foreign policy were subservient to Louis XIV. Charles 
accepted a pension from the French court, that ho might 
be enabled to reign without the aid or control of parlia¬ 
ments. He also became an ally of France in another war 
against the Dutch in 1672, but this war, which was un¬ 
popular, was ended in 1674. The king showed partiality 
to the Roman Catholic Church, of which he had secretly 
become a member. A rumor of a popish plot caused a 
violent excitement among the people in 1678. Charles 
dissolved Parliament in that year, and called another, 
which in 1679 passed the Habeas Corpus act in opposition 
to the will of the court. The prevalence of corruption and 
profligacy in politics and morals, together with the despotic 
policy of the court, rendered this reign one of the most dis¬ 
graceful in English history. In 1683 the patriots Algernon 
Sidney and Lord Russell were put to death for their com¬ 
plicity in the Rye-House Plot. Charles died without law¬ 
ful issue Feb. 6, 1685, and was succeeded by his brother, 
James II. Charles II. was indolent, unambitious, and 
depraved in morals. (See IIume, “History of England;” 
Macaulay, “History of England,” vol.i.j William Har¬ 
ris, “Life of Charles II.,” 1765; Lord Halifax, “Charac¬ 
ter of Charles II.,” 1750.) 

Charles I. of France. See Charlemagne. 

Charles, surnamed TnE Bald [Fr. Le Chauve], or 
Charles II., king of France, the fourth son of Louis le 


Debonnaire, was born at Frankfort on the Main in 823 A. D. 
On the death of his father (840) he inherited all of France 
which is W. of the Rhone. He was unable to resist the 
Normans, who invaded France, and was compelled to pay 
them tribute in 845 and again in 861. Having invaded 
Italy with success, he was crowned as emperor by the pope 
in 875 A. D. He is styled Charles II. among the German 
emperors, as well as Charles II., king of France. He died 
in 877, and was succeeded by his son, Louis le Begue. 

Charles III. of France, called the Simple, a son of 
Louis le Begue, was born in 879 A. D. Eudes, count of 
Paris, was elected king by the barons in 883. Charles as¬ 
sumed the title of king in 893, and after the death of Eudes, 
in 898, he reigned alone. He was a feeble prince, and 
failed to defend his kingdom from the Normans. In 923 
the nobles elected Raoul (or Rodolph) of Burgundy to the 
throne. Charles died in 929, leaving a son, Louis Outremer. 

Charles IV. of France, surnamed the Handsome 
[Fr. Le Bel], the third son of Philippe le Bel, was born 
in 1294. He began to reign in 1322. He aided his sister 
Isabella to dethrone her husband, Edward II. of England. 
He died without male issue in 1328, and was succeeded by 
Philip of Valois. 

Charles V., called the Wise [Fr. Le Sage], king of 
France, born Jan. 21, 1337, was a son of John II. He 
acted as regent during the captivity of John, who was taken 
prisoner by the English in 1356. He became king on the 
death of his father, in 1364, at a time when France was in¬ 
vaded by English armies. He acted on the defensive and 
avoided a general battle. The French general Du Gues- 
clin expelled the English from Poitou, Saintonge, etc. 
Charles founded the Royal Library of Paris. He died 
Sept. 16, 1380, leaving the throne to his son, Charles VI. 
(See MicnELET, “ Histoire de France;” Barthelemy de 
Beauregard, “Histoire de Charles V.,” 1843.) 

Charles VS e , called the Beloved [Fr. Le Bien-Aime], 
a son of Charles V., was born in Paris Dec. 3, 1368. He 
was the first prince who received the title of dauphin. He 
became insane in 1392, after which the kingdom was dis¬ 
tracted by the rivalry between the dukes of Burgundy and 
Orleans. In 1407 a civil war broke out between the Bur¬ 
gundians and the Armagnacs. France was also invaded 
by Henry V. of England, who gained a great victory at 
Agincourt Oct. 21, 1415. Charles died in 1422. 

Charles VII., surnamed the Victorious, king of 
France, born Feb. 22, 1403, Avas a son of Charles VI., Avhom 
he succeeded in 1422. At that time Henry VI. of England 
was recognized as king of France by a faction which had 
possession of Paris, and France was partially occupied by 
the English, who besieged Orleans in 1428. From the ruin¬ 
ous state to which the country was reduced by intestine 
discord and foreign invasion, it Avas restored by the heroism 
of Joan of Arc and the prudent policy of Charles, who be¬ 
came master of Paris in 1436. He waged war with success 
against the English, and recovered Normandy in 1450. He 
died July 22, 1461, and was succeeded by his son, Louis 
XI. (See Vallet de Viriville, v ‘Histoire de Charles 
VII.,” 3 A'ols., 1862-65.) 

Charles VIII., surnamed the Affable, king of 
France, born at Amboise July 30, 1470, was a son of Louis 
XI., whom he succeeded in 1483. He married, in 1491, 
Anne, duchess of Brittany. He led an army into Italy in 
1494, and conquered Naples early in 1495. Alarmed by 
his victorious progress, the king of Spain, the German 
emperor, and other powers formed a league against him. 
As Charles was marching homeward he encountered and 
repulsed the army of the allies at Fornovo, and then re¬ 
turned to France. He died without issue April 7, 1498, and 
was succeeded bv Louis XII. (See PqiLiprE de Segur, 
“Histoire de Charles VIII.,” 1835.) 

Charles IX., king of France, the second son of Henry 
II. and Catherine de Medicis, Avas born at St. Germain-en- 
Laye June 27, 1550. He succeeded his brother, Francis 
II., in 1560. During his minority his mother had the 
chief control of the government. His reign was disturbed 
by civil or religious wars, which began in 1562, between 
the Catholics and Huguenots. The court generally co¬ 
operated with the Catholic party, but Catherine was jeal¬ 
ous of the duke of Guise, the leader of the Catholics, and 
sometimes opposed him by her intrigues. The civil Avar 
was seA T eral times suspended by treaties, and renewed in 
consequence of the perfidy of the court. Charles married, 
in 1570, Elizabeth, a daughter of the emperor Maximilian 
II. He made overtures of peace to the Huguenots, and 
negotiated a marriage betAveen his sister Margaret and 
Henry of Navarre. On the occasion of this wedding he 
invited Coligni and other Protestant leaders to court, and 
treated them Avith a simulated favor which lulled their sus¬ 
picions. It appears that he and his mother were respon¬ 
sible for the massacre of the Protestants Avhich commenced 















CHARLES X. OF FRANCE—CHARLES OF AUSTRIA. 881 


Aug. 24, 1572 (St. Bartholomew’s Day). Charles admitted 
that he had consented to this crime. lie died without 
issue May 30, 1574. (See Varillas, “Histoire de Charles 
IX.,” 1683 ; Sismondi, “ History of France.”) 

Charles X., king of France, born at Versailles Oct. 9, 
1757, was a younger brother of Louis XVI. He was orig¬ 
inally styled the count of Artois. In 1773 he married 
Maria Theresa, a daughter of the king of Sardinia. He 
emigrated in 1789, and instigated the French royalists to 
revolt in 1795, but he declined to land and put himself at 
their head, for which conduct he was accused of cowardice 
by some of his own party. He remained in exile until 
1814, and when he returned to Paris exclaimed, “ Friends, 
nothing is changed in France,* there is only one French¬ 
man the more!” He began to reign on the death of Louis 
XVIII. in Sept., 1824, and his conduct soon confirmed 
the proverbial saying, that “the Bourbons learn nothing 
and torget nothing.” His policy was reactionary, and his 
advisers were a conclave of fanatical priests. In Aug., 
1829, he dismissed the ministers and formed an ultra¬ 
royalist ministry, the chief of which was the prince de 
Polignac. In Mar., 1830, 221 deputies, forming a majority 
of the Chamber, avowed their hostility to the ministry. 
The court then dissolved the Chamber, and ordered a new 
election, which resulted in the return of another Chamber 
that was opposed to the ministers. The king and his 
ministers then resorted to a conp-d’etat. On the 25th of 
July, 1830, they issued ordinances which subverted the 
freedom of the press, and dissolved the new Chamber. 
The Parisians appealed to arms, barricaded the streets, 
and after a contest of three days were completely victori¬ 
ous. Charles abdicated in favor of his grandson, the duke 
of Bordeaux, and escaped to England. He died Nov. 6, 
1836. (See Lorieux, “Ilistoire du Regno do Charles X.,” 
1834; Lamartine, “History of the Restoration.”) 

Charles I. of Anjou, king of Naples, count of Anjou 
and Provence, born about 1220, was the youngest son of 
Louis VIII. of France, and a brother of St. Louis. Ho 
married Beatrice, a daughter of Raimond Berenger, count 
of Provence, and became his heir. At the instigation of 
the pope he attacked and defeated Manfred, king of Na¬ 
ples, in 1266, and usurped his throne. Provoked by his 
tyranny, the Sicilians revolted and massacred a multitude 
of Frenchmen on the 30th of Mar., 1282. This event was 
called “The Sicilian Vespers.” Died in 1285. 

Charles I. of Spain. See Charles V. (emperor). 

Charles (or Carlos) II., king of Spain, born in Nov., 
1661, was the son of Philip IV., who died in 1665. Anne 
of Austria became regent during the minority of Charles, 
who was her son. He married, in 1678, Louise, a niece of 
Louis XIV. of France. In 1689 he became an ally of 
England and other powers in a war against Louis XIV. 
He was an incapable ruler and a man of morbid condition 
of mind and body. As he was childless, he became in the 
latter part of his life anxious and irresolute about the 
choice of his successor. By his last will he appointed 
Philip, duke of Anjou, as his heir. Died in 1700. 

Charles III., king of Spain, a son of Philip V., was 
born in 1716. He ascended the throne on the death of his 
brother, Ferdinand VI., in 1759, and Avas an ally of France 
in the war against England which began in 1762. He 
promoted education and reform, and expelled the Jesuits 
from Spain in 1767. In 1779, a3 an ally of France, he 
declared war against England. These allies besieged 
Gibraltar without success. He died in 1788, and was 
succeeded by his son, Charles IV. 

Charles IV. of Spain, a son of Charles III., was born 
at Naples Nov. 12, 1748. He became king in 1788, before 
which he had married Maria Louisa Theresa of Parma. 
In 1792, through the evil influence of the queen, her de¬ 
praved favorite Godoy was appointed prime minister. In 
1793 war was decIaredL by the French against the Spaniards, 
who were defeated in many battles. Charles sued for 
peace, and the war ended in July, 1795. As an ally of 
France he declared war against England in 1796. Charles 
abdicated in favor of his son Ferdinand in Mar., 1808, but 
Napoleon in the same year deposed him, and placed his 
own brother Joseph on the throne. Died Jan. 19, 1819. 

Charles X. (or Charles Gustavus), king of Sweden, 
born at Nylcoping in 1622, was a son of the prince of Deux- 
Ponts. His mother was a sister of King Gustavus Adol¬ 
phus. He was the heir-apparent in the reign of Christina, 
and became king when she abdicated in June, 1654. He 
was an able and a warlike ruler. In 1655 he invaded Po¬ 
land because the Polish king had not renounced his claim 
to the throne of Sweden. lie took Warsaw, and speedily 
drove the king out of Poland. During his absence the 
Danes declared war against him. He defeated them and 
compelled them to cede-Scania to Sweden (1658). He died 
56 


in 1660, and left the throne to his son Charles. (See 
Lundblah, “Konung Carl X. Gustaf’s llistoria,” 2 vols., 
1823-29.) 

Charles XI., king of Sweden, the son of Charles X., 
was born in 1655. By a treaty with Poland in 1660, Estho- 
nia and other provinces which Charles X. had conquered 
Avere ceded to Sweden. Charles XI. assumed the royal 
functions in 1672, and formed an alliance with Louis XIV. 
of France. He defeated the Danes, Avho invaded Sweden in 
1677, but in 1679 he signed a treaty of peace and married 
a sister of the king of Denmark. His reign henceforth Avas 
pacific and prosperous. In 1682 he was invested by the 
states Avith absolute poAvcr, of Avhich he made a good use. 
He died in 1697, and was succeeded by his son, Charles 
XII. 

Charles XII. of Sweden, born at Stockholm June 27, 
1682, Avas the eldest son of Charles XI. and Ulrica Eleonora 
of Denmark. He learned Latin, French, and German, and 
formed in his youth simple and frugal habits of living. 
He began to reign in April, 1697, and chose Count Piper 
as his chief minister and adviser. In 1700 a league 
Avas formed against Sweden by Peter I. of Russia and the 
kings of Denmark and Poland, Arho designed to aggrand¬ 
ize their dominions at his expense. At the head of a Avell- 
disciplined army Charles assumed the offensive in May, 
1700. He marched first against Copenhagen, and com¬ 
pelled the Danish king to sue for peace, which was con¬ 
cluded in Aug., 1700. With prompt and rapid movement 
he then led about 8000 men against Peter the Great, who 
Avas besieging Narva Avith nearly 70,000 men. Charles 
gained a decisive victory at Narva in No\ r ., 1700, soon 
after Avhich he im r aded Poland. He defeated the Poles in 
several battles, and deposed Augustus, king of Poland, in 
1704. Provoked by recent acts of hostility on the part of 
the czar Peter, he advanced towards MoscoAvin Sept., 1707, 
with an army of 43,000 men. The Russian army was not 
able to resist his impetuous progress, and he crossed the 
Beresina in June, 1708. Having arrived at Smolensko, he 
Avas induced by Mazeppa, hetman of the Cossacks, to march 
southAvard into the Ukraine. Here many of his men per¬ 
ished from cold and want of provisions, and his army re¬ 
mained inactive during the severe winter of 1708-09. At 
the beginning of the next campaign he had only 18,000 
Swedes in his army. He besieged PultOAva, to relieve which 
Peter advanced with an army of 70,000 men. The decisive 
battle of PultoAva, July 8, 1709, resulted in the defeat of 
Charles, who lost about 9000 men killed and 6000 prisoners. 
He retreated into Turkey, and was kindly received by the 
sultan, Avho gave him a residence at Bender. He induced the 
sultan to declare war against Russia, but this war was soon 
ended by a treaty. Charles remained in Turkey several 
years, and at length Avas involved in a quarrel with the 
Turkish rulers, who treated him as a prisoner. He es¬ 
caped in 1714, and travelling incognito through Hungary 
and Germany, reached Stralsund in November of that year. 
The Russians, Danes, and Prussians continued to Avage 
war against the king of Sweden, and they took Stralsund 
in Dec., 1715, after a long siege. The energy and audacity 
of Charles remained unabated, notwithstanding his re¬ 
verses, and while the allies threatened to invade Sweden, 
he invaded NorAvay. He Avas killed at the siege of Fred- 
erikshall Nov. 30, 1718, and left a great reputation as a 
military genius. Ho was neA'er married, and his sister 
Ulrica Eleonora inherited the throne. (See Voltaire, 
“ Life of Charles XII. Nordberg, “ Karls XII. Historia,” 
1740 ; Lundblah, “ Konung Carls XII. Historia,” 2 vols., 
1830 ; Posselt, “ Geschichte Carl’s XII.,” 1804.) 

Charles XIII., king of Sweden, born 7th Oct., 1748, 
Avas a son of King Adolphus Frederick and a nephew of 
Frederick the Great. He Avas before his accession an admi¬ 
ral of the Sivedish navy, and gained a naval victory over 
the Russians in 1788. In 1792 he became regent during 
the minority of his nephew, Gusta\*us IV., and retained 
that office until 1796. The States-General deposed Gus¬ 
tavus in 1809, and elected Charles as his successor. Hav¬ 
ing no son, Charles, with the consent of the Swedish Diet, 
adopted Gen. Bernadotte as his son and heir in 1810. Died 
Feb. 5, 1818. 

Charles XIV. of Sweden. Sec Bernadotte. 

Charles (or Carl) XV. (Louis Eugene), king of 
Sweden and Norivay, Avas born May 3,1826. He succeeded 
his father, Oscar I., in July, 1859. He married in 1850 a 
Dutch princess of Orange. Died in Sept., 1872, leaving a 
daughter, Louisa, croAvn-princess of Denmark. The crown 
descended to his brother, Oscar II., Frederick, duke of 
Ostrogothia. 

Charles, archduke of Austria, an eminent general, born 
at Florence 5th Sept., 1771, Avas a son of the German 
emperor Leopold IT. Having serA*cd seA'eral campaigns 
against the French, he obtained in 1796 the chief command 













CHARLES ALBERT—CHARLESTON. 


882 


of the Austrian army of the Rhine, and defeated the French 
general Jourdan at Wurtzburg in September of that year. 
He also compelled Moreau to retire across the Rhine. He 
retired from active service on account of ill-health in 1800. 
In 1805 he commanded in Italy, and defeated Massena at 
Caldiero. He became general-in-chief of the Austrian 
armies in 1806. He could not prevent Napoleon from en¬ 
tering Vienna, but he encountered him with success at the 
great battle of Aspern in May, 1809. The archduke and 
Napoleon commanded the armies at Wagram July, 1809, 
where the French claimed the victory. He resigned the 
command soon after this event. He wrote an able work 
called “ Principles of Strategy” (1814). He died 30th 
April, 1847, leaving a son, Albert. 

Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, was born Oct. 2, 
1798. He was a son of Prince Charles Emmanuel of Savoy- 
Carignan. He became king on the death of Charles Felix 
in 1831, and adopted a liberal policy. Co-operating with 
the movements of the popular party in the cause of the 
unity and liberation of Italy, he declared war against 
Austria in the spring of 1848. Having been defeated at 
Novara in Mar., 1849, he abdicated in favor of his son, 
Victor Emmanuel. Hied July 28, 1849. 

Charles (surnamed) the Bold, sometimes called 
Charles the Rash [Fr. Charles le Temeraire ], duke of 
Burgundy, born at Dijon Nov. 10, 1435, was a son of 
Philip the Good. He was styled count de Charolais until 
he became duke in 1467. lie married Margaret, a sister 
of Edward IV. of England, in 1468, and became one of the 
most powerful sovereigns of his time. His dominions in¬ 
cluded the Netherlands. He waged war against Louis XI. 
of France and other pi'inces. In 1476 he was defeated by 
the Swiss at Morat. He afterwards invaded Lorraine, and 
was defeated and killed at Nancy Jan. 5, 1477. He was 
succeeded by his daughter Mary, who was married to the 
emperor Maximilian I. (See Kirk, “ History of Charles 
the Bold,” 1868; Comines, “ Memoires.”) 

Charleshourg, a flourishing post-village of Quebec 
co. (Canada), 4 miles from Quebec, has a heavy trade in 
lumber, and is the seat of a. convent of the Sisters of the 
Good Shepherd. Pop. about 800. 

Charles City, a county in the S. E. of Virginia. Area, 
184 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and E. by the 
Chickahominy, and on the S. by the James River. The 
surface is undulating. Grain, wool, and tobacco are the 
chief products. Two Presidents of the U. S., Harrison 
and Tyler, were born in this county. Capital, Charles City 
Court-house. Pop. 4975. 

Charles City, a post-village, capital of Floyd co., la., 
is on Cedar River and the Iowa division of the Illinois 
Central R. R. where it is crossed by the Milwaukee and 
St. Paul R. R., 139 miles W. N. W. of Dubuque. It has a 
national bank, a savings bank, a furniture factory, and 
various other industries, and two newspapers. Pop. 2166. 

Dyke Bros., Pubs. “ Intelligencer.” 

Charles City Court-house, a post-village, capital 
of Charles City co., Va., is about 1 mile N. of the James 
River and 28 miles S. S. E. of Richmond. 

Charles Edward, “ the Young Pretender,” or more 
fully Charles Edward Louis Philip Casimir 
Stuart, son of James Stuart, the first “ Pretender,” and 
of the Polish princess Clementina Sobieski, was born at 
Rome Dec. 31,1720. Unlike his father and his grandfather 
James II., he had much native talent and firmness of pur¬ 
pose. He was well educated, and skilled in athletic exer¬ 
cises, as well as in music and the fine arts. In early youth 
he served with much honor in the Spanish army against 
Austria. War having broken out between France and Eng¬ 
land, and his father having abdicated his claim to the Brit¬ 
ish throne, he in 1744 embarked with a powerful fleet and 
army for England, Marshal Saxe being in command; but 
the expedition was broken up by a great storm, which de¬ 
stroyed a large part of the fleet. In the following year 
(July 25) he landed with a few attendants at Moidart. He 
soon had a large following, mostly of Highlanders. With 
these he entered Edinburgh Sept. 17, destroyed Sir John 
Cope’s army at Preston Pans Sept. 21, entered England, 
and could easily have taken London, but for the insubordi¬ 
nation of the Highland chiefs, who compelled him to retreat 
to Scotland, repulsing the royal troops at Clifton. On Jan. 
17, 1746, he defeated Hawley at Falkirk. The character 
of his forces soon compelled his retreat to the Highlands, 
whither he was followed by the duke of Cumberland. He 
fought the latter at Culloden Muir (April 16), and was 
there utterly overthrown ; but though his army was inferior 
in numbers and worn out by exposure and hunger, he would 
doubtless have won a complete victory but for the jealousy 
of the clan MacDonald. As it was, the battle was totally 
lost, and with it the last reasonable hope of the Stuart line. 


After many months of suffering he escaped from the West¬ 
ern Islands by the aid of the famous Flora MacDonald. 
He lived upon various parts of the Continent under the 
title of count of Albany. His ill-fortune and the unfaith¬ 
fulness of the countess (who was the mistress of Alfieri) 
led him to grossly intemperate habits. He died at Rome 
Jan. 30, 1788. 

Charles (Elizabeth Ritndle), an English authoress, 
born about 1826. She was married to Andrew P. Charles, 
Esq., of London. Among her works, which are very pop¬ 
ular, are “ Chronicles of the Schonberg-Cotta Family” 
(1863) and “Diary of Mrs. Kitty Trevylyan ” (1864). 

Charles Emmaiiuel I., duke of Savoy, surnamed the 
Great, was born in 1562. He succeeded his father, Phil¬ 
ibert Emmanuel, in 1580, and married Catherine, a daughter 
of Philip II. of Spain. He ivas an ambitious prince, and 
waged war against Henry IV. of France and other powers. 
Died in 1630. 

Charles Friederich August Wilhelm, duke of 
Brunswick, born Oct. 30, 1804, son of Friedrich Wilhelm, 
who perisbed at the battle of Quatre-Bras, had for his 
guardian George IV. of England. Assuming the reins 
of government in 1823, he ruled so capriciously and arbi¬ 
trarily that he was deposed by the German Diet. He lived 
afterwards in Paris and London, and died in Aug., 1873, 
bequeathing his immense fortune to the city of Geneva. 

Charles (Jacques Alexander Cesar), a French savant 
and aeronaut, born at Beaugency Nov. 12, 1746. He was 
a popular lecturer on physical science in Paris, and gained 
distinction by his experiments in electricity. He also 
made an improvement in the art of ballooning by substi¬ 
tuting hydrogen gas for heated air. He and M. Robert 
were the first persons who ever ascended in a balloon. 
They ascended in 1783 to the height of 7000 feet. Died 
April 7, 1823. 

Charles Martel, king of the Franks, born in 690 
A. D., was a son of Pepin d’Heristal, duke of Austrasia. 
He succeeded his father as mayor of the palace in 714, and 
obtained royal power, while Chilperic was the nominal 
king. He gained near Poitiers in 732 a most important 
victory over a large army of Saracens who had invaded 
the kingdom. This is known as the battle of Tours, and 
is regarded as one of the decisive battles of the world’s 
history. For this victory he was surnamed Martel (?. e . 
the “ Hammer ”). He died in 741 A. D., and was succeeded 
by his sons, Carloman and Pepin le Bref. 

Charles Mix, a county in the S. E. of Dakota, is 
bounded on the S. W. by the Missouri River. Capital, 
Greenwood. Pop. 152. 

Charles River, Mass., rises in Worcester co., and pur- 
I sues a very tortuous course through Norfolk and Middlesex 
cos. It meets the tide-water at Boston, forming part of Bos¬ 
ton harbor, and separating that city from Cambridge. To¬ 
tal length, about 75 miles. 

Charleston, a county of South Carolina, bordering on 
the Atlantic. Area, 1900 square miles. It is bounded on 
the N. and N. E. by the Santee River, and drained by the 
Cooper River. The surface is level; the soil is mostly 
sandy, and is partly fertile. Cotton, rice, and corn are the 
chief crops. It is intersected by the North-eastern, the 
South Carolina, and the Savannah and Charleston R. Rs. 
Capital, Charleston. Pop. 88,863. 

Charleston, a post-village, capital of Coles co., Ill., 
on the Indianapolis and St. Louis R. R., 45 miles W. of 
Terre Haute. It has two national banks and two news¬ 
paper-offices, and is the seat of a medical college and an 
infirmary. Pop. 2849; of Charleston township, 4472. 

Charleston, a post-township of Lee co., Ia. P. 1241. 

Charleston, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. 
Pop. 1191. 

Charleston, a township of Kalamazoo co., Mich. Pon 
1369. 1 

Charleston, a post-village, capital of Tallahatchee 
co., Miss. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Charleston, a post-village, capital of Mississippi co., 
Mo., on the St. Louis and Iron Mountain and the Cairo 
Arkansas and Texas R. Rs., 12 miles from Cairo. It has 
three churches, an academy, and one newspaper. P. 635. 

Wit. Burns, Ed. Charleston “Courier.” 

Charleston, a post-township of Montgomery co., N. Y. 
It has five churches, and manufactures of woollens, flour, 
sash and blinds, etc. Pop. 1601. 

Charleston, a post-village, capital of Swain co., N. C., 
is about 50 miles S. S. E. of Knoxville, Tenn. 

Charleston, a township of Chester co., Pa. Pop. 907. 

Charleston, a post-township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 














CHARLESTON. 


Charleston, the chief city of South Carolina and cap¬ 
ital of Charleston county, is situated in lat. 32° 46' N., 
Ion. 79° 67' W., about 7 miles from the Atlantic Ocean and 
120 miles from Columbia, the capital of the State. The 
city stands upon a tongue of land between the Ashley 
and Cooper rivers. Northward stretches an extended 
plain occupied by fruit, floral, and vegetable farms; 
southward the two rivers unite, forming a spacious and 
beautiful harbor, one of the safest and most commodious 
on the Atlantic coast. The depth within the harbor is 
fiom 40 to 50 feet, but only 18 feet at the entrance; how¬ 
ever, the work of deepening the latter is now progressing. 
The city covers 5^ square miles, is triangular in form, has 
53 T 3 g miles of streets, and 9| miles of water-front. The 
population in 1850 was 42,985; in 1860, 48,409; in 1870, 
48,956. The proportion of the white to the colored popu¬ 
lation in 1870 was 22 to 26. Between 1860 and 1865 the 
population was greatly reduced by war-influences. Com¬ 
merce by land and sea was totally destroyed. The railroads 
leading into the interior were torn up, the wharves decayed, 
the docks filled up, and the capital of the merchants was 
destroyed or rendered unavailable. Charleston was not 
made a port of entry for more than a year after the end 
of the war. As soon as it was, industry revived, and 
commerce has since steadily increased. The city is the 
seat ot a large wholesale trade carried on with the interior, 
and is the port through which the large interior cities of 
the neighboring States draw their supplies of merchandise 
from the great commercial centres. There is also a grow¬ 
ing trade in flour, bacon, grain, etc., carried on overland 
with St. Louis, Chicago, and the cities of the West and the 
North-west. Charleston is the first rice and fourth cotton 
port in the U. S. In 1873 the receipts of rice were 49,284 
tierces, and of cotton 391,307 bales, being an increase over 
the year previous of respectively 5607 tierces and 109,221 
bales. The principal exports are in cotton, rice, naval 
stores, lumber, and phosphate rock (a fertilizing substance 
of great value). The exports in 1873 were— 

Total. Foreign. Coastwise. 

Cotton, bales. 385,185 160,169 225,016 

Rice, tierces. 37,672 none. 37,672 

Naval stores, barrels. 215,413 70,476 144,973 

Lumber, feet. 20,769.280 2,148,110 18,621,170 

Phosphate rock, tons. 29,838 2,435 27,403 

The exports of each article were larger than those of the 
year before, particularly the foreign exports of cotton and 
naval stores, which increased 50 per cent. A large quan¬ 
tity of vegetables grown upon the suburban farms is an¬ 
nually exported to New York and other Northern cities. 
In the spring of 1873, 18,178 barrels of Irish potatoes and 
101,956 packages of other vegetables were shipped north¬ 
ward. The value of foreign exports for the year ending 
Dec. 24, 1873, was $14,746,697, of which $2,911,770 repre¬ 
sented the exports for Dec., 1873. The bulk of coastwise 
imports cannot be ascertained, but it is very large; the 
foreign imports are small, but growing; their value for 
the year ending Dec. 24, 1873, was $891,083. The vessels 
owned in Charleston in 1873 were 15 ocean sailing-vessels, 
aggregating 1713 tons; river sailing-vessels 130, tons 2125 ; 
ocean steamers 6, tons 1031; river steamers 9, tons 1593. 

Manufactures are carried on in iron, wood, and phos¬ 
phate rock. The census of 1870 sets down the manufac¬ 
tories of all kinds at 224, employing $1,538,539 capital, 
2579 hands, paying annually $616,962 in wages, consum¬ 
ing $1,264,731 in materials, and producing $2,431,763 in 
manufactured articles. Since then, however, considerable 
increase has occurred in manufactures. In 1873 the man¬ 
ufacture of phosphate rock alone employed $2,010,000 cap¬ 
ital. In the same year 56,298 tons of manufactured fer¬ 
tilizers, worth $3,000,000, nearly all produced by this in¬ 
dustry, were shipped into the surrounding country. The 
manufacture of locomotives was begun in the South Caro¬ 
lina R. R. machine-shops in 1873. 

The U. S. census of 1870 fixes the valuation of all prop¬ 
erty in'the city at $54,730,166, while by the State assess¬ 
ment for 1872 it was only $41,047,625, and by the city 
assessment for 1873, $28,178,991. Of the last amount, 
$9,204,271 represented the personal and $18,974,720 the 
real property. The municipal tax in 1873 was 19J mills 
on the dollar, yielding $542,445. By licensing all classes 
of business $89,182 additional were collected. The State 
tax in 1873 was 15 mills, 3 mills being for county purposes. 
The city debt is $5,127,208, contracted before the war in 
aid of railroads. The municipal expenditures of 1873 
were $1,087,736.40, of which $189,829.52 were spent in re¬ 
ducing the debt. The banking capital is $3,000,000, divided 
between seven banks of discount, whose aggregate deposits 
are $1,600,000. In addition there are five savings banks, 
aggregate deposits $1,155,990. There is one local fire in¬ 
surance company, capital $26,000. There are three daily, 
one tri-weekly, one semi-weekly, five weekly, one semi¬ 
monthly, two monthly, and one quarterly publication. A 


883 


city court, sitting once a year, and presided over by a judge 
elected for life by the legislature, and the mayor’s court, 
constitute the municipal tribunals. There is a county jail, 
and a house of correction which is in the suburbs. The in¬ 
mates are made to cultivate a farm, which produces nearly 
enough to pay for supporting that institution and an ad¬ 
joining asylum for the aged and infirm. Pauperism and 
crime characterized respectively one-third and one-fifth of 
1 per cent, of the population. 

The principal educational institutions are—Charleston 
College, founded in 1785, endowment over $200,000, income 
without tuition $14,000, cost of tuition $40 per annum, 
number of faculty 6, students 34, alumni since 1866, 50; 
and the Medical College of South Carolina, no endowment, 
number of faculty 12, of students 60, cost of course $60. 
The former has an excellent museum of natural history, 
and the latter one of the best pathological and anatomical 
museums in the U. S. There is one high school for boys, 
with 5 teachers and 100 pupils; cost of tuition $40, annual 
donation from city $2000. Number of public schools 4, 
teachers 72, pupils 3000. Teachers’ salaries aggregate 
$36,000 per annum, and vary from $400 to $2000 each. 
One of these schools is a normal school for girls; it has 
two departments. In the higher girls are prepared to be¬ 
come teachers. The other schools are divided into primary, 
intermediate, and grammar departments, each of the two 
last being the field of promotion for the one below. Each 
school has a principal, and a sub-principal for each depart¬ 
ment. All of the schools are under the direction of a 
superintendent, who is subject to the control of a board of 
commissioners composed of one citizen from each ward, 
chosen every two years by the people. The Charleston 
Library is the principal institution of that kind. Estab¬ 
lished in 1748, it formerly contained 24,000 volumes, but 
lost about 8000 by the war. Many of its books are of 
great value. The society owns a building on Broad street. 
It has no endowment; its income is about $2000. The 
Apprentices’ and Minors’ Library Society had a building 
on Meeting street and 10,000 volumes, which were destroyed 
by fire in 1861. It was reorganized in 1873. 

The churches number 39: Episcopal 11, Presbyterian 8, 
Catholic 5, Methodist 5, Baptist 4, Lutheran 3, Unitarian 1, 
Independent 1, Orphans’ chapel 1; also two Jewish syna¬ 
gogues; average sittings 500 each. St. Michael’s and St. 
Philip’s, Episcopal, and the Central Presbyterian, are the 
finest church edifices. The benevolent institutions are the 
city orphan-house, endowment$190,000, annual cost$21,377, 
inmates 303, city donation $20,000 a year; the Catholic 
orphan asylum, inmates 109, annual city donation $6000; 
almshouse, inmates 75, besides outside pensioners, cost to 
the city $10,000 a year; asylum for aged and infirm, in¬ 
mates 58, annual cost $3515 ; city hospital, patients treated 
1223, annual expenses $20,977, cost to the city $7287. 
There is an asylum for colored orphans, supported by the 
State, cost $5000 a year. The Confederate Widows’ Home, 
St. Philip’s Church Home, Sailors’ Home, Ladies’ Mutual 
Aid Association, and Ladies’ Fuel Society are among the 
private benevolences. 

The most noted public buildings are the Arsenal and the 
Citadel, occupied by U. S. troops, the market, city hall, 
court-house, city orphan-house, Charleston Hotel, Mills 
House, Academy of Music, new custom-house, and the 
post-office. The Battery, a small park on the S. front of 
the city, is the chief public resort. 

The city railroads are the City Railway, for passengers 
only, capital $200,000, miles of track 8, passengers carried 
annually 1,000,000; Enterprise Railroad, for freight and 
passengers, capital $250,000, miles of track 3, now build¬ 
ing. Three steam railroads centre in the city, the princi¬ 
pal of which is the South Carolina. There is a steam ferry 
to Sullivan’s Island, a summer resort, carrying 200,000 
passengers annually. The city is lighted by a private gas 
company. The paved streets are 9| miles, planked 5f, 
shelled If. The tidal sewerage is in vogue: miles of 
sewers, 5f, besides inclined drains. 

Charleston was founded in 1680 by an English colony. 
During the first half century its growth was slow, but it 
attained commercial importance before the end of the second. 
It was taken by the British in 1780, after a gallant defence, 
and evacuated by them in 1782. It was the State capital 
until 1790, when the seat of government was removed to 
Columbia. It was the seat of the great Democratic con¬ 
vention of 1860, and later in the same year of the conven¬ 
tion which passed the famous Ordinance of Secession. I ho 
reduction of Fort Sumter, its principal harbor defence, was 
the first conflict of the great civil war and the first triumph 
of the Confederate arms. In Dec., 1861, nearly half ot the 
city was destroyed by fire. During the last two years ot 
the war it sustained a protracted siege and bombardment, 
and was finally evacuated by the Confederates I eb. 19, 1865. 

W. E. Simmons, Jr., late Ed. “News and Courier.” 



















884 


CHARLESTON—CHARLOTTE. 


Charleston, a township of Orleans co., Yt. It has an 
academy, and manufactures of lumber, leather, starch, etc. 
Pop. 1278. 

Charleston, or Kanawha Court-house, the cap¬ 
ital of West Virginia and of Kanawha co., at the mouth of 
the Elk River, on the Kanawha River, 65 miles from its 
mouth and 150 miles S. S. W. of Wheeling. The Chesa¬ 
peake and Ohio R. R. passes the city on the opposite side 
of the Kanawha. Steamboats navigate the Kanawha 
River up to this point. The city has one daily and three 
weekly newspapers, two national banks, two iron-foundries, 
and several large manufactories. A considerable trade in 
lumber, salt, and coal is carried on. There are ten salt 
furnaces, one of which makes 2000 bushels of salt per day. 
The seat of the State government was removed to Charles¬ 
ton in 1869. Pop. 3162; of township, 3857. 

Charles B. Webb, Ed. “Kanawha Chronicle.” 

Charleston, College of. In June, 1770, a meeting 
of the citizens of Charleston, S. C., was held to petition the 
general assembly for the establishment of a college. In 
Oct., 1775, an act was passed providing for three colleges, 
one of which was to be located in Charleston. In Mar., 
1789, the Rev. Dr. Robert Smith was elected president. 
In Oct., 1791, the first commencement was celebrated. In 
1805 Dr. George Buist was elected president, and served 
three years. Upon his death Mr. Mitchell King was 
elected to supply his place. 

After a suspension of some years, in 1826 the Rev. Jasper 
Adams of Brown University was elected president, and in 
1830 the new building (subsequently enlarged by the ad¬ 
dition of wings) was erected. Prom 1826 to 1838 the chair 
was filled by Dr. Adams, with the exception of one or two 
intervals, in which Mr. King and the Rt. Rev. Dr. Bowen 
officiated temporarily. In 1838, Rev. Dr. Brantley was 
elected, and was succeeded in 1844 by W. P. Pinley, 
LL.D., who served until 1857, when the present president, 
N. Russell Middleton, LL.D., was elected. 

The plan upon which the college is now conducted re¬ 
pudiates all coercion; if the students are indolent or ill- 
behaved, they are dismissed, and the discipline of the 
college has decidedly improved under this method. The 
institution being intended chiefiy for the use of the citizens, 
to keep their sons under parental influences and preserve 
their acclimation, has never been largely supplied with 
students, the number varying from 30 to 60. 

N. R. Middleton. 

Charlestown, a post-village, capital of Clarke co., 
Ind., is 2^ miles from the Ohio River and 12 miles N. N. E. 
of Louisville, Ky. It has four or more churches and one 
newspaper. Pop. 2204; of Charlestown township, 3294. 

Charlestown, a post-village of North-east township, 
Cecil co., Md., on the North-east Elver and on the Phila¬ 
delphia Wilmington and Baltimore R. R., 7 miles E. by N. 
of Havre de Grace. It was settled in 1742, and burned by 
the British in 1813. Pop. 223. 

Charlestown, a former city and seaport of Middlesex 
co., Mass., is a northern suburb of Boston, lat. 42° 2' N., 
Ion. 71° 3' 33" W. It is situated on a peninsula nearly 
enclosed by the Mystic and Charles rivers, and is con¬ 
nected with Boston and Chelsea by five bridges. The' 
ground is uneven, and rises into two eminences, Breed’s 
and Bunker Hills, which afford delightful situations for 
dwellings. The city is handsome and well built, with 
pleasantly shaded rather irregular streets. Three avenues, 
Main, Bunker Hill, and Medford streets, traverse the pen¬ 
insula, and, converging at its neck, make the fine broad 
avenue Broadway, passing through Somerville and over 
Winter Hill. The city has thirteen churches, two national 
banks, three newspapers, public parks, horse-railways, a 
public library, and numerous charities. Here is also a 
State prison, after the plan of that at Auburn, N. Y., in 
wRich there are 600 convicts. There is an extensive U. S. 
navy-yard, occupying seventy to eighty acres, extending 
from the Charles to the Mystic rivers, in which are three 
large ship-houses, a ropewalk, the largest in the U. S., 
and machine-shops for the manufacture of copper-work, 
machinery, and ordnance, capable of employing 2000 men. 
A dry-dock connected with the navy-yard is built of gran¬ 
ite and cost $670,000. There are $10,000,000 worth of 
government stores in the yard. Charlestown has manu¬ 
factures of steam-engines, boilers, and machinery, chem¬ 
icals, stone-ware, brass-ware, brushes, sugar, soap, leather, 
mechanics’ tools, gas fixtures, whips, drain-pipes, New 
England rum, tobacco, oils, etc. To commemorate the 
battle of Bunker Hill (which see) a granite shaft 220 feet 
high, 31 feet square at the base, and 15 at the top, was 
commenced in 1825 and finished in 1843. It is called the 
Bunker Hill Monument, and from its summit is afforded a 
magnificent view of the surrounding country. The corner¬ 
stone of this tower was laid by La Fayette, and at the cele¬ 


bration of its completion, June 17, 1843, the anniversary 
of the battle, was present a vast gathering of people, in¬ 
cluding the President and his Cabinet. Charlestown is 
supplied with water from Mystic Lake, 5 miles distant. 
The water-works were finished in 1864, at a cost of 
$1,461,259. In 1872 there was a balance over expenses of 
$144,576—a singular instance of water-works paying a bal¬ 
ance over maintenance. The water Hows from the lake 
one mile by gravitation, is then pumped by three engines 
to a reservoir on Tuft’s Hill, from which it flows four miles, 
and supplies Charlestown and the neighboring towns; in 
all, a population of 100,000. Charlestown is memorable 
from its associations with the Revolution. It was burned 
by the British on the day of the battle of Bunker Hill. 
The city charter dates from 1847. The city of Charlestown, 
also the towns of West Roxbury and Brighton, were an¬ 
nexed to Boston Oct. 13, 1873, to become a part of that 
municipality Jan. 5, 1874. Pop. 28,323. 

Wm. II. DeCosta, Pub. “Advertiser.” 

Charlestown, a post-village of Sullivan co., N. H., 
on the Connecticut River and the Vermont Central R. R., 
50 miles W. of Concord. It has a national bank, a savings 
bank, four churches, and manufactures of lumber, boots 
and shoes, etc. Pop. of Charlestown township, 1741. 

Charlestown, a post-township of Portage co., O. P. 675. 

Charlestown, a post-township and village of Wash¬ 
ington co., R. I. The village is on the Stonington and 
Providence R. R., 40 miles S. S. W. of Providence. Pop. 
1119, including 115 Indians of the Narragansett tribe. 

Charlestown, a post-village, capital of Jefferson co., 
West Va., on the Baltimore and Ohio and South Virginia 
R. Rs. It has four churches, a fine court-house, a jail, one 
newspaper, and a national bank. In this place John 
Brown was tried and executed Dec., 1859. On the 18th 
Oct., 1863, a Confederate force of 1200 or 1400 men, under 
Gen. Imboden, surrounded the place at daylight, and at¬ 
tacked the Union troops stationed there. Being surprised, 
they were panic-stricken, and, flying in confusion, were 
nearly all captured. The place was recaptured within an 
hour by a force of U. S. troops under Col. Geo. D. Wells, 
and the Confederates driven from the town. Pop. 1593. 

W. W. B. Gallaher, Ed. “ Free Press.” 

Charlestown, a post-township of Calumet co., Wis. 
Pop. 1250. 

Charieville, a town of France, in the department of 
Ardennes, on the river Meuse, which separates it from 
Mezieres. It is well built and handsome, and has a college 
and a large public library; also manufactures of hardware, 
nails, copper, leather, etc. A suspension bridge crosses the 
river here. This place was formerly fortified. Pop. 11,244. 

Charlevoix, a county of Canada, in the province of 
Quebec, bounded on the E. by the St. Lawrence. It abounds 
in limestone, and has saline and sulphur springs. Iron 
and plumbago have been found in this county. Capital, 
St. Paul’s Bay. Pop. in 1871, 15,611. 

Charlevoix, a county of the N. part of the S. penin¬ 
sula of Michigan, bordering on Lake Michigan. Its sur¬ 
face is largely covered with timber, and it abounds in lakes. 
Potatoes, grain, and maple-sugar are the most important 
crops. Capital, Charlevoix. Pop. 1724. 

Charlevoix, a post-village, capital of Charlevoix co., 
Mich. It has one newspaper. Pop. of township, 456. 

Charlevoix, de (Pierre Francois Xavier), a French 

Jesuit and historian, born at Saint-Quentin Oct. 29, 1682. 

He went as a missionary to Canada in 1720, and descended 

the Mississippi to its mouth. He wrote, besides other works, 

a “History of Canada” (3 vols., 1744). Died Feb. 1,1761. 

\ 

Charlotte, a county in the S. W. of New Brunswick, 
Canada, is bounded on the S. by the Bay of Fundy and 
Passamaquoddy Bay, and on the W. by the river St. Croix, 
which separates it from Maine. The soil is fertile. It is 
intersected by the New Brunswick and Canada R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, St. Andrew’s. Pop. in 1871, 25,882. 

Charlotte, a county in S. S. E. Virginia. Area, 550 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Staunton 
River. The surface is uneven ; the soil is productive. To¬ 
bacco and grain arc the staple crops. It is intersected by 
the Richmond and Danville R. R. Capital, Marysville or 
Charlotte Court-house. Pop. 14,513. 

Charlotte, a township of Livingston co., Ill. P. 746. 

Charlotte, a post-township of Washington co., Me. 
Pop. 467. 

Charlotte, a city, capital of Eaton co., Mich., on the 
Grand River Valley branch of the Michigan Central and 
the Peninsular R. Rs., 19 miles S. W. of Lansing. It has 
a national bank, a fire department, two newspapers, lumber, 
and other manufactories. Pop. 2353. Ed. “ Republican.” 

































CHARLOTTE—CHART. 


885 


Charlotte, a township of Bates co., Mo. Pop. 1289. 

Charlotte, a township of Chautauqua co., N. Y. It 
has six churches, and manufactures of leather, cheese, 
lumber, etc. Pop. 1682. 

Charlotte, a post-village of Monroe co., N. Y., on Lake 
Ontario, at the mouth of the Genesee River, 7 miles N. of 
Rochester, with which it is connected by railroad. Mere 
is a custom-house and an iron foundry. 

Charlotte, a post-village, capital of Dickson co., Tenn., 
38 miles W. of Nashville. Pop. 276. 

Charlotte, a post-township and village of Chittenden 
co., Vt., on the Rutland division of the Vermont Central 
R. R., 12 miles S. S. W. of Burlington. Pop. 1430. 

Charlotte, a city, the capital of Mecklenburg co., N. C., 
on the Atlanta and Richmond R. R., and the terminus of 
the North Carolina division of the Richmond and Danville 
and the Charlotte Columbia and Augusta R. Rs. It has 
one national and two other banks, one daily and four other 
newspapers, three academies, and various manufactories. 
Gold-mines have been opened in the vicinity. There is a 
branch of the U. S. Mint in this city. Pop. 4473 ; of town¬ 
ship, 2212. Johnstone Jones, Ed. “Observer.” 

Charlotte Amalie, a town of the West Indies, capital 
of the island of St. Thomas. It stretches a mile along the 
shore, with white-walled, red-roofed houses, contrasting 
with the palms on the neighboring hills. It has a good 
harbor and an extensive trade, and is a station for the 
mail-packets which ply between Southampton and the 
West Indies and for the steamers from New York to Brazil. 
Pop. 12,560. 

Charlotte Court-house, a post-village, capital of 
Charlotte co., Va. 

Charlotte Hall, a post-township of St. Mary’s co., Md. 
Pop. 1601. 

Charlotte Harbor, an inlet on the W. coast of Florida, 
in Manatee county, is nearly 24 miles long, and is sheltered 
from the sea by several islands. It is shallow, its greatest 
depth being nearly ten feet. Good 03 r sters and fish abound 
here. Cattle are exported to Key West. 

Charlot'tenburg, a town of Prussia, in the province 
of Brandenburg, on the river Spree, 3 miles W. of Berlin, 
at the end of the Thiergarten park. It has a palace with 
a fine park and a famous palmery, and a mausoleum in 
which are statues of Frederick William III. and Queen 
Louisa, by Rauch. Here are manufactures of cotton and 
hosiery. Pop. in 1871, 19,518. 

Char'lottesville, the capital of Albemarle co., Va., is 
on the Rivanna River and on the Chesapeake and Ohio 
R. R., 97 miles by railroad W. N. W. of Richmond; 
it is 61 miles N. N. E. of Lynchburg by the Orange 
Alexandria and Manassas R. R. One mile W. of 
this town is the University of Virginia, founded in 
1819 by Thomas Jefferson, and endowed by the 
State. Here are two national and two other banks, 
a cloth, an agricultural implement, two tobacco, 
and other factories. The city has an academy and 
several other schools, seven churches, an insurance 
company, and two newspapers. Monticello, the 
residence of Jefferson, is three miles distant. Pop. 

2838; of township, 7145. Ed. “ Chronicle.” 

Char'Iottetown, the capital of Prince Ed¬ 
ward Island and of Queen's county, is situated 
on the N. bank of East River, near the S. coast. It has 
an excellent harbor and a large export trade. The town 
is well laid out, and has a fine colonial building, post-office, 
and athenaeum, a normal school and lunatic asylum, and 
is the seat of Prince of Wales, St. Dunstan’s (Roman Cath¬ 
olic), and a Methodist college. It has excellent public 
schools. It is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop, has 
nine churches, and seven weekly, one semi-weekly, and 
one fortnightly periodical. Pop. in 1871, 8807. 

CharUton, a county of Georgia, bordering on Florida. 
It is partly bounded on the E. by the Satilla and SC Mary’s 
rivers. The surface is level; the soil is sandy. Pine tim¬ 
ber abounds. Corn, rice, wool, and sweet potatoes are the 
chief products. Capital, Trader’s Hill. Pop. 1897. 

Charlton, a post-township and village of Worcester co., 
Mass., on the Boston and Albany R. R., 57 miles W. S. W. of 
Boston. Lumber and woollens are manufactured. P. 1878. 

Charlton, a post-township and village of Saratoga co., 
N. Y. Pop. 1607. 

Charlton (Robert M.), an American lawyer and au¬ 
thor, born at Savannah, Ga., Jan. 19, 1807. Ho published 
a volume of poems in 1838, and becamo U. S. Senator in 
1S52. Died Jan. 18, 1854. 

Char'in ides [Xap/A^s], an Athenian philosopher, born 


about 450 B. C., was an uncle of Plato and a pupil of Soc¬ 
rates. He was one of the tyrants who obtained power by 
the aid of Lysander the Spartan, and was killed in battle 
by the army of Thrasybulus about 404 B. C. 

Char'nock (Rev. Stephen), an English nonconformist, 
born in London in 1628; died July 27, 16S0. He is best 
known by his able treatise on “ The Being and Attributes 
of God ” (1682, folio). A second folio volume appeared in 
1683. His whole works were published in nine volumes, 
8vo, in 1815, and a new edition in 1866. 

ChaTon [Gr. Xapwr], in classic mythology, the ferry¬ 
man who transported the souls of the dead across the rivers 
of the infernal regions. The poets feigned that he was the 
son of Erebus and Nox. 

Charon'das [Xapoivfias], an eminent Greek legislator, 
born at Catana, in Sicily, flourished about 650 B. C. lie 
composed laws in verse, which were adopted by the Athe¬ 
nians and other nations. 

Cha'ron of Lamp'sacus, son of Pythocles, one of 
the early writers of history preceding Herodotus, who are 
known under the name of “ logographi.” Little more is to 
be gathered of his life than the brief summary given by 
Suidas, who places him in the time of the Persian wars, 
01. 75 (7. e. B. C. 480). Plutarch refers to him as writing 
still after the death of Xerxes, which occurred B. C. 465. 
He composed a number of works on historical subjects, 
particularly an account of the Persians (nepcruca), and 
another of the Greeks ('EAA^iKa). Suidas gives the titles 
of several other histories of separate countries, some of 
which, Creuzcr and Muller think, may be but different 
names of the same work; some probably belong to other 
writers of this name. Suidas speaks of two others—one of 
Carthage, who wrote accounts of the tyrants of Europe 
and Asia; the other of Naucratis, rvho wrote the lives of 
Alexandrian and Egyptian priests, a history of kings, and 
an account of Naucratis. (The fragments of the works of 
Charon of Lampsacus are collected in Creuzer’s “Ilistor. 
Grsec. Antiq. Frag.,” and in Muller’s “ Histor. Grasc. 
Frag.,” vol. i., pp. 32-35.) 

Henry Drisler. 

Charost, de (Armand Joseph de Bethune), Due, a 
French philanthropist and economist, born at Versailles 
July 1, 1728, was a descendant of the renowned Sully. lie 
founded hospitals and published treatises on agriculture. 
Died Oct. 27, 1800. 

Charr, the Salmo umbla, one of the most beautiful and 
most delicious fishes of the salmon family, caught in the 
British Islands, Switzerland, and Sweden. It is not a game 
fish, though it will occasionally rise at the 11}' or take a 



The Northern Charr. 

minnow. It lives in the clear water of lakes and streams, 
and is so much hunted for market that it is believed to be 
rapidly becoming extinct. It seldom weighs much moro 
than a pound, and is quite variable in color and marks. 

Charrette, a township of Warren co., Mo. Pop. 2690. 

Chairieres^ de (Madame Saint Hyacinthe), a French 
authoress, born in Holland in 1740, married M. de Char- 
rieres, a Swiss gentleman, and lived in the neighborhood 
of Neufchatel. She wrote several romances of Swiss life 
that were praised by Sainte-Beuve. The best known are 
“Lettres Neuchateloises ” (1784) and “Caliste” (1786). 
She was intimate with Benjamin Constant while he was 
yet young, and their interesting correspondence has been 
published. Died Dec. 20, 1805. 

Chart [from the Fr. carte; Lat. charta, “paper”], a 
hydrographic map for the use of navigators, is the projec¬ 
tion of some portion of the sea or coast on a plane surface. 
Charts are generally constructed on the principle of Merca¬ 
tor’s projection. In the English and U. S. services, after 
coasts have been surveyed by the government, charts are 
engraved and sold at prices below their cost, in order to 
encourage their general use. The navigating charts, show¬ 
ing the dangers of the coasts with sufficient clearness to 
enable mariners to avoid them, are usually on a uniform 
scale, and the U. S. charts arc generally on the polyconio 
































886 CHART A EP1 SPASTICA—CHARTRES. 


projection. The preparation of charts is a part of the 
duty of the hydrographical department at the admiralty 
in England, and in the U. S. of the coast survey depart¬ 
ment. 

Char'ta Epispas'tica [Lat. for “drawing” (or blis¬ 
tering) “ paper ”], the pharmaceutical name for blistering 
paper. It is prepared by applying to one surface of smooth 
bibulous paper a mixture of oil, wax, spermaceti, resin, 
Canada balsam, water, and powdered cautharidcs. When 
applied to the skin it adheres, and after a time raises a 
blister as perfectly as the blistering cerate does, while it is 
much cleaner and more easily applied. 

Various chartie emplasticse , or adherent medicated papers 
(papiers emplastiques ), are employed by many French phy¬ 
sicians instead of the less neat and convenient plasters of 
ordinary pharmacy. 

Charte [Fr.], the name applied in France (1) to the 
“Grand Charter” of John II., prepared by the States- 
General and agreed to by the king: this was the basis 
upon which the States-General asserted their liberties at 
the commencement of the Revolution; (2) that by which 
Louis XVIII. in 1814 acknowledged the rights of the 
people; (3) that of 1830, which was sworn to by Louis 
Philippe, recognizing the popular sovereignty. 

Char'ter [Fr. chartre or charte, from the Lat. charta, 
“paper”], a formally written instrument given as evidence 
of a grant, contact, or other transaction between man and 
man ; an instrument executed with form and solemnity be¬ 
stowing rights and privileges. In public law the term is 
applied to those formal deeds or instruments by which 
sovereigns guarantee the rights and privileges of their sub- ! 
jects, or by which a sovereign state guarantees those of a 
colony. The founders of several of the British colonies, 
now States of the Union, obtained charters from the king 
of England for the same. In municipal law the word is 
principally used to designate a grant obtained from the 
king of franchises, privileges, or estates by letters patent 
under the great seal. A leading instance is found in the 
creation of corporations. In early times corporations were 
created principally in this manner. It has been doubted 
whether municipal corporations could at first be created in 
any other way than by royal charter. The better opinion 
is that there could be valid charters other than royal. It 
is now quite frequent to originate them by act of Parlia¬ 
ment. The act of incorporation in that case has the force 
of a statute. There are certain special rules appertaining 
to royal charters, as distinguished from corporations created 
by act of Parliament. Thus, the king cannot limit the 
perpetuity of a corporation, while Parliament may. Ac¬ 
cordingly, when the Bank of England was established by 
way of experiment, the aid of Parliament was called in to 
limit its duration. A general statute now confers that 
power upon the king to limit the time of corporate exist¬ 
ence. So the Crown cannot force a new charter upon an 
already existing corporation. The king cannot derogate 
from his own grant. Pai'liament may abolish the institu¬ 
tion or modify it at pleasure. Nor can the king remove 
corporators at discretion, as each corporator is supposed 
to have a freehold estate. So a charter cannot create ex¬ 
clusive right or prohibit trade, or in any way change the 
established law of the land. These propositions are of but 
little practical use in the U. S., as, since the Revolution, 
corporations are created by act of the legislature. There 
is a number of municipal and other charters in existence 
which were granted by the king prior to the Revolution, and 
which remain in force, notwithstanding the change in gov¬ 
ernment. (As to general rules of law in which the rules 
concerning strict charters agree with corporations created 
by the legislature, see Corporation.) 

T. W. Dwight. 

Char'ter-House [a corruption of Chartreuse (see Car¬ 
thusians)], a hospital and school in London, founded in 
1611 by Sir Thomas Sutton, who endowed it with the rev¬ 
enues of more than twenty manors, lordships, and other 
estates. It was originally a Carthusian monastery, founded 
in 1371. It is an asylum for poor brethren, the number of 
whom is limited to eighty, and they must be bachelors, 
members of the Church of England, and fifty years old. 
Each brother receives, besides food and lodging, an allow¬ 
ance of £26 a year for his clothing, etc. The school is for 
the benefit of “the sons of poor gentlemen to whom the 
charge of education is too onerous.” The number of 
scholars is limited to forty-four, but there are large num¬ 
bers of day and boarding pupils who are not charity 
scholars. Among the eminent men educated here were 
Addison, John Wesley, George Grote, Bishop Thirl- 
wall, and Thackeray. The reputation of the school is 
high. 

Char'ter Oak, a tree famous in colonial history, once 


stood in Hartford, Conn. When Sir Edmund Andros came 



Charter Oak. 


to Hartford in 1687, by command of King James II., to 
resume the charter of the colony, the charter w T as concealed 
by Capt. James Wadsworth in a hollow of this oak. This 
historic tree was blown down by a gale in Aug., 1856. 

Charter Oak, a township of Crawford co., Ia. P. 67. 

Chart'er-Par'ty [Fr. chartre-partie, so called from 
such documents being at one time divided (in Fr. parti), 
and one-half given to each pai’ty concerned], the title given 
to a contract in which the owner or master of a ship, with 
consent of the owner, lets the vessel or a portion of her to 
a second party for the conveyance of goods from one port 
to another port; hence the vessel is said to be “ chartered.” 
It must specify the voyage to be performed, and the terms 
on which the cargo is to be carried. On the part of the 
ship it is covenanted that she shall be seaworthy, well found 
in rigging, furniture, and provisions, and that the crew be 
suitable in number and competency; that she shall be ready 
to receive the cargo on a given day, wait its complete de¬ 
livery for a certain period, and sail for the stipulated port 
when laden if the weather for the time permits. The 
freighter's portion of the contract obliges him to load and 
unload at suitable periods under specified penalties, and to 
pay the freight as agreed on. The master must not take 
on board any contraband goods, or otherwise render the 
vessel liable to seizure. The owner is not responsible for 
losses caused by war, fire, or shipwreck, unless arising from 
negligence of the master or crew. A charter-party some¬ 
times assumes another character, and is a mere lease of a 
ship, which is manned by the charterer, who then has the 
usual rights and incurs the liabilities growing out of pos¬ 
session. 

Chartier (Alain), an eminent French poet, born in 
Normandy about 1385, was secretary to Charles VI. and to 
Charles VII. He wrote a prose work called “ Le Curial,” 
and popular poems, among which is “ The Book of the 
Four Ladies” (“Le Livre des Quatre Dames”). He con¬ 
tributed to improve and refine the French language. Died 
about 1455. 

Char'tiers, a township and post-village of Alleghany 
co., Pa. The village is on the Alleghany Valley R. R., 
239 miles W. of Harrisburg. Total pop. 2269. 

Chartiers, a township of Washington co., Pa. Pop. 
1870. 

Chart'ism [so called from “the people’s charter,” noticed 
below], a political movement in Great Britain between 1835 
and 1850, in which attempts were made to secure universal 
male suffrage, equal representation, the vote by ballot, an¬ 
nual parliaments, the abolition of property qualification 
for office-holders, and the payment of salaries to members 
of Parliament. These changes were demanded in “the 
people’s charter” of 1838. The movement was primarily 
caused by the sufferings of the working-classes; and as a 
whole, the demands of the Chartists were reasonable, mod¬ 
erate, and just; but they excited the greatest alarm in 
England, and the movement was opposed by force, some 
of their meetings being fired upon by the troops, prom¬ 
inent Chartists being imprisoned, and Parliament refusing 
to entertain their petitions. But various parliamentary 
reforms and the repeal of the corn laws in 1846 having in 
a measure relieved the distress of the working-classes. 
Chartism gradually declined. 

Chartres (anc. Autricum), a city of France, capital of 
the department of Eure-et-Loir, is on the river Euro, and on 




































887 


CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE—CHASE. 


the railway which connects Paris with Le Mans, 49 miles 
S. W. oi Paris. It is built at the base and on the declivity 
of a steep hill. The streets are narrow and crooked. Here 
is a Gothic cathedral of the eleventh century, said to be 
the most perfect in France; it is surmounted by two towers, 
one ot them 482 feet high, with rich ornamentation, and 
the other exceedingly massive. Chartres has two other 
remarkable churches, an episcopal palace, and a public 
library of about 30,700 volumes; also manufactures of 
hosiery, hats, leather, etc. Here is a large weekly market 
for grain and flour. During the Middle Ages, Chartres 
was the capital of the district of Chartrain , made by Francis 
I. a duchy, and given as an appanage to the dukes of 
Orleans. Hence the title duke of Chartres was given to 
the eldest son of the duke of Orleans. More recently the 
same title was given to Prince Robert of Orleans, grandson 
of King Louis Philippe, and second son of Duke Ferdinand 
of Orleans. Pop. 19,442. 

Chartreuse, La Grande, a large and famous mon¬ 
astery in the French Alps, 12 miles N. N. E. of Grenoble, 
in the midst of wild and impressive scenery, 3281 feet above 
the sea. The convent was founded by Saint Bruno in 1084, 
somewhat higher up the mountain than the present build- 
ings. The name of the order, Carthusians, comes from this 
convent, and the English Charter-house is a corruption of 
its name. The buildings are extensive, but rudely built, 
and date from 1689. The monastery had been repeatedly 
burned before the present structure was built. The monks 
were stripped of their possessions, which were considerable, 
in the French Revolution, and abandoned the convent 
until 1826. They have never recovered their former wealth 
and dignity. 

Char'tulary [Late Lat. chartularia ] is, as its name im¬ 
plies, a collection of charters. So soon as any body, eccle¬ 
siastical or secular, came to be possessed of a considerable 
number of charters, considerations of convenience and 
safety would suggest having them classified and copied 
into a book or roll. Such book or roll has received the 
name of a chartulary. Mabillon traces chartularies in 
France as far back as the tenth century, but it was not 
until the twelfth or thirteenth century that they became 
common. They were kept not only by all kinds of religious 
and civil corporations, but even by private families. Many 
of them have been printed, and their contents are often of 
the greatest value in historical, archaeological, and genea¬ 
logical inquiries. 

Charyb'dis [Gr. Kapv08is], now called Galofaro, is 
an incessant undulation, rather than a whirlpool, on the 
Sicilian side of the Strait of Messina, opposite the rock of 
Scylla. It is caused by the meeting of currents, and is 
seldom dangerous. It was anciently much dreaded by 
mariners. (See Rear-Admiral William Henry Smytii's 
monograph on the Mediterranean, p. 519, 8vo, 1854.) 

In Greek mythology, Charybdis was a daughter of Posei¬ 
don, and was killed by Zeus with a thunderbolt and hurled 
into the sea, where she henceforth drew the approaching 
ships into the deep. 

Chase [Fr. chasse ], a pursuit, a hunting; the sport of 
hunting or pursuing game. In nautical language, chase is 
the pursuit of a hostile vessel and also the vessel pursued. 
The chase of a gun is the name of the greater portion of 
the length between the muzzle and the trunnions. In for¬ 
estry, chase is a row or rank of trees or plants, especially 
hedge-plants; also an extent of waste or forest-land for¬ 
merly appropriated in England for the breeding of deer 
and other game. 

Chase [Fr. chassis], in printing, an iron frame in which 
the pages of type are wedged up to secure the letters from 
separating or dropping out in the process of printing. 
Chases are of different dimensions, according to the num¬ 
ber of pages in a sheet and the size of the paper. 

Chase, a county in E. Central Kansas. Area, 757 
square miles. It is intersected by the Cottonwood River, 
and also drained by several creeks. The surface is undu¬ 
lating; the soil is fertile. Tobacco, grain, live-stock, and 
wool are produced. It is traversed by the Atchison Topeka 
and Santa Fe R. R. Capital, Cottonwood Falls. P. 1975. 

Chase, a post-township of Lake co., Mich. Poji.520. 

Chase (Carlton), D. D., born at Ilopkinton, N. IT., 
Feb. 20, 1794, graduated at Dartmouth in 1817, was or¬ 
dained deacon in 1818, and priest in 1820, and in 1844 was 
consecrated Protestant Episcopal bishop of New Hamp¬ 
shire. Died at Claremont, N. H., Jan. 18, 1870. 

Chase (Dudley), born in Cornish, N. H., Dec. 30,1771, 
an uncle of S. P. Chase, graduated at Dartmouth in 1794, 
was chief-justice of Vermont (1817-21), and U. S. Senator 
from 1813 to 1817, and again from 1825 to 1831. Died 
Feb. 23, 1S46. 


Chase (Iraii), D. D., born at Stratton, Vt., Oct. 5, 1793, 
graduated at Middlebury College in 1814, studied at And¬ 
over Theological Seminary, and was ordained to the Bap¬ 
tist ministry in 1817. He labored as missionary in West 
Virginia, and was in 1818 appointed professor in the theo¬ 
logical school at Philadelphia. From 1825 to 1845 professor 
at successive periods of biblical theology and ecclesiastical 
history in the Theological Institution (which he was largely 
instrumental in founding) at Newton Centre, Mass. He 
published several works, mainly controversial. Died at 
Newton Centre, Mass., Nov. 1, 1864. 

Chase (Philander), D. D., an American Episcopal 
bishop, born in Cornish, N. II., Dec. 14, 1775, and 
graduated at Dartmouth in 1796. He went in 1817 as a 
missionary to Ohio, where he planted the Episcopal Church. 
He became bishop of Ohio in 1819, and bishop of Illinois 
in 1835. He founded Kenyon College, 0., and Jubilee Col¬ 
lege, Ill. Published “ Reminiscences” (2 vols. 8vo). Died 
Sept. 20, 1852. 

Chase (Pliny Earle) was born at Worcester, Mass., 
Aug. 18, 1820, and graduated at Harvard College in 1839. 
While engaged for many years as a teacher in Philadelphia, 
and afterwards in mercantile life, he employed his leisure 
in metaphysical, philological, and physical studies, produ¬ 
cing many able and learned papers, published in the “ Pro¬ 
ceedings of the American Philosophical Society,” and in 
various scientific journals, several of which were copied in 
the London, Dublin, and Edinburgh “ Philosophical Maga¬ 
zines” and other foreign journals. These articles have 
procured him wide distinction as a man of science. In 
1S71 he was appointed professor of physics in Haverford 
College. The Magellanic gold medal of the American 
Philosophical Society was awarded to him in 1864 for his 
paper on the “ Numerical Relations of Gravity and Mag¬ 
netism.” 

Chase (Salmon Portland), an American statesman 
and jurist, son of Ithamar Chase, a farmer of New Hamp¬ 
shire, and nephew of Dudley and Philander Chase, above 
noticed, was born at Cornish, N. H., Jan. 13, 1808. He 
Avas sixth in descent from Aquila Chase, who emigrated 
from England to Massachusetts in 1630. His mother Avas 
of Scotch descent. The stock to Avhich he belonged was 
prolific in eminent men. His grandfather, Samuel Chase, 
had se\ r en sons, five of whom received an education at 
Dartmouth College. During the Avar of 1812 Ithamar 
Chase engaged in the glass manufacture at Keene, N. II., 
but this business resulted unfortunately on the reintroduc¬ 
tion of foreign manufactures. He died in 1817, leaving 
his family in straitened circumstances. Salmon’s educa¬ 
tion, however, was not neglected. He was first sent to a 
school at Windsor, Vt., and when twelve years of age went 
to Ohio to live Avith his uncle, the bishop, who resided near 
Columbus. Here he divided his time between hard Avork 
on the bishop’s farm and hard study in the bishop’s acad¬ 
emy, which Avas aftenvards removed to Cincinnati. In 
1823 he returned to Ncav Hampshire, and the next year 
entered Dartmouth College, from which he graduated in 
1826. He then repaired to Washington, and supported 
himself by teaching a school Avhilst studying laAv under 
the direction of William Wirt. Here he obtained his license 
to practise law in 1829, and in the spring of 1830 went to 
Cincinnati to pursue his profession. For a feAv years, like 
most young men Avithout influential business connections, 
he had to struggle hard to maintain a professional exist¬ 
ence, and his first efforts in court, as often happens to men 
of great talent, were failures. But all these difficulties 
Avere finally overcome. During the weary hours of waiting 
for business he occupied himself in preparing an edition 
of the “Statutes of Ohio,” with notes and an historical in¬ 
troduction. This brought him into notice, and in 1834 he 
was appointed solicitor for the U. S. Bank in Cincinnati. 
From this period he never wanted employment. 

He early engaged in the controversy respecting slavery 
and the slave-poAver in the U. S., and took the then unpop¬ 
ular anti-slavery side. He held slavery to be against 
natural law and right, and Avas for confining it within its 
narrowest limits of power and territory. In 1837 he ap¬ 
peared as counsel for Matilda, a colored woman claimed as 
a fugitive slave, and took the ground that Congress had 
no right to impose on State officers the duty of assisting 
to render up fugitive slaves, nor to legislate on the subject 
at all—that the States were, by the Constitution, solely re¬ 
sponsible for the performance of that duty, and had a right 
to prescribe such proceedings as they saiv fit to prevent 
unjust arrests and detentions. These vieivs were enforced 
Avith great eloquence and power, though unsuccessful at 
that time. In a subsequent case he took the broad ground 
that slavery Avas a local institution, dependent upon State 
laws for its existence and continuance. His great maxim 
Avas, “Slavery is sectional, freedom is national. In 18L 





























888 CHASE. 


he was employed to defend Van Zandt, the original of Van 
Tromp in “ Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” who had been a Kentucky 
farmer, but from a conviction of the wrong of slavery had 
liberated his slaves and removed to Ohio, near Cincinnati. 
Here he was indicted, under the Fugitivo Slave law of 
1793, for harboring fugitivo slaves and aiding them to 
escape. The cause was carried to the Supreme Court of 
the U. S., where it was ably argued by Mr. Chase and lion. 
IV. II. Seward in 184G, and became one of the causes cele- 
bres of the country. 

The subject had now become fully introduced into the 
politics of the country, and Mr. Chase was virtually the 
founder and leader of the Liberty party, which resulted in 
the formation of the Free-Soil party, and ultimately of the 
great Republican party, which became the means of pros¬ 
trating the slave power and abolishing slavery in the U. S. 
A convention of this party, under the guidance of Mr. 
Chase, was held at Columbus, 0., in Dec., 1841, after it 
became apparent that no hope was to be expected from 
President Tyler or the old Whig party in the direction of 
anti-slavery. Other conventions were held at Buffalo, Cin¬ 
cinnati, and Columbus in 1843, 1845, 1847, and 1848, re¬ 
sulting in the latter year in the nomination of Mr. Van 
Buren and Charles Francis Adams as the candidates of the 
Free-Soil party for President and Vice-President. Mr. 
Chase was the moving spirit in these conventions. He 
presided over the last, and drew up the platform of prin¬ 
ciples and policy which it adopted. Most absorbing and 
prominent among these, at this time, was that of prevent¬ 
ing the extension of slavery into the new Tendtories. 

Mr. Chase was originally a Whig, but in the pursuit of 
his great object of crushing slavery and the political forces 
which supported it, he allied himself to any party that, for 
the time being, would further his aims. On the 22d of 
Feb., 1849, he was elected to the Senate of the U. S. by the 
Democrats, including the Free-Soil section of the party. 
During his senatorial term, from 1S49 to Mar., 1S55, oc¬ 
curred those great debates in Congress upon the question 
of extending slavery into the new Territories, California, 
New Mexico, Kansas, and Nebraska, which resulted in the 
Compromise acts of 1850 and the repeal of the Missouri 
Compromise. These acts produced a state of feeling in 
the Northern States which resulted in the formation of the 
Republican party. It is needless to say that Mr. Chase 
took a leading part in the debates referred to, and he was 
always noted for the frankness with which he declared his 
sentiments on the questions at issue. They were the same 
which he had always maintained—that slavery was local 
and exceptional, sustained only by local laws, and that all 
new territory was free ten'itory by the laws of nature and 
the principles of American government, and could only 
be made slave territory by usurpation and wrong; and that 
only the original States, who had entered into the consti¬ 
tution al compact, were bound to render up fugitive slaves, 
and then only after such proceedings had as they might 
deem just and reasonable for preventing illegal seizures 
and detentions. He failed to carry his measures in Con¬ 
gress, but the result in after years showed the sagacity with 
which he comprehended the entire situation. He lived to 
see the fulfilment of his predictions and the consumma¬ 
tion of his most cherished hopes. 

In Oct., 1855, he was elected governor of Ohio, and re¬ 
elected in 1857. In 1860 he was a prominent candidate 
for the presidency before the Republican convention which 
nominated Mr. Lincoln. In the following session of the 
Ohio legislature he was again chosen Senator of the U. S., 
but had scarcely taken his seat in Mar., 1861, when he was 
nominated by President Lincoln as secretary of the treas¬ 
ury, upon the duties of which position he immediately en¬ 
tered. 

The period of civil war that ensued rendered his duties 
as financial minister of the government most important 
and arduous; and it is almost universally conceded that 
he discharged them with pre-eminent ability and success. 
He found the treasury empty and the government credit 
below par. But he inaugurated measures which met the 
pressing demands of a gigantic war, amounting to six or 
seven hundred millions per annum, and stimulated the in¬ 
dustrial energies of the country. These measures cannot 
be examined in detail. They belong to the history of that 
struggle. A cardinal principle kept in view was, to issue 
a sufficient amount of such securities and notes as would 
furnish a currency that would enable the people to meet 
their engagements and avoid bankruptcy. This kept them 
in heart, and kept every branch of industry in constant 
activity. It obviated those commercial crises which are the 
usual consequences of such wars. This financial policy 
was largely due to the recommendations of Secretary Chase, 
although able financiers in Congress and out gave him 
wise and energetic co-operation. 

One of the measures resorted to, which should be noticed 


as exciting a difference of opinion in the constitutional 
power of Congress, was the issue by the government, in 
Feb., 1862, of currency notes which were made a legal ten¬ 
der in the payment of debts. It is due to Secretary Chase 
to say that whilst he recommended the issue of the notes, 
the making them a tender originated in Congress, though 
acquiesced in by him. Another measure of permanent im¬ 
portance to the country was the establishment, in Feb., 
1S63, of a national banking system, by which all notes is¬ 
sued were to be based on funded bonds of the government 
of equal or greater amount. This system was entirely 
originated by Secretary Chase, and will probably be regard¬ 
ed as one of his greatest achievements for the benefit of his 
country. He hoped that it would effectually abolish a re¬ 
sort to State bank issues of paper currency, which, it is 
known, he latterly regarded as bills of credit within the 
meaning and prohibition of the Constitution. 

Mr. Chase resigned the secretaryship of the Treasury in 
the last of June, 1864, and on the 6th of Dec. following he was 
appointed chief-justice of the Supreme Court of the U. S., 
in place of Chief-Justice Taney. The duties of his new 
office were no less important to the country than those 
which he resigned. Many of the momentous questions 
which arose out of the issues of the war had to be ultimate¬ 
ly adjudicated by the high tribunal over which he was call¬ 
ed to preside—questions affecting vast private interests and 
the future stability of the government. It was the singu¬ 
lar fortune of Chief-Justice Chase that he bore a conspicu¬ 
ous and leading part not only in the great political move¬ 
ment which brought on the American civil war and abolished 
slavery, but in the successful conduct of that war, and in 
the final settlement of the constitutional issues and changes 
to which it gave rise. The status and reconstruction of the 
Southern States; the rights of their citizens, personal and 
political; the constitutionality of acts of Congress and of 
the executive in various matters during the impulses and 
excitements of the war; the construction of those import¬ 
ant amendments to the Constitution which were necessitated 
by the event of the contest,—these were among the subjects 
upon which the Supreme Court was called to decide. As 
presiding officer of the court and as a constitutional judge, 
the chief-justice fully met the duties, responsibilities, and 
the dignity of his high position. But his long service in 
political life and absence from the bar induced him to lean 
largely upon the experience of the other members of the 
bench in matters of technical law. In every case of pub¬ 
lic consequence depending upon constitutional or funda¬ 
mental principles he exhibited the same largeness of mind 
which characterized his entire career. His opinions on 
some questions have been criticised as exhibiting a leaning 
against the Federal government and its authority, in which 
as an executive officer he had taken so large a part. For 
example, on the question of the constitutionality of the 
legal-tender notes lie changed his opinion, and held them 
unconstitutional. But it is fairly due to him to accept his 
own explanation, that he assented to the law as a jiressing 
necessity when passed, but subsequent reflection convinced 
him that he was mistaken. His opinions are characterized 
by great clearness and chasteness of style, and may be 
cited as models of juridical composition. They ever betrayed 
the fine scholar and the practised writer. 

In 1868 he was called upon, as chief-justice, to preside 
over the Senate pending the impeachment and trial of 
President Johnson—the only instance of such a trial in the 
history of the Federal government. 

In June, 1870, he had a stroke of paralysis, from the 
effects of which he labored more or less till his death. He 
attended the regular terms of court commencing in Dec., 
1871, and Dec., 1872, and whilst his mind still remained 
clear and his logical powers unimpaired, his powerful 
frame was much enfeebled, and his general appearance in¬ 
dicated that his tenure of life was by a slender thread. He 
died in the city of New York May 7, 1873, in the sixty-sixth 
year of his age. 

Joseph P. Bradley, 17. S. Supreme Court. 

Chase (Samuel), an American judge, horn in Somerset 
co., Md., April 17, 1741. He was a delegate in Congress 
from 1774 to 1778, and signed the Declaration of Independ¬ 
ence. In 1796 he became an associate justice of the Su¬ 
preme Court of the U. S. He was impeached in 1804 for 
misdemeanor in the conduct of several political trials, but 
was acquitted by the Senate. John Randolph was one of 
the instigators and managers of this impeachment. Judge 
Chase died June 19, 1811. 

Chase (Thomas), a brother of Pliny Earle Chase, no¬ 
ticed above, was born at Worcester June 16, 1827. He 
graduated at Harvard with high honors in 1848. He served 
as tutor and Latin professor at Harvard for three years 
He visited Europe in 1853-55, and studied at the Uni¬ 
versity of Berlin. On his return he was appointed (in 











CHASIDIM—CHATEAUBKIAND, DE. 889 


1855) professor of philology and of classic literature at 
Ilavcrford College. Ho has published, besides other works, 
excellent editions of Virgil, Horace, and Livy, and a vol¬ 
ume entitled “ Hellas/’ a description of his personal ob¬ 
servations in Greece in 1862. He has contributed to this 
work the article on the Codices of the New Testament. 

Chas'idim [Heb for “ saints”], a name applied among 
the ancient Jews to a sect of pietists who originally aimed 
at strict ceremonial purity under the Mosaic law, warmly 
espousing the cause of the Maccabees, and opposing the Hei- 
lenizing tendencies of some of their fellow-Israelites. Some 
writers believe that the Essenes, Pharisees, and other strict 
followers of the Law all sprang from the Chasidim, but 
that the name was finally taken by a moderate party, 
who received the traditions as of equal authority with the 
Law. In recent times the name is applied to a sect of 
Jews who sprang up in Poland in the eighteenth century, 
and who aim at a restoration of the ancient piety of their 
nation. Their ceremonial is extremely formal. Their pecu¬ 
liar mystical and cabalistic doctrines and customs are re¬ 
pudiated by the orthodox Jews. They are now chiefly found 
in Eastern Europe. 

Cha'smg, or Eliclha'sinig, the art of working raised 
figures in metal; the art of embossing or making metallic 
bas-reliefs. Much chasing is done by filling the vessel to be 
chased with a composition of pitch, and then hammering 
with a point and chisel on the outside. Closely connected 
with chasing is the art of stamping with a punch from the 
inside, a very ancient art. Phidias and other ancient Greek 
artists practised the art of chasing on statues which were 
formed of ivory and gold. Cellini’s chasing ranks with 
the best ever made. As an art it is chiefly practised in 
Europe and the East. 

Cbas'ka, a post-village, capital of Carver co., Minn., 
in a township of its own name, on the left bank of the 
Minnesota River, 32 miles W. S. W. of St. Paul, and on 
the Minneapolis and St. Louis and the Hastings and Da¬ 
kota R. Rs. The St. Paul and Sioux City R. R. passes on 
the opposite side of the river. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. Total pop. 847. 

Chasles (Mtchel), a French geometer, born 
at Epernon Nov. 13, 1793. In a “ Memoir on 
Two General Principles of the Sciences, Duality 
and Homograph}’,” he established the basis of a 
new theory of conic sections. He became in 1846 
professor of the higher geometi’y in the Faculty 
of Sciences, Paris. He extended and simplified 
several important theories of pure geometi’y. 

Among his works is a “ Treatise on Higher Ge¬ 
ometry” (1852). 

Chasles (Victor Euphemion Philarete), a 
French journalist and author, and professor of 
foreign literature at the College of France, boim 
Oct. 8, 1799, was apprenticed to a printer by his 
father, a prominent democratic journalist of the 
Revolution. He went to England, where he as¬ 
sisted Valpy in his editions of the classics, and 
afterwards studied in Germany. He has contrib¬ 
uted to the “Journal des Debats,” the “ Revue 
des Deux Mondes,” and many other journals, 
and made admirable translations for the “Revue 
Britannique.” 

Chasseloup-Laubat, a French statesman, 
born May 18, 1805, at Alessandria, in Italy, was 
maitre de requetes during the reign of Charles X., mem¬ 
ber of the Chamber of Deputies, and councillor of state 
under Louis Philippe. He became in 1849 member of the 
legislature, in 1851 minister of the navy, in 1859 minister 
of°the colonies, in 1862 senator, and in 1869 president of 
the ministry which was to carry out the liberal promises 
of the imperial message of July 12, 1869. Died Mar. 29, 
i873. 

Chassepot, a breech-loading rifle musket, which takes 
its name from its inventoi’, Antoine Alphonse Chassepot, a 
French officer and inspector of arms, whose first model was 
brought out in 1863. It has been since repeatedly im¬ 
proved. This musket has attracted much attention in con¬ 
sequence of its use by the French in the recent war with 
Germany. The chassepot belongs to the same class with 
the German needle-gun, having in its cartridge a mass of 
fulminating material, which is exploded by means of a 
needle thrust into it along the axis of the bore. Military 
critics have objected to the chassepot that it is too light and 
fragile, too expensive, too easily fouled by the powder and 
the fulminate, and that it is difficult to clean it properly. 
The more recent forms of it are free from some of these 
objections. 

Chasseur, a French word signifying a “hunter,” a 
“ sportsman,” the name of certain light troops in the French 


army who are distinguished as good marksmen. There are 
chasseurs both among the infantry and cavalry. In the 
Austrian army are similar troops called Jiigers. The light 
troops which fought under Garibaldi in 1859 and 1860 were 
called Cacciatori dei Alpi — i.e. “hunters of the Alps.” 

Chasseurs de Vincennes is one of the names given 
to a famous corps in the French army. About the year 
1835, when certain improvements had been made in the 
French rifle, the duke of (Means ordered the formation of 
a company of riflemen armed with the new rifle; they were 
garrisoned at Vincennes. They proved so efficient that in 
1838 a whole battalion was organized, which was called in¬ 
differently the tii’ailleurs (sharpshooters) or chasseurs de 
Vincennes. 

Chastellux, de (Francois Jean), Marquis, a French 
general and writer, born in Paris in 1734. He wrote an 
“Essay on Public Happiness” (1772), which was highly 
commended by Voltaii’e, and became in 1775 a member of 
the French Academy. As major-general under Rocham- 
beau he fought for the U. S. (1780-82). He was a 
friend of Washington and Jeffei’son. Among his works is 
“ Travels in North America” (2 vols., 1786). Died in 1788. 

Chas'uble [Lat. casubula or casxda], the uppermost 
garment worn by priests in the Roman Catholic Church 
when robed for the mass. It was called also “ the vest¬ 
ment,” and under that name seems occasionally to have 
been used in the English Church after the Reformation. 
Originally it covered the priest from head to foot, like a 
little house, whence some writers think it had its name of 
casula, and in this shape it is still worn in the Greek 
Church. It is made of velvet, is of an elliptical shape, 
with a hole in the middle for the head; it has no sleeves. 
It has two parts, one hanging down before; another, on 
which a cross is embroidered, hanging down behind. 

Chat ( Saxicola ), a genus of small birds of the very 
numerous family Sylviadae, distinguished by a bill slightly 
depressed and widened at the base. They have x’ather 
longer legs than most of the family. They are lively birds, 
flitting about with incessant and rapid motion in pursuit 
of the insects on which they chiefly feed. They are found 


Whinchat. 

in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. Three species 
are British—the stonechat, whinchat, and wheatear. The 
yellow-breasted chat of the U. S. ( Icteria polyglotta) is a 
larger bird, and belongs to the family Turdidm. 

Chateaubriand, de (Francis Auguste), Viscount, 
a celebrated French author and diplomatist, born of a noble 
family at Saint-Malo Sept. 14, 1769. He studied the an¬ 
cient languages at Dol and Rennes, and was destined for 
the Church, but he preferred other pursuits. Impelled by 
a love of adventure, he visited the U. S. in 1791. Having 
traversed the primeval forests of the South, and studied the 
nature and life of the aborigines, he found there the inspir- 
ing source of a new and romantic literature. He returned 
in 1792 to France, where he married Mademoiselle do 
Lavigne. The same year he joined the royalist emigrants 
who had taken arms to fight against the dominant party; 
he was wounded at Thionville, and became an exile in 
England. He passed nearly eight years in England in ex¬ 
treme poverty, and during this period wrote several woiks. 
In 1800 ho returned to France, and began to write for the 
“ Mercure de France.” Ho published in 1801 “Atala, a ro¬ 
mance, the scene of which is laid among the American abo¬ 
rigines. It excited much admiration. His “ Genius of Clms- 
tianity ” (1802) promoted the revival of a religious spirit in 
French society, then recoiling from the skeptical theories 



























890 CHATEAUDUN—CHATHAM. 


of the Revolution. In 1806 and 1807 he travelled in Greece, 
Asia Minor, and Palestine. He published in 1809 a prose 
epic entitled “ The Martyrs, or the Triumph of the Christian 
Religion,” and in 1811 his “Itinerary from Paris to Jeru¬ 
salem.” He was admitted into the French Academy in 
1811. In 1814 he expressed his implacable enmity to Na¬ 
poleon in an eloquent pamphlet entitled “ Bonaparte and 
the Bourbons.” After the restoration of 1815 he acted 
with the royalists, became a peer of France, and was sent 
as ambassador to Berlin in 1820. In 1822 he was trans¬ 
ferred to the court of St. James. He was appointed min¬ 
ister of foreign affairs in 1823, but was removed by the 
agency of Villele in June, 1824. He afterwards acted with 
the liberal opposition, and wrote articles against the Villele 
ministry, which were inserted in the “Journal des Debats.” 
In 1828 he was sent as ambassador to Rome by Martignac, 
but he resigned when Polignac became prime minister in 
1829. His sympathy for the Bourbons was so strong that 
he refused to swear allegiance to Louis Philippe in 1830. 
In the latter part of his life he lived in retirement, and 
associated intimately with the accomplished Madame Re- 
camier. Among his works is an interesting autobiogra¬ 
phy called “ Memoires d’Outre-Tombe” (1849-50, 12 vols.). 
He died July 4, 1848. He had a poetical imagination, and 
a superior talent for describing naturaQscenery. (See Vil- 
lemain, “ Chateaubriand, sa Vie, ses Ecrits et son Influ¬ 
ence,” 1858 ; Count de Marcellus, “ Chateaubriand et 
son Temps,” 1859; Scipion Marin, “ Ilistoire de la Vie et 
des Ouvrages de Chateaubriand,” 1833; Sainte-Beuve, 
“ Causeries du lundi,” tome i. and ii.) 

Chateaudlin, a handsome town of France, depart¬ 
ment of Eure-et-Loir, is on the river Loir, 28 miles S. S. 
W. of Chartres. It has an old castle of the tenth century, 
a communal college, a public library, and manufactures of 
blankets. Oct. 18, 1870, the town was stormed and almost 
entirely destroyed by the Germans. Pop. 6781. 

Chateaugay, a county of Quebec (Dominion of Can¬ 
ada), bordering on New York. It is bounded on the N. W. 
by the Chateaugay River. Capital, Saint-Martins. Pop. 
16,166. 

Chateaugay, a post-village of Franklin co., N. Y., on 
the Chateaugay River and on the western division of the 
Vermont Central R. R., 73 miles E. by N. from Ogdcns- 
burg. It has a newspaper, and manufactures of lumber, 
starch, butter, cheese, etc. Pop. of Chateaugay township, 
2971. A. N. Merchant, Prop. “Star.” 

Chateau-Gontier, a town of France, department of 
Mayenne, on the river Mayenne, here crossed by a stone 
bridge, 18 miles S. of Laval. It has manufactures of linen 
and woollen fabrics. Pop. 7364. 

Chateau-Renard, a town of France, department of 
Bouches-du-Rhone, near the Durance, 17 miles N. E. of 
Arles. Pop. 5409. 

Chateauroux, a town of France, capital of the de¬ 
partment of Indre, is in an extensive plain on the river 
Indre, 62 miles S. E. of Tours. It has a castle built in the 
tenth century, a chamber of commerce, and a society of 
arts; also manufactures of wool, cotton, cutlery, paper, 
hats, and hosiery. Nearly 2000 persons are employed here 
in the manufacture of strong woollen fabrics. Good iron 
is found in the vicinity. Pop. 17,161. 

Chateau-Thierry, a town of France, department of 
Aisne, on the river Marne, here crossed by a bridge, about 
60 miles by railway E. N. E. of Paris. It is on the slope 
of a hill crowned by the ruins of a vast castle built by 
Charles Martel for Thierry IV. It was the native place 
of the great poet Lafontaine, to whom a marble monument 
has been here erected. Pop. 6519. 

Chatel (Ferdinand Francois), a French priest, was 
born in 1795 at Gannat, became a priest in 1818, renounced 
the communion of Rome in 1830, and founded in 1831 the 
“French Unitarian Church,” the fundamental principle of 
which was to recognize nothing but the law of nature. 
The church of Chatel in Paris was closed by the police in 
1842, revived in 1848, and again closed in 1852. Died in 
1857. 

ChatellerauHt, a town of France, department of 
Vienne, on the river Vienne, 18 miles N. N. E. of Poitiers. 
It is near the railway from Tours to Bordeaux. It has a 
handsome stone bridge, an old castle, a theatre, an ex¬ 
change, and hospital; also important manufactures of 
cutlery, and a large trade in millstones, wines, etc. Here 
is a national manufactory of swords and bayonets. The 
Scottish dukes of Hamilton derive from this place the title 
of duke of Ch&telherault, which was given by King Henry 
II. to James Hamilton in 1549. Pop. 14,278. 

Chat'field, a post-village of Fillmore co., Minn., near 
Root River, about 35 miles W. S. W. of Winona. It has 


an academy and one newspaper-office. Pop. of Chatfield 
township, 1661. 

Chatfield, a post-township of Crawford co., 0. P. 1247. 

Chat'ham, a fortified town, river-port, and naval ar¬ 
senal of England, in the county of Kent, on the right 
bank of the Medway, and 30 miles E. S. E. of London. 
The river here begins to expand into an estuary. Chat¬ 
ham is defended by several forts or castles crowning the 
adjacent heights, by which it is flanked on the S. and E. 
It derives its importance from its naval and military es¬ 
tablishments, which are separated from the town and the 
country by a line of fortifications which are considered the 
best in England, except those of Portsmouth. Here are 
a military hospital, barracks for infantry, marines, artil¬ 
lery, and engineers, and magazines, storehouses, and depots 
on a large scale. Chatham has also one of the largest 
royal shipbuilding establishments in the kingdom. The 
dockyard is nearly a mile long, and contains several build¬ 
ing slips and wet-docks, sufficiently capacious for the 
largest ships. Connected with it are extensive saw-mills, 
forges, and a metal-mill which produces copper sheets, 
copper bolts, etc. In 1667 the Dutch admiral De Ruyter 
sailed up the Medway and burned some shipping at Chat¬ 
ham. Pop. in 1871, 44,135. 

Chatham, a county of Georgia, bordering on the At¬ 
lantic. Area, 358 square miles. It is bounded on the N. 
E. by the Savannah River, and on the S. W. by the Ogee- 
chee. The surface is level: the soil is sandy and partly 
sterile, but that which is near the rivers is fertile. Corn 
and rice are the staple crops. It is intersected by the Cen¬ 
tral R. R., the Savannah and Charleston R. R., and the 
Atlantic and Gulf R. R. Capital, Savannah. Pop. 41,279. 

Chatham, a county in Central North Carolina. Area, 
700 square miles. It is drained by the Haw and Deep 
rivers, which in the S. E. part unite to form the Cape Fear 
River. The surface is diversified; the soil is fertile. Grain, 
wool, live-stock, cotton, and tobacco are raised. Iron ores 
abound. Coal-mines have been opened near Deep River. 
It is intersected by the Western R. R. of North Carolina 
and the Raleigh and Augusta R. R. Capital, Pittsborough. 
Pop. 19,723. 

Chatham, a port of entry of Northumberland co., New 
Brunswick, on the right bank of the Miramichi, 6 miles 
below Newcastle, has a heavy trade in lumber and salmon, 
several steam-mills and foundries, is lighted with gas, and 
is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. It has one weekly 
jiaper. Pop. of census sub-district in 1871, 4203. 

Chatham, a post-town of Ontario (Dominion of Can¬ 
ada), capital of Kent co., on the river Thames, and on the 
Great Western R. R., 45 miles E. of Detroit, Mich., and 11 
miles N. of Lake Erie. It has a court-house, five churches, 
two weekly papers, an extensive trade in lumber, wood, 
potash, tobacco, soap, and pork, and has extensive manu¬ 
factures of iron castings, machinery, and woollen goods. 
Pop. in 1871, 5873. 

Chatham, a post-village and township of Middlesex 
co., Conn., on the E. side of the Connecticut River, about 
25 miles N. E. of New Haven. Here are cobalt-mines and 
manufactures of sleigh-bells, etc. Total pop. 2771. 

Chatham, a township and post-village of Sangamon 
co., Ill. The village is on the St. Louis Alton and Chicago 
R. R., 10 miles S. of Springfield. Pop. 1460. 

Chatham, a township and post-village of Barnstable 
co., Mass., on the ocean, at the S. E. extremity of Cape 
Cod, about 80 miles S. E. of Boston. It has a fair harbor, 
and is resorted to as a summer residence. There are four 
churches, good public schools, and ,one newspaper. It has 
two lighthouses, lat. 41° 40' 15” N., Ion. 69° 56' 30” W. 
Pop. of township, 2411. 

B. D. Gifford, Ed. Chatham “ Monitor.” 

Chatham, a post-township of Wright co., Minn. Pop. 
161. 

Chatham, a township of Carroll co., N. II. Pop. 445. 

Chatham, a post-village of Morris eo., N. J., near the 
Passaic Riverand on the Morris and Essex R. R., 26 miles W. 
of New York. On the Passaic River there are several mills. 
The township of Chatham has an academy, and contains 
the important village of Madison. Pop. of township, 3715. 

Chatham, a post-township of Columbia co., N. Y., 
contains villages called Chatham Centre and Chatham 
Village (which see). Chatham post-office and station is 
on the Harlem Extension R. R., 132 miles N. of New York. 
Pop. of township, 4372. 

Chatham, a township of Medina oo., O. Pop. 980. 

Chatham, a township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 1575. 

Chatham, a township of Pittsylvania co., Va. Pop. 
4262. 















CHATHAM—CHATTANOOGA. 891 


Chatham (William Pitt), Earl of, one of the most 
distinguished of English statesmen, born Nov. 15, 1708, and 
educated at Eton and Oxford, was thoson of Robert Pitt, a 
country gentleman, and grandson of a colonial governor. 
After travelling on the Continent he entered the army as a 
cornet in the Blues, and soon after, in 1735, was returned 
to Parliament from Old Sarum, a family borough. He had 
shown remarkable promise in his studies, and in the House 
of Commons he soon became prominent, engaging in the 
fierce opposition to the Walpole government headed by the 
prince ot AVales, and embittered by a quarrel between the 
prince and the king. Upon the fall of the Walpole admin¬ 
istration, the king, notwithstanding a strong personal dis¬ 
like, saw best to give Pitt an office, and in 1740 he was 
made treasurer of Ireland, and then paymaster-general, 
and in 1/55, upon the breaking out of the Seven Years’ 
war, after the resignation of Fox, he became the head of 
the government, with the nominal title of secretary of state. 
His measures for the reorganization of the army and navy 
were opposed by the king, but upon his resignation he was 
recalled, and pursued his plans against the French vig¬ 
orously, aiding Frederick the Great, capturing Canada 
through Wolfe, and improving the navy to such an extent 
that the French were driven from the seas. After the acces¬ 
sion of George III. in 1761, Pitt’s energetic military mea¬ 
sures were opposed by the growing influence of the Tories, 
and a peace was negotiated unwillingly by Pitt, whose min¬ 
istry soon afterwards went out. Pitt remained in the op¬ 
position until 1766. His health was become feeble; he nev¬ 
ertheless combated zealously the more obnoxious acts of 
Bute’s government, and upon its defeat in 1766 was de¬ 
sired to form a cabinet, in which he chose for himself the 
unimportant office of privy seal, with a seat in the House 
of Lords. The new ministry was weak and inefficient, and 
after it went out in 1768, Lord Chatham never again held 
office. When the war for American independence began, 
ho, though sinking under the infirmities of age, called back 
all his great powers of eloquence to oppose the cruel and 
oppressive measures which were put in practice against the 
colonies; but when, in 1778, the timid policy of the duke 
of Richmond was gaining ground in the legislature, which 
favored peace with France and a recognition of the Amer¬ 
ican States, Pitt, feeble, pale, and dying, arose in the 
House of Lords and summoned his fleeting powers to 
denounce this course of weakness and shame so eloquent¬ 
ly that the measure was defeated. He sank back in a swoon 
at the close of his appeal, and four days afterwards, April 
11, 1778, he died. 

Lord Chatham’s character was above reproach, and 
throughout his life his actions were impelled by deep pa¬ 
triotic feelings. The effects of his extraordinary eloquence 
were enhanced by his tall and stately form and dignified 
bearing. His speeches, which were composed in a vigorous, 
eloquent, idiomatic English style, have only been partially 
preserved in the “ Chatham Papers,” 4 vols., 1838-40. (See 
F. Thackeray, “Life of Chatham,” 2 vols., 1827.) 

J. Thomas. 

Chatham Centre, a post-village of Columbia co., 
N. Y., on the Boston and Albany R. R., 20 miles S. S. E. 
of Albany. 

Chatham Four-Corners. See Chatham Village. 

Chatham Islands, a group in the South Pacific 
Ocean, discovered by Broughton in 1791, about 400 miles E. 
of the Middle Island of New Zealand. They are about 
lat. 44° S., and between Ion. 177° and 179° W. Chatham 
Island, the largest of the group, is nearly 90 miles in cir¬ 
cumference, and contains a large lake. Area, 425 square 
miles. The others are for the greater part mere rocks. 
The soil and climate are good; besides the natives there 
are a few British colonists. Pop. 600. 

Chatham Village, or Chatham Four-Corners, 

a post-village of Columbia co., N. Y., on the Boston and 
Albany R. R. and terminus of the Hudson and Chatham, 
the Harlem, and the Harlem Extension R. Rs., 22 miles 
S. E. of Albany. The name of the post-office is Chatham 
Village. It has one newspaper-office, a blastfurnace, acad¬ 
emy, foundry, machine-shops, cotton-mill, and two paper- 
mills. Pop. 1387. C. B. Canfield, Prop. “Courier.” 

Chatoyant [from the Fr. chat, a “ cat ”], a French word 
used in mineralogy to denote the changeable or floating in¬ 
ternal light which is reflected by certain minerals, and re¬ 
sembles the light reflected from the eye of a cat. Among 
the minerals which are chatoyant are adularia and Cat’s 
Eye (which see). 

Chfitre, La, a fine old town of France, department of 
Indre, on the river Indre, 22 miles S. E. of ChSleauroux. 
It has a fine church, a ruined castle, a considerable chestnut 
market, and manufactures of woollen and leather. P. 5167. 

Chats'worth, the mansion of the duke of Devonshire, 


one of the most splendid private residences in England, is 
situated in Derbyshire, on the river Derwent, 3 miles N. E. 
of Bakewell. It is surrounded by a beautiful park about 
ten miles in circumference. This domain was given by 
William the Conqueror to his natural son, William Peveril. 
It was purchased by Sir William Cavendish, who built here 
in 1570 a mansion in which Mary queen of Scots was con¬ 
fined for thirteen years. The present mansion was built in 
1706 by the first duke of Devonshire. It is nearly a quad¬ 
rangle with an interior court, and is ornamented with bal¬ 
ustrades and Ionic pillars. The facade is 720 feet long. 
Chatsworth contains rich collections of paintings, statuary, 
bas-reliefs, and books. Here is a conservatory which covers 
nearly an acre, is 65 feet high, and has 70,000 square feet 
of glass. 

Chatsworth, a township and post-village of Living¬ 
ston co., Ill. The village is on the Toledo Peoria and War¬ 
saw R. R., 70 miles E. of Peoria. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. Pop. 999. Pop. of township, 1622. 

Chattahoo'chee, a river of Georgia, rises in the Blue 
Ridge in the N. E. part of the State. It flows south-west¬ 
ward, through the gold-region of Georgia, to West Point, 
below which it flows southward and forms the boundary 
between Georgia and Alabama. At the S. W. extremity 
of Georgia it unites with the Flint River to form the Ap- 
palachicola. Its length is estimated at 550 miles. Small 
steamboats can ascend it to Columbus, which is about 325 
miles from the Gulf of Mexico. 

Chattahoochee, a county in the AY. of Georgia. 
Area, 250 square miles. It is bounded on the AV. by the 
Chattahoochee River, and on the N. AY. by Upatoy Creek. 
The soil is productive. Corn and cotton are the principal 
crops. Capital, Cusseta. Pop. 6059. 

Chattahoochee, a post-village of Gadsden co., Fla., 
near the junction of the Flint and Chattahoochee rivers, 
and on the Jacksonville Pensacola and Mobile R. R., 40 
miles N. AY. of Tallahassee. 

Chattanoo'ga, a city of Tennessee, capital of Hamil¬ 
ton co., pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Tennes¬ 
see River, about 200 miles by water below Knoxville, and 
150 miles S. E. of Nashville by the Nashville and Chatta¬ 
nooga R. R. It is a terminus of the AYestern and Atlantic 
R. R., which connects it with Atlanta, Ga., and is the 
north-eastern terminus of the Alabama and Chattanooga 
R. R., which extends south-westward 295 miles to Meridian. 
It is also a terminus of the East Tennessee A r irginia and 
Georgia, the Cincinnati Southern, and the Memphis and 
Charleston R. Rs. The river is navigable for steamboats 
above and below 7 this point. This is the largest town of 
East Tennessee. It has three national banks, two rolling- 
mills, a furnace, machine-shops and foundries, a cotton- 
factory, water-works, a street railroad, and fine academies 
and schools. Two daily and two weekly papers are issued 
here. Coal and iron are found in the adjacent hills. After 
the retreat of Rosecrans to Chattanooga from the battle¬ 
field of Chickamauga, Sept., 1863, the Confederates under 
Bragg at once seized the passes which covered his line of 
supplies from Bridgeport, and, sending a cavalr} 7 force across 
the Tennessee above Chattanooga, struck various points 
on the railroad, making the supplying of the army difficult 
and hazardous. Gen. Grant relieved Gen. Rosecrans in 
October, and assumed general command of the departments 
of the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Ohio. Gen. Thomas 
was placed in immediate command of the department of 
the Cumberland, and Gen. Sherman, who had been tele¬ 
graphed to bring his corps up at once from Mississippi, 
was assigned to the department of the Tennessee. The 
supply of the army at Chattanooga being of the first im¬ 
portance, Gen. Grant ordered Hooker with the Eleventh 
and Twelfth corps, which had been sent from the Army of 
the Potomac, to cross at Bridgeport and menace Bragg with 
a flank attack, while a force under AY. F. Smith was to be 
thrown across the river at Brown’s Ferry, a few miles below 
Chattanooga, and secure the points of Lookout Mountain 
commanding the river. These operations were successfully 
carried out on the 27th, 28th, and 29th of October, and 
communication restored with the d6p6t of supplies. The 
loss in these operations for reopening communication on 
the S. side of the Tennessee, on the side of the U. S., had 
been about 450, while the Confederate loss is estimated as 
high as 1500. 

Gen. Sherman’s army was now coming up, and on the 
23d of November the movement against the Confederates 
was commenced. Gen. Thomas’s troops attacked the I on- 
federate left at 2 p. M., and carried the first line of rifle- 
pits, which was held during the night. The battle was 
renewed on the 24th along the whole lino. Sherman car¬ 
ried the end of Missionary Ridge nearly up to the railroad 
tunnel; Thomas had strengthened himself in his advanoed 
position, and repelled every attompt on the part ot the 















892 CHATTEL 


Confederates to recover their lost position at the centre; 
while Hooker had been fighting desperately, and had par¬ 
tially carried Lookout Mountain, and intrenched himself 
in a strong position, the Confederates abandoning the 
mountain entirely during the night. Fighting was re¬ 
sumed at early dawn of the 25th, continuing until dark. 
Missionary Ridge, Lookout Mountain top, and all the rifle- 
pits in Chattanooga valley were now in possession of the 
U. S. troops, having been carried after a most desperate 
struggle. The Confederate army was routed, and pursued 
by Sherman and Hooker back to Georgia. A severe fight 
occurred at Taylor’s Ridge, near Ringgold, Ga., Nov. 27, 
resulting in dislodging the Confederates, after which 
their retreat continued. Forty cannon and thousands of 
small-arms were captured. The loss on the part ol the 
U. S. forces amounted to between G000 and 7000 in killed, 
wounded, and missing. The Confederate loss in killed and 
wounded is estimated at 2500; in prisoners, 6000. The 
result of this battle cut off Bragg from communication with 
Longstreet, and forced the latter to abandon the siege of 
Knoxville and retreat to Virginia. 

This battle must be regarded as one of the most remark¬ 
able of the war, owing to the apparently impregnable posi¬ 
tion held by the Confederate army upon lofty mountains. 
Pop. 6093. Ed. Chattanooga “ Times.” 

Chat'tel [remotely from the Lat. capitalis, a man’s 
“ capital ” or property], in law. This is a word of com¬ 
prehensive meaning, and, with certain exceptions, includes 
all property of a personal or movable nature. The com¬ 
mon law distinguishes between hereditaments on the one 
hand and chattels on the other. Though this distinction 
is in the main founded on a difference in the nature of 
things, the one being in general immovable and the other 
movable, yet it is in part arbitrary, since there are some 
things which are in their nature chattels, and yet in law, 
in a particular case or for some special purposes, within the 
rules governing interests in land. No one could deny that 
pigeons are in general movables or chattels, yet they might 
become so connected with the land by their abode in a 
pigeon-house as to descend as land to an heir. The same 
remark might be made of a key of a house, which, though 
in its owner’s pocket, might be regarded in law as part of 
the house or land. Mr. Austin expresses the same idea in 
the following words: “ Things which are physically mov¬ 
able may be immovable by institution.” So in some cases 
an owner’s intention may impress upon a movable thing 
the legal qualities of an immovable, as where money is 
directed by a testator to be laid out in land, it is for legal 
purposes deemed to be land. These same doctrines may 
be regarded from an opposite point of view, and that which 
is really land may become in contemplation of law a chattel, 
as where land is directed by a testator to be sold and con¬ 
verted into money. Certain temporary intei*ests in land 
are in law treated as chattels of a peculiar nature (chattels 
real), such as leases for a definite number of years. There 
is here no completeness of classification, and much time 
must be spent by a legal practitioner in acquiring arbitrary 
distinctions, and particularly in determining when chattels 
attached to the land are to be deemed a part of it. The 
addition of machinery, buildings, trees, and shrubs to 
land, either by the owner or some stranger, has given rise 
to an important class of questions usually treated under the 
term “ fixtures.” 

Chattels personal are usually sub-divided by text-writers 
into two principal classes: such as are in possession and in 
action. The first term needs no special explanation. It 
would include the common case of a movable thing, like a 
watch or a domestic animal, in the possession or under the 
control of its owner. A so-called thing in action, or chose 
in action, is intangible. It is a mere right, and can only 
be made available or reduced into possession by a legal 
proceeding. An instance is a note or bond, or, according 
to some authorities, a right to recover damages for a wrong 
committed. This classification is imperfect, as it is plain 
that there are some rights which cannot bo brought within 
it; such as patents or copyrights, which, though derived 
from the state and in the nature of monopolies, are con¬ 
sidered as chattels. Some writers would discard this com¬ 
mon-law distinction, and divide property of a movable 
nature into corporeal and incorporeal. This is not satis¬ 
factory, for, though such a distinction is prevalent in the 
law of real estate, it is well shown by Mr. Austin to bo 
unphilosophical. He advocates a classification which phi¬ 
losophically seems to be correct between those rights which 
can be affirmed against all persons, and those which can 
only be asserted against particular persons and those who 
represent them. The former case is equivalent to complete 
ownership, such as that ot a field or watch ; the latter is 
illustrated by the rights growing out of a contract, or even 
a wrong, as no one could claim these except a party to 
the contract or one injured by the wrong. While the com¬ 


CHAUCER. 


prehension of these distinctions is of service to the student 
in tending to give him clear conceptions of his subject, the 
old classification cannot be disregarded by the practising 
lawyer, who is so bound by precedent that he cannot ask a 
court to dismiss from its view elementary propositions con¬ 
cerning things in possession and things in action. We 
would adopt the words of Mr. Maine, who saj's: “ The 
lawyers of all systems have spared no pains in striving to 
refer these classifications to some intelligible principle, but 
the reasons of the severance must ever be vainly sought for 
in the philosophy of law. They belong not to its philo¬ 
sophy, but to its history.” They must be accepted as his¬ 
torical facts. They can only be reduced to symmetry, if at 
all, by legislation. (See, for further distinctions, Property, 
Ownership, and Title.) (Consult Austin, “On Juris¬ 
prudence,” 3d ed.; Williams, “On Personal Property;” 
Sciiouler on the same ; Kent’s “ Commentaries.”) 

T. W. Dwight. 

Chat'terer, a significant popular name often given tc 
birds of the family Ampelidm, which belongs to the order 
Insessores and tribe Dentirostres. The chatterers have de¬ 
pressed bills like those of flycatchers, but rather shorter 
and broader in proportion. They feed chiefly on insects and 
their larvae. Many of them have richly-colored plumage, 
and some of them have excellent powers of song. 

Chat'terton (Thomas), an English poet, born at Bris¬ 
tol Nov. 20, 1752. He was a precocious youth, fond of an¬ 
tiquities, and was educated at the parish school. He be¬ 
gan to write verses at the age of twelve, and was appren¬ 
ticed to an attorney of Bristol in 1767. Soon after this 
date he exhibited to his friends manuscript copies of poems 
which he said were composed by Rowley, a monk of the 
fifteenth century, and produced other ingenious fabrica¬ 
tions. Disgusted with the drudgery of legal studies and 
business, he removed to London in April, 1770, and adopted 
the profession of author. He produced with great rapidity 
songs, satiric poems, letters in the style of Junius, and other 
works, some of which were inserted in the public journals, 
but brought him little remuneration. He was reduced to 
extreme destitution, and was found dead in his lodging- 
room in Aug., 1770. Among his poems are “ The Tragedy 
of Ella,” “ The Battle of Hastings,” and the “ Tournament.” 
(See John Dix, “ Life of T. Chattei’ton,” 1837; “ Edinburgh 
Review” for April, 1804 (by Sir Walter Scott) ; T. Camp¬ 
bell, “ Specimens of the British Poets.”) 

Chattoo'ga, a county in the N. W. of Georgia. Area, 
360 square miles. It is drained by the Chattooga River 
and several creeks. The surface is diversified by moun¬ 
tains or high ridges and fertile valleys. Cotton, tobacco, 
and grain are raised. Limestone, marble, iron, and lead are 
found here. Capital, Summerville. Pop. 6902. 

Chattooga, a township of Oconee co., S. C. Pop. 596. 

Chau'cer (Geoffrey) was born before 1346, and died 
in 1400. He was a son of John Chaucer, vintner of London. 
Of the year and place of his birth nothing is known, though 
much has been surmised or asserted. He deposed in Oct., 
1386, that he was of the “age of forty and upwards,” and 
had been armed twenty-seven years. A Geoffrey Chancer 
was in the service of Lionel, third son of Edward III., in 
1357, not improbably in the condition of page. The poet 
himself has told us that he was in the army which invaded 
France in the autumn of 1359, and that this was his first 
military service. It appears from public records that he 
was a valet of the king’s chamber—a place always filled by 
gentlemen—in 1367, and that in June of the same year the 
king granted him a salary for life, or till he was otherwise 
provided for, in consideration of services past and to be 
rendered. Before this time he had married Philippa, pos¬ 
sibly a daughter of Sir Payne Rouet and sister of the third 
wife of John of Gaunt, certainly a lady in the household of 
the queen. At various times from 1370 to 1380 Chaucer 
was employed on royal missions in Italy, France, and Flan¬ 
ders, and for somewhat more than ten years from 1374 he held 
offices in the customs. He was elected to Parliament for 
Kent in the year 1386, but towards the end of that year was 
dismissed, for reasons unknown, from his place in the cus¬ 
toms; and although he received other public appointments 
in 1389, he lost them again, and remained in comparative 
poverty until the accession of Henry IV., whose favor ho 
immediately received, but lived only a year to enjoy. 

Chaucer left behind him neither property nor descendants. 
His wife died in 1387, and a son, Lewis, to whom he dedi¬ 
cated a treatise on the astrolabe in 1391, is not heard of 
after that. Thomas Chaucer, a person of great wealth and 
consideration, has generally been assumed to bo a son of 
the poet, but upon insufficient evidence. 

The chief work of Chaucer, and one which has secured 
him an immortal and still brightening fame, is “ The Can¬ 
terbury Tales,” a series of about twenty stories narrated by 
pilgrims to the shrine of Saint Thomas. The persons and 
















CHAUDET—CHAZY. 


characters of the pilgrims are sketched with marvellous 
spirit in an introductory Prologue, and both here and in 
the tales there is displayed a dramatic power of the comic 
sort second only, and scarcely second, to Shakspeare’s. 
“ Troilus and Cressida,” “ The House of Fame,” and “ The 
Legend of Good Women ” are also admirable poems. “ The 
Canterbury Tales ” were excellently edited by Thomas Tyr- 
whitt in 1773, and his edition has not been superseded. The 
best edition of the other poems is by Robert Bell. A society 
was formed in 1868 for the purpose of printing a selection 
of the best texts of Chaucer’s poems, and has accomplished 
the larger part of its work. F. j. Child. 

Chaudet (Antoine Denis), an eminent French sculptor 
and painter, born in Paris in 1763. He studied in Rome, 
worked in Paris, and was chosen a member of the Institute 
about 1805. Among his best works are “ Paul and Vir¬ 
ginia,” “ Cincinnatus,” and a bas-relief of ‘‘Joseph Sold by 
his Brethren.” Died in 1810. 

Chaudiere, a river of the Dominion of Canada, rises 
in the S. part of the province of Quebec, flows northward, 
and enters the St. Lawrence about 7 miles above Quebec. 
Length, 120 miles. Two and a half miles from its mouth 
is a remarkable cataract, called the Falls of the Chaudiere, 
which is about 100 feet hisjh. 

Chaudiere, a lake of Canada, about 15 miles W. of the 
city of Ottawa, is an expansion of the Ottawa River. 

Chaudordy, de (Emile), Comte, a French statesman, 
was after 1855 employed in the French ministry of foreign 
affairs. He retained his position under Jules Favre, and 
went as the representative of Favre with the delegation of 
the provisional government in Sept., 1870, to Tours, and in 
Jan., 1871, to Bordeaux. 

Chau d'war', an ancient and ruined city of Ilindostan, 
in Orissa, near Cuttack. The ruins extend many miles, and 
include the remains of several temples and reservoirs. 
Scarcely any parts of the temples are visible except the 
foundations. 

Chaumonot (Pterre Marie Joseph), a French Jesuit 
and missionary to the North American Indians. He was 
born in France in 1611, went to Canada in 1639, and after 
many labors and hardships died near Quebec in 1693. He 
wrote a grammar of the Huron language, which was pub¬ 
lished in 1835. 

Chaumont, a fortified town of France, capital of the 
department of Haute-Marnc, is on an eminence near the 
river Marne, about 141 miles E. S. E. of Paris. It is con¬ 
nected by railways with Paris, Troyes, and Vesoul. It 
has a triumphal arch commenced by Napoleon, and a pub¬ 
lic library of 35,000 volumes; also manufactures of drugget, 
hosiery, cotton yarn, and gloves. On Mar. 1, 1814, the 
allied iiowers here concluded a treaty against Napoleon. 
Pop. 8285. 

Chaumont, a post-village of Lyme township, Jefferson 
co., N. Y., situated on Chaumont Bay, an inlet of Lake 
Ontario, at the mouth of Chaumont River. It has exten¬ 
sive fisheries and large quarries of excellent limestone. 
Pop. 370. 

Chauncey, a post-village of Dover township, Athens 
co., O. Pop. 201. 

Chaun'cey (Charles), B. D., second president of Har¬ 
vard University, was born in England in 1592, and edu¬ 
cated at Cambridge, where he was a professor of Greek and 
Hebrew. He came to New England in 1638, became presi¬ 
dent of Harvard in 1654, and died Feb. 19, 1672. 

Chauncey (Charles), LL.D., an American lawyer, 
born at New Haven, Conn., Aug. 17, 1777, graduated at 
Yale in 1792. He removed to Philadelphia about 1798, and 
practised there with much distinction.' Died Aug. 30,1849. 
—His father, Charles Chauncey, LL.D. (1747-1823), was 
an eminent jurist of Connecticut. 

Chauncey (Isaac), a commodore in the U. S. navy, 
born at Black Rock, Fairfield co., Conn., Feb. 20, 1772. At 
an early age he manifested a love for the sea, and entered 
the merchant service about 1785, displaying such energy 
and ability that he obtained command of a ship when he 
was only nineteen years old. During one of his voyages 
between Charleston and New York the entire crew and all 
the officers were stricken down with yellow fever, and 
Chauncey, alone and unaided, brought the vessel safely to 
New York. On the organization of the navy in 1798, 
Chauncey was appointed a lieutenant, was promoted to bo 
commandant in 1802, and captain in 1806. He served with 
distinction in the war with Tripoli, and for his services 
there received the thanks of Congress, which body also 
voted him a sword, but the resolution was never carried 
into effect. He was in command of the navy-yard at 
Brooklyn, N. Y., from 1808 till the outbreak of the war 


893 


with Great Britain, when he was placed in the command of 
the lakes. He reached Sackett’s Harbor Oct., 1812, and at 
once entered upon the important and arduous duties on 
shore of supervising the construction of a fleet, while at the 
same time he was obliged to maintain a sharp lookout for 
the enemy on the lakes, naval superiority on those w’aters 
being of the greatest importance to both nations. Chaun¬ 
cey retained this important command till the close of the 
war, and won for himself the highest honors for gallantry 
and skill as a naval commander. He subsequently com¬ 
manded the Mediterranean squadron (1816-18), was in com¬ 
mand of the navy-yard at Brooklyn, and was president of 
the navy commission at the time of his death, which oc- 
cured in Washington Jan. 27, 1840. No officer of the 
navy ever served his country more faithfully, or better ac¬ 
quitted himself of the high trusts reposed in him. 

Chauny, a town of France, department of Aisne, on 
the river Oise, at the commencement of the canal of St.- 
Quentin, and on a railway, 18 miles W. of Laon. It is 
partly built on an island in the Oise, which is here naviga¬ 
ble. It has an active trade, and manufactures of hosiery, 
chemicals, etc. Pop. 9080. 

Chausses, shoss, a French word signifying “ hose,” 
stockings, or breeches. In the armor of the Middle Ages 
it was the name of defence-pieces for the legs. Some of 
them were made of chain-mail, some of riveted plates, and 
others of padded and quilted cloth. 

Chautau'qua, the most western county of New York. 
Area, 1099 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by 
Lake Erie, and is drained by Conewango Creek. Among its 
features is Chautauqua Lake (which see). The surface is 
partly undulating; the soil is fertile. Grain, hay, fruit, and 
dairy products are extensively raised. The manufacturing 
interests are increasing; they include carriages, lumber, 
leather and leather goods, flour, cooperage, metallic wares, 
etc. There is a spring of inflammable gas at Fredonia, 
formerly used to illuminate the houses. This county is in¬ 
tersected by the Erie R. R., the Atlantic and Great West¬ 
ern R. R., the Buffalo Corry and Pittsburg R. R., and the 
Lake Shore R. R. Capital, Mayville. Pop. 59,327. 

Chautauqua, a township of Chautauqua co., N. Y. It 
contains Mayville, the capital of the county. Pop. 3064. 

Chautauqua Lake, in Chautauqua co., N. Y., is 
a beautiful sheet of water about 18 miles long and from 1 
to 3 miles wide. It is 726 feet higher than Lake Erie, and 
is said to be the highest navigable water in the U. S. The 
surplus water flows through an outlet into Conewango 
Creek. Steamboats ply between the outlet and Mayville, 
which is at the N. W. end of the lake. Near the S. E. end 
is the large village of Jamestown. 

Chauveuet (William), LL.D., a mathematician, born 
in Pennsylvania in 1820, graduated at Yale in 1840. He 
was professor of mathematics and astronomy at the U. S. 
Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md. (1845-59), and the 
author of several works on those sciences. Died in 1870. 

Chauve-Souris. See Bat. 

Chauvinisme, a French term derived from Chauvin, 
a character in a popular comedy which was performed at 
the time of the restoration of the Bourbons, 1815. Chauvin 
was a bragging veteran of Napoleon’s army, who talked 
much of Austerlitz and Jena, and vowed to take revenge 
for the battle of Waterloo. A Chauviniste may be defined 
as one who has exaggerated and ridiculous sentiments of 
patriotism, and is excessively warlike or quarrelsome. 

Chaux-de-Fonds, a town of Switzerland, in the canton 
of Neufchatel, is situated in a narrow gorge of the Jura 
Mountains, 9 miles N. W. of Neufchatel. It is 3070 feet 
above the level of the sea. It has extensive manufactures 
of clocks and watches. Above 160,000 watches are manu¬ 
factured annually. Nearly every house of this town is 
surrounded by a garden. Pop. in 1870, 19,930. 

Cha'ves (anc. Aquse Flavine), a town of Portugal, prov¬ 
ince of Villa Real, on the river Tamega, 52 miles W. of 
Braganza. It was once fortified, and has a Roman bridge of 
eighteen arches over the river. Here are hot saline springs, 
and baths which are well frequented. Pop. 6382. 

Chay-Iloot, Choya, or Indian Madder ( Olden - 
lan ilia umbellata), an herb of the order Rubiacea?, a native 
both of India and of Mexico, cultivated in India for its 
roots, the bark of which affords a beautiful red dye. The 
quality is improved by keeping. The coloring-matter is 
used to paint the red figures on chintz. Several plants of 
this genus abound in the U. S. 

Cha'zy, a post-village of Clinton co., N. ^ ., in Chazy 
township, about 13 miles N v of Plattsburg. (hazy town¬ 
ship is bounded on theE. by Lake Champlain, the village 
is on the Montreal and Plattsburg R. R. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 3206. 




















894 


CHAZY LIMESTONE—CHECK. 


Chazy Limestone, a member of the lower Silurian 
formation, derives its name from Chazy in Clinton co., N. Y. 
According to Dana, the Trenton period of geology is 
divided into two epochs, one of which is called the Chazy 
epoch. 

Chea'dle, a neat town of England, in the county of 
Stafford, in a pleasant valley, 1801 miles by rail N. W. of 
London. It has a fine Gothic fifteenth-century church, and 
manufactures of cotton tape; also copper- and brass-works. 
Pop. 3191; of parish, 4803. 

Cheat, in law. This topic may be considered under 
two principal divisions: 1, at common law; 2, by statute, 
then termed “ false pretences.” 

1. The common law regarded a “ cheat ” as a crime when 
one person defrauded another not by mere words, but by 
some outward and visible means, such as a false token or 
sign. A mere lie was not in this sense a cheat, though in 
a civil sense and as a basis for a civil action it may amount 
to a fraud. Thus, the act of marking false brands upon arti¬ 
cles sold, calculated to deceive and defraud persons in gen¬ 
eral, would come within the scope of the criminal offence. 
This view led to fine-spun and artificial distinctions. For 
example, if a man in purchasing goods gave his own check 
on a bank in which he knew that lie had no funds, it would 
be a mere lie reduced to writing, and thus not a cheat; 
while if he gave another man’s check under the same cir¬ 
cumstances, the act would be cheating, as the paper was 
then a token or symbol. Under these rules false persona¬ 
tion may be a common-law cheat, particularly where the 
personator by dress or tokens represents himself to be an¬ 
other person, and thus causes injury to others. Some have 
even maintained that the defrauder might himself be a 
symbol or token, as where, knowing that he held a relation 
(such as apprenticeship) which prevented him from enter¬ 
ing into a public engagement (enlisting as a soldier), he 
professed to be able to, and did in fact, enter into it. 

The crime of forgery, though usually, from its magni¬ 
tude as an offence, discussed separately from the various 
classes of cheats, is, in reality, comprised within the same 
category. The “ false token or sign” necessary to consti¬ 
tute cheating at common law must be of such a nature that 
its tendency in general would be to deceive, though in fact 
it may be used only to injure particular individuals; as, 
e. g., the use of false dice in games of chance. Moreover, 
it is essential that any injury sustained be properly at¬ 
tributable to some confidence or belief which the use of 
the token, etc. inspired. If other considerations than the 
device influence a person’s action, there is merely an at¬ 
tempt to cheat. This is, however, also indictable. Cheat¬ 
ing belongs to the lower grade of criminal offences, termed 
“ misdemeanors.” 

2. False Pretences constitute a very reprehensible mode 
of fraudulent deception. The failure of the common law 
to provide a remedy where no symbol was employed made 
statutory provisions necessary for wrongs thus occasioned. 
Reference can here be made only to such regulations as 
the various States have generally agreed in establishing. 
False pretences may be defined as false representations, 
with intent to defraud, by words or acts concerning past 
or present facts and events. Statements of a promissory 
nature in regard to any future transaction, and perhaps 
all representations as to the future, are insufficient to afford 
a ground for prosecution. The false representation may 
be made by acts without words, as if one purports by his 
peculiar dress to belong to a particular institution of learn¬ 
ing, such as Cambridge University. A false sample may 
also be referred to. Mere expressions of opinion, however, 
or mere exaggerations of language, by which no reasonable 
man would be influenced, cannot be considered false pre¬ 
tences within the statutes. It is a further rule that the 
deception practised must be the efficient operative cause 
of the injury sustained. The criterion always is, Whether, 
if there had been no such deceit practised, the transaction 
between the parties would have been consummated ? There 
has been much discussion upon the point whether the rep¬ 
resentation must be calculated to deceive a person of or¬ 
dinary prudence, or whether it will bo sufficient, though the 
party was weak, that he was actually defrauded. The 
question is still open. The false pretence may be made by 
an agent in such a way as to make his principal criminally 
liable. 

Property acquired under false pretences is held by the 
wrongful possessor under a voidable title as regards the 
true owner, but if transferred to an honest purchaser, who 
acts in good faith, without knowledge of the fraud, the 
latter’s claim is indefeasible. On the other hand, when 
goods arc stolen the thief can, with but few exceptions, 
give no better title than he himself possesses. The reason 
for the difference is, that in the one case the wrong-doer 
acts with the owner’s consent, even though it be procured 
fraudulently, while in the other his will is in no way ex¬ 


erted. According to general principles, this offence would 
be a misdemeanor, though the statutes of some of the States 
make it a felon}'. T. VY. Dwigiit. 

Cheat'ham, a county of the N. part of Middle Ten¬ 
nessee. Area, 375 square miles. It is intersected by the 
Cumberland River and the Harpeth. The surface is un¬ 
dulating. Tobacco, corn, wheat, and oats are the staple 
crops. Lumber is an important product. It is traversed 
by the Nashville and North-western R. R. Capital, Ash¬ 
land City. Pop. 6678. 

Cheatham (B. F.), a general in the Confederate army, 
born in Tennessee, served during the war with Mexico as 
captain of Tennessee volunteers and as colonel Third Ten¬ 
nessee Voltigeurs to July, 1848. During the recent civil 
Avar he espoused the Confederate cause, was appointed 
major-general, and bore a conspicuous part at Chicka- 
mauga, Missionary Ridge, Franklin, Nashville, etc. 

Cheat River, of West Virginia, is formed by the junc¬ 
tion of several branches which rise among the Alleghanies 
in Randolph county, and unite in Tucker county. It flows 
neaidy northward, and enters the Monongahela in Fayette 
co., Pa. Its length Avithout the branches is about 75 miles. 
It takes its name from the extremely variable A'olumo of 
its Avaters; for Avhile it is sometimes a large stream, it 
often becomes in a few hours quite insignificant. 

Chehanse, a post-village of Iroquois and Kankakee 
cos., Ill., on the Central R. R., 65 miles S. S. W. of Chicago. 
It has one newspaper, and has a very extensive trade in 
grain. Pop. of township, 2530. Ed. “ Herald.” 

Chehoy'gan, a county of Michigan, at the N. ex¬ 
tremity of the Lower Peninsula, is bounded on the N. by 
Lake Huron and traversed by the Cheboygan River. Lum¬ 
ber, potatoes, and maple-sugar are the chief products. 
Capital, Cheboygan. Pop. 2196. 

Cheboygan, a post-village, capital of Cheboygan co., 
Mich. It has one Aveekly newspaper. 

Check [Fr. echec and cheque ], a hindrance or obstruc¬ 
tion, a curb or restraint; a rejjulse; a mark put against 
names in going over a list; a token which is given to a 
passenger on a railroad or steamboat, and is a duplicate 
of a token fastened on his baggage in order to identify it. 
Also a term used in the game of Chess (which see). 

Check is also the name of a variegated cloth, the pattern 
of which consists of quadrangles or rectangular spaces like 
a chessboard. It is made of cotton, linen, or avooI. 

Check, or Cheque, a bill of exchange drawn upon 
a bank or banker, or person holding a position similar to 
that of a banker. It has some peculiarities Avhich distin¬ 
guish it from an ordinary bill of exchange, particularly 
Avhen it is payable without any specific mention of time. 
It is then, in point of law, payable on demand and with¬ 
out days of grace. If payable a fixed number of days after 
date, it varies but slightly from a bill of exchange, and 
will follow the ordinary rules as to days of grace. It is 
usually said in the law-books that a check is not accepted 
as a bill is. Acceptance, however, as will be seen here¬ 
after, has recently become quite common, and is perfectly 
lawful. A check may be considered under the following 
heads: 1, Its form and requisites; 2, The duty of the 
holder as to demand of payment (a) toAvards the drawer, 
(b) toAvards the endorser, and herein of crossed checks; 3, 
The effect of the check upon the banker, and, under this, 
of acceptance ; 4, A check considered as payment of a debt 
or as cash ; 5, The civil and criminal liability of draAvers 
having no funds. 

1. A check in its ordinary form is simply an order ad¬ 
dressed to the banker to pay a person named or his 
order or bearer, or the equivalent of a bearer (such as a 
mere numeral), a sum of money. A check may preserA-e 
this form and be post-dated. This class of checks is not 
used in England, OAving to the provisions of the stamp acts. 
It is quite common at the present time to make a check 
payable to order, as the endorsement of the name of the 
payee operates as a receipt. In some instances a note may 
amount to a check. Thus, if a customer makes a note 
payable at his bank, he implicitly requests its payment in 
the same general manner as if he had draAyn his check. 
In filling up a check care should be taken to so draw it 
that additional Avords, Avhich might increase its amount, 
cannot be inserted in blank spaces. Thus, if the drawer 
had Avritten the words “ fifty dollars,” and had left suffi¬ 
cient space between the Avord “ fifty ” and that which pre¬ 
ceded it to insert “one hundred and,” and such words had 
been fraudulently inserted, and the bank had paid the 
check in good faith, supposing it to be drawn for one hun¬ 
dred and fifty dollars, the drawer would be the loser. 
When, on the'other hand, due caution has been exercised, 
the loss from forgeries will fall on the bank, rather than 
on the drawer, though the former may in some instances 













CHECKEKS-CHEESE. 895 


recover from the holder. The drawer may simply sign his 
name to a blank printed form of check, or even to a blank 
sheet of paper, at the same time authorizing it to be sub¬ 
sequently filled up by some person acting in his behalf. 
If so filled he will be bound. Even should the agent act¬ 
ing fraudulently fill it up for a larger sum than was 
directed, the drawer would still be bound to a person who 
took the check in good faith. This would not be strictly a 
case of forgery, but that of an agent defrauding his prin¬ 
cipal, and yet acting within his apparent authority. 

2. The Duty of the Holder as to Demand and Notice: (a) 
As to the Drawer .—The drawer has a right to expect that 
the holder will demand payment with promptitude, as, if 
the banker fails to pay, recourse may be had to him. Pre¬ 
sentment should be made, in general, as early as the next 
day, and if payment is not made, due notice given. How¬ 
ever, a failure to present is not necessarily fatal to the holder’s 
claim. IV hether it is or not depends on the fact whether 
an injury is caused to the drawer. If, for example, he 
had no funds in the bank, want of presentment is unim¬ 
portant, as it is plain that he sustains no harm ; so, if after 
giving the check, he withdraws his funds. If, however, the 
banker should become insolvent with sufficient funds of the 
drawer in his possession, want of presentment would be a 
sufficient defence. ( h ) Demand as to Endorsers .—Endorse¬ 
ments upon checks are common. An endorsement is neces¬ 
sary when the instrument is payable to order; it is admis¬ 
sible when payable to bearer. The legal effect of endorse¬ 
ment, as in the case of a bill of exchange, is to make the 
endorser liable, provided that the steps necessary to charge 
him are taken. These are substantially the same as in bills 
of exchange. There are cases in which no presentment is 
necessary to bind the endorser, as where he endorses and 
puts in circulation a void or forged check, even though he 
does this innocently. In some cases custom enlarges the 
time for presentment. Thus, if there be a custom to pay 
checks through the “ clearing-house ” (see Clearing- 
House), the time required for them to pass through the 
system of exchanges there adopted will be allowed. In 
England a practice of crossing checks is resorted to. A 
check is said to be “ crossed” when it is marked by the 
drawer in such a way that, instead of being presented 
through an ordinary holder, it must come to the paying 
bank through a banker. This practice has given rise to a 
number of perplexing questions recently settled by statute 
(21 and 22 Viet. ch. 79). The additional time necessary to 
present the check in this manner must of course be allowed 
there to the holder. It is believed that crossing checks is. 
not practised in this country. A practice has grown up in 
some of our large cities to pay drafts drawn on bankers by 
checks drawn by such bankers, in turn, upon some regu¬ 
larly organized bank, instead of cash. This practice has 
an important effect upon the subject of demand. Though 
the check is not payment of the draft, yet it must be pre- 
sented on the same day that it is received, or the drawers 
of the draft may be discharged. The holder of the draft 
might have insisted on the money instead of taking the 
check, and if not paid might have protested the draft. 

3. Effect of the Check on the Banker on whom it is Drawn, 
and herein of Acceptance. —According to the better opinion, 
a check gives no right of action to the holder against the 
banker. Of course the latter should, in general, pay it, but 
the holder has no means of enforcing this obligation if the 
banker refuses to perform it. This rule grows out of the 
nature of a deposit in a bank, in respect to which there is 
much popular misconception. This fact is perhaps partly 
due to the ambiguity lurking in the word “ deposit.” This 
is sometimes and properly used to mean the act of entrust¬ 
ing a specific chattel to a person, who is bound to return 
the identical thing delivered to him. That, however, is 
not the nature of an ordinary bank account against which 
checks are drawn. The banker is not bound to render the 
specific money delivered, but only engages to pay an 
equivalent amount. The relation of debtor and creditor is 
created by the transaction. Although the banker is bound 
to pay checks when he is in funds, it is a duty between him 
and the depositor or creditor. It cannot be enforced by the 
payee of the check, who is no party to the contract. Nor 
can the check be treated as an assignment by the depositor 
of so much money as it represents. These rules have led 
to a very important practice of certifying checks. An offi¬ 
cer of a bank— e. g. a teller or cashier—has by custom ac¬ 
quired an authority to mark such checks as are presented 
to him as good. This act is treated in law as an accept¬ 
ance, and the bank becomes liable. The practice is attended 
with danger, as it practically gives to a teller power to es¬ 
tablish without limit fictitious claims against the bank, as 
he may certify checks for persons who have overdrawn 
their accounts, or even who have closed their accounts, or 
have had no dealings with the bank, which will still be 
binding upon it on general principles of law. (See Agent, 


Estoppel, and Bill of Exchange.) A cashier or teller, 
however, cannot, where he has no funds, validly certify his 
own check. On the other hand, certification of a check is 
attended with some hazard to the holder, as he may thereby 
release the drawer should the bank fail even on the same 
day and between the time of certification and of present¬ 
ment for payment. ( National Bank of Jersey City agt. 
Leach, N. Y. Court of Appeals, 1873.) In the financial crisis 
of 1873 in New York certified bank-checks by general con¬ 
sent played an important part in monetary transactions, 
and became for a considerable time, through the association 
of a number of national banks, a substitute for currency. 
It may be added that banks sometimes pay checks for cus¬ 
tomers who have no balance due them. These are called 
“ overdrafts.” The bank in such a case has a claim upon 
the dealer for the sum overdrawn. 

4. A Check Considered as Payment or as Cash. —The 
general presumption of law is that a check is issued by a 
drawer to a payee in payment of debt, and not as a means 
of making a loan. The intention, however, maybe shown 
by affirmative proof. Considered as payment, it is not in 
general absolute. It is rather a means of obtaining pay¬ 
ment, whether it be the debtor’s own check or that of a 
third person. Accordingly, if the check is not paid, the 
creditor may resort to his original claim, though if there 
be an agreement to receive the check as full payment, it 
must be followed. In other words, a check is not money, 
but a means of obtaining money, and debts cannot be paid 
in anything but money, unless there be an agreement for 
some substitute. The gift of one’s own check, unless it be 
certified, is a mere naked promise, and may be counter¬ 
manded at any time before payment. The death of a 
drawer in such a case before payment would be a revoca¬ 
tion of the authority. It is common for a bank to receive 
on deposit not only cash, but checks drawn either on itself 
or on some other bank, payable to the depositor. Such a 
deposit is not to be treated as cash in case the check is 
drawn on another bank. It is rather received condition¬ 
ally, in case it turns out to be good, and the depositor will 
be liable on his endorsement, which is usually required. 
Where, however, the check is given by another dealer, the 
receiving bank is absolutely bound by the credit which it 
gives the depositor as if it had paid the check. 

5. Civil and Criminal Liability of Drawers of Checks 
having no Funds with the Bank: (a) Civil Liability .—It is 
a general rule that a man who draws a check with know¬ 
ledge that he has no funds commits a fraud towards the 
payee. If he should purchase goods under such circum¬ 
stances, the seller could rescind the sale as fraudulent. It 
will not be enough to sustain the sale that he has reasonable 
grounds to expect funds, but they must be actually on hand 
to pay the check. This view proceeds upon the theory that 
a check is in the nature of a representation that the money 
is immediately available; and where a drawer lias notice 
to the contrary he makes a representation known to be 
false which avoids the contract as between him and the seller, 
though it would be otherwise should the rights of innocent 
purchasers intervene. (See Sales.) (Loughran agt. Barry, 6 
Irish Com. Pleas, 457, A. D. 1872.) ( b ) Criminal Liability .— 
It was not a crime at common law to give one’s own check 
for goods bought with knowledge that it was worthless, 
since this was only an affirmation or a base lie reduced to 
writing, and there was no token or symbol of falsehood on 
which the common law lays stress. It might accordingly 
be a criminal cheat (see Cheat) knowingly to pass off 
the worthless check of another. Under the statutory of¬ 
fence of false pretences it is criminal to give one’s own 
check on such a sale, knowing that the drawer had no 
funds nor any reasonable grounds of expecting them. 
There might be cases, such as that of Loughran against 
Barry, above cited, where the contract would be rescinded 
on account of a representation known to be false, and yet 
the drawer would not be guilty of crime, by reason of the 
absence of a true criminal intent. (See farther Siiaw 
“ On the Law of Bankers’ Checks,” London, 1871; also 
Parsons “ On Bills and Notesand other text-writers on 
same subject, as Ciiitty, Byles, Story, etc.) 

T. W. Dwight. 

Checkers. See Draughts. 

Chedu'foa, an East Indian island, in the Bay of Ben¬ 
gal, near Aracan, has an area of about 250 square miles. 
It is about lat. 18° 50' N. and Ion. 93° 40' E. The soil is 
fertile, and produces cotton, sugar, rice, indigo, etc. This 
island was captured from the Burmese by the British in 1^24. 

Cheek’s Creek, a township of Montgomery co., N. C. 
Pop. 960. 

Cheese [Lat. caseus; Her. Kase\ the coagulated, pressed, 
and dried caseine of milk, containing also a large per¬ 
centage of water, with some salt, oil (butter), etc. It is 
extensively prepared for food, chiefly from the milk of 














896 CIIEESE-MAGGOT—CHEKE. 


cows, but that of goats, sheep, asses, and other animals is 
used to some extent in various countries. In China the 
caseine of peas is pressed and dried into cakes, which 
resemble cheese in taste as well as chemical composi¬ 
tion. Cheese often contains various coloring-matters, gen¬ 
erally anatto, which is added for its rich golden color, or 
herbs, which are employed to give it a green or mottled 
appearance. Coagulation is usually produced by the addi¬ 
tion of rennet, which is usually prepared from the stomach 
of young calves, and which, from the pepsin and other 
active principles derived from the gastric juice, is believed 
to give to cheese a stomachic or eupeptic property, so that 
its use is recommended in some cases of dyspepsia. Va¬ 
rious plants, such as the yellow bedstraw of Europe ( Galium 
verum) and the Pingnicula vulgaris, or butterwort, are in 
some places employed instead of rennet. Hydrochloric 
acid is used in Holland. The process of making cheese 
varies in different places. Generally, the milk is heated 
to a temperature of from 100° to 112° F., the rennet added, 
and the whole stands from half an hour to an hour, when 
the curd is chopped, salted, drained, and pressed, so as 
to consolidate the curd and expel the whey or serum of 
the milk. The cheese-press is of various forms, and the 
pressure to which cheese is subjected is in most cases very 
great. Skimmed milk makes an inferior quality of cheese, 
though some fine kinds, like the celebrated Parmesan 
cheese, are made from it. In the U. S. cheese is manufac¬ 
tured on a larger scale in factories, which are often owned 
by a large number of farmers in common ; the result being, 
on the whole, a decided improvement in the quality of the 
product, with a large diminution of the cost of manufac¬ 
ture. Great quantities of cheese are exported from the 
U. S. to Great Britain and the West Indies. 

Among the remarkable varieties of cheese may be men¬ 
tioned those made at Stilton, Huntingdonshire, Cottenham, 
Cambridgeshire, and the Vale of Cheddar, Gloucestershire, 
England; the Scotch Dunlop cheese; the Highland cheese, 
flavored with lovage leaves; the Swiss Gruyere and the 
Schabzeiger, known as “ sap-sago,” which is made green 
with leaves of the melilot; other varieties of green cheese, 
in which sage or grass is used; the globular and conical 
cheeses, of which the Westphalian are celebrated. Among 
the Dutch cheeses, that of Gouda is called the best. It 
excels in keeping qualities. In parts of Germany boiled 
potatoes are mashed and mixed with the curd. France 
and Italy produce much excellent cheese. The English 
cream and slip-coat cheese, and the German Schmirk'dse, 
are soft curds, often from sour milk, mixed with cream, 
and sometimes flavored with pepper, etc. Some of the 
stronger sorts of cheese are rasped fine and used as a con¬ 
diment. The cheese of Limburg is partly putrefied before 
it is ready to be eaten. The French Roquefort cheese is 
made of sheep’s and goats’ milk, and ripened with much 
care in caverns. Brie (French), Vaschrein (German), and 
Neufchdtel (Swiss) cheese are made of pure cream. They 
are successfully imitated in the U. S., as are all the more 
famous European cheeses. The better qualities of the Lap¬ 
lander’s reindeer cheese are highly commended by travel¬ 
lers. Cheese is made in Europe and Asia from the milk of 
the buffalo. In Arabia and the East buttermilk curds are 
dried into a cheese which is powdered before eating. It is 
a villainous product, not much relished even by the natives. 

Charles W. Greene. 

Cheese-maggot, the larva ot Piophila casei, a black 
dipterous fly of the family Muscidae, to 
which the house-fly belongs. The perfect 
insect is three-twentieths of an inch long. 

It is a pest of dairies, laying its eggs in 
cracks of cheese, the destined food of its 
larvae. To preserve cheeses from this 
pest it is of advantage to brush or rub 
them frequently, and to remove all in¬ 
jured cheeses, besides keeping them dry and in a well-aired 
place. The same rules are applicable to their preservation 
from the other insects by which they are sometimes infested. 
Among these may be mentioned the cheese-mite, Tgro- 
glyphus siro, of the family Acaridae. Those cheeses of the 
Netherlands which are prepared with hydrochloric acid, 
instead of rennet, are reported to be uninjured by insects, 
but are rather hard. 

Chee'tah, or Hunting Leopard, the Gueparda ju- 
bata or Cynailurus jubatus, a carnivorous mammal of the 
cat family, having longer legs than any of the true cats, 
and approaching the Canidae in its almost non-rctractile 
claws, its manner of hunting, as well as in temper and dis¬ 
position when tamed. It is found throughout Africa, and 
in Asia nearly as far N. as Siberia. It is generally spotted 
like the leopard, but, like that animal, is sometimes ^ntirely 
black. In India and Persia it is trained for the chase of 
antelopes and deer. The cheetah is kept leashed and hooded 


until the game is found near, when it is let loose, and 
drawing stealthily rear its victim, it rushes suddenly upon 
it, and can with difficulty be made to let go its hold. This 
animal is readily domesticated. In Ceylon, the true leop¬ 
ard is called cheetah. 

Chee'ver (Ezekiel), an eminent school-teacher, born 
in London Jan. 25, 1615, emigrated to America in 1037. 
He was one of the founders of the colony of New Haven, 
where he taught for twelve years. Ho removed to Charles¬ 
town, Mass., in 1061, and he taught in the Latin School in 
Boston for thirty-eight years. Died Aug. 21, 1708. 

Cheever (George Barrell), D.D., an American divine, 
born at Hallowell, Me., April 17, 1807, graduated at Bow- 
doin College in 1825. In 1833 he became minister of a 
Congregational church in Salem, Mass. He published, in 
1835, a satirical allegory called “ Deacon Giles’s Distil¬ 
lery,” for which he w r as prosecuted by a certain distiller, 
and was condemned to imprisonment for thirty days. He 
was distinguished as a zealous advocate of temperance and 
as an opponent of slavery. In 1830 he removed to New York 
City, and from 1846 to 1867 was pastor of the Church of 
the Puritans in that city. Among his works are “Studies 
in Poetry” (1830), “Lectures on Pilgrim’s Progress” 
(1843), and “Wanderings of a Pilgrim in the Shadow of 
Mont Blanc ” (1846). 

Cheever (Rev. Henry Theodore), a younger brother 
of the above, author of “Island World of the Pacific” 
(1851) and other works, was born at Hallowell, Me., in 
1814, and graduated at Bowdoin in 1834. 

Cheha'Iis, a river of Washington Territory, rises in 
Lewis co. on the E. side of the Coast Range, flows in a 
W. N. W. direction through Chehalis co., and enters Gray’s 
Harbor. It is navigable for steamboats. Total length, 
about 125 miles. 

Chehalis, a county of Washington Territory, bordering 
on the Pacific Ocean. Area, 1600 square miles. It is in¬ 
tersected by the Chehalis River, and also drained by the 
Satsop, Hoquium, and other small rivers. The surface is 
hilly and undulating; the soil of the valleys is fertile. It 
is mostly covered with dense forests of fir, cedar, spruce, 
maple, and ash. Oats, wheat, wool, and potatoes are raised. 
Coal is found. Capital, Montesano. Pop. 401. 

Cheirol'epis [from the Gr. x e ip> a “hand,” and A enis, 
a “ scale ”], a genus of fossil lepido-ganoid fishes peculiar to 
the Devonian measures. Eight species have been found. 
They had large heads, the spine rudimentary and the body 
•covered with small lozenge-shaped ganoid scales. The first 
ray of each fin was converted into a strong spine. The 
pectorals and ventrals were largely developed, the dorsal 
small and farther back than the anal fin. The generic 
name was given in allusion to the scaly pectoral fins. 

Cheironec'tes [from the Gr. xRp> the “hand,” and 
vrjx w, to “ swim ”], a genus of marsupial quadrupeds, dif¬ 
fering from the opossums in having webbed feet and 



Cheironeetes. 


aquatic habits. The only species, Cheironeetes ptalmahis, 
or the yapock, is common in Brazil and Guiana. It has a 
soft woolly fur; the color of the upper parts of the body is 
gray, with large patches of black and a dorsal black line; 
the breast and belly are white; the tail is long, thick at 
the base, tapering, and covered with scales. The cheek- 
pouches are very large. Fishes, insects, and crustaceans 
are the chief food of this animal, which is a marsupial rep¬ 
resentative of the otter. (See also Ciiironectes.) 

Chcke (Sir John), an English scholar and Hellenist, 
born at Cambridge June 14, 1514. He became in 1540 first 
professor of Greek in the university of that place, and dis¬ 
tinguished himself as a reviver of classical learning. In 
1544 lie was appointed Latin tutor to Prince Edward. Ho 

























CHE-KIANG—CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 


897 


was secretary of state in 1553, but on the accession of 
Queen Mary he was deprived of his office because he was a 
Protestant, and he went into exile. He was seized in Flan¬ 
ders in 1556 by the agents of Philip II. of Spain, and 
taken to England. Compelled to choose between death by 
fire and a profession of the Catholic religion, he accepted 
the latter. Died Sept. 13, 1557. (See Strype, “ Life of 
Sir J. Cheke,” 1705.) 

Che-Kiang, a maritime province of China. Area, 
39,150 square miles. It is intersected by the Grand Canal. 
The surface is diversified ; the soil is very fertile. Silk is 
the chief article of export. The other products are tea, 
cotton, indigo, camphor, and fruits. It has manufactures 
of silk stuffs, crape, paper, etc. The chief towns are Hang- 
Chow-Foo and Ningpo. Pop. 26,256,784. 

Chelms'ford, a town of England, capital of the county 
of Essex, at the confluence of the Chelmer and Cann rivers, 
on the Eastern Union Railway, 29 miles N. E. of London. 
Two fine bridges cross the river here. The town is well 
built, has an old church, a handsome county hall, a theatre, 
and assembly-rooms. Pop. 5513. 

Chelmsford, a post-township of Middlesex co., Mass., 
on the S. side of the Merrimack River. It contains the vil¬ 
lage of North Chelmsford, on the Boston Lowell and Nashua 
R. R., 3 miles W. of Lowell; also South Chelmsford and 
West Chelmsford. The town is also traversed by the 
Framingham and Lowell and the Stony Brook R. Rs. It 
has granite-quarries and important manufactures. Pop. 
of township, 2374. 

Chelmsford (Sir Frederick Thesiger), Lord, an 
English lawyer and judge, born in London in 1794. He 
became solicitor-general in 1844 and attorney-general in 
1845, but he resigned in. 1846. He was reappointed in 
1852. On the formation of a conservative ministry in 
1858, he was appointed lord chancellor and received the 
title of Lord Chelmsford. He resigned with his colleagues 
in June, 1859, and was again lord chancellor from July, 
1866, to Feb., 1868. 

Chelo'nia [from the Gr. ^eAuSi^, a “tortoise ”], or 
Testudina'ta, one of the three great orders of true rep¬ 
tiles, characterized by the possession of a carapace or 
horny dorsal shell composed of several united pieces ; a 
ventral shell, plastron, or sternum; a horny, bill-liko 
mouth, without teeth; eyes with three lids; and external 
ear-openings. The carapace represents the blended ribs 
and vertebrae, the plastron the sternum of other animals, 
these elements being intimately blended with the proper 
dermal elements. The spinal column is entirely immov¬ 
able, for the vertebrae are thoroughly ankylosed with the 
shell and with each other. The genus Emysaura forms a 
transition from this order to the saurians through the alli¬ 
gators and crocodiles, having its carapace much contracted, 
while the neck, tail, and limbs are greatly elongated. The 
lung-sacs of the Chelonia have their cavities subdivided 
by imperfect partitions. They are very capacious, and the 
large quantity of air they contain materially aids in buoy¬ 
ing” up the heavy body as the animal swims in the water. 
Since the ribs and sides are fixed, the chelonians breathe 
by gulping down air through the nostrils, thus filling the 
lung-cavities for a time, the air being occasionally renewed. 
The 5 order is divided into two sub-orders—the Chelonii, 
true or sea-turtles, which have the fore feet, or more fre¬ 
quently both fore and hind feet, transformed into paddles; 
and the Amydte, or land-tortoises. The sea-turtles com¬ 
prise the largest living species, one of which, the Sphargis 
coriacea of the Atlantic and Mediterranean, has been found 
to weigh nearly 2000 pounds; but the fossil shell of Colos- 
socheltjs atlas, a land-tortoise of East Indian deposits, is 
sometimes twenty feet long, and it must have weighed 
much more than the Sphargis. The sea-turtles are of two 
families—Sphargidse and Chelonoidm, or loggerheads. 
The land-tortoises are much more numerous in genera and 
species, and are divided into seven or more families. They 
are peculiarly abundant in North and South America, but 
are found in nearly all warm and temperate regions. 

There are several edible species both of land and sea 
chelonians. The flesh of some others is disagreeable or 
even injurious. The best known is the gieen turtle {( he- 
lonia micla8 ), found throughout a large part of the Atlantic, 
but having its head-quarters about the Bahamas, and nota¬ 
bly at Ascension Island in the South Atlantic. Another 
famous edible species is the great Testudo Indica, a land- 
tortoise of the coasts of the Pacific and Indian oceans, of 
which the head-quarters are at the Galapagos Islands. 
Some species are valuable for their oil; others for that of 
their e-gs ; and one at least, the Eretmochelys imbncata of 
tropical seas, the inedible hawksbill turtle, affords the val¬ 
uable tortoise-shell of commerce. . 

Tracks ascribed to chelonians have been tound in tri- 
assic* rocks, but their remains arc first observed in the 

57 


upper oolite. In the more recent formations their remains 
are abundant in both hemispheres. 

Chelonia is also the name of a genus of sea-turtles, to 
which the green turtle belongs. 

Chel'sea, a populous south-western suburb of London, 
in Middlesex, on the left (N.) bank of the Thames, 4^ 
miles W. S. W. of St. Paul’s. The river is here crossed by 
a fine iron bridge. Many of the nobility and gentry for¬ 
merly resided at Chelsea. The principal public edifice is 
the noble hospital for superannuated soldiers. (See Chel¬ 
sea Hospital.) Chelsea has waterworks for the supply of 
London, a chain pier, and manufactures of floor cloth ; also 
a training college for male teachers, and one for female 
teachers. Here is a place of public amusement called Cre- 
morne House Gardens. Pop. in 1871, 71,086. 

Chelsea, a post-village of Hull township, Ottawa co., 
Quebec, Canada, on the Gatineau River, 8 miles from Ot¬ 
tawa. It has a postal savings’ bank and a large lumber- 
trade. Pop. about 400. 

Chelsea, a post-township of Butler co., Kan. Pop. 277. 

Chelsea, a township of Kennebec co., Me., 3 miles E. 
of Augusta. It contains the Togus mineral springs and 
the U. S. military asylum. Pop. 1238. 

Chelsea, a city of Suffolk co., Mass., is a north-eastern 
suburb of Boston, and is 3 or 4 miles N. E. of Boston Com¬ 
mon. It is separated from Charlestown by the Mystic 
River, which is here crossed by the Chelsea Bridge. It is 
bounded on the S. and S. E. by an inlet of the sea called 
Chelsea Creek, which separates it from East Boston. Chel¬ 
sea has a U. S. marine hospital and a U. S. naval powder- 
magazine, eleven or more churches, an academy, two news¬ 
papers, benevolent societies, a national and a savings bank, 
and a large elastic rubber factory; also manufactures of 
sewing-machines, brass-ware, linseed oil, iron safes, wool¬ 
lens, brushes, machinery, tools, etc. It is connected with 
Boston by the Eastern R. R. and by a ferry miles 
across. Pop. 18,547. Ed. “ Telegraph and Pioneer.” 

Chelsea, a post-village of Sylvan township, Washtenaw 
co., Mich., on the Michigan Central R. R., 55 miles from 
Detroit. It has one weekly paper. Pop. 1013. 

Chelsea, a post-village, capital of Orange co., Vt., 22 
miles S. by E. from Montpelier. It has a national bank, 
an academy, and manufactures of leather, lumber, and 
woollen goods. Pop. including Chelsea township, 1526. 

Chelsea Hospital, at Chelsea, England, is an asy¬ 
lum for disabled or superannuated soldiers. Founded as a 
college in 1610, it was made a hospital in 1682. It has 
accommodations for about 660 persons, and is governed by 
a board of commissioners, comprising, ex-officio, the lord 
president of the council and the first lord of the treasury. 
It supports about 500 in-pensioners and nearly 70,000 out- 
pensioners. The former receive, besides board, lodging, 
and clothing, a small sum of money, varying from eight 
pence a week for a private soldier to three shillings six 
pence for a color-sergeant. The out-pensioners receive 
daily a sum of money varying from four pence to two 
shillings six pence for life. 

Cheltenham, cli£lt'nam, a town and fashionable wa¬ 
tering-place of England, in the county of Gloucester, and 
on the Bristol and Birmingham Railway, 96 miles by the 
road or 121 by railway W. N. W. of London. It is pleas¬ 
antly situated in a picturesque valley on the Chelt, a small 
tributary of the Severn, and is sheltered on the E. and S. E. 
by a semicircle of the Cotswold Hills. It derives its pros¬ 
perity and importance from its mineral springs, which con¬ 
tain sulphates of soda and magnesia, with iodine, iron, and 
carbonic acid. It has elegant squares, terraces, and cres¬ 
cents, and numerous villas, interspersed with gardens and 
shrubberies. The public promenades are among the finest 
in England. It has ten or more churches, besides chapels 
of dissenters, a general hospital, a theatre, a zoological gar¬ 
den, and a well-endowed grammar-school founded in 1574. 
Cheltenham is famous for its colleges and schools, among 
which is the proprietary college for the sons of gentlemen. 
This has usually about 600 pupils. Pop. in 1871,44,519. 

Cheltenham, a post-township of Montgomery co., Pa. 


2462. 

hemical Affinity. See Affinity. 

Iiemical Analysis is the identification and sepa- 
m of the elements of chemical compounds or mixtures 
ny sort. When conducted simply with reference to 
[■mining what elements exist in any substance it is 
ed qualitative analysis. When the absolute or relatn e 
itities of the elements are ascertained it is 
vsis. The theory of qualitative chemical analysis k 

the substance to bo analyzed under such COr jf Rafter 
nations as shall cause all its various elements one after 
her. to present certain characteristic phenomena or to 

























898 


CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 


enter into certain recognizable combinations, and is based 
on the grand truth that each chemical element has constant 
and absolute peculiarities which it carries into its com¬ 
pounds. Thus, the fact that silver and mercury are the 
only elements whose compounds with chlorine are insoluble 
in dilute nitric acid, is taken advantage of to separate 
these two metals from all others. Any nitric solution of 
metals which is not made milky or turbid on the addition 
of hydrochloric acid does not, and cannot, contain silver 
or sub-salts of mercury. Again, any nitric solution wherein 
hydrochloric acid produces a white milkiness or a white 
curdy separation, or a fine dazzling white powder, which 
neither dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute nitric acid, nor hot 
water will clear up, must contain either silver or mercury, 
or both. In case such a white separation—or “precipitate,” 
as the chemist technically terms it—is formed by hydro¬ 
chloric acid in a solution of metals, the liquid, together with 
the suspended precipitate, is poured upon a filter (a conical 
cup folded from a circle of paper specially prepared for the 
purpose) sustained in a glass funnel. The liquid, which 
retains all the other elements in solution, passes the pores 
of the paper, but the precipitate of silver chloride and mer¬ 
curous chloride remains upon it. The filter is next re¬ 
peatedly filled with water until the acid liquid has been 
washed out from the precipitate and the pores of the paper, 
and we have then all the silver and all the mercury that 
existed in the form of sub-salts in the filter, and all the 
other elements in the “filtrate,” as the liquid which has 
passed through is designated. 

The substances which are employed to bring about those 
chemical changes which serve the purposes of chemical 
analysis are called reagents, and the chemical processes 
themselves are termed reactions, for the reason that at least 
two substances must always be involved in chemical trans¬ 
formations, and that both act and are reacted upon. Thus 
the hydrochloric acid employed in our separation of silver 
and mercury from all other metals is a reagent, and the 
precipitation is the evidence of a reaction. 

Chemical reactions have been known and employed to 
identify certain bodies from the earliest times. Pliny de¬ 
scribed the use of paper dyed in nutgalls for detecting iron 
sulphate when mixed with verdigris as an adulteration. 
The reaction is a blackening of the paper (formation of 
ink). In many cases it is easy to recognize a substance by 
simply applying in this manner a single reagent, which is 
then called a test. Thus, copper in its solutions is tested 
by a bit of clean iron wire, which precipitates it as a red 
powder. A clean piece of copper is a test for mercury in 
solution, the latter metal forming a silvery coating on the 
former. Lime-water is a test for carbonic acid gas, making 
with it a white precipitate of carbonate of lime. Hydro¬ 
chloric acid is a test for ammonia, as the vapors of the two, 
when brought together, produce a white cloud. But there 
are circumstances under which such simple tests fail to give 
unequivocal answers to the chemical inquirer, and it is need¬ 
ful to frame a system of operations which takes account of 
all possible contingencies, and which enables the analyst 
not only to prove with certainty that such and such ele¬ 
ments exist in any substance he analyzes, but also gives 
him equal assurance that nothing else is present in it—a 
system, in short, which can lead him to a complete know¬ 
ledge of the composition of any body. Such systems of 
procedure, more or less satisfactory, have been devised out 
of the collective experience of chemists, and their details are 
found in our treatises on qualitative chemical analysis. In 
respect to the elements and compounds of mineral or inor¬ 
ganic chemistry a very perfect plan has been elaborated, 
which has received in all essential points the sanction of 
universal usage. 

This system of analysis applies to all the metals and their 
oxides, and to all their compounds with mineral elements 
or acids. It supposes that the elements, etc. are in a state 
of solution either in water or an appropriate acid, and gives 
directions for obtaining such solutions. The substance is 
first subjected to a “ preliminary examination,” which often 
leads to the detection of some of its ingredients, or demon¬ 
strates the absence of certain elements, and furnishes useful 
hints as to the mode of solution and subsequent procedure. 
The actual examination begins with the application of 
four “general reagents,” which serve to dissect the sub¬ 
stance into six “ groups ” as regards its bases or metallic 
oxides. 

The solution being in nitric acid, the first reagent is hy¬ 
drochloric acid, which precipitates the first group—viz., 
silver and mercury (the latter from mercurous salts). The 
acid filtrate from these chlorides is submitted to a stream 
of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which precipitates the sec¬ 
ond and third groups, consisting of twelve metals together, 
as sulphides. These are collected and washed upon a filter, 
and upon them is poured sulphide of ammonium. This dis¬ 
solves and carries through the filter the sulphides of the 


second group—viz., arsenic, antimony, tin, gold, platinum, 
molybdenum, and tungsten, while the sulphides of mercury 
(from mercuric salts), lead, bismuth, copper, and cadmium, 
constituting the third group, remain undissolved. 

The filtrate from the precipitate by sulphuretted hydro¬ 
gen is next taken in hand, made alkaline by ammonia, and 
sulphide of ammonium is added to it. This throws down, as 
hydroxides or phosphates, aluminium, chromium, glucinum, 
and the cerium metals; as phosphates, calcium, barium, 
strontium, and magnesium,- and as sulphides, nickel, co¬ 
balt, manganese, zinc, iron, uranium, thallium, and indium 
—making a fourth group. 

To the ammoniacal liquid, separated by a filter from the 
last precipitate, is added carbonate of ammonium, whereby 
the fifth group—viz., barium, calcium, and strontium—are 
precipitated as carbonates. 

Lastly, the liquid filtered from the above carbonates may 
contain the alkalies and magnesium. 

The resolution of these groups is accomplished by fur¬ 
ther application of appropriate reagents. Each group is 
treated after a certain order which experience has taught. 
To illustrate: the white precipitate obtained by hydro¬ 
chloric acid, already described, may contain silver chloride 
or mercurous chloride, or both. To complete its examina¬ 
tion we employ the deportment of these chlorides towards 
ammonia-water, which easily dissolves silver chloride to a 
clear liquid, but converts white mercurous chloride into a 
black substance that remains undissolved. It is only need¬ 
ful then to pour dilute ammonia upon the white content 
of the filter; and if it blacken, the presence of mercury is 
demonstrated. The ammonia-water that passes the filter 
is dropped into excess of dilute nitric acid ; the separation 
of a white curdy substance is evidence of silver. 

After thus isolating the two metals we may apply further 
confirmatory tests. Thus, the black mercury compound 
remaining in the filter may be mixed with carbonate of 
sodium, dried, introduced into a small glass flask, and 
heated to redness, when metallic mercury will distil off 
and gather on the cold part of the vessel in brilliant glob¬ 
ules. So, too, the white curds of silver chloride separated 
by nitric acid from the ammoniacal solution may be gath¬ 
ered and washed on a filter, the latter burned, the precipi¬ 
tate and ashes mixed with moist carbonate of sodium into 
a pellet, and heated strongly on charcoal by aid of a jew¬ 
eller’s blowpipe. The silver is thus reduced to the metallic 
state, and may be found, even when present in extremely 
minute quantity, by cutting out the charcoal to a little 
depth around the spot where the pellet was placed, grind¬ 
ing it in a smooth mortar of porcelain or agate, and care¬ 
fully washing away the coal-powder by a gentle flow of 
water. The flattened silver particles will reveal themselves 
by their lustre. 

The detection of acids is accomplished in another por¬ 
tion of the substance by the use of other reagents, after 
the same general plan. 

In quantitative chemical analysis it is needful to convert 
each element of a substance into some form or compound 
which will admit of complete separation from all the others, 
and also of accurate weighing or measuring. In many 
cases an element must be separated in one form, and con¬ 
verted into another for weighing. Silver may be both sep¬ 
arated and weighed as chloride or as metal, whilst zinc 
must be separated as carbonate or sulphide, but can only 
be weighed accurately as oxide. Many of the reactions 
employed in qualitative analysis also serve in quantitative 
estimations; the latter branch of analysis has, however, a 
multitude of processes peculiar to itself. 

In most cases the determination of the quantity of an 
element or ingredient consists in the collection of a precip¬ 
itate on a filter, washing, drying, burning away the paper 
at a red heat, and weighing the ignited residue. This re¬ 
quires a delicate balance, accurate weights, vessels of glass, 
porcelain, and platinum, which are unalterable by acids and 
by heat, and great nicety of manipulation. It also requires 
a perfect knowledge of the deportment of the precipitate 
towards all the reagents and solvents with which it must 
have contact, and a certainty that it can be obtained of 
perfectly definite and known chemical composition. Our 
present stock of this kind of knowledge is the fruit of a 
multitude of the most painstaking experiments, and every 
day the labor of skilled investigators is adding to its variety 
and extent. 

To certain branches or general modes of analysis tech¬ 
nical names arc applied. Thus “blowpipe analysis” des¬ 
ignates a system of operations carried on mainly by aid of 
the blowpipe, which serves for identifying a large share of 
the elements, and even for quantitatively estimating tho 
precious metals, as well as lead, copper, nickel, and some 
others; “ Spectral analysis,” which furnishes the most sen¬ 
sitive tests for tho presence of the alkali metals, is based 
on the fact that the light proceeding from a flame in which 
















CHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS—CHEMISTRY. 


the vapor of any substance is intensely heated, manifests, 
when viewed there by a prism, lines or bands of color whose 
position and number are characteristic. “Volumetric anal¬ 
ysis ” is a branch of quantitative analysis, in which meas¬ 
ured volumes of solutions of determined strength are em¬ 
ployed in reactions whose completion is indicated by some 
change of color or other marked phenomenon. “ Organic 
analysis ” is either ultimate or proximate. The former 
signifies the estimation of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and 
the other elements of organic compounds. Proximate or¬ 
ganic analysis is the separation of organic compounds from 
each other, as is done, for example, in determining the pro¬ 
portions of water, oil, starch, etc. in seeds. “ Assaying” is 
the term usually applied to the estimation of the valuable 
metals, or ingredients of an ore or other commercial article. 

Some of the most striking discoveries of science have been 
steps in the development of chemical analysis. The recog¬ 
nition of oxygen, chlorine, baryta, and manganese were re¬ 
sults of Scheele’s analysis of the mineral “ wad ” or pyrolu- 
site. Among the first fruits of quantitative analysis was 
the discovery of the laws of definite and multiple combin¬ 
ing proportions. Those philosophers who, like Bergmann 
and Dalton, were the first to announce, and those who, like 
Berzelius, Dumas, and Stas, have done most to establish, 
these laws, have been eminent for their skill in analytical 
chemistry. 

The utility of chemical analysis manifests itself in a mul¬ 
titude of directions. By it the values of bullion, coinage, 
and plate are established; ores of all the metals are worked 
and sold on the chemist’s report of their analysis. The 
same is true of a host of commercial articles, such as vari¬ 
ous alkalies, acids, salts, medicines, dyestuffs, fertilizers, 
etc. Chemical analysis furnishes the consumers of these 
and many other articles a protection against the dishonesty 
or ignorance of producers or dealers. The physician often 
gathers decisive diagnostic hints from the analysis of urine ; 
the advocate relies upon chemical analysis for the detection 
of poisons which can be employed in the perpetration of 
murder. 

There are indeed limits to the application of chemical 
analysis. It is not difficult to make mixtures some of whose 
constituents no chemist can identify Avith the knowledge 
now at his disposal. The composition of a large number 
of drugs, such as vegetable extracts, is nearly or quite un¬ 
known; and if a professional chemist certifies that he has 
analyzed a “ compound syrup ” of sarsaparilla, yellow dock, 
and buchu, or a “ bitters” containing the virtues of a dozen 
of the best vegetable remedies, and has found it to be a 
pure and efficacious medicine, the simple fact is, he has not 
done it, and cannot do it, and there is a fraud involved in 
the assertion. 

The successful pursuit of analytical chemistry requires a 
long course of the most patient and conscientious experi¬ 
mental work ; it is therefore an admirable disciplinary study, 
and is recognized as such in the higher schools of Europe 
and this country. 

(The best extended treatises on chemical analysis are 
Rose’s “ Handbuch der Analytischen Chemie;” Fresenius, 
“ Qualitative Analysis,” and the same author’s “ Quantita¬ 
tive Analysis;” Bunsen’s “Gasometric Methods;” IIoppe- 
Seyler’s “ Handbuch der Physiologisch- und Pathologiseh- 
Chemischen Analyse;” and Gorup-Besanez, “ Zoochemis- 
chen Analyse.” The “ Zeitschrift fur Analytische Chemie,” 
edited by Fresenius, and now (1872) in its eleventh volume, 
is a complete repertory of all that is currently published on 
the subject.) S. W. Johnson. 

Chemical Equivalents. See Chemistry. 

Chemille, a town of France, in the department of 
Maine-et-Loire, in the arrondissement Cholet, on a railway, 
20 miles S. S. E. of Angers, and on a small stream called the 
Ilyronne. It has manufactures of linen handkerchiefs, 
woollen cloths, flannels, blankets, etc. Here is also a trade 
in cattle and agricultural products. The neighboring coun¬ 
try produces considerable quantities of grain and white 
wine. Pop. 4414. 

Chemistry [etymology uncertain*]. The present con¬ 

* Perhaps the most probable etymology is that which derives 
the term from Kftem, one of the ancient names of Egypt; signi¬ 
fying also “black” or “dark,” in allusion perhaps to the dark 
and mysterious character of the art of alchemy, or else to the 
fact that Egypt was especially distinguished for its knowledge of 
secret and rare arts. The derivation from the Greek xv/ad?, 
“juice,” seems highly improbable, principally because the origi¬ 
nal spelling of the word as seen in alchemy (whence the modern 
chemistry is derived) had not the first syllable in chy, as it should 
have had coming from the Greek x v ; for the Greek term itself 
wasx^eu* (not x v M fta ); though many modern writers, misled by 
this supposed etymology from x^°s, write alchymy (or alchymie ), 
as well as chymist and chymistry. And though the interchange 
of one vowel or diphthong for anot her is very common in Greek, 
as a for r), ei for i, we believe no instance can be pointed out in 
which v interchanges with y. There seems, moreover, no reason 
to suppose that the mixture or preparation of “juices” of any 


899 


dition of chemical science has been reached by a gradual 
process of evolution. More than at any previous time, 
the individual characteristics which it exhibits represent 
the results of the united labors of all the workers in its 
domain from the dim ages of alchemy to the present day. 
A rapid historical sketch of its development, therefore, can¬ 
not but form an appropriate introduction to a consideration 
of its present condition. 

History .—The alchemists had no science in any proper 
sense. Most of the valuable facts they have handed down 
to us were collected in the search for the philosopher’s stone, 
the universal solvent, or the elixir vitae. Here and there, 
it is true, there were those who speculated upon the facts 
which had been observed, and who strove to evolve from 
them some general principles. But so unsatisfactory were 
the results that, although the word “chemistry”—signify¬ 
ing, however, the art of making gold and silver—came 
into use early in the fourth century, it was not until near 
the close of the seventeenth century that chemistry proper 
had any existence. For our present purpose it is sufficient 
to extend our investigation only to the progress of the 
conception of the constitution of matter. The four ele¬ 
ments of Aristotle (B. C. 384-822), earth, air, fire, and wa¬ 
ter, held undisputed sway until the eighth century. Then 
the Arabian alchemist Geber introduced the theory that 
the metals were made of mercury and sulphur, and sug¬ 
gested, for the first time, the idea that differences of prop¬ 
erties were due to differences of composition. In the thir¬ 
teenth century Albertus Magnus united these two conceptions 
into one, by asserting that the physical properties of bodies 
depended upon the elements of Aristotle, and their chemical 
properties upon those of Geber. In the fifteenth century 
Basil Valentine, the last of the alchemists, added “salt” to 
Geber’s elements, and refined the idea involved in them by 
asserting that by sulphur was meant the inflammable prin¬ 
ciple, by mercury the volatile principle, and by salt the 
fixed principle. Paracelsus (1493-1541) appeared mainly 
as the reformer of medicine. Accepting Basil Valentine’s 
views of matter, he maintained that the health of the human 
body depended upon the presence in it of a just proportion 
of the three principles. The first book upon chemistry was 
written by Libavius in 1595; he defined it as the art of 
producing remedies. The period of Iatro chemistry closes 
with Lernery (1645-1715), who sought again to introduce 
the ideas of Aristotle by uniting two of his elements, water 
and earth, to those of Basil Valentine. A new and more 
hopeful era opens with the English chemist Boyle (1627- 
91). He opposed the views thus far held upon the consti¬ 
tution of matter, and argued that the true elements were 
the bodies—themselves undecomposable—which were ob¬ 
tained by the decomposition of other substances, and which 
could be used to form these substances again. The differ¬ 
ences observed in the elements themselves he accounted for 
by supposing that their smallest particles differed either in 
size or form. Stahl (1660-1734) accepted the theory that 
chemical properties depended upon the presence of certain 
definite constituents, and sought to demonstrate it experi¬ 
mentally. By a closely-knit argument, founded on observed 
facts, he succeeded in giving to his theory of combustion 
—called the “phlogistic theory,” because it assumed the 
presence of phlogiston in all combustible bodies, which 
phlogiston passed off in burning—a solidity which enabled 
it to maintain itself for nearly two hundred years. In the 
steady progress of the science, however, the materials for 
the overthrow of the phlogistic theory were being prepared. 
Black (1728-99), when a medical student in Edinburgh, 
wrote, on his graduation in 1754, a thesis entitled “ De 
Ilumore acido a cibis orto, et Magnesia alba.” Appended 
to it was a series of chemical experiments upon the mild 
and caustic alkalies, which were afterwards extended and 
published separately in 1756. In this paper he shows that 
the mild alkalies differ from the caustic in the fact that they 
contain a large amount of “ fixed air,” which, when a mild 
alkali is treated with an acid, escapes with effervescence. 
A mild alkali is therefore a caustic alkali, plus fixed air. 
Now between the current theories of phlogiston and of 
causticity there is a close analogy. As by the former com¬ 
bustible bodies were compounds of phlogiston, so by the 
latter caustic alkalies were compounds of the caustic prin¬ 
ciple. And as, in burning, the combustible gave up its 
phlogiston and became a calx, so a mild alkali in the fire 
took up the fiery caustic principle and became itself caus¬ 
tic. Black, however, proved that this explanation of caus¬ 
ticity was false; he showed that in burning the mild alkali 
did not gain but lost something, this loss being the “ fixed 
air;” and that it was this loss of fixed air which made a 
caustic alkali. This research of Black made the framing 

kind was the chief occupation of the alchemists, their great 
problem having been the transmutation of baser metals into 
gold ; and, from what we know of the experiments, then c net 
agent was fire. 


















900 


CHEMISTRY. 


of an argument against phlogiston easy. It is not sur¬ 
prising, therefore, that not long afterwards Lavoisier (1743- 
D4), furnished with abundant material by the remarkable 
disooveries of Priestley (1733-1804), Cavendish (1731— 
1810), and Scheele (1742-86), undertook a crusade against 
the Stahlian hypothesis. As Black had shown that the 
loss of causticity depended upon the assumption of a gas¬ 
eous matter—fixed air—by the alkali, so was it not clear 
that the loss of combustibility depended upon the assump¬ 
tion of another kind of gaseous matter—vital air—by the 
combustible ? As the conversion of a mild into a caustic 
alkali did not consist of tho taking up of “ causticum,” but 
in the evolution of fixed air, so the production of a metal 
from its calx did not consist in the taking up of “ phlogis¬ 
ton,” but in the evolution of oxygen. His conclusive ex¬ 
periment with mercury established the analogy, and gave 
phlogiston its deathblow. 

Meanwhile, numerical relations had begun to take their 
place in the science. Though Homberg (1652-1715) had 
attempted to fix the quantity of a base required to saturate 
several different acids, yet it was not until 1777 that Wenzel 
(1740-93) succeeded in establishing the true idea of definite 
chemical combination. His analyses were surprisingly 
accurate. He proved, for example, that 123 parts of lime, 
or 222 parts of potash, neutralized 240 parts of nitric or 
181.5 parts of sulphuric acid. Hence, 123 parts of lime are 
the equivalent, in neutralizing power, of 222 parts of pot¬ 
ash ; and so of the quantities of the acids, as given. Richter 
(1762-1807) extended these experiments, and drew up the 
first tables of equivalents. He showed that the quantity 
of the bases A and B which combined with an acid C would 
also combine with the acids D, E, and F, and hence, that the 
composition of many salts could be calculated from the 
known composition of other salts; thus laying the founda¬ 
tion of Stoichiometry. Richter also pointed out that the 
ratio between the amount of an acid required to saturate 
certain bases, and the amount of oxygen contained in those 
bases, was definite. Thus early was the law of definite pro¬ 
portions established. It was soon followed by another of 
not less importance. In 1804, Dalton (1766-1844), in a 
research upon olefiant and marsh gases, observed that the 
latter contained, to the same weight of carbon, twice as 
much hydrogen as the former. Extending this observation 
to other bodies, he was at once led to the law of multiple 
proportions, which asserts that when one body combines 
with another in more than one proportion, the quantities 
uniting in the second and subsequent cases are simple mul¬ 
tiples of the first. It was in pondering upon the cause of 
so remarkable a law that Dalton devised the atomic theory. 
It seemed clear to him that the definite weights with which 
bodies enter into combination represent definite quantities 
of matter, indivisible by chemical means. These definite 
quantities of matter he proposed to call atoms; they were 
of the same size, but their weights were proportional to the 
combining weights in each case. These atoms combined 
with each other, forming compounds; hence the quantities 
combining must be definite in weight; they might be mul¬ 
tiples in one case of the quantities in another, and the weight 
of the compound must be the sum of the weights of its con¬ 
stituents. These atomic weights being relative, Dalton 
chose the smallest of them, that of hydrogen, as a standard, 
calling it unity. In 1808 he published a table of atomic 
weights, in which that of nitrogen is 5, of carbon 5, of 
oxygen 7, of sulphur 13, of iron 38, of zinc 56, of silver 100, 
of mercury 167, etc. Some of Dalton’s contemporaries 
accepted his views in full, others only in part. Among the 
latter was Wollaston (1766-1828), who accepted Dalton’s 
numbers, but preferred to call them equivalents, on tho 
ground that an equivalent was a fact, an atomic weight 
only a hypothesis. Davy (1778-1829) also rejected tho 
hypothesis of atoms, but proposed “ proportional numbers ” 
for Dalton’s atomic weights. Nevertheless, the atomic 
theory stimulated investigation, and chemists set them¬ 
selves at work to revise, and if possible to make more accu¬ 
rate, these numbers of Dalton. 

Contemporaneously with this progress in the determi¬ 
nation of the combining weights of the elements was an 
advance in ascertaining their combining volumes. Gay- 
Lussac (1778-1850), in connection with Humboldt, proved 
in 1805 that water was formed by the union of one volume 
of oxygen with two volumes of hydrogen. Continuing his 
researches, he showed in 1809 that the combination of any 
two gases always took place in simple volume-ratios, and 
that the volume of the product always bore a simple ratio 
to that of its constituents. This discovery was not only an 
important confirmation of the law of definite proportions, 
but it furnished a means by which an atomic weight could 
with certainty be determined. For, since, according to 
Dalton, bodies combine in proportions represented by the 
weight of their atoms, and, according to Gay-Lussac, the 
simple gases also combine by volume in a simple ratio, it is 


evident that the relative weights of these volumes ought to 
represent the atomic weights. But the relative weight of a 
given volume is the density; hence the atomic weights of 
simple gases are proportional to their densities. Singu¬ 
larly enough, Dalton—who, more than any other, should 
have welcomed this new confirmation of his views—refused 
to accept it, and attacked the accuracy of the results. Ber¬ 
zelius (1779-1848), however, warmly espoused the new 
theory of volumes, and constructed his tables of atomic 
weights in accordance with it. By the improvements in 
methods of analysis which he devised, he was able, in 1815, 
to give a wonderfully accurate table of this kind, in which— 
following Wollaston—he took oxygen as the standard and 
called it 100. Hydrogen he gave as 6.24. The influence 
of Gay-Lussac’s law is here clearly apparent. For, since 
by Wollaston’s equivalents the ratio of the hydrogen in 
water to the oxygen is as 1 to 8 , and by Gay-Lussac’s law 
the volumes are as 2 to 1 , it is clear that the ratio of the 
weights of these volumes is as 2 to 16, or as 6.24 to 100, as 
Berzelius gave it. Moreover, he substituted for the arbi¬ 
trary notation of Dalton—which consisted of circles—a 
system of symbols, in which each atom was represented by 
the first letter of its Latin name. A bar drawn through a 
symbol signified a double atom, and a dot over it indicated 
an atom of oxygen. Water was written I1 2 0, or, abbre¬ 
viated, If; nitric acid, N 2 O 5 , or N. In order to bring his 
atomic weights into accordance with the equivalents of 
Wollaston and Davy, Berzelius had recourse to an unfortu¬ 
nate hypothesis, lie admitted the existence among the 
elements of double atoms, inseparable in combination, 
which were represented by his barred symbols. These 
double atoms of Berzelius were equal in weight to the 
equivalents of Wollaston. 

Two parties were now in the field. On the one side was 
Dalton with his atomic theory, maintaining that when but 
a single combination between elements took place it always 
took place atom to atom, and considering the atomic weight 
to be the quantity of a substance which united with one 
atom of hydrogen; and Wollaston and Davy, rejecting the 
theory of atoms, and asserting that an equivalent of any 
clement was the quantity of it by weight which combined 
with 10 parts of oxygen. On the other was Berzelius— 
already more than a match for any of his contemporaries— 
accepting the theory of Dalton, and contending that the 
atomic weights were proportional to the gaseous volumes, 
being tho relative weights of these volumes when equal, but 
conceding the existence of inseparable double atoms. Dal¬ 
ton confounded the idea of atomic weight with that of 
equivalent; Wollaston and Davy retained the idea of equiva¬ 
lent, but carried it out inconsistently; Berzelius conceived 
the true idea of an atom, and sharply distinguished it from 
that of an equivalent. In the case of non-volatile bodies, 
as the metals, however, he too considered an atomic weight 
to be the quantity which combined with 100 of oxygen to 
form the first degree of oxidation, though, for special rea- 
sons, he varied this rule in some cases. The great weight 
of his authority bore down all opposition, and for twenty 
years his views were the absolute basis of chemical science. 
His theory, nevertheless, had its weak points; and in 1848 
Gmelin (1788—1853) in the fourth edition of his “ Lehrbuch 
der Cheinie,” attacked the chief of these, the theory of double 
atoms. “ There is no compound,” he says, “ containing but 
one atom of hydrogen, nitrogen, etc., as small as that 
adopted by Berzelius. Hence two atoms of these bodies are 
the equivalent of one atom of oxygen. If the atoms be sup¬ 
posed twice as great, the idea of an atom will coincide with 
that of an equivalent, and all confusion will be avoided.” 
He therefore proposed that the formulas of water, hydro¬ 
chloric acid, and ammonia, which Berzelius had written 
II 2 0, H 2 CI 2 , and Il 6 N 2 , should be written HO, HC1, and II 3 N. 
This argument of Gmelin, strengthened by the old idea of 
Wollaston that atoms were purely hypothetical and equiva¬ 
lents were actual, succeeded in leading chemists to ignore 
the positive results obtained by Gay-Lussac, and to sink 
back into the old equivalent system of notation. The view 
of chemical equivalency thus adopted, however, based as it 
was on negative statements mainly, was full of inconsist¬ 
encies. Adopting, as less cumbrous, the hydrogen scale of 
equivalents, and therefore assuming that an equivalent of 
any substance was the quantity of it which united with one 
atom of hydrogen, the chemists who advocated it gave 14 
as the equivalent of nitrogen, although it was certain that 
this quantity combined, not with one, but vyith three atoms 
of hydrogen. In the case of salts, a class of bodies termed 
ternary by Berzelius, and formulated on the dualistic or 
electro-chemical view, the same is true. Wenzel, Richter, and 
even Berzelius, had studied the neutralization of acids by 
bases, and had formed tables of equivalencies between them. 
It was impossible to assert that all bases were equivalent to 
each other. One equivalent of alumina, for example, sat- 











CHEMISTRY. 


urated three times as much sulphuric acid as one equiva¬ 
lent of potash ; and phosphoric acid, equivalent for equiva¬ 
lent, required three times as much base as nitric. In 
general, polyacid bases and polybasic acids could not be 
brought into accordance with the theory except by strained 
hypothesis or arbitrary assumption. Consistency required 
the adoption of formulas which were at variance with fact. 
The need of a reform was apparent, and it was soon begun. 
The reformer was Gerhardt (1816—56). He was struck with 
the fact that on the existing notation, whenever any or¬ 
ganic reaction gave rise to the formation of water or of car¬ 
bonic gas, the quantity of these bodies evolved never corre¬ 
sponded to a single equivalent, but always to two or a mul¬ 
tiple of two. Moreover, he observed that if the equivalents 
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen were taken at 6 , 1 , and 8 , 
respectively, then that all organic formulas contained an 
even number of carbon and of oxygen atoms. If, he rea¬ 
soned, C 2 O 4 (in which C 2 = 12 and* 64 = 32 ) be the smallest 
quantity of carbonic gas which can be set free in any reac¬ 
tion, is it not a complete molecule? and is it not better to 
write the formula CO 2 , in which C =12 and 02 = 32? So,, 
if H 2 O 2 be a molecule of water, is it not better to double the 
weight of the oxygen atom and write it H 2 O ? Thus did 
Gerhardt sharply define the ideas of molecule and atom, 
and thus did he construct his tables of atomic weights, 
which, while closely accordant with those of Berzelius, 
avoided his hypothesis of double atoms. In accordance 
with the law of Gay-Lussac, and with the law of Avogadro 
and Ampere—that equal volumes of all gases contained the 
same number of molecules—Gerhardt defined a molecule to 
be that quantity of any substance which in the gaseous state 
occupied two volumes, the standard volume being that oc¬ 
cupied by an atom of hydrogen. As Berzelius had written 
many of his formulas in accordance with his dualistic 
ideas—nitric acid, for example, being N 2 O 5 II 2 O or II 2 N 2 O 6 — 
which formulas corresponded to 4 volumes of vapor, Ger¬ 
hardt at once halved them, writing nitric acid HNO 3 , and 
so brought them to the 2-volume standard. He regarded 
molecules as units, whence the name “ unitary ” given to 
his system. He maintained that the determination of the 
arrangement of the atoms within the molecule was impos¬ 
sible, and hence opposed the use of rational formulas. He 
rejected the compound radical theory of Lavoisier and Ber¬ 
zelius, and accepted, with curious inconsistency, Laurent’s 
theory of “residues,” essentially similar. 

Gerhardt’s eaily death prevented the full development of 
his views. His atomic weights were never fully accepted 
until after they had become modified by the influence of 
two physical laws discovered some time before. In 1819 
two French chemists, Dulong (1735-1838) and Petit (1791— 
1820), showed that the specific heats of simple bodies were 
inversely proportional to their atomic weights; or, what is 
the same thing, that the atoms of all simple bodies have 
the same specific heat. Although Berzelius had regarded 
this law in fixing certain of his atomic weights, yet it was 
not until re-investigated by Regnault in 1849 that it was 
generally used. He called attention to the fact that to 
make the equivalent weights then in use accord with the 
law of specific heats, it was necessary only to halve the 
equivalents of hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine, 
phosphorus, arsenic, potassium, sodium, and silver. But 
this, in all but the last three cases, was to return to the 
atomic weights of Berzelius. Gerhardt, however, in doing 
this, had arbitrarily assigned to the protoxides the formula 
R 2 0 , while the law of specific heats allowed this formula 
only in the cases of potassium, sodium, and silver. For 
all other metals, therefore, the protoxides were RO, and the 
atomic weights of Berzelius were more accurate than those 
of Gerhardt. The second law which influenced atomic 
weight was the law of isomorphism, discovered in 1819 by 
Mitscherlich (1794-1863). He proved that bodies similarly 
constituted crystallize similarly; and hence that bodies 
really isomorp'hous— i. e., having crystalline forms nearly 
or quite identical—ought to be represented by analogous 
formulas. For example, cuprous sulphide is isomorphous 
with silver sulphide; its formula should therefore be Cu 2 S, 
analogous to Ag 2 S, and not Cu 4 S, as Gerhardt wrote it. 
Thus,°in due time, all the considerations which bear upon 
the question of atomic weights appear to have been re¬ 
garded, and these weights established to the satisfaction 
of all. 

Another of the most prolific of modern chemical theories 
must be briefly glanced at in this place. This theory, called 
the theory of types, was first proposed in 1839 by Dumas, 
upon his discovery of trichloracetic acid. lie stated it 
thus: When equivalent substitution of any of the elements 
of a compound takes place, the compound itself retains its 
original chemical type, the replacing element playing the 
same part as that which is replaced. len years later 
Wurtz discovered the amines, and in his paper on the sub¬ 
ject compared them either to ether, in which oxygen was 


901 


replaced by amidogen (NH 2 ), or to ammonia, in which one 
atom of hydrogen was replaced by an alcoholic radical. 
The investigation of these “compound ammonias” was 
continued by Hofmann, who accepted the latter view, and 
has since given it a most remarkable development. In 
1851, Williamson extended the idea of types by his beau¬ 
tiful researches upon etherification, and especially by the 
discovery of mixed ethers. The water-type had been sug¬ 
gested already by Laurent (1807-53), who had formulated 
caustic and anhydrous potash upon it; it had been ex¬ 
tended by Sterry Hunt. But Williamson went farther: he 
showed conclusively that if an alcohol molecule contained 
the ethyl group once, that of ether contained it twice— 
that if alcohol be represented by replacing half the hydro- 

C Hr ) 

gen in water by ethyl, 2 jj [ 0 , then ether ought to be 

represented by replacing the whole, p 2 jj^ j O* By a rapid 

generalization of this view he showed that the acids, bases, 
and salts, not only of mineral, but also of organic chem¬ 
istry, were readily referable to the water-type. Two types 
were now established, the water and the ammonia types. 
Gerhardt increased the number by proposing the type hy¬ 
drogen (HH), not only for free elements, like chlorine and 
potassium, but for the hydrides, aldehydes, ketones, and 
radicals of the carbon series; and the type hydrochloric acid 
(IICl) as the type of the haloid salts and ethers. In the 
same year Williamson suggested the idea of “condensed 
types” for the polybasic acids and the polyacid bases. On 


the water-type twice condensed, j| 2 j O 2 , he formulated sul¬ 
phuric acid, by replacing half the hydrogen by the radical 
(SO 2 ), ( S °}> | O 2 . Odling showed that phosphoric acid was 


derived from the water-type trebly condensed, 


(PO)”' 

II3 


O3; 


the replacing power of a radical being indicated by dashes 
(PO)”'. In 1854 he introduced the conception of “ mixed 
types,” arguing that if a poly-equivalent radical could re¬ 
place the hydrogen atoms in several similar molecules, 
either wholly or partially, it could also thus unite several 
dissimilar molecules. 

Two distinct ideas are involved in the theory of types: 
one is the idea of the replacing body or radical; the other 
is that of the body in which the replacement takes place, or 
the type itself. The first of these involves clearly the con¬ 
ception of replacing power ; those substances being first 
formulated ujjon the theory of types whose radicals replaced 
but a single atom of hydrogen. The brilliant research of 
Wurtz upon the glycols, made in 1856, proved that ethylene 
replaced two atoms of hydrogen. And, starting from this, 
Cannizzaro in 1858 established the analogy for several of 
the metals, and thus originated the principle of classifying 
the elements according to their replacing power. The same 
year Kekule gave a vigorous impulse to this idea of ele¬ 
mental replacing power by establishing, in a paper on the 
chemical nature of carbon, the fact that this element had a 
replacing power of four. Gradually, the names atomicity, 
quantivalence, and equivalence came into use to express 
this replacing power—an atom being a monad, dyad, triad, 
or tetrad, or a univalent, bivalent, trivalent, or quadrivalent 
radical, according as its replacing power is equal to one, 
two, three, or four atoms of hydrogen. Wurtz, however, 
prefers to use the terms monatomic, diatomic, triatomic, etc. 
for the same purpose. But this combining or replacing 
power is not invariable. A given element, according to the 
law of multiple proportions, may form a series of compounds 
with another element, and in each of these its equivalence 
must be different. It was early observed, however, that 
this variation in equivalence always took place by twos; 
so that an atom might replace 1, 3, 5, or 7, or 2, 4, 6 , or 8 
hydrogen atoms. The equivalence never changes from 
even to odd, or the reverse. Odling therefore divided the 
elements into two groups, calling the group of even equiva¬ 
lence artiads, and the group of odd equivalence perissads. 
If an atom is a perissad in one of its compounds, it is so in 
all; and so if it is an artiad. Out of this classification of 
the elements according to their equivalence, involving as it 
does the predetermination of their compounds, there grew, 
insensibly and almost inevitably, the idea of molecular 
arrangement. Though isomerism had necessitated the sup¬ 
position that differences of arrangement must exist, yet 
hitherto the precise character of this difference could not 
be determined. To express the idea, three sorts of graphic 
formulas were devised. The first, by Kekul 6 , consisted of 
ovoids, longer or shorter according to the equivalence : 
(T) (TT )( TT7)(.. ♦ ; the second, by Foster, consisted simply 

of lines, thus: | M i I I I I I I j and the third, by ( rum 
Brown, was composed of circles with radiating lines: 


6 0 A -CV. The latter notation—using symbols in 
















002 


CHEMISTEY. 


place of circles—is in general use. If oxygen be a dyad, 
and hydrogen a monad, the graphic formula of water must 
be II—0—II : the oxygen must link the two II atoms to¬ 
gether; there is no other arrangement possible. 

The second part of the theory of types is involved in the 
idea of the body in which the replacement is effected; i. e., 
the type itself. Four of these were fixed by Gerhardt— 
namely, HH, HC1, II 2 O, and II 3 N ; to which Odling subse¬ 
quently added II 4 C. HH and 1IC1 were soon after united ; 
and indeed it was soon shown that all the others were 
easily derived from the hydrogen type. Upon examina¬ 
tion of these types, it is evident that the atoms united to 
the hydrogen successively increase in equivalence, the Cl 
being a monad, the 0 a dyad, etc. The reason, therefore, 
why these substances are really typical is obvious : it is 
because they represent the combinations of monads, dyads, 
triads, tetrads, etc. with other elements; i. e., all possible 
compounds. In this light the type theory appears as only 
a special case of the broader theory of equivalence, into 
which, by the labors of Ivekule, Wurtz, Ilofmann, Boutle- 
row, and others, it has already been completely merged. 

Bibliography. —H. Kopp, “ Geschichte der Chemie,” 
1843; Bekzelius, “Lehrbuch der Chemie,” 1843-1848; 
Gmelin, “ Handbook of Chemistry,” 1848 ; Ivekule, “ Lehr- 
buch der organischen Chemie,” 1861; Foster, article on 
“ Classification” in Watts’s “ Dictionary,” 1S63 ; Hofmann, 
“ Introduction to Modern Chemistry,” 1865 ; Wurtz, “In¬ 
troduction to Chemical Philosophy,” 1867; Wurtz, “His- 
toire des Doctrines Chimiques,” 1868; Boutlerow, “ Lehr- 
buch der organischen Chemie,” 1868; Crum Brown, 
“ Development of the Idea of Chemical Composition,” 1869 ; 
II. Kopp, “ Die Entwickelung der Chemie in der neueren 
Zeit,” 1871. (Reference has been made to Wurtz’s “Dic- 
tionnaire de Chimie,” the “Neues Handworterbuch der 
Chemie,” and to current papers in the journals.) 

Theoretical Chemistry. —Modern science regards matter 
as divisible into masses, molecules, and atoms. A mass of 
matter is any portion recognizable by the senses. A mo¬ 
lecule of matter is the smallest quantity of any substance 
which can exist by itself, and which can enter into or leave 
a chemical change. An atom is the smallest particle of 
matter which can exist in combination. A molecule is 
made up of atoms, and a mass is made up of molecules. 
These divisions of matter are held together by attractions, 
called, respectively, mass, molecular, and atomic attrac¬ 
tion. Mass attraction is called gravitation; molecular at¬ 
traction is called cohesion; and atomic attraction is called 
chemism. Differences in molecular composition produce 
differences in the physical properties of bodies; differences 
in atomic composition produce differences in their chemical 
properties. The only differences possible in atomic com¬ 
position are: ( 1 ) a difference in the kind of atoms in the 
molecule; ( 2 ) a difference in the number of these; and ( 3 ) 
a difference in their arrangement. Hence, upon these 
three all the chemical differences observed in matter must 
depend. Water differs from salt because a molecule of the 
former, made up of oxygen and hydrogen, differs from a 
molecule of the latter, made up of chlorine and sodium, in 
the kind of atoms which it contains. Litharge differs 
from red lead because their molecules, while containing in 
both cases lead and oxygen atoms, differ in the number of 
these present in each; cane-sugar and milk-sugar are dif¬ 
ferent, because the kind and number of atoms composing 
their molecules being alike, the arrangement of them is 
different. Chemistry, therefore, may be defined as the sci¬ 
ence which treats of the atomic composition of bodies, and 
of those changes in matter which result from an alteration 
in the kind, number, or relative position of the atoms which 
compose the molecule. 

Chemistry, then, is the science of atoms. It takes cog¬ 
nizance only of those facts which depend upon differences 
of atomic constitution. Hence, no substance is chemically 
understood until the kind, the relative and absolute num¬ 
ber, and the arrangement of the atoms within its molecule, 
are known. To determine the first of these, the kind of 
atoms, is the business of qualitative analysis ; it affirms 
that a water-molecule contains only oxygen and hydrogen 
atoms, and a salt-molecule only atoms of chlorine* and of 
sodium. The relative number of atoms contained in a 
molecule of any substance is ascertained by quantitative 
analysis, being obtained by dividing the percentage of each 
constituent by its atomic weight, and clearing the quotients 
of fractions. The absolute number of atoms in any molecule 
is fixed from the molecular weight, which is obtained gen¬ 
erally from physical data. Knowing the weight of the 
molecule, it is easy to distribute this weight among the 
constituent atoms in the proportions given by analysis; 
then, dividing the quantity of each substance present by 
its atomic weight, the absolute number of atoms is obtained. 
The arrangement of the atoms within the molecule is as- 
certained either directly, being deduced necessarily from 


the law of equivalence, or indirectly, by experiment. 
Since the strength of the atomic attraction varies in the 
different parts of a molecule by reason either of distance 
or position, it is possible to break up the molecule so as to 
obtain certain groups existing in it in other and recogniz¬ 
able forms. Hence, by breaking up a molecule by suitable 
means, and studying its derivatives, the character of its 
groupings, and consequently the arrangement of the atoms 
within it, may be accurately determined. 

Molecular constitution is the basis of chemical classifica¬ 
tion. In the first place, all substances are divided into two 
classes, according as their molecules are made up of like 
or of unlike atoms. A substance like sulphur, carbon, or 
iron is made up of molecules containing like atoms, and is 
called a simple or elementary substance; a substance like 
salt, water, or sugar is made up of molecules containing 
unlike atoms, and is called a compound substance. These 
two kinds of molecules are easily distinguished by the fact 
that upon rearranging the atoms between two contiguous 
molecules the former yields no new substance, while from 
the latter some different form of matter is obtained. If, 
for instance, two molecules of simple matter be represented 
by AA and AA, it is evident that rearrangement would 
only produce AA and AA again, exactly like the others; 
but if rearrangement be effected between two compound 
molecules, AB and AB, then the product would be AA and 
BB, two new forms of simple matter. It should be men¬ 
tioned that if the agent employed was not powerful enough 
to produce the rearrangement, the result would be, appar¬ 
ently, that first given, even if the substance were com¬ 
pound ; it may be, therefore, that some of the bodies now 
considered elementary will be proved compound upon the 
discovery of some new and more energetic rearranging 
force. Thus far, however, sixty-three substances have re¬ 
sisted all attempts to decompose them and to evolve from 
them other forms of matter. These substances, therefore, 
are regarded as elementary. Since each molecule is made 
up of like atoms, and these are peculiar to itself, it follows 
that the number of known kinds of atoms is sixty-three 
also. The number of atoms contained in a simple molecule 
is called its atomicity. It is obtained by dividing the 
weight of the whole molecule by the weight of a single 
atom. The molecular weight is generally obtained by 
means of the law of Avogadro or Ampere, which asserts 
that equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of 
molecules. Whence it follows (1) that the molecules of all 
bodies in the gaseous state must be of the same size; and 
(2) that the molecular weights must be as the weights of 
equal volumes. Taking, for example, the weight of one 
liter of hydrogen (.0896 gram) as unity, the weight of one 
liter of oxygen (1.43 grams) is 16, the weight of a liter of 
arsenic vapor (13.41 grams) is 150, and the weight of a 
liter of mercury vapor (8.96 grams) is 100. Hence, a mo¬ 
lecule of oxygen is 16, a molecule of arsenic is 150, and a 
molecule of mercury is 100, times as heavy as a molecule 
of hydrogen. But the weight of a molecule of hydrogen, 
containing two atoms, is 2; hence the molecular weight 
of oxygen is 32, of arsenic is 300, and of mercury 200. 
Since the atomic weight of oxygen is 16, that of arsenic is 
75, and that of mercury is 200, it is evident that the 
molecule of oxygen is diatomic, that of arsenic tetratomic, 
and that of mercury monatomic. Most of the elementary 
molecules are diatomic. 

Atoms differ from each other (1) in weight, (2) in the 
quality of their combining power, and (3) in the quantity 
of this power. An atomic weight is the weight of an atom, 
referred to that of hydrogen as unity. Since an atom is 
the smallest quantity of an element which can enter into 
the composition of a molecule, it is evident that by analyz¬ 
ing the molecules of several different compounds of a given 
element, and by comparing together the quantity of this 
element contained in each, the atomic weight may readily 
be fixed. Thus, it is found that the quantity of bromine 
contained in a molecule of its hydrogen compound is 80; 
of its mercury compound is 160 ; of its boron compound is 
240; and of its silicon compound is 320. Its atomic weight 
is therefore 80, because it is the smallest quantity by w r eight 
in which bromine enters into combination. According to the 
quality of their combining power, atoms are divided into 
two classes, called positive or negative, according as, in 
electrolysis, they go to the negative or positive pole. To 
the former or positive class belong the metals in general; 
to the latter or negative class, the non-metals. This dis¬ 
tinction is a purely relative one, since an atom may be pos¬ 
itive when associated with one atom and negative with 
another. This property of atoms affects the quality of the 
molecule into which they enter; the hydrates of positive 
atoms, for example, being bases, and the hydrates of nega¬ 
tive being acids. Besides the differences now noticed, atoms 
differ also in their equivalence, or their pow'er of entering 
into combination with other atoms. Taking the atom of 




















CHEMISTRY. 


903 


hydrogen as the standard, it is found that other atoms have 
combining powers two, three, four, five, and even six, times 
as great. Such atoms are called, therefore, monads, dyads, 
triads, tetrads, pentads, and hexads. The combining power 
of a hexad atom being six times as great as that of a hy¬ 
drogen atom, and that of a dyad atom being three times as 
great, a complete molecule formed by their union must be 
composed of one hexad and three dyad atoms. But atomic 
equivalence is variable; a monad may act as a triad or even 
as a pentad. This variation, however, always takes place 
by twos; so that atoms of even equivalence (called artiads) 
remain even, and atoms of odd equivalence (called peris- 
sads) remain odd. 

Compound molecules are built up by the union of dis¬ 
similar atoms. But since atoms do not exist free and 
uncombined, a direct union of these is impossible. Hence 
the union must take place by way of exchange. If, for 
instance, the two simple molecules AA and BB be brought 
together, the attraction of unlike atoms for each other being 
stronger than that of like, rearrangement will take place, 
and AB and AB, two compound molecules, will result. The 
number of atoms which a compound molecule may contain 
is apparently unlimited. Two classes of compound mole¬ 
cules are distinguished: in one the characteristic constit- | 


uent atoms are united directly together; in the other they 
are linked together by the intervention of a third atom. 
The former are called binary compounds, because, whatever 
the absolute number of atoms present, they can never be 
of more than two kinds. The latter are called ternary, be¬ 
cause there must always be present at least three atoms. 
Salt, for example, is a binary compound, because made up 
of molecules containing sodium and chlorine atoms; nitric 
acid is a ternary compound, because made up of molecules 
consisting of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms, the 
two first being linked together by the last. It is evident 
that only a poly-equivalent atom can link others together ; 
and, in fact, the dyad oxygen and the triad nitrogen per¬ 
form by far the largest part of this w T ork. Hence, ternary 
molecules may be divided into two groups, according as 
oxygen or nitrogen performs in them the linking function. 
Moreover, the quality of the chemism of atoms here comes 
in, and each of these groups may be subdivided into three 
classes, according as the dominant atom united to hydrogen 
is positive or negative, or as the molecule contains both 
thus united. The classification of simple and compound 
molecules above given may be conveniently presented in a 
tabular form, thus: 


Molecules 


Like atoms 


Unlike atoms - 


United directly 


United indirectly 


By a dyad 


.Element. 

..Binary. 

R and H Acid. 

R and H Base. 

. R and R Salt. 


By a triad 


R and II Amide. 

—I— 

R and H Amine. 

- “h 

R and R Alkalamide. 




The principle upon which compound substances are 
named is essentially that proposed by Lavoisier. Every 
molecule must contain at least two atoms, one of which is 
positive to the other, which is negative. In the case of 
binary molecules the rule is : Place the name of the positive 
first, and then that of the negative, changing the termina¬ 
tion of this into ide. A substance composed of potassium 
and sulphur would therefore be called potassium sulphide. 
If the positive atom varies its equivalence, this fact is indi¬ 
cated by giving it, for the higher of two stages, the termi¬ 
nation ic, and for the lower the termination ous , as mercuric 
and mercurous oxides. Should a third stage be developed 
below the oas-compound, the prefix hypo is given, as 
hyposulphurous oxide; or if above the ic-body, the prefix 
per, as perchloric oxide. Ternary molecules are similarly 
named, except that the negative terminations are ate and 
ite, instead of ide. Sodium and iodine united directly form 
sodium iodide, a binary, but if united by oxygen they form 
sodium iodate, a ternary. So hydrogen and phosphorus 
united by oxygen form hydrogen phosphate; potassium 
and hydrogen thus united form potassium hydrate. Be¬ 
sides these systematic names the acids have more common 
ones, which are formed from the name of the characteristic 
atom by adding ic or ous as in the case of binaries, ic cor¬ 
responding to ate, and ous to ite. Thus, hydrogen sulphate 
is sulphuric acid, and hydrogen nitrite is nitrous acid. 

The system of chemical notation now in use is also old, 
being essentially that devised by Berzelius. The atomic 
symbols are the first letters of their Latin names, or, when 
two have the same letter, the first and some other distinct¬ 
ive letter. The symbol of sodium—Latin, natrium —being 
Na, and thatof chlorine being Cl, amolecule of sodium chlo¬ 
ride, or salt, is represented by placing them together, thus: 
NaCl, the positive coming first. If more than one atom of 
any constituent be present, the number is indicated by a 
numeral placed below and to the right of the symbol; thus, 
water is written H 2 O. In the case of ternary molecules 
especially it is necessary to express not only the kind and 
the number of atoms the molecule contains, but also their 
arrangement. The formula HNO 3 , for example, indicates 
only that a molecule of nitric acid contains one atom of 
hydrogen, one of nitrogen, and three of oxygen. But since 
several bodies might be represented by such a formula, it 
is necessary to go farther and to fix the constitution of the 
molecule. This may be done by the use of graphic or of 
rational formulas. The graphic formula of nitric acid is 

0 

N—0—II; the rational formula is N 02 ( 0 II). Both ex- 

II 

0 

press the fact that,two of the oxygen atoms act simply to 
saturate the nitrogen, while the third links the hydrogen 
to it. Moreover, this question is one of practical import¬ 
ance, since the basicity or salt-forming power of the acid 
is directly as the number of hydrogen atoms, thus linked, 


which it contains. Nitric acid, as above, contains one such 

0 

II 

atom, and is monobasic ; sulphuric acid, II—0—S—0—H, 

II 

0 

0 

II 

or S(> 2 (OH) 2 , is dibasic; phosphoric acid H—0—P—0—H, 

11 

0 

II 

II 

or PO(OH) 3 , is tribasic. By exchanging its hydrogen for 
a metal, an acid forms a salt; KNO 3 , potassium nitrate, is 
formed by replacing the hydrogen in HNO 3 by potassium. 
When an acid and a base are brought together, a salt and 
water are the products. Thus hydrogen nitrate N 02 ( 0 H) 
and potassium hydrate K(OH) act to produce potassium 
nitrate NC> 2 (OK) andH(OH), or H 2 O. Water, acting upon 
a positive oxide, yields a base; upon a negative oxide, an 
acid; while a positive oxide acting upon a negative oxide 
yields a salt. 

Chemical changes are called reactions—the substances 
producing them, reagents. Reactions are represented by 
equations, in which the symbols of the factors, or substances 
acting, form one member, and the symbols of the products, 
or the substances which result, form the other. Reactions 
are of three kinds—analytical, in which a complex molecule 
is broken up into simpler ones; synthetical, where two or 
more simpler molecules unite to form a more complex one ; 
and metathetical, in which a simple transposition of atoms 
takes place between molecules. Since every symbol repre¬ 
sents an atom, and hence an atomic weight, the quantities 
of matter entering or leaving any chemical reaction are 
expressed in the equation. Whence, knowing the factors, 
it is easy to calculate the weight of the product, or to ascer¬ 
tain what quantity of the factors is required to yield a given 
weight of the product. Chemical calculations, founded on 
atomic weights, consfitute the department of Stoichiometry. 

Bibliocjrcqihy. — Odling, “ Manual of Chemistry,” 1861; 
Buff, “ Grundlehren der theoretischen Chemie,” 1863; 
Galloway, “ Second Step in Chemistry,” 1864; Frank- 
land, “ Lecture-notes for Chemical Students,” 1866 ; Wil¬ 
liamson, “Chemistry for Students,” 1868; An. Wurtz, 
“Le§ons elementaires de Chimie moderne,” 1868; Blom- 
strand, “ Die Chemie der Jetztzeit,” 1869 ; Barker, “ Text¬ 
book of Elementary Chemistry,” 1870 ; Odling, “ Outlines 
of Chemistry,” 1870 ; Geuther, “Lehrbuch der Chemie,” 
1870 ; Cooke, “ First Principles of Chemical Philosophy,” 
1871. 

General Chemistry .—This branch of chemical science is 
essentially descriptive. It takes up the elements, grouped 
according to their several analogies, and discusses theii his¬ 
tory, their occurrence, their methods of preparation, their 
properties, and their compounds with each other. It is 
obvious that such a treatment must bo an extended one, 





















904 CHEMMIS—CHENIER, DE. 


covering the entire sixty-three simple substances and their 
innumerable compounds. We must refer those interested, 
therefore, to any of the larger treatises upon chemistry for 
these details, and content ourselves with giving the annexed 
tabular statement of the names, equivalences, symbols, and 
atomic weights of the elements at present known: 


Perissads. 

Monads: 

Symbol. 

At. wt, 

Hydrogen, 


II 

1 

Fluorine, 


F 

19 

Chlorine, 

I, III, V, VII. 

Cl 

35.5 

Bromine, 

I, III, V, VII. 

Br 

80 

Iodine, 

I, III, V, VII. 

I 

127 

Lithium, 


Li 

7 

Sodium, 

i, hi. 

Na (Natrium) 

23 

Potassium, 

I, III, V. 

Iv (Kalium) 

39 

Rubidium, 


Rb 

85 

Caesium, 


Cs 

133 

Silver, 

i, hi. 

Ag ( Argentum) 

108 

Thallium, 

i, in. 

T1 

204 

Triads: 

Nitrogen, 

I, in, V. 

N 

14 

Phosphorus, 

I, III, V. 

P 

31 

Arsenic, 

I, III, V. 

As 

75 

Antimony, 

Ill, V. 

Sb (Stibium) 

122 

Bismuth, 

Ill, V. 

Bi 

210 

Boron, 


B 

11 

Gold 

i, iii. 

Au (Aurum) 

196 

Pentads: 

Columbium, 


Cb 

94 

Tantalum, . 

Vanadium, hi, v. j 

Ta 

182 

51.3 


Artiads. 


Dyads : 


Oxygen, 


O 

16 

Sulphur, 

II, IV, VI. 

S 

32 

Selenium, 

II, IV, VI. 

Se 

79 

Tellurium, 

II, IV, VI. 

Te 

128 

Calcium, 

II, IV. 

Ca 

40 

Strontium, 

II, IV. 

Sr 

87.5 

Barium, 

II, IV. 

Ba 

137 

Magnesium, 


Mg 

24 

Zinc, 


Zn 

05 

Cadmium, 


Cd 

112 

Glucinum, 


G 

9.3 

Yttrium, 


Y 

61.7 

Cerium, 


Ce 

92 

Lanthanum, 


La 

92 

Didymium, 


D 

96 

Erbium, 


E 

112.6 

Mercury, 

(Ilg 2)", II. 

f Hydrar- 1 
& ( gyrum J 

• 200 

Copper, 

(Cu 2 )", ii. 

Cu (Cuprum) 

63.5 

Tetrads: 


\ 


Carbon, 

II, IV. 

C 

12 

Silicon, 


Si 

28 

Titanium, 

II, IV. 

Ti 

50 

Tin, 

II, IV. 

Sn (Stannum) 

118 

Thorium, 


Th 

115.7 

Zirconium, 


Zr 

89.5 

Aluminum, 

(A1 2 )vi 

A1 

27.5 

Platinum, 

II, IV. 

Pt 

197 

Palladium, 

II, IV. 

Pd 

106.5 

Lead, 

II, IV. 

Pb (Plumbum) 

207 

Indium, 


In 

74 

Hexads: 




Molybdenum, 

II, IV, VI. 

Mo 

96 

Tungsten, 

IA r , VI. 

W ( Wolfram) 

184 

Ruthenium, 

II, IA T , VI. 

Ru 

104.2 

Rhodium, 

II, I\ r , VI. 

Ro 

104.3 

Iridium, 

II, IV, VI. 

Ir 

197 

Osmium, 

II, IA r , VI. 

Os 

199 

Chromium, 

II, l\ r , VI. 

Cr 

52.5 

Manganese, 

II, IV, VI. 

Mn 

55 

Iron, 

II, IA r , VI. 

Jfc’e (Ferrum) 

53 

Cobalt, 

II, IV. 

Co 

59 

Nickel, 

II, IV. 

Ni 

59 

Uranium, 

II, IV. 

U 

120 



G. F. Barker. 


Chem'mis [Gr. Xep/ue], the name given by Diodorus 
Siculus to the Egyptian king who built the great pyramid; 
the same as Cheops (which see). 

Chemnitz, a town of Germany, in Saxony, on the 
Chemnitz River, and at the base of the mountain called 
'Erzberge, about 44 miles W. S. W. of Dresden. It is on the 
railway from Riesa to Zwickau. It is the principal manu¬ 
facturing town of Saxony, and has extensive manufactures 


of cotton, linen, wool, hosiery, machinery, etc. Nearly 
20,000 looms are employed in this vicinity in the produc¬ 
tion of stockings, mitts, etc., which are partly exported to 
the U. S. Chemnitz has also works for printing calico. 
The factory laborers own cottages and gardens in which 
they work when the looms are still, and their condition is 
superior to that of their class in most other cities. For four 
centuries it was a free imperial city. It was formerly forti¬ 
fied, but the Avails have been converted into promenades. 
It has a castle, a gymnasium, a school of commerce, several 
technical schools, and an exchange. Pop. in 1871, 68,229. 

Chem'nitz [Lat. Chemnitius], (Martin), an eminent 
German Lutheran theologian, was born at Treuenbrietzen, 
in Brandenburg, Nov. 9, 1622. He Avas educated at Wit¬ 
tenberg, and became minister of a church at Brunswick 
in 1554. In a work called “Examen Concilii Tridentini” 
(1565) he ably refuted the doctrines approved by the Council 
of Trent. Chemnitz and Morlin Avere the authors of the 
“Corpus Doetrinae Pruthenicae ” (“Body of Prussian Doc¬ 
trine,” 1566), which was a standard work among the Prot¬ 
estants. He Avas appointed superintendent at Brunswick 
in 1567. He was one of the authors of the “ Formula Con- 
cordiae ” (1579). Among his Avorks is “Loci Theologici ” 
(“ Theological Topics,” 1591), which excels most similar 
books in learning and method. Died April 8, 15S6. 

Chemung, she-mung', a river of New York, formed in 
Steuben county by the union of the Conhocton and Tioga 
rivers. It flows in an E. S. E. direction through Chemung 
county, and enters the North Branch of the Susquehanna 
about 1 mile below Athens, in Bradford co., Pa. 

Chemung, a county of NeAV York, bordering on Penn¬ 
sylvania. Area, 406 square miles. It is intersected by 
Chemung River and Cayuta Creek. The surface is diver¬ 
sified by hills and alluvial river-bottoms; the soil is fertile. 
Tobacco, grain, lumber, wool, dairy products, and cattle 
are the staples. The manufactures include lumber, leather, 
flour, furniture, metallic wares, cooperage, carriages, etc. 
It is traversed by the Erie R. R. and the Northern Central 

R. R. Capital, Elmira. Pop. 35,281. 

Chemung, a post-township of McHenry co., Ill. Pop. 
2222. Chemung Station is on the Chicago and North¬ 
western R. R., 66 miles N. W. of Chicago. 

Chemung, a township and post-village of Chemung 
co., N. Y. The village is on the Erie R. R., 24 miles W. 

S. W. of Owego. Pop. of township, 1907. 

Chenan'go, a county in S. E. Central New York. 

Area, 898 square miles. It is partly bounded on the E. 
by the Unadilla River, and drained by the Chenango, Sus¬ 
quehanna, and Otselic rivers. The surface is partly hilly; 
the soil is generally fertile. It is an agricultural county; 
dairy products, hops, grain, and wool are the chief crops. 
The manufactures include lumber, flour, cheese, carriages, 
furniture, etc. It is intersected by the New York and Os¬ 
wego Midland R. R., the Utica Chenango and Susquehanna 

R. R., and the Albany and Susquehanna It. R. Capital, 
Norwich. Pop. 40,564. 

Chenango, a township and village of Broome co., 
N. Y. The village is at the junction of the Syracuse Bing¬ 
hamton and New York and the Utica Chenango and Sus¬ 
quehanna R. Rs., 73 miles S. S. E. of Syracuse. Pop. of 
township, 1680. 

Chenango River rises in Oneida co., N. Y., flows S. 

S. W. through Madison and Chenango counties, and enters 
the Susquehanna at Binghamton. Length, 90 miles. 

Cheney (Charles Edavard), D. D., was born at Canan¬ 
daigua, Ontario co., N. Y., Feb. 12, 1836. He graduated at 
Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y., in 1857, and studied at the 
Theological Seminary of Virginia. Nov. 21, 1858, he was 
ordained deacon, and became assistant rector of St. Luke’s 
church, Rochester, N. Y. Subsequently he took charge of 
St. Paul’s church at Havana, N. Y., and in Mar., 1860, he 
Avas ordained a presbyter, and took charge of Christ’s 
church in Chicago. He Avas in Dec., 1873, elected assistant 
bishop of the Reformed Episcopal Church. 

Che'ncy’s Grove, atwp. of McLean co., Ill. Pop. 1164. 

Chengwata'iia, a post-village, capital of Pine co., 
Minn., on Snake River, about 70 miles N. of St. Paul. Pop. 
of township, 99. 

Chenier, de (Andre), an excellent French poet, a 
brother of the following, was born at Constantinople in 
1762. He was educated in Paris, and was sent to London 
in 1787 as secretary of legation. He returned to Paris in 
1790, and became a moderate supporter of the popular 
cause. He produced beautiful elegies and eclogues, in 
which the influence of Greek poetry Avas predominant, and 
Avhich gave a neAv direction to the poetry of France. Having 
in some of his Avritings censured the acts of the Jacobins, 
he was committed to prison. He there wrote an admir- 
































905 


CHENIER, DE—CHEROKEE. 


able poem entitled “ The Young Captive.” He was exe¬ 
cuted in July, 1794, and left unfinished poems called 
“ America ” and “ Hermes.” (See H. be Latouche, “ No¬ 
tice our Andre Chenier;” Sainte-Beuve, “ Causeries du 
Lundi,” tome iv.) 

Chenier, de (Marie Joseph), a French poet of the 
Revolution, born Aug. 28, 1704, at Constantinople, where 
his father was consul. Ilis tragedies “ Gracchus,” « Fen- 
elon,” “ Timoleon,” and others were inspired by an intense 
love of freedom, and composed in a noble style. He wrote 
likewise patriotic songs; among them “ Le Chant du De¬ 
part.” Died Jan. 10, 1811. 

Clieno'a, a post-village of McLean co., Ill., on the 
Toledo Peoria and Warsaw It. It., where it is crossed by 
the Chicago and Alton R. R., 48 miles E. of Peoria. It has 
one newspaper-office. Pop. of Chenoa township, 2351. 

Chenopodia'ceae [from Chenopodium , one of the 
genera], a natural order of exogenous plants, chiefly her¬ 
baceous. They are destitute of stipules, have small incon¬ 
spicuous flowers, and a persistent calyx. The stamens are 
never more numerous than the segments of the calyx. 
They are found in most parts of the world. The order 
comprises the beet and spinach, and many species which 
have a weed-like appearance and grow in waste places. 

Chenopo'dium [from the Gr. xw> a “goose,” and 
jtoO?, ttoSos, a “foot”], a genus of herbaceous plants of the 
order Chcnojiodiaceae, natives of America, Europe, and 
Asia. They are weeds, growing in gardens and waste 
places, and often covered with a white mealiness. Several 
species are naturalized in the U. S., and are known by the 
names of goosefoot, pigweed, and lamb’s quarter. The 
Chenopodium anthelminticum (wormseed) is a native of 
the U. S. The seeds of this plant are administered as a 
remedy for worms. Among the more important plants of 
this genus is Qitinoa (which see). 

Cheo'ah, a township of Cherokee co., N. C. Pop. 1427. 

Che'ops [Gr. Xe'oi j/], the name given by Herodotus to 
the despotic builder of the great pyramid in Egypt, now 
identified with Suphis I. (or Shufu) of the monuments. 
He was the second king of the fourth dynasty, which was 
established at Memphis about 2500 B. C., according to the 
more sober English Egyptologists. Professor C. Piazzi 
Smyth (1867) tries to fix the date of the great pyramid, on 
astronomical grounds, at 2170 B. C. Bunsen’s date is 3280 
B. C. 

Chepach'et, a post-village of Gloucester township, 
Providence co., R. I. It is on the Chepachot River, and 
has extensive manufactures. 

Chep'stow, a town and river-port of England, in the 
county of Monmouth, on the river Wye, 24 miles from its 
entrance into the estuary of the Severn, and 141 miles by 
rail W. of London. It is surrounded by grand and beauti¬ 
ful scenery, a good view of which is obtained from a rock 
called Windcliff, 970 feet high. At Chepstow occurs tho 
highest tidal bore in Europe, rising suddenly often fifty 
feet, and sometimes more than sixty-five. Large vessels 
can ascend the river to this port. A railway bridge built 
by Brunei here crosses the Wye. Pop. 3364. 

Che'quest, a township of Van Buren co., Ia. Pop. 
967. 

Cher, a river of Central France, rises in the depart¬ 
ment of Creuse, flows in a general north-west direction i 
through the departments of Allier, Cher, and Loir-et-Cher, 
and enters the river Loire immediately below Tours. Its 
total length is 207 miles. Destructive floods sometimes 
occur. It is navigable in the last 47 miles of its course. 

Cher, a central department of France, has an area of 
2853 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the river 
Loire, and intersected by the Cher. The surface is nearly 
level, and extensively covered Avith forests; tho soil is 
variable; the staple products wine, hemp, flax, and wool. 
It has mines of coal and iron, and manufactures of woollen 
fabrics. Capital, Bourges. Pop. 336,613. 

Cheraw, a post-village of Chesterfield co., S. C., on 
Pedee River, at the head of navigation, 140 miles N. of 
Charleston, the terminus of the Cheraw and Darlington 
R. R. It has seven churches, two academies, several other 
schools, a public library, and one newspaper. During the 
late civil Avar this place Avas captured, Mar. 3, 1865, by the 
Federal forces under Gen. Sherman. It had been a depfit 
of supplies for the Confederates, and twenty-five cannon, 
thousands of small-arms, tons of gunpowder, and immense 
commissary stores fell into the hands of tho Federals. Pop. 
960; of township, 2258. T. Little, Eh. « Democrat.” 

Cherbourg [Lat. Caroburgus), a fortified seaport-town 
and important naval station of France, department of 
Mane he) on the English Channel, and at the N. end of 
the peninsula of Cotentin, 2292 miles by rail W. N. W. 


of Paris; lat. 49° 38' N., Ion. 1° 37' W. Its climate is 
mild. The streets are narrow. It contains a communal 
college, a public library, a museum, and a theatre; also man¬ 
ufactures of hosiery, chemicals, lace, and leather, but the 
industry of the inhabitants is chiefly employed in the ar¬ 
senal and dockyards. Vast sums of money have been ex¬ 
pended here in fortifications and in public works for the 
improvement of the harbor. The latter is sheltered by land 
on three sides, but is open to heavy seas and storms on the 
N. To protect it from these a breakAvater, or digue, Avas 
commenced in the reign of Louis XIV. and completed 
under Napoleon III. Cherbourg breakwater is the most 
gigantic work constructed for such a purpose in ancient or 
modern times, and is a noble monument of the skill and 
perseverance of the French engineers. (See Breakavater.) 
At the apex of the angle formed by the meeting of the two 
branches of the breakAvater there is a central fort or battery 
measuring 509 feet on the inner line of the parapet, which 
forms a flat semi-ellipse. • Besides the batteries on the mole 
{digue), Cherbourg is defended by twenty-four regular forts 
and redoubts. On the land side it is defended and com¬ 
manded by La Roulo and Fort d’Octeville, which occupy 
two adjacent heights. The naval port consists of an outer 
harbor 776 feet long by 663 Avidc, its minimum depth be¬ 
ing 58 feet, and the entrance to it is 206 feet Avidc. The 
harbor communicates by means of a lock with a wet-dock 
957 feet long by 712 wide. In Aug., 1858, the govern¬ 
ment completed an inner wet-dock, which is cut out of 
the solid rock, and is about 930 yards long by 437 Avide. 
Cherbourg Avas besieged by the English in 1378, 1418, and 
1450. William the Conqueror founded a hospital here. 
Pop. 37,215. 

Cherbuliez (Antoine Elysee), a prominent writer on 
political economy, born in 1797 at Geneva, became profes¬ 
sor of law and political economy, first at Geneva, and 
subsequently at the Polytechnicum at Zurich. He Avrote 
against the Socialists, and especially against Proudhon. 
Ilis chief work is “ Outline of the Science of Political 
Economy” (2 vols., 1862). Died at Zurich Mar. 14,1869. 

Cherbuliez (Victor), nephew of the preceding and son 
of Andre Cherbuliez, professor of IlebrcAv at Geneva, born 
about 1832, has become known as a clever novelist. His 
“A propos d’un Cheval,” a revery on ancient art, appeared 
in 1860, and Avas followed by the romances “ Comte Kostia ” 
(1863), “Paulc Mere,” “Le Roman d’une lionnetcfemme” 
(1866), “Le grand oeuvre” (1867), and others. 

Cher'ibon, or Sher'ibom, a seaport-town of Java, 
capital of a division on its northern coast, 128 miles E. S. E. 
of Batavia. It is tho residence of a Dutch governor, is de¬ 
fended by a fort, and has a considerable trade in coffee, in¬ 
digo, teakwood, etc. Pop. about 11,000. 

Cherimoy / er, or Chirimoy'a {Anona Cherimolia), 
a fruit of South and Central America, now common in the 
East Indies and other tropical countries. It is sometimes 
described as the finest of all fruits, and sometimes as infe¬ 
rior to the mangosteen only. Both flowers and fruit emit 
a jileasant fragrance, but Avhen the tree is covered with 
blossoms the odor is almost overpowering. The fruit varies 
from the size of an orange to sixteen pounds or more in 
weight. It is roundish or heart-shaped, greenish, and cov¬ 
ered with small knobs and scales. Internally, the fruit is 
snoAv-white and juicy, and contains a number of small 
broAvn seeds. The eatable part is soft like a custard, and 
forms almost the entire mass of fruit. The cherimoyer 
attains excellence only in particular situations, and some 
\ r arieties are much finer than others. No tropical fruit 
better deserves attention in hot-houses. 

Cher'okee, a county of Alabama, bordering on Geor¬ 
gia. Area, 550 square miles. It is traversed by the Coosa 
River. Tho surface is diversified by high ridges; the soil 
is mostly fertile. Cotton, grain, wool, and tobacco are raised. 
It is intersected by the Selma Rome and Dalton R. R. Capi¬ 
tal, Centre. Pop. 11,132. 

Cherokee, a county in the N. W. of Georgia. Area, 
475 square miles. It is intersected by the Etowah River, 
and also drained by several creeks. The surface is partly 
hilly and partly undulating; the soil is generally fertile. 
Cotton, tobacco, wool, and grain are raised. It contains 
mines of gold and quarries of statuary marble. Capital, 
Canton. Pop. 10,399. 

Cherokee, a county in the W. N. W. of Iowa. Area, 
576 square miles. It is intersected by the Little Sioux 
River. Tho surface is undulating; the soil is producthc. 
Wheat, corn, and cattle are raised. It is traversed by tho 
Dubuque and Sioux City R. R. Capital, Cherokee. 1 op. 
1967. 

Cherokee, a county in the S. E. corner of Kansas. 
Area, 604 square miles. It is intersected by Spring h ,V0 G 
an affluent of tho Neosho, which runs through tho S. V . 


















CHEROKEE—CHERUBINI. 


906 


part of the county. Tho soil is fertile. Cattle, corn, to¬ 
bacco, and wool are raised. It is traversed by the Missouri 
ltiverFortScottandGulflt.lt. Capital, Columbus. Pop. 

II, 038. 

Cherokee, a county which forms the W. extremity of 
North Carolina. Area, 025 square miles. It is intersected 
by the Hiawassee River. The surface is partly mountain¬ 
ous, and the Unaka or Smoky Mountain extends along the 
N. W. border. The soil of the valleys is fertile. Corn, 
wool, and tobacco are raised. Gold, zinc, lead, and excel¬ 
lent white marble abound. Capital, Murphy. Pop. 8080. 

Cherokee, a county of the E. of Texas. Area, 1144 
square miles. The surface is somowhat hilly; the soil is 
excellent, producing fine crops of corn, wheat, cotton, and 
fruit. Wool-growing and stock-raising are also carried on. 
Timber and the best iron ores abound. Lumber is manu¬ 
factured, and also iron to some extent. It is intersected by 
the International R. R. Capital, Rusk. Pop. 11,079. 

Cherokee, a post-village in the township of same name, 
capital of Cherokee co., Ia., on the Little Sioux River and 
on the Iowa division of the Illinois Central R. R., 59 miles 
E. N. E. of Sioux City. It has two weekly newspapers. 
Pop. including the township, 719. 

Cherokee, a township of Cherokee co., Kan. P. 370. 

Cherokee, a township of Spartanburg co., S. C. Pop. 
1675. 

Cherokee, a township of York co., S. C. Pop. 1895. 

Cher'okees', a tribe of North American aborigines 
who were formerly numerous and powerful. They occupied 
the southern portion of the Appalachian Mountains and 
large tracts in Georgia and Alabama. They have been 
considered the most civilized of the Indians in the U. S. 
In 1838 all the Cherokees living in Georgia were removed 
to the Indian Territory beyond the Mississippi, in which a 
large tract of land was appropriated to them. Many of 
them cultivate the soil and are industrious in their habits. 
They have a written language, written laws, and an organ¬ 
ized government. Their alphabet, which was invented by 
George Guess, a Cherokee, consists of eighty-five characters. 
Their present territory embraces 9,776,000 acres, with a 
population in 1872 of 18,000, besides several hundred in 
North Carolina. 

Cher'ry, the name of numerous trees and their fruit be¬ 
longing to the genus Primus and order Rosaceae, but placed 
by some in a separate genus or sub-genus ( Cerasus), distin¬ 
guished by having the stone or pit of the fruit round, while 
the plums of the genus Prunus proper have flattened pits; 
but with several species the distinction does not hold good. 
There is therefore no such genus or sub-genus as Cerasus. 
But those cherries which have their flowers and fruit in 
racemes (clusters), called bird cherries, are properly placed 
in a sub-genus, Padus; and the evergreen species, called 
cherry-laurels, are placed in a sub-genus, Lauro-cerasus. 

Cultivated cherries are of many varieties, and belong to 
two distinct species— Prunus avium and vulgaris —both Old 
World species, the former comprising the “dukes,” “ox- 
hearts,” “bigarreaus,” etc., and the latter the “ morellos,” 
“guignes,” and sour cherries. The former in Europe yields 
valuable timber. They arc useful as dessert fruit and for 
preserving, and are employed in the manufacture of various 
liqueurs (Maraschino, Kirschwasser, cherry-brandy, etc.). 
There are numerous wild species of cherry in both conti¬ 
nents. Those best known in the U. S. are the choke-cherry 
and the black cherry ( Prunus Virginiana and serotina ); tho 
bark of both species is very useful in medicine; the latter is 
a large tree yielding a very useful timber. 

Cherry, a township of Montgomery co., Kan. P. 802. 

Cherry, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 903. 

Cherry, a township of Sullivan co., Pa. Pop. 1710. 

Cher'ry Creek, a township and village of Chautauqua 
co., N. Y. The village is 18 miles S. E. of Dunkirk. It 
has three churches, a State bank, and some manufactures. 
Pop. of township, 1359. 

Cher'ryfield, a township and village of Washington 
co., Me. The village is 30 miles W. of Machias. It is on 
the Narraguagus River. Shipbuilding is carried on, and 
the manufacture of lumber, leather, doors, sash, blinds, etc. 
Pop. of township, 1760. 

Cher'ry Grove, a township and village of Carroll co., 

III. The village is about 15 miles S. W. of Freeport. Pop. 
of township, 1154. 

Cherry Grove, a township of Goodhue co., Minn. 
Pop. 884y 

Cherry Grove, a township of Warren co., Pa. P. 61. 

Cherry Hill, a township of Indiana co., Pa. P. 1976. 

Cherry Lane, a post-township of Alleghany co., N. C. 
Pop. 309. 


Cher'ry Lau'rel, a name given to the evergreen cherry 
trees, such as the bay laurel, Prunus Laurocerasus, a native 
of Asia; tho Portugal laurel, Prunus Lusitanica, a native 
of Southern Europe ; and the “ mock orange ” of the South¬ 
ern U. S., Prunus Caroliniana. They are all prized as or¬ 
namental shrubs or trees, and all abound in poisonous hy¬ 
drocyanic acid, especially in the kernels and leaves. They 
have also an essential oil, resembling that of bitter al¬ 
monds. The leaves of the first-mentioned species arc used 
in flavoring sauces, etc., and in preparing cherry-laurel 
water, sometimes used in medicine as a sedative; but its 
strength is variable, and it should not be used. 

Cher'ry Ridge, a post-township of Wayne co., Pa. 
Pop. 1101. 

Chcr'rytree, a borough of Indiana co., Pa. Pop. 360. 

Chcrrytree, a post-township of Venango co., Pa. Pop. 
2326. 

Cher'ry Val'ley, a township and post-village of Win¬ 
nebago co., Ill. The village is on the Chicago and North¬ 
western R. R., 84 miles W. N. W. of Chicago. Pop. of 
township, 1421. 

Cherry Valley, a post-village of Otsego co., N. Y., 
on a branch of the Albany and Susquehanna R. R., 68 
miles W. of Albany. It has an academy, a national bank, 
and one weekly newspaper. Cherry Valley was the scene 
of a dreadful massacre by the Tories and Indians in the 
British service Oct. 11, 1778. Thirty-two inhabitants, 
nearly all women and children, were murdered, besides 
sixteen soldiers of the Continental army. The rest of the 
citizens were made prisoners and taken away, and all the 
buildings were burned. Pop. 930 ; of Cherry Valley town¬ 
ship, 2337. 

Cherry Valley, a post-township of Ashtabula co., O. 
Pop. 726. 

Cher'ryville, a township and post-village of Gaston 
co., N. C. The village is on the Wilmington Charlotte and 
Rutherford R. R., 43 miles N. W. of Charlotte. Pop. of 
township, 2003. 

Cher'siphron [Gr. Xepatypwv), an eminent Cretan ar¬ 
chitect who flourished about 600 B. C. He designed the 
temple of Diana at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of 
the World, but he died before it was finished. It was 
adorned with 127 Ionic columns of marble sixty feet high, 
and was 425 Roman feet in length. 

Cher'so (anc. Crcpsa), an island of Illyria, in the Adri¬ 
atic, 12 miles S. S. W. of Fiume. Area, with Osero, 95 
square miles. The products are oil and wine. There are 
large anchovy-fisheries. Capital, Cherso. Pop. 17,500. 

Cherso, a town of Illyria, in the Austrian province of 
Trieste, situated on the above island, 25 miles S. of Fiume. 
It has a fair harbor, and trades in fish, wine, and lumber. 
Pop. 8095. 

Chersone'sus [Gr. XepowTja-o?], the ancient name of 
several peninsulas of Europe and Asia, as Chersonesus 
Aurea (Malacca), Chersonesus Cimbrica (Jutland), Cher¬ 
sonesus Thracia (Gallipoli), and Chersonesus Taurica 
(Crimea). 

Chert, or Hornstone, a silicious mineral, a variety 
of quartz with many of the characters of fliqt, but differ¬ 
ing from it in being of a tougher nature, and breaking 
with a splintery instead of a conchoidal fracture. It is 
always massive, and is of various colors—white, red, yel¬ 
low, gray, and brown. It is common in the mountain lime¬ 
stone, oolite, and greensand formations ; it sometimes forms 
rocks, and often contains petrifactions. The term chert is 
often applied to the silicious concretions which occur as 
nodules in limestone rocks. The limestone is said to bo 
“ cherty ” when it contains so much of these concretions 
as to render it unfit for building and conversion into lime. 

Cher'ub (plu. Cher'ubim or Cherubs), [etymology 
doubtful, though, according to a somewhat popular view, 
the cherubim are angels who excel in knowledge as the 
seraphim are conceived to excel in love; and in this view 
the name has been supposed to be related to the Hebrew 
kdrab, to “ grasp,” and hence to “know ”], the name of a 
winged being mentioned in the Scriptures. A cherub 
guarded Paradise and prevented the return of fallen man. 
Figures of cherubim were placed over the mercy-seat in the 
Holy of Holies, and were wrought into the hangings of tho 
temple. In the book of Ezekiel cherubim with four wings 
and many eyes, with forms partly human and partly bestial, 
are described. They appear as four-winged beings of 
a generally human form in Christian art. Most writers 
regard them as angels, but many critics believe that they 
are symbols, rather than real existences. 

Cherubi'ni (Maria Luigi Carlo Zexobi Salvador), 
an eminent Italian composer, born at Florence Sept. 8, 1760, 

















CHERUSCI—CHESS. 


was a pupil of Felici and Sarti. He visited London in 
1784. After 1786 he passed the most of his time in Paris, 
where his opera “ Lodoiska” was performed with success 
in 1791. He composed, besides other works, operas entitled 
“ Iphigenia in Aulide” (1788), “ Elisa” (1794), “ Medea” 
(1797), and “ Anacreon.” He acquired a European repu¬ 
tation as a composer of sacred music. Among his works 
in this department is a grand requiem. He was a pro¬ 
fessor in the Conservatory of Paris, and a member of the 
Royal Academy. Died Mar. 15, 1842. (See L. de Lo- 
menie, “M. Cherubini, par un homme de rien,” 1841; 
Raoul-Rochette, “ Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages do 
Cherubini.”) 

Cherus'ci, an ancient and celebrated German tribe 
mentioned by Crnsar, inhabited a country on the north side 
of the Silva Bacenis (Hartz Forest). The famous Hermann 
(Arminius) was a chief of the Cherusci. Having formed 
a league with other German tribes, he defeated the Roman 
general Varus near the Lippe in 9 A. D. According to 
Tacitus, the Cherusci were conquered by the Catti or Chatti 
after the death of Arminius. 

Cher'vil [Fr. cerfeuil, from the Lat. cerefolium], an 
umbelliferous plant which is cultivated in Europe as a 
pot-herb and used in soups. The leaves have a peculiar, 
somewhat sweetish and aromatic smell and taste. It 
is a native of Europe and naturalized in the U. S. Its 
systematic name is Chserophyllum sativum. Other species 
are cultivated ; one or more have roots of some value, 
which somewhat resemble those of the carrot. 

Chesamng', a post-village of Saginaw co., Mich., on 
the Shiawassee River and the Jackson Lansing and Sag¬ 
inaw R. R., 43 miles N. E. of Lansing. It has one weekly 
newspaper. Pop. 721; of Chesaning township, 1507. 

Chesapeake, a township of Elizabeth City co., Va. 
Pop. 2703. 

Chesapeake, a township of Matthews co., Va. P. 1700. 

Chesapeake Bay [from an Indian word meaning 
“ mother of waters ”], a large inlet of the Atlantic, extends 
from Capes Charles and Henry northward through Mary¬ 
land and Virginia to the mouth of the Susquehanna River. 
It is about 200 miles long, and varies in width from 4 to 
40 miles. The distance from Cape Charles to Cape Henry 
is nearly twelve miles. The coasts on each side are deeply 
indented by numerous inlets and estuaries, which are nav¬ 
igable. The Chesapeake is so deep that the largest ships 
can ascend from the ocean nearly to the northern extrem¬ 
ity. It contains numerous islands. The largest rivers 
which flow into it are the Susquehanna, the Potomac, and 
the James River. 

Chesapeake City, a post-village of Cecil co., Md., at 
the western terminus of the Chesapeake and Delaware 
Canal, 84 miles N. E. of Annapolis. Pop. 1008; of Chesa¬ 
peake City township, 2683. 

Chesebro (Caroline), an American writer, horn at 
Canandaigua, N. Y. She contributed largely to period¬ 
ical literature, and was the author of several novels, among 
which are “ Dreamland by Daylight,” “ Isa, a Pilgrimage,” 
“The Foe in the Household,” etc. Died Feh. 16, 1873. 

Ches'eldeii (William), F. R. S., an English anatomist 
and surgeon, born in Leicestershire in 1688. He began to 
lecture on anatomy in London about 1711, and published 
in 1713 “ The Anatomy of the Human Body,” which was 
long used as a text-book. He was afterward chief surgeon 
of St. Thomas’s and Westminster Hospitals, and acquired 
a high reputation as an operator. Among his works is 
“The Anatomy of the Bones” (1733). Died in 1752. 

Cheshire, England. See Chester. 

Cheshire, ch£sh'ir, a county which forms the S. W. 
extremity of New Hampshire. Area, 770 square miles. 
It is bounded on the W. by the Connecticut River, and 
drained by the Ashuelot. The surface is hilly, and partly 
occupied by mountains, among which is the Grand Monad- 
nock. The soil of the valleys is fertile. Tobacco, grain, 
wool, and dairy products are largely raised. The manufac¬ 
tures are extensive, and comprise lumber, furniture, wood¬ 
en-ware, leather, cotton and woollen goods, etc. It is in¬ 
tersected by the Cheshire R. R., the Ashuelot R. R., and 
the Monadnock R. R. Capital, Keene. Pop. 27,265. 

Cheshire, a township and post-village of New Haven 
co., Conn. The village is on the New Haven and North¬ 
ampton R. R., 15 miles N. of New Haven. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 2344. 

Cheshire, a township and post-villago of Berkshire 
co Mass. The village is on the North Adams branch of 
the Boston and Albany R. R., 9 miles N. of Pittsfield. The 
town has valuable beds of glass sand, and important man¬ 
ufactures. Pop. of township, 1758. 

Cheshire, a post-twp. of Allegan co., Mich. Pop. 1443. 


907 


Cheshire, a post-township of Gallia co., O. Pop. 1895. 

Ches'ney (Francis Raavdon), an officer noted as an ex¬ 
plorer, was born in Ireland in 1789. Aided by the British 
government, he explored a route from Europe to India by 
way of the Red Sea, and in 1836 descended the Euphrates 
in a steamer from Beer (Bir) to its mouth. He published 
“The Expedition for the Survey of the Euphrates and 
Tigris” (4 vols., 1850). In 1855 he obtained the rank of 
major-general. Died Jan. 30, 1872. 

Chess [Fr. echecs ; Ger. Schach; from Persian, shah, a. 
“king”*]. The origin of this game is undoubtedly Ori¬ 
ental, but its date is lost in antiquity. Terms connected 
with it are found in the Sanscrit, as well as in some other 
Asiatic languages. It was probably introduced into Europe 
by the Arabians as early as the eighth century. Some slight 
modifications have been made in it in modern times, but 
the game appears to have been, in its most essential cha¬ 
racters, the same for two or three thousand years. No 
other game approaches it in the scope afforded, by the num¬ 
ber and variety of powers of the pieces, for skill and fore¬ 
sight, involving the faculties of memory and conception 
especially to a large degree. Dr. Benjamin Franklin ad¬ 
mired it greatly, and wrote upon the advantages obtainable 
by it in the cultivation of the mind and character; particu¬ 
larly in promoting the habit of circumspection. With Na¬ 
poleon I. it was a favorite recreation, and many other men 
of superior intelligence (as, for instance, J. J. Rousseau) 
have greatly enjoyed it. Yet capacity for eminent skill in 
it has often been possessed by men who have not otherwise 
displayed remarkable ability. 

The chess-board is divided into sixty-four squares, alter¬ 
nately white and black. A white square should always be 
at the corner next to the right hand of each of the two 
players. The pieces used are as follows, upon each side, 
of different colors, commonly white and red: 

A King, placed at the beginning of the game near the 
middle of the back line or Vow of squares. This is the most 
important piece on the board. It can move but a single 
square in a ny direction ; it can take any piece belonging to 
the adversary which is upon an adjoining square, except 
the king—although the piece near it may be protected by 
some other piece being in a position to take in return. The 
king can never be taken; when so placed that if it were 
any other piece it might be captured by the adversary, the 
king is in check ; and it is always necessary for the king in 
such a case, at the next move, to be placed where he is not 
in check. If this cannot be done, it is checkmate, and the 
game is ended. Stalemate occurs when, there being few 
pieces on the board, none of them, including the king, 
can be moved without placing the king in check. 

A Queen, the most valuable active piece on the board, 
placed, on commencing, next to the king in the back roiv, 
on that square nearest the middle which has her own color 
— i. e. white queen on white square, black or red queen on 
black square. The queen can move and take any piece of 
the adversary (except the king, as above said) at any dis¬ 
tance in a straight line upon the board, either in the direc¬ 
tion of the squares or diagonally; always provided that 
it cannot leap over intervening pieces. The queen can be 
taken by any other piece. 

Two Books or Castles —one placed in the beginning of 
the game at each end of the back row of squares. The 
rook can move or take only in the direction of the lines of 
squares ( i . e. not diagonally), but at any distance when not 
obstructed by other pieces. It ranks in value next to the 
queen. 

Two Bishoj?s, one of which stands at the side of the king, 
and the other at the side of the queen, on the back row. 
One is thus upon a black square, and one upon a white one ; 
and as they move or take only diagonally across the board, 
each keeps upon the same color throughout the game. 

Two Knights, whose station is, at the opening, one at the 
side of each of the bishops, being thus next to the castles or 
rooks, and completing the back row. The movement of 
the knight is peculiar—one square diagonally, and then 
one forward or backward; or the converse, one square for¬ 
ward or backward, and then one diagonally. It can, more¬ 
over, leap over any intervening pieces to occupy an empty 
square or to take an adversary’s piece. The knight and 
the bishop rank as about equal in value; probably in the 
early part of the game the knight is worth rather the most, 
and the bishop somewhat more when but few pieces are left 
upon the board. 

Eight Pawns, arranged at first in the row of squares next 
to the more important pieces just described. The pawn 
moves only forward, but takes only diagonally. In either 
case it can go but a single square, except that, "when a 
pawn first moves from its place in the second row, it may, 
at the option of the player, move two squares. If, how¬ 
's Checkmate is shah mat — i. e. “ king confounded oi oveicome. 


















908 


CHESS—CHESTER. 


ever, an adversary’s pawn is at that time so placed as to 
take the pawn moved if it were moved but one square, the 
moving pawn may be taken, as it is called, en passant. 
When a pawn can be advanced so far as to reach the adver¬ 
sary’s back row, it becomes a queen or any other piece the 
player chooses, except a king. It is possible, therefore (as 
the game is conducted by many, though not all, players), to 
have more than two queens upon the board at a time. 
Pawns are the least valuable of all the pieces. Yet skill 
in their use is important towards winning the game; so 
much so thatjn the famous treatise of Philidor (“L’Analyse 
du Jeu des Echoes,” London, 1749) the theory was main¬ 
tained that “ the pawns are the soul of chess.” 

Castling is a change of position allowed on either side, 
by which the king and a castle or rook are made to pass 
each other, each moving two squares if the change be made 
upon the king’s side, and the castle three squares and the 
king two if it be upon the side of the queen. Castling can 
only be effected, however, when no pieces intervene, when 
neither the king nor the castle has yet been moved, and 
when the king is not in check, and will not have to move, 
in castling, over a square exposed to check from any piece 
belonging to the antagonist. 

The squares are commonly named after the principal 
pieces. Thus, that upon which the king stands is the king’s 
square; next to it, the queen’s square; then, on one side, 
king’s bishop’s square, king’s knight’s and king’s rook’s 
squares; on the other side, queen’s bishop’s square, queen’s 
knight’s and queen’s rook’s squares; in front of these the 
king’s pawn, queen’s pawn, king’s bishop’s pawn, queen’s 
bishop’s pawn, king’s knight’s pawn, queen’s knight’s pawn, 
king’s rook’s pawn, and queen’s rook’s pawn. 

A gambit is a mode of opening the game in which a 
strong attack is gained by the sacrifice of a pawn. There 
are several kinds of gambit in use. A curiosity of the 
chess-board is the “ knight’s problem ”—viz. to place a 
knight alone upon any square, and then move it, in its 
usual manner, over every square of the board successively 
until it returns to the place from which it started. This 
was thought worthy of resolution by a mathematical pro¬ 
cess by the celebrated Euler, but many persons have re¬ 
solved it experimentally. 

The rules of chess are, with slight variations among in¬ 
dividual players, absolute. The most important are the 
following: 

1. If a piece be touched it must (if possible) be moved 
somewhere. 

2. When a move has been made, and the hand has been 
withdrawn from it, the move cannot be retracted. 

3. If you touch one of the adversary’s pieces which can 
be taken, it must be taken, unless this be omitted with the 
consent of the adversary. 

4. On giving check to the adversary’s king, notice must 
be given by saying “ check;” otherwise he is not bound to 
pay any attention to it. 

5. When all the pieces on both sides have been removed in 
the course of a game, except just enough for one player to 
checkmate the other (as, king and rook, or two bishops, or 
bishop and knight, against king), the checkmate must be ac¬ 
complished within fifty moves or it is counted a drawn game. 

Among the most famous chess-players have been Dani- 
can-Philidor, Kermay de Legal, La Bourdonnais, Des- 
chapelles, Lewis, McDonnell, Paulsen, and Paul Morphy. 
The last named, a native of the U. S., now living, is the 
most extraordinary chess-genius ever known. In 1858 he 
visited Europe, and conquered in turn all the most distin¬ 
guished living players. His most astonishing feat has been 
playing, blindfold, six games at once with as many different 
players, and winning them all. 

The automaton chess-player of MM. Kempelen and 
Maelzel, exhibited in Europe and America many years 
ago, was a very ingenious contrivance by which many 
persons were induced to believe (what is impossible) that 
the game was actually played by machinery -wound up 
for the purpose. After the death of Maelzel, this auto¬ 
maton, having been taken to pieces, was purchased at 
Philadelphia by several gentlemen, and about 1842 the late 
Dr. J. Iv. Mitchell solved the riddle of its construction and 
operation, and put it together again for the amusement of 
his friends. A skilful player was, when it was exhibited, 
concealed within the table at which the “ automaton ” 
figure sat, the game being played upon a board on that 
table, and made known to the hidden operator by the 
rising and falling of magnetic “ keepers ” under the in¬ 
fluence of the pieces, each of which contained a small por¬ 
tion of iron. (See “ The Chess-player’s Hand-book,” by 
Howard Staunton, London, 1847; “ Chess and Chess¬ 
players,” by George Walker, London, 1850; and “ Life 
of Philidor,” by George Allen, Greek professor in the 
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1863.) 

II. Hartshorne. 


Chess, or Cheat, a common name of Bromus seca- 
linus, a plant of the order Graminaceae. It is a trouble¬ 
some weed which often infests wheat-fields. Many farmers 
believe (incorrectly) that wheat is liable to bo transmuted 
into chess. 

Chest [La t. pectus ; Fr. poitrine], or Tho / rax, is the 
part of the body between the neck and the abdomen. The 
chest is rather conical in form, the lower end of the cone 
being shut in by the diaphragm, a large muscular partition 
which projects upward from the lower ribs, convex towards 
the chest and concave towards the abdomen. The combi¬ 
nation of bone, cartilage, muscle, and tendon in the chest is 
such as to permit of an expansive movement, and yet to 
guard against over-expansion, which would be fatal to the 
delicate textures within. The bones of the chest are an ef¬ 
fectual protection against injury from without. 

The parts which constitute the chest walls are—1. The 
spinal column, divided into twenty-four vertebrae, twelve 
of which, called the dorsal vertebrae, form the thoracic 
portion. 2. Twelve ribs, attached to the transverse pro¬ 
cesses of the dorsal vertebrae, and ending in front in the 
costal cartilages, by which most of the ribs are con¬ 
nected with 3. The sternum or breast-bone, occupying the 
middle line in front. 4. The diaphragm. The chief con¬ 
tents of the chest are the heart, the great blood-vessels, the 
lungs, the trachea or windpipe, the bronchi or branches 
of the trachea, the cesophagus, and the thoracic duct, by 
which most of the chyle and lymph are discharged into the 
blood. The importance of these parts and their liability to 
deranged action render the chest the seat of a large number 
of diseases which may end in death. Of the three organs 
which Bichat called the “ tripod of life”—viz. the brain, 
heart, and lungs—the chest contains two ; hence its condi¬ 
tion in many diseases is an object of solicitude to the 
physician. 

Chest diseases depend in some cases on alterations in 
form by disorders affecting the bones in early childhood, 
such as rhachitis (rickets). The lungs and air-passages 
are subject to many diseases, among which are consumption 
or phthisis pulmonalis, pneumonia, pleurisy, and bronchitis. 
The heai't is subject to pericarditis, endocarditis, and chronic 
organic disease of the valves, as well as to enlargement 
(hypertrophy), dilatation, and degeneration of its muscu¬ 
lar texture, besides many functional derangements. The 
aorta may be affected with degeneration of its walls, and 
with consequent aneurism. The great veins are liable to 
over-distension, and to obstruction by tumors or by coag¬ 
ulation of the blood. The exploration of the chest by 
physicians is now conducted not only by investigation of 
the symptoms of the disease, but by a minute and elab¬ 
orate examination into the physical conditions of the con¬ 
tained organs by means of auscultation, percussion, meas¬ 
urement, etc. Revised by Willard Parker. 

Chest, a post-township of Clearfield co., Pa. P. 1178. 

Chest, a township of Cambria co., Pa. Pop. 870. 

Chcs'ter, or Cheshire, a maritime county of Eng¬ 
land, is bounded on the N. by Lancashire, on the S. and 
W. by Shropshire and Wales, on the E. by Stafford and 
Derby. It has a coast on the Irish Sea and the estuaries 
of the Dee and Mersey. Area, 1105 square miles. The 
surface is mostly level and well wooded ; the soil is a fertile 
clayey or sandy loam adapted to grazing and dairy-farming. 
The surface-rock is new red sandstone. The chief rivers, 
besides the Mersey, are the Dee and Weaver. Coal, cop¬ 
per, and lead are found in the county. Here are many ex¬ 
tensive dairies which produce good cheese; the quantity 
of cheese made annually is estimated at 12,000 tons or 
more. Chester has a good system of canals, and is trav¬ 
ersed by several railways. Capital, Chester. The other 
chief towns are Macclesfield, Stockport, and Birkenhead. 
In 828 A. D. Egbert annexed Chester to his kingdom. 
William the Conqueror erected it into a county palatine. 
Pop. in 1871, 561,131. 

Ches'ter, an episcopal city of England, capital of the 
county palatine of Chester, is on the right bank of the 
Dee, 22 miles from the sea and 16 miles S. S. E. of Liver¬ 
pool. Six important railways converge to this point, and 
connect it with Liverpool, Manchester, London, Holyhead, 
and other towns. It stands on a rocky eminence, is mostly 
enclosed by ancient and massive walls, and is one of the 
most picturesque cities of England. The two main streets 
were cut out of the rock by the Romans five feet or more 
below the level of the houses. These streets are lined with 
shops, over which are piazzas or “rows” for foot-passen¬ 
gers. It has an old and massive sandstone cathedral 375 
feet long, with a tower 127 feet high. Among its other 
edifices are a castle and St. John’s church, the latter sup¬ 
posed to have been founded in 698 A. D., and now partially 
in ruins. Here is a stone bridge across the Dee with a 
single arch 200 feet in span. Chester has a public library, 

















CHESTER—CHESTEKFIELD. 


909 


a museum, and a theatre. It returns two members to Par¬ 
liament. Cheese, coal, copper, and cast iron are exported 
from this port by the river, which is navigable for small 
vessels. Chester occupies the site of an important Roman 
station called Deva (or Devana ) Caatra. Pop. in 1871 of 
the municipal borough, 35,701. 

Chester, a county in the S. E. of Pennsylvania. Area, 
738 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the 
Schuylkill River, and also drained by the Brandywine and 
Octorara creeks. The surface is pleasantly diversified. 
Among its remarkable features is a long narrow valley 
called Chester Valley, which extends across the county from 
the Schuylkill to Octorara Creek. The soil is very fertile. 
Cattle, fruit, grain, and garden and dairy products are ex¬ 
tensively raised. Iron, paper, woollen goods, machinery, 
etc. are largely manufactured. Fine white marble is quar¬ 
ried in the valley. Among the minerals found in this 
county are copper, lead, zinc, kaolin, zircon, titanium, sap¬ 
phire, corundum, amethyst, etc. It is intersected by the 
Pennsylvania It. R., the Philadelphia and Baltimore Cen¬ 
tral R. R., the Wilmington and Reading R. R., the Chester 
Valley R. R., and the AYest Chester and,Philadelphia R. R. 
Capital, West Chester. Pop. 77,805. «/ 

Chester, a county of South Carolina. Area, 570 square 
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Catawba River and 
on the W. by Broad River. The surface is moderately 
hilly; the soil is productive. Corn, cotton, and wool are 
the chief products. It is intersected by the Charlotte Co¬ 
lumbia and Augusta R. R. Capital, Chester or Chester 
Court-house. Pop. 18,805. 

Chester, a beautiful port of entry, post-village, and 
township of Lunenburg co., Nova Scotia, 45 miles W. by 
S. of Halifax, is on Chester Basin, which is studded with 
numerous islands. Its manufactures and fisheries are im¬ 
portant. The village of Chester Basin, 5 miles distant, is 
also celebrated for its beauty. 

Chester, a township of Dallas co., Ark. Pop. 510. 

Chester, a post-township of Desha co., Ark. P. 260. 

Chester, a township and post-village of Middlesex co., 
Conn. The village is on the Connecticut Valley R. R., 
32J miles S. S. E. of Hartford. Pop. of township, 1094. 

Chester, a township of Logan co., Ill. Pop. 1062. 

Chester, a city, capital of Randolph co., Ill., on the 
Mississippi River, 76 miles below St. Louis, and on the 
Iron Mountain Chester and Eastern R. R. It is the ship¬ 
ping-point for the Chester coal-fields. It has eight churches, 
two newspapers, a bank, rolling-mills, foundries, flour-mills, 
an elevator, and three coal-dumps. Pop. 1615. 

Charles L. Spencer, Pdb. “ Valley Clarion.” 

Chester, a township of Wabash co., Ind. Pop. 3143. 

Chester, a township of Wells co., Ind. Pop. 1212. 

Chester, a township and post-village of Howard co., 
Ia. Pop. 324. 

Chester, a township of Poweshiek co., Ia. Pop. 568. 

Chester, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. P. 350. 

Chester, a township and post-village of Hampden co., 
Mass. The village is on the Boston and Albany R. R., 82 
miles AY. N. W. of Worcester. There are important emery- 
mines in the township, and several factories. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 1253. 

Chester, a township and post-village of Eaton co., 
Mich. The village is on the Grand River Valley R. R., 54 
miles S. E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. of township, 1117. 

Chester, a township of Ottawa co., Mich. Pop. 1405. 

Chester, a township of Wabashaw co., Minn. P. 835. 

Chester, a township and post-village of Rockingham 
co., N. II. It has manufactures of boots, shoes, barrels, 
tubs, etc. Pop. 1153. 

Chester, a township of Burlington co., N. J. P. 2586. 

Chester, a township and post-village of Morris co., 
N. J. The village is on the Chester R. R., a branch of the 
Morris and Essex R. R., 40 miles W. of New York City. 
It is a place of summer resort, and has an institute for 
young ladies. Pop. of township, 1743. 

Chester, a post-village of Orange co., N. Y., on the 
Erie R. R., 55 miles N. by W. from New York. It has a 
national bank, an academy, and three churches. Pop. 666; 
of Chester township, 2113. 

Chester, a township of Warren co., N. Y. The post¬ 
village of Chestertown contains an academy. Pop. of 
township, 2329. 

Chester, a township of Clinton co., 0. Pop. 1173. 

Chester, a township of Geauga co., O. Pop. 727. 

Chester, a township and post-village of Meigs co., 0. 
Pop. 1656. The village is about 18 miles S. E. of Athens. 


Chester, a township of Morrow co., O. Pop. 1073. 

Chester, a township of Wayne co., 0. Pop. 1921. 

Chester, a city of Delaware co., Pa., on the Delaware 
River and the Philadelphia Wilmington and Baltimore 
R. R., 15 miles W. S. AY. of Philadelphia. It was settled 
by the Swedes in 1643, and is the oldest town in the State. 
In Chester are large shipyards, in one of which 1300 men 
are employed. There are also manufactures of woollen 
and cotton goods, metals, etc. It has numerous churches 
and public schools, two national and one private bank, and 
one daily and five weekly papers. There is an academy 
in the city, and in the neighborhood is the Crozer Theolog¬ 
ical Seminary (Baptist). Chester has increased rapidly in 
the last decade. It was incorporated a city in 1866. Ad¬ 
jacent are the boroughs of Upland and South Chester, 
which have considerable manufactories. Pop. 9485; of 
township, exclusive of city, 1452. V 

AVm. Orr, Ed. Delaware Co. “Democrat.” 

Chester, a post-village, capital of Chester co., S. C., 
on the Charlotte Columbia and Augusta R. R., and the ter¬ 
minus of the King’s Mountain R. It., 65 miles N. N. AY. of 
Columbia. It has a national bank and one newspaper. 
P. of township, 944. E. C. McLure, Ed. “Reporter.” 

Chester, a township and post-village of AYindsor co., 
A r t., on the Vermont Central R. R., 39 miles S. E. of Rut¬ 
land. Here are manufactures of furniture, leather, lumber, 
carriages, boots and shoes, sash and blinds, etc. It is the 
seat of an academy. Pop. of township, 2052. 

Chester, a township and post-village of Chesterfield 
co., Va. The village is on the Richmond Fredericksburg 
and Potomac R. R., 13 miles S. of Richmond. Pop. of 
township, 2313. 

Chester, a township and village of Dodge co., AYis. 
The village is 17 miles S. AY. of Fond du Lac. Pop. 1876. 

Chester (Colby M.), U. S. N., born in 1845 in Massa¬ 
chusetts, graduated at the Naval Academy as ensign in 
1863, became a master in 1866, a lieutenant in 1867, and a 
lieutenant-commander in 1868. He served in the steamer 
Richmond at the battle of Mobile Bay Aug. 5, 1864, and 
was commended “for coolness and courage” by the com¬ 
manding officer of that vessel, Capt. Thornton A. Jenkins, 
in his official report to Rear-Admiral Farragut of the part 
taken by the Richmond in the battle. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Chester (Joseph Lemuel), a distinguished American 
antiquary, born in Norwich, Conn., in 1821. He has pub¬ 
lished “Greenwood Cemetery, and other Poems” (1843), 
a treatise on “The Law of Repulsion” (1853), “ Educa¬ 
tional Laws of Virginia,” etc. (1854), and other works. He 
has since been engaged in the publication of all the mar¬ 
riage, burial, and bajitismal registers of AA^estminster Ab¬ 
bey, with annotations. 

Chester Court-house, S. C. See Chester. 

Ches'terfield, a town of England, in Derbyshire, 24 
miles by railway N. N. E. of Derby. It has a church built 
in the thirteenth century, with a remarkable twisted spire 
230 feet high. Here are manufactures of silk and cotton 
stuffs, laces, hosiery, earthenware, and machinery. Mines 
of coal, lead, and iron are worked in the vicinity. Pop. in 
1871, 11,426. 

Chesterfield, a county in the N. E. of South Carolina. 
Area, 868 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the 
Great Pedee River and on the AY. by Lynche’s Creek. The 
surface is hilly; the soil in some parts is fertile. It pro¬ 
duces corn, cotton, and some tobacco and rice. It is inter¬ 
sected by the Cheraw and Darlington R. R. Capital, 
Chesterfield Court-house. Pop. 10,584. 

Chesterfield, a county in the S. E. of Virginia. 
Area, 300 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and N. E. 
by the James River, and on the S. by the Appomattox. 
The southern suburbs of Richmond are in this county. 
The surface is uneven. Tobacco, corn, and wheat are the 
chief crops. Coal is found here. It is intersected by the 
Richmond and Danville R. R. and the Richmond Fred¬ 
ericksburg and Potomac R. R. Capital, Chesterfield 
Court-house. Pop. 18,470. 

Chesterfield, a post-township of Hampshire co., Mass. 
Pop. 811. 

Chesterfield, a township of Macomb co., Mich. Pop. 
2175. 

Chesterfield, a township and post-village of Cheshire 
co., N. 11., 8 miles S. AY. of Keene. It has manufactures 
of leather, lumber, augers, etc. Pop. of township, 1289. 

Chesterfield, a township of Burlington co., N. J. 
Pop. 1748. 

Chesterfield, a township of Essex co., N. 1. Pop. 
2795. 




















910 CHESTERFIELD—CIIEVREAU. 

Chesterfield, a township of Nash co., N. C. Pop. 863. 

Chesterfield, a township of Fulton co., 0. Pop. 926. 

Chesterfield Court-house, a post-village, capital 
of Chesterfield co., S. C., is about 90 miles N. E. of Col¬ 
umbia. 

Chesterfield Court-house, the capital of Chester¬ 
field co., Va., is about 12 miles S. S. W. of Richmond. 

Chesterfield Inlet, a long and narrow inlet of British 
America, extends westward from the N. part of Hudson's 
Ba}\ It is about 250 miles long, and 25 miles wide at the 
broadest part. It encloses many islands. 

Chesterfield, Earls of (1628), Barons Stanhope 
(1616, England).— George Philip Stanhope, eighth earl, 
born Nov. 29, 1822, succeeded his kinsman Nov. 30, 1871. 
Died Dec. 1, 1872. 

Chesterfield (Philip Dormer Stanhope), fourth 
earl of, an English author and courtier distinguished for 
his wit and politeness, was bom in London Sept. 22, 1694. 
lie was the eldest son of Philip the third earl and Eliza¬ 
beth Saville, who was a daughter of the marquis of Hali¬ 
fax. He studied at Cambridge, made a tour on the Con¬ 
tinent in 1714, and was elected a member of Parliament in 
1715. In 1726 he inherited the earldom and passed into 
the House of Lords. He became an eloquent debater, and 
gained distinction by his graceful manners and fine taste. 
In 1733 he married Melusina Schulemburg, countess of 
Walsingham. He was a strenuous opponent of Sir Robert 
Walpole about 1734-40, was appointed lord lieutenant of 
Ireland in 1745, and one of the principal secretaries of state 
in 1746. He resigned office in 1748. He was intimate 
with Pope, Swift, Voltaire, and Bolingbroke. His reputa¬ 
tion as a writer is founded chiefly on his “ Letters to his 
Son” (1774), the style of which is much admired. “ Take 
out the immorality,” said Dr. Johnson, “and it should be 
put into the hands of every gentleman.” Died Mar. 24, 
1773. 

Ches'ter Hill, a post-village of Marion township, 
Morgan co., 0. Pop. 354. 

Ches'terton, a post-village of Porter co., Ind. 

Ches'tertown, a seaport, the capital of Kent co., Md., 
on the right (W.) bank of Chester River, about 30 miles in 
a direct line E. of Baltimore. It is the seat of Washington 
College, and has a national bank and three newspapers. 
Pop. 1071; of township, 3639. 

Plummer & Usilton, Pubs. “Kent News.” 

Ches'terville, a township and post-village of Franklin 
co., Me., 22 miles N. W. of Augusta. It has manufactures 
of furniture, spools, doors, etc. Pop. 1011. 

Chesterville, a village of Westerlo township, Albany 
co., N. Y. Pop. 247. 

Chesterville, a post-village of Chester township, Mor¬ 
row co., 0. Pop. 282. 

Chest, Military [Fr. caisse militaire ], is. a technical 
name for the money and negotiable securities carried with 
an army, and intended to defray its current expenses. In 
the British military system this department is managed by 
the commissariat; in the U. S., by the paymaster-general. 

Chest'll lit [Lat. castanea ; Fr. chdtaigne'], a forest tree 
of the natural order Cupulifene. The genus Castanea is 
distinguished by having sterile flowers interruptedly clus¬ 
tered in long and naked cylindrical catkins, and coriaceous 
and farinaceous ovoid nuts enclosed in a hard and prickly 
4-valved involucre. The Castanea vesca is a large tree 
growing wild in Europe and the Northern U. S. It has 
oblong-lanceolate and pointed leaves, serrate with coarse 
pointed teeth, and smooth and green on both sides. Each 
involucre (called the bur) contains from one to three edible 
nuts, often compressed and flattened on one or both sides. 
The wood is light and cross-grained, but durable, is a val¬ 
uable material for fences, and is much prized for finishing 
rooms. The chestnut is an ornamental and stately tree, 
and in Europe attains a great age. A chestnut tree on 
Mount Etna is celebrated for its longevity, and is said to 
have measured 200 feet in circumference. The fruit of the 
Spanish chestnut (which some botanists call Castanea vul¬ 
garis) is larger than that which grows in the U. S. This 
tree prefers a dry, light soil, and usually grows in hilly 
districts. Chestnuts form an important article of food in 
France and other countries of Southern Europe, where they 
are cultivated, and used either roasted or boiled. The best 
variety of French chestnuts are called marrons. Among 
the other species of Castanea is the silvery chestnut of Java 
(Castanea argentea ), the fruit of which is edible, and the 
chinquapin ( Castanea puniila ), a small tree indigenous in 
the Southern U. S. The nuts of the chinquapin are good 
to eat, but are net so large as chestnuts. California has 
another species of chinquapin. At Totworth, in England, 

there is a chestnut tree which was a boundary-mark in the 
reign of King John (1199-1216). 

Chestnut, a township of Knox co., Ill. Pop. 1144. 

Chest'nut Creek, a post-village, capital of Baker co., 

Ala., about 35 miles N. N. W. of Montgomery. 

Chest'nut Ilili, a township and village of Ashe co., 

N. C. The village is 5 miles N. E. of Jefferson. Pop. 1412. 

Chestnut Ilili, a township of Monroe co., Pa. Pop. 

1419. 

Chestnut Ilili, a northern suburb of Philadelphia, is 
on the Wissahickon Creek, about 10 miles N. N. W. of the 
State-house. It is finely situated on high ground, and is 
surrounded by beautiful scenery. Here are numerous ele¬ 
gant country-seats. 

Chest Springs, a post-borough of Cambria co., Pa. 

Pop. 269. 

Chesim'cook Lake, in Piscataquis co., Me., is about 

24 miles long and from 2 to 4 miles wide. It is an expan¬ 
sion of the Penobscot River. 

Chetimach'es Lake, or Grand Lake, is in the S. 
part of Louisiana, between the parishes of St. Mary’s and 

St. Martin’s. It is about 40 miles long, and is too shallow 
for navigation. It is an expansion of the Atchafala.ya 

Bayou. 

Cheto'pa, or Cheto'pah, a city of Labette co., Kan., 
on the Indian Territory line, on the Neosho River and on 
the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R., 72 miles S. S. W. 
of Fort Scott. It has one newspaper-office, planing-mills, 
two banks, flour-mills, a foundry, and large stock-yards. 

There are four churches, and a school building costing 
$25,000. Pop. 960. Cavaness & Van Landigham, 

Pubs. “Southern Kansas Advance.” 

Chetopah, a toivnship of Neosho co., Kan. Pop. 821. 

Chetopali, a township of Wilson co., Kan. Pop. 580. 

Chet'wynd, Viscounts and Barons Rathdowne (Ire¬ 
land, 1717).— Richard Walter Chetwynd, sixth viscount, 
born Dec. 13, 1800, succeeded his father Feb. 27, 1821. 

Chevalier (Michel), a French political economist, 
born at Limoges Jan. 13, 1806. lie was sent to the U. S. 
in 1832 to examine the American railroads, and published 
in 1836 “Letters on North America.” Among his import¬ 
ant works is one entitled “ On the Material Interests of 
France” (1838). He became an advocate of free trade. 

In 1840 he was appointed professor of political economy 
in the College of France, and in 1841 chief engineer of 
mines. He was deprived of these places by the republicans 
in 1848, but was reinstated by Napoleon in 1852. In 1851 
he was admitted into the Institute. He is the author of 
“History and Description of the Ways of Communication 
in the United* States ” (2 vols., 1840-42), “ Mexico, Ancient 
and Modern ” (1863), and other works. 

Clievaux-dc-Frise, a French military term, used also 
in English, and applied to large and strong pieces of tim¬ 
ber from which wooden or iron spikes project in various 
directions. They are employed to impede the advance of 
cavalry or of a storming-party in a fortified place. The 
cheval-de-frise is variously constructed of wood or iron. 
Sometimes it consists of an iron barrel or cylinder about six 
feet long, having twelve holes to receive as many spears, 
which can be packed away in the barrel when not in use. 

Cheverie, a seaport of Kempt township, Hants co., 

Nova Scotia, on the Basin of Minas, exports annually some 

30,000 tons of gypsum to the IT. S. 

Clieverus (Jean Louis Anne Madeleine Lefebvre), 

D. D., a French cardinal and philanthropist, born at May- 
enne Jan. 28, 1768. He was appointed bishop of Boston, 

Mass., in 1808, archbishop of Bordeaux in 1826, and a car¬ 
dinal in 1835. Died July 19, 1836. (See Huen-Dubourg, 

“Vie de Cheverus.”) 

Cheves (Langdon), LL.D., an American statesman and 
lawyer, born in Abbeville district, S. C., Sept. 17, 1776. He 
was a member of Congress from 1811 to 1816, and was 

Speaker of the House of Representatives during one session 
(1814-15). In this position he voted against the bill to 
recharter the U. S. Bank, but he was afterwards president 
of that bank (1819-22). Died June 25, 1857. 

Chev'iot Hills, a mountain-range extending along the 
border between England and Scotland. The range is about 

35 miles long. Its direction is nearly N. E. and S. W. The 
highest point is Cheviot Peak, which rises 2684 feet above 
the level of the sea. The rocks of which the range is formed 
are porphyry, trap, and mountain limestone. Grouse 
abound on these hills, which afford good pasture, and are 
grazed by sheep of a superior breed, called Cheviots. They 
have been the scene of many conflicts between the English 
and Scotch. 

Chevreau (Henry), a French politician and devoted 















CHEVKEUL—CHIBOUQUE. 


911 


partisan of Louis Napoleon, born Oct. 23, 1823, at Belle¬ 
ville, near Paris, was appointed at the age of only twenty- 
six years prefect of the department of Ardeche, and, after 
being employed for a short time in the ministry of the in¬ 
terior, in succession prefect of Loire-Inferieure, of the 
Rhone, and of the Seine. From Aug. 9 to Sept. 4,1870, he 
was minister of the interior in the last Bonapartist min¬ 
istry. 

Chevreu! (Michel Eugene), a French chemist, born at 
Angers Aug. 30, 1786. He published in 1823 “ Chemical 
Researches on Fat Substances of Animal Origin,” and be¬ 
came director of the dyeworks at Gobelin in 1824. He 
succeeded Vauquelin as professor of applied chemistry in 
the Museum of Natural History in 1829. He published in 
1839 an important work “On the Law of the Simultaneous 
Contrastof Colors and the Distribution of Colored Objects.” 
Among his other works is “Lectures on Chemistry Applied 
-to the Art of Dyeing” (1831). 

Chev'ron [Fr. chevron , signifying “rafter”], an orna¬ 
ment and badge of rank of gold or silver lace, or of braid, 
worn on the sleeve, deriving its name from its resemblance 
in form to a pair of rafters. It is of French origin, and has 
been used to denote periods of service in the ranks ( chev¬ 
rons d’anciennete) or the rank of non-commissioned officers. 
The corporals and the various grades of sergeant have from 
one to four chevrons, of different colors in different branches 
of the service. 

Chevron, in heraldry, an ordinary representing the raf¬ 
ters of a house, and generally denoting the foundation of 
his own family by the bearer. The chevron is formed of 
two lines, joined at the top, and descending to the extrem¬ 
ities of the field in the form of a pair of rafters. 

Chevron, or Zigzag Moulding, in architecture, a mould¬ 
ing in the form of a succession of chevrons. In general it 
is characteristic of Norman architecture, but is also found 
during the transition period from Norman to Early English. 

Chev'y Chase, one of the most famous of British bal¬ 
lads. In its present form the piece does not seem to be 
older than the beginning of the seventeenth century. But 
more ancient versions existed; and Bishop Percy has pub¬ 
lished a poem of the sixteenth century which obviously 
suggested passages in the more recent composition. It is 
impossible to reconcile its incidents with history, but the 
event commemorated appears to have been the desperate 
battle at Otterburn (1388) between the Scottish and Eng¬ 
lish bordermen. 

Chew (Richard L.), U. S. N., born Sept. 7, 1843, in the 
District of Columbia, graduated at the Naval Academy in 
1861, became an ensign in 1862, a lieutenant in 1864, and 
a lieutenant-commander in 1866. He served in the frigate 
Minnesota when she was attacked by the iron-clad Merri¬ 
mack, Mar. 8 and 9, 1862, and was attached to the West 
Gulf blockading squadron during 1863 and 1864, and par¬ 
ticipated in the battle of Mobile Bay. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Chewiuk', Ground Finch, or Totv'hee ISun'ting 



Chewink. 


(Pipilo erythr ophthalmia), a very common passerine bird 
of the U. S. and Canada, represented in the far West by 


several other species of the genus. It lives in thickets, 
scratching among leaves for the insects and seeds which 
are its food. It is variegated with brown, white and red, 
and is seven and a half inches long. It nests on the ground, 
and flies with a peculiar jerking motion. 

Cheyenne, a county in the western part of Nebraska. 
It contains much excellent pasturage and some timber. 
It is intersected by the Union Pacific R. R. Capital, Sid¬ 
ney. Pop. 190. 

Cheyenne City, the capital of Wyoming Territory 
and of Laramie county, is on the Union Pacific R. R., at the 
northern terminus of the Denver Pacific R. R., 106 miles 
N. of Denver and 516 miles W. of Omaha. Elevation, 5931 
feet. It has an extensive round-house and shops of the 
Union Pacific R. R., several churches, one national bank, 
waterworks, a park, an artificial lake, a public library, and 
iron and soap manufactories. The railroad was opened to 
this place in 1867, since which it has increased rapidly. 
One daily and two weekly newspapers are published here. 

H. Glafcke, Ed. “Leader.” 

Cheyenne Indians, a tribe of savages dwelling in 
the U. S. Territories E. of the Rocky Mountains. Most 
authorities refer them to the Algonquin stock, but others 
as confidently to the Dakota group. They are associated 
with the Arapahoes, but are much more roving in their 
habits than the latter. They are a tall, courageous race, 
and are fine horsemen, often at war with their neighbors. 
They probably do not number more than 3000 persons, and 
are divided into three bands. 

Chiabre'ra (Gabriello), an eminent Italian lyric 
poet, born at Savona June 8, 1552. He was an admirer 
and imitator of Pindar, and the founder of a new school 
of poetry. He composed canzoni and odes remarkable for 
their sublimity, and in some of his verses rivalled the 
graceful style and genial spirit of Anacreon. lie wrote 
numerous poems in many vai'ieties of verse. In his mature 
life he resided at Florence, Genoa, and Savona. Died Oct. 
14, 1637. “ He borrowed from Pindar,” says Hallam, “ that 

grandeur of sound, that pomp of epithets, that rich swell 
of imagery, that unvarying majesty of conception which 
distinguish the odes of both poets.” (See “Vita di G. 
Chiabrera,” written by himself, Milan, 8vo, 1821; Henry 
Stebbing, “ Lives of the Italian Poets,” 1831.) 

Chia'pas, a state in the S. E. part of the Mexican 
confederation, has an area of 16,771 square miles. It is 
bounded on the N. by Tabasco, on the E. by Guatemala, and 
on the W. by Tehuantepec. It exports cocoa and vanilla. 
Extensive and remarkable ruins of an ancient city arc visi¬ 
ble at Palenquein this state. Capital, San Cristobal. Pop. 
in 1871, 193,978. 

Chiaramon'te, a town of Sicily, in the province of 
Noto, situated on a hill about 30 miles W. S. W. of Syra¬ 
cuse, commands a beautiful prospect. Wine of good quality 
is produced in this vicinity. Pop. 7108. 

Chia'ri, a town of Italy, in the province of Brescia, on 
the railway from Milan to Brescia, 11 miles W. of the lat¬ 
ter, was formerly fortified. It has several churches, 
and manufactures of silk fabrics. Pop. 5297. 

Chiaroscu'ro [It., “ clear dark;” Fr. clair-ol- 
scur \, the distribution of light and shadow in art. 
The reproduction of the effects of light and shade is 
one of the greatest difficulties an artist has to deal 
with. The conditions of its treatment are : (1) The 
natural separation of the lights and darks, the play 
of light in the shadow and of shade in the light, as 
is seen in nature; the softening of the lights and 
the transparency of the shadows. In connection 
with chiaroscuro must be taken into consideration 
the choice of colors and the preservation of the color- 
effects. (2) In composition chiaroscuro consists in 
the massing of lights and shades in different regions 
of a painting, and the juxtaposition and balancing 
of these masses, so as to duly heighten or modify 
the effect of each, and to render the effect of the 
whole simple and harmonious instead of patchy and 
confused. The greatest masters of chiaroscuro were 
Rembrandt, Titian, and Correggio. 

Chiasma. See Decussation. 

Chiava'ri, a town of Italy, in the province of 
Genoa, on the Gulf of Rapallo, at the mouth of the 
Sturla, 21 miles E. S. E. of Genoa. The streets are 
bordered with arcades and well-built houses. The 
town is enclosed by cultivated hills, and has many 
handsome villas in the environs. Here arc several 
picturesque old towers and three churches; also 
manufactures of silk, lace, and furniture. Chiavai i 
has a valuable anchovy-fishery and a slate-quarry. 

Pop. 6995. . . 

Chibouque, a smoking-pipo used in Turkey and 





















912 CHICA—CHICAGO. 


Egypt. It has a mouthpiece of amber or glass, a rather 
long wooden stem, and a bowl of clay. 

Chica, chee'ki, a resinous dyestuff, used to give an 
orange-red color to cotton. It is obtained by boiling the 
leaves of the Bignonia Chica, a plant which grows on the 
banks of the Orinoco. This plant is a climber with bipin- 
nate leaves, heart-shaped leaflets, and llowers in drooping 
clusters. 

Chica, or Pito, is a fermented liquor made from In¬ 
dian corn in some parts of South America, and similar to 
ordinary beer; but the Indians sometimes prepare it by 
chewing the grains, and that which is so prepared is most 
highly esteemed. To make this liquor particularly strong 
and well flavored, they pour it into an earthen jar which 
contains beef; and having made the jar airtight, they bury 
it in the ground, where it is left for years. On the birth of 
a child it is their custom thus to bury a jar of chica, to be 
drunk at the same child’s marriage. Chica has an agree¬ 
able davor, and is very intoxicating. 

Chica'go, a city and port of entry of Illinois, the capi¬ 
tal of Cook co., the largest city in the State, and the 
largest commercial centre in the upper Mississippi Valley, 
situated on the south-western shore of Lake Michigan, its 
city hall being in lat. 41° 52' 20" N., and Ion. 87° 35' IV. 
from Greenwich. The Chicago River, a navigable stream, 
traverses the city by its two principal branches from N. to 
S. The city contained in 1831 about a dozen families; in 
1832 there were nearly 800 inhabitants; in 1837, 4170; in 
1840, 4853; in 1850, 29,963; in 1S60, 109,260; in 1870, 
298,977. There are no perfectly reliable data for estimat¬ 
ing the present population of the city. Its increase during 
the three years and more since the U. S. census was taken 
has been very rapid, and on the basis of school censuses 
and city directories its citizens claim from 400,000 to 
468,000. Chicago has a large internal commerce both by 
water and by rail, and a constantly increasing foreign 
commerce, by way of the lakes, the Welland Canal, and 
the St. Lawrence, with Canada and European ports. The 
latest report of foreign imports into the city, including all 
classes of conveyances, American and foreign vessels, cars, 


bonded and sealed, etc., is for the year ending Oct. 1, 1872, 
and gives a total value (in currency) of $9,560,791, on 
which duties were paid amounting to $1,808,684.17, and 
the duty accumulated on the bonded goods amounted to 
$343,790.44. Tho domestic and foreign exports for the 
year ending Jan. 1, 1873, amounted to $5,356,054. The 
exports consisted of grain, Hour, Indian corn and meal, 
other grains and feed, broom corn, beans, beef, pork, cured 
meats, lard, and grease. The imports were of various 
classes, the most important being dry goods, iron and steel, 
wines, liquors, ale and porter, glass, cigars, tea, coffee, car¬ 
pets, salt, fruits and nuts, fancy goods, lumber, rice, cutlery, 
earthen and china ware, sugar, fish, and miscellaneous 
goods. The arrivals of vessels from foreign ports for the 
year ending Dec. 31, 1872, were—American vessels, 50, 
with a tonnage of 14,412 tons; foreign vessels, 152, with 
a tonnage of 43,802 tons. The clearances for foreign ports 
for the same time were—American vessels, 317, with a 
tonnage of 85,856 tons, and 150 foreign vessels, with a 
tonnage of 42,748 tons. There has been no material 
change in the aggregate number of arrivals and clearances 
during the past five years, but the vessels in the coasting 
trade had slightly diminished, and those in the foreign 
trade increased. But this foreign commerce, which had 
made the port of Chicago tenth in the list of ports in the 
U. S. in the amount of its imports and exports, although 
a thousand miles inland, is a mere trifle compared with its 
internal commerce. In the receipt and shipment of wheat 
and flour, of corn and corn meal, oats, rye, and barley, of 
live-stock, of pork, beef, and salted and smoked meats, 
and of lumber, Chicago is the largest market, with pos¬ 
sibly a single exception, in the II. S., and in several minor 
articles its trade is very large. The fifteenth annual re¬ 
port of the board of trade for the year 1872 states the 
aggregate wholesale trade of the city in dry goods, gro¬ 
ceries, iron, clothing, boots and shoes, drugs, books, and 
the like, for the year, at $500,000,000, and this was prob¬ 
ably an under-estimate. The following table shows the 
receipts and shipments of grain and breadstuff's in each 
year since 1860, as officially reported to the Chicago board 
of trade: 





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1861 

1,479,284 

1,603,920 

17,385,002 

15,835,953 

26,369,989 

24,372,725 

2,067,018 

1,633,237 

490,989 

393,813 

457,589 

226,534 

53,427,365 

50,481,862 

1862 

1.666,391 

1,739,849 

13,978,116 

13,808,898 

29,574,328 

29,452,610 

4,688,722 

3,112,366 

1,038,825 

871,796 

872,053 

532,195 

57,650,804 

56,477,110 

1863 

1,424,206 

1,522,085 

11,408,161 

10,793,295 

26,611,653 

25,051,450 

11,086,131 

9,234,858 

865,508 

651,094 

1,280,342 

946,223 

57,660,722 

54,287,345 

1864 

1,205,698 

1,285,343 

12,184,977 

10,250,026 

13,807,745 

12,235,452 

16,351,616 

16,567,650 

1,060,116 

893,492 

1,018,813 

345,208 

49,848,908 

46,718,543 

1865 

1,134,100 

1,293,428 

9,266,410 

7,614,887 

25,952,201 

25,437,241 

11,659,080 

11,142,140 

1,194,834 

999,289 

1,774,139 

607,484 

54,950,114 

52,268,181 

1866 

1,847,145 

1,981,525 

11,978,753 

10,118,907 

33,543,061 

32,753,181 

11,040,264 

9,961,215 

1,679,541 

1,444,574 

1,742,652 

1,300,821 

68,396,423 

65,486,323 

1867 

1,720,001 

2,015,455 

13,695,244 

10,557,123 

22,772,715 

21,267,205 

12,355,006 

10,226,026 

1,291,821 

1,213,389 

2,360,984 

1,846,891 

60,215,774 

55,187,909 

1868 

2,192,413 

2,399,619 

14,772,094 

10,374,683 

25,570,494 

24,770,626 

16,032,910 

14,440,830 

1,523,820 

1,202,941 

1,915,056 

901,183 

69,680,233 

63,688,358 

1869 

2,218,822 

2,339,063 

16,876,760 

13,244,249 

23,475,800 

21,586,808 

10,611,940 

8,800,646 

955,201 

798,744 

1,513,110 

633,753 

63,417,510 

56,759,515 

1870 

1,766,037 

1,705,977 

17,394,409 

16,432,585 

20,189,775 

17,777.377 

10,472,078 

8,507,735 

1,093,493 

913,629 

3,335,653 

2,584,692 

60,432,574 

54,745,903 

1871 

1,412,177 

1,287,574 

14,439,656 

12,905,449 

41,853,138 

36,716,030 

14,789,414 

12,151,247 

2,011,788 

1,325,867 

4,069,410 

2,908,113 

83,518,202 

71,800,789 

1872 

1,532,014 

1,361,328 

12,724,141 

12,160,046 

47,366,087 

47,013,552 

15,061,715 

12,255,537 

1,109,088 

776,805 

5,251,750 

5,032,308 

88,426,842 

83,364,224 

1873* 

1,556,093 

1,560,383 

16,626,923 

15,958,897 

32,774,013 

28,330,355 

13,475,590 

12,481,372 

810,561 

683,622 

2,293,039 

1,722,689 




The value of grain and flour handled during the year in 
the city was not less than $100,000,000. 

The following table shows the movement, by lake, by 
Illinois and Michigan Canal, and by the various lines of 
railroad, of the other leading articles of internal commerce 
of the city during the year 1872 : 


Commodities. 


Received. 


Shipped. 


Beef, tierces and barrels. 

Pork, barrels. 

Provisions and cut meats, pounds 

Lard, pounds. 

Salt, barrels. 

Liquors and high wines, barrels. 

Lead, pounds. 

Lumber, feet. 

Shingles, number.. 

Coal, tons.. 

Tallow, pounds. 

Potatoes, bushels. 

Cattle, number. 

Sheep, number. 

Hogs, live and dressed, number.... 

Horses, number. 

Wool, pounds. 

Hides, pounds. 

Seeds, pounds. 

Butter, pounds. 


14,512 

121,023 

48 , 256,615 

19 , 911,797 

606,673 

163,991 

20 , 235,635 

1 , 183 , 659,283 

610 , 824,420 

1 , 398,024 

6 , 019,606 

1 , 214,071 

684,075 

310,211 

3 , 488,528 

2,500 

28 , 181,509 

32 , 387,995 

44 , 755,412 

14 , 574,777 


39,911 

208,664 

238 , 727,484 

86 , 040,785 

513,850 

169,564 

10 , 842,717 

417 , 980,507 

436 , 827,375 

177,687 

5 , 312,527 

94,249 

510,025 

145,016 

1 , 981,295 

27 , 720,089 

28 , 959,292 

22 , 358,542 

11 , 497,537 


Number of hogs packed in 1872 in Chicago, 1,225,236, of 
the average net weight of 232.54 pounds. The aggregate 
value of the receipts and shipments of these commodities 
was about $270,000,000, and, adding the grain, flour, and 
feed, about $370,000,000. The number of vessels arriving 


* Nine months only. 


during the year 1872 in the coasting-trade was 12,622, and 
their tonnage, 3,001,538; the number of coasting-vessels 
clearing the same year was 12,064, and their tonnage 
2,889,186. Adding the vessels to and from foreign ports, 
and the entire arrivals of the year were 12,824, tonnage 
3,059,752; the clearances 12,531, tonnage 3,017,790. The 
number of vessels belonging to the district of Chicago in 
1872 was 654, having an aggregate tonnage of 99,403 tons. 
The increase in commerce and trade in 1873 was about 20 
per cent. 

Manufactures .—Tho city has become a prominent man¬ 
ufacturing centre. We have no exact statistics of tho 
manufacturing establishments within the city limits of 
very recent date, but the census of 1S70 gives those of 
Cook county, which were almost entirely either in or for 
Chicago, as follows : 1440 manufacturing establishments, 
employing 31,105 hands, of whom 24,705 were adult 
males, 4652 adult females, 1748 children, having a 
capital employed estimated at $39,372,276, paying for 
wages $13,045,286, using annually raw material valued at 
$60,362,188, and producing annually goods of the value 
of $92,518,742. In Dec., 1871, just after the great fire, 
Mr. Charles Randolph, secretary of the board of trade, 
stated the capital employed in manufactures in the city 
of Chicago, in round numbers, at $40,000,000, the annual 
product at $70,000,000 ; and that they furnished, directly 
and indirectly, the means of subsistence to 60,000 persons. 
Since the fire many new branches of industry have been 
introduced, and the aggregates both of capital and pro¬ 
duction have been increased one-third. The • largest 
branches of manufacture were—the packing and curing 
of meats and provisions, which produced .annually 
$19,153,851; sawed and planed lumber, $6,955,180; iron 






















































































CHICAGO. 


913 


and iron-ware, about $5,000,000 ; clothing, $0,269,590; 
distilled and malt liquors, $5,275,106; flouring-mill prod¬ 
ucts, $3,110,086 ; printing and publishing. $2,152,950 ; 
tobacco, snuff, and cigars, $2,136,146; agricultural im- 
lements, $2,081,000 ; leather, tahned and curried, 
3,333,121; machinery, $2,056,044; animal and vegetable 
oils, $2,364,833; furniture, $1,825,549; boots and shoes, 
$1,666,723; confectionery, $1,848,660; carriages, wagons, 
sleds, children’s carriages, etc., $1,517,368 ; gas, $1,506,431; 
marble and stone-work, $1,383,964; soap and candles, 
$1,050,150 ; bookbinding, $888,400 ; sash, doors, and blinds, 
$S74,550; bread and other bakery products, $695,410; brick, 
$583,575 ; coffee and spices ground, $752,851 ; lead pipe and 
shot, $798,410; malt, $743,401; paints, $544,400; and tin, 
copper, and sheet-iron ware, $803,976, were the only other 
manufactures producing an aggregate of above $500,000 
per annum. 

Finances. —The assessed valuation of the city for the 
year 1872, made up before Oct. 1, 1872, was $284,197,430; 
for the year 1871 (completed before the great fire), 
$289,746,470; for 1870, $275,986,550. The true valuation 
of Cook county in 1870, according to the ninth census, was 
$575,000,000. Of this probably about $550,000,000 be¬ 
longed to Chicago. The city tax (a levy of fifteen mills on 
the dollar) for the year 1872-73 was $4,262,961.45. The 
city held a lien on the Illinois and Michigan Canal, for 
moneys paid for its enlargement, of $2,955,340, and this 
the State has assumed and is paying in instalments, the 
whole payment being completed in 1873. The bonded debt 
of the city April 1, 1873, was $13,544,000 ($559,000 of these 
bonds having been cancelled the previous year); the floating 
debt at the same date was $1,849,332.04, nearly all of which 
was provided for and payable from the tax levy of 1872. 
The amount of internal revenue (national) tax collected in 
the year ending Oct. 1, 1872, was $5,685,388.85. The assets 
of the city, including its buildings, lands, water-works, 
street lamps and posts, accrued and accruing taxes, etc., to 
meet its bonds and other liabilities, were appraised April 1, 
1873, at $20,072,726.07. The receipts of the city treasurer, 
during the year ending April 1, 1873, were $9,215,434.90, 
and the expenditures for the same term were $8,325,875.37, 
leaving a balance in the treasury of $889,559.53. The 
school fund of the city is stated at $2,774,674.93, yielding 
an annual revenue of $91,483.88. 

Banks, Insurance Companies, etc. —In Jan., 1873, Chicago 
had twenty-two national banks, with an aggregate capital 
of $9,000,000, and fifteen State banks, savings banks, and 
loan and trust associations, with a capital and surplus of 
$3,105,000. The number of private banking-houses is very 
large, and their business larger than that of the banks. 
The weekly clearances at the clearing-house during the 
summer and autumn of 1873 averaged $24,500,000, and 
once reached $31,000,000. There were in July, 1873, four 
fire insurance companies in the city, with a capital of 
$1,180,500, and assets of about $1,667,000, and a great 
number of agencies and branch offices of companies from 
other States and countries, and six life insurance com¬ 
panies, with $1,800,000 capital and $3,355,000 assets. 
There are agencies of all the leading life insurance com¬ 
panies of the country in the city. 

Education. —Chicago has been a great educational centre 
for the North-west, and with its immediate suburbs has 
done much for general, and particularly higher, education. 
There are within the city limits one university, the Univer¬ 
sity of Chicago, organized in 1859, having a law school and 
an astronomical and scientific school, besides its undergrad¬ 
uate course, having 18 professors and other instructors, and 
in 1873, 27 students in the law department, 8 in the scientific 
school, 90 in the college proper, and 304 in the preparatory 
departments; 19,600 volumes in its libraries, a fine astro¬ 
nomical observatory, having the second refractor in size 
in this country, a meridian circle of the first class, and all 
the necessary appliances for astronomical instruction and 
observation; one college, St. Ignatius’ College, founded in 
1870, having 18 professors and other instructors, 67 students, 
of whom 44 are in the collegiate and 23 in the preparatory 
department, and 5000 volumes in its libraries. There aro 
four medical schools or colleges, two regular, one eclectic, 
and one homoeopathic, having in all 66 instructors, 480 
students, and 6000 volumes in their libraries ; 1 college of 
pharmacy, with 3 instructors, 50 students, and 1000 volumes 
in library ; four theological seminaries, one Congregational, 
one Baptist, one Lutheran, and one Presbyterian, with 14 
professors and 127 students, and 33,000 volumes in their 
libraries; there are also three business or commercial col¬ 
leges, with 24 instructors and 788 students; four female 
colleges or seminaries of high grade, with 58 instructors 
and 710 students; sixty-five private schools and academies, 
with 332 instructors and 14,496 pupils : three orphan and 
half-orphan asylums, with 22 instructors and teachers, and 
239 children; one reform school, with 14 teachers and as- 
58 


sistants and 212 inmates. There are about 200 Sunday 
schools, with 4500 teachers and 50,000 scholars, and 35,000 
volumes in their libraries. Prior to the great fire of Oct. 8 , 
1871, there were in the city nine or ten public libraries, 
having an aggregate of more than 100,000 bound volumes 
and about 150,000 pamphlets; one art museum, with a 
very fine collection of paintings, statues, casts, etc.; three 
art galleries, two scientific museums, and a number of as¬ 
sociations for literary and scientific improvement, with 
libraries and art collections of considerable value. These 
were all destroyed by the ffames, but most of them are re¬ 
organizing, and some have already made a fair beginning 
in their new collections. Turning to her public schools, 
we find that Chicago has a well-organized system of public 
instruction, thoroughly graded, and embracing the Normal 
School, an institution of high character, with 5 instructors 
(1 male and 4 female) and 95 students, all females. The 
principal receives a salary of $2500 per annum, and the four 
lady teachers an average of $1050 each. The average age 
of the pupils in the course, which occupies four years, is 
eighteen and a half years. There is one high school, with 
11 male and 10 female teachers, and a four years’ course of 
instruction, and 612 scholars, 304 of them in the junior or 
lowest class; the age of these pupils ranges from fifteen 
years nine months to eighteen years seven months. The 
average salaries of the male teachers are $2082, and of the 
female teachers, $1000. The grammar school course com¬ 
prises five years; there are twenty-two grammar schools, 
with 21 male and 154 female teachers, and 3851 male and 
3707 female pupils, whose ages range from ten years ten 
months to fourteen years and ten months; the average sal¬ 
aries of the male teachers are $2190, and of the female 
teachers $731. There are thirty-five primary schools, with 
352 teachers, all females; the primary school course occu¬ 
pies five years. There are in the primary schools 12,316 male 
and 11,833 female scholars. The average salaries of the 
primary teachers are $688. The whole number of schools 
of all grades is 59; of male teachers, 33; of female teach¬ 
ers, 520; of male pupils, 16,379; of female pupils, 16,027; 
of both, 32,406. The average salaries of the male teachers 
are $2164 per annum, of the female teachers $710. Add¬ 
ing the number of pupils in the female seminaries, private 
schools, orphan asylums, etc., 15,457, to the aggregate in 
the public schools, we have 47,863 children in school out 
of a total school population— i. e. between six and twenty- 
one years—of 88,219. It should be noted that among the 
private schools are included the parochial schools of the 
Catholics and Lutherans, of which there are thirty-seven. 
In the great firo fifteen school-houses, furnishing accom¬ 
modations to more than 10,000 pupils, were burned, and 
the remainder were for a time used as temporary shelter 
for thousands of the homeless. The greater part of these 
school-houses, as well as several new ones, have been rebuilt 
since that time, and the city is now (Oct., 1873) reason¬ 
ably well supplied with school edifices. The number of vol¬ 
umes in all the public libraries of Chicago, including those 
in tho colleges, seminaries, and professional schools, is about 
80,000 volumes. 

The city has long been famous for its newspapers and 
periodicals. The latest statistics obtainable give the whole 
number of these, excepting annual publications, as 102 , of 
which 11 were dailies (3 of them German), having an ag¬ 
gregate daily circulation of about 150,000 copies; 5 tri¬ 
weeklies, circulation 40,000; 45 weeklies, aggregate week¬ 
ly circulation 450,000 copies (of these 5 were German, 5 
Scandinavian, and 1 Bohemian); 3 semi-monthlies, circu¬ 
lation 10,000 ; 33 monthlies (one of them German and 
another Swedish), having an aggregate monthly circulation 
of 270,000 ; 1 bi-monthly, circulation 1000 ; and 4 quar¬ 
terlies, circulation 16,000 ; 16 of these papers are political, 
18 religious, 8 professional, 18 literary, 10 devoted to com¬ 
merce, finance, etc., 5 juvenile, 6 advertising, 5 agricultu¬ 
ral, and the remainder miscellaneous. 

There were in July, 1873, 209 churches in the city—viz. 
Baptist, 18; Baptist mission chapels, 9; Free Baptist, 1; 
Christian, 1; Congregational, 17; Episcopalian, 18; Evan¬ 
gelical Association, 6 ; Evangelical Lutheran, 10; United 
Evangelical, 6 ; Independent, 2; Jewish synagogues, 5; 
Methodist, including the German and Scandinavian Meth¬ 
odist, 22; African Methodist Episcopal, 2; Scandinavian 
Lutheran, 4; Presbyterian, 18; Independent Presbyterian 
missions, 5; Scotch Presbyterian, 1; United Presbyterian, 
1; Reformed Presbyterian, 1; Presbyterian missions, 10; 
Reformed (Dutch), 3; Roman Catholic, 27; Swedenborgian, 
4; Swedenborgian mission, 1; Unitarian, 5; Universalist, 
3; Adventists, 2; Disciples, 1; Christadelphians, 1; Pil¬ 
grims, 1; Friends’ meeting-house (Orthodox), 1 ; Friends 
(Hicksite), 1; Church of God, or Winnebrennarians, 1; 
Spiritualists, 1. Many of tho church edifices before the 
fire were remarkable for their architectural beauty. 1 hat 
great calamity destroyed thirty-nine churches, and among 

































914 


CHICAGO. 


them many of the costliest and most elegant structures in 
the cit}\ The Catholic cathedral (St. Mary’s) and the 
Church of the Holy Name, the First and Second Presby¬ 
terian, the Westminster church, the New England Congre¬ 
gational, the First Methodist Episcopal church, and the 
Methodist Block, Trinity and St. James’s (Episcopal), the 
Jewish synagogue, the Church of the Unity, St. Paul’s 
Universalist, and the Swedenborgian Temple, were the 
most noteworthy. The First Baptist on Wabash avenue, 
the Methodist church corner of Wabash avenue and Har¬ 
rison street, Plymouth church, and Rev. Robert Laird 
Collier’s, were among those spared by the fire, but most of 
these have gone into other hands or have been devoted to 
business purposes. Many of the churches destroyed have 
been rebuilt, either on their own or new sites, and with greater 
beauty than before. Among these are the First and Second 
Presbyterian, the Church of the Unity, St. Paul’s, and 
most of the Catholic churches. New churches are also 
constantly going up, many of them fine specimens of eccle¬ 
siastical architecture. 

Benevolent and Charitable Institutions .—There are in the 
city eight hospitals; one infirmary, beside cliniques con¬ 
nected with all the medical colleges; dispensaries, 6; or¬ 
phan asylums, 7; asylums for the aged and indigent, 2 ; 
home for the friendless, 1; benevolent, mutual, and re¬ 
ligious societies and associations, 90. There are also 49 
Masonic lodges, encampments, and conclaves; 38 Odd 
Fellows’ lodges; 20 of Knights of Pythias; 6 of Sons of 
Temperance j 12 of Good Templars; 5 of Benai Berith; 5 
of Ancient Order of Chaldeans ; 10 of German Ilarugari; 14 
of Sons of Hermann ; 4 of Independent Order of Red Men ; 
] of Ancient Druids; 3 of Foresters; 10 of Ancient Order 
of Good Fellows; and 5 of the American Protestant Asso¬ 
ciation. No notice of the benevolent and charitable insti¬ 
tutions of Chicago would be complete which failed to give 
some account of the Chicago Relief and Aid Society, an 
organization founded in 1857, and which has had from 
that time the management of the voluntary charities of 
the city to the poor, infirm, and helpless. When the great 
calamity of Oct. 8, 1871, fell upon Chicago, and the chari¬ 
ties of America and Europe were evoked for the relief of 
the fire-smitten city, the greater part of these princely 
charities were placed in the hands of this society for dis¬ 
tribution to the more than 100,000 persons of all classes 
who were suddenly reduced to destitution. Within the 
next fifteen months they had received and disbursed to the 
sufferers, with a judgment and wisdom never surpassed, 
the sum of $5,687,979.66, together with supplies valued at 
over half a million more. There should not be omitted, 
also, from this list of benevolent and charitable associa¬ 
tions the Young Men’s Christian Associations of the city, 
which were not only very efficient in the time of its great 
extremity, but before and since in organizing mission 
schools and ministering both to the physical and spiritual 
wants of the poor and the vicious. 

Public Buildings of Note and Parks and Boulevards .— 
The public buildings of the city before the fire were many 
of them elegant structures, but those which have been 
erected since possess both elegance and durability. The 
new building for the U. S. government’s use, the custom¬ 
house, court-house, and post-office, is a magnificent struc¬ 
ture; the new chamber of commerce is a finer building in 
every respect than its predecessor; and the projected city 
hall is to be the finest building of its class in the country. 
The Crystal Palace for the inter-State exposition in Sept., 
1873, was a very imposing structure. The city has been 
noted for some years past for the extent and magnificence 
of its hotels. All the larger ones were destroyed by the 
fire, but the Pacific, said to be the largest hotel on the con¬ 
tinent, Palmer’s, the New Sherman House, the New Tre- 
mont, and the Clifton House are not surpassed in beauty 
by any structures of the kind in the world. The ware¬ 
houses of the city are remarkable for their extent and their 
graceful proportions. During the year after the fire 1274 
brick, stone, and iron buildings were erected, many of 
them of vast size, and more than twice that number were 
in course of construction. Of frame buildings the number 
exceeded 5000. The aggregate value of these buildings 
(those competed and in progress) exceeded $120,000,000. 
There are nine public parks in the city, connected with 
each other by boulevards. These are—Lincoln Park, orig¬ 
inally a cemetery, and containing 240£ acres; Washington 
Park, 2§ acres; Lake Park, not completed, 421 acres: 
Dearborn Park, 1J acres; Ellis Park, 31 acres; Union Park, 
111 acres; Jefferson Park, 6f acres; Wicker Park, 31 acres; 
and Yernon Park, 3j| acres. Nearly 95 acres of Lincoln 
Park are outside the present city limits. The avenues or 
boulevards connecting them with each other are some of 
the finest streets in the city. Chicago, to a greater ex¬ 
tent than most cities, has elegant suburban villages, some 
of them small cities, around it. Among these are South 


Chicago, Hyde Park, Evanston, Morgan Park, Lake For¬ 
est, etc. 

Railroads .—Much of the prosperity of Chicago has been 
due to the concentration of so many trunk-lines of rail¬ 
roads. There are ten powerful trunk-lines which bring 
freight and passengers into the city, and, including branch 
lines, twenty-six railroads contribute directly to the growth 
of the city. These lines have nearly 10,000 miles of com¬ 
pleted track. The number of regular passenger trains out 
each day is 94, and of in-trains 92. The number of regular 
freight trains each day is 143. Besides these there are from 
eight to ten extra passenger and about twenty extra freight 
trains each day. The gross earnings of the roads centring 
in Chicago for the year ending Sept. 30, 1873, were nearly 
$83,000,000, and the net earnings over all expenses about 
$20,000,000. Eighty Pullman palace sleeping cars and 
about twenty sleeping cars of other manufacturers arrive 
and leave daily. The ten trunk-roads which are tributary 
to the commerce of Chicago are the Chicago and North¬ 
western Railway, Illinois Central R. R., Chicago Rock 
Island and Pacific, Chicago Burlington and Quincy, Chi¬ 
cago and Alton (St. Louis), Michigan Central, Lake Shore 
and Michigan Southern Railway, Pittsburg Fort Wayne 
and Chicago, Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis, and the 
Chicago Danville and Vincennes R. Rs. There are also 
city railroads, having an aggregate length of 70 miles, car¬ 
rying 27,500,000 passengers annually, and reporting gross 
receipts of $1,377,000. There is one important canal, con¬ 
necting the Mississippi River with Lake Michigan by way 
of the Illinois River and its tributary, the Des Plaines. 
This canal is the medium of an immense traffic both in the 
receipt and shipment of grain, provisions, lumber, and other 
goods. It has recently been deepened, for twenty-six miles 
of its course, eight feet, at an expense of $3,300,883.71; 
and this, with the deepening of the bed of Chicago River 
and its South Branch, permits the waters of Lake Michi¬ 
gan to flow through the river and branch into the canal, 
and to be carried into the Illinois and Mississippi rivers. 
This obviates what was a great source of annoyance and 
sickness in Chicago—viz. the offensive condition of the 
waters of the Chicago River. There are no ferries, prop¬ 
erly so called, in Chicago. Steamers ply across the lake 
(Lake Michigan) to Michigan City, New Buffalo, and St. 
Joseph, all railroad stations, but they are hardly to be 
reckoned .as ferry lines. The Chicago River and its 
branches are crossed by numerous drawbridges, and there 
are also two tunnels under the river, constructed at an ex¬ 
pense of $1,083,276.48, for passengers and teams. The 
water-supply of the city is derived from Lake Michigan. 
An iron cylinder nine feet in diameter was driven into the 
lake bed thirty-one feet below the bottom, at a distance of 
two miles from the shore, and a tunnel excavated thence to 
the shore and to the waterworks, where it is forced by 
powerful pumps to the summit of a tower 130 feet high, 
and thence distributed over the city 7 -. The supply, 19,000,000 
gallons daily, is sufficient for the present needs of the 
city, and by the use of additional reservoirs and pumps, 
now constructing, can be increased threefold or more. The 
cost of these waterworks to April 1, 1872, was $4,712,615.18, 
and they yield already an income from the water-rates of 
more than $500,000 annually. The city is supplied with 
illuminating gas by private colorations. 

Paving and Sewering .—There are 534 miles of streets in 
the city. Of this number, 108 miles, or about one-fifth, 
have been improved by paving, macadamizing, or other¬ 
wise. The Nicholson wood pavement is used on all the 
principal streets, covering nearly 80 miles, while the newer 
avenues have been in some cases covered with the macadam 
or improved Telford pavement. The sewex*s laid, up to 
April, 1873, were about 925,000 feet, or nearly 180 miles, 
and their cost about $3,150,000. 

History .—The site of Chicago was visited and occupied 
for a short time by the Jesuit Marquette in 1673, and the 
portage between the Chicago and Des Plaines rivers passed 
over repeatedly by La Salle in 1681. In 1804 the U. S. 
government established a small military post there called 
Fort Dearborn, garrisoned by a single company of infantry, 
most of whom were massacred by the Indians in Aug., 
1812. The fort was soon after destroyed, but was rebuilt 
in 1816, and became the nucleus for a small number of set¬ 
tlers—squatters who were not in civilization much above 
the Indian tribes which sui’rounded them. It was not 
until the negotiations which resulted in the removal of the 
Pottawattomies to a reservation twenty days’ journey W. 
of the Mississippi were commenced that this marshy and 
muddy prairie lying around the mouth of the Chicago 
River began to be regarded as a place where a gi'eat city 
would be built. After the close of the Black Hawk war in 
1832, Northeim Illinois and Southern Wisconsin were 
thrown open to settlement. In that year there were about 
800 people within the present limits of Chicago, all very 















CHICAGO—CHICKAMAUGA. 


915 


poor, and the tax-levy of $1.50 assessed upon them was 
very burdensome. The place was already named Chicago, 
a corruption ol the Indian name of an adjacent river, 
Chekagow.” Up to 1837 it was dependent upon Ohio 
for flour; In 1839 its first shipment of wheat (1678 bushels) 
was made,- in 1840 it had a population of 4470 inhabitants, 
and from this time onward its growth was very rapid, in¬ 
creasing from 28,000 in 1850 to 109,000 in 1860, and to 
298,977 in 1870. For a long time it struggled with inter¬ 
mittent fevcx-, cholera, bilious remittent fever, and other 
diseases dependent upon its low marshy situation, its stag¬ 
nant water, its foul-smelling river, and its muddy and un¬ 
drained streets; but by the artificial elevation of its streets 
and the skilfully devised system of sewerage and drainage 
adopted it has become a healthful city in ordinary seasons, 
and compares well in point of cleanliness with the other 
large cities of the Union. 

Chicago was incorporated as a city in 1837, when it had 
a mere handful of inhabitants. The use of the Nicholson 
or wooden block pavement was commenced in 1856, and 
the principal streets are now admirably paved and sewered. 
The elevation of the streets about eight or ten feet for 
sewerage purposes, and the screwing up block after block 
. of very heavy buildings for this purpose, including in the 
number some of the largest hotels, was the most stupendous 
experiment of its kind ever undertaken. The city early 
became largely interested in the grain, pork, provision, and 
lumber trades, and before it was twenty-five years old had 
taken the lead in all these departments of trade. It was 
while in the full tide of prosperity, and when perhaps its 
rapid growth had made it careless, that on the 8th and 9th 
of October a disaster befel it such as in some respects was 
unparalleled in the history of great cities. For about 
thirty-six hours the devouring flames swept over the city, 
and before them the grandest and most substantial ware¬ 
houses, public buildings, dwellings, churches, etc. vanished 
like the breaking of a bubble. The fire extended over 2124 
square acres, or nearly three and one-third square miles, 
much of it in the very heart of the business portion of the 
city. This area contained about 73 miles of streets and 
17,450 buildings, the homes of 98,500 people. It destroyed 
nearly all the public buildings and almost one-half the 
public school buildings of the city, its largest railway 
depots, its principal halls, theatres, opera-houses, and art 
buildings, all its larger hotels (of which many were of the 
first class), five of its great grain elevators, with 1,642,000 
bushels of grain in them, nine daily and many weekly 
newspaper establishments, thirty-nine churches, nearly 
all the banks, and all the most prominent business blocks. 
The money value of the losses was carefully estimated, and 
was said to be, in round numbers,on buildings,$52,000,000; 
on business property, goods, etc., $85,000,000; on personal 
effects, $59,000,000 ; making a total of property burned of 
$196,000,000. There was a salvage on this of about 
$5,000,000, but the interruption to business and the total 
derangement of trade which followed could not be esti¬ 
mated at less than $29,000,000, making a grand total of 
$220,000,000. At first it was supposed that the deprecia¬ 
tion of real estate which had followed would amount to 
from eighty millions to one hundred millions more, but it 
was found that real estate actually advanced in value 
within one year nearly 50 per cent. Of the ninety-six and 
a half millions of insurance upon the property destroyed, 
only an average of 40 per cent., or a little more than 
$38,000,000, was ever paid, 68 companies, with $24,000,000 
liabilities, being completely wiped out, and many others 
paid but a small percentage of the claims. This great, dis¬ 
aster called forth the most extraordinary liberality from 
every part of the civilized world; the contributions from 
all quarters for the relief of the sufferers by the fire 
amounted to $7,119,256.50, of which, as we have already 
stated, $5,687,000 were disbursed through the Chicago Re¬ 
lief and Aid Society. But if the disaster was greater than 
had ever befallen a city before, the recovery from it was 
equally astounding. At the end of two years from the 
conflagration very few traces of it remained; the rebuilt 
city is vastly more magnificent and substantial than that 
which perished in the flames. Aside from the 8033 tem¬ 
porary buildings .erected at the cost and under the direc¬ 
tion of the relief committee, there have been in the two 
years which have elapsed since the fire, 9000 buildings 
erected, of which 3000 were of brick, stone, or iron, many 
of them of great extent and imposing architecture; and 
6000 frame buildings, but many of them very substan¬ 
tial. The business of the city has increased till her assess¬ 
ment, taken at the usual percentage (about 60 per cent, of 
actual market value), in less than a year from the occur¬ 
rence of the fire, was but $5,000,000 less than the previous 
year, and now (in Oct., 1873) largely exceeds it. Though 
perhaps somewhat unduly self-appreciative, yet few cities 
have a more brilliant prospect in the future. Its constantly 


enlarging facilities for commerce and manufactures, its 
importance as a great railroad centre, the irrepressible 
energy and pluck of its citizens, and the influx of wealth 
from all quarters, make it certain that it is tb be one of the 
largest and busiest cities of the continent in the not remote 
future. 

(For the statistical matters contained in this article wo 
are indebted to George W. Thachcr, Esq., for the last eigh¬ 
teen years a prominent citizen of Chicago.) 

L. P. B ROCKETT. 

Chicago, a post-township of Douglasco., Neb. P. 260. 

Chichen', a town of Central America, in Yucatan, 18 
miles S. W. of Valladolid. Here are the remains of an 
ancient town, comprising a vast ruined building 450 feet 
long, a pyramid the base of which is 550 feet square, and 
a remarkable domed edifice. 

Chich'ester (anc. Recjnum'), an episcopal city of Eng¬ 
land, capital of Sussex, on the South Coast Railway, 17 
miles E. N. E. of Portsmouth. It stands on a plain be¬ 
tween an arm of the sea and the South Downs. It is well 
built, and has clean wide streets. Here is a cathedral built 
in 1199, which is 410 feet long by 227 wide. The town is 
connected by a canal with the sea, which is two miles dis¬ 
tant. It sends two members to the House of Commons. 
It was formerly the capital of the kingdom of Sussex. Pop. 
in 1871, 7850. 

Chichester, a post-township and village of Merrimack 
co., N. H., 8 miles E. N. E. of Concord, on the Suncoolc 
Valley R. R. It has manufactures of leather, lumber, etc. 
Pop. 871. 

Chichester, Earls op (United Kingdom, 1801), Barons 
Pelham (England, 1762), and baronets (1611).— IIexry 
Thomas Pelham, third earl, first church estate commis¬ 
sioner, born Aug. 25, 1804, succeeded his father in 1826. 

Chick'adee [a name derived from its note], the popu¬ 



Chickadee. 

lar name of the black cap titmouse (Pants atricapillus) and 
other American passerine birds of the same genus and of 
nearly related genera. The common chickadee is frequent 
all the year round throughout a great part of North Amer¬ 
ica, and is one of the bravest and most cheerful of our 
winter birds. It shares with several others the name 
snowbird, and its familiar cry and sprightly manners 
render it a great favorite with children. It nests in a hol¬ 
low tree, and feeds on insects in their season, and on seeds 
in winter. 

Chickaliom'iny, a river in the E. part of Virginia, 
rises about 20 miles N. W. of Richmond, flows south-east¬ 
ward, and after a course of about 75 miles enters the James 
River. It forms the boundary between Henrico and Charles 
City counties on the right, and Hanover, New Kent, and 
James City on the left. Along the margins of the Cliicka- 
hominy is found the theatre of operations of Gen. McClellan 
operating against Richmond during May and June, 1862. 
In close proximity to this river occurred the battles of 
Seven Pines and Fair Oaks, May 31-June 1, 1862, Mc- 
chanicsville, June 26, Gaines's Mill, June 27. Savage’s Sta¬ 
tion, June 29, White Oak Sivamp, June 30, 1862, and Cold 
Harbor, June 3,1864. (See Confederate States, by Hon. 
Horace Greeley, LL.D.) 

Chickahominy, a township of Charles City co., T a. 
Pop. 1372. 

Chicka'lali, a post-township of Yell co., Ark. P. 175. 

Ctiickamaa/ga, a creek which rises in V alker co., 
Ga., flows north-eastward and northward, and enters the 
Tennessee River about 6 miles above Chattanooga. 

Chickamauga, a post-village of Hamilton co., Tenn., 
on the Chickamauga Creek and the Western and Atlantic 
R. R., 12 miles E. of Chattanooga. (See Chickamauga, 

Battle of.) 






























916 CHICKAMAUGA, 


Clvickamauga, I5attle of. The battle of Chick- 
amauga, fought between the forces of the U. S., under 
command of Gen. W. S. Rosecrans, and those of the Con¬ 
federates, under Gen. Braxton Bragg, commenced on the 
morning of Sept. 19, about 9 o'clock. Of llosecrans’ army, 
Gen. McCook commanded the right wing, Thomas the left, 
and Crittenden the centre, while Gen. Polk held chief com¬ 
mand of the Confederate right and Hood of the left. The 
Confederates first attacked the extreme left of the U. S. 
army with heavy masses, the endeavor being to turn it, and 
thus gain possession of the roads to Chattanooga. A des¬ 
perate conflict was continued during the day, but Thomas 
maintained his position. On the right the conflict had 
been severe at times, but on the whole the day closed with 
the advantage on the Union side. During the night 
Thomas was reinforced from the other wings of the army, 
and had strengthened his position by hastily thrown up 
breastworks. The attack was renewed by the Confederates 
on the morning of the 20th against the left and centre, and 
the tide of battle here ebbed and flowed throughout the day, 
with heavy losses on both sides, but without material ad¬ 
vantage to either; but Bragg was unable to turn Thomas’s 
flank and occupy the coveted passage to Chattanooga. The 
fight along the left centre had been equally desperate, 
bloody, and indecisive. But on the right a fearful disas¬ 
ter had fallen. In answer to Thomas’ call for aid, Rose- 
crans had despatched Negley’s and Van Cleve’s divisions 
from the right and centre. Wood was directed to close 
up on Reynolds on the right centre, and Davis to close 
on Wood. According to Rosecrans’ report, Wood over¬ 
looked this direction, but supposed that ho was to support 
Reynolds, and attempted to do so by withdrawing from 
the line and passing in the rear of Brannan, thus opening 
a gap in the line of battle, which being quickly perceived 
by Longstreet, a decisive charge was made, striking Da,vis 
in flank and rear, and throwing the whole division into 
confusion. Pouring in through this gap, the Confeder¬ 
ates cut off the Federal right and centre, and attacking 
Sheridan’s division, which was advancing to the support 
of the left, compelled it, after a gallant struggle, to give 
way. It was afterwards rallied, however, and by a cir¬ 
cuitous route joined Thomas, who was now left to breast 
the tide of battle against the whole army of Bragg. The 
right and part of the centre had been broken and sent 
flying in disorder towards Chattanooga, with terrible loss. 
Rosecrans, McCook, and numerous subordinate commanders 
were carried along in the whirl. Sheridan and Davis ral¬ 
lied and re-formed their decimated and scattered commands 
on the way, and halted at Rossville. Rosecrans, being 
unable to join Thomas, hastened to Chattanooga to prepare 
that place for defence in case of a total rout of his army, 
which now seemed imminent. But Gen. Thomas still re¬ 
mained immovable in his position. His line had now 
assumed a crescent shape, with its flanks supported by the 
lower spurs of the mountain; and here he repulsed the 
furious onsets of the Confederates. About 3+ p. m. the Con¬ 
federates discovered a gap in the hills in rear of his right 
flank, through which Longstreet poured his massive col¬ 
umns. At this critical moment Gen. Gordon Granger, who 
had been posted with his reserves to cover the left and 
rear, arrived on the field. He had heard the sound of 
the cannon, and marched his force there without orders. 
Gen. Thomas pointed out to him the gap through which 
the Confederates were debouching, and ho at once threw in 
Steedman’s brigade of cavalry. The conflict was terrible, 
but the gap was taken. Two divisions of Longstreet’s 
corps repeatedly assaulted the position, but a battery of 
six guns placed in the gorge repelled them with fearful 
slaughter. About sunset they made their last charge, when 
they were met and driven back at the point of the bayonet, 
and returned no more. In the mean time, Thomas had re¬ 
pulsed the repeated attacks on his left and front, and at 
nightfall the Confederate army retired beyond range of 
his artillery, leaving Thomas in possession of his hard- 
fought field. Considering the extreme labor of his troops, 
the scarcity of ammunition, food, and water, Gen. Thomas 
determined to retire on Rossville, where they arrived and 
took post before morning of the 21st, receiving supplies 
from Chattanooga, and offering battle during the day, but 
the attack was not seriously renewed. On the night of the 
21st he withdrew within the defences of Chattanooga. 

The result of the battle was a nominal victory to the 
Confederates on the field, though Chattanooga and the 
possession of East Tennessee, the prize for which the battle 
was fought, still remained in possession of the Union forces. 
The Union loss is reported at 16,000, killed, wounded, and 
missing; the Confederate loss, 18,000; they captured 36 
guns, 8500 small-arms, and large quantities of accoutre¬ 
ments. 

Chick'aming, a post-township of Berrien co., Mich. 
Pop. 992. 


ATTLE OF—CHICO. 


Chickasa'ba, a township of Mississippi co., Ark. 
Pop. 448. 

Chick'asaWj a county in the N. E. of Iowa. Area, 
540 square miles. It is intersected by the Wapsipinicon 
River. The Red Cedar River passes through the S. W. 
part of it. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. 
Cattle, wool, grain, and tobacco arc raised. It is traversed 
by a branch of the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. The 
Cedar Falls and Minnesota branch of the Illinois Central 
R. R. crosses the S. E. corner of the county. Capital, 
New Hampton. Pop. 10,180. 

Chick'asaw, a county in the N. E. of Mississippi. 
Area, 700 square miles. It is drained by the Yallobusha 
River, which rises in it, and by the Oktibbeha. The sur¬ 
face is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Corn and tobacco 
arc the staple crops, but wool, cattle, and cotton are also 
raised. The Mobile and Ohio R. R. crosses the N. E. corner 
of the county. Capital, Houston. Pop. 19,899. 

Chickasaw, a township of Chickasaw co., la. Pop. 
1076. 

Chickasaw Bluffs, Battle of, before Vicksburg, 
Miss. The U. S. forces under Gen. IV. T. Sherman assaulted 
this strongly fortified position Dec. 29, 1CG2, but, though 
the head of the assaulting column reached the works, the 
severe fire from the rifle-pits and batteries caused them to 
fall back to the point of starting, leaving many dead, 
wounded, and prisoners on the field. The Confederate loss 
was but light. 

Chick'asaw In'dians, a warlike tribe which formerly 
occupied the northern parts of Alabama and Mississippi. 
They were visited by De Soto in 1540. They waged war 
against the French in 1736. Having ceded their lands to 
the U. S. for a large sum of money, they removed beyond 
the Mississippi River to the Indian Territory in 1837—38, 
and formed a political connection with their kindred tribe, 
the Choctaws. The united tribes numbered in 1872 some 
22,000 souls, the Choctaws being the more numerous. 

Chick'atuck, a post-township and village of Nanse- 
mond co., Va., 8 miles S. E. of Smithfield. Pop. 2709. 

Chick'en*»p©x, a contagious febrile disease, chiefly of 
children, and bearing some resemblance to a very mild form 
of smallpox. Chickcn-pox is distinguished by an eruption 
of vesicles or blebs, which rarely become pustular or yellow, 
and leave only a very slight incrustation, which falls off in 
a few days, without any permanent mark or pit as in small¬ 
pox. It is a disease of little or no danger, the fever being 
often hardly perceptible, and never lasting long. It usu¬ 
ally occurs but once in any one patient. 

Chick'ering (Joxas), an American philanthropist, born 
in New Ipswich, N. H., April 5, 1798. He became distin¬ 
guished as a pianoforte-maker, having begun that business 
for himself in 1823. He acquired great wealth, which he 
used freely, but not ostentatiously, in various charities. 
Died Dec. 8, 1853. 

Chickering (Thomas E.), a son of Jonas Chickering, 
was born at Boston, Mass., Oct. 22, 1824. He succeeded 
his father as the head of a large pianomaking business, and 
was colonel of the Forty-first Massachusetts Infantry in 
the civil war, serving chiefly in Louisiana. Died at Boston 
Feb. 14, 1871. 

Chick’s Springs, apost-township and village of Green¬ 
ville co., S. C., about 9 miles N. E. of Greenville. Here are 
two mineral springs—one alterative and slightly sulphur¬ 
ous, the other a tonic iron spring. Pop. 1226. 

Chick-pea ( Clcer ), a genus of plants of the order Legu- 
minosee, having pinnate leaves and 2-scedcd pods, inflated 
like bladders. The common chick-pea (Cicer arietinum) 
grows wild in the countries around the Mediterranean. It 
is an annual, of a stiff upright habit. The seeds abound 
in farina, and have a slightly bitterish taste. They are 
about the size of common peas, and curiously wrinkled. 
They are used as food, either boiled or roasted, and are the 
common pulse of the East. They are an important article 
in French and Spanish cookery. They have been in gen¬ 
eral use from the earliest times, and the plant is extensively 
cultivated in Egypt, Syria, India, Europe, Mexico, etc. The 
herbage affords nutritious food for cattle. Drops exude from 
this plant, which, on drying, leave crystals of almost pure 
oxalic acid. In France, in India, and in Mexico the free 
use of the chick-pea as food is said sometimes to lead to 
paralysis. 

Chicla'im, a town of Spain, in the province of Cadiz, 12 
miles S. E. of Cadiz. The houses are built of white stone. 
It has a fine hospital, and manufactures of linen, earthen¬ 
ware, and brandy. Here are mineral springs which aro 
much frequented. Pop. 9097. 

Clii'co, chee'co, a post-village of Butte co., Cal., in a 
township of the same name, on Chico Creek and on the 
















917 


CHICOA—CHIHUAHUA. 


Oregon division of the Central Pacific R. R., 96 miles N. 
of Sacramento. It is in a rich farming district, and has a 
steamboat connection with Sacramento. It has one weekly 
newspaper. Pop. including township, 3714. 

Chico'a, a township of Pitt co., N. C. Pop. 1683. 

Chic'opee, a river of Massachusetts, rises in Worcester 
county, flows nearly westward, and enters the Connecticut 
4 miles above Springfield. It affords abundant water-power. 

Chic'opee, a post-village of Hampden co., Mass., on 
the Connecticut River, at the mouth of the Chicopee, 4 
miles N. of Springfield. It was formerly called Cabot- 
ville. It has a national bank, a newspaper-office, and 
several cotton-mills of the Dwight Company (which em¬ 
ploys a capital of $1,500,000 or more); also manufactures 
of swords, cutlery, machinery, and brass cannon. The 
Ames Company have here the largest manufactory of 
swords in the U. S. Pop. of Chicopee township, including 
Chicopee and Chicopee Falls, 9607. 

Chicopee Falls, a post-village of Chicopee township, 
Hampden co., Mass., on the Chicopee River, 5 miles N. of 
Springfield and 14 miles E. of Chicopee Centre, with which 
it is connected by a branch railroad. It has extensive water- 
power, four large cotton-mills, a bleachery, and manufactures 
of knitting machines, agricultural tools, Maynard rifles, 
guns, pistols, levels, planes, and plumbers’ goods. It has 
four churches. Pop. about 3000. A. W. Page, P. M. 

Chic'ory, or Suc'cory, an herb of the order Com¬ 
posite, sub-order Liguliflore. The common chicory or 
succory (Cichorium Intybua) is a perennial plant, found 
wild in most parts of Europe and naturalized in the U. S., 
growing in waysides, borders of fields, etc. It has a long, 
carrot-like root of a dirty or brownish-yellow color, and 
white within. The stem rises two to five feet, the leaves 
resembling those of the dandelion ; the flowers rather large, 
beautiful, and generally blue. Chicory is extensively cul¬ 
tivated in Europe for its roots and for feeding cattle with 
its leaves. The blanched leaves are sometimes used as a 
salad. To this genus belongs also the endive. Chicory is 
much used with coffee. The roots are dried and roasted in 
heated iron cylinders, which are kept revolving as in coffee- 
roasting. During roasting the addition of two pounds of 
lard or butter for every hundredweight of chicory commu¬ 
nicates to it the general appearance of coffee. Chicory con¬ 
tains sugar, but otherwise does not supply the animal 
economy with any useful ingredient. Some dislike the 
taste of chicory, and when largely used it has a tendency 
to produce diarrhoea; but many people prefer to use coffee 
mixed with chicory. 

Chicot, shee'ko, a county which forms the S. E. ex¬ 
tremity of Arkansas. Area, 800 square miles. It is bounded 
on the E. by the Mississippi River. The surface is level, 
and is drained by magnificent bayous. The soil is fertile. 
Cotton, tobacco, and corn are the chief crojis. Capital, 
Lake Village. Pop. 7214. 

Chicot, a post-village of Chicot co., Ark., on the Mis¬ 
sissippi River, is the terminus of two railroads. It has 
two churches, two schools, machine-shops, and a news¬ 
paper. Ed. of “ Times.” 

Chicoutimi, a county of the Dominion of Canada, in 
Quebec, is intersected by the river Saguenay, and borders 
on a large lake called St. John’s. Lumber is exported 
from it. Capital, Chicoutimi. Pop. in 1871, 17,493. 

Chicoutimi, a post-village, capital of Chicoutimi co., 
Quebec (Canada), on the S. side of the river Saguenay, 75 
miles from its mouth. It has a court-house, jail, a convent 
of the Good Shepherd, and an important trade in lumber, 
which is shipped direct to England and other regions. 

Chictaivau'ga, a township of Erie co., N. Y. Pop. 
2465. 

Chief™ Justice, the title of the highest in rank of the 
judges of a court. The chief-justice of the U. S. is an 
officer who presides over the Supreme Court, controlling 
its docket, regulating the order of business, and assigning 
to the associate justices the cases in which they are to pre¬ 
pare opinions. Ho reads decisions in practice cases ; ad¬ 
ministers the oath to the President and Vice-President at 
their inauguration; presides when the President is on trial 
after impeachment; and nominates persons to be appointed 
registers in bankruptcy by the district judges. Like his 
associates, he is required to attend at least one term of the 
circuit court in his circuit during each period of two years. 
He ranks next to the President in official dignity. His 
salary is $6500. 

Chiem See, a lake of Bavaria, 42 miles S. E. of Munich, 
is at an elevation of 1 726 feet above the sea. It is 12 miles 
long, about 7 miles wide, and 458 feet deep. It contains 
many fish. The surplus water is discharged through the 
Alz into the river Inn. 


Chie'ri (anc. Carren Potentia), a town of Italy, in the 
province of Turin, on the slope of a bill 8 miles'S. E. of 
Turin. It had manufactures of fustians, etc. in 1422. 
Here is tho church of St. Domenico, built in 1260, 
and the church of Santa Maria della Scala, which was 
founded in 1405, the largest Gothic structure in Piedmont. 
Chieri has manufactures of silk, cotton, and linen fabrics. 
Pop. 10,036. 

Chie'ti, formerly Abruzzo Citeriore, a province 
of Central Italy, is a mountainous region. The chief prod¬ 
ucts are corn, oil, fruits, rice, and wine. Area, 1277 miles. 
Pop. in 1871, 339,961. 

Chieti (anc. Teatc), a fortified episcopal city of Itaty, 
capital of the province of Chieti or Abruzzo Citeriore, is 
situated on a hill near the Pescara, 40 miles E. of Aquila, 
115 miles N. of Naples, and 6 miles from the Adriatic. It 
is the sec of an archbishop, and has a cathedral, a college, 
and a fine theatre. Here are some manufactures of silk 
and woollen goods. Chieti occupies the site of the ancient 
Tecite, a lai'ge and important city, the remains of which 
ai’e still visible. Among these are the ruins of a theati'e 
and several temples. Pop. in 1872, 23,607. 

Chignec'to Bay, an inlet in British North America, 
is the northern part of the Bay of Fundy, and extends be¬ 
tween New Bnmswick and Nova Scotia. It is about 30 
miles long. 

Clii/goe, or Jig'ger (Sarcopsyllci penetrans), a species 
of flea, much smaller than the common flea, found in the 
West Indies and North and South America, attacking any 
exposed part of the human body, effecting a lodgment, be¬ 
tween the skin and flesh, often under the nails of the toes, 
and also infesting dogs and mice. At fii’st its presence is 
indicated by a slight itching, but ulceration is likely to 
result, which is not only painful, but even dangei’ous when 
the female chigoe is allowed to remain and deposit her 
eggs, about sixty in number. Befoi-e these are deposited 
her abdomen becomes distended to the size of a pea. The 
ulcer speedily contains a great colony of chigoes. The 
natives arc very expert in exti'acting the chigoe, which is 
also removed by washing with tobacco juice. Rubbing 
with tobacco leaves is a preventive of its attacks, but 
cleanliness and the wearing of shoes is still better. Death 
has followed neglect to remove the chigoe. 

Chi- ( or She-) Hoaiig-Ti, called also Tsin-Chi- 
Hoang-Ti, and sometimes Ching-Wang, one of the 
gi-catcst emperors of China, ruled that country from 246 to 
210 B. C. The country now called China was then divided 
into eight feudatory kingdoms or principalities. He formed 
the design of subjugating them all and consolidating them 
into one great empire. This he at length accomplished, 
and by expelling some barbarous nations extended the 
empire to nearly its present limits. He also built the 
Gi'eat Wall of China, employing upon it several millions 
of men for ten years, of xvhom it is said half a million per¬ 
ished before the work was finished. He is also said to 
have been the first Chinese sovereign who caused a statisti¬ 
cal survey of the whole empii'e, with a valuation of lands, 
pi'oducts, etc., in oi'der that the tributes might be justly 
apportioned. But his memory is stained by his attempted 
desti'uction of the ancient books of the country. This at¬ 
tempt he made in order to weaken or destroy the authority 
of the learned class, who were his enemies, and also to 
obliterate the national reverence for antiquity, which formed 
the chief support of the authoi’ity of that class. He ap¬ 
pears to have been the first ruler of China (if we except 
those of a very remote antiquity) who assumed the title of 
hoeing or “emperor,” his predecessors having been called 
by the more modest title of toung or “king.” Chi-IIoang- 
Ti has been compared to Napoleon, whom he certainly re¬ 
sembled in the foi’ce of his will, as well as in the extent of 
his power. 

Chihua'Ima, a state of Mexico, bordering on Texas, 
has an area of 105,299 square miles. It is bounded on the 
N. E. by the Rio Grande del Norte, and is drained by the 
Conchos. The W. part is occupied by a long mountain- 
chain called Sieri'a Madre. The surface E. of this chain 
is mostly a high table-land ; the soil is generally arid and 
sterile. The state is rich in minerals, including gold, sil¬ 
ver, coppex*, lead, tin, and cinnabar. The silver-mines, 
which are in the Sierra Madre, were formei’ly very produc¬ 
tive. The chief wealth of the inhabitants consists in herds 
of cattle, horses, and mules. This state is infested by 
Apaches, who greatly retard its prosperity. Capital, Chi¬ 
huahua. Pop. of the state in 1871, 179,971. 

Chihuahua, a town of Mexico, the capital of the above 
state, is about 310 miles N. N. W. of Durango; lat. 28° 50 
N., Ion. 105° 33' W. It has a fine stone cathedral which 
cost about $800,000, a state prison, a state-house, and a 
mint. It is supplied with water by a good stone aqueduct 



















918 


CHILBLAIN—CHILI. 


three miles long. Silver-mines have been opened in the 
vicinity. Chihuahua has an active trade with San Antonio 
in Texas. Pop. 12,000. 

Chil'blain [Lat. jiernio], one of the secondary effects 
of cold and moisture upon the human system, principally 
affecting the feet, hands, nose, ears, etc. Chilblains are 
frequently chronic in their character. Mild cases are 
marked by swelling and redness of the affected part, ac¬ 
companied by intolerable itching. The more severe forms 
assume an ulcerated, and sometimes even a gangrenous, 
character. Those troubled with chilblains should carefully 
protect the feet and hands from cold, should wash the feet 
frequently and dry them very thoroughly, and avoid going 
near a fire when they are very cold. Benzoated oxide-of- 
zinc ointment, citrine ointment, borax and sugar of lead 
in oil or glycerine, tincture of iodine, sulphurous acid solu¬ 
tion, and various stimulant applications are all useful, 
some being suited to the condition of certain patients, 
while others may require different applications. The sev¬ 
erer forms may need surgical treatment. 

Child (Francis J.), Ph. D., born in Boston Feb. 1,1825, 
graduated at Harvard in 1846. After taking his degree he 
was for some time tutor in mathematics at Harvard, and 
subsequently in rhetoric and history. In 1849 he visited 
Europe, where he spent about two years. In 1851 he suc¬ 
ceeded Prof. E. T. Channing as Boylston professor of 
rhetoric and oratory. Prof. Child is especially distinguished 
for his thorough acquaintance with early English literature. 
As a Chaucer scholar he has perhaps no superior in Amer¬ 
ica or Europe. He has contributed to this “ Cyclopaedia” 
the admirable article on Ballad Poetry. 

Child (Lydia Maria), an American writer, born at 
Medford, Mass., Feb. 11, 1802. Her maiden name was 
Francis. She was married in 1828 to David Lee Child, a 
lawyer, and became editor of the “ National Anti-Slavery 
Standard” in 1841. She published, besides other works, 
“Letters from New York” (2 vols., 1844), “The Oasis,” 
“Fact and Fiction,” “ Philothea, a Grecian Romance,” “ The 
Progress of Religious Ideas” (3 vols., 1855), and “Emi¬ 
nent Women of the Age” (Hartford, 1868). 

Childbirth. See Obstetrics. 

Childe (John), an American officer and engineer, born 
Aug. 30, 1802, at West Boylston, Mass., graduated at West 
Point in 1827. He served, while lieutenant of artillery, on 
ordnance duty 1828-34; garrison and engineer duty at 
Newport Harbor, R. I., 1834-35. Resigned Dec. 31, iS35, 
and assumed the profession of civil engineer, in which be 
became eminent, particularly in the construction of rail¬ 
roads and bridges and improvements of rivers and hai’bors. 
His official reports are models of logical force and accuracy, 
and his inventive talent for mechanical improvements was 
remarkable. Died Feb. 2, 1858, at Springfield, Mass., aged 
fifty-five. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Chil'dermas [from child and mass], or Holly Inno¬ 
cents’ Hay (Dec. 28th, or in the East the 29th), is ob¬ 
served by the Roman, Anglican, Greek, and various East¬ 
ern churches as a festival in honor of the children killed 
by Herod. It was considered unlucky to marry or to begin 
any work on this day. The learned John Gregory says: 
“ It hath been a custom, and yet is elsewhere, to whip up 
the children upon Innocents’ Day morning, that the mem¬ 
ory of Herod’s murder might stick the closer, and in a 
moderate .proportion to act over the crueltie again in 
kinde.” Throughout the day, however, the children might 
exercise a certain authority over the rest of the household. 

Chil'ilersburg, a township and post-village of Talla¬ 
dega co., Ala., on the Selma Rome and Dalton R. R., 90 
miles N. E. of Selma. Pop. 1112. 

Chil’dren (John George), F. R. S., an English elec¬ 
trician, born at Tunbridge in 1777. He constructed a gal¬ 
vanic battery with plates about four feet long and two wide, 
by which he demonstrated that the quantity of electricity 
is in proportion to the size of the plates, and its intensity 
depends on their number. Died in 1852. 

Childs (George W.), an American journalist and pub¬ 
lisher, born in 1829 at Baltimore, Md. He became a resi¬ 
dent of Philadelphia in his youth, and in 1849 became a 
partner in a publishing-house. He purchased in 1864 the 
“Public Ledger,” a daily newspaper of Philadelphia, Avhich 
he made very successful. He is also distinguished for 
liberality. 

Childs (Henry Halsey), M. D., a son of Timothy 
Childs (see below), was born in Pittsfield, Mass., June 7, 
1783, and graduated at Williams in 1802. He was for 
many years president of the Berkshire Medical College, 
and was lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts in 1S43. 
He was distinguished for his benevolence, integrity, and 
professional enthusiasm. Died Mar. 22, 1868. 


Childs (Linus), born in 1803 at Southbridge, Mass., 
graduated at Yale in 1824, became a lawyer of Boston, 
Mass., and was for some time agent of a manufactory at 
Lowell. He was active in State politics, and was a prom¬ 
inent member of the prudential committee of the American 
board of commissioners for foreign missions, and of the 
trustees of Andover Theological Seminary and Phillips 
Academy. Died Aug. 26, 1870. 

Childs (Orville W), an ablo civil engineer, was chief 
engineer of the New York State works (1840-47), aided in 
constructing the Champlain Canal, and in the survey of 
the Nicaragua ship-canal route. He contributed much 
to professional literature. Died at Philadeljihia Sept. 6, 
1870. 

Childs (Thomas), an American officer, born in Pittsfield, 
Mass., in 1796, graduated at West Point in 1S14 in the ar¬ 
tillery. He served with distinction in the war of 1812-15 
at the battle of Niagara, and at Fort Erie in 1S14; he w r as 
engaged in the Florida war against the hostile Indians from 
1836 to 1842, and in the war with Mexico, at Palo Alto, 
Resaca de la Palma, Monterey, Vera Cruz, and Cerro Gordo. 
For his distinguished conduct in the Florida war he was 
brevetted major, lieutenant-colonel, and colonel, and in the 
Mexican war brevetted brigadier-general. Died Oct. 8, 
1853. 

Childs (Timothy), M. D., born in Deerfield, Mass., in 
1748, was a distinguished patriot and an army-surgeon in 
the Revolutionary war. At the end of the war he success¬ 
fully resumed his medical practice at Pittsfield. Died Feb. 
25, 1821. 

Chilhow'ie, a post-township of Johnson co., Mo. Pop. 
1362. 

Chi'li [Sp. Chile], a republic of South America, is a 
long and narrow tract bounded oh the E. by the Andes and 
on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. It extends from lat 24° 
to 43° 20' S., and from Ion. 70° to 74° W. It is about 
1200 miles long, and varies in width from 90 to 130 miles. 
Area, estimatad at 132,616 square miles. The dispute with 
Bolivia concerning the northern frontier was settled by the 
treaty of 1866, which gave to Bolivia possession of the Bay 
of Mcjillones, but secured to Chili an equal share of the 
guano of the disputed territory. 

Physical Features .—The surface is mountainous, and 
belongs entirely to the western slope of the great Cordil¬ 
lera of the Andes, which here attains a very great height. 
The mean elevation of the Chilian Andes is nearly 14,000 
feet above the level of the sea. Among the peaks of the 
Chilian Andes is the porphyritic Nevado of Aconcagua, 
which rises 22,422 feet, and vras once said to be the highest 
peak in South America. The volcano of Antuco near the 
eastern border of Concepcion is 8917 feet high. Other active 
volcanoes occur on the border of Chili. Besides the cen¬ 
tral chain of the Cordillera, Chili is traversed by lateral 
ridges separated by deep \ r alleys, some of Avhich are fertile. 
The richest soil and most luxuriant A r egetation are found 
in the southern and central parts. The country N. of Val¬ 
paraiso is mostly arid and sterile. The coast of Chili is 
bold and rocky, with deep water close to the shore. This 
region is subject to earthquakes, one of Avhich in 1S22 de¬ 
stroyed seA r eral cities, and raised the coast four feet above 
its former leA'el. This change of level was permanent and 
very extensive. 

Geology and Minerals .—The predominant rocks of Chili 
are granite, porphyry, basalt, quartz, clay-slate, limestone, 
etc. A long and narroiv belt of palaeozoic and fossiliferous 
strata extends along the coast S. of Santiago. Many silver- 
mines have been opened in the N. part of Chili, but the 
desert nature of the country and the scarcity of water 
render the mining operations difficult and expensive. Gold, 
copper, lead, iron, bismuth, antimony, cobalt, and quick¬ 
silver are also found here, the mines of copper being espe¬ 
cially important. Extensive beds of bituminous coal have 
been opened near Talcahuano. 

Climate, Productions, etc .—The climate of this region is 
remarkably healthy. Rain falls only bet>veen June and Sep¬ 
tember, but the northern desert is subject to long droughts 
which continue for years. In the central parts of Chili 
storms of hail and terrific thunder are frequent in the winter. 
The hottest months of the year are January and February, 
during which the mercury sometimes rises to 95° F. in the 
shade. The southern part is covered with dense forests. 
The laurel, myrtle, cypress, and other evergreens attain 
here a gigantic size. In the middle portions the soil is 
adapted to grazing and the cultivation of grain. The 
staple productions are~wheat, barley, maize, hemp, and pota¬ 
toes. Apples, pears, plums, peaches, oranges, and other 
fruits are abundant. The chief articles of export are silver, 
copper, wheat, hides, and wool. 

Rivers, Lakes, and Harbors .—Chili has no largo rivers 
I or large lakes. Tho streams aro mostly mero mountain- 


























CHILI—CHILTERN HUNDREDS, THE STEWARDSHIP OF. 


torrents, and are not navigable. The Biobio, which is one 
of the principal streams, is nearly 200 miles long. Many 
small lakes occur among the mountains. The best ports 
and harbors are at A aldivia, A alparaiso, Concepcion, and 
Coquimbo. 

Political Divisions , Government, etc. —Chili is divided 
into fifteen provinces, named Chiloe, Llanquihue, Valdivia, 
Arauco, Concepcion, Nuble, Maule, Talca, Curico, Colcha- 
gua, Santiago, A alparaiso, Aconcagua, Coquimbo, and 
Atacama, to w hich must be added the colony of Magallanes. 
The chiet cities are Santiago, the capital, Valparaiso, Talca, 
and Concepcion. Ihe executive power is exercised by a 
president elected for a term of five years. The legislature 
consists of two houses—the chamber of deputies, who are 
elected for three years, and the senate, the members of 
which are chosen for a term of nine years. The estab¬ 
lished religion is Roman Catholic. A large proportion of 
the population are of Spanish descent, and the other in¬ 
habitants are mostly Indians or aborigines. The public 
revenue in the budget of 1871 was estimated at 11,550,000 
pesos (1 peso = 03 cents), and the expenditure at 12,542,493 
pesos. The public debt in 1870 was 39,924,833 pesos. The 
value of the exports in 1869 amounted to $27,720,000, and 
that of the imports to $27,230,000. In 1871, Chili had 472 
miles of railroad in operation. Pop. in 1865, 2,166,000. 
The number of vessels arriving in the ports of Chili in 1869 
was 4009. The army embraces 5018 men of the line and 
54,992 national guards. The fieet consists of 12 steamers. 

History. —Chili was a jiart of the dominions of the inca 
of Peru when the latter w r as conquered by Pizarro. Alma- 
gro invaded Chili in 1535, soon after which the conquest 
of the country, except Araucania, was completed by Val- 
divia, who founded Santiago in 1541. He was defeated 
and killed in 1553 by the Araucanians, whom the Spaniards 
were never able to conquer. In 1810 the Chilians revolted 
agaiqst the king of Spain, and a junta which had met at 
Santiago elected the marquis de la Plate, a native of Chili, 
president of the republic. On Feb. 12, 1817, the Span¬ 
iards suffered a decisive defeat at Chacabuco; on Jan. 
1, 1818, the independence of Chili was formally proclaimed 
by Bernardo O'Higgins, the commander-in-chief of the 
Chilian patriots; and on May 5 of the same year it was 
fully secured by the great victory of the Chilians on the 
river Maypu. The last stronghold of the Spaniards, the 
island of Chiloe, was captured in Jan., 1826. The first 
constitution was adopted in 1824, and a second in 1828. 
From May, 1837, to Mar., 1839, a war was carried on with 
Peru. On April 25, 1844, a treaty was concluded with 
Spain which recognized the independence of Chili. Dur¬ 
ing the administrations of President Bulnes (1841-51) 
and of President Manuel Montt (1851-61) Chili remained 
free from the troubles which agitated most of the other 
South American republics. Two insurrections during the 
administration of the latter were easily suppressed. Agri¬ 
culture, mining industry, and navigation steadily ad¬ 
vanced, and a considerable immigration from Europe took 
place. During the two administrative terms of President 
Perez (1861-71) Chili, in union with Peru, Bolivia, and 
Ecuador, was involved in a war with Spain, which began 
in 1865. A Spanish fleet on Mar. 31, 1866, bombarded 
A r alparaiso, but had to raise the blockade on April 14, ow¬ 
ing to the remonstrances of the European powers. Actual 
hostilities soon after ceased, but a formal truce was not 
concluded until July, 1869, through the mediation of the 
government of the U. S. On Sept. 18, 1871, F. Errazuriz 
was elected president for the term 1871 to 1876. The new 
president, as well as his two immediate predecessors, sup¬ 
ported the interests of the conservative and Church parties. 
The liberal party of Chili contends in particular for the 
introduction of universal suffrage and religious toleration. 
From 1859 to 1873 the republic was entirely free from in¬ 
testine commotions, but it had often to suppress the insur¬ 
rections of the Araucanians. (See Asta Buruaga, “ Dic- 
cionario jeografico de la Republica de Chili,” 1868; Val¬ 
enzuela, “Ilistoria jeneral de la Republica de Chili,” 4 
vols., 1866-68; Hunter, “A Sketch of Chili,” 1866.) 

A. J. Schem. 

Chili* a township and post-village of Hancock co., Ill., 
on the Keokuk branch of the Toledo Wabash and Western 
R. R., 15 miles S. S. E. of Carthage. Pop. 1601. 

Chili, a post-township and village of Monroe co., N. Y., 
on the New York Central R. R., 58 miles E. N. E. of Buf¬ 
falo. Pop. 2367. 

Chil'iad [Gr. yiAia?, from x<Aiot, a “ thousand ”], an 
assemblage of things grouped or ranged by thousands. 
The word is chiefly used by the early computers of loga¬ 
rithmic tables, who expressed the extent of the table by 
saying it contained the logarithms of so many chiliads of 
absolute numbers. 

Chiliasts. See Millennarians. 


919 


Chillicoth'e, a post-village of Peoria co., Ill., on the 
Illinois River and on the Peoria branch of the Chicago 
llock Island and Pacific R. R., 18 miles N. N. E. of Peoria. 
It is a large grain depot, and possesses various manufac¬ 
turing industries. A daily packet-boat runs to Peoria. It 
has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of township, 1486. 

S. Stowell, for Ed. of “ Democratic Union.” 

Chillicothc, capital of Livingston co., Mo., on the 
Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R. and on the Omaha branch 
of the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R.; also the 
terminus of the Chillicothe and Des Moines City R. R., 76 
miles E. of St. Joseph. It is the principal town in the 
Grand River Valley. It contains ten churches, two news¬ 
papers, two banks, three flouring-mills, two planing-mills, 
one foundry and machine-shop, fifty-seven stores, one acad¬ 
emy, and graded free schools. Plenty of timber and water. 
Coal in abundance in the vicinity. Pop. 3978; of township, 
2118. Marsh & Desha, Props, of “Tribune.” 

Chillicoth'e, or Chillicoth'e,- a beautiful city, the 
capital of Ross co., O., is finely situated on the Scioto 
River, and in a plain enclosed on several sides by verdant 
hills neai'ly 500 feet high. It is on the Marietta and Cin¬ 
cinnati R. R., and on the Ohio and Erie Canal, about 48 
miles S. of Columbus and 99 miles E. by N. from Cincin¬ 
nati. The streets are wide, straight, and lighted with gas. 
It has a stone-front court-house, which cost about $100,000, 
thirteen or more churches, five newspaper-offices, three 
national banks, and four commodious brick union school- 
houses; also manufactures of steam-engines and farming- 
implements, flour-mills and other manufactories, and the 
Marietta and Cincinnati R. R. shops. Chillicothc was the 
capital of Ohio from 1800 to 1810. Pop. 8030. 

J. R. S. Bond & Son, Pubs. “Scioto Gazette.” 

Chil'lingworth (Rev. William), an eminent English 
divine and controversialist, born at Oxford in Oct., 1602. 
In 1618 he became a scholar, and in 1628 a fellow of 
Trinity College, Oxford. In 1630, through the influence 
of John Fisher, the famous Jesuit, he became a Roman 
Catholic, and entered the Jesuit College in Douay, France. 
In 1631 he was persuaded by his godfather, Laud, then 
bishop of London, to reconsider the question and return 
to Oxford. In 1637 he put forth his great work, “ The 
Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation,” a work 
of singular acuteness and ability. He became chancellor 
of Salisbury and prebendary of Brixworth. In theology 
he was a latitudinarian, and in politics a royalist. Died 
at Chichester Jan. 31, 1644. Ilis collected works appeared 
in 1742. (See Des Maizeaux, “ Life of Chillingworth,” 
1725 ; August Neander, “ Erinnerung an den evangelis- 
chen Gottesgelehrten W. Chillingworth,” 1832.) 

Chillisqua'que, a township and post-village of 
Northumberland co., Pa., about 55 miles N. of Harrisburg. 
Pop. 1597. 

Chillon, commonly pronounced shil'lon [Fr. pron. 
she'y6x'], a castle and fortress of Switzerland, in the can¬ 
ton of Vaud, 6 miles S. E. of Vevay. It is at the E. end 
of the Lake of Geneva, on an isolated rock, almost sur¬ 
rounded by deep water. It was built by Amadeus IV. of 
Savoy in 1238, and was long used as a state prison. Bon- 
nivard was confined here from 1530 to 1536 for his efforts 
to liberate the Genevese. This place is the scene of By¬ 
ron’s poem, “ The Prisoner of Chillon.” 

ChiUmark, a post-township of Dukes co., Mass., on the 
island of Martha’s Vineyard. Pop. 476. 

Chi'lo, or Chi'lon [Gr. Xi'Awi/ or XetAuv], a Spartan 
who is enumerated among the Seven Wise Men of Greece. 
He became one of the ephori of Sparta in 556 B. C. Among 
the maxims ascribed to him is “ Know thyself.” He is 
said to have died of joy when his son gained a victory at 
the Olymjric games. 

Chil'oe, an island of South America, in the Pacific 
Ocean, forms (with many small isles) a province of the re¬ 
public of Chili. Area, 2398 square miles. It is separated 
from the mainland by a strait about a mile wide. Length 
from N. to S., about 110 miles; average width, nearly 40 
miles. It is mountainous and covered with magnificent 
forests. The western shores are rocky, and rise abruptly 
to the height of 1500 feet or more. The climate is ex¬ 
tremely moist. The soil is fertile, and produces wheat, bar¬ 
ley, potatoes, etc. Capital, San Carlos. Pop. in 1869, 61,607. 

Chil'teni Ilund'reds, The Stewardship of, in 

England, a nominal office which a member ol Parliament, de¬ 
siring to withdraw, receives and immediately resigns; since 
a member cannot resign unless disqualified, and an appoint¬ 
ment by the Crown works such disqualification. In old 
times the steward’s duties were to protect from the robbeis 
who lurked in the forests of the Chiltern Hills. V nen this 
office is occupied tho stewardship of the manors ol East 














920 CHILTON—CHINA, GREAT WALL OF. 


Hendred, Nortlishead, and llempholmo is made to serve the 
same purpose. 

Chil'ton, a post-village, capital of Calumet co., Wis., 
on the Manitowoc River, 24 miles N. E. of Fond du Lac. 
It has a newspaper-office. Pop. of Chilton township, 1517. 

Chim ae'ra [Gr. Xtjuaipa], a monster of classic mythol¬ 
ogy, was described by Homer as having the head of a lion, 
the body of a goat, and the tail of a dragon. It was sup¬ 
posed to exhale flames of fire. In modern languages the 
the term chimera is applied to any wild or incongruous 
fancy. 


Chimaera, or Sea Cat. 

Cuvier with the sturgeons (Sturionidm), but now generally 
regarded as the type of a distinct family, of which only two 
or three species are known. The gills have a single wide 
opening, as in the sturgeons ; but the gill-lid or operculum 
is merely rudimental and concealed in the skin, while there 
is an approach to sharks in the structure of the gills. The 
only known species of chimmra is Chimsera monstrosa, occa¬ 
sionally found in the British seas, and more common in 
more northern latitudes. It is sometimes called the “ king 
of the herrings.” It pursues the shoals of herrings, and is 
consequently sometimes taken in the herring-nets. It is 
seldom more than three feet long. Its general color is sil¬ 
very white, the upper parts mottled with brown. It pro¬ 
duces very large leathery eggs. 

Chima'ra, or Chimari (anc. Ceraunii Montes, i. e. 
“ thunder mountains”), a mountain-range of Albania, be¬ 
tween lat. 40° and 41° N., and near Ion. 19° E., termina¬ 
ting in Cape Linguetta, called by the ancients Acroceraunia. 

Chi.ml)ora / zo, a conical mountain-peak of South 
America, is the culminating point of the Colombian Andes, 
and is 90 miles S. by W. from Quito. Its height, according 
to Humboldt, who ascended to within 1663 feet of its sum¬ 
mit, is 21,422 feet. It rises only 12,000 feet above the ad¬ 
jacent table-land. It was formerly supposed to be the 
highest mountain in the world, but it is exceeded by Acon¬ 
cagua, Parinacota, and Sahama of the Andes, and several 
of the Himalayas. No person has ever reached the summit 
of Chimborazo, which presents a magnificent spectacle from 
the Pacific Ocean at a distance of 100 miles or more. 

Chime [Fr. carillon'], the consonant or harmonic sounds 
of several instruments; correspondence of sound; music 
performed on a set of bells in a church tower. The term 
is sometimes used to denote a set of bells which chime or 
ring in harmony. 

Chimere [Fr. chimere, from the Sp. zamarro, a “ sheep 
skin”], the upper robe worn by a bishop, to which the lawn 
sleeves are now generally attached. Since the time of 
Queen Elizabeth it has been of black satin, but previously 
it was of a scarlet color, like that now worn by bishops as¬ 
sembled in convocation and when the sovereign attends 
Parliament. 

Chim'mey [Fr. cheminee], a flue or cluster of flues for 
carrying off smoke or sustaining a draft in fires maintained 
in buildings for economical or other purposes. There are 
no remains of chimneys in the ruins of ancient cities, and 
no evidence from literature that such chimneys existed. 
Fires were either of charcoal in open braziers, or the smoke 
of a wood-fire was allowed to escape through a hole in the 
roof. The earliest remains of chimneys in Europe are 
somewhat doubtfully referred to the twelfth century. An 
earthquake in Venice in 1347 destroyed many chimneys. 
The year 1368 is assigned for the building of the first chim¬ 
ney in Home. Early in the seventeenth century many 
houses of well-to-do yeomen in England had no chimneys. 
Their general use in France was of even later date. The 
earliest chimneys were cylindrical and very high. Many- 
fiued chimneys are much later. Of late the construction of 
tall chimneys for manufacturing purposes is very common, 
some exceeding in height the tallest spires. They are built 
from the inside. 

The principle of the draught of chimneys is, that a col¬ 
umn of heated air is lighter than a column of cool air of the 
same height, and the greater the height of the heated col¬ 


umn, the greater the difference of weight between the col¬ 
umn of air within and without the flue. This is one reason 
why the chimneys of furnaces and mills are made so high, 
since a powerful draft can thus be easily maintained. It 
is also important to have the flue vertical, so as to prevent 
the friction of the air and the loss of heat which a long 
passage causes. If all the draft passes through the fire, so 
that the rising air becomes well heated, there is but little 
danger of downward currents causing a smoky chimney. 
The throat of the chimney of an open fireplace should be 
well contracted, and be directly over the fire, thus causing an 
intensity of draft at the throat, which will tend to overcome 
any downward currents which may exist in the chimney. 

In towns especially chimneys are liable to be 
overtopped by neighboring buildings, and 
such chimneys are liable to become smoky 
during high winds, because the lofty walls 
deflect the wind and cause it to blow down 
the chimney. Various revolving and other 
cowls and chimney-tops have been devised to 
remedy this trouble. One of the best of these 
is Espy’s ventilator, which does not rotate, and 
which is always effective, whatever be the di¬ 
rection of the wind. Another cause of smoky 
chimneys is insufficient ventilation. If air 
cannot enter a room rapidly enough to sup¬ 
ply the draught of the chimney, it is obvious 
that the draft will be diminished. The most complete in¬ 
vestigations in the matter of curing smoky chimneys are 
those of Count Rumford. 

Chimsiey Rock, a post-village and township of Ruth¬ 
erford co., N. C., about 72 miles W. N. W. of Charlotte. Pop. 
1024. 

Chimpail'zec, the Troglodytes niger, an anthropoid or 
tailless ape of tropical Africa, noteworthy as one of the 
species of mammals which most closely approach the form 
and anatomical structure of man. It is about five feet high, 
covered with dark hair, is gregarious, and arms itself for 
defence with clubs and stones. It can be tamed and taught 
to walk, sit in a chair, and eat like a human being. Its 
arms are much longer than a man’s, it has thirteen dorsal 
vertebrae and pairs of ribs instead of twelve, and the struc¬ 
ture of its hand is far less delicate and complete than man’s. 

China. See Chinese Empire. 

China, ki'na, a name of cinchona bark often to be met 
in books, and in common use on the continent of Europe. 
It is especially used by homoeopathic practitioners. The 
name is derived, not from the empire of China, but from 
kina or quina, the Peruvian name of cinchona. 

China, or China-ware. See Porcelain, by Prof. 
C. F. Chandler, Ph.D., LL.D. 

China, a township of Lee co., Ill. Pop. 2351. 

China, a post-township of Kennebec co., Me. P. 2118. 

China, a post-township of St. Clair co., Mich. P. 1637. 

China'hee, a township of Talladega co., Ala. P. 810. 

China Clay. See Kaolin. 

China Grass, or Chinese Grass, a vegetable fibre 
which the Chinese manufacture into a beautiful fabric called 
“grass cloth.” It is also manufactured in Europe to some 
extent. It is obtained mostly from the Boelimeria nivea, a 
plant of the order Urticaceae. (See Ramie.) Grass cloth 
has a glossy appearance and a silky lustre. The plant 
yielding this excellent fibre flourishes in the southern parts 
of the U. S. under proper cultivation. 

China, Great Wall of, the most remarkable forti¬ 
fication ever erected by human hands, was constructed by 
order of the celebrated emperor Chi- (or Tchi-) Hoang-Ti, 
for the purpose of protecting the northern and north-west¬ 
ern frontier of the empire from the hordes of barbarians 
who were then swarming in that part of Asia. To accom¬ 
plish this great object, several millions of men, it is said, 
were occupied for the space of ten years, during which time 
half a million of those employed on the work perished. It 
was completed in 211 B. C. The entire length of the w r all 
is about 1250 miles, the height being from twenty to twenty- 
five feet, with towers about 100 yards apart and forty feet 
high. The wall i3 much thicker at the base than at the 
summit, w r hich, however, is sufficiently broad to admit of 
six horsemen riding abreast. Each face of the wall was 
built of hewn stone or brick, with earth filled in between. 
No inconsiderable part of this great fortification is now in 
a ruinous condition, and some travellers whose attention 
has been directed chiefly to such portions—which, being 
constructed principally of earth, do not after a lapse of 
nearly twenty-one centuries present a very imposing ruin— 
have been led to speak disparagingly of the whole work. 
But those Europeans who have examined the work more 
carefully speak of it in a very different tone, and assert 


Chimrc'ra, a genus of cartilaginous fishes, ranked by 


















CHINA GROVE—CHINESE EMPIRE. 


921 


that the portions which are faced with stone exhibit ma¬ 
sonry of a very superior kind, the stones being admirably 
fitted together, and that the arches, in particular, are ex¬ 
ceedingly well constructed. To give an idea of the quan¬ 
tity ol material used in the erection of this great wall, it 
may be stated that a careful calculation has shown that it 
would be more than sufiicient to construct a wall six feet 
high and two feet thick twice round the world. (See Pau- 
thier’s “ Chine.”) 

China Grove, a township and post-village of Pike co., 
Ala., 32 miles S. E. of Montgomery. Pop. 1080. 

Chinande'ga, a town of Central America, in Nica¬ 
ragua, is in a fertile plain about 10 miles from the Pacific 
Ocean and 18 miles N. W. of Leon. The houses are built 
of adobes, and are only one story high. Cotton and sugar 
are produced in the vicinity. Pop. 8000. 

China, Pride oi (Mclia Azedarach), a small and beau¬ 
tiful tree ot the order Meiiacem, a native of Southern and 
Western Asia, naturalized in the Southern U. S. It is 
often,called “ pride of India,” “ China tree,” and “bead 
tree.” The bark of its root is used as a vermifuge, and 
constitutes the drug azedarach. It has a sweetish fruit 
about the size of a cherry, often eaten by children without 
harm, though considered poisonous. Its wood is hard and 
beautiful. This tree is naturalized in the south of Europe. 
An allied species, the Mclict Azedarachta, the margosa or 
neem tree of India, yields a febrifugal bark, and a sap 
(toddy) used as a beverage, while the pulp of its fruit, like 
the olive, affords a useful oil. 

China Koot, the rhizome of Smilax China, a climb¬ 
ing shrubby plant allied to sarsaparilla, a native of China, 
Cochin-China, and Japan. The stem is round and prickly, 
the leaves thin and roundish oblong; the rhizome tuberous 
and large, sub-astringent and diaphoretic. It is occasion¬ 
ally used in medicine in Europe, but it is also employed 
in the East as an article of food, for it abounds in starch. 

China Sea [Fr. Mer Orientcile; Chinese, Toong Hai\ 
is that portion of the Pacific Ocean which extends between 
China and Siam on the W., the Philippine Islands on the 
E., and Borneo on the S. The chief ports on this sea are 
Canton, Manila, and Singapore. 

China Wax, a substance resembling beeswax, pro¬ 
duced by an insect ( coccus) which lives on the Fraxinus 
Chinensis, an ash tree of China. The wax is scraped from 
the branches, melted, and strained. China also exports 
Japan wax, obtained from the fruit of Rhus succedanea, a 
sort of sumach tree. 

Chiil'cSia Isl'antls, three small islands in the Pacific 
Ocean, about 14 miles from Peru, to which they belong; 
lat. 13° 39' S., Ion. 76° 2S' W. Here are large deposits of 
guano, and here multitudes of penguins and other oceanic 
birds build nests and breed. Neither of these islands is 
more than a mile in extent. They present cliffs 300 feet 
high and perpendicular, with numerous caves into which 
the sea dashes. The entire supply has been recently esti¬ 
mated at 40,000,000 tons. The exportation of this manure 
from Peru in the years 1871-72 was 1,187,327 tons. 

ChincliilTa [Sp. pron. chin-cheel'y&], ( Chinchilla ), a 



Chinchillas. 

South American quadruped of the order Rodentia, and of 
a family, Jerboidae, allied to the rabbits. There are sev¬ 
eral genera of Jerboidae, distinguished in part by the toes, 
the true Chinchilla having four, with the rudiment of a 
fifth, on the fore feet, and four on the hind feet. All the 


family arc gregarious, feed on roots, and live either in 
holes in rocky districts or in burrows. They are valued 
for their fur, particularly the chinchilla of the Andes ( Chin¬ 
chilla lanigera ), of which the fur constitutes an important 
article of commerce. Their numbers are decreasing in con¬ 
sequence of the demand for the fur. The ancient Peru¬ 
vians were accustomed to employ this fur as wool for the 
manufacture of fine fabrics. It might profitably be kept 
in a domesticated state. Chinchilla wool is variable in 
quality, and is perhaps.the product of several species. 
The chinchilla is about the size of the common rat. 

ChisiChi'Ihl (anc. Salaria), a city of Spain, in the 
province of Albacete, on a hill 10 miles S. E. of the city of 
Albacete. It was formerly fortified, and is still enclosed 
by old walls. It has a fine church, and manufactures of 
cloth, linen, glass, earthenware, etc. Pop. G044. 

Chinese Architecture. In China the rise of the 
arts seems to have been constantly repressed by the state 
of mechanical drudgery and servitude in which the people 
are kept. In their painting, for example, the most exact 
imitation of plants, fruits, and trees is thought indispensa¬ 
ble. Every matter relating to building is the subject of 
regulation by the police, which, rather than theory, gov¬ 
erns its architecture. The laws of the empire detail and 
enforce with the greatest precision the mode of constructing 
a lou or palace for a prince of the first, second, or third 
rank, of a grandee, of a mandarin, etc. According to the 
ancient law of the kingdom, the number and height of the 
apartments, the length and height of a building, arc all 
regulated with precision, from the plain citizen to the man¬ 
darin, and from the latter up to the emperor himself. This 
alone is sufficient to account for the poverty and want of 
invention in Chinese art. 

In speaking of the principles of Chinese architecture, 
the word is not applicable in the same way as when we 
speak of classical architecture, but is meant to apply to 
those primitive causes which gave birth to it. Character 
and taste in every species of architecture arc the necessary 
results of these elements. There can be no doubt that the 
tent is the real model of all Chinese buildings. One of the 
strongest proofs of this fact is the form of the Chinese roof. 
Nothing but a tent or pavilion could have given the idea 
of it. Again, thero is nothing like the appearance of a 
member of wood, similar to the architrave, destined to lie 
on the tops of the columns, and receive and support the 
remainder of the carpentry. The Chinese roots, on the 
contrary, jut out beyond the columns, whose upper extrem¬ 
ity is hidden by the eaves ; hence the omission of the use 
of capitals. It is easy to perceive that extreme lightness 
must result from this imitation. 

Lightness, in fact, is the essential character of Chinese 
architecture, but there is another characteristic quality, 
both of the model and the copy, that is observable in the 
edifices of China; and this is its gay appearance. In this 
respect scarcely any style presents a more pleasing effect. 
Its roofs, single and double, brilliantly painted, its gayly- 
diapered porticoes, the gloss over the whole surface, the 
harmony of this species of decoration with the light and 
flowing forms of the buildings themselves, so please the 
eye when it is accustomed to see them that 
our cold and monotonous mode of decoration 
may well appear uninviting in contrast. 

Revised by Clarence Cook. 

Chinese Camp, a post-township of 
■ , Tuolumne co., Cal. Pop. 2220. 

Chinese Empire, a vast territory of 
Eastern and Central Asia, occupying nearly 
a third of that continent. It lies between 
lat. 18° 20' and 56° N., and Ion. 70° and 
143° 30' E. It is bounded on the N. by 
i Russian Asia, on the W. by Independent Tar¬ 
tary, S. by Hindostan and Farther India, 
.-«* and E. by the Pacific Ocean. The area is 
Cf about 4,098,823 square miles; the population 
^ is variously estimated at from 446,500,000 to 
550,000,000. The empire, besides China 
proper, contains Corea, which is nearly inde¬ 
pendent, also Manchooria, Mongolia, Thibet, 
and the Loo Choo (Lieu-Ivhieu) Islands. 
These regions, together, are nearly equal to a 
tenth part of the habitable globe. 

China proper [called in the Chinese lan¬ 
guage Choong-Kway, “ central kingdom •■■] 
occupies about one-third of the area of the 


* According to Pauthier, the Chinese did not, as is commonly 
supposed, give the name of Central Kingdom to thmr countly 
because they considered it in the centre ot the world hut because 
in the time of Confucius the country was divided into many 
petty kingdoms, the central one ot which, having the chut 
power, gave name to the empire. 


























CHINESE 


empire. It extends in latitude from 21° to 41° N., and 
in longitude from 98° to 123° E. It is separated from 
the dependency of Mongolia on the N. by the Great Wall 
of China, by far the most extensive fortification ever under¬ 
taken by man. This wall is about 1250 miles in length, and 
is from twenty to twenty-five feet high. (See China, 
Great Wall op.) On the W. of China lies Thibet, on the 
S., Burmah, Anam, and the China Sea, and on the E., the 
Pacific Ocean. The important islands of Formosa and 
Hainan also belong to China proper. The capital of the 
empire is Peking. 

China has a coast-line of more than 2500 miles, with an 
area of about 1,279,072 square miles, and a population vari¬ 
ously estimated at from 420,000,000 to 536,909,300. 

China is divided into eighteen provinces, viz.: 


Provinces. 

Area in 
sq. miles. 

Population 
in 1852. 

Capitals. 

Pe-Chee-Lee. 

59,934 

46,313,360 

Pao-Ting-Foo. 

Shan-Tong. 

65,100 

41,700,621 

Tsee-Nan-Foo. 

Shan-See. 

55,278 

20,166,072 

Tie-Yuen-Foo. 

Ho-Nan. 

65,100 

33,173,526 

Kai-Foong-F oo. 

Kiang-Soo. 

44,500 

54,494,644 

Nan-Iving. 

Ngan-Hwi. 

48,461 

49,201,992 

Ngan-King-Foo. 

Kiang-See. 

72,180 

43,814,866 

Nang-Chang-Foo. 

Che-Kiang. 

44,470 

26,256,784 

Han-Chow-Foo. 

Fo-Kien .. 

39,183 

14,779,158 

Foo-Chow-Foo. 

Hoo-Pee . 

70,460 

27,370,098 

W oo-Chang-F oo. 

Hu-Nan. 

74,325 

18,652,507 

Chang-Sha-Foo. 

Shen-See . 

67,400 

10,207.256 

See-Sang-Foo. 

Kan-Soo . 

86.608 

15,354,875 

Lan-Choo-Foo. 

Se-Chuen . 

166,832 

21,435,678 

Ching-Too-Foo. 

Quang-Tong. 

79,451 

19,174,030 

Canton. 

Quang-See. 

78,260 

7,313,895 

Kwei-Lin-Foo. 

K wei-Chu. 

64,547 

5,228,219 

Kwei-Y an g-Foo. 

Yun-Nan. 

107,983 

5,561,320 

Yun-Nan-Foo. 

Total. 

1,279,072 

536,909,300 

Peking. 


Geology .—The geology of China is not well known, but 
it is certain that the azoic rocks are very extensive in the 
S. and W. The Devonian and cretaceous strata are also 
extensive. Evidences of glacial action have also been ob¬ 
served. Coal and petroleum are found, the former abund¬ 
antly. The anthracite coal seems to be especially important, 
but the coal of China is probably not of the carboniferous age. 
Silver is mined very extensively in the S. W. Gold, cop¬ 
per, lead, mercury, zinc, and especially iron, are abundant. 
Kaolin and the fictile clays are excellent in quality, and 
industrially very important. The engineering of mines is 
not well understood in China. Salt is produced in very 
great quantities, and yields the government a large revenue. 

Physical Geography .—China is divided into three great 
valleys, each with its great river. These valleys are sepa¬ 
rated by two principal mountain-chains. The most north¬ 
ern of these chains (the Thsin-Ling, or Blue Mountains) 
extends in an irregular manner from W. to E., separating, 
to some extent, the valley of the Hoang-Ho on the N. from 
that of the Yang-Tse-Kiang on the S. South of the valley of 
the latter river is the great Yan-Ling chain, which extends 
north-eastwardly from the Himalayas to the Pacific. This 
range is said to have but few passes, and to have peaks 
12,000 or more feet high. The valley of the Choo-Kiang, 
or Canton River, lies S. of this range. It is much the 
smallest of the three great basins, but is very populous, and 
commercially important. The eastern parts of the two 
former valleys constitute the Great Plain of China, a fer¬ 
tile and populous district. In the N. E. is a fourth basin, 
that of the Pei-IIo. The Yang-Tse-Kiang, the largest river 
of China, is a magnificent stream, which is of great import¬ 
ance to the internal commerce of the empire. It has a 
course of 2900 miles. The Hoang-Ho is about 2000 miles 
in length, but is so rapid as to be unsuited to Chinese 
navigation ; but at present both these mighty streams are 
successfully navigated by American and European steam¬ 
ers, built expressly for the purpose. The two rivers are 
connected with each other and with Peking by the Grand 
Canal, which is said to be the largest and formerly the 
most important in the world. It is 650 miles long. A re¬ 
cent alteration in the course of the Hoang-Ho has, it is 
said, greatly diminished the usefulness of this famous 
canal.* The waters of China abound in fish, which furnish 
immense supplies of food. 

Productions, etc .—China is the principal source of the 
commercial supply of tea for the whole world, Japan and 


* In 1853 (or, according to some authorities, about 1850), the 
Hoang-Ho, leaving its former channel at a distance of about 
200 miles from the sea, made for itself a new course towards the 
N. E., so that now its waters are discharged into the Gulf of Pe- 
Chee-Lee. Besides greatly injuring the Grand Canal, this change 
has.made its former valley almost a desert from drought, while 
the country near its present course is frequently deluged with 
water. It is proposed by the Chinese government to restore the 
stream to its old bed. (See the “ Journal of the Royal Geographi¬ 
cal Society ” for 1870.) 


EMPIRE. 


Assam being the only other countries where its production 
is at all important. It also produces great quantities of 
silk, cotton, camphor, varnish, indigo, rhubarb, rice, maize, 
barley,wheat, tobacco, and fruits of many kinds. The popula¬ 
tion of China is so great that it has become necessary to carry 
on agriculture with great care in order to produce sufficient 
food. Every year the emperor of China, accompanied by 
the great dignitaries of the state, repairs to the Sacred 
Field and ploughs a furrow, by way of example to the nation. 
The steepest hillsides, it is said, are terraced, to increase 
the surface of the soil, rocks are covered with earth, the 
lakes have numerous floating gardens, and the bottoms of 
streams are planted with aquatic vegetables whose seeds or 
roots are used as food. The greatest economy is practised 
in the saving of manures. The wealthy Chinese have a 
strong liking for ornamental horticulture, and many of the 
most beautiful of our cultivated flowers have been developed 
in their gardens. 

The production of food is not sufficient for the home- 
supply, great quantities of rice being imported from Siam 
and the Malay islands. This trade is carried on in small 
vessels, called droghers, which are often commanded by 
Englishmen or Americans. 

The botany of the empire is very rich, from the extreme 
range of its latitudes and its great variations in altitude. 
In general, the flora may be said to resemble that of Amer¬ 
ica more than that of Europe. The bamboo is one of the 
chai'acteristic plants of China, and is largely used in build¬ 
ing and for a great variety of purposes. It is said to be 
next to the rice-crop, commercially the most valuable 
production of the country. Among the native trees of 
China may be mentioned the curious gingko tree, well 
known in our parks and private grounds. 

The zoology of China has not been thoroughly explored. 
The elephant, rhinoceros, antelope, and deer of several 
species are known, and bears, tigers, and other carnivor¬ 
ous animals are said to exist. Wild camels have been found 
in the western dependencies. Among the native insects 
is the silkworm. The ichthyology of this empire is very 
rich, though little studied by Europeans. The domestic 
animals of China are generally inferior to those of the 
Western nations. In addition to the kinds kept by us, they 
make use of the camel in the northern provinces. Domestic 
fowls are kept in great numbers, including several beautiful 
pheasants of kinds not known in Europe. 

Inhabitants. —The Chinese are generally spoken of as a 
Mongolian race, but their language and physiognomy con¬ 
nect them with the races of Farther India rather than with 
the Mongols proper. Their language is of the so-called 
monosyllabic family, and has resemblances to the Burmese 
and other similar languages. (See Chinese Language and 
Literature.) Their coarse black hair, tawny skin, and 
oblique eyes give them a highly characteristic expression. 
They are generally a peaceable, industrious, and thrifty 
people, but they are said to be sensual, cruel, dishonest, and 
deceitful. It is probable that there are many persons of 
superior character among the better classes, and that the 
sweeping statements so often made against their character 
as a people are gross exaggerations. 

Though the Chinese are-skilled in imitative workman¬ 
ship, they seem at present to be singularly destitute of in¬ 
ventive genius. Anciently, however, it must have been 
otherwise, for the mariner’s compass, gunpowder, printing, 
and the manufacture of porcelain, paper, silk, and clocks, all 
were certainly first invented in China. Though not without 
taste in ornamental work, their skill in this direction must 
be considered good artisanship rather than really art in the 
best sense of the latter term. Their knowledge of astron¬ 
omy is considerable, though wrong in theory.f Of physi¬ 
cal and natural science they are profoundly ignorant. 
Their system of medicine is extremely unphilosophical and 
puerile. 

Government. —The government is regarded as a patri¬ 
archal one. The emperor, though theoretically absolute, is 
really limited in his power by a carefully-digested code of 
laws, which, however, he can modify by his edicts. At the 
capital reside the ministers of state, six in number, three 
being Chinese and three Manchoos. These, with several 
assistants, constitute the privy council of the emperor. 
Next below this council is the grand college, which has 
important legislative and administrative functions. Be¬ 
sides these there is a college of censors or inspectors, who 
see that all officers in the country are faithful in their du¬ 
ties. The six privy councillors are each at the head of one 
of the six departments of state, viz.: (1) civil service, (2) 

f They are said to have been able to calculate eclipses long 
before the Christian era, and their observations of a planetary 
conjunction which occurred 2375 B. C. have enabled chronolo- 
gists to fix the date of the reign of the emperor Chuen-Hiu, 
whose date is given in Chinese official documents so as pretty 
nearly to agree with the above. 











































CHINESE 


the finances, (3) religion, (4) war, (5) justice, (6) public 
works. A seventh department, that of foreign relations, 
has recently been established by the prince Rung, uncle to 
the emperor T'oong-Chee. Each of the eighteen provinces 
is under a governor, and has an internal administration 
of its own. Government officers have the title of mandarin, 
and are of various grades. The principle of competitive 
examination for the public service has long been carried 
out in China more thoroughly and successfully than in any 
other country. 

Education is held in the highest esteem in China,, and 
learning is rewarded not only by honorary titles, but by 
lucrative offices under the government. A great majority 
of the men can read and write. Recently, the government 
has sent quite a number of young men to America to be 
instructed in the sciences. 

The manners and customs of the Chinese differ much 
from ours, but are certainly far removed from barbarism. 
Vice, as in all populous countries, is very prevalent, but 
among the better classes, at least, virtue is held in high 
honor. Crime is punished with extreme severity. Not¬ 
withstanding the rigor of the legal administration, the 
personal freedom of good citizens is remarkably secure. 
The position of the women, especially those of the lower 
classes, as in other Asiatic countries, is lamentably degraded. 

In consequence of the density of the population of China, 
vast numbers of her people have in late years emigrated 
to Manchooria, Borneo, Siam, the Sandwich Islands, the 
United States, Peru, Guiana, and the West Indies. They 
are a remarkably industrious and thrifty class of emigrants, 
but the low rates at which they are willing to work render 
them objects of dislike to other laborers, and threaten seri- 
ously to complicate the social problems of the time. 

Religion .—The religious (or rather philosophical) system 
of Confucius is the basis of the social life of China. (See 
Confucius.) It is received by most of the educated classes. 
Booddhism (which see), modified by Confucianism, is the 
popular religion. The worship of deceased ancestors is a 
highly important part of the national religion. There is 
also a numerous sect called Tauists, who worship certain 
beings called Sang-Ching, or the “ Three Pure Ones.” (See 
Tauism and Lao-Tse.) The Tauists are believers in spirits, 
and many of their performances resemble the wonders of 
our modern Spiritualists. There have been a few Jews 
and many Mohammedans in the empire for centuries. 
Christianity was introduced by the Nestorians in the sev¬ 
enth century, but Nestorianism seems to have been entirely 
suppressed by persecution in the fourteenth century. Ro¬ 
man Catholic missionaries first went to China about 1240. 
Hue estimates the number of Roman Catholics in the em¬ 
pire at 700,000, but other respectable authorities place the 
number at about 300,000. There are many Protestant and 
several Russian-Greek missionaries in China, who have had 
some success in making converts. 

History .—Although the Chinese civilization is undoubt¬ 
edly far older than that of the Greeks, only the merest hints 
of the existence of China are to be found in the ancient 
classic authors. All the best geographers appear to be 
agreed in considering the Serica of the later Latin writers 
('t; 2i?poctj of Ptolemy) as corresponding with the north¬ 
western part of China. The name Serica (which is also 
the Latin term for “ silk”) was doubtless derived from the 
silk (called, according to Klaproth, sirkek by the Mongols) 
for which the country was so celebrated. The Latin word 
Sinse (Gr. @ircu and 2iWi), supposed to be identical in origin 
with the Chinese Tsin, or I'seen, the name of a province 
which has furnished, through the Hindoos,* to the Western 
nations the name for the whole country, properly denoted 
the people of a city or province in the central part of 
China. It was applied by Ptolemy to the people dwelling 
in the south of China: it appears also to have been used 
in a vague and general sense for the Chinese nation. (See 
on this subject Serica and Sina:, in Smith’s “ Dictionary 
of Greek and Roman Geography.”) 

The Chinese myths give the empire a duration of 7000 
years, but the historical period, according to most author¬ 
ities, begins with the year 2207 B. C., though some dates 
previous to that time are given with tolerable certainty. 
Bunsen, however, states that systematic Chinese history 
hardly goes farther back than 1991 B. C., the date of the 
accession of the great emperor Yu, the Charlemagne of the 
East, who extended the sway of the Shen-See dynasty to 
Southern China, and who rendered the Great Plain habit¬ 
able by diverting the Hoang-Ho to a new channel. 

The national hero of China is the great emperor Shee- 
(Chi-) Hoang-Ti, sometimes called Ching-Wang (246-210 
B. C.), who restored unity to the divided empire, expelled 
the Mongols, and caused a great part of the national 
literature to be burned, in order to destroy the power of 


* The Hindoo name for China is C/ieen (or Tcheen). 


EMPIRE. 023 


the learned classes and overcome the popular reverence for 
tradition. He was the builder of the Great Wall above 
alluded to. 

The art of printing was practised as early as 202 B. C. 
Booddhism was introduced in 65 A. D. The earliest au¬ 
thentic account of China known to have been published in 
Europe is that of Marco Polo, who lived seventeen years in 
the country, and returned to Europe in 1295. The country 
had been previously visited by Roman Catholic mission¬ 
aries. 

The long course of Chinese history has been disturbed by 
many civil wars and contests with the Mongols. The present 
reigning dynasty, said to be the twenty-sixth in number, is 
of Manchoo origin, and was established in 1649; and to 
this day the Manchoos have an influence in the national 
politics far exceeding their relative importance as a people. 

The Chinese long excluded foreigners with the utmost 
jealousy from their country. China was visited by the 
Portuguese in 1517, but they were forbidden to land in the 
empire in 1521. In 1537, however, they obtained a footing 
at Macao, which has since been in their power. In 1862 
it was definitively ceded to them. The Dutch and Spanish 
early opened a trade with China by way of their Eastern 
colonies. The British made several unsuccessful attempts 
to establish commerce with China. The first effort was 
made in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, but it was not till 
1700 that Canton was opened to their trade. The Russian 
overland trade was established in 1727, and the first Amer¬ 
ican consul was allowed to reside in Canton in 1802. Dur¬ 
ing all this time foreign merchants were often treated with 
much indignity. In 1838, in consequence of the unlawful 
importation of opium by British ships, serious troubles 
broke out at Canton, and in the following year actual hos¬ 
tilities began between Great Britain and China. After the 
capture of Canton, Amoy, Shang-IIai, and other important 
cities the Chinese were compelled to make peace, to cede 
IIong-Kong to the victors, and to open Canton, Amoy, Foo- 
Chow, Shang-IIai and Ning-Po to European commerce. 
The number of these “ treaty-ports ” has since been in¬ 
creased to fifteen. The Russians have an overland trade 
and regular mails from Kiakhta on the Siberian frontier, 
and British merchants are attempting to establish a land 
trade between India and China by way of the Irrawaddy 
River. 

In 1850 a man of humble origin, named Tao-Ivwang, who 
had received some notion of Christianity from a tract issued 
by missionaries, conceived the idea of founding a new re¬ 
ligion and at the same time expelling the Manchoo dynasty. 
He was joined by many of the lower orders who were suf¬ 
fering from want, and in October of the same year the first 
battle of the Tae-Ping rebellion was fought. This rebel¬ 
lion at one time threatened the existence of the empire, and 
was finally suppressed in 1864, after great bloodshed. It is 
probable that but for the aid of contingents furnished by Eng¬ 
land and France the rebellion might have been successful. 

The foreign warehouses at Canton were burned in 1856, 
and attempts having been made to poison the British at 
Hong-Kong in 1857, hostilities were commenced against 
China by Great Britain and France: and in December of 
that year Canton was bombarded, and on the 5th of Jan., 
1858, it was taken. In the following June a treaty was 
made by the Chinese, which was soon violated. In Oct., 
1860, the English and French forces entered Peking, and 
the Chinese government granted all their demands. The 
allies then turned their arms against the Tae-Ping rebellion, 
which received its fatal blow by the capture of Nanking 
(July 19, 1864) and the suicide of the rebel emperor. The 
rebellion of the Mohammedans in the province of Yun-Nan, 
called Panthays, which began about 1850, le.d in 1868 to the 
establishment of an independent Mohammedan government 
in the capital of the province. The leader assumed the 
name of King Solomon (Ooensoai), and his empire in 1872 
embraced about 63,000 square miles, with a population of 
4,000,000. In 1873 this government was reported as sub¬ 
jugated, its sultan killed, and Yun-Nan reduced to Chi¬ 
nese rule. Another Mohammedan rebellion, which in 1862 
broke out in the capital of the province of Shan-See, led to 
the establishment of the independent empire of East Toor- 
kistan, under the rule of Yakoob Ooshbegi, which in 1872 
had an area of 740,000 square miles and about 1,000,000 in¬ 
habitants. In consequence of these troubles the Chinese 
government, under the advice of Prince Kung, the foreign 
minister, has adopted the policy of seeking the alliance of 
foreign powers. In 1867 the American minister, Mr. Bur¬ 
lingame, was sent by the government as extraordinary am¬ 
bassador to the U. S. and the principal European nations, 
but unfortunately died before his plans had been Lilly car¬ 
ried out. In 1868 the government established a university at 
Peking, to which American and European professors were 
appointed. On June 21, 1870, a bloody massacre of Eu¬ 
ropeans and native Christians took placo at licn-lsin. 
















924 


CHINESE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


The chiof articlos of export are tea and raw silk. The 
former was, in 1870, valued at 30,280,000 taels (1 tael = 
$1.30), in 1871 at 40,120,000: the latter in 1870 at 21,270,000 
taels, in 1871 at 25,960,000. The chief articles of import are 
opium (25,000,000 taels) and cotton goods (22,000,000). The 
total exports, exclusive of precious metals, amounted in 
1870 to 61,690,000 taels, the imports to 69,290,000. The 
merchant-navy numbered about 8000 vessels, with an ag¬ 
gregate tonnage of 616,000. The number of entrances and 
clearances in the Chinese ports in 1870 is stated to have been 
14,136, with an aggregate tonnage of 6,907,528. The du¬ 
ties levied in the ports open to foreigners amounted in 1870 
to 9,545,848 taels. The army numbered about 600,000 men, 
exclusive of 200,000 Tartar troops. The soldiers, when not 
performing active service, carry on a trade at home. The 
war-navy consists of 826 vessels, with 3600 guns. 

Charles W. Greene. 

Chinese Language and Literature. As the lead¬ 
ing member of the group of monosyllabic languages which 
occupy South-eastern Asia, and constitute, with a possible 
exception or two, the whole of the monosyllabic class, the 
Chinese has for the student of language a very great in¬ 
terest. This monosyllabism is not, as a few scholars have 
held, a state to which they have been reduced by a process 
of phonetic decay, but manifestly a primitive condition. 
It represents a stage out of which all other languages, 
whether of the agglutinative or inflective type, have passed, 
while these, from arrested development, have remained be¬ 
hind. Chinese words are not only altogether destitute of 
inflection, but they are hardly parts of speech in the sense 
which we attach to the term, being to a great extent still 
in the root state. The same word may, according to its 
position in the sentence, be noun, adjective, adverb, or 
verb; e. g., sin must be variously translated “ fidelity,” 
“ faithful,” “ faithfully,” “believe.” This indefiniteness, 
however, attaches to the words only when taken separately, 
and disappears in the sentence. Chiefly by the value given 
to position, but partly also (especially in the spoken lan¬ 
guage) by the use of certain words as signs of grammat¬ 
ical relation, logical precision of statement is attained. 
Of this class are such words as tzu and erh, both meaning 
“son,” and t’eu, “head,” which have nearly the force of 
substantive endings, and tih, of an adjective ending. 
Being cut off from the resources of derivation for the 
multiplication of forms, while the development of signi¬ 
fication has gone on as in other languages, the number of 
homophonous words is very great. The phonetic combina¬ 
tions of which the language admits are comparatively few 
and simple, and this poverty has been still further increased 
by phonetic decay, the effects of which are traceable even 
here, though of course to a much more limited extent than 
in inflective languages. The number of distinct vocables 
differs considerably in the various dialects, the highest 
limit being not far from 1000 and the lowest 500. The 
Kwan-hwa has, according to Edkins, 532 monosyllables, 1 
according to Morrison, who, however, includes in one class 
the aspirate and unaspirated mutes, only 411; the Shanghai 
dialect (Edkins), 570; the Fuchau (Baldwin and Maclay), 
928; the Canton (Williams), 707. By the aid of tones, 
similar to those which we use for the purpose of emphasis 
and expression, this number is increased two or three fold, 
being raised in the Kwan-hwa to about 1600. The same 
phonetic combination pronounced in different tones consti¬ 
tutes so many different words, and so essential a part of 
the pronunciation is the tone, that a wrong tone will sooner 
occasion misunderstanding of a word than will the substi¬ 
tution of a wrong consonant. In the modern dialects the 
number of tones varies from four to eight, the smaller num¬ 
ber being found in some of the districts of Central China; 
in the Kwan-hwa there are five, in the Fuchau and Amoy 
dialects, seven, in the Canton, eight. In the dictionaries of 
the T’ang dynasty (A. I). 618-905), which are still the 
standard rhyming dictionaries, only four tones are recog¬ 
nized—namely, the p’ing, “level,” shenig, “rising,” ch’u, 
“vanishing,” and juh, “re-entering” or “abrupt;” and 
these, divided into an upper and lower series, constitute the 
eight tones of the Canton dialect. The original identity 
of meaning in words which differ merely in tone is in some 
cases still apparent; e. g., ting (noun), “nail,” and ting 
(verb), “to nail;” mai, “buy,” and mat, “sell;” but in 
general the etymological connection, if it exists, cannot be 
traced. The number of words which coincide both in 
sound and tone being, however, still very large, other 
means are necessary to remove the ambiguity, and in the 
spoken language phrases composed of two or more words 
are largely used in the place of simple terms. Two syn¬ 
onyms are frequently thus joined; e. g., shu-mv, “tree.” 
Shu and mu have each various significations besides that 
of “tree,” but there is no other in which they agree, and 
tho combination thus becomes definite. Other phrases are 
taken in a collective sense; e. g., hiung-ti, “older brother 


younger brother,” for “brother” or “brothers;” or in a 
derived sense; e. g., tung-si, “ east-west,” for “ thing.” 
These phrases, which often extend to four or five words, 
make a near approach to proper compounds, one of tho 
words uniformly receiving a stronger accent, supported in 
the case of the longer phrases by a secondary accent. 

Another feature not peculiar to the Chinese, but worthy 
of mention for the prominent part which it plays, is tho 
frequent use of numeratives in counting; like our head of 
cattle, brace of ducks. More than a hundred such words 
arc in use, each limited to a certain class or classes of ob¬ 
jects. 

Spoken by a population variously estimated at from two 
to four hundred millions, the Chinese not unnaturally is 
divided into strongly marked dialects. Of these the Kwan- 
hwa, commonly called by Europeans the mandarin or court 
dialect, has the widest currency, being spoken with minor 
differences over the whole north and west of the empire, 
and on the cast reaching as far south as the Yang-tze 
Kiang. It is, further, the language of official communica¬ 
tion throughout the empire, and the only one of the popular 
dialects which has received any considerable literary culti¬ 
vation. Phonetically, it is the poorest of the dialects. The 
only consonant finals of which it admits arc the nasals n 
and ng, and the sonant initials b, d, g, v, z, found in some 
of the other dialects, are wanting here. The south-eastern 
dialects, in the provinces of Canton and Fukien, on tho 
other hand, are the most archaic, having preserved tho 
final mutes p, h, t. Differing largely in vocabulary, as well 
as in the form and tone of the words common to them, 
these several dialects are not generally understood (except 
the Kwan-hwa) beyond the limits of a single province. 
There are in addition many local dialects, less marked in 
character and of a more limited currency. This diversity 
does not, however, extend to the written language, which 
is uniform throughout the empire, and, to a degree unap¬ 
proached in any other literature, uniform also throughout 
the whole course of its history. Its development has been 
to some extent independent of the spoken language, and 
forms one of the most interesting chapters in the history 
of writing. 

According to Chinese tradition, knotted cords, similar 
perhaps to the Peruvian quippos, were used in the earliest 
times for keeping records. In the mystical figures of the 
Yih-king, ascribed to Fuh-hi, Chinese scholars are wont to 
find a kind of graphic system. The date of the invention 
of the present characters, commonly ascribed to Tsang-kie, 
about 2600 B. C., cannot be fixed even approximate!}', but 
the history of the successive stages of the development of 
the system is written in the characters themselves. The 
first signs were purely ideographic, being rude representa¬ 
tions of the objects named. A circle with a point in tho 
centre stood for the sun, a crescent for the moon, a three- 
pointed peak for a mountain. The changes of form which 
they have undergone, arising in part from the different 
materials used in writing, have left in the present charac¬ 
ters little resemblance to the objects pictured. The limits 
of this method of direct representation were soon reached. 
A few words denoting position and number were repre¬ 
sented by points and strokes ; thus, a point above or below a 
horizontal line signified “above” or “below;” a stroke 
through the centre of a circle, “middle;” one, two, or three 
horizontal strokes, the numerals 1, 2, 3. The combining of 
two or more signs to express a single idea, either by direct 
or symbolical representation, was another easy step; thus 
“ water ” and “ eye ” make up the sign for “ tear ;” “ man ” 
and “mountain” stand for “fairy;” “sun” and “moon” 
for “light.” 

By far the greater number of characters, however, are 
formed on a new principle, the combination of an ideo¬ 
graphic and phonetic element in one sign. The number 
of homophonous words is, as we have seen, very largo, and 
a sign having been found for one of these, it is used pho¬ 
netically to represent the sound of the others, being differ¬ 
entiated in each case by an additional sign, which indicates 
in a general way the meaning. In this combination one 
of the parts, termed the phonetic or primitive, gives up its 
meaning and retains only its sound; the other, the radical, 
gives up its sound and retains only the meaning. For ex¬ 
ample, the syllable tan has among other significations the 
following : “ sword,” “ anxious,” “ appetite,” “ heart of a 
tree,” “long narrow boat,” “a species of fish of a slender 
form.” The first of these, “ sword,” being represented 
ideographically, the others are written phonetically by the 
same sign, further defined by the radicals for “ heart,” 
“eat,” “tree,” “ boat,” “ fish.” The Chineso written lan¬ 
guage aims to provide a sign not merely for every word 
etymologically distinct, but to a considerable extent also 
for the different significations of the word. In the ex¬ 
ample above given the boat and fish were sword-shaped, 
and hence apparently their name, and possibly the other 























CHINESE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


meanings may be traced ultimately to the same origin. 
The word tan has various other significations besides those 
given, and is written with at least half a dozen different 
phonetics, each of which enters into combination with one 
or more radicals. The number of different phonetics em¬ 
ployed in writing a single word is in some cases twenty or 
more, and the aggregate number of characters thus formed 
may exceed a hundred. Some characters are used both as 
phonetics and radicals. Tan, “ sword,” which in the above 
examples appeared as a phonetic, enters into other charac¬ 
ters as a radical, with the meaning “cut,” “divide." A 
character composed of a radical and phonetic may itself 
be employed as a phonetic in forming new characters, 
lhe sound ot a composite character is not always that of 
the phonetic which it contains, but the variation is usually 
not great, and more frequently in the initial than in the 
final sound. The number of phonetics in common use is 
about 1000 . Marshman in his “Clavis” enumerates 3867, 
but more than half of these are employed only once or 
twice each. These phonetics represent the sound of the 
word as a whole, without analyzing it into its elements. 

There is, however, a kind of syllabic spelling called Fan- 
ts’ieh, introduced from India by Booddhist priests, and first 
currently used in dictionaries of the fifth and sixth cen¬ 
turies to mark the sound of characters with more precision. 
One series of characters is chosen to represent the initial 
sounds, another the final sounds, together with the tone, 
the number of both varying according to the dialect. Thus, 
king, “classic,” in the dictionary of K’ang-hi is spelled 
with the characters k-ien l-ing, the first being simply the 
sign of the initial k, the second of the final imj. 

In the arrangement of the characters Chinese dictionaries 
follow three different methods. By the first the characters 
are distributed according to their meaning under a certain 
number of categories, such as heaven, earth, body, etc. 
This method is found in the “ Erh-ya,” tho oldest diction¬ 
ary in the language, containing definitions of classical 
terms, and itself sometimes reckoned among the classics; 
also in many others, especially dictionaries of foreign lan¬ 
guages, Mongol, Mantchoo, etc. The second principle of 
arrangement is according to the radical part of the charac¬ 
ter. This appears first in the “ Shwoh-wen,” published 
A. D. 100, in which 10,000 characters are arranged under 
640 radicals, a number slightly increased in subsequent 
dictionaries, but in the “Tzu-wui,” published during tho 
Ming dynasty, reduced to 214. This last number is re¬ 
tained in the two principal dictionaries of the present 
dynasty, the “ Cheng-tzu-t’ung ” and tho “ K’ang-hi-tzu- 
tien.” In the last-mentioned work, with a total of about 
44,000 characters, the number found under the different 
radicals varies from 5 to 1300, or, counting duplicate forms, 
1000 , the following radicals having each 1000 and upward : 
mouth, heart, hand, tree, water, j)lant. Under each radical 
the characters are arranged in the order of the number of 
strokes contained in the phonetic. In most cases the radi¬ 
cal under which a given character should be sought is 
apparent at a glance; the doubtful cases, where the radical 
is obscured or where the arrangement is somewhat arbi¬ 
trary, are resolved by means of a key in which these cha¬ 
racters are arranged according to the total number of 
strokes under the radical to which they are assigned. Tho 
third and last method of arrangement is according to tho 
sound of the characters. The usual order in works of this 
class is the following: the characters are divided into four 
great classes, according to the tone; each tone divided into 
smaller classes, according to the final sound, and these 
sometimes further subdivided, according to the initials. 
The earliest extant dictionary of this class, the “ T’ang- 
yiin,” published in the eighth century, employs a series of 
206 finals. Lieu-p’ing-shui, in the thirteenth century, re¬ 
duced the number to 107, and his system has since been 
generally followed. Another dictionary belonging here, 
the “ Pei-wen-yun-fu,” is one of the most extensive lexico¬ 
graphical works in any language. It was prepared under 
the superintendence of the emperor K’ang-hi, and em¬ 
ployed the labors of seventy-six scholars, most of them 
members of the Imperial Academy, for eight years. It 
gives by numerous citations the fullest illustration of the 
usage of the language, and was published in 1711, in 130 
thick volumes. A translation was announced by Callery, 
but only one volume published (Paris, 1844). Of the total 
number of characters in the language, extravagant state¬ 
ments have often been made. The more complete diction¬ 
aries contain from 40,000 to 60,000, of which obsolete and 
duplicate forms and proper names make up perhaps one- 
half. The number of really different characters which have 
the sanction of good usage is not far from 25,000, of which 
about one-tenth are ideographic, and the remaining nine- 
tenths composed of an ideographic and phonetic element 
united. Even in the number last given a large proportion 
of tho characters are of rare occurrence, and a knowledge 


of from 5000 to 10,000 is sufficient for almost all the needs 
of the scholar. 

In no language are the differences between the literary 
and colloquial idioms so great as in Chinese. The number 
of characters being many times as great as the number of 
distinct vocables, the former are not subject to the same 
variety of meaning, and the precautions against ambiguity 
required in the spoken language are to some extent un¬ 
necessary. A sentence may be perfectly definite when writ¬ 
ten, yet when spoken be altogether unintelligible. In the 
classical style this conciseness is carried to the extremest 
limit. It is in general true of the classical books that, 
while to the eye they are definite, to the ear they convey 
no meaning. In this ancient style, termed Ivu-wen, all his¬ 
torical, philosophical, and critical works are still written, 
and no accomplishment is so highly valued among scholars 
as the mastery of it. Novels and dramatic compositions, 
which are regarded as quite inferior classes of literature, 
are written in the Kwan-hwa, in a style but little elevated 
above the colloquial, and, like it, abounding in compound 
phrases. The Wen-chang, the style of the literary essays, 
which is also much cultivated, is of a more artificial cha¬ 
racter than the Ku-wen, and less esteemed. 

The relation of the Ku-wen to the ancient spoken lan¬ 
guage, whether and how far it represents it, and how far it 
is the product of a merely literary development, are points 
upon which scholars are not agreed. That the Chinese 
have not invented or borrowed a system of alphabetic writ¬ 
ing, as so many peoples their inferiors in civilization have 
done, is the less surprising when we consider that the de¬ 
fects of their system are less sensible in an uninflected lan¬ 
guage like the Chinese, and that it has undeniable advan¬ 
tages in enabling them to distinguish the great number of 
words which are identical in sound, but differ in meaning. 
Still, it is attended with very serious evils, not the least of 
which is this—that the labor involved in learning and hold¬ 
ing in the memory so many arbitrary characters absorbs no 
small portion of the intellectual energy of the people. At¬ 
tempts have been made, not without success, to romanize 
some of the popular idioms, the tones being marked by dia¬ 
critic signs. Books have been published by missionaries in 
this character in the Shanghai, Ningpo, Fuchau, and Amoy 
dialects. To the concise classical style, however, this method 
is quite inapplicable. 

The Chinese characters have undergone in the course of 
their history great changes of form, and six varieties are 
now in use. The oldest is the Chuen, called by foreigners 
the seal character, used in seals and often also in ornamental 
inscriptions and title-pages. The Li-shu, introduced not 
long before the Christian era, with the change from the 
iron style to the brush, and the substitution of silk and 
linen for wooden tablets and slips of bamboo, differs little, 
except in a certain heaviness of stroke, from the more mod¬ 
ern forms of the characters. It is found in inscriptions 
and prefaces. This Avas succeeded by the Kiai-shu, or pat¬ 
tern style, which followed on the invention of paper, and 
is the usual character employed in careful writing, and is 
occasionally found in printed books. The Sung-shu, the 
common book-character, introduced about the tenth cen¬ 
tury, differs from the preceding in a greater squareness and 
angularity of form, better suited to cutting on wooden blocks. 
Two forms adapted to rapid writing are in use—the Hing- 
shu, or running hand, frequently found in prefaces and in¬ 
scriptions ; and another, still more abbreviated, in which 
there is left little trace of resemblance to the ordinary square 
character—the Ts’au-tzu, or grass character. In no country 
is the art of calligraphy so highly esteemed or so sedulously 
cultivated as in China, and no written character is so well 
adapted to the display of it. 

Of the Chinese language in general we may say, in con¬ 
clusion, that notwithstanding its poverty of forms, it has 
been made, solely by the genius of those who use it, superior 
as an instrument of thought to many, perhaps to most, in¬ 
flected languages. Whether its capacity ol development 
will prove equal to the further demands to be made upon 
it is questionable. It has thus far shown a marked indis¬ 
position to the incorporation of foreign words, and yet does 
not seem able to supply from native resources the exact 
terminology which any considerable advance in scientific 
knowledge will require. 

Chinese Literature. —In the history of literature there is 
hardly to be found another example of so high an antiq¬ 
uity, and none of so great a longevity, as the Chinese— an 
age which at least reaches, and perhaps exceeds, three 
thousand years. Neither in language, literature, nor msti- 
tutions, is the modern period in China separated from the 
ancient by so wide an interval as elsewhere; an unbroken 
tradition holds together all. Such is the continuity that o 
the superficial observer it has the appearance of umforim 3 . 
In few countries has the cultivation ot letters been so gen¬ 
eral. In theoiy, at least, all offices beneath tho throno aro 





















926 CHINESE LANGUAGE 


not only open to the scholar, but official promotion is made 
to depend directly on scholarship. The entrance to the 
various grades is guarded by public competitive examina¬ 
tions, which at each successive step become more rigorous. 
This system, introduced under the Han dynasty near the 
commencement of the Christian era, has been adhered to 
with more or less fidelity under the succeeding dynasties. 
Under such conditions, with the long history and vast 
population of China, a literature of immense extent is a 
natural result. Nor is any great literature so purely na¬ 
tional, so little affected by foreign influences, as the Chinese. 
Kooddhism, brought from India in the first century of the 
Christian era, has created for itself a literature apart, with¬ 
out much disturbing the general course of development. 
During the past three centuries of intercourse with Western 
nations their influence upon the literature, except in the de¬ 
partment of mathematics, has been hardly felt. The exag¬ 
gerated reverence paid to the classical models has so 
strengthened the conservative tendency as to check the 
growth of originality. Nor have the examinations for de¬ 
grees, in which the chief requirement for success is famil¬ 
iarity with the classics, been so conducted as to attain the 
most happy results, either for the government or for the 
national literature. 

There is, however, more of variety both in the history and 
the literature of China than the commonly received opin¬ 
ion gives to them. The first period of marked activity is 
that commencing with Confucius (died B. C.47S) and Lao- 
Tzu, and covering a period of about three centuries. Men¬ 
cius and many other less celebrated writers belong to this 
period, which was rudely brought to a close by Shi Hwang- 
Ti, the founder of the Ts’in dynasty. This ruler, famous 
also as the builder of the Great Wall, having consolidated 
into an empire the petty states into which China had been 
divided, and fearing that the study of the literature would 
lead to an attempt to restore the old order of things, or¬ 
dered (B. C. 212) the destruction of all books except those 
on medicine, divination, and husbandry, and the records 
of his own dynasty. Many scholars were put to death for 
the crime of hiding books or for the freedom of their utter¬ 
ances. This edict remained in force only twenty-two years, 
the Ts’in dynasty having been soon succeeded by the Ilan, 
under which strenuous efforts were made to recover the lost 
books. The catalogue of the library thus formed, which is 
found in the history of the Han dynasty, enumerates more 
than 13,000 volumes by 600 different authors. This collec¬ 
tion perished in the burning of the imperial palace at the 
close of the dynasty, and similar collections made under 
succeeding dynasties met a like fate. Including the burn¬ 
ing of the books by Shi Hwang-Ti, five great catastrophes 
of this kind are enumerated by Chinese historians, the last 
in the sixth century. 

The period of the T’ang dynasty (A. D. 618-905) was the 
golden age of Chinese poetry; that of the Sung (960-1279) 
was the era of philosophical speculation and of criticism; 
the Yuen (Mongol) dynasty (1280-1367) was the most flou¬ 
rishing period of the drama, and produced also some of the 
best novels ; the Ming and the reigning Mantchoo dynas¬ 
ties have been less distinguished for the originality of their 
productions than for works of an encylopaadic character, 
digests of the older literature. Printing from wooden blocks 
was invented before the close of the sixth century, but did 
not come into general use until the tenth. Movable types 
were employed as early as A. D. 1040, four centuries before 
the invention was known in Europe, without, however, dis¬ 
placing wooden blocks, which have remained in general 
use. During the present dynasty two large collections, of 
several thousand volumes each, have been printed by the 
government—one with copper, the other with wooden mova¬ 
ble types. Chinese literature is abundantly supplied with 
works in bibliography and literary history, which for many 
centuries have been favorite subjects of study. One of the 
most admirable bibliographies to be found in any language 
is the catalogue of the imperial library, published in 1790 in 
200 boyks. It contains notices of 10,500 works (a single 
one of which, the encyclopaedia of the Ming, is composed 
of 22,877 books), giving the author, the history, and the 
contents of each, together with an estimate, almost uni¬ 
formly just, of its merits. The plan of arrangement, which 
dates from the T’ang dynasty, is in four divisions—viz., 
classics, history, philosophy, belles lettres; novels and the 
drama are excluded. In the several dynastic histories an 
important section is devoted to the literature of the period. 
An index expurgatorius of works prohibited on account of 
their moral or political tendency has been published by the 
present dynasty. It contains many thousand volumes, 
mostly written about the close of the Ming dynasty. 

The most important contributions by European scholars 
to this subject are : Wylie, “ Notes on Chinese Literature,” 
Shanghai, 1867 ; Schott, “ Entwurf einer beschreibung der 
chinesischen litteratur” (“ Abhand. der Berlin. Akad.,” 


AND LITERATURE. 


1853); Bazin, “ Le Siecle des Youen” (“Journal Asia- 
tique,” 1850-52). The last treats of the literature of the 
Mongol dynasty only. 

The term king or “ classic ” is used in a narrower and a 
wider sense. It belongs par excellence to the “ Five King,” 
but very commonly includes also the “Four Books,” and is not 
unfrequently used in a still wider sense. Among the “Five 
King” the first place is accorded to the “Yih,”partly for its 
antiquity and partly for its enigmatical character. The 
proper text consists of eight trigrams, made up of hori¬ 
zontal lines, whole and broken, afterwards increased by 
combination to sixty-four hexagrams. With these are in¬ 
corporated commentaries by Wen-Wang, the ancestor of the 
Chau dynasty, by his son Chau-Kung and by Confucius, 
which constitute the only intelligible part of the work. 
These mystical figures, ascribed to the ancient sage Fuh-Hi, 
are supposed to embody the most profound moral and jiolit- 
ical wisdom. They are much used in divination, and on 
this account the work is said to have been excepted from 
the general destruction of books under Shi Hwang-Ti. 
Next in rank is the “ Shu King,” a collection of historical 
documents relating to the Yu, Hia, Shang, and Chau dynas¬ 
ties, and covering the period, according to the received 
chronology, from the middle of the twenty-fourth century 
down to B. C. 721. The compilation is ascribed to Confu¬ 
cius, and is said to have comprised originally 100 chapters, 
but after the time of Shi Hwang-Ti, who made special efforts 
to destroy all copies of the “ Shu,” only fifty-eight chapters 
could be found. It was recovered in two portions, the genu¬ 
ineness of one of which is much disputed. The “Shu” is 
largely occupied with discourses on government put in the 
mouths of the ancient sovereigns, the historical matter be¬ 
ing quite subordinate. The third classic is the “Shi King,” 
or “ Book of Odes,” which contains 305 pieces (originally 
311, but of six only the titles are preserved), selected by 
Confucius as the most worthy of preservation out of nearly 
4000. They are divided into four classes—“ Kwoh-fung,” or 
“ Manners of the States,” gathered for presentation to the 
emperor in his visits to the feudal princes; “Siao-ya” and 
“Ta-ya,” “ Lesser and Greater Eulogiums,” which bestow 
praise or blame upon the rulers and high officers; and 
“ Sung,” hymns of praise sung at the funeral rites of em¬ 
perors and kings. The poetical merit of these pieces is 
very unequal, but is in general superior to that of later 
productions. They belong, with few exceptions, to the Chau 
dynasty, and for the light which they throw on the history 
and customs of the time are of great value. Biot has drawn 
from them the materials for a valuable memoir published 
in the “Journal Asiatique” for 1843. The fourth place 
among the classics is occupied by the Rituals, three in 
number. The “Li-ki,” which is designated by imperial 
authority as one of the “ Five Classics,” is a compilation 
made in the first century B. C. out of the older Rituals. 
Two of these arc preserved. One, the “ Chau-li” (“ Chow 
Ritual ”), is supposed to have been written early in the 
Chau dynasty, and gives a detailed account of the various 
offices in the state, and the duties belonging to each. In it 
are found the models of the six administrative boards of 
the Chinese government. The “ I-li ” (“ Decorum Ritual ”), 
which is perhaps of equal antiquity, is of a more domestic 
character—a code of etiquette giving rules for the guidance 
of individual conduct under all circumstances. The last of 
the “ Five Classics” is the “ Ch’un Ts’eu ”(“ Spring and 
Autumn Annals ”), the only one of which the authorship 
can be properly ascribed to Confucius, his labors upon the 
others being merely those of an editor. It is a chronicle of 
events from 720 to 480 B. C., written in continuation of the 
“ Shu King.” In it are recorded thirty-seven eclipses of 
the sun (the earliest 720 B. C.), which, with few exceptions, 
have been proved by calculation correct. The “ Four 
Books” (t. e., the “Books of the Four Philosophers”) are 
next in rank. Two of them, the “ Ta llioh” and the 
“Chung Yung,” formed parts of the “Li-ki” (“Book of 
Rites”), but were detached and arranged in the present 
order by Chu Hi, the great critic of the twelfth century. 
The “ Ta Hioh ” (“Great Learning”) is a discourse on the 
principles of government, in eleven chapters, the first con¬ 
taining the words of Confucius, and the remaining ten a 
commentary on them, commonly ascribed to his disciple, 
Tseng Ts’an. The “ Chung Yung” (“Invariable Mean ”) 
is a philosophical treatise attributed to K’ung Keih, the 
grandson of Confucius, in which the observance of the right 
mean is set forth as the highest wisdom and virtue. The 
“ Lun Yu” (“Miscellaneous Conversations”) of Confucius 
and his disciples is a collection of mostly disconnected say¬ 
ings embodying the substance of his teaching, which was 
altogether of a practical character, on ethics, government, 
ceremonies, and the like. The last and most extensive of 
the “Four Books” contains the works of Mencius, who now 
ranks second only to Confucius in the general esteem, 
though not until the twelfth century, were his writings defi- 













CHINESE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 927 


nitely admitted to a place among the classics. One of the 
fundamental doctrines of his philosophy is the inherent 
goodness of human nature. The “ Five King ” and “ Four 
Kooks” have all, with the exception of the “ Cli’un Ts’eu,” 
been translated into one or more of the European languages. 
Dr. Legge has undertaken an edition, now well advanced 
towards completion, of the whole in the original text, with 
English translation, commentary, and extensive introduc¬ 
tion (vols. i., ii., “ Four Kooks;” vol. iii., “ Shu King;” 
vol. iv., “ Shi King,” Hongkong, 1861-72). An arrange¬ 
ment of the classics made in the T’ang dynasty enumerates 
thirteen—viz., besides the foregoing the two Rituals, “Chau- 
li ’ and “ I-li,” two additional recensions of the “ Ch'un 
Ts’eu,” and the “ Hiau King,” or classic of Filial Piety. 
The last purports to be a conversation between Confucius 
and his disciple Tseng Ts’an, and, though highly esteemed, 
entire confidence is not felt in its genuineness. Many other 
works bear the title of Icing (“ classic ”); nor is it confined to 
the orthodox school, but applied also to the canonical books 
of the Tauist and Kooddhist faiths, and even to works of a 
more miscellaneous character, such as important technical 
writings. Thus we have the “ Ch’a King ” (“ Tea Classic ”), 
on the culture of the tea-plant, and the “ Shan-hai King ” 
(“ Hill and River Classic”), an ancient geographical work 
from which many poetical allusions are borrowed. 

The historical works, which are very voluminous, fall 
mostly into three classes. First in importance are the his¬ 
tories of the several dynasties, the work of official histori¬ 
ographers, and constructed mostly on a uniform plan. The 
variety of subjects treated of, each in a distinct section, 
gives them an encyclopaedic character. The order, vary¬ 
ing somewhat in the separate works, is in general the fol¬ 
lowing : first, the personal history of the successive empe¬ 
rors of the dynasty, followed by a series of memoirs on 
chronology, rites, music, jurisprudence, political economy, 
state sacrifices, astronomy, inliuence of the five elements, 
geography, and literature, closing with biographies of the 
eminent men of the dynasty, and historical and geograph¬ 
ical notices of foreign nations. The series as at present 
established consists of twenty-four histories, comprising 
3264 books. They are of very unequal merit; some of them 
the work of single authoi’s, others prepared by a board of 
scholars. At the head of the list stands the “ Shi-ki ” of 
Szu-ma Ts’ien of the Han dynasty, which reaches from the 
earliest period down to K. C. 122, and has served as a model 
for the subsequent histories. Not until the dynasty is ended, 
and has given place to another, can the official history be 
published. There is, however, a summary of events under 
the present dynasty by a private author, entitled “ Tung- 
hwa-luh,” long circulated in manuscript, and at length, 
after a considerable portion had been expunged, printed. 
The history is brought down to 1818. The second class of 
histories follows a chronological order. The oldest work 
of this class, next to the “ Ch’un Ts’eu ” of Confucius, is 
the “Bamboo Record,” found A. D. 279 in the tomb of one 
of the princes of Wei. It reaches to K. C. 298. There is some 
reason to think that the original has been lost, and that the 
work which now passes under the title, and which is print¬ 
ed with a translation in the prolegomena of Dr. Legge’s 
“ Shoo King,” is a forgery. The most celebrated general 
history on this plan is the “ Tzu-chih-t’ung-kien ” of Szu- 
ma Kwang, a writer of the eleventh century. It was re¬ 
vised in the next century under the direction of Chu Hi, 
and published with the title “ Tung-kien-kang-muh.” Con¬ 
tinuations were added in the following dynasties. Do 
Mailla translated it into French (Paris, 1777-83, 12 vols. 
4to). The abridgment of the above work, entitled “ Kang- 
kien-i-chi-luh ” (“History Made Easy”), is one of the 
most Useful compendiums. Another class of works, called 
“ Complete Records,” follows neither the one nor the other 
of the above methods, but gives Avith more freedom of ar¬ 
rangement a general survey of the subject treated. 

In biographies the literature is unusually rich. Besides 
the space accorded to them in the dynastic histories and in 
statistical Avorks, separate biographies, many of them of a 
collective character, abound. The “ T’ang-ts’ai-tzu-chuen ” 
is a collection of 397 literary biographies of the T’ang and 
the succeeding five short dynasties, by Sin Wen-fang of 
the Yuen. It Avas long given up for lost in China, and 
was recovered from Japan. The “ Kau-seng-chuen ” of 
the Liang dynasty, Avith its continuations, contains biogra¬ 
phies of more than a thousand Booddhist priests. 

The geographical works are hardly surpassed in extent 
by those of any country. There are Avorks in the geography 
of the Avhole empire, such as the “ Ta-ts’ing-yih-t’ung-chi,” 
published under the present dynasty in 500 books, Avhich 
give under each province the topography, population, 
taxes, etc.; under each prefecture and department, the an¬ 
tiquities, public Avorks, eminent and notorious characters 
born there, productions of the soil, and a variety of other 
details. In addition, every province, every prefecture, 


every department, nearly every district, and frequently a 
town or famous locality within a district, has its separate 
description, amounting in all to thousands of volumes. 
Some of these works are of considerable antiquity, and in 
successive editions have been gradually enlarged. Of the 
history and geography of Eastern Asia, beyond the limits 
of the empire, Chinese literature contains many valuable 
notices. The accounts of the journeys of Booddhist pil¬ 
grims to India between the fourth and the tenth centuries 
are the most important sources of information for the his¬ 
tory of Booddhism in India during that period that Ave 
possess. Fah-Hian (A. D. 400-415) travelled overland to 
India, thence to Ceylon, returning by water to China. His 
account, “ Fuh-kwo-ki,” has been translated into French 
by Remusat (Paris, 1836), and into English by Beal (Lon¬ 
don, 1869). Yuen-ChAvang during sixteen years (629-645) 
traversed India in every direction. His life has been trans¬ 
lated by Julien (“Vie de Hiouen-Thsang,” Paris, 1853), as 
has also the “ Si-yih-ki,” which contains his itinerary, ac¬ 
companied by copious extracts from Sanscrit works, now 
lost, concerning the kingdoms of India (“Memoires sur les 
Contrees Occidentals,” Paris, 1857, 2 vols., 8vo). 

The three principal philosophical and religious sects, the 
Confucianists, Tauists, and Booddliists, have each an exten¬ 
sive literature. Of the orthodox school the most celebrated 
among the near successors of Confucius and Mencius Avas 
Siin-tzu, aaJao held, in opposition to Mencius, to the original 
depravity of human nature. In the eleventh and tAvelfth 
centuries, under the Sung dynasty, Chau-tzu, and especially 
Chu Hi, gave a new impulse, and in some particulars a new 
direction, to philosophical speculation. The authority of 
Chu Hi, who was equally eminent as a commentator of the 
classics and in other departments of literature, has remained 
paramount to the present day, though under the present 
dynasty there is some disposition to rebel against it. The 
“ Sing-li-ta-ch’uen-shu,” published in 1415, is a collection 
of the principal cosmological Avritings of his school. Lao- 
tzu, the founder of the Tauist school, was a contemporary 
of Confucius. His philosophy is contained in the “ Tau- 
te King” (translated by Julien, Paris, 1842), one of the 
most sententious and profound books in the language. The 
most popular of the writings of this school is the “ T’ai- 
shang-kan-ying-pien ” (translated by Julien under the title 
“ Le Livre des Recompenses et des Peines,” Paris, 1835), 
which consists of about a hundred short maxims, accom¬ 
panied by illustrative narratives. Tauism has long since 
degenerated into superstitious practices, its followers being 
devoted to magic, alchemy, and the like. Booddhism Avas in¬ 
troduced from India in the first century of our era. The ear¬ 
liest translation from the Sanscrit, the “ Sutra of forty-two 
sections,” Avas made A. D. 67, and for several centuries there 
Avas constant activity in this Avork. The catalogue of Chi- 
Shing, published in 730, gives a list of 2278 separate works 
which had been translated up to that date. These consti¬ 
tute the more important part of the literature of Chinese 
Booddhism, though in the fifth and sixth centuries original 
works began to appear, and have since greatly multiplied. 

In the history of Chinese poetry there are tAvo distinctly 
marked periods. In the earlier, previous to the T’ang dy¬ 
nasty, the structure was less artificial and the rhythm freer. 
In the “Shi King” the verses are mostly of four syllables ; 
the rhyme is often imperfect, and sometimes altogether 
Avanting. In the T’ang period a more rigid consecution of 
tones Avas introduced, and verses of five and seven syllables 
became the favorites. The tones for rhythmical purposes are 
divided into tAvo classes—the p’ing or “ even” tone constitut¬ 
ing one, while the other three tones are considered “ un¬ 
even.” In every verse the first, third, and fifth syllables are 
indifferent with respect to tone ; the second, fourth, and sixth 
must alternate, so that the order is either “ even,” “ un¬ 
even,” “evenor “ uneven,” “ e\ r en,” “ uneven.” 

The weakest side of Chinese literature is the scientific. 
It has a tolerably complete system of arithmetic, older than 
the Christian era, a system of algebra Avhich dates from the 
thirteenth century, but no theoretical astronomy worthy of 
the name, except what is borrowed from the West. For the 
regulation of the calendar, and for astrological purposes, 
observations of a simple character were very early made, 
and numerous eclipses recorded. During the Ming dynasty 
mathematical knoAvledge had greatly declined, and the first 
Jesuit missionaries recommended themselves to the impe¬ 
rial favor chiefly by their acquirements in this science. 
The mathematical works since published are mainly based 
on European methods. Medical writers are numerous, and 
some of them very ancient, but the science, notwithstand¬ 
ing its long history, has made little progress. The chief 
Avork on materia mcdica is the “Pun-Ts’au,” in fifty-two 
books, compiled by Li Shi-chin of the Ming dynasty. lie 
made extracts from more than 800 earlier Avriters, and gives 
1892 medicaments, selected and original. 

Addison Van Name, Lib. of Yale Coll. 













928 CHINESE WHITE—CHIPPEWA. 


Chinese White, a name sometimes given to the white 
oxide of zinc, used as a pigment as a substitute for white 
lead. It is not liable to be changed much by atmospheric 
action. 

Ching-Hai, a fortified seaport-town of China, in the 
province of Che-Kiang, at the mouth of the Takia River, 
9 miles N. E. of Ning-Po. It has a strong citadel on a 
high and steep rock, and is 3 miles in circumference. The 
British defeated the Chinese here in Oct., 1841. 

Cliing-Kiang-Foo, written also Tchang-Kiang, 
a fortified city of China, province of Iviang-Soo, on the 
right bank of the Yang-Tse-Kiang, near its junction with 
the Imperial Canal, and about 42 miles E. of Nanking. 
It was a populous and important commercial city before it 
was taken by the Tae-Pings in 1859. It was captured by 
the British in July, 1842. Pop. in 1868, estimated at 
150,000. 

Chingleput', or The Jaghire, a maritime district 
of India, in the province of Madras, has an area of 2993 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Indian Ocean, 
and is adjacent to Madras. The chief river is the Palaur. 
The soil is poor. Capital, Chingleput. Pop. in 1871, 
940,744. 

Chingleput (anc. Singalapetta), a town of India, in 
the above district, 36 miles S. W. of Madras, has a large 
citadel or fort. It is accessible to an enemy only on the S., 
being protected on the other side by a large tank. 

Chin-In'dia, or Farther India, a name given by 
the celebrated geographer, Malte-Brun, to the region be¬ 
tween China and Hindostan, also often called the Penin¬ 
sula beyond the Ganges. It comprises Siam, the Burman 
empire, Anam, Laos, Malacca, etc. 

Chi'no, a township of San Bernardino co., Cal. P. 308. 

Chinon, or Chinnon, a town of France, department 
of Indre-et-Loire, on the river Vienne, 25 miles S. W. of 
Tours. It has remains of a large castle, which was the 
residence of several kings of England. Here Henry II. of 
England died, and here Rabelais was born. Charles VII. 
of France resided here when Joan of Arc presented herself 
to him. Pop. 6895. 

Chinook' Indians, a collection or race of aborigines, 
consisting of several tribes or bands, formerly inhabiting 
the banks of the Lower Columbia in Washington Territory 
and Oregon. They were fish-eaters, and spoke a peculiar 
and very difficult language; so that the traders and trap¬ 
pers invented the “ Chinook jargon/’ a lingua franca de¬ 
signed to facilitate intercourse with them. Vocabularies of 
this jargon and the Chinook language were prepared by the 
late George Gibbs (1863). Relics of this race still exist. 

Chill'quapin (Castanea pumila), a small tree, a native 
of the Southern U. S., belongs to the same genus as the 
chestnut. It bears a small nut which is edible. California 
has another species. 

Chin'quepin, a twp. of Lexington co., S. C. Pop. 253. 

Chintz, a highly-glazed printed muslin or calico, with 
a pattern in many colors on a white or light-colored ground. 
It is chiefly used for bed-hangings or curtains, for covering 
furniture, and other purposes where gay or rich colors are 
desirable, and where there is much exposure to dust, which 
does not adhere to its surface. 

Chio'ggia (anc. Fossa Clodia), a fortified seaport-town 
of Italy, in the province of Udine, on an island of the 
Adriatic, 14 miles S. of Venice. It is built on piles like 
Venice, and is connected with the mainland by a stone 
bridge of forty-three arches. It has a fine main street 
lined with porticoes, a cathedral, several high schools, a 
theatre, and a harbor protected by two forts. Here are 
shipbuilding-yards, salt-works, and fisheries. Pop. in 
1871, 26,336. 

Chion'itles, a Greek comic poet of the old comedy, 
who began to exhibit, according to Suidas, in B. C. 487. 
Aristotle states that he was much later than Epicharmus, 
and this would place him some years after the date assigned 
above. Though not the first in time, yet from the more 
careful and artistic preparation of his pieces he was re¬ 
garded as the leader of the old Attic comedy. The titles 
of three plays are preserved, and the fragments are col¬ 
lected in Meineke, “Fragm. Vet. Com. Graec.,” vol. ii., 
pp. 5-9. Henry Drisler. 

Chi'on of Ileraclea, on the Pontus, a pupil of Plato, 
sought to free his native city by slaying the tyrant Clear- 
chus (B. C. 353). He, with his associates, was slain by the 
friends of Clearchus, and the city fell under a worse ty¬ 
ranny than before. There are seventeen letters extant 
under the name of Chion, which are, however, the produc¬ 
tion of a later age. They have been edited by Coberus, 
Leipsic, 1765, and by Orelli in his edition of Memnon, 
Leipsic, 1816. Henry Drisler. 


Chipica'ni, a peak of the Bolivian Andes. Height, 
19,740 feet. 

Chip'raan (Daniel), LL.D., born in Salisbury, Conn., 
Nov. 15, 1765, graduated at Dartmouth in 1788, and soon 
became distinguished as a lawyer and an author. Ho 
was a member of Congress from Vermont (1815-17), and 
was prominent in the politics of that State. He published 
a valuable work on the “Law of Contracts ” (1822), “ Re¬ 
ports of Cas^s in the Supreme Court of Vermont” (1824), 
and other works. Died April 23, 1850. 

Chipman (Nathaniel), LL.D., an American soldier 
and jurist, a brother of the preceding, was born at Salis¬ 
bury, Conn., Nov. 15, 1752, graduated at Yalo in 1777. 
He was an officer of the Revolutionary army, but was ad¬ 
mitted to the bar in 1779. Ho was chief-justice of Ver¬ 
mont for several years, and judge of the U. S. district court 
for Vermont (1791—93). His works on tho laws of Vermont 
are highly commended. He published “ Principles of 
Government” (1793) and other works. Died in 1843. 

Chipman (Ward), LL.D., a jurist of New Brunswick, 
born July 10, 1787, graduated at Harvard in 1804. Ho 
became chief-justice of the supreme court of the province 
in 1834. Died Dec. 26, 1851. 

Chip'munk, a popular name for the Tamias striatus , 



Chipmunk. 


or striped squirrel of the U. S., especially common in the 
North. It is five or six inches long, with a tail of four and 
a half inches. 

Chipo'la. a township of Henry co., Ala. Pop. 732. 

Chip'pewa, a post-village and port of entry of Ontario, 
Dominion of Canada, Welland co., on the Niagara River, 
about 3 miles above Niagara Falls and 48 miles S. S. E. of 
Toronto, on the Erie and Niagara branch of the Great 
Western Railway. It has manufactures of steam-engines, 
leather, lumber, and stoves, and a large trade in grain and 
lumber. Pop. 1300. 

This village is memorable as the scene of an important 
victory of a portion of the American army under Maj.- 
Gen. Joseph Brown, over a superior British force under 
Maj.-Gen. Rial, July 5, 1814. A re-invasion of Canada 
having been determined upon, Gen. Brown had, according 
to instructions, assembled at Buffalo, N. Y., a division con¬ 
sisting of two brigades of regulars, a brigade of volunteers, 
and a few Indians. The regulars were commanded by 
Brig.-Gens. Winfield Scott and Ripley, the volunteers and 
Indians by Gen. P. B. Porter; there was also a corps of 
artillery under Major Hindman; in all about 3500. In ac¬ 
cordance with orders of Gen. Brown, issued on tho-2d of 
July, Scott’s brigade, with Hindman’s artillery corps, 
passed the Niagara on Sunday morning, the 3d, landing 
about a mile below, while Gen. Ripley, at a later hour, 
landed about the same distance above Fort Erie. Gen. Scott 
led, and the British commandant being completely sur¬ 
prised, surrendered with scarcely any resistance at 6 A. m. 
A garrison was placed in the fort, and Gen. Scott was or¬ 
dered to advance on the morning of the 4th with his brig¬ 
ade and Towson’s artillery towards Chippewa. The enemy’s 
outposts were soon met and driven in ; a charge of the 
Nineteenth Dragoons was also repelled by a single com¬ 
pany. The enemy being found strongly posted behind 
Chippewa Bridge, Gen. Scott took up a well-selected posi¬ 
tion for the night, where he was joined by Gen. Brown and 
the main body of his army. The British army lay behind 
Chipjiewa Creek, across which was a bridge; the Ameri¬ 
cans occupied a similar position at Street’s Creek, a mile 
and a half farther up. Between those two creeks is a 
plain, which was the battle-ground, behind it a forest, and 
in front the Niagara. Skirmishing commenced soon after 
daybreak, but nothing serious occurred until about 4 p. m.. 
when Gen. Porter was ordered to advance rapidly under, 





















CHIPPEWA—CHISAGO CITY. 929 


cover of tho adjoining wood, and throw himself between 
the British skirmishers and their main body. Porter, ad¬ 
vancing as ordered, soon fell iu with a body of the light 
troops of the enemy, which he routed, and was pursuing 
when, coining out of the wood, he found himself in front 
of the whole British army drawn up in line of battle. 
Scott was now ordered to cross, with his brigade and 
Towson’s artillery, the bridge in his front, and attack the 
enemy’s left. The order Avas promptly executed by Scott, 
and his command were soon closely engaged with the 
enemy. Porter’s command had given way, nor could he, 
though displaying great gallantry, stay their flight. Scott’s 
brigade becoming much exposed by this retreat, a portion of 
Ripley’s brigade was ordered to fall upon the enemy’s right 
and rear; but such was the impetuosity of the attack of Scott 
and his gallant troops that before Ripley became engaged 
the enemy’s line was broken, and driven in confusion to 
their intrenchments behind the creek, destroying the bridge 
behind them. The credit of this decisive conflict between 
our inexperienced troops and a superior number of veteran 
European soldiers is mainly due to Gen. Scott, who by his 
skill and gallantry secured this important victory, Gen. 
Brown not being present till the battle had been decided. 
The number actually engaged on the American side was 
1900; the British force numbered 2100. Our loss in killed 
and wounded was 328; the British loss was reported at 505. 

Chippewa [native, Ojibwcuj or Ojibbewa], a river of 
Wisconsin, rises in Ashland county, flows nearly south- 
westward through Chippewa and other counties, and enters 
the Mississippi River at the foot of Lake Pepin, G miles 
above Wabashaw. Entire length, about 220 miles. It 
traverses extensive forests of pine. 

Chippewa, a county of Michigan, which forms the E. 
extremity of the upper peninsula. It is bounded on the N. 
by Lake Superior, and on the E. by tho river St. Mary. It 
is drained by the Tequamenon River. The surface is un¬ 
even. Limestone abounds here. Oats, potatoes, butter, 
and maple-sugar are produced. Capital, Sault Ste. Marie. 
Pop. 1689. 

Chippewa, a county in the W. of Minnesota. Area, 
720 square miles. It is traversed by the Chippewa River. 
The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. Wheat, oats, 
butter, and hay are staple crops. Capital, Montevideo. 
Pop. 14G7. 

Chippewa, a largo county in the N. W. of Wisconsin. 
It is intersected by the Chippewa River, and also drained 
by the Ycilow River and other streams. The surface is 
uneven, and mostly covered with forests. Large quantities 
of pine lumber are exported from it. Sandstone occurs 
here as a surface-rock. The soil is fertile. Wheat, oats, 
corn, cattle, hay, and butter are 
produced. Lumber and brick 
are manufactured. Capital, 

Chippewa Falls. Pop. 8311. 

Chippewa, a township of 
Isabella co., Mich. Pop. 315. 

Chippewa, a township of 
Mecosta co., Mich. Pop. 140. 

Chippewa, a township of 
Douglas co., Minn. Pop. 164. 

Chippewa, a township of 
Pope co., Minn. Pop. 116. 

Chippewa, a post-township 
of Wayne co., 0. Pop. 2510. 

Chippewa, a township of 
Beaver co., Pa. Pop. 817. 

Chippewa Falls, a post¬ 
village, capital of Chippewa co., 

Wis., on the Chippewa River, 
about 88 miles E. of St. Paul, 

Minn. It has water-power and 
several mills, and a trade iu lum¬ 
ber. It has one national bank 
and one newspaper. Pop. 2507. 

Chippewa Indians, or 
Ojibways, a tribe of North 
American aborigines who inhabit Michigan, Wisconsin, 
Minnesota, and both sides of the basin of Lake Superior. 
They were constant allies of the French, and waged a long 
warfare against the Sioux. In 1855 they ceded their lands 
to the government of the U. S. They have several widely 
separated reservations in the above States and in Canada, 
and are broken up into “ bands.” They numbered in 1869 
about 19,000. They are of the Algonkin stock, as is shown 
by their language and customs. Long-continued efforts 
have been made to convert them to Christianity by Roman 
Catholic and Protestant missionaries, without marked suc¬ 
cess. 

59 


Chipping Bird, or Chipping Sparrow, a common 
little North American bird (Spizelta socialis, Bonap.). It 
is between five and six inches long, whitish underneath 
crown chestnut, back and sides ashen, with streaks of white 
and black. Its song consists of six or seven notes rapidly 
repeated. 

Chiquichi'qui Palm, or Piassa'ha (Leopoldinia 
Piassaba), one of the palms which yield the piassaba fibre, 
used for making coarse brushes and brooms for sweeping 
streets, for cables, etc. It grows on the banks of the rivers 
of Venezuela and the north of Brazil, and has very large, 
regularly pinnate leaves, much used for thatching. The 
commercial fibre is obtained from the marginal processes 
of the leaf-stalks, which split into fine fibres, hang down 
five or six feet, and entirely conceal the stem. It has long 
been used for cables on the Amazon, and has now become 
an important article of commerce. 

Chiquimu'la, the easternmost department of Guate¬ 
mala, Central America, bordering on the Caribbean Sea, 
between the Bay of Honduras on the N. and the state of 
San Salvador on the S. Area, 4000 square miles. Pop. 
80,000. Capital, Chiquimula de la Sierra, with 6000 in¬ 
habitants. 

Chiri'qui, the westernmost province of Panama, in 
Central America. Area, 500 square miles. Pop. 17,279. 
Capital, David, beautifully situated, with 4625 inhabitants. 

Chiriqui, L.agu'na de, or Balii'a del Almiran'- 
te, a bay of Panama, nearly enclosed by a jutting headland 
and islands at its mouth. The W. entrance, Boca del 
Dragon (“ Dragon’s Mouth ”), affords passage for the largest 
ships, and the bay within is a secure harbor. Lat. 90° N., 
Ion. 32° 30' W. From ancient tombs in this region much 
gold.has been of late obtained. 

Chiris'ophus, a Lacedaemonian officer who joined 
Cyrus the Younger in his expedition against Artaxerxes 
(B. C. 401) at Issus, with 700 heavy-armed men. He first 
appeared prominently after the death of Clearchus, when 
he was, at the suggestion of Xenophon, appointed to lead 
the van of the retreating Greeks. After reaching Trape- 
zus, Chirisophus attempted to secure vessels for the Greeks, 
but was unsuccessful. At Sinope, through Xenophon’s re¬ 
fusal of the office, he was chosen commander of the Greek 
forces, but six or seven days after, while at Heraclea, the 
army was broken up into three parts, which set out sepa¬ 
rately. Chirisophus died soon after at Cnlpe. 

Henry Drisler. 

Chironec'tes [Gr. x ei>, “ hand,” and vy x w, to “ swim ”], 
a genus comprising numerous small marine fishes of the 
family Lophiidm, remarkable for grotesque forms. The 
mouse-fish (Chironectes yibbus) of the U. S. Atlantic coast 


Chironectes Histrio. 

is a familiar example. The Chironectes histrio of the Bra¬ 
zilian coast is larger. (See also Cheironectes.) 

Chisa'go, a county of Minnesota, bordering on Wis 
consin. Area, 420 square miles. It is bounded on the L. 
by the St. Croix River, and contains several small lakes. 
The surface is uaeven. Cattle, grain, potatoes, and butter 
are largely produced. Lumber is one of the chief articles 
of export. It is intersected by the Lake Superior and 
Mississippi R. R. Capital, Chisago City. Pop. 4358. 

Chisago City, a post-village, capital of Chisago co., 
Minn., on a small lake 35 miles N. by E. of St. 1 aul. 

















930 


CHISAGO LAKE—CHIZEROTS AND BURINS. 


Chisago Lake, a post-township of Chisago co., Minn. 
It contains tho greater part of Chisago Lake and other 
smaller lakes, which abound in fish. Pop. 775. 

Chis'elhurst, a parish of England, in Kent, 11 miles 
S. E. of London. Here is Camden Place, the property of 
Earl Camden. The emperor Napoleon III. fixed his res¬ 
idence at Chiselhurst early in 1871, after he was released 
from captivity by the emperor of 'Germany, and here, Jan. 
9, 1873, he died/ 

Cliis'wick, a town of England, in the county of Mid¬ 
dlesex, on the Thames. It contains the gardens of the Lon¬ 
don Horticultural Society. In Chiswick House, a villa be¬ 
longing to the duke of Devonshire, both Fox and Canning 
expired. Hogarth lies buried in the churchyard. Pop. 8508. 

Chi'tin [from the Gr. xirwv, a "tunic ” ], in chemistry, 
the name of the substance which forms the skeleton of all 
insects and crustaceans, as well as of some mollusks and 
other inferior animals. In insects it constitutes the ex¬ 
ternal skeleton, the scales, and the trachem, and pene¬ 
trates into the most remote portions; one of the layers of 
the intestinal canal consists of chitin. We can make prep¬ 
arations of these parts by treating insects with a solution 
of potash, which dissolves all but the chitin; in this way 
we can microscopically examine the most delicate parts. 
It is a white, amorphous body, which usually retains the 
form of the tissue from which it is prepared. Its compo¬ 
sition is represented by the formula C 9 II 15 NO 6 . The best 
method of obtaining chitin is by successively boiling the 
elytra of the cockchafer with water, alcohol, ether, acetic 
acid, and alkalies. Treated with hot dilute sulphuric acid, 
it is converted into glucose and lactamlde. 

Chi'ton, a genus regarded as the type of the family 
Chitonidas, gasteropodous 
mollusks, near kindred of 
the limpets. The shell is 
composed of eight trans¬ 
verse calcareous pieces, 
overlapping each other, 
and strongly attached to 
the mantle, which is leath¬ 
ery and fibrous. They 
have the power of rolling 
themselves up into a ball. 

The oval foot extends the 
whole length. More than 
200 species are known; 
they occur in all climates, 
most abundantly on rocks 
at low water, but some of 
them at great depths. 

All the species found on 
American coasts are small, 
but some others grow to 
three or four inches in length. 

Chitore, a town and fortress of India, in the province 
of Rajpootana, 64 miles E. N. E. from Odeypoor. The 
fortress consists of a rock smoothly scarped to a height of 
from 80 to 190 feet by nature, surmounted by a rude bas- 
tioned wall 12 miles in its entire circuit. The enclosure is 
narrow and irregular, and contains temples and palaces. 

Chit'tagong, a district of British India, on the Bay of 
Bengal, in the presidency of Bengal, of which it is the 
S. E. extremity. Area, about 2800 square miles. A great 
part of the country is mountainous and covered with for¬ 
ests. The soil is fertile, but little cultivated. Towns are 
only found on the sea-coast. The population is more than 
half Mohammedan. Pop. 790,000. 

Chitteldroog' (anc. Sitala Durga, " the spotted 
castle”), a town and fortress of Iliudostan, in Mysore, 128 
miles N. N. W. of Scringapatam. Here is a rock-fortress 
which is one of the strongest and most remarkable in India. 
It is occupied by a British garrison. 

C hittenan go, a post-village of Sullivan township, 
Madison co., N. Y., has a tannery, a national bank, a wool¬ 
len mill, a weekly paper, and three churches. Pop. 968. 

Chittenango Springs, orWhite Sulphur Springs, 

in Sullivan township, Madison co., N. Y., is a saline and 
sulphur spring, with accommodations for receiving visitors, 
and is highly recommended for many cases of disease. 

Chit'temlen, a county in the N. W. of Vermont. 
Area, 516 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by Lake 
Champlain, and is drained by the Lamoille and Winooski 
rivers. The surface is partly mountainous; the soil is 
generally fertile. Butter, cheese, cattle, potatoes, corn, 
and oats are extensively produced. The manufacturing in¬ 
terests are important and various; those of lumber and 
furniture being the most extensive. It is intersected by 



Chiton Chilensis. 


the Vermont Central It. It. Capital, Burlington. Pop. 
36,480. 

Chittenden, a post-township of Itutland co., Vt. It 
has manufactures of lumber, etc. Pop. 802. 

Chittenden (Martin), a son of the following, born in 
Salisbury, Conn., Mar. 12, 1769, graduated at Dartmouth 
in 1789. He was for several years a judge in the courts of 
Vermont, a member of Congress from that State (1803-13), 
and governor (1813-15). Died Sept. 5, 1841. 

Chittenden (Thomas), an American statesman, born 
at East Guilford, Conn., Jan. 6 , 1730. He was one of the 
founders of the State of Vermont, of which he was chosen 
first governor in 1778. He was several times re-elected. 
Died Aug. 24, 1797. 

Chit'tenden’s Falls, a village of Stockport township, 
Columbia co., N. Y., has manufactures of paper. 

Chit'ty (Joseph), an English writer on law, was born 
in 1776, and called to the bar in 1816. He published, be¬ 
sides other legal works, " Pleadings and Parties to Ac¬ 
tions” (1808), a "Practical Treatise on the Criminal 
Law” (1818), a "Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence” 
(1834), and " General Practice of the Law in all its De¬ 
partments ” (3d ed., 1837-42), which are highly com¬ 
mended. Died in 1841. 

Chiu'sa-Sclafa'ni, a town of Sicily, in the province 
of Palermo, 30 miles S. S. W. of Palermo, was founded 
about 1320. Agates are found near it. Pop. 6592. 

Chiv'alry [Fr. chevalrie, from cheval (Lat. caballus ), 
a " horse ”], a term applied to the system or dignity of 
knighthood, but originally denoting a body or assembly of 
knights or horsemen. The word has, in fact, the same 
etymology as cavalry, and in the Italian and Spanish lan¬ 
guages the same term is used for both. Chivalry may be 
more fully defined as a peculiar institution originating in 
the Middle Ages, and including with the rank and dignity 
of knighthood all those customs, manners, and sentiments 
which were deemed appropriate to a noble and accom¬ 
plished knight. Its origin is to be traced to the peculiar 
customs and sentiments of the Teutonic nations (in no¬ 
thing, perhaps, more remarkable than for the respect 
which they evinced for the female sex), modified to some 
extent by the spirit of Christianity. It is undoubtedly 
closely connected with the feudal system. It has been ob¬ 
served that while feudality presents the political side of 
society in the Middle Ages, chivalry exhibits its moral and 
social side. Whatever may have been the follies and abuses 
which too often accompanied it, the institution of chivalry 
undoubtedly had its origin in a generous feeling, which 
prompted humane and brave men to provide for the pro¬ 
tection of the defenceless. For this purpose courage was 
indispensable; and as women in that rude and semi-bar¬ 
barous age especially needed protection, chastity and a 
respect for the sex bordering on adoration came to be re¬ 
garded as among the cardinal virtues of a true knight. To 
these higher qualities were necessarily added others of a 
different character, growing out of the feudal system, and 
especially the relation between the vassal and his lord. If 
the conduct of those educated and trained under the in¬ 
fluence of chivalry too often presented a glaring contrast 
with the ideal purity of its social and moral code, it does 
not prove that chivalry had not a pure and noble origin; 
it only proves how much easier it is to commend and ad¬ 
mire virtue than to practise it. The history of mankind 
shows but too clearly how seldom the precepts of a high 
and noble philosophy or the principles of a pure religion 
are exhibited in the lives and conduct of its votaries. Yet 
in the case of chivalry, as in that of Christianity, the in¬ 
fluence of its teachings has surely, though very slowly, it 
must be confessed, effected an important change in the 
sentiments and practices of society in many respects. 

J. Thomas. 

Chives, or Cives (Allium Schcenoprasum), a plant of 
the same genus with the onion, a perennial, six inches to 
one foot in height, with very small, flat, clustered bulbs. 
The leaves are tubular and radical; the flower-stem is ter¬ 
minated by a cluster of bluish-red flowers. This plant 
grows wild in Europe, Asia, and Western North America. 
Chives are sometimes cultivated in kitchen-gardens, and 
are used for flavoring soups and dishes. Their properties 
are very similar to those of the onion. The part used is 
the young leaves. There are several varieties. 

Chizerots and Burins, races in France who are des¬ 
pised, living in the arrondissement of Bourg-en-Bresse, in 
the department of Ain. They are believed to be descended 
from the Saracens. Although industrious and prosperous, 
they, like the Cagots, are held in the utmost detestation by 
their neighbors. They are looked upon as covetous and 
malicious; they marry among themselves. From time iin- 



























CHLADNI—CHLORITE. 


931 


memorial they have been field-laborers, cattle-dealers, 
butchers, etc. Many of them are very good-looking. The 
young women are handsome, with large black eyes. Many 
of these people are well-to-do business-men. (See Michel, 
“Ilistoire des Races Maudites,” 2 vols., 1847.) 

Chlatl'ni (Ernst Florens Friedrich), born at Witten¬ 
berg, Germany, Nov. 30, 1756, was the founder of the 
science of acoustics. He devoted much time to the perfect¬ 
ing of the theory of sound, and published, besides other 
works, “ Discoveries on the Theory of Sound” (1787), a 
Treatise on Acoustics ” (1802), and a “ Treatise on Fiery 
Meteors” (1819). Died April 3, 1827. 

Chlamydosaw rus [from the Gr. x^-a/W? (gen. xAo.ij.v- 



Chlamydosaurus. 


605), a “ cloak ” or “ mantle,” and o-aupo?, a “ lizard ”], often 
called the “frilled lizard,” a singular genus of reptiles, 
bearing on its neck a large plaited frill, of which the best 
known species is the Chlamydosaurus Kingii, a native of 
Australia. The general color of the chlamydosaurus is 
yellow-brown mottled with black, and it is remarkable that 
the tongue and the inside of the mouth are also yellow. 
The frill forming so conspicuous an ornament to this crea¬ 
ture is covered with scales and toothed on the edge. During 
the early stage of the animal’s life this appendage does not 
reach even the base of the fore legs, but when the animal 
has attained maturity it extends considerably beyond them. 
The chlamydosaurus is very courageous, and when pro¬ 
voked it erects the frill, and by showing its teeth presents 
a formidable aspect. When at rest its frill lies back in 
plaits upon the body. This lizard measures at full growth 
nearly a yard in total length. 


Chlamydoph'orus [from the Gr. x^ a w> a “cloak,” 



Chlamydophorus. 


and <f>4pu, to “ carry ”], a small edentate quadruped of Chili 
and the Argentine Republic, nearly related to the arma¬ 
dillo, but resembling the common mole in size and habits. 
It is remarkable for being covered with a shell of square 
plates on the head, neck, and back, with another similar 
shell on the posterior extremity. Its internal skeleton re¬ 
sembles in several respects that of birds. Its tail is carried 
under its belly. There is but one known species, the 
Chlamydophorus truncatus, called pichiciago by the natives. 

Chla'mys [Gr. xA.ap.us], a woollen outer garment of the 
Greeks, differing from the usual amictus of the men, the 
i.aanou, in being finer, gayer in color, and oblong instead 
of square. It was fastened round the neck by a brooch 
(fibula), and hung down the back to the calf, or over the 
left shoulder, covering the left arm. 

Chlo'raR a name composed of the first syllabic of chlo¬ 
rine and the first syllable of alcohol, designating a liquid 
composed of chlorine, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, ob¬ 
tained by the action of chlorine on absolute alcohol. Its 
formula is C2IIO2CI3. When kept for a time it becomes 
solid, but is not changed in composition, and may be re¬ 


stored to its original form by heat. With water it forms a 
solid hydrate known as chloral hydrate or hydrate of chlo¬ 
ral. This article is now much used in medicine as a hyp¬ 
notic. It enters the circulation, and is, by the alkalies 
contained in the blood, converted into formic acid and 
chloroform. The chloroform doubtless is the principal 
source of the hypnotic effect of the medicine. The dose 
is from twenty to forty grains to an adult. Much larger 
doses have been given with no bad results, but well- 
authenticated fatal cases of chloral poisoning indicate the 
necessity of caution in its use. The sleep produced by 
chloral is wonderfully sweet and refreshing to most pa¬ 
tients. Chloral sometimes increases hysterical symptoms, 
and unless well diluted is irritant to the stomach. It is 
peculiarly valuable in tetanus. Given in large doses, 
chloral powerfully diminishes reflex action, and is a phys¬ 
iological antidote in poisoning by strychnia. 

Cliloraiitha'ceae [from Chloranthus, one of the gen¬ 
era], a natural order of exogenous plants nearly allied to 
pepper. They are herbaceous and half-shrubby, have 
jointed stems, opposite, simple leaves, with minute stip¬ 
ules between them. The flower has no calyx or corolla; 
the fruit is a drupe or 1-seeded berry. The order com¬ 
prises but few known species, some of which are natives 
of China and Japan, and some are tropical. They are 
generally aromatic, and have important stimulating prop- 
erties. The Chloranthus officinalis is prized in Java as a 
remedy for fever. The leaves and berries of the Chloran¬ 
thus inconspicuus are used by the Chinese to impart a pecu¬ 
liar flavor to tea. 

Chlo'rate, a compound formed by the union of chloric 
acid with a salifiable base. The best known of these salts 
is chlorate of potash, which, mixed with combustibles, such 
as sulphur and charcoal, forms highly explosive compounds 
which ignite by a blow or friction. It is also a useful med¬ 
icine. 

Chlorhydric Acid. See Hydrochloric Acid, by 
Prof. C. F. Chandler, Ph. D., LL.D. 

Chlo'ric Ac'id (CIO 5 , or, in the new notation, CIO 3 ), a 
compound of one atom of chlorine with five (or three) atoms 
of oxygen. It occurs in combination with potash as the while 
crystalline salt called chlorate of potash. (Sec Chlorate.) 
This acid has not been obtained in its anhydrous state, but 
combined with water it is a syrupy liquid, setting fire to 
dry organic substances with which it comes in contact. 

Chlo'ride [Fr. chlorure ], a binary compound of chlorine 
with some other substance. Common salt is a chloride of 
sodium, and calomel is a chloride of mercury. When chlo¬ 
rine unites in two different proportions with the same base, 
the terms protochloride and bichloride are applied to such 
compounds. 

ChIo / rine [from the Gr. xAwpos, “pale green”], a non- 
metallic gaseous chemical element, discovered by Scheele 
in 1774, and named by him “ dephlogisticated marine air.” 
Soon after, from a mistaken view of its nature, it received 
the name of “ oxymuriatic acid.” In 1810, Davy proved 
it to be an elementary body, and gave it the name which it 
now bears. It occurs very largely as the chloride of so¬ 
dium, common salt, in the vegetable, animal, and mineral 
kingdoms. In ordinary conditions it is a gas which may 
be easily obtained by moistening bleaching-powder with 
dilute sulphuric acid. It is a yellowish-green gas with a 
suffocating odor, is not combustible, and is a feeble sup¬ 
porter of ordinary combustion. A lighted candle placed in 
it burns with a smoky flame, the hydrogen of the oil alone 
burning. Antimony, copper, and arsenic, in fine division 
or in thin leaves, at once become red hot and burn when 
introduced into chlorine. Paper soaked in turpentine like¬ 
wise bursts into flame. Chlorine is a perissad (a monad), 
having the symbol Cl, and the equivalent 35.5. It is very 
heavy, its specific gravity being 2470 (air= 1000). Two 
volumes of chlorine in one of water yield a solution resem¬ 
bling the gas in color, odor, and other properties. Chlorine 
is a bleacher of cotton and linen, and a powerful disinfect¬ 
ant. It can be condensed by pressure and cold into a trans¬ 
parent greenish-yellow limpid liquid, with a specific gravity 
of 1330, which also possesses bleaching properties and a 
powerful odor. Chlorine in very minute quantity produces 
a sensation of warmth in the respiratory passages, increas¬ 
ing the expectoration; in large quantities it causes spasm 
of the glottis, violent cough, and a feeling of suffocation. 
Its inhalation is liable to be followed by dangerous disease 
of the air-passages. The antidotes to the effects of chlorine 
in the lungs are the inhalation of the vapor of water, alco¬ 
hol, ether, or chloroform. Chlorine unites with many sub¬ 
stances to form a class of compounds known as chlorides. 

Chlo'rite [from the Gr. xAo>pds, “green ”], an abundant 
green mineral composed of silica, alumina, magnesia, and 
protoxide of iron in variable proportions. It is rather 
























































CHLORITE SCHIST—CHOCTAW. 


932 


soft, and is easily broken. It rarely occurs crystallized in 
hexagonal crystals, and sometimes foliated like talc, from 
which it is readily distinguished by yielding water in a 
closed tube. 


Chlorite Schist, or Chlorite Slate, a green slaty 
rock in which chlorite is abundant in foliated plates, usu¬ 
ally blended with minute grains of quartz, and sometimes 
with felspar and mica. It is one of the metamorphic rocks, 
and is often found graduating into mica schist or clay- 
slate. 

Chlorocarbon'ic A'cid (COCI 2 ), a compound formed 
by exposing a mixture of chlorine and carbonous oxide to 
the action of light. It is also called phosgene gas and car¬ 
bonyl chloride. 

Chlo'roform [a term derived from the first syllable 
of chlorine and the first syllable of formyl ], (CIICI3), was 
long known to chemists before it was discovered to have 
valuable properties; but the power which it possesses 
of producing anaesthesia has led to the preparation of 
chloroform on an extensive scale. It is also a useful chem¬ 
ical reagent. To four parts of bleaching-povvder sufficient 
water is added to make a thin paste, to this is added one 
part of spirits of wine; the whole is introduced into a re¬ 
tort, which must not be more than half filled. Heat being 
applied, chloroform, water, and a little alcohol distil over. 
As the chloroform is heavier than water, two layers of 
liquid are obtained, the upper water and alcohol, and the 
lower chloroform. The upper liquid is poured off, the 
chloroform agitated with fused carbonate of potash, sulph¬ 
uric acid, and alcohol, which abstract the remaining traces 
of water, and on subsequent redistillation the chloroform 
is obtained pure. It may be prepared by several other 
methods. 

It is a remarkably limpid, volatile, mobile, colorless 
liquid, which has a characteristic odor and an agreeable 
sweetish taste. It has a specific gravity of 1.48, that of 
water being 1, and boils at 142° F. It has been regarded as 
a terchloride of formyl, and also as a chloride of methcnyl. 
It is analogous to bromoform, iodoform, and nitroform. It 
is not inflammable in the ordinary sense, but when thrown 
on hot coals it burns with a green flame, evolving much 
smoke. It is slightly soluble in water, readily in alcohol 
and ether. It dissolves camphor, amber, resins, wax, caout¬ 
chouc, iodine, and bromine, as well as many alkaloids. The 
employment of chloroform as an ansesthetic has already 
been considered under Anaesthesia ; but it may be here 
observed that numerous cases of death from its use have 
occurred, even when administered by skilful physicians. 
It is sometimes administered by the stomach as an anodyne; 
and when applied to the surface of the body is a powerful 
blistering agent, very useful as a derivative. 

Chlo'rophane [from the Gr. x^pos, “green,” and 
4 >aAo/xai, to “ appear ”], a name given to those varieties of 
fluor spar which when heated shine with a beautiful eme¬ 
rald-green, phosphorescent light. 

Chlo'rophyl [from the Gr. ^Aopo?, “green,” and 4>v\\ov, 
a “leaf”], the green coloring-matter of the leaves of plants. 
It is soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in water, and is some¬ 
what similar to wax. Light is indispensable to its forma¬ 
tion, and hence arises the phenomenon of blanchiug which 
occurs when plants are deprived of light. It is also called 
endochrome, especially in the lowest orders of plants. 

Chloro'sis [from the Gr. xAwpo?, “pale green”], a 
disease almost peculiar to young women and girls, and 
usually associated with other troubles peculiar to that time 
of life. It takes its name from a greenish-yellow tint of 
the skin which some patients exhibit. There is also great 
pallor and debility, often disturbance of the heart’s action, 
breathlessness, and a variously perverted and capricious 
appetite. The disease is characterized by a deficiency of 
the cell-elements of the blood. Most cases are readily 
curable by the use of exercise, good air, proper food and 
clothing, and, above all, by the administration of iron, 
which is almost a specific in this disease. 

Chlorosis is also the name of the “yellows” a disease 
which attacks plants and trees, especially the peach tree. 
A deficiency of chlorophyl causes a blanched and yellow 
appearance. Damp soil, wet weather, and insufficient cul¬ 
ture and manuring are assigned as causes, but widespread 
climatic influences of a character which is little under¬ 
stood appear to be the principal cause of this destructive 
malady. No treatment except underground drainage and 
good culture promises any benefit. 

Chlorox'ylon [from the Gr. xAwpos, “green,” and fuAov, 
“ wood ”], a genus of plants of the order Cedrelacem, its 
fruit having only three cells and splitting into three parts. 
Chloroxylon Swietenia is the satin-wood of India, a tree 
which grows about sixty feet high. Tho satin-wood is ex¬ 
ported, and is used by cabinet-makers and brushmakers. 


Choate (Rufus), LL.D., one of the most eminent ad¬ 
vocates and orators that America has produced, was born 
in Essex, Mass., the 1st of Oct., 1799. Roth his parents 
were distinguished for quickness of intellect, as well as 
weight of character. He entered Dartmouth in 1815. After 
taking his degrees, he remained in the college as tutor for 
one year. He commenced the study of law at Cambridge, 
and subsequently studied under the distinguished orator 
and lawyer, Mr. Wirt, then U. S. attorney-general at Wash¬ 
ington. He began the practice of law in his native State 
at Danvers, whence he removed to Salem and afterwards 
to Boston. While at Salem he was elected to Congress 
(1832), and later (1841) he was chosen Senator as successor 
to Mr. Webster, who had been appointed secretary of state 
under President Harrison. After Webster’s death Mr. 
Choate was the acknowledged leader of the Massachusetts 
bar, and was regarded by the younger members of the pro¬ 
fession with a love equal to their reverence. His health 
having failed, in 1858 he retired from business, and a sea- 
voyage having been recommended by his physicians, he 
embarked for Europe in 1859, but he was unable to proceed 
farther than Halifax, where he died on the 13th of July. 

As an orator Mr. Choate’s powers were of the rarest order. 
He was not merely eloquent when he spoke on themes that 
were calculated of themselves to touch the feelings or stir 
the passions of his audience, but his genius enabled him to 
interest and fascinate his hearers even while discussing 
the driest and most unpromising subjects. Mr. Choate’s 
superior foresight made him dread more than many others 
the dangers that threatened his country. And it may be 
that his anxiety to conciliate the South, whence the prin¬ 
cipal danger was to be apprehended, was carried too far; 
his conduct in this respect certainly gave serious offence to 
many who were jealous of the rights and dignity of the 
North. But there can be no reasonable doubt that had he 
lived till the breaking out of the civil war he would have 
been found no less true to his country than many others 
who, after having long earnestly advocated in vain a pol¬ 
icy of conciliation towards the South, proved themselves 
among the most determined and most devoted supporters 
of the Union. (See “Works of Rufus Choate, with a 
Memoir of his Life,” by S. G. Brown, 1862.) 

Choate (Rufus), son of the preceding, born in Salem, 
Mass., in 1834, graduated at Amherst College in 1855, and 
was admitted to the bar in 1861. On the outbreak of the 
recent civil war he entered the service as lieutenant of Mas¬ 
sachusetts volunteers, participating in the battles of Win¬ 
chester, Cedar Mountain, Antietam, etc., and was promoted 
to be captain for good conduct. Resigned in 1862 on ac¬ 
count of failing health. Died Jan. 15, 1866. 

Cho'card, or Choquard ( Pyrrhocorax ), a bird of the 
family Corvidas, differing from the chough in having a short¬ 
er bill, but resembling it in its habits. The only European 
species is the alpine chocard, called alpine chough and al¬ 
pine crow. It is about the size of a jackdaw, of brilliant 
black, with yellowish bill and red feet. 

Choc'olate [Fr. chocolat; from the Mexican name 
chocolatl (from choco, “cacao,” and latl, “water”)], a 
dried paste made from the seeds of Theobroma cacao, mix¬ 
ed with sugar and spices, as cinnamon, cloves, cardamom, 
vanilla, etc. The paste is poured into moulds to cool and 
harden. Chocolate, when used as a beverage, is dissolved 
in hot water or milk. Sometimes the yolk of an egg is add¬ 
ed, and sometimes it is dissolved in soup or wine. It is also 
employed in making certain liqueurs, and is extensively 
employed in confectionery. In a pure state it is very 
nourishing. Good chocolate is smooth, firm, soluble, aro¬ 
matic, not viscid after having been boiled and cooled, but 
oily on the surface, and leaves no sediment. Chocolate is 
often adulterated with rice-meal, oatmeal, flour, potato- 
starch, roasted hazel-nuts, or almonds. The Mexicans, from 
time immemorial, were accustomed to prepare a beverage 
from roasted cacao, mixed with maize-meal and spices. 

Choc'olay, a township of Marquette co., Mich. Pop. 
260. 

Cho'conut, a post-township of Susquehanna co., Pa. 
Pop. 939. 

Chocowin'ity, a township of Beaufort co., N. C. Pop. 
1630. 

Choc'taw, a county of Alabama, bordering on Missis¬ 
sippi. Area, 800 square miles. It is bounded on the E. 
by the Tombigbee River. The surface is hilly or undulating; 
the soil is fertile. Cotton, corn, -wool, and some tobacco are 
raised. Capital, Butler. Pop. 12,676. 

Choctaw, a county in N. Central Mississippi. Area, 
900 square miles. It is drained by the Big Black River, 
which rises in it. The surface is undulating; the soil is 
fertile. Cotton, corn, and wool are produced. Capital, 
Greensborough. Pop. 16,988. 



















CHOCTAW—CHOLERA INFANTUM. 


933 


Choctaw ? a township of Arkansas co., Ark. Pop. 860. 

Choctaw Corner, a post-township of Clarke co., Ala. 
Pop. 891. 

Choctaw Indians, a tribe which formerly inhabited 
the State of Mississippi, on both sides of the Yazoo River. 
They are now settled in the Indian Territory, on the S. 
side of the Arkansas River. They cultivate the soil, are 
partially civilized, and are governed by written laws. 
They are politically connected with the Chickasaws, who 
live near them, and are represented in the same general 
council. Their number, exclusive of the Chickasaws, was 
in 1869 estimated at 12,500 souls, and they had sixty-nine 
public schools, with 1847 pupils. 

Chodowie'cki, a distinguished German engraver and 
painter, born Oct. 16, 1726, who lived in Berlin, and en¬ 
graved as many as 3000 plates, most of them small, in a 
manner original and graceful. Died Feb. 7, 1801. Wil¬ 
helm Engelmann has published a catalogue of his works 
(Leipsic, 1857; sup. 1860). 

Chfler'ihis [Gr. XoipiAo?], an Athenian tragic poet who 
flourished about 500 B. C. He was a competitor of iEschy- 
lus in a tragic contest, and gained prizes for thirteen of his 
dramas. None of his works are extant. He is supposed 
to have been the first author of written tragedies. 

Chcer'ilus ol lasus, an inferior poet, was an attend¬ 
ant of Alexander on his march to the East, and sought to 
flatter him by his verses. To him, according to the scholi¬ 
ast on Horace, Alexander said, “ He would rather be the 
Thersites of Homer than the Alexander of Chcerilus.” 
The scholiast adds that Alexander agreed with him to give 
him a gold piece for every good verse, but a blow for every 
bad one, and that Choerilus received only seven gold pieces 
in all, but was killed by the blows for his numerous bad. 
verses. This author is treated of by N'ake in his work on 
Choerilus of Samos. Henry Drisler. 

Chfler'ilus ( or Chceril'lus) of Samos, born about 
B. C. 470, though Suidas places him somewhat earlier, was 
the author of an epic poem the exact title of which is not 
known, but which treated of the wars of the Greeks with 
Darius and Xerxes. Suidas attributes his taste for liter¬ 
ature to his intercourse with Herodotus, who had formed 
an attachment to him. He afterwards found a shelter at 
the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, where he died, 
not later than B. C. 399. Choerilus departed from the 
usage of the earlier epic poets in taking for the subject of 
his poem a contemporary historical event. Fragments are 
preserved in the writings of Aristotle, Ephorus, Josephus, 
etc. These have been collected into a volume with a dis¬ 
sertation on the life and poetry of Choerilus, by Nake^ 
Leipsic, 1817. Henry Drisler. 

Choir [Lat. chorus; Fr. choeur'], a company of singers 
in a church; also that part of a church in which the chor¬ 
isters sing. In ordinary language, and even as used by 
architects, it denotes the entire space which is enclosed for 
the performance of the principal part of the service. In 
this sense is includes the choir proper and the presbytery, 
and corresponds to the chancel in parish churches. 

Choiseul, de (Etienne Francis), Due de Choiseul 
et d’Amboise, a French statesman, born June 18,1719. He 
entered the army, gained the rank of lieutenant-general, 
and was sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1756. Favored 
by Madame de Pompadour, he became prime minister and 
favorite of Louis XV. He was considered an able diplo¬ 
matist, and was popular with the nation, but he was re¬ 
moved from power by the influence of Madame du Barry 
in 1770. Died May 7, 1785. (See Memoires de M. le Due 
de Choiseul, ecrites par lui-ineme,” 2 vols., 1790.) 

Choiseul-Gouffier, de (Marie Gabriel Florent 
Auguste), Count, a French scholar and traveller, am¬ 
bassador to Turkey, born Sept. 27, 1752. Having visited 
Greece and Asia Minor in 1776, he published a “Pictur¬ 
esque Journey in Greece (1782 ; new ed. 1841). Died June 
20 , 1817. 

Choisy-le-Roi, a town of France, in the department 
of the Seine, on the Seine and on the Paris and Orleans 
Railway, 61 miles S. of Paris. It has manufactures of por¬ 
celain, glass, chemicals, etc. Pop. 5172. 

Choke-Cherry, the Primus Virginiana and its fruit, 
a species of bird-cherry, a native of North America, hav¬ 
ing small fruit in racemes; the fruit is rather agreeable, 
but astringent. The bark is used as a febrifuge and tonic, 
under the name of wild-cherry bark; and by distilling 
with water a volatile oil is obtained from it, associated with 
hydrocyanic acid. 

Choke Damp. See Carbonic Acid. 

Cho'king, the obstruction of the pharynx or oesoph¬ 
agus, or more rarely of the larynx or trachea, by masses o* 


food or other foreign bodies. Choking by obstruction of 
the pharynx or oesophagus is sometimes relieved by the 
operation of an emetic, sometimes by the use of gullet- 
forceps, of which there arc many varieties, or by other ap¬ 
propriate instruments. Gisopliagotomy, or cutting, has 
been resorted to, but this is one of the most formidable 
operations of surgery, and is not often necessary. When 
foreign bodies lodge in the larynx, aphonia, or loss of 
speech, is one of the symptoms. If the substance is in the 
windpipe or bronchi, the surgeon may often detect its pres¬ 
ence by auscultation. The symptoms caused by foreign 
bodies in the oesophagus are often surprisingly like those 
which occur when similar bodies lodge in the air-passages. 
These symptoms are various; there may be spasmodic 
coughing, redness of the face, ineffectual attempts to swal¬ 
low, and great discharge of saliva, and generally there is 
great difficulty of breathing. Surgical aid should always 
be called. 

Chol'era [Gr., probably from xoAt}, “bile”], a disease 
characterized by purging and vomiting, followed by great 
prostration, and in many cases by fatal collapse. Compara¬ 
tively mild cases occur with frequency even in temperate 
latitudes, and are known as sporadic cholera or cholera 
morbus; and such cases, though very distressing, are sel¬ 
dom fatal, while the more severe or epidemic form (known 
as Asiatic cholera) appears to arise in India, where it is 
endemic, and to be carried by ships, caravans, religious 
pilgrimages, etc., westward to Egypt, Persia, and Arabia, 
and thence to Europe and around the world by the regular 
channels of commerce. The disease is probably of mias¬ 
matic origin, and local conditions may favor or check its 
local development; but whether the disease ought to be 
called contagious or not is one of the most warmly disputed 
points in medicine. It is certain that habitual personal 
contact with the sick is often not followed by the disease. 
It is held by many that the disease is propagated by drink¬ 
ing water; by others, that its germs are taken up from the air 
the patient breathes. It is regarded by many as certain 
that the disease is largely propagated from the stools or 
alvine discharges of the sick; and all such discharges 
should be treated with powerful disinfectants, and depos¬ 
ited, if possible, in places not frequented by those who are 
well; and especial care should be taken not to let them be 
thrown into vaults and privies in common use. As to 
whether personal quarantines and cordons do any good in 
preventing the spread of cholera, the most diverse opinions 
are held, some writers strongly affirming, and others as 
strongly denying, their usefulness. 

Without describing the various stages of the fatal dis¬ 
ease—the premonitory painless diarrhoea, the alarming and 
profuse purgation which follows, carrying off 1 the fluids of 
the body, the profound collapse, the reaction, with the dan¬ 
gerous febrile condition which may follorv—it is enough to 
say that treatment should be chiefly preventive. No diar¬ 
rhoea in a cholera season should be neglected. Opiates will 
usually control the precursory diarrhoea. During the active 
stage of the disease cold compresses to the bowels are some¬ 
times useful. The administration of diffusive stimulants 
in small doses during the stage of collapse should be per¬ 
sisted in. Friction by the hand may relieve the spasm of 
the muscles. Great care should be taken for a long time 
lest a relapse should occur. The food of convalescents 
should be of the very lightest and blandest character for 
some days. Revised by Willard Parker. 

Chol'era Infan'tum, or Acute Intes'tinal Ca¬ 
tarrh'. This intense and dangerous form of infant diar¬ 
rhoea is mostly found in hot climates, the hot season, and 
close air; more amongst the poor than the rich. It is by 
no means confined to the IJ. S.; on the contrary, it is very 
frequent in Europe, and just as frequent in the first sum¬ 
mer of the infant as in the second. It has no direct rela¬ 
tion to dentition, which is illogically accused of being the 
cause of so many diseases of infancy, and results but rarely 
from exposure or from mental emotions of either infant or 
mother (wet-nurse). The usual cause is improper feeding 
in hot weather. The former is a direct injury; the latter, 
by debilitating the nervous system and lowering the func¬ 
tions of all the digestive organs, diminishes the general 
strength and power of endurance. Nursing infants are 
but seldom affected; many infants will recover from an at¬ 
tack by being returned to the mother’s or nurse's breast. 
Still, an improper condition of breast-milk (an undue pro¬ 
portion of water, or fat, or caseine, or the admixture of 
medicinal agents taken by the mother or nurse, or a change 
produced by mental emotions in the latter) is known to be 
injurious. Weaned infants, however, and such as are 
brought up on artificial food, are mostly attacked. Arti¬ 
ficial food is seldom identical, in its nutritive value, with 
mother’s milk. Cow’s milk contains less sugar and more 
butter and caseine than mother’s milk, and requires cook- 











CHOLESTERIN—CHOREA. 


934 


ing and skimming before being diluted with water (better 
still, barley water). Vegetable food is dangerous unless 
carefully selected and prepared. Thus it is that the first 
passages in cholera infantum contain undigested food of 
all sorts, particularly lumps of coagulated milk, which is 
also brought up by vomiting. Afterwards the passages 
are very thin, watery, of an acid or fetid smell, very 
copious and frequent; vomiting accompanies this diarrhoea, 
more or less. Moaning and crying are soon replaced by 
debility, and even complete collapse; the body is rapidly 
deprived of a large portion of the water contained in it, and 
emaciates; the eyes lie deep in the orbits ; the sutures and 
fontanelles of the skull sink; the skin becomes dry, the feet 
and hands cold, while the temperature of the trunk is 
rising; the face looks shrunk and senile; the pulse be¬ 
comes weak and frequent, the voice feeble, the expression 
of eyes and face listless, and sopor or coma or convulsions 
set in. Death is a frequent result. The principal pre¬ 
ventive consists in supplying the well infant with proper 
artificial food when no breast-milk is available, and at 
regular times, and in attending to its general health. 
When the disease has made its appearance the principal 
means of checking it are the following: during the first 
few (3-6-8) houi -3 no food or drink ought to be given. 
The irritated stomach must be kept at rest; vomiting will 
cease on that condition only. After that time give a tea¬ 
spoonful of ice-water or a small piece of ice (size of a bean), 
with or without a few drops of brandy, every five or ten 
minutes, as long as the tendency to vomit persists. When 
feeding is to be recommenced, avoid milk (except breast- 
milk). in whatever form. Barley-water, oatmeal gruel 
(strained), in tea or tablespoonful doses, now and then, 
with the white of eggs (1-3 in twenty-four hours), will 
readily be taken and well digested. Many cases will get 
well with this dietetical treatment. At the same time the 
air must be kept as cool and fresh as possible, day and 
night. The infant will recover faster out of than in doors. 
The medicinal treatment, which is, under all circum¬ 
stances, the domain of a physician, varies according to the 
nature of the case. Mercurial remedies (calomel) can be 
avoided. Subnitrate of bismuth, with opium in small 
doses, and preparations of chalk, nitrate of silver, astrin¬ 
gents, such as tannic or gallic acids, catechu, are frequently 
resorted to, the latter principally in cases which threaten 
to become chronic. A. Jacobi. 

Choles'terin [from the Gr. x°M> “bile,” and (neap , 
“fat”], one of the lipoids, or non-saponifiable fats, was 
originally discovered in gall-stones, but is an ordinary 
constituent (in very minute quantity) of bile, blood, the 
tissue of the brain, and of pus and other morbid fluid 
products. It is generally thought to be a product of dis- 
assimilation, and is hence considered an excrementitious 
substance. It separates from its solutions in glistening 
pearly scales, which, when examined under the microscope, 
appear as very thin rhombic tablets. Different formulae 
have been assigned for its composition, the one generally 
accepted being C 26 H 44 O. It is not always easy of detec¬ 
tion, but it may be readily distinguished from all similar 
substances by its rhombic tablets. 

Cholet, a town of France, department of Maine-et- 
Loire, on the river Maine, 32 miles S. S. W. of Angers. 
It is well built, and has manufactures of fine woollen and 
mixed fabrics. Pop. 13,360. 

Cholmondeley, chum'ly, Marquesses of, and Earls 
Rocksavage (United Kingdom, 1815), Earls Cholmondeley 
(1706), Viscounts Malpas (1706), Barons Cholmondeley 
(England, 1689), Barons Newburgh (Great Britain, 1716), 
Viscounts Cholmondeley (1661), Barons Newburgh (Ire¬ 
land, 1714), and baronets (1611). —William Henry Hugh 
Cholmondeley, third marquess, joint hereditary lord grand 
chamberlain of England, born Aug. 31, 1800, was member 
of Parliament for South Hants 1852-57, and succeeded his 
brother May 8 , 1870. 

Cholu'la, a decayed town of Mexico, in the state of 
Puebla, is situated on the table-land of Anahuac, about 70 
miles E. S. E. of Mexico. Elevation above the sea, 6912 
feet. According to Cortez, it contained 20,000 houses in 
the first part of the sixteenth century, and about 400 tem¬ 
ples. The present population is about 5000. Here is a 
remarkable ancient pyramid of clay and brick, which is 
164 feet high, with a base each side of which measures 
1440 feet. It is supposed that this was erected by the 
aborigines or ancient Mexicans. Humboldt reported that 
he found 16,000 inhabitants, but it has greatly decreased 
since. 

Chone'tes [from the Gr. “cup” or “funnel- 

shaped cavity”], a genus of fossil brachiopodous mollus- 
coids nearly allied to the genus Producta. It is characterized 
by a transversely oblong shell, and by having the long 


margin of the ventral valve armed with a series of tubular 
spines. More than twenty-eight species have been found 
in the pakeozoic formations. They are found in Europe 
and America. 

Chopin (Frederic Francis), a Polish pianist and 
composer, born near Warsaw Mar. 1, 1809, removed to 
Paris about 1832. He composed concertos, waltzes, noc¬ 
turnes, preludes, and mazurkas which display a poetic 
fancy and abound in subtle ideas, with graceful harmonic 
effects. Ilis compositions are strikingly peculiar in melody, 
rhythm, and harmony, and possess a delicate though pow¬ 
erful charm. He was one of the first of pianists, and his 
playing, like his music, was marked with a strange and 
ravishing grace. Died in Paris Oct. 17, 1849. In 1869 a 
monument was erected to him at Warsaw. (See Liszt, 
“Chopin,” 1852; Barbedette, “Chopin,” 1869.) 

Chopinc, or Cliiopine, cliop-een' [Sp. chapin; prob¬ 
ably from the It. scappino, a “sock”], a high clog or slip¬ 
per. Chopines were probably of Eastern origin, but were 
introduced into England from Venice during the reign of 
Elizabeth. They were worn by ladies, and were usually 
made of wood covered with leather, often of various colors, 
and frequently painted and gilded. Some of them were as 
much as half a yard high; and in Venice, where they were 
universally worn, their height distinguished the quality of 
the lady. 

Chop'tank, a river which rises in Kent co., Del., and 
flows south-westward into Maryland. It expands into an 
estuary, forming the boundary between Talbot and Dor¬ 
chester counties, and communicates with Chesapeake Bay. 
Length, nearly 100 miles. Sloops can ascend it about fifty 
miles. 

Chora'gus, or Chore'gus [Attic Gr. xopTjyos], a per¬ 
son at Athens who, on behalf of his tribe, supported the 
chorus, and who, in competition with the other tribes, ex¬ 
hibited musical or theatrical performances. The choragus 
who surpassed his competitors received a tripod for a prize, 
but he had the expense of consecrating it and of building 
the monument on which it was placed. (See Chorus.) 

Cliora'le [Low Lat., from chorus, a “choir ”], or Clio'- 
ral, a melody to which hymns or psalms are sung in pub¬ 
lic worship by the congregation in unison. The melody of 
the chorale moves in slow and strictly-measured progres¬ 
sion, and is of a character that disposes the mind to devo¬ 
tion. The term chorale is now applied only to the music 
of the Protestant churches, but choral melodies still in use 
can be traced with certainty to the early centuries of Chris¬ 
tianity. The pure, simple chorale has in a great degree 
been cast aside. 

Chord [Fr. corde, from the Gr. x°P&V> a “string”], in 
geometry, is the straight line which joins the two extrem¬ 
ities of the arc of a curve; so called because while the arc 
resembles the bow (arcus), the chord may be likened to the 
bow-string. The chord of a circular arc may be found by 
multiplying the radius by twice the sine of half the angle 
which the arc subtends. The use of chords in trigonometry 
is mostly superseded by the use of sines, which are much 
more convenient. 

Since two circles can cut each other in only two points, 
they can have only one common chord. But by the tran¬ 
scendental “principle of continuity,” to which modern 
geometry owes so much, the circle may be considered as a 
curve of the second order, and as such two circles may be 
said to have four points of intersection, two of which are, 
however, always imaginary. These imaginary points are 
called “ circular points at infinity.” This view also gives 
the two circles six common chords, instead of one. Four 
of these chords are imaginary, and the fifth is infinitely 
distant; while the sixth (and most obvious) chord may or 
may not cut the two circles in real points. This last chord 
is often called the Radical Axis (which see), and has many 
remarkable properties. 

Chord, in music. See Consonance. 

Chore'a [Gr. \opeia, a “ dance”], or St.Vitus’s Dance, 
a disease characterized by irregular, involuntary, and often 
grotesque muscular action, without appreciable organic 
change in any tissue, and generally without pain or any 
known derangement of mental action or of sensation. It 
is most common in children after the second dentition and 
before puberty; much more common in girls than in boys; 
sometimes attacks pregnant women and other adults, though 
some cases once called adult chorea would now be recog¬ 
nized as locomotor ataxy, a very different disease. Chorea 
is sometimes hereditary, sometimes epidemic. Many 
writers have classed the dancing mania (the original “St. 
Vitus’s dance”), tarantism, and the strange excesses of cer¬ 
tain religionists (dervishes, French prophets, “jumpers,” 
and “ convulsionists ”) all as varieties of chorea. Stam¬ 
mering has been called a chorea of the vocal organs. The 












CHORLEY—CHRIST. 


disease is sometimes associatsd with rheumatism and with 
anmrnia. Such complications should receive special treat¬ 
ment. The metallic tonics are generally useful, and so are 
systematic gymnastics, life in the open air, and a kind and 
unobtrusive discipline, which shall teach the young patient 
the power of the will over the movements of the body. 

Chor'ley, a town of England, in Lancashire, on a hill 
and on the river Chor, 20 miles N. W. of Manchester. It 
is connected by a railway with Preston and Bolton. It has 
an ancient parish church in the Norman style, and a hand¬ 
some Gothic church. The place owes its prosperity to va¬ 
rious manufactures of cotton yarn, muslin, jaconet, calico, 
and gingham. Mines of coal and lead and quarries of 
slate are worked in the vicinity. Pop. 15,013. 

C ho'roiil Coat [from the Gr. xopi'ov, “skin,” and elSos, 
“appearance’ ], the second of the tunics of the eye, cover¬ 
ing the posterior five-sixths of the eyeball, and coming as 
far forward as the edge of the cornea. In front it is continued 
by the ciliary processes and the iris. It joins the sclerotic 
by means of the ciliary ligament and muscle. It is highly 
vascular, and is pigmentary, being of a kind of chocolate 
color. It is in three layers. The outermost is connected 
to the sclerotic by the membrana fusca. This coat consists 
principally of the vorticose veins, with pigment-cells. The 
middle layer ( tunica Ruyschiana) consists of capillaries. 
The inner layer consists of tesselated epithelium, charged 
with pigment. This layer is lined by the retina. The 
choroid coat is liable to an inflammatory disease known as 
choroiditis. 

Cho 'rus [Gr. x°pos ; Lat. chorus~\, a Latin word by which 
is understood the union of musicians for the performance 
of a musical work. In modern music a combination of 
voices or instruments is called a chorus. A vocal chorus 
is mixed or complete where it consists of all or part 
of the four principal voices. There are also choruses for 
male and female voices. An instrumental chorus is the 
name applied especially to a combination of wind instru¬ 
ments. A musical passage thus unitedly rendered is termed 
also a chorus. In operas and the oratorio it is of the great¬ 
est importance. In the immense musical festivals or jubi¬ 
lees recently held in different parts of Europe and America 
the choruses have comprised many thousand voices. 

Chorus in the ancient drama was a band of singers and 
dancers employed on the stage. In the Attic tragedy and 
comedy the chorus consisted of a group of males and fe¬ 
males, who remained on the stage during the performance 
as witnesses. When a pause took place in the drama the 
chorus sang or spoke verses having reference to the subject. 
At times the chorus took part with or against the persons 
in the drama, by way of advice, comfort, or dissuasion. Its 
leader was called the coryphaeus. The charge of organiz¬ 
ing it was considered a great honor. At times the chorus 
was divided, and spoke or sang antiphonally. How the 
musical element of the ancient chorus was constituted is 
not known. It was doubtless very simple, and was accom¬ 
panied by flutes. 

Chose in Action, in law, a thing in action. This is 
a term used to express all rights enforceable by action in a 
court of justice. Blackstone, in his “Commentaries,” con¬ 
fines it to rights growing out of contracts. Modern usage 
extends it to claims arising from torts or wrongs. (See 
Contracts, Torts, Assignment, Chattel, etc.) 

Cho'tank, a township of King George co., Va. Pop. 
2814. 

Chotean, a county in the N. part of Montana. It is 
intersected by the Missouri River and the Milk River. 
The surface is partly mountainous, but it contains some 
broad treeless plains and considerable arable land. Area, 
14,195 square miles. The climate is quite moderate, from 
the comparatively small elevation above the sea. Capital, 
Fort Benton. Pop. 517. 

Cho'tyn, Kho'tin, or Choc'zim, a fortified town of 
Southern Russia, in Bessarabia, on the Dniester, 45 miles 
S. W. of Kamieniec. It is an important military post, which 
formerly belonged to the Turks, from whom it was taken 
by the Russians in 1739. Pop. in 1867, 20,917. 

Chouans, a name of the French royalists of Brittany 
who revolted against the French Convention in 1792. 
Chouan, which signifies an “owl,” was the nickname of 
Jean Cottereau, who was the leader of the insurgents, and 
had previously been a smuggler. This insurrection was 
called La Chouannerie. Cottereau gained some success in 
guerilla warfare, and eventually united his troops with 
the Yendeans. They were defeated at Le Mans in Dec., 
1793. Cottereau was killed in a fight in July, 1794. New 
movements of the Chouans took place in 1799, and again 
in 1814 and 1815, but they were easily suppressed. 

Chough, chuf [etymology uncertain], ( Fregilus ), a bird 


935 


of the crow family, approaching the character of the star¬ 
ling, but resembling the crow in having its nostrils covered 
with bristles. The beak is long, strong, arched, and pointed. 



Chough. 


The tail is slightly rounded. The Cornish chough, or red- 
legged crow {Fregilus graculus), inhabits many parts of 
Europe and Asia and the north of Africa, dwelling on high 
cliffs. Its long claws enable it to cling to a rock, but it 
seems unwilling to set its feet on turf. It lives in societies 
like the rook. It feeds on insects, berries, grubs, and grain. 
It is easily tamed, and exhibits in the highest degree the 
disposition which characterizes others of the crow family. 
Other species of chough are natives of Australia, Java, etc. 
The alpine chough is a Ciiocard (which see). 

Choules (John Overton), D. D., born at Bristol. Eng¬ 
land, Feb. 5, 1801, studied theology at Bristol College 
(England). lie arrived in America in 1S24, and engaged 
immediately in teaching, for which he seems to have had 
unusual adaptation, and to which he devoted himself, to 
some extent, throughout his life. He was pastor of Baptist 
churches in New Bedford, Mass., Buffalo, N. Y., Jamaica 
Plain, Mass., and Newport, R. I., and edited several works, 
the most important of which was Neal’s “History of the 
Puritans,” and published “ The Young Americans Abroad ” 
and “A History of Christian Missions.” Died in New York 
Jan. 5, 1856. 

Chouteau (Auguste and Pierre), two brothers noted 
as the founders of the city of St. Louis, Mo. They removed 
from New Orleans to the site of St. Louis in 1764. Auguste 
died in 1829, and Pierre in 1849. The latter had a son 
Pierre (born 1789; died Sept. 8, 1865), an eminent mer¬ 
chant in the fur-trade. ' 

Chowan', a river of North Carolina, is formed by the 
Meherrin and Nottoway rivers, which unite about 5 miles 
above Winton. It flows south-eastward, and then south¬ 
ward, forms the boundary between Chowan and Bertie 
counties, and enters Albemarle Sound at its western end. 
It is about 50 miles long, and is navigable for sloops. 

Chowan, a county in the N. E. of North Carolina. 
Area, 240 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by Albe¬ 
marle Sound, and on the W. by the Chowan River. The 
surface is nearly level. Corn and cotton are staple prod¬ 
ucts. Capital, Edenton. Pop. 6450. 

Chrestom'athy [Gr. xpwropuxfleia], according to the 
etymology, is that which is useful to learn. The Greeks 
frequently formed commonplace books by collecting the 
various passages to which in the course of reading they 
had affixed the mark \ (xPWro?). Hence books of extracts 
chosen with a view to utility have received this name. 

Chres'tus of Byzantium, one of the most distin¬ 
guished pupils of Herodes Atticus, a contemporary of the 
emperor Aurelius. He was celebrated for his eloquence, 
and taught rhetoric with great success, having many dis¬ 
tinguished men among his hearers. Of his writings nothing 
is preserved. Philostratus has given notices of him in his 
lives of the Sophists. Henry Drisler. 

Chrism [Gr. xpiapa, from xpuo, to “anoint”], the oil 
which is used in the Greek, Roman Catholic, and Oriental 
churches in the administration of baptism, confirmation, 
ordination, extreme unction, etc. There are two kinds of 
chrism—the one, a mixture of oil and balsam, is used in 
baptism, confirmation, and ordination; the other, which is 
mere oil, is used in extreme unction. The chrism of the 
Eastern Church contains more than forty ingredients. 

Chris'ome [from the Gr. an “anointing”], the 

white vesture laid by the priest on the child in former times 
at baptism, to signify its innocence. It was generally pre¬ 
sented by the mother as an offering to the church, but if 
the child died before the mother was churched after the 
next child’s birth, it was used as a shroud. A chrisome 
child is a child in chrisome cloth. 

Christ [Gr. Xpurros; Lat. Christ us], a word which was 













































CHKISTADELPHIANS—CHRISTIAN CONNECTION. 


936 


at first a title of our Saviour, now in general use as part 
of his name. It is Greek, signifies anointed, and corre¬ 
sponds exactly in meaning and use with the Hebrew word 
Messiah. As kings were anointed on being called to their 
offices, so the Saviour was anointed (Acts x. 38) “with the 
Holy Ghost and with power.” This anointing signifies a 
consecration or setting apart for a peculiar work. (For 
the historical account of Christ, see Jesus; for an account 
of the doctrines held with regard to Christ’s nature, see 
Christology, by Prof. W. G. T. Suedd, D.D.) 

Christadel'phians (“brothers of Christ”), a religious 
body of recent origin who are becoming numerous in some 
parts of the U. S. They attach equal importance to the 
Old and New Testaments, and believe that the intention 
of the Creator is to recall to immortal life all who love him 
in this life, who shall people this world. All who have not 
caught the immortal principle perish in death. They re¬ 
ject the doctrine of a personal devil. Christ, they believe, 
is the Son of God, deriving from the Deity moral perfec¬ 
tion, but from his mother the common nature of Adam. 
They ascribe to him the threefold character of prophet, 
priest, and king. The first office he fulfilled by his life and 
death on earth; as priest he now mediates before the Deity ; 
and as king he will return to earth and reign from the throne 
of David over the glorified world. 

Christ'church, a borough and seaport of England, in 
Hampshire, on the English Channel, and at the head of the 
estuary formed by the rivers Avon and Stour, 24 miles 
S. W. of Southampton. Here is a priory church, one of 
the most interesting of English ecclesiastical structures, 
which was partly built on an ancient foundation in the 
reign of William Rufus. Christchurch has manufactures 
of springs for watches and clocks, and several breweries. 
The phenomenon of a double tide occurs here every twelve 
hours. Pop. 9368. 

Christ Church, a town of New Zealand, capital of the 
province of Canterbury, is situated on the banks of the 
river Avon, 7 miles from the sea. It is connected by rail¬ 
way with Lyttleton, which is its port, and by telegraph 
with nearly all the leading towns. It is the seat of an An¬ 
glican bishop, and has a college. Pop. in IS71, 7931; with 
the suburbs, 12,466. 

Christ Church, a township of Charleston co., S. C. 
Pop. 4493. 

Christening, a term used as a synonym for baptism. 
It is disliked by some as favoring the doctrine of baptismal 
regeneration, being, according to its derivation, expressive 
of the notion that a person is made a Christian in baptism. 
But it is usually employed without the intention of convey¬ 
ing any such opinion. 

Christian, a county in S. Central Illinois. Area, 875 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Sangamon 
River, and intersected by the South Fork of that river. 
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Corn, wheat, 
cattle, hay, tobacco, and butter are produced. It is trav¬ 
ersed by the Central, the Toledo Walaash and Western, the 
Springfield and Illinois South-eastern, and the Indianapo¬ 
lis and St. Louis R. Rs. Coal is found here. Capital, 
Taylorsville. Pop. 20,363. 

Christian, a county of Kentucky, bordering on Ten¬ 
nessee. Area, 700 square miles. It is drained by Little 
River and several creeks. The surface of the N. part is 
hilly, and that of the S. is level; the soil is fertile. To¬ 
bacco, corn, wheat, and live-stock are largely raised. Coal 
and limestone abound here. The county is intersected by 
the St. Louis Evansville Henderson and Nashville R. R. 
Capital, Hopkinsville. Pop. 23,227. 

Christian, a county in the S. W. of Missouri. Area, 
500 square miles. It is drained by the James River and 
Swan Creek. The soil of some parts is fertile. Coni and 
tobacco are the staple crops. Copper, iron, and lead are 
found here. Capital, Ozark. Pop. 6707. 

Christian, a township of Independence co., Ark. 
Pop. 1327. 

Christian II., king of Denmark, a son of John, was 
born July 2, 1481. He began to reign in 1513, and married 
Isabella, a sister of the emperor Charles V., in 1515. In 
1520 he invaded Sweden, which he partially conquered. 
He usurped the throne of Sweden, and abused his power 
by cruelty, but he was expelled by Gustavus Vasa in 1522. 
His Danish subjects also revolted, deposed him, and elected 
his uncle, Frederick I., in 1523. Christian retired to Flan¬ 
ders, and returned with an army in 1531, but was defeated 
and kept in prison until his death, Jan. 25, 1559. (See 
Behrmann, “Kong Christiern II., Historic,” 1815.) 

Christian IV., king of Denmark, born April 12, 1577, 
was the son and successor of Frederick II., who died in 


1588. He became in 1625 the commander of the Protestant 
armies in the Thirty Years’ war against the emperor of 
Austria. In 1626 he was defeated by the imperialist gen¬ 
eral Tilly at Lutter. Ho waged war against Sweden from 
1611 to 1613, and again from 1643 to 1645. He was an 
able ruler, and promoted the prosperity of Denmark. He 
died Feb. 28, 1648. (See Rasmus Nyerup, “ Charakter- 
istik af Kong Christian IV.,” 1816.) 

Christian VII., king of Denmark, born Jan. 29, 1749, 
was a son of Frederick V. His mother was Louisa, a 
daughter of George II. of England. He began to reign in 
Jan., 1766, and married his cousin Caroline Matilda, a 
sister of George III. of England, in the same year. His 
physician, Struensee, obtained the chief power in 1770, and 
was supported by the favor of the queen, but he was un¬ 
popular with the nation. Christian VII. was so feeble and 
morbid that he was incapable of reigning. He died Mar. 
13, 1808, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick VI., who 
had been regent since 1784. 

Christian VIII., king of Denmark, born Sept. 18, 
1786, was a cousin of Frederick VI. He was chosen king 
of Norway in 1814, but being unable to defend it against 
Bernadotte, who invaded Norway, he abdicated in Oct., 
1814. He succeeded Frederick VI. in 1839, and died Jan. 
20, 1848, leaving the throne to his son, Frederick VII. 

Christian IX., king of Denmark, a son of Friederich 
Wilhelm, duke of Sleswick-IIoIstein, was born April 8,1818. 
He ascended the throne in Nov., 1863, and was soon in¬ 
volved in a war against the German confederation, which 
disputed the right of the king to incorporate Sleswick with 
Denmark. The Danes were defeated, and Christian IX. 
signed in Aug., 1864, a treaty by which he ceded the 
duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg to Austria 
and Prussia. 

Christia'na, a post-hundred of Newcastle co., Del. 
Pop. 5370. 

Christiana, a post-village of Sadsbury township, Lan¬ 
caster co., Pa., on the Pennsylvania R. R., 21 miles E. by 
S. of Lancaster, has manufactures of iron castings and 
machinery, and a brisk trade. 

Christiana, a post-township of Dane co., Wis. Pop. 
1342. 

Christiana, a township of Vernon co., Wis. Pop. 
1133. 

Chris'tian Commis'sion, or, more fully, The 
United States Christian Commission, a great or¬ 
ganization in the Northern U. S. during the late civil war. 
It was organized Nov. 14, 1861, at New York. Its work 
was designed to supplement that of the great Sanitary 
Commission, for while the object of the latter w T as more es¬ 
pecially the care of the sanitary condition of the national 
armies, the relief of the wounded and sick, etc., the Chris¬ 
tian Commission also gave especial attention to the religious 
needs of the troops, co-operating with the chaplains, while 
the Sanitary Commission more especially co-operated with 
the medical officers of the army. At the same time the 
two societies entered into a generous rivalry in the work 
of supplying the material wants of the sick and wounded 
soldiers. The Christian Commission was first proposed by 
Mr. Vincent Collyer of New York, and originated by a call 
of the Young Men’s Christian Association of New York 
(Sept. 23, 1861) upon all similar associations in the North 
to unite in this great undertaking. The good work accom¬ 
plished by the Commission can never be duly estimated. 
(See Moss, “Annals of the Christian Commission.”) 

Chris'tian Connection (or simply Christians*), 

a religious denomination which arose in the U. S. about the 
beginning of the present century. This body originated 
in three distinct movements in three of the older denom¬ 
inations of the U. S.: (1) in the “ O’Kelly Secession” 
(1793) from the Methodist Episcopal Church. O’Kelly’s 
followers were at first called “ Republican Methodists,” but 
afterwards chose the name of “ Christians,” and declared 
the Bible alone to be their rule of faith and church govern¬ 
ment. (2) Dr. Abner Jones of Ilartland, Yt., a Baptist, 
organized in 1800 a church which disavowed all creeds and 
sectarianism, and received the Bible as their only rule. 
They were joined by many ministers and others, chiefly of 
the Baptist and Freewill Baptist denominations. (3) A 
body of Presbyterians of Kentucky and Tennessee, who 
seceded in 1801 from the parent Church, and in 1803 took 
the name of Christians. The above three bodies were fin¬ 
ally united into a “ general convention,” which meets 
quadrennially. The churches, however, are independent 
in church government. 

The “General Baptists” of England and Wales hold 

*This name is often pronounced Krist'chan, in order to dis¬ 
tinguish it from the common word, Christian. 





















CHRISTIAN ERA—CHRISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS. 


doctrinal views very similar to those of the Christians, and 
the two bodies are in fellowship with each other. They 
invite all believers to their communion. 

They are opposed to infant baptism, have no creed ex¬ 
cept the Bible, practise immersion in baptism, and are, as 
a general rule, Unitarian in their doctrines. They have in 
the U. S. about .150,000 communicants, and support several 
colleges and other schools. They are also found in Eng¬ 
land and her colonies. The denomination called “Camp- 
bellites ” and “Disciples” also call themselves “Chris¬ 
tians.” (See Disciples of Christ.) 

Christian Era [Fr. ere Chretienne ], the name of the 
great era from which all Christian nations compute their 
time, once supposed to correspond to the date of the birth 
of Christ. But, according to some of the best authorities, 
Christ was born on the 5th of April, four years before the 
commencement of our era (others say on the 25th of De¬ 
cember, four or five years before that time). The practice 
of reckoning time from the (supposed) birth of Christ ap¬ 
pears not to have been introduced into the Christian Church 
until the sixth century, when Dionysius surnamed the Lit¬ 
tle (Exiguus), a monk of Syria, first made use of it about 
527 A. D. It was soon after introduced into Italy, and into 
France in the following century. The first instance re¬ 
corded of its being employed in England was in 680. But 
the practice did not become universal throughout Christen¬ 
dom until about the middle of the fifteenth century. 

Christia'iiia, the capital of Norway and of the stiff 
of the same name, is picturesquely situated in a valley and 
at the head of the navigable Christiania Fiord, about 55 
miles from the sea; lat. of observatory, 59° 55' N., Ion. 10° 
43' E. The environs of the city are beautiful, ancl visitors 
who approach it by the fiord pass through magnificent 
scenery. It contains a cathedral, a citadel, a royal palace, 
a great arsenal, a town-hall, two theatres, an exchange, an 
asylum for lunatics, and a university founded in 1811, 
which has a library of 150,000 volumes. The average num¬ 
ber of students is nearly 600. Connected with the univer¬ 
sity is an astronomical observatory. Here are manufactures 
of cotton, paper, glass, soap, etc. The chief articles of ex¬ 
port are timber, iron, and glass. The harbor and fiord are 
closed by ice for three or four months in the year. It is a 
bishop’s see, and was founded in 1624 by Christian IV. on 
the site of the burned royal city of Opslo. Pop. in 1869, 
64,935.v 

Christianity [from the Gr. Xpio-Tiavo?, a “follower of 
Christ”], a system of religion which comes to us with a 
claim to be accepted as of divine origin. It professes to be 
no product of the human intellect, and acknowledges no au¬ 
thor but the Being whom it sets before us as the object of 
worship. It claims to be the only true religion, and is con¬ 
sequently exclusive; that is to say, it admits of no compro¬ 
mise with any other religious system. 

As a system it cannot be viewed as distinct from the re¬ 
ligion of the Jews and of the patriarchs; it is the same re¬ 
ligion adapted to new circumstances; there has been a 
change of dispensation alone. In studying Christianity 
we are obliged constantly to revert from the New Tes¬ 
tament to the Old, and in some measure to trace the his¬ 
tory of this through the preparatory dispensations. Chris¬ 
tianity may be regarded as having its foundation in the 
doctrine of the existence of one God. Man is repre¬ 
sented as involved in misery, incapacitated for the service 
of God, and liable to punishment for sin in a future state. 
The doctrine of the atonement claims special attention—a 
doctrine taught in all the sacrifices of the patriarchal and 
Jewish dispensations, as well as by the words of the Bible. 
Man being utterly incapable of effecting his own deliver¬ 
ance, God sent his Son to save sinners, to make them holy 
and partakers of eternal life. 

By Unitarians and others who do not accept the above 
view, atonement or reconciliation with God is made to de¬ 
pend on repentance, while the life and death of Christ are 
represented as an example to us of obedience, virtue, good¬ 
ness, and beneficence,under most trying circumstances; in 
which view the doctrines of a propitiatory sacrifice and im¬ 
puted righteousness fall to the ground. These doctrines, 
however, are held by most of those who receive the doc¬ 
trine of the Trinity and the generally received doctrine as 
to the incarnation of the Son of God, which is regarded as 
a glorious example of Divine condescension and a very 
great exaltation of human nature, while the highest dig¬ 
nity and bliss of which humanity is capable is believed to 
be attainable only by faith in Jesus Christ. According to 
this view, the connection between faith and salvation arises 
from the Divine appointment, which, however, provides for 
bringing into exercise, in harmony with the intellectual and 
moral nature of man, most powerful and excellent motives 
for all that is morally good, the partakers of salvation be¬ 
ing thus fitted for the fellowship of God. 


937 


The doctrine of divine grace is a part of the system of 
Christianity on which very important differences of opinion 
subsist, especially as to the relation of grace to individual 
men. Such are the differences concerning election, and con¬ 
cerning man’s ability or inability to exercise saving faith 
of himself. But by Christians generally the relation of 
the believer to Christ, and his faith in Christ, arc ascribed 
to the Holy Ghost or Spirit of God, the third person of the 
Godhead. (See Calvinism and Arminianism.) 

Salvation is viewed as beginning in regeneration, and as 
carried on in sanctification, and all its joys as connected 
with the progress of sanctification in this life or in that 
which is to come. Faith in Christ cannot be unaccom¬ 
panied with repentance; though believers are holy in con¬ 
trast to what they once were, yet there is none in this life 
free from sin, the tempter of our first parents being still 
the active enemy of men. Responsibility belongs to human 
nature; and the doctrine of a judgment to come may be 
considered as to a certain extent a doctrine of natural re¬ 
ligion, as may also that of the immortality of the soul; but 
the clear and distinct enunciation of these doctrines belongs 
to the Christian religion. 

Of the moral element of Christianity it is sufficient here 
to state that it is harmonious with the doctrinal part and 
inseparable from it; that it is founded iqion the teachings 
of the Bible with regard to the moral attributes of God, 
and is exemplified in the character of Jesus Christ; and 
that it is divisible into two great parts—one of the love of 
God, and the other of the love of man. 

Among what are termed the means of grace, which form 
so important a part of the system, the doctrine contained 
in the Bible first claims attention as the means of conver¬ 
sion and of edification, the instrument by which salvation 
is begun and carried on. The ordinances of worship, prayer, 
and sacraments are means of grace, concerning the relative 
importance of which, as compared with the other means, 
considerable difference of opinion prevails. The same re¬ 
mark applies also to the combination of Christians into an 
organized body with its own system of church government 
and discipline. 

The truth of Christianity is supported by many different 
evidences, independent, but mutually corroborative. It ap¬ 
peals to reason, and demands to have its claims examined. 
Nor is there any faith where there is not a mental conviction 
arrived at by reasoning, direct or indirect. (See Evidences 
of Christianity.) 

Christianity is now the dominant religion in all countries 
of America, in Australia, and in Europe (except in Turkey), 
and it makes steady progress in Asia and Africa. It is 
divided into a large number of denominations or sects, 
which may be classed in three large groups—the Roman 
Catholic Church, the Oriental churches, and all the other 
churches. Most or all of the denominations of the third 
class are sometimes comprised under the name Protestants. 
In 1872 the aggregate population connected with the vari¬ 
ous denominations of Christians was estimated at about 
380,000,000, in a total population of the globe of about 
1,380,000,000. The Roman Catholic Church numbered a 
population of about 197,000,000, and the Oriental churches 
about 83,000,000. (See Eastern Churches, Greek 
Church, Roman Catholic Church, and the names of 
various denominations.) J. Thomas. 

Christian Knowledge, Society of. See Society 
of Christian Knowledge. 

Christians (a religious denomination). See Christian 
Connection. 

Chris'tiansand, a fortified seaport-town of Norway, 
is near its southern extremity and on the Skager-Rack, 
about 160 miles S. W. of Christiania. It has a good har¬ 
bor, a citadel, a Gothic cathedral, the finest sacred build¬ 
ing in Norway except the one at Trondhjem, a custom¬ 
house, and a gymnasium. Shipbuilding is the principal 
industry. It is a bishop’s see and the capital of a stift. 
Timber, salmon, etc. are exported hence. Pop. 10,876. 

Chris'tiansburg, a post-village of Shelby co., Ivy., 
on the Louisville and Lexington R. R., 49 miles E. of Louis¬ 
ville. 

Christiansburg, a incorporated town, capital of Mont¬ 
gomery co., Va., on the Atlantic Mississippi and Ohio R. R., 
86 miles W. of Lynchburg, 2200 feet above the sea-level. 
It has a female college, an academy, tobacco and shoe fac¬ 
tories, two churches, and one newspaper. Pop. 864; of 
township, 3316. Nelson Conrad, 

Ed. Montgomery “Messenger.” 

Christians of St. Thomas, a very ancient Christian 
sect of India, found especially along the Malabar coast. 
They claim to be descendants of converts made in India 
by the apostle Thomas, but they are generally believed to 
have been converted by Persian missionaries in the early 
ages of the Church. In 1599 the greater part were induced 










^38 CIIRISTIANSTAD—-CHRISTO LOGY. 


by the Jesuits to unite with the Church of Rome, and at 
present about three-fourths of their number are Roman 
Catholics. Of tho latter class more than one-half have a 
Syriac church-service, while the remainder are of the Latin 
rite. Of those who are not united to the Church of Rome 
there were in 1859 about 70,000, and ten years later they 
claimed for themselves 190,000 members, which is undoubt¬ 
edly in excess of their number. They acknowledge the su¬ 
premacy of the Jacobite patriarch of Antioch, though they 
were formerly Nestorians of the patriarchate of Mosul. Our 
knowledge of the history of this interesting people will 
probably be always limited, most of their literature having 
been burned as heretical by order of the synod of Diamper 
(1599). There was anciently, it would seem, more than one 
sect among them. According to Mr. Ludlow, they are at 
present both socially and morally much debased, though 
they were once the dominant class in Malabar. They are 
now found principally in Travancore. (See Hough's “His¬ 
tory of Christianity in India,” 4 vols., 1839-45.) 

Chris'tianstaiT, a fortified town of Sweden, capital 
of a laen of its own name, is on the river Ilelge, about 9 
miles from its entrance to the Baltic and 267 miles S. W. 
of Stockholm. It has broad streets and wooden houses. 
In the vicinity are the immense alum-works at Andrarum 
(5000 tons annually). It has an arsenal, a barrack, and a 
fine church; also manufactures of linen and woollen fab¬ 
rics and gloves. Pop. 7710. 

Chris'tiaiistecT, the chief town of the Danish island 
of St. Croix, in the West Indies, is on the N. E. coast. It 
has a good harbor, which is defended by a fort. The gov¬ 
ernor-general of the Danish West Indies resides here. Pop. 
estimated at 7500. 

Chris'tiansund/, a seaport-town of Norway, on three 
islands in the Atlantic, which enclose its harbor. It is in 
the district of Romsdal, and 85 miles W. S. W. of Trond- 
hjern. The trade is good, and fishing is largely pursued. 
Pop. 5709. 

Chris'tiansville, a township and post-village of Meck¬ 
lenburg co., Va., 15 miles S. of Lunenburg. Pop. 2550. 

Christi'na, queen of Sweden, born Dec. 0, 1626, was 
the only surviving child of Gustavus Adolphus. She re¬ 
ceived a solid and masculine education, and learned Latin, 
Greek, Hebrew, politics, etc. When her father died, in 
1632, she was recognized as his successor, under the re¬ 
gency of Oxenstiern. In 1644 she assumed royal power, 
and in 1648 concluded the treaty of Westphalia, by which 
Pomerania was annexed to Sweden. Her mind was strong 
and her character eccentric. Her subjects wished that she 
should choose a husband, but she manifested a constant 
aversion to marriage. Her eccentricity was also exhibited 
in the extravagant patronage of authors, pedants, artists, 
and buffoons. In 1650 her cousin, Charles Gustavus, was 
designated as heir to the throne by the states of Sweden, 
with the assent of the queen. Impatient of the personal 
restraint which the etiquette of court imposed on her, she 
abdicated the throne in June, 1654, while still in the bloom 
of youth. This act has been variously attributed to levity 
and magnanimity. She reserved supreme power over her 
suite and household, embraced the Roman Catholic religion, 
and became a resident of Rome. She patronized artists, 
founded an academy at Rome, and meddled with astrology 
and other chimerical pursuits. In 1657 she caused her 
grand equerry, Monaldeschi, to be put to death for treason. 
It is said she wished to recover the crown of Sweden when 
the king died in 1660, but she did not succeed. Died April 
19, 1689. (See Lacombe, “Histoire de Christine,” 1762; 
Arciienholz, “Memoirs of the Life of Christina,” Stock¬ 
holm, 4 vols., 1751, in French; II. Woodiiead, “Memoirs 
of Christina of Sweden,” 1863; Grauert, “Christine, 
Ivonigin von Scliweden und ihr Hof,” 2 vols., 1838-42.)✓ 

Christi'nos, the name of a political party in Spain 
during the regency of Queen Maria Christina, embracing 
the adherents of the queen. They were opposed by the 
Carlists (which see). 

Chris'tison (Sir Robert), a Scotch physician, professor 
of materia medica in the University of Edinburgh, born 
July 18, 1797, studied in Paris with Orfila. He has written, 
among other works, a “Treatise on Poisons” (1829), a 
standard authority. He was made a baronet in Nov., 
1871. 

Christ/liel> (Theodor), D. D., was born in Wurtemberg 
in 1833, studied at TUbingen, taught in France, and became 
a preacher in London, where he published his famous lec¬ 
tures on “Modern Doubt and Christian Belief.” He re¬ 
turned to Germany in 1865, and in 1868 became university 
preacher and professor of theology at Bonn. In 1873 he 
visited the U. S. as a delegate of the Evangelical Alliance. 
Here he delivered an address of great ability upon the 
rationalism of the present day. 


Christ'inas [so called because an especial mass, the 
“mass of Christ,” was celebrated on that day ; Fr. Noel; 
Ger. Weihnachten; It. Natale , i.c. “birthday ’], the day 
on which the birth of the Saviour is celebrated. The ob¬ 
servance of the 25th of Dec. is ascribed to Julius, bishop 
of Rome, A. D. 337-352. The Eastern Church had pre¬ 
viously observed the 6th of Jan., in commemoration both 
of the baptism and of the birth of Christ. Before the 
end of the fourth century the East and the West had ex¬ 
changed festivals, the West adopting Jan. 6, in com¬ 
memoration of our Lord’s baptism, and the East adopting 
Dec. 25, in commemoration of our Lord’s birth. The ex¬ 
act date of Christ’s birth appears not to have been known 
to the early Church, and cannot now be determined. That 
the date was preserved in the public archives at Rome, 
though asserted by some of the ancient Fathers, is now not 
generally credited. As for the year, critical opinion is 
gravitating towards the year 5 or 4 B. C. And as for the 
day, we may be helped to a decision by considering that 
between the middle of December and the middle of Feb¬ 
ruary there is generally in Palestine an interval of com¬ 
paratively dry weather, preceded and followed by the 
early and the latter rain. Thus, there might have been 
shepherds on the plain of Bethlehem watching their flocks 
by night. 

Christmas is celebrated on the 25th of Dec. in nearly 
every part of Christendom. Among the causes that oper¬ 
ated in fixing this period, perhaps the most powerful was 
that most heathen nations regarded the winter solstice as 
the beginning of the renewed life and activity of the powers 
of nature. The Romans, Celts, and Germans, from the 
oldest times, celebrated the season with great feasts. At 
the winter solstice the Germans held their Yule-feast, and 
believed that during the twelve nights reaching from the 
25th of Dec. to the 6th of Jan. they could trace the personal 
movements on earth of their great deities. Some of these 
usages passed over from heathenism to Christianity, and 
have partly survived to the present day. But the Church 
sought to banish the deep-rooted heathen element by intro¬ 
ducing its grand liturgy, besides dramatic representations 
of the birth of Christ and the first events of his life. 
Hence the so-called “ manger-songs” and Christmas carols. 
Hence also the Christmas trees adorned with lights and 
other decorations, the custom of reciprocal presents and of 
Christmas meats and dishes. Christmas became a univer¬ 
sal festival. 

In the Roman Church three Christmas masses are usu¬ 
ally performed—one at midnight, one at daybreak, and 
one in the morning. The day is also celebrated by the 
Anglican churches. The Greek and Lutheran churches 
likewise observe Christmas, but the Presbyterians and the 
English dissenters reject it in its religious aspect, although 
in England and the U. S. people of nearly all sects keep it 
as a social holiday, on which there is a cessation from all 
business. The festivities formerly lasted with more or less 
brilliancy till Candlemas, and with great spirit till Twelfth 
Day. (See Cassel, “Weihnachten Ursprung, Brauclie 
und Aberglauben,” 1862.) 

Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Christmas Carols [Fr. carole; It. carola, a “round 
dance,” perhaps from the Lat. corolla, a “circlet;” Welsh, 
coroli, to “ dance,” the name being thence applied to the 
music or song accompanying such a dance]. The word carol 
signifies a song of joy. The practice of singing sacred 
songs in celebration of the nativity of Christ as early as the 
second century is considered as established. Christmas 
carols arc believed to have been devised as a substitute 
for the songs of the old heathen festivals. The oldest 
printed collection of English Christmas carols bears the 
date of 1521. By tho Puritan Parliament Christmas was 
abolished altogether, and holly and ivy were made seditious 
badges; and in 1630 the Psalms, arranged as carols, were 
advertised. After the Restoration, the Christinas carols 
again exhibited their ancient hearty, jovial character. 
Those with which the dawn of Christmas is now announced 
in England are generally religious, though not universally 
so. The custom is by no means peculiarly English, being 
found in other countries of Europe. 

Christol'ogy [Gr. Xpio-ToAoyia, “ doctrine concerning 
Christ”] may include everything relating to the work as 
well as to the person of Christ, but as the work of Christ 
is discussed under Soteriology, it is better to confine Chris- 
tology to the person, and we shall so employ it. 

The incarnation of one of the persons of the Trinity 
results in a peculiar kind of self-consciousness, which is 
neither divine alone nor human alone, but Divine-human. 
Jesus Christ is not merely God, for in this case he would 
not differ as a person from the unincarnate Logos in the 
bosom of the Father. (John i. 18.) Neither is he merely 
man, for in this case he would not differ in respect to the 





















CHRISTOPHE 


species of his personality from Socrates or any other human 
being. But he is God and man united—the God-man—a 
unique and singular species of person. 

The early Church was not forced, by false theories re¬ 
specting the nature of Christ, to make nice distinctions 
and definitions, and consequently made none. It was con¬ 
tent with worshipping Jesus Christ; and worship is a more 
direct and impressive affirmation of his divinity than even 
a dogmatic assertion of it. In course of time, however, 
several errors arose which compelled the Church to make a 
careful and guarded statement of the peculiarity of Christ’s 
complex person. The first of these errors was Arianism, 
which denied the existence of a truly and properly divine 
nature in Jesus Christ. The Arians allowed that he had 
in the composition of his wonderful personality a very ex¬ 
alted nature, which is higher than that of any creature 
whatever, but which is not literally and metaphysically 
divine. This highly exalted and superhuman nature, 
united with a human soul and body, constituted the Arian 
Christ. The second error was Patripassianism. The Patri- 
passians asserted the real and strict Deity in Christ’s per¬ 
son, but denied his humanity. According to them, the one 
solitary person of God (for they also denied a real distinc¬ 
tion of persons in the Godhead) united itself with a human 
body, but not with a human soul. This single person of 
God, whom they denominated the Father, thus united with 
a material body, was the Patripassian Son of God, or 
Christ. Anterior to this union there was no Son of God. 
The third error was the Nestorian. This pertained to the 
relations of the two natures to each other, and not to the 
natures themselves, both of which were conceded. The 
Nestorian Christ is two persons, one divine and one human, 
in union. The important distinction between a nature and 
a person is not recognized. Nestorianism overlooked the 
fact that the second person in the Trinity did not assume 
into union with himself a human individual, but a portion 
of human nature not yet individualized. The Logos, in 
the words of Hooker, “ did not assume a man’s person into 
his own person, but a man’s nature to his own person; he 
took semen , the seed of Abraham (Heb. ii. 16), the very 
first original element of our nature, before it was come to 
have any personal subsistence.” The union is embryonic, 
and thus yields only a single personality. But instead of 
thus blending the divinity and the humanity into one self, 
the Nestorian scheme places two distinct selves, one divine 
and one human, side by side, and allows only a moral and 
sympathetic union between them. There is a God and 
there is a man, but there is no God-man. The fourth of 
the ancient errors in Christology is the Eutychian or Mo- 
nophysite. This is the opposite error to Nestorianism. It 
asserts the unity of self-consciousness in the person of 
Christ, but loses the duality of the natures. In and by 
the incarnation the human nature is transmuted into the 
divine, so that after the incarnation there remains only one 
nature. For this reason the Monophysites held that it is 
correct to say that “ God suffered,” meaning thereby that 
Jesus Christ suffered in the divine nature. 

The Council of Ephesus in 431 made some beginning 
towards the settlement of the questions involved, but it 
was reserved for the Council of Chalcedon in 451 to make 
the final statement. The Chalcedon symbol defines Christ’s 
person as follows: “We teach that Jesus Christ is perfect 
as respects Godhood and perfect as respects manhood—that 
he is truly God, and truly a man consisting of a rational soul 
and body. He was begotten of the Father before creation 
as to his deity, but in these last days he was born of Mary, 
the mother of God, as to his humanity. He is one Christ 
existing in two natures, without mixture, without change, 
without division, without separation—the diversity of the 
two natures not being at all destroyed by their union in the 
person, but the peculiar properties of each nature being 
preserved, and concurring to one person and one sub¬ 
sistence.” 

This statement asserts the continued and everlasting 
existence of two natures in Christ’s complex person, and 
adjusts their relations to each other. In the first place, 
the union of the two natures does not confuse or mix them 
in such a manner as to destroy their distinctive properties 
or transmute one into the other. The deity of Christ is 
just as pure and simple deity after the incarnation as 
before it; and the humanity of Christ is just as pure 
and simple human nature as that of Mary his mother 
or any other human individual, sin being excluded. In 
the second place, the Chalcedon statement prohibits the 
division of Christ into two selves or persons. The in¬ 
carnating act, while it makes no changes in the properties 
of the two united natures, gives as a resultant a person 
that is a tertium (pud —a resultant that is neither a human 
person nor a divine person, but a thectnthropic person. Con¬ 
templating Jesus Christ as the result of the union of God 
and man,lie is not to be denominated simply God, and he 


CPIRISTOPHER. ’ 939 


is not to be denominated simply man, but he is to be de¬ 
nominated God-man. 

This union of two natures in one self-conscious ego may 
be illustrated by reference to man’s personal constitution. 
An individual man is one person, but this person consists 
of two natures—a material nature and an immaterial na¬ 
ture. The personalitjq the self-consciousness, is the result 
of the union of the two. Neither one taken by itself would 
yield the person. Both body and soul are requisite in 
order to a complete individuality. The two natures do 
not make two individuals in union and alliance. The 
material nature, taken by itself, is not the man, and the 
mental part, taken by itself, is not the man ; only the union 
of both is. Yet in this intimate union of two such diverse 
substances as matter and mind, body and soul, there is not 
the slightest alteration of the properties of each substance 
or nature. 

It follows from this statement of the Council of Chalce¬ 
don that while the properties of one nature cannot be 
attributed to the other nature, the properties of both na¬ 
tures may be attributed to the person resulting from their 
union. While it is not proper to say that the Divine nature 
suffered, it is proper to say that the God-man suffered. 
The first statement attributes to one nature the properties 
and acts of the other, and is therefore not allowable. The 
second statement asserts that Jesus Christ, the self-con¬ 
scious Ego resulting from the incarnation, endured a pas¬ 
sion the seat and medium of which was the human nature 
in this Ego. Here, again, the analogies of finite exist¬ 
ence furnish an illustration. A man suffers the sensation 
of heat from a coal of fire. In this instance it would not 
be correct to say that the man’s immaterial nature suffers, 
in the sense of being itself burned by the fire. The imma¬ 
terial soul is not the sensorium in this instance. It is not 
the seat of the physical sensation. To say that it is would 
be to attribute to an immaterial nature the properties of a 
material nature. Yet, at the same time, the self-conscious 
person, the Ego resulting from the union of body and soul, 
feels the sensation of physical pain, but it feels it in and 
through the material part, and not the immaterial. In 
like manner, the entire humanity of Christ, the true body 
and reasonable soul, sustained the same relation to his 
divinity that the fleshly part of a man does to his rational 
part. It was the sensorium, the passible medium, by and 
through which it was possible for the self-conscious Ego, 
the God-man, to suffer. Hence, while it is proper to say 
that Jesus Christ, the God-man, existed before Abraham, 
and was born in the reign of Augustus Csesar, that he was 
David’s son and David’s Lord, it would not be proper to 
say that the divine nature of Jesus Christ was born in B. C. 
750, or that it died upon the cross in A. D. 30. 

The positions taken at Chalcedon have been reaffirmed 
both in the medimval and the modern Church. The doc¬ 
trine of Christ’s person is in some of its aspects even more 
mysterious and baffling to finite comprehension than the 
doctrine of the Trinity, and Christian science has not been 
inclined to go beyond the general outlines and distinctions 
made in 451. The Lutheran Church, in connection with 
the doctrine peculiar to them of the ubiquity of Christ’s 
person, have made some attempts to explain that pecu¬ 
liarity of Christ’s self-consciousness by which it is some¬ 
times that of finite weakness and sorrow, and at other 
times that of infinite majesty and power. But the endeavor 
runs too near the brink of the confusion of natures, and 
their transmutation into each other, to be regarded as a 
real advance upon the Chalcedon Christology. (For the 
literature of Christology see Dorner’s “ Person of Christ;” 
IIagenbach’s “ History of Doctrine ;” Hooker’s “ Eccle¬ 
siastical Polity,” book v., chs. 51-55; Pearson “On the 
Creed;” Sciiaff’S “ Church History,” III., 747-777 ; 
Shedd’s “ History of Doctrine,” I., ch. 5.) 

W. G. T. Shedd. 

Christophe (Henri), a negro king of Hayti, was born 
Oct. 6, 1767. He joined in 1790 the insurgents who were 
fighting against the French, and was appointed a general 
of brigade by Toussaint l’Ouverture. He had a high com¬ 
mand under Dessalines, and after the death of the latter in 
1806 became master of the northern part of the island. 
Civil war ensued between Christophe and Pethion. Early 
in 1811, Christophe was made king of Hayti and crowned 
in 1812 as Henri I. He instituted orders of nobility with 
such titles as duke of Marmalade and count of Lemonade. 
His cruelty provoked his subjects to revolt, and, unable to 
quell this rebellion, he killed himself Oct. 8, 1820. Loyer 
then became ruler of Hayti. 

Chris'topher, Pope, deposed and succeeded Leo V. in 
903, and was himself deposed and put to. death in the fol¬ 
lowing year. He was succeeded by Sergius III. 

Christopher, Saint, a native of Syria or Palestine, 
supposed to have suffered martyrdom about -5t A. D. I ho 
















940 CHRISTOPOU LOS 


Roman Catholic Church celebrates his festival on the 25th 
of July. Many wonderful legends are told of his gigantic 
size and his miraculous deeds, but modern antiquaries are 
disposed to doubt whether this popular hero ever existed. 

Christopou'los (Athanasius), a modern Greek lyric 
poet, born at Castoria in May, 1772. He lived in Constan¬ 
tinople and Moldavia. Ho produced erotic and drinking 
songs much admired by his countrymen. He has written 
also learned works on the modern Greek tongue. Hied 
Jan. 29, 1847. 

Christ’s Hospital, or the Blue-Coat School, 

London, was founded by Edward VI. in 1553 as a hospital 
for orphans and foundlings. The dress worn by the boys 
at present consists of a blue woollen gown, with a red 
leather girdle, yellow breeches and stockings, a clergyman’s 
bands, and a blue worsted cap, but this they seldom wear, 
generally going about bareheaded. The color of the dress 
was formerly russet. No child is admitted before seven or 
after ten years of age, and none can remain after fifteen, 
except " king’s boys ” (who attend the mathematical school 
founded by Charles II. in 1672) and " Grecians ” (the high¬ 
est class), of whom eight are sent on scholarships to the 
universities. About 800 boys can be admitted. The great 
hall of the hospital is a magnificent room. Latin and 
Greek are the basis of instruction, but the modern languages, 
drawing, etc. are taught. In 1683 the governors built a 
preparatory school at Hertford, where the children are in¬ 
structed till they are old enough to enter the hospital, 
the girls remaining permanently there. It can receive 
about 400 of both sexes. Among the eminent persons ed¬ 
ucated at Christ’s Hospital were Stillingfleet, Coleridge, and 
Lamb. 

Chris'ty, a township of Lawrence co., Ill. Pop. 2904. 

Chro'mate of Lead, a fine yellow pigment often 
called chrome yellow. It is a native compound of chromic 
acid and lead, and is extensively used by painters. 

Chromat/ic [from the Gr. xpwjua, “ color” or " modifi¬ 
cation ” iH music], in music, is a term applied to a succes¬ 
sion of notes at the distance of a semitone from each other. 
The word xpw/aari/cds was used in a somewhat similar sense 
by the ancient Greeks. Ascending chromatic passages are 
formed by the whole tones of the diatonic scale being raised 
or elevated by a sharp or a natural, according to key, and 
descending passages by their being lowered by a flat or a 
natural. It is usual to speak of the chromatic scale, but 
the foundation of the system of music does not rest on a 
chromatic basis, but on a diatonic one. 

Chromatics. See Colors. 

Chrome. See Chromium. 

Chrome Green, an oxide of chromium useful in col¬ 
oring porcelain and enamel. 

Chrome Yellow. See Chromate of Lead. 

Chro'mic A'cid, a compound of trioxide of chromium 
(C 1 -O 3 ) with water (OH 2 ). The formula is CrOHL. It 
forms several colored compounds, which are used as pig¬ 
ments or dyes. Among these are the chromate and bichro¬ 
mate of potash and the chromate of lead. The ruby derives 
its color from this acid. Chromic acid is used in surgery 
as a caustic. 

Chro'mic I'ron, or Chro'mite, is the most abundant 
ore of chromium, and is found at Unst in the Shetland Isles, 
near Portsoy in Scotland, near Gassin in France, in Mary¬ 
land, Pennsylvania, and in other regions. It is composed 
chiefly of the oxides of chromium and iron. It sometimes 
occurs crystallized in octahedrons, but commonly massive. 

Chro'mium, or Chrome [from the Gr. XP i^a, "color”], 
(symbol Cr), atomic weight, 26, or (new) 52.5, a metal 
discovered by Vauquelin in 1797, and so named from the 
many colored compounds it produces. It is whitish, brittle, 
and very infusible. Specific gravity, 5.5. It occurs natu¬ 
rally in the form of chromate of lead (PbOiCr) and in 
that of chromite of iron or chrome iron ore (FeCLCr?). 
Combined with oxygen and water, it forms Chromic Acid 
(which see). Chromium is not used in a metallic or separate 
state, but several of its compounds are valuable pigments 
and dyestuffs. The oxide of chromium, which is green, is 
useful in enamel-painting, and is employed in coloring 
wall-paper. The chromate and bichromate of potash are 
salts largely used by dyers and calico-printers. The latter 
is an anhydrous compound which is of immense service in 
the arts. 

Chromo. See Lithography. 

Chron'icle [from the Gr. X pova<6<;, "relating to time” 
(xpovos)], an historical register of facts and events arranged 
in the order of time; a history in which the events are re¬ 
lated in the order of time. The histories written in the 
Middle Ages were chronicles. Among the most celebrated 


CHRONOLOGY. 


writers of chronicles were Froissart, Eginhard, Monstrelct, 
Holinshed, and Geoffrey of Monmouth. 

Chron'icles [Lat. Chronica ; Gr. ra Xpovuca], the name 
of two canonical books of the Old Testament. They were 
originally one book, containing a resume of the sacred 
history from the creation until the Babylonian exile; the 
last two verses are repeated as the first verses of Ezra. 
The Hebrew name signifies "annals.” The Septuagint 
named it IlapaXeLvo/uei'a (" Paraleipomena,” Supplements), 
and the Vulgate borrowed this name. The character of 
the book, however, does not justify the name. It supple¬ 
ments the other historical books only occasionally, often it 
is identical with them. Hence the usual title is more cor¬ 
rect. The book was composed at or soon after the time of 
Nehemiah by an unknown author. Its peculiar character¬ 
istic is that it is written from the stand-point of interest in 
the Levitical and ritualistic institutions, and not from the 
stand-point of the theocracy. Its authority was assailed, 
during the first half of this century, by the rationalists, but 
the searching criticism to which it has been subjected has 
convinced unprejudiced scholars that, allowance being made 
for the peculiarities of view which it acquired from the 
post-exilic Judaism, it contains valuable contributions to 
our knowledge of the history of the Israelites. 

W. G. Sumner. 

Chron'ogram [from the Gr. X povo<;, "time,” and ypdp.p.a, 
a "letter”], an inscription in which a certain date is in¬ 
dicated by printing some of the letters in larger type than 
the others, and taking them as Roman numerals. The date 
1632 is thus expressed in the inscription of a medal of Gus- 
tavus Adolphus : ChrlstVs DVX ergo trIVMphVs. If it 
is a verse, it is called clironostichon. 

Chron'ograph [Gr. xporog, "time,” and ypd^oi, to 
"write”], an instrument used (chiefly in astronomy) for 
recording the exact instant of the occurrence of an event, 
such as the transit of a star over the spider-lines of a tele¬ 
scope. The record is made by electro-magnetism. One 
point or pen, governed by the clock, marks uniformly the 
seconds. Another is brought into action by an electric key 
under the finger of the observer. The first chronograph was 
simply Morse’s telegraphic instrument slightly modified. 
The method was originally suggested by Prof. Locke of Cin¬ 
cinnati about 1850. The chronographs now in use usually 
employ a rotating cylinder covered with paper, and turning 
on a helical axis, each revolution occupying one minute. 

Cliroiiol'ogy [from the Gr. Xpovog, "time,” and Aoyos, a 
"treatise”] is the science of the dates of events in history. 
Mathematical chronology deals with such units of time as 
begin and end with the period of complete evolution of re¬ 
curring celestial phenomena. (See Calendar.) As in 
geography and navigation longitude is measured from 
some arbitrary line, such as the meridian through Green¬ 
wich, so in historical chronology dates are fixed by giving 
their distance from some arbitrary point of time, usually 
chosen because of some remarkable occurrence which sig¬ 
nalized it. Such a point, or epoch, forms the beginning of 
an era. The mathematical or astronomical units of time 
have not been the only units used in historical chronology. 
In early times accurate methods of mathematics were un¬ 
known, and such vague periods as "a generation,” or the 
life of leading persons in a nation, such as kings, were as¬ 
sumed as units in chronology. The great variety of eras 
in ancient times confuses the student. Thus, the era of the 
Greeks began with the year of the Olympiad in which Co- 
roebus was victor, being the first of those games at which 
the victor’s name was recorded (776 B. C.). From this 
point the Greeks reckoned time by Olympiads or periods 
of four years. The Romans reckoned from the founding 
of the city (753 B. C.), which is believed the first fixed 
point from which time was ever computed. The Moham¬ 
medan era commences with the flight of Mohammed (622 
A. D.), called the Ilejra. The Roman and Greek methods 
of recording time continued in use long after the birth of 
Christ. After 312 A. D., however, the authorized system 
throughout the Roman empire was by indictions, periods 
of fifteen years, and this mode was at one time almost 
universal in the West, though the Olympiads were followed 
in the East till 440 A. D. The Christian era, first proposed 
in 527 A. B., is now universally used in Christendom (ex¬ 
cept among the Oriental Christians, many of whom pro¬ 
fess to reckon time from the creation), though its use was 
not uniform in Europe till a short time before the discovery 
of America by Columbus. Chronology has to determine the 
relationship of different eras, so as to express in language 
appropriate to one mode of computation the date of an 
event recorded in another. The Christian era is attended 
by this inconvenience, that we must count backward for 
the dates of occurrences prior to the birth of Christ. 

Different systems of chronology, such as the Chinese, 
Egyptian, Indian, and Chaldean, have been used in differ- 













CHRONOMETER—CHRYSOSTOM. 


941 


ent countries. Of sacred chronology there have been vari¬ 
ous schemes. In these the epochs are the Creation of the 
World and the Flood, but the manuscripts of the Bible do 
not agree as to the dates of these events. The chronology 
of Ussher reckons 4000 years from the creation to the birth 
of Christ, and to the flood 1056 years; the Samaritan makes 
the former much longer, though it counts from the creation 
to the flood only 1307 years; the Septuagint removes the 
creation of the world to 0000 years before Christ, and 2250 
years before the flood. These differences have never been 
reconciled. It is now, however, universally admitted that 
the first chapter of Genesis leaves the period of the creation 
quite indefinite, and the most generally approved scheme 
interprets the days of creation as periods of indefinite 
length. (Manuals of chronology have been written by 
Idsler, 1831; Brincioieier, 1843; Blair, 1851; and 
Luoke, 1862.) 

Chronom'eter [from the Gr. xpovo?, “time,” and fJitTpOVy 
a “measure"], a watch of peculiar construction and great 
perfection of workmanship, used for determining geographi¬ 
cal longitudes, or other purposes where time must be mea¬ 
sured with extreme accuracy. The chronometer differs 
from the ordinary watch in the principle of its escapement, 
which is so constructed that the balance is entirely free 
from the wheels during the greater part of its vibration; 
and also in having the balance compensated for variations 
of temperature. Marine chronometers generally beat half 
seconds, and are hung in gimbals in boxes about six or 
eight inches square. The pocket chronometer does not 
differ in appearance from the ordinary watch, excepting 
that it is generally a little larger. Chronometers are of 
immense utility in navigation, and ships going on distant 
voyages are usually furnished with several, for the purpose 
of checking one another, and also to guard against the 
effects of accidental derangement in any single one. The 
accuracy with which chronometers have been found to per¬ 
form is truly astonishing, the departures from perfect uni¬ 
formity of rate of running amounting only to small fractions 
of a second from day to day for long periods of time. 

Chron'oscope [from the Gr. x poro<>, “time,” and < TKoneu) y 
to “see”], an instrument invented in 1835 by Wheatstone 
for measuring the duration of the electric spark. It con¬ 
sisted essentially of a plane mirror revolving with a high 
but known velocity ; the elongation of the image of the 
spark as seen in this mirror furnishing the measure of the 
duration. In 1858, Feddersen substituted a concave for 
the plane mirror, with better results. In 1867, Rood re¬ 
placed the concave mirror by a set of achromatic lenses 
and a plane mirror, and succeeded in measuring intervals 
of time as small as 40 one-billionths of a second. A chrono- 
scopic apparatus was constructed by Fizeau for measuring 
the velocity of light. In this there was employed a rota¬ 
ting circular disk with sectors alternately open and closed. 
A ray from a luminous source transmitted through one of 
the open sectors, and reflected back from a distant mirror, 
is, with a certain velocity of rotation, intercepted by a 
closed sector, and with a higher velocity is transmitted 
through the next following open sector. The distance 
traversed in Fizeau’s experiment was 8633 metres (about 
5| miles). AVith this and the known velocity of rotation 
the velocity of light per second is computed. Foucault 
used for the same determination a chronoscope with a con¬ 
cave revolving mirror and a distance of only three metres 
(about ten feet). Chronoscopes for measuring the time of 
flight of projectiles have been invented by Wheatstone, 
Hipp, Henry, Navez, Benton, De Brettes, Gloesener, Schultz, 
and Bashforth. In these the beginning and end of the in¬ 
terval measured are marked by the passage of the induction 
spark, or mechanically by electro-magnetism, generally 
upon a revolving cylinder, but in some upon a fixed arc 
before which a pendulum swings. For marking equal 
minute intervals steel tuning-forks have been recently used 
in various ways. 

Chru'dim, a town of Bohemia, on the Chrudimka, a 
small river, 62 miles S. E. of Prague. It has a noble colle¬ 
giate church, a convent, and a gymnasium; also manufac¬ 
tures of cloth and a large market for horses. Pop. 11,218. 

Clirys'alis [Gr. X P V craAAi'?, from xpvcros, “gold”], a 
name originally belonging to those pupae of butterflies 
which have golden-yellow spots, but extended to the pupae 
of lepidopterous insects generally, and even to those of 
other orders. The chrysalides of lepidopterous insects are 
enclosed in a horny case, sometimes angular, sometimes 
round, generally pointed at the posterior end, sometimes at 
both ends. Before the caterpillar goes into this state it 
often spins a silken cocoon, with which foreign substances 
are sometimes mixed, in which the chrysalis is concealed. 
Chrysalides are often suspended by cords, and generally 
remain nearly at rest; some bury themselves in the earth. 
Most of them have at least a slight power of motion. 


Chrysanthemum [from the Gr. xpu<ros, “gold,” and 
avdeu-ov, a “ flower”], a genus of herbs and shrubs of the 
order Composite, tribe Senecionideae, having an involucre 
with imbricated scales, a naked receptacle, the fruit desti¬ 
tute of pappus. The species of this genus arc annuals, 
perennials, or shrubby, and all have leafy stems. They 
are natives chiefly of the temperate parts of the Old 
World. Chrysanthemum carinatum, an annual species with 
white ray florets and dark-red disk, a native of Barbary, 
is frequently cultivated. Chrysanthemum Indicum , the 
Chinese chrysanthemum, a native of Eastern Asia, has 
long been cultivated as an ornamental plant. Its colors 
are various—red, lilac, rose-color, white, yellow, orange, 
or variegated. It flowers in autumn and winter, is easy of 
cultivation, and is easily propagated by cuttings, suckers, 
or parting the roots. 

Chrys'elepiiaii'tine [from the Gr. xp^o-o?, “gold,” and 
eXe'^a?, eXe^avTos, “ivory”] Statues, a term applied to 
images of gold and ivory extensively made among the an¬ 
cient Greeks. The works executed by Phidias at Athens 
in the time of Pericles are the most famous of this class, 
the greatest being the colossal Athena of the Parthenon, 
twenty-six cubits high, representing the goddess in armor. 
The Olympian Zeus of Phidias was also of world-wide 
renown. The combination of gold and ivory was chiefly 
employed in temple statues; and though the more famous 
works of this class belong to an advanced period, this kind 
of art was very ancient, and probably borrowed from the 
adorning of wooden images with the precious metals. The 
flesh parts were oftenest of ivory, the clothing and orna¬ 
ments of gold. 

Chrysip'p 158 [GW Xpvtn7nros], an eminent Stoic philos¬ 
opher, born at Soli, in Cilicia, in 280 B. C., was a son of 
Apollonius of Tarsus. He was a pupil of Cleanthes, and 
was distinguished for his skill in dialectics and his sub¬ 
tlety as a disputant. He once said to Cleanthes, “ Teach 
me only your doctrines, and I will find the arguments 
to defend them.” The Sorites is said to have been in¬ 
vented by Chrysippus. He wrote a great number of works, 
none of which are extant. Pie was considered to be the 
greatest Stoic philosopher except Zeno. Died in 207 B. C. 
(See Ritter, “History of Philosophy;” J. F. Richter, 
“Dissertatio de Chrysippo Stoico,” 1738.) 

Chrysober'yl [from the Gr. xp^cro?, “ gold,” and 
/3ijpvXXo9, “ beryl ”], a gem, the finer specimens of which are 
very beautiful, is an aluminate of glucina. Lapidaries 
sometimes call it Oriental or opalescent chrysolite. It is 
of a green color, inclining to yellow, semi-transparent, and 
has a double refraction. It occurs crystallized in six- 
sided of eight-sided prisms; sometimes in macles or twin 
crystals. Some specimens exhibit a beautiful opalescent 
play of light. 

Chrysocol'la [Gr. xpucro<coXXa], a hydrated silicate of 
copper, sometimes called copper-green, was used as a pig¬ 
ment by the ancient Greeks. The color is verdigris or 
emerald-green, passing into sky-blue, with a shining or 
dull resinous lustre. It is found native in considerable 
abundance in Missouri and AA r isconsin. 

Chrys'olite [Gr. xpvo-oXtflo?, from xpv<ros, “gold,” and 
Xi'Pos, a “ stone;” Fr. chrysolithe ], a mineral composed of 
silica, magnesia, and protoxide of iron, of a fine green 
color, with vitreous lustre, transparent, and having double 
refraction, in hardness about equal to quartz, and with a 
conchoidal fracture. It often crystallizes in four-sided or 
six-sided prisms, variously modified. \ T ery fine specimens 
are brought from Egypt and from some parts of the East, 
also from Brazil. Chrysolite is used as an ornamental 
stone, but is not highly valued. 

Chrys'oprase [Gr. xpvo-oirpaaos, from xpvo-o?, “gold,” 
and npaaov, a “leek,” from its peculiar tint], a very rare 
variety of chalcedony, valued far above common chalce¬ 
dony as an ornamental gem; a stone of this kind fit for 
mounting in a ring is worth from fifty to one hundred dol¬ 
lars. It is of a fine apple-green color in choice specimens, 
but inferior ones exhibit other shades. It is often set in a 
circlet of diamonds or pearls. It is apt to lose its color 
through time if kept in a warm place, but dampness is 
favorable to its preservation, and it is therefore kept in 
damp cotton. It is found in Lower Silesia, in Colorado, 
and in Northern New York. The ebrysoprase of the an¬ 
cients is not certainly identified by modern authorities. 

Chrys'ostom [Gr. Xpvcrocrro/oio? (?. e. “ golden-mouth¬ 
ed”)], (John), the most accomplished orator of the ancient 
Greek Church, was born at Antioch in Syria about 347 
A. D. Ho was brought up by his widowed mother, An- 
thusa, his father, Seeundus, having died soon after his 
birth. Ho studied rhetoric under Libanius, the famous 
Sophist, and philosophy under Andragathius. Quitting the 



















942 


CHRZANOWSKI—CHURCH. 


legal profession, upon which he had entered, he was or¬ 
dained deacon by Bishop Meletius in 381, and presbyter 
by Bishop Flavian in 380. llis fame as a preacher spread 
throughout Christendom. On Feb. 26, 398, he was conse¬ 
crated archbishop of Constantinople, having, by a mixture 
of force and fraud, been carried thither against his will, 
llis boldness as a reformer brought him into trouble. Both 
among the clergy and at the imperial court enemies rose 
up against him. In 404 he was banished to Cucusus, a 
mountain-village in the Tauric range, between Cilicia and 
the Lesser Armenia; and in 407 lie died at Comana, in 
Pontus, on his way into still remoter exile on the eastern 
shore of the Black Sea. He was little of stature, with a 
large, bald head, hollow cheeks, and deep sunken eyes. 
His eloquence was of the highly ornate Asiatic type, but 
also very incisive and practical. In rebuke he Avas terrible, 
calling things by their right names. He had great rever¬ 
ence for the Scriptures, lived abstemiously, defied danger, 
promoted missions, and died exclaiming, “ Glory be to 
God for all things ! Amen.” The best edition of his works 
is the Benedictine, 13 vols. folio, Paris, 1718-38. (See 
Neander, “Life of Chrysostom,” in German, 2 vols., 1821, 
3d ed. 1848; G. IIermant, “Vie de Saint J. Chrysostome,” 
1664; Pertiies, “Life of Chrysostom,” 1854; Stephens, 
“ Life of Chrysostom,” 1872.) 

Chrzanow'ski (Adalbert), a Polish general, born in 
1788, served in the Polish revolution in 1830, when he was 
suspected of sympathy with the Russians, and in Piedmont 
in 1849, where he commanded the Sardinian army. After 
the disastrous battle of Novara he was dismissed. His last 
years he passed in Louisiana, where he died Mar. 2, 1861. 

Chub (Lcuciscus cephalus), a European fish of the fam¬ 
ily Cyprinidm, of the same genus with the roach, dace, etc. 
The color is bluish black, passing into silvery white on the 


Chub. 

belly; the cheeks and gill-covers a rich golden yellow. 
The chub rarely attains a weight exceeding five pounds. 
It is plentiful in many of the rivers of England, and occurs 
in the south of Scotland. It is found in many rivers of 
the continent of Europe. There are several species in the 
U. S. very much like the above. They are not in great 
esteem for the table. The chub rises well at a fly, and 
takes freely a variety of baits. 

Chuck-Will’s-Widow (Antrostomus Carol inensis), a 
bird of the family Caprimulgidse, a native of the southeim 
parts of the U. S. It has received its singular name from 
its note, which resembles these syllables articulated with 
distinctness, and is repeated like that of the whippoorwill. 

Chucui'to, or Chuquito, a town of Peru, department 
of Puno, is pleasantly situated on the western shore of 
Lake Titicaca, 101 miles E. of Arequipa. Mines of gold 
and silver have been opened in the vicinity. Pop. about 
5000. 

Chudleigh Cape, the N. E. point of Labrador. 

Chumbul', a river of India, rises in the Vindhyan 
Mountains, flows nearly north-eastward, and enters the 
Jumna 85 miles S. E. of Agra. Length, 500 miles. 

Chuiiam', the name of a fine quicklime made in India 
from calcined shells or from very pure limestone, and used 
for chewing with Betel (which see); also used for cement 
and plaster. When chunam is used for plaster it is mixed 
with fine river sand and thoroughly beaten up Avith water; 
coarse sugar and eggs are sometimes added. When beau¬ 
tiful work is desired, thi'ee coats are applied to a Avail, the 
last being in the form of a fine paste consisting of four 
parts of lime and one of fine white sand, beaten up Avith 
Avhites of eggs, sour milk, and butter {ghee). 

Chunar', a toAvn of British India, in the presidency 
of Agra, on the Ganges. It is fortified, and has several 
military institutions. Pop. 11,058. 

Chu'prah, a town of British India, presidency of Ben¬ 
gal, on the Ganges, 35 miles W. N. W. of Patna. It is the 
chief town of the district of Sarun. It contains many 



mosques and pagodas. Here is a British military station. 
Pop. estimated at 30,000. 

Chuquibain'ba, a mountain of Peru. Height 21,000 
feet. 

Chuquisa'ca, the extreme south-eastern department 
of Bolivia. Area, 72,802 square miles. The surface is 
variable. The rainfall is considerable. The mountainous 
western part only is inhabited, where the climate is pleas¬ 
ant. The soil yields cinchona, grain, tobacco, sugar, coffee, 
and cocoa. The exports are cattle, horses, wine, spirits, 
and sugar. Capital, Chuquisaca. Pop. 223,868, besides 
50,000 Avandering Indians. 

Chuquisaca (golden bridge), Su'cre, or La Pla'ta, 

the capital of Bolivia, is situated on a plateau near the 
Andes, 9343 feet above the level of the sea; lat. 19° 23' S., 
Ion. 65° 30' W. It is well built, Avith regular, spacious, 
and clean streets. It has a magnificent cathedral Avith a 
large dome, a president’s palace, a university, a college, 
seA'eral monasteries, and a theatre. It is an archbishop’s 
see and the seat of the national legislature. The climate 
is pleasant. Rich silver-mines are worked in the vicinity. 
Pop. 23,979. 

Chur [Fr. Coire], the capital of the Swiss canton of 
Grisons, is in a valley and on or near the river Rhine, 60 
miles S. E. of Zurich, with Avhieh it is connected by rail- 
Avay. It has an ancient cathedral of the eighth century 
and a bishop’s palace : also manufactures of cutting tools 
and zinc-ware. Pop. in 1870, 7552. 

Church [from the Gr. Kvpiasov, i. e. the “ Lord’s house” 
(from Kupio?, the “Lord”); Anglo-Saxon, eyrie or circ; 
Ger. Kir che ; Scottish, kirk ; Lat. tempi um ; Fr. eg line ; Sp. 
iglesia ; It. chiesa]. The primary signification of the Eng¬ 
lish word church is the “ house of the Lord; ” it came 
afterAvards to denote a collective body of Christians 
meeting in such a house for Avorship, and also the en¬ 
tire body of Christian people, as Avlien avo speak of 
Christ as “ the Head of the Church.” In this last sense 
it corresponds to the Greek eK/cA^o-ia (Lat. eeclesia, 
Avhence the Fr. Sglise, Sp. iglesia, and It. chiesa), from 
eKKa\eon, to “ call out,” to “ summon,” to “ assemble.” 

The earliest Christian ecclesiastical structures Avere 
copied not from the heathen or Jewish temple, but 
from that combination of a hall of justice and a market¬ 
place to Avhieh the name basilica was given. The reason 
of this is probably to be found not so much in the 
opposition betAveen Christians and heathens, as in the 
different conceptions Avhieh they formed of the nature 
and objects of Avorship. The rites of heathenism were 
performed exclusively by the priest, the people remain¬ 
ing without the often roofless temple, which was not for wor¬ 
shippers, but Avas the abode of Deity. This mysterious char¬ 
acter rendered it unsuitable for services in Avhieh the people 
were to participate, and for the delivery of those public ad¬ 
dresses which Avere employed as a means of Christian teach¬ 
ing and exhortation. To such purposes the basilica was 
readily adapted. Slightly changed in form, it served the 
purposes of Christian Avorship, but there Avas nothing in 
its form which tended to awaken sentiments of devotion. 
The cross had been used by Christians from a \ r ery early 
period, and gradually it had become the principal dis¬ 
tinctive emblem of Christianity. Nothing could be more 
natural than that when it became desirable to give dis¬ 
tinctively Christian character to the basilica, this should 
be effected by such a modification as should convert it 
into a representation of this emblem. Nor did this alter¬ 
ation lead to any very extensive change in form. The 
basilica frequently has side entrances, in place of, or in 
addition to, that from the end. All that Avas requisite, 
then, to convert the simple parallelogram into a cross was, 
that at each side, in place of direct communication with 
the exterior, should be passages or arms running out at 
right angles ; Avhieh arms cut the building across, and were 
therefore transepts. 

A central tower or spire is very frequently erected over 
the point at which the arms or transepts intersect the body 
of the cross. From this point the portion of the building 
Avestward to the Galilee or great entrance is called the 
nave, Avhile the portion eastward to the high altar is the 
choir. In the more complete churches the nave> and fre¬ 
quently the choir, are divided longitudinally by two rows 
of pillars, the portion at each side being generally narrower 
and less lofty than that in the centre. These side portions 
are the aisles. Vestries for the priests and choristers gen¬ 
erally exist in connection Avith the ohoir. Along the sides 
of the choir are seats or stalls, usually of carved oak ; and 
amongst these seats, in a bishop’s church, the most con¬ 
spicuous is the cathedra, or seat for the bishop, from Avhieh 
the cathedral takes its name. The larger English cathe¬ 
dral churches have a chapter-house attached, which is 


























CHURCH—CHURCH GOVERNMENT. 


943 


commonly octagonal, and is often one of the most beauti¬ 
ful portions of the whole. Cloisters are frequent, and the 
sides of those which are farthest from the church or chap¬ 
ter-house are enclosed by other buildings, such as a library 
and places of residence for officials. It is here that, in 
Roman Catholic churches, the hall, dormitories, and kit¬ 
chens for the monks are commonly placed. Beneath the 
church there is the crypt. The baptistery is another ad¬ 
junct, frequently altogether detached. The position of the 
nave, choir or chancel, aisles, and transepts is nearly in¬ 
variable, but the other portions vary greatly. 

In ordinary language, any building set apart for Chris¬ 
tian ordinances is called a church, though when of a minor 
kind it is frequently designated as a chajiel. After a long 
period of neglect the building of churches in a style emu¬ 
lative of the older architecture has greatly revived. 

When applied to a body of Christian people, the word 
Church is very nearly the equivalent of the Greek word 
%Kic\ri<Tia, as used in the New Testament. The whole body 
of the Church on earth is called the “Church militant,” 
as contending with evil and sin; the saints after death are 
called collectively the Church triumphant. Protestants 
distinguish between the visible and the invisible Church— 
the invisible Church consisting of all who are spiritually 
united in Christ; the visible Church consisting of all who 
profess the religion of Christ. Roman Catholics do not in 
the same manner acknowledge the distinction, but regard 
a connection with the hierarchy and participation of ordi¬ 
nances as establishing a connection with the true Church. 
Many Protestants regard the Church as subsisting in vir¬ 
tue of the authority of Christ and through the faith of in¬ 
dividual believers; Roman Catholics regard the succession 
of the hierarchy and the regular administration of the 
sacraments as.essential to the existence of that catholic or 
universal Church which Christ planted. They also regard 
the Church in its official action as so guided by Heaven as 
to be infallible. Protestants, for the most part, regard the 
Church of Rome and the Greek Church as forming part of 
the visible Church, but Roman Catholics are not accustom¬ 
ed to make a corresponding admission with respect to Prot¬ 
estants. Prom the hierarchical principle of the Church of 
Rome and of the Greeks results an employment of the 
word Church to designate the hierarchy alone. But most 
Protestants employ it to denote collectively all the fol¬ 
lowers of Christ, or to designate some particular body of 
Christians worshipping in one place, or the members of 
some particular denomination. 

Revised by J. Thomas. 

Church, a township of Wetzel co., West Va. Pop. 
1607. 

Church (Albert E.), LL.D., an American officer and 
mathematician, born in 1807 in Salisbury, Conn., graduated 
at West Point in 1828. He served, while lieutenant of ar¬ 
tillery, at the Military Academy as assistant professor 1831 
and 1833-37, and as acting professor of mathematics 1837- 
3S, and in garrison at Newport and Boston harbors 1S32- 
33. He resigned Mar. 13, 1838, and was appointed profes¬ 
sor of mathematics in the U. S. Military Academy, and still 
holds the position. He is member of several scientific as¬ 
sociations and author of valuable mathematical works, spe¬ 
cially prepared for the use of his cadet pupils—viz. “ Ele¬ 
ments of Differential and Integral Calculus,” 1842, and of 
an “ Improved Edition containing the Elements of the Cal¬ 
culus of Variations,” 1851, of “Elements of Analytical 
Geometry,” 1851, of “ Elements of Analytical Trigonom¬ 
etry,” 1857, and of “ Elements of Descriptive Geometry, 
with its application to Spherical Projections, Shades, and 
Shadows, Perspective and Isometric Projections,” 1865. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Church (Rev. Alonzo), D. D., LL.D., an eminent Pres¬ 
byterian divine, and president of the University of Georgia 
from 1829 to 1859. He was a native of Vermont, and was 
a graduate of Middlebury College in that State. 

Church (Benjamin), a famous Indian fighter, born in 
Plymouth (now in Massachusetts) in 1639. He fought in 
King Philip’s war, and commanded the colonists in the 
battle in which Philip was slain. He also led five expedi¬ 
tions against the French and Indians in Maine. He re¬ 
moved in 1674 to Little Compton, R. I., where he died, in 
consequence of a fall from his horse, Jan. 17, 1718. He 
was distinguished for piety, valor, and integrity. 

Church (Frederick Edwin), an American landscape- 
painter, born at Hartford, Conn., in May, 1826. He visited 
South America in 1853, and derived from the scenery of the 
Andes materials for several paintings. He gained a high 
reputation by his “View of Niagara Falls from the Cana¬ 
dian Shore.” Among his other works are “ The Heart of 
the Andes,” “Morning on the Cordilleras,” “Sunrise on 
Mt. Desert Island,” “The Parthenon,” and “Jerusalem.” 

Church (John Hubbard), D. D., a Congregational min¬ 


ister, born at Rutland, Mass., Mar. 17, 1772, graduated at 
Harvard in 1797, became pastor of a chui'ch in Pelham, 
N. H., in 1798, where he was minister for forty years. He 
was prominent in the Bible and missionary societies, and 
an advocate of classical learning. Died June 13, 1840. 

Church (Pharcellus), D. D., born Sept. 11, 1801, in 
Seneca, Ontario co., N. Y., educated at Hamilton, N. Y., 
pastor of Baptist churches in Poultney, Vt., Providence, 
R. I., Rochester, N. Y., Boston, Mass., was for ten years 
editor of the “Chronicle” (Baptist), New York City, a fre¬ 
quent contributor to other journals, and author of “ Phil¬ 
osophy of Benevolence,” “Religious Dissensions,” “Anti¬ 
och,” “ Pentecost,” “ Memoir of Theodosia Dean,” “ Tem¬ 
pleton,” etc. 

Church (Sir Richard), a Greek general, was born in 
Ireland in 1785, and entered the British army. In the 
Greek war for independence he commanded the land forces. 
Afterwards he was the chief of the anti-Russian party, and 
minister under King Otho. Died Mar. 20, 1873. 

Church (Samuel), LL.D., a distinguished American 
jurist, born at Salisbury, Conn., in 1785, graduated at Yale 
in 1803, was eleven years a judge of probate in his native 
State, a judge of the superior court in 1833, and chief-jus¬ 
tice of Connecticut (1847-54). Died Sept. 12, 1854. 

Church (Sandford E.), an eminent American jurist, 
born in Milford, Otsego co., N. Y., April 18, 1815, studied 
law and rose to prominence in his profession. He was chosen 
lieutenant-governor of the State of New York in 1850, and 
again in 1852. In 1857 he was elected comptroller, this 
latter being the last elective office held by him. He was 
nominated in 1859 for comptroller, but defeated, and nomi¬ 
nated again in 1863, with the same result. In 1862 he was 
Democratic nominee for Congress from the twenty-seventh 
New York district. In May, 1870, he was appointed by 
Gov. Hoffman chief-justice of the State of New York, which 
position he accepted and still holds. In 1872 he was re¬ 
quested to stand as candidate for the Democratic nomina¬ 
tion for governor, but he declined the honor. In politics 
he has ever been a steadfast Democrat, and, though fre¬ 
quently approached by opposing parties, he has never sacri¬ 
ficed his political principles to personal preferment. Under 
Pierce and Buchanan the opposition made him tempting 
offers, but notwithstanding he was opposed to the Nebraska 
bill, he rejected all proffers of prospective patronage. After 
his defeat in 1864 he retired from active political life. 

Church Calendar. See Calendar, Easter, and 
Epact, by Pres. F. A. P. Barnard, S. T. D., LL.D., L. II. D. 

Church Creek, a post-township of Dorchester co., Md. 
Pop. 1144. 

Church Bis'ciplme, in its more limited sense, in¬ 
cludes the means employed by the Church, besides the min¬ 
istration of the word and sacraments, to secure on the part 
of its members faithfulness to their profession and blame¬ 
lessness of life. It rests upon the authority of Christ, and 
arises out of the very constitution of the Church. Among 
early Christians it assumed forms of great severity towards 
offenders. At a later period discipline was chiefly exer¬ 
cised with respect to persons accused of heresy and schism. 
The penances of the Church of Rome form an important 
part of its discipline, and therewith its indulgences are con¬ 
nected, as well as its rule of auricular confession. In the 
Protestant churches public confession of sins by which 
scandal has been given, and submission to public rebuke, 
are sometimes required. The power of exclusion from 
church membership is generally retained until repentance 
and reformation of life. In a wider sense, church discipline 
is used to designate the whole polity of a Church, including 
its Church Government (which see). 

Cliurch Gov'ernment. It is obvious that the Church 
must have a fixed polity according to which its affairs are 
administered. It is disputed among Christians how far 
this has been prescribed by Divine authority, and how far 
left to the discretion of men. The form of government de¬ 
pends primarily on the idea entertained of the constitution 
of the Church. Congregationalists place church govern¬ 
ment in the hands of the members of the congregation and 
the office-bearers whom they have elected. Baptists dis¬ 
tinguish between the church proper and the congregation, 
hence they lodge this power in the church, as the primary 
body. Episcopalians, Presbyterians, and the various Meth¬ 
odist churches agree that , many congregations are to be 
united under a common government; but this, according 
to Presbyterians, is properly carried on by ministers and 
elders of these congregations meeting for this purpose; 
while, according to Episcopalians, it is more or less abso¬ 
lutely in the hands of bishops. Tho government of the 
Methodist Episcopal churches is chiefly in the hands of tho 
quarterly conference and tho annual and general confei- 
ences, in which the laity have more or less share. 































CIIUKCH HISTORY—CHUKUBUSCO. 


944 


Church History. Sec Ecclesiastical History, by 
Prop. Philip Schaff, Pii. D., S. T. D. 

Church Mill, a post-township of Queen Anno co., Md. 
Pop. 3655. 

Chur'chill, or Missinnip'pi, a river of North Amer¬ 
ica, rises in a lake near Ion. 105° W. It flows nearly north¬ 
eastward, passes through Nelson’s Lake, and enters Hud¬ 
son’s Bay in lat. 59° N. Length, estimated at 800 miles. 

Churchill, a county in the W. of Nevada. Area, 6000 
square miles. It contains Humboldt and Carson Sink, a 
lake which has no outlet. The western part is traversed 
by Carson River. The surface is mountainous; the soil is 
mostly sterile. The streams are absorbed by the sands of 
the desert. Sulphur, salt, and soda abound. Ores of sil¬ 
ver are found here. Capital, Stillwater. Pop. 196. 

Churchill, a township of Lyon co., Nev. Pop. 40. 

Churchill (Lord Alfred), a brother of the duke of 
Marlborough, was born in 1824, studied at the Sandhurst 
Military College, served in the British army (1842-48), and 
afterwards was long a member of Parliament. He is dis¬ 
tinguished for his interest in the African race, and was a 
delegate to the sixth meeting of the Evangelical Alliance 
at New York in 1873. 

Churchill (Charles), an English poet and satirist, 
was born at Westminster in 1731. He was a fellow-student 
and friend of the poet Cowper. Although he had a strong 
aversion to the clerical profession, he was ordained as a 
priest in 1756. In 1758 he succeeded his father as curate 
at St. John’s, Westminster. His parishioners were scan¬ 
dalized by his dissipated and licentious habits, and by his 
negligence of his duties. He produced .in 1761 “ The Ros- 
eiad,” a witty satire on theatrical managers and per¬ 
formers, which was very successful. About this time he 
resigned his curacy and quitted the profession of clergy¬ 
man. He defended himself against certain critics by an 
admired poem entitled “ The Apology.” He was an inti¬ 
mate friend of John Wilkes, whom he assisted in the 
“North Briton.” In 1763 he published “The Prophecy 
of Famine,” a satire on the Scots, which is much admired. 
Among his other works are “ The Conference,” “ Gotham,” 
and “ The Author.” “ Churchill,” says Thackeray, “ has 
those brilliant flashes of insight and spontaneous felicities 
of expression by which every true critic at once distin¬ 
guishes the man of natural power from the man of mere 
cultivation.” He died at Boulogne, France, during a visit, 
in 1764. (See Tooke, “ Life of Churchill;” and Macau¬ 
lay’s essay entitled “ Charles Churchill,” 1845.) 

Churchill (Sylvester), an inspector-general in the 
U. S. army, born in Woodstock, Vt., Aug. 2, 1783, educated 
in Vermont, published a newspaper till 1812, when he was 
appointed a first lieutenant of artillery U. S. A.; promoted 
to be captain Aug., 1813; assistant inspector-general, with 
the rank of major, Aug. 29, 1813; retained May, 1815, in 
artillery; major Third Artillery 1835; inspector-general, 
with rank of colonel, June 25,1841. Gen. Churchill served 
with credit during the war of 1812-15; from 1815 to 1836 
was on garrison or special duty; served during the war 
with the Creek Indians, and in Florida 1836-41, when he 
was appointed inspector-general; accompanied Gen. Wool 
in the war with Mexico, and for distinguished services at 
Buena Vista was brevetted brigadier-general U. S. A.; 
retired from active service Sept. 25, 1861. Died at Wash¬ 
ington, D. C., Dec. 7, 1862. 

Church'ing of Wom'en, a usage prevailing in certain 
branches of the Church, of women on recovery after child¬ 
bearing going to church to give thanks. It appears to 
have been borrowed from the Jewish law (Lev. xii. 6). In 
the Church of the early ages it was accompanied with va¬ 
rious rites, and in the Roman Catholic and Greek churches 
it is imperative. In the Anglican Church, also, a service 
for the churching of women finds a place in the Liturgy. 

Church'man (John), an able preacher of the Society 
of Friends, was born at Nottingham, Pa., June 4, 1705, en¬ 
tered upon his ministry in 1733, and preached in many parts 
of the U. S. and Europe. A narrative of his experiences 
was published in 1780 in London. Died July 24, 1775. 

Church Methodists. See Primitive Wesleyans. 

Church Mills, or Wegat'chie, a post-village of 
Rossie township, St. Lawrence co., N. Y., on the Oswe- 
gatchie River, has a woollen mill and other manufactories. 
Pop. 201. 

Church of England and Wales. See England, 
Church op, by Rev. Beverley R. Betts. 

Church of God, a denomination of Christians first 
organized at Harrisburg, Pa., in 1830, by the converts and 
followers of John Winebrenner, formerly a minister of the 
German Reformed Church. The doctrines of this Church 
are a belief in the Bible as the authoritative revelation of 


God; also in the Trinity, in human depravity, the vicarious 
atonement, and the freedom of the will (rejecting the Cal- 
vinistic doctrine of election). This Church also practises 
adult immersion as the only baptism, and administers the 
Lord’s Supper to all Christians who desire it. They be¬ 
lieve that literal washing of the feet is one of the ordinances 
of the Church. In all other respects the Church of God 
agrees with other evangelical Christian churches. The 
congregations of this denomination arc in part independent 
in church government, but are united into “elderships,” 
which are again joined into one “ general eldership,” which 
owns the church property. They have several newspapers 
and colleges, and in 1866 numbered 25,000 members, hav¬ 
ing about 400 churches and 350 ministers. 

Church of Scotland. See Scotland, Church of, 
by David Inglis, LL.D. 

Church of Scotland, Eree. See Free Church of 
Scotland, by David Inglis, LL.D. 

Church Kates, in England, and formerly in Ireland, 
a tax on the parishioners and occupiers of land for repair¬ 
ing the church and defraying all expenses (other than 
that of maintaining the minister) incident to divine ser¬ 
vice. The chancel being regarded as belonging to the 
clergy, the expense of maintaining it is frequently laid on 
the rector or vicar. The origin of church rates is a matter 
involved in obscurity. It is certain that the expenses paid 
in this manner formerly were paid out of the tithes. Lord 
Campbell is of opinion that the contributions of the parish¬ 
ioners were at first voluntary, and that the custom at last 
assumed the form of an obligation. There is no legal mode 
of compelling the parishioners as a body to provide the 
rate; and this has occasioned difficulty in imposing the 
tax in parishes in which dissent is prevalent. In recover¬ 
ing the rates from individuals refusing to pay, formerly 
the only mode was by suit in the ecclesiastical court; at 
present, in cases under ten pounds, the justices of the 
peace, on complaint of the church-wardens, inquire into 
the merits of the case and order payment. Against the 
decision of the justices an appeal lies to the quarter ses¬ 
sions. There are few social arrangements in England that 
have been the cause of greater irritation than tlie church 
rates. Since the first bill for the abolition of church rates 
was introduced by Lord Althorp in 1834, scarcely a session 
has passed in which some attempt has not been made at 
legislation on this subject. Church rates in Ireland ceased 
with the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland in 1871. 
In Scotland the system is similar to that in England, though 
the name of church rates is not used. 

Church'ville, a post-village of Riga township, Monroe 
co., N. Y., on the New York Central R. R., 15 miles IV. by 
S. of Rochester. It has five churches, a flouring and saw 
mill, a machine-shop, and a foundry. 

Church-War dens in the Anglican churches are offi¬ 
cers whose duty is to protect the church edifice, to superin¬ 
tend the performance of public worship, and maintain order 
during service. There are generally two in each parish. 
In some dioceses they are appointed by the clergymen, and 
in others are chosen by the parishioners. Their assistants 
are sometimes called questmen. 

Church'yard (Thomas), born in 1520, was a prolific 
author of prose and verse in the early part of Queen Eliza¬ 
beth’s reign. He was at first a servant of the earl of Sur¬ 
rey, and afterwards a soldier. Some of his works have 
been from time to time reprinted, more for the pleasure of 
bibliophiles than on account of any great merit. His 
“Worthiness of Wales,” “ Chips concerning Scotland,” and 
“ Legende of Jane Shore” are the best known of his works. 
Died in 1604. 

Churn, an apparatus for agitating cream for the separa¬ 
tion of butter, of which many forms are in use. Trials to 
test the merits of different churns have failed to settle which 
is the best for actual use, for the same machine under dif¬ 
ferent conditions does not always yield the same result. 
The oldest form is the upright or plunge churn. Barrel 
churns, sometimes of monster size, are used in large dairies 
in Holland. For small or moderate-sized dairies perhaps 
the most suitable is the box churn, having the agitators 
fixed on a horizontal spindle. To all forms of churns power 
can be and is applied. Horse-power is in very general use in 
large dairies in Great Britain. In exceptional cases steam- 
power is used. (See Butter, by Prof. C. F. Chandler.) 

Chur'ton (Ralph), archdeacon of St. Andrew’s, is best 
known for his Bampton Lecture on the prophecies relating 
to the destruction of Jerusalem, delivered in 1785. He was 
born near Bickley, Cheshire, Dec. 8, 1754, was educated at 
Brazenose, Oxford, and died Mar. 23, 1831. He was a la¬ 
borious and faithful minister, and the author of several bio¬ 
graphical and other works of decided merit. 

Churubus'co, a village or hamlet of Mexico, on tho 
















CHUSAN—CHYME. 


945 


Rio de Churubusco, about 6 miles S. of the city of Mexico, 
the scene ot a battle between the American forces under Gen. 
M infield Scott, marching on the city of Mexico, and the 
Mexicans, defending the approaches to their capital, under 
President Santa Anna. The battle of Contreras was fought 
on the same day, and both can be described in connection. 

Leaving a competent garrison at Puebla, Gen. Scott ad¬ 
vanced his forces upon the capital Aug. 7-10, 1847, the 
army becoming united about the head of Lake Chaleo. Re¬ 
connaissances made Aug. 12-13 upon the Pehon, a strongly 
fortified, isolated mound, commanding the principal ap¬ 
proach to the capital from the E., and upon Mcxicalcingo 
to the left of the Peiion, resulted in Scott’s falling back 
upon a previously entertained project of turning these 
strong eastern defences by passing S. of Lakes Chaleo and 
Jochimilco, thus reaching the hard though much broken 
ground to the S. and S. W. of the capital, near San Au¬ 
gustin. By a sudden inversion, Worth's division, followed 
closely by Pillow’s and Quitman’s, marched on the loth. 
Twiggs’ division^ being left at Ayotla till the 16th to 
threaten the Penon and Mexicalcingo, and deceive the 
enemy as long as practicable, marched on the 16th towards 
Chaleo, met and dispersed a force of Mexicans double his 
own in numbers, under Gen. Valencia. 

Worth’s division arrived at San Augustin on the 18th, 
and was pushed forward to San Antonio, 3 miles distant, 
on the direct road to the capital. 

A reconnaissance was commenced on the 18th, and con¬ 
tinued next day, to the left of San Augustin over difficult 
fiolds of rocks and lava which extend from San Antonio 
towards Magdalena; Pillow’s division was advanced to 
make a road for heavy artillery, and Twiggs’s thrown for¬ 
ward to cover this operation. At 3 p. m. of the 19th this 
advance came to a point where the road could only be con¬ 
tinued under the fire of twenty-two pieces of the enemy’s 
artillery, strongly entrenched and supported by cavalry 
and infantry. Our batteries had advanced within range 
of the enemy’s camp, and Pillow’s and Twiggs’ divisions 
moved forward to dislodge him from his position. A battle 
ensued which lasted till nightfall, our troops maintaining 
their position. 

Observing the hamlet of Contreras on the road leading 
from the capital, through the entrenched camp, to Mag¬ 
dalena, and the streams of reinforcements advancing from 
the capital by that road, Gen. Scott determined to occupy 
that place and arrest reinforcements, and Col. Morgan 
was ordered with his regiment (the Fifteenth) to move for¬ 
ward for this purpose. Riley with his brigade was already 
on the enemy’s left and in advance of this hamlet, and 
Shields was ordered to follow and support Morgan. The 
night of the 19th found these troops, with the brigades of 
Gens. P. F. Smith and Cadwalader, all under Smith, in and 
about Contreras, on the same road with the enemy’s en¬ 
trenched camp, and half a mile nearer the capital. At 3 
A. m. (Aug. 20th) the movement was commenced on the 
rear of the enemy’s camp, Riley leading, followed by Cad¬ 
walader and Smith. Despite the darkness, rain, and mud, 
an elevation behind the enemy was reached by Riley, from 
whence his intrenchments were stormed and carried in 
seventeen minutes. Cadwalader successfully executed the 
part assigned him of diverting the enemy, and brought up 
to the general assault two of his regiments, who poured 
destructive volleys into the works. Smith’s brigade (tem¬ 
porarily under Major Dimick, First Artillery), in the mean 
time following, discovered a long line of Mexican cavalry 
outside the works, which were attacked and x*outed. Shields, 
remaining at Contreras, held large numbers of the enemy 
in check, and by pursuit added lai’gely to the brilliant re¬ 
sults of the day. The American force here engaged num¬ 
bered (including Shields) not more than 4500, while the 
Mexican army numbered 20,000, all of whom, not captured 
or killed, now fled. Two 6-pounders taken from the Fourth 
Artillery at Buena Vista (though without dishonor) were 
here recaptured, besides twenty-two pieces of ordnance, 
800 prisoners, 700 mules and many horses, and immense 
quantities of small-arms and ammunition. 

The battle being over before the advancing brigades of 
Worth’s and Quitman’s were in sight, they were ordered 
back to their old position, and Worth was ordered to at¬ 
tack San Antonio, which place he soon forced, itrf garrison 
being shaken by the news of the victory at Contreras. 
While these operations were going on on the left, a party 
was sent to reconnoitre the strongly fortified church or 
convent of San Pablo in the hamlet of Churubusco, and 
Twiggs with a brigade and a battery ordered to follow and 
attack the convent. Pierce’s brigade was at the samo time 
sent to attack the Mexican right and rear, in order 
to favor the movement on the convent and cut off retreat; 
Shields to follow Pierce closely and take command of the 
left wing. The line from right to left soon became briskly 
engaged; Shields, in the rear of Churubusco, being hard 
60 


pressed, was reinforced by the rifles and Sibley’s troop 
Second Dragoons. 

Worth’s division, being soon reunited and in hot pursuit 
from San Antonio, was joined by Gen. Pillow, who, dis¬ 
covering that San Antonio had been carried, hastened to the 
attack of Churubusco. The hamlet bearing this name, be¬ 
sides the strongly fortified convent of San Pablo, presented 
a sti*ong field-work at the head of a bridge over which the 
road passes from San Antonio to the capital, and within 
and about these woi’ks the entire remaining forces of Mex¬ 
ico were collected, some 27,000 men; the American force 
being about 8000. 

Twiggs hotly pressing the convent, Worth and Pillow 
manoeuvred closely upon the tete-de-pont, which latter was 
finally assaulted and carried at the point of the bayonet; 
and twenty minutes after the convent, which had held out 
for two hours and a half, yielded to Twiggs’ division, and 
signals of suri’ender were displayed ; but not, however, un¬ 
til the Third Infantry had entered the woi'ks. 

Shields in the mean time had been hotly engaged on the 
right against superior numbers with varying success, but 
resulting in a final victory for him; so that on the forces 
of Wortli and Pillow coming up in rapid pursuit of the 
enemy, they were joined by Shields, and the three pursued 
the fugitives to within a mile and a half of the capital. 
Thus, in a single day were two great battles fought and 
victories won, by which 3000 prisoners wei-e taken, 4000 
killed or wounded, thirty-seven pieces of ordnance captui'ed, 
the entire army dispersed, and the capture of the ancient 
capital and an honorable peace ensui’ed. The American 
loss was 1053, killed and wounded. 

Chiisan', an island near the E. coast of China, prov¬ 
ince of Che-Kiang, about 45 miles N. E. of Ning-Po. It is 
nearly 50 miles in circumference, and is mountainous, but 
mostly fertile and well cultivated. The products of the 
soil are tea, rice, cotton, tobacco, etc. The camphor tree 
and bamboo flourish here. The climate is pleasant and 
healthy. Ting-IIai, the capital, was taken by the British 
in July, 1840, and again in Oct., 1841, but it was restored 
to the Chinese at the end of the war. 

Chut'ny, or Chut'ney, a stimulating condiment very 
largely used in India, and to a considerable extent in Great 
Britain and America. Chutny is a compound of mangoes, 
capsicum, and lime-juice, with some portion of other fruits, 
such as tamarinds, etc., the flavor being heightened by 
garlic. It is sometimes manufactured for sale in England, 
but not in lai’ge quantities. Families occasionally make 
it for their own use, and various receipts are given for its 
manufacture. 

Chwalynsk', a town of Russia, in the government of 
Saratov, a river-port on the Volga. It has various man¬ 
ufactures and large fruit gardens. Pop. 14,262. 

Chyle [from the Gr. xvA6?, “juice,” “ chyle”], a fluid 
produced in the small intestines, and absorbed from them 
by the lacteals and the veins. The food undergoes various 
changes in the alimentary canal, one of which is its con¬ 
version in the stomach into a pulpy mass termed chyme. 
The chyme, which passes into the small intestine, is acted 
upon by the bile, pancreatic fluid, and intestinal juice, and 
through their influence is separated into the chyle, and into 
matters unfit for nutrition, which ultimately find their way 
out of the system. The mode in which the nutritious chyle 
is taken up by vessels distributed over the small intestines 
is described in the aiflicle Digestion. Obtained from the 
thoracic duct of an animal that has been killed while the 
process of digestion is going on (especially if it has taken 
fatty food), chyle is a milky-looking or yellowish fluid, 
with a faint alkaline reaction. Like the blood, it coagulates 
after its abstraction from the animal, and in about three 
hours a small clot is separated. On examining chyle under 
the microscope we find that it contains enormous numbers 
of minute molecules of fat, together with nucleated cells 
(chyle-corpuscles), apparently identical with the white 
blood-cells. The chemical constituents of chyle are much 
the same as those of blood—fibrin, albumen, fat, extractive 
matters, and salts being the most important. But it may 
be regarded as certain that the greater part of the saccharine 
and nitrogenous elements of food enters the veins directly 
from the stomach and the small intestines, through the 
capillaries, and that the chyle of the thoracic duct consists 
principally of the fatty parts of food mingled with lymph 
from the lymphatic glands. 

Chyme [from the Gr. xv/uo? or “ liquid,” for x e yM«> 
verbal noun from x«o, “ to pour ”], a name sometimes given 
to the food after the process of stomach-digestion, and be¬ 
fore the action of the intestinal juice, bile, and pancreatic 
fluids has taken place upon it. The name is of late not 
much used, but it is a convenient term, and as such de¬ 
serves to be retained. 

It is a recognized fact that during the process of stomach- 























946 


CIIYTRiEUS—CICERO. 


digestion some part of the nutritive matter of the food is 
taken up by the walls of the stomach, and passes directly 
into the venous blood. Of the remainder, Mialhe states 
that the albuminoid elements are changed by the gastric 
juice into a new substance called albuminose; while Leh¬ 
mann and others, following up a hint from Mialhe, have 
shown that each albuminoid affords a peculiar kind of 
albuminose (or peptone, as it is now often called). The 
principal varieties now recognized are albumen-peptone, 
caseine-peptone, and librinc- (or musculine-) peptone. The 
peptones are believed to be already fitted for absorption 
into the circulation. Upon starch, sugar, and oils the gas¬ 
tric juice has but little effect. Chyme, then, consists of 
the peptones and the starchy, saccharine, and fatty ele¬ 
ments of food, mingled with certain residual matters which 
arc not useful as food, but which, with other waste products, 
are ultimately expelled directly from the alimentary canal. 

Chytrte'us (David Kochhaff), a German theologian, 
born in Swabia Feb. 26, 1530, was a scholar of Camerarius 
and Melanchthon, professor at Rostock, and member of the 
Diet of Augsburg, of which he wrote an account (1576), 
and various other religious conferences. He was one of the 
framers of the “ Formula Concordia? ” and author of “Chron- 
icon Saxonise,” “ De Lectione Historiarum,” etc. Among 
his other writings are “ Historia Confessionis Augustan® ” 
(1578) and “De Morte et Vita sterna” (1590). His com¬ 
plete works have been several times reprinted. Died June 
25, 1600. He was one of the most learned and influential 
Lutheran divines of his time. His life has been written by 
Schutzius and several others. 

Cialdi/ni (Enrico), an able Italian general, horn in 
Mddena Aug. 8. 1811. He entered the Spanish army in 
1835, and fought in several campaigns against the Carlists. 
In 1848 he returned to Italy, and joined the Italian patriots 
in the war against Austria. He served Victor Emmanuel 
as a general in the Crimean war (1854-55). In June, 1859, 
he commanded with success against the Austrians at Pa- 
lestro. He defeated the papal general Lamoriciere at Cas- 
telfidardo in 1860, and besieged Gaeta, which he took in 
Feb., 1861. He became a senator of Italy in 1864, com¬ 
manded one of the armies operating against Austria in 
1866, and was appointed chief of the royal staff in the 
same year. In Oct., 1867, he was requested by the king 
to form a cabinet after the resignation of Ratazzi, but 
without success. He withdrew from the army, and opposed 
the ministry of Lanzi. He accompanied Amadeo as am¬ 
bassador extraordinary to Madrid, and after discharging 
his mission remained in Spain. 

Cib'ber (Colley), an English dramatist and actor of 
German extraction, was born in London in 1671. He be¬ 
gan to act comedies in 1689, and married a Miss Shore in 
1693. In 1695 he produced a play called “Love’s Last 
Shift, or the Fool in Fashion,” which was successful. He 
also wrote “The Careless Husband” (1704), “The Non¬ 
juror” (1717), and “An Apology for the Life of Colley 
Cibber,” which is an amusing work. In 1730 he was 
appointed poet-laureate. Died Jan. 30, 1766. Notwith¬ 
standing the reputation for stupidity which Pope’s “ Dun- 
ciad” has conferred upon Cibber, there is no doubt that he 
was in reality one of the most brilliant writers of that bril¬ 
liant age. His morals, however, were not of the purest.— 
His son Theophilus (1703-58) was an actor, an author, 
and a writer of repute, and husband of Susanna Maria Cib¬ 
ber, a celebrated actress, the sister of Dr. Arne, the musi¬ 
cal composer. 

Cib'ol, a plant of the onion or garlic genus, the Allium 
jistidosum, an Asiatic plant, much cultivated in parts of 
Europe for its tops, which are tubular, somewhat like those 
of the onion. It stands in the ground all winter, growing 
from year to year without replanting, and has no bulb. 

Cibo'lo, a river of Texas, rises in Kendal county, flows 
south-eastward, and enters the San Antonio near Helena. 
Entire length, about 110 miles. 

Cibo'rium [Gr. Kipupiov, the “pod” of the lotos-bean,* 
hence a cup-shaped vessel], in the Roman Catholic Church, 
a variety of the pyx, or vessel used to contain the conse¬ 
crated host. The ciborium is of gold or silver, and its 
cover is frequently surmounted by a cross. The name is 
also given to a canopy over the altar sustained by four 
columns, to which the pyx, in the form of a dove, was sus¬ 
pended by chains. 

Cibra'rio (Luigi), an Italian historian and jurist, born 
at Turin Feb. 23, 1802. He published, besides other works, 
a “History of the Monarchy of Savoy” (1840), and a “His¬ 
tory of Turin” (1847). He became minister of public in¬ 
struction in 1852, and minister of foreign affairs in 1855. 
Died Oct. 1, 1870. 

• Cica'da [Gr. remf], the Latin name of a well-known 
European insect, called also Cica'la [It.], which gives its 


name to a genus of Hemiptera noted for the shrill noise 
which it makes. The cicada of the ancient classic poets 
was chiefly admired for its shrill song. The cicadas fre¬ 
quent shrubs and trees, and feed on their juices, having an 
apparatus for piercing the bark and sucking out the juice 
or sap. Their organ of sound is situated on each side of 
the under and anterior part of the abdomen. Cicadas 
abound in tropical and sub-tropical regions. They mostly 
have transparent and veined wing-covers. We have sev¬ 
eral species of cicada in the U. S., of which the best known 
is the “ seventeen-year locust,” Cicada sqHemdecivi. The 
Cicada canicxdaris is a well-known species with a W-shaped 
mark on the back. Its appearance was once said to be a 
forerunner of wars. 

Cicatrization [from the Lat. cicatrix, a “scar”], the 
healing of a broken surface in the skin or in a mucous 
membrane, by which process a dense fibrous material is 
substituted for the lost texture. The new tissue is called 
the cicatrix, and usually resembles, to a considerable extent, 
the structure which it replaces; it is, however, less elastic, 
and from its shrinking in volume sometimes produces an 
appearance of puckering. The glands and other special 
structures of the original tissue are wanting in the cicatrix, 
which, however, usually performs its office well. The cica¬ 
trix of burns and scalds has often a remarkable tendency 
to contract and distort the neighboring surface. 

Cic'ely ( Myrrhis ), a genus of umbelliferous plants, of 
which one species, sweet cicely ( Myrrhis odorata), is com¬ 
mon in Central and Southern Europe and in Asia, but in 
Great Britain it appears to have been introduced. It is a 
branching perennial, two feet high or upward, with large 
triply pinnate leaves and pinnatifid leaflets, somewhat 
downy beneath ; the fruit and the whole plant powerfully 
fragrant, the smell resembling that of anise. The seeds, 
roots, and young leaves are used in soups, etc. The plant 
was formerly much in use as a medicinal aromatic. The 
U. S. have at least four wild plants somewhat resembling 
the above—the rough and the smooth sweet cicely, Osmor- 
rhiza brevistylis and longistylis, of the Atlantic States, and 
Myrrhis occidentalis and Osmorrhiza nuda of the far West. 
The roots are sometimes eaten, having an agreeable taste, 
but several poisonous umbelliferous plants closely resemble 
cicely, and caution should be observed in gathering it. 

Cic'ero, a township and village of Cook co., Ill., on 
the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 4 miles W. of 
Chicago. Pop. 1545. 

Cicero, a post-village of Jackson township, Hamilton 
co., Ind. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 422. 

Cicero, a township of Tipton co., Ind. Pop. 3646. 

Cicero, a township and post-village of Onondaga co., 
N. Y. Pop. 2902. 

Cicero (Marcus Tullius), an illustrious Roman ora¬ 
tor, author, and statesman, was born at Arpinum (now 
Arpino), about 70 miles E. S. E. of Rome, on the 3d of 
Jan., 106 B. C. He is often called Tully by English 
writers. He was liberally educated by his father, an opu¬ 
lent eques of the same name, was a pupil of Archias, the 
Greek poet, and learned to speak Greek fluently. He also 
became deeply versed in Greek literature and philosophy. 
His disposition was genial and amiable, his habits temper¬ 
ate and exemplary. In the year 91 B. C. he assumed the 
manly gown ( toga virilis), and began to study law under 
Mucius Scaevola the Augur, who was a jurist of great emi¬ 
nence. In his early youth he wrote “ Pontius Glaucus ” 
and other poems, which were admired by his contempo¬ 
raries, but are not extant. According to Plutarch, “ he was 
regarded as the best poet, as well as the greatest orator, in 
Rome.” He passed through a course of discipline in rhet¬ 
oric and elocution, studied logic under Diodotus the Stoic, 
attended the lectures of the Greek philosopher Philo, and 
neglected no mental exercise, however arduous. At the 
age of twenty-five he began to plead in the Forum, and, 
according to the custom of Roman advocates, his services 
were always gratuitous. About the year 80 he defended 
Roscius Amerinus with courage and success when he was 
prosecuted for a capital crime by an agent or favorite of 
Sulla, then dictator, the fear of whose enmity deterred the 
other advocates from pleading for the defendant. 

His constitution was naturally delicate, and his physical 
condition was such that his friends advised him to abandon 
the bar or to improve his health by travel. In 79 B. C. he 
departed from Rome and went to Athens, where he passed 
about six months, and studied philosophy with Antiochus 
of Ascalon, Zeno the Epicurean, and Demetrius Syrus. He 
there formed an intimate friendship with the celebrated 
Titus Pomponius Atticus. He afterwards extended his 
travels through Asia Minor, and returned to Rome with a 
great improvement in his lungs, voice, and constitution. 

In 75 B. C. he obtained the office of qumstor, the first 
step in the gradation of public honors, and it was decided 





















CICEKO. 947 


by lot that he should perform the duties of quaestor in 
Sicily. The integrity, moderation, and humanity of his 
official conduct excited general admiration among the peo¬ 
ple of Sicily, lie returned to Rome in the year 74, mar¬ 
ried (about 79 B. C.) an heiress named Terentia, and soon 
rose to the foremost rank in his profession. His chief for¬ 
ensic rival was Hortensius. Cicero excelled in sarcasm and 
witticisms, with which he often seasoned and enlivened his 
orations and arguments. No advocate had greater power 
oyer the feelings and sympathies of his auditors. It was 
his habitual practice to act as counsel for the defence in 
criminal trials, but he deviated from this rule in the case of 
Caius Yerres, who was prosecuted by the Sicilians in 70 
B. C. for nefarious acts of cruelty and rapine. Only two 
of his admirable orations against Verres were actually 
spoken in court, for the evidence against the accused was 
so convincing that his counsel declined to plead, and Verres 
went into exile before the decision of the cause. Cicero 
was elected aedile in 69 B. C. by a majority of the voters 
of every tribe, and in that capacity had the charge of the 
temples and public edifices. Having offered himself in 66 
as a candidate for the office of praetor, which was the next 
in the ascending scale of public honor, he was elected first 
prsetor urbanus by the suffrages of all the centuries. The 
duty of praetors was to preside as judges over the highest 
courts. According to Plutarch, “he acted with great integ¬ 
rity and honor as president in the courts of justice.” Dur¬ 
ing his term of office as praetor he made an important 
political oration for the Manilian Law (“ Pro Lege Ma¬ 
nilla ”), the object of which was to appoint Pompey com¬ 
mander-in-chief in the war against Mithridates the Great. 

After the expiration of his term of office (which was one 
year) he prepared to compete for the consulship, and offered 
himself as a candidate in 64 B. C. Catiline was one of the 
defeated candidates in this election, which resulted in the 
choice of Cicero and C. Antonius. Cicero entered upon 
the office on the 1st of January, 63, at a time when the re¬ 
public was in a critical condition in consequence of the 
prevalence of corruption, sedition, and treasonable designs. 
He succeeded in forming a political alliance between the 
senate and the equites or knights, and by this wise policy 
promoted the cause of liberty and order. “ He was,” says 
Middleton, “ the only man in the city capable of effecting 
such a coalition, being now at the head of the senate, yet 
the darling of the knights.” He acquired great celebrity 
by the courage and energy with which he defeated the con¬ 
spiracy of Catiline, whom he denounced in four eloquent 
orations. Catiline, who was the leader of a large number 
of desperate men, had formed a plot to burn the city and 
massacre many of the senators. Cicero, who was notified 
of this plot by a woman named Fulvia, pronounced before 
the senate on the 8th of November his first oration against 
Catiline, who was present and rose to reply, but his voice 
was drowned by cries of “traitor!” and “parricide!” (See 
Catiline.) The versatility and elasticity of Cicero's mind 
were signally exemplified by the fact that during the crisis 
of this conspiracy, before Catiline was defeated in battle, 
he defended Murena against a charge of bribery in an ora¬ 
tion which abounds in witty and good-humored raillery. 

For the defeat of this great conspiracy, Cicero received 
unbounded honor and applause. Men of all ranks and all 
parties hailed him as the saviour of the republic and father 
of his country. In the language of Juvenal, 

“ Roma Patrem Patriae Ciceronem libera dixit.” 

“ Cicero could boast,” says William Ramsay, “ of having 
accomplished an exploit for which no precedent could be 
found in the history of Rome. In the garb of peace he had 
gained a victory of which the greatest among his prede¬ 
cessors would have been proud, and had received tributes 
of applause of which few triumphant generals could boast.” 
He incurred, however, the enmity of many persons by the 
capital punishment of Lentulus, Cethegus, and other accom¬ 
plices of Catiline. He was censured for violation of the 
constitution and laws by the execution of these conspirators, 
although they had been condemned to death by the senate. 
At the expiration of his consulship, having refused to accept 
the government of a province, he returned to the senate as 
a private individual (62 B. C.), and purchased an elegant 
mansion on the Palatine Hill. He also owned villas or 
country-seats at Tusculum, Arpinum, Formise, and other 
places. He opposed the triumvirs Caesar, Crassus, and 
Pompey, whose coalition he considered to be dangerous to 
the peace and liberty of the state, and he endeavored, with¬ 
out success, to detach from that coalition Pompey, who was 
his personal friend. In 59 B. C. his malignant enemy 
Clodius obtained power as tribune of the people, and pro¬ 
posed a law “that whoever has put to death a Roman 
citizen without due trial shall be interdicted from fire and 
water.” Many thousands of Roman citizens now expressed 
sympathy for Cicero, but as the consuls were hostile to him, 


he yielded to the storm and went into exile in April, 58 
B. C. A law was then speedily enacted to interdict Cicero 
from earth and water, and his house on the Palatine Hill 
was burned by Clodius. The lack of fortitude which he 
exhibited in his exile (which was passed in Greece) is 
severely criticised by several writers. In a letter to his 
wife Terentia he wrote, “It is not my crimes, but my 
virtue that has crushed me.” The excessive violence of 
his enemies tended to produce a speedy and strong reac¬ 
tion. The new consuls and tribunes elected for the year 
57 were friendly to Cicero, whose recall was also advocated 
by Pompey and a majority of the senate. In August, 
57, a bill for his restoration was adopted by an overwhelm¬ 
ing majority of the voters, who had come from various parts 
of Italy to the comitia centuriata at Rome. “ There had 
never been known,” says Middleton, “ so numerous and 
solemn an assembly of the Roman people as this.” On his 
return to Rome he was greeted with abundant demonstra¬ 
tions of popular favor and enthusiasm. Between 57 and 52 
he pleaded several causes in the courts, and found leisure 
to write two important works, entitled “ De Republica ” 
(“On the Republic, or the Principles of Government”), 
and “ De Legibus,” a philosophical treatise on the origin, 
nature, and perfection of law. 

For a term of one year (51 B. C.) he acted as proconsul 
or governor of Cilicia and Pisidia, where his administra¬ 
tion was a model of moderation, purity, and probity. He 
returned to Italy in the year 50, and found that a civil war 
was imminent between Caesar and the senate. He hesitated 
whether he should take an active part in the coming con¬ 
test, and wished to act as a mediator, but eventually he 
joined the army of Pompey, who fought for the senate. 
“ He fluctuated greatly,” says Plutarch, and Avas in the 
utmost anxiety; for he says in his letters, “Whither shall I 
turn ? Pompey has the more honorable cause, but Caesar 
manages his affairs with the greatest address. In short, I 
know whom to avoid, but not whom to follow.” His wit, 
however, did not fail even in this gloomy crisis. When 
Pompey asked him, “Where is your son-in-law ?” (Dolabella), 
Cicero replied, “ He is with your father-in-law.” After the 
battle of Pharsalia (August, 48 B. C.), Cato offered the 
command of the army to Cicero, but he declined it, and, 
returning to Italy, submitted to the power of Caesar, who 
treated him with clemency. He afterwards devoted himself 
to literary labors in retirement, and found consolation in 
the calm enjoyments of speculative philosophy. In the 
ensuing period of three or four years (47-44) he produced 
numerous works on philosophy and rhetoric, which are 
admirable monuments of his profound and varied learning 
as well as of his immense mental activity. As a philoso¬ 
pher he preferred the principles of the New Academy. 
In the year 45 he lost his accomplished daughter Tullia, 
whom he regarded with the fondest affection. He approved 
the assassination of Caesar, and denounced the conduct of 
Mark Antony in a series of orations called Philippics, the 
first of which was spoken in the senate in September, 44. 
The second Philippic is a masterpiece of eloquent invective. 
For a few months in the year 43, while Octavius co-ope¬ 
rated with the senate against Antony, Cicero was the most 
prominent statesman in Rome. Between December, 44, and 
May, 43 B. C., he uttered his last twelve Philippics, which 
were received with general applause, but the republican 
cause was soon ruined by the coalition of Octavius with 
Antony and Lepidus. Cicero was proscribed by them, and 
was killed by the soldiers of Antony near his Formian 
villa in December, 43 B. C. He left one son, named Marcus 
Tullius. The moral character of Cicero is admitted to be 
excellent even by those who censure his public conduct. 
His worst foible was vanity, exhibited in a habit of self- 
iaudation. According to Niebuhr, “ The predominant and 
most brilliant faculty of his mind was his wit. In what 
the French call esprit —light, unexpected, inexhaustible 
wit—he is not excelled by any of the ancients.” As an 
orator he surpassed all the ancients except Demosthenes. 
Modern critics concur in unanimous admiration of the 
consummate grace and beauty of diction which enchant 
successive generations in the periods of Cicero. He am ¬ 
plifies everything. His words seem to gush forth without 
effort in an ample stream; and the sustained dignity of 
his oration is preserved from pompous stiffness by the 
lively sallies of a ready wit and a vivid imagination. His 
periods are sonorous, but present a great variety of ca¬ 
dences. His “Letters,” of which more than eight hundred 
are extant, are models of exquisite Latinity, and are highly 
prized for the light which they throw on the history and 
antiquities of the Roman republic. Among his works 
which remain entire are about fifty orations; also treatises, 
entitled “ De Finibus, libri v.” (an Inquiry into the Su¬ 
preme Good); “Brutus scu de Claris Oratoribus (a criti¬ 
cal notice of Roman orators); “De Amicitia (a dialogue 
on friendship); “ Tusculanae Disputationes (disputations 












948 


CICERO—CIMABUE. 


°. n ™”? us questions of philosophy); “ De Naturfi Deorurn, 
libri iii.” (“On the Nature of the Gods”); “Orator, seu 
de Optimo Genere Dicendi ” (“ The Orator, or On the Best 
Manner of Speaking”); and “ De Officiis, libri iii.” (an 
excellent treatise on ethics). One of his greatest works, 
“ De Republic^,,” is lost except a large fragment. He also 
wrote treatises, “De Gloria” (“On Glory”) and “ De 
Virtutibus ” (“ On the Virtues ”), which are not extant. 
Mutilated copies have been preserved of his works entitled 
“ De Legibus ” and “ Academicorum, libri iv.” Among 
the best editions of his complete works arc those of Ernesti, 
Halle, 5 vols. 8vo, 1774-77; Olivet, Paris, 9 vols. 4to, 
1742 ; and Orelli, Zurich, 9 vols. 8vo, 1826-37. (See Plu¬ 
tarch, “ Life of Cicero;” Conyers Middleton, “History of 
the Life of Cicero,” 1741 ; F. Fabricius, “ Ilistoria Cice- 
ronis,” 1563 ; Abeken, “ Cicero in Seinen Briefen,” 1835, 
and an English version of the same, 1854; W. Forsyth, 
“Life of M. T. Cicero,” 2 vols., 1864; Lamartine, “ Cice- 
ron,” 1852 ; Orelli, “ Onomasticum Tullianum;” J. Mo- 
rabin, “ Histoire de CicSron,” 3 vols., 1745 ; Drumann, 
“Geschichte Roms.”) William Jacobs. 

Cicero (Marcus Tullius), the only son of the preced¬ 
ing, was born in 65 B. C. He is said to have been dissi¬ 
pated, indolent, and intemperate. In the year 49 he joined 
the army of Pompey, and received the command of a 
squadron of cavalry. Soon after the battle of Pharsalia (48 
B. C.) he went to Athens, and studied philosophy under 
Cratippus. Having been appointed a military tribune by 
Brutus in 44 B. C., he defeated C. Antonius, and did good 
service in the Macedonian campaign. By the favor of Oc¬ 
tavius (Augustus) he became consul in the year 30, and was 
governor of Asia (Syria) in 29-28. 

Cicero (Quintus Tullius), a brother of Cicero the 
great orator, was born about 102 B. C. He was elected 
prastor for the year 62, after which he officiated as gover¬ 
nor of Asia for three years, and i*eturned to Rome in 58 B. C. 
He was appointed in the year 55 legate ( legatm ) to Caesar, 
whom he attended in an expedition to Britain, and in 54 
he commanded a legion in winter quarters in Gaul. He 
defended his camp with success against the attack of a large 
army of Gauls. In the civil war he took arms for the senate 
against Caesar, but he made his peace with him in 57 B. C. 
He was proscribed by the triumvirs, and killed in 43 B. C. 

Cicero Corners, a village of Cicero township, Onon¬ 
daga co., N. Y., has a large steam-mill and three churches. 
Pop. 212. 

Cicerone, che-chi-ro'ni [from Cicero, a derisive refer¬ 
ence to the loquacity of guides], an Italian word signifying a 
guide who shows and exjilains to travellers the interesting ob¬ 
jects, antiquities, and famous places which abound in Italy. 

Cicisbeo, che-chis-ba'o [Fr. cicisbee or sigisbee), a 
name applied since the sixteenth century, in Italy, to the 
acknowledged attendant upon a married lady. In Italian 
society it was at one time unfashionable for the husband 
to associate with his wife anywhere except in his own 
house. In society or at places of amusement the wife was 
accompanied by her cicisbeo, who attended at her toilet to 
receive her commands for the day. This custom, which 
was once universal, has now almost disappeared. Cicisbeo 
is synonymous with cavaliere servente. The custom is highly 
commended by several Italian writers. 

Cicogna'ra, da (Leopoldo), Count, an Italian anti¬ 
quary and writer on art, was born at Ferrara Nov. 26, 
1767. He was for many years president of the Academy 
of Fine Arts in Venice, and was a friend of Canova. His 
chief work is a “ History of Sculpture from the Renais¬ 
sance of that Art to the present Century” (3 vols., 1813- 
18), which is highly esteemed. He wrote a “Life of Ca¬ 
nova” (1823). Died Mar. 5, 1834. 

Cicu'ta, the ancient Latin name of the Conium macu- 
latum (hemlock), a poisonous plant which was used at Ath¬ 
ens as means of capital punishment. This is the plant which 
is popularly called cicuta in the U. S. and Europe. (See 
Conium.) Cicuta is also the name of a genus of umbel¬ 
liferous plants which are poisonous. The Cicuta macula- 
ta (spotted cowbane) grows in swamps in the U. S. Its 
root is a very deadly poison. Other equally poisonous spe¬ 
cies grow in the U. S. and in Europe. 

Cid [Arab, seid, a “lord”], surnamed el Campeador 
(the “champion ”), the most celebrated national hero of 
Spain, was a Castilian whose proper name was Rodrigo 
(or Ruy) Diaz de Bivar. He was born at Burgos about 
1040. He became commander of the army of Sancho II. 
of Castile, who reigned from 1065 to 1072. About 1085 he 
was banished by Alfonso VI. He had married Dona Xi- 
mena, a relative of King Alfonso. Even while in exile he 
was the commander of a retinue of knights and vassals, 
and he waged war with success against several princes. 
He gained a victory over the Moors, and became sovereign 


of Valencia in 1094. Died in 1099. His exploits have 
been embellished by many marvellous and fabulous inven¬ 
tions. His life is the subject of an anonymous epic called 
“ The Poem of the Cid,” which, according to Southey, is the 
“oldest and finest poem in the Spanish language,” and also 
of a tragedy by Corneille (1636). (See It. Southey, “ Chron¬ 
icle of the Cid,” 1808 ; M. J. Quintana, “ Life of the Cid,” in 
Spanish and French, 1837 ; “ Romancero General,” 1604.) 

Ci'dcr [Fr. cidre; It. cidro ], the fermented juice of 
apples, extensively prepared in parts of England, in Ire¬ 
land, in the northern districts of France, and in North 
America. In Normandy vast quantities of apples are 
grown for the preparation of cider. The apples are first 
reduced to pulp in a mill, and the pulp is afterwards sub¬ 
jected to pressure. The apple-juice is placed in casks in a 
cool place, when fermentation begins, part of the sugar is 
converted into alcohol, and a clear liquid is obtained, which 
can easily be racked off from sedimentary matter. Cider 
is largely used as a beverage. It contains from 5J to 10 per 
cent, of alcohol, and is intoxicating when drunk in largo 
quantities. Cider quickly turns sour, becoming hard cider, 
owing to the development of acid, and great difficulty is 
experienced in the attempt to keep it sweet. Large quan¬ 
tities are used in the manufacture of Vinegar (which see, 
by Prof. C. F. Chandler, Pii. D., LL.D.) 

Cienfue'gos, a town of Cuba, 111 miles S. E. of Ha¬ 
vana, is the cajntal of a district of its own name. Sugar is 
exported from this place. Pop. 9950. 

Cie'za , a town of Spain, in the province of Murcia, 
near the river Segura, and on a railway, 24 miles N. W. of 
Murcia. It has manufactures of linen cloth. Pop. 9516. 

Cigar', or Segar' [Fr. cigare ; Sp. cigarro\, a small roll 
of tobacco-leaves for smoking. The cigars of Havana are 
the most highly prized, but those from Manila, usually called 
cheroots, are also excellent. The manufacture of cigars in 
the U. S. is an important industry. For the outer part or 
wrapper of a cigar the tobacco raised in the Connecticut 
Valley is considered the best, from its fine elastic quality. 
A very small cigar wrapped with paper is called a cigarette. 

Cil 'ia [the plu. of cilium, the Lat. for “ eyelash ”], the 
hairs which grow from the margin of the eyelids. The term 
is also applied to microscopic filaments which project from 
animal membranes, and which are often endowed with quick, 
vibratile motion. In most of the very low animals the res¬ 
piratory function is effected by means of vibratile cilia; 
many animalcules and the gemmules of the acrites move by 
a similar mechanism; and it has recently been ascertained 
that vibratile cilia have a share in the performance of some 
important functions in the highest classes of the animal 
kingdom, where they have been detected on the membrane 
lining the female generative organs and in the respiratory 
passages and the ventricles of the brain. Cilia in botany 
are long hairs situated on the margin of a vegetable body. 

Cilic'ia [Gr. KiAua'a], an ancient division of Asia Minor, 
was bounded on the N. by Mount Taurus, on the E. by 
Mount Amanus, on the S. by the Mediterranean, and on 
the W. by Pamphylia. The surface is partly mountainous, 
and partly occupied by fertile plains adjacent to the sea. 
The chief river was the Cydnus. The principal towns were 
Tarsus, Soli, Seleucia, Mallus, and Aphrodisias. The an¬ 
cient Cilicians were distinguished for maritime enterprise 
and also for piratical habits. In early ages Cilicia was an 
independent kingdom. It was afterwards a part of the 
Persian empire, and was reduced to a Roman province in 
the time of Pompey. It coincides nearly with the Turkish 
division of Adana. Among the eminent natives of Cilicia 
were Saint Paul, Chrysippus the Stoic philosopher, and 
Aratus the poet. 4 

Cil'ley (Jonathan), an able lawyer and politician, born 
at Nottingham, N. H., July 2, 1802, graduated at Bowdoin 
College in 1825, was admitted to the bar of Maine in 1829, 
became Speaker of the Maine house of representatives, and 
in 1832 a presidential elector; was elected to Congress in 
1837, and Feb. 24, 1838, was killed in a duel by 'William J. 
Graves of Kentucky. The combatants fought with rifles, 
eighty yards apart, and fired three times each. The affair 
caused much excitement at the time, Cilley’s friends declar¬ 
ing the duel to have been unfairly conducted, and denoun¬ 
cing Graves as a murderer. 

Cimabu'e (Giovanni), an Italian painter, born in Flor¬ 
ence in 1240, was eminent as a restorer and reformer of the 
art of painting. The fine arts at that time had degenerated 
into a formal conventionalism. He received lessons in art 
from two Greek or Byzantine painters, and formed a more 
natural style than that of his masters. He painted in dis¬ 
temper and in fresco, and adorned the church of St. Fran¬ 
cis at Assisi with his works. He excelled in design and 
expression. Died about 1302. Among his pupils was Giotto. 
(See Vasari, “ Lives of the Painters.”) Revised by C. C. 



























Cixnaro'sa (Domenico), an Italian composer, born at 
Naples Dec. 17, 1755, was a pupil of Durante. He resided 
at St. Petersburg and at Vienna and other German courts. 
He composed a number of successful operas, among which 
are “ II Matrimonio Segreto ” (“ The Secret Marriage”) and 

L Olimpiade.” His works are remarkable for originality 
and spirit. Died Jan. 11, 1S01. 

Cimarron', a post-village, capital of Colfax co., N. M. 
It has one weekly newspaper. 

Cim'bri [Gr. Ki>£poi], a warlike people of ancient Eu¬ 
rope whose origin is involved in obscurity. They were re¬ 
garded as Germans by Cmsar and Tacitus, whose opinion 
has been adopted by most moderns. II. Muller and other 
writers suppose that they were Celtic, and that Cimbri is 
another form of Cymrt , which is the Welsh name of their 
own nation. In 113 B. C. the Cimbri and the Teutones 
issued from the N. part of Germany, crossed the Eastern 
Alps, and invaded the territory of the Romans, whom they 
defeated in battle. They afterwards moved across the 
Rhine, and pillaged part of Gaul. The Cimbri aqd Teu¬ 
tones gained another victory over the Romans in the year 
109. Within a period of six years they defeated four con¬ 
suls and routed five Roman armies, so that great conster¬ 
nation prevailed at Rome. They invaded Spain in 104 
B. C. In 102 B. C., Marius defeated the Teutones at Aquaj 
Sextise (Aix), in Gaul. The army of Cimbri at the same 
time invaded the north of Italy by a different route, and 
gained a victory over the Roman consul Catulus near the 
Adige. The infantry of the Cimbri had shields fastened 
together with chains. The two Roman armies were then 
united under the joint command of Catulus and Marius, 
who gained a great victory over the Cimbri near Vercellm 
(Vercelli) in July, 101 B. C. It is said that more than 
100,000 Cimbri were killed in this battle. The Cimbri in 
the time of Tacitus lived near the North Sea, and in Jut¬ 
land, which was called the Cimbric Chersonese. (See Pull- 
mann, “Die Cimbern,” 1870.) 

Cimin'na, a town of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, 
19 miles S. E. of the city of Palermo. Pop. 5209. 

Ciinme'rians [Gr. Kiiu.ju.epuH], according to the Ho¬ 
meric legends, were a people dwelling “ beyond the ocean- 
stream,” where the sun never shines and perpetual dark¬ 
ness reigns. Hence the proverbial expression, “Cimmerian 
darkness.” The historical Cimmerii were a nomadic race 
of great antiquity, who lived between the Borysthcnes 
(Dnieper) and the Tanais (Don). According to Herodotus, 
they were expelled from that region by the Scythians, and 
migrated to Asia Minor. They waged war against Aly- 
attes, king of Lydia, about 600 B. C. The Strait of Yeni- 
kale derived from them the name of Cimmerian Bosphorus. 
Some antiquarians identify the Cimmerii with the Cimbri 
and the Cvmry (which sec). 

Cimo'lian Earth [Gr. yi) KijuwAia], a kind of earth 
which the ancients used to obtain from the islands Cimolus 
and Siphnus in the Cyclades. It was sometimes used in 
medicine, but was especially employed instead of soap in 
washing clothes. It appears to have been a variety of 
steatite or soapstone. 

Ci'mon, or Ki'mon [Ki>a>v], an eminent Athenian 
commander and statesman, born about 502 B. C., was a son 
of Miltiades, who commanded at Marathon. He served 
with distinction at the great battle of Salamis, 480 B. C. 
Cimon and Aristides commanded the Athenians, who, co¬ 
operating with the other Greek armies, prosecuted the war 
against Persia in 476 B. C. Soon after this date he became 
commander-in-chief of the allies, who preferred him to the 
Spartan Pausanias. He defeated the Persians on the 
Strymon, and in 466 gained a great naval victory at the 
mouth of the Eurymedon. He was for some time the most 
prominent statesman of Athens, and a rival of Pericles. 
Cimon improved Athens by planting trees and building 
walls to the Pirmus. It 461 B. C. ho was banished by os¬ 
tracism, but he was permitted to return in 456. He ob¬ 
tained command of a fleet in 449, and besieged Citium, in 
Cyprus, where he died in the same year. He was a con¬ 
servative in politics. (See Plutarch, “ Life of Cimon ;” 
Cornelius Nepos, “ Cimon Grote, “ History of Greece;” 
Tiiirlwall, “History of Greece.”) 

Cinalo'a, or Sinalo'a, a state of the Mexican con¬ 
federation, is bounded on the S. W. by the Gulf of Cali¬ 
fornia, and intersected by the rivers Culiacan and Cinaloa. 
Area, 28,915 square miles. The surface is partly moun¬ 
tainous. The rainy season begins about June 20, and lasts 
nearly two months. Capital, Culiacan. Pop. 163,095. 

Cincho'na, commonly pronounced sin-ko'na [for ety¬ 
mology see below], a genus of trees of the order Rubiaccae, 
triba^Cinchoneae, producing the bark commonly known as 
Peruvian bark, Jesuits’ bark, etc., and from which the 
alkaloids quinia (quinine) and cinchonia are obtained. 


The trees of this genus are sometimes of great magnitude, 
but some of them in high mountain-regions are shrubs with 
stems only eight or ten feet in height. They arc all natives 
of South America, between lat. 20° S. and lat. 10 ° N., and 
chiefly grow on the eastern slopes of the Cordilleras. Other 
tropical countries have of late been stocked with cinchona 
trees, especially Java and some other Dutch colonies. The 
British government has successfully introduced them into 
India and St. Helena; and the bark produced on the 
Neilglierry Hills is remarkably rich in quinia. All cin¬ 
chonas are evergreen, with laurel-like, entire opposite leaves, 
and generally with beautiful fragrant flowers. Of more 
than thirty species, several are comparatively worthless in 
medicine. 

Much difficulty has been experienced in ascertaining the 
species by which the different varieties of cinchona bark 
are produced. The commercial names are derived partly 
from the color of the kinds, and partly from the districts in 
which they are produced or the ports whence they are 
shipped. The best sort, known as Calisaya or royal yellow 
bark, is chiefly the product of Cinchona Calisaya, a large 
tree, growing in hot mountain-valleys of Bolivia and Peru. 
The proper discrimination of the different kinds requires 
experience. The taste is always bitter, but it is possible to 
distinguish by the taste those varieties which contain quinia 
most largely from those in which cinchonia is the principal 
alkaloid. 

The collection of the bark is carried on by Indians, who 
pursue their occupation during the dry season. The trees 
are felled as near the root as possible, that none of the bark 
may be lost, and the bark, being stripped off, is carefully 
dried; the quilled form of the thinner bark is acquired in 
drying. Even the roots of the best species are carefully 
peeled. The bark is made up into packages averaging 
150 pounds weight, called drums or seroons. A number 
of spurious kinds of bark are either sent into the market 
separately or are employed for adulterating the genuine 
kinds. The very numerous varieties are classed as (1) 
yellow, (2) red, (3) pale, and (4) Carthagena barks. 

The Peruvian Indians call the trees kina, from which 
the Spanish name quin a is derived, but it is not certain 
that they knew the use of the bark before the arrival of 
the Spaniards. It is a medicine of great value in the cure 
of intermittent fevers and diseases attended with much de- 
bility, also in certain diseases of the nervous system. It 
seems to have been first imported into Europe in 1639 by 
the wife of the viceroy of Peru, the countess of Cinchon 
(from whom it was named), who had been cured of an in¬ 
termittent fever by means of it. The Jesuits afterwards 
carried it to Rome and distributed it, and thus it acquired 
the name of Jesuits’ bark. It acquired great celebrity in 
Spain and Italy, being sold at high prices by the Jesuits, 
by whom it was lauded as an infallible remedy, while by 
physicians it was coldly received, and by the Protestants 
generally repudiated. It was, however, used in England 
in 1658. It seems to have been employed without discrim¬ 
ination, and to have fallen into the hands of empirics. It 
was again brought into notice by Sir Robert Talbor, who 
acquired great celebrity through the cure of intermittents 
by means of it, and from him Louis XIV. purchased his 
secret in 1679. Soon afterwards Morton and Sydenham, 
the most celebrated English physicians of that age, adopted 
the remedy, and its use from this period gradually extend¬ 
ed. The discovery of the alkaloids on which its properties 
chiefly depend, within the present century, constitutes a 
new era in the history of this medicine. 

The active principles of cinchona are the alkaloids 
Quinia (which see), cinchonia, and several other alkaloids 
of less importance. When isolated, the alkaloid cinchonia 
has the formula C 40 H 24 N 2 O, and can be obtained in a 
crystallized state. The alkaloid quinia is now extensively 
in use in medicine in the form of disulphate of quinia, and 
is given in doses of from one to twenty grains in almost all 
the cases to which the bark is applicable, and for this reason 
the bark itself is much less used than formerly. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Cincinnati, a township of Tazewell co., Ill. P. 758. 

Cincinnati, a township of Harrison co., Ia. Pop. 447. 

Cincinnati, the “ Queen of the West,” the county-seat 
of Hamilton co. and metropolis of the State of Ohio, one 
of the largest and most important inland cities of the U. S., 
is situated in lat. 39° 6 ' 30” N. and Ion. 84° 24' W., 764 
miles from New York and 610 miles from Washington, in 
the beautiful Valley of the Ohio, extending along the 
northern bank of the Ohio River and over the adjacent 
hills for miles. The main portion of the city is in the val¬ 
ley, and is built on two plateaux. The territory of the 
city has an area of twenty-four square miles, on which reg¬ 
ular streets, mostly 66 feet in breadth, are laid out, and 
paved with boulders or wooden blocks. Cincinnati is di- 













950 CINCINNATI, ORDER OF. 


vidcd into twenty-five wards, besides the suburbs Clifton 
and Avondale, which, in connection with Mount Auburn and 
East Walnut Hills, now parts of the city, contain some of the 
most beautiful private residences and country villas. Quite 
a number of other suburban towns surround the city; among 
which may also be counted the cities of Covington, New¬ 
port, Dayton, and Ludlow in tho State of Kentucky, which 
are situated right opposite Cincinnati, and connected with 
the same by bridges and ferries. The government of the 
city rests in the hands of the mayor, who is endowed with 
the veto power, boards of councilmen, of aldermen, of 
police commissioners, fire commissioners, of education, 
park commissioners, of health, of sewerage, of city improve¬ 
ments, of water-works, of revision, and a number of minor 
boards. While the population of the city in 1800 amounted 
only to 800, it had increased in 1860 to 161,044, and in 
1870 to 216,239, of whom 136,627 were born in the U. S., 
49,448 in Germany, 18,264 in Ireland, 4033 in England 
and Wales, and the rest in other foreign countries. 

Cincinnati occupies a prominent position as a commer¬ 
cial and manufacturing city, and is the native place of 
many prominent men. Its favorable position, extensive 
railroad connections, and numerous factories make it the 
commercial emporium of the adjacent fertile and densely 
settled States and the centre of Western manufacture. The 
best proofs of its growing prosperity are the numerous new 
buildings and the rapid extension of the business portion 
of the city beyond its former boundaries. Among the pub¬ 
lic buildings the most prominent are the Cincinnati Col¬ 
lege, the court-house, the city hall, the Ohio and Miami 
colleges, the Public Library, the Masonic Temple, Odd 
Fellows’ Hall, the workhouse, house of refuge, the new city 
hospital, the post-office, and the house of the Jesuits, while 
Pike’s and Robinson’s opera-houses, the Catholic Institute, 
Sinton’s and Mitchell’s blocks, the Wesleyan Female Col¬ 
lege, and the Cincinnati Hotel may be ranked among its 
finest private structures. The finest view of the city may 
be had from the house of the Passionist Fathers on Mount 
Adams (formerly the observatory), the Catholic seminary, 
and the Lookout House. Among the churches, St. Peter’s 
cathedral, with its beautiful steeple of Dayton stone and its 
chimes; St. Francis Xavier’s church of the Jesuits, St. Paul’s 
Methodist church, the Second Presbyterian, St.John’s Epis¬ 
copal, and the Central Christian church are the most promi¬ 
nent. The total number of churches is 151 (11 Baptist, 2 
Christian, 4 Congregational, 4 Disciples of Christ, 2 Friends, 
5 German Evangelical Unionists, 3 German Reformed, 1 
Independent Methodist, 4 German Lutheran, 27 Methodist 
Episcopal, 2 Protestant Methodist, 1 Calvinistic Methodist, 

3 colored Methodist, 1 Swedenborgiau, 14 Presbyterian, 2 
United Presbyterian, 3 Reformed Presbyterian, 8 Protest¬ 
ant Episcopal, 42 Catholic, 3 United Brethren in Christ, 1 
Universalist, 3 Unitarian, 5 Jewish synagogues). Cincin¬ 
nati has 5 literary colleges, 2 academies of the Sisters of 
Notre Dame, 6 medical colleges, 1 law school, 1 college of 
dentistry, 5 commercial colleges, and a university. The 
city has 26 district, 4 intermediate, a normal, and two high 
schools, with 91 male and 420 female teachers, and 26,449 
pupils. The colored population has its own schools, as well 
as the Catholics and other religious associations. Among 
the numerous libraries, the most prominent are the Public 
Library, with 59,695 volumes, open to everybody; the 
Young Men’s Mercantile Library, with 26,800 volumes; 
the Historical Library, with 1738 volumes and many val¬ 
uable MSS. Among the benevolent institutions under the 
control of the city government are the house of refuge, the 
poorhouse, the hospital, the lunatic asylum. Besides these 
city institutions, private charity supports three orphan asy¬ 
lums, three hospitals, a widows’ home, a children’s home, 
a home for the friendless, House of the Good Shepherd for 
fallen women, Union Bethel, a protectory for fallen boys, 
and a vast number of benevolent aid societies. Cincinnati 
has 22 lodges of Free Masons, 43 of Odd Fellows, 15 of 
Good Fellows, 6 of Red Men, 12 of Knights of Pythias, 

4 of the Seven Wise Men, 4 of the Grand Army of the Re¬ 
public, 5 of the B'nai B’rith, 10 of the Druids, 12 of the 
American Protestant Association, 7 divisions of the Sons 
of Temperance, 4 orders of Good Templars, and 11 of the 
Harugaris. It has an academy of medicine, an astronom¬ 
ical society, an historical and philosophical society, a socie¬ 
ty of natural history, a zoological society, an acclimatiza¬ 
tion society, a society for the prevention of cruelty to ani¬ 
mals, a wine-growers’ association, a horticultural society, 
and a literary club. There are also a chamber of commerce 
and a board of trade. Cincinnati has 8 daily and 33 week¬ 
ly papers, 3 semi-monthly and 27 monthly publications. 
It has 6 theatres. Eighteen railroads connect Cincinnati 
with all parts of the country ; 354 steamboats ply between 
the different points on the river. It has 11 horse railroads, 
1 inclined plane railroad, 4 steam ferries, and two fine 
bridges (one of them, the splendid Cincinnati and Covington 


suspension bridge, built by Roebling, connects Cincinnati 
with Kentucky). 

The commerce of Cincinnati is very large. Its chief 
article of exportation, pork, has given it the name of 
“ Porkopolis.” It has also a large trade in tobacco, gro¬ 
ceries, beer, and whisky. The imports in 1872 amounted 
to $317,646,608, and the exports to $200,607,040. The 
manufactures of Cincinnati are not less important than its 
commerce. In 1871 different articles, amounting alto¬ 
gether in value to $235,988,365, were manufactured. Tho 
principal manufactures are iron, metal, and wooden wares, 
leather, soap, candles, clothing, whisky, beer, chemicals, 
earthenware, carriages, paper, boots and shoes, books, 
tobacco, cigars, etc. Cincinnati has five national banks, 
with an aggregate capital of $4,000,000, and thirty private 
banks. In 1872 the tax receipts of the city amounted for 
ten months to $3,956,218.92; the expenses to $4,009,837.20. 
The bonded debt amounted to $6,001,500, and the real 
estate of the city to more than $20,000,000. The tax¬ 
able property was estimated on the duplicate of 1873 at 
$175,084,296. Cincinnati has 21 steam fire-engines and 
326 fire-alarm telegraph stations. 

Spring Grove Cemetery, containing 443 acres, is the 
finest and largest burial-place. Among the seven parks of 
the city, the Garden of Eden, containing 225 acres, is the 
largest. The beautiful Tyler Davidson fountain on Fifth 
street, surrounded by an esplanade, cast in Muller’s bronze 
foundry in Munich (Bavaria), after designs by Albert von 
Kreling, by order of Henry Probasco, is one of the grand¬ 
est ornaments of the city. Cincinnati is the seat of a 
police court, 3 superior courts, 3 courts of common pleas, 
1 district court, 1 probate court, and the U. S. court for 
the southern district of Ohio. Since 1853 Cincinnati is 
the seat of the Catholic archbishop. 

Cincinnati was founded by New Jersey men in 1789, 
and laid out by Col. Ludlow, who plotted it on a plan sim¬ 
ilar to that of Philadelphia. The nucleus was formed by 
Fort Washington, below which the village of Cincinnati 
was mainly built. For years it did not promise to rise 
much above the ordinary village, and not until 1816, when 
steamboat navigation was introduced on the Western 
rivers, did it push forward. From that date, however, it 
made rapid strides to prominence, and occupied in a few 
years the first rank among Western cities, which it main¬ 
tained for a long while. It was incorporated as a town in 
1802, and as a city in 1819. Its first mayor was Major 
Ziegler. Towards the middle of the century it attracted a 
vast German immigration,and several parts of the city, called 
“ Over the Rhine,” are almost entirely settled by Germans. 

Of the local works on Cincinnati, the following are some 
of the most important: 

Drake, Daniel, “Notices concerning Cincinnati,” Cin¬ 
cinnati, 1810, 8vo; “Natural and Statistical View or Pic¬ 
ture of Cincinnati and the Miami Country,” Cin., 1815, 
12mo; “ Early Physicians, Scenery, etc. of Cincinnati,” 
Cin., 1852, 12mo; Drake, B., and Mansfield, E. D., 
“Cincinnati in 1826,” Cin., 1827, 12mo; Cist, C., “Cin¬ 
cinnati in 1841,” Cin., 1844, 12mo; “Cincinnati in 1851,” 
Cin., 1851, 12mo; “ Cincinnati in 1859,” Cin., 1859, 12mo; 
Lea, T. G., “Plants of Cincinnati,” Phila., 1849, 8vo; 
Stevens, G. E., “ The Queen City in 1869,” Cin., 1869, 
18mo; Foote, J. P., “ Schools of Cincinnati,” Cin., 1855, 8vo; 
“Spring Grove Cemetery Illustrated,” Cin.; Maxwell, 
S. D., “Suburbs of Cincinnati,” Cin., 1870, 4to; Taft, A., 
“Cincinnati and her Railroads,” Cin., 1870, 8vo; “Cin¬ 
cinnati and the Miami Country Celebration,” Cin., 1834, 
8vo; Clark, P. H., “ Black Brigade of Cincinnati,” Cin., 
1870, 8vo. Revised by G. BrUhl. 

Cincinnati, Order of [named from the patriot Cin- 
cinnatus], a society founded in the U. S. in 1783 by the officers 
of the Revolutionary army, whose object was to cherish 
and perpetuate the feelings of patriotism, friendship, and 
fraternity which had been produced by the toils and dangers 
they had experienced in common, and to relieve the wants 
of the families of such as had fallen in the war. General 
Knox was one of the authors of its constitution. The 
badge of this society is a bald eagle, suspended by a dark- 
blue ribbon with white borders, a symbol of the union 
of the U. S. with France. The privilege of membership 
was extended to a number of French officers. Considerable 
dissension and discussion was excited on the question of the 
succession of regular membership, which at first was limited 
to the eldest male posterity, together with their kindred 
who should be worthy, etc. Pojiular jealousy was roused 
by the privilege granted to primogeniture, which was de¬ 
nounced as a germ of hereditary aristocracy. At a general 
meeting held in Philadelphia in 1784 this subject was dis¬ 
cussed, and some change was made in the constitution as 
a concession to the popular sentiment. Gen. Washington 
accepted in 1787 the office of president of tho order, which 
he continued to hold by successive re-elections until his 

















CINCINNATUS—CINQUE PORTS. 951 


death. Branches of the order were organized in each of 
the States. Of these some have been abolished or discon¬ 
tinued, but others remain active and hold annual meetings. 
Hamilton Fish was elected president of the order in 1872. 

Cincinnatus, a township and post-village of Cortland 
co., N. Y., 75 miles S. E. of Oswego. Pop. 850; of town¬ 
ship, 1155. 

Cincinna'tus (Lucius Quintius), [so called because 
he wore his hair in long curling locks, cincinni], an eminent 
Roman patriot and dictator, born about 519 B. C., belonged 
to the patrician order. He cultivated a small farm with 
his own hands, and was regarded as a model of pristine 
virtue and simplicity of habits. About 458 B. C. he be¬ 
came consul. According to Smith’s “ Dictionary,” he was 
illegally appointed consul suffectus in 460 B. C. He was 
appointed dictator two years later, and gained a victory 
over the -ZEqui. In the year 450 he was an unsuccessful 
candidate for the office of decemvir. He was chosen dic¬ 
tator in 439 B. C., to oppose the machinations of Spurius 
Melius, accused of treason. Much of what is related of 
him by Livy is now thought to be legendary. 

Cinc'ture [Lat. cinctura, a “girding,” from cingo, cinc- 
tum, “ to gird”], in architecture, is the ring or fillet at the 
top and bottom of a column which divides the shaft from 
the capital or base. It is also used, like the Latin cinctura, 
for a girdle. 

The Gabine Cincture ( cinctus Gabinue), in ancient Rome, 
was a peculiar mode of wearing the toga, the garment itself 
being tied in a knot in front. This cincture was seldom 
employed except upon the most solemn occasions. It took 
its name from the town of Gabii, where its use is said to 
have been once common. 

Cin' eas [Gr. Ki^eas], a Thessalian orator and negoti¬ 
ator, who, as Plutarch says, in youth had heard Demos¬ 
thenes. He became a confidential minister of Pyrrhus, 
king of Epirus, who, in 280 B. C., sent Cineas to Rome to 
negotiate a treaty of peace or alliance. His artful and 
plausible speeches were frustrated by Appius Claudius, and 
his mission was a failure. Died after 278 B. C. 

Cin'erary Urn [Lat. urna cineraria, from cinis (gen. 
cineris), “ ashes ”], a vessel used by the people of antiquity 
to contain the ashes of the dead gathered from the funeral 
pile. The embers were drenched with wine, and placed in 
the urn, which was then placed in a family mausoleum. 
Only the rich could afford so expensive a rite. Slaves 
and inferior persons were burned, and their ashes placed 
in the olla, or common clay pot, which was then stored in 
a columbarium. Cinerary urns were of marble, clay, glass, 
alabaster, or sometimes even of gold. The celebrated urn 
known as the Portland vase in the British Museum is of this 
character. (See Portland Vase.) Cinerary urns often had 
epitaphs and beautifully wrought artistic figures upon them. 

Cini' si, a town of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, 
is 14 miles W. N. W. of Palermo, and near the sea. Here 
is an old feudal castle which has been converted into a 
convent. Pop. 6714. 

Cin'na (C. Helvius), a Roman poet and a friend of 
Catullus, was perhaps the same as the Cinna whom Virgil 
compliments in his ninth eclogue. He wrote an epic poem 
called “ Smyrna,” of which only a few lines are extant. 
He was killed in 44 B. C. by a mob of Caesar’s adherents, 
who mistook him for another Cinna, who was an accom¬ 
plice of Brutus. 

Cinna (Lucius Cornelius), a Roman patrician who 
was a partisan of Marius in the civil war between Marius 
and Sulla. He became consul in 87 B. C., while Marius 
was in exile and Sulla was conducting a campaign in Asia. 
By an effort to reinstate Marius he provoked a violent con¬ 
flict, and was driven out of Rome, but he and Marius soon 
returned with an army and obtained the mastery in that 
capital. They massacred many friends of Sulla. Cinna 
was re-elected consul as a colleague of Marius, who died in 
86 B. C. He raised an army and marched to oppose Sulla, 
who was returning from Asia, but was killed by his own 
mutinous soldiers in 84 B. C. His daughter Cornelia was 
married tp Julius Caesar. 

Cin'nabar [Fr. cinabre or cinnabre ; Ger. Zinnober; 
Lat. cinnabarn ; Persian kambar ], a red pigment some¬ 
times called vermilion, is an ore of mercury, from which 
nearly all the mercury of commerce is obtained. It is a 
sulphide of mercury, composed, when pure, of 86.2 per 
cent, of mercury and 13.8 of sulphur. It occurs massive 
and crystallized in six-sided prisms; has an adamantine, 
almost metallic lustre, and a carmine color. Specific gravity, 
nearly 8.5. The term vermilion is usually applied to this 
mineral when it is reduced to powder in order to be used 
as a pigment. It is a rare mineral. The most productive 
mines of cinnabar are those of China, of Almaden in 
Spain, New Almaden in California, and Idria in Carniola. 


The annual product of the mine of New Almaden is about 
2,600,000 pounds. 

Cin'inaminson, a post-township of Burlington co 
N. J. Pop. 3112. 

Cill'mimon [Lat. cinnamomttm] is the aromatic bark 
of certain trees of the genus Cinnamomum , which belongs 
to the order Lauraceae, natives of tropical and sub-tropical 
parts of the East. Cinnamon is mentioned in the Old Tes¬ 
tament by a name almost the same as that which it still 
bears. True cinnamon is chiefly produced by the Cinna¬ 
momum Zeylanicum, which grows in the island of Ceylon; 
introduced into the West Indies in 1782, it is now cultivated 
there also. The tree attains the height of twenty to thirty 
feet, and is eighteen inches in thickness. The leaves are 
oval, four to six inches long, with a blunt point; they have 
the taste of cloves. The fruit is somewhat like an acorn 
in shape; it is a small drupe,-brown when ripe. The 
branches of three to five } 7 ears’ growth being cut down, the 
epidermis is scraped away; the bark is sjilit longitudinally 
with a knife and taken off. The pieces are then exposed to 
the sun, when it curls up into quills, the smaller of which 
are thrust into the larger, and the whole tied up in bun¬ 
dles. Cinnamon is arranged according to its quality by 
persons who chew it, although in a short time it produces 
painful effects on their mouths. It is used by cooks and 
confectioners, and in medicine as a stomachic and carmin¬ 
ative. Its virtues depend chiefly upon the essential oil 
which it contains. Oil of cassia is very often substituted 
for this oil, as cassia is for cinnamon. Indeed, the ordi¬ 
nary cinnamon of commerce is cassia, that name being 
given to the product of probably eighteen or twenty dif¬ 
ferent species of Cinnamomum. The root of the cinnamon 
tree contains camphor. The fruit yields a highly fra¬ 
grant, concrete oil, called “cinnamon suet,” and in Cey¬ 
lon was formerly made into candles for the use of the king. 
Cinnamomum Loureirii, of Cochin-China and Japan, yields 
a bark even superior to that of Cinnamomum Zeylanicum. 
A species of cinnamon grows at the elevation of 8500 feet 
in the Himalaya Mountains. The oil of cinnamon is gen¬ 
erally prepared in Ceylon by grinding coarse pieces, soaking 
them in sea-water for two or three days, and then distilling. 
Two oils pass over—one lighter, the other heavier, than 
water. Oil of cinnamon varies in color from yellow to 
cherry-red ; the yellow variety is the best. Oil of cinnamon 
leaf is prepared in Ceylon, and is met with in commerce 
under the name of clove oil, which it resembles. Cinnamon 
water is obtained by adding water to cinnamon, and dis¬ 
tilling, or by diffusing the oil of cinnamon through water 
by the aid of sugar or carbonate of magnesia. Spirit of 
cinnamon is procured by acting upon cinnamon with spirit 
of wine and water and distilling; and tincture of cinna¬ 
mon, by soaking cinnamon in spirit of wine. The medi¬ 
cinal properties of cinnamon are aromatic and carminative, 
and it is serviceable in nausea and vomiting, and in cases 
of flatulence and of spasm of the stomach. The eocene 
deposits of the U. S. and other countries abound in fossil 
remnants of trees referred to the genus Cinnamomum. 

Cin'namon Hear, or Yellow Bear, a bear occa¬ 
sionally found in the U. S., is regarded as a mere variety 
of the common black bear. (See Bear.) 

Cinnamon Stone is a variety of lime garnet of a 
clear cinnamon-brown color, and is a silicate of alumina 
and lime. The finer specimens are highly prized and used 
in jewelry. Many of the stones sold as hyacinths are in 
reality cinnamon stones. They are found most abundantly 
in Ceylon. 

Cinque Cento, ch^n-kwi chSn'to [an Italian word 
signifying “five hundred ”], a term used to designate the 
style of art which arose in Italy about the year 1500, after 
the fall of the great schools. It is sensuous in its charac¬ 
ter, the subjects beihg usually borrowed from ancient 
mythology or history. The same term is also applied to 
the literature and architecture of that period, and is nearly 
synonymous with the later Renaissance (which see). 

Cinquefoil, sink'foil [from the Fr. cinque, “five,” 
and feuillc, a “ leaf”], a common name of the five-finger or 
Potentilla (which see); also a bearing in heraldry, which 
is usually depicted with five leaves issuing from a ball as a 
centre point. Cinquefoil, in architecture, is an ornamental 
foliation in five compartments, used in the tracery of win¬ 
dows, panellings, and the like. The cinquefoil is often 
represented in a circular form, the spaces between the 
points or cusps representing the five leaves. 

Cinque Homines, a township of Perry co., Mo. 
Pop. 2910. 

Cinque Ports (7. e. “five ports ”), the English seaport- 
towns of Dover, Sandwich, Hastings, Romney, and 11} the, 
to which William the Conqueror granted important privi¬ 
leges. Winchelsoa, Rye, and Seaford were subsequently 





















952 


CINTRA—CIRCULAR. 


added to the original five ports. They are under the gov¬ 
ernment of a lord warden. The Cinque ports in early 
times were required to furnish such shipping as the sov¬ 
ereign required for the public service. In the time of 
Edward I. they were bound to furnish fifty-seven ships, 
equipped and manned at their expense, for fifteen days. 
The Cinque ports became so powerful and audacious that 
they sent out piratical expeditions and waged w r ar without 
authority from the king. The Municipal Reform act has 
broken up the ancient organization of the ports. 

Cin'tra, or Sintra, a town of Portugal, in Estrema- 
dura, on the slope of the Serra de Cintra, 14 miles N. W. 
of Lisbon. It is remarkable for the picturesque beauty of 
its situation and its delightful climate. It has an ancient 
castle, originally occupied by Moorish kings, and after¬ 
wards by Christian sovereigns. On two hills are the Penha 
convent and a Moorish castle, and within the town is a 
palace. The citizens of Lisbon are accustomed to spend 
their Sundays in Cintra. 

Cione di Andrea. See Orcagna. 

Ciotat, La (anc. Citharista), a maritime town of 
France, department of Bouches-du-Rhone, is on a bay of 
the Mediterranean 14 miles S. E. of Marseilles. It is well 
built, and has a good harbor, with an active trade in wine, 
fruits, and olive oil. Pop. 10,017. 

Ci'pher [Fr. chiffre; Arabic, lcifr, “empty ”], the sym¬ 
bol 0 in numerical notation, which is sometimes called 
“naught/’ and has no intrinsic value, but serves to deter¬ 
mine the local value of the other digits or figures by which 
it may be accompanied in the expression of a number. 

Cipher, or Mon'ogram, an intertexture of letters, as 
the initials of a name; an arrangement of the initial let¬ 
ters of a person’s name, used as a private mark by artists 
aud others. The term is also applied to certain characters 
or arbitrary signs used in writing despatches, etc. in cases 
where secresy is desirable. (See Cryptography.) 

Circte'a, a genus of herbaceous plants of the order 
Onagracere, having a corolla of two petals and two stamens. 
The Gircsea Lutetiana (enchanter’s nightshade) is a native 
of Europe and the U. S., growing in damp woods. It bears 
small whitish flowers in racemes. 

Circars, Northern, an extensive maritime province 
of British India, in the presidency of Madras, with 470 
miles of sea-coast. The surface is diverse. The principal 
rivers are the Godavery and Kishna. The soil is fertile, 
yielding cotton, grain, and tobacco. Area, 23,760 square 
miles. Pop. estimated at 3,000,000. 

Circas'sia, a region in the Western Caucasus belong¬ 
ing to Russia, and extending from lat. 42° 30' to 45° 40' N., 
and from Ion. 37° to 46° E. The soil is fertile, and the cli¬ 
mate cool and healthful. The forests are of luxuriant growth. 
Coal and iron abound. Area, about 33,000 square miles. 

The name Circassians is often applied to the people 
of the neighboring parts of the Caucasus, but the Circas¬ 
sians proper inhabit only the north-western part of the 
Caucasus, with the exclusion of Abkasia, or the portion be¬ 
tween the Black Sea in the W. and the lower bank of the 
river Kuban in the N. They number from 500,000 to 
600,000, and are divided into fifteen tribes or clans. The 
language of the Circassians, like the other tongues spoken 
in the Caucasus, is difficult to learn, and its philological 
relations, and the ethnological relations of these peoples, 
are very difficult questions. The Circassians are a warlike 
people, among whom it is held more honorable to live by 
plunder than by industry. They cherish the most unre¬ 
strained love of independence. There are five distinct 
ranks—viz. chiefs, nobles, freemen, dependants, and slaves. 
The class of freemen makes up the great mass; they possess 
property and enjoy the same political rights as the nobles. 
The fourth class, the dependants, are the vassals of the 
princes and nobles. The fifth class comprises the slaves, 
or those who have been made captive in war. The princes 
and nobles are principally Mohammedans, while the great 
mass of the people have a religion which is a mixture of 
Christianity and paganism. The Circassians are ignorant. 
Besides agriculture and the rearing of cattle, they possess 
few other branches of industry, and are given to wild and 
lawless pursuits. The Circassians are handsome, strong, 
active, and temperate, and are characterized by self-depend¬ 
ence, courage, and prudence. They are chiefly known 
through their struggles to maintain their independence 
against Russia, and for their custom of selling their daugh¬ 
ters to the Turks and Persians. 

Cir'ce [Gr. Ki'p/oj], a sorceress of classic mythology, 
celebrated for her skill in magic arts, was a sister of Pas- 
iphae. According to Ilomer, she was a daughter of the 
Sun, and lived on the island of JEsaa, where she trans¬ 
formed many men into swine and other beasts by her 


drugs and incantations. Ulysses passed a year with her. 
(See the “ Odyssey,” book x.) 

Circensian Games. See Circus. 

Cir'cle [from the Lat. cir cuius, a diminutive of circus, 
a “ ring ”], in geometry, is a plane figure bounded by a 
curved line which is everywhere equally distant from a 
point within called the centre. The curved line which 
bounds the circle is called the circumference. The distance 
from the centre to the circumference is called the radius, 
and any two radii which together form a straight line con¬ 
stitute the diameter. 

In the mechanic arts the ratio of the diameter to the cir¬ 
cumference is assumed to be as 7 to 22, which is exact 
enough for practical operations, though the real ratio can 
never be perfectly expressed. In ordinary mathematical 
work it is assumed to be as 1 to 3.1416, which is very 
slightly too large. Mr. William Shanks, a British mathe¬ 
matician, has carried out the decimal to 607 places. The 
diameter and circumference are in fact incommensurable, 
and it is conclusively demonstrated that the famous problem 
of “squaring the circle” can never be solved. 

The circle is one of the conic sections, it being exhibited 
by cutting a right cone in a plane parallel to its base. It 
is often referred to the second order of curves, and regarded 
as an ellipse, whose foci coincide with each other. 

In astronomy, the term “ great circle ” is applied to those 
circles which divide the celestial sphere into two equal 
parts, as the equator and the Meridian (which see). 

Six-points Circle, the circle which passes through the 
middle points of the sides of a triangle. It passes also 
through the feet of the three perpendiculars let fall from 
the angles upon the opposite sides, and possesses many 
remarkable properties. The same circle is referred to by 
some European writers as the nine-points circle, since, be¬ 
sides the six points already named, the middle points of 
the three lines joining the corners of the triangle to the 
intersection of the three perpendiculars also lie in its cir¬ 
cumference. Feuerbach, Brianchon, and many others have 
investigated the properties of this circle. The first of 
these geometers discovered that it touched the inscribed as 
well as the three exscribed circles of the triangle. 

Circle, Mural. See Mural Circle. 

Circle of Perpetual Apparition, a lesser circle 
of the celestial sphere, is parallel to the equator, and in¬ 
creases with the latitude of the place where the observer 
is stationed. All stars included in it are always above the 
horizon. These are called circumpolar stars. 

Cir'cleville, a city, the capital of Pickaway co., 0., is 
on the Scioto River, the Ohio Canal, and the Cincinnati 
and Muskingum Valley R. R., 104 miles E. N. E. of Cincin¬ 
nati and 25 miles S. of Columbus. It occupies the site of 
highly interesting ancient works, consisting of a circle and 
square, perfect in form, fully described in Howe’s “ History 
of Ohio.” It has 14 churches, 2 national banks, 1 private 
bank, 7 building-and-loan associations, 2 large pork-pack¬ 
ing establishments, a number of mills and factories, and 3 
weekly newspapers. The- lands in the vicinity of Circle- 
ville are largely devoted to broom-corn culture, thus making 
it a leading market for that article. The celebrated speech 
of Logan the Indian chief was made 4 miles S. of Circle- 
ville. Camp Charlotte, where Lord Dunmore encamped 
in 1774, and made a treaty of peace with Indians, is 7 
miles S. E. of Circleville. Pop. 5407; of Circleville town¬ 
ship, 515. 

Alfred Williams, Ed. “Herald and Union.” 

Circleville, a township and village of Pendleton co., 
West Va., 130 miles S. E. of Wheeling. Pop. 1108. 

Cir'cuit [Lat. circuitus, from circum, “around,” and 
eo,itum, to “go”], a name given in England, Wales, and 
Ireland to certain divisions of the country made for judi¬ 
cial purposes. These circuits are visited by judges at 
appointed times for holding courts. The judges were 
anoiently called justices in eyre (from the Lat. eo, ire, to 
“ go ”). 

Circuit Court, the name of the courts of the U. S. 
next inferior to the supreme judicial court. The U. S. are 
divided into circuits, and in each circuit one of these courts 
is held. The presiding judge is either the chief-justice of 
the U. S., one of his associates, a special circuit justice, or, 
in some instances, a district judge. The circuit court has 
jurisdiction, direct or appellate, both in law and equity. 
It also hears appeals from a court of admiralty in certain 
cases. Criminal cases may also in some circumstances 
come before it. Several States of the Union have circuit 
courts. (See Courts, by George Chase, LL.B.) 

Circular [Lat. circularis; Fr. circulaire], round, like 
a circle, circumscribed by a circle ; ending in itself, as a 
parologism in which the second proposition proves the 
first, and is proved by it. “Circular sailing” is the 










CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS—CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 953 


method of sailing by the arc of a great circle. As a noun, 
circular sometimes signifies a document addressed to a 
circle of persons or to a number of persons having a com¬ 
mon interest, as a circular letter. 

Cir'cular Functions, a term which, as generally 
employed, is synonymous with trigonometrical functions. 
Circular Notes. See Letters of Credit. 

Cir'cular Numbers are numbers whose powers end 
on the same figure as they do themselves; such are num¬ 
bers ending in 0, 1, 5, 6. 

Cir'cular Parts, in spherical trigonometry, the name 
given to two rules invented by Lord Napier, and demon¬ 
strated in his ft Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descrip- 
tio ” (see also Todhunter’s “Spherical Trigonometry”), 
for obtaining the formulas relative to a right-angled spheri¬ 
cal triangle. 

Circular Points at Infinity, the two imaginary 
points in which any circle intersects the infinitely distant 
right line in its plane. 

Circulating (or Recur'ring) Dec'imal, a decimal 
in which certain digits are continually repeated. Thus, 
.15723723 ...., ad infinitum, is a circulating decimal of 
which the figures 723 constitute the recurring period, called 
also the repetend. 

Circulating Library. See Libraries, by A. R. Spof- 
ford, Esq., Librarian of Congress. 

Circulation of the Blood. In all animals, even 
the simplest and lowest, there is a movement, more or less 
regular, of blood, or of a fluid equivalent to it, furnishing 
material for the formation and repair of the body. Sponges, 
while living, have no closed internal circulation, but their 
nutrition and aeration are sustained by the incessant flow 
of the water in which they exist through their numerous 
pores. Other Protozoa (as the lowest group of animals is 
designated), as Rhizopoda, have, within their soft, jelly- 
like substance, cavities (vesicles) which alternately contract 
and dilate, serving the purpose of aeration of their bodies, 
with redistribution of their material. Animals a grade 
higher, as the Actinia (sea-anemone), have a free commu¬ 
nication between the stomach and the general cavity of the 
body, from which, through fine ramifications to certain 
parts, the nutritious fluid is circulated, though never sep¬ 
arated as true blood. In worms no distinct circulation of 
blood has been proven to exist. Cavities ( lacunse ) there 
are, and in some, as the leech, vessels called pseudo-hsemal 
vessels, ramifying through the body and containing a fluid, 
generally red, but these always have a tubular communica¬ 
tion with the exterior. In insects there is a dorsal seg¬ 
mented vessel, with valves between the segments, which 
conveys the blood forward by its rhythmical contractions. 
The blood, which is often colored, and contains corpuscles 
(though never colored, as in vertebrates, by the corpuscles), 
then flows into lacunas, or spaces through the body, coming 
in contact with the air introduced by the tracheal tubes. 
Crustaceans, as the lobster, have a muscular heart, with six 
arterial branches, going to the head, stomach, liver, and 
posterior parts. Thence the blood passes through a num¬ 
ber of lacunse, and returns by a number of veins, which 
expose it, in the gills, to the air before reconveying it to 
the heart. Thus the heart of the crustacean is systemic, not 
respiratory, in its mode of distribution of the blood. The 
oyster has a heart, not far from the muscle which closes its 
shell; its vascular system, however, is incompletely closed. 
In the cuttle-fish there is a strong systemic heart, with 
valves; it sends blood to all the organs except the gills. 
The blood returns into a contractile venous enlargement 
(sinus), which conveys it to the gills through from two to 
four branches or veins. Other sinuses then receive it, and 
these, being contractile, send it back to the heart. All in¬ 
vertebrates (animals without an internal skeleton) have, 
if any, a systemic heart, and none of them have colored 
corpuscles in their blood. 

Vertebrated animals always (except the anomalous Am- 
phioxus ) have blood containing both red and colorless cor¬ 
puscles, the former of which give to it its color. In fishes 
the heart is branchial or respiratory. Consisting of an au¬ 
ricle and a ventricle, it receives venous blood from the body, 
and propels it, by four or five arched vessels, through the 
gills, whence it circulates, to be returned by veins to the 
auricle. In the eel, torpedo, and one or two other fishes, 
contractile venous sinuses assist this return. 

In fishes generally it is supposed that the impulse of the 
heart suffices for the whole round of the circulation. More 
probably, however, this is supplemented by arterial, if not 
venous, propulsion, and by a power acting in the (interme¬ 
diate) capillary region. All vertebrated animals have a 
closed circulatory system, consisting of a heart, arteries, 
capillaries, and veins. In all vertebrates there is, also, a 
portal system, composed of veins going from the digestive, 


and sometimes other, organs to the liver—in fishes to the 
kidney also—whence veins again convey the blood to the 
heart. 

Reptiles and amphibia have a heart with three cavities— 
two auricles and one ventricle. Of the auricles, one re¬ 
ceives blood from the lungs (except in the early stUge of 
life of the frog, and some other amphibia; and from the 
lungs and gills both in the perennibranchiate amphibia, as 
Proteus); and the other receives the blood from the body 
generally. These two kinds of blood (aerated, or arterial, 
and non-aerated, or venous) mingle in the single ventricle, 
whence they are redistributed to the lungs and all over the 
body by arteries. In the crocodile, however, a partition al¬ 
most separates the two halves of the ventricle, thus approach¬ 
ing the arrangement in the higher animals. 

Birds have four cavities—two auricles and two ventricles 
—making a completely double heart, always situated in the 
middle of the thorax or chest. One auricle receives the 
blood by large veins coming from the body generally. This 
auricle passes the blood into its connected ventricle, which 
sends it, by pulmonary arteries, to the lungs. Thence it 
returns, by pulmonary veins, to the other auricle, and this 
conveys it into its attached ventricle. That cavity then 
propels it through the aorta, or main arterial trunk, for 
general distribution over the body. In birds the portal 
venous system mainly connects the liver with the digestive 
organs; but a few of its veins communicate with the kid¬ 
neys, posterior internal organs, and lower extremities. 

All mammals (viviparous vertebrated animals which 
suckle their young) have a double heart, consisting of two 
auricles and two ventricles—a respiratory and a systemic 
heart conjoined. In man, for instance, the right auricle and 
ventricle constitute the respiratory or pulmonary heart— 
the left, the systemic; and after birth, although closely ad¬ 
herent together, no direct communication exists between 
them. In the dugong the two ventricles are partly sep¬ 
arated by a deep notch. In the ox and many other rumin¬ 
ants a bony deposit strengthens the inter-ventricular wall. 
Only in man and some of the anthropoid (man-like) apes 
does the heart incline to the left side; in other animals it 
is usually median. This promotes the symmetry which is 
so especially important in swift-running animals, as the 
hound and deer, and in birds for flight. 

The arrangement of the branches of the aorta differs in 
the several classes of vertebrated animals. Fishes have 
four or five aortic arches, going to the gills. The lower 
reptiles have three aortic arches on each side; the higher 
reptiles, one on each side, descending over the roots of the 
two lungs to form together the abdominal aorta. Birds 
have only one—the right aortic arch, passing over the root 
of the right lung. In mammals, including man, there is 
only a single aortic arch, over the root of the left lung; 
this, giving off branches above, becomes in its descent the 
abdominal aorta. The manner of origin of the ascend¬ 
ing branches (subclavian and carotid) of the aorta differs 
also, even among the Mammalia. In man it is least sym¬ 
metrical; two arterial trunks passing upward from the 
aorta on the left side (left carotid and subclavian), while 
there is one ( arteria innominata) only on the right, soon 
subdividing into two. The horse and ruminants have but 
a single aortic principal branch, which gives off all four of 
the carotid and subclavian arteries. The portal circulation 
in mammals is never connected with the kidneys. 

A rete mirabile is a network of closely interjoining (an¬ 
astomosing) arteries, which finally unite into a single 
trunk. Whales and other Cetacea (aquatic, fish-like mam¬ 
mals) have retia mirabilia connected with their intercostal 
arteries within the chest, evidently serving the purpose of 
reservoirs to retain and distribute aerated blood while the 
animal is submerged for a long time. There are also in the 
same animals venous plexuses or retia, for the detention, 
under like circumstances, of impure, non-aerated blood. 
Protective arrangements of the arteries exist in certain 
special instances, as the passage through the pelvic bones 
of the main artery of the hind part of the tail in the whale; 
of the great artery of the anterior extremity through the 
humerus or arm-bone of the lion ; and of the corresponding 
artery through the coffin-bone (hoof-bone) of the horse. In 
all these cases vigorous action of the muscles in locomotion 
or prehension might unduly obstruct, at times, the flow of 
arterial blood but for such a provision, by which muscular 
or tendinous pressure upon the artery is prevented by its 
enclosure within bony walls. 

The circulation of the blood in man corresponds altogether 
(except in the unsymmetrical location ot the heart and of 
some of the arterial trunks) with the mammalian type abov o 
described. In connection with the human circulation, how¬ 
ever, some additional particulars may be here gh en. 

Action of the Heart. (For anatomy, see Heart; also 
Artery, Capillary, and Vein.) — Being composed of spi¬ 
rally-arranged muscular fibres, the heart, b} its rhythmical 











954 CIKCULATION OF SAP. 


contractions and relaxations, empties itself and becomes 
filled with blood alternately, in an adult man or woman, 
between sixty-five and seventy-five times a minute while at 
rest in health. From the right ventricle the venous blood 
(poured into it from the l'ight auricle, which receives it 
from tfle great venae cavae) is sent through the pulmonary 
artery and its branches to the capillaries which ramify 
minutely throughout the lungs. These combine to form 
small veins whose union into larger trunks finally consti¬ 
tutes the four pulmonary veins, which empty the (now 
aerated or arterialized) blood into the left auricle. This 
conveys it into the left ventricle, whence it is impelled 
through the aorta, by the branches of which it becomes dis¬ 
tributed all over the body in capillary networks, to return 
to the heart by means of the veins; all of which enrpty at 
last into the ascending and descending venae cavae. 

For the maintenance of this round of the circulation the 
valves of the heart are indispensable. Membranous and 
muscular valves (tricuspid and mitral) intervene between 
each auricle and its corresponding ventricle. Pocket-like 
(three-folded, semilunar) valves also exist at the mouths of 
the two great arteries which convey blood from the heart; 
namely, the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle, and 
the aorta from the left ventricle. When the auricles are 
contracting, the (tricuspid and mitral) valves between them 
and the ventricles are open, allowing the blood to flow 
through. The auricles being emptied and the ventricles 
filled, the latter then contract, and at the same time, and in 
the same act, close the auriculo-ventricular valves; so that 
the blood is forced onward through the two arteries above 
named (pulmonary artery and aorta). While the ventricles 
are contracting (this being called the systole ), the heart is 
spirally twisted, elongated,'*' and thrust slightly forward 
against the space between the fifth and sixth ribs, below the 
left nipple. This quite perceptible movement is the im¬ 
pulse of the heart. No power other than that of elasticity 
has been proved to exist in the dilatation ( diastole ) of the 
cavities of the heart. The immediate cause of the systolic 
contraction is most probably the contractility resident in the 
heart’s muscular tissue, acting under the stimulus of aerated 
(oxygenated) blood. It is also placed under the modifying 
influence of the nervous apparatus or system, having mi¬ 
nute ganglia upon its surface, and being connected with the 
brain and spinal cord by branches of the pneumogastric 
nerve. Why the action of the heart should be so regularly 
rhythmical is not known. But as it has been shown (by 
Bowman and Marey) that all muscular action is alter¬ 
nating or vibratory in its character, it is possible that the 
spiral arrangement of the heart’s fibres may have to do with 
the peculiar manner of the heart’s contraction. With some 
(especially cold-blooded) animals the heart has been found 
to contract for some minutes, or even hours, after its removal 
from the body, and sometimes when quite emptied of blood. 

Of the sounds of the heart, audible when the ear is placed 
over it against the chest, the first (longest and loudest) is 
explained principally by the closing, with vibration, of the 
auriculo-ventricular walls during the systole of the ventri¬ 
cles. Other minor causes are the impulse of the heart, the 
rush of blood into the great arteries, and the friction of 
the heart’s muscular fibres amongst themselves. The second 
sound has been shown experimentally to be caused by the 
flapping together, after the systole, of the pocket-like (semi¬ 
lunar) valves at the mouths of the aorta and pulmonary 
artery. 

Arterial Circulation .—Since the arteries contain, in their 
middle coat, a portion of (smooth, pale, involuntary) mus¬ 
cular as well as elastic tissue, this must have an important 
influence upon the blood-movement. The fact that the rel¬ 
ative amount of muscular tissue is greatest in the smallest 
arteries, which are farthest from the heart, suggests their 
adaptation to the purpose of supplementing the action of 
the heart in propelling the blood through the capillaries. 
The same idea is reasonably connected with the observa¬ 
tion that after death the arteries are always found to have 
emptied themselves, by their last contraction, into the veins. 
It is also supported by the apparent need of such an arte¬ 
rial power to complete the circulation commenced by the 
merely branchial (not systemic) heart in fishes, and by the 
fact that in acephalous (born without a head) children the 
heart is found to be absent, so that the circulation in them 
must have been arterial and capillary only ; as well as by 
the proof that during early embryonic life every human 
being is likewise without a heart, the blood-movement then 
depending on the blood-vessels alone. Notwithstanding 
these and many other obvious reasons in favor of such a 
view (which was accepted by the distinguished John Hun¬ 
ter and Sir Charles Bell), the more common opinion among 


* This was proved by the late Dr. Pennock of Philadelphia, 
many years ago, by many elaborate experiments, although not 
yet admitted by all writers on physiology. 


physiologists has been, for many years, that the office of the 
muscularity of the arteries is of a ‘‘stop-cock” or ‘■flood¬ 
gate” nature, opposing a graduated resistance to the im¬ 
pulse given to the flow of blood by the heart. Lately, how¬ 
ever, careful experiments by Legros and Onimus (“Journal 
de l’Anatomie et de la Physiologie,” 1868-70) have given 
new confirmation to the former opinion, in favor of a truly 
active part taken by the arteries in the circulation. Cer¬ 
tainly, in some way these vessels have to do with the regu¬ 
lation of the changing supply or determination of blood to 
various parts of the body at different times. This varia¬ 
tion we see in blushing; in the erectile tissues and organs; 
in the effect of friction or mustard, etc. upon the skin; in 
the increased flow of blood to the jaws during the time of 
dentition in infants, to the ovaries during ovulation, the 
uterus in gestation, the male reproductive organs of some 
animals at certain periods, and the antlers of the deer 
during their annual new growth. In all these variations 
the vaso-motor nerves (belonging to the ganglionic system) 
must have an important influence. 

Capillaries .—Having but a single elastic coat, without 
muscularity, these very (microscopically) minute vessels 
simply adapt themselves to the blood that passes through 
them. Yet besides the transudation of the lymph or plasma 
of the blood from them for the nutrition of the tissues, and 
the absorption into them of waste materials, a force is 
probably added to the forward movement of the blood in 
the capillary region. Prof. Draper of New York has pointed 
out that this may occur in two ways, both of which are 
common to animals and plants. One is capillary attrac¬ 
tion— i. e. the attraction of fine tubes for liquids in which 
they are immersed, such as is observed in inanimate (metallic 
or glass) tubes or porous bodies, as well as in living plants 
and animals. The other is the “ vital affinity,” or attraction 
of nutrition, exercised by the tissues towards materials 
present in the blood, and withdrawing them constantly 
from the current, thus making room, by diminution of re¬ 
sistance, for its onward flow. The volume of the capillary 
system in man is about 300 times that of the arteries. 

Venous Circulation .—On account of the distance trav¬ 
ersed by the blood (passing as it does through the capil¬ 
lary ramifications) before it reaches the veins, and their 
greater aggregate volume (three times that of the arterial 
system), as well as the obtuseness of the angles made gen¬ 
erally by their branches with the main trunks, the flow of 
the blood is much slower through the veins than through 
the arteries. Veins have, as the arteries have not, valves 
along their course, opening only towards the heart. By 
these the propulsive power is economized, and on account of 
their influence also, the effect of muscular pressure, during 
exercise, upon the veins, always favors the blood-movement 
towards the heart. Inspiration, by lessening the pres¬ 
sure upon the auricles and venae cavae during the expansion 
of the chest, tends to promote the return of venous blood to 
the heart. Forced expiration has an effect the reverse of 
this, but by increase of pressure upon the heart it favors 
the expulsion of the blood through the arteries. 

The velocity of the movement of the blood through the 
arteries averages from twelve to twenty feet in a second ; in 
the capillaries, about two inches in a minute; in the veins, 
from six to twelve feet in a second. Exjieriments prove 
that the whole round of the circulation is accomplished 
in a little less than half a minute during rest and health. 

The discovery of the circulation of the blood, as now 
understood, was made by Dr. William Harvey in 1619, first 
published by him, however, in 1628. He was ])artially an¬ 
ticipated by Servetus, Realdus Columbus, and Caesalpinus; 
almost entirely so by Paolo Sarpi, whose claim in this re¬ 
spect has been generally overlooked. The discovery was 
completed by the demonstration (with the aid of the micro¬ 
scope) of the blood-corpuscles and the capillaries, between 
1658 and 1687, by Swammerdam, Malpighi, and Leeuwen¬ 
hoek. (See, on the circulation, Carpenter’s, Marshall’s, 
or Dalton’s “ Treatises on Physiology;” “ Essay on the 
Circulation of the Blood,” by Charles Bell, London, 
1819; “Physiologie Medicale de la Circulation du Sang,” 
par E. J. Marey, Paris, 1863; Legros and Onimus, “ Ex¬ 
perimental Observations” in the “Journal de l’Anatomie et 
dela Physiologie,” 1868-70; and “Essaysupon the Arterial 
Circulation and Vaso-motor Physiology,” by H. Harts- 
horne, in “Transactions of the American Medical Associa¬ 
tion,” 1856 and 1872.) Henry Hartshorne. 

Circulation of Sap in plants is its ascent from the 
roots to the leaves and other green parts, and its partial 
descent after elaboration in these organs. The sap drawn 
from the ground by the roots (see Endosmose) ascends in 
exogenous plants especially through the alburnum. The 
descent takes place chiefly through the liber or inner bark. 
It appears that on its return to the root a small portion is 
excreted, and that the greater part ascends again, readapted 
to the use of the plant. Much of the water which is taken 














CIRCUM—CIRRIPEDIA. 



up by the roots is thrown off by the bark and leaves. The 
sap is also laterally diffused through the cellular tissue of 
plants. Physiologists dislike the term circulation applied 
to sap, as suggesting a closer analogy than really exists to 
the circulation of blood in animals, since sap does not flow 
freely through vessels, but exists in closed cells, passing 
from cell to cell through the cell-walls, being impelled by 
osmotic action. (See Cyclosis and Leaf.) 

Cir'cum, a Latin preposition signifying "round” or 
“ about,” and forming the prefix to many compound words. 

Circumcis'ion [Lat. circumcisio, from circum, 
"around,” and credo, csesum, to " cut”], the cutting off of the 
prepuce, a religious or sanitary practice in many ancient 
and modern nations. The prevalent idea has been that it 
originated with Abraham, w ho circumcised himself and his 
household, and transmitted the custom to his descendants. 
But circumcision was common in Egypt as early as the 
fourth dynasty of kings, and probably earlier, long before 
the birth ot Abraham, 1996 B. C. At the present day it 
prevails from China to the Cape of Good Hope and in parts 
of Australia and in many of the South Sea Islands, and 
early Spanish travellers found it to be prevalent in the 
West Indies and in Mexico. It has been long practised by 
tribes in South America. Whether Abraham obtained his 
knowledge of circumcision from the Egyptians we cannot 
determine. The Philistines and some of the Canaanites 
were not circumcised; and the institution in the family of 
Abraham was sufficient to mark off that family from the 
surrounding nations. In the case of Abraham’s descend¬ 
ants the rite acquired a religious significance as the token 
of the covenant between God and his people. Saint Paul 
looked upon circumcision as symbolical of the spiritual 
change of heart. 

The Jews are accustomed to circumcise their children on 
the eighth day after birth ; the Arabians, in the thirteenth 
year, in remembrance of their ancestor Ishmael. The 
Copts and Abyssinians are perhaps the only people pro¬ 
fessing Christianity among whom circumcision is practised, 
though it is probable that some Christians of the Caucasus 
have adopted it from their Mohammedan neighbors. The 
circumcision of females, or what is equivalent, is not un¬ 
known among various African and Arabian tribes. 

Cireum'ference [from the Lat. circurn, "round,” and 
fero, to " carry ”], a curved line which encloses a plane 
figure, and is synonymous with periphery. It is applied 
especially to the curved line which encloses a circle, and 
bears a certain constant ratio to its diameter. (See Circle.) 
The term perimeter is used to designate the whole bound¬ 
ing lines of a plane figure enclosed by several straight 
lines, as a square or polygon. 

Cir'cuinflex [from the Lat. circum, " about,” and flecto, 
Jlexum, "to bend;” literally, " bent about ” or "over”], in 
grammar, a character or accent originally denoting a rise 
and fall of the voice on the same long syllable, marked in 
Greek ~ or ~, and in Latin A . 

Cir'cumnaviga'tion [from the Lat. circum, "around,” 
and navicjo, navigation, to "sail”] means, literally, a 
sailing round, and is usually applied to the act of sailing 
round the globe. This was formerly considered a great 
achievement. The first person who circumnavigated the 
earth was Magellan, in 1519. Sir Francis Drake sailed 
round the globe in 1577. Among the other celebrated nav¬ 
igators who performed this voyage was Captain James 
Cook,in 1768-79. 

Cir / cumpo / lar [from the Lat. circum, "around,” and 
polus, the "pole”] Stars, stars which revolve within the 
circle of perpetual apparition, and appear to move around 
the pole, and complete their diurnal circles without setting. 
The number of stars so circumstanced increases with the 
latitude of the place, or, in other words, with the elevation 
of the pole above the horizon of the observer. 

Circumstantial Evidence. See Evidence, by Prof. 
T. W. Dwight, LL.D. 

Circumvalla'tion [from the Lat. circum, "about,” 
and vallum, a "rampart”]. In fortification, an intrench- 
ment or series of defensive works erected by a besieging 
army, facing outward from the place invested or besieged, 
is called a line of circumvallation. It is designed to defend 
the besieging army against an attack from a hostile army 
operating in the rear. It usually consists of a chain of re¬ 
doubts, either isolated or connected by a parapet. 

Cir'cus (plu. Cir'ci), [originally, a "circle” or "cir¬ 
cular space”]. The circus of ancient Rome was a large 
structure without a roof, for chariot and horse races, and 
for the exhibition of athletic exercises and conflicts of wild 
beasts. It appears that it was originally of a circular or 
oval form, whence the name. The Circensian games, ac¬ 
cording to tradition, originated in the time of Romulus, 
when they wore dedicated to the deity Consus, and called 


955 


Consualia. The fape of the Sabines occurred at the Cir¬ 
censian games. After the war in which Tarquinius Pris- 
cus captured Apiolae, his victory was celebrated by games. 

A space was marked out for a circus, and the senators 
and knights erected scaffoldings round it for themselves. 
The games thenceforth were held annually, and a perma¬ 
nent edifice was afterwards constructed. This was dis¬ 
tinguished as the Circus Maximus. It was enlarged at 
varioustimes. In the time of Julius Cmsar it was 1875 feet 
long and 625 feet wide; the depth of the buildings surround¬ 
ing the space was about 312 feet. Its dimensions were sub¬ 
sequently much greater. All the circi in Rome, of which 
there were a considerable number, are nearly obliterated, 
but a circus on the Appian Way, about two miles from 
Rome, known as the Circus of Maxentius, is still in a state 
of preservation. Its construction is believed to have dif¬ 
fered very little from that of other ancient buildings for 
similar purposes. Along the sides and at the end were 
ranges of stone seats for the spectators. At the other end 
were the carceres or stalls, covered and furnished with 
gates, and in which the horses and chariots remained un¬ 
til on a given signal the gates were thrown open. In the 
centre was the 8pina, a long and broad wall round which the 
chariots drove, terminating at both ends in metre., or goals. 
The games were inaugurated by a procession from the Cap¬ 
itol, in which persons bearing the images of the gods went 
first, and were followed by the performers in the games, 
the consuls, and others. The circus was particularly de¬ 
signed for races, an amusement of which the Romans were 
passionately fond. In consequence of the popular enthu¬ 
siasm, the victor received substantial pecuniary rewards. 

A pitched battle was sometimes represented. By the for¬ 
mation of canals and the introduction of vessels a sea- 
fight was occasionally exhibited, but under the empire this 
was transferred to the amphitheatre. In providing for the 
killing of wild beasts vast sums of money were expended. 
Animals were procured from every part of the Roman em¬ 
pire. The exhibition attained a political importance which 
none who aspired to popularity ventured to overlook. Pom- 
pey is said to have given public exhibitions in the circus 
for five days, during which 500 lions and twenty elephants 
were destroyed. The principal Circensian games were held 
annually in September, and lasted five days. 

Cirencester (pron. sis'eter), (anc. Corinium ), a town 
of England, in Gloucestershire, on the river Churn, and on 
a branch of the Great Western Railway, 89 miles by rail * 
W. N. W. from London. It has an agricultural college, 
several hospitals, and manufactures of carpets, woollen 
cloths, and cutlery. Canute held a council here in 1020. 
Cirencester partly occupies the site of Corinium, an ancient 
Roman town two miles in circuit. Pop. in 1871, 7681. 

Ciril'lo (Domenico), M. D., F. R. S., a meritorious Italian 
savant and patriot, was born at Grugno in 1734. He 
practised medicine in Naples, and published, besides other 
works, " Fundamenta Botanica” (1771), which is an able 
treatise on botanical philosophy, and a " Flora of the King¬ 
dom of Naples” (1788-93). In 1799 he was chosen a mem¬ 
ber of the legislature of the Parthenopean Republic. He 
was put to death by the royalists in the same year. 

Cirrhopoda, an incorrect form of Cirripedia (which 
see). 

Cirripe'dia (plu.), or Cir'ripeds [from the Lat. cir¬ 
rus, a "curl,” and pes (gen .pedis), a "foot”], a name ap¬ 
plied to certain animals which were for a long time con¬ 
sidered as an order of mollusks. More recently, however, 
they have been shown to belong to the Articulata (Arthrop- 
oda), either as a distinct class, a sub-class of Crustacea, 
or as a group of ostracoid entomostracans. Barnacles are 
familiar examples of cirripeds, but quite a number of 
species are now known, all marine, and all in their mature 
state attached to objects of various kinds, as rocks, sea¬ 
weeds, shells, etc. Some are found in the skin of whales, 
some in the flesh of sharks. They are distributed over the 
world; the species, however, are not very numerous. They 
are divided into pedunculated and sessile, those of the for¬ 
mer family supported on a flexile stalk, which is wanting 
in the latter. Barnacles (Lepadidae) are pedunculated cirri¬ 
pedia, and Balani (acorn-shells, sessile barnacles) are with¬ 
out a stalk. 

The likeness of these animals to mollusks is chiefly ex¬ 
ternal. The gills, when these exist, occupy the same rela¬ 
tive position as in crustaceans, but the aeration of the 
blood is also effected in the cirri, as the limbs are called, 
of which there are six pairs on each side, each com¬ 
posed of many joints and fringed with still hairs. I he 
cirri nearest the mouth are short and form a sort ol net lor 
the capture of minute animals, being incessantly thrown 
out from a lateral opening, and drawn in again in such a 
manner as to convey to the mouth any prey which they 
may have caught. Almost all are hermaphrodite, but in a 













95 6 CIRRUS 


few genera the sexes are distinct, the males being not only 
very small in comparison with the females, and more short¬ 
lived, but, in their mature state, parasitic on the females, 
or attached to them ; whilo in some appear complemental 
males attached to hermaphrodites. The young swim freely 
in the water, and are furnished with eyes, which disappear 
after they have permanently fixed themselves. They have 
also shells different from those of their mature state. The 
shelly coverings of the cirripedia are all formed according 
to a certain type, but they differ extremely in the num¬ 
ber of pieces of which they consist, some having only five 
valves, and others have more than 100 additional pieces. 
They are from half an inch to several inches in length. 

Cir'rus (plu. Cirri), a Latin word signifying a “lock 
of curled hair,” is used in botany to denote a tendril, a 
spiral and filiform appendage of climbing plants. It twines 
around such objects as occur in the vicinity, and thus ob¬ 
tains support for the stem, which is too weak to support 
itself in an erect position. The cirrus is a modified leaf, 
or in some cases is an elongation of the midrib of a pin¬ 
nate leaf. 

The term cirrus is also applied to a thin fleecy cloud 
floating in the sky at a great elevation, and called mare’s 
tail, or curl-cloud. 

Cis, a Latin preposition meaning “on this side,” is often 
prefixed to the names of rivers or mountains to form adjec¬ 
tives ; as Cisalpine, “on this side of the Alps;” Cispadane, 
“ on this side of the Po.” These terms are used with ref¬ 
erence to Rome. 

Cisal'pine Republic, a former state in the north of 
Italy, founded by the French in 1797, comprised Lombardy, 
Rovigo, the duchy of Modena, the “Venetian territory S. 
and W. of the Adige, the Valtellinc, and the legations of 
Bologna, Ferrara, and the Romagna. Area, about 16,000 
square miles, with a population of 3,500,000. Milan was 
the capital. An intimate connection was formed in 1798 
between this republic and France by a treaty of alliance 
offensive and defensive. In 1802 it took the name of the 
Italian Republic, and chose Napoleon as its president. It 
was transformed into the kingdom of Italy in 1805, and 
continued to be subject to Napoleon until 1814. 

Ciscauca'sia, one of the two divisions of Caucasia. 
Area, 86,030. square miles. It contains the government 
of Stavropol and territories of Kuban and Ter. Pop. 
1,418,698. 

Cisleitha'nia, since 1867 the usual, though not official, 
collective name of that part of the Austro-Hungarian mon¬ 
archy which is situated this side (as viewed from Vienna) 
of the river Leitha. It embraces all the Herman crown- 
lands, Istria, Dalmatia, Halicia, and the Bukovina; in gen¬ 
eral, all the provinces not appertaining to the Hungarian 
crown. (See Transleithania.) 

Cis'pailane Repub'lic, a former state of Italy, was 
organized by the French after the battle of Lodi in 1796. 
It was bounded on the N. by the river Po (anc. Padus), 
and comprised Modena, Reggia, Bologna, and Ferrara. In 
1797 it was merged in the Cisalpine Republic. 

Cis'platine Repub'lic, for some time (from Oct., 1828, 
to July, 1831) the name of the republic of Uruguay. Pre¬ 
viously this republic had been, under the name of Cispla- 
tine Province, a part of Brazil. 

Cis'rhenane Repub'lic, a name selected for the pro¬ 
jected confederation of the Herman towns situated west of 
the Rhine in 1797. The project was not carried into ex¬ 
ecution, because the peace of Campo Formio transferred 
the entire left bank of the Rhine to France. 

cissam'pelos [Hr. *acnrdp.7reAos, the name of a kind of 
vine, from kio-<t<k, “ivy,” and dp. 7reAos, a “vine”], a genus 
of plants of the order Menispermaceee, of which some pos¬ 
sess valuable medicinal properties, particularly Cissampelos 
Pareira, a native of the warm parts of America, the root 
of which is known by the name of Pareira Brava (which 
see). 

Cissey, tie (Ernest Louis Octave), a French general, 
born in Paris in 1810. He became general of division in 
1859, and was taken prisoner by the Hermans at Metz in 
1870. He served against the Commune in the siege of 
Paris in March and April, 1871, and was appointed min¬ 
ister of war in June, 1871. 

Cis'soid of Di'ocles [Hr. kio-o-wStjs, “ivy-like,” from 
Kio-cros, “ ivy”], a curve invented by the Alexandrian mathe¬ 
matician Diocles, with a viewto the solution of the problem 
of the duplication of the cube, or the insertion of two mean 
proportionals between two given straight lines. It may be 
regarded as the pedal of a parabola with respect to the 
vertex; in other words, it is the locus of the vertex of a 
parabola which rolls upon an equal parabola, so that cor¬ 
responding points of the curves always coincide with their 


CITHARA. 


point of contact; it is also the inverse of a parabola with 
respect to its vertex. Its equation is (a — x)y 2 = x 3 . 

Cista'cese [from Cistus, one of the genera], a natural 
order of exogenous plants, herbs, or shrubs, mostly natives 
of Southern Europe and Northern Africa. Several are 
natives of the U. S. They have regular flowers, hypogy- 
nous and mostly indefinite stamens, and an inverted embryo 
in mealy albumen. Many of the species are prized for the 
beauty of their flowers. The Cistus creticus and a few 
others yield the resinous balsamic substance called gum 
labdanum. 

cister'eians [from Cistercium, now Citeaux, their first 
abbey], or Rernardines, an order of Benedictine monks 
and nuns which was founded in 1098. Through the influence 
chiefly of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, who became a monk 
of Citeaux in 1113, the order in Jittle more than a cen¬ 
tury after its foundation had more than 1800 abbeys. The 
Cistercians were distinguished from the order of Clugny 
by their severe rule and strict poverty; by being submis¬ 
sive to the bishops; by not meddling with the cure of 
souls; by their dress and by their peculiar government. 
Among the fraternities of Cistercians were the nuns of Port 
Royal, the Recollets, and the Trappists. Among the Eng¬ 
lish abbeys were Woburn, Tintern, and Rievaulx ; among 
the Scottish, Melrose, Hlenluce, Balmerino, and New Ab¬ 
bey. Riches and indolence brought this order into decay. 
Before the Reformation many of its convents had ceased to 
exist. In 1872 only a small number of convents were in 
existence, chiefly in France and Austria. 

Cis'tern [Lat. efstenm, from cista, a “box ” or “chest”], 
a tank constructed for holding water. Where the supply 
of water is uncertain, or where rain-water is used, every 
house requires a cistern. Cisterns are variously construct¬ 
ed—of iron, or wood lined with lead, zinc, cement, or of 
slate, in which case, the sides and bottom are grooved, and 
cemented to prevent leakage; large cisterns are generally 
made cylindrical, so that the pressure acts at all points 
equally from the centre. Some are simply excavated in 
the earth and plastered with hydraulic cement. 

Cis'tus, or Rock Rose, a genus of plants, the type 
of the order Cistacem, comprises several species which are 
natives of the Levant and Southern Europe, and are cul¬ 
tivated for the beauty of their flowers. (See Cistacf.e.) 
The cistus of the English poets is the rock-cist ( Helianthe - 
mum), a genus of which there are four British and several 
American species. 

Cit'adel [It. citadella, dimin. of cittd, a “city,” a “little 
city,” because in ancient times, though but a small portion 
of the city, it was the most essential part of all, and in fact 
represented the whole], a fort of four or five bastions in or 
near a town, or a strong fort constructed within fortifica¬ 
tions. It is designed partly to enable the garrison to keep 
the inhabitants of the town in subjection; and in case of a 
siege it serves as a place of retreat for the garrison, and 
enables it to hold out after the town has been captured. 

Citadel (post-office name New Memphis), a post¬ 
village of Douglas co., Col., on the Denver and Rio Hrande 
R. R., 30 miles S. of Denver, near Castle Rock, a remark¬ 
able mass of sandstone. The “ Independence Colony ” is 
settled herq^ 

Cita'tion, in law. 1. This term is principally used 
in connection with an ecclesiastical court, to indicate the 
act of summoning persons to appear before it. A citation 
gives the court jurisdiction over the parties cited or sum¬ 
moned. The surrogates’ or probate courts in the U. S. have 
a jurisdiction corresponding in part with the English eccle¬ 
siastical courts, and resort to a citation unless some other 
method is supplied by statute. The citation is prospect¬ 
ively abrogated in England by an act of Parliament taking 
effect Nov. 2, 1874. After that time proceedings in all the 
higher courts will be commenced by a uniform method— 
the summons. 

2. “Citation” is also employed to mean a reference to 
precedents or authorities in support of a law argument. 
These are commonly indicated by well-known abbrevia¬ 
tions, to be found in such works as Bouvier’s “Law Die- 
tiouarjr,” 12th and later editions. 

Citeaux, formerly CisteailX (anc. Cistercium), a ham¬ 
let of France, in C6te-de’Or, about 10 miles S. S. E. of 
Dijon. Here was a celebrated monastery of the Cistercian 
order founded in 1098. Remains of the magnificent build¬ 
ings of this monastery are still Visible. 

Cithre'ron [Hr. Ki0<upcdv], Mount, now Elatea, a 

famous mountain-range of Hreeco, on the boundary between 
Attioa and Boeotia, was covered with forests. The highest 
summit rises 4620 feet above the level of the sea. It is 
often mentioned by ancient classical poets. 

Cith'ara [Hr. Ki0dpa], a stringed musical instrument of 
the ancient Hreeks and Romans, resembled a guitar or harp. 
















CITIES OF REFUGE—CITIZEN. 957 


Derived from this word, or cognate with it, are the English 
guitar (Old Eng. gxttern and cithern ); Dutch cyter ; Ger. 
Zither. 

Cit'ies of RePuge. The Levitical law set apart six 
cities of refuge for the manslayer, in which he might be 
safe from the avenger of blood. These cities were Hebron, 
Shechem, and Kadesh-Naphtali on the west of Jordan; 
Bezer, Ramoth-Gilead, and Golan on the east. The He¬ 
brews kept the roads to the cities clear, and signs were set 
up to show the way. The manslayer was protected in the 
cities of refuge until the death of the high priest, after 
which the avenger of blood had no claim against him. 
Thus this institution was connected with the typical em¬ 
blems of the Jewish religion, while it restrained the aveng¬ 
ing of blood. 

Cit/izeil [Lat. civis * Fr. citoyen, from cite, a “ city ”], 
a resident in a city; in free states one who has the elective 
franchise, and may take part in legislative or judicial de¬ 
liberations. Between a citizen and a subject this distinc¬ 
tion is sometimes made, that while the latter is governed, 
the former also governs ; and thus, though a citizen may be 
a subject, many subjects are not citizens. In this sense, 
which is substantially that attached to the term by the 
Romans, it has come down to modern times. In Greek 
communities the citizenship was at first readily attained by 
those who were not born to it; but at a later period, when 
the organization of Greek civic life had reached a higher 
degree of perfection, admission to citizenship was procured 
with much greater difficulty. In Sparta, according to He¬ 
rodotus, there were only two instances of their conferring 
citizenship in full measure on strangers. The Perioeci, who 
shared the Spartan territory, though not on equal terms, 
were probably, as regarded political rights, much in the 
same position with the Roman plebeians. In Rome there 
were perfect and less perfect citizens. All the private 
rights of citizenship belonged to the citizens of the lower 
class, but the honors of the magistracy were denied them. 
But all citizens of all classes in the comitia centuriata, 
and in the tribes even the liberti or freedmen, had the right 
of voting. But it would appear that in the case of the 
Agrarians and Caerites, though they were reckoned citizens, 
the right of voting was in abeyance. Inferior in rank to 
the citizens there were two other classes—the Latini and 
the Peregrini. Roman citizenship was acquired most fre¬ 
quently by birth, but for this it was requisite that both 
father and mother should be citizens. If a citizen married 
a Latina or a Peregrina, the children followed the status 
of the mother. In earlier times the citizenship could be 
conferred only by a vote of the people assembled in the 
comitia. In some of the provinces the Latinitas was given 
as a step to the Civitas, the former being converted into the 
latter in the case of any one who had exercised a magis¬ 
tracy in his own state or city. The constitution of Caracalla 
extended citizenship to the whole Roman world, the dis¬ 
tinction between Cives and Latini being preserved only in 
the case of freedmen and their children. Even this dis¬ 
tinction was abolished by Justinian, the only divisions of 
persons henceforth being into subjects and slaves. 

Revised by T. D. Woolsey. 

Citizen, in modern law, is used to indicate the class of 
persons who owe an indefeasible allegiance to a state, and 
are entitled to certain rights and privileges appertaining to 
freemen. This view prevailed at a date as early as the time 
of Bodin (A. D. 1576), who defines a citizen to be “ a free 
subject holding of the sovereignty of another man.” (Knol- 
les’ translation, A. D. 1606.) Citizenship, in this sense, is not 
to be confounded with the elective franchise or the holding 
of offices of government. Children, the insane, and the non¬ 
voting classes in general are citizens. The same writer 
says : “ They are to be called citizens that enjoy the rights 
and privileges of the state. This is to be understood ac¬ 
cording to the condition and quality of every one; the 
nobles as nobles, the commons as commons, the women and 
children in like case according unto the age, sex, and con¬ 
dition and deserts of every one of them. ... It may be 
well said that special privileges make not a man a citizen, 
but the mutual obligation of the sovereign to the subject, 
to whom, for the faith and obeisance he receiveth, he oweth 
justice, counsel, aid, and protection which is not due unto 
strangers.” 

The subject may be further considered under the follow¬ 
ing general divisions : I. The mode of becoming a citizen; 
II. The obligations, rights, and privileges of a citizen with 
special reference to the Constitution of the U. S. 

I.—1. The leading mode of acquiring citizenship is by 
birth in the country or under a state of allegiance. Birth 
in the country confers citizenship without reference to the 
citizenship of the parent, who at the moment of birth owes 
at least a local allegiance, and though an alien is tempo¬ 
rarily a subject, except in the case of foreign ambassadors 


and ministers. This rule would apply to the case of per¬ 
sons, though in a foreign country, who were in our army, 
as their allegiance would be due to the U. S. On this same 
principle the children of American ambassadors born abroad 
are citizens. 

2. A more difficult question is as to the citizenship hero 
of children born abroad of American parentage. It should 
be noted in the discussion of this question that allegiance 
is twofold—perpetual and local. When an American cit¬ 
izen goes to a foreign country, he cannot by his own act 
put off his citizenship. He is still subject to our laws, and 
can, according to modern views, still be governed by our 
criminal legislation. “ The power to tie and bind the sub¬ 
ject cannot bo tied down to places.” It would seem on 
principle that as the mutual obligation from which citizen¬ 
ship springs still exists, his child would still be a citizen, 
though not born within the territory of the state to which 
allegiance is due. Lord Bacon, who would naturally look 
upon this subject with the eye of a philosopher, plainly took 
this view. In his famous argument concerning the post nati 
in the time of King James I., he said: “If a man look 
narrowly into the law on this point, he shall find a conse¬ 
quence that may seem at the first strange, but yet cannot 
be well avoided; which is, that if divers families of Eng¬ 
lish men and women plant themselves at Rouen or at Lis¬ 
bon, and have issue, and their descendants do intermarry 
among themselves, without any intermixture of foreign 
blood, such descendants are naturalized to all generations, 
for every generation is still of liege parents, and therefore 
naturalized; so as you may have whole tribes and lineages 
of English in foreign countries.” (Harg., State Trials, 81.) 
If this broad proposition should be attended with any evil 
consequences, they could be corrected by suitable legisla¬ 
tion. The strictly legal authorities are, however, hopelessly 
in conflict. The proposition that the foreign-born children 
of citizens are aliens is argued with great force and power 
by Mr. Horace Binney in his well-known article on the 
“Alienigenm of the United States” (2 Am. Law Register, 
193, A. D. 1854). An outline of his argument is that there 
are no early legal decisions affirming the citizenship of such 
persons, but that, on the other hand, the preamble to an 
early statute on this subject (25 Ed. III., stat. 2) of the 
year 1350, the language of text-writers, such as Lord Coke, 
Jenkins, and Blaekstone, the expressions of authors of di¬ 
gests, such as Comyns and Mr. Bacon, all point to the fact 
that the persons in question are aliens. The argument is 
legal and based upon authorities, and does not enter into 
the philosophy of the subject as depending on the doctrines 
of allegiance. Opposed to this view of Mr. Binney is a 
recent and carefully considered case in the New York court 
of appeals ( Ludlam vs. Ludlam, 26 New York R., 356). 
This case maintains that the statute of 25 Ed. III., cli. 2, 
above referred to, was simply an affirmation of already- 
existing law, and that the common law proceeds solely upon 
the doctrine of allegiance, which does not depend upon lo¬ 
cality and place, and cannot be confined within boundaries. 
It holds that the true test of the allegiance of the child is 
parentage, that it is transmitted from the father to the child, 
and that, accordingly, the state may claim allegiance from 
the children of its citizens wherever born. These doctrines 
are supported by a reference to Calvin’s Case, 7 Coke R., 1, 
in the sixth year of James I., and other authorities. The 
doctrine of this case appears to be based on sound princi¬ 
ples of political philosophy, whatever view may be taken 
of the result of the legal decisions. The discussions of this 
subject by various writers led to the following important 
enactment by Congress in Feb., 1855 : “ Persons heretofore 
born, or hereafter to be born, out of the limits and jurisdic¬ 
tion of the U. S. whose fathers were or shall be at the time 
of their birth citizens of the U. S., shall be deemed and con¬ 
sidered, and are hereby declared to be, citizens of the U. S.: 
Provided, however, that the rights of citizenship shall not 
descend to persons whose fathers never resided in the U. S.” 
If the theory of Mr. Binney be correct, this statute conferred 
citizenship where it did not before exist; if that of Ludlam 
vs. Ludlam be sound, then it restricted the rights of the 
foreign-born descendants of citizens, perhaps unnecessarily. 

3. Citizenship by Naturalization.—An alien may be made 
a citizen by the act of a state or a nation co-operating with 
his own act. Sometimes this citizenship is complimentary 
or honorary; usually it is attended with true, or intended, 
renunciation of foreign citizenship. The question thus re¬ 
curs, Whether a person can by his own act put off his citi¬ 
zenship ? The prevailing opinion of jurists, with some 
dissent, is that he cannot. This proposition seems quite 
clear where the sovereign distinctly refuses to permit the 
renunciation of citizenship. The tie of allegiance creates 
reciprocal rights and duties; the state cannot rightfully 
discard the citizen without just cause ol forfeiture, nor can 
the citizen repudiate his obligations to the state without 
its consent. Assuming that mutual agreement is necessary 



















CITIZEN. 


958 


to dissolvo the relation of sovereign and citizen, the more 
difficult question is, Whether the agreement of dissolution 
can bo inferred from the prolonged absence of the citizen, 
coupled with foreign naturalization, and the failure of the 
state, after notice, to reclaim him ? The better opinion 
would seem to be that there must be some affirmative act 
of renunciation on the part of the state to which the alle¬ 
giance is due, though there are weighty opinions to the 
contrary. For the purpose of settling the perplexing and 
irritating questions that frequently arise, the U. S. have en¬ 
tered into t reaties of naturalization with a number of foreign 
powers. (For details see Naturalization.) Naturalization 
may take place either by a mere law of a general nature, 
such as that which provides that every alien woman who 
marries a citizen of the U. S. shall be deemed and taken 
to be a citizen, or it may occur in special instances affirm¬ 
ative on the part of the individual to be naturalized. In this 
country the power to naturalize is exclusively vested in Con¬ 
gress by a provision in the U. S. Constitution. There is an 
important provision concerning citizenship in the four¬ 
teenth amendment to the U. S. Constitution as follows: 
“ All persons born or naturalized in the U. S., and subject 
to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the U. S. and 
of the State wherein they reside.” The precise effect of 
this provision has not yet been settled by judicial decision. 
It would seem, however, that it should not be construed by 
implication to deprive any person of citizenship who would 
possess it by common law, such as the children of ambas¬ 
sadors or other citizens born abroad. The ninth amend¬ 
ment would lead to this conclusion : “ The enumeration in 
the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to 
deny or disparage others retained by the jDeople.” Citizen¬ 
ship at present, as will be shown hereafter, leads to import¬ 
ant rights and privileges of which it would be unjust to 
deprive any one entitled to them. The words “ subject to 
the jurisdiction of the U. S.” would exclude from citizen¬ 
ship the children of foreign public ministers and members 
of the Indian tribes, though Indians born out of the tribal 
organizations would seem to be citizens. 

Interesting questions concerning citizenship arise in case 
of the union of two separate nations, or of the division of 
a single nation into two separate states. The first of these 
cases was discussed with much acuteness and learning 
when Scotland and England were united under James I.; 
the second has been extensively considered by the courts, 
both in England and America, in connection with Ameri¬ 
can independence. Calvin’s case (7 Coke’s Reports) is 
the leading English authority upon the whole subject, 
where it was declared that th epost nati (persons born after 
the union) of Scotland were natural-born subjects, and 
could inherit lands in England. In respect to the result 
of our own Revolution, opinions differ as to the time when 
the separation between England and the U. S. became 
complete, though they substantially agree as to the effect 
of the division. The American view is, that the separa¬ 
tion took place at the Declaration of Independence, July 
4, 1776; the English, that it was consummated at the 
treaty of peace in 1783. Accordingly, a person born in 
England before July 4, 1776, who did not reside in the 
U. S. after that date, became, as to this country, an alien, 
as well as all his descendants. The effect of this rule is 
not to work a forfeiture of vested rights, and the real 
estate owned by a former citizen continued to be vested in 
him, though he could not, after the day named, acquire an 
indefeasible title to land. 

II.—The provisions of the U. S. Constitution concerning 
citizenship have recently assumed great importance, grow¬ 
ing out of the controversies concerning the legal condition 
or status of persons of African descent. The Constitution 
as originally adopted made no provision concerning citi¬ 
zens of the U. S., except an incidental direction that Sen¬ 
ators, Representatives, aud the Executive should be such 
citizens. There were, however, distinct clauses concerning 
the rights and privileges of the citizens of the several 
States, such as that the judicial power of the U. S. shall 
extend to controversies between a State and a citizen of 
another State, and between citizens of different States, and 
that the citizens of each State shall be entitled to all priv¬ 
ileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 
This last clause has led to much judicial discussion, some 
points of which will be noticed hereafter. Under the 
clause which provided that the judicial power should ex¬ 
tend to controversies between citizens of different States, 
the question arose in the now famous case of Scott vs. Sand- 
ford (19 Howard’s Reports, 39), whether an emancipated 
negro could be considered as a “citizen of a State;” and it 
was decided that he could not be so regarded, and accord¬ 
ingly that he could not maintain an action on that basis in 
the Federal courts. It would seem to follow that he could 
not claim the benefit of the other constitutional provision 
respecting privileges and immunities. The division of 


public opinion occasioned by this decision, and the desire 
to settle by a positive rule the condition of the slaves 
emancipated by the thirteenth amendment to the Constitu¬ 
tion, as well as that of the colored race in general, led to 
the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments, the provisions of 
which are now to be considered, as far as they affect citi¬ 
zenship. All persons born or naturalized in the U. S. are 
declared to be citizens of the U. S. and of the State in 
which they reside; and it is provided that “no State shall 
make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges 
or immunities of citizens of the U. S.;” and also that the 
“right of citizens of the U. S. to vote shall not be denied 
or abridged by the U. S. or by any State on account of 
race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” Though 
the condition of the colored race led to these amendments, 
their construction is not to be confined to it. It will be 
observed that the same words are here used as in the body 
of the Constitution—“privileges and immunities”—except 
that they are here declared to belong to “citizens of the 
U. S.,” while there they appertain to “citizens of each 
State” in reference to the “several States.” The meaning 
of the words “ privileges and immunities ” in the body of 
the Constitution has been, as already stated, much consid¬ 
ered. They have been held to mean such privileges, etc. 
as are of a general nature, such as security to life and 
liberty, the right to acquire property, to have access to 
courts of justice, and freedom to pursue and obtain happi¬ 
ness and safety, with such restrictions as are necessary to 
the public good. Whatever guarantees upon these points 
a State accords to its own citizens, it must extend to citi¬ 
zens of other States. But the Constitution before the 
amendments gave no directions as to the mode in which a 
State should treat its own citizens, except in a few specially 
marked instances, such as the prohibition to pass bills of 
attainder and ex-post facto laws. In other respects the 
State was left to its own action towards its peojile. Under 
the amendments there is provision made for the privileges 
and immunities of citizens of the U. S. A momentous 
question now arises : Does this provision trench on the great 
power which has all along been vested in each State to 
regulate the conduct of its own citizens ? Does Congress 
under it have the right to enter upon the once exclusive 
field of State legislation and the domain of State constitu¬ 
tions, and to override all its action as to privileges and 
immunities of citizens ? This question came up for careful 
consideration before the Supreme Court of the U. S. in the 
very important case of the Butchers’ Benevolent Associa¬ 
tion vs. the Crescent City Live-stock Company (A. D. 1872). 
The State of Louisiana had granted an exclusive right to 
the latter company to engage in the business of slaughter¬ 
ing cattle within a certain district, including the city of 
New Orleans. It was claimed by the plaintiffs, who had 
been engaged in the same business, and who were by the 
act prohibited from following it, that the law created a 
monopoly, that its exclusiveness was contrary to the spirit 
of free institutions, and that it was opposed to this pro¬ 
vision of the U. S. Constitution. It was, however, consid¬ 
ered by the court that there is now a clear distinction 
between citizens of the U. S. and citizens of a State—that 
there may be persons of the former class who are not 
members of the latter, and that the constitutional amend¬ 
ment is solely applicable to privileges and immunities 
of citizens of the U. S., as such; and that accordingly the 
clause does not refer to such regulations as the State may 
make for its own citizens, though they may also fill the cha¬ 
racter of citizens of the U. S. If it be asked, What scope 
there is in this construction for the amendment ? the an¬ 
swer is, that the court does not seek to lay down any ab¬ 
stract rule on the subject, and will decide questions as they 
arise. Some instances of its application may be suggested, 
such as the right to visit the seat of government to assert 
a claim or to seek its protection; to freely approach its 
seaports, sub-treasuries, land-offices, and courts of justice; 
to be protected on the high seas ; to assemble and petition 
for the redress of grievances; to invoke the privilege of the 
writ of habeas corpus; and freely to change the residence 
from one State to another. These appertain to citizens of 
the U. S. in general. It was decided by the same court 
that a claim to practice law in a State by one of its citizens 
(Mrs. Bradwell) did not come within the phrase “ privi¬ 
leges and immunities” of a citizen of the U. S. It is a 
matter of congratulation to all who desire to see the equi¬ 
librium of forces between the general government and the 
States properly preserved, that the court was able to see its 
way clear to a somewhat rigorous construction of the 
clauses of this amendment. The effect of the fifteenth 
amendment has not been settled by the courts, but its ob¬ 
ject is well known. It of course abrogates all State law 
or constitutional provisions creating distinctions among 
citizens of the U. S. as to the exercise of the right of suf¬ 
frage based upon race and color, and for ever prevents the 














CITRIC ACID—CIVET. 


959 


introduction of them either through the action of the 
States or the general government. T. W. Dwight. 

Cit'ric A'cid [from the Lat. citrus, a “citron”], a 
vegetable acid present in limes and lemons, and to a less ex¬ 
tent in gooseberries, currants and other fruits. In prepar- 
ing it the juice of lemons is allowed to ferment, and chalk 
being added citrate of lime is formed. This precipitate 
being treated with sulphuric acid, sulphate of lime is form¬ 
ed, and the acid remains in solution. It is tribasic, having 
the symbol C 6 H 8 O 7 . It is readily soluble in water, and has 
an intensely sour taste; it is used in medicine as an anti¬ 
scorbutic and refrigerant, and by the silk-dyer to heighten 
the colors of safflower and cochineal, and by the calico- 
printer for discharging mordants. 

Cit'ron [Gr. ulrpov ; Lat. citro and citrus; It. cedro; 
Fr. citron ], the fruit of the citron tree ( Citrus medico.), 
which is cultivated in the south of Europe and other warm 
countries. It is a native of India. By some botanists it 
is regarded as perhaps the original type of the species 
which produces the lemon, sweet lemon, lime, and lume; 
but by others some of these are regarded as distinct spe¬ 
cies. The citron tree has oblong leaves ; the fruit is large, 
rough, and furrowed; the rind thick and tender; the pulp 
sub-acid and refrigerant. The part chiefly valued is the 
rind, which has a delicious odor and flavor, and is made 
into preserves. The juice is employed to make a syrup for 
flavoring liquors. The cedrat is a variety of the citron, from 
which chiefly the fragrant oil of cedrat, used by perfumers, 
is procured. The varieties of citron are numerous. The 
fruit of the largest kinds is sometimes nine inches long and 
twenty pounds in weight. 

Citronel'la [Fr. citronelle], a perfume prepared from 
the Melissa officinalis, or common Balm (which see); also, 
a liquid prepared in Barbados from the rind of the citron, 
and used in Franco for flavoring the best brandies. The 
name citronelle is also given in France to the common 
southernwood (Artemisia Abrotanum). The term citronella 
is, however, chiefly applied by perfumers at present to an 
oil imported from Ceylon. It is the product of Androjwgon 
Schoenanthus, a kind of grass. Several tons of the oil are 
exported annually. 

Citron Melon. See Melon. 

Citros'ma [from the Gr. kI rpov, “citron,” and bo-nrj, 
“smell”], a genus of trees of the order Monimiaceae, na¬ 
tives of the tropical parts of South America. The leaves 
abound in an oil similar to the oil of citron. 

Ci'trus [a Latin name from the Gr. sirpia, the “citron 
tree ”], a genus of evergreen trees of the order Aurantiaceae, 
natives of the warm parts of Asia. It comprises the citron 
(Citrus medico), the orange (Citrus Aurantium), the lemon 
( Citrus Limonum), bergamot, cedrat, lume, tangerine, shad¬ 
dock, lime, and other trees which are extensively cultivated 
for their fruit or for their leaves and flowers, which are used 
in perfumery. The genus is distinguished by numerous 
stamens irregularly united in bundles by their filaments, 
and a pulpy fruit with a spongy rind. The leaves and the 
rind abound in volatile oil. These oils are isomeric with each 
other, with the oil of turpentine, and with a great variety 
of other oils. The fruit ( liesperidium ) is in structure a sort 
of large berry. 

Cittadel'la, a town of Northern 
Italy, in the province of Padua, on the 
Brentella, 14 miles N. E. of Vicenza. It 
has manufactures of paper and woollen 
fabrics. Pop. 7213. 

Citt&-della-Pie've, a town of 
Italy, in the province of Perugia, 23 
miles W. S. W. of Perugia, was the na¬ 
tive place of the eminent painter Peru- 
gino. Pop. 6755. 

Citta di Castel'lo (anc. Tiberi- 
num), a town of Italy, in the province of 
Perugia, on the Tiber, about 28 miles 
N. W. of Perugia. It has a cathedral, 
several palatial mansions, and Gothic 
structures. Pop. in 1872, 24,088. 

Cittano'va, a town of Italy, in the 
province of Catanzaro. Pop. 11,103. 

Citta Vec'chia, a fortified city of 
Malta, 6 miles W. of Valetta, is on a 
limestone hill in which extensive cata¬ 
combs were excavated at a remote pe¬ 
riod. It has a large and handsome ca¬ 
thedral. It was called Medina by the 
Saracens, who occupied it for some time. 

Pop. 7000. 

Cit'y [Fr. cite ; Lat. urbs or civitas; Ger. *SVa<7<], a large 
town, an incorporated town; a term used to include both a 


large collection of houses and its inhabitants. As first used 
in the languages of modern Europe, the word city, like the 
Latin civikis, was equivalent to state rather than to town 
or borough (urbs); and while the latter signified a collec¬ 
tion of households governed by municipal laws, but subject 
to the laws of the country of which they formed a part, the 
title city was given to such towns as, with their surround¬ 
ing district, were independent of external authority. Nearly 
the only cities in this sense now are the free towns of Ger¬ 
many and such of the cantons of Switzerland as consist of 
a town and its surroundings. In England the cities are 
towns which either are or have been sees of bishops, though 
there are several towns which were anciently episcopal, but 
which are not now called cities. In America the term is 
applied to most towns which are incorporated and gov¬ 
erned by a mayor and aldermen. 

City Point, a post-village and port of entry of Prince 
George co., Va., on the James River, at the mouth of the 
Appomattox, 10 miles by railroad E. N. E. of Petersburg. 
This point being a good landing, was seized by the troops 
under Gen. Butler in his movement up the James, May, 
1864, and later, June, 1864, became the head-quarters of 
Gen. Grant after his passage of this river; and during his 
subsequent operations against Petersburg and Richmond 
was the principal landing and depot of supplies for his 
army. 

Ciudad de las Casas, the capital of the Mexican de¬ 
partment of Chiapa, is about 450 miles S. E. of Mexico. It 
has a cathedral, a Catholic college, and several monasteries. 
It was formerly called Ciudad Real. Pop. 6430. 

Ciudade'la, a city and seaport of the island of Mi¬ 
norca, on its W. coast, 25 miles N. W. of Mahon. It has a 
cathedral and several convents; also manufactures of wool¬ 
len fabrics. Pop. 5726. 

Ciudad' Real', a province of Spain, is intersected by 
the river Guadiana, and bounded on the S. by the. Sierra 
de Morena. Area, 7840 square miles. Capital, Ciudad Real. 
Pop. 264,908. 

Ciudad Real (“city of the king”), a town of Spain, 
capital of the above province, is situated on a plain about 
5 miles S. of the Guadiana and 102 miles S. of Madrid*. It 
has several fine churches, monasteries, and hospitals. The 
nave of the parish church is a magnificent Gothic structure. 
Here are manufactures of linen and coarse woollen fabrics. 
This town was the head-quarters of the Hermandad, or 
Holy Brotherhood, founded in 1249 for the suppression of 
robbery. Pop. 10,366. The French here defeated the 
Spaniards in Mar., 1809. 

Ciudad' Rodri'go, a fortified town of Spain, on the 
river Agueda, here crossed by a fine bridge, about 90 miles 
S. W. of Salamanca. It has a Gothic cathedral founded in 
the twelfth century, and a citadel. During the Peninsular 
war it was considered an important point as a key of Spain 
on the west. It was invested and taken by the French gen¬ 
eral Massena in July, 1810. The army of the duke of 
Wellington assaulted and took this place, with 150 guns, in 
Jan., 1812. For this achievement the Spanish government 
gave him the title of duke of Ciudad Rodrigo. Pop. 6429. 

Cives. See Chives. 

Civ'et [Fr. civette; Arabic, evbud], a brown substance 



Civet. 

of a strong, offensive odor which is used in perfumery, be¬ 
cause when mixed in small proportions with certain other 







































CIVIALE—CLAGGETT. 


960 


perfumes it is considered to improve them greatly. It is 
quite costly, and is consequently much adulterated. It is 
produced by a carnivorous animal called the civet or civet- 
cat (Viverra Civetta), an animal which ranks between the 
weasels and the foxes. Other species are found—one in 
India and one in Java, and the latter produces part of the 
civet of commerce. The civet-cat, when wild, feeds upon 
birds, small quadrupeds, and reptiles, and generally takes 
its prey by surprise. It is very commonly kept in confine¬ 
ment for the sake of its perfume, which is removed from a 
glandular sac twice a week by moans of a spatula, and is 
obtained most abundantly from the male, and especially 
after he has been irritated. A dram is a large quantity to 
obtain at a time. The civets kept for this purpose are fed 
on raw flesh, the young partly on farinaceous food. The 
town of Enfras, in Abyssinia, is a principal seat of the 
civet trade. The civet-cat of the South-western U. S. is 
of a different genus from the above. (See Bassaris.) 

Civiale (Jean), a French surgeon, was born July, 1792. 
He was the inventor of lithotrity. Died in June, 1867. 

Civiila'le (anc. Forum Julii), a walled town of North¬ 
ern Italy, in the province of Udine, on the river Natisone, 
here crossed by a bridge, 10 miles E. N. E. of Udine. It 
has a fine Gothic church, said to be about 1000 years old; 
also manufactures of silk and cotton. Pop. 6838. 

Civ'il Death, in law, is the cessation of legal rights 
while the physical life remains. Civil death occurs where 
a man by act of Parliament or judgment of laiv is attainted 
ofttreason or felony ; he loses his civil rights and capaci¬ 
ties, and becomes, as it were, dead in law. It also took 
place formerly where any man abjured the realm by the 
process of the common law, or went into a monastery and 
became there a professed monk, in which cases he was ab¬ 
solutely dead in law, and his next heir succeeded to the 
estate. In New York the sentence of a criminal to im¬ 
prisonment for life causes civil death. 

Civ / il Engineer', a person whose profession is the sci¬ 
ence or construction of bridges, railroads, aqueducts, har¬ 
bors, canals, machinery, etc. (See Engineering, by Gen. 
J. G. Barnard, U. S. A.) 

Civil'ian, in general or in popular use, signifies a per¬ 
son whose pursuits and employment are civil— i. e. neither 
military nor clerical. As a legal term, it denotes a man 
learned in the civil or Roman law; also a person who is 
versed in the principles and rules in accordance with which 
civil rights may be freely, blamelessly, and successfully 
vindicated. In England the term is applied particularly 
to a member of the college of doctors of law exercent in the 
ecclesiastical and admiralty courts, in which the civil law 
is recognized. 

Civi'lis (Claudius), a heroic chief of the Batavi who 
served for many years in the Roman army. When Ves¬ 
pasian and Vitellius were contending in civil war for the 
imperial throne, the adherents of the former induced Ci- 
vilis to make a feigned demonstration of hostility to the 
Romans, in order to detain in Gaul the Roman army, which 
was inclined to fight for Vitellius. Having raised a large 
army, Civilis revolted in earnest in 69 A. D., was joined by 
many Germans, and defeated the Romans in several battles. 
In 70 A. D. he was defeated by Cerealis, a general of Ves¬ 
pasian. Tacitus states that negotiations ensued between 
Cerealis and Civilis, but his history here ends abruptly, 
leaving the subject unfinished. 

Civilization [Fr. civilisation, from the Lat. civilis, 
“like a citizen ” (civis), and hence “refined,” “polite”],'a 
term denoting a refined and improved state of society, as 
distinguished from a barbarous or savage condition. 
Whether civilization is an artificial condition, or the orig¬ 
inal state of mankind, from which the savage races have 
descended, is an interesting but still unsettled question. 
The idea that our civilization is the result of development 
from the rudest beginnings is a favorite one with many 
popular scientific writers. (See Lubbock’s “Uncivilized 
Man.”) The progress of our civilization from the barbarism 
of the Dark Ages affords one of the most interesting phases 
of history. (See Guizot’s “History of Civilization,” and 
Draper “On the Intellectual Development of Europe.”) 

Civil Law. See Law, by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D. 

Civil List, in Great Britain, the name given to an an¬ 
nual appropriation for the expenses of the royal household, 
for certain civil offices, for pensions, etc. The appropria¬ 
tion of money for the civil list by Parliament, and its ac¬ 
ceptance by the Crown, has been regarded as the fulfilment 
of a kind of contract between these two branches of gov¬ 
ernment. The same name is used for a similar appropria¬ 
tion in other countries. 

Civ'il Ser'vice is a name for the duties rendered to 
the state, other than naval and military service. The re¬ 
form of civil service has received of late much attention in 


Great Britain and the U. S.; and in the former country 
much has already been accomplished. At the head of the 
British civil service are placed the officers of the royal 
household, under several departments. Then come the 
officers of the House of Lords and the House of Commons, 
and a vast number of departments which cannot here be 
enumerated. The general designations for the civil ser¬ 
vants of the Crown are commissioners, secretaries, and 
clerks. Nearly all enter the service as clerks, and they 
rise chiefly by seniority. Those officials belong to the civil 
service who receive annual salaries and whose chief occupa¬ 
tion is writing. This class does not include men to whom 
weekly wages are paid; they come under a different cate¬ 
gory. The “Civil Service List” contains the names of 
about 15,000 persons. In old age they are pensioned. 

Appointments to the British government offices were 
formerly obtained by favor, but now merit and abilities 
are conditions superadded. In 1855 a commission was 
appointed to examine candidates for the service. If a can¬ 
didate fails at the first examination, he is generally allowed 
another chance, and sometimes a third. When the candi¬ 
date has received his certificate, he enters one of the public 
offices and goes through a six months’ probation; if suc¬ 
cessfully, he then becomes a clerk at a definite salary. 

In the U. S. civil service a much-needed reform has been 
inaugurated. Office-seeking has become one of the most 
corrupting trades in our country, and there has long been 
a demand for a system of competitive examinations for 
those offices which are non-elective. Such a system has 
been introduced, and, though its details are not yet per¬ 
fect, it is hoped that it may lead to greater efficiency in 
the performance of official duties, and prevent, to some 
extent at least, the alarming evils which result from a 
wrong use of government patronage. 

Civil War of the United States. See Confeder¬ 
ate States, by Hon. Horace Greeley, LL.D. 

Ci'vita Vec'chia (anc. Centum Cellse and Trajanus 
Portus), a city and fortified seaport of Italy, in the province 
of Rome, 36 miles W. N. W. of Rome by railway. It is 
enclosed by walls and well built, has a large church, an 
arsenal, a theatre, and a lighthouse. The harbor was con¬ 
structed by the emperor Trajan, and is formed by two 
large moles, and a breakwater which protects shipping 
from a heavy sea. It is a free port, and is regularly visited 
by steam-packets from Genoa, Marseilles, Naples, etc. It 
is connected by a railway with the city of Rome. Pop. 
8533. 

Clack'amas, a county in the N. W. of Oregon. Area, 
1700 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Cas¬ 
cade Range of mountains, and drained by the Willamette 
and Clackamas rivers. The soil is fertile. Wool, wheat, 
oats, butter, and potatoes are raised. It is heavily tim¬ 
bered. There are manufactures of woollens and paper. 
It is intersected by the Oregon and California R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Clackamas. Pop. 5993. 

Clackamas, a post-village, capital of Clackamas co., 
Or., on the Oregon and California R. R., 12 miles S. of 
Portland. 

Clackmannan, the smallest county of Scotland, has 
an area of 47 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the 
river Forth, and on the N. by the Ochil Hills. It consists 
chiefly of the romantic valley of the North Devon. The 
soil is partly fertile. Coal, ironstone, copper, sandstone, 
and greenstone are found here. The chief articles of ex¬ 
port are coal and iron. Capital, Clackmannan. Pop. in 
1871, 23,742. 

Clackmannan, the capital of the above county, is on 
the river Devon, near its entrance into the Forth, 9 miles 
E. of Stirling. This town is noted for its ale. King 
David Bruce resided here in 1330. Pop. in 1871, 6425. 

Cladras'tis, a genus of leguminous trees represented 
in the U. S. by the Cladrastis tinctoria of the Southern 
States, a small tree somewhat resembling the common 
locust. It is called yellow locust, yellow wood, fustic, and 
yellow ash. Its wood is yellow and its bark is cathartic. 

Claf'lin (Lee), a distinguished philanthropist of Bos¬ 
ton, Mass., born in 1791. He acquired wealth in the man¬ 
ufacture of shoes, and bestowed munificent gifts of money 
upon the Wesleyan academy at Wilbraham, Mass., the uni¬ 
versity at Middletown, Conn., and the Boston Theological 
Seminary. Died Feb. 23, 1871. 

Claf'lin (William), LL.D., born at Milford, Mass., 
Mar. 6, 1818, was governor of Massachusetts from 1869 to 
1871. He has been for many years a prominent leather- 
merchant in Boston. 

Clag'gett (John Thomas), D. D., the first Protestant 
Episcopal bishop of Maryland, was born in Maryland Oct. 
2, 1742. He graduated at Princeton in 1764, became bishop 
of Maryland in 1792, and died Aug. 2, 1816. 














CLAIBORNE—CLAIRVOYANCE. 


901 


C'lai'boine, a parish of Louisiana, bordering on Ar¬ 
kansas. Area, 1050 square miles. It is drained by Bayou 
d’Arbonne. The surface is undulating; the soil is produc¬ 
tive. Cattle, corn, and cotton arc extensively raised. Cap¬ 
ital, Homer. Pop. 20,240. 

Claiborne, a county in the W. of Mississippi. Area, 
740 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the Big 
Black River, and on tho W. by the Mississippi. The soil 
is fertile, especially near the rivers. Corn and cotton are 
staple crops. Capital, Port Gibson. Pop. 13,386. 

Claiborne, a county of Tennessee, bordering on Vir¬ 
ginia. Area, 350 square miles. It is bounded on the S. 
by Clinch River. The surface is mountainous. Grain, 
tobacco, and wool are staple products. Cumberland Gap, 
a pass through the Cumberland Mountains, is on the N. 
border of this county. Capital, Tazewell. Pop. 9321. 

Claiborne, a post-township of Monroe co., Ala. Poj). 
2245. 

Claiborne, a township of Union co., O. Pop. 1947. 

Claiborne (William Charles Cole), an American 
lawyer and statesman, born in Virginia in 1773, was a 
member of Congress from Tennessee (1797-1801), governor 
of Mississippi Territory (1802), governor of Louisiana 
Territory (1804), and of the State of Louisiana (1812-16). 
He was chosen U. S. Senator in the latter year, and died 
Nov. 23, 1817. 

Claim [from the Lat. clamo, to “ call,” to “call for,” 
to “ demand ”], a demand of a right; the act of demanding 
from another person something due; a right to claim or 
demand; a title to any debt or privilege. The term is 
sometimes applied to the thing claimed, as land or other 
property. In law, claim is a challenge of interest in any¬ 
thing that is in possession of another, or at least out of the 
possession of the person who claims it. 

Claims, Court of, a court of the U. S. for the re¬ 
lief of those persons who have claims against the gov¬ 
ernment. Before the year 1855 such claims could be set¬ 
tled only by act of Congress. In that year this court 
was created, consisting of three judges appointed by the 
President with the advice and consent of the Senate. 
(See, for further information, Courts, by George Chase, 
LL.B.) 

Clairaut (Alexis Claude), a French geometer, born 
in Paris May 7, 1713. He produced in 1731 “ Researches 
on Curves of Double Curvature,” “ Theory of the Figure 
of the Earth” (1743), a “ Theory of the Moon, etc.” (1750), 
and “ Elements of Geometry.” His reputation was in¬ 
creased by his prediction of the return of Halley’s comet 
in 1759. Died May 17, 1765. 

Clair'mont, a village of West Farms township, West¬ 
chester co., N. Y. Pop. 158. 

Clairvoy'aiice [Fr., from clair, “clear,” and voir, to 
“see”]. Hitherto, the nature of spirit has been discussed 
theologically and metaphysically. Its scientific investiga¬ 
tion has been considered either impracticable or undesir¬ 
able. In this border-land between the known and un¬ 
known ignorance and charlatanism have held high carnival. 
Science, purely material, is entirely occupied with matter 
and its inherent force, and beyond the retort and crucible 
has no place for spirit. Belief in spiritual being outside 
of physical existence is superstition. The mention of a 
fact bearing in that direction provokes a smile of scornful 
pity. When the oil is exhausted the flame no longer 
burns; when the fuel is spent the fire goes out; when the 
instrument is destroyed the music is not heard; when the 
complex co-ordination of conditions called a living being 
is subverted, life, intelligence, spirit are no more. Such 
are the illustrations of material science. The spiritual 
realm has remained unknown, or rather, its existence has 
been denied. 

These reflections are rendered pertinent by the consider¬ 
ation that whatever else of pretence and folly be blown 
away, the central fact of clairvoyance remains undisturbed; 
and clairvoyance is a super-sensuous perception depending 
on tho spiritual nature of man, without which it would be 
impossible. In the present state of psychological know¬ 
ledge the facts are ill-observed, loosely recorded, and 
theories out of place. The world of spirit, to which “ force ” 
furnishes the key, perhaps may at some future time broaden 
into as wide a field as the physical world now presents. 
Superstition will then have no place for concealment. 
Ghosts, witchcraft, visions, trance, ecstasy, and the innu¬ 
merable phases of spiritual phenomena will be co-ordin¬ 
ated, the chaff blown away, the vital facts preserved, and 
a true science of the soul, based on accurate observation 
and discriminating research, founded. 

The existence of a somnambulic or sleep-walking state, 
induced by unknown causes and accompanied by peculiar 
phenomena, is generally admitted. It is also admitted 
61 


that a state similar to, if not identical with, these can be 
induced by artificial means, usually by fixing the attention 
in gazing intently into a “magic mirror” or “crystal,” re¬ 
peating formula}, by incantations, fasting, drugs, or by an 
operator making what arc termed magnetic passes. The in¬ 
terference of a second person is not essential, and perhaps 
without exception distorts the result. This admission by 
no means endorses the theories which have sprung fungus¬ 
like therefrom, of mesmerists, biologists, magnetists in 
an endless array, best known by their barbarous terminol¬ 
ogies. 

The trance or clairvoyant state has been observed in all 
ages and among all races of mankind—Chinese, Hindoos, 
Turks, as well as Christians. It has in seasons of great 
religious excitement become epidemic, the devotee falling 
in convulsions, becoming cataleptic, and after hours, days, 
or even months of apparent death, awakening with mind 
overwrought with visions of the strange world in which it 
had dwelt during its apparent unconsciousness. The rec¬ 
ords of clairvoyance are as old as history. If prophecy, 
the “ clear-seeing ” of the future, be its fruit, the prophets 
and sages of the past were all more or less endowed with 
this gift. Socrates and Apollonius predicted and were 
conscious of events transpiring at remote distances. Cicero 
mentions that when the revelations are being given seme 
one must be present to record them, as “ these sleepers do 
not retain any recollection of them.” Pliny, speaking of tho 
celebrated Ilermotinus of Clazomenaa, remarks that his 
soul separated itself from the body and wandered in vari¬ 
ous parts of the earth, relating events occurring in distant 
places. During the periods of inspiration his body was in¬ 
sensible. The day of the battle of Pharsalia, Cornelius, a 
priest of renowned piety, described, while in Padua, as 
though present, every particular of the fight. Nicephorus 
says that when the unfortunate Yalens, taking refuge in a 
barn, was burned by the Goths, a hermit named Paul in a 
fit of ecstasy cried out to those who were with him, “It is 
now that Yalens burns !” Tertullian describes two females 
celebrated for their piety and ecstasy, that they entered 
that state in the midst of the congregation, revealed celes¬ 
tial secrets, and knew the innermost hearts of persons. 
Saint Justin affirms that the Sibyls foretold events cor¬ 
rectly, and quotes Plato as coinciding with him in that 
view. Saint Athenagoras says of the faculty of prescience 
that “It is proper to the soul.” Volumes might be readily 
filled with quotations like the foregoing, showing that 
clairvoyance has been manifested and received as a truth 
by profound thinkers in every age. Swedenborg, 
Zschokke, and Davis are not peculiarities of modern times, 
but are repetitions of Socrates, Apollonius, and countless 
other sages who deeply impressed their personality on 
their times. 

Perhaps for purposes of investigation the artificially in¬ 
duced mesmeric state has advantages over the spontaneous, 
which presents itself at undeterminate times, although its 
spontaneous exhibition is more reliable in its results. Its 
natural manifestation requires a finely developed nervous 
system. It is not always, though at times it may appear 
to be, the result of disease. The more perfect the health 
the more reliable the results. The visions produced by 
disease, like those by drugs, bear to true clairvoyance the 
same relations that the dreams of indigestion do to those 
of refreshing sleep. 

Clairvoyance must be regarded as a peculiar state of tho 
mind, in which it is in a greater or lesser degree independ¬ 
ent of the physical body. It presents many gradations 
from semi-consciousness to profound and death-like trance. 
However induced, the attending phenomena are similar. 
The condition of the physical body is that of deepest 
sleep. A flame may be applied to it without producing a 
quiver of the nerves; the most pungent substances have no 
effect on the nostrils; pins or needles thrust into the most 
sensitive parts give no pain; surgical operations can be 
made without sensation. Hearing, tasting, smelling, feel¬ 
ing, as well as seeing, are seemingly independent of tho 
physical organs. The muscular system is either relaxed 
or rigid; the circulation impeded in cases until the pulse 
becomes imperceptible; and respiration leaves no stain on 
a mirror held over the nostrils. 

In passing into the clairvoyant state the extremities be¬ 
come cold, the brain congested, the vital powers sink, a 
dreamy unconsciousness steals over the faculties. There 
is a sensation of sinking or floating. After a time the per¬ 
ceptions become intensified. We cannot say the senses, 
for they are of the body, which for the time is insensible. 
The mind sees without physical organs of vision, hears 
without organs of hearing, and feeling becomes a refined 
consciousness which brings it en rapport with the intelli¬ 
gence of the world. The more death-like the condition of 
the body the more lucid the perceptions of the spirit or 
mind, which for the time owes it no fealty. It, as there is 























962 


CLALLAM-CLAQUE. 


every reason to believe, clairvoyance depends on the un¬ 
folding of the spirit’s perceptions, then the extent of that 
unfolding marks its perfection. However great or small 
this may be, the state itself is the same, differing only in 
degree, whether observed in the Pythia of Delphic oracles, 
the vision of Saint John, the trance of Mohammed, the 
epidemic catalepsy of religious revivals, or the illumination 
of Swedenborg or Davis. The disclosures made have also 
a general resemblance, but they are so colored with sur¬ 
rounding circumstances that they are extremely fallible. 
The tendency of the clairvoyant is to make objective the 
subjective ideas he has acquired by education—if a Chris¬ 
tian, to sec visions of Christ •, if a Moslem, of Mohammed— 
somewhat as dreams reflect the ideas of wakefulness. Yet 
there is a profound condition which sets all these aside, and 
the mind appears divested of all physical trammels, and 
to come in direct contact with the thought-atmosphere of 
the world. Time and space have no existence, and matter 
becomes transparent. 

If there is an independent spiritual existence after the 
death of the physical body, the clairvoyant in this inde¬ 
pendent stage closely approximates to that existence. It 
may be an open question whether the spirit leaves the 
body and actually visits the remote places it describes, or 
gains such knowledge by intensity of perception that 
annuls space, as it does time, in its retrospection and pre¬ 
vision. The many authentic instances of “ double-pres¬ 
ence ” which have been observed lead to the former con¬ 
clusion. 

Baron Reichenbach, in his “Dynamics,” has investigated 
the sensitiveness of the clairvoyant to refined emanations 
of force, and Denton, in his “ Soul of Things,” has carried 
the investigation still farther, though in a somewhat sim¬ 
ilar direction. The field is broad as the spirit of man, and 
its threshold has been scarcely crossed. Clairvoyance is 
no miraculous power, but an inherent faculty, a foregleam 
in this life of the next spiritual life. For if man exists as 
a spirit after the dissolution of the physical body, his 
present life is that of a spirit clad in flesh, and should 
manifest some of the characteristics of the next untram¬ 
melled condition. Hudson Tuttle, Berlin Heights, 0. 

Clariam, a county in the N. W. of Washington Terri¬ 
tory. It is bounded on the N. by the Strait of Juan de Fuca, 
and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. The county takes its 
name from the Clallam tribe of Indians found here. The 
surface is hilly. Mount Olympus rises on or near the south¬ 
ern border to the height of 8100 feet. Capital, New Dunge- 
ness. Pop. 408. 


Clam, a name applied to many bivalve mollusks of 



Giant Clam (Tridacna gigas). 

various genera. Perhaps the most noteworthy of these is 
the Tridacna gigas, which is said to possess the largest 
shells known. A single pair of these has been known to 
weigh over 500 pounds. The flesh is used as food. Two 
of these valves are used in the church of St. Sulpice, Paris, 
to contain the holy water. This species is found in the 
Pacific. The common clam of the U. S. (Mya arenaria) is 
much used as food, and is very important as furnishing bait 
for the fisheries. It is found also in Europe and Asia, and 
on the shores of Alaska. The round clam, or quahaug, 
has the name of Venus mercenaria, because its shells were 
made into wampum by the North American Indians, and 
used as money. The fresh-water clams are properly mus¬ 
sels. The genus Chama comprises numerous species, which 
arc perhaps those to which the name is most appropriately 
given. 

Clamecy, a town of France, department of Nievre, on 
the river Yonne, about 24 miles S. of Auxerre, was formerly 
fortified. It has several Gothic churches, a fine modern cha¬ 


teau, and manufactures of paper and earthenware. Pop. 
5616. 

Clam Lake, a post-village of Wexford co., Mich. It 
has one weekly newspaper. 

Clan [Irish and Gaelic, clann; Manx, cloan, “children,” 
i. e. descendants of a common ancestor], a body of men 
confederated together by common ancestry. It is applied 
especially to the communities of the Scottish Highlanders, 
divided from each other by distinctive surnames. It has 
sometimes been applied to the great Irish septs, but these 
were completely broken down by the power of the English 
before the word came into use in the English language. 
In Scotland it was used to designate the freebooters of the 
Border as well as the Celtic tribes. There were charac¬ 
teristics common to both—such as predatory habits and 
their distribution into communities, each with a common 
surname. It was long the policy of Scotland to require 
all the Highland clans to have some representative who 
should be security at court for their behavior. Chins that 
could find no such security were called “broken clans,” and 
their members were outlaws. The Macgregors were a 
broken clan, whom the law followed for centuries with 
cruel ingenuity. The clans are never treated in the old 
acts otherwise than as nests of thieves. The clans cannot 
be better understood than by keeping in view some pecu¬ 
liarities which set them in conti’ast with feudal institutions. 
Feudality has a relation to land, from the serf bound to 
the soil, through the vassal who possesses it, up to the 
feudal lord. Among the Highlanders the relation was pa¬ 
triarchal, and had no connection with land. It often haji- 
pened that the head of a clan and the feudal lord of the 
estates occupied by it were different persons. 

Claucar'ty, Earls of (1803), Viscounts Dunlo (1807), 
Barons Ivilconnel (Ireland, 1707), Viscounts Clancarty 
(1823), Barons Trench (1815, United Kingdom), and Mar¬ 
quesses Heusden in the Netherlands, a noble family of 
England. —William Thomas le Poer Trench, third earl, 
born Sept. 21, 1803, succeeded his father Dec. 8, 1832. 

Clan'ricarde, Marquesses of (1825), Barons Dunkel- 
lin (1543), Viscounts Burke (1629, Ireland), Barons Somer- 
hill (United Kingdom, 1826).— Ulicic John de Burgii, first 
marquess, K. P., P. €., lieutenant and custos rotulorum of 
the county and town of Galway, born Dec. 28, 1802, was 
ambassador to St. Petersburg 1835-40, postmaster-general 
1846-52, lord privy seal 1857-58, succeeded his father as 
earl of Clanricarde July 27, 1808. 

Clanton (James II.) studied law and practised his 
profession in Montgomery co., Ala., which in 1S55 sent 
him to the House. From 1861 to 1865 he served as a 
general in the Confederate army, but after the end of 
the war he returned to his old profession. He died 
Sept. 27, 1871. 

Clap (Roger), born at Sallom, in Devonshire, Eng¬ 
land, April 6, 1609, settled at Wareham, Mass., in 1630, 
and was afterwards one of the founders of Dorchester, 
Mass. He held prominent public offices, and served 
(1665-86) as captain in Castle William, now Fort Inde¬ 
pendence. He wrote for his children valuable memoirs 
of the prominent men of New England. These have 
been several times reprinted. He was eminent for pietj 7 . 
Died Feb. 2, 1691. 

Clap (Thomas), a Congregational divine, born at 
Scituate, Mass., June 26, 1703, graduated at Harvard 
in 1722. He was president of Yale College from 1739 to 
1766. He was an eminent natural philosopher and as¬ 
tronomer. He published “The Nature and Foundation 
of Moral Virtue” (1765), a “History of Yale College” 
(1766), and other works. Died Jan. 7, 1767. 

Clapp (Theodore), an eloquent Unitarian minister, 
born in Easthampton, Mass., in 1792. He preached in New 
Orleans for about thirty-five years. Died in 1866. 

Clap'perton (Hugh), Captain, a Scottish traveller and 
explorer of Africa, was born at Annan in 1788. In 1823 he 
accompanied Dr. Oudney and Denham in an expedition to 
Lake Tchad. Having returned to England in 1825, he soon 
renewed the enterprise in company with Richard Lander 
and others. His chief object was to discover the course of 
the Niger. He entered Africa at the Bight of Benin and 
penetrated to Saccatoo, where he was detained nearly a 
year by the sultan. He died near that place in April, 1827. 
(See R. Lander, “Records of Captain Clapperton's Last 
Expedition,” 1830.) 

Claqua'to, a post-village, capital of Lewis co., Wash. 
Ter., on the Newaukum River, 35 miles S. by W. from 
Olympia. 

Claque, clAk [a French word signifying the noise made 
in clapping the hands], a body of persons called “cla¬ 
queurs,” employed for securing the success of a performance 



































CLARA—CLARENDON PRESS. 


963 


by bestowing applause upon it, and thus giving a false 
notion of the impression it has made. This artifice came 
first into operation in theatres and concert-rooms, and 
arose from friendly or party motives. It was in Paris that 
it was first turned into a trade. One Sauton, in 1820, estab¬ 
lished an office for the insurance of dramatic success, and 
was thus the organizer of the Parisian claque. The direct¬ 
ors or managers of a theatre send an order to the office for 
whatever number of “claqueurs” they think necessary. Al¬ 
though no public offices of the kind have yet been 'estab¬ 
lished in the U. S., the artifice is extensively practised. 

Cla'ra, a post-township of Potter co., Pa. Pop. 195. 

Clare, a maritime county of Ireland, in Munster, is 
bounded on the N. W. by Galway Bay, on the E. and S. 
by the Shannon River, and on the W. by the Atlantic 
Ocean. Area, 1200 square miles. The surface is mostly 
hilly ; the soil of the valleys is fertile. This county con¬ 
tains many small lakes. The principal rock is carbonifer¬ 
ous limestone. Coal, copper, lead, and marble are found 
here. The staple products of the soil are oats, potatoes, 
wheat, and barley. Capital, Ennis. Pop. in 1871, 147,994. 

Clare, a county in N. Central Michigan. Area, 576 
square miles. It is intersected by the Muskegon River. 
The surface is nearly level, and mostly covered with forests. 
In this region the grayling is caught, hence it is a summer 
resort for sportsmen. It is intersected by the Flint and 
Pere Marquette R. R. Pop. 360. 

Claremont, a township and post-village of Richland 
co., Ill., on the Ohio and Mississippi R. R. Pop. 1278. 

Claremont, a post-township of Dodge co., Minn. 
Pop. 538. 

Claremont, a pleasant post-village of Sullivan co., 
N. H., near the Vermont Central R. R., about 48 miles W. 
by N. from Concord. It has a national bank, and manu¬ 
factures of cotton and wool. The Concord and Claremont 
R. R. passes through it. Claremont township is bounded 
on the W. by the Connecticut River. It has a savings 
bank, three paper-mills, a furnace, a water-wheel manu¬ 
factory, a high school, and a library of 4000 volumes. 
It has three weekly, one semi-weekly, and one monthly 
newspaper. Pop. of township, 4053. 

Ed. Claremont “ Compendium.” 

Cl ar'ence, a post-village of Cedar co., Ia., on a branch 
of the Chicago and North-western R. R., 34 miles E. by S. 
from Cedar Rapids. It has one weekly newspaper. P. 726. 

Clarence, a post-township of Calhoun co., Mich. Pop. 
1075. 

Clarence, a post-village of Clay township, Shelby co., 
Mo. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 444. 

Clarence, a township and post-village of Erie co., 
N. Y. The village is near the New York Central R. R., 
and 15 miles N. E. of Buffalo. The township contains sev¬ 
eral villages, fifteen churches, and an academy. Pop. 3147. 

Clarence, Duke of, a name sometimes given to the 
younger princes of the royal house of England. The title 
was derived from Clare or Clarence (Lat. Clarentia) in 
Suffolk. Some authorities, however, say it was derived 
from Clarenza in the Morea, of which an English knight 
was duke during the Crusades. 

Clar'enceville, a port of entry and post-village of 
Missisquoi co., Quebec (Canada), near the Vermont line 
and the head of Lake Champlain. It has an academy. 

Clarenceux, or Clarencieux, anciently Surrey, 
the first of the two provincial kings of arms in the Eng¬ 
lish college of heralds, the second being Norrov. The 
jurisdiction of Clarenceux extends to the Trent, that of 
Norroy comprehending the portion N. of that river. Clar¬ 
enceux is named after the duke of Clarence, third son of 
King Edward III. It is his duty to visit his province, to 
survey the coat-armor within it, to register descents and 
marriages, and to marshal funerals which are not under 
the direction of Garter king of arms, who is his superior, 
or of Bath king of arms, who manages the heraldry of the 
order of the Bath, and who has heraldic duties in Wales. 
Clarenceux also grants arms with the approval of the earl- 
marshal. 

Clar'endon, a county in Central South Carolina. Area, 
700 square miles. It is bounded on the S. and W. by the 
Santee River, and is drained by the Black River. The 
surface is undulating or level. Corn, rice, and cotton are 
the staple crops. Capital, Manning. Pop. 14,038. 

Clarendon, a post-village, capital of Monroe co., Ark., 
on White River, 60 miles E. of Little Rock, and on the 
Arkansas Central R. R. at the junction of the Pine Bluff 
branch. 

Clarendon, a township and village of Calhoun co., 
Mich. The village is on the Michigan Central R. R., 105 
miles'W. S. W. of’Detroit. Pop. of township, 1150. 


Clarendon, a township and post-village of Orleans 
co., N. Y. The village is 4 miles from the New York Cen¬ 
tral R. R., and 11 miles from Lake Outario. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 1668. 

Clarendon, a township and post-village of Rutland 
co., Vt. The village is on the Vermont Central R. R., 6 
miles S. of Rutland. Clarendon has mineral springs, 
which arc visited for the cure of kidney and skin diseases 
and other complaints. Pop. of township, 1173. 

Clarendon, Constitutions of, a name given to 
certain laws made by a general council (or parliament) of 
the English barons and prelates at Clarendon, in Wiltshire, 
in 1164, whereby King Henry II. checked the power of the 
Church, and narrowed the exemption which the clergy had 
claimed from secular jurisdiction. These ordinances, six¬ 
teen in number, defined the limits of the patronage and 
jurisdiction of the pope, and provided that the Crown 
should be entitled to the election to vacant dignities in the 
Church. The constitutions were unanimously adopted, 
and Becket, the primate, reluctantly signed them. But 
they were at once rejected by Pope Alexander III. when 
sent to him for ratification, and Becket thereupjon retracted 
his consent, and imposed upon himself the severest pen¬ 
ances. This, and the other measures adopted by the arch¬ 
bishop to vindicate the independence of the clergy, led to 
disputes between him and the monarch. (Sec Becket.) 
Notwithstanding the humiliation to which the king sub¬ 
mitted after Becket’s death, most of the provisions of the 
constitutions of Clarendon continued permanent. 

Clarendon, Earls of (1776), Barons Hyde (1756, 
Great Britain).— Edward Hyde Villiers, fifth earl of this 
line, born Feb. 11, 1846, was M. P. for Brecon district 1869- 
70. He succeeded his father June 27, 1870. 

Clarendon (Edward Hyde), first earl of, an emi¬ 
nent English statesman and historian, born at Dinton, 
Wiltshire, Feb. 18, 1609. He was educated at Oxford, and 
studied law under his uncle, Nicholas Hyde, who became 
chief-justice. He was a member of the Long Parliament, 
which met in 1640, and he acted at first with the popular 
party, but when the civil war broke out in 1642 he attached 
himself to the royalist cause. He wrote several able state 
papers, which defended the policy of the king against the 
Parliament. In 1643 he was appointed chancellor of the 
exchequer and privy councillor. He accompanied Charles, 
prince of Wales, to Jersey in 1645-46, and served him as 
counsellor while he was an exile in France and Holland. 
On the restoration of Charles II. in 1660, Hyde became 
prime minister and lord chancellor of England, and in 
1661 he was created earl of Clarendon. He opposed po¬ 
pery, and was more moderate than many of the royalists. 
In Aug., 1667, he was removed from office and impeached 
by the House of Commons, which condemned him to per¬ 
petual banishment. He died at Rouen in Dec., 1674. His 
daughter, Anne Hyde, was married to the duke of York 
(James II.). He left a “History of the Rebellion and 
Civil Wars” (1702). A complete edition with annotations 
by Bishop Warburton was published at Oxford in 1826. 
(See “Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon,” by himself, 
1759“; T. II. Lister, “ Life of Lord Clarendon,” 3 vols., 
1838.) 

Clarendon (George William Frederick Villiers), 
fourth earl (of the Villiers family), born Jan. 12, 1800, 
was the eldest son of the Hon. George Villiers, who was a 
son of the earl of Clarendon. He was sent as ambassador 
to Madrid in 1833, and succeeded to the earldom on the 
death of his uncle in that year. In 1840 he became lord 
privy seal in the Whig ministry, which he resigned in 
1841. He was president of the board of trade in the new 
ministry formed by Lord John Russell in 1816, and was 
appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1847. He exhibited 
moderation, tact, and energy in the government of that isl¬ 
and, which was then much agitated. Having been recalled 
in 1852, he entered the ministry of Lord Aberdeen in Jan., 
1853, as secretary of foreign affairs. He retained this of¬ 
fice in the cabinet of Lord Palmerston, who became pre¬ 
mier early in 1855, and acquired a high reputation as a 
diplomatist. He resigned with his colleagues in 1858, and 
again became secretary of foreign affairs in Nov., 1865. The 
Liberal ministers resigned in consequence of the defeat of 
the Reform bill in June, 1866. Lord Clarendon was ap¬ 
pointed secretary of foreign affairs by Mr. Gladstone in 
Dec., 1868. Died June 27, 1870. 

Clarendon Press, a celebrated printing and publish¬ 
ing establishment connected with Oxlord University, Eng¬ 
land. It was founded in 1672, and took its name from the 
fact that the printing-house, erected in L 11, was built from 
the profits arising from the sale of Clarendon s ‘ History 
of the Rebellion,” of which work the university has a per¬ 
petual copyright. 































964 


CLARET—CLARK. 


Clar'ct [Fr. vin dc Bordeaux], a name given in England 
and the U. S. to red French wines produced near Bordeaux. 
The French clairet signifies “pale wine.” 

Clar'idon, a township of Geauga co., 0. Pop. 909. 

Claridom, a township and village of Marion co., 0., 7 
miles E. of Marion. Pop. 1483. 

Clarin'da, a post-village, capital of Page co., Ia., on 
the Nodaway River, 02 miles S. E. of Council Bluffs. It 
lias two weekly newspapers, a woollen factory, and a na¬ 
tional bank. Pop. 1022. 

Clarinet', or Clar'ionet' [Fr. clarinette], a wind-in¬ 
strument invented in Nuremberg in 1090. Its tone is pro¬ 
duced by a thin piece of reed nicely flattened and fixed on 
the mouth-piece. On the body of the instrument there are 
holes and keys for the fingers of the performer. In fulness 
and variety of tone the clarinet is the most perfect of wind- 
instruments. Its construction, however, does not admit of 
every key in music being played on the same instrument. 

Clar'ington, a post-village of Salem township, Monroe 
co., 0. Pop. 728. 

Clar'ion, or Clar'in, a species of trumpet more shrill 
in tone than the ordinary trumpet ; also the name of an 
organ-stop. 

Clar'ion, a county in the N. W. of Pennsylvania. Area, 
600 square miles. It is intersected by the Clarion River, 
and bounded on the S. W. by the Alleghany River. The 
surface is hilly ; the soil is generally fertile. Cattle, grain, 
and wool are raised extensively. Coal, petroleum, and iron 
are found here. Capital, Clarion. Pop. 26,537. 

Clarion, a township and village of Bureau co., Ill., on 
the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., about 18 miles 
N. E. of Princeton. Pop. 1023. 

Clarion, a post-village in a township of the same 
name, capital of Wright co., Ia., about 85 miles N. of Des 
Moines. It has one weekly newspaper. P. 37; of township, 
153. A. M. White, Pub. Wright County “ Monitor.” 

Clarion, a post-borough, capital of Clarion co., Pa., is 
on the Clarion River, about 75 miles N. N. E.of Pittsburg. 
It has a national bank and three weekly newspapers. Car¬ 
rier Seminary, a large institution of learning, is located 
here. The county of Clarion now produces a large amount 
of oil, and the county-seat is improving rapidly. Pop. of 
Clarion borough, 709; of township, 1059. 

R. B. Brown, Ed. op “ Democrat.” 

Clarion River, of Pennsylvania, rises in McKean co., 
flows nearly south-westward through Elk and Clarion coun¬ 
ties, and enters the Alleghany River. Entire length, about 
130 miles. 

Clark, a county in the E. of Illinois. Area, 460 square 
miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the navigable Wa¬ 
bash River. The surface is diversified by prairies and for¬ 
ests ; the soil is fertile. Grain, cattle, live-stock, butter, 
tobacco, hay, and timber are largely produced. Coal is 
found here. The most numerous manufactories are those 
of carriages and wagons. It is intersected by the St. Louis 
Yandalia Terre Haute and Indianapolis R. R. Capital, 
Marshall. Pop. 18,719. 

Clark, a county of Mississippi, bordering on Alabama. 
Area, 650 square miles. It is intersected by the Chicka- 
sawha River. The surface is undulating, the soil productive. 
Corn, wool, rice, and cotton are raised. It is traversed by 
the Mobile and Ohio R. R. Capital, Enterprise. P. 7505. 

Clark, a county of the S. W. central part of Ohio. Area, 
380 square miles. It is intersected by Mad River, and also 
drained by Lagonda Creek. The surface is finely diversi¬ 
fied ; the soil is very fertile. Wheat, corn, wool, butter, 
tobacco, and live-stock are largely produced. The manu¬ 
facturing interests are varied and important; the most nu¬ 
merous are those of flour, agricultural tools, and carriages. 
It is traversed by the Atlantic and Great Western R. R. and 
several other railroads. Capital, Springfield. Pop. 32,070. 

Clark, a county of the N. W. central part of Wisconsin. 
Area, 1584 square miles. It is intersected by Black River. 
The surface is uneven or hilly ,• the soil is productive. 
Lumber, wheat, oats, butter, and potatoes are produced. 
It is intersected by the West Wisconsin R. R. Capital, 
Neillsville. Pop. 3450. 

Clark, a township of Greene co., Ark. Pop. 500. 

Clark, a township of Johnson co., Ark. Pop. 1399. 

Clark, a township of Pope co., Ark. Pop. 966. 

Clark, a township of Johnson co., Ind. Pop. 1474. 

Clark, a township of Montgomery co., Ind. Pop. 2175. 

Clark, a township of Perry co., Ind. Pop. 1567. 

Clark, a township of Tama co., Ia. Pop. 336. 

Clark, a township of Faribault co., Minn. Pop. 347. 


Clark, a township of Atchison co., Mo. Pop. 1276. 

Clark, a township of Cole co., Mo. Pop. 800. 

Clark, a township and village of Lincoln co., Mo., on 
the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R., 135 miles 
N. W. of St. Louis. Pop. 1887. 

Clark, a township of Union co., N. J. Pop. 331. 

Clark, a township of Brown co., 0. Pop. 1691. 

Clark, a twp. of Harrison co., West Ya. Pop. 2085. 

Clark, a township of Randolph co., West Ya. Pop. 496. 

Clark (Abraham), an American jiatriot, born at Eliza¬ 
bethtown, N. J., Feb. 15, 1726. He was chosen a delegate 
to the Continental Congress in 1776, and signed the Decla¬ 
ration of Independence. He was re-elected to Congress. 
Died Sept. 15, 1794. 

Clark (Alonzo), M. D., an eminent physician of New York 
City, graduated A. B. at Williams College 1828, took the de¬ 
gree of M. D. in the College of Physicians and Surgeons of 
New York in 1835, was for a time professor of pathology 
and materia medica in the Vermont Medical College at 
Burlington, professor of physiology and pathology in the 
New York College of Physicians and Surgeons from 1848 
to 1855, professor of pathology and practical medicine in 
the same institution in 1855, which place he still holds. 
He was appointed physician to the Bellevue Hospital, 
New York, in 185-, and to St. Luke’s Hospital, New York, 
in 1861. In 1853 he was elected president of the New 
York State Medical Society. No member of the profession 
in New York State or City enjoys a more honorable reputa¬ 
tion. Dr. Clark has published valuable professional papers. 

Clark (Alvan), born at Aslifield, Mass., Mar. 8, 1804, 
was an ingenious farmer’s boy who became in jmuth an 
engraver for calico print-works at Lowell, Mass. He pos¬ 
sessed native skill in portrait-painting, an art which he 
practised with great success, but when over forty years 
old he took up, with his sons, the construction of refracting 
telescopes. He was the first American who successfully 
made large achromatic lenses. In this department, and in 
the field of astronomical observation, he won great fame at 
home and abroad. He invented a valuable double eye¬ 
piece for measuring small arcs, and received in 1863 the 
La Lande prize of the French Academy of Sciences for his 
discoveries. 

Clark (Charles E.), U. S. N., born Aug. 10, 1843, in 
Vermont, graduated at the Naval Academy, an ensign in 
1863, became a master in 1866, a lieutenant in 1867, and a 
lieutenant-commander in 1868. He was attached to the 
steamer Ossipee from 1863 to 1865, participating in the 
battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5,1864, and was commended for 
“zeal and energy” by his commanding officer, Commander 
William E. Leroy. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Clark (Daniel), an American jurist, born at Stratham, 
N. 11., Oct. 29, 1809, graduated at Dartmouth in 1834, was 
U. S. Senator from New Hampshire (1857-66), and judge 
of the U. S. district court in 1866. 

Clark (Rev. Daniel A.), a Congregational preacher 
of uncommon pungency and power, born at Rahway, N. J., 
Mar. 1, 1779. Among other places he was settled for four 
years (1820-24) in Amherst, Mass., and rendered valuable 
service in starting the college there. His sermons were 
published in 3 vols. 12mo, 1836-37. Died in New York 
City Mar. 3, 1840. 

Clark (Dayis Wasgatt), D. D., a bishop of the Method¬ 
ist Episcopal Church, born in Maine Feb. 25, 1812, grad¬ 
uated at Wesleyan University in 1836, became distinguished 
as a preacher, editor, and author. He became president of 
Lawrence University in 1852, president of Indiana Asbury 
University in 1853, and a bishop in 1864. He published 
an “Algebra” (1843), “Mental Discipline” (1848), “Man 
Immortal” (1864), and other works. Died May 23, 1871. 

Clark (George Whitefield), D.D., an American cler¬ 
gyman, born Feb. 15, 1831, at South Orange, N. J., grad¬ 
uated at Amherst College in 1853, and at Rochester Theo¬ 
logical Seminary in 1855. He was ordained Oct. 31, 1855, 
and became pastor of the Baptist church at New Market, 
N. J. In 1859 he accepted the pastorate of the First Bap¬ 
tist church at Elizabeth, N. J. About 1868 he became 
pastor at Ballston Spa, N. Y. In 1870 he published his 
“New Llarmony of the Four Gospels” and his “Notes on 
Matthew,” and near the close of 1872 “Notes on Mark.” 
He is now engaged in preparing “Notes on the Gospels of 
Luke and John.” 

Clark (Horace F.), LL.D., born at Southbury, Conn., 
Nov. 29, 1815, was a son of the Rev. D. A. Clark. He 
graduated at Williams College in 1833, was admitted to 
the New York bar in 1837, and became a leading lawyer. 
He married in 1848 a daughter of Cornelius Vanderbilt. 
He was a Democratic member of Congress from New York 
















CLARK—CLAEKE. ' 965 


City (1850-61), after which he was a prominent and suc¬ 
cessful railroad president, banker, and stock operator. He 
was distinguished for energy, liberality, and agreeable 
social qualities. He also took a prominent part in the re¬ 
form movement in N. Y. City in 1871-72. Died June 19,1873. 

Clark (Sir James), Baht., K. C. B., F. R.S., a physician, 
born at Cullen, Scotland, Dec. 14, 1788. He studied medi¬ 
cine at Edinburgh. About 1826 he settled in London, where 
he attained eminence as a physician. In 1829 he published 
an able work “ On the Sanative Influence of Climate.” He 
was appointed physician in ordinary to Queen Victoria in 
1837. His “Treatise on Pulmonary Consumption” (1835) 
is highly esteemed. Died June 29, 1870. 

Clark (Dr. John), born in Bedfordshire, England, Oct. 
8, 1609, emigrated to Massachusetts, but was driven to 
Rhode Island in 1638, and in the same year founded the 
first Baptist church at Newport. This church claims to 
be older than the first church at Providence, and therefore 
the first of that faith in the New World. Clark visited 
England in company with Roger Williams, and together 
they obtained from Charles II. the charter which secured 
civil and religious liberty to Rhode Island. Callender, in 
his history of that State, classes Clark with the ablest pro¬ 
jectors and legislators of that commonwealth. While he 
was pastor at Newport he preached once at Lynn, Mass., 
for which he was imprisoned and fined twenty pounds, 
under the act of Nov. 15, 1644. Died April 20, 1676. 

Clark (Laban), D. D., a Methodist Episcopal minister, 
born at Haverhill, N. H., July 19, 1778, began to preach in 
1800. He was one of the founders of the Wesleyan Uni- 
versitj 7 at Middletown, Conn., and was for many years an 
able and influential preacher. Died Nov. 28, 1868. 

Clark (Lewis), U. S. N., born in 1S45 in Connecticut, 
graduated at the Naval Academy in 1863, became a master 
in 1866, a lieutenant in 1867, and a lieutenant-commander 
in 1868. While attached to the steam-sloop Richmond he 
participated in the battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and 
was commended for “coolness and courage” by his com¬ 
manding officer. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Clark (Lewis Gaylord), an American writer, born at 
Otisco, N. Y., in 1810. He was for many years editor of 
the “ Knickerbocker Magazine.” He was a writer of much 
humor and pathos. His style was admirable and his tem¬ 
per genial. Died Nov. 3, 1873. 

Clark (Lincoln) was born in Massachusetts, but re¬ 
moved to Alabama, where he settled first in Pickens, then 
in Tuscaloosa, which, in 1845, sent him to the House. In 
1848 he removed to Dubuque, la., from which he, in 1851, 
was elected to Congress. 

Clark (Myron), born at Hoosick, N. Y., Sept. 12,1790, 
became a tanner of Bennington and Manchester, Vt., wa3 
(1824-29) an assistant judge of the county court, and be¬ 
came one of the governor’s council (1829-31), judge of 
probate (1831-34), and State senator (1862-64). He was 
much interested in railroad affairs. Died Mar. 9, 1869. 

Clark (Thomas March), D.D., LL.D. Cantab., Protest¬ 
ant Episcopal bishop of Rhode Island, was born at New- 
buryport, Mass., in 1812, graduated at Yale in 1831, re¬ 
ceived holy orders in 1836, became bishop in 1854. He has 
published several religious works, and is a popular and in¬ 
fluential preacher. 

Clark (Willis Gaylord), an American poet, born at 
Otisco, N. Y., in 1810, was a twin-brother of Lewis Gay¬ 
lord, noticed above. He wrote for the “ Knickerbocker 
Magazine” a series of amusing articles called “Ollapo- 
diana.” Among his poems is “The Spirit of Life” (1833). 
In the latter part of his life he was the chief editor of the 
“Philadelphia Gazette.” Died June 12, 1841. 

Clarke, a county in the S. W. of Alabama. It is 
bounded on the S. E. by the Alabama River, and on the 
W. by the Tombigbee. The surface is moderately diversi¬ 
fied ; the soil is partly fertile and partly sandy. Cotton 
and corn are staple crops. Capital, Grove Hill. P. 14,663. 

Clarke, a county in S. W. Central Arkansas. Area, 900 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Washita River, 
and on the S. and W. by the Little Missouri. The surface 
is undulating; the soil fertile. Wheat, corn, cattle, wool, 
and cotton are produced. Timber and minerals abound, 
and lime is extensively burned. The Cairo and Fulton R. R. 
traverses the county. Capital, Arkadelphia. Pop. 11,953. 

Clarke, a county in N. E. Central Georgia. Area, 280 
square miles. It is intersected by the Oconee River. The 
surface is hilly. Gold, granite, kaolin, and pyrites are 
found here. Wheat, wool, corn, and cotton are the chief 
products. Capital, Watkinsville. Pop. 12,941. 

Clarke, a county of Indiana, bordering on Kentucky. 
Area, 400 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the 
Ohio River. The surface is nearly level; the soil fertile. 


Wool, cattle, grain, and tobacco are extensively raised. 
It is intersected by the railroad which connects Indianapo¬ 
lis with Louisville, and also by the Louisville division of 
the Ohio and Mississippi R. R. and the Louisville New 
Albany and Chicago R. R. The manufacture of cooperage 
is important. Capital, Charlestown. Pop. 24,770. 

Clarke, a county in the S. of Iowa. Area, 432 square 
miles. It is drained by the Whitebreast River and several 
creeks. The surface is undulating; the soil fertile. Wheat, 
corn, and wool are largely produced. It is intersected by 
the Burlington and Missouri River R. R. Capital, Osceola. 
Pop. 8735. 

Clarke, a county in E. Central Kentucky. Area, 
210 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Ken¬ 
tucky and Red rivers. The surface is uneven ; the soil is 
productive. Live-stock, wool, grain, and tobacco are 
staple products. Capital, Winchester. Pop. 10,882. 

Clarke, a county which forms the N. E. extremity of 
Missouri. Area, 516 square miles. It is bounded on the 
N. E. by the Des Moines River, and on the E. by the 
Mississippi. It is intersected by the Fox and Wyaconda 
rivers. The surface is undulating ; the soil fertile. Grain, 
tobacco, cattle, and wool are largely raised. It is inter¬ 
sected by the Missouri Iowa and Nebraska R. R. Capital, 
Waterloo. Pop. 13,667. 

Clarke, a county in the N. of Virginia. Area, 208 
square miles. It is intersected by the Shenandoah River, 
and is part of the Great Valley of Virginia. The Blue 
Ridge extends along the south-eastern border. The soil is 
based on limestone, and is fertile. Grain, stock, and wool 
are the staple products. Capital, Berryville. Pop. 6670. 

Clarke, a county in the S. W. of Washington Territory. 
Area, 1350 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the 
Columbia River, which also forms half of the western 
boundary, and it is intersected by the Cathlapootle River. 
The surface is partly mountainous. Wheat, wool, and 
cattle are raised. Capital, Vancouver. Pop. 3081. 

Clarke, a township of Chariton co., Mo. Pop. 939. 

Clarke, a township of Clinton co., 0. Pop. 1877. 

Clarke, a township of Coshocton co., 0. Pop. 867. 

Clarke (Adam), LL.D., a celebrated Wesleyan divine 
and commentator, was born at Moybeg, Ireland, in 1760. 
lie was educated at Wesley’s Ivingswood school, sent out 
by Wesley as an itinerant preacher in 1782, president of the 
Wesleyan Conference in 1806, 1814, 1822, became eminent 
for his Oriental and biblical learning, and published a 
“Bibliographical Dictionary” (6 vols. 12mo, 1802); “Bib¬ 
liographical Miscellany ” (2 vols., 1806); “ Succession of 
Sacred Literature” (1808); “Commentary on the Bible” 
(1810-25); “ Rymer’s Foedera” (1819); “ Wesley Family;” 
sermons and miscellaneous works, published since his death, 
13 vols. 8vo. Died in 1832. 

Clarke (Dortjs), D. D., a Congregational minister, born 
in Westhampton, Mass., Jan. 2, 1797, graduated at Wil¬ 
liams College in 1817, and became an influential and able 
editor and author of religious and denominational literature. 

Clarke (George Rogers), an American general, born 
in Virginia Nov. 19, 1752. lie took a British fort at Vin¬ 
cennes in 1779, and served against Benedict Arnold in Vir¬ 
ginia in 1780. He became a brigadier-general in 1781, and 
after peace was concluded in 1783 settled in Kentucky. 
Died Feb. 13, 1818. 

♦ 

Clarke (Henry F.), an American officer, born in 1820 
in Pennsylvania, graduated at West Point in 1843, and 
became, June 29, 1864, assistant commissary-general of 
subsistence, rank of lieutenant-colonel, and colonel A. D. C. 
Sept. 28, 1861, U. S. volunteers, having been in the ar¬ 
tillery till 1857. He served at seaboard posts 1843-45; 
in military occupation of Texas 1845-46; in war with Mex¬ 
ico 1846-48, engaged at Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, 
Monterey, Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Amazoque, San An¬ 
tonio, Churubusco, Molino del Rey (wounded), Chapulte- 
pec (brevet captain), and the city of Mexico ; as assistant 
instructor at the Military Academy 1848-51; in Florida 
hostilities 1851-52; as adjutant Second Artillery 1852-55; 
as instructor of artillery and cavalry at the Military Acad¬ 
emy 1855-56; as chief of commissariat on Utah expedition 
1857-60 ; and assistant in commissary department at Wash¬ 
ington, D. C., 1860-61. In the civil war was chief com¬ 
missary of the department of Florida 1861, engaged in de¬ 
fence of Fort Pickens; of Army of Potomac in its various 
operations 1S61-64 (brevet colonel and brigadier-general); 
as purchasing commissary at New York, in charge of sub¬ 
sistence supplies for the States of Connecticut. New Tork, 
and New Jersey 1864-67. Brevet major-general Mar. 13, 
1865, for faithful and meritorious services in the subsist¬ 
ence department. Since 1867 chief commissary division 
of the Missouri. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 












^66 CLARKE—CLAKY. 


Clarke (James Freeman), D. 1)., an eminent American 
Unitarian preacher, editor, and author, born at llanovcr, 
N. II., April 4, 1810, since 1841 settled in Boston, Mass. 
Besides other works he has published “ Service-Book and 
Hymn-Book for the Church of the Disciples ” (1844-50), 
“ Christian Doctrine of Forgiveness” (1852), “ Christian 
Doctrine of Prayer” (1854), “Orthodoxy” (1866), “Steps 
of Belief” (1870), and “Ten Great Religions” (1871). 

Clarke (John A.), D. D., an Episcopalian divine, born 
at Pittsfield, Mass., May 6, 1801, graduated at Union Col¬ 
lege in 1823, became rector of St. Andrew’s Church, Phila¬ 
delphia, and was a popular pulpit orator and writer of 
religious works. Died Nov. 27, 1843. 

Clarke (Mary Cowden), an English authoress, a 
daughter of Vincent Novello, the composer, was born in 
London June 22,1809. She was married in 1828 to Charles 
Cowden Clarke. Among her works are “ The Complete 
Concordance of Shakspeare” (1846), a work remarkable 
for completeness and accuracy, and “World-Noted Women ” 
(1858)/ 

Clarke (Richard H.), LL.D., born at Washington, 
D. C., in 1827, graduated at Georgetown College, D. C., in 
1846. He has been a lawyer and litterateur of Washing¬ 
ton, D. C., and of New York. As a writer he has given 
much labor to the preparation of biographies of American 
Roman Catholics ; his principal work is “ The Lives of the 
Deceased Bishops” of his Church in this country (2 vols. 
8vo, 1872). 

Clarke (Samuel), D. D.. an English philosopher and the¬ 
ologian, born at Norwich Oct. 11, 1675. lie was educated 
at Cambridge. He published in 1704 his “Demonstration 
of the Being and Attributes of God,” his chief work. He 
became in 1706 chaplain to Queen Anne and rector of St. 
James, London. In 1712 he published “The Scripture 
Doctrine of the Trinity,” on which point his opinions were 
seini-Arian. He defended the Newtonian philosophy 
against Leibnitz, with whom he corresponded. The cor¬ 
respondence was published in 1717. His edition of Homer, 
with a Latin version and notes, was extensively used by 
students. Died May 17, 1729. (See Hoadley, “Life of 
S. Clarke;” William Whiston, “Historical Memoirs of 
Samuel Clarke,” 1748.) 

Clarke (William), an American general and explorer, 
born in Virginia Aug. 1, 1770, was a brother of George 
Rogers Clarke. Associated with Captain Lewis, he con¬ 
ducted an exploring expedition across the continent to the 
mouth of the Columbia River in 1804. He was afterwards 
raised to the rank of brigadier-general, and was governor 
of Missouri Territory from 1813 to 1820. Died Sept. 1, 
1838. 

Clarke (William Cogswell), born at Atkinson, N. II., 
in 1810, graduated at Dartmouth in 1832, and at the Law 
School in Cambridge, Mass. He practised law at Laconia 
and Manchester, N. H. He held, among other offices, that 
of judge of probate and attorney-general of New Hamp¬ 
shire. Died April 25, 1872. 

Clarke River, or Flathead River, rises in the 
Rocky Mountains, in the W. part of Montana. It flows 
north-westward, traverses the northern part of Idaho, and 
enters Washington Territory. Near the northern bound¬ 
ary of Washington it enters the Columbia. Entire length, 
about 650 miles. Gold is found near this river in Mon¬ 
tana. 

Clarke’s Creek, a township of Morris co., Kan. 
Pop. 320. 

Clarkesville, a post-village, capital of Habersham 
co., Ga., is on the Chattahoochee River near its source, 
about 85 miles N. E. of Atlanta. It has four churches. 
Pop. 263. 

Clarkesville. See Clarksville. 

Clarks'burg, a post-village of Collingwood township, 
Grey co., Ontario (Canada), on Beaver River, 1 mile from 
Georgian Bay. It has woollen mills and other manufac¬ 
tures, and a postal savings bank. Pop. about 300. 

Clarksburg, a post-township of Montgomery co., Md. 
Pop. 3064. 

Clarksburg, a township of Berkshire co., Mass. Lum¬ 
ber, gunpowder, and brick are manufactured. Pop. 686. 

Clarksburg, capital of Harrison co., W. Va., on the 
Monongahela, at the confluence of the Fork and Elk rivers, 
and on the Baltimore and Ohio R. R. It is situated in a 
coal-region, and has two banks, two academies, three news¬ 
papers, and numerous manufactories. 

C. W. Walters, Ed. Clarksburg “ Conservative.” 

Clarks'clale, a township of Coahoma co., Miss. Pop. 
1931. 

Clark’s Fac'tory, a post-village of Middletown town¬ 
ship, Delaware co., N. Y., has extensive tanneries. 


C!arks / field, apost-township of Huron co., O. P. 1062. 

Clark’s Fork, a post-township of Cooper co., Mo. 
Pop. 1126. 

Clark’s Mills, a post-village of Kirkland and Wliites- 
town townships, Oneida co., N. Y., has a cotton-factory and 
other manufacturing interests. Pop. 420. 

Clark'son, a post-township of Monroe co., N. Y. Pop. 
1884. 

Clarkson (Thomas), an English philanthropist, born 
at Wisbeach, in Cambridgeshire, Max*. 28, 1760. He was 
educated in the University of Cambridge, where he wrote 
in 1786 a Latin prize-essay on the question, “Is Involun¬ 
tary Servitude Justifiable?” He was so deeply interested 
in that subject that he resolved to devote his life chiefly to 
the abolition of the slave-trade and the relief of the op¬ 
pressed. He became an associate of William Dillwyn, 
George Harrison, and other members of the Society of 
Friends, who had previously formed themselves into an 
anti-slavery committee. Mr. Wilberforce co-operated, and 
was the chief advocate of the cause in Parliament. Clark¬ 
son diligently collected and diffused information about the 
slave-trade. Their effoi’ts excited violent opposition, and 
were several times defeated in Parliament, but finally an 
act to abolish the slave-trade was puissed in Mar., 1807. 
He published in 1808 “ The History of the Abolition of the 
Slave-Trade.” In 1823 he was chosen president of the 
Anti-Slavery Society. Among his works is a “ Memoir of 
the Life of William Penn” (1813). Died Sept. 26, 1846. 

CEark’s Sta'tion, a township of Washoe co., Nev. 
Pop. 16. 

Clarks'ton, a post-village of Independence township, 
Oakland co., Mich. Pop. 471. 

Clarks'town, the capital of Rockland co., N. Y., is 3 
miles W. of the Hudson River and 35 miles N. of New 
York. It is sometimes called New City. The name of the 
post-office is Clarkstown. Pop. of Clarkstown township, 
4137. 

Clarks'ville, a township of Clarke co., Ala. Pop. 200. 

Clarksville, a post-village, capital of Johnson co., 
Ark., about 3 miles N.of the Arkansas River and 100 miles 
W. N. W. of Little Rock. Pop. 466. 

Clarksville, a post-village of Butler co., Ia. It has 
one weekly newspaper. 

Clarksville, a post-village of Calumet township, Pike 
co., Mo. It has one weekly newspapex-. Pop. 1152. 

Clarksville, a post-township of Coos co., N. II. Pop. 
269. It has manufactures of starch. 

Clarksville, a post-village of New Scotland township, 
Albany co., N. Y. Pop. 236. 

Clarksville, a township of Allegany co., N. Y., has 
manufactures of pine lumber. Pop. 784. 

Clarksville, a village of Brookfield township, Madison 
co., N. Y., has several large manufactories, and is the seat 
of Brookfield Academy. Pop. 322. 

Clarksville, a township of Davie co., N. C. Pop. 919. 

Clarksville, a borough of Mercer co., Pa., on the At¬ 
lantic and Great Western R. R., about 22 miles N. W. of 
Mercer. Pop. 359. 

Clarksville, a post-village, capital of Montgomery co., 
Tenn., on the Cumberland River and the Memphis and 
Louisville R. R., 199 miles N. E. of Memphis and 50 miles 
N. W. of Nashville. It has a male and female academy, a 
national bank, two weekly newspapers, various manufac¬ 
tories, three tobacco warehouses, and ships 15,000 hogs¬ 
heads of tobacco a year. There are iron-mines in the 
vicinity. Pop. 3200. 

Ingram & Doak, Props. “Tobacco Leaf.” 

Clarksville, the county-seat of Red River co., Tex., is 
the oldest town in Northern Texas. The Trans-Continental 
R. R. runs through it. It has several schools and churches, 
Protestant and Catholic. It is 350 miles N. of Galveston, 
in the N. E. corner of the State, and is the centre of a very 
rich country. It has two weekly papers. Pop. 613. 

Ed. “ Standard.” 

Clarksville, a post-village of Mecklenburg co., Va., on 
the Roanoke River at the junction of the Dan and Staunton, 
102 miles S. W. of Richmond. It has a State bank, a 
building and loan association, six tobacco warehouses, and 
one newspaper, and is the terminus of the Roanoke Valley 
R. R. from Keysville on the Richmond and Danville R. R. 
Pop. of township, 3700. 

Wm. Townes, Jr., Ed. “Roanoke Valley.” 

Clar'no, a post-township of Green co., Wis. P. 1637. 

Cla'ry ( Salvia Sclarea ), a plant of the order Labiatac, 
and of the same genus with sage ; it is a native of Southern 
Europe, and cultivated in gardens for its aromatic proper- 


















CLASS-CLAVERACK. 967 


ties. The seed is sown in spring, and the plants flower in 
the second year. Clary is stimulating and antispasmodic. 
It has an odor resembling that of balsam of Tolu, and is 
used for seasoning soups and for flavoring. 

Class [Lat. classis], a term applied in natural history 
to a large group of plants or animals formed by the reunion 
or association ot several orders. Classes, orders, genera, and 
species are common to all methods of classification. The 
term clans is also used to denote a portion of society sepa¬ 
rated from other portions by some distinction of rank, for¬ 
tune, or more intrinsic qualities. (For the well-defined 
classes of the Hindoos, see Caste.) 

Clas'sic, or CHas'sical [Lat. classicm , from classis, a 
“ rank ” or ‘‘class”], pure, refined; conformed to the best 
and most perfect standard; also pertaining to the ancient 
Greek or Latin authors, or rendered famous by association 
with ancient writers, as “classic ground.” The ancient 
Roman people were divided into six classes, and the per¬ 
sons of the first or highest class were called classici. Hence 
the term came to signify the highest and purest class of 
writers in any language, though formerly it was applied 
only to the most esteemed Greek and Latin authors. The 
epithet “classical,” as applied to ancient Avriters, is deter¬ 
mined less by the purity of their style than by the period 
at which they wrote. The classical age of Greek literature 
begins with Homer, the earliest Greek writer whose works 
are extant, and extends perhaps to the time of the Roman 
emperor Antonine, but signs of decadence appeared about 
300 R. C. The Latin classical period is shorter; its earliest 
writer is Plautus, and it ended about 200 A. D. Some 
critics, however, include Claudian, who was born about 365 
A. I)., among the classics. 

Classification [from the Lat. classis, a “class,” and 
facia , to “make”], literally, the “making of classes” or 
the act of classifying, has various applications in science 
and art. In natural history it is the grouping of the vari¬ 
ous species under their proper genera, families, orders, 
classes, etc. Thus, all material bodies are arranged under 
the three kingdoms—viz., animal, vegetable, and mineral 
(the last-named kingdom including every inorganic sub¬ 
stance found in a state of nature, comprising not merely 
what are popularly termed minerals, but also air and water). 

Again, for the sake of illustration, we will consider tho 
classification of the animal kingdom. This is usually di¬ 
vided by naturalists into four great sections, termed “ grand 
divisions”—namely, Vertebrata (or vertebrates), Articulata 
(or articulates), Mollusca (or mollusks), and Radiata (or 
radiates). Each of these grand divisions is subdivided 
into classes. Thus, all the vertebrates are sometimes 
grouped under four great classes—namely, mammals, birds, 
reptiles, and fishes, while each of these classes is further 
divided into orders, families, genera, and species. 

In geology, classification denotes the grouping of the va¬ 
rious kinds of rock, either according to their composition 
or according to the period in which they are supposed to 
have been formed. (See Geology.) 

In aesthetics, classification is an arrangement by which 
works of art are distributed into certain classes; as, for 
instance, in galleries of paintings the works should be ar¬ 
ranged according to the schools, each school being subject 
to a chronological order of the masters. In numismatology 
the coins should be arranged by countries, and these again 
by the chronological order of the monarchs; and so with 
other branches of the arts. 

Clas'sis [Lat., a “class”], in the Reformed churches 
in America and in Holland a church court corresponding 
to the presbytery in Presbyterian churches. It is com¬ 
posed of the pastors and a number of elders of a certain 
district. The classis hears appeals from the consistories, 
and appeal from the classis is to a particular synod. The 
classis also confirms and dissolves pastoral connections, 
ordains and deposes ministers, sends two ministers and two 
delegates to the synod, and three ministers and three dele¬ 
gates to the general synod. 

Clat'sop, a county which forms the N. W. extremity 
of Oregon. Area, 1050 square miles. It is bounded on 
the N. by the Columbia River, on the S. by the Nehalem, 
and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. The surface is partly 
mountainous; the soil fertile. Wheat, cattle, wool, and 
lumber are produced. Capital, Astoria. Pop. 1255. 

Claude (Jean), an eminent French Protestant theolo¬ 
gian, born near Agen in 1619. He was distinguished for 
eloquence and wisdom, and had several doctrinal disputes 
with Bossuet. In 1666 he became pastor of the Protestant 
church at Charenton, near Paris. Among his works is a 
“Defence of the Reformation” (1673). When the Edict 
of Nantes Avas revoked (1685) he removed to the Hague, 
where he died in 16S7. 

Claude Lorrain. See Gelee (Claude). 


Claudia'nus (Claudius), a Latin epic poet, born at 
Alexandria about 365 A. I). Ho became a resident of Rome, 
and gained the favor of Stilicho. His poems were so pop¬ 
ular that a statue was erected to him in Rome by the senato 
and the emperor. Among his works are “ The Rape of 
Proserpine,” “The Battle of the Giants,” and a “Eulogy 
of Stilicho ” (“ De Laudibus Stiliclionis ”). Died after 408 
A. D. He had a fertile imagination, and is regarded as 
tho last of the classieal Latin poets. (Sec T. Mazzo, “ Vita 
di Claudiano,” 1668.) 

Clau'dius, or, more fully, Tiberius Claudius 
Dl’usus Nero, the fourth emperor of Rome, Avas born 
at Lugdunum (Lyons) in 10 B. C. He was a son of Drusus 
Nero, and a nephew of the emperor Tiberius. He was 
naturally infirm in body, and his education was neglected. 
On the death of Caligula (who was his nephew) ho was 
proclaimed emperor by the army in 41 A. D., and was un- 
willingly recognized by the senate, who preferred a repub¬ 
lic. He began his reign with a show of clemency, but his 
wife, the infamous Mcssalina, acquired great power, which 
she abused by acts of cruelty. He built a great aqueduct 
called Aqua Claudia, and successfully invaded Britain in 
person. He Avas poisoned in 54 A. D. by his Avife Agrip¬ 
pina. (See Suetonius, “Claudius;” “Tacitus, “Annalcs.”) 

Claudius (Appius), surnamed Crassus, a Roman pa¬ 
trician and decemvir, was elected consul in 451 B. C. lie 
rendered himself infamous by an attempt to enslave and 
dishonor Virginia. For this offence he was imprisoned. 
According to Livy, he committed suicide. (See Arnold, 
“ History of Rome.”) 

Claudius (Marcus Aurelius), surnamed Gothicus, an 
emperor of Rome, was born in Illyricum in 214 A. D. He 
was proclaimed emperor by the army on the death of Gal- 
lienus (268 A. D.), and their choice Avas ratified by the 
senate. He defeated the rebel Aureolus in the same year, 
and gained a A r ictory over the Goths or Scythians in Servia 
in 269. He died at Sirmium in 270 A. D., and was suc¬ 
ceeded by Aurelian. 

Clau'dius Cae'cus (Appius), a Roman patrician Avho 
was censor about 310 B. C. He constructed the great road 
called Via Appia from Rome to Capua. He Avas afterA\ T ards 
consul, and became blind (hence his name Cmcus). He 
wrote a legal Avork and a poem. 

Clau'dius Pul'cher (Appius), a Roman patrician, 
was a brother of P. Clodius the demagogue, whom Milo 
killed. He became consul in 53 B. C., and censor in the 
year 50. During his censorship he expelled Sallust the 
historian from the senate. He was an adherent of Pompey 
in the civil war. Died about 48 B. C. 

Claudius Pulcher (Publius), a Roman general, was 
a son of Appius Claudius Caccus, noticed above. He was 
noted for his pride. During the first Punic war he was 
elected consul for 249 B. C., and took the command of the 
fleet. He Avas defeated by the Carthaginians in a naval 
battle. 

Clau'sen (Henrik Nicolai), an able Danish theologian 
and liberal statesman, born in the island of Laaland 
April 22, 1793. He became in 1820 professor of theology 
in the University at Copenhagen, and Avrote, besides other 
works, “Popular Discourses on the Reformation” (1836). 
In 1840 he was chosen a deputy to the States, and near 
the end of 1848 was appointed minister of Denmark Avith- 
out a portfolio. 

Cl au'seAvitz, von (Karl), a Prussian general and 
writer on war, Avas born at Burg June 1, 1780. He served 
on the staff of the Russian army in 1813, and wrote an 
“Account of the Campaign of 1813” (1814). He died 
Nov. 16, 1831, and his posthumous Avorks were published 
in 10 vols. (1832-37; 3d ed. 1869). 

Clau'sius (Rudolf Julius Emanuel), a prominent 
physicist, born Jan. 2, 1822, became in 1855 professor at 
the Polytechnic Institution of Zurich, in 1867 at the Uni¬ 
versity of Wurzburg, and in 1869 at that of Bonn. He 
obtained distinction by mathematical calculations based 
upon the dynamical theory of heat—calculations Avhich, it is 
claimed, show the necessity of a Creator and the possibility 
of miracles. These calculations have received the approval 
of many scholars. 

Claus'thal, a town of Germany, in the province of 
Hanover, is situated on a hill 1740 feet above the level of 
the sea, and about 56 miles S. S. W. of Hanover. It is the 
chief mining toivn of the Hartz, and has a mint, a mining 
academy, a gymnasium, and a A r aluable museum; also 
manufactures of camlet and other fabrics. Silver and lead 
are mined in the Aucinity. Pop. in 1871, 9138. 

Cla'verack, a post-village and toAvnship of Columbia 
co., N. Y. The village is on the Hudson and Chatham 
branch of tho Boston and Albany R. R*> 4 miles S. E. ot 













.. . .. .... . . . I . II . - II. _ ' ■ _ 

968 CLAVICLE—CLAY. 


Hudson. It is the seat of Claverack Academy and the 
Hudson River Collegiate Institute, a very flourishing insti¬ 
tution. The township contains Philmont and Smoky Hol¬ 
low, important factory villages. Pop. of township, 3671. 

Clav'icle [from the Lat. clavicula, a diminutive of 
clavis, a “ key ” (perhaps because it “ locks ” or “ makes fast ” 
the scapula with the sternum)], or Collar-bone, a bone 
which, with the scapula and the head of the humerus, forms 
the shoulder. In man it is horizontal and immediately 
above the tirst rib, and articulates internally with the ster¬ 
num or breast-bone, and externally with the acromion pro¬ 
cess of the scapula. Its office is to keep the shoulders 
apart, and to afford a fulcrum by which the muscles give 
lateral movement to the arm. It is absent in those ani¬ 
mals in which the movement of the fore limbs is only back¬ 
ward and forward, as in the ox, the horse, etc.; it is pres¬ 
ent in all Quadrumana and in those Rodentia in which the 
anterior extremities are used for prehension, as the squir¬ 
rel; it exists in the bat, mole, and hedgehog. In the mole 
it is a cube, very short, broad, and of extreme strength. In 
many Carnivora the clavicle is a small bone suspended 
(like the hyoid bone) amongst muscles, and not connected 
with the sternum or the scapula. In birds, to counteract 
the tendency of the pectoral muscles to approximate the 
shoulders, the clavicles are large, and united at an angle 
in the median line into a single bone, the “furculum,” 
popularly called the “ merry-thought ” or “ wish-bone.” 
In this class of animals additional support to the anterior 
extremity is afforded by the extension of the coracoid pro¬ 
cess of the scapula into a broad thick “ coracoid bone.” 
This bone presents various modifications in reptiles, fishes, 
and certain mammals. 

In man the ossification of the clavicle takes place sooner 
than that of any other bone, commencing the thirtieth day 
after conception: and at birth it is ossified in nearly its 
whole extent; but the sternal end is not complete till the 
eighteenth or nineteenth year. The clavicle in transcen¬ 
dental anatomy is considered to bo the heemapophysis of 
the atlas. 

Clay [Ang.-Sax. clseg; Fr. argille; Lat. argilla], a term 
applied to those kinds of earth which when moist have 
a notable degree of tenacity and plasticity. Clays are 
not easily definable as minerals, but they appear to owe 
their origin to the decomposition of other minerals, such 
as felspar, etc., and consist largely of alumina, with silica 
and water. They owe their plasticity to the alumina which 
they contain. (See Alumina and Kaolin.) Common clay, 
when sufficiently plastic, is of great use for making bricks, 
tiles, etc. Clay is used in plastic art as a means of ad¬ 
justing the form which is to be given to any work in the 
more enduring material of which it is ultimately to be com¬ 
posed. As modelling clay is apt to crack, it must be kept 
damp by sprinkling it or by covering it with a wet cloth 
when the artist is not at work. Clays of the finer sorts are 
much used in making pottery, porcelain, etc. These are 
called fictile clays. 

Argillaceous earth not unfrequently contains 40 per cent, 
of alumina, but generally the proportion is much smaller. 
The felspar which yields the alumina of clay soils contains 
also soda and potash, substances essential to vegetation, 
and which render clays fertile under cultivation. A mix¬ 
ture of calcareous matter exercises a favorable influence on 
crops. Thorough drainage has greatly increased the value 
of clay soils under cultivation. Wheat, beans, and clover 
are crops which they yield in great perfection. Chemical 
investigations have shown that clay soils have remarkable 
powers for absorbing ammonia and other substances which 
constitute the food of plants. On account of these powers 
dry argillaceous earth is an excellent disinfectant. 

Clay, a county in the E. of Alabama. Area, 600 
square miles. It is drained by several creeks, affluents of 
the Tallapoosa River. The surface is undulating; the soil 
fertile. Corn, tobacco, cotton, and wool are staple prod¬ 
ucts. Capital, Ashland. Pop. 9560. 

Clay, a county in the S. E. of Dakota. Area, 396 square 
miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Missouri, and is in¬ 
tersected by the Vermilion River. The soil is fertile, con¬ 
sisting of rolling prairie (“ bench-land ”) and river-intervale 
(‘‘bottom-land ”). Wheat, oats, and hay are the chief crops. 
There is considerable timber in the county. It is inter¬ 
sected by tho Dakota Southern R. R. Capital, Vermilion. 
Pop. 2621. 

Clay, a county in the N. E. of Florida. Area, 430 square 
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the St. John’s River. 
The surface is nearly level, and is heavily timbered. Cot¬ 
ton, sugar-cane, fruit, and rice are raised. Capital, Green 
Cove Spring. Pop. 2098. 

Clay, a county of Georgia, bordering on Alabama. It 
is bounded on the W. by the Chattahoochee River. The 
surface is nearly level; the soil fertile. Cotton, wool, rice, 


and corn are staple products. It is intersected by the 
South-western R. R. Capital, Fort Gaines. Pop. 5493. 

Clay, a county in the S. E. of Illinois. Area, 450 square 
miles. It is intersected by the Little Wabash River. The 
surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Grain, hay, wool, 
butter, tobacco, and live-stock arc raised. It is traversed 
by the Ohio and Mississippi and the Springfield and Illi¬ 
nois South-eastern R. Rs. Capital, Louisville. P. 15,875_ 

Clay, a county in the W. of Indiana. Area, 360 square 
miles. It is drained by the Eel River. The surface is 
nearly level; the soil is fertile. Grain, hay, butter, and 
stock are largely raised. Timber, coal, and iron are found 
here. Clay county is intersected by the Indianapolis and St. 
Louis and the Terre Haute and Indianapolis R. Rs. Capi¬ 
tal, Bowling Green. Pop. 19,084. 

Clay, a county in the N. W. part of Iowa. Area, 576 
square miles. It is intersected by the Little Sioux River. 
The soil is productive. Grain, live-stock, and hay are the 
chief products. Capital, Peterson. Pop. 1523. 

Clay, a county in the N. N. E. of Kansas. Area, 720 
square miles. It is intersected by the Republican River. 
The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. Wheat, corn, 
and cattle are the chief products. It is intersected by a 
branch of the Kansas Pacific R.R. Capital, Clay Centre. 
Pop. 2942. 

Clay, a county in the S. E. of Kentucky. Area, 600 
square miles. It is intersected by the South Fork of the 
Kentucky River. The surface is mountainous. Coal and 
iron are found here, and salt is produced from salt-wells. 
Wool, corn, and tobacco are staple products. Capital, 
Manchester. Pop. 8297. 

Clay, a county of Minnesota, bordering on Dakota. 
Area, about 900 square miles. It is bounded on the W. tyy 
the Red River of the North, and also drained by Buffalo 
River. The surface is nearly level; the soil is based on 
limestone, and is fertile. This county contains extensive 
prairies. It is intersected by the Northern Pacific R. R. 
Pop. 92. 

Clay, a county in the W. N. W. of Missouri. Area, 415 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Missouri 
River. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. Grain, 
flour, wool, and tobacco are staple pi’oduets. Limestone and 
sandstone occur here as surface-rocks. It is intersected by 
the Kansas City branch of the Hannibal and St. Joseph 
R. R., also by the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern 
R. R. Capital, Liberty. Pop. 15,564. 

Clay, a county in the S. E. of Nebraska. Area, 576 
square miles. It is drained by the Little Blue River and 
the West Fork of Big Blue. The surface is undulating; 
the soil fertile. Limestone abounds here. It is intersected 
by the Burlington and Missouri River R. R. in Nebraska. 
Capital, Sutton. Pop. 54. 

Clay, a county in the W. of North Carolina. Area, 200 
square miles. It is drained by the Hiawassee River. The 
surface is hilly. Corn, tobacco, and wool are the chief 
products. Capital, Hayesville. Pop. 2461. • 

Clay, a county of Tennessee, bordering on Kentucky. 
It is intersected by the Cumberland River. The surface is 
undulating; the soil fertile. It is a good region for graz¬ 
ing, as well as for grain crops. It was organized since the 
census of 1870. Capital, Celina. 

Clay, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 11C0 square 
miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Red River, and in¬ 
tersected by the Little Wichita. It is a stock-raising region, 
but is adapted to grain. The bottom-lands arc well tim¬ 
bered. The surface is rough and broken. Capital, Hen¬ 
rietta. Returned as having no population in the U. S. cen¬ 
sus of 1870. 

Clay, a county of the central part of AVest Virginia. 
Area, 400 square miles. It is intersected by the Elk River, 
and contains large amounts of cannel and bituminous coal, 
with iron and salt. The surface is broken, the soil good 
and well timbered. Grain, cattle, and tobacco are raised. 
Capital, Marshall or Clay Court-house. Pop. 2196. 

Clay, a township of Bradley co., Ark. Pop. 630. 

Clay,, a township of Columbia co., Ark. Pop. 357. 

Clay, a township of Izard co., Ark. Pop. 275. 

Clay, a township of White co., Ark. Pop. 517. 

Clay, a township of Bartholomew co., Ind. Pop. 778. 

Clay, a township of Carroll co., Ind. Pop. 949. 

Clay, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 814. 

Clay, a township of Dearborn co., Ind. Pop, 1269. 

Clay, a township of Decatur co., Ind. Pop. 2065. 

Clay, a township of Hamilton co., Ind. Pop. 1413. 

Clay, a township of Hendricks co., Ind. Pop. 1571. 


















CLAY. 


Clay, a township of Howard co., Ind. Pop. 1350. 
Clay, a township of Kosciusko co., Ind. Pop. 1973. 
Clay, a township of La Grange co., Ind. Pop. 1248. 
Clay, a township of Miami co., Ind. Pop. 972. 

Clay, a township of Morgan co., Ind. Pop. 1234. 
Clay, a township of Owen co., Ind. Pop. 1284. 

Clay, a township of Pike co., Ind. Pop. 747. 

Clay, a township of Spencer co., Ind. Pop. 1385. 
Clay, a township of St. Joseph co., Ind. Pop. 1442. 
Clay, a township of Wayne co., Ind. Pop. 1094. 
Clay, a township of Clay co., Ia. Pop. 310. 

Clay, a township of Grundy co., Ia. Pop. 329. 

Clay, a township of Hardin co., Ia. Pop. 1394. 

Clay, a township of Harrison co., Ia. Pop. 456. 
Clay, a township of Jones co., Ia. Pop. 925. 

Clay, a township of Marion co., Ia. Pop. 1372. 

Clay, a township of Shelby co., Ia. Pop. 129. 

Clay, a post-township of Washington co., Ia. P. 788. 
Clay, a township of Wayne co., Ia. Pop. 473. 

Clay, a township and village of St. Clair co., Mich. 
The village is on the St. Clair River, 30 miles N. E. of 
Detroit. Pop. 1475. 

Clay, a township of Adair co., Mo. Pop. 1340. 

Clay, a township of Atchison co., Mo. Pop. 1673. 
Clay, a post-township of Clarke co., Mo. Pop. 1119. 
Clay, a township of Douglas co., Mo. Pop. 333. 
Clay, a township of Dunklin co., Mo. Pop. 1426. 
Clay, a township of Greene co., Mo. Pop. 840. 
•Clay, a township of Harrison co., Mo. Pop. 911. 
Clay, a township of Holt co., Mo. Pop. 887. 

Clay, a township of La Fayette co., Mo. Pop. 3508. 
Clay, a township of Linn co., Mo. Pop. 939. 

Clay, a township of Monroe co., Mo. Pop. 1518. 
Clay, a township of Ralls co., Mo. Pop. 1701. 

Clay, a township of Shelby co., Mo. Pop. 1433. 
Clay, a township of Sullivan co., Mo. Pop. 877. 
Clay, a township and post-village of Onondaga co., 
N. Y. The village is on the Syracuse Northern R. R., 10 
miles N. W. of Syracuse. The township has five churches, 
several villages, and is one of the best farming toAvns in 
the State. Pop. 3156. 

Clay, a township of Guilford co., N. C. Pop. 835. 
Clay, a township of Auglaize co., 0. Pop. 1095. 
Clay, a township of Gallia co., 0. Pop. 1400. 

Clay, a township of Highland co., 0. Pop. 1345. 
Clay, a township of Knox co., 0. Pop. 940. 

Clay, a township of Montgomery co., 0. Pop. 2541. 
Clay, a township of Muskingum co., 0. Pop. 776. 
Clay, a township of Ottawa co., 0. Pop. 2174. 

Clay, a township of Scioto co., 0. Pop. 927. 

Clay, a township of Tuscarawas co., 0. Pop. 1205. 
Clay, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 1062. 

Clay, a township of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 814. 
Clay, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop. 1440. 
Clay, a township of Hanover co., Va. Pop. 3085. 
Clay, a township of Braxton co., West Ya. Pop. 2164. 
Clay, a township of Hancock co., West Ya. Pop. 1507. 
Clay, a township of Harrison co., West Ya. Pop. 1574. 
Clay, a township of Marshall co., West Ya. Pop. 1005. 
Clay, a township of Monongalia co., West Ya. Pop. 
1972. 

Clay, a township of Randolph co., West ^ a. .Pop. 540. 
Clay, a township of Ritchie co., West Va. Pop. 2746. 
Clay, a township of Taylor co., V est Ya. Pop. 738. 
Clay, a township of Wirt co., West Va. Pop. 533. 
Clay, a township of Wood co., West Va. Pop. 1108. 
Clay (Cassius Marcellus), an American statesman, 
born in Madison co., Ky., Oct. 19, 1810. He graduated at 
Yale in 1832. He opposed the annexation of Texas to the 
Union, advocated the abolition of slavery, and made 
speeches in tho Northern States in 1844 in support of 
Henry Clay as a candidate for the presidency. In 1845 lie 
became the editor of the “ True American,” an anti-slavery 
paper issued at Lexington, Ky. He was attacked by mobs, 
against which he defended himself bravely in several bloody 
conflicts. He served as a captain in tho Mexican war 
(1846-47), supported Abraham Lincoln in 1860, and be¬ 


969 


came a brigadier-general in 1861. He was minister to 
Russia 1862-69. 

Clay (Clement Comer, Jr.), born in Madison co., Ala., 
in 1819, is the son of C. C. Clay (1789—1866), who was for 
many years a prominent official of the U. S. and of Ala¬ 
bama. The younger Clay became a lawyer in 1840, a judge 
in 1844, Avas U. S. Senator from Alabama from 1854 to 1861, 
in which latter year he entered the Confederate Senate. 
After the war he was accused of complicity in the murder 
of President Lincoln, but after a short imprisonment was 
fully acquitted. 

Clay (Henry), an American lawyer, orator, legislator, 
and statesman, thrice a candidate for President, and once 
very nearly elected, was born near “The Slashes” in Han¬ 
over county, not far from Richmond, Va., April 12, 1777. 
His father was a poor Baptist preacher, who died in 1782; 
his mother—a woman of noble character and fervid piety— 
married again ten years afterwards, and migrated to Ken¬ 
tucky, leaving this son (the fifth of seven children) a clerk 
in a retail store in Richmond, which he soon left for em¬ 
ployment as a copyist in the office of Mr. Peter Tinsley, 
clerk of the high court of chancery, whom he served four 
years, passing thence to the office of Mr. Robert Brooke, 
then attorney-general, afterwards governor. Licensed as 
a lawyer in 1797, though not yet of age, he followed his 
mother to Kentucky, opened a law-office at Lexington, and 
soon achieved a lucrative practice. Kentucky, separating 
from her parent, Virginia, soon calfed a convention to frame 
a State constitution, and young Clay publicly besought her 
to provide therein for a gradual abolition of slavery, but 
was sternly overruled, as he was half a century later, 
when, in the fulness of his fame, he renewed this counsel 
on the revision of the State constitution in 1849-50. 

Kentucky strongly sympathized with her mother State 
in its opposition to John Adams’s administration, with its 
Alien and Sedition acts, and idolized Mr. Jefferson, Vir¬ 
ginia’s oracle, for whom she cast her first presidential vote 
in 1800. Young Clay was one of her favorite orators in 
that excited canvass, and was first chosen to represent his 
county (Fayette) in the legislature of 1803-04. Late in 
1806, when scarcely eligible, he was chosen by the legisla¬ 
ture of his State to fill a vacancy in the U. S. Senate 
caused by the resignation of General John Adair. Ilis 
term expired with his first session, but he had already made 
his mark as a champion of the policy of internal improve¬ 
ment by the construction of roads, bridges, etc. He was 
again chosen to the legislature in 1807, and elected Speaker 
of the House. He now proposed that each member should 
clothe himself wholly in American fabrics, which was stig¬ 
matized by Mr. Humphrey Marshall as the project of a 
demagogue—language which led to a duel wherein both 
parties were slightly wounded. At the session of 1809, 
Mr. Clay was again chosen to fill a vacancy in the U. S. 
Senate—this time for two years. In Aug., 1811, he was 
elected to the House, and on the first day of his service was 
chosen its Speaker—an extraordinary proof of his ability 
and popularity. This Congress, in June, 1812, declared Avar 
against Great Britain, Mr. Clay being one of its foremost 
advocates, as he remained throughout the struggle, until 
despatched to Europe by President Madison as one of the 
negotiators of peace—a service which he rendered at Ghent 
Avith eminent ability. Returning to his country in Sept., 
1815, ho Avas received as a victor, and, having been re¬ 
elected to the House in his absence, he was recliosen Speaker 
without opposition. Fie had been conspicuous in defeating 
the recharter of the first bank of the U. S. in 1811 : he 
Avas equally active and influential in promoting the charter 
of the second in 1816. He was now, as he had been, a 
champion of protection to home industry, and of national 
internal improvements; and he was foremost in effecting 
the compromise whereby Missouri was admitted as a slave 
State, on condition that all Federal territory north of lati¬ 
tude 36° 30' should be consecrated to free labor. Having 
favored, in 1816, an increase of the pay of members of Con¬ 
gress from eight dollars per day to fifteen hundred dollars 
per annum, Mr. Clay was formidably opposed in his next 
canvass by John Pope, afterwards Jackson’s governor of 
Arkansas Territory, but saved his seat by a vigorous effort. 

In 1824 five candidates were started for President—Wil¬ 
liam II. Crawford of Georgia, who had the caucus nomina¬ 
tion; John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, then Presi¬ 
dent Monroe’s secretary of state; General Andrew Jackson 
of Tennessee, then a U. S. Senator; John C. Calhoun^ of 
South Carolina, then secretary of Avar; and Henry Clay 
of Kentucky, then Speaker of the House. Mr. Calhoun 
soon withdrew, and was made Vice-President by pretty 
general consent, Avhile Jackson, Adams, and CraAvford (no 
one having a majority) were the three highest on the elec¬ 
toral vote, which compelled the House to choose^ between 
them. Mr. Clay, having received tho votes of Kentucky, 













970 CLAY—CLAYTON. 


Ohio, and Missouri only, with four of those cast from New 
York, was four votes behind Mr. Crawford, and so could 
not be voted for in the House. He and his friends cast 
their votes for Mr. Adams, electing him by the vote of 
thirteen States, to seven for Jackson and four for Crawford. 
Mr. Adams made Mr. Clay his secretary of state; where¬ 
upon a cry of “ Bargain!” was raised, and General Jack- 
son was at once proposed for next President. He was 
elected over Mr. Adams, Mr. Calhoun being again chosen 
Vice-President. At the next choice of President (1832) 
Mr. Clay was run against General Jackson, and was badly 
defeated by him. He had just been returned to the U. S. 
Senate, in which he played a leading part for many years 
ensuing, especially in the tariff compromise of 1833, where¬ 
by a conflict with South Carolina was averted, and in re¬ 
sistance to the new financial policy propounded by Mr. 
Van Buren in 1837, whereby the treasury was to be divorced 
from all connection with banks and their notes. Mr. Clay 
was again a candidate for President, before the first Whig 
national convention held at Harrisburg in Dec., 1839, but 
General Harrison was nominated and triumphantly chosen. 
His death and Tyler’s course brought Mr. Clay forward as 
the unanimous choice of his party in 1844, when a des¬ 
perate effort was made to elect him, but without success, 
James K. Polk of Tennessee carrying both the great States 
of New York and Pennsylvania by a handful of votes, when 
New York alone would have elected Clay. The annexation 
of Texas and the resulting war with Mexico were fruits of 
this election. 

Mr. Clay’s name was once more, and for the last time, 
presented to the Whig national convention of 1848, but 
General Taylor was nominated over him and elected. Mr. 
Clay had in 1842 bidden farewell to the Senate, but was 
persuaded to return to it after 1844, and bore a leading part 
in effecting the slavery compromise of 1850. He returned 
to Washington from Kentucky for the last time near the 
close of 1851, and was soon prostrated by disea.se, under 
which he gradually sank until his death, June 29, 1852, in 
the seventy-sixth year of his age. 

Though not successful as an aspirant to the presidency, 
he was a gallant party chief, an admirable orator, a skilful 
legislator, wielding unequalled influence, not only over his 
friends, but even over those of his political antagonists 
who were subjected to the magic of his conversation and 
manners. Horace Greeley. 

Clay (Henry, Jr.), son of the distinguished orator and 
statesman of the same name, an American officer and law¬ 
yer, born April 10, 1811, in Ashland, Ky., graduated at 
West Point 1831; resigned Nov. 1, 1831. Counsellor-at- 
law 1833—46; member of the Kentucky house of rejjresen- 
tatives 1835-37; and lieutenant-colonel Second Kentucky 
Volunteers in the war with Mexico 1846-47, engaged at 
Buena Vista, where, while gallantly leading a charge of 
his regiment, he was mortally wounded, and in that condi¬ 
tion lanced to death, Feb. 23, 1847, aged thirty-six. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Clay (James B.), brother of the preceding, born in Ken¬ 
tucky in 1817, charge d’affaires to Lisbon 1849, elected to 
represent his father’s district in Congress 1857: espoused 
the Confederate cause, and died in Montreal, Canada, Jan. 
26, 1864. G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eng’rs. 

Clay Banks, a post-township of Oceana co., Mich. 
Pop. 462. 

Clay Banks, a post-township of Door co., Wis. Pop. 
319. 

Clay'burg, a post-village of Black Brook and Saranac 
townships, Clinton co., N. Y., has valuable iron-mines. 

Clay Cen'tre, a post-village, the capital of Clay co., 
Kan., on the Republican River, about 125 miles W. of 
Leavenworth. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of the 
township, 1134. 

Clay Cit'y, a post-village of Clay co., Ill., on the Little 
Wabash River and on the Ohio and Mississippi R. R., 102 
miles E. of St. Louis. Pop. 594; of Clay City township, 
1364. 

Clay Conirt-housc, or Marshall, a post-village, 
capital of Clay co., West Va., on the Elk River, 50 miles 
E. N. E. of Charleston. 

Clay'mont, a post-village of New Castle co., Del., on 
the Philadelphia Wilmington and Baltimore R. R., 8 miles 
N. E. of Wilmington. 

Clay'more [from the Gaelic claidheamhmor, a “broad¬ 
sword ”], sometimes spelled Claymore, the Gaelic name 
of a kind of broadsword which is not much used at present. 
It had a double-edged blade about forty-two inches long 
and two inches wide. Tho handlo was often twelve inches 
long. 

Clay Slate. See Slate. 


Clays'ville, a post-township of Marshall co., Ala. 
Pop. 827. 

Claysville, a post-village of Donegal township, Wash¬ 
ington co., Pa. Pop. 284. 

Clay'ton, a county in N. W. Central Georgia. It is 
drained by the Flint River, which rises in or near it. The 
soil is partly fertile. Cotton and corn are the staple crops. 
It is intersected by the Macon and Western It. R. Capital, 
Jonesborough. Pop. 5477. 

Clayton, a county in the E. N. E. of Iowa. Area, 760 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Mississippi 
River, and intersected by the Turkey River. The surface 
is diversified by undulating prairies and woodlands; the 
soil is fertile. Hay, grain, wool, butter, and cattle are ex¬ 
tensively produced. Lead is found here. The manufac¬ 
tures embrace flour, furniture, carriages, cooperage, lum¬ 
ber, etc. A branch of the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. 
passes through this county. The Chicago Dubuque and 
Minnesota R. R. passes along the eastern border of the 
county. Capital, El Kader. Pop. 27,771. 

Clayton, a post-village, capital of Barbour co., Ala., 
75 miles S. E. of Montgomery, in a fruit and grain growing 
district. It has one weekly newspaper. 

E. Quillin, Ed. “ Courier.” 

Clayton, a post-village of Kenton and Duck Creek 
hundreds, Kent co., Del., 11 miles N. of Dover, at the 
junction of the Delaware and the Maryland and Delaware 
R. Rs. and the Smyrna branch. Pop. 124. 

Clayton, a post-village, capital of Rabun co., Ga., 
about 100 miles N. E. of Atlanta. Pop. 70. 

Clayton, a post-village and townshqi of Adams co., 
Ill., on the Toledo Wabash and Western R. R., 28 miles 
E. N. E. of Quincy. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 
of Clayton township, 2063. 

Clayton, a township of Woodford co., Ill. Pop. 1022. 

Clayton, a township and village of Clayton co., Ia., on 
the Chicago Dubuque and Minnesota R. R., 45 miles N. W. 
of Dubuque. Pop. 954. 

Clayton, a township of Taylor co., Ia. Pop. 530. 

Clayton, a township and village of Genesee co., Mich., 
on the. Port Huron and Lake Michigan R. R. Pop. 1047. 

Clayton, a post-village of Lenawee co., Mich. 

Clayton, a post-village and township of Gloucester co., 
N. J., on the West Jersey R. R., 21 miles S. of Camden. 
Total pop. 3674. 

Clayton, a post-village of Jefferson co., N. Y., on the 
St. Lawrence River, by the Thousand Islands. It is a sum¬ 
mer resort, and has a good harbor. Shipbuilding and raft¬ 
ing are carried on. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 
1020 ; of township, 4082. 

Clark & Clark, Pubs. Clayton “Independent.” 

Clayton, a post-village and township of Johnston co., 
N. C., on the North Carolina R. R., 14 miles S. E. of Ra¬ 
leigh. Pop. 1534. 

Clayton, a township of Perry co., 0. Pop. 1195. 

Clayton, a township of Crawford co., Wis. Pop. 1416. 

Clayton, a township of Winnebago co., Wis. Pop. 
1340. 1 

Cl ay 'ton (John), an English botanist, born in Kent 
in 16S6, emigrated to Virginia in 1705. He wrote on the 
natural history of Virginia. Linnmus and Gronovius pub¬ 
lished in 1739 a “Flora of Virginia, exhibiting the Plants 
which J. Clayton has collected.” Died Dec. 15, 1773. 

Clayton (John Middleton), LL. D., an American states¬ 
man, born in Sussex co., Del., July 24, 1796, graduated at 
Yale in 1815, studied law, which he practised in Delaware, 
and gained a high reputation. lie was elected a Senator 
of the U. S. in 1829, joined the Whig party, and was re¬ 
elected to. the Senate in 1835. In 1845 he Avas again chosen 
to represent Delaware in the national Senate, and in Mar., 
1849, he became secretary of state in the cabinet of Presi¬ 
dent Taylor. He negotiated with the British government 
the Clayton-Bulwcr Treaty in 1850. Having resigned on 
the death of President Taylor in July, 1850, he was chosen 
a U. S. Senator for six years (1851-57). Died Nov. 9, 1856. 

Clayton (Powell), an American Senator, was before 
the late civil war a lawyer of Leavenworth, Kan. In 1861 
he became colonel of the First Kansas Cavalry, and after¬ 
wards a brigadier-general, serving with ability, chiefly in 
Arkansas. Ho was governor of Arkansas 1866-71, and in 
the latter year was chosen U. S. Senator for six years. 

Clayton (Thomas), an American jurist, born in Dela¬ 
ware in 1778, was a Whig member of Congress from his na¬ 
tive State (1813-17), and U. S. Senator (1823-26), and 
again (1837—47). He was for a time chief-justice of tho 













CLAYTONIA—CLEARING-HOUSE. 


court of common pleas and of tho supreme court of Dela¬ 
ware. Died Aug. 21, 1854. 

Clayto'nia [named in honor of John Clayton, noticed 
above], or Spring Beauty, a well-known genus of Amer¬ 
ican and Asiatic dowers of the order Portulacacese. These 
beautiful dowers open in early spring, and are common in 
most of the U. S., one species being found in Alaska. The 
tubers of the Claytonia tuberosa are eaten in Siberia. Some 
of the species are naturalized in Europe. 

Clay'tonville, a township and post-village of Brown 
co., Kan. The village is 18 miles N. W. of Atchison. Total 
pop. 2048. 

Clay'ville, a post-village of Paris township, Oneida co., 
N. Y., has important and thriving manufactures. P. 944. 

Clazorn'entE [KAa^o/ueyai], an ancient Greek city of 
Ionia, was situated on a bay of the Aegean Sea, near Smyr¬ 
na. It was the birthplace of the great philosopher Anaxa¬ 
goras, who was born about 500 B. C. Its site is near the 
modern Voorla, on the S. side of the Gulf of Smyrna. 

Cleail'thes [Gr. KAear07js], a Greek Stoic philosopher, 
born at Assos, in Asia Minor, about 300 B. C. He studied 
under Zeno at Athens, where at the same time he support¬ 
ed himself by manual labor. When Zeno died, about 260 
B. C., Cleanthes succeeded him as the head of the Stoic 
school. He was solid and practical rather than speculative. 
His numerous works are lost except a hymn to Jupiter, which 
is commended as noble and elevated in sentiment. (See 
W. T. Krug, “ Dissertatio de Cleanthe,” 1819.) 

Clear'ance, in mercantile language, is a certidcate 
from the custom-house, the emigration officers, or both, 
signed before the departure of a ship, denoting that all the 
formalities have been observed and all dues paid. If a 
foreign vessel she must also be certified by the consul of 
the nation to which she belongs. The term “ cleared ” is 
usually applied to vessels which depart from a port with 
such a clearance. 

Clear'chus [Gr. KAe'apyo?], a Spartan general who en¬ 
tered the service of Cyrus the Younger of Persia. He 
commanded a body of Greeks who fought for Cyrus against 
Artaxerxes, king of Persia, at Cunaxa, 401 B. C. After 
the defeat of Cyrus, Clearchus was captured by treachery, 
and was put to death by Artaxerxes in 400 B. C. 

Clear Creek, a county in N. Central Colorado. It is 
drained by Clear Creek, an affluent of the South Platte 
River, and borders on the Middle Park. The surface is 
mountainous. Gray’s Peak, near the border of this county, 
is over 14,000 feet high. Gold and silver are found here, 
the latter in great quantities. It is one of the chief silver- 
regions in Colorado. The soil of the valleys is very fertile. 
Capital, Georgetown. Pop. 1596. 

Clear Creek, a township of Drew co., Ark. P. 776. 

Clear Creek, a township of Hot Springs co., Ark. 
Pop. 231. 

Clear Creek, a township of Sevier co., Ark. P. 238. 

Clear Creek, a township of Washington co., Ark. 
Pop. 1199. 

Cl ear Creek, a township and village of Alexander 
co., Ill. The village is on the E. bank of the Mississippi 
River, and 20 miles N. W. of Caledonia. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 1068. 

Clear Creek, a township of Huntington co., Ind. 
Pop. 1273. 

Clear Creek, a post-township of Monroe co., Ind. 
Pop. 1325. 

Clear Creek, a township of Jasper co., Ia. P. 1125. 

Clear Creek, a township of Johnson co., Ia. P. 728. 

Clear Creek, a township of Keokuk co., Ia. Pop. 
1118. 

Clear Creek, a post-township of Nemaha co., Kan. 
Pop. 367. 

Clear Creek, a township of Cooper co., Mo. Pop. 
1198. 

Clear Creek, a township of Vernon co., Mo. P. 445. 

Clear Creek, a post-township of Mecklenburg co., 
N. C. Pop. 615. 

Clear Creek, a township of Ashland co., 0. P. 1198. 

Clear Creek, a post-township of Fairfield co., 0. Pop. 
1743. 

Clear Creek, a township of Warren co., 0. P. 2605. 

Clear'field, a county of W. Central Pennsylvania. 
Area, 1150 square miles. It is drained by the West Branch 
of the Susquehanna and by Clearfield Creek. Much of the 
surface is hilly, with fertile valleys. Cattle, grain, wool, 
and lumber are among the chief products. The manufac- 


971 


taring interests are varied. Semi-bituminous coal is found. 
The Clearfield branch of the Pennsylvania It. R. traverses 
the county. Capital, Clearfield. Pop. 25,741. 

Clearfield, a post-village, capital of Clearfield co., Pa., 
on the West Branch of the Susquehanna River, which is 
crossed by two bridges, and on the Tyrone and Clearfield 
branch of the Pennsylvania R. R. It has two national 
and one other bank, two newspapers, a public park, an 
academy, a machine-shop, foundry, lumber manufactories, 
and brick-works. Pop. 1361. 

G. B. Goodlander, Prop. Clearfield “ Republican.” 

Clearfield, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 847. 

Clearfield, a township of Cambria co., Pa. Pop. 1531. 

Clearfield, a township of Juneau co., Wis. Pop. 203. 

Clear Fork, a township of Tazewell co., Va. Pop. 
3415. 

Clear Fork, a township of Raleigh co., West Va. Pop. 
552. 

Clear Fork, a township of Wyoming co., West Va. 
Pop. 529. 

Clear'ing, a term used by bankers, denoting the ex¬ 
changing of checks, drafts, and notes drawn upon each 
other, and the settlement of the balances resulting from 
the same. 

Clearing-House, the place where the exchanges or 
clearings are made. 

The New York Clearing-House .—The clearing-house sys¬ 
tem was first established in London about the beginning 
of the present century. It was introduced into this country 
by the banks of the city of New York, which established 
the New York Clearing-House by organizing an association 
and commencing operations on the 11th of Oct., 1853. At 
that time it consisted of fifty-two banks, five of which were 
soon closed by their inability to meet its requirements. 
They have since been established in the cities of Boston, 
Philadelphia, Chicago, and St. Louis. Tho cities of Hart¬ 
ford, Providence, Baltimore, and Cincinnati also employ a 
similar system, using a prominent bank as a clearing-house, 
settling the balances by checks upon it. 

There are now (Oct. 15, 1873) in the city of New York 
seventy-five banks, with an aggregate capital of $87,501,300, 
many of them situated at remote distances from others. 
Each in its daily dealings receives large amounts of bills 
of, and checks on, other banks, so that at the close of the 
day’s business every bank has in its drawers various sums 
thus due to it by other banks. It is in like manner itself 
the debtor of other banks, which have during the day re¬ 
ceived its bills and checks drawn upon it. Before the 
establishment of the clearing-house it was necessary for 
each bank every morning to make up its account with every 
other bank, and to send its porter to present the bills and 
checks so received to the debtor banks for payment. The 
balances of their indebtedness were adjusted by payments 
in gold, which became so laborious, dangerous, and com¬ 
plicated that the balances were settled only weekly, on 
Friday, instead of daily—a course that induced much evil. 
This was obviated by the clearing-house system, through 
which the settlements are so simultaneously and almost in¬ 
stantly effected that the transactions adjusted through it 
have amounted in one day to the enormous sum of 
$206,034,920.51, in adjusting which the exchanges were 
settled in the space of an hour. The establishment of the 
clearing-house system closed 2500 bank ledger accounts, 
with numerous daily entries in each; enabled the banks to 
settle every day with each other without delay or loss ; and 
with comparatively little trouble brought each officer into 
intimate and friendly relations with the others, thus en¬ 
abling them by united action to aid and strengthen each 
other in times of excitement and financial danger, and to 
exert by their combined power a salutary influence upon 
the banking business of the country at large. 

It is doubtful if without the aid of the banks of the city 
of New York the U. S., upon the breaking out of the re¬ 
bellion in 1861, could have raised the loans necessary to 
carry on the war in time to have prevented the success of 
the enemies of the Union. It is certain that without the 
Clearing-House Association, the banks could not have fur¬ 
nished the funds which at once established the credit of the 
government, and enabled it, by the restoration of confidence, 
to negotiate its bonds to the enormous amount of over 
$2,000,000,000. During those exciting times the machinery 
of the Clearing-House worked with regularity and exact¬ 
ness; tho banks, united as one, daily equalized their re¬ 
sources, and presented to the world a most important as 
well as practical proof that in “union is strength.” 

The panic of 1873 was only checked by similar action, 
the experience of tho war enabling the banks to act with 
such promptness in combining their entire resources by the 
use of loan certificates to the extent of over $25,000,000, 















972 


CLEAR ING-N UT—CLEAR LAKE. 


as to sustain themselves against a panic, the serious results 
of which was greatly modified by their action. 

The transactions of the Clearing-House to the 1st of Oct., 
1873, a period of twenty years, shows the total transactions 
to amount to the sum of $387,587,804,028.49, an average 
of $63,000,000 per day for the entire period. The largest 
average daily transactions for any one year was for the 
year ending Oct. 1, 1869, amounting to $125,088,789.91. 
Of this vast business so exact and complete is the system 
that no difference of any kind exists in any of its books or 
accounts; neither has a loss occurred from its organization 
to the present time. 

During the war the government issued “ certificates of 
indebtedness” bearing interest, which were found to be 
desirable as a reserve for the banks. Accordingly, an ar¬ 
rangement was made for the issue of special certificates 
bearing interest, and available only to banks, members of 
the Clearing-House Association, and which were recog¬ 
nized in the national banking act of 1864 as part of the 
lawful reserve for a national bank. The principal of these 
certificates was made payable on demand, in legal-tender 
notes, at the office of the assistant treasurer of the U. S. in 
New York, and the interest to the manager of the Clearing- 
House and chairman of the Clearing-House committee 
jointly. This interest was payable semi-annually. The 
certificates were made available by a vote of the associa¬ 
tion for the settlement of balances at the Clearing-House, 
and were so used, thus changing daily the amounts held 
by each bank, and frequently (by the presentation of them 
by individual banks to the U. S. treasury for payment) 
changing the aggregate amount issued. The interest was 
collected and disbursed to the several banks by the Clear¬ 
ing-House regularly every six months, and each bank re¬ 
ceived the exact amount of interest due it, notwithstanding 
the amounts held by it for the whole period had changed 
daily. 

The apparent intricacy of the calculations necessary to 
arrive at such results troubled some of the banks in other 
cities, who were desirous of availing themselves of the 
privileges offered by the use of these certificates; and in 
one or two instances committees were sent to New York to 
ascertain the process of computation in use, the simplicity 
of which, when explained, not only astonished them, but 
confirmed them in the opinion of the usefulness of an in¬ 
stitution capable of adjusting with so much ease calcula¬ 
tions which, at first sight, appeared so difficult. The 
largest amount of Clearing-House certificates in use in the 
city of New York at any one time was $36,000,000. 

The Clearing-House is located at No. 48 Wall street. 
The clearing-room is provided with a continuous line of 
desks, sixty in number, in the form of an oval, one for 
each bank, each desk bearing the name and number of the 
bank by which it is occupied; the banks being numbered 
according to the date of their organization, the oldest (the 
Bank of New York) being No. 1, etc. etc. Each bank is 
represented every morning by two clerks—one a messen¬ 
ger, who brings with him the checks, drafts, etc. that his 
bank has received the day previous upon the other banks, 
which are called the “ exchanges,” and are assorted for 
each bank and placed in envelopes. On the outside of 
each envelope is a slip on which is listed the amounts of 
the various items which it contains. These envelopes are 
arranged in the same order as the desks for the several 
banks. The messengers, sixty in number, take their 
places in a line outside of the line of desks, each opposite 
the desk assigned to his bank, while on the other or in¬ 
side of the desk is a clerk with a sheet containing the 
names of all the banks arranged in the same order, with 
the aggregate amounts his messenger has against each 
bank. 

The hour for making the exchanges or general delivery 
is 10 o’clock a. m. Just previous to that time the manager 
takes his position at an elevated desk and calls the house 
to order. At a signal from a bell struck precisely at ten 
o’clock, each messenger moves forward to the desk next his 
own, and delivers the envelopes containing the checks, etc. 
for the bank represented by that desk to the clerk on the 
inside, together with a printed list of the banks in the 
same order, with the amount opposite each bank. The 
clerk receiving it signs and returns it to the messenger, 
who immediately passes to the next desk, delivering the 
exchange for the bank represented by that desk, and so on 
until he has made the circuit of the room and reached his 
own desk, the starting-point, having delivered to each 
bank the exchanges he had for it, and consequently deliv¬ 
ering his entire exchanges for all the banks. Every other 
messenger docs the like, the whole moving on at the same 
time. In other words, each messenger has visited every 
bank and delivered to each, everything his bank has re¬ 
ceived the day previous from it, taking a receipt for the 
same, consequently the entire exchanges are delivered; 


while each clerk upon the inside has of course received 
from every other bank the amounts each had against his 
bank. This operation occupies exactly ten minutes, and 
accomplishes what could not otherwise be done in less than 
six or eight hours. 

Besides the saving of time gained by this method, each 
bank is enabled to know the exact balance for or against it 
at once, as the clerks, after receiving the envelopes contain¬ 
ing the checks, etc., immediately enter from the slips, upon 
their own sheets, the aggregate amount from eaeli bank; 
the difference between the total amount they have received 
and the total amount brought by them being the balance 
either due to or from the Clearing-House to each bank. 

The messengers then receive from their several clerks the 
various envelopes containing the exchanges, and return to 
their banks, reporting their condition, debtor or creditor as 
the case may be. The clerks then report to the assistant 
manager the amount they have received, they having re¬ 
ported the amount each brought upon first entering the 
room. These amounts arc entered in separate columns on 
what is termed a “proof sheet,” and if no errors have been 
made the manager, finding that both columns agree, an¬ 
nounces that the “proof is made,” and the clerks return to 
their respective banks. If, however, any error has been 
made by any of the sixty clerks, it is indicated on the proof 
sheet, and the clerks are then required to revise and examine 
their work; and not until every error has been discovered 
anti corrected are the clerks allowed to leave. 

The clerks are allowed thirty-five minutes after the de¬ 
livery of the exchanges to enter, report, and prove their 
work. If any errors are discovered after that time, fines 
are imposed for each error, which are collected monthly by 
drafts on the banks fined. 

Various and ingenious methods are resorted to for dis¬ 
covering errors, and the manager, from long experience, 
generally is enabled to anticipate the nature of the error, 
whether in entry, footing, or transposition, and thereby 
facilitate its discovery by applying at once the best method 
of examination. When it is remembered that there are 
sixty sheets, each containing 120 entries, in all 7200 entries, 
the difficulty in discovering where the error is in the short¬ 
est possible time is apparent. 

The entire business of the morning is usually accom¬ 
plished in one hour. The debit banks are required to pay 
to the manager in legal-tender notes or coin, previous to 
half-past one o’clock the same day, and the credit banks 
receive immediately after that hour, the amounts due by or 
to them respectively, thus by one process settling exactly 
the entire transactions of all the banks of the day previous. 

A record is kept of the daily transactions of each bank, 
and a statement of the loans, specie, legal tenders, deposits, 
and circulation made weekly to the manager of the Clear¬ 
ing-House, so that the movement of each bank can be de¬ 
termined and its condition pretty accurately estimated. 

William A. Camp, Manager of N. Y. Clearing-House. 

Clear'iiig-liut, the seed of Stryclinos ])otatornm, a 
small tree of the same genus with that producing the nux- 
vomica, abundant in India, and much used for clearing 
water. These seeds being rubbed on the inside of a ves¬ 
sel, any muddy water put into it very quickly becomes 
clear, all impurities settling to the bottom. The tree has 
ovate, pointed leaves, and a shining, black, edible, pulpy 
fruit, with one seed. The wood is very hard. 

Clear Lake, in Lake co., Cal., is 112 miles N. of San 
Francisco, and is nearly 24 miles long. The width varies 
from 2 to 6 miles. It is surrounded by a picturesque re¬ 
gion, which is frequented by tourists and hunters. Deer, 
bears, panthers, and foxes abound here. Fish of various 
kinds are found in this lake. 

Clear Lake, a township of Mississippi co., Ark. Pop. 
126. 

Clear Lake, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 378. 

Clear Lake, a township of Sangamon co., Ill. Pop. 
1566. 

Clear Lake, a township of Steuben co., Ind. Pop. 
455. 


Clear Lake, a post-village of Cerro Gordo co., Ia., on 
the E. shore of Clear Lake and on a branch of the Milwau- 
kie and St. Paul R. R., 10 miles W. of Mason. It is a 
summer resort, and has one weekly newspaper. The lake 
is about 6 miles long, and has two steamboats. Pop. 775. 

Ed. Clear Lake “Observer.” 


Clear Lake, a township of Cerro Gordo co., Ia. 
175. 

Clear Lake, a township of Hamilton co., Ia. 
131. 


Pop. 

Pop. 


Clear Lake, a post-township and village of Sherburne 
co., Minn., on a branch of the St. Paul and Pacific R. R.. 
60 miles N. W. of St. Paul. Pop. 137. 




















CLEAR LAKE—CLEMENT. 


973 


Clear Lake, a township of Sibley co., Minn. Pop. 
156. 

Clear Spring, a township of Lagrange co., Ind. Pop. 
1223. 

Clear Spring, a post-township of Washington co., Md. 
Pop. 2763. 

C! ear'story, or Clerestory, in churches, the upper¬ 
most arcade, with side openings, interposed between the 
roof of the centre aisle and the roof of the side aisles. The 
lateral arcades constitute the triforium, or blindstory. 

Clear Water, a post-township of Wright co., Minn. 
Pop. 552. 

Cleavcland (Parker), LL.D., an American mineral¬ 
ogist and chemist, born in Rowley, Mass., Jan. 15, 1780. 
In 1805 he was chosen professor in Bowdoin College, and 
in all the fifty-three years of his connection with the in¬ 
stitution missed on his own account only three recitations. 
Ilis admirable work on “ Mineralogy and Geology/’ which 
earned for him the title of “ father of American mineral- 
ogy,” was published in two volumes in 1816, and passed to 
a second edition in 1822. Died in Brunswick, Me., Oct. 15, 
1858. 


Cleavcland. See Cleveland. 

Cleav'ers, or Cli'vers (Galium Aparine ), a popular 
name of a plant of the order Rubiacem, an annual, with 
whorls of eight leaves, stem and leaves rough with bristles, 
the fruit hispid, and ready to adhere to one’s clothing; a 
common weed in the U. S. and in mo3t pai’ts of Europe, 
which has, from time to time, been brought into notice as 
possessing power over formidable diseases, including lichen, 
leprosy, and cancer. The plant is certainly a powerful 
diuretic. 


Cle'bnrne, a county of Alabama, bordering on Geor¬ 
gia. Area, 500 square miles. It is intersected by the Talla¬ 
poosa River. The soil is generally fertile, and produces 
corn, wool, tobacco, and some wheat and cotton. Capital, 
Edwardsville. Pop. 8017. 

Cleburne, a post-village, capital of Johnson co., Tex. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 686. 

Cleburne (Patrick R.), a general, born in Ireland 
Mar. 17, 1828, removed to Arkansas, where he was a law¬ 
yer before the civil war. He commanded a division of the 
Confederate army at the battle of Stone River, which ended 
Jan. 2, 1863, and at Chickamauga in September of that 
year. He was killed at the battle of Franklin, Tcnn., Nov. 
30, 1864. He was a daring and popular officer. 

Clef [a word originally French, from the Lat. clavis, a 
“key ”], a character placed on the musical staff, by which 
the names of the notes are fixed. There are three clefs— 
viz. the G, the C (rarely used), and the F clef. The G 


clef is on the second line, thus : 


qj—H- 

clef on the third line, thus : m 


; the C 


and the F 


clef on the fourth line, thus: 



The C 


clef is sometimes placed on the fourth line for instruments 
and for the tenor part in vocal music. 

Clem'atis [Gr. from icA7/^a, a “shoot of the 

vine,” so called from its resemblance to a vine], a genus of 
herbs and shrubs of the order Ranunculaeem, having four 
colored sepals, no corolla, and for fruit numerous one-seeded 
achenia with long, persistent feathery styles. They have 
the popular name of “ virgin’s bower.” The species are 
numerous, generally with climbing stems, natives of very 
different climates. The long styles give the plants a beau¬ 
tiful appearance even in winter. The flowers of many spe¬ 
cies are also beautiful. Clematis Vitalba, “ traveller’s joy,” 
is the only native of Great Britain. The twigs are capa¬ 
ble of being made into baskets. It rapidly covers walls 
or unsightly objects. The acrid and vesicant leaves are 
used as a rubefacient in rheumatism, and those of other 
species are employed in the same way. In the U. S. there 
are many native species. A number of species are com¬ 
monly cultivated in our gardens. 

Clem'ens (Hon. Jeremiah), an American politician, 
born at Huntsville, Ala., Dec. 28, 1814, became a lawyer in 
1834, distinguished himself in State politics, and in the 
affairs of Texas in 1842. He served with distinction in 
the Mexican war, and was rapidly promoted in the army, 
and became colonel in 1848. Ho was U. S. Senator from 
Alabama (1849-53). He held office under the Confederacy, 
though not a warm friend of that cause. He advocated 


the re-election of Lincoln in 1864. Died at his native town 
in 1865. Col. Clemens was an eminent lawyer and the 
author of several works of fiction. 

Clemens (Samuel Langhorne), better known as Mark 
Twain, an American humorist, born in Monroe co., Mo., 
Nov. 30, 1835. He became a journalist at Virginia, Nev., 
in 1862, and subsequently followed the same profession at 
San Francisco and at Buffalo, N. Y. He has published 
“Tho Jumping Frog” (1867), “The Innocents Abroad” 
(1869), “ Roughing It ” (1872), etc. 

Clemens Romanus. See Clement I. 

Clem'ent [Lat. Titus Flavins Clemens or Clemens Alex- 
andrinus] of Alexandria, an eminent Father of the 
Christian Church, is supposed to have been a native of 
Athens, and originally a pagan. He passed the greater 
part of his life at Alexandria, where he became a disciple 
of Pantmnus, a Christian philosopher. He was ordained 
a presbyter, and in 202 A. D. retired to Palestine to escape 
persecution. About 206 he returned to Alexandria, and 
was a teacher of catechumens. He succeeded Pantsenus at 
the death of the latter, and acquired a high reputation for 
wisdom and virtue. Origen was one of his pupils. Clem¬ 
ent was more addicted to speculative philosophy than most 
of the Fathers of the Church. Among his extant works 
(written in Greek) are “Pmdagogus” and “Stromata” 
(Gr. 'S.TpuifjLaTeig), which is a medley of religious thoughts, 
anecdotes, and maxims of philosophy. Died about 220 
A. D. (See Kaye, “ Account of the Writings, etc. of 
Clement of Alexandria,” 1835; Reinkens, “ De Clemente 
Presbytero Alexandrino,” 1851.) 

Clem'ent I. (or Cie'mens Roma'uus), the earliest 
of the Apostolic Fathers, a bishop, accounted by Roman 
Catholic writers as fourth in the order of succession at 
Rome. Origen (254) identifies him with the Clement of 
Phil. iv. 3, but this may be only a conjecture. Irenteus 
( 202) makes him the third after the apostles Peter and Paul, 
Linus being the first and Cletus (or Anacletus) the second. 
Eusebius says he died in the third year of Trajan, “ having 
for nine years superintended the preaching of the Divine 
word.” Accordingly, he presided over tho Church from 91 
or 92 to 100 or 101 A. D. His Epistle to the Corinthians, 
written about 96 or 97 A. D., consists of fifty-nine short 
chapters, and in bulk is about one-third larger than Saint 
Paul’s First Epistle to the Corinthians. It used to be read 
in many ancient churches, but was not included in any of 
the ancient lists of authoritative books. Other writings 
ascribed to Clement are not his. (See Clementines.)— 
Clement II., a native of Saxony, was elected pope in 1046. 
He crowned the emperor Henry III., and died in 1047. He 
was the first of the six German popes.— Clement III., a 
native of Rome, was elected pope in 1187. He promoted 
the third crusade against the Saracens. Died in 1191. 
There was also an anti-pope of this title, who died in 1100. 
—Clement IV. (Guy FouLQUEs)was born in France. He 
succeeded Pope Urban IV. in 1265, and died in 1268.— 
Clement V., Pope, was a Frenchman named Bertrand 
de Got. lie was chosen pope in 1305, as successor to 
Benedict XI. To gratify Philippe le Bel, king of France, 
he resided at Avignon, which became the capital of the 
popedom. This innovation gave much offence, and caused 
a long schism in the Church. Fie suppressed, in 1311, the 
order of Templars. He died in 1314, and was succeeded 
by John XXII.— Clement VI. (Pierre Roger), born at 
Limousin, in France, succeeded Benedict XII. as pope in 
1342. He reigned at Avignon, the sovereignty of which 
he purchased from Joanna of Naples. He died in 1352, 
and was succeeded by Innocent VI.— Clement VII. (Rob¬ 
ert Count of Geneva), Antipope, was bishop of Cambray 
when in 1378 he was elected antipope in the time of Ur¬ 
ban VI. With him began the great Western schism. Died 
in 1394.— Clement VII. (Giulio de’ Medici), a cousin of 
Leo X., succeeded Adrian VI. as pope in Nov., 1523. He 
joined Francis I. of France and the Venetians in a league 
against Charles V., whose army, commanded by Constable 
Bourbon, took Rome by assault in 1527. The pope then 
became a prisoner for several months. He refused to grat¬ 
ify Henry VIII. of England by granting him a divorce 
from Queen Catharine, and issued a famous bull against 
him in 1534. He died in the same year, and was succeeded 
by Paul III.— Clement VIII. (Ippolito Aldoerandini), 
Pope, a native of Fano, in Italy, was chosen in place of 
Innocent IX. in 1592. He annexed the duchy of Ferrara 
to the Papal States. He died in 1605, and was succeeded 
by Leo XI.— Clement VIII. (Egidio Munoz), Antipope, 
was canon at Barcelona, and was in 1424, after the death 
of Benedict XIII., elected pope by three cardinals. His 
resignation in 1429 ended the great schism of the West. 
Clement IX. was born at Pistoja in 1600, and was chosen 
pope in June, 1667, as the successor ot Alexander ^ II. 
He died in Dec., 1669, and was succeeded by Clement X.— 





































Clement X. (Emilio Altieri) was a native of Italy. He 
was nearly eighty years old when he became pope in 1070. 
He died in 1076, and was succeeded by Innocent XI.— 
Clement XI. (Giovanni Francesco Albani) was born at 
Pesaro, in Italy, in 1049. He succeeded Innocent XII. in 
1700. In 1713 he issued the famous bull Unigenitus, which 
condemned 101 propositions of Quesncrs work on Grace 
and Predestination. This bull was approved by the Jesuits 
and opposed by the Jansenists. Clement aided the Pre¬ 
tender in his effort to seize the British crown in 1715. Died 
in 1721. Innocent XIII. was his successor. (See Lafitau, 
“Vie de Clement XI.,” 1752.)— Clement XII. (Lorenzo 
Corsini) was born at Florence in 1052. He became pope 
in 1730, as the successor of Benedict XIII. He died in 
1740, and was succeeded by Benedict XIV.— Clement XIII. 
(Carlo Rezzonico) was born in Venice in 1693, and suc¬ 
ceeded Benedict XIV. as pope in 1758. He offended the 
French and Spanish monarchs by impolitic attempts to 
assert his prerogative. He issued a bull in favor of the 
Jesuits, who had been expelled in 1767 from France and 
Spain. He died in 1769, and was succeeded by Clement 
XIV. —Clement XIV. (Giovanni Vincenzo Antonio Gan- 
ganelli), an eminent and learned pope, was born near 
Rimini in 1705. He succeeded Clement XIII. in 1769. He 
took measures to conciliate several Catholic powers which 
Clement XIII. had offended. He was more liberal than 
many of the popes, and had a good reputation for ability 
and virtue. Among the important events of his pontificate 
was the suppression of the order of the Jesuits, which he 
formally decreed in July, 1773. He founded the Clementine 
Museum in Rome. Died in Sept., 1774. (See Caraccioli, 
“Vie de Clement XIV.,” 1775; Theiner, “ Gescliichte des 
Pontificats Clements XIV.,” 3 vols., 1853.) 

Clemeil'ti (Muzio), an excellent Italian pianist and 
composer, born at Rome in 1752. He was patronized by 
Mr. Beckford, who took him to England about 1765. At 
the age of eighteen he composed his “ Opera 2,” which is 
regarded as the basis on which the whole fabric of modern 
sonatas for the piano has been founded. He composed 
numerous sonatas, and wrote “ Gradus ad Parnassum.” 
Died Mar. 10, 1832. 

Clem'entines, or Fsen'do ■=■ Clem'entines, a 

name given to two writings, the “ Homilies ” and the “ Re¬ 
cognitions,” falsely ascribed to Clement of Rome. They 
originated in Rome about the middle of the second century. 
They were edited by Schwegler (1847) and others. 

The name Clementines is also applied to that part of the 
canon law which was collected and published by Pope Clem¬ 
ent V. (1305-14). 

Clem'monsville, a township of Davidson co., N. C. 
Pop. 978. 

Clenden'nin, a township of Mason co., West Va. Pop. 
1657. 

Cleobn'lns [Gr. KAe6/3ouA.os], one of the Seven Wise 
Men of Greece, was king of Lindus, in Rhodes, in the 
sixth century B. C. His favorite maxim was 'Apurrov /aerpov, 
which inculcates the advantages of moderation. 

Cleom'brotms [Gr. KAe6p./3poTos], a Spartan general, 
was a brother of Leonidas, who fell at Thermopylae. He 
commanded the army in 480 B. C., after the death of Le¬ 
onidas. He was the father of Pausanias, who defeated the 
Persians at Plataea. 

Cleomtorotns I., king of Sparta, a grandson of the 
preceding, began to reign in 380 B. C. He commanded 
the Spartans at Leuctra, where he was defeated by Epami- 
nondas and killed in 371 B. C. He left two sons, Agesip- 
olis II. and Cleomcnes II. 

Cleome'des [Gr. KAeopijSr)?], an ancient Greek astron¬ 
omer whose native place and period are unknown. Ho 
wrote a remarkable treatise on astronomy entitled “ The 
Circular Tlieoi-y of the Heavenly Bodies,” which is extant 
and has been printed. This contains several scientific 
truths, as the spherical figure of the earth and the revolu¬ 
tion of the moon about the earth. The refraction of li<xht 
was noticed by him. 

Cleom'enes, an Athenian sculptor of whom little is 
known. He is mentioned by Pliny as the author of a group 
of Muses possessed by Pollio in Rome. His name also ap¬ 
pears on the famous statue of Venus de’ Medici. 

Cleomenes, or Kleomenes [Gr. KAeo/aeVr)?], I., 
king of Sparta, succeeded his father, Anaxandrides, about 
518 B. C. He liberated Athens from the domination of 
the Pisistratidae in 510, but he afterwards attempted to 
restore Hippias. He procured the dethronement of De- 
maratus, who had reigned jointly with himself. Ho died in 
489 B. C., and was succeeded by his half-brother, the 
heroic Leonidas. 

Cleomcnes III., king of Sparta, of the Agidoo line, 
was a son of Leonidas II. He began to reign in 236 B. C., 


and resolved to restore the ancient Spartan virtue and dis¬ 
cipline. He declared war against the Achaean League, and 
defeated Aratus at Megalopolis in 226 B. C. He put to 
death all the ephori except Agesilaus (who escaped), made 
a new division of land, and restored the old social system. 
Antigonus, king of Macedon, who was an ally of the Achae- 
ans, defeated Cleomenes at Sellasia in 222 B. C. Cleomenes 
fled to Egypt, and killed himself in 220 B. C. (See Plu¬ 
tarch, “ Cleomenes” and “Aratus.”) 

Cle'on, or Kleon [Gr. KAeW], an Athenian demagogue 
distinguished for his insolence and venality, was a tanner 
in his youth. He is first mentioned in history about 428 
B. C. He was a leader of the democracy or lower classes. 
In 425 B. C., Cleon and Demosthenes conducted a success¬ 
ful expedition against Sphacteria. He was elated with this 
victory, which increased his credit so much that he obtained 
the command of an army which was sent against the Spar¬ 
tan general Brasidas in 422 B. C. Cleon and Brasidas were 
both killed in the battle of Amphipolis, where the Athenians 
were defeated. 

Cle'oil, a township of Manistee co., Mich. Pop. 85. 

Cleo'na, a township of Scott co., Ia. Pop. 847. 

Cleopa'tra [Gr. KAeon-aTpa], a daughter of Philip of 
Macedon, was a sister of Alexander the Great. She was 
married in 336 B. C. to Alexander, king of Epirus, who 
was her mother’s brother. After the death of her brother 
she was assassinated by the order of Antigonus. 

Cleopatra [Gr. KAeo7rdTpa], a celebrated and fascinat¬ 
ing queen of Egypt, born in 69 B. C., was a daughter of 
Ptolemy Auletes. She was distinguished for her personal 
charms, was richly endowed with mental gifts, and was 
mistress of the Greek and other languages. Her father, 
dying in the year 51, left the throne to her in partnership 
with her brother Ptolemy. The latter deprived her of 
royal power, but Julius Cmsar interposed in 48 B. C., and 
restored her to the throne after her brother Ptolemy 
had been killed in battle. She captivated the affection of 
Caesar, and accompanied him to Rome in the year 46. 
After he had been killed in 44 B. C., she returned to Egypt. 
Soon after the battle of Philippi (42 B. C.) she was sum¬ 
moned by Antony to appear before him in Cilicia. He was 
fascinated by her charms, and became so infatuated that 
he neglected his interests and public affairs, and spent 
much time with her in Alexandria. Her fleet fought against 
Augustus at the naval battle of Actium, at which she was 
present, 31 B. C. She was the first to order a retreat on 
this occasion, and was eventually taken prisoner by Au¬ 
gustus, who intended to exhibit her in a triumphal pro¬ 
cession in Rome. To frustrate this design, she killed her¬ 
self by the poison of an asp in 30 B. C. 

Clep'sydra, or Clepsy'dra [Gr. kA^tt-w, to “steal,” 
and liSwp, “ water,” because the water seems to steal away 
imperceptibly], an instrument for measuring time by the 
gradual flow of water through a small orifice. Two kinds 
have been used—one wherein the fluid is allowed to escape 
through the orifice; the other, in which uniformity of flow 
is secured by maintaining the fluid at a constant level. 
The clepsydra is supposed to have been used among the 
Chaldmans. The Greeks and Romans employed it exten¬ 
sively. In modern times the invention of pendulum clocks 
has superseded it, though it is still used in China. It an¬ 
ciently had in some instances a musical attachment by 
which attention was called to the hour, as by the stroke of 
a bell in our clocks. 

Cl ere (Laurent), a celebrated deaf-mute, born at La 
Balme, near Lyons, France, Dec. 26, 1785. When one 
year of age he lost his hearing in consequence of a severe 
burn. At the age of twelve he became a pupil of the abb6 
Sicard at Paris, and in 1805 was a teacher of deaf-mutes 
under that eminent instructor. He came to the U. S. in 
1816 with Gallaudet, and was one of the founders of the 
Hartford asylum for the deaf and dumb, which was 
opened in 1817. He was a laborious and successful teacher 
of deaf-mutes. Died at Hartford, Conn., July 18, 1869. 

Cler'gy [from the Gr. KAJjpos, originally meaning an 
“inheritance;” Lat. clems], a collective term applied to 
the ministers of the Christian religion in contradistinction 
to the laity. This use of the term is ancient, and gradually 
became prevalent as the ministers of religion more and 
more exclusively were regarded as God’s “ heritage.” In 
the Church of Rome the distinction between the clergy 
and the laity became more marked through the multiplica¬ 
tion of titles among the priesthood, the ascription to them 
of peculiar privileges, their assumption of peculiar offi¬ 
cial insignia, and the doctrine of celibacy. In harmony 
with this distinction is that of an indelible character de¬ 
rived from ordination, so that a renunciation of the clerical 
office is either viewed as an impossibility or apostasy. In 
the Protestant churches the distinction between clergy and 
























CLERGYMAN 


laity is less wide. Among the rights asserted by the clergy 
in the Middle Ages, and which caused much dispute, was 
exemption from lay jurisdiction, even in cases of felony. 
The clergy were distinguished into the higher clergy and 
the lower clergy, the latter including janitors, acolytes, ex¬ 
orcists, etc. The term secular clergy is the designation of 
priests of the Church of Rome who are not of any relig¬ 
ious order, but have the care of parishes. Monks who are 
in holy orders are designated regular clergy, because they 
obey a monastic rule ( regula ). 

Cler'gyman, an ordained minister, authorized to preach 
and to administer the ordinances according to the rules of 
some denomination of Christians; in England the term is 
popularly restricted to ministers of the Established Chui'ch. 
(See Clergy.) 

Clerk [Lat. clericus; Fr. clerc ]. This word formerly 
signified a clergyman, an educated man, a scholar. In 
modern usage it is applied to a scribe, secretary, writer, or 
accountant; a person who is employed in writing in a 
public office, bank, or counting-house. 

Clerk (John), a Scottish naval tactician, born at Eldin 
about 1730. He is said to be the inventor of the manoeuvre 
in naval tactics called “ breaking the line.” This plan was 
first tried by Lord Rodney in April, 1782, when he gained 
a victory over the French admiral de Grasse. Clerk pub¬ 
lished in 1782 an ‘‘Essay on Naval Tactics.” Hied May 
10, 1812. 

Clerk to the Signet. See Writer to the Signet. 

Clermont, a city of France, capital of the department 
of Puy-de-Dome, is finely situated on an eminence 208 
miles S. by E. from Paris, with which it is connected by a 
railway. It is near a range of extinct volcanoes, and is 
surrounded by remarkable scenery. It has some manu¬ 
factures, and a considerable trade with Paris in the prod¬ 
ucts of the surrounding country. It has a Gothic cathe¬ 
dral of the thirteenth century, a college, a public library 
of 1600 volumes, a theatre, a normal school, and a botanic 
garden. Clermont occupies the site of the ancient capital 
of the Arverni, which was originally called JYemosus, and 
afterwards Augustonemetum. It became a bishop’s see 
about 250 A. D. The great council in which the Crusades 
originated was held here by Pope Urban II. in 1095. 
Clermont was the capital of Auvergne for several centuries. 
Pop. 37,690. 

Clermont, a town of France, department of Oise, on 
the Railway du Nord, about 50 miles N. of Paris. It has 
a college and a public library. Pop. 5743. 

Cler'mont, a county in the S. W. of Ohio. Area, 462 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Ohio 
River and on the W. by the Little Miami. The surface is 
partly hilly; the soil is fertile. Grain, wool, tobacco, and 
dairy products are extensively raised. The manufacturing 
interests are various and quite extensive, including lumber, 
furniture, cooperage, saddlery, flour, clothing, carriages, etc. 
Blue limestone abounds here. Capital, Batavia. P. 34,268. 

Clermont, a township and post-village of Fayette co., 
Ia. The village is on Turkey River, 100 miles N. of Iowa 
City. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1263. 

Clermont, a township and post-village of Columbia 
co., N. Y., on the Hudson River R. R., 12 miles S. S. W. of 
Hudson. Pop. 1021. 

Clermont-FIIeraiilt, a town of France, department 
of Herault, 25 miles W. of Montpellier. It has a com¬ 
munal college and an old ruined castle; also manufactures 
of woollen cloth. Pop. 6050. 

Cle'thra [Gr. K\q9pa , an “alder”], a genus of trees and 
shrubs of the order Ericaceae. The Clethra alni/olia occurs 
from Maine to Florida, and westward. Its racemes of 
fragrant white flowers are mentioned in one of Whittier’s 
poems. The Clethra acuminata is a small tree of Virginia 
and North Carolina. 

Cleveland, a wild mountainous district, with some 
picturesque and fertile valleys, forming the E. part of the 
North Riding of Yorkshire, England. It includes Gis- 
borough, Stokesley, and the Moors. It is 30 miles long 
from E. to W. and 15 miles wide from N. to S. It gives 
the title of duke to the Vane family. 

Cleveland, a county of North Carolina, bordering on 
South Carolina. Area, 500 square miles. It is drained by 
the First Broad River. The surface is hilly; the soil pro¬ 
ductive. Grain and wool are the chief products. Alum 
and copperas are produced. It is intersected by the Wil¬ 
mington Charlotte and Rutherford R. R. Capital, Shelby. 
Pop. 12,696. 

Cleveland, a post-village, capital of White co., Ga., 
about 85 miles N. N. E. of Atlanta. Pop. 145. 

Cleveland, a township of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop. 549. 


-CLEVELAND. 975 

Cleveland, a township of Whitley co., Ind. Pop. 2041. 

Cleveland, a post-township of Le Sueur co., Minn. 
Pop. 1052. 

Cleveland, an incorporated post-village of Oswego co., 
N. Y., on the N. shore of Oneida Lake, and on the New 
York and Oswego Midland R. 11., 41 miles S. E. of Oswego, 
has 2 glass-factories, 1 large tannery, 3 saw-mills, 1 grist¬ 
mill, 2 boatyards, and 2 printing-offices. Pop. 895. 

Charles R. King, Pub. “Lake Side Press.” 

Cleveland, the second city of Ohio in extent and 
population, is situated upon tho S. shore of Lake Eric, at 
the mouth of the Cuyahoga River, in lat. 41° 30' 5” N., 
and Ion. 81° 42' 6'' W., and constitutes the seat of gov¬ 
ernment for Cuyahoga co. Its railroad distance from Co¬ 
lumbus, the capital of the State, is 138 miles. Its area 
exceeds 25 square miles, more than 16,000 acres of terri¬ 
tory being included within its limits. It was founded in 
1796, a survey being completed in October of that year by 
Gen. Moses Cleaveland, one of the directors of the Connecti¬ 
cut Land Company, in whose honor the city was named. No 
permanent settlement was accomplished earlier than 1800, 
although several attempts were made to establish a colony 
upon what was at that time considered the site of a future 
city. Dec. 23, 1814, an act was passed by the legislature 
incorporating the village of Cleveland, the limited govern¬ 
ment being vested in a president, recorder, and three trus¬ 
tees. In 1836 a city charter was obtained and the first 
mayor elected. In 1855 a union was effected with Ohio 
City, which had sustained a separate existence upon the W. 
side of Cuyahoga River, at the expense of many jealousies 
and disputes, requiring the intervention of the courts. 

The history of Cleveland for each decade exhibits a re¬ 
markable increase in population, as well as in material 
wealth and prosperity. The number of inhabitants in 
1810 was 57 ; in 1820, 350 ; in 1830, 1000 ; in 1840, 6071 ; in 
1850, 17,034; in 1860, 43,417 ; in 1870, 93,018; and with the 
acquisition of the populous territories of what were former¬ 
ly known as East Cleveland and Newburg, and the rapid 
increase since the last U. S. census, its population at the 
present time may be safely estimated at 150,000. With 
railroads converging from all directions except the north; 
with the chain of great lake^ opening communication with 
the rich iron and copper mines of Lake Superior, and af¬ 
fording cheap transportation for merchandise and products 
of all descriptions; with the Ohio Canal traversing the 
interior of the State, connecting Lake Erie with the Ohio 
River at Portsmouth, opening a passage to all the principal 
markets of the South, and, with its tributary, the Ohio and 
Pennsylvania Canal, penetrating the extensive coal-fields 
of Ohio and Pennsylvania,—the commercial facilities of 
Cleveland are second to no city in the West. Its harbor is 
considered the most commodious and safe of any upon Lake 
Erie. It consists of two piers, each extending from the 
mouth of Cuyahoga River 1200 feet into the lake, between 
which is a channel 200 feet wide, and of sufficient depth 
for the safe entry of the largest vessels. 

The number and tonnage of vessels of all kinds owned 
in Cleveland and enrolled during the year 1873 was—pro¬ 
pellers 28, tonnage 83,223; steamers 2, tonnage 259; 
tugs 26, tonnage 962; barques 3, tonnage 1269; steam- 
barges 2, tonnage 144; schooners 66, tonnage 25,282; 
scows 23, tonnage 2302; barges 1, tonnage 86; yachts 1, 
tonnage 6; canal-boats 50. Plans are prepared and sur¬ 
veys have been made with the view of constructing a har¬ 
bor of refuge at this point for the protection of shipping 
upon the S. shore of the lake, the estimated cost of the 
work being $2,000,000. The most vital elements in the 
growth and prosperity of Cleveland are to be found in her 
manufactories. The number of distinct manufacturing es¬ 
tablishments is 325, tho amount of capital invested being 
about $20,000,000. Of this number, 82 are largely engaged 
in the manufacture of iron, with $5,000,000 invested as 
capital and 9000 men engaged as laborers; the gross 
amount of wages paid in 1873 being $7,475,650; the 
amount of iron produced in the same year by 12 of the 
principal establishments being 238,500 tons. During the 
year 1872 the petroleum refining interests were consoli¬ 
dated. The present number of refineries is 6, w r ith an ag¬ 
gregate capital of $2,600,000. During the year 1873 more 
than 2,000,000 barrels of crude oil were consumed, pro¬ 
ducing 1,500,000 barrels of refined, valued at $12,000,000, 
and giving employment to 2000 men. In the same year 
50,000 sewing-machines were manufactured by one firm. 

The assessed valuation of the city, Jan. 1, 1873, was 
$65,000,000. The total bonded and floating debt at the 
commencement of 1873 was $3,209,000, the property owned 
by the city being valued at $6,015,400.75, including a sink¬ 
ing fund of $1,551,106.41. The disbursements by the city 
| government during 1872 were $853,942.13. It has six 
! national banks. 













CLEVELAND. 


976 


The house of correction and workhouse was first occu¬ 
pied in Mar., 1871, being built at a cost of $171,000. Its 
inmates are furnished by the police court, court of common 
pleas, and probate court. The total number of prisoners 
received from its opening to Sept. 10, 1873, was 2472, the 
average number in confinement being 260. The other 
prisons of the city are the central police station, five pre¬ 
cinct stations, and the county jail. 

The Cleveland Medical College was established in 1843. 
Its faculty is composed of 15 professors; its alumni num¬ 
ber 1211; average attendance of students is 125; cost of 
tuition, $40; graduation, $30; its library contains 2000 
volumes, and its museum several hundred anatomical and 
pathological preparations, models, and drawings; the 
Cleveland Eye, Ear, and Throat Institute is conducted 
under its sanction. The Cleveland Homoeopathic College 
was founded in 1850. Its faculty numbers 17 professors; 
its alumni are 650; average attendance, 100; cost of tui¬ 
tion, $75 ; librai’y, 1000 volumes; its museum is stored with 
extensive collections pertaining to the science. The med¬ 
ical department of the University of Wooster was estab¬ 
lished in Cleveland in 1866. Its faculty is composed of 
14 professors; the average number of students in attend¬ 
ance is 80 ; alumni, 600; cost of tuition, $65. Its library 
is well selected, and it possesses a museum of great value. 
The Ohio State and Union Law College was opened in 
Cleveland in 1858. The public schools of the city are 32 
in number, organized in accordance with the provisions of 
the State law. The number of teachers is 234; amount 
of salaries paid annually, $169,000; number of pupils, 
10,300. There are also 3 high schools, with 15 teachers 
and 454 scholars. The Catholic parochial schools are 15 
in number; 68 teachers, 6200 pupils; convent, 10 teachers. 
Three industrial schools, with an average attendance of 
200 pupils, are supported by appropriations from the city 
treasury and donations from citizens for the benefit of des¬ 
titute children. The Cleveland Public Library was opened 
on Feb. 18, 1869, with 6300 volumes, the present number 
being 17,000. It is supported by a tax of one-tenth of a 
mill on the assessed valuation of the city. Its income is 
about $6500; increase, nearly $500 annually. The Cleve¬ 
land Library Association, chartered in 1848, and subse¬ 
quently united with the Mercantile Library, enjoys an 
endowment of $23,000, and its library contains 10,500 
volumes. The Cleveland Law Library Avas established in 
1870 by a joint-stock company; capital stock, $20,000, 
every person purchasing two shares at $25 each being a 
member. It contains 2000 volumes, with an annual in¬ 
crease of 300. It is supported by dues from members and 
an income of $500 per year derived from fines assessed by 
the police court on State cases. In addition to these are 
the libraries of the Western Reserve Historical Society, 
Kirtland Society, and Bethel Free Reading-rooms. There 
are 4 English and 2 German daily papers, 1 Ger.man, 3 
English tri-weeklies, and 35 miscellaneous weekly and 
monthly publications. 

The churches of Cleveland are 102 in number: Evangel¬ 
ical Protestant, 3; Disciples, 2; Hebrew, 2; Christian, 2; 
Free-Will Baptist, 1; Society of Friends, 1; Spiritualists, 
1; Swedenborgian, 1; Unitarian, 1; United Brethren, 1; 
Universalist, 1; Reformed, 5; Methodist Episcopal, 18; 
Protestant Episcopal, 11; Roman Catholic, 15; Presbyte¬ 
rian, 8; Baptist, 8; Congregational, 4; Evangelical Asso¬ 
ciation, 4; United Evangelical, 3; Evangelical,!; Evan¬ 
gelical Lutheran, 2; miscellaneous, 4. 

Charity (St. Vincent’s) Hospital was opened in the year 
1866, and was built by general subscription and donations. 
It has capacity for 200 patients, the average number being 
60 : the total number admitted to Sept. 1, 1873, 3500. It 
is supported by donations and the revenue derived from 
paying patients. The City Infirmary is maintained at an 
annual cost of about $14,000. The total number of in¬ 
mates received during the nine months ending Jan. 1,1873, 
was 439; maximum weekly number, 180; minimum, 126; 
average, 150. In connection with the infirmary is a farm, 
the total products of which in 1872 amounted to $11,900.82; 
an out-door relief is organized for the purpose of rendering 
assistance to the needy outside of the infirmary. The Cleve¬ 
land City Hospital, to which the first patient was admitted 
July 23, 1866, has no endowment, but enjoys an annual 
income of $7000, derived from the rental of beds to rail¬ 
road companies and individuals, and donations from the 
charitable. The average number of inmates is 175, and 
the total number of names upon the register Sept. 10, 1873, 
was 577. The Foundling Hospital, established in Jan., 
1873, has an average of 20 inmates. It has no endow¬ 
ment, and is supported by donations. The Lying-in Hos¬ 
pital was also established in Jan., 1873, and is managed in 
connection with Charity Hospital. The average number 
of inmates is 14, and the total numbfer admitted to Sept. 
15, 1873, was 24. The Homoeopathic Hospital was founded 


in 1868 by the faculty of the Cleveland Homoeopathic Col¬ 
lege; average number of patients is 20; total admitted, 
550. The U. S. Marine Hospital was opened in 1852 for 
the benefit of sailors, and is supported by appropriations 
from Congress and a tax of forty cents per annum on all 
sailors in the Cleveland district. It has a capacity for 50 
inmates, the average number being 20, and the total num¬ 
ber admitted since April 1, 1865, 2331. 

The benevolent institutions are four in number. The 
Home for the Aged Poor was founded in 1870 by the “ Lit¬ 
tle Sisters of the Poor.” It has no endowment, but is sup¬ 
ported by donations and solicited charity. The average 
number of inmates is 90, their ages ranging from sixty 
to ninety-five years, and the total number received since 
the opening of the Home is 125. The Home for Working- 
women was opened in Nov., 1869, and enlarged in 1872. 
It has no endowment, but its buildings and lot, valued ;it 
$40,000, were presented by a benevolent gentleman of the 
city to the Woman’s Charitable Association, by which it is 
conducted. Its income in 1873 was about $5000, derived 
from boarders, and its average number of inmates during the 
same year was 35. The Retreat, supported by the Woman’s 
Christian Association, was founded in July, 1869. It has 
no endowment; its inmates average 9, and the total number 
admitted to Sept. 15,1873, was 175. Trinity Church Home 
is supported by the congregation of Trinity Episcopal 
Church. The Cleveland Protestant Orphan Asylum w T as or¬ 
ganized Feb. 22,1852, and chartered Feb. 22,1853. It enjoys 
an endowment of $50,000, its income being about $5000 per 
annum. The total number of children to whom its benefits 
have been extended is 1900, the average number in the 
asylum 60. St. Mary’s Female Orphan Asylum was 
founded in 1851, with a slight endowment. Its benefits 
are extended to female orphans from five to eighteen years 
of age. The average number of inmates is 100, the total 
number admitted being 400. St. Joseph’s Female Orphan 
Asylum is tributary to St. Mary’s, and is devoted (o the 
care of the younger class of orphans. It was founded in 
1859, is without endowment, and has an average of 70 
inmates. St. Vincent’s Male Orphan Asylum was founded 
in 1852, without endowment, and is supported by fairs 
held throughout the diocese and by contributions. Its 
average number of inmates is 150. The Jewish Orphan 
Asylum was founded in 1868, without endowment. It is 
supported by the order of I. O. B. B., districts Nos. 26 and 
27, private subscriptions, and donations. Its average num¬ 
ber of inmates is 170, and the total number to whom as¬ 
sistance had been rendered to Sept. 1, 1873, is 295. The 
Bethel Home for the Destitute has for its purpose the 
providing of a home, food, and temporary shelter for the 
needy who are sailors, residents of the city, or strangers. 
It is provided with substantial buildings, and it is impos¬ 
sible to measure its charity by numbers. The Children’s 
Aid Society was established in 1857, and its primary object 
is to co-operate with the city council in promoting the in¬ 
terests of the Cleveland industrial schools. During the 
sixteen years of its existence it has secured homes for 1100 
children, and extended its provident care to more than 
5000. 

The city is well provided with public parks. The Public 
Square, containing ten acres and centrally located, is beau¬ 
tifully laid out with fountains, lawns, walks, rustic houses, 
and numerous shade trees, and its centre is ornamented 
with an elegant marble monument to Commodore Perry, in 
commemoration of his victory on Lake Erie in 1813. 

The railroads centering in the city are—the Atlantic and 
Great Western, the Cleveland Columbus Cincinnati and 
Indianapolis, the Cleveland and Mahoning Valley, the 
Cleveland and Pittsburgh, the Lake Shore and Michigan 
Southern, the Lake Shore and Tuscarawas Valley, the 
Rocky River, the Valley, and the Cleveland and Newburg. 
The city railroads are five in number; the Kinsman Street, 
or Woodland Avenue, length 3f miles, track double, capital 
$250,000, cost (including paving, buildings, etc.) $200,000, 
income $90,000 per annum, passengers carried 2,000,000; 
the East Cleveland and Garden Street Branch, length of 
double track 4£, and single track 2\ miles, authorized cap¬ 
ital $300,000, paid in $180,000, cost about $150,000, annual 
receipts $84,000, passengers carried 1,800,000; the St. Clair 
Street, length of double track 3 miles, capital, $200,000, 
$113,000 paid in, total cost (including paving, running 
stock, etc.) about $100,000, annual receipts exceed $50,000, 
passengers carried over 1,200,000; the Detroit Street, length 
3 miles, single track, capital $80,000 ; the Brooklyn Exten¬ 
sion, capital $35,000, length 3 miles, single track (the two 
operated by lessees), $75,000 invested in running stock, 
receipts about $70,000 per annum, passengers carried 
1,300,000; the Collamer and St. Clair Street, 2£ miles in 
length. 

The gas-works are two in number, owned by privato 
corporations, with a united capacity of 800,000 cubic feet 


















CLEVELAND—CLIFTON FACTOKY. 


977 


per day. The city is supplied with pure water from Lake 
Erie by extensive waterworks, upon which had been ex¬ 
pended to Jan. 1, 1873., $1,340,104.20, there being in use 
at that time 68 miles 1292 feet of pipes. To avoid the 
impurities imparted to the water by the drainage of the 
city, a tunnel, extending H miles into the lake, has been 
constructed, at a cost of $550,000, rendering the total 
amount expended upon works, pipes, etc. at the comple¬ 
tion of the tunnel about $1,900,000. There are in use 80 
miles of gas-pipe, 43 miles of sewering, 14 miles of stone 
and 12 miles of wooden paving. 

F. II. Bradner, Commercial Ed. “ Cleveland Leader.” 

Cleveland, a township of Greenville co., S. C. Pop. 814. 

Cleveland, a post-village, capital of Bradley co., Tenn., 
on the East Tennessee and Virginia R. R., 29 miles E. by 
N. from Chattanooga. It has three newspapers. A branch 
railroad 27 miles long connects it with Dalton, Ga. It has 
a national bank and a female institute. Pop. 1658; of 
township, 1734. Ed. Cleveland “ Banner.” 

Cleveland (Charles Dexter), LL.D., an American 
scholar and writer, born at Salem, Mass., Dec. 3, 1802, 
graduated at Dartmouth in 1827. He was appointed pro¬ 
fessor of Latin and Greek in Dickinson College, Pa., in 
1830, and of Latin in the University of New York in 1832. 
He opened in 1834 a seminary for young ladies in Phila¬ 
delphia. He published, besides other works, a “ Com¬ 
pendium of English Literature from Sir John Mandeville 
to William Cowper” (1850), a “ Compendium of American 
Literature” (1858), and a “ Compendium of Classical Lit¬ 
erature” (1861). Died Aug. 18, 1869. 

Cleveland (Chauncey F.), LL.D., an American lawyer, 
born at Hampton, Conn., in 1799. Ho was admitted to 
the bar in 1819, soon became distinguished in State pol¬ 
itics, was governor of Connecticut in 1842 and 1843, and 
member of Congress (1849-53). 

Cleveland (John Fitch) was born at French Creek, 
Chautauqua co., N. Y., Feb. 4, 1819. He received a com¬ 
mon-school education, and passed his early life in agricul¬ 
tural pursuits. Since 1843 he has been connected with the 

New York Tribune,” on which at present he holds the im¬ 
portant position of financial editor. He has also for many 
years been compiler of the “ Tribune Almanac.” From 1862 
to 1870 he held the office of assessor of internal revenue. 

Clev'enger (Siiobal Vail), an American sculptor, 
born at Middleton, 0., in 1812. He worked for some time 
in Boston, and afterwards visited Italy, where he passed 
several years. Among his works are statues of Daniel 
Webster and Henry Clay and a bust of Edward Everett. 
Fie died at sea as he was returning from Italy in 1843. 

Cleves, a town of Rhenish Prussia, 3 miles S. W. of 
the Rhine and 50 miles N. W. of Dusseldorf, was formerly 
the capital of the duchy of Cleves. It is built in the Dutch 
style, and has a fine old castle, a Protestant gymnasium, 
and a collegiate church of the fourteenth century; also 
manufactures of cotton, silk, and woollen fabrics, hosiery, 
etc. Pop. in 1871, 9038. 

Clew, or Clue [Anglo-Saxon, deovi], originally a ball 
of thread; also the thread which guides a person in a 
labyrinth, and hence that wKich serves as a guide in any¬ 
thing of an uncertain or intricate nature; in nautical lan¬ 
guage, the lower corner of a square sail. To clew up is to 
haul up the clew of a sail. Clew-lines are small ropes used 
to draw the sail up to the yard. Clew-garnets are the same 
as clew-lines, but the term is only applied in connection 
with the courses or lower sails. 

Clicliy, a town of France, department of Seine, is 4J 
miles N. W. of Paris, of which it is a suburb. It has man¬ 
ufactures of chemical products and white lead. P. 13,666. 

Clif'den, Viscounts (1781), Barons Clifden (Ireland, 
1776), Barons Mendip (Great Britain, 1794), Barons Dover 
(United Kingdom, 1831).— Henry George Agar Ellis, 
fourth viscount, born Sept. 2, 1863, succeeded his father 
Feb. 20, 1866. 

Cli'ent [Lat. diem ], in ancient history, a Roman citi¬ 
zen whose relation to his patron was in many respects 
similar to that of a serf to his feudal lord. It was the duty 
of a patron to watch over the interests of his clients and 
protect them, and to defend them in lawsuits. He also 
frequently made them grants of land on lease. In return, 
the client was bound to defend his patron, and contribute 
towards any extraordinary expenses he might be subject to. 
He might not appear as accuser or witness against him in 
judicial proceedings—a prohibition which was reciprocal. 
The body of clients was increased by the institution by 
which foreigners, who, as allies of Rome, had a share in its 
franchise, might choose themselves patrons on their coming 
to settle in the city. The obligations of clients were hered¬ 
itary, and could not be shaken off unless through the de- 
62 


cay of the family of the patron. The clients have by some 
been regarded as plebeians who of their own will entered 
into certain relations with the patrician families. The term 
client has been appropriated in modern times to one whose 
cause is prosecuted or defended, and his person or inter¬ 
ests represented, cither by an attorney or by an advocate. 
The custom of practising gratuitously as advocates long 
prevailed among the Roman patricians; and from it the 
usage was derived, which still prevails in Great Britain, 
of considering the fee of a counsel as a gratuity which 
cannot be legally claimed. At present the etiquette of the 
bar appears to be this: that a lawyer cannot refuse with¬ 
out reasonable excuse to plead gratuitously the cause of a 
client who sues regularly in forma pauperis, or to defend a 
prisoner if called on to do so by the court. 

Clif'ford, a post-township of Susquehanna co., Pa. 
Pop. 1532. 

Clifford (Jonx Henry), LL.D., an American lawyer, 
born at Providence, R. I., Jan. 16, 1809, graduated at 
Brown University in 1827, w r as governor of Massachusetts 
(1853-54), and attorney-general of that State (1S49-53 and 
1854-5S)V 

Clifford (Nathan), an American jurist, born at Rum- 
ney, N. II., Aug. 18, 1803, became a citizen of Maine in 
1827, member of Congress (1839-43), U. S. attorney-general 
(1846-47), was subsequently U. S. minister to Mexico. He 
became a justice of the U. S. Supreme Court in 1858, and is 
the author of two volumes of “ U. S. Circuit Court Reports ” 
(1869). _ 

Clifford (Thomas), Lord, an English politician, born in 
1630. He entered Parliament in 1660, and w r as appointed 
a commissioner of the treasury in 1668. In 1671 he be¬ 
came a member of the notorious cabinet called the Cabal 
(which see). He obtained the title of baron in 1672. Died 
in 1673. 

Clif'ton, a beautiful town and fashionable watering- 
place of England, in Gloucestershire, is a western suburb 
of Bristol. It is built on the sides and top of a steep car¬ 
boniferous limestone hill 308 feet high, which commands 
picturesque views, and is separated from a similar cliff by 
a deep chasm, crossed by a fine bridge, beneath which 
flows the navigable Avon. Here are tepid springs which 
contain carbonic acid and salts of magnesia, and have a 
temperature of 73° F. Pop. 20,701. 

Clifton, a post-village of Stamford township, Welland 
co., Ontario (Canada), on the Niagara River at the suspen¬ 
sion bridge, 1 mile below the Niagara Falls. It is the E. 
terminus of the Great Western Railway, and is on the Erie 
and Niagara Railway. It has a very large export trade to 
the U. S. and a large museum. Pop. about 3500. 

Clifton, a post-village and township of Wilcox co., Ala. 
Pop. 1696. The village is about 80 miles S. W. of Mont¬ 
gomery. 

Clifton, a post-village of Columbus City township, 
Louisa co., Ia. Pop. 200. 

Clifton, a post-township of Washington co., Kan. 
Pop.713. 

Clifton, a township of Wilson co., Kan. Pop. 918. 

Clifton, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. P. 348. 

Clifton, a township of Keweenaw co., Mich. Pop. 615. 

Clifton, a post-village of Passaic co., N. J., on the Erie 
R. R., 3 miles S. E. by S. of Paterson. It contains many 
fine residences, and is well known for its picturesque sce¬ 
nery. 

Clifton, a post-village of Chili township, Monroe co., 
N. Y., on Mill Creek, has a number of manufacturing estab¬ 
lishments. 

Clifton, a village of Southfield township, Richmond co., 

N. Y., is the seat of a “ Seamen’s Retreat,” and a “ Mari¬ 
ners’ Family Asylum.” It is in the S. E. part of Staten 
Island. 

Clifton (Clarksboro’post-office), a township of St. Law¬ 
rence co., N. Y., has extensive beds of magnetic iron ores, 
furnaces for iron and steel, and a railroad track to De Kalb. 
Pop. 221. 

Clifton, a post-village of Miami township, Greene co., 

O. Pop. 253. 

Clifton, a township of Alleghany co., Va. Pop. 1018. 

Clifton, a post-village of Mason co., West Ya. It has 
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 693. 

Clifton, a township of Grant co., Wis. Pop. 1076. 

Clifton, a post-township of Monroe co., Wis. P. 501. 

Clifton, a township of Pierce co., Wis. Pop.- 615. 

Clifton Factory, a township and village of St. Mary’s 
co., Md. The village is 55 miles S. E. of Washington. Pop. 
3001. 



















978 CLIFTONI A—CLIMATE. 


Clifto'nia, a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs of 
the order Cyrillaceae. The Cliftonia ligustrina, a small tree 
or shrub, popularly called “titi,” or buckwheat tree, grows 
in the Gulf States. Its fragrant white blossoms appear in 
early spring. 

Clifton Park, a post-village and township of Saratoga 
co., N. Y., 15 miles N. of Albany. The township contains 
six churches, several villages, and has an academy at Jones- 
ville. Pop. 2657. 

Clifton Springs, a post-village of Manchester and 
Phelps townships, Ontario co., N. Y., on the Auburn branch 
of the New York Central R. R., 10 miles E. N. E. of Canan¬ 
daigua. It has four churches, a free union school, copious 
sulphur springs, and is the seat of “Clifton Springs Sani¬ 
tarium.” It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 746. 

CliPty, a township of Bartholomew co., Ind. P. 1133. 

Climac'tcric Year [from the Gr. »cAiju.a»cTepu<6?, from 
kA ip.af, a “ladder”], the name given to certain years in the 
life of man that were long supposed to have a peculiar sig¬ 
nificance to him, and to constitute, as it were, critical points 
in his health and fortune. The mystical number 7, multi¬ 
plied into the odd numbers 3, 5, 7, and 9, produced the 
crises of this kind. The sixty-third year, called the “ grand 
climacteric,” was the most important, and was supposed to 
be fatal to most men, its influence being ascribed to the 
fact that it is the multiple of the two mystical numbers 7 
and 9. Certain recent physiologists, while rejecting the 
theory of numerical influence, insist that there was a germ 
of truth in this old belief. 

Cli'mate [from the Gr. KAqua, “slope,” “inclination,” 
“ exposure ”], the condition of any place with respect to the 
temperature, the moistness or dryness, and the currents of 
the atmosphere, that vast ocean of air at the bottom of 
which we live. Enveloping both land and water, the at¬ 
mosphere absorbs the heat and moisture generated on both 
by the rays of the sun. By the winds this most mobile of 
the elements carries from the sea to the parched lands in¬ 
visible vapors and fertilizing rains. In this wonderful 
medium alone the highest forms of vegetable and animal 
life, and man himself, thrive and find the amount of oxy¬ 
gen, heat., and water which is indispensable to organic life. 
The atmosphere thus performs the part of a universal me¬ 
diator between land and water, and between inorganic na¬ 
ture and living beings. These physical agencies, fostering 
life and acting through the atmosphere, constitute climate. 

Heat and water are the two elements of which every plant 
and animal requires a certain share. The laws of the dis¬ 
tribution of heat and rain are therefore the most important 
topics of the science of climate. To them we must add the 
course of the winds, which play a prominent part in both. 
The temperature may be considered as the most funda¬ 
mental of the phenomena of climate, for the winds are es¬ 
sentially due to differences of temperature, and the rains 
are regulated both by changes of temperature and the course 
of the winds. The distribution of heat, the course of the 
winds, and the distribution of rains, therefore, is the order 
in which they have to be considered. 

Distribution of Heat .—All heat available for the purposes 
of organic life comes from the sun. Its distribution over 
the globe, however, depends uj>on both astronomical and 
physical causes. Though this mighty orb pours its life- 
giving rays in a uniform and uninterrupted stream upon 
the face of the earth, the spherical form of our planet, and 
its movements of daily rotation on its axis and annual 
revolution around the sun, establish permanent differences 
of temperature in every latitude between the poles and the 
equator, and periodical ones between day and night and 
the various parts of the year. The first give the great 
zones of climate, torrid, temperate, and frigid; the other, 
the daily periods and the seasons. To these causes we 
have to trace the groundwork of climate and its funda¬ 
mental laws, which are summed up under the name of “ as¬ 
tronomical climate.” These laws, again, are variously and 
often greatly modified by physical agencies, such as the 
different absorbing power of land and water for heat, the 
action of the winds and marine currents, and the elevation 
aboA r e the level of the sea. The astronomical climate, 
modified by these secondary causes, is the “ physical cli¬ 
mate,” which is in fact the actual climate. 

Astronomical Climate .—The most general law in the dis¬ 
tribution of heat is its gradual decrease from a maximum 
at the equator to a minimum at the poles. The cause of 
this inequality, so fruitful in consequences, is the spherical 
form of the earth. The rays of the sun fall most thickly 
and produce their full effect when perpendicular, as in the 
equatorial regions; less thickly and with diminished in¬ 
tensity when slanting, as in the intermediate latitudes; 
when tangent, as at the poles, they lose their heating 
power. Each day testifies to this fact. The horizontal 
rays of the rising and setting sun have but little heating 


power; the heat increases with the ascending sun; it is 
greatest at noon, when the sun is highest. The torrid, 
temperate, and frigid zones correspond to the noon, the de¬ 
clining, and the setting sun of the day. It is, therefore, 
to the geographical form of our globe that we must trace 
those permanent differences of temperature which carry 
with them corresponding differences in the systems of winds 
and rains that characterize the great climatic zones. 

The Seasons. —Again, while the sun shines, the earth re¬ 
ceives more heat than it emits by radiation; during the 
night it loses more than it receives. When the days and 
nights are of equal length, the gain and loss correspond to 
each other, and the average temperature is constant. But 
long days and short nights give a season of accumulated 
heat higher than the annual average, or the summer; long 
nights and short days a season of cold below the average 
temperature, or the winter. 

If the axis of the earth were perpendicular on the plane 
of its orbit, the sun would always be opposite the equator, 
and the line separating the lighted from the shaded hemi¬ 
sphere pass through the poles, cutting all parallels into two 
equal parts. The days and nights being then equal at all 
times on all parallels, no annual seasons of heat and cold 
would exist. But the axis being inclined 234°, and always 
remaining parallel to itself while the earth revolves around 
the sun, an ever-varying inequality of days and nights and 
of temperature is the consequence. Only twice a year, on 
the 20th of March and the 22d of September, is the sun op¬ 
posite the equator. It is then the time of the equinoxes 
and average temperature. On the 21st of June, the north 
pole being inclined 23^° towards the sun, the sun’s rays 
fall perpendicular on the Tropic of Cancer, and the border 
of the lighted hemisphere reaches the opposite side of the 
Arctic Circle, 23i° beyond the pole. This is the time of 
the solstice, or of the longest day and shortest night and 
of the highest sun in all the northern hemisphere. It is 
therefore the summer season, while the southern hemisphere 
has the shortest day, the longest night, the lowest sun, and 
the winter season. On the other solstice, the 21st of De¬ 
cember, the reverse takes place. 

The following table, giving the duration of the longest 
day and shortest night on the 21st of June, with their dif¬ 
ferences in various latitudes of the northern hemisphere, 
shows the increasing inequality of days and nights from the 
equator to the poles. The fractions are decimals of an hour: 

Table of the Longest Days in Various Latitudes. 


Latitude. 

Equator. 

10° . 

20° .. 

North Tropic.. 

30° . 

35° . 

40° . 

45° . 

50° . 

Longest Day. 
Hours. 

. 12.0. 

. 12.7. 

. 13.3. 

. 13.5. 

. 14.0. 

. 14.5. 

. 15.6. 

. 16.3. 

Shortest Night. 
Hours. 

. 12.0. 

. 11.3. 

. 10.5. 

. 10.0. 

. 9.5. 

. 9.0. 

. 8.4. 

Difference. 

Hours. 

. 0.0 

. 1.4 

. 2.6 

. 3.0 

. 4.0 

. 6.0 

. 7.2 

. 8 6 

55° . 




. 10.6 

60° . 

. 18.7. 

. 5.3.. 


. 13.4 

Arctic Circle... 

. 24.0. 

. 0.0.. 


. 24 0 

67.5 . 

..1 month. 

. 0.0 



69 5 . 

2 “ 

. 0.0 



73.3 . 

..3 “ . 

. 0.0 



78.3 . 

..4 “ . 

. 0.0 

- JNO mglit. 

84. 

..5 “ . 

. 0.0 



North Pole. 

..6 “ . 

. 0.0 J 




From this table we see that the difference in the length 
of days and nights increases very slowly in the tropical re¬ 
gions, then more and more rapidly to the Arctic Circle, 
where the sun does not set on the 21st of June. 

Beyond that limit to the pole the sun makes the circuit 
of the horizon without disappearing for months in succes¬ 
sion, and at the pole the year is divided into one day and 
one night of six months each. The reverse again occurs in 
the opposite season. 

Thus in the tropical regions the temperature is nearly 
constant throughout the year, while the increasing in¬ 
equality of days and nights towards the pole causes an in¬ 
creasing difference between the temperature of summer and 
winter. 

The length of the days, however, in the high latitudes 
compensates for the diminished intensity of the sun’s rays, 
and so it happens that the accumulated heat of a long sum¬ 
mer day in the temperate regions may be equal to, or greater 
than, that of a day in the tropical regions. A summer day 
in Labrador or St. Petersburg may be as warm as a day 
under the equator, but these northern latitudes have only 
a few such days in the year. 

Towards the equator the number of warm days gradually 
increases. Thus the polar regions have short summers and 
long winters, passing rapidly from one to the other with 
great differences of temperature. In the temperate regions 
summer and winter are about of equal length, with long 
transition seasons of spring and autumn and variable 
































































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CLIMATE. 


979 


temperature. An everlasting summer with constant heat 
reigns in the tropical regions. Though the intensity of 
the sun’s rays is greatest at the time of the solstice, their 
full effect is produced only somewhat later, and the atmos¬ 
phere attains its highest temperature in July. It is the 
same with the daily periods; the highest temperature is 
felt not at noon, but about two o’clock, and the lowest a 
little before sunrise. 

Physical Climate .—According to the laws of astronomical 
climate, we should expect the same average temperature 
and the same periodic changes in all places situated on the 
same parallel of latitude, but thermometric observations 
prove it to be quite otherwise. On the western side of the 
Atlantic Ocean, Labrador has a frozen and treeless climate, 
while on the other side, in the same latitude, we are greeted 
by the mild atmosphere, rich verdure, and fertile fields of 
the British Isles. New York with its icy winter is in the 
same latitude as Naples with its orange groves. On the 
western coast of our continent, San Francisco, with its mild, 
snowless winters and cool summers, is on the parallel of 
Washington, with a frozen Potomac in the cold season and 
a burning summer sun. 

Isothermal Lines .—To render visible to the eye the actual 
distribution of heat, as given by observations of the ther¬ 
mometer, Humboldt introduced the isothermal lines, or lines 
which connect together all places having the same mean 
temperature, either of the year, of a season, or of any par¬ 
ticular month. The annual isothermal lines show the aver¬ 
age amount of heat belonging to each place; the monthly 
and season isotliermals, its distribution throughout the year. 
A glance at Map No. VI. will teach us many important 
laws of this distribution. 

To read the map aright, let us remember that when the 
lines in either hemisphere bend away from the equator 
towards the poles, they indicate a heating influence,* when 
they bend from the poles towards the equator, they indicate 
a cooling influence. It is evident, again, that the greater 
the difference between the isothermal lines and the paral¬ 
lels, the greater also the deviation from the astronomical 
temperature arising from physical causes. To eliminate 
the local influence of the elevation, the temperatures have 
been reduced to what they would be at the level of the sea 
in the same place. 

The principal facts that we note in this review are the 
following: 

On the whole, the greater disturbances occur in the north¬ 
ern hemisphere, which has the most land; the isothermal 
lines are far more uniform in the southern hemisphere, 
which has most water. 

The greatest deviations are found on the opposite coasts 
of the Atlantic Ocean. The isothermal line of 50° Fahren¬ 
heit of temperature, which passes near New York in the 
fortieth degree of latitude, reaches Ireland and London, on 
the other side of the Atlantic, eleven degrees of latitude 
farther north. The isothermal of 40°, which passes through 
Central Canada and Nova Scotia about the forty-sixth de¬ 
gree of latitude, touches the southern part of Iceland and 
the coast of Norway in the sixty-fourth degree of latitude, 
or eighteen degrees farther north. The isothermal of 30° 
passes through Central Labrador, and Cape North in Eu¬ 
rope, though their latitudes differ by twenty-one degrees. 
In higher latitudes the difference is still greater. 

From these remarkable deviations of the isothermal lines, 
we see that not only Western Europe is a great deal wanner 
than Eastern America in the same latitude, but that the 
difference increases more and more towards the pole. It is 
also evident from the bending of the lines that the heating 
influences bear towards the north-east. 

Similar modifications of the annual isothermal lines take 
place in the North Pacific. Here also the eastern (or Asi¬ 
atic) is colder than the American coast, and the climate of 
California and Oregon much milder than that of a corre¬ 
sponding latitude in Asia; but all these differences are re¬ 
duced to nearly on e-lialf of what they are on the opposite 
coasts of the Atlantic. 

It can thus be accepted as a law that in the two great • 
land masses of the northern hemisphere the western coasts 
are warmer than the eastern coasts. Moreover, while the 
average temperature of the oceans is higher, the bending of 
the lines southward in the interior of these continents 
shows a lower temperature than that due to their latitude. 

In the southern hemisphere the law of the temperature 
of the opposite coasts seems to be reversed. In America 
and in Africa the western is colder than the eastern coast, 
and in this hemisphere the average temperature of the con¬ 
tinents is rather higher than that of the ocean. 

Climatic Zones .—There are four parallels, usually made 
prominent in globes and maps, which are peculiar limits in 
the distribution of light on the surface of the earth. Two 
are traced at the distance of about' 231° on each side of 
the equator, and are called on the north the Tropic of Can¬ 


cer, and on the south the Tropic of Capricorn. The other 
two, 23i° from either pole, are the North Polar and the 
South Polar Circles, also called th e Arctic and Antarctic Cir¬ 
cles. The two tropics mark the extreme limits of the cen¬ 
tral region where the sun, in its yearly course, can be seen 
vertical, the sun being vertical on these parallels on the Iong- 
est days of the year—viz. the 21st of June in the northern, 
and the 21st of December in the southern hemisphere. The 
polar circles are the parallels on which the longest day is 
twenty-four hours, and mark the limits of the circular area 
around the poles within which the summer sun does not set 
every day. The globe is thus divided into six bands, or zones, 
in three groups, which, from the general character of their 
temperature, are termed the warm or torrid, the temperate, 
and the frigid zones. The portion of the earth’s surface 
occupied by each of the zones is very unequal. Their com¬ 
parative area, in English square miles, is as follows: 


South tropical “ .39,109;G28 / vv arm re 8 lons .' V 

North temperate zone. 51,110,703) T t remora 109 991 ^90 

South temperate “ 51,110,703/ temperate regions...l02, Ll \,526 

North polar “ 8,229,748 [ .. , n „ 

South polar “ 8,229,748 } Cold regl0ns .10,4o9,496 

The whole globe.190,900,278 English square miles. 


It is thus seen that, by a wise arrangement of Providence, 
the temperate regions, most favorable to man’s develop¬ 
ment, are the most extensive; next are the warm regions; 
while the frigid zones, unfit for man’s progress, cover but 
an inconsiderable portion of the earth’s surface. 

True Zones of Climate .—It is evident that the astro¬ 
nomical zones of climate, whose limits are determined by 
the distribution of light, do not coincide with the zones 
of actual tempei*ature. Taking as the limits of the true 
tropical zone the isothermal lines of 70° on both sides of 
the equator, which nearly coincide with the boundaries of 
climate, plants, and animals characterizing the tropical 
regions, and for those of the frigid zone the isothermal line 
of 30° in both hemispheres, we obtain zones of irregular 
shape, which are marked on the map by different colors. 

The tropical zone is broadest in Africa, the north tem¬ 
perate in Europe, and we can judge at a glance that Africa 
is the warmest of the tropical, and of all the continents of 
the globe, and Europe the warmest of the temperate con¬ 
tinents. The highest and lowest temperatures are found 
in the largest continents—the warmest in Central Africa, 
the coldest in Northern Asia. 

The maps of the isothermal lines of January and July, 
representing the extreme winter and summer temperatures, 
show how much greater are the variations in the interior 
than on the coast. While in January the lines in the in¬ 
terior indicate a lower temperature, those of July, strongly 
bent northward, betoken a much higher temperature than 
in the shore region. 

Thus, as a rule, the coast of the continent has more 
equable, the interior more excessive, season temperatures. 

This wide departure of the actual from the astronomical 
temperature is a most striking fact, the principal causes of 
which are to be found in the different manner in which land 
and water are affected by the solar rays and in the action 
of the great currents of the atmosphere and the sea. 

Land and Sea Climates .—Water has a great capacity for 
heat, but a feeble conducting power; it grows warm slowly 
in the rays of the sun, and never rises to a high tempera¬ 
ture. It is the same in cooling; it gives up its heat slowly, 
and the surface layer growing cool falls lower by its weight, 
and gives place to the warmer molecules of the inferior 
strata. Thus the heating and cooling are slow, and do not 
reach extremes. Land rapidly absorbs the solar rays ; the 
surface layer is quickly heated and soon attains a high 
temperature, but loses it by radiation with equal rapidity. 
It reaches, therefore, great extremes of heat and cold. The 
sea or oceanic climate, therefore, is characterized by equable¬ 
ness, without extremes of temperature; the land or conti¬ 
nental, by great extremes; it is excessive. This is clearly 
shown by a few examples, in which the temperatures of the 
coldest and the warmest months are compared in places 
situated in the same latitude, but more or less under the 
influence of the sea or of land: 


Differences of Temperature between the Coldest and Warmest 
Months in Similar Latitudes. 


Name of places. Lat. 

Faroe Islands.02° 

Bergen, Norway.00° 

St. Petersburg, Russia...00° 

Yakutsk, Siberia.02° 

Penzance, S. W. Eng.50° 

Banaul, Siberia.53° 

Eastport, Me.45° 

Fort Snelling, Minn.45° 

Bermudas, Atlantic.32° 

Natchez, Miss.32° 

Madeira, Africa.32° 

Cairo, Egypt.30° 


Jan. 

July. 

Difference, 

Falir. 

Falir. 

Falir. 

39.0 

01.7 

22.7 

34.9 

00.3 

25.4 

15.6 

02.6 

47.0 

— 43.8 

62.2 

106.0 

42.0 

62.0 

19.4 

— 4.7 

67.1 

71.8 

22.5 

62.4 

39.9 

13.1 

73.4 

60.3 

62.6 

84.2 

21.6 

52.2 

81.3 

29.1 

63.5 

73.8 

10.3 

56.3 

86.6 

30.3 






























980 CLIMAX—CLINTON. 


Wc see by the rapid increase of the differences how the 
variations augment as vve advance from the sea into the in¬ 
terior of the continents. The absolute extremes of tempera¬ 
ture differ even more. The highest degree of heat ever ob¬ 
served at the Faroe Islands is only 56° 3' F., and it freezes 
but little there, while the meteorological annals of St. 
Petersburg indicate heats of 92°, and cold of 40° below 
zero F., or extremes of 132° F. apart. It is at once the 
cold of the poles and the heat of the tropics. At Yakutsk 
the mercury often remains frozen for weeks, implying a 
continued cold of at least 40° F. below zero. Further south 
and near the tropics the differences between the seasons 
become naturally less, but the influence of the ocean and 
of the continent is always very marked. The difference be¬ 
tween the extreme temperatures, which at Madeira is only 
from 20° to 27°, reaches in Egypt 56° F. In the Sahara ice 
has been known to form by the intensity of radiation, and 
heat to rise to the enormous height of 140°. 

The course of the isothermal lines of January and July 
is thus easily explained : while the interior, overheated by 
rapid absorption during the long summer days, is warmer 
than the coast, it is colder in winter by more rapid radia¬ 
tion. All this shows how great is the influence of the sea 
upon the distribution of temperature in the different sea¬ 
sons of the year. It tends to bring the extremes together, 
and to maintain at all times that equability of temperature 
which, with the abundant moisture, is the distinctive quality 
of the sea climate. 

This difference in the land and sea climates tells even 
upon the average temperature of the whole earth. 

Owing to a great preponderance of land, the northern 
hemisphere has a warm summer, while the southern hemi¬ 
sphere, having more water, has a mild winter, giving to¬ 
gether a high average. In the opposite season the northern 
hemisphere has a cold winter, and the southern hemisphere 
a moderate summer, giving a low average. Prof. Dove has 
calculated that the average temperature of the whole earth 
in July, during the northern summer, is 62°.4 F., while in 
January, during the southern summer, it is only 54°.3, or 
8°.l lower than in July. 

But if the action of the solar rays on land and water 
explains some season changes of temperature, other causes 
are required to account for the permanent deviations of the 
annual isothermal lines. 

Influence of Winds and Marine Currents .—Our daily ex¬ 
perience in northern latitudes teaches us that most of the 
changes not due to the declination of the sun are connected 
with changes of the wind. Equatorial winds from the south 
bring us a share of heat from the tropics; polar winds, the 
chilling breath of a northern atmosphere. If, from any 
cause, one of these great currents becomes prevailing 
throughout the year in a particular region, a certain 
amount of heat or cold is added to or subtracted from the 
solar heat, considerably modifying the astronomical tem¬ 
perature. The great marine currents perform the same 
functions, carrying tropical and polar temperatures far into 
the middle latitudes. Thus it is that the south-westerly 
winds, which blow almost two-thirds of the year over West¬ 
ern Europe, and the constant flow of the warm waters of 
the Gulf Stream, greatly increase the average temperature 
of that continent, and strongly deflect the course of its 
isothermal lines. (See articles Winds and Marine Cur¬ 
rents.) Arnold Guyot. 

Cli'max [Gr. /cAijuaf, a “ staircase”], a Latin term used 
in rhetoric to denote a figure by which several propositions 
or several objects are presented in such an order that the 
proposition or object adapted to produce the least impres¬ 
sion shall strike the mind first, and the others rise by suc¬ 
cessive gradations of impressiveness. A sentence in which 
the order is reversed is called an anti-climax. 

Climax, a township of Kalamazoo co., Mich. P. 1389. 

Climbers (in ornithology). See Scansores. 

Climbing Fern ( Lygodium palmatum), a rare species 
of fern of the sub-order Osmundineae, is remarkable for its 
habit of climbing or twining upon shrubs and weeds. It 
occurs in the U. S. from Massachusetts to Florida and west¬ 
ward. 

Climbing Perch. See Anabas scandens. 

Climbing Plants, or Climbers, the popular term 
for those plants which seek support from other objects in 
order to ascend from the earth, as the vine, etc. This end 
is accomplished in different ways. Some climb by means 
of rootlets growing from the stem, as the ivy; some by 
means of tendrils which twine round branches of trees, as 
the grapevine, the pea, etc.; some by adhering disks, as in 
the Virginia creeper; and many by the twining of their 
own stems around those to which they cling. Twining 
plants turn only in one direction, either from right to left 
•or from left to right. The pole-bean and passion-flower are 


examples of the former; the hop of the latter. Certain 
woody twining plants, which form one of the most remark¬ 
able "features of many tropical forests, are called lianas. 
Some climbing plants, like the dodders, are parasitic, living 
upon the sap of the plants on which they climb. Tendrils 
are sometimes parts of leaves or stipules, and sometimes 
transformed branches. They lay hold of the proper sup¬ 
port, and then by curling, and thus shortening themselves, 
draw up the plant. 

Clinch, a county in the S. of Georgia. Area, 800 square 
miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Allapaha River. 
The surface is level. Rice, corn, oats, and some cotton are 
raised. It is intersected by the Atlantic and Gulf R. R. 
Capital, Ilomerville. Pop. 3945. 

Clinch (Duncan L.), an American general, born about 
1798 in North Carolina, entered the army as first lieutenant 
in 1808, and rapidly rose by promotion. He was especially 
distinguished in the Florida war (1835-36), but resigned 
his commission in the latter year. He was a member of 
Congress from Georgia (1843-45), and died Nov. 27, 1849. 

Clinch'er-Built, Clink'er-Bwilt, or Lap-Joint¬ 
ed, a term applied by shipwrights to vessels when the 
lower edges of the side planks overlap the row beneath, 
like slates or shingles on the roof of a house. If the planks 
are all smooth, meeting edge to edge, the construction is 
called carvel-built or jump-jointed. Carvel-building requires 
that the seams should be very close and calked with oakum. 

Clinch River rises in the S. W. part of Virginia, flows 
south-westward, and enters East Tennessee. Pursuing the 
same general direction between two ridges called Clinch 
Mountain and Powell Mountain, it unites with the Holston 
at Kingston to form the Tennessee River. The whole length 
is estimated at 300 miles. 

Clines, a township of Catawba co., N. C. Pop. 1904. 

Climg'man (Thomas L.), an American Senator, born 
in Surrey co., N. C. He graduated at the University of 
North Cai'olina in 1832, and was elected a Whig member 
of Congress in 1843, after which he was re-elected. Having 
become a Democrat, he was chosen a Senator of the U. S. 
in 1858. He served as a colonel in the Confederate army. 
He proved himself an able politician, and also became dis¬ 
tinguished as a geologist. 

Clingman’s Dome, in Jackson co., N. C., is the high¬ 
est peak of the Great Smoky Mountains, between North Caro¬ 
lina and Tennessee. It rises to 6660 feet above the sea, 
and is the second in height in the Appalachians. It was 
named after Thomas L. Clingman, who ascended it in 1858. 

Clin'ic, or Clin'ical [from the Gr. kAAtj, a “bed”], 
belonging to a bed; and hence performed (or pursued) at 
the bedside, as Clinical Medicine (which see). (For 
Clinic (as a noun) see Clinique.) 

Clin'ic, or Clinical Baptism [for etymology, see 
preceding article], an ordinance in the ancient Church ad¬ 
ministered on a sick bed or death bed. 

Clin'ical Med'icine, that branch of the science of 
medicine which is occupied with the investigation of dis¬ 
eases at the bedside. (See Clinique.) 

Clinique, or Clin'ic [for etymology, see Clinic], a 
French term (used for t.cole clinique, or “clinical school”) 
applied to a school in which medicine is studied and in¬ 
struction is given at the bedside, or in which the patients 
are examined by the medical teacher in the presence of the 
students. It is often Anglicized as Clinic, particularly in 
the U. S. 

Clink'stone is a felspathic rock of a grayish-green 
color, having so remarkable a tendency to lamination that 
it sometimes furnishes tiles for roofing. It is a compact, 
homogeneous rock, passing gradually into gray basalt. The 
slab gives a metallic ring or “clink” when struck with a 
hammer, whence its name. It is found in volcanic districts. 

Clinom'eter [from the Gr. kAiVw, to “lean,” and n-irpov, 
a “measure”], an instrument used by geologists to deter¬ 
mine and measure the dip of a stratum. It consists of a 
compass furnished with a small spirit-level, and on the 
lid—which can be fixed at right angles to the compass-box 
—there is a graduated quadrant and plumb-line. 

Clin'ton, a county in S. Central Illinois. Area, 480 
square miles. It is intersected by the Kaskaskia River and 
by Shoal Creek. The surface is nearly level; the soil fer¬ 
tile. Corn, wheat, wool, and tobacco are raised. Coal is 
found here. The most numerous manufactories are those 
of flour and of carriages. The Ohio and Mississippi R. R. 
passes through it. Capital, Carlyle. Pop. 16,285. 

Clinton, a county in N. W. Central Indiana. Area, 
432 square miles. It is drained by the South Fork of Wild¬ 
cat River. The surface is nearly level; the soil is produc¬ 
tive. Corn, wheat, butter, tobacco, and wool are largely 


















CLINTON. 


produced. It contains a large prairie. Lumber, carriages, 
and flour are manufactured. It is intersected by the Lo- 
gansport Crawfordsville and South-western and the Indian¬ 
apolis Cincinnati and Lafayette R. Rs. Capital, Frankfort. 
Pop. 17,330. 

Clinton, a county in the E. of Iowa. Area, 696 square 
miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Mississippi River and 
on the S. by the Wapsipinicon. The surface is finely 
diversified by undulating prairies and woodlands; the soil 
is fertile. Corn, wheat, oats, wool, and butter are produced 
extensively. Flour and carriages are manufactured in this 
county. It is intersected by the Iowa division of the Chi¬ 
cago and North-western and by several other railroads. 
Capital, Clinton. Pop. 35,357. 

Clinton, a county in the S. of Kentucky. Area, 250 
square miles. The Cumberland River flows near its northern 
border. The surface is hilly; the soil is mostly fertile. 
Tobacco, corn, and wool are staple products. Coal is 
found here. Capital, Albany. Pop. 6497. 

Clinton, a county in Central Michigan. Area, 576 
square miles. It is drained by the Maple and Looking- 
glass rivers, affluents of Grand River, which touches the 
south-western part of the county. The surface is level, 
and partly covered with forests of sugar-maple; the soil is 
fertile. Grain, timber, wool, butter, and potatoes are largely 
produced. It is intersected by the Detroit and Milwaukee 
and other railroads. Capital, St. John. Pop. 22,845. 

Clinton, a county in N. W. Missouri. Area, 460 square 
miles. It is drained by several small affluents of Platte 
River. The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. 
Corn, cattle, wool, and tobacco are largely raised. Lime¬ 
stone is abundant here. It is intersected by the Hannibal 
and St. Joseph and several other railroads. Capital, Platts- 
burg. Pop. 14,063. 

Clinton, a county which forms the N. E. extremity of 
New York. Area, 1092 square miles. It is bounded on the 
E. by Lake Champlain, and is drained by the Au Sable, 
Chazy, and Saranac rivers. The surface is partly moun¬ 
tainous ; the soil near the lake is fertile. Potatoes, oats, 
hay, and wool are the chief crops. Cattle are raised ex¬ 
tensively. Leather, lumber, starch, brick, and iron are 
manufactured. Iron-ore abounds here. The county is 
traversed by the Ogdensburg and Lake Champlain, the 
Montreal and Plattsburg, and the Whitehall and Platts- 
burg R. Rs. Capital, Plattsburg. Pop. 47,947. 

Clinton, a county in S. W. Ohio. Area, 467 square 
miles. It is drained by the East Fork of the Little Miami 
and by Todd’s Creek. The surface is undulating; the soil 
is fertile. Grain, tobacco, hay, wool, and dairy products 
are largely raised. It is intersected by the Cincinnati and 
Muskingum Valley R. R. and the Marietta and Cincinnati 
R. R. Capital, Wilmington. Pop. 21,914. 

Clinton, a county in N. Central Pennsylvania. Area, 
1000 square miles. It is intersected by the West Branch 
of the Susquehanna River. The surface is partly occupied 
by the Alleghany Mountains ; the soil of the valleys is fer¬ 
tile. Lumber, flour, grain, tobacco, and wool are largely 
produced. Coal and iron abound here. This county is 
traversed by the Philadelphia and Erie R. R. and the Bald 
Eagle division of the Pennsylvania R. R. Capital, Lock- 
haven. Pop. 23,211. 

Clinton, a post-village of Huron co., Ontario (Canada), 
on the Buffalo and Goderich branch of the Grand Trunk 
Railway, 13 miles from Goderich. It has extensive trade 
and manufactures and one weekly paper. Here are valu¬ 
able salt-wells, and a vein of rock-salt twenty feet thick. 
Pop. about 2000. 

Clinton, a township and post-village of Greene co., 
Ala., about 75 miles N. W. of Selma. Pop. 2224. 

Clinton, a post-village, capital of Van Buren co., Ark., 
on the Little Red River, about 65 miles N. by W. from 
Little Rock. 

Clinton, a township and post-village of Middlesex co., 
Conn. The village is on the New Haven New London and 
Stonington R. R., 23 miles E. of New Haven. It has one 
national bank. Pop. 1404. 

Clinton, a post-village, capital of Jones co., Ga., about 
15 miles N. E. of Macon. Pop. 362. 

Clinton, a township of De Kalb co., Ill. Pop. 1004. 

Clinton, the capital of De Witt co., Ill., on the Central 
R. R., 23 miles S. of Bloomington. It has one national 
bank and two weekly newspapers. Pop. 1800. 

Clinton, a township of Boone co., Ind. Pop. 1220. 

Clinton, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 1021. 

Clinton, a township of Decatur co., Ind. Pop. 828. 

Clinton, a township of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop. 2099. 

Clinton, a township of La Porte co., Ind. Pop. 797. 1 


981 


Clinton, a township of Putnam co., Ind. Pop. 1036. 

Clinton, a township and post-village of Vermilion co., 
Ind., on the Wabash River, about 16 miles N. of Terre 
Haute. Pop. of village, 564; of township, 2223. 

Clinton, a city, capital of Clinton co., Ia., on the Mis¬ 
sissippi River, 42 miles above Davenport, and 138 miles 
by railroad W. of Chicago. The river is here crossed by 
an iron bridge which is about 4000 feet long, and cost 
$600,000. The cars of the Chicago and North-western 
R. R. pass over this bridge. Clinton contains three banks, 
the repair-shops of the railroad company, foundries, sash- 
and-blind factories, a paper-mill, eight saw-mills, etc.; in all 
twenty-five manufactories, paying out $65,000 monthly as 
wages. Four newspapers are published here, one of them 
daily. It is the eastern terminus of the Iowa Midland, 
and the southern terminus of the Chicago Clinton and 
Dubuque R. Rs. Pop. 6129; of Clinton township, exclu¬ 
sive of the town, 1841. Ed. “Herald.” 

Clinton, a township of Franklin co., Ia. Pop. 475. 

Clinton, a township of Linn co., Ia. Pop. 1205. 

Clinton, a township of Pocahontas co., Ia. Pop. 55. 

Clinton, a township of Ringgold co., Ia. Pop. 341. 

Clinton, a township of Wayne co., Ia. Pop. 643. 

Clinton, a post-village of Douglas co., Kan., 11 miles 
W. S. W.. of Lawrence. Pop. of Clinton township, 1030. 

Clinton, a post-village, capital of Hickman co., Ky., 
about 300 miles W. S. W. of Frankfort, is on the Mobile 
and Ohio R. R. Pop. 272. 

Clinton, a post-village, capital of East Feliciana par¬ 
ish, La., 32 miles N. of Baton Rouge. A railroad 25 miles 
long connects it with Port Hudson on the Mississippi. It 
has good female schools. The parish ships yearly 30,000 
bales of cotton. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 930. 

S. Lambert, Ed. “ Patriot Democrat.” 

Clinton, a post-village and twp. of Kennebec co., Me., is 
on the Me. Central R.R., 46 miles W. S.W. of Bangor. P. 1766. 

Clinton, a manufacturing town of Worcester co., 
Mass., on the Nashua River, and on the Worcester and 
Nashua R. R. where it crosses the Boston Clinton and 
Fitchburg R. R., 45 miles W. by N. from Boston and 16 
miles N. E. of Worcester. It has five churches, one na¬ 
tional bank, one newspaper, and manufactures of ging¬ 
hams, combs, Brussels and Wilton carpets, wire-cloth, 
machinery, etc. The Lancaster mills of this place employ 
about 1200 hands, operating on 950 looms, and producing 
annually nearly 7,000,000 yards of ginghams and plaids. 
P. including Clinton township, 5429. Ed. “ Courant.” 

Clinton, a post-village and township of Lenawee co., 
Mich., on the Raisin River, and on the Jackson branch 
of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. R., 42 miles 
N. W. of Toledo, 0. Pop. 752; of township, 1356. 

Clinton, a township and village of Macomb co., Mich., 
20 miles N. E. of Detroit. Total pop. 3590. 

Clinton, a post-village of Hinds co., Miss., 10 miles W. 
of Jackson, on the Vicksburg and Meridian R. R. It is 
the seat of Mississippi College. 

Clinton, a. post-village, capital of Henry co., Mo., on 
the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R., 40 miles S. W. of 
Sedalia, at the junction of the Clinton and Memphis and 
Clinton and Kansas City branches. It is called the 
“model town” of Western Missouri. It has one national 
bank and two weekly newspapers. Pop. 840. 

Clinton, a township of Texas co., Mo. Pop. 721. 

Clinton, a township of Essex co:, N. J. Pop. 2240. 

Clinton, a post-borough of Hunterdon co., N. J., on 
the S. branch of the Raritan River, and near the New 
Jersey Central and Easton and Amboy R. Rs., about 10 
miles N. of Flemington. It has four churches, a national 
bank, one newspaper, carriage manufactories, and a large 
trade. Iron and manganese mines have been opened in 
the neighborhood. Pop. 785 ; of township, 3134. 

J. Carpenter, Jr., Pub. Clinton “Democrat.” 

Clinton, a township of Clinton co., N. Y. It contains 
much white Potsdam sandstone. Pop. 2206. 

Clinton, a township of Dutchess co., N. Y. Pop. 1708. 

Clinton, a post-village of Kirkland township, Oneida 
co., N. Y., on the Utica division of the Midland R. R., at 
the junction of the Rome branch, 9 miles W. by S. of Utica, 
and on the Erie Canal. It has six churches, a weekly and 
a monthly periodical, one seminary for boys, and four for 
young ladies. It is also the seat of Hamilton College. In 
the vicinity are large quarries of good building-stone. 
There are also various manufactures. Pop. 1640. 

Clinton, a post-village, capital of Sampson co., N. C., 
35 miles E. of Fayetteville. Pop. of Clinton township, 
l 2777. 




. 



















982 


CLINTON—CLINTONVILLE. 


Clinton, a township of Franklin co., 0. Pop. 1800. 

Clinton, a township of Fulton co., 0. Pop. 3235. 

Clinton, a township of Knox co., 0. Pop. 984. 

Clinton, a township of Seneca co., 0. Pop. 1520. 

Clinton, a township of Shelby co., 0. Pop. 3591. 

Clinton, a township of Vinton co., 0. Pop. 1724. 

Clinton, a township and village of Wayne co., 0. The 
village is on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R., 
10 miles S. W. of Wooster. Pop. 1502. 

Clinton, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 1132. 

Clinton, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 1315. 

Clinton, a township of Venango co., Pa. Pop. 901. 

Clinton, a township of Wayne co., Pa. Pop. 1178. 

Clinton, a township of Wyoming co., Pa. Pop. 834. 

Clinton, a post-village of Laurens co., S. C. It has 
one monthly newspaper. 

Clinton, a post-village, capital of Anderson co., Tenn., 
on Clinch River, 18 miles N. W. of Knoxville, on the 
Knoxville and Ohio R. R. Pop. 325. 

Clinton, a post-village, capital of De Witt co., Tex., is 
on the Guadalupe River, about 95 miles S. by E. from 
Austin. Pop. 217. 

Clinton, a township of Monongalia co., West Va. 
Pop. 1900. 

Clinton, a post-village and township of Rock co., Wis., 
on the Chicago and North-western R. R. where it crosses 
the Western Union R. R., 78 miles N. W. of Chicago. It 
has three or more churches, and some manufactures. Pop. 
of Clinton township, 1943. 

Clinton, a township of Vernon co., Wis. Pop. 823. 

Clinton (Charles), the father of George Clinton (1739— 
1812), was born in Longford co., Ireland, in 1690, of Eng¬ 
lish stock. In 1729 he emigrated to America, but the pas¬ 
sengers were starved and robbed by the ship’s master, who 
landed them on Cape Cod, where many of them died. 
Clinton settled in Ulster co., N. Y., became a judge, and a 
lieutenant-colonel in the French and Indian wars, and was 
the founder of the distinguished Clinton family of New 
York State. Died Nov. 19, 1773. 

Clinton (De Witt), an eminent American statesman, 
born at Little Britain, Orange co., N. Y., Mar. 2, 1769, was 
a son of General James Clinton, and a nephew of Governor 
George Clinton. His mother’s name was Mary de Witt. 
Having graduated at Columbia College, N. Y., in 1786, he 
studied law, and became in 1790 private secretary to his 
uncle, then governor of New York. He was a man of ar¬ 
dent temperament, dignified manners, inclined to reserve, 
and of noble personal appearance. He married about 1796 
Maria Franklin of New York City. He entered jiublic life 
as a Republican or Anti-Federalist, and was elected a mem¬ 
ber of the lower house of the State legislature in 1797, and 
of the State senate in 1798. He took an active part in 
political movements, and soon became the most influential 
leader of his party in the State of New York; he also de¬ 
voted much attention to natural sciences. In 1801 he was 
elected a Senator of the U. S., in which capacity he dis¬ 
tinguished himself as an eloquent debater. Prof. Renwick 
states that “ he was on all sides looked up to as the most 
rising man in the Union” when he was appointed, in 1803, 
mayor of the city of New York. This officer was then ap- 
pointed by the governor and council, and had more exten¬ 
sive powers than the fnayor has at the present time. Hav¬ 
ing been reappointed, he held the office of mayor for nearly 
eleven years, and rendered important services to the city. 
He also served as lieutenant-governor of New York for 
two years (1811-13), and was one of the commissioners 
appointed in 1809 to examine and survey a route for a 
canal from the Hudson to Lake Erie. In 1812 he differed 
from President Madison in relation to the war against 
Great Britain, and became his competitor for the presi¬ 
dency. Mr. Clinton was nominated by the Republican 
members of the legislature of New York, and was supported 
by many Federalists. He received eighty-nine electoral 
votes, cast by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, 
Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Mary¬ 
land, but was not elected. His course and policy at this 
period offended many of the Republicans (or Democrats), 
and appear to have impaired his popularity for a time. Ho 
was removed from the mayoralty about the end of 1814, and 
retired to private life, from which, however, he was soon 
raised by his sagacious foresight and successful efforts to 
promote the prosperity of the State. In 1815 he composed 
an able argument for the construction of the Erie Canal, 
of which great and beneficent enterprise he was the prin¬ 
cipal promoter. This argument was in the form of a me¬ 
morial to the legislature of the State, which early in 1817 


passed a bill authorizing the construction of that canal. 
He was elected governor of New York almost unanimously 
in 1817, but his former political opponents organized against 
him a party who were called “ Bucktails,” and who de¬ 
nounced the projected canal as visionary and impracticable. 
In 1820 he was re-elected governor, Daniel D. Tompkins 
being the defeated candidate. Governor Clinton was at the 
same time president of the board of canal commissioners. 
He distinguished himself by his liberal patronage of science 
and his efforts to promote the education of the people. In 
1822 he declined to be a candidate for the office of governor. 
He was removed from the position of canal commissioner 
in 1824, and was again elected governor by a large majority 
in the same year. The Erie Canal was completed in 1825, 
and brought a great access of trade and prosperity to the 
city of New York and other portions of the State. When 
the opening of the canal was celebrated in October of that 
year, Governor Clinton was conveyed in a barge with tri¬ 
umphal demonstrations from Lake Erie to the city of New 
York. He was re-elected governor in 1826, and died at 
Albany before the expiration of his term of office, Feb. 11, 
1828. His first wife died in 1818, and about two years later 
he married Catherine Jones. He left several sons and 
daughters. (See James Renwick, “Life of De Witt Clin¬ 
ton,” 1840; William W. Campbell, “Life of De Witt 
Clinton,” 1849; David Hosack, “Memoir of De Witt Clin¬ 
ton,” 1829.) 

Clinton ( George), the fourth Vice-President of the U. S., 
born in Ulster co., N. Y., July 26, 1739. He was an uncle 
of De Witt Clinton. He practised law in his youth, and 
was elected in 1775 to the Continental Congress, in which 
he voted for the Declaration of Independence, but he was 
absent when it was signed, having been called to take com¬ 
mand of a brigade of militia. He was chosen governor of 
New York in 1777, and continued in that office, by several 
re-elections, until 1795. In 1788 he presided over the State 
convention called to ratify the Federal Constitution, which 
instrument he disapproved, because it gave too much power 
to the central government. He was afterwards the princi¬ 
pal leader of the Republican party in the State of New 
York, and was chosen governor of that State in 1801. In 
1804 he was elected Vice-President of the U. S. by the 
Democrats, who elected Jefferson as President. He was re¬ 
elected Vice-President in 1808, when Mr. Madison became 
President. Died April 20, 1812. 

Clinton (Sir Henry), an English general, a grandson 
of the earl of Lincoln, was born in 1738. He served as 
major-general at the battle of Bunker Hill, June, 1775, and 
was appointed commander of the British army in North 
America early in 1778. He evacuated Philadelphia in June, 
1778, and moved his army by land to the city of New York. 
He conducted an expedition against Charleston, S. C., which 
he besieged and took in May, 1779. In Oct., 1781, he sailed 
from New York with about 7000 men to relieve Cornwallis, 
but the latter surrendered at Yorktown before the arrival 
of Clinton. He was superseded by General C'arleton in 1781. 
Died at Gibraltar, Dec. 24, 1795. 

Clinton (James), a general, born in Ulster co., N. Y., 
Aug. 9, 1736, was a son of Col. Charles Clinton, and tho 
father of the statesman De Witt Clinton. He became a 
colonel in 1775, and served under Gen. Montgomery in 
Canada. He was raised to the rank of brigadier-general 
in 1777, and took part in Sullivan’s operations against the 
Indians in New York in 1779. In Oct., 1781, he assisted 
at the siege of Yorktown. Died Dec. 22, 1812. 

Clinton Falls, a post-township of Steel co., Minn. 
Pop. 338. 

Clinton Gore, a township of Kennebec co., Me. Pop. 
257. 

Clinto'nia, a township of De Witt co., Ill. Pop. 2638. 

Clinton Lake, a township of Sherburne co., Minn. 
Pop. 152. 

Clinton State Prison, at Dannemora, in Clinton co., 

N. Y., 16 miles W. of Plattsburg, is built of dressed stone 
with slate roof. The main building is T-shaped, but there 
are several other buildings all enclosed in a stockade of 37 
acres. There are usually about 500 convicts here, mostly 
employed in the iron and nail works. The iron ore has 
been in part mined upon the grounds, but is now obtained 
from various mines leased or owned by the State. Char¬ 
coal is employed in reducing the iron. It is furnished by 
woodlands measuring 17,500 acres, yielding annually 
900,000 bushels. The prison lot has 250 acres. Besides 
mining, smelting, rolling, and nail-cutting, the convicts 
saw lumber, manufacture nail-kegs, and perform other 
kinds of labor. The prison was built in 1844-45. 

Clin'tonville, a post-village of Au Sable township, 
Clinton co., N. Y., is the seat of the extensive works of the 
Peru Iron Company. 






































CLINTONVILLE—CLOACA MAXIMA. 


983 


Clintonville, a village of Ilartwick township, Otsego 
co., N. Y., has a cotton factory. 

Cli'o [Gr. K\ecw], one of the nine Muses, presided over 
history, and was represented as holding in one hand a half- 
opened roll or scroll, and in the other a cithara. 

Clio, a genus of pteropodous mollusks, of the section 



Clio borealis. 


Gymnosomata. Clio borealis is a principal part of the food 
of whales, and is very abundant in the Arctic seas. It is 
scarcely an inch long ; the head is furnished with six re¬ 
tractile tentacula; the organs of locomotion are two deli¬ 
cate fins, joined to the neck. It has no shell. Of These 
creatures the water is sometimes so full that a whale cannot 
open its mouth without engulfing them in great numbers. 
Clio australis is extremely abundant in the southern seas. 
Several other species are found in the Indian Ocean, etc. 

Clip'per [from the verb clip, to “move fast”] is a name 
given to a ship built expressly with a view to sjieed. The 
commerce in merchandise of a perishable nature which 
rendered a quick passage desirable was probably among 
the first causes which directed especial attention to the 
form of vessels adapted to offer least resistance to the water. 
For many years fruit-clippers have been celebrated for their 
rapid passages, and the opium-clippers and slavers have 
attained an unenviable distinction for speed. The modi¬ 
fications of the old form of vessel have been gradual, the 
desideratum aimed at being the combination of the greatest 
carrying capacity with the form best adapted for speed. 
A clipper, as compared with an ordinary sailing-ship, is 
longer and narrower (though of late the tendency has been 
to increase the beam); very sharp at the bows, which are 
generally hollowed more or less below the water-line; grace¬ 
fully tapering towards the stern, which is usually elliptical. 
The Americans have fully done their part in introducing 
swift clipper ships, and have perhaps been the most suc¬ 
cessful in the improvement of vessels of this class. It may 
be observed that clippers are much less used than they 
were a few years ago, quick freights being now despatched 
on fast steamers, and heavy goods being sent in vessels 
of larger carrying capacity. 

Clis'thenes, or Clcis'thenes [Gr. KAeio-0eV>)?], an 
Athenian statesman, the grand-uncle of Pericles, lived 
about 500 B. C. He increased the number of the tribes of 
Attica from four to ten, and made important changes in 
the constitution, which he rendered more democratic. He 
became very popular, and was the foremost Athenian 
statesman of his time. 

Clith'eral, a post-township of Otter Tail co., Minn. 
Pop. 220. 

Clitherall (Alexander B.) was a native of Alabama. 
In 1857 he was elected to the Senate, and returned in 1859. 
During the war he was appointed register of the Confede¬ 
rate treasury, and resided for some years in Richmond. 
He died in 1868. 

Clith' eroe, a market-town of England, in Lancashire, 
on the river Ribble, 28 miles N. of Manchester, with which 
it is connected by railway. The houses are of stone. It 
is situated at the base of Pendle Hill, which is 1800 feet 
high, and near Pendle Forest, which is reputed to be the 
scene of the exploits of the Lancashire witches. It has 
the ruins of a castle built in the twelfth century. Here 
are manufactures of cotton fabrics. It returns one mem¬ 
ber to Parliament. Pop. in 1871, 8217. 

Cli'tus, or Cleitus [Gr. KAeu-os], a Macedonian officer 
who took part in Alexander’s expedition against Persia, 
and saved his life at the battle of the Granicus, in 334 
B. C. He enjoyed the favor of Alexander, who appointed 
him satrap of Bactria in 328 B. C. In the same year a 
dispute occurred at a feast between them, and Alexander, 
who was excited with wine, killed Clitus with a spear. 

Clitz (Henry B.), a son of the late Capt.. John Clitz, 
U. S. A., born in New York, graduated at AVcst Point in 
1845, served with honor in the Mexican war as an infantry 
officer, was wounded at Yorktown, Va., and Gaines’s Mill 
in 1862, and was taken prisoner in the latter engagement; 
served as commandant of cadets and instructor in tactics 


at West Point (1862-64), became lieutenant-colonel Sixth 
Infantry, and in 1869 colonel Tenth Infantry. In 1865 
he was brevetted brigadier-general U. S. A. 

^ Clitz (John M. B.), U. S. N., born Mar. 10,1823, in the 
State of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman in 
1837, became a passed midshipman in 1843; a lieutenant 
in 1851, a commander in 1862, a captain in 1866, and a 
commodore in 1873. He was actively employed during 
the civil war in command of various vessels of the North 
Atlantic squadron, frequently in action with batteries on 
the James River while co-operating with the army, in 
both the Fort Fisher fights, and recommended for promo¬ 
tion by Rear-Admiral Porter in his commendatory despatch 
of Jan. 28, 1865. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Clive (Robert), Lord, the founder of the British su¬ 
premacy in India, was born at Styche, in Shropshire, Sept. 
29, 1725. At school he showed little aptitude for learning 
and much propensity to mischief. He went to Madras in 
1744, and became a clerk in the service of the East India 
Company, then a trading corporation possessing only a few 
acres of land, His work here was so uncongenial that he 
attempted to kill himself, but his pistol missed fire. War 
having broken out between the English and French, he en¬ 
tered the service as an ensign in 1747. In this field he 
found scope for his talents, and employment congenial to 
his audacious disposition. His military genius and resolute 
spirit procured his rapid promotion. In 1750 and 1751 he 
defeated the French at Arcot and other places. He made 
a voyage to England for his health in 1753, taking with 
him his wife, a sister of Maskelyne, the astronomer. In 
1755 he returned to India as governor of Fort St. David. 
He waged war with success against the nabob Surajah 
Dowlah, and took Calcutta in 1757. In June of that year, 
with 3000 men, he gained a decisive victory over the nabob’s 
army of 60,000 men at the battle of Plassey. For this ser¬ 
vice he was rewarded with the office of governor of Bengal. 
He had become immensely rich when he returned to Eng¬ 
land in 1760, and he was raised in 1761 to the Irish peerage 
as baron of Plassey. In 1764 he was again sent to India, 
with authority to rectify the disorders which prevailed 
after his departure from that region. He proved himself 
an able administrator, and restored discipline. He returned 
to England in 1767. His enemies in Parliament accused 
him of having enriched himself by a tyrannical abuse of 
power, and a committee was appointed in 1773 to investi¬ 
gate his conduct. This inquest resulted in his acquittal. 
He became addicted to the excessive use of opium, and 
committed suicide in London Nov. 22,1774. (See Sir John 
Malcolm, “Life of Lord Clive,” 3 vols., 1836.) 

CBoa'ca [a Latin word signifying a “sewer;” Fr. 
cloaque ], a name applied to the anal orifice of birds, which 
also serves for the escape of urine, and is the external 
organ of reproduction. A similar anatomical arrangement 
is found in one order of mammals, the Monotremata, in all 
reptiles, and in many fishes. 

Cloa'ca Max'ima [a Latin phrase meaning the 
“largest sewer”], a subterranean passage through which a 
great part of the sewage of ancient Rome was conveyed to 
the Tiber. Drains from the parts of the city around the 
Forum were commenced by Tarquinius Priscus, but the 
construction of the Cloaca Maxima is attributed to Tar- 



Mouth of Cloaca Maxima at Koine. 

quinius Superbus. Niebuhr expresses the opinion that it 
was at first designed to drain the valley of the Forum, but 
it appears to have been afterwards extended. Passing 





































from the Forum by the templo of Vesta, it terminated in 
the Tiber, where the mouth of it is still to be seen. It con¬ 
sists of three largo arches, one within the other. The in¬ 
nermost vault is more than thirteen feet in width. The 
arches were built of large blocks of tufa, about five feet five 
inches long and three feet high, fixed together without ce¬ 
ment. The sower was kept clear by a stream of water from 
the aqueducts. Large portions of this and of other cloaca; 
remain in some places visible, but they are generally at a 
considerable depth below the present level of the streets. 
The surveillance of the Roman cloacae was one of the duties 
performed by the censors. Notwithstanding its great age, 
the Cloaca Maxima is in admirable preservation. 

Clocks. From the earliest period of human history men 
have sought for means to measure time. This was not a mat¬ 
ter of such extraordinary importance to the savage as to the 
civilized man, for upon the former there was no pressure to 
accomplish any work or employment within a given space 
of time. To him, therefore, the divisions of time by the 
sun’s rising, setting, and nooning were sufficient, when he 
could see them. But very early men began to divide the 
day into several portions, and soon the night also. At first, 
these divisions were ,of about three or four hours each. 
After a time the division of the night and the day into 
twelve hours each was found to be more convenient, and 
then there came the necessity for means of measuring these 
divisions of time. The first in use was the dial, which by 
its shadow on a horizontal plate marked the passage of the 
hours by the progress of the sun. But as this could only 
be of service in the daytime, and when the skies were not 
obscured by clouds, something else was necessary. The 
hour-glass, which measured time by the flowing of sand 
through a narrow passage from one spherical vessel into 
another, and which was so graduated that all the sand would 
run out from the upper glass in just an hour, was a very good 
instrument to measure the lapse of an hour, but it could not 
be depended upon to give the time of day, and required 
watchfulness to turn it as soon as the sands had all run 
down. King Alfred’s device of twelve candles, graduated 
so as to burn two hours each, was not much better, and in 
some respects even more inconvenient. The clepsydra was 
a step in advance of these. It was a water-jar containing 
several gallons of water, which ran out from a small grad¬ 
uated orifice in the bottom of the jar at such a rate that the 
quantity of water in the jar would be lowered to a certain 
marked point each hour, and the jars being filled at sunrise 
every day, marked off the hours with tolerable regularity. 
As glass was not then used for the jars, the only way of de¬ 
termining the time was by looking into the jar or measur¬ 
ing the depth of the water by a graduated stick. We do 
not know just when or by whom these clepsydrae were in¬ 
vented, though they are credited to Greece. They were 
introduced at Rome about 158 B. C. by Scipio Nasica. 
Eighteen years later they were improved by Ctesibius, by 
the addition of a toothed wheel and index driven by the 
water which flowed from the bottom of the jar. Thus im¬ 
proved, these water-clocks have been in use in the East for 
about two thousand years. In the more enlightened west 
of Europe, however, there was a demand for further im¬ 
provements. 

The first of these, which possibly came from the Sara¬ 
cens, and perhaps from their Western empire in Spain, was 
the substitution of a weight for the water to turn the 
toothed wheel. It may have been introduced at a still 
earlier date than this, for Archimedes had discovered the 
advantage of weights in the turning of small machines 
some centuries earlier. But after this substitution there 
still remained the difficulty that the weight was not so reg¬ 
ulated as to cause the index to pass over equal spaces of 
the dial in equal times. How this difficulty was obviated 
during the Dark Ages we have no means of knowing. 
There is a record of a clock of very elaborate workmanship 
having been sent by Pope Paul I. to King Pepin of France 
in 760, and of another being invented by Pacificus, archdea¬ 
con of Genoa, in the ninth century. The invention of an 
escapement of some kind is attributed to Gerbert about 
A. D. 1000. Though rude, it probably answered the pur¬ 
pose, for within the next ,380 years tower-clocks of great 
size were set up in Canterbury cathedral (1292), in the 
abbey of St. Albans (1326), at Genoa (1353), and one which 
struck the hours at Westminster in 1368. The clock whose 
construction is best known, and which was undoubtedly 
the best timekeeper of any of that period, was that made 
by Henry de Vick, a German, and set up in Paris for 
Charles V. in 1379. We have deemed the movement of 
this clock worthy of a pictorial illustration, as showing 
what were the methods of constructing a balance and es¬ 
capement at that time. The toothed or crown-wheel I is 
the escapemcnt-wlieel; the pallets or levers i h having 
bevelled edges, and projecting from the suspended upright 
spindle or vertical axis K M, on which is fixed the regu- 


Fig. 1. 


41 


T. t j ' w r w -~3i£; 


0771 


'lit 








lator or balance L L, give it a vibratory motion, as tho 
motion induced by the weight A in uncoiling the cord and 

causing the cylinder B to 
revolve is communicated to 
the various toothed or cog¬ 
wheels, and finally to tho 
crown or escapement-wheel, 
causes them alternately to 
strike the teeth of that 
wheel. There would still 
bo an irregularity in these 
motions, and a consequent 
defect in the clock as a time¬ 
keeper, were it not for the 
weights m m, placed on the 
balance or regulator, and 
which, by the distance they 
are removed from the spin¬ 
dle, increase or diminish tho 
resistance of the pallets to 
the escapcmcnt-wheel. This 
was the principle on which 
all clocks were made for the 
next 270 years, but the Eng¬ 
lish do not seem to have 
been successful in making 
good timekeepers till 1540, 
when one set up at Hamp¬ 
ton Court by an unknown 
maker became celebrated 
for its accuracy. It was not until a century later (some 
time between 1641 and 1658) that either an English clock- 
maker named Harris, or the Dutch philosopher Iluygliens, 
adapted Galileo’s discovery of the substantial isoclironism 
of the pendulum beats to the marking of time by making 
the escapement or crown-wheel horizontal, instead of verti¬ 
cal, and attaching the pallets to the pendulum-rod. Sub¬ 
sequent improvements were made in the escapement, es¬ 
pecially the substituting the anchor escapement for that of 
Huyghens by Dr. Hooke, 1666-80, and the further im¬ 
provement of this in the dead-beat escapement of George 
Graham, invented in 1700, in which the arms of the escape¬ 
ment are set at right angles, and the outer surface of the 
pallet B and the inner surface of the pallet C are arcs of 
circles, of which A, the point of attachment to the pen- 

This ensured great accuracy as 
timekeepers. Other escapements, 
as the duplex, detached, pin-wheel, 
gravity, etc., have been devised, 
but have not come into very gen¬ 
eral use, and are not, perhaps, pre¬ 
ferable in all resjiects to Graham’s. 
Other improvements have been at¬ 
tempted in the pendulum itself. 
These have been mainly in the 
matter of compensation for the 
expansion and contraction of the 
pendulum-rod by heat and cold. 
Graham’s mercurial compensation pendulum, invented in 
1715, in which a tube or ball having mercury in it was 
substituted for the bob of the pendulum, and the gridiron 
pendulum of Harrison, invented in 1726, composed of five 
rods of steel and four of brass, which, expanding differ¬ 
ently, compensated by their action for the changes induced 
by heat or cold, were the principal of these. 

The American clockmakers, retaining the dead-beat es¬ 
capement, made the pendulum-rod of wood and covered it 
with gold-leaf; and this has been found to be as effectual a 
contrivance as either the mercurial or gridiron pendulum. 
In the cheaper clocks, where absolute accuracy is not so 
important, they have obtained substantial accuracy by 
turning a screw thread upon the lower end of the pendulum- 
rod, and putting upon this a nut, which, while it holds the 
sliding pendulum-bob in place, can by one or two turns 
regulate it in accordance with the temperature of the sea¬ 
son. To accommodate what is known as the cycloidal 
curve in the arc described by the pendulum, its attachment 
to the pinion moved by the weights, or afterward by the 
spring, was made by hammering its upper end into a thin 
slip of steel which passed into a slit in the pinion, and 
was held in place by two little cheeks or projections at tho 
top. While the workmanship was gradually perfected, the 
principles on which clocks were made in England, France, 
and Germany have not changed, except in a single partic¬ 
ular—that of a substitution of steel springs for weights— 
from the beginning of the eighteenth century to the pres¬ 
ent time. Even now, very considerable numbers of these 
brass-wheel clocks, with weights, and standing in a case 
six feet high, are still made, and some of them are still ex¬ 
ported to the U. S. The manufacture of this description 
of clocks was introduced into this country before the Rev- 


dulum-rod, is the centre. 
Fig. 2. 







































































CLOCKS. 


985 


olutionary war, but comparatively few were made, though 
of good workmanship. 

About 1792, Eli Terry, then residing in Norwich, Conn., 
but subsequently engaged in clockmaking at Plymouth, 
Conn., made, it is believed, the first clock with wooden 
wheels ever made in this country or elsewhere. Mr. Terry 
had learned his trade from Thomas Ilarland, an English 
clockmaker who had established himself at Norwich in 
177.3. In 1793 Mr. Terry commenced the manufacture of 
both wooden and brass-wheel clocks at Plymouth, and con¬ 
tinued the business there and in Naugatuck for many 
years. The wooden-wheel clocks were good timekeepers, 
and were generally preferred to the brass-wheel clocks. 
They were sold in large quantities by peddlers in all parts 
of the country, and generally without the case, which was 
a separate expense, being made by the cabinetmaker. From 
1806 to 1815 the number of clockmakers largely increased 
(Messrs. Seth Thomas, Silas Hoadley, Herman Clark, Asa 
Hopkins, and others engaging in the business), and many 
thousands were made. In 1814, Mr. Terry invented what 
was known as the “short shelf-clock,” in which, by a 
change of arrangement and smaller weights, the pendulum 
being brought forward and greatly shortened, and the 
weights being carried and run on each side, the whole was 
reduced to a more compact form, and clock and case were 
sold together for a moderate price. This modification was 
adopted by other manufacturers, and soon became general. 
These clocks wei'e made with wooden wheels, but after the 
introduction of rolled brass into the market, machinery was 
invented by which the blank wheels of the clock could be 
struck out of the rolled brass with a die, and the teeth after¬ 
wards cut by machinery, and the brass-wheel clocks could 
be made cheaper than wooden ones. 

The next improvement was the substitution of coiled 
steel springs for the weights, thus assimilating the clock 
to the watch. This has been done in Europe for two hun¬ 
dred years, but only with the most costly parlor clocks, 
and the springs used were equal in quality to the best 
Avatch-springs. Of course, this would not answer for cheap 
clocks for .the million, and various experiments Avere tried 
with cheap springs. Coiled brass springs Avere used, but 


these soon lost what little temper they had, and so did 
their purchasers. An elliptic steel spring connected Avith 
a fusee Avas tried, but Avith no better success. Finally, a 
new and completely successful process of making a superior 
steel spring Avas invented in this country ; and the springs 
thus produced have for many years been sold at a price com¬ 
patible Avith their use in cheap clocks. This, together with 
the cheapening by machine-labor of the production of all 
parts of the clocks, has led to their very general introduc¬ 
tion, and to the reduction of the size of clocks, till noAv 
tAventy-four of the smallest sized pendulum clocks can bo 
packed in a box of one cubic foot in dimensions. One result 
of this reduction in the size and price of clocks was an 
enormous increase in the demand for them, both in this 
and foreign countries. Clocks to run thirty hours were 
made Avhich sold in quantities at nine dollars the dozen, 
and a fair eight-day clock at forty-eight dollars the dozen. 

In 1852 there were thirty-one clock companies in exist¬ 
ence, of Avhich nine failed, four Avere burned out, and five 
closed their business as unprofitable Avithin the next five 
years. But these companies in 1853 and 1854 made im¬ 
mense sales, the Jerome Manufacturing Company alone 
shipping 440,000 clocks per annum. Since the reorganiza¬ 
tion of the business there are only fifteen or sixteen firms 
engaged in it, all but tAvo or three of them in Connecticut; 
the number of clocks made is about 1,200,000, and their 
value not less than $3,500,000. They are exported very 
largely to all the countries of Europe, to China and Japan, 
to India, Western Asia, Egypt, South Africa, and to Mexico 
and most of the South American states. But while Amer¬ 
ican manufacturers have thus supplied the world with 
cheap but serviceable clocks, they have not, until Avithin a 
few years past, been able to compete successfully with 
Eurojiean manufacturers in the finer and high-priced 
grades. 

Tower clocks, which until Avithin the past twenty years 
Avere imported, are now made of excellent quality by A. 
S« Hotchkiss for the Seth Thomas Clock Company, the 
HoAvard Watch and Clock Company, Charles Fasold, and 
by several other firms. Cut No. 3 represents the move¬ 
ment of one of the Hotchkiss tower clocks erected in Steu- 


Fig. 3. 


It 



benville, 0., and a similar one is on the City Hall, New 
York. The clocks are remarkable for their accuracy and 
tho perfection of their mechanism, and have proved admir¬ 


able timekeepers. They have the pin-Avhecl escapement 
(very clearly delineated on the second and third cross¬ 
bars), the pins having an ingenious contrivance ot a thou.- 






























































































































































































































































986 


CLOCKVILLE—CLONTAKF. 


dcr to keep the oil upon them ; and also a very remarkable 
arrangement (at the right of the figure) for regulating 
automatically the gas-jets which illumine the face of the 
clock, so that they may burn any required number of 
hours. Regulators, formerly imported in all cases, are now 
made of the best quality by the Howard Watch and Clock 
Company of Boston. Regulator clocks are also made by 
the Seth Thomas Clock Company of Thomaston, Conn., 
the William L. Gilbert Clock Company of Winsted, the 
Waterbury Clock Company, and* Welch, Spring & Co. The 
wooden pendulum-rod, covered with gold-leaf, which is one 
of the characteristics of these regulator clocks, is, wo be¬ 
lieve, an invention of Mr. Silas B. Terry, a son of the 


pioneer in American clockmaking, and himself for forty- 
five years in the business. The French parlor or mantel 
clock, a costly and beautiful ornament to the homes of the 
wealthy, had so long been imported that it was considered 
hopeless to attemjit to compete with it; but since I860 
Messrs. Seth Thomas’ Sons & Co. have been engaged in 
the manufacture of these articles, and have produced clocks 
which in the perfection of their workmanship, their accu¬ 
racy as timekeepers, and the elegance and variety of their 
patterns, as well as in their moderate price, compete so 
favorably with the foreign parlor clock that they have well- 
nigh driven it from the market. The illustrations show 
some of the styles of these clocks in bronze; the marble 


Fig. 5. 


styles are equally tasteful and attractive. The Terry Clock 
Company at Waterbury have also commenced the manufac¬ 
ture of a neat parlor clock. Of other special kinds of clocks 
we may name the calendar clock, first successfully made for 
the general market in this country, which gives the day 
of the week and month, and sometimes the changes of the 
moon; the marine clock, a watch on a large scale, which, 
properly made, is an excellent timekeeper; the railroad 
clock, which is of similar but somewhat more delicate con¬ 
struction, and with a compensating arrangement for the 
jar to which it is exposed, etc., etc. The electric or mag¬ 
netic clock belongs properly to the departments of astron¬ 
omy and telegraphy. The meehanism for striking the 
hours or half or quarter hours, in most clocks, is complicated 
and not readily understood without careful drawings. (For 
the facts relative to American clockmaking we are indebted 
to Henry Terry, Esq., of the Terry Clock Company of 
Waterbury, Conn., and Seth E. Thomas, Esq., of Seth 
Thomas’ Sons & Co. and the Seth Thomas Clock Company 
of New York.) L. P. Brockett. 

Clock'ville, a post-village of Lenox township, Madi¬ 
son co., N. Y., has a woollen mill and other manufactories. 

Clo'dius (Publius), surnamed Pulciier (i.e. “ hand¬ 
some”), a profligate Roman tribune and patrician, was a 
brother of Appius Claudius Pulcher. (See Claudius.) In 
62 B. C. he committed sacrilege by intruding himself, dis¬ 
guised as a woman, into the mysteries of Bona Dea. At 
his trial for this offence he attempted to prove that he was 
not in Rome at that time, but Cicero testified that he saw 
Clodius in Romo on that day, and thus incurred his enmity. 
Clodius was acquitted by means of bribery, and was elected 
tribune of the people in 59 B. C. He persecuted Cicero by 


the enactment of a law that he should be interdicted from 
fire and water. He was killed in an encounter with Milo, 
his political enemy, in 52 B. C. 

Clois'ter [from the Lat. claustrum, an “ enclosure;” 
Fr. cloitre; Ger. Kloster], a term which originally denoted 
a covered ambulatory running round certain portions of 
monastic and collegiate buildings, but it was subsequently 
often applied to any monastic establishment. The cloisters 
usually ran along three sides of a quadrangle, called the 
garth. The roof, often vaulted, was supported by pillars 
and arches. The portions of these arches above the mul- 
lions were often glazed, and sometimes the whole arches, 
so that they became windows. Cloisters were used for ex¬ 
ercise and recreation. Often, when glazed, they had stalls 
for study, and frequently a stone bench, on the inner side. 

Clonmel', a parliamentary borough of Ireland, is on 
both sides of the river Suir, 14 miles S. S. E. of Cashel. It 
is mostly in the county of Tipperary, and partly in that 
of Waterford. The Suir is here crossed by several bridges, 
one of which has twenty arches. It has a church of the 
twelfth century. There is a trade in grain, cattle, and 
butter, also manufactures of cotton. In 1650 Cromwell 
demolished the castle. Pop. in 1871, 9484. 

Clonmel, Earls of (1793), Viscounts Clonmel (1789), 
and Barons Earlsfort (Ireland, 1784). —John Henry Reg¬ 
inald Scott, fourth earl, born Mar. 2, 1839, succeeded his 
father in Feb., 1866. 

Clontarf', a town and bathing-place of Ireland, on the 
sea 3 miles E. N. E. of Dublin. Here, in 1014, Brian Boru 
gained a great victory over the Danes. Near this town is 
Clontarf Castle, the residence of the Vernon family. Pop. 
7814. 


Fig. 4. 


Fig. 7. 


Fig. 8. 


Fig. 9. 




























































CLOOTZ-CLOVER. 987 


Clootz (Jean Baptiste), Baron, a visionary character 
of the French revolution, born near Cleves, Prussia, June 
24, 1755. Taking the name of Anacharsis, he traversed 
Europe, proclaiming the brotherhood of the human race, 
lie contributed large sums to the French republican cause, 
to which he looked for the fulfilment of his hopes of uni¬ 
versal freedom. He was expelled from the Jacobin Club 
at the instigation of Robespierre, and guillotined for a fic¬ 
titious offence Mar. 23, 1794. 

Clop'tili, a post-township of Dale co., Ala. Pop. 800. 

Close-Hauled, in navigation, is the mode in which 
the sails are arranged in order to make the ship move in a 
direction the nearest possible towards that point of the 
compass from which the wind blows. In the thorough at¬ 
tainment of this result, much, of course, depends upon the 
shape of the vessel. 

Clos'ter, a thriving post-village of Harrington town¬ 
ship, Bergen co., N. J., on the Northern R. R. of New T ersey, 
19i miles N. of Jersey City. 

Clot. See Blood and Coagulation. 

Clothaire I., born in 497 A.D., was the fourth son of 
Clovis, king of the Franks. He became king of Soissons 
in 511, when the dominions of Clovis were divided among 
his sons. By murdering two of his nephews he obtained 
the sovereignty of Austrasia and Orleans, and reigned at 
Paris over all the former dominions of Clovis. He died in 
561 A. D., leaving four sons—Caribert, Gontran, Sigebert, 
and Chilporic L, who divided the realm between them. 

Clothaire II., a son of Chilperic I., was a minor when 
he inherited the kingdom of Soissons in 584 A. D. His 
mother Fredegonde was regent until 597. He put to death 
Brunehaut, queen of Austrasia, and usurped the throne of 
that country in 613 A. D. He thus became sovereign of 
all France. Died in 628 A. D. He was one of the Mero¬ 
vingian dynasty. 

Clothes-Moth. See Moth. 

Clo'tho, in classic mythology, one of the Parcle (which 
see). 

Clotho, an asteroid discovered by Tempel in 1868. 

Clotho (a serpent). See Puff Adder. 

Clotil'da, Saint, queen of France, w T as a daughter of 
Chilperic, king of Burgundy. She was married in 493 
A. D. to Clovis I., whom she induced to profess the Chris¬ 
tian religion in 496. She opposed Arianism. Died in 545 
A. D. 

Cloud, a county in the N. of Kansas. Area, 720 square 
miles. It is intersected by the Republican River. The 
surface is nearly level or undulating. Grain, tobacco, and 
wool are raised. Capital, Concordia. Pop. 2323. 

Clouds [Lat. nube8~\ are collections of extremely minute 
particles of water suspended in the atmosphere. These 
particles are often, in consequence of the great elevation 
at which they float, in a frozen state, even in summer. It 
is now known that when masses of air fully charged with 
aqueous vapor, but at different temperatures, come in con¬ 
tact with each other and mix, the space occupied by the 
resulting mass will be overcharged, and the vapor, which 
was invisible so long as completely mingled with the air, 
becomes precipitated, so to speak, in the form of water-dust, 
and then takes the appearance of fog or cloud. Why these 
minute particles remain suspended in the atmosphere, and 
do not descend as similar particles of earth would do, has not 
yet been satisfactorily explained. Some have conjectured 
that the watery particles are hollow, like soap-bubbles. But 
this—supposing it to be true, of which there is no proof— 
would not account for their suspension unless they were filled 
with a gas lighter than the surrounding air. It is not im¬ 
probable that electricity, which appears to exert so great 
an influence in giving the different kinds of clouds their 
form and character, may be the principal agency by which 
these various collections of water-dust are kept suspended at 
different elevations, according to the character of the cloud. 
The only difference between fog and cloud is that while 
the latter remains high in the atmosphere, the former seems 
to rest upon the earth; in other words, fog is simply cloud 
close at hand. Hence, when a cloud high up in the air 
strikes against the side of a mountain, to a person at that 
point on the mountain it appears precisely like fog. 

To clouds in their infinitely varied forms we are indebted 
for some of the most glorious scenes that nature ever pre¬ 
sents to the eye of man; and a landscape, however beau¬ 
tiful, seems incomplete unless the accompaniment of clouds 
is added to the picture. (For a particular account of the 
different kinds of clouds, and their connection with the 
changes of the weather, the reador is referred to Meteor¬ 
ology.) 

Clough (Arthur Hugh), an English poet, born at Liv¬ 
erpool Jan. 1, 1819, was educated at Rugby. Ho was ono 


of Dr. Arnold’s favorite pupils. His distinguished school¬ 
fellow, Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, who has written a valu¬ 
able notice of Clough, says that “ over the career of none 
of his pupils did Arnold watch with a livelier interest or a 
more sanguine hope.” From Rugby he passed to Oxford, 
where “he carried away the Balliol scholarship with a re¬ 
nown beyond that of any of his predecessors.” From Bal¬ 
liol he was elected to a fellowship at Oriel, and he remained 
at Oxford until 1848, when a sense that he had done his 
work there, and that he was a little too alien in speculative 
and in practical thought from the tone of the university to 
be of further use or to find a fit abode there—that he might 
honorably seek a more unshackled career without—led 
Clough to withdraw from Oriel. In 1848 appeared his first 
published poem, “The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich: a 
Long-Vacation Pastoral,” which was quickly recognized as 
a work of remarkable power and beauty. But it was some¬ 
thing besides a successful literary venture. If it has been 
called Clough’s “ Farewell to Oxford,” it is because it is 
revolutionary; it shows that the thought of his time had 
awakened strong echoes in his nature; that if he had not 
broken with the ancient past—which he had not, and which 
he never could—he at least was ready to go forth with 
hearty confidence to meet the present, and to take an active 
part in the real business of life. “ A sense of fresh, healthy 
manliness; a scorn of base and selfish motives; a frank ad¬ 
miration for common life; a love of earth, not only for its 
earthly sake, but for the divine and the eternal interfused 
in it—such, and other such,” says Palgrave, “are the im¬ 
pressions left.” Thepoem is written in English hexameters, 
which have a certain wild flavor that is very stimulating. 
“Viewed critically, Clough’s work is wanting in art; the 
language and the thought are often unequal and incom¬ 
plete; the poetical fusion into a harmonious whole imper¬ 
fect. It is poetry, however, which belongs to a very un¬ 
common class : it should be judged by the thoughts awak¬ 
ened, rather than by the mode of expressing them.” After 
his withdrawal from Oxford in 1848, Clough spent a year 
or two in travel on the Continent, going as far as the Ital¬ 
ian lakes. On his return he published in 1849 a series of 
poems of which the earliest date back to 1840, under the 
title of “ Ambarvalia.” This collection contains many 
striking pieces, revealing the depth and earnestness of 
Clough’s nature, with much of that tenderness which his 
friends declare to have been so notable a characteristic of 
his, and also a strong tendency, by no means incompatible 
with this, toward sarcasm. 

His tutorship at Oxford relinquished, he passed from one 
employment to another: was warden of University Hall, 
London; came to America, and resided here for a few 
months in 1852 ; returned to England to accept an appoint¬ 
ment in the education department of the privy council 
office; went to France and Vienna in 1856 on duties con¬ 
nected with the secretaryship to the commission of report 
on military education ; and in leisure hours gradually com¬ 
pleted the long revision of Dryden’s translation of Plutarch 
begun in America, comparing that inaccurate though spir¬ 
ited text throughout with the original, and retouching it 
with a skill and taste in which his careful study of Chaucer 
and our early literature gave him a special mastery. 

Meanwhile, with his usual energetic sympathy for all 
that touched the welfare of the poor and the wretched, he 
undertook much anxious work to assist his wife’s cousin, 
Florence Nightingale, in her own arduous labors. His 
health, never very robust, gave way, and by the advice of 
his physicians he went on a journey to Greece and Constan¬ 
tinople, and returned much benefited. A second journey 
to Auvergne and the Pyrenees, and then to Italy in com¬ 
pany with Mr. and Mrs. Alfred Tennyson, undertaken with 
the hope of completing the good work of the former, was 
not so fortunate. Near the Italian lakes he was struck by 
the malaria, and pushed on with difficulty to Florence, 
where fever carried him off, Nov. 13, 1861. Clough con¬ 
tributed several papers of value to the “North American 
Review,” and to the “Atlantic Monthly” one of his best 
poems, “Amours de Voyage.” While here he made one of 
an intimate circle of the most cultivated scholars and men 
of letters in Boston and Cambridge. He was beloved here, 
as at home, for the noble beauty of his character, as well 
as respected for the range and thoroughness of his attain¬ 
ments. He is come to be reckoned one of the chief names 
of the time in poetry ; his reputation has steadily risen, and 
Emerson’s words in 1848 are like to be justified : “ He will 
make Tennyson look to his laurels.” Clarence Cook. 

Clove Bark. See Culilawan Bark. 

Clo'ver [from a root akin to cleave, cloven , because the 
leaves are parted or cleft], or Tre'foil (i . e. “ having three 
leaves ”), ( Trifolium), a genus of plants of the order Legu- 
minosm, containing many species, some of them very im¬ 
portant in agriculture. The name is popularly extended 















988 


CLOVER-CLUB. 


to plants not included in this genus, but belonging to the 
same order, and having the leaves formed of three leaflets. 
The truo clovers ( Trifolium ) have herbaceous, not twining 
stems, roundish heads or oblong spikes of small flowers, 
the pod containing one or two, rarely three or four, seeds. 
Twenty native or naturalized species belong to Great Brit¬ 
ain, and more than twelve species to the U. S., most of 
them natives. The most important is the common red 
clover ( Trifolium pratense), a native of Europe, growing 
in meadows and pastures. Its heads of flowers are nearly 
globular, very compact, about an inch in diameter, purplish- 
crimson, flesh-colored, or whitish. The leaflets have often 
a whitish horseshoe mark in the centre. The zigzag clover 
(Trifolium medium) resembles the common red clover, but 
is distinguished by the smooth tube of the calyx, and by 
the broader, less membranaceous, and acuminated stipules. 
The stems are more rigid than in Trifolium pratense ; the 
heads of flowers larger, more nearly globose, and of a 
deeper purple color; and the leaflets have no white spot. 
It is common in Europe, and grows in the U. S. White 
clover ( Trifolium repens) is a common native of Europe 
and also of North America. Alsike clover ( Trifolium hy- 
bridum), a perennial, regarded by some as intermediate be¬ 
tween the common red and the white clover, has of late at¬ 
tained a very high reputation. It was introduced from the 
south of Sweden. Crimson or Italian clover ( Trifolium incar- 
natum), an annual, native of the south of Europe, with oblong 
spikes of rich crimson flowers, is much cultivated in Europe, 
producing a heavy crop. Egyptian clover ( Trifolium Alex- 
andrinum), an annual species, a native of Egypt, where it 
is the principal fodder for cattle, is supposed to be one of 
the best kinds of clover. It has oval heads of pale-yellow 
or whitish flowers. Yellow clover, or hop trefoil ( Trifo¬ 
lium procumbem), is common on dry gravelly soils in 
Great Britain and the U. S., but not much esteemed. The 
Trifolium reflexum, or buffalo clover of the U. S., deserves 
the attention of agriculturists. 

Clover is now very frequently cultivated in alternation 
with grain crops. The kinds most generally sown are the 
common red, white, and alsike. The common red clover is 
the finest and most valuable. It frequently grows well on 
sandy loams, though sown every alternate year on the same 
land. But in some places the land becomes “ clover-sick ” 
when sown too frequently with this crop. From ten to 
twenty pounds of seed are usually sown upon an acre. 
Red clover is much valued for hay. When it grows well, 
it bears to be cut more than once in a year. White clover 
is esteemed for pasture; it grows short and thick on the 
ground, and throws out stems and flowers during the most 
of the growing season. Alsike clover has been recently in¬ 
troduced ; it rises much higher than white clover, and prom¬ 
ises to be a useful addition to our pasture-plants. White 
and alsike clovers are valuable for bee-pasture. Clovers 
perform an important part in restoring fertility to ex¬ 
hausted land. They are often ploughed under when green, 
and thus greatly benefit worn-out soils. Their leaves 
gather food from the atmosphere, which they store up in 
their roots and stems, and these on decomposing afford 
food for crops which are more dependent on the soil itself. 
The chief profit in raising clover is in the increased value 
of the manures it yields, which are highly nitrogenous. 

Clover, a township of Henry co., Ill. Pop. 1695. 

Clover, a township of Jefferson co., Pa. Pop. 868. 

Clo'verdale, a post-township of Sonoma co., Cal. Pop. 

612 . 

Cloverdale, a township and post-village of Putnam 
co., Ind., on the Louisville New Albany and Chicago R. R., 
11 miles S. S. E. of Greencastle. Pop. 1740. 

Clover Hill, a township and village of Appomattox 
co., Va., 2 miles N. E. of Appomattox. Pop. 3840. 

Clover Hill, a township and village of Chesterfield co., 
Ya. The village is on a branch of the Richmond Fred¬ 
ericksburg and Potomac R. R., 8 miles W. of Chesterfield. 
Pop. 3210. 

Clo'verport, a post-village of Breckinridge co., Ky., 
110 miles below Louisville, on the Ohio. Coal is found in 
the vicinity. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 849. 

Clover Valley, a township of Elko co., Nev. Pop. 80. 

Cloves [from the Sp. clavo, i. e. a “nail,” so called 
from its resemblance to a nail], the smoked and dried 
flower-buds of the clove tree ( Garyophyllus aromciticus), 
of the order Myrtacem. The tree is from fifteen to 
forty feet high, with a beautiful pyramidal head. The 
leaves are large, ovate-oblong, and evergreen; the flowers 
are produced in great profusion. Leaves, flowers, and bark 
have an aromatic odor. The fruit sometimes appears in 
commerce in a dried state under tho name of “ mother 
cloves;” it has an odor and flavor similar to cloves, but 
weaker. The flower-buds are gathered, and are dried by 


the smoke of wood-fires, and afterwards by the sun, or by 
the latter alone. The clove tree is a native of the Moluc¬ 
cas, and the Bencoolen and Amboyna cloves are the best; 
but they are now cultivated in Sumatra, Zanzibar, Mau¬ 
ritius, the West Indies, Brazil, and Guiana. The Hutch, to 
secure to their colonists a monopoly of this spice, once de¬ 
stroyed the trees in the other Molucca Islands, and con¬ 
fined the cultivation to the isle of Ternate. Before the dis¬ 
covery of the Spice Islands merchants brought them from 
Arabia, Persia, and Egypt to the Mediterranean. 

Their aromatic qualities depend on two essential oils, 
which together form one-seventh of the weight of the 
cloves. The oil is obtained by repeatedly distilling with 
water, when two oils pass over—one of which is lighter 
and the other is heavier than water. The oil has a hot, 
acrid taste, is of a light yellow color when pure, and brown 
when not carefully prepared. It is a mixture of eugenic 
acid (H.C 10 H 11 O 2 ) and a hydrocarbon (CioHic), isomeric 
with oil of turpentine. It is soluble in ether, alcohol, and 
the fixed oils. It is useful in medicine to check nausea 
and griping caused by the administration of purgatives, 
and as a remedy for toothache. 

Revised by C. F. Chandler. 

Clo'vis [Lat. Clodovseus] I. ? called also Chlodwig 
(probably allied to the German Ludwig, “Lewis”), king 
of the Franks, was born in 465 A. H. He was the son and 
successor of Childeric, who reigned at Tournay and died in 
481. By a victory over the Romans and Gauls in 486 
A. D., Clovis obtained possession of Soissons, which then 
became his capital. He married in 493 Clotilda, a Chris¬ 
tian princess, and about three years later, through her in¬ 
fluence, was converted to the new faith and baptized. In 
507 he defeated Alaric, king of the Visigoths, in a great 
battle near Poitiers. By this victory he added Aquitaine 
to his dominions. He chose Paris as his capital in 507. 
He died in 511 A. B., and France was then divided among 
his four sons—Thierri, Clodomir, Childeric, and Clothaire. 
His descendants are called Merovingians, from Mcrovig, 
the grandfather of Clovis. (See Y iallon, “ Clovis, le grand 
premier Roi Chretien,” 3 vols., 1788.) 

Clowes (Timothy), LL.D., an American Episcopalian 
divine and scholar, graduated at Columbia College in 1808. 
He was distinguished as a mathematician. In 1823 he 
became president of Washington College, Md., and was for 
many years a prominent educator of youth. Hied at Hemp¬ 
stead, Long Island, in 1847. 

Clown [from the Lat. colonus, a “husbandman”], a 
term originally applied to a rustic, now quite generally 
designates a professional jester or buffoon. In dramatic 
literature it is frequently the title of a prince’s jester or 
court-fool (Ger. Hofnarr; 'Ey. fon; Sp. gracioso; It. buffo), 
a privileged character at European courts in former times. 

Club [etymology uncertain], an association of persons 
for some common purpose, as of politics, literature, etc., 
denoting especially a body meeting for social purposes, and 
consisting of members belonging for the most part to some 
one class. Club-life in London had its origin in the days 
of Elizabeth, when the Mermaid tavexm, in Fleet street, en¬ 
livened by Shakspeare, Raleigh, Ben Jonson, Beaumont, 
and Fletcher, became the home of a sort of club. Jonson 
afterwards founded a club at the Bevil tavern, Fleet street. 
These were informal social meetings to which all were wel¬ 
come who could bring humor or wit. In the last century 
clubs named after the proprietors of the houses in which 
the meetings were held were established by politicians in 
England. 

After the close of the great European war in 1815 many 
officers, no longer Heeded for war, were placed upon half¬ 
pay; and this pay was insufficient to support them without 
careful economy. If they could dine at a club, it would be 
cheaper than if each maintained a separate establishment. 
Hence arose the United Service Club; and the success of this 
speedily led to others for different classes and for persons 
of different political opinions. At the present time there 
are in London sixty-eight great clubs. Each club com¬ 
prises a definite number of members; and this number 
cannot be exceeded. The members pay a sum of money 
ou entrance and an annual subscription. The clubs usually 
comprise news-rooms, libraries, dining-rooms, and draw¬ 
ing-rooms. There are arrangements for the members to 
sleep at certain establishments called club-chambers, which, 
however, are not properly clubs. Some of the clubs are 
furnished with bath, billiard, and smoking rooms. The 
restaurant is usually very complete; everything is of tho 
best, and is supplied to members nearly at cost. In nearly 
all hard drinking is discouraged. Some of the club-houses 
rank among the most elegant buildings in London. Some¬ 
what similar organizations exist in the larger cities of the 
U, S., especially in New York, but their extent and influ¬ 
ence are much smaller than in Englaud. The clubs which 
































CLUB-FOOT—CL YMEK. 


989 


sprang up in France after 1789 were not clubs in the Eng¬ 
lish sense ot the word, but meetings of the great political 
parties. 

Club-Foot ( Talipes). This deformity is mostly con¬ 
genital, and usually affects both sides. The inner margin 
ot the foot is elevated, the external one depressed and 
touches the ground. The middle and anterior portions of 
the foot are retarded in their growth, and its joints become 
immovable (ankylotic). The deformity becomes more pro¬ 
nounced when the child begins to walk, sometimes to such 
an extent that the upper part of the foot takes the place of 
the sole. At the same time the muscles of tho leg become 
emaciated, and lose their muscular texture altogether. The 
cause has been sought lor in diseases of the brain or spinal 
cord contracted before birth, or by continued pressure in 
the womb. But a more rational explanation is yielded by 
the consideration of the early condition of the foetus. The 
lower extremities are first formed (about the end of the first 
month of pregnancy) on the anterior aspect of the abdomen 
of the foetus, under the skin, in such a manner that the 
knee-pit is looking towards the abdomen. In order to 
assume its normal shape the whole extremity, including 
the foot, has to turn round its axis. When this process, as 
far as the foot is concerned, remains incomplete, club-foot 
is the result. A mild degree of club-foot is perceptible in 
every foetus about the fourth or fifth month of pregnancy. 
Some cases are the result of an abnormal obliquity of the 
small bones of the tarsus (posterior portion) of the foot, 
and a primary shortness of the gastrocnemius muscle of 
the leg. Club-foot, when acquired after birth, results from 
paralysis of the extensors of the foot. In that case the 
action of the flexors results in the same deformity. Mild 
cases require but little treatment. Manual stretching of 
the foot, proper bandaging, the application of a splint or 
plaster of Paris, are often sufficient. More serious cases 
require the cutting of one or more of the flexors (tendo 
achillis, plantar aponeurosis, anterior tibial muscles), with 
bandaging or the wearing of an appropriate apparatus 
(Scarpa’s shoe). < A. Jacobi. 

Club-Mosses, or Ground-Pines (Lycopodiaceae), 
a natural order of cryptogamous plants (acrogens), in some 
species resembling the Coniferse in general aspect, but fre¬ 
quently having something of the habit of the mosses. They 
also approach the ferns through Op>liioglossurn, in their re¬ 
production. The genera are few, the living species quite 
numerous. The genus Lycopodium yields the drug lyco¬ 
podium, a fine inflammable powder consisting of the spo- 
rules of the plant. This article is much used in pharmacy 
and in pyrotechnics. Many of the tropical species have 
active poisonous properties, and some have been used in 
medicine. Many of our native species are very beautiful, 
and are much used in Christmas decoration. The fossil 
plants of this order were often mighty trees ( Lepidodcn- 
dron), and seem to have furnished much material for the 
oldest coal deposits. At the other extreme must be placed 
the curious grass-like quill-worts ( Isoetcs ), which are mostly 
small aquatic plants of singular habit. 

Chas. W. Greene. 

Clu'niacs, or Congregation of Clugny, a re¬ 
formed Benedictine congregation, founded in 909 at Cluny 
in France. It rapidly spread, and at one time had more 
than 2000 convents, with immense wealth. It began to 
decay in the thirteenth century. It was finally suppressed 
in 1790 by the French Constituent Assembly. 

Cluny, formerly Clugny (anc. Cluniacum), a town of 
France, department of Saone-et-Loire, on the Grone, here 
crossed by two stone bridges, 14 miles N. W. of Macon. 
Here are the remains of a rich and famous Benedictine 
abbey, founded in 910 A. D. Cluny has manufactures of 
gloves, lace, linen, paper, and pottery. Pop. in 1866, 4253. 

Clupe'idiB [from Clupca (herring), perhaps the most 
important of its genera], a family of malacopterous fishes 
allied to the Salmonidie, and distinguished from them chiefly 
by the absence of an adipose fin. The scales are easily 
detached. The fins are without spinous rays. The gill- 
openings are very large,* the teeth small and generally 
numerous; the maxillary bones of three pieces easily sepa¬ 
rated ; the body generally long; the air-bladder is always 
large ,* the roe consists of a vast number of eggs. A few 
of the fishes of this family ascend rivers, the rest are exclu¬ 
sively marine. They generally appear in shoals, and some 
of them periodically visit certain coasts in great numbers. 
They are found in many parts of the world, some species 
especially having a wide geographic range. To this family 
with its widest limits belong the herring, shad, pilchard, 
anchovy, sardine, etc., but the latest authorities divide it 
into several families. 

Cluseret (Gustave Paul), a French revolutionist, 
born June 13, 1823, resigned in 1858 his place as captain 
in the French army because he had adopted the principles 


of Mazzini. In 1859 he served under Garibaldi, and in 
1861 entered the volunteer army of the U. S., in which he 
became in 1862 a brigadier-general. In 1864 he published 
in New York the “New Nation,” to urge the nomination 
of Fremont for the presidency. Ilis attempts, in 1870, to 
proclaim in Lyons and Marseilles the “ Bed Republic ” 
failed. In Mar., 1871, the Communists of Paris appointed 
him chief of the war department; on May 1 he was de¬ 
posed, arrested, and impeached, but after a few days set 
free, and fled to England. 

Clu' sia [so called in honor of the botanist Lecluse or 
Clusius], the name of a genus of small tropical trees and 
shrubs of the order Clusiacem. Some of them are called 
balsam trees, from their resinous or balsamic products. 
They are often epiphytes, growing on larger trees, over the 
bark of which they send their roots in search of decayed 
parts from which they may extract nourishment; some¬ 
times a root is sent to the ground, and becomes a kind of 
stem. According to good authorities, they are sometimes 
parasitical. Clusia rosea, a native of the West Indies and 
tropical America, yields an abundant resin, which is used 
in medicine and for covering boats instead of pitch. A 
resin which exudes in large quantities from the disk of the 
flowers of Clxisia insignis, known as the wax-flower of De- 
merara, is used to make a gently-stimulating and soothing 
plaster. Clusia fiava, or yellow balsam tree, grows in 
Southern Florida and the West Indies. It abounds in a 
yellow resin or balsam, which has medicinal qualities, and 
is largely used in the West Indies instead of pitch. 

Clustered Col'umns, or Compound Piers, form 
one of the richest features in Gothic ecclesiastical archi¬ 
tecture. The columns or shafts are sometimes attached to 
each other throughout their whole length, sometimes only 
at the base and the capital. When surrounded by floriated 
fillets they are compared by Sir Walter Scott to “ bundles 
of lances that garlands have bound.” 

Clutts'ville, a township of Madison co., Ala. P. 1311. 

Clu'ver (Philip), a learned geographer, born at Dantzic 
in 1580. He published an ‘‘Introduction to Universal 
Geography, Ancient and Modern” (1629 ; best ed. Amster¬ 
dam, 1729), “ Germania Antiqua,” and “Italia Antiqua” 
(1624). Hied in 1623. 

Clyde, the principal river on the W. coast of Scotland, 
celebrated for the beauty of its scenery, rises in the Low- 
ther and Moffat Hills. It drains the counties of Lanark, 
Renfrew, and Dumbarton, and flows generally in a N. W. 
direction. Near the town of Lanark occur the Falls of the 
Clyde, a series of cascades and rapids. The river descends 
230 feet in a course of six miles over old red sandstone 
rocks, amid very picturesque scenery. The highest of 
these cascades is Corra Linn, forming three distinct leaps, 
in all eighty-four feet high. At Glasgow the Clyde be¬ 
comes navigable for large vessels, and at Greenock it is 
four miles wide. Below Greenock it flows southward, and 
expands into the Frith of Clyde, which is about thirty miles 
wide. Its length is 75 miles, not including the frith. 

Clyde, a post-village of Cloud co., Kan. It is on the 
Republican River, and has one weekly newspaper. 

Clyde, a township of Whitesides co., Ill. Pop. 1093. 

Clyde, a township of Allegan co., Mich. Pop. 298. 

Clyde, a township of St. Clair co., Mich. Pop. 1176. 

Clyde, a post-village of Wayne co., N. Y., on the Erie 
Canal, and on the Clyde River where it is crossed by the 
Central R. R., 44 miles E. of Rochester. It has six churches, 
two banks, one newspaper, a manufactory of glass, and 
several malthouses. Pop. 2735. Ed. Clyde “ Times.” 

Clyde, a post-village of Sandusky co., 0., at the junc¬ 
tion of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern and the 
Cincinnati Sandusky and Cleveland R. Rs. It has a news¬ 
paper and various manufactures. 

W. W. White, Ed. Clyde “Independent.” 

Clyde, a township of Iowa co., Wis. Pop. 1124. 

Clyde, Lord. See Campbell (Colin). 

Cly'man, a township and post-village of Dodge co., 
Wis. The village is on the Chicago and North-western 
R. R., 8 miles N. of Watertown and 138 miles N. W. of 
Chicago. Pop. of township, 1426. 

Cly'mer, a township and post-village of Chautauqua 
co., N. Y. The village is on the Buffalo Corry and Pitts¬ 
burg R. R., 83 miles S. W. of Buffalo. Pop. of township, 
1486. 

Clymer, a township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 1079. 

Clymer (George), an American statesman, born in 
Philadelphia in 1739. He was elected to the C ontinental 
Congress in 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independ¬ 
ence. He was re-elected a member of Congress in 1780, 
and was a member of the convention which formed the 






















990 


CLYT.EMNESTRA—COAL. 


Federal Constitution in 1787. lie was the founder of the 
Pennsylvania Agricultural Society. Died July 23, 1813. 

Clytaeiniles'tra, or Clytemnestra [Gr. KAvrai/a- 
vr)(rrpa], the wife of Agamemnon, king of Mycenai, was a 
sister of Castor and of Helen. She became the paramour 
of Ailgisthus, and murdered Agamemnon on his return 
from Troy. She was killed by her son Orestes. 

Cni'cin, or Centau'rin (CuIIigOs?), the bitter prin¬ 
ciple of Cnicu8, or Gentaurea benedictm. It is in odorless, 
silky needles, having a pure bitter taste. (See Blessed 
Thistle.) 

Cni/dus [Gr. Ki/i'Sos], sometimes written Gnidos, an 
ancient Greek city of Caria, in Asia Minor, was on the 
Aegean Sea and on the promontory of Triopion. It was 
one of the six cities of the Doric league called Hexapohs, 
and had an extensive commerce. Here were several fa¬ 
mous temples of Venus, one of which contained a celebrated 
marble statue of Venus by Praxiteles. Cnidus was partly 
built on a small island, connected by a causeway with the 
mainland. Conon the Athenian defeated the Spartan fleet 
near Cnidus in 391 B. C. 

Coach. See Carriages, etc., by L. P. Brockett, M. D. 

Coadju'tor [from the Lat. co (for con), “ together with,” 
and adjuvo, adjutum, to “help ”], an assistant; in ecclesias¬ 
tical law, a term technically applied to one appointed to 
assist a bishop or other dignitary. Coadjutant bishops in 
the Roman Catholic Church are usually bishops of sees in 
partibus. In the Protestant Episcopal Church of the 
U. S. they are called assistant bishops. 

Coagula'tion [from the Lat. co (for con), “together,” 
and ago, to “ drive,” to “ force ”], the changing of a liquid 
to a semi-solid or curd-like consistency. Thus, the white 
of an egg becomes solidified on the application of heat. 
The caseine of milk is coagulated (curdled) by the action 
of rennet and by many acids. The fibrine in the blood, 
chyle, and lymph is coagulated after the removal of these 
fluids from the living animal. Great importance was for¬ 
merly attached by physicians to the appearance of the 
blood-clot or coagulum after bleeding. 

Coaho'ma, a county in the W. N. W. of Mississippi. 
Area, 575 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the 
Mississippi River. The surface is level, low, and partly 
subject to inundation. The soil is fertile. Cotton and corn 
are largely raised. Capital, Friar’s Point. Pop. 7144. 

Coal, a general name given to several carbonaceous 
substances derived from vegetable tissue. It was formerly 
limited to what is now known as charcoal, the residual car¬ 
bon of wood, from which the volatile constituents have been 
expelled by heat; but it is at present almost universally 


used to denote the various kinds of mineral fuel. As theso 
have no definite composition, the vagueness of the term has 
given rise to much discussion in scientific books and courts 
of law. These substances form part of an unbroken series 
which begins with woody fibre and ends with graphite. 
They are all derived from the decomposition of vegetable 
tissue in the changes which it undergoes when buried under 
water, earth, or rock. The different products of this pro¬ 
gressive change, which is a sort of distillation, are peat, 
lignite, bituminous and anthracite coal, graphite, and as- 
phaltum, which are solids; petroleum and water, which are 
liquids; carbonic acid, carburetted hydrogen, etc., which 
are gases. Of these, all the solids, excepting asphaltum, 
are residual products, while that substance and the liquids 
and gases are the evolved products or distillates. The first 
mineralized solid formed from vegetable tissue is called lig¬ 
nite, if derived from wood—peat, if from herbaceous vegeta¬ 
tion. Neither of these substances has any definite formula 
of composition, as each individual specimen may represent 
a distinct stage of the process of bitumenization. The na¬ 
ture of the change which takes place in the formation of peat 
and lignite from vegetable tissue will be best understood 
by the comparison of typical examples of each given below: 


jetable tissue. 


Loss. 

Peat. 

Carbon . 

.49.1. 

.21.50. 

..27.6 

Hydrogen. 

. 6.3. 

. 3.50. 


Oxygen. 

.44.6. 


.15.5 

Wood. 


Loss. 

Lignite. 

Carbon . 

.49.1. 

.18.65. 

.30.45 

Hvdrogen . 



. 3.05 

Oxygen. 

.44.6. 

.24.40. 

.20.30 


In this process the evolved products represented by the loss 
are water, carbonic acid, carburetted hydrogen, or petro¬ 
leum. Where peat and lignite have been longer buried in 
the earth they have suffered still further loss and change, 
and are converted into what is termed bituminous coal, as 
will be seen in the following example : 


Lignite. 


Loss. 

Bituminous coal. 

Carbon. 

.30.45. 

.12.35.. 

.18.10 

Hydrogen. 


. 1.85.. 

. 1.20 

Oxygen. 

.20.20. 

.18.13.. 

. 2.07 


This is the condition in which we find most of the beds 
of peat and lignite which accumulated in what is called the 
carboniferous age millions of years ago, and which, deeply 
buried, have been subjected to a slow and general distilla¬ 
tion, resulting in the formation of the different varieties 
of bituminous coal. Where exposed to peculiar influences, 
as to heat from volcanic eruptions, or in the elevation of 
mountain-chains where all the strata are baked and hard¬ 
ened, the volatile constituents of bituminous coal are par- 



Vegetation of the Coal Marshes. 


tially .or perfectly driven off, giving us, first, semi-bitu- I process by which anthracite and graphite are formed from 
minous coal, then anthracite, and finally graphite. The I ordinary coal is indicated in the succeeding formulae: 

















































































COAL. 


991 


uminous coal. 
Carbon . , 

.18.10.. 

Loss. 

.S.;i7. 

Anthracite. 
.14.53 

Hydrogen. 




Oxygen. 

. 2.07. 


. 0.65 

Anthracite. 


Loss. 

Graphite. 

Carbon. . 

.14.53. 

.1.42. 


Hydrogen . 

. 0.27. 


. 0.13 

Oxygen . 

. 0.(55.. 

..*..0.65. 



All the varieties of coal mentioned above shade into each 
other, and we have lignites which exhibit every degree of 
approach to bituminous coals, semi-bituminous coals inter¬ 
mediate between these latter and anthracite, and graphitic 
anthracites by which the anthracites are connected with 
the graphites. 

The geological position of the different varieties of coal 
accords with the theory of their origin given above. For 
example, the oldest rocks known contain comparatively 
little carbonaceous matter, as they date from a period when 
the vegetation of the globe was scanty and mostly marine. 
Here we have only the residual products of the distillation 
of vegetable tissue, graphite and anthracite. In the car¬ 
boniferous age the terrestrial vegetation was luxuriant 
over large areas, and conditions prevailed favorable to the 
formation of beds of peat. These, submerged and deeply 
buried under sediments which were deposited upon them, 
have, as a general rule, been changed to our beds of bitu¬ 
minous coal—to anthracite where local causes have carried 
the process of distillation further. In formations more 
modern thaa the carboniferous we find the accumulations 
of vegetable matter usually classed as lignites. These 
contain more water and oxygen, and are less valuable fuels, 
than the true coals, but shade into them imperceptibly. In 
the present period we see the formation of coal only in its 
initial stages—viz. the growth of vegetation and the accu¬ 
mulation of bitumenized vegetable tissue in marshes, where 
oxidation is prevented or retarded by water. By artificial 
processes we can, however, hasten the changes in vegetable 
tissue, and by properly conducted distillation produce 
lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite. We find, too, 
that Nature is locally accelerating her processes, and by 
volcanic heat distilling lignites and bituminous coals to 
anthracite. Near Santa Fe, New Mexico, and on Queen 
Charlotte’s Island, excellent anthracite has been produced 
by volcanic heat from cretaceous lignites. At Los Bronces, 
in Sonora, triassic coal is converted into anthracite by a 
similar cause. In Eastern America all the coal strata, ex¬ 
cept those of the small triassic basins of Virginia and North 
Carolina, are of carboniferous age. In the Valley of the Mis¬ 


sissippi, where they have suffered no local metamorphosis, 
they are all of the bituminous class. In the Alleghanies the 
same strata, having been somewhat affected by the causes 
which resulted in the upheaval of the mountains, have lost a 
portion of their volatile matter, and have become what are 
known as semi-bituminous coals. To this group belong 
the coals of Blossburg, Broad Top, Frostburg, and a belt 
running down to Alabama. Still farther E. the carbon¬ 
iferous strata are more metamorphosed, and the coal which 
they contain is converted into anthracite. In Rhode Island 
a coal-basin of limited extent, and of the same age with 
those of Pennsylvania, seems to have been still nearer the 
focus of metamorphic action ; and here the coal is partially 
converted into graphite, forming the variety known a3 
graphitic anthracite. 

The value of coal in the economy of civilization is now 
so well understood and so fully appreciated that it requires 
no lengthy exposition. Coal may indeed be considered as 
the mainspring of our civilization. In its combustion the 
heat of the sun, absorbed in the growth of the plants from 
which it is derived, is all given out again, subject to human 
control; and, as heat is but another name for physical 
force, coal becomes the most important source of power at 
our command. The power developed in the combustion 
of a pound of coal is theoretically equal to 10,800,000 foot¬ 
pounds. But by our imperfect methods of utilization not 
more than 1,500,000 foot-pounds are made available for 
our purposes. This is about the amount of power exerted 
by a man of ordinary strength during a day of labor. 
Hence 300 pounds of coal will represent the labor of a man 
for a year. The annual production of coal in the British 
Islands in 1871 was 117,000,000 tons. Of this, aside from 
all exported or employed for heating, lighting, smelting, 
etc., it has been estimated that 20,000,000 tons are devoted 
to the development of motive-power, and that this is equiv¬ 
alent to the labor of 133,000,000 of men who are producers 
and not consumers. Hence, if we may suppose that the re¬ 
mainder of the coal product of the United Kingdom pays 
the expense of the entire production, we may estimate the 
contribution annually made to the wealth of the British 
Islands by their coal product to be greater than that of 
100,000,000 of laborers industriously employed and requir¬ 
ing no food and no pay. 

Such being the value of coal, its geographical distribu¬ 
tion becomes of great interest and importance. Among 
the nations of Europe the English occupy a pre-eminent 
position, not only from the extent of their coal-fields, but 


Ohio. 


Pennsylvania. 


Semi-Bituminous 



S. Shamokin N. Mahanoy Bear Ridge Middle Mahanoy Hassasock 

Basin. Locust Mt. Basiu. Axis. Basin. Axis. 



from the industries dependent upon them. The British 
coal area is estimated to be 11,859 square miles, and the 
coal production in 1871 was 117,352,028 tons. The coal 
area of France is about 2000 square miles, and the produc¬ 
tion in 1868 was 12,800,000 tons. Belgium has a coal area 
estimated at 500 square miles, and in 1871 produced 
13,671,470 tons. In Prussia the coal area has been con¬ 
siderably increased by the cession of the Rhine provinces, 
and she now has probably 4000 square miles of very deep 
and valuable coal strata. The production of coal in Prus¬ 
sia and the other German states in 1869 was 26,774,368 
tons. The coal area of Spain is not definitely known. Her 
coal-field in the province of Asturias is one of the most im¬ 
portant on the continent of Europe, but as yet her coal 
production is small. Russia and Austria are less liberally 
supplied with coal than the other nations of Europe. 

Coal also occurs in China, India, Australia, Japan, and 
Borneo. So far as known, it is all of mcsozoic age, though 
in China and Japan anthracite and well-formed bituminous 
coals are found, and have been worked for centuries. 

When we turn to the U. S., we find a coal area which 
throws all those which have been mentioned into insignif¬ 
icance. And yet it should be said that the coal-basins of 
the U. S. are shallow as compared with those of Europe, 
and the vertical thickness of coal they contain considerably 
less. Their importance cannot, therefore, be accurately 


measured by their superficial extent. Even with this quali¬ 
fication, however, the coal-fields of America are by far the 
most extensive and richest in the world. The coai area of 
the U. S. is divided into several distinct basins, of which 
the most important are the following: 1st, the Alleghany 
coal-field, bordering the Alleghany Mountains on the W. 
side, and reaching from the N. line of Pennsylvania to the 
middle of Alabama. Its area is computed at 58,737 square 
miles. 2d, the Illinois coal-field, which covers a large part 
of Illinois and portions of Indiana and Kentucky. Its area 
is estimated at 64,887 square miles. 3d, the Missouri coal¬ 
field, lying W. of the Mississippi in the States of Iowa, Kan¬ 
sas, Arkansas, Missouri, and Texas, and supposed to extend 
over 47,138 square miles. To these great expanses of coal 
territory must be added the anthracite basins of Pennsyl¬ 
vania and Rhode Island, the coal-fields of Virginia, Michi¬ 
gan, and North Carolina, and the numerous and extensive 
deposits of cretaceous and tertiary coals of the far West. 
Combining all these, the productive coal area of the U. S. 
will be seen to exceed 200,000 square miles. The produc¬ 
tion of coal in the U. S. was in 1870, 33,310,905 tons, of 
which Pennsylvania furnished 23,448,793 tons (15,648,437 
tons anthracite, 7,800,356 tons bituminous coal). The coal 
production of the U. S. for 1872 was estimated at 40,000,000 
tons. 

The different chemical and physical properties exhibited 









































992 


COAL—COAL-FISH 


by the various kinds of coal fit them for a wide range of 
uses in the arts. Coals are primarily divided into two 
great groups—the hard and soft, or the anthracite and 
bituminous coals—but each of these groups is capable of 
subdivision into several varieties. For example, we have 
at the base ot the series— 1 , Graphite, which is a coal de¬ 
prived of all its volatile matter, and consisting only of a 
portion of its carbon mingled with all its ash. This is 
practically incombustible, and is never used as a fuel nor 
classed as a coal. 2, Graphitic anthracite, containing 1 or 
2 per cent, of gaseous matter, igniting with difficulty, and 
forming an inferior fuel. This is the prevailing variety of 
coal in the Rhode Island coal-basin, 3, Anthracite, contain¬ 
ing from 3 to 10 per cent, of volatile matter, sometimes 95 
per cent of carbon, igniting with some difficulty, but pro- 

The following 


ducing in combustion an intense local heat. When burn¬ 
ing it gives off a little blue flame (carbonic oxide), is 
valueless for purposes of illumination, but the best of all 
fuels for smelting iron, and is extensively used for the gen¬ 
eration of steam and for household purposes. 4, Semi-bi¬ 
tuminous coal, containing from 15 to 20 per cent, of gaseous 
matter, but generally caking in the fire ; of little value as 
an illuminator, but kindling readily, with high heating 
power. It is the most highly valued of all coals for the 
generation of steam. The semi-bituminous coals produce 
a dense and excellent coke, and in the raw state are pre¬ 
ferred to all others for blacksmiths’ use, as they form a 
hollow fire and produce intense heat in combustion. 5, 
Bituminous coals, which have been subjected to no local 
j metamorphic action, but are the natural product of the 


sections, general and local, will serve to give an idea of the mode of occurrence of coal in the carboniferous rocks, 

and of the nature of the associated strata. 



slow and general distillation of vegetable tissue buried in 
the earth since the palmozoic ages. In bituminous coals 
the volatile matter varies in quantity from 30 to 50 per 
cent, of the mass. They are subdivided into colcing, fur¬ 
nace, and cannel coals. Of these the coking coals melt 
and adhere in burning, and when the gaseous matter has 
escaped a mass of “coke” is left which has the properties 
of anthracite, but is cellular or spongy from the expansion 
of the gases. Most bituminous coals belong to this variety, 
of which the Pittsburg coal may be taken as a type. They 
are extensively employed for the generation of steam, as 
household fuels, and, when coked, for smelting the metals 
their adhesive character preventing their being used for 
this purpose in the raw state. Caking coals which are 
sufficiently free from sulphur, their great contaminating 
ingredient, are termed “gas coals,” as they are chiefly em° 
ployed for the production of illuminating gas. In the vol¬ 
ume and illuminating power of their gas they are exceeded 
by the cannel coals, but their deficiency in this respect is 
more than compensated for by the greater value of the 
coke which is derived from them. The furnace coals are 
those bituminous coals which do not melt or adhere in the 
fire, and can therefore be employed in the raw state in the 
blast furnace. These are termed “open-burning,” 
sometimes “ splint coals,” but the latter term is more 
propriately applied to a kind of cannel coal 
which contains a large percentage of carbon, 
comparatively little gas, and has high heating 
power. The famous Brier Hill coal of Ohio 
and the Brazil coal of Indiana are typical 
furnace coals. The cannel coals have a more 
homogeneous texture, and are less pitchy and 
brilliant, than the other bituminous coals. They 
represent the carbonaceous mud which accumu¬ 
lated in the open lagoons of the coal marshes, 
while the surrounding mass of spongy vegetable 
tissue formed the cubical coal. The cannels are rich in gas, 
but have comparatively low heating power. They are favor¬ 
ite household fuels, are employed for the production of oil 
by distillation, but are nearly valueless for metallurgical 



purposes. Nearly all coal-fields contain more or less cannel, 
which is either interstratified with the cubical coal or grad- 
ually passes into it in one or another direction. As a gen¬ 
eral rule, the cannels contain more ash than the furnace or 
gas coals; and as the earthy matter increases in quantity, 
they shade off imperceptibly into bituminous shale. The 
most esteemed household fuel in our Atlantic cities is the 
English Wigan cannel, which is preferred to the American 
cannels, since it generally contains much less ash. (See 
Anthracite, Lignite, and Peat.) J. S. Newberry. 

Coal, a township of Northumberland co., Pa. P. 2920. 

Coal, a township of Harrison co., West Ya. Pop. 2058. 

Coal Banks, a village of Fremont co., Col., on the 
Arkansas River, 12 miles below Canon City, has productive 
mines of coal, called “canon” coal. 

Coal'burg, a post-village of Kanawha co., West Va., 
on the Kanawha and the Chesapeake and Ohio R.R., 10 miles 
S. E. from Charleston. It has mines of bituminous coal. 

Coal Creek, a twp. of Montgomery co., Ind. P. 1773. 

Coal-fish ( Merlangus carbonarius), a fish of the family 
Gadidae, and of the same genus with the whiting, corre¬ 
sponding in form and fins, but of a different color, the 
upper parts being nearly black. It is much larger in size, 
and is noted for its voracity. These fish are found in large 


• Coal-fish. 

shoals, and when attracted by bait will keep near a boat 
till great numbers are taken. Although a coarse fish, the 
coal-fish is much used for food in northern parts. It is 
found in the most arctic regions, both on the European and 


and 
ap- l 




































































































































' ' " . 

COAL GAS—COAST SURVEY. 993 


American sides of the Atlantic. The liver of the coal-fish 
abounds in oil, which is used for various purposes. This is 
one of the fishes known as pollock in the U. S. 

Coal Gas. See Gas, by Prof. C. F. Chandler. 

Coal-Mines, a post-village of Queen’s co., N. B., on 
Salmon River, has rich mines of coal and large manufac¬ 
tures of lumber. Steamers run regularly in summer to St. 
John, 77 miles distant. 

Coal-Mines, a township of Bussell co., Kan. P.156. 

Coal Oil. See Petroleum, by Prof. C. F. Chandler. 

Coal Tar. See Tar, by Prof. C. F. Chandler. 

Coal'port, a village of Meigs co., 0., 1 mile below 
Pomeroy, on the N. bank of the Ohio. It has extensive 
coal-mines. 

Coalport, a village of Alleghany co., Pa., 7 miles 
below Pittsburg, on the left bank of the Ohio, at the ter¬ 
minus of a coal railroad. 

Coal'ton, a post-village of Boyd co., Ky., near Ash¬ 
land, with which it is connected by rail. It has mines of 
excellent block coal. 

Coal Val'ley, a township and post-village of Rock 
Island co., Ill. The village is on the Peoria and Rock 
Island R. R., 12 miles S. E. of Rock Island. Pop. 2545. 

Coal'ville, a post-village, capital of Summit co., Ut. 
It is the southern terminus of a branch railroad, 5 miles 
long, from Echo City on the Union Pacific R. R. It has 
beds of valuable cretaceous coal. 

Coail' (Titus), D. D., an American missionary, born at 
Killingworth, Conn., Feb. 1, 1801. He graduated at Au¬ 
burn Seminai’y in 1833. In 1834 he sailed for the Sand¬ 
wich Islands, where his success as a missionary was very 
great. He contributed important papers on volcanoes to 
the “American Journal of Sciences” (1840-70). 

Coast-Guard, in Great Britain, a force posted along 
the coast, and originally intended to prevent smuggling 
merely, but now made to serve as a defensive force also. 
The organization was formerly in the employment of the 
customs department, but in 1856 the coast-guard was trans¬ 
ferred to the admiralty. Under this arrangement the admi¬ 
ralty may from time to time issue orders for additions to 
the coast-guard, which must not, however, exceed 10,000 
men in all. The coasts are divided into eleven districts, 
each of which is under a navy captain, who has a guard- 
ship at one of its ports. The able seamen, named on the 
ships’ books, and employed on shore in coast-guard service, 
are in three classes—chief boatmen, commissioned boat¬ 
men, and boatmen. In time of war all of these men may 
be called upon to serve as regular sailors on board ship. 
The coast-guard are taught naval gunnery, gunboat exer¬ 
cise, and the serving of land-batteries. Besides the eleven 
district guard-ships there is a head-quarters’ ship. 

The Royal Naval Coast Volunteers is a corps organ¬ 
ized in connection with the coast-guard for the defence of 
the coasts of the United Kingdom. By an act of Parlia- 
ment passed in 1853, the admiralty was empowered to raise 
a number, not to exceed 10,000, of coast volunteers for five 
years’ service, and to be exercised twenty-eight days in 
each year, either on shipboard or on shore; not to be sent 
more than fifty leagues from the coast unless in cases of 
emergency, when the distance may be extended to one 
hundred leagues. In ordinary cases one year’s active 
service entitles them to discharge. Their pay, allowance, 
and rank during exercise and active service are the same 
as those of able seamen. 

Coasting-Trade, the trade which is carried on by 
sea between the different ports of the same country. Coast¬ 
ing vessels or vessels employed in this commerce are sub¬ 
ject to certain rates and regulations differing from those 
relating to oversea traders, and the masters are required to 
keep books proving that their cargoes come strictly within 
the limits of coasting-trade. Formerly in Great Britain no 
goods or passengers were allowed to be carried from one 
port of the United Kingdom to another except in British 
vessels, but this restriction was repealed in 1854. 

The coasting-trade of the U. S. is very extensive. Former¬ 
ly, this trade Avas chiefly carried on by means of schooners 
and sloops, but of late years its character has much changed. 
Since the introduction of screw steamers for this service 
there is a prospect that they will to a great extent super¬ 
sede the use of schooners on our coast. 

Coast-Line is the name given to.the line which bounds 
the coast of any country, island, or continent. Very im¬ 
portant results follow from the degree to which a coast is 
indented by inlets, gulfs, or other natural interruptions of 
a straight iine; and in proportion as a coast-line is longer 
as compared with the simplest possible line enclosing the 
same area, so is there generally facility of access, shelter 
for ships, and a capacity for commerce. The coast of Eu- 
63 


rope is very remarkable in this respect as compared with 
any other part of the world; for with an area of 3,816,400 
square miles, one side of which is in contact with Asia, 
there is a length of coast of nearly 20,000 miles; while 
Africa, with an area of 11,600,000 square miles, has less 
than 15,000 miles of coast; and even Asia, whose area is 
17,310,000 square miles, has only 30,000 miles. Of both 
North and South America, the Atlantic and Pacific coasts 
are very different, for the former presents in all upwards 
of 23,000 miles, and the latter only 15,500 miles of coast¬ 
line. The most important trading countries are, with few 
if any exceptions, alv\ r ays those with the longest coast-line. 

Coast Range, or Coast Mountains, a range of 
mountains in California extending nearly parallel Avith the 
coast of the Pacific Ocean, from Oregon to the southern 
boundary of the State. San Bernardino, a peak of this 
range, rises 8500 feet above the level of the sea. 

Coast Survey. An accurate acquaintance with the 
physical features of the coast that bounds its territory is 
an economical necessity to every nation largely engaged in 
commerce. The ocean being the great outlet of produc¬ 
tion, the highway over which the currents of commerce are 
constantly flowing to and fro, the diminution of its haz¬ 
ards is a matter of the greatest moment. Among the dan¬ 
gers to Avhich the mariner is exposed, the most formidable 
are those which beset him when he approaches the land, 
arising out of his unacquaintance with the sea-bottom be¬ 
neath him, with the currents that carry him out of his 
course, with the situation of reefs, shoals, or dangerous 
shores, and with the courses that would take him safely to 
his destination. Against these dangers no absolute secur¬ 
ity can be provided, but they can be very much diminished 
by supplying accurate charts of the coasts and their ap¬ 
proaches, and by maintaining lighthouses and buoys to 
mark a\ r ailable channels or warn against hidden dangers. 
To supply this Avant the governments of all maritime na¬ 
tions have in modern times undertaken sun r eys of their 
coasts by the most exact geodetic and hydrographic meth¬ 
ods, resulting in elaborate charts for the guidance of the 
navigator, and aiding in the selection of sites for light¬ 
houses and the proper location of buoys. Such a survey 
of the coast of the U. S., carried on under the authority of 
the Federal government, has also for a number of years 
been in progress, and it is the object of this article to re- 
A r ieAV the history, methods, and present condition of this 
important public Avork. 

In the early part of this century the only charts of our 
coasts and harbors in existence were those made in the 
latter half of the last century by Des Barres, Roman, Gauld, 
and other surveyors, acting under the orders of the British 
admiralty. Respectable chiefly by the great extent of 
coast-line represented, their charts were the merest pre¬ 
liminary explorations, and fell far short of the wants of 
navigation. The necessity for a thorough survej r was per¬ 
ceived very early in the history of the nation, and, upon 
the recommendation of President Jefferson, Congress in 
1807 passed an act authorizing the President to cause a 
survey to be made of the coasts of the U. S., in which 
were to be designated the islands, shoals, and places of 
anchorage within twenty leagues of the shores; and such 
other matter as might be deemed proper for complet¬ 
ing an accurate chart of every part of the coast; it also 
authorized the survey of St. George’s Bank and the sound¬ 
ings and currents beyond the limits aforesaid to the Gulf 
Stream. 

The plan of survey adopted by government was sub¬ 
mitted by Prof. F. R. Hassler, a native of SAvitzerland, 
who had gained experience in similar Avorks abroad, and 
who was accordingly appointed to superintend its execu¬ 
tion. It consists substantially of three operations: first 
that of geodesy, or the accurate determination of the geo¬ 
graphical position of numerous points along the coast by as¬ 
tronomical and trigonometrical methods; second, that of to¬ 
pography, or the delineation of the coast-line and the charac¬ 
teristic features of the land; and third, the hydrography, 
or a nautical survey of the channels, shoals, and approaches 
to the shore, including observations of currents and tides. 
The geodesy furnishes the framework for the map, without 
which the accumulation of unavoidable inaccuracies in its 
topographic survey would soon attain objectionable pro¬ 
portions; but taking a fresh departure from each point 
that has been trigonometrically determined, the errors of the 
land-survey are checked and kept within bounds inappre¬ 
ciable on its scale of representation. The nautical survey, 
equally taking frequent points of reference supplied by 
the two preceding operations, cannot run into any material 
error of position. 

To appreciate the necessity of a geodetic sun ey as tho 
basis of a series of coast-charts, it must be borne in mind 
that, the figure of the earth is a spheroid, and that conse- 










COAST SURVEY. 


994 


quently methods of plane surveying, when extended over 
areas of large extent, would lead to intolerable errors of 
misrepresentation. Geodesy takes account of the true 
figuro of the earth, determining with the greatest attain¬ 
able accuracy the distances and bearings between the 
scries of points by the processes of base-measurement and 
triangulation, and determining the curvature of the surface 
at suitably chosen points in the series by the determina¬ 
tion of their differences of latitude and longitude. The 
geographical position of the intermediate points can then 
bo computed with great precision, and the whole chain 
projected upon a suitable plan that enables us to preserve 
as nearly as possible their principal relative positions. 
The steps of the principal triangulation are made as large 
as possible, in order to avoid the accumulation of error, 
and the operations are checked at intervals by the lineal 
measurement of some of the distances, serving as a verifi¬ 
cation for the entire chain. 

The delay naturally attending new enterprises, the ne¬ 
cessity of procuring all the instruments from Europe, where 
they had to be specially constructed, the interruption caused 
by the war between England and the U. S., and the subse¬ 
quent pressure upon the public finances, prevented active 
operations from being undertaken until 1817, when a com¬ 
mencement was made near the important harbor of New 
York. But the work had been hardly begun when the last- 
mentioned cause led to its abandonment by the failure of 
Congress to provide funds for its continuance. From 1817 
to 1832. detached portions of the coast were surveyed by 
naval officers, some harbors were surveyed, and hydro- 
graphic reconnaissances made of the coast of some of the 
States,- but no general survey was attempted, nor did these 
detached surveys yield more than the most indispensable 
information.' On the repeated representations of Hon. S. 
L. Southard, secretary of the navy, and others, Congress in 
1832 again made a small appropriation for carrying out the 
law of 1807, under which the operations of the Coast Sur¬ 
vey passed anew under the charge of Hassler, who was au¬ 
thorized to employ, in the conduct of the work, such as¬ 
tronomers and other persons as he should judge proper, in 
addition to the officers in the military and naval service. 
Mr. Hassler continued to direct the work until his death, 
which occurred in the year 1843. 

In reviewing the history of this early period it is proper 
to remember that the first years were necessarily years of 
organization and instruction. The superintendent had to 
systematize methods, to train up assistants, to cause the 
work to grow from a small beginning until it comprehended 
the various operations of a geodetic survey upon the land, 
and included the hydrography of the adjacent waters. 
When the results accumulated it was necessary to provide 
for their computation and reduction, and also for the prepa¬ 
ration of maps and charts upon a plan suited to our ex¬ 
tended coast, and for the engraving of the maps themselves. 
All these things were new in this country. The amount of 
knowledge, skill, and labor required to overcome these and 
other difficulties was hardly appreciated. The results show 
how large an amount of work had been done, and how the 
work was extending beneficially at the time of Mr. Ilassler’s 
death. 

The condition of the work as Mr. Hassler left it will be 
made intelligible by the following brief statement: A base¬ 
line had been measured in the vicinity of New York, the 
commercial importance of which obviously indicated it as 
the proper point of beginning. The triangulation had ex¬ 
tended eastward to Rhode Island and southward to the 
head of Chesapeake Bay, the primary triangulation cross¬ 
ing the neck of New Jersey and Delaware, while a secondary 
triangulation skirted the coast of New Jersey, meeting with 
another series which extended down Delaware Bay. The 
topography had kept pace with the triangulation, and the 
hydrography of New York bay and harbor, of Long Island 
Sound, of Delaware bay and river, and the off-shore sound¬ 
ings from Montauk Point to the capes of the Delaware were 
substantially completed. The triangulation covered an area 
of 9000 square miles, furnishing determinations of nearly 
1200 stations for the delineation of 1600 miles of shore¬ 
line; 168 topographical maps had been surveyed and 142 
hydrographic charts. 

The progress thus sketched, although really very consid¬ 
erable and highly creditable to the late superintendent, was 
still felt to be inadequate to the pressing demands of com¬ 
merce, and clamors arose in Congress against the adminis¬ 
tration of the survey, ascribing the slow progress to an un¬ 
necessary refinement in the processes employed, and claim¬ 
ing the results to be inadequate to the expenditure. An 
investigation was accordingly instituted in 1842 by a Con¬ 
gressional committee, which, after a severe and unfriendly 
scrutiny, practically resulted in a complete endorsement of 
the principles on which the survey had been conducted by 
Hassler, while at the same time a more efficient plan of or¬ 


ganization was put in force. According to this plan the 
personnel consists of a superintendent, under whose general 
direction the work is carried on by assistants detailed from 
the army for the survey on land, and from the navy for the 
nautical work, so far as officers could be spared from the 
respective services; and in addition to these of a number 
of civil assistants, who form a more permanent nucleus, pre¬ 
serving unity of system and method. The responsibility of 
carrying into effect the provisions of the adopted plan, and 
of expanding the work to a scale commensurate with the 
growing demands of commerce, fell mainly, upon Hassler’s 
successor, Prof. A. D. Bache. His appointment was made 
upon the united representations of the colleges, learned 
societies, and men of science in the country, whose estimate 
of his merits has been abundantly justified by the brilliancy 
of his official career. Upon his recommendation Congress 
provided the means for carrying on the work independently 
in many places at once; each section having its own base 
and geographical determinations, but all designed to form, 
when completed, a continuous chain of triangulation and a 
homogeneous survey of the whole coast. In 1845, besides 
extending in both directions the former work, active opera¬ 
tions were commenced on the coasts of Virginia and North 
Carolina, and of Alabama and Mississippi in the Gulf of 
Mexico; two years later they had been extended to the 
States of South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas; 
and two years later still the important survey of the reefs 
and keys of Florida was commenced. On the annexation 
of California the Pacific coast w r as at once included in the 
operations. 

While the field-work was thus pushed with great vigor 
in every quarter, the publication of the charts and other 
results was made to keep pace as rapidly as possible. The 
annual reports of the superintendent, besides giving an ac¬ 
count of the progress of the work, have been, since 1857, 
accompanied by an appendix which contains the maps, 
charts, and sketches produced during each year, and valu¬ 
able contributions to knowledge in the form of scientific dis¬ 
cussions of various subjects connected with the survey, 
such as tides, terrestrial magnetism, harbor hydraulics, and 
ocean physics, and of new methods of observation and com¬ 
putation employed by persons engaged in the work. These 
valuable volumes have been widely circulated by a wise 
liberality of Congress, and are to be found in most public 
libraries. The charts are, besides, printed in sheets for the 
use of mariners, and can be obtained at a low price in the 
principal seaports, where agencies for their sale have been 
established. In addition to the charts, printed sailing di¬ 
rections or “ Coast Pilots ” are issued in book-form, and 
tide-tables predicting the heights and times of high and 
low water for all ports of the U. S. are published annually. 

Some estimate of the magnitude of the work may be 
formed by considering that the general coast-line of the 
Atlantic, including the large open bays, is 3030 miles, that 
of the Gulf of Mexico, 2160, and that of the Pacific coast 
(including Fuca Strait, but exclusive of Alaska), 1870 miles, 
making a total of 7060 miles. A measurement of the shore¬ 
line, including bays, sounds, islands, and rivers, made as 
nearly as practicable where the survey is not yet made, 
gives similarly for that of the Atlantic coast, 14,725 miles ; 
of the Gulf of Mexico, 10,400 miles; and of the Pacific 
coast, 4250 miles. The j)roportion of this vast extent of 
coast-line that had been surveyed and mapped at the out¬ 
breaking of the civil war in 1861 may be stated at about 
three-fourths of the Atlantic, fully one-third of the Gulf, 
and nearly one-fourth of the Pacific coast. The war of 
1861-65 seemed likely at first to put a stop to the Coast 
Survey, but it was soon perceived that by preserving 
its organization the information gathered in its archives 
and the experience and skill of its officers could be made 
more useful to the cause of the Union than the individual 
efforts of its members could possibly be when merged in gen¬ 
eral organization of the military forces. The great know¬ 
ledge and judgment of the superintendent was brought into 
requisition for planning the details of the blockade and of 
naval attacks upon the ports in possession of the Confeder¬ 
acy. The military and naval officers engaged on the Survey 
at that time of course at once rejoined their proper corps. 
Some of the civil assistants were detailed to aid, by their 
special knowledge of localities, in guiding the operations of 
the squadrons on the Southern coasts, where all lighthouses 
and buoys had been removed, and no local pilots could bo 
obtained; others joined various armies to aid in reconnais¬ 
sances and surveys, while others, again, obtained leave of 
absence to enter the army, and served with distinction. The 
resources of the office were taxed to the utmost to produce 
charts for the blockading fleets, and to compile for the use 
of the armies maps of the country in which they were to 
operate. By a wise foresight, Prof. Bache had caused to be 
collected in the Coast Survey office all the extant geo¬ 
graphical maps of the country, which enabled him to issue 














COAST SURVEY. 


995 


a scries of maps of the Southern States that proved of 
the greatest servico in the movements of troops, and 
which remain to the present day the best maps of those 
regions. 

The value of the services rendered by the Coast Survey 
and its officers was on all occasions freely acknowledged by 
the commanders of our forces and brought to the notice of 
the government. Accordingly, after the close of the war 
the work enjoyed the increased favor of Congress, and while 
the great military and naval establishments that the war 
had rendered nocessary were reduced to their lowest pos¬ 
sible limits, the regular operations of the Coast Survey 
were resumed on a moderate scale of expenditure, which 
has since been gradually increased. In 1866 the expend¬ 
iture was $300,000, and in 1872, $720,000. During the lat¬ 
ter years of the war Prof. Bache’s health was impaired by 
the overtasking and anxieties of those trying times, and 
after a prolonged illness he died in Feb., 1867. Of his emi¬ 
nent services to science in America it is the province of his 
biographer to speak. In reference to his conduct of the 
great national work we are considering, his successor, 
Prof. Benjamin Peirce, the eminent mathematician and 
astronomer, says: “ What the Coast Survey now is, he 
made it. It is his true and lasting monument. It will 
never cease to be the admiration of the scientific world. 
. . . It is only necessary, conscientiously and faithfully, 
to follow in his footsteps, imitate his example, and develop 
his plans in the administration of the survey.” 

Under the administration of Prof. Peirce the survey has 
resumed the extension it had before the war, and is now 
rapidly approaching completion. At the close of 1872 the 
field-parties consisted of five astronomical and twelve 
triangulation parties, thirteen topographical parties, and 
as many hydrographical parties, including one engaged in 
the exploration of the newly-acquired coasts of Alaska. 
In addition to these, continuous tidal observations were 
making at five stations on the Atlantic and four on the 
Pacific coast. With the exception of most of the coast E. 
of Penobscot Bay, and the ocean-coast of Florida between 
St. Augustine and Cape Florida, the survey presented a 
continuous whole from Quoddy Head to the Tortugas, 
wanting only a portion of the off-shore soundings, and the 
survey of some sounds and estuaries; again, from St. 
Mark’s to the mouths of the Mississippi, and from Galves¬ 
ton to Corpus Christi Bay, the land survey was conxpleted, 
and the hydrography nearly half done. On the Pacific 
coast the work had likewise made considerable progress, 
and an exploring party was surveying the most important 
harbors on the coast of Alaska. A survey of Lake Cham¬ 
plain, included in the work of the Coast Survey by a 
special provision of law, was more than three-fourths com¬ 
pleted. 

The plan of publication is as follows: the main series of 
charts gives a continuous representation of the coast on a 
scale of 1:83,000, or about three-quarters of an inch to a 
mile. On these charts are exhibited all natural and arti¬ 
ficial features of the shore, such as streams, hills, houses, 
and roads, together with the depth of water and configura¬ 
tion of the sea-bottom, the channels and shoals, as also the 
lighthouses, buoys, and other aids to navigation. Besides 
being characterized by the greatest precision, which is the 
first and essential condition of their value, they also do 
honor to the country as ivorks of art, being in point of ex¬ 
ecution surpassed by none that are produced by other 
nations. A series of 110 of these charts will comprise tho 
whole coast from the north-eastern boundary to the Bio 
Grande, fifty-one of which have been completed, while a 
large number are partially drawn and engraved. The 
6ame range of coast is also covered by a series of sixteen 
other charts on a smaller scale, that of 1:400,000, of a more 
general character, known as “ off-shore charts,” and in¬ 
tended for use in sailing along or approaching the coast ; 
of which seven sheets have been issued. Another still 
more general chart of the coast, on a scale of 1 : 1,200,000, 
and reaching farther out to sea, is published to serve the 
purpose of navigating on courses between distant points. 
In addition to the foregoing charts, there are published 
very numerous charts of separate harbors, bays, rivers, 
anchorages, passages, and dangers, on scales varying from 
1 : 5000 to 1 : 60,000, according to the character of the 
subject and amount of detail to be represented. Of such 
charts more than 200 have already been published of places 
on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and over 100 on the Pacific 
coast. 

When once a continuous survey of the whole coast has 
been obtained, there will still be a necessity of maintaining 
the organization of the Coast Survey for the purpose of 
watching the unceasing changes that take place in the 
channels leading to our harbors, which for the most part 
are barred by shifting sands. Such changes, produced by 
the action of the waves and tidal currents, often also by 


the encroachments on the harbor areas by wharves and 
docks, render necessary changes in buoys and beacons, and 
often call for works of protection or improvement, which 
can only be planned after minute surveys and a careful 
study of the physical causes that are at work. Most im¬ 
portant service to commerce and navigation has already 
been rendered in this direction by the advisory boards, 
composed of the superintendent of the Coast Survey, the 
chief of engineers of the army, and an officer of the navy, 
in studying these problems for the principal harbors, and 
laying down for each the principles of preservation or im¬ 
provement. The subject of physical hydrography has been 
made a special department in the Coast Survey, and the 
reports to tho harbor commissioners of New York and 
Massachusetts contain discussions that may serve as 
models for all similar inquiries. 

The gradual extension of at least the trigonometrical 
work of the Coast Survey over the entire area of our coun¬ 
try to serve as a basis for better maps, and in future of 
detailed topographical surveys, is a proposition favorably 
viewed by many statesmen, and indeed inevitable in the 
development of the country. The main series of triangles 
following the Appalachian chain will already afford many 
bases of departure for the trigonometrical survey of the 
States through which it passes; and on the Pacific coast 
the primary triangulation will equally afford such facili¬ 
ties. The plan proposed by the present superintendent of 
connecting these two coast series by two other chains, a 
northern and southern one, has already received the sanc¬ 
tion of Congress, with the additional provision that trigo¬ 
nometrical points may be determined from these main 
chains for such of the States as provide for a topographical 
and geological survey of their domain. The plan of a gen¬ 
eral geodetic sux-vey of the whole country is thus happily 
inaugurated. 

An account of the Coast Survey would be incomplete 
without a brief notice of the incidental contributions to 
science which have been made and are constantly being 
added to during the progress of the work. Its geodetic 
operations furnish important data for determining the figure 
of the earth. (See Figure of the Earth and Geodesy.) 
In 1869 the primary triangulation extending from Passama- 
quoddy Bay in Maine to Cape Henry in Virginia, a distance 
of 750 miles, was connected with five measured base-lines 
distributed along the series. The length of any one of 
these base-lines, computed through the triangulation from 
another, did not differ more than at a rate of a quarter of 
an inch in a mile. The apparatus for measuring base-lines, 
constructed in the Coast Survey office, is extremely perfect, 
each measuring-bar consisting of two rods of different 
metal, so combined as to compensate the effect of temper¬ 
ature and preserve the lengths between the points of con¬ 
tact unchanged when exposed to varying temperatures. 
In the measurement the contacts of the agate ends arc 
made by means of the lever of contact and level first used 
by Bessel in comparing standards of length, but here 
adapted to measurement at inclinations up to 4° with the 
same precision as on level ground. The necessity for the 
greatest attainable accuracy in such operations is apparent 
when we remember that an error in the base-line will affect 
the whole distance depending upon it by triangulation in 
the same ratio; thus, if the base-line were in error by but 
its ten-thousandth part, a distance of one hundred miles 
depending on it would be in error, from that source alone, 
by fifty-three feet. The angles of the primary triangula¬ 
tion have been measured by means of a theodolite having 
a circle of thirty inches diameter, graduated to five minutes 
of arc, and reading to single seconds by means of micro¬ 
meter microscopes; about thirty measures of each angle 
are taken, the mean of which has generally no greater un¬ 
certainty than one-eighth of a second. The same instru¬ 
ment serves for determining the azimuths of many sides 
of the triangulation, or their direction in reference to the 
true north. Knowing thus the exact distance between any 
two points, and the direction of the line joining them, on 
the surface of the globe, we have only to ascertain their 
latitudes and difference of longitude in order to deduce 
the cui'vation of that portion of the globe which is occu¬ 
pied by our operations. 

The latitudes are chiefly determined with an instrument 
called the zenith telescope or equal-altitude instrument, first 
applied to that purpose by Capt. A. Talcott of the U. S. 
army, and remodelled and specially adapted to the purpose 
in the Coast Survey. By the aid of this instrument, and 
the great accuracy which modern star-places have attained, 
the latitude of a station may readily be determined in three 
nights with such precision as to leave no greater uncertainty 
than one-tenth of a second. The comparisons of differ¬ 
ences of latitude so observed at many stations with their 
differences deduced from the triangulation has developed 
the existence of small irregularities in the direction of 










COATBRIDGE—COBALT. 


996 


gravity, arising doubtless from local attractions, even in 
places where the outward conformation of the surface 
affords no such indication. 

The accurate determination of the longitude of some 
point in the Coast Survey from the principal observatories 
in Europe has been one of the great problems of the work. 
All available methods have been resorted to—the observa¬ 
tion of lunar occultations and eclipses, and of right ascen¬ 
sions of the moon; the transportation of chronometers; 
and finally the comparison of tune by means of the electric 
telegraph. The latter method has yielded the most con¬ 
sistent results, which are also confirmed by the others within 
their limits of precision. The difference of time between 
the observatories of Greenwich and Cambridge has thus 
been determined within a limit of uncertainty no greater 
than one-twentieth of a second of time. The differences 
of longitude between Cambridge and other principal sta¬ 
tions of the Survey are determined by the aid of the electric 
telegraph. A series of such determinations has been ex¬ 
tended southward as far as Galveston and westward to San 
Francisco, fixing the geographical positions of many im¬ 
portant places on the way. The method of recording 
observations of time on a clironographic register, by means 
of a galvanic circuit, known in Europe as the American 
method, originated in tho Coast Survey with the first at¬ 
tempts to determine longitude by means of the electric tele¬ 
graph. The idea of comparing the local time of different 
places by means of the electric telegraph is sufficiently 
obvious, but the refined methods by which the intervention 
of human senses and operations, and the consequent lia¬ 
bilities to error, are in the greatest possible degree avoided, 
and by which the time of transmission is measured and 
eliminated from the longitude, have been the result of care¬ 
ful study and long experience. By this perfect and ad¬ 
mirable method we are able to measure arcs of longitude 
with the same degree of accuracy with which arcs of lati¬ 
tude have heretofore been measured, and a new element 
has thus been introduced into geodesy. 

The variation of the compass being an important element 
in navigation, observations have been made at several 
hundred places along the coast, not only of the deviation 
of the magnetic needle, but also of its inclination and of 
the intensity of the earth’s magnetism, these elements being 
necessary for a complete study of the distribution and 
changes of this subtle force. At many points these obser¬ 
vations are from time to time repeated, and their discussion, 
in connection with the more ancient observations that have 
been collected, has largely added to our knowledge of the 
secular variation. A magnetical chart has been constructed, 
from which the surveyor can learn the variation of the 
needle at any place with considerable accuracy. 

The subject of the tides has received great attention in 
the Coast Survey. Long-continued tidal registers are kept 
up at selected points on the coast, for the purpose of ascer¬ 
taining, upon the basis of observation, the complicated 
laws governing the tides in the different seas that wash our 
shores. Self-registering tide-gauges are used, by which a 
continuous curve, representing the successive changes in 
the height of water, is traced on paper moved by clockwork 
by a pencil actuated by the rising and falling of a float in 
a vertical box to which the tide has free access. The dis¬ 
cussion of these observations, made at different times by 
Prof. Bache, has already largely increased our knowledge 
of the laws to which they are subject, and has rendered 
possible the predictions of high and low water for all ports 
in the U. S., which are published annually in advance. 
But highly important results are yet to be obtained from 
the discussion of the observations when continued through 
a full lunar cycle of nineteen years. Such a series has 
been completed for Boston harbor, which has yielded, in 
addition to exact data for future predictions, an independ¬ 
ent estimate of the moon’s mass. 

A hydrographic survey of our coast would be incom¬ 
plete if it did not embrace the investigation of that remark¬ 
able ocean-current which sweeps along in the vicinity of 
our Atlantic coast. The method of exploring the Gulf 
Stream adopted by Prof. Bache was to determine the 
limits of the stream by the temperature of its water at 
all depths by means of deep-sea thermometers along lines 
crossing the stream at right angles at various points. 
Twenty-one such sections have been run, along which the 
temperature of the water at various depths has been de¬ 
termined, and also sections of the bottom wherever it has 
been possible to obtain soundings; over 3500 casts hav¬ 
ing been made for the purpose. It is necessary that the 
thermometers employed should be self-registering, and able 
to withstand the crushing pressure of the water without 
having their indication affected thereby. Until recently 
the metallic self-registering thermometers invented by Sax¬ 
ton were exclusively employed, being found best to fulfil 
the required conditions; latterly, the simpler Miller-Casella 


self-registering thermometer with protected bulb has also 
been employed. (See Gulf Stream for an account of tho 
results of these explorations.) 

In conclusion, it may be said that the U. S. Coast Sur¬ 
vey is a national work of which Americans may justly be 
pi’oud, it having been declared, by the most competent 
foreign scientific authorities, to stand in the very front 
rank of similar works of other nations, and to be one of 
the most perfect examples of applied science. 

J. E. IIilgAKJ), U. S. Coast Survey Office. 

Coat'brid^e, a town of Scotland, in the county of 
Lanark, on the Caledonian Railway, 8 or 9 miles E. of 
Glasgow. It has seven churches, two academies, and sev¬ 
eral banks; also eight malleable-iron works. It is the centre 
of a mineral district in which are numerous smelting-fur¬ 
naces, and derives its prosperity from the manufacture of 
iron. It is a place of rapid growth. Pop. 10,501. 

Coatesville, a post-borough of Chester co., Pa., on 
the Brandywine Creek, and on the Central R. R. where it 
crosses the Wilmington and Reading R. R., 39 miles W. of 
Philadelphia. It is in the rich and beautiful Chester Val¬ 
ley. It has a national bank, a newspaper, a banking-house, 
seven rolling-mills, woollen and paper mills, and water and 
gas works. Pop. 2025. William J. Kauffman, 

Prop. Chester Valley “ Union.” 

Coa'ti [a word of Brazilian origin], the name of a genus 
(Nasua ) of quadrupeds of the Ursidm (the bear family), by 
some referred to Viverridm (the civet family), although 
their plantigrade character allies them to the former. They 
arc very nearly allied to the raccoons, and, like them, are 
exclusively American. They are remarkable for the long 
snout, which is a sort of flexible proboscis, and is employed 
in rooting up the earth to obtain worms and insects. They 
are often domesticated in South America. 

The coati-mondi ( Nasua narica) or solitary coati is con¬ 
sidered by many naturalists to be the only species of the 
genus, while others reckon at least five species. The coati- 
mondi is a native of Brazil, Mexico, and the intermediate 
countries. It is often seen in menageries. 

Coat'icook, a post-village and port of entry of Barns- 
ton township, Stanstead co., Quebec (Canada), on the Grand 
Trunk Railway, 26 miles N. of Island Pond, Vt. It has a 
weekly paper. Pop. about 2000. 

Coat-of-Arms, in the Middle Ages, was a coat worn 
by princes and great barons over their armor. It was made 
of cloth of gold or silver, of fur or of velvet, and bore armo¬ 
rial insignia. The “ coat-of-arms,” as understood by her¬ 
aldry in the present day, is nothing more than a relic of 
the ancient armorial insignia. (See Heraldry, by Rev. 
B. R. Betts.) 

Coat-of-Mail, in the armor of the Middle Ages, was 
a suit formed of metallic scales or rings linked to each other. 
(See Armor.) 

Co'balt, a hard white metal of sp. gr. 8.5 to 8.9, with a 
granular fracture, quite malleable at red heat, attracted by 
the magnet, and even capable of receiving weak magnetic 
power when rubbed with a magnet, though arsenic de¬ 
stroys this property. It is unalterable in air and water at 
ordinary temperatures, though at red heat it decomposes 
water. The metal was first obtained in an impure state by 
Brandt in 1733, but the ores had already been used since 
the middle of the sixteenth century for imparting a blue 
color to glass. Their use was apparently known to the 
Greeks and Romans, as some of their pigments have been 
found to contain cobalt. The name is derived from the 
German word Kobold, an “ evil-minded sprite,” the miners 
believing that the presence of ores which were heavy and 
had a metallic lustre, but were, so far as they knew, of no 
value, containing no copper or silver, was due to his influ¬ 
ence. Before their value was discovered the ores were used 
in Hesse for repairing roads. 

Ores of cobalt are found in various parts of the world, 
though they are never very abundant. They are almost 
invariably associated with nickel compounds, and the 
metal is generally united with arsenic and sulphur. The 
principal supplies come from Schneeberg, Saxony, from 
Westphalia, Bohemia, Hesse, and Cornwall, England, 
though they occur in other localities. Mine La Motte, Mo., 
the Gap mine in Pennsylvania, Chatham, Conn., and mines 
on the N. shore of Lake Superior have furnished some 
cobalt. 

The principal minerals in which cobalt occurs are smal- 
tite, or smaltine, gray cobalt or tin-white cobalt, an ar¬ 
senide of cobalt; cobalt glance, or cobaltine, the sulph- 
arsenide; cobalt bloom, or crythrine, the hydrated arsenate : 
earthy cobalt, or asbolan, also called black oxide of cobalt, 
a combination of the oxide with iron and manganese ox¬ 
ides, found in several places in Europe, as well as in Mis¬ 
souri; cobalt vitriol, or bieberite, an impure sulphate 














COBALT-BASES, AMMONIACAL—COBBS. 


found in the rubbish of some old mines; syepoorite, the 
sulphide, occurring in North-western India, and used by 
the Indian jewellers to give a rose color to gold. The first 
two being the more common, are used for the manufacture 
of smalt and zaffre. Cobalt also occurs incidentally in 
some nickel minerals, in selenide of lead, cerite, and in 
Flemish coal. The metal is nowhere found native, except 
in some meteorites, some of which have been found to con¬ 
tain from 0.1 to 1 per cent. 

The metal may be reduced from its oxide by heating in 
a current of hydrogen. If the heat has been too low, the 
cobalt is pyrophoric, and burns with a red flame when 
brought in contact with the air. It forms several oxides, 
of which the most important are the protoxide, CoO, and 
the sesquioxide, C 2 O 3 , both of which give a series of salts. 
The highest oxide, C 0 O 2 , has not yet been isolated. Cobalt 
combines with arsenic or antimony, giving brittle gray 
products. It also alloys with gold and silver, a small 
amount of cobalt rendering those metals quite brittle. In 
the case of gold one sixty-fifth part is sufficient to cause 
brittleness. With tin it gives a ductile alloy of a violet 
color. With mercury it forms an amalgam which is mag¬ 
netic. The alloy with iron is extremely hard. 

Cobalt salts are prepared by extracting the roasted ore 
with an acid, precipitating out the arsenic by means of 
sulphuretted hydrogen or by an iron salt, and then precipi¬ 
tating out the cobalt by means of chlorine water, which con¬ 
verts it into sesquioxide, or by the use of nitrite of potassa, 
filtering and dissolving. The chloride is used as a sympa¬ 
thetic ink. The writing, which is an extremely pale pink 
color, almost invisible, becomes blue when the water of 
hydration is removed by heat; but it gradually absorbs 
water and disappears again. The presence of nickel salts 
gives a greenish cast to the lines. In the arts the com¬ 
pounds of cobalt are applied for coloring either as pig¬ 
ments or enamels. The principal preparation is smalt, or 
azure blue, which is a double silicate of cobalt and potas¬ 
sium, prepared by fusing the roasted ore with carbonate 
of potassium and clean white quartz sand. The nickel, 
arsenic, and other impurities settle to the bottom, forming 
what is termed by the workmen a “ speiss.” The glass is 
poured off into water, then ground, and elutriated. The 
coarser qualities are called “ blue sand/' and contain some 
arsenic. The best quality contains little or no arsenic, and 
is known as “ king’s blue.” The color is very intense, one 
part of oxide of cobalt being sufficient to give a decided 
color to 250 parts of glass. The presence of nickel seri¬ 
ously affects the color. It is stated that the manufacture of 
artificial ultramarine has nearly driven smalt from the mar¬ 
ket. Smalt is sometimes adulterated with ultramarine; the 
fraud may be detected by the addition of an acid to the 
article, which causes a change in the color of the ultra- 
marine, and the development of sulphuretted hydrogen. 

Zaffre, zaffer, or safflor is the roasted ore mixed with 
twice its weight of quartz sand. It is used for coloring 
glass, enamels, and pottery glaze. The well-known willow- 
pattern plates are colored by this substance. Thenard’s 
blue, or cobalt ultramarine, is a pigment obtained by cal¬ 
cining phosphate or arseniate of cobalt with alumina. Rin- 
man'8 green, or cobalt green, consists of the mixed and 
ignited oxides of zinc and cobalt; it is also used as a pig¬ 
ment. Cobalt yellow, another pigment not very generally 
used, is the yellow precipitate obtained by treating the 
solution of a cobalt salt with nitrite of potassa. A com¬ 
bination of the oxides of iron, cobalt, and manganese is 
also used to give a black coloration to glass. 

In the laboratory cobalt is recognized by the brilliant 
blue color which it imparts to a bead of borax glass. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Cobalt-Bases, Ammoniacal, a series of bodies 
which contain the elements of ammonia, NH 3 , united with 
cobalt or oxide of cobalt, and which form salts with salt 
radicals, Cl, Bi, I, and with acid radicals, S0 3 , SO 4 , C0 3 , 
NO 3 , Cr 03 , etc. (See Watts’ “ Dictionary of Chemistry,” i., 
1057; “ Journal pour Chemie,” lxxii., 209; and a paper by 
Gibbs and Genth, published in the “ Smithsonian Contri¬ 
butions to Knowledge,” 1856.) 

Coban', or Ve'ra Paz, a city of Central America, in 
Guatemala, is the capital of the department of Vera Paz, 
and on the Rio Dolce, 64 miles N. of Guatemala. It is 
situated on a hill in a fertile table-land. It is a Dominican 
mission, and was once the centre of their activity. On 
every street corner is a chapel with a crucifix. The chief 
church is very large, but falling into decay. Pop. 12,000. 

Cobb, a county in the W. N. W. of Georgia. Area, 450 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the Chatta¬ 
hoochee River. The surface is hilly. Kcnesaw Mountain 
in this county rises 1828 feet above the level of the sea. 
Cotton, wool, corn, and wheat are raised. Gold, silver, 
copper, and granite are found here. It is intersected by 


997 


the Western and Atlantic R. R. Cap., Marietta. P. 13,814. 

Cobb (David), a soldier of the Revolution, born at At¬ 
tleborough, Mass., Sept. 14, 1748, graduated at Harvard 
(1766), practised medicine for many years, was a lieuten¬ 
ant-colonel in the Continental army, member of Congress 
from Massachusetts (1793-95), was for many years a judge 
of common pleas, and lieutenant-governor in 1809; he re¬ 
sided for many years in Maine. Died April 17, 1830. 

Cobb (Howell), an American lawyer and Methodist 
preacher, born in Georgia in 1795. He has written much, 
including a work on legal forms (1845) and a compilation 
of the penal laws of Georgia. 

Cobb (Howell), an American Democratic politician, 
born in Jefferson co., Ga., Sept. 7, 1815. He was elected a 
member of Congress in 1843, 1845, and 1847. In 1849 ho 
was chosen Speaker of the House of Representatives. He 
became governor of Georgia in 1851, and was appointed 
secretary of the treasury by President Buchanan in 1857. 
He resigned near the end of 1860, and was president of the 
Congress of secessionists which met in Feb.,, 1861. In the 
civil war he was a major-general of the Confederate army. 
Died suddenly in New York City Oct. 9, 1868. 

Cobb (Joseph Beckham), a son of T. W. Cobb (see below), 
born in Oglethorpe co., Ga., April 11, 1819, was the author 
of novels and other Avorks, among which are “The Creole” 
(1848) and “Leisure Hours” (1858). Died Sept. 15, 1858. 

Cobb (Sylvanus), D. D., a Universalist minister, born 
in Norway, Me., in 1799, was the author of a “ Comment¬ 
ary on the New Testament” and other works, and editor 
of a denominational newspaper for twenty years. Died in 
East Boston, Mass., Oct. 31, 1866. 

Cobb (Sylvanus, Jr.), a son of the preceding, born in 
Waterville, Me., in 1823, has written many popular tales 
for the “ New York Ledger” and other papers. 

Cobb (Thomas R. R.), General, a brother of General 
Howell Cobb (see above), born in Jefferson co., Ga., in 
1820, had a high reputation as a lawyer and author of legal 
works. He was a member of Congress and general of the 
army of the Confederate States, and was killed at the bat¬ 
tle of Fredericksburg, Va., Dec. 13, 1862. 

Cobb (Thomas W.), a lawyer, born in Columbia co., Ga., 
in 1784, was a member of Congress from Georgia (1817-21 
and 1823-24), U. S. Senator (1824-28), and a State judge 
(1828-30). Died Feb. 1, 1830. 

Cobb (Williamson R. W.) was born in Ray co., Tenn., 
in 1807. He began business as a peddler of clocks, but his 
political talents brought him in the House in 1844, and to 
Congress in 1847. In 1863 he was elected to the Confede¬ 
rate Congress, but did not take his seat. He died by acci¬ 
dent Nov. 1, 1864. 

Cobbe (Frances Power), a rationalistic writer, was 
born in Dublin in 1822. In early youth she was much 
troubled with religious doubts. “ As she was one day 
musing on the great problem of existence, she said to her¬ 
self that although she knew nothing of God or of any law 
beyond her own soul, she would at least be true to that, and 
merit the approbation of her own conscience. This resolu¬ 
tion, we are told, brought almost immediately a renewed 
faith in God.” She afterwards read with great interest the 
writings of Theodore Parker, whose views on all essential 
points she appears to have cordially adopted. Among her 
numerous works may be named “ Intuitive Morals” (Lon¬ 
don, 1855), “Broken Lights,” and “Dawning Light.” She 
has also edited a complete edition of Parker’s works. 

Cob'bett (William) was born at Farnham, in Surrey, 
Mar. 9, 1762. He enlisted in the army, served eight years 
in America, and returned to England in 1791. Having 
obtained a discharge from the service, he emigrated to the 
U. S. in 1792, and settled in Philadelphia, where he edited 
a Federalist paper called “ Peter Porcupine’s Gazette.” He 
returned to England in 1800, and began to issue in Lon¬ 
don, in 1802, “The Weekly Political Register,” which was 
at first a Tory paper, but gradually changed and became a 
strenuous opponent of Pitt and an advocate of radicalism. 
He was prosecuted for libel, and sentenced in 1810 to im¬ 
prisonment for two years. He continued to publish the 
“Register” until his death. Among his popular works 
are “Rural Rides,” “Cottage Economy,” and “Advice to 
Young Men and Women.” In 1832 he was elected a mem¬ 
ber of Parliament for Oldham. Died June 18, 1835. He 
was a vigorous writer, and distinguished for his common 
sense. (See “Life of Cobbett,” Philadelphia, 1823.) 

Cob'bold (Thomas Spencer), M. D., F. R. S., F. L. S., 
an English scientist, born May 26, 1828, was educated at 
Edinburgh. He is distinguished for his original investi¬ 
gations in helminthology. 

Cobbs (Nicholas II.), D. D ; , Protestant Episcopal bish¬ 
op of Alabama, born in Virginia in 1796, was ordained 













COBDEN—COCA. 


998 


deacon in 1824, priest in 1825, and became bishop in 1844. 
Died Jan. 11, 1861. 

Cob'den (Richard), an eminent English statesman, 
born at Dunford, near Midhurst, in Sussex, June 3, 1804, 
was a son of a poor farmer who owned a small estate. He 
learned mercantile business in the warehouse of his uncle 
in London, and became a partner of a firm of cotton manu¬ 
facturers in Manchester. Between 1834 and 1838 he trav¬ 
elled in Egypt, Greece, France, and the U. S. In 1837 he 
offered himself as a candidate for Parliament in the borough 
of Stockport, but was not elected. He advocated free trade, 
and was the most prominent member and orator of the 
Anti-Corn-Law League, formed in 1839. In 1841 he was 
returned to Parliament for Stockport. He spoke against 
the corn laws in Parliament and in many public meetings. 
As a parliamentary orator he was distinguished for his ex¬ 
tensive information and cogency of reasoning. He was a 
man of sound judgment and uncommon energy. After the 
corn laws had been repealed in 1846, Sir Robert Peel ac¬ 
knowledged that Mr. Cobden was entitled to more credit 
for this reform than any other man. In 1847 he was chosen 
to represent the West Riding of Yorkshire. He was one of 
the leaders of the Manchester party or school, which ad¬ 
vocated electoral reform, a pacific foreign policy, and non¬ 
intervention in foreign quarrels. He was defeated in the 
election of 1857, because he opposed Lord Palmerston’s 
Chinese policy. In 1857 he revisited the U. S., and was 
elected a member of Parliament for Rochdale. Lord Pal¬ 
merston in that year offered him a seat in the cabinet as 
president of the board of trade, but he declined it, because 
he disapproved the foreign policy of Palmerston. He 
negotiated in 1860 an important commercial treaty with 
France in the interest of free trade, which increased the 
commerce between the British and French dominions. He 
was one of the few British statesmen who sympathized 
with the Union cause in the American civil war. Died 
April 2, 1865. (See J. Garnier, “ R. Cobden, les Ligueurs 
et la Ligue,” 1846; J. McGilchrist, “Life of Richard 
Cobden,” 1865.) 

Cob'ham, a township and village of Surrey co., Ya. 
Pop. 2110. 

Cobi'ja, or Puerto de la Mar (7. e. the “ seaport ”), a 
town of Bolivia, in the department of Atacama, is on the 
Pacific Ocean; lat. 22° 34' S., Ion. 70° 21' W. It is the 
only legal seaport of Bolivia, but it is a very small place, 
and has little trade, being cut off from the interior by the 
desert of Atacama. Pop. 2380. 

Cob'leigh (Nelsox Ebexezer), D. D., LL.D., a divine, 
educator, and journalist of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
was born in Littleton, N. II., Nov. 24, 1814, graduated at 
the Wesleyan University, Conn., in 1843, was elected pro¬ 
fessor in McKendree College, Ill., 1853, professor at Law¬ 
rence University, Wis., 1854, president of McKendree Col¬ 
lege 1858, editor of “ Zion’s Herald,” Boston, Mass., 1863, 
president of East Tennessee Wesleyan University, Athens, 
Tenn., 1867, and editor of the “Methodist Advocate,” At¬ 
lanta, Ga., 1872. He is author of numerous and able re¬ 
views. 

Cob'lentz (anc. Confluentes or Conjluentia), a fortified 
city of Rhenish Prussia, is finely situated at the confluence 
(whence its name) of the Rhine and the Moselle, 50 miles 
S. S. E. of Cologne, with which it is connected by a rail¬ 
way. The Rhine is here crossed by a bridge of boats 485 
yards long, and the Moselle is crossed by a stone bridge. 
Here are handsome churches, a Catholic gymnasium, a 
palace, and an old castle of the electors of Treves. The 
church of St. Castor was commenced about 836 A. D. 
Coblentz is a free port, and has an active trade in wine, 
grain, etc.; also manufactures of cotton and linen fabrics 
and japanned wares. On the opposite side of the Rhine is 
the strong fortress of Ehrenbreitstein. Coblentz is said to 
be the strongest place in the Prussian dominions. Pop. in 
1871, inclusive of Ehrenbreitstein (2504) and the garrison 
(6331), 33,363. 

Co'bles, a township of Alamance co., N. C. Pop. 875. 

Cob'leskill, a post-village of Schoharie co., N. Y., on 
Cobleskill Creek and the Albany and Susquehanna II. R., 
45 miles W. of Albany. It has a national bank and one 
weekly newspaper. Pop. 1030; of Cobleskill township, 
2847. 

Cob-Nut, the name given to different varieties of the 
cultivated hazel-nut. In the West Indies the name cob¬ 
nut, also called hog-nut, is given to the fruit of Omphalea 
triandra, a tree of the natural order Euphorbiaceas. A 
white juice is obtained from the tree which turns black in 
drying, and in Guiana is used instead of ink. The fruit is 
a 3-celled capsule, each cell containing one nut, which, if 
the embryo is retained, has cathartic properties, but after 
its extraction is wholesome and palatable. 


Cob'oconk, a post-village of Victoria co., Ontario 
(Canada), is the present N. terminus of the Toronto and 
Nipissing Railway, 87 miles N. by E. of Toronto. 

Co'bourg, a port of entry and capital of Northumber¬ 
land co., Ontario (Canada), on Lake Ontario and on the 
Grand Trunk Railway, 69 miles E. by N. of Toronto, and 
is the S. terminus of the Cobourg Peterborough and Mar¬ 
mora Railway. It has a good and commodious harbor, and 
has regular lines of steamers to many of the principal lake 
and river porte of Canada and the U. S. The town is finely 
laid out, well built, and lighted with gas. Among the finest 
buildings are Victoria Hall, owned by the county, and A ic- 
toria College (Wesleyan Methodist), connected with Vic¬ 
toria University. Cobourg has manufactures of woollen 
goods, railway carriages, castings, lumber, beer, etc., and 
exports lumber, provisions, flour, and iron ore. It has 
three weekly papers. Pop. in 1871, 4442. 

Co'bra de Capel'lo [a Portuguese term signifying 

“ hooded snake ”], the name 
of a venomous serpent, 
sometimes applied to other 
species of the genus Naja, 
of the family Viperidae, 
though it is more usually 
limited to the Naja tripu- 
dians, a native of the In¬ 
dies, the most venomous 
of known reptiles. Other 
species of Naja are found 
in the warmer parts of Asia, 
Africa, and Australia, and 
in the East Indian Islands. 
The term cobra de capello 
is derived from a singular 
faculty possessed by these 
snakes of expanding and elevating the skin of the back of 
the neck into the resemblance of a hood. This phenomenon 
is shown when the creature is angry or excited, and is pro¬ 
duced by the structure and action of the skeleton, as well 
as of the skin and muscles. The back of the hood is usu¬ 
ally ornamented with two eye-like spots joined by a curved 
dark stripe, the whole resembling a pair of spectacles; 
hence it is often called the “spectacle snake.” The color 
of the cobra is not uniform; some are brownish olive, having 
the spectacles white, edged with black. Another variety 
has cross-bands of black. Specimens without spectacles 
have been found in Java, Borneo, and other islands. The 
cobra attains a length of from three to five or more feet. It 
is sluggish in its habits, and easily destroyed. It feeds on 
lizards and other small animals. Its venom is secreted by 
two large glands in the head, and is extremely powerful, 
often causing death in two hours or less. This poison, 
though generally fatal if introduced through a wound, is 
said to be harmless when taken into the stomach. The only 
successful treatment is immediate excision or thorough cau¬ 
terization of the wound, but Fayrer believes that artificial 
respiration will save many cases. The cobra, together with 
other serpents, is an object of worship among many of the 
Hindoos. It is asserted that thousands of people perish 
annually in British India from the bite of this reptile, and 
the government now pays a bounty for the destruction of 
this and other dangerous serpents. 

Co'burg [Lat. Melocabus), a town of Central Germany, 
in the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, is on the river Itzand 
on the railway from Dresden to Munich, 26 miles N. of 
Bamberg. It is one of the residences of the duke of Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha, and is the seat of all the high courts of the 
duchy. It has a ducal palace with a library of 26,000 vol¬ 
umes, a theatre, an observatory, an evangelical gymnasium, 
and a large arsenal. On a hill 500 feet high is an old castle 
in whieh Luther was concealed in 1530. Here are manu¬ 
factures of cotton, linen, and woollen fabrics, etc. Pop. in 
1871, 12,819. 

Co'ca, the leaves of a shrub (ErytJiroxylon Coca) of 
the order Erythroxylaceae, a narcotic arid stimulant used 
by the inhabitants of Peru, Brazil, and Bolivia, and espe¬ 
cially by the Indians of Ecuador and of the Peruvian 
Andes. The leaves are chewed with a little unslaked lime 
or alkaline ashes. The effects resemble those of opium, 
although less narcotic; it dilates the pupil of the eye, 
while opium contracts it. It lessens the desire for food, 
and enables tho person who uses it to endure greater and 
more protracted exertion than he otherwise could, and with 
less food. It possesses the remarkable property of pre¬ 
venting the difficulty of respiration common in the as¬ 
cent of great elevations. Used in excess, it weakens the 
digestion, produces various disorders, and finally impairs 
both body and mind. It is supposed that about 30,000,000 
pounds of the dried leaf are consumed in a year, about 
10,000,000 of the human race habitually using it. Its 



Cobra de Capello. 


















/ 


COCAINE—COCHITUATE LAKE. 


999 


powers are believed principally to depend upon an activo 
principle called cocaine. 

C o'caine (C 16 H 19 NO 4 ?), an alkaloid extracted from 
coca leaves. It crystallizes in colorless, odorless prisms, 
having a slightly bitter taste, and resembling atropine in 
its properties. 

Cocce'ius (Nerva), an eminent Roman jurist, was a 
grandfather of the emperor Nerva. He was elected consul 
in 22 A. D. His learning is highly extolled by Tacitus. 
Died about 33 A. D. 

Cocce'jus, Cocceius, or Cock (Johann), an emi¬ 
nent German theologian, born at Bremen Aug. 9, 1603. 
He was professor of Hebrew at Franeker from 1636 to 1650, 
when he became professor of theology at Leyden, where he 
died Nov. 5, 1669. He wrote commentaries of great learn¬ 
ing and ability on nearly the whole of the Old Testament, 
but is best known as the founder of the so-called “ Federal 
School ” in theology. His doctrine of the covenants of 
works and grace is drawn out in the treatise “ Summa Doc- 
trinm de Foedere et Testamento Dei” (1648; 2d ed. 1653). 

Coccejus (Samuel), Baron, a German statesman, son 
of Heinrich Coccejus, born at Heidelberg in 1679, became 
in 1727 Prussian minister of state, and in 1746 chancellor. 
He was the author of a new code of laws (“ Codex Frideri- 
cianus,” 1747-50). Died in 1755. (See Trendelenburg, 
“ Friedrich der Grosse und sein Grosskanzler Samuel von 
Coccejus,” 1863.) 

Coc'cius (Ernst Adolf), a prominent German oculist, 
born Sept. 19, 1825, at Knauthain, near Leipsic, became in 
1849 lecturer at the University of Leipsic; established in 
1857 a clinical institution of eye-diseases, of which he was 
the director until 1867. He wrote numerous works, all of 
which are regarded as important contributions to opthal- 
mological literature. 

Coc'co Root is the product of plants of the nearly- 
allied genera Colocasia and Caladium, of the order Aracese, 
cultivated in tropical countries for their flat corms, which 
abound in starch, and are used as food after being roasted 
or boiled to remove the acridity. The above names strictly 
belong to Colocasia antiquorum , a stemless plant with ovate 
leaves, and flowers enclosed in a cylindrical erect spathe. 
Colocasia esculenta is a much-cultivated plant of tropical 
America. Colocasia macrorrhiza is the taro of the South 
Sea Islands. Colocasia Himalensis forms the principal food 
of many of the inhabitants of the Himalaya Mountains. 

Coccos'teus [from the Gr. kokko?, a “ berry,” and 
bfTTeov, a “ bone,” alluding to the prominences on its bony 
armor], the name of a genus of fossil ganoid fishes of the 
Devonian measures. Eight species have - been found in 
Scotland. It was allied to the Cephalaspis, but differed in 
having, in addition to the bony helmet of that genus, a 
cuirass covering the dorsal and ventral aspects of the body 
as far as the origin of the dorsal fin, from which to the 
tail—more than one-half the length of the animal—all 
seems to have been without the protection even of a scale. 

Coc'culus In'dicus, the very poisonous seed of the 
Anamirta Cocculus, a beautiful climbing plant of the order 
Menispermacese. The seed is brought from the East In¬ 
dies, and is sometimes used for medicinal purposes, and 
illegally in the preparation of malt liquors. It possesses 
acrid and intoxicating qualities. It is used for stupefying 
fish, that they may be taken by the hand; in some of the 
U. S. this practice is forbidden by law. An ointment made 
with it is very efficacious for ringworm. It contains a poi¬ 
sonous principle, called Picrotoxine (which see), while the 
pericarp contains another called menispermin, equally poi¬ 
sonous. It imparts to beer a bitter taste, and at the same 
time an apparent richness, but renders it very deleterious 
in its effects. 

Coc'cus [from the Gr. kokkos, a “ berry,” so called be¬ 
cause some species of the insect were formerly supposed to 
be the seed of a plant], a genus of insects of the order 
Hemiptera, allied to the aphis family, although very dis¬ 
tinct. The Coccidae are sometimes called “ scale insects ” 
and gall insects, but they are not to be confounded with 
the gall-flies (Cynipidae). They are very numerous, and 
are attached to plants, on the juices of which they feed, 
often producing much mischief by their punctures, and 
giving great trouble to gardeners. Various washes of soap, 
sulphur, tobacco, etc. are employed to destroy them, but 
moist heat, or as much exposure to steani as the plant can 
bear, has been found in many cases efficacious. The de¬ 
structive coffee-bug belongs to this family. The male 
Coecidae have only two wings, which shut horizontally 
upon the body ; the abdomen is terminated by two threads. 
The females are wingless; they have a beak, which they 
insert into plants to suck their juices. This interesting 
family contains not only many troublesome species, but 
some which are of great value for the beautiful dyes which 


they yield. Among them are Cochineal (which sec) and 
kerrnes. Other species produce lac and wax. 

Cocentay'iia, a Spanish town, in the province of Ali¬ 
cante, 30 miles N. of Alicante. It is ill built, but has con¬ 
siderable manufactures of cloths, taffetas, etc. Pop. 7369. 

Cochabam'ba, a department of Bolivia, S. of Chu- 
quisaca, in the centre of the republic. The climato is 
healthful and spring-like. The soil is exceedingly fertile 
and rich in manifold products. So abundantly do cereals 
grow that it has been called the granary of the republic. 
Area, 26,803 square miles. Cattle and horses are plenty. 
The noble metals are found, but in smaller quantities than 
elsewhere. Pop. 319,892. 

Cochabamba, sometimes called Orope'sa, a city 
of Bolivia, capital of the department of Cochabamba, is 
about 150 miles N. N. W. of Chuquisaca, and 8440 feet above 
the level of the sea. The city was founded in 1565. The 
houses are mostly one story high, well built, and surrounded 
by gardens. The trade is large. It has fifteen churches, 
and some manufactures of cotton. Pop. 40,678. 

Cochec'ton, a township and post-village of Sullivan 
co., N. Y. The village is on the Erie R. R., 106 miles S. E. 
of Owego. Pop. of township, 1490. 

Co'chill, a rajahship of India, on the Malabar coast, 
is bounded on the S. W. by the ocean, and on several sides 
by Travancore and Malabar. It is in the presidency of 
Madras. Area, 1988 square miles. The climate is very 
wet. Here are extensive forests of teak and other trees. 
Rice, pepper, ginger, yams, and sweet potatoes are among 
the productions of the soil. Chief town, Cochin. 

Cochin, a seaport-town of Ilindostan, in the district 
of Malabar, was formerly the capital of the above country. 
It is situated at the entrance of an extensive backwater or 
lagoon, 80 miles S. S. E. of Calicut. The lagoon, which is 
nearly 120 miles long, and is navigable, affords valuable 
facilities for communicating with the interior. Cochin has 
great natural advantages for trade and shipbuilding. The 
Jews, of whom there are many both of the white and black 
castes, have a synagogue, almost the only one in India. 
It is also a Roman Catholic episcopal see. Here the Por¬ 
tuguese erected in 1503 their first fort in India. They 
were expelled from Cochin by the Dutch in 1663. The 
town was ceded to the British in 1814. The chief articles of 
export are teak-timber, cardamoms, coir, etc. Pop. 20,000. 

Cochin-China. See Anam, by Prof. A. J. Schem. 

Coch'ineal [Sp. cochinilla , originally the name of the 
coccus insect used in dyeing; see Kermes], a substance 
used in dyeing crimson and scarlet and in the preparation 
of the colors carmine and lake. It consists of the bodies 
of the females of the Coccus cacti, which feeds on plants of 
the cactus family, particularly on the cochineal plants 
(Opuntia cochinillifera, Hernandezii, and Tuna), nearly 
allied to the prickly pear. It is a native of the warm parts 
of America, and is cultivated for the sake of the valuable 
insect which feeds on it. This cultivation was practised 
by the Mexicans long before the country was known to 
Europeans. It is now carried on also in parts of the West 
Indies and Peru, and in the Canary Islands, where it 
forms a very important article of commerce with Europe 
and the U. S. The cochineal insect is very small, a pound 
of cochineal being calculated to contain not less than 
70,000 in a dried state. The male is of a deep-red color 
and has white wings. The female is wingless, and of a 
deep-brown color, covered with a white powder, flat be¬ 
neath, convex above. The cultivator procures branches 
laden with the insects, and keeping the branches till the 
mother-insects have laid their eggs, he places their bodies, 
with the eggs, in little nests formed of some cottony sub¬ 
stance upon the cochineal plants, and the young insects, 
when hatched, soon spread over them. The gathering of 
the cochineal is very tedious, and is accomplished by brush¬ 
ing the branches with some soft brush, such as the tail of 
a squirrel. The insects are killed by boiling water, by 
heating in ovens, or by exposure to the sun. They must 
be quickly killed, to prevent them from laying their eggs, 
which diminishes their value. When killed and dried, 
they may be kept for almost any length of time without in¬ 
jury. The coloring principle of cochineal is carminic acid 
(ChHhOs), known in an impure state as carmine, and com¬ 
bined with alumina as carmine lake. Cochineal is used for 
dyeing wool and silk scarlet and crimson. The colors are 
very brilliant, but not durable. They are easily spotted by 
water and alkalies. The mordants used are alum, cream of 
tartar, and tin salt. Revised by C. F. Chandler. 

. Coch.it/ 11 ate Lake, of Massachusetts, in Middlesex 
co., about 18 miles W. by S. from Boston, is the prin¬ 
cipal source of the water by which that city is supplied. 
It is nearly three miles long, and has an area ot 650 acres. 
It is connected with Sudbury River by an artificial channel, 























1000 COCHRAN—COCKATOO. 


through which, at low water, the supply for the city is in¬ 
creased. 

Coch'ran (John Webster), an eminent inventor, born 
at Enfield, N. H., May 16, 1814, removed in 1832 to Bos¬ 
ton, Mass., patented in 1833 a steam heating-apparatus, 
and in 1834 a revolving cannon, constructed on the prin¬ 
ciple afterwards used in the revolving pistol. lie after¬ 
wards invented valuable machinery for the curvilinear 
sawing of timber. He resided in Europe many years, and 
afterwards returned to the U. S., having acquired wealth 
and fame by his inventions. 

Cochran (William) was a Northern man of Irish de¬ 
scent who settled in Tuscaloosa, Ala., about 1837. He 
became a law-partner of Gen. Crabb, and acquired a great 
reputation. 

Coch'rane (Sir Alexander Forester Inglts), an Eng¬ 
lish admiral, born April 22, 1758, served with distinction 
in Egypt and the West Indies, and commanded the English 
fleet which assisted in taking Washington in Aug., 1814. 
Died at Paris Jan. 26, 1832. 


Cochrane (John), General, born at Palatine, Mont¬ 
gomery co., N. Y., Aug. 27, 1813, graduated at Hamilton 
College, Clinton, N. Y., in 1831, became a lawyer and re¬ 
moved to New York City in 1846, was a Democratic mem¬ 
ber of Congress (1856-62), served as a brigadier-general 
of volunteers (1862-63), and in 1864 was nominated for 
Vice-President on the Fremont ticket. 

Cochrane (John Dundas), Captain, a British naval 
officer, son of Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane, called the 
“pedestrian traveller,” was born about 1780. He pur¬ 
posed a journey round the globe, and traversed Russia and 
Siberia on foot. When he arrived in Kamtchatka he mar¬ 
ried, and abandoned his original project. He returned by 
way of Russia to England in 1823, and published a narra¬ 
tive of his travels. Died Aug. 12, 1825. 

Coch'ranton, a post-borough of Crawford co., Pa. 
Pop. 459. 

Cocin'ic Acid, or Cocostearic Acid (HC 13 II 25 O 2 ), 
the fatty acid of cocoanut oil. 

Cock [Fr. coq\, the male of the common domestic fowl. 



Jungle Cock: Gallus giganteus. 


The name is also applied to the males of many other kinds 
of birds. The ancients regarded the domestic cock as 
sacred to Mars. The cock is said to have been the emblem 
of the ancient Gauls, though the tradition does not rest 
on authority, and is supposed to have been a mere play of 
words between the Latin gallus, a “cock,” and Gallus, a 
Gaul; the cock was placed, after the Revolution, on the 
ensigns of France. It is introduced by artists amongst the 
emblems of our Lord’s passion, in allusion to Saint Peter’s 
sin, and for the same reason it is Saint Peter’s emblem, as 
the lion is the emblem of Saint Mark. 

There is reason to believe that the domestic fowl is the 
descendant of more than one recognized species of the genus 
Gallus, all, however, of Asiatic origin. Among these are 
the Gallus giganteus, or Kulm fowl, a large bird of India 
and the Eastern Archipelago ; Gallus Sonneratii, a spirited 
fowl of Hindostan ; Gallus seneus, furcatus, and banJciva of 
the Archipelago, and others; but there is very good reason 
to believe that they are all of one stock, since the domestic 
fowl, like the pigeon, has a remarkable tendency to devel¬ 
op strongly marked varieties in breeding. 

Cock (Thomas), M. D., a prominent physician of New 
York, born at Glen Cove, Long Island, in 1802. He dis¬ 
tinguished himself by his courage and ability during the- 
yellow-fever season in New York in 1822, and in the epi¬ 
demic of cholera in 1832. He was a professor in the New 
York College of Physicians and Surgeons, and an active 
Christian philanthropist. Died June 14, 1869. 


Cockade [Fr. cocarde'], a ribbon or badge worn on the 
hat or cap by officers of the army or navy; an appendage 
to the headdress, worn as a military or naval distinction 
or as a badge of a party. During the revolution of 1789 
the French people generally assumed the tricolored rib¬ 
bon (red, white, and blue) as a badge of patriotism or 
the symbol of the new regime. The army also wore the 
tricolored cockade until the Restoration, when the legiti¬ 
mists adopted the white cockade. In England a white 
rose was the badge of the Stuarts, and became a fav¬ 
orite theme in Jacobite songs after the Stuarts had ceased 
to reign. 

Cock'atoo' [a word derived from the cry of these birds], 
the name applied to several birds nearly allied to the par¬ 
rots (of the family Psittacidoe), from which they are distin¬ 
guished by the greater height of the bill and by the length¬ 
ened and rounded tail. In the genus Plyctolojihus the 
head is large, and surmounted by a crest of long pointed 
feathers, with their tips directed forward, wdiich can be ex¬ 
panded like a fan or depressed by the bird. The cockatoos 
are of generally wffiitish plumage, often finely mixed with 
red, orange, and other colors. The name cockatoo is also 
extended to allied genera, Cacatua, Nestor, Calyptorhynchus, 
and Microglossxim. The genus Microglossum, to which be¬ 
longs the giant cockatoo of New Guinea, is remarkable for 
the structure of the tongue, which is cylindrical, tubular, 
capable of being greatly protruded, and which terminates 
in a horny tip. The cockatoos are natives of Australasia 
















































































































COCKATRICE—COCK-FIGHTING. 


1001 






and the Malay Islands. They not only eat fruits and seeds, 
but the larvm ol insects. None of the cockatoos learn to 


White-crested Cockatoo. 

speak with fluency. The owl parrot ( Strigops ) and the 
hairy parrot (Dcisyjrtilus) are kindred to the cockatoos. 

Cock'atrice [called in Latin basiliscus and cocatrix'], 
a fabulous monster or venomous serpent, which has been 
sometimes identified with the basilisk. It was said to be 
hatched from a cock’s egg, and its breath and look were 
fatally poisonous. The word occurs in the English version 
of the Old Testament as the name of a venomous serpent. 

Cock'burn (Sir Alexander J. E.), Bart., an English 
judge, born in 1802. He was elected to Parliament as a 
liberal in 1847, and was appoint¬ 
ed attorney-general in 1851. In 
1856 he became chief-justice of 
the court of common pleas, and 
in June, 1859, lord chief-justice 
of the court of queen’s bench. 

He was selected by the British 
ministers to act as an arbitrator 
of the tribunal which was or¬ 
ganized for the settlement of 
the “Alabama claims” at Ge¬ 
neva, in 1871-72. 

Cockburn (Sir George), 

G. C. B., a British admiral, born 
April 22, 1772, entered the navy 
in 1781, assisted in the capture 
of Washington (D. C.) in 1814, 
and conveyed Napoleon to St. 

Helena in 1815. He was a lord 
of the admiralty from 1818 to 
1828. Hied at Leamington 
Aug. 19, 1853. 

Cock'chafer, the common 
English name of the Melolontha 
vulgaris, a European coleopter¬ 
ous insect of the family Melo- 
lont.hidm, famous for the rav¬ 
ages which it commits, the 
winged beetle feeding on the 
leaves of fruit and forest trees, 
the grub devouring the roots 
of pasture-grasses and corn. 

The cockchafer is an inch in length, of a pitch-black color, 
with a whitish down, giving a powdered appearance; the 
grub is an inch and a half long, whitish, with a red head 
and six legs. The cockchafer does not live long in its per¬ 
fect state, but it lives nearly four years in the larva form. 
The female deposits her eggs in the earth. The whole grass 


of a field has been destroyed in a short time by the grubs, 
and the beetles themselves strip the trees like locusts. The 
river Severn is said to have been so filled with their bodies 
in 1574 that the water-wheels of the mills were clogged; 
and in 1688 they were so abundant in some parts of Ireland 
that they hung in clusters on the trees like bees swarming, 
and the noise of their jaws at work was compared to that 
of the sawing of timber. This insect does not occur in the 
U. S., but others of the same family and of similar habits 
abound. 

Cocke, a county of East Tennessee. Area, 250 square 
miles. It is drained by the French Broad River, and 
bounded on the S. E. by Iron or Smoky Mountain. The 
surface is hilly. Tobacco, wool, and grain are produced. 
It is intersected by the Cincinnati Cumberland Gap and 
Charleston R. R. Capital, Gorman’s Depot. Pop. 12,458. 

Cocke (John), General, born at Brunswick, Nottoway 
co., Va., in 1772, was a member of Congress from Tennes¬ 
see (1819-27), major-general of volunteers in the Creek war 
(1813), and served as colonel at the battle of New Orleans 
(1815). Died in Granger co., Tenn., Feb. 16, 1854. 

Cock'er, a small spaniel, similar to the Blenheim dog. 
The small size of the cocker fits it for ranging in coverts, 
and it is much employed by British sportsmen in pheasant 
and woodcock shooting; but it cannot easily be trained to 
wait for the sportsman. It is sometimes called the “ cock- 
ing-dog,” taking both its names from its behavior when 
game is discovered. It somewhat resembles the setter. 

Cock'erill (John), an English engineer and well-known 
promoter of modern commerce, born in Lancashire Aug. 3, 
1790. In 1802 he went to Belgium, where his father had 
long been employed as a machinist, and in 1816 established 
at Seraing, near Liege, a large machine-shop, the king of 
Holland being for a time in partnership with him. He also 
established coal-mines, iron-mines, and extensive factories 
in many parts of Europe. In 1839 he failed, and died in 
1840. 

Cock'ermouth, a town of England, in Cumberland, on 
the river Derwent, at the mouth of the Cocker, 24 miles S. 
W. of Carlisle. It is poorly built. Here are the ruins of a 
castle founded about 1100, and razed by the army of the 
Parliament in 1648. It has manufactures of cotton and 
woollen goods, hats, hosiery, and paper.' Pop. 5388. 

Cock'eysville, a post-village of Baltimore co., Md. It 
is a station on the Northern Central R. R., 15 miles N. of 
Baltimore. 

Cock-Fighting, a barbarous sport which is said to 
have originated with the Athenians. It existed in the days 
of Thomas a Becket, and until the time of the Common¬ 
wealth it flourished, a pit at Whitehall having been erected 
and patronized by royalty. It was prohibited in 1654, but, 


Grey Game Fowl. 

though there have been other acts passed with the view of 
putting it down, it still exists both m England and the 
U. S. Cocks of the breeds known as game fowl are chosen. 
These birds often exhibit the highest degree of courage. 

Much art is displayed in training and in trimming and 
preparing the cock for the combat; the fastening on of the 



































1002 


COCKLE—COD. 



steel spurs or “ gaffs ” is a matter requiring considerable 
experience. Young cocks are called stags ; two years is the 
best age. In fighting, a certain number of cocks on either 
side is agreed upon, and before the match the cocks are shown, 
and matched according to their weights. The cocks within 
an ounce of each other in weight are said to “ fall in/’ and 
are matched for the “main.” Those which do not fall in 
are matched to fight what are called “byes.” The main is 
fought for a stake upon each battle, and so much for the 
main or the Avinner of the most battles in the main; while 
the byes have nothing to do with the main, and are fought 
for smaller sums. The nations of Spanish origin are espe¬ 
cially fond of this sport, which has also been very popular 
in parts of the U. S. 

Cock'le [Gr. /coy^uAtov (from KoyxV) ^ “shell”); Lat. 

conchylium ], a name 
given to various aceph¬ 
alous mollusks, chiefly 
of the genus Cardium. 
The Cardium edule, or 
common cockle, and 
other species, consti¬ 
tute an important sup¬ 
ply of food in England 
and other European 
countries. The species 
are very numerous, and 
are chiefly tropical. 
Cardium Junonis is one 
of the finest species. 
Several species occur 
on the Atlantic and 
Pacific coasts of the 
Cockle-shell: Cardium Junonis. U. S. 

Cock'le, or Corn-Cockle [Fr. coquelicoti], a common 
name of the Lychnis Githago, an annual plant of the order 
Caryophyllaceas, a native of Europe. It often occurs as a 
weed in the wheat-fields of the U. S., and produces black 
seeds, which are injurious to the appearance and quality 
of wheat flour. The lobes of the calyx are linear, and 
longer than the corolla, which is purple-red. 

Cock'ney. The origin of this term, applied to a native 
or citizen of London, is involved in obscurity. In 1517, 
Henry VIII. made an order with reference to the feast of 
the King of the Cockneys, held on Childermas Day. The 
term Cockney School was applied to a literary coterie 
sisting of Hazlitt, Keats, Leigh Hunt, Shelley, etc. 

Cock'pit, in a ship of war, is a room near the 
after hatchway, under the lower gun-deck. It ad¬ 
joins the surgeon’s cabin and the surgery, contains 
the medicine-chests for all the crew, and is the 
place where the wounded men receive surgical treat¬ 
ment during an action. 

Cock'roach, or Roach, a name of several 
orthopterous insects of the genus Blatta and allied 
genera, which have a flattened body, the head be¬ 
neath the plate of the prothorax, and wings folded 
longitudinally. The elytra are parchment-like, and 
the wings sometimes imperfectly developed, par¬ 
ticularly in the females. The eggs are in a sort 
of shell fixed to the abdomen of the mother, which at 
last she deposits in a suitable situation, attaching it by 
a glutinous secretion. The larvae are similar in form 
to the perfect insects, and, like them, very voracious. 
Cockroaches are numerous in warm countries, and the 
common cockroach ( Blatta orientalis ) was imported from 
abroad, but its native country is uncertain. It devours 
both animal and vegetable substances, and a dark-colored 
fluid from its mouth gives a disgusting smell to everything- 
that it passes over. The common cockroach is an inch long, 
but some tropical ones are much larger. The cockroaches 
are reiparkably infested by parasitic insects and fungi. 
Borax, used freely, will generally drive them away. 

Cocks'comto [named from the resemblance of its head 
of flowers to the comb of a cock], a name applied to vari¬ 
ous amaranths, but especially to the Celosia cristata, na¬ 
tive of the East Indies, and a familiar inmate of conserva¬ 
tories, often also planted in borders. Its upright stem be¬ 
comes flattened, expands, and forms a crest, bearing on its 
surface many very small and brilliant flowers, so crowded 
as to present a rich velvety appearance. 

Cocoa. See Cacao and Tiieobroma. 

Co'coa-Nut, the fruit of the Cocos nucifera, a tree of 
the order Palmaccae, which is indigenous or cultivated 
in nearly all tropical countries. It has pinnate leaves, 
from twelve to twenty feet long. The trunk or stem is 
branchless, and grows to the height of sixty to ninety 
feet, bearing at its summit a crown of leaves. These trees 
prefer a sandy soil, and are seldom found growing far from 


the sea, unless they have been planted by man. The thick 
and hard shell of the nut is well adapted to preserve the 
seed when it is carried by the waves to some distant shore 
or sandbank; hence the cocoanut-palm is one of the first 
large plants that usually appear on a new island of coral 
formation as soon as sufficient soil has been collected 
there. It affords a large variety of useful products. The 
nut, which is an important article of food to the people of 
tropical countries, is eaten both ripe and unripe. The 
young unripe fruit contains a pleasant milky fluid, which 
is used as food and is prepared in various ways. The ker¬ 
nel yields about 70 per cent, of a fixed oil called cocoanut 
oil, which is an important article in the manufacture of 
stearine candles and marine soap. In tropical countries it 
is used as lamp oil and as an article of food. It can be 
separated by compression in the cold into a more liquid 
portion called oleine, and a more solid part termed coco- 
stearine or cocosine. (See Cocinic Acid and C’ocinin.) 

The terminal bud (palm-cabbage) of Cocos nucifera is 
edible and is considered a delicacy, but its removal causes 
the death of the tree, which is sometimes cut down for its 
sake. The stem abounds in a saccharine sap called “ toddy,” 
which is esteemed as a pleasant beverage, either in the state 
in which it is drawn from the tree, or after fermentation, 
which takes place in a few hours. From the fermented sap 
(palm wine) a spirituous liquor called “ arrack ” is obtained 
by distillation. The dried leaves of the cocoanut-palm are 
useful for thatching houses, for making mats and baskets, 
and for other purposes. The wood of the lower part of the 
stem is very hard, takes a beautiful polish, is employed for 
a variety of purposes, and is imported for ornamental 
joinery under the name of porcupine-wood. The most im¬ 
portant fibrous product of this tree is coir, the fibre of the 
husk of the immature nut. (See Coir.) The shell of the 
nut is made into cups, ladles, etc., and is often finely pol¬ 
ished and elaborately ornamented by carving. The double 
cocoa-nut is the product of the Lodoicea Bcycliellarum, a 
palm growing in the Seychelle Islands. 

Co'coa Plum, the edible fruit of the Clirysobalamis 
Icaco, a shrub of the order Rosaceae, growing in the south¬ 
ern part of the U. S. and the West Indies. The fruit re¬ 
sembles a large plum, yellow, purple, or black in color. 

Cocoon. See Silkworm and Chrysalis. 

Cod ( Gadus morrhua), a fish of great commercial im¬ 
portance, belonging to the family Gadidae. The genus is 
distinguished by three dorsal and two anal fins and a bar- 
bule beneath the chin. The cod has been known to reach 



Common Cod. 

a weight of 100 pounds. The roe of the female is esti¬ 
mated to contain from four to nine millions of eggs, a re¬ 
productive power which seems intended to provide for the 
extensive fisheries which are carried on in the northern 
parts of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and in the Arctic 
seas. The cod is not known in the Mediterranean. It oc¬ 
curs both on rocky coasts and on sandbanks, where the 
largest are usually caught in depths of from twenty-five to 
fifty fathoms. The productiveness of the banks of New¬ 
foundland excels that of all other known regions, but the cod- 
fisheries near Holland, Norway, Iceland, and the north of 
Scotland are also productive. The cod-fisheries of Alaska 
promise to become very important. The Dutch and the 
English engaged in the cod-fishery in the fourteenth century, 
about the same period. More than 6000 European vessels 
are employed in it, besides boats along the shores. The 
fishery is carried on partly by long lines and partly by 
hand lines. One man has been known to catch from 400 
to 550 fish on the banks of Newfoundland in ten hours, and 
eight men to take 1600 in a day on the Dogger Bank, near 
Holland. Small fishes, shell-fish, etc. are used for bait. 
The cod is used as food, either fresh, salted, or dried. 
Great quantities of dried cod are carried from Newfound¬ 
land to the West Indies and the south of Europe. Cod 
tongues and sounds (or air-bladders) aro esteemed a deli¬ 
cacy, and are often salted and sent to market. Several va¬ 
rieties and species seem to be peculiar to the American coasts. 
The cod-fisheries of the U. S. are principally carried on 
from Massachusetts and Maine, though the fisheries on the 
Paeifio coast are assuming considerable importance. 

























CODDINGTON—CODEX ALEXANDEINUS. 


Cod'dington (William), born in Lincolnshire, Eng¬ 
land, in 1601, came to Salem, Mass., in 1030, was a mer¬ 
chant of Boston, and fled to R. I. in 1638 in consequence 
ot his defence of Anne Hutchinson and others. He soon 
became a Quaker and an advocate of liberty of conscience, 
was elected a judge, and afterwards governor of R. I. (1640- 
47). In 1651 he was again appointed governor of the isl¬ 
and by the Commonwealth of England, but resigned soon. 
He was again governor (1674-75). Died in Nov., 1678. 

Code [Lat. coefe.r], a collection of laws made by public 
authority. In modern law, it more commonly means a 
methodical arrangement of law, either customary or statu- 
tory, in chapters and sections. In a number of the Amer¬ 
ican States the general statutes (see Statute) are arranged 
in this manner under the title of “ Revised Laws,” “ Re¬ 
vised Statutes,” or “ Codes.” How far it is practicable to* 
accomplish useful results in the codification of customary 
or common law is a subject of much controversy among 
jurists. On the one hand, it is claimed that as law of 
this nature can be enunciated or stated, the statement can 
be reduced to writing in the form of general and particular 
propositions. It is added, as to the common law of Eng¬ 
land, that it has been for ages in writing, and that all that 
is now known of it is derived from written sources such as 
reports and treatises of recognized authority. The rules 
there found are susceptible of collation, analysis, and sys¬ 
tematic arrangement. The materials thus obtained may 
be recast bv the codifier, and moulded into the form of 
positive and authoritative statement in his own language. 
True, the judge in deciding a cause states a principle as 
applied to the particular cause before him; the codifier 
may seize upon the principle that underlies the specific 
case, and state it in a positive and precise form. From 
this mode of collecting and arranging legal propositions it 
is claimed that a number of benefits will be secured, such 
as reducing the labor of lawyers, decreasing the size of 
their libraries, introducing legal reforms by comprehensive - 
legislation, and affording to the public increased oppor¬ 
tunities to become acquainted with general rules of law. 
(See “ Report of Civil Code for New York by Commis¬ 
sioners,” Albany, A. D. 1855.) On the other hand, it is 
urged that a code, being inflexible in its character, prevents 
the true growth of law. Discussions in court will turn 
upon the construction of words used in the code, instead of 
there being an examination of legal principles. The in¬ 
terpretation of specific words is to the last degree attended 
with uncertainty. Leading inquiries concerning the great 
statute of frauds passed in the reign of Charles II. are 
still regarded in the courts as open to consideration. This 
objection is truly formidable. Where customary law pre¬ 
vails, little if any attention is paid in the decision of 
causes to the particular language in which the court in a 
former case cited as a precedent expressed its views. The 
principle of the decision is seized upon and stated in per¬ 
haps wholly different words. The arguments applied to 
the construction of statute or codified law must, from the 
nature of the case, be in the main textual criticism. There 
must be interpretation of particular words, reconciliation 
of discordant phrases, and minute consideration of mere 
forms of expression. While a rule of law is in process of 
formation discussions as to its true principle should be as 
free and unfettered as possible until, after a long inter¬ 
change, and perhaps collision, of opinions, the true rule is 
evoked, with its various qualifications and limitations. 
This process, so beneficial in its character, could not be 
made available if the rule in its early stages had already 
been hardened into fixed forms of statute law. Mr. Austin, 
in his great work on jurisprudence, though from the bent 
of his mind inclined to favor codification, sees the great 
difficulties attending it in its more perfect forms, and sug¬ 
gests that the work can only be accomplished successfully, 
if at all, by lawyers of the very highest ability and most 
comprehensive views, for no others can see the full scope 
of the subject and draw the needful sections. It may be 
added that in a country like our own, where legislation 
is fluctuating and often inconsiderate, there would be 
great danger, even though a well-devised code of laws 
were once introduced, that its symmetry would shortly be 
marred and the coherence of its provisions broken up. 
No argument for a code in the modern sense can be de¬ 
rived from the work of Justinian on the Roman law. The 
“ Pandects,” the great body of the Roman law, is, in the 
main, a mere collection of extracts from distinguished wri¬ 
ters in their own language, and which had already become 
settled law. The “ Institutes ” are substantially a bare repro¬ 
duction of a well-known work of Gaius, a distinguished 
Roman jurist. Besides, the development of the Roman law 
was different in some respects from our own. In that system 
much was made of the opinions of text-writers, while nearly 
the whole development of English jurisprudence has taken 
place through the medium of adjudged cases or “case 


1003 


law.” The true method of growth would seem to be that 
the courts should render decisions, while text-writers 
ot ability should collect them, arrange the principles in a 
scientific manner, criticise them when faulty, and call the 
attention of the courts to needful improvement. By the 
work thus done law will make a steady progress, and adapt 
itself to the wants of the .community. Radical changes 
must be produced by legislation. It is in vain to hope 
that a code will reduce libraries or make thorough study 
unnecessary. Jurisprudence will take on an historical 
form, for courts must apply the code to specific cases, and 
a body of case law will soon grow up, the roots of which 
will be sought in the past as heretofore, and its results 
modify the code itself, just as great masses of case law col¬ 
lect around an instrument so brief as the U. S. Constitu¬ 
tion. (See also Austin “On Jurisprudence,” vol. ii., p. 
1129, and Pomeroy’s “Introduction to Municipal Law,” 
chap, iii., and the works of Savigny.) 

Some of the leading codes may be referred to. 

1. Justinian’s Code of Roman Law. —The word code is 
used here as describing the whole mass of codified Roman 
law under the order of the emperor Justinian, including 
the “Code” of that system, the “Institutes/’ “Pandects,” 
and “Novels.” These, taken together, constitute the cor¬ 
pus juris civilis, or whole body of civil law. (These will 
be more fully considered under Law, Civil.) The Theodo- 
sian code of Roman law may also be referred to, which is 
of comparatively little interest. (See “ Foreign Quarterly 
Review,” vol. ix., 374.) 

2. French Codes. —Of these there are five principal ones— 
the civil code, of civil procedure, of commerce, of criminal 
procedure, and of criminal law. There are also codes upon 
special subjects. French codification is largely due to the 
emperor Napoleon. 

3. Code of Louisiana, based on the Code Napoleon, and 
principally prepared by Edward Livingston. It is divided 
into three books, and is concerned with the civil as distin¬ 
guished from the criminal law. Mr. Livingston also pre¬ 
pared a draft of a penal code for the State, which was not 
adopted, as well as one for the U. S. (These are to be 
found, together with introductory reports explaining the 
grounds of them, in a work published by the National 
Prison Association, with an introduction by the late Chief- 
Justice S. P. Chase, A. D. 1873.) 

4. New York Code of Procedure. —The object of this is 
to assimilate law and equity, and to have but one form of 
action. It assumes to regulate in a general w T ay both 
pleadings and practice, and to state in a condensed form 
the general rules. A large body of case law has grown up 
in connection with the code regulations. The results of 
these decisions are collected in “ Annotated Codes ” or in 
works of practice. The system has been adopted in sub¬ 
stance in a considerable number of the States. Commission¬ 
ers in New York have also reported a political, a civil, and a 
penal code, which have not been adopted by the legislature. 

Mention may also be made of various collections of mari¬ 
time rules, such as the “ Consolato del Mare,” “ Laws of the 
Hanse Towns,” “ Ordonnance de la Marine” (of the time of 
Louis XIV. of France), “ Laws of Oleron,” and the “ Laws 
of Wisby,” which will be noticed again in connection 
with maritime law, as well as of the Code of Prussia, etc. 

T. W. Dwight. 

Code'ia [from the Gr. ku> 8 tj, a “poppy-head”], (C 18 H 27 
NO 3 + H 2 O), one of the alkaloids to which opium owes its 
hypnotic powers. Its salts are sometimes administered in 
place of morphia salts. It is asserted that it possesses 
many of the valuable properties of that drug, without its 
disadvantages. The dose is much larger than that of 
morphia. (See Opium, by Prof. C. F. Chandler.) 

Co'dex (plu. Cod'ices), [a Latin word signifying the 
“trunk” or “stem” of a tree; later it was applied to 
wooden tablets covered with wax, which were used for 
writing on]. In modern Latin, codex is a manuscript vol¬ 
ume, and is especially applied to a manuscript copy of the 
Scriptures. Codex rescriptus is a synonym of Palimpsest 
(which see). Among the most ancient manuscripts of the 
New Testament are the Codex Alexandrinus, the Codex 
Vaticanus, and the Codex Sinaiticus. 

Co'dex Alexandri'nus, the third in antiquity of the 
great uncial extant manuscripts of the Bible in the Greek 
language. (See Paleography.) It contains the Old Tes¬ 
tament (in the Septuagint version), with some deficiencies 
in the Psalms, and all the book 3 of the New Testament, 
with a few chasms whore leaves are wanting. To these it 
adds the one genuine, and a fragment of the apocryphal, 
Epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians. The Cath¬ 
olic Epistles follow the Acts; then come the Pauline Epis¬ 
tles,.with that to the Hebrews before the Pastoral Epistles; 
the Apocalypso, which is rare in extant manuscripts, stands 
at the close of the New Testament. 


1 

















1004 


CODEX BEZ^E—CODEX EPHKAEMI. 


This codex is now preserved in the British Museum, 
having been presented to Charles I. in 1628 by Cyril Lucar, 
patriarch of Constantinople, who had previously been 
patriarch of Alexandria, from which city he brought the 
manuscript. It is in quarto form, about thirteen inches 
high and ten broad, each page being divided into two col¬ 
umns of fifty lines each, having about twenty letters or 
upwards in a line. It is written on thin, fine, and very 
beautiful vellum, in uncial (or capital) letters of an elegant 
yet simple form, and without any space between the words. 
The punctuation, which is infrequent, consists merely of a 
point placed at the end of a sentence, usually on a level 
with the top of the preceding letter ,• and a vacant place 
follows the point at the end of a paragraph, the space 
being proportioned to the break in the sense. The black 
ink, in which the body of the codex was written, has 


turned to a yellowish-brown ; but the vermilion, freely used 
in the initial lines of the different books, is still bright. 
The manuscript bears an ancient Arabic inscription on its 
margin, assex-ting that it was written by the martyr Thecla; 
Tregelles, however, explains the origin of this inscription 
by remarking that the New Testament in the codex as we 
have it commences with Matthew xxv. 6, this lesson (Mat¬ 
thew xxv. 1-13) being that appointed by the Greek Church 
for the festival of Saint Thecla. The Egyptian, therefore, 
who wrote this Arabic note, observing the name of Thecla 
on the now mutilated upper margin of the codex, where 
such rubrical notes are commonly placed by later hands, 
hastily concluded that she wrote the book. But though 
not by Thecla, it may be that the neat chirography of the 
codex is due to a female hand, for we know that women as 
.well as men were employed as copyists at Alexandria. 



xicyN G VG ? Xtxj X'Yt’O n pcotn 
6 K2VCTT OCTOKXO I I I<O VICX3 1 1 r\l I 
KXXCXICOC-| , MeHGNOHMOCDH 

Codex Alexandrinus (Exodus xvi. 21). 

Kat awe. \e£av avro irptot npio'i, esaaros to KaSr/Kov avrcp' tyi/ca be 8t.e6epp.evev* o ijAio?, errj- 


The general consent of palaeographers refers this manu¬ 
script to the beginning or middle of the fifth century of our 
era. In the general style of the writing and in the shape 
of the letters (especially those which furnish the best tests, 
as a, 8, e, iv, cr, <}>, and tu), it holds a middle place between 
copies of the fourth and sixth centuries. There are no ac¬ 
cents or breathings, and the contractions of words (as 

©C, IC, XC, IIHP, KC, etc., for 0eo?, Irjcrot/?, Xpicrro?, IlaTTjp, 
Kvptos, etc.) are only such as are found in other manu¬ 
scripts of the more ancient class. Of itacisms (as the in¬ 
terchange of i and ei, ij and i, e and at) it contains no more 
than others of the same date. The references in the mar¬ 
gin to the tables of parallel passages called the “ Canons of 
Eusebius” (A. D. 268-340?), and the insertion, before the 
Psalms, of the epistle to Marcellinus by Athanasius, patri¬ 
arch of Alexandria (A. D. 300?-373), prove that the man¬ 
uscript was not written before the fourth century; while 
the absence of the so-called Euthalian divisions of the Acts 
and Epistles into chapters, which came into vogue very 
soon after 458, and the shortness and simplicity of the 
subscriptions at the end of the books, appear tolerably de¬ 
cisive (says Scrivener) against a later date than about 450. 
The insertion of the Epistles of Clement points to a period 
when the canon of Scripture was in some particulars a lit¬ 
tle unsettled, or about the age of the Synod of Laodieea 
(363). It appears from the table of contents that the 
manuscript formerly contained the apocryphal Psalms of 
Solomon, but these are separated from the other books in 
the list, as wholly different in kind. This separation con¬ 
forms to the prohibition of such psalms, at the Synod (or, 
as it is sometimes called, Council) of Laodieea, from being 
read in churches. 

This manuscript is of great importance to the critic, and 
exhibits a text more nearly approaching that found in later 
copies than is read in others of its high antiquity. It is 
designated, in critical editions, by the letter A. It has 
been published in elegant style, in quasi facsimile, uncial 
type, bearing a general resemblance to the written charac¬ 
ters, having been cast for the purpose, and (what is more 
important) the edition exhibiting the manusci*ipt page for 
page, line for line, and letter for letter. The handsome, 
folio volume containing the New Testament appeared in 
1786, edited by Charles Godfrey Woide; the four folio vol¬ 
umes containing the Old Testament were edited by Henry 
Hervey Baber, and published in 1816-28. An edition of 
the New Testament, in small letter, in which Woide’s text 
has been corrected from the manuscript itself, was published 
in 1860, edited by B. H. Cowper. The Old Testament has 
been edited by Field. Thomas Chase. 

Co'dex Be'zae or Cantabrigien'sis (designation, 
D), an uncial manuscript, probably of the sixth century, 
containing the four Gospels and the book of Acts in Greek 
and Latin on opposite pages. It was presented to the Univer¬ 
sity of Cambridge in 1581 by Theodore Beza, who obtained 
it during the French civil wars in 1562, when it was found 
in the monastery of Saint Irenseus at Lyons. This manu¬ 
script has several peculiar features. The Gospels stand 
Matthew, John, Luke, Mark, an order found also in some 
of the manuscripts of the Old Latin version. The pecu¬ 

* For fit eOeppauvev. 


liarities in the text are striking, consisting of interpola¬ 
tions, sentences recast, and occasional omissions. The inter¬ 
polations had probably been introduced into some still older 
copy from the margin of another manuscript, where they 
had been subjoined by some who wished to add whatever 
they could obtain from various sources to make the narra¬ 
tive more full and complete. These additions would be 
very serious were this manuscript our only record of the 
original writings; but when they are removed the text 
which remains is valuable for comparative criticism, and 
is strongly corroborative of the other most ancient MSS. 

The text of this codex, both Greek and Latin, was pub¬ 
lished by Dr. Thomas Kipling at Cambridge in two hand¬ 
some folio volumes in 1793, in type cast for the edition, 
and so wonderfully exact that it possesses nearly all the 
advantages of an actual facsimile. A more scholarly and 
accurate edition was brought out in 1864 by F. H. Scriv¬ 
ener. Whiston, who had an extravagant admiration of the 
manuscript, published an English translation of it in 1745. 

Thomas Chase. 

Co'dex Ephrae'mi, or Co'dex Ephrae'mi Sy'ri 
Rescrip'tus (designation, C), an ancient and valuable pa¬ 
limpsest manuscript of portions of the Greek Bible, preserved 
in the great library in Paris called by turns National, Royal, 
and Imperial. It was brought from the East by Andrew 
John Lascar, a learned Greek patronized by Lorenzo de' 
Medici, and Catharine de’ Medici carried it to Paris. The 
ancient writing is read with difficulty, having been erased 
about the twelfth century in order that the vellum might 
be used for transcribing some Greek works of the Syrian 
Father Ephraem. The treasure which lay below was first 
noticed by Peter Alix in the latter part of the seventeenth 
centuiy. Several readings from the palimpsest were pub¬ 
lished by Kuster in 1710, in his reprint of Mill’s Greek 
Testament. In 1716, Bentley sent Wetstein to Paris to 
collate the whole manuscript. This work, for which fifty 
pounds were paid, was performed as far as was then possi¬ 
ble. Wetstein told Bentley that it had cost him two hours 
to read one page. This collation Wetstein used in his own 
edition of the Greek Testament (1751-52). In 1834 a 
chemical preparation (tinctura Giobertina) was applied to 
the leaves in order to revivify the ancient writing. But 
although much that had been illegible was thus brought 
fully to light, every part of the manuscript was stained 
and discolored in the process, and some passages made 
more difficult to read than before. The conquest of all the 
difficulties which beset the deciphering of this codex is one 
of the greatest triumphs of Tischendorf. This enthusiastic, 
patient, keen-sighted, and skilful palaeographer occupied 
himself from December, 1840, till September, 1841, in ex¬ 
amining and copying the manuscript for publication, and 
has given the world the first complete transcript of it; the 
New Testament portion being published at Leipsic in 1843, 
the Old Testament in 1845. 

Codex C is an uncial manuscript, about the size of Codex 
A, but written in characters a little larger (Tregelles) and 
somewhat more elaborate, and with but one column on a 
page. All its characteristics point to a date as early as the 
fifth century. Three correctors at least have left on it 
traces of their work; the earliest may havo been of the 
sixth century, the second (who revised such portions only 

















CODEX SINAITICUS. 


1005 


as were used for church lessons or other ecclesiastical pur¬ 
poses) perhaps of the ninth. By him and by the third 
hand (whose changes are few) small crosses were interpo¬ 
lated as stops, and there are marks of cantillation as guides 
in intoning. In critical authority Tregelles places this MS. 
next to the Sinaitic and the Vatican. T. Chase. 

Co'dev Sinait'icus (designated, K aleph), the most 
recently discovered of the uncial manuscripts of the Greek 
Bible, and interior to no other in antiquity, authority, and 
completeness. 

In 1844, Constantine Tischendorf—who, although but 
twenty-nine years old, was already famous as an editor of 
the Greek Testament and as the decipherer of the Codex 
Ephraemi—in a journey undertaken in search of ancient 
manuscripts of Holy Writ, arrived at the ancient Greek 
oonvent of Saint Catharine on the range of Mount Sinai. 
Here he was shown a beautiful codex of the Gospels, the 
pride of the convent, written upon exquisite white parch¬ 
ment in letters of gold, and adorned with beautiful paint¬ 
ings of the four Evangelists, our Saviour, the Virgin Mary, 
and the apostle Peter, and said to have been the gift of 
Theodosius III. From the character of the writing it 
must date from the seventh or eighth century ; but Tischen¬ 
dorf found it very inaccurate, and of slight critical value. 
Something much more precious than this costly codex had 
been thrown aside as worthless by the unintelligent guard¬ 
ians of the convent library. In a large basket filled with 
remains of torn and damaged manuscripts which stood in 
the middle of the room, Tischendorf found a considerable 
number of vellum leaves of a Greek manuscript of the 
Septuagint version of the Old Testament, which his prac¬ 
tised eye at once recognized as one of the oldest in exist¬ 
ence. The contents of the basket had been destined for 
the flames, two baskets full of similar materials having 
been already burned in the stove. Tischendorf easily ob¬ 
tained possession of forty-three sheets, about one-third of 
the number which he rescued, but was not permitted to take 
the other portions, nor even to copy more than a single 
leaf. Unfortunately, he had betrayed the value of the 
treasure of which the monks had before been so uncon¬ 
scious. Of the portion he obtained he published a litho¬ 
graphic facsimile in 1846, under the name of Codex Fri- 
derieo-Augu8tanu8, in honor of his patron, Friedxdch August, 
the king of Saxony. Of course, Tischendorf was hoping 
all the time that he should at length obtain the rest of the 
manuscript. He made proposals for it through a friend 
whom he had found at the court of the viceroy of Egypt, 
but only to learn that the monks, having learned its value, 
would not part with it for any sum of money. In 1853 he 
visited the monastery a second time, in the hope of being 
permitted to copy those parts of the codex which he had 
left behind, but he could gain no tidings of them whatever. 
He found, however, one trace of the codex—a single shred, 
in a roll of parchment, containing eleven lines from the 
first book of Moses. But few years passed before Tischen¬ 
dorf felt impelled for a third time to journey to the East, 
in the hope of prosecuting his search for ancient copies of 
the sacred text over a wider field and more fully than be¬ 
fore. To facilitate his researches, he succeeded in gaining 
the powerful patronage and protection of the emperor Alex¬ 
ander II. of Russia, the great champion of the Oriental 
Orthodox Church, and of his imperial consort. Near the 
beginning of the year 1859 the enthusiastic scholar pre¬ 
sented himself for the third time at the gates of the con¬ 
vent. After repeated calls from below, a door in the con¬ 
vent wall was opened thirty feet above the ground, and a 
rope let down to receive the letters which the traveller 
brought. Ordinarily, guests are received through this same 
door, seating themselves on a cross-piece of wood at the 
end of the rope, and being then drawn up by the servants 
of the convent. Tischendorf’s credentials procured him a 
more distinguished reception. In honor of his imperial 
commission the steward of the convent soon appeared in 
person, in the name of the prior, and conducted the guest, 
through a door seldom used, “ into the still, friendly asy¬ 
lum.” The luggage and the dragoman took the usual jour¬ 
ney through the air. 

After five days’ tarriance, during which Tischendorf had 
carefully examined the treasures of the library, as well as 
ascended Mount Sinai, when he was preparing to take his 
departure, and had sent his Bedouins after the camels, as 
he was taking a walk with the steward, the conversation 
turned upon the text of the Old Testament. Returning at 
twilight to the convent, the steward invited him to partake 
of a luncheon in his cell, and while they were eating re¬ 
marked that he had here a copy of the Septuagint, there¬ 
upon bringing out of a corner of the room a large manu¬ 
script, wrapped in a red cloth according to the Oriental 
custom, which he had brought to his own cell from the 
library of the <ntevo<i>v\ai or keeper of the sacred utensils. 
Glancing at the pile of vellum, Tischendorf soon recognized 


it as belonging to the same codex of which ho had rescued 
some leaves from the basket of fuel fifteen years before; 
and, eagerly turning over the different sheets, beheld, to 
his astonishment, in addition to a large part of the Old Tes¬ 
tament, the beginning and the end of the New, and the 
Epistle of Barnabas. It appears that soon after the orig¬ 
inal discovery in the waste-basket the monks had found 
these sheets, and placed them with the fragments which 
Tischendorf rescued from destruction. The German guest, 
concealing his emotion, begged the privilege of taking the 
manuscript to his own chamber; to his unspeakable joy, 
he found that it contained the New Testament entire , 
whereas all the other manuscripts of the first class (as re¬ 
gards antiquity) are more or less imperfect; and he could 
not withhold an offering of praise and thanksgiving to that 
Divine Being who had suffered so valuable a boon for the 
Church of Christ to come into his hands. The first night 
he spent in transcribing the Epistle of Barnabas (now 
found for the first time entire in the original Greek), in 
spite of a dim lamp and the cold temperature; “ indeed, 
it seemed impious to sleep.” 

Understanding the aversion of the monks to part with 
manuscripts in their possession, Tischendorf asked and ob¬ 
tained, after some opposition, permission to copy the whole 
codex at Cairo,where there were greater facilities for the work 
than at the convent. With the assistance of two of his 
own countrymen, with incessant toil he completed his tran¬ 
script, but he was not able to give his copy that careful re¬ 
vision and comparison with the original without which it 
would be unfit for publication. At Tischendorf’s sugges¬ 
tion the monks were at last persuaded to offer the whole 
codex as a gift to that great monarch whom they recognized 
as the shield and bulwark of the Eastern Church ; and in a 
little less than eight months after his discovery of the 
treasure they committed it to his hands to be borne to St. 
Petersburg—to be held for a time, however, as a loan made 
simply to facilitate the publication of an accurate edition, 
until the confirmation of their new archbishop’s election 
should enable him to present it formally to the emperor, as 
he afterwards did. 

The Codex Sinaiticus is written upon vellum sheets of 
extreme fineness and beauty, the delicate skins of antelopes 
or of wild asses (probably the former). It consists of three 

X 6T6 AC An OT CON 
AN CD N n A pAACO 

coyci n rA|>Y A 
61CCYN CApiAKAI 
6NTAI CCYNArCD 
TAl C Ay TCD N M AT ! 
UCOCOYCI NYMk 
KAieniHreMONA 
AeKAlRAClAlCA 
X0 HC6C0AICNC 
KCN CM oye 1 CHAP 

Codex Sinaiticus (Matthew x. 17, 18). 

-\€Te Se ano tuiv avOpeonuiv'* napaSiScrovcTLV yap vpa<; ec? avveSpia, 
Kal ev rats crvrayojyaLi avrioy paaTiyuHTOvaiv vpas' (cai enl i)ye- 
pova s Se /cat j3a<r<Atsf axOrjaevOaiX eVexe v epov, eis pap-$ 

hundred and forty-six leaves, of which one hundred and 
ninety-nine contain twenty-two books of the Old Testa¬ 
ment and Apocrypha in the Septuagint version, beginning 

* ANON is a contraction for AN@P12IIfiN. 
f For /SacriAet? 
t For a-xOr/o’earOe. 

g An English Bible printed in the same style would read some¬ 
what as follows: 

WAREOFETNFORTHEY 

WILLDELIVERYOUUP 

TOTHECOUNCILSAND 

THEYWILLSCOURGE 

YOUINTHEIRSYNA 

GOGUE b ANDYESHALL 

BEBROUGHTBEFORE 

GOVERNOR s ANDKING s 

FORMYSAKEFO RATES 


I 















1006 CODEX VATICANUS. 


at the first book of Chronicles; while the remaining one 
hundred and forty-seven present the whole of the New Tes¬ 
tament, the Epistle of Barnabas, and a part of the Shep¬ 
herd of Hernias. (To these should bo added the forty-three 
leaves of the Codex Friderico-Augustanus.) It is written 
in uncial letters of exceeding beauty and simplicity of 
shape, approaching closely to the forms of the best papyri. 
Such testing characters as alpha, delta, epsilon, pi, and 
sigma are as unadorned as possible, without flourishes, 
knobs, or thickened points at their extremities—a proof of 
antiquity. It resembles the Vatican Codex in the absence 
of initial letters larger than the rest, which seem to have 
been regularly used after the beginning of the fifth century. 
It has but little punctuation, and that in the oldest manner. 
Its peculiarities of orthography and etymology belong to a 
period as early as the fourth century of our era. It is con¬ 
spicuous for the brevity of its titles and subscriptions— 
e. g., “ According to Matthew,” “ Acts,” “ To (the) Romans.” 
Longer titles, as “The Holy Gospel according to Matthew ’ 
(wrongly translated in our version “ The Gospel according to 
St. Matthew ”— Horne’s Introduction, 3d ed., p. 410), were 
not introduced until a later date. 

It has, moreover, certain other signs of antiquity pecu¬ 
liar to itself. It has always been regarded as one of the 
striking proofs of the remote age of the Vatican Codex that 
it is written in three columns on each page, presenting to 
the eye, when the book is open, six narrow columns at once, 
thereby the more closely resembling the appearance of the 
ancient volumina or papyrus-scrolls when extended for 
reading. Just as in the first books printed after the inven¬ 
tion of printing many of the peculiarities of the manuscripts 
were carefully imitated, so when manuscripts began to be 
written on leaves instead of scrolls, it is natural to suppose 
that some of the peculiarities of the older form would be 
retained. A very few other manuscripts have been found 
with the same number of columns on a page as the Vatican. 
But the Sinaitic Codex stands alone among known manu¬ 
scripts in presenting four narrow columns on a page, sel¬ 
dom exceeding two inches in breadth, and eight columns at 
once when the book is opened; so that its claims to the 
benefit of this argument for antiquity are the strongest. 
This fact, with certain other indications, renders it prob¬ 
able that this codex was copied directly from an old Egyp¬ 
tian papyrus manuscript. The remarkably large size and 
great beauty of the vellum sheets is another proof of high 
antiquity. In size, indeed, they are the largest known, 
“each page being even at present as large as thirteen and 
one-half inches in length by fourteen and seven-eighths 
inches high, although marginal notes have sometimes been 
partially cut off by the ancient binder.” A single animal 
could contribute only two leaves, or one sheet, of such un¬ 
usual size. As time went on, smaller and coarser sheets of 
parchment took the place of the exquisite vellum used in 
the oldest manuscripts. The peculiar order in which the 
books of the Bible follow each other corresponds with what 
Epiphanius, who flourished towards the end of the third 
century, testifies to as existing in some manuscripts of his 
day, and proves that the codex was written before our 
present order had become established; while the presence 
of the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hernias is 
a sti’ong indication that it was written before the age of 
Cyril of Jerusalem and the so-called Council of Laodicea 
(about A. D. 363). Those divisions called “the larger 
chapters,” with their corresponding summaries of contents, 
which appear in all the copies of the Gospels written from 
the fifth century downward, are wanting in the Sinaitic and 
Vatican manuscripts alone. On the other hand, the Sina¬ 
itic Codex exhibits the Ammonian sections and Eusebian 
canons in red ink in the margins; which, if written by the 
original copyist, prove that the manuscript cannot be 
ascribed to an earlier date than some time within the first 
half of the fourth century. 

There is a striking agreement between the readings of 
this codex and those defended by Origen (186-253); while 
the marked coincidence of its text with certain readings 
known to have been approved by Eusebius, as well as the 
imperial beauty of the manuscript, renders it even possible 
that the Codex Sinaiticus was one of the fifty volumes of 
Holy Scripture which Eusebius himself, at the order of the 
emperor Constantine, caused to be prepared on beautiful 
skins by skilful calligraphists in the year 331, soon after 
the foundation of Constantinople. At any rate, we can as¬ 
sign it with moral certainty to the fourth century of our 
era, and with the highest probability to the first half of the 
same. 

The publication of the original text of this and other 
ancient manuscripts is rendered difficult by the various 
corrections they have undergone in different ages. The 
Codex Sinaiticus abounds in such alterations, “ brought in 
by at least ten different revisers, some of them systemat¬ 
ically spread over every page, others occasional or limited 


to separate portions of the manuscript, many of them being 
contemporaneous with the first writer, far the greater part 
belonging to the sixth or seventh century, a few as recent 
as the twelfth.” In many cases nothing short of the skill 
of a Tischendorf can identify with certainty the original 
writing under the alterations. 

The Codex Sinaiticus has been published in a style worthy 
of its unique importance and value. The enlightened sov¬ 
ereign of Russia was easily persuaded to signalize the one- 
thousandth anniversary of the establishment of his empire, 
in 1862, by bringing out an edition of the manuscript—now 
properly characterized by the additional title of Petropolit- 
anus —in a style surpassing in splendor and in accuracy of 
imitation any previous work of the kind. The text is 
printed in three folio volumes (ii.-iv.), the leaves of the 
shape and size of those in the manuscript itself; the first 
volume contains valuable introductory matter, and twenty- 
one admirable facsimile plates, representing chiefly pages 
of the manuscript, and two being covered with facsimile 
specimens of other important manuscripts for comparison. 
The work is “printed upon paper at once thick and fine, the 
ink being made to resemble that of the original in color, 
and the type being greatly varied, so as to imitate the vari¬ 
ous shapes and sizes of the letters employed by the scribe: 
the very spaces, too, between the letters have been carefully 
measured and represented with all faithfulness.” But three 
hundred copies of this truly imperial edition were printed, 
two hundred of which were distributed by the emperor him¬ 
self as presents to various public bodies and learned men; 
the rest were given to Tischendorf for sale, their price being 
fixed by him at two hundred and thirty Prussian thalers. 
Several of the foremost colleges and libraries in the United 
States possess this valuable work, in a few instances as a 
donation from its imperial patron. A cheap manual or 
popular edition, containing the New Testament and its ap¬ 
pendages in ordinary Gi'eek type, was published in 1863; 
and an octavo edition of the New Testament, together with 
the variations of the Vatican manuscript and of the Elzevir 
edition from the Sinaitic readings, appeared in 1865. Eng¬ 
lish readers will be interested in examining the various 
readings of the three most celebrated manuscripts of the 
original Greek text as presented by Tischendorf in his edi¬ 
tion of the authorized English version of the New Testa¬ 
ment, which was published by Baron Tauchnitz in 1869 as 
the one thousandth volume of his “ Collection of British 
Authors.” Thomas Chase. 

Co'dex Vatica/nus (designation, B), a beautiful un¬ 
cial manuscript of the Greek Bible in the Vatican Library, 
dating from the fourth century. Its marks of antiquity are 
similar to those of the Sinaitic codex; and indeed Tischen¬ 
dorf not only pronounces it as of precisely the same age, 
but is confident also that it was written by one of the four 
copyists to whom he ascribes that manuscript: it is, how¬ 
ever, the copy evidently of a different exemplar, and can¬ 
not be considered as one of the fifty copies ordered by Con¬ 
stantine through Eusebius. It presents three narrow col¬ 
umns on a page, except in the poetical books of the Old 
Testament, which, as in the Codex Sinaiticus, are written 
stichometrically (in verses clause by clause, according to 
the sense) in two columns. It is written on fine, thin vel¬ 
lum, in a square, plain, and noble style of handwriting, 
being a close resemblance in shape to that of the Hercula- 

c \< AAy MM ACn| THN KAP 1 

C A I AyTCJO N K c | TNlHNl’ 

( Icaa a.n 6n iCtp6|h n p°c> 

■N n6f>)ej>eiTM TO KA 

Codex Vaticanus (2 Corinthians iii. 15, 16). 

Ka\vfifia enl tt)v KapSiav axniov KeiTau' r)vii<a S’ av en(.<TTpe<pr] npo$ 
Kvpiov,* TrepiaipeiTOLt to Ka- 

nean papyri. The manuscript contains the greater part of 
the Old Testament, and the New as far as Hebrews ix. 14. 
It appears to have belonged to the Vatican Library from 
the latter part of the fifteenth century. Its earlier history 
is unknown, but Tischendorf regards it as the work of an 
Alexandrian scribe. In critical authority it is inferior to 
no other manuscript. 

This codex has always been difficult of access. Scholars 
all over the world rejoiced when it was announced that 
Cardinal Mai was preparing an edition of it. After a long 
delay, his edition appeared in the Christmas holidays of 
1857, three years after his death; but it proved to have 
been so carelessly and inaccurately executed as to be of 
little value; a smaller edition, also prepared by the car¬ 
dinal, appeared in 1859, avoiding some of the errors of the 


* KN is a contraction for KYPION. 


















CODICIL—COEIiOKN. 


former, but 'ntroducing almost as many new ones. Mai’s 
edition was reprinted in several places—in Berlin with cor¬ 
rections by Philip Buttmann. In 1867 the New Testament 
was published in Leipsic, in common cursive characters, 
by Tischendorf; but he had been allowed to collate the 
whole manuscript no farther than partly through the third 
Gospel, and only to consult it on difficult or doubtful pas¬ 
sages beyond that point. While falling short of the highest 
character, on account of the restrictions placed upon his 
use of the manuscript, this edition will generally be held 
decisive on the disputed points on which its editor gives 
his deliberate judgment upon personal examination of the 
passage. The codex is now publishing by papal authority, 
in magnificent style, edited by Carlo Vercellone and Giu¬ 
seppe Cozza. The size and shape of the manuscript are 
accurately represented, and it is copied line for line and 
letter for letter, in printed characters approaching fac¬ 
simile, Tischendorf having lent for the purpose the type 
which had been cast for the imperial edition of the Sinaitic 
Codex, and the writing being astonishingly alike in the 
two manuscripts. The first volume to be published, but 
the fifth of the entire work, containing the New Testament, 
appeared in 1868. In some of the four subsequent volumes, 
containing the Old Testament,* Vercellone is replaced by 
Caietano Sergio. Thomas Chase. 

Codicil [Lat. codicillus, dimin. of codex], an addition 
or supplement to a will for the purpose of explaining, alter¬ 
ing, or adding to its contents. Of codicils, as of wills, the 
last prevails where it contains provisions contradictory to 
those of a former will or codicil. (See Wills and Testa¬ 
ments, by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Cod'lin, a name of several varieties of apples, some of 
which are highly esteemed in England, and are used chiefly 
for culinary purposes. The codlin ripens in summer or 
autumn, and cannot be kept long. 

Codlill Moth ( Pgralis Pomona). This moth is one of 
the Tortricidm ,• it is small, with short and broad wings. 
It is very destructive in apple-orchards, laying its eggs in 
the eyes of the newly-formed fruit, within which the larva 
feeds, thus arresting the growth of the fruit, and causing it 
to die prematurely. 

Cod-Liver Oil ( Oleum Morrhnse), an oil obtained from 
the liver of the cod, also from many allied species, as pol¬ 
lock, dorse, ling, hake, haddock, etc. In these fish, as in 
the shark tribe, the tissue containing oil is almost entirely 
confined to the liver. Cod-liver oil is prepared largely in 
Great Britain, Norway, Newfoundland, and the U. S. 
There are three varieties sold in commerce—pale, pale- 
brown, and dark-brown oil. 

The oil is sometimes prepared by placing the livers in a 
tub upon a wooden strainer, and subjecting them to pres¬ 
sure, when the light-colored oil exudes, and is removed. 
As the livers partially putrefy, more oil escapes, which is 
darker, and constitutes the pale-brown oil; while finally 
the residue, boiled with water, parts with the remaining 
dark-brown oil. The pale oil thus resembles more nearly 
the oil present in the livers, while the other varieties are 
more or less impregnated with the products of putrefaction. 
The oil is often extracted by steaming, which produces the 
best oil and the largest yield. Various other methods are 
employed. Even the purest oil has a peculiar disagreeable 
fishy odor and taste. The darker varieties leave a very 
unpleasant nauseous sensation. 

The constituents of cod-liver oil are oleic and other 
acids, in combination with glycerine, and holding in solu¬ 
tion the constituents of the bile, acetic acid, phosphoric 
acid, iodine, bromine, chlorine, and a principle called 
gaduine. 

As a remedial agent it is used in the treatment of scrofula, 
consumption, chronic rheumatism, and diseases of the.bones 
and joints. Its virtues have been ascribed to iodine, bro¬ 
mine, and other specific ingredients, but its principal effi¬ 
cacy is probably due to its nourishing and fattening prop¬ 
erties. For emaciated old people it is sometimes of great 
service in conjunction tvith other remedies. It is com¬ 
monly taken in doses of from a dessert-spoonful to a table¬ 
spoonful three times a day. 

Cod'man (John), D. D., an American Congregational 
divine, born at Boston, Mass., Aug. 3, 1782, graduated at 
Harvard in 1802, studied in Edinburgh, and became pastor 
of a church at Dorchester, Mass., in 1808. lie was a prom¬ 
inent advocate of clerical education. He published many 
sermons, etc. Died Dec. 23, 1847. 

Codo'gno, a town of Italy, in the province of Milan, 
between the Adda and the Po, by rail 24 miles S. E. of 
Lodi. It is well built, and has manufactures of silks. It 
is noted as a market for cheese. Pop. 8917. 

Cod'rington (Sir Edward), G. C. B., an English ad¬ 
miral, born in 1770. He served as captain at Trafalgar in 


1007 


1805, and became a vice-admiral in 1821. He commanded 
the English, French, and Russian fleets which defeated the 
Turks at Navarino in 1827. Died in London April 28. 
1851. 1 

Coclrington (Sir William John), G. C. B., a general, 
a son of the preceding, was born in 1800. He served at 
the Alma and Inkerman in 1854, and directed the attack 
on the Redan of Sebastopol in Sept., 1855. In November 
of the same year he became commander-in-chief of the 
army in the Crimea, a member of Parliament in 1857, and 
in 1859 governor of Gibraltar. 

Co'dms [Gr. KoSpo?], the last king of Athens, is sup¬ 
posed to have reigned about 1060 B. C. According to tra¬ 
dition, he sacrificed his life for his country during a war 
between the Athenians and the Dorians. An oracle having 
predicted that the people whose king was slain by the 
enemy should be victorious, Codrus went in disguise to the 
Dorian camp, and provoked a quarrel in which he was 
killed. His son Medon was then chosen archon of Athens. 

Codyville Plantation, a township of Washington 
co., Me. Pop. 62. 

Coe, a township of Rock Island co., Ill. Pop. 1175. 

Coe, a township of Isabella co., Mich. Pop. 987. 

Coeffi'cient [from the Lat. co (for con), “ with,” and 
efficio, to “ effect ”], in algebra, one of two simple or com¬ 
pound factors whose product constitutes a term. Thus, in 
the term 2 ab 2 c, 2ab 2 is the coefficient of c, 2a of b 2 c, and 
2 of ab 2 c. In the latter case, 2 is frequently called the 
“ numerical coefficient” of the term, the others being dis¬ 
tinguished as “ literal coefficients.” In an algebraical ex¬ 
pression, and especially in quantities whose terms involve 
constant as well as variable factors, it is usual to restrict 
the term “ coefficient ” to the former, and to refer to the 
latter as “facients.” 

Coehorn, ko'horn, so named from Baron Coehorn, who 
invented it, is a small mortar, frequently a twenty-four- 
pounder. Coehorns, being easily moved and taking little 
powder, are found very useful in sieges, if grouped in great 
numbers. They are generally made of bronze. 

Coehorn (Lieutenant-General Menno,Baron Coehorn), 
colonel-proprietor of the superb regiment bearing his name, 
general of artillery, director-in-chief of the fortifications, 
and engineer-general of the United States or Provinces 
of Holland, styled by the distinguished Prussian engineer 
Zastrow “the prince of engineers,” and by the French 
“the Dutch Vauban,” was to Vauban himself exactly, in 
regard to recent fortifications, what Zwingli was to Luther, 
more restricted as to his stage, in prescience, originality, 
and soldiership. But even while saying this let it be con¬ 
sidered no disparagement of Vauban.. Most honest and 
generous of men, without envy he recognized Coehorn’s 
merit as early as 1676, and did all he could to induce Louis 
XIV. to make any advances which could induce Coehorn to 
enter the French service. Sprung from a distinguished, no¬ 
ble, and military stock, originally Swedish, near Leeuwar- 
den in Friesland, he was born in 1641, distinguished him¬ 
self while yet a youth in mathematics, was appointed cap¬ 
tain at the age of sixteen, became colonel at thirty-three, 
and with that rank, with his own regiment, “Nassau- 
Frise,” defeneled Fort William, the key-point of Namur, 
against his rival Vauban, Louis XIV., and the great Lux¬ 
emburg, until, wounded himself, he had only 150 effectives 
left. He had previously distinguished himself at the siege 
of Maestricht (1674) by his invention of the mortars which 
immortalize his name, first employed in that operation, 
and at the siege of Grave, where he won renown by de¬ 
vising means to transport a whole battalion at once across 
the wide and rapid Meuse, a daring operation, into the 
trench of a bastion to which the river served as a wet ditch, 
which decided the fate of the place. Coehorn already stood 
very high, not only as an engineer, but as a soldier, the last 
for conduct in the bloody battles of Senef, Cassel, and St. 
Denis. AtFleurus, 1st July, 1690, as brigadier-general, with 
eight battalions, he set at naught the efforts of the finest 
French cavalry, and covered the retreat of the prince of 
Waldeck’s army, whereupon, the victorious Marshal Lux¬ 
emburg declared, “the Dutch infantry at Fleurus had out¬ 
done the Spanish infantry at Rocroi.” In 1695, Coehorn, 
having demanded full power to use his own methods, retook 
Namur, trebled in strength, though defended by Megrigny, 
second only to Vauban and Marshal Bouflers, unexcelled 
as a tenacious soldier: witness his subsequent defence of 
Lille in 1708. “Coehorn, the chief-engineer (his title was 
lieutenant-general of engineers) signalized himself so emi¬ 
nently that he was esteemed the greatest man of the age, 
and outdid even Vauban, who had gone far beyond his 
predecessors in the conduct of sieges.” In Mar.. 1696, C oo- 
liorn, lieutenant-general in the field in command ol troops, 
by a daring, prompt, and skilful operation, made himself 

















1008 CCELESTINE—COFFEE. 


master of Givet, and burned the immense magazines and 
stores of supplies accumulated there by the French. This 
stupendous blow paralyzed the French operations for the 
campaign, and until another harvest could be sown, grown, 
reaped, and garnered. Coehorn continued to increase his 
glory, fighting and fortifying until the last days of his life, 
destroying the French lines near Sluys, defended by Bou- 
flers, in 1702, and capturing Bonn in 1703; bursting up 
the French lines at Ilanuye, and accumulating stroke upon 
stroke of genius and daring until 17th Mar., 1704, at the 
age of sixty-three, a stroke of apoplexy—a disease which 
had been menacing him for some time—put an end to his ex¬ 
istence and usefulness. Ilis encomiums have been confined 
to no language; his praises have resounded from enemies 
even more than friends and countrymen. Montalembert, 
himself a first-class engineer, who alone suggested improve¬ 
ments to Coehorn’s system, of which, pure and simple, 
Bergen-op-Zoom is the finest example, ranks himself 
among the most decided admirers of this “ prince of en¬ 
gineers,” whom he styles “a great man.” According to 
the spirit of Straith’s admissions, Coehorn possessed the 
merit of being able to contrive, equally well, defences for 
localities of any nature. Tyler (R. B. Engineers) says, 
“ Coehorn, greatly to his credit, alone, of all modern en¬ 
gineers, established the one great truth in engineering— 
viz. that the same fortification cannot apply to places with 
wet as to those with dry ditches.” Coehorn always held 
“ it requires as much genius to defend a fortress well as it 
does to fortify it with ability,” which Vauban corroborated 
by his observation that “ amongst the multitude of the gal¬ 
lant and devoted officers of his day, he knew but few fitted 
to be governors of a besieged place.” Coehorn fortified, 
defended, and took equally well. 

Coehorn possessed a genius that would have made him 
the idol of the American people, whose making of war dis¬ 
plays, as Rossel says, “ all the exuberance of life inherent 
in a people seriously active, in the full force of youth, in¬ 
telligent, and incapable of fear.” Vauban was charac¬ 
terized by an economy of material and life at the expense 
of time; Coehorn economized neither, provided he attained 
his end by crushing out resistance. In Coehorn it was 
force substituted for industry, or rather industry employed 
to the utmost in multiplying the means of destruction. 
Coehorn’s audacity and resources overwhelmed at once the 
enemy and the mind with wonder, and as an original 
thinker he ranks ahead of all the engineers who preceded 
him, and his works, like those of Shakspeare, are for all 
time. 

No finer eulogy can be found of any man than that of 
Coehorn in the “Dictionnaire de la Conversation.” This 
presents him as a truly disinterested patriot of ideal Roman 
simplicity and probity; as an unerring strategist; in fine, 
as one of those rare characters of whom we read in the 
annals of the remote past, whose record will not stand the 
close criticism and analysis applied in these practical days 
of unbelief as to everything but the absolute and tangible. 
One comparatively small matter demonstrates Coehorn’s 
prescience. As the bayonet was first “ seriously employed ” 
by the French, according to their own writers, in the battle 
of Turin, 1692 (first bayonet charge in the battle of Spires 
in 1703), and as Coehorn had armed the Dutch infantry 
with it many years before, this is pretty good proof, in ad¬ 
dition to the many others he has given, that he knew how 
to profit by improvements in military armament as quickly, 
or even more, considering the latter’s favor and influence, 
than Vauban. Auguste Demmin, in his “ History of Arms 
and Armor” (448), admits that the fasil-muslcet with socket- 
bayonet was the weapon “attributed to Vauban which Coe¬ 
horn, his rival, introduced among the Dutch infantry about 
1680.” J. Watts de Peyster. 

Ccclestine. See Celestine. 

Ccc'le-Syria [Gr. i) koiAij Svpia, “the hollow Syria”], 
a beautiful valley of Syria between the mountain-ranges of 
Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, is about 90 miles long, and 
has an average width of 7 miles, but in some parts its 
breadth is far greater. It is now called El Bukaa. It is 
intersected by the river Litany (anc. Leontes). The chief 
city of Coele-Syria was Baalbec ( Heliopolis ). 

CflBu'obites [from the Gr. kolvos, “common,” and jSi'os, 
“life”], or Synodites, the name given to those monks 
who live in communities, in contradistinction to the an¬ 
chorites or hermits, who withdraw from all society and live 
in absolute solitude. (See Monastery.) 

Coesse, a post-village of Union township, Whitley co., 
Ind. It is on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R. 
Pop. 192. 

Coeymans, quee'manz, a township and post-village 
of Albany co., N. Y. The village is on the Athens branch 
of the New York Central R. R., and on the Hudson River, 
12 miles S. of Albany. It has a mineral spring, flagstone- 


quarries, and manufactures of brooms, straw-paper, soap, 
etc. It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 3077. 

Ed. “ Herald.” 

CofTee [from the Arabic Jcahwah ; Fr. cafe; It. caffe; 
Ger. Knffee ], the seeds of the tree Coffsea Arabica, of the 
order Rubiaceaa; also an infusion of these seeds used as a 
beverage. There are a number of species of Coffsea, but 
this one only is known to possess valuable properties. It 
is a native of Western Africa, Abyssinia, and perhaps of 
Arabia, but is now naturalized in many tropical countries. 
The coffee tree in a wild state attains a height of from 
twelve to twenty feet, and bears but few branches. In cul¬ 
tivation the tree is topped at from six to ten feet in height, 
and made to assume a pyramidal form, with branches 
almost from the ground. The leaves are oblong-ovate, and 
four or five inches long: they are evergreen, opposite, 
shining, and leathery. The flowers are small, snow-white, 
and very fragrant, and are clustered in the axils of the 
leaves. It has a succulent fruit of a dark-red color when 
ripe, in which are two cells lined with a cartilaginous mem¬ 
brane, each containing a single seed. The seeds arc hard, 
semi-elliptical in shape, and are commonly called coffee- 
beans or coffee-berries. 

Coffee-plantations are often laid out in quadrangles; the 
trees are pruned to the same height, and the ground is care¬ 
fully weeded. Where the climate is dry, abundant irrigation 
is required, but the supply of water is cut off as the fruit 
begins to ripen, in order to improve its quality. The tree 
yields its first crop when it is three years old. The coffee 
tree blooms for eight months in the year, so that its fruits 
are at any time of very unequal ripeness; in the West 
Indies and Brazil three gatherings of coffee are made an¬ 
nually. The fruit is placed on mats or large floors adapted 
to the purpose, where it is dried by the sun’s rays, being 
meanwhile frequently turned. The dried pulp of the fruit 
and the membrane which immediately encloses the seeds are 
removed by passing between heavy rollers, and the coffee 
is afterwards freed from impurities by winnowing. As it 
is not, however, prepared with the same care in all places 
where it is cultivated, there are great differences in quality 
and price. 

The earlier history of coffee is involved in some obscu¬ 
rity. It was not known to the Greeks or Romans, but in 
Abyssinia and Ethiopia it has been used from time im¬ 
memorial, and in Arabia it was in general use before the 
end of the fifteenth century, and over the rest of the East 
in the sixteenth century. In 1690 it was carried by the 
Dutch from Mocha to Java, where it was soon extensively 
raised, and young plants were afterwards sent to the bo¬ 
tanical garden at Amsterdam, from which the Paris garden 
obtained a tree. A layer of this was carried in 1720 to 
Martinique, where it succeeded so well that in a few years 
all the West Indies could be supplied. The Dutch planted 
it in Surinam in 1718, and it was introduced into the Mas- 
carene Islands in the same year. 

The following are the most important varieties in com¬ 
merce : Mocha coffee, which comes from Arabia, and is con¬ 
sidered superior to every other; it is known by its small 
gray beans inclining to greenish ; Java or East Indian 
coffee has large yellow beans; Jamaica coffee has beans 
somewhat smaller and greenish; Surinam coffee has the 
largest beans; Bourbon has beans yellow and whitish pale. 
Coffee is also imported from Brazil, Ceylon, Central Ameri¬ 
ca, Maracaibo, and Liberia. Leonhard Rauwolf, a German 
physician, appears to have been the first to make coffee 
known in Europe by the account of his travels (1573). 
Soon after the first introduction of coffee, Coffee-Houses 
(which see) arose almost everywhere. In Arabia and the 
East, coffee is usually drunk in the form of a thick decoc¬ 
tion of the unroasted seeds; and for the sultan’s coffee 
the pericarp, with the dried pulp roasted, is employed. 
The principal commercial supply is from Brazil, Java being 
second and Ceylon third on the list. 

Chicory root, dandelion root, carrot, and the seeds of 
barley, buckwheat, Indian corn, and rye, are sometimes 
used as cheaper substitutes for coffee. They are prepared 
by roasting, like coffee. But they are all wanting in caffeine, 
the most important constituent in coffee, and are therefore 
very different from coffee in their qualities. Coffee is sub¬ 
ject to a great adulteration, most of the articles specified as 
substitutes being employed for this purpose. But the prin¬ 
cipal material of mixture is chicory, the use of which for 
this purpose was legalized in England in 1853. 

The leaves of the coffee tree are used by the natives of 
Sumatra instead of the seeds. They are prepared by dry¬ 
ing, and are said to contain a larger proportion of caffeine 
than the coffee-beans. Coffee owes its peculiar properties 
to the presence of—1 , caffeine or theine (C 8 H 10 N 4 O 2 ), which 
occurs in the roasted bean to the extent of nearly one per 
cent., and which is also found in tea, the Paullinia, mat6, 
etc.; 2, a volatile oil which, according to some authorities, 


















COFFEE—COGHETTI. 


1009 


is not present in the raw bean, but is developed in roasting; 
3, a form of tannic acid called caffeo-tannic and also caffeic 
acid. The following, according to Payen and others, is the 
average composition of unroasted coffee : 


Free caffein. 0.8 

Legumin (vegetable casein). 10.0 

Other nitrogenous matter. 3.0 

Dextrine, sugar, etc....... 15.5 

Caffeo-tannic and caffeic acids (with potash, caffein, etc.). 5.0 

Fat and volatile oil. 13.0 

Cellulose.i. 34.0 

Earthy matter. 6.7 

Water (hygroscopic). 12.0 


100.0 

with a small quantity of two aromatic principles—one oily, and 
the other soluble in water. 

Coffee loses 16 per cent, in weight and gains 30 per cent, 
in bulk if roasted till it assumes a reddish-brown hue ; when 
roasted till the beans become chestnut-brown, they lose 20 
per cent, by weight and gain 50 per cent, in bulk. The per¬ 
centage of caffeine is greatly reduced by roasting, but the 
aroma is much increased. The action of the bowels is not 
retarded by the use of coffee, as is sometimes the case with 
strong infusions of tea, because there is less tannic acid in 
coffee than in tea. Coffee is exhilarating, refreshing, and 
nourishing, and, according to some physicians, tends to 
lessen the normal or excessive waste of the animal frame. 
When used in excess coffee is very injurious to health, and 
on certain constitutions its effects seem to be always dele¬ 
terious. Charles W. Greene. 

Cof'fee, a county in the S. of Alabama. Area, 700 
square miles. It is intersected by Pea River. The surface 
is nearly level; the soil is mostly sandy. Cotton, rice, corn, 
tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital, Elba. Pop. 6171. 

Coffee, a county in the S. of Georgia. Area, 1000 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Ocmulgee, 
and on the S. W. by the Allapaha River. The surface is 
nearly level; the soil is sandy. Cattle, rice, and wool are 
produced. It is intersected by the Brunswick and Albany 

R. R. Capital, Douglas. Pop. 3192. 

Coffee, a county of Middle Tennessee. Area, 300 square 
miles. It is drained by Duck River, which rises in it. The 
surface is hilly ; the soil fertile. Tobacco, wool, and grain 
are raised. It is intersected by the McMinnville and Man¬ 
chester R. R. Capital, Manchester. Pop. 10,237. 

Coffee, a township of Wabash co., Ill. Pop. 1502. 

Coffee (John), an American general, born in Nottoway 
co., Va., in 1772, was colonel and brigadier-general of Ten¬ 
nessee volunteers in 1812-13, served with distinction against 
the Creek Indians, wounded at Emuckfau, Jan. 22, 1814, 
participated in the attack on Pensacola, and was distin¬ 
guished in the defence of New Orleans 1814-15; remained 
in service till June, 1815 ; was appointed surveyor of pub¬ 
lic lands Mar., 1817. Died near Florence, Ala., July, 1834. 

Coffee-house [Fr. cafe], a house or saloon where cof¬ 
fee and other refreshments are served out to customers. 
Coffee-houses were established at Constantinople in 1554, 
in London in 1652, and at Paris in 1662. For many years 
the use of coffee and the frequenting of coffee-houses were 
assailed by various writers. Before the general introduc¬ 
tion of newspapers, coffee-houses were, particularly in Eng¬ 
land, important centres or sources of information, where 
people assembled to learn the news and discuss politics. 

Coffee-leaves are sometimes used as a substitute for 
tea. They contain 1.2 per cent, of caffeine and consider¬ 
able caffetannic acid. When dried and treated with boil¬ 
ing water, they yield an infusion of a deep brown color, 
resembling in taste and odor a mixture of tea and coffee. 

Cof'fee Town, a township of Jackson co., Ala. P. 640. 

Cof'feeville, a township and village of Clarke co., Ala., 
1 mile E. of the Tombigbee River, and about 120 miles 

S. W. of Montgomery. Pop. 1200. 

Coffeeville, a post-village, capital of Yalabusha co., 
Miss., on the Mississippi Central R. R., 131 miles N. by E. 
from Jackson. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Coffeine. See Caffeine, by Prof. C. F. Chandler, 
Ph. D., LL.D. 

Cof'fer [Fr. coffre], a casket for keeping jewels, money, 
etc. In architecture this term is applied to the sunken 
panels in vaults and domes, or to deep papels in ceilings. 
In fortification, coffer is a particular kind of caponniere. 

Cof'ferdam [from coffer, a “casket” or tight box,and 
dam], in civil engineering, the name of a watertight en¬ 
closure for laying the foundation of* bridge-piers, dams, 
wharves, etc. * Cofferdams are often constructed of piles in 
two rows, with clay packed between. When finished, the 
water is pumped out by steam-power. Where the water is 
too deep for cofferdams, various forms of the caisson are 
used ; in which case the pier is sometimes gradually lowered 
to the bottom of the stream. (See Foundation.) 

64 


Cof'feyville, a post-village of Montgomery co., Kan. 
It is on the Verdigris River and the Leavenworth Law¬ 
rence and Galveston R. R., 141 miles S. by W. of Lawrence. 

Cof'fey, a county in the S. E. of Kansas. Area, 576 
square miles. It is intersected by the Neosho River. The 
surface is undulating; the soil fertile. Grain and wool aro 
staple products. Coal and limestone abound here. Tho 
Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R. (Neosho division) passes 
through it. Capital, Burlington. Pop. 6201. 

Cof'fin [from the Gr. k6<\> ivo?, a “basket,” and allied to 
coffer, a “casket;” Fr. cercueil; Ger. Sarg], a box in which 
the dead are placed for burial. The customs both of burning 
and burying the dead prevailed among the ancient Greeks 
and Romans. (See Funeral.) Their coffins were com¬ 
posed of various materials, the most common being baked 
clay or earthenware. Some were narrow and triangular in 
form, the undermost side being much the broadest. The 
practice among the ancient Romans was to bury the dead, 
though previous to the recognition of Christianity burning 
became comparatively common. A kind of stone brought 
from Assos, in the Troad, was used for coffins; it was said 
to consume the body, except the teeth, in forty days, and 
from this circumstance was called Sarcophagus (which see). 
Roman stone coffins have been found in England, some en¬ 
tirely above the ground, others so near the earth’s surface 
that the lids were visible, and when within a church coffin- 
lids often formed part of the pavement. The Saxons used 
wooden coffins, though the common people were simply 
wrapped in cloth. Coffins of lead were used in the Middle 
Ages, as well as in more recent times. In our day, highly- 
ornamented caskets and coffins of elm or other wood are 
much used, but we have also so-called “burial cases ” of 
iron, often covered with velvet or rich cloth. 

Coffin (George W.), U. S. N., born Oct. 12, 1845, in 
Massachusetts, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1863. 
He served in the Ticonderoga at both the Fort Fisher 
fights, and led the seamen of that vessel in the assault 
upon the fort on Jan. 15, 1865, where he was wounded in 
the thigh. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Coffin (Admiral Sir Isaac), Bart., born at Boston, Mass., 
of a Nantucket family, May 16, 1759. His father was a 
Tory, and collector of the port of Boston. Young Coffin 
entered the navy in 1773, serving against the U. S. in the 
Revolutionary war. He had, however, throughout life a 
strong regard for his native land. He was rapidly pro¬ 
moted, and attained in 1830 the rank of admiral of the 
white. In 1826 he visited Nantucket, where he founded 
and endowed the Coffin School. Died July 23, 1839. 

Coffin (James Henry), LL.D., born at Northampton, 
Mass., Sept. 6, 1806, graduated at Amherst in 1838. He 
was professor of mathematics and astronomy in Williams 
College, Mass. (1838-43), and in Lafayette College, Easton, 
Pa. (1846-73). He was a distinguished scientist, and pub¬ 
lished a treatise on the “Winds of the Northern Hemi¬ 
sphere” (1851), “ Solar and Lunar Eclipses,” and other 
works. Died Feb. 7, 1873. 

Coffin (John H. C.), born at Wiscasset, Me., Sept. 15, 
1815, graduated at Bowdoin College, and in 1836 was ap¬ 
pointed professor of mathematics in the U. S. navy. He 
served at sea and in nautical surveys, was detailed in 1844 
for duty at the Naval Observatory, and prepared descriptions 
and discussions of the work with the mural circle in the 
“ Nautical Almanac ” from 1846 to 1849, and a great part 
of those for 1845. He published also a discussion of the 
personal equation in bisecting a star by a micrometer 
thread (“ Astronomical Journal,” iii., p. 121). He was pro¬ 
fessor of mathematics or professor of astronomy and naviga¬ 
tion in the U. S. Naval Academy (1853-65), and from 1866 
to the present time has been in charge of the preparation 
of the “American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac.” 

Coffin (Joshua), an American genealogist, born at New¬ 
bury, Mass., Oct. 12, 1792, graduated at Dartmouth in 
1817, was a teacher of the poet Whittier, and published 
“The History of Ancient Newbury” (1845), and numerous 
papers, etc. upon family genealogies. Died June 24, 1864. 

Coffin (Timothy Gardner), a lawyer, born at Nan¬ 
tucket, Mass., Nov. 1, 1788, was a sailor in youth, but hav¬ 
ing been disabled by a fall, he sought an education, gradu¬ 
ated at Brown University in 1813, and as a lawyer attained 
the first rank. Died at New Bedford, Mass., Sept. 19,1854. 

Cof'fin’s Grove, a township and village of Delaware 
co., Ia. The village is about 50 miles W. of Dubuque. 
Pop. of township, 1003. 

Co'gan House, a post-twp. of Lycoming co., Pa. P. 599. 

Coghet'ti (Francesco), an Italian painter, born Oct. 4, 
1804, has produced powerful fresco-paintings for several 
Roman palaces. He made a long study of Raphael, and 
founded an excellent school, marked by a serious study of 
the masters. 





























1010 


COGNAC—COIMBRA. 


Cognac (anc. Condate ; modern Lat. Conacum), a town 
of France, department of Charente, on the river Charente, 
24 miles W. of Angouleme. It has an old castle, in which 
Francis I. was born. In 1526 an alliance of France, Eng¬ 
land, the pope, Milan, and Venice, against Charles V., was 
concluded here. Brandy of excellent quality is made here, 
and is the chief article of export. About 6000 butts of 
Cognac brandy (see Brandy, by Prof. C. F. Chandler) 
are produced annually. Pop. in 1866, 9412. 

Cogniartl (IIippolyte), French comic writer, long 
director of the Varieties Theatre, born Nov. 20, 1807, was 
instrumental in substituting the opera bouffe on the French 
stage for the old vaudevilles. He wrote, mostly in collab¬ 
oration with his brother Theodore (born April 30, 1806), 
a vast number of vaudevilles. 

Coglliet (Leon), a French historical painter, was born 
Aug. 29, 1794. His paintings x-epresent scenes of terror, 
as the “ Massacre of the Innocents,” “ Tintoretto painting 
his Daughter’s Corpse,” etc. Ho had many scholars. 

Cog'llizance [Old Fr. cognizance; modern Fr. con- 
naissance; It. cognoscenza; from the Lat. cognosco , to 
“ know ”], knowledge or notice; jurisdiction or right to try 
and determine causes; a badge worn by a retainer or de¬ 
pendant to indicate the party or person to which he belongs. 
In law, an acknowledgment or confession; also the power 
which a court has to hear and determine a particular species 
of suit. In heraldry, cognizance is a crest, coat-of-arms, 
or similar badge of distinction. 

Cogno'men, a Latin word signifying a surname; the 
last of the three names usually borne by ancient Romans 
of good family. Cicero, for example, was the cognomen of 
the great orator, Marcus Tullius Cicero. It served to 
designate the family ( familia) to which he belonged, as 
the other two names—viz. the prsenomen and the nomen — 
served respectively to denote the individual and the class 
(gens ) to which his family belonged. 

Cogno'vit Actio'nem [Lat., “ he has recognized the 
action ”], in law, is a confession of a defendant subscribed 
by him, and giving authority to a plaintilf to enter up 
judgment against him. It is executed after an action has 
been commenced, and is supposed to be given in court. 
The subject in England is regulated by statutes prescribing 
at what time in the progress of the case it may be given as 
a means of protecting the defendant from imposition, and 
the forms of law with which it should be accompanied, 
such as proof of the time of its execution and a mode of 
filing it or a copy of it. Statute law in some of the Ameri¬ 
can States provides a convenient substitute for a cognovit. 
Thus, in New York, and in other States following its code, 
a defendant may offer in writing to the plaintiff to allow him 
to take judgment for a specified sum or otherwise; and on 
the acceptance in writing of the offer judgment may be en¬ 
tered accordingly. It is also provided that should the offer 
not be accepted in the prescribed manner, it shall be deemed 
in law to be withdrawn and the litigation may continue. 

Cogre'dieilts [from co (for con), “ together,” and gra- 
dior, to “go”], “[things] meeting together or agreeing.” 
In mathematics, two set of facients or variables, each set 
containing the same number, are said to be cogredient if 
on replacing the variables of the first set by certain linear 
functions of themselves, those of the second set become 
also replaced by the same linear functions of themselves. 

Cogs'well (Jonathan), D. D., a Calvinistic divine, 
born Sept. 3, 1782, graduated at Harvard in 1806, was a 
tutor in Bowdoin College, professor of ecclesiastical history 
in the Theological Institution at East Windsor, Conn. 
(1834-44). He published “The Hebrew Theocracy” (1848), 
“ Calvary and Sinai” (1852), and other works. Died at 
New Brunswick, N. J., Aug. 1, 1864. 

Cogswell (Joseph Green), LL.D., an American litter¬ 
ateur, born at Ipswich, Mass., Sept. 27, 1786, graduated at 
Harvard in 1806, visited the East Indies, after his return 
studied law, and became a tutor in Harvard in 1814. He 
afterwards studied in Europe, and became a librarian and 
professor of mineralogy at Harvard (1820-23). With the 
historian Bancroft he founded the celebrated Round Hill 
* School at Northampton, Mass. He was many years super¬ 
intendent of the Astor Library. He contributed much ex¬ 
cellent matter to periodical literature, and enriched the 
botanical and mineralogical collections at Harvard Uni¬ 
versity with thousands of European specimens. Died at 
Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 26, 1871. 

Cogswell (Mason Fitch), M. D., born at Canterbury, 
Conn., in 1761, graduated at Yale in 1780, became an emi¬ 
nent surgeon of Hartford, Conn., and was one of the found¬ 
ers of the asylums at Hartford for the deaf and dumb and 
for the insane. Died in Dec., 1830.—His son, M. F. Cogs¬ 
well, Jr., M. D. (born Nov. 10, 1809, died Jan. 21, 1865), 
was also an eminent ijhysician. 


Cogswell (William), D. D., a Congregational divine, 
born at Atkinson, N. II., June 5, 1787, graduated at Dart¬ 
mouth in 1811, became general agent of the American Edu¬ 
cation Society in 1829, professor of history at Dartmouth 
(1841), professor of theology and president of Gilinanton 
Theological Seminary in New Hampshire (1844), and was 
the author of works on theology, etc. Died April 18, 1850. 

Cohahui'la, a state in the N. part of Mexico, border¬ 
ing on Texas, is bounded on the N. and E. by the Rio 
Grande del Norte. Area, estimated at 57,977 square miles. 
The surface.is hilly; the soil in some parts is sterile, and 
other parts produce pasture. It has several silver-mines. 
Capital, Saltillo. Pop. in 1871, 95,397. 

Cohas'set, a township and post-village of Norfolk co., 
Mass., on the South Shore R. R., 21£ miles S. E. of Boston. 
Mackerel-fishing is one of the chief industries of this place. 
The township is detached from the rest of the county. It 
has a savings bank and two insurance companies. Minot’§ 
Ledge Lighthouse is on its coast, in lat. 42° 16' 9" N., 
Ion. 70° 45' 14” W. Pop. 2130. 

Cohe'sioil [from the Lat. cohsereo, cohesion, to “hold 
together”], in natural philosophy, is the force by which 
the particles of homogeneous bodies are kept attached to 
each other, and with which they resist separation. Ad¬ 
hesion denotes the attractive force existing between two 
different bodies brought into contact, as a drop of water on 
a plate of glass; or between two bodies of the same matter, 
as two lumps of lead when their smooth surfaces have been 
pressed together. The three different forms which matter 
assumes—solid, liquid, and gaseous—are determined by 
the degree of cohesive force existing among the elementary 
particles. In solids this force is greatest, and is that which 
causes solidity; in liquids it is less powerful; and in aeri¬ 
form fluids it may be regarded as negative, the particles 
having a tendency to repel each other. 

Cohoc'tah, a township and post-A r illage of Livingston 
co., Mich., about 45 miles S. of Saginaw. Pop. 1176. 

Cohoc'ton, a post-twp. of Steuben co., N. Y. P. 2710. 

Cohoes, ko-hoz', or Cahoes, a city of Albany co., 
N. Y., on the right bank of the Mohawk River, at its 
junction with the Hudson River, on the Erie and Cham¬ 
plain Canals and Rensselaer and Saratoga and Troy and 
Schenectady branch of the New York Central and Hudson 
River R. R., is 9 miles N. of Albany. It has 2 newspaper- 
offices, 1 national and 1 State bank, 2 axe-factories, the 
Harmony Manufacturing Company’s cotton-mills (five in 
number, one of which is one of the largest, if not the 
largest and most complete cotton-mill in the world), 20 
knitting-mills, 1 pin-factory, 1 rolling-mill, and 1 horse- 
railroad, connecting with the city of Troy, 3 miles S. The 
city receives its supply of water for all purposes from the 
Mohawk River. The Cohoes Falls are in the city limits. 
Pop. 15,357. Ed. “ Cataract.” 

Co'hort [Lat. cohors; Fr. cohorte~\, in the armies of 
ancient Rome, was the tenth part of a legion, and consisted 
usually of 600 men. The praetorian cohort was a body of 
picked troops who attended the commander of the army, 
and at a later period formed the guard of the emperor. 

The term “ cohort ” is applied by some botanists to 
groups or assemblages of natural orders. 

Coif [Fr. coiffc ], an ancient name for a head-dress of 
any kind; at present especially applied in Great Britain 
to a cap worn by serjeants-at-law. Hence the serjeantcy 
is called by Blackstone the “ degree of the coif.” 

Coimba'toor' a district of British India, presidency 
of Madras, S. of Mysore, has an area of 8392 square miles. 
It is a flat region, producing cotton, grain, tobacco, cattle, 
and sheep. The climate is mild. In the W. the ox is wor¬ 
shipped. Capital, Coimbatoor. Pop. 1,227,208. 

Coimbatoor, a city of India, capital of the above dis¬ 
trict, is on the Noyel River, near lat. 11° N. and Ion. 77° 
E., and 1483 feet above the level of the sea. The climate 
is healthy, but the water is brackish. Pop. 20,000. 

Coim'bra, a city of Portugal, capital of the province of 
Beira, on the river Mondego, here crossed by a stone bridge, 
115 miles N. N. E. of Lisbon. It is on the railway from 
Lisbon to Oporto. Built around a conical hill rising ab¬ 
ruptly from the river, with many towers, and surrounded 
by groves of orange and olive trees, it presents a very pic¬ 
turesque external appearance, but the streets are narrow 
and steep. It is the seat of a Catholic bishop. Coimbra de¬ 
rives its importance from its university, the only one in Por¬ 
tugal, with 1200 students and an old library of 30,000 vols. 
It was founded in 1307. There are several fine churches; 
also manufactures of linen and woollen fabrics. Coimbra was 
founded by the Goths, and afterwards occupied by the Moors, 
from whom it was taken by Ferdinand I. of Castile in 1064. 
It became the capital of Portugal in 1139. Pop. 18,147. 



















COIN—COINAGE. 


1011 


Coin', a town of Spain, in the province of Malaga, 
about 22 miles W. of Malaga. It has an episcopal palace 
and several convents; also fine public walks and gardens 
in the environs. Here are manufactures of linen and wool¬ 
len fabrics, paper, and soap. Pop. 10,200. 

Coin'age [Fr. coin, a “ stamp ” or “ die,” remotely from 
the Lat. cuneus, a “wedge”]. The precious metals were 
first employed as currency in the form of unstamped bul¬ 
lion, and values and amounts were then determined and 
expressed by weight; hence the origin of the terms 
“pound,” “livre,” “mark,” etc. But the commercial 
character of society and the gradual advance of civiliza¬ 
tion soon led to the invention of coins, the first step in 
this direction being the employment of stamped pieces of 
bullion of indefinite size and form. The finished appear¬ 
ance of the coins issued by existing commercial nations in¬ 
dicates artistic taste and skill of a character which pertains 
to a highly advanced civilization. 

A coin is money consisting of a piece of metal of known 
weight and composition, possessing real exchangeable 
worth, its denomination and value being stamped upon its 
face and guaranteed by the government. Its value is not 
—except in the case of smaller denominations, such as cop¬ 
per and other minor coins—merely representative (like that 
of a promissory note), but absolute and intrinsic. The 
coin-standard of a nation is, with very rare exceptions, the 
basis of its currency, whatever the character of the latter 
may be. “Men in their bargains,” says Locke, “contract 
not for denominations or sounds, but for the intrinsic value, 
which is the quantity of silver (or gold), by public authority, 
warranted to be in pieces of such denominations.” 

Gold and silver are peculiarly adapted for coinage, pos¬ 
sessing all the necessary qualities. They are capable of 
exact mechanical subdivision and reunion with comparative 
ease and without waste; they are durable, readily identi¬ 
fied, of perfect sameness, and comparatively indestructible. 
They possess, moreover, values in the market less fluctu¬ 
ating (at least at the present time) than that of any other 
available commodity, and a relation between their respective 
weights, specific gravities, and values which ensures a con¬ 
venient bulk and the greatest facility for transportation. 

There has not always been assigned by law to given 
quantities of the precious metals the same nominal value 
as now. Thus, in England, a pound troy of pure gold 
about the year 1363 was required by law to be coined into 
fifteen pounds sterling ; whilst the same weight of standard 
gold (eleven-twelfths fine) at the present day is rated at 
£16 14 8. 6d. A troy pound of silver at the former period 
was coined into twenty-five shillings, but of late years the 
samo weight of standard silver is coined into sixty-two 
shillings. The market values of gold and silver relative to 
each other have also undergone great change, the relative 
value of equal weights of each, now (in 1873) about as 15£ 
to 1, having been in the early part of the twelfth century 
as 9 to 1 only. 

There is reason to believe that the cost of production of 
the precious metals will hereafter be less disturbed and un¬ 
certain than prior to the comparatively recent discoveries 
of extensive gold-fields in California and Australia, and, 
consequently, that their market values will be less subject 
to sadden fluctuations. Within the past sixty years the 
value of gold has fluctuated from 15J to 15J times that of 
silver (averaging about 15£ times), and never falling so 
low as that of 15 times such value. 

Until within comparatively few years the money of ac¬ 
count of nearly all European nations, as well as of the 
U. S., was based either upon a silver standard, or upon one 
of gold and silver both. Experience has shown that it is 
preferable that gold be the sole standard, and that the dis¬ 
advantages attending the application of any other standard 
are great and inherent. The standard coin which is to be 
legal tender in payment of unlimited amounts should be 
made of the heavier and more valuable of the two metals. 
Silver is about 15J times as heavy, and about 28J times as 
bulky, as gold of equivalent value. Again, a double standard, 
based upon the assumption that the relative value of gold 
and silver is invariable, must be imperfect, resting, as it 
does, upon a false basis. Whenever the relative market 
value differs appreciably from tho arbitrarily fixed coin 
standard (assumed invariable), the relatively dearer metal 
(whether gold or silver) is driven from circulation. 

It is desirable where a system of specie payment obtains, 
or where the precious metals enter largely into financial 
transactions, that both gold and silver should be in simul¬ 
taneous circulation. This can only be accomplished by 
making gold the standard of account and legal tender of 
payment in all amounts, and by so fixing the relation of 
silver to gold that the silver shall be relatively overvalued , 
and admitted as legal tender of payment only in limited 
amounts. 

An accurate knowledge of the relative market values of 


gold and silver is desirable in order that it may be possible 
to so fix tho relative quantity of metal in the coins of like 
denominations as to ensure the overvaluing of the silver. 
For this purpose the weight of the silver coins of the 
standard fineness should be fixed relatively to gold, at a 
point somewhat lower than that demanded by their nominal 
values; without, however, permitting the divergence to be 
so wide as, by the inducement of a large profit, to en¬ 
courage their fraudulent or unauthorized manufacture by 
private parties. The ratio of 15 to 1 to represent the rel¬ 
ative value of equal weights of gold and silver, respectively, 
is therefore a desirable one for purposes of coinage, being 
at once a simple ratio, and near, but sufficiently below, 
the mean market ratio to ensure the overvaluing of tho 
silver. (For engravings of coins, see Numismatics.) 

The monetary systems of the different nations are in 
general heterogeneous in their character, and their rela¬ 
tions to each other not unfrequently exceedingly complex. 
That the metallic money of the several commercial countries 
should differ in any respect is an inconvenience, but the 
interruption to the freedom of international exchange is 
greatly augmented when this difference is such as to in¬ 
volve troublesome fractional operations in the process of 
reduction from the currency of one country to that of an¬ 
other. This want of harmony has for many years, and 
especially of late, attracted public and merited attention, 
and earnest attempts arc being made to establish an inter¬ 
national coinage system on a comprehensive and simple 
basis. There seems to be no difference of opinion as to the 
immense advantages to be derived from the establishment 
of a simple correlated system of international coinage, and 
the view is rapidly gaining ground that such correlated 
system should be based on a gold standard—silver to be 
subsidiary—and that the standard units of the system 
should possess simple numerical relations as to weight with 
the metric unit of weight—the gramme—the only unit of 
weight which promises to be generally accepted in facili¬ 
tating the international exchange of commodities. It is 
also important to adopt a standard fineness of a decimal 
character. The generally approved standard of fineness 
of coins for international uses is that of nine parts pure 
metal (gold or silver, as the case may be) to one part of 
copper alloy. 

A memorial of the American Statistical Association, ad¬ 
dressed to the Congress of the U. S. in the year 1868, calls 
attention to certain principles which it urges should govern 
in the establishment of a system of international coinage. 
It recommended that our coinage should have simple rela¬ 
tions as to weight with the unit of weight of the metric 
system—the gramme; that the standard as to fineness of 
our coinage—whether of gold or silver—should continue to 
be nine-tenths of fine metal to one-tenth of alloy; that the 
weight in grammes and the fineness of the coins hereafter 
to be issued should be legibly stamped thereon; that, in 
pursuance of the foregoing, the gold dollar should contain 
one and a half grammes of fine gold, or its equivalent, one 
and two-thirds grammes of standard gold, nine-tenths fine, 
and that other gold coins should be in proportion; that tho 
silver half dollar and smaller silver coins should contain 
of fine silver at the rate of twenty-two and a half grammes 
to the dollar, or their equivalent, twenty-five grammes of 
standard silver, nine-tenths fine; that the gold coinage, as 
above described, should be made legal tender in payment 
of sums in all amounts; and that the silver coin should bo 
made subsidiary, and admitted as legal tender in amounts 
not exceeding ten dollars in any one payment. 

The Association calls attention to the fact that to reduce 
our gold and our subsidiary silver to these proposed stand¬ 
ards, respectively, only insignificant changes—to wit, a re¬ 
duction of three-tenths of 1 per cent, in the weight of the 
gold coins, and an increase of five-tenths of 1 per cent, in 
the weight of the silver coins of the then existing standards 
—were required. The proposed reduction in the weight 
of the smaller gold coins is considerably less than the devia¬ 
tion now allowed to the mint. The change above proposed 
with regard to the subsidiary silver has already been ac¬ 
complished by act of Congress approved Feb. 12, 1873, and 
said silver coins are continued as legal tender in amounts 
not exceeding five dollars in any one payment. 

It will be observed that the weight of the silver coins is 
precisely 15 times the proposed weight of the gold coins 
of like denomination, but as the value of the gold relatively 
to silver is sensibly in excess of this ratio, the silver is over¬ 
valued, as, according to the experience of commercial na¬ 
tions, it should be. 

At a meeting of the American Association for the Ad¬ 
vancement of Science, held at Burlington, Vt., in 1867, a 
resolution was adopted deprecating the establishment of 
an international system of coinage of which the. units 
should have other than simple relations to the metric unit 
of weight; and at Salem, in Aug., 1S69, tho same Associa- 


























TABLE I.—The Existing Coinage of the United States. 

Table showing the standard weights , expressed both in troy and metric units , of the several coins ( gold , silver , nickel , and bronze ) of the V S ., now issued under authority of law approved Feb . 12, 1873; together with the standard 
proportions of fine metal and alloy of each description of coin ; also , the tolerance—or rate of deviation from the standard allowed by law—in the weight , both of single pieces and of large numbers when delivered together , and the 
tolerance as to fineness ; also , the extent to which the several descriptions of coins are made legal tender inpayment of debt . 


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* 1000 milligrammes make one gramme; 1 gramme equals 15.432349 troy grains; 1 troy grain equals 64.79895 milligrammes, 
f One-fourth nickel and three-fourths copper; the deviation not being more than one-fortieth in the weight of nickel. 

J Tin and zinc, live per cent.; copper, ninety-five per cent. 









































































































































































COINAGE. 


1013 


tion expressed, also by resolution, their approval of “ the 
proposed adaptation of the American coinage to the metric 
system, by making the value of the dollar precisely that 
of one and a half grammes of line gold; seeing in this a 
new- step towards the promotion of fraternity among na¬ 
tions by the unification of weights, measures, and coinage, 
inasmuch as all monetary units which have simple rela¬ 
tions to the gramme must have simple relations to each 
other.” 

No action on the subject of the change of the weight of 
the gold coinage has yet been taken by Congress, although 
it is now (June, 1873) believed that such action in the di¬ 
rection of these recommendations will not be long delayed. 

The leading simple metrical systems of gold units pro¬ 
posed may be classed under three heads : First. The dollar, 
florin, franc, and penny units, based upon tergrammes of 
gold nine-tenths fine (the term tergramme denoting the third 
part of a gramme). Second. Systems having for their basis 
the decagramme of gold of nine-tenths fineness, which unit 
has been advocated by Chevalier, Dr. Farr, and other Eu¬ 
ropean political economists. (See Report of Dr. Farr to 
the International Statistical Congress, held at The Hague 
in 1869.) Third. Systems based upon the decagramme of 
pure gold as the unit. 

These three systems, by reason of each bearing a simple 
relation to the metric unit of weight—the gramme—must 
of necessity possess simple relations to each other, and may 
be regarded, essentially, as different phases of one and the 
same system. 

According to certain lately published estimates and state¬ 
ments, by a careful investigator, relative to the four prin¬ 
cipal existing coin standards, it appears that the British 
sovereign is used by 35,000,000 people; the franc, by 
77,000,000; that the gold dollar unit is used in countries 
having an aggregate population of 80,000,000; and that 
the domain of the silver dollar has about 552,000,000 in¬ 
habitants. 

The first of the three accompanying tables shows, with ref¬ 
erence to the existing system of coinage in the U. S., the 
weight and fineness of the standard coins now authorized 
to be manufactured and issued from the mint, and the 
“ tolerance,” or deviation from the standard, allowed in the 
coining, both as to weight and fineness. (See p. 1012.) The 
second table compares the existing system of U. S. coinage 
with a proposed system on a simplified and strictly metric 
basis. The third table compares with each other the weights 
of the coin-representatives of the units of account of several 
countries, as now existing, and also modifications proposed 
on the basis of a simplified and strictly metric system. 


Table II.— United States Coinage. —Existing and Proposed 

Systems Compared. 


Denomination 


of 


Coin. 


Gold 

(nine-tenths fine). 

3 Double Eagles. 

6 Eagles. 

(10 Decagrammes of 
standard gold of the 
value of six metric 

dollars). 

12 Half Eagles. 

20 Three-dollar pieces... 

24 Quarter Eagles. 

60 Dollars. 

Silver 

(nine-tenths fine). 

8 Half dollars. 

16 Quarter dollars. 

40 Dimes. 


Copper-nickel 
(* nickel, £ copper). 
20 Five-cent pieces... 
50 Three-cent pieces.. 


Bronze 

(5 per cent, tin and 
zinc, 95 per cent, cop¬ 
per). 

30 One-cent pieces. 


Aggregate Weight. 

Existing System. 

Proposed 

System. 

Grains troy. . 

Equivalent metric 
grammes. 

Metric grammes. 

1548. 

100.31— 

100 

1548. 

100.31— 

100 



100 

1548. 

100.31— 

100 

1548. 

100.31— 

100 

1548. 

100.31— 

100 

1548. 

100.31— 

100 


100 

100 


100 

100 


100 

100 

1543.2 + 

100 

100 

1500. 

97.20— 

100 

1540. 

93.31 + 

1 100 


Proposed 
weight of 
each piece. 


a 

a 

rf 

U 

O 


331 

16* 


10 

8 * 

5 

If 


12 * 

6* 

2* 


5 

2 


3* 


S G 

tn ci 

a & 
2 a 

£■3 

bO 

L 

5 

EH 


100 

50 


30 

25 

15 

12 * 

5 


Table III.— Coins of Various Commercial Nations. 

Number of pieces which may be coined from 100 grammes of gold 
of the fineness of nine-tenths , and the weight of each piece in 
grammes; also, the number of pieces which may be so coined 
under the proposed metric system, and the weight of each piece 
in grammes and in thirds of a gramme. 


Denomination 

OF 

Coin. 


Dollars (U. 
Double 
(U. S.). 


S.). 


pieces 

Em 


(Japan). 

Victorias (or ten 
sol pieces of 300 
metric p 
proposed Eng¬ 
lish coin) 
Sovereigns 

land).. 

Ten-Mark 
(Germanic 
pire)... 

Union Crowns 
(Vereins-krone 
of Germany — 
Trade c o i n— 
coined from 1858 

to 1872). 

Ten-Crown pieces 
(projected coin 
for the three 
S c a n d i n avian 

kingdoms). 

Ten-Franc pieces 

(France). 

Half-I mpe rials 
(Russia—5 gold 
roubles or 5.15 
silver roubles)... 


Existing relations. 

Proposed relations. 

Number 

Weight 

Number 

Weight of each 

of 

of each 

of 

piece, 

pieces. 

piece. 

pieces. 

expressed in— 





Ter- 


Grammes. 


Grammes. 

grammes 

59.815 + 

1.672— 

60 

If 

5 

2.991— 

33.436 + 

3 

33* 

100 

3. 

33* 

3 

CO 

CO 

100 



10 

10 

30 

12.291+ 

8.136 




25.11 

3.982+ 

25 


12 

9. 

115 

9 

iij 

33* 

22.32 

4.480 + 

22g 

4* 

13* 

31. 

3.226— 

30 

3j 

10 

15.003 + 

6.665 + 

15 

6* 

20 


In the above it is not proposed to disturb the value of the 
pound sterling of Great Britain, or of its representative the 
gold sovereign, but it is contemplated to substitute the 
Victoria (or decagramme of gold nine-tenths fine) of 10 
sols, or 300 metric pence, as the British unit of account, in 
place of the pound sterling of 240 sterling pence, or 244 
(more exactly 244.09) metric pence. 


Table IV .—Statement of Weight, Value, and Fineness of Foreign 
Gold Coins, according to trials made at the Mint of the U. S. 


Country. 

Denominations. 

Weight 

Fine¬ 

ness. 

Value. 

Value 

after 

Deduc¬ 

tion. 

Austria . 

(4 

U 

Belgium . 

Bolivia . 

Brazil . 

CentralAmer. 

U <( 

Chili . 

Denmark . 

Equador . 

England . 

44 

France . 

44 

Germany . 

44 

Greece . 

Ilindostan . 

Italy . 

Japan . 

44 

44 

Mexico . 

44 

44 

44 

Naples. 

N etherlands.. 

New Granada. 
« « 

ci n 

Peru. 

44 

Portugal. 

Russia. 

Spain. 

44 

44 

Sweden. 

44 

Tunis. 

Turkey. 

Tuscany. 

Ducat . 

Souverain . 

Four Florins . 

Twenty-five Francs.... 

Doubloon . 

Twenty Milreis . 

Two Escudos . 

Four Reals . 

Old Doubloon . 

Ten Pesos . 

Ten Thaler . 

Four Escudos . 

Pound or Sov., new.... 

“ “ average. 

Twenty Francs, new... 

“ “ average. 

Ten Thaler, Prussian.. 

Twenty Marks . 

Twenty Drachms . 

Mohur . 

Twenty Lire . 

Old Cobang . 

44 44 

Twenty Yen . 

Doubloon, average . 

“ new . 

Twenty Pesos (Max.).. 
“ “ (Repub.) 

Six Ducati, new . 

Ten Guilders . 

Old Doubloon, Bogota. 
“ “ Popayan. 

Ten Pesos . 

Old Doubloon . 

Twenty Soles . 

Gold Crown . 

Five Roubles . 

One Hundred Reals.... 

Eighty Reals . 

Ten Escudos . 

Ducat . 

Carol in, Ten Francs... 
Twenty-five Piastres... 
One Hundred Piastres. 

Oz. Dec 
0.112 
0.363 
0.104 
0.254 
0.867 
0.575 
0.209 
0.027 
0.867 
0.492 
0.427 
0.433 
0.256.7 
0.256.2 
0.207.5 
0.207 
0.427 
0.256 
0.185 
0.374 
0.207 
0.362 
0.289 
1.072 
0.867.5 
0.867.5 
0.086 
1.081 
0.245 
0.215 
0.868 
0.867 
0.525 
0.867 
1.055 
0.308 
0.210 
0.268 
0.215 
0.270.8 
0.111 
0.104 
0.161 
0.231 
0.112 

Thous. 

986 

900 

900 

899 
870 

917.5 

853.5 
875 
870 

900 

895 
844 

916.5 
916 
899 

899 
903 

900 
900 
916 

898 
568 
572 
900 
866 

870.5 
875 
873 
996 

899 
870 
858 

891.5 
868 
898 
912 
916 

896 

869.5 
896 
875 

900 
900 
915 
999 

$2.28.3 

6.75.4 

1.93.5 
4.72 

15.59.3 

10.90.6 

3.68.8 
0.48.8 

15.59.3 

9.15.4 
7.90 

7.55.5 
4.86.3 

4.85.1 

3.85.8 

3.84.7 

7.97.1 

4.76.2 

3.44.2 
7.08.2 

3.84.3 
4.44 

3.57.6 

19.94.4 
15.53 
15.61.1 

19.64.3 

19.51.5 
5.04.4 

3.99.7 
15.61.1 

15.37.8 

9.67.5 

15.55.7 

19.21.3 

5.80.7 

3.97.6 

4.96.4 

3.86.4 
5.01.5 

2.23.7 

1.93.5 

2.99.5 
4.36.9 

2.31.3 

$2.27 

6.72 

1.91.5 

4.69.8 
15.51.5 

10.85.1 

3.66.9 
0.48.6 

15.51.5 

9.10.8 

7.86.1 

7.51.7 

4.83.9 

4.82.7 

3.83.9 

3.82.8 

7.93.1 

4.73.8 

3.42.5 
7.04.6 
3.82.3 

4.41.8 

3.55.8 

19.84.4 

15.45.2 

15.53.3 

19.54.5 

19.41.8 
5.01.9 

3.97.6 
15.53.3 
15.30.1 

9.62.7 

15.47.9 
19.11.7 

5.77.8 

3.95.7 

4.93.9 

3.84.5 
4.99 

2.22.6 
1.91.5 

2.98.1 

4.34.8 

2.30.1 

































































































































































1014 coin 


Table V. —Statement of Weight , Fineness , and Value of Foreign 
Silver Coins, according to trials made at the Mint of the U. S. 


Country. 

Denominations. 

Weight. 

Fine¬ 

ness. 

Value. 



Oz. Dec. 

Thom. 


Austria. 

Old Rix Dollar. 

0.902 

833 

$1.02.3 

a 

Old Scudo. 

0.836 

902 

1.02.6 

u 

Florin before 1858. 

0.451 

833 

51.1 

u 

New Florin. 

0.397 

900 

48.6 

u 

New Union Dollar. 

0.596 

900 

73.1 

« 

Marie Theresa Dollar 1780.. 

0.895 

838 

1.02.1 

Belgium. 

Five Francs. 

0.803 

897 

98 

W 44 

Two Francs. 

0.320 

835 

36.4 

Bolivia. 

New Dollar. 

0.801 

900 

98.1 

Brazil. 

Double Milreis. 

0.820 

918.5 

1.02 5 

Canada. 

Twenty Cents. 

0.150 

925 

18.9 

<< 

Twenty-five Cents. 

0.187.5 

925 

23.6 

Central Amer. 

Dollar. 

0.866 

850 

1.00.2 

Chili. 

Old Dollar. 

0.864 

908 

1.06.8 



0.801 

900.5 

98.2 

China. 

Dollar (English), assumed... 

0.866 

901 

1.06.2 

U 

Ten Cents. 

0.087 

901 

10.6 

Denmark. 

Two Rigsdaler. 

0.927 

877 

1.10.7 

England . 

Shilling, new. 

0.182.5 

924.5 

23 


“ average. 

0.178 

925 

22.4 

France. 

Five Franc, average. 

0.800 

900 

98 

It 

Two Franc. 

0.320 

835 

36.4 

Germany, N... 

Thaler before 1857. 

0.712 

750 

72.7 

U U 

New Thaler. 

0.595 

900 

72.9 

“ s... 

Florin before 1857. 

0.340 

900 

41.7 

u a 

New Florin. 

0.340 

900 

41.7 

Greece . 

Five Drachms . 

0.719 

900 

88.1 

Hindostan . 

Rupee . 

0.374 

916.5 

46.6 

Italy . 

Five Lire . 

0.800 

900 

98 


Lira . 

0.160 

835 

18.2 

Japan . 

Itzebu . 

0.279 

991 

37.6 

44 

New Itzebu . 

0.279 

890 

33.8 

44 

One Yen . 

0.866.7 

900 

1.008 

44 

Fifty Sen . 

0.402 

800 

44.6 

Mexico . 

Dollar, new . 

0.867.5 

903 

1.06.6 

44 

“ average . 

0.866 

901 

1.06.2 

44 

Peso of Maximilian. 

0.861 

902.5 

1.05.5 

Naples. 

Scudo . 

0.844 

830 

95.3 

Netherlands.. 

Two and a half Guilders. 

0.804 

944 

1.03.3 

Norway . 

Specie Daler. 

0.927 

877 

1.10.7 

N ew Granada. 

Dollar of 1857 . 

0.803 

896 

98 

Peru . 

Old Dollar. 

0.866 

901 

1.06.2 

44 

Dollar of 1858. 

0.766 

909 

94.8 

44 

Half Dollar 1835 and 1838... 

0.433 

650 

38.3 

44 

Sol . 

0.802 

900 

98.2 

Portugal . 

Five Hundred Reis. 

0.400 

912 

49.6 

Rome. 

Scudo. 

0.864 

900 

1.05.8 

Russia. 

Rouble . 

0.667 

875 

79.4 

Spain . 

Five Pesetas (dollar). 

0.800 

900 

98 

*44 

Peseta (pistareen). 

0.160 

835 

18.2 

Sweden. 

Rix Dollar. 

1.092 

750 

1.11.5 

Switzerland... 

Two Francs . 

0.320 

835 

36.4 

Tunis. 

Five Piastres. 

0.511 

898.5 

62.5 

Turkey. 

Twenty Piastres. 

0.770 

830 

87 


As tending to facilitate in Great Britain the transition 
from the sterling to the metric basis, it may prove interest¬ 
ing to note the fact that the payment of a sterling half- 
crown a month is almost exactly equivalent to that of a 
metric penny a day, the average number of days in a 
calendar month being 30£, the same as the number of 
metric pence in a sterling half-crown. 

Tables IY. and V., prepared by the director of the mint, 
to accompany his Annual Report, in pursuance of the act 
of Feb. 21, 1857, show the weight, fineness, and value of 
foreign gold and silver coins. The third column expresses 
the weight of a single piece in decimal fractions of the troy 
ounce. The fourth column expresses the fineness in thou¬ 
sandths. In the fifth column of Table IV. is shown the 
value as compared with the standard amount of fine gold 
in the gold coin of the U. S. In the sixth column of 
Table IY. is shown the value as paid in the mint, after 
the uniform deduction of one-half of 1 per cent. The for¬ 
mer is the value for any other purposes than recoinage, 
and especially for the purpose of comparison; the latter is 
the value in exchange for coins of the U. S. at the mint. 
The values in the fifth column of Table V. have been cal¬ 
culated on the assumption that the price of silver of the 
U. S. standard as to fineness (nine-tenths) is 122£ cents 
per ounce troy. 

It is worthy of remark that Japan is, as yet, the only 
country in which the coins which represent the standard 
units of account are of gold of the fineness of nine-tenths, 
and possessing as to weight simple relations to the gramme, 
the metric unit. E. B. Elliot, 

U. S. Treasury Dept., Washington, D. C. 

Coir is the fibre of the cocoanut and other palms. It 
is a valuable material for ropes, mats, etc. The husks 
are steeped in water in pits for six months or more, and 
then beaten with a stick till the fibre readily separates. 
Coir is one of the best materials for cables on account of 
its lightness, elasticity, and strength. Large quantities of 
coir rope are made in the Laccadive Islands by the hand, 
without the aid of machinery. Coir is produced from the 


COKE. 


fibre of various trees, especially the Gomuti Palm (which 
see). It is largely produced in the Malay Islands. 

Coit (Thomas Winthrop), D. D., LL.T)., an Episcopalian 
divine, born at New London, Conn., June 28, 1803, grad¬ 
uated at Yale in 1821, was president of Transylvania Uni¬ 
versity, Lexington, Ky., and became a professor at Trinity 
College, Hartford, Conn., in 1849. lie published a “ Theo¬ 
logical Commonplace Book” (1832), “ Puritanism ” (1844), 
and other works. 

Coits'ville, a township and post-village of Mahoning 
co., 0., about 21 miles S. E. of Warren. Pop. 1161. 

Cojutepec', a thriving, well-built town of Central 
America, in the state of San Salvador, 15 miles S. of old 
San Salvador. Pop. about 15,000. 

Coka'to, a township and village of Wright co., Minn., 
on the St. Paul and Pacific R. R., 61 miles W. N. W. of 
St. Paul. Pop. 452. 

Coke [probably allied to the verb “cook”], the char¬ 
coal obtained from bituminous coal by distillation or by 
heating with an almost entire exclusion of air. The for¬ 
mer, called gas-coke, is abundantly produced in gas-works; 
the latter process is conducted in heaps or in ovens. Coking 
in heaps (the Meiler method) consists in placing the coal 
in ridges with wooden stakes driven within, which are 
afterwards removed for the introduction of lighted coal. 
During the process of heating much smoke and vapor are 
thrown out, consisting mostly of tar, water, and coal-gas. 
When the smoke ceases to be evolved, the air is excluded 
and combustion extinguished by covering the mound of 
hot cinder with fine coal-dust. Where this business is 
large, chimneys of firebrick are erected, around which the 
coal is placed, the larger masses in the centre, the whole 
being finally covered with fine coal or dross. Firebrick 
ovens are also used for coking, and are more economical. 
In these the coal is introduced through the top, and a little 
air is admitted by openings. When the smoke has ceased 
the openings are closed for from twelve to twenty-four 
hours; the coal is then raked through a door, and water 
thrown upon it to stop combustion. Caking coal is the 
most suitable for making coke; even when small it may be 
used, and a little water sprinkled over it greatly assists the 
coking operation. The weight of coke usually amounts to 
between 60 and 70 per cent, of the coal employed; at the 
same time the coal increases in bulk about one-fourth. It 
will sometimes absorb moisture from the air to the extent 
of 30 per cent., and contains an amount of ash ranging 
from £ to 15 per cent. Coke is largely employed in the 
smelting of metallic ores, etc. where great heat is required. 

Coke (Sir Edward), an eminent English jurist and 
judge, born at Mileham, in Norfolk, Feb. 1, 1552. He 
graduated at Cambridge, studied law in the Inner Temple, 
and was called to the bar in 1578. His legal learning and 
tact in conducting causes soon procured for him a large 
practice. He was appointed recorder of Norwich in 1586, 
recorder of London in 1592, and solicitor-general the same 
year. He became Speaker of the House of Commons in 
1593, and attorney-general in 1594. In 1606 he was ap¬ 
pointed chief-justice of common pleas, in which position 
he resolutely opposed illegal encroachments of the Crown 
at a time when the subserviency of justice to royalty was 
general. To still his unwelcome decisions the court made 
him chief-justice of the king’s bench, but found him no 
less independent and freedom-loving than before. Among 
other bold judicial acts, he decided that the king had no 
right to stay proceedings in a court of law: for which he 
was deprived of the justiceship in 1616. He sided with 
the popular party in Parliament, and for his intrepid 
course was imprisoned in the Tower in 1622. He had a 
principal part in framing the Bill of Rights, and in carry¬ 
ing it through Parliament. Sir Edward Coke’s legal learn¬ 
ing was various and profound. His “ Reports ” far ex¬ 
celled any that had preceded them. “ Coke upon Lyttle- 
ton, or the First Institute,” is still a standard upon matters 
of municipal and constitutional law in England. He wrote, 
besides a second, third, and fourth book of “ Institutes,” 
the “ Complete Copyholder ” and “ Reading on Fines.” 
Died Sept. 3, 1633. 

Coke (Thomas), D. D., LL.D., the first bishop of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, born at Brecon, Wales, Sept. 
9, 1747, was educated at Oxford, and became a minister of 
the Church of England, but subsequently joined Wesley, 
and became a most laborious and faithful itinerant. Ho 
was made a bishop for America by Wesley in 1784, but did 
not confine his labors to this country. Ho traversed Great 
Britain and Ireland frequently, and crossed the Atlantic 
eighteen times. He founded the Wesleyan missions in the 
East and West Indies, and expended nearly all his large 
fortune in the undertaking. He died May 2, 1814, on a 
voyage to India, and was buried at sea. He was a volu- 











































































































































COKESBUKY—COLD. 


1015 


minous writer, and left, among numerous other works, a 
“ Commentary on the Holy Scriptures” (6 vols., 1803—07), 
and a “History of the West Indies” (1808). (See Ste¬ 
vens’s “ History of Methodism,” and “ History of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church.”) 

Cokesbury, a township and post-village of Abbeville 
co., S. C. The village is on the Greenville and Columbia 
R. R., 48 miles S. S. E. of Greenville. Pop. 700; of town¬ 
ship, 2179. 

Col [from the Lat. collum, a “neck”], a French word 
signifying “neck,” is applied to several passes of the Alps, 
as Col de Balme, Col de Tenda, etc. 

Co'la, or Kola-Nut, the seed of the tree Cola acumi¬ 
nata , of the natural order Sterculiacem, a native of the 
western tropical parts of Africa, and cultivated in other 
warm countries. The natives of Guinea believe that to 
eat a portion of one of these seeds before their meals im¬ 
proves the flavor of whatever they may eat, and that when 
sucked or chewed they will render even putrid water agree¬ 
able to the palate. They are about the size of a pigeon’s 
egg, of a brownish color and bitter taste. They are said 
to possess properties analogous to Peruvian bark. 

Col'berg, a fortified seaport-town of Prussia, in Pom¬ 
erania, on the river Persante near its entrance into the 
Baltic, about 143 miles N. E. of Berlin, with which it is 
connected by a railway. It has a handsome rathhaus, an 
old cathedral, salmon and lamprey fisheries, commerce, and 
salt-works. It is partly surrounded with swamps which 
can be readily covered with water. It has sustained sev¬ 
eral protracted sieges. Pop. in 1871, 13,130. 

CoPbert, a county in the N. W. of Alabama. Area, 750 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Tennessee 
River. The surface is hilly or undulating; the soil is fer¬ 
tile. Cotton, corn, and wool are produced. It is inter¬ 
sected by the Memphis and Charleston R. R. Capital, 
Tuscumbia. Pop. 12,537. 

Colbert (Jean Baptiste), a French statesman and 
financier, was born at Rheims Aug. 29, 1619. He entered 
the service of Cardinal Mazarin in 1648, and became secre¬ 
tary to the queen in 1654. Mazarin at his death recom¬ 
mended Colbert to the king, who in 1661 appointed him 
controller-general of the finances, which were then in a 
ruinous condition. The annual revenue exacted from the 
people in 1660 was about 84,000,000 livres, but only 
32,000,000 were received into the treasury, the rest being 
kept by the farmers of the revenue. Colbert reformed the 
financial system, and established order and economy in the 
government. In the course of twenty years he raised the 
gross revenue to 115,000,000, ivhile the expense of collect¬ 
ing it was reduced to about 30,000,000. He promoted 
commerce and manufactures, opened canals and roads, and 
founded colonies in America. He also made reforms in 
the department of marine, of which he was appointed min¬ 
ister in 1669. No minister perhaps ever contributed so 
much to the prosperity of France. He was a liberal patron 
of literary and scientific men, and was the founder of the 
Academy of Inscriptions and Academy of Sciences. His 
influence at court was undermined by Louvois, and his 
efforts to dissuade Louis XIV. from his ruinous wars and 
extravagant expenses were unavailing; but he retained the 
office of controller-general until his death. Died in Paris 
Sept. 6, 1683. (See Pierre Clement, “Histoire de Col¬ 
bert,” 1846; A. de Serviez, “Histoire de Colbert,” 1842; 
Gourdault, “Colbert, Ministre de Louis XIV.,” 1870.) 

Col'borne, a post-village of Cramahe township, North¬ 
umberland co., Ontario (Canada), on the Grand Trunk 
Railway, 15 miles E. of Cobourg, has manufactures of 
flour, leather, lumber, furniture, and iron castings, and one 
weekly paper. Pop. about 1500. 

Col'bourne, a township of Worcester co., Md. P. 861. 

Col'burn (Warren), a mathematician, born at Ded¬ 
ham, Mass., Mar. 1, 1793, taught school in Boston. He 
published in 1821 a “ Mental Arithmetic,” which had an 
extensive circulation. Died at Lowell Sept. 13, 1833. 

Colburn (Rev. Zerah), born at Cabot, Vt., Sept. 1,1804. 
In early life he had a wonderful faculty of computation, 
which failed him as he came to maturity. He became a 
Methodist preacher (1825), and professor of languages at 
Norwich University (1835). Died at Norwich, Vt., Mar. 
2, 1840. 

Col'by Univer'sity, a Baptist college, incorporated 
by the legislature of Massachusetts in 1813 as “ The Maine 
Literary and Theological Institution,” was first established 
near Bangor, but subsequently (1818) transferred to Water- 
ville, Me. In 1820 it was chartered by the State of Maine 
as “ Watervilie College,” which name it bore till 1867, 
when, having been munificently endowed by Gardner 
Colby, Esq., a merchant of Boston, the name was changed 


to that of Colby University. Number of instructors in 
1872, 7; pupils, 52. 

Colcha'gua, a province of Chili, is bounded on the N. 
by the province of Santiago, on the E. by the Andes, on 
the S. by the province of Curico, and on the W. by the 
Pacific Ocean. Area, 3516 square miles. The province is 
traversed by the rivers Rapel, Mataquito, and Tinguirica. 
The climate is better than in any other province, and the 
soil is very fertile. Gold and copper are found, especially 
in the mountains in the interior. Pop. in 1869, 149,747. 
Chief town, San Fernando. 

Col'chester (anc. Camalodunum), a parliamentary 
borough and river-port of England, in Essex, on the river 
Colne, 12 miles from the sea, and on the Eastern Union 
Railway, 51 miles N. N. E. of London. It is well built on 
the sides and summit of an eminence, and has imposing 
remains of a castle built soon after the Norman Conquest. 
Great quantities of Roman remains have been found here, 
including bushels of coins of Roman emperors, vases, urns, 
lamps, etc. It has eight parish churches, some of which 
are antique structures, several hospitals, a theatre, and a 
custom-house. There are manufactures of silk and a valu¬ 
able oyster-fishery. It returns two members to Parliament. 
Pop. in 1871, 26,361. 

Colchester, a county in the central part of Nova 
Scotia, bordering an inlet of the sea and the Bay of Fundy. 
It is intersected by the Nova Scotia Railway. Capital, 
Truro. Pop. in 1871, 23,331. 

Colchester, a post-village of New London co., Conn., 
28 miles S. E. of Hartford. It has manufactures of India- 
rubber and paper, and is the seat of Bacon Academy. Pop. 
1321; of Colchester township, 3383. 

Colchester, a post-township of Delaware co., N. Y. 
Pop. 2652. 

Colchester, a township and post-village of Chittenden 
co., Vt. The village is on the Vermont and Canada R. R., 
4 miles N. of Burlington. The township contains the im¬ 
portant village of Winooski (which see). Pop. 3911. 

Colchic'eine (CssII^^On), an alkaloid prepared from 
colchicine by the action of acids. 

Col'chicine (C 37 H 30 N 3 O 11 ?)> a very powerful alkaloid 
extracted from all parts of Colchicum autumnale (meadow 
saffron). It produces, even in very small doses, violent 
vomiting and purging. 

Col'chicum, a drug much valued in the treatment of 
neuralgic gout and rheumatism and some other diseases. 
It is the seed and root of Cqlchicum autumnale , or meadow 
saffron, a European herb of the order Melanthaceas. It 
has sedative, diuretic, cathartic, and diaphoretic properties, 
and when given in an overdose is a dangerous poison. 

Col'chis [Gr. KoAxw], an ancient province of Asia, was 
bounded on the N. by the Caucasus, on the S. by Armenia, 
and on the W. by the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea). It was 
celebrated in ancient fable and poetry as the place to which 
the Argonauts sailed for the golden fleece, and as the home 
of Medea. It was noted for its wine and fruits, and was 
the native country of the pheasant, which derived its name 
from Phasis, a river of Colchis. It is now part of the Rus¬ 
sian dominions. 

Col'cothar Vitri'oli, or Cro'cus Mar'tis, a brown¬ 
ish-red sesquioxidc of iron, obtained by the calcination of 
copperas (sulphate of iron) in the manufacture of Nord- 
hausen sulphuric acid. It is used as a polishing powder. 

Cold [Lat./W< 7 ?« 8 / Ger. Kdlte], the absence or want of 
heat. It is scarcely necessary to observe that the distinc¬ 
tion between heat and cold is merely relative. Thus, if air 
or any substance coming in contact with the human body 
is of a lower temperature than the body, it absorbs heat 
from the latter, producing the sensation of cold; if of a 
higher temperature, it imparts a feeling of heat or warmth. 
The same substance at the same time may give the sensa¬ 
tion of cold to one person and that of warmth to another, 
in case the temperature of the one is much lower than that 
of the other person. Water at a certain temperature will 
often feel warm to one’s hand in winter, while water of the 
same temperature will in summer cause the sensation of 
cold, because in the former case it is warmer, and in the 
latter cooler, than the surface of the body to which it is 
applied. But since gases are found to expand ;f|oth 
their volume for every increase of one degree F., it has 
been inferred that if this law holds good at very low tem¬ 
peratures, the temperature of —458 F., or —273 C., is an 
absolute zero, because at that temperature there would be 
no gaseous tension, and no possibility of detecting any 
further decrease of heat. The lowest temperature yet re¬ 
corded is—220 F. . . 

All warm-blooded animals have a power of maintaining 
the proper temperature of the body in defiance of external 
















1016 COLD BATH 


cold, believed to bo mainly due to a process analogous to 
combustion, in which carbon and hydrogen taken in food 
unite with oxygen derived from the air by respiration. If 
the combustible materials are not furnished, or if the sup¬ 
ply of oxygen be deficient, there must be a depression of 
temperature. Now, if the temperature of a bird or mammal 
(except in the case of hibernating animals) be lowered 
about 30° below its normal standard (which in birds ranges 
from 108° to 112°, and in mammals from 98° to 102°), the 
death of the animal is the 'result. The symptoms follow¬ 
ing a great depression of the temperature of the body are, 
retardation of the circulation of the blood, causing lividity 
of the skin, followed by pallor; a peculiar torpor of the 
muscular and nervous systems manifests itself in an indis¬ 
position to make any exertion, and in extreme drowsiness. 
The respiratory movements become slower, and the loss of 
heat goes on with increasing rapidity till death supervenes. 

In hibernating animals the power of generating heat 
within their own bodies is slight, their temperature nearly 
approximating that of the external air, so that it may be 
brought down nearly to the freezing-point. At this tem¬ 
perature the vital functions are scarcely perceptible, but 
when the temperature is again raised vital activity returns. 
The respirations in marmots fall from 500 to 14 in an hour, 
and are performed without apparent movement of the 
chest walls; the pulse sinks from 150 to 15 beats in a min¬ 
ute; and the animal can with difficulty be aroused from 
torpor. 

Cold is a powerfully depressing agent, and in certain 
conditions is a fruitful cause of disease and death. Its 
most obvious effects occur in the freezing of parts of the 
body. In such cases the restoration to a normal tempera¬ 
ture must be very gradual, or the frozen part may become 
affected by gangrene. It is often beneficial to place the 
frozen part in water near the freezing-point. It is said to 
be usual in Russia to rub the part affected with snow. The 
effects of cold upon the general system may result in bron¬ 
chitis, pneumonia, or other serious diseases. 

Cold Bath, a township of Clarke co., Ark. Pop. 645. 

Cold Brook, a township of Warren co., Ill. P. 1256. 

Cold Brook, a post-village of Russia township, Her¬ 
kimer co., N. Y., has several manufactories. Pop. 170. 

Cold Creek, or Hume, a post-village of Hume town¬ 
ship, Allegany co., N. Y. Pop. 254. 

Col de la Seigne (san), an Alpine pass leading from 
Savoy into the Val d’Aosta in Piedmont, is 7 miles W. S. W. 
of Mont Blanc. Height, 8422 feet. (See Col.) 

Col'den, a township and post-village of Erie co., N. Y. 
The village is 20 miles S. E. of Buffalo. Pop. 1472. 

Colden (Cadwalader), lieutenant-governor of the 
province of New York from 1761 to 1775, repeatedly act¬ 
ing as governor in the absence of the chief executive, born 
in Scotland in 1688, emigrated about 1708 to Pennsylvania, 
where he practised medicine, invited to New York in 1718 
by Gov. Hunter, was the first surveyor-general of the col¬ 
onies. Died in 1776, of grief, it is said, at witnessing the 
destruction caused by the great fire of that year. Among 
his works are numerous essays on medical subjects, and 
others on natural philosophy, natural history, and the 
mathematics. He carried on a long correspondence with 
Linmeus, to whom he sent great numbers of American 
plants. Among these the illustrious Swedish botanist 
found more than 200 new species, which he described in 
the “ Acts of the Academy of Sciences ” of Upsala in 1743- 
44. To a new genus discovered among these plants Lin¬ 
naeus attached the name Golclenia. 

Colden (Cadwalader David), an American lawyer, 
born in Queen’s co., Long Island, April 4, 1769, became 
mayor of New York in 1818, and a member of Congress in 
1822. He wrote a “Life of Robert Fulton.” Died Feb. 7, 
1834. 

Cold Harbor, a locality in Hanover co., Va., about 
10 miles N. E. of Richmond. 

In May, 1864, Gen. Grant, continuing his movement 
from Spottsylvania, had successfully crossed the Fifth, 
Sixth, and Second corps over the North Anna River at 
Jericho Ford and at Chesterfield Bridge, above and below 
Lee’s army. An attempt to cross direct in his front proved 
unsuccessful, and it being discovered that Lee’s position 
was one of remarkable strength, from which he could bo 
dislodged only by a loss incommensurate with the advan¬ 
tage to be thus gained, Gen. Grant determined to withdraw 
to the N. bank, which was skilfully accomplished on the 
night of the 26th of May, and another flank movement 
was commenced. The advance was led by two divisions 
of cavalry under Gen. Sheridan, and the Sixth corps, Gen. 
Wright. Considerable severe fighting was done on the 
28th, 29th, and 30th, resulting in the success of the national 
arms; and on the 31st, Sheridan, with his two divisions, 


COLDWATER. 


occupied Cold Harbor, driving the Confederates from the 
place, and maintaining his position until relieved, June 1, 
by the Sixth corps and the Eighteenth corps (Gen. W. F. 
Smith), which latter had just arrived (via White House) 
from Butler’s army on the James River. At 5 I*. M. both 
Wright and Smith attacked Lee, carrying a good part of 
his first line; but subsequent attempts to force him from 
his second line were unsuccessful, and the effort was aban¬ 
doned after a loss of 2000 men. The portion of the army 
not engaged in the main attack received repeated assaults, 
all of which were repulsed with great loss to the enemy. 
Ineffectual attempts were made by the Confederates during 
the night to regain the ground lost during the day. The 2d 
of June was devoted to the redisposition of the army. The 
Second corps (Hancock) was moved forward, and placed on 
the left of the Sixth, which was resting on the left of the 
Eighteenth; the Ninth corps (Burnside) was drawn in to 
Bethesda Church, and the Fifth corps (Warren) extended 
to the left, to connect with Smith. In executing this oper¬ 
ation both Warren and Burnside sustained attacks, which 
were repulsed, with the loss of some prisoners, however. 

The morning of June 3d opened with rain, but at 4 A. M., 
the Second, Sixth, and Eighteenth corps furiously assaulted 
the Confederates in their intrenchments. Barlow’s and 
Gibbons’ divisions of the Second corps cai*ried a portion 
of the enemy’s line, but were compelled to withdraw before 
reinforcements could reach them. An equally gallant and 
vigorous assault, though less sanguinary, was also made 
by the Sixth and Eighteenth corps, but without success. 
Warren, whose line was much extended, was engaged only 
with his artillery, while Burnside failed to move at the 
time arranged upon, and a later movement, which promised 
success, on the left of Lee’s line, was recalled, owing to 
the failure of the attack on the right; and the army in¬ 
trenched themselves in their position close to the Confed¬ 
erates’ main line of works. The attack lasted but about 
half an hour, yet in that short time Grant’s loss was not 
less than 7000, while Lee’s loss did not probably exceed 
3000. At a later hour in the day an order was given to 
renew the attack, but the order was subsequently with¬ 
drawn. An attack was made on Gibbons’ division about 
9 p. m., which was repulsed. The total Federal loss at and 
around Cold Harbor was upwards of 13,000. 

The two armies remained confronting each other till 
June 12, when Grant, moving rapidly, crossed the Chick- 
ahominy at the lower crossings, reaching the James River 
on the 15th, which was also successfully crossed on pon¬ 
toons and ferry-boats. 

Cold Spring, a township and post-village of Shelby 
co., Ill. The village is 50 miles S. E. of Springfield. Pop. 
of township, 1656. 

Cold Spring, a township of Phelps co., Mo. P. 964. 

Cold Spring, a township of Cattaraugus co., N. Y., 
has manufactures of lumber, shingles, hubs, spokes, etc. 
Pop. 835. 

Cold Spring, a post-village of Putnam co., N. Y., on 
the E. bank of the Hudson and on the Hudson River R. R., 
52 miles N. of New York. It is pleasantly situated among 
the Highlands, one mile above West Point. It has five 
churches, a library, three public schools, a furnace, and 
manufactures of cannon, machinery, brass castings, etc. It 
has one weekly newspaper. P. 3086. Ed. “ Recorder.” 

Cold Spring, a post-village of Huntington township, 
Suffolk co., N. Y., on the E. side of Cold Spring Harbor, 
has some manufactures and shipbuilding, and formerly was 
a whaling port, but that business is now pursued on only a 
small scale. Pop. 750. 

Cold Spring, a township of Lebanon co., Pa. P. 80. 

Cold Spring, a post-village, capital of San Jacinto 
co., Tex. 

Cold Spring, a post-township of Jefferson co., Wis. 
Pop. 740. 

Cold'stream, a border-town of Scotland, in Berwick¬ 
shire, on the left bank of the Tweed, 15 miles S. W. of Ber¬ 
wick. The river is here crossed by a bridge. Near this 
place is the famous ford where the English and Scottish 
armies formerly crossed the Tweed. Here General Monk 
raised the regiment still known as the Coldstream Guards 
(which see). Pop. in 1861, 1834. 

Coldstream Guards, a regiment in the Foot Guards 
or Household Brigade, is the oldest corps in the British 
army except the First Foot. It was raised at Coldstream 
in 1660 by General Monk, and was first called Monk’s 
regiment. 

Cold Water, a township of Butler co., Ia. Pop. 461. 

Cold'water, a city, capital of Branch co., Mich., on 
the Coldwater Creek and on the Michigan Southern and 
Mansfield Coldwater and Lake Michigan R. Rs., midway 














COLD WATER—COLERIDGE. 1017 


between Detroit and Chicago. It has seven churches, two 
national banks, two newspapers, and manufactures of iron, 
wood, oil, Hour, etc. There is a park, two libraries, and a 
high school. The State school for orphans is in Coldwater. 
Pop. 4392 ; of Coldwater township, 1526. 

A. J. Aldrich, Ed. Coldwater “Republican.” 

Cold Water, a township of Isabella co., Mich. Pop. 
151. 

Cold Water, a township of Cass co., Mo. Pop. 439. 

Cole, a county near the centre of Missouri. Area, 410 
square miles. • It is bounded on the N. E. by the Missouri 
River, and on the S. E. by the Osage. The surface is hilly ; 
the soil of the river-bottoms is fertile. It is intersected by 
the Missouri Pacific R. R. Grain, tobacco, and wool are 
raised. Coal is found, and limestone is abundant. Jef¬ 
ferson City is the county-town and the capital of the 
State. Pop. 10,292. 

Cole, a township of Sebastian co., Ark. Pop. 527. 

Cole, a township of Benton co., Mo. Pop. 865. 

Cole (Thomas), a landscape-painter, born in Lancashire, 
England, Feb. 1, 1801, was taken to Ohio by his parents 
when he was a child. He visited Italy about 1831, and re¬ 
turned to New York in 1832 with several Italian landscapes. 
He painted a number of fine views of the Catskill Moun¬ 
tains. Among his other works are four allegorical pictures 
of the “ Voyage of Life,” a series called “ The Course of 
Empire,” a “View of Mount Etna,” and a “ Dream of Ar¬ 
cadia.” Died at Catskill, N. Y., Feb. 11, 1848. (See his 
“Life” by L. L. Noble, 1855.)/ 

Colebrook, a township and post-village of Litchfield 
co., Conn. The village is 28 miles N. W. of Hartford. 
Pop. 1141. 

Colebrook, a township and post-village of Coos co., 
N. H. The village is about 50 miles N. of Mount Wash¬ 
ington. It has three churches, school and academy, a 
newspaper, five carriage manufactories, and a woollen fac¬ 
tory, besides manufactures of starch, lumber, leather, etc. 
P. 1372. Albert Barker, Pub. “Northern Sentinel.” 

Colebrook, a post-township of Ashtabula co., 0. Pop. 
800. 

Colebrook, a township of Clinton co., Pa. Pop. 332. 

Colebrookdale, a township and post-village of Berks 
co., Pa. The village is about 15 miles E. of Reading. Pop. 
of township, 1660. 

Colebrooke, or Grand Falls, a post-village and 
port of entry of Victoria co., N. B., near the Great Falls 
of the river St. John, which are 180 feet high and very im¬ 
posing. Steamers ply between Colebrooke and St. John 
(202 miles) during high water. There is a fine suspension 
bridge over the falls. Pop. about 700. 

Colebrooke (Henry Thomas), an English Orientalist, 
born June 15, 1765, went to India in 1782, and was em¬ 
ployed in the civil service of the East India Company. Ho 
became professor of Sanscrit in the College of Fort William. 
He published a “ Sanscrit Grammar ” (1805), a “ Dictionary 
of the Sanscrit Language” (1808), “Miscellaneous Essays” 
(2 vols., 1837), “On the Sacred Books of the Hindoos” and 
“Algebra of the Hindoos.” His works display sound criti¬ 
cal judgment and great learning. Died in London Mar. 
10, 1837. 

Cole Hill, a township of Chesterfield co., S. C. P. 710. 

Coleman, a county in W. Central Texas. Area, 1000 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by Colorado River. 
The surface is broken and rocky. Wood and water are 
scarce, and grazing is the chief pursuit. Capital, Camp 
Colorado. Pop. 347. 

Coleman (Lyman), D.D., an eminent American scholar, 
teacher, and author, born at Middlefield, Mass., June 14, 
1796, has traveled and studied in Europe and the East, 
has been connected with several literary institutions, and 
is now (1873) professor in Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. 
He has published “Antiquities of the Christian Church” 
(1841), “Ancient Christianity” (1852), “Historical Text- 
Book and Atlas of Biblical Geography” (1854), “Prelacy 
and Ritualism” (1869), and other works. 

Coleman’s, a township and village of Edgefield co., 
S. C. The village is about 22 miles N. E. of Edgefield 
and 4 miles S. of the Greenville and Columbia R. R. Pop. 
2243. 

Colen'so (John William), D.D., an English theologian, 
born Jan. 24, 1814, graduated at Cambridge in 1836. He 
was appointed bishop of Natal in South Africa in 1854. 
Among his works is “ The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua 
Critically Examined” (1862), which was condemned by the 
Houses of Convocation. He maintains that some books of 
the Old Testament are not divinely inspired. He was de¬ 
clared deposed from his see by his metropolitan, an act 


whose validity was denied by the privy council. Ho has 
acquired some distinction as a mathematician. 

Coleop'tera [from the Gr. KoAeo?, a “sheath,” and 
nrepov, a “wing”], the name of an extensive order of in¬ 
sects, including all those popularly termed beetles, having 
four wings; the first pair, of a horny consistency, serve as 
defensive coverings to the second pair, which are larger in 
size and folded transversely beneath the elytra or wing- 
covers when the beetle is at rest. In some species the 
membranous wings are wanting, but the elytra are always 
present. The head supports two antennas of various forms, 
but nearly always consisting of eleven joints. Coleoptera 
have two compound eyes, but no ocelli. The mouth is fit¬ 
ted for gnawing, tearing, or chewing, and exhibits in great 
perfection the complicated structure which belongs to the 
mouth of all the masticating or mandibulated insects. 
The anterior segment of the thorax greatly surpasses in 
extent the two other segments; the abdomen is united to 
the trunk by a great part of its breadth. The Coleoptera 
and their larvae are very voracious, feeding on both animal 
and vegetable substances. This is a very numerous order, 
being estimated to contain 80,000 species or more. 

Colepeper. See Culpeper. 

Colerain', a post-township of Franklin co., Mass. It 
has three churches, three cotton factories, manufactures of 
carriages, boxes, castings, chair-stutf, lumber, etc. Pop. 
1742. 

Colerain, a township and post-village of Bertie co., 

N. C. The village is on the E. bank of Chowan River, and 
100 miles N. of Beaufort. Pop. 1968. 

Colerain, a township and post-village of Belmont co., 

O. The village is 8 miles N. of the Ohio Central R. R. and 
20 miles S. W. of Steubenville. Pop. 1308. 

Colerain, a township of Hamilton co., 0., 42 miles S. W. 
of Dayton. Pop. 3689. 

Colerain, a township of Ross co., 0. Pop. 1635. 

Colerain, a township of Bedford co., Pa. Pop. 1204. 

Colerain, a post-township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop. 
1655. 

Coleraine, a seaport-town of Ireland, in the county 
of Londonderry, is on the river Bann, 4 miles from its 
mouth, and 47 miles N. N. W. of Belfast. Vessels of 200 
tons can come up to the town, and steamers ply regularly 
between it and Liverpool and Glasgow. It has a court¬ 
house and a custom-house; also manufactures of fine linen 
fabrics called “coleraines,” and of paper, soap, etc. Pop. 
in 1871, 6236. 

Coleridge (Hartley), an English poet, son of Samuel 
T. Coleridge, was born near Bristol Sept. 14, 1796. He was a 
dreamy, wayward, and eccentric genius. He became a fel¬ 
low of Oriel College in 1818, but he soon lost his fellowship 
by his intemperance. He published a volume of admired 
poems in 1833. Among his other works is “The Worthies 
of Yorkshire and Lancashire” (1835). He had marvellous 
conversational powers. Died Jan. 6, 1849. 

Coleridge (Henry Nelson), a cousin of the above, 
was born in 1800. He was called to the bar in 1826. He 
published, besides other works, an “ Introduction to the 
Study of the Greek Classic Poets” (1830) and “The Table- 
Talk of Samuel T. Coleridge” (1835). He edited several 
works of his uncle. Died Jan. 26, 1843. 

Coleridge (Right Honorable Sir John Taylor), D. C. L., 
an English jurist, a nephew of S. T. Coleridge, born at 
Tiverton in 1790, educated at Oxford and the Middle Tem¬ 
ple, was called to the bar in 1819, became a serjeant in 
1832, judge of the king’s bench in 1835, and privy coun¬ 
cillor in 1858. His reputation as a lawyer and literary 
critic is high. 

Coleridge (Samuel Taylor), an English poet and 
critic, born at Ottery St. Mary, in Devonshire, Oct. 21,1772, 
was a son of the vicar of that parish. In 1791 he entered 
Jesus College, Cambridge, where he attained great pro¬ 
ficiency in classical learning. He abruptly quitted Cam¬ 
bridge in 1792, and enlisted in a regiment of dragoons 
under the assumed name of Silas Tomken Comberbatch. 
His relatives soon procured his discharge from the army. 
He visited Bristol in 1794, and became an associate of 
Robert Southey and other young men who, like himself, 
had adopted democratic and revolutionary ideas. They 
formed a project to emigrate to the banks of the Susque¬ 
hanna and to found a “ pantisocracy,” in which they pro¬ 
posed to enjoy a community of goods. As they could not 
raise money enough for the outfit, they were compelled to 
abandon the enterprise. His friend and patron, Joseph 
Cottle of Bristol, paid him thirty guineas in advance for a, 
volume of poems (published in 1796). In 1795 he married 
Sarah Fricker, a sister of Southey’s wife, and became a 
resident of Nether Stowey (Somersetshire), where he asso- 













1018 


COLERIDGE—COLIC. 


ciatod with the poet Wordsworth, and remained nearly 
three years. During this period he composed the “Ancient 
Mariner” and other poems. Coleridge and Wordsworth 
wrote in parternership a collection of “Lyrical Ballads.” 
He held Socinian views in this early part of his mature life, 
and began to preach in the Unitarian churches, but his suc¬ 
cess as a preacher was hindered by his instability and want 
of punctuality. In 1798 be visited Germany with Words¬ 
worth, and studied at Gottingen. He removed to Keswick, 
in the Lake country, in 1800, and resided with Southey and 
Wordsworth. The unfriendly critics of the Reviews ap¬ 
plied to these three friends the appellation of “ Lake 
Poets,” in reference to their local habitation. In 1808 he 
lectured on poetry and the line arts in London, and in 1809 
commenced the publication of the “Friend,” a periodical. 
His wife and family remained at Keswick, dependent on 
Southey, while Coleridge led a wandering life, and formed 
many speculative and literary projects, which he failed to 
realize. His natural in&rmities of character were increased 
by the use of opium. He passed many of his later years 
in the house of Mr. Gillman at Ilighgate, near London, 
where he began to reside in 1816. Among his works 
are “Christabel” (1816), “Biographia Literaria” (1817), 
“Zapolya,” a drama (1818), “Aids to Reflection” (1825), 
and “Literary Remains” (1836). “Osorio, a Tragedy” 
(first printed in 1873), was the original drama from which 
his “Remorse” was adapted. He died at Ilighgate July 
25, 1834. (See Gillman, “Life of S. T. Coleridge,” 1838; 
Cottle, “Reminiscences of Coleridge and Southey,” 1847.) 

Coleridge (Sara Henry), the only daughter of the 
preceding, was born at Keswick in 1803. She passed many 
of her early years in the house of her uncle, Robert Southey, 
and was married in 1829 to her cousin, Henry N. Coleridge. 
She edited several works of her father, and wrote an ad¬ 
mired imaginative tale called “ Phantasmion ” (1837). 
Died May 3, 1852. Her memoirs and letters, edited by her 
daughter, were published in 2 vols., 1873. 

Coles, a county in S. E. Central Illinois. Area, 550 
square miles. It is intersected by the Kaskaskia and Em- 
barras rivers. The surface is nearly level; the soil is fer¬ 
tile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. It has 
manufactures of lumber, carriages, etc. The greater part 
of the county is prairie. It is traversed by the Illinois 
Central and the St. Louis Alton and Terre Haute R. Rs. 
Capital, Charleston. Pop. 25,235. 

Cole’s, a township of Prince William co., Ya. P. 1279. 

Coles (Edward), an American statesman, born in Al¬ 
bemarle co., Va., Dec. 15, 1786, was private secretary to 
President Madison (1810-16) and minister to Russia (1817— 
18). Soon after his return he set free his slaves. He was 
governor of Illinois (1823-26). Died at Philadelphia, then 
his residence, July 7,1868. He published a “ History of the 
Ordinance of 1787.” 

Colesville, a post-village and township of Broome co., 
N. Y., on the Susquehanna River and the Albany and Sus¬ 
quehanna R. R. The township has ten churches, numerous 
villages, and some manufactures of leather, etc. Pop. 3400. 

Col'fax, a county in the E. of Mississippi. Area, about 
360 square miles. It is partly bounded on the E. by the 
Tombigbee River, and is intersected by the Mobile and 
Ohio R. R. It is in one of the finest cotton-regions of the 
South. This county was organized since the census of 1870. 
Capital, West Point. 

Colfax, a county in the E. of Nebraska. Area, 400 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Platte River, 
and intersected by Shell Creek and other streams. The 
soil is fertile, producing grain, vegetables, and fruit. Graz¬ 
ing is excellent and water-power abundant. It is traversed 
by the Union Pacific R. R. Capital, Schuyler. Pop. 1424. 

Colfax, a county in the N. E. of New Mexico. Area, 
3700 square miles. It is dntined by the Canadian River, 
which rises in it. The Rocky Mountains extend along the 
western border. The valleys are fertile. Wool is raised. 
Capital, Cimarron. Pop. 1992. 

Colfax, a post-village of Placer co., Cal., on the Central 
Pacific R. R., 54 miles N. E. of Sacramento. It has gold¬ 
mines in the vicinity. 

Colfax, a post-village of Fremont co., Col., 50 miles S. 
of Canon City. It is in Wet Mountain Park in a fine 
farming region. It was settled by a colony of Germans 
in 1870. Pop. of colony in 1870, 230. 

Colfax, a township of Champaign co., Ill. Pop. 633. 

Colfax, a post-village of Clinton co,, Ind., at the junc¬ 
tion of the Indianapolis Bloomington and Western and Lo- 
gansport Crawfordsville and South-western R. Rs. P. 187. 

Colfax, a township of Dallas co., Ia. Pop. 582. 

Colfax, a township of Grundy co., Ia. Pop. 278. 


Colfax, a post-village, capital of Grant parish, La., on 
Red River about 25 miles N. W. of Alexandria. Pop. 40. 

Colfax, a township of Benzie co., Mich. Pop. 71. 

Colfax, a township of Huron co., Mich. Pop. 91. 

Colfax, a township of Mecosta co., Mich. Pop. 146. 

Colfax, a township of Oceana co., Mich. Pop. 77. 

Colfax, a township of Wexford co., Mich. Pop. 172. 

Colfax, a township of Daviess co., Mo. Pop. 584. 

Colfax, a township of De Kalb co., Mo. Pop. 796. 

Colfax, a township of Rutherford co., N. C. Pop. 964. 

Colfax, a township of Darlington co., S.' C. Pop. 1418. 

Colfax, a post-village, cap. of Whitman co., Wash. Ter. 

Colfax, a township of Dunn co., Wis. Pop. 233. 

Colfax (Schuyler), an American statesman, born in 
the city of New York Mar. 23, 1823, was a grandson of Gen. 
William Colfax, who commanded Washington’s life-guards. 
In 1836 he removed with his mother, who was then a widow, 
to Northern Indiana. He settled at South Bend, and studied 
law, and became in 1845 editor of the “St. Joseph Valley 
Register,” a Whig paper issued at South Bend. In 1850 ho 
was a member of the convention which formed a new con¬ 
stitution for Indiana, and he opposed the clause that pro¬ 
hibited colored men from settling in that State. As a Whig 
candidate for Congress he was defeated in 1851, but was 
elected in 1854, was six times re-elected, and continued to 
represent that district until 1869. In 1856 he made an 
eloquent speech in Congress on the subject of the conflict 
in Kansas. He was chosen Speaker of the House of Rep¬ 
resentatives in Dec., 1863. During the civil war he was a 
friend and confidential adviser of President Lincoln. He 
performed a journey across the continent to California in 
1865, and was again elected Speaker of the House about the 
end of that year. He gained a high reputation as a pre¬ 
siding officer, and was the most popular Speaker of the 
House since Henry Clay. In 1867 he was chosen Speaker 
for the third time. In May, 1868, he was nominated as 
candidate for the office of Vice-President of the U. S. by the 
Republicans, who at the same time nominated Gen. Grant 
for the presidency. They were elected in Nov., 1868, re¬ 
ceiving 214 electoral votes out of 294, which was the whole 
number. 

Colhoun' (Edmund R.), U. S. N., born May 6,1821, in 
Pennsylvania. Entered the navy as a midshipman April 1, 
1839, became a passed midshipman in 1845, a lieutenant 
in 1861, a commander in 1862, and a captain in 1869. He 
served on the E. coast of Mexico during the Mexican war, 
commanded the steamer Hunchback at the capture of 
Roanoke Island and Newbern, N. C., in the spring of 1862, 
and was in several engagements with batteries on Black 
Water River, Va., during the fall of that year. In refer¬ 
ence to the fight at Roanoke Island, Commander Murray 
in his official report of Feb. 8, 1862, says: “The Hunch¬ 
back, Acting-Lieutenant Colhoun, took a position very 
near the batteries, and sustained considerable damage from 
the fire of the enemy, which she is now repairing. During 
the whole of the engagement, and in spite of her injuries, 
she maintained her proximity to the enemy, to his great ap¬ 
parent embarrassment and to the admiration of the other 
ships.” And in his report to Rear-Admiral Lee of the 
heavy fighting on the Black Water, Lieutenant-Commander 
Flusser writes : “ I was well supported. Colhoun and 
French both did their duty.” He commanded the monitor 
Weehawken during the summer and fall of 1863 in her 
various engagements with the forts and batteries of Charles¬ 
ton harbor. On the 7th of Sept., 1863, while going into 
action, the Weehawken grounded, and in this perilous situ¬ 
ation remained for twenty-four hours, exposed to the fire 
of Fort Moultrie. Captain Colhoun’s conduct on this oc¬ 
casion is thus highly commended by Rear-Admiral Dahl- 
gren in his report of Sept. 8, 1863: “ Captain Colhoun has, 
in my opinion, more than compensated for the misfortune 
of getting aground by the handsome manner in which he 
has retorted upon the enemy, and defended the glorious 
flag that floats above him. At 11.30 A. m. I telegraphed to 
him, ‘ Well done, Weehawken ! Don’t give up the ship.’ 
His vessel is now off, and the crews of the other moni¬ 
tors cheered spontaneously as he passed. I commend 
Captain Colhoun, his officers, and men to the notice of the 
department.” Captain Colhoun was in both the Fort Fisher 
fights, and for “ his energy, bravery, and untiring zeal ” 
was recommended for promotion by Rear-Admiral Porter 
in his “commendatory despatch ” of Jan. 28, 1865. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Col'ic [Lat. collect; Fr. colique; from the Gr. kojAikos, 
“pertaining to the colon ”],• a term applied to diseases at¬ 
tended with severe pain of the abdomen ; its supposed par¬ 
ticular connection with the large intestine is not always cer¬ 
tain. The disease, anciently called the “colic passion” 
(Latin, colica pam’o), is now generally believed to be spas- 





















COLIGNY—COLLEGE. 


1019 


moclic in character, and to bo caused, at least in part, by 
irregular contractions of the muscular coat of the intestines. 
This complaint arises from various causes and exhibits dif¬ 
ferent symptoms. It is sometimes attended with constipa¬ 
tion, and ceases when the regular action of the bowels is 
restored. A good remedy in such cases is a dose of castor 
oil (about one ounce for an adult), with thirty or thirty- 
five drops of laudanum. Warm baths and fomentations 
are often necessary. When colic resists mild and simple 
remedies, medical assistance should be procured, for colic 
is closely allied, as a symptom, to several severe and dan¬ 
gerous diseases. Painters’ colic arises from the absorp¬ 
tion of lead into the system, and therefore attacks per¬ 
sons employed in lead-mines or using preparations in 
which lead is used. This latter disease is often called colica 
Ptctonuni, or “ colic of the Piotones,” the latter being the 
ancient name ot the inhabitants of Poitou, where this dis¬ 
ease was once common. Revised by Willard Parker. 

Coligny, de (Gaspard), an eminent French admiral 
and Huguenot, was born at Chatillon-sur-Loing Feb. 16, 
1517. He served with distinction at the battle of Oerisoles 
in 1544, and became admiral of France in 1552. In 1557 
he was taken prisoner by the Spaniards at Saint-Quentin. 
lie was the second in command of the Protestant army in 
the civil war which began in 1562, and when the prince of 
Conde was killed at Jarnac in 1569 he succeeded him as 
commander-in-chief. The war was suspended in 1570 by 
a treaty of peace, in which the court acted a treacherous 
part. Coligny went to Paris to attend the marriage of 
Henry of Navarre in Aug., 1572, and was received with 
feigned kindness by Charles IX. He was wounded in the 
street by a partisan of the duke of Guise, and was killed, 
two days later (Aug. 24), in the general massacre of St. 
Bartholomew. (See Perault, “Vie do Coligni;” Bran- 
tome, “Discours sur l’Amiral de Ch&tillon;” Dufey, 
“ Coligny, Histoire Franfaise,” 4 vols., 1824.) 

Coli'ma, a state of the Mexican republic, on the 
western coast. Area, 2392 square miles. The interior is 
mountainous, the volcano Pico de Colima being the high¬ 
est point (10,800 feet); the plains are fertile, and pro¬ 
duce sugar, rice, cacao, cotton, and tobacco. Capital, Coli¬ 
ma. Pop. in 1871, 48,649. 

Colima, a town of the Mexican republic, capital of 
the state of Colima, is about 250 miles W. of Mexico. It 
is situated in a fertile plain. Its port is on the Pacific 
Ocean, about 30 miles S. W. of Colima. Pop. 31,000. 

Colise'um, or Colosse'um [supposed to have taken 
its name from a colossal statue of Nero which stood near 
the Flavian Amphitheatre], a name of the Flavian Amphi¬ 
theatre in Rome, now one of the most magnificent ruins in 
the world. (See Amphitheatre.) 

Col'lamer (Jacob), LL.D., an American lawyer and 
Senator, born at Troy, N. Y., in 1792. He emigrated to 
Vermont in his youth, graduated in 1810 at the University 
of Vermont, was admitted to the bar in 1812, and became 
eminent in his profession. He was a judge of the su¬ 
preme court of Vermont from 1833 to 1841, was elected a 
member of Congress in 1843, 1844, and 1846, and was ap¬ 
pointed postmaster-general by President Taylor in Mar., 
1849. In July, 1850, he resigned in consequence of the 
death of Taylor. He was elected a U. S. Senator in 1854, 
and re-elected in 1860. Died Nov. 9, 1865. 

Collarino. See Astragal. 

Collat'eral Security, an additional and separate 
security given for the repayment of borrowed money or for 
the performance of an obligation. A person who borrows 
money often gives a promissory note signed by himself, and 
deposits in the hands of the lender a note or notes signed by 
another party, or other property, such as stocks of corpora¬ 
tions, or even tangible chattels. These collateral notes or 
other items of property are to be returned if the loan is repaid. 

Colla'tion [from the Lat. confero, collatum, to “ bring 
together ”]. This is a doctrine of the civil or Roman law 
whereby an heir returns property that he has already re¬ 
ceived to the estate under which he claims to receive his 
share, so as to make it a part of the fund for distribution, 
or, in technical language, of the succession. It resembles 
the doctrine of advancement as applied in the common 
law of England in case of intestacy. An important rule 
is that an heir is not bound to make collation if he does 
not choose to share in the estate. The doctrine of colla¬ 
tion is not applied to the case of purchases by an heir for a 
valuable consideration, but simply to that portion of the 
estate which he has received in advance of his share. 

Collea'ta, a post-township of Clay co., Ala. Pop. 411. 

Col'lect [Lat. collecta], a term applied to certain 
short prayers in church liturgies adapted to particular 
days or occasions, perhaps because of the brevity of such 


prayers, tho matter of the epistle and gospel being collected 
into the collect of the day. The word is thought by some 
to have originated from an ancient practice of the minister 
collecting the previous devotions into a brief prayer at tho 
end of the service; accordingly, one of tho service-books 
of the ancient Catholic Church was called “ Collectarium.” 
According to others, all Christian assemblies were once 
called collecta, which term came to be limited to the pray¬ 
ers offered up in such meetings. Some of the collects used 
in the Anglican Church are taken from the old Roman Mis¬ 
sal, and were probably, to a very considerable extent, tho 
composition of Saint Jerome. 

Col lege [Lat. collegium, an “association,” from c ollega, 
a “partner;” akin to the word colligo, to “collect”]. A 
college was originally any association of men for some 
common purpose. In ancient Rome there were colleges of 
tribunes, of quaestors, and of other officials for political 
purposes ; of various classes of priests for religious objects; 
and of craftsmen in the several departments of industry 
for their common advantage. In modern nations the term 
college has been applied to organizations for a great variety 
of purposes. The most familiar use of the word, aside from 
its connection with educational institutions, is in the 
phrases “College of Cardinals” at Rome, and “College 
of Electors” for President and Vice-President of the U. S. 

But for several centuries the name college has been given 
almost exclusively to institutions for promoting the higher 
education. A distinguished writer thus explains this use 
of the name: “ A college, in the modern sense of that 
word, was an institution which arose within a university— 
probably within that of Paris or Oxford first—being in¬ 
tended either as a kind of boarding-school or for the sup¬ 
port of scholars destitute of means, who were here to live 
under particular supervision. By degrees it became more 
and more the custom that teachers should be attached to 
these establishments. And as they grew in favor they were 
resorted to by persons of means who paid for their board; 
j and this to such a degree that at one time the colleges in¬ 
cluded nearly all the members of the University of Paris. 
In the English universities the college may have been first 
established by a master, who gathered pupils around him, 
for whose board and instruction he provided. As his 
scholars grew in number, he associated with himself other 
teachers, who thus acquired the name of fellows. Thus it 
naturally happened that the government of colleges, even 
of those which were founded by the benevolence of pious 
persons, was in the hands of a principal called by various 
names, such as rector, president, provost, or master, and 
of fellows, all of whom were resident within the walls of 
the same edifices where the students lived. When chari¬ 
table munificence went so far as to provide for the support 
of a greater number of fellows than was needed, some of 
them were entrusted, as tutors, with the instruction of the 
undergraduates, while others performed various services 
within the college or passed a life of learned leisure.” 

The two great universities of England are now composed 
of several colleges, each of which has an organization very 
similar to that above described. Every college has its 
separate government, and all are united in the common 
government of the university. Nearly all the students of 
the university connect themselves with some college, and 
most of the instruction is provided by the colleges, but all 
degrees are conferred by the university. The original idea 
of the college was a community where students should live 
together in common, and the provision for their instruction 
was, in many cases at least, a later addition. 

When the early settlers of New England founded the 
first college in the New World, they took as their model the 
institution with which many of them had become familiar 
during their university-life at Oxford or Cambridge. They 
fixed the period of study at four years, and prescribed a 
uniform course of studies. A president, a board of fellows, 
and a bursar (i. e. treasurer) were to reside at the college, 
and to be charged with its government and management. 
In the course of time the board of president and fellows 
came to exercise government without instruction, and the 
fellows ceased to be resident at the college. In this way, 
probably, the term “fellow” came to have its peculiar and 
inappropriate meaning in connection with the government 
of a college. 

In the external organization of American colleges there 
is a general adherence to one controlling idea. An incor¬ 
poration, usually organized under a special charter, is en¬ 
trusted with the control of the college property, and is 
authorized to appoint all instructors, to make laws and 
regulations for the government of the college, and to con¬ 
fer degrees. The members of the corporation are variously 
styled fellows, trustees, regents, or managers. In some 
cases the board is self-perpetuating, the members being 
authorized to select their own associates and successors. 
In other cases particularly in the State universities, the 

















1020 COLLEGE. 


appointing power is vested in some branch of the State 
government. In others, still, the graduates of the college 
elect some fixed portion of the corporation. In many 
instances the governor and other Stato officials are ex- 
officio members of the corporation. 

The distinction between a college and a university has 
always been maintained in England and elsewhere in Eu¬ 
rope, but in the U. S. this distinction has been generally 
disregarded, and the moro comprehensive name university 
has frequently been given to an institution hardly worthy 
to be called a college. Most of the so-called universities 
in this country are in no respect different from colleges, 
while some colleges might properly claim the appellation 
university. 

Many of the American colleges, including most of those 
founded before the present century, were designed espe¬ 
cially to train men for the ministry. The motto of Har¬ 
vard University clearly shows this design. The course of 
study in the earlier colleges was arranged with reference to 
this leading purpose. A century ago the studies pursued 
were Latin (which was required to be the spoken language 
among the students), tho Greek Testament, and mathe¬ 
matics of very limited range; while logic, metaphysics, 
rhetoric, oratory, and divinity received special attention in 
the latter part of the course. In the earlier part of the 
eighteenth century this last-mentioned class of studies oc¬ 
cupied the largest portion of the student’s time. Towards 
the close of that century increasing attention was given to 
natural philosophy and astronomy. Modern languages 
and physical and political sciences had no place in the 
curriculum until several years of the present century had 
passed, and history has been quite recently introduced. 
Until about the year 1840, Greek, Latin, and mathematics 
formed the principal part of what was termed a liberal ed¬ 
ucation. Chemistry, mineralogy, and geology had gained 
a recognition, but were kept chiefly in the background. 
About the time referred to there became manifest a grow¬ 
ing dissatisfaction with the established routine of studies, 
and many began to inquire whether some improvement 
upon that routine was not both desirable and practicable. 
All students, whatever might be the variety in their tastes, 
their acquirements, or their abilities, were required to pur¬ 
sue the same unvarying course, and to advance by fixed 
classes at a uniform rate of progress. The question began 
to be asked whether some variation from the prescribed 
routine might not profitably be introduced, and whether it 
was expedient for all to pursue the same course, without 
regard to their proposed future occupations. The develop¬ 
ment of the physical sciences, and the increasing demand 
for engineers and for men able to apply science to the 
affairs of practical life, induced many to seek a different 
kind of education from that given in the existing colleges. 
The studies long pursued were represented as too abstract, 
too little connected with the requirements of the present 
age. 

Various methods were proposed for meeting the evident 
demands of the times. Some favored the transformation 
of the existing colleges by substituting new kinds of studies 
for those so long pursued. Some proposed to add new stud¬ 
ies to the old in the same institutions. Others would have 
parallel courses of study, with liberty to each student to 
select from these courses that which most accorded with his 
tastes or his proposed occupation. Still others would have 
new colleges founded expressly and exclusively for the 
“new education.” Each of these methods except the first 
has been practically tried. In no case has the old curricu¬ 
lum been cast aside. It meets the wants of a very large 
class of students, and its utility has been too long and too 
thoroughly tested. And yet it was no longer sufficient. 
New subjects of interesting and profitable study had risen 
to notice; new sciences had been created within a half cen¬ 
tury. There was no good reason why these should not 
have a recognized place in the arrangements for the higher 
education. Young men were interested in them, and saw 
them to be useful and profitable. The change was inevita¬ 
ble, and it has come forward with increasing power during 
the last thirty years. 

The change first proposed was that of introducing elect¬ 
ive studies. The student was to choose among certain 
studies such as he preferred. This selection was liable to 
disregard system, and the studies chosen in this way could 
hardly constitute a course of study. Much knowledge of 
the chosen branches might be acquired, but it would hardly 
constitute a thorough or liberal education. This kind of 
elective system, instead of elevating a college, tended 
rather to depress the standard of learning within it, and 
to render it less useful to the community, and practically 
it did not attract an increasing number of students, as was 
anticipated. A system not unlike this was established in 
the University of Virginia when it was opened to students 
in 1825. This entire freedom in the choice of studies was 


a favorite idea of Thomas Jefferson, and the last years of 
his life were devoted to the establishment of that univer¬ 
sity, in which his idea should be practically tested. Each 
student pursues the studies of one or more of the “schools” 
of the university, and continues to do so as long and as far 
as he chooses. Degrees are given in each school separately 
to those only who pass the prescribed examination. Com¬ 
paratively few of the large number of students take any 
degree. The amount of knowledge imparted is doubtless 
large, but much of it is in studies which at some colleges 
are considered preparatory. 

Another method of promoting variety and comprehen¬ 
siveness in college studies has been that of arranging sev¬ 
eral courses of study in the same institution, and permit¬ 
ting each pupil, after due consideration and with the best 
attainable advice, to select that course which is adapted to 
his tastes and purposes. It is claimed for this method that 
it allows each to study that in which he is interested, and 
for which he expects soon to have some practical use, and 
that this greater interest and immediate utility will ensure 
earnestness and thoroughness of study. At the same time, 
as the choice is to be made from among several courses of 
study, and not from isolated studies, the education thus 
attained is claimed to have a good degree of unity and of 
completeness in the chosen department of knowledge. This 
method may be regarded as an application to education of 
the principle of the division of labor. One essential differ¬ 
ence between the so-called “old” and “new” educations is 
that the former lays the principal stress on mental devel¬ 
opment, culture, and discipline, which may afterwards be 
directed into such course of active life as shall be chosen, 
while the latter undertakes the immediate preparation of 
the student for his intended occupation, and makes the ac¬ 
quirement of mental discipline and culture merely an inci¬ 
dental result of the studies proposed. The old way pro¬ 
posed first to discipline the mind, then to teach it to use 
its powers; the new way proposes to do both at once—to 
acquire the discipline while learning to do, and actually 
beginning to do, that which is to occupy the life. This 
latter way accords with the natural desire of young men to 
enter early into the activities and excitements of life. In 
the restless onward movement of this New World this way 
of preparation for life-work will inevitably attract large 
numbers. In the newer States, especially, the impulse is to 
do, rather than to spend years in learning to do. Most of 
those States have established State universities, the general 
government having given to them large tracts of land for 
their endowment. But few of these institutions have as 
yet become prominent, though their prospective resources, 
growth, and influence are full of promise. In these uni¬ 
versities there are usually several projected courses of 
study, with the design of providing for all the various edu¬ 
cational wants of the commonwealth. As the institutions 
are still young and undeveloped, they have not yet shown 
how much they will be able to do. Each of them adopts 
its own method of classification and instruction, but all 
agree in the endeavor to include a very wide range of 
studies. This kind of “university system” has slight re¬ 
semblance to the systems pursued in the universities of 
England and Germany. It has grown out of t)je peculiar¬ 
ities and necessities of the American people, and has been 
adopted because it is believed to be suited to their needs. 
No well-adapted system can be transferred, ready made, 
from one country or age to another. All American col¬ 
leges are modifications of the first college at Cambridge, 
but all of them differ from that and from each other. And 
so the many young universities endeavor to suit their in¬ 
structions to the present wants of those who resort to 
them. The chief of those wants is a speedy and econom¬ 
ical preparation for some active employment. This implies 
an almost exclusive attention to what pertains to that em¬ 
ployment. He who proposes to be an engineer studies 
engineering, but wastes no time upon Latin or Greek. He 
who is to be engaged in mining acquaints himself with 
chemistry, geology, mineralogy, and metallurgy. This 
attention to some particular department of knowledge is 
one of the present peculiarities of technical and scientific 
education in this country. As no man can acquire all 
knowledge, each becomes a specialist in his own depart¬ 
ment, and no one “takes all knowledge for his province.” 
Not only in the newer States, but in the older ones also, 
this method is pursued. The older colleges—even the old¬ 
est of all—are swerved from their former courses by this 
powerful impulse of the times. The past four years (since 
1869) have witnessed the introduction of extended elective 
courses into, the ancient university at Cambridge. Nearly 
all the older colleges have long given their students a lim¬ 
ited range of elective studies during the last half of their 
course. But this recent innovation at Harvard extends 
the elective element through three-fourths of the whole 
term of study. What the effect will be upon the future 














COLLEGE. 


career and influence of that venerable institution it is 
yet too soon to affirm. This movement for giving change 
and variety to college studies has even reached that very 
ancient and conservative institution, the University of 
Oxford in England. For generations and centuries classic 
learning— i. e. Latin and Greek—has there reigned su¬ 
preme, but this supremacy of the long past has at length 
been broken. Early in 1872 the statutes of the university 
respecting examinations were amended by the proper au¬ 
thority in such a manner as to include mathematics, natural 
science, jurisprudence, modern history, and theology among 
the branches in which candidates for honors and degrees 
shall be examined, and to give the candidates a wide range 
of both subjects and authors in which they may propose 
to pass examination. The latitude of election is even 
greater than in most American institutions. 

Besides the introduction of elective courses of study into 
many of the colleges and universities of the U. S., there 
have been established other colleges for exclusively scien¬ 
tific and practical studies. Some of these have been or¬ 
ganized as separate departments of existing colleges; 
others are wholly distinct from other institutions. Of the 
first class, the Sheffield Scientific School, connected with 
Yale College, is by common consent the foremost. Of the 
second, the agricultural and industrial colleges endowed by 
Congressional grants, and established since 1862, are the 
most important. 

The changes in collegiate studies within thirty years 
past are due very largely to the rapid development of the 
physical sciences. Material things, their qualities, prop¬ 
erties, and relations, have been studied more thoroughly 
and effectively by the present generation than by all that 
had gone before. In former times science has been em¬ 
ployed largely upon speculative or purely intellectual sub¬ 
jects. But the science of nature, as distinct from the 
science of man or of mind, now claims the chief attention. 
And yet the older science has never been abandoned. 
Vast as is the domain which invites the examination of 
the physical scientist, and widely as he may extend his 
investigations, there is another domain which they cannot 
touch. The new education has asserted its right to recog¬ 
nition, and that right has been conceded; but the old edu¬ 
cation-has not been abandoned, and never can be, for the 
material world is but a part of that with which human 
knowledge is concerned. For the time, physical sciences 
are most conspicuous, and they may even appear to super¬ 
sede all other branches of knowledge. New colleges and 
universities may give them pre-eminence, and may set aside 
old themes of thought and study as obsolete. Relatively, 
these sciences will undoubtedly continue to be more im¬ 
portant than in former ages; but the spirit of adaptation 
to the changing wants of successive periods, which is now 
evident in the oldest and most conservative universities, 
will unquestionably adhere to the colleges of the future. 
No man can presume to say what developments of know¬ 
ledge are yet to appear, but whatever they shall be, the 
educated men of coming generations will modify their 
views of education in accordance with them. When the 
States noy young shall have become older, it is reasonable 
to believe that increase of wealth and leisure will bring 
increased desire for thoroughness and completeness of 
knowledge, and that the colleges and universities of those 
States will provide for that more perfect education. Times 
and opinions will change, and colleges will change with 
them. There will be hereafter distinctively American uni¬ 
versities. They will be unlike those of any former time or 
country, but will be of and for the American people. 

The necessity which now compels scholars to resort to 
Europe to complete their studies will not always continue. 
The beginning has already been made of post-graduate 
courses of study, in which students shall be encouraged to 
perfect themselves in their education, taking the requisite 
time therefor, instead of hastening to put their half- 
acquired education to practical use and pecuniary profit, 
and contenting themselves with a superficial knowledge of 
that which time and study would enable them to acquire 
thoroughly. The establishment of fellowships for the sup¬ 
port of post-graduate students through a prolonged and 
thorough course of study has in it the promise of rich 
results to American scholarship in future generations. 

There have been very marked changes in the government 
and discipline of colleges since the beginning was made at 
Cambridge in 1636. At first, as was inevitable, the mode 
of governing them was an exact imitation of that prevail¬ 
ing in the English universities at the beginning of the 
seventeenth century. This mode was but slightly modified 
till the Revolution. When the colonies became States, the 
change was felt through all their institutions. Until the 
spirit of liberty animated the colonists to shake off their 
dependency the fines, the tasks, the bondage of the lower 
classes to the higher, and tho corporal punishments of 


1021 


English colleges were retained. The students were doubt¬ 
less younger, on the average, in those early times than now, 
but the sentiment of authority was also stronger, and the 
practice of severity far more common. It was not uncom¬ 
mon for an offending student to be condemned to have his 
ears boxed by the president! The change in this respect 
is certainly an improvement. Regularity of attendance is 
still secured generally by a system of monitorships for 
marking or recording the presence or absence of students 
at public exercises. In the so-called university system 
attempts are now made to dispense with all such records of 
attendance, and to leave each one to follow his own choice 
in this matter, on the assumption that a willingness to be 
present will control all who have any desire for learning. 
The voluntary systems of the Old-World universities are 
appealed to as proof that compulsory attendance is unne¬ 
cessary. Whether the altered conditions involved in the 
difference of age and mental discipline do not render this 
appeal inappropriate, experience will determine. 

The custom of recording the degree of merit in each 
recitation of every student prevails generally in American 
colleges. One of the youngest of the so-called universities 
announces its utter rejection of this custom, and its reliance 
upon the love of learning rather than the spirit of emula¬ 
tion, or the desire for college rank and honors, as the lead¬ 
ing motive for scholarship. This, too, is an innovation, the 
excellence or defect of which must be decided by experience. 
College examinations, from that of candidates for admission 
till the final trial of those about to graduate, are now con¬ 
ducted usually in writing, the same test being applied to 
an entire class at the same time. The justice of this 
method is so obvious that the admissibility of any other 
can hardly be considered. And yet the first examination 
of this kind in an American college was held not far from 
1850. 

The question whether women shall not be admitted to all 
the privileges of the long-established colleges has of late 
excited much interest. That they should have an oppor¬ 
tunity for as thorough and extensive education as the other 
sex is now very generally conceded. That they have mental 
ability fully equal no teacher of children can doubt. The 
establishment of colleges expressly for them, where they 
are trained in the highest studies that men pursue, is proof 
that their claims to this highest education are practically 
admitted. But the question is, Shall they be admitted into 
the same colleges with men ? The original theory of a 
college, as a place where students should live together in 
common as one family, necessarily excluded them. But 
since the present idea of a college is essentially different 
from the original one, there is now a possibility of so mod¬ 
ifying the old colleges as to admit women to their privileges. 
The State universities, and some other colleges of recent 
origin, provide for their admission. The same instructors, 
library, and apparatus can serve for both classes of students 
as well as for one. There is a claim of justice upon the 
State universities not to limit their benefits to one half of 
the people, where all have equal rights. When colleges 
were monkish institutions they were necessarily for men 
alone. But men and women are associated in all other 
periods of life ; why not, therefore, while they are receiving 
their education ? There must be some differences, for women 
cannot be expected to build railroads or to manage coal or 
iron mines, but the principal part of education may be the 
same for both sexes. The knowledge to be acquired is the 
same; the difference is only in certain uses or applications 
of it. 

The number of students in American colleges, and the 
number of institutions to which that name may properly 
be given, it is not easy to ascertain. Below is given a 
carefully prepared list of colleges. A perfectly accurate 
list has been repeatedly attempted, but never secured. 
The number of students in some colleges includes those in 
preparatory departments, who are not properly college 
students. The number who propose to receive the degree 
of Bachelor of Arts, according to the usage of former 
times, is relatively smaller than it was a generation or two 
ago. The changes in the studies and the objects of study 
within a few years—of which this article has given a brief 
outline—explains this admitted fact. The students havo 
chosen a different course, because the times have demanded 
it. They have done what was set before them to be done. 
There is no less devotion to learning now than in former 
times, but a different kind of learning is required of many. 
Knowledge is wider and deeper and more various than in 
any previous age, and is destined to grasp truths and prin¬ 
ciples yet unthought of. American colleges will hold fast 
all old truths, and will welcome and appropriate and utilize 
all that is new as fast and as far as it is proved to be truth. 
All kinds of truth will’be accepted, for all truths in their 
foundation and their origin aro ono. 

John G. Baird Sec. Conn. Board of Education. 















1022 


COLLEGE. 


Table I .—Colleges of Ike U. S. incorporated and empowered by Charter to confer Degrees in Arts. 


Name. 


University of Alabama. 

Howard College. 

East Alabama College. 

Southern University. 

Talladega College. 

St. John’s College.. 

Cane Hill College.;... 

University of California. 

Pacific Methodist College. 

University College. 

University of the Pacific. 

St. Augustine College. 

San Rafael College., 

Sonoma College.. 

College of California.. 

Petaluma College. 

Hesperian College.. 

Colorado College. 

Yale College... 

Wesleyan University. 

Trinity College. 

Brandywine College. 

Delaware Agricultural College., 

Delaware College. 

Emory College. 

University of Georgia. 

Mercer University. 

Oglethorpe University. 

Marshall College. 

Atlanta University (colored). 

Masonic College. 

Bowdon College. 

Wheaton College. 

Lombard University. 

Knox College. 

Abingdon College. 

Illinois Wesleyan University.... 

Eureka College. 

Illinois Soldiers’ College. 

North-western University. 

Monmouth College. 

Jubilee College. 

Illinois College. 

Shurtleff College. 

McKendree College. 

Southern Illinois College. 

Lincoln University. 

Chicago University.. 

Illinois Industrial University..., 

Quincy College. 

Marshall College. 

Augustana College. 

Westfield College. 

Lake Forest College. 

North-west College. 

Howard College. 

Mendota College. 

Blackburn University. 

Freeport College. 

Indiana University. 

Indiana Asbury University. 

Moore’s Hill College. 

North-western Christian Univ.. 

Wabash College. 

Union Christian College. 

Earlham College. 

Brookville College. 

Hartsville University. 

Hanover College. 

Rockport College. 

Purdue College. 

Fort Wayne College. 

De Pauwe College. 

Concordia College. 

Salem College. 

Howard College. 

Simpson Centenary College. 

Iowa State University. 

Norwegian Lutheran College. 

Central University of Iowa. 

Cornell College. 

Iowa Wesleyan University. 

Burlington University. 

Griswold College. 

Whittier College. 

Iowa College.... 

Upper Iowa University. 

Iowa Lutheran College... 

Washington College. 

Tabor College. 

Fairfield College. 

Humboldt College. 

Oskaloosa College. 

Washburn College. 

Baker University. 

State University. 

Irving College. 

State Agricultural College. 

Lincoln University. 

Ottawa College. 

Manhattan College. 

Lecompton College. 

Hope College. 

Highland University. 


Location. 


Tuscaloosa, Ala. 

Marion, “ . 

Auburn, “ . 

Greensborough, Ala. 
Talladega, “ . 

Little Rock, Ark. 

Boonsborough, Ark. 

Berkeley, Cal. 

Santa Rosa, Cal. 

San Francisco, Cal... 
San Jos6, “ ... 

Benicia, “ ... 

San Rafael, “ .... 

Sonoma, “ .... 

Vacaville, “ .... 

Petaluma, “ .... 

Woodland, “ .... 

Golden City, Col. 
New Haven, Conn.... 

Middletown, “ . 

Hartford, “ .. 

Brandywine, Del. 

Newark, “. 

Newark, “.. 

Oxford, Ga. 

Athens, “. 

Macon, “. 

Atlanta, “. 

Griffin, . 

Atlanta, “. 

Covington, Ga. 

Bowdon, “. 

Wheaton, Ill. 

Galesburg, Ill. 

u <<’ 

Abingdon, “. 

Bloomington, Ill. 

Eureka, “. 

Fulton, “. 

Evanston, “. 

Monmouth, “. 

Robin’s Nest, “. 

Jacksonville, “. 

Upper Alton, “. 

Lebanon, “ . 

Carbondale, “. 

Lincoln, “ . 

Chicago, “ . 

Urbana, “. 

Quincy, “. 

Henry, “. 

Paxton, “. 

Westfield, “. 

Lake Forest, “ 
Naperville, “. 


Mendota, “. 

Carlinville, “. 

Freeport, “. 

Bloomington, Ind. 

Greencastle, “ . 

Moore’s Hill, “ . 

Indianapolis, “ . 

Crawfordsville,“ . 

Merom, “ . 

Near Richmond, Ind., 
Brookville, “ ... 

Hartsville, “ ... 

Hanover, “ ... 

Rockport, “ ... 

Lafayette, “ ... 

Fort Wayne, “ ... 

New Albany, “ ... 

Fort Wayne, “ ... 

Bourbon, “ ... 

Kokoma, “ ... 

Indianola, la. 

Iowa City, “ .. 

Decorah, “ . 

Pella, “. 

Mount Vernon, la. 

Mount Pleasant, “. 

Burlington, “. 

Davenport, “. 

Salem, “. 

Grinnell, “. 

Fayette, “. 

Albion, “. 


Tabor, “.. 

Fairfield, “ ., 

Humboldt, “ .. 

Oskaloosa, “ .. 

Topeka, Kan. 

Baldwin City, Kan. 
Lawrence, “ . 

Irving, “ . 

Manhattan, “ . 

Topeka, “ . 

Ottawa, “ 


Highland, 


Denomination. 


None. 

Baptist . 

Meth. Episcopal. 


Am. Miss. Ass. 

Masonic. 

Cum. Presbyterian.. 

State . 

Meth. Epis., South.. 

Presbyterian. 

Meth. Episcopal. 

Prot. Episcopal. 


Baptist. 


Christian 


Congregational... 
Meth. Episcopal.. 
Prot. Episcopal... 


State . 

Meth. Epis., South- 

State .. 

Baptist.;. 

Presbyteriau. 

Baptist... 


Organ¬ 

ized. 


None. 

Congregational... 

Universalist. 

Congregational... 

Christian. 

Meth. Episcopal.. 
Christian. 


Meth. Episcopal. 

U nitedPresby terian 

Prot. Episcopal. 

Congregational. 

Baptist. 

Meth. Episcopal. 

Cum. Presbyterian.. 
Baptist. 


Meth. Episcopal.. 


Lutheran 
U. Breth. 


in Christ 


Evangelical Asso.... 

Lutheran. 

Presbyterian. 

ii 

None. 

Meth. Episcopal. 

U U 

Christian. 

Presbyterian. 

Christian. 

Friends (Orthodox) 

Meth. Episcopal. 

United Brethren. 

Presbyterian. 

Meth. Episcopal. 

Meth. Episcopal. 

CC U 

Lutheran. 

Baptist.. 

None. 

Meth. Episcopal. 

None. 

Lutheran . 

Baptist. 

Meth. Episcopal. 

U U 

Baptist. 

Prot. Episcopal. 

Friends. 

Congregational. 

Meth. Episcopal. 

Lutheran. 

Congregational. 

Lutheran. 

None. 

Christian. 

Congregational. 

Meth. Episcopal. 

State . 

State.. 

Presbyterian. 


Presbyterian. 


1831 

1837 


1869 

1857 
1868 
1855 
1861 
1859 
1852 
1868 

1869 

1858 

1870 
1866 


1700 

1831 

1823 

1833 

1870 

1838 

1801 

1838 

1835 

1854 
1869 

1856 

1855 

1857 
1841 

1855 
1857 
1852 

1867 
1854 

1856 
1847 
1830 
1835 
1828 
1856 
1866 

1859 

1868 

1854 

1855 

1860 
1867 

1861 


1867 

1872 

1828 

1835 

1854 

1854 

1834 

1858 

1859 
1853 
1851 
1853 


1846 

1850 

1850 

1870 

1869 

1867 

1860 

1861 

1854 

1857 

1855 
1853 

1859 
1867 
1848 

1858 

1860 

1866 

1858 

1869 

1865 

1857 

1864 

1863 


1859 


President. 


Nathaniel T. Lupton, A. M. 

Col. J. T. Murfee. 

Rev. A. S. Andrews, D. D. 

A. A. Salford (Prin.). 

O. C. Gray, A. M. 

Rev. F. R. Earle, A. M. 

Daniel C. Gilman, A. M. 

A. L. Fitzgerald, A. M. 

Rev. Wm. Alexander, D. D. 

Rev. A. S. Gibbons, A. M. 

Rev. William P. Tucker, A. M. 
Alfred Bates. 

Rev. W. N. Cunningham. 

M. Baily, A. M. 

Mark Baily, A. M. 

J. N. Pendegast. 

Rev. Noah Porter, D. D., LL.D. 
Rev. J. Cummings, D. D.. LL.D. 
Rev. A. Jackson, D. D., LL.D. 


William II. Purnell, A. M. 

Rev. O. L. Smith, D. D. 

Rev. A. A. Lipscomb, D. D., LL.D. 
Rev. A. J. Battle. 

Rev. David Wills, D. D. 

J. M. Bonnell. 

E. A. Ware, A. M. 

Rev. F. II. M. Henderson, A. B. 

Rev. J. Blanchard. A. M. 

Rev. William Livingston, A. M. 

J. W. Butler, A. M. 

Rev. O. S. Munsell, D. D. 

A. M. Weston (acting). 

L. H. Potter. 

Rev. C. II. Fowler, D. D. 

Rev. David A. Wallace, D. D., LL.D, 
Rt. Rev. H. P. Whitehouse. 

Rev. J. M. Sturtevant, D. D. 

Rev. A. A. Kendrick, D. D. 

Rev. Robert Allyn, D. D. 

Rev. J. C. Bowdon, D D. * 

Rev. J. C. Burroughs, D. D., LL.D. 

J. M. Gregory, LL.D. 


Rev. T. N. Ilasselquist, D. D. 

Rev. S. B. Allen, A.M. 

Rev. A. A. Smith, A.M. 

Rev. J. W. Corbet, A. M. 

Rev. J. W. Baily, D. D. 

Rev. W. D. F. Lunimis, A. M. 
Rev. Cyrus Nutt, D. D. 

Rev. R. Andrews, D. D. 

Rev. F. A. Hester, D. D. 

Rev. W. F. Black, A. M. 

Rev. Joseph F. Tuttle, D. D. 

Rev. Thomas Holmes, D. D. 
Joseph Moore, A. M. , 

Rev.-Johns, A. M. 

J. W. Scribner, A.M. 

Rev. G. C. Hickman, D. D. 

Rev.-Cully, A. M. 

Richard Owen. 

Rev. Levi Beers, A. B. 

Rev. E. Rowley, D. D. 

Rev. W. Sillier, Ph. B. 

O. W. Miller, A. M. 

John O. Hopkins, A. B. (acting). 
Rev. A. Burns, D. D. 

Rev. George Thacher, D. D. 

Prof. L. Larsen. 

Rev. L. A. Dunn. 

Rev. W. F. King, D. D. 

Rev. John Wheeler, D. D. 

L. S. Wortman, A. B. (Prin.). 

Rev. E. Lounsbery, A. M. 

Henry Dorland. 

Rev. G. F. Magoun, D. D. 
Roderick Norton, A. M. 


Rev. W. M. Brooks, A. M. 
William Brush, A. M. 
Rev. S. II. Taft. 

Rev. P. McVicar, D. D. 
Rev. R. L. Harford, D. D. 
John Fraser, A. M. 

Rev. Jos. Denison, D. D. 


Rev. T. H. Dinsmore, A. M. 

































































































































































































































































































































COLLEGE. 


1023 


Table I .—Colleges of the U. S. incorporated and empowered by Charter to confer Degrees in Arts.— Continued. 


Name. 


Kentucky University. 

Bethel College. 

Berea College. 

Georgetown College. 

Centre College. 

Kentucky College... 

Shelby College. 

Augusta College. 

Bacon College. 

Eminence College. 

Centenary College. 

Louisiana State University. 

Mount Lebanon University. 

Straight University. 

Baton Rouge College. 

Franklin College. 

Leland University. 

Bowdoin College. 

Colby University. 

Bates College. 4 . 

State Agricultural College. 

St. John’s College. 

Washington College. 

St. James’s College. 

West Maryland College. 

Maryland Agricultural College. 

Frederick College. 

Williams College. 

Tuft’s College. 

Amherst College. 

Harvard University. 

Agricultural College. 

Olivet College. 

University of Michigan. 

Kalamazoo College. 

Albion College. 

Hillsdale College. 

Adrian College. 

Hope College.. 

Grand Traverse College. 

University of Minnesota. 

Hamline University. 

Carleton College. 

Mississippi College. 

University of Mississippi. 

Madison College. 

Oakland College. 

Jefferson College. 

Alcorn University (colored). 

Ton gal oo University. 

University of Missouri. 

Washington University. 

William Jewell College. 

Westminster College. 

Jefferson City College. 

Lewis College.. 

Mount Pleasant College. 

Christian College. 

Central College. 

Pardee College. 

College of Missouri. 

Masonic College. 

St. Charles College. 

Lindenwood College. 

McGee College. 

Grand River College. 

Lincoln College. 

Hannibal College. 

Johnson Male and Female College 

St. Paul’s College. 

Bethel College. 

Nebraska State College. 

Congregational College. 

Dartmouth College. 

College of New Jersey. 

Rutgers College. 

Burlington College...... 

St. Lawrence University. 

Alfred University. 

Hamilton College. 

University of Rochester. 

Cornell University. 

Union University.,... 

University of the City of N. York. 

Columbia College. 

Hobart College.. 

Madison University. 

St. Stephen’s College. 

College of the City of New York... 

Martin Luther College. 

Syracuse University. 

Wake Forest College. 

Davidson College. 

University of North Carolina. 

Trinity College. 

Olin College. 

North Carolina College. 

Rutherford Male and Female Col.. 

Santa F6 University. 

Marietta College. 

Western Reserve College. 

Denison University. 

Kenyon College. 

Wittenberg College. 


Location. 

Denomination. 

Organ¬ 

ized. 

President. 

Lexington, Ky. 

Christian . 

1858 

John B. Bowman, A.M. (regent). 

Russellville, Ky. 

Baptist. 

1856 

Noah K. Davis, LL.D. 

Berea, “ . 


1858 

Rev. E. H. Fairchild 

Georgetown, “ . 

Baptist. 

1838 

Rev. B. Manly, D. D. 

Danville, “ . 

Presbyterian. 

1819 

O. Beatty, LL.D. 

Ilarrodsburg, “ . 

Christian. 

1858 

Shelbyville, “ 




Augusta, “ . 

Meth. Episcopal. 



Ilarrodsburg, “ .. 


1836 


Eminence, “ . 


1856 

Prof. W. S. Giltner. 

Jackson, La. 

Meth. Epis., South.. 

1825 

Rev. C. G. Andrews, A. M. 

Baton Rouge, La. 

None. 

1860 

Col. D. F. Boyd. 

Mount Lebanon, La. 

Baptist. 

1853 

New Orleans, “. 

Evangelical. 

1869 

Rev. J. W. Healey, D. D. 

Baton Rouge, “. 


1838 


Opelousas, ~ ' “. 


1839 


New Orleans, “. 

Baptist. 


E. E. S. Taylor, D.D. 

Brunswick, Me. 

Congregational. 

1798 

J. L. Chamberlain, LL.D. 

Waterville, “ . 

Baptist. 

1820 

Rev.-Robbins, D. D. 

Lewiston, “. 

Free-Will Baptist... 

1863 

Rev. A. B. Cheney, D. D. 

Orono, “. 


1865 

Rev. Charles F. Allen, D. D. 

Annapolis, Md. 

State. 

1789 

James M. Garnett, A.M. 

Chestertown, Md. 

44 

1782 

R. C. Berkeley, A. M. 

Washington co., Md. 

Prot. Episcopal. 

1842 

Westminster, “. 

Methodist. 

1868 

Rev. James T. Ward, D. D. * 

Hyattsville, “. 


1856 

Rev. Samuel Regester, D. D. 

Frederick, “. 

State. 

1797 

J. S. Bonsall, A. M. 

Williamstown, Mass. 

Congregational. 

1793 

P. A. Chadbourne, A. M. 

College Hill, “ . 

Universalist. 

1855 

Rev. A. A. Miner, D. D. 

Amherst, “ . 

Congregational. 

1821 

Rev. William A. Stearns, D. D. 

Cambridge, “ . 

None. 

1638 

Charles W. Eliot, LL.D. 

Amherst, “ . 

State. 

1870 

Col. W. S. Clark. 

Olivet, Mich. 

Cong, and Presb. 

1859 

J. II. Hewitt, A. M. 

Ann Arbor, Mich. 

None. 

1841 

J. B. Angell, LL.D. 

Kalamazoo, “ . 

Baptist. 

1855 

Rev. Kendall Brooks, D. D. 

Albion, “ . 

Meth. Episcopal.. 

1860 

George B. Jocelyn, D. D. 

Hillsdale, “ . 

F. Baptist. 

Rev. D. M. Graham, D.D. 

Adrian, “ . 

Meth. Episcopal.. 

1858 

A. II. Lowrie, A. M. 

Holland, “ 



Benzonia, “ 




Minneapolis, Minn. 

State. 

1868 

William W. Folwell, A. M. 

Red Wing, “ . 

Meth. Episcopal. 

1856 

Jabez Brooks, A. M., D. D. 

Northfield, “ . 

Congregational. 

1866 

Rev. J. W. Strong, D. D. 

Clinton, Miss. 

Baptist. 

1851 

Rev. Walter Hillman, A. M. 

Oxford, “ . 

State. 

1848 

Rev. J. A. Waddell, D. D. 

Sharon, “ . 

None. 

1851 

John S. Robinson. 

Oakland, “ . 

Presbyterian. 

1830 

W. L. Breckenridge, D. D. 

Washington, Miss. 


1813 

Jackson, “ . 


1871 

Hon. Henry R. Revels. 

Tongaloo, “ . 


1870 

II. J. Steele (Prim). 

Columbia, Mo. 

State. 

1840 

Daniel Read, LL.D. 

St. Louis, . 

None. 

1857 

Rev. W. G. Eliot, D. D. 

Liberty, “ . 

Baptist. 

1848 

Rev. Thomas Rambant, S. T. D., 1.1. D. 

Fulton, “. 

Presbyterian. 

1852 

Rev. A. L. Rice, D. D. 

Jefferson City, Mo. 

Prot. Episcopal. 

1867 

W. H. D. Hatton. 

Glasgow, *’ . 

Meth. Episcopal. 

1867 

J. C. Hall, A. M. 

Mount Pleasant,“ . 

Baptist. 

1855 


Canton, “ . 

Christian. 



Fayette, “ . 

Meth. Epis., South.. 

1871 

Rev. J. C. Wills, A. M. 

Louisiana, “ 




Kidder, “ 




New Palmyra, “ . 


1S31 


St. Charles, “ . 

Meth. Episcopal. 

1837 


Near St. Charies,“ . 

Presbyterian. 

1858 

French Strother. 

College Mound, “ . 

Cum. Presbyterian.. 

1853 

Rev. J. B. Mitchell, D. D. 

Edinburgh, “ . 


1858 

J. E. Vertrees. 

Greenwood, “ . 

UnitedPresby terian 


Rev. M. M. Brown, A.M. 

Hannibal, “ . 

Meth. Epis., South.. 

1868 

Rev. L. Baier, A. M. 

Macon City, “ . 

Meth. Episcopal. 

....... 

Rev. E. W. Hall, A. M. 

Palmyra, “ . 

Prot. Episcopal. 

1848 

J. A. Wainwright, A. M., M. D. 

44 44 


1848 

Rev. W. B. Corbin. 

Nebraska City, Neb. 

Prot. Episcopal. 

1863 

Rev. John McNamara, D.D. 

Fontenelle, “ . 

Congregational. 



Hanover, N. H. 

a 

1770 

Rev. Asa D. Smith, D.D., LL.D. 

Princeton, N. J. 

Presbyterian. 

1748 

Rev. James McCosh, D.D., LL.D. 

New Brunswick, N. J... 

Reformed. 

1771 

Rev. W. H. Campbell, D.D., LL.D. 

Burlington, “ ... 

Prot. Episcopal. 

1S46 

Rt. Rev. Wm. 11. Odenheimer, D. D. 

Canton, N. Y. 

Universalist. 

1856 

A. G. Gaines (acting). 

Alfred, “ . 

Seventh-Day Bapt... 

1836 

Rev. Jonathan Allen. 

Clinton, “ . 

Presbyterian.... 

1812 

Rev. S. Gilman Brown, D. D., LL.D. 

Rochester, N. Y. 

Baptist. 

1S50 

Martin B. Anderson, LL.D. 

Ithaca, “ . 

None. 

1868 

Andrew D. White, LL.D. 

Schenectady, N. Y. 

44 

1795 

Rev. E. N. Potter, D. D. 

New York City, “ . 

44 

1831 

Rev. Howard Crosby, D.D., LL.D. (Chan.). 


Prot. Episcopal. 

1754 

F. A. P. Barnard, S. T. D., LL.D. 

Geneva, “ . 

44 44 

1824 

Rev. M. Yan Rensselaer, D. D. 

Hamilton, “ . 

Baptist. 

1832 

Rev. E. Dodge, D. D., LL.D. 

Annandale, “ . 

Prot. Episcopal. 

1858 

R. B. Fairbairn, D. D. 

New York City, “ . 

None. 

1866 

Alexander S. Webb, LL.D. 

Buffalo, “ . 

Lutheran. 

1853 


Syracuse, “ . 

Meth. Episcopal. 

1871 

Alexander Winchell, LL.D. (Clian.). 

Wake Forest, N. C. 

Baptist. 

1833 

Rev. W. W. Wingate, D. D. 

Davidsonville, “ . 

Presbyterian. 

1837 

J. K. Blake (chairman). 

Chapel Hill, “ . 


1795 

Rev. Solomon Pool. 

Trinity, “ . 

Meth. Epis., South.. 

1852 

Rev. B. Craven, D. D. 

Iredell co., “ . 


1853 

James Southgate. 

Mount Pleasant, N. C... 

Lutheran. 

1859 

L. A. Bickle, A. M. 

Excelsior, “ ... 

None. 

1870 

Rev. R. L. Abernathy, A. M. 

Santa Fe, N. Mex. 

Presbyterian. 

1870 

Rev. D. F. McFarland. 

Marietta, Ohio. 

None. 

1835 

Rev. Israel W. Andrews, D. D. 

Hudson, “ . 

44 

1827 

Rev. Carroll Cutter, A. M. 

Granville, “ . 

Baptist . 

1831 


Gambier, “ . 

Prot. Episcopal_ 

1826 

Eli T. Tappan, A.M. 

Springfield,“ . 

Evan. Lutheran. 

1845 

Rev. S. Sprecher, D. D. 















































































































































































































































































































































1024 


COLLEGE. 


Table I. — Colleges of the U. S. incorporated and empowered by Charter to confer Degrees in Arts. Continued. 


Namk. 


Location. 


Willoughby College.,. 

Harlem Springs College. 

Ohio Wesleyan University. 

Muskingum College. 

Miami University. 

Oberliu College. 

Ohio University. 

Otterbein University. 

Urbana University. 

Antioch College. 

Wilberforce University (colored)... 

German Wallace College. 

Xenia College. 

Mount Union College. 

Farmers’ College. 

Heidelberg College. 

Richmond College. 

Baldwin University. 

University of Wooster. 

Franklin College. 

Capitol University. 

Buchtel College. 

Hiram College. 

Ohio Central College. 

“One-Study” University. 

Pacific University. 

Sublimity College. 

Oregon College. 

Willamette University. 

Christian College. 

Haverford College. 

Lehigh University. 

Baptist University.. 

Muhlenberg College. 

Pennsylvania College. 

Westminster College. 

Alleghany College. 

Western University. 

Franklin and Marshall College. 

Moravian College and Theol. Sem. 

Dickinson College. 

Washington and Jeffersou College. 

Lincoln University....,. 

Waynesburg College. 

Andalusia College. 

Lebanon Valley College. 

Lafayette College. 

University of Pennsylvania. 

Agricultural College. 

Swarthmore College. 

Mercersburg College. 

Palatinate College. 

Maimonides College. 

Ursinus College. 

Brown University. 

Erskine College. 

Newberry College. 

University of South Carolina. 

Furman University. 

College of Charleston. 

Wofford College. 

Claflin University (colored). 

Maryville College. 

Cumberland University. 

East Tennessee University.. 

University of Nashville. 

Greenville and Tusculum College.. 

Union University. 

East Tennessee Wesleyan Univ. 

Central Tennessee College (colored) 

Mossy Creek College. 

University of the South. 

Bethel College. 

Fisk University (colored). 

West Tennessee College. 

Andrew College. 

King College. 

Jonesborough College. 

Colorado College. 

Baylor University. 

Waco University. 

Masonic College. 

Rutersville College.. 

Galveston College. 

Aranama College. 

Henderson College. 

University of Deseret. 

Middlebury College. 

State University. 

Norwich University (military). 

Richmond College. 

Randolph-Macon College. 

Roanoke College. 

Emory and Henry College. 

Hampden-Sidney College. 

Washington and Lee University.... 

University of Virginia. 

College of William and Mary. 

Virginia Ag. and Mech. College.... 

Alleghany College. 

Stover College. 

Rector College. 

Wytheville College. 

West Virginia University. 


Willoughby, Ohio. 

Harlem Springs, Ohio... 

Delaware, 

44 

New Concord, 

ii 

Oxford, 

cc 

Oberlin, 

a 

Athens, 

u 

Westerville, 

a 

Urbana, 

Yellow Springs, 

a 

a 

Near Xenia, 

u 

Berea, 

a 

Xenia, 

a 

Mount Union, 

a 

College Hill, 
Tiffin, 

a 

44 

Richmond, 

44 

Berea, 

a 

Wooster, 

i( 

New Athens, 

a 

Columbus, 

n 

Akron, 

a 

Hiram, 

a 

Iberia, 

u 

Scio, 

u 

Forest Grove, Or. 


Sublimity, “ . 


Oregon City, “ . 


Salem, “ . 


Monmouth, “ . 


West Haverford, Penn... 

S. Bethlehem, 

(4 

Lewisburg, 

44 

Allentown, 

it 

Gettysburg, 

it 

Wilmington, 

t. 

Meadville, 

(t 

Pittsburg, 

it 

Lancaster, 

ii 

Bethlehem, 

44 

Carlisle, 

ii 

Washington, 

44 

Lower Oxford, 

44 

Waynesburg, 

ii 

Andalusia. 

ii 

Annville, 

44 

Easton, 

it 

Philadelphia, 

ii 

Ag. Coll. P. 0. 

it 

Swarthmore, 

4t 

Mercersburg, 

ii 

Myerstown, 

44 

Philadelphia, 

44 

Freeland, 

it 

Providence, R. I... 


Due West, S. C. 


Walhalla, “ .... 


Columbia, “ .... 


Greenville, “ .... 


Charleston, “ .... 


Spartanburg, S. C. 


Orangeburg, “ . 
Maryville, Tenn... 



Lebanon, “ ... 


Knoxville, “ ... 


Nashville, “ ... 


Greenville, “ ... 


Murfreesboro’,Tenn. 

Athens, “ 


Nashville, “ 


Mossy Creek, “ 


Sewanee, “ 


McKenzie, “ 


Nashville, “ 


Jackson, “ 


Trenton, “ 


Bristol, “ 


Jonesborough, “ 
Columbus, Texas.. 



Independence, “ . 


Waco, “ 

Belton, “ 

Opelousas, “ 

Galveston, “ 


Goliad, “ . 


Henderson, “ . 


Salt Lake, Utah.... 


Middlebury, Vt.... 


Burlington, “ .... 


Northfield, “ .... 


Richmond, Va.. 


Ashland, “ . 


Salem, “ .. 


Emory, “ .. 


Prince Edward co., Va.. 

Lexington, 

it 

Charlottesville, 

(i 

Williamsburg, 

44 

Blacksburg, 

44 

Blue Sulphur, 
Harper’s Ferry, 

ii 

44 

Pruntytown, 

ti 

Wytheville, 

ii 

Morgantown, W. Va . 


Denomination. 

Organ 

ized. 

Meth. Episcopal. 



1867 

Meth. Episcopal. 

1845 


1837 

State . 

1824 

Congregational. 

1833 

1804 

United Brethren.,... 

1847 

Swedenborgian. 

1851 

Un. Congregational 

1853 

Af. Meth. Episcopal 

1856 

Meth. Episcopal. 

1864 

44 it 

1850 

it it 

1858 

it it 

1846 

Reformed. 

1850 

None. 

1835 

Meth. Episcopal. 

1856 

Presbyterian. 

1870 

Pres, and Un. Pres.. 

1825 

Lutheran. 

1850 

Universalis t. 

1872 

Christian. 

1866 

Un. Presbyterian.... 


Meth. Episcopal. 

1859 


1859 

United Brethren.... 

1858 

Baptist. 

1850 

Meth. Episcopal. 

1851 

Friends (Orthodox). 

1833 

Prot. Episcopal. 

1866 

Baptist. 

1847 

Lutheran. 

1848 

ii 

1832 

UnitedPresby terian 

1852 

Meth. Episcopal. 

1815 

None. 

1820 

Gorman Reformed... 

1853 

Moravian. 

1807 

Meth. Episcopal. 

1783 

Presbyterian. 

1802 

44 

1853 

Cum. Presbyterian.. 

1850 

Prot. Episcopal. 

1861 

United Brethren. 

1866 

Presbyterian. 

1831 

None. 

1749 

ii 

1859 

Friends (Hicksite)... 

1869 

Reformed. 

1865 

German Reformed.. 



President. 


L. T. Kirk. 

Robert II. Hovey, B. S. 

Rev. F. Merrick. 

Rev. David Paul, A. M. 

Rev. A. D. Hepburn. 

Rev. James H. Fairchild, D. D. 

W. H. Scott (acting). 

Rev. II. A. Thompson, A. M. 

Rev. F. Bewail, A. M. 

Rt. Rev. D. A. Payne, D. D. 
William Nast, D. 1). 

William Smith, A. M. 

0. N. Hartshorn, LL.D. 

Charles D. Curtiss. 

G. W. Willard, D. D. 

L. W. Ong, A. M. 

Rev. W. D. Godman, D. D. 

Willis Lord, D. D. 

A. F. Ross, LL.D. 

Rev. W. F. Lehmann. 

Rev. S. II. McCallister. 

B. A. Hinsdale, A.M. 

E. F. Reid. 

A. D. Lee, A. M. 

Rev. S. II. Marsh, D. D. 

J. H. Garrison. 

George C. Chandler, D. D. 

T. M. Gatch, A. M. 

T. F. Campbell. 

Samuel J. Gummere, A. M. 

Henry Coppee, LL.D. 

Rev. J. R. Loomis, LL.D. 

Rev. F. A. Muhlenberg, D. D. 
Milton Valentine, D.D. 

E. T. Jeffers. 

Rev. George Loomis, D. D. 

George Woods, LL.D. 

Rev. J. W. Nevin, D. D. 

Rt. Rev. E. de Scliweinitz, S. T. D. 
Rev. J. A. McCauley, D. D. 

Rev. G. P. Hays, D. D. 

Rev. J. N. Rendall, D. D. 

A. B. Miller, D. D. 

Rev. H. T. Wells, LL.D. 

L. H. Hammond, A. M. 

William C. Cattell, D. D. 

C. J. Stille, LL.D. (Provost). 

Rev. James Calder, D. D. 

E. H. Magill, A. M. 

Rev. E. G. Higbee, D. D. 

Rev. H. J. Wickes, A. M. 


German Reformed.. 

Baptist. 

A. R. P. 

Lutheran. 

State. 

Baptist. 

None. 

Meth. Epis., South.. 

Meth. Episcopal. 

Presbyterian. 

Cum. Presbyterian.. 
None. 

ii 

Presbyterian. 

Baptist. 

Meth. Episcopal. 

ii 44 

Baptist. 

Prot. Episcopal. 

Cum. Presbyterian. 
None. 


Meth. Episcopal. 

Presbyterian. 

Meth. Episcopal.. 

Lutheran. 

Baptist. 

44 


1870 

1765 


1858 

1806 

1851 

1789 

1853 

1869 

1819 

1842 

1869 

1785 

1868 

1848 

1867 
1866 
1871 

1868 


Rev. J. II. A. Bomberger. 

Rev. E. G. Robinson, D. D., LL.D. 
James Boyce. 

Rev. J. P. Smeltzer, D. D. 

R. W. Barnwell, LL.D. 

James C. Furman, D. D. 

N. R. Middleton. 

A. M. Shipp, D.D. 

Rev. A. Webster, D. D. 

Rev. P. M. Bartlett, D.D. 

B. W. McDonnold, D. D., LL.D. 
Rev. T. W. Humes, S. T. D. 

E. Kirby Smith (Chan.). 

Rev. W. S. Doak, A. M. 

Rev. Charles Manly, D.D. 

J. A. Dean, A. M. 

Rev. John Braden, A. M. 

Gen. J. Gorgas (Vice-Chan.). 


1867 


A. K. Spence, A.M. (acting). 
Rev. E. L. Patten, A. M. 


1868 

1865 

1857 

1846 

1857 


Rev. J. D. Tadlock. 

H. Presnell, A. M. 

Rev. J. J. Shoever. 

W. Carey Crane, D. D. 
Rufus C. Burleson D. D. 


Latter-Day Saints... 

Congregational. 

None. 

Prot. Episcopal. 

Baptist. 

Meth. Epis., South.. 

Lutheran. 

Meth. Epis., South.. 
Presbyterian. 


State. 

Prot. Episcopal 


Baptist. 

Free-Will Baptist. 

Baptist. 

Lutheran. 

State. 


1852 

1871 

1850 

1797 

1801 

1834 

1844 

1832 

1852 

1838 

1775 

1871 
1824 
1693 

1872 
1854 


J. E. C. Doremus, D. D. 
G. H. Gould. 

John R. Park, M. D. 

M. H. Buckliam, A. M. 
Rev. M. Douglass, D. D. 

B. Puryear, A. M. 

Rev. J. A. Duncan, D. D. 
Rev. D. F. Bittle, D. D. 
E. W. Wiley, D. D. 

J. M. P. Atkinson, D. D. 
Gen. G. W. Custis Lee. 

C. S. Venable, LL.D. 
Benjamin S. Ewell. 

C. L. C. Minor. 


1839 

. Rev. E. W. McDonald. 

1867 Rev. A. Martin, D. D. 








































































































































































































































































COLLEGE—COLLEGE HILL. 


1025 


Table 1.— Colleges of the U. S. incorporated and empowered by Charter to confer Degrees in Arts.— Continued. 


Name. 


Bethany College. 

Marshall College. 

Western Virginia College. 

Washington University. 

University of Wisconsin. 

Galesville University. 

Wayland University. 

Beloit College. 

Carroll College. 

Lawrence University. 

Milton College. 

North-western University. 

Prairie du Chien College. 

Racine College. 

Ripon College. 

Janesville College. 

Columbian College. 

Howard University (colored). 
National Deaf-Mute College.. 


Location. 


Bethany, W. Va. 

Long Lane, W. Va. 

Flemington, “ . 

Seattle, Wash. Ter. 

Madison, Wis. 

Galesville, “. 

Beaver Dam, Wis. 

Beloit, “ . 

Waukesha, “ . 

Appleton, “ . 

Milton, “ . 

Watertown, “ . 

Prairie du Chien, Wis. 
Racine, “ , 

Ripon, “ , 

Janesville, “ 

Washington, D. C. 

u <( 

Cl U 


Denomination. 

Organ¬ 

ized. 

Christian. 

1841 

Free-Will Baptist... 

1868 

1868 

State. 

1848 

Meth. Episcopal. 

1855 

Baptist. 

1854 

Congregational. 

1847 

Presbyterian. 

1846 

Meth. Episcopal. 

1849 

Seventh-DayBaptist 

1867 

Evan. Lutheran. 

1865 

1865 

Prot. Episcopal. 

1852 

Congregational. 

1863 

Baptist..*. 

1822 

Congregational. 

1866 

National. 

1864 


President. 


W. K. Pendleton. 

Rev. W. Colegrove, A. M. 

E. K. Hill. 

Rev. J. W. Twomblj', D. D. 
Rev. Harrison Gilliland, D. D. 
A. S. Hutchens. 

Aaron L. Chapin, D. D. 

W. L. Rankin, A. M. 

George M. Steele, D. D. 

Rev. W. C. Whitford, A. M. 
Rev. A. F. Ernst, A. M. 

W. S. Perry. 

Rev. .T. DeKoven, D. D. 

Rev. W. E. Merriman, A. M. 

J. C. Welling, LL.D. 

Gen. 0. 0. Howard, LL.D. 

E. M. Gallaudet, Ph. D., LL.D. 


Table II.— Colleges and High Schools in the U. S. directed by the Fathers of the Roman Catholic Church. 


Name. 


St. Joseph’s College. 

St. Andrew’s College. 

St. Mary’s College. 

St. Vincent’s College. 

St. Ignatius’ College. 

Santa Clara College. 

Franciscan College. 

College of our Lady of Guadaloupe. 

St. Mary’s College. 

Georgetown College. 

Gonzaga College. 

St. Patrick’s College. 

St. Ignatius’ College. 

St. Viateura College. 

St. Aloysius College. 

University of Notre Dame. 

St. Meinrad’s College. 

St. Benedict’s College. 

Topeka College. 

St. Joseph’s College. 

St. Mary’s College. 

Cecilian College... 

Jefferson College...'.. 

St. Charles College. 

College of the Immaculate Conception 

St. Joseph’s Day School. 

Calvert College. 

St. Charles College... 

Mount St. Mary’s College. 

Borromeo College. 

Loyola College. 

Mount St. Clement’s College. 

Rock Hill College. 

Boston College. 

College of the Holy Cross. 

St. Philip’s College. 

St. John’s College. 

O’Fallon College. 

Pass Christian College. 

St. Louis University. 

St. Vincent’s College. 

St. Joseph’s College. 

College of the Christian Brothers. 

Seton Hall. 

San Miguel College. 

Canisius College. 

St. Bonaventura College. 

Seminary of our Lady of Angels. 

St. Joseph’s College. 

College of St. Francis Xavier. 

St. John’s College. 

Manhattan College. 

St. Joseph’s College. 

St. John Baptist’s College. 

Mount St. Mary’s of the W T est. 

St. Xavier College. 

St. Louis College. 

La Salle College. 

St. Thomas College. 

St. Joseph’s College. 

St. Vincent’s College. 

St. Francis College. 

St. Mary’s College. 

St. Mary’s University. 

St. Joseph’s College. 

Holy Angels’ College. 

Pio Nono College. 

St. John’s College. 

St. John’s College. 

St. Vincent’s College. 


Location. 


Spring Hill, Ala. 

Fort Smith, Ark. 

San Francisco, Cal. 

Los Angeles, “ . 

San Francisco, “ . 

Santa Clara, “ . 

Santa Barbara, “ . 

Santa Inez, “ . 

Wilmington, Del. 

Georgetown, D. C. 

Washington, “ . 

Ruma, Ill. 

Chicago, Ill. 

Bourbonnais Grove, Ill. 
East St. Louis, “ . 

Notre Dame, Ind. 

St. Meinrad, “ . 

Atchison, Kan. 

Topeka, “ 

Bardstown, Ken. 

Marion co., “ . 

Cecilian P. 0., Ken. 

St. Michael, La. 

Grand Coteau, La. 

New Orleans, “. 

Natchitoches, “. 

New Windsor, Md. 

Ellicott City, “ . 

Near Emmetsburg, Md.. 
Pikesville, “ . 

Baltimore, “ ., 

Ilchester, “ .. 

Ellicott City, “ ., 

Boston, Mass. 

Worcester, “. 

Detroit, Mich. 

St. Joseph, Minn. 


U 

u 

u 

<c 

u 


Pass Christian, Miss. 

St. Louis, Mo. 

Cape Girardeau, Mo. 

St. Joseph, “ . 

St. Louis, “ . 

South Orange, N. J. 

Santa Fe, N. Mex. 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

Allegany, N. Y. 

Suspension Bridge, N. Y. 
Buffalo, “ ... 

New York City, 

Fordliam, 

New York City, 

Rhinecliff, 

Brooklyn, 

Near Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Cincinnati, “ . 

Louisville, “ . 

Philadelphia, Penn. 

Bryn Mawr, “ . 

Philadelphia, “ . 

Westmoreland co., Penn. 

Loretto, “ . 

San Antonio, Tex. 

Galveston, “ . 

Brownsville, “ . 

Vancouver City, Wash. Ter. 

St. Francis, Wis. 

Prairie du Chien, Wis. 

Norfolk, Va. 

Wheeling, W. Va. 


Organ¬ 

ized. 


1829 

1863 

1867 
1855 
1851 

1868 
1844 
1847 
1789 
1858 

1870 

1866 

1868 

1842 

1860 


1819 

1821 

1860 

1837 

1859 

1856 

1852 
1848 
1S08 

1860 

1853 
1868 

1857 
1864 

1843 

1867 

1866 

1833 

1844 
1867 
1859 
1856 

1870 

1859 

1862 

1847 

1840 

1863 


President. 


1870 

1851 

1832 

1866 

1862 

1846 

1852 
1846 
1850 

1854 

1869 

1872 

1871 
1865 

1865 


Rev. J. Montillot, S. J. 

Brother Justin. 

Rev. James McGill, C. M. 

Rev. Joseph Bayma, S. J. 

Rev. A. Varsi. 

Rev. J. J. O’Keefe, O. S. F. 
Brother Paschal Dovan, 0. S. F. 

Rev. John Early, S. J. 

Rev. James Clark. 

Rev. F. Coosemans. 

Rev. P. Beaudoin. 

Rev. F. H. Zahel, D. D., D. C. L. 
Rev. A. Lemonnier. 

Rev. J. Hobie, 0. S. B. 

Very Rev. G. Christoph, 0. S. B. 


Rev. L. Elena, C. R., LL.D. 

H. A. Cecil. 

Rev. J. Boiluit, S. J. 

Rev. F. Gautrelet, S. J. 

Rev. J. Lee Bezonet. 

A. H. Baker, A. M. 

Rev. S. Ferte, D. D. 

Very Rev. J. McCaffery, D. D. 

Rev. E. Q. S. Waldron. 

Rev. S. A. Kelly, S. J. 

M. Holans, Rector. 

Brother Bettelin. 

Rev. Robert Fulton, S. J. 

Rev. J. B. O’Hagan. 

Rev. Alexius Edelbrock, 0. S. B. 

Brother Isaiah. 

Rev. J. G. Zealand, S. J. 

Rev. A. Verrina. 

Brother Agatho. 

Brother James. 

Very Rev. M. A. Carrigan, D. D. 

Rev. W. Becker, S. J. 

Rev. M. Casini, 0. S. F. 

Brother Francis. 

Rev. H. Iludon, S. J. 

Rev. Joseph Shea, S. J. 

Brother Paulian. 

Rev. M. J. Scully. 

Rev. T. J. Landry, C. M. 

F. J. Pabisch, D. D., LL.D. 

Leopold Busliart. 

F. Hours. 

Brother Oliver. 

Very Rev. Thomas Galberry, 0. S. A. 
Rev. P. J. Blenkinsop. 

Rt. Rev. B. Wimmer, 0. S. B. 

Rev. C. V. Neeson. 

Brother Boniface, C. S. C. 

Rev. P. F. Parisot. 

Rev. P. Fr. Ilylebos. 

Joseph Salzman, D. D. 

Brother Benedict. 

Rev. A. Louage. 


Col'lege, a township of Linn co., Ia. Pop. 1468. 
College, a township of Knox co., 0. Pop. 926. 
College Corner, a post-village of Oxford township, 
65 


F. A. P. Barnard. 

Butler co., 0., on the Cincinnati and Indianapolis Junction 
R.R., 19 miles N. W. of Hamilton, has one weekly newspaper. 

College Ilill, a post-village of Hamilton co., 0., 6 




































































































































































































































COLLEGE MOUND—COLLINS. 


1026 


miles N. of Cincinnati. It is the seat of Farmers’ Collego 
and the Ohio Female College. 

College Mound, a post-village of Chariton township, 
Macon co., Mo. It is the seat of McGee College. Pop. 183. 

College Point, a post-village of Flushing township, 
Queens co., N. Y., has manufactures of India-rubber goods, 
etc. It is on Long Island Sound and on the Flushing and 
North Side R. R., 11 miles E. of New York. Pop. 3652. 

Colle'giants, a sect of Christians in Holland, so called 
from their assemblies, which they called “ colleges.” They 
rejected all creeds, had no regular ministry, and no form 
of church government. Their communion was open to all. 
The name lihynsbergers is sometimes given them, from the 
town of Rhynsberg, where they had annual meetings. 

Col'leton, a county of South Carolina, bordering on 
the Atlantic. Area, 1550 square miles. It is intersected by 
the Edisto River, and bounded on the S. W. by the Com- 
bahee. The surface is a level, alluvial plain; the soil is 
mostly fertile. Cotton, rice, and corn are staple crops. It 
is intersected by the South Carolina R. R. and the Charles¬ 
ton and Savannah R. R. Cap., Walterborough. P. 25,410. 

Colleton (James), governor and landgrave of South 
Carolina (16S6-90), called a colonial parliament in 1687, 
and proposed radical alterations of the laws. He became 
exceedingly unpopular with the High-Church party, and 
was impeached and removed from office in 1690, and driven 
from the province. 

Collet'ta (Pietro), an Italian historian and general, 
born at Naples Jan. 23, 1775. He was a general in tho 
army of Murat (1812-14), and was minister of war at Naples 
in 1820, but became an exile in 1821. He wrote a “ History 
of the Kingdom of Naples from 1734 to 1825” (1834). Died 
at Florence Nov. 11, 1833. 

Col'ley, a post-township of Sullivan co., Pa. Pop. 336. 

Col'licline (CsHnN), an alkaloid found with many others 
in the products of the destructive distillation of bones and 
other animal substances, of coal, of quinine, and of cincho¬ 
nine. It is a colorless oily liquid, having an aromatic odor. 

• Col'lier (Henry Watkins), an American judge, born 
in Lunenburg co., Va., Jan. 17, 1801, became judge of 
the Alabama circuit (1827-37), chief-justice for Alabama 
(1837-49), and governor (1849-53). Died Aug. 28, 1855./ 

Collier (Jeremy), an English non-juring bishop, born 
in Cambridgeshire Sept. 23, 1650. He graduated at Cam¬ 
bridge in 1676, and was ordained a priest in 1677. He was 
a zealous Jacobite, and wrote several works against the 
government of William III. In 1696 he gave absolution 
to Freind and Parkins, who were condemned to death for 
treason. A sentence of outlawry was passed against him, 
after he had fled to escape prosecution. His chief works 
are a “ Short View of the Profaneness and Immorality of 
the English Stage” (1698), which caused a great commo¬ 
tion, and “Essays on Several Moral Subjects” (3 vols., 
1697-1705). The “Short View” provoked replies from 
Congreve, Vanbrugh, and Dr. Filmer, but.the playwrights 
were worsted in the contest, and the bellicose tract of the 
sturdy moralist shamed the English stage out of its gross¬ 
ness. Died April 26, 1726. 

Collier (John Payne), an English critic and antiquary, 
born in London Jan. 11, 1789. He published in 1820 “The 
Poetical Decameron,” and in 1831 a “ History of English 
Dramatic Poetry to the Time of Shakspeare, and Annals 
of the Stage to the Restoration” (3 vols.), which is com¬ 
mended. He also produced an edition of Shakspeare’s 
works (1844), and “Notes and Emendations to the Text 
of Shakspeare’s Plays, from Early Manuscript Corrections 
in a Copy of the Folio of 1632” (1852). 

Collieries. See Mines and Mining, by Prof. F. L. 
Vinton, E. M. 4 

Collima'tion [fromthe Lat. collimo, to “aim ”], Line 
of, a term used in astronomy to denote the line which joins 
the optical centre of the object-glass of the telescope with 
tho spider-line, which is designed to mark the middle of 
the field of view in the focus of the eye-glass. The line 
of collimation gives tho direction of the point in tho heavens 
at which the telescope aims, and of which the position is 
recorded by the observer from the readings of the circles of 
the instrument. Adjustment for collimation is the process 
by which tho spider-line in the focus, or (if there arc several) 
the central line of the system, is brought truly to the optical 
axis of the instrument. As there are usually two systems 
of lines, collimation may be either vertical or horizontal. 

Col'limators, fixed telescopes, often employed in ob¬ 
servatories to assist in collimating the principal or working 
instrument. They are so situated that the working tele¬ 
scope may look directly down the axis (“down the throat”) 
of tho collimator, the spider-lines of the latter being the 
objects observed in the process of collimation. 


Collin, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 870 square 
miles. The surface is two-thirds prairie, the rest timber- 
land, and nearly all very fertile and well watered. Cotton, 
wool, grain, and tobacco are raised. It is traversed by the 
Houston and Texas Central R. R. Capital, McKinney. 
Pop. 14,013. 

Collin d’Harleville (John Francois), a French dram¬ 
atist and poet of much merit, whoso works still survive 
on the stage, was born May 30, 1755, at Mervoisen, near 
Chartres. His first work was a comedy, “ The Inconstant,” 
performed in 1786. He afterwards produced “The Op¬ 
timist,” “ Castles in Spain,” “ The Old Bachelor,” “ The 
Governess,” and many other plays, besides several poems— 
one of them entitled “ Melpomene and Thalia,” an allegory. 
His collected dramatic works form four volumes in 8vo, first 
published in 1805. Died at Paris Feb. 24, 1806. 

Collin' ear [from the Lat. col (for con), “with,” and Tin¬ 
ea, a “line”]. Two or more figures or systems of points 
are collinear when the relation between them is such that 
to any point in either system corresponds but one point in 
the other or others, while to the several points of a right line 
in either system correspond those of a right line in the others. 
In establishing such a relation between two plane figures, 
four pairs of corresponding points may be chosen .arbitra¬ 
rily ; this being done, all other pairs are defined. It is 
always possible to give the planes of two collinear figures 
such a position that the one figure shall be the projection 
of the other with respect to some centre of projection in 
space. The term collinear appears to have originated with 
Mdbius, in whose “ Barycentric Calculus ” the nature of 
this relation is thoroughly examined. It includes the re¬ 
lations of affinity and similarity, and is identical with the 
“homographic” relation as defined by Chasles. 

Col'lingAVOod, a port of Lake Huron, on the S. shore 
of Georgian Bay, in Nottawasaga township, Simcoe co., 
Ontario (Canada). It lias large manufactures of lumber, 
leather, flour, beer, and other commodities; has good schools, 
two weekly newspapers, a lighthouse, and a large trade. 
Collingwood is the N. terminus of the Northern Railway, 94 
miles N. by W. of Toronto, and has regular lines of steam¬ 
ers to various lake ports. Pop. 2829. 

Col'lingwood (Cuthbert), Lord, an English ad¬ 
miral, born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne Sept. 26, 1750, en¬ 
tered the navy in 1761. He was an intimate friend of 
Lord Nelson, and was distinguished as a naval tactician; 
followed Admiral Graves to America (1774), and was made 
lieutenant after the battle of Bunker Hill (1775). In 1780 
he became a post-captain. He took part in the naval 
victory which Lord Howe gained over the French in June, 
1794, and rendered important services at the battle off 
Cape St. Vincent in Feb., 1797. In 1799 he gained the 
rank of rear-admiral; in 1804, that of admiral. He was 
the second in command at the battle of Trafalgar, Oct., 
1805, and the chief command devolved on him before the 
end of the action in consequence of the death of Nelson. 
For his part in this victory he was raised to the peerage. 
Died at sea near Minorca Mar. 7,1810. 

Collin'ic A^'id (H.C 6 H 3 O), an aromatic acid produced 
by the action of oxidizing agents on gelatine and similar 
bodies. 

Col'lilis, a township of Fayette co., Ala. P. 1173. 

Collins, a township of Jackson co., Ala. P. 1520. 

Collins, a township of Drew co., Ark. Pop. 463. 

Collins, a township of Story co., la. Pop. 611. 

Collins, a township of McLeod co., Minn. P. 191. 

Collins, a township of Erie co., N. Y. At Versailles, 
a village partly in this township, is the Thomas Orphan 
Asylum, founded in 1864 for Indian children. Pop. of 
township, 2100. 

Collins, a township of Edgefield co., S. C. Pop. 733. 

Collins, a township of Georgetown co., S. C. P. 1440. 

Collins (Anthony), an able and liberal English writer 
on theology, was born in Middlesex June 21, 1676. He was 
an intimate friend of John Locke, and was a subtle dispu¬ 
tant. Among his works, which excited much commotion 
and were censured by the clergy, arc “ Priestcraft in Perfec¬ 
tion ” (1709), a “Vindication of the Divine Attributes,” 
a “ Discourse on Free Thinking” (1713), and a “Discourse 
on the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion” 
(1724). Died Dec. 13, 1729. 

Collins (Arthur), an English antiquarian of great in¬ 
dustry and of high authority, was born in 1682. He was 
author of the “Peerage of England” (1709), “Baronetage 
of England” (1720), and other works. Died at Battersea 
Mar. 16, 1760. 

Collins (Charees), D. D., was born in North Yarmouth, 
Me., April 17, 1813, and graduated in 1837 at Middletown^ 










COLLINS—COLMAN. 


1027 


Conn. lie has been distinguished as an educator in the 
Methodist denomination, having been president of Emory 
and Henry College, Va., Dickinson College, Pa,, and of the 
State Female College, Memphis, Tenn. He has been an 
effective writer in the periodicals of his denomination, and 
is author of a volume entitled “ Methodism and Calvinism 
Compared.” 

Collins (John) was born in 1717, governor of Rhode 
Island (1786—89), and a member of the first Congress under 
the Constitution. Died in 1795. 

Collins (Napoleon), U. S. N., born May 4, 1814, at 
Madison, Ind., entered the navy as a midshipman Jan. 2, 
1834, became a passed midshipman in 1840, a lieutenant 
in 1846, a commander in 1862, a captain in 1866, and a 
commodore in 1871. He commanded the steamer Anacos- 
tia, Potomac flotilla, in the fights with the Aquia Creek 
batteries during the summer of 1861, and the gunboat 
Unadilla at the battle of Port Royal Nov. T, 1861. On the 
7th of Oct., 1864, in the steam-sloop Wachuset, Com¬ 
mander Collins ran alongside of and captured the pri¬ 
vateer Florida at anchor in the harbor of Bahia, Brazil. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Collins (William), an eminent English lyric poet, 
born at Chichester Dec. 25, 1720, was educated at Oxford. 
He became a resident of London in 1744, and was a friend 
of Doctor Johnson. He produced in 1747 an admirable ode 
on “ The Passions,” and lyric poems, among which are odes 
to Mercy and Evening. In 1749 he received a legacy of 
£2000 from an uncle. He was subject to melancholy, and 
was confined in an asylum in the latter part of his life. 
Died in 1756. Among his works is “ The Dirge in Cym- 
beline.” (See Johnson, “ Lives of the Poets.”) 

Collins (William), an English landscape-painter, born 
in London Sept. 18, 1787, became a student in the Royal 
Academy in 1807. His favorite subjects were familiar and 
rural scenes and views on the sea-coast. He was elected a 
Royal Academician in 1820, and visited Italy in 1836, after 
which he produced several pictures of Italian scenes which 
were much admired. Among his works are “ Cromer 
Sands,” “ Prawn-Fishers,” and a “Frost Scene.” Died 
Feb. 17, 1847. 

Collins (William Wilkie), a novelist, a son of the 
preceding, was born in London in 1825. He was first ar¬ 
ticled to a tea-merchant; then entered Lincoln’s Inn. He 
produced in 1848 a “Life of William Collins” (his father), 
and is the author of numerous popular novels remarkable 
for their dramatic construction, among which aro “Anto¬ 
nina” (2d ed. 1850), “Basil” (1852), “The Dead Secret” 
(1857), “Woman in White ” (1859-60), “ Armadale ” (1866), 
“Man and Wife” (1870), and the “Lighthouso” and 
“Frozen Deep,” dramas. 

Col’linson (Peter), F. R. S., an English merchant and 
naturalist, born in Westmoreland Jan. 14, 1693. Ho lived 
in London, and was a member of the Society of Friends. 
He promoted botanical science by importing foreign seeds 
and plants, and wrote several scientific memoirs. He ren¬ 
dered valuable gratuitous services to the Philadelphia 
Library. Died Aug. 11, 1768. 

Col'lin’s Store, a township of Madison co., Ala. Pop. 
933. 

CoFlinsvillc, a post-village of Hartford co., Conn., 
on the Farmington River, on a branch of the New Haven 
and Northampton R. R., and on the Connecticut Western 
R. R. 25 miles W. N. W. of Hartford. It has a large axe- 
factory, paper-mills, manufactures of ploughs and cutlery, 
and a savings bank. 

Collinsville, a post-village of Madison co., Ill. It is 
on the St. Louis Vandalia Terre Haute and Indianapolis 
R. R., 11 miles E. by N. of St. Louis. It has two weekly 
newspapers. 

Collinsville, a post-village of Milford township, But¬ 
ler co., 0., on the Cincinnati Richmond and Chicago R. R., 
11 miles N. by W. of Hamilton. Pop. 140. 

Collision [Lat. colli sio, from collido, collisum, to 
“ strike together ”], in mechanics, the impact of two bodies, 
one or both of which were previously in motion. The laws 
of the direct impact of two spherical bodies are deduced 
from the principle that the sum of the momenta of the im¬ 
pinging bodies, estimated in a fixed direction along the 
line of motion, is not altered by the collision. The velo¬ 
cities of the bodies after impact, however, depend upon the 
hardness and elasticity of these bodies. If inelastic and 
completely incompressible, they will move after impact as 
one body, with a velocity and in a direction which is ascer¬ 
tained by dividing the algebraical sum of their previous mo¬ 
menta by that of their masses. If compressible and not 
wholly without elasticity, a certain compression takes place 
on collision, and is immediate^ followed by a more or less 


perfect restitution of form, according to the degrees of 
elasticity which the bodies possess. In this case the bodies 
will not move as one body after collision, but the imping¬ 
ing body will move more slowly than the other, and may 
even have the direction of its motion reversed. 

Collision, in maritime law. (See Road, Law of the, 
by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Collo'dion [from the Gr. (coAAuIStj?, “sticky,” from 
KoWa, “glue”], a clear, colorless, gummy liquid, insoluble 
in water or alcohol, but soluble in ether, consisting of 
pyroxyline or gun-cotton dissolved in a mixture of alcohol 
and ether. When dried, it gives a transparent residue, be¬ 
coming electric by friction, and exploding less readily by 
heat, percussion, etc. than ordinary gun-cotton. It is used 
principally in photography, though it also finds application 
in surgery and medicine for covering wounds to exclude the 
air, coating caustic substances, etc. Small quantities of 
gun-cotton for the preparation of collodion are nfade by 
immersing cleaned cotton in a solution formed by dissolv¬ 
ing nitrate of potassium in concentrated sulphuric acid. 
Larger quantities are made by treating cotton with a mix¬ 
ture of concentrated commercial sulphuric and nitric acids. 
Some water is added, in order to cause the formation of the 
lower nitro-compounds of cellulose; but if too much water 
is added, the cotton dissolves, instead of forming the desired 
compound. The operation is conducted at a temperature 
of about 150° F., and great care and judgment are required 
throughout the process. After treatment the cotton is 
washed with cold water, the use of alkalies for neutralizing 
the excess of acid having a bad effect on the quality of the 
collodion if it is to be used for photography. The best gun¬ 
cotton for this purpose shows an increase of 25 per cent, in 
weight over that of the cotton originally employed. In 
making the solution of the gun-cotton, if too much alcohol 
is employed the sensitiveness of the film and its capacity for 
adhering to glass are impaired; if too little, the film is apt 
to contract after sensitizing. Photographers make use of 
two kinds of collodion—the “ plain ” and the “ iodized,” 
the latter being the plain collodion which has received the 
addition of some iodides or bromides, generally the iodides 
of cadmium and ammonium. Plain collodion is often of 
two kinds—“ positive ” and “ negative,” the pyroxyline for 
these being prepared according to a slightly different form¬ 
ula. For the “ positive collodion ’’.less ivater is used in the 
preparation of the pyroxyline. 

Small balloons, lighter than those made from gold-beat¬ 
ers’ skin, are sometimes made with collodion. The liquid 
is poured into a flask and shaken about until the interior 
is completely covered, the ether and alcohol are then evapo¬ 
rated off by fi blast directed into the flask. By drawing the 
air out of the flask by means of a tube suitably adjusted, 
the film is detached, the balloon collapses, and may bo 
drawn out. It is then distended and dried. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Collot-d’Herbois (Jean Marie), a French Jacobin, 
born in Paris in 1750, originally a strolling player, was a 
member of the Convention, and a partisan of Robespierre, 
notorious for his violence and cruelty. He became a mem¬ 
ber of the Committee of Public Safety in 1793, and was sent 
to Lyons, where he caused hundreds to be put to death. 
In the crisis of the 9th Thermidor, 1794, he acted with the 
enemies of Robespierre. In 1795 he was transported to 
Cayenne, where he died Jan. 8, 1796. 

Col'lum, a Latin word signifying -“ neck,” is applied 
in botany to that part of the axis of a plant whence the 
stem and root diverge. In the beginning it is a space easily 
distinguishable, but in the process of time it is externally 
obliterated. 

Col'ly, a township of Bladen co., N. C. Pop. 1220. 

Coll'yer (Rev. Robert), an able and eloquent Unitarian 
divine and a popular lecturer, born at Keighly, England, 
Dec. 8, 1823. In 1847 he came to the U. S., and became a 
Mcthodist’preacher. Three years later he embraced Unita¬ 
rian views. Since 1859 he has been pastor of Unity church, 
Chicago. 

Col'man, a township of Elmore co., Ala. Pop. 868. 

Colman (Benjamin), D.D., a Congregational divine, 
born at Boston, Mass., Oct. 19, 1673, graduated at Harvard 
in 1692. On a passage to England he was taken prisoner 
by a French vessel in 1695, but finally visited England, 
and returned to America in 1699. He became pastor of the 
Brattle street church, Boston (at that time an independent 
church), with which he was connected till his death (Aug. 
29, 1747). 

Colman (George), an English dramatic author, was 
born at Florence, April 28, 1733. He produced in 1760 
“Polly Honeycomb,” and in 1761 the “Jealous Wife,” 
comedies, and a good metrical translation of Terence 
(1764). In 1777 he became the proprietor of the Hay- 






























1028 COLMAN—COLOMBIA, UNITED STATES OF. 


market Theatre. He wrote and adapted several other 
dramas. Died Aug. 14, 1794.—llis son, George Colman, 
born Oct. 21, 1702, became director of the Haymarket 
Theatre in 1785, and wrote numerous successful comedies 
and farces, among which are “John I3ull'' (1805), “Inkle 
and Yarico,” and “The Heir-at-Law.” He published auto¬ 
biographic memoirs, entitled “ Random Recollections ” (2 
vols., 1830). Died Oct. 26, 1836. 

Colinan (Henry), an American agricultural writer, 
born in Boston Sept. 12, 1785. He was minister of a Uni¬ 
tarian church at Salem, Mass., from 1825 to 1831, and was 
afterwards appointed agricultural commissioner for that 
State. He visited Europe in 1842, after which he published, 
besides other works, “ European Agriculture and Rural 
Economy.” Died in London Aug. 14, 1849. 

Colman (Samuel), an American artist, born at Port¬ 
land, Me., in 1832. He ranks high as a painter of Amer¬ 
ican and European landscapes. His first picture was ex¬ 
hibited in 1850. 

Col'mar [Lat. Columbarium ], a city of Elsass, is finely 
situated on the river Lauch, near the base of the Vosges, 
36 miles N. N. E. of Strasburg. It is well built, and con¬ 
tains a cathedral built in 1363, a theatre, a college with a 
library of 60,000 volumes. The old ramparts have been 
converted into boulevards. Colmar has extensive manu¬ 
factures of cotton fabrics, cutlery, paper, hosiery, and rib¬ 
bons. It was an imperial city in ,the Middle Ages, and 
was ceded to France in 1697. Pop. in 1&71, 23,045. 

Colne, a market-town of England, in Lancashire, is on 
a high ridge at the junction of the Midland Railway with 
the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, 32 miles N. E. of 
Manchester. It has manufactures of woollens, cottons, cali¬ 
coes, and mousselines-de-laine. Coal and limestone abound 
in the vicinity. Colne is an ancient town, and many Roman 
coins have been found here. Pop. 6315. 

Co'lo, a post-village of New Albany township, Story co., 
Ia. It is on the Iowa division of the Chicago and North¬ 
western R. R., 173 miles E. of Clinton. Pop. 226. 

Col'ocynth [Gr. ko\okw91<; ; Lat. colocynthis], a well- 
known purgative medicine, the dried and powdered pulp 
of the colocynth gourd, a fruit about the size and color of 
an orange, with a smooth, thin, solid rind. Cue amis Colo¬ 
cynthis, the plant which produces it, is nearly allied to the 
cucumber. It is common in Southern Europe, Asia, and 
Africa, and is grown also to some extent in the U. S., es¬ 
pecially by the Shakers. The fruit, when it begins to turn 
yellow, is gathered, peeled, and dried quickly. It is chiefly 
in the form of “ compound extract of colocynth ” that it is 
used in medicine. In large doses it is a drastic, irritant 
poison. It owes its cathartic properties to a “bitter neutral 
principle called colocynthin. The seeds of the plant have 
no cathartic principle. The extract of colocynth is used 
in pills in combination with other purgatives, and fre¬ 
quently with extract of hyoscyamus. In small doses col¬ 
ocynth acts as a safe and useful purgative, and when asso¬ 
ciated with hyoscyamus the latter prevents much of the pain 
which usually results from the use of colocynth by itself. 

Colocyn'thin (C 56 H 84 O 23 ?), the bitter principle of 
colocynth. It is resolved by the action of acids into colo- 
cynthein (C 40 H 54 O 13 ) and sugar, and is, for this reason, 
supposed to be a glucoside. 

Colo'gna, a town of Italy, in the province of Verona, 
20 miles S. E. of Verona. It has manufactures of silk. 
Pop. 6496. 

Cologne [Ger. Koln; anc. Oppidum Ubiorum , after¬ 
wards Colonia Agrippina ], a fortified city of Prussia, the 
capital of the province of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank 
of the Rhine, 24 miles S. E. of Diisseldorf; lat. 50° 56' N., 
Ion. 6 ° 58' E. It is at the intersection of several important 
railways, and is connected with Deutz by a handsome iron 
bridge across the river and a bridge of boats. Cologne is 
a fortress of the first rank. It is built in semicircular form 
close to the river. The streets are narrow and dirty. Out¬ 
side the walls are fine gardens and promenades. It has an 
archbishop’s palace, an observatory, a botanic garden, a 
public library, a museum, a theatre, an arsenal, with a cu¬ 
rious collection of armor, a seminary for the education of 
Catholic clergymen, three gymnasia, and one pro-gymna¬ 
sium, a normal school, and a fine town-house. Here are 
several remarkable and ancient churches—viz. that of Saint 
Peter, containing a picture of the crucifixion of Saint Peter 
painted and presented by Rubens; the church of Saint 
Mary, founded about 1000 A. D.; and that of Saint Ursula, 
which is said to contain the bones of 11,000 virgins who 
were massacred by the Huns. The greatest object of in¬ 
terest is the cathedral, which was founded in 1248, and is 
one of the noblest specimens of Gothic architecture in Eu¬ 
rope. It is in the form of a cross, is 510 feet long and 231 
feet wide. The towers, when finished, will bo about 500 


feet high. The construction of this edifice was suspended 
by the Reformation. Early in the nineteenth century the 
national enthusiasm of the Germans raised large sums of 
money to repair and complete it, and Zwirner was appointed 
architect of the work. Cologne has extensive manufactures 
of silk and woollen fabrics, cotton yarn, velvet, hosiery, lace, 
hats, thread, clocks, and eati de cologne. About 1,500,000 
bottles of this perfume are annually exported from this 
town. It derives also much prosperity from the navigation 
of the Rhine, and has an active trade in grain, wine, oil, 
etc. Cologne was annexed to the German empire in 870 
A. D., and was afterwards one of the most populous and 
wealthy cities of the Hanseatic League. The archbishops 
of Cologne were princes and electors of the German empire 
during several centuries. Pop. in 1871, 129,233. 

Cologne, a township and post-village of Mason co.. 
West Va. Pop. of township, 1023. 

Cologne Water. See Eau de Cologne. 

Colo'ma, a post-twp. of El Dorado co., Cal. Pop. 925. 

Coloma, a township of Whitesides co., Ill. Pop. 856. 

Coloma, a post-township of Waushara co., Wis. Pop. 
309. 

Colom'bia, United States of, formerly New 
Granada, a republic of South America, is bounded on 
the N. by the Caribbean Sea and Venezuela, on the E. by 
Venezuela and Brazil, on the S. by Brazil and Ecuador, 
and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. The Amazon forms 
part of the southern boundary, and the Orinoco flows along 
the eastern border of this republic. Area, 357,179 square 
miles, but a considerable portion of the border territory is 
claimed by Brazil and Venezuela. Pop. in 1864, 2,794,473, 
exclusive of the independent Indians, whose number 
amounts to about 126,000. 

Physical Features. —The most prominent features of this 
region are the Andes, three chains of which extend through 
the western part. These are called the Cordillera of the 
Coast (or Choco), the Central Cordillera or Quindiu Chain, 
and the Eastern Cordillera. Between the last and the Quin¬ 
diu Chain lies the broad valley of the Magdalena, which is 
separated from the long valley of the Cauca by the same 
Quindiu Chain. The highest peak in Colombia is the peak 
of Tolima, which is in lat. 4° 46' N., and rises 18,317 feet 
above the level of the sea. Other summits of the central 
Cordillera rise above the limits of perpetual snow. These 
mountains seriously obstruct the communication between 
the sea-coast and the interior. In the south-eastern part 
of Colombia occur extensive plains called llanos. The chief 
rivers of the interior are the Magdalena and the Cauca, 
which flow nearly northward to the Caribbean Sea. 

Minerals .—Colombia is rich in mineral resources, though 
they have been imperfectly explored. Gold is obtained in 
Antioquia and the valley of the Cauca. Platina is found 
in the Choco, and silver is said to occur at Marquetones. 
Coal is found in the plain of Bogota. 

Climate , Productions, etc .—The climate of the lowlands 
is hot, humid, and in some parts unhealthy. The yellow 
fever is endemic at Cartagena and other places on the coast. 
Torrents of rain, it is said, fall incessantly in the forests of 
Darien. The middle regions, called templadas, enjoy a more 
temperate and salubrious climate. A large portion of the 
country is covered with luxuriant forests, in which are found 
the wax-palm and the Cinchona, which yields quinine. 
Cotton, rice, sugar-cane, tobacco, cocoa, and tropical fruits 
are among the productions of the soil near the coast. Maize 
and wheat flourish on the elevated plains of the interior, 
but agriculture is generally neglected. Many cattle and 
horses are reared on the llanos. Among the wild animals 
are the jaguar, puma, tapir, monkey, alligator, armadillo, 
and deer. 

Colombia is divided into nine states—viz. Antioqufa, 
Bolivar, Boyaca, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Pan- 
amd, Santander, and Tolima. Capital, Bogota. The pres¬ 
ent constitution was adopted May 8 , 1863. The legislative 
power is vested in two chambers—a house of representatives 
and a senate. The executive power is exercised by a pres¬ 
ident elected for a term of two years. The religion of the 
state is the Roman Catholic. 

History .—The Spaniards planted a colony in 1510 on the 
Gulf of Darien. This part of the continent was called New 
Granada, and continued to be subject to Spain until 1811, 
when it revolted with success. New Granada, Venezuela, 
and Ecuador united to form the republic of Colombia, but 
the union was dissolved in 1831, when each of these three 
states became a separate republic. A civil war or revolu¬ 
tion broke out in 1860 between the Federalists and Lib¬ 
erals, the latter of whom were directed by General Mos- 
quera. In Sept., 1861, the name of New Granada was ex¬ 
changed for that of the “United States of Colombia” by 
the congress of the liberal party. A. J. Sciiem. 















COLOMBIC ACID—COLONY. 


1029 


Colom'bic Acid (CijlLgOis), the acid contained in Co¬ 
lombo root. 

Colom'bin, or Colombo Bitter (C 21 H 22 O 7 ), the ao- 
tive principle of Colombo root. 

Colom'bo, a seaport-town and the capital of Ceylon, 
on its W. coast, in lad. 6 ° 55' N., and Ion. 79° 45' E., and 
near a rocky headland, the Jo via extremum of Ptolemy. It 
is fortified and defended by seven batteries, besides several 
bastions, etc. The harbor is small, and is only safe during 
the S. E. monsoon. The mean temperature is about 80° F., 
and the average annual rainfall is 72.4 inches. Colombo 
has a lighthouse, a military hospital, a government-house, 
and churches for the English, Dutch, and Portuguese. The 
houses are mostly of one story, each having a verandah in 
front. Many of the Europeans reside in the suburb Col- 
petty. Most of the foreign trade of Ceylon is transacted 
at this port. It was occupied by the Portuguese in 1517, 
taken by the Dutch in 1603, and conquered in 1796 by the 
British, who still possess it. Pop. in 1871, 100,238. 

Colombo (Realdo), [Lat. Henldus Colum bus], an 
Italian anatomist, born at Cremona, succeeded Vesalius as 
professor at Padua in 1544. He was the reputed discov¬ 
erer of the pulmonary circulation. He wrote an important 
work on anatomy, “ De Re Anatomica ” (1559). Died 
about 1576. 

Colombo Boot} the root of Coccnlm pahnatua, a men- 
ispermaceous vine from Eastern Africa. It contains colom- 
bin, berberine, and colombic acid, starch, coloring-matter, 
etc. It is one of the most useful of the mild tonics. 

Co'lon [Lat. colon; Gr. kwAov], in anatomy, is that part 
of the large intestine which leads from the caecum to the 
rectum. In the adult of the human species it is about four 
and a half feet long, and consists of four portions—the 
right or ascending, the transverse, and the descending colon, 
and the sigmoid flexure (so called from its resemblance in 
shape to the ancient form of the Greek letter sigma, C for 
2 ). The colon, owing to the peculiar arrangement of its 
muscular fibres, consists of a series of pouches, which serve 
to detain the contents of the intestine on their way to the 
rectum. The colon is provided with numerous glands, 
which assist in removing the waste matters from the blood. 
It is believed also to have the power to some extent of 
digesting food; and it is certain that persons who are un¬ 
able to swallow food have often been kept alive for a long 
time by nourishing liquids thrown into the intestinal canal 
by enema. 

Colon, a township and post-village of St. Joseph co., 
Mich. The village is on the Michigan Central R. R., 53 
miles S. W. of Jackson. It has one weekly newspaper. 
Pop. of township, 1504. Ed. “ Enterprise.” 

Colo'na, a township and village of Henry co., Ill. 
The village is on the Illinois division of the Chicago Rock 
Island and Pacific R. R., 170 miles W. S. W. of Chicago. 
Pop. of township, 1223. 

Colonat. See Slavery. 

Colonel [from the Fr. colonne, a u column,” i. c. the 
chief of a column], the title of the highest officer of a regi¬ 
ment in the armies of the U. S., England, France, and 
other countries. The colonel is the officer next higher 
than lieutenant-colonel, and next lower than a brigadier- 
general. In the British army at the present time the posi¬ 
tion of a colonel is a sinecure, the real active commander 
of the regiment being the lieutenant-colonel. Every Brit¬ 
ish regiment has a colonel, who is a general officer, and 
whose command is merely honorary, but he receives high 
pay, which varies from £500 a year in the infantry of the 
line to £1800 a year in the Horse Guards. 

Colo'nial Corps, in the British army, are certain 
regiments of native troops in the East and the West In¬ 
dies, South and West Africa, etc., which are officered (ex¬ 
cept in Malta) by the British. The native troops of British 
India are not included in the colonial corps, being paid 
from the Indian revenues, and not from the army estimates. 

Colonization Soci'ety, The Amer'ican, an as¬ 
sociation formed in 1816 for the purpose of transporting 
negroes from the U. S. to Africa. Many years earlier, 
Samuel Hopkins, D. D., had advocated such an enterprise. 
Among the principal founders of the society were Charles 
F. Mercer of Virginia, the Rev. Doctor Finley of New 
Jersey, and Bishop Meade. The constitution of the society 
was adopted at a meeting held in Dec., 1816. In 1820 the 
society sent out a company of eighty-six colonists to 
Liberia. Bushrod Washington was the first president of 
the society. They afterwards sent out nearly 10,000 free 
colored persons to Liberia, which became in 1847 an inde¬ 
pendent republic. Henry Clay was for many years presi¬ 
dent of the Colonization Society. 

Colon'na, the name of a celebrated noble and powerful 


Roman family which has produced many eminent generals, 
ecclesiastics, cardinals, and authors. This family acquired 
distinction as early as the twelfth century. In the suc¬ 
ceeding centuries they were adherents of the Ghibelline 
party. Otho Colonna was elected pope in 1417. (See 
Martin V.) The Colonna palace in Rome is celebrated 
for its rich treasures of art. 

Colonna (Fra Francesco), a Dominican monk, born 
at Venice about 1449, was professor of theology at Padua, 
and author of a work “ Hypnerotomachia Poliphili ” 
(1499), a singular melange of fables, antiquities, and archi¬ 
tecture. Died in 1527. 

Colonna (Vittoria), a celebrated Italian poetess, a 
daughter of the constable of Naples, was born in 1490. 
She married in 1507 the marquis of Pescara, afterwards a 
famous general killed in battle in 1525. She was eminent 
for virtue and beauty, as well as poetical genius. She com¬ 
posed poetical laments on the death of her husband, and 
many religious poems (“ Rime Spirituali,” 1548). In 1541 
she retired into a convent at Orvieto. Died in 1547. “ The 
rare virtues and consummate talents of this lady,” says 
Hallam, “ were the theme of all Italy in that brilliant age 
of her literature.” (See Mrs. Henry Roscoe, “ Vittoria 
Colonna : her Life and Poems,” 1868.) 

Colonnade [from the It. colonna, a “ pillar”], a range 
of columns attached to or detached from the body of the 
building they are designed to ornament and support. 
When it surrounds the building on the exterior, the colon¬ 
nade is called a peristyle; when detached from the general 
line and projecting forward, it is called a portico ; but when 
comprised under the same cornice as the building itself, it 
is styled a colonnade. 

Col'ony [Lat. colonia, from colonus (from colo, to “ till,” 
to “ cultivate ”), a “ husbandman,” a “ settler ”], a term de¬ 
noting a settlement formed in a distant region or country 
by emigrants who are under the protection and supreme 
government of the mother-country. The British colonies 
in Australia and America are practical instances of the 
colony in this sense; but there are other dependencies (like 
the Indian empire) which deviate more or less from the 
true characteristics of a colony. Territories have afforded 
profitable residence without being colonies ; the most con¬ 
spicuous of this class is the British empire in Hindostan, 
where the British people scarcely hold land or concern them¬ 
selves in agriculture, from which the term colonist is taken. 
The Greeks established communities in Asia Minor, Africa, 
Italy, and France, for Marseilles was a Greek colony, 
founded by the inhabitants of Phocaea about 600 B. C. 

The principle of colonial responsibility to a central gov¬ 
ernment was brought to great perfection by the policy of 
Rome, that not only every conquered territory, but every 
district where citizens settled, should be an integral part 
of the empire. There were various grades of 'colonies— 
some where there was the full privilege of Roman citizen¬ 
ship, and others where citizenship was of an inferior grade. 
The Italian colonies of the Levant in the Middle Ages bore 
some resemblance to those of ancient Rome. The settle¬ 
ments of the barbarians who destroyed the Roman empire 
were not colonies, for the tribes were not connected with any 
parent state; and the Normans, who spread over Europeat 
a later period, were unconnected in the countries where 
they settled with the government of the states whence they 
migrated. Hardly a trace of the genealogy of the Nor¬ 
mans of England or France can be found anterior to their 
settlement in the latter country, so little connection did 
they preserve with the country of their ancestors. With 
the exception of the Italians in the Levant, the Spanish 
and Portuguese were the first among modern Europeans to 
establish true colonies. The Spanish monarchs aimed at 
the creation of a new empire in America, which was looked 
on as the property of the Spanish crown. Other govern¬ 
ments of Europe subsequently colonized America, Africa, 
and Asia. The permanent settlement of British colonists 
in America dates from the reign of James I. The settlers 
were privileged companies with royal letters-patent, but 
practically they were almost independent (with the ex¬ 
ception of those whose charters were resumed by the Crown). 
They were largely dissenters seeking refuge from the griev¬ 
ances of the Established Church. 

The great advantage of a colony is that it widens the 
field of enterprise and gives a larger choice of the means 
of livelihood. It is especially an addition to the existing 
stock of a very valuable and important kind of raw ma¬ 
terial—viz. land. It is to the agriculturist, then, that it 
generally holds out its first inducements. In modern times 
penal colonies have been established by several European 
nations. (See Transportation.) 

Colony, a township of Adams co., la. Pop. 190. 

Colony, a township and village of Delaware co., Ia. 























1030 COLOPHON—COLORADO. 


The village is 30 miles W. N. W. of Dubuque. Pop. of 
township, 1400. 

Col'ophon [etymology doubtful] is the name of the 
last page of ancient books. The colophon formerly gave 
the date, printer’s name, etc., with much of the information 
now conveyed on the title-page. 

Colophon [Gr. KoAo^wv], an ancient Greek city of 
Ionia, in Asia Minor, was near the sea-coast, and on the 
river Ales or llalesus, about 9 miles N. of Ephesus. It was 
one of the seven cities which claimed the honor of being 
the native place of Homer. The celebrated philosopher 
Xenophanes was born here about 600 B. C. It was also 
the native place of the poet Mimnermus. The Colophonian 
cavalry had a high reputation. It was anciently famous for 
its resin (colophony), which was the product of the noble 
pine forests which even now exist near its site. A village 
of miserable cabins occupies the site of ancient Colophon. 

Col'ophony [Gr. KoAo</>uma ptjtiVtj— i. e. “ Colophonian 
resin,” from its place of export, Colophon], the chemical 
name of resin of pine, or rosin. (See Resins, by Prof. C. 
F. Chandler, Pii.D., LL.D.) 

Col'or [Lat. color; Gr. xp“M«]- Among the various 
appearances of external objects is that which depends 
solely on the kind of light which those objects reflect or 
transmit to the eye. Several other properties, as form, 
roughness, smoothness, etc., maybe discerned by the sense 
of touch, but color, properly speaking, can be perceived 
by the sight alone. For though blind persons are said to 
be sometimes able to distinguish certain colors in cloths by 
the touch, they only perceive the roughness, harshness, 
or other property which is usually imparted to the cloths 
by the particular material employed in dyeing, but they 
have not any perception of the color itself. 

According to the classification of Newton, there are seven 
primary colors—viz. red, orange, yellow, green, blue, pur¬ 
ple, and violet, which, when combined together in their 
proper proportions, produce white light; but according to 
some other eminent authorities (including the celebrated 
optician Brewster), the number of primary colors may be 
reduced to three—red, yellow, and blue (or green); all the 
other colors being in their view produced by different com¬ 
binations of those three elements. Some bodies (certain 
kinds of colored glass, for example) appear to be of one 
color by reflected and of another by transmitted light. The 
cause of the appearance called color may be simply stated 
thus: if a body absorbs every other kind of light and re¬ 
flects or transmits red light only, it will appear of a red 
color; if it absorbs every kind except yellow light, it will 
appear yellow, and so on. Again, if it absorbs nearly all 
the rays, reflecting or transmitting scarcely any, it will ap¬ 
pear dark or black; and if the greater part of the light is 
absorbed except a little red and a little yellow, the object 
will appear of a dark-brown color. (See Optics.) 

Colora'do, a river of Texas, rises in the high table¬ 
lands in the N. W. part of the State. Its general direction 
is south-eastward. It passes by Austin City, Bastrop, and 
Columbus, and enters Matagorda Bay near the town of 
Matagorda. Total length, estimated at 850 miles. Steam¬ 
boats can ascend it above Austin City. 

Colorado, or Rio Colorado (?. e. “Red River”), a 
large river of the U. S., rises among the Rocky Mountains 
by two branches—namely, Green and Grand rivers— 
which unite in Utah about lat. 38° N. It flows generally 
south-westward, and passes through the north-western 
part of Arizona to the south-eastern border of Nevada. It 
afterwards runs nearly southward, forms the boundary 
between Arizona and California, and enters the head (or 
N. end) of the Gulf of California. The entire length, in¬ 
cluding Green River, is estimated at 1200 miles. It is 
navigable for small steamboats for 300 miles or more. 
Among the most wonderful natural objects in North Amer¬ 
ica is the Great Canon of the Colorado, between Ion. 112° 
and 115° W. Here the river flows between walls of rock 
which are nearty vertical, and are in some places 6000 feet 
high. This canon is more than 300 miles lona\ 

Colorado, a Territory of the IT. S., situated in the cen¬ 
tral belt of States and Territories in the Rocky Mountain 
region, lying between the 37th and 41st parallels of N. lat., 
and between the 102d and 109th meridians of W. Ion. from 
Greenwich. It is bounded on the N. by Wyoming Territory 
and Nebraska, E. by Nebraska and Kansas, S. by the In¬ 
dian Territory and New Mexico, and W. by Utah. Its 
area is 104,500 square miles, or 66,880,000 acres, or about 
equal to that of the whole of New England and the State 
of Iventuck}\ 

Face of the Country, Geology, Soil, etc .—The Territory 
is traversed near its centre, from N. to S., by the main 
chain of the Rocky Mountains, whose snow-capped peaks 
constitute the watershed of the continent. The mountain- 


valleys have an altitude of from 5000 to 8000 feet, while 
the highest culminating crests rise to a height of from 11,000 
to 15,000 feet above the level of the sea. The other surface 
divisions of Colorado are the plains and valleys, and the 
parks. The plains embrace the section E. of the Sierra 
Madre, being elevated, rolling prairie, rising gradually 
from the eastern boundary to the mountains westward, 
being well watered by the South Platte and Arkansas rivers 
and their tributaries. The soil is fertile, being covered 
with rich nutritious grasses, upon which cattle pasture the 
year round. Vast herds of buffalo and numerous other 
graminivorous animals roam over these plains, existing 
upon their grasses; and experiments show that domestic 
animals thrive as well upon the indigenous herbage. The 
section of the plains lying near the South Platte, in the 
north-eastern part, is an iron region abounding in red 
hematite ore. Magnetic and hematite ores are also found 
in sections of the mountain country, as in the vicinity of 
the Golden Gate in Jefferson co., and it is believed that 
the mining and manufacture of this metal will soon be ex¬ 
tensive in Colorado, furnishing machinery for mills and 
mines, implements for agriculture and the lumber-trade, 
and rails for iron roads. In the vicinity of the eastern 
foot-hills of the mountains are the principal outcroppings 
of the great coal-beds, the strata varying from five to thirty 
feet thick, stated by geologists to underlie a large portion 
of the plains, sometimes extending eastward nearly to the 
Nebraska and Kansas line. This coal is generally of the 
variety known as lignite, of excellent quality for household 
economy, as well as for manufactures and for railroads: 
the mines being already extensively worked in Boulder, 
Jefferson, Arapahoe, and Douglas cos., but increased 
facilities for transportation are required to develop this 
branch of the mineral wealth. A large vein of albertite 
coal, the stratum being from ten to twenty feet in thickness, 
has recently been discovered on White River in Summit 
co., and there are evidences of its extending sixty miles in 
one direction and twenty-five in another. It resembles 
cannelite, burning with great readiness and intense heat, 
and is estimated to contain fifty to sixty gallons of oil to 
the ton. The percentage of carbon in this coal is from 
58.70 to 59.20, and though very brittle and crumbling upon 
long exposure to the air, it is nearly as hard as anthracite. 
In the southern part of the plains are numerous Mexican 
settlers, principally engaged in cattle-herding and agri¬ 
culture, being aided in the latter by irrigation, for which 
there are excellent facilities; and the result of its employ¬ 
ment is abundant and certain crops. The soil of the plains 
rests upon calcareous rock, and is principally of alluvial 
formation, having been washed from the vast granite 
mountains rising above their western limits, and contains 
elements of great fertility. Near the streams a large pro¬ 
portion of decomposed vegetable matter enters into its 
composition, united with ashes and sand; on the plateaus 
there is less vegetable deposit, the soil being principally 
composed of sandy loam and friable clay. This section of 
country is exceedingly well adapted to agriculture; cereals, 
vegetables, and fruits being cultivated with a success that 
is astonishing in view of the altitude of the surface of the 
earth and the scarcity of rain at certain seasons of the 
year. The quality of the wheat grown in Colorado is ex¬ 
cellent, and the average yield thirty bushels to the acre, 
while fifty, sixty, and even eighty bushels have been grown 
on some of the new lands under irrigation. In character 
the wheat resembles that of California more than the Eastern 
wheat. The average yield of oats is fifty bushels, and of 
barley forty bushels to the acre, and instances are given 
of a yield of 100 bushels to the acre of each. The yield 
of Indian corn, when irrigated, in the vicinity of the Den¬ 
ver Pacific Railway, is almost beyond belief. Single fields 
have yielded 316 bushels to the acre, and 150 to 200 bushels 
are represented as an average crop. The vegetables are of 
great size and of excellent flavor, and though the yield is 
slightly less than in some of the Eastern States, the quality 
is far superior. 

The average yearly precipitation of water in these plains 
or valleys is twenty inches, falling principally in the rainy 
season of May, June, and July, and in the snows of winter. 
For two months in the year, therefore, irrigation is an ab¬ 
solute necessity for abundant crops, and the farmer in se¬ 
lecting his lands does so with a view to the convenience 
with which this artificial means of supplying the requisite 
water can be introduced. The construction of acequias or 
irrigating canals is performed chiefly with the plough and 
scraper, attended with but small expense, the certain abun¬ 
dance of the resulting crops more than repaying the extra 
outlay. Acequias thirty miles long, having a fall of four 
feet per mile, watering 20,000 acres, have been constructed, 
each adjoining proprietor contributing his share towards 
their construction and maintenance. In the vicinity of 
the Denver Pacific Railway, about the head-waters of the 













COLORADO. 


South Platte, at Greeley, Evans, and other points, irriga¬ 
tion is practised on a still more extensive scale, and with 
the highest success. The present most important resource 
of the plains of Colorado is stock-raising, the rich nutri¬ 
tious grasses which abound there furnishing an ample sup¬ 
ply of food to keep the cattle in excellent condition during 
the entire year, as the grass, when ripe, dries upon the 
stalk, forming hay superior to that prepared by the most 
careful curing in the Eastern States. The winters are so 
mild that not once in five years is there any necessity for 
shelter and the gathering of hay and fodder for the cattle 
during any portion of the winter months. Since the open¬ 
ing of the Union Pacific, Kansas Pacific, and Denver Pacific 
Railways, Colorado has become very largely interested in 
stock-grazing, as ready markets are furnished by means 
of these railways for all the cattle the farmers can rear. 

The parks ot Colorado are a distinctive and remarkable 
feature of the mountain-region, being apparently the basins 
of former lakes upheaved and deprived of their waters by 
volcanic agency, with their original shape and situation at 
the foot of high mountains undisturbed, while their lowest 
depths are from 6000 to 9000 feet above the level of the 
sea. Many of these parks are of small size, being little 
valleys at the sources of single streams or the beds of small 
lakes, into which several streams from the surrounding 
mountains are emptied; yet there are four of these elevated 
valleys, the smallest of which extends 20 by 50 miles, and 
the largest 100 by 200, equal to the size of some of the 
most important of the New England States. These are 
called the North Park, Middle Park, South Park, and San 
Luis Park. 

The North Park reaches to the northern boundary of 
the Territory, and within forty miles of the Pacific R. R., 
it being the basin in which converge the small streams 
forming the head-waters of the North Platte River. Its 
surface is alternately meadow and forest, supporting an 
abundance of game, such as deer, antelopes, and bears; 
its streams are well supplied with dainty fish; but on ac¬ 
count of its great elevation, added to its northern latitude, 
it has not the same advantages for agriculture possessed 
by the other large parks, which have less altitude, besides 
a more southerly location. 

Middle Park lies next below North Park, being sepa¬ 
rated therefrom by a range of mountains extending from 
S. E. to N. W., which constitutes a section of the dividing- 
ridge of the continent, separating the rivers of the Atlantic 
from those of the Pacific slope. The waters of this park 
flow into the Colorado of the West, emptying into the Gulf 
of California. Middle Park is 50 miles wide by 70 long, 
and embraces within its basin several ranges of hills, be¬ 
sides two or three distinct and extensive valleys; it is sur¬ 
rounded by the great mountain-peaks of the Territory, in¬ 
cluding Pike’s Peak, Gray’s Peak, Long’s Peak, and 
Mount Lincoln, rising to an elevation of from 13,000 to 
14,500 feet, snow-capped mountains circling its whole 
area. It is milder in climate and possesses a vegetation su¬ 
perior to that of the North Park, but inferior to that of 
the South Park. 

South Park is 30 miles wide and 60 long, lying on the 
eastern side of the divide, and furnishing the head-waters 
of the Arkansas and South Platte rivers. This is the most 
beautiful and the best known of all the parks, discoveries 
of rich mines having opened roads and scattered settle¬ 
ments throughout its limits. The soil is fertile and the 
scenery magnificent, offering, aside from the rich deposits 
of precious ores, inducements to settlers unsurpassed upon 
the continent. Water and forests are both plentiful, and 
the climate is delightful. 

The San Luis Park is in the southern portion of the Ter¬ 
ritory, between the Rio Grande del Norte and the head¬ 
waters of the Arkansas River, surrounding a beautiful lake 
of the same name, which is sixty miles in length, receiving 
the waters of nineteen streams, with no apparent outlet. 
This is the largest of the parks, having an area of 18,000 
square miles, and containing, besides those streams empty¬ 
ing into the San Luis Lake, sixteen others which empty 
into the Rio Grande del Norte. This park is remafkable 
for its natural scenery, the grandeur of its forests, the fer¬ 
tility of the soil, the purity of its waters, and the vast de¬ 
posits of peat in the vicinity of San Luis Lake. It con¬ 
tains a population of 25,000, principally of Mexican de¬ 
scent, who are chiefly occupied in herding and agriculture. 
Cattle subsist the year round upon the indigenous grasses 
of these elevated pastures, without other food, and with no 
shelter except that afforded by the forests and undergrowth. 
The grass, whether green or cured into hay upon the stalk 
by the dry winds of the later summer months, appears to 
possess qualities similar to that of the plains, although 
growing at a much greater altitude. In fact, it is surpris¬ 
ing how little the vegetation seems to be affected in this 
region by elevation above the sea-level, the luxuriant pas¬ 


1031 


tures and majestic forests of South and Middle Parks beiiirr 
from 7000 to 10,000 feet above the sea. Cereals and tender 
vegetables thrive abundantly at 7000 feet, while potatoes, 
cabbages, and turnips, are cultivated at an elevation of 
8000. Beautiful flowers and nutritious grasses grow at 
11,000 feet, and evergreen trees attain considerable size at 
11,500 feet, above sea-level. 

The gold and silver mines of Colorado, until recently, 
were supposed to be located principally in the park and 
mountain country, commencing in Summit and Boulder 
counties, between the 105th and the 106th meridians, near 
the 40tli parallel, extending thence in a south-westerly 
direction through the Territory. The region embracing 
the mines possesses a width of from 30 to 60 miles. These 
mines are of gold, silver, and copper, the gold ore rarely 
being without an intermixture of more or less silver, or the 
silver ore without traces of gold, and frequently all three 
metals are combined in the same ore, this being the case in 
several of the most profitable mines in the Territory. In 
1873 a new mining territory was discovered in the S. W. 
corner of the Territory, said to be richer in silver and gold 
than any mining district before known. 

The mountains of Colorado all belong to the Rocky Moun¬ 
tain system, and consist for the most part of elevated table¬ 
lands (the plains and valleys already described), having an 
altitude of from 4000 to 9000 feet above the sea; from these 
plateaux rise numerous peaks and summits to heights vary¬ 
ing from 11,000 to nearly 15,000 feet, the lower portions of 
them covered with trees, mostly evergreens, but the upper 
portions either gray bare rock or snow-covered, and some 
of them with extensive glaciers. The most noted of these 
summits are Gray’s Peak, Long’s Peak, Pike’s Peak, Mount 
Lincoln, the Mountain of the Holy Cross, Mount Grant, 
Mount Sherman, Rabbit Ears, Mount Yale, Tarry-all Moun¬ 
tain, Mount Harvard, Dome Peak, Black Butte on the Wet 
Mountain range, and the Spanish Peaks. The Rocky Moun¬ 
tains in Colorado are the sources of many large rivers, some 
flowing into the Mexican Gulf and some into the Pacific. 
On the eastern slope are found the principal sources of 
both the North and South Platte, as well as those of their 
principal tributaries, the Republican and Smoky Hill Forks 
of the Kansas River, and the entire upper course of the 
Arkansas River, with that of its principal tributaries. In 
the S. part of the Territory the Rio Grande del Norte de¬ 
rives its head-waters from the slopes that bound San Luis 
and Las Animas Parks, and from the precipitous sides of 
the Sierra La Plata and the Uncompaligre ranges, which 
there form the boundaries of the great Colorado plateau. 
On the W. the Green River, the Grand River, and its prin¬ 
cipal affluent, the Gunnison River, as well as the San Juan, 
the streams which form the Rio Colorado of the West, all 
have their sources, and the greater part of their independent 
course, in Colorado. The Grand River penetrates to the 
centre of the Territory, and finds its ultimate source in 
Grand Lake on the E. side of the Middle Park, and but a 
very short distance from the upper waters of one of the 
affluents of the South Platte, and the. Arkansas River at 
two points almost interlocks with the sources of the Grand 
and Gunnison rivers. 

Geology and Mineralogy .—In speaking of the mineral 
wealth of Colorado we have made some necessary allusions 
to its geological structure, but this deserves more particu¬ 
lar description. The present accomplished head of the geo¬ 
graphical bureau at Washington, Dr. F. Y. Hayden, has 
explored the Territory in so many different directions that 
we are able to comprehend its geology much better than 
that of some of the older States and Territories. Its va¬ 
rious superficial formations are not, however, local, but 
extend into other States and Territories adjacent. The 
prevailing geological character of the Rocky Mountains 
throughout their whole extent is eozoic, but this is much 
more widely developed in Southern than in Northern Col¬ 
orado. Between the 37th and 39th parallels it spreads out 
to a breadth of nearly 300 miles. In the centre of this ex¬ 
panse of eozoic rocks are the great parks, extending, though 
in interrupted lines, from N. to S. through the entire Ter¬ 
ritory, and into New Mexico. These are tertiary. Along 
the eastern border of the eozoic or gneissoid formations, 
extending from Wyoming to the centre of New Mexico, 
with the exception of two breaks of moderate length, runs 
a narrow bed of Devonian and carboniferous rocks. But the 
coal-beds of the Territory are almost entirely tertiary, or 
perhaps cretaceous. On the south-western border of the 
mountains a similar narrow stratum of Silurian rocks comes 
to the surface. W. of these, and following the same curves, 
with about the same*width, are triassic and Jurassic rocks, 
and these crop out also on the E. side of the mountains be¬ 
tween Pueblo City and the Spanish Peaks. The only posi¬ 
tively volcanic rocks in Colorado are those in the valleys of 
the upper Rio Grande del Norte and Canadian River. Tho 
valley of the Rio Grande, Dr. Hayden believes to have been 



















COLORADO. 


1032 


at somo remote period a vast volcanic crater. In the N. W., 
between the affluents of Green River, there are considerable 
tracts of tertiary, forming the surface of the elevated plat¬ 
eaus; but the remainder of Western Colorado, including the 
valleys of the principal streams, is cretaceous. E. of the 
Rocky Mountains, the valleys of the Arkansas and South 
Platte rivers and their tributaries are cretaceous, but all the 
remainder of the Territory is tertiary. The mineral wealth 
of the Territory is very great. The minerals of commercial 
value are auriferous iron and copper pyrites, zinc, blende, 
argentiferous galena, brittle silver ore, fahlerz (a compound 
of iron, copper, and zinc, with occasionally silver and mer¬ 
cury), specular iron, hematite and magnetic pyrites, ce- 
russito (a carbonate of lead), anglesite (sulphate of lead), 
native gold and silver, horn silver, embolite (a bromo-chlo- 
ride of silver), titanic iron ore, micaceous iron ore, spathic 
iron ore, smithsonite (a carbonate of zinc), copper-glance, 
salt, coal, and albertit'e coal. Of the other minerals of the 
Territory, the most common are yellow ochre, a bog-iron 
ore ; quartz in all its forms, especially those most in demand 
as secondary precious stones—rock-crystal, agate, amethyst, 
bloodstone, cornelian, chalcedony, chrysoprase, jasper, 
onyx, and sardonyx; opals are abundant; all the varieties of 
felspar, hornblende, diorite, garnet, mica, leucite, chlorite, 
amphibole, epidote, tourmaline, calc-spar, gypsum, anhy¬ 
drite, heavy spar, meteoric iron, beryl, brucite, and idocrase. 
There are numerous mineral springs, hot and cold, soda, 
sulphur, chalybeate, magnesian, and others, some of them 
in the vicinity of the great parks and others in smaller 
valleys in the mountains. 

Vegetation .—Colorado cannot be called a treeless region, 
though its vast plains have few trees except in the river- 
bottoms, and these few mainly cottonwoods and box-elder, 
with some scrub-oaks, and pine and spruce on the foot¬ 
hills and spurs of the mountains which extend into the 
plains. The sides of the mountains up to the snow-line 
are covered with pine of various kinds, spruce, and fir, those 
lowest in altitude being of much inferior quality to those 
higher up the mountain. These furnish at present what 
lumber and timber is needed, but, unless replaced by new 
growth, the result of extensive planting of trees, will not 
do so for many years. The native grass of Colorado is re¬ 
markably rich and nutritious, furnishing the best of pasture 
to its vast and constantly increasing herds of cattle and 
sheep. The soil is admirably adapted to the growth of 
cereals, which yield astonishing crops, both in quantity and 
quality. Vegetables of all kinds and most of the fruits do 
well also, though peaches and apples are liable to be win¬ 
ter-killed. Grapes succeed well in the valleys of Southern 
Colorado, where they can have a southern exposure. The 
soil of the greater part of the Territory is very fertile where 
it can have sufficient moisture. 

Climate .—The climate of the Territory is remarkably 
healthful. The air is clear, dry, and pure, and though 
most of the country is elevated, it is admirably adapted 
to the cure of diseases of the lungs and throat. Neither 
intermittent nor remittent fevers prevail there, as in most 
new countries. The annual range of the thermometer is 
much less than in other sections of the country. In the 
parks it does not average more than 60°, the highest tem¬ 
perature not exceeding 80° nor the lowest falling below 20°. 

Zoology .—The wild animals of Colorado are those of the 
Rocky Mountains generally. The buffalo has long ranged 
over its grand parks and along its extensive plains; while 
the grizzly and blaok or brown bear, the elk, antelope, and 
red deer, the coyote or prairie wolf, the fox, the gopher or 
prairie dog, the sage-hare, and many smaller animals 
abound. At certain seasons wild-geese and several species 
of wild-duck are found in the lakes and marshes of the 
Territory, and the sage-hen and other species of grouse and 
the usual variety of song-birds are abundant. Of birds 
of prey there are two species of eagle, several vultures, 
hawks, and owls in the mountains. 

Agricultural Productions .—We have no definite or author¬ 
itative statement of the agricultural condition of the Ter¬ 
ritory later than the census of 1870. At that time there 
were 320,346 acres of land in farms, of which 95,594 acres 
were under cultivation. (Stock-raising, being conducted 
with herdsmen on the public lands, requires no purchased 
lands or farms at present.) The average size of farms was 
184 acres. The value of farms was $3,385,748, and of farm¬ 
ing implements, etc., $272,604. The Territory contained 
at that time 6446 horses, 1173 mules and asses, 25,017 
milch cows, 5566 working oxen, 40,153 other cattle, 120,928 
sheep, and 5509 swine. These numbers have since been 
greatly increased, especially the cattlq, sheep, and swine. 
Within the past three years the pastoral or stock-raising 
facilities of the Territory have received a very rapid de¬ 
velopment, and there are now not less than 200,000 cattle 
and 500,000 sheep in its pastures. The chief productions 
of the Territory in 1869-70 were 255,939 bushels of spring 


and 2535 of winter wheat; 5235 of rye; 231,903 of Indian 
corn; 332,940 of oats; 35,141 of barley (this crop, as well 
as the wheat, has enormously increased since that time); 
178 of buckwheat; 890 pounds of tobacco ; 204,925 of wool; 
7500 bushels of peas and beans; 121,442 of Irish potatoes; 
392,920 pounds of butter; 33,626 of cheese; 19,520 gallons 
of milk sold; and 19,787 tons of hay. 

Manufactures. —The total number of manufacturing es¬ 
tablishments in 1870 was 256, employing 49 steam-engines 
of 1433 horse-power, and 31 water-wheels of 792 horse¬ 
power. In these there were employed 876 hands. The 
amount of capital invested, $2,835,000 ; wages paid during 
the year, $528,221; amount of raw material used, $1,593,280; 
of products, $2,852,820. 

Railroads. —For so new a Territory, Colorado is well 
supplied with railroads, while more are in course of con¬ 
struction. The Kansas Pacific, from Kansas City, Mo., to 
Denver, has 194 miles of its route in the Territory. It was 
completed in 1870, and now leases also the Denver Pacific, 
106 miles in length (which connects Cheyenne on the Union 
Pacific with Denver), and the Boulder Valley R. Rs., 15 
miles in length, from Hughes to Erie. The Denver and 
Rio Grande R. R., projected to run from Denver to El 
Paso on the Rio Grande, in Texas, a distance of 850 miles, 
has completed its main track to Pueblo, a distance of 120 
miles, and a branch to Canon City, 65 miles in length. 
This branch is intended to follow up the valley of the 
Arkansas and South Arkansas rivers, and entering San 
Luis Park at the N. by the Duntho Pass, traverse its 
entire length, and join the main road (Denver and Rio 
Grande) near Fort Garland. The Colorado Central R. R. 
branches in all directions, N., S., E., and W., from Golden 
City. One branch, 18 miles in length, connects it with 
Denver; another with Longmont, 41 miles distant ; another 
with Black Hawk and Central City, 21 miles in length; 
another still with Floyd Hill, 17 miles distant. Other 
branches not yet completed will extend to Georgetown, to 
Jefferson, to Littleton, and to Bradford. All these roads, 
as well as three other roads now constructing, are E. of the 
Rocky Mountains. W. of these mountains no roads have 
been projected, and as there are very few settlers except 
Mexican rancheros, it is hardly probable that they will be 
built for some years to come. The completed railways of 
the Territory up to July, 1873, amount to 597 miles; 719 
miles more are in course of construction within the Ter¬ 
ritory, and perhaps one-half of that amount will be com¬ 
pleted before 1875. 

Finances. —The assessed valuation of Colorado in 1870 
was $17,338,101; the true valuation was estimated at 
$20,243,303. In 1872 her assessed valuation was over 
$30,000,000. The Territory has no debt, but the counties 
have pledged their credit to railroads to the extent of 
$678,829. At the close of 1872 there was a surplus of 
$50,000 in the territorial treasury. No tax was levied for 

1872, and that for 1873 was one and a half mills on the 
dollar of taxable property. The railroads in operation in 
the Territory in 1872 delivered in Denver alone an average 
of 10,000 tons of freight per month, and the business of that 
city for the year was estimated at more than $14,000,000. 
The yield of the jurecious metals in 1872 was nearly 
$30,000,000. There were in Nov., 1872, six national banks 
in Colorado (five of them in Denver), having an aggregate 
capital of $575,000, and carrying an average amount of 
deposits of about $1,800,000. There were no savings banks 
in the Territory. There were no fire or life insurance com¬ 
panies, but most of the leading companies at the East were 
represented there. 

Population .—The first census taken of Colorado was that 
of 1860, when there were 34,277 inhabitants, of whom 34,231 
were whites ; in 1870 the true population is stated at 47,164, 
of whom 456 were colored and 7480 were Indians. A con¬ 
siderable portion of the inhabitants of Southern Colorado 
are of Mexican extraction, but this fact does not seem to 
have been noticed in the census. The population in Jan., 

1873, was stated by Gov. McCook to be about 80,000, ex¬ 
clusive of nomadic Indians. Of the population not Indian, 
24,820 were males and 15,044 females. Of the colored race, 
285 were males and 171 females. The population above 
ten years of age was 30,349, of whom 17,583 were engaged 
in some occupation; in agriculture, 6462; in professional 
and personal services, 3625; in trade and transportation, 
2815; in manufacturing, mechanical, and mining indus¬ 
tries, 4681. The Indians in the Territory are all of the 
TJte tribe, and mainly of the Tabequaehe, Yampa, Grand 
River, and Uintah bands of that tribe. They are all 
friendly, and have a reservation in Western Colorado of 
14,784,000 acres, or a little more than one-fifth of the Ter¬ 
ritory. A few of them wander about, but most of them con¬ 
fine themselves to their reservation. 

Education .—Our latest full reports on education in the 
Territory are to Jan. 1, 1872. The number of school dis- 















COLORADO. 


tricts at that time was 160; the number of schools, 120; 
in Jan., 1873, there were 175 ; the number of male teachers, 
80; of female teachers, 84; total, 164—in Jan., 1873, 230. 
Average monthly pay of male teachers, $69; of female 
teachers, $54; average number of daj r s in which schools 
were taught was 92; number of school-houses, 80; of which 
there were brick, 4; stone, 4; frame, 41; log, 25; adobe, 6. 
Value of school-houses Jan. 1, 1872, $82,574.05—in Jan., 
1873, $186,645. The total population of school age (from 
five to twenty-one years) in 1871 was 7742, of whom 4357 
were enrolled in the schools, and the average attendance 
was 2611; in Jan., 1873, there were 5640 children enrolled. 
The amount of school-tax levied in 1871 was $79,901.04, 
and the rate 41 cents on the assessed valuation. Of this, 
at the close of the year, but $47,387.53 had been collected, 
and the districts had raised by local taxation $33,886.49 
more. The total expenditure for school purposes was 
$67,395.48, or $3.66 per month per pupil. The amount of 
the school^fund was $81,274.02; in Jan., 1873, it had in¬ 
creased to $121,372. Graded schools are in successful opera¬ 
tion in Denver, Central, Black Hawk, Greeley, and several 
other towns in the Territory. Teachers’ institutes were 
held in 1871 in Arapahoe and Boulder cos. There are no 
normal schools, colleges, or universities in Colorado. There 
is a theological seminary (Episcopal) at Golden, with two 
professors. There are two academies of high order: St. 
Mary’s Academy, a Roman Catholic institution for girls, 
at Denver, with 9 instructors and 120 pupils, a library of 
1200 volumes, and $5800 annual income; and Jarvis Hall 
Collegiate School at Golden, an Episcopal institution, 
under the care of the bishop, with 9 instructors and 67 
pupils (boys), and a library of 250 volumes. This school 
is in connection with the territorial school of mines. There 
are also an Episcopal academy, established in 1872, at 
Georgetown, with 2 teachers, and a high*school for girls, 
Wolfe Hall, at Denver, of which Bishop Randall is rector, 
with other teachers in charge. The Roman Catholics have 
also St. Joseph’s Academy, for girls, at Trinidad, with 5 
instructors; St. Mary’s boys’ school at Denver, and are 
erecting a hospital and school at Central City, and schools 
at Conejos and Costilla. There were in 1870, besides these, 
16 private schools, with 20 teachers—8 males and 12 
females—and 396 pupils, 203 males and 193 females. The 
total income of these schools was $7090. The territorial 
school of mines, which is to receive the agricultural land- 
grant, was provisionally organized in 1872, and has its in¬ 
struction at present in connection with Jarvis Hall. The 
number of persons of ten years old and over in 1870 who 
could not read and write (exclusive of tribal Indians) was 
6823, of whom 3400 were males and 3423 females. 

Libraries .—There were 30 public libraries in the Ter¬ 
ritory in 1870, with 11,385 volumes, and 145 private libra¬ 
ries reported, with 27,959 volumes. 

Newspapers .—There were 14 newspapers of all classes 
published in the Territory in 1870, having an aggregate 
circulation of 12,750, and issuing annually 1,190,600 copies. 
This number has since somewhat increased, and the circu¬ 
lation is now nearly 20,000. Of these papers, 5 are dailies, 
with an aggregate circulation of somewhat more than 3000, 
9 are weeklies, with a present circulation of about 15,000; 
1 is a monthly, with a circulation of 1000: this is an ad¬ 
vertising sheet. Four of the dailies and six of the weeklies 
are political, and one daily and three weeklies literary and 
miscellaneous. 

Churches .—In 1870 there were 55 church organizations 
of all kinds, with 47 church edifices, 17,495 sittings, and 
church property valued at $207,230. Of these, the Baptists 
had 5 churches, 4 church edifices, 855 sittings, and $11,000 
worth of church property; in 1872 they had 13 churches, 
12 ordained and 2 licensed ministers, and 469 members. 
There were, in 1870, 2 Christian churches, but no particu¬ 
lars are given of them. In 1870 there were 4 Congrega¬ 
tional churches, with 4 edifices, 1050 sittings, and $28,200 
of church property; in 1872 there were 6 churches, 4 min¬ 
isters, and 173 members. In 1870 there were 9 Episcopal 
churches, 8 church edifices, 2000 sittings, and $46,040 of 
church property; in 1872 there were 10 clergymen, 9 
parishes, and about 300 communicants. There was in 
1870 one Jewish synagogue. In 1870 there were 14 
Methodist churches, 13 church edifices, 3815 sittings, and 
$50,800 worth of church property; in 1872 there were 
26 ordained ministers, 23 churches (6 of them with par¬ 
sonages), 1070 members, 207 probationers, and church 
property valued at $121,100. In 1870 there were 6 Pres¬ 
byterian churches, 5 church edifices, 1200 sittings, $21,800 
of church property; in 1872 there were 3 presbyteries in 
the Synod of Colorado (which, however, includes some of 
the adjacent Territories), 22 ministers, 21 churches, 560 
communicants, and 1251 children in the Sunday schools. 
In 1870 there were 14 Roman Catholic churches, 13 church 
edifices, 8575 sittings, and $49,300 of church property; in 


1033 


1872 there were 15 clergymen in the vicariate apostolic of 
Colorado, 17 churches and chapels, besides 14 chapels build- 
ing, and the adherent Catholic population was stated at 
about 16|000. 

Constitution, Courts, Delegates in Congress, etc .—Colorado 
is still under territorial organization, and her territorial 
constitution is similar in its provisions to those of the other 
new Territories. It contains a provision, engrafted by 
Congress upon the organic act of all the new Territories, 
“that there shall be no denial of the elective franchise or 
any other rights to any person by reason of race or color, 
except to Indians not taxed.” The judicial power of the 
Territory is vested in a supreme court, district courts, pro¬ 
bate courts, and justices of the peace. The supreme court 
consists of a chief-justice and two associates, appointed by 
the President of the U. S. for the term of four years. For 
district court purposes the Territory is divided into three 
districts, in each of which one of the justices of the su¬ 
preme court holds the sessions. There is also in each dis¬ 
trict a clerk of the court, who appoints deputies in each 
county. The supreme and district courts have chancery as 
well as common-law jurisdiction. The probate judges are 
appointed by the legislature for each county. The Terri¬ 
tory is represented in Congress by one delegate, who has 
the right to debate, but not to vote. The present delegate 
is Jerome B. Chaffee of Central City. 

Counties .—Colorado has now (in 1873) twenty-one coun¬ 
ties. As it was not organized as a Territory until 1861, it 
has' of course no former record of county population, 
though its population as an unorganized Territory was 
recorded in 1860. The following are the counties and their 
population in 1870, and their county-seats at present: 


Counties. 


Arapahoe. 

Bent. 

Boulder. 

Clear Creek.... 

Conejos. 

Costilla. 

Douglas. 

El Paso. 

Fremont. 

Gilpin. 

Greenwood. 

Huerfano. 

Jefferson. 

Lake. 

Larimer. 

Las Animas.... 

Park. 

Pueblo., 

Saguache.. 

Summit. 

Weld. 


Population. 

Capital. 

6829 

Denver. 

592 

Las Animas. 

1939 

Boulder. 

1596 

Georgetown. 

2504 

Conejos. 

1779 

San Luis. 

1388 

Franktown. 

987 

Colorado City. 

1064 

Canon City. 

5490 

Central. 

510 

Kit Carson. 

2250 

Badito. 

2390 

Golden. 

522 

Dayton. 

838 

La Porte. 

4276 

Trinidad. 

447 

Fair Play. 

2265 

Pueblo. 

304 

Saguache. 

258 

Breckenridge. 

1636 

Evans. 


The principal towns are Denver, the capital, which in 
1870 had 4759 inhabitants, and is now (1873) estimated to 
have about 14,000; Central City, Greeley, and Black Ilawk 
have between 2000 and 3000; Georgetown, Golden City, 
St. Vrain, Pueblo, and Boulder have nearly 2000 each; 
Evans, Kit Carson, and Canon City are growing towns. 

History .—Colorado has had a brief history. In 1857 a 
party of civilized Cherokees made the first organized at¬ 
tempt to explore it, but were driven back by the roving 
tribes of Indians. In 1858 a company from Georgia, and 
another from Lawrence, Kan., reported that they had dis¬ 
covered gold in paying quantities in the valleys near the 
base of Pike’s Peak, a lofty mountain discovered by Gen. 
Z. M. Pike in 1806. In May, 1859, gold was discovered in 
large quantities in the vicinity of the sources of Clear 
Creek, 50 miles N. of Pike’s Peak. This discovery caused 
great excitement, and there was a general rush of emi¬ 
grants to Pike’s Peak, as the whole region was called, dur¬ 
ing the next two years. Many of the emigrants, not pro¬ 
vided with food or other necessary articles for so perilous 
and tedious a journey, perished miserably by the way, or 
reached there in a starving condition; but others followed, 
till in 1860 the Territory, though not yet organized, had 
nearly 35,000 inhabitants. It was found, after the first 
placers were exhausted, that both gold and silver, but es¬ 
pecially gold, existed there in large quantities, but in new 
conditions—combined with sulphur and copper or iron in 
the form of pyrites, and very difficult of extraction. This 
discovery checked the fever of the gold-miners, and though 
the Territory was organized in Feb., 1S61, under the name 
of Colorado, its growth was very slow for some years. 
Meantime, two other discoveries had been made: one, that, 
rich as it was in the precious metals, its greatest wealth 
lay in its admirable climate and its fine pasture-lands, 
which made it the finest stock-raising region on the con¬ 
tinent; the other, that the vast elevated plains of Eastern 
Colorado, which had formed a portion of the so-called 
“ Great American Desert,” and so late as 1863 were re- 










































1034 COLORADO—COLQUITT. 


garded as worthless for agricultural purposes, were really, 
when irrigated, the richest and most arable portion of the 
continent. These two discoveries have done much to turn 
the tide of emigration to Colorado within the pftst four 
years, and the invention of new processes of extracting 
gold and silver from the pyrites inexpensively has given a 
fresh impetus to its mining industry. • Colorado sent two 
regiments of cavalry, one of infantry, and a battery of ar¬ 
tillery into the service of the government in the war of 
1861, besides organizing a force for home defence. A con¬ 
vention was called, a State constitution prepared and 
adopted, and application made for the admission of Col¬ 
orado into the Union as a State in Dec., 1865. The bill 
passed both houses of Congress in April, 1866, but Presi¬ 
dent Johnson vetoed it. Another bill was passed for its 
admission in Jan., 1867, but this was also vetoed. A bill 
was subsequently passed in Congress giving permission to 
the Territory to apply for admission, but its legislature 
failed to avail themselves of it. In the session of 1872-73 
application was made, but Congress denied it. The present 
population of the Territory is nearly sufficient to entitle the 
new State to a member of the House of Representatives, 
and it is probable that its admission will not be long de¬ 
layed. 

In Sept., 1873, Hon. Felix R. Brunot and Mr. Thomas 
Iv. Cree, chairman and secretary of the board of Indian 
commissioners, negotiated with the Utes, who occupy an 
immense reservation in Western Colorado, a treaty by 
which the U. S. government comes in possession of a tract 
of mining lands in the S. W. corner of Colorado extending 
from the 107th meridian W. to the Utah line, and north¬ 
ward from the northern boundary of New Mexico 100 
miles. This tract, enclosing about 6000 square miles, is 
very rich in silver ores of great purity, assaying from $1000 
to $4000 per ton, and gold-bearing quartz has been found 
which is said to have yielded $36,000 to the ton. It will 
be known as the San Juan River Mining District, and 
there is already a colony of 250 or 300 miners at work 
there. The treaty, which will in all probability be ratified 
by the Senate, binds the Government to pay to the Utes the 
annual income from $500,000. 

Governors .—The governors of the Territory have been— 

John Evans.1861-65 Edward M. McCook...1863-73 

Alexander Cummings.1865-67 ...1873- 

A. Cameron Hunt.1867-69 

As a Territory Colorado has never had a presidential vote. 

L. P. Brockett. 

Colorado, a county in the S. E. of Texas. Area, 905 
square miles. It is intersected by the Colorado River. The 
soil is generally fertile, and produces good crops of cotton 
and maize. The county is well timbered, and is traversed 
by the Galveston Harrisburg and San Antonio R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Columbus. Pop. 8326. 

Colorado City, a post-village, capital of El Paso co., 
Col., at the base of Pike’s Peak, on a small affluent of the 
Arkansas River and near the Denver and Rio Grande R. R., 
76 miles S. of Denver. Gold is found in the vicinity. 

Colorado Springs, a post-village of El Paso co., Col., 
on the Denver and Rio Grande R. It., 75 miles S. of Den¬ 
ver. It has a delightful climate and mineral springs, and 
is a place of summer resort. It was founded by a company 
of educated Eastern men and called the Fountain Colony. 
It has a bank, a weekly paper, four churches, four hotels, 
good schools, and is surrounded by fine scenery. 

Color-Blindness, want of sensibility in the eye to 
differences of color. This defect exists in different degrees, 
but is not necessarily accompanied with any other imper¬ 
fection of vision. In extreme cases the colors most strongly 
contrasted seem not to differ except as to degree of bright¬ 
ness or dulness. Very remarkable examples are given by 
Brewster in his “ Natural Magic.” Color-blindness is some¬ 
times called Daltonism, because the distinguished John Dal¬ 
ton and his brothers suffered from it. 

Color-Guard, The, in the U. S. infantry, consists of 
the color-bearer and a guard of eight corporals in each reg¬ 
iment. They must all be good soldiers. The color-guard 
is attached to the right-centre company in the line, and its 
post on the field is one of honor as well as danger. (See 
Color-Sergeant.) 

Colorine, a township of Lowndes co., Ala. Pop. 2951. 

Coloring-Matters. Nature abounds in these prin¬ 
ciples, and art has added to the number. The colored 
appearance is not an inherent property of the body itself, 
but due to its effect upon ordinary light, which is composed 
of rays of all colors. If a body absorbs nearly all the light, 
it appears black ; if it absorbs scarcely any, but throws it 
off, it will appear white; but if the body contains any sub¬ 
stance (pigment) that has the power of decomposing white 
. light, its color will depend upon which of the rays it absorbs 


and which it reflects. Strictly, speaking, therefore, the color 
of a pigment is due to light which it cannot absorb, and 
which is reflected to the eye of an observer. (See Dye- 
stuffs, Dyeing, and Pigments, by Prof. C. F. Chandler.) 

Col'orist, a painter who excels in coloring or in whoso 
work success in color is the chief excellence. According to 
some critics, Titian was the greatest colorist that ever lived. 
“The sixteenth century,” says Ruskin, “produced the four 
greatest painters —that is to say, managers of color—that 
the world has seen ; namely, Tintoret, Paul Veronese, Titian, 
and Correggio.” 

Col'ors, a military term applied to banners or flags 
carried by each regiment of infantry. The banners of the 
cavalry are called standards. Each U. S. regiment has two 
colors, one national and one regimental. They are made of 
silk, and display the honors and distinctions of the regiment. 

Colors, Complementary. See Complementary 
Colors. 

Color-Sergeant, in the U. S. infantry, is called, in 
strict military language, the color-bearer. He has no 
higher rank than other sergeants, but is detailed by the 
colonel for carrying the regimental colors. In the British 
army he is a non-commissioned officer of higher rank and 
better pay than the ordinary sergeants. There is one to 
each company of infantry, and the office .is specially given 
to meritorious soldiers. He fulfils the ordinary regimental 
and company duties of sergeant, but in addition to these 
he attends the colors. 

Colos'ste [KoAocrcrcu or Ko \ acrcra £], an ancient and ruined 
city of Asia Minor, situated in Phrygia, on the river Lycus. 
It was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 65 A. D. Saint 
Paul’s Epistle to the Colossians was addressed, in 62 (some 
say 58-60) A. D., to the believers at Colossae. Its site is 
about 3 miles N. of the modern Chonas or Khonos. 

Colos'sal [from colossus], in the fine arts, a term applied 
to any work remarkable for extraordinary dimensions. It 
is, however, more especially applied to works in sculpture. 
It seems probable that colossal statues had'their origin from 
the attempt to astonish by size at a period when the sciences 
of proportion and of imitation were in their infancy. In 
Babylon we learn from Daniel that the palaces contained 
statues of great size, and in the present day the ruins of 
India present us with statues of extraordinary dimensions. 
The Egyptians surpassed the Asiatics in these gigantic 
monuments. The taste for colossal statues prevailed also 
among the Greeks. The principal Roman colossus was the 
figure of himself, as the sun, set up by Nero before the 
Golden House ; it was in bronze, the work of Zenodorus ; 
and if, as Pliny says, it was 110 feet high, it was larger 
than the Colossus of Rhodes. 

Colos'sians, The Epistle of Saint Paul to the, 

was written at the same time and place as those to the 
Ephesians and Philemon, probably during the apostle’s 
first imprisonment at Rome. It seems to be directed 
against certain Jewish heresies of the Alexandrian or 
Gnostic type. 

Colos'sus [Gr. KoAoo-<r6?] of Rhodes, a brazen statue 
of Apollo, or perhaps of the sun-god, executed by Chares 
of Lindus, and completed in 280 B. C., was one of the Seven 
Wonders of the World. The statement that one foot rested 
on each side of the harbor of Rhodes, and that ships passed 
under it in full sail, does not rest on good authority. It 
was 105 feet in height, and was ascended by a winding 
staircase. It was overthrown by an earthquake about 224 
B. C., and was never re-erected. Its fragments remained 
on the spot till 672 A. D. 

Colos'trum [a Latin word of uncertain etymology], the 
first milk yielded after accouchement. It contains more 
sugar, more butter, and rather less caseine than true milk, 
and also contains a much greater proportion of phosphates 
and chlorides, which may possibly give to colostrum the 
evacuant properties which it is said to possess. It also has 
a great number of leucocytes, called “ colustrum corpuscles.” 

Colquhoun (Patrick), a Scottish political economist, 
born at Dumbarton Mar. 14, 1745. He became a merchant 
in Glasgow, and promoted the manufacture of muslin in' 
Scotland. In 1761 he went to Virginia, and in 1789 set¬ 
tled in London. He published, besides other works, a 
“ Treatise on the Police of the Metropolis” (1796) and 
“On the Population, Wealth, etc. of the-British Empire.” 
He applied his mind to the elevation of the poor classes. 
Died April 25, 1820. 

Col'quitt, a county in the S. W. of Georgia. Area, 
600 square miles. It is drained by the Ocopilco, and 
bounded on the E. by Little River. The surface is nearly 
level. Cotton, tobacco, wool, and rice are raised. Capital, 
Moultrie. Pop. 1654. 

Colquitt, or Col'quit, a post-village, capital of Miller 

















COLQUETT—COLUMBIA. 


1035 


co., Ga., on Spring Creek, about 100 miles S. of Columbus. 
It has one weekly newspaper. 

Colquitt (Walter. T.), an American lawyer and Sena¬ 
tor, born in Halifax co., Va., Dec. 27, 1799. Having re¬ 
moved to Georgia, he was elected a member of Congress in 
1838, and a Senator of the U. S. in 1842, by the Democrats. 
Died in Macon, Ga., May 7, 1855. 

Colt (Samuel), a celebrated American inventor, born 
at Hartford, Conn., July 19, 1814. He invented a pistol 
called a revolver, for which he obtained a patent in 1835. 
He began about 1848 to manufacture revolvers at Hartford, 
where he erected an extensive armory. Colt’s revolvers 
soon attained a world-wide reputation, and were adopted 
as cavalry arms by most civilized nations. (See Revolver.) 
Died in 1862. 

Col'ton, a post-township of St. Lawrence co., N. Y., 
has extensive forests and numerous lakes, and is the seat 
of important manufactures of sole-leather. Pop. of Colton 
village, 633; of township, 1719. 

Colton (Calvin), LL.D., an American writer and 
Episcopal clergyman, born at Longmeadow, Mass., in 1789. 
He wrote, besides other works, “ Four Years in Great Brit¬ 
ain ” (1835) and a “ Life of Henry Clay” (3 vols., 1844). 
Died at Savannah, Ga., Mar. 13, 1857. 

Colton (Charles), U. S. N., born Feb. 15, 1843, in 
Wisconsin, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1861, be¬ 
came ensign in 1862, a lieutenant in 1864, and a lieutenant- I 
commander in 1866. He served in the steam-sloop Oneida 
at the battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and is thus 
highly spoken of by the executive officer of that vessel, 
Charles H. Huntington: “Too much praise cannot be 
awarded to Lieutenant C. S. Colton, Lieutenant E. N. Kel¬ 
logg, and Acting Ensign John Sears, commanding gun 
divisions, for the admirable examples of courage they af¬ 
forded their men, and for their skill in directing the fire of 
the guns.” Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Colton (Walter), an American writer, born in Rut¬ 
land, Vt., May 9, 1797. He was a chaplain in the navy. 
Among his works are “ Ship and Shore in Madeira, Lisbon, 
etc.” (1835), “ Deck and Port” (1850), and “ Three Years 
in California” (1850). Died in Philadelphia, Jan. 22, 1851. 

Col'uber, the Latin name of a genus of serpents, origi¬ 
nally including many species agreeing only in having a 
double row of plates on the under side of the tail. Most 
of the poisonous species, with many harmless ones, are now 
excluded from the genus. A number of them are of bril¬ 
liant colors. The serpent of iEsculapius (Coluber yEscu- 
lapii) was taken by the ancients as a symbol appertaining 
to the god of medicine. It is four or five feet long, and of 
a brown color. It is very gentle and easily tamed. It is 
a native of Southern Europe. 

Colubri'na [from Coluber, one of the genera], one of 
the two great sub-orders of serpents, is distinguished from 
the Yiperina by being oviparous instead of ovo-viviparous, 
and has also a different arrangement of the teeth and max¬ 
illary bones. The sub-order probably comprises more than 
half the existing species of serpents. Comparatively few 
of them are venomous. 

Colum'ba, Saint, called also Saint Colm, was born 
at Gartan, county Donegal, Ireland, in 521 A. D. In 563 
A. D. he set out on his mission to Scotland. He founded 
in Iona, one of the Hebrides, an abbey and a college which 
had a high reputation. Died in 597 A. D. 

Col'umban', or Colomban, Saint, an Irish monk, 
born in Leinster Nov. 21, probably in 543 A. D. He 
founded the monastery of Luxeuil, near Besan§on, in France, 
about 590 A. D., and was the author of a monastic rule. 
He was a man of real learning and genius. Died in Italy 
in 615 A. D., after two years’ residence there. 

Columba'rium [a Latin term originally signifying a 
“ dove-cote ”], among the ancient Romans a sepulchre 
containing niches like pigeon-holes (whence the name), in 
which were placed burial-urns for receiving the ashes of 
slaves and dependants after incremation. 

Colum'bia, or Or'egon, a river of the U. S., is the 
largest American river that enters the Pacific Ocean. It 
rises on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains in 
British Columbia, about lat. 50° N. and Ion. 116° W. It 
flows north-westward nearly 150 miles, and then southward 
to Washington Territory, in which it unites with a large 
branch called Clark’s River. Below this junction it pur¬ 
sues a very tortuous course to the northern boundary of 
Oregon. From this point it flows westward in a neaidy 
direct line, and forms the boundary between Oregon and 
Washington Territory until it enters the Pacific. It is a 
rapid stream, passing through many mountain-gorges, and 
its navigation is much obstructed by falls. The tide as¬ 
cends to the Cascades, a series of rapids, where the river 


passes through the Cascado Range, 140 miles from its mouth. 
At its mouth is a bar covered with twenty feet of water at 
low tide. Vessels of 300 tons or more can ascend the river 
to the Cascades. At the Dalles, in Oregon, the river is 
contracted to a channel about 100 yards wide between ba¬ 
saltic rocks. Steamboats ply daily on the Columbia, both 
below and above the Dalles (which sec). Entire length, 
estimated at 1400 miles. A large affluent, called Lewis or 
Snake River, enters it near lat. 46° 20' N. The scenery of 
the Columbia is sublime, especially where it passes through 
the Cascade Range. 

Colum'bia, a county in the S. W. of Arkansas. Area, 
825 square miles. It is drained by the Dorcheat River. 
The surface is nearly level ,• the soil fertile and well tim¬ 
bered. Cotton, corn, and wool are raised. Capital, Mag¬ 
nolia. Pop. 11,397. 

Columbia, a county of Florida, bordering on Georgia. 
Area, 800 square miles. It is partly bounded on the N. W. 
by the Little Suwanee River. The surface is nearly level; 
the soil is fertile and well timbered. Rice, cotton, corn, 
wool, and fruit are raised. It is intersected by the Jack¬ 
sonville Pensacola and Mobile R. R. Capital, Lake City. 
Pop. 7335. 

Columbia, a county in the E. of Georgia. Area, 580 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Savannah 
River. The surface is uneven; the soil is based on granite 
and other rocks. Cotton, corn, and wool are raised. It is 
intersected by the Georgia R. R. Capital, Appling. Pop. 
13,529. 

Columbia, a county of New York, bordering on Massa¬ 
chusetts. Area, 688 square miles. It is bounded on the 
W. by the Hudson River. The surface in the E. is hilly, 
and in the other parts nearly level. The soil is fertile. 
Cattle, grain, wool, and dairy products are raised, and iron, 
cotton, and woollen goods, paper, and a great variety of 
articles are extensively manufactured. Its commerce is 
also extensive. Limestone, marble, iron, and lead are 
found here. It is intersected by the Boston and Albany 
R. R., the Hudson River R. R., and the Harlem Extension 
R. R. Capital, Hudson. Pop. 47,044. 

Columbia, a county in the N. W. of Oregon, is bounded 
on the N. and E. by the Columbia River. The surface is 
partly mountainous, and covered with forests of fir, cedar, 
and hemlock. The soil is fertile. Capital, St. Helen. 
Pop. 863. 

Columbia, a county of E. Central Pennsylvania. 
Area, 425 square miles. It is intersected by the North 
Branch of the Susquehanna River, and also drained by 
Fishing and Catawissa creeks. The surface is hilly; the 
soil of the valleys is derived from limestone, and is fertile. 
Wool and grain are staple products, and carriages, leather, 
iron, and metallic wares are extensively manufactured. 
It is traversed by the Lackawanna and Bloomsburg, the 
Danville Hazleton and Wilkesbarre, and Catawissa branch 
of the Philadelphia and Reading R. Rs. Capital, Blooms¬ 
burg. Pop. 28,766. 

H. L. Dieffenbach, Ed. “ The Columbian.” 

Columbia, a county in S. Central Wisconsin. Area, 
727 square miles. It is intersected by the Wisconsin and 
the Fox or Neenah River. The surface is undulating; the 
soil fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are raised; wagons 
and carriages are manufactured. The Milwaukee and St. 
Paul R. R. passes through it. Capital, Portage City. Pop. 
28,802. . 

Columbia, a township and post-village of Henry co., 
Ala. The village is 110 miles S. E. of Montgomery. Pop. 
of township, 1382. 

Columbia, a post-village of Tuolumne co., Cal., is near 
the Stanislaus River, 4 miles N. of Sonora. It has four 
churches. Gold-mines have been opened here. Pop. 1125; 
of the township, 2192. 

Columbia, a post-township of Tolland co., Conn. 
Pop. 891. 

Columbia, a post-village of Monroe co., III., about 
100 miles S. by W. from Springfield. Pop. 1246. 

Columbia, a township of Du Bois co., Ind. P. 1622. 

Columbia, a post-township of Fayette co., Ind. Pop. 
929. 

Columbia, a township of Gibson co., Ind. P. 2238. 

Columbia, a township of Jennings co., Ind. P. 1272. 

Columbia, a township of Martin co., Ind. Pop. 831. 

Columbia, a city, capital of Whitley co., Ind., on the 
Detroit and Eel River and the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and 
Chicago R. Rs., 19 miles W. N. W. of Fort Wayne. Two 
newspapers are issued here. Pop. 1663; of Columbia 
township, 2934. 

Columbia, a township of Tamaco., Ia. Pop. 718. 




























COLUMBIA—COLUMBIAD. 


1036 


Columbia, a township of Wapello co., Ia. Pop. 2101. 

Columbia, a post-village, capital of Adair co., Ky., 
100 miles S. S. W. of Frankfort. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. Pop. 506. 

Columbia, a post-village, capital of Caldwell parish, 
La., on the Washita River, 230 miles by water N. N. W. of 
Baton Rouge. Pop. 235. 

Columbia, a post-township of Washington co., Me. 
Pop. 668. 

Columbia, a township and post-village of Jackson co., 
Mich. The village is 10 miles S. E. of Jackson. Total 
pop. 1002. 

Columbia, a township of Tuscola co., Mich. P. 424. 

Columbia, a township and village of Van Buren co., 
Mich. The village is on the Kalamazoo and South Haven 
R. R., 27 miles W. of Kalamazoo. Total pop. 1269. 

Columbia, a post-village, capital of Marion co., Miss., 
on Pearl River, 90 miles S. by E. from Jackson. Pop. 66. 

Columbia, a post-village, capital of Boone co., Mo., 
10 miles N. of the Missouri and 24 miles E. of Boonville. 
A branch road connects it with the St. Louis Kansas City 
and Northern R. R. It is the seat of the State university 
and the Christian and Baptist female colleges. It has two 
national banks, a library, and two newspapers. Pop. 
2236; of township, 5560. Ed. “ Herald.” 

Columbia, a post-township of Coos co., N. H. P. 752. 

Columbia, a post-township of Herkimer co., N. Y. 
Pop. 1637. 

Columbia, a township of New Hanover co., N. C. 
Pop. 1715. 

Columbia, a township of Randolph co., N. C. Pop. 
1254. 

Columbia, a post-village, capital of Tyrrell co., N. C., 
on a creek or inlet of Albemarle Sound, 182 miles E. of 
Raleigh. Pop. of township, 1206. 

Columbia, a post-village of Hamilton co., 0., on the 
Ohio River, 5 miles above Cincinnati. Pop. 1105. 

Columbia, a post-township of Hamilton co., 0. Pop. 
3184. 

Columbia, a township of Lorain co., 0. Pop. 892. 

Columbia, a township of Meigs co., O. Pop. 1286. 

Columbia, a township and village of Bradford co., 
Pa. The village is on the Williamsport and Elmira R. R., 
58 miles N. of Williamsport. Pop. 1521. 

Columbia, a post-borough of Lancaster co., Pa., on 
the left bank of the Susquehanna River (here nearly one 
mile and a quarter wide), 80 miles by railroad W. of Phila¬ 
delphia. It is the south-western terminus of the Reading 
and Columbia R. R., 45J miles long, and the northern ter¬ 
minus of the Columbia and Port Deposit R. R. A railroad 
bridge across the river connects Columbia with Wrights- 
ville. It contains two national and three private banks, 
three newspaper-offices, waterworks, a female institute, 
two rolling-mills, a mill for railroad iron, engine and 
boiler works, several iron-furnaces, a patent rake manu¬ 
factory, and a fine library. Here is an extensive market 
and depot for lumber, which is brought down the river by 
rafts. Pop. 6461. A. M. Rambo, Ed. “ Courant.” 

Columbia, the capital of South Carolina and seat of 
justice of Richland co., is on the left (E.) bank of the 
Congaree River, just below the confluence of the Saluda 
and Broad, 137 miles by railroad N. N. W. of Charleston; 
lat. 33° 57' N., Ion. 81° 7' W. It is on the Charlotte Co¬ 
lumbia and Augusta and the Wilmington Columbia and 
Augusta R. Rs., is the south-eastern terminus of the Green¬ 
ville and Columbia R. R., and is connected with Charles¬ 
ton by a branch of the South Carolina R. R. It is the seat 
of South Carolina College, called since 1865 the South 
Carolina University, founded in 1804. Columbia has a 
State-house, penitentiary, an asylum for the insane sup¬ 
ported by the State, a Presbyterian theological seminary, 
a Methodist female college, two national banks, one cotton 
factory (just out of the corporate limits), three foundries, 
two sash and door factories, an orphans’ home, waterworks, a 
park, and large libraries connected with the theological sem¬ 
inary (18,300 vols.) and South Carolina University (30,000 
vols.). Four daily, eight weekly (four of them religious), 
two tri-weekly, and one monthly newspaper are published 
here; there is also one quarterly publication. It is at the 
head of steamboat navigation. It was taken by Gen. 
Sherman’s army Feb. 17, 1865, and was then much injured 
by fire. Pop. 9298; or, including the township of Colum¬ 
bia, 10,130. Ed. of “ Southern Presbyterian.” 

Columbia, a post-village, capital of Maury co., Tenn., 
on Duck River and on the Nashville and Decatur R. R., 
46 miles S. S. W. of Nashville. It is the seat of Jackson 


College, and has one national bank, two female seminaries, 
and three weekly and one monthly newspaper. Pop. 2550. 

Columbia, a post-village of Brazoria co., Tex., on the 
W. bank of the Brazos River. It has an extensive trade, 
carried on in steamboats and by rail. It is the W. termi¬ 
nus of the Brazoria and Houston Tap R. R. Pop. 426. 

Columbia, a township and post-village of Fluvanna 
co., Ya. The village is on the James River, 25 miles S. E. 
of Charlottesville. Pop. of township 2331. 

Columbia, British. See British Columbia. 

Columbia College, an institution of learning in New 
York City, originally chartered as “ King’s College ” by 
George II., Oct. 31, 1754. Moneys had been previously 
raised for the endowment of the college, under acts of the 
provisional assembly authorizing lotteries for the purpose, 
of which the first was passed as early as 1746. It received 
also a liberal grant of land from Trinity Church, and on a 
portion of this its first building was erected. The Episco¬ 
pal denomination has always had a controlling influence 
in its governing board, but it is not, and has never been, 
sectarian in its teaching. Its original site was near the 
City Hall Park, and was approached through Park place, 
which has since been extended over it. In 1857 the college 
was removed to East Forty-ninth street, where it has since 
occupied buildings not originally erected for it; but these 
will soon be replaced by others more suitable, unless it 
should be a second time removed to a point farther up the 
island. The occurrence of the public troubles which led to 
the war of the Revolution seriously interfered with the 
business of the college, and finally arrested its operations 
altogether. On the night of May 10, 1775, the president, 
Dr. Cooper, being a zealous loyalist, fled, through fear of 
popular violence, and no commencement was held that 
year. Early in the following year the building was con¬ 
verted into a military hospital, and all the students were 
dispersed. Business was resumed in May, 1784, when the 
college, on its own application, was erected into a univer¬ 
sity, under the corporate title of “ The Regents of the Uni¬ 
versity.” The body which now bears this name in the 
State of New York is of more recent creation. In 1787 
the university scheme was abandoned, and the institution 
received its present name of “ Columbia College.” A 
medical department was connected with the college from 
1767 to 1813, when it was discontinued. In 1860 the “New 
York College of Physicians and Surgeons ” became con¬ 
nected with Columbia College. The law department (estab¬ 
lished in 1858) has met with great success. The number 
of law-students (1873-74) was 425. The law-graduates of 
1873 numbered 138. The school of mines (organized in 
1864) embraces five distinct courses of scientific study : (1) 
mining engineering; (2) civil engineering ; (3) metallurgy; 
(4) geology and natural history ; (5) analytical and applied 
chemistry. The college has in its four faculties more than 
60 professors and instructors, and nearly 1000 students 
(1873). Its principal library contains nearly 17,000 vol¬ 
umes; the library of the law school, 4000; that of the 
school of mines, 5000; and the botanical library, 1100. 
This latter was the gift of the late eminent naturalist Dr. 
John Torrey, who presented to this college, at the same 
time, his immense herbarium, embracing over 50,000 speci¬ 
mens. This collection has recently been more than doubled 
in magnitude by the addition to it of the extensive her¬ 
barium of Prof. Meisner of Bale, presented by Mr. J. J. 
Crooke of New York in 1872. It is now probably the 
largest and most complete in the world, except the royal 
collection at Ivew, England. The cabinets and apparatus 
of the college for the illustration of the various branches 
of physical and chemical science, and of geology, mineral¬ 
ogy, and natural history, are surpassed for completeness 
and excellence by few. The gross income of the college 
for 1873 was more than $260,000, largely derived from 
ground-rents. This income is rapidly increasing, and the 
financial prospect of Columbia College is excellent. 

The presidents ofthe college have been—Samuel Johnson, 
D. D. (1753-63); Myles Cooper, S. T. D., LL.D. (1763-75); 
Rev. W. Moore (1784-87); Dr. W. S. Johnson (1787-1800); 

C. H. Wharton, D. D., LL.D. (1800); Rt. Rev. Benjamin 
Moore (1800-11); W. Harris, S. T. D. (1811-29) ; Hon. W. 
A. Duer (1829-42); N. F. Moore, LL.D. (1842-49); Charles 
King, LL.D. (1849-64); and Rev. F. A. P. Barnard, S. T. 

D. , LL.D., L. H. D. F. A. P. Barnard. 

Colum'biatl, a sea-coast howitzer, of cast-iron, pro¬ 
posed by the late Colonel George Bomford, chief of ord¬ 
nance, and introduced (about) 1812. Some of these guns 
were in service during the war with England, 1812-15. 
Three calibres were recommended — 50-pounders, 100- 
pounders, and 150-pounders—for coast defence, particu¬ 
larly against shipping, as a single shell of the larger sizes 
exploding in a vessel’s side, or on her decks, would, it was 
thought, produce great injury, if not complete wreck. 



















COLUMBIA, DISTRICT OF—COLUMBID^E. 


1037 


Meyer’8 Technologie des Armes d feu mentions under date 
1815, “ the explosion of an English vessel hit by an Ameri¬ 
can shell before New York ;” and again, under the same 
date, “Very good results were obtained in America from 
ovoidal (spherico-cylindrical) percussion shells of the cali¬ 
bre of 100, which are fired from a kind of carronade desig¬ 
nated by the name of Columbiad.” This is the first notice 
given by this diligent and accurate author of* the Exist¬ 
ence of such a gun, or of a percussion shell, in the world, 
lie seems to have searched thoroughly from the commence¬ 
ment of the Christian Era. 

Halleck (“ Military Art and Science/’ page 280) states 
(in a note), after designating large howitzers as “ Paixhans 
Guns,” or “ Columbiads ”—“the description of one of Colonel 
Bomford’s Columbiads which was at Governor’s Island, 
New York Harbor, was taken to Prance by a young 
French officer, and thus fell into the hands of General 
Paixhans,who immediately introduced them into the French 
service.” 

Whether General Paixhans received as above the descrip¬ 
tion of the columbiad or not, there would seem to be no 
doubt that this gun was the first howitzer of cast-iron of 
like calibre and length that was successfully used for shell¬ 
firing. 8-inch and 10-inch howitzers had been proposed 
and made at earlier dates—that is, chambered guns shorter 
than cannon and longer than mortars, and having trun¬ 
nions in advance of their vents, and near the centre of 
gravity of the gun—but these guns were of bronze, gener¬ 
ally shorter than the columbiads, and were not designed 
or used for shell-firing at low angles, but for heavy projec¬ 
tiles, to obtain great range. 

In 1749, France adopted the 8-inch size howitzer, but 
suppressed it in 1803 as useless, upon Gassendi’s recom¬ 
mendation, retaining only a 5i-inch field howitzer. In 
1804, 9-inch and 11-inch howitzers, proposed by Villan- 
trois, were made at Douai of eight calibres length, and 
were fired with lead-filled shells at high angles; and in 
1810, at Seville in Spain a 10-inch howitzer of seven cali¬ 
bres length was cast to obtain a long range at the siege of 
Cadiz. 

From 1809 to 1819, according to Meyer, Paixhans was 
interested in experiments to prove the superiority of hol¬ 
low projectiles over hot shot for naval warfare, and the de¬ 
structive effects of bursting shells. • In 1819 he presented 
his treatise Nouvelle Force Maritime, but not published 
until 1822, in which he first proposes his Canon- Obusier, 
an 8-inch howitzer shell gun of cast-iron. The English 
claim that General Millar, who introduced a like gun in 
1824, proposed it in 1820. 

In the U. S. the 8-inch howitzer and 10-inch howitzer 
shell guns were remodelled in 1841 and 1844, intending 
these last, called Columbiads, to be fired with solid shot 
and with one-sixth their weight of powder; but subse¬ 
quently they were reserved for shell-firing only, and a new 
pattern (without a chamber and heavier) was adopted in 
1858; two of which (one cast solid and one hollow, and as 
proposed by Gen. Rodman, cooled from the interior) were 
subjected to comparative proof, both enduring the remark¬ 
able number of 4082 rounds, with solid shot and service 
charge, without destruction. 

In 1861, the Rodman exterior form of guns was adopted 
for the Columbiads, as for all others, and calibres of 13, 15, 
and 20-inch smooth-bore, 10-inch and 12-inch rifled, and 
13 and 15 mortars, adopted for sea-coast guns. 

Col. Bomford, the inventor of the columbiad, distin¬ 
guished himself through his long military career by many 
other valuable suggestions in artillery science. Among 
others, he proposed and carried out the first practical ex¬ 
periments demonstrating the proper exterior lines of a can¬ 
non, as shown by the pressure of the fire-charge at regular 
distances from the bottom of the bore. He also proposed 
the 12-inch gun of 1846, and while testing its capabilities 
carried on a series of experiments proving the best and 
simplest form of fuse-shells fired from heavy guns, with 
the safety-caps sufficient to protect the fuse from extinc¬ 
tion by ricochet on land or water. 

P. V. Hagner, U. S. A. 

Columbia, District of. See District of Columbia, 
by L. P. Brockett, M. D. 

Columbia Falls, a township of Washington co., Me. 
It has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 608. 

Columbian'a, a county in the E. N. E. of Ohio. Area, 
490 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the Ohio 
River. The surface is partly hilly and partly undulating; 
the soil is calcareous and very fertile. Cattle, grain, and 
wool are raised. Building-stone, leather, pottery, brick, 
etc. are here produced extensively. Coal and limestone are 
found. It is intersected by the Cleveland and Pittsburg 
R. R. and the Pittsburg Fort Wayno and Chicago R. R. 
Capital, New Lisbon. Pop. 38,299. 


Columbiana, a post-village, capital of Shelby co. Ala., 
on the Selma Rome and Dalton R. R., 72 miles N. N. E.of 
Selma. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of Colum¬ 
biana township, 1040. 

Columbiana, a post-village of Fairfield township, 
Columbiana co., 0. It is on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and 
Chicago R. R., 60 miles N. W. of Pittsburg, Pa., and has 
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 870. 

Colum'bian Col'lege, Washington, D. C., was incor¬ 
porated by an act of Congress in 1821. Its founders were 
mainly members of the Baptist denomination. The name 
of Luther Rice, so honorably connected with the cause of 
foreign missions, js no less honorably connected with the 
educational movement which led to the establishment of 
this institution. The record of the college has been hon¬ 
orable, if not illustrious. The college proper has sent forth 
about 400 graduates, of whom 120 have entered the Chris¬ 
tian ministry; 5 have been foreign missionaries; 18 have 
been professors in colleges, and 4 have been college presi¬ 
dents. The medical department has sent forth 382 gradu¬ 
ates. The lasv department, though of comparatively recent 
foundation, has already contributed 581 members to the legal 
profession, some of whom have attained to distinction at 
the bar and to stations of public honor. By an act of Con¬ 
gress, approved Mar. 3, 1873, the corporation of the Colum¬ 
bian College was changed into “ The Columbian University,” 
and the friends of the institution are now taking steps for 
the establishment of schools of science, technology, and of 
the fine arts as a part of its university system, hoping 
that it may avail itself of the magnificent libraries and 
collections of the capital. The presidents of the institution 
have been as follows: Rev. William Staughton, D. D., 
Re,v. Stephen Chapin, D. D., Rev. Joel S. Bacon, D. D., 
Rev. Joseph G. Binney, D. D., Rev. Geo. W. Samson, D. D. 
The present president is James C. Welling, LL.D. The 
college in 1872 had 18 instructors, 283 students, and prop¬ 
erty to the value of $350,000. 

James C. Welling. 

Columbian Grove, a post-township of Lunenburg 
co., Va. Pop. 1422. 

Colum'bidse [from Columba , the principal genus], a 



Rock Dove. 


family of birds forming the transition from the passerine 
to the gallinaceous orders. They agree with the true gal¬ 
linaceous birds in the character of the bill, and in the soft 
membrane at the base of it; the sternum is deeply notched. 
A dilated crop is developed from both sides, in which they 
differ from all other birds. The stomach is a true gizzard, 
and the lower larynx has a single pair of muscles. The 
male assists his mate in rearing the young, which are at 
first supported by a milky fluid secreted in the crop. 1 ho 
Columbidfe resemble the passerine birds in their powers 
of flight, in living in a state of monogamy, in building their 
nests in trees and crevices of rooks, and generally in laying 
but two eggs at a time. In domestication there ha's o arisen 



























































































1038 COLUMBINE—COLUMBUS. 


many remarkable varieties, as carrier-pigeons, fan-tails, 
tumblers, etc. The domesticated varieties are descended 
from tho rock-dove, Columba livia, of the Old World. The 
study of these varieties has been thoroughly carried out by 
Mr. Darwin, and seems to have suggested his theory of the 
origin of species. (See Pigeon.) 

Col'umbine ( Aquilegia ), a genus of perennial plants 
of the order llanunculacese. They have five petals, all 
alike, with a short spreading lip, produced backward into 
large hollow spurs, much longer than the calyx; pistils five. 
The Aquilegia vulgaris, or common columbine, a native of 
Europe and of the Ilocky Mountains in the U. S., is culti¬ 
vated in gardens for its showy flowers. The Aquilegia 
Canadensis, a native of the U. S., has beautiful scarlet flow¬ 
ers of curious structure. 

Colum'bium, or Nio'bium, a rare metal originally 
discovered in columbite from Massachusetts by Hatchett in 
1801. Wollaston in 1809, in investigating minerals con¬ 
taining columbium, expressed the belief that the metal was 
identical with tantalum, and this view was generally ac¬ 
cepted until 1846, when II. Rose showed that the two were 
distinct, though tantalum occurs in many of the columbium 
minerals. Rose, indeed, inclined to the belief that what 
had been described as columbium really consisted of two 
metals, which he called niobium and pelopium. Further 
investigations showed him that but one metal was the basis 
of the supposed two; so the name pelopium was dropped, 
and the name niobium was retained, the symbol Nb being 
now used for columbium. The black powder produced by 
heating columbium compounds with sodium has been sup¬ 
posed to be the metal, but Delafontaine states that this 
powder is the protoxide, and that the metal is a steel-gray 
powder obtained by igniting the chloride NbCl 5 in a cur¬ 
rent of hydrogen. With tantalum, columbium forms a 
groirp distinct from the other elements. The principal 
minerals in which columbium is found are columbite, a 
columbate of iron and manganese; bragite, a columbate of 
yttrium and iron; samarskite, a urano-columbate of yttrium 
and iron; pyrochlore, a columbate of lime, cerium, etc.; 
seschynite, a titano-columbate of cerium, iron, lanthanum, 
etc. Some of these minerals contain tungsten. They are 
found in small quantities in a few localities in Europe and 
the U. S. The combining number of columbium is 94. 

Columbo. See Colombo Root. 

Colum'bus, a county in the S. of North Carolina. Area, 
600 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the Little 
Pedee River, and intersected by the Waccamaw. The sur¬ 
face is level, and partly occupied by swamps, in which rice 
is produced. It is intersected by the Wilmington Colum¬ 
bia and Augusta R. R. Capital, Whitesville. Pop. 8474. 

Columbus, a city of Georgia, capital of Muscogee 
county, is on the E. bank of the Chattahoochee River, which 
here forms the boundary between Georgia and Alabama. 
It is 100 miles W. S. W. of Macon and 292 by railroad W. 
of Savannah. Steamboats ply at all seasons between Co¬ 
lumbus and Appalachicola, Fla., light drafts only being 
used in summer. Columbus is the northern terminus of the 
Mobile and Girard R. R., the eastern terminus of the West¬ 
ern Alabama, the western terminus of the Central Georgia, 
and the southern terminus of the North and South R. Rs. 
It has six cotton-factories, and the falls of the river at this 
point afford a water-power sufficient for 100,000 spindles. 
It has three saw-mills, two machine-shops, and one foundry, 
besides planing and flouring mills. There are four banks, 
one of them national, and four papers, one daily and three 
weekly. The public schools for white and colored are un¬ 
surpassed by any in the State. Columbus has pleasant 
suburbs, noted for the beauty of their scenery and the taste 
of their private residences. The neighboring countrv has 
some of the finest farming-land in Western Georgia. Pop. 
7401. A. R. Calhoun, Prop. “ Enquirer-Sun.” 

Columbus, a post-township of Adams co.. Ill. Pon 
975. 1 ‘ 

Columbus, a post-village, capital of Bartholomew co., 
Ind., on the East Fork of White River and on the Jefferson¬ 
ville Madison and Indianapolis R. R., 41 miles S. S. E. of 
Indianapolis. Another railroad extends from this point 
north-eastward to Cambridge. It has one national bank 
and two newspaper-offices. Pop. 3359 ; of township, 5187. 

Columbus, a post-village, capital of Cherokee co., 
Ivan., on the Missouri River Fort Scott and Gulf R. R., 50 
miles S. of Fort Scott. It has one weekly newspaper. 
Pop. 402. 

Columbus, a city of Hickman co., Ivy., on the Missis¬ 
sippi River, 196 miles by rail below St. Louis. It is tho 
northern terminus of the Mobile and Ohio R. R., 472 miles 
long. The St. Louis and Iron Mountain R. R. terminates 
at Belmont, on the other side of tho river, and crosses by 


means of inclined planes and a ferry. It has one weekly 
newspaper. Pop. 1574. R. Summers, Ed. “Dispatch.” 

Columbus, a township and post-village of St. Clair 
co., Mich. The village is 15 miles S. W. of Port Huron. 
Total pop. 1218. 

Columbus, a township of Anoka co., Minn. Pop. 71. 

Colurrtbus, the capital of Lowndes co., Miss., is on the 
navigable Tombigbee River and on a branch of the Mobile 
and Ohio R. R., 235 miles by rail from Mobile. It has 3 
banks, 3 wagon-factories, 10 churches, a female seminary, 
a university, and 2 public academies, and a very large trade, 
especially in cotton. It has 3 weekly, 1 tri-weekly, and 3 
monthly newspapers. Pop. 4812. 

Lewis & Bliss, Eds. “ Press.” 

Columbus, a township and post-village of Johnson 
co., Mo. The village is 10 miles N. W. of Warrensburg. 
Pop. of township, 1394. 

Columbus, a city, capital of Platte co., Neb., on the 
Platte River and the Union Pacific R. R., 92 miles W. of 
Omaha. It has a bridge across the Platte, one bank, three 
school-houses, a high school, five churches, various indus¬ 
tries, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. of Columbus town¬ 
ship, 1233. M. Iv. Turner, Ed. “ Platte Journal.” 

Columbus, a township and post-village of Chenango 
co., N. Y. The village is about 40 miles S. of Rome. Pop. 
of township, 1197. 

Columbus, a post-villa'ge, capital of Polk co., N. C., 
about 90 miles W. of Charlotte. Pop. of Columbus town¬ 
ship, 744. 

Columbus, the capital of Franklin co. and of the 
State of Ohio, is pleasantly situated on each side of the 
Scioto River, but principally on the eastern side, and 70 
miles from its mouth, 110 miles N. E. of Cincinnati, and 
350 miles from Washington, D. C. It is in lat. 39° 57' N. 
and Ion. 83° 3' W. from Greenwich. Previous to 1863 the 
city occupied an area of 1100 acres; by an annexation of 
territory that year its area was increased to 2700 acres. In 
1871 its corporate limits were enlarged by the annexation 
of territory from surrounding townships, increasing the 
whole area of the city to 6752 acres. It is well surrounded 
on all sides by an almost unlimited extent of level land. 

At the time Columbus was laid out as a town in 1812, it 
was an almost unbroken forest, with no resident within its 
limits. Three years afterward, in 1815, its population was 
700; in 1820, 1450; in 1830, 2437; in 1840, 6048; in 1850, 
17,882 ; in 1860, 18,554 ; and in 1870, 31,274. The increase 
from 1820 to 1830 was 987, making 70 per cent.; from 1830 
to 1840 it was 3611, making 150 per cent.; from 1840 to 
1850 it was 11,834, nearly 200 per cent.; from 1850 to 1860 
it was only 772; and from 1860 to 1870 the increase was 
12,720, being over 70 per cent. Of the whole population 
in 1870 (31,274), 23,663 were of native, and 7611 of foreign 
birth; 29,427 were white, and 1847 colored. 

Commerce. —Its shipments and receipts are by rail and 
canal, principally by rail. The cash capital employed in 
trade amounted in 1872 to $3,034,400, and the -sales to 
$13,281,450.20. The leading commodity is coal. The geo¬ 
graphical situation of Columbus, with a vast coalless dis¬ 
trict extending N. and N. W. of it for hundreds of miles, 
its accessibility to a coal-seam of enormous quantity and 
superior quality, make it a great outlet for the article. The 
shipments of coal over the Hocking Valley road for 1872 
were 433,936 tons; the number of tons is expected to reach 
over 1,000,000 for 1873. This is a new road to the mines; 
shipments were formerly made by canal. 

Manufactures. —The principal article manufactured here 
is furniture, of which there are three large factories, em¬ 
ploying a cash capital of $193,000 and 355 hands ; products 
for 1872, $900,000. Car-building is also carried on very 
extensively, giving employment to 300 hands ; a capital of 
$400,000 is employed; the products in 1872 reached 
$1,500,000. Of rolling-mills, iron-furnaces, and pipe-works 
there are five large establishments, employing 1200 hands, 
with a capital of $1,000,000 ; products for 1872, $2,600,000. 
The manufacture of boots and shoes is carried on here by 
two firms, employing a capital of $230,000 and 220 hands; 
products for 1872, $690,000. In the manufacture of re¬ 
galias one firm employs a cash capital of $35,000 and 80 
hands; products for 1872, $120,000. In edge-tool manu¬ 
facturing two firms employ a capital of $210,000, with 180 
hands; products for 18/2, $350,000. 

Finances. —From April 8, 1872, to April 8, 1873: 

Receipts.$213,112.30 

Disbursements. 212,309.29 

The valuation of property on the city duplicate for tho 
year 1872— 

Real estate.$15,718,240.00 

Chattel property. 8,677,610.00 

Total.$24,395^850:00 






















COLUMBUS. 


1039 


The city levy by the city council for 1872 was eight and 
eight-tenths mills. The following statement shows the taxes 
levied for all purposes for 1873 : 


State debt. $20,223.76 

General revenue. 15 167.82 

Asylum. 27’807!67 

Common schools. 25,279.70 


Total State taxes. $88*478.95 

County. 25,279.70 

Poor. 20,223.76 

Bridge. 40,446.52 

Building. 10,111.88 

Infirmary building. 25,279.70 

Agricultural college. 10,111.88 

City schools. 176,957.90 

Corporation purposes. 240,157.15 


Total taxes levied.$637,048.44 

Valuation of lots.$16,368,250 

Valuation of chattels. 8,911,450 


Total valuation.$25,279,700 


Debt. —The total funded debt of the city on April 8, 

1872, was $888,000, since which time there have been added 
—new city hall, $10,000; extension of waterworks, $50,000 ; 
completion of sewers, $62,000; total funded debt April 10, 

1873, $1,010,000. The floating debt of the city is $60,000. 
There is due the city on tax duplicates for December and 
June, $105,436.72, which will more than cover the floating 
debt and current expenses. 

City Courts and Prisons. —There is one city court, pre¬ 
sided over by the mayor, two common pleas courts, and one 
probate court. There is a county prison and a State pen¬ 
itentiary. The latter contained during 1872 an average 
of 10143-5 convicts. The number remaining in the prison 
Oct. 31, 1872, was—from State courts, males, 905; females, 
27; from U. S. courts, males, 16; from U. S. military 
courts, males, 7; total, 955. 

There are also two houses of reformation. Number of 
inmates in 1872, women, 65; children, 123; total, 188. 

Education .—Columbus is the seat of Capitol University 
(Lutheran); cost of buildings, $80,000. It has 5 professors 
and 4 tutors. Its library contains 2500 volumes. The 
regular course requires two and a half years. Its income 
is derived from the Lutheran synod of Ohio. The Ohio 
Agricultural and Mechanical College has 10 professors. It 
has funds as follows : Proceeds from sale of land, $435,000 ; 
donation of Franklin co., O., to the college in bonds, 
$300,000 ; total, $735,000. It was opened for students in 
1873. Terms, $14 per session of five months. The Starling 
Medical College has 13 professors, 70 students (1872), and 
an endowment of $35,000 by Lyne Starling. This college 
contains a well-stored museum and an unrivalled chemical 
laboratory. Terms, $50 per course. 

The public schools are as follows : high school, 1; gram¬ 
mar schools, 25; primary and ungraded, 74; total, 100. 
Number of teachers in high school, 7 ; in grammar schools, 
27; in primary and ungraded schools, 71; of music, 1; 
superintendent and assistants, 4; total number (men 14, 
women 96), 110. Number of pupils in high school, 211; 
in grammar schools, 1714; in primary and ungraded schools, 
4129; total, 6054. 

Number of youths, in 1872, between five and twenty- 


one years.10,117 

Number of school buildings owned. 25 

“ “ “ rooms. 117 

“ “ recitation-rooms, offices, etc. 38 

“ “ seats for pupils. 5,379 

Value of school sites. $123,550 

“ “ buildings. 269,650 

“ “ furniture. 15,841 


Total value of school property. $409,041 


The total receipts for public schools (1872) were $162,543.50 ; 
the disbursements for the same period were $150,016.10; 
which sum includes $68,453.05 for superintendent’s and 
teachers’ salaries, also $32,452.81 for buildings erected. The 
funded debt of the board of education consists of $50,000 in 
bonds dated Aug. 1, 1870. 

Private Schools. —St. Mary’s of the Springs (Roman Cath¬ 
olic), number of teachers, 15. In 1872 there were 120 
boarding pupils. Its income is from tuition ; the cost for 
the same is, including board, per session of five months, 
$70, $75, $80, and $90, according to the studies pursued. 
There is a library of 400 volumes. St. Aloysius’s Seminary 
(Roman Catholic) has 4 professors; number of students for 
1872, 30. It derives its chief support from the Catholics 
of the diocese of Columbus. A library of 700 volumes is 
connected with it. In the Roman Catholic schools the 
number of teachers is 20, of pupils 1100. Their income is 
derived from donations of the Roman Catholic Church. 
Salaries paid the teachers, $6000 ; value of school property, 
$30,000; number of rooms, 20; number of buildings, 4. 
There are two business colleges; attendance in 1872, 391; 
number of teachers, 9. 


Libraries. —Ohio State Library has 31,984 volumes; ad¬ 
ditions made in 1872, 959 volumes; income from State 
taxation 1842-52, $5600; from 1824-42 appropriations, 
varying from $350 to $1000, were annually made for the 
same. Appropriation in 1872, $5000; disbursements in 
1872, $4894.43. The Public Library has 2060 volumes; in¬ 
come derived from taxation (new). The Circulating Li¬ 
brary has 900 volumes; income derived from membership 
fee. The Young Men’s Catholic Library has 700 volumes; 
income derived from membership fee. Law Library (State) 
has 5418 volumes; additions in 1872, 276 volumes. 

Newspaper8 and Periodicals. —Daily, 2, circulation, 4500; 
weekly, 7, circulation, 27,000; semi-weekly, 2, circulation, 
1500; periodicals, monthly, 5, circulation, 25,500. 

Churches. —Number, 43; number of sittings, 25,000; 
value, $1,200,000 ; membership, 14,100. Those of remark¬ 
able architectural beauty are the St, Joseph’s cathedral 
(Roman Catholic), which cost $250,000, built of solid sand¬ 
stone; next come the Trinity (Episcopal) and the First 
and Second Presbyterian. 

Benevolent and Charitable Institutions, eto .—Number, 48. 
Hospitals 2, one city and one presided over by the Sisters 
of St. Francis, inmates in 1872, 250; infirmary, 1, number 
of inmates in 1872, 300; asylum for insane, 1, completed 
in 1874; orphan asylum, 1, inmates 50 in 1872; home for 
aged, 1, inmates in 1872, 70; for children, 1, inmates in 
1872, 80; for the friendless, 1, inmates 170 in 1872. 
There is one deaf and dumb asylum. Cost of build¬ 
ing, $625,000; value of ground, etc., $900,000; expenses 
for 1872—salaries for teachers, $16,825 ; current expenses, 
$56,216.49; total, $73,041.49; actual cost per pupil (1872), 
$216.09; number of inmates in 1872, 390—231 males, 
166 females; number of teachers, 26. The inmates are 
classified as follows : scientific, 29; grammar, 84; primary, 
225. Departments of trade: printing, book-binding, and 
shoemaking. There is one institution for idiotic and im¬ 
becile youth. In 1872 the number of inmates was 212— 
males 72, females 140; number of teachers, 11; cost of 
buildings, $275,000. There is one blind institute. Cost 
of building, $318,000. Number of pupils in 1872, 112; 
expenses, $29,225; total number admitted, 752; num¬ 
ber of teachers, 14. There are 2 children’s aid societies, 
attendance 140 in 1872. The relief and aid societies num¬ 
ber 9. Of Masonic bodies the membership is 400; Odd 
Fellows, number 16, members 2600; Druids, number 5, 
members 600; Good Templars, number 2, members 300; 
Knights of Pythias 4, members 300; Knighthood 4, mem¬ 
bers 367 ; Red Men 3, members 470; Catholic benevolent 
societies 4, members 700. 

Public Buildings of Note .—The State-house is a grand 
and atti’active edifice, of great solidity and magnitude, 
Doric in its style of architecture. It covers two acres of 
ground, is a bold and noble structure, and is built of beau¬ 
tiful gray limestone. The cost of the building complete 
was $1,359,121. The time consumed in building it was 
fifteen years. Height of building from ground to top of 
blocking course, 61 feet; to pinnacle of cupola, 158 feet; 
total numbef of rooms in the building, 53. The Blind In¬ 
stitute, cost $318,000. The architectural character is Eng¬ 
lish, of the later period of Elizabeth. The central arcaded 
portico is of cut stone, flanked on either side by cast-iron 
piazzas of the same general character. The Deaf and 
Dumb Asylum is built of brick, elaborately trimmed with 
lime and sandstone; cost, $625,000. The front of the build¬ 
ing is 270 feet in length. It is surmounted by seven towers, 
the central one 115 feet high. The new Insane Asylum, 
which is still in progress, consists of, first, ashlar stone 
three feet four inches high; on this cut-stone belt-course 
rests the brickwork proper of the superstructure. It is 
one mile around the outside walls, and is estimated to cost 
$1,200,000. St. Joseph’s Cathedral (Roman Catholic) is a 
vast and noble structure, Gothic in the style of its archi¬ 
tecture. The material of the walls is sandstone, of a kind 
which becomes hardened by exposure to the atmosphere. 
Dimensions, 92 by 185 feet. It will cost $250,000. The 
spire is to be 250 feet in height. Trinity Church (Prot¬ 
estant Episcopal) is Gothic in style, built of sandstone, in 
the shape of a cross; it is an imposing edifice ; cost, $70,000. 
The city hall, 187i feet long by 80 wide, cost $210,000, and 
the opera-house (building) will cost $120,000. There is an 
Odd Fellows’ Temple costing $75,000. A new union d6p6t 
is in course of erection, to cost $300,000. There are two 
well-located public parks of good size. The city railroads 
are four in number; miles of route, 115 ; capital, $227,000; 
cost, $183,000. There are three national banks. 

The steam railways centering in the city are the Balti¬ 
more and Ohio (Central Ohio division), the Columbus and 
Hocking Valley R. R., the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. 
Louis, and the Cleveland Columbus Cincinnati and Indian¬ 
apolis *R. Rs. Two new roads are building—ono from 
hero to Toledo, and ono to Cleveland. 





















































COLUMBUS. 


1040 


The waterworks are public, and cost $424,299.51; length 
of pipe laid, 23J miles. There are 184 fire-hydrants and 
113 stop-valves; 550,000 gallons of water can be supplied 
every twenty-four hours. The gasworks are private; cap¬ 
ital $400,000. Twenty-four miles of main pipe have been 
laid in the streets. The gas-consumers number 2100. There 
are 661 street-lamps. 

History .—Columbus was selected for the capital of Ohio 
in 1812, as the State wanted a capital at or very near the 


centre. Chillicothe was originally the seat of government. 
In Feb., 1810, the legislature appointed five commissioners 
to examine and select the most eligible site. In their re¬ 
port to the legislature, dated Sept. 12, 1810, the commis¬ 
sioners recommended a site twelve miles above Franklin- 
ton, now a part of Columbus (made so by annexation in 
1872). At the session in 1812 a company composed of 
Lyne Starling, John Kerr, Alexander McLaughlin, and 
James Johnston proposed that the legislature establish 



State-house, Columbus, O. 


the seat of the State government on the high bank E. of 
the Scioto River, nearly opposite Franklinton. The same 
company made proposals for the erection of a State-house, 
penitentiary, and other public buildings, the same to be 
completed by 1817. An act was passed Feb. 14, 1812, ac¬ 
cepting the proposals and^ond of the company, and per¬ 
manently establishing the seat of government on the lands 
named therein, the legislature to commence their sessions 
there on the first Monday of Dec., 1817, and there con¬ 
tinue to May, 1840, and from thence until otherwise pro¬ 
vided by law. The refugee lands upon which our State cap¬ 
ital was located comprised a narrow tract of four miles 
wide from N. to S., and extended forty-eight miles east- 
wardly from the Scioto River. On the 18th of June, 1812, 
the same day on which the U. S. declared war against 
Great Britain, the first public sale of lots took place. In 
1814 the “Western Intelligencer” was removed from 
Worthington to this city, and the title changed. The first 
saw-mill was built in 1813. The first tavern was opened in 
1813; the first school in 1814; the first census taken in 
1815; the first market-house erected in 1814; the first 
bridge over the Scioto River was built in 1813. Two 
churches were built in 1814—a Methodist and Presbyterian ; 
both log cabins. The town was incorporated on the 10th of 
Feb., 1816. A U. S. court-house was erected in 1820. The 
first saengerfest of the North American Saengerbund ever 
held in Columbus took place June 5 and 7, 1852. (See 
Studer ; “ Columbus, its History, Resources, and Prog¬ 
ress,” 1873.) Jacob H. Studer. 

Columbus, a township and post-borough of Warren 
co., Pa., on the Atlantic and Great Western and the Phila¬ 
delphia and Erie R. Rs., 27 miles W. N. W. of Warren, 
Pa. Pop. 1257. 

Columbus, a city, capital of Colorado co., Tex., on 
the W. bank of the Colorado River, 95 miles S. E. of Austin 
City. It is the W. terminus of the Galveston Harrisburg 
and San Antonio R. R. The river is crossed by a railroad 
bridge. The trade of Columbus is extensive. It has one 
weekly newspaper, and is the seat of Colorado College. 

Columbus, a post-villago of Columbia co., Wis., on 
Crawfish River and the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 63 
miles W. N. W. of Milwaukee. It has one national bank 
and two weekly newspapers. Pop. 1888; of Columbus 
township, 2840. 

Columbus (Don Bartholomew) was a younger brother 
of Christopher Columbus, whom ho accompanied in his 
second voyage to America in 1493. He was appointed gov¬ 
ernor of Hispaniola, where ho founded tho town ot St. 


Domingo in 1496, and showed himself an able commander. 
He died in St. Domingo in 1514. 

Columbus [It. Colombo ; Sp. Colon"], (Christopher), 
the discoverer of America, was born at Genoa in 1436. His 
origin was humble and obscure, and accounts of his early 
life are meagre. His son and biographer, Fernando Colom¬ 
bo, wrote: “ The admiral tells us himself in a letter that 
his occupation, like that of his ancestors, was to traffic on 
the sea.” His father, Dominico Colombo, according to 
some writers, was a wool-carder. In a will made 1594 he 
calls himself “ formerly a weaver” (olhn textorpannorum). 
His mother’s name was Susanna Fontanarossa. There 
were three sons, and a daughter who married a butcher. 
Of his education and early life Columbus wrote in a letter 
to the king of Castile (1501): “ In my young years I was 
a sailor, and I have continued to follow the sea to this day ; 
it is the art which they should pursue who wish to know 
the secrets of this world. I occupied myself much with 
navigation; with astronomy, geometry, arithmetic I was 
not less familiar. I had a hand sufficiently skilled and 
enough of knowledge to draw the terrestrial globe, with the 
position of cities, mountains, rivers, and all ports that there 
were. While quite young I studied books of cosmography, 
history, philosophy, and other sciences; it is that which 
has aided me in my undertaking.” He studied at the Uni¬ 
versity of Pavia, and went to sea at fourteen. He mentions 
in letters tho command of a cruiser in the service of Rene, 
count of Provence, and voyages to the Archipelago, as well 
as one in 1477 to the isle of Thule, which he says the mod¬ 
erns call Friesland (a supposed typographical error for Ice¬ 
land). There is an account of a cruise upon four Venetian 
galleys, richly laden, when Columbus jumped from his 
burning ship and swam two leagues by the aid of an oar 
to the Portuguese coast, and walked to Lisbon, where ho 
found several Genoese. Some say that he went to Lisbon 
voluntarily in 1470, attracted by the fame of the Portuguese 
prince, Henry. Las Casas describes him at this period as 
having a long face, ruddy in places, an aquiline nose, clear 
gray eyes, a quick, commanding glance, and light hair, 
which had commenced to grow gray at thirty. His dress 
was simple. Ho expressed himself easily and eloquently. 
Gentle and kind, he warmly attached those to him who 
knew him intimately. His temper, naturally irascible, he 
had learned to control. Always attentive to the duties of 
religion, his piety consisted above all in doing good to his 
follows. He fell in love with and married Filipa Monis 
de Palostrello, who was in tho convent where he went to 
pray. Her father was an able navigator, governor of Porto 
Santo, but poor, and leaving little but charts and instru- 








































































































































































COLUMBUS—COLUMN. 


ments. Columbus supported his family, and helped sus¬ 
tain his father and educate his brothers by making maps 
and charts. He went on expeditions to West Africa. He 
lived some time at Porto Santo, where his wife bore a son 
named Diego. Here he heard of great reeds and a bit of 
carved wood seen out at sea floating from the west. The 
idea of a western ocean-way to India gradually occupied 
his mind, fed by ancient tradition and contemporary specu¬ 
lations. Toscanelli, an Italian mathematician, had written, 
at the instance of King Affonso of Portugal, instructions 
for a western route to Asia. With him Columbus entered 
into a correspondence, which greatly strengthened his 
theories. He applied for means to accomplish this voyage 
to Genoa and to John II. of Portugal, who long kept him 
waiting with half promises. His wife died, and he 
left Portugal in indignation. He lived (1484-86) at the 
Franciscan convent of St. Mary’s of Rabida in Andalusia, 
whither he had wandered, impoverished, with his son. The 
prior took an interest in his plans, and gave him letters to 
Fernando de Talevera, confessor to Queen Isabella. He 
plied the court with untiring solicitations, following the 
king and queen on all their expeditions against the Moors, 
until he was granted two small vessels, with the title of viceroy 
or governor-general of all the lands that he might discover. 
On the 3d^of Aug., 1492, he sailed from Palos, with 120 men, 
in the Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria. He stopped several 
weeks at the Canary Islands. After he had sailed a great dis¬ 
tance over an unknown sea, the crew became dismayed, impa¬ 
tient, and finally mutinous. They had begun to talk of throw¬ 
ing him overboard when land was discovered, on the 12th 
of Oct., 1492. This was San Salvador (Cat Island), or per¬ 
haps AVatling’s Island, one of the Bahamas. He soon dis¬ 
covered Cuba and Hispaniola (Hayti), and returned to 
Spain in Mar., 1493. He was received with abundant 
demonstrations of honor and joy by the public and the 
court, which gave him the title of admiral. In Sept., 1493, 
he sailed with seventeen ships on a second expedition, dur¬ 
ing which he discovered Jamaica, Porto Rico, and other 
islands, founded a colony in Hispaniola, and returned to 
Spain in June, 1496. He commenced a third voyage in 
May, 1498, and visited the Terra Firma at the mouth of 
the Orinoco. Francisco de Bobadilla was sent to the West 
Indies in 1500, with power to supersede Columbus as gov¬ 
ernor. By his order Columbus was carried in chains to 
Spain in 1501. The public expressed such indignation at 
this ill-treatment that King Ferdinand disavowed the 
conduct of Bobadilla, but declined to reinstate Columbus in 
his office. Having sailed on his fourth voyage in May, 
1502, he explored the coasts of Honduras and Costa Rica, 
but was shipwrecked and escaped to Jamaica, which island 
he left, after long hardships, for Spain, June 28, 1504. 
Died May 20, 1506, at Valladolid. 

The life of Columbus by his son, Don Diego Colon, ap¬ 
peared in Barcia’s “ Historiadores Primativos ” (vol. i., 
Madrid, 1749). The relation of the first voyage by him¬ 
self was published (Madrid, 1825-37) in Navarrete’s “Viages 
de los Espanoles,” first and second volumes. This also ap¬ 
peared with notes by Cuvier, Balbi, Remusat, and others 
in “ Relations des quatre voyages, suivres par divers let- 
tres et pieces inedites ” (3 vols., Paris, 1828). Torre has 
published a collection of his writings in Italian. (See also 
his Life by Irving, Arthur Helps, Lamartine, and 
Spotorno, Leipsic, 1823, and Humboldt’s “ Examen Cri¬ 
tique de l’histoire de la geographie.”) 

Columbus, or Colon (Diego), the eldest son of the 
preceding, was born at Lisbon about 1472. He accom¬ 
panied his father on the second voyage, and became gov¬ 
ernor of the West Indies soon after his death. He married 
Dona Maria de Toledo, a daughter of one of the grandees 
of Spain. His right to the office of viceroy of the New 
World was recognized by Charles V. about 1520. Died in 
1526. 

- Columbus, or Colon (Don Fernando), the biogra¬ 
pher of the discoverer, was an illegitimate child of the 
same and Beatrix Henriques, a noble lady of Cordova. He 
was born Aug. 15, 1488, accompanied his father on his 
fourth voyage, and afterwards devoted himself to study and 
contemplation, collecting around him men of science and 
gathering a library of 12,000 volumes, which he willed to 
the Dominican cloister of St. Paul in Seville. Died with¬ 
out issue about 1541. 

Columbus, or Colon (Louis), son of Admiral Diego, 
withdrew his rights to the viceroyalty of India 1540, and 
received the title of duke of Veragua and marquis of 
Jamaica and a pension. With Diego, the fourth ad¬ 
miral, son of Christopher, second son of the great Colum¬ 
bus, the male line became extinct. 

Colum'bus Cit'y, a township and post-village of 
Louisa co., Ia., near the crossing of the Burlington Cedar 
Rapids and Minnesota and the Chicago Rock Island and 
66 


1041 


Pacific R. Rs., and 40 miles N. of Burlington. It has one 
national bank and one weekly newspaper. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 2344. 

R. H. Moore, Ed. Louisa County “ Safeguard.” 

Columbus Grove, a post-village of Pleasant town¬ 
ship, Putnam co., O., on the Dayton and Michigan R. II., 
84 miles N. of Dayton. Pop. 578. 

Colum'busville, a village of Newtown township, 
Queen’s co., N. Y. Pop. 1251. 

Columel'la [a diminutive of the Lat. columna, a “ col¬ 
umn ”], in botany, the remaining central column or axis 
formed of the placentas when the carpels of certain fruits 
have separated ; also the axis of the capsules of mosses. 
In conchology, the upright pillar around which the whorls 
of univalve shells are wound is called the columella. 

Columella (Lucius Junius Moderatus), an ancient 
Roman rural economist, born at Cadiz ( Gades), in Spain. 
He flourished aibout 20-40 A. D., and was a practical cul¬ 
tivator of the soil. He passed the greater part of his life 
near Rome. He is the author of an important Latin work 
entitled “ De Re Rustica,” which is a copious and systematic 
treatise on agricultural and rural affairs in twelve books, 
one of which is in verse. His Latinity is nearly pure. 

Col'umn [Lat. columna], in architecture, a cylinder of 
stone or wood used to support a roof, an entablature, or an 
arch. In countries where forests abound the earliest columns 
would be made of the trunks of trees, and in India, in As¬ 
syria, Persia, and Asia Minor we find the stone columns of 
a later age imitating in the shapes of their shafts the forms 
of carpentry, and in the capitals the blocks of wood by 
which the shafts were surmounted for the purpose of giving 
a better bearing to the weight the column must carry. But 
we may be sure that utility would be the first consideration, 
and that it was late when the artist began to decorate the 
parts that originally were merely constructive. The Egyp¬ 
tians did not confine themselves to the use of cylindrical 
columns, but had them of many forms—square, hexagonal, 
and Pococke (quoted by Gwilt) mentions one, at least, tri¬ 
angular in plan. Some of them are smooth on the surface, 
and these are ornamented with hieroglyphics. Others look 
as if they were composed of bundles of rods or stems tied 
together at intervals by bands. These are less elegant in 
form than the Gothic columns which they recall, and were 
perhaps no more based upon an imitation of stems of trees 
bound together in the one case than in the other. Cer¬ 
tainly, the clustered columns of the Gothic architecture 
were not based upon any such imitation. The porticoes 
of some of the grottoes at Beni-Hassan are supported by 
pillars, polygons of sixteen sides in plan, “each slightly 
fluted, except the inner face, which was left flat for the 
purpose of introducing a line of hieroglyphics.” These 
columns have no bases, and each is crowned with an abacus 
only slightly exceeding the diameter of the summit, which 
in its turn is only slightly less than that of the bottom of 
the column. From their resemblance to the Doric column 
of the Greeks, those of the Beni-Hassan grottoes have been 
called Proto-Doric, but there is no proof whatever of any 
connection between the two. 

The Greeks in early times employed the so-called Doric 
and Ionic columns, of which the Ionic seems to have been 
by far the earlier brought over from Asia, though all the 
most ancient temples of Greece whose ruins are in exist¬ 
ence to-day belonged to the Doric style. As the reader 
will find descriptions and engravings of each of the Greek 
“ orders ” as they are called, “ Doric,” “ Ionic,” and “ Co¬ 
rinthian,” in their proper places, we shall not describe 
them here. It is necessary to remark, however, that while 
there can be no doubt that many features in Indian 
architecture and in the architecture of Assyria, Persia, 
and Asia Minor are reminiscences of wooden forms, there 
is no such reminiscence to be found in the Greek Doric, 
though there may be possibly in the capital of the Ionic 
column. The Doric is essentially a stone construction, and 
its supposed origin in the imitation of carpentry forms is 
purely imaginary. The Greek columns were generally com¬ 
posed of many cylindrical pieces, placed one upon another 
until the requisite height was attained. These were cut in 
the nearest quarry, and being attached in couples by means 
of an axle fixed in holes drilled in the centre of each, in¬ 
tended finally for iron clamps, they were rolled as wheels 
to the site of the building they were to adorn. When they 
had been placed in position, and well strengthened by iron 
clamps, the outer surfaces were dressed to give the column 
the look of being made of a single stone. When the ma¬ 
terial was of fine marble, this could be perfectly done, as 
the Greeks excelled in making joints, but where the stone 
was coarse or defective, they covered the whole shaft with 
a coating of stucco. 

The Greeks ornamented all their shafts with longitudinal 
incisions, which we call flutes. In the so-called Doric col- 
















COLUMN—COMANCHE INDIANS. 


1042 


umns these incisions are about twenty in number; this is 
the case with all the Athenian examples, but “at Paestum 
the exterior order of the great temple,” says Gwilt, “has 
twenty-four, the lower interior order twenty, .and the upper 
interior sixteen only.” These flutings are separated from 
each other in all Greek examples by a sharp edge, but 
“their horizontal section varies in different examples. In 
some the flutes are formed by segments of circles ; in others 
the form approaches that of an ellipse.” The sole use of 
these flutes is to break up the light on the surface of the 
column, and to increase the effect of perpendicularity. 
The Doric column, as found in the Parthenon at Athens, was 
the last result of the exquisite sense of refinement in form 
possessed by the Greek architect, and every portion of it is 
in symmetry with those scientific laws which in the last 
analysis are one with beauty. The Romans employed the 
Corinthian in preference to any of the other orders, though 
the Greeks rarely used it except in small buildings, such as 
the Temple of the Winds and the Monument of Lysicrates. 
The Romans also made use of a capital formed by a union 
of the Corinthian and the Ionic, to which the name of 
“ Composite ” has been given, but it has nothing to recom¬ 
mend it. 

When the Christian religion arose in the decaying days 
of the Roman empire, the new sect had need of buildings 
for their worship, and in erecting new ones made use of 
the materials abundantly supplied at first by the ruins of the 
temples and palaces. In this way the Roman columns were 
worked into buildings with which they had no affinity, and 
it was only with the exhaustion of the supply, and with 
the necessity of new materials, that the antique forms 
were developed naturally to meet the new requirements, 
and the Gothic column was created—an old body with a 
new soul. In the Gothic system there is no longer a fixed 
order of proportions, as with the Greeks, but the architect 
followed the law of his own eye, both in proportion and in 
decoration, and the consequence is a great variety in both, 
and great inequality in excellence. The Gothic columns 
were developed fi’om the precedent forms of both Greek 
and Roman architecture, and we find in the vast variety 
of their capitals and bases all three forms in embryo. 

In the time of the Renaissance there was an effort to 
return to the classic forms, but the result was chiefly a new 
combination and a new individuality. The Gothic could 
not be entirely shaken off, nor the spirit of the classic 
fully entered into, and the Renaissance column therefore 
has distinct traces of the influences under which it was 
formed. Since the introduction of iron no new develop¬ 
ments of the column have been introduced, as might have 
been hoped, but builders have contented themselves with 
imitating in the new material the forms that belong to 
stone and wood alone, and which have no meaning when 
employed in a material different in its nature from both. 

* Clarence Cook. 

Column [from the Lat. columna, a “ pillar ”] signifies, 
in military tactics, a mass of soldiers several ranks in 
depth, as opposed to line. There may be columns of brig¬ 
ades, of regiments, of divisions, or of companies, present¬ 
ing a depth depending on the number of elements in the 
column. In a battalion the formation is called open column 
when the distance between the elements of the column is 
such as to admit of their wheeling into line; when the 
distance is only a few yards it is termed close column , or 
“column closed in mass;” when intermediate between these 
two, it is “ column at half distance.” Battalions are drawn 
up in column with either the right or left in front, or tho 
battalions may be doubled upon their centres. To pass 
from column to line is to “ deploy;” to pass from line to 
column is to “ploy.” The relative advantages of column 
and line in drawing up troops for action are among the 
matters closely studied by the commanders of armies. 
Sometimes the name column is given to a small army, 
especially when engaged in active operations. 

Colure [Lat. colurus; Gr. xoAoupo?, from koAos, “clip¬ 
ped,” and ovpa, a “ tail,” perhaps because a part is always 
below the horizon], one of the two great circles of the celes¬ 
tial sphere which intersect each other at right angles in the 
poles of the equator. The equinoctial colure passes through 
the equinoctial points, and the other is called the solstitial 
colure. 

Colu'sa, a county in the N. W. of California. Area, 
2200 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Sacra¬ 
mento River, and drained by Sycamore and other creeks. 
The Coast Range of mountains extends along the western 
border. The soil is generally fertile. Wool, wheat, bar¬ 
ley, and cattle are raised. Capital, Colusa. Pop. 6165. 

Colusa, a post-village, capital of the above county, is 
on the Sacramento River, 50 miles in a direct line N. N. W. 
of Sacramento. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1051 ; 
of township, 2193. 


Col'ver (Nathaniel), D. D., a Baptist divine, born at 
Orwell, Vt., in 1794, entered the ministry in 1836, became 
eminent as a preacher and as an opponent of slavery. He 
preached in Boston, Detroit, Cincinnati, and Chicago, and 
founded the Colver Institute at Richmond, Va., after the 
civil war. Died Sept. 25, 1870. 

Colvocores'ses (George M.), an American naval of¬ 
ficer, born in Greece, entered the navy as midshipman in 
1832, served with honor in the civil war, and was placed on 
the retired list as captain in 1867. He was murdered at 
Bridgeport, Conn., June 3, 1872. 

Col'well (Stephen), an American author, born in 
Brooke co., Va., Mar. 25, 1800, practised law and became 
an iron-merchant of Philadelphia. He wrote a number 
of religious, political, and commercial books and pamph¬ 
lets. Died Jan. 15, 1871. 

Colym'bidic [from Colymhus, one of the genera], the 
name applied to web-footed birds having short wings, and 
legs placed so far back that when standing they assume an 
erect position, and a compressed bill, pointed at the tip. 
The three principal genera are the divers, including the 
loon ( Colymhus ), which have the front toes webbed; and 
the grebes ( Podiceps and Podilymbus), with the feet lobed, 
each toe with a separate membrane. They are aquatic in 
their habits, and possess great powers of diving and swim¬ 
ming. Several species occur in America. 

Col'za, a variety of rutabaga or Swedish turnip ( Bras - 
sica ccmpestris), which is cultivated for its seeds, from 
which oil similar to rapeseed oil is made in Europe. The 
oil is used for lamps, lighthouses and machinery, and the 
leaves and refuse seeds after the oil is expressed are fed to 
cattle and sheep. The roots are not bulbous. 

Co'ma [from the Gr. “hair”], in astronomy, the 
nebulous envelope of a comet’s nucleus. In botany, the 
name is sometimes given to the head or top of a tree, and 
also to the hairy crest of certain seeds. 

Coma [Gr. /cco/ua, “heavy sleep”], a medical term sig¬ 
nifying a state of lethargy or unnatural profound sleep. It 
occurs in apoplexy, epilepsy, and other diseases of the brain. 
The patient is quite or nearly insensible to external impres¬ 
sions. Coma is also seen in narcotic poisoning. In the fatal 
forms the breathing is stertorous, the pupils of the eyes 
contracted or dilated, insensible to light, and immovable. 

Co'ma Bereni'ces (i. e. “Berenice’s Hair”), a small 
constellation of the northern hemisphere, between Bootes 
and the tail of Leo. (See Berenice.) 

Comac'cliio (anc. Comaculci), a fortified town of Italy, 
province of Ferrara, is 3 miles from the Adriatic and 29 
miles E. S. E. of Ferrara. It is situated in the marshes 
of Comacchio, in which great numbers of eels are caught. 
These and other fish are cured in an excellent manner. It 
is the seat of a bishop, and has salt-works. Pop. 6475. 

Comal', a county near the central part of Texas. Area, 
575 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Cibolo, 
and intersected by the Guadalupe River. The surface is 
hilly, the soil fertile, producing cotton, corn, and fruit. 
There is some timber and plenty of building-stone. There 
are manufactures of saddlery, harness, and various other 
goods. Capital, New Braunfels. Pop. 5283. 

Coma'na, an ancient city of Cappadocia, on the river 
Sarus, was the site of a temple of Artemis-Tauropolis. 
Comana was ruled by the chief priest, next in rank to the 
king. The site is now occupied by El-Bostdn. 

Coman'che, a county in the S. W. of Kansas, bounded 
on the S. by Indian Territory. Area, 800 square miles. It 
is bisected diagonally by Crooked or Nescutunga Creek. 

Coman'che, a county in N. Central Texas. Area, 
1050 square miles. It is intersected by the Leon River. 
The surface is partly hilly. A range called the Comanche 
Mountains extends along the south-western border. Th'e 
soil is fertile. The W. pai-t of the county is covered with 
forests. Corn, wheat, and cattle are raised. Capital, Co¬ 
manche. Pop. 1001, according to the census of 1870, which, 
however, reports the return of population as incomplete. 

Comanche, a post-village, capital of Comanche co., 
Tex. 

Coman'che In'dians, or Camanches, a warlike 

tribe of American savages who roam over the northern 
part of Texas and of Mexicd. They are nomadic, and 
range over a wide extent of territory, including part of 
New Mexico and the valley of the Rio Grande. They have 
large numbers of horses. Their principal occupations are 
robbery and war. They always fight on horseback, and 
have some firearms, but more commonly use the bow and 
arrow. They are by treaty placed upon a large reservation 
in the S. W. part of the Indian Territory, with some Kio- 
ways and Apaches. The Comanches were estimated in 















COMARCA—COMET. 


1043 


1872 at 31S0 souls. They appear to be of the same stock 
with the Shoshonees or Snakes. 

Comar'ca [It.], a judicial district. Comarca di Roma, 
the district of Rome and its vicinity, including in partic¬ 
ular Tivoli and Tubiaco. 

Comatula. See Feather Star. 

Co'ma-Vig'il (?. e. “ wakeful coma”), a name some¬ 
times applied to the semi-comatose state observable in cer¬ 
tain cases of fever, etc. 

Comaya'gua, formerly Valladolid, a city of Cen¬ 
tral America, the capital of Honduras, on the river Ilu- 
muva, about 180 miles E. of Guatemala. It is the seat of 
a bishop, and has a cathedral, a college, a hospital, and 
several convents. It was founded in 1510 by Alonzo de 
Cdceres. It was once much larger, but has been visited 
repeatedly by war and pestilence. Pop. 8000. 

Comb [from the Lat. como, to “comb or dress the hair,” 
and more remotely from coma (Gr. ko/jlt]), “hair;” Anglo- 
Saxon, camb; Ger. Kamm ; Lat. pecten; Fr. peigne], an 
implement used for cleaning the hair, as well as for adjust- 
• ing and keeping it in place. The ancient Greek and Roman 
combs were made of box-wood, but, later, ivory combs came 
into use among the Romans, as they had long before among 
the Egyptians. Combs are made of tortoise-shell, ivory, 
horn, wood, bone, metal, and India-rubber. The old method 
of cutting the teeth is by a, saw, which has two blades of 
steel set parallel to each other, with a space between them 
equal to the thickness of the intended tooth. The teeth 
are then finished by means of thin, wedge-shaped files. 
By these processes the material corresponding to the spaces 
between the teeth is wasted; but combs are now made by 
a method in which the otherwise wasted material is made 
to form the teeth of a second comb. The plate of material 
is cut through by means of a cutter, consisting of two thin 
chisels inclined to each other; between these, and connect¬ 
ing the ends, is a small cross-chisel. When this cutter 
descends with sufficient force upon the plate, it will cut one 
of the teeth; while the cutter is rising, the table carrying 
the plate is made to advance a distance equal to the thick¬ 
ness of one tooth, and thus the successive cuts are made. 
The plate is easily parted into two combs, the teeth of which 
only require filing and finishing. India-rubber combs are 
made by pressing the material into the required form in 
moulds, and “ vulcanizing ” or combining it with sulphur 
afterwards. 

Combaco'num, an ancient city of Hindostan, in the 
Carnatic, 20 miles E. of Tanjore. It is regarded as a holy 
city by the Hindoos, and has numerous pagodas and tanks, 
the water of which is supposed to be capable of washing 
away sin. Pop. estimated at 40,000. 

Combe (Andrew), M. D., born in Edinburgh Oct. 27, 
1797, wrote “The Principles of Physiology Applied to the 
Preservation of Health” (1834), often reprinted, and the 
“Physiology of Digestion” (1836). Died Aug. 9, 1847. 

Combe (George), a phrenologist, a brother of the pre¬ 
ceding, born in Edinburgh Oct. 21, 1788, practised law in 
his native city for many years. He produced in 1819 “ Es¬ 
says on Phrenology” and “The Constitution of Man Con¬ 
sidered in Relation to External Objects” (1828; 9th ed. 1860). 
He married in 1833 a daughter of Mrs. Siddons, the actress. 
In 1838 he visited the U. S. and delivered lectures on phre¬ 
nology. Died Aug. 14, 1858. 

Combermere, Viscounts (1827), Barons Combermere 
(1814, United Kingdom), and baronets (1677).— Welling¬ 
ton Henry Stapleton Cotton, second viscount, born Nov. 
24, 1818, was M. P. for Carrickfergus 1847-57, and suc¬ 
ceeded his father Feb. 22, 1865. 

Com'bermere (Stapleton Cotton), Viscount, an 
English general, born Nov. 17, 1773. He served in India, 
and in 1810 obtained command of the cavalry under the 
duke of Wellington. At the battle of Salamanca, 1812, he 
was severely wounded. In 1814 he was raised to the peer¬ 
age, in 1825 he became commander-in-chief in India, and 
a field-marshal in 1855. Died Feb. 21, 1865. 

Combi'nant, in mathematics, is a covariant (or inva¬ 
riant) of two or more quantities, w hich possesses the addi¬ 
tional property of remaining unaltered, a factor excepted, 
when the quantities are replaced by linear functions of 
themselves. 

Combination. See Co-operation, by Hon. Thomas 
Hughes, M. I\, and Trade Unions. 

Combination, Alternation of Position. See 

Permutation. 

Combreta'cere [from Combretum, one of the genera], a 
natural order of exogenous plants, trees, or shrubs, mostly 
natives of tropical countries, and distinguished by a con¬ 
volute embryo. They possess astringency, and some of 
them are emjployed in dyeing. The order comprises about 


200 known species. There are in the Southern U. S. several 
unimportant shrubs of this order, and one large tree, the 
Terminalia Catappa, which grows in Florida and the East 
and West Indies, and produces an edible nut resembling 
the almond. 

Combs (Leslie), General, a lawyer, born in Kentucky 
in 1794. He served with great distinction as an officer in 
the war of 1S12, afterwards practised law in his native 
State, and became a prominent Whig politician and gen¬ 
eral of militia. 

Combus'tion [Lat. combnstio, from con, intensive, and 
uro, ustum, to “burn”], the process of burning, which 
usually consists in the union of oxygen with the combus¬ 
tible substance. The evolving of heat and light which 
atten'ds the process of combustion announces intense chem¬ 
ical action. Some substances burn at ordinary tempera¬ 
tures, such as phosphorus, which glows when exposed to 
the air; wood, coal, etc. require to be raised in tempera¬ 
ture before they possess the power of combining with the • . 
oxygen of the air. Chlorine and some other gases may be 
made to support combustion in certain limited circum¬ 
stances. Different combustible substances give off" differ¬ 
ent amounts of heat. The mode in Avhich the heat evolved 
may be measured is either—1. To observe the quantity of 
ice which a given weight of the combustible will melt when 
burning; 2. To notice the weight of water which the com¬ 
bustible will convert into steam; or, 3. To estimate the 
number of pounds of water which the burning body will 
raise from 32° to 212° F. The amount of heat evolved ap¬ 
pears to be proportional to the quantity of oxygen required 
to burn the various combustibles. The quantify of heat 
given out during the combustion of any burning body is 
the same whether the burning takes place rapidly or slowly, 
yet the sensible heat may vary according to the rapidity 
of the process. 

Combustion, Spontaneous. See Spontaneous Combus¬ 
tion. 

Com'edy [Gr. Ku/xwSia, probably from k<I>ju.os, “festiv¬ 
ity,” and cuStj, a “ song;” Lat. comcedia; It. coinmedia; Fr. 
comidie], a species of drama, of which the characteristics 
in modern usage are—that its incidents and language re¬ 
semble those of ordinary life; that the termination of its 
intrigue is happy; and that it is distinguished by greater 
length and greater complexity of plot from the lighter the¬ 
atrical piece entitled a farce. The original Attic comedy 
was a burlesque tragedy in form, in substance a satire on 
individuals, and founded on political or other matters of 
public interest. The Attic comedies are usually assigned 
to three schools—the “old,” the “middle,” and the “new 
comedy.” The old comedy lasted till the end of the Pelo¬ 
ponnesian war. It was characterized by personalities, 
great freedom and irregularity, and was a powerful polit¬ 
ical engine. The middle comedy was more finished, less 
personal and direct in its aims, satirizing systems and 
opinions rather than individual men; it ceased with the 
Macedonian conquest. The new comedy was very much 
like our modern comedy in scope and general character. 

Come'gys (Cornelius G.), M. D., a native of Delaware, 
and professor of the institutes of medicine in Miami Uni¬ 
versity, Oxford, 0., published in 1858 a “ History of Med¬ 
icine,” 8 vo. 

Come'nins (John Amos), a Slavic educational re¬ 
former and philologist, born in 1592, was a Moravian 
minister, and taught school at Lesna, in Poland. In 1631 
he published “Janua Linguarum Reserata” (“The Gate 
of Languages Unlocked”). He went to Sweden in 1642, 
and was employed by Oxenstiern in reorganizing the 
schools. In 1648 he settled at Amsterdam. Among his 
other works are “Opera Didactica” (1657) and “ Orbis 
Sensualium Pictus” (1658), the original child’s picture- 
book. Died Nov. 15, 1671. 

Co'mes (gen. Com'itis), a Latin word signifying a 
companion among the later Roman emperors, Avas the title 
of an officer with territorial jurisdiction. It Avas nearly 
equivalent to count or earl. (See Count.) 

Com'et [Gr. /co/tA^rr}? (from /co/iatj, “hair”); Lat. cotncfa, 
so called because its tail was supposed to resemble a lock 
of hair], a celestial body revolving about the sun, generally 
in an extremely elongated orbit, and consisting of exceed¬ 
ingly attenuated matter. The characteristic features of a 
comet are—a definite point or nucleus, a nebulous light or 
coma around the nucleus, and usually a luminous train or 
tail following or preceding the nucleus. Sometimes several 
tails are observed on one comet. Formerly, Av r hen the train 
preceded the nucleus—as is the case Avhen a comet has 
passed its perihelion—it was called the beard. Neither 
the tail nor the nucleus is nOAV considered absolutely essen¬ 
tial to a comet, but all bodies are classed as comets which 
have the peculiar motion of comets and an extremely ee- 













1044 


COMET-FINDER-COMINES. 


centric orbit. Among the differences between comets and 
planets are the following: planets move in the same direc¬ 
tion from west to east, which is called “ direct motion,” but 
the movements of comets are sometimes from east to west, 
or retrograde; the orbits of all the planets are limited to a 
comparatively narrow zone on either side of the ecliptic, but 
the paths of comets cut the ecliptic in nearly every direc¬ 
tion, some being even perpendicular to it; the orbits of all 
the planets are nearly circular—the orbits of comets present 
every degree of eccentricity. Of 200 comets whose orbits 
have been ascertained with more or less accuracy, forty 
or more appear to describe ellipses, seven or eight hyper¬ 
bolas, and the rest parabolas. In general, it is held 
that comets with parabolic or hyperbolic orbits are only 
occasional visitors to the solar system, whose return is not 
to be looked for. The discovery that comets are extra¬ 
neous to our atmosphere was made by Tycho Brahe, who 
ascertained the fact by observations of the comet of 1557. 
Newton demonstrated that they are guided in their move¬ 
ments by the principle which controls the planets; and 
Halley was the first, by determining the elements of a num¬ 
ber of comets from recorded observations, to identify the 
comet of 1682 with one observed in 1607 and in 1531, and 
thus confidently to predict its return at the end of 1758 or 
beginning of 1759. The comet passed the perihelion on the 
12th of Mar., 1759, exactly a month before the date fixed 
upon by astronomers. There are other comets whose pe¬ 
riodicity is established and whose paths are accurately 
known; for example, those of Excke, Peters, and Faye 
(which see). 

In 1770, Messier discovered a comet, known as Lexell’s, 
which remained visible a long time, and observations showed 
the orbit to be an ellipse whose major axis was only three 
times the diameter of the earth’s orbit, and indicated a 
period of five and a half years. It was impossible to iden¬ 
tify this comet with any before observed, and yet it was 
very difficult to conceive that a bright comet with so short a 
period should have previously escaped observation. What 
was still more remarkable, it was never seen again, though 
carefully looked for in the places where according to pre¬ 
vious observations its orbit should have been. It gave 
occasion to many sarcasms by the wits of the day at the 
expense of astronomers. At present the explanation is 
easy. The comet was never seen before 1770, because of its 
neai'est point to the sun having been as distant as the orbit 
of Jupiter. In 1767 it was in such close proximity to 
Jupiter, moving in the same direction, and nearly in the 
same plane, that the attraction of this great planet entirely 
changed its orbit. Its passage to the perihelion in 1776 
took place by day, and in 1779, before another return, it 
again encountered the vast body of Jupiter, the attraction 
of the planet deflecting it into more distant regions, and 
so changing the form of the orbit that if it had been again 
visible it would not have been recognized. The great comet 
of 1680—which gave Newton the means of proving that 
comets revolve around the sun in conic sections, and that 
they are retained in their orbits by the same force as that 
which regulates the movements of the planets—was the 
most remarkable for brilliancy among all those of which 
we have any authentic account. This comet is supposed 
to be the one that appeared about the time of Cassar’s death 
(44 B. C.), and that seen in the reign of Justinian (531 
A. D.), and in 1106. There is, however, some doubt among 
astronomers as to these points. This comet came nearer to 
the sun than any known, except perhaps the comet of 1843. 
It approached the sun within less than 600,000 miles, about 
two-thirds of the sun’s diameter. The tail or train of 
comets is nearly always turned away from the sun, fre¬ 
quently assuming a curved form. It increases in length 
with its proximity to the sun, but in most cases does not 
acquire its greatest length till after its perihelion. It is 
believed to consist of finely-divided matter, which is driven 
off from the comet by some unknown force residing in the 
sun. 

The comets most remarkable for brilliancy in the present 
century have been the comets of 1811, of 1843, and of 1858 
(Donati’s), the latter having a period of about 1950 years, 
and an aphelion distance of some 15,000,000,000 'miles. 
It has been a question among astronomers whether comets 
are self-luminous, or merely reflect the light of the sun. 
The fact of their becoming invisible in receding from the 
sun, though still of considerable apparent size, strongly 
leads to the adoption of the latter hypothesis. Experiments 
were made by Arago which showed that the light from 
comets is partially polarized in the same way that the sun’s 
light is reflected by our own atmosphere, which strongly 
corroborates the same belief. The substance of the nebu¬ 
losity and the tail is of almost inconceivable tenuity. 
Stars seen through them suffer no diminution of bright¬ 
ness, though the light traverses millions of miles of the 
cometary atmosphere; comets have never been observed to 


cause any sensible disturbance of the planetary motions, 
though themselves much affected by the neighborhood of a 
planet. The curvature of the tail and the acceleration of 
the periodic time in the case of Encke’s comet indicate 
their being affected by a resisting medium which has never 
been observed to have the slightest influence on the planet¬ 
ary periods. Even the nuclei of comets appear to be of 
extremely small density. There are accounts of stars of a 
very low order of magnitude being seen through the nuclei. 

Comets were formerly regarded with dread, as presaging 
pestilence, war, or some other great calamity, not merely by 
the ignorant, but by a large portion of the people. Milton 
alludes to this notion when he says that a comet 

“ from his horrid hair 

Shakes pestilence and war!-” 

Paradise Lost, hook ii., 1. 710. 

Halley’s comet in 1456, being observed soon after the 
Tui'ks had taken Constantinople, was regarded by all Eu¬ 
rope with a superstitious terror, and to the Ave Maria was 
added the prayer, “Lord, save us from the devil, the Turk, 
and the comet!” The occurrence of a lunar eclipse at 
Constantinople at the same time increased the portentous¬ 
ness of the event. The discoveries of the magnitude of 
the space filled by cometary bodies, and their prodigious 
velocity, together with the confessed impossibility of always 
predicting their approach, have produced fears of another 
kind in the public mind. The groundlessness of such 
alarms from the extreme improbability of collision with the 
nucleus, and the probable harmlessness of a contact with 
the extremely attenuated surrounding matter, seems suffi¬ 
ciently evident. Already on many occasions some of the 
matter in the tail of comets must have come within the 
earth’s atmosphere. Whether the effect is deleterious or 
salubrious, or whether it has any influence at all, is a mat¬ 
ter of question. 

Observations with the spectroscope have failed to give 
satisfactory evidence of the chemical constitution of comets, 
though some of them seem to consist in part of vaporized 
carbon or hydro-carbon gases. In Mar., 1872, Schiapa¬ 
relli received the gold medal of the London Astronomical 
Society for his discovery that comets are sometimes con¬ 
nected with those remarkable displays of meteoric pheno¬ 
mena known as “meteoric showers.” The importance of 
this discovery has been recognized by Donati, Peters, Prof. 
Newton, Oppolzer, Le Yerrier, Chladni, Schellen, and other 
eminent savants. (See Meteorites.) 

Comet-Finder, a telescope of low magnifying power 
and large field of view, used in searching for comets. 

Com'fort (George Fisk), .A. M., an able Methodist 
educator, born Sej)t. 30,1833, in Berkshire, N. Y., graduated 
at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., in 1857. He 
taught in Amenia Seminary, N. Y., in 1857-58, in Fort 
Plain Seminai-y, N. Y., in 1858-59, in Van Norman’s Fe¬ 
male College in 1860, travelled and studied in Europe and 
the East (1860 till 1866), was professor of modern lan¬ 
guages and aesthetics in Alleghany College, Meadville, Pa., 
1866-68; was chief originator and organizer of the Ameri¬ 
can Philological Association (1869), and its secretary from 
1869 to 1873; was one of the principal movers in founding 
the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (1869-72); 
was appointed professor of modern languages and aesthetics 
and dean of the College of Fine Arts in Syracuse University, 
N. Y., 1873; author of various essays upon linguistics, 
aesthetics, and pedagogics; is a corresponding member of 
the Archaeological Institutes of Rome, Berlin, and Paris, 
and author of an excellent series of text-books for the study 
of the German language (1868-72). 

Comfrey, kum'fre (Symphytum), a genus of perennial 
plants of the natural order Boraginaceae, distinguished by 
a 5-cleft calyx and a corolla enlarged upward, its throat 
closed by awl-shaped scales. The species are natives of 
Europe and Asia. Symphytum officinale was formerly much 
esteemed as a vulnerary. It is often seen in the U. S. in 
gardens, and is also naturalized in our fields. 

Comines, or Commines, a town on the S. W. fron¬ 
tier of Belgium, is divided by the river Lys into two nearly 
equal parts, one of which is in France. It is 9 miles N. of 
Lille. Here are important manufactures of ribbons, threads, 
etc. Pop. of the French town, 6246; of the Belgian, 3480. 

Comines, lie (Philippe), lord of Argenton, an historian 
and statesman, born near Menin, in Flanders, in 1445. The 
son of an ancient race, his education was conducted with 
the greatest care, notwithstanding he had early lost his 
parents. He entered the service of Charles the Bold, who 
employed him in important diplomatic business. About 
1472 he proved untrue to the duke, forming a secret com¬ 
pact with Louis XI. while he was held a prisoner by Charles, 
who took him captive at Peronne, and became a minister of 
the French king, his enemy. After the death of Louis XI., 
Comines was an adherent of the duke of Orleans, aiding that 


















COMISO—COMMENTRY. 


prince in his ambitious plans against the French govern¬ 
ment. This cost Coniines his ministerial office ; whereupon 
he aided the Bourbon prince the more zealously. He wrote 
memoirs of historical events from 1464 to 1498 (1523), 
Langley-Dufresnoy, London, 1747, more complete; and 
Dupont, Paris, 1840-47. Died at Argenton, Oct. 17, 1509. 
(See Felix van Hulst, “ P. de Comines.”) 

Comi'so. a town of Sicily, in the province of Noto, 
about 41 miles W. S. W. of Syracuse. It has manufactures 
of paper. Pop. 15,803. 

Comitia, ko-mish'e-a [from the Lat. com (for con), 
“together, and eo, itum, to “go ”], in ancient history, were 
certain political assemblies of the Roman people. The 
comitia were of three kinds, distinguished by the epithets 
curiata, centuriata, and tributa. The comitia curiata were 
the assemblies of the patrician houses or populus , and in 
these, before the plebeians attained political importance, 
was vested the supreme power of the state. The name curi¬ 
ata was given because the people voted in curise, each curia 
giving a single vote, representing the sentiments of the 
majority of the members composing it, which was the man¬ 
ner in which the tribes and centuries also gave their suf¬ 
frages in their respective comitia. After the institution of 
the comitia centuriata, the functions of the curiata were 
nearly confined to the election of certain priests and pass¬ 
ing a law to confirm the dignities imposed by the people. 
The comitia centuriata were the assemblies of the whole 
Roman people, including patricians, clients, and plebeians, 
in which they voted by centuries. By the constitution of 
the centuries these comitia were chiefly in the hands of the 
plebeians, and so served originally as a counterpoise to the 
powers of the comitia curiata, for which purpose they were 
first instituted, it is said, by the king Servius Tullius. These 
comitia quickly attained the chief importance, and public 
matters of the greatest moment were transacted in them, as 
the election of consuls, prmtors, etc. The comitia tributa 
were the assemblies of the plebeian tribes. According to 
tradition, they were first instituted after the expulsion of 
the kings, and in them were transacted matters pertaining 
to the plebeians alone, as the election of their tribunes, etc. 

Comity of Nations. See International Law, Pri¬ 
vate, by Pres. T. D. Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D. 

Comman'der, in the British navy, is an officer next 
under a captain in rank, but independent of him. He is, in 
effect, the captain of a ship of war under eighteen guns, or 
of a sloop of war or a bomb-vessel. In matters of etiquette 
he ranks with a major of the army. The duties of a com¬ 
mander on shipboard are almost exactly the same as those 
of a captain. 

In the U. S. navy a commander is of the grade next be¬ 
low that of captain, and next above that of lieutenant- 
commander. He takes rank with a lieutenant-colonel of 
the army. 

Commander-in-Chief, a title given to the officer in 
whom is vested the supreme command of all the land or 
naval forces of any nation. In Great Britain he is ap¬ 
pointed by the sovereign and holds office for life. His 
duties have never been clearly defined as distinguished 
from those of the cabinet minister who presides over the 
war office. He is responsible to the Crown for the disci¬ 
pline and efficiency of the army. The office of the com¬ 
mander-in-chief, technically called “ Horse Guards,” com-* 
prises the departments of the military secretary, the adju¬ 
tant-general, and quartermaster-general. Great changes 
have recently been effected in the status of the commander- 
in-chief, who has lost his separate official abode, and is now 
more completely subordinate to the secretary of war and 
responsible to Parliament. The office is usually vacant, 
and its duties performed by a “field-marshal commanding 
in chief.” In the U. S. the President is the commander-in¬ 
chief. 

Commandite [from the Late Lat. commenda, a “trust”], 
Societe en, in France, a word used to express a partner¬ 
ship in which a person advances capital without taking 
charge of the business. In this country a person thus con¬ 
nected with a firm is termed a special partner. (See Part¬ 
nership, by Prop. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Commandments. See Decalogue. 

Commandments of the Church are rules imposed 
upon the laity of the Roman Catholic Church, which are 
regarded as just as binding as the Decalogue. They arc 
frequently called the five commandments, and are variously 
given; those most commonly taught are as follows : 

“1. The Catholic Church commands her children on 
Sundays and holy days of obligation to be present at the 
holy sacrifice of mass, to rest from servile works on those 
days, and to keep them holy. 

“2. She commands them to abstain from flesh on all 
days of fasting and abstinence, and on fast days to eat but 
one meal. 


1045 


“3. She commands them to confess their sins to their 
pastor at least once a year. 

“4. She commands them to receive the blessed sacra¬ 
ment at least onc.e a year, and that at Easter or during the 
paschal time. 

“5. To contribute to the support of their pastor. 

“6. Not to marry within the fourth degree of kindred, 
nor privately without witnesses, nor to solemnize marriage 
at certain prohibited times.” 

Commen'da [Late Lat. commenda, a “trust,” from 
commenda, to “entrust”] was originally the conferring of 
a vacant benefice for temporary administration on a clergy¬ 
man already provided with one; afterwards it came to be 
the bestowal of such a benefice for a long period or for a 
lifetime. As, however, after the eleventh century abuses 
crept in, and influential ecclesiastics especially availed 
themselves of the commenda to increase their incomes, it 
was found necessary to oppose it. This was done by Greg¬ 
ory VII. and Innocent X., and also at the Councils of Con¬ 
stance and Trent. Formerly in the Church of England, 
when a clergyman was promoted to a bishopric, all his other 
preferments became void, but the interest in the living was 
retained by its being commended to the care of a bishop 
(called the commendatory) by the Crown till there should 
be provided for it a proper pastor. Such a living was called 
an ecclesia commendata, and it was said to be held in com- 
mendam. The holding of benefices and livings in com- 
mendam in England has been abolished by law. Among 
the ecclesiastical orders of knights the name commenda 
(commandery) was given to the domain over w'hich the 
members ( commendatores) exercised jurisdiction. 

Commeil'sal [from the Lat. com (for con), “together,” 
and men8a, a “table”], a term recently (1870) introduced 
into natural history to denote those small animals, some¬ 
times mistaken for parasites, which accompany or attach 
themselves to others, not to prey upon them, but to share 
their prey. The word means a “ table-companion.” Thus, 
a Siluridan fish of Brazil, of the genus Platystoma, accom¬ 
modates in the cavities of his mouth quite a family of small 
commensal fishes, of a species to which the name Stegophi- 
lus insidiosus has been given, which take toll of his food as 
it passes to his throat. 

The term commensal was originally applied to certain 
court-officers of France who were furnished with food at 
the king’s table. 

Commen'siirable [Lat. com (for con), “with,” and 
mensura, “ measure ”], applied to magnitudes measurable 
by a common unit. It is one of the inscrutable things in 
geometry that there are magnitudes of which the relations 
to each other are determinate, yet incapable of numerical 
expression. Such magnitudes are said to be incommensu¬ 
rable. Magnitudes, on the other hand, of which the rela¬ 
tions to each other can be numerically expressed with ex¬ 
actness, are called commensurable. By this is meant that, 
in the case of such magnitudes, there exists some smaller 
magnitude capable of being contained in each an exact num¬ 
ber of times, without, in either case, a fractional excess. 
But no linear dimension, however small, is small enough to 
be a common measure of the diagonal and the side of a 
square, or of the diameter and the circumference of a circle. 
These pairs of magnitudes are therefore examples of rela¬ 
tive incommensurability. In reasoning upon cases of in¬ 
commensurability, the method of proceeding is to show 
that what we mean to prove of a magnitude incommensu¬ 
rable with another is very nearly true of either of two mag¬ 
nitudes commensurable with that other, the one greater and 
the other less than the incommensurable; and that the ap¬ 
proximation to the truth is closer and closer as these com- 
mensurables are taken more and more nearly to the incom¬ 
mensurable. This approach can be carried so far that the 
commensurables shall differ from each other by less than 
any assignable quantity; while yet the incommensurable 
will always lie between them; and as the proposition to be 
proved is not true of the larger of the two commensurables, 
because that is too large, nor of the smaller, because that 
is too small, we infer that it must be true of the incom¬ 
mensurable, which is always smaller than the larger com¬ 
mensurable, and larger than the smaller. Very many of 
the quantities symbolized in mathematical investigations— 
e. g. sines, cosines, logarithms, and (generally) roots, are in¬ 
commensurable with each other, with the quantities from 
which they are derived, and with any common unit. 

F. A. P. Barnard. 

Commentry, a town of France, department of Allier, 
on the CEil, 8 miles S. E. of Montlupon, in the centre ot 
important coal-fields. It derives its prosperity from coal¬ 
mines and iron-works, and has increased rapidly in recent 
times. Its manufactures of looking-glasses are very cele¬ 
brated and remunerative. Pop. 9978. 



















1046 COMMERCE. 


Com'merce [Lat. commercium ; a word related to vierx, 
“ merchandise ”], the removal and exchange of commodi¬ 
ties. Owing to the fact that until within a comparatively 
late period of the world’s history the means of locomotion 
and carriage overland were infinitely inferior to those over 
navigable waters, the term has generally been limited to 
exchange of commodities by sea, and, as seas usually sepa¬ 
rated nations, to exchange of commodities between nations. 
It is in this restricted sense that the subject will be treated 
in this article. 

The scene of the dawn of commerce has been assigned 
by some writers to the shores of the Indian Ocean, but the 
earliest authentic evidence of commerce which we now pos¬ 
sess is of that carried on by the Phoenicians, a nation in¬ 
habiting the northern shores of Palestine, on tho Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea, and closely allied with the Hebrews, not only 
by vicinage, but similarity of language and pursuits. 
Gadera (or Gades), the modern Cadiz, and Ituke, the Ro¬ 
man Utica, were settled by colonists from Phoenicia about 
the year 1100 B. C., or during the reign of King David in 
Israel. Massilia, the modern Marseilles, was founded not 
long after by the Phocieans. The foundation of Tyre and 
Sidon and the settlement of Phoenicia are ascribed by 
Herodotus to the period B. C. 2700-2800, which, according 
to some chronologies, was several hundred years before 
Noah’s flood. The splendor of the Phoenician cities of 
Tyre, Sidon, andAradus; their manufacture of woollens, 
glass, and jewelry; the germ of political representation 
afforded by the conventions at Tripolis; the use of arith¬ 
metic, an alphabet, and coined money by this now almost 
forgotten nation; the size and strength of their merchant- 
vessels, the intrepidity and skill of their navigators, and 
the adventurous character of their commerce, which ex¬ 
tended certainly to Britain, and perhaps to the Baltic, on 
the W. and N., and Abyssinia and India on the S. and E., 
—are among the few unquestioned facts which forty cen¬ 
turies of destroying time have left unimpaired. Carthage 
was settled by colonization from Tyre about the ninth cen¬ 
tury B. C., and continued, long after the conquest of Phoe¬ 
nicia by Babylonia, one of the principal commercial ports 
of the world. In B. C. 509, Carthage made a commercial 
treaty with Rome, the text of which still exists, and had 
even made an earlier one with the Etruscans, who were 
themselves a great commercial people. But neither the 
enterprise nor opulence of Carthage could shield her from 
the military superiority of jealous Rome, and the year B. C. 
146 witnessed her conquest and destruction. Alexandria 
in Egypt, which had been founded by Alexander of Mace- 
don B. C. 332, after his destruction of Tyre, now became 
one of the chief centres of commerce. In B. C. 48, Alex¬ 
andria was taken by Julius Cmsar, and eighteen years 
afterwards fell permanently beneath the power of Rome. 
Corinth (B. C. 786-395), Athens (B. C. 476-360), and 
Rhodes (B. C. 408-42) were also important centres of an¬ 
cient commerce, rivalling in wealth and splendor, and ex¬ 
celling in intellectual progress and the arts, the cities 
already named. The consular and Zollverein systems and 
reciprocal commercial treaties were known to the Greeks 
even at this remote period; while Rhodes gave to Rome 
the earliest code of maritime laws of which we have any 
knowledge. Eventually, these great cities all fell beneath 
the devouring arms of Rome, and their commerce, with 
their power, died away. Alexandria, under Roman rule, 
now sustained the burden of the world’s commerce until 
the foundation of the Byzantine empix-e. The Roman 
polity is deemed to have been hostile to commerce, but this 
was only so during the empire, which saw its perpetuity 
threatened by that powerful and freedom-loving middle 
class that commerce always tends to create. Yet even 
uuder the empire Rome was the centre of a great corn- 
trade from all parts of the Mediterranean; Alexandria 
continued to be a great commercial mart, and the Levant 
was kept more free of pirates than at any previous time. 

The subjugation to Rome of tho principal commercial 
nations of antiquity took place at a period when many 
causes, political, religious, and social—not the least among 
the latter of which was the then increasing dearth of coin 
—were hastening the downfall of that colossal empire itself. 
With the decadence of Rome tho commerce of the world 
received a blow from which it did not fully recover until 
the rise of the Italian republics of the Middle Ages, though 
meanwhile the Jews, now dispersed throughout Europe, 
kept alive the expiring spirit of trade, a taste for which 
they had probably learnt from their ancient intercourse 
w T ith Tyre, and materially promoted its re-establishment 
by their introduction of banks into Italy during the ninth 
century (Putnam’8 Dictionary of Dates), and of bills of ex¬ 
change during the twelfth century (Anderson). Venice, 
Genoa, Florence, Pisa, and, somewhat later, Barcelona, 
rose into opulence and power; the former giving to the 
world its first great banking establishment, and the latter 


its first modern code of commercial law. During the half 
century previous to tho discovery of America, the com¬ 
merce of Venice extended to, and her coins passed current 
in, all parts of the known world. The trading cities of the 
German and Baltic seas and rivers grew into prominence 
during the same period; and from sixty-six to eighty-five 
of them, united into an association for mutual protection 
against pirates and the enjoyment of monopolies purchased 
from tho feudal barons, formed the celebrated Hanseatic 
Reague. From the twelfth to the sixteenth century this 
association triumphantly defended the rights of commerce 
on the seas, and taught its political value to the once dis¬ 
dainful princes of interior Europe. From the beginning 
of the fifteenth century Portugal had become a great mari¬ 
time and commercial nation, and to the daring and enter¬ 
prise of her navigators is due that discovery of a sea-route 
to India which, together with the discovery of America by 
Spain—another country destined to share for a time the 
commercial supremacy of the world—totally changed the 
great currents of trade, and led alike to the decay of the 
Italian cities and the Hanseatic League, and the rise of 
that immense commercial opulence and power which suc¬ 
cessively awaited Holland and England. 

Asia Major, with the products of its varied climes and 
teeming populations of Tartary, Persia, India, China and 
Japan, has in all ages been the objective point of commerce, 
and the nations who found the best route to it have in turn 
all held the sceptre of commercial greatness. The Phoe¬ 
nicians opened a channel to Asia by way of Suez; the 
Hebrews overland by way of Palmyra or Tadmor; the 
Suez route was reopened by the Greeks, and successively 
kept open by the Romans and Venetians; the Genoese 
penetrated to Asia by way of the Euxinc; the Portuguese 
led the way by the Cape of Good Hope, and relinquished 
it to the Dutch; the Hansards opened an overland route 
by way of Novgorod; Spain sought for a path westward, 
and stumbled upon a new world; England discovered a 
route by way of Cape Horn; and America has paved one 
with iron rails, first by way of Panama, and afterwards 
via San Francisco. France has acquired both glory and 
profit by reopening the long-abandoned Suez route; and 
Russia, even at the present day, is exciting the jealousy of 
England by extending her borders and military posts to 
the north-western limits of India. Before the voyages of 
the great Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English nav¬ 
igators had virtually laid the world open to commercial 
visitation, the currents of commerce changed with the pro¬ 
gress of maritime discovery. Since then these currents 
have been subject to the various influences of new com¬ 
modities, steam-navigation, canals, railways, and tele¬ 
graphs. The principal articles of modern commerce, such 
as cotton, sugar, tea, coffee, iron, etc., formed no portion 
of the commerce of remote eras; seas, rivers, and lakes 
once impenetrable to commerce are now brought within its 
domain by the talisman of steam ; interior countries, which 
once took no part in the commercial activity of the world, 
have arrived at a prominent position through the influence 
of canals and railways; while the telegraph has brought the 
most distant countries together, and swept away a thousand 
local and devious channels of trade to merge them into those 
long, continuous, and direct streams that now flow through 
the world. (For particulars of the commerce of the various 
modern foreign countries see those countries by name.) 

American Commerce .—The aboriginal inhabitants of 
America knew little or nothing of commerce. The Peru¬ 
vians constructed a magnificent coast-road in their country, 
1200 miles long, but were unacquainted with either horses 
or wheels. Although possessing a splendid sea-coast, they 
had no ships. They understood the value and use of 
guano, but transported it by the most primitive means of 
carriage. The earliest commerce in America consisted of 
the supplies brought by the Spaniards to their colonies, 
and the gold and Indian slaves carried aw r ay in i-eturn. In 
1510 negro slaves were imported into Hispaniola, and even 
then at such a sacrifice of life that the king of Spain wrote 
the next year to a colonial official: “I do not understand 
how so many negroes died; take much care of them.” In 
1517, Charles V. granted to a courtier a monopoly to im¬ 
port 4000 negro slaves into Hispaniola during eight years; 
this grant was modified in 1523. About this time a custom¬ 
house was established at Hispaniola, implying a regular 
commerce. In 1518 there were twenty-eight sugai'-works 
on the island. In 1524 a sea-going vessel w r as built at 
Panama by Balboa, and shipwrights paid two dollars per 
day and rations. In 1545 the mines of Potosi were opened, 
and the shipment of bullion to Europe became a great and 
established trade, which remained in the hands of Spain 
for several centuries. During this period the colonies of 
North America were founded and developed, and many new 
streams of commerce began to flow between America and 
the rest of the world, and various parts of America itself. 











COMMEKCE. 


1047 


In 1508 the Newfoundland fisheries were opened by France; 
in 1577 there were no less than 150 French vessels engaged 
in the trade; and although this number subsequently di¬ 
minished, it increased so greatly after the Peace of Rys- 
wick that previous to the capture of Louisburg, Cape 
Breton, in 1745, the number of vessels was 600, of men 
27,000, and the annual product of fish valued at $4,500,000. 
In 1615, Virginia exported tobacco to England. In 1616 
the Puritans of Massachusetts colony shipped four cargoes 
ot fish and oil to Spain and the Canary Islands, and in 
1624 a load of fish and peltry to England. Before the 
close of the seventeenth century the whale-fishery from 
Nantucket was established, and. Massachusetts annually 
exported 100,000 quintals of cod to the Levant. In 1646 
the English began to export sugar from Barbadoes, and 
within the following fifty years the culture and export of 
this staple became established in most of the countries of 
tropical America. The culture and export of tobacco in¬ 
creased enormously, and in 1718 coffee was introduced into 
Surinam by the Dutch, and rapidly grew into commercial 
importance. From the year 1700 we have a complete sum¬ 
mary, by values, of the commerce between the American 
colonies and Great Britain; and, as the colonial system 
was in lull force at this time, this includes substantially the 
entire foreign trade of what are now the United States. 
Pennsylvania at this period exported corn to Spain and 
Portugal, and in common with New England carried liquors 
and provisions to the West Indies and Newfoundland. The 
Carolinas sent rice and tobacco to England and the West 
Indies, and carried back manufactures, tropical fruits, and 
specie dollars. Virginia exported rice, tobacco, corn, and 
lumber. New York exported wheat, beef, pork, tobacco, and 
peltry to England, and lumber and provisions to the West 
Indies, etc. It was her fears for the loss of this great and 
varied commerce, excited by the efforts made by the colo¬ 
nists to build their own merchant-vessels and trade directly 
with foreign countries, that led Great Britain to pass the 
Navigation act of 1651, which forbade this traffic except in 
English bottoms. This act was evaded by the New England 
colonists, and led to the acts of 1660 and 1663, which forbade 
foreign traffic altogether, except with England or her de¬ 
pendencies. The discontent occasioned by these measures 
was only answered by further restrictive acts on the part of 
Great Britain, the last of which, imposing in 1767 a colonial 
tariff for the benefit of the mother-country on tea, paper, 
glass, etc., led to the Revolution and independence. The 
following table exhibits the annual commerce between Great 
Britain and the North American colonies of New England, 
New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, the Caro¬ 
linas, Georgia, Louisiana, and Florida, at quinquennial 
periods from the beginning of the eighteenth century to the 
Revolution—British official (fixed), not market, values: 


Years of 
Peace or 
War. 

Year. 

Exports from 
America to Great 
Britain. 

Imports from Great 
Britain into 
America. 

British pro¬ 
duct of Green¬ 
land and 
Southern 
fisheries. 

P. 

1700 

£395,021 

£344,341 

£469 

W. 

1705 

150,964 

291,723 


w. 

1710 

249,816 

293,660 


p. 

1715 

297.247 

451,368 


w. 

1720 

468,188 

319,705 


p. 

1725 

415,650 

549,693 

4,262 

p. 

1730 

572,586 

536,861 

11,103 

p. 

1735 

652,327 

668,664 

8,678 

w. 

1740 

718,416 

813,382 


w. 

1745 

554,431 

535,253 

1,300 

p. 

1750 

814,769 

1,313.084 

6.368 

p. 

1755 

939,554 

1,112,998 

28,857 

w. 

1760 

831,945 

2,712,957 

10,824 

p. 

1765 

1,160,299 

1,972,513 

14,893 

p. 

1770 

1,095,485 

1,954,875 

25,609 

w. 

1775 

1,953,401 

197,100 

25,058 


The following table exhibits the same commerce annu¬ 
ally from 1776 to 1789, inclusive: 


Years of 
Peace or 
War. 

Year. 

Exports from 
America to Great 
Britain. 

Imports from Great 
Britain into 
America. 

British pro¬ 
duct of Green¬ 
land and 
Southern 
fisheries. 

W. 

1776 

£105,643 

£56,430 

£ 48,336 

w. 

1777 

13,610 

58,793 

152,085 

w. 

1778 

17.994 

37,564 

40,157 

w. 

1779 

23,597 

350,700 

34,664 

w. 

1780 

19,763 

829,070 

41,922 

w. 

1781 

99,879 

854,701 

40,698 

w. 

1782 

37,640 

266,730 

39,630 

w. 

1783 

170.241 

1,003,120 

37,148 

p. 

1784 

749,329 

3.679,472 

66,776 

p. 

1785 

893,596 

2,308,223 

84,277 

p. 

1786 

843.119 

1,603,466 

153,052 

p. 

1787 

893.638 

2,014.112 

215,287 

p. 

1788 

1,023,789 

1,886,142 

160,610 

p. 

1789 

1,050.199 

2,525,300 

150,155 


The expansion of these sums, which, notwithstanding 


their long growth, are exceedingly limited compared with 
those that followed after the treaty of 1783 had secured 
political independence and commercial freedom to the 
colonies, very strikingly exhibits the extent of the advan¬ 
tages our forefathers mutually pledged their “ lives, for¬ 
tunes, and sacred honors” to secure. The following table 
exhibits the commerce of the U. S. with all countries at 
quinquennial periods from 1790 to 1832, inclusive—Ameri¬ 
can official (declared), not market, values: 


Years 

of 

Peace 

or 

War. 

Year. 

Imports. 

Exports of 
Domestic 
Commodities. 

Re-exports of 
Foreign 
Commodities. 

Imports 
from Great 
Britain and 
dependen¬ 
cies only. 

P. 

1790* 

$23,000,000 

$19,666,000 

$539,156 

No data.f 

P- 

1795 

69,756.268 

39,500,000 

8,489,472 

$30,972,215 

P. 

180C 

91,952,768 

31,840,903 

39,130,877 

42,577,590 

P. 

1805 

120.000,000 

42,387,002 

53,179,019 

No data. 

P. 

1810 

85,400,Of )0 

42,366,079 

24,391,295 

<( a 

W. 

1814 

12,965,000 

6.782,272 

145,169 

Nothing. 

P. 

1815 

113,041,274 

45,974,403 

6,583,350 

No data; 

P. 

1820 

74,450,000 

51,683,640 

18,008.029 

139,277,938 

P. 

1825 

96,340,075 

66,944,745 

32,590,643 

42.394,812 

P. 

1830 

70,876,920 

69,462,029 

14,387,479 

26.804.984 

P. 

1831 

103,191.124 

61.277,057 

20,033,526 

47,956,717 

P. 

1832 

101,029.266 

63,137,470 

24,039,473 

42,406,924 


The difference between the imports from Great Britain 
and her dependencies, shown in this table, and the imports 
from Great Britain, shown in the previous one, allowing 
for growth of country, variation in modes of valuation, 
want of correspondence in the statistical year, etc., is, 
roughly, the measure of our commercial emancipation from 
ym domination of the mother-country. From 1793 to 1810, 
inclusive, excepting the single year 1802, Great Britain 
was at war, and this country at peace, except so far as 
regards the brief contest with Tripoli and the Embargo 
and Non-intercourse acts. This was the halcyon period of 
our foreign carrying-trade, as will be seen in a glance at 
the column of re-exports. Our neutral flag was respected 
on every sea, and our commercial enterprise made known 
to every clime. The following table exhibits the commerce 
of the U. S. annually from the commencement of the ex¬ 
pansion of 1833-37 to the present time: 


Events. 

Year. 

Imports. 

Exports of Domes¬ 
tic Commodities. 

Re-exports of 
Foreign 
Commodities. 


' 

1833 

$108,118,311 

$69,950,856 

$19,822,735 

tj.2 


1834 

126,521,332 

80.623,662 

23,312,811 



1835 

149,895,742 

100,459.481 

20,504,495 

w q, 


1836 

189,980.035 

106.570,942 

21,746.360 

<v 


1837 

140,989,217 

94,280.895 

21,854,962 

p 


1838 

113,717,404 

95,560.880 

12,452,795 

o 

c p 


1839 

162,092,132 

101,625,533 

17,494,525 

TJ o 

p 


1840 

107,141,519 

111,660.561 

18,190,312 

« o 


1841 

127,946,177 

103,636.236 

15,469,081 

a 


1842 

100,162,087 

91,798,242 

11,721,538 

03 

Ph 


1843? 

64,753,799 

77,686,354 

6,552,697 



184411 

108,435,035 

99,531,774 

11,484,867 



1845 

117,254,564 

98,455,330 

15,346,830 



1846 

121,691,797 

101.718,042 

11,346,623 

a 


1847 

146,545,638 

150,574.844 

8,011,158 



1848 

154,998,928 

130,203,709 

21,128,010 

e 

3J 


1849 

147,857,439 

131,510,081 

13,088,065 

P« 

X 


1850 

178,138,318 

134,900,233 

14,951,808 

o ^ 


1851 

216,224,932 

178,620,138 

21,698,293 

c3 

P 


1852 

212,945,442 

154,931,147 

17,289,382 

r d 

ci 


1853 

267,978,647 

189,869,162 

17,558,460 

o 


1854 

304,562,381 

215,156,304 

24,850,194 



1855 

261,468,520 

192,751,135 

28,448,293 



1856 

314,639,942 

266,438,051 

16,378,578 



1857 

360,890.141 

278,906,713 

23,975,617 

O d 


1858 

282,613,150 

251,351,033 

30,886,142 

S a « ■< 


1859 

338,768,130 

278,392,080 

20,895,077 

* 8 


1860 

362,166,254 

316,242,423 

26,933,022 



1861! 


335,650,153 

228,699,486 

20,645,427 

■si 


18621 


205,771,729 

213,069,519 

16,869,466 

u § ^ 


18631 


252,919,920 

305,884,998 

26,123,584 

p A 


18641 


329,562,895 

320,035,199 

20,256,940 

to 


1865! 


248,555,652 

323,743,187 

32,114,157 

rs 


1866 

445,512,158 

550,684,277 

14,742,117 



1867 

417,833,575 

438,577,312 

20,611,508 

a 
a o 


1868 

371,624,808 

454.301,713 

22,601,126 

C 03 

'Z p < 


1869 

437,314.255 

413,961,115 

25,173,414 

p p 

O) a. 


1870 

462,377,587 

499,092,143 

30,427,159 

D. X 

to 


1871 

541,493,708 

562,518,651 

28,459,899 

CO 


1872 

640,338,766 

549,219,718 

22,769,749 


* To Dec. 31; the following years end Sept. 30. 

f The exports from Great Britain (only) to the U. S. this year, 
according to the British official tables, were £3,431,778. $ 1821. 

? Nine months, ended June 30. 

|j This and all following years end June 30. Since 1861 the do¬ 
mestic exports, except from Pacific ports and exports of specie, 
valued in paper monej r . 

1[ The sums for these years are exclusive of the imports and 
exports at Southern ports, which cannot be ascertained, and are 
from the disfigured MS. records of the treasury, and differ both 
from those printed in the “Finance” and “Commerce and Naviga¬ 
tion Reports" previous to the revision exercised by the bureau ot 
statistics in 1867. For comparison of these discrepancies and an¬ 
alysis of the accounts, see introduction to “Commerce and Naviga¬ 
tion Reports,” 1S67. 































































































COMMERCE—COMMISSIONNAIRE. 


1048 


The principal articles of the importations of 1872, and 
the principal countries from whence imported, are shown 
in the following table—sums in millions of dollars and 
tenths: 


Animals, Canada. 

Beer, ale, porter. 

3.5 

Leather, manfs., England 


1.5 

and Germany. 

1.0 

Books, printed m. 

2 3 

Linseed. 

4.3 

Breadstuffs, Canada. 

9.5 

Marble. 

1.0 

Chemicals, England. 

18.4 

Musical Instrs., France... 

1.0 

Opium, “ . 

2.1 

Oils, Levant.... 

2.1 



Watches, Clocks. 

3 4 

Paints, England. 

1.4 

Clothing. 

9.4 

Paper, manfs., England... 

1.6 

Coal, Canada. 

1.3 

Precious stones, “ 

3.1 

Coffee, Brazil. 

37.9 

Meats, poultry, lard, but¬ 
ter, cheese, etc., Canada. 


Copper, inanfs., England.. 

2.1 

4.4 

Cotton goods, “ 

29.9 

Rice. 

2.3 

Dyewoods, West Indies.... 

3.2 

Rags. 

6.0 

Earthenware, England.... 

5.3 

Salt, England, West In¬ 
dies, and Spain. 


Fancy Goods, England and 


1.2 

Germany . 

5.6 

Silk, raw. 

5.6 



Flax, England. 

1.4 

“ manfs., Eng. and Fr.. 

36.3 

Flax, nnftifs., Gt. Britain.. 

21.2 

Spices, China and E. Ind.. 

2.7 

Fruit, Levant and West 


Steel, England. 

4.0 

Indies. 

10.4 

“ manfs., England. 

8.9 

Furs, England. 

3.5 

Spirits and Wines, France. 

8.6 

Glass, manfs., England.... 

5.8 

Sugar and Molasses, Cuba. 

91.9 

Gold and silver coin, etc., 


Tea, China and Japan. 

Tin, China and England... 

22.9 

Mexico. 

13.7 

15.8 

Gold, manufactures. 

1.4 

Tobacco, manfs., Cuba. 

4 4 

Gums, England. 

1.7 

Cigars, “ . 

2.8 

Hair. 

1.6 

Wood, hard, West Indies.. 

1.3 

“ horse, England. 

1.3 

Boards, etc., Canada. 

8.5 



Hats and bonnets, straw.. 

2.3 

Furniture, etc. 

1.5 

Hemp, Great Britain. 

7.2 

Wool, S. Amer. and Eng.. 
Carpets, England. 

27.4 

“ manfs., Great Britain. 

1.9 

5.7 

Hides, South America. 

16.0 

Woollen dress-goods, Eng. 

20.4 

India-rubber, Brazil. 

4.8 

Woollen, manfs., England. 
Zinc, Germany and Bel- 

25 4 

Indigo. 

1.5 


Iron, pigs, Great Britain.. 

11.2 

gium. 

1.4 

“ manfs., “ “ 

31.5 

Other articles specified... 

103.6 

Lead, pigs, England. 

3.4 

“ “ not “ 

22.4 

Leather, England and Fr. 
“ gloves, “ “ 

7.6 

46 

Total. 

640.3 


The principal articles of the domestic exportations of 1872, 
and the principal countries tvhither exported, are shown 
in the following table—sums in millions of dollars and 
tenths: 


Agricultural implements. 

1.5 

Wood manufactures. 

1.2 

Animals. 

1.8 

Naval stores, Gt. Br. & Ger. 

3.4 

Breadstuffs, United King. 

84.6 

Oil-cake, Eng. 

4.0 

Carriages. 

1.4 

“ coal, Ger., Fr. & Gt. B. 

34.1 

Seeds. 

3.8 

“ whale. 

1 5 

Coal. 

2.0 

Ordnance stores. 

1.2 

Cotton, England. 

180.7 

Provisions, Eng. 

60.0 

Cotton manufactures. 

2.3 

Sewing-machines. 

2.4 

Drues. 

1.8 

Steel manufactures. 

1.0 

Dves... 

1.0 

Tallow. 

7.0 

Firearms. 

1.0 

Tobacco, Ger., Gt. B. & Fr. 

24.1 

Fruits. 

1.0 

Tobacco manufactures. 

2.5 

Furs. 

3.3 

Turpentine. 

2.5 

Gold and silver, England.. 

75.2 

Other manufactures not 

Hides. 

1.4 

specified. 

4.2 

Iron manufactures. 

2.7 

Other raw material not 

Engines... 

3.9 

specified. 

2.9 

10.7 

Leather manufactures. 

3.1 

Other articles specified.... 

Lumber,W.I., S.A., & Eng. 
Furniture. 

12.5 

1.5 

Total. 

549.2 




The importation from England of commodities the 
growth or production of other climes, such as salt, furs, 
gums, etc., is due to the fact that by reason of her vast 
capital, low rate of interest, and other advantages, England 
is substantially the commercial emporium of the world, 
and transacts an enormous transshipment commerce with 
all countries. (The influence of taxes, tariffs, etc. upon 
commerce has not been adverted to in this article, that 
being treated under the heads Free Trade, Protection, 
and Revenue Reform.) 

It has been the interest in all ages of certain classes to 
deny that commerce is beneficial, and that agriculture and 
manufactures alone are entitled to national consideration, 
but such a position is utterly untenable. Production can¬ 
not advance beyond the rudest limits without commerce, 
whose essential function it is to exchange that which is 
not needed for that which is, or to remove commodities 
from places where they are not wanted to places where 
they are. In fact, commerce is inseparably bound up with 
production; there is no actual dividing-line between them; 
the carriage of seeds to be planted, of textiles to be woven, 
of ores to be smelted, and the removal of the results to 
places of deposit, are all commercial functions. Foreign 
commerce is in like manner inseparable from production, 
and forms part of it. The implements, materials, agencies, 
and even remoter sources, of national productive industries, 
depend upon foreign commerce, which would perish with¬ 
out them. Commerce has exercised a potent influence 
in propagating and extending religion; in its train have 
ever followed opulence, national strength, political liberty, | 


letters, arts, and sciences; its stimulation has always been 
marked by a general progress in the condition of men; its 
retardation by a corresponding retrogradation, and its dis¬ 
couragement or decline by poverty, national dissolution, 
tyranny, slavery, ignorance, and crime. It has destroyed 
the barriers of distance, alienage, race, religion, and caste; 
it has equalized the conditions of life in various parts of 
the earth, and tended to realize that homogeneousness of 
the human race which the profoundest thinkers have 
maintained is an indispensable preliminary to its highest 
development. Alex. Delmar. 

Commerce, a township and post-village of Oakland 
co., Mich., on the railroad between Bay City and Toledo, 
and 28 miles N. W. of Detroit. Pop. of township, 1392. 

Commerce, a post-village, capital of Scott co., Mo., 
on the Mississippi River, 154 miles below St. Louis. It 
has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of township, 1267. 

Commersou (Philippe), a French botanist, born at 
Chatillon-les-Dombes Nov. 18, 1727. He accompanied as 
naturalist the expedition of Bougainville, which sailed in 
1767, and he visited South America and explored Mada¬ 
gascar, etc. He died in the Isle of France in 1773, leaving 
some works in manuscript. Commerson was a man of 
profound science. An exceptional honor was conferred 
on Commerson by the French Academy of Natural Sciences 
in electing him a member notwithstanding he had never 
sent them a memoir. Unfortunately, when this distinction 
was conferred he had been already eight days dead. 

Commina'tion [from the Lat. comminor , to “threat¬ 
en,” because in it God’s threatenings against sin are re¬ 
peated] is the name of a penitential service in the Lit¬ 
urgy of the Church of England. In that of the Prot¬ 
estant Episcopal Church of the U. S. it is nearly all 
omitted. 

Commissa'riat [Fr., from commissaire, a “commis¬ 
sioner”], a term originally meaning a “ commissionership,” 
has come to be applied to that department of the military 
administration which has in charge the furnishing of food 
for the men. The other supplies of the troops, including 
forage for horses, etc. (with the exception of ordnance 
stores), are furnished by the quartermaster’s department. 
In ancient Rome the quaestors attended to the victualling 
of the troops. The first English commissary-generals were 
called provant-masters. The British commissariat is now 
under the charge of a commissary-general-in-chief. That 
of the U. S., at present, is under an officer who has the 
rank of a brigadier-general and the title of commissary- 
general of subsistence. The accounts of the U. S. commis¬ 
sary officers are referred for settlement to the third audi¬ 
tor of the Treasury department. (See Subsistence of 
Armies.) 

Com'missary [Fr. commissaire ], a term nearly synon¬ 
ymous with deputy, signifies one to whom the power and 
authority of another is committed. It is sometimes used 
in a sense nearly equivalent to that of commissioner. In 
the army the officers of the commissariat department are 
styled commissaries of subsistence. The officers having 
charge of musters in and out are commissaries of musters. 
In ecclesiastical law, a commissary is appointed by a bishop 
to exercise jurisdiction in remote parts of the diocese. 

Commis'sion [Lat. commissio, from committo, commis¬ 
sion, to “commit”], the act of committing or performing; 
also a writing, generally in the form of a warrant or letters- 
patent. Instruments bearing this title are issued by the 
executive to officers in the army and navy, judges, and 
others. The term is sometimes applied to a number of 
persons joined in an office or trust. All the officers of 
armies above the grade of sergeant hold their authority by 
warrants called commissions, and hence they are called 
commissioned officers. The practice of buying and selling 
all commissions under the rank of colonel formerly pre¬ 
vailed in the British army, but it was abolished by royal 
warrant, against the will of the House of Lords, in 1871. 

Commission, in law. See Trustees, by Prof. T. W. 
Dwight, LL.D. 

Commis'sion Mer'chant, Agent, or Factor, a 

person who sells goods which belong to another party or 
person, by whom they have been consigned to him for that 
purpose. The owner of the goods is called the consignor, 
and the commission merchant the consignee. The latter 
receives for his services a percentage on the sum for which 
the goods are sold. 

Commissionnaire [Fr.], an attendant at European 
hotels, employed to attend at the arrival of railway trains 
and steamboats to secure customers, to take charge of bag¬ 
gage, see it passed through the hands of the custom-house 
officers, and send it on to the hotel; for which services they 
charge a fee. They likewise procure vises to passports, 
and act as valets-de-place. 


i 












































































































COMMITTEE—COMMON SCHOOLS. 


Committee. See Insanity, by Prof. T. W. Dwight. 

Com'modore, in the British navy, is a title given to 
the senior captain of a squadron when there is no admiral 
present. It is not a permanent rank, but is bestowed for a 
time on a captain. A commodore usually commands more 
ships than one, detached from a fleet on some special ser¬ 
vice; and he then hoists a pennant. In the U. S. navy 
the title of commodore was formerly given by courtesy to a 
captain commanding a squadron. The office was recog¬ 
nized by law in 1862, commodores taking rank next below 
rear-admirals, and next above captains. Their rank cor¬ 
responds to that of brigadier-general in the army. (See 
Admiral.) 

Com'modus (Lucius iEuus Aurelius), a Roman 
emperor, born in 161 A. D., was the son of Marcus Aurelius 
and Faustina. He was carefully educated. He succeeded 
his father in the year 180, and soon manifested the exces¬ 
sive cruelty and sensuality of his disposition. His wife 
Crispina and many other innocent persons were put to 
death by his order. He abandoned the government to 
Perennis and other favorites. Assuming the title of Her¬ 
cules, he claimed from his subjects divine honors. His 
officers Eclcctus and Lmtus conspired against him, and 
caused him to be strangled in 192. He was succeeded by 
Pertinax. 

Common. See Hereditaments Incorporeal, by Prof. 
T. W. Dwight, LL.D. 

Common Carriers. See Carriers, Common, by 
Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D. 

Com'mon Coun'cil, a name given in some cities of 
the U. S. to one of the governing bodies which control the 
municipal and local affairs. The other is sometimes called 
select council. 

Com'moner, one of the common people, applied in 
general to all persons except the hereditary nobility ; also 
a student of the second rank in the University of Oxford 
(England), who pays for his board or commons and other 
charges. The term “ great commoner ” has been applied 
to the English patriot Hampden, and to the elder William 
Pitt before he entered the House of Peers. 

Common Law. See Law, by Prof. T. W. Dwight. 

Common Fleas, Court of. See Courts, by George 
Chase, LL.B. 

Common Prayer, Book of, a collection of all the 
forms of worship used in the Church of England. The 
King’s Primer, published by Henry VIII. in 1516, was the 
first form of this book, but it contained only the Creed, 
Lord’s Prayer, Commandments, and Litany. Edward VI. 
had this primer twice revised and republished (in 1549 and 
1552), and his second Liturgy is very similar to that which 
now exists. He caused the Sentences, Exhortation, and 
the Confession and Absolution to be prefixed to the Daily 
Service, and introduced the Decalogue into the Communion 
Service (1548). At this time certain Romish customs were 
abolished. In the reign of Elizabeth the Liturgy was again 
revised (1559), but with few alterations. After the con¬ 
ference with the Presbyterians at Hampton Court, James 
I. instituted another revision, and added the explanation 
of the sacraments in the Catechism (1604). It was again 
revised under Charles I. (1633). After the restoration of 
Charles II., when a conference had been held with the dis¬ 
senters at the Savoy, the Common Prayer-Book was further 
revised in 1662. Certain forms were added, and slight 
changes were made in the services; and a very few have 
been made since that time. A revision was made under 
William III., and several changes proposed, but they were 
rejected by convocation (1689), and have not been restored. 
The Protestant Episcopal Church in the U. S. has adopted 
the Anglican Prayer-Book with a few modifications. 

Com'mons, the dinner provided in English colleges 
and inns of court for their members. In the inns of court 
it is provided only during term. Separate tables are ap¬ 
pointed for the benchers, the barristers, and the students. 

Common Schools. The aim of common schools is 
to provide elementary instruction for all the children of 
proper age in the community. Such schools were unknown 
in ancient nations. “ The wisdom of the Egyptians” was 
not for the mass of the people. Babylon and Nineveh and 
the Medo-Persian empire won renown by their victories in 
arms, but not by educating their inhabitants. The schools 
of Athens were for those who had the wealth and leisure to 
profit by them. Sparta cared for the bodies of her chil¬ 
dren, but neglected their minds. Rome trained her citizens 
to be soldiers, rather than scholars; they were masters of 
the pilum rather than of the alphabet. 

The origin of common schools is found in the Christian 
Church. Christianity, in its ideal, and as illustrated in the 
life of its Founder, is the religion of beneficence. It rec¬ 


1049 


ognizes the value of every human being, and esteems the 
man as more than the accident of his birth or rank; and it 
aims to benefit him for the whole period of his existence. 
With this estimate of man, and with the beneficent impulse 
received from the teachings and the example of their 
Master, the Christian clergy very early acknowledged and 
assumed the duty of educating the people. Synods and 
councils of the early Church frequently enjoined this duty, 
and directed that it should be performed gratuitously, 
especially for the poor. One council ordered that a gram¬ 
mar school should be established in connection with every 
cathedral, a parochial school in every town and village, and 
other schools wherever opportunity could be found. These 
schools were to receive as pupils the poor and the rich 
without distinction. By this means large numbers were 
able to gain knowledge who would otherwise have been 
doomed to perpetual ignorance. But it was easier to com¬ 
mand universal education than to Secure it. The difficulty 
of bringing under instruction the scattered population of 
rural districts was almost insurmountable. Yet the early 
servants of Christianity attempted the education of all. 
Wherever they went they founded both churches and schools. 
Some of their schools took the form of monasteries, which 
were at once the academies, the libraries, and the univer¬ 
sities of those early times. 

The schools thus established had very slight resemblance 
to the common schools of our times. The instruction was 
meagre, and pertained largely to church dogma and scho¬ 
lastic theology. Books were few and costly, being neces¬ 
sarily in manuscript. Education could not have the fulness 
and completeness that are now easily possible. Ideas were 
relatively few, and were restricted to a narrow range of 
subjects. The schools resembled the parish schools of later 
times, rather than the common schools of this day. As 
they were under church control, they were in fact church 
schools. When wars and civil commotions incident to the 
unsettled state of society interrupted them, as was fre¬ 
quently the case, their influence was diminished, and ignor¬ 
ance extended its sway. But the fundamental idea of 
educating all the 'people was never lost. The Church of 
those early centuries never fully accomplished what it 
attempted, but that grand idea was so deeply planted in 
the convictions of the Christian world that it could not be 
plucked up. The development of that idea has given to 
the world the modern school-system. In this way Ihe com¬ 
mon school is the outgrowth of the Christian Church. 

The invention of the art of printing greatly increased 
the facilities for teaching all the people. Books ceased to 
be the exclusive possession of the few, for a single volume 
no longer represented the labor of months for its mere 
reproduction. But the Reformation, with the intense men¬ 
tal activity which it induced, gave to popular education its 
strongest impulse. The Reformers previous to Luther had 
used their influence in favor of universal instruction, but 
hij efforts in the same cause were most effective, as his in¬ 
fluence was greatest. His ideas respecting schools were 
far in advance of any previously maintained, and were 
nearly identical with those now upheld in Germany and 
the U. S. He advocated the maintaining of schools by the 
civil government, rather than the Church. Through his 
influence a free-school system was established in Saxony as 
early as 1527, and other German states followed the exam¬ 
ple, particularly those in which the Reformation became 
predominant. In the early part of the next century tho 
Germans were probably the best-educated people in Europe. 
The religious wars which so largely occupied the first half 
of that century prevented the development of educational 
plans, but very soon after these wars ceased many states 
of Germany renewed their devotion to popular education, 
and in some of them compulsory attendance laws were 
passed. The Swiss Reformers contemporary with Luther 
were zealous friends of schools, and the impulse Avhich 
they gave to education in their country is still felt. In 
Scotland, John Knox advocated the founding of schools in 
every parish at the cost of the Kirk. His views were 
widely adopted, and more than a century later were sub¬ 
stantially embodied in a law requiring such schools, the 
expense to be divided between the parish and the parents 
of pupils. The Established Kirk of Scotland has continued 
these schools from that time, and other churches in that 
land have established their own schools. Within a few 
years some changes in the mode of management have been 
introduced. For a long time the Scotch were the most 
universally educated people in Europe, but the Prussians 
now claim that honor. The pre-eminence of Prussia in 
this respect is of recent origin. Tho present educational 
system of Prussia was not put in force till after the con¬ 
quest of that country by Napoleon in 1806. A similar 
system had been nominal^ in force for nearly a hundred 
years previous, but had not been carried out. W ars rather 
than schools had filled the mind of the nation, particularly 








1050 COMMON SCHOOLS. 


during the reign of. Frederick the Great. As the military 
spirit has long been dominant in Prussia, the discipline, of 
the schools is essentially military. The state rules its 
schools as strictly as its army. The complete supremacy 
over education long exercised by the Church is now exer¬ 
cised in Prussia by the government. The Prussian system 
is the general model for schools in other parts of Germany. 

Within the last few years a remarkable interest in pop¬ 
ular education has sprung up in every country in Europe. 
Only the beginnings are yet seen. Each nation is striving, 
in its own way, to set up a school-system adapted to its 
peculiar wants. Many years must pass before the per¬ 
fected results of these efforts can appear, but the pros¬ 
pect is that the close of the nineteenth century will find 
common schools maintained for the elementary instruction 
of all the children in Europe. Other parts of the world, 
particularly the colonies and other dominions of Great 
Britain, those regions where American missionaries have 
extensive influence, and, most wonderful of all, the Jap¬ 
anese empire, are moving in the same direction. 

But the most complete and successful trial of the com¬ 
mon-school system has been made in the U. S. The first 
settlers of Massachusetts and Connecticut were hardly es¬ 
tablished in their new homes before they provided for the 
education of their children. In the more southern colonies 
schools were not so highly valued. But the early records 
of the towns and colonies now included in those two States 
contain frequent mention of votes and appropriations for 
maintaining schools. Each town set up its own school, and 
ere long the colonial legislatures adopted codes requiring 
a school in every considerable settlement. These schools 
were not in all respects like the common schools of this 
day, for many of them provided for instruction not only in 
reading, writing, and other elementary branches, but in 
Latin and other studies preparatory for college. Though 
burdened by poverty, and not seldom by taxation for car¬ 
rying on inevitable wars, those sturdy pioneers never 
ceased to uphold their schools. New Hampshire early 
followed the example of her southern neighbors, and 
Maine, as a part of Massachusetts, participated in her 
institutions. Emigrants from these Eastern States settled 
in Vermont, Northern New Jersey, and the central and 
western parts of New York and Pennsylvania. Wherever 
they went they carried with them that New England insti¬ 
tution, the public school, and those flourishing common¬ 
wealths cordially adopted it. And when Ohio, Michigan, 
and the States westward of them, even to the Pacific, re¬ 
ceived their first settlers from the Eastern States, common 
schools at once appeared in every hamlet. In the Southern 
States little was done for popular education till after the 
great civil war which ended in 1865. Before the war many 
of these States possessed funds for supporting public 
schools, and made some not very successful efforts to main¬ 
tain such schools. But, except in a few localities, they had 
a scattered population, of which a large portion was not 
permitted to receive instruction, and another large portiSn 
was extremely ignorant, and content to remain so. The 
wealthier class among them was indeed highly cultivated, 
but wealth was not so generally diffused as in the Northern 
States, and those who had it could accomplish little for in¬ 
structing the untrained multitudes around them. But since 
the restoration of peace these States have made great ex¬ 
ertions to establish public schools, and, notwithstanding 
many hindrances, especially the impoverishment occasioned 
by the war, and the unwillingness to admit both white and 
colored children into the same schools, which in the thinly- 
settled districts can hardly be avoided, many of them are 
making commendable progress. Every State in the Union, 
and nearly every organized Territory, has now the begin¬ 
ning, at least, of a common-school system. 

The schools in the U. S. differ from those in European 
countries in that they are established and controlled under 
State instead of national authority. In Great Britain or 
Germany the national parliament enacts laws for all the 
schools in the realm, but no act of the American Con¬ 
gress relates to the establishing or controlling of common 
schools. Each State passes such laws on this subject as it 
pleases. Under these State laws a superintendent of schools 
is appointed for each State (except Delaware), and in most 
of the States each county has also its superintendent. In 
the New England States no county superintendents are 
appointed, but each town has its own school officers. In 
Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas, districts composed of from 
one to fourteen counties have their district superintendents, 
and in New York each county constitutes from one to four 
districts, with a corresponding number of superintendents. 
Most of the larger cities in all the States have their own 
school superintendents. 

The support of schools is derived from various sources. 
The earliest schools of New England were maintained 
partly by appropriations from the town treasuries, and 


partly by rate-bills to be paid by the parents or guardians 
of pupils, or, if they were unable, by the towns. The rate- 
bill system was long retained, but is now abandoned in all 
the States. Schools receive support (1) from the income 
of permanent funds. Most of the States have such funds, 
the annual interest of which is expended for education, the 
principal remaining intact. In some cases counties, towns, 
or other small divisions of States possess similar funds. 
(2) The greater part of the cost of schools is provided by 
taxation. Of this a part is levied (a) as a State tax. In 
some States the avails of certain special taxes, as capita¬ 
tion-tax, licenses, etc., are appropriated for schools; in 
others a fixed sum, or the amount raised by a certain rate 
of taxation, or a certain amount for every child of “school 
age,” is distributed among the several counties or towns. 

( b ) In some States each county has its separate school-tax. 

(c) Town taxes for schools ai’e levied in most of the States 
which have organized townships, (cl) District taxes are 
frequently levied, both for current and special school ex¬ 
penses. (A district, in this sense, is usually a part of a 
to,wn.) (3) Besides moneys received from funds and taxes, 
small amounts are raised by voluntary contributions or 
subscriptions. 

The sources of permanent school-funds may be briefly 
named. The earliest considerable State fund was estab¬ 
lished by Connecticut in 1795. A tract of land containing 
about 5700 square miles, now constituting the N. E. part 
of Ohio, and known as the “Western Reserve,” because 
Connecticut reserved it when she ceded to the general gov¬ 
ernment all her other public domain, was sold for $1,200,000, 
and the entire sum was set apart to be a perpetual fund for 
supporting public schools, the interest alone to be expended. 
By judicious management the principal of this fund was 
afterwards increased to over $2,000,000. Massachusetts 
appropriated a part of her unoccupied lands in what is 
now the State of Maine for creating a similar fund. In 
all the newer States one thirty-sixth part of all the land 
(the sixteenth “section” or square mile in every six-mile- 
square township) is set apart by national law to be con¬ 
verted into a permanent fund in each State for supporting 
common schools. In the States most recently admitted, 
beginning with Minnesota in 1S58, two sections, the six¬ 
teenth and thirty-sixth, in each township, are devoted to 
this purpose by the terms of the acts of Congress admit¬ 
ting those States. West Virginia, containing no public 
lands, is an exception. The States which have exercised 
proper care in disposing of their school-lands have secured 
magnificent endowments. In some States a large part of 
this fund has been lost through mismanagement, the faith¬ 
lessness of officials, or the absorption of it in the expendi¬ 
tures of the late civil war. 

The common schools in those States where they are effici¬ 
ently conducted accomplish quite fully what they attempt. 
The system provides for (1) the examining and approving 
of teachers by competent authority; (2) the regular visit¬ 
ing and examining of all public schools by competent of¬ 
ficials, who are paid for their services; (3) the maintaining 
of schools in as many districts or localities as the conveni¬ 
ence of the people requires: in this way the children of 
sparsely settled communities have good school privileges; 
(4) the establishing of graded schools wherever the pop¬ 
ulation is sufficiently compact to require them: in these 
schools the range of studies is often so extended in the 
higher departments as to include history, philosophy, alge¬ 
bra, geometry, French, and astronomy; also drawing and 
vocal music, which are now finding a place in schools of 
lower grade; (5) high schools, which, as the highest depart¬ 
ments of graded schools or under separate management, are 
maintained in the larger towns of many States: in Massa¬ 
chusetts they are required by law in all towns containing a 
certain number of inhabitants ; the studies in these schools, 
besides the higher English branches, sometimes include a 
complete preparation for entering college; (6) in New York 
City the public-school system includes “ The College of the 
City of New York.” In several States, most notably in 
Michigan, a State university, including all the departments 
of scientific and professional education, crowns the system 
of free public instruction. Most of the newer States re¬ 
ceived from the U. S. government grants of land expressly 
for endowing these universities. Additional endowments 
have in some cases been provided by State appropriations 
or individual contributions. Pupils of both sexes are ad¬ 
mitted to many of these institutions. The tuition fees are 
usually small, and in some States certain classes of pupils 
can obtain instruction without charge. Where this is done, 
the common school system rises by regular gradations to 
the university and the professional school. 

As subsidiary to the common-school system—(1) Normal 
schools for the training of teachers are established in each 
ot the States except Nevada, the least populous of all. (2) 
Teachers’ associations are formed, teachers’ institutes are 















COMMONS, HOUSE OF—COMMUNE OF PARIS. 


1051 


held, and educational publications are encouraged in most 
of the States. (3) Arrangements are made for procuring 
libraries, books of reference, maps, and charts; also philo¬ 
sophical, astronomical, and chemical apparatus, particu¬ 
larly for the more advanced schools. (4) Uniformity of 
text-books is secured in some cases for entire States by 
State authority, more commonly in towns or other small 
sections by local authority. (5) In several States the law 
gives the power of compelling the attendance of all chil¬ 
dren of certain ages for a specified number of weeks each 
year. Where school-expenses are provided by taxes and 
the income ot funds, compulsory attendance is generally 
advocated. 

The most perplexing question respecting common schools 
relates to moral and religious training, and results from 
diversities ot religious opinions. As the schools are sup¬ 
ported chiefly by taxes levied upon all classes indiscrim¬ 
inately, no one sect can be favored without injustice to all 
others. But the right moral training of a child is even 
more important than the culture of his intellect, and com¬ 
mon schools cannot safely omit all such training. Nor can 
it be wisely remitted to other times and places, for the prin¬ 
ciples ot honesty, virtue, truthfulness, and morality are for 
constant daily use. The problem is to give such instruc¬ 
tion as shall be efficient for its purpose, but shall not violate 
the rights or excite the just apprehensions of any sect. If 
this can be accomplished, the amount of such training may 
be too small to give general satisfaction. The idea of 
universal education was developed, as has been seen, in the 
Christian Church, and for centuries the Church accom¬ 
plished nearly all that was attempted for popular instruc¬ 
tion. In the U. S., and in Germany since the time of 
Luther, the state or civil government has taken the place 
of the Church in the management of public schools. But 
the old traditional opinion that the right to such manage¬ 
ment belongs exclusively to the Church has never disap¬ 
peared. Very naturally, this opinion is held most tena¬ 
ciously (though not exclusively) in the Homan Catholic 
Church, and from that source particularly, as well as from 
others, the demand has come that moneys for supporting 
schools be divided among the several religious parties, and 
each be permitted to maintain its separate school. To 
assent to»this demand would be to annihilate the common- 
school system. In populous communities the plan proposed 
might educate most of the children, but in thinly-peopled 
regions they must be educated together or not at all. In 
truth, neither the Church nor the State has the first right 
and duty of training children. The family takes precedence 
of both, and whatever either of them may do for universal 
education, that earliest of all human institutions can never 
be superseded, either in its duties or its rights. “ The new¬ 
born child is placed neither at the door of the church nor 
on the steps of the court-house, but in the midst of the 
family.” 

The difficulty that is experienced in common schools of 
the lower rank becomes more urgent when higher studies 
are to be pursued. Both teachers and text-books in such 
studies as history and philosophy must advance positive 
opinions, some of which will inevitably conflict with those 
of a part of the people. There is obvious injustice in com¬ 
pelling people to pay taxes for supporting the teachers of 
doctrines which they abhor, and in thus depriving them, 
wholly or in part, of the means for establishing such 
schools as teach the views which they approve. This 
religious question is arising in all countries where diverse 
religions are found, and it is sure to claim increased atten¬ 
tion in the future. It does not admit of a ready solution, 
and perhaps no single solution will ever be discovered. It 
may assume such proportions as to limit free popular edu¬ 
cation to a lower range of studies than its most ardent 
friends have hoped. Surely, the earnestly religious part 
of the people, who are the firmest friends of schools for all, 
cannot consent to the total banishment of moral training 
from the common schools. A severe struggle upon this 
point is one of the possibilities of the near future. 

John G. Baird, 

Ass’t Sec. Conn. State Board of Education. 

Commons, House of. Sec Parliament. 

Common Time, in music, that in which each mea¬ 
sure or bar contains notes equal in value to one semibreve 
or whole note; such, for example, as two minims or four 
crotchets. It is indicated by a large C, placed in the staff 
immediately after the clef. 

Commonwealth', a state, a body politic; properly 
a free state, a republic. The official title of Massachusetts 
is the “ Commonwealth of Massachusetts,” and several 
other States use the title commonwealth. 

Commonwealth of England, in history, the form 
of government established in England on the death of 
Charles I. in 1649, and which existed during tho protect¬ 


orate of Oliver Cromwell and his son Richard, until the 
restoration of Charles II. in 1660. The substitution of 
a democratic for a monarchical form of government was 
provided for and enjoined by two successive charters. The 
first charter of the Commonwealth was drawn up in Dec., 
1653, by the council of officers who on the voluntary resig¬ 
nation of the Parliament in the early part of the same 
year had declared Cromwell “Protector;” it was styled the 
“ Instrument of Government.” The second charter, called 
the “ Petition and Advice,” was framed in May, 1657, by 
the Parliament which the Protector had assembled in the 
jirevious year. Under the first charter the English govern¬ 
ment may be classed among republics, with a chief magis¬ 
trate at its head; under the second it became substantially 
a monarchy, and Oliver Cromwell from 1657 to the period 
of his death was virtually king of England. 

Commune, a French word signifying “common,” is 
the name of a small territorial division in France. Each 
canton is subdivided into communes, each of which is 
governed by a mayor and a municipal council. The law 
for the organization of communes was enacted in 1791, but 
communes had existed in French towns before that date. 

Commune of Paris, an organized band of socialists, 
outlaws, and proletaires connected with the International 
Association who revolted against the new regime or Ver¬ 
sailles government on the 18th of Mar., 1871. Paris had 
a few days before this date been evacuated by the Ger¬ 
mans, who had taken it after a long siege. The National 
Guard of Paris had been permitted to retain their arms, 
and a large part of that guard supported the Commune, 
whose head-quarters were in the suburbs of Belleville and 
Montmartre. Among the prominent leaders of the Com¬ 
mune were Flourens, Felix Pyat, Assi, Delescluze, Pas¬ 
chal, Grousset, General Cluseret, Dombrowski, Arnould, 
Jules Valles, Blanqui, and Rochefort. Their principles and 
aims are thus defined by one who was a member of the 
Commune : “ Their philosophy is atheism, materialism, the 
negation of all religion ; their political programme is abso¬ 
lute individual liberty by means of the suppression of gov¬ 
ernment, and the division of nationalities into communes 
more or less federated; their political economy consists es¬ 
sentially in the dispossession, with compensation, of the 
present holders of capital, and in assignment of the coin, 
land, etc. to associations of workmen.” The same writer 
affirms that “the central committee of the National Guard, 
exclusively composed of workmen, members of the Inter¬ 
nationale, has taken the initiative, and alone has the merit 
of the movement.” 

As those members of the National Guard who favored 
the cause of order were irresolute and not inclined to fight, 
the Communists quickly became absolute masters of Paris. 
Their ranks were reinforced by many convicts, whom they 
released from the prisons, and by many foreign refugees. 
The leaders who had some intelligence, some definite pur¬ 
pose, and some lingering scruples were soon discarded one 
after another and imprisoned, and the control of the Com¬ 
mune was obtained by desperadoes and outlaws, who in¬ 
itiated a reign of terror. On the 26th of March an election 
was held in Paris to choose members of the Commune, but 
as the party of order declined to vote, only 180,000 votes 
were cast, and the election resulted in the triumph of the 
insurgents. On the 29th they issued a proclamation in these 
terms : “ The central committee has remitted its powers to 
the Commune. Citizens : your Commune is constituted. 
The vote of the 26th of March has sanctioned the victorious 
revolution,” etc. The government organized at Versailles 
sent an army to suppress the insurrection. On the 2d of 
Api-il a large body of insurgents marched against Versailles, 
but they were repulsed at Meudon, and much injured by 
tho fire of Fort Mont Valerien. Gustave Flourens, one of 
the commanders of tho Commune, was killed in this action. 
The army of the republic began to besiege Paris under the 
command of Marshal MacMahon. The chief command of 
the besieged forces was held successively by Dombrowski, 
Cluseret, Rossel, and Delescluze. Violent dissensions dis¬ 
turbed the counsels and hindered the success of the Com¬ 
mune. On the 5th of April they arrested Darboy, arch¬ 
bishop of Paris, and other persons, whom they kept in 
prison as hostages. The insurgents, who occupied several 
forts in the environs, made an obstinate resistance to the 
besiegers. The official journal of the Commune announced 
on May 1st that a committee of public safety had been ap¬ 
pointed. This committee was composed of five members— 
viz. Antoine Arnaud, Felix Pyat, Charles Gerardin, Ran- 
vier, and L6on Meillet. Rossel, who bore the title of dele¬ 
gate of war, resigned the command on the 9th of May, and 
was succeeded by Delescluze. Having captured several 
of the forts, the besieging army, about 90,000 strong, en¬ 
tered Paris on the 22d of May by several gates, enclosing 
the insurgents in a groat semicircle. The latter continued 













1052 COMMUNICATIO IDIOMATUM—COMORN. 


for five days fighting behind barricades in the streets, and 
revenged their defeat by atrocious acts of cruelty and van¬ 
dalism. They set fire to the public buildings, and endeav¬ 
ored to destroy the ancient monuments and treasures of art. 
Among the finest edifices that were burned were the Tui- 
leries, the Palais de Justice, the Palais Royal, and the Hotel 
de Ville. The Louvre was partly consumed. During the 
last days of the power of the Commune they shot Archbishop 
Darboy, Bonjean, president of the court of cassation, and 
other persons whom they held as hostages. In order to 
execute their incendiary designs on a grand scale, they 
ignited petroleum, gunpowder, and other explosive mate¬ 
rials in many parts of the city. Delescluze was killed 
while fighting in the street on the 26th of May. The civil 
war ended on the 27th, when M. Thiers issued a bulletin 
stating that 25,000 Communists had been taken prisoners. 
Large numbers of these were put to death, and several 
thousand were punished with deportation. The ringleaders 
of the Commune who survived the battles were mostly ar¬ 
rested and executed. “ The Commune,” says the “ Edin¬ 
burgh Review” for July, 1871, “has been supremely arbi¬ 
trary and supremely stupid. In the name of liberty it de¬ 
stroyed every condition of freedom; in the name of the 
common interests of the city, it reduced that city to the 
depth of ruin, drove away the wealthier classes, and pauper¬ 
ized the lower. . . . As a means of government the secret 
committee of the Commune was odious and contemptible, 
but as an engine of social war it was terrific, for in the 
frenzy of despair it let loose all the powers of destruction. 
We shall not attempt to describe in detail the appalling 
spectacle of Paris as it appeared in the month of May in 
this year, an awful prelude to the most tremendous catas¬ 
trophe in the history of man.” 

The Commune of Paris took a prominent part in the revo¬ 
lution of 1790. After it was constituted by the law of May 
21.1790, it was a political power in the capital which proved 
itself superior to the lawful authority of the Assembly and 
the nation. It was in the Commune and the Jacobin Club 
that the real authors of the excesses of the revolution had 
established their stronghold. From this arsenal of crime 
came forth the conspiracies and seditious movements which 
overturned the throne and stained the revolution with the 
bloody outrage of the 10th of Aug., 1792, and the massacre 
of September. (See Sempronius, “ Histoire dela Commune 
de Paris,” 5th ed. 1871; Beaumont-Yassey, “Histoire Au- 
thentique de la Commune de Paris,” 1871; “Guerre de 
Communeaux de Paris, 18 Mars-18 Mai, 1871,” 1871; 
Moriac, “ Paris sous la Commune,” 2d ed. 1871.) 

William Jacobs. 

Communica'tio Idiom'atum (“conjoint possession 
of attributes”), the name marking the doctrine that the 
One person of Christ has conjoint possession of the at¬ 
tributes of the two natures—that the attributes of the two 
natures are so held together in the One person as in it to 
have fellowship with each other; the person which conjoins 
the nature conjoins their attributes in itself. The two na¬ 
tures are inseparable, both actively and passively. What 
is proper to either nature in the abstract belongs to Christ 
in the concrete; and what the divine, which is the assum¬ 
ing nature, has in itself, the human, which is the assumed 
nature, has in and through its personal conjunction with 
the divine. (See Krauth’s “ Conservative Reformation,” 
476-481.) Prof. C. P. Krauth. 

Communion Service. See Eucharist, by Pres. F. 
A. P. Barnard, S. T. D., LL.D., L. H. D. 

Commu'nipavv, a station in Jersey City, N. J., on the 
Central R. R. of New Jersey. Communipaw had a famous 
abattoir or slaughter-house, which supplied great quantities 
of meat for the New York markets. It was closed in 1874. 

Com'munism, the theory which teaches that property 
should be held in common—a theory which Plato advocates 
in his “ Republic,” and which was probably practised before 
his time by the followers of Pythagoras. In later times the 
Neo-Platonist Plotinus attempted to establish community 
of goods upon the plan which had been proposed by Plato. 
Among the Jews the Essenes and Therapeut® practised a 
sort of communism. The first Christian church at Jeru¬ 
salem for a time made no distinction of property; and, 
following their example, certain monastic and semi-mo¬ 
nastic organizations had their possessions in common. 
Booddhism and other Oriental religious systems have for 
ages had followers who have practised a rude communism. 
In Europe there were numerous mediieval sects of heretics 
(Catharists, Brethren of the Free Spirit, etc.) who advocated 
some practice of the kind. Later came the Anabaptists of 
Munster, the Libertines of Switzerland, the Familists of 
England. Still later wo find the Herrnhuters, the Shakers, 
the Harmonists, the Buchanites, and numerous other re¬ 
ligious communists—some practically successful, and others 
not. Bacon, More, and other English theorists long ago 


wrote treatises which looked towards the ultimate estab¬ 
lishment of communism, but Robert Owen was the first 
great advocate of the doctrine in that country. The first 
French Revolution brought forward a number of com¬ 
munistic theories, but none survived long. In later times, 
Saint-Simon, Fourier, Louis Blanc, Proudhon, Cabet, and 
Considerant have been representative French communists. 
Karl Marx is the best-known German representative of 
these ideas. It is remarkable that the most successful 
communistic experiments of modern times have been or¬ 
ganized and conducted by those who are inspired by strong 
religious notions, like the Shakers, Oneida Communists, 
and Harmonists. The teachings of the great communists 
of the present century have, however, not been without 
value, since the highly successful co-operative movements 
of Europe have been in part guided by the best thought 
and truest philanthropy of the better class of communistic 
writers. (See Co-operation, by Thomas Hughes, M. P.) 

Commute [from the Lat. com (for con), “with,” and 
muto, to “change,” literally to “exchange one thing for 
another ”], in law, to exchange one penalty for another, 
usually less severe. A sentence of death is often com¬ 
muted into a long imprisonment. Also, to receive one thing 
for another; thus officers in the army are allowed so many 
rations each; these they commute for cash. 

Comne'nus [Gr. Koju.^d?], the name of a Byzantine 
family of Italian origin, from which descended six emperors 
of the East and all the emperors of Trebizond. (See Alexis 
I., Andronicus I., Isaac I., Manuel I., and Anna Com¬ 
nena.) 

Co'mo, a province of Italy, bounded on the N. by 
Switzerland and Sondrio, on the W. by Novaro, on the S. 
by Milan, on the E. by Bergamo and Sondrio. Area, 1049 
square miles. It consists of the territory about Lake 
Como and the eastern part of Lake Lugano, and reaches 
westward to Lago Maggiore. This province contains sev¬ 
eral magnificent regions; the finest of them is the tract 
called Brianza, lying between Monza and the two southern 
branches of Lake Como, which is as much as 25 miles long 
and from 1 to 3 miles broad, and watered by the Adda. 
The province produces much silk and wine. The princi¬ 
pal industry is the rearing of silk-worms. Pop. jn 1871, 
480,339. 

Como (anc. Comum), a city of Italy, in Lombardy, cap¬ 
ital of a province of the same name, is at the south-western 
extremity of the Lake of Como, 24 miles N. of Milan, with 
which it is connected by a railway. It is beautifully sit¬ 
uated in a valley enclosed by verdant hills, covered with 
gardens and groves of orange and olive trees. On a hill 
overlooking the town are the ruins of the Castle Baradello, 
which was destroyed by Frederick Barbarossa. It has a 
fine cathedral founded in 1396, by the side of which is a 
clock-tower built in 1463. Here are also an ancient town- 
hall, a public library, a museum, theatre, and botanic garden. 
Here are manufactures of cotton yarn, silk and woollen 
fabrics, and soap. It has a trade by the lake with Ticino 
and Germany. Pop. in 1872, 24,350. Comum was an im¬ 
portant town under the Romans. Pliny the Younger and 
Volta were natives of this place. 

Como, Lake [It. Logo di Como; anc. Laritis Lcicus], a 
lake of Italy, in Lombardy, is an expansion of the river 
Adda, which enters it at the foot of the Lepontine and 
Rhetian Alps, and issues from the south-eastern extremity 
of the lake. It is divided into two branches, one of which, 
extending south-westward, is called the Lake of Lecco. It 
is 698 feet above the sea, and about 35 miles from Como to 
the northern end, and is nearly 3 miles wide. Its greatest 
depth is 1925 feet, the superficial extent 62 square miles. 
It is celebrated for the beautiful scenery of its shores, cov¬ 
ered with elegant villas. Numerous steamboats ply on this 
water. 

Comonfort' (Ignacio), a Mexican general and presi¬ 
dent, born at Puebla Mar. 12,1812. He was chosen a mem¬ 
ber of Congress in 1842, and senator nearly six years later. 
He co-operated with Alvarez against Santa Anna in 1854, 
and became provisional president on the resignation of 
Alvarez Dec., 1855. The clergy and conservatives raised 
an unsuccessful revolt against Comonfort, who in 1856 
issued a decree to confiscate the property of the Church. 
He was proclaimed constitutional president Dec., 1857, but 
his power was rendered only nominal by the enmity of the 
clergy and the disaffection of the army. He was driven 
into exile Jan., 1858. In 1863 he commanded a republican 
army against the French invaders. He was killed by ban¬ 
dits Nov. 13, 1863. 

Comorn, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. 
by tho counties of Presburg and Bars, on the E. by Gran, 
on the S. by Stuhlweissenburg, and on the W. by Raab. 
Area, 1146 square miles. It is divided into nearly equal 
















COMORN—COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 1053 

parts by the Danube, besides which it is also traversed by 
the Waag Iliver. In the N. it is level, but in the S. moun¬ 
tainous. The country at the entrance of the Waag into the 
Danube consists of large swamps. The soil is generally 
fertile and well cultivated; sheep-raising is extensively 
pursued. Chief town, Comorn. Pop. in 1869, 143,090. 

Co'inorn, a fortified town of Hungary, capital of the 
above county, is on the left bank of the Danube, at the 
mouth of the river Waag, 46 miles W. N. W. of Pesth, 
on the Great Sehiitt Island at its eastern extremity. The 
streets are narrow and irregular. The Danube is here 
crossed by a bridge of boats. The fortress of Comorn, 
originally built by Matthew Corvinus, is considered one of 
the strongest in Europe, and requires for its defence 15,000 
men. Comorn has eight churches and two theatres; also 
manufactures of woollen cloth and leather, a trade in wine, 
grain, wood, and fish, and coal-mines in the vicinity. 
It was besieged and bombarded by the Austrians in 1848 
and 1849 without success, but finally capitulated of its 
own choice, Sept. 27, 1849. Pop. in 1869, 12,688. 

Com'oro Isles, a group of four volcanic islands in 
the Mozambique Channel, between Africa and Madagascar. 
They are mountainous, and the highest peaks rise about 
6000 feet above the sea. The inhabitants are upright and 
well-mannered. They are of mixed Arab and negro blood. 
Area, 1050 square miles. The soil is fertile. The prolific 
tropical vegetation includes the cocoa and areca palms, ex¬ 
cellent rice and maize, yams, bananas, mangos, pineapjides, 
oranges, lemons, cotton, wild indigo, and sugar-cane. Ex¬ 
cellent wood for shipbuilding is found. The principal 
exports are palm oil and tortoise-shells. The greater part 
of the people are Mohammedans, but fetishism is practised 
among them. They support themselves mostly by tillage; 
there are among them skilful cutlers, weavers, and jewel¬ 
lers. Three of the islands have each their own sultan. The 
rule of the rest is exercised by numerous elective chiefs. 
Mayotte, one of these islands, is a French colony. The 
island of Johanna is celebrated for its beauty. Pop. about 
49,000. 

Compans (Jean Dominique), Count, a French general, 
born at Salies, in Haute Garonne, June 26, 1759. He served 
in the armies of the Alps and of Italy; and in 1799 at the 
head of a division of the Army of the Alps, then commanded 
by Grenier, he raised the siege of Coni, took Fossano and 
Savigliano, and reopened communications between the right 
and left divisions of the French army; he thus relieved a 
portion which was hemmed up by the Austrians and was 
suffering fearful hardships, shoeless and half naked among 
the Alpine snows, and depending upon wild herbs for 
nourishment. He served afterwards in Italy, which had 
been reopened to the French arms by the battle of Maren¬ 
go; and the assaults of Mincio, Montebello, and Villafranca 
witnessed his bravery. After the peace of Luneville, Com¬ 
pans was made commandant of the province of Cuneo. 
Falling at one time into the hands of brigands, who then 
swarmed in the country, he thought himself lost, until one 
of the band approached and addressed him : “ Have no 
fear, general; we have not forgotten how in war-times you 
protected our wives and children and preserved our dwell¬ 
ings.” In the Prussian campaign Compans was raised to 
the rank of general of division. He was created a count 
of the empire in 1808. He served with distinction through 
the Russian campaign, took up arms again in the Hundred 
Days, and was taken prisoner at Waterloo. Died Nov. 10, 
1845. 

Company. See Joint-Stock Company and Partner¬ 
ship, by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D. 

Company [Fr. compagnie\, in an army, is a body of 
men commanded by a captain, and forming an aliquot part 
of a regiment or battalion of infantry. A full company con¬ 
sists of about one hundred men. In the British service a 
regiment of infantry generally comprises ten or twelve 
companies. The captain of each company is assisted by 
two subaltern officers, the lieutenant and ensign. A regi¬ 
ment of cavalry is divided into troops instead of companies. 
In the U. S. army each of the three arms of the service is 
divided into companies. Each battalion of infantry is 
divided into ten companies, and each company has a cap¬ 
tain and two lieutenants. The cavalry companies are often 
known as troops, while the artillery company is more prop¬ 
erly a battery. The U. S. marine corps also has its com¬ 
panies. 

Company Shops, a thriving post-village of Alamance 
co., N. C., 2 miles W. of Graham, on the North Carolina 
R. R., is the site of the repair and construction shops and 
the general offices of the Richmond and Danville R. R. 

Comparative Anatomy, the science of the struc¬ 
tural constitution of animals ; so called because it is based 
upon the comparison of the anatomy of different animals. 

I. Primary Elements. 

Animal bodies either consist of homogeneous substance, 
or of that substance disposed in tissues. Tissues, in the 
vast majority of cases, are made up into organs, the sim¬ 
plest forms of which are the sac, the tube, and the segment. 

By multiplication and modification of these elements, organs 
become complex. The simplest expression of tissue is, on 
the other hand, the nucleated cell, and all tissues are made 
of multiplied and modified cells, with the addition of un¬ 
organized or homogeneous substance. 

This substance, whether homogeneous or exhibiting 
structure, is chemically identical throughout the animal 
kingdom, and constitutes the living part of plants. It be¬ 
longs to the class of protein compounds, and is called gel¬ 
atin, albumen, fibrin, etc., or, regarded structurally, proto¬ 
plasm. Its composition is C 24 H 17 N 3 O 8 , with very small 
amounts of sulphur and phosphorus added under some cir¬ 
cumstances. It is therefore a nitryl of cellulose— i. e., C 24 

H 20 O 20 + 3 NH 3 . 

According to the latest investigations, the cell is not 
usually a hollow body, but consists of a superficial layer, 
which represents the wall (but which may be of consider¬ 
able thickness), and a central body which fills it, which is 
called the nucleus. This nucleus may contain another vis¬ 
ibly distinct body, or nucleolus. The essential difference 
between the nucleus and the wall consists in the fact that 
the former alone is capable of direct nutrition from the 
blood, while the wall is derived from it by additions on its 
inner surface. All growth originates in the nucleus; that 
is, all cell-division or discharge of homogeneous protoplasm 
has its origin there. Hence it has been called the germinal 
matter, while the wall is termed formed matter. Formed 
matter exhibits the active functions of life other than 
growth. Thus it contracts, as in muscular tissue, or is ir¬ 
ritable and conductive of force, as in nerves. It constitutes 
the primary substance of secretions, by its breaking down 
and mingling with special compounds brought by the blood. 

It may then be concluded that the formed protoplasm or 
wall converts heat, etc. into motion, chemism, etc., while 
the germinal matter converts heat into growth-force. 

II. Tissues. 

Tissues are naturally arranged, according to their struc¬ 
ture, into four groups—viz., connective tissue, tissue of in¬ 
dependent cells, nerve-tissue, and muscular tissue. The 
connective tissue consists of cells, frequently presenting 
narrow prolongations, which are separated by formed sub¬ 
stance of various character, but always either gelatinous 
or solid. It includes the supporting and connecting tissues 
of the body, as the osseous, cartilaginous, connective, etc., 
as well as those of less consistence, as the vitreous humor of 
the eye, adipose tissue, etc. The tissues of independent 
cells include those floating in fluids, as blood- and lymph- 
corpuscles, with those which are stationary, but not bound 
together by connective substance, as the epithelium. The 
muscular tissue consists of elongate cells, which are massed 
together in longitudinal bundles or fibrillae, without the 
intervention of non-cellular substance. The nervous tissue 
consists of isolated cells surrounded by formed matter, 
which terminate in tubular prolongations or nervous fibres 
which extend throughout the body. These cells are of del¬ 
icate texture, and are separated by the equally soft altered 
cell-contents. 

The connective tissue (figs. 1 and 2) is composed in the lower 

animals more exclu- 
sively of cells than 

1 1 ))fm 1 in the higher. The 

mW/zJ/JM formed matter exte- 

)) ™ or to ^ io nuc ^ eus 

-AmJr /)h Iff °f the cells assumes 

CM & IjgSp' "I various forms. In 

Vfwn the gelatinous tis- 

1 -•*)// livt sues (which are most 

lOSlfT abundant in young 

animals) this sub- 
JlfjlL (u* mOb) stance is relatively 

>“*• ia ‘> uanlity 

A and thm in consist- 

// PlM ence. In the more 

M /(jivjj /--Tyll numerous forms the 
iff rV. ( y/yml I latter assumes a fib- 
11 & 'Qrr^ rous character, and 

^ X consists of bands of 

fibres, with the cells 
\\ pn l scattered at inter- 

FlG. 1. Connective tissue: 1, white fibrous vals. In the upper 

element ; 2, yellow fibrous element. layer of the true 

skin the cells assume a radiate form, and contain the color¬ 
ing pigment (fig. 3) which is generally characteristic of 
the animal* These cells may contract under nervous in¬ 
fluence, so as to obliterate the color, as in many fishes. In 


















1054 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


many of these they are expanded only at certain seasons of 
the year; in the squids ( Loligo ) they pulsate during life, and 
produce great changes in the appearance of the skin. In 
many batrachians and reptiles one color may be rapidly 
substituted for another, as in the tree-frog, chamadeon, etc. 
Here there is more than one stratum of pigment-cells, each 
containing a peculiar color. Under nerve influence the in¬ 
ferior cells may expand Avhile the superficial contract, and, 
penetrating between the latter, give color to the whole sur¬ 
face of the skin. Cartilage (fig. 4) differs from other forms 
in the large quantity of formed matter which is discharged 
from the germinal centres or nuclei, and which separates 
the latter widely. It is but slightly fibrous in typical car¬ 
tilage, but in fibro-cartilage highly so. In elastic tissue 
certain bands of fibres agglomerate and harden, and become 
elastic through the addition of toughness to the original 
qualities. By hardening in extended layers, connective 



Fig. 2. Connective ti&ue, partially developed. 

tissues form basement membranes, or those supporting 
glandular structures. Osseous tissue (fig. 5) is developed 
either in typical connective tissue, skin, or cartilage, but 
usually in the latter. It consists of a deposit of phosphate 
of lime in the formed intercellular substance by the minute 
capillaries which traverse it. It is generally concentric to 
the cells. 

The connective tissue is the medium for transmission of 
the blood-vessels in most regions of the body. 

The tissues of independent cells are various in situation 
and function. As epithelium it covers the surfaces of the 
cavities of the body, as well as its exterior. Its cells are 
packed together, forming a stratum which may be de¬ 
pressed and hardened, as the epidermis or outer skin, or 
soft and of little consistency, as inside of the mouth. 
The cells are flat or cylindric, and in some situations 
furnished with movable cilia. The columnar epithelium 
(fig. 6) is only found in the mucous membrane; the 
spheroidal exists as the lining of the urinary and per¬ 
spiratory vessels and ducts; the ciliated (fig. 7) belongs 
to the air-passages, the conjunctiva of the eye, and the 
lining of the ventricles of the brain. The crystalline 
lens of the eye is one of its most modified forms. The 
lymph-corpuscles are white nucleated cells thrown off from 
the lymphatic glands into the blood, in which they float. 
They are highly important in nutrition. The red blood- 
corpuscles (fig. 8) give color to the circulatory fluid; in the 
invertebrates, where the blood is frequently white, it con¬ 
tains only the white corpuscles, while the latter are much 
more numerous in the lower than in the higher Vertebrata. 
In this class the red corpuscles are nucleated below the 
Mammalia; in the latter, their contents appear to be homo¬ 
geneous. They are disk-like, with slightly concave surfaces, 
sometimes with a median convexity. They are largest in 
Batrachia, especially in the Proteus. 

The muscular cell is of a peculiarly elongate or rod-like 
form, and possesses a well-defined wall or sheath. It is 
composed originally either of a single cell, which elongates 
with growth, chiefly in its formed substance (but in some 
•measure with its nucleus also), or of several confluent cells. 
In the fresh water Hydra the contractile cells of its body- 
walls and arms preserve their original form. Muscular 
cells are divided into the unstriped and the striped—the 
former having homogeneous formed matter; the latter ex¬ 
hibiting transverse divisions (figs. 9 and 10), which produce 
the appearance of a series of disks. Muscles terminate in 
tendons, which present a form of connective tissue, the nu¬ 
clei being few and the formed substance fibrous, and very 
dense and hard. 


The nerve-cells (fig. II) are found in nervous centres— i. e., 
brain and spinal cord—and in ganglia. They form, with the 
intervening substance, the gray nerve-matter. The white 
matter and the nerves proper are composed of nervous 
fibres or tubes. The nerve-cell has to various observers 
presented a greater complexity of structure than other cells. 
In some, fibrous layers in the wall and covering the nucleus 
have been observed, the external layer being continuous 
with the external walls of the nerves. Others describe tu¬ 
bular vacuities in the nucleus. Nerves consist of more or 
less granular formed protoplasm, surrounded by a sheath or 
neurilemma, and containing nuclei. Many nerves exhibit 
thick walls, while in others, especially the sympathetic, the 
nerve-walls are extremely thin. 

III. Organs and Systems. 

Tissues arranged and united in forms, so as to be usable 
for vital processes, form organs. All organs not constructed 
of cells alone are composed of elementary parts, which may 
be regarded as repetitions of the sac, the tube, or the seg¬ 
ment, no matter how complex they may be. The organs 
are classified into systems by their structural connection 
with one another, which of course signifies functional asso¬ 
ciation for some common vital process. The systems are 
as follows: 

1. Cellular Systems —The nervous, the muscular, the muco- 
dermal. 

2. Sac and Tube Systems —The digestive, the circulatory, 
the respiratory, the urogenital. 

3. Segment System —The skeletal. 

The nervous system consists of central bodies or ganglia, 
and nerves which extend from them to the periphery of 
the body. The structure presents much variation among 
the several groups of animals. The muscular is composed 
of muscles and the tendons by which they are attached to 
the part of the skeleton to be moved by them. The mus¬ 
cles are composed of innumerable fibrillae enclosed in a 
common sheath. The bundles in invertebrate animals are 
smaller, till in some of the lowest they are composed of but 
few fibrillae. Unstriped fibres prevail in invertebrate ani¬ 
mals, excepting the Arthropoda, where the muscles are 
striped. The fibres in vei'tebrates are striped, excepting in 
involuntary muscles, where they are unstriped, save only in 
the heart. In invertebrates they may have thick sheaths, 
and the contents are frequently granular. In most Arth¬ 
ropoda the central part of the striped fibrillm retains the 
original cell-nuclei in one or more columns. The rnuco- 
dermal system covers the body externally, and as mucous 
membrane enters and lines all the cavities that communi¬ 
cate with the open air; as serous membrane it lines the 
closed cavities. In animals no system presents greater va¬ 
rieties of exterior structure. In invertebrates it is some¬ 
times hardened by segments produced by a deposit of lime, 
which resemble bone (sea-urchin), or form a more elastic 
substance, chitin (Arthropoda). In vertebrates it may 
support osseous pieces of various forms (scales), or hairs, or 
feathers, which are simply enlarged hairs finely branched. 
FinaJly, as horn it appears as nails, claws, and horn- 
sheaths; these are simply thickened epidermis. * 

The digestive system is a tube usually open at both ex¬ 
tremities. Portions of its course are enlarged into stomach, 
large intestine, etc., while glandular bodies are distributed 
along it from one end to the other, and pour their contents 
into it. These glands are formed of sacs, in a few cases 
simple (fig. 12) (gastric glands of stomach), in others simply 
forked, but usually many times divided and subdivided, 
forming masses of lobules. Some of these bodies are almost 
universal in the animal kingdom. Thus, it is usual to find 

one or more situated near the 


cavity of the mouth (fig. 13), 
which secretes a fluid to aid 
in deglutition ; another, most 
frequently met with, dis¬ 
charges its secretion into the 
alimentary canal just beyond 
the stomach. This is the liver 
and its representatives. The 
walls of the canal are supplied with several layers of mus¬ 
cular tissue in the vertebrates, and in a less complex form 
in lower animals. 

The circulatory system consists of tubes for the conduct 
of the results of digestion throughout the body; it origi¬ 
nates from branches of the digestive canal in the lowest 
types (Medusas), but becomes highly specialized, so that 
communication with that system is had by endosmosis only. 
It early acquires a specially muscular enlargement, which 
pulsates. This organ becomes more specialized, isolated, 
and divided, and is known as the heart. The arteries (which 
take blood from it) are muscular throughout their length. 
The veins are not so, but are distinguished by the presence 
of valves in the higher animals. 



Fig. 3. Epidermis of the negro. 

































COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


1055 


The respiratory system consists of a series of tubes which 
carry air through the body; in some animals (snails, spi¬ 
ders) these are blind, forming pulmonary sacs, on which 
capillary arteries are distributed. In animals inhabiting 
the water this system is little or not at all developed, it be¬ 
ing replaced by branchiae or gills. In vertebrates it docs 
not exist, but large sacs, connected by tubes w'ith the 
digestive system, answer tho same functional purpose, ex¬ 
cept among fishes, where it is used as a float. Gills aerate 
the blood in this class. 

The urogenital system consists of tubes, sacs, and glandu¬ 
lar and cellular bodies, which arc connected with the outer 
air at the posterior end of most animals, and are usually 
blind at their termini. Their exit is usually common to the 
alimentary canal, and is called cloaca. These organs ex¬ 
hibit usually bilateral symmetry, the opposite sides having 
distinct exits, except among females of some of the higher 
animals, where tho discharge tubes unite and form a cham¬ 
ber called the uterus. The tubes are termed oviducts (or 
tuboo Fallopii), and terminate in a fibrous and cellular body, 
tho ovary. In its circumference appear cells, which grow, 
and after discharge are modified into the embryo. Origin¬ 
ally, the embryo-cells of low animals grow into adults by a 
simple vegetative process, but in higher forms a stimulus 
to such growth is required from the other or male sex. In 
this sex the nvaries produce, by a form of secretion, inde¬ 
pendent cells, each of which bears a long cilia or lash (sper- 
matozodida ), and being modified in structure are properly 
termed testes. The efferent tube is called the vas deferens. 
These only unite near their point of exit. The urinary 
system is present in the vertebrates only. Tubes connect 
it with the reproductive canals near their termini. These 
are derived from paired glandular bodies, tho kidneys, and 
usually unite into a common reservoir before exit— i. e., the 
urinary bladder. The object is the removal of uric acid, 
etc. from the blood. 

Tho skeletal system exists only in vertebrates. It con¬ 
stitutes the solid framework of the body, and is axial or in¬ 
ternal. It is composed of cartilaginous and osseous tissue. 
It is composed of segments, which possess a solid centre¬ 
piece and two opposite arches attached to it—one superior, 
the other inferior. It thus forms two tubes connected by a 
solid axis. The upper protects the nervous—the lower, the 
nutritive organs. Each segment is divisible into sub- 
segments, which are originally separate. These are much 
modified in form at the anterior extremity of the body—• 
above, to contain the brain ; below, to aid the sense of hear¬ 
ing, to prepare food for digestion, etc. Appendages to in¬ 
ferior segments are seen in limbs, which are the supports 
of the body and resistant elements in motion. They are 
also composed of segments arranged in lines or radii. 

IV. Classification of Animals. 


All known animals are referable to seven “ branches ” or 
primary types. Four plans of structure cover these, with¬ 
out expressing their intimate or essential structure. The 
four are tho radiated (Coelenterata and Echinodermata); 
the longitudinally-jointed, with external and ring-shaped 
skeleton (Vermes and Arthropoda); the bag-shaped (Mol- 
lusca and some Protozoa); and the vertebrated, whose essen¬ 
tial character is mentioned above under the skeleton of the 
Vertcbrata. The characters may now be given in more de¬ 
tail. 

Branch /., Protozoa. —Low animals, composed of single 
or aggregated solid cells or protoplasmic masses, without 
blood or nerves. When symmetrical, bilateral or radiate. 

Branch II., Coelenterata. —Hollow animals, without spe¬ 
cial digestive organs, or with a sac-like stomach opening 
into the common cavity. Circulatory system wanting or 
represented by branches from the digestive cavity. No 
nervous system. The form is radial and bilateral, or radial 
.only. 

Branch III., Echinodermata. —Digestive system inde¬ 
pendent of the body-walls, not 
filling the cavity ; the cii'cu- 
latory system present, largely 
isolated; a water-circulatory 
system; nervous system an 
oesophageal ring, with radii; 
skin with hard protective 
bodies. Form bilateral and 
radial. 

Branch IV., Vermes. —Di¬ 
gestive system isolated, not 
occupying the body cavity; 
circulatory system incomplete 
or wanting; nervous system 
an oesophageal ring, with ganglia, or consisting of the chief 
ganglia only. No jointed limbs; body elongate. In de¬ 
velopment the alimentary canal is excavated in the embryo. 

Branch V., Mollusca. —Alimentary canal complete, iso¬ 



Fig. 4. Cartilage cells. 



Fig. 5. Osseous cells. 


lated; circulatory system incomplete at the distal extrem¬ 
ities; nervous system with ring round oesophagus, which 
bears a ganglion above and one below; a third ganglion 
inferiorly placed, connected by a ring with the former. 
Form sac-like. Intestines excavated from yolk of egg, not 
formed by a fold. 

Branch VI., Arthropoda. —Digestive system complete; 
circulatory with complete central organ, but open ex¬ 
tremities ; nervous system 
with oesophageal ring and 
ganglia, and generally an 
axis on the inferior surface 
of body, with ganglia at 
intervals. Skin hardened 
into a chitinous, jointed 
skeleton, which is furnish¬ 
ed with jointed legs. Form 
bilateral. Intestines form¬ 
ed by excavation of yolk, 
not by infolding of mem¬ 
brane. 

Branch VII., Vertcbrata. 
—Alimentary system complete ; respiratory, a branch from 
it; circulatory, with complete circuit; nervous, of a longi¬ 
tudinal ganglionic axis on the upper side (spinal cord), 
with usually ganglionic bodies at one end (brain). An in¬ 
ternal bony or cartilaginous skeleton, consisting of solid 
axis; superior tube for nervous and inferior for other sys¬ 
tems. Form bilateral. Digestive tubes formed by the in¬ 
folding of a membrane formed on the yolk. 

A few years ago the number of species of animals known 
was stated to be 500,000, of which 400,000 were Arthropoda; 
of the remainder, 25,000 were Vertebrata. / 

The classes of animals number thirty-six, distributed and 
defined as follows: 

Protozoa —Rhizopoda. —Bodies of homogeneous proto¬ 
plasm, which throws out threads or arms of the same sub¬ 
stance, which are elastically retractile. No internal organ¬ 
ization ; often a silicious covering, which is perforated. 
(Fig. 14.) 

Spongise.— Unicellular animals (fig. 15), in which the cells 
are frequently associated in large numbers on axes of a 
horny, calcareous, or silicious nature, forming branched 
masses. These are penetrated by canals. 

Infusoria. —Body with wall distinguished from contents, 
with mouth and often anus; often a contractile vesicle and 
ovarian nucleus. Surface frequently ciliated. (Fig. 16.) 

C cel enter at A — Hydrozoa. —The cavity of the body the 
only digestive system; skin distinct; form radiate only. 
(Fig. 17.) 

Medusae (jelly-fish).—Digestive system an open sac com¬ 
municating with the body cavity, from which canals radi¬ 
ate as isolated grooves. Eight series of swimming-lobes on 
the surface. Form bilateral. (Fig. 18.) 

Anthozoa (corals, etc.).—Digestive system the body-cavity 
and an appended open sac, the former divided round the 
walls by vertical septa into grooves, which continue into 
tubular tentacles. Septa and skin often filled with deposit 
of carbonate of lime. (Fig. 19.) 

Echinodermata — Crinoidea. —Body cup-shaped, the sur¬ 
face covered with mineralized plates, which are solidly 
united, but wanting on a part next the stomach; arms 
present, formed of articulating segments. (Fig. 22.) 

Asterida. —Body depressed, star-shaped, covered with cal¬ 
careous plates, which are wanting on a part of the dorsal 
surface, and which articulate with each other in clusters 
(star-fishes). (Fig. 20.) 

Echinida. —Body cliscoidal or globular, surface covered 
with calcareous plates, which are immovably united to¬ 
gether; no arms (sea-urchins). (Fig. 21.) 

Holothurida. —Body elongated, cylindric, covered with 
soft skin ; a calcareous ring round oesophagus ; mouth sur¬ 
rounded by tentacles (trepangs). (Fig. 23.) 

Vermes — Gephyrea. —Body cylindric, not jointed, ali¬ 
mentary canal complete in the hollow body: a nervous sys¬ 
tem, an oesophageal ring and abdominal axis. 

Rotatoria. —Alimentary canal developed in the hollow 
body; ciliated disks or wheel-organs for movement; a 
water-circulatory system. 

Cestoda. —Body jointed, nearly solid, without digestive 
system; head with suckers and hooks; a water-circulatory 
system (tape-worm). . 

Trematoda. —Body not jointed, solid except in the de¬ 
veloped digestive tubes, and water-circulatory system; head 
with suckers and hooks (flukes). # . 

Acanthocephala. —Body hollow, not jointed, cylindric, 
without digestive canal; head with a hook-bearing pro- 

3 Nematoda .—Body hollow, unjointed; digestive canal well 
developed. 

Turbellaria. — Body unjointed, flat, solid, except in the 












COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


1056 


developed digestive canals; nervous system of two supra- 
oesophagcal ganglia; surface covered with cilia. 

Annelida. —Body hollow, segmented, with well-developed 
digestive canal and nervous system; the latter an oesopha¬ 
geal ring and abdominal ganglion chain ; a system of respi¬ 
ratory tubes (earth-worms, etc.). (Fig. 23.) 

Mollusca— Bryozoa. —Head, tongue, and foot wanting; 
a shell-producing mantle enclosing the hinder portion of 
the body; mouth surrounded by a crest of tentacles as re¬ 
spiratory organs. Nervous system rudimental. (Fig. 24.) 

Tunicata. —Head, tongue, and foot wanting; a large bag- 
like mantle, which bears a shell of connective tissue, en¬ 
closing saclike gills. Nervous system rudimental. (Fig. 25.) 

Brachiapoda. —Head, foot, and tongue absent; mantle 
large, bearing large shells, which are dorsal and ventral; 
branchiae supported on two spiral arms, which are attached 
to the shell. (Fig. 26.) 

Acephala. —Head and tongue wanting, foot anterior ; 
mantle covering the body on each side, and enclosing la- 
miniform branchiae; two shells, right and left (mussel, 
clam). (Fig. 27.) 

Gasteropoda. —Head, tongue, and foot present, the latter 
extending posteriorly; mantle small, posterior; gills comb¬ 
like on the back. Shell, when present, single, spiral (conch, 
snail). (Fig. 28.) 

Pteropoda. —Head, tongue, and foot, the latter developed 
into two lateral fins; mantle covering the hinder part of 
body; gills comb-like on the back. (Fig. 29.) 

Cephalopoda. —Head and tongue present; foot divided 
into arms, which radiate from the mouth as a centre; pos¬ 
terior part of body enclosed in a mantle; gills on back; 
cartilages behind eyes, and ganglia in head (cuttle-fish). 
(Fig. 30.) 

Arthropoda — Crustacea. —Two pairs of antennae; post¬ 
abdomen developed; limbs on all segments of the body, 
those of the thorax converted into mouth-organs; respi¬ 
ratory organs, gills or wanting (shrimp, crab). (Fig. 31.) 

Arachnida. —No antennae nor anterior cephalic segments; 
the last pair of cephalic limbs of the form of legs; three 



Fig. 6. Columnar epithelium 
from the intestine of the 
rabbit. 



Fig. 7. Ciliated epithelium 
from the membranes of 
the human nose. 


additional pairs on the thorax; head and thorax united 
into a cephalothorax, abdomen and developed post-abdo¬ 
men without legs; respiration by tracheae or sacs (spider, 
scorpion). 

Myriopoda. —One pair of antennae ; a part of the thoracic 
limbs used as mouth-organs; abdomen not distinguished, 
many-jointed, furnished with limbs throughout; post-abdo¬ 
men rudimentary; respiration by means of tracheae (centi¬ 
pedes). 

Insecta. —One pair of antennae; abdomen without limbs, 
post-abdomen rudimentary; three pairs of limbs on the 
thorax ; respiration by means of tracheae; usually two pairs 
of wings (insects). (Fig. 32.) 

Vertebrata— Leptocardii. —Cranium membranous, with¬ 
out mandibular arch, no brain; heart with one chamber; 
five aorta-roots (lancelet). 

Dermopteri. — Cranium and skeleton cartilaginous; no 
mandibular arch; heart with two chambers; five aorta- 
roots (lamprey). 

Pisces. Cranium and skeleton osseous or cartilaginous, 
or both, with under jaw composed in part of malleus, and 
supported by incus and stapes, as hyo-mandibular bone, etc. 
Limbs with many segments in contact with scapula without 
intervening humerus; pelvis mostly wanting. Brain well 
developed; optic lobes generally larger; cerebellum dis¬ 
tinct; two chambers of the heart; five aorta-roots on each 
side. A parasphenoid bone (shark, sturgeon, sucker, perch). 

Batrachia. —Skeleton osseous; cranium with parasphe¬ 
noid, no basi-occipitals ; under jaw embracing malleus, and 
supported by a single “quadrate” bone, “the incus;” 
limbs with humerus and few radii; pelvis present; brain 
with cerebral hemispheres largest, and small cerebellum. 
Three chambers to the heart; four or three aorta-roots; a 
coracoid bone (salamander, frog). 

Reptilia. —Skeleton osseous, with coracoid bone and 
mandible, latter with malleus, and supported by incus; no 
parasphenoid, but a basi-occipital; brain with large cere¬ 
bral hemispheres; two or one aorta-roots; two aorta-bows; 


heart with three or four chambers; metatarsal bones dis¬ 
tinct ; limbs with few radii; a humerus and pelvis. 

Aves. —Skeleton osseous, with coracoid bone and mandi¬ 
ble, which includes malleus, and is supported by single in¬ 
cus; a basi-occipital, no parasphenoid; metatarsal and tar¬ 
sal bones united ; humerus and pelvis present: optic lobes 
lateral, small; four chambers to the heart; one aorta-root 
and bow, turning to the right (birds). 

Mammalia. —Skeleton osseous, without coracoid bone; 
with the stapes, incus, and malleus withdrawn into the ear, 
and simple, mandible sessile on the squamosal bone; 
cranial axis behind the basi-occipital; limbs ambulatory, 
with distinct tarsal and usually metatarsal bones; optic 
lobes inferior; cerebral hemispheres very large; one aorta- 
root and bow, turning to the left; heart with four chambers. 

The pregeding descriptions express a few of the structural 
peculiarities of the animals included in the respective di¬ 
visions— i. e., such as are common to those of each, and by 
which they may be distinguished from each other. But the 
innumerable characters found in the subordinate or con¬ 
tained divisions and species of each remain to be considered. 

V. The Nervous System. 

1. In Invertebrates. —In Protozoa, and perhaps Coelen- 
terata, where the nervous system has not been certainly 
discovered, spontaneous movements in the taking of food 
and moving from place to place are readily observed. It 
is therefore evident that the contractibility of their proto¬ 
plasmic walls is under the direction of stimuli which do not 
require nerves for their conduction or direction. The ner¬ 
vous system of higher animals must therefore be looked 
upon as designed for the specialization or location of move¬ 
ments—a capacity entirely necessary to the activity of 
special mental powers. These demand particular move¬ 
ments for special objects; hence the necessity of concen¬ 
trating the directors of movements in particular parts— 
i. e., nerves, muscles, etc. 

In the Bryozoa, the lowest mollusks, there is not cer¬ 
tainly known to be an oesophageal ring, but there is a 
considex-able ganglion above the gullet, which sends ner¬ 
vous threads around the horse-shoe respiratory crest. One 
of these extends on each side at the base of the processes, 
but, though they approach, they are not known to unite on 
the inside of the arc. In Tunicata in like manner a single 
ganglion exists above the oesophagus, between it and the 
vent, and sends out nerves in a radiating manner. These 
are distributed to the orifices of the body and to the 
muscles. In Brachiopoda the system is more highly de¬ 
veloped, there being a complete oesophageal ring, with a 
broad band-shaped ganglion on the inferior side. The lat¬ 
ter represents two united ganglia, and gives off on each side 
a strong nervous trunk. These trunks turn forward and 
outward, and soon divide, the weaker branch going to the 
spiral respiratory arms, representing that above described 
in the Bryozoa. The stronger branch goes to the muscles 
that close the shells, to the mantle, etc. Each one forms a 
ring in the former locality, which gives off small threads. 
In Acephala (called also Lamellibranchs or bivalves) the 
ganglia are transparent, yellowish, orange, or rosy, con¬ 
taining fat cells, as well as the nervous. There are three 
well-separated pairs of ganglia, the ganglia of each pair 
connected by a commissure. The anterior pair is near the 
mouth; they are rarely close together (Venus, Mactra ) or 
united ( Mesodesma , Teredo ); they give off on each side a 
nervous thread which extends to the foot, and is connected 
with the foot-ganglion pair. These are wanting in the 
oyster and other genera which want the foot. This forms 
an open oesophageal ring. The nerves of the foot are de¬ 
rived from the ganglion, but none of the intestinal nerves. 
These are derived from the third pair of ganglia, which are 
the most posterior, and which are connected Avith the front 
pair by a nervous stem on each side, forming a second ring 
round the digestive axis. It sends nerves to the mantle, 
gills, etc., meeting those from the anterior ganglia. In 
Ostrea, Pinna, Mytilus, etc. its nerves contribute to form a 
circuit which extends round the edge of the mantle, con¬ 
necting with the anterior pair. 

In Gasteropoda the ganglia and commissures are homol¬ 
ogous with those of the Acephala, but the former are con¬ 
centrated near the mouth, forming much more contracted 
rings. The two supra-cesophageal ganglia (or “brain- 
ganglia”) are connected by short commissures. They send 
down commissures to the foot-ganglia, which are close to 
the oesophagus; the A r isceral ganglia or third pair are be¬ 
hind these, and connected with the superior ganglia by 
special commissures; sometimes they are on the upper side 
ot the oesophagus, and connected by commissure below it. 
The superior sends nerves to the lips, mouth, tentacles, and 
eyes; the foot-ganglia to the under side of the oesophagus, 
to the ear, and the foot; the visceral ganglia to the mantle, 
gills, heart, intestines, and certain muscles. In the naked 


✓ 


r 
























COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


1057 


division (Opisthobranchia) the upper ganglia give a special 
ganglion to the tentacles; the foot-ganglia in like manner 
are adjoined by a pair for the gills. In Chiton all three 
pairs of ganglia are found on the inferior side of the oesoph¬ 
agus. In Turbo , Littorina, Janthina , Phasianella, and 
Patella the superior pair occupies the opposite sides of the 
gullet. In Natica all three are closely massed together. 
As in other higher Mollusca, a sympathetic nervous system 
exists which supplies the involuntary organs of the body. 

The Pteropoda exhibit the three pairs of ganglia con¬ 
nected by commissure. In the Gymnosomata they are all 
separate, but in 

the Thecosomata /fli/IilUh i 

they are concen¬ 
trated on the 
lower side of the 
oesophagus, so as 
not to be readily 
distinguished. 

In Cephalop¬ 
oda this sys¬ 
tem displays the 
most concentrat¬ 
ed type known 
among mollusks. 

In Nautilus the 




Fig. 8. Red blood-corpuscles of frog: 1, their 
face; 2, edgewise; 3, lymph-globule; 4, cor¬ 
puscles changed by acid. 


ganglia are almost confluent, and form 
thick bands, one above and two below the oesophagus. The 
cerebral pair give off" each an enormous optic nerve, ap¬ 
propriate to the size of the eyes in this class. The pedal 
pair supply the tentacles and organ of hearing, and the 
visceral pair the other organs. The inferior arches rest on 
the cephalic cartilage which characterizes the Cephalopoda. 

The nervous system is in many of the Vermes very 
imperfectly developed, including the oesophageal ganglia 
with a few divergent nerves. In the Annelida the most 
highly developed condition is observed, where each body- 
segment possesses a ganglion connected by a longitudinal 
double commissure, which originates from the ring. In the 
Arthropoda this type is also the basis of the various ar¬ 
rangements observed, and is constantly discoverable in the 
larvae of the various forms. As a general rule, it may be 
understood that'where a special organ exists the ganglion of 
the segment in or on which it is placed is enlarged for its 
supply, as in the thoracic ganglia of insects. Here several 
segments are confluent; correspondingly, nervous ganglia 
unite, forming larger masses, thus supplying the legs and 
wings. The transition from the simple type found in the 
larvae to the modified and concentrated types of the adults 
has often been observed in tracing the history of the 
growth and metamorphosis of insects. In the Crustacea 
and Arachnida the concentration is carried still farther 
than in insects. Thus in some lower Crustacea there are 
numerous ganglia, and the lateral commissures of the ab¬ 
dominal axis are only united in front; in the highest divis¬ 
ion, the Decapoda (crabs, lobsters, etc.), the axis is largely 
undivided, is short, and the ganglia are massed together. 
In the scorpions (Pedipalpi) there are but few distinct gan¬ 
glia, but in the spiders (Aranea) there are no ganglia in the 
abdomen, and the nervous axis is short, massed together, 
and undivided. On the other hand, in the lowest Arachnida, 
the Acaridm, there is no abdominal axis by defect, and the 
oesophageal ring is incomplete above, reminding one of the 
condition of the lowest Mollusca. 

2. In Vertebrates .—In this branch the nervous system 
reaches its highest development, though in the lowest form, 
the Leptocardii, it can hardly be considered to be more 
perfect functionally than in many Mollusca. Here there 
is a spinal cord oi' medulla, but no brain, but in its place a 
slight enlargement of the diameter of the medulla. 

The spinal cord of vertebrates, like the brain, is com¬ 
posed of gray and white nerve-tissue, the gray being the 
ganglionic or cellular tissue, and the white the fibrous or 
conducting. Unlike the brain, the spinal medulla possesses 
the white”substance externally, and the gray internally. 
The cord is divided longitudinally by an anterior and a 
posterior fissure of some depth, and by two less profound 
lateral ones. The gray substance exhibits in section a 
crescentic outline, the horns of the crescent being turned 
externally and reaching the lateral grooves. Here each horn 
gives origin to a nervous stem, and the two soon unite and 
pass out°through a foramen between the vertebrae. The 
posterior bears a ganglion, and is devoted to the function 
of sensibility or feeling; hence it is termed sensory. The 
anterior is the smaller, and is termed motor, as its office is 
to convey the stimulus which gives origin to muscular 
movements or contractions. After leaving the spinal col¬ 
umn the single stem divides again, each branch containing 
fibres from both roots. The extremity of the cord is di¬ 
vided into a number of radiating threads, togethei consti¬ 
tuting the cauda equina. In all the \ ertebrata, from the 
l)crmopteri to (and including) the Aves, there is an axial 

67 


tube of small diameter; in Mammalia this is wanting, ex¬ 
cept a short anterior trace of it. Birds add the peculiarity 
of a sinus rhomboidalis, which is a long rhomboidal expan¬ 
sion of the tube in the sacral region (rump), which is open 
superiorly. The spinal nerves in many of the branches 
form networks by unions and separations opposite the fore 
and hind legs, which are called the brachial and sacral 
plexus. The ganglia of the sensory root are in the Batra- 
chia accompanied each by a deposit of white phosphate of 
lime, forming a rounded mass. In some fishes with a short 
spinal cord the division of the cauda equina takes place far 
anteriorly, as in Diodon and most other Plectognathi, thus 
leaving a very short axis. 

The anterior part of the column enlarges, and is called 
the medulla oblongata; as this is within the cranium, it is 
reckoned as part of the brain. The six columns are hero 
better defined, and there are added two well-defined oval 
prominences termed the corpora olivmformia between the 
lateral columns of Mammalia. This contains a corpus den- 
tatum of gray matter. The fibres of the posterior columns 
cross or decussate; they are, however, only those of the an¬ 
terior or motor root of the spinal nerves that do so, having 
passed upward through the column; the fibres of the pos¬ 
terior roots decussate in the gray matter of the cord near 
their exit, and pass thence into the brain without further 
exchange. The divergence of the posterior columns leaves 
a rhomboidal cavity or basin in the superior face of the 
medulla, which is the fourth ventricle. The roots of the 
auditory (seventh) nerve originate below its fundus. This 
chamber is variously exposed in different vertebrates. The 
postero-lateral columns (corpora restiformia) diverge up¬ 
ward and backward, and support the first great brain gan¬ 
glion, the cerebellum. In the Elasmobranchi (sharks, etc.) 
the fourth ventricle is greatly extended laterally, having a 
lobate outline, with sinuous walls; in other Vertebrata this 
peculiarity does not exist. In Dermopteri, one division 
(Hyperotreti) exhibits prominent lateral lobes, which do 
not open externally; they are wanting in the remainder of 
the class (Hyperoarti). In many bony fishes there are 
ganglionic enlargements of the medulla, corresponding to 
the origin of the nervus vagus; hence vagal lobes. There 
are numerous lobes on the medulla of the pike. The me¬ 
dulla is straight in most vertebrates, but in Reptilia and 
birds it is bent rather abruptly downward and forward after 
entering the cranium. 

The cerebellum is a simple oval or flat body in the fishes, 
Batrachia, and reptiles, excepting in the crocodiles. In 
these it develops two small lateral lobes, while the middle 
portion, now called the vermis, becomes transversely grooved. 
In the birds the lateral lobes are a little larger and the 
plicae deeper, and on section it yields a digitate and serrate 
outline of gray matter with a white centre, called the arbor 
vitse. In Mammalia the size is increased, especially as re¬ 
gards the lateral lobes. In Dermopteri it is small—in the 
division Hyperoarti apparently composed of two lateral 
ganglia. In sharks it is much enlarged longitudinally, 
and on section displays a weak arbor vitae; in Pristis 
(saw-fish) it even reaches the cerebrum, covering the optic 
lobes. In other fishes it is smaller, in the usual osseous 
orders a flat transverse commissure bridging the fourth 



Fig. 9. Striated muscle magnified. 

ventricle; in Polypterus it is similar, but in Lepidosteus 
and Amia it is larger and oval. In Batrachia and in Dip¬ 
noi it is more insignificant than in any other division, 
being a very small transverse commissure, not nearly cov¬ 
ering the fourth ventricle. In Batrachia this cav ity con¬ 
tains a triangular network of blood-vessels, which fits it, 
called the plexus chorioideus; this is only seen elsewhere 
in the tortoises (Testudinata). In reptiles the cerebellum 
is still small and transverse, but exceeds that ot the Ba¬ 
trachia; it is convex and scutiform ; the fourth ventricle 
is nearly closed. In the crocodiles it is first approximate y 

closed. . . . 

Anterior to the cerebellum, the brain is best understood 























1058 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


as a double body, bilaterally symmetrical, and composed 
of a series of ganglia on each half of the divided axis or 
prolongation of the medulla oblongata. These ganglia are, 
primarily, the optic lobe, the cerebral lobe or hemisphere, 
and the olfactory lobe. The middle columns of the medulla 
support the optic lobes, while the cerebral lobes are sup¬ 
ported by the middle and anterior columns. The optic lobes 
are the largest of the ganglia from the Dermopteri to the Ba- 
trachia (fig. 33), with the following exceptions : the cerebral 
hemispheres are larger in elasmobranchs and Polypterus, 
The lobi are sub-globular, and exhibit no marked external 
peculiarity till we reach the Batrachia, where they are small¬ 
er than the hemispheres, as in all the succeeding classes. 
In the tailless Batrachia (Anura) they are divided trans¬ 
versely, forming four sub-round bodies; it is possible that 
the anterior one should be considered the lobus ventriculi 
tertii, or optic thalamus, of the next ganglion or cerebrum; 
but as it is united with the posterior in the tailed Batrachia 
(salamanders) and Proteida ( Necturus ) (fig. 34), they are 
more probably the anterior bodies of the corpora quadri- 
gemina of mammals. The posterior, and half or all of the 
anterior, are covered by a fold or lamina, which rises from 
the posterior part of the posterior bodies in the Anura. In 
the Urodela the posterior is reduced, like the cerebellum, to 
a narrow transverse commissure, while in Necturus both it 
and the cerebellum are wanting. 

In Reptilia the optic lobes are more simple, but they are 
partially divided into superior and inferior bodies. In liz¬ 
ards the superior is laminar, and separated by a vacuity 
from the inferior; but in serpents the latter is a mere fis¬ 
sure. In harmless snakes (fig. 36) the lateral bodies are 
connected by a commissure, but in the venomous Trigono- 
cephalus and Bungarus they are united behind; in Vipera 
the superior and inferior bodies appear to be quite sepa¬ 
rated from each other. In birds the optic lobes are simple, 
and situated infero-laterally, since the cerebellum and hem¬ 
ispheres are in contact. In Mammalia they are superior, 
and continuous with each other, and consist of four pro¬ 
tuberances, the corpora quadrigemina. They are much 
reduced in size, and cover a narrow vacuity or tube, the 



Fig. 10. Muscular fibre, greatly magnified. 


aquaeductus Sylvii. In front of the anterior pair is situ¬ 
ated a sac-like body, the pineal gland, which is the rudi¬ 
ment of an important organ of the brain of lower orders, 
the epiphysis. This is a highly vascular membranous body, 
which rises to the inner surface of the cranium in Dermop¬ 
teri, fishes,’ Batrachia, and Reptilia. It is very variable in 
structure in fishes; in reptiles (lizards) it often communi¬ 
cates with the outer surface by the foramen parietale of the 
table of the skull. Directly opposite to it another sac de¬ 
scends from the cavity below the optic lobes (the aqum- 
ductus Sylvii), which is termed the hypophysis. It exists 
in the classes which possess the epiphysis, and is repre¬ 
sented among Mammalia by the pituitary body and infun¬ 
dibulum. 

The cerebral hemispheres are small in the classes below 
the Batrachia, except in sharks and a few fishes, as the 
Dipnoi, Polypterus, and Ginglymodi (gar). In Dipnoi, 
Crassopterygia, Chondrostei (sturgeons), Ginglymodi and 
Halecomorphi ( Amia ) the hemispheres are at a distance 
from the optic lobes, being supported by the elongate crura 
of the medulla oblongata; in other classes and orders the 
hemispheres are sessile. In the mammals alone we find the 
pons varolii, a body of transverse fibres which cross and 
bind together these crura cerebri on the inferior side. The 
hemispheres in the mammals present many peculiarities: 
their size is increased, and in many the surface is thrown 
into vermiform ridges or “ convolutions.’’ In the fishes and 
higher types they are hollow, enclosing the “lateral ventri¬ 
cles.” The floor of these is occupied by various bodies in 
the different types. Thus in Batrachia there is a body on 
the inner side of each. In reptiles this is represented by a 
narrow body, while another mass occupies the outer part 
of the floor of the ventricle. In Mammalia two bodies, little 
separated, occupy this position—viz.,the “lobus ventriculi 
tertii” (or thalamus opticus) and the corpus striatum. 
The cerebral hemispheres are not united till in certain birds 
we find a narrow bridge connecting them, the fornix. In 
the lowest Mammalia (Marsupialia, etc.) we observe an¬ 
other connecting body in a rudimental state above the 
fornix. This is the corpus callosum, which in higher mam¬ 
mals is a massive bridge, and much larger than the fornix. 
There is another bond of connection called the anterior 
commissure, which is short and sub-cylindric : its size in 



mammals is nearly in inverse ratio to the development of the 
corpus callosum. The ventricles are separated by the sep¬ 
tum lucidum in this class only, but is much reduced in the 
monotremes (duck-bill). The characters of the brain in the 
orders of Mammalia maybe best expressed in tabular form, 
thus: 

I. No calcarine sulcus nor hippocampus minor; corpus 
callosum rudimental; hemispheres smooth, leaving cere¬ 
bellum and olfactory lobe exposed: Monotremata, Marsu¬ 
pialia. 

II. Corpus callosum well developed, short, without ros¬ 
trum; no calcarine sulcus nor hippocampus minor; hemis¬ 
pheres smooth, short; olfactory lobes and cerebellum not 
covered: Edentata, Rodentia, Insectivora, Cheiroptera. 

III. Corpus callosum longer, with a recurved rostrum 
in front; no calcarine sulcus nor hippocampus minor; the 
hemispheres convoluted, and partially covering the olfac¬ 
tory lobes and cerebellum : Proboscidia, Hyracoidea, Un- 
gulata, Carnivora (hoofed and carnivorous animals). 

IV. Corpus callosum long, with rostrum; a calcarine 
sulcus and hippocampus minor: hemispheres mostly convo¬ 
luted, partly or wholly covering the olfactory lobes and 
cerebellum : Primates (monkeys, man). 

Exceptions to the definition of the Primates aro seen in 
some of the Lemuroidea, in which the hemispheres are 
smooth. In man they have nearly twice the size seen in 
the allied forms of apes (chimpanzee, etc.). The calcarine 
sulcus is on the lower side of the posterior part of the hem¬ 
isphere, and the hippocampus minor is the convex body 
within the ventricle, which its presence causes ; it forms the 
inner wall of the posterior horn of that chamber. 


Fig. 11. Nerve-cell and filaments. 


The olfactory lobes are very large in elasmobranchs, and 
are connected with the hemispheres by a narrow commis¬ 
sure. In fishes they are less developed, and in batrachians 
are sub-cylindric and separated by a groove. In reptiles 
they are continuous with the hemispheres, obpyriform in 
shape, and often slender; they are frequently hollow. In 
birds and mammals they bear a smaller proportion to the 
whole brain, and are entirely concealed in Primates. 

The optic nerve originates by fibres derived from the optic 
lobes. Its fibres decussate or cross from the right side to 
the left, and vice versa, shortly after leaving the brain in 
all Vertebrata, excepting the lower Actinopteri (Halecomor¬ 
phi, Ginglymodi, and Chondrostei), the Elasmobranchii, and 
the Dermopteri. In all of these the nerves are connected 
by a commissure, which is in part {Amia) composed of fibres 
which leave the brain and return again, forming a short 
circuit. In the Dermopteri this “chiasma” takes place 
near the roots of the nerves; in the others, at a greater dis¬ 
tance from the brain. 

The remaining cranial nerves are in fishes only four pairs, 
the vagus, glossopharyngeus, trigeminus, and facialis. The 
first two and the last two are each approximated. The 
vagus exhibits in the fishes above the.Dermopteri two dis¬ 
tinct roots. The first is the nervus (ramus) lateralis, 
which extends posteriorly beneath the scapular arch, and 
runs along the middle of the side of the body to the tail; it 
is abortive in Dermopteri. The second or larger nerve sup¬ 
plies the gills and viscera. The nervi trigeminus et facialis 
have four distinct origins, which sometimes unite and form 
one or two plexuses outside the cranium. The branches 
are distributed to different parts of the head ; but one, 
which especially characterizes many bony fishes, but is 
wanting in Clupeidae, Plectospondyli, Amia (gar), Chondros¬ 
tei, and elasmobranchs, the ramus lateralis, runs upward 
within the cranium, issues above, and extends along the 
back to the caudal fin, supplying the dorsal fin. In Der- 








































COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


1059 


mopteri and Dipnoi the glossopharyngeal is a branch of the 
vagus; in other vertebrates it is distinct. 

In Batrachia the rami laterales of the vagus are present; 
and the glossopharyngeus unites with the vagus, forming a 
ganglion, from which nerves issue. The origins of the 
nervi trigeminus and facialis are wholly or in part com¬ 
mon, and they support a ganglion Gasserii. The hyoid and 
scapular muscles are supplied from the first pair of spinal 
nerves, and the vagus supplies branches to the scapula. 
These characters are in part those of reptiles, but more 
prominently those of fishes. In the Reptilia there are 
nervi accessorii, as well as hypoglossi. The latter supplies 
the hyoid and scapular regions, and the former certain mus¬ 
cles inserted in the scapula in front. The rami laterales of 
both vagus and trigeminus are not present, and the facialis 
has a distinct origin. In mammals all these nerves are 
present, except laterales, but the facialis frequently is iden¬ 
tical with the trigeminus in origin. 

VI. The Muscular System. 

Muscles are entirely wanting to the Protozoa and to the 
Coelenterata, excepting the Medusse. In the latter, delicate 
bundles of unstriped fibres exist, extending vertically 
from both the inner and outer surfaces of the umbrella, 
while between them concentrically curved bundles run be¬ 
tween the eight circulatory canals. Among echinodcrms 
the innumerable segments of which they are composed give 
origin and insertion to many muscles. In addition there 
are muscles devoted to the masticatory apparatus. This 
consists in Echinoidea of five tooth-like bodies, which form 
a pyramidal mass when closed. Eor the opening and shut¬ 
ting of these, twice ten paired and twice five single muscles 
are arranged, as well as several others. In. Holothurida 
five longitudinal muscles extend from the hard oesophageal 
ring to the vent. A sphincter closes the mouth, and the 
superior part of the gullet is thickened with muscular walls. 
The tentacles possess muscles. 

In Mollusca muscles are universally present, though 
fewer in number than in the groups just described. In 
Bryozoa (or Polyzoa) a system of muscles is arranged for 
the withdrawal of the crown into the sheath-like body ; 
these are median, longitudinal, slender muscles. Those de¬ 
signed for projecting it again are horizontal, curved, and 
situated on the inner wall of the body; the successive con¬ 
tractions of these from below upward will produce the result. 
Avicularia are peculiar bird-head-like bodies, situated near 
the mouth in the marine Bryozoa; they are furnished with 
a bird-like beak, with an under jaw which frequently closes 
with a snap, and slowly opens. These movements are con¬ 
ducted by muscles whose movements are automatic. The 
large mantle enclosing the body of the Tunicata is com¬ 
posed of two muscular layers—the one of transverse (hence 
annular) fibres, the other of longitudinal or oblique. Mus¬ 
cles for producing progressive movement or swimming are 
found in many genera. These are annular, and at intervals 
around the body. Appendicularia possesses a long and 
deep rudder-like tail, which contains muscular layers. The 
Brachiopoda are attached to a fixed body by a muscular 
arm or anchor, which enters the shell through a foramen. 
This is connected with the dorsal and ventral valves of the 
shell by corresponding opposite muscles, which determine 
the direction of its open borders. There are two pairs of 
adductor muscles arranged longitudinally, and two pairs of 
abductors (divaricatores), one of the pairs smaller, and 
sometimes wanting. There are muscles also in the mantle 
and branchial arms. In lamellibranchs or Acephala there 
are powerful musculi adductores. There is but one in the 
Ostreidae, Aviculidas, and Muelleriidae. They are of very 
unequal size in the Mytilidae, but sub-equal in the remain¬ 
ing Acephala. In Anornia there are three. 

There are also retractor muscles of the siphons, and a 
band round the edge of the mantle. The muscles of the 
foot are often large. The principal one divides next the 
body, and each half is inserted near the hinge of the shell 
between the adductor muscles. In Gasteropoda the mus¬ 
cular structures have a different arrangement. The foot is 
largely muscular, and its upper and posterior region gives 
insertion to the columellar muscle, which attaches the ani¬ 
mal to the shell. It arises from the columella at the begin¬ 
ning of the last whorl. Its size depends on the size of the 
whorl and length of foot. Other muscles are devoted to 
the elongation or retraction of the proboscis and the penis. 
In Cephalopoda the columellar muscle is represented by a 
large symmetrically divided mass, which arises from the 
cephalic cartilages, and is inserted into opposite sides of the 
shell. An annular muscle surrounds the neck, and another 
the funnel. From the latter diverge the longitudinal mus¬ 
cles of the tentacles, which are perforated by radial muscu¬ 
lar fibres. The mantle is occupied by a flat muscle. Tho 
usually muscular foot is here represented by a flat body, 
which projects forward from beneath the mantle. It is 


rolled up, forming a tube. By the energetic expulsion of 
water from the mantle-chamber through this tube the ani¬ 
mal is driven through the water, the mantle end first. 

The interior surface of the outer chitinous skeleton of the 
Arthropoda is lined with a muscular layer. Longitudinal 
and oblique muscles connect the annuli, which repeat each 
other in those forms (Myriopoda and larvae) in which the 
segments are similar. Where (as in all the higher types) 
the segments are much specialized, the muscles are modi¬ 
fied accordingly, either by increase of size or number. 
Muscles of the dorsal and ventral regions are usually more 



Fig. 12. Tubular follicle of Fig. 13. Lobule of parotid 

the pig’s stomach. gland, magnified. 

enlarged than those of the lateral, while in the types where 
the sides are soft, to allow of the movements of the back 
and belly plates, the latter are connected by straight mus¬ 
cles which pass through the viscera. All the limb-muscles 
are within them, or are inserted into internal processes of 
the chitinous walls. Sometimes they are inserted into 
fibrous bodies which have been hardened by calcareous or 
chitinous deposit, which also subserve the purpose of 
levers. 

Arthropoda possess muscles which perform the functions 
well known among vertebrates as rotators, elevators, de¬ 
pressors, retractors, protrusors, etc. But the flexors and 
extensors exceed the others greatly in importance and size. 
Their relative size is the reverse of what is seen in verte¬ 
brates; in the latter the extensors are the more important; 
in the Arthropoda the flexors exceed the extensors several 
fold. 

2. In Vertebrates .—The muscles of the animals of this type 
are divided into two classes by their position and the rela¬ 
tion they bear to the skeleton, and are termed epiSkeletal 
and hyposkeletal. The former are situated on the upper 
surface of the vertebras— i. e., of the body and arches, in¬ 
cluding ribs—and are developed in the foetus coincidentally 
with the vertebras. Hence they are in segments which cor¬ 
respond to these, and are separated by intervals termed 
inter-muscular septa. The hyposkeletal are developed later, 
and below the vertebrae; they are in part attached to tho 
latter, or to the abdominal walls or the limbs. 

In vertebrates below the Batrachia the hyposkeletal 
muscles are developed to a very slight degree. The seg¬ 
ments ofpthe episkeletal series (or myocommata) cover the 
sides of the body posterior to the head, and meet on the 
median line below. They present an angle forward, near 
their middles, having thus an open chevron shape. In Ba¬ 
trachia the tails and sides retain the largely developed myo¬ 
commata, while the abdominal muscles have the character 
of those of the Reptilia. In these and higher Vertebrata 
the hyposkeletal muscles are well developed. In the latter 
numerous muscles (spinalis, semispinalis, longissimus dorsi, 
sacrolumbalis, inter transversales, levatores costarum, corn- 
plexus, splenius, recti postici, and recti laterales) are de¬ 
rived, by subdivision, from the upper portion of the myo¬ 
commata. In the same way the inferior half gives rise to 
the recti abdominis, which extend from the pelvis to the 
sternum; the sterno-hyoidei from the sternum to the hyoid 
apparatus; the genio-hyoidei from the latter to the lower 
jaw. On the sides the derivative muscles are obliquely 
directed—viz., the external intercostales; the obliqui ex- 
terni of the abdomen; the subclavius from the first rib to 
the clavicle, and the scaleni from the anterior dorsal ribs 
to the cervical ribs and processes; lastly, the sterno-cleido 
mastoid extends from the sternum and clavicle to the skull. 
The fasciculi of these muscles are all directed, as is tho 
lower part of the myocomma of the fish, from above, or 
dorsally, downward and posteriorly. The hyposkeletal 
muscles occupy the inner side ot the body-walls, and in¬ 
clude, besides‘many others, the diaphragm of Mammalia 























COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


1060 


anil birds. This septary muscle is wanting or rudimental 
in vertebrates below the Aves. 

The muscles of the limbs are of two kinds : (1) those that 
originate from the body, and ( 2 ) those that take origin on 
some bone of the limb. The former move the whole limb, 
the latter, its parts. They are extensors, flexors, and ro¬ 
tators; among the most notable of the last is that ‘which, 
in the Mammalia, rotates the radius of the fore arm on the 
ulna. Of flexors, the pectorales major and minor pertain 
to the fore limb; they are enormously developed in birds, 
subserving the function of flight. The extensor of the hind 
limb, the glutmus maximus, is greatly developed in man, 
as essential to the erect attitude. The longitudinal dorsal 
muscular tendons are generally ossified in birds. 

A remarkable modification of the muscular system is 
seen in the electrical organs of certain fishes, the torpedo, 
electric eel ( Gymnotus ), and catfish ( Malapterurus ). Here 
a system of enormous cells, packed in parallel columns, dis¬ 
charges electricity instead of developing movement or con¬ 
traction. The contents are gelatinous, and are divided by 
connective tissue into transverse disks, imitating striped 
muscular fibre. The columns are vertical in the torpedo 
and longitudinal in the other genera. They are richly 
supplied with nerves, which are distributed on one face 
only. The rays possess rudimental organs of the same 
kind at the base of the tail. 

VII. The Muco-Dermal System. 

1. In Ccelenterata, Echinodermata, and Mollusca .—The 
superficial or cellular layer of the skin, or epidermis, is 
universally present in animals. The inferior layer in ver¬ 
tebrates is fibrous, and belongs strictly to the system of 
areolar or connective tissues; it is not found in the Coelen- 
terata, but is represented by a non-cellular, granular, and 
sometimes slightly striate “ true skin.” In these animals 
anil in polyps (Anthozoa) there are two or three layers of 
cellular skin, of which the lower contains the “nettle-cells.” 
These are minute bladders .02 to .07 millimetres long, and 
one-third to two-thirds as thick, which contain a hair-like 
body coiled within them. These are suddenly projected 
upon external irritation, and act as irritants or offensive 
weapons upon the object they strike, producing sometimes 
severe smai’ting and paralysis. These cells occur also as 
an external lining of the mesenterial threads of polyps. 
The true skin is the layer in which is deposited the carbon¬ 
ate of lime, which, penetrating or not the folds of the in¬ 
ternal cavity of the body, produces the radiating and tubu¬ 
lar solid structures characteristic of corals. In the Gor- 
goniidm the deposit of the basis of the first simple, and 
therefore of the axis of the compound, animal, is horny; 
this is afterwards covered with a thin calcareous layer. 

In the Echinodermata the dermal system fulfils an im¬ 
portant function, as the basis of deposit of mineral matter 
in the form of innumerable symmetrical segments. In the 
Holothurida these deposits are frequently isolated and in¬ 
ternal, and sometimes entirely wanting; the tentacles 
always contain them. Among Mollusca the superficial 
layer consists of ciliated epithelium (except on the eye- 
peduncles). The true skin is fibrous, and contains many 
cells; it is in the form of a sac, and often reaches consid¬ 
erable thickness. An extensive fold derived from the pos¬ 
terior part of the body in Cephalopoda and Gasteropoda, 
or the superior in Acephala, envelops the body more or less 
completely. In mollusks which possess a shell the latter 
is produced by the margin of the mantle. This margin is 



supplied with glands which secrete or separate carbonate 
of lime, which they deposit on the general border. Thus 
the shell takes the form of the body, which the mantle 
closely enfolds. In Gasteropoda it is sub-cylindric; the 
shell has the same character, being sometimes partially or 
wholly straight ( Vennetus, Teredo), or generally spirally 
twisted. In the bivalves the mantle has the form of two 


lateral oval laminae, thus producing the well-known form 
of the shells. The periodical deposits of lime by the man¬ 
tle are seen in the lines of growth of all shells. The form 
of the mantle border is faithfully repeated in the shell; 
thus the projections caused by the protrusion of the pro¬ 
boscis in Murex, Strombus, etc., is seen in the convexities 
and canals of their margin. In Acephala the mantle ex¬ 
tends beyond the body, enclosing a space known as the 
mantle-chamber. The margins of the mantle in a large 
number of families are extensively united, thus forming a 
nearly closed chamber. They are entirely separated in the 
oyster, the Area, Myophoria , etc. They are sometimes only 
united by a bridge; when more extensively, there usually 
remains an opening through which the foot is protruded. 
Of these some leave a single opening at the posterior end 
of the body (Mytilidm, Unionidse), or the latter is divided 
into two ( Tridacna , Isocardia, Cyprina). Of these the 
upper is the point of exit for excrement and water, while 
the lower admits water to the gills and food to the mouth. 
The lips of these openings are in many families prolonged 
into tubes, sometimes very extensively. These may be 
united or separate. They are either fixed or retractile; 
when the latter, the space they occupy in the shell requires 
that the line of attachment of the mantle to the shell 
should be indented, sometimes to a great degree. Tho 
opening for the foot also admits water. It is much reduced 
in size in genera with a rudimental foot (as Gastrochsena, 
Aspergillum, etc.), and is finally closed in Pholadidea. 

Besides the mineral substance, the colors of the shell are 
secreted by special pigment-glands on the margins of_tho 
mantle. 

The shell is not always composed of carbonate of lime; 
in Lingula, Pinna, etc., the material is phosphate of lime, 
and resembles bone. The pearl layers of many shells are 
aragonite. The shell may be composed of laminae or 
prisms, or both. Anomia exhibits the first, Inoceramus the 
second, and Strombus the third type. In Brachiopoda the 
shell-valves are dorsal and ventral; in Acephala, right 
and left; in Gasteropoda and Cephalopoda the shell is cen¬ 
tral and single. In Acephala tightly-closed valves indicate 
retractile siphons; posteriorly gaping shells, projected ones. 

The valves are united by a marginal hinge, composed of 
teeth, pits, and cartilage ligament, in most families. 

In Gasteropoda the coil may be flat ( Planorbis ) or much 
prolonged ( Mitra ). Tho “ body-whorl ” is that last made; it 
may be either contracted (certain snails), or greatly en¬ 
larged, as in Cyprsca, where it almost or quite conceals all 
the other turns, in its fold. 

In the fossil Endocardines (or Pudistes) the valves are 
fastened by hinge-processes on the inner face of the free 
and smaller valve. 

The shell of Cephalopoda is distinguished by its septa. 
These enclose chambers, the animal only occupying the last 
one constructed. This structure is not without parallel 
among Gasteropoda (where the unused portion is generally 
broken off), but the Cephalopoda are peculiar in that the 
body is not entirely withdrawn from the first chamber, but 
leaves a long tube, which passes through all the chambers, 
and secretes a pearly sheath, which is known as the siphon 
of the shell. In life this contains nothing but air, which is 
wanting in carbonic acid. The margins of the septa are 
simple in Nautilus, Orthoceras, etc., but fold in a most 
complicated and symmetrical manner in Ammonites, Bacu- 
lites, etc. In Goniatites, Aturia, etc., the folds are fewer 
and more simple. 

The Argonauta (paper nautilus) is peculiar in the char¬ 
acter of its shell, which only belongs to the female. It pos¬ 
sesses indeed no true shell secreted by the mantle, in com¬ 
mon with other octopod genera, but that which bears the 
name is secreted by the margin of the large expansions of 
the two posterior arms. These enclose the shell, which is 
thus evidently a product of their inner-face. 

The byssus is a fibrous rope or thread-like body which is 
secreted by a gland in the foot of certain Acephala. By 
means of it the animal is attached to fixed bodies. It is 
well developed in Mytilus, rudimental in some Uniones. 

2. In Arthropoda .—The external covering of the body 
and limbs of animals of this class has been already stated 
to be chitin. This substance is composed chemically of 
C 17 II 14 NO 11 —that is, a protein body, CgHeNOs, plus a 
hydrated carbon, CgHsOs. In higher Crustacea and in 
various Myriopoda (lulus, Polydesmus, etc.) it is accom¬ 
panied by an equal or even greater amount of carbonate 
and phosphate of lime; of these the former exceeds the 
latter in quantity. The chitin layer proper is a secretion 
from a layer of cells, which in turn lies above a stratum of 
connective tissue. The cells resemble the epithelial, and 
have distinct nuclei. The chitin originates from these as a 
transparent layer, but frequently becomes streaked or 
fibrous. 

The pattern on which each segment of the arthropod 


















COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


1061 


body is constructed is that of an annulus composed of 
several pieces. These are a median dorsal and ventral, 
and a pair of lateral shields on each side. The number of 
these rings in the different orders averages twenty and less, 
but in ^ome Myriopoda it rises as high as 140 {Geophilua). 
They are greatly modified in forming the head, to which 
five segments are reckoned by some (seven by others). In 
Myriopoda those remaining are very similar to each other, 
while in the other orders they are much modified, and gen¬ 
erally arranged in groups. These are distinguished in in¬ 
sects as head, thorax, and abdomen; in Crustacea the first 
two and part of the third series are united into a cephalo- 
thorax, while the numerous remaining segments are the 
post-abdomen. In Arachnida only, however, we have the 
true cephalothorax, including head and thorax only, the 
abdomen remaining entirely distinct. The number of seg¬ 
ments in the Crustacea Decapoda Amphipoda and Isopoda, 
is 20; in the Copepoda and insects, 12; in Arachnida it 
varies from 12 to 19. 

The limbs of Arthropoda are composed of hollow, vari¬ 
ously altered cylinders, articulated together where com¬ 



posed of more than one segment. In Crustacea and Myr¬ 
iopoda they are present on all the segments of the body; 
in Arachnida and Insecta on head and thorax only. In 
the last-named class only those of the head are modified to 
aid in seizing and devouring food; in the Crustacea, those 
of the thorax are partly ( Gammarua ) or wholly ( Aatacua) 
devoted to this service. As organs of progression only 
those of the thorax are employed in Insecta; in Arachnida 
the last head-limb is included; they thus possess four pairs 
of limbs, while th'e Insecta have but three. The larvm of 
lepidopterous and some (tenthredenid) hymenopterous in¬ 
sects possess false feet or pro-legs on the abdominal seg¬ 
ments. In the former they are beset by an arched series 
of minute claws, which are absent in the latter. The ab- ! 
dominal legs of Myriopoda are, like the thoracic, simple. 
In Crustacea they are in part swimming organs, and many 
of them bear plates and fringes in which the blood is ex¬ 
posed and oxygenized. 

The organs of the head, or altered feet, are in jawed in¬ 
sects as follows : 1st, wanting; 2d, antenna; 3d, mandible; 
4th, maxilla ; 5th, labium. In insects with a tubular mouth 
it is similar, except that the third pair are bristles for punc¬ 
turing, the fourth similar, and the fifth a tubular body or 
rostrum, enclosing them. The hemipterous rostrum is of 
this type. In Lepidoptera, where,there is a tubular or suc¬ 
torial tongue-like rostrum, the third segment is rudimentary, 


the fourth is the rostrum, and the fifth is the labium. Of 
the jawed type of the Coleoptera are the orders Orthoptera 
and Neuroptera. In the Hymenoptera (bees, etc.) the man¬ 
dibles are developed as jaws, but the maxillae are elongate, 
and form the opposed halves of a tube which encloses a 
projectile tongue. The suctorial orders, Ilemiptera and 
Lepidoptera, have been mentioned; the structure in the 
Diptera (flies) is similar to that of Ilemiptera. 

The antennas of insects are organs of special sense, but 
whether of hearing, smell, or taste is not well known. In 
the basal segment of certain Crustacea ( Sergeates , etc.) a 
chamber containing grains of sand has been suspected to 
be an organ of hearing; while a microscopical nervous 
structure in the posterior wings of Coleoptera has been re¬ 
garded as of similar significance. The antennas are set 
with bristles, which evidently subserve the ordinary but 
here highly delicate sense of touch. The Crustacea are 
distinguished by the presence of two pairs of antennas; 
the second pair only of these is present in other Arthrop¬ 
oda, excepting the larvae of insects, where the first pair ex¬ 
ists in a rudimental state, the second being absent. In 
Myriopoda they are as in Insecta, but in Arachnida both 
appear to be wanting; the second pair is, however, present 
as jaw-antennae, taking the place of the absent mandibles. 

In Insecta the forms of the antennae are very numerous. 
The typical structure is that of a succession of (nine to 
twelve) sub-similar cylindric segments. Thus they appear 
in carnivorous and other Coleoptera, in phryganoid Neurop¬ 
tera, acridiid Orthoptera, nematocerous Diptera, etc. In 
most Diptera they are excessively shortened and of few 
joints; the last is enlarged, and Supports at its base a large 
bristle, which is frequently plumed. In Lepidoptera Diur- 
na they are club-shaped; in Sphingidae, triangular in sec¬ 
tion, and in Lepidoptera Nocturna, fusiform and often 
plumed. In many Orthoptera they are very short; in 
Hymenoptera short (bees), elbowed (ants), or much pro¬ 
longed (Ichneumonidse). The Coleoptera exhibit the 
greatest varieties. In some ( Elater , Diatyopterus) they are 
serrated; in Silphidm, short and clubbed; in Longicornia 
their length is often excessive; in Curculionidae some of 
the basal segments are elongate, forming an elbow with the 
remainder. In Lamellicornia the terminal segments are ex¬ 
panded, leaf-like, one on each side of the axis, and open and 
shut like the leaves of a book. 

In Myriopoda the maxilla and labium of insects are rep¬ 
resented by a large labium. In the Strongylia there arc 
a second and third labia; but in Chilopoda the last is rep¬ 
resented by a pair of powerful foot-jaws, which are per¬ 
forated for the conduct of poison. The first leg corresponds 
to the third of the insect. In Arachnida the insect maxilla 
is represented by jaws, which are simple in spiders, acute, 
and perforated by a poison duct, but in Phalangia, scor¬ 
pions, etc. (Pedipalpi) are furnished with an opiposable joint, 
or are cheles. 

In Crustacea the second pair of maxillm are not united 
into a labium, as in Insecta. The cephalothorax in some 
of the higher order of Decapoda (crabs, lobsters, etc.) is 
distinguished from the abdomen by a groove, as in the cray¬ 
fish ( Aatacus): in all of them the ambulatory limbs arise 
from the abdomen. One or more of these are chelate (fur¬ 
nished with nippers) in the Decapoda and other orders, but 
in the Stoinapoda the first pair has instead the last joint 
opposed to the whole length of the penultimate, forming a 
reversed scissor-like organ. The limbs of the post-abdo¬ 
men usually bear branchial organs, while those of the last 
segment are in the form of plates, which, when extended, 
form a swimming shield (lobster), or are hook-like bodies 
for maintaining the hold in the shell ( Pagurua ). 

The limbs in Insecta are always similar in construction, 
though the hinder may be much elongated (grasshopper), 
and never chelate. They consist of four regions—the coxa, 
femur, tibia, and tarsus. The coxa attaches the limb to the 
body by a ball-and-socket or hinge-like joint, and may be 
from globular to laminar in form. The femur is the stout¬ 
est joint, containing the muscles which flex and extend the 
rest of the leg. The tibia is slender and often long; the 
tarsus usually consists of several joints. In some Hemip- 
tera it consists of but one or two ; in most Coleoptera it em¬ 
braces at least five. In the latter order the number is an 
important index of relationship. The lower groups (Phy- 
tophaga, etc.) possess but three; the curculios, longicorns, 
etc. possess four, and the Tenebrionidae and others five in 
front and four on the hind limbs only ; lastly, the serricorn, 
clavicorn, monilicorn, and other types with five joints, all 
round. The last joint usually consists of a pair ot chitin- 
ous hooks; others may be modified by expansion, etc. for 
adhesion to vertical surfaces, etc. 

3. In Vertebratea .—The skin in the Vertebrata is prima¬ 
rily smooth and soft. Its epithelial glands may secrete 
mucus, as in many fishes, or glands seated in the true skin 
may separate sweat. The latter are simple, convoluted, and 




































1062 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


with a long efferent duct. The epithelial layer produces 
the horny sheaths of claws and horns, feathers and hairs. 
Mammalia are generally covered with hairs, but in the 
manis it is thrown into extensive folds, which are ossified, 
and become the scales of those remarkable animals. In the 
shell of the armadillos and on the head of various batra- 
chians it is penetrated by ossification, which is confluent 
with that of bony structures below them. Hairs are an epi¬ 
thelial growth in the form of a hollow cylinder. The epi¬ 
dermis is sunk into a pit of the true skin, and then returns 
outward as the hair. It increases in length by addition of 
cells and pigment from below. A modification of the same 
structure is seen in feathers, where the axis is split later¬ 
ally, and thus develops the barbs and fibrill® on each side. 
Birds are covered with feathers. The first growth appears 
as down, in which the fibrill® are softer and in much smaller 
number, so as not to be coherent; the bases of the true or 
mature feathers are furnished with the same. Those of the 
body are generally soft; in aquatic birds excessively dense 
on the lower surfaces. They arise from certain patches 
only. There is one on each scapular region, and one along 
the middle line of the neck above. Another is on the rump, 
and one on each side of the breast. The abdomen presents 
a large median patch. In ostriches, penguins, and a few 
others the feathers are evenly distributed over the whole 
body. Besides the main shaft of the feather, a second one 
is developed behind it in many birds. It is generally much 
smaller than the first, but it is equal to it in the Casuariid®. 
The largest feathers are developed on the caudal vertebrae 
and on the fore limb. In the latter they subserve the func¬ 
tion of flight. Those attached to the carpus and manus are 
the longest and most important, their length bearing a 
direct relation to the powers of flight of the bird. These 
are the primary quills; they are enormously developed in 
the swallows and swifts, in the humming-birds and frigate- 
pelicans ( Tachypetes), etc. They consist of naked shafts 
only in many of the ostriches. The quills attached to the 
fore arm are the secondaries; they are proportionately large 
in gallinaceous birds. Those inserted into the skin of the 
humerus are the tertiah, and are most highly developed in 
the wading families (Grail®) and certain song-birds— e.g., 
the Motacillid®. The caudal quills or rectrices are from 
twelve to eighteen in average number; they are greatly 
elongated in the tropic-bird {Phaeton), Milvulus , etc., and 
are almost wanting in some gallinaceous birds, in some 
tinamous, etc. The rump-feathers or tail-coverts are some¬ 
times so developed as to conceal them, as in the peacock, 
Pharomacrus, Egretta, etc. 

The scales of reptiles are are® of true derm, bounded by 
simple folds, which are covered exactly by epidermis. These 
areas may be filled with an osseous deposit, as in Heloderma ; 
in snakes they are soft. In tortoises the intervening folds 
are very shallow, and remotely correspond to the skeleton 
below. The epithelial layer is horny (tortoise-shell), while 
the derm is ossified and united with the osseous skeleton 
below. In Crocodilia the distinct ossifications occupy the 
dermal areas of the back, or on both surfaces of the body in 
the caimans, etc. The areae are symmetrically distributed 
on the head in serpents, most Lacertilia and some tortoises. 
In the first they are fewest and most regular, numbering 
usually nine on the upper surface. They correspond re¬ 
motely with the cranial bones, and hence are called pari¬ 
etal, frontal, superciliary, prefrontal, internasal, rostral, 
etc. In venomous snakes and boas the vertex is frequently 
covered with scales. 

Fishes frequently display ossifications of the epidermis 
as well as of the true skin, as on the cranium of sturgeons, 
their dorsal and lateral shields, etc. The scales which cover 
the bodies of most fishes are developed in pouches of the 
true skin by deposit of mineral matter. Their exposed sur¬ 
faces are covered by epidermis, which enters between them, 
and reaches there the true skin. In eels they are small and 
separated. In fishes with closed swim-bladder (Physoclysti) 
the scales develop spinous projections which produce the 
effect of a comb on the margin, and are hence called ctenoid. 
Most of those in fishes, with the duct of the swim-bladder 
(Physostomi), have smooth surfaces and edges, and are 
termed cycloid. In many fishes of early periods, and some 
now living {Lepulosteus, Polypterus), the scales are pave¬ 
ment-like and glossy, with a layer of ganoin. These are 
crossopterygians or Physostomi. Sharks have separated 
mineralized bodies, with flat bases and produced points, 
granules, etc., whence they have been termed placoids. In 
Dermopteri and Leptocardii the skin is smooth. 

The internal parts of the muco-dermal system are the 
mucous and serous membranes. The former are continuous 
with the epidermis, and line the cavities of the digestive, 
respiratory, and reproductive systems. The latter line the 
closed chambers, being continuous with the mucous mem¬ 
brane only at the fontanelles of the oviducts (tub® Fallopii). 
In the thoracic cavity they form a sac, with one side thrust 


in upon the other, the thoracic viscera being on the outside 
of the entering portion. The abdominal viscera occupy in 
the same way the outside of the membrane lining the cavity, 
which is termed the peritonaeum. In the thorax it is the 
pleura. 

4. The Teeth. —These bodies are generally developed in 
an internal or external epithelial layer, like some of the 
dermal, bony, or mineral plates or pieces. In Protozoa 
and Coelenterata they are wanting. In Echinodermata 
they are present as five hard sub-triangular plates, which 
close the mouth by their close contact, like radii from its 
centre. In Mollusca they are described under the digest¬ 
ive system, so that it only remains to consider them in 
Vermes and Vertebrata. In the former they consist exclu¬ 
sively of hooks, mostly arranged round the mouth. In the 
Trematodes they occur, weakly developed, in a few genera, 
in one of which they are attached to an organ at the poste¬ 
rior extremity of the body. In Nematoda, Chiracanthus has 
hooks on the head and body, and Strongylus horny teeth 
round the pharynx. In Acanthocephala all the genera 
possess a retractile proboscis, which is studded with re¬ 
curved hooks in various circles. In Cestoda, the tape¬ 
worms have hooks as well as suckers on the head, which 
are especially well developed in the cysticercus larval stage. 
The Tetrarhynchid® possess four projectile proboscides, 
each of which is set with several rows of recurved hooks. 

The teeth of vertebrates are developed on papill® of the 
mucous membrane, which is usually sunk into successive 
cavities or alveol® of the jaw and palate bones. In Lep¬ 
tocardii there are none, and in Dermopteri they are horny 
processes in concentric series round the inside of the fun¬ 
nel-shaped mouth. The two largest are situated at the 



mouth of the oesophagus. In fishes generally bony teeth 
are present, but are not usually developed in alveolar cav¬ 
ities, but on the surface of the bones. True teeth are usu¬ 
ally composed of a very dense substance allied to bone, 
called dentine. Exterior to this they have a deposit of a 
still denser and harder substance, the enamel, which covers 
the crown. The root is sheathed in a layer of true bone, 
the cement. Dentine is distinguished from bone ( osteine ) 
by the presence of great numbers of parallel tubuli, which 
radiate from the central cavity to the circumference of the 
tooth. Enamel is, on the other hand, of the nature of a 
secretion, filling vertical hexagonal cells which stand upon 
the dentine. Hence it is composed of prisms. It contains, 
like dentine, a trace of fluoride of calcium, besides the 
phosphate of lime of which both are composed. 

In fishes the teeth are usually covered with dentine in¬ 
stead of enamel, and may be composed internally of true 
dentine or of its variety, vasodentine. This substance re¬ 
tains the numerous blood-vessels which characterize the 
early stage of deposit of dentine, which are easily seen in 
a section of the teeth. Of such character are the teeth of 
Elasmobranchii, which are moreover of very various form. 
Thus, they are pavement-like, with vertical lamellar roots, 
in skates and rays, or they are rootless and with swollen 
crowns of differing sizes, etc., arranged in symmetrical 
band-like pavements, as in ccstracionts. The crowns may 
be more elevated, as in hybodonts, or finally isolated and 
with sharp apices and cutting edges in the existing squa- 
lodonts. In Holocephali the teeth are most rudimental, 
consisting only of the calcified walls of the vessels arranged 
in alveolar cavities of the jaws. In Dipnoi the teeth form 
a singlo serrate cap for each jaw. In Actinopteri the teeth 
are generally composed of a larger proportion of dentine. 



























COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


1063 



Fig. 17. Hydra viridis. 


In sturgeons they are only present during immature age. 
In the Lepidosteidse the external or dentinal surface is in¬ 
flected in deep folds, which are closed so as to resemble 
grooves externally. Physostomi generally have large teeth 
on the jaws, but in some Characinidae and all other Plecto- 
spondyli, Coregonus (grayling), some Mormyri, etc., there are 
none. In some of these fishes there are numerous teeth on 
the lower segment of the fifth pair of hyoid arches, or the 
“ inferior pharyngeal bones.” In Characinidae these are 
of very varied type; in Catostomidae the bones are much 
prolonged, and the teeth are comb-like in one row, and 
work against a projecting inferior table of the basi-occipi- 
tal bone. In Cyprinidae they are stout, in one or more 
short rows, and may be hooked, sharp-edged, conic, or 
grinding in type, according to the food of the fish. This 
structure does not exist in other fishes. In Esox the teeth 
are raptorial and very numerous; in Clupeidae, rudimental 
and wanting. Only in the order to which the latter per¬ 
tains, the Isospondyli, do wc find fishes with fangs sunk in 
deep alveoli, the extinct Saurodontidm from the cretaceous 
formations. In Nematog- 
nathi they are more or less 
bristle-like, and packed 
together like a brush. In 
eels they are often dagger¬ 
like. In physoclystous (or 
the higher) fishes they are 
generally brush-like, fre¬ 
quently with canines in¬ 
termixed; but in Pedicu- 
lati they are large, in¬ 
curved, on flexible liga¬ 
mentous bases. In some 
Plectognathi they are in¬ 
cisor-like, and in Pharyn- 
gognathi those on the hy¬ 
oid apparatus are greatly 
developed. The latter are 
sub-quadrate, oval, or nar¬ 
row ( Scarua ), and arrang¬ 
ed pavement-fashion for 
the crushing of hard sub¬ 
stances, as shells, etc. In Scarua the teeth of the jaws are 
confluent into a shining, parrot-like beak, useful in scrap¬ 
ing out shells and cutting off sea-weed. 

In Batrachia the teeth are usually small, often wanting 
(bufoniform Anura), or in the extinct Labyrinthodontia 
with deep complicated inflections of the dentine and super¬ 
ficial cementum. In reptiles we find teeth with fangs and 
with crowns, generally covered with enamel. These may 
be sunk in deep alveoli (Rhynchocephalia, Acrodonta, 
Crocodilia, Ichthyopterygia, Sauropterygia, Ornithosauria, 
Dinosauria-Goniopoda), or may be attached to the inner 
side of the outer alveolar wall (Lacertilia in general, and 
Dinosauria-Orthopoda); may stand immediately on the 
jaw-bones, without fangs (Ophidia), or on a thick column 
of ossified pulp ( osteo-deutine ) in an alveolus ( Pythono - 
morpha). The crowns are generally compressed conic; in 
some ( Lselaps ) knife-shaped. In herbivorous lizards they 
present an oblique face inward. In Crocodilia the young 
teeth rise within the pulp-cavity of the old, and throw 
them off; in most other orders the successional teeth ap¬ 
pear at the side of the fang, and provoke absorption, which 
cuts off the crown of the old. Tortoises and birds are 
toothless; Anomodontia are so likewise, except a strong 
maxillary tusk. 

In Mammalia the dental armature is distinguished into 
series—viz., the incisors, canines, pre-molars, and molars. 
Their normal number on each side of each jaw is I. 3 ; C. 
1; Pm. 4; M. 3; total, 44. The incisors are normally 
flat and transverse-edged; the canines longer and conic; 
the pre-molars compressed, with one to three cusps; and 
the molars oval in section, with a double series of cusps. 
In Ornithorhynchus there is but one, a horny tooth. In 
marsupials the number of incisors is excessive^as 8 or 10), 
or, as in kangaroos, less numerous and the median much 
enlarged. In these and their gigantic extinct allies two in 
the lower jaw are much enlarged as tusks. In Rodentia 
there are but two incisors above and below, which have 
enamel on the external face only, hence the inner wears 
more rapidly, and the opposed pairs act as efficient cutters 
in gnawing. The other teeth are molars only, and these of 
the complicated type to be mentioned later. In Insectiv- 
ora the incisors are enlarged, but in Edentata they are 
always wanting. In Cheiroptera and Carnivora they are 
similar to each other, and much reduced. In Quadrumana 
they are well developed, broad, opposed cutters, and are 
generally 4-4 in number. The proboscidians, on the other 
hand, have but one (the outer) pair of incisors in each jaw, 
which are developed into huge tusks above (Elephantidoe) 
or below (Dinotheridas). In these cases the opposing pair 


is reduced or wanting. The Artiodactyla-Ruminantia are 
remarkable for the entire absence of superior incisors, and 
the close resemblance of the inferior canine to the lower 
incisors, producing the appearance of eight of the latter. 

The canine is largely developed in the Carnivora, hogs, 
Hippopotamus, and certain extinct proboscidians, as Eoba- 
8ileu8, etc. The pre-molars are wanting in rodents and 
many proboscidians, but numerous in marsupials, insecti- 
vores, etc. In Carnivora they are numerous, and the last is 
peculiarly formed, being the sectorial or flesh-tooth cha¬ 
racteristic of the order. The two outer tubercles and con¬ 
necting ridge are developed into a longitudinal notched 
blade, while the inner remains a small tubercle at the front 
of the inner side. In dogs there are two tubercular molars 
behind it; in weasels and cats, one ; in the extinct Hymno- 
dontidae, several, but all of the sectorial form. 

Molar teeth are composed of one, two, or three rows of 
tubercles. In the first case they may be one- or two-rooted. 
Thus, in cetaceans generally they are simple cones, covered 
with cement instead of enamel. In some extinct groups 
(Zeuglodon , etc.), the crowns are compressed and the roots 
two. In Edentata they are simple throughout, and cov¬ 
ered with cement. This forms a thick layer, and encloses 
a thin one of dentine, which by its superior hardness forms 
the ring-like grinding surface of the crown; it is filled 
within by osteo-dentine. In insectivorous animals the tu¬ 
bercles are in two, sometimes three rows, and acute and 
elevated; thus they appear in Cheiroptera, many marsupials, 
Insectivora, etc. In kangaroos, sirenians, tapirs, and I)i- 
notherinm they appear as two transverse crests or keels. 
These crests are multiplied in Mastodon, reaching six or 
seven. In Stegodon they are more numerous; the intervals 
are a little deeper, and with some cementum in their bot¬ 
toms. In Elephas they are deepened to the roots of the 
tooth, and filled to the top with cement; are narrowed by 
the approach of the much elevated transverse crests, which 
have now reached a great number. Their summits readily 
wear in use, and thus present bands of alternating dentine, 
enamel, and cementum. 

The transverse crests of Tapirus may unite at the inner 
extremity, forming a V in Bathmodontidse among hoofed 
animals, or be connected by an external longitudinal crest 
in Phinocerus, Palseotherium, and Hyrax. The outer crest 
may so be indented as to form two vs, and the inner por¬ 
tions reduced to knobs, as in Limnohym (Perissodactyl), or 
curved crests ( Anchitherium ). The latter may be cut off 
and curve lengthwise, so as to produce four Vs or crescents 
on the grinding face. 

From this point the succession of forms seen in approach¬ 
ing the elephants is repeated in two series, ending in the ox 
and horse. The intervals deepen, the crescents become ele¬ 
vated, and the tops, being soon worn off in use, present a 
figure formed by the edges of enamel plates, which enclose 
islands of dentine. The spaces between them are filled 

with cementum. 
In the horse and 
ox there are five 
crescent-shap ed 
columns in the 
upper molars and 
two in the lower. 
In other artio- 
dactyls there are 
four above and 
two below. In 
deer the crown 
and roots are sub¬ 
equal in length, 
but in the Cavi- 
cornia the crown 
is much the longer. 

The same tran¬ 
sition is seen in 
the rodents. In 
Hus the molars 
are only tubercu¬ 
lar ; in squirrels 
there are elevated 
crests. In Arvi- 
cola and beavers 
there are deep in¬ 
flections of the enamel of the sides of the tooth, producing 
a zigzag section when the crown is worn, while in Caviidae 
the tooth is entirely divided into several columns by the 
deep descent of the enamel coating from above. In porcu¬ 
pines figures are produced by both lateral and coronal folds. 

Simpler teeth are seen in men and apes, where the molars 
present four obtuse tubercles (in the last sometimes five); 
and in the hogs, where the tubercles are more numerous, 
and sometimes irregular. In Hippopotamus each of the 
four tubercles is trifoliate in section. 



Fig. 18. Pelagia. 

































1084 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


VIII. The Digestive System. 

1. In Invertebrates .—The prominent features of the diges¬ 
tive system in Ccelenterata have been pointed out. There 
is none in the Hydra), the inner surface of the urn-shaped 
body-cavity performing that function; an excretory pore 
exists in the foot-like support. In polyps a small sac is 
sometimes formed at the summit of this cavity by the re¬ 
flexion of the inner skin; it opens into the cavity, and is 
entered above by the mouth. The body-cavity is ridged 
on the sides by prominent folds, whose margins bear re¬ 
productive organs and nettle-cells. In the Medusas the 
body is turned the other side up at maturity, though its 
position is that of the polyps in the larval state. Hence 
the stomach is below the body-cavity. The latter is some¬ 
times wanting, and is ridged occasionally, as in polyps. It 
is produced downward in some genera by its walls becom¬ 
ing a peduncle for the stomach. The latter is bell-like, 
and often widely open; it is generally closable by the con¬ 
traction of its margin. The latter bears bunches of tenta¬ 
cles, etc., which in the Rhizostomae are greatly enlarged 
and prolonged into four leaf-like bodies, which bear the 
four mouths at their extremities, and the tubular oesoph¬ 
agi throughout their length. From the body-chamber rise 
the four radiating tubular canals, which extend through 
the umbrella to a tube which passes round its margin. 

In Crinoidea there is a central column to the body-cavity ; 
round this the alimentary canal winds, and, returning, issues 
near the mouth. In Asterioidea the stomach is a sac, con¬ 
nected with the mouth by a short gullet, which is closable 
at the mouth. The stomach is divaricated into five pairs 
of bunches of caeca, which send out radial tubes, two into 
each arm of the animal. The vent is wanting in the Ophiu- 
ridae, but present in most Asteriidoe ; in the latter case there 
is an enlarged rectum, which gives rise to five horny radial 
caeca (often bifurcate), which alternate with those of the 
stomach. In the Holothurida the vent is present, and the 
alimentary canal elongate, and divisible into oesophagus 
(closed behind by a sphincter), intestine, and rectum. The 
last receives the mouths of the respiratory organs. 

In the Vermes this system does not branch radially; 
otherwise its character is very various. That it is a blind 
sac in many orders has been already shown. In those with¬ 
out arms it is either a simple blind tube ( Turbellaria- 
lihabdocoela, Nephelis , Aspidogaster, Branchiobdella, etc.), 
or is early divided into two parallel tubes, as in Trematodes. 
In tape-worm and Monostomum these tubes unite at the 
posterior end of the body. In the Nemertina, in which the 
canal is simple, there are two constrictions at the end of the 
oesophagus, to the anterior of which is attached a projectile 
stylet furnished with venom-glands. In Polia the aliment¬ 
ary canal becomes a solid ligament, which is turned for¬ 
ward and attached to the wall of the cavity. In Pontob- 
della the blind canal is furnished with a few branches or 
caeca. In the Turbellaria-Dendrocoela it forms a large 
number of branching caeca. 

In the families with vent, it is wound or knotted (Capiti- 
branchiata and some Dorsibranchiata), simple (Abranchi- 
ata, Gordiacea, Nematoda), or furnished with cmca on the 
sides. There is but one on each side in Hssmopis, but many 
in the leeches. 

In Vermes in general there are no Cuvierian glands, and 
there arc often liver-cells on the canal walls. 



Fig. 19. Paractis alba: A, expanded; B, the reproductive organ 

of Cereus. 

In Mollusca an anus and liver are always present, except¬ 
ing that the former is wanting in most Brachiopoda. An 
almost universal peculiarity of mollusks is that the aliment¬ 
ary canal, after fewer or more numerous convolutions in 
the body-cavity, returns and issues not far from the mouth 
on the dorsal or lateral face of the body ; this prevails from 
the Bryozoa to the Cephalopoda. The general characters of 
the canal can be expressed schematically as follows: 

A. A more or less projectile oesophageal body or tongue, 


with a movable membrane armed with reverted horny teeth, 
and more or less retractile into a sheath; no crystal style 
in the stomach (except two or three genera). Stomach 
large, unsymmetrical; canal short, with a large pyloric 
caecum; liver very large, lobular, discharging anterior tt) 
stomach; mouth with horny beaks: Cephalopoda. 

Course of canal with two abrupt turns : 1st, at transverse 
stomach; 2d, of intestine double, under oesophagus; rectum 

transverse, opening 
in man tie-hole; liver 
double, of many caeca, 
entering each end of 
stomach: Gasterop- 
oda-Scaphopoda. 

Course of canal lit¬ 
tle enlarged at stom¬ 
ach, and with an in¬ 
testinal one; altoge¬ 
ther a loop opening 
forward near heart; 
liver single, lobulate: 
Gasteropoda - Heter- 
opoda. 

Intestine short 
(straight), emptying on right side, never in breathing cav¬ 
ity (rarely on back), rarely issuing from anterior part of 
stomach; latter elongate (longitudinal), receiving straight 
oesophagus at either end or side, often divided in two or 
three, when one or more is furnished with horn-armed 
ridges or teeth ; horny jaws : Gasteropoda-Opisthobranchia. 

1. Liver lobulate, compact. 

2. “ “ subdiffusc, with connecting canals. 

3. “ of blind canals. 

a. Branching from large stomach-opening in body. 

/3. “ in lateral body-wings. 

y. “ in gills. 

x. Two posterior body-trunks of liver. 

y. One “ “ (including four families). 

z. Three “ “ 

Stomach (with very few exceptions) elongate into a cae¬ 
cum ; intestine rising from middle and turning forward to 
the vent; ridges armed with horny plates in stomach: 
Pteropoda. 

Stomach a widening of canal, rarely with one or two con¬ 
strictions; intestine not convoluted (except Chiton), empty¬ 
ing into breathing-cavity on right side; small flat jaws, 
sometimes horny; a pharyngeal lump, with internal carti¬ 
lage supporting tongue, on lower side of end of oesophagus : 
Gasteropoda-Prosobranchia. 

AA. Movable armed tongue wanting. 

a. A crystalline style in caecal appendage to stomach ; 
lips at entrance of oesophagus; canal mostly uniform, much 
turned; end of rectum free in cloaca; stomach oval or 
round: Acepliala. 

aa. No crystal style; mouth opening between more or less 
cartilaginous spiral appendages; canal bound by an extra 
mesenteric sheath; stomach little distinct; liver double with 
large (sometimes several) discharge canals: Brachiopoda. 

l. Canal shorter, ending in blind enlargement. 

2. “ longer, ending in lateral anus. 

Mouth opening at base (or side) of a gill-sac ; oesophagus 
short; stomach not large, simple, both with intestine, 
forming a V ; latter directed forward, opening on same side 
as mouth: Tunicata. 

'Mouth surrounded with ciliated tentaculae (in one genus 
with a conic lid); oesophagus well defined; stomach dis¬ 
tinct, oftener double than single ; intestine rising from end 
of first or single stomach, swollen in part of a straight 
course to anus near mouth : Bryozoa. 

In Gasteropoda there is a pair of salivary glands; in 
most Cephalopoda, two pairs (in Sejna and Loligo but one 
pair, and in Nautilus none). 

The radulse, or tooth series, and their supporting band, 
present an enormous number of separate teeth in some of 
the Gasteropoda. In the Cephalopoda and Pteropoda they 
are less numerous. In some of the Pulmonata they number 
as many as 26,800. They are arranged in rows, longitu¬ 
dinal as well as transverse. The latter are more or less 
irregular in their course, but strictly bilateral. There is a 
series of median plates or teeth, with one or more rows of 
lateral ones. The following divisions are indicated by the 
different tooth-structures in Gasteropoda: 

a. Rhachiglossa; only median plates, which are often 
toothed (0—1—0): Volutidae. 

b. Toxoglossa; no median plates; on each side a single 
lateral tooth of an awl-like form; no basal membrane of 
radula ; lateral teeth moved by special muscles (1—0—1): 
Conidae, Pleurotomidae. 

c. Hamiglossa; a middle plate and single lateral plate 
(1—1—1) : Muricidae, Bucciniida), Olivida), Lamellariidae, 
Fasciolariidao, Turbinellidae. 



































COMPAKATIVE ANATOMY. 


d. Tsenioglossa; median plate^, and on each side three 
lateral plates; fourteen families ; among them Littorinid®, 
Cerithiid®, Turritellid®, Cassidid®, Tritoniid®, etc. (3—1 
-3). 

e. Ptenoglossa; no middle plates; lateral plates similar, 
numerous (co— 0 —co ) : Scalaria, Janthina. 

/. Rhipidoglossa; middle plates; laterals 4—6 or more, 
of various forms; outside of these numerous small hook¬ 
like teeth (co —4—6—1—4—6— co ): Neritid®, Trochid®, 
Haliotid®, Fissurellid®. The Pulmonata (except Testa- 
cella) exhibit a close similarity to this division in their den¬ 
tition. 

The digestive canal in Arthropoda does not turn on itself 
as in mollusks, but issues at the extremity of the body op¬ 
posite to that which it enters. The oesophagus is usually 
straight, and is expanded in the thoracic region into the 
usually longitudinal stomach. Anterior to this point it has 
sacciform dilatations (Orthoptera) or diverticula in some 
types, as the bees, Lepidoptera, flies, etc. After leaving the 
stomach, the canal, after few or no windings, reaches the 
anus. 

In Crustacea and Insecta there is an extensive fatty mass 
on each side of the posterior part of the canal, known as 
the corpus adiposum ; in Arachnida it is frequently want¬ 
ing. The form of the stomach in this class varies; thus in 
Pedipalpi (scorpions, etc.) it is simple or nearly so, but in 
Aranea (spiders) and Pycnogonum (whale-louse) it branches 
into radiating diverticula; in the latter these penetrate 
even into the femora and tibiae. The digestive system is 
supplied with various glandular organs. Those nearest 
the mouth are the “ salivary glands,” which are present in 
all the classes except the Crustacea. They are complex 
glands, and their secretion in some forms (larvae of some 
Lepidoptera) hardens on exposure to the air into silk-like 
threads. The so-called liver-glands or tubes are situated 
either before or behind the stomach. As their function is 
unknown, and their position is inconstant, the above name 
is but provisional. In Insecta they are slender and tubular, 
sometimes very elongate and undivided. There are usually 
but four in Coleoptera, but more in Orthoptera and Hy- 
menoptera, forming a whorl. In Arachnida (Scorqrio, 
My gale, etc.) and Limulus they are more complex, and 
present a series of more numerous openings into the intes¬ 
tine. In the decapod Crustacea the organ exhibits its 
highest development. It is there a complex follicular 
gland of large size on each side of the alimentary canal, 
and opening posterior to the stomach. Other simple glands 
are in the Insecta distributed over the surface of the 
stomach, and are enclosed by its muscular layer. 

The stomach-walls are thin or muscular, in some types 
ridged within and furnished with horny teeth: Orthoptera, 
some Coleoptera. 

2. In Vertebrata. —In most of this branch of animals 
the stomach is present as a distinct enlargement of the 
alimentary canal, and the intestine is short or long as the 
food is flesh or vegetable and mixed in character. The 
liver is present in all, and is of a highly complex glandular 
character, except in the Leptocardii, where it is a simple 
diverticulum of the alimentary canal. 

In the Leptocardii the pharynx is very capacious, and is 
abundantly fringed with long processes. It opens into a 
sac-like stomach, which is continued as the slender straight 
intestine to the vent. There are no teeth. In the Dermop- 
teri the intestine is also simple and straight. In fishes it 
presents a good many variations. In some, as the sharks 
and siluroids, the stomach is large, and the pylorus is re¬ 
mote from the cardiac entrance. In most Clupeid®, Hyo- 
dontid®, Characinid®, Amia, and Polypterus, it is sac-like, 
with the pylorus near to the cardiac entrance. In most 
fishes the stomach is bent on itself, but in Chimsera, Sym- 
branchus, Amphipnous, Fistularia, and Belone, it is straight. 
The stomach in some sturgeons and in Heterotis and Cha- 
toesus (clupeoids) is gizzard-like (i. e., sub-round), with 
muscular walls and tendinous lamina on the sides. It is 
closed at the pylorus in most fishes by an annular muscle. 
In the higher fishes (Physoclysti) there are generally found 
diverticula from the beginning of the intestine at the py¬ 
lorus, which are termed pyloric caeca. They are also 
abundantly found in the lower groups, or Physostomi, but 
their entire absence is more common. They are wanting 
in Nematognathi, eels, Fistularia, Chirocentrus, Ilyodon, 
the Gobiid®, and Blenniid®, and in Amia, Polypterus, and 
the Elasmobranchii. They exist in vast numbers in some 
Salmonid® and Lepidosteid®, and are numerous in electric 
eels and sturgeons. In Platax there are but four, in Clio- 
logaster two, and in Amblyopsis one. 

The succeeding part of the canal is generally to be dis¬ 
tinguished into small intestine and rectum. These are sep¬ 
arated by a strong valve in Elasmobranchii (except Chi¬ 
msera) in Lepidosiren, Polypterus, Zoarces, Accipenser, Mas- 
tacembelus , and it is not strong in Orestias and Clarotes. 


1065 


The rectum is distinguished in the lower forms by the pos¬ 
session of a spiral internal valve or partition. In Elasmo¬ 
branchii, Polypterus, and Lepidosiren, the spiral partition is 
continuous by its inner margin with a median membranous 
axis, which is suspended from the ileo-c®cal valve; in Raja 
miraletus there is no axis, and the partitions are transverse 
and perforated; in Squatina, Polyodon, and Accipenser ru- 
thenu8, it has no axis, and revolves spirally on the wall of 
the rectum. It is also present in Amia and Trachypterus. 
In Accipenser rubicundus there is no spiral valve, but the 
walls of the rectum are areolate, somewhat as in tripe. 
The gall-bladder is always present, and discharges beyond 
the pylorus. 

In Reptilia the divisions of stomach, intestine, and rec¬ 
tum are well marked ; in Batrachia rather less so. In both 
the canal is elongate, and held in a folded position by a 
mesentery, but in batrachian larva; it is much more ex¬ 
tended, and is horizontally coiled. The liver is large in 
Batrachia, and usually in three lobes, but in the Brevici- 
pitidae and Engystomid® there are but two. There is a 
sphincter valve at the pylorus, and sometimes one at the 
end of the small intestine. The gall-duct discharges below 
the pylorus. In tortoises, whether carnivorous or not, the 
alimentary canal is elongate. 

In some Ernydid® and Trionychid® there is a caecum or 
sac on each side of the rectum, the bursa analis. In many 
Lacertilia the rectum is double or divided by a muscular 
valve; in Iguana and Basiliscus there is a septary valve 
with small orifice. In serpents the oesophagus is greatly 
elongate, and the gall-bladder peculiar in being separated 
from, and sometimes far behind, the liver. The rectum 
presents many peculiarities. In (Jcelopeltis and Homalopsis 



Fig. 21. Echinus. 


the internal surface is longitudinally folded; in Hydrophis 
with short interrupted folds; in Dryiophis, Bipsas, Vipera, 
and Caudisona, transversely folded; in Boodon geometricus, 
Bungarus, Flaps, and Ancistrodon, the folds are developed 
into partitions, which are pierced by a single hole each. A 
pancreas is present in lizards and serpents. 

The alimentary canal of birds is distinguished by the pe¬ 
culiarity of the stomach, which is a gizzard—that is, with 
walls composed on the convex face or borders of contractor 
muscles, which have a median and common tendon extended 
sheet-like on the plane side of the stomach. This is, how¬ 
ever, not found in certain marine birds, as penguins, whero 
the stomach is a simple sac; and it is little developed in 
Sarcorhamphus and Vultur. It is a double sac in Apteryx. 
The crop is a bag-like expansion of the oesophagus, for the 
temporary stowage of food; it is found in gallinaceous 
birds, vultures, etc. 

Adjoining the stomach is frequently found another more 
symmetrical expansion, the proventriculus, whose walls are 
studded with simple glands, whose secretion softens hard 
food. It occurs in Gallin®, Cry 2 )turus, Insessores, Ibis, 
ducks, condor, etc. The rectum is not strikingly distin¬ 
guished from the ilium, but it sends otf at its origin two 
huge c®ca, which extend forward towards the stomach on 
each sido of the intestine. They are excessively elongate 
in Pliasianus, Crypturus, Dicholopluis, Apteryx, etc., and 
very short in Apenodytes, Ibis, etc. They are apparently 
absent in Sarcorhamphus. 

In Mammalia the stomach, intestine, and rectum are well 
distinguished. There is neither crop, proventriculus, py¬ 
loric nor rectal caeca, nor rectal valves. The gall-bladder 
is not separated from the liver, and discharges below the 
pylorus, as does also the excretory duct of the pancreas. 
There are glands in the intestines of many forms, known 
as Peyer’s, and the salivary glands of the oesophagus or 
pharynx are always present. The intestine (colon) is fre¬ 
quently prolonged beyond the origin of the rectum, lorming 
a caecum; the mouth of the rectum is closed by a strong 
valve. The stomach is transverse, with a portion projecting 
beyond the cardium—the fundus. This is excessively elon¬ 
gate in the bat Desmodus. The stomach is simple or undi¬ 
vided in Primates, Carnivora, Proboscidia, Perissodactyla, 



















__ — ■ ' — 

10(36 COMPAKAT1VE ANATOMY. 


Cheiroptera, and squirrels. It is lobulate and subdivided in 
Mouotremes, marsupials (generally), many rodents, some 
cetaceans, and most of all in artiodactyles (ruminants, etc.). 
In Ornithorhynchu8 the cardium and pylorus issue from a 
division one-third the size of the remainder of the stomach ; 
in kangaroos the stomach is slender, sacculated, and wound 
in one and two-thirds turns on itself; the fundus is large. 
In the hog the fundus is profoundly sacculate. In Ar- 
tiodactyla-Ruminantia there are four chambers, of which 
the first is generally the largest, being an enormous 
expansion of the fundus. In the musk it is not in di¬ 
rect communication with the oesophagus, but is so in the 
ox. In the former there are five sacs, the last the best de¬ 
fined, with reticulating ridges on the inner wall (tripe), and 
entered by both cardium and pylorus. The first stomach 
of the ox represents the first four of Mosclius; it is fol¬ 
lowed by the reticulate, which receives the oesophagus; 
between it and the pylorus are two chambers, whose walls 
are thrown into elevated folds. The first division has 
strong papilla) on the inner walls, which are very large in 
the deer. 

In many of the Rodentia ( e. g., Fiber) the caecum is ex¬ 
ceedingly large and long. In the Primates, etc., it termi¬ 
nates in a narrow, curved extremity, the processus vermi- 
formis. 

IX. The Circulatory System. 

1. In Invertebrata .—This system, as is well known, con¬ 
sists of organs for the propulsion and conveyance of the 
fluid results of digestion throughout the body for the main¬ 
tenance of all its functions. It consists essentially of a 
system of tubes radiating from the central muscular organ, 
in which resides principally the contractile or propulsive 



Fig. 22. Platycrinus triacontadactylus, McCoy: A, side view; B, 

terminus of arm; C\ articular surface of a stem-segment; 1), 

structure of the basin or body. 

activity. This centre is in the lowest forms simply a tube, 
but is greatly specialized in the highest forms. We may 
divide the system into the systemic, the water-vascular, and 
the lymphatic systems. The second is found in the aquatic 
invertebrates, and the last in vertebrates only. 

The systemic circulatory tubes first appear in Coelen- 
terata. In Protozoa the contents of the body are in motion, 
and probably a small pulsating vesicle contributes to this 
end. In no coelenterate class excepting the Medusae do the 
tubes appear as isolated; they have been already described 
as radiating from the stomach or the adjoining body-cavity, 
and continuing round the margin of the disk as a single 
tube. The Echinodermata possess a true circulatory sys¬ 
tem, with a well-developed water-vascular system. * The 
vessels of the former are not derived from the stomach, but 
form an isolated series. The peculiarities of the classes are 
as follows: 

a. Vessels arising from a basal sac, which connect by a 
short tube with stomach; vessels radiating, penetrating the 
pieces and arms : Crinoidea. 

aa. From an oral ring. 

b. Superior and inferior oral and anal rings: an asym¬ 
metrical heart, emptying into, the former; no respiratory 
artery; stomach-arteries (five) collected into two, which 
enter superior ring at point of entrance of heart: Aste- 
roidea. 

Rings and heart connected by marginal intestinal ar¬ 
tery : Echinoidea. 

bb. Only oral circulatory ring: no heart; distinct respi¬ 
ratory artery (where lungs exist); intestinal arteries gradu¬ 
ally disappearing posteriorly: Holothurida. 


In echinoids and asterioids there is a septary column 
extending from the upper to the lower surface, unsym- 
inetrically near the middle line. In a fold of it are placed 
the shell-canal of the water-circulatory system and the 
heart. The latter has a narrow opening into the oral ring, 
which from this fact is termed arterial. The opposite end 
of the heart communicates by a duct with the superior 
anal, or venous ring. The arterial ring is the smaller and 
more muscular, and lies between the more superficial ner¬ 
vous ring and the deeper water-canal ring. In the aste¬ 
rioids it sends an artery along the median line of each arm 
below. The venous ring is larger, and sends two vessels, 
one on each side of each arm. In Holothurida the vessels 
are delicate and not largely developed. In all classes the 
tubes are without cilia internally, and have a wave-like 
pulsation in life. 

The water-circulatory system is greatly developed in the 
Echinodermata, and forms the basis of their means of move¬ 
ment from place to place. Its central organ consists, first, 
of a ring canal, which surrounds the oesophagus within the 
arterial ring ; secondly, of a calcareous (or shell) canal 
which rises from a point on the ring canal to the dorsal 
(or anal) side of the body, and terminates in a peculiar 
shield, the madrepore plate, which is perforated by numer¬ 
ous pores. In the Holothurida, where the body is elongate, 
this shell canal does not reach the posterior end of the body, 
but terminates freely in its cavity, sometimes in one, often 
in many tubes, each of which terminates in a madreporo 
plate. The peripheral system consists of five vessels, which 
arise from the ring canal, and run at equal distances along 
the interior face of the body-walls (on the medial line of 
the arms in Asterioidea), and send branches right and left. 
These terminate in a large hourglass-shaped sac on each 
side in Asterioidea, the “ampulla),” or in numerous smaller 
ones in Holothurida. These project through pores (ambu¬ 
lacra) between the plates, hollow processes which frequently 
are enlarged as a wart at base or end, and which are used 
as feet. They are regularly arranged in bands in Asteriida 
and Echinida, but in some holothurians are distributed in 
patches (Psolus) or all over the body, or in two kinds—one 
dorsal, the other ventral ( Holothuria ). They are retractile 
and protrusible by erection. The interior of the water- 
vessel system is covered with cilia. In all the classes the 
oesophageal ring communicates with “ Poli’s vesicles,” 
small bladders situated round its circumference. 

In Mollusca and Articulata the arterial and venous ves¬ 
sels are not universally continuous at their extremities by 
capillaries, as in Vertebrata, but the circulating fluid is emp¬ 
tied into cavities of the connective tissues or lacunae, whence 
it is taken up by the extremities of the veins by suction. 
In some of the highest forms of both (Cephalopoda, Pedi- 
palpi) the capillary vessels are numerous. The prominent 
peculiarities of the classes in respect to circulation may be 
indicated as follows : 

A. No distinct central organ or vascular system. 

a. No lacunary canals; liquid moves in continuous inner 
concavity of body, without definite direction and with 
doubtful external orifice : Bryozoa. 

aa. Vessel-like lacunary system; five large sinuses; post¬ 
abdominal and foot largest; anal (annular) throat and buc¬ 
cal smaller; two mantle-edging vessels: Scaphopoda. 

AA. A distinct heart. 

a. Neither arteries nor veins; no chambers to heart; a 
system of canal-like lacuna) decussating from a dorsal and 
ventral principal; one through the gill-sac, and with fine 
body ramifications, continuous with each other; two (some¬ 
times more) from heart: Tunicata. 

aa. A venous system ; no branchial auricle or gill-hearts; 
one ventricle, and a false heart on each mantle artery : 
Brachiopoda. 

One branchial auricle; no gill-hearts; one branchial ar¬ 
tery ; ventricle embracing the intestine : Gasteropoda. 

Two branchial auricles; no gill-hearts; two branchial 
arteries; ventricle embracing intestine: Acejihala. 

Two branchial auricles, and two hearts or expansions on 
the two branchial arteries; a circulus cephalicus; ventricle 
not embracing intestine : Cephalopoda. 

aaa. No venous system, or a rudiment rarely; branchial 
veins and arteries : Crustacea. 

AAA. No distinct heart; a longitudinal dorsal sinus, 
more or less subdivided. 

a. No pulmonary arteries or veins; no venous system: 
Insecta. 

aa. A pulmonary artery and vein; no venous system: 
Arachnida-Aranea. 

A venous system : Arachnida-Pedipalpi. 

In Aoephala and Gasteropoda the ventricle receives the 
contents of certain veins direct, without aeration in the 
gills; hence tho blood forced into the aorta is, as in most 
reptiles, of a mixed character. In Cephalopoda all tho 
venous blood passes through tho gill-hearts and gills, and 































COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


is oxygenized before returning through the auricles to the 
ventricle. In a few Gasteropoda there are two auricles, as 
flaliotis, Fi88urella , Chiton . In a few Acephala (as Ostrea) 
the ventricle does not embrace the intestine. 

In Gasteropoda the vessels of this system form extensive 
ramifications in the foot. They have moreover communi¬ 
cation externally by pores, which enables them to absorb 
large quantities of water. By means of this water-vascu¬ 
lar system the foot is inflated, as in erectile tissue, to a size 
which would forbid its withdrawal into the shell were it not 
for the power of expulsion of the water. 

Among Arthropoda, the decapod Crustacea and the pedi- 
palp Arachuida only possess a complete circuit with veins 



Fig. 23. Cladodactylus doliolum. 


and capillaries. In the former the heart sends two aortas 
forward and two backward; the larger (inferior) of the 
former is the aorta cephalica, and supplies the head; the 
two posterior are the aortae abdominales superior and in¬ 
ferior. A large sinus in the bottom of the anterior abdo¬ 
men gives origin to the branchial arteries. In Myriopoda 
the dorsal trunk gives off a pair of lateral trunks to each 
segment of the body. From the anterior section of the 
dorsal trunk in Chilopoda the lateral arteries unite beneath 
the oesophagus and give rise to a longitudinal vessel which 
accompanies the abdominal nervous axis. In insects the 
lacunar currents of the body are four principal ones— i. e., 
one beneath the dorsal trunk, one along the nervous chain, 
and one along each side. The blood also circulates out¬ 
ward in the tubular ribs or nervures of the anterior part 
of the wings, and returns along the posterior. 

2. In Vertebrata. —In the fishes generally the heart is the 
right or venous heart (except in Dipnoi), but always there 
are vessels passing directly from the gill-veins into the 
aorta, whether the gill-veins return arterial blood to the 
ventricle (making mixed blood) or not (leaving venous 
blood). The first case occurs among Dipnoi ; the second 
in Monopterus (apodal). In Amphioxm the usual trunk¬ 
like divisions of the heart are blended into one chamber. 
The gill-artery is rythmical, pulsating, as also the origin of 
the special gill-arteries; so also is the portal vein, which 
has the same peculiarity in Myxine. 

The aorta often forms no distinct isolated circulatory 
trunk. Sometimes arterial blood passes through a carti¬ 
laginous canal, which inwardly is only isolated by peri¬ 
chondrium, as in Acipenser and Spatularia. In other 
fishes it is also not isolated, but with its dorsal face (on 
which an elastic longitudinal band runs) let into the ver¬ 
tebral column ( Esox , Salmo, Silurus, Alosa, etc.). Many 
arteries subdivide minutely into retia mirabilia, then con¬ 
tinue from the reunited vessels. The arterial blood of the 
Chorioidea of most fishes must pass through such structure 
twice before passing into its branches. 

In the venous system, not only in the veins that pass to 
the liver, do the stems lose themselves in capillaries, in order 
to be again collected into one or more trunks to go to the 
heart, but in many fishes this structure prevails in most of 
the veins of the body. The vena caudalis and the inter¬ 
costales very often subdivide minutely and mix with (or 
surround) the renal, suprarenal, and other arterial glandu- 
liform bodies, before they return to the veins for the heart. 
Many veins of walls of the trunk, of the swim-bladder, 
and of the generative organs appear as roots of the portal 
system. These structures delay and prolong the venous 
circulation. 

Stagnation of venous blood-currents is common, also 
blind closings of veins and obliteration of connecting 
trunks; and at certain periods the so-called “ blood-cor¬ 
puscle-holding ” cells and membranes are met with— e. g., 
in the kidneys. The blood-corpuscles one often finds in¬ 
volved in transformation or degeneration. The formation 
of exudations occurs not seldom; the transformation of 
blood-corpuscles into pigment-cells often follows. (These 
arrangements appear not only as metamorphoses of the 
blood, but also as favoring rejuvenation of the organic 


1067 


substance and new construction. The great periodical 
changes, repeated yearly in the increase of the contents of 
the generative organs, which the animal undergoes, the ex¬ 
traordinary circumference of body which many can reach 
in high old age, as also the destruction and perforation of 
the organic substance which parasites produce, and which 
demand a restitution, is not yet sufficiently estimated. 
Blind terminations of capillaries have been shown in the 
skull-cartilage of Acipenser. The change of blood-cor¬ 
puscles to pigment-cells is seen in the kidneys of Cottus , 
Pleuronectes. In Leptocardii the portal heart is behind 
(above) the colon; it pulsates from behind forward. It 
bends sharply forward, and empties into the gill-artery 
heart, taking up the venae cavae during the curve. The 
gill-artery heart is straight, equally thick, its cavity with¬ 
out the pericardium longitudinal in the median line, be¬ 
neath the whole length of the gill-membrane. From it 
emerge regularly (alternating as beginnings of the gill- 
arteries) small contractile bulblets in the intervals between 
the pointed arches of the gills. From the latter the blood 
through the gill-veins is transferred into a dorsal contrac¬ 
tile aorta. Independently of what passes through the 
gills, a part of the blood is led directly into the aorta by 
two contractile arterial bows (one on each side of the pos¬ 
terior end of the oral cavity), which issue from the gill- 
artery heart. These aorta-bows exist also in Amphipnons, 
where each gill-arch that does not bear a gill contains an 
arterial bow. In Monopterus one-fourth the blood passes 
the gills and traverses an arterial bow in the fourth gill-less 
gill-arch. The portal-vein heart extends the whole length 
of the intestine. It is straight, and continued on the colon 
anteriorly between the gills, then becomes narrower and ter¬ 
minates. It pulsates from behind forward, with pauses (as 
in the gill-heart) of about a minute. The veme-cavm heart 
is on the dorsal side of the intestine, from the anterior point 
of the colon, increasing posteriorly to the end of the colon, 
where it suddenly turns over into the gill-artery heart. Its 
contraction alternates with that of the inferior or portal- 
vein heart. This colon (which is green) is equivalent to the 
liver, and gives blood to the venm-cavse or portal heart. 
On each side of the aorta, on the upper arches of the gills, 
is a vena cava descendens, which meets a posterior vein 
(vena cava ascendens), and together they empty themselves 
into the curve of the venae-cavm heart just before entering 
the gill-artery heart. The blood is colorless. 

In Dermopteri, Elasmobranchii, and Actinopteri the mus¬ 
cles of the heart are always of striped tissue. The right or 
venous heart has the following-divisions : an auricle receiv¬ 
ing the united veins through a sinus venosus; a ventricle; 
and a bulbus arteriosus. There are valves between all these. 
In Demopteri the auricle is more roomy than the ventricle, 
and is separated from the sinus by a membranous double 
valve; it has two membranous valves in the ostia venosa 
and ostia arterialia, each. From the latter proceeds the 
truncus communis branchialis, which is somewhat “ bel¬ 
lied ” at its origin, but has no evidence of muscular struc¬ 
ture. 

In Elasmobranchii and Ganoidea there is a bulbus arte¬ 
riosus, similar in possessing a ring-like layer of striped mus¬ 
cle-tissue, which ceases abruptly at the boundaries of the 
gill-arteries, and in numerous valves which are affixed by 
threads. There are two cross-rows of these in Chimsera , 
Carcharias , Scyllium , and Galeus; three in Sphyrna , Muste- 
lus, Acanthias, Alopias, Lamna , Rhinobatus, and Torpedo; 
four in Hexanchus, Heptanchus, Centrophorus, and Trygon; 
four to five in Raja; five in Scymnus, Myliobatis, Pterop- 
latea, and Squatina. In Ganoidea there are two at the com¬ 
mencement and one at the end of the bulbus; there are nine in 
Polypterus, each of which contains three complete and some 
abortive veins; there are fifty-four to sixty in Lepidosteus 
bison. In A mia there are but three rows; the two inferior, 
in the bulbus, with two large and two small valves; the 
superior with only two. 

In Teleostei there is no striped muscle-tissue on the outer 
layer of the bulbus, but an elastic material of thread-bun¬ 
dles, which is produced into pillars on tho inner side. There 
is one pair of valves at the ostium bulbo-ventriculare; be¬ 
tween these are sometimes one or two smaller adjoining 
valves. The only exceptions are species of Jiutynnus, where , 
there are four valves in two rows, with no muscular bundles 
round the bulbus. In Teleostei, sharks, and in Ganoidea- 
Holostei there is a pair of valves at the ostium sino- 
auriculare, often attached by strong threads. In Acipen- 
ser there is a ring-like valve in two parts—one with four, 
the other with five pockets, each one attached by a strong 
thread. The large, expansible, thin-walled auricle has 
usually on one or two sides an auricula. Within it aro 
numerous trabeculae oarnea). The ventricle is on the ab¬ 
dominal side of the auricle. The latter in passing over it is 
narrowed sometimes (e. g., in Petromyzon) for some length. 
There aro usually two valves in the ostium arterio-ventriou- 










1068 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


lare, sometimes four in Orthagoriecus and Acipeneer, The 
ventricle is thick, with the muscle-structure in two layers. 
Within are various parietal depressions, ribs, etc., between 
the muscles. 

The heart’s position is usually between the claviculse, 
which form in Goniodontidae a kind of transverse bony sep¬ 
tum. In Apodes, and particularly in Symbranchii, the heart 
is more posterior. In Plagiostomi it lies in its sac immedi¬ 
ately under the elongation of the copulae of the gill-arches, 
which pass through the cartilago-subpharyngea impar. In 
Petromyzon, with the pericardium, it lies in a sort of in¬ 
complete capsule, which is separated from the gill-cavity 
by muscles forming a kind of diaphragm. 

The heart-capsule (in all fishes except Leptocardii) is 
fibrous, is attached to the bulbus arteriosus, and often sends 
threadlike processes to the heart proper, which are often 
tendinous, sometimes accompanied by blood-vessels, as in 
Anguilla, or are blood-vessels only, as in AcApemer. 

In Dipnoi the auricle is externally one, internally divided 
by an incomplete septum. Into the left auricle enters the 
vena pulmonalis, at whose entrance is placed a semilunar 
valve. There is no valve at the ostium atrio-sinosum. 
From both auricles the ventricle is entered by a common 
ostium, which has a valve. The ostium possesses a papillar 
muscle, which is bound with a thread-cartilage which closes 
the ostium during systole. The bulbus arteriosus (without 
valves at its origin) forms a curve. It contains two lateral, 
longitudinal spiral foldings of different lengths, which fade 
away at their extremities. 

In Actinopteri-Chondrostei, on the upper surface of the 
heart, are numerous bottle- or vesicle-shaped elevations, 
which are of different sizes in different or in the same ani¬ 
mal, sometimes large, sometimes almost wanting. A varied 
number of arterial vessels from the subclavise and mam- 
marise penetrate the heart-sac and distribute themselves to 
these elevations, which have various arrangements. These 
surround bladders which involve their entering arteries in 
rosy, spongy tissue composed of granules and meshes of 
fibre and cells containing granules. From the bases of 
these, vessels enter the heart. This cellular structure is 
sometimes surrounded by fluid. An elevation frequently 
contains these bladders, each of which is filled with either 
cells, nuclei, or liquid. They are connected to the cellular 
structure by pedicels. These structures may be for the re¬ 
newal of the muscular tissue of the heart. . 

In general, on the trunks, except in the Leptocardii, from 
the anterior extremity of the bulbus arteriosus (which is ex¬ 
ternal to the heart-sac), there issues an incontractile “ gill- 
artery trunk,” from which on each side issue directly or in¬ 
directly, through other communicating trunks, the bran¬ 
chial arteries. 

In myxinoids the truncus communis branchialis is vari¬ 
able, running in a membranous cavity which surrounds the 
anterior end of the ventricle and projects into the mem¬ 
branous pouch that envelops the gill-sac. Each gill-sac 
contains an artery which forms a circle at the entrance of 
the gill-branches, and sends off radiating arteries. In Pet- 
romyzon four arterial branches on each side leave the trun¬ 
cus communis branchialis, which divides anteriorly into two 
trunks, each of which divides into three arteries, and an 
anterior twig is sent to the anterior row of gill-lamellae. 
The special branchial arteries pass (except the first and 
last) between the two gill-pouches, and give their branches 
through diaphragms to the gill-arches. 

In Plagiostomi, from the truncus branchialis communis 
there issue on each side one or two trunks, each of which 
afterwards divides into two. In Raja and Prist is, where one 
goes off, it divides into three, and the terminal portion into 
two. In Pristis the first of the three runs forward to the 
trunk in the cartilage, and is taken up by it. The special 
branchial arteries issuing from the primordial trunks pass 
between the two rows of gill-laminm, which are in separate 
gill-sacs, a special artery supplying the anterior hyoid gill. 
In many ganoids ( Lepidosteus, Acipenser ) the first gill re¬ 
ceives the first branch from the arteria branchialis, and the 
last gill the last branch. In these the branchial arteries 
run towards the first gill, then bend posteriorly and give 
off branches successively. In Spatularia the first gill re¬ 
ceives the second branch, the second gill the first branch, 
the others regularly. The arrangement in Amia is as in 
the Teleostei. 

In Actinopteri the gill-artery stem runs forward in a 
canal beneath the copulae of the gill-arches, which bound 
it above ; laterally it is bounded by processes of the same; 
beneath by the culiform membrane (which latter is wanting 
in Apodes). Often ( e . g., in Salmo ) it gives off first a com¬ 
mon stem, which divides to the fourth and third gill-arches ; 
then gives one to the second arch, and one to the first, by 
the forking of the trunk. But (e. g., in Mursenophis punctata) 
two distinct branches of the common trunk can be given to 
the two posterior gill-arches. In Dipnoi two trunks leave 


the branchial artery on each side: (1) a common vessel for 
the half gill and the two gill-less “ visceral arches, and 
(2) a stem for the posterior gill. The first divides in two, 
which as aorta-bows unite under the skull to form an aorta- 
root. The first aorta-bow gives off a branch for the half 
gill, which sends off' the carotid before entering the half 
„iip The aorta-bow gives off also a posterior carotid before 
union with the posterior aorta-bow. From the second goes 



Fig. 24. Plumatella: a, natural size; b, magnified; c, the vent. . 


an artery for the fibres of the external gill. The second 
trunk divides into two gill-arteries for the fourth aorta- 
bow. The extremities of both become arteries for the 
outer gill-threads. The last gill-artery from its upper ex¬ 
tremity gives off a branch for the posterior half gill. 

The gill-veins unite (in the absence of an arterial heart) 
for the construction of the great arterial trunk. But often 
arterial trunks for the body go immediately from the gill- 
veins. The cai’otid arteries leave the gill-veins. In myx¬ 
inoids the gill-veins, after leaving the gill-sacs, form a 
median trunk, which is prolonged posteriorly as an aorta 
and anteriorly as an arteria vertebralis impar. All or most 
of the gill-veins are connected by a trunk running parallel 
to the aorta, which is continued anteriorly as the arteria 
carotis communis. Both carotids accompany the oesoph¬ 
agus forward, giving branches to it and to the hyoid 
region. Each divides behind the head into the arteria 
carotis externalis (for the tongue and the muscles of the 
head), and the arterise communes internales, which unite, 
forming a bow, at the origin of the vertebral column, 
which receives the vertebralis impar ; from the latter origi¬ 
nates a median head-artery, which, extending anteriorly, 
gives off branches for the nose, etc. In Petromyzon, with 
the exception of the first and last, each gill-vein issues from 
the interstitium between two adjacent gill-sacs. There is no 
arteria vertebralis impar. The carotis communis rises from 
the first gill-vein, which sends another branch to the forma¬ 
tion of the aorta. Each carotid divides into an external 
and internal; the two internal carotids do not unite to form 
a median head-artery. 

In other fishes each gill-vein originates from the two 
connected “gill-leaf rows,” except those from the two half 
gills. In Elasmobranchii all or most of the gill-veins come 
together to form the aorta, either immediately or after the 
union of some (thus forming homologues of the aorta- 
roots). 

The arrangement of the carotids is various. In Chimsera 
the first gill-vein from the half gill forms the posterior 
carotid; the second, which like the rest contributes to the 
aorta, sends off' the carotis anterior. In Raja the posterior 
carotid originates from the aorta-root which is formed by 
the union of the two first gill-veins. It runs in the canalis 
spinalis. The carotis anterior originates from the vessels 
of the pseudobranchiae of the spiracle. In Chimsera and 
Rajidae the posterior carotids remain ununited ; wherefore 
no anteriorly united circulus cephalicus exists. In the 
sharks they run under the base of the skull, and unite and 
give origin to the cerebral artery. 

In the Ganoidea there are various arrangements of the 
gill-veins in the formation of the aorta. The carotids are as 
in Plagiostomi. (See Raja above.) In Lepidosteus there is a 
third cerebralis from near the origin of the aorta. In it 
the union of the anterior gill-veins is the origin of the 
aorta. The seoond pair unite below this, and forming a 
thicker trunk receive the first aorta. The third pair unite 
below the union of the second pair and the aorta origin, 
and forming a still thicker trunk, receive the second stem. 













COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


1009 


all forming three steps in profile. The sections would be— 
first o, second §, third §. The posterior carotid comes off 
anteriorly to the mouth of the third pair of gill-veins. The 
subclavians are vessels disproportionately large ; they come 
off on each side a little behind the embouchure of the pos¬ 
terior gill-vein tube, take the place of the coeliac and 
superior mesenteric arteries, and send a branch to the 
stomach, which does not give a strong branch to the spleen, 
but approaches the pylorus as a bundle of little vessels. In 
Actinopteri, by the gill-veins is formed a complete arterial 
circle (circulus cephalicus) without the cavity of the cra¬ 
nium. The gill-veins of each side unite to form the com¬ 
mencement of the aorta, and run together anteriorly as the 
sphenoideum, through a cross anastomosis. This circulus 
can be wider or narrower. It is the former when all the 
gill-veins o£ each side unite into the aorta-bow, and where 
both bows are connected anteriorly by a cross trunk, and 
unite posteriorly to form the aorta, as in Gadux and Lota. 
It is narrower when each of the bows forming the aorta is 
formed from the anterior gill-veins only, and where the 
hinder gill-veins enter the aorta; e. g., Scomber, Salmo, 
etc. The aorta is sometimes independent, free, entirely 
surrounded by strong tissue, as in most Teleostei, some¬ 
times in a canal of the processes of the vertebrae, without 
the usual distinct trunk-envelope ; sometimes it is in a canal 
inferior to the vertebral column, with the superior surface 
a 1 \ a 2 0 3 


thin walled. The commencement of the aorta, in which the 
gill-veins empty, is under the cranium, first enclosed supe¬ 
riorly by the basilar cartilage. A short section is enveloped 
below by a fibrous membrane, but soon it is enclosed be¬ 
neath by the vertebral arch elements, which are arched 
upward and supplied with intervertebral cartilage. Along 
the whole length of the aorta-canal there runs in its cavity, 
from the base of the skull, an elastic band which adheres 
above to a skin-fold whose continuation as a very thin peri¬ 
chondrium lines the inner side of the canal, to which it 
closely adheres. 

In the Squalidae and many Actinopteri the aorta is em¬ 
bedded in a gutter of the vertebral bodies. On the side of 
this there are (in Exox) fibrous longitudinal ridges. In 
these the aorta possesses an external skin on the inferior 
surface only. It appears from point to point swollen with 
sinuses. Each such swelling is separated from that suc¬ 
ceeding by a contraction. There is a small cross bridge of 
thread tissue within from one lateral ridge to another. 
Within the canal is found (in Exox , Clupeidm, Salinonidse, 
Silurue, etc.) a fibrous longitudinal elastic band, as in 
Acipenser. It commences at the skull beneath, and ex¬ 
tends along the whole vertebral column. As an immediate 
continuation of the basis of this is the elastic artery-enve¬ 
lope. Although in Eventognathi the aorta is more isolated 
from the vertebral column, and the fibrous longitudinal 
band is absent, it yet exhibits sinuses in regular position. 
When the aorta is free it does not always run under the 
median line; in Belone it is on the left side. 

In Reptilia and Batrachia the aorta is formed of two roots 
(which do or do not result from more than one pair of aorta- 
bows) from the bulbus arteriosus, and which embrace the 
oesophagus. A ramus communicans anterior exists be¬ 
tween the carotids. Each corresponding branch of the 
aorta either becomes an intercostal artery, or enters the 
intervertebral foramen for the spinal canal. 

The Batrachia have a carotid from each anterior aorta- 
bow, and a pulmonalis from each posterior aorta-bow. In all 
Urodela aorta-bows, either united or directly or indirectly 
issuing from the bulbus arteriosus, contribute to the forma¬ 
tion of an aorta-root by the perennial rami communicantes 
on each side. The Trachystomata agree with fishes in the 
arrangement of the greater vessels. The bulbus arteriosus 
upon issuing from the ventricle makes a bend to the right 
side, and is thereafter in its longer portion straight. At 
its fore end three arches on each side issue, which are func¬ 
tionally gill-arteries. Through the union of three corre¬ 
sponding gill-veins into one stem an aorta-root arises, two 


of which form the aorta. The anterior gill-vein sends out 
a carotid, the hinder a pulmonic artery. The Proteidm 
have the system differently arranged. The bulbus is divided 
into two diverging branches, each of which results in two 
aorta-bows. The anterior follows the first gill-vein; the 
second divides in two, of which the anterior follows the 
second gill-vein ; the posterior the third. Each of the two 
aorta-bows proper consists of an uninterrupted continua¬ 
tion and a respiratory portion. The third bow wants the 
direct continuation. The three respiratory portions each 
consists of a gill-artery, intermediate respiratory vessels, 
and a gill-vein. The two anterior gill-veins of each side 
empty into the continuation of the original aorta-bows. 
The third gill-vein passes over into the continuation of the 
second aorta-bow. The continuation of the two primitive 
aorta-bows and the second and third gill-veins forms an 
aorta-root. The point of confluence of the aorta-roots lies 
over the heart. The anterior vessel which results fJbm the 
union of the continuation of the anterior aorta-bow and 
anterior gill-vein has two branches—an arteria hyoidea 
mandibularis and a carotis interna anterior. Each aorta- 
root formed from the second aorta-bow possesses a postero- 
cephalic elongation forward, which gives off a carotis pos¬ 
terior, and forms the commencement of an arteria vertebralis. 
The aorta-root gives off posteriorly a visceral artery, which, 
after branching for the oesophagus, is destined to become a 
spermatica interna. From the single aorta proceed sub¬ 
clavian arteries, which are continued as the epigastric, 
gastric, coeliac, many small mesenteric, renal, and symmet¬ 
rical iliac vessels. Besides there are pairs of dorsal arteries, 
which pierce the transverse processes on each side, and 
emerge in the longitudinal vertebral artery. In Protonopsie 
four vessels on each side go directly from the bulbus arte¬ 
riosus. They follow the gill-arches. The anterior sends 
branches to the tongue, and finally becomes the carotid. 
The two middle vessels form the aorta-root, and, after 
giving off branchlets for the head, unite close behind the 
cranium. The fourth vessel bends over the oesophagus, 
gives it branches, gives a branch to the third aorta-bow, 
and becomes the pulmonic artery. In Salamandi'a in the 
neighborhood of the pharynx is placed the somewhat for¬ 
ward-curved bulbus arteriosus. From its anterior enlarge¬ 
ment go on each side four aorta-bows with three mouths. 
The three posterior bows on each side form aorta-roots 
which are prolonged anteriorly. The union of both bows 
into an aorta occurs behind the skull, beneath the first ver¬ 
tebra and above and before the heart. The issuing point 
of the arterial twigs on the anterior bow is an enlarge¬ 
ment—the so-called carotid tumor (or gland). The branches 
issuing from it are the arteria hyoideo-mandibularis and 
carotis. The latter divides into the cerebral and occipital. 
An obliterated continuation of the anterior aorta-bow, bind¬ 
ing it to an aorta-root, is called ductus Botalli. The fourth 
aorta-bow, whose mouth is that of the third, sends off a 
visceral artery which gives branches to the pericardium 
and oesophagus, and becomes the pulmonalis. From the 
aorta-roots issue the arteria maxillaris' interna from its 
anterior prolongation, and the arteria occipitalis to the 
occiput and glandula auricularis. The aorta is under the 
vertebrae, and descending gives off the subclavian and 
intercostal (in pairs), the gastric, coeliac, mesenteric, and 
numerous renals. Between the kidneys go off the iliacs 
(which give off the femoralis and epigastrica), and a cloacal 
branch which is continued as a caudal artery. 

In the Anura, on each side are three bows, of which the 
foremost and hindmost do not contribute to form the aorta- 
root, which is a continuation of the middle bow. It unites 
with that of the other side far posteriorly. Two pipes issue 
from the bulbus. There is one semilunar valve at the base 
of each. Each of these vessels is internally divided by two 
partitions into three canals, and each partition is prolonged 
to the wall of each issuing vessel. At the farther end of the 
anterior of these canals is an enlargement (carotid tumor), 
from which issue the arteria hyoidea (lingualis) and the 
carotid. The latter is divided into ophthalmic and cerebral 
branches, which last enters the cranium and has anterior 
and posterior branches. The latter form the basilar, which 
becomes the anterior spinal artery, into which below the 
supravertebral vessels empty. The middle canals form 
the aorta-roots. The right is large, but the left small, after 
giving off the cceliaco-mesenteric artery, which is so large 
as to appear like its proper continuation. The third canal 
gives off two branches. The first, after giving branches to 
the ramus mandibuli and shoulder muscles, becomes a strong 
cutaneous vessel, which, with its accompanying vein, run¬ 
ning between the levator and anterior adductor muscles of 
the humerus, gives off branches to the integument of the 
whole back. The second branch is the pulmonic. Each 
aorta-root beforo their union gives off other branches to 
the larynx, oesophagus, and shoulder, also a subclavian 
and a supravertebral artery, which runs longitudinally, 



Fig. 25. Doliolum Ehrenbergii , Kr.: 1, from above; 2, from side; 
3, from below; a, mouth; b, vent; d, annular muscle-bands; 
e, endostyle; h, oesophagus; k, intestine; l , branchial mem¬ 
brane ; n, nervous system. 

































































1070 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


crossing the diapophyses, and giving a branch to each in¬ 
tervertebral foramen. The left root also gives off a coeliaco- 
mesenteric artery. Union of the aorta-roots takes place 
opposite the sixth vertebra. The descending aorta gives 
branches for the kidneys and generative organs. To the 
two latter go five and six vessels. Each gives a branch 
to the kidney on one side and to the genitals on the other. 
Division into common iliac arteries then takes place. In 
the Gymnophiona, Ciccilia have a long muscular bulbus, at 
whose narrow origin are valves. The cavity is divided by 
a septum at its anterior extremity into dorsal and ventral 
chambers. The dorsal terminates in the arteria pulmonalis 
for the lung; from the ventral proceed two aorta-roots, 
each of which near the trachea reaches to the h} r oid ap¬ 
paratus, and forms a bow behind the skull, from which the 
carotids proceed. The union of the aorta-roots is hy- 
paxonic, above and a little before the heart. Each root 
gives #off intervertebral (mostly obliquely directed for¬ 
ward) and vertebral arteries. 

In Reptilia there is a completed form of heart. The di¬ 
vision of the auricles is externally visible. The division of 
the ventricles is partial or complete. In embryonic forms 



Fig. 26. Spirigera concentrica: ab, insertion of adductor muscles; 
c, of divaricator muscles; e, of adjustator ventralis ; g, branch¬ 
ial arms; h, hinge-sockets; i, gill-bridge; k, hinge teeth; r, 
tubular body. 

the position of the heart is near the gill-slits. This state 
is characterized by the presence of several aorta-bows 
which embrace the oesophagus; and form the aorta-roots by 
successive obliterations of most of the aorta-bows and their 
connecting anastomoses. There is a ductus Botalli, so that 
each aorta-root is permanently formed, either through con¬ 
fluence of two aorta-bows, or it is a continuation of a single 
trunk. 

In Lacertilia, Ophidia, and Testudinata, in the ventricle 
are found fleshy columns of various sizes, which enclose 
spaces opening into a common cavity. The septum ven¬ 
triculorum (more or less incomplete) is connected to the 
sides of the ventricle by tendinous or fleshy cords. The 
left ventricle is narrower, more dorsal, thick-walled, com¬ 
municating with the left auricle; the right is broader, 
straight, ventral. That into which arterial blood enters, 
and which, as regards its position, is homologous with the 
left ventricle, is called the cavum arteriosum; the right is 
the cavum venosum. No trunks arise from the first. From 
the cavum venosum there issue by three ostia the arteria 
pulmonalis and two trunci arteriosi, each ostium having 
three semilunar valves. The space between the orifice of 
the arteria pulmonalis and those of the trunci arteriosi is 
the originating point of a flap or muscular valve which ex¬ 
tends towards the right border of the ventricle. This di¬ 
vides the cavum venosum into two incomplete cavities, an 
anterior and posterior, which are completely separated by 
the systole, during the latter part of which it shuts the en¬ 
trance to the arteria pulmonalis. A simple bulbus arterio¬ 
sus is wanting, but its place is supplied by the confluence 
of the bases of the three great vessels, which are then sep¬ 
arated by simple walls. This arterial trunk, containing a 
cone, is covered by the pericardium, and wants (except in 
some Testudinata) the striped muscular walls. 

In Lacertilia the heart is not far removed from the 
hyoid region. It is farthest in Amphisbwna ; among La¬ 
certilia it is farthest in the Varanidm. Among Varanidae 
the septum atriorum is nearly complete, except near the 
ostium venosum dextrum. Among Pachyglossa, Geccotidae, 
Chalcidm, and Scincidae, the septum is very incomplete. 
The walls of the great vessels are united near their origin. 
A peculiarity of most Sauria is that each aorta-root takes 
up the common carotid from an arterial trunk which origi- | 


nates afterwards, so that each aorta-root is formed by the 
union of two aorta-bows as follows: The trunci arteriosi 
continue, the right as an aorta-root, the left the same after 
giving off the truncus impar, which divides into the carot¬ 
ids. Each of the latter gives off near its basis an outward 
directed arterial bow, which empties into the aorta-root of 
its side. It constitutes thereafter a primitive aorta-bow, 
whose original branches are the carotids. This occurs in (1) 
Scincus, Augurs, Pseudopus, Lacerta, Ameiva, Platydactylus, 
Uromastix, Iguana, etc., and the aorta-bows from the trun¬ 
cus impar are obliterated, while they are utterly wanting in 
(2) Varanidm, Chamaeleonidae, Amphisbsena. 

In the hearts of serpents the form is elongate, and is far 
removed from the hyoid region. The end of the pericar¬ 
dial sac appears confluent with the serous lining of the 
thorax. The cavum venosum arteriosum is always incom¬ 
plete. The walls of the three trunks are separate, as far 
as is known. The left trunk continues as the aorta-root 
without branches; the right gives off the coronaries, etc.; 
then, where it turns itself posteriorly, a subvertebral ante¬ 
rior branch; then numerous intercostals. 

The truncus caroticus impar divides into two arteria) 
carotidae communes, of which the right is scarcely visible 
in some species; but when visible it may be smaller than, 
equal to, or larger than, the left. 

The Testudinata have the heart broad, abbreviated pos¬ 
teriorly, and widely removed from the hyoid apparatus. 
The outer sac of the pericardium is attached to the end of 
the ventricle by a band which encloses the portal vein. 
The valve, stretching to the right wall of the ventricle, is 
in some furnished with an ossified cartilage. The walls of 
the three trunks are slightly united near their origin, form¬ 
ing a bulbus, which in Emys Europsea is surrounded by a 
ring of striped muscle-tissue. The truncus dexter soon 
after its origin gives off a short anterior arteria innomi- 
nata, which gives off the carotids and subclavians. The 
truncus sinister gives off (before union with the dexter) the 
cardiac branch for the heart and oesophagus, also the gastro- 
epiploica and mesenterica. After these branchings the 
aorta-root is narrow. Each carotid gives off (1) the hy- 
oidea (for the pharynx, trachea, larynx, hyoid, and lingual 
regions); (2) the mylohyoideae; (3) the carotis externa; 
(4) the carotis interna; and (5) the intervertebrales, which 
pass through the foramina intervertebralia to the arteria 
spinalis. The posterior cervical, the dorsal, and caudal 
pass from epaxional trunks. The cervical is a single ves¬ 
sel which passes from the carotis externa to the subclavian. 
From each side the neck there runs to the rump, over the 
diapophyses in the canal covered by the carapace, a trunk, 
which, besides the intervertebralis, gives off arteries anal¬ 
ogous to the intercostals. The continuation of this is a 
caudalis, superior to the diapophyses. The intercostals of 
each side open into a lateral longitudinal trunk, which 
communicates anteriorly with the subclaA r ian, posteriorly 
with the iliac vessels. From the aorta proceed symmetri¬ 
cal spermatic, suprarenal, iliac, renal, and hypogastric ves¬ 
sels. It is continued as the caudalis inferior. 

The Crocodilia have a complete septum ventriculorum; 
the right ventricle anterior; each ventricle emitting its 
respective truncus arteriosus. There is an opening con¬ 
necting the trunci arteriosi (which corresponds to the 
bulbus arteriosus), by which arterial and venous blood are 
mixed. The heart is over the sternum; the left ventricle 
is thick Availed; the right more capacious, reaching to the 
apex. The right contains a muscular fold which is stretched 
from a septum behind the origin of the pulmonary artery 
to the outer Avail. It has tAvo valves at each ostium veno¬ 
sum. From the left ventricle issues the truncus arteriosus 
dexter; from the right ventriole the truncus sinister and 
pulmonalis. These two trunks are separated at their ori¬ 
gin by a common septum; at the origin of each are two 
semilunar valves. The walls of all three are united be¬ 
tween the trunci arteriosi near the semilunar A'alves. Be¬ 
fore uniting, the trunci arteriosi give off the dexter trun¬ 
cus innominatus and subclavia dextra. From the trun¬ 
cus arteriosus sinister, near its union with the dexter, 
issues the coeliac artery; it then becomes much narrower. 
The common carotid divides near the head into two 
branches. Besides these there are other branches to the 
larynx, neck, tongue, and other parts. 

In Aves (birds) the septum ventriculorum is complete. 
The heart’s position is in the middle line of the thorax, its 
axis parallel with that of the body, its apex betAveen the 
lobes of the liver, the heart-sac attached to the membrane 
of the lungs. The auricular appendages do not project, but 
are tightly draAvn dawn. The right auricle is stronger and 
with larger appendages than the left. They have comb¬ 
shaped muscular columns or ridges. Into the right auricle 
empty the venae cavae. At the mouths of the A r eins areAveak 
muscular flaps Avhich are attached to the pectinate muscles, 
whose contraction assists the passage of venous blood into 

























COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 1071 


the right ventricle ; the foetal foramen ovale is closed. The 
chambers of the ventricles are not very different in size; 
they do not reach the apex. The septum is very convex 
into the right chamber. The orifice of the right ventricle 
is closed by a very strong muscular valve as thick as the 
outer wall. It is strongest in Natatores, weakest in Cur- 
sores, especially in Apteryx, where it is almost membranous, 
and is attached by its free borders by short chordae ten- 
dineae to the wall of the ventricle. Its free border in most 
is turned towards the convex septum, to which it is closely 
pressed in systole, thus preventing regurgitation. It is op¬ 
posed by a second very weak muscular valve. At the origin 
of the pulmonalis are three semilunar valves. 

From two low ridges at the orificium atrio-ventriculare 
sinistrum proceed usually numerous tendinous threads, 
which attach themselves to two or three valves which cor¬ 
respond to the mitrals. Three semilunars are found at the 
origin of the aorta. The boundaries of the left ventricle 
are nearly three times the thickness of those of the right. 
The left auricle has numerous and complicated muscle- 
bundles ; it receives two pulmonic veins through one ostium. 
There is a valve-like muscular process whose free border is 
turned to the cavity, and apparently directs the blood to 
the ventricle. The single aorta, giving off immediately the 
coronaries, very soon divides; the truncus arteriosus has a 
branch which is either the innominata or subclavia. In 
the latter case there is a common carotid. It continues as 
aorta descendens on the right side of the vertebral column. 
The left arterial trunk is an innominate or a subclavian. 
Either each innominate furnishes its common carotid, which 
is most usual, or else the left or the right furnishes a trun¬ 
cus caroticus impar. Examples of the first kind are fur¬ 
nished by all Natatores (except Podiceps) ; of the second 
by many Insessores, and some of the Cursores; of the third 
the Phoenicopterus furnishes the only example. In Botau- 
ru8 stellaris both aortas unite on the neck. Sometimes one 
of the two carotids runs laterally and superiorly on the neck 
{e. g., Psittacus chrysotis). They run in the whole length 
of the never entirely closed canal, beneath or in front of 
the vertebral processes. From each originates a vertebral 
artery, which before entering the cervical canal gives off 
the oesophagea descendens, transversa colli, and transversa 
scapulae. It finally joins the occipital. It does not form 
the basilar, which results from the union of branches of 
the cerebral carotids; and after giving off branches finally 
results in the arteria spinalis anterior. When one truncus 
caroticus only exist s the vertebral is of the imperfect side 
originates from the subclavian. Sometimes (in Anas bos- 
cha8 and Ciconia nigra) the vertebralis continues itself 
downward in the canal of the rib attachments as the com¬ 
mon stem of the intercostales. Each common carotid usu¬ 
ally divides into the facialis and the cerebralis ; more rarely 
it is continued as the latter and gives off the branches of 
the former. The subclavian gives off an external thoracic 
and axillary; the latter, the brachial, and then the ulnar 
and radial. From the 
aorta descendens drise 
more or less numerous 
intercostales and lum- 
bales, a strong coeliaca, 
then a mesenterica su¬ 
perior (both penetra¬ 
ting the diaphragm in 
Apteryx), afterwards 
renales; from which 
branches for the gene¬ 
rative parts proceed. 

Next are two crurales, each giving off an epigastrica. Each 
results in the ischiadica, which descends to the knee. The 
sacra media usually gives off the renales posteriores, the 
mesenterica inferior, two lateral pudendae internm, and the 
hypogastricse. Finally, it produces the vascular network 
on the breast and abdomen which is devoted to the pan- 
niculus adiposus laid bare by the shedding of feathers 
during incubation. 

In Mammalia the heart is unattached by cellular tissue 
to the diaphragm, except in man, the higher apes, and Ce¬ 
tacea. It is straight (except in man, the higher apes, and 
Talpa), has two ventricles, and the foramen ovale is always 
closed. The ventricles are externally separated (in part) 
in Sirenia. The heart is broad and flattened in all Cetacea; 
a little le'ss so in Phoca, Bradypus, Manis, and Eleplias; 
rounded in Carnivora, Rodentia, and Marsupialia. It has 
a valvula tricuspidalis; in Ornithorhynchus, a transverse 
muscular valve of the right ventricle, as in birds; the valve 
in Echidna is membranous, has a large tuberculum Loweri,* 
and no Eustachian valve (in Felis, Canis, Ursus, Phoca, 
Gulo, Mustelci, Procyon, Ta/pa, Halmaturus, Equus, Sus, and 


* a process separating the mouth of the vena cava descendens 
from the vena cava ascendens in the right auricle. 


Ruminantia). There is no tuberculum, but two semilunar 
valves to the vena cava ascendens in Didelphis, Dasypus, 
Hyntryx, Cavia, Lepus, Sciurus (in Sciurus maximu8 a trace 
of the tubercle). No Eustachian valve, but a crossband 
below the fossa ovalis, with filamentous muscle-processes in 
Myrmecophaga and Bradypus. It has a Eustachian valve 
and weak tuberculum Loweri in man, many apes, lemurs, 
Lutra, etc. Both valve and tuberculum are wanting in 
Ornithorhynchus and Delphinue. 

In many ruminants and perissodactvls in advanced ago 
there is a single or double bone in the septum atrio-ventric¬ 
ulare, and occasionally in Solidungula in the septum oppo¬ 
site the ostium veme cavse ascendentis. The aorta-stem at 
its root is single and curved to the left; it soon gives off cor- 
onales (one only in Eleq>has). Its branches vary ; e. g. (1) 
A short aorta divides into an anterior (superior) and pos¬ 
terior. (2) The aorta superior gives off a subclavia sin¬ 
istra, and continues as the truncus caroticus, or divides 
into a truncus caroticus and both subclavim; in Solidun¬ 
gula it also gives off the vertebralis dextra. From the 
aorta-arch originate the innominata, giving off carotides 
subclavia dextra and subclavia sinistra in most Marsu¬ 
pialia, in Rodentia, Edentata, Carnivora, Sorex, Halicore, 
Auchenia, Sus ; in which last the two carotids spring from 
a truncus impar vel primus. (3) In other cases two trunci 
innominati alone are given off, as in Cheiroptera, Talpa, 
Phocsena. (4) The aorta gives off a truncus anonymous 
dexter, carotis sinistra, subclavia sinistra (as in Mono- 
tremata, Phascolomys, and Bradyp>us, Dasyjms, Cyclo- 
thura didactyla, all Muridae, Erinaceus, Phocidae, many 
Quadrumana, man, etc.). (5) Two subclaviae arise, with a 
truncus caroticus impar between ( Elephas ). (6) Besides 

the above subordinate arteries from the aorta, are thoracica 
interna sinistra and dextra from innominata dextra in 
Phoctena and Halicore. In some plunging animals occur 
widenings of the aorta {Lutra, Phoca, the young of Del- 
phinus, Monodon, etc.). The common carotids have their 
length proportioned to that of the neck. In the short¬ 
necked Delphinidae there is none, both carotids springing 

from the innomi¬ 
nata. It is often di¬ 
vided into two (faci¬ 
alis and cerebralis). 
The cerebrales enter 
as single trunks in¬ 
to the cranium in 
Quadrumana, Chei¬ 
roptera, Insectiv- 
ora, Rodentia, Mar¬ 
supialia, Solidun¬ 
gula, and some Car¬ 
nivora, as Ursus, 
Lutra, Canis, Mus- 
tela, or pass through 
a rete mirabile 
(Phoceena) formed 
of branching trunk- 
lets, or springs from 
a rete mirabile form¬ 
ed from its origins 
(Ruminantia, Su- 
idae, Felidm). When 
without retes the ce¬ 
rebrales have vari¬ 
ous points of origin; 
they are either head 
branches (1) or col¬ 
lateral branches (2) 
of the carotids; or 
they are branches of 
the carotides inter¬ 
nal, which give off 
the cerebrales after 
some others (Chei¬ 
roptera, Insectivora, most Rodentia, some Carnivora, as in 
Lutra, where the carotis interna, a branch of the common 
carotid, gives off the occipitalis first), or they appear as 
branches of the maxillares internee ( Hystrix cristata) or as 
branches of Ophthalmicee {Cavia dasyprocta). The bipolar 
retia mirabilia, from which the cerebrales spring, may be 
formed of branches from various sources. In Felis they come 
from a larger rete, which is composed of terminal twigs from 
the common carotid. In Sus they are composed of terminal 
branches of the carotis interna, and give rise to the cerebral 
vessels. In Ovis three branches of the internal maxillary 
are the sources of each rete mirabile. In Bos they are 
formed from branches of the internal maxillary, which 
enter through the foramina ovale and opticum and the lis- 
sura orbitalis. Here also the branches oi the occipital and 
vertebrals lose themselves in a network which communi¬ 
cates with each rete mirabile. The retia mirabilia ot tho 



Fig. 27. Panopcea australis. 


































1072 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


Delphinidse (with artery traversing) are principally formed 
from the branches of the carotis interna, yet are closely 
connected with retia lying outside the cranium, formed of 
branches of the carotis externa and cervico-occipitalis. 
The retc of each side always communicates with that of 
the other. The vessels bearing blood from the carotids to 
the brain enter the skull as follows: through the canales 
carotici (in Quadrumana, Ursus, Mustela, Males, Lepus, 
Castor), through the foramina jugularia ( Equus, Sits), 
through the foramen lacerum anterius ( Hystrix ), foramen 
opticum ( Cavia ), foramen ovale and fissura orbitalis supe- 
rioris {Ovis). In Cheiroptera and many Insectivora and 
Rodentia the carotis interna passes through the “pcssulus,” 
which is between the limbs of the stapes. Besides the 
cerebrales, the vertebrales conduct blood to the brain. In 
man and many others these unite and form the basilaris, 
in others ( Mustela, Cam's, etc.) they continue as occipitales, 
and send smaller branches, which form the basilar artery. 
Sometimes a communication before reaching the basilar 
forms a circle. In ruminants this arises from the verte- 
bralis (which is set apart for both canalis spinalis and neck 
muscles), for the basilaris is very small, and still smaller in 
Solipedia and Suidge, where it is constituted by the union 
of the occipitales in the foramen magnum; and finally in 
Delphinidie, by the shortening of the neck, the vertebralis 
is wanting. It, with the cervicalis ascendens and occipitalis, 
forms one stem, the cervico-occipitalis, which connects with 
the spinales through numerous retia mirabilia. The always 
present circulus Willisii is formed either partly in the cere¬ 
brales and partly by division of the basilaris, or through 
the cerebrales and divided basilari-occipitales, or only by 
the cerebrales. There are still other modifications of the 
circle of Willis. The subclavian becomes the axillary and 
the brachial; the latter in Cetacea and Phocidae is absent. 
In many Edentata, and in Stenops and Tarsius, the arm- 
arteries possess many retia mirabilia ( Hasypus sexcinctns, 
etc.). In Bradypiis and Stenops the trunk of the brachialis 
passes through many embracing extended arterial vessels. 
In Cyclothura didactyla and Tar¬ 
sius the artery empties itself into 
these; in other cases they are 
confined to the fore arm. In 
Sus there is a small one con¬ 
necting the ulnaris and radialis. 

In some the brachiales give off 
only subordinate branches ( Tri- 
checus, Mustela, Cricetus, Sciu- 
rus): in others it is forked. The 
division of ulnar and radial ar¬ 
teries is variously situated, either 
high on the humerus ( Phocsena, 

Cebus, Callithrix, Lagotlirix, 
where they are often afterwards 
connected, etc.), or in the middle 
of the same ( Didelphis, Halma- 
turus), or near the elbow {Homo, Felis). Sometimes the 
brachialis, oftener the ulnaris (in very many apes, marsu¬ 
pials, many rodents), passes through the foramen supra- 
condyloideum humeri. 



Fig. 29. Cleodora. 


The aorta thoracica of most Mammalia is peculiar in not 
giving off immediately the intercostales. In Mustela there 
springs from it at the extremity of the chest a trunk (which 
divides into two vertebrales), from which the arteria) 
intercostales issue. In the Delphinidae there are two de¬ 
scending arteriae thoracicae interna) (or maminaria) internee), 
which arise, the left from the arcus aortte, the right from 
the innominata dextra, which give off the five anterior in¬ 
tercostales. Here also descends from the aorta thoracica a 
single trunk, which communicates by branches with the 
arterial network of the thorax and of the vertebral canal. 
The intercostales pass through this enormous thoracic rete 
mirabile, which connects with those of the vertebral canal 
and the base of the skull. The branches of tjie aorta ab- 
dominalis are usually the phrenicae inferiores, suprare- 
nales, renales, spermaticae internae, lumbales, the coeliaca, 
the mesenterica superior, and the mesenterica inferior. 
The coeliaca and mesenterica superior are one stem iu 
Cavia cobaya, or originate as one and soon divide ( Talpa 
and Vespertilio murinus), or originate separately, but connect 
by strong anastomoses {Phocsena). The mesenterica inferior 
often is trifling, in Marsupialia and Monotremata wanting. 
Certain twigs of it, forming retia mirabilia, occur in Sus ; in 
the same genus is a rete on the stomach from the coronaria 
ventralis sinestra. Branches for the transversalis and ob¬ 
lique muscles for the psoas, etc., leave the aorta abdomi- 
nalis. The arteriae iliaeae communes (so called) seldom are 
homologous with those of man. In Cetacea they corre¬ 
spond generally with the hypogastrica). They give off the 
epigastricae, which otherwise come from the crurales. In 
most Mammalia they are homologous with the crurales, 
since not from them, but from a continuation of the aorta, 



are given off the liypogastricae, or at least vessels which rise 
in Homo from the liypogastricae. So in Monotremata and 
marsupials the ischiadicae, and in many others the sacra) 
lateralcs, spring in pairs from the aorta beyond the iliaeae 
communes. In some, with strong skin-muscle or skin- 
system, from the crurales arise large musculo-cutaneae, which 
anastomose with similar descending branches of the ax- 
illares ( Erinaceus ). The division of the cruralis is higher 
or deeper than in Homo. In the posterior extremitj" of the 
Phocidae, in many Edentata, and Stenojis are retia mira¬ 
bilia, which are weaker than those of the upper extremity, 

and the sacra media 
is a continuation of 
the aorta; larger in 
large-tailed animals, 
running in an infe¬ 
rior vertebral canal, 
often forming retia 
{Stenops, Bradypiis, 
Myrmecophaga). In 
Phocsena it passes 
through retia; some¬ 
times weak (in Erin- 

Fig. 30. Octopus vulgaris. aceus, Lepus, r umi- 

nants, often in feoli- 
pedia). There is none in Manatus australis, where the aorta 
forms two hypogastrica), which lose themselves in two huge 
retia subvertebralia. 


X. The Respiratory System. 

Apparatus for oxygenizing a circulating fluid is wanting 
in Protozoa and Coelenterata. In the other branches its 
type varies so that a number of distinct systems must be 
recognized, which are adaptations of as many distinct re¬ 
gions of the body for the purpose of resjiiration. These 
may be reckoned as follows : 

1. The external pore-system of the Echinodermata. 

2. The system of diverticula from the alimentary canal 
of the Holothurida-Dendropneumones and of most Verte- 
brata. 

3. The gill-system of Molluscaand Crustacea. 

4. The tracheary system of terrestrial Arthropoda. 

5. The pharyngeal gill-system of Ascidia, fishes, and 
Patrachia. 

It will, however, be convenient to divide the subject first 
between the Invertebrata and Vertebrata. 

1. In Invertebrata .—The wall of the body of the Echinida 
and Asteroida is pierced with a great number of pores, 
which terminate in blind sacs and are filled with water. In 
all echinoderms the cavity of the body is filled with water, 
by which blood is oxygenized. It enters through perforated 
plates (laminas cribrosm) situated in the angles of the arms 
in the Asteriida, but the orifices which admit it into the 
body of the Holothurida are not certainly known. In the 
latter class singular organs called the “ slipper-shaped 
bodies” depend freely from the viscera j their hollow stems 
are said to contain a blood-vessel; the extremity is like the 
open end of a short slipper. 

The Holothurida-Dendropneumones possess an extensive 
system of branching blind tubes, which form a mass ex¬ 
tending throughout the body. They form two bodies, one 
on each side of the rectum, and open into the latter near 
the anus: from it they are filled with water. In some As¬ 
teriida {Petraster militaris) five radiating tubes, the one for 
each arm, issue from the rectum, and are filled and emptied 
of water from it. 

In Polyzoa (Bryozoa) and Brachiopoda we have a some¬ 
what similar arrangement of branchia). In the former they 
form a double crest of tentacular fringes round the mouth ; 
they aro hollow, and the circulatory fluid moves through 
them, as elsewhere in the body-cavity, by ciliary move¬ 
ments on its walls. In Brachiopoda, as already stated, 
there are well-developed arteries. The gills are situated 
as fringes on stfaighter and shorter or longer and spirally- 
coiled arms within the shell, one on each side of the mouth. 
Their position is somewhat like that in the Polyzoa when 
retracted. In hingeless Brachiopoda the calcareous arms 
are wanting, but here the gill-supports are cartilaginous. 
In Lingula the inner surface of the mantle is furnished 
with folds and crests, which are supposed to aid respiration. 
In the Acephala the arrangement is totally different. The 
gills are curtain- or sheet-like (whence the name of this 
class, Lamellibrancbiata), and hang two from each side of 
the body within the mantle. Sometimes their margins are 
free (many Monomyaria, Mytilidae, Arcida), Lithodomus, 
Cyclas, etc.); in others immediately united (Veneridae, Mac- 
tra, Donax, Unionidae, Pholadidae, etc.), or are connected by 
an intervening membrane (Solenidae, Cardium, etc.). Tho 
union of the pairs of margins encloses two chambers, one 
within the other. Each gill-lamella consists of two layers, 
which enclose tubes and other cavities between them. 




















COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


Sometimes the outer gill lacks one layer, or sometimes the 
whole gill is wanting ( Lucina , Corbis, etc.). In others its 
outer lamina is truncated above, so as to expose the ends 
of the cavities it embraces. The lamellae of the opposite 
side are symmetrical, or not in accordance with the relations 
of the shell-valves. 

The branchial structure in Gasteropoda presents many 
varieties. In the division Opisthobranchia the branchiae 
and auricles lie behind the ventricle of the heart ; in Proso- 
branchia the relative positions are reversed. In the former 



Fig. 31. 1, Brachiella. 2, Dichelesthium. 3, Cyclops. 

the branchiae are variously extended processes of the dorsal 
integument of the body, each of which is supplied with an 
artery. In the lowest group, the Dermatobranchia, these 
branchiae are wanting, and the arteries are distributed for 
blood aeration beneath the dorsal integument. In the Pla- 
cobranchia they are represented by lateral wing-like ex¬ 
pansions of the integument, which may fold over the body. 
In numerous types the processes are distributed over the 
body in thread, prism, leaf, and other forms. These are the 
Ceratobranchia; many of the processes contain liver-cells. 
In the Polybranchia the processes are arranged along the 
back, and are branched or forked, and sometimes of diverse 
forms on the same animal. Other families, as Dorididae, 
have a rosette of branchiae round the arms only. All the 
preceding groups form the u naked-gilled ” primary divis¬ 
ion, Nudibranchia. In the remainder of the sub-class the 
gills are concealed by the edge of the mantle, forming the 
Tectibranchia. The least specialized of these (Hypobranchia) 
have symmetrically arranged fringes round the edge of the 
body,with but few interruptions; while in the higher division, 
Pleurobranchia, the fringe exists on one side only. The fringe 
becomes more localized and drawn under the mantle as the 
size of the shell increases in the succession of genera. Es¬ 
pecially in Bulla, where the shell is large, the gill is drawn 
beneath the mantle, and concealed by the upturned margin 
of the foot. 

In Prosobranchia the gill or mantle-sac is generally well 
defined. It consists of a chamber bounded within by the 
body-wall and above by the mantle, which also closes it 
laterally by adhesion to the body-wall. The gills and ex¬ 
cretory orifices of the digestive, urinary, and genital sys¬ 
tems are seen on its walls. There is generally a single gill, 
shaped like a half feather, and with two dependent (in 
Paludina three) laminae of transparent membrane. In 
many genera there is a rudiment of a second, while in a few 
the latter is well developed. The orifice of the mantle-sac 
is on the left side, and can be closed by a sphincter muscle. 
The mantle is originally composed of lateral halves, which 
are not always completely united; their separation at the 
margin produces the deep fissure in the shell of Pleurotoma, 
and divisions higher up correspond to the holes in the shell 
of Halloti8. In the latter genus there are two gill-sacs and 
two gills, and in others two gills. In some a thickened rib 
marks the halves of the mantle, and the two gills are placed 
closed together on it, so as to appear as one. In Patellidse 
and Chitonidae there is no distinct gill-sac, the branchiae 
being marginal fringes, as in many Opisthobranchia. In 
the Pulmonata the mantle-sac does not contain any gills; 
it has an opening on the right side of the body, produced 
by a fissure in the mantle margin, which is closed by a 
sphincter muscle. This orifice opens and shuts regularly 
for the admission of air. The mantle-sac becomes a lung 
by the distribution of the venous trunks and branches over 
its surface. An extensive ring-like trunk (circulus pul- 
monalis) surrounds its margin, from which vessels converge 
towards the centre, forming a network which gathers itself 
again into a few, then a single trunk, the vena pulmonalis, 
which empties into the auricle of the heart. 

In Cephalopoda the mantle is free, and encloses a cavity 

68 

_•»__ _ - 


1073 


on the abdominal, instead of, as heretofore, the dorsal face 
of the body, agreeing in this respect with the Pteropoda. 
The cavity contains two branchiae in the greater number 
of genera (Dibranchiata), or two in Nautilus and probably 
its extinct allies, the Ammonitidae, etc. These constitute 
the sub-class Tetrabranchiata. The gills are elongate, 
triangular, feather-shaped bodies, whose axis bears on one 
side the artery, on the other the vein. In Dibranchiata it 
bears a row of bows on each side, in which a blood-vessel 
passes from artery to vein. On each of these stand bi- 
pinnate processes, so that the whole becomes tripinnate. 
The arch bounds a membrane in the decapod division, but 
in the Octopoda the loop is not closed. In Tetrabranchiata 
the first branches of the gill are leaf-like, with pinnate, 
leaf-like subdivisions. They are free in the mantle-sac; 
those of the dibranchiates are attached to the mantle. 

In all Crustacea except the Decapoda the gills consist of 
fringes and expansions of the limbs. In the latter they are 
regular feather-shaped bodies, arranged within an abdominal 
cavity above the limbs; the bases form a curved line and 
the apices are directed inward. The tracheary system pre¬ 
vails in all other Arthropoda. It consists of a great num¬ 
ber of tubes, which communicate with the air by means of 
small orifices or stigmata. These pierce the walls of the 
segments, usually one on each side, - where they are present. 
They subdivide to a great extent internally, and penetrate 
all the organs of the body. There are marked varieties of 
this structure. Instead of issuing by stigmata, the trachea 
may be produced into a leaf-shaped process which arises 
from the usual position of the stigma, and may there ram¬ 
ify extensively within the lamella, constituting a trachean 
gill. This occurs in the larvae of many Neuroptera. The 
walls of the tracheae are elastic, yet firmly bound by a 
spiral thread, whose close volutions form an interior layer 
of the tube-wall. In other localities it is wanting, and the 
tube expands sac-like. In some insects these exist near 
the stigmata. In the Arachnida (except the group of low 
forms, the Trachearia) this sac-like structure only exists 
as a large pulmonary chamber, with single stigma, situated 
on the anterior part of the abdomen on each side. 

In insects the stigmata rarely exceed nine or ten pairs; 
in Myriopoda they are far more numerous. In the Acarina 
there are but two. In insects they usually have a valve, 
which opens externally to prevent the entrance of foreign 
bodies; in some forms they project in laminae, branched, 
pinnate, or botryoidal. In the larvae of many Phrygan- 
eidae and some Lepidoptera the trachea-gills are arranged 
in six rows along the back. In the larvae of Libellula and 
JEschna they are attached to the inner w - all of the rectum. 

In ascidian Mollusca there are no free or pinniform 
gills. There is, on the contrary, a large pharyngeal cavity, 
which lies between the mouth and the digestive system 
proper, the alimentary canal both issuing from and dis¬ 
charging into its cavity in many cases. In others it dis¬ 
charges at the side. The pharynx may occupy a small part 
of the -whole length of the cavity of the body; in the latter 
case the other organs are pushed to one side of it ( Boltenla , 
e.g.). The mouth and other parts are frequently furnished 
with cilia. The gills consist of a sac whose walls are 
abundantly pierced by holes of different forms in the dif¬ 
ferent groups, or it is reduced to a band of such structure 
only. 

2. In Vertebrata .—In the Leptocardii there is a largo 
pharyngeal cavity, with a large open mouth whose border 
is supported by a cartilage. This gives out branches which 
are the axes of abundantly ciliated tentacles which sur¬ 



round the mouth. On the sides of the pharynx are nume¬ 
rous fissures, which communicate with the outer medium. 
In the Dermopteri the respiratory organs consist of a series 
of sacs on each side (which number seven to ten), on whoso 
septary walls the arteries and veins are distributed. In 
some genera these communicate internally with the pharynx 
or oesophagus; in the lamprey, on the other hand, with a 
blind tube which lies beneath the oesophagus and empties 
into the pharynx. Each sac opens externally by a slit. In 
Elasmobranchi-Plagiostomi (sharks, rays) the arrangement 





























COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


1074 


is similar, the slits numbering five, rarely six and seven, 
and communicating with the oesophagus. The septary 
walls are double, and contain a cartilaginous arch with 
radii, which elevate the walls into transverse ridges. A 
trace of the first embryonic external fissure remains in this 
order as a spiracle or tube from the pharynx to the sides 
of the top of the head behind the eyes. In Ilolocephali 
(Chimsera ) the external slits are concealed by an opercular 
flap, which produces the appearance of a single slit. In Ac- 
tinopteri the hyoid respiratory system is fully developed. 
The arches support, instead of sac-septa, radiating fringe- 
liko laminae, which receive the branches of the branchial 
artery and vein. The fissures are only those between the 
arches, which are covered externally by an osseous “ oper¬ 
culum ” or lid. The number of branchiae is usually four 
and a half, but in some Pediculati there are but three, in 
some eels but two. In Lepidosiren there is but one. While 
the processes are usually narrow, lamellar, in Lopho- 
branchii they are subcylindric and branched, each one 
forming thus a tuft; their number is also reduced. 

Besides these fringes there are in some Dipnoi and some 
Batrachia (Trachystomata, Proteida), and in the larvae of 
many salamanders, cartilaginous processes of the arches 
which bear a double row of fringes, forming the external 
gills. 

The true pulmonary system consists of ducts and cham¬ 
bers, which originate from the alimentary canal, and are 
connected with it or the pharynx. It is not found in any 
Vertebrata below the Actinopteri. On the other hand, the 
hyoid respiratory organs do not exist above the Batrachia. 
In Actinopteri the pulmonary system consists of a sac with 
walls either thin and semi-transparent, or rarely thicker 
and lined with muscular meshes or a few cells ( Lepidosteus , 
Dipnoi, etc.). In Physostomi it is connected with the 
stomach or oesophagus by a tube, the ductus pneumaticus; 
in Lepidosteus the latter enters the oesophagus on the upper 
side; in Polypterus on the under side of the same. In 
Physoclysti this sac is entirely isolated. Its function is 
that of a float, and it is hence called the swim-bladder. It 
usually forms a single chamber, but in Cyprinidm, Chara- 
cinidae, and Sternopygidm, it is divided by narrow constric¬ 
tions into two, sometimes into three, chambers. In Cobit- 
idae and some Siluridae ( Clarias , Gasterobranchus, Ageniosus, 
and Saccobranchu8) the anterior part, or the whole of it, is 
enclosed in an osseous case. In Gadidae the diapophyses 
are expanded and adherent to it; in Campostoma it is sus¬ 
pended in the abdominal cavity, and surrounded by the 
spirally coiled intestine. It is furcate, and sometimes 
branched posteriorly, in Sciaenidae. In Nematognathi and 
Plectospondyli it is immediately connected with the audi¬ 
tory organs by a chain of small bones, which are supported 
on the sides of the anterior vertebrae. Besides Lepidosteus 
and Amia , the genera Platystomci (Nematognathi) and Chi- 
rocentru8 (Isospondyli) possess cellular layers on the inner 
side of the swim-bladder. In Lepidosiren only among 
fishes is the swim-bladder deeply divided longitudinally, 
its halves being homologous with lungs. They are cellular 
within, and lie above the alimentary canal next the verte¬ 
bral column. They unite, and passing round the oesopha¬ 
gus enter it below by a glottis with small cartilage. In 
Saccobranchus a sac extends on each side above the ribs 
from the pharyngeal cavity, which is designed to contain 
water to supply the gills during drought. 

In Batrachia we have a further development of the struc¬ 
ture seen in Lepidosiren. Here the sacs are separate, being 
connected by the branches of the tube or trachea which 
leads to the oesophagus. The sacs, now lungs, are occupied 
by a central longitudinal cavity and a thick layer of cells 
round the Avails. The trachea from this order upward con¬ 
sists of cartilaginous rings, partly or completely closed, 
which are modified at the glottis into a vocal organ. This 
consists of a number of segments, the uppermost of which 
support two parallel tendinous plates (chorda} vocales), 
whose edges are separated by a slit-like opening, which is 
opened or contracted by their relaxation or tension. The 
trachea is longer in reptiles and other vertebrates than in 
Batrachia, and its inferior branches are called bronchia}. 
In all, the oesophagus passes above the lungs, and the 
stomach is behind them. The interior of the lung contin¬ 
ues as a sac in reptiles, being especially elongate and thin- 
walled posteriorly in serpents. In these animals one of the 
lung-sacs is nearly always wanting or rudimental. In birds 
and Mammalia the central cavity is only represented by the 
bronchi and their branches, the cells occupying the remain¬ 
ing space. In Aves the bronchi are each dilated into a 
chamber, which is furnished with muscles for altering its 
form. These are most fully developed in singing-birds, of 
whoso musical faculties they are the organ. 

XI. Tiie Urogenital System. 

1. In Invertebrates. — The Reproductive System. —In the 


lowest forms of life reproductive organs are only periodi¬ 
cal appearances, and their sexuality can only be determined 
by microscopic examination of their products. In most 
Echinodermata the organs are permanent, but it is not till 
we reach Mollusca with a head, that the organs of the sexes 
essentially differ. A usual mode of reproduction in Pro¬ 
tozoa and Ccelenterata is by budding and by fission. The 
production of ova is a higher form of the budding process, 
the result being a germ of a neiv generation, which may or 
may not require the offices of opposite sexual cells for 
their further development. Examples of full development 
of the female element alone (agamogenesis) are knoivn in 
animals as high in the series as insects. In the Mollusca 
the tivo sexual elements, ova and spermatozooids, are con¬ 
stantly produced, even in hermaphrodites, although they 
may be the products of the same glandular follicles, as in 
Gasteropoda-Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata, and in Pter- 
opoda. 

The following table exhibits the relations of the classes 
as far as the Yermes : 

I. No Urinary Apparatus. 

6 9 organs identical. 

Radiata. 

- No permanent generative organs. 

Polypi. Either androgynous on each mesenterial fold, or 
the fold monoecious, or rarely the animals dioecious; sper¬ 
matozoa or eggs in sacs, which are in band-like mass on 
sides of mesenterial folds. 



Fig. 33. 1. Rana esculenta. 2. Dactylelhra Capensis. 3. Bufo viridis. 

a, brain from above; b , choroid plexus; c, horizontal section 
of the lobes and hemispheres; d, of hemisphere; e, longitudinal 
vertical section. 

Hydrse. Androgynous ; the eggs single in a lower sprout, 
spermatozoa in a higher sprout.; no permanent organs. 

Medusse. Dioecious; eggs and spermatozoa developed in 
large cells or bladders, Avhich are attached to stomach, 
water-canals, mouth, feet, border, etc., etc. 

Ctenophora. Androgynous and monoecious; capsules of 
both kinds in combined or separate bands on radial Avater- 
canals; sometimes on central canal or stomach, emerging 
by same canals. 

Crinoidea. Comatula; sacs on swollen bases of pinnules 
monoeciously containing eggs or spermatozoa Avithout tails. 
(By one observation sometimes androgynous.) 

** Permanent organs. 

Asteriida. One or many blind sacs each side of septum 
(which terminates between arms near or far off); sometimes 
found to reach the end of the arm; much subdivided; ori¬ 
fice of emission through lamina cribrosa in some Asteriadse; 
into the body-cavity in others and in Ophiuridae; all an¬ 
drogynous, with very feAV dioecious exceptions; in some not 
known. 

Echinida. Dioecious; five (ever less?) sacs or masses of 
saclets, each opening by narrow duct through separate 
openings (sometimes four or three) near \ r ent, and lying 
near together, reaching to middle of shell; males white col¬ 
ored, yelloAv, red, etc. 














































COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


1075 


Holothuriida. Bunch of few or many tubes embracing 
oesophagus, and opening on median dorsal line ; dioecious, 
or in Synapta and Apneumona androgynous; the spermatozoa 
in projecting masses of walls of ovary-tube. 

Mollusca. 

* Generative organs not always permanent. 

Bryozoa. Androgynous; 5 organs round body below 
stomach on a string, with many cells, containing sperma¬ 
tozoa; 9 with very few ripe ova behind stomach, also on a 
string; spermatozoa bursting into body-cavity, and reach¬ 
ing ovary; ova break through outer wall or a posterior 
orifice. 

Tunicata. Androgynous; some doubtful, some of same 
species dioecious, others androgynous; testes and ovary 
separate, both emptying into cloaca separately; ovary usu¬ 
ally with but one egg; organs slightly different in appear¬ 
ance. 

Always permanent. 

Brachiopoda. Androgynous; a thick branching glandu¬ 
lar body following pallia! or generative artery filled with 
ovary-cells, and surrounded and penetrated by a reddish 
cell containing male element; discharging near mouth from 
a large, much-plicate, trumpet-mouthed oviduct, which is 
not continuous with genital mass. 

II. Urinary Organs Present ( Bojanus ’ Glands ). 

A. 9 5 organs identical, permanent. 

Acephala. 9 and 5 organs not different, of minute cells 
gathered in more or less compressed masses, which form 
main mass, or more simple along central tube or duct, which 
passes through Bojanus’ body or unites with duct of latter, 
or has opening near latter; spermatozoa in Dimyaria long¬ 
headed and round-headed ; in Monomya round only ; dioeci¬ 
ous, except a Pecten or Cardium, etc., and hermaphrodite in¬ 
dividuals of Anodonta. In Unionidee sexes externally dif¬ 
ferent; gills serve as brood-sac. Androgynous; genera 
Ostrea , Cyclas, Pandora, Pecten, etc. 

AA. <fj organs distinguished by penis or stylet. 
a. Animals hermaphrodite. 

Gasteropoda-Opisthobranchia. Spermatozociida and ova 
produced by the same glandular body (with few exceptions). 

Pulmonata. An oviduct with abdomen gland and sem¬ 
inal receptacle; a vas deferens terminating in penis; a 
stylet-sac with stylet, all emptying into a common cloaca. 

Pteropoda. Similar to the last, but no distinct vas def¬ 
erens, and no stylet; penis usually separate from and in 
front of vagina. 

aa. Sexes distinct. 

Gasteropoda in general. Penis behind the right eye; 
ovary and testis em¬ 
bedded in the liver; 
oviduct frequently en¬ 
larged into a uterus, 
issuing on the right 
side; rarely an albu¬ 
men gland or rec.ep- 
taculum seminis; no 
stylet. 

Cephalopoda. 9 with 
ovary enclosed in a per¬ 
itoneal sac, and with 
two (sometimes one) 
oviducts continuous; 6 
without stylet; with a 
vas deferens and so- 
called seminal vesicle 
and prostata near tho 
penis. 

The preceding struc¬ 
tures present in their 
details the greatest va¬ 
riety. The generative organs are situated on the right side 
of the body, but the exits are in some groups on the oppo¬ 
site side, and usually (the female at least) in the mantle- 
sac. Their inner walls are lined with ciliated epithelium. 
The stylet is a slender, acute calcareous body of various 
form, which is. inserted into the vagina or body of the other 
individual in coitus. Its function is supposed to be that 
of an irritant only. 

The males of Cephalopoda are more readily distinguish¬ 
ed from the females than in Gasteropoda, being generally 
smaller. In Argonanta the female only bears the shell. 
But the chief peculiarity of the male is seen in the modified 
structure of one of the arms, by which it is said to bo “ hec- 
tocotylized.” It differs from other arms in being stouter 
and entirely hollow, terminating in a hollow thread which 
is open at the extremity, giving exit to the contents. It is 
developed in a bladder on its inner wall, and is first closely 
rolled together; the thread bears a bladder which is later 
lost. The primary bladder finally bursts, its remains forrn- 



Fig. 34. Brain of Necturus maculalus. 


ing a fringing membrane on the sides. At the period of 
impregnation its cavity becomes, in some way unknown, 
filled with spermatozooids. During an embrace it is torn 
off, and enters the mantle-sac of the female. It swims in¬ 
dependently as a worm, and several are sometimes found in 
one female. The spermatozooids are supposed to be dis¬ 
charged into the vagina by the hollow thread. 

Many opisthobranchs are self-impregnating. Pulmonata 
impregnate each other, while in Lymnsea an individual im¬ 
pregnates a second, and is impregnated by a third, forming 
thus a chain of individuals. 

In Arthropoda the sexes are always in separate individ¬ 
uals (dioecious), excepting in the lowest Crustacea (Cirri- 
pedia) and the lowest Arachnida (Tardigrada). These 
orders are either sessile or with but little power of move¬ 
ment; hence the appropriateness of their monoecious con¬ 
dition. The sexes of Arthropoda are generally distinguish¬ 
able by external characters, but it is in the Insecta and En¬ 
tomostraca (Lermeoida) that this difference becomes most 
remarkable. Thus in Hymenoptera (bees and ants) and 
Neuroptera (termites) not only are the sexes very distinct, 
but there are other forms (neuters, workers, soldiers, etc.) 
produced in connection with imperfect development of tho 
reproductive organs. In the bees and wasps the additional 
forms are repressed males; in ants, repressed females. In 
termites it is asserted that both sexes contribute to pro¬ 
duce them. 

The external orifices of the reproductive system are con¬ 
fined to the abdomen, and are below and before the vent of 
the alimentary canal. In most orders they are posterior, 
but in Myriopoda, scorpions, and some higher Crustacea 
they are in front of the abdomen. The female internal or¬ 
gans consist of ovary and oviduct on each side, or the two 
oviducts may unite into one on the middle line, or there 
may be a single median ovary. On the oviduct are usually 
found diverticula, the receptaculum seminis (which is want¬ 
ing in Crustacea, except Ostracoda) and another sac of un¬ 
certain use. The lower part of the oviduct is enlarged and 
the muscular walls are thick, forming a vagina, which often 
continues past the proximal part of the oviduct as bursa 
copulatrix. The ovaries consist of caeca of varying forms. 
In Crustacea, Arachnida, and Myriopoda they are few in 
number, but in Insecta they are very numerous, forming a 
gland-like body whose component caeca are bound together 
by connective tissue. In Termes their number reaches 2000 
to 3000. Other glands (glandulae sebaceae) pour their con¬ 
tents into the oviducts, which serve many important pur¬ 
poses— i. e., to attach the eggs to a solid base ( arilus) or 
to the parent’s body; to construct a shell ( Blatta) or co¬ 
coon. In certain low Crustacea (Lernaeoida, Isopoda, etc.) 
these glands open outwardly independently of the oviducts, 
and the secretion forms a sac round the eggs, by which they 
are suspended externally. The last abdominal segments in 
many insects are modified into organs designed for the con¬ 
duct of eggs to a proper nidus; thus, in Orthoptera it is 
composed of sabre-shaped plates with saws within ; in Hy¬ 
menoptera it is partly represented by an offensive weapon, 
the sting. In Chrysididae, Diptera, and Phalangia and 
Acari they are modified into a tube which is projected tele¬ 
scope-fashion. 

The male organs of Arthropoda consist of testes, vasa 
deferentia, glands, vesiculi seminales, and penis. The testes 
resemble the ovaries of the female in structure and position, 
but are frequently less complex. They are more commonly 
also united on the median line, as in low Crustacea (Cyclop- 
idae, Cypridida?, Myriopoda), and among Insecta in Lepi- 
doptera, many Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, etc. The vasa 
deferentia on the other hand remain distinct in these cases, 
except in Scolopendra and various Entomostraca. In 
many Crustacea and chilognath Myriopoda the vasa defer¬ 
entia issue externally separately, but in many others unite 
to form a ductus ejaculatorius, which is enlarged in diameter. 
The muscles of this region are especially developed where 
a penis is well developed. Glandulm mucosje discharge into 
these ducts in insects and myriopods, but are wanting or 
rare in Crustacea and Arachnida. They are sometimes sac- 
like, sometimes filiform. They secrete a substance which 
hardens round a body of seminal secretions, forming a cap- 
sule which is usually taken into the female vagina, but may 
be attached to the body externally, or even (Chilopoda) to 
external objects. 

The penis is present in most Arthropoda, but is wanting 
in Entomostraca, Chilopoda, and scorpions. In Crustacea, 
Brachyura, and Isopoda, etc., it is double. In all cases it is 
composed of a modified pair of limbs, which is especially clear 
in crabs. The intromittent organ is occasionally far re¬ 
moved from the orifice of the vasa deferentia. In spiders 
(Aranea)the extremity of the palpus bears a receptaculum 
seminis and penis, which the animal fills voluntarily by ap¬ 
plication to the external orifice, and discharges in the ovi¬ 
duct of the female. In Argulus a similar mode of connec- 
























1076 


COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


tion depends on the structure of one of the legs, and in 
chilognath Myriopoda a pair of legs is altered for a similar 
purpose. In certain tailed Decapoda there are two pairs 
of such organs, those on the last segment of the post-abdo¬ 
men serving as conductors from receptacles in the fifth pair 
of legs. In dragon-flies the exceptional case occurs where 
the accessory organ is a fissure in the second abdominal 
segment. 

In Vermes the type of the reproductive system presents 
the varieties seen in Mollusca. Thus, they are androgy¬ 
nous, monoecious, and dioecious. Many of them develop 
by an alternation of generation, the one produced by true 
reproduction, the other stages by gemmation. In Turbel- 
laria (or planarians) the Dendrocoela are bi-sexual, but 
the Rhabdocoela possess a common outlet for the two or¬ 
gans, testis and ovarium. Trematodes (flukes) are monoe¬ 
cious, each animal possessing distinct sexual organs of both 
kinds. The developmental stages of the young vary from 
three to six, and all but the first of these are due to gem¬ 
mation in the cavity of preceding stages, or metamorphosis 
while encysted, etc. In tape-worms (Cestodes) the animal 
is made up of a head with organs of attachment, which, 
posterior to a long neck, is followed by a great number of 
identical segments. These contain each male and female 
organs, and a water-vascular system. The ovary and testis 
are at opposite ends of the segment, and between them is 
the branched uterus. This terminates in a vagina, which 
is approximated by a sheath containing a penis, which is 
perforated by the vas deferens. There are glands attached 
to the female organs. Each segment of a cestode is then 
self-impregnating. In Acanthocephala and Nematoda we 
have the higher condition of an entire separation of the 
sexes. In the former there is a penis which is retracted in 
a bursa which is prehensile in function. In this order there 
are alternate generations produced by gemmation in the 
body of the nurse stage. In Nematodes many genera 
(Strongyliidae, Ascaridm, and Filariidae) are furnished with 
a penis and bursa at its base. In the last family Tricho- 
cephnlus has a bristle-like penis, one-third the length of 
the body, which, when projected, is accompanied by an 
extended sheath. In Ascaridae the penes or “spicula” are 
two in number. In Sclerostornum (gape-worm) the male is 
much smaller than the female, and becomes attached to her 
permanently. In Hcterura he remains attached for con¬ 
siderable periods. Cucullanidae are without bursa. In 
Anyuillula and other genera there are two oviducts, which 
unite to form a single vagina. 

aa. The Urinary Oryans .—These are present in Mollusca 
from the Acephala upward. In the latter they are repre¬ 
sented by a pair of kidneys and their discharge ducts only. 
These are called “ Bojanus’ organs;” they are relatively of 
large size, and lie one on each side above the heart, etc., 
extending from muscle to muscle. They are frequently 
united together along the middle line. They are hollow 
and spongy, and their fibres are lined with secreting cells. 
They terminate either by a single duct near that of the 
reproductive system, or unite with the latter, or the genital 
duct enters that of Bojanus’ bodies. These bodies have 
communication with the external water, and by a cribri¬ 
form surface with the heart-sac; likewise with the capillary 
veins. The function of the organs is not only that of a 
kidney, but as a mingler of water with the blood. 

In Gasteropoda the kidney is single and contains cal¬ 
careous nodules; its secretion is purple in Murex; it is 
large and hollow, and contains water. It is surrounded by 
a network of veins, which frequently open into it, so that 
blood-corpuscles are found in it, as well as its products in 
the blood. It usually opens directly into the mantle-sac, 
but otherwise by a ureter, and always independently of the 
rectum, vagina, or vas deferens. 

The kidneys of Cephalopoda differ much from those of 
other classes, and for a long time their nature was con¬ 
sidered doubtful. They form a large, rather loose mass on 
that part of the vena cava which approaches the gills, and 
on the gill-veins as well, consisting of a great number of 
minute sacs with bifurcations and internal processes. Each 
principal one opens by a fissure in the walls of the vein. 
They are constantly in motion. 

In Arthropoda the existence of kidneys is a matter of 
question. The vasa Malpighii (described under the “ Di¬ 
gestive System”) are diverticula of the alimentary canal, 
and their function was formerly believed to be that of the 
liver. Gall has, however, never been found in them, but 
on the contrary uric acid. This has also been found in the 
intestine and in the corpus adiposum. 

2. In Vertehrata. — a. The Reproductive System. —Verte¬ 
brates are usually dioecious, but a few fishes—viz., the eels 
and certain Serrani—are hermaphrodites. The organs of 
the female are primarily an ovary; an oviduct may or may 
not be present. Thus, in the Leptocardii the ovaries are 
collections of cells along the sides of the abdominal cavity, 


which drop their ova into it, which are discharged by an 
orifice anterior to the anus. In Dermopteri the structure 
is similar, except that the ovarian cells are collected into 
plate-like masses. In Elasmobranchii the ovaria are in¬ 
cluded in a peritoneal sac; occasionally, as in Squalidae 
and Scylliidae, there is but one, medial and symmetrical. 
The oviducts are here present, and are homologous with 
the tubae Fallopii of mammals; each dilates into a uterus, 
and empties into a common uro-rectal cloaca. Their proxi¬ 
mal ends are open and expanded, presenting the so-called 
fontanelles. In true fishes we have various structures : in 
the Salmonidae and some Clupeidae there are no oviducts, 
but the eggs fall into the abdominal cavity and are expelled 
through a pore. In most other fishes and in Lepidosteus 
the ovarian membrane is prolonged as an oviduct, and usu¬ 
ally discharges externally without union with other canals; 
in Lepidosteus they enter the ureters. They are united in 
various Physoclysti. They are, as in Elasmobranchii, open 
as internal fontanelles in Amia, Chondrostei, and Polypterus; 
in all they have a common external opening with the ureters. 

In Batrachia the tubrn Fallopii are proximally open, and 
extend in many coils far in front of the ovaries. They are 
distally united with the ureters. In Reptilia, Aves, and 
Mammalia, the oviducts (or tubas Fallopii) are not ordinarily 
connected with the ovaries, but only at certain seasons by 
their trumpet-shaped fontanelles. In birds these organs 
are not developed on one side of the body. In reptiles, 
birds, and monotrematous mammals, the genital, urinary, 
and digestive canals have a common exit or cloaca. In 
marsupials and placentals the genito-urinal excretory 
ducts are separated from the digestive, being in the female 

distinct or opening into a com¬ 
mon vulva, but in the male are 
united for some length. In 
Mammalia the females are vi¬ 
viparous, and the ovum is 
hatched in expansions of the 
oviducts, or uteri. In marsu¬ 
pials these are separate, and 
the distal parts of the oviducts 
are not united into a vagina. 
In placental mammals, on the 
contrary, the oviducts unite, 
forming a single undivided 
vagina. In Edentata and Ro- 
dentia this union does not pro¬ 
duce an expanded uterus, as 
the young are developed in the 
separate oviducts; but in high¬ 
er mammals the enlarged ovi¬ 
ducts unito into a muscular 
chamber, the uterus. A false 
uterus occurs in the kangaroos 
by the union of the cavities of 
the oviducts near the middle 



Fig. 35. Brain of Varanus nilo- 
ticus: 1 , horizontal section 


of optic lobes; 2, vertical their length; two opposite 

section. symmetrical curvatures are in 

contact, and their adjacent 
walls disappear ; they then turn shortly back (forward in 
the animal) and make another short bend before they take 
a direction to the external orifice. 

In placental mammals the embryo is attached to the 
wall of the uterus by a body called the placenta. It is on 
the allantois, and presents to the wall great numbers of 
villi, which interdigitate with corresponding processes 
from the mother. Both are furnished with abundant 
blood-vessels, which maintain intercommunication with 
each other, thus nourishing the embryo. As we descend 
the scale we only find a trace of this structure in some of 
the sharks. The allantois is an embryonic structure which 
characterizes exclusively vertebrates above and including 
Reptilia. The amnion is another sac, formed by the folding 
of the germinal layer of the embryo over its back; the 
edges of the folds then uniting, the two inner enclose the 
amniotic sac ; the outer becomes the chorion. The amnion 
is absent, like the allantois, in all classes below Reptilia. 

The placenta exhibits several distinct typal forms in 
Mammalia; it may be disciform or ring-like (zonary), or 
may be scattered in tufted bodies over the chorion (cotyle¬ 
donary), or the villi may be scattered all over the same 
(diffuse). The orders of mammals may be thus arranged 
in this respect: 

1. With decidua, placenta discoidal: Primates, Cheirop¬ 
tera, Insectivora, Rodentia, Edentata (Orycteropidae, Dasyp- 
idae). 

2. With decidua, zonary: Carnivora, Proboscidia, Ilyra- 
coidea. 

3. Without decidua, cotyledonary: Perissodactyla, Artio- 
dactyla, and Ruminantia, Edentata (Bradypidae). 

4. Diffuse: Artiodactyla-Omnivora, Cetacea, Edentata 
(Manidae). 




















COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 


The male organs are, in the early stages of growth, as in 
the lower animals, undistinguishable in structure. They 
are generally homologous with the female in details, even 
when most distinct. The relation may be thus expressed: 

6 . $ 

Testis. Ovary. 

Vas deferens, ) f Oviduct, 

Uterus masculinus. j (Uterus. 

Cowper’s glands. Cowper’s glands. 

P en is* Clitoris. 

Scrotum. Labia majora. 

Preputium. Labia minora. 


The vas deferens is, however, generally a persistent 
Wolffian duct, which in the embryo is the excretor of the 
embryonic bodies (Wolff’s) which precede the kidneys. 
The Fallopian tube of higher mammals, on the other hand, 
is the persistent Miillerian duct, which passes outside of 
the former. In the batrachian Urodela the efferent ducts 
of the testis pass through the kidney and empty into a 
. genito-urinary duct, while in Anura (except Discoglossidm) 
they only pass through the edge of the kidney and dis¬ 
charge into the ureter. 

Among reptiles the penis is present in the tortoises and 
crocodiles only, and in no lower forms; it is merely grooved 
beneath. In the ostrich it is quite similar. In the lower 
groups of birds it is present, but wanting in the more spe¬ 
cialized; in Mammalia it is universal. It is composed of 
two superior bodies, the corpora cavernosa, originating from 
the pubis, and the corpus spongiosum, whose lower face 
embraces the urethral tube, and whose extremity forms the 
glans or head. The testes are almost universally situated 
near the kidneys, in the abdominal cavity, but in the higher 
mammals they descend from that position, and carrying a 
fold of the serous membrane (tunica vaginalis) and muscle 



Fig. 36. Brain of Dipsos dendrophila: 1, vertical section of olfac¬ 
tory lobe; 2, vertical section of right hemisphere; 3, vertical 
section of optic lobes; 4, transverse section of lobes. 


(cremaster), they are suspended externally, generally be¬ 
hind the penis; in Marsupialia in front of it. In some 
rodents and others this descent of the testes is periodical. 

aa. Urinary organs. 

Kidneys are present in the higher Vertebrata, inclusive 
of the Reptilia, but are supposed to be represented in Ba- 
trachia and fishes by structures which are embryonic in the 
former— i. e., the Wolffian bodies. The latter consist of two 
bodies, one on each side of the vertebral column, and are 
composed of transverse tubuli terminating in expansions 
which embrace convoluted capillaries, the “ Malpighian 
tufts.” The Wolffian tubules empty in the Wolffian duct, 
which extends along their outer side, and empties in the 
embryo into the allantois. The kidneys appear later in 
embryonic life, behind the Wolffian bodies, and have a 
similar structure. They also discharge by a duct on each 
side, which is distinct from the Wolffian, and constitutes 
the ureter. This discharges at first into the allantois, but 
with the approach of the lateral walls in the embryo, and 
the closing of the ventral fissure, a portion of the allantois 
is included, and becomes the urinary bladder. 

The Leptocardii are not known to possess either Wolffian 
bodies or kidneys. In the Pisces the connection of the 
ureters with the oviducts is various. Thus in Polypterue 
they unite and enter a single tube, the united ureters. In 
Lepidosteus each ureter receives its corresponding oviduct; 
in Amia the oviducts are open proximally. In Batrachia 
the ureters are always connected with the oviducts. In the 
tailed order the ureter becomes a genito-urinary duct, be¬ 
cause it receives the vasa efferentia of the testis, which 
pass through the kidney to reach it; it empties into the 
cloaca. In the Anura the vasa efferentia enter the kidney, 


1077 


but do not reach the ureter, but are collected into a special 
duct analogous to the deferens, which enters the ureter at 
its lower part. This tube also receives the secretion of the 
kidneys, so that the original ureter becomes useless, and is 
atrophied in the frogs, or persists as a caecum in the toads. 
In the discoglossid frogs the arrangement is as in the sala¬ 
manders. In the allantoidal vertebrates the ureters dis¬ 
charge into the urinary bladder, which in turn empties by 
a single urethra, of greater or less length, into a genito¬ 
urinary chamber in the higher Mammalia, or the cloaca in 
the other classes. It is continued throughout the penis in 
those males that possess that organ. The kidneys in most 
Carnivora, in the Cetacea, and some Artiodactyla, are lob- 
ulate, or like a bunch of grapes in form, as is seen in the 
embryos of man and other mammals. In the cats (Felidae) 
the divisions are not visible externally. 

The osseous system will be discussed in an article espe¬ 
cially devoted to that subject. Edward D. Cope. 

Comparative Philol'ogy is that branch of the sci¬ 
ence of language which examines and classifies languages as 
undivided wholes—not, like etymology, tracing individual 
words through the various languages in which they occur, 
but comparing languages chiefly by the study of the gene¬ 
ral character of their vocabularies. It, however, does not 
confine itself to the mere collation of vocabularies and to 
the study of grammatical forms. By the study and com¬ 
parison of literatui'es, of the literary history of nations, of 
popular traditions, mythologies and creeds, and of the dia¬ 
lectic variations of time or place, it seeks to discover the 
marks which integrate languages into groups, and which 
differentiate these groups from each other. It thus renders 
important services to the nearly related science of ethnology, 
since, with some limitations, kinship in language implies 
kinship in blood—a doctrine the truth of which is now gen¬ 
erally admitted, though formerly ojaposed by eminent phil¬ 
ologists. 

Comparative philology, though almost entirely a growth 
of the present century, took its origin long since. The 
missionaries of the Roman Catholic Church in America, 
especially in the Spanish regions, long ago collected great 
numbers of vocabularies, which are now prized not only as 
collections of words, but as affording illustrations of the 
relative fixity or mutability of barbaric languages—a point 
in regard to which the greatest diversities exist, some lan¬ 
guages changing greatly, it would appear, in a single gene¬ 
ration, while others preserve a large degree of sameness 
over great areas of space and through great epochs of time. 

But the British occupation of India, and the consequent 
study of Sanscrit literature, gave to all branches of lin¬ 
guistic science a wonderful impulse; indeed, not till that 
time did studies of this class assume a truly scientific cha¬ 
racter. (See Backer, “Grammaire Compareedes Langues 
de la France” (1860); Baissac, “ De l’Origine des Denomi¬ 
nations Ethniques” (1867); Balbi, “Atlas Ethnograph- 
ique” (1826); Bastian, “ Sprachvergleichende Studien ” 
(1870); Baudry, “ Grammaire Comparee des Langues 
Classiques ” (1868); Beames, “ Comparative Grammar of 
Modern Aryan Languages in India;” Kuhn and Schlei¬ 
cher, “Beitrage zur Vergleichenden Sprachforschung,” 
etc. (1856-69), sqq .; Benloew, “Apergu General de la 
Science Comparative des Langues” (1858); Bleek, “Ueber 
den Ursprung der Sprache” (1868), and “Comparative 
Grammar of South African Languages” (1869); Louis 
Lucien Bonaparte, “Specimen Lexici Comparativi” 
(1847); the writings of Bopp, especially his “Compara¬ 
tive Grammar” (1833; 3d ed. 1869, sqq., translated by 
Eastwick; 3d ed. 1862); Dieffenbach, “Lexicon Com- 
parativum” (1847-51); Eichoff, “Grammaire Generale 
Indo-Europeenne ” (1867); Fick, “ Vergleichendes Wor- 
terbuch” (1870); J. Grimm, “Deutsche Grammatik ” (2d 
ed. 1869-72); Kelle, “Vergleichende Grammatik” (1863); 
Latham, “Comparative Philology” (1862), and his other 
writings on language; F. Max Muller, “Lectures on the 
Science of Language” (6th ed. 1871); A. F. Pott, “ Ety- 
mologische Forschungen,” etc. (1833-36; new T ed. 1859-71), 
and his other works; Rapp, “ Grundriss der Grammatik,” 
etc. (1S52-55); Renan, “De l’Origine de Langage” (4th 
ed. 1864); “Histoire Generale et Systeme compare des 
Langues Semitiques” (4th ed. 1864); “Revue de Lingu- 
istique” (Paris, 1807, sqq.); De Sacy, “Principles of 
General Grammar” (translated by Fosdick, 1847); Schele 
de Vere, “Outlines of Comparative Philology” (1S53); 
Schleicher, “ Compendium der vergleichenden Gram¬ 
matik” (3d ed. 1871); “Sprachvergleichende Untersucli- 
ungen” (1848-50); “Zur Morphologie der Sprache” 
(1859); Steinthal, “ Charakteristik der hauptsachlichen 
Typen des Sprachbaues” (1860); Whitney, “ Language 
and the Study of Language” (1867); “Zeitschrift fur ver¬ 
gleichende Sprachforschung ” (Berlin, 1851, sqq.) ; Lazarus 
and Steinthal, “ Zeitschrift fur Vblkerpschychologie und 
Sprachwissenschaft ” (1859-69). 



















COMPASS—COMPONENT. 


1078 


Com'pass [perhaps a corruption of the Lat. circum, 
“ around,” and passus, a “ step,” originally “ that which 
goes round” or “ embraces,” because it embraces, so to 
speak, the entire horizon with its circle; Fr. compas, 
also fcoussoJe)], the name of an instrument used to show the 
magnetic meridian or the position of objects with reference 
to it. Among its various forms are the mariner’s compass, the 
azimuth compass, and the variation compass. These sev¬ 
eral applications each demand a special construction, but 
the essential parts are invariably the same. These parts 
are the needle, which consists of a magnetized bar of steel, 
and, fitted to its centre, a cap, which is supported on a 
pivot upright and sharp at the point to lessen the friction, 
and on which the needle may move with the slightest attrac¬ 
tion. A circular card is attached to the needle of the mari¬ 
ner's compass, which turns with it, and indicates the degrees, 
which with the thirty-two points, divided into halt and 
quarter points, are all marked on its circumference. The 
pivot is fastened to the bottom of a circular box, which con¬ 
tains the needle and card, and has a glass cover to protect 
the needle from the air. This is called the compass-box, 
and is suspended in a larger box or binnacle by two con¬ 
centric brass circles called gimbals; the outer one is at¬ 
tached by horizontal pivots to the inner circle and to the 
outer box, the two sets of axes being at right angles to each 
other. Thus, the inner circle, carrying the compass-box, 
needle and card, is sustained in a horizontal position, and 
is not subject to the rolling of the ship. 

“ Boxing the compass” is the enumeration, by name, of 
the thirty-two points which are marked upon the compass- 
card. These points are—north, north by east, north-north- 
cast, north-east by north, north-east, north-east by east, 
east-north-east, east by north* east, etc. The point “ east ” 



is frequently marked 0 on compasses. This is from the 
German Ost, “ east.” The steering of ships is much more 
difficult since the introduction of iron-plated ships. These 
vessels, being highly magnetic, produce much disturbance 
of the needle, and it requires all the skill of science to coun¬ 
teract it. It is found best to build the ship with her head 
south, but to change it to the north during the process of 
plating, as the magnetism acquired during building is modi¬ 
fied by the hammering attendant on the plating. It is, how¬ 
ever, found requisite to often change the first adjustments. 

The azimuth compass has its circle divided only into de¬ 
grees; it is used to show the bearing of objects with re¬ 
spect to the magnetic meridian, and is furnished with sights 
for the more accurate noting of the angles. 

The variation compass shows such changes as occur daily 
in the deviation of the magnetic from the true meridian. 
The needle is much longer than in the mariner’s compass, 
in order to make minute variations more apparent. 

The origin of the compass is undoubtedly to be ascribed 
to the Chinese, who more than a thousand years B. C. made 
use of the loadstone to guide their cars or carriages with¬ 
out the aid of the sun or stars. It is certain that they em¬ 
ployed the magnetic needle in the navigation of vessels 
soon after the Christian era, if not earlier. There is, in¬ 
deed, every reason to believe that the mariner’s compass 
w r as not an original European invention, but was intro¬ 
duced from China. None of the early European writers 
speak of it as invented in Europe; and it is certain that 
the compasses used by the Italians in the thirteenth cen¬ 
tury were constructed exactly like those made in China 
about the same period. The compass is mentioned by 
Guyot of Provence as early as 1190, and by Ilaymond 
Luily, 1286. 

Compass Plant, the Silphium lancinatum, a remark¬ 
able plant of the order Composite, sub-order Tubulifiorae, 
tribe Scnecionidae. It grows on the great prairies of 
the Mississippi Valley, and its radical leaves have, while 
growing, the property of pointing quite nearly to the north 


and south. In gardens it does not always show this prop¬ 
erty, but the testimony of numerous observers, scientific and 
otherwise, seems to establish the fact as above stated. In 
the poem of “Evangeline” Mr. Longfellow speaks of a 
“delicate flower” on the prairies whose leaves point north¬ 
ward, but tho plant in question is very large and coarse. 
With its congeners it abounds in resin and has medicinal 
properties. It is often called “rosin-weed.” 

Compasses. See Dividers. 

Compensation ofEr'rors, the neutralizing in philo¬ 
sophical instruments for measurement (e. g. of time, pres¬ 
sure, temperature, distance, etc.) of errors caused by cer¬ 
tain properties of the material agents used, by the intro¬ 
duction of other material agents which, acting alone, would 
produce errors of an opposite character. Thus, the expan¬ 
sion of the pendulum-rod by heat may be counteracted by 
making its weight of a much more expansive material, as 
lead or mercury, and connecting it with the rod by its lower 
end. (See Pendulum, by Pres. F. A. P. Barnard, S. T. D., 
LL.D., L. H. D.) 

Com'petine, a township and post-village of Wapello 
co., Ia. The village is 85 miles S. E. of Des Moines. P.1033. 

Competition [Lat. competitio, from com (for con), “ to¬ 
gether,” and peto, petitum , to “ seek ”], the act of endeavor¬ 
ing to gain what another endeavors to gain at the same time; 
emulation; strife for superiority. The most important 
practical use of the term is in the political economy of com¬ 
merce, where competition is a great motive-power of enter¬ 
prise and production. Competition in trade and manufac¬ 
tures tends to reduce prices, as well as to improve the 
quality of goods. Most attempts to supersede competition 
by some other motive to exertion have been unsuccessful. 

Compiegne, a town of France, department of Oise, on 
the Oise and on the railway from Paris to Saint-Quentin, 
44 miles N. N. E. of Paris. It has a communal college 
and a public library of 28,000 volumes; also manufactures 
of muslin, hosiery, and cordage. Here is a palace built by 
Louis XV., a park, and a forest of 30,000 acres. P. 12,150. 

Com'plement [Lat. complementum, from com (for con), 
intensive, and pleo, to “fill”], a full quantity or number; 
the number required or limited; that which completes or 
fills up. In mathematics, the complement of any magni¬ 
tude is a second magnitude, which, added to the first, gives 
a sum equal to a constant third magnitude, which is purely 
arbitrary and conventional. Thus, the complement of an 
angle is its defect from a right angle. The arithmetical 
complement of a number is its defect from the next higher 
power of ten. Thus, the arithmetical complement of 64 is 36. 

Complement, in music, the quantity required to be added 
to any interval to complete the octave ; for example, a fourth 
is the complement of a fifth. 

Complemen'tary Col'ors. Each of the three primary 
colors is complementary to that secondary color which is 
produced by blending the other two ; thus, red is the com¬ 
plementary color of green. Blue and orange are comple¬ 
mentary colors, and each presents the most complete con¬ 
trast to the other. The secondary colors have also each 
their complementary colors. Colors complementary to each 
other are always harmonious, and hence the subject'is one 
of practical importance in personal and artistic decoration. 
The following is a table of some of the principal colors 
which are complementary to each other: 


Red-purple 
Blue-purple 
Dark-purple 
Blue-green 
Olive 
Russet “ 

Complexion. See Skin. 


« 

u 

<( 

<1 


i enow-green. 

Yellow-orange. 

Citron-yellow. 

Red-orange. 

Dark-orange. 

Dark-green. 


Com'plin, or Com'pline [from the Lat. complco, to 
“complete,” because it finishes the day], the last of the 
canonical hours in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, 
following vespers; also the prayer for that hour, anciently 
ordained to be said about nine o’clock in the evening. 

Compluten'sian Bi'ble, a polyglot in six volumes, 
folio, so called from Complutum, the Latin name of Alcald 
in Spain, where it was printed. It was projected by Car¬ 
dinal Ximenes, who spent about $120,000 upon it. It was 
commenced in 1502, printed between 1514 and 1517, au¬ 
thorized by Pope Leo X. in 1520, but apparently not pub¬ 
lished before 1522. 

Compo'nent [from the Lat. com (for con), “together,” 
and pono, to “put;” literally, “composing” apart; hence, 
as a noun, “that which composes” a constituent part], 
something which unites with another to form a compound. 
In mathematics, any one of the factors of a composite 
number or of a literal product. 



























COMPOSER—COMPOUND ANIMALS. 


1079 


Compo'ser [for etymology, see preceding article]. This 
term is usually applied to a person who composes operas, 
oratorios, airs, or other pieces of music; one who invents 
new combinations of musical notes. 

Coinpos'itie [from the Lat. com (for con), “together,” 
and pono, position, to “ put,” referring to its compound 
flowers], the largest natural order of exogenous plants, dis¬ 
tinguished by heads of flowers which are composed of florets 
crowded together upon a common receptacle, and surrounded 
by an involucre, so as to resemble single flowers. Another 
marked peculiarity is that the five (rarely four) anthers of 
each floret unite into a tube. The order contains both herb¬ 
aceous plants and shrubs, those which are natives of temper¬ 
ate climates being generally herbaceous, those found in warm 
regions not unfrequently shrubby, and several, especially 
in St. Helena, are arborescent. They have alternate, oppo¬ 
site, or verticillate leaves, without stipules. The florets are 
bisexual, unisexual, or neutral, those of the circumference 
(or ray) often differing in this respect, as well as in form 
and color, from those of the centre (or disk) of the same head. 
Chaff-like bracts are often interspersed among the florets. 
The calyx is superior, adhering to the ovary, and after¬ 
wards to the fruit, its limb being either wanting or divided 
into a pappus of bristles, hairs, or feathers. The corolla is 
of one petal, superior, strap-shaped, tubular, or more rarely 
labiate, different forms often appearing in ray and disk of 
the same head. It is rarely three or four-toothed, but often 
five-toothed. The ovary is one-celled, with a single ovule, 
the style simple, with a cleft apex; the fruit an achenium; 
the seed destitute of albumen. The order contains more 
than 1000 genera and about 10,000 known species. In the 
Linnaean system they form with a few others the class 
Syngenesia. 

The order is divided into three sub-orders—the Tubuli- 
florae, the Labiatiflora?, and the Liguliflorae. The artichoke, 
thistle, daisy, chamomile, sunflower, dandelion, chicory, 
and lettuce are well-known plants of this order. 

From the seeds of some a fixed drying oil is expressed, 
the oil of the sun-flower, the Madia, and the Guizotia being 
among the most important. Many are valuable for their 
medicinal properties, as chamomile, arnica, wormwood, tus- 
silago, etc. Not a few are characterized by bitterness and 
by stimulating properties; also anodyne, narcotic, diapho¬ 
retic, and diuretic properties. Some, as arnica, are poison¬ 
ous. A large number are ornaments of our flower-gardens, 
especially in the latter part of summer and in autumn. 
Amongst these are the xeranthemum, dahlia, aster, and 
chrysanthemum. This order is called Asteraceae by Lind- 
ley and others. 

Composite Or'der, in architecture, a style of build- 



Composite Capital and Base. 


ing characterized by the employment of pillars designed to 
combine the lightness and grace of the Ionic order with the 
ornate finish of the Corinthian. In many cases the Ionic 
volute was blended with the Corinthian acanthus leaf, as in 
the example given. This union is regarded by most critics 
as an incongruous one, and the Composite style is consid¬ 
ered effeminate. It was employed chiefly in the Roman 
empire in its period of decadence. The accompanying cut 
represents the Composite style as seen in the temple of 
Vesta at Tivoli. It is comparatively free from the charac¬ 
teristic faults of the order. Many writers consider the 
Composite order a mere variety of the Corinthian. 

Revised by C. Cook. 

Composi"tion [Lat. compositio], in general, is the 
act of composing, or that which is composed; in literature, 
the act of inventing or combining ideas and expressing 
them in words; also a literary production, book, or essay. 
In music, it is the act or art. of disposing and arranging 
musical sounds into airs, tunes, songs, etc. The term is 
also applied to an air or other piece of music. In print¬ 
ing, it is the setting of types, or putting them together to 
form words and sentences. 

Composition, in the fine arts, is that combination of the 
several parts by which a subject is agreeably presented, 
each part being subordinate to the whole; such an arrange¬ 
ment of the objects represented that they shall all tend to 
illustrate the central thought or idea. 

Composition, in bankruptcy, a percentage which creditors 
agree to receive from a bankrupt instead of full payment. 
(See Insolvency, by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Composition of Forces or Motions, in mechanics, 
signifies combining or uniting several forces or motions, 
and determining the result of the whole. If a body is 
impelled by two forces which act in the same direction, the 
resulting force, or resultant, is equal to the sum of both; 
that is to say, the effect produced is the same as would bo 
produced by a single force acting in the same direction, and 
equal to their sum. If the two forces act in opposite direc¬ 
tions, the resultant is equal to their difference, and the body 
will move in the direction of the greater. If the lines of 
direction of the two forces make an angle with each other, 
the resultant will be a mean force in an intermediate direc¬ 
tion. Thus, if the two forces be represented in intensity 
and direction by the two sides of a parallelogram, then the 
resultant is represented in intensity and direction by the 
diagonal of the parallelogram which passes through tho 
angle formed by those two sides. 

Com'post [from the Lat. com (for con), “together,” and 
pono, positum, to “ place ”], a mixture of substances adapted 
to the fertilization of the soil, which substances, being al¬ 
lowed to undergo chemical changes for a considerable time 
in heaps, become more valuable then they could have been 
if applied separately. Composts are made of farmyard 
manures and earth, road-scrapings, peat, leaves, and clear¬ 
ings of ditches. By allowing these to lie for six months in 
heaps of from three to four feet in depth, food is prepared 
for plants. The use of guano and other light manures will 
no doubt supersede in a great measure the necessity of this 
laborious process. The wonderful effects that have resulted 
from the application of nitrates, ammonia salts, and phos¬ 
phoric acid should impress farmers with the truth that the 
^valuable elements bear a small proportion in weight to tho 
whole mass of farmyard dung or composts, and that the 
mixing of manures in heaps with earth often does not pay 
for the labor expended. Still, in some circumstances, the 
chemical or commercial fertilizers are best applied to the soil 
after composting them with earth or with coarse manures. 
The action of frost upon composts is highly beneficial, es¬ 
pecially when peaty earth is used. 

Compostella. See Santiago de Compostella. 

Com'pouncl [from the Lat.com (for con), “together,” and 
pono, “ to put”], a substance formed by the union of two 
or more substances joined by chemical affinity. The ad¬ 
jective “ compound,” which means composite or composed 
of several parts or elements, is applied in botany and other 
sciences to various objects which are not simple. A com¬ 
pound leaf is formed of several leaflets articulated to a 
common petiole, and is either pinnate or digitate. Com¬ 
pound motion is that which is effected by two or more con¬ 
spiring forces or powers. 

Com'pound An'imals are organisms of low grade, 
in which parts regarded by some theorists as individuals, 
and which are certainly distinct in many vital functions, 
are merged into one compound system. The living mass in 
all truly compound animals appears to originate from a single 
ovum, and the subsequent development of the individual 
parts by gemmation resembles in some respects the growth 
of vegetables. Examples of compound animal life are 
found in coral-polyps, cestoid worms, certain molluscoids, 



























































































































































































































1080 COMPOUND FRACTURE—COMTE. 


etc. There is, however, much difference of opinion as to 
what constitutes animal individuality. 

Compound Fracture, in surgery, is a fracture of any 
bone when the skin and tissues covering the bone are so 
lacerated that air may enter the fracture. The treatment 
of compound fracture requires the highest surgical skill. 
(See Fracture.) 

Compound Interest. See Interest. 

Compounding of Fel'ony, in England and the U. S., 
is the act of taking, or agreeing to take, a reward for for¬ 
bearing to prosecute a felony, and is punishable with fine 
and imprisonment. A note or other promise taken on such 
a consideration is illegal in its inception, and cannot be 
enforced in a court of justice by the promisee. (See Fel- 
onv, by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Compound Microscope. See Microscope, by Pres. 
F. A. P. Barnard, S. T. D., LL.D., L. H. D. 

Compressed Air, as a means of the transmission of 
motive-power, has been thoroughly tested in the railway 
tunnels of Mont Cenis and the Hoosac Mountain in Mas¬ 
sachusetts. Compressed air, as an agent for transmitting 
power, is advantageously used only in those cases where 
belts or shafting could not be employed on account of the 
great distance between the motive-power and its point of 
application. At the Hoosac Tunnel the air was compressed 
partly by water-power (as at Mont Cenis), and partly by 
steam, which works by means of air-pumps. The com¬ 
pressed air is transmitted through tubes, and gives motion 
to drills by means of pistons working in cylinders some¬ 
what as in steam-engines. The exhaust air from the 
engines aids in ventilation and in keeping down the tem¬ 
perature—important considerations in underground opera¬ 
tions ; and perfect ventilation may at any time be secured 
by turning on a blast directly from the reservoirs. 

Compressed Air-Bath, an apparatus in which pa¬ 
tients with pulmonary diseases are placed and submitted to 
increased atmospheric pressure. The great expectations 
formerly entertained from this treatment have not been 
realized, but it appears to be a useful adjunct, especially 
in bronchitis and asthma. 

Compressibility, the property of being compressible 
into smaller space; susceptibility of being reduced by 
pressure to smaller dimensions. All bodies, in consequence 
of their porosity, are compressible, though liquids resist 
compression with immense force. Water, if subjected to a 
pressure of 15,000 pounds on a square inch, loses one- 
twentieth of its volume. Solids are compressible in differ¬ 
ent degrees. Gases are more compressible than either 
liquids or solids. A number of cubic inches of air can be 
compressed into the space of one cubic inch. Carbonic acid 
and several other gases can be condensed by pressure into a 
liquid and even a solid state. 

Compromise [from the Lat. com (for con), “ together,” 
and prom itto, promissnm, to “promise”], something prom¬ 
ised or agreed upon mutually; an amicable agreement be¬ 
tween two parties or persons who have been involved in a 
controversy that they will settle the difference by mutual 
concessions, or, as used in the civil law, a mutual promise 
of such parties to refer their differences to the decision of 
arbitrators. 

Compromise, atownship of Champaign co., Ill. P. 707. 

Comp'ton, a county in Canada, in the S. part of Que¬ 
bec, borders on Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. The 
soil is fertile. It is drained by the Chaudiere and St. 
Francis rivers. Capital, Cookshire. Pop. 13,665. 

Compton (Henry), an English prelate who had a large 
share in the revolution of 1688. He was born in 1632, held 
first a commission in the army, then entered the Church, 
became bishop of Oxford in 1674, was transferred to the see 
of London in 1675, was the instructor of the daughters of 
the duke of York (afterwards James II.), who became con¬ 
sequently attached to the Protestant faith. He incurred 
thereupon the bitter hostility of James, who, through the 
infamous Judge Jeffries, deposed him from his episcopal 
functions. This was one of the grievances done to the 
Protestant religion alleged by William in his proclamation 
on landing. James, in alarm, re-established Compton, 
who, however, openty joined himself to the party of the in¬ 
vader, and with his own hands crowned him king. Died 
July 7, 1713. 

Compton Centre, a post-village of Compton county 
and township, Quebec (Canada), 1 mile from Compton 
Station on the Grand Trunk Railway, 182 miles from Port¬ 
land, Me. 

Comptroller [for pronunciation and etymology see 
Controller], a name applied in the U. S. government to 
three highly important officers in the treasury department. 

The First Comptroller countersigns warrants drawn 


by the secretary of the treasury upon the treasurer, exam¬ 
ines the accounts of the first and fifth auditors, receives 
appeals from the sixth auditor, superintends unsettled ac¬ 
counts of the treasury, navy, war, and interior depart¬ 
ments, prosecutes all debts and delinquencies in behalf of 
the U. S., etc. 

The Second Comptroller examines the accounts of the 
second, third, and fourth auditors, countersigns warrants 
for the pension and Indian bureaus, and performs duties 
in the navy and war departments analogous to those of the 
first comptroller in the treasury department. 

When a claim has been granted by the proper comptrol¬ 
ler there is no revision or appeal allowed. When a claim 
has been refused by the comptroller, appeal may be made 
to the court of claims. (See Claims, Court of.) 

The Comptroller of the Currency issues printed notes 
to the national banks, exchanges new currency for that 
which is worn out, superintends the national banks, reports 
their condition annually to Congress, and has numerous 
other important duties. He gives heavy bonds when enter¬ 
ing upon his duties, and is allowed no share in the profits 
of any banking association. 

Com'stock, atownship and post-village of Kalamazoo 
co., Mich. The village is on the Michigan Central R. R., 
4 miles E. of Kalamazoo. Pop. 2018. 

Comstock (Andrew), M. D., an elocutionist, born in 
New York in 1795, published a “System of Phonetics” 
and “Elocution” (16th ed. 1844), and other works. 

Comstock (Cyrus B.), an American officer, born in 
1831 in Massachusetts, graduated at West Point in 1855; 
major of engineers Dec. 28, 1865. He served in construct¬ 
ing fortifications 1855-59; as assistant professor at the Mili¬ 
tary Academy 1859-61; in the civil war in erecting de¬ 
fences of Washington 1861-62 : in Virginia Peninsula 1862, 
engaged in various engineer operations; in Maryland cam¬ 
paign 1862, engaged at South Mountain and Antietam; 
as chief engineer Army of the Potomac 1862-63; in Rap¬ 
pahannock campaign 1862-63, engaged at Fredericksburg 
and Chancellorsville; in the department of the Tennessee 
1863, engaged at Vicksburg (brevet'major), and as chief 
engineer Army of the Tennessee; assistant inspector-gen¬ 
eral of the military division of the Mississippi 1863-64; as 
senior A. D. C. to Lieut.-Gen. Grant, rank of lieutenant- 
colonel, 1864-66; in Richmond campaign 1864-65, engaged 
at Wilderness (brevet lieutenant-colonel), Spottsylvania, 
Cold Harbor, assaults of Petersburg and mine, and Fort 
Harrison ; as chief engineer of the expedition to Cape Fear 
River, N. C., 1865, engaged at Fort Fisher (brevet colonel 
U. S. A. and brevet colonel and brigadier-general U. S. V.); 
as senior engineer in Mobile campaign 1865, engaged at 
the siege of Spanish Fort, storming of Blakely, and cap¬ 
ture of Mobile (brevet brigadier-general U. S. A. and brevet 
major-general U. S. V.); and A. D. C. to the general-in- 
chief, rank of colonel, 1866-70. Since 1870 he has been 
superintendent of the geodetic survey of the northern lakes. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Comstock (Grover S.), born at Ulysses, N. Y., Mar. 

24, 1809, graduated at Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., in 
1827, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1830. 
Powerfully moved by the preaching of Rev. C. G. Finney, 
he studied theology at the institution at Hamilton, N. Y., 
and became a Baptist minister. He sailed in 1834 as a 
missionary to British Burmah, and finally went to Aracan. 
In 1837 he founded a church at Kyouk Phyou. Here he 
remained, in spite of the deadly climate, which carried off 
his wife and children, until his death, which occurred April 

25, 1844. He is especially honored by his denomination as 
one of its most laborious and devoted missionaries. 

Comstock (John Lee), an American author, born at 
East Lyme, Conn., in 1789, served as an army-surgeon in 
the war of 1812-15. His work on “Natural Philosophy” 
is said to have reached a sale of about 1,000,000 copies. 
Besides numerous works for schools on natural and physical 
science, he published a “ History of the Greek Revolution” 
(1829), etc. Died at Hartford, Conn., Nov. 21, 1858. 

Comte (Isidore Auguste Marie Francois Xavier), a 
French philosopher and mathematician, founder of the 
system of Positivism (which see), was born Jan. 19, 1798, 
at Montpellier. He entered in 1814 the Polytechnic 
School in Paris. He became in 1820 a disciple of Saint- 
Simon, and contributed articles to his journal “ L’Organi- 
sateur,” in which the germ of his ideas already appeared. 
He was entrusted by his master with the preparation of 
a Saint-Simonian “ Politique Positive,” which proved 
unsatisfactory to the old philosopher. In 1832 he was 
appointed a tutor of mathematics and an examiner of can¬ 
didates at the Polytechnic School; which posts he resigned 
in 1852. He lived obscurely, with straitened means, and 
died Sept. 5, 1857. His writings were “ Cours de Philo- 













COMUS—CONCERTINA. 1081 


sophie Positive” (6 vols., Paris, 1S30-42), and “ Systeme 
de Politique Positive, ou Trinity de Sociologie, Instituant 
la Religion de l’Humanit6 ” (1851-54); besides “ Calen- 
drier Positiviste” (4th ed. 1852), and “ Catechisme Posi- 
tiviste ” (1853). A clearer exposition of his doctrines is 
contained in Littre’s “ Comte et la Philosophic Positive” 
(1863). His “ Cours,” etc. Avas published in English in 
a condensed form by H. Martineau (2 vols., 1853). (See 
Robinet, “ Notice sur l’oeuvre et sur la vie de Comte,” 
and Leaves, “ Exposition of the Principles of the Positive 
Philosophy.”) 

Co'mus [Gr. Kw/u.o?] Avas originally the Greek namfc of 
those songs of carousal Avhich young people Avould sing 
when passing the houses of their friends or lo\ r ers. Thence 
it became the name of the god of such revel; and Philo- 
stratus gives a description of a picture in which Comus was 
represented as a youth, drunken, sleeping, leaning forward 
on a down-turned torch. Milton makes him a foul sor¬ 
cerer, the son of Bacchus and Circe. 

Con, a Latin particle signifying “ together,” and some¬ 
times “ Avith. ’ It is commonly changed to col before l, com 
before b, m, and p, cor before r, and to co before a voAvel or 
h. Hence we have collect, combine, compress, and correct, 
instead of conlect, conbine, etc.; coagulate and cohabit, in¬ 
stead of conagulate and conhabit. Sometimes con is inten¬ 
sive, as concutio, concussum, to “ shake \ r iolently.” 

Co'nant (Hannah O’Brien Chaplin), Avife of T. J. 
Conant, was born in Danvers, Mass., in 1812. She was 
distinguished for her great attainments and fine literary 
taste. She was the author and translator of numerous 
works, among which is a “ History of the English Bible” 
(1859). Died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Feb. 18, 1865. 

Conant (Roger), a colonist, born in Devonshire, Eng¬ 
land, in 1593, settled in Plymouth Colony in 1623, founded 
Salem, Mass., in 1626, and became a justice of the “ quar¬ 
terly court.” Died Nov. 19, 1679. • 

Conant (Thomas J.), D. D., born at Brandon, Vt., Dec. 
13, 1802, graduated at Middlebury College in 1823, pro¬ 
fessor of languages in Waterville College (noAv Colby Uni¬ 
versity) till 1833, and appointed in 1835 professor of bib¬ 
lical literature in the Theological Seminary at Hamilton, 
N. Y. From 1850 to 1859 he occupied a similar position 
in the Theological Seminary at Rochester, N. Y. In 1839 
he published a translation of Gesenius’s “Hebrew Gram¬ 
mar;” in 1857, a neAv version, with notes, of “the Book 
of Job”—a work which has attained a European reputa¬ 
tion. He has since published similar versions of “ Genesis ” 
and the “ Psalms ” in the interest of the American Bible 
Union. By common consent he is one of the most accom¬ 
plished Hebraists in America. s 

Con'cave [from the Lat. con, intensive, and cavus, 
“hollow”]. A curve is said to be concave at a given point 
when the lines joining the latter to adjacent points on the 
curve fall between the spectator and the curve, and convex 
when the curA r e is interposed between the spectator and 
the small chords in question. A surface is said to be con¬ 
cave or conA r ex at any point Avhen the plane sections 
through that point and the spectator’s eye are all concave 
or con\ r ex; when some of these sections present their con¬ 
cavity and others their convexity to the spectator, the sur¬ 
face is sometimes said to be concavo-convex. This is the 
case Avith the hyperboloid of one sheet. When at a point 
on a cur\ r e the centre of curvature and the point of vieiv 
fall on the same side of the tangent, Ave have concavity; 
when on opposite sides, convexity. (See Lens.) 

Conceal'ment, in law, the suppression of the truth 
to the injury of another. A distinction is taken between 
such facts as are extrinsic to the contract, such as the ex¬ 
istence of war or peace, and those which are intrinsic. 
Concealment of extrinsic facts is not, in general, fraudu¬ 
lent. (See Fraud, by Prof. T. W. Davight, LL.D.) 

Concepcion', a town of the Argentine Republic, 
capital of the province of Entre Rios, on the China, is 
the see of a Catholic bishop and a national college. Pop. 
6050. 

Concepcion, a province of Chili, betAveen the ocean 
and the Argentine Republic, and the provinces of Maule on 
the N. and Aurico on the S. Area, 5453 square miles. It is 
traversed by the Biobio. The climate is mild and favor¬ 
able for tillage and pasturage. The fruit of the Araucaria 
imbricata (pifton) is abundantly produced. Coal, Avheat, 
and excellent Avine abound. Pop. 148,340. 

Concepcion, La, a seaport of Chili, capital of the 
above province, is situated on the river Biobio, 7 miles from 
its mouth; lat. 36° 49’ S., Ion. 73° 5' W. It has broad 
streets and many handsome houses. It is a bishop’s seat. 
Its port, Talcahuano, is one of the best in Chili. It has an 
extensive foreign trade, and exports large quantities of 


hides and tallow. Concepcion was ruined by earthquakes 
in 1730, in 1752, and in 1825. Pop. 13,958. 

Concept' [Lat. conceptus, from concipio, to “conceive;” 
Ger. Begriff ], in metaphysics, a thing Avliich may be con¬ 
ceived ; a collection of attributes united by a sign, and rep¬ 
resenting an object of possible intuition. Kant and his 
followers use the word concept to indicate notions Avhich 
are general without being absolute. They divide these into 
three different classes: “ Pure concepts,” which derive 
nothing from experience; “ empirical concepts,” wholly de¬ 
rived from experience; “mixed concepts,” ascribablepartly 
to experience and partly to the pure understanding. A 
concept is “clear” Avhen its object can be distinguished 
from any other; “distinct,” when its component parts can 
be defined. 

Concep'tion [Lat. conceptio, from concipio, conceptum, 
to “conceive”] is a psychological term denoting the last, 
finishing process by which consciousness takes possession 
of an object. It is distinguishable from sensation as active 
from passive. As long as an object is allowed to impress 
the mind through the senses, immediately and directly, 
without any reaction or interference from the side of the 
mind, consciousness is in a merely passive state; and this 
passive state of consciousness is called sensation. In order 
to master an object, the mind cannot stop, howe\ r er, at the 
mere sensation; it must make the sensation itself the sub¬ 
ject of a scrutiny and discrimination ; and this active part 
of the Avhole psychological process by which the mind takes 
possession of an object is called perception and conception; 
the former referring to the sensation as representing the 
details of the object, the latter as involving the whole of 
it. As we go over an object Avith the finger-tips to ascer¬ 
tain the exact position and relations of its outlines, thus 
perception runs over all the outlines given in the sensa¬ 
tion, partly verifying their truth with respect to the object, 
partly lifting them into perfect clearness of consciousness. 
Conception does not begin its work until perception is 
through Avith its task. The mode and the meaning of an ob¬ 
ject as a whole is the task of conception, and thus the con¬ 
ception of an object corresponds very nearly to that Avhich 
Ave generally call a view of the object; with this difference 
only, that a view always is understood to be more or less 
influenced by the individuality of the subject, while the con¬ 
ception always is supposed to be, strictly and scientifically, 
the subjective equivalent for the idea of the object. The 
difference between conception and imagination is, simply, 
that conception is a process and imagination a faculty; in 
the process of conceiving the faculty of imagination is' 
very largely used. 

Conception, in physiology. See Embryology, by 
Prof. J. C. Dalton, M. D. 

Conception, Immaculate, Doctrine of the. 

See Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin 
Mary, by Prof. R. D. Hitchcock, D. D., LL.D. 

Conception, Orders of the Immaculate. Among 
the orders of the Roman Catholic Church there ha\’e been 
the following: (1) The Knig*hts of the Immaculate Concep- 
tion of the Blessed Virgin, an order founded in 1618, at 
Vienna, with the intention of bearing arms against heretics 
and infidels. The institution Avas confirmed by Pope Urban 
VIII. in 1623, but the brotherhood did not flourish, and 
soon was extinct. (2) The Nuns of the Immaculate Con¬ 
ception of Mary, founded at Toledo, in Spain, in 1484, by 
Beatrix de Sylva, and confirmed by Pope Innocent VIII. 
in 1489. They afterwards joined the Clarisses, and took 
their rule, which rule Avas changed by Pope Julius II. in 
1511. They are often called Conceptionists. (3) The Con¬ 
gregation of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed 
Virgin is the appellation of the lay sisters attached to the 
nuns of Notre Dame, Avho Avere established by the blessed 
Peter Fourier (1565-1640). 

Concep'tualism, a doctrine of the Schoolmen inter¬ 
mediate between realism and nominalism. The Realist as¬ 
serts that genera and species have an independent exist¬ 
ence—that there exist certain “ ideas,” the pattern after 
Avhich single objects are fashioned. The Nominalist as¬ 
serts that nothing exists but things and names of things—• 
that universals are mere names. The Conceptualists as¬ 
sign to universals an existence which may be called psycho¬ 
logical—that is, independent of single objects, but depend¬ 
ent on the mind of tho thinking subject in AvhiQh they exist 
as conceptions. Abelard is considered the founder of this 
doctrine, Avhich was held by Reid, and probably by Aristotle. 

Conccrti'na [from concert ], a modern musical instru¬ 
ment invented by Prof. Wheatstone of London. Its sounds 
are produced by free vibrating metallic springs, as in tho 
accordion. The scale of tho concertina is very oomplete 
and extensive, beginning with the loAvest note of the A r iolin, 
G, and ascending chromatically for three and a half octaves 









CONCERTO—CONCHOLOGY. 


1082 


to C. Every sound in the scale is double, and can be pro¬ 
duced cither by opening or closing the bellows. 

Concer'to, an Italian term applied to a piece of music 
composed for a particular instrument, as a piano or violin, 
which bears the chief part in it and is usually accompanied 
by the full band. It is a composition for a solo instrument 
with orchestral accompaniments, adapted to give the per¬ 
former an opportunity to display the highest artistic skill 
as well as intellectual cultivation. 

Concetti, kon-chct'tee [an Italian term, rendered by 
English writers on rhetoric “ conceits ”], ingenious thoughts 
or turns of expression, points, jenx d’esprit, etc. in serious 
composition. In the sixteenth century the taste for this 
species of brilliancy, often false and always dangerous, 
spread rapidly in the poetical composition of European 
nations, especially in Spain and Italy, where the name of 
concetti was applied rather in a good than a bad sense, the 
critical taste being much perverted. Tasso is not free from 
concetti. For a century after his time they became often- 
sively prominent in Italian poetry. Marino and Filicaia 
are marked examples. In France concetti were equally 
prevalent in the seventeenth century, and were peculiarly 
in vogue with the fair critics of the Hotel Rambouillet, so 
well ridiculed in Moliere’s “ Precieuses Ridicules.” In 
England, Donne and Cowley are instances of a style full 
of concetti. 

Con'cha, tie la (Don Jose), Marquis de la Habana, 
a Spanish general, born in Buenos Ayres in 1800. He was 
captain-general of Cuba from 1849 to 1852, and was again 
appointed to that office in 1854. In 1862 he was sent as 
minister to France. In 1863 he was Spanish war minister, 
and in 1864 was appointed president of the senate. 

Concha, de la (Don Manuel Gutierrez), Marquis 
del Duero, brother of the preceding, a Spanish general, 
born April 25, 1808, in Cordova del Tucuman, in the Ar¬ 
gentine Republic. He distinguished himself in the war 
against the Carlists, was, 1839, appointed brigadier-general 
and, 1840, field-marshal, and overthrew in 1843 the regency 
of Espartero. After the outbreak of the revolution in Sept., 
1868, he was appointed prime minister by Queen Isabella, 
but soon resigned when his advice was not followed. 

ConchiPera [from the Lat. concha, a “shell,” and fero, 
to “ bear”], in Lamarck’s arrangement of mollusks a class 
containing those which have bivalve shells. The term is 
now used to indicate the class usually called Acephala, but 
it does not include the Brachiopoda. 

Con'cho, a county in W. Central Texas, is bounded on 
the N. E. by the Colorado River, and is drained by the river 
Concho. Area, 1025 square miles. Wood and water are 
scarce. The surface is generally rough and rocky, but af¬ 
fords good sheep-pasturage. According to the census of 
1870, the pop. was 0. 

Con'choid [from the Gr. noyxVj a “shell,” and elSo?, 
“appearance”] of Nicomedes, a curve of the fourth 
degree, invented by Nicomedes as a means of trisecting an 
angle, of constructing two geofnetrical means between two 
given straight lines, and of finding a cube double a given 
cube. The curve may easily be described, and is occasion¬ 
ally used in architecture as a bounding line of the meridian 
section of columns. It is generated as follows : Let A B be 



Conchoid. 


a straight line, and P any point not upon it; then if lines 
P E, P E', etc. be drawn, cutting A B, which is called the 
directrix, in points C C', and let C E, C F be laid off from 
the points of intersection, each equal to a given line; the 
curves traced by the successive points E and F form the 
conchoid. That branch which is most remote from P (the 
“pole” of the conchoid) is called the first or superior con¬ 
choid, and the other branch, traced by points F F’, is the 
second or inferior conchoid. Both branches may extend to 
infinity, and they have the line A B for a common asymp¬ 
tote. The constant distance C E of the points E and F from 
the points of intersection is called the modulus of the curve. 
If wo take C in the line E P as origin, and the lines A B 
and E P, at right angles to one another, as co-ordinate axes, 

. o (5-f w) 2 (o 2 —i/ 2 ) , 

the equation to the conchoid is a: 2 =-'- 2 -, where 

d 

a is the modulus of the curve, and b — the perpendicular dis¬ 


tance of P from A B. If a = b, P becomes a cusp point of 
tho first species. 

Conchoi'dal, a term used in mineralogy to describe a 
variety of fracture. When the fractured surface of a min¬ 
eral exhibits curved concavities similar to the valve of a 
bivalve mollusk, it is said to have a conchoidal fracture, a3 
flint, anthracite coal, etc. 


Conchol'ogy [from the Gr. Koyxo, a “ shell,” and Ao-ycw, 
a “discourse,” a “treatise”], a treatise on shells; also the 
science which treats of shells and their inhabitants. The 
soft parts of the Mollusca were almost unknown to the 
earlier naturalists, hence their external coverings or shells 
were separately classified, without reference to the con¬ 
tained animals. The more scientific modern method re¬ 
quires that the species shall be thoroughly investigated, 
as well as regards their soft as their hard parts. Mala¬ 
cology (from the Gr. /xaAa/cd?, “ soft,” and Ao-yos, a “ dis¬ 
course,” a “ treatise,” i. e., a “treatise on soft animals”) is a 
more proper designation for this science, but the word Con- 
chology has become so well known in this connection that 
it has been found difficult to supersede it. Thus, the latter 
name is still commonly used, but with the enlarged signifi¬ 
cation that it is the science or classification and description 
of molluscous animals, including their shells. 

Mollusc.* (from the Lat. mol'lis, “soft”) is the second 
of the five great divisions or structural types of the animal 
kingdom. An external shell, in nearly all cases, protects 
the animal, and may be regarded as an exo-skeleton, re¬ 
placing the bones of the Vertebrata. Occasionally, as in the 
cephalopods or cuttle-fish, the shell is internal, and in some 
of the gasteropods it is rudimentary or entirely wanting ; 
still, the absence of the internal skeleton, and consequently 
of the bony envelopes protecting the great nerve-chord, 
will, even in such cases, sufficiently distinguish the Mol¬ 
lusca from the Vertebrata. Shells are composed princi¬ 
pally of carbonate of lime, with but little other mineral or 
animal material, and are therefore much harder than the 
bones of the vertebrates, which contain a large proportion 
of gelatin. The Mollusca also have colorless blood, while 
that of the vertebrates is red.* 

The Mollusca do not attain the size and strength or ex¬ 
hibit the complex structure of the vertebrates, but they 
cannot justly be said to be of inferior or lower type; their 
plan of conformation is more simple, but it is just as per¬ 
fectly adapted to the purposes of their existence. The 
greater number of individuals of the more simple organisms 
seem to compensate, in the economy of nature, the supe¬ 
rior individual force of the more complex ones. 

Geology reveals to us that in the early ages of the world 
shells were among its first inhabitants, flourishing in its 
waters almost to the exclusion of other types of animal life, 
and leaving their imperishable coverings on the geological 
shores, to become in our day the great record of the suc¬ 
cession of strata by the aid of which the geologist reads so 
unerringly the history of the past. 

Classification .—The Mollusca are divided into three great 
branches or types of structure called classes, corresponding 
to the classes Mammalia, Aves, Pisces, etc., of the sub¬ 
kingdom Vertebrata, and it will be convenient for our pur¬ 
poses to diagnose these three classes 


Cephalopod: 

Octopus tiiberculatus (about one-tenth its 
natural size). 


Gasteropoo: 
Helix desertorum. 




at hastily, be¬ 
fore describing in de¬ 
tail their structural 
peculiarities and hab¬ 
its. The first two are 
cncephalous —that is, 
the animal is fur¬ 
nished with a distinct 
head, and the shell, 
when developed (as it 
usually is), is univalve 
or in one piece. They 
are named 

1. Cephalopoda 
[from the Gr. K^akr,, 
the “ head,” and jrods, 
noSos, a “foot”]. In 
this class the head is 
encircled by eight or 
more feet, or more 
properly arms, used 
in swimming and in 
seizing food. 

2. Gasteropoda 

[from the Gr. yaarrjp, 
the “ belly,” and ttovs, 
ttoSo?, a “foot”]. The 


• , . * r ouv.oo X V/VA WIVWUj Mill'. V 1L TV t/U. IVI III 

a microscope, the entire fluid is found to be colored, whereas in 
colorless flu co * or * 3 ^ ue re d corpuscles floating in a 

























CONCHOLOGY. 


animal is destitute of separato limbs, but glides, creeps, 
or swims by the muscular action of the under part of its 
body. 





Ptkkopod: 

Limacina antarctica (enlarged). 


Area granosa (acephalous shell). 


In an aberrant form of this class, formerly considered a 
distinct class, locomotion is effected solely by means of a 
pair ot wing-like fins attached antero-dorsally, and used in 
swimming. These 
are the Pteuopoda 


(from the Gr . nrepovy 
a “wing,” and 


, o-uu 7TOV5, 

iroSos, a “ foot”). 

The third class is 
acephalous, or with¬ 
out a head, and the 
shell (which always 
envelops the ani¬ 
mal) is bivalve, or 
composed of two 
distinct, generally 
similar, pieces, unit¬ 
ed at the back by a 
horny hinge called 
the cartilage. The distinctive nomenclature used for the 
encephalous classes is inapplicable here, because the foot is 
more or less specialized or entirely wanting in the various 
bivalve families—some of them being sedentary or attached, 
while others are locomotive. The best designation for the 
class is 

3. Acephala [from the Gr. a, privative, and KecWn, the 
“head”]. Most con- 
chologists use the term 
Conchif'era (shell - 
bearers) for this class, 
but it is an objection¬ 
able word, inasmuch 
as it is equally ap¬ 
plicable to the other 
two classes. Others 
call the bivalve mol- 
lusks lamellibranchi- 
ates (plate-gilled), de¬ 
scribing their respi¬ 
ratory organs, but 
this term is also ob¬ 
jectionable, because 
(as we shall show hereafter) the differences in the organs 
of respiration enable us to divide the gasteropods satisfac¬ 
torily into orders, and a designation indicating inferior 
value in one class cannot properly be used to express a 
high value in another. 

Until quite i*ecently systematists have included among 
the mollusks cer¬ 
tain aberrant forms, 
such as the brachio- 
pods or lamp-shells, 
the tunicates, and 
the bryozoans. Of 
these the first only 
possess a shell, but 
the external bivalve 
test differs in its re¬ 
lation to the con¬ 
tained animal from 
the acephalous mol¬ 
lusks in this respect, 
that its valves are 
applied dorsally and 
ventrally instead of bilaterally. Internally, we find in one 
valve a shelly process acting as a support to the animal, 
and (in this respect) simulating the vertebrate skeleton. 
The tunicates are shelless animals, enclosed in elastic gela¬ 
tinous integuments, having two openings only—an orifice 
for the mouth, and one for the excretions. The organ of 
respiration is a ribbon-like band crossing the interior cav¬ 
ity. Finally, the Bryozoa, microscopic polypous animals, 
attach themselves in generally symmetrical patterns upon 
the surface of rocks or shells, the aggregation of their mi¬ 
nute cells resembling corals. All these aberrant forms have 
been excluded from the true Mollusca by some of the best 
systematists of the ago; but by way of compromise they 
are generally assigned a position immediately following 
them as a sub-branch, named Molluscoidea (which see). 
The brachiopods are generally represented in concliological 
cabinets' and described in conchological works. Scientific 
opinion as to their place is by no means uniform. 

While dealing with exclusions it may be well to mention 
the cirripeds or barnacles, and the echinoderms or sea- 
urchins. These were included in the Mollusca by Linnaeus, 
whose “Systema Naturae” divided all invertebrates into 
two classes—the Vermes (mollusks, etc.) and tho Insecta. 
Lamarck and Cuvier also included tho barnacles in the 


Spirifera Walcotti (fossil). 




1083 


Mollusca, and even so recently as 1855, Professor T. llymer 
Jones so arranged them.® 

Anatomy and Physiology of the Mollusca. 1. Repro¬ 
duction. —The Cephalopoda and nearly all of the marine Gas¬ 
teropoda are dioecious —that is, the sexes are dist inct; but the 
pulmoniferous terrestrial and fluviatilo snails, the Pteropoda, 
the Nudibranchiata or naked marine mollusks, and a few 
other marine genera’, such as Bulla and its allies, arc monoe¬ 
cious, or with sexes united in the same individual. The 
Acephala are partly dioecious and partly monoecious. 

In the Cephalopoda or cuttle-fishes one of the arms of the 
male becomes a specialized reproductive organ, and in 
copulation becomes detached from its owner. It has been 
found living within the sac of the female. In consequence 
of this very curious method the male organ has been con¬ 
sidered by some naturalists to be a parasitic worm, while 
others have supposed it to represent the normal form of the 
male animal. 

The sexes in the cephalopods are distinguished by ex¬ 
ternal differences of form, as well as by the pen or internal 
shell. The eggs in their passage from the ovary are in¬ 
vested with a gelatinous fluid which greatly enlarges after 
deposition. The egg-mass is always clustered; in the ge¬ 
nus Se'pia, the typical cuttle-fish, it assumes the appear¬ 
ance of a bunch of black grapes; in Oc'tojms it is irregular 
and attached to sea-weed; and in Loli'go it is pudding¬ 
shaped, the eggs united by a ligament to a common centre. 
The liquid of the eggs is at first colorless, but soon after 
impregnation a central speck ajipears in each, which grows 
so rapidly that before the yolk is consumed the embryo has 
attained a recognizable form ; so that previous to hatching 
the foetal cuttle-fish already presents all the organs neces¬ 
sary to its after existence. The most remarkable physio¬ 
logical feature of the embryo is the duct for the conveyance 
of the yolk which communicates with the oesophagus through 
the head, penetrating in the front of the mouth, instead of 
entering the walls of the abdomen, as in the vertebrates. 
Only one oviposit takes place yearly, but the number of 
eggs contained in the mass is considerable, reaching forty 
thousand in the Loli'go vulga'ris. 

The shell of the Argonaut, the paper nautilus as it is 
called, is not a mere egg-case, being developed both by tho 
male and female. It is therefore a true shell, although pro¬ 
duced under abnormal conditions, being formed after the 
birth of the animal. 

The powerful, complexly-organized gasteropods, includ¬ 
ing the predatory tribes respiring by the aid of branchiae, 
are dioecious, and of course sexual union is with them a 
necessity; but it is no less necessary with the monoecious 
helices or garden snails, in which the co-operation of two 
individuals is required for reciprocal impregnation. As a 
preliminary to actual connection the two snails become live¬ 
ly and crawl around one another, while from the gener¬ 
ative orifice on the right side of the neck of either is pro¬ 
truded a sacculus containing a sharp-pointed spiculum or 
dart, with which they strike one another upon the skin; 
the dart-sack is then withdrawn, and another sack ex¬ 
truded containing both male and female organs. In the 
eggs of the Gasteropoda much diversity is exhibited, and 
three distinct types are recognizable, according with the 
habits and situation of the animals. Thus, the land snails 
deposit separate eggs covered by calcareous shells; tho 
phytophagous fluviatile and marine species, animals inhab¬ 
iting shore-lines and shallow waters, cover their eggs with 
a gelatinous substance, by means of which they are agglu¬ 
tinated into one mass; and finally, the zoophagous mol¬ 
lusks, inhabitants of deeper and rougher waters, where the 
spawn is more exposed to the depredations of other ani¬ 
mals, protect them by horny pouch-shaped coverings vari¬ 
ously aggregated : these masses, small and gelatinous when 
expelled from the female, rapidly enlarge and toughen until 
they frequently attain a bulk exceeding that of the parent, 
and the integument becomes as tough as parchment. Some¬ 
times these egg-cases are separately extruded, and in such 
instances they are individually attached to a piece of tim¬ 
ber, shell, or rock by tho animal, but ordinarily the whole 
cluster is expelled together. The process of laying is thus 
described by Sir E. Homo : “A friend of mine saw the female 
( Turbinel'la py'rum) shed her eggs ; a mass, apparently of 
mucus, passed along the deep groove in the lip of the shell 
in the form of a rope, several inches in length, and sunk to 
the bottom ; this rope of eggs, enclosed in mucus at the end 
last discharged, was of so adhesive a nature that it became 
attached to tho rock or stone on which tho animal depos¬ 
ited it. As soon as the mucus camo in contact with the salt 
water, it coagulated into a firm membranous structure, . . . 
and this connected nidus, having one end fixed and tho 
other loose, was moved by tho waves, and tho young in the 


*“ Animal Kingdom and Comparative Anatomy,” 2d edit., p. 
466, London, 1855. 










































CONCHOLOGY. 


1084 


eggs liad their blood aerated through the membrane, and 
when hatched they remained defended from the violence of 
tho sea till their shells had acquired strength.” 

The terrestrial mollusks lay few eggs, but the marine and 
fluviatilo species are more fecund. The Helices deposit 
from twenty to fifty oval eggs, pure white in color, which 
they hide in the earth or under stones, or cover with leaves. 
They so rapidly increase in size and hardness that in a day 
or day and a half they aggregate a greater bulk than the 
parent, and the shells have become opaque and consistent. 
The arboreal helices and bulimi of the Philippine Islands 
generally deposit their eggs in clusters, within two leaves 
previously curled together by the animal for their protec¬ 
tion ; the Buli'mua Mindoroen'eis arranges its eggs in par¬ 
allel rows agglutinated perpendicularly to the surface of a 
leaf. The eggs of the African Achatinoe difter from those 
of other land snails in the color being deep yellow instead 
of white. An Achciti'na Numid'ica which I kept alive tor 
two years deposited about seventy yellow eggs, which were 
loosely covered with earth; in a few days nearly every one 
of them had hatched, and shortly afterwards they entered 
the earth to pass the torpid season. Alas ! the rigor of an 
American winter proved too much for their tender consti¬ 
tutions, although my vivarium was kept in a heated apart¬ 
ment, for in the ensuing spring fifty-one of them were no 
more. Those that survived had by that time attained a 
bulk three times exceeding that of the egg. 

The large South American snails lay eggs as large as 
those of a pigeon, and they are eaten by the natives, but 
African snails of equal size deposit eggs not more than 
one-eighth of the above bulk. 

The Natica, a predatory sea mollusk, constructs a nest 
of agglutinated sand, in form resembling an inverted bowl 
with convex sides, a small circular aperture at the top and 
attached by its broad base. The eggs, encased in the usual 
tough tissue, are suspended to the inner surface, so that 
tho sea-water has access to them through the contracted 
aperture, while at the same time they are shielded from the 
attacks of enemies of their race. 

The Acephala were, until a few years ago, supposed to 
be generally hermaphrodite, but the number of these is 
being constantly reduced by the discovery of the dioecious 
character of various families. In the dioecious bivalve 
Mollusca the spermatozoa are discharged into the water, 
whence they are inhaled with the respiratory currents by 
the opposite sex. In many cases the sex cannot be distin¬ 
guished by the shell alone, but in others the posterior por¬ 
tion of the shell of the female is enlarged in order to cover 
and protect the charged ovary. So great is the sexual dif¬ 
ference in the shells of some of the Unionidae or fresh¬ 
water mussels of the United States, that they have been 
frequently mistaken for distinct species. 

Reproduction commences in the Acephala long before full 
growth is attained. The Cy'clas or Sphse' rium reproduces 
when so immature as to possess hardly any of the external 
characters of the species; and oysters, although they do 
not attain full growth under three or four years, spawn 
when four months old. So prolific are they that the ova 
of a single oyster have been estimated as high as ten mil¬ 
lion in number. Mr. Isaac Lea found the oviducts of the 
Anodon'ta undula'ta charged with about six hundred thou¬ 
sand individuals. This accurate observer has described 
and figured the embryonic forms of numerous species of 
American Unionidae, which in all cases differ widely from 
the parent; the valves are granulose on their external sur¬ 
faces, and frequently furnished with basal hooks, which, 
by interlocking, keep them together; in form these valves 
are rounded or oval, and they are attached to the animal 
by a single central muscle, instead of the two lateral mus¬ 
cles of the adult. As the ovary is included in the body of 
the animal, its enlargement when gravid would, in many 
cases, be so great as to preclude the closing of its valves, 
thus endangering its safety : in such cases the ova are ex¬ 
pelled from the nidus while still immature, but allowed to 
complete their growth in the branchial fringes, where, 
spread over a much greater surface, they enjoy the advan¬ 
tage of respiration in the ciliary currents. 

The BraChiopoda are believed to be all monoecious. 

Viviparous Reproduction. —This is not uncommon in 
the phytophagous gasteropods; indeed, different species of 
the same genus are dissimilar in reproduction; thus, one 
of the periwinkles ( Littori'na rn'dis) is viviparous, while 
another ( Littori'na litto'rea ) is oviparous—that is, in the 
former tho young are lodged and retained in the branchial 
cavity until fitted for a separate existence. The Paludi'na 
is another familiar example, exhibiting the same care for 
its young, which may be found within the parent shell per¬ 
fectly formed and numbering from fifty to a hundred indi¬ 
viduals. The Cym'ba Neptu'ni, a zoophagous gasteropod, is 
retained within the folds of the large foot of its parent until 
its shell has grown to the length of one and a half inches. 


Maternal instinct is shown in the selection of favorable 
situations for oviposition, as in the Ampullarim, which de¬ 
posit their eggs in shallow water, where, anchored to a stick 
or stone, they are exposed to the sun’s vivifying influence; 
the fresh-water snails, which attach the mass of gelatin- 
ously-enveloped ova to floating objects, in order to obtain 
for them the advantages of the solar heat and protect them 
from the dispersing action of the waves; the Tanthina, a 
mollusk inhabiting the mid-ocean, which constructs a float 
(attached to her own body), to the under surface of which 
the eggs are glued ; while the Argonaut hatches them within 
the protection of her beautiful shell. But perhaps the 
most extraordinary instance of maternal care is that ex¬ 
hibited by one of the limpets {Calyptrse'a Chinen'sis), 
which actually sits upon her eggs, and continues thus to 
protect the j r oung animals when hatched until they have 
acquired shells sufficiently strong to defy aggression. 

The study of the larval metamorphoses of mollusks has 
recently received much attention, and many curious and 
important discoveries have been made in this connection. 
We have already noticed the larval condition of the 
Unionidas, and like differences occur in many Acephala. 
The larvse of the attached species are provided with a 
ciliated swimming-disk, and are extremely active; they are 
also provided with eyes, which are lost when the animal, 
becoming adult, attaches itself for life and has no further 
use for visual organs. Similar changes occur in the brachi- 
opods; and the development of the nudibranchiate sea 
snails is thus described by Messrs. Alder and Hancock : 
“ The spawn is deposited in the shape of a gelatinous 
band, always arranged in a more or less spiral form, and 
fastened to corallines and the under sides of stones by one 
of its edges. The ova are minute and very numerous, 
amounting in some species to several thousands. Before 
the period of exclusion the young may be seen revolving 
on their own axis by means of vibratile cilia, and on es¬ 
caping from the egg they swim about freely in the water by 
the same means. The larva is extremely minute, and has 
more the appearance of a rotiferous animalcule than a 
mollusk. It is enclosed in a transparent, nautiloid, calca¬ 
reous shell, with an operculum. Its structure is very 
simple, showing no signs of the external organs that dis¬ 
tinguish the future adult. The principal portion visible 
outside the shell is composed of two flat disks or lobes, 
fringed with long cilia, by the motion of which it swims 
freely through the water. These are often withdrawn into 
the shell, and the operculum is closed upon them when the 
animal is at rest.” In this stage of its existence the tenta¬ 
cles are not developed, but are replaced by two ear-like 
veils; afterwards the tentacles appear, the foot enlarges and 
projects beyond the operculum, and the mantle becomes 
detached, yet the shell remains; finally, the latter is dis¬ 
placed, and except in the retention of the frontal veils the 
appearance is that of the adult; soon the foot exercises its 
locomotive function, the gills are developed, the jaws and 
tongue appear, and finally the veils fall, and the animal 
has attained its full development. 

Thus we find that the larval gasteropods are provided with 
an external shell even in those genera in which it is finally 
concealed in a fold of the mantle or entirely absent in the 
adult, and that they are temporarily furnished with a pair 
of ciliated fins by which they can swim about freely. In 
this manner nature has provided alike for the protection of 
the young animal and for the dispersion of the species. 

2. Nervous System. —The principal nerve-centre is a ring 
of ganglia surrounding the throat in the cephalopods and 
gasteropods, and situated on the posterior adductor muscle 
in the Acephala. This ring is perhaps somewhat analogous 
to tho vertebrate brain in its functions, and from enlarge¬ 
ments of it are distributed the nerves to every portion of 
the body. From this typical plan of the molluscous nerve- 
system there are, in some cases, considerable valuations. 
In the most complex organisms the concentration into an 
oesophagal ring is the most perfect, but in those animals 
which are more simply organized the centres are more or 
less dispersed ; so that in the So'len, for instance, the cere¬ 
bral and abdominal nerves have their origin at opposite ex¬ 
tremities of tho long body, but are connected by a long 
commissure. 

The various senses are unequally developed in the different 
classes of the Mollusca. The animal, when protruded from 
its protecting shell, is of course measurably defenceless; 
hence the most delicate and the most important of the senses 
is that of 

Touch. —This sense resides in every external portion of the 
animal, the moist, glutinous skin being particularly sensi¬ 
tive. So delicate, indeed, is it that the slightest impression 
alarms the mollusk and causes its immediate retreat. Spe¬ 
cialized organs of touch exist in the tentacula of the enceph- 
alous species, organs arising from tho top of the head or 
near the mouth, generally two (but sometimes four) in 















CONCHOLOGY. 


number. They are very flexible, and generally retractile 
at the will of the animal. In the Nau' tilus about one hun¬ 
dred of these tentacles surround the mouth, but only four 
of these are organs of sensation. There are also, in many 
genera, tentacular filaments arising from the sides of the 
mantle or body, and not generally retractile. The Halio'tis 
or ear-shell, Cyprse'a or cowry, Tur'bo, etc., are genera 
possessing these beautiful fringed appendages. In the 
bivalve species these filaments also exist; in those having 
the mantle open, like the oyster, they form the beard or 
fringe which lines its margin, Avhile in those having a closed 
mantle they are attached to the circumference of the orifices. 
It is supposed that mollusks are not very sensible to pain, 
and their tenacity of life and power of reproducing lost or 
mutilated parts is wonderful; the latter extends to the 
growth of new tentacula, and even, in well-ascertained in¬ 
stances, of a new head ! 

Taste. —The possession of this sense is rather inferred from 
the habits of the animals, the selection of food, etc., than 
from any specialized organs discovered by naturalists— 
their use being in most cases conjectural only. We can 
readily suppose that the Acephala, which swallow every¬ 
thing small enough to enter the mouth, cannot have very 
delicate gustatory organs ; indeed, the only selection made 
by them is in the reflex muscular action of the stomach, 
which enables them to eject through the mouth indigestible 
substances. The encephalous species, however, and par¬ 
ticularly the carnivorous ones, are certainly endowed with 
the faculty of taste, as their food is carefully selected. 

Smell .—There is no reason to suppose that this sense is 
possessed by the bivalves, but its existence in the univalves 
is very evident, as snails will approach food for which they 
have a preference, directed by the odor only, and cephal- 
opods are known to avoid the vicinity of certain strong¬ 
smelling plants. 

Sight. —The encephalous mollusks are provided with two 
eyes, placed on the sides or front of the head; they are 
either sessile or elevated on stalks or pedicels. Sometimes 
these stalked eyes are on short tubercles placed in the rear 
of the tentacles or branching from them, and sometimes they 
are situated at the extremity of the tentacles themselves. The 
eyes of cuttle-fish and of many carnivorous gasteropods are 
complex in organization, and endowed with visual powers 
equal to those of vertebrates, but the structure is much more 
simple in the plant-feeders, and is believed to possess only 
limited powers, having perhaps in most cases no faculty of 
distinguishing form or color, but merely a general suscepti¬ 
bility to light. 

It can no longer be doubted that the black objects which 
occupy the summits of the tentacles in helices are eyes; it 
is said that the snail will avoid an object placed in its path 
before ascertaining its position by actual contact, and that 
it is capable of perceiving, and is attracted by, gay colors. 
Nature has provided for the safety of these tentacular eyes 
by giving the animal the power of withdrawing them rap¬ 
idly through the tubes to their bases upon the approach of 
danger. This action is accomplished by the disappearance 
of the tentacle through its own cavity by a motion which 
may be likened to the inversion of the finger of a glove. 

The bivalve Mollusca enjoy visual faculties proportioned 
to their locomotive powers; thus, those which, like the 
Pecten, are of active habit, have a number of eyes situated 
among the tentacular filaments on the margin of the mantle, 
but in the fixed genera the eyes are rudimentary or absent. 
The North American Unionidae appear to be sensitive to 
light. In a communication addressed to the Academy of 
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1857, Mr. Lea says : “ I be¬ 
came satisfied that the closing of the siphonal tubes, on my 
approach to the specimens I had in my vivarium, was not 
altogether occasioned by the vibration caused by my ap¬ 
proach, and I accordingly arranged numerous individuals 
of several species with a view carefully to observe them. 
In the course of these examinations, repeatedly made, I 
found several species of Unio quite sensitive to my pass¬ 
ing my hand between them and the light, while others 
showed no signs of sensitiveness. Some individuals were 
more sensitive than others, and the females exhibited this 
power much more than the males, often withdrawing not 
only their siphons, but their mantle, within the valves. It 
is difficult to say with certainty how far their visual organs 
are developed.. The fringes of the branchial and anal 
siphons are, in the Uniones, formed of small, subconical 
tentacula. With a good lens the terminal points of the 
tentacula may be observed to be rounded and furnished 
with at least the appearance of an eye; and that it will 
prove to be a true eye, however imperfect, there can be but 
little doubt.” 

Hearing. —Some of the ccphalopods possess external ears, 
and auditory capsules, connected with auditory nerves, are 
found near the bases of the tentacles in gasteropods. The 
capsules contain one or more oval or rounded vibratory bodies 


1085 


termed otolites, and the occurrence of one of these vibrators 
in the vesicular cavity indicates the single auditory organ 
of the Acephala and Brachiopoda. Considering that such 
an exquisitely delicate sense of touch pervades the whole 
exposed surface of the mollusk, thus enabling it to perceive 
by vibration the approaching objects, it may be doubted if 
the auditory faculty be very highly developed. 

Voice. —With but few exceptions, mollusks are dumb. The 
cephalopods squeak and groan when removed from the 
water, and some of the nudibranchiates, the JEolis and Tri- 
tonia, emit audible sounds. 

3. Muscular System. —The prehensile arms of the cuttle¬ 
fishes, the foot of the gasteropods and of some bivalves, and 
the wings of pteropods, exhibit great jnuscular power. It is 
with its foot that the Plxo'las excavates the cave in solid 
rock or mud which becomes its lifelong dwelling, and with 
the same organ the razor-shell ( Solen ) buries itself with 
great rapidity beneath the wet sand of the sea-shore. In 
many of the gasteropods the foot is the swimming organ, as 
it is that of locomotion in all of them; but in bivalves an¬ 
other class of muscles become more important; they are 
those which, attaching the animal to the valves of its shell, 
enables it to open and to close them. These adductor mus¬ 
cles are sometimes two in number, as in the clam ( Ve'nus), 
and to this class the term dimyaries is applied, whilst 
others have but a single central muscle of attachment, like 
the oyster, and these are called monomyaries. We find also 
in the Acephala other muscles in the border of the mantle, 
controlling its movement. Their position is indicated upon 
the inner surface of the valves by an impression running 
parallel with the margin, and called the pallial line. When 
the animal possesses retractile siphons, the position of the 
siphonal muscle is shown in the shell by a sinus of the pal¬ 
lial line, which otherwise is said to be entire. 

Gasteropods are attached to the axis of their shells by 
muscles passing into the foot and operculum, thus enabling 
them, when alarmed, to retire quickly and to elose the door 
against the enemy. In non-spiral shells, like the limpet, 
this muscle is attached to the inner surface in a half circle, 
making a horseshoe impression within the shell. 

The cephalopods only, have muscles attached to internal 
cartilages, representing the attachment to the bones in the 
vertebrates. 

4. Digestive System. —The cephalopods are furnished with 
a pair of horny jaws (maxiUse), of which one is much supe¬ 
rior to the other in size. They may be likened to the mandi¬ 
bles of the parrot, have cutting edges and sharp-pointed 
ends, which are useful in dividing their food. In the hel¬ 
ices the mouth has an upper jaw only : it is frequently ridged 
across to assist the process of comminution, which is effected 
by its opposition to the siliciously armed tongue; in the 
fresh-water snail ( Limnea) this superior jaw is assisted by 
two lateral accessory ones. None of the gasteropods are 
possessed, like the cuttle-fishes, of both superior and infe¬ 
rior maxilla), and many of them are entirely destitute of 
these organs. Bivalves have a mouth supplied with a pair 
of soft membranous palpi. 

Encephalous Mollusca are provided with a tongue or 
lingual ribbon studded with denticles, which usually are 
arranged in the form of a triple band. The central portion 
is the rhacliis, and the similar lateral portions are called 
the pleu'rse. The recurved silicious denticles are in nu¬ 
merous transverse series, those of the centre being differ¬ 
ently shaped from the pleural ones. As they are worn 
away with use, a constant growth maintains their effective¬ 
ness, and they number in some cases as many as twenty- 
five thousand in a single individual. Following the three¬ 
fold division of the tongue or lingual ribbon, the teeth of the 
central portion are called rhachidian or centrals, the others 
uncinian or laterals. The tongue is elliptical in the land 
snails, forked, fleshy, and placed at the end of the muscular 
proboscis of the carnivora; but in most of the phytopha¬ 
gous tribes it is very long—in the limpet, for example, 
when extended, it exceeds the length of the animal, and 
when retracted it lays reversed along the gullet and coiled 
spirally within the stomach. In the Bulla the rhachis is 
unarmed, and trituration is effected by the calcareous plates 
lining its muscular gizzard. 

The bivalves have no tongue; the so-called gastric dart, 
a styliform cartilaginous body contained in the stomach of 
some species, is the representative of a gizzard rather than 
of a tongue. 

Modern investigators have assiduously studied the lin¬ 
gual dentition of mollusks, and many hundreds ot specific 
forms have been described and figured. Unfortunately lor 
conchologieal science, many of these students, misled by 
the great significance of dentition characters in the classi¬ 
fication of the Mammalia, have attempted classifications of 
mollusks based entirely on relationships of dentition, which, 
instead of according with other structural resemblances, de¬ 
stroy the natural groups and force into juxtaposition the 










CONCHOLOGY. 


1086 


most heterogeneous forms. It might be supposed that the 
study of the dentition would at least indicate whether the 
animal be carnivorous or herbivorous, but even in this re¬ 
spect it fails, because its relationships have occasioned the 
separation of carnivorous mollusks from others to which 
they are closely allied, to place them among the herbivora, 
with which they have no other affinities. 

In mollusks the liver is always of large size, and the ex¬ 
istence of a renal organ has been demonstrated in nearly all 
the species observed. The intestine is sometimes straight, 
terminating posteriorly, as in the Chiton, but more generally 
it is convoluted, and is more so in the herbivorous than in 
the carnivorous species. In the Encephala it generally 
turns upon itself, the funnel opening on the under side ot 
the neck in the cephalopods, and on the right side, behind 
the head, in the gasteropods. In bivalves the intestine is 
much convoluted, passes through the ventricle of the 
heart and terminates near the respiratory aperture, whence 
the excrements are washed away by the water from the 
gills. 

5. Circulation .—The heart includes an auricle, occa¬ 
sionally double, which receives the blood from the gills, 
and a ventricle for its propulsion into the arteries ; from 
the capillary extremities of these it is collected into the 
veins, again passes through the gills, and becomes arterial 
blood. It is colorless or pale gray. In the cephalopods 
there are two additional branchial hearts, and the oesopha¬ 
gus is more or less enveloped in a wide venous sinus. In 
the Acephala the visceral cavity forms part of the circula¬ 
tory system. Mr. Alder has counted 120 pulsations per min¬ 
ute in the Vitri'na, and half as many per minute in some 
nudibranchs; but it may be fairly inferred that the differ¬ 
ence is due partly to the condition of excitation of the 
animals under observation. 

6. Respiration .—The cuttle-fishes, Acephala, and brachio- 
pods are water-breathers—that is, they respire water con¬ 
taining air, absorbing the oxygen of the latter during the 
process. The gasteropods, however, are divided into water- 
and air-breathers, and the latter class, besides including all 
of the land snails, comprehends most of those inhabiting 
fresh water, as well as a few marine species. 

In the pulmoniferous species the lung is formed by a 
fold of the mantle, forming a chamber having pulmonary 
vessels distributed over its walls. The cavity of the lung 
opens on the anterior portion of the right margin of the 
mantle, and its alternate expansion and contraction in 
breathing is quite visible to the eye unassisted by a lens. 
The same folded mantle forms the cavity for the gills of 
the aquatic species, except in the nudibranchiates; in 
these the branchiae are arranged in a plumose festoon on 
the animal’s back, and entirely exposed. 

The bathymetrical distribution of marine mollusks is de¬ 
termined principally by the quantity of oxygen required 
by them for respiration, and a transition from sea to fresh 
water, or vice versa, or even a great change of depth in the 
same element, is generally destructive to their existence. 
Some sea mollusks, although water-breathers, are littoral 
in station, the moist sea air and visits of the tides sufficing 
for their respiration ; such animals will sometimes live for 
a lengthened period when removed from their native ele¬ 
ment. For example, a species of Littori'na, or periwinkle, 
of which several individuals were collected at San Do¬ 
mingo (1871), has now survived for nearly a year in various 
cabinets in Philadelphia. 

The carnivorous gasteropods generally receive the water 
for respiration through a tube specialized from the mantle- 
margin, and called the siphon ; while in the herbivora the 
mantle is simply somewhat prolonged and curled up. The 
bivalve Mollusca are in the same manner divided into those 
having specialized siphons, and those having merely a 
rudimentary fold of the mantle. 

7. Food .—The bivalve species, generally sedentary or 
attached, and seldom active, obtain microscopic food from 
the currents of water directed into the mouth by the joint 
action of the lips and branchim, while the cephalopods, on 
the other hand, dart through the water with great rapidity 
after their prey, seize it with their long arms, and draw it 
to their powerful jaws. Once enclosed in the eight power¬ 
ful arms, which are covered with formidable sucker-like 
disks, escape is impossible, and even large fishes and crus¬ 
taceans become the victims of these voracious animals. 
Man has been attacked by them, and there are well-attested 
instances of narrow escapes from these monsters—some of 
the species attaining gigantic proportions, with bodies 
several feet long, and arms still longer, the whole weighing 
several hundred pounds. 

The food of the zoophagous gasteropods includes fishes, 
crabs, zoophytes, and particularly bivalve Mollusca. With 
their spiny tongues they bore through the shells of the latter, 
which are incapable either of resistance or escape. Ten¬ 
der, succulent plants, algae, etc. are eaten by the land and 


fresh-water species; the snails showing a preference for 
the tender shoots of cabbage, lettuce, etc. which is very 
annoying to gardeners. In Europe these animals multiply 
so fast and are so destructive to gardens that it is necessary 
to collect and destroy them. An American gentleman on 
his first visit to the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kcw was 
surprised to see a bucketful of snails in the hand of a 
gardener, who informed him that it was part of his daily 
duty to collect and destroy that quantity, which he had 
done for years. 

8. Shell-Growth. — The majority of the mollusks are 
covered with an external shell; the Acephala always are so 
covered, the shell being in two pieces, united at the back or 
commencement of growth by a ligament or hinge; these 
are called bivalves. The gasteropods are generally pro¬ 
vided with a single or univalve shell, which is in form some 
modification of the spiral principle, varying from fusiform, 
in which the elongation of the axis gives it a conspicuous 
spindle shape, through countless intermediate forms to 
planorboid, in which the whorls revolve on the same plane 
with the initial one. A few gasteropods have no shell 
whatever, the nudibranchiates, for example; others have a 
more or less perfect internal one secreted beneath the man¬ 
tle, as in the naked slugs or snails. In the genus Chiton it 
is composed of a number of transverse pieces called valves, 
united by a ligament, and allowing some freedom of motion, 
by which the convexity can be accommodated to the sur¬ 
faces over which the animal passes or to which it attaches 
itself. In the Patella and the limpets generally the spiral 
nucleus is obscured or lost, so that the shell assumes a 
conical form, open at the base. 

Only two living genera of cephalopods, the Nautilus and 
the Argonaut, have external spiral shells; all others are 
possessed either of an internal calcareous plate imbedded 
under the back, of porous texture, called cuttle-bone, or of 
a somewhat horny narrower plate called the pen. 

The nucleus of the shell covers the young animal in the 
egg even before its internal organs assume definite form; it 
is generally of a transparent horn-color. After birth the 
enlargement of the shell is effected by additions to the lip or 
circumference of its aperture; these additions are effected 
by an exudation of carbonate of lime and animal matter 
from the mantle or contiguous part of the animal, which 
becomes calcified on exposure. Of course as the animal in¬ 
creases in bulk, so the circumference of this growth-margin 
enlarges, and the spiral shell “ grows;” and the lines run¬ 
ning parallel with the aperture which the outer surface ex¬ 
hibits are called “growth-lines,” and indicate these suc¬ 
cessive additions. The epidermis, or horny external skin 
of animal matter which invests most shells, protecting 
them from the corroding action of the elements, is exuded 
from the neck or collar of the animal, and here also origi¬ 
nates the cellular or main substance of the shell; but the 
interior lining of porcelanous or pearly matter comes from 
that portion of the animal containing the viscera. Of 
course in limestone regions land and aquatic mollusks 
flourish, and their shells are large and ponderous, while in 
places destitute of that material they are rare and small, 
and their shells fragile and of horny rather than calcareous 
material. 

In case any portion of the shell occupied by the animal 
becomes fractured, a viscid exudation takes place from the 
exposed portion of the latter, which soon hardens, repair¬ 
ing the fracture; but if the break occur in one of the ear¬ 
lier whorls, which the growth of the animal has compelled 
it to vacate, there is no means of repairing the injury, which 
accordingly remains, but a partition is thrown across the 
whorl immediately in the rear of the animal for its protec¬ 
tion. Such being the method of construction of the shell, 
it will be readily understood that spines, tubercles, ribs, 
etc. on the external surface are the consequence of inequal¬ 
ities of like character in the mantle of the animal, and that 
colors, whether in bands or spots, are exuded by pigment- 
cells similarly arranged upon its collar. The inner surface 
being secreted by the transparent visceral covering which 
is never exposed to the light, is of course white. Some 
shells, like the cowry, olive, bulla, etc., are entirely envel¬ 
oped in the mantle, and the colors are thus derived from its 
entire surface. In consequence of this protection, the epi¬ 
dermis is not developed in such cases. Thickening and 
contraction of the lip of the shell indicate adult characters, 
and further growth generally leaves these thickened por¬ 
tions visible externally, forming varices; but the animal in 
many cases possesses the power of removing both these ex¬ 
ternal varices, spines, etc., and all internal thickenings— 
even the partitions of the whorls and the very axis of the 
shell—when the room is needed for its growth or when they 
impede its movements. Analysis has revealed the existence 
of muriatic and sulphuric acids in the saliva of some spe¬ 
cies, and it is believed that these are the agencies employed 
in the removal of superfluous shell-material. 








CONCIIOLOGY. 


1087 


In nacreous shells the beautiful mother-of-pearl consti¬ 
tuting the lining or inner surface is composed of alternate, 
minutely-undulated layers of thin membrane and carbonate 
of lime. Precious pearls are similarly composed, and are 
originated by the irritation of intruding extraneous sub¬ 
stances, causing the animal to cover them by the deposi¬ 
tion of successive layers of pearly material. Pearls are fre¬ 
quently found attached to the internal surface of many 
species of bivalve mollusks, both marine and fluviatile, but 
the most valuable ones arc those which are completely de¬ 
tached and spherical, and are only found in the soft parts 
of the animal. I ho Chinese and others have made the 
manufacture of pearls a branch of human industry by the 
careful introduction of irritating substances within the 
shells. 

The operculum is generally a horny lid (sometimes stiff¬ 
ened by an exterior calcareous layer, and occasionally it 
is entirely calcareous) which is developed in the embryo, 
and grows with the growth of the animal; its accretions are 
exuded from the latter, and applied to the circumference in 
the same manner as in shell-growth. Typically, the oper¬ 
culum is closely fitted to the aperture of the shell, so that 
when the animal is at rest it acts as a door, preventing the 
intrusion of marauding enemies. It is a means of defence, 
hence generally developed in the harmless herbivorous spe¬ 
cies. It is occasionally found in the carnivorous Mollusca, 
but then it is often so small in proportion to the size of the 
mouth of the shell as to be nearly useless for defensive pur¬ 
poses. 

Ordinal Classification. —The following outline of the 
main features of the most approved classification will give 
an idea of the application of the foregoing structural details 
to the systematic arrangement of the Mollusca : 

Class I., Cephalopoda (the cuttle-fish). 

Order 1, Dibranchiata. —Animal swimming, naked (shell, 
when present, internal), mandibles' horny; arms eight or 
ten, provided with suckers; branchiae two. 

Order 2, Tetrabranchiata. —Animal creeping, with an 
external shell (as the Nautilus and Ammonite ); mandibles 
calcareous; arms very numerous ; bi-anchiee four. Only a 
few living representatives of this order are known, but 
several hundred fossil species have been described. 

Class II., Gasteropoda (univalve mollusca). 

Order 1, Prosobranchiata. —Animal creeping or swim¬ 
ming, protected by a shell, usually large enough to cover 
it; branchim plume-like, situated before the heart; sexes 
distinct. 

This large order, containing fifteen thousand species, is 
divided into two sections, as follows: 

A, Siphonostomata. —Carnivorous; provided with a 
breathing-siphon. The shell is spiral, with imperforate 
axis, the aperture terminating in a prolongation or canal. 
Operculum lamellar, horny. In this section are included 
the strombs, murices, whelks, cones, volutes, and cowries, 
all well-known marine shells. 

B, Holo8tomata. —Respiratory siphon wanting, or re¬ 
placed by a lobe in the collar of the mantle; gills plume¬ 
like, placed obliquely across the back or attached to the 
right side of the neck. Shell spiral or limpet-shaped, gen¬ 
erally somewhat globular, with the margin of the aperture 
mostly rounded and continuous. Inhabiting both sea and 
fresh water; a large portion of the former and all of the 
latter being phytophagous. The naticas, pyramidellas, ce- 
rites, turritellas, periwinkles, nerites, turbos, trochi, ear- 
shells, and limpets are the familiar marine representatives 
of this section; while the fresh-water genera include the 
melanians, paludinas, and ampullarias. 

Order 2, Pulmonifera. —Plant-eating, air-breathing snails, 
inhabiting land or fresh water; some furnished with oper- 
cula; monoecious. Includes the garden snails, helices, 
cyclostomas, limmeans, etc., about seven thousand species. 
The terrestrial Mollusca are confined to this order; more 
than half of the fresh-water univalves also are lung- 
breathers. 

Order 3, Opisthobranchiata. —Shell rudimentary or want¬ 
ing ; branchke arborescent, more or less completely exposed 
on the back or towards the sides of the body near its rear 
end. The sexes are united in each animal. These are 
marine snails, met with only on the high seas, swimming 
on the surface, which they render brilliant by their gaudy 
coloring. They can only be preserved in alcohol, which, 
unfortunately, destroys their brilliant tints. A few of them, 
the Bulla and its allies, secrete a shell within the folds of 
the mantle. 

Order 4, Pteropoda. —Marine animals, swimming by the 
aid of a pair of wing-like fins proceeding from the sides of 
the neck. Shell glassy and translucent, sexes united. A 
small group of pelagic animals almost unknown to collec¬ 
tors. 

Class III., Acephala (bivalves). 

Marine or fresh-water mollusks protected by a bivalve 


shell. Two systems of classification have been proposed, 
neither of which is entirely satisfactory. The first divides 
them, in accordance with the number of adductor muscles, 
into Monomyaria , Dimyaria, etc., and the second is founded 
on the presence or absence of the siphon and the character 
of the pallial impression, thus: 

1. Without siphons. Pallial line simple. 

(The oysters, arks, marine and fresh-water mussels.) 

2. With sijjhons. (a) Pallial line simple. 

(Chamas, tridacnas, lucinas, cockles, cyclades, clams, 
etc.) 

( b ) Pallial line sinuated. 

(Veneridae, mactras, tellinas, razor-shells, gapers, 
pholades, or borers, etc.) 

The above brief outline of classification is all that our 
space will allow us to present. Recent systematists admit 
no less than three hundred families of Mollusca, including 
several times that number of genera, and the species de- 
■ scribed amount to between twenty-five and thirty thousand 
living species, besides nearly an equal number of fossil 
forms. The latter characterize by peculiar genera and 
species every geological period. They have become the 
“ testimony of the rocks” and “ the medals of creation,” for 
without them the geologist would, in many cases, be utterly 
at a loss to classify the earth’s strata. The primary classes 
of the Mollusca are all represented from the earliest period 
containing their fossil remains, but some of the lower di¬ 
visions have become extinct, while others have originated 
at various subsequent periods. The ammonites and the 
Brachiopoda are familiar shells, which at one time swarmed 
in the ancient seas; the former have become entirely ex¬ 
tinct, while of the latter a few species still exist. 

Economical Value of the Mollusca .—Small as most of 
these animals are, the immense number of individuals en¬ 
ables them to take an important position in the economy 
of nature; mountain-chains are formed of their disinteg¬ 
rated shells ; ships and piers are destroyed by the insidious 
attack of the Tere'do or ship-worm, and by the same little 
animal the accumulations of floating timber which would 
otherwise block up the mouths of bays and rivers, and the 
wrecks which would impede navigation, are removed. 

As articles of food, mollusks are of important value to 
man and beast. Large numbers of fishes, birds, and mam¬ 
mals prey on them habitually, and of many species they 
form almost the entire sustenance. Man has, in all ages, 
consumed large quantities of shell-fish—even the pre-his- 
toric cave-men ate them, and at the present time the annual 
consumption of them is so enormous that it would be diffi¬ 
cult to calculate the quantities and values. In the waters 
of the State of Maryland alone, according to official report, 
563 vessels are licensed for the oyster-fishery, and bring to 
market upwards of ten million bushels annually. The 
oyster of the waters of the Middle and South Atlantic 
coast of the United States belongs to the species Ostre'a 
Virginia'na, while that of the northern coast ( Ostre'a bore- 
a'lis) is smaller, more rounded, and rugose. To the latter 
the European species is nearly related. Ostrea Virginiana 
has been successfully transplanted to the waters of Europe 
and California, where it flourishes, and is regarded as su¬ 
perior in flavor to the “natives.” Besides oysters, many 
other marine bivalves and univalves are brought to market. 
Among the terrestrial species the Roman snail is an es¬ 
teemed delicacy in the Latin countries of Europe, and large 
numbers are bred for sale. 

Shells are extensively used for manufacturing purposes— 
for the making of buttons and many other articles; for 
cameo-cutting, in which advantage is taken of differently 
colored layers to produce striking effects of figure and 
background. Precious pearls, as previously stated, are 
secreted in the soft parts of those genera of Mollusca which 
form nacreous shclis. They have frequently been found in 
the fresh-water Unionidm or mussels of both hemispheres, 
but the principal product is from the pearl-fisheries of the 
Indian Ocean, an industry employing over sixty thousand 
hardy divers. Mother-of-pearl, used in manufactures, is 
derived principally from the Meleagri'na margaritif'era, 
inhabiting the Gulf of California. 

The byssus of the Pinna or fan-mussel is spun into 
articles of hosiery in Italy: it is a beautiful but expen¬ 
sive material, resembling the finest silk. (See Byssus.) 
From remote antiquity mollusks have furnished brilliant 
dyes, such as the far-famed Tyrian purple, discovered and 
first used by the Phoenicians—a color yielded by mollusks 
of the genera Pur'pura, Mu'rex, etc. Many of the natives 
of Africa and Asia use the shell of the money-cowry ( Cy¬ 
prus'a mone'ta) as money, and whole cargoes ot this species 
are exported by civilized nations to be used in trading with 
the natives. The wampum of the North American Indians, 
consisting of strings of fragments ot the shell of the clam 
( Ve'nus mercena'ria), was also used in lieu of coin. 

The molluscous fauna of the United States is very rich 















CONCH-SHELL—CONCORD. 


1088 


in species, including three hundred land shells, six hundred 
fluviatilc gasteropods, seven hundred Unionidae or fresh¬ 
water mussels, six hundred species of marine Mollusca of 
the Atlantic, and about tho same number of the Pacilic 
coast ; in all, nearly three thousand species. 

The study of conchology is one of the most fascinating 
subjects in the whole range of natural science, and has per¬ 
haps engaged the attention of more investigators than any 
other department of zoology. Collectors explore assidu¬ 
ously every portion of the earth’s surface and its waters 
for specimens, and the habits of the mollusks, as well as 
their geographical and bathymetrical distribution, are thus 
becoming extensively known. Private collections and cab¬ 
inets abound, and public museums containing large num¬ 
bers of species are to be found in every large city. Perhaps 
the finest conchological collection in the world is that of the 
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, which con¬ 
tains about twenty-one thousand species and numerous 
varieties, with extensive series illustrating geographical 
distribution; aggregating, probably, nearly two hundred 
and fifty thousand specimens. The library of this institu¬ 
tion contains nearly a thousand published works relating 
to the science of conchology. George W. Tryon, Jr. 

Conch-shell, a popular name for the shells of certain 
carnivorous gasteropods of the genera Triton , Strombus , 
etc. They are found chiefly in tropical seas. Many tons 
of these shells are annually cxpoi-ted from the Bahamas 
to Europe, where the finest are used in cutting shell-cameos, 
and the rest are useful in the porcelain manufacture. Conch- 
shells were formerly much used in the U. S. as “ dinner- 
horns ” by farmers, but have been largely superseded by 
those made of tin. 

Con'chos, a river of Mexico, an affluent of the Rio 
Grande, flows through the state of Chihuahua. Its general 
direction is N. N. E. Length, about 330 miles. 

Con'clave [from the Lat. con (for cum), “with,” and 
clavis, a “ key,” originally, a room that may be locked up]. 
This term is applied either to the apartment in which the 
cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church assemble to elect 
a new pope, or more frequently to the assembly itself. The 
usages of the Church require that the conclave must be 
held in a single apartment having only one door, which is 
locked after the entrance of the cardinals, in order that 
they may have no intercourse with the public while the 
election is going on. When a pope dies, nine days are 
allowed for the funeral solemnities. The cardinals assem¬ 
ble on the tenth day, and voting begins on the eleventh. 
From their separate cells, into which they are locked every 
night, the cardinals come together twice a day till some one 
of their own number is made pope by a majority of two- 
thirds of all the votes. Each cardinal is attended by two 
or three waiters, called conclavists, sworn to secresy like the 
cardinals. This method, in its main features, dates from 
1274. Since Gregory XV. (1621-23), the choice has been 
either by scrutiny (ballot), by inspiration, or by compro¬ 
mise, usually the first. Since 1823 the place of meeting 
has been in a long wing of the Quirinal Palace in Rome; 
for nearly 400 years before that, in the Vatican. (See 
Cardinal.) 

Concom'itance, Sacramen'tal, the doctrine of the 
Roman Catholic Church, that the body and blood of Christ 
sacramentally accompany each other, so that both are sacra¬ 
mentally received under either species, whether of bread or 
wine; hence, that the communion in one kind imparts all 
that is received sacramentally in both kinds. Aquinas 
substituted this term for tho older one, “ Unio naturales.” 
(See Aschbach, “ Kirch. Lex.” s. v., and Transubstantia- 
tion.) The Lutheran Church maintains that from a na¬ 
tural concomitance we cannot argue to a sacramental one, 
which is wholly supernatural and dependent on the will of 
Christ; that this doctrine implies that the officiating priest 
receives both body and blood twice; and that it holds 
equally good for one lcind in the sacrifice of the mass. (See 
Krauth’s “Conservative Reformation,” 620, 621.) 

C. P. Krautii. 

Concom'itant [from the Lat. con, “together,” and 
comitor, to “attend as a companion”], a term of modern 
algebra, applied to a quantic which is related to a given 
system of quantics in the following manner: Let u, u 2 , etc. 
be a given system of quantics, which by linear transforma¬ 
tion of their variables become converted into u'\, u' 2 , u'z, 
etc., and let u and u' be quantics respectively derived from 
these two systems according to the same definite rule; then 
if u is converted into m u', where m denotes some power of 
the modulus of transformation, by the same or by reciprocal 
systems of linear transformations of its variables or facients, 
u is said to be a concomitant of the given system u\, u 2 , etc. 
If u should contain no variables, and be therefore identi¬ 
cally equal to m u', it is called an invariant of the given 
system of quantics; if, containing variables, it should be 


converted into in id by the same linear transformations, it 
is called a covariant; but if its conversion into m u' should 
require linear transformations reciprocal to those first em¬ 
ployed, it is called a contra variant. Lastly, if u should con¬ 
tain two sets of variables, and still become converted into 
m u' by transforming one set by the original and the other by 
the reciprocal substitutions, it is called a mixed concomitant 
of the given system of quantics. Concomitants, therefore, 
embrace covariants and contravariants. 

Con'cord [Lat. concordia, t from con, “together,” and 
cor, cordis, “heart”], litei'ally, “agreement in heart or sen¬ 
timent;” agreement between persons; unity of opinions or 
sentiments; peace and harmony. In music, a combination 
of two or more sounds, forming harmony agreeable to the 
ear; the relation, harmony or agreement between two or 
more consonant sounds, such as the union of the major or 
minor third with the perfect fifth and octave. (See Con¬ 
sonance.) 

Concord, a township of Coosa co., Ala. Pop. 754. 

Concord, a township of Green co., Ark. Pop. 960. 

Concord, a township of Adams co., Ill. Pop. 1140. 

Concord, a township of Bureau co., Ill. Pop. 2309. 

Concord, a township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop. 878. 

Concord, a township and post-village of Morgan co., 
Ill. The village is on the Rockford Rock Island and St. 
Louis R. R. Pop. of township, 1280. 

Concord, a township of De Kalb co., Ind. Pop. 1472. 

Concord, a township of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop. 4725. 

Concord, a township of Dubuque co., Ia. Pop. 1109, 

Concord, a post-village, capital of Hancock co., Ia. 
Pop. of township, 149. 

Concord, a township of Louisa co., Ia. Pop. 892. 

Concord, a township of Ottaw r a co., Kan. Pop. 720. 

Concord, a post-twp. of Somerset co., Me. Pop. 452. 

Concord, one of the three capitals of Middlesex co., 
Mass., is on the Concord River and on the Fitchburg 
R.R., 20 miles N. W. of Boston. It has a national and a 
savings bank, a court-house, a jail, and a fine public li¬ 
brary; also manufactures of cotton and of woollen flannels, 
and of carriages. The provincial Congress met here in 
1774 and 1775. On the 19th of April, 1775, several men 
were killed here in a skirmish between the British troops 
and the citizens of Concord. It is noted as being the resi¬ 
dence of Emerson, and as having been that of Hawthorne, 
Thoreau, and other literary celebrities. Pop. of Concord 
township, 2412. 

Concord, a township and post-village of Jackson co., 
Mich. The village is on the Michigan Central R. R., 90 
miles W. of Detroit. It has one weekly newspaper and 
one banking-house. Pop. of township, 1465. 

, II. A. Wetmore, Pub. “News.” 

Concord, a post-township of Dodge co., Minn. P. 792. 

Concord, a township of Clinton co., Mo. Pop. 2491. 

Concord, a township of Washington co., Mo. Pop. 
1343. 


Concord, a city, capital of Merrimack co. and of tho 
State of New Hampshire, is pleasantly situated on the 



State Capitol, New Hampshire. 

right bank of Merrimack River, 73 miles by rail N. N. W. 
from Boston, 474 N. N. E. from Washington, 130 S. from 












































































































CONCOKD—CONCOKD, BOOK OF. 


1089 


Mount Washington, White Mountains, and 30 S. from Win- 
nipiseogee Lake; lat. 43° 12' 20" N., Ion. 71° 20' W. It is 
one of the largest railroad centres in New England. At 
this station trains are made up for the Boston Concord and 
Montreal, the Northern, the Concord and Claremont, the Con- 
toocook Valley, the Boston Nashua and Lowell, the Boston 
Lawrence and Concord, and the Portsmouth It. Its. Trains 
also connect at Nashua for Worcester and New York via 
Worcester and Nashua R. It., for Wilton via Nashua and 
Wilton, for Acton, Providence, and New Bedford via Nashua 
and Acton, at Manchester for North Weare via Manchester 
and North Weare, and at Hooksett for Pittsfield via Sun- 
cook \ alley R. R. The streets are wide, have fine side¬ 
walks, and are beautifully shaded. The principal business 
is on Main street. Many of the business and public build¬ 
ings are fine and expensive structures. The State-house is 
built of Concord granite at an expense of $250,000. In 
the council chamber are large oil portraits, set in gilt 
frames, of all the governors of the State from 1785 to 1873. 
The court-house and city hall cost $45,000. New Hamp¬ 
shire Historical Society library contains over 6000 volumes 
of valuable books and 3000 pamphlets. The city contains 
the State asylum for the insane, with a fund of over 
$221,000, number of patients, 272; orphans’ home, St. Paul’s 
School, 160 students (Episcopal), and a jail and State 
prison. There are 15 church edifices, 52 schools with 2600 
scholars, 6 hotels, 200 stores and shops for trade of various 
kinds, 4 weekly and 2 daily newspapers, 2 national banks 
(capital of $350,000), 5 savings banks (deposits $3,380,000), 
2800 dwelling-houses, and in 1870, 12,241 inhabitants. The 
manufactories are varied, the most important of which are 
granite quarried and dressed, annually valued at$750,000; 
carriages, $550,000 ; furniture, $429,000 ; belting and leather 
hose, $390,000; railroad repair-shops, $290,000; foundry 
and machine work, $260,000; harnesses, $250,000; woollen 
goods, $250,000; cotton goods, $235,000 ; leather tanned, 
$175,000; sale of boots and shoes, $150,000; organs and 
melodeons, $120,000; confectionery and bakers’ bread, 
$100,000; printing, $110,000 ; and many smaller factories 
of $90,000 and less. Whole number of manufactories, 137; 
capital invested, $2,276,350; males employed, 2143, fe¬ 
males, 364; annual pay-roll, $1,329,500; value of goods 
manufactured, $4,600,000. The water-power is valuable, 
but not much of it is improved. The city waterworks cost 
$300,000, and the sewerage $100,000. Valuation of the 
city, $12,000,000. 

A. J. Fogg, Ed. of "New Hampshire Gazetteer.’’ 

Concord, a township of Erie co., N. Y., contains Spring- 
ville and other villages. Pop. 3171. 

Concord, a post-village, capital of Cabarrus co., 
N. C., on the North Carolina R. R., 20 miles N. E. of Char¬ 
lotte. It has a cotton-factory and two public gins, iron man¬ 
ufactories, foundry, machine-shops, one boys’ and two girls’ 
academies, a national bank, and a weekly newspaper. There 
are large mines in the vicinity. Pop. 878; of township, 
1259. Charles F. Harris, Ed. Concord "Sun.” 

Concord, a township of Iredell co., N. C. Pop. 869. 

Concord, a township of Randolph co., N. C. P. 1028. 

Concord, a township of Champaign co., 0. Pop. 1035. 

Concord, a township of Delaware co., 0. Pop. 1092. 

Concord, a township of Fayette co., 0. Pop. 981. 

Concord, a township of Highland co., 0. Pop. 1262. 

Concord, a post-township of Lake co., 0. Pop. 797. 

Concord, a township of Miami co., 0. Pop. 4701. 

Concord, a township of Ross co., 0. Pop. 2772. 

Concord, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 926. 

Concord, a township and village of Delaware co., Pa. 
The village is on the Philadelphia and Baltimore Central 
R. R., 25 miles S. W. of Philadelphia. Pop. of township, 
1293. 

Concord, a township and village of Erie co., Pa. The 
village is on the Atlantic and Great Western R. It., about 
30 miles N. E. of Meadville. Pop. of township, 1436. 

Concord, a township of Clarendon co., S. C. Pop. 800. 

Concord, a township of Sumter co., S. C. Pop. 1519. 

Concord, a township and post-village of Essex co., Vt., 
37 miles E. N. E. of Montpelier. The township has five 
churches, and manufactures of lumber, furniture, starch, 
sash, blinds, cassimeres, and other commodities. Pop. of 
township, 1276. 

Concord, a post-township of Jefferson co., Wis. Pop. 
1627. 

Concordance [Lat. concordantise, from concordo, to 
"agree”], an index or dictionary in which all the import¬ 
ant”words used (verbal concordance) or subjects treated of 
{real concordance) in any work are arranged alphabetically, 
and references made to the places where they occur. Of 


biblical concordances the number is very large. The earliest 
was to the Vulgate by Antony of Padua (born in 1195; 
died in 1231 A. D.). Next in order was the Hebrew con¬ 
cordance of Rabbi Isaac Nathan (finished in 1448, pub¬ 
lished in 1523). The first Greek concordance to the New 
Testament, by Xystus Betuleius (whose real name was 
Birck), appeared in 1546. Kircher’s concordance to the 
Septuagint appeared in 1607. The best are—For the He¬ 
brew, Fiirst (1840); for the New Testament Greek, Bruder 
(1853); for the Septuagint, Trommius (1718) ; for (he Vul¬ 
gate, Dutripon (1838). The first English concordance was 
by John Marbeck (1550) ; the best by Alexander Cruden 
(1737). The Englishman’s Greek concordance to the New 
Testament (1839) is very valuable. Among the chief con¬ 
cordances to the German Bible are those of Lankisch (1677), 
Schott (1827), and Ilanff (1828-34). The first French con¬ 
cordance was by Mark Wilks (1840). There is a con¬ 
cordance to Shakspeare by Mrs. Mary Cowden Clarke 
(1845), and to Tennyson by Brightwell (1869). The special 
lexicons, as to Homer by Crusius, and to Plato by Ast, are 
essentially concordances. 

Concor'dat [Lat. covcordata , "things agreed upon,” 
from concordo , "to agree;” Fr. concordat; It. concordato ], 
a treaty in relation to the ecclesiastical affairs of a Roman 
Catholic state, between the pope, as head of the Roman 
Catholic Church, and the government of that state. The 
treaties between the pope and Protestant powers are usually 
called conventions. The name concordat was first given to 
the treaties made by Pope Martin V. with Germany, France, 
and England in 1418. These treaties are called in history 
the Concordats of Constance. The name, however, is often 
given to various ecclesiastical treaties of older date than the 
ones just mentioned. 

The usual subjects of concordats have been the right 
claimed by the popes to fill vacant sees and benefices, and ' 
to appropriate the whole or a part of the revenues during 
the vacancy, as well as to confer on the clergy certain im¬ 
munities from taxation and civil jurisdiction, and to offer 
an asylum to criminals. The " Calixtine. Concordat,” one 
of the most famous of the earlier treaties of the kind, was 
concluded in 1122 between Henry V. of Germany and Pope 
Calixtus II., and has since been regarded as a part of the 
fundamental law of the Roman Catholic Church of Ger¬ 
many. At Frankfort, . in 1446, the electors of Germany 
made formal demands upon the pope for the redress of cer¬ 
tain ecclesiastical grievances. These demands w ere granted 
by Pope Eugene IV. in 1447 in the " Concordat of the 
Princes,” or " Frankfort Concordat.” This, with the "As- 
chaffenburg Concordat,” or "Vienna Concordat,” of 1448, 
which granted large powers to the pope, was long of great 
importance in the ecclesiastic law of Germany. Concordats 
have been chiefly adverse to the popes. Among the most 
celebrated concordats was that which Bonaparte as first 
consul forced upon Pius VII. (July, 1801), which was rati¬ 
fied in 1802, and has since, for the most part, regulated the 
relations of the Gallican Church to the Roman see. The 
clergy became subject to the civil power in all temporal 
matters; and though the pope in matters of discipline had 
very large powers, and was still to confer canonical insti¬ 
tution, the appointment of all the bishoprics was retained 
by the government. By the concordat which was entered 
into between Rome and Austria at Vienna on the 18th of 
Aug., 1855, the emperor Francis Joseph I. promised that 
the pope should have direct communication, free from sur¬ 
veillance by the civil power, with the bishops, clergy, and 
people. Bishops were to have, free communication with 
their clergy and their flocks, and to perform all functions 
which are prescribed by the canon law. The whole system 
of national education, even in private schools, was placed 
under the control of the Church. No one could teach the¬ 
ology without episcopal permission. The government bound 
itself to prevent the dissemination of books pointed out by 
the bishops as dangerous to religion. All questions of mar¬ 
riage, except in so far as they involved civil consequences, 
were reserved exclusively for the ecclesiastical courts. This 
concordat was abrogated without the consent of the pope 
in July, 1870. Important conventions were concluded in 
the nineteenth century with the Netherlands in 1827, with 
Russia in 1847, and with Wurtemberg in 1857. (A com¬ 
plete list of the important concordats is given by A. J. 
Sciiem in McClintock and Strong’s " Cyclopmdia.”) 

Con'cord, Book of {Concordia, Concordien-Bvch), the 
collection of the Confessions which are received cither by 
the entire Lutheran Church or by the larger part of it. 
It was published in 1580, and supplanted a great number 
of bulky Corpora Doctrinal. It contains—1, the three 
General Creeds, the Apostles’, Nicene, and Athanasian; 
2, the Augsburg Confession; 3, the Apology of the Con¬ 
fession; 4, the Schmalcald Articles; 5, the Smaller and 
the Larger Catechism of Luther; and 6, the Formula of 




























1090 CONCORD, FORMULA OF—CONDE, DE. 


Concord, to which the “ Book of Concord ” is related as the 
whole to a part, though the two are often confounded. 
(See Kuauth’s ‘‘ Conservative Reformation,” art. vii.) 

C. P. Kuauth. 

Con'cord, For'innla of ( Concordia? Formula), the last 
part of the “ Book of Concord,” in which it appeared, for 
the first time, in 1580. It consists of two parts, of which 
the first may be said to be the text, the second the commen¬ 
tary, and has an appendix of testimonies. It was occa¬ 
sioned by tho vacillations of Melanchtiion (which see), 
real and seeming, the Crypto-Calvinistic and other contro¬ 
versies, and the appearance of a number of Corpora Doc- 
trinne objectionable in various respects. Protracted and 
patient conferences and labors, in which the greatest divines 
of the Lutheran Church, especially Andrea) and Chemnitz, 
took part, preceded and accompanied the preparation of it. 
Eighty-six of the states of the empire united in it. Au¬ 
gustus of Saxony was among its most important promoters. 
Its topics are—the Rule of Faith and the Creed, Original 
Sin, Free-Will, Justification, Good Works, the Law and 
the Gospel, Third Use of the Law, the Lord’s Supper, tho 
Person of Christ, the Descent into Hell, Ceremonies, the 
Aliaphora, Predestination, various sects and heresies. “ The 
war of the Formula was fought for great principles; it was 
bravely and uncompromisingly fought, but it was fought 
magnanimously under the old banner of the Cross. It was 
crowned with victory, and that victory brought peace.” 
(See Krauth’s “Conservative Reformation, and its The¬ 
ology,” art. vii.) C. P. Krauth. 

Concor'dia, a goddess of the Roman mythology, may 
be considered a personification of domestic concord and of 
harmony between several classes of the body politic. Sev¬ 
eral temples were erected to her in ancient Rome. The 
sessions of the senate were sometimes held in the Temple 
of Concord (iEdes Concordias). 

Concordia, a parish in the N. E. of Louisiana. Area, 
790 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missis¬ 
sippi River, on the W. by the Washita, and on the S. W. 
by the Red River. The surface is level, low, and subject 
to inundation ; the soil is fertile. Cotton is the staple crop. 
Capital, Vidalia. Pop. 9977. 

Concordia, a post-village, capital of Cloud co., Ivan., 
on the Republican River, about 60 miles N. W. of Junction 
City. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Concord River, of Middlesex co., Mass., is formed 
by the junction of the Assabet and Sudbury Rivers, at the 
village of Concord. It flows northward, and enters the 
Merrimack near Lowell. The scenery of this river has 
been described by Thoreau in his work entitled “A Week 
on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers.” 

Con'cow, a township of Butte co., Cal. Pop. 490. 

Con'crete [from the Lat. concresco, concretum, to “grow 
together”], in philosophy, is a term applied to any quality 
which is considered in connection with the object to which 
it belongs; a quality not concrete is abstract. Thus “wis¬ 
dom” is an abstract quality; but when we speak of a “wise 
man,” the quality becomes concrete. 

Con'crete, a compound of hydraulic cement or of mor¬ 
tar with gravel, which hardens into a stone-like mass. It 
is sometimes moulded into blocks and used as an artificial 
building-stone, but more often it constitutes the foundation 
of buildings which would otherwise have to rest upon sand 
or insecure earth. It is also used as a flooring for cellars, 
and is said to effectually prevent the rising of miasmata 
and vapors from the earth. The name concrete is often 
applied to a mixture of coal-tar or asphaltum with gravel, 
much employed for walks or pavements, and also used as a 
roofing-material. (See Cement, by Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, 
U. S. A.) 

Concrc'tion [Lat. concretio, from con, “together,” 
and cresco, cretum, to “grow”], in medicine, an extraneous 
solid which accumulates within the body. Concretions 
may be chemical precipitates from the secretions, and as 
such occur in the bladder, the gall-cyst, or salivary ducts. 
These are called calculi, and are sometimes of organic and 
sometimes of non-organic matter. Again, concretions may 
be of phosphate or carbonate of lime, occurring in tuber¬ 
cular or other degenerate masses; while in the joints they 
are sometimes of urate of soda, as in “gouty concretions.” 
Within the alimentary canal they are often composed of 
hair which has been swallowed, or of cholcsterin, and some¬ 
times of magnesia salts. 

Concu'binage [Lat. concubinatm, from con, “to¬ 
gether,” and cubo, to “lie”], a term used to denote the re¬ 
lation of a man and woman who habitually cohabit without 
lawful marriage; or, more frequently, a kind of inferior 
marriage, which does not give the woman the legal position 
of a wife. Concubinage was lawful among the ancient He¬ 
brews, as the cases of Abraham, Jacob, and many other 


examples show. Concubinage in ancient Rome was oltcn 
a union between persons who could not legally intermarry 
on account of difference in rank. It appears that in general 
the children of a concubine were illegitimate among the 
Romans, though many examples of their apparent legiti¬ 
macy have been adduced. The Church of Rome never for¬ 
mally forbade concubinage until the Council of Trent. The 
Protestant churches have uniformly opposed it, as contrary 
to the spirit of Christianity. The only relic of legalized 
concubinage in enlightened countries is Morganatic Mar¬ 
riage (which see). 

Concur'rent, acting in conjunction; agreeing in the 
same act or opinion; contributing to the same event. 
Jurisdiction is said to be concurrent or cumulative when it 
may be exercised in the same cause by any one of two or 
more courts. To prevent the collision which might arise 
from each of the courts claiming to exercise the right, it 
has been established as a rule that the judge who first exer¬ 
cises jurisdiction in the cause acquires a right jure prseven- 
tionis to judge in it, exclusive of the others. This right of 
prevention appears to be peculiar to criminal jurisdiction. 

Concus'sioil [from the Lat. concutio, concussum, to 
“shake violently” (from con, intensive, and quatio, quassum, 
to “shake”)], in surgery, the disturbance caused by a fall 
or blow. In all severe injuries a concussion or shock is 
caused to the nervous system, which may require the as¬ 
siduous care of a physician. (See Shock.) 

Concussion of the Brain [Lat. commotio cerebri'] some¬ 
times causes alarming symptoms, even to suppression of 
the functions of the brain, yet without any apparent organic 
disease. Slight concussion of the brain (popularly called 
“stunning”) causes vertigo, loss of memory, tinnitus aurium, 
and stupefaction; but these are temporary. When more 
severe, there is loss of sensation and volition, with vomiting, 
the patient being apparently in a sound sleep, but without 
stertorous breathing. The pulse is variable, being more 
rapid and feeble than in compression of the brain; the ex¬ 
tremities are cold. Little can be done until reaction occurs, 
when the case can be treated according to general princi¬ 
ples. In some cases of concussion it is necessary to use 
local or general stimulants, but usually moderate heat ap¬ 
plied to the surface, abundant supplies of air, and proper 
adjustment of the injured parts are all that arc required 
until consciousness is partly restored, when a small portion 
of wine or other stimulant may be useful. The effect of these 
should be carefully noted, and the patient should be placed 
in a comfortable position in bed during the process. In 
all cases absolute rest is essential. If the concussion has 
been severe, the patient is often not secure until along time 
after, even though apparently well, for serious nervous le¬ 
sions may be slowly developed. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Concussion Fuse. See Fuse. 

Condamine, La (Charles Marie), a French savant, 
born Jan. 28, 1701, accompanied Bouguer to Peru, 1736, in 
order to determine the figure of the earth. He published 
an “Account of a Journey to South America” (1745) and 
“The Figure of the Earth Determined” (1749). Died Feb. 
4, 1774. 

Cond6, a town of France, department of Nord, at the 
confluence of the Haine and Scheldt, 7 miles N. N. E. of 
Valenciennes. It is well built, and has strong fortifications 
constructed by Vauban. It has a town-hall, an arsenal, 
and a military hospital; also manufactures of chicory, 
starch, cordage, and leather. It has been several times 
besieged, and was taken by the Austrians in 1793. The 
princes of Conde derived their title from this town. Pop 
in 1866, 4642. 

Conde, de (Henri I. he Bourbon), Prince, born Dec. 
9, 1552, was a son of Louis I. (see below). He was a 
cousin of Henry of Navarre, and joined the Protestant 
army about 1584. He died Mar. 5,1588, and it is supposed 
he was poisoned by his servant. He left a sou, Henry II., 
prince de Conde, who was educated a Catholic, and was the 
father of the great Conde. Died in 1646. 

Cond6, de (Louis Henri Joseph), Prince, styled also 
Duke of Bourbon, the last of the line of Conde, was born 
in 1756. He was the father of the due d’Enghien, who Avas 
murdered in 1804. Cond6 fought against the French Re¬ 
public (1792-1800), and was found dead in 1830, having 
died by violence, and perhaps by his own hand. 

Conde, de (Louis I. de Bourbon), Prince, an eminent 
French general, born at VendSme May 7, 1530, a son of 
Charles de Bourbon, due de VendSme, brother of Antony 
of Bourbon, and uncle of Henry IV. As an adversary of 
the family of Guise he took a prominent part in the con¬ 
spiracy of Amboise in 1559. He was the general-in-chief 
of the Huguenots in tho civil war which began in 1562. 
He was defeated and taken prisoner at Dreux in that year. 












CONDE, DE—CONDITION. 


In 1567 he commanded at the battle of Saint-D6nis. Hav¬ 
ing been deloated and wounded at the battle of Jarnao, 
Mar. 15,1569, he was killed after he had surrendered. (See 
Desormeaux, “ Histoire de la Maison de Cond6.”) 

Cond6, de (Louis II. de Bourbon), Prince, styled 
the Great Conde, a celebrated French general, born in 
Paris Sept. 8, 1621, was a son of Henri II., prince of 
Cond6, and was the first prince of the blood. In his youth 
he was called the due d’Enghien. He married, in 1641, 
Clarie CISmence de Maill6-Br6ze, a niece of Cardinal 
llichelieu. In May, 1643, he gained a signal victory over 
the Spaniards at Rocroi. He defeated the Bavarian gen¬ 
eral Mercy at Nordlingen in 1645, and inherited his father’s 
title in 1646. He gained a decisive victory over the Span¬ 
iards at Lens in 1648. In the civil war of the Fronde, 
which began in 1649, he at first supported Mazarin and 
the royalist party. Early in 1650 he was arrested by Maz¬ 
arin, whom he offended by his haughty conduct. After he 
had been confined nearly a year he was released, and 
raised an army to fight against the court. He marched in 
1652 against Paris, which was defended with success by Tu- 
renne. In 1653 he was condemned to death, and entered 
the service of the king of Spain, who gave him command 
of an army in Flanders. He was there opposed to Turenne, 
over whom he could not gain much advantage. The war 
was ended by a treaty between France and Spain in 1659. 
The prince of Conde was then pardoned, and returned to 
the service of the French king. Having obtained the com¬ 
mand of an army in Flanders, he fought an indecisive bat¬ 
tle at Seneffe against William, prince of Orange, in 1674. 
Died Dec. 11, 1686. “The art of war,” says Voltaire, 
“seemed in him a natural instinct.” Bossuet pronounced 
a funeral oration on him. (See Desormeaux, “Histoire de 
Louis, Prince de Conde,” 4 vols., 1768; Lord Mahon, 
“ Life of the Prince of Cond6,” 1840 ; Voltaire, “ Siecle 
de Louis XIV.”) 

Conde, de (Louis Joseph de Bourbon), Prince, the 
only son of the duke of Bourbon, was born Aug. 9, 1736. He 
served with distinction in the Seven Years’ war (1755-62), 
and emigrated as a royalist in 1789. He led the French 
emigrants who in 1792 fought against the republic in co¬ 
operation with the Austrian army. He disbanded his corps 
of emigrants, 1801, returned to France, 1814, and died May 
13, 1818. 

Condensa'tioil [Lat. condensatio, from con , and densus, 
“ dense, compact ”], the act of rendering a body more dense 
and compact by bringing its particles into closer proximity 
and increasing its specific gravity. The term is often ap¬ 
plied to the conversion of a vapor or gas into a liquid or 
solid either by pressure or by the agency of cold. 

Condensed Milk. See Milk, by Prof. C. F. Chand¬ 
ler, Ph. D., LL.D. 

Condensing Steam-Engine. See Steam-Engine, 
by Prof. W. P. Trowbridge. 

Cond6»sur-Noireau, a town of France, department 
of Calvados, on the river Noireau, 23 miles S. S. W. of 
Caen. It has manufactures of muslin, linen, woollens, cut¬ 
lery, and leather. Pop. 6643. 

Con'dict (John), a surgeon in the Revolutionary war, 
born in 1755, was a member of Congress from New Jersey 
(1799-1803 and 1819-20), and U. S. Senator (1803-17). 
Died at Orange, N. J., May 4, 1834. 

Con'die (D. Francis), M. D., an American physician 
and author, was born in Philadelphia May 12, 1796, and 
graduated as M. D. at the University of Pennsylvania in 
1818. He has published, besides other works, “ Diseases 
of Children ” (4th ed., 1854), edited Churchill’s “ Diseases 
of Women,” and contributed much to the periodical litera¬ 
ture of his profession. 

Condillac, de (Etienne Bonnot), Abbe de Mureaux, 
an eminent French philosopher, born at Grenoble in 1715, 
was a brother of the abb6 de Mably. He associated in 
his youth with J. J. Rousseau and Diderot. In 1746 he 
published an ingenious “ Essay on the Origin of Human 
Knowledge” (“ Essai sur l’origine des connaissances hu- 
maines,” 2 vols.), and in 1749 a “Treatise on Systems” 
(“Traite des Systemes,” 2 vols.). His reputation was 
widely extended by his admirable “ Treatise on Sensa¬ 
tions” (“TraitS des Sensations,” 3 vols., 1754). He was 
chosen a member of the French Academy in 1768. He 
adopted the theory that our knowledge and ideas are de¬ 
rived from the operations of the senses. Died Aug. 3, 1780. 
Among his works is “ The Art of Thinking,” forming part 
of a series entitled “ Cours d’Etudes.” He argues that 
man owes the development of his faculties to the use of 
sioms. His complete works appeared in 1/98 (23 vols.; 
new ed. 1824, 16 vols.). (See Robert, “Les Theories 
logiques do Condillac,” 1869.) 

Con'dit, a township of Champaign co., Ill. Pop. 755. 


1091 


CondU'tion [Lat. conditio , from condo, condition, to 
“build” or “found”], in logic, denotes that which must 
precede the operation of a cause, that which must exist as 
the ground or necessary adjunct of something else. For 
instance, when an impression is made on wax by a seal, the 
seal is said to be the cause of the impression, and the soft¬ 
ness of the wax is a condition. 

Condition, in law, has several significations. 1. In 
the Civil Law .—The principal case here is a clause in 
a contract, whereby a party, anticipating that an event 
may produce some change which he is desirous to guard 
against, provides what shall be done in case the event 
happens. For example, if it is provided that if a house 
that is sold is found to be subject to a certain burden or 
servitude the sale shall be void, the provision is a con¬ 
dition. Conditions were classified in an artificial manner 
(for which see Pothier on “Obligations,” Domat, and other 
text-writers). 2. In common law, it means the status of a 
person in respect to his legal rights, capacities, and dis¬ 
abilities. (The subject will be more fully considered under 
the word Status.) 3. In common law it further means a 
qualification or restriction annexed to an estate arising 
either upon a conveyance or under a will, whereby the estate 
is created or enlarged or defeated, or a like clause affecting 
the existence of an instrument or the operation of a contract. 
The leading instance to be considered is a qualification an¬ 
nexed to an estate. It is important, at the outset, to dis¬ 
tinguish between a condition and a covenant. A condition 
either enlarges or defeats an estate; a covenant is a mere 
engagement under seal to do an act. If a condition be 
broken, the estate either does not exist at all, or, if vested, 
the grantor may by appropriate means defeat it. In case 
a covenant is broken, the remedy is to sue for damages, or 
to compel the covenantor to perform it, or to prevent him 
by injunction from breaking it. The same act may by 
suitable words have imparted to it both the character of 
a condition and a covenant, when a grantor will have 
his choice of remedies. Conditions as to their form are 
either express or implied; as to their relation to the es¬ 
tate, they are either precedent or subsequent. A condition 
is said to be precedent when it precedes the vesting or 
enlarging of the estate; it is subsequent when, the estate 
having vested, its regular effect is to defeat it. The dis¬ 
tinction does not depend upon any form of words, but 
upon the intent of the parties. It will be observed that the 
regular effect of a condition subsequent is to lead to a for¬ 
feiture. As the spirit of the law is opposed to forfeiture, 
it is governed by technical rules that would not be applied 
in case of a mere action upon a promise or covenant. 
Great care must be taken not to confound rules which 
appertain to the one subject with those which prevail in 
the other. It is an elementary rule that a condition sub¬ 
sequent does not affect the nature of the estate; it only 
qualifies it to this extent, that in the happening of the speci¬ 
fied event it may be made to terminate before its natural 
expiration. Thus, an estate in fee or for life or for years 
remains a member of its class, though it may be defeated 
by the happening of the event which is called a condition. 
It should also be stated that the happening of the pre¬ 
scribed event does not of itself defeat the estate. There 
must be an affirmative act on the part of the grantor 
whereby he repossesses himself of his estate. This is 
technically called a “re-entry.” In well-drawn instru¬ 
ments a power of re-entry is expressly reserved. This 
rule is so rigidly adhered to that if a lease should prescribe 
that an estate of a tenant should, on the happening of an 
event, be null and void, a re-entry would still be necessary. 
This rule leads to an important principle, that the right to 
take advantage of the forfeiture may be waived expressly 
or by implication, as where rent upon a lease is accepted 
with knowledge of the cause of forfeiture. The technical 
rules of the common law do not apply to testamentary 
provisions or legacies of personal property, as that branch 
of jurisprudence was developed by the ecclesiastical courts 
from the Roman law. Much caution is accordingly neces¬ 
sary in discriminating between devises of land and legacies 
of personal property, for, though in the same instrument, 
they will be governed by different rules. The rule that the 
grantor must re-enter is to be confined to a strict case of 
condition. It does not apply to a conditional limitation. 
The distinction between the two should be pointed out. In 
a condition the estate on the happening of the prescribed 
event is to return to the grantor; in a conditional limita¬ 
tion it is to pass over to a third person. An illustration 
will show the difference between them. Thus, if a testator 
should give his daughter an estate to be defeated in case 
she entered a convent, there would be a condition ; but if 
he had added that in the event supposed it should go to 
his brother, it would be a conditional limitation. I he main 
importance of the distinction is, that in case of the con¬ 
ditional limitation no re-entry is necessary, and the estate 












1092 CONDITIONED, PHILOSOPHY OF THE—CONE. 


on the happening of the event passes at once to the person 
designated. (The law of conditions will be found in the 
works on real property, such as Washburn, Cruise, and 
Hilliard, and to a certain extent in works on landlord 
and tenant, such as Taylor.) T. W. Dwight. 

Conditioned, Philosophy of the, a name given 
to the system of Sir William Hamilton. It is a devel¬ 
opment and application of the general principle of the 
Antinomies of Kant. It regards the judgment ol cau¬ 
sality as derived from an impotence of the mind—the 
principle of the conditioned—the law that the conceiv¬ 
able has always two opposite extremes, and that the 
extremes are equally inconceivable. We conceive of ex¬ 
istence as conditioned in time, and thus expressing at once 
and in relation the three categories of thought which afford 
us in combination the princijile of causality, the law of 
which is that when an object is presented phenomenally as 
commencing, we cannot but suppose that the complement 
of existence which it now contains has previously been. 
(See Hamilton’s “ Metaphysics,” lect. xxxviii., xxxix.) 

C. P. Krauth. 

Condom, a town of France, department of Gers, on the 
Bayse, here crossed by two bridges, 24 miles N. N. W. of 
Aueh. It has a noble Gothic church, two hospitals, and 
manufactures of cotton and mixed fabrics. It was founded 
in 721 A. D. Pop. 8140. 

Condonation [Lat. condonatio\, in the law of divorce, 
means the conditional forgiveness of an offence for which, 
without such forgiveness, a divorce may be obtained. In 
form it may be either express or implied. It is sometimes 
difficult to decide whether the acts are of such a nature as 
to justify an implication of forgiveness. Cohabitation of 
the parties with knowledge that the offence has been com¬ 
mitted, and with the means of establishing its commission 
in a court of justice, will lead to an implication of forgive¬ 
ness. Condonation is conditional in this sense, that a repe¬ 
tition of the offence revives the original charge. According 
to some authorities, the original charge may be revived by 
the commission of an offence of an inferior grade. The for¬ 
giveness is said to imply that the innocent party shall in 
all respects be treated kindly. The point, however, is not 
fully settled. When an offence lias been condoned and not 
repeated, it must be treated as though it had never existed. 
The original charge is blotted out conditionally. (The sub¬ 
ject Avill be found fully treated in the treatises on divorce, 
such as Bishop and Poynter. The ecclesiastical reports 
in England and those of the court of divorce may be ad¬ 
vantageously referred to.) 

Con'dor [a Spanish word of Peruvian origin], the 



Condor. 


Yultur or Sarcorhamphus gryphus, or Gryphus typus, the 
great vulture of the Andes, the largest known bird of prey; 
it is four feet high. The average expanse of wing is not 
over nine feet. It is not much larger than the lammer- 
geyer, but it has a more gigantic appearance than that of 
any other bird except the ostrich. 

The condor is known to soar to the height of nearly six 
miles, far above ordinary clouds, and thence to survey the 
vast expanse in search of prey. This rarefied space, in¬ 
capable of long sustaining human life, is his native air, and 
he only descends to capture his prey. Condors rarely attack 
human beings, notwithstanding their gigantic size and 
strength. They pursue the deer, the llama, and young 
cattle, and devour them with great voracity. After these 


meals they arc almost unable to fly, arid are easily caught 
by the Indians. The eggs are white, and three or four 
inches long; they are deposited on the bare rocks, as the 
condor makes no nest. The female guards the young for 
a year; they are for several months covered with down or 
soft frizzled hair which causes them to appear almost as 
large as the adult. The condor is found in the Cordilleras 
of South and Central America and Mexico, and is said to 
inhabit the southern range of the Rocky Mountains, but 
it is found chiefly in the highest peaks of the Andes. 

Condor^ct, de (Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Cari- 
tat), Marquis, an eminent French philosopher and mathe¬ 
matician, born at Ribemont, in Picardy, Sept. 17, 1743, of 
an ancient family of Daupliine. He studied in the college 
of Navarre, and became in 1762 a resident of Paris. Hav¬ 
ing written an “ Essay on the Integral Calculus,” he was 
admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1769. He was 
an intimate friend of D’Alembert. In 1777 he was chosen 
perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences, and in 
1782 was admitted into the French Academy. He had a 
large share in the “ Encyclopedic.” He favored the pop¬ 
ular cause in 1789, wrote several able political treatises, and 
published the influential “Feuille villageoise,” and was 
elected to the National Convention in 1792. He was a 
moderate republican, and voted generally with the Girond¬ 
ists. He married in 1786 Sophie, sister of Gen. Grouchy, 
noted for her beauty (born in 1764, died in 1822). Having 
been proscribed by the Jacobins in May, 1793, he remained 
secreted in the house of a friend in Paris for eight months. 
During this period he wrote a “ Historical Sketch of the 
Progress of the Human Mind” (“Esquisse d’un Tableau 
historique des Progres de l’Esprit Humain,” 1795). This 
is regarded as his greatest work. He believed in human 
perfectibility, and had noble ideas of human destiny. Ho 
quitted his place of refuge early in 1794 in order to enjoy 
a rural excursion, was arrested, and confined in prison at 
Bourg-la-Reine, where he took poison and died Mar. 28, 
1794. “Thus died,” says Lamartine, “this Seneca of the 
modern school. The day of recognition has not come for 
him, but it will come and will exculpate his memory from 
reproach.” A collection of his numerous works was pub¬ 
lished by O’Connor and Arago (12 vols., 1847-49). (See 
D. F. Arago, “Biographie de Condorcet,” 1849.) 

Condottie'ri, an Italian word signifying “conduc¬ 
tors,” was applied to the mercenaries who during the 
Italian wars in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries took 
service under any prince or government that chose to en¬ 
gage them. They consisted principally of heavy-armed cav¬ 
alry, and for a long period the wars of Italy were left en¬ 
tirely to them. There came to be an understanding between 
them to spare their troops as much as possible, until at 
length battles were fought with little more hazard than 
would be incurred in a tourney. Among the most celebrated 
were Lodrisio, about 1339; Fra Moreale, 1350; Guarmeri, 
Lando, and Francisco di Carmagnola, about 1412 ; Fran¬ 
cisco Sforza, about 1450; and the English Ilawkwood. 

Conduction. See Heat, by Prof. W. Gibbs, M. D., 
LL.I)., and Electricity, by Pres. Henry Morton, Ph. D. 

Condnc'tor [from the Lat. con, intensive, and duco, 
duct urn-, to “lead”], a leader, a guide, a director, or com¬ 
mander. Conductor in music is the person placed at the 
head of a band of musicians to lead the performance and 
beat the time. The term is applied to a person who has 
charge of a train of railway cars and receives the fare. 
Also a metallic lightning-rod or other substance through 
which electricity will pass freely. (See Electricity.) The 
metals are the best conductors of electricity. Among the 
numerous non-conductors are glass, wax, silk, wool, resin, 
caoutchouc, amber, gems, sulphur, lime, and dry air. 

Cone [Gr. Ktoros; Lat. conus'], in mathematics, the name 
of a solid whose surface is generated by a straight line 
moved in such a manner as to pass through a fixed point 
and to touch continually a given curve or directrix. The 
fixed point is called the vertex; the part of the cone on 
which the directrix lies is the loicer nappe, and the other 
part is the upper nc<pp>e. There are many varieties of the 
cone, but the term is usually applied to those having cir¬ 
cular bases. The most common kind is the right cone, 
which may be conceived as being generated by the revolu¬ 
tion of a right-angled triangle round one of its legs. The 
line from the apex of a cone to the centre of the base is 
called the axis, and in the right cone it is perpendicular to 
the base. In the oblique cone the axis is inclined to the 
plane of the base at an angle other than a right angle. A 
truncated cone is the lower part of a cone cut by a plane 
parallel to the base. Four curves, called the conic sections, 
may be formed by a plane cutting the right cone. If the 
cone be cut by a plane parallel to the base, the section is a 
circle; it the plane cut the cone across, making any angle 






















CONE—CONFEDERATE STATES. 


other than a right angle with its axis, the section is an 
ellipse. It the cutting plane be parallel to the side, the 
section will be a parabola. In every other case than those 
stated the section will be a hyperbola, unless section is 
made through the apex, when a point is produced. Hence 
the point is one of the conic sections. If two cones were 
set one above the other, point to point, the one being a 
continuation of the other through the apex, or, more strictly, 
it a cone be regarded as consisting of two nappes, as in the 
definition given, the plane producing the hyperbolic section 
would cut the second as well as the first, though none of the 
other planes would. There are thus two equal branches of 
the hyperbola belonging to the two nappes of a cone. 

Cone [Lat. strobdus ; Gr. kOivos and <rrp6|3iAos], in bot¬ 
any, is a term applied to a collective fruit and form of in¬ 
florescence sometimes called a Strobile, which is a spike 
furnished with scales, each of which has two naked seeds 
at its base. Such cones are characteristic of the trees of 
the natural order Coniferae, and are so called because some 
of them are conical in form. The scales of true cones are 
closely compacted together, until they separate to permit 
the dispersion of the seeds. In some of the Coniferm the 
fruit assumes a berry-like form. The Greeks called the 
cone o-Tpoj3iAo5, from arpe^ay, to “ twist/’ alluding to the 
beautiful spiral arrangement of the scales. 

Cone (Spencer Houghton), D. D., born in Princeton, 
N. J., April 30, 1785, pursued a partial course at the Col¬ 
lege of New Jersey, became an actor, and played with 
great success for seven years, principally in Philadelphia. 
From 1812 to 1815 he was an editor in Baltimore, and had 
command of a company of volunteers which were called 
into service during the war of 1812. He was ordained to 
the Baptist ministry in 1815, was pastor at Alexandria, 
Va. (1816-23), Oliver Street church, New York, 1823-41, 
First Baptist church,New York (1841-55), and was noted 
as a pulpit orator and presiding officer, and as an advocate 
of a new version of the Bible into English. Died in New 
York Aug. 23, 1855. 

Cone'cuh, a county in the S. of Alaba,ma. Area, 750 
square miles. It is drained by the Sepulga River. The 
surface is uneven ; the soil is sandy and mostly poor. Cot¬ 
ton and wool are produced. Pine lumber is procured in the 
forests. It is intersected by the Mobile and Montgomery 
R. R. Capital, Evergreen. Pop. 9574. 

Coneglia'no, a town of Italy, in the province of Tre¬ 
viso, on a railway, 30 miles N. of Venice. It has a cathe¬ 
dral, and silk and woollen manufactures. Pop. 6834. 

Cone'jos, a county of Colorado, bordering on New 
Mexico. It is bounded on the E. by the Rio Grande del 
Norte. It is generally well watered and timbered, and has 
much good grazing-land. The W. part is occupied by the 
Ute reservation. Cattle and wool are staple products. The 
surface is partly mountainous. Gold and silver are found 
abundantly. It comprises part of the beautiful and fertile 
San Luis Park. Capital, Conejos. Pop. 2504. 

Conejos, a post-village, capital of Conejos co., Col.,on 
one of the head-streams of the Rio Grande. 

Con'emaugh', a post-borough of Cambria co., Pa., on 
the Conemaugh River and the Central R. R., 80 miles E. 
of Pittsburg and 2 miles E. of Johnstown. Pop. 2336. 

Conemaugh, a township of Cambria co., Pa. P. 728. 

Conemaugh, a township of Indiana co., Pa. P. 1493. 

Conemaugh, a township of Somerset co., Pa. P. 1172. 

Cone-Shells (Conidse), a family of prosobranchiate 
gasteropodous mollusks, of the section Siphonostomata, 
having a shell of inversely conical form; the spire on the 
base of the cone (sometimes a sharp point, sometimes 
almost flat); the aperture long, narrow, and straight, ex¬ 
tending from the base of the cone to its apex. The animal 
is carnivorous, and has a proboscis capable of much exten¬ 
sion. The shell is covered with an epidermis. The mol¬ 
lusks of the genus Conus inhabit shores and banks ot sandy 
mud, chiefly within the tropics, a few only occurring in the 
Mediterranean. More than 270 living species are known, 
besides many fossils. The genus Pleurostoma is of nearly 
world-wide distribution, and has about 450 living species, 
with 300 fossil ones. Most of the living species are marine. 
These two genera constitute the family, and are for conve¬ 
nience divided into many sub-genera. Many of these shells 
are very beautiful. 

Conesto'ga, a post-township of Lancaster co., Pa., 
in the Conestoga Valley, which gives name to a once cele¬ 
brated stock of large horses. Pop. 2079. 

Cone'sus, a township and post-village of Livingston 
co. N. Y. The village is on a branch of the Erie R. R., 38 
miles S. of Rochester. Pop. 1362. 

Conesus Centre, a post-village of Conesus township, 
Livingston co., N. Y. Pop. 237. 


1093 


Conesville, a post-township of Schoharie co., N. Y. 
Pop. 1314. 

Cones, Volcanic. See Volcanoes, by Prof. Arnold 
Guvot, Ph. D., LL.D. 

Conewa'go, a township of Adams co., Pa. Pop. 1029. 

ConeAvago, a township and village of York co., Pa. 
The village is on the Northern Central R. R., 17 miles S. E. 
of Harrisburg. Pop. 1382. 

Conewago, a township of Dauphin co., Pa. P. 831. 

CcncAvan'go, a post-township of Cattaraugus co., N. Y. 
Pop. 1281. 

ConeAvango, a township of Warren co., Pa. P.1212. 

Co'ney, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop. 1984. 

Coney Island, a place of summer resort, is in the 
Atlantic, 11 miles S. of the city of New York, and is near 
the S. W. extremity of Long Island. It is 1£ miles long. 
Here are several hotels for the accommodation of visitors. 

Confarrea'tion [Lat. farreum or confarreatio, from 
con, “ together,” and far, “meal”], a mode of marriage 
among the ancient Romans practised by the patricians only. 
It consisted in the employment of certain words in the 
presence of ten witnesses, and in the performance of a re¬ 
ligious ceremony in which jyanis farreus, a peculiar kind 
of bread, was eaten by bridegroom and bride. The offices 
of Flamen Dialis, Flamen Mercurialis, and Flamen Quiri- 
nalis were open only to those who were born of parents 
thus married. The custom probably did not come down to 
the time of Cmsar. 

Confed'eracy [Lat. confcederatio, from con, “to¬ 
gether,” and foedus (gen. foederis), a “league”], a federal 
compact; an alliance or league of independent states; sev¬ 
eral states or nations united by a league; a coalition. In 
law, a combination of two or more persons to commit an 
unlawful act. The term confederacy has often been applied 
to the government of the U. S. 

Confederate States, or Southern Confederacy. 

The earlier authentic assertions of a right (alleged therein 
to have been reserved by the States in ratifying the Federal 
Constitution) to resist the constituted authorities and sub¬ 
vert the laws of the Union when one or more of those States 
should adjudge any exercise of Federal authority unwar¬ 
ranted by the said Constitution, were made by the legisla¬ 
ture of Kentucky in 1798, and by that of Virginia in 1799 ; 
the Kentucky resolves in which this doctrine was formulated 
having been prepared by Thomas Jefferson, as those of Vir¬ 
ginia were by James Madison. In neither case did these 
resolves appear to contemplate disunion, but rather a nulli¬ 
fication of the obnoxious Federal act by the sovereign power 
of a State. The first distinct avowal of disunion sentiment 
was made on the floor of the House of Representatives by 
Josiah Quincy (of Boston, Massachusetts), who, in oppos¬ 
ing the purchase of Louisiana, asserted that this measure 
(which he agreed with its author, President Jefferson, in 
pronouncing unconstitutional) virtually dissolved the Union, 
so that the States were freed from its obligations and should 
prepare for peaceable or forcible separation. This avowal 
elicited little sympathy or approval. Again, during our 
last war with Great Britain (1814-15) some of the more 
ardent Federalists of New England, being intensely hostile 
to that war, openly advocated secession, and a convention 
held by them at Hartford, Connecticut, was popularly and 
not unreasonably regarded as impelled by a spirit inimical 
to the Union. Hence, the members of this convention were 
ever after under the ban of public opinion, and the Federal 
party never regained the public confidence. Again, when 
the North and South came into fierce collision respecting 
slavery on the question of admitting Missouri as a slave 
State, menaces of disunion if she were excluded were heard 
—this time from the South. When in 1828 Congress passed 
a stringently protective tariff, South Carolina, under the 
lead of John C. Calhoun, George McDuffie, and General 
James Hamilton, Jr., threatened to nullify the operation 
of that act within her own borders ; and, though that tariff 
was modified in 1832, she adhered to her resolve and pro¬ 
ceeded to call a convention whereby the existing tariff was 
pronounced null and void. General Jackson, then Presi¬ 
dent, denied her right to do this with effect in a vigorous 
and masterly proclamation, whereof Edward Livingston, 
secretary of state, was understood to be the scribe, and, in 
some degree, the author. Congress proceeded to modify still 
further the tariff, and South Carolina thereupon waived the 
execution of her ordinance; so a collision was averted. 

African slavery, which, though the slaves were few at the 
North, had been all but universal, became at length dis¬ 
tinctively Southern, and was reprobated by an intelligent, 
conscientious, growing minority at the North. They agi¬ 
tated for the overthrow of human bondage, regardless of 



















1094 


CONFEDERATE STATES. 


the fact that the Federal Constitution conferred on Con¬ 
gress or the non-slaveholding States no power over the do¬ 
mestic institutions of the South. Prophecies and threats 
of disunion were now freely uttered in the slave States. 
The question of organizing new Territories from the public 
domain constantly inflamed this controversy; the South 
insisting that her people had a right to migrate to any Ter¬ 
ritory, and there hold their slaves as in their own States; 
the North denying this, and demanding the conservation 
of the national domain to free labor. Another compromise 
in 1850 essayed to end this dispute, but with poor success, 
the collisions between free and slave labor which followed 
the organization (in 1854) of Kansas as a Territory widen¬ 
ing and deepening the agitation. An attempt to array the 
South under the banner of State Rights against the com¬ 
promise of 1850 had broken down, even South Carolina re¬ 
fusing to sustain it; but when, in 1860, Abraham Lincoln had 
been chosen President, on a platform of resistance to sla¬ 
very extension, by all the electoral votes of the free States 
except three of the seven cast from New Jersey, the long-med¬ 
itated struggle for disunion was inaugurated by South Caro¬ 
lina, whose legislature was then holding a called session. 
A convention was summoned, which promptly met and by 
ordinance (December 20) declared the State no longer in 
the Union—Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Louisi¬ 
ana, and Texas following her example, making seven States 
in all which had declared themselves out of the Union be¬ 
fore Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated (March 4, 1861). Some 
of these were barely carried for secession, and in none but 
South Carolina was the step taken with an approach to 
unanimity. The other eight slave States, though urged to 
unite in secession, refused to do so, mainly by overwhelm¬ 
ing majorities. In pursuance of an invitation from South 
Carolina, the seceded States, forming an aggregate popula¬ 
tion of 2,656,948 free persons and 2,312,046 slaves, sent dele¬ 
gates to a convention which met at Montgomery, Alabama, 
February 4,1861, and promptly formed a confederacy under 
a constitution modelled on thatof the Union, except that it 
expressly asserted the right to take slaves into any State or 
Territory of said Confederacy, and there hold them as prop¬ 
erty. Of this Confederacy, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi 
was made President, and Alexander H. Stephens of Geor¬ 
gia Vice-President—at first pro tern., but they were in due 
time chosen without opposition for a regular term of six 
years. Montgomery was continued as the capital of the 
Confederacy, and its first Congress there assembled. 

Hostilities against the Union were inaugurated by Con¬ 
federates while Mr. Buchanan (who offered no resistance) 
was still President. General David E. Twiggs had will¬ 
ingly surrendered (February 18) to them at Indianola, 
Texas, the largest Federal force anywhere embodied ; the 
detachments guarding our Mexican and Indian frontiers 
werelikewisecaptured, and their arms and munitions treated 
as spoils of war; the Federal sub-treasury at New Orleans, 
containing $500,000, had been turned over to the new gov¬ 
ernment, as had several national fortresses and vessels; so 
that when Mr. Lincoln assumed the duties of President the 
war had been fairly inaugurated on the side of the Confed¬ 
eracy, but not on that of the Union. Still, he forbore to 
initiate hostilities—unless the sending of food to the hun¬ 
gry garrisons of the Southern forts still held for the Union 
could be deemed such—until fire was opened (April 12), 
by express, repeated orders from the Confederate war de¬ 
partment, upon Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor, South 
Carolina, on an islet which had been all but created by 
Federal effort and expenditure. Batteries had been erected 
without opposition so near it that this fort was reduced 
within thirty-six hours ; its garrison of seventy men, under 
Major Robert Anderson, being allowed to march out, salute 
their flag, and be transported northward, not prisoners of 
war. 

A tremendous excitement was produced throughout the 
country by tidings of this almost bloodless cannonade. At 
the South it was regarded as at once a general call to arms 
and an omen of easy, speedy triumph. At the North, where 
the hope of a peaceable solution had till this time been 
obstinately cherished, it was received with momentary 
amazement, followed by intense indignation. “ It is an 
impeachment of our manhood—a challenge to fight !” was 
the general exclamation. Partisanship, hitherto rampant, 
of the South, as wronged and outraged by Northern aboli¬ 
tionism, was overawed and silenced; the national flag was 
everywhere displayed; President Lincoln called out for 
three months 75,000 militia to “ repossess the forts, places, 
and property which had been seized from the Union.” But 
part of the regiments called out were to be furnished by 
Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, 
and Arkansas, whose Democratic governors spurned the 
call as a usurpation, and by Maryland and Delaware, whoso 
authorities were little better inclined to the suppression of 
secession by force of arms. Virginia, whose convention, 


then in session, had previously refused by two to one to se¬ 
cede, now passed an ordinance of secession, and North Caro¬ 
lina soon followed the example, as Tennessee and Arkansas 
did somewhat later. Governor Claiborne F. Jackson tried to 
lead Missouri the same road, but the convention called at 
his beck utterly refused, so that he was obliged to raise 
Confederate troops and inaugurate civil war by virtue solely 
of his executive authority. He was speedily arrested by 
the prompt, decisive action of Captain Nathaniel Lyon 
and Francis P. Blair, Jr., who raised a force which captured 
his “ Camp Jackson,” near St. Louis, and most of the men 
he had assembled; and he was soon forced to flee the 
State, which, though its people were pretty evenly divided, 
adhered to the Union, as did Kentucky under kindred 
auspices. These two last were for years ostensibly repre¬ 
sented in the Confederate Congress, but not by their own 
choice. When the Confederacy was full grown it embraced 
the States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Tennessee, Arkan¬ 
sas, Louisiana, and Texas—eleven in all—covering nearly 
half of the inhabited area of the Union, with rather less 
than a third of its people. Considering, however, that 
Kentucky, Missouri, and Maryland contributed largely, 
persistently, to the Confederate armies, it is fair to esti¬ 
mate the practical Confederate strength at one-half that of 
the States which remained loyal to the Union. 

The Confederate Congress, two days after Mr. Lincoln’s 
inauguration, had authorized the raising of a military force 
of 100,000 men, to be under the chief command of Presi¬ 
dent Davis. The States which had seized forts, arms, ves¬ 
sels, money, and other public property of the Union were 
requested to turn them over to the Confederacy, and gen¬ 
erally did so. Commissioners were sent from Montgomery 
to Washington to negotiate for a peaceful adjustment of 
all questions arising between the Union and its new-born 
competitor. They were courteously received by Hon. Wil¬ 
liam H. Seward, Mr. Lincoln’s secretary of state, but no 
reconciliation of the antagonist pretensions was practicable, 
and they left, asserting that they had not been frankly, 
candidly met. The Confederacy had organized its revenue 
system, and commenced collecting duties on imports from 
the loyal States and elsewhere, before striking the blow at 
Sumter which was deemed necessary to draw Virginia and 
other hesitating States out of the Union. Two days after 
President Lincoln's call for militia, President Davis, by 
proclamation, accepted that as a declaration of Avar, and 
authorized (May 17) the issue of letters of marque and re¬ 
prisal against the commerce of the United States. A loan 
of $5,000,000 was advertised at Montgomery, to which 
$8,000,000 were subscribed. Before the close of April the 
Confederacy had 35,000 men in arms, of Avhom 10,000 were 
being pushed rapidly northAvard, and the Confederate Con¬ 
gress, which organized at Montgomery on the 29th of April, 
adjourned on the 21st of May to meet at Richmond, Vir¬ 
ginia (the neAvly-chosen capital), on the 20th of July. 
Treasury notes had already been authorized, and a heavy 
loan, based on a pledge of cotton by the planters to the 
Confederacy. All debts due from inhabitants of the Con¬ 
federate to those of the loyal States were impounded, and 
directed to be paid into the Confederate treasury. This 
act was obeyed to the extent of not paying the loyal cred¬ 
itors, but the Confederate treasury Avas but slightly replen¬ 
ished from this source. At length, Avhen Avar had "begun in 
earnest, all male citizens of the United States over fourteen 
years old were required by law and proclamation (August 
14) either to SAvear allegiance to the Confederacy or leave 
its borders within forty days. The Confederate marshals 
were directed to apprehend and imprison all Avho disobeyed 
this edict. A Confederate privateer having been captured 
and her crew imprisoned in New York as criminals, Presi¬ 
dent Davis, by proclamation (July 6), declared that he 
would retaliate upon Union prisoners of war any infliction 
upon those Confederates, and proceeded to make good his 
word. President Lincoln recoiled befoi’e this menace, and 
thenceforth treated privateersmen as prisoners of Avar. 
Regular exchanges of prisoners between the belligerents 
were initiated in the Avinter of 1861-62, and thenceforth 
accorded Avithout objection. The Confederate authorities, 
however, did not scruple to treat belligerent Unionists res¬ 
ident within their borders, especially those of East Tennes¬ 
see, as traitors. Jefferson Davis as President, and Alex¬ 
ander H. Stephens as Vice-President, Avere unanimously 
elected (November 6) for a term of six years ensuing; 
their previous election having hitherto been provisional 
only. 

The civil war, formally initiated by the bombardment and 
reduction of Fort Sumter, was prosecuted thenceforth dur¬ 
ing 1861 with varying fortunes, but with a preponderance 
ot success for the Confederacy. Its first signal triumph Avas 
the easy capture (April 20) of the Norfolk navy-yard, with 
three or four national vessels, including tho frigato Merri- 

























CONFEDERATE STATES. 


mack (which months afterwards, having been transformed 
into the rebel iron-clad Virginia, wrought fearful havoc 
among the national vessels in Hampton Roads), with nearly 
two thousand cannon, besides small arms, munitions, etc. of 
immense value—all abandoned without firing a shot by the 
naval officers who should have defended and saved them. 
The Sixth regiment of Massachusetts militia, hastening to 
the relief of menaced Washington City, had just before been 
assailed (April 19) in the streets of Baltimore by a mob, 
which showered hardware, paving-stones, and other missiles 
upon it from housetops as it peacefully traversed their city, 
killing three and wounding fifteen of the Massachusetts 
men, while eleven of the mob were killed and four severely 
wounded. The militia passed on, but Baltimore was held 
by the mob, and communication by telegraph or otherwise 
between the Federal capital and the North arrested until 
General B. F. Butler reoccupied it, unresisted, by an ad¬ 
vance from Annapolis (May 5-13). That important city 
was henceforth firmly held for the Union. General Butler, 
being in command at Fortress Monroe, ordered an advance 
under Brigadier-General Pierce against a Confederate out¬ 
post at Big Bethel, Virginia, but the ill-directed attack was 
repulsed by General J. B. Magruder with considerable loss 
to the Unionists. That portion of Virginia westward of the 
Alleghany range having opposed secession and still adher¬ 
ing to the Union, a Confederate army was sent across the 
mountains to overbear this (alleged) disloyalty to the State, 
but was promptly met by a greater Union force under Gen¬ 
eral George B. McClellan, and driven from Philippi (June 
2), then beaten at Rich Mountain and also at Laurel Hill, 
and again at Carrick’s Ford (July 12), and the remnant 
driven in disorderly flight over the dividing ridge. Hos¬ 
tilities were renewed on the Kanawha by the advance (Aug. 
1) of a fresh Confederate force under General John B. Floyd, 
afterwards succeeded by General Robert E. Lee, but these 
were met and baffled by a stronger Union army under Gen¬ 
eral Wm. S. Rosecrans, and indecisive actions ensued at 
Carnifex Ferry, on Cheat Mountain, and at Alleghany Sum¬ 
mit, which left West Virginia almost wholly under the flag 
of the Union at the close of 1861. In Eastern (or old) Vir¬ 
ginia hostile armies confronted each other near Harper’s 
Ferry and Winchester under Generals Robert Patterson 
(Union) and Joseph E. Johnston (Confederate) for a month 
without fighting, until a stronger Union force under General 
Irwin McDowell was pushed forward by Scott from Wash¬ 
ington and Alexandria to Centreville, menacing the Con¬ 
federate force concentrated around Manassas Junction, and 
advancing (June 21) to attack its left near Sudley Church. 
The advance was gallantly made, and for a time promised 
success; but Johnston’s army from Winchester arrived by 
rail at the critical moment, and was hurried forward to the 
support of the recoiling regiments, so that the fortunes of 
the day suddenly changed, and the Union troops, exhausted 
by twelve hours’ marching and fighting under a July sun, 
had to give way before this unexpected effort, and retired 
in a disorder not uncommon on battle-fields, even among 
veteran troops. The Confederates, unaware of the complete¬ 
ness of their victory, did not pursue it, though their President 
Davis, had arrived on the field about the close of the battle. 
The Union loss in this affair was not less than 4000 men, 
mostly wounded and prisoners, with at least twenty can¬ 
non and large quantities of small arms; the Confederates 
lost about 2000, including two generals (Bee and Bartow) 
killed. The men who fought were not far from 25,000 on 
each side, but quite as many more Union soldiers listened 
to the sound of the guns at Centreville, Fairfax Court¬ 
house, in Washington, and on the Potomac, who should 
have been on the bloody field. 

General McClellan was now called from West Virginia, 
and soon made commander-in-chief, vice General Scott 
retired; but there was no more serious fighting on this line 
till October 20, when a Union force of 1900, pushed across 
the Potomac opposite Harrison’s Island, was attacked near 
Ball’s Bluff by General Evans’s brigade, mainly Mississip- 
pians, and nearly destroyed; its commander, General E. 
D. Baker of Oregon, being killed, with 300 of his men, 
and more than 500 taken prisoners. Two months after, 
General E. O. C. Ord, with the Third Pennsylvania bri¬ 
gade, having advanced, also on General McClellan’s right, 
to Dranesville, was there attacked by a rebel brigade under 
General J. E. B. Stuart, who was quickly repulsed, with a 
loss of 230 men. This closed the campaign on the Potomac. 
Meantime, General Butler, sailing from Fortress Monroe 
(August 20), had captured Forts Hatteras and Clark at the 
entrance to Pamlico Sound, taking 700 prisoners under 
Commodore Bowen, 25 guns, 1000 muskets, and some stores. 
A more formidable expedition, 10,000 strong, under General 
T. W. Sherman and Commodore S. F. Dupont, left Hampton 
Roads October 29, and steered for Port Royal, South Car¬ 
olina, where it bombarded and roduced the Confederate 
forts on Hilton Head and Phillips’ Island, driving out their 


1095 


defenders and taking undisputed possession of the Sea 
Islands adjacent, which were thenceforth firmly held by a 
Union land and naval force which menaced both Charles¬ 
ton and Savannah, and repeatedly, though unsuccessfully, 
struck at the railroad connecting them. 

In the West, Missouri was this year the arena of a vio¬ 
lent though desultory conflict. Major-General John C. 
Fremont, who had been appointed to command here, was 
hastening westward to organize at St. Louis an army under 
the depressing influence of the Bull Run disaster in the 
East, when Governor C. F. Jackson returned from a two 
months’ sojourn in the Confederacy and prepared to dis¬ 
pute possession of the State, though a convention of her 
people had declared (July 20) his office and those of his 
adherents vacated by treason, and all their disloyal acts 
null and void. He thereupon assumed to take Missouri 
out of the Union by proclamation (July 31), negotiated a 
close alliance with the Confederacy, and was raising a largo 
army, in good part from Arkansas, when General Nathaniel 
Lyon, commanding 6000 Unionists at Springfield, took the 
field against Jackson’s far more numerous but not so well- 
provided army, led by General Sterling Price, who sud¬ 
denly resigned his command to General Ben McCulloch 
from Arkansas. Lyon, having advanced to Wilson’s Creek, 
sent General Sigel with 1200 men to flank the enemy, whom 
he assailed in front, but his force was too small; Lyon 
fell mortally wounded, and the Union attacks in front and 
flank were repulsed; but the Unionists retired deliberately 
and unpursued to Springfield, insisting that they had fought 
quadruple their numbers and not been beaten. Major 
Sturgis, who succeeded General Ljmn, soon afterward re¬ 
treated to Rolla, abandoning all Southern Missouri to the 
Confederates. McCulloch returned to Arkansas, but Price 
advanced in large force to the Missouri River at Lexington, 
where he invested Colonel Mulligan and his Irish brigade, 
numbering 2780 men, and pressed them so vigorously that 
Mulligan was forced to surrender (September 20) before 
Fremont could relieve him. Fremont took the field directly 
afterwards, and pushed down to Springfield at the head of 
30,000 men ; but Price avoided him by retreating, and there 
was no fight, except that Colonel Zagonyi, with 300 Union 
cavalry, routed a far larger force which held Springfield, 
capturing that city. Fremont was still looking for Price 
when he was relieved (November 2), and ordered to turn 
over his command to General David Hunter, who, in pur¬ 
suance of his orders, retreated to Rolla, again abandoning 
all Southern Missouri to the enemy. Brigadier-General 
U. S. Grant was at this time in command of the import¬ 
ant post of Cairo at the junction of the Ohio with the 
Mississippi, watched by a Confederate force at Columbus, 
Kentucky. Grant, with 2850 men on four steamboats, 
dropped down the river to Columbus, landing at Belmont • 
in Missouri, and attacked the Confederate camp on that 
side. The attack was spirited, and at first successful; but 
Major-General (Bishop) Polk, commanding at Columbus, 
crossed with five regiments, increasing the Confederate 
force to 5000, by which Grant was beaten off and driven to 
his boats with a loss of 500 men. The Confederate loss 
was rather more. One month later, Colonel Jefferson C. 
Davis, acting under General John Pope, commanding in 
Central Missouri, surprised a Confederate camp at Milford, 
and captured 1000 prisoners (including three colonels) and 
as many horses and muskets. General Pope reported 2500 
prisoners taken this month, with a loss on his part of barely 
100. So closed the campaign of 1861. 

The battles of the bloody year 1862 were initiated at 
Mill Spring, near the Cumberland River, in Southern Ken¬ 
tucky, where General George B. Crittenden, having just 
supplanted General F. K. Zollicoffer in chief command of the 
Confederate force in that quarter, ordered an attack on the 
Unionists in their front, who, being in superior numbers 
and led by General George II. Thomas, repulsed them 
(January 19) after a hot struggle of two hours, and, following 
them to their camp, found it deserted—Crittenden having 
fled across the Cumberland, leaving ten guns, 1500 horses, 
etc. General Zollicoffer was killed while leading the attack. 
This blow was soon followed by one more serious, directed 
from St. Louis by General Ilalleck, who sent from Cairo 
Brigadier-Generai U. S. Grant with 15,000 men, and Com¬ 
modore A. H. Foote with seven gunboats, to open a way 
into Tennessee. Fort Henry, 80 miles up the Tennessee 
River, was quickly reduced (February 6) by the gunboats, 
the garrison mainly escaping to Fort Donelson, 12 miles 
eastward, commanding the navigation of the Cumberland, 
leaving their chief, General Lloyd Tilghman, a prisoner. 
General Grant followed the fleeing Confederates, and nearly 
invested, with his force considerably increased, their strong¬ 
hold, two miles below Dover, held by 15,000 men under the 
Virginian general John B. Floyd (late United States secre¬ 
tary of war). Commodore Foote, ascending the Cumber¬ 
land, first attacked (February 14) the river-batteries, but 







. . . . ■ ' A ' - ™ 

109G CONFEDERATE STATES. 


was repulsed with considerable loss. - Floyd, seeing Grant 
proceeding leisurely to cut off his retreat, anticipated that 
result by an advance under General Simon B. Buckner on 
Grant’s right towards Dover, commanded by General John 
A. McCleruandof Illinois, who was overpowered and driven 
back after a protracted deadly struggle, losing a six-gun 
battery. The Union centre, under General Lew Wallace, 
sent two brigades to McClernand’s support, by which the 
Confederate advance was arrested, and General Grant, ar¬ 
riving on the lield at 3 p. M. from a conference with Com¬ 
modore Foote, ordered a general attack, which was crowned 
with success. Wallace recovered by it the ground previ¬ 
ously lost by McClernand, while General C. F. Smith led 
the Union left clear over the breastworks in their front, and 
the day closed with a decided Union victory. A cold night 
of suffering followed, during which General Floyd, despair¬ 
ing of cutting his way out, surrendered his command to 
General Gideon J. Pillow, who passed it to General Buck¬ 
ner, who, after some parley, surrendered next morning 
(February 16) not less than 6000 men, besides 2000 sick and 
wounded. General N. B. Forrest, with 800 cavalry, es¬ 
caped up the bank of the swollen river, while Floyd, Buck¬ 
ner, and a remnant got across by boat before daylight and 
fled. One result of this success was the immediate evacua¬ 
tion of the Confederate camp at Bowling Green, Kentucky,, 
as also of Nashville and all Northern Tennessee ; Governor 
Isham G. Harris and his legislature being among the fugi¬ 
tives. Nashville was promptly occupied by the Unionists, 
while the main army of Tennessee, under General A. Sidney 
Johnston, retreated unmolested to Corinth, Mississippi, 
leisurely followed by General Don Carlos Buell, who had 
commanded the Union forces in Kentucky. General Grant’s 
army, now confided to General C. F. Smith, was embarked 
and moved up the Tennessee to Savannah and Pittsburg 
Landing, nearly opposite Corinth. These Union suc¬ 
cesses compelled the evacuation of Paducah and Columbus, 
while General Pope, with 40,000 Unionists, marching down 
through Eastern Missouri, drove Major-General McCown, 
with 9000 Confederates, from New Madrid, taking thirty- 
three cannon and many thousand muskets, also tents, 
wagons, etc., without a serious contest. Brigadier-General 
Makall, with 6700 men, 123 cannon, and 7000 small arms, 
was now caught between Pope’s army and Foote’s fleet 
on Island No. 10 in the Mississippi, and compelled to sur¬ 
render. Commodore Foote, dropping down the river, routed 
the Confederate flotilla in a brief engagement before Mem¬ 
phis, which thereupon surrendered without a blow. By 
July 1st the Mississippi River saw none but the Union flag 
floating above Vicksburg, which successfully resisted suc¬ 
cessive attempts at its reduction by Commodore Foote from 
above and Commodore Farragut from below. 

General C. F. Smith was soon disabled by sickness and 
died, and the command of his army again devolved upon 
General Grant, who, while awaiting the arrival of General 
Buell from the North, was attacked at Pittsburg Landing 
by an advance in force of the Confederates from Corinth, 
60,000 strong, under General A. S. Johnston, while General 
Grant was still at Savannah, eight miles below. The Union¬ 
ists, about 40,000 strong, were completely surprised without 
intrenchments or even abatis, and were driven with heavy 
loss from Shiloh Church, three miles inland, to the brink of 
the river, having lost heavily in guns, killed, wounded, and 
prisoners. Meantime, General A. S. Johnston had been shot 
dead, the Union gunboats on the Tennessee had come into 
play, General Grant had joined his shattered army, while 
the advance of General Buell’s force was beginning to come 
to its relief. Night brought a cessation of hostilities, and 
General Beauregard had succeeded to the chief command 
of the Confederates. On the Union side, General W. II. L. 
Wallace had been killed at the head of his division. Gen¬ 
eral Nelson’s division of Buell’s army had crossed the Ten¬ 
nessee in boats at 5 to 6 p. m., and taken position on the 
field by 7. Two more divisions were on hand by sunrise 
next morning, when the battle was reopened by an advance 
of the Union forces, of whom 25,000 (including General Lew 
Wallace’s division of General Grant’s army) were fresh, 
while only 3000 of the Confederates had not yet been en¬ 
gaged. The fighting throughout the forenoon was spirited, 
but the forces were unequal, and the Confederates had lost 
by 4 p. m. all the ground they had gained the day before, 
and were soon afterwards in full retreat. There was but a 
faint show of pursuit. The reported Union loss in the two 
days’ fighting was 1735 killed, 7882 wounded, 3956 missing; 
total, 13,573. Beauregard reported the Confederate loss at 
1728 killed, 8012 wounded, 957 missing; total, 10,699. 

General Grant was soon superseded by General Ilalleck, 
who, taking command of the combined army, advanced by 
approaches to Corinth, which was evacuated by General 
■Beauregard, who retreated with little loss into the heart of 
Mississippi. Meantime, General 0. M. Mitchell, with part 
of Buell’s army, had advanced eastward up the Tennessee, 


taking Huntsville and other towns on the river, but failing 
to carry Chattanooga. Mitchell was now transferred to the 
command on the coast of South Carolina, where he sickened 
and died. 

The war in the Territories was early initiated by an effort 
of Colonels Loring and G. B. Crittenden to carry over the 
1200 regulars stationed in New Mexico to the Confederacy ; 
but their intrigues were repulsed on every hand, and they 
were constrained to flee to El Paso, where Major Lynde, who 
had 700 men, made a pretence of resistance, advancing 
twenty miles to meet a much smaller Texan force, then re¬ 
treating, and surrendering his entire command, which was 
paroled and marched northward for exchange, suffering ter¬ 
ribly from heat and thirst. General II. F. Sibley, command¬ 
ing a Confederate force of 2300 Texan volunteers, undertook 
the conquest of New Mexico in the fall of 1861; but his 
advance was retarded by lack of supplies till the opening of 
1862, when he met Colonel E. R. S. Canby, commanding a 
much larger Union force, at Fort Craig. The Unionists were 
first drawn out of their stronghold, and then defeated by a 
brilliant charge on McRae’s battery, which was taken. Can- 
by’s men fled precipitately to the fort, which Sibley could 
not reduce; so he turned it and pushed on to Apache Pass, 
where his farther advance was opposed by 1300 men, mainly 
Colorado volunteers, under Colonel John P. Slough, whom 
he defeated by another Texas charge, which routed Slough’s 
motley crowd and cleared the road to Santa Fe, which 
Sibley soon entered in triumph. But his brilliant victories 
proved barren ; he could not feed and clothe his little army 
from all the resources of New Mexico, while Canby was in 
the way of his receiving supplies from Texas, had any been 
sent. Forced to evacuate the capital of New Mexico for 
Albuquerque, whence (April 12, 1863) he moved down the 
Rio Grande, he encountered Canby at Peralta, but escaped 
him, after some fruitless long-range fighting, by destroying 
his train and dragging his guns over a desolate, waterless, 
mountainous region east of the river, and thus made his 
way down to Fort Bliss, Texas, having left half his force 
dead or prisoners, though never defeated; and returned to 
report his sage conclusion that New Mexico was not worth 
a quarter of the cost of taking and holding it. 

Some of the largest of the semi-civilized tribes settled in 
the Indian Territory were incited by their old Democratic 
agents and other influential whites to link their fortunes 
with the Confederacy soon after the Union defeats at Bull 
Run and Wilson’s Creek. Their aid proved, however, of 
little worth, and they were glad to return to the protection 
and alliance of the Union so soon as the progress of events, 
had made it probable that this was the stronger side. 

General Sterling Price, after Pope’s successes in Mis¬ 
souri near the close of the campaign of 1861, unable to 
fight a pitched battle, retreated rapidly through Spring- 
field and Cassville, closely pursued, and fighting when he 
must, till he had reached Arkansas and formed a junc¬ 
tion near Boston Mountain with General Ben McCulloch, 
commanding a division of Texas and Arkansas volun¬ 
teers, which raised his force to an equality with that of his 
pursuers. General Albert Pike now added to the ration¬ 
consuming power of the Confederates a brigade of In¬ 
dians, swelling their total to nearly 20,000 men. Earl van 
Dorn, late a captain of Union regulars, now a Confederate 
major-general, assumed chief command, and resolved to 
fight, the Unionists (now led by General Samuel R. Curtis 
of Iowa) before they could be concentrated. Advancing 
rapidly from his camp at Cross-Timber Hollows, Van Dorn 
fell upon General Franz Sigel, holding the extreme Union 
advance at Bentonville. Sigel retreated (March 3, 1862) 
fighting, and falling back coolly, until reinforced at 4 p. m., 
when he encamped at Leetown on Curtis’s right. Curtis 
held a good position on Sugar Creek, which Van Dorn 
avoided by moving far to the left and attacking in over¬ 
whelming force the extreme Union right under Colonel 
Carr, holding a swell of ground known as Pea Ridge. Carr, 
fearfully overmatched, resisted stubbornly for seven hours, 
during which he was repeatedly wounded, lost a fourth of 
his men, and was driven back half a mile. Curtis, who had 
but scantily reinforced him up to 2 p. m., now ordered Gen¬ 
erals Asboth and Sigel to the support of Carr, himself accom¬ 
panying Asboth, whose batteries were soon engaged with 
the enemy’s, and he severely wounded. Night closed the 
combat as Sigel was coming into position on Asbotli’s left. 
Next morning, General Curtis, having completed his dis¬ 
positions, ordered his centre to advance, and the cannonade 
was reopened on both sides, but the Confederates soon de¬ 
sisted and disappeared, fleeing through Cross-Timber Hol¬ 
lows in their rear so rapidly as to defy pursuit. The Union 
loss in this battle was 1351 out of 10,500 men. Van Dorn’s 
force was at least 16,000, including 5000 Indians. Among 
his killed were Generals Ben McCulloch and McIntosh ; 
among his wounded, Generals Price and Slack. Lack of 
ammunition was the reason alleged for his hasty retreat. 

















CONFEDERATE STATES. 1097 


General Curtis then advanced without resistance to Bates- 
villc, Arkansas, and thence marched to Helena on the Mis¬ 
sissippi, but once resisted by 1500 cavalry under General 
Albert ltust, who were easily routed with a loss of 100 to 8 
Unionists. 

Curtis’s movement south-eastward opened Missouri once 
more to Confederate incursions. Tidings of Union reverses 
in Virginia filled the invading ranks with volunteers from 
all quarters. Colonel Porter, commanding some 2000 of 
these raw levies, was attacked near Kirksville by Colonel 
John McNeil with^lOOO cavalry and.a battery, and after a 
desperate fight was defeated and his force virtually de¬ 
stroyed. Colonel Poindexter, with 1200 Confederates, was 
attacked by Colonel Odin Guitar while crossing the Cha¬ 
riton River, and his command likewise .captured' or de¬ 
stroyed. After several more petty conflicts, the Confederates 
were again chased out of Missouri and compelled to take 
refuge in Arkansas, where General T. C. Hindman was now 
in chief command. General Blunt commanded the Union¬ 
ists, who had again entered that State some 5000 strong; 
General F. J. Herron, encamped at Wilson’s Creek with 
7000 men, hastened to his aid when apprised of his danger, 
reaching Fayetteville, Arkansas, December 7. Hindman, 
deceiving Blunt by a threat of fighting, turned his left, and 
with 10,000 men tell xipon Herron’s 4000 infantry and ar¬ 
tillery at Prairie Grove, his cavalry having been pushed 
forward to help Blunt. A-spirited fight ensued, Herron, 
desperately charged, bravely holding his ground until 2 p. jr., 
when the welcome sound of Blunt’s batteries was-heard 
opening on his left. The forces engaged were now nearly 
equal, and the battle raged till after dark, little ground be¬ 
ing gained on either side. Next morning the Confederates 
had left the field. Hindman’s loss was 1317, including Gen¬ 
eral Stein, killed. The Union loss was 1148, of whom 953 
were from Herron’s 4000. 

An expedition consisting of thirty-one steamboats and 
11,500 men, led by General A. E. Burnside ambCommodore 
L. M. Goldsborough, sailed from Fortress Monroe January 
11,1862, for Roanoke and Albemarle Sounds, North Carolina, 
landing (February 5) on Roanoke Island a force by which 
Fort Bartow, its main defence, was speedily taken by as¬ 
sault, with a Union loss of 300, while about 2500 Confed¬ 
erates were captured. The next point of attack was Ncw- 
bern, wdiich was likewise carried by assault (March 14). 
Among the captures were two steamboats, sixty-nine can¬ 
non, and 500 prisoners. The Union loss in the assault was 
600. Fort Macon, on the' coast, was next invested and 
taken, with its garrison of 500 men. This was the first 
of the regular Union fortresses retaken from the enemy. 
Washington, Plymouth, and other North Carolina ports 
fell without resistance, but General Reno was repulsed in a 
fight at South Mills, and General Foster in an attempt on 
the important railroad junction at Goldsboro’. 

General Benjamin F. Butler, having raised in New Eng¬ 
land six regiments of 1000 men each for the purpose, and 
being aided by a fleet under Captain David G. Farragut, 
left Fortress. Monroe (February 25, 1862) for his rendez¬ 
vous on Ship Island, Mississippi, whither one of his bri¬ 
gades under General J. W. Phelps had preceded him, and 
where his troops were soon augmented to 15,000. His ob¬ 
jective point was New Orleans, a city of 170,000 inhab¬ 
itants, defended by 3000 men under General Mansfield 
Lovell, but the strong forts St. Philip and Jackson, half 
way between the city and the mouths of the Mississippi, 
were Lovell’s main reliance. Earnest efforts to strengthen 
them by a raft or boom across the river, were all but 
thwarted by the high stage of the heavily-swelling current. 
Captain Farragut, with his fleet of forty-seven armed 
vessels and 310 guns, appeared before the forts April 17, 
opened fire next morning, and destroyed or evaded three 
fire-rafts sent down to annoy him. After three days’ inef¬ 
fective bombardment, the Itasca, Captain Caldwell, steamed 
up to the great boom or chain, and cut it with sledge and 
chisel, when another fire-raft was sent down to no purpose, 
and two more days were wasted in fruitless cannonading; 
then Farragut, with his fleet in three divisions, resolved to 
fight his way by the forts against the sweeping current; 
which he successfully did, fighting and capturing or scat¬ 
tering the Confederate gunboats above, with a net loss of 
the Yaruna steamship sunk and some 200 men. The forts, 
thus rendered useless, were soon surrendered. Captain 
Farragut, with nine of his vessels, steamed directly up to 
the cify, whence a thick black smoke apprised him that tho 
Confederates were burning ships, steamboats, etc. laden 
with cotton, sugar, flour, etc. Lovell drew oft his men, 
and the city ungraciously signified that she could make no 
resistance. Passing up to Carrollton, eight miles above, 
Farragut found its works abandoned and in flames. Gen¬ 
eral Butler, having reduced tho forts, soon came up and 
took possession, which was not thenceforth disputed. 

All tho towns on tho Mississippi below Vicksburg were 


easily captured by Farragut, and an attempt to retake 
Baton Rouge (August 5), by a force of 2500 Confederates 
under Major-General John C. Breckenridge, was repulsed 
by an equal Union force under General Thomas 'Williams, 
who was killed. The Confederates lost 300 men, including 
General Clarke and six colonels. The Union loss was 250. 
The lower parishes of Louisiana hereupon fell to the 
Unionists without serious resistance. Butler was relieved 
by General N. P. Banks December 16, having just before 
been outlawed as a felon by Jefferson Davis. 

General George B. McClellan had been called from West 
Virginia to the command of the Army of the Potomac soon 
after the Union disaster at Bull Run, and on the retirement 
of General Scott made commander-in-chief of the Union 
armies. A.very large force, fully 200,000 strong, was rap¬ 
idly gathered around him and drilled into the coherence of 
a regular army. The far weaker Confederate force con¬ 
fronting him gradually recoiled to Centreville and Manassas 
Junction, where they spent the winter of 1S61-62. Gen¬ 
eral McClellan remained quiet till expressly ordered (Feb- 
ruary.22).by President Lincoln to advance, when he moved 
out to Manassas Junction, to find it evacuated by the Con¬ 
federates, who, under General Joseph E. Johnston, had 
quietly retired behind the Rapidan. General McClellan 
now transferred the bulk of bis army by water to Fortress 
Monroe, preparatory to an advance on Richmond up the 
peninsula between the James and York Rivers. Mean¬ 
time, General Banks was left in command in the Valley of 
Virginia, and had just left for Washington, when his 7000 
men, now under General James Shields, well posted near 
Kernstown, were attacked by Stonewall Jackson with but 
4000 men, who were defeated with a loss of at least 1000. 
General Shields’s loss was about 600. 

Just before McClellan reached the James, the Confeder¬ 
ate iron-clad Virginia (late the United States steam-frigate 
Merrimack) had sallied out of Norfolk (March 8), and, at¬ 
tended by two gunboats, made directly for the Union frig¬ 
ates Congress and Cumberland, lying near Newport News, 
and disdaining to reply to their rapid cannonade, of which 
the balls rebounded from her sloping roof of iron as though 
they were peas, struck the Cumberland with her iron beak, 
smashing in the frigate’s bow, so that she filled and sank 
in half an hour, carrying down a part of her crew. The 
Congress, seeing the fate of her consort, set sail and ran 
aground under the batteries of Newport News, where she 
was raked by the ram until her commander, Lieutenant 
Joseph B. Smith, and most of her officers and men, were 
either killed or wounded, when her flag was hauled down; 
but her captors were prevented from burning her by a fire 
from the Union batteries on shore. The Merrimack after¬ 
wards returned and bombarded her until she was set on fire 
and blown up; half her crew of 434 men having fallen. 
The steam-frigate Minnesota and frigate Lawrence, hurry¬ 
ing to the aid of the Cumberland and Congress, had sev¬ 
erally grounded in the harbor. The Lawrence soon got oft' 
and returned to port, but the Minnesota, still aground, was 
cannonaded for hours by the entire Confederate flotilla, the 
Merrimack being unable to approach nearer than a mile, 
owing to the shallowness of the water. At 7 p. m. all three 
desisted and steamed towards Norfolk. At 10 the new 
Union iron-clad Monitor, Lieutenant John L. Worden, 
steamed into the roadstead on her trial-trip from New 
York. At 6 A. M. the hostile fleet reappeared and made for 
the Minnesota, but the little Monitor interposed, and the 
strange combat was renewed and continued with varying 
fortunes until the Confederate fleet sheered off and stood 
for Norfolk. The Merrimack was badly crippled, her com¬ 
mander, Franklin Buchanan, being among her wounded. 
She never fought again, and was dismantled and sunk when 
Norfolk was evacuated by the Confederates not long after¬ 
wards. The little Monitor (styled “ a cheese-box on a raft”) 
remained master of the situation, but was lost, months af¬ 
terwards, in passing Cape Hatteras. 

General McClellan reached Fortress Monroe April 2d. 
Of his army, 58,000 had preceded him, and as many more 
soon followed. Advancing up the peninsula, he was soon 
arrested by Confederate batteries on Warwick Creek (which 
nearly crosses the peninsula abreast of Yorktown), manned 
by General J. B. Magruder, who had some 11,000 men in 
ail wherewith to hold a line thirteen miles long. Thirty 
days were spent here; when McClellan had planted his 
brcaching-batteries, and was nearly ready to open fire, it 
was found that Magruder had retreated. On reaching 
Williamsburg, McClellan’s advance was stopped by works 
known as Fort Magruder, where Hooker’s division fought 
nine hours and lost heavily. At length the Confederate 
position was flanked by General Hancock ot Sumners di¬ 
vision, and Magruder retreated during the night, leaving 
700 of his severely wounded. The total Union loss was 
222S, that of the Confederates probably less. West Point, 
at tho head of York River, was occupied May 6, with a 











CONFEDERATE STATES. 


1098 


Union loss of 200. This movement up the peninsula, 
coupled with Burnside’s successes in North Carolina, com¬ 
pelled the Confederates to evacuate Norfolk, with its navy- 
yard, about 200 guns, and some worthless vessels. That 
city they never recovered. General McClellan, no longer 
resisted, advanced to the Chickahominy on the 20th, 

Here he halted and fortified with over 100,000 effective 
men, believing the Confederate army in his front nearly if 
not quite equal in numbers to his own. Meantime, General 
Fremont, to whom Western Virginia had been assigned as 
a department, advanced into the Alleghanies and threat¬ 
ened Staunton from the direction of Monterey. Jackson 
sent General Edward Johnson to oppose Fremont’s advance 
under Milroy, who retreated and was joined by General 
Robert C. Schenck near McDowell, where a battle was 
fought, with a Union loss of 461, the Unionists retreating 
after nightfall. Jackson recrosscd Shenandoah Mountain, 
and marched rapidly down the Valley to Front Royal, 
where he surprised and routed Colonel John R. Kenly, 
taking 700 prisoners. Pushing on to Strasburg, Jackson 
compelled Banks to retreat rapidly to Winchester, where he 
fought five hours, and then, being greatly outnumbered, re¬ 
treated hurriedly to Martinsburg and Williamsport, where 
he crossed the Potomac, having lost about 1000 men, be¬ 
sides the sick and wounded in his hospitals. Jackson’s 
cavalry pursued to Martinsburg, but most of his infantry 
were halted not far beyond Winchester, and soon retreated 
rapidly to confront Fremont and McDowell, who were has¬ 
tening to bar his way. Fremont, crossing the Alleghanies 
by a rugged route, reached Strasburg June 1, a few hours 
after Jackson had passed that point. Jackson, still retreat¬ 
ing, destroyed the numerous bridges behind him, and turned 
to fight (June 7) at Cross Keys, where he checked Fre¬ 
mont ; then, again retreating, he crossed the South Fork at 
Port Republic, falling with a superior force upon General 
Tyler, who, with a part of Shields’s division of McDowell’s 
army, was forced back with loss. Jackson thus balked all 
his foes, having lost but 1167 men since he left Winchester. 
His baffled pursuers were now recalled, and he, triumphant, 
was soon ordered to join General Robert E. Lee, now in 
chief command at Richmond. The rebel general Heth had 
attacked Colonel Crook at Lewisburg, West Virginia, and 
been routed on the same day with Jackson’s demolition of 
Kenly. 

An unsuccessful attack (May 15) on Drewry’s Bluff, eight 
miles below Richmond, by a Union fleet under Commander 
John Rodgers, was followed, May 27, by a fight near Kan- 
over Court-house between the Union Fifth corps, General 
Fitz-John Porter, and General L. O’Brien Branch’s North 
Carolina division, which was driven off with a loss of 700, to 
400 on the Union side. 

Keyes’s Fourth corps having been thrown forward across 
the Chickahominy to Seven Pines on its right and Fair 
Oaks on its left, was attacked (May 2S) by the Confeder¬ 
ates under General Jos. Johnston, who judged that Keyes 
might be overwhelmed before he could be sufficiently sup¬ 
ported. Four divisions, under Lougstreet, D. II. Hill, 
Huger, and G. W. Smith, were designated to make the at¬ 
tack, supported by all the rest of the Confederate army. 
Hill, at 1 p. sr., first attacked Casey’s division at Fair Oaks, 
surprising it while its defences were still uncompleted, and 
pushing it back on Couch’s division near Fair Oaks, with a 
loss of six guns, two of its colonels killed, and many men. 
Keyes barely held his ground at Fair Oaks till Sumner’s 
corps, rapidly thrown across the Chickahominy, came to its 
aid. Heintzelman’s corps, though nearer, came into the 
fight later, and our right was now attacked by Smith’s 
corps, directed by Jos. Johnston as commander-in-chief, till 
he was struck by a shell, and so badly wounded that he was 
disabled for months. Lee succeeded him. McClellan was 
at New Bridge, several miles up the Chickahominy, with 
the corps of Fitz-John Porter and Franklin, which were not 
brought into action. The battle raged without much ad¬ 
vantage to either side till dark, when the Confederates drew 
off. They made a pretence of attacking next morning, to 
cover their removal of arms and stores from the camp of 
Keyes’s corps, but the fighting amounted to little. Hooker, 
by Heintzelman’s order, made a reconnoissance in force to 
within four miles of Richmond, meeting no resistance, but 
was recalled to Fair Oaks by McClellan. The Union loss 
in this affair was 5739, including five colonels killed and 
seven generals wounded. Of Keyes’s 12,000 men, 4000 fell 
or were captured. General McCall’s divison of McDowell’s 
corps now joined McClellan, raising his total to 156,828, 
and his effective force to 115,102. 

No further offensive movement was made by him until 
Jackson, whose movements had been studiously concealed, 
came in on Lee’s left, and was pushed forward to assail 
and turn McClellan’s extreme right at Mechanicsville, be¬ 
ing supported by Branch, D. H. Hill, Longstreet, and A. 
P. Hill, with the bulk of the Confederate army. 


A. P. Hill, on Jackson’s arrival, crossed the Chicka¬ 
hominy and attacked Fitz-John Porter’s corps of 27,000 
strong, which, recoiling from Mechanicsville, took up a 
strong position behind it across Beaver Dam Creek, but was 
repulsed (June 26), Jackson having not yet got into posi¬ 
tion. Porter now retreated by order to Gaines’s Mill, 
where he was at once reinforced by Slocum’s division of 
Sumner’s corps, raising his force to 35,000 men. But op¬ 
posed to them were 50,000 veterans, led by their ablest 
commanders, including Longstreet and Jackson. After 
fighting gallantly for several hours, he telegraphed for aid 
to McClellan, who sent two brigades of Sumner’s corps to 
his assistance, but the field was lost before their arrival. 
Porter lost nineteen guns, but halted just off the field, and 
was not pursued. The Union loss that day was 8000, that 
of the Confederates about 5000. But McClellan’s base of 
supplies, West Point, had been captured by Stuart’s cavalry, 
and he decided to retreat by his left flank through White- 
Oak Swamp to the James. This movement puzzled Lee, 
who did not pursue with vigor, and the first attacks upon the 
Union rear were easily repulsed. Finally, McCall’s division, 
serving as rear-guard, was assailed (June 30) in great force 
at Glendale, and after hard fighting defeated and driven; 
McCall himself being captured, with most of his guns. 
The struggle ended at 9 p. M., Hooker’s and two brigades 
of Slocum’s division having arrived too late to win the 
battle, but in time to check pursuit. The loss of men in 
this action was about 3000 on either side. 

The Union forces were now concentrated at Malvern Hill 
on James River, where they were attacked by the entire 
Confederate army, which was signally defeated in one of 
the most desperate actions of the war. The first attack 
was made at 3 p. m.; the most desperate charge was made 
at 6, and repulsed with great slaughter. The Confederate 
loss in this struggle must have been nearly or quite 10,000, 
that of the Unionists perhaps half as many. McClellan 
during the evening moved down the James to Harrison’s 
Landing, where Lee did not choose to assail him. He claimed 
10,000 prisoners, 52 guns, and 35,000 small arms as cap¬ 
tured during the seven days’ fighting, from Mechanicsville 
to Malvern inclusive. The Union loss during those days 
is reported by McClellan at 1582 killed, 7709 wounded, 
and 5958 missing; total, 15,249. Jackson’s and A. P. Hill’s 
losses during those days were reported by them as 1585 
killed, 7688 wounded; total, 9336. This is probably about 
half the total Confederate loss, which included General 
Griffith and three colonels, killed. General Hooker soon 
afterwards reoccupied Malvern Hill without resistance, tak¬ 
ing 100 prisoners, but the Union army was soon withdrawn 
by the President’s order to the Potomac. Its retreat and 
embarkation were unmolested. General McClellan and his 
staff reached Aquia Creek August 23. 

Major-General John Pope had been called from the West 
to Washington, and given the chief command of Fremont’s, 
Banks’s, and McDowell’s forces, aggregating 50,000 men. 
Major-General Halleck was also called from the West to 
Washington, and made general-in-chief. Pope concentrated 
his forces near Culpeper Court-house, and sent Banks 
forward with 8000 men to Cedar Mountain, where he was 
confronted by Stonewall Jackson, from Richmond, with 
25,000 men. Banks attacked (August 9) under every dis¬ 
advantage of position, and was steadily repulsed, losing 
2000 men ; Jackson’s loss was 1314. Pope arrived at night¬ 
fall with Ricketts’ division and part of Sigel’s (late Fre¬ 
mont’s) corps, but Jackson, seeing that Pope was about to 
move against him in superior force, soon retreated across 
the Rapidan. 

Pope, continuing to act on the offensive, soon found the 
whole army of Virginia concentrating upon him, and re¬ 
treated across the Rappahannock. Lee did not choose to 
force a passage on his front, and sent Jackson around by a 
long flank march up that river. Encamping at Salem, and 
emerging through Thoroughfare Gap, he struck the Alex¬ 
andria Railroad at Bristow Station, in Pope’s rear, and 
captured two trains of cars running westward from War- 
renton. He now sent Stuart with two regiments to Ma¬ 
nassas Junction, seven miles farther north, which ho sur¬ 
prised, taking eight guns, 300 prisoners, and seven trains 
laden with provisions, etc. Colonel Scammon, with two 
Ohio regiments, now crossed Bull Run and assailed Jack- 
son, but was easily beaten off, and General F. G. W. Taylor, 
with four New Jorsey regiments, renewed the experiment 
with like result; all of Jackson’s and A. P. Hill’s divisions 
being by this time at the Junction. 

Pope, by this time aware that something was wrong in 
his rear, began to fall back on Bristow Station, where 
Hooker drove Ewell, capturing part of his train. Ewell 
fell back on Manassas, which Pope’s gathering force com¬ 
pelled Jackson to abandon, moving westward, leaving the 
captured provisions, which he could not remove. Moving 
towards Thoroughfaro Gap, he encountered Rufus King’s 


























CONFEDERATE STATES. 


division of McDowell's corps, which fought him stoutly, 
but did not bar his way. The loss on either side was heavy, 
Major-General Ewell being among the Confederate wounded. 

Pope, now at Centreville, still hoped to envelop and 
crush Jackson, but was baffled by the non-arrival of Fitz- 
John Porter at Manassas Junction, and by the emerging of 
Longstreet’s corps through Thoroughfare Gap, driving off 
Ricketts’ division, which attempted to push it back. Be¬ 
fore noon (August 29) Longstreet had come in near Gaines¬ 
ville, on the right ot Jackson’s hotly-engaged corps at 
Groveton, and the battle raged furiously till night, when 
Pope claimed advantage, and expected to crush the enemy 
next day. But the reinforcements he reasonably expected 
from McClellan’s army did not come up ; and Pope, unsup¬ 
ported, was beaten and retreated on Centreville, near which 
Franklin’s corps, 8000 strong, had stood idle all that day 
(August 30). Here Pope was reinforced by Sumner, as 
well as by Franklin ; and Lee, now in command, did not 
choose to attack him in front, but sent Jackson to gain his 
rear again by a flank march to the northward. Gaining 
Pope’s rear, Jackson attacked his flank rear near Chantilly, 
where Reno’s two divisions and Phil Kearney’s confronted 
him. General Kearney was killed, as was General Isaac 
I. Stevens, commanding one of Reno’s divisions; but Jack- 
son gained no victory. Pope quietly retreated to the Po¬ 
tomac unassailed, and resigned his command, which was 
given to General McClellan. The Union loss in this brief 
and bloody campaign was hardly less than 25,000, includ¬ 
ing 9000 prisoners; the Confederate loss was hardly less 
than 15,000. Colonels Fletcher Webster (son of Daniel) of 
Massachusetts, Roberts of Michigan, O’Conner of Wisconsin, 
Koltes of Pennsylvania, Cantwell of Ohio, and Brown of 
Indiana, were among the Union killed. Major-General R. 
C. Schenck was wounded. 

General Lee, reinforced from Richmond by D. II. Hill’s 
fresh division, crossed the Potomac, unopposed, opposito 
Leesburg, and advanced to Frederick, whence he issued 
(September 8) an address to the people of Maryland, im¬ 
plying that he came as a liberator, but obtained few re¬ 
cruits. Intent on capturing a Union force of 12,000 men 
holding Harper’s Ferry, he divided his army. McClellan 
followed Lee’s right wing, moving west towards Hagers¬ 
town, overtaking it at Turner’s Gap of South Mountain, 
and driving it westward, after a fight (September 14) in 
which he lost 1568 men and took 1500 prisoners. Frank¬ 
lin simultaneously cleared Crampton’s Gap on the left. 
Harper’s Ferry was surrounded by the Confederates in 
great force under Stonewall Jackson, and after a brief can¬ 
nonade was surrendered (September 15) by General D. S. 
Miles, who was killed by a ball just as he had raised the 
white flag. Colonel Davis had escaped with 2000 cavalry 
during the night, but 11,583 men and seventy-three guns 
were the trophies of this triumph. 

Lee rapidly concentrated his army around Sharpsburg, 
along a ridge facing Antietam Creek. McClellan soon con¬ 
fronted and attacked him (September 17), and a bloody, 
determined battle was fought there between 87,000 Union¬ 
ists and 70,000 Confederates, of whom but 40,000 were in 
position at the outset. McClellan’s loss was 2010 killed, 
9416 wounded, and 1043 missing; total, 12,469; Lee’s, 
1842 killed (including Generals Branch of North Carolina, 
Starke of Mississippi, and G. B. Anderson of Georgia), 
9399 wounded, and 2292 missing; total, 13,533. That was 
the bloodiest day America has known. Many regiments 
lost more than half their men. It was in one sense a 
drawn battle, yet when McClellan, after a day’s rest, ad¬ 
vanced to renew it, he found that Lee had recrossed the 
Potomac into Virginia. An irresolute attempt by General 
Porter to follow was repulsed by Lee’s artillery, with a 
Union loss of 200 prisoners. Lee retreated at leisure by 
Bunker Hill and Winchester, while Stuart, with 1500 cav¬ 
alry, made a raid to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, where 
he paroled 275 sick and wounded Unionists and destroyed 
valuable stores, passing around McClellan’s army and re¬ 
crossing the Potomac below Harper’s Ferry. McClellan, 
facing Lee, had moved down to Warrenton, Virginia, where 
he was relieved of his command (November 7). General 
Burnside succeeded him, and, still moving to the left as 
Lee faced him, at length threw a bridge across the Rappa¬ 
hannock at Fredericksburg, and assailed (December 13) 
Lee’s army, holding the heights south of that river, at¬ 
tempting also to flank his right; but the attack in front, 
60,000 strong, led by Hooker and Sumner, was repulsed 
with great slaughter, while that by 40,000 men under 
Franklin, in flank, was unsuccessful. The Union loss in 
this disastrous affair was 1152 (including Major-General 
G. D. Bayard) killed, 9101 wounded, and 3234 missing; 
total, 13,771. The Confederate loss was about 5000, in¬ 
cluding General Maxcy Gregg (just chosen governor of 
South Carolina) and General T. R. R. Cobb ol Georgia. 
Burnside purposed to renew the attack next day, but was 


1099 


dissuaded, and recrossed the Rappahannock unassailed 
during the night of the 15th-16th. Burnside attempted 
(January 20, 1863) to cross the Rappahannock by fords 
above Fredericksburg, but was battled by a terrible storm, 
and desisted. Eight days later he was relieved from the 
command. 

General Halleck had taken command of Grant’s and 
Buell’s combined forces, now swelled to 100,000 men, di¬ 
rectly after the battle of Pittsburg Landing, and by slow 
and regular approaches had forced Beauregard to retreat 
with little loss from his fortified position at Corinth. Beau¬ 
regard was pursued by Pope as far as Baldwin and Gun- 
town, Mississippi, but to little purpose. Meantime, Gen¬ 
eral 0. M. Mitchell, with a division of Buell’s army, had 
struck eastward up the Tennessee, occupying Huntsville, 
Bridgeport, Tuscuinbia, etc., and making considerable 
captures of munitions, railroad cars, etc., with little loss. 
An attempt on Chattanooga under General Negley was 
repulsed by Kirby Smith. Subsequent to this the war 
in that quarter languished under Buell’s command, while 
daring raids were made in all directions by Confederate 
guerillas and cavalry under Generals N. B. Forrest and 
John Morgan. Clarksville (Tennessee), Henderson, and 
Cynthiana (Kentucky) were among the towns thus pounced 
upon, while at Murfreesboro’, Tennessee, Forrest captured 
some 1500 Union troops. The general result of these par¬ 
tisan conflicts was adverse to the Union cause. 

General Bragg, having succeeded Beauregard in chief 
command in this quarter, advanced in June with 45,000 
men from the heart of Mississippi into Tennessee, crossing 
the Tennessee just below Chattanooga, and striking boldly 
northward through a rugged, mountainous, thinly-peopled 
region. At Richmond, Kentucky, his advance, under Kir¬ 
by Smith, fought (August 29) and routed in detail a Union 
division under General M. D. Manson of Indiana, who was 
taken prisoner with nearly 5000 of his men. Smith boasted 
that his prisoners equaled in number his entire force. 
Smith entered Lexington in triumph. Munfordsville, Ken¬ 
tucky, was captured (September 16) by Bragg, who claimed 
4000 prisoners. Thence Bragg advanced unopposed through 
Bardstown to Frankfort, where he inaugurated (October 1) 
Richard Haines as Confederate governor of Kentucky. 
Cincinnati, in great alarm, fortified the Kentucky ap¬ 
proaches to the Ohio, and Louisville seemed in imminent 
peril. 

General Buell, leaving Nashville strongly garrisoned, 
had of late been marching northward on Bragg’s left with 
an army finally swelled by raw levies to 100,000, or at least 
twice the number of Bragg’s much better disciplined force. 
Still, Buell hesitated to attack, distrusting the effectiveness 
of his men, but at length moved (October 1) from Louis¬ 
ville to Bardstown and Springfield; Bragg retiring and 
concentrating before him. Moving thence on Harrods- 
burg, his left was struck (October 9) near Perryville by five 
divisions of Bragg’s army under General L. Polk, which 
outnumbered and drove the inferior force directly opposed 
to it, killing Major-General James S. Jackson, a Kentucky 
member of Congress. The fight was maintained from 2 
p. m. till dark, with advantage at last on the Union side, 
but Buell’s total loss this day was 4348, and Bragg’s but 
2500. Buell had 58,000 men under his command, but not 
half of them were engaged, as he did not know his left 
wing was in action until 4 p. m. Advancing at sunrise 
next morning to I’enew the battle, he learned that Bragg 
had decamped, and he did not stop till he was behind the 
Cumberland Mountains in East Tennessee. 

General Grant, left in command of West Tennessee, with 
Rosecrans in Northern Mississippi, the two attempted a 
combined movement on General Stirling Price at luka, 
Mississippi. Rosecrans alone attacked (September 19), 
but Price held his ground firmly, abandoning it during the 
ensuing night. His loss was at least 1000 ; Rosecrans’ was 
782. Price retreated to Ripley, Mississippi, where he was 
succeeded by Van Dorn, who now, with at least 30,000 
men, undertook to drive or capture Rosecrans and his 
20,000, holding the former Confederate fortifications at Cor¬ 
inth. One of the great charges of the war was made by 
Price, but failed, because Van Dorn was seven minutes too 
late on his side. The rebel loss in this repulse was at least 
5000, including 1423 killed and 2248 prisoners. On the 
Union side 315 were killed, including General P. A. Hack- 
leman of Indiana, 1812 wounded, and 232 missing; total, 
2359. Van Dorn and Price retreated precipitately. 

General Rosecrans was hereupon given command of the 
Army of the Ohio (renamed the Army of the C umbeiland), 
in place of General Buell. He had 65,000 eflective men, 
mainly clustered around Bowling Green, Kentucky, whence 
he soon transferred his head-quarters to I\ash\ "die, and pre¬ 
pared to advance. Meantime, the brigade of Colonel A. B. 
Moore of Illinois, at Hartsville, nearly 2000 strong, was 
surprised and captured by John Morgan with lo00 cavalry * 
















1100 CONFEDERATE STATES. 


Rosecrans, with 46,910 men in three divisions, led by Gen¬ 
erals Thomas, McCook, and Crittenden, left Nashville De¬ 
cember 26, advancing slowly, with some desultory fighting, 
to Stone River, opposite Murfreesboro’, where his right 
under McCook was surprised and crushed by Hardee at 7 
A. m., December 31st; McCook losing twenty-eight guns 
and nearly half his men. But when llosecrans’ centre was 
assailed in turn by the triumphant Confederates, his firm¬ 
ness and soldiership, with those of General Thomas, saved 
the day. Heavy fighting continued throughout the day, 
with little to boast of on either side since McCook’s disas¬ 
ter. But the Confederates had assailed him at all points 
without success, losing heavily, having been so roughly 
handled that they did not care to try again. Next day 
(January 1, 1863) there was a .little desultory fighting, 
mainly at long range. On the day following (January 2) 
a heavy cannonade was begun by the Confederates, and re¬ 
plied to with spirit; and at 3 p. m. a great charge was made 
on the Union left by Breckenridge’s corps, aided by a heavy 
enfilading fire from Polk’s artillery, but was repulsed after 
a bloody struggle by the divisions of Negley and Jefferson 
C. Davis, supporting the fire of Crittenden’s batteries, and 
charging in turn. The Confederates lost four guns and 
some prisoners, and were pursued across Stone River, 
where the victors intrenched and rested for the night. The 
next day passed with little fighting. Bragg at 11 p. m. be¬ 
gan to evacuate Murfreesboro’, where Rosecrans, on ad¬ 
vancing next morning, found only the desperately wounded. 
Rosecrans reported his losses in this protracted struggle at 
1533 killed, 7245 wounded, and 2800 prisoners; total, 
11,578 out of 43,400. Bragg reported his loss at over 10,000, 
including 9000 killed and wounded, out of 35,000. Cavalry 
raids by Forrest in West Tennessee, John Morgan in the 
heart of Kentucky, and Wheeler on the Cumberland, were 
made this winter to little purpose. Colonel A. D. Streight 
of Indiana was sent by Rosecrans (April 10) with 1800 cav¬ 
alry to operate on Bragg’s rear, but was surrounded near 
Rome, Georgia, by Forrest and Reddy, and compelled to 
surrender. Sundry minor conflicts in this quarter inflicted 
in the aggregate about equal losses on either belligerent. 

Commodore Foote had triumphantly swept down the Mis¬ 
sissippi from Cairo to Vicksburg, co-operating with Gen¬ 
eral Pope on the Missouri and General W. T. Sherman on 
the Kentucky side. Columbus, Kentucky, was abandoned 
on his approach ; New Madrid, Missouri, and Island No. 
10 in the Mississippi, were successively taken by Pope, 
compelling General Makall to surrender 123 guns and 6700 
men ; then Forts Pillow and Randolph, which opened the 
river to Memphis, where a Confederate fleet of steamboats 
undertook to bar the way, but was soon demolished (June 
4), when Memphis was quietly surrendered. An expedi¬ 
tion thence up White River, to open communications with 
General Curtis, did not find him, but lost the steamboat 
Mound City, with 150 men, by a ball through her boiler in 
an attack on St. Charles, which was taken. Commodore 
Davis steamed down to Vicksburg, and communicated with 
Farragut. below it from New Orleans ; but a combined naval 
attack (July 1) on that stronghold was repulsed, and the 
siege raised July 24. 

General Grant, now at Jackson, Tennessee, after the bat¬ 
tles at Iuka and Corinth had his department enlarged so as 
to include Mississippi, while 11,500 men were sent him under 
McPherson. He had advanced as far as Oxford, Missis¬ 
sippi, on the way to Vicksburg, when Van Dorn struck 
(December 20) with cavalry at Holly Springs in his rear, 
where Grant’s stores were awaiting a further reopening of 
the railroad. The place was occupied by Colonel R. C. 
Murphy of Wisconsin, who surrendered nearly 2000 men, 
nearly half of them in hospital. Grant at once cashiered 
Murphy in a stinging order, but meantime his stores, >vorth 
$4,000,000, had been destroyed or carried off, and he was 
compelled to turn back into Tennessee. 

General W. T. Sherman, with 30,000 men, left Memphis 
on steamboats December 21, and fell down the Mississippi 
to co-operate in the reduction of Vicksburg. Ascending the 
Yazoo, he made (December 22) a resolute attack on the 
rebel batteries commanding Chickasaw Bayou, but the 
ground was difficult, the banks strong and well manned, 
and he was repulsed with a loss of 2000, while General 
Pemberton reports the Confederate loss at 267. 

General John A. McClernand now superseded General 
Sherman, and at once resolved on the reduction of Fort 
Hindman (known as Arkansas Post), 50 miles up the Ar¬ 
kansas River. His force was so large, and his dispositions 
so well made, that his first assault compelled its surrender, 
with 5000 prisoners and seventeen guns. The Union loss 
in the assault was 977. General Grant arrived from Mem¬ 
phis and assumed chief command February 2, 1863. 

Attempts to cut a channel across the narrow isthmus op¬ 
posite Vicksburg on which the Union army was encamped 
proved failures, and a boat-expedition under Goneral L. F. 


Ross from the Mississippi, through Yazoo Pass, into the 
Coldwater and Tallahatchie Rivers, was stopped aud 
turned back by Confederate works at the head of the 
Yazoo, returning to the Mississippi unmolested; and one 
or more kindred attempts to circumvent the defences of 
Vicksburg were likewise baffled. At length General Grant 
decided to gain their rear by the south rather than the 
north, and, defying high water and other impediments, 
marched his army 70 miles to Hard Times, nearly opposite 
Grand Gulf. Commodore Porter, commanding the Union 
fleet above Vicksburg, ran the batteries of that city with 
eight gunboats and eight barges, whereof but two were 
destroyed by their fire, the rest appearing before Grand 
Gulf in season to bombard its defences, but to no purpose. 
Grant thereupon crossed (April 30) at Bruinsburg, some 
miles below, and, taking them in reverse, easily took pos¬ 
session of Port Gibson and Grand Gulf, defeating General 
Bowen, who had been sent from Vicksburg to resist him, 
with a loss of nearly 1000 on each side. Moving up the 
Big Black, General Grant’s advance easily crushed at Ray¬ 
mond two rebel brigades under Gregg; Union loss, 443; 
Confederate, 723. Advancing to Jackson, the capital of the 
State, McPherson was there resisted by General W. II. T. 
Walker, who was promptly defeated, with a Confederate 
loss of 845 to 265 Union. Here seventeen guns were taken 
and much material destroyed. 

By this time General Jos. Johnston had arrived with re¬ 
inforcements, and assumed chief command of the Confed¬ 
erates, directing Pemberton to join him with the defenders 
of Vicksburg. Grant of course moved rapidly westward 
to bar such junction, and at Champion Hills encountered 
(May 16) Pemberton, who attempted too late to move 
northward and join Johnston, but was compelled to fight 
thrice his force, and was beaten with a loss of General 
Tilghman among the killed, 2000 prisoners, and fifteen 
guns. General Loring’s division was cut off from Pem¬ 
berton’s, and escaped southward to Jackson. At the cross¬ 
ing of the Big Black, Pemberton fought again, but was 
soon put to flight, with a loss of eighteen guns and 1500 
prisoners. Pemberton, -with whatever he still had left, 
fled into Vicksburg, necessarily abandoning his strong 
defences on the Yazoo, with a number of heavy guns. The 
Confederate navy-yard and hospital at Yazoo City, with 
1500 sick and wounded, were among the fruits of these suc¬ 
cesses. Grant followed Pemberton closely, and tried to 
carry his stronghold by assault, but was repulsed with 
heavy loss. He then sat down to patient sapping and 
mining, fortifying his rear against Johnston, who was 
threatening him from Clinton and Jackson, and worked 
away until Pemberton was starved into a surrender (July 
3), having still 1500 men fit for duty, besides 10,000 in 
hospitals. Grant reports his total loss from his landing at 
Bruinsburg to his triumphant entry (July 4) into Vicksburg 
at 943 killed, 7095 wounded, and 537 missing; total, 8515, 
of whom 4236 fell before Vicksburg; and claims 37,000 
prisoners, of whom a large part were sick or wounded, 
with arms and munitions for 60,000 men. Among the 
Confederates killed were Generals Tracy, Tilghman, and 
Green. Grant now turned, with a force raised to 50,000, 
upon Johnston, who had but 24,000, pushed him back to 
Jackson, and there besieged him, with a loss of 600 on 
either side, until he decided to decamp, retreating by 
Brandon to Morton. 

During these momentous operations Colonel B. H. Grier¬ 
son, with 1700 cavalry, raided northward from Lagrange, 
Tennessee, through Pontotoc, by Jackson and Natchez, to 
the Mississippi at Baton Rouge, taking 500 prisoners and 
3000 small arms, having traversed 600 miles of mainly hor¬ 
rible roads in sixteen days, losing but twenty-seven men. 
Milliken’s Bend, on the Mississippi, held by General E. A. 
Dennis with 1400 men, was attacked by the Confederate 
general Henry McCulloch with a superior force, which was 
repelled with a loss of some 500 to either side. Helena, 
Arkansas, held by General B. M. Prentiss with 4000 men, 
was likewise attacked (June 30) by the Confederate general 
Holmes with 7646, losing 1636, Avhereof 1000 were cap¬ 
tured. Helena was thereafter let alone. 

General Banks, commanding at New Orleans, found Gal¬ 
veston already surrendered (October 8, 1862), without re¬ 
sistance, to a Union fleet of four gunboats, and thence 
quietly held till he sent down a regiment, of which part 
was debarked (December 28), when General Magruder, 
just appointed to command in Texas, organized a fleet of 
mercantile steamers, shielded by cotton-bales and manned 
in good part by volunteers, with which ho came down the 
bayou in the night (December 31) and boldly attacked the 
Union fleet in the harbor, captured the Harriet Lane, sunk 
the Westfield, and compelled the troops ashore to surrender. 
And the Confederate corsair Alabama, arriving off the bar 
soon after, silenced and took the Union gunboat Ilatteras, 
Captain Blake, whioh sunk six minutes afterwards. Major 






















CONFEDERATE STATES. 


1101 


(). M. Watkins, blockading the mouth of the Sabine with 
two gunboats, was attacked by two Confederate gunboats 
from up-river, and easily captured. 

General Banks had 30,000 men, which sickness, desertion, 
and detachments soon reduced to 14,000. Having pushed 
these westward, so as to clear the country of all enemies to 
the Atchafalaya by an easy fight at Carney’s Bridge, he at 
once returned and laid siege to Port Hudson on the Missis¬ 
sippi, where the Confederates had established batteries to 
dispute the passage of the river. Commodore Farragut, 
with four frigates and five gunboats, passed the batteries, 
losing one of his best vessels in so doing. Banks, deeming 
the garrison too strong to be successfully assaulted by his 
force, again moved westward to Alexandria, driving Gen¬ 
eral R. Taylor and taking 2000 prisoners, several steam¬ 
boats, and twenty-two guns. Again Banks returned to the 
Mississippi at Port Hudson, which he invested and soon 
tried to carry by assault, but was beaten ofi‘ with a loss of 
2000 against 300. He now besieged in due form, and at 
length made (June 10) a second assault, which likewise 
failed. But no relieving army appeared ,, supplies were 
very short, and the garrison were on short allowance, with 
little to eat left, when a tremendous salute from the invest¬ 
ing Union batteries and gunboats gave notice (July 6) that 
Vicksburg had fallen. Upon being convinced of this fact, 
General Gardener surrendered the fort with its garrison of 
6408 men, of whom many were sick or wounded. Banks’s 
effective force was that day about 10,000 ; his total captures 
during the campaign, 10,584 men, seventy-three guns, and 
6000 small arms. 

Brashear City, on the Atchafalaya, was surprised and cap¬ 
tured by the Confederate general R. Taylor ( June 22), with 
a Union loss of 1000 men and ten guns. The Union camp of 
General Dudley near Donaldsonville was in like manner sur¬ 
prised (July 12) by 1200 Texans, and 300 prisoners taken. 
Banks returned to New Orleans, and sent General Franklin 
with a fleet and 4000 men to take the fort at Sabine Pass; 
but the naval attack was repulsed with a loss of two gun¬ 
boats, fifteen guns, and 250 men, which exceeded the whole 
number opposed to them. 

General Banks pushed out a part of his command, under 
General C. C. Washburne, to Opelousas, to make his own 
movement on Texas. On his retreat to the Teche, General 
Washburne’s right was attacked (November 1) by General 
R. Taylor, and roughly handled, the Sixty-seventh Indi¬ 
ana being captured entire. Reinforcements being brought 
up, Taylor drew off, having inflicted a loss of 716, and suf¬ 
fered but 425. 

General Banks, with 6000 men, steamed from New Or¬ 
leans to the Rio Grande, thence capturing Brazos Santiago, 
Brownsville, Aransas Pass, Fort Esperanza (commanding 
Matagorda Bay) with little opposition and hardly any loss, 
there being no considerable force to oppose him. He then 
returned to New Orleans, leaving General N. J. T. Dana in 
command, but the latter found no hostile force in that part 
of Texas, and accomplished very little. 

When the spring of 1863 had fairly opened, General A. 
J. Smith’s corps from Sherman’s army, supported by Com¬ 
modore Porter with a powerful steam-fleet, advanced up 
Red River, menacing Shreveport, while General Steele was 
to co-operate by a movement from Little Rock, which had 
been taken by an advance with 12,000 men from Helena six 
months before. General Price, who was in command there, 
was far outnumbered and easily routed. He burned six 
steamboats and some stores, falling back to the vicinity of 
Red River. Steele lost but 100 killed and wounded in this 
advance, and took 1000 prisoners. 

Banks’s advance, which should have passed Alexandria 
before March 1st, only reached that point on the 16th, and 
he was not ready to advance farther till about April 1st, at 
which time the river was l’apidly falling, and barely navi¬ 
gable for gunboats. By this time his 40,000 men had been 
reduced by details and sickness to 20,000, whereof the van 
had reached Sabine Cross-roads, near Mansfield, when, as it 
moved carelessly through a pine-woods region, it was at¬ 
tacked in great force, outflanked and routed, and an at¬ 
tempt to re-form was baffled by the presence of a supply- 
train which should have been elsewhere. Retreating, or 
rather fleeing, three miles to Pleasant Grove, the routed van 
re-formed upon General Emory’s division, and was again 
charged headlong by the flushed Confederates, and brisk 
fighting ensued, in which the Confederate general Mouton 
was killed. Every attack was repulsed, and darkness 
closed the combat. General Banks retreated during the 
night fifteen miles to Pleasant Hill, where General Smith’s 
corps was awaiting him, raising his entire force to 15,000. 
At 11 a. m. the Confederates appeared, and skirmished con¬ 
tinuously till 4 p. >r., when they made a grand attack, and 
were again beaten off, losing 400 prisoners. General M. 
Parsons (Confederate) and Colonel Lewis Benedict (Union) 
were among the killed. Banks’s loss in these fights was 


3969, mainly taken prisoners at the first collision. Though 
successful in the last struggle, he did not again advance, 
but marched to the Red River at Grand Grove, thence con¬ 
voying the fleet, which was often hard aground, back to 
Alexandria. Ilis rear and his vessels were repeatedly and 
sharply assailed; in one attack, General Thomas Green of 
Texas was killed. The Eastport, one of the gunboats, be¬ 
ing hard aground, was blown up. The rest of the fleet w r as 
saved, and taken down to the Mississippi, passing Alexan¬ 
dria with great difficulty by the help of dams. Having now 
to spare A. J. Smith’s corps, Banks continued his retreat, 
forced to fight and push aside General Bee with 8000 men, 
with a loss of 250 on either side. One steamboat was burned 
and three captured by Confederates near,Dean’s Bayoir, 30 
miles below Alexandria, some 500 Unionists being made 
prisoners. Part of them were retaken in repulsing (May 6) 
a Confederate attack on Banks’s advance near Mansura, and 
an attack on his rear (May 19) at Yellow Bayou on the 
Atchafalaya. 

General Steele’s advance from Little Rock to co-operate 
with Banks was, by the retreat of the latter, exposed to 
great peril. The Confederates under General Fagan turned 
upon him in great force, drove in or captured his foraging 
parties, and at length struck his advance a heavy blow 
(April 25) at Marks’s Mill, taking some 1500 prisoners. 
Steele thereupon retreated, and was attacked (April 30) by 
Kirby Smith at Jenkins’s Ferry on the Sabine; but the 
Unionists, though inferior in numbers, had the advantage 
in position, and repulsed their assailants after a sharp 
contest, in which the Union loss was 700 ; the Confederate, 
2300, including three generals. Steele’s retreat to Little 
Rock was thenceforth unmolested. Several spirited con¬ 
tests were afterwards had in different parts of Arkansas 
with varying results, but the north-eastern half of its area 
was generally held by the Unionists, the other half by the 
Confederates nearly to the last. 

In 1864, General Rosecrans being now in command in 
Missouri, General Price entered it from Batesville, Arkan¬ 
sas, first resisted at Pilot Knob by General Hugh S. Ewing, 
who held his post throughout a day’s fighting, and then re¬ 
treated. Price advanced to Jefferson City, but, finding it 
too strong to attack, pushed westward to Lexington, and 
thence to the Little Blue, sharply followed by General 
Pleasanton with a superior force, and overtaken at the Big 
Blue, where he made a stand, but was soon driven west¬ 
ward. Sharply pursued, Price was again overtaken at the 
Little Osage, where he was again routed with the loss of eight 
guns and 1000 prisoners, including Major-General Marma- 
duke, a brigadier, and five colonels. The residue were 
chased to Fayetteville, Arkansas, but without much fighting. 

General Hooker, on succeeding to the command of the 
Army of the Potomac, had found it exceedingly demoralized 
by its disaster at Fredericksburg, the desertions averaging 
200 per day. After devoting two months to reorganizing 
and reinspiring it, during which its force had been gradually 
raised to 100,000 infantry, 13,000 cavalry, and 10,000 artil¬ 
lery, he judged himself ready to assume the offensive. De¬ 
spatching most of his cavalry under Stoneman to destroy 
railroads, depots, etc. in Lee’s rear, his van forded the Rap¬ 
pahannock at Kelly’s Ford, above Fredericksburg, advan¬ 
cing rapidly to Chancellorsville, where he established his 
head-quarters and paused. General Anderson, who had 
been watching the fords, being too weak to resist, fell back 
quietly before him to within five miles of Fredericksburg, 
where Lee met him with two divisions. Meanwhile, Stone¬ 
wall Jackson with two more moved rapidly from Lee’s right 
below Fredericksburg, and passed silently around Hooker’s 
right, several miles west of Chancellorsville. Suddenly, 
just before sunset (May 2), Howard’s corps, holding the 
Union right, was struck in flank and rear while ignorant 
of danger, and in part at supper with arms stacked, by 
Stonewall Jackson’s corps, 25,000 strong, which burst from 
the thick woods of that region and literally demolished it. 
Ten minutes after the first shot its men were rushing in 
wild consternation towards Chancellorsville and the river 
beyond ; thousands of them were unarmed, while very many 
of them were made prisoners. Two or three regiments were 
sacrificed in unsuccessful attempts to stay Jackson’s im¬ 
petuous rush. Finally, General Pleasanton got his battery 
of horse artillery into position, and arrested the advance 
by murderous discharges of grape at short range. Here 
fell Stonewall Jackson, mortally wounded : it was said by a 
volley from some of his own men. It was dark, and they 
were in the woods; all that is certain is that he died ol his 
wounds eight days afterwards. The flight was here stop¬ 
ped. and some of the lost ground regained, but the Eleventh 
corps was temporarily extinct; so Hooker drew back his 
right towards Chancellorsville. 

The Confederates next morning followed up their decided 
success by charge after charge in great lorce on General 
Sickles’s corps, now holding the Union right, and caused it 































CONFEDERATE STATES 


1102 


to give some ground during the day. The carnage of that 
day was frightful, Sickles having 4000 out of 18,000 killed 
or wounded. Hooker had been stunned by a cannon-ball 
striking a pillar of the Chancellorsville House against which 
he leaned, and hence failed to support Sickles when support 
was needed. 

Sedgwick, with 22,000 men, had been left in front of Fred¬ 
ericksburg. He crossed the river early this morning, just 
below that city, and was reinforced by Gibbon, who crossed 
on a pontoon bridge, raising his troops to 30,000. By noon 
he had stormed and carried Marye’s Heights, taking some 
guns and prisoners, thence pushing out four miles to Salem 
Church. But this brought him full upon Lee’s army, which, 
having crossed to assail Hooker, now turned upon him, 
fighting him till darkness interposed. Next morning (May 
4) Hooker remained passive, and Sedgwick, finding him¬ 
self overpowered, retreated across Banks’s Ford, having lost 
nearly 5000 men. Lee might now have turned in full force 
upon Hooker, but his men had been overworked, and ho 
hesitated. Hooker recrossed the Rappahannock unassailed 
during the ensuing night, claiming that he brought back 
one more gun than he took over, and that he had inflicted 
greater loss than he suffered, though his own (including 
Sedgwick’s) was no less than 17,197 men. Lee’s loss must 
have been heavy, but was not made public. Stoneman’s 
cavalry returned May 8, having inflicted little loss and suf¬ 
fered little. 

Lee soon after recalled Longstreet from a fruitless demon¬ 
stration against Suffolk, Virginia, and while Hooker was 
planning to flank him by crossing the Rappahannock below 
Fredericksburg, was himself executing a more extensive 
and daring flank movement by Culpeper Court-house and 
Sperryvillc into the Shenandoah Valley, and down that 
across the Potomac. This movement was first fully devel¬ 
oped to Hooker by an advance in great force under General 
Eaidy on Winchester, held by General Milroy of Indiana, 
who evacuated it when too late, and lost twenty-nine guns 
and 4000 men in his hurried flight across the Potomac. 
Ewell pursued unresisted to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, 
which Jenkins, with his cavalry, had reached some days 
before (June 17). Early’s division of Ewell’s corps moved 
forward to York, Pennsylvania, while Johnson’s division 
pressed northward to Carlisle, and Imboden’s brigade swept 
the valley of the Potomac westward to Cumberland, Mary¬ 
land. By June 25th all of Lee’s army had forded the Po¬ 
tomac, and was advancing into Pennsylvania. Ewell’s van 
reached Kingston, but 13 miles from Harrisburg. As counted 
by two Unionists as it passed through Hagerstown, Lee had 
9*1,000 infantry, 280 guns and 6000 cavalry, while 5000 cav¬ 
alry under Stuart entered Pennsylvania without traversing 
Hagerstown. 

General Hooker had waited long below and around Wash¬ 
ington, incredulous that Lee would invade the free States. 
At length he too crossed the Potomac with 100,000 men, of 
whom 15,000 were spared him from the defences of Wash¬ 
ington. He wished to draw 10,000 more from Maryland 
Heights, opposite Harper’s Ferry, but was forbidden to do 
so by General Halleck. Hooker thereupon asked (by tele¬ 
graph) to be relieved from the command, and was promptly 
directed by Halleck to turn it over to General Meade, which 
he did, and was no more seen in the Army of the Potomac. 

A cavalry fight (June 28), inaugurated by Stuart and re¬ 
pelled by Kilpatrick, was the first notice that the two great 
armies were nearing each other. They casually encountered 
near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, where General Buford’s 
division of Unionists met the Confederate van under Heth, 
and drove it back upon its corps (Hill’s), by which they 
were driven in turn. The sound of guns brought up General 
Wadsworth’s division of Reynolds’ (First) corps, Reynolds 
himself going forward to reconnoitre, and being shot dead 
as he did so. General Doubleday assumed command, but 
his force, being too weak, was driven back, capturing 800 
prisoners as they retreated. Doubleday halted on Seminary 
Ridge, just west of the village, where the residue of Rey¬ 
nolds’ and all the Eleventh corps soon came up, Howard 
assuming command. Ewell’s (Confederate) corps next came 
up from York, and again gave the ascendency to their side, 
driving the Unionists through Gettysburg, with the loss of 
their wounded in hospital and several guns. Howard took 
position on Cemetery Hill, just south of the village, and 
despatched couriers to Meade and Sickles for aid. Sickles 
was at Emmittsburg, ten miles away, but hastened to the 
scene of conflict; Meade, who was at Taneytown, expect¬ 
ing and preparing to fight on Pike Creek, sent Hancock at 
once to take command at Gettysburg, directing his corps 
under Gibbon to follow. Slocum arrived at 7 p. m., and took 
command, Hancock returning to report to Meade. Before 
morning ( July 2) each army had been concentrated around 
Gettysburg, save that Sedgwick’s (Sixth) corps, which was 
30 miles distant at 7 p. m., did not arrive until 2 p. m. of 
that eventful day. One hour later, Sickles, who held an 


advanced position on the Union left, was attacked in over¬ 
whelming force by Longstreet just as he was about to re¬ 
cede, and was crushed back with heavy loss, losing a leg by 
a cannon-shot. Meantime, Sykes’s (Fifth) corps had seized 
Round Top, the highest point on that wing, and firmly held 
it. Hancock rushed to Sickles’s relief, and Longstreot’s 
advance was arrested, but he held the ground from which 
Sickles had been driven. Ewell also had assailed and 
driven the weakened Union right, and the second day’s 
fighting closed with the advantage still on the side of the 
Confederates. 

The third day (July 3) opened with an advance of the 
Union right under Slocum, who had now been rejoined by a 
division sent over the day before to support the imperilled 
left. Slocum retook the ground he had lost, and rested 
upon it. Then there was a lull of an hour or more. 

At 1 p. m. the roar of 115 heavy guns from Hill’s and 
Longstreet’s front, crossing their fire over the Union centre 
at Cemetery Hill, announced the crisis of the struggle. For 
two hours they ploughed the Union lines, being less effect¬ 
ively replied to by the less numerous Union artillery. At 
length the Union guns stopped firing in order to cool their 
pieces, and now the grand Confederate column of assault 
emerged from behind their suddenly silent batteries and 
pressed swiftly towards the Union lines. Pickett’s and 
Heth’s (now Pettigrew’s) divisions led, charging up to the 
mouths of the Union guns, but were repulsed with terri¬ 
ble carnage. Pettigrew’s brigade, having lost 2000 out of 
2800 men, retreated under the command of a major. When 
the remnant regained their own lines the battle of Gettys¬ 
burg had been lost and won, though a charge was after¬ 
wards made by Crawford’s division of Sykes’s corps on the 
Union left, capturing a battery with 260 men, and retak¬ 
ing 7000 small arms, with Sickles’s wounded, who had lain 
for twenty-four summer hours unguarded within the Con¬ 
federate lines. 

General Meade reports his total loss in these three bloody 
days at 2834 killed, 13,709 wounded, and 6643 missing 
(mainly taken prisoners on the 1st). He claims as trophies 
three guns, 24,978 small arms, and 13,621 prisoners, includ¬ 
ing wounded. He estimates the Confederate loss as much 
greater, which is probable, as about 7000 of them were 
buried at Gettysburg, with 4000 Unionists. Among the 
Confederate killed or mortally wounded were Generals 
Pender, Barksdale, Garnett, Armistead, and Semmes. Had 
Meade known how badly the Confederates were beaten, he 
might probably have crushed them; but he doubted and 
hesitated while Lee retreated to the Potomac, sorely an¬ 
noyed by the way. Lee says his rear remained near Get¬ 
tysburg till after daylight of the 5th. He might have been 
assailed at the Potomac, as his bridge had been burned by 
General French in his absence, and the’river was swollen 
by heavy rains; yet he rebuilt his bridge, and crossed 
(July 12-13) his infantry and guns without loss; but a 
cavalry charge by General Kilpatrick on his rear-guard 
drove it across with a loss of 125 killed (including General 
Pettigrew) and 1500 prisoners. Lee retreated the length 
of the Shenandoah, and resumed his position behind the 
Rappahannock, General Meade following and facing him 
on the north bank. 

General Keyes, with 3000 men, was ordered from Fort¬ 
ress Monroe to capture Richmond during Lee’s absence in 
the North, but though few troops had been left to defend tt, 
he desisted without a serious effort. 

A series of partisan affairs ensued on either bank of the 
Rappahannock, the most important of which was the cap¬ 
ture by storm of Rappahannock Station with 1000 men by 
the Union brigades under General David A. Russell. The 
Confederate rifle-pits at Kelly’s Ford were in like manner 
taken, with 400 prisoners. 

Meade, aware that Longstreet had been detached for ser¬ 
vice in Georgia and Tennessee, now advanced to attack 
Lee’s depleted army at Mine Run, but finally concluding 
that its position was too strong, desisted and retreated 
across the Rapidan, and thus closed the campaign of the 
Army of the Potomac in 1863. 

General Morgan made a fresh raid clear through Ken¬ 
tucky, striking and crossing the Ohio (July 7) at Branden¬ 
burg, 40 miles below Louisville, with a mounted force said 
to number 4000. He then made his way through Indiana 
and Southern Ohio to Buffing Island, not far below Par¬ 
kersburg, but found the river patrolled by armed steam¬ 
boats, while a considerable land force was pressing in his 
rear. Ultimately, less than 400 of his men escaped ; all 
the rest were made prisoners with little fighting. Morgan 
himself was taken prisoner and confined in the State prison 
at Columbus, Ohio, whence he escaped and regained the 
Confederate lines, but was surprised and shot in East Ten¬ 
nessee not long afterwards. 

General Burnside had been sent from the East to the Ohio, 
taking his (Ninth) corps with him. Having despatched a 
















CONFEDERATE STATES. 


cavalry force under Colonel II. S. Saunders across the Cum¬ 
berland Mountains to burn railroad bridges and destroy 
stores, in which it was quite successful with little loss, he 
crossed those mountains with 20,000 men, and suddenly 
appeared (September 3) at Knoxville, where he was hailed 
by the long-suffering Unionists as a deliverer. He next 
moved on Cumberland Gap, where he captured General 
Frazier with fourteen guns and 2000 men. But his activity 
was here arrested by the reverse encountered by Rosecrans 
at Chickamauga. 

Rosecrans had stood idle at Murfreesboro’ since January 
1, 1863, awaiting reinforcements and supplies, till June 24, 
when he advanced, taking three guns and 500 prisoners at 
Shelbyville, and soon cleared all Middle Tennessee of armed 
Confederates; Bragg retreated before him with little loss. 
Crossing the Tennessee at several points, Rosecrans com¬ 
pelled him to evacuate Chattanooga without fighting, re¬ 
treating down the railroad that led into Georgia. Rose¬ 
crans, misled by his easy success, was pursuing in hot haste, 
when Bragg, having been reinforced by Longstreet’s corps 
from Virginia, turned suddenly on his widely-scattered 
divisions, compelling him to concentrate hastily behind 
the Chickamauga Creek. He had 55,000 men; Bragg had 
scarcely more, and the first day’s fighting (September 19) 
was indecisive. Next morning, Rosecrans’ right, while at¬ 
tempting to close down on his centre, was struck heavily by 
Longstreet and torn to fragments, the debris flying in im¬ 
potent dismay to Chattanooga, and sweeping Rosecrans 
along with it. But General Thomas, farther to the left, 
stood firm, gaining ground somewhat, but maintaining a 
bold front, and, resting on a wooded ridge, repulsed all at¬ 
tacks until night closed the bloody encounter, when the 
Confederates drew off, and Thomas stood still through the 
following day (September 21). At night, still unassailed, 
he retired to the position assigned him by Rosecrans in 
front of Chattanooga. 

The Union loss in this bloody, protracted struggle was 
1644 killed (including General W. IT. Lytle of Ohio), 9262 
wounded, 4945 missing; total, 15,581. Bragg’s admitted 
loss was 18,000, but he claims to have taken 8000 prisoners 
(including wounded) and fifty-one guns. But lie failed to 
take Chattanooga, which Rosecrans firmly held, though 
suffering badly for forage, owing to the barring in of the 
Tennessee River below him and the raids of Wheeler’s Con¬ 
federate cavalry on the trains coming to supply his rear, 
until he was directed to turn over his command to General 
Thomas. 

General Longstreet, with his corps, was now detached 
from Bragg’s army, and sent to drive Burnside out of East 
Tennessee. Longstreet drove the Union forces west of 
Knoxville, but here Burnside was found too strong, and an 
assault made (November 28) on an outpost known as Fort 
Sanders was repulsed with a loss of 800 Confederates, in¬ 
cluding two colonels killed. The Union loss was but 100. 
Longstreet thereupon raised the siege, and returned to the 
army of Virginia. 

General Grant succeeded to the command of Rosecrans’ 
army, while Sherman was ordered from Vicksburg still fur¬ 
ther to reinforce it, General Hooker having already been 
sent in haste with the Eleventh and Twelfth corps from 
the Army of the Potomac. Meantime, Wheeler had burned 
a supply-train of 1000 wagons in the Sequatchie Valley, 
and another at McMinnville, fighting several cavalry com¬ 
mands sent against him, burning many railroad bridges, 
and escaping into Alabama with but little loss. 

Grant found Hooker at Bridgeport, below Chattanooga, 
and directed him to clear the river, so that supplies could 
reach the hungry army around Chattanooga. Hooker crossed 
the Tennessee unmolested, and advanced to Wauhatchie, 
overlooked by Law’s division from Lookout Mountain. At 
1 A. M., October 29, Geary, in Hooker’s front, was attacked 
with great impetuosity, but easily beat off his assailants, 
with a loss of about 400 on each side. 

Sherman arrived November 15, soon followed by his 
army, which was diverted to Grant’s left, up the Tennessee. 
All being at length ready, Grant advanced against Bragg, 
who was still looking down into Chattanooga from the west 
of Lookout Mountain. General Grant’s Fourth corps first 
moved out (November 22), directly in front of Chattanooga, 
seizing the Confederate outposts before they could be sup¬ 
ported, and taking 200 prisoners; then Hooker’s com¬ 
mand, during a heavy mist, mounted (November 24) the 
south and west sides of Lookout Mountain, climbing, fight¬ 
ing, and at length entrenching themselves on the ground 
they had won. Meantime, Sherman crossed the Tennessee 
in his front, and having firmly intrenched himself, assaulted 
the north end of Mission Ridge, Thomas’s cavalry raiding 
and burning stores in Bragg’s rear, while his infantry felt 
their way up the river till they clasped hands with Sher¬ 
man’s left; and now Hooker crossed the Chattanooga Val¬ 
ley from Lookout Mountain to Mission Ridge, pushing the 


1103 


enemy before him and taking 2000 prisoners. Meanwhile, 
Sherman, stubbornly opposed, was making little progress 
on the left, until Grant at 2 p. m. gave Hooker orders to ad¬ 
vance in the centre. His men obeyed with alacrity, charg¬ 
ing right up the long, steep ascent, and reaching the west 
on six points at once, when the Confederates were seized 
with panic and fled, abandoning forty guns and losing 
many prisoners. Darkness alone prevented the destruction 
of the beaten army, which retreated rapidly to Dalton, 
Georgia, Cleburne in their rear repulsing with ease an at¬ 
tempt to drive his men through a narrow gap in White 
Oak Ridge, inflicting a loss of 439 to 130. Pursuit was 
maintained to Ringgold, Georgia. 

General Grant states his losses in the above battles at 757 
killed, 4529 wounded, and 330 missing; total, 5616; and 
claims 6142 prisoners. The Confederate loss in killed and 
wounded was undoubtedly the smaller. 

Charleston, South Carolina, and the railroad connecting 
it with Savannah, Georgia, were often menaced, and some¬ 
times struck at, by the Union forces at Port Royal and the 
adjacent Sea Islands, but nothing decisive was effected, 
save the reduction (April 11, 1862), by General Q. A. Gill- 
more, of Fort Pulaski, commanding the main entrance to 
Savannah, until Commodore Dupont, having easily taken 
possession of the islands and most of the coast-towns of 
Georgia, steamed down to Jacksonville, which, with Pensa¬ 
cola and other Florida ports, were conceded to him without 
a struggle. Attempting upon his return to Port Royal to 
advance upon Charleston off Stono Inlet and river, he was 
stopped by batteries, and an attack (June 16) by General 
II. G. Wright with 6000 Unionists on Secessionville was re¬ 
pulsed with a loss of 574 men. Several kindred but feebler 
attempts to reach Charleston were baffled, as was one by 
Commodore Dupont to reduce Fort McAllister on the Ogee- 
chee. The Confederates made a sally in the dark of rams 
and gunboats (January 31, 1863) out of Charleston, dis¬ 
abling two of the blockading gunboats and alarming the 
residue, but taking refuge behind Fort Sumter when day¬ 
light appeared. The blockade was not interrupted. 

Dupont, with nine iron-clads, next (April 6) bombarded 
that port at close quarters, but found his way to Charleston 
impeded by all manner of piles, chains, etc., and was com¬ 
pelled to retire with little loss on either side. The Atlanta, 
a Confederate gunboat, steaming down from Savannah, 
was met by the Weehawken, Captain John Rodgers, as she 
emerged from Wilmington River, and torn to pieces in fif¬ 
teen minutes. She surrendered four large guns and 165 
men. 

General Quincy A. Gillmore having succeeded General 
Hunter in command, and being considerably reinforced, 
commenced operations by seizing the north end of Morris 
Island, south of Charleston, and thence besieging Fort Wag¬ 
ner, near its north end, which was regularly assaulted after 
bombardment July 18, but the storming-party was quickly 
repulsed with a loss of 1500, including General Strong and 
Colonels Shaw and Cliatfield, killed. The Confederate loss 
was but 100. 

Gillmore, undismayed, next established a battery of great 
guns on a platform in a marsh west of Morris Island, 
whence he could shell Charleston, five miles distant. 
Eleven batteries rained shot and shell on Forts Wagner 
and Sumter and the batteries on Cummings’ Point. Push¬ 
ing steadily his approaches to Wagner, he had ordered 
Commodore Terry to assault (Sejrtembcr 7), when lie found 
that the Confederates had evacuated both fort and island, 
leaving eighteen guns in Wagner and seven in Battery 
Gregg. Next night, Commodore Dahlgrcn, now command¬ 
ing the besieging fleet, sent a large force in row-boats to 
scale the walls of Fort Sumter, but it was repulsed with a 
loss of three boats and 200 men. 

General Gillmore early in 1864 despatched General 
Truman Seymour with a fleet and 6000 troops to Florida, 
where he easily took possession of Jacksonville and Bald¬ 
win, capturing valuable stores, but advancing rashly west¬ 
ward to Olustee, he was there suddenly attacked by Gen¬ 
eral Finnegan, and beaten with a loss of 2000 to 730 Con¬ 
federates. Seymour retreated to Jacksonville, burning 
$1,000,000 worth of stores. 

In North Carolina the Confederate general M. Hoke be¬ 
sieged and captured (April 20, 1863) Plymouth, held by 
General Wessels with 2000 men. Among the spoils were 
twenty-five guns, 7000 small arms, and 1600 effective men. 
Hoke’s loss was but 300. 

General Grant, having been made (March 1, 1864) lieu¬ 
tenant-general of the Union armies, repaired to Washing¬ 
ton and assumed the more immediate direction of the Army 
of the Potomac, which had been largely reinforced. Gen¬ 
eral Kilpatrick had just led his cavalry on a raid to within 
six miles of Richmond, whence, after some indecisive fight¬ 
ing, he made his way unharmed to Fortress Monroe. But 
Colonel Ulric Dahlgrcn, with 400 of his men, having ad- 



















1104 


CONFEDERATE STATES. 


vanced by a separate route on Kilpatrick's right, reached 
Richmond a day later, and striking thence by a more 
northerly route, was stopped and killed by a regiment of 
militia at Dabney’s Ferry on the Mattapony, his men dis¬ 
persed, and most of them captured. 

General Grant, with Meade’s army, crossed the Rapidan 
unresisted (May 4-5) at Germania and Ely’s Fords, strik¬ 
ing due south into the Wilderness. Lee, though looking 
for him at a higher crossing, at once turned to the right, 
and attacked in full force. The ground, thickly covered 
for the most part with small trees, and thoroughly familiar 
to the Confederates, while strange to the Unionists, was es¬ 
pecially favorable to the army which must match its supe¬ 
rior knowledge and determination against superior num¬ 
bers. Two days of desperate fighting, with great slaughter 
and little advantage to either side, were closed at dark on 
the 6th with a dashing attack on the Union right by Gen¬ 
eral Gordon, who took 4000 prisoners, including General 
Truman Seymour. 

Next morning, General Lee awaiting an attack behind 
his intrenchments, General Grant put his army in motion 
southward, and was unmolested save by Stuart’s cavali'y 
during his march to Spottsylvania Court-house. lie had 
lost in the Wilderness no less than 20,000 men, including 
General James S. Wadsworth of New York, killed, and 
seven generals wounded. General Sedgwick of Connec¬ 
ticut was killed two days afterwards. The Confederate loss 
was 8000, including Generals Samuel Jones, Stafford, and 
A. G. Jenkins, killed, and Longstreet was disabled for 
months. 

There was heavy fighting around Spottsylvania Court¬ 
house for two or three days. On the 11th, at daybreak, 
Hancock’s corps carried by assault a part of the Confede¬ 
rate works, capturing Generals Edward Johnson and George 
H. Stewart, with 3000 men. General Lee narrowly es¬ 
caped. Hancock captured thirty guns, but after holding 
them for hours only brought off twenty of them. But he 
was unable to advance, and days of desperate fighting, 
which cost the Unionists at least 20,000 men at this point, 
proved Lee’s position impregnable. Acting on the defen¬ 
sive and behind strong works, his loss was much less than 
Grant’s, but it included Generals Daniels, Perrin, and J. 
M. Jones, killed. 

Grant again moved southward, transferring his right to 
his left, while his cavalry under Sheridan made a fresh raid 
towards Richmond, fighting (May 11) and killing General 
J. E. B. Stuart a few miles north of that city. Crossing 
the Chickahominy at Meadow Bridge, Sheridan returned 
with little loss to Grant’s army. 

General Butler, with 30,000 men, embarking all but his 
cavalry, moved up the James and occupied City Point, be¬ 
low Richmond. He was to have seized Petersburg, but 
missed it, General Beauregard being hastily summoned 
from Charleston to aid D. H. Hill in defending it. Butler 
even failed to cut the railroad between that city and Rich¬ 
mond, and was rather worsted by Beauregard in a fight 
near Procter’s Creek, which cost the Unionists 4000 and 
the Confederates 3000 men. Butler was further assailed 
on several succeeding days, but held his ground with little 
loss. 

General Grant, moving by poorer and more circuitous 
roads than the direct one held by Lee, on approaching the 
North Anna (May 17) found his enemy strongly posted, 
wed intrenched, and ready to receive him. There was more 
fighting here, generally with results favoring the Unionists, 
but Lee’s position could only be stormed at an immense 
cost of life, and Grant, again moving by his flank, pressed 
on to Cold Harbor, where he ordered a general .assault on 
the Confederate lines, here, as before, confronting him. 
Those lines were defended by deep and strong abatis of 
slashed timber, the limbs so intertwisted with each other as 
to defy speedy untying. The assault was deployed at sun¬ 
rise (June 3), and in a few minutes was repulsed with 
great slaughter. The Union loss was 1705 killed, 9072 
wounded, and 2406 missing. Generals P. A. Porter, L. 0. 
Morris, and F. F. Wood (all of New York) were among the 
killed, with six colonels. 

General Grant, unable to interpose between Lee’s army 
and Richmond, now decided to pass the James below that 
city, while Sheridan was sent on a fresh raid around Lee’s 
left, to tear up railroads and burn stores in his rear. Dis¬ 
appointed in his expectation of finding Hunter in possession 
of Gordonsville, he was soon surrounded by enemies, with 
whom he fought an indecisive battle at Trevilian’s, return¬ 
ing to Grant with 370 prisoners, having lost in all 735 men. 

Grant appeared south of Richmond in time to have seized 
Petersburg, but the precious moment was squandered by 
uninformed or timid subordinates until Lee’s army was in 
good part behind its defences. Assault after assault was 
now made (Juno 16-18) on those defences with heavy loss, 
and no result but the knowledge that they could not bo 


thus carried. Then abortive attempts were made (June 
21-24) to turn them by the south, which A. P. Hill resisted 
and baffled, taking in all at least 5000 prisoners. Then 
Wilson, with 8000 cavalry, raided down the Weldon and 
Danville Railroad, but was fought and beaten at Stony 
Creek and Reams’s Station, losing thirteen guns and 1000 
prisoners. 

Grant now moved the Second corps from his extreme left 
to his extreme right, and threw it across the James, as if 
about to attack Richmond from the east. And now (July 
30) a mine which had been skilfully run from the centre of 
the Union lines under one of the forts or bastions of Peters¬ 
burg, was exploded, blowing 300 Confederates into the air 
and opening a gap in their lines. Hereupon the cannon thun¬ 
dered all along the Union front; but the column of assault, 
which should have rushed forward on the instant, did not 
move for several minutes, and then advanced bravely into 
the chasm made by the explosion, and there halted. The 
Confederates of course rallied from every side, and poured 
volley after volley upon the helpless crowd huddled together 
in the “crater,” inflicting on the Unionists a loss of 4400 
men, mostly prisoners, while the entire Confederate loss was 
but 1000. 

Again (August 12) Hancock assailed Lee’s extreme left 
below Richmond, but with little advantage, the Union loss 
in operating on this flank aggregating 5000, while the Con¬ 
federate was much less, but included Generals Chambliss 
and Gherardie, killed. 

Lee having necessarily sent several divisions from his 
right to his left, Grant ordered General Warren southward 
to seize and hold the Weldon Railroad : but Warren’s divis¬ 
ions were struck in flank by A. P. Hill at the critical mo¬ 
ment, and twice rolled up on themselves, with an aggregate 
loss of 4455 men, mainly prisoners. The Confederates had 
lost but 1200, but Warren had seized the Weldon Railroad, 
and he thenceforth held it. 

Hancock was sent to seize this road also at Reams’s Sta¬ 
tion, farther down, which he did, but was in turn attacked 
and driven off by Hill, with a loss of five guns and 2400 
men. Hill lost but half so many. 

Again, after a pause, Warren advanced (October 1) by 
order, with four divisions, to the Squirrel Level road in his 
front, fighting for two days and losing 2500 men, but hold¬ 
ing his ground, and intrenching it so firmly that it could 
not be taken from him. To cover this advance, General 
Butler on the Union side had assaulted Fort Harrison with 
the Tenth and Eighteenth corps, taking the fort with fif¬ 
teen guns. He next attempted Fort Gilmer, but was re¬ 
pulsed with a loss of 300, including General Dunnovan, 
killed. General Field attempted next morning to retake 
Fort Harrison, but was beaten off with heavy loss. A few 
days later General Ivautz, whose Union cavalry had been 
pushed up the Charles City road to within five miles of 
Richmond, was there surprised and driven, with a loss of 
nine guns and 500 men. The Confederate general Gregg 
of Texas was killed in the ensuing fight, which had no re¬ 
sult. 

Hancock was next ordered farther to the Union left to 
find and turn the Confederate flank, and in a fight with 
Hill’s corps, which attempted to interpose between his di¬ 
visions, took 1000 prisoners. Darkness arrested the fight¬ 
ing, but Hancock drew off in the night, having lost 1500 
men and inflicted equal loss upon the enemy. Thus closed 
on this point the campaign of 1864, with Warren holding 
the Weldon Railroad, and Butler threatening Richmond; 
the losses of the Army of the Potomac during the year 
having aggregated 88,387 men. 

When Virginia separated from the Union her western 
counties, including most of those lying beyond the Alle- 
ghanies, strongly protested against the ordinance, voted 
“No,” when it was submitted to the ordeal of popular suf¬ 
frage, and refused to be bound by it. Calling a convention 
at Wheeling, they decreed a separation from the old State 
and the formation of a new one, first named Kanawha, but 
since known as West Virginia. They had previously or¬ 
ganized a loyal State government for Old Virginia, which 
(hardly an eastern county being represented in it) readily 
agreed to the organization of the new State. Meantime, 
the Confederates had seized Harper’s Ferry and destroyed 
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad for some distance west of 
it, and they soon sent a force over the Alleghanies to secure 
obedience to the Confederate authorities at Richmond. It 
was promptly confronted by General McClellan with a far 
larger army, organized in Ohio, but largely composed of 
West Virginians. A part of it routed (June 3, 1861) the 
enemy at Philippi, another detachment at Rich Mountain 
(July 12), and the main body under General Garnett, who, 
in full retreat, was overtaken and routed at Carrick’s Ford 
on the Cheat River, where Garnett was killed and some 
prisoners were taken. The residue escaped over the Alle¬ 
ghanies. 
































_ _ ^ —————■ 

CONFEDERATE STATES. 


General J. D. Cox, advancing up the Kanawha, drove 
the Confederates under General Wise before him; Wise 
burning (July 28) Gauley Bridge to arrest the pursuit. 

General John B. Floyd now assumed command of the 
Confederates, inspirited by their triumph at Bull Run, and 
had an indecisive conflict (August 10) with General Rose- 
crans at Carnifex Ferry. Floyd held his ground, but re¬ 
treated during the ensuing night. 

General R. E. Lee now assumed command in this quar¬ 
ter, and there was much marching with little serious fight¬ 
ing till winter closed the campaign, and little of consequence 
occurred here the next year, when General J. C. Fremont 
succeeded to the command of the Union forces, but was hur¬ 
ried over the mountains to resist Stonewall Jackson’s raid 
down the Valley. Thereupon the Confederate general Heth 
raided across the mountains and attacked (May 23, 1862) 
Colonel George Crook at Lewisburg, but was beaten off 
with loss. Thenceforward the operations on either side in 
this quarter were limited to inconsiderable raids and sur¬ 
prises. 

General Franz Sigel was assigned chief command (Union) 
in the Valley in the spring of 1864, when, with 10,000 men, 
he advanced to New Market, where he was met by General 
John C. Breckenridge with an equal force, and routed with 
a loss of six guns and 700 men. 

Breckenridge was unable to follow up his victory, being 
obliged to send much of his force over the mountains to 
oppose Crook, who, with 6000 men, had beaten McC.aus- 
land's far inferior but well-posted force near Dublin Sta¬ 
tion, and had broken the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad 
at that point. General Averell, with 2000 cavalry, raiding 
farther west, had tried to destroy the Confederate salt-works 
near Wytheville, but had been beaten off by John Morgan. 
Both Crook and Averell thereupon retreated. 

General David Hunter was now assigned to the command 
of Sigel’s beaten army, which was strengthened, while 
Breckenridge had been called off to reinforce Lee at Rich¬ 
mond. Hunter advanced to Piedmont, near Staunton, where 
he was confronted by General W. E. Jones with a hastily- 
collected army, which was beaten (June 8) in a spirited 
action, wherein Jones was killed and 1500 of his men cap¬ 
tured. 

Hunter thereupon occupied Staunton, where he was 
joined by Crook and Averell, and then, with 20,000 men, 
pressed on to Lynchburg and fiercely assailed it, but was 
met and beaten off by a superior Confederate force under 
Early, hastily despatched by rail from Lee’s army. Out- 
numbei’ed and short of ammunition, he retreated over the 
Alleghanies into West Virginia, whence he regained the 
Potomac by a long and toilsome circuit. Meanwhile, the 
Valley was left without any considerable Union force, and 
Early hurried down it with 20,000 triumphant veterans, 
Sigel retreating and burning stores till he had crossed the 
Potomac and took post on Maryland Heights, where Early 
did not choose to assail him, but crossed into Maryland, 
scouring the country for cattle, horses, and provisions of 
all kinds, threatened Pennsylvania, and then turned upon 
Baltimore. Genei’al Lew Wallace could hardly muster 
5000 men to oppose him, but fought him (July 9) at the 
passage of the Monocacy, near Frederick, and was of course 
defeated, losing 2000 men (mainly prisoners), while the 
victors lost but 600. Early now turned upon Baltimore, 
and menaced Washington, skirmishing (July 12) with its 
outpost defences, but made off rapidly into Virginia with 
2500 captured horses and 5000 cattle. 

General Wright’s Sixth corps had just been sent from 
Grant’s army to the relief of AVashington, as had Emory’s 
Nineteenth corps, just arrived by sea from New Orleans. 
AVright followed Early to the Shenandoah, where his rear 
was sharply turned upon and repulsed (July 19), with a 
loss of 500. Wright recoiled to Leesburg, and turned over 
his command to Crook, while Averell had (July 20) a cav¬ 
alry fight near AVinchester, and took four guns and 200 
prisoners. 

AVright’s and Emory’s corps being now recalled to the 
James, Crook, supposing Early gone likewise, advanced to 
Winchester, and was there beaten (July 24), and driven to 
Martinsburg and across the Potomac, with a loss of 1200, 
including General Mulligan, killed. 

Early now sent B. T. Johnson with 3000 cavalry on a 
raid into Pennsylvania, where they burned without re¬ 
sistance Chambersburg and the barracks at Carlisle. Ave¬ 
rell, with an equal cavalry force, soon eocountered the 
raiders, but they escaped with little loss into Virginia. 
Pursuing to Moorefield, Averell at last struck the raiders 
(August°4) and worsted them, with a loss of their guns, 
wagons, and 500 prisoners. 

General Grant now sent Sheridan to command in this 
department, where Hunter’s army, just arriving from the 
West, the Sixth and Nineteenth corps (whose recall to the 
James had been countermanded), and Torbert's and AVil- 
70 


1105 


son’s divisions of cavalry from Grant’s, had raised his effect¬ 
ive force to 30,000 men. 

Sheridan, after taking time to reorganize his army, ad¬ 
vanced to AVinchester, and found Early strongly posted and 
fortified on Opequan Creek, whence he dislodged him (Sep¬ 
tember 19) after an obstinate fight, in which his loss was 
fully 3000 prisoners, including wounded, while among his 
killed were Generals Rhodes and Godwin. 

Early rallied his beaten army at Fisher’s Hill, a very 
strong position south of AVinchester, where his flanks were 
guarded by two mountains. Here Sheridan again attacked 
and routed him (September 25), taking sixteen guns and 
1100 prisoners. Pursuing the remnant to Port Republic, 
he sent his Cavalry to Staunton and to Waynesboro’, de¬ 
stroying provisions and munitions, then retired down the 
Valley to Winchester, burning all the grain and forage as 
he passed, so that the enemy should find no subsistence 
there. This devastation was made an excuse for the at¬ 
tempts to burn New York and other cities by incendiaries 
soon afterwards. 

Sheridan had encamped on Cedar Creek, and apprehend¬ 
ing no danger had gone on a visit to Washington, when 
Early, reinforced, having stealthily followed down the Val¬ 
ley, determined to surprise the unsuspecting army before 
him. In this he succeeded perfectly, flanking Crook’s force 
on both sides in the dense darkness, and rushing into the 
camps with a fearful yell just before daylight, and in fifteen 
minutes Crook’s army was a fleeing, panic-stricken mob, 
having lost twenty-four guns and 1200 prisoners. Sheridan 
was at AVinchester on his return when the disastrous tidings 
met him, and, riding at full speed, reached his beaten army 
at 10 A. m. He spent two hours in reviving the spirits of 
his men, and after repulsing one fresh attack on his left, 
ordered at 3 p. m. a general advance, which was successfully 
made, followed by a second charge, which was still more 
successful—though the Confederates opposed to them nearly 
all the cannon of both armies—facing the foe to the rear, and 
driving them through Staunton, recovering the twenty-four 
guns lost in the morning, and taking twenty-three others, 
with 1500 prisoners. The total loss of men this day was 
about 3000 to each side, including the Confederate gen¬ 
eral Ramseur and the Union general Bidwell of New York, 
killed. This closed the campaign in that quarter. 

There wefe various partisan conflicts in Alabama, Mis¬ 
sissippi, and AVest Tennessee during 1864, but none of 
consequence, save at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, which was 
assailed and taken (April 13) by the Confederate general 
Forrest, killing Major L. F. Booth, who commanded, with 
most of his garrison of 557 men, of whom 262 were blacks, 
many of them after resistance had ceased. This was in 
accordance with the threats previously made by Confede¬ 
rate officers, that colored troops should in no case receive 
quarter. 

General S. D. Sturgis with 12,000 men was sent from 
Memphis in quest of Forrest, whom he found at Guntown, 
Mississippi, where Sturgis was speedily routed and driven 
back to Memphis, with a loss of at least 4000, mainly pris¬ 
oners. Forrest’s entire force was not much greater than 
this. General A. J. Smith now assumed command, and 
pressed Forrest back to Tupelo, Mississippi, where the 
Confederates thrice assaulted his lines, and were repulsed 
with loss, but with no decisive result. Smith retreated, 
and again advanced to Holly Springs, not seriously op¬ 
posed, while Forrest raided into Memphis with 3000 cav¬ 
alry, and took a few prisoners, but failed to capture the 
Union generals of whom he was in quest, or to liberate the 
captured Confederates. 

East Tennessee was this year the scene of several par¬ 
tisan conflicts to little purpose; and John Morgan raided 
through Pound Gap into Eastern Kentucky, capturing and 
paroling General Hobson with 1600 Unionists in a field at 
Licking River. General Burbridge struck the raider at 
Mount Sterling, and again near Cynthiana, capturing or 
dispersing at least half his force, and chasing the rest 
into South-western Virginia. Attempting here to destroy 
the salt-works near Abingdon, Burbridge was beaten off 
(October 3), with loss, by General Breckenridge. 

General Sherman, on Grant’s transfer to the East, was 
left in chief command at the AVest. Advancing with 
100,000 men from Chattanooga early in May, 1864, he was 
confronted by Joseph E. Johnston, who, having but 54,000, 
declined a pitched battle, but availed himself of the broken 
country and fortified positions on the rugged road to At¬ 
lanta. He was stubbornly resisted (May 10) at Resaca, 
where the railroad crosses the Oostenaula River, and was 
at first repulsed with loss, but soon flanked the position 
and compelled its abandonment. Checking Sherman s ad¬ 
vance at Adairsville and Cassville, Johnston made his next 
determined stand at the Allatoona Pass, and days were ex¬ 
pended in fighting and flanking before^ he could again bo 
driven. He next made a stand at Kenesaw Mountain* 

















1106 CONFEDERATE STATES. 


flanked by Pine and Lost Mountains, connected by strong 
field-works, where he for several days resisted every effort 
to move him. In one assault (June 27) Sherman lost 3000 
men, including Generals Harker and Dan McCook, killed; 
Confederate loss, 442. And now, by again advancing his 
right, Sherman forced Johnston out of his impregnable po¬ 
sition, compelling him again to retreat, which brought him 
to Atlanta. Here he was relieved by General Hood, who con¬ 
demned his cautious policy, which had only depleted his 
army by 14,700 men in two months’ constant fighting. 
Reinforcements had nearly kept its ranks full, its present 
strength being 51,000. Sherman advancing his left under 
McPherson to break Hood’s railroad connection with the 
East, Hood struck heavily (July 20) at his'right under 
Thomas, but was repulsed after a bloody struggle, which 
cost the Confederates at least 4000 men, including Generals 
W. S. Featherston of Mississippi, Armistead of Georgia, 
and George M. Stevens of Maryland, killed. The Union 
loss was but 1500. Supposing that Atlanta had been si¬ 
lently evacuated, the Unionists thereupon rushed up to 
within two miles of the city, but found here strong works 
well manned, and were repelled with loss. Major-General 
McPherson of Ohio was killed, as was General Greathouse 
of Illinois, and another bloody struggle resulted, with ad¬ 
vantage to the Unionists, though it cost them over 4000 
men. The Confederate loss was nearly double, including 
General W. II. T. Walker of Georgia, killed. 

A pause in the fighting now ensued, and General Stone- 
man with 5000 Union cavalry raided upon the railroads and 
stores in Hood’s rear, but, scattering or dividing his forces 
too much, ho was surrounded and captured with 1000 men, 
as Colonel Harrison, with 500 more, had just been. 

Sherman now moved the Army of the Tennessee, led 
by Hooker, from his extreme left to his extreme right, in¬ 
itiating a new flanking movement, when Hood assailed 
Logan’s (Fifteenth) corps on the new Union right, but was 
repulsed with heavy loss. Hood now sent Wheeler’s cavalry 
to raid on the Union rear, while Kilpatrick’s Union cavalry 
pressed to the Confederate rear, breaking both the railroads 
leading southwardly from Atlanta, and returning to camp 
August 22. Sherman again threw forward his right till 
most of his army was behind Atlanta, holding firmly the 
railroad to Macon. Hood had already sent off part of his 
army to Jonesboro’, whence Hardee with two cor'ps attacked 
(August 31) Howard fiercely, but was beaten off with a loss 
of 2000 to Howard’s 500. And now Jonesboro’was assailed 
in its turn by Jefferson C. Davis’s corps, and carried, eight 
guns, General Govan, and many men being captured. Hood 
hereupon exploded his munitions and burned his stores in 
Atlanta, and escaped eastward. Slocum took quiet posses¬ 
sion of what was left September 1. Sherman returned to 
the city, and gave his men a well-earned rest. 

Wheeler’s raid was prosecuted throughout Northern Geor¬ 
gia and East Tennessee, returning through the Sequatchie 
Valley, and being chased across the Tennessee near Florence. 
He destroyed much property, but with little influence on the 
fortunes of the war. 

Hood, rejoined by Hardee, now passed Sherman’s right, 
and sent French’s division to capture the Union post at 
Allatoona, which General J. M. Corse held with 1944 men, 
but so gallantly that assault after assault by quadruple 
numbers was repulsed with fearful slaughter. General Cox 
at length relieved Corse, who was wounded, as were most 
of the higher officers. He had lost in all 707 men, while 
French left 231 dead, 411 prisoners, and 800 muskets. 
Hood, still marching northward, surrounded Resaca, but 
did not assault it, Sherman being too near. Sherman, at 
length learning that Hood had advanced into Middle Ten¬ 
nessee, gave up the pursuit, sending the Fourth and Twenty- 
third corps to Chattanooga, with orders to report to Thomas 
at Nashville, while he, facing about, returned to Atlanta, 
and reorganized and equipped his remaining forces for his 
march to the sea. 

Hood, with 35,000 infantry and artillery, struck boldly 
for Nashville, preceded by Forrest with 10,000 cavalry. Of 
course there was immense destruction of stores, bridges, 
and depots—$1,500,000 worth of boots and provisions hav¬ 
ing been burned at Johnsonville, Tennessee, to save them 
from capture. 

Thomas concentrated 30,000 men at Pulaski, but was 
unable to cope with Hood’s army, now swelled to 55,000 in 
all, which still clung to the Tennessee River till assured 
that Sherman had cut loose from Atlanta, marching south¬ 
ward, when he set his columns in motion northward. General 
Schofield, on his part, retreated from Pulaski to Columbia, 
and thence to Franklin, in a bend of the Harpeth, where 
he, with less than 20,000 men, but a good position, was 
assailed (November 30) with desperate resolve. The Con¬ 
federates were repulsed with a loss of at least 4500, includ¬ 
ing Generals Cleburne, Gist, Adams, Trahl, and Granbury. 
The Union loss was 2320, but no guns. Schofield continued 


| his retreat that night. Hood followed, and soon sat down 
before Nashville. 

The movement was audacious, as Thomas was at least 
his equal as a commander, and could soon concentrate a 
larger force than that which attempted to besiege him. Rut 
Thomas would not strike till he was ready, while severely 
cold weather impeded operations. At length Thomas struck 
out (December 15), and, after two days’ skilful fighting, 
drove his besiegers at all points, heading them toward Ala¬ 
bama, and taking fifty-three guns and 4462 prisoners, in¬ 
cluding a major-general. Hood got across the Tennessee 
at Bainbridge with a few guns and barely the debris of an 
army. Thomas had taken in this brief campaign seventy- 
two guns and 11,857 prisoners, besides administering the 
amnesty oath to 2207 deserters from the Confederate service. 
The aggregate Union loss in this campaign was 10,000. 
And General Stoneman, moving eastward from Knoxville, 
had cleared East Tennessee of armed Confederates, cap¬ 
tured Wytheville and the lead-mines and salt-works, driv¬ 
ing Breckenridge’s depleted force over the mountains into 
North Carolina. 

General Sherman, after despatching Thomas with two 
corps to the defence of Tennessee, had still with him'four 
corps, numbering in all 65,500 men. Concentrating these 
around Rome and Kingston, Georgia, he destroyed the 
railroads about him, cut the telegraph which still connected 
him with the North, and stood clear of all communications 
as he commenced his famous march to the sea. There be¬ 
ing no considerable army in his front, he advanced rapid¬ 
ly through Atlanta, Macon, Milledgeville, and Millen to Sa¬ 
vannah, slightly opposed at several river-crossings, while 
Kilpatrick with his cavalry covered his flanks and screened 
his movements, so that Augusta seemed to be his objective 
point. Fort McAllister on the Ogeechee was assaulted 
(December 13) by Hazen’s division, and communication 
at once opened with Dahlgren’s fleet, when Savannah was 
evacuated (December 20) by Hardee, after destroying his 
vessels and stores. Thus far, Sherman had on this march 
lost but 567 men, and had taken 167 guns with 1328 pris¬ 
oners. He remained a month in Savannah, while Generals 
Dana, Davidson, and Grierson, who had been sent out from 
Vicksburg and Memphis to distract attention from his 
march, swept over large portions of Mississippi and Ala¬ 
bama, breaking up railroads, destroying stores, and taking 
prisoners. These raids were uniformly successful, but Gen¬ 
eral Foster, who had ascended Broad River from the Sea 
Islands to break the railroad connection between Charleston 
and Savannah near Gordonsville, was beaten off, losing 746 
men. 

Sherman, leaving Savannah well garrisoned, set his 
column again in motion (February 1, 1864), traversing the 
heart of South Carolina with little resistance, except from 
its flooded swamps, and compelling Hardee to evacuate 
Charleston and its harbor-defences, retreating northward 
with 12,000 men. Columbia, the State capital, though un¬ 
defended, was undesignedly burned. Kilpatrick, who, with 
5000 cavalry, still covered the advance on the left, was sur¬ 
prised and routed by Wade Hampton near the north line 
of the State, but soon rallied his men and beat off his as¬ 
sailants. Reaching Fayetteville, North Carolina, March 
11, Sherman found himself confronted by Joe Johnston 
with 40,000 men, collected by Hardee, Beauregard, Cheat¬ 
ham, and Bragg, and including Wheeler’s and Hampton’s 
cavalry. After halting three days, Sherman once more 
advanced, when his left wing was attacked (March 15) in a 
narrow pass by Hardee, who was soon driven; but Slocum 
on the right was next assailed (March 18), when approach¬ 
ing Bentonville, by Johnston with his main body. The 
Confederates withdrew after a sharp action, in which Sher¬ 
man lost 1643 men and took 1625 prisoners, including 
wounded, burying 267 Confederate dead. Next day, Sher¬ 
man advanced to Goldsboro’, and halted his troops while 
he made a hasty visit to General Grant at City Point. 

Wilmington, North Carolina, had long been the principal 
port through which blockade-runners found access to the 
Confederacy. General Butler, with Commodore Porter, led 
an army and fleet to reduce it (November 16, 1864), but 
returned to Fortress Monroe unsuccessful. General A. II. 
Terry was next despatched with a stronger force, which, 
after a heavy bombardment by Porter’s fleet, carried Fort 
Fisher by assault (January 16, 1865), killing Major-Gen¬ 
eral Whiting, its commander, and taking 169 guns and 
2083 prisoners, with a Union loss of 110 killed and 536 
wounded ; but 300 more were lost by the explosion next day 
of the fort’s chief magazine. 

General Schofield was now sent to Terry’s aid, ranking 
him, and raising his force to 20,000, with which Schofield 
entered Wilmington, February 22; Iloke retreating after a 
sharp fight, burning two privateers and other vessels, with 
heavy stores, but leaving sixty-five guns. Schofield now 
advanced inland, losing 700 men by a surprise, but beating 











CONFEDERATION—CONFEDERATION, ARTICLES OF. 1107 


off (March 10) an attack on his left by Hoke, who here lost 
heavily and retreated, enabling Schofield to communicate 
and co-operate with Sherman on his arrival at Goldsboro’. 

General Can by, commanding at New Orleans, moved east¬ 
ward in the spring to menace Mobile, while General James 
II. Wilson, with Grant’s and Thomas’s cavalry, 15,000 
strong, pushed southward from Eastport, Mississippi, the 
head of steamboat navigation on the Tennessee, confronted 
only by Forrest with but 5000, whom Wilson easily de¬ 
feated near Maplesville and routed (April 2) at Selma," Ala¬ 
bama, which he took, with thirty-two guns and 2700 pris¬ 
oners. Crossing the Alabama, Wilson entered Montgomery, 
which Adams had just left, burning 125,000 bales of Con¬ 
federate cotton. Turning eastward, Wilson soon appeared 
at Columbus, Georgia, where he took fifty-two guns and 
1200 prisoners, burning a gunboat, 250 cars, and 115,000 
bales of cotton. Taking by assault Fort Tyler on the Chat¬ 
tahoochee, Wilson pushed on to Macon, Georgia, where he 
learned that the war was virtually at an end. 

General Canby, with nearly 30,000 men, aided by Por¬ 
ter’s powerful fleet, invested Mobile, which was held by 
Dick Taylor with some 15,000. Investing Spanish Fort, he 
reduced it by bombardment, taking 652 prisoners, and then 
assaulted Blakely, which was carried by assault, with a 
Union loss of 1000 to 500 Confederate killed and wounded, 
with 3000 prisoners. Mobile was then evacuated by Gen¬ 
eral Maury, who, with 9000 men, escaped up the river, 
abandoning 150 guns. 

General Grant, still before Petersburg, had bloodlcssly 
(December 7,1864) extended his left twenty miles down the 
Weldon Railroad to Hicksford, which he fortified and held. 
He next essayed to advance his left to Dabney’s Mill, but 
was resisted and driven back to Hatcher’s Run, where the 
Confederates were in turn repulsed (February 6, 1865), and 
the ground up to this point held and fortified. The Union 
loss in this operation was 2000; the Confederate, 1000, in¬ 
cluding General Pegram, killed. 

General Sheridan moved up the Valley from Winchester 
with 10,000 mounted men, drove Early (March 2, 1865) from 
his intrenched camp at Waynesboro’, taking eleven guns 
and 1600 prisoners, thence rode into Charlottesville, where 
he destroyed immense stores and miles of the Richmond 
and Lynchburg Railroad, and, passing behind Lee’s army, 
reported to Grant at Petersburg March 27. 

Lee, assuming the offensive, sent Gordon with two divis¬ 
ions against the centre of the Union line before Peters¬ 
burg. Charging at daybreak (March 25), Gordon surprised 
and took Fort Stedman in his front, capturing three bat¬ 
teries and some prisoners, but not being properly supported, 
he was attacked and routed in turn by the Ninth corps, 
losing 2000 prisoners; besides which the loss to either side 
was about 2500. Grant interpreted this rash assault as 
pi-emonitory to a Confederate evacuation of Richmond and 
Petersburg, which he resolved to harass if not intercept. 
Again throwing forward his left (March 29) to seize the 
Boydton plank-road, while Sheridan’s cavalry on its flank 
advanced to Dinwiddie Court-house, he was opposed by Lee 
with most of his army, who suddenly struck Warren’s corps 
in flank and rear, with intent to repeat the lesson of Chan- 
cellorsville. Two divisions were then broken, but Griffin’s, 
behind them, stood firm while the fugitives were rallied, and 
Warren was thus enabled to repel his assailants with heavy 
loss; but an attempt to carry their works was defeated in 
turn. Meantime, Sheridan had gained Dinwiddie Court¬ 
house, but, attempting to advance thence to the Boydton 
plank-road, was foiled, but advanced again next morning 
(April 1) to Five Forks, where he connected with Warren, 
advancing on his right, and ordered a general charge on 
the Confederate works in their front, held by two divisions, 
wbo were fearfully overpowered and routed, with a loss of 
5000, mainly prisoners. The Union loss was but 1000, in¬ 
cluding General Frederick Winthrop, killed. And now, 
sending two divisions eastward to Gravelly Church, Sheri¬ 
dan again connected with the Union lines before Peters¬ 
burg, whence a general cannonade preluded the assault, 
which was delivered at daylight next morning (April 2), 
Wright’s Sixth corps gaining the rear of these works by the 
south, and taking many prisoners, while Ord’s corps car¬ 
ried Forts Gregg and Alexander by storm, losing 500 men. 
A. P. Hill, in attempting to retake some of the captured 
works, was shot dead, and his corps utterly defeated. 

Lee now, at 10^ A. m., telegraphed to Davis that Rich¬ 
mond must be evacuated at once, and it was evacuated 
between that time and next morning, while its immense 
warehouses, filled with provisions, munitions, and stores of 
all kinds, were fired by the departing Confederates, burn¬ 
ing out the heart of the city. Flames and explosions no¬ 
tified the Unionists in front that the Confederate capital 
was abandoned, and General Weitzel at 4 a.m. (April 3) 
was assured by a negro from the city that Davis and all 
his official or military adherents had departed. Picking his 


way through the abatis, earthworks, rifle-pits, torpedoes, 
etc. which encircled the burning city, Weitzel at 6 a. m. 
led his men into the city, soon followed by President Lin¬ 
coln, who was at City Point. Petersburg was simulta¬ 
neously abandoned, Lee retreating up the railroad towards 
Danville, while ringing of bells and immense gatherings 
all over the North and West hailed the relinquishment of 
Richmond as the downfall of the Confederacy. 

Davis escaped by train to Danville, while Lee halted two 
days at Amelia Court-house, vainly seeking provisions for his 
hopeless army, now reduced, mainly by prisoners, to 35,000 
men. Grant was soon on his trail. The fleeing host was first 
seen from Deatonsville, and was struck near Sailor’s Creek 
by Custer’s horse, supported by Crook’s and Davis’s divis¬ 
ions. Here sixteen guns, 400 wagons, and some prisoners 
were taken, while Ewell’s thinned corps was cut off from 
Lee’s rear, and so enveloped that it was obliged to surrender. 
Ewell himself was among this day’s 6000 prisoners. 

Lee crossed the Appomattox at Farmville, repelling 
General Theodore Read, who tried to stop his way with 
two regiments. But Humphrey’s Second corps was again 
so close on his rear that he was obliged to turn and fight a 
few miles beyond Farmville, repulsing his assailants with 
a loss of 600. But this lost a day, which was wasted by 
attempts to bar the Danville road, while Lee was really 
making for Lynchburg. Undeceived on this point, pursuit 
was x’esumed on the morning of the 8th, Grant having mean¬ 
time sent Lee a courteous note inviting a surrender. Sher¬ 
idan pushed his troops twenty-eight miles on the 28th, 
reaching Appomattox Court-house, heading Lee’s army, in¬ 
tercepting its sorelv-needed supplies from Lynchburg, and 
planting himself across the road whereon it must move on 
the morrow, and sending word to Grant, who ordered a 
forced march of Griffin’s and Ord’s corps to Appomattox 
Station during the night. Lee had meantime sent a note 
to Grant inviting a meeting, with a view to peace, at 10 
A. m. In the morning (April 9) Grant replied, saying he 
had no authority to make peace, but urging a surrender. 
Lee’s weary, famished army set forth as usual this morning, 
and, seeing cavalry in their front, advanced to push it 
aside, when it was withdrawn to the flanks, disclosing solid 
regiments of infantry behind it. Lee, seeing that further 
fighting would be a useless slaughter of his men, at once 
called a parley, which resulted in a surrender, “ each officer 
and man to be allowed to return to his home, not to be dis¬ 
turbed by United States authority so long as they observe 
their paroles and the laws in force where they may reside.” 
The number thus paroled at this point was 27,000. Johnston's 
army in North Carolina surrendered on the same terms to 
Sherman at Raleigh, April 26, and Dick Taylor’s to Canby 
at Citronelle, Alabama, May 4. E. Kirby Smith, com¬ 
manding the Confederates west of the Mississippi, at¬ 
tempted to make a stand after the surrender of Lee, but his 
men all deserted him, and, taking whatever Confederate 
property they could lay hands on, dispersed to their sev¬ 
eral homes. 

Jefferson Davis halted at Danville, anxiously awaiting 
advices from Lee, until astounded (April 10) by tidings 
of his surrender. He then fled southward to Greensboro’, 
North Carolina, and again halted till it was evident that 
Johnston would soon capitulate, when he flitted again to 
Washington, Georgia, with a cavalry scout, which at first 
numbered 2000, but rapidly wasted. Here he abjured the 
state of a ruler, and was making his way to the coast with 
his family and a few faithful followers when he was sur¬ 
prised and captured (May 11) while encamped near Irvins- 
ville by two detachments of cavalry sent out from Macon 
by General Wilson to look for him. His family was libe¬ 
rated at Savannah, but he was held a close prisoner in 
Fortress Monroe for two years, then released on bail and 
never brought to trial. So ended the Southern Confed¬ 
eracy. Horace Greeley. 

Confederation [for etymology see Confederacy], a 
league, a federal compact, an alliance of princes, states, 
or nations. It is nearly synonymous with confederacy. 
The republic of Mexico is called the Mexican Confederation. 
The numerous states of Germany were united in 1815 by 
the congress of Vienna, and formed the Germanic confede¬ 
ration (rfer Deutsche Bund in German). Before the adop¬ 
tion of the Federal Constitution of the United States in 
1788, the government of this country was a weak confede¬ 
ration of thirteen independent States, which recognized no 
superior or central authority. 

Confederation, Articles of, a document drawn up 
by the Congress of the United States, November 15, 1777, 
and adopted finally July 9, 1778, by which the several 
States united in a "league of perpetual friendship “ for the 
common defence, the security of their liberties, and their 
mutual and general welfare.” These articles, thirteen in 
number, were soon ratified by all the States, but the con- 












1108 CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE—CONFESSIONAL. 


federation proved almost an utter failure, from the fact that 
Congress had very limited powers. There was indeed no 
executive authority of any kind. For these reasons a con¬ 
vention called by Congress met at Philadelphia May 14, 
1787, with Washington as its president, and on September 
14 of that year the convention closed its labors and re¬ 
ported the CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES (which See). 

Confedera'tion of the Rhine [Ger. Bheinbund], the 
name of a league formed in July, 1806, by sixteen German 
states under the protection of Napoleon. The princes of 
these states signed an act of confederation, dissolving their 
connection with the Germanic empire and forming an alli¬ 
ance with the French emperor. They were the kings of 
Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, the arch-chancellor, the elector 
of Baden, Murat, duke of Berg, the landgrave of Hesse- 
Darmstadt, the princes of Nassau-Usingen, Nassau-Weil- 
burg, Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, 
Salm-Salm, Salm-Ivyrburg, the duke of Aremberg, the count 
of Leyen, and the princes of Isenburg-Birstein and Liech¬ 
tenstein. In September, 1806, the confederation was joined 
by the elector of Wurzburg; in December, 1806, by the 
elector (subsequently king) of Saxony, and the Saxon 
dukes of Weimar, Gotha, Coburg, Meiningen, and Hild- 
burghausen ; in 1807, by three dukes of Anhalt, two princes 
of Lippe, three princes of Reuss, the prince of Waldeck, 
and the new kingdom of Westphalia; in 1808, by the 
dukes of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and 
Oldenburg. The confederation had an area of 126,075 
square miles, and a pop. of 14,608,877. In 1810 a part of 
the confederation was incorporated with France, and its 
territory reduced to 114,467 square miles, with 13,475,000 
inhabitants. In consequence of the downfall of Napoleon 
the confederation was dissolved in 1813, and its members 
united with the other German states to form the Germanic 
Confederation. 

Conference [from the Lat. con'fero, to “confer” 
(from con , “ together,” and fe'ro, to “ bring ”), alluding to 
the different parties bringing together or comparing then- 
thoughts], the act of conversing on a serious subject; an 
oral discussion ; a formal discourse; a meeting for consul¬ 
tation or instruction; a meeting of two branches of a leg¬ 
islature by their committee when they disagree respecting 
the passage of a bill. In such cases each house appoints a 
committee of conference, in order to settle the difference by 
a compromise. In English law, conference signifies also 
the interview of an attorney or solicitor with a counsel when 
consulting him. 

In a political sense, conference denotes the meeting of 
plenipotentiary ministers of several states for the peaceable 
settlement of international complications. Of special im¬ 
portance in modern history are the conferences of Vienna, 
held in 1820 and 1834, the Paris conference of 1856, and 
the London conferences of 1864, 1867, and 1871. “Inter¬ 
national conferences ” have also of late been held on many 
non-political questions. Among the most important of 
these are the conferences of Geneva, August, 1864, for the 
organization of the sanitary commission, and of Paris, 
June and July, 1867, for the examination of the monetary 
question. 

Conference is also an ecclesiastical term used in various 
senses. In the Roman Catholic Church the term was for¬ 
merly applied to certain assemblies of priests or canons 
presided over by an arch-priest or dean. They originated 
in the eleventh century, but are now seldom convened. 

Pastoral Conferences are meetings held annually, 
quarterly, or monthly by pastors of various Protestant 
churches for the discussion of pastoral duties and for other 
similar purposes. They are held in the French Protestant 
churches, also among English dissenters, and in many 
churches of the United States, etc. 

The Wesleyan Church in England has an annual meet¬ 
ing of its preachers called the “ Conference,” which has ad¬ 
ministrative and other powers, defined by Wesley’s “ Deed 
of Declaration ” (1784). A similar conference is held in 
Ireland. (See Stevens, “ History of Methodism.”) In the 
Methodist Episcopal Church and the Methodist Episcopal 
Church South, a “General Conference” meets every four 
years. It has full power to make “rules and regulations,” 
subject to certain restrictions found in the “ Discipline,” 
part II., chapter 1. It is presided over by the bishops. 
In the same churches the territory where preachers are 
stationed is divided into “conferences,” which are again 
divided into “districts.” The preachers and certain lay 
delegates of each conference meet in an “ annual confer¬ 
ence,” where preachers receive their appointment for the 
year from the presiding bishop. There are “ quarterly con¬ 
ferences ” held in each circuit or station. 

“ General ” (triennial) and “ annual ” conferences are also 
held by the Free-will Baptists, and “yearly conferences” 
by the Six-Principle Baptists, the minor Methodist bodies, 
and others. 


The “ Conference of Hampton Court,” in 1604, was a 
meeting of King James I.,nine bishops, and nine other di¬ 
vines of the Anglican Church, and four Puritan theologians, 
held with reference to the differences between the Anglicans 
and the Puritans. This meeting led to some slight changes 
in the Anglican Liturgy. 

The “ Savoy Conference” at the palace of the bishop of 
London in the Savoy, in 1661, consisted of thirteen Angli¬ 
can bishops and eleven non-conformist divines, with a num¬ 
ber of other theologians on each side as counsellors. In¬ 
stead of healing the breach, the Savoy Conference increased 
the differences between the two parties. 

The “ Evangelical Church Conference ” (“ Evangclisehe 
Kirchenconferenz ”) is the name given to the regular (an¬ 
nual or biennial) meetings of delegates of the governments 
of the German states and Austria for the discussion of im¬ 
portant church questions. 

Confer'va, a genus of plants of the division Algae, 
order Confcrvacere. The plants consist of simple or branch¬ 
ing jointed filaments, which are filled with green, purple, 
or red endochrome, and are found, some in fresh, some in 
salt water, and some on moist earth. The name Conferva 
is not strictly limited to the genus or the order, but is often 
extended to its near allies. Among the Confervaeem are 
included many plants which have flat fronds. Many also 
consist of cells immersed in a slimy matter. Reproduction 
takes place by scores formed in the interior of the cojls, 
and which at last are discharged through the walls of the 
mother-cell. Confervaceae are found plentifully in many 
mineral waters. Their abundance often gives a color to the 
water of tanks, marshes, etc. The etymology of this word 
is doubtful, and the limits of the genus and order are un¬ 
settled. Most British and American Confervas are now re¬ 
ferred to Cladophorus and other genera. (See Harvey’s 
“Nereis Boreali-Americana,” part iii. (1858), in vol. x. of 
the “ Smithsonian Contributions ;” also S. 0. Gray’s “ Brit¬ 
ish Sea-weeds,” 1867; Wood, “ The Fresh-water Algae of 
the U. S.,” 1872.) 

Confes'sion [Lat. confessio, from conjiteor, confessua, 
to “confess;” Ger. Beicht], one of the seven sacraments of 
the Roman Catholic Church; a disburdening of the con¬ 
science in the hearing of an authorized priest with a view 
of obtaining absolution. Most Protestants assert that 
such confession is not enjoined in the New Testament, and 
that auricular confession was established as an essential 
part of church discipline at the fourth Lateran Council 
(1215 A. D.), though the practice may have been older. By 
a canon of the above council, confession must be made 
orally at least once a year, but frequent confession is re¬ 
commended by the Church, and generally practised. The 
custom of making a money-offering with confession is op¬ 
tional, though formerly regarded as obligatory. The Greek 
Catholic Church, as well as the Catholic Maronites and the 
Armenians, holds that special confession is wholesome in 
cases of mortal sin, but does not consider it binding. The 
Greek Church regards this discipline as necessary for the 
reception of the Eucharist. The Lutheran Church professes 
that private confession may be retained in the Church, but 
that particular statement of sins is not necessary. The 
Church of England employs a general form of confession in 
its services, but retains private confession in the rubric for 
visitation of the sick. The Scottish and most of the other 
Protestant churches do not recognize it at all. 

The Sigillum Confessionis (“ seal of confession ”) both 
in the Roman Catholic and the German Protestant churches 
means the obligation of a confessor or priest not to divulge 
the secrets of the confessional. This custom of secresy was 
made binding by the fourth Lateran Council, and its viola¬ 
tion by a priest makes him subject to the severest ecclesias¬ 
tical penalties. 

Confession, in criminal law, an admission by a person 
that he has committed or participated in a crime. It is 
either judicial or extra-judicial. It is said to be judicial 
when made in the course of legal proceedings. An instance 
is the plea of guilty. An extra-judicial confession does 
not have the same weight as one that is judicial, and is in¬ 
sufficient for conviction unless corroborated by proof of the 
actual commission of the offence ( corpus delicti). A con¬ 
fession must be voluntary—that is, not the result of hopes 
or fears held out or caused to the prisoner by one having 
authority, such as a public official or the party against 
whom the act was committed (prosecutor). It is not neces¬ 
sary that it should be spontaneous. The question of tho 
admissibility of a confession in evidence is decided by the 
judge; its effect after its admission is determined by tho 
jury. Questions concerning the admissibility of confessions 
frequently arise when taken by magistrates making an ex¬ 
amination of a prisoner charged with crime. 

Confes'sional [Ger. Beichtatnhl], the seat in which 
the priest sits to hear confession in a Roman Catholic 



















church. Confessionals are closed cells, having a door in 
front for the priest to enter by, and an opening on one or 
both sides, like a small window, for the penitents to speak 
through. By the ancient canons confessionals were re¬ 
quired to be so built that priest and penitent could both be 
seen by all present. 

Confession of Faith. See Creed. 

Confirma'tion [Lat. conjirmatio, from con, intensive, 
firm o, fir mat um, to “ make firm ” or “ strong ”], literally, 
corroboration or strengthening; a ceremony of the Chris¬ 
tian Church which is not practised by most denominations 
of Protestants, though retained by the Anglican and Lu¬ 
theran churches. In the ancient Church the rite was admin¬ 
istered immediately after baptism, if the bishop happened 
to be present at the solemnity, which is still the custom in 
the Greek and African churches. In the Roman Catholic 
Church there is interposed a delay of not less than seven 
years after infant baptism ,* in the Lutheran Church the rite 
is usually delayed for from thirteen to sixteen years, and in 
the Anglican Church, from fourteen to eighteen years. 
There is, however, no established limit to the period. The 
ceremony consists in the imposition of hands by the bish¬ 
op, accompanied by an invocation of the Holy Ghost as 
the Comforter and Strengthened But both in the Lutheran 
and Anglican churches the ceremony is made the occasion 
of requiring from those who have been baptized in infancy 
a renewal of the baptismal vow made for them by their 
godfathers and godmothers, who are thereby released from 
responsibility. In the Roman Catholic Church confirm¬ 
ation is held to be one of the seven sacraments. It can be 
received only once, as it is counted among the three sacra¬ 
ments which impress upon the soul an ineffaceable character. 

Confiscation [Lat. confiscatio , from fiscus, a “ trea¬ 
sury ”], the forfeiture of land or other property to the public 
treasury as a part of the punishment of certain crimes. 
During the French Revolution a large quantity of land 
owned by the Church was confiscated— i. e. was taken 
from the Church in order to convert it into a source of na¬ 
tional revenue. 

Conflict of LaAVS. See International Law, Private, 
by Pres. T. D. Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D. 

Conform'able, a geological term applied to strata 
which lie parallel to each other. In some cases a bed is 
disturbed from its original position before another bed is 
deposited on it. If the new bed or stratum is not parallel to 
the former, it is said to be unconformable. Conformable in 
general signifies agreeable, suitable, consistent, compliant. 

Confu'cianism, the state religion of China; a relig¬ 
ious, or rather philosophical, system, which has greatly 
modified the destinies of China. It is professed at. present 
chiefly by the learned classes, though it has much influence 
upon the Booddhism of the common people. (See Con¬ 
fucius.) 

Confu'cius, the Latinized form of Kong-Foo- 
Tse* or Khoong-Foo-Tse, the greatest of Chinese 
philosophers, was born, according to the best authorities, 
in 551 B. C., in Loo, a kingdom or state which now forms 
part of the modern province of Shang-Toong. He was 
of illustrious descent, and his father, Shuh-Liang-Heih, 
was a soldier remarkable for strength and courage. After 
the death of his first wife, Shuh-Liang-Heih, then in ad¬ 
vanced age, married a young lady of remarkable virtues, 
who became the mother of an only son, the subject of this 
notice. Confucius was often called Kew or K’ew, because 
his mother went to a cei’tain hill called Ne-Kew (t. c. “ hill 
Ne ”) and offered her prayers that Heaven might bless 
her with children. From this circumstance he was also 
called Ne, and after his death “ The venerable Ne.” 

In childhood, Confucius was, we are told, remarkable for 
his exemplary obedience to his mother, for his respectful 
treatment of those older than himself, and for his observ¬ 
ance of all the ceremonies with which the Chinese honor 
the dead and living. To go through the different forms of 
politeness usual among persons of great culture formed his 
favorite pastime. He was at school singularly obedient, 
gentle, and modest, and possessed, it is said, wonderful in¬ 
tellectual quickness. He married when at the age of nine¬ 
teen, and was made a mandarin of an inferior grade at about 
the same period. In discharging the duties of his office he 
showed great intelligence and faithfulness. He took care 
that nothing should be sold in the markets that could en¬ 
danger the health of the people, and that unreasonable 
prices should not be charged for the necessaries of life. 
The charge of the public lands and of the sheep and cattle 
was afterwards given to him, and through his industry and 
sagacity the greatest improvements were introduced into 
agriculture, and abundance and affluence were made to re- 
p?ace dearth and poverty among the tillers of the earth. 

At the age of about twenty-two Confucius first appeared 


as a public teacher, giving his instructions, however small 
the fee offered him, to all who had the ability and a truo 
desire to learn. Having once shown them how to acquire 
wisdom, he expected his pupils to be able to pursue their 
studies alone and without further assistance from him. Ho 
said, “ When I have presented one corner of a subject to 
any one, and he cannot from it learn the other three, I do 
not repeat my lesson.” His mother died when he was 
twenty-four, and, following the custom of his country, ho 
mourned for her three years, filling no public office during 
that time. He is said to have studied music when twelve 
years old, and to have acquired wonderful skill in that art. 

In 499 B. C. we find Confucius one of the ministers of the 
king of Loo. A dispute having occurred between this prince 
and the neighboring king of Tsi (or Ts’e), it had been ar¬ 
ranged that the two rulers should meet on the common 
frontier and settle their differences in a friendly interview. 
It was the design of the king of Tsi to seize the person of 
the king of Loo during this interview, but Confucius (who 
is said to have possessed in a wonderful degree the gift of 
reading human character) suspected his treacherous scheme, 
and by his foresight and resolute courage baffled all his 
plans, and obtained for his sovereign the secure enjoyment 
of his rightful possessions. Confucius filled for awhile the 
position of minister of crime. At length, the king of Loo 
having found the precepts of his minister too high and 
difficult to be conveniently practised, Confucius perceived 
that his services were no longer desired, and retired from 
public life. From this date he appears to have passed most 
of his time in travelling from place to place, spreading his 
doctrines as he went, and always accompanied by his dis¬ 
ciples. He spent the last five years of his life in his native 
state of Loo, teaching and completing the work which he 
had before begun. 

Several of the disciples of Confucius gave promise of at¬ 
taining eminence in philosophy, but the sage himself seems 
to have centred all his most earnest hopes and warmest af¬ 
fections on his favorite and most gifted pupil Yen-Hoei (or 
-Hwuy). To him he looked as his successor in those labors 
for the promotion of wisdom and virtue in which his own life 
had been passed. But he was destined to disappointment, for 
the early death of the beloved pupil crushed all these bril¬ 
liant hopes and plunged Confucius into the deepest sorrow. 
Confucius, though very observant of the outward forms of 
propriety and politeness, was not wanting in spontaneous 
and heartfelt affection. He appears to have looked upon 
the observance of those forms as directly advantageous to 
society, besides exerting an indirectly useful influence 
through their effect upon the minds of those who followed 
them. He died 478 B. C. 

Confucius had one son, Pe-Yu (or Pih-Yu), who died be¬ 
fore his father, leaving a son named K’ung Keih, also called 
Tse-Sse (or Tsze-Sze), who was distinguished as a philoso¬ 
pher, and who wrote a famous work called “ Chung-Yung.” 

Confucius has enjoyed a renown more extended than that 
of any other of the human race. Through all the changes 
of the Chinese dynasties, by whatever causes brought about, 
his descendants have received peculiar honors. At this day 
they number more than eleven thousand males, and are said 
to constitute the only hereditary nobility in China. From 
his own time to the present his writings have been the 
principal objects of study in all the schools of that vast 
empire. It has, however, been justly observed that the aim 
and scope of the Confucian philosophy were limited to this 
present life, and none of his sayings indicate that he had 
any definite belief in a continued existence after death. His 
life and teachings tended to the promotion of the useful and 
practical only. “ There is a total difference in kind be¬ 
tween the philosophy of Confucius and the philosophies of 
Plato, Aristotle, Bacon, and Locke. The Chinese sage did 
not aim to investigate the mysteries of the universe, or 
even the hidden laws of nature or of the human mind. His 
great object was to lay down such rules as would best pro¬ 
mote the happiness and virtue of the community at large. 
And it must be acknowledged that in the practical wisdom 
of his precepts, both to rulers and subjects, he has never 
been surpassed by any philosopher of any age or nation. 
That wise and beautiful thought which is the basis of 
Chinese government—that the ruler or officer should be as 
a father, and the people as children—dates, there is reason 
to believe, from a very remote antiquity. Confucius did 
not originate this idea, but he did everything in his power 
to give it practical efficacy.” 

In the “ Analects” (in Chinese Lun-Yu, i. c. “ Digested 
Conversations ”) of Confucius are to be found the best and 
most trustworthy indications of his genius and character. 
They are well worthy to be read by whoever would rightly 
understand his philosophy. It is doubtful whether among 
any of the pagan writers of the West anything surpassing 
these sayings in practical sagacity and lofty morality can 
be found. Indeed, they seem amply to justify the enco- 





















1110 


CONGAKEE—CONGLOMERATE. 


miums they have called forth upon the wisdom of the Chi¬ 
nese sage. 

The following will serve as illustrations of the character 
of his sayings: “Learning without thought is labor lost; 
thought without learning (or knowledge) is perilous.” 
“ When we see men of worth, we should think of equalling 
them ; when we see men of a contrary character, we should 
turn inward and examine ourselves.” “He who exercises 
government by means of his virtue may be compared to 
the north polar star, which keeps its place, and all the 
[other] stars turn towai'ds it.” “ Good government obtains 
when those who are near are made happy, and those who 
are far off are attracted.” When asked what were the ne¬ 
cessary conditions of a government, he answered, “Suf¬ 
ficiency of food, military equipment, and confidence of the 
people in their ruler.” Being asked which could be most 
easily dispensed with, he replied, “The military equip¬ 
ment.” And when pressed to say which of those yet re¬ 
maining might be most easily dispensed with, he said, 
“ Part with the food; from of old death has been the lot 
of all men, but if the people have no faith in their rulers, 
there is no standing for the state.” In one place he gives 
us the negative form of the golden rule: “ What you do 
not like,” he says, “when done to yourself, do not do to 
others.” Again he says, “ I am not concerned that I have 
no place (or office); I am concerned how I may fit myself 
for one. I am not concerned that I am not known; I 
seek to be worthy to be known.” “ The superior man is 
affable, but not adulatory; the mean man is adulatory, but 
not affable.” 

One of his disciples said of Confucius, “ There were four 
things from which the master was entirely free: he had 
no foregone conclusions, no arbitrary predeterminations, 
no obstinacy, and no egotism.” (See Legge’s “Life and 
Teachings of Confucius;” Pauthier’s “Chine;” Plath’s 
“Confucius und seiner Schuler Leben und Lehre,” 1867; 
and the “ Edinburgh Review ” for April, 1869.) 

J. Thomas. 

Con'garee', a river of South Carolina, is formed by the 
Broad and Saluda rivers, which unite at Columbia. It 
flows south-eastward, and joins the Wateree to form the 
Santee River. Steamboats ascend this river to Columbia. 

Congaree, a township of Lexington co., S. C. Pop. 
1095. 

Conge d’Elire, kix'zhi' d&'leoR, a French phrase 
signifying “permission to choose,” is the name given in 
England to the king’s warrant or license to the dean and 
chapter in the older dioceses to elect a bishop for a vacant 
see. The bishop is, however, nominated by the sovereign 
(or premier), so that the dean and chapter have no real 
power or liberty to choose. 

Congenital Diseases. These must be distinguished 
from hereditary diseases, which may show themselves either 
soon after birth or at some latoc period, and from mal¬ 
formations of the infant, resulting from either an arrest of 
development or a disease of the foetus contracted during 
its intra-uterine life. Both of these classes will be dis¬ 
cussed in future. Congenital diseases proper ai-e—1st, 
transmitted from the diseased mother either before or dur¬ 
ing birth; 2d, acquired during birth, without a direct ma¬ 
ternal influence; 3d, acquired shortly before birth. To the 
first class belong puerperal fever and primary syphilitic 
and gonorrhoeal infection; to the second, asphyxia, atelec¬ 
tasis (unexpanded condition) of the lungs, and cephal¬ 
hematoma (sanguineous tumor upon the head); to the 
third, acute fatty degeneration of the foetus and newly 
born. Puerperal fever is transmitted from the mother; the 
blood of the babe is infected. The principal symptoms are 
high fever, abscesses in the subcutaneous tissue, particu¬ 
larly around the joints, erysipelas, and a severe form of 
jaundice. It terminates fatally within a limited number 
of days, rarely weeks. When the vagina of the mother is 
infected with syphilitic ulceration, the child is subject to 
be attacked with a primary ulceration. When it is the seat 
of gonorrhoeal discharge, it gives rise to the most danger¬ 
ous forms of purulent inflammation of the eyelids, which, 
unless treated at once, is apt to result in blindness. The 
treatment consists in absolute cleanliness; the eyes must 
be opened frequently and washed out with water. Ice is 
applied constantly to the outside, and a solution of nitrate 
of silver to the inside of the eyelids. Asphyxia is mostly 
seen after protracted labor or abnormal presentation of the 
child, the breech or the feet being born before the head. 
In such cases the umbilical cord is apt to be compressed, 
circulation thereby permanently or temporarily stopped, 
and premature respiratory movements brought on. The 
child is born almost or apparently lifeless, blue or pale, 
with no respiration and no pulsation of the heart. Arti¬ 
ficial respiration is brought on by Marshall Hall’s, Syl¬ 
vester’s, or Howard’s method, by slapping the buttock of 


the babe, by alternately placing it in warm and cold water, 
by slapping its breast with a wet cloth, by swinging it 
forcibly in the air, by the application of an electro-mag¬ 
netic current to its chest. When the surface is very blue 
a few drachms of blood may be allowed to flow from the 
untied umbilical cord. Atelectasis depends on an absence 
of the normal expansion of the lungs which follows the 
entrance of the air. The muscles of the chest may not be 
sufficiently developed, or their innervation may not be 
satisfactory from some disease of the brain, or the lungs 
may be inflamed or filled with mucus or some foreign sub¬ 
stance introduced into them during birth (blood, mucus, 
amniotic liquor, etc.). Emetics will empty the lungs 
(tickling of the fauces is sometimes sufficient), mustard 
plasters and the electrical current excite the nerves, and 
the above-mentioned methods of inducing respiration will 
restore the normal action. Cephalhematoma results from 
two causes : the external layer of the cranial bones of the 
new-born is but little developed; thus the blood-vessels 
located in it are but little protected. Now but little vio¬ 
lence, sometimes none at all, is required to burst them. A 
haemorrhage takes place between the bone (usually one of 
the parietal) and its enveloping membrane (periosteum), 
which from a small size may increase to that of a walnut 
or small apple in the course of four or six days. It is not 
dangerous, will always get well in from four to ten weeks 
when left alone, but is apt to undergo suppuration or 
putrefaction when interfered with ; for instance, by lancing. 
Acute fatty degeneration of more or less of the organs is not 
frequent. The covering epithelium of the lungs and bron¬ 
chial tubes, of the uriniferous tubes of the kidneys, of the 
intestines, also the cells of the liver and blood-vessels, 
sometimes even the whole body, are affected. Thus, the 
physical functions are not rightly performed. One of the 
most fearful symptoms is uncontrollable haemorrhage from 
the stomach, the bowels, and particularly from the umbili¬ 
cal cord. It is almost always fatal. 

Abraham Jacobi. 

Con'ger Eel (or Con'ger), a genus of marine fishes 
of the eel family, having the tail longer and more pointed 
than the fresh-water eels, the dorsal fin commencing nearer 
the head, and the teeth of the upper jaw placed together, 
so as to form a cutting edge. The species are not at all 

numerous. The American 
conger ( Conger America- 
nus) is from three to five 
feet long, and is occasion¬ 
ally seen in fish-markets. 
It has a very disagreeable 
taste. The Conger vulgaris 
is a native of British seas. 
In form the conger much 
resembles the fresh-water 
eel ; its color is brown 
above, shading into dull 
white beneath; the fins 
European Conger Eel. whitish edged with black, 

and the lateral line almost white. The English conger at¬ 
tains a large size, often five to ten feet long and eighteen 
inches in circumference, weighing more than 100 pounds. 
It is very strong, and is a formidable antagonist when 
hauled into a boat by the fisherman’s line. Great numbers 
are consumed as food by the poorer classes. The principal 
conger-fishery of Great Britain is on the Cornish coast. 

Congestion [Lat. congestio, from con, “together,” 
gero, gestum, to “carry” or “ heap”], in pathology, a term 
indicating fulness of blood, or hypermmia, a condition to 
which much importance has been attached by medical wri¬ 
ters. Congestions are either active.or passive. Active 
congestions are always essential parts of a further morbid 
process, such as inflammation. Passive congestions are 
often determined by some mechanical cause of obstructed 
or retarded circulation. Active congestions of the brain 
or lungs are in themselves very alarming symptoms of dis¬ 
ease; while the passive congestions, resulting from cir¬ 
rhosis of the liver or from organic disease of the heart, are 
fruitful causes of local or general dropsies. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Con'glcton, a market-town of England, in Cheshire, 
is in a deep valley on the river Dane, 22 miles S. of Man¬ 
chester. It has manufactures of silk ribbons and other silk 
fabrics. Pop. in 1871, 11,344. 

Congleton (Henry Brooke Parnell), Lord, a British 
statesman, born July 3, 1776, was for many years a Liberal 
member of Parliament. He became secretary at war in 
1830, and paymaster of the forces in 1835. He was well 
versed in financial affairs, and wrote several works, one of 
which was “On Financial Reform” (1830). Committed 
suicide June 8, 1842. 

Conglomerate [Lat. conglomeratus, from con , “to- 






















CONGO—CONGREGATIONALISM. 


gether,” glomero, glomeratum, to “wind,” as on a ball, to 
“ gather ’}, or Pudding-Stone, the name of a rock con¬ 
sisting of rounded, water-worn pebbles cemented and com¬ 
pacted together. These pebbles are fragments of quartz 
and other hard rocks, the rubbing and polishing of which 
must have required a long period of time. They are united 
by a silicious, calcareous, or ferruginous cement, sometimes 
so loosely that they are easily separated by a blow with a 
hammer. In other cases they are very firmly united, so 
that the rock breaks as if it were a homogeneous mass. 
Conglomerates occur in various formations and several 
geological ages. 

Con'go, or Zaire, a large river in the S. W. part of 
Africa, forms the boundary between Loango and the king¬ 
dom of Congo. It flows nearly westward, and enters the 
Atlantic in lat. 6° S., and near Ion. 13° E. Its source has 
not been explored by Europeans, and its length is not 
known. According to Behm, whose opinion is fully en¬ 
dorsed by Sir Henry Rawlinson, the Lualaba discovered 
by Dr. Livingstone is the upper course of the Congo, and 
not of the Nile. The mouth is 10 miles wide. About 140 
to 180 miles from the sea this river is confined by high 
rocks in a channel from 300 to 500 yards wide, and here 
occur several great cataracts. The Congo is said to be 
three or four miles wide above these cataracts. According 
to Petermann, its annual discharge of water is much greater 
than that of the Mississippi. 

Congo, a large country of Western Africa, in Lower 
Guinea, is bounded on the N. by Loango, on the S. by An¬ 
gola, and on the W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The coast- 
region is level, and has a very hot climate. In the central 
portion are fertile uplands, which produce the palm tree, 
sugar-cane, the yam, the orange, etc. The soil yields maize, 
manioc, pulse, plaintains, oranges, pineapples, tamarinds, 
etc. The oil-palm yields palm wine. Among the animals 
found here are lions, leopards, elephants, buffaloes, hogs, and 
monkeys. 1 The capital is Banza, which the Portuguese call 
Sao Salvador. The inhabitants are divided into innumer¬ 
able petty tribes, each with a chief, and all subject to the 
Lindy N’Congo, who resides at Banza Congo. It was dis¬ 
covered by the Portuguese in 1486. 

Congoon', a maritime town of Persia, province of 
Fars, on the Persian Gulf, 130 miles S. W. of Shiraz. It 
has a good roadstead. Pop. about 6000. 

Congregationalism is a system of administering 
church affairs which secui’es to each congregation the right 
of regulating, without external interference, the details of 
its worship and discipline according to its own understand¬ 
ing of the principles of the New Testament, while it incul¬ 
cates the duty of maintaining the fraternal communion of 
believers, especially of such as profess the same faith and 
accept the same ordei*. 

According to the fundamental principle of Congregation¬ 
alism, any association of believers, united by formal cove¬ 
nant for mutual watchfulness and help, the maintenance of 
divine worship, the observance of Christian rites, and com¬ 
bined efforts to promote the kingdom of God, is a church 
of Christ; and as such is competent to elect and ordain its 
own officers, admit or reject applicants for membership, 
exclude unworthy members, control its own property, and 
transact its own business. The orderly prosecution of 
church-work calls for the appointment of various officers, 
on whom is laid the special responsibility of oversight and 
direction; and long usage, based upon the instructions of 
the New Testament, recognizes the office of pastor and that 
of deacon as needing to be perpetuated in the Church. 
The pastor holds the office of a bishop or elder. By virtue 
of his ordination he becomes a minister, whose function is 
not only to preach, but to officiate in the administration of 
sacraments, as well as at the marriage service and the 
burial of the dead; and this rank as a minister he retains, 
even though his position as a pastor of a particular church 
may have been resigned. Ordinarily, each church has but 
one pastor, and for his support provision is made in the form 
of a stipulated salary, voluntarily contributed by the con¬ 
gregation. Among ministers, whether installed as pastors 
or not, there is no disparity of rank. The deacons are not 
salaried officers, nor technically ministers, but they are 
helpers of the pastor, and have special charge of receiving 
the charities of the church and making distribution for the 
relief of the poor. 

The congregational system holds to the Holy Scriptures 
as the sufficient and exclusive rule of ecclesiastical polity, 
recognizes no organized and visible Church apart from local 
and particular assemblies of believers, and repudiates all 
claims of superior bodies to exercise legislative or judicial 
authority over the brotherhood. 

Nevertheless, the relation of neighboring churches is most 
intimate and friendly, and is manifested in various ways; 
especially by mutual consultations and co-operation, the 


mi 


occasional transfer of members, and formal or informal as¬ 
sociations for common work. Thus Congregationalism dif¬ 
fers from independency in maintaining the fellowship of dis¬ 
tinct churches, and from presbyterianism in denying the 
right of a presbytery or synod to exercise authority over 
the churches. 

In its principles this system is remarkably unsectarian 
and liberal, and its development during the last two hun¬ 
dred and fifty years has been closely identified with in¬ 
creased liberty of religious thought, and with the practical 
union of men holding different tenets in common works of 
philanthropy and beneficence. 

As a system of church order, Congregationalism is not 
necessarily connected with any school of theology or any 
class of doctrine. Its methods of administering church- 
affairs may be adopted alike by Calvinists, Arminians, 
Socinians, and Arians. The church government of the dif¬ 
ferent denominations of Baptists is, for the most part, 
simply congregational. Some Methodists have followed 
the same order. The churches in this country known as 
Unitarian are built upon the same platform. This is true 
also of Christians and Universalists. All these denomina¬ 
tions are to be grouped together as occupying common 
ground in opposition to the idea of a Church comprising 
many congregations, and of a government administered by 
a priesthood. 

At the same time, the churches which are generally known 
as Congregational hold firmly to positive and evangelical 
views of truth, being Calvinistic rather than Arminian, 
Trinitarian rather than Socinian or Arian, accepting the 
doctrine of a future state of endless retribution, recognizing 
the families of believers as fit subjects of baptism, and re¬ 
garding the mode of administering baptism as of compar¬ 
atively small importance. Each church has its own ar¬ 
ticles of belief, which with greater or less fulness indicate 
the system of doctrine taught from the pulpit and accepted 
by the members. Some churches have taken as their stand¬ 
ards the Confession and Catechisms of the divines who 
met at Westminster, London, in 1648; but the creeds in 
common use are much briefer, and being intended for 
use as formulas for the reception of members, are for the 
most part so framed as to be acceptable to Christians gen¬ 
erally. 

The Congregationalists, when assembled in a national 
council at Boston in 1865, declared in general terms their 
“adherence to the faith and order of the apostolic and 
primitive churches held by their fathers,” but “extended to 
all believers the hand of Christian fellowship upon the basis 
of those great fundamental truths in which all Christians 
should agree.” So also at Oberlin in 1871 the elders and 
messengers of the Congregational churches of the U. S., 
in forming a permanent national organization, thought it 
sufficient to define their doctrinal position by these words : 
“ They agree in the belief that the Holy Scriptures are the 
sufficient and only infallible rule of religious faith and 
practice; their interpretation thereof being in substantial 
accordance with the great doctrines of the Christian faith 
commonly called evangelical, held in our churches from 
early times, and sufficiently set forth by former general 
councils.” 

The early home of Congregationalism was New England, 
to which it was brought at the earliest settlement of the 
colonies; but as the population has moved westward, this 
form of church order has spread extensively through the 
West and North-west, till more than half of the 3200 
churches designated as Congregational are W. of the Hud¬ 
son River, while in the South and South-west this denomi¬ 
nation is but little known. Recognizing the importance 
of culture and an educated ministry, the Congregational¬ 
ists have been distinguished as the founders and liberal 
supporters of schools, colleges, and theological seminaries. 
Their theological schools are at Bangor, Andover, Hartford, 
New Haven, Oberlin, Chicago, and Oakland (California). 
The Congregationalists have earnestly co-operated with 
other denominations in missionary and benevolent organi¬ 
zations which, like the American Bible Society, have in¬ 
vited to united effort. Among the societies which are now 
chiefly under their direction are the American Board of 
Commissioners for Foreign Missions, the American Homo 
Missionary Society, the American Congregational Union, 
the Education Society, the American Missionary Associa¬ 
tion, the Congregational Publication Society, the Congre¬ 
gational Library Association, and the Western College So¬ 
ciety. These, however, are not strictly ecclesiastical or¬ 
ganizations, but associations of individuals over which the 
churches, as such, have no control. Indeed, the congrega¬ 
tional theory of administration hardly permits such wide¬ 
spread and far-reaching activities to bo included within 
the province of a particular Church. 

The theory and practice of Congregationalism have been 
much discussed in the present generation. (A valuablo re- 













1112 CONGRESS—CONIFER M. 


pository of essays may be found in the “ Congregational 
Quarterly,” established in Boston in 1859, of which four¬ 
teen volumes have been published. Other authorities are 
“ Debates and Proceedings of the National Council of Con¬ 
gregational Churches” at Boston, 1865; Dexter’s “Con¬ 
gregationalism;” Pond’s “Manual;” Bacon’s “Congrega¬ 
tional Order;” Upham’s “Ratio Discipline j” Punciiard 
on “ Congregationalism ;” Cummings’s “ Dictionary of Con¬ 
gregational Usages and Principles;” Buck’s “ Massachu¬ 
setts Ecclesiastical Law;” “ Contributions to the Ecclesi¬ 
astical History of Connecticut,” and numerous local his¬ 
tories and church manuals.) 

Statistical summaries of the Congregational churches may 
be found each year in the January number of the “ Congre¬ 
gational Quarterly,” representing the numerical strength 
of the denomination and its changes during the preceding 
statistical year. 

The returns thus published in 1872 for the U. S. showed 
3202 churches, 3124 ministers, 312,054 church members, 
and 368,937 in Sabbath schools; 13,271 members had been 
received during the year on profession of faith, and 10,969 
by letter from other churches; 4701 had died, and 9799 
had taken letters of dismission. The increase in one year 
had been 81 churches, 26 ministers, 5536 church members, 
and 7472 in Sabbath schools. In 1862, ten years before, 
the aggregate returns showed 2555 churches, 2678 minis¬ 
ters, 255,034 members, and 246,178 in Sabbath schools. 
(For Congregationalism in England, see Independents.) 

E. W. Gilman. 

Congress, a township of Morrow co., O. Pop. 1347. 

Con gress, a township and post-village of Wayne co., I 
O. The village is about 45 miles S. S. W. of Cleveland. 
Pop. of village, 309; total pop. 2581. 

Con'gress [Lat. congressus, from congredior, congressus, 
to “go together,” to “meet;” Fr. congres], in politics, a 
meeting of the sovereigns of states or their representa¬ 
tives for the purpose of arranging international matters. 
The first general European congress was after the conclu¬ 
sion of the Thirty Years’ war in Germany, at Munster and 
Osnabriiclt, 1648. Remarkable general congresses have 
been—of the Pyrenees (1659); at Aix-la-Chapelle (1668); 
at Nimeguen (1676); at Ryswick (1697); at Utrecht (1713); 
at Aix-la-Chapelle (1748); at Teschen (1779); at Paris 
(1782); at Versailles (1785); at the Hague (1790); at 
Rastadt (1797); at Erfurt (1808); at Vienna (1814, con¬ 
cluded at Paris 1815); at Aix-la-Chapelle (1818); at Trop- 
pau(1820); at Laybach (1821); at Verona (1822). More 
recently the word Conference (which see) is commonly 
applied to international meetings of statesmen for the set¬ 
tlement of international complications. (See Phillimore, 
“On International Law,” ii., 45.) 

Congress also comes into use as a name for international 
meetings of scholars of a particular science, as statistical 
congress, archaeological congress, etc. 

Congress, the title of the national legislature of the U. S. 
of America. It consists of a House of Representatives and 
of a Senate. The former is composed of members chosen 
every second year. The qualification of electors is the 
same as that required in their respective States for electors 
to the lower house in the State legislature. The number 
of representatives is apportioned according to the popula¬ 
tion of each State, and a new apportionment is made every 
ten years after the census is taken by authority. The 
Senate is composed of two members from each State; the 
Senators are chosen for six years by the legislature of 
the State. The House of Representatives chooses its own 
Speaker; the Vice-President of the U. S. is ex-officio presi¬ 
dent of the Senate. Bills for revenue purposes must orig¬ 
inate in the House of Representatives, but are subject to 
the proposal of amendments by the Senate. The Senate 
has the sole power of trying impeachments, but it can only 
convict by a majority of two-thirds of the members present, 
and its sentence extends only to removal from office and 
disqualification to hold any office of honor or profit under 
the U. S. The regular meeting of Congress is on the first 
Monday in December, annually. Every bill which passes 
the two houses is sent to the President for approval or dis¬ 
approval ; in the latter case he returns it, with his reasons, 
to the house in which it originated; if on reconsideration 
it is passed again by a majority of two-thirds in each 
house, it becomes law. The powers of Congress are limited, 
and separated from those of the State legislatures by the 
Constitution. Members of Congress cannot legally have 
any interest in any contract with or claim against the 
government; they are forbidden to prosecute cases before 
the court of claims, or to present claims to any of the de¬ 
partments. The Senate consists (in 1873) of 74 members, 
and the other house of 292 members. No person is eligible 
to the Senate under the age of thirty years, nor to the 
House of Representatives under the age of twenty-five. 


(For a full statement of the origin, character, and powers 
of Congress, see Constitution of the United States.) 

Congress Spring, at Saratoga, N. Y., a saline mineral 
spring whose waters are highly charged with carbonic acid 
gas. When fresh, Congress water contains more than its 
own bulk of this gas, 100 cubic inches of water holding in 
solution 116 inches of the acid. Its saline ingredients are 
the carbonates, chlorides, iodides, bromides, etc. of potas¬ 
sium, sodium, lime, iron, magnesia, strontia, and other 
bases. These solid matters are found in the proportion of 
nearly 33 grains to a pound of the water, which possesses 
valuable tonic and deobstruent qualities. 

Congress, Statistical. See Statistical Congress. 

Con'greve (William), a witty English dramatic poet, 
born of an old Staffordshire family near Leeds Feb., 1670. 
He was educated at the University of Dublin, and entered 
the Middle Temple as a student of law, but he never 
devoted much time to the study or practice of that profes¬ 
sion. His first drama, “ The Old Bachelor,” was performed 
with great success at Drury Lane when Congreve was not 
yet nineteen years of age. The “ Double Dealer,” in the 
following year, did not succeed. He produced in 1695 a 
comedy called “Love for Love,” which added much to his 
fame and fortune, and in 1697 “ The Mourning Bride,” a 
tragedy, which was greatly admired. He obtained several 
lucrative civil offices. His comedy called “The Way of 
the World” (1700) failed so completely that he renounced 
the drama in disgust. He affected to depreciate his dra¬ 
matic triumphs, and was more ambitious to pass for a man 
of fashion than a poetical genius. Died Jan. 19, 1729. 
(Charles Wilson, “Memoirs of the Life of W. Congreve,” 
1730.) 

Congreve (Sir William), Bart., F. R. S., an English 
officer and engineer, born in Middlesex May 20, 1772. He 
invented several improvements in canal-locks, and in 1804 
the Congreve rocket. (See Rocket.) He published sev¬ 
eral professional works. Died May 14, 1828. 

Coni, or Cu'neo, a town of Italy, in Piedmont, cap¬ 
ital of the province of Cuneo, is on the river Stura, 54 miles 
by railway S. by W. from Turin. It has a cathedral, a 
fine town-hall, a royal college, a theatre, several convents 
and palaces. It was a strong fortress before 1800, and was 
dismantled by the French after the battle of Marengo in 
that year. Here are manufactures of linen and hemp. 
Coni has an extensive trade. Pop. in 1871, 22,882. 

Con'ic Sections, in mathematics, the sections of a 
right cone by a plane. If the cutting plane is perpendicular 
to the axis, the section is a circle; if it is parallel to one side 
of the cone, the section is a, parabola; if it makes a greater 
angle with the base than is made by the ,side of the cone, 
the section is a hyperbola ; if it is oblique to the axis, and 
only cuts the conical surface, it is an ellipse. The circle, 
the line, and the point may each be regarded as particular 
cases of the ellipse; the line as a particular case of the 
parabola; the triangle as a particular case of the hyper¬ 
bola. The study of conic sections is specially interesting 
and important on account of its connection with the laws 
of moving bodies. The orbits of planets, the paths of 
projectiles, the undulations of light and sound, are all 
either circular, elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic. 

Conif'erue [.from the Lat. conus, a “cone,” and fero, to 
“bear”], an important natural order of exogenous plants, 
comprising the pines, firs, etc. They agree with the other 
exogens in the structure of the stem and in the mode of 
vegetation, but differ remarkably from most of them in 
fructification. Their ovules are not enclosed in an ovary, 
but are fertilized by the direct application of the pollen to 
the foramen, with no style or stigma; and for this reason 
they, with the Cycadacee, are called gymnosperms. The 
flowers are unisexual, the male and female being some¬ 
times on the same, sometimes on different plants. The 
male flowers have either one stamen or one bundle of sta¬ 
mens, the anthers often crested. The female flowers are 
in cones or solitary. The place of ovaries is supplied by 
the flat scales of the cones. The ovules are usually in pairs. 
The fruit is either a cone, a berry-like fruit, or a solitary 
naked seed. The seed has a hard, crustaceous integument. 
The embryo is surrounded by fleshy, oily albumen. The 
cotyledons are either two or numerous and whorled. The 
Coniferoe are trees or shrubs, mostly with resinous juice, 
and awl-shaped or needle-shaped leaves. Some of the 
Conifere attain a height almost unrivalled among other 
forest trees. The Sequoia of California affords the most 
striking example. The woody fibre is marked with cir¬ 
cular disks, which, when highly magnified, exhibit a small 
internal circle surrounded by a larger one. This pecu¬ 
liarity of the wood of the Conifere is important, as enabling 
us to refer many fossils, particularly of the coal formation, 
to this order. Most of tho Coniform have very narrow, 





















CONIINE—CONNAUGHT. 


1113 


veinless, evergreen leaves, but some few are deciduous, and 
others have flat and wide leaves. By far the larger num¬ 
ber of them belong to the northern hemisphere. They are 
very long-lived ; some of them are supposed to be capable 
of enduring to the age of 2000 or 3000 years. Besides the 
valuable timber obtained from many of the Coniferae, they 
are remarkably productive of turpentines and resins. As¬ 
tringent substances are also found in their bark, and fixed 
oil in their seeds. The seeds of some species are used as 
food. By some botanists this order is divided into two, 
three, or more orders. 

Co'niine, also called Conine, Conieine, and Ci- 
cutine, a volatile alkaloid constituting the poisonous 
principle of the Conium maculatum, or poison hemlock. It 
was discovered in 1827 by Giesacke, but first prepared in 
a pure state by Geiger in 1831. Formula, C 8 Hi 5 N. It 
exists in all parts of the plant, but in greatest quantities 
in the seeds just before maturity. Coniine is stated by 
Walz to exist in the ripe seeds of the sEthusa Cynapium, or 
fool’s parsley, and Wagner claims to have found it in the 
root of the Imperatoria. Coniine is obtained by mixing 
the bruised seeds of the plant with a strong base, as lime, 
and distilling the base over with water. It is an oily liquid 
of specific gravity 0.89, boiling at about 170° C. (338° F.), 
with a penetrating repulsive and suffocating odor and a 
sharp taste. It has a strong alkaline reaction in the pres¬ 
ence of water, but the blue color produced by it on red- 
dened litmus paper is not permanent. At a low temper¬ 
ature it takes up considerable amounts of water, but if the 
solution is warmed it becomes turbid. It is but slightly 
soluble in water, but very soluble in alcohol and ether. It 
is very inflammable, burning with a bright smoky flame. 
When exposed to the air it slowly decomposes, ammonia 
being evolved and a resinous substance being left.. With 
acids it forms crystallizable salts which are soluble in 
water and alcohol, are odorless when dry, and are decom¬ 
posed by heat. According to Geiger, the salts are less 
poisonous than the base itself. Other authorities assert 
that the reverse is the case. In any case, the action is 
that of an acrid narcotic poison. One of the tests in the 
laboratory for the presence of this alkaloid is the peculiar 
odor developed by setting it free from its combinations by 
means of caustic potash. 

In 1872, Schiff obtained synthetically a substance iden¬ 
tical in composition with coniine, and resembling it in odor, 
appearance, and general reactions. This product has, how¬ 
ever, optically no rotatory power, and differs from the natu¬ 
ral coniine in a few other details. The name paraconiine 
has therefore been proposed for the artificial product. 

The alkaloid, as well as the leaves and seeds of the Co- 
nium maculatum, is used in pharmacy as a narcotic. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Con'ingtoil (John), a distinguished classical scholar 
and literary writer, was born Aug. 10, 1825, in Boston, 
England, and educated first at Rugby under Dr. Arnold, 
and then at Oxford, where he became a fellow of University 
College in 1848. While still a B. A. he published an 
edition of the “ Agamemnon ” of iEschylus, with a poetical 
version, in which he inaugurated the double career, which 
he successfully followed up, of critical editor and trans¬ 
lator. In 1852 he had begun, in conjunction with Mr. 
Goldwin Smith, an edition of the works of Virgil, the first 
volume of which was published in 1858. in 1854 he was 
appointed to the chair of Latin in the university, and from 
this time to his early death in 1869 his pen was constantly 
busy. His Aeschylean studies were continued in the edition 
of the “ Choephoroe ” in 1857, but after this he felt drawn 
more particularly to the studies connected with his chair. 
In 1863 appeared a version of the Odes of Horace, and the 
second volume of his Virgil. In 1866 he published a 
spirited translation of the ‘GEneid” in the ballad measure 
of Scott, which he followed up the next year by completing 
the version of the “Iliad” begun by his friend Mr. Wors- 
ley. He completed his translation of Horace, and prepared 
an edition of the “ Satires ” of Persius, with a translation, 
just before his death in 1869. The last volume of his 
edition of Virgil appeared after his death, under the super¬ 
vision of his friend and fellow-worker, Mr. Nettleship, in 
1871. Two volumes of miscellaneous writings, with a 
memoir prafixed, were issued in 1872, the second volume 
containing a prose translation of the “Eclogues,” 
“ Georgies,” and ‘GEneid” of Virgil. Henry Drisler. 

Coniros'tres [from the Lat. conus , a “cone,” and ros¬ 
trum, a “ bill ”], a tribe of birds of the order Insessores 
(perchers), characterized by a strong conical bill without 
notches. It comprises numerous species, among which are 
crows, finches, larks, buntings, sparrows, starlings, and 
birds of paradise. Many recent systematists reject the term 
altogether, and group these birds in the section Oscines 
(singers), of the order Passeres and sub-class Insessores. 


Coni'um [Gr. kuvsi.ov], the leaves of the poisonous hem¬ 
lock, Conium maculatum, an Old World umbelliferous plant 
naturalized in the U. S. It is in medicine a useful sedative, 
hypnotic, and anodyne. In over-doses it produces a danger¬ 
ous paralysis. With this drug Socrates and Phocion were 
poisoned. Stimulants and emetics are the best antidotes. 

Conjeveram, or Cauchipoo'ra (“golden city”), a 
town of Ilindostan, on the railway, 62 miles S. W. of Mad¬ 
ras, in the presidency of Madras. It consists mostly of 
mud cabins, extends over considerable ground, and con¬ 
tains large gardens and cocoa groves. It is noted for two 
interesting pagodas with remarkably fine sculptures. Pop. 
20 , 000 . 

Conju'gate [Lat. conjugatus, part, of conjugo, to “yoke 
together”], an adjective frequently used in pure and ap¬ 
plied mathematics with reference to two quantities, points, 
lines, axes, curves, etc., which present themselves simul¬ 
taneously and have reciprocal properties. 

Conjugation [Lat. conjugatio, from con, “together,” 
and jugo, jug a turn, to “yoke”], in grammar, a regular dis¬ 
tribution of the several inflections of verbs into their differ¬ 
ent voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons; a synopsis 
or statement of the changes of form or inflections to which 
a verb is subject. In Latin grammar there are four differ¬ 
ent forms of regular verbs, which are called the first, second, 
third, and fourth conjugations, and in some languages the 
number is even greater. (See Grammar.) 

Conjugation is also a process occurring among the 
lower forms of organic life, in which the substance of two 
distinct organisms, coming into contact, is passed into a 
single mass. In plants it is always attended with repro¬ 
duction, sometimes also in animals. It has been observed 
in numerous algm and in some fungi. 

Conjunc'tion [Lat. conjunctio, from con, “together,” 
and jungo, junctum, to “join”], one of the aspects of the 
planets. Two or more heavenly bodies are in conjunction 
when they have the same longitude. The sun and moon 
are in conjunction at the time of new moon. In general, 
a heavenly body is in conjunction with the sun when it is 
on the same side of the earth and is in a line with him. 
When Mercury and Venus are in a line between the earth 
and the sun they are said to be in inferior conjunction. 
AYhen the sun is between the earth and one of the planets 
the latter is in superior conjunction. 

Conjunction, in grammar, a part of speech used to 
connect words or sentences ; that part of speech which ex¬ 
presses the relation of propositions to each other. Con¬ 
junctions are co-ordinate when they unite expressions of 
equal grammatical importance; subordinate when they 
unite a dependent clause to a principal one. 

Conk'lin, a township and village of Broome co., N. Y. 
The village is about 20 miles E. of Owego. Pop. 1440. 

Conk'ling (Alfred), the father of Roscoe C., born at 
East Hampton, N. Y., Oct. 12, 1789, graduated at Union 
College in 1810, became a lawyer, was member of Congress 
(1821-23), afterwards U. S. district judge for Northern 
New York, and was minister to Mexico in 1852. He pub¬ 
lished several legal works. Died Feb. 5, 1874. 

Conkling (Roscoe), an American statesman, born at 
Albany/N. Y., Oct. 30, 1829, studied and practised law. 
In 1846 he removed to Utica, of which place he was elected 
mayor in 1858, and was elected to represent his district in 
the U. S. Congress four times, and in 1867 and 1873 to the 
U. S. Senate. 

Conk'lingville, a post-village of Hadley township, 
Saratoga co., N. Y. Has a large tannery and a manufac¬ 
tory of veneers. 

Conlie, a French village, in the department of Tarthe, 
is situated 14 miles W. of Le Mans. Near it the French 
government established in Oct., 1870, a large fortified camp 
which could receive about 50,000 troops. After the battle 
of Le Mans the camp was, on Jan. 14, 1871, occupied by 
the Germans. Pop. of the village in 1866, 1720. 

Connara'cene [from Connarus, one of the genera], a 
natural order of exogenous plants (trees or shrubs), natives 
of tropical countries, and nearly allied to the Leguminosae. 
They have compound leaves destitute of stipules. They 
differ from the Leguminosse by having the radicle remote 
from the hilum. Among the products of this order is the 
beautiful zebra-wood (the wood of Omphalobium Lamberti), 
a native of Guiana. 

Con'naught, the most western province of Ireland, is 
bounded on the N. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean, on the 
E. by Ulster and Leinster, and on the S. by Munster. Area, 
6863 square miles. It is divided into the counties of Gal¬ 
way, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, and Sligo. 1 he surface 
in the western part is mountainous. The coast is deeply 
indented, and affords good harbors. The river Shannon 





















. ' » — . . ! _ ■ ' ''' 

1114 CONNEAUT—CONNECTICUT. 


forms tho eastern boundary of the province. Connaught 
was formerly a kingdom of the Irish pentarchy. Pop. in 
1871, 845,993. 

Conneaut', a post-borough of Ashtabula co., 0., on 
Conneaut Creek and on the Lake Shore R. R., 68 miles 
E. N. E. of Cleveland and 2 miles from Lake Erie. It is a 
shipping-point for produce. Here the first settlers of North¬ 
ern Ohio lauded in 1796. The mouth of the creek makes 
a good harbor. Conneaut has a lighthouse, a good trade, 
and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1163; of Conneaut town¬ 
ship, 3010. 

Conneaut, a township of Crawford co., Pa. P. 1729. 

Conneaut, a township of Erie co., Pa. Pop. 1538. 

Conneaut'ville, a post-village of Crawford co., Pa., 
on the Erie and Pittsburg It. R., 35 miles S. S. W. of Erie. 
It has one national bank and one weekly newspaper. P. 1000. 

Connecticut, kon-net'e-kut, a river of the U. S., rises 
in the extreme northern part of New Hampshire, near the 
frontier of Canada. Its W. bank forms the entire boundary 
between New Hampshire and Vermont. (See New Hamp¬ 
shire.) It flows in a general S. S. W. direction until it 
enters Franklin co., Mass. It afterwards intersects Massa¬ 
chusetts and Connecticut, flowing nearly southward to Mid¬ 
dletown (Connecticut), below which its course is S. E., and 
enters Long Island Sound at Saybrook. Length, about 450 
miles. The valley of the Connecticut is celebrated for the 
beauty of its scenery, the fertility of its soil, and the lux¬ 
uriant growth of the tobacco-plant known as the “ Con¬ 
necticut seed-leaf,” which is used principally as “ wrappers ” 
in making cigars. It is not an uncommon thing for the 
crop to exceed 2000 pounds to the acre. Vessels drawing 
eight feet can ascend to Hartford, which is about 50 miles 
from its mouth. Its principal affluents are the Deerfield, 
Farmington, and Chicopee rivers. 

Connecticut, one of the six New England, and one of 
the thirteen original, States of the American Union, lying 



Connecticut Seal. 


in the eastern division of the U. S., and bounded as fol¬ 
lows: N. by Massachusetts, E. by Rhode Island, S. by 
Long Island Sound, and W. by New York. No one of its 
boundaries is a continuous straight line, that on the N. 
having a notch where the town of Southwick, Mass., inter¬ 
rupts the boundary; the eastern following at its lower por¬ 
tion the sinuosities of Pawcatuck River; the southern 
being the line of the sound shore; and the western bound¬ 
ary, after following a course S., slightly bearing W. till 
within about 15 miles of the sound, suddenly turns S. E. 
for about 8 miles, then S. W. for about 13, then S. E. for 6 
or 7. The northern line is about 88 miles long; the east¬ 
ern, 45 miles; the western, by the indirect line we have 
described, 72 miles. The sea or sound coast, from Pawca¬ 
tuck River on the E. to Byram River on the S. W., is 
about 100 miles. The average length of the State from 
E. to W. is 86 miles, and its average breadth from N. to S., 
55 miles. It lies between N. lat. 41° and 42° S', and W. 
Ion. 71° 55' and 73° 50'. Its area is 4674 square miles. 

Face of the Country, Rivers, Mountains, Valleys, etc .— 
The State is mainly drained by its three principal rivers 
and their tributaries, the Ilousatonic, the Connecticut, and 
the Thames, though these are supplemented by numerous 
small streams from 10 to 15 miles in length, and one 
about 35 miles in length, the Quinnipiack, which, like the 
larger rivers, all discharge their waters into the sound. 
The Ilousatonic River rises in the N. W. part of Berkshire 
co., Mass., pursues a generally southern course till it reaches 


about the middle of the State of Connecticut, when it turns 
S. E., and discharges its waters into the sound at Bridge¬ 
port. The Connecticut (see Connecticut River), rising 
near the Canada line, separates New Hampshire and Ver¬ 
mont, and passes through Massachusetts and Connecticut 
to the sound, deflected at Middletown to the S. E., like tho 
Ilousatonic and Thames, and on about the same parallel. 
The Thames, a broad and noble river, is only known by 
that name from Norwich to New London Harbor. The 
Yantic and Quinnebaug unite to form the Thames at Nor¬ 
wich, and the Quinnebaug itself takes the Shetucket as its 
principal tributary—a tributary formed by the union of 
the Willimantic and Hop rivers. These streams drain 
most of Windham and a part of New London counties. 
The principal tributary of the Connecticut in the State is 
the Tunxis or Farmington River, which drains a part of 
Litchfield and Hartford counties. The chief affluent of the 
Ilousatonic is the Naugatuck River, which receives the 
waters of several towns of Litchfield and New Haven 
counties. The State has no prairies and but little abso¬ 
lutely level land. Its central valley begins at the sound, 
and, embracing a tract of the average breadth of about 20 
miles, including the towns of East Haven, New Haven, and 
West Haven, passes N. E., its eastern border crossing the 
Connecticut River below Middletown, while its western 
border continues on the W. side of the river through Ham¬ 
den, Cheshire, Southington, Farmington, Avon, Simsbury, 
and Granby into Massachusetts; the eastern border passing 
at the same time through Portland, Glastonbury, Manches¬ 
ter, East Windsor, and Somers to the Massachusetts line. 
The lower part of this valley is sandy and alluvial, but 
barren except when it is highly manured. In many 
places it forms extensive plains of drifting sand, and these 
sometimes invade the portions which have, under the 
stimulus of strong manures, grown a moderate crop. But 
at the point where it approaches the Connecticut River the 
character of the soil changes ; the underlying rock, for the 
remainder of the course of the valley through the State, is 
the new red sandstone, and above it a rich, deep clayey 
loam, with sand enough to make it permanently arable; 
and there is hardly any section of the U. S. which yields, 
year after year, such ample crops as this portion of the 
Connecticut River valley. There are in the lower and 
western portions of this valley some ranges and several 
isolated buttes or elevated bluffs of trap-rock, which in 
some volcanic convulsion or earthquake was interjected 
through rifts in the overlying rocks. On the W. side these 
bluffs and ranges have a precipitous and sometimes an al¬ 
most perpendicular descent, while on the E. side they 
descend to the level of the valley by a gentle declivity. 
There are also two or three cross ranges, of no great height, 
of trap-rock connecting with mountains on the eastern or 
western border of the valley. These trap ranges are 
broken by several gaps, cutting them completely through; 
one of these affords a passage for the Farmington River; 
another opens a way for the railroad from Hartford to 
Waterbury. The eastern part of the State, which is 
drained by the Thames and its affluents, has no broad 
valley, but numerous narrow ones, and the underlying 
rocks being granitic and metamorphic, the hills which 
bound these valleys are gently rounded slopes, cultivable 
even to their summits. This portion of the State is excel¬ 
lent grazing-lafid, and much of it is celebrated for its dairy 
products; while the numerous w r aterfalls and the uniform¬ 
ity of the streams make it a favorable region for manufac¬ 
tures, which are largely conducted in this section. The 
western part of the State, drained by the Housatonic and 
its tributaries and by the Tunxis, is of broken surface, with 
sharp cliffs and large boulders, while the surface is much 
of it covered with rocks. Less than a moiety of the land 
is susceptible of successful tillage, and the passage from 
one valley to another over the rough and precipitous hills 
is very difficult. Many of the valleys, though narrow, 
afford good and succulent pasture, and the butter, cheese, 
and condensed milk of Litchfield county have a reputation 
far beyond the limits of the State. S. of the point (Brook¬ 
field) where the Housatonic turns south-eastward the west¬ 
ern part of the State is sandy and gravelly, though por¬ 
tions of it yield fine crops by the application of highly 
stimulating manures. The proximity of this portion of the 
State to New York has led to extensive culture of the small 
fruit3 and vegetables, which find a ready market in the 
metropolis. The shore line for a distance of from 5 to 
15 miles back from Long Island Sound is alluvial and di¬ 
luvial, and excessively sandy, but, by the application of 
large quantities of menhaden and the fish and other 
guanos, yields good crops of potatoes, rye, oats, and Indian 
corn. There are no elevations deserving the name of 
mountains in the State, the highest elevation being consid¬ 
erably below 1000 feet. 

There is a large amount of mineral wealth in the State. 






































































































CONNECTICUT. 


Neither gold nor silver has been found in any consider¬ 
able quantities, though both the copper and lead ores are 
argentiferous. Copper is found in various parts of the 
trap-rock range; the Simsbury copper-mines were worked 
many years before the Revolutionary war, and subsequent 
to that event were made the State prison and worked by 
convict labor. The copper-mines in Bristol have yielded 
large amounts of copper, but owing to the comparatively 
small percentage ot pure metal in the ore, and the heavy 
expense of raising it, the mines in both places have proved 
unprofitable in face of the abundant yield and purer ores 
of the Lake Superior region. Argentiferous galena, yield¬ 
ing a large percentage of silver, has been worked at various 
times in Middletown, but the net result has not been profit¬ 
able. The iron ores of the State have been worked with 
advantage for about 125 years. Bog-iron ore is found in 
various parts ot the State, but the extensive beds of hema¬ 
tite ore in Salisbury and Kent, as well as less extensive ones 
in Sharon, Cornwall, and Canaan, have yielded the best 
quality of charcoal iron in the country. These mines were 
opened about 1750, and the greater part of the iron re¬ 
quired for cannon, for the chains across the Hudson, and 
for other purposes during the Revolutionary war, came 
from the Salisbury furnaces. The valley of the Ilousatonic 
above New Milford, and the narrow valleys which branch 
out from it, abound in limestone of the best quality, both 
for burning and building or ornamental purposes ; and the 
Canaan lime, as it was called, held for many years the first 
rank in the market. The New Preston marble-quarries in 
the town of Washington, Litchfield co., furnish an admir¬ 
able quality of dense white marble of pure color and fine 
grain, for which there is a constant demand. But the finest 
buikling-stone in the State, and that most in demand all 
over the U. S., is the red sandstone (better known as brown- 
stone or freestone) from the quarries on both sides of the 
Connecticut River at Portland and Cromwell. The Port¬ 
land quarries are the oldest, but both towns yield a stone 
identical in quality and color—an excellent building-stone, 
and which is in great demand for covering or veneering 
the fronts of brick buildings from its excellent proper¬ 
ties of durability, resistance to climatic action, and quiet 
but effective color. Quarries at Bolton and at Haddam 
yield excellent qualities of flagging stone, which splits 
smoothly and wears well. There are also at the latter 
place extensive quarries of granite and gneiss. Sulphate 
of barytes (heavy spar) is found in large veins in tho E. 
part of Cheshire and Southington, and is quarried and 
sent to New York, Boston, and Philadelphia to be used 
with white lead for paints. Hydraulic lime in immense 
quantities is found on the borders of Southington and Ber¬ 
lin, and large quantities of hydraulic cement are manufac¬ 
tured from it. There are quarries of a good tiling slate. 
In Milford and North Milford there is a quarry of a beau¬ 
tiful green marble of a quality nearly or quite equal to 
verd antique, but the expense of working it has proved very 
heavy. Fire-clay, porcelain-clay of excellent quality, and 
potter’s clay are found in various parts of the State, and 
firebricks and firebrick furnaces and crucibles are made at 
New Milford, and the felspar quarried for porcelain at 
Middletown. There are mineral springs in various parts 
of the State, but those most celebrated are the slightly sul¬ 
phurous chalybeate springs at Stafford. Salt is made by 
evaporation from sea-water at Stonington and other points 
on the shore of Long Island Sound. 

Vegetation, Zoology, and Climate .—The forest trees of 
Connecticut, now much less numerous than formerly, since 
large tracts have been felled for ship-timber, for furnace 
and brick-kiln use, and for the production of charcoal, are 
those which are most serviceable in manufactures. Neither 
the pine nor the hemlock is abundant, but the white oak 
(an excellent ship-timber), the yellow and red oak, the 
hickory or walnut, the chestnut, butternut, tulip tree or 
white wood, beech, birch, ironwood or hop-hornbeam, sugar, 
rock, silver, and red maple, ash, elm, sassafras, wild cherry, 
red cedar, juniper, and among the shrubs or small trees the 
alder, box-elder, shad-bush, spice-bush, etc., are the prin¬ 
cipal trees of the forests which yet remain. Among the 
wild fruits are wild grapes, beach and sloe plums, crab- 
apples, whortleberries, blackberries, dewberries, raspber¬ 
ries of several varieties, barberries, cranberries, gooseber¬ 
ries, strawberries, partridge and wintergreen berries. 

The State has been so long settled, and is so densely 
populated, that there are very few wild animals left in it. 
Foxes are occasionally, though rarely, found in the western 
counties, and the gray rabbit, gray, red, striped, and flying 
squirrels are found, though not in largo numbers, in most 
parts of the State. Occasionally the wild-cat is seen in the 
larger forests, while the skunk, the muskrat, the wood¬ 
chuck, and the smaller burrowing animals, moles, field- 
mice, and those pests, the Norway and water rat, appear in 
considerable numbers. Among birds, the birds of prey arc 


1115 


represented by the eagle (two or three species), several 
species of hawk, some of them large, four or five species 
of gulls, as many of owls, tho crow, raven, etc., while the 
robin, oriole, redbird, crow blackbird, blackbird, jay, blue¬ 
bird, hanging-bird, woodpecker, thrush, brown thresher, 
several of the finches, tho wren, swallow, whippoorwill, 
humming-bird, etc., represent the class of song-birds; the 
grouse family and its congeners, and the pigeon, quail, 
partridge, pinnated grouse or heath-hen are found, snipe 
and woodcock are plenty in swamps and woods along the 
sea-shore, and several species of duck, wild geese, etc. are 
found along the rivers and bays. Fish, especially of the 
edible kinds, abound in the waters of the State. The shad, 
tautaug or blackfish, bluefish, porgy, black, rock, and striped 
bass, flounder, sturgeon, pickerel, perch, roach, sheepshead, 
weakfish, catfish, menhaden, eto. abound; the salmon, 
formerly so abundant in the Connecticut River, has re¬ 
cently been restored to it, and in the sound are found the 
shark (several species), the stingray, the skate, and occa¬ 
sionally the porpoise and the blackfish, a small species of 
whale. The shores of the sound abound in the best quali¬ 
ties of shellfish, the oysters, long or soft-shelled clams of 
several species, quahogs or round clams, scallops, and 
mussels being of excellent flavor. Lobsters, crabs, king- 
crabs, sea-urchins, sea-spiders, etc. are also very plentiful. 
Reptiles are less abundant than in most States. The only 
venomous snakes are the rattlesnake and two or three 
species of adder, and these are not abundant. The other 
snakes, of which there is a very considerable variety, 
though no great number of individuals, are all harmless, 
except the racer or blacksnakc, our North American repre¬ 
sentative of the boa constrictor tribe, which crushes its 
prey in its folds. These are now found but rarely. Two 
or three species of frogs, as many of toads, and four or 
five of the lizard tribe, are the only other reptiles worthy 
of note. The climate of the State does not vary materially 
from that of the other States of the same latitude on the 
Atlantic slope. The spring opens usually from the 10th to 
the 20th of April, and except occasionally a single slight 
frost in September there is no more cold weather until No¬ 
vember. The winters are, away from the sea-board, usually 
severe, and considerable snow lies on the ground sometimes 
for months. The temperature in summer is often high, and 
averages about 70° F. during the summer months, permit¬ 
ting most varieties of the grape and Indian corn to come 
to perfection. In the Connecticut Valley heavy fogs pre¬ 
vail during a part of the summer and autumn months. 
There seems to be little or no marsh miasm in the State, 
and intermittent and remittent fevers do not originate 
there. In diseases of the lungs, though more favorable 
than most of the other New England States, it is less so 
than the Southern or South-western States. 

Agricultural and Manufacturing Products, Fisheries, etc .— 
Connecticut is not largely an agricultural State, much of 
her wealth being invested in manufacturing, commercial, 
and banking enterprises; but her fertile lands are under a 
high state of cultivation, while the comparatively barren 
ones are, under skilful husbandry, made to produce fair 
crops. The State Agricultural Society is an efficient body, 
and has done much to promote good farming. The statis¬ 
tics of the leading crops for the year 1872 were—Indian 
corn, 1,705,000 bushels, raised on 54,647 acres, and esti¬ 
mated as worth $1,568,600; wheat, 37,100 bushels, raised 
on 2182 acres, and worth $61,215; rye, 311,000 bushels, 
raised on 19,683 acres, and worth $342,100 ; oats, 1,063,000 
bushels, raised on 29,692 acres, and worth $648,430 ; barley, 
23,000 bushels, raised on 995 acres, and worth $20,700 ; 
buckwheat, 94,900 bushels, on 4942 acres, and worth 
$91,104; potatoes, 1,819,000, on 18,190 acres, and worth 
$1,491,580; tobacco, 8,336,000 pounds, on 5052 acres, and 
worth $2,500,800; hay, 534,000 tons, raised on 472,566 
acres, and worth $13,910,700. The live-stock in the State 
in Jan., 1873, was as follows: 50,300 horses, valued at 
$4,974,167; 106,800 milch cows, worth $4,218,600 ; 111,200 
oxen and other cattle, worth $4,521,392; 83,200 sheep, 
worth $410,176 ; 63,700 hogs, worth $836,381. According 
to the census of 1870, Connecticut had 1,646,752 acres of 
improved land in farms, and 717,664 acres unimproved, ol 
which 577,333 acres were woodland. The cash value of 
its farms was $124,241,382, and of farming implements, 
$3,246,599. The total amount of wages paid for farm-labor 
was $4,405,064, and the estimated value of all farm products 
for the year 1869-70 was $26,482,150. The following addi¬ 
tional statistics of the agriculture of the State are only 
collected at each decennial period, and refer to the census 
year 1869-70: The value of animals slaughtered or sold 
for slaughter was $4,881,858; the value of home manufac¬ 
tures, $53,297 ; of forest products, $1,224,107; of market- 
garden products, $599,718; of orchard products, $535,594 ; 
of wool, 254,129* pounds ; of hops, 1 004 p ounds ; of maple- 

# There is reason to believe this au under-estimate. 















1116 


CONNECTICUT. 


sugar, 14,206 pounds; of sorghum molasses, 6832 gallons, 
and of maple molasses, 168 gallons; of sweet potatoes, 867 
bushels; of peas and beans, 13,038 bushels; of beeswax, 
1326 pounds; of honey, 32,158 pounds; of domestic wine, 
27,414 gallons; of clover seed, 1725 bushels; of grass seed, 
4471 bushels; of butter, 6,716,007 pounds; of cheese, 
2,031,194 pounds; of milk sold, 6,253,259 gallons. 

Connecticut is eminently a manufacturing State, ranking 
in the capital employed, notwithstanding the smallness of 
her territory, fifth, and in the value of her manufactured 
products eighth, in the list of States. It is to be regretted 
that the statistics of her manufactures in the census report 
are confessedly so inaccurate. The superintendent of the 
census estimates that the reported capital invested in man¬ 
ufactures is not more than one-fourth of that actually em¬ 
ployed, and that in the other particulars there are neces¬ 
sarily great errors, mostly, it is supposed, in the way of 
under-estimate. The census of 1870 reports that in the 
year 1869-70 there were in Connecticut 5128 manufacturing 
establishments, operated by 711 steam-engines of 25,979 
horse-power and 1988 water-wheels of 54,395 horse-power; 
these establishments employed 89,523 persons, of whom 
61,684 were adult males, 20,810 adult females, and 7029 
children. The capital invested is stated at $95,281,278, 
the amount of annual wages paid at $38,987,187, the value 
of materials at $86,419,579, and the annual product at 
$161,065,474. Among the largest of these industries were 
manufactures of cotton goods, of which there were 111 
establishments, employing 12,086 hands, having a reported 
capital of $12,710,700, paying $3,246,783 in annual wages, 
using raw material of the value of $8,818,651, and produ¬ 
cing goods valued at $14,026,334; woollen goods, of which 
there were 103 factories, employing 7285 hands, having a 
reported capital of $12,490,400, paying for annual wages 
$2,860,120, using raw material costing $11,016,925, and 
producing annually goods valued at $17,365,148; various 
manufactures of iron, of which there were in all 120 estab¬ 
lishments, employing 3866 persons, having a reported cap¬ 
ital invested of $5,202,650, paying as annual wages $977,897, 
using raw material of the value of $3,632,317, and produ¬ 
cing iron and iron goods of the annual value of $7,018,711; 
hardware and saddlery hardware, 155 establishments, em¬ 
ploying 7721 persons, reporting a capital invested of 
$7,1.38,645, paying wages to the annual amount of $3,748,822, 
using raw material valued at $5,344,811, and producing 
goods to the annual value of $12,672,034; India-rubber 
and elastic goods, 13 establishments, employing 1946 per¬ 
sons, a capital estimated at $2,345,000, paying as wages 
annually $761,434, using raw material estimated at 
$2,355,488, and producing annually goods to the amount 
of $4,239,329 ; firearms and small-arms, 8 establishments, 
employing 1607 hands, reporting $1,793,770 of capital 
invested, $1,100,668 wages paid annually, $315,247 worth 
of raw material used, and $2,222,873 of goods annually 
produced.* In the manufacture of clothing there are 244 
establishments, employing 3414 hands and a capital re¬ 
ported at $1,250,220, expending $2,666,068 for raw material, 
and producing goods to the value of $4,481,259; of hat 
and cap manufactories there were 33, employing 2464 
hands, a reported capital of $1,153,300, and producing 
from $1,894,647 worth of raw material, goods to the value 
of $3,740,871; there were 205 carriage and wagon factories, 
employing 2341 hands, and producing from $1,798,299 
worth of raw material goods to the value of $4,164,480; 
there were 42 establishments for the manufacture of plated 
ware, employing 2107 hands, a capital reported at$2,337,500, 
and producing from $2,005,090 worth of raw material, goods 
to the value of $4,066,806 ; in the manufacture of machinery 
of all kinds there were 108 machine-shops, employing 2770 
hands, reporting a capital of $4,342,641, and producing 
from $1,617,444 worth of raw material, machinery to the 
value of $5,010,379; there were 9 factories for sewing- 
machines and sewing-machine fixtures, employing 2525 
hands, capital reported at $2,492,000, and producing from 
$1,356,015 worth of raw material, machines and fixtures to 
the value of $4,507,850; there were 23 silk-factories, em¬ 
ploying 1703 hands, reporting a capital of $1,414,130, and 
producing from $2,049,834 worth of raw material, silk goods 
to the value of $3,314,845; the manufacture of paper is 
conducted in 66 paper-mills, employing 1397 hands, report¬ 
ing a capital of $2,988,046, and producing from $3,327,266 
worth of raw material, paper to the value of $4,874,241. 
The other branches of manufacturing industry which pro¬ 
duced goods to the reported value of over $1,000,000 were— 
agricultural implements, 38 establishments, producing 
goods to the value of $1,183,947; bleaching and dyeing, 
18 establishments, producing goods worth $2,849,743 ; boots 

* These returns are certainly an under-estimate, as in favor¬ 
able years a single establishment produces goods to a larger 
amount than that attributed to the whole eight, and another 
nearly reaches that amount. 


and shoes, 38 establishments, producing $1,939,652 worth 
of goods; brass-founding and brass-wares, 47 establish¬ 
ments, producing goods to the amount of $2,404,990 ; car¬ 
pets, 21 factories, with $1,530,000 capital, producing 
$2,027,136 worth of carpets; clocks and clock-cases and 
materials, 28 factories, employing 1471 hands, and making 
from $941,572 worth of raw material $2,747,153 worth of 
clocks and cases; cutlery, including edge-tools and axes, 
125 establishments, employing 2378 hands, and producing 
goods to the value of $3,059,806; drugs and chemicals, 6 
manufactories, employing 261 hands, and producing goods 
to the value of $1,289,845; flouring-mill products, 150 
establishments, producing flour, etc. to the value of 
$2,946,010; furniture, 56 shops, producing $1,103,690 worth 
of furniture; hosiery, 14 factories, making $1,251,742 worth 
of goods; leather, tanned and curried, by tanneries, pro¬ 
ducing $1,024,316 worth of leather; lumber, sawed and 
planed, 145 mills, producing $1,774,014 worth of lumber; 
printing and publishing, 42 offices, producing papers, 
periodicals, books, etc. to the value of $1,094,440 ;f sad¬ 
dlery and harness, 106 shops, producing $1,055,350 worth 
of goods; straw goods, 3 factories, employing 1010 hands, 
and producing goods to the value of $1,026,000; tin, cop¬ 
per, and sheet-iron ware, 129 shops, employing 968 hands, 
and producing wares valued at $1,625,774; tobacco and 
cigars, 100 shops, producing goods to the amount of 
$1,133,665. There are 20 quarries and mines (mostly quar¬ 
ries), having a reported capital of $1,496,100, and produ¬ 
cing annually to the amount of $1,227,400. There are also 
171 fishing establishments, exclusive of the whale fisheries, 
having $421,775 capital, and yielding an annual product of 
$769,799. 

Railroads .—There are 22 railroads wholly or in part in 
the State, having an aggregate length of 886 miles, aside 
from sidings, etc., which, added, made about 978 miles of 
completed railroad-tracks in April, 1873. The total num¬ 
ber of miles of road in operation by all these railroads, in¬ 
cluding the portion in other States, is 1163 miles, exclusive 
of sidings, etc. The total capital of these roads was 
$41,542,100. Their cost and equipment have been not far 
from $50,000,000. The gross receipts for the year ending 
April, 1873, were $11,368,425.26, and the net income was 
$3,169,902.41. Only one of these roads can really be con¬ 
sidered a trunk-line—viz. the New York, New Haven and 
Hartford, extending from New York to Springfield, Mass., 
and connecting there with the Boston and Albany It. R. of 
Massachusetts, with which it forms part of the trunk-line 
to Boston, Portland, and Halifax. The capital of this road 
is $15,500,000. The Hartford Providence and Fishkill 
forms a part of the New York and New England, which is 
intended to extend from Boston to Fishkill, and, crossing 
the Hudson by a lofty bridge, connect with the Erie Railway. 
The Norwich and Worcester, in connection with the Shore 
line and a line of steamers, forms another route from New 
York to Boston. The Shore line skirts the sound from New 
Haven to Stonington, and forms,with the New York and New 
Haven and the Stonington and Providence, a very direct 
route from New York to Providence, R. I. The New Ha¬ 
ven Middletown and Willimantic R. R., not yet completed 
between Middletown and Willimantic, is intended to form 
a very direct route between New York and Boston, known 
as the Air-Line route. The Connecticut Western has a 
general N. W. course from Hartford through Litchfield co., 
connecting with the Naugatuck, Housatonic, and Harlem 
R. Rs. The remaining railroads, except some short 
branches, traverse the valleys from S. to N., and the State 
is very thoroughly gridironed with railways. Telegraphic 
wires run along all the railroad routes, and in some in¬ 
stances connect with towns on other highways. 

Finances .—The valuation (called in this State the “ grand 
list”) for purposes of taxation amounted for the year Oct., 
1872-73, to $348,855,457. The true valuation of the State, 
according to the census of 1870, was $774,631,524. The 
taxation of the State for the year ending Mar. 30, 1874, 
was estimated at $2,072,510, of which the State tax proper 
(on real and personal estate) was $697,710, the remainder 
being made up from the dues from savings banks, railroads, 
insurance and express companies, interest, commutation 
tax, etc. The State debt outstanding April, 1873, was 
$5,095,900, and there were funds on hand to retire $500,000 
of the State bonds. The amount of interest paid on State 
bonds was $333,402. The amount of revenue received from 
all sources during the year ending April 1, 1873, was 
$2,054,465.24, and there was a balance in the treasury 
from the previous year of $716,345.40. The expenditures 
for all purposes, including the purchase and destruction of 
$673,400 of the State bonds, was $2,201,073.50. Besides 
the State debt, which will probably be extinguished within 
ten years, there were in 1870 town, city, and borough 


f Under-estimated. 


































debts, for which bonds had been issued, to the amount of 
$6,837,417, and debts not bonded of $2,969,486, as well as 
$6108 of county indebtedness; making the entire debts of 
the smaller incorporated communities $9,816,006. The State 
has little or no direct foreign commerce ; there are indeed 
a lew vessels which run to the West Indies, in connection 
with a coasting-trade, and some whale-ships (though the 
number is decreasing every year) from the ports of New 
London, Mystic, and Stonington. The cod and mackerel 
fisheries, on the coast of the British provinces, are also con¬ 
ducted in part from the sound ports. The internal trade 
and commerce of the State is very large. Being readily 
accessible, and with but a few hours’ travel to New York 
and its suburban cities, as well as to Boston and its su¬ 
burbs, the agricultural, horticultural, manufacturing, fish¬ 
ery, and quarried products of the State find a good and 
quick market. Its numerous banks, savings banks, life, 
fire, and accident insurance companies also promote its in¬ 
ternal commerce, and have conspired to render it, in pro¬ 
portion to its population and territory, one of the richest 
of the States, if not the richest State in the Union. 

Banks .—In proportion to its extent and population Con¬ 
necticut has been more largely engaged in banking than 
perhaps any other State in the Union. For many years 
she supplied the West very largely with currency for mov¬ 
ing its crops to market. The changes resulting from the 
establishment of the national banking system, and the or¬ 
ganization of national banks in most of the Western cities 
and towns, have led to the abandonment of much of this 
business, but the principal banks of the State, as well as 
the private bankers, still do a large foreign business. 
There were on the 1st of April, 1873, 80 national banks 
in the State, having an aggregate capital of $27,000,000 ; 
4 State banks of discount, with a capital of $1,450,000 ; 11 
trust companies with power of discounting, having an ag¬ 
gregate capital of $2,263,890, and deposits to the amount 
of $2,869,406.19. There were also 78 savings banks, with 
assets amounting to $71,271,394.10, and 17 private banking 
houses, some of them with large capital. Thus, the capital 
on hand for banking purposes, aside from the deposits in 
the national and State banks, and the capital and deposits 
of the private bankers, was over $100,000,000. 

Insurance .—Both life and fire insurance, and of late years 
accident insurance also, have formed an important portion 
of the business of the State. There were in July, 1873, 29 
fire insurance companies incorporated by the State, and 
agencies of 63 companies incorporated by other States, and 
of 8 foreign companies. Of the 29 Connecticut fire and ma¬ 
rine insurance companies, 13 were joint-stock companies, 
including one steam-boiler inspection and insurance com¬ 
pany, having a paid-up capital of $5,812,000, subse¬ 
quently increased to $7,062,000. The gross assets were 
$12,650,000, and the liabilities, not including capital, 
were $6,761,013.57. The gross amount of risks in force 
in these companies was $702,014,478, and of premiums 
received thereon, $8,459,184.53. To these sums respect¬ 
ively must be added $1,464,333 of risks on marine and in¬ 
land business, and $46,133.83 of premiums thereon. The 
mutual fire insurance companies, 16 in number, had cash 
assets to the amount of $620,694.39, and had about 
$63,000,000 of risks in force at the beginning of 1873. 
There were in the State July 1, 1873, 8 life and 2 acci¬ 
dent insurance companies, having a paid-up capital of 
$2,069,864, and assets amounting to $80,090,576. The net 
amount of outstanding insurance pn Jan. 1, 1873, Avas 
$461,019,045, of which $73,836,241 was insured in 1872. 
One of these companies (the Connecticut Mutual) is, with 
one exception, the largest life insurance company in the 
U. S. 23 life insurance companies from other States also 
did business in the State. 

Population .—The growth of the State in population has not 
been as rapid as that of some of the Western and Southern 
States, owing to the limited extent of its territory and the 
constant emigration of its citizens to other regions. Ac¬ 
cording to the census of 1870, there were living, in that 
year, 137,000 citizens of other States who were born in Con¬ 
necticut, and the entire number who in the past eighty 
years had migrated to other States exceeds the present 
population of the State. In 1790 Connecticut had a popu¬ 
lation of 237,946; in 1800, 251,002; in 1810, 261,942 ; in 
1820, 275,148; in 1830, 297,635; in 1840, 309,978 ; in 1850, 
370,792; in 1860, 460,147; in 1870, 537,454. The density 
of the population to the square mile is 113.1. Of the en¬ 
tire population in 1870, 265,270 were males, 272,184 fe¬ 
males. The whole number born in the State or in the 
U. S. was 423,815 (of whom 350,498 were born in the State) ; 
of these, 207,014 were males and 216,801 females; 113,639 
were of foreign birth, of whom 58,256 were males and 
55,383 were females. Of the foreign-born population, 
87,157 were from Great Britain and Ireland, 12,443 from 
Germany, 10,861 from British America (mostly Canadian 


French), 821 from France, 492 from Switzerland, 511 from 
Sweden, Nonvay, and Denmark, 117 from Italy, 191 from 
the West Indies, 154 from Austria, 99 from Holland, 95 
from Bohemia, 83 from Poland. 

Education. —The State has a high reputation for the ex¬ 
cellence of its facilities for education. It has for its public 
schools a school fund having a capital of $2,043,375.62, and 
yielding an annual income of $132,943; a town deposit 
fund of $763,661.83, yielding an income of $45,712.80; and 
an annual income from local funds of $11,348.05. The 
State treasury pays the annual sum of fifty cents per head 
for the children of school age towards the support of public 
schools, amounting in 1873 to $66,472; the to\\ms raised by 
school-tax in 1873, $642,194.11, and the districts, $485,525.56, 
while from voluntary contributions and other sources 
$60,268.49 more Avere added, making $1,442,669.01 re¬ 
ceived for the public schools during the year, Avhile 
$1,528,440.07 Avas expended, of which $384,230.11 Avas for 
new school-houses and repairs, and $888,871.89 for teachers’ 
wages. The number of children between four and sixteen 
years of age in the State in Jan., 1873, Avas 132,943, and 
the total cost of education annually per head $10.95. The 
number of different scholars registered during the year 
was 114,805 ; the number of children in other than public 
schools Avas 9029. The average attendance in the public 
schools in Avinter was 67,559; in summer, 58,113. The av¬ 
erage wages per month of male teachers Avas $67.01; of 
female teachers, $34.09. The number of school districts in 
the State in 1873 Avas 1521; of public schools, 1638; of 
departments in public schools, 2348, of school-houses, 1647; 
of graded schools, 232. The average duration of the schools 
in months and days was eight months and three days. 
There is a State normal school at NeAv Britain, which has 
7 instructors, 185 students, and graduated 37 teachers in 
the year 1872-73. Its annual expenditure is about $12,000. 
SeA^en teachers’ institutes Avere held in the State in 1872-73, 
with an average attendance at each of 113 teachers ; usually, 
nine are held; the expense is about $3000 per annum. 
There are in the State, according to the census of 1870, 
265 priA T ate schools and schools of secondary instruction, 
including under this head boarding-schools, female semi¬ 
naries, institutes, collegiate and rectory schools, etc. In 
these there arc 430 teachers and instructors, 140 males and 
290 females; 7292 pupils, 3755 males and 3537 females; 
and endoAvments and tuition sufficient to give them an an¬ 
nual income of $164,220. There are also 6 parochial 
schools, with 5 male and 28 female teachers, with 1539 pu¬ 
pils (793 males and 746 females), the income of which is 
not reported. There are three colleges in the State: 1, Yale 
College at New Haven, founded in 1701, which is really a 
university in the German sense, having, in addition to its 
classical course, faculties and schools of theology, law, and 
medicine, an admirable scientific school with a large corps 
of professors, a school of art, and a school of agriculture. 
It had in the classical course, in 1873-74, 512 students; in 
the theological seminary, 101; in the law school, 46; in the 
medical school, 32; in the Sheffield Scientific School, 242; 
and in the art school and as resident graduates, 70 ; 
making a total of 955 students and 82 professors and 
other instructors. 2, Trinity (formerly Washington) Col¬ 
lege at Hartford, founded in 1823, and now entering, in its 
fiftieth year, upon a career of great activity and usefulness 
from its ucav site, its ample endowments, and facilities. In 
1873 it had 89 students and about 20 professors and in¬ 
structors. 3, Wesleyan University at Middletown, founded 
in 1831, and noAV also liberally endowed. In 1872-73 it 
had 189 students and 15 or 16 professors and instructors. 
These three colleges are respectively under the care of the 
Congregationalists, the Episcopalians, and the Methodists. 
There are in connection Avith the Wesleyan University and 
Trinity College the nuclei for post-graduate courses Avhich 
Avill probably develop into scientific schools. There is at 
Hartford a theological seminary, also belonging to the 
Congregationalists, called the Theological Institute of Con¬ 
necticut, Avhich has 5 professors and 29 students; and at 
MiddletoAvn the Berkeley Divinity School, under the con¬ 
trol of the Episcopal Church, having 4 professors and 31 
students. The Baptists have a large and flourishing col¬ 
legiate institute at Suffiold, with a full corps of teachers and 
pupils of both sexes. Of schools of special instruction 
there are 3 in the State. The American Asylum for the 
Deaf and Dumb at Hartford is the oldest institution of its 
class in this country, and the mother of all the others. It 
was founded in 1817 by Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet, and 
has 25 instructors and other officers, and an aA r erage annual 
attendance of about 230 pupils, and a total attendance 
during the year of 280. Of these, 60 Avere from Connecticut, 
the remainder from other States. The course of instruc¬ 
tion includes a high class, Avith a course nearly analogous 
to that of the first two years in our colleges, though Avith 
a smaller measure of classical instruction. I he Avhole term 



























1118 CONNECTICUT. 


of instruction, including this class, is seven years. There 
is also a home school for deaf-mutes at Ledyard, in charge 
of Mr. Z. C. Whipple, where these children are taught ar¬ 
ticulation by a process invented by Mr. Whipple; this 
school is yet small in numbers. The blind persons of 
school age in the State are provided for at the Perkins In¬ 
stitution and Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind in Bos¬ 
ton. The annual appropriation is $6000, but it is not all 
called for. The usual number of pupils is about 25. There 
is a school for imbeciles and idiots at Lakeville, Salisbury, 
Litchfield co., which is aided by the State. It had 61 
pupils in 1872-73, and has been very successful in develop¬ 
ing the dormant intellects of these unfortunate children. 
There are also two reformatory schools, established by the 
State. The State Reform School at Meriden has been in 
existence for many years, and is in a prosperous condition. 
It had in Mar., 1873,301 boys under instruction and train¬ 
ing, 160 having been discharged and 147 received during 
the year. The Connecticut Industrial School for Girls at 
Middletown was opened in 1870. It had on April 1, 1873, 
75 girls remaining in the institution; 34 had been dis¬ 
missed during the year, and the same number received. 
There are in the State two hospitals for the insane : the 
General Hospital for the Insane at Middletown, which had 
in the year ending Mar. 31, 1873, 336 patients, an average 
residence of 265, and at the close of the year 271; and the 
Insane Retreat at Hartford, an incorporated institution, 
but largely aided by the State, which had nearly as many 
patients. 

Libraries. —The public libraries of the State are some of 
them very .large and of great value. In the ninth census 
no report was made of private libraries in the State, though 
some of them are known to be of great extent and value. 
Of the 63 public libraries reported by the census marshals, 
and containing in the aggregate 285,937 volumes, are the 
State Library with 12,000 volumes; the library (or rather 
libraries) of Yale College, containing 101,000 volumes, and 
forming the most valuable collection in the State; the 
library of Wesleyan University, containing nearly 30,000 
volumes; that of Trinity College, about 15,000 volumes; 
the Watkinson Library of Reference and the Connecticut 
Historical Society’s library, containing together about 
37,000 volumes; the Silas Bronson Library at Waterbury, 
with 15,000 volumes; Otis Library at Norwich, with 7500 
volumes ; the library of the Theological Institute at Hart¬ 
ford, about 8000 volumes; the Young Men’s Institute Li¬ 
brary at Hartford, with 23,000 volumes; the New Haven 
Young Men's Institute Library, with 11,000 volumes; the 
New Britain Institute, with 5000 volumes, etc. Of the pri¬ 
vate libraries, the most remarkable are—the very large 
library of Mr. George Brinley of Hartford, devoted exclu¬ 
sively to American local and general history, and more com¬ 
plete on this subject probably than any other in the U. S.; 
the library of lion. Henry Barnard, also of Hartford, mostly 
devoted to educational topics, and more complete on that 
subject than any other, public or private; the library of 
Hon. J. Hammond Trumbull, also of Hartford, on Indian 
languages and literature; those of President Porter, of Ex- 
President Woolsey, and of Prof. E. E. Salisbury, all of New 
Haven, the last being very full on all Oriental languages 
and science, etc. 

Neicspapers. —In 1870 Connecticut had 71 newspapers of 
all classes, having an aggregate circulation of 203,725 copies, 
and issuing annually 17,454,740 copies. Of these, 16 were 
daily, having a circulation of 35,730 ; one was semi-weekly, 
with a circulation of 800 ; 43 were weekly, with a circula¬ 
tion of 107,395; 2 were semi-monthly, with 900 circulation ; 
7 were monthly, with 56,400 circulation ; 1 bi-monthly, 
with 1150 circulation; 1 quarterly, with 1350. The daily 
papers are, we believe, without exception, political; of the 
weeklies, 5 are religious, 10 or 12 literary, and the re¬ 
mainder political or miscellaneous; the monthlies are re¬ 
ligious, scientific, and literary; the bi-monthly is theolog¬ 
ical and literary; the quarterly scientific. 

Churches. —The census of 1870 reports 826 church organi¬ 
zations of all denominations, 902 church edifices, with 
338,735 sittings, and $13,428,100 of church property. Of the 
Baptists, the census reports 116 churches, 120 edifices, 
45,150 sittings, and $1,378,400 worth of church property. 
The Baptist “ Year-Book ” for 1873 gives 118 churches, 123 
ordained ministers, 19,590 members, 108 Sunday schools, 
with 1613 teachers, 13,835 scholars, and 16,555 volumes in 
libraries. The contributions to benevolent objects, exclu¬ 
sive of the support of the churches, pastors, and Sunday 
schools, were$15S,585.80 ; inclusive of these, about$290,000. 
Of the Christians in 1870, there were 4 churches, 4 church 
edifices, 750 sittings, and $6500 church property. Of the 
Congregationalists, the census reported 290 organizations, 
360 church edifices, 133,175 sittings, $4,728,700 worth of 
church property. The “ Congregational Quarterly” in 
Jan., 1873, reported 294 churches, 355 ministers, of whom 


241 are engaged in pastoral work, 49,524 members, 49,952 
scholars in Sabbath schools; benevolent contributions, 
$300,622.05, besides $183,093.69 of charitable legacies. 
Add expenses of home support, and the total would be 
about $833,000. The Episcopal Church, according to the 
census, had 139 parishes, 147 church edifices, 50,962 sit¬ 
tings, and $3,275,534 of church property. The “ Connect¬ 
icut Register” and the “ Episcopal Almanac” for 1873 give 
144 parishes, 174 clergymen, 11,046 families adherent, 
15,969 communicants, 1595 Sunday-school teachers, 11,236 
Sunday-school scholars, $326,513.84 of benevolent contri¬ 
butions, with home expenses about $475,000. The Friends 
have 2 organizations and 3 meeting-houses, with 350 sit¬ 
tings and $1500 of church property. The Lutherans in 
1870 had 4 churches, 3 church edifices, 1240 sittings, and 
$23,500 of church property. The Methodist Episcopal 
Church in 1870 had 184 churches, 188 church edifices, 
63,975 sittings, and $1,834,025 of church property. Accord¬ 
ing to the “ Conference Minutes” for 1873, there were 204 
churches, 185 travelling and 135 local preachers, 21,308 
members in full connection, 2193 probationers, $1,893,050 
of church property, $22,097 of benevolent contributions, 
outside of church, ministerial, and Sunday-school support, 
or with these about $230,000; there were 170 Sunday 
schools, with 2837 teachers and 17,584 scholars. There 
are also 2 Protestant Methodist and 7 African Methodist 
churches in the State. The Presbyterian Church in 1870 had 
7 churches, 10 church edifices, 3875 sittings, and church prop¬ 
erty valued at $195,300. In 1873 there were 16 churches and 
27 ministers of that denomination, of whom 16 were pas¬ 
tors. In 1870 there were 1 Reformed (Hutch) and 1 Re¬ 
formed (German) church in the State. In 1870 the census 
reported the Roman Catholics as having 44 parishes, 34 
church edifices, 26,418 sittings, and property valued at 
$1,429,500. In 1873 Sadlier's “ Catholic Directory” reports 
76 churches, besides 9 more building, 60 chapels and out- 
stations. The diocese of Hartford comprises the whole 
State, and is governed by a bishop, assisted by a vicar- 
general. A cathedral is building at Hartford, and there 
are convents and monasteries. There are also 77 priests, 1 
male and 9 female academies, 18 male and 19 female free 
parochial schools, with 8000 pupils, 3 orphan asylums, with 
150 orphans, and an adherent population (somewhat exagge¬ 
rated) of 140,000 persons. In 1870 there were 7 Second Ad¬ 
vent churches and the same number of church edifices, with 
1380 sittings, and church property valued at $8700. There is 
1 Unitarian congregation, with a church edifice having 225 
sittings, and church property worth $6000. The Univer- 
salists have 18 congregations, 15 church edifices, 17 minis¬ 
ters ; the church edifices have 6850 sittings, and the church 
property is valued at $309,100. The Jews have 4 synagogues 
and 5 rabbis; the number of sittings must exceed 2000, and 
the value of the p'roperty is hardly less than $120,000. 

Constitution .—The present constitution of the State was 
adopted in 1818, the State having previously been under 
the charter granted by Charles II. in 1662. Repeated 
efforts have been made to call a constitutional convention 
for the revision of the constitution or the formation of a 
new one, but these efforts have not as yet proved successful. 
The constitution provides for perfect freedom of religious 
worship; for the promotion of education and the various 
interests of the State; for a legislature in two branches, 
each town to be represented by one or two representatives 
in the house of representatives, such representatives to be 
chosen annually; the senate to be composed of not less 
than 18 nor more than 24 members, to be chosen annuall} 7 , 
one from each senatorial district (the number of districts 
is now 21); the election for both senators and represent¬ 
atives, as well as for the governor, lieutenant-governor, 
secretary of state, treasurer, and comptroller (all of whom 
are chosen annually), is held on the first Monday in April, 
and they assume office on the first Wednesday in May. The 
house of representatives has nearly 250 members. The 
commissioner of the school fund, the State librarian, and 
the board of education are appointed by the legislature, 
the last in classes, having four years to serve. The secretary 
of the board of education is chosen by that board. Every 
male citizen of the U. S. who shall have attained the age 
of twenty-one years, who shall have resided in the State for 
one year and in the town where he offers to vote six months, 
and who is able to read any article of the constitution, is 
entitled to the privileges of an elector upon taking the oath 
prescribed by law. Convicts, idiots, and imbeciles are ex¬ 
cluded from these privileges. The judiciary of the State 
consists of the supreme court of errors, consisting of one 
chief-justice and three or four associate judges, who shall 
also be judges of the superior court; of a superior court, 
over which the chief-justice and his associate judges pre¬ 
side, together with six other superior court judges, who 
are eligible for promotion to be judges cf the supreme 
court. These arc all chosen for a term of eight years, and 


















CONNECTICUT. 


1119 


are eligible for re-election, but by the constitution they are 
disqualified trom further service when they reach the age 
of seventy years. There are now also in the counties of 
Hartford, New Haven, New London, and Fairfield courts 
of common pleas, each presided over by a single judge. 
The supreme court is the court of final appeal, and has 
jurisdiction over all matters brought to it from the lower 
courts on writs of error. The superior court has cogni¬ 
zance of all causes, civil and criminal, which are brought 
before it by suit, appeal, writ of error, scire facias, com¬ 
plaint, petition, or otherwise, according to law, and may 
try the same by jury or otherwise, as the law may require, 
and proceed therein to judgment and execution ; but in all 
criminal trials punishable by death the court must consist 
of at least two judges, one of whom must be a judge of the 
supreme court. The courts of common pleas have concur¬ 
rent jurisdiction with the superior court in regard to smaller 
offences and civil actions up to a certain limit, being created 
to relieve the superior court from too great a pressure of 
small causes. Connected with this subject of the judiciary 
are the criminal statistics of the State. The State prison 
at Wethersfield has an average of 180 prisoners. The 
buildings are old and somewhat incommodious, but the 
general management of the prison is good, though stern. 
The prison is somewhat more than self-supporting, so far 
as ordinary expenses go, the excess of earnings over or¬ 
dinary expenses being $3430 in 1872-73. There are ten jails 
in the State, two each in the counties of New London and 
Fairfield, and one in each of the other counties. To these 
jails there were committed in the year ending Mar. 31,1873, 
2954 persons—viz. 2358 white males, 425 white females, 
140 colored males and 31 colored females. Of these, 424 
males and 63 females were minors ; 759 were natives of this 
State, 584 natives of other States, and 1611 of foreign 
birth; 239 were strictly temperate, 1598 were reported as 
moderate drinkers, and 1120 as habitually intemperate. 
Of the whole number, 455 were committed for offences 
against the person, 565 for offences against property, and 
1934 for offences against society. 

Representation in Congress.— The State has four repre¬ 
sentatives in Congress, each congressional distinct consist¬ 
ing of two counties—viz. first district, Hartford and Tol¬ 
land counties ; second, New Haven and Middlesex ; third, 
New London and Windham; fourth, Fairfield and Litch¬ 
field. 

Counties .—There are eight counties in the State. Their 
names and population in 1860 and 1870 were as follows: 


Counties. 

Pop. in 1860. 

Pop. in 1870. 

Hartford.’. 

80,962 

109,159 

121,382 

66,688 

Np.w Ha.ven. 

97,345 

61,731 

77,476 

47,318 

34,747 

30,859 

"Mew Hendon. 

. 

95,370 

T.itoh field. 

48,732 

'Windlia.m . 

38,535 

36,117 

22,015 

TVTi d d 1 esft'v. 

Tolland. 

.21,709 


Principal Towns and Cities. —There are nine cities in the 
State. Of these, seven have a population of more than 
10,000 inhabitants—viz. New Haven, 50,886 ; Hartford, 
37,825; Bridgeport, 19,876; Norwich, 16,653; Waterbury, 
13,148; Middletown, 11,143; Meriden, 10,521; while New 
London has 9580 and N6w Britain, 9480. The town of 
Norwalk has 12,122 inhabitants. The following towns 
have a population above 5000 : Stamford, 9138; Danbury, 
8754; Derby, 8027; Greenwich, 7672; Enfield, 6322; Ston- 
ington, 6320; Killingly, 5712; Fairfield, 5642; Vernon, 
5447; Windham, 5413; Groton, 5119. 

History. —The territory now embraced in the State of 
Connecticut, as well as the eastern part of Long Island, was 
first explored by the Dutch from the neighboring colony 
of New Netherlands, who laid claim to it, before 1620, but 
made no settlement within its limits till 1633. The first 
English patent to the New England proprietors was grant¬ 
ed Nov. 3, 1620, by James I., and included all the territory 
between 40° and 48° N. lat., and extended from the Atlan¬ 
tic Ocean to the Great South Sea. The patent of Connec¬ 
ticut, granted in Mar., 1631, by the council of Plymouth, 
embraced “ all that part of New England in America extend¬ 
ing in breadth 120 miles, as the coast lieth, from the Narra- 
gansett River towards Virginia, and in longitude from the 
Western Ocean to the South Sea.” This grant did not de¬ 
fine the northern boundary of the prospective colony, but 
that defect was remedied by the patent ot Massachusetts, 
which made their S. boundary a due W. line three miles S. 
from every part of the Charles River. The same year (1631) 
an Indian chief who was sachem of the region along the 
Connecticut River sent messengers to Gov. Winthrop of 
the Massachusetts Colony, and to Gov. Winslow of the 
Plymouth Colony, inviting them to come and settle or send 


emigrants to the Connecticut Valley. The invitation was 
not immediately accepted, but the following year an explor- 
ing-party from Plymouth ascended the Connecticut River 
as far as the mouth of the Tunxis River at Windsor, and 
there fixed upon a site for a settlement. The first trading- 
house and fort in the State was erected by the Dutch, at 
what is now known as Dutch Point in Hartford, June 8, 
1633, Jacob van Curler, the agent of Wouter van Twiller, 
the Dutch governor of the New Netherlands, having pur¬ 
chased the land of Sassacus, sachem of the Pequots, and 
landed on that day at the point with a small company of 
Dutch soldiers. The trading-house and fort which he 
erected was called the House of Hope, and was held by the 
Dutch for several years, but was finally sold to the English 
colonists. The same year (1633), somewhat later in the 
season, a party from Plymouth, under command of Capt. 
William Holmes, sailed up the Connecticut River with a 
load of timber to build their trading-house at the mouth of 
the Tunxis, the site selected by them the previous year. 
The Dutch opposed their passage, and threatened to fire 
upon them; but after a short parley they sailed on past the 
House of Hope to their destination. Neither of these es¬ 
tablishments, however, merits the name of colony, though 
the trading-house at the mouth of the Tunxis was the nu¬ 
cleus around which the Windsor colony subsequently gather¬ 
ed. The first permanent settlement of colonists was made 
at Wethersfield in the autumn of 1634, by a party of emi¬ 
grants from Watertown, Mass. These emigrants suffered 
terrible hardships, and nearly perished in the cold and 
severe winter of 1634—35. Some additions were made to 
their number in 1635, and in 1636 colonies migrated from 
Watertown, Dorchester, and Newtown (afterwards Cam¬ 
bridge), Mass., and established themselves at Wethersfield, 
Windsor, and Hartford. At the close of that year there 
were about 750 inhabitants in the three towns. In 1635 a 
landing was made by a party under John Winthrop, Jr., at 
Saybrook, and the next year a good fort erected and a gar¬ 
rison stationed there. There was no permanent settlement, 
however, until 1639. The three towns, Wethersfield, Hart¬ 
ford, and Windsor, were for one year under the government 
of Massachusetts, but in 1637 organized an independent 
government, and immediately declared war against the Pe- 
quot tribe of Indians, who had murdered without provoca¬ 
tion about thirty of the settlers. They were promised as¬ 
sistance from Massachusetts, but could not wait for it, and 
a force of ninety men, under command of Capt. John 
Mason, sailed from Hartford for Narragansett Bay on the 
20th of May, 1637, and with the doubtful aid of some In¬ 
dian allies, who were in great terror of the invincible Sas¬ 
sacus, attacked and destroyed the Pequot fort, and, killing 
400 or more of the Indian warriors, completely broke up 
the tribe. In 1638 the first settlement was made at Quin- 
nipiack (now New Haven) by a company of wealthy English 
people, under the leadership of Rev. John Davenport and 
Theophilus Eaton, afterwards governor of the colony. This 
settlement, with the adjacent towns, Milford, Guilford, etc., 
remained a separate colony until 1665, when it was united 
with Connecticut under the charter of 1662. The Saybrook 
colony was united with Connecticut in 1644, and before 
1653 there were flourishing settlements at Farmington, 
New London, Middletown, Norwalk, Branford, and one or 
two other points, as well as two considerable towns, East 
Hampton and South Hampton, on Long Island, which be¬ 
longed to their jurisdiction. For nearly thirty years they 
lived under a constitution of their own framing, a perfect¬ 
ly independent people. After the restoration of Charles 
II. to the throne of Great Britain there came a necessity 
for a royal charter, and John Winthrop, Jr., very adroitly 
succeeded in persuading the monarch in one of his most 
amiable moods to put his hand to the charter of 1662, which 
embodied most of the privileges of their previous constitu¬ 
tion. The charter included the New Haven colony, to which 
they objected, and they were not formally united with the 
Connecticut colony until 1665, when the fear of invasion by 
the Dutch led them to consent to a union. In 1685-87 a 
strenuous effort was made by James II. to abrogate all the 
New England charters, and place all the colonies under one 
government, with a royal governor appointed by the Crown. 
The demand was made for the charter of the Connecticut 
colony by Sir Edmund Andros, the royal governor, in per¬ 
son, in Oct., 1687; but after some debate in the general 
court or colonial legislature at the evening session, the lights 
were suddenly extinguished, and the charter conveyed away 
secretly, and hidden in the hollow of an ancient oak on the 
Wyllys estate, subsequently known as “ the Charter Oak. 
Sir Edmund Andros took possession of the government, 
and ruled very oppressively for a year and a half; but on 
his deposition after the fall of James II. the old charter 
was again recognized as the supreme law of the colony, 
and continued in force for 129 years thereafter.. The general 
court or colonial legislature, which had judicial as well as 







































CONNELLSVILLE—CONO. 


1120 


legislative and executive functions, held two annual ses¬ 
sions—one in May, the other in October. From 1G65 to 
1701 both sessions were held in Hartford, but in the latter 
year it was ordered that the May session should be held 
in Hartford and the October session in New Haven. When, 
by tho adoption of the constitution in 1818, it was ordered 
that there should bo but one session of the legislature an¬ 
nually, it was agreed that it should meet the even years at 
New Haven and the odd years at Hartford; and this ar¬ 
rangement is still continued, though by vote of the State 
in 1873, Hartford is to be tho sole capital after 1874. 

During the first and second French wars the colony of 
Connecticut was very prompt to send her full quota of sol¬ 
diers to the British and colonial armies, and in the Revo¬ 
lutionary war, she furnished more men in proportion to her 
population, and more aid in proportion to her wealth, than 
any other colony. Twenty days before the Declaration of 
Independence the general assembly of Connecticut in¬ 
structed their delegates in the Continental Congress to pro¬ 
pose to that body “ to declare the united American colonies 
free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance 
to the king of Great Britain.” Governor Jonathan Trum¬ 
bull (“Brother Jonathan”) was perhaps the most wise and 
efficient of Washington’s counsellors during the war. The 
State was the fifth of the States of the Union to adopt and 
ratify the Constitution of the U. S., performing that act 
Jan. 9, 1788. The events which preceded the war of 1812 
were very destructive to the commercial interests of the 
State, which was at the time very largely engaged in the 
West India and the coasting trade, as well as in the fisher¬ 
ies, and many of her wealthiest citizens were ruined by the 
embargo and other acts and the Berlin and Milan Decrees 
of Napoleon. The State, however, furnished its full quota 
of men and means for the war, and did its whole duty. In 
Dec., 1814, a convention of delegates from the several New 
England States—all of which had suffered very heavily 
from the war in their commerce—met at Hartford to take 
into consideration the condition of public affaii’S and pre¬ 
pare a statement of their grievances. The convention was 
composed of the ablest and best citizens of those States, and 
entertained no disloyal purpose, but the speedy conclusion 
of the war made any subsequent action on their part un¬ 
necessary. In 1818 the State adopted its present constitu¬ 
tion, by which all relics of slavery and of a State Church 
were abolished. This constitution was at the time of its 
passage one of remarkable liberality and wisdom. It now 
needs modification in regard to the basis of representa¬ 
tion, and perhaps some other minor matters. The State, 
as we have seen, by its charter could claim a strip of land 
nearly sixty miles in breadth to the Pacific Ocean, but as 
this claim interfered with that of other States, an amicable 
settlement was made, the State only retaining a tract of 
land in Central and Western New York, and one in North¬ 
eastern Ohio. The avails of these lands, which were sold 
on the most liberal terms, were by the State consecrated to 
the support of public schools, and form the basis of her 
present school fund. Since 1818 the State has been gen¬ 
erally prosperous and peaceful. She took an active part in 
the war of 1861-65, and sent her full quota of men into 
the field, as thoroughly equipped and supplied with all 
that was needful to their efficiency as those of any State 
in the Union. Her soldiers were distinguished on all the 
battle-fields of the war, and her war-governor, Bucking¬ 
ham, was one of the President’s most trusted counsellors. 
Politically, the State is very equally balanced between the 
Democratic and Republican parties, and her legislation is 
in consequence more cautious and honest than it would be 
if either party were largely in the ascendency. 

The arms of the State are three vines in fruit, two and 
one, all proper. The motto is Qui transtulit sustinct — 
“He who transplanted will sustain.” 

Governors of the State. 


Election 

Year. 

Candidates for President and Vice-President. 

Electoral 

Votes. 

1788 

Washington and Adams. 

7 and 5 

U 

Samuel Huntington of Conn, for Y. P. 

2 

1792 

Washington and Adams. 

9 

1796 

Adams and T. Pinckney of South Carolina... 

9 and 4 

U 

John Jay of New York for Y. P. 

5 

1800 

Adams and C. C. Pinckney of South Carolina 

9 

1804 

C. C. Pinkney and R. King of New York. 

9 

1808 

C. C. Pinckney and R. King. 

9 

1812 

D. W. Clinton and J. Ingersoll of Pa. 

9 

1816 

Rufus King and J. Ross of Pa. 

9 and 5 

U 

John Marshall of Virginia for V. P. 

4 

1820 

James Monroe and D. D. Tompkins. 

9 

1824 

J. Q. Adams and Andrew Jackson.... 

8 

1828 

J. Q. Adams and Richard Rush of Pa. 

8 

1832 

Henry Clay and John Sergeant of Pa. 

8 

1836 

M. Van Buren and R. M. Johnson. 

8 

1840 

W. H. Harrison and John Tyler of Virginia. 

8 

1844 

Henry Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen. 

6 

1848 

Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore. 

6 

1852 

Franklin Pierce and William R. King. 

6 

1856 

J. C. Fremont and W. L. Dayton. 

6 

1860 

Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin. 

6 

1864 

A. Lincoln and A. Johnson. 

6 

1868 

U. S. Grant and S. Colfax. 

6 

1872 

U. S. Grant and H. Wilson. 

6 


Popular vote for President from 1824 to 1872. 


Election 

Year. 

Candidates. 

Majority 

Vote. 

Minority. 

1824 

Adams and Crawford. 

- 7,587 
13,829 
17,755 

1 978 

1828 

Adams and Jackson. 

4,448 

11,269 

18 466 

1832 

Clay and Jackson. 

1836 

Van Buren, Harrison, etc. 

19,234 

31,601 

1840 

Harrison and Van Buren. 

25’296 

Birnev. 

174 

31,784 

27,046 

5,005 

30,357 

3,160 

34,995 

2,615 

15,522 

3,291 

42 285 

1844 

Clay and Polk and Birney. 

32,832 

30,314 

1848 

Taylor and Cass. 

Van Buren. 

1852 

Pierce and Scott. 

33 249 

Hale. 


1856 

Fremont and Buchanan. 

42,715 

Fillmore. 

1860 

Lincoln and Douglas. 

43,692 

14,641 

44,691 

50,995 

50,638 

Breckinridge and Bell... 

1864 

Lincoln and McClellan. 

1868 

Grant and Sevmour. 

47,952 

45,880 

1872 

Grant and Greeley. 



L. P. Brockett. 

Con'nellsville, a post-borough of Fayette co., Pa., on 
the Youghiogheny River and on the Pittsburg Washington 
and Baltimore R. R., 57 miles S. S. E. of Pittsburg. It has 
a paper-mill and a woollen factory. It has also extensive 
mines of bituminous coal, and manufactures immense 
quantities of coke, which is called the best in the world. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1292; of the town¬ 
ship, exclusive of the borough, 1163. 

Con'ner (David), born at Harrisburg, Pa., in 1792, en¬ 
tered the U. S. navy as midshipman in 1809, served Avitli 
great honor in the Avar of 1812-15, and in the Mexican war 
as commodore. Died at Philadelphia Mar. 20, 1856. 

Con'nersville, a post-village, capital of Fayette co., 
Ind., on the Whitewater River and on the Fort Wayno 
Muncie and Cincinnati R. R., 67 miles N. W. of Cincin¬ 
nati. It has a fine court-house, seven churches, one na¬ 
tional bank, and one Avoollen factory. It is on the Cincin¬ 
nati and Indianapolis Junction R. R. It has two Avcekly 
newspapers. Pop. 2496; of township, 1211. 

Coimoquenes'sing, a township of Butler co., Pa. 
Pop. 1051. 

Con'iior, called also Gilt-head or Golden Maid, 


Samuel Huntington. 1785-96 

Oliver Wolcott. 1796-98 

Jonathan Trumbull.. 1798-1809 

John TreadAvcll . 1809-11 

Roger GrisAvold. 1811-13 

John Cotton Smith. 1813-18 

Oliver Wolcott. 1818-27 

Gideon Tomlinson. 1827-31 

John S. Peters. 1831-33 

Henry W. Edwards. 1833-34 

Samuel A. Foote. 1834-35 

Henry W. Edwards. 1835-38 

William W. Ellsworth... 1838-42 
Cliauncey F. Cleveland. 1842-44 
Roger S. Baldwin. 1844-46 


Isaac Toucey. 1846-47 

Clark Bissell. 1847-49 

Joseph Trumbull. 1849-50 

Thomas H. Seymour. 1850-53 
C. H. Pond (acting)... 1853-54 

Henry Dutton. 1854-55 

William T. Minor. 1855-57 

Alexander H. Holley 1857-58 
Wm. A. Buckingham. 1858-66 

Joseph R. Hawley. 1866-67 

James E. English. 1867-69 

Marshall Jewell. 1869-70 

James E. English. 1870-71 

Marshall Jewell. 1871-73 

Charles R. Ingersoll.. 1873- 



The following tables show the electoral votes for Presi¬ 
dent and Vice-President at each presidential election from 
1788 to 1872, and the popular vote for President at each 
election from 1824 to 1872. The record of the popular vote 
previous to 1824 is not exact: 


Connor, or Gilt-head, 

a small European marine fish, tho Crenilahrus tinea. A 
someAvhat similar fish is the Conner, blue perch, cliogset, or 
bergall of the Atlantic waters of the U. S. (Ctenolahrus 
ccemleus). It is a tolerable fish for the table, for Avhich it 
is extensively caught. 

Co'no, a toAvnship of Buchanan co., Ia. Pop. 579, 















































































































CONOCOCHEAGUE—CONSCIENCE. 


Conococheague, a post-township of Washington co., 
Md. Pop. 1402. 

Co'no-cu'neus [a compound of the Lat. conus, a 
'‘cone,” and cuneus, a “wedge”], a skew surface of the 
fourth order, generated by a line moving on two directors, 
one of which is rectilinear and perpendicular to all gener¬ 
ators, and the other is a circle usually perpendicular to the 
plane which contains its centre and the other director. The 
rectilinear director, and the line at infinity perpendicular 
to the latter, are double lines on the surface. Its equation 
is c 2 x 2 = y 2 ( a 2 — z 2 ), where a is the radius of the circular 
director, and c the distance of its centre on the axis of y 
from the rectilinear director or axis of x. This surface was 
discovered by Wallis. 

Co'noiil [Gr. jewi/oeiSr)?, “ cone-like,” from k£>vo<;, a “ cone,” 
and elSos, “ form ”], a skew surface, generated by the motion 
of a line which remains parallel to a plane, and has a rec¬ 
tilinear director. When the directing plane and line are 
perpendicular to each other, the latter is a line of striction 
on the surface. This line being taken as axis of z, the equa¬ 


tion of the surface may be reduced to the form z=/^j, 

whatever the nature of its second director. Should the 
latter be also a right line, not in the same plane with 
the first director, the conoid will be an equilateral parabo¬ 
loid. The cono-cuneus of Wallis, already described, is also 
a conoid; and another example is the skew helicoid, the 
curvilinear director of which is a helix, having the recti¬ 
linear director for its axis. The under surface of a spiral 
staircase presents a familiar illustration of this conoid. A 
conoid may be regarded as having three directors—one 
curvilinear and two rectilinear; one of the latter being at 
infinity. If the first of these directors be a curve of the 
m th order, then the order of the conoidal surface will be 
2m, and each rectilinear director will be a multiple curve on 
the conoid of the with order of multiplicity. The directing 
plane being horizontal, the lines of level on the surface will 
be the generators; the lines of greatest slope, since they 
cut the former lines perpendicularly, will be projected into 
circles on the directing plane. Formerly it was a custom 
to give the name conoid to any solid generated by the ro¬ 
tation of a conic section around one of its axes. In this 
acceptation the term is obsolete, and has been replaced by 
that of a quadric of revolution. 

Co'non, or Ko'non [K 6vu>v\, an Athenian general of 
high reputation, entered public life about 413 B. C. He 
was one of the ten generals chosen in 407, and was defeated 
by Lysander at JEgospotami in 405. He commanded the 
combined fleets of Persia and Athens which defeated the 
Spartans at Cnidos in 394 B. C. He afterwards rebuilt the 
long walls of Athens. His son Timotheus was an eminent 
commander. 


Co'non of Samos, a Greek geometer and astronomer, 
was a friend of Archimedes, who expressed in one of his 
works a high estimation of his sagacity. He lived at Alex¬ 
andria about 250 B. C. Conon invented the curve called 
the spiral of Archimedes. His works are all lost. 

Con'quest, a township and post-village of Cayuga co., 
N. Y. The village is 12 miles N. of Auburn. Total pop. 
1821. 

Conquest. See International Law, by Pres. T. D. 
Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D. 

Con'rad I., of Germany, was elected emperor in 911 
A. D. He was previously duke of Franconia. He waged 
war against Henry the Fowler and Arnulf, duke of Bavaria. 
His dominions were invaded by the Magyars. Died in 918. 

Conrad II., called tiie Salic, was a son of Henry, 
duke of Franconia. He Avas elected king of Germany in 
1024, and was crowned as emperor by the pope in 1027. 
He is said to have been a wise ruler and the author of the 
written feudal law of Germany. He died in 1039, and was 
succeeded by his son Henry III. 

Conrad III., of Germany, born in 1093, was the first 
of the Hohenstaufens and a grandson of Henry IV. He 
was elected emperor in 1138, and waged Avar against Henry 
the Proud, duke of Saxony. The party names of Guelph 
and Ghibelline originated in this Avar. In 1147 he led a 
crusade. He besieged Damascus Avithout success, and re¬ 
turned in 1149. He died in 1152, and was succeeded by 
Frederick Barbarossa. (See Gundling, “ Geschichte und 
Thaten Kayser Conrads III.,” 1720.) 

Conrad IV., son of Frederick II., emperor of Ger¬ 
many, was born in Apulia in 1228. He was croAvned king 
of the Romans in 1237, and on the death of his father in 
1250 assumed the title of emperor. He was supported by 
the Ghibellines, but the pope and the Guelphs recognized 
his competitor, William of Holland. Conrad marched into 
Italy in 1251, and took Naples. He died in 1254. 

71 


1121 


Conrad V., or Con'radin, the son and heir of Con¬ 
rad IV., was born in 1252. The kingdom of Naples Avas 
usurped by his uncle Manfred. Instigated by the pope, 
Charles of Anjou Avaged Avar against Manfred and con¬ 
quered Naples. Conrad Avas defeated and captured at Tag- 
liacozzo in 1268 by Charles, by whose order he was be¬ 
headed. 

Conrad (Charles M.), a native of Winchester, Va., was 
taken in childhood to Mississippi, and thence to Louisiana. 
In 1828 he Avas admitted to the bar, was U. S. Senator from 
Louisiana 1842-43, member of Congress 1849-50, and sec¬ 
retary of Avar 1850-53. He Avas a Confederate brigadier- 
general and member of the Congress of the Confederacy 
during the civil war. 

Conrad (Robert T.), an American dramatist and ora¬ 
tor, born in Philadelphia June 10, 1810. He studied law, 
and became a judge of the court of general sessions in 
1838. Among his Avorks are a tragedy entitled “ Aylmere,” 
which was very successful, and a volume of poems (1852). 
Ho was elected mayor of Philadelphia by the American 
party in 1854, and judge of quarter sessions in 1856. Died 
June 27, 1858. 

Conrad (Timothy Abbott), an American conchologist 
and palaeontologist, born in New Jersey in 1803. He pub¬ 
lished, besides other works, “ Fossil Shells of the Tertiary 
Formation of North America ” (1832), and wrote “ Palaeon¬ 
tology of the State of NeAV York,” Avhich was published at 
the expense of that State (1838—40). He was one of the 
naturalists employed in the geological survey of NeAv York. 

Conrad Hill, a township of Davidson co., N. C. Pop. 
1115. 

Con'ring (Hermann), a learned jurist, born at Norden, 
in East Friesland, in 1606. Among his works, Avhich are 
in Latin, is a “ Commentary on the Origin of the German 
Law” (1643). Died in 1681. 

Con'salvi (Ercole), Cardinal, an Italian statesman 
and reformer, born at Rome June 8, 1757. He became in 
1800 chief minister of Pope Pius VII., and negotiated the 
concordat with Bonaparte in 1801. He promoted art and 
learning, and was an able diplomatist. Died Jan. 24,1824. 
(See Cretineau-Joly, “Memoires du Cardinal Consalvi.”) 

Consanguinity [from the Lat. con, “with,” and san¬ 
guis, sanguinis, “blood”], in law, is relationship by blood, or 
that subsisting between persons descending from a common 
ancestor, or Avhere one descends from the other. It is either 
lineal or collateral. It is said to be lineal when one of the 
persons whose relationship is to be traced is descended from 
the other. It is said to be collateral when they are de¬ 
scended from a common ancestor, and one is not descended 
from the other. There are two principal modes of reckoning 
collateral consanguinity. One method is to count the de¬ 
grees intervening betAveen the one farthest removed from 
the common ancestor and such ancestor. Thus, the son of the 
nephew of A on that system of computation is related to A 
in the third degree, as being three removes from the com¬ 
mon ancestor, the father of A. This is the method of the 
canon and common laAV. The civil laAV reckons the degrees 
from the one relative to the other, ascending, on the one 
hand, from one of the parties to the common ancestor, and 
then counting doAvnward to the other. On that theory A 
would be related to the son of his nephew in the fourth de¬ 
gree. The civil law method is generally employed in this 
country. In reckoning lineal consanguinity the tAvo sys¬ 
tems do not differ. Thus, the father and son are related in 
the first degree, the grandfather and grandson in the sec¬ 
ond. It frequently becomes necessary to resort to these 
rules not only in considering the transmission of estates, 
but in ascertaining persons Avho are disqualified to act as 
judges or jurymen by reason of relationship. 

Con'science [Lat. conscientia, from con, intensive, and 
scio, to “know;” Ger. Getvissen], a word originally mean¬ 
ing Consciousness (Avhich see), but now applied to the 
moral sense, the poAver or feeling we have which enables us 
to know whether an act or desire is right or Avrong. (See 
Moral Philosophy, by Pres. Noah Porter, D. D., LL.D.) • 

Conscience, Cases of. See Casuistry. 

Conscience, Courts of, in England, called also 
Courts of Requests, were constituted for the recovery 
of small debts by special local acts of Parliament, in Lon¬ 
don, Westminster, and other trading districts. They were 
abolished with few exceptions when the county courts wero 
established. 

Conscience (Henri), a Flemish novelist, born at Ant¬ 
werp Dec. 3, 1812. He passed six years as a common sol¬ 
dier, and several more in poverty and in unsuccessful efforts 
to obtain employment. Ilis first work Avas “ The \ ear of 
Miracles, 1566” (1837), which was well received. In 1838 
he produced “The Lion of Flanders,” “Jakob van Arte- 















] 122 


CONSCIOUSNESS—CONSOLS. 


velde” (1849), “The Poor Gentleman” (1851), and. “ Val- 
entyn ” (1866). 

Consciousness [Lat. conscientia; Fr. conscience; 
Ger. Selbstbewusstseyn] is the state in which we are when 
all or any of our mental faculties are in exercise. It is a 
condition or accompaniment of every mental operation. 
In metaphysical terminology it signifies the knowledge 
which the mind has of its own operations. “ We not only 
feel,” says Cousin, “ but we know that we feel; we not only 
act, but we know that we act; we not only think, but we 
know that we think; to think without knowing that we 
think is as if we should not think ; and the peculiar quality, 
the fundamental attribute of thought, is to have a con¬ 
sciousness of itself. Consciousness is this interior light, 
which illuminates everything that takes place in the soul; 
consciousness is the accompaniment of all our faculties, 
and is, so to speak, their echo.” That consciousness is not 
a particular faculty of the mind, but the universal condi¬ 
tion of intelligence, the fundamental form of all the modes 
of our thinking activity, and not a special mode of that 
activity, is strenuously maintained by Amedee Jacques, and 
also by Mr. Francis Bowen and Mr. Tappan. This view 
is in accordance with the opinion of Aristotle and that of 
certain Schoolmen. “No man,” says Dr. Reid, “can per¬ 
ceive an object without being conscious that he perceives 
it. No man can think without being conscious that he 
thinks.” And as on the one hand we cannot think or feel 
without being conscious, so on the other hand we cannot 
be conscious without thinking or feeling. “ Annihilate the 
object of any mental operation, and you annihilate the 
operation.” This view of consciousness, as the common 
condition under which all our faculties are brought into 
operation, or of considering these faculties and their ope¬ 
rations as so many modifications of consciousness, has of 
late been generally adopted; so much so that psychology, 
or the science of mind, has been denominated an inquiry 
into the facts of consciousness. This view, however, has 
many strenuous opponents, especially among recent writers 
of the materialistic school. 

Con'script Fa'thers [Lat. Patres Conscn'pti, from 
con, “ together,” and scribo, scriptum, to “ write ”], an ap¬ 
pellation given to the senators of ancient Rome, because 
after the expulsion of Tarquin, when Brutus added another 
hundred to the number of senators, the names of the new 
members were “ written together ” with those of the old, 
and the whole body received the appellation of Conscript 
Fathers. 

Conscription [Lat. conscriptio, a “written list”], a 
compulsory enrolment of men for military service. This 
is the system by which the armies of France and some other 
countries are recruited. The soldiers who are thus com¬ 
pelled to enter the army are called conscripts. The con¬ 
scription was established in France during the Revolution 
of 1789. The number required for the service is drawn by 
lot from the number of young, able-bodied men who are 
not exempt. 

Consecon, a post-village of Prince Edward co., On¬ 
tario (Canada), on Weller’s Bay, Lake Ontario, at the mouth 
of Consecon Creek, has valuable water-power and extensive 
fisheries. Pop. about 500. 

Consecration [Lat. consecratio, from con, intensive, 
and sacro, to “ make sacred ”] is the act or ceremony of 
giving a person or thing to the service of God. It was a 
widely-spread religious ceremony of the ancient world. In 
the Old Testament we read of the consecration to the Lord 
of the first-born of man and beast, and the dedication of 
the Levites, etc. The custom, as regards places and things, 
was not transmitted immediately from Judaism to Chris¬ 
tianity. As soon as the persecution of the Christians 
ceased, according to Eusebius, “ the sight was afforded us 
so eagerly desired by all—of the festivals of dedications 
and consecrations of the newly-erected houses of prayer 
throughout the cities.” The practice of consecrating relig¬ 
ious edifices is continued to the present time. The forms 
were at first simple, consisting of prayer, the celebration 
' of the Eucharist, thanksgiving, and benediction ; but they 
subsequently became more imposing, and the bishops, etc. 
assumed the exclusive power of consecrating. The service 
which sets apart bishops for their official work is especi¬ 
ally designated as consecration. 

Conservation of Force. See Correlation of 
Forces, by Prof. J. II. Seelve, S. T. D. 

Conservative [from the Lat. con, intensive, and servo, 
servatum, to “keep,” to “preserve”]. In politics, this 
term is applied to persons who oppose reform, progress, or 
radical changes in institutions or laws. In England the 
party formerly called Tory is now termed Conservative. 

Conservator, an officer who is charged to preserve 
the public peace or prevent and punish a breach of the 


peace. In England the sovereign is the principal conser¬ 
vator of the peace. The lord chancellor, the justices of the 
queen’s bench, and the master of the rolls arc conservators 
of the peace throughout all parts of the kingdom, and can 
commit breakers of the peace anywhere. Other judges 
possess the power only within the limits of their own juris¬ 
diction. 

Conservatory [from the Lat. conservo, conservation, 
to “preserve”], in horticulture, a glazed structure in which 
exotic plants are cultivated. It is distinguished from an 
orangery by its having a glazed roof, whilst that of the 
latter is opaque, and from a green-house by the plants being 
in the free soil, thus growing from the floor, while in the 
green-house the plants are grown in pots placed on shelves. 
Conservatories are used for plants in a growing state during 
the winter, and are therefore warmed according to the 
temperature which such pilants require. One of the largest 
conservatories in the world is that erected atChatsworth in 
Derbyshire, England, for palms and other tropical plants; 
it covers more than an acre of ground, and is above sixty 
feet high. 

Conservatory [Fr. conservatoire; It. consei'vatorio; 
Ger. Conservatorium], a school for the study of vocal and 
instrumental music. These schools were first so called be¬ 
cause they were designed to conserve the science and art 
of music. They are of ancient origin, and were probably 
founded by ecclesiastics for the jmrpose of improving the 
character of church music. They were originally charity 
schools, recruited from foundlings and orphans of both 
sexes. The first conservatory was the famous one of Santa 
Maria di Loreto in Naples, founded by Giovanni di Tappia 
in 1537. Among the most famous conservatories of the 
present day may be mentioned the Conservatoire de Mu- 
sique of Paris (founded in 1784), those of Vienna (1816), 
Brussels (1833), and Leipsic (1842). There are several suc¬ 
cessful schools of music in the U. S. called conservatories. 

Conshohock'en, a post-borough of Montgomery co., 
Pa., on the Schuylkill River and on the Philadelphia and 
Reading R. R., 13 miles N. W. of Philadelphia. It has 
several blast-furnaces, machine-shops, and rolling-mills; 
also one national bank and one weekly newspaper. Gas- 
pipes and water-pipes are made here. Pop. 3071. 

Considerant (Victor), a French socialist, born at 
Salins Oct. 12, 1808, was the chief disciple of Fourier. He 
became the editor of the “Democratic Paeifique ” in 1845, 
and a member of the National Assembly in 1848. lie 
wrote “ Destinee Sociale” (3 vols., 1834-44). He after¬ 
wards founded a colony called Reunion, near San Antonio, 
Tex., but returned to France in 1869. 

Consideration [Lat. consideratio ; etymology doubt¬ 
ful], mature thought, serious deliberation, meditation; also 
motive of action, reason. In law, it is the material cause 
of a contract, the reason which induces a contracting party 
to make a contract. The leading distinction respecting 
considerations is, that they are either good or valuable. A 
good consideration is based upon relationship or natural 
love, and is of avail only in an executed contract— e. g. a 
deed of land. A valuable consideration either confers some 
benefit on the promisor or causes some inconvenience or 
harm to be sustained by the promisee. Under these 
rules marriage is a valuable consideration. (See Con¬ 
tract, by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Consignee. See Bill of Lading and Shipping. 

Consiglitnent, in mercantile law, is the term applied 
to goods which are consigned or transferred by the owner 
into the possession of another, either as his own or as an 
agent or factor for sale or for some other specified purpose. 
The word is sometimes used to denote the act of consigning. 

Consis'tory [Lat. consistorium, from con, “ together,” 
and sisto, to “stand ”], the place of meeting of the cabinet 
of the Roman emperors; the name is also applied to the 
council of cardinals, sometimes assisted by other prelates, 
who attend in person or by proxy, which meets in the Vat¬ 
ican to advise the pope in ecclesiastical and temporal affairs. 
A court under this title for the regulation of discipline and 
worship, composed of civil and ecclesiastical jurists, was es¬ 
tablished by the Lutheran princes of Germany at the time 
of the Reformation. The earliest was that of Wittenberg, 
founded in 1537. The lower church courts of the Reformed 
(“ Dutch ” and “ German ”) churches in the U. S. are also 
called consistories. 

Con'sole [etymology doubtful], in architecture, a pro¬ 
jection like a bracket, used to support cornices or such 
movable objects as busts and vases. It frequently has the 
form of a letter S. 

Con'sols, a contraction of “consolidated annuities,” 
is the common name given to the annuities of three per 
cent, which the British government pays as interest on the 
national debt. This debt was contracted by loans negoti- 

































CONSONANCE—CONSTANTIA. 


1123 


ated at different times and at various rates of interest. To 
obviate the confusion which arose from the variety of 
stocks thus created, they were consolidated into one fund, 
kept in one account at the Bank of England. The Consol¬ 
idated Annuities act was passed in 1757. 

Consonance [Lat. conaonantia, from con, “together,” 
and 8ono, to “ sound ”], a term in music applied to a har¬ 
monious blending of sounds which so satisfy the ear that 
no other sound is expected to follow. The effect of conso¬ 
nance depends on the greater or less simplicity of the in¬ 
terval formed by the combined sounds. Intervals whose 
relative vibrations can be expressed by numbers from one 
to six are considered consonant. Consonant intervals are 
therefore the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and octave; from 
which it follows that there is only one consonant funda¬ 
mental chord in music— i. e. the common chord, being a 
bass note with its third, fifth, and octave. The system of 
harmony of the ancient Greeks was different from ours, as 
they treated the third and sixth as dissonances. Their 
name for consonance was our word “ symphony,” and for 
dissonance, “diaphony.” As early as the fourteenth cen¬ 
tury we find the important rule that two perfect consonances 
following in similar progression are not allowable. In the 
sixteenth century, Zerlino ascertained the true mathemati¬ 
cal proportions of the major and minor thirds. The exact 
limit between consonance and dissonance is not definitely 
fixed. 

Coil'sonant, a letter which can be freely sounded only 
when joined with another letter called a vowel. Conso¬ 
nants are divided into mutes and liquids (or semi-vowels). 
Mutes are those letters which may be said wholly to inter¬ 
rupt or stop the voice when they occur at the end of a syl¬ 
lable—in other words, when they are not immediately 
followed by a vowel—as p, k, t, b, g, d. The liquids or 
semi-vowels do not wholly stop the voice; they are l, in, n, 
and r. The aspirates f, v, and th are usually classed with 
the mutes, though they admit of the voice passing beyond 
them, so to speak, when they terminate a syllable, as in if, 
have, etc. The sibilant s is by some called a liquid. 

Con'sort [Lat. consors, “allotted together,” from con, 
“together,” and sors (gen. sortis), a “lot”], in Great 
Britain, a term applied to the husband or wife of the reign¬ 
ing sovereign viewed in a public capacity, as participating 
to a limited extent in the sovereignty. Before the year 
1857 the husband of Queen Victoria possessed no English 
title, and no place in court ceremonials except such as was 
conceded to him by courtesy. The title of prince consort 
was conferred upon him in that year. 

Conspiracy [Lat. conspiratio (from con, “together,” 
and spiro, to “breathe,” to “whisper”)], an agreement be¬ 
tween several persons to commit some crime, as to kill a ruler 
or depi-ive him of power. In law, it is an agreement of two 
or more persons to carry into effect some unlawful purpose, 
or to accomplish some lawful purpose by unlawful means. 
It is a crime of which the true basis is the unlawful com¬ 
bination, and may be prosecuted, though no overt act has 
been performed. Statute law in some instances makes a 
conspiracy a grave offence, as, e. </., to destroy a ship with 
intent to injure insurers. 

Coil'stable [Late Lat. comes stabuli, “count of the sta¬ 
ble,” or constabulus; Fr. connetable], the former title of a mil¬ 
itary officer of the highest rank in France. The constable 
rose gradually in importance until he became ex-officio com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the army, the supreme military judge, 
and chief arbitrator in questions of chivalry. Mathieu de 
Montmorenci, who became constable in 1218, was the first 
who had the supreme command. The office was abolished 
in 1627. Napoleon I. appointed his brother Louis con¬ 
stable of the empire, and Berthier vice-constable. Under 
the Restoration the dignity was again abolished. In Eng¬ 
land the lord high constable was a personage of high rank 
and authority until the office was abolished by Henry VIII. 
A lord high constable is now appointed only on the occasion 
of great state ceremonies, such as a coronation. In England 
and the U. S. constables are inferior civil officers appointed 
to preserve the peace, to arrest felons, execute civil and 
criminal processes, etc. Some of the U. S. have an officer 
called “constable of the commonwealth,” who is over a part 
of the constabulary forces, the members of which are his 
deputies. 

Constable, a township and village of Franklin co., 
N. Y. The village is about 60 miles E. of Ogdensburg. 
Total pop. 1546. 

Constable (John), an English landscape-painter, born 
in Suffolk in 1776, became a student in the lloyal Academy 
in 1799. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1829. 
Among his works are the “Corn-Field” (1826) and the 
“Valley Farm” (1835). Died Mar. 30, 1837. His works 
are commended by Ruskin as “ original, honest, free from 


affectation, and manly in manner.” (See C. R. Leslie 
“Life of John Constable,” 1843.) 

Con'stableville, a post-village of West Turin town¬ 
ship, Lewis co., N. Y., on Sugar River, has four churches, 
a good trade, and several manufacturing establishments. 
Pop. 712. 

Con'stance, a fortified city of Baden, is on the Rhine 
and the S. W. shore of the Lake of Constance, 35 miles 
No E. of Zurich. It is one of the oldest towns in Ger¬ 
many, and was formerly a free imperial city. It has a 
magnificent cathedral, founded in the eleventh century; 
also manufactures of silk and cotton goods and watches. 
Here was held in 1414-18 an important council of the 
Church. Pop. in 1871, 10,052. 

Constance, Council of [Lat. Concilium Constanti- 
nense ], the seventeenth of the so-called oecumenical coun¬ 
cils of the Roman Catholic Church, was convened by writ 
of the German emperor Sigismund, and opened on All 
Saints’ Day, 1414, by John XXIII., one of the three 
claimants of the papacy. There were present during 
parts of the session, besides the emperor, seven patriarchs, 
twenty-one cardinals, one hundred and fourteen bishops 
and archbishops, besides many princes, nobles, and am¬ 
bassadors from most of the Catholic powers and from the 
emperor Michael Palaeologus. Representatives were also 
present from the principal universities of Europe. One 
of the objects of this council was the ending of the schism 
caused by the rival popes (John XXIII., Gregory XII., 
and Benedict XIII.). This object was accomplished by 
deposing all three (1415), and choosing Martin V. in their 
stead. The council also condemned the opinions of Wickliffe 
and Huss, and cited the latter to appear before it (1414). 
In the following year Huss was perfidiously burned at the 
stake for heresy, at Constance, notwithstanding the im¬ 
perial safeguard which he possessed. In 1416 his friend, 
Jerome of Prague, met the same fate. The question of the 
relative authority of the pope and of the Church assembled 
in general council was warmly and persistently discussed 
by the Council of Constance, without decisive results. The 
refoim of certain acknowledged abuses was also attempted, 
with no great success. The forty-fifth and last session was 
held April 22, 1418. 

Constance, Lake of [anc. Brigantinus Lacus; Ger. 
Boden See], a lake of Central Europe, borders on Baden, 
Bavaria, Switzerland, the Tyrol, and Wiirtemberg, 1290 
feet above the ocean-level. Area, 184 square miles. It is 
about 40 miles long, and 9 miles wide at the broadest part. 
The greatest depth is 912 feet. The Rhine enters this lake 
near the south-eastern end, and issues from the north-west¬ 
ern extremity. In 1770 the water rose in one hour twenty 
feet above the ordinary level. This lake is said to contain 
twenty-five species of fish, including salmon. Several steam¬ 
boats ply on it. 

Con'stans (Flavius Julius) I., born about 320 A. D., 
was the third son of the emperor Constantine I. On the 
death of his father, in 337, he became the sovereign of 
Italy, Africa, etc. His brother Constantine invaded Italy, 
and was killed in battle in 340, after which Constans was 
master of all the AVestern empire. He was defeated and 
killed by Magnentius in 350 A. D. 

Constant de Rebecque (Benjamin), an eminent 
French political writer, born at Lausanne Oct. 25, 1767. 
He studied at Edinburgh, where he was a fellow-student 
of Erskine and Mackintosh, and afterwards in Germany. 
In 1799 he became a member of the French tribunate, but, 
having opposed the ambitious designs of Bonaparte, he 
was banished from France with Madame de Stael in 1801. 
He wrote in 1813 an able pamphlet “ On the Spirit of Con¬ 
quest and Usurpation.” He returned to Paris in 1814, and 
was a member of Napoleon’s council of state during the 
Hundred Days. In 1819 he was elected to the Chamber of 
Deputies, in which he was a very popular leader of the 
liberal party, and gained distinction as an able and witty 
debater. Among his works are “Cours de Politique Con- 
stitutionelle” (4 vols., 1817-20), a treatise “On Religion, 
considered in its Source, its Forms, and its Developments” 
(5 vols., 1823-31), and another in 2 vols. on the “Religion 
of Rome, considered in its Relations to Greek Philosophy 
and Christianity.” Died Dec. 10, 1830. The style of his 
writings is much admired, and he has been called a second 
Voltaire. (See L. de Lomenie, “B. Constant,” 1841.) 

Constan'tia, a superior wine from the Cape Colony, 
South Africa, produced upon the three Constantia estates, 
12 miles S. of Cape Town. It is free from the earthy taste 
which characterizes ordinary Cape wines. It owes its ex¬ 
cellence to the highly alkaline soil, the choice variety of 
grape employed in making it, the genial exposure ot the 
estates, and perhaps more than all to care and skill in its 
preparation. There are white and red Constantia wines. 

























1124 CONSTANTIA—CONSTANTINOPLE. 


Constantia, a post-village and township of Oswego 
co., N. Y., on Oueida Lake and on the New York and Os¬ 
wego Midland It. It., 34 miles S. E. of Oswego. Iron ore 
is found in the township, which contains also Cleveland 
and other villages. Pop. of Constantia village, 587; of 
township, 3437. 

Constanti'na, a fortified city of Algeria, capital of a 
province of its own name, and seat of a Catholic bishop, is 
on a high hill surrounded on three sides by ravines; lat. 
30° 24' N., Ion. 6° 8' E. It is over 2000 feet above the level 
of the sea. It is surrounded by walls built by the Arabs, 
and has a citadel, and a fine old Roman bridge across one 
of the ravines. Here are manufactures of w T oollen cloth 
and saddlery. Remains of the ancient Roman Cirta, which 
was a great city of Numidia, are visible here. This placo 
was besieged by the French in 1836 ; Oct., 1837, it was taken 
by assault. Pop. in 1866, 35,417. 

Con'stantine, a post-village of St. Joseph co., Mich., 
on the St. Joseph River and on a branch of the Michigan 
Southern 11. R., 94 miles by railroad S. W. of Lansing. 
It has a national bank and a w r eekly newspaper. Pop. 1290 ; 
of Constantine township, 2406. 

Constantine (Flavius Valerius Aurelius), sur- 
named the Great, the first Christian emperor of Rome, 
was born in 272 (some say 274) A. D. He was a son of 
Constantius Chlorus and his wife Helena, and was originally 
a pagan. In the reign of Diocletian he gained distinction 
by his military talents, and became a favorite of the army, 
lie was at A’orkwhen his father died in July, 306, and was 
then proclaimed emperor by the army under his command. 
Galerius, who regarded him with jealous enmity, granted 
to him the title of caesar, and conferred the higher rank 
of augustus on his own son, Severus. Maximian and his 
son Maxentius assumed imperial power at Rome, so that 
in 307 A. D. six men became competitors for the empire. 
Constantine married Fausta, a daughter of Maximian. 
After the death of Galerius (311), Licinius and Maximian 
were masters of the eastern provinces of the empire, and 
Constantine reigned in Gaul. In 312, Maxentius was de¬ 
feated and killed by the army of Constantine, who then 
entered the city of Rome and became master of all the 
western part of the empire, including Italy aud Africa. 
On the eve of this decisive battle he is said to have seen a 
sign of the cross in the sky, bearing the inscription: ’Ei> 
touto) vLko. (“ By this conquer”). He afterwards treated 
the Christians with increasing favor, and adopted wise 
measures for the promotion of public prosperity and order. 

In 314 he waged a short war against Licinius, who was 
the sole emperor of the eastern provinces. This war was 
followed by a peace of nine years, during which Constan¬ 
tine devoted himself to political reforms, organized a bet¬ 
ter form of government, and adopted a more humane code 
of laws, which recognized Christianity as the religion of 
the state. He renewed in 323 the war against Licinius, 
whom he defeated near Adrianople. After another decisive 
victory he reigned over the Roman empire with undivided 
power. He assembled at Nicaea, in 325 A. D., the first 
general council of the Church, and moderately favored the 
orthodox in the controversy against the Arians. He had a 
son, Crispus, who was accomplished and popular. Having 
been falsely accused of a crime by Fausta, his step-mother, 
Crispus was put to death. Constantine selected Byzantium 
as his capital, and enlarged or rebuilt that city, to which 
he gave the name of New Rome or Constantinople—“city 
of Constantine.” This was founded by imposing ceremo¬ 
nies in May, 330 A. D. In the latter part of his life he 
showed favor to the Arians, and was baptized by an Arian 
bishop only a week before his death. The question is still 
warmly debated whether the man, or only the emperor, was 
converted. He died at Nicomedia May 22, 337 A. D., hav¬ 
ing divided the empire between his three sons, Constantine, 
Constantius, and Constans. He has a high reputation as 
a statesman and emperor. (See Eusebius, “Vita Con- 
stantini;” Gibbon, “Decline and Fall of the Roman Em¬ 
pire ;” Joseph Fletcher, “ Life of Constantine the Great,” 
1852.) 

Constantine (or Constantinus) VII., emperor of 
the East, surnamed Porphyrogenitus [Gr. Uop^vpoyewri- 
tos, i- e. “born to the purple” or “born in purple”], was 
born in 905 A. D. He was a son of the emperor Leo VI., 
who died in 911. Romanus Lecapenus usurped the im¬ 
perial power in 919, after which Constantine passed many 
years in retirement and study. He began to reign in 944. 
He wrote several works of some merit. Died in 959. 

Constantine XIII. , surnamed Paljeologus, the last 
emperor of Constantinople, was born in 1394. He succeed¬ 
ed his brother, John VII., in 1448. The Turkish sultan, 
Mahomet II., besieged Constantinople with an army of 
250,000 men, and took it by storm in 1453. Constantine 
was killed, fighting bravely to the last. 


Constantine [Lat. Constantinus], Pope, a native of 
Syria, succeeded Sisinnius in 708 A. D. Died in 715. 

Constantine (Nikolaevitcii), grand duke of Russia, 
the second son of the emperor Nicholas, was born Sept. 21, 
1827. He became grand admiral of the fleet and a favorite 
leader of the old Russian party. In the Crimean war 
(1854-55) he commanded the Baltic fleet and acted on the 
defensive. He married the princess Alexandra of Saxc- 
Altenburg in 1848. He was in 1862 governor-general of 
Poland, but resigned in 1863. 

Constantine (Pavlovitcii), grand duke, the second 
son of the emperor Paul of Russia, was born May 8, 1779. 
He commanded a corps at the battle of Austerlitz (1805), 
and displayed in several actions a courage bordering on 
rashness. In 1814 he was appointed generalissimo of the 
Polish troops and viceroy of Poland. When Alexander 
died without issue in 1825, Constantine was the legitimate 
heir, but he renounced the throne in favor of his younger 
brother, Nicholas. In the reign of Nicholas he was viceroy 
of Poland, and by his tyranny provoked the Poles to revolt 
in 1830. Died of cholera June 27, 1831. 

Constantinople [Turk. Stambool * or Istambool in 
common language, and Constantinieh in documentary writ¬ 
ing; modern Gr. Istampoli; Gr. Kiorarayriyono^is ; Lat. 
Constanthiopol\8, i.e. “city of Constantine”], a celebrated 
city of Turkey in Europe, capital of the Ottoman empire, 
was originally called Byzantium (which see). It is beauti¬ 
fully situated on the Bosphorus where it enters the Sea of 
Marmora, and in the provinco of Room-Elee. Lat. 41° 1' 
N., Ion. 28° 59' E. The site is a triangular peninsula, 
bounded on the N. by an inlet of the Bosphorus called the 
Golden Horn, and surrounded by water on all sides except 
the W. Few cities can boast so magnificent a position; 
commanding the two opposite shores of Europe and Asia, 
it combines the advantages of security and great facilities 
for trade with the choicest gifts of nature and exquisite 
beauty of scenery. It occupies seven hills, rising one above 
another as they recede from the water. This variety of 
surface, with the numerous gardens, mosques, minarets, 
and cypress trees, renders the external aspect of the city 
very picturesque and imposing. The Golden Horn, which 
is five or six miles long, and varies in width from one to 
four furlongs, forms a safe and very commodious harbor, 
which is sufficiently deep to admit the largest ships. As 
the tide is here scarcely felt, the constant depth of the 
water permits vessels to land their cargoes with conveni¬ 
ence and ease. The Bosphorus, here nearly one mile wide, 
separates Constantinople from Scutari, and the Golden 
Horn separates the city from the large suburbs named Ga- 
lata and Pera. Along the western border of the city proper 
a lofty stone wall four miles long, and now in a ruinous 
condition, extends from the Sea of Marmora to the Golden 
Horn. This wall was built during the Byzantine empire, 
and presents picturesque specimens of mural ruins. The 
streets of the city are mostly narrow, crooked, and dirty. 
It contains about 350 mosques, 180 hospitals, aud numerous 
Christian churches. It is the see of Greek, Latin, and Ar¬ 
menian patriarchs. 

The Seraglio, the palace of the sultan, stands on the 
shore of the Bosphorus at the N. E. point of the peninsula, 
and commands a beautiful view. This palace, with its 
gardens, groves, and governmental offices, includes an area 
of nearly three miles in circuit, which is washed on one side 
by the Golden Horn. The principal gate or entrance to 
the Seraglio is called the Sublime Porte, from which is 
derived the diplomatic name of the sultan’s court. Within 
the precincts, of the palace is the celebrated Divan and the 
Harem, with the “ Garden of Delight.” The mean annual 
temperature is about 56° F. 

Among the remarkable edifices are the “ Castle of the 
Seven Towers,” built about 1000 A. D., and now partly 
ruined; the mosque of Solyman the Magnificent, a master¬ 
piece of Saracenic architecture; the mosque of Selim II., 
and those of Mustapha III., Achmet, and Mahomet II. 
The mosque of Achmet has six minarets, more than any 
other in the world. Connected with the mosque of Ma¬ 
homet II. are eight endowed academies. Near the Sera¬ 
glio stands the celebrated and magnificent mosque of St. 
Sophia, once a Christian cathedral, built by the emperor Jus¬ 
tinian between 531 and 538 A. D. It is in the form of a 
Greek cross, 269 feet long, and is surmounted by a flattened 
dome, which is 180 feet above the ground, and is much ad¬ 
mired. It is adorned by 107 columns of fine porphyry, 
marble, and granite. A lofty minaret rises at each of the 
four corners of this mosque. Among the antiquities now 
visible here are the “ Burnt Column,” erected by Constan- 

* The Turkish name Istambool (contracted into Stambool) is 
supposed by some a corruption of the Greek phrase ei? ttjv nokiv 
(“ t° the city ”). More probably it is a corruption of Islambul 
( islam , “ believers,” and bul, “ multitude ”). 



















CONSTANTIUS I.—CONSTIPATION. 


1125 


tine the Great,* the pillar of Marcian ; vestiges of the 
Boucoleon palace; the aqueduct of Valens; and the Theban 
obelisk, on the site of the ancient Hippodrome. 

The city proper is divided into separate quarters for the 
Jews, Armenians, and Greeks. The Greek quarter, called 
the Fanar, extends along the shore of the Golden Horn, 
which is always covered with merchant vessels and numer¬ 
ous small boats. A bridge of boats connects Fanar with 
Pera and Galata; the latter is the residence of European 
merchants, and contains a great number of warehouses. 
Pera is the residence of the foreign ambassadors, whose 
palaces are situated on a hill. The numerous cemeteries 
around Constantinople are among its greatest ornaments. 

The city has an extensive foreign commerce, which is 
mostly in the hands of the Greeks, Italians, British, French, 
and Germans. The chief articles of export are silks, car¬ 
pets, hides, wool, potash, linseed, madder, and valonea. 
Among the imports are grain, iron, coffee, sugar, cotton 
stuffs, woollen stuffs, metallic goods, drugs, gums, jewelry, 
furniture, and porcelain. The arrivals at this port in 1870 
were 23,483 vessels, the tonnage of which was 4,998,754; 
departures, 23,151; tonnage, 5,091,871. Here are manufac¬ 
tures of silk and cotton goods, morocco, leather, saddlery, 
carpets, and meerschaum pipes. 

It is stated that the city has been subjected to twenty- 
four memorable sieges. It was taken by the crusaders in 
1204, and by the Turks in May, 1453; but in nearly all the 
other cases the siege ended in the success of the party which 
defended the city. Pop., including suburbs, estimated at 
1,075,000, about one-half of whom are Mohammedans, 
220,000 Greeks, 250,000 Orthodox Armenians, 30,000 United 
Armenians, and 55,000 Jews. (See Krause, “ Die Erober- 
ungen Constantinopels,” 1870; Constantius, “Ancient and 
Modern Constantinople,” 1834, translated by John P. 
Brown, 1868.) 

Constan'tius I., called Constantins Chlo'rns 

(Flavius Valerius), a Roman emperor, born about 250 
A. D., was the father of Constantine the Great. The em¬ 
perors Diocletian and Maximian chose Constantius and 
Galerius in 292 A. D., and gave to each the title of caesar. 
Constantius ruled over Gaul, Britain, and Spain, and be¬ 
came emperor in 305, when Diocletian abdicated. Died 
in 306 A. D. 

Constantius II. (Flavius Julius), the second son of 
Constantine I. and Fausta, was born at Sirmium in 317 
A. D. He inherited, in accordance with his father’s will, 
the Asiatic provinces and Egypt in 337. He waged war 
against the Persians, by whom he was several times de¬ 
feated. He defeated Magnentius on the Drave in 351, and 
in Gaul in 353. In 355 he gave the title of caesar to his 
cousin Julian. He showed favor to the Arians. He died 
in 361 A. D., and was succeeded by Julian. 

Constellation [from the Lat. con, “together,” and 
stella, a “star”], a group of stars. From time immemo¬ 
rial it has been the practice of observers to form the stars 
into artificial groups, which have received the name of con¬ 
stellations. They are represented by the figures of men, 
animals, and other objects to which might be traced a fan¬ 
cied resemblance. Before the invention of almanacs the 
risings and settings of the constellations were looked to by 
husbandmen, shepherds, and seafaring men as the great 
landmarks (so to speak) of the seasons, and of the weather 
which each season was expected to bring with it. Thus, 
the risings and settings of Bootes, with the bright star 
Arcturus, which took place near the equinoxes, portended 
great tempests. The great heat in July was ascribed to 
the rising of Canis the dog, with its bright star Sirius. 
The appearance of Castor and Pollux was hailed as the 
harbinger of fair summer weather. Many nations have 
from early times arranged the stars into constellations, but 
our nomenclature is chiefly derived from that of the Greeks 
and Romans. Eudoxus, who lived about 360 B. C., gave a 
description of the heavens, with the names and characters 
of all the constellations recognized in his time. This work 
is lost, but a poetical paraphrase of it, written about a cen¬ 
tury later by Aratus, is extant. It describes twelve zodia¬ 
cal constellations, twenty in the northern hemisphere, and 
thirteen in the southern. The “Almagest” of Ptolemy 
includes the preceding, with three additional constellations 

_one northern and two southern. These are the ancient 

stellar groups. Large additions to the nomenclature have 
been made in modern times, owing to the discovery of con¬ 
stellations in the southern hemisphere which were never 
visible to the world known to the ancient authors. Some 
stars of the northern heavens not included in the ancient 
groups have been formed into new ones. Lacaille went in 
1 751 to the Cape of Good Hope, where he spent nearly four 
years in making a catalogue of the southern stars and form¬ 
ing them into constellations. (The principal groups will 
be more fully noticed under their alphabetical heads.) 


The following list comprises all the constellations now 
generally recognized, although some of the more recent 
ones are understood to be temporary. The first twenty 
are known as Ptolemy’s northern constellations ; next come 
the twelve zodiacal, and then the fifteen southern constel¬ 
lations of Ptolemy; the forty-eighth was added by Tycho 
Brahe, though first named by Conon the Samian; the next 
ten are from Hevelius. All after the fifty-fifth are S. of the 
equator. Those from Indus to Apus inclusive were named 
by Bayer; the next thirteen are from Lacaille, and the last 
two from Royer. 


48. 


the 


Coma Berenices, the Hair 
of Berenice. 

49. Canes Venatici (the Grey¬ 
hounds, Asterion and 
Chara). 

50. Lacerta, the Lizard. 

51. Lynx, the Lynx. 

52. Sextans Uranine, Tycho’s 
Sextant. 

53. Cameleopardalis, the Gi¬ 
raffe. 

54. Vulpecula et Anser, the Fox 
and Goose. 

55. Leo Minor, the Lesser Lion. 

56. Monoceros, the Unicorn. 

57. Indus, the Indian. 

58. Grus, the Crane. 

59. Phoenix, the Phoenix. 

60. Musca, the Fly. 

61. Pavo, the Peacock. 

62. Toucan, the Toucan. 

63. Hydrus, the Water-snake. 

64. Dorado, the Sword-fish. 

65. Piscis Volans, the Flying- 
fish. 

66. Chamseleon, the Chamseleon. 

67. Triangulum Australe, the 
Southern Triangle. 

68. Apus, the Bird of Paradise. 

69. Apparatus Sculptoris, or 
Sculptor, the Sculptor’s 
workshop. 

70. Fornax Chemica, the Chem¬ 
ical Furnace. 

71. Horologium, the Clock. 

72. Recticulum Rhomboidale, 
the Rhomboidal Net. 

73. Coela Sculptoris, the Graving 
tools. 

74. Equus Pictorius, the Pain¬ 
ter’s Easel. 

75. Antlia Pneumatica, the Air- 
pump. 

76. Octans, the Octant. 

77. Norma, the Square-rule. 

78. Circinus, the Compasses. 

79. Telescopium, the Telescope. 
Microscopium, the Micros¬ 
cope. 

Mons Mensae, the Table- 
Mountain. 

82. Crux Australis, the South¬ 
ern Cross. 

83. Columba Noachi, Noah’s 
Dove. 

There have been many more constellations proposed, and 
some others are needed, especially S. of the equator. In¬ 
deed, were it not for the great difficulties attending a change, 
and the seeming fixity of the present nomenclature, sanc¬ 
tioned by the usage of ages, it is not unlikely that a new 
arrangement of all the stars would be attempted, and many 
of the present monstrous figures banished from the maps 
of the celestial globe. 

Constipa'tion [from the Lat. con, intensive, and stipo , 
to “ stow,” to “crowd,” referring to that state of the rectum 
in which it is impacted with fecal matter], a condition of 
the system marked by sluggish action of the bowels upon 
their contents, due either to diminished secretion of the 
juices of the mucous membrane or to a want of action of 
the muscular coat of the intestines. Sedentary habits pre¬ 
dispose to constipation, and so does too large a proportion 
of animal food. Brown bread, ripe fruits, fresh vegetables, 
and active exercise tend to avert this disorder. An abdom¬ 
inal compress of cold water, covered with a flannel band¬ 
age, sometimes proves beneficial. For many cases the use 
of mild cathartics is necessary. They may be taken in 
proper doses for many years without bad effects. The use 
of nux vomica in small daily doses is often useful, and the 
same is true of belladonna in some constitutions. It is 
frequently advisable to employ enemata of warm or cold 
water, and also kneading or careful manipulation of tho 
abdomen. But perhaps the most rational treatment is a 
careful readjustment of the diet, and the adoption of ac¬ 
tive habits of life. Ill-chosen and ill-cooked food, perhaps 
the most frequent cause of intestinal troubles, should be 
especially avoided. There is no doubt also that habitual 
constipation may in some instances be overcome by the 
persistent and systematic attempt to perform the impaired 
function at a regular time each day. 


1. Ursa Minor, the Lesser Bear. 

2. Ursa Major, the Greater 

Bear. 

3. Draco, the Dragon. 

4. Cepheus. 

5. Bootes, the Herdsman. 

6. Corona Borealis, the North¬ 

ern Crown. 

7. Hercules. 

8. Lyra, the Lyre. 

9. Cygnus, the Swan. 

10. Cassiopeia. 

11. Perseus. 

12. Auriga. 

13. Ophiuchus or Serpentarius, 

the Serpent-bearer. 

14. Serpens, the Serpent. 

15. Sagitta, the Arrow. 

16. Delphihus, the Dolphin. 

17. Equuleus, the Little Horse 

18. Pegasus, the Winged Horse. 

19. Andromeda. 

20. Triangulum Boreale, 

Northern Triangle. 

21. Aries, the Ram. 

22. Taurus, the Bull. 

23. Gemini, the Twins. 

24. Cancer, the Crab. 

25. Leo, the Lion. 

26. Virgo, the Virgin. 

27. Libra, the Scales. 

28. Scorpio, the Scorpion. 

29. Sagittarius, the Archer. 

30. Capricornus, the Goat. 

31. Aquarius, the Water-bearer. 

32. Pisces, the Fishes. 

33. Cetus, the Whale. 

34. Orion. 

35. Eridanus, the River Po. 

36. Lepus, the Hare. 

37. Canis Major, the Greater 

Dog. 

38. Canis Minor, the Lesser Dog. 

39. Argo, the Ship Argo. 

40. Hydra, the Water Serpent. 

41. Crater, the Cup. 

42. Corvus, the Crow. 

43. Centaurus, the Centaur. 

44. Lupus, the Wolf. 

45. Ara, the Altar. 

46. Corona Australis, the South¬ 

ern Crown. 

47. Piscis Australis, the South¬ 

ern Fish. 

















CONSTITUTION. 


1126 


Constitution [from the Lat. con, “ together,” and 
statuo, to “place”], in American law, a written statement 
of the fundamental rules of government, either of a State 
or of the United States. The word as here used has a 
widely different signification from that which prevails in 
England. There it simply means the leading rules of gov¬ 
ernment, without reference to any formal statement. The 
“constitution” thus consists of documents emanating from 
time to time from the king or from Parliament, and of 
traditions and customs. These may be collected in trea¬ 
tises and reduced to a systematic form, but have never re¬ 
ceived the legal sanction indispensable in America—that 
of recognition by the nation as distinguished from Parlia¬ 
ment. In this country “ the people,” consisting in each 
State of those who hold the elective franchise, are by pre¬ 
scribed forms called upon at intervals either to establish 
the constitution or to amend it. It thus has an authority 
superior to that of the government organized under it. 
One extremely important result is, that if any of the de¬ 
partments exceed the limits marked out in the constitution, 
the act is irregular and void. An illustration of the doc¬ 
trine is found in an act of the legislature which transcends 
the constitution; the judicial department will declare it 
void. The courts have no such power in England. An 
act of Parliament is commonly said to be “ omnipotent;” 
there is no judicial power which can exercise the function 
of arresting the regular operation of the act. The power 
of the courts in the U. S. is, in the best sense of the word, 
a “ veto ”—forbidding a direction which has actually been 
clothed with legislative forms from being carried into effect, 
on account of its repugnance to the will of the people. 
The further examination of the subject may be conducted 
under the following general divisions; I. The mode of orig¬ 
inating an American constitution; II. The relation be¬ 
tween a State and the U. S. Constitution, and the office of 
each; III. Principal provisions in American constitutions, 
including “constitutional limitations.” 

I. The prevailing method of generating or amending a 
constitution is the “constitutional convention.” It is cer¬ 
tainly not the only method, since it sometimes happens 
that a constitution provides special and different modes of 
amendment, as is the case with the U. S. Constitution 
and some others. A distinction has been taken between a 
“ constitutional ” and a “ revolutionary ” convention. The^se 
do not differ necessarily in their internal character or in 
their modes of conducting business, but in their origin. A 
constitutional convention originates by orderly processes— 
is the creature of law. A revolutionary convention is ir¬ 
regular in its origin. Its ordinances may have a de facto 
validity, and become law on receiving the sanction of the 
people. The regular method is to have a law of the legis¬ 
lature or a constitutional provision as a basis for the ex¬ 
istence of the convention. When a body of delegates of 
this kind is assembled by legal methods, its powers become 
a subject of much importance, and are not yet definitely 
ascertained. Some would hold that the convention holds 
within its grasp all the powers which inhere in the “peo¬ 
ple ” that created it. In other words, it is sovereign. 
This is startling doctrine, and will scarcely command gen¬ 
eral assent. Another extreme view in the other direction 
is, that it is a mere deliberative body, having power to dis¬ 
cuss propositions, to agree upon them, and to recommend 
them for adoption. Under this view the convention is 
but little more than a debating society, with very limited 
powers for preserving order or securing itself from the in¬ 
trusion of strangers. The true view would seem to be that 
while the convention is itself acting in subordination to 
law, yet it has, as incidental to the accomplishment of its 
purposes, such powers as are necessary to carry them into 
effect. It may accordingly preserve order, punish con¬ 
tempts of its authority, provide for submission to the vote 
of the people of its proposed ordinances, and do such other 
acts as reasonably serve to make deliberation free and com¬ 
plete, and also to secure the full expression of the popular 
will. There are cases where the constitution of the State 
itself or the act of the legislature provides for the calling 
of a convention in a prescribed manner and with specified 
powers. AVhile the restrictions of a constitution must be 
accepted as binding, it may well be doubted whether an act 
of the legislature can deprive a convention sanctioned by 
the people of powers which have been already referred to 
as incidental to its complete working. 

The common method of transacting business is to parcel 
out among different standing committees the various topics 
to be provided for, such as a committee on “the Bill 
of Rights,” “the Judiciary,” “the Legislative Depart¬ 
ment,” etc. These committees, after due consideration of 
the subjects entrusted to them, report to the convention, 
when the matter is taken up by the entire body, discussed, 
approved, or rejected. (For detailed information see Jame¬ 
son, “ On Constitutional Conventions.”) Tho debates in 


conventions are frequently published in a permanent form, 
and contain much information of great value on legal and 
constitutional topics. (Reference may be made to the 
« Madison Papers,” containing debates on the U. S. Con¬ 
stitution, Elliott’s “ Debates,” and those published in New 
York, Virginia, Massachusetts, Illinois, and Pennsylvania.) 

II. The Relation between a State and the U. S. Constitu¬ 
tion, and the office of each .—A State constitution is adopted 
to regulate the action of the various departments of the 
government and to secure the rights of the people. It is 
a common statement that a State government has all the 
powers possessed by the English Parliament, except so far 
as it is restrained cither by the State or national constitu¬ 
tion. The object of a State constitution is not so much to 
confer power, as it is to restrict and define that which al¬ 
ready exists. It is to subject the will of the people to pre¬ 
scribed forms, which cannot be overcome by an ordinary 
act of legislation, but only by an amendment of the con¬ 
stitution itself. On the other hand, the U. S. government 
is called into existence by a written instrument. It has no 
powers except those which are contained within it, either 
in express terms or by reasonable implication. The acts 
done under its legitimate powers, such as the laws of Con¬ 
gress or treaties with foreign nations, are the supreme law 
of the land, and all State laws or State constitutions are so 
far subordinate. It is plain, however, that a State consti¬ 
tution or law may be in conflict with some provision of 
the U. S. Constitution or law or treaty, or an act of Con¬ 
gress may trench upon legitimate State authority. There 
must be some power entrusted with the function of decid¬ 
ing these questions in such a way as to keep the two gov¬ 
ernments within their proper sphere of action. This power 
appertains to the Supreme Court of the U. S., and in the 
exercise of its appellate jurisdiction it may review the de¬ 
cisions of State courts for this purpose, under clauses of the 
“judiciary acts” of Congress passed under the provisions 
of the Constitution. It thus becomes the final interpreter 
of the Constitution, and may declare a State law or consti¬ 
tutional provision void as being repugnant to the U. S. Con¬ 
stitution or the laws of Congress or treaties with foreign 
powers. So, when an act of Congress is not warranted by 
constitutional rules, it will be declared void. In this way the 
complex system of government works harmoniously, sound 
judgment dictating that the rights of the States should be 
preserved by the court with the same jealous and scrupu¬ 
lous care as those of the U. S. The court cannot exercise 
this power by the promulgation of an edict or ordinance, 
but only through the medium of a “ case ” or controversy 
between litigating parties. In deciding the case it may 
proceed upon principles which become a rule for the future, 
and a body of constitutional law is thus formed which either 
truly expounds the Constitution or departs from it. If an 
error be committed, it can only be rectified by a subsequent 
act of the court overruling the decision or by an amend¬ 
ment of the Constitution. Another point may be adverted 
to. A State law may be opposed to a State constitution. 
The duty of deciding this point regularly devolves ujion 
the courts of the particular State, and the U. S. court fol¬ 
lows their lead. However, having once acceded to the 
State interpretation, if that be subsequently reversed in 
the State court, it will not feel bound to change its view, 
but may adhere to the first construction. There is thus to 
be collected from the decisions of State courts a mass of 
what may be called “State constitutional law.” Much of 
this is special in its nature, having but little value beyond 
State limits. Other parts of it are general in their cha¬ 
racter, while some portions of it are coincident with decis¬ 
ions in the U. S. court, as in some instances the same re¬ 
strictions are found in both instruments. 

III. It is not intended under this head to advert to the 
general scheme of the various State and U. S. constitutions. 
The text of the latter is given hereafter in full. (See Con¬ 
stitution of the U. S.) Reference will only be made to 
such provisions in the nature of restrictions as are of a gen¬ 
eral nature. These are restrictions upon unsound legis¬ 
lation, such as prohibitions of bills of attainder and ex¬ 
post facto laws, or laws impairing the obligation of con¬ 
tracts; some of the States in the same spirit prohibit di¬ 
vorces by the legislature. Or they may be limitations upon 
legislation opposed to the spirit of American institutions. 
Under this head may be ranked prohibitions against grant¬ 
ing titles of nobility. There are also limitations for the 
protection of individual rights addressed to all departments 
of government. They tend to secure liberty of speech and 
of the press, religious freedom, to prevent deprivation of 
rights except through orderly processes in courts of justice, 
including trial by jury ; also to prevent renewed trials for 
the same offence, to check excessive punishments, etc. A 
number of such provisions are found in the earlier amend¬ 
ments to the U. S. Constitution. It is an important re¬ 
mark that these were only intended to bind tho aotion of 













CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 1127 


Congress or other departments of the general government. 
For this reason like clauses arc inserted in the State con¬ 
stitutions. The last three amendments (thirteenth, four¬ 
teenth, and fifteenth) are operative upon the States as well 
as upon Congress. Many of the provisions now considered 
are taken from the English law, and in the very words of 
statutes or text-writers. They thus become fundamental 
law in the sense in which they were used in the country 
whence they were derived. The last three amendments of 
the U. S. Constitution were especially intended to secure 
rights to citizens of African descent, though not confined 
to them. (See Citizen.) Fundamental provisions of this 
sort, when considered together, are frequently termed a 
“ Bill of Rights.” (See Bill of Rights.) There is in some 
instances a tendency to insert in the State constitutions 
matters which are more properly the subject of legislation. 
Sometimes a political party desires to make its policy on a 
question like that of internal improvements a permanent 
one, and secures to that end a provision in the constitution ; 
or perhaps legislatures prove themselves to be unwise or 
even corrupt, and it is thought well to reduce their capacity 
to do mischief by shearing them of their legitimate powers. 
Provisions framed to accomplish such objects do not long 
prevail, and a reaction in public sentiment soon leads to 
an amendment of the constitution. The better view is, 
that constitutions should only deal with*fundamental law. 
When legislators are ignorant or vicious, the true remedy 
is at the ballot-box, where the voters may show their will 
to have more suitable men. (See on the general subject 
Cooley, “On Constitutional Limitations,-” Hough’s “ Col¬ 
lection of State Constitutions;” also the same author’s 
“Annotated New York Constitution of 1846 Story, “On 
the U. S. Constitution;” Kent’s “Commentaries;” and the 
treatises of Rawle, Sargent, and Paschal. The most 
complete view of the principles governing the whole sub¬ 
ject may be obtained from the opinions written by the 
judges of the Supreme Court of the U. S. in deciding spe¬ 
cific cases involving the construction of the Constitution. 
These are collected in the reports of Dallas, Cranch, 
Wheaton, Peters, Howard, Black, Wallace, etc. Ab¬ 
stracts of the points decided may be found in Brightly’s 
“ Digest” and Abbott’s “ National Digests.” These works 
may be used for easy reference to the volumes of the reports 
above named. Full expositions of questions arising under 
the various State constitutions will in like manner be found 
in the published reports of the decisions of the courts of 
the respective States.) T. W. Dwight. 

Constitution of the United States, the funda¬ 
mental or organic law of the union of the States, thereby 
united. This, with all acts of the States in Congress as¬ 
sembled, and all treaties made in pursuance of its pro¬ 
visions, constitutes the supreme law of the land throughout 
the Union. The first Constitution of the U. S. was the 
Articles of Confederation, adopted by the States during the 
war for their independence. (See Confederation, Arti¬ 
cles of; also see Curtis, “History Constitution U. S.,” p. 
139; Sparks, “ Writings of Washington,” letter to Henry 
Lee, 22d Sept., 1788, to Benjamin Lincoln, 26th Oct., 1788, 
and to James Monroe, 22d Feb., 1789.) The first Articles 
proving inefficient for the accomplishment of the objects 
of the Union, mainly upon the grounds that they conferred 
no power upon the central head to regulate commerce with 
foreign nations, nor to act directly upon the citizens of the 
several States respectively in the collection of the quotas 
levied upon the States to meet the public expenditures and 
to sustain the public credit, etc., the Congress, being urged 
by appeals from several quarters, took up the subject of 
amendment and general revision on the 21st of Feb., 1787, 
and then came to the following resolution upon it: 

“Resolved, That, in the opinion of Congress, it is expe¬ 
dient that, on the second Monday in May next, a convene 
tion of delegates, who shall have been appointed by the 
several States, be held at Philadelphia, for the sole and 
express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation, 
and reporting to Congress and the several State legislatures 
such alterations and provisions therein as shall, when 
agreed to in Congress and confirmed by the States, render 
the Federal Constitution adequate to the exigencies of 
government and the preservation of the Union.” (See 
Elliott’s “ Debates on the Federal Constitution,” vol. i., 

p. 120.) 

It was under this resolution of Congress, and in response 
to it by eleven of the States in choosing and sending dele¬ 
gates, that the ever-memorable Federal Convention assem¬ 
bled in Philadelphia the 14th of May, 1787. Each of the 
old thirteen States then composing the Union was repre¬ 
sented in it, except Rhode Island. George Washington, 
almost universally styled the “ Father of his Country,” was 
unanimously chosen president of the convention. As a 
whole, it was unquestionably the ablest body of jurists, 
legislators, and statesmen that had ever assembled on the 


continent of America. The convention remained in session 
from the 14th of May till the 17th of September ensuing. 
Their entire deliberations and proceedings were with closed 
doors. The journal of these proceedings was not published 
until over forty years afterwards. The actual and practi¬ 
cal result, however, of their labors in the execution of the 
high trust committed to them was immediately communi¬ 
cated to Congress, and, being approved by that body, was 
speedily communicated to the respective States. This was 
their grand work in framing and proposing that matchless 
system of Federal government set forth and embodied in 
the new Constitution for the government of the U. S. of 
America, which was adopted and ratified by eleven States 
before the close of the year 1788; so that it went into opera¬ 
tion between the States ratifying at the time appointed in 
1789. The other two, North Carolina and Rhode Island, 
adopted and ratified it in less than two years afterwards. 
The last of the old thirteen which came into the Union, so 
remodelled in its Federal structure, was Rhode Island. 
Several features in this new form and constitution of gov¬ 
ernment for separate states and communities are without a 
parallel in ancient or modern times. It was in contempla¬ 
tion of one of these peculiar features that the learned Do 
Tocqueville, a profound philosopher of France, and one thor¬ 
oughly versed in the science of politics, made the following 
commentary: “This Constitution, which may at first be 
confounded with the federal constitutions which have pre¬ 
ceded it, rests, in truth, upon a wholly novel theory, which 
may be considered as a great discovery in modern political 
science. In all the confederations which preceded the 
American Constitution of 1789 the allied States, for a com¬ 
mon object, agreed to obey the injunctions of a federal gov¬ 
ernment, but they reserved to themselves the right of or¬ 
daining and enforcing the laws of the union. The Amer¬ 
ican States which combined in 1789 agreed that the Federal 
government should not only dictate, but should execute, its 
own enactments. In both cases the right is the same, but 
the exercise of the right is different, and this difference pro¬ 
duced the most momentous consequences.” (SeeDE Tocque- 
ville’s “Democracy in America,” vol. i., p. 198.) 

It was in view of the same peculiar, specific difference 
between the Constitution of the Federal republic of the U. S. 
and that of all others of a similar general type which caused 
Lord Brougham, in his “ Political Philosophy,” thus to 
speak of the wonderful machinery of the government of the 
U. S.: “It is,” says he (vol. iii., p. 336), “not at all a re¬ 
finement that a federal union should be formed ; this is the 
natural result of men’s joint operations in a very rude state 
of society. But the regulation of such a union upon pre- 
established principles, the formation of a system of govern¬ 
ment and legislation in which the different subjects shall 
be, not individuals, but States, the application of legisla¬ 
tive principles to such a body of States, and the devising 
means for keeping its integrity as a federacy, while the 
rights and powers of the individual States are maintained 
entire, is the ver} r greatest refinement in social policy to 
which any state of circumstances has ever given rise, or to 
which any age has ever given birth.” 

The following is the text of the new Constitution pro¬ 
posed by the Convention of 1787, and adopted by a number 
of the States sufficient for it to go into operation in 1789; 
beginning with the preamble, and ending with the last of 
the Amendments. A. II. Stephens. 

Constitution of the United States. We, the people 
of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, 
establish justice, ensure domestic tranquillity, provide for 
the common defence, promote the general welfare, and se¬ 
cure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, 
do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United 
States of America. 

Article I., Sec. 1. All legislative powers herein granted 
shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which 
shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. 

Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed 
of members chosen every second year by the people of the 
several States, and the electors in each State shall have the 
qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous 
branch of the State legislature. 

No person shall be a representative who shall not have 
attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven 
years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when 
elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall bo 
chosen. 

Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned 
among the several States which may be included within 
this Union according to their respective numbers, which 
shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free 
persons, including those bound to service tor a term of 
years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all 
other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within 
three years after the first meeting of tho Congress of the 












1128 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


United States, and within every subsequent term of ten 
years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The 
number of representatives shall not exceed one for every 
thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one rep¬ 
resentative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the 
State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, 
Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Planta¬ 
tions one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, 
Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia 
ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia 
three. 

When vacancies happen in the representation from any 
State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of 
election to fill such vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker 
and other officers; and shall have the sole power of im¬ 
peachment. 

Sec. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be com¬ 
posed of two senators from each State, chosen by the legis¬ 
lature thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have 
one vote. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in conse¬ 
quence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally 
as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of 
the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the 
second year, of the second class at the expiration of the 
fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the 
sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second 
year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, 
during the recess of the legislature of any State, the execu¬ 
tive thereof may make temporary appointments until the 
next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such 
vacancies. 

No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained 
to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of 
the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an 
inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

The Vice-President of the United States shall be president 
of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally 
divided. 

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a 
president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, 
or when he shall exercise the office of President of the 
United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeach¬ 
ments; when sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath 
or affirmation. When the President of the United States is 
tried, the Chief-Justice shall preside; and no person shall 
be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the 
members present. 

Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend fur¬ 
ther than to removal from office, and disqualification to 
hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the 
United States; but the party convicted shall nevertheless 
be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and 
punishment, according to law. 

Sec. 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elec¬ 
tions for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in 
each State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may 
at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except 
as to the places of choosing senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, 
and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, 
unless they shall, by law, appoint a different day. 

Sec. 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, 
returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a ma¬ 
jority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; 
but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and 
may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent 
members, in such manner and under such penalties as each 
house may provide. 

Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, 
punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the 
concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and 
from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as 
may in their judgment require secresy, and the yeas and 
nays of the members of either house on any question shall, 
at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the 
journal. 

Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, 
without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than 
three days, nor to any other place than that in which the 
two houses shall be sitting. 

Sec. 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a 
compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, 
and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They 
shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the 
peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at 
the session of their respective houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same; and for any speech or debate 


in either house they shall not bo questioned in any other 
place. 

No senator or representative shall, during the time for 
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under 
the authority of the United States, which shall have been 
created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased 
during such time; and no person holding any office under 
the United States shall be a member of either house during 
his continuance in office. 

Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or 
concur with amendments, as on other bills. 

Every bill which shall have passed the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be 
presented to the President of the United States; if he 
approve, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it, with 
his objections, to that house in which it shall have origi¬ 
nated, who shall enter the objections at large on their jour¬ 
nal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsidera¬ 
tion two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it 
shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other 
house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered; and if 
approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a 
law. But in all such cases, the votes of both houses shall 
be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the per¬ 
sons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the 
journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be 
returned by the President within ten days (Sunday except¬ 
ed) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall 
be a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the 
Congress by their adjournment prevent its return ; in which 
case it shall not be a law. 

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence 
of the Senate and the House of Representatives may be 
necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be 
presented to the President of the United States ; and before 
the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, 
being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds 
of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to 
the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect 
taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and pro¬ 
vide for the common defence and general welfare of the 
United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall bo 
uniform throughout the United States; 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among 
the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uni¬ 
form laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the 
United States; 

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign 
coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the secu¬ 
rities and current coin of the United States; 

To establish post-offices and post-roads; 

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by 
securing for limited times, to authors and inventors, the ex¬ 
clusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on 
the high seas, and offences against the law of nations; 

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and 
make rules concerning captures on land and water; 

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of 
money to that use shall be for a longer term than two 
years; 

To provide and maintain a navy ; 

To make rules for the government and regulation of the 
land and naval forces; 

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the 
laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel inva¬ 
sions ; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the 
militia, and for governing such part of them as may be em¬ 
ployed in the service of the United States, reserving to the 
States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the 
authority of training the militia according to the discipline 
prescribed by Congress; 

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever 
over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, 
by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Con¬ 
gress, become the seat of the government of the United 
States, and to exercise like authority over all places pur¬ 
chased by the consent of the legislature of the State in 
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, maga¬ 
zines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; and 

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other 
powers vested by this constitution in the government of the 
United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 













CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


1129 


Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as 
any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit 
shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one 
thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax or duty may be 
imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for 
each person. 

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be 
suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the 
public safety may require it. 

No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in 
proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore di¬ 
rected to be taken. 

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any 
State. 

No preference shall be given by any regulation of com¬ 
merce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of an¬ 
other; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be 
obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in con¬ 
sequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular 
statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of 
all public money shall be published from time to time. 

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; 
and no person holding any office of profit or trust under 
them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of 
any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind what¬ 
ever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

Sec. 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or 
confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin 
money ; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and 
silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of 
attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation 
of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay 
any impost or duties on imports or exports, except what 
may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection 
laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid 
by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of 
the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall 
be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 

No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any 
duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of 
peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another 
State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless 
actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not 
admit of delay. 

Article II., Sec. 1. The executive power shall be vested 
in a President of the United States of America. He shall 
hold his office during the term of four years, and, together 
with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected 
as follows : 

Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legisla¬ 
ture thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the 
whole number of senators and representatives to which the 
State may be entitled in the Congress; but no senator or 
representative, or persons holding an office of trust or profit 
under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. * 

The Congress may determine the time of choosing tho 
electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; 
which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 

No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of 
the United States at the time of the adoption of this con¬ 
stitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither 
shall any person be eligible to that office who shall nothavo 
attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen 
years resident within the United States. 

In case of the removal of the President from office, or of 
his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers 
and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the 
Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the 
case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the 
President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall 
then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, 
until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

The President shall, at stated times, receive for his ser¬ 
vices a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor 
diminished during the period for which he shall have been 
elected, and he shall not receive within that period any 
other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take 
the following oath or affirmation : “ I do solemnly swear (or 
affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of 
the United States, and will, to tho best of my ability, preserve, 
protect, and defend tho Constitution of the United States.” 

1 Sec. 2. Tho President shall be Commander-in-Chjef of 
the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia 
of the several States, when called into the actual service of 


* This mode of election of President and Vice-President has 
been modified by the Twelfth Amendment, post. 


the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, 
of the principal officer in each of the executive departments 
upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective 
offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and par¬ 
dons for offences against the United States, except in cases 
of impeachment. 

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent 
of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the 
senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by 
and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint 
ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges 
of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United 
States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise pro¬ 
vided for, and which shall be established by law; but the 
Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior 
officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the 
courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that 
may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting com¬ 
missions which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress 
information of the state of the Union, and recommend to 
their consideration such measures as he shall judge neces¬ 
sary and expedient; he may on extraordinary occasions 
convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of dis¬ 
agreement between them, with respect to the time of ad¬ 
journment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall 
think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other pub¬ 
lic ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully 
executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United 
States. 

Sec. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil offi¬ 
cers of the United States, shall be removed from office on 
impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or 
other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

Article III., Sec. 1. The judicial power of the United 
States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such in¬ 
ferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain 
and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and infe¬ 
rior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and 
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensa¬ 
tion, which shall not be diminished during their continuance 
in office. 

Sec. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in 
law and equity, arising under this constitution, the laws of 
the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassa¬ 
dors, other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of ad¬ 
miralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which 
the United States shall be a party; to controA r ersies be¬ 
tween two or more States; between a State and citizens of 
another State; between citizens of different States ; between 
citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of 
different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, 
and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, 
and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the 
Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the 
other cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have 
appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such ex¬ 
ceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall 
make. 

The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, 
shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State 
where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when 
not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such 
place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 

Sec. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist 
only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their 
enemies, giving them aid and comfort. 

No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the tes¬ 
timony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confes¬ 
sion in open court. 

The Congress shall have power to declare the punish¬ 
ment of treason; but no attainder of treason shall work 
corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of 
the person attainted. 

Article IV., Sec. 1. Full faith and credit shall be given 
in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial pro¬ 
ceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by 
general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, re¬ 
cords, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect 
thereof. 

Sec. 2. Tho citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or 
other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in an¬ 
other State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of 
the State from which he fled, bo delivered up, to be removed 
to the State having jurisdiction of tho crime. 

No person held to service or labor in one State, under 























1130 CONSTITUTION OF TI 

the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in conse¬ 
quence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from 
such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of 
the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

Sec. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress 
into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erect¬ 
ed within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State 
be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts 
of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the 
States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make 
all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or 
other property belonging to the United States; and noth¬ 
ing in this constitution shall be so construed as to prej¬ 
udice any claims of the United States, or of any particular 
State. 

Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State 
in thys Union a republican form of government, and shall 
protect each of them against invasion, and, on application 
of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature 
cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 

Article V. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both 
houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments 
to this constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures 
of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention 
for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be 
valid to all intents and purposes as part of this constitution, 
when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the 
several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, 
as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed 
by the Congress ; provided, that no amendment which may 
be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 
eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses 
in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, 
without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage 
in the Senate. 

Article VI. All debts contracted and engagements en¬ 
tered into before the adoption of this constitution shall be 
as valid against the United States under this constitution, 
as under the Confederation. 

This constitution, and the laws of the United States 
which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties 
made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the 
United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and 
the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything 
in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not¬ 
withstanding. 

The senators and representatives before mentioned, and 
the members of the several State legislatures, and all execu¬ 
tive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of 
the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to 
support this constitution; but no religious test shall ever 
be required as a qualification to any office or public trust 
under the United States. 

Article VII. The ratification of the conventions of nine 
States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this con¬ 
stitution between the States so ratifying the same. 

Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the 
States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the 
year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty- 
seven, and of the independence of the United States of 
America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto 
subscribed our names. 

Geo. Washington, 

Presid't, and Deputy from Virginia. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. PENNSYLVANIA. VIRGINIA. 

JohnLangdon, B. Franklin, John Blair, 

Nicholas Gilman. Thomas Mifflin, James Madison Jr. 

Robt. Morris, 

Massachusetts. Geo. Clymer, north Carolina 

Nathaniel Gorham, fho. Fitzsimons, w Blount 

Rufus Kino- Jared Ingersoll, 'V 1 . 1 - V 10 , , m ’ . , , 

Rufus King. James Wilson, Rich Dobbs Spaight, 

Connecticut. Gouv. Morris. Hu. Williamson. 

Win. Sami. Johnson, Delaware. south Carolina. 

Roger Sherman. Geo. Read, T r> 1]tlpfW 

Gunning Bedford,Jr. Charles Cotesworth 

NEW YORK. John Dickinson, pScknev * 

Alexander Hamilton. Richard Bassett, Charles Pinckney 

Jaco: Broom. Pierce Butler. 

NEW JERSEY. MARYLAND. 

Wil. Livingston, James M’Henry, Georgia. 

David Brearley, Dan. of St. Thomas William Few, 

Win. Paterson, Jenifer, Abr. Baldwin. 

Jona. Dayton. Dan. Carroll. 

Attest: William Jackson, Secretary. 

Amendments.* 

Article I. Congress shall make no law respecting an 
establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise 

IE UNITED STATES. 

thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press ; 
or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to 
petition the government for redress of grievances. 

Article II. A well-regulated militia being necessary to 
the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep 
and bear arms shall not be infringed. 

Article III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quar¬ 
tered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in 
time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

Article IV. The right of the people to be secure in 
their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unrea¬ 
sonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated; and 
no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported 
by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place 
to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

Article V. No person shall be held to answer for a capi¬ 
tal or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or 
indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the 
land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service, 
in time of war and public danger; nor shall any person be 
subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of 
life or limb, nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to 
be a witness against himself; nor to be deprived of life, 
liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall 
private property be taken for public use jvithout just com¬ 
pensation. 

Article VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused 
shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an 
impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime 
shall have been committed, which district shall have been 
previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the 
nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with 
the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for 
obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance 
of counsel for his defence. 

Article VII. In suits at common law, where the value 
in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial 
by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall 
be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States 
than according to the rules of the common law. 

Article VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor 
excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment 
inflicted. 

Article IX. The enumeration in the constitution of cer¬ 
tain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage 
others retained by the people. 

Article X. The powers not delegated to the United 

States by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, 
are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. 

Article XI. The judicial power of the United States 
shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity 
commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States 
by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of 
any foreign state. 

Article XII. The electors shall meet in their respective 

States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, 
one of whom at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same 

State with themselves. They shall name in their ballots 
the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the 
person voted for as Vice-President; and they shall make 
distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all 
persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of 
votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and 
transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United 

State, directed to the president of the Senate. The presi¬ 
dent of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and 

House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the 
votes shall then be counted ; the person having the greatest 
number of votes for President shall be the President, if 
such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from 
the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding 
three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House 
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the 
President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall 
be taken by States, the representation from each State hav¬ 
ing one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a 
member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a 
majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 

And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a 
President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon 
them, before the fourth day of March next following, then 
the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of 
the death or other constitutional disability of the President. 

The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice- 
President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a 
majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and 
it no person have a majority, then from the two highest 
numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-Presi¬ 
dent ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds 
ot the whole number of senators, and a majority of the 

* Articles I. to X., inclusive, were proposed bv the First Con¬ 
gress in 1789-90, Article XI. in 1793, Article XII. in 1803, Article 
XIII. in 1865, Article XIV. in 1868, and Article XV. in 1870. 

\ r ■■ --■ ' . -- -----—-- 
















CONSTITUTIONS OF CLAKENDON—CONSUL. 


1131 


whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person 
constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be 
eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

Article XIII., Sec. 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary 
servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the 
party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the 
United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

See. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article 
by appropriate legislation. 

Article XIV., Sec. 1. All persons born or naturalized in 
the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, 
are citizens of the United States, and of the State wherein 
they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which 
shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the 
United States; nor shall any Stato deprive any person of 
life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor 
deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protec¬ 
tion of the laws. 

Sec. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the 
several States according to their respective numbers, count¬ 
ing the whole number of persons in each State, excluding 
Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any elec¬ 
tion for the choice of electors for President and Vice-Presi¬ 
dent of the United States, representatives in Congress, the 
executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of 
the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabit¬ 
ants of such State being twenty-one years of age, and citi¬ 
zens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except 
for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of 
representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion 
which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the 
whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of ago in 
such State. 

Sec. 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in 
Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or 
hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, 
or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath 
as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, 
or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive 
or judicial officer of any State, to support the constitution 
of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or 
rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to tho 
enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds 
of each house, remove such disability. 

Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United 
States authorized by law, including debts incurred for pay¬ 
ment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing 
insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But 
neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay 
any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or re¬ 
bellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss 
or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obliga¬ 
tions, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Sec. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by 
appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. 

Article XV., Sec. 1. The right of the citizens of tho 
United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the 
United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or 
previous condition of servitude. 

Sec. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this 
article by appropriate legislation. (See Law, Constitu¬ 
tional, by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Constitutions of Clarendon. See Clarendon. 

Construction [Lat. comtructio, from con, “ together,” 
and struo, structum, to “ build”], the act of building; fab¬ 
rication, structure; the mode of putting together the parts 
of a building or system. In grammar, it signifies syntax, 
or the arrangement and connection of words in a sentence; 
their meaning or interpretation. In architecture and en¬ 
gineering, construction is that branch of the science which 
relates to the practical execution of the works required to 
realize the artist’s design ; it is immediately connected with 
the distribution of the different forces, the strains of the 
parts and materials of a building, and the properties of the 
various materials used. 

Construction. See Lnterpretation, by Prof. T. W. 
Dwight, LL.D. 

Consubstantiation [from tho Lat. con, “ together,” 
and substantia, “ substance”], tho transformation, transition, 
or union of substances originally distinct into a common 
substance—substantial conjunction ; a term used in anti¬ 
thesis to Transubstantiation (which see), which means 
the transition of one substance into another, either by 
transmutation or by annihilation and substitution—one 
substance in place of two; while consubstantiation results 
in one substance out of two. The term consubstantiation 
has been used in the controversies on tho Real Presence 
(which see), the mode of the presence of tho body and 
blood of Christ in the Eucharist (which see). The theo¬ 
ries of presence may be thus classified: 


1. Subjective: 1. Natural—Zwingli; 

2. Supernatural—Calvin. 

II. Objective: 1. Monistic; one substance only really 
present; the body and blood: Roman Catholic transubstan- 
liation. 

2. Dualistic; the two substances really present—bread 
and wine, body and blood. 

a. Substantial conjunction of the two—consubstantiation, 
Impanation (which see), as held by John of Paris and 
Rupert; falsely charged on the Lutheran Church. 

b. Sacramental conjunction —mystical mediating relation 
of the natural (bread and wine) to the supernatural (body 
and blood), each unchanged in its substance, and without 
substantial conjunction ; the Lutheran view. 

This tabular view at once accounts for the fact that the 
charge of holding this doctrine has been so commonly made 
against the Lutheran Church, and shows how groundless 
the charge is. (See Krautii’s “ Conservative Reformation,” 
757-775.) The same charge, with an equal want of ac¬ 
curacy, has been made against Dr. Pusey and his school. 

C. P. Krautii. 

Consue'gra, a Spanish town, in the province of Toledo, 
38 miles S. E. of Toledo. It is an old place with steep, 
narrow streets, and a ruined fortress of supposed Roman 
origin. It manufactures coarse stuffs. Pop. 6870. 

Con’sul [from the Lat. consido, to “ consult” or “ad¬ 
vise”], the supreme magistrate of ancient Rome after the 
expulsion of the kings. The number was two, and the 
period of office one year, but there was no restriction as to 
the number of times the same individual might be elected, 
although a certain interval was at length required before 
again holding the office. Consuls were the supreme ex¬ 
ecutive officers, but had no legislative authority. They 
were originally chosen only from the patricians, but after¬ 
wards from the plebeians also. The age required by law 
was forty-three years, but besides this it was requisite to 
have passed through the inferior offices of qusestor, redile, 
and prastor. They were elected at the comitia centuriata 
some months before their entrance into office, which took 
place at different periods of the year at different times, but 
finally in January. During the interval they were termed 
consules designati, or “ appointed consuls.” Soon after the 
entrance into office they cast lots for the provinces to fall 
to the share of each, the superintendence of which was 
conferred on them by the senate. Under the emperors the 
nominal office of the consulate was preserved, but its sub¬ 
stantial power destroyed ; the elections became mere forms, 
the emperor appointing whom he pleased. Then, too, the 
custom was introduced of having several sets of consuls in 
one year; those admitted on the first day gave their name 
to the year, and were distinguished from the others, who 
were termed svjfecti (“substituted”), by the title ordinarii 
(“regular”). Persons also were sometimes dignified with 
the title without enjoying the office, and were then styled 
honorary consuls. Under Justinian the year ceased to be 
called by the name of the consul. 

Consuls in French history were the persons to ■whom, 
after the dissolution of the Directory in Nov., 1799, was 
entrusted the provisional government of the country. Ac¬ 
cording to the constitution thus framed, Bonaparte, Cam- 
baceres, and Lebrun, called first, second, and third consuls, 
were elected at the same time by the conservative senate, 
each for ten years, and invested with different degrees of 
authority. But the senate having passed various decrees 
which curtailed the powers of the second and third con¬ 
suls, and augmented those of the first, the government was 
gradually assimilated to a monarchy, and after the lapse 
of four years and a half an easy transition was made from 
the consular to the imperial form ; the title of emperor was 
substituted for that of consul, and the exercise of the sov¬ 
ereign authority was delegated exclusively to Napoleon 
Bonaparte. 

Con'siiU' [Fr. consul; It. console], a public officer ap¬ 
pointed by a government to reside in foreign seaports and 
other places for the purpose of protecting the interests of 
commerce and performing administrative, and sometimes 
judicial, duties in regard to his countrymen who may be 
in the place where ho resides. Consuls also aid in authen¬ 
ticating documents, in protecting the rights of seamen, and 
in various other minor duties. There are consuls-general, 
vioe-consuls, deputy-consuls, consular and commercial 
agents, etc. They are not in general considered as diplo¬ 
matic officers. They are, as a rule, under obligation to 
obey the laws of the place where they reside. Consuls of 
the U. S. are governed by detailed provisions of statutes 


* Not only the chief magistrates of ancient Rome, but those 
of other Italian cities, were in a later time called consuls; the 
Italian republics, it appears, applied the title to those magis- 
trates whom they sent to the colonies in the Levant, and after- 
wards to their representatives at other ports. 
























CONSUMPTION. 


1132 


passed by Congress, which are collected in Brightly’s “ Di¬ 
gest and Supplements.” These statutes regulate their ap¬ 
pointment and compensation, their duties towards seamen 
and masters of vessels, their power to take possession of the 
estates of deceased persons, to administer oaths, perform 
the acts of a notary, etc. In some countries, such as China, 
Japan, Turkey, and Persia, they are empowered to exercise 
judicial functions, both criminal and civil, and to inflict 
specified punishments. The details of the laws are too 
voluminous to be stated. An important provision, however, 
is worthy of special reference. By the act of 22d June, 
1860, all marriages in the presence of any consular officer 
in a foreign country, between persons who would be author¬ 
ized to marry if residing in the District of Columbia, shall 
have the same validity as if the marriage had been solem¬ 
nized in the U. S. The officer is directed to give to each 
of the parties a certificate of marriage, stating their names, 
ages, places of birth, and residence, and to forward a dupli¬ 
cate to the department of state at Washington. The gen¬ 
eral powers of consuls are discussed in the treatises on in¬ 
ternational law. (See International Law, by Pres. T. D. 
Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D.) 

Consumption [Lat. consnmo, consumption, to “wear 
away ”], the popular name of various diseases characterized 
by a wasting of the body, such, for example, as “anaemia ” 
(known as “consumption of the blood”), but applied es¬ 
pecially to phthisis pulmonalis, a very common and very 
fatal disease of the lungs. It has long been taught, upon 
the authority of Laennec, Louis, and Andral, that the cha¬ 
racteristic symptoms of pulmonary consumption depend 
upon the presence in the lung-tissue of a new growth, or 
neoplasm, called Tubercle (which see); but the studies of 
Virchow, Niemeyer, and other recent pathologists have 
demonstrated that cases of originally tuberculous consump¬ 
tion are quite rare, although they do occur, the presence 
of the tubercles giving rise to local pneumonic inflamma¬ 
tion in their neighborhood; while ordinary consumption is 
generally characterized by (1) local consolidation, (2) cheesy 
degeneration of the solidified spot, and (3) destruction of 
the degenerated tissue and formation of a cavity. This is 
the direct result, in most cases, of a “ catarrhal ” inflamma¬ 
tion—that is, of an inflammation of an epithelial surface, 
such as lines the air-passages—the inflammation being as¬ 
sociated with a free discharge of mucus from the surface 
of the membrane. Next, the air-vesicles of the lungs be¬ 
come filled by inhalation and by other means with the young 
cells of the secretion. If, as in non-fatal cases of ordinary 
pneumonia, these cells soon undergo liquefaction and ab¬ 
sorption, the patient recovers. But if the accumulation of 
cells remains unabsorbed in the air-vesicles, it suffers a 
cheesy degeneration, a sort of slow decay. It appears that 
an inflammatory process is set up around this caseous de¬ 
generate mass, and that the cheesy degeneration is soon 
present in the inflamed lung-tissue itself. After a time the 
degenerate mass may assume a more or less complete puru¬ 
lent form, and may be discharged by coughing. This, 
however, does not always happen. The mass may be ab¬ 
sorbed, the pulmonary tissue become indurated and callous, 
without a trace of tubercle; the bronchial tubes may be¬ 
come dilated, and the disease, spreading slowly, may disor¬ 
ganize but not consume the lungs. This is a very common 
condition in old consumptive cases. Meanwhile, the less 
changed bronchi near the seat of the disease pour forth a 
profuse catarrhal secretion, causing copious expectoration. 
The pleura near the seat of the disease becomes thickened, 
and adheres by organized exudations to the wall of the 
chest. In the majority of cases these changes begin at tho 
apex of one or both lungs. 

The first subjective symptoms are usually dull pains 
about the collar-bones, tightness across the chest, and there 
is not unfrequently a dry, hacking cough, not very severe 
in the morning and late at night. Headache, weariness, 
dyspepsia, and loss of appetite are often present. The 
pulse increases permanently, in most cases exceeding 90 or 
100 beats in a minute. The rapidity of breathing is usual¬ 
ly increased. An early symptom is a high evening tem¬ 
perature—103° or 104° F. In the second stage night- 
sweats are often extremely severe, pus is freely expecto¬ 
rated, hectic fever is decidedly present, the puise is more 
frequent. In the third stage, when considerable cavities 
often form in the lung, the preceding symptoms aro much 
intensified; colliquative diarrhoea supervenes, and yet in 
many cases the patient continues serene and hopeful, and 
the mind is remarkably clear and active. 

The causes of consumption aro very numerous. Niemeyer 
assigns tho first place as a cause to that depraved, ill-nour¬ 
ished state (called the scrofulous diathesis) in which there 
is a tendency to the increased production of young cells. 
Any depressing circumstance may tend to the establishment 
of consumption. An hereditary tendency is one of the 
most important of these circumstances, but any depressed 


state of the parent, especially of the mother, whether con¬ 
sumption, starvation, anaemia, scrofula, or any other dys- 
crasia, appears to have a nearly equal effect on the offspring. 
Bowditch and others have shown that, other things being 
equal, it is most frequently observed in places where the 
air and soil are charged with moisture. Cold weather in 
itself appears to have little or no tendency to produce the 
disease, but a very changeable temperature is one of its 
most fruitful causes. 

There has been considerable discussion as to whether 
consumption is or is not a contagious disease; and facts 
are not wanting which appear to show a danger of infec¬ 
tion, especially to those who take care of and intimately 
associate with consumptives. Another interesting ques¬ 
tion is whether consumption is ever caused or promoted by 
habitual drunkenness, either in the case of the drunkard or 
of his offspring. The best opinion among physicians ap¬ 
pears to be that while in selected cases alcoholic stimulants 
may be useful adjuvants, the remedy is a dangerous one, 
since there is no doubt that many more consumptives are 
injured than are benefited by it. On the offspring of the 
consumptive the effect of hard drinking is confessedly de¬ 
plorable. Over-study at school appears to develop the 
disease in some young people. Overwork, factory-life, 
the grinding of metals, cabinetmaking, and all kinds of 
dusty or sedentary work are undoubtedly prolific sources 
of the disease. Mental trouble, excessive care, too fre¬ 
quent child-bearing, and sexual excess are to be reckoned 
in the list of causes. Consumption frequently follows 
measles, typhoid fever, and whooping cough, not improb¬ 
ably resulting from the bronchitis which accompanies those 
diseases. 

It is also thought that pregnancy will check the disease 
in the female ; and while there are numerous observations 
which go to show that for the time the disease is sometimes 
(but not always) held in abeyance, it is certain that this 
abeyance is often followed by a period of greatly increased 
activity ; and the probability that a child born in such cir¬ 
cumstances will be sickly and short-lived ought to prevent 
the resort to any such practice as a curative measure. 

The physical signs of consumption are those which are 
determined by inspection, palpation, auscultation, and per¬ 
cussion of the chest. Their relative importance can be 
appreciated by none except the well-trained and experi¬ 
enced diagnostician. 

The treatment of consumption cannot be discussed except 
in the most general terms, for no disease is less amenable 
to mere routine treatment. Yet there is no reasonable 
question that, especially in its earlier stages, this disease is 
a curable one. One of the first requisites is the establish¬ 
ment, if possible, of normal nutrition—a process which is 
usually much impaired in those liable to this disease. The 
use of such tonics as quinia and strychnia in some condi¬ 
tions, the administration of cod-liver oil, either as food or 
for its assumed alterative powers, and judicious change of 
climate, are among the most useful measures. Alcoholic 
stimulants benefit some patients and injure others, and on 
the whole do more harm than good; the hypophosphites 
of soda and lime appear to cause increase of weight and 
diminution of cough and expectoration in many cases; thor¬ 
ough counter-irritation of the chest-walls is a very import¬ 
ant adjuvant; the wearing of sufficient clothing to protect 
the body from sudden changes of temperature is not less 
important. Systematic, and even severe, physical labor 
benefits some patients, but others appear to be injured by 
any but the gentlest exercise. Special symptoms, like diar¬ 
rhoea and night-sweats, will require palliative treatment. 
Life in the open air is advisable, except in wet and bleak 
weather. The dry air of the Western plains and of tho 
Rocky Mountain region, the equable weather of Florida, 
and the dry, sandy soil and balsamic exhalations of the 
great pine forests of the South, are believed to afford favor¬ 
able conditions for recovery in many eases. Much depends 
on the peculiar history and temperament of individual 
cases, and the proper appreciation of these conditions in 
any case is likely to tax severely the judgment of even the 
ablest practitioner. Cn arles W. Greene. 

Consumption, in political economj 7 , the converse of 
production. Although frequently used by political econo¬ 
mists, the word has never had a definite meaning. It may 
be said that everything which is produced by human labor 
is to cease in its turn to exist. There is a consumption 
which may be termed annihilation, and a consumption 
which is gain or an addition to the wealth of the world. 
Food is an article of production immediately consumed, 
but the food of tho working man sustains him while he is 
producing more than he consumes. A thousand dollars 
spent in building a house produces something which lasts 
for many years. The same sum spent in raising a wheat- 
crop will seem to bo immediately consumed, but it mav 
havo in reality been laid out more beneficially than the 
















CONTACT—CONTINENT. 


other, through the process of reproduction. If a thousand 
dollars laid out on land increases its value, and makes it 
worth eleven hundred, while the wheat raised by the ex¬ 
penditure of the other thousand is sold for fifteen hundred 
dollars, there is less consumption in the latter expenditure 
than in the formei*. 

Coil tact [Lat. contactus, from con, “together,” and 
tango, to “touch ]. In geometry, two lines, one of which 
at least is curved, are said to be in contact when they have 
a common point, from which they recede in such a way 
that the deflection of the one from the other will, if a 
sufficiently small departure be taken, become as small a 
fraction as we please of that departure. 

Contact, Angle of, the angle made by a curve line with 
its tangent. It is also called angle of contingency, and is 
equal to the angle of curvature. 

Conta'gion [from the Lat. con, “ with,” “together,” 
and tango, to “ touch ”], the transmission, direct or in¬ 
direct, from one person to another, of disease. If of a 
given number of healthy persons exposed to association 
with the sick, a larger proportion becomes ill than is ob¬ 
served among persons not exposed to this cause of disease, 
it is said to be propagated by contagion. It was formerly 
called “common contagion ’ when the disease might pos¬ 
sibly arise from some cause other than direct or indirect 
personal contact; while, if the characters of the disease 
are well marked, and traceable to no cause except infec¬ 
tious contact, it is said to be due to a specific contagion, 
which may be in some cases shown to be capable of repro¬ 
ducing the primary disease to an illimitable extent, being 
conveyed either through the secretions or through exhala¬ 
tions. Contagious diseases are sometimes epidemic, trav¬ 
elling from place to place, but there are epidemic diseases 
which are by no means contagious. No question in the 
etiology of disease is more difficult than that of the bound¬ 
ary line between contagious and non-contagious diseases; 
and, simple as the definition of the term may appear, the 
nature, conditions, and limitations of contagious influence 
are as yet almost unknown. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Coiltari/ni, the name of a noble family of Venice that 
produced numerous doges and senators, of whom the most 
famous were —Ambrogio, a senator, who was sent as am¬ 
bassador to the king of Persia in 1473. He returned in 
1477, and published in 1487 a curious account of his mis¬ 
sion and travels. —Andrea, elected doge in 1367. He 
gained in 1380 an important victory over the Genoese, and 
saved Venice from imminent danger. Died in 1382.— 
Domenico, elected doge in 1659, waged war against the 
Turks, who took Candia in 1667 after a famous siege. 
Died in 1674. —Gasparo, a cardinal and writer, was born 
at Venice in 1483. He was sent as ambassador to the 
court of Charles V., and was papal legate at the Diet of 
Ratisbon in 1541. Died in 1542. 

Contempt' [Lat. contemptus, from contemno, contemp- 
tum, to “despise”], in law, is a wilful disregard or diso¬ 
bedience of a public authority. By the Constitution of the 
U. S. each house of Congress may punish its members for 
disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two-thirds 
expel a member. The power to punish for contempt is 
also possessed by either house of Congress, as incidental to 
the complete exercise of the authority granted by the Con¬ 
stitution, and extends to strangers or persons who are not 
members. This power of punishing for contempt must be 
exercised during the session of Congress, and the punish¬ 
ment itself cannot extend beyond the existence of the 
Congress. 

Contempt of Court. Courts of justice have an inherent 
power to punish all persons for contempt of their rules and 
orders, for disobedience of process, and for disturbing them 
in their proceedings. When a person is regularly adjudged 
to be in contempt he cannot be discharged by another court 
or judge on a writ of habeas corpus. In some of the States 
the law of contempt is carefully regulated by statute. 

Contentnea, a township of Pitt co., N. C. Pop. 2118. 

Conti, de (Armand de Bourbon), Prince, born in 
Paris in 1629, was a brother of the great prince of Conde. 
In the civil war of the Pronde he commanded a royalist 
army against the prince of Conde. He married a niece 
of Cardinal Mazarin. Died in 1666. 

Conti, de (Francois Louis de Bourbon), Prince, a 
French general, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris 
in 1664. He had so high a reputation for valor and other 
popular qualities that he was chosen king of Poland by a 
large party in 1697, but Augustus of Saxony obtained the 
throne. He served with distinction at Steenkerke in 1698, 
and received the command of an army in Flanders in 1709, 
but he died in the same year. According to Saint-Simon, 
he was the “ idol of the soldiers and the hero of the offi¬ 
cers.” (See Saint-Simon, “M6moires.”) 


1133 


Con'tinent [from the Lat. contineo, to “continue” 
(from con, “ together,” and teneo, to “ hold ”), because it 
has an unbroken extent], a large, unbroken tract of land, 
greater than an island. The portion of the solid crust of 
the earth rising above the surface of the ocean is divided 
into six great bodies, the continents, besides innumerable 
smaller ones, the islands. A continent is not simply a 
larger piece of land ; it has a general structure found in all, 
but not in islands, and which may be called the continental 
structure. Moreover, each continent has special traits of 
configuration and a diversity of climate, plants, and ani¬ 
mals which distinguish it from every other, and stamp 
upon it a real individuality. Every large body of land has 
a form more or less triangular. North and South America 
are triangular; Europe, together with Asia, forms another 
large triangle; and the main body of Africa is also trian¬ 
gular. In Australia alone the square form seems to pre¬ 
dominate, though the tendency to the triangular appears 
when we consider the continent as prolonged to the south¬ 
ern point of Tasmania. This remarkable coincidence in the 
fundamental form evidently points to a general law of 
structure Avhich geology may some time discover. In the 
two Americas and in the southern continents of the Old 
AVorld the sharper point of the triangle is turned towards 
the south, in Asia and Europe towards the W. In the 
Western World, therefore, the greatest extension of land 
is from N. to S., 9000 miles, passing through all zones 
of climate, with great changes in plants and animals; in 
Asia and Europe the land extends about 9000 miles from 
E. to W. along the parallels, and the temperature and veg¬ 
etable and animal forms are very similar. 

Notwithstanding their resemblance in general form, the 
outlines of the continents offer striking differences, some 
being deeply indented with gulfs, bays, inland seas, and 
projecting peninsulas, while others present a massive form 
with simpler outlines, without indentations worthy of no¬ 
tice. Carl Ritter has called attention to the vast import¬ 
ance of this kind of configuration to chulization. Such in¬ 
dentations greatly increase the length of the coast-line, and 
the contact of land and water favors the formation of con¬ 
venient harbors, opens the interior of the continents to com¬ 
merce by the paths of the sea, and facilitates communication 
with the outer world. The sea penetrating into the land 
moderates the extremes of heat and cold, and gives moist¬ 
ure and fertility. This subdivision of the continents into 
peninsulas, which make as many peculiar physical regions, 
secures a richer development by assisting in the formation 
of distinct nationalities, such as those reared in the great 
peninsulas of India and Arabia on the Asiatic, and Greece, 
Italy, and Spain on the European, portion of the great 
eastern land-mass. In this respect there is among the con¬ 
tinents a significant gradation. No other part of the world 
has so large a number of indentations, compared to its ex¬ 
tent, as Europe has. The triangle which makes the body 
of this continent has three peninsulas on each of its mari¬ 
time sides—Greece, Italy, and Spain projecting into the 
blue waters of the Mediterranean; the peninsulas of Bre¬ 
tagne, Denmark, and Scandinavia on the shores of the 
Atlantic; while the British Isles themselves are hardly 
less than a projection of the mainland. Numerous in¬ 
dentations are also found in the large Asiatic continent, 
though not so many in proportion to its size. Arabia, 
India, Indo-China in the S., on the shores of the Indian 
Ocean, and China, Manchooria, with Corea and Kamt- 
chatka, in the extreme eastern point of Asia, on the 
waters of the Pacific Ocean, form a necklace of rich lands 
surrounding two-thirds, and containing the most valuable 
portions of its domain. North America, although less 
indented, still has the peninsulas of Florida and Nova 
Scotia on the Atlantic; Labrador and Melville Peninsula 
on its northern Arctic shore; and California and Alaska on 
the Pacific. In these three continents the gulfs, bays, and 
inland seas abound correspondingly. In Europe the large 
peninsular appendages are to the total area of the continent 
as 1 to 4; in Asia, as 1 to 5.5; in North America as 1 to 
14. In Africa, South America, and Australia the waters 
of the ocean nowhere penetrate deeply into the heart of the 
continents. The so-called gulfs or bays—like that of Arica 
in South America, the Gulf of Guinea in Africa, and the 
great South Australian Bay—are only slight bends in the 
coasts; and the projection of the Atlas lands and of Cape 
Guardafui in Africa, and of York Peninsula in North Aus¬ 
tralia, are hardly to be counted among the true peninsulas. 
These three continents are trunks without branches, as 
Ritter expresses himself, or bodies without members ; while 
the northern continents are beautiful trees with trunks and 
abundant branches, or bodies richly articulated with use¬ 
ful members. 

There are upon the entire globe three bands of land and 
six continents—the two American continents iorming one 
band; Europe and Africa another; Asia and Australia a 











1134 CONTINENTAL 


third ; the last two pairs being clustered together on one 
side of tho globe, the first isolated on the opposite side. 
As two of the three bands of land, or four continents, are 
crowded together in the eastern hemisphere, it contains 
two-thirds, and the western hemisphere only one-third of 
the lands. The Old World is thus double the size of the 
New World. (See Earth.) Arnold Gttyot. 

Contilien'tal [originally applied in contradistinction 
to provincial; belonging to the whole American continent, 
and not to any one province or colony], a term applied to 
the money and troops of the revolting colonies during the 
Revolutionary war. It was introduced in the early part of 
that contest by the colonists, to distinguish their own forces 
from those of the British government. The latter were 
called u ministerial forces,” being under the control of the 
British ministry. Tho “Continental Congress” was the 
Congress of the colonies, and after the Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence it was the Congress of the U. S. previous to 1788, 
when the Constitution came into force. It had only one 
house. 

Continen'tal Sys'tem, a name given to Napoleon’s 
plan for excluding British merchandise from all parts of 
the continent of Europe. It commenced with the Berlin 
Decree (issued by Napoleon Nov. 21, 1806), which de¬ 
clared the British Islands in a state of blockade, and treated 
as prisoners of war all Englishmen found in the territories 
occupied by the French armies or by the allies of France. 
The French government was not able to render this blockade 
complete. The British ministers retaliated by an “ Order 
in Council,” which was issued in Jan., 1807, and jjrohibited 
all neutral vessels from entering any port belonging to 
France or her allies; vessels that violated this order were 
confiscated if captured. 

Contin'gency [from the Lat. contingo, to “ happen ”], 
a fortuitous event; a casualty. In law, contingency is an 
event the occurrence of which, though uncertain, is suffi¬ 
ciently probable to be provided for. 

Contin'gent, fortuitous, occurring without design; in 
law, depending on an uncertainty. The term is also 
applied to the cpiota of troops furnished to the common 
army by each member of a confederation ; the propor¬ 
tion of troops or money furnished by each party to an 
alliance. 

Contin'ued Fractions, expressions which arise 
from the approximate valuation of fractions whose terms 
are large. For example, the ratio of the circumference 
to the diameter, ma y represented by the con¬ 

tinued fraction— 

3 + 1 

7 + 1_ 

15 + 1_ 

1 + 1 _ 

25 + 1_ 

1+1 

7£ 

For convenience, the fraction may be written thus: 

3+ > 1 J -* I i 

To convert a proper fraction into a continued fraction, 
divide the denominator by the numerator, and make of 
the mixed-number quotient a new denominater to the nu¬ 
merator, 1. Proceed in like manner with the fractional 
part of this new denominator, and so continue as long as 
the division leaves a remainder, or as long as is necessary 
for the object in view. If the given fractional number is, 
as in the foregoing case, an improper fraction, it must first 
be reduced to a mixed number, after which the above rule 
applies to the fractional part. 

Continuity, Law of, a principle of considerable use 
in investigating the laws of motion and of change in gen¬ 
eral, and which may be thus enunciated: Nothing passes 
from one state to another without passing through all the in¬ 
termediate states. Leibnitz claims the merit of having first 
made known this law; but, in so far as motion at least 
is concerned, it is distinctly laid down by Galileo, and 
ascribed by him to Plato. But, though a perception of its 
truth seems to have been felt long before, Leibnitz was cer¬ 
tainly the first who applied the principle to test the con¬ 
sistency of theories or supposed laws of nature. The ar¬ 
gument on which he attempted to establish it a priori is, 
that if any change were to happen without the interven¬ 
tion of time, the thing changed must be in two different 
conditions at one and the same instant, which is obviously 
impossible. A remarkable application of the law of con¬ 
tinuity was made by John Bernoulli in an “ Essay on the 
Laws and Communication of Motion,” which gained the 
prize of the Academy of Sciences in Paris (1724), to prove 
that perfectly hard bodies cannot exist, because in the col¬ 


CONTRA COSTA. 


lision of such bodies a finite change of motion must take 
place in an instant—an event which, by the law now ex¬ 
plained, is impossible. This conclusion was objected to 
by D’Alembert and Maclaurin, who, on account of it, were 
disposed to reject the law of continuity altogether; but the 
difficulty is got over by supposing (which on various 
grounds is extremely probable) that there is no real con¬ 
tact, and that bodies begin to act on each other when their 
surfaces, or what seem to be their surfaces, are yet at a 
distance. 

Con'toocook, a post-village of Hopkinton town¬ 
ship, Merrimack co., N. H., at the junction of the Con¬ 
cord and Claremont and the Contoocook River R. Rs., 11 
miles S. W. of Concord. It has four churches, an academy, 
and manufactures of carriages, lumber, tubs, and woollen 
goods. 

Contour', in the fine arts, the external lines which 
bound and terminate a figure. The beauty of contour con¬ 
sists in those lines being flowing, lightly drawn, and sinu¬ 
ous. They must be scientifically drawn, and this cannot 
be done without a good knowledge of anatomy. 

Con'tra, a Latin preposition signifying “ against/’ 
“opposite to;” also a musical term meaning opposite, 
lower, and applied to the alto and tenor parts when they 
form the lowest part in harmony. When a part lower than 
the usual bass is employed, it is called contra-basso. 

Contraband [It. contrabando, from the Late Lat. con¬ 
tra bannum, “contrary to proclamation ”], in commercial 
language, goods exported from or imported into a country 
against its laws. Contraband of war are such articles as a 
belligerent has by the law of nations the right of prevent¬ 
ing a neutral from furnishing to his enemy. Articles con¬ 
traband of war are, in general, arms and munitions of war 
and those out of which munitions of war are made. All 
these are liable to be seized; but very arbitrary interpre¬ 
tations have been affixed to the term by powerful states 
when able to enforce them by arms. Thus, provisions have 
been held to be contraband of war when it is the object of 
a belligerent to reduce his enemy by famine. Where (he 
primary use of goods is militar} r , they would seem to be 
plainly contraband ; where the use is of a doubtful character, 
and they are suited either for a state of war or peace, their 
character leaves open an inquiry as to the objects of the ship¬ 
ment and the use to which the goods may be put. The act 
of carrying contraband goods is not, in general, good ground 
for confiscation of the ship; the contraband goods only are 
subject to seizure. The uncertainty respecting the law con¬ 
cerning this whole subject is due to the natural conflict be¬ 
tween the necessities of war and the laws of trade. The 
remark of Calvo appears to be justified, that international 
law has not yet been able to establish a rule universally ac¬ 
cepted and respected concerning the distinctive character 
of contraband of war. The act of carrying despatches to or 
for a belligerent, or the act of transporting his ambassadors 
in a neutral vessel, has given rise to grave discussions in¬ 
volving principles resembling those applied to contraband, 
though requiring separate consideration. Such acts may 
become serious violations of the law of nations, substanti¬ 
ally identifying the neutral with the belligerent, and sub¬ 
jecting his ship to confiscation by the opposing party to the 
war. A question of great magnitude arose in the recent 
civil war in the U. S. in connection ivith the seizure by an 
American officer of the Trent, an English ship, then en¬ 
gaged in carrying Messrs. Mason and Slidell, ministers of 
the insurgents, to a neutral country. The result of the con¬ 
troversy was an assumption by both parties to it that the 
law of nations does not allow a belligerent at sea to take 
into his control, from a neutral vessel, such persons. The 
regular course is to have the ship brought before a prize 
court of the captor for condemnation. It is, however, 
claimed by some writers that there is ground for maintain¬ 
ing that a belligerent may take noxious persons, such as 
military men belonging to the enemy, from a neutral ves¬ 
sel without any prize proceedings, and after their removal 
release the ship. The exercise of such a right, if it exist, 
is so delicate and likely to cause irritation on the part of 
the neutral, that it seems to demand regulation by treaty. 
(Consult Wheaton, Kent, Calvo, and other text-writers. 
See International Law No. II., by Pres. T. D. Wool- 
sey, S. T. D., LL.D.) Revised by T. W. Dwight. 

Con'tra Cos'ta, a county near the central part of 
California. Area, 800 square miles. It -is bounded on the 
N. by San Pablo and Suisun bays, and on the W. by the 
Bay of San Francisco. It is partly occupied by moun¬ 
tains of the Coast Range. Here is Monte Diablo, the cen¬ 
tral landmark of the State. The county contains valuable 
lignitic coal and saline springs. Limestone, sandstone, 
and gypsum are found. Grain, cattle, and wool are raised. 
The soil is in general productive. Capital, Martinez. 
Pop. 8461. 



















CONTRACT. 


1135 


Co ll'tract [Lat. contraho , to “ draw together"], an 
agreement in which a party undertakes to do or not to do 
a particular thing. Contracts are distinguished, according 
to their form, either as contracts of record, specialties, or 
simple contracts. Contracts of record are such obligations 
as are evidenced by judicial records, as, for example, recog¬ 
nizances and judgments. (See these titles severally.) Spe¬ 
cialties are contracts under seal, such as deeds, bonds, and 
covenants. Simple or parol contracts include those agree¬ 
ments which are not comprised within the first two classes, 
and may be either oral or in writing. As regards the mode 
of their creation, contracts are further distinguished as ex¬ 
press or implied. They are express ivhen stated by the 
parties thereto consenting in direct and formal terms ; im¬ 
plied, when they derive their origin and validity from con¬ 
struction of law, as being of such a nature that reason and 
justice dictate their fulfilment. Contracts are still differently 
classified in reference to the time of their performance, as 
executed and executory. They are said to be executed when 
the obligations therein created have been already carried 
out; executory, when their fulfilment is yet to be accom¬ 
plished. Contracts of every variety include four essential 
constituent elements: First, there must be appropriate 
parties; second, there must be mutual consent to the 
terms of the agreement; third, there must be a valid con¬ 
sideration, either actual or presumed; and, fourth, there 
must be a definite subject-matter to be acted upon. As 
regards the first point, all persons are capable of binding 
themselves by their contracts except certain important 
classes of individuals who labor under some natural in¬ 
firmity, either from want of sufficient age (as infants), or 
from lack of requisite mental soundness (as idiots and 
lunatics), or who are placed arbitrarily under disability in 
consequence of their legal status (as married women). 
Drunkards, seamen, aliens, and bankrupts are also inca¬ 
pacitated in certain instances. Infancy at law is the con¬ 
dition of persons under the age of twenty-one, though in 
some States females are considered to arrive at majority at 
eighteen. It is a general principle, though subject to ex¬ 
ceptions, in accordance with modern judicial decisions, that 
an infant's contracts are not void, but voidable; i. e. they 
may be confirmed or disavowed by him, either, in some in¬ 
stances, before majority, or, in all cases, within a reason¬ 
able time afterwards. The chief important exception to 
this rule is an infant’s contracts for necessaries, which are 
considered binding upon him. The import of the term 
“ necessaries ’’ is not invariable, as different articles would 
be comprised within the designation according to the wealth 
and station of various persons. The validity of these ob¬ 
ligations is established for the same reason that others are 
considered voidable—that the infant’s welfare may be en¬ 
sured until he arrives at years of discretion. Moreover, 
the contract of marriage may be entered into by males at 
the age of fourteen, and by females at the age of twelve, 
unless there is some statutory provision to the contrary. 
Idiots and lunatics are relieved from responsibility for 
their contracts, because they are incapable of understand¬ 
ing the nature of the promises they make, and of giving a 
valid assent. But it is likewise true of them, as of infants, 
that contracts for necessaries suitable to their station, if 
entered into with other parties who act in good faith, are 
obligatory. Insane persons may also have lucid intervals, 
and would be liable for agreements made under such cir¬ 
cumstances. Temporary mental weakness resulting from 
intoxication will relieve from liability when it is sufficient 
in degree to preclude reasonable action, and is not con¬ 
tracted purposely to defraud others. Mere mental feeble¬ 
ness, however originating, which is not so excessive as to 
prevent a comprehension of the nature of a contract, will 
be no ground of exemption unless a person affected by it is 
led into a contract by imposition. Married women, at com¬ 
mon law, are placed under an almost entire inability to con¬ 
tract. Their legal existence is deemed to be merged in that 
of their husbands. In some instances they have power to 
bind their husbands, as when they act as agents or make 
engagements for necessaries which their husbands refuse 
to supply; but agreements of this kind are not their own 
personal obligations. Courts of equity and recent statu¬ 
tory provisions have considerably extended the powers of 
married women to enter into engagements which will be 
binding upon their property. This result in equity has 
been accomplished through the medium of trusts. The 
incapacity of xriiens extends mainly to their ability to ac¬ 
quire a valid title to real estate, and in some States has 
been removed. Seamen are relieved, in certain instances, 
from their stipulations, to protect them from the conse¬ 
quences of their own improvidence; while the engagements 
of bankrupts arc in some instances nullified to prevent in- 
jury to their creditors. Persons who arc forced into contracts 
by duress, either through imprisonment or reasonable fear 
of injury to life or limb, are excused from their fulfilment. 


As regards the nature of the obligations which they as¬ 
sume, parties to contracts may act either severally or joint- 
]y> or jointly and severally. When any joint liability ex¬ 
ists, as in the last two instances, and one of the parties 
discharges it by paying more than his share of the indebt¬ 
edness, he may, under the notion of an implied contract, 
recover from the others their just proportion. This is 
termed “ contribution.’’ It rests on a doctrine of natural 
justice, and is more completely enforced in a court of 
equity. The right to enforce agreements against others 
may also be either several or joint; that is, it may inhere 
in a single individual or in two or more collectively. No 
right of this kind, however, can be both joint and several 
at the same time, and in this respect it differs from the cor¬ 
responding liability. Parties may also act on their own 
behalf, or in a representative capacity as agents or partners. 
For the purpose of making a contract, a corporation, how¬ 
ever numerous its members may be, is regarded as a single 
person. The second clement of contracts, assent, is neces¬ 
sarily implied in the term “ agreement’’—a meeting of 
minds. Assent must be mutual, and have reference to ex¬ 
actly the same stipulations. There must not only be a pro¬ 
posal, but an acceptance, and if any modification in the 
terms of the original offer is made by the party by whom 
it is received, no contract is established. The entire con¬ 
currence of all the parties concerned is indispensable. Such 
proposed change would be, in itself, a new offer, which 
would need acceptance. It is not necessary that a pro¬ 
posal when made should be acceded to at once. An offerer 
may contemplate a continuance of the offer for a certain 
definite or understood period, within which assent may be 
expressed by the offeree and a valid contract created; or 
an offer to enter into an agreement may be sent to a person 
at a distance, who must reply by mail. In cases of this 
kind the contract, according to the prevailing opinion, 
though with weighty dissent, is deemed to be completely 
formed from the time when the letter of acceptance is 
posted, without regard to the fact of its being received. 

The element of consideration is that which gives con¬ 
tracts a legal, as distinguished from a moral, validity, for, 
as a rule, promises are not enforceable in law which do not 
rest on such a basis. The consideration is the cause of 
a contract, the return for a stipulation, the price for a 
promise. It may be something actually rendered, as is 
requisite in nearly all simple contracts, or its existence 
may be conclusively presumed, as in negotiable paper 
which has passed into circulation, and in contracts under 
seal. The care and deliberation with which the latter 
are usually formed are considered a sufficient substitute 
for an actual consideration. In the case of negotiable 
paper, a proper consideration will only be conclusively 
presumed when it is necessary to protect the interests of 
innocent, unsuspecting third parties into whose hands the 
paper has passed before maturity. The requisites of a 
valid consideration are that it shall either be some benefit 
to the party promising or some disadvantage or injury to 
the party to whom the promise is made. Considerations 
are distinguished as good or valuable. The former term is 
applied to inducements of relationship and natural affec¬ 
tion ; the latter, to some mode of making return which is 
either directly pecuniary or estimable pecuniarily through 
its probable consequences in occasioning profit or loss. 
Marriage also is included within this latter designation. 
A good consideration will only support an executed con¬ 
tract, and then simply between the parties themselves. As 
illustrations of a valuable consideration may be mentioned 
the payment of money, the performance of work, the for¬ 
bearance to sue, the delivery of property, the making of a 
promise for a promise, and the like. In such cases it is 
not necessary that the consideration be an equivalent for 
the agreement made. A moral obligation will constitute no 
legal consideration for a promise, except in cases where there 
has been a pre-existing legal obligation which is no longer 
enforceable in a court of justice, as where a debt has existed, 
but is barred by lapse of time under the provisions of statutes 
of limitation. If a consideration be illegal or impossible, 
the contract founded upon it will, in consequence, be ren¬ 
dered nugatory. Considerations are also distinguished, as 
regards the time of their fulfilment, as executed, executory, 
and concurrent. They are said to be executed when per¬ 
formed before the promise founded upon them is made, and 
are insufficient to support such promise unless they grew 
out of a previous request, since the agreement cannot be 
the reason of their accomplishment; executory, when they 
are to be performed in the future; concurrent, when they 
and the promises based upon them are simultaneous. I lie 
last two forms of consideration are sufficient to support all 
agreements otherwise unobjectionable. 

The general principle in regard to the subject-matter of 
contracts is, that parties may enter into agreements ot any 
character they may choose. Certain important exceptions 





























1136 CONTRACTILITY 


are, however, established on grounds of public policy. 
Thus, the subject-matter must not contemplate any illegal 
or immoral undertaking. Such agreements are necessarily 
nugatory, and if attempted to bo enforced their illegality 
may be alleged as a valid defence. But when the terms of 
the parties’ stipulations are not thus contravened, it is the 
object of the courts to arrive at the exact meaning of the 
language employed as expressing the intentions of the 
persons contracting, and to enforce all unfulfilled obliga¬ 
tions thence resulting. For this purpose certain definite 
rules of interpretation and construction have been estab¬ 
lished, which are adapted to remove ambiguities and re¬ 
solve uncertainties. These are principally applicable to 
agreements in writing. If the application of these shows 
a comprehensible agreement, and no defences alleged prove 
its invalidity or that its terms have been satisfied either 
wholly or in part, an adequate remedy will be given for its 
violation. In courts of law this consists of pecuniary rec¬ 
ompense or damages for the injury sustained, while courts 
of equity, in proper instances, will decree a specific per¬ 
formance of the engagements undertaken. 

Certain contracts are required to be in writing, for the 
better prevention of fraud and convenience in proving their 
stipulations. This requirement depends upon the so-called 
“ statute of frauds.” The principal classes of agreements 
within its provisions are contracts made upon considera¬ 
tion of marriage, contracts to answer for the debt, default, 
or wrongful act of another, contracts which are not to be 
performed within one year, contracts for the sale of any 
interest in land, and contracts for the sale of personal prop¬ 
erty of a specified value—usually fifty dollars and upwards. 
In all these cases the agreement, or some memorandum there¬ 
of, when written, must also be signed, or in some States sub¬ 
scribed, by the party charged therewith or his agent. In 
the sale of goods, the delivery by the seller and the ac¬ 
ceptance by the purchaser of a portion of the goods will 
render a reduction of the contract to writing unnecessary. 

The remedy upon contracts by action at law is confined 
by “statutes of limitations” within certain prescribed pe¬ 
riods after their maturity. The provisions generally made 
are that no action can be brought upon a simple contract 
after the lapse of six years, or upon sealed instruments 
after twenty years, from the time when they become due. 
(See Limitations, Statutes op.) Important and difficult 
questions also arise as to the effect of the laws of different 
States upon contracts when obligations are assumed in 
one country and sought to be enforced in another (for 
which see International Law, Private, and Marriage). 

The Constitution of the U. S. provides that “no State 
shall pass any law impairing the obligation of contracts.” 
Much discussion has arisen upon the effect of this prohi¬ 
bition. It has been decided that it applies as well to ex¬ 
ecuted contracts or grants as to those which are executory. 
Not only agreements between individuals, but with States, 
as the charters of corporations, confer privileges which are 
inviolable, unless there is some prior reservation of a power 
to make alterations. An exception is, however, established 
in the case of municipal corporations, which are considered 
mere instruments of government, and continually subject 
to legislative authority. Moreover, contracts by which 
States undertake to resign necessary governmental func¬ 
tions are not generally deemed unchangeable by subse¬ 
quent legislation, though an exception to this rule has 
been established in the case of taxation. A deprivation 
by a State of all remedy to enforce contracts is held to be 
an impairment of their obligation, and therefore unlawful; 
this is not true, however, when, on a change of remedies, 
one that is substantial and sufficiently convenient remains 
or is supplied. 

(Reference must be made for different forms of contracts 
to such topics as Agency, Bills op Exchange, Partner¬ 
ship, Sale, Guaranty, Bailment, Shipping, Insurance, 
etc., and for defences to Payment, Performance, Accord, 
Award, Release, Set-off, Usury, etc., etc. Convenient 
books of reference are the works of Parsons, Addison, 
Chitty, Hilliard, Metcalf, Smith, Story, Pothier, “ On 
Obligations,” Kent’s “ Commentaries,” and Domat, « On 
Civil Law.”) T. W. Dwight. 

Contractil'ity [Lat. contractiliias, from con, “to¬ 
gether,” and traho, tractnm, to “ draw ”], a property by 
which the particles of some bodies resume their original 
position when the force applied to separate them is with¬ 
drawn ; also the vital property which gives to certain parts 
(muscles, for example) the power of contracting, by means 
of which animals'perform their motions. Contractility, in 
the latter sense, is a property confined to living organisms. 
It is not peculiar to animals, but is shared by the vegetable 
kingdom; being, among plants, most apparent, as a rule, 
in the prot.ophytes, which are microscopic plants of a low 
grade. Among the lowest forms of animals the whole sub¬ 
stance of the organism usually possesses contractility, but 


CONTRAYERVA. 


in the higher animals this property is, by differentiation, 
limited more or less completely to the organs called mus¬ 
cles. But such motions as those of cilia are common to 
both the vegetable and the animal kingdoms ; and among 
animals are common to man as well as to the protozoon. The 
existence of this important class of motions shows that in 
no organism is contractility entirely limited to the muscles. 
Contractility in such cases is quite independent of any will 
or self-determining power. But at a very low point—if 
not at the very lowest—in the animal scale we begin to find 
signs of a self-determining power, or will, residing within 
the organism, and having a certain degree of control over 
that contractile quality of the tissues. Upon the exercise 
of this control depends the power of voluntary motion. 
Contraction of a muscle may indeed be quite independent 
of volition or consciousness, as in the beating of the heart 
and in all motions of non-striated muscles. But all or¬ 
ganic motion or contractile action appears to depend upon 
some stimulus, whether it be the mysterious nervous force 
or the not less mysterious influences called heat and elec¬ 
tricity. The immediate cause of muscular contraction is 
quite unknown. The theory, that it depends solely upon the 
oxidation of muscular tissue, is quite exploded. It is now 
held by many theorists that oxidation of non-organized 
blood-plasma within the capillaries of the muscles is one 
of the causes of muscular contraction, and that this oxida¬ 
tion liberates heat, which by the nervous influence is trans¬ 
muted into kinetic energy. Electricity also appears to 
have intimate relations with some forms, at least, of or¬ 
ganic contraction. 

Contraction [for etymology see Contract], the act of 
contracting or reducing to a smaller volume; the reverse 
of Expansion (which see). In grammar, the abbreviation 
of a word, the reduction of two sjdlables into one by the 
omission of a letter or letters, as can’t for cannot. 

Contraction, in surgery, is the diminution or oblite¬ 
ration of the calibre of any hollow vessel, and is more 
frequently called Stricture (which see). But frequently 
contraction denotes the permanent shrinkage in bulk (of 
an organ), in area (of a surface), or in length (of a muscle, 
tendon, or other elongated part). -Contraction may result 
(1) from acute inflammation, with the formation of neo¬ 
plasms ; the latter afterwards degenerating, or rather dry¬ 
ing up, into ordinary connective tissue, which occupies less 
than the space of the original intrusive tissue. This is 
well illustrated in the case of burns which destroy much 
skin: the scar contracts, and often causes shocking de¬ 
formity. Yet it is the result of a process which is essen¬ 
tially reparative, and which is necessary to the recovery 
of a healthy condition. (2) From nervous irritation, direct 
or reflex. Thus, the pain of a severe accident to the ankle 
has been known to be immediately followed by permanent 
strabismus. (3) From paralysis. Thus, when only one of 
a pair of antagonistic muscles loses its functional contrac¬ 
tility, the other by its normal exercise may produce a per¬ 
manent deformity. 

Contra!'to, an Italian word, is a term used in vocal 
music to denote the part immediately below the treble, for¬ 
merly called also the counter-tenor. It is often popularly 
called alto. 

Con'trast, opposition of things or qualities. In the 
fine arts, contrast is an opposition of lines or colors to each 
other, so contrived that the one gives greater effect to the 
other. By means of contrast, energy and expression are 
given to a subject even when employed on inanimate forms. 
All art indeed maybe said to be a system of contrasts; 
lights should contrast with shadows, figures with figures, 
and groups with groups. It is this which gives life, soul, 
and motion to a composition. 

Contravalla'tion [from the Lat. contra, “against,” 
and vallum, a “rampart”], in fortification, an intrench- 
ment formed by the besiegers between their camp and the 
place besieged, to secure themselves and check the sallies 
of the garrison. The line of contravallation is thus, as the 
name implies, a sort of counter-fortification. 

Contrayer'va [Sp. contrayerba, a “counter-herb” or 
“antidote”], a drug once in repute as a diaphoretic and 
stimulant, derived from the root-stocks of four different 
species of Dorstenia, of the order Urticace®. The genus 
is remarkable for the roughly quadrangular receptacle on 
which the numerous small flowers appear • the staminate 
flowers in shallow depressions, the pistillate flowers in 
deeper ones. Dorstenia Contrayerva is a perennial Mexican 
herb with irregularly-lobed leaves. Dorstenia Houstonia 
anxl Dorstenia Drakena also grow in Mexico. The root- 
stock is about half an inch thick, sending out on all sides 
many slender fibres covered with small knots. It has an 
aromatic odor, and a bitter, astringent taste. Dorstenia 
Brasiliensis, a stemless species, with heart-shaped leaves 
and a circular receptacle, a native of the West Indies and 













CONTRERAS—CONVERGING SERIES. 


1137 


Brazil, furnishes much of the contrayerva of commerce. 
These plants have been represented as efficacious for ser¬ 
pent bites, and hence the name contrayerva, an “ antidote,” 
like our “ snake-root,” is given to many different plants. 

Contre'ras, a battle-field 14 miles S. of the city of 
Mexico. The battle was fought Aug. 19 and 20, 1847, be¬ 
tween the U. S. forces of Gen. Scott and the Mexican divis¬ 
ion of Gen. Valencia. (See Churubusco.) 

Contreras, de (Juan Senen), a gallant Spanish gen¬ 
eral, born in 1710 at Madrid, entered the Spanish service 
in early youth, and in 1727 visited France, England, and 
Germany on public affairs. In 1788 he fought against the 
Turks. In 1795 he began to serve against the French. He 
fought at Talavera in 1809; as a captain-general he de¬ 
fended Tarragona obstinately, but without success. He 
was taken prisoner and sent to France in 1811, escaped in 
1812, returned to Spain in 1814, and died in his native 
city in 1826. He wrote several books, chiefly military. 

Contribution [Lat. contribuo, to “ impart mutually ”], 
in common law, an obligation imposed upon several per¬ 
sons who are under a common duty, or who own estates 
subject to a common burden, to share between them the 
charge of performing the duty of relieving their property 
of the burden. It is emphatically a rule of equity juris¬ 
prudence, and an illustration of the familiar maxim that 
“ equality is equity.” The illustrations of it are numerous. 
Such instances may be cited as general average in the law 
of shipping; the case of co-sureties, including insurers; 
that of owners of parcels of land subject to a single mort¬ 
gage or other lien, where there are no special reasons for 
casting the burden of payment on one owner more than 
another; of joint debtors, etc. Contribution is sometimes 
exacted in a court of law on the theory of an implied con¬ 
tract, but the remedy is not so complete as in equity. It 
is usually said that there is no contribution among wrong¬ 
doers. This proposition must be received with some qual¬ 
ification, for while the rule must be rigidly applied to wil¬ 
ful wrong-doers, and perhaps to such as are guilty of neg¬ 
ligence, it could not be properly extended to persons who, 
acting in good faith, commit a technical wrong, as, e. g., to 
sureties who execute a bond of indemnity to a sheriff to 
secure him against the consequences of a trespass in sell¬ 
ing property which he has reasonable grounds for suppos¬ 
ing belongs to a debtor against whose property he has an 
execution, while it turns out that the property does not 
belong to the debtor. T. W. Dwight. 

Coiltri ' tioil [Lat. con, intensive, and tero, tritum , to 
“rub,” to “wear away” by rubbing], in ordinai-y usage, 
denotes thorough repentance for sin. In the Roman Cath¬ 
olic Church contrition ( contritio cordis) is the complete 
sorrow and utter detestation which the penitent feels for 
past sin, joined with the purpose to sin no more. Con¬ 
trition, confession, and satisfaction are essential parts of 
the sacrament of penance. (“ Canons of Trent,” s. xiv., 
c. 4.) But some, with Dens (“Theol.,” vi., 51), hold that 
attrition, or imperfect repentance, joined with confession, 
satisfaction, and absolution, is sufficient. Others teach that 
attrition is but a step leading towards contrition. 

Controller (originally written Comptroller), [Fr. 
controleur], an officer appointed to control or supervise the 
accounts of other officers, and to certify whether the matters 
confided to his care have been controlled or examined. The 
minister of finance in France was formerly called contrSleur- 
general. In the State of New York a controller is elected by 
the people. His title is written Comptroller (which see). 

Con'tiimacy [Lat. contumacia, from con, intensive, and 
tumeo , to “ swell” (with pride)], in civil and ecclesiastical 
law, a wilful disobedience to any lawful summons or judi¬ 
cial order. In a criminal process contumacy is punished 
by a sentence of fugitation ; in a civil process the only con¬ 
sequence is that the case will be proceeded with and a de¬ 
cree pronounced against the contumacious party. 

Con'vent [Lat. conventus, from con, “together,” and 
venio, ventum, to “come”], literally, a “meeting;” a re¬ 
ligious house inhabited by a society of monks or nuns, or, 
more strictly, the society itself. But in exact language 
the term “convent” designates a meeting ( conventus) of 
all the members of a religious community, or, more prop¬ 
erly, of those who can vote in the assembly. These voters 
are called “conventuals,” though the latter term is often 
used in other senses. On certain questions it is customary 
in some congregations to assemble the convent either for 
the counsel to be obtained from the brethren or for their 
consent to some ordinance. All the abbots of a congrega¬ 
tion may be called upon in like manner to meet in a “pro¬ 
vincial” or “general convent.” (See Monachism.) 

Con'vent, a post-village, capital of St. James parish, 
La., on the left bank of the Mississippi River, about 50 
miles W. of New Orleans. It has one weekly newspaper. 

72 


Con'venticle [Lat. conventiculum, a diminutive of con¬ 
ventus, a “ meeting ”], a term originally applied to a cabal 
among the monks of a monastery, formed to secure the elec¬ 
tion of a favorite as abbot. It was given to the assemblies 
of Wickliffe’s followers as a term of reproach, and was after¬ 
wards applied to the meetings of the English and Scottish 
non-conformists. Severe laws were passed for the suppres¬ 
sion of conventicles. The most celebrated is that of 1664, 
passed by the British Parliament, which forbade persons 
over five in number and over sixteen years of age, unless 
of one family, to meet for domestic or social worship. For 
the first offence the leader and the occupier of the premises 
received three months’ imprisonment or were fined five 
pounds. The second offence was followed by twofold pun¬ 
ishment. Married women found at a conventicle were im¬ 
prisoned one year, unless their husbands paid a ransom of 
forty shillings sterling. The third offence was punishable 
by transportation or by a mulct of £100 sterling. No 
jury was required for the trial, and a justice of the peace 
might enforce the act upon the testimony of one person. 
This act was modified in 1670, and repealed in 1689. An 
act of Elizabeth’s reign (1593) made the frequenting of 
conventicles punishable by imprisonment and death. 


Convention [from the Lat. con, “together,” and ve¬ 
nio, ventum, to “come”], a term applied in political lan¬ 
guage to assemblies of national representatives meeting on 
extraordinary occasions without being convoked by the 
legal authority. (See Convention-Parliament.) In French 
history the name convention is applied to that assembly 
which met after the legislative assembly had pronounced 
the suspension of the royal functions (Sept., 1792), and 
proclaimed the republic at its first sitting. This body dis¬ 
solved itself on the establishment of the Directory in Oct., 
1796. The Scottish assembly which met on the flight of 
James II. of England was entitled the Convention of 
Estates. In the U. S. meetings of representatives spe¬ 
cially chosen by the people of separate States to revise and 
amend the State constitutions are termed State conven¬ 
tions. 

Convention, in the language of diplomacy, is generally 
synonymous with treaty, with the vague distinction that 
a convention relates to a few or unimportant or non-polit¬ 
ical points. Contracts between belligerents as to certain 
rules to be adopted on both sides in carrying on the war 
are technically termed general conventions. Treaties be¬ 
tween the pope and Protestant powers have been often 
termed conventions. 

Convention, in military affairs, a treaty between military 
commanders concerning terms for a temporary cessation of 
hostilities, generally between a victor and a defeated gen¬ 
eral for the evacuation of a district or position by the lat¬ 
ter. The two most celebrated conventions of modern times 
were that of Closter-Seven (1757), between the dukes of 
Cumberland and Richelieu, and that of Cintra (1808), be¬ 
tween Junot and the English generals. 

Convention, Constitutional. See Constitution, by 
Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D. 

Conven'tion^Parliaraent, in Great Britain, a par¬ 
liament convened without the authority of the sovereign, 
when the crown is in abeyance. As parliaments have no 
right to assemble without royal authority, the acts of con¬ 
vention-parliaments must afterwards be ratified by a par¬ 
liament summoned in accordance with the provisions of the 
constitution. Two convention-parliaments have occurred 
in English history—the first, that which met in April, 1660, 
and restored Charles II. to the throne, the Lords assem¬ 
bling by their own authority, and the Commons by virtue 
of writs issued in the name of the keepers of the liberties 
of England, by the authority of Parliament ; the second, 
that which met in 1688, each house by its own authority 
and on the summons of the prince of Orange, and declared 
that King James II. had abdicated the crown, which was 
transferred to William and Mary. (See Convention.) 

Convergent Fraction, the ordinary fraction which 
is equal to any portion of a continued fraction obtained by 
neglecting all that follows any particular quotient. Thus, 


1 . 1 q- — = — • 1 + — 1 

’ + 2 2’ ^2 + t : 


- • 1 + - 


2 + i i I_ 43 . 

3 + 4 _ 30’ ’ 

1 


are 


* 1111 . 
three successive convergents of 1 + — ctc * 


To obtain the numerator (or denominator) of any conver¬ 
gent corresponding to a certain quotient, multiply the nu¬ 
merator (or denominator) of the preceding convergent by 
that quotient, and to the product add the numerator (or 
denominator) of the next preceding convergent; thus 
43 = 10 X 4 + 3 ; 30-7X4 + 2. 

Converging Series, in mathematics, a series in which 
each term is less than the term next preceding. Thus, the 
































1138 CONVERSANO—CONVULSIONS. 


geometrical series descending, ^y 1 ^ etc., is a converg¬ 
ent or converging series. An infinite series is said to be 
convergent when, however many of its terms may be added 
together, the sum never exceeds numerically some finite 
quantity. On the other hand, it is said to be divergent 
when by adding a sufficient number of terms a sum can 
be obtained which numerically exceeds any given finite 
quantity, however great. A series is not necessarily con¬ 
vergent when its terms continually decrease in magni¬ 
tude. If, however, besides decreasing numerically, the 
terms have alternate signs, the series will be conver¬ 
gent ; thus, 1 — •£ + £ — i, etc. A series will be convergent 
if the quotient obtained by dividing each term by the pre¬ 
ceding one is numerically less than some assignable proper 
fraction, or if this property obtains from and after a cer¬ 
tain term. On the other hand, the terms being all of the 
same sign, the series will be divergent if the quotient in 
question is equal to or greater than unity. This test of 
convergency and divergency cannot be always applied, and 
recourse must be had to others. For instance, the ratio of 
the n th to the (n — l) th term of the series 1 + i + etc. 

it — 1 

being-, is always less than 1, but no proper fraction 

can be assigned than which it is always less, for it ap¬ 
proaches unity without limit as n increases. The series is 
in fact divergent ; for the third and fourth terms are to¬ 
gether greater than |q the four following terms are greater 
than four times the last, or ; the eight following terms are 
together greater than yy, and so on; so that the whole 
series has a greater sum than 1 + i i +, etc., which is 
manifestly divergent. (See Cauchy, “ Cours d’Analyse.”) 

Conversa'no, a town of Italy, in the province of 
Bari, 20 miles S. E. of Bari. It is defended by an old 
Norman castle, and has a cathedral, a bishop’s palace, and 
several convents. Pop. 9731. 

Conversion [from the Lat. con, intensive, and verto, 
version, to “ turn ”], in metallurgy, the process by which 
steel is produced from iron or from iron carbide (cast 
iron). Iron is converted into steel by long heating in con¬ 
tact with carbon. Cast iron is converted by “ puddling,” 
or by the well-known process of Bessemer. The theory in 
both cases is the same—viz. to oxidize the excess of carbon 
in the carbide, and so remove it in the form of carbonic 
acid gas. 

Conversion, in law. This word has two significations : 
1. In equity jurisprudence it means the theoretical change 
of land into money or money into land. The will of an 
owner of property thus to change it, expressed in legal 
forms, is in some instances equivalent to an actual change, 
as where a testator directs his land to be sold and converted 
into money. It is deemed to be sold from the moment of 
his death, and to have the qualities of personal property. 
This is termed equitable conversion. 2. In the law-courts the 
word “ conversion ” is applied to an unauthorized exercise 
of acts of ownership over the personal property of another. 
It is deemed to be a wrong or “ tort,” and the owner of the 
property may either reclaim it or treat the wrong-doer as 
having become owner and recover the value of it. Conver¬ 
sion lies at the foundation of the common-law action of 
trover, which word is derived from the French word trouver, 
to find. There is a legal fiction that the defendant found 
the plaintiff’s property and converted it to his own use. 
The material part of the case is the conversion. To con¬ 
stitute a case of conversion it is not necessary that there 
should have been any intent to deprive the owner of his in¬ 
terest. It is enough if there were an intent to appropriate 
the goods or to exercise an act of ownership over them, 
even though that were done in entire ignorance of the 
owner’s right. Thus, if an auctioneer should sell stolen 
goods, not knowing of the theft, he would be deemed to 
have converted the goods to his own use. As the intent is 
a main ingredient in the case, it has been considered that a 
mere trespass, or an accidental loss of property by a carrier, 
or the use of property as an act of kindness to the owner 
without any intent to convert it, does not amount to a con¬ 
version. There is an important distinction between the 
case where the original taking of the goods is lawful and 
where it is not. In the former case there must in general 
be a demand and a refusal before the conversion takes 
place. Thus, if I lend a book to another to be returned on 
request, there is plainly no conversion until I demand it 
and there is a refusal to return it, since until that time 
there is no exercise of ownership. When the original tak¬ 
ing is unlawful, no demand is necessary. The better opin¬ 
ion is, when an action is brought for conversion, that the 
title to the chattel does not pass to the wrong-doer by mere 
force of the judgment of the court, but that there must be 
actual satisfaction of the judgment on his behalf. 

T. W. Dwight. 


Converter, in metallurgy, the receptacle used to hold 
the iron or carbide of iron which is subjected to the pro¬ 
cess of conversion into steel. The Bessemer converter is a 
large, approximately spherical vessel, lined with fire-clay 
or brick, the bottom of which is perforated with many 
holes, through which a powerful blast of air is driven dur¬ 
ing the process. The vessel is suspended on pivots, and 
controlled by a hydraulic apparatus; by means of which, 
when the appearance of the escaping flame shows that the 
process is complete, it is turned over, and the liquid steel 
is received into moulds. 

Conveyance, in law, is a deed transferring property 
from one person to another. In the transference of per¬ 
sonal property the term, though strictly applicable, is not 
generally used. 

Con'vict [from the Lat. con, intensive, and vinco, vic- 
tum, to “conquer” or “overcome,” in allusion to the culprit 
being completely overcome or OA’erwhelmed by the proofs 
brought against him], a term applied to a person proved 
guilty of a crime. The name came by custom to be applied 
to persons subject to punishment for the more serious class 
of offences; of late its meaning has been often restricted 
in Great Britain to criminals who were transported to the 
distant colonies. Criminals condemned to penal servitude 
for longer or shorter periods are termed convicts under 
penal discipline; offenders sentenced to short periods of 
detention in the ordinary jails are called prisoners. The 
system of transportation to New South Wales was sus¬ 
pended in the year 1840. In France, however, transporta¬ 
tion of convicts still prevails, especially in the case of po¬ 
litical offenders. Among the penal colonies of France are 
Cayenne and New Caledonia. 

Con' vis, a township of Calhoun co., Mich. Pop. 1015. 

Convocation [from the Lat. con, “together,” and voco, 
vocatum, to “call”], a meeting of the clergy of the Church 
of England to discuss ecclesiastical matters in time of Par¬ 
liament. There is one convocation for the province of Can¬ 
terbury, and one for the province of York, but the voice 
of the latter is only a feeble echo of that of the former. 
Each convocation has two houses—the upper consisting of 
bishops, and the lower of deans, archdeacons, and proc¬ 
tors. Acts of convocation were formerly of great import¬ 
ance in the canon law, but since the time of Henry VIII. 
they have no force when opposed to statute law. The con¬ 
vocations have been recently revived, but with little or none 
of their ancient importance. There is also an Irish convo¬ 
cation, with even smaller powers than those of the English 
Church. 

ConvolvuBa'ceie [from Convolvulus, one of the gen¬ 
era], a natural order of exogenous plants which mostly 
have twining stems and a milky juice. It comprises nearly 
700 known species, many of which are natives of tropical 
countries, and have beautiful flowers with five stamens. 
The corolla is monopetalous, and the fruit a capsule. The 
roots of some species possess purgative qualities, as jalap 
(Exogonium Purga). Among the valuable products of this 
order is the sweet potato. Some of the species are culti¬ 
vated for the sake of the flowers, as the Ipomcea jntrpurea, 
or morning glory, a native of tropical America. 

Convol'vulus [from the Lat. con, “ together,” and volvo, 
to “roll”], a genus of plants of the natural order Convol- 
vulacem, containing many species, herbaceous or shrubby. 
The stems are usually twining, the flowers often large and 
of various beautiful colors; calyx 5-parted, corolla mono¬ 
petalous, with regular 5-lobed and plaited limb; five sta¬ 
mens ; the ovary free, with one to four cells and few ovules; 
the fruit a capsule somewhat succulent. Some are culti¬ 
vated as ornamental plants. The Convolvulus Scammonia 
yields scammony. Convolvulus Scoparius, a shrubby spe¬ 
cies, native of the Canary Isles, yields the “ oil of rhodium ” 
and one of the kinds of wood called rosewood, which has 
an odor somewhat like that of roses. The original genus 
is for convenience divided into several sub-genera. Many 
botanists elevate these divisions to the rank of genera. 

Con'voy [Fr. convoi, from convoyer, to “carry” or “ con¬ 
duct”], a name given to one or more ships of war employed 
to protect a fleet of merchant-vessels against an enemy in 
time of war or against pirates. If a ship part company 
with the convoy or neglect to obey the signals, all claims 
for insurance are forfeited. (See International Law No. 
II., by Pres. T. D. Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D.) 

Convoy, in the military service, is a train of wagons 
laden with provisions or warlike stores, or a detachment 
of troops appointed to guard such a train. 

Convulsions [from the Lat. convello, convulsum, to 
“pull violently’ ], (synonyms Eclampsia, Acute Epilepsy ), 
an acute nervous affection occurring in paroxysms, during 
which the patient loses consciousness, the muscles of the 
body are spasmodically contracted, and the limbs first stif- 

















CONWAY. 1139 


fencd and twisted, then agitated by irregular involuntary 
movements. The face is distorted, the eyeballs rolled up¬ 
ward, the teeth clenched, biting the tongue, which protrudes 
at the beginning of the attack. Respiration is arrested by 
the stiffening of the chest-muscles and by closure of the 
glottis; the patient grows black in the face, and froth 
oozes from the mouth, and sometimes from the nostrils; 
the veins of the neck swell. After some time the muscles 
relax again, respiration is restored, the agitation of the 
limbs ceases, the patient either returns entirely to con¬ 
sciousness or falls into a heavy sleep, which may last sev¬ 
eral hours. The appearance and the nature of the attack 
are the same in the convulsions of epilepsy and in the so- 
called eclamptic convulsions of children or of women in 
childbirth. They may result from any cause that first 
irritates and then suddenly abolishes the functions of the 
brain and spinal cord. Convulsions occur, therefore, in 
diseases of the nervous centres; in diseases of other organs 
of the body, that transmit irritation to these centres; 
finally, in morbid conditions of the blood which interfere 
with their nutrition. Under the first head may be men¬ 
tioned congestion or anaemia (bloodlessness) of the brain, 
inflammations, tumors, finally premature ossification of the 
bones of the head, by which the brain becomes subject to 
abnormal pressure. In other cases more obscure there 
seems to exist in the brain and cord a congenital suscep¬ 
tibility to irritation, and consequent exhaustion of func¬ 
tions, so that the most trifling circumstance may occasion 
a convulsion. It is then that are observed the convul¬ 
sions of hysteria and of epilepsy. The latter is only dis¬ 
tinguished by the constitutional tendency that persists 
during the intervals of the attacks, and suffices to cause 
their removal. The hysterical convulsion, however, offers 
some peculiarities, and consciousness, though perverted, is 
not abolished, the interference with respiration is less com¬ 
plete than in typical eclampsia, and leads to involuntary 
laughing and crying; there is no lividity of the face or 
frothing at the mouth; the return to consciousness is imme¬ 
diate, without the transition stage of heavy sleep. Neither 
the irregular convulsive movements of chorea (“St. Vitus’ 
dance,” “clonic” muscular contractions) nor the rigidity 
of tenanus (“tonic” muscular contractions) are sufficient 
to constitute a convulsion, in which the two forms of mus¬ 
cular contraction are combined, the last occurring at the 
beginning, the first at the end of the attack. 

Convulsions dependent on transmitted irritations occur 
principally in children. They may occur spontaneously, 
owing to a congenital predisposition by which normal 
physiological processes become irritating, or they may be 
excited by inflammation of the gums in dentition, by in¬ 
digestion, by worms, by the invasion of acute diseases, as 
pneumonia or eruptive fevers; by some accidents, as ex¬ 
tensive burns. Women in childbirth are liable to convul¬ 
sions of a similar character, which may be excited by the 
mere act of parturition. This dangerous complication 
(puerperal eclampsia) is more frequently, however, asso¬ 
ciated with an alteration of the blood that is liable to occur 
during pregnancy, and due to transient kidney disease (ne¬ 
phritis). The kidneys act imperfectly, and hence part of 
the elements of the urine that should be secreted by them 
are retained in the blood, poisoning it, while at the same 
time part of the albumen of the blood passes off in the 
urine. These convulsions are therefore called albuminu¬ 
ric or uraemic, and afford most striking illustrations of the 
morbid influence of altered blood upon the nerve-centres. 
They occur also in genuine nephritis or Bright’s disease, 
and in that which often complicates the second and third 
stages of scarlet fever. Various mineral or narcotic poisons 
introduced into the blood have a similar effect to uraemia 
in causing convulsions. Finally, a great diminution in the 
mass of blood, caused by exhausting haemorrhages or by 
diarrhoea, has been shown to determine convulsions as cer¬ 
tainly as if the blood had been poisoned. 

Any convulsion may prove fatal if the arrest of respira¬ 
tion bo sufficiently prolonged. The danger varies very 
much according to the cause, the uraemic convulsions of 
women in childbirth (puerperal eclampsia ) being far the 
most frequently fatal. After them may be successively 
ranked, 2, uraemic convulsions 'in primary nephritis, or 
that complicating scarlet fever; 3, those caused by nar¬ 
cotics (opium) or mineral poisons (lead); 4, by the anaemia 
resulting from haemorrhage or diarrhoea; 5, by the irrita¬ 
tion of morbid dentition, worms, or indigestion in young 
children; 6, by diseases of the nervous centres or disorders 
in their circulation (congestion, anaemia); 7, the convul¬ 
sions of epilepsy; 8, those that mark the invasion of acute 
diseases. 

The treatment of convulsions may sometimes be ad¬ 
dressed exclusively to the cause, as in the last three cases 
just mentioned, where the danger of the paroxysm itself is 
known to be small. In the other cases, where life is liable 


to be endangered by the duration or rapid repetition of 
convulsive attacks, these urgently demand relief. Means 
of relief are—1st, compression of the carotids; 2d, alco¬ 
holic stimulants; 3d, venesection ; 4th, chloral; 5th, chlor¬ 
oform; 6th, antihysterical medicines; 7th, warm baths; 
8th, cold applications to head. Each is adapted to a special 
case. Compression of the carotids has been used princi¬ 
pally in idiopathic epilepsy (where, as said, the paroxysm 
itself is often left without treatment). It is intended to 
relieve the congestion existing at the base of the brain, 
and has sometimes proved successful. Cold applications 
are used for the same purpose, and may be combined with 
the other methods of treatment. Stimulants are only 
used where the convulsion results from haemorrhage or 
inanition. Venesection may be required in cases of in¬ 
tense venous congestion of the brain, as indicated by ex¬ 
treme lividity of the face and distension of the veins of 
the neck. It is most often needed in puerperal convul¬ 
sions. Large doses of chloral (15-30-60 grains) are espe¬ 
cially useful for infantile convulsions, or for those of scarlet 
fever, or during the interval of attacks to prevent their re¬ 
newal. The sedative action of chloral is entirely analogous 
to that of inhaled chloroform, but the latter is much more 
powerful, and may be used in more severe cases, or where 
the patient is unable to swallow. Veratnan viricle is a 
powerful agent to lower the pulse and increase the force 
of the heart’s impulse; hence it may be used in the same 
cases as venesection, to dissipate the stagnation of blood 
in the veins. Finally, the warm bath, with or without 
mustard, may be used in nearly all cases, except perhaps 
in puerperal convulsions, where it may be contraindicated 
by the difficulty, and even danger, of moving the patient. 
On the other hand, the facility of its use with young chil¬ 
dren makes it especially applicable to them. 

An hysterical convulsion may be treated with the ner¬ 
vous stimulants formerly called antispasmodics, especially 
assafoetida, valerian, ether (internally). In the interval 
of the attacks galvanism should be applied to the spine. 
Apart from special indications, therefore, treat the average 
convulsions as follows: 1st, place the patient in a warm 
bath, and keep cloths wrung out in cold water on the head ; 
2d, if the paroxysm begins to rapidly abate, give hydrate 
of chloral, 3-5 grains to an infant, 10-15 grains to a child, 
30 grains to an adult; 3d, if the paroxysm be more severe, 
administer chloroform by inhalation ; 4th, if suffocation be 
imminent, bleed to a few ounces. 

Abraham Jacobi. 

Con'way, a small seaport-town of Wales, in Carnarvon 
county, is on the estuary of the river Conway, here crossed 
by a suspension bridge 327 feet long, 13 miles E. N. E. of 
Bangor. Here is Conway Castle, a grand feudal struc¬ 
ture built by Edward I. in 1283 on a steep rock, with eight 
vast towers. Conway is enclosed by embattled walls twelve 
feet thick. It is on the Chester and Holyhead Railway. 
Pop. 2523. 

Conway, a county near the centre of Arkansas. Area, 
1000 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Ar¬ 
kansas River. The surface is diversified and well timbered, 
the soil productive. Tobacco, grain, cattle, cotton, and 
fruit arc raised. Coal is found here. It is intersected by 
the Little Rock and Fort Smith R. R. Capital, Springfield. 
Pop. 8112. 

Conway, a township of Izard co., Ark. Pop. 768. 

Conway, a post-village of Franklin co., Mass., about 
100 miles W. of Boston. It has an academy, a national 
bank, a fire insurance company, and important manufac¬ 
tures. Pop. of Conway township, 1460. 

Conway, a post-township of Livingston co., Mich. 
Pop. 1020. 

Conway, a post-village and township of Carroll co., 
N. H., on the Saco River, at the N. terminus of the Ports¬ 
mouth Great Falls and Conway R. R., has a savings bank 
and manufactures of straw-board, lumber, leather, etc. 
North Conway, 5 miles distant, on the Portland and Ogdens- 
burg R. R., 60 miles N. W. of Portland, is a beautiful place, 
much frequented in summer. It has an academy and manu¬ 
factures of pottery, lumber, etc. Pop. of township, 1607. 

Conway (Henry Seymour), an English general, born 
in 1720. He had a high command in Germany in 1761, and 
became secretary of state in the Whig cabinet in 1765. In 
1782 he was appointed commander-in-chief, and made a 
motion in Parliament to terminate hostilities against the 
U. S. He was a field-marshal. Died July 10, 1795. 

Conway (Thomas), Count he, a general, born in Ireland 
in 1733, removed to the U. S. in 1777. He became a briga¬ 
dier-general in the American army. He was a partisan ot 
Gen. Gates, and took an active part in the intrigues against 
Gen. Washington. He afterwards entered the French ser¬ 
vice, became a count, a field-marshal, and governor ot the 
French East Indies. Hied about 1800. 
















1140 CON WAYBOKOUGII—COOKE. 


Con'way boro ugh, a post-village, capital of Horry 
co., S. C., on the Waocamaw ltiver, about 120 miles E. by 
S. from Columbia, has a iveekly newspaper. Pop. 606; of 
township, 1610. 

Co'liy, an animal mentioned in the Bible, is supposed 
to be the same with the Hyrax (which see). 

Cony (Samuel), a lawyer, born at Augusta, Me., Feb. 
27, 1811, graduated at Brown University in 1829, was a 
judge of probate (1840-47), and governor of Maine (1864- 
67). Died Sept. 5, 1870. 

Con'ybcare (Henry), son of W. I). Conybeare, noticed 
below, an engineer and architect, born in Somersetshire, 
England, Feb. 22,1823, has acquired great professional dis¬ 
tinction in England and in India. 

Conybeare (John), born at Pinliay, England, Jan. 31, 
1692, became bishop of Bristol in 1750. He wrote a “De¬ 
fence of Revealed Religion” (1732), in answer to Tindal. 
Died July 13, 1755. 

Conybeare (Rev. William Daniel), F. R. S., an Eng¬ 
lish geologist, born near London June 7,1787. He discov¬ 
ered the plesiosaurus, and wrote several treatises on the coal¬ 
fields and other strata of Great Britain. In 1845 he was 
appointed dean of Llandaff. Died Aug. 12, 1857. 

Conybeare (W. J.), a son of the preceding, was a fel¬ 
low of Trinity College, Cambridge. In conjunction with 
Dean Ilowson he published “The Life and Epistles of 
Saint Paul” (1852). Died in 1857. 

Con'yers, a post-village, capital of Rockdale co., Ga., 
on the Georgia R. R., 30 miles E. by S. from Atlanta. It 
has two weekly newspapers. 

Con'ynghain, a township of Columbia co., Pa. Pop. 
1943. 

Conyngham, Marquesses of (1816), Earls Conyng- 
ham (1797), earls of Mount Charles (1816), Viscounts 
Mount Charles (1797), Viscounts Conyngham (1789), Vis¬ 
counts Slane (1816), Barons Conyngham (Ireland, 1789), 
and Barons Minster (United Kingdom, 1821). —Francis 
Nathaniel Conyngham, second marquess, K. P., G. C. H., 
P. C., lieut.-gen., born June 11, 1799, succeeded his father 
Dec. 28, 1832. 

CooGlle Creek, a township of Iredell co., N. C. Pop. 
1629. 

Cook, a county of Illinois, bordering on Indiana. Area, 
1027 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Lake Michi¬ 
gan and the State of Indiana, and is intersected by the 
Chicago and Des Plaines rivers. The surface is nearly 
level; the soil is deep and very productive. Cattle, grain, 
tobacco, wool, and garden products are raised. It is trav¬ 
ersed by a number of railroads, which terminate at Chicago, 
the county-seat. Cook is the most populous county in the 
State. Pop. 349,966. 

Cook, a township of Westmoreland co., Pa. Pop. 875. 

Cook (Charles), D. D., an eminent Wesleyan divine, 
chief founder of Methodism in France, was born in London 
in 1787, entered the Wesleyan ministry in 1817, went to 
France in 1818, travelled there, founding Methodist so¬ 
cieties and aiding in the revival of the Huguenot churches, 
till his death in 1858. “ He was to France, Switzerland, 

and Sardinia,” wrote Merle d’Aubigne, “ what Wesley was 
to England in his day.” 

Cook (Clarence Chatham), an American journalist 
and art-critic, born at Dorchester, Mass., Sept. 8, 1828, 
was the son of Zebedee Cook, noticed below. He graduated 
at Harvard in 1849, and studied architecture in the office 
of A. J. Downing (his brother-in-law) and Calvert Vaux 
at Newburg, and afterwards pursued for many years the 
profession of teaching. In 1863, Mr. Cook contributed to 
the New York “ Tribune” a series of articles on American 
art, based upon the exhibition of pictures at the New York 
Sanitary Fair of that year. He continued the profession 
of teacher until 1869, at the same time contributing the 
art criticisms which appeared in the “ Tribune,” besides 
occasional articles to magazines. In 1869 he went as cor¬ 
respondent of the “Tribune” to Paris, but resigned that 
position upon the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war, 
passed some time in Italy, and on his return to America 
resumed his former connection with the “ Tribune.” Mr. 
Cook has published “The Central Park,” New York, F. & 
J. Huntington, 1868, and the text to accompany a repro¬ 
duction by heliotypy of Diirer’s “Life of the Virgin,” 
published by J. R. Osgood & Co., Boston, 1874. 

Cook (Eliza), an English poetess, born in London in 
1817, was the daughter of a respectable tradesman. She 
began literary life as a contributor to various journals. 
Her first volume of poems appeared in 1840, and was highly 
successful. She has published, besides other works, “New 
Echoes” (1804), and was long editor of the “Journal” 
fvhich bore her name. 


Cook (Captain .James), a celebrated English navigator, 
born of very poor parents at Marton, in Yorkshire, Oct. 27, 
1728. He entered the navy in 1755, and served as master 
of a sloop at the capture of Quebec in 1759. He com¬ 
manded an expedition sent to the South Pacific Ocean in 
1768 to observe the transit of Venus. After he had ob¬ 
served the transit with success on the island of Tahiti, he 
visited New Zealand and explored the coast of New South 
Wales. Having made important discoveries in geography, 
he returned by the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived in 
England in June, 1771. In 1772 he conducted another 
exploring expedition in the Resolution and Adventure, in 
order to discover the Terra Australis, a continent supposed 
to exist in high southern latitudes. He circumnavigated 
the globe, discovered the island of New Caledonia, and 
penetrated southward as far as 71° S. lat., but did not find 
the Terra Australis. He returned to England in July, 1775, 
having lost only one man by disease during the voyage. 
He published a well-written journal of his voyage (2 vols., 
1777). In July, 1776, he sailed on a third voyage, the 
object of which was to discover a north-west passage by 
way of Behring Strait. He discovered the Sandwich Isl¬ 
ands in 1778, and explored Behring Strait. Having re¬ 
turned to Hawaii to pass the winter, the natives of that 
island stole one of his boats. Captain Cook with a few 
men went on shore to recover it, and was killed by the 
savages Feb. 14, 1779. (See A. Ivippis, “Life of Captain 
James Cook,” 1788; Hartley Coleridge, “Lives of Dis¬ 
tinguished Northerns,” vol. iii.) 

Cook (Russell Sturgis), a Congregational clergyman, 
born at New Marlborough, Mass., Mar. 6, 1811. From 
1839 to 1856 he was one of the secretaries of the American 
Tract Society, and was the originator of its system of col- 
portage. Died at Pleasant Valley, N. Y., Sept. 4, 1864. 

Cook (Zebedee), son of Zebedee Cook and Sarah 
Knight, was born in Newburyport, Mass., Jan. 11, 1786. 
His ancestors came from Devonshire, England. Born of 
parents in humble circumstances, he had few advantages 
in the way of schooling, and went early to Boston to seek 
his fortune, and from about 1815 to 1838 was engaged 
there in the business of insurance. He was among the 
first to introduce into this country the system of mutual 
insurance, and in 1838 was invited to New York to be the 
president of the first company established in that city on 
the system of a division of the profits between the insurers 
and the insured. This company was called the Mutual 
Safety Insurance Company, and was engaged entirely in 
marine business. While living in Boston, Mr. Cook, al¬ 
ways much interested in rural pursuits, gave the first 
impulse to the formation of the Horticultural Society 
by an article in the “New England Farmer” for Jan. 9, 
1829. On Feb. 24th of the same year a meeting was held 
in Mr. Cook’s office to found a horticultural society, and 
as the result of this and subsequent efforts the Massachu¬ 
setts Horticultural Society was incorporated June 12, 1829. 
Gen. Dearborn was the first president and Mr. Cook first 
vice-president. In 1834, on the resignation of Gen. Dear¬ 
born, Mr. Cook was elected president in his place. He 
introduced the Isabella grape into New England from cut¬ 
tings. To Mr. Cook as much as to any one belongs the 
credit of founding the cemetery of Mount Auburn, the first 
of these institutions, we believe, in the country. Mr. Cook 
was twice married. Caroline Tuttle, his first -wife, was a 
granddaughter of Col. David Mason, one of Washington’s 
aides—a man distinguished for his courage and patriotism, 
and for his interest in the scientific discoveries of his time. 
By this lady Mr. Cook had nine children. His second 
wife was Ann Somes, daughter of Hon. Israel Trask. She 
brought him no children, and still survives him. Died in 
Framingham, Mass., Jan. 24, 1858. 

Cooke, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 900 square 
miles. It is bounded on the N. by Red River. The soil is 
mostly fertile, and is extensively covered with forests. 
Grain and some cotton arc raised. Capital, Gainsville. 
Pop. 5315. 

Cooke (Amos Starr), Rev., a Congregational mission¬ 
ary, born in Danbury, Conn., in 1810, graduated at Yale 
in 1834. He sailed from Boston in the service of the Amer¬ 
ican Board of Foreign Missions in 1836, and arrived at the 
Sandwich Islands in April, 1837. In that year he took 
charge of the education of the royalty and nobility of the 
realm. He remained in charge of the royal school for 
twelve years, and exerted a controlling influence in shap¬ 
ing the character of the rising kings and nobles; and the 
last three Kamehamehas were educated by him. Died at 
Honolulu Mar. 20, 1871. 

Cooke (Ed’ward), D. D., an American clergyman and 
educator, born at Bethlehem, N. H., Jan. 19, 1812, gradu- 
uated with honor at Middletown in 1838. He was teacher 
of natural science in the Amenia Seminary, in Dutchess 












COOKE—COOKERY. 


1141 


county, N. Y., and afterwards principal of the newly- 
founded seminary at Pennington, N. J., 1840-47, and min¬ 
ister in various Methodist Episcopal churches at Boston 
and elsewhere until 1853. He took the direction of the 
institute now known as Lawrence University in Apple- 
ton, Wis., the presidency of which in its more prosperous 
days was again offered him, but declined. Returning to 
the East in 1861, he was two years pastor of the Harvard 
street church in Cambridge, Mass., where he was one of 
the board of examiners of Harvard College, which conferred 
upon him the degree of D. D. in 1855. In 1864, Dr. Cooke 
was elected to the principalship of the Wesleyan Academy 
at W ilbraham, Mass., one of the oldest Methodist literary 
institutes in America. 

Cooke (George Frederick), a popular English actor, 
born in Westminster in 1755. He performed in Dublin 
and London for many years, was successful in both tragedy 
and comedy, and was a rival of John Kemble. In 1810 he 
visited New York, where he died in 1812. 

Cooke (Jay), an American financier, born in Sandusky, 
0., Aug. 10, 1821, went to Philadelphia in 1838, and be¬ 
came a clerk in the banking-house of E. W. Clark & Co., 
ot which he became a partner at the age of twenty-one. 
He established the firm of “Jay Cooke & Co.” in 1861, 
and became well known as a successful government agent 
for the war-loans during the civil war of 1861-65. The 
firm to which he belonged subsequently became agents for 
the Northern Pacific R. R., and their suspension of pay¬ 
ments in 1873 was one of the causes of the financial panic 
of that year. 

Cooke (John Esten), a novelist and lawyer, born at 
Winchester, Va., Nov. 3, 1830. He published, besides other 
works, “Leather Stocking and Silk” (1854), “The Vir¬ 
ginia Comedians ” (1854), and a “Life of General Robert 
E. Lee” (1871). He served as an officer in the Confeder¬ 
ate army in the civil war. 

Cooke (John R.), an American lawyer, a brother of 
General P. St. G. Cooke (noticed below), born in Bermuda 
in 1788, became a prominent and influential member of the 
Virginia bar. He was greatly beloved in private life, and 
was called “ a model of lofty courtesy, chivalry, and gen¬ 
erosity.” Died at Richmond, Va., Dec. 10, 1854. 

Cooke ( Josiah Parsons, Jr.), an American chemist, 
was born at Boston, Mass., Oct. 12, 1827, and graduated at 
Harvard in 1848. He became in 1851 Erving professor of 
chemistry and mineralogy in Harvard University. He has 
published “Chemical Physics” (1860), an admirable work 
entitled “Religion and Chemistry” (1864), “Principles 
of Chemical Philosophy” (1870), and many valuable mon¬ 
ographs. 

Cooke (Nicholas), born at Providence, R. I., Feb. 3, 
1717, was deputy-governor of his native State in 1775, 
and governor of the State (1775-78). He was a personal 
friend of General Washington. Died Sept. 14, 1782. 

Cooke (Parsons), D. D., born at IIadle 3 r , Mass., Feb. 
18, 1800, graduated at Williams College in 1822. He is 
best known as an able controversialist, and was for many 
years (from 1840) editor-in-chief of the “New England 
Puritan” and the “Boston Recorder.” Died at Lynn, 
Mass., Feb. 12, 1864. 

Cooke (Philip St. George), an American officer, born 
1809 in Berkeley co., Va., graduated at West Point in 1827, 
and Nov. 12, 1861, brigadier-general U. S. A. He served 
as infantry officer on the Western frontier 1827-33 ; in 
Black Hawk war 1832, engaged in the battle of Bad Axe; 
and adjutant Sixth Infantry 1832-33. As a dragoon offi¬ 
cer he served on frontier duty 1833-46; on expedition to 
California during the war with Mexico 1846-47 (brevet 
lieutenant-colonel); as superintendent of cavalry recruiting 
1848-52; on frontier duty and scouting 1852-56, engaged 
in skirmishes against hostile Indian tribes ; quelling the 
Kansas disturbances 1856-57; on Utah expedition, in com¬ 
mand of the cavalry, 1857-58 ; preparing cavalry tactics 
1859 ; and in command of Utah 1860-61. In the civil war 
he was in Virginia Peninsula 1862, engaged at Yorktown, 
Williamsburg, Gaines’ Mill, and Glendale; in command 
of Baton Rouge district, La., 1863-64; superintendent of 
recruiting 1864-66 ; in command of the department of the 
Platte 1866-67, and now of the department of the Lakes. 
Brevet major-general Mar. 13, 1865, for gallant and meri¬ 
torious services. He studied law and was admitted to prac¬ 
tice, and is the author of “ Scenes and Adventures in the 
Army,” 1856. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Cook'ery [Fr. la cuisine; Ger. Kochen or Kochkunst; 
Lat. are culinaria ] is the art of preparing food for the table 
by dressing and by the agency of fire. We have no record 
of a time when cooking was wholly unknown, and it is high¬ 
ly probable that the practice began soon after the discovery 
of fire. So universal is the art that some writers have re¬ 


garded it as the distinguishing trait of the human family, 
and have defined man as “ a cooking animal.” Iu its rudi¬ 
mentary form, as seen among the lower races of men, no uten¬ 
sils are employed, but the food is either laid directly upon 
the fire or suspended above it from poles. The degree of 
skill and taste manifested by a nation in the preparation 
of food may be regarded as to a very considerable extent 
proportioned to its culture and refinement. We read in the 
Scriptures that Abraham prepared “ cakes of fine meal ” 
and “a calf, tender and good,” which, with butter and 
milk, he set before the three angels in the plains of Mamrc. 
We are told of the chief butler and chief baker as officers 
in the household of Pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians ap¬ 
pear to have eaten the flesh of a few animals, together 
with bread made of barley, wheat, or the centre of the 
lotus (see Nelumbium), and great quantities of vegetables. 
In the Homeric age of simplicity, royal Greeks were con¬ 
tent to cook their own meats, but before the time of Peri¬ 
cles professional cooks of great skill were known in Greece. 
These cooks stood in the market at Athens ready to be 
hired for particular occasions. Magnificent banquets were 
prepared at an enormous expense, and poets and philoso¬ 
phers appear to have thought it no unworthy ambition to 
be distinguished as the inventors of a new cake or a pop¬ 
ular sauce. The names of many authors of cook-books are 
preserved, that of Archestratus, a poet of Syracuse, being 
the most famous. Among all classes of Greeks fish was 
a principal article of food. Large quantities of salt fish 
were brought from the shores of the Euxine and Helles¬ 
pont. These, with meal, cheese, and onions, are said to 
have formed the chief food of the armies and navies when 
on service. The Greeks ate the flesh of sheep, pigs, lambs, 
and goats, though vegetables appear to have constituted 
their principal food. They had also poultry, game, and 
sausages made of blood. 

In the early days of Rome a gruel made of barley was 
the chief food of the people, and with vegetables was, till 
later times, the usual fare of the inferior classes, meat be¬ 
ing used but sparingly. By degrees, however, a taste for 
luxury was imported. Lucullus introduced habits of epi¬ 
curism from Asia; the gourmand Apicius earned for him¬ 
self a deathless name by the costliness of his dishes. The 
wealthy Romans paid especial attention to the elegant 
serving of their table, as well as to the quality of the 
viands. With them, as with the Greeks, fish was a neces¬ 
sity as well as a luxury; they took great pains to procure 
their oysters, and gave large sums for other fish. In the 
later days of the republic and under the empire a taste for 
extravagant and eccentric cookery was indulged at an un¬ 
heard-of expense. Lucullus gave banquets at a cost of 
50,000 denarii each.* A single dish composed of nightin¬ 
gales’ tongues, the brains of peacocks and pheasants, and 
the livers of the most costly fish, is said to have cost Vitel- 
lius the sum of 1000 sestercia, equal to nearly $40,000, and 
probably equivalent to $300,000 at the present time. Many 
similar absurdities might be mentioned. The favorite meat 
at this time among the Romans was pork, and “ hog in 
Trojan style” was looked upon as the chef-d’oeuvre of a 
good cook. This dish was derived from the Greeks. The 
animal was served whole, being roasted on one side and 
boiled on the other, and its interior was filled with num¬ 
bers of ortolans, thrushes, and beccaficoes. 

The pistor (baker), who made the bread and pastry, and 
the structor, who composed artificial figures of fruit or flesh, 
and who also arranged the dishes, seem to have shared the 
duties of the cook. The Romans made a free use of oil in 
the preparation of their food. The Greeks and Romans 
used honey for the purposes for which we use sugar. It 
was an ancient saying that the number of persons at a re¬ 
past should not be less than that of the Graces nor more 
than that of the Muses. 

With the invasions of the northern barbarians in the fifth 
century the art of cookery retired into the convents, and 
was only revived five hundred years later with the rising 
power of the free cities of Italy'—Venice, Florence, etc. 

Catharine de Medicis introduced the luxuries of Italian 
cookery into France during the reign of Henry II. Eng¬ 
land is said to have been indebted to William the Norman 
for her first lessons in the refinements of gastronomy. At 
a later period the taste for luxurious living had become so 
common in English monasteries that it was found necessary 
to limit the excesses of the monks and clergy by an edict. 

In modern times the French have excelled all other na¬ 
tions in cookery, considered as an art. In the reign of 
Louis XIY. sumptuous and extravagant cookery was in 
vogue among the higher classes, but during the succeed¬ 
ing reigns its character was greatly modified and refined. 


* More than $7000 of our money, but, if we take into consul 
eration the relative scarcity of the. precious metals, probably 
equivalent to $60,000 at the present time. 






































COOKMAN—COOPER. 


1142 


American cookery may be said to be derived in about 
equal measure from the English and the French. From 
the former we have derived our simpler and more sub¬ 
stantial dishes, such as roasts, steaks, and some kinds of 
pastry—from the latter the more delicate and complicated 
side-dishes and desserts. 

Cook'man (George G.), an eminent pulpit-orator of 
the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born at Hull, Eng¬ 
land, in 1800. While engaged in business he was a local 
preacher in the U. S., and afterwards in England. Having 
returned to the U. S. in 1825, he entered the itinerant ranks 
in 1826, and soon became distinguished as a preacher of 
great ability and success. He was chaplain to the House 
of Representatives (1S38-39). He was lost at sea on the 
steamer President while on a voyage to Europe in 1841. 

Cook'shire, a post-village, capital of Compton co., 
Quebec (Canada). It is in Eaton township. Pop. about 
400. 

Cook’s In'let, a part of the Pacific Ocean, is in Alaska, 
opposite the island of Kodiak, between lat. 58° and 61° N., 
and Ion. 151° and 154° W. It is 130 miles long. 

Cooks'town, a post-village of Simcoe co., Ontario 
(Canada), has an active trade and a postal savings bank. 
Pop. about 500. 

Cook'ville, a post-village, capital of Putnam co., 
Tenn., about 80 miles E. of Nashville. It has one weekly 
newspaper. Pop. 156. J. Buck, Jr., Ed. “News.” 

Cool'baugh, a post-township of Monroe co., Pa. Pop. 
1028. 

Coo'ley (Leroy C.), born in Lyme, N. Y., in 1833, grad¬ 
uated at the New York State Normal School in 1855 and 
at Union College in 1858. He was a teacher in seminaries 
at Lockport, Fairfield, and Cooperstown, N. Y., and in 1861 
became professor of natural sciences in New York State 
Normal School at Albany. He is the author of text-books 
of natural philosophy, physics, and chemistry. 

Cooley (Thomas M.), a jurist, born at Attica, N. Y., 
Jan. 6, 1824, removed to Michigan in 1843, and became a 
lawyer in 1846. He has published many volumes of legal 
reports, digests, and compilations. He became professor 
of law in Michigan University in 1850, and a justice in the 
supreme court of Michigan in 1864, and chief-justice in 
1867. 

Coo'lidge (Carlos), LL.D., was born at Windsor, Vt., 
in 1792, graduated at Middlebury in 1811, became a prom¬ 
inent lawyer and State politician, and governor of Ver¬ 
mont (1849-51). Died Aug. 15, 1866. 

Cool Spring, a township of La Porte co., Ind. Pop. 
1328. 

Cool Spring, a post-township of Iredell co., N. C. 
Pop. 711. 

Cool Spring, a township and village of Washington 
co., N. C. The village is about 125 miles E. of Raleigh. 
Pop. of township, 1561. 

Cool Spring, a township of Mercer co., Pa. Pop. 865. 

Cool Springs, a township of Rutherford co., N. C. 
Pop. 1031. 

Cool'ville, a post-village of Troy township, Athens co., 
0. Pop. 334. 

Coo'ly, or Coo'lie, a Hindostanee word of Arabic 
origin, signifying a “slave” or “common laborer,” has of 
late been applied especially to emigrants from India and 
China, who have superseded the negroes in large numbers 
since the abolition of slavery in the West Indies. Coolies 
are said to have been employed in the Mauritius as early 
as 1834, and were afterwards introduced into the West In¬ 
dian colonies, Cuba, Peru, British Guiana, and other coun¬ 
tries. (See Emigration, by IIon. Alex. Delmar.) 

Coomas'sie, the capital of the kingdom of Ashantee, 
in Western Africa, is about 120 miles N. N. W. of Cape 
Coast Castle; lat. 6° 35' N., Ion. 2° 12' W. It has a forti¬ 
fied royal palace. Pop. estimated at 20,000. 

Coombe (William), an English humorous and satirical 
writer, born at Bristol in 1741. Among his works are a 
“ Tour of Doctor Syntax in Search of the Picturesque ” 
(1812), and “ Tour of Doctor Syntax in Search of a Wife,” 
both in verse. Died Jan. 19, 1823. 

Coon, a township of Buena Vista co., Ia. Pop. 385. 

Coon, a township of Vernon co., Wis. Pop. 708. 

Coon'tie, or Coon'ta [an Indian word], the popular 
name of the Zamia integrifolia, a plant of the natural 
order Cycadacem, a native of Southern Florida. Its stem 
abounds in starch, from which a part of the Florida arrow- 
root is prepared. Other species of the genus are cultivated 
in the Bahamas and in Asia for their starch, which, however, 
is usually classed as Sago (which see). Florida once pro¬ 


duced great quantities of this commodity, of which the 
quality is often excellent. 

Coop'er, a county in Central Missouri. Area, 558 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Missouri 
River and intersected by the Lamine River. The surface 
is undulating and hilly; the soil is very fertile. Grain, 
tobacco, and wool are raised. It contains rich mines of 
iron, coal, and lead, and quarries of marble and limestone. 
It is traversed by a branch of the Missouri Pacific It. R. 
Capital, Boonville. Pop. 20,692. 

Cooper, a township of Sangamon co., Ill. Pop. 785. 

Cooper, a post-township of Washington co., Me. Pop. 
360. 

Cooper, a township and post-village of Kalamazoo co., 
Mich. Total pop. 1254. 

Cooper, a township of Gentry co., Mo. Pop. 1498. 

Cooper, a township of Montour co., Pa. Pop. 414. 

Cooper, a post-village, capital of Delta co., Tex., near 
the geographical centre of the county. 

Cooper, a township of Mason co., West Va. P. 1204. 

Cooper (Anthony Ashley). See Shaftesbury. 

Coop'er (Sir Astley Paston), F. R. S., LL.D., D. C. L., 
an eminent English surgeon, born at Brooke, in Norfolk, 
Aug. 23, 1768. He began to study surgery under Mr. 
Cline in London in 1784. He became professor of anat¬ 
omy at Surgeon’s Hall in 1792, and surgeon to Guy’s Hos¬ 
pital in 1800. In 1805 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal 
Society. lie gained distinction by a valuable work on 
hernia (1804-07), and practised surgery with great success 
in London. His annual income is said to have amounted 
to £21,000. He was appointed surgeon to the king in 
1828. Among his works are “ The Principles and Practice 
of Surgery” (1836-37), a treatise “On Dislocations and 
Fractures” (1822), and one on the “Anatomy and Diseases 
of the Breast” (1829-40). Died Feb. 12, 1841. (See B. 
B. Cooper, “ Life of Sir Astley P. Cooper,” 1843.) 

Cooper (James), General, was born in Frederick co., 
Md., May 8, 1810, graduated at Washington College, Pa., 
in 1831, studied law with Thaddeus Stevens, was a Whig 
member of Congress from Pennsylvania (1839-43), and was 
a leading opponent of the repudiation movement in Penn¬ 
sylvania in 1847. He was attorney-general of Pennsyl¬ 
vania in 1848, U. S. Senator from 1849-55, appointed brig¬ 
adier-general of Union volunteers in 1861, served in Vir¬ 
ginia, and died at Columbus, 0., Mar. 28, 1863. 

Cooper (James Fenimore), a popular American nov¬ 
elist, born at Burlington, N. J., Sept. 15, 1789, was a 
son of Judge William Cooper. The latter removed to 
Otsego co., N. Y., about 1790, and founded Cooperstown. 
Young Cooper entered Yale College in 1802, and became a 
midshipman in the U. S. navy in 1806. In 1811 he quit¬ 
ted the naval service and married Susan de Lancey, a 
sister of Bishop de Lancey. He published anonymously, 
in 1819, “Precaution,” a novel, which was considered a 
failure. In 1822 he produced “ The Spy, a Tale of the 
Neutral Ground,” which had great success, was repub¬ 
lished in various parts of Europe, and translated into sev¬ 
eral languages. “ The Spy ” opened a new and fresh field 
of national and imaginative literature. His next work 
was the “Pioneers” (1823), in which he gave a graphic 
description of American scenery and the adventures of life 
on the frontier of civilization. He published in 1823 “ The 
Pilot,” a tale of the sea, which was very popular. He rep¬ 
resented with great success in this work the character of 
sailors and peculiar phases of maritime life and scenery. 
In the “Last of the Mohicans” (1826) he gave a vivid 
picture of the life and character of American savages and 
trappers. In 1827 he visited Europe, where he remained 
nearly six years, during which he published “The Prairie” 
(1827), “The Red Rover,” an admired tale of the sea, and 
other works. He criticised and satirized the national de¬ 
fects and foibles of the Americans in “ The Monikins ” 
(1835), “Homeward Bound” (1838), and “Home as 
Found” (1838). Among his other works are a “History 
of the Navy of the United States” (1839), “The Path¬ 
finder” (1840), “ Wing-and-Wing ” (1842), “Afloat and 
Ashore” (1844), “The Chain-Bearer” (1845), and “Oak 
Openings ” (1848). Died at Cooperstown Sept. 14,1851. 
“He wrote for mankind at large,” says W. C. Bryant; 
“hence it is that he has earned a fame wider than any 
[American] author of modern times. The creations of his 
genius shall survive through centuries to come, and only 
perish with our language.” “ His writings,” says Pres¬ 
cott, “are instinct with the spirit of nationality. In his 
productions every American must tako an honest pride; 
lor surely no one has succeeded like Cooper in the por¬ 
traiture of American character, or has given such glowing 
and eminently truthful pictures of American scenery.” In 













COOPER. 


1143 


person he was well formed, dignified, and had an imposing 
presence. (See “ North American Review” for July, 1822, 
July, 1820, April, 1831, and Oct., 1859; Allibone, “Dic¬ 
tionary of Authors.”) 

Cooper (Myles), LL.D., Oxon., an accomplished 
scholar, second president of King’s College (now called 
Columbia College), New York City, born in England in 
1735, and educated at Oxford, became a fellow in Queen’s 
College. He came to America in 1702, as assistant to Dr. 
Samuel Johnson, first president of King’s College, and 
was made president in May, 1703. In the revolt of the 
colonies he remained loyal to the Crown, and was com¬ 
pelled to flee the country. He became one of the ministers 
of the English chapel in Edinburgh. Died at Edinburgh 
May 1, 1785. 

Cooper (Peter), an American manufacturer, inventor, 
and philanthropist, was born in the city of New York Feb. 
12, 1791. His early life was one of labor and struggle, as it 
is with most of our successful men in this country. He 
commenced in early boyhood to help his father as a manu¬ 
facturer of hats. He attended school only for half of each 
day for a single year, and beyond this very humble instruc¬ 
tion his acquisitions were all his own. At the age of sev¬ 
enteen he was placed with John Woodward to learn the 
trade of coachmaking. In this trade he served his appren¬ 
ticeship so much to the satisfaction of his master that the 
latter offered to set him up in business, but this he declined, 
on account of the debt and obligation it would involve. 

The foundation of Mr. Cooper’s fortune was laid in the 
opportune invention of an improvement in machines for 
shearing cloth. This was largely called into use during the 
war of ^812 with England, when all importations of cloth 
from that country were stopped. The machines lost their 
value, however, on the declaration of peace. Mr. Cooper 
then turned his shop into the manufacture of cabinet-ware. 
He afterwards went into the grocery business in New York, 
and finally he engaged in the manufacture of glue and isin¬ 
glass, which he has carried on for more than fifty years. Mr. 
Cooper in three particulars—as a capitalist and manufac¬ 
turer, as an inventor, and as a philanthropist—is connected 
with some of the most important and useful accessions to 
the industrial arts of this country, its progress in inven¬ 
tion, and the promotion of educational and benevolent in¬ 
stitutions intended for the people at large. His attention 
was early called to the great resources of this country for 
the manufacture of iron. In 1830 he erected works in Can¬ 
ton, near Baltimore. Subsequently he erected a rolling and 
a wire mill in the city of New York, in which he first success¬ 
fully applied anthracite to the puddling of iron. In 1845 
he removed the machinery to Trenton, N. J., where he 
erected the largest rolling-mill at that time in the U. S. for 
the manufacture of railroad iron. In these works he was 
the first to roll wrought-iron beams for fireproof buildings. 
These works have now grown to be very extensive, includ¬ 
ing mines, blast furnaces, and water-power. 

While in Baltimore, Mr. Cooper built, in 1830, after his 
own designs, the first locomotive engine ever constructed 
on this continent. It was successfully operated on tho 
Baltimore and Ohio R. R. Next we find Mr. Cooper taking 
great interest and investing large capital in the extension 
of the electric telegraph. He was the first and only presi¬ 
dent of the New York Newfoundland and London Tele¬ 
graph Company, which continued its operations for eigh¬ 
teen years. He was honorary director of the Atlantic Tele¬ 
graph Company, president of the American Telegraph 
Company, and president of the North American Telegraph 
Association, which at one time represented more than two- 
thirds of all the lines in the U. S. He took part actively 
in the first expedition that laid the Atlantic cable in 1854. 

Mr. Cooper interested himself early in the New York 
State canals. Before the water was let into the Erie Canal 
it was an anxious question what was the best propelling 
power for the boats to be employed on the canal. Mr. 
Cooper then made an interesting experiment of propelling 
a boat by means of an endless chain two miles long, sup¬ 
ported on posts and rollers, which was driven by the force 
of elevated water, and might be driven by any other power. 
By means of this he propelled a boat two miles in eleven 
minutes, carrying with him the governor, De Witt Clinton, 
and other distinguished men at that time. Although this 
method of propulsion was not adopted at that time, it has 
since been successfully and very usefully applied by Mr. 
Weltch in passing boats through the locks of the Delaware 
and Raritan Canal. 

Mr. Cooper has served in both branches of the New York 
common council. He was a trustee in the Public School 
Society, firstformed to promote public schools in New York, 
and when that was merged in the board of education ho 
became a school commissioner. 

But the most cherished object of Mr. Cooper’s life, early 


conceived and faithfully carried out as soon as his means 
permitted, was the establishment of an institution for tho 
instruction of the industrial classes. He desired to furnish 
this instruction during their leisure from work or in the 
evenings, when they might obtain higher attainments in 
the practical arts in which they happened to be engaged, 
or learn some industrial pursuit they might desire. Hav¬ 
ing felt the need of this sort of instruction during his own 
early and laborious life, and knowing that neither the 
common school nor the academy and college can supply 
the technical knowledge and practical education needed by 
the great mass of youth, Mr. Cooper determined to set an 
example in supplying this want of practical instruction for 
the working classes, that should prove not only useful in 
his own city, but be contagious throughout our republican 
land. He saw, with that wise forecast as well as broad 
philanthropy which characterizes his mind, that the youth 
must be trained to industry under an advancing and higher 
order of work which machinery was introducing. Accord¬ 
ingly, in the year 1854 ho laid the corner-stone of a large 
building at the junction of the Third and Fourth avenues 
in New York, “to be devoted for ever to the union of art 
and science in their application to the useful purposes of 
life.” This institution has grown under the fostering care 
of the trustees appointed by Mr. Cooper and his own 
watchful and unremitting attention, until at the present 
time it counts over 1500 pupils in the course of the year. 
It has a school of art for women, taught in the daytime, 
in which free instruction is given in all branches of draw¬ 
ing, in painting, wood-engraving, and photography. It 
has likewise a free school of telegraphy for young women. 
These various schools for the daytime accommodate about 
200 . 

In the evening are opened the free schools of science and 
art for young men and women. Here the mathematics, 
practical engineering, and practical chemistry are thor¬ 
oughly taught, and free lectures are given in natural phil¬ 
osophy and the elements of chemistry. In the art depart¬ 
ment every branch of drawing and painting is taught. 
Besides these free schools, there is a large free reading- 
room and library at the disposal of all comers. About 
1500 resort to this daily, where they have free access to 
280 periodicals and papers, foreign and domestic, and 
about 10,000 volumes. Besides this, there is a free course 
of lectures given every Saturday evening during the winter 
in the large hall of the Cooper Union, that will seat 2000. 
Last year there was spent over $56,000 for the support of 
tho different departments. 

Mr. Cooper is now in his eighty-third year*, and has re¬ 
tired from active business, but his mind is still fresh and 
active, and still bent on public enterprises and the public 
good. J. C. Zachos, Curator of Cooper Union. 

Cooper (Philip II.), born Aug. 5, 1844, in the State 
of New York, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1863, 
became a master in 1865, a lieutenant in 1866, and a lieu¬ 
tenant-commander in 1868. He served in the steam-sloop 
Richmond at the battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and 
was commended “for coolness and courage” on that occa¬ 
sion by his commanding officer, Captain Thornton A. 
Jenkins. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Cooper (Samuel), D.D., an eloquent and learned Amer¬ 
ican divine, born at Boston Mar. 28, 1725, graduated at 
Harvard in 1743. He became pastor of the church in 
Brattle street, Boston, in 1 746, and was intimate with Doctor 
Franklin. lie was an efficient promoter of the popular 
cause in the Revolution. Died Dec. 29, 1783. 

Cooper (Samuel), an American general, born in tho 
State of New York about 1795, graduated at West Point in 
1815. Ho became a captain in 1836, and served in the 
Mexican war (1846-47). In 1852 he was appointed adju¬ 
tant-general with the rank of colonel. Having resigned his 
commission in Mar., 1861, he soon became adjutant-general 
of the Confederate army, and was promoted to the rank of 
full general. He served as such until the end of the war. 

Cooper (Susan Fenimore), the eldest daughter of the 
great novelist, was born in 1815, and has published “ Rural 
Hours” (1850), “Rhyme and Reason of Country Life” 
(1854), “ Country Rambles,” and other works characterized 
by refined taste and admirable style. 

Cooper (Thomas Apthorpe), an actor, born in London 
in 1776, played with much applause in London and the 
U. S. His daughter married a son of President Tyler, 
under whom Cooper held various government offices. Died 
at Bristol, Pa., April 21, 1849. 

Cooper (Thomas), M. D., LL.D., a natural philosopher, 
physician, and lawyer, born in London Oct. 22, 1759. IIo 
accompanied Dr. Priestley to the U. S. in 1792, became a 
Democrat, and took an active part in politics. In 1820 he 
was chosen president of South Carolina College at Co¬ 
lumbia. He published many learned and vigorous pamph- 








1144 


COOPER—CO-OPERATION. 


lets on politics, and several important legal works. Pied 
May 11, 1839. 

Cooper (Thomas Sidney), an English painter, born at 
Canterbury Sept. 20, 1803. lie has painted cattle and sheep 
with great success. 

Coop'erage [from cooper, a “barrel-maker;” in Old 
English coop (Ger. Kufe) signified a “cask”], the art of 
making various wooden vessels, such as barrels, casks, etc., 
the sides of which are formed of upright pieces called staves, 
so skilfully shaped that when all are built and hooped to¬ 
gether, their edges shall exactly coincide; the staves are 
made broadest in the middle, and narrowed in a curved 
line towards each end ; they are made to meet at their inner 
edges, and by driving the hoops are compressed until the 
outside gaps are closed, and thus slight inaccuracies of 
fitting are remedied. The hoops are hammered down from 
the narrow to the wide part of the vessel by means of a 
mallet striking a piece of wood held against the hoop. Both 
wood and iron are used for hoops. The cutting of staves 
is largely done by machinery. Iron hoops are sometimes 
put on hot, in order that their contraction on cooling may 
bind the work together. 

Co-opera'tioii [from the Lat. co (con), “together,” 
and operor, operatus, to “ work ”] is the name given to the 
attempts made within the last forty years, both in Europe 
and the U. S., but chiefly in France and England, to in¬ 
troduce into the relations under which ordinary and indis¬ 
pensable operations of industry, production, and distribu¬ 
tion are carried on, principles which may 

“ Ring out the feud of rich and poor 
Ring in redress for all mankind,” 

and thus realize gradually, without any violent shock to 
existing customs, those brilliant anticipations of a “ good 
time coming,” and attainable by man through his own 
exertions, which in the earlier part of the century the 
efforts and teaching of three remarkable men—Claude 
Henri Conte de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, and Robert 
Owen—kindled in the imaginations of their disciples. It 
would occupy far more space than we can spare to give 
even an outline of the principles by which the divergent 
theories of these illusti-ious social reformers are distin¬ 
guished. (For a literally full, fair, and very readable ac¬ 
count of them we may refer those who are interested in 
such studies to the “ Les Reformateurs Contemporains ” of 
Louis Reybeaud, Paris, 1841.) Still less can we give here 
the history of the schools of thought which arise out of 
their teachings, or attempt to trace the variety of social 
systems produced by the successors of these breakers of 
the fallow ground—men such as J. P. Greaves in England 
and Pierre Leroux, Cabet, and Proudhon in France. One 
exception only we must make in favor of M. Louis Blanc, 
from the influence exercised by his work, “ L’organisation 
du Travail,” published in 1840, on the subsequent progress 
of co-operation. 

The systems of Saint-Simon, of Fourier, and of Owen 
have the common character of claiming to be revelations 
of a code of principles or laws by which the whole life of 
man shall be transformed as by an enchanter’s wand, and 
a new-created world of moral order and material prosperity 
spring up in place of our present civilization. Louis Blanc 
proposed to start from things as they are, and for that pur¬ 
pose suggested a scheme of which he gives the following 
outline : The government should take upon itself the su¬ 
preme regulation of production and the task of putting an 
end to competition, in which it must slay the evil genius 
of society by arms borrowed from competition itself. To 
effect this task the government shall raise a loan, of which 
the proceeds shall be applied to the creation, in all the 
more important branches of national industry, of a num¬ 
ber of social factories, originally rigorously circumscribed 
on account of the considerable outlay required for their 
construction, but organized so as to have an unlimited 
power of expansion. The government shall draw up the 
regulations of these factories, which shall be discussed and 
voted by the representatives of the nation, and thus have 
the force of law. All workmen who can offer guarantees 
for their character shall be admitted to work in them up 
to the limits of the number for whom the original capital 
can furnish the means of work. And (notwithstanding 
the difficulty caused by the false education given to the 
existing generation, which furnishes no motives for energy 
and emulation except an increase of reward) the salaries 
shall be equal, for the new education may be trusted to 
change ideas and customs. During the first year after the 
establishment of any factory the government shall regu¬ 
late the hierarchy of functions. At its termination a hier¬ 
archy shall be formed by the election of the workers, who 
will then have had time enough to appreciate each other, 
and will all be equally interested in the success of the as¬ 
sociation. For in every year the profits of the work shall 


be divided into three parts : one to be equally distributed 
among all the members; a second to be devoted, first, to 
the support of the aged, the sick, and the infirm ; second, 
to the alleviation of any crisis affecting any other industry, 
since all the industries should aid each other; while the 
third shall be consecrated to furnish the means of work to 
those who desire to join the association, so that it may 
grow indefinitely. Workers engaged in occupations natur¬ 
ally disposed to scatter and localize themselves shall be ad¬ 
missible into the associations formed for industries which 
can be carried on upon a large scale; so that each social 
factory may be composed of different businesses grouped 
round some great industry, parts of the same whole, obey¬ 
ing the same laws, and sharing in the same advantages. 
Each member of a social factory shall be entitled to dis¬ 
pose of his salary at his own pleasure, for the evident 
economy and incontestable excellence of life in common 
will ere long produce from the association of labor a volun¬ 
tary association for necessities and pleasures. Capitalists 
may be admitted into these associations, and draw the in¬ 
terest upon the capital contributed by them, which shall be 
guaranteed by the budget, but shall not be allowed to share 
in profits except as workers. (Organisation du Travail, 
Paris, 1848, pp. 103-105.) 

Such was the scheme of which Louis Blanc anticipated 
that were it tried it would lead to the suppression of com¬ 
petition by the absorption of all industries carried on upon 
any other system, and prepare the way “ for the realiza¬ 
tion of the principle of fraternity, which must be the work 
of instruction.” “ Thus would the day arrive when it 
would be-recognized that he owes more to his kind who has 
received from God a large measure of strength or intelli¬ 
gence. Then would genius assert its legitimate empire not 
by the importance of the tribute levied on society, but by 
the importance of the services rendered to it.” “For the 
inequality of capacities has as its true object not the ine¬ 
quality of rights, but the inequality of duties.” (Ib., p. 118.) 

It will be seen that this remarkable scheme is character¬ 
ized by that tendency too common in many French pro¬ 
posals, of relying upon the government to do for the people 
what they despair of being able to do for themselves. Never¬ 
theless, it marks a great epoch in the history of social re¬ 
form, by the clearness with which it pointed out three 
principles ever since more or less distinctly felt to be the 
life-^lood of co-operative efforts: 1st, the looking to the 
association of workers carrying on their accustomed work 
in common as the true means of raising their social condi¬ 
tion through the use of the profits arising from their work; 
2d, the restricting the payment of capital to a fixed rate 
of interest, and giving the capitalist security for his prin¬ 
cipal in lieu of profit; 3d, the elimination of the ruinous 
effects of competition, and the substitution of a healthy 
emulation in its place, by the union of different establish¬ 
ments carrying on the same industry by common centres, 
by means of which diverse industries may also be united. 
Thus, setting aside the arbitrary rule of an absolute equality 
of salaries, which experience has not justified where the 
attempt to act upon it has been tried, and which seems to 
us to err as much by sacrificing the individual to the body 
as the present inequality of payment errs in sacrificing the 
body to the individual,—this organisation du travail may 
still be regarded as the prolific egg out of which the ideas 
of co-operation sprang in France, and which has had no 
inconsiderable influence on the ideas of co-operators in 
England. There the scheme of united action, which Louis 
Blanc proposed to realize through the intervention of the 
government, has been gradually realizing itself through the 
voluntary action of individuals, who, however, have at¬ 
tacked the problem from another side, on which practi¬ 
cally it is more accessible. The new societies imagined by 
Fourier or Owen rested upon associations where the resi¬ 
dents, raising their own food by the cultivation of their 
own lands, and to a great extent supplying their other 
wants by their own labor, would have been substantially 
independent of each other, and not have needed to trouble 
themselves much about the mutual exchange of their sur¬ 
plus produce. But if the workers are to sustain them¬ 
selves by the sale of articles which they cannot eat, as M. 
Louis Blanc proposed, the command of a market through 
which these sales may be effected becomes an indispensable 
condition of success. Hence arises the importance of the 
distributive association or store in any scheme of social im¬ 
provement founded upon the union of artisans to carry on 
their accustomed work. But how are these stores to be 
formed ? The answer practically given has been, By 
unions of consumers, who shall contribute the capital 
necessary to obtain the articles for their own supply, and 
divide among themselves the profits arising from this sale, 
which the shopkeepor, if he supplies that capital, puts into 
his own pocket. Stores of this nature can be formed by 
the workers for themselves without any alteration in their 























CO-OPERATION. 


1145 


accustomed methods of employment. They can be formed 
by a very small expenditure of capital in proportion to the 
business done if the rule of cash payment for all articles 
supplied by them is adopted. They have in themselves a 
natural tendency to expansion, since there is no class of 
persons in them interested in restricting the number of 
members, while the larger the store the greater is the 
security for the capital invested in it, and the smaller the 
proportionate cost of distribution. They are attractive not 
only by the economy which they realize, but also by the pro¬ 
tection against adulteration afforded through their means, 
since they contain no body of persons benefited by adul¬ 
teration. They are instruments by which the workers may 
gradually save up the capital needed to set themselves to 
work, without feeling any burden from the operation, since 
the savings are made out of a fund before inaccessible to 
them—viz. the profits on their own consumption. And 
this fund enables them to pay interest on the accumulations 
while they are in process of being made, so that the worker, 
while preparing the means of becoming his own employer, 
derives a safe and increasing income from the operation. 
Again, by the practice of selling at ordinary prices and 
dividing the accruing profit from time to time, the store 
is converted into a self-acting savings bank, by which the 
frittering away of the profits in small expenses is prevented. 
Thus, by laying his hands upon the thing nearest to him, 
within his own reach, the supply of his own consumption, 
the artisan may see the prospect held out to him by Louis 
Blanc continually drawing nearer, distribution construct¬ 
ing the road leading to production. But to complete this 
road a further operation is necessary—viz. that the local 
centres of supply shall be collected under some common 
head, by which the aggregate wants of large districts may 
be ascertained, and so a market be obtained for the pro¬ 
ductive associations, when formed, sufficiently large to ab¬ 
sorb their productions. Now this operation is facilitated 
by the system of distribution existing in society as it is— 
the well-known division of retail and wholesale trade. Be¬ 
tween the consumer and the actual producer there intervene 
at present not only the retailer, but the dealer from whom 
this retailer obtains the goods he supplies, and if those 
goods are not produced at home, but imported, a further 
set of importers and dealers from whom they buy, and 
brokers through whom these purchases are made, which 
we need not specify. For their own advantage, to make 
the system of self-supply complete, the consumers must 
therefore form for themselves wholesale centres, whence their 
local stores may obtain the goods supplied by them, and these 
centres, when formed, furnish natural channels through 
which the articles produced by co-operative manufacturing 
societies may be distributed to the consumers, with a cer¬ 
tainty that the proportion between supply and demand 
shall always be duly preserved, since the production will 
be founded upon the ascertained wants of the districts sup¬ 
plied. Upon the system thus sketched co-operation has 
grown up in the United Kingdom with a rapidity of which 
the following statistics will give an idea: At the close of 
1844 the celebrated Rochdale Pioneers’ Society was founded 
by seventeen weavers, with a total capital of £28. At the 
present time its share capital has risen to £133,000, of 
which £46,000 is applied to carry on the business, £20,000 
being represented by business premises, machinery, and 
fixtures, and the remainder is invested in the shares of or 
loans to various other societies, or in land or cottage build¬ 
ings, of which it owns 122. At Christmas, 1872, it had 
6444 members; its business during the year 1872 was 
£267,000; its income from all sources, £33,646 ; and its 
average dividend to its members on their purchases 2s. 3d. 
in the pound. The extent to which the example set by 
Rochdale has been followed is shown by a statement com¬ 
piled from the latest official returns, published in 1872 for 
the year 1871, laid before the Co-operative Congress held 
in April, 1873, at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and showing also 
the localities in which co-operation has spread most widely 
in England: 



Lancashire 

and 

Yorkshire. 

All other 
counties. 

Total of 
England and 
Wales. 

Property and stock ins’d 

Members end of 1871. 

Share capital “ . 

Capital. “ . 

Cash sales during 1871.... 

Average stock. 

Total expenses. 

Int,. on shares and loans 

Liabilities. 

Assets. 

Disposable net profits.... 
Dividend to members.. .. 

“ to non-members 

Applied to education. 

£701,570 

157,225 

£1,863,729 

174,862 

6,082,888 

658,959 

200,747 

82,656 

2,157,817 

2,308,048 

438,307 

388,659 

10,706 

4,126 

£484,991 

104,963 

£442,222 

40,691 

3,356,583 

374,487 

187,974 

18,182 

708,501 

717,519 

232,414 

194,613 

51,542 

671 

£1,186,564 

262,188 

£2,305,951 

215,553 

9,439,471 

1,029,446 

388.721 
100,778 

2,856,318 

3,025,567 

670.721 
5S3,290 

16,248 

5,097 


The statement, indeed, is not perfect, since it takes no no¬ 
tice of Scotland, where there were 255 registered societies, 
but of which 70 only had made returns to the registrar; 
and it relates only to about nine-tenths of the societies be¬ 
lieved to exist in England and Wales, because no returns 
had been made from the other tenth. But of these 746, 
twenty-two only were formed for manufacturing purposes 
other than the preparation of flour. The collective share 
capital of these societies (excluding a cotton-factory at 
Rochdale, within the immediate influence of the Equitable 
Pioneers, which possessed £98,650) was only £22,195, giv¬ 
ing an average of about £1050, while the share capital of 
the 724 other societies gives an average of about £3050, 
although the successful conduct of manufacturing opera¬ 
tions demands a much larger capital than is needed by a 
store, which deals for ready money. This fact seems to us 
a striking proof of the advantage possessed by the method 
of beginning by organizing distribution, and thus accumu¬ 
lating the capital required for productive enterprise, over 
that which seeks to obtain the capital at once out of tho 
contributions of the intended workers. A confirmation of 
this view is afforded by the experience of the Continent: 
1st, in the history of French co-operatioji; 2d, that of the 
system of co-operative banks introduced by Mr. Schultze 
Delitzsch into Germany. In France a number of societies 
sprung up in 1848 under the influence of the ideas of which 
M. Louis Blanc’s organisation du travail is the most bril¬ 
liant expression; and of these many appear still to sub¬ 
sist ; indeed, the number is said to have increased of late, 
and of those which subsisted at the outbreak of the German 
war, none failed either from the pressure of the siege or the 
action of the Commune. ( Letters of M. Merlot, and Mon¬ 
sieur Herbart Valleroci’s report to Bolton Congress, 1872, p. 
99.) But they do not appear to have made any striking 
progress. Monsieur Merlot speaks of the want of capital 
to obtain the instruments of manufacture and a reserve 
fund to meet embarrassments as the great obstacles to their 
success. M. C. Limousin, in a monthly journal recently 
established at Paris, called “ Le Bulletin du Mouvement 
Social,” ascribes it—1st, to a refusal to use capital supplied 
by persons outside; 2d, to the not giving any share of 
profits to the workers not members; and 3d, to an extreme 
distrust of those elected to direct the undertakings, so that 
they are constantly removed. Now, for all these evils an 
appropriate remedy appears to be provided in the creation 
of a central fund for the promotion of such productive 
establishments through the accumulative savings of the 
consumers to whom the articles manufactured may be sold; 
for of this capital the workman can feel no jealousy, since 
it is really supplied by himself. The consumer may counter¬ 
act the spirit of exclusiveness proper to the factory by the 
spirit of free admission natural to the store when profits 
are divided upon purchases; and they may regulate, by 
the governing action of the distributive stomach, the dis¬ 
trustful impatience of the producing members. 

While France has thus been slowly groping her way to 
productive union, in Germany a peculiar form of combined 
action has sprung up, suited to the condition of labor in 
that country. It consists in the formation of local associ¬ 
ations for the joint purchase of raw materials, or for ob¬ 
taining advances of capital by the poorer classes, on terms 
as advantageous as those at the command of the richer, 
introduced in 1S59 at the suggestion of Mr. Schultze De¬ 
litzsch. This movement so prospered that at the end of 
1871 it numbered 2059 societies with 1,200,000 mem¬ 
bers, a subscribed capital of £4,700,000, a loan capital of 
£12,750,000, and a turn-over of £60,000,000 ; while in as¬ 
sociation with it there existed 404 societies connected with 
manufactures, and 827 stores. ( Report for 1871, by Mr. 
Schultze Delitzsch, published 1872.) A similar system 
has recently grown up with great promise of success in 
Italy. 

To complete this sketch, we must add that both in Ger¬ 
many and in England central associations adapted to bring 
the separate societies into collective action are in operation, 
and are beginning to exercise a powerful influence. In 
Germany the function of the central body appears at pres¬ 
ent confined to the collection and diffusion of accurate in¬ 
formation as to the condition of the local societies, by which 
they may be guided in their dealing with each other, and 
to the discussion of any matters affecting generally the in¬ 
terests of the members. In England, while this function 
has been discharged for the last four years by an annual 
congress of delegates from various co-operative societies, 
and by a central board appointed by them to keep alive the 
sacred fire during the rest of the year, this central board, by 
the resolutions of the congress held at Newcastle in 1873, 
was reorganized with the view of giving it increased effi¬ 
ciency. A great advance towards tho practical combination 
of the local distributive stores into a common action for tho 
supply of the wants of large districts has been made by tho 
















































1146 COOPER RIVER—COOS BAY. 


formation in 1864, at Manchester, of the North of England 
Wholesale Society, now called “ The Wholesale Society,” 
as the federal head of a mass of co-operative societies, by 
whom its capital is subscribed, and by whose delegates at 
their quarterly meetings its governing body is appointed 
and its operations controlled. Commencing with a capital 
of £1000 and a business in its first year of little more than 
£40,000, “ The Wholesale ” has grown year by year, till in 
April, 1873, it embraced 277 shareholding societies with 
134,276 members, and had made sales amounting during 
the last quarter to £303,697, and during the year to 
£1,153,132—an increase of nearly 52 per cent, on the sales 
of the year preceding. ( Report of Congress at Newcastle.) 

The time has arrived, in the opinion of English co-opera¬ 
tors, when the step may safely be taken through this whole¬ 
sale organization to manufacture articles which the consu¬ 
mers commonly require. Accordingly, “ The Wholesale” has 
recently commenced the manufacture ot biscuits, and has 
decided to begin that of boots and shoes, in which 59 so¬ 
cieties only in connection with it had, according to their 
accounts, an annual trade of £66,876. They are also ar¬ 
ranging to enter upon the Manchester trade lor the supply 
of drapery, hosiery, etc., articles constituting no inconsid¬ 
erable part of the large amount of business done by the 
stores, which does not now pass through “ The Wholesale.” 
This step therefore will probably open the way to other 
productive fields of manufacturing enterprise. 

During the last year also a very promising beginning 
has been made in uniting banking business to the other 
modes of co-operative effort, thus making the large accu¬ 
mulated balances of the stores available for the extension 
of co-operation. 

The brief sketch given above may suffice to show how 
noble a prospect lies beyond the gentle unimposing pass 
leading from the world where man is the slave of capital to 
the world where capital shall become the servant of man. The 
housewives who watched that the kettle did not boil over 
during ages past little imagined the part that steam was 
one day to play, and the heads of poor families who have 
joined in buying a chest of tea and dividing it amongst 
them, have as little foreseen that they were playing with a 
power which could turn the worker into his own employer, 
and rearrange the distribution of wealth among mankind. 

The student of social science will find the first act legal¬ 
izing co-operative societies in England in the statute-book 
of 1852 (15 Viet., c. 31), and may trace the development 
of the movement in the subsequent acts 17 and 18 Viet., c. 
25, 19 and 20 Viet., c. 40, 25 and 26 Viet., c. 87, 30 and 31 
Viet., c. 117, and 34 and 35 Viet., c. 80. 

Thos. Hughes, M. P. 

Coop'er Riv'er, in South Carolina, rises in Charleston 
co., and flowing south-eastwardly unites with Ashley River 
to form Charleston Harbor. 

Coop'er’s, a township of Edgefield co., S. C. P. 1795. 

Coop'er’s Creek, a stream in the interior of Australia, 
formed in Queensland by the junction of the Victoria and 
Thomson creeks, flows southward, and empties itself into 
the salt lake Gregory. Cooper’s Creek has a tragic interest, 
from the fact of the explorers Burke and Wills having per¬ 
ished in its vicinity. 

Coop'er’s Gap, a township of Polk co., N. C. Pop. 
797. 

Coop'er’s Plains, a post-village of Erwin township, 
Steuben co., N. Y., on the Rochester division of the Erie 
R. R., 5 miles N. W. of Corning. 

Coop'erstown, a post-township of Brown co., Ill. 
Pop. 1522. 

Cooperstown, a post-village, capital of Otsego co., 
N. Y., is pleasantly situated at the S. end of Otsego Lake, 
69 miles W. of Albany. The lake is 9 miles long, and has 
two steamboats. Cooperstown has six churches, two weekly 
newspapers, a union school and academy, a hospital, an or¬ 
phan asylum, and two national banks. The Cooperstown 
and Susquehanna Valley R. R., 16 miles long, connects it 
with the Albany and Susquehanna R. R. Pop. of Otsego 
township, 4590. J. L. Hendrix & Son, 

Props. “ Republican and Democrat.” 

Cooperstown, a post-village of Jackson township, 
Venango co., Pa. Pop. 264. 

Cooperstown, a township and post-village of Manito¬ 
woc co., Wis. The village is 85 miles N. of Milwaukee. 
Pop. of township, 1563. 

Cooper Union. See Cooper (Peter), by J. C. Zachos, 
Curator of Cooper Union. 

Coop'ersville, or Corbean, a post-village of Cham¬ 
plain township, Clinton co., N. Y., on Chazy River. Pop. 
205. 

.Cooper’s Well, an artesian mineral spring, 4 miles 


from Raymond, Hinds co., Miss. Its water is an active 
saline chalybeate, and is much visited for the cure of 
chronic diarrhoea, dyspepsia, and many other diseases. 

Co-or'dinates, in mathematics, a system of lines or 
surfaces by which the position of a point is determined. If, 
for example, three lines, x, y, z, be so drawn that each is 
perpendicular to the plane of the other two, lines may be 
drawn from any point in space perpendicular to each of the 
intersecting planes, and the length of the perpendiculars 
being known, tho position of the point will also be known. 
Two rectilinear co-ordinates are sufficient to determine any 
point in a plane. If the co-ordinates are so inclined to each 
other as to form any oblique angles, determining lines may 
be drawn at similar angles from the point. In polar co¬ 
ordinates an initial axis is assumed (one extremity of 
which is called the pole), and an initial plane passing 
through the axis. The co-ordinates of any point are the 
radius vector, its angle with the polar axis, and the angle be¬ 
tween the vectorial and initial planes. Various other sys¬ 
tems of co-ordinates are employed in analytical geometry; 
e. g., trilinear, triangular, tetrahedral, tangential, elliptic, 
spherical, etc. 

Coorg, a district of India, bounded by the Mysore ter¬ 
ritories and the presidency of Madras, is between lat. 12° 
and 13° N. Area, 2116 square miles. The surface is hilly 
and covered with forests. Porcelain clay is obtained in 
abundance. Sandal and other valuable woods are found. 
The geological formation of the country is syenite, granite, 
and greenstone. The botany and zoology of the country 
comprise a great variety of species. The laws of heredi¬ 
tary rights differ in this rajahsliip from those of neighbor¬ 
ing nations, inheritances passing by the male line. The 
manufactures are confined to the blankets which the people 
wear. In the valleys, which are very fertile, rice is grown. 
The amount of land under tillage is comparatively small. 
It is drained by the river Cavery. The inhabitants are a 
warlike Nair tribe. The country was annexed to the Brit¬ 
ish dominions in 1832. It is now placed, with Mysore, 
under the administration of a special commissioner. Pop. 
in 1869, 118,187. 

Co'os [Koto?], a New Testament name of the island of 
Cos'(which see). 

Coos, ko-ds', a county which forms the N. extremity of 
New Hampshire. Area, 1950 square miles. It is bounded 
on the W. by the Connecticut River, and is drained by the 
Androscoggin. The surface is mostly mountainous and 
rugged. Mount Washington, the highest peak of the White 
Mountains, is in the southern part of this county. It is in¬ 
tersected by the Grand Trunk R. R. Cattle, potatoes, grain, 
and wool are raised. Lumber and starch are the chief 
manufactures. Capital, Lancaster. Pop. 14,932. 

Coos, koos, a county in the W. of Oregon. Area, about 
1300 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Pacific 
Ocean, and drained by the Coquille aud Coos rivers. The 
surface is partly mountainous; much of the soil is very 
fertile. Coal and lumber are exported from this county, 
which also contains gold. Capital, Empire City. P. 1644. 

Coo'sa, a river of the U. S., is formed by the Etowah 
and Oostenaula, which unite at Rome in Georgia. It 
J crosses the eastern boundary of Alabama, flows south-west- 
| ward, and then southward, until it unites with the Talla¬ 
poosa on the southern border of Elmore co., Ala. The 
stream thus formed is the Alabama River. The length of 
the Coosa is estimated at 350 miles. 

Coosa, a county of E. Central Alabama. Area, 650 
square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Coosa River. 
The surface is diversified; the soil fertile. Corn, tobacco, 
cotton, and wool are raised. Quarries of fine marble and 
statuary granite have been opened here. The granite is 
of a beautiful gray tint, and is said to be the best in the 
U. S. for statuary. Iron and lead ores are also found. The 
county is well watered, and especially adapted to pasturage. 
Water-power is abundant. Capital, Rockford. P. 11,945. 

Coosawat'chie, a post-township of Beaufort co., S. C. 
Pop. 2573. 

Coos Ray, the principal seaport of Southern Oregon. 
Its entrance, just N. E. of Cape Arago (lat. 43° 20' 38' ; ~N., 
Ion. 124° 22' 11'' W.), is very good, and its bar has fourteen 
feet of water at high tide. The Coos River flows into it. 
Four miles from the bar, on tho S. shore, is Empire City, 
the capital ol Coos co.; and four miles from the mouth of 
the river is Marshfield, an important coal-mining centre. 
The bay is important chiefly for its vast quantities of 
tertiary lignitic coal, which is found on the S. side over a 
large area. It is by many regarded as the best coal on tho 
Pacific coast, but is inferior to the bituminous coals. The 
bay is surrounded by an elevated and densoly timbered 
region. 




















COOT—COPENHAGEN. 1147 


Coot, a name applied in America to several birds, chief¬ 
ly ducks of the genus Fxiligula. Among these are the 
box coot, or surf duck, of the E. and W. coasts of North 


America, the broad-billed coot, the white-winged coot or 
velvet duck, and other species. In the South the name is 
given to the sora rail ( Ortygometra Carolina ). The name 
coot in England is generally applied to the Fulica atra, 
a wading bird allied to the rails. The Fulica Americana, 
found in nearly all parts of North America, is the bird to 
which the name coot should be restricted in this country. 

Coote (Sir Eyre), K. B., an able general, born in Ire¬ 
land in 1726, went to India in 1754, became governor of 
Calcutta (1757), fought at Plassey in the same year, took 
Pondicherry in 1761, became commander-in-chief in India 
(1769), and defeated Ilyder Ali in 1781. Died April 26, 
1783. His nephew, of the same name, served against the 
Americans in the Revolutionary war. 

Copai'ba [a Avord of Brazilian origin], Balsam of, a 
stimulant, diuretic, oleo-resinous drug, which has decided 
value in diseases of the mucous membrane, is obtained 
chiefly from Pard in Brazil, though the trees which pro¬ 
duce it grow extensively in many parts of tropical America. 
These trees are of many species or varieties, belonging to 
the genus Copaifera and the order Leguminosm. 

Copa'is [Gr. Kto7rat‘s], the ancient name of a lake of 
Boeotia, now called Topolias. It receives the river Gav- 
rios, the ancient Cephissus. The extent of the lake varies 
at different seasons, and in summer it nearly all disappears. 
It is drained by artificial and natural subterranean chan¬ 
nels into the sea. It was once famous for its eels. 

Co'pake, a township and post-village of Columbia co., 
N. Y. The village is on the New York and Harlem R. R., 
106 miles N. of New York. Iron of excellent quality is 
manufactured here. Total pop. 1847. 

Co'pal [a term of Mexican origin], a name applied to 
several resins used in preparing varnishes. The copal of 
commerce is usually a nearly colorless, translucent sub¬ 
stance, which is imported from tropical America, India, 
and Eastern and Western Africa. The American and 
African copal is said to come from leguminous trees of the 
genus Hymeusea and allied genera. East Indian copal is 
of several varieties. 

Copan', a ruined city of Central America, in Hondu¬ 
ras, on the Copan River, about 30 miles E. of Chuquimula. 
The remains, which extend nearly two miles along the river, 
comprise a temple 624 feet long and several pyramidal 
structures, with sculptured idols resembling those of the an¬ 
cient Egyptians. (See Stephens, “ Central America.”) 

Copartnership. Sec Partnership, by Prof. T. W. 
Dwight, LL.D. 

Cope [Lat. capa ; Fr. chape], a sacerdotal cloak reach¬ 
ing from the neck to the ankles, and open in front. It ap¬ 
pears to have been modelled by Pope Stephen in 286, on 
the Roman lacerna, or hood. It is one of the vestments 
of the English Church, but is now seldom worn. 

Cope (Charles West), R. A., an English historical 
painter, born at Leeds in 1811, was the son of an artist. 


He was elected a Royal Academician in 1848. Among his 
works are “ Lear and Cordelia ” (1850), “ Royal Prisoners ” 
(1855), “ Departure of the Pilgrim Fathers” (1S5G), and 
frescoes in the Parliament House. 

Cope (Edward Drinker), an Amer¬ 
ican naturalist, a grandson of Thomas 
P. Cope, noticed below, was born in 
Philadelphia July 28, 1840. Before he 
reached the age of twenty he had dis¬ 
tinguished himself in herpetology. In 
1864 he was appointed professor of nat¬ 
ural science in Haverford College, which 
position he resigned on account of ill 
health in 1867. 

Professor Cope has made numerous 
contributions to the “Proceedings of the 
Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila¬ 
delphia,” to the “ Transactions of the 
American Philosophical Society,” to Sil- 
liman’s “American Journal of Science,” 
and other similar journals. Among his 
most important publications are the fol¬ 
lowing: “ Primary Groups of Batrachian 
Anura” (1865); “Systematic Arrange¬ 
ment of the Lacertilia and Ophidia ” and 
of the Class “Reptilia” (1854-70); 
“Systematic Relations of the Fishes” 
(1871)—the two former based on a care¬ 
ful examination of the specimens in all 
the principal museums of Europe; the 
last on the unequalled collection made 
by Professor Ilyrtl of Vienna (now in 
the possession of Professor Cope)—“ On 
the Origin of Genera” (1868); “Syn¬ 
opsis of the Extinct Batrachian Rep¬ 
tilia and Aves of North America” (1869-70); “On the 
Hypothesis of Evolution, Physical and Metaphysical ” 
(1870); “Extinct Reptilia and Fishes of the Cretaceous 
Beds of Kansas” (1872); “Systematic Relations of the 
Tailed Batrachia” (1872), based on Doctor Baird’s admi¬ 
rable preparations (the finest ever made in that department); 
and a work entitled “The Extinct Vertebral a of the Eo¬ 
cene Formations of Wyoming” (1873), describing many of 
the most remarkable types of Mammalia ever discovered, 
being the oldest known from the tertiary formations. 

Cope (Thomas Pym), a distinguished merchant of Phila¬ 
delphia, born in Lancaster co., Pa., in 1768. lie com¬ 
menced business in Philadelphia in 1790, and in 1821 es¬ 
tablished the first line of packets between that city and 
Liverpool. To his energy Philadelphia was chiefly in¬ 
debted for the supply of water from the Schuylkill and for 
the establishment of the Mercantile Library. He was a 
member of the Society of Friends. Died Nov. 22, 1854. 

Copec', or Copeck, a Russian coin, said to be the 
first ever used in that country as currency. The eopecs 
were originally made of silver, but copper copecs were 
afterwards coined. The value of the copec at present is 
equal to one one-hundredth part of a ruble. 

Copeley, a township of Knox co., Ill. Pop. 1219. 

Copenha'gen [Dan. Kjobenliavn, i. e. “merchants’ 
haven”], the capital of Denmark, is situated partly on the 
eastern coast of the island of Seeland and partly on the 
island of Amager. It is a seaport on the Sound, near its 
junction with the Baltic. Lat. 55° 40' N., Ion. 12° 34' 7” 
E. The site is flat, and very little elevated above the level 
of the sea. It was formerly a strong fortress, and the 
polygonal citadel on the north-eastern side of the city was 
deemed impregnable. But that was one hundred years 
ago. Now the walls are cut through and partially broken 
down; the ditches are filled, and where formerly stood a 
forti’ess, stands now a spacious, elegant promenade. In 
spite of its old age, Copenhagen is a thoroughly modern 
city, busy, gay, rapidly progressing in every respect. And 
in spite of its comparatively small size, it is a great city 
on account of the life led in it. Among its buildings must 
first be named Rosenberg, the “ Castle of Roses,” which, on 
account of the audacious but perfect harmony of its lines, 
belongs to first-class architecture. The royal palace, Chris- 
tiansborg, is an immense but somewhat clumsy pile of 
buildings. Tho university and the royal theatre, not yet 
finished, are very fine buildings; also the metropolitan 
church called Fruo Kirke; St. Peter’s, or the Cerman 
church, with a spiro 250 feet high; and the church of the 
Saviour, with a spire of 288 feet. The University of Co¬ 
penhagen, founded in 1478, is well endowed, has nearly 
forty professors, about 900 students, and a library of about 
125,000 volumes. A museum for natural objects has just 
been erected, and is one of the most elegant buildings in 
Scandinavia. Connected with it arc two observatories and 
a botanic garden, llore is a royal library containing 400,000 



Common European Coot. 















































1148 COPENHAGEN—COPPER. 


volumes, besides 15,000 manuscripts. This city is the great 
centre of Northern literature and art, and has several mu¬ 
seums and collections of antiquities. The Museum of 
Northern Antiquities is unique, and so is Thorwaldscn’s 
Museum, a mausoleum consisting of four buildings, in the 
middle of which Thorwaldsen is buried under a rosebush, 
while all his works are exhibited in the halls around it. The 
city has a deep, spacious, and secure harbor, formed by the 
channel between the islands of Seeland and Amager. Here 
is the great naval station of Denmark. Copenhagen has 
some manufactures of woollen and linen cloths, porcelain, 
sail-cloth, watches, leather, etc. Steam-packets ply regu¬ 
larly between this place and the ports of the Baltic. This 
site was occupied by a small village when Bishop Absalon 
founded a town here in 1168, and erected a fort. It be¬ 
came the capital of Denmark in 1448. It was most hor¬ 
ribly bombarded, during three days, by the British fleet 
(1807), and suffered great damage. Pop. in 1860, 155,143; 
in 1870, 181,291. 

Copenhagen, a post-village of Denmark township, 
Lewis co., N. Y., on Deer River, has three churches and a 
number of manufactories. Pop. 575. 

Coper'nican Sys'tem, The, is that astronomical 
theory which represents the sun to be in the centre, and 
the earth and planets to move round it. The name is de¬ 
rived from Copernicus, who, though not the first suggester 
of the theory, contributed far more than any other astron¬ 
omer to make it popular. The merit of having first formed 
the general idea of the system is believed to be due to 
Pythagoras ; Copernicus, after the lapse of centuries, again 
drew attention to it, and greatly increased the probability 
of its truth by his calculations and arguments ; the glory 
of having matured the idea belongs to Kepler, Galileo, and 
others, and especially to Newton, who, through the discov¬ 
ery of the law of gravitation, completely demonstrated its 
truth. Many who reverence the name of Copernicus in 
connection with this system would be surprised to find, on 
perusing his work “ De Orbium Revolutionibus,” how much 
of error, unsound reasoning, and happy conjecture com¬ 
bined to secure for him the association of his name with 
that system the complete development of which may be 
considered as the most wonderful achievement of astronom¬ 
ical science. 

Coper'nicus, the Latinized form of Kopernigk 
(Nicolas), a celebrated astronomer, was born at Thorn, in 
Poland, Feb. 19 (0. S.), 1473. His father, a German mer¬ 
chant from Cracow, died early, leaving his children in the 
care of Lucas Watzelrode, their maternal uncle, who be¬ 
came bishop of Ermeland in 1489. Nicolas studied in the 
high school of his town, and then in the University of 
Cracow. He applied himself eagerly to mathematics under 
Albert Brudzevski for four years, and then went to Italy, 
visiting first Bologna, where Dominico Maria taught as¬ 
tronomy, and afterwards Padua, where he became doctor 
of medicine in 1499. He became intimate with Regiomon¬ 
tanus. Through his uncle he was appointed canon in 
Frauenburg, 1499. He remained in Italy until 1503, and 
was professor of mathematics at Rome in 1501. He then 
• entered upon his office of canon, and is found (1517-19) en¬ 
trusted with the conduct of the episcopal possessions in 
Allenstein, and on other occasions ably conducting the 
cathedral’s concerns. He never refused the poor his advice 
and care as physician. His great discovery, that the plan¬ 
ets move around the sun, he spent many years in observa¬ 
tions and calculations in order to verify. He expounded 
it in his work “ De Orbium Celcstium Revolutionibus,” fin¬ 
ished in 1530, but not published until 1543, from a fear of 
persecution. He dedicated his book to the pope, and cau¬ 
tiously propounded his system as a mere hypothesis. Ac¬ 
cording to tradition, he received the first copy of his book 
on the day that he died. It was published in Nuremberg 
(1543), in Bale (1566), and in Amsterdam (1617). His 
theory was rejected not only by the clergy, but by astron¬ 
omers. “ The whole weight of Aristotie’s name,” says 
llallam, “ which in the sixteenth century not only biassed 
the judgment, but engaged the passions, connected as it 
was with general orthodoxy and preservation of establish¬ 
ed systems, was thrown into the scale against Copernicus. 
It must be confessed that the strongest presumptions in 
favor of his system were not discovered by himself. One 
of the most remarkable passages in Copernicus is his con¬ 
jecture that gravitation is not a central tendency, but an 
attraction common to matter, and probably extending to the 
heavenlybodies.” Died June 11,1543. (See Gassendi, ‘‘Vita 
Copernici,” 1654; Westphal, “N. Copernicus,” 1822; D. 
F. Ah ago, “Elogede Copernic;” L. Prowe, “ Zur Biog¬ 
raphic von N. Copernicus,” 1853.) 

Copi'ah, a county in the S. W. of Mississippi. Area, 
700 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Pearl River 
and drained by Bayou Pierre. The soil is productive and 


adapted to cotton. Corn, rice, wool, and cattle arc also 
raised. Lumber is largely produced. It is intersected by the 
New Orleans Jackson and Great Northern R. R. Capital, 
Gallatin. Pop. 20,608. 

Copia'po, or San Francisco do Scl'va, a town of 
Chili, capital of the province of Atacama, is on the river 
Copaipo, 30 miles from its mouth. It is connected with 
Caldera by a railway. Mines of gold, silver, and other met¬ 
als occur in the vicinity. Earthquakes arc here of frequent 
occurrence, and have sometimes caused great damage. Pop. 
13,881. 

Cojiio'ma, a township of Nemaha co., Kan. Pop. 
424. 

Cop'land (James), M. D., F. R. S., a Scottish physician 
and writer, born at Deerucss, in the Orknej’s, in 1793. lie 
settled in London in 1821. His most important work is a 
“ Dictionary of Practical Medicine ” (3 vols., 1833-58). 
Died July \2, 1870. 

Compile, a township of Westmoi*eland co., Va. Pop. 
3353. 

Cop'ley, a post-village of North Whitehall township, 
Lehigh co., Pa. Pop. 728. 

Copley, a township and post-village of Summit co., 
O. Pop. 1233. 

Copley (John Singleton), an historical and portrait 
painter, born in Boston, Mass., July 3, 1737. He visited Italy 
in 1774, settled in London in 1776, and became a member 
of the Royal Academy in 1783. “ The Death of Lord 

Chatham” is called his masterpiece. Died Sept. 25, 1815. 
His son became Lord Lyndhurst and chancellor of England. 
Copley’s portraits ai'e among the few significant art-memo¬ 
rials of the j>ast in this country. The possession of one of 
them, it has been said, is an American’s best title of nobil¬ 
ity. He was the only native painter of real skill which 
the New World could boast prior to the Revolution. The 
heads of leading families, especially in New England, sat 
to him, and the prices he commanded and the fame he 
reached were remarkable for the period. His chief defect 
was in his coloring, but he had the hand of a master. His 
knowledge was acquired under great disadvantages. Till 
he was thirty years old he never saw a good picture, yet 
his portraits are prized as heirlooms. They have a life which 
only genius could impart. 0. B. Frothingham. 

Copp6e (Henry), LL.D., an American officer and au¬ 
thor, born Oct. 15, 1821, at Savannah, Ga., graduated at 
West Point 1845, was lieutenant of artillery till he resigned, 
June 30,1855. He served in the war with Mexico 1846-48, 
engaged at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, La Hoya, Contreras, 
and Churubusco (brevet captain), Chapultepec, and the city 
of Mexico, and as assistant professor at the Military Acad¬ 
emy 1848-49,1850-55. Professor of English literature and 
history in the University of Pennsylvania 1855-56; author 
of “Elements of Logic,” 1858, and of “ Rhetoric,” 1859, of 
“Grant and his Campaigns,” 1866, and of several military 
works, 1858-73; editor of a “Gallery of Famous Poets,” 
1858, of “ Distinguished Poetesses,” 1861, and of the “ United 
Service Magazine,” 1864-66; contributor to the principal 
reviews and magazines of the U. S., 1848-73; compiler of 
“Songs of Praise in the Christian Centuries,” 1866, and 
president of Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., since 1866. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Cop per [Lat. cuprum; Ger. Kupfer; Fr. curvre], an 
elementary metallic substance, was known at a very early 
period. Before iron was used it was the principal ingredi¬ 
ent in domestic utensils and weapons of war. The Romans 
obtained the best copper from the island of Cyprus, whence 
its Latin name, cuprum, was derived. Copper is distin¬ 
guished from all other metals by its peculiar reddish color. 
It is very ductile and malleable, and requires a temperature* 
somewhat lower than gold, but higher than silver (estimated 
above 2000° F.), for its fusion. Next to silver, it is the 
best known conductor of electricity, being in the pure state 
93.08, while silver is 100. The specific gravity of copper 
is between 8.91 and 8.95; atomic weight, 63.5; its sym¬ 
bol is Cu. It is very hard, elastic, and tough, with a tena¬ 
city only less than that of iron. It crystallizes in the regu¬ 
lar system, forming cubes, octahedrons, etc. The principal 
ores of copper, besides the native metal, are the sulphides 
of copper, either alone or combined with other metals, such 
as copper glance (CU 2 S), indigo copper (CuS), copper py¬ 
rites (Cu 2 S,Fe 2 S 3 ), variegated copper ore ( 3 Cu 2 S, 1 ^ 283 ); 
Fahl ores, containing admixtures of sulphides of copper, 
iron, zinc, silver, mercury, etc.; enargite, containing sul¬ 
phides of copper and arsenic ; oxidized copper ores, such as 
red copper (OU 2 O) and black oxide of copper; and copper 
salts, such as malachite (which is carbonate of copper), 
silicate of copper, dioptase, chloride of copper, atacamite, 
phosphate of copper, and arseniate of copper. All these 
ores contain copper; it is found also in small quantities in 






















COPPERAS—COPY. 


1149 


most soils, in seaweed, and in the animal body. Copper 
forms two oxides, the protoxide (CuO) and the suboxide 
(CuaO); the former is found native in dark steel-gray crys¬ 
tals, with a specific gravity of 5.9; the latter occurs in red, 
translucent crystals having a specific gravity of 5.8; pre¬ 
pared artificially, it forms a beautiful crimson powder. 
Protochloride of copper is brown in the anhydrous state, 
and green when hydrated; it is very soluble in water. 
There are several sulphides of copper, the principal being 
the protosulphide and the disulphide, corresponding in 
composition to the two oxides. They are both found native, 
and are worked as copper ores. The carbonate of copper is 
sold as a pigment under the name of blue verditer, and from 
the subchloride of copper Brunswick green is obtained. The 
blue and green verdigris of commerce are made by the ac¬ 
tion of acetic acid upon oxide of copper. The blue vitriol 
so extensively used in dyeing and calico-printing is sulphate 
of copper. The smelting of copper is not a complicated pro¬ 
cess when ores are used which do not contain sulphur, but 
when the latter is present the operation is very tedious and 
difficult. The alloys of copper are of great value. Brass 
is copper alloyed with from 28 to 34 per cent, of zinc; gun- 
metal consists of 90 parts of copper and 10 of tin ; bell and 
speculum metals contain a larger proportion of tin. Bronze 
is sometimes made of 91 parts of copper, 2 parts of tin, 6 
parts of zinc, and 1 part of lead. Copper is found in Great 
Britain, Australia, South America, and Cuba. It exists in 
great quantities on the shores of Lake Superior, where a 
mass of native copper was found weighing nearly 500 tons. 
Metallic copper is of very great value in the arts, being 
especially valuable for ships’ sheathing and bolts, and is 
also the material used in the manufacture of a great va¬ 
riety of wares. 

Cop'peras, the commercial name of the hydrated pro¬ 
tosulphate of iron, sometimes called “ green vitriol.” It is 
composed of 28.9 per cent, of sulphuric acid, 25.7 of pro¬ 
toxide of iron, and 45.4 of water. It is used in medicine, 
in the dyeing of black, and in the manufacture of ink. 

Copper Creek, a twp. of Russell co., Ya. Pop. 1339. 

Copper Falls Mine, a post-village of Eagle Harbor 
township, Keweenaw co., Mich. Pop. 454. 

Copper Harbor, a post-township of Keweenaw co., 
Mich., on Keweenaw Point, Lake Superior. It has exten¬ 
sive mines of copper, and a good harbor, which is, how¬ 
ever, difficult of approach. Pop. 359. 

Cop'perhead (Ancistrodon contortrix), a venomous 
serpent of the rattlesnake family, furnished with loral plates 
on the head, but without rattles. When full grown it is 
about three feet long, of a light copper color, with darker 
transverse bars. It has many local names, is nowhere 
abundant, but is more common in the Southern than in the 
Northern States. Its bite is much dreaded and often fatal. 

Copperhead, a name which was applied to a party in 
the Northern States of America supposed to favor the seces¬ 
sionists during the civil war which divided the U. S. from 
1861 to 1865. The epithet was given because this party 
was regarded as an insidious and secret foe to the Union. 

Copper-Mines. See Mines and Mining, by Prof. F. 
L. Vinton, E. M. 

Cojjperop'olis, a post-village of Calaveras co., Cal., 36 
miles E. by N. from Stockton. Here is the Union copper- 
mine, one of the richest in the State. Gold also is found 
in the vicinity. It is on the Stockton and Copperopolis R.R. 

Copper-Smelting. See Metallurgy, by Prof. J. 
A. Church, E. M. 

Copp’s Creek, a township of Barry co., Mo. P. 98^. 

Cop'rolite [from the Gr. /con-poy, “ dung,” and Ai0o?, a 
“ stone”], a name given to the fossil excrement of animals. 
It was originally applied by Dr. Buckland to certain de¬ 
posits which he found in the lias, and determined to be 
the foecal remains of the gigantic saurians of that period. 
The term has since come into universal use, owing to the 
discovery of similar large deposits in rocks of various ages. 
The true coprolites of the lias are formed like kidney pota¬ 
toes, of earthy texture, black or ash-gray color, and glassy 
fracture. They are twisted, showing the mark of the intes¬ 
tine. They are generally found in heaps in particular parts 
of the deposit. Besides the coprolites of the lias, phosphatic 
nodules bearing the same name, but far more abundant, 
have been found. The value of these minerals is derived 
from the phosphate of lime of which they are partly com¬ 
posed. It is used with great advantage as mineral manure, 
after having undergone cheap chemical treatment. It is 
converted into a soluble superphosphate by the action of sul¬ 
phuric acid. The trade in Great Britain is of great import¬ 
ance, and the production large. Some specimens yield when 
washed and powdered over 85 per cent, of phosphates. The 
greensand varieties yield about 60 per cent, of phosphates. 
The annual yield of England is from 30,000 to 40,000 tons. 


These coprolites contain from 4 to 5 per cent, of organic 
matter and a little silica, but from 70 to 80 per cent, of 
their whole substance is a mixed phosphate and carbonate 
of lime. Coprolites are not very abundant in the U. S. 

Cop se, or Cop'pice [from the root of the word chop, 
and the Gr. kottt a>, to “cut”], a name given in Great Britain 
to plantations of trees which are occasionally cut down for 
firewood, charcoal, or other purposes. There is consider¬ 
able rough and rocky land in that country which yields 
more profit as copse-wood than by any other plan. Hop- 
poles, hoops, tanner’s bark, etc. arc among the products of 
copses. 

Copt [Arabic, Ghipt and Kooht; Coptic, Kibt; Fr. Copte 
or Goplite; Ger. Kopt; probably derived from the root of 
the last syllable of Eyypt.] The Copts are a Christian peo¬ 
ple of Egypt, descended from the ancient inhabitants of 
that countr} r , whose blood, however, is mingled with that 
of Greeks, Arabs, Nubians, etc. According to an official 
estimate in 1868-69 they then numbered 500,000. They 
are largely employed as clerks and government function¬ 
aries, while others arc merchants and mechanics, and some 
are peasants. All Copts but the very poorest class have 
the title of moallim (“instructors”). 

The Coptic Church is monophysite, holds seven sacra¬ 
ments, of which prayer and faith are two, practises trine 
immersion of infants, and also circumcises male children. 
The liturgy is in the Coptic language, which few even of 
the priests understand. Rosaries of beads are used in 
prayer. Cymbals are employed in public worship. This 
Church, with that of Abyssinia, is under the Coptic patri¬ 
arch of Alexandria, who, however, sincerthe eleventh cen¬ 
tury, has resided in Cairo. It has also thirteen dioceses, 
one of which, Khartum (embracing all Nubia), was estab¬ 
lished in 1834. The Copts are extremely intolerant towards 
Christians of other churches, except the Syrian Jacobites 
and the Abyssinians. 

Besides the above are the United Copts, who are Ro¬ 
man Catholics of the Eastern rite. They are nominally 
under the patriarch of Alexandria, who resides at Rome 
and is of the Latin rite. They are governed by a vicar- 
apostolic, and number about 12,000. 

The Greek Copts (Coptic Melcliites) are under a patri¬ 
arch of Alexandria and four nominal bishops. They are 
few in numbers. Their patriarch bears the title of “ Holy 
and blessed patriarch of the great city of Alexandria, of 
all Egypt, of Pentapolis, Libya, and Ethiopia, pope and 
oecumenical judge.” That of the Coptic patriarch is “ Most 
holy father, archbishop of the great city of Alexandria, of 
Babylon, of the Nomes of Egypt, and the Thebaid.” 

The American Presbyterian mission among the Copts 
has met with much success. 

Cop'tic, a language supposed to be derived from the 
sacred language of ancient Egypt, with a pi'etty large ad¬ 
mixture of Greek, and in its later form of Arabic words. 
It prevailed from the time of the Ptolemies till about the 
tenth century, when it was generally displaced by the 
Arabic, except in the monasteries. It had three chief dia¬ 
lects, the Memphitic, the Sahidic, and the Bashmuric. The 
Coptic literature consists to a great extent of homilies, the 
lives of saints, etc., with some Gnostic works and versions 
of the Scriptures. 

The Coptic letters are chiefly taken from the Greek, 
though they have added to the Greek alphabet a number 
of characters representing sounds not found in the classic 
languages ; among these may be mentioned one for kh, one 
for sh, and one for j. (Those seeking further information 
on this subject are referred to the Egyptian grammar of 
the celebrated Champollion, and Peyron’s and Benfey’s 
grammars of the Coptic language; to which may be added 
Quatremere’s “ Critical and Historical Researches on the 
Language and Literature of Egypt,” 1808.) 

Cop'ula [a Latin word signifying a “band”], in logic, 
is that part of a proposition which affirms or denies the 
predicate of the subject, or the word which unites the two 
notions of a sentence—viz. the subject and the predicate. 
In the sentence, “Art is long,” is forms the copula. 

Cop'way (George), a chief of the Chippeway tribe of 
Indians, published the “Acts of the Apostles” (in 1838), 
an autobiography, a “History of the Ojibway Nation” 
(1851), and other works. 

Cop'y [probably from the Lat. copici, “plenty,” “abun¬ 
dance,” because by multiplying copies of it a work ceases 
to be a rarity], in the fine arts, a transcript of an original 
work, a reproduction of a picture or statue by another 
artist. A copy made by the original artist is called a dupli¬ 
cate, replica, or repetition ; in French, a. donblette. A copy 
of a statue or other piece of sculpture taken Irom a mould 
is called a cast. 

Copy, in printing, is the subject-matter to be printed, 
whether it be an original work in manuscript or rcpiint ; in 



























1150 COPYRIGHT—CORAL ISLANDS. 


the first case it is termed manuscript copy or written copy; 
in the second, printed copy. 

Copyright. See Literary Property, by Prop. T. W. 
Dwight, LL.D. 

Coqua'go, the main branch of the Delaware River, 
rises in the Catskill Mountains in New York. It flows 
first south-westward, and then south-eastward, until it 
unites with the Popacton at Hancock, on the line between 
New York and Pennsylvania. Length, nearly 100 miles. 

Coquerel (Athanase Laurent Charles), a Protest¬ 
ant minister, born in Paris Aug. 27, 1795. He preached 
in Paris, and gained distinction as a pulpit orator. Iu 1848 
he was a moderate republican member of the Constituent 
Assembly. Among his works is “Modern Orthodoxy’’ 
(1842) and many volumes of sermons. lie was liberal in 
theology. Died Jan. 12, 1868.—His son Athanase became 
an eminent Protestant pulpit orator, and the leader ot the 
liberal party that seceded when a schism occurred in the 
Protestant synod in June, 1872. 

Coquil'la-Nuts [Sp. coquillo, a diminutive of coco, 
“cocoa-nut”], the seeds of Attalea funifera, a South 
American palm. The shells of the seeds or nuts are hard, 
have a close texture, and are susceptible of a fine polish. 
This shell is much used in turnery for the heads or handles 
of umbrellas, for toys and ornamental articles. 

Coquim'bo, a province of Chili, is bounded on the E. 
by the Andes and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. Area, 
19,113 square miles. It contains mines of copper and other 
metals. Capital, Coquimbo. Pop. in 1870, 159,698. 

Coquimbo, or La Serena, a seaport-town of Chili, 
capital of the above province, is on the Coquimbo River 
near its mouth. It has a good harbor, six or seven miles 
distant, brick houses with gardens, and a serene climate. 
Copper, gold, and silver are exported from it. Pop. 7138. 

Co'ra, an ancient city of Italy, in Latium, about 36 
miles S. E. of Rome. Livy mentions it as being a colonia 
Latina in 503 B. C. Few cities of Latium have more con¬ 
siderable remains of antiquity than Cora. Here are relics 
of ancient walls built of massive polygonal blocks. The 
site is now occupied by the town of Cori. 

Cor'acoitl Rone [from the Gr. Kopag, a “crow,” and 
etSos, “form,” “resemblance,” referring to some fancied 
resemblance between the coracoid process and a crow’s 
beak], a bone which exists in the skeleton of most birds, 
of the saurians and chelonians, and also in monotrematous 
mammals. In the higher mammals it exists as the cora- 
coid process of the scapula or shoulder-blade. In transcen¬ 
dental anatomy it has been considered as the luemapoph- 
ysis of the fourth (occipital) cephalic vertebra. In birds the 
coracoid bone is firmly articulated with the sternum on the 
one side and the scapula on the other, and gives attach¬ 
ment to certain muscles used in flying. 

Coracoid Process. See Coracoid Bone. 

Cor'al [Gr. Kopa\\t.ov, said by some to be derived from 
«6prj, a “maiden,” and aA.?, the “ sea,” i. e. “daughter of 
the sea ;” Lat. corallum; Fr. corail; Ger. Koralle], a hard, 
stony, or calcareous substance, chiefly of marine origin, 
consisting of the aggregate skeletons of various polyps 
(alcyonarians, actinariaus, and madrepores), and of cer¬ 
tain tabulate acalephs, all belonging to the Cuvierian sub¬ 
kingdom Radiata.* The number of species is very great, 
and the variety of forms and 
hues is almost endless. Many 
of them rival in beauty the 
finest flowers. Carbonate of 
lime constitutes their prin¬ 
cipal chemical ingredient. 

Many kinds are found along 
the American coasts of the 
Atlantic and Pacific, espe¬ 
cially about the West Indies 
and Florida (which, with its 
reefs, is based upon coral), 
and along parts of the coast 
of Brazil, where the reefs are 
very dangerous to naviga¬ 
tion; but it is in the Pacific 
and Indian oceans that the 
coral formation is most important. Among the more re¬ 
markable kinds may be mentioned the red coral (Corallium 

* Nothing could be more incorrect than the name “coral in¬ 
sects” often applied to these animals; and it is scarcely correct 
to speak of them as “ builders ” of reefs and islands; for instead 
of working, like the bee in building her cells of wax, the coral is 
a part of the growth of the polyp, which the latter no more builds 
than the oak tree builds its own wood. It is also incorrect to 
speak of the coral as the “ home ” of these little animals, for the 
coral is wholly produced inside the polyp, somewhat as bones 
grow in the higher animals. 


rubrum ) of the Mediterranean and Red Sea., which is of 
value in the manufacture of ornaments; the still more 
valuable black coral ( Antipathes ); the Millepora, etc. (pro¬ 
duced by acalephs, and not by polyps); the tree corals; 
the Meandrinse, etc., called brain corals, the Astrmas or 
star corals, the Madrepores, and many others. 

Cor'al, a township and post-village of McHenry co., 
Ill. Pop. of township, 1345. 

Coral Islands are among che most striking phenom¬ 
ena of the tropical seas. Whitsunday Island, in the Low 
Archipelago in the midst of the Pacific, may serve as an 
example. Rising a few feet above the surface of the ocean, 
it forms a narrow unbroken ring, nearly circular, which 
surrounds a central lagoon of shallow water. When ap¬ 
proaching it from the windward side, the voyager first per¬ 
ceives the line of angry surf breaking on the white beach 
of coral sand, in strong contrast with the deep-blue color 
of the sea. Behind, a garland of luxuriant verdure, its 
tropical forms enhanced by the noble cocoa-nut palm, ex¬ 
tends around the island, enclosing the quiet waters of the 
lagoon; beyond, the broad ocean again. The island of 
Natupe, in the same archipelago, is likewise unbroken, but 
elongated and much larger, the longer axis measuring some 
twelve miles. Usually, however, the ring is broken by 
numerous channels, affording entrances into the lagoon, and 
transforming the ring into a circular line of islands en¬ 
closing the lagoon. Such a group is called an atoll, a local 
name in the East Indies, Avhich has been adopted to de¬ 
signate these curious structures. Soundings have proved 
that the lagoon is always shallow, seldom exceeding a few 
scores or hundreds of feet in depth, while outside of the 
atoll the depth rapidly increases to thousands of feet at a 
short distance from the shore, showing that such an atoll 
is only the top of a large submarine mountain. Atolls are 
often clustered together in great numbers, and form archi¬ 
pelagoes. That of Paumotu, or Low Archipelago, counts 
eighty coral islands, having nearly all central lagoons. 
The Caroline (together with the Tarawan and Marshall) 
Islands contain eighty-four atolls. The Laccadives and 
Maldives are two long series of atolls, in a double row, 
stretching 800 miles from north to south, from the south¬ 
western extremity of India, and continued still farther 
south in the Chagos Archipelago. The chief of the Mal¬ 
dives calls himself the sultan of the Twelve Thousand Isles, 
and Admiral Owen says that, counting the single islands 
in the atolls, this is no exaggeration. 

The low islands arc associated with the high in a pecu¬ 
liar and very interesting way. A large number of volcanic 
islands in the Pacific are girdled by coral reef, forming 
either a fringe near the shore or a barrier around the island 
at a distance in the sea, leaving between a lagoon often 
miles broad, and communicating with the outer ocean by 
deep channels. Bolabola, one of the Society Islands, offers 
a beautiful example of such a combination. From its high 
volcanic top the eye, stretching over the quiet waters of the 
surrounding lagoon to the outer garland of green islands 
which separates it from the ocean beyond, beholds a spec¬ 
tacle as strange as it is lovely. Tahiti, in the same group, 
Hogoleu and Pouinipete Islands in the Carolines, and many 
others, show the same arrangement, which, in fact, differs 
from an atoll only in having the centre of the lagoon occu¬ 
pied by one or more mountain-tops. 

The mode of formation of the coral islands readily ex¬ 
plains all these peculiarities. Coral reefs are the work of 
minute marine animals called polyps which live in countless 
numbers in the tropical seas. Their structure is of the 
simplest kind. It is a cylindrical skin with an inside sac, 
the stomach, and a central opening surrounded by thread¬ 
like appendages on the top, which is the mouth, the lower 
end being attached to the ground. When expanded the 
animal resembles a flower in form and beauty of color. Be¬ 
tween the two skins the coral substance, which is limestone, 
is secreted, as are the bones in the higher animals. Polyps 
multiply not only by eggs, but also by budding, like plants, 
and grow into large societies, in which generation succeeds 
generation, each leaving behind the solid limestone se¬ 
creted by the living animal. Thus masses of organized 
rock are formed, which gradually expand and accumulate 
upward into a solid wall or reef, reaching the level of low 
tide. Soon, however, the process of disintegration begins. 
The more brittle branching corals which abound near the 
surface are easily broken and crushed by animals feeding 
on them. Boring shells and small sponges penetrate the 
solid reef and disintegrate it. Tidal currents and surging 
waves do their part in the work of destruction, and taking 
hold of these debris and of the coral sand, throw them on 
the top of the reef, thus forming the soil of an island which 
rises to eight or ten feet above the water, but rarely reaches 
fifteen feet. 

Seeds of a few plants which from their hardy nature 



Red Coral. 


















CORALLINE—CORCORAN. 


11/51 


escape being spoiled by sea-water are transported by the , soon grow into a luxuriant vegetation. Variety however 
waves and washed on the shore, or are brought by birds, is wanting, as hardly more than a score of species compose 
and under the influence of the warm and moist climate | the whole flora. Pandanus trees, and especially the ma- 

Bolabola, with Barrier, Reef, Lagoon, and Coral Islands. 



jestic cocoa-nut palms, are the most characteristic orna¬ 
ments as well as the most useful representatives of the 
vegetable kingdom in the coral islands. 

But all the conditions necessary for the formation of such 
an island do not exist in every part of the reef. Some 
portions remain covered by a shallow sea, which breaks in 
long, white lines over the invisible barrier. In others the 
reef is interrupted by deep channels, due to strong tidal 
currents or to the depth of the sea, which deprives the 
animals of a proper foundation for their structure, for it 
has been ascertained that the reef-building polyps cannot 
live in a depth greater than 100 or 120 feet. The coral 
reefs, therefore, cannot start from deep water; they need 
a foundation near the surface, and they find it in submarine 
mountain-peaks and volcanic cones which form most of the 
high islands. Growing upward, they repeat at the surface 
the outlines of the mountain-slopes on which they rest. 
To this cause the circular form of the atolls and barrier 
reefs is to be ascribed, and not to any organic law or in¬ 
stinct of the polyps, as was formerly believed, or to their 
situation on the brim of subaqueous craters. 

The formation of the fringing reefs offers no difficulty ; 
but it is not easy to understand why the barrier reefs are so 
far removed from the islands they surround. This fact, 
however, has been satisfactorily explained by Darwin. 
Having found by soundings that the base of the barrier 
reefs reaches sometimes as low as a thousand or fifteen hun¬ 
dred feet, while it is known that the polyps cannot live at 
such a depth, he justly infers that the mountains on which 
they stand have gradually sunk since the structure was be¬ 
gun. During the sinking process the reef, growing perpen¬ 
dicularly to the water’s edge, preserves its form and extent, 
while the island is growing smaller and the surrounding 
lagoon larger at every step. Finally, the mountain disap¬ 
pearing, the growing reef becomes an atoll with an empty 
lagoon. Dana’s extensive observations entirely confirm 
this view. 

However full of interest and strange beauty the coral 
islands may be, they offer but scanty resources for man’s 
support. They are still more deficient in means for the 
higher culture which is the true end of man’s existence. 
With only one kind of rock and no metal for tools; a land 
without mountains, valleys, or rivers, the arable portion of 
which is hardly the hundredth part of its area; with a flora 
reduced to a few species, a fauna wanting in all large ani¬ 
mals,— m an in that isolated domain, depending for food 
upon the cocoa-nut and the animals of the sea, has indeed 
but a poor chance. Starvation, but too frequent, en¬ 
genders infanticide, war, and cannibalism—'evils which 
intercourse with civilized nations can partially prevent, but 
Christianity alone radically cure. Arnold Guyot. 

Cor'alline [so called from their resemblance to the 
corals, to which they were formerly referred], the name 
of certain plants classed with the red algae, and usually 
referred to the order Corallinacem. They constitute the 
genus Corallina, and several other genera. These plants 
differ from all others in being of a rigid, stony character, 
and from the presence (in most species) of a large propor¬ 
tion of carbonate of lime. They are not abundant on our 
Atlantic coasts, but probably are of much more frequent 
occurrence in the Pacific. Their fructification and botan¬ 
ical characters are not well known. They occur abun¬ 
dantly as fossils. The Corallina officinalis is common on 
the northern shores of Europe, and also occurs on the At¬ 
lantic coast of British America and the U. S. The name 


coralline is often given to various marine polyps, but 
should be restricted to coral-like plants. 

Cora'to, a town of Italy, in the province of Bari, 24 
miles W. of Bari, is situated in a fertile plain. It has a 
fine church, several convents, and an orphan asylum. Pop. 
in 1871, 26,220. 

Corny, or Koray (Diamant), [Gr. ’ASajouGno? Kopai)?], 
a Greek philologist and patriot, born at Smyrna April 7, 
1748. He studied medicine at Montpellier, in France, and 
became a resident of Paris in 1788. To promote the re¬ 
generation of Greece and the revival of the Greek nation¬ 
ality, he published editions of ancient Greek authors and 
wrote several political tracts. He was eminent as a Hel¬ 
lenist. Died April 6, 1833. 

Corbaux (Fanny), an English painter and author, born 
in 1812, the daughter of a w T ell-known statistician. She 
painted portraits and historical pieces with success, and 
wrote on Hebrew archaeology. 

Corbeil, a town of France, department of Seine-et-Oise, 
on the river Seine and on a branch of the Paris and Orleans 
Railway, 18 miles S. S. E. of Paris. It has a public library, 
a theatre, and a corn-hall. It sends flour to Paris. Pop. 
5541. 

Cor'bel [from the Fr. corbeille, a “basket;” Fr. cor- 
5ea?t], in architecture, a projecting bracket, often sculp¬ 
tured like a modillion, sometimes in the form of a basket, 
for the purpose of supporting a superincumbent object or 
for receiving the springing of an arch, A corbel-table is 
a projecting battlement, parapet, or cornice resting on a 
series of corbels. 

Cor'bin (Thomas G.), U. S. N., born Aug. 13, 1820, in 
Virginia, became a passed midshipman in 1844, a lieuten¬ 
ant in 1852, a commander in 1862, and a captain in 1866. 
He served as executive officer of the steam-frigate Wabash 
at the battle of Port Royal, Nov. 7, 1861, and is thus hon¬ 
orably mentioned by Flag-Officer Dupont in his official 
report of that battle: “ I had also an opportunity to re¬ 
mark the admirable coolness and discrimination of the 
first lieutenant, T. G. Corbin. The good order, discipline, 
and efficiency, in every respect, of this ship are, to a great 
extent, the results of his labors as executive officer, and 
they were conspicuous on this occasion.” Referring to the 
same action, Commander C. R. P. Rodgers writes: “ It re¬ 
mains only for me to speak of the executive officer, Lieu¬ 
tenant Corbin, who has filled that post since the Wabash 
was commissioned. The admirable training of the crew 
may, in a high degree, be attributed to his professional 
merit; and his gallant bearing and conspicuous conduct 
throughout the whole action were good illustrations of the 
best type of a sea-officer.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Cor'blllo (Cn. Domitius), an able Roman general who 
flourished under Claudius and Nero. He commanded the 
Roman army in a war against the Parthians, whom he de¬ 
feated. Nero, who was jealous of him, ordered him to be 
put to death in 67 A. D. 

Cor'coran, a post-township of Hennepin co., Minn. 
Pop. 914. 

Corcoran (Michael), a brigadier-general of U.S. vol¬ 
unteers, born in Carrowkeel, Ireland, Sept. 21, 1827, died 
Dec. 22, 1863. He emigrated to this country in 1849, and 
settled in New York City. At the commencement of the 
civil war he departed for Washington with his regiment, 


































1152 


CORCYRA—COREOPSIS. 


the Sixty-ninth New York, and participated in the first 
battle of Bull ltun, where he was taken prisoner and con¬ 
fined at Richmond, Va., and Charleston, S. C., nearly a 
year. On being exchanged he organized the Corcoran Le¬ 
gion, and was made a brigadier-general of volunteers, to 
date from the day of his capture, July 21, 1861. He was 
thrown from his horse near Fairfax Court-house, Va., Dec. 
22,1863, and fatally injured, never again recovering con¬ 
sciousness. G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Enfrs. 

Corcy'ra [Gr. Kop*upa], the ancient name of an island 
in the Ionian Sea, now Corfu (which see). It was colo¬ 
nized by the Corinthians in 734 B. C., and soon became 
one of the chief maritime powers of Greece. 

Cord [so called because it was originally measured with 
a cord or line] (of wood) is a quantity of wood equal to 
128 cubic feet. Firewood is measured and sold by the 
cord; also tanners’ bark and stable manure. 

Corday d’Armans, de (Marie Anne Charlotte), 
born in Normandy in 1768, and educated in a convent, was 
pious, intellectual, and enthusiastic. Her features were 
beautiful and her deportment dignified. She favored the 
popular cause in the Revolution, and sympathized with the 
Girondists, who were proscribed in May, 1793. Having 
resolved to kill Marat for the public good, she came to 
Paris, and with much difficulty obtained admission to his 
house. She found him in a bath, and plunged a knife into 
his heart July 13, 1793. She was guillotined a few days 
after this event. “ In beholding her act of assassination,” 
says Lamartine, “history dares not applaud; nor yet, 
while contemplating her sublime self-devotion,, can it stig¬ 
matize or condemn.” (See Ciieron he Villiers, “ M. A. 
Charlotte de Corday d’Armans, sa Vie, etc.,” 1865.) 

Cordeliers', or Cord-wear'ers [from Old French 
cordel , a “cord” or “ rope,” so called from their girdles of 
knotted cord], a minor order of Franciscan or Gray Friars, 
was founded by Saint Francis of Assisi in 1223, and was 
sanctioned by Pope Honorius III. 

Cordeliers’ Club, a society of republicans formed at 
Paris in Dec., 1790, received this name because their meet¬ 
ings were held in a chapel which had been built by the 
Cordeliers. Danton was the first president, and among the 
more celebrated members were Marat, Camille Desmoulins, 
and Hebert. The Cordeliers clamored for the death of the 
king in 1793, and in conjunction with the Jacobins con¬ 
spired for the overthrow of the Girondists in the same year. 
The society was dissolved in 1794. 

Cordia'cere, a natural order of exogenous trees and 
shrubs, mostly natives of tropical countries. They have a 
drupaceous fruit, an inverted embryo, and plaited cotyle¬ 
dons. They are generally referred to the Boraginaceae. The 
order comprises several species of Cordia , one of which pro¬ 
duces the sebesten plum. The Cordia bullata grows in 
Florida, and is cultivated as an ornamental tree. This 
genus takes its name from Cordus, a German botanist 
(1515-44). 

Cordille'ra, a Spanish word signifying a “mountain- 
chain.” (See Andes, by Prof. A. J. Sciiem.) 

Cor'don, a word of French origin signifying a string, 
a line, or band, applied in fortification to the coping of the 
escarpment or inner wall of the ditch. It usually projects 
one foot over the masonry of the scarp. A line of troops 
placed round a town or tract so as to prevent ingress and 
egress is also called a cordon. 

Cor'dova, a province of Spain, is bounded on the N. 
by Badajos and Ciudad Real, on the E. by Jaen, on the S. 
by Malaga, and on the S. W. and W. by Seville. It is in¬ 
tersected by the Guadalquivir. The surface in some parts 
is mountainous. Area, 5189 square miles. Capital, Cor¬ 
dova. Pop. 379,464. 

Cordova [Span. Cordoba, or Cordova; anc. Colonia 
Patricia ], a city of Spain, capital of the province of its 
own name, is situated in a plain on the river Guadalquivir, 
71 miles N. E. of Seville, with which it is connected by a 
railway. The river is here crossed by a noble stoue bridge 
of sixteen arches built by the Moors in the eighth century, 
and defended by a Saracenic castle. The cathedral, which 
was originally a beautiful Mohammedan mosque, founded 
in 786 A. D., presents in the interior a labyrinth of columns 
of many orders and materials, brought from various ancient 
temples. Cordova contains a bishop’s palace, three col¬ 
leges, a city-hall, and numerous hospitals. It was for¬ 
merly noted for the preparation of goat leather, called 
cordovan* Here are manufactures of silk fabrics, paper, 
silver-ware, hats, etc. The ancient Corduba, sometimes 
called Patricia, built 152 B. C. by the Romans, was second 
only to Gades among the cities of Hispania, and the birth¬ 

* From this word are derived the old English cordwainer and 
the French cordonnier, a “ shoemaker.” 


place of the two Senecas, of the poet Lucan, and of the 
Arabic physician Averroes. This place was captured by 
the Moors in 672 A. D., after which it was for several cen¬ 
turies the splendid capital of the Western caliphs. In tho 
tenth century it contained nearly a million inhabitants and 
300 mosques. In 1236 it was taken and almost destroyed 
by Ferdinand III. of Castile. Pop. in 1860, 35,606. 

Cordo'va, a township and post-village of Rock Island 
co., Ill. The village is on the Western Union R. R., 22 
miles N. E. of Rock Island. Total pop. 935. 

Cordova, a post-township of Le Sueur co., Minn. Pop. 

539. 

Cor'dova, a town of Mexico, about 50 miles W. S. W. 
of Yera Cruz. It is well built, and has an active trade in 
sugar, coffee, and tobacco ; also manufactures of cotton and 
woollen fabrics. Pop. about 7000. 

Cordova, a province of the Argentine Republic, is 
bounded on the N. by Santiago del Estero and Catamarca, 
on the E. by Santa Fe and by the territory of the Indians, 
and on the W. by Rioja and San Luis. It is traversed by 
the Sierra de Cordova, from which flows the principal river 
of the province, the Tercero, an affluent of the Parand. 
The province is celebrated for its superior pastures. Area, 
58,999 square miles. Capital, Cordova. Pop. in 1869, 
210,508. 

Cordova, capital of the above province, on the river 
Primero, 387 miles N. W. of Buenos Ayres. It has a fine 
Gothic cathedral and a university. Cordova exports hides 
and wool to Buenos Ayres. Pop. in 1869, 28,523. 

Cor'dova (Jose), a South American general, born at 
Antioquia, in Colombia, in 1797. He served under Bol¬ 
ivar in 1820, and fought against the Spaniards at Aya- 
cucho in 1824. Having revolted against Bolivar, he was 
defeated and killed Oct. 17, 1829. 

Cordova, de (Fernando Fernandez), a Spanish gen¬ 
eral, born at Madrid in 1792. He was an opponent of Es- 
partero in 1841, and became captain-general of Cuba in 
1851. He was driven into exile by the revolution of July, 
1854, and returned to Spain in 1856. 

Core'a [native Gaolee or Ganli; Chinese Kowlee; Jap¬ 
anese Koorai], a kingdom tributary to China, is the penin¬ 
sula situated S. of Manchooria, between 34° and 43° N. 
lat. Its area is 87,764 square miles, and population about 
9,000,000. It is bounded on the N. by the rivers Ya-Loo 
and Tunmen, and the mountain Pe-Ten-Shan. Principal cap¬ 
ital, Siool. The Hang-Kiang rises in the mountains and 
flows into the Yellow Sea. On the southern and western 
sides are numerous’small islands. The climate on the east¬ 
ern coast and among the mountains is inclement. In the 
lower parts of the western region and in the valleys of the 
southern provinces the climate is mild and the soil fertile, 
producing cotton, rice, fruit, wine, tobacco, etc. The sides 
of the mountains are rich in vegetation and covered with 
fine timber. The country abounds in gold, and iron is 
found in considerable quantities. Silver and copper also 
abound. The forests abound in wild-boars, tigers, sables, 
etc. The inhabitants are rude and warlike, and are feared 
as pirates. Polygamy is general, and a corrupt Booddhism 
is the prevailing religion. The language is Mongolian in 
its origin. In 1857 there were 15,200 who professed Catho¬ 
licism, but the missionaries of that faith have suffered much 
persecution. The principal exports are cotton fabrics of 
excellent quality, ginseng, tiger-skins, oxen, etc. The gov¬ 
ernment is virtually an absolute monarchy; the army is in an 
imperfect condition ; the navy consists of twenty-one larger 
and ninety-two smaller ships of war. Corea is divided into 
eight provinces. The inner part of the country is but little 
known. Foreigners are not allowed to land in the country. 
In 1871 the U. S. sent an expedition against Corea to avenge 
the murder of the crew of a merchantman (the General 
Sherman). Fort Conde was bombarded, and taken with 
little loss on the side of the Americans. 

Core'lla, a town of Spain, in Navarre, on the Alama, 
13 miles W. of Tudela. It has several oil-mills and liquor¬ 
ice-factories. Pop. 5023. 

Corel'1 i (Arcangelo), an Italian musician and com¬ 
poser, born near Imola Feb., 1653. He produced, besides 
other works, “ Concerti Grossi” (1712). Died Jan. 18, 
1713. 

Coreop'sis [from the Gr. *opi 9 , a “bug,” and oi/as, 
“appearance”], a genus of herbaceous plants of the nat¬ 
ural order Composite, is named with reference to the form 
of the fruit. It has neutral ray florets and a double invo¬ 
lucre. Many species of this genus are natives of the U. S., 
and are popularly called tickseed. The Coreopsis tinctoria 
grows wild in the plains beyond the Mississippi, and is 
commonly cultivated in gardens for the Reality of its flowers, 
which are yellow with a brown-purple centre. 


































CORFU—CORINTH. 




Corfu, or Korkyra, one of the thirteen nomarchies 
into which the kingdom of Greece was in 1872 divided. It 
embraces the islands of Corfil, Paxo, Leucadia, and several 
smaller islands. Area, 427 square miles. Pop. in 1871, 
96,940. 

Corfu [an Italian corruption of Kopu<f>t6, the Byzantine 
name for the island, from the two “peaks” (Kopv^ai) on 
which the citadel stands; modern Gr. Kop</>oi'; anc. Cor¬ 
cyra ], one of the Ionian Islands, belonging since Mar. 29, 
1864, to the kingdom of Greece, is separated from Albania 
by a channel which varies in breadth from two to twelve 
miles. It is 38 miles long, and has an area of 227 square 
miles. Pop. in 1871, 75,466. The surface is hilly and 
picturesque, the highest points being about 3000 feet above 
the sea. The soil is very fertile. Olive oil is the chief 
article of export. Capital, Corfd. The people of ancient 
Corcyra waged war against Corinth. A naval battle which 
occurred between these powers in 665 B. C. is mentioned by 
Thucydides as the first sea-fight on record. Corcyra was in 
alliance with the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war. 

Corfu, a fortified seaport-town, capital of the above 
island, is on the E. coast, 10 miles S. W. of Butrinto; lat. 
39° 37' N., Ion. 20° 6' 2" E. It has a safe and convenient 
harbor, and is defended by a citadel and two castles. It 
has a university founded in 1823, a cathedral, and nume¬ 
rous Greek and Roman Catholic churches, and a lighthouse. 
An archbishop of the Greek Church resides here. Corfd 
stands near the site of the ancient town of Corcyra. Pop. 
in 1871, 15,452. 

Cor'fu, a post-village of Pembroke township, Genesee 
co., N. Y. It is a station on the New York Central R. R., 
12 miles W. by S. of Batavia. 

Coriglia'no, a town of Italy, in Cosenza, is 4 miles from 
the Gulf of Taranto and about 28 miles N. E. of Cosenza. 
It has a fine castle, and manufactures of woollen cloth and 
soap. It is near the site of the ancient Sybaris. Pop. 10,624. 

Corin'na [Gr. Kopivva], a celebrated Greek lyric poet¬ 
ess, born at Tanagra, in Boeotia, flourished about 500 B. C. 
She is said to have instructed Pindar in the art of poetry, 
and she was a successful competitor of that poet in five 
poetical contests. Only small fragments of her works are 
extant. 

Coriima, a township and post-village of Penobscot 
co., Me. The village is on a branch of the Maine Central 
R. R., 20 miles S. of Dover. It has four churches, an acad¬ 
emy, a library association, and manufactures of lumber, 
boots and shoes, etc. Total pop. 1513. 

Coriima, a post-township of Wright co., Minn. P. 220. 

Coriime, a city of Box Elder co., Ut., on the Central 
Pacific R. R., and on the W. bank of the navigable Bear 
River, 8 miles from its mouth and 80 miles N. of Salt Lake 
City. It has a large trade with Montana and Idaho, some 
manufactures, two banks, and one daily paper. The sur¬ 
rounding region is pastoral and agricultural. Pop. 783. 

Cor'inth [Lat. Cot ’inthus; Gr. Kopn/0os], an ancient and 
celebrated city of Greece, on the Isthmus of Corinth and 
near the Sinus Corintkiacus (Gulf of Lepanto), about 50 
miles W. by S. from Athens. The isthmus is a sterile plain 
enclosed on several sides by mountains. It is subject to 
frequent earthquakes. Corinth commanded all the passes 
between the Peloponnesus and Northern Greece. It had a 
very favorable position for commerce, and seemed to be des¬ 
tined by nature to be a great maritime power. In conse¬ 
quence of its position it formed the most direct commu¬ 
nication between the two principal Grecian seas—the Ionian 
and the Aegean—and became the emporium of the trade be¬ 
tween the East and the West. It was one of the most popu¬ 
lous cities of Greece. Its early history is obscure and mixed 
with fabulous legends. The family of the Bacchiadse ruled 
here from 747 to 657 B. C. The Corinthians founded the 
colonies of Corcyra and Syracuse in 734 B. C. Periander, 
one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece, became tyrant (prince) 
of Corinth about 625 B. C., and reigned forty-four years. 
Soon after his death Corinth became an ally of Sparta, and 
was ruled by an oligarchy. The Corinthians were defeated 
by the Athenian general Mvronides in 457 B. C. As the 
ally of Sparta, Corinth fought against Athens throughout 
the long Peloponnesian war (431-404 B. C.). In 395 B. C. 
Corinth united with other Greek states in a war against 
the Spartans, who defeated the allies in several battles. 
This war, called the Corinthian war, was ended by the peace 
of Antalcidas in 387 B. C., and Corinth then returned to the 
alliance with Sparta. Timophanes attempted to make him¬ 
self tyrant of Corinth, but he was killed by his brother 
Timoleon in 344 B. C. The battle of Chaeronea (338 B. C.) 
rendered Philip of Macedon master of Corinth, which was 
subject to his successors until it was annexed to the Achaean 
league in 243. At this period Corinth was the richest and 
most luxurious city of Greece, and abounded in statues, 
73 


115 


3 


paintings, and other works of art. The patron-goddess of 
Corinth was Aphrodite (Venus), who had a splendid temple 
on the Acrocorinthus. The numerous fine temples which 
the wealth of the Corinthians enabled them to erect gave an 
impulse to architecture, and the most elaborate order of 
ancient architecture derived its name from Corinth, which 
was one of the principal seats of Grecian art, but produced 
no eminent poets or orators. 

Having been captured by the Roman consul Mummius in 
146 B. C., Corinth was pillaged by his army, and nearly 
destroyed by fire. The most valuable works of art were 
carried to Rome. It remained in ruins for a century, and 
was rebuilt in the year 46 by Julius Caesar, who planted 
there a colony of his veterans and freedmen. It soon rose 
again to be a populous and prosperous city, which was 
called Colonia Julia Corinthus. Saint Paul preached here, 
and founded a Christian church, to which two of his Epistles 
were addressed. Pausanias, who visited it between 150 and 
200 A. D., says that it contained many things worthy of 
notice, some being the relics of the ancient city, but the 
greater part executed in the flourishing period after it was 
rebuilt by Caesar. The principal monument of antiquity 
now remaining here is the citadel, built on a hill called 
Acrocorinthus, which rises 1886 feet above the level of the 
sea, and is abrupt and isolated. The view from its summit 
is singularly magnificent, and comprehends a greater num¬ 
ber of celebrated objects than any other in Greece. The 
Parthenon of Athens is distinctly seen at a distance of 
nearly fifty English miles. According to Col. Mure, 
“Neither the Acropolis of Athens nor the Larissa of Argos, 
nor any of the more celebrated mountain-fortresses of West¬ 
ern Europe can enter into the remotest competition with 
this gigantic citadel. It is one of those objects, more fre¬ 
quently perhaps to be met with in Greece than in any other 
country of Europe, of which no drawing can convey other 
than a very faint notion.” Among the few relics of the 
Greek city are seven Doric columns of a temple standing 
on the western outskirts of the modern town. These are 
five feet ten inches in diameter. Leclimum, the port of 
Corinth, on the Sinus Corinthiacus, was nearly one mile 
and a half from the city. The site of Corinth is occupied 
by a small town which the natives call Gortho. It was 
severely injured by an earthquake in Feb., 1858. Pop. in 
1861, 4248. 

Corinth, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. Pop. 
1462. 


Corinth, a post-village, capital of Alcorn co., Miss., is 
at the junction of the great lines of railroads connecting 
the Atlantic with the Mississippi and Gulf of Mexico, and 
the key of the system of Mississippi and Tennessee railroad 
communications. It has two weekly newspapers. P. 1512. 

After the battle of Shiloh, April 6-7, 1862, the Con¬ 
federate army retreated to Corinth. The national army 
being reorganized and strongly reinforced, llalleck, who 
had arrived and taken command, slowly advanced on 
Corinth by regular approaches, arriving May 21 to within 
3 miles of the place, expecting to meet with an obstinate 
resistance; but Beauregard, deeming it impossible for him 
to successfully resist, commenced (May 26) secretly evac¬ 
uating, and by the 29th had removed or destroyed every¬ 
thing of value, retreating with his army southward to 
Tupelo. Halleck occupied Corinth May 30, and pursuit 
was given to the Confederates, but without overtaking them. 

After his defeat at Iuka, the Confederate general Price re¬ 
treated to Ripley, Miss., where he was joined by Gen. Van 
Dorn, raising the force to about 30,000, Van Dorn assum¬ 
ing command, and an attempt to take Corinth by surprise 
or force was determined upon. This movement began 


Oct. 2. 

Gen. Rosecrans was now in command at Corinth with 
20,000 men; to the former extensive lino of defences inner 
lines had been added. Grant’s head-quarters were at 
Jackson, Tenn., Ord’s division was at Bolivar. 

Van Dorn moved northward to Pocahontas on the Mem¬ 
phis R. R., thence down to Chewalla. Rosecrans, apprised 
of this advance, deemed it a feint on Corinth, and that the 
real object was to attack Grant or Ord, but to meet any emer¬ 
gency threw his forces well out to the west, in and beyond 
the outer line of fortifications; Hamilton on the right, 
Davies held the centre, McKean on the left. Col. Oliver, 
with three regiments, held a strong position in advance. 
Gen. Mansfield Lovell, with one division, held the Con¬ 
federate right, Price, with Maury’s and Herbert’s divisions, 
the left, Maury’s division forming the centre. 

On the morning of Oct. 3, Lovell’s division encountered 
Oliver’s advance; Gen. McArthur was sent forward to 
develop the Confederate strength, and being vigorously 
attacked, was reinforced by four regiments from McKean s 
division. A determined fight was maintained till a suc¬ 
cessful charge between McArthur’s right and Davies’ left 
















1154 


COIUNTH—CORIOLANUS. 


forced him from the hill, with a loss of two guns, Davies 
giving ground a little also. 

No doubt now existing as to the design of the Con¬ 
federates, llosecrans prepared to resist. He had barely 
withdrawn and rearranged his line when a furious attack 
on the centre forced Davies back a short distance, darkness 
closing the engagement. 

On the morning of the 4th the attack was renewed. The 
advance, which was made in column by division, was sub¬ 
jected to a most severe direct and cross fire, sweeping 
it through and through; but, undismayed, the advance 
steadily continued, the men marching “ with their faces 
averted, like men striving to protect themselves against a 
driving storm of hail.” At last they reached the crest of 
the hill, and, charging the right centre, Davies’ division 
gave way. Fort Richardson, and even Rosecrans’ head¬ 
quarters, were taken; but Rosecrans rallying the troops 
in person, the fort was retaken, and Hamilton’s division 
advancing on the right, Price’s column was shattered and 
driven in confusion. 

Van Dorn’s attack was intended to be simultaneous 
with that of Price, but the nature of the ground over which 
he had to advance delayed him, and, besides, he was con¬ 
fronted by two batteries (Williams and Robinett). His 
advance was, however, made, under fire of these two bat¬ 
teries, in the most heroic manner, by the Texas and Mis¬ 
sissippi troops. Advancing within fifty yards of Battery 
Robinett through a murderous fire of grape and canister, 
they were met by an overwhelming musketry fire from the 
Ohio brigade, which drove them back to the woods. They 
were re-formed, and, returning to the charge, led by Col. 
Rogers, Second Texas, reached the ditch, only to be met 
again by the deadly fire of the Ohio brigade, which again 
broke them, and a charge was now made by the Eleventh 
Missouri and the Twenty-seventh Ohio, which pursued their 
scattered columns to the woods. By noon the battle was 
ended. The heroic bravery here displayed called forth the 
admiration of all. The remains of the gallant Col. Rogers, 
who fell at the ditch, were carefully buried in a separate 
grave by his late foe. 

The national loss in this sanguinary conflict was 315 
killed, 1812 wounded, and 232 prisoners. The Confederate 
loss was much greater. 

Corinth, a post-township of Saratoga co., N. Y. It 
has manufactures of lumber, leather, etc. Pop. 1500. 

Corinth, a post-township of Orange co., Vt., 25 miles 
S. E. of Montpelier. It has copper-mines and manufac¬ 
tures of linen, and is the seat of an academy. Pop. 1470. 

Corinth, Gulf of, or Gulf of Lepanto (anc. Cor- 
inthiacus Sinus), an inlet of the Mediterranean, extends 
between Hellas proper, or Northern Greece, and the Pelo¬ 
ponnesus (Morea). This gulf resembles a large inland 
lake. In beauty of scenery it equals or surpasses the most 
picturesque lakes of Northern Italy. “ Its coasts,” says 
Leake, “ broken into an infinite variety of outline by the 
ever-changing mixture of bold promontory, gentle slope, 
and cultivated level, are crowned on every side by lofty 
mountains of the most majestic forms.” It extends E. and 
W. nearly 80 miles, without including the part called the 
Gulf of Patras, which is connected with the other portion 
by a strait less than two miles wide. 

Corinth, Isthmus of, a neck of land connecting At¬ 
tica with the Morea, and separating the Gulf of Corinth 
from that of Angina. Its width varies from four to eight 
miles. This isthmus was the scene of the celebrated Isth¬ 
mian games and the site of a famous temple of Neptune. 
(See Isthmian Games.) It has been proposed to cut a 
ship-canal through the isthmus. 

Corin'thian Order. This order gets its name from 
Callicrates, a Corinthian architect, who was said to have in¬ 
vented it. It is more probable that it was an importation 
from Asia Minor. It was not generally used in Greece be¬ 
fore the age of Alexander the Great, and the few examples 
remaining there do not agree sufficiently with one another 
to enable us to deduce rules from them for its construction. 
In these examples volutes are sometimes used with the 
acanthus leaf, as in the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, 
and sometimes not, as on the Tower of the Winds* In one 
example found in Asia Minor the acanthus leaf is found 
combined with the ancient honeysuckle ornament. In the 
Choragic Monument the column rests upon a spreading 
base, while that of the Tower of the Winds has no base. 
The Romans greatly affected the Corinthian order, and 
brought it to perfection. Yet even with them it was not 
always the same thing, and there are more than fifty varie¬ 
ties of the Corinthian capital to be found either in Rome 
itself or in various parts of the Roman empire, all exe¬ 
cuted within the three centuries during which Rome con¬ 
tinued to be the imperial city. From these various but not 
discordant examples the following general rules may be 


deduced: The capital resembles a vase covered with an 
abacus and surrounded by one tier of acanthus leaves above 
another, from amongst which stalks spring out, terminating 
in small volutes at the angles of the abacus and in the cen¬ 
tre of each of its sides. The column is sometimes fluted, 



Corinthian Capital. 


as in the temple of Jupiter Stator in Rome, or as in the 
fine example here given from the Porta Aurea of Pola in 
Istria, and sometimes without flutings, as in the Pantheon. 
The flutings are separated by a fillet. The column stands 
upon a base. Its height varies from nine and one-third to 
ten and one-quarter times the diameter, and the capital 
from one to one and a half times. The entablature is vari¬ 
ously decorated. The architrave is usually profiled with 
three fasciae of unequal height, though sometimes there 
are only two. The frieze is often sculptured with foliage 
and animals, but it is sometimes left quite plain, as in the 
temple of Jupiter Stator. The cornice is richly decorated 
with modillions, dentils, and carving upon the mouldings. 
Among the principal remaining examples of the order at 
Rome are the temple of Mars Ultor and Jupiter Stator, 
and the Pantheon. The celebrated little temple at Nimes 
in France, called the Maison Carree, is a beautiful specimen 
of the Corinthian, though it probably owes its excellence 
to having been built by Greek hands. Clarence Cook. 

Corinthians, the First Epistle of Saint Paul to 
the, one of the canonical books of the New Testament, writ¬ 
ten from Ephesus in the spring of the year 57, to rebuke the 
church at Corinth for party spirit, disrespect to the apos¬ 
tle’s authority, licentiousness, impropriety at public meet¬ 
ings (and especially at the Holy Communion), vanity, and 
self-seeking. The apostle also settles some cases of con¬ 
science as to eating idol-sacrifices, and a point of doctrine 
as to the resurrection. 

The Second Epistle of Saint Paul to the Corinthians. 
Before writing the first Epistle the apostle had sent Tim¬ 
othy to Corinth (1 Cor. iv. 17). Timothy probably brought 
back a bad report; Titus was then sent, and he reported 
discontent at the authoritative tone of the first Epistle. 
The second letter is a sober and conciliatory but earnest 
statement of the apostle’s true and just authority. 'When 
he wrote he had reached Macedonia on his way to Achaia, 
late in the autumn of the year 57. 

Two Apocryphal Epistles (of the Corinthians to 
Saint Paul, and of Saint Paul to the Corinthians), 
existing in the Armenian, are worthless productions. Eng¬ 
lish translations are to be seen in Whiston’s “ Authentic 
Records.” 

The Epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians 
has been regarded as spurious by some, but without suf¬ 
ficient reason, and its genuineness is now conceded. The 
so-called Second Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians is 
doubtless a part of the pseudo-Clementine Homilies, to 
which it is now generally referred. 

Coriola'nus (Caius Marcius), an ancient Roman and 
patrician hero, who, according to tradition, received the 
surname Coriolanus because he defeated the Yolsci at 
Corioli about 490 B. C. During a famine he advised that 
grain should not be distributed gratis among the plebeians 
unless they abandoned the right or privilege of electing 
tribunes of the people.' For this offence he was banished. 
Having obtained command of a Volscian army, he marched 
against Rome, the citizens of which were unable to resist 









































































































COKIPPUS—COKNBURY. 


him. He was at length appeased by a deputation of 
Roman matrons, led by his mother Veturia and his wife 
Volumnia. The story of Coriolanus forms the subject of 
one of Shakspeare’s most celebrated dramas. (See Arnold, 
“History of Rome.”) 

Corip'pus (Flavius Cresconius), a literary man ( gram- 
maticus) who was born in Africa and flourished probably 
in the sixth century, is known as the author of an extrav¬ 
agant panegyric upon Justin the Younger, who was Byzan¬ 
tine emperor from 565 to 578 A. D., and of a poem called 
“Johannis,” celebrating the exploits of Johannes, a pro- 
consul in Africa in Justinian’s time. It is believed by 
some, but without full evidence, that he was the same Cres¬ 
conius who wrote large and important collections of the 
canon law, and who was an African bishop of uncertain 
age. Corippus was a writer of ability, and those parts of 
his work which are now perfect are highly prized. Much 
mystery formerly existed with regard to the authorship of 
his writings, but the discovery of a fairly preserved MS. 
in 1814 cleared away most of the difficulties which had 
beset this vexed question. The above works have been 
often reprinted. 

Cork [from the Lat. cortex, “bark;” Sp. corclio], the 
bark of the Quercus Suber, a species of oak growing in 
Spain, Italy, and the south of France. The bark may be re¬ 
moved annually without injuring the tree. Cork is exten¬ 
sively used in the form of stoppers for glass bottles, and in 
the construction of life-preservers and life-boats. When 
rasped cork is digested in water and alcohol, it leaves about 
75 per cent, of insoluble matter, called auberine. The cork 
tree has been introduced successfully in the Southern 
States, and cork might probably be grown there with profit. 

Cork, the most southern county of Ireland, borders on 
the Atlantic Ocean. Area, 2873 square miles. It is drained 
by the rivers Blackwater, Lee, and Bandon. The surface 
is diversified, and presents picturesque scenery. The coast 
is deeply indented with several bays and inlets, which form 
excellent harbors. Among these are Bantry Bay and the 
harbors of Cork and Kinsale. The predominant rocks are 
old red sandstone and mountain limestone. Here are 
mines of copper and coal. Capital, Cork. Pop. in 1871, 
516,046. 

Cork, a city and river-port of Ireland, capital of Cork 
county, is on the river Lee, 11 miles from the sea and 136 
miles S. W. of Dublin by rail. It is the third city of Ire¬ 
land in population. It is partly built on an island of the 
river, which is here crossed by nine modern bridges. Many 
of the houses are built of limestone, red sandstone, and 
brick, and the main streets are wide and well paved, but 
the suburbs are mean. Among the principal edifices are 
the court-house, mansion-house, the exchange, a custom¬ 
house, a lunatic asylum, and an episcopal palace. It con¬ 
tains a Protestant and a Catholic cathedral and two large 
Roman Catholic churches, Queen’s College, the Cork Li¬ 
brary, a medical school, two or three theatres, a fever hos¬ 
pital, and several convents. Here are manufactures of 
glass, paper, gingham, iron, gloves, etc. Cork has a large, 
safe, and landlocked harbor, and derives much of its pros¬ 
perity from commerce. It is connected by railway with 
Dublin and other cities. Steam-packets ply between this 
port and Dublin, Liverpool, Bristol, etc. Cork returns two 
members to Parliament. It is supposed to have been founded 
in the sixth century. It is regarded as a county by itself. 
Pop. in 1871, 78,382. 

Cork, Earls of (1620), earls of Orrery (1660), Barons 
Boyle of Youghal (1616), Barons Broghill, Viscounts Kin- 
almealy, and barons of Bandon Bridge (Ireland, 1628), 
Barons Boyle of Marston, Somerset (Great Britain, 1711). 
—Richard Boyle, ninth earl, K. P., P. C., master of the 
buckhounds, born April 19, 1829, succeeded his grandfather 
June 29, 1856. 

Cork (Richard Boyle), first earl of, a British states¬ 
man, was born at Canterbury Oct. 3, 1566. He was made 
privy councillor for Ireland in 1612, raised to the peerage 
in 1616, became earl of Cork in 1620, lord justice of Ire¬ 
land in 1629, and lord treasurer in 1631. Died Sept. 15, 
1643. He is known as “the great earl of Cork,” and was 
father of Robert Boyle, the philosopher. 

Cork Har'bor, an excellent landlocked harbor of Ire¬ 
land, is formed by the estuary of the river Lee. It is large 
and deep enough to contain the whole British navy. The 
entrance, which is one mile wide, is 11 miles from the city 
of Cork. The harbor expands to eight miles in width. 
Queenstown is on an island in this harbor. 

Corleo'ne, a town of Sicily, province of Palermo, on a 
hill 21 miles S. of Palermo. It has a royal college, a hos¬ 
pital, and several churches and convents. Pop. 14,600. 

Cor Leo'nis (i. c. “heart of the lion”), a name of the 
star a in the constellation Leo. It is also called Regulus. 


1155 


Corm [Gr. aopu-oa, a “trunk” or “stem”], in botany, a 
short, roundish, bulb-like underground stem, solid, and not 
scaly; as in the crocus, tulip, and gladiolus. Corms are 
sometimes called solid bulbs. 

Cormenin, de (Louis Marie de la Haye), Vicomte, 
a French political writer, born in Paris Jan. 6, 1788. He 
became in 1828 a liberal member of the Chamber of Dep¬ 
uties, and under the pseudonym of “ Timon ” wrote polit¬ 
ical pamphlets which were successful. He was president 
of the committee which formed a new constitution in 1848. 
Among his works “Droit Administrate” (1831; 5th ed. 
1840) is the most important. After the coup d’etat of Dec., 
1851, he was a member of the council of state. In 1855 he 
was admitted into the Institute. Died May 6, 1868. 

Cormoiitaigne, de (Louis), a French military engi¬ 
neer, born in 1696. He made improvements in the art of 
fortification, on which he wrote several treatises. He planned 
the fortifications which were constructed at Metz and Thion- 
ville in the reign of Louis XV. Died Oct. 20, 1752. 

Cor'morant [Fr. cormorant; It. corvomarino, i. e. “ sea 
crow;” Ger. Wasserabe], (Phalacrocorax or Graculus), a 
genus of aquatic web-footed birds of the family Pelican- 
idse, characterized by a bare dilatable membrane beneath 
the lower mandible, extending to the upper part of the 
throat. The cormorant has a compressed bill, with a strong 
hook at the point of the upper mandible, wings of mod¬ 
erate length, and stiff tail 
feathers, used in walking. 
The species are distributed 
along the coasts of various 
countries of Europe, Asia, 
and America, and feed on 
fish almost exclusively. 
They are proverbial for 
their voracity. They pur¬ 
sue their prey by swim¬ 
ming and diving, and, it 
is said, sometimes descend 
to the depth of 100 feet or 
more. The common cor¬ 
morant ( Phalacrocorax 
carbo) is found on the 
eastern coast of North 
America, is mostly of a black plumage, and is about thirty- 
three inches long. Several other species are found in the 
U. S. The cormorant is trained by the Chinese, who em¬ 
ploy it in catching fish. 

Corn [Anglo-Saxon, corn ; Ger. Korn; Lat./ar or fru- 
mentum], a general name given to various seeds, especially 
to cereal and farinaceous grains which grow in ears and 
are used for food, as wheat, barley, rye, and maize. In 
England, corn signifies “ wheat,” which is the grain most 
extensively used for breadstuff. In the U. S. the term is 
commonly applied to maize or Indian corn. 

Corn ( clavua ), [from cornu, a “horn”], a horny accu¬ 
mulation of epidermic cells upon the surface of the human 
foot, produced by the pressure of the boot or shoe. Corns 
may be softened by hot water or poultices, and the horny 
part can be carefully removed with the knife. When pain¬ 
ful, they may be generally much relieved by the occasional 
application of a solution of nitrate of silver. Various sur¬ 
gical appliances have been devised for the relief of corns, 
which when neglected may give rise to serious trouble. 

Corns in horses are inflamed spots in the sole just above 
the horny portion. They are often caused by bad shoeing, 
and are very liable to suppuration. When this occurs the 
matter should be evacuated, the part poulticed, the surface 
of the corn exposed by cutting, and the foot dressed with 
a solution of chloride of zinc—one grain to the ounce of 
water. 

Cor'naceae [from Cornua, one of the genera], a small 
natural order of exogenous plants, mostly trees or shrubs. 
They have four-parted flowers, the corolla valvate in the 
bud, and four stamens borne on the margin of an epigynous 
disk in the perfect flowers. The fruit is a one or two seed¬ 
ed drupe. The Cornua Jlorida (dogwood) and some other 
species are indigenous in the U. S. The bark of Corn us 
is recommended as a tonic. 

Cor'narists, a name applied in the sixteenth century 
to the followers of Diedrik Corniiert (which see.) Alter 
the rise of the Arminian party in the Dutch Church, the 
Cornarists, who nearly agreed with them, disappear from 
history. 

Corn'bury (Edward Ilyde), Lord, afterwards third 
earl of Clarendon. He deserted the service of James II. in 
1688, and became an adherent of the prince of Orange 
(William III.), who appointed him governor of New York 
in 1702. Ho was censured for rapacity and tyrannical con¬ 
duct, and was removed in 1708. Died April 1, 1723. 





















1150 


CORN-CRAKE—CORNELL COLLEGE. 


Corn-Crake, or Land llail, the Crex pratemis, a 
European bird, a rare visitant of the U. S. It is a wader, 


lil'.j- - 

V'L-r^n 

M's~ 



Corn-Crake, or Land Rail. 

seven inches long, of a brown-gray color, haunting corn 
and grass lands and osier-beds. It is a game bird, quite 
hard to flush, as it runs rapidly away from a dog. 

Cor'nea [?. e. “ horny,” from the Lat. cornu, a “ horn ”], 
the transparent horny membrane which forms the anterior 
part of the eyeball. In vertebrates it is simple; in insects 
it is divided into numerous hexagonal segments. (See Eye.) 

Corneille (Pierre), a celebrated French dramatic au¬ 
thor, born at Rouen June 6, 1606, is called tha founder of 
the French drama. He was educated by the Jesuits, and 
studied law, which he practised for several years without 
success. In 1629 he produced “ Melite,” a comedy, which 
was performed with applause. Between 1629 and 1635 he 
wrote several comedies, which are inferior to his later 
works. His “Medea” (1635), a tragedy, although some¬ 
what bombastic, contains eloquent passages and reveals 
the dawning of his genius. His reputation was greatly 
increased by the tragedy of the “ Cid ” (1636), an imitation 
of the Spanish drama of the same name. The “Cid” was 
performed with great applause, and surpassed everything 
that had appeared on the French stage. He produced in 
1639 “ Les Horaces” and “ Cinna,” which are excellent in 
invention and style. “Cinna” and “ Polyeucte” (1640) 
are considered by some critics as his masterpieces. He 
was admitted into the French Academy in 1647. Among 
his other works are “ Le Menteur” (1642), a comedy of 
character and intrigue, and an opera, “ Toison d’Or ” (1661). 
He died in Paris Oct. 1,1684, and left several children. He 
was an uncle of Fontenelle. The French call him the 
“ grand Corneille,” partly to distinguish him from his 
brother Thomas. In the opinion of many critics he excelled 
other French dramatists in impressive declamation, sublime 
thoughts, and a condensed and noble style. (See Fonte¬ 
nelle, “ Eloge de Corneille;” Guizot, “Corneille et son 
Temps,” 1852; Taschereau, “ Ilistoire de la Vie et des 
Ouvrages de Corneille,” 1829.) 

Corneille (Thomas), a French dramatist, a brother of 
the preceding, born at Rouen Aug. 20, 1625. His first 
work was a comedy entitled “ Engagements du Hasard ” 
(1647). lie produced in 1656 “ Timocrate,” “ Ariane,” the 
“ Earl of Essex,” and several encyclopaedic works. Died 
Dec. 8, 1709. 

Corne'lia, a Roman matron of patrician family, was a 
daughter of P. Scipio Africanus, and the mother of Tiberius 
and Caius Gracchus. After the death of her husband, T. 
Sempronius Gracchus, she declined an offer of marriage made 
by Ptolemy, king of Egypt. She was eminent for virtue 
and mental endowments, and was versed in Greek litera¬ 
ture. When a rich Campanian lady expressed a curiosity 
to see her jewels, she pointed to her two sons, saying, 
“ These are my jewels and ornaments.” She lived in the 
second century B. C. 

Cornelian. See Carnelian. 

CorneTius (Elias), D. D., an eloquent and influential 
clergyman, was born at Soiners, Westchester co., N. Y., 


July 31, 1794. As secretary of the American Education 
Society (from 1826 to 1832) he gave a notable impulse to 
the work of training men for the Christian 
ministry. Died at Hartford, Conn., Feb. 
12, 1832. A few weeks before his death he 
succeeded Jeremiah Evarts as one of the 
secretaries of the A. B. C. F. M. His life 
was written by B. B. Edwards (1833). 

Cornelius Nepos. See Nepos. 

Corne'lius, von (Peter), a celebrated 
German painter, born at Diisseldorf Sept. 
23, 1787. He studied and worked in Rome 
(1811-19), and formed there an intimate 
friendship with the artist Overbcck. While 
he was at Rome he produced his “ Illustra¬ 
tions of Faust.” He manifested his orig¬ 
inal genius in a series of designs illustrating 
the “Niebelungen Lied.” In 1819 he was 
made director of the Academy at Diissel- 
dorf, and in 1826 he went to Munich, where 
he was patronized by King Louis. He de¬ 
voted himself to fresco-painting, which had 
long been neglected, and adorned with 
Igl^ frescoes of subjects from the “Iliad” the 
Glyptothek of Munich. Among his greatest 
works is a picture of the “ Last Judgment” 
in the church of St. Louis in Munich. In 
the Pinakothek of Munich he painted a 
series of frescoes to illustrate the “ History 
of Painting” (1841). Invited by the king 
of Prussia, he went to Berlin in 1840, and 
painted in the Campo Santo “ The Four 
Horsemen of the Apocalypse” (1848) and 
other works. Died at Berlin Mar. 7, 1867. (See Riegel, 
“Cornelius, der Meister der Deutschen Malerei,” 1866; 
Wolzogen, “ Peter von Cornelius,” 1867 ; “ Peter von Cor¬ 
nelius, ein Gedenkbuch aus seinem Leben und Wirken, 
von Ernst Forster,” Berlin, 1874.) 

Cornell', a post-village of Livingston co., Ill., on the 
Chicago and Paducah R. R., 9 miles N. W. of Pontiac. It 
has one weekly newspaper. 

Cornell (Ezekiel), a brigadier-general of the Revo¬ 
lutionary war, born at Scituate, R. I., was a member of 
the Continental Congress from Rhode Island (1780-83). 
He founded a library in his native town. 

Cornell (Ezra) was born at Westchester Landing, 
N. Y., Jan. 11, 1807. Soon after the invention of the tele¬ 
graph he devoted, his attention to that enterprise, be¬ 
came very wealthy, and in 1865 founded the Cornell Uni¬ 
versity (which see). 

Cornell (William Mason), M. D., D. D.. LL.D., a Con¬ 
gregational divine, was born at Berkley, Mass., Oct. 16, 
1802, graduated at Brown University in 1827. He left the 
ministry in 1839 on account of feeble health, studied medi¬ 
cine, and commenced its practice in 1845. He has contrib¬ 
uted largely to periodical and other literature. 

Cornell College, Mount Vernon, la., is under the 
auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church. It was es¬ 
tablished in 1850, and first called the Iowa Conference 
Seminary. In 1854 the name was changed to Cornell Col¬ 
lege. It is built in one of the handsomest spots in beauti¬ 
ful Iowa, on a campus of twenty acres, and consists of 
three massive brick structures: one, the ladies’ boarding 
hall, 72 by 40 feet, and three stories high; another, the 
gentlemen’s boarding hall, 56 by40, and four stories high; 
and the third, the main college building, 100 by 60, and 
five stories high. They have been built at a cost of $80,000, 
principally small gifts from the pioneer citizens of Iowa. 
It has a permanent endowment of $86,000, which the friends 
of the institution are laboring to increase to $200,000. 
The faculty, headed by the Rev. William F. King, D.D., 
consists of fifteen professors and teachers. Three of its 
chairs are endowed : the chair of mental and moral philos¬ 
ophy by the late Bishop Hamline; the chair of civil en¬ 
gineering by Hon. Judge Cooley of Dubuque, la.; and 
the chair of mathematics by the alumni of the institution. 
The Washington government has selected this college as 
the one in Iowa to which to detail a professor of military 
science and civil engineering, thus bringing West Point 
advantages into the heart of Iowa. Over 7000 students 
have attended this college, and about 140 of the number 
have graduated. Mount Vernon, the seat of the institu¬ 
tion, is a small town of 1500 inhabitants, who have been 
drawn together here principally for educational purposes. 
It is on the C. and N. W. Railway, 66 miles W. of the 
Mississippi, thus being in the very centre of Iowa’s popula¬ 
tion. About 360 students, from twenty-one different States, 
make up the annual list in the catalogue. The college is 
out of debt. J. W. Clinton, Agent Cornell College. 

























CORNELL UNIVERSITY—CORN LAWS. 


1157 


Cornell University, a collegiate institution at Ith¬ 
aca, Tompkins co., N. Y. In July, 1862, Congress granted 
to each State 30,000 acres of public land for every Senator 
and representative it was entitled to; the income to be 
applied for ever to colleges " where the leading object 
shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical 
studies, and including military tactics, to teach such 
branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the 
mechanic arts, ... in order to promote the liberal and prac¬ 
tical education of the industrial classes in the several pur¬ 
suits and professions in life.” One-tenth of this may be 
used for experimental farms, but no portion for buildings. 
New York’s share was 990,000 acres. By charter of 1865 
and 1867 she established the Cornell University with a 
foundation of $500,000, given it by Hon. Ezra Cornell of 
Ithaca, and secured to it the entire income of the land-grant 
so long as it should use the whole effectively in aid of the 
objects intended by Congress. It has since received nearly 
$1,000,000 more, from the founder, from the president, Hon. 
Andrew D.White, and from Trustees McGraw, Kelley, Sibley, 
Sage, and others. Its valuable collections and its library 
of 35,000 volumes are rapidly increasing. Opened Oct., 
1868, it had in Oct., 1872, 33 resident professors and in¬ 
structors, 8 non-resident professors and lecturers, 494 stu¬ 
dents, including 5 resident graduates and 16 ladies, and 
109 alumni. 

By the charter no officer or student can be admitted or 
excluded for any political or religious opinions, but "at no 
time shall a majority [of the trustees] be of one religious 
sect or of no religious sect.” All departments of study shall 
be open at the lowest rates consistent with efficiency. Each 
of the State’s 128 assembly districts may send yearly one 
student for four years’ free tuition; the choice to be made 
by competitive examination from the best scholars, male and 
female, in the different academies and public schools, but 
subject to the usual entrance-examination at the university. 
Since June, 1872, both sexes are admitted on equal terms, 
except that lady students must be at least eighteen years 
of age, while boys may enter at sixteen, and must, unless 
excused, receive military instruction. 

The university values "practical” and "scholarly” stud¬ 
ies alike when the work in each is equally good. It aims 
to afford the best facilities for each, to encourage their com¬ 
bination, and, by giving wide liberty of choice, to secure 
the student’s mental discipline through studies which, while 
of varied character, shall bear directly upon his chosen life- 
work. Especial provision is made for instruction connected 
with political, social, and industrial science, and with mod¬ 
ern and English classics; thus in history are five profes¬ 
sors; in rhetoric and literature, two; in chemistry, three; 
in mathematics, seven teachers; in modern languages, 
seven. The engineering school is very large. But instruc¬ 
tion is offered as well in Hebrew, Persian, transcendental 
anatomy, quantics, etc. To promote variety of culture, 
and to guard against academic seclusion from the world’s 
actual interests, the resident faculty is supplemented by 
non-resident lecturers, men eminent in their special de¬ 
partments, and often in public life. 

There are three " general courses.” That in arts has the 
usual classical curriculum ; that in literature replaces Greek, 
and that in science, Greek and Latin, by other studies. Some 
" electives ” are allowed, and the natural sciences are studied 
at the outset. • These three courses, and " special courses” 
like civil engineering, architecture, veterinary medicine, 
zoology, etc., lead to bachelors’ degrees, but the masters’ 
degrees require further study. Or the student may select 
an "optional course,” leading to no degree. But in all 
courses the equivalent of fifteen hours’ recitation per week 
is required. A cerfain proficiency, as shown by the fre¬ 
quent examinations, is necessary to continue a student in 
his class, and a certain higher proficiency to graduate him. 
No " marking list ” is kept at daily recitations. There is 
no college police. Much is left to the student’s earnestness 
and to free and manly intercourse between teachers and 
taught, but when these fail he is dismissed. 

James E. Oliver, of the University. 

Cor'nct [It. cornetto, diminutive for corno ; Lat. cornu , 
a “ horn,” because horns were anciently used as musical in¬ 
struments], a musical instrument usually of brass, and 
originally of a curved, horn-like shape. Cornets are of 
various kinds, but the best form is that known as the cor- 
net-d-pistons (a French term signifying a "cornet with pis¬ 
tons,” because modifications of sound are produced by 
small pistons moved by the player’s fingers). Cornet music 
is popular and brilliant, but is not considered "high art” 
by musical critics. Among the most famous cornet-players 
of the present time may be mentioned the celebrated Levy 
and Mr. Arbuckle. 

Cor'net [It. cornetta , a "small flag”], a commissioned 
officer of cavalry, corresponding in rank with the ensign I 


of infantry. The standard was formerly carried by the 
cornet, hence the name. There are no cornets in the U. S. 
army. 

Corn'hert, or Koornhert (Diedrik), an eminent 
Dutch author and reformer, born at Amsterdam in 1522. 
He efficiently promoted the Protestant Reformation, but 
opposed Calvinism. More liberal than the most of his 
contemporaries, he wrote a "Treatise against the Capital 
Punishment of Heretics.” He gave valuable assistance to 
the prince of Orange in his contest against Spain, and be¬ 
came secretary of state in Holland in 1572. Among his 
works is a poem " On the Use and Abuse of Fortune.” 
Died Oct. 20, 1590. His followers in theology were called 
Cornarists. 

Cor'nice [Fr. corniche; It. cornice], in architecture, 
the upper great division of an entablature, consists of sev¬ 
eral members, which vary in the different orders. (Sec En¬ 
tablature.) 

Cor'nie, a township of Columbia co., Ark. Pop. 413. 

Cornie, a township of Union co., Ark. Pop. 752. 

Cornif'erous Fe'riod [from the Lat. cornu, a " horn,” 
and fero, to " produce,” referring to the "hornstonc” or 
imperfect flint found in its strata], in American geolog3 r , 
the second of the five great divisions of the Devonian 
Age (which see). 

Corn, Indian. See Maize. 

Corn'ing, a half shire and post-town of Steuben co., 
N. Y., on the Chemung River and Erie R. R., at the junc¬ 
tion of the Rochester division, 290 miles N. W. of New York 
and 17^ W. of Elmira. It is the terminus of the Chemung 
Canal feeder and of the Corning and Blossburg R. R. It 
has two newspapers, a school building costing $70,000, a 
public library, several iron-foundries, flint glass-works, and 
a manufactory of railroad cars. Pop. 4018; of township, 
6502. Ed. " Journal.” 

Corning, a post-village of Adams co., Ia. It is on the 
Burlington and Missouri River It. R., 211 miles W. of 
Burlingtou. It has two weekly newspapers. 

Corning (Erastus), born at Norwich, Conn., Dec. 14, 
1794, became a wealthy iron-merchant and capitalist of 
Albany, N. Y., and was a member of Congress from the last- 
named State 1857-63 and 1865-67. He was one of the 
leading railroad capitalists of the U. S., was one of the 
regents of the university, and was greatly interested in the 
cause of popular education. Personally, he was greatly 
beloved on account of his genial and kindly disposition. 
Died April 9, 1872. 

Cor’nish, a township and post-village of York co., Me., 
on the Portland and Ogdensburg 11. R. and on the Saco 
River, 30 miles N. W. of Portland. Carriages are manu¬ 
factured here. Pop. 1100. 

Cornish, a township and post-village of Sullivan co., 
N. II., on the left bank of the Connecticut River, opposite 
Windsor, Vt., 25 miles N. of Bellows Falls. The township 
has four churches and manufactures of lumber and leather. 
Pop. of township, 1334. 

Cor'nish Lan'guage, a language closely akin to the 
Breton (Armorican) and to the Welsh. It ceased to be a 
spoken language about the beginning of the present cen¬ 
tury. Its use within historic times appears to have been 
limited to Cornwall and Western Devonshire, in England. 
Among the extant remains of this language are a poem on 
the " Passion of our Lord” (published in 1864 by the Phil¬ 
ological Society), and a mystery entitled the " Creation of 
the World” (Berlin, 1865). (See Norris, "Cornish Gram¬ 
mar,” Clarendon Press, 1859.) 

Corn Laws, in England, the name given to certain 
former statutes for the regulation of the trade in grain. 
The corn laws are of ancient origin, dating as far back as 
1360. There appears to have been, no prohibition against 
importation till in 1463 an act was passed prohibiting it so 
long as the price at home was below 6s. Sd. a quarter. Soon 
after the accession of Charles II. the policy of increasing 
duties on importation, for protecting the agricultural and 
landed interest, began to prevail. An act was passed in 
1670 prohibiting importation till the price had reached 
53s. Ad. a quarter, and laying a heavy duty on it above 
that point. This law was of little benefit to the landed 
interest, for then and long afterwards Great Britain gen¬ 
erally produced more grain than its population required. 
The price at which importation might begin was raised in 
1814. There had been a tendency to what is called a "sli¬ 
ding scale” in the duties on importation, and this arrange¬ 
ment, by the act of 1828, reached what was regarded as a 
state of perfection. There were, however, writers and 
speakers who opposed the corn laws, while a powcriul 
party maintained that they were identified with the inter¬ 
ests of the country. They argued that protection was 
























1158 CORNPLANTER—CORCEBUS. 


necessary to keep certain poor lands in cultivation, and 
that it was desirable to cultivate as much land as possible, 
in order to improve the country. If improvement by that 
means were to cease, the country would be dependent on 
foreigners for a large portion of food. Such dependence 
would be fraught with great danger: in war, supplies 
might be stopped or the ports blockaded, the result being 
famine and bread-riots. Protection enabled the lauded pro¬ 
prietors and their tenants to encourage manufactures and 
trade. If the corn laws were abolished half the shopkeepers 
would be ruined, and that Avould be followed by the stop¬ 
page of many mills and factories. These arguments had 
great influence over the shopkeepers, the laboring classes, 
and the learned professions. Ignorance and timidity were 
combined with selfishness for the support of the corn laws. 
Statesmen could introduce no change into the existing 
laws other than to reduce the import duty as the price of 
grain rose, in order virtually to prohibit importation when 
the price was low, and encourage it when high, so that at 
famine-prices grain might come in duty free. The effect of 
this fluctuation was to render the trade a gambling one; the 
supplies required being so irregular, foreign countries did 
not grow corn habitually for the British market. In 1843, 
Sir Robert Peel tried a modification of the sliding scale, 
which did not lessen the opposition to the corn laws, the 
nature of which was now better understood. The people, 
roused by Cobden, Bright, and other leaders of the Anti- 
Corn Law League, poured in petitions to Parliament, and 
at length Sir Robert Peel, now a convert to free trade, car¬ 
ried a measure in 1846 to abolish the corn laws. Every 
evil prognostication has proved false. There has been no 
stoppage of imports by war; manufacturers and tradesmen 
have been more prosperous than before the repeal; the rent 
of land has risen, and both tenants and proprietors are sat¬ 
isfied ; the working-classes find more employment than be¬ 
fore. The benefits arising from the repeal of these laws 
consist in the stimulus given to trade, the removal of anx¬ 
iety as to the effects of scanty harvests, and less fluctua¬ 
tion of price. Another result was the decline of Chartism, 
and other schemes for radical social changes. 

Corn'planter [Iroquois, Garianwachia, the ’“plant¬ 
er”], a half-breed Seneca Indian and chief of the Six Na¬ 
tions, born about 1732, was the son of John Abeel, a white 
trader. He fought the English at Braddock’s defeat, and 
was a deadly foe to the colonists during the Revolutionary 
war, but afterwards became the steady friend of the white 
people. He was a man of great intelligence, dignity, and 
moral worth. Died in AVarren co., Pa., Feb. 18, 1836. A 
monument was erected in his honor by the State of Penn¬ 
sylvania in 1867. (See Snowden’s “Historical Sketch of 
Cornplanter,” 1867.) 

Cornplanter, a township of Venango co., Pa. Here 
are numerous oil-wells. Pop. 10,100. 

Corn Snake, the Scotophis gut tat us, a colubrine, non- 
venomous serpent of the Southern States, of a brown color, 
and often five feet long. It is generally not seen except 
mornings and evenings. It enters houses, devours young 
chickens and other small animals, but is of gentle and famil¬ 
iar disposition. 

Corn'stone, the lower member of the old red sandstone 
or middle palaeozoic series of rocks, as developed in Here¬ 
fordshire, England, and the adjoining counties. The name 
cornstone is said to have been given because the soil derived 
from this stratum is fertile and adapted to the production 
of corn (wheat). 

Cor'nu Ammo'nis, in anatomy, a white prominence 
within the brain near the middle of each lateral ventricle. 

Cornuco'pia [Lat. cornucopise (7. e. “horn of plenty”), 
from cornu, a “horn,” and copise, the gen. of copia, “plen¬ 
ty ”], in the fine arts, an ornament representing a horn, from 
which issue flowers, fruits, and leaves. The fable account¬ 
ing for the origin of this emblem of plenty is, that Amal- 
thma, when one of her goats had broken off a horn, pre¬ 
sented it to the infant Jupiter wreathed with flowers and 
filled with fruit. 

Com'ville, a post-township of Somerset co., Me. P. 959. 

Corn'wall, a county forming the S. W. extremity of 
England, is bounded by the ocean on all sides except the 
E. It constitutes a duchy, which is the appanage of the 
prince of Wales. Area of the county, 1786 square miles, 
but the duchy is larger, and includes apart of Devonshire. 
The surface is partly occupied by rugged hills, with some 
fertile valleys. The river Tamar forms the eastern bound¬ 
ary of Cornwall, which it separates from Devonshire. The 
extreme western point of the county is a promontory called 
Land’s End. Cornwall is rich in metals, especially tin and 
copper. The annual average product of the tin-mines is 
5000 tons. The quantity of copper obtained here annu¬ 
ally is nearly 12,000 tons. The mining of kaolin and fel¬ 


spar is also important. Silver, lead, zinc, antimony, cobalt, 
bismuth, and iron are found here. The chief towns are 
Falmouth, Penzance, Bodmin, and Truro. There are in 
Cornwall many dolmens and other pre-historic remains. 
The ancient language of Cornwall, called the Cornish lan¬ 
guage, ceased to be spoken about the beginning of the 
present century. (See Coknish Language.) Capitals, 
Bodmin and Launceston. Pop. in 1871, 362,098. 

Cornwall, a port of entry, capital of Stormont co., 
Ontario (Canada), on the N. side of the St. Lawrence River, 
at the foot of the Long Sault Rapids and Canal, 67 miles 
above Montreal, and on the Grand Trunk Railway. It 
has great water-power, and manufactures of woollen goods, 
flour, etc. It has two weekly papers. Pop. about 3000. 

Cornwall, a township and post-village of Litchfield 
co., Conn. It has important mines of iron ore. The vil¬ 
lage is 45 miles N. W. of New Haven. Pop. 1772. 

Cornwall, a township of Henry co., Ill. Pop. 952. 

Cornwall, a post-township of Orange co., N. Y., on 
the AY. bank of the Hudson River, contains the village and 
U. S. Military Academy of West Point (which see); also 
Canterbury, Highland Falls, Cozzens’ Landing, and other 
villages. It has seventeen churches, several excellent 
boarding schools, and many manufactories. The scenery 
here is very attractive. Pop. of township, 5989. 

Cornwall, a post-township of Lebanon co., Pa. P. 2008. 

Cornwall, a post-township of Addison co., Yt. P. 969. 

Cornwall (Barry). See Procter (Bryan W.). 

Cornwal'lis (Caroline Frances), an English writer, 
born in July, 1786. She learned Latin and Greek, and at¬ 
tained a good proficiency in philosophy, history, and natu¬ 
ral science. She published a series of twenty-two essays 
entitled “ Small Books on Great Subjects,” which are highly 
esteemed. Among her works, which were all anonymous, 
was “Pericles, a Tale of Athens” (1847). Died in 1858. 
A volume of her letters and remains appeared in 1864. 

Cornwallis (Charles), Marquis of, a British general, 
born Dec. 31, 1738, was the eldest son of the first earl, 
whose title and estate he inherited in 1762. He became a 
favorite aide-de-camp of the king, but he opposed the 
measures that provoked the American war. With the rank 
of major-general he took part in the battles of Brandywine 
and Germantown in 1777. Having obtained the command 
of an army in South Carolina, he defeated Gen. Gates at 
Camden Aug. 16, 1780. Mar. 15, 1781, he gained some 
advantage over Gen. Greene at Guilford Court-house, and 
invaded Virginia. He occupied Yorktown, which he in¬ 
trenched, and remained on the defensive. Gen. Washing¬ 
ton besieged Yorktown, and compelled Lord Cornwallis to 
surrender his army of about 8000 men, Oct. 19, 1781. He 
is regarded as the ablest of the British generals who com¬ 
manded in this war. In 1786 he was appointed governor- 
general of Bengal and commander-in-chief of the army in 
India. He waged war against Tippoo Saib, whom he de¬ 
feated at Seringapatam in 1792. Having returned to Eng¬ 
land in 1793, he was raised to the rank of marquis. He 
became in 1798 lord lieutenant of Ireland, which was then 
the scene of a rebellion, and he pacified the Irish by mod¬ 
erate measures. He negotiated the treaty of Amiens in 
1802, and was appointed governor-general of India in 1805. 
He died in India in the same year, Oct. 5. His “ Corre¬ 
spondence ” was published by Ross (3 vols.; 2d ed. 1859). 

Cornwall oil the Hudson, a post-village of Corn¬ 
wall township, Orange co., N. Y., has a savings bank, a 
public library, some manufactures, and is a place of sum¬ 
mer resort. Pop. 200. 

Coro, a province of Venezuela, is bounded on the N. 
and E. by the Caribbean Sea, on the S. by Carabobo and 
Barquisimeto, and on the W. by Maracaibo. Area, 11,250 
square miles. The larger part of the province is a low 
plain. In the interior the Sierra de Coro rises to an eleva¬ 
tion of 4250 feet. The form of the province is very irregu¬ 
lar, owing to the large peninsula of Paraguana in its north¬ 
ern part, which is connected with the mainland by a long, 
narrow isthmus. The soil is in general unfruitful, and in 
parts poorly watered. The more elevated portions of the 
mountains are covered with fine forests. The rivers are all 
small, except the Tocuyo and the Aroa. The chief em¬ 
ployments of the inhabitants are cattle-raising and agricul¬ 
ture. It is the most sparsely peopled province of the re¬ 
public. The principal products are cattle, coffee, cacao, 
and cotton. Capital, Coro. Pop. 72,321. 

Co'ro, a maritime town of South America, in Vene¬ 
zuela, near the Gulf of Maracaibo, 155 miles W. N. W. of 
A alencia. It is the capital of the province of the same 
name. Pop. about 7000. 

Coroe'lms [KopoQ3o?], one of the half-mythical cha¬ 
racters of early Greek history, an Elean chiefly noted for 











COROLLA—CORPORATION. 1159 


liis victory in the foot-race at the Olympian games in 776 
B. C. From, this victory the Olympiads were reckoned. 
He slew the monster Poene, whom Apollo sent to afflict the 
Argives.—Another Corcebus was a Phrygian hero of the 
Trojan war, and a suitor of Cassandra.—In Pericles’ time 
there was a famous architect named Corcebus. 

Corol'la [a diminutive of the Lat. corona, a “crown”], 
in botany, the inner floral envelope of a plant. It is usually 
more richly colored than the calyx. Theoretically consid¬ 
ered, the corolla is composed of modified leaves (called 
petals). Corollas are divisible into two classes, inonopeta- 
lous and polypetalous, the latter of which have several 
distinct petals. The monopetalous corolla has only one 
petal, formed by the union of several modified leaves. The 
corolla is much employed by botanists in their systematic 
arrangements, and by the French school has been taken as 
the means of torming fundamental characters of the sub¬ 
classes in the grand division of exogenous plants. 

Cor'ollary [Lat. corollarium, from corolla, a “little 
crown ” or “ garland ” given in addition to wages, hence 
anything over and above], in mathematics, denotes some¬ 
thing in addition to the demonstration—viz. an inference 
or consequence immediately deducible from the demonstra¬ 
tion of a proposition. All the corollaries in our editions 
of Euclid have been inserted by editors; they may be said 
to constitute so many new propositions, differing from the 
original ones merely in the fact that the demonstrations 
have been omitted. 

Coroman'del Coast, of India, extends along the E. 
side of the peninsula from Point Calymere to the mouth of 
the river Kistnah. It has no good harbor, and is heavily 
surf-beaten. The cities of Madras, Tranquebar, and Pon¬ 
dicherry are on this coast. 

Coro'na [a Latin word signifying a “crown”], a term 
applied in astronomy to the glory of light seen around the 
sun when totally eclipsed. Halley regarded the phenom¬ 
enon as owing to the existence of a lunar atmosphere, but 
this idea was rejected by Newton, and has since been 
entirely disproved. Delisle’s theory, that it is due to the 
diffraction of the sun’s light in passing tangentially by the 
moon’s sphere, has been asserted by Sir David Brewster to 



Corona as seen at Svracuse, in Sicily, Dec., 1870. R is the bright 
“inner corona,” in which may be seen a “sierra” of glowing 
hydrogen. C is the “ outer corona.” 


be untenable, since any diffraction ring thus occasioned 
would be too narrow to be visible from the earth. There 
remains only the conclusion that the corona is a true solar 
appendage. It appears probable, from various experiments, 
that the particles forming the corona are prevented from 
pressing towards the sun by their own motions. It is there¬ 
fore supposed that they may be members of meteoric sys¬ 
tems whose perihelia exist in the sun’s neighborhood. 

Corona, in architecture, the flat, square, massive 
member of a cornice, often called the dritt or larmier, is 
situated between the cymatium and the bed-moulding. Its 
use is to carry the water, drop by drop, from the building. 

Corona, Coronet, or Crown, a botanical term ap¬ 
plied to certain appendages of the corolla, which are 
modifications of sterile stamens. The corona is in the in¬ 
terior of the corolla, and in some cases has the form of a 
cup. as in the narcissus. The five hooded bodies seated on 
the tube of the stamens of the asclepias are called the 
crown. 

Coro'na Austra'lis, or Southern Crown, a con¬ 
stellation of the southern hemisphere. 


Coro'na Borea'lis, or Northern Crown, a con¬ 
stellation of the northern hemisphere. 

Cor'onach [a Gaelic word], a dirge or lament, min¬ 
gled with the shrieks and wailings of women, which is still 
often heard at wakes and funerals, especially in the more 
primitive parts of Ireland and Scotland. Traces of the 
same practice are found among many primitive peoples. 

Corona'tion [from the Lat. corona, a “crown”], the 
act of crowning a monarch; the ceremony performed on 
the accession of a sovereign to the throne. In some coun¬ 
tries of Europe it is customary for a bishop to place the 
crown on the head of the sovereign. The ceremony of cor¬ 
onation is a very ancient one, at least as old as King Solo¬ 
mon’s time. Anointing often accompanies the coronation, 
and in Great Britain the sovereign also takes an oath to 
support the laws, customs, and statutes, the laws of God, 
the Protestant reformed religion, the Church of England, 
etc.; security for the Church of Scotland being promised 
in the oath of accession, which in some instances long pre¬ 
cedes the coronation. For example, George IY.’s accession 
was Jan. 29, 1820, but his coronation was deferred nearly 
eighteen months—till July 19, 1821. The ceremony is per¬ 
formed in Westminster Abbey, but anciently took place at 
Kingston-on-Thames or at Winchester. The ancient cus¬ 
toms have come down to our time with but little change. 

Cor'oner, anciently Crown'er [Lat. coronarius, from 
corona, the “crown”], formerly an officer of high dignity, 
who served as a deputy of the Crown and as chief-justice 
of the king’s bench in England. At present in England 
and most of the U. S. a coroner is an officer who in case of 
sudden or mysterious death summons a jury, which sits in 
sight of the body, to determine the cause and manner of 
death. Coroners may commit persons suspected of homi¬ 
cide after inquest, without warrant, for trial. They also 
hold inquests in regard to salvage from shipwrecks. They 
had anciently powers much greater than at present. 

Cor'onet [from the Lat. corona, a “ crown;” Ger. Kranz], 
in heraldry, an infei-ior crown belonging to the nobility. 
The monument of John of Eltham (second son of Edward 
II.), who died in 1334, is said to afford the earliest Eng¬ 
lish representation of this ornament. 

Corot (Jean Baptiste Camille), a French landscape- 
painter, born at Paris in July, 1796. Corot has produced 
many works, which, after having been long little esteemed, 
are now much sought after and command very high prices. 
His work is strongly individual, and in his own peculiar 
field Corot is unsurpassed. Clarence Cook. 

Cor'pi San'ti, formerly belonging to the suburbs of 
Milan, now forms a separate city. Pop. 62,976. 

Cor'poral [corrupted from the Fr. caporal, which is 
derived from the It. capo, “head,” “chief”], a non-com¬ 
missioned military officer, next in rank below a sergeant. 
He is distinguished by two chevrons worn on the arm. 
A “lance corporal” is a private soldier who is allowed to 
wear one chevron as a mark of distinction. He may or 
may not perform the duties of a corporal, but he has no 
increase of rank or pay. 

Corporal [Lat. corporale, from corjms, the “body,” i. e. 
the “Host”], in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches 
the altar-cloth used for covering the Host, and emblemati¬ 
cal of the grave-clothes of our Lord. A “ corporal oath ” 
is an oath sworn upon the corporal. The name is retained 
by the ritualistic party of the Anglican Church. 

Corpora'tion [Lat. corporatio, an “embodiment,” the 
assumption of a form], in law, an artificial person, consisting 
of one or more individuals, having certain legal capacities, 
such as succession of members, powers to sue or to be sued, 
and to act, no matter how numerous its membership may 
be, as a single individual. This new person is to be 
thought of without reference to the members of which it 
is composed. It must be carefully distinguished from a 
partnership, in which there is merely a collection of per¬ 
sons, no artificial person being constituted. A contract 
made with the corporation is not made with the members, 
nor do they, in a legal point of view, own its property, 
though they may have an interest in its management on 
the theory of a trust. Corporations may be considered 
under the following divisions : I. Their various kinds; II. 
Their mode of creation; III. Their powers; IV. V isita- 
tion; V. Dissolution. 

I. They may be variously classified, as regard is had to 
the number of members, their objects, and the fulness of 
their powers. When considered as to numbers, they are 
either aggregate (more than one) or sole. V hen regarded 
as to the objects to be accomplished, they arc ecclesiastical 
or lay, while lay corporations are either civil or eleemosy¬ 
nary. It can scarcely be said that there are any ‘ ecclesi¬ 
astical” corporations in the U. b., in the proper sense ot 
the term. They rather belong to the English law under 






























CORPORATION. 


1160 


the rules of an established Church. Our corporations may 
be said to be lay. The term “eleemosynary ” is substanti¬ 
ally equivalent to “ charitable,” and embraces all that large 
class of corporate institutions established to promote re¬ 
ligion or learning, to relieve the sick or the poor, and in 
general to accomplish meritorious public objects. Another 
division of corporations is public and private. A public 
corporation is designed for governmental purposes, as a 
city or a village. Others are private. The importance of 
this distinction lies in the fact that a public corporation, 
being a mere instrument of government, can be created or 
dissolved by the law-making power at will, while a private 
corporation only comes into existence by the conjunction of 
the will of the sovereign power and that of the corporators. 
Its charter is in the nature of a contract, and it can only 
be dissolved by an observance of the rules governing the 
dissolution or impairment of the obligation of contracts. 
When a corporation is regarded as to the completeness of 
its powers, it may be either one of full powers or imperfect 
in its character. In the last case it is termed a quasi cor¬ 
poration. Towns in the New England States are true 
corporations; in New York they are political divisions 
with certain specified powers, being quasi corporations. 

II. A corporation may be created either by prescription, 
royal charter (see Charter), or by legislative act. It is 
said to be created by prescription when it has exercised 
corporate powers for an indefinite period without interfer¬ 
ence on the part of the sovereign power. By a fiction of 
law it is then presumed to have had a charter. The 
method of creating corporations by royal charter was 
formerly in use in this country as a branch of the English 
law. Of course the leading mode of creation is an act of 
the legislature. It is not necessary that each institution 
should receive a distinct and separate organization. There 
may be a general formula provided by the legislature with 
which any particular body of men desiring to become a 
corporation may comply, and thus become incorporated. 
In other words, corporations may be created under general 
laws as well as organized under special acts. It may be 
added that the legislature may act indirectly as well as 
directly. It may confer upon some intermediate authority 
the power to incorporate. In this way in New York an 
organization known as “ The Regents of the University, 
etc.” has the power under certain conditions to incorporate 
colleges and academies. To the existence of a private cor¬ 
poration the consent of the members is necessary. This con¬ 
sent may be shown either by an express act of acceptance, 
or by implication from the exercise of powers under the char¬ 
ter, technically called “ user.” It should have a name where¬ 
by to act or to contract, which may be from time to time 
changed either by special legislative act or by general law. 

III. A corporation, being by fiction of law a person, may 
have the power to make contracts and to do most other acts 
possessed by natural persons. In general, however, it has 
capacity to do such acts as are necessary and convenient to 
carry forward the special ends for which it was created. 
At the present time it is usually formed to accomplish a 
definite object, and it is reasonable that it should have the 
authority necessary to achieve it. A corporation, like a 
natural person, may transgress the rules prescribed by law 
for its action. This fact has caused many perplexing 
questions to arise as to the effect of an unauthorized act. 
This subject is known as the doctrine of ultra vires —trans¬ 
gression of power. In such a case the better opinion 
would seem to be that the corporate act, considered as a 
contract, would be void, though the corporation might be 
liable to an individual injured by its negligent mode of 
performing an act which it had no legal authority to under¬ 
take. The ordinary powers of a corporation are to make 
such contracts as are necessary to the accomplishment of 
its purposes, to hold and acquire property, both personal 
and real, to have a common seal, to make by-laws for the 
government of its members or of others, and to elect new 
members or officers in the place of such as may resign, die, 
or be removed. The act of removing a member is termed 
disfranchisement; the samo act exercised towards an officer 
is called amotion. From early times in England there have 
been statutes termed “mortmain acts” (see Mortmain) to 
restrain corporations from acquiring lands without license 
from the king. Such statutes do not, in general, exist in 
this country. The common practice is to limit in the spe¬ 
cific act of incorporation the value of the land which may 
be acquired. If this restriction be exceeded, the title is 
still valid, unless the State intervenes and institutes pro¬ 
ceedings for a forfeiture. It is a general rule that a cor¬ 
poration cannot acquire land by will except for charitable 
purposes. It is not uncommon, even in that case, for a 
State statute to limit the amount which a testator may 
bestow, or to require that the will shall be made a certain 
time before his death. A corporation may, like a natural 
person, act through agents beyond the limits of the State 


where it is organized, unless restrained by law. It should 
be added that a corporation may commit a wrong for which 
it will be liable in damages, such as an act of negligence, 
publication of a libel, etc. It cannot, in general, commit 
a crime, except as resulting from a failure to perform a 
duty prescribed by law. In order to enforce its rights and 
to subject itself to its legal duties it may sue and be sued 
at home or abroad, although a proceeding against a non¬ 
resident corporation would in general be confined to the 
property within the jurisdiction. Corporations sometimes 
are made trustees for estates, guardians for minors, etc. 
In such a case they would be held accountable in a court 
of equity in the same way as other trustees or guardians. 

IV. By “visitation ” is meant the power of superintend¬ 
ing the corporation and controlling its action. The subject 
is peculiarly applicable to the management of charitable 
corporations. The common law distinguishes between a 
founder of such a corporation, who supplies the funds for 
its practical working, and the sovereign power which gives 
it legal existence. The founder in the first sense is allowed 
to provide rules for the government and discipline of the 
college or other institution wdiich he has established, and 
to designate some person or persons (visitors) who shall 
see that the rules are properly observed. The exercise of 
this power of visitation is summary, and in general with¬ 
out review by the courts of justice, though in extreme cases 
of manifest injustice it would be revised. This power in 
the U. S. is rarely lodged in a single person, as it frequently 
is in England. Boards of trustees are here entrusted with 
it. This doctrine does not prevent a court of equity from 
controlling the funds on the theory of a trust, so as to pre¬ 
vent waste, mismanagement, or perversion from the pur¬ 
poses intended by the donors. In this aspect a corporation 
is to be regarded as a trustee. The attorney-general, rep¬ 
resenting the State, may apply to the court to correct abuses 
in the management of funds which are in the eye of the 
law directed to public uses. When the case is sufficiently 
grave the charter of the corporation may be forfeited. 

V. A corporation may be dissolved either by compulsory 
legislation, by surrender of its franchises, coupled with 
acceptance of it by the state, and by judicial decree. In 
England an act of Parliament is boundless in its operation, 
and a corporation may be arbitrarily dissolved by law. In 
the U. S. a distinction has been taken between private and 
public corporations. As has been already seen, a charter of 
a private corporation is a contract, and as, under the U. S. 
Constitution, no State can pass a law impairing the obli¬ 
gation of contracts, the power of the State legislature can¬ 
not be exercised so as to materially change the provisions 
of the charter without the consent of the corporators. This 
is the result of the celebrated “ Dartmouth College case.” 
(Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheaton.) The effect 
of this decision is evaded in a number of the States by the 
insertion of a clause, either in the charter or some general 
law, or even in the State constitution, that corporate char¬ 
ters are to be held subject to alteration or repeal. This 
clause is valid as to all subsequent charters, which are of 
course accepted in reference to this legislative reservation 
of power. The most common mode of dissolving a cor¬ 
poration is by judicial decree. Every franchise is accepted 
on the implied condition that it shall be properly exercised. 
If there be abuse or neglect to make use of corporate powers, 
a proceeding may be instituted in behalf of the State to 
forfeit the charter. The abuse or neglect docs not of itself 
destroy the charter, nor can the cause of forfeiture be pre¬ 
sented to a court in an indirect manner. For example, it 
could not be urged by a debtor as creating an incapacity 
to sue, or by an heir as an incapacity to take an estate by 
will. A proceeding must be resorted to for the very pur¬ 
pose of forfeiting the charter. State law sometimes pro¬ 
vides dissolution as a mode of enforcing the collection of 
debts, the property being regarded as a trust fund for that 
purpose, and a court of equity will administer it for the 
benefit of creditors. The U. S. statutes of bankruptcy are 
extended to business corporations. It was an old rule of 
the common law that a dissolution of the corporation ex¬ 
tinguished its debts. Its claims could be no longer col¬ 
lected. Its personal property passed to the State, and its 
land reverted to the grantor. At present there is little room 
for the application of these rules. A court of equity would, 
in general, fasten a trust upon the property in favor of cred¬ 
itors, and in all business corporations for the stockholders. 
Charitable funds would be administered by other trustees. 

(For further information consult the treatises of Grant, 
Angell, and Ames; Abbott’s “Corporation Digest;” Kyd 
“On Municipal Corporations;” Dillon “On Municipal 
Corporations;” Kent’s “ Commentaries,” lecture 33 ; Mere- 
wether & Stephens, “ History of Boroughs and Municipal 
Corporations;” Redfield “ On Railways.” Also the titles 
Municipal Corporations, Stock Corporations, Religious 
Societies, etc.) T. W. Dwight. 

















CORPS D’ARMEE—CORRELATION OF FORCES. 1161 


Corps d’Arinee [Fr.], kor dar'ma', or Army Corps, 
in the modern system of warfare, is the “ tactical ” unit of 
a large army. The Division, in the management of large 
bodies of troops, has been found to be too small, and hence 
army corps have been organized, each containing several 
Divisions. The management of tactical units in the field 
constitutes the branch of the military art known as “ grand 
tactics.” Each army corps has its own system of internal 
administration, and usually consists of infantry and artil¬ 
lery, the cavalry constituting one or more corps by itself. 

Corps Legislatif, or Legislative Body, was the 
name of the lower house of the French legislature during 
the Second Empire. It was established in 1857, and abol¬ 
ished in 1870. The deputies were elected, by universal 
suffrage, for a term of six years. 

Corpulency. See Obesity. 

Cor'pus Catholico'rum and Cor'pus Evangeli- 
co'rum, names given after the peace of Westphalia to the 
Catholic and Protestant divisions of the German empire. 
The elector of Mayence was the head of the Catholics, while 
the lead of the Protestant confederacy belonged successively 
to the rulers of Saxony, the elector palatine, and Sweden, 
and was restored to Saxony by the Diet of 1653. Both 
bodies were dissolved at the separation of the German em¬ 
pire in 1806. 

Cor'pus Chris'ti [a Latin phrase signifying the “body 
of Christ;” Fr .fete Dieu ], a festival of the Roman Catholic 
Church celebrated in honor of the Host (which is held by 
that Church to be the veritable body of our Lord). It was 
first established by a bull of Urban IV. in 1264, and is ob¬ 
served on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. 

Corpus Christi, the county-seat of Nueces co., Tex., 
is situated on a bay of the same name, 8 miles below the 
mouth of the Nueces River, about 200 miles S. W. from Gal¬ 
veston. Its harbor is not surpassed on the coast, and in 
commercial importance it ranks among the first cities in 
the State. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 2140. 

Barnard & Son, Pubs. “Gazette.” 

Cor'pus Doctri'nne, the name of certain collections 
of theological writings which have had especial authority 
in the German Protestant churches. The chief collection 
was “Corpus Philippicum” (1560, fob), containing the 
Apostolic, Nicean, and Athanasian Creeds, the Confession 
of Augsburg, Melanclithon’s “ Loci Communes,” etc. The 
strict Lutherans reject it as leaning towards Crypto-Calvin¬ 
ism, and the elector of Saxony pursued with rigorous meas¬ 
ures those who refused to teach it. This, with many other 
Corpora Doctrinee, was superseded by the Formula Con- 
cordiae. 

Corpus'cular Ac'tion, the power or influence which 
the minute particles or corjjuscles of matter exercise on each 
other, and which, according to some writers, is the cause of 
all chemical changes. 

Corpus'cular Mecli'auism, that branch of mechani¬ 
cal science which is concerned with the phenomena of cohe¬ 
sion. These phenomena indicate some relation between the 
centres of the particles cohering. The exact nature and 
cause of this relation are not known. (See Cohesion.) 

Corpus'cular Philoso'phy, a name sometimes given 
to the atomic philosophy of Democritus (which see). 

Cor'pus Ju'ris Canon'ici [Lat., signifying “the 
body of canon law ”], a comprehensive name for the orig¬ 
inal collections of the Canon Law (which see), including 
the “Decretum Gratiani” (1151), the “Decretalia” of 
Gregory IX. (1234), the “Liber Sextus” (1298), the Clem¬ 
entine Decretals (1313), etc. The best edition is that of 
Richter, Leipsic, 1833-39. 

Cor'pus Ju'ris Civi'lis [a Latin term signifying the 
“ body of civil j ustice ”], the name applied to the legal com¬ 
pilations made by order of Justinian (which see), consist¬ 
ing of the “Institutions,” the “Codex,” the “Pandects,” 
and the “ Novella?.” One of the best editions is that of the 
Kriegel Brothers, Leipsic, 1833-40. 

Corre'a cle Ser'ra (Jose Francisco), LL.D., a Portu¬ 
guese botanist, born at Serpa in 1750. He visited the U. S. 
in 1813, and became Portuguese minister at Washington in 
1816. He wrote several treatises on vegetable physiology, 
etc. Died Sept. 11, 1823. 

Correc'tionville, a post-township of Woodbury co., 
Ia. Pop. 600. 

Correg'gio, <la (Antonio Allegri), a celebrated Italian 
painter, was born at Correggio, a small town between Mo¬ 
dena and Reggio, most probably in 1494. His father, Pel¬ 
legrino Allegri, was a small merchant, the owner of a mod¬ 
erate property in houses and lands. His mother, Bernar- 
dina Piazzoli, was of good family, belonging to the stock 
of the Ormani or Aromani. By his father’s care Allegri was 
well educated, and afterwards put to study the arts of draw¬ 


ing and painting—first, with Antonio Bartolotti, master of 
a school of painting in Correggio, and afterwards with an 
uncle, Lorenzo Allegri. From these teachers he learned the 
rudiments of his art, but whence came the influences that 
formed his peculiar manner is a question not yet answered. 

At one time he was said to have studied with Andrea Man¬ 
tegna, but this is not now believed, though it is possible he 
may have lived in Mantua in his younger days, and have 
studied Mantegna’s pictures there; among them, the mag¬ 
nificent “ Victory ” now in the Louvre. Bigi considers it 
proved by documentary evidence that Allegri was in Man¬ 
tua in 1511, and thinks it possible that at this time he may 
have worked as an assistant under Andrea Mantegna’s son, 
Francesco. But the influence of Mantegna was widely 
spread through the north of Italy, and it is not necessary 
that Allegri should have lived in Mantua to have been 
moved by him. Nor does he inherit as strongly from the 
great Mantuan as from Leonardo, and perhaps from certain 
Venetians, notably, as Signor Cavalcasclle thinks, from 
Cima, Palma, Lotto, and Pordenone. The stories first 
told by Vasari, and since repeated by successive biographers, 
of the poverty and misery of Correggio's life, of his pain¬ 
ful efforts to support his family, of the obscurity and ne¬ 
glect in which he lived, and of his death, brought on by 
drinking cold water when overheated in consequence of 
carrying home sixty crowns in copper that had been given 
him for a picture—all these stories are now believed to be 
false; yet they were long credited, and it is difficult to ac¬ 
count for the persistence of the tradition. He was well 
paid for his work, which was much sought after, and he 
was in great favor with the duke of Mantua, for whom he 
painted several of his most famous pictures—the “ Educa¬ 
tion of Cupid” in the British National Gallery, the “Io” 
and the “Leda”in the Berlin gallery, the “Danae” in the 
Borghese gallery, Rome, and the “ Antiope ” in the Louvre. 
Whether Correggio ever visited Rome is uncertain; his 
work bears no evidence of his ever having been there, and 
it is most likely that he never went so far from home. The 
story, too, that he visited Bologna, and there exclaimed on 
seeing the picture of Saint Cecilia by Raphael, “ Ancli’ io 
son pittore !” (“ And I too am a painter !”) cannot be traced 
to any authority, and seems to have no foundation in fact. 

In 1519 lie married Girolama Francesca Merlini, by whom 
he had a son, Pomponio Quirino Allegri, who also became 
a painter, but never attained any distinction (born 1521, 

died-?), and also three daughters. Correggio died in 

his native town suddenly of a malignant fever, Mar. 5, 1534, 
in the forty-first year of his age. The principal works of 
Correggio are the frescoes on the dome of the church of San 
Giovanni, and those on the dome of the cathedral at Parma, 
reckoned his greatest performances. The first was exe¬ 
cuted in 1520, and represents the ascension of Christ; the 
second, begun in 1522 and finished in 1530, represented the 
assumption of the Virgin. These works have given Cor¬ 
reggio his splendid fame, but his smaller works have per¬ 
haps endeared him more to the world—his “Vierge au Pan- 
ier;” his “Education of Cupid” in the British National 
Gallery; the “ Reading Magdalen ” of the Dresden gal¬ 
lery ; and the beautiful “Notte,” or “ Night,” a picture of 
the Nativity, called so because the light all streams from 
the head of the infant Christ; the “Marriage of Saint 
Catherine” in the Louvre; the “Madonna and Child” in 
the Uffizi gallery in Florence; and the “Madonna” in the 
Naples gallery, called the “ Zingarella,” or the Gypsy, be¬ 
cause of her singular head-dress. (Vasari, “ Lives of 
Painters and Sculptors,” “ Life of Antonio da Correggio,” 
with additional notices in his life of Girolamo Carpi; Padre 
Luigi Pungileoni, “ Memorie istoriche di Antonio Alle¬ 
gri,” Parma, 1818; Quirino Bigi, “Discorso di Ant. Alle¬ 
gri,” Parma, I860, and a later work on the subject by the 
same author, “Notizii di Antonio Allegri e di Antonio 
Bartolotti, suo maestro,” Modena, 1873. But chiefly for 
an exhaustive account of Correggio’s life and works see the 
article (since reprinted as a separate work) “Antonio Alle¬ 
gri,” by Dr. Julius Meyer, in his new edition of Nagler, 
“Allgemeines Kunstler Lexicon,” Leipsic, 1870.) 

Clarence Cook. g 

Correla'tion [from the Lat. correlatio, “mutual rela¬ 
tion ”] of Forces (otherwise called Transmutation of 
Force or Energy), a phrase of recent origin employed 
to express the theory that any one of the various forms of 
physical force may be converted into one or more of the 
other forms. The cardinal point in this theory is the doc¬ 
trine of heat and its relation to other agents, especially to 
mechanical motion—the doctrine commonly known as the 
mechanical theory of heat, and which is of very recent 
date. In the number for May, 1842, of a German scientific 
journal (Annalen der Chemie nnd Phrtrmacie) there ap¬ 
peared a short article of only thirteen pages by Julius 
Robert Mayer, a physician of Heilbronn, entitled “Obser¬ 
vations concerning the Forces of Inanimate Nature.” In 



















CORRELATION OF FORCES. 


1102 


this article it was affirmed, for the first time, that there ex¬ 
ists a connection between mechanical work and heat by 
which the one could be converted into the other, mechani- 
eal work being obtained by the expenditure of heat, and 
heat being also obtained by the expenditure of work; 
there being, under all circumstances, ono constant ratio 
between the quantity of heat and the amount of work. 
Soon afterwards, though apparently without any connec¬ 
tion with the German statement, an English physicist 
(Joule of Manchester) experimentally demonstrated what 
Mayer had only asserted, and the scientific world came 
into possession of a new principle, now technically known 
as the principle of the equivalence of heat and work. 

In the light of this principle it has been demonstrated 
that heat is nothing more nor less than a certain mode of 
motion. The heat manifested, e. g., when we rub two flat 
surfaces briskly against each other, is only our own mus¬ 
cular motion checked by the friction, and changed thereby 
into the heat which the surfaces reveal. On the other 
hand, this muscular motion is only the heat of our bodily 
frame expending itself in this way. In either case the 
energy has not been annihilated, but only transferred, and 
appears in a new form. It has long been known that the 
actual force of a moving body may be changed into the 
molecular energy of heat. Pieces of dry wood when rubbed 
together will become so hot as to ignite; the boring tools 
of a carpenter become hot by being used; when a piece of 
metal is rubbed vigorously on a rough surface, it becomes 
too hot to hold. Again, when a train in motion is brought 
to a stand-still by applying a brake, the rails become hot, 
and sparks are seen to fly from the wheels. Bullets shot 
at a target sometimes show signs of fusion after impact. 
In all these cases the energy of visible motion is trans¬ 
muted into heat. The amount of the one form of energy 
which will produce a given amount of the other has been 
accurately calculated. If a weight of one pound be raised 
to a height of 772 feet and be let fall, on striking the 
ground it will generate as much heat as will raise 1 pound 
of water 1° F. 

By a conception of Carnot, a principle which may be 
termed the reversibility of force has been established. If 
a certain amount (A) of one form of force produce in disap¬ 
pearing an amount (B) of another form, then Bis the quan¬ 
tity of the latter which must disappear in order to the pro¬ 
duction of an amount A of the former. By Carnot’s princi¬ 
ple, if an engine, by consuming a certain amount of heat, 
does a given quantity of work, by the consumption of a 
similar amount of work it would restore to the source the 
quantity of heat taken from it. This principle of Carnot 
is, however, only true in abstract theory. Its verification 
in practice would exact conditions which cannot be realized; 
for, though mechanical force can be wholly transformed into 
heat, it is not possible, by any kind of engine, to transform 
the heat received from a given source wholly into work. 
Every such engine abandons by far the larger portion of 
the heat which it receives, totally unchanged, to a recipient 
suitable to absorb it (the condenser in the Watt engine— 
the atmosphere in the case of the high-pressure steam-en¬ 
gine); and if any such engine were “ worked backward,” 
to use Carnot’s expression, it would not restore to the source 
all the heat drawn from it during the working forward, 
unless what was in the first instance an absorbent of heat 
should become in its turn a source, and should give up the 
large amount of heat previously abandoned, to be restored 
by transfer, and not as the result of transformed work. In 
the case of other forms of force, the process of reversal is 
attended with equal and sometimes with greater difficulties. 
The reciprocal interchange is perhaps best illustrated be¬ 
tween electricity (dynamic) and chemical affinities. 

Visible kinetic force is changed into the kinetic energy 
of electricity by a magneto-electric machine, and into the 
potential energy of electricity when a plate of glass is made 
to revolve against a surface of silk. Again, the actual 
energy of electricity is transformed into force (or energy) 
of visible motion when a piece of iron is drawn to the poles 
of an electro-magnet, when two wires conveying electric 
currents attract one another, or when a current is made to 
pass through a wire which is nearer a magnetic needle, 
and the needle is in consequence forcibly deflected by the 
current. 

Suppose the strength of a current of electricity passing 
along a wire to be measured by its power to deflect a mag¬ 
netic needle. Suppose the wire to be of copper, and the 
amount of deflection noted, and then let the copper be re¬ 
placed by platinum, which offers a greater resistance to the 
current. It will be found that the wire becomes hot, and 
that the needle is deflected through a smaller angle. 
Energy of heat is here produced at the expense of the 
energy of electricity in motion. With powerful batteries 
all metals are fused, even iridium and platinum, which are 
the least fusible. A battery of thirty or forty Bunsen’s 


cells will volatilizo fine wires of lead, tin, zinc, copper, 
gold, and silver. 

When a bar of antimony and a bar of bismuth are sol¬ 
dered together at one extremity, and the free ends united by 
a copper wire, on the application of heat a current of elec¬ 
tricity is found to circulate through the wire, and the 
strength of the current is an exact and delicate measure of 
the heat applied. When a crystal of tourmaline changes 
temperature, its extremities assume ojiposite electric states, 
thus affording an example of the change of heat into the 
potential energy of electric separation. The voltaic arc is a 
brilliant example of the conversion of electricity into the 
actual energy of radiant heat and light. 

The force of chemical action, or separation, and heat are 
convertible. A given amount of chemical action produces a 
definite amount of heat, and this quantity of heat is required 
to reverse the chemical changes which have produced it. 
It is difficult to determine accurately the amount of heat 
equivalent to a given amount of chemical action, chiefly 
because it is very difficult to confine the transformation of 
energy to these two forms only; nevertheless, the relation 
between the amount of heat evolved and the quantity of 
chemical action has been determined by several eminent 
physicists ; for example, Rumford calculated that 1 gramme 
of charcoal in combining with 2§ grammes of oxygen to 
make carbonic acid would evolve heat sufficient to raise the 
temperature of 8000 grammes of water 1° C. Andrew 
made the quantity 7900 grammes, and Favre and Silber- 
mann 8080 grammes. Hence, the true quantity must be 
near 8000 grammes. One gramme of hydrogen, in com¬ 
bining with 8 grammes of oxygen to form water, evolves 
heat sufficient to raise about 34,000 grammes of water 1° C. 
(Andrews, 33,881 ; Favre, 34,462). Similarly, the quanti¬ 
ties of heat evolved in the combustion of other elements 
have been found with equal precision. 

The chemical action in a voltaic battery produces elec¬ 
tricity. Just as a definite amount of carbon, by its union 
with oxygen, produces a determined quantity of heat, so the 
consumption of a definite amount of zinc in the battery pro¬ 
duces a definite quantity of electricity, which in its turn gives 
rise to an invariable amount of heat. When the poles of the 
battery are connected by a very good conductor, such as a 
short thick wire, the heat produced is confined to the battery 
itself; but when a less perfect conductor is used, heat mani¬ 
fests itself in the conductor. In this case part of the heat 
is in the wire and part in the battery, but the whole amount 
of heat produced in all the parts of the current by the con¬ 
sumption of a given quantity of zinc is the same in this 
case as in the other. If the electric current be used to do 
other work, a corresjmnding amount of heat is withdrawn 
from the battery. 

Suppose two tubes of glass, closed at one end, to have 
pieces of platinum wire fused* into the closed ends, and to 
be filled with water and placed with the open ends under 
water in the same vessel. Let the poles of a battery be 
connected with the platinum wires. The water will be de¬ 
composed, oxygen collecting in one tube and hydrogen in 
the other. The amount of gas set free in a given time will 
be proportional to the strength of the current. If the bat¬ 
tery be taken away, and the ends of platinum be connected 
by a copper wire, the gas will soon disappear; and while 
it is passing into water, a current will be found to circulate 
through the wire in a direction opposite to that which pro¬ 
duced the decomposition. Here, then, electricity in mo¬ 
tion produces energy of chemical separation, and the latter 
again reproduces the former. 

Although we may estimate the exact equivalents of the 
various forms of energy, we are not always able to reverse a 
given transmutation. A given quantity of mechanical work 
will produce an equivalent amount of heat, and if all this 
heat could be changed into mechanical work the original 
amount would be produced ; but we are never able to re¬ 
convert all the heat into work. Energy which cannot bo 
reconverted to its previous form is said to be dissipated. 
Dissipation of energy is constantly going on thi-oughout 
the universe. Thus, the energy of the sun’s rays produces 
streams of water, winds, and currents. By its action on 
plants it separates carbon from oxygen—a process which 
is reversed when wood is ignited. The moon and the sun 
give rise to tidal energy. Through all these channels energy 
is being constantly dissipated. 

Actual force, of all forms, may be transformed into poten¬ 
tial force, and may remain in this state for an indefinite 
period of time. The energy of heat, which is derived from 
the combustion of coal, was originally derived from radiant 
heat and light received from the sun, but has been remain¬ 
ing in store for ages. 

It is sometimes affirmed that there can be neither crea¬ 
tion nor annihilation of energy ; but the inexactness of this 
statement appears from the profound mathematical demon¬ 
strations which Clausius of Bonn has recently applied to 






















CORREZE—CORTEZ. 


the mechanical theory of heat. He has shown that while 
motion may be converted into heat, and the heat, to a cer¬ 
tain degree, may be reconverted into motion, yet in the 
latter process there is always a residuum of heat which 
cannot be reconverted. Now, as mechanical motion is all 
the while in the process of conversion into heat, and this 
at a prodigious rate through the universe, there is thus 
going on continually an increase of heat and a diminution 
of motion; and unless this tendency is checked by the in¬ 
terposition of some power other than the forces now acting 
in the universe, it must result in an equalization of tem¬ 
perature everywhere, and the cessation of all mechanical 
motion. But such a condition is not yet reached, there¬ 
fore the universe cannot be eternal, and must therefore 
have had its existence through some source other than 
itself. The universe thus starts with a miracle, and it of 
course follows that miracles are possible at any stage of its 
continuance. (Grove, “ On the Correlation of Forces;” 
Fick, “ Ueber die Naturkraefte in ihrer Wechselbezie- 
hungen;” Clausius, “ On the Mechanical Theory of Heat;” 
Sir John Herschel’s “ Lectures.”) 

Revised by J. H. Seelye. 

Correze, a department of France near its centre, is a 
part of the former province of Limousin. Area, 2265 
square miles.- It is drained by the rivers Dordogne, Vezere, 
and Correze. The surface is hilly; the soil is mostly poor. 
The staple productions are grain, timber, coal, copper, lead, 
iron, and chestnuts. Capital, Tulle. Pop. 310,843. 

Cor'rie (Frederick H.), U. S. M. C., entered the marine 
corps as a second lieutenant in 1861, became a first lieuten¬ 
ant in 1861, and a captain in 1870. He led the marines of 
the Powhatan in the assault on Fort Fisher of Jan. 15, 
1865, and at the close of the war was brevetted a captain 
“ for gallant and meritorious conduct.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Corrien'tes, a province of the Argentine Republic, is 
bounded on the N. by the river Parana, on the S. E. by the 
Uruguay, which separates it from Brazil, and on the W. by 
the Parang. Area, about 45,455 square miles. The sur¬ 
face is occupied by extensive forests and swamps; the soil 
is fertile. Capital, Corrientes. Pop. in 1869, 129,023. 

Corrientes, the capital of the above province, is on 
the right bank of the Rio Parang, here 2 miles broad, a few 
miles below the confluence of the Paraguay. It has a good 
harbor, and exports meat, wool, etc. Pop. in 1869, 11,218. 

Corro'sive Sub'limate, a name given to mercuric 
chloride (bichloride of mercury), (HgCL), a virulent and 
corrosive poison. (See Sublimate.) 

Corr’s, a township of Pickens co., Ala. Pop. 495. 

Cor'rugated [from the Lat. con, intensive, and rugo, 
rugatum, to “ wrinkle” (from ruga, a “ridge” or “fold”)] 
Iron, a name applied to iron in thin plates or sheets which 
are passed between rollers, producing grooves and ridges 
in the iron. In this manner the strength of the material is 
greatly increased, while the square surface of the iron is of 
course reduced. Corrugated iron is of great value in the 
construction of buildings, especially for roofs, where light¬ 
ness and strength are to be combined. It is much used 
for covering the walls of frame buildings, both within and 
without. It is frequently “ galvanized ”— i. e. covered with 
a thin layer of zinc by dipping it in a bath of the fused 
metal. 

Corruption of Hlood. See Attainder. 

Cor'ry, a city of Erie co., Pa., at the crossing of the 
Philadelphia and Erie and the Atlantic and Great Western 
R. Rs., and the terminus of the Oil Creek and Alleghany 
and the Buffalo Pittsburg and Corry R. Rs., 37 miles S. E. 
of Erie. It has two national and one savings bank, a daily 
and three weekly newspapers, a large oil refinery, and nu¬ 
merous large manufactories (making mowers and reapers, 
boring-machines, pails, furniture, barrels, brushes, and 
stationary engines), tanneries, blast furnace, etc. There 
are in the city nine churches, four schools, a park, and a 
library. Corry has grown up since 1860. Pop. 6809. 

J. A. Pain, Ed. Corry “ Datly Blade.” 

Cor'rytown, or Flat Creek, a post-village of Root 
township, Montgomery co., N. Y., 4 miles S. of Canajoharie. 
On July 9, 1781, a party of 500 Indians and Tories, under 
one Doxtader, attacked and burned Corrytown, killing 
many of the inhabitants and making prisoners of many 
more. Next day Col. Willet, with 150 men, surprised and 
defeated them with severe loss. 

Corseul (anc. Fannm Martis), a village of France, de¬ 
partment of Cotes-du-Nord, 26 miles E. of Saint-Bricuc. 
Here are many Roman remains. Pop. about 4500. 

Cor'sica [anc. Cyrnos, afterwards Corsica; Fr. La 
Corse], an island in the Mediterranean, situated between 
lat. 41° 20' and 43° N., and Ion. 8° 30' and 9° 30' E., 55 


1163 


miles from Italy and 110 from France. It is separated 
from Sardinia by the Strait of Bonifacio, 9 miles wide. It is 
110 miles long N. and S., and is 53 miles wide at the broadest 
part. Area, 3367 square miles. The W. coast is deeply in¬ 
dented by the Gulfs of Calvi, Porto, Ajaccio, and Valinco. 
The interior is traversed by a mountain-chain, the highest 
peak of which, Monte Rotondo, rises near the centre of the 
island, 8504 feet above the level of the sea. The mountains 
are mostly covered with forests of oak, pine, cork tree, 
chestnut, beech, etc. The rearing of cattle and mules is 
the chief branch of industry. The orange, fig, almond, 
olive, and citron flourish here. Among the minerals of 
Corsica are iron, antimony, lead, granite, porphyry, marble, 
and limestone. The chief towns are Ajaccio, Bastla, and 
Calvi. Corsica was first colonized by the Phoenicians, who 
called it Cyrnos, was conquered by the Carthaginians, and 
wrested from them by the Romans soon after 237 B. C. The 
Genoese became masters of it in 1481. It was ceded by the 
Genoese to France (of which it forms the eighty-sixth de¬ 
partment) in 1768. Pop. 259,861. 

Corsica, a post-borough of Jefferson co., Pa. P. 372. 

Corsica'lia, a city, capital of Navarro co., Tex., on 
the Houston and Texas R. R., 180 miles N. N. E. of Austin 
City. Two weekly papers are issued here. It is the seat 
of Corsicana Military Institute. Pop. 80. 

Cor'so, an Italian word for a “race-course” [from the 
Lat. cursus, a verbal noun from curro, cursum, to “run”], 
is often used in Italy as the name of the principal streets 
of the larger towns. The Corso of Rome is famous as the 
scene of the diversions of the Carnival. 

Cor'son (Hiram), an American scholar, born in Phila¬ 
delphia in 1828, became a teacher, and was (1849-53) con¬ 
nected with the Library of Congress and that of the Smith¬ 
sonian Institution. He was professor of history and rhet¬ 
oric in Girard College (1865-66), and held a similar posi¬ 
tion in St. John’s College, Annapolis, Md., 1866-70, when 
he became professor of English language and literature, 
etc. in Cornell University. He has published Chaucer’s 
“ Legende of Goode Women,” “ Handbook of Anglo-Saxon 
and Early English,” and other valuable works, and has 
also prepared with great labor a “ Thesaurus of Early 
English.” 

Cors'sen (William Paul), an eminent German phil¬ 
ologist and antiquary, born at Bremen in 1820, was for 
several years professor at the gymnasium at Stettin, and 
subsequently at the Landesschule at Pforta until 1866, 
when he resigned on account of his health. He published 
a highly important work on “The Pronunciation, Vocal¬ 
ism, and Accentuation of 1 the Latin Language” (2 vols., 
1858—59; 2d ed. 1867-69), which received a pi'ize from the 
Berlin Academy of Science, and is regarded as the best 
work thus far published on this subject. His essays on the 
dialects of ancient Italy are also among the best that have 
been written. 

Cort (Cornelis), a Dutch engraver, born at Horn in 
1536. He opened a school in Rome, and produced many 
good engravings after Titian, Raphael, and other masters. 
Among his works is “The Transfiguration,” after Raphael. 
Died in 1558. 

Cor'te, a fortified town in the interior of Corsica, is 
situated on the Tavignano. Pop. 6094. 

Cor'tes [the plu. of the Sp. corte, a “court”], the name 
of the national assembly or legislature of Spain. The 
Cortes of Leon, Castile, and Aragon originated about the 
twelfth century, and were composed of the nobility, digni¬ 
fied clergy, and the representatives of the towns. In the 
fourteenth century the power of the Cortes seems to have 
been at its height, after which it gradually declined, and 
under the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella was reduced 
almost to r a nullity. After the time of Philip II. the Cortes 
of Spain were only convoked occasionally on the accession 
of kings, and their sittings were a mere form. A Cortes 
elected by universal suffrage in 1869 adopted a new and 
liberal constitution. The Cortes at present consist of a 
senate, elected for twelve years, and a lower house of dep¬ 
uties, elected for three years, on the basis of one deputy 
for every 40,000 inhabitants. The number of senators is 
four for each province. The name is also applied to the 
legislature of Portugal. 

Cor'tez (Hernando), the conqueror of Mexico, was born 
at Medellin, in Estremadura, Spain, in 1485. He studied 
law at the University of Salamanca, and sailed to the New 
World to seek his fortune in 1504. He served with dis¬ 
tinction under Velasquez in the conquest of Cuba in 1511, 
after which he married Catalina Juarez, and became the 
owner of an estate in Cuba. In 1518 he was appointed by 
Velasquez to conduct an expedition against Mexico, which 
had recently been discovered. He sailed from Cuba with 
eleven vessels and about 700 men in leb., 1519, his pro- 
















CORTILE—CORUNNA. 


1164 


fessed object being the conversion of infidels. He defeated 
an army of the natives at Tabasco, and landed on the site 
of Vera Cruz, where he destroyed his ships, to induce his 
men to fight with more desperate courage when they knew 
that it was impossible to save themselves by retreat. He 
learned that he had entered the extensive empire of Monte¬ 
zuma, who reigned over Anahuac and possessed immense 
treasures of gold and silver. In Aug., 1519, he left the sea- 
coast and marched against Mexico or Tenochtitlan, the cap¬ 
ital of Anahuac. Having defeated the Tlascalans in sev¬ 
eral battles, he entered Mexico without resistance in Nov., 

1519, and was received with friendly demonstrations by 
Montezuma. The audacious Spaniard seized Montezuma 
in his own palace, kept him as a prisoner, and extorted 
from him a large quantity of gold. The captive prince was 
persuaded or forced to swear allegiance to Charles V., but 
he refused to adopt the religion of the Spaniards. Velas¬ 
quez, who was jealous of Cortez, sent Narvaez with about 
1000 men to supersede Cortez, or operate against him in 
case he should not submit. Leaving a part of his force at 
Mexico, Cortez marched with 250 men to encounter Nar¬ 
vaez, whom he defeated and took prisoner at Zempoalla in 

1520. lie persuaded the soldiers of Narvaez to enlist in 
his service, and he returned to Mexico, the people of which, 
during his absence, had revolted against the Spaniards. 
In the fight, which continued several days, Montezuma was 
killed by his own subjects, and the Spaniards were driven 
out of the city. Cortez gained a victory at Otuinba in July, 
1520, and took Mexico in 1521. He treated the vanquished 
with great cruelty. In 1522 the king of Spain appointed 
him governor and captain-general of the conquered coun¬ 
try, called New Spain. Cortez returned to Spain in 1528, 
in order to vindicate himself against the accusations of liis 
enemies, and was received with favor at court. He returned 
to Mexico in 1530 with diminished power in civil affairs, 
but retained the command of the army. Having again 
sailed to Spain in 1540, he accompanied Charles V. in his 
expedition against Algiers in 1541. He died at Seville 
Dec. 2, 1547. (See Prescott, “ History of the Conquest of 
Mexico Gomara, “ Historia de F. Cortez,” Rome, 1550.) 

Cor'tiSe [It. cortile, from corte, a “court”], an open 
quadrangular or covered area in a dwelling-house, sur¬ 
rounded by the buildings or offices of the house itself. 
It means also a courtyard. 

Cort'laiul, a county near the central part of New 
York. Area, 485 square miles. It is drained by the Otse- 
lic and Tioughnioga rivers. The surface is moderately 
uneven ; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, and dairy 
products are raised extensively. Lumber, flour, cheese, 
iron and other metallic wares, and carriages are the chief 
manufactures. It is intersected by the Syracuse Bing¬ 
hamton and New York and the Utica Ithaca and Elmira 
R. Rs. Capital, Cortland. Pop. 25,173. 

Cortland, a village, the capital of the above county, 
is on the Tioughnioga River and on the Syracuse Bing¬ 
hamton and New York, the Midland, and the Utica Ithaca 
and Elmira R. Rs., 36 miles S. of Syracuse. It has six 
churches, a national and a State bank, a State normal 
school, a lecture association and reading-room, and three 
newspapers. It is in Cortlandville township. Pop. 3066. 

W. Hooker, Ed. “ Standard and Journal.” 

Cortland, a township of Spottsylvania co., Va. Pop. 

2222. 

Cort'landt, a township of Westchester co., N. Y., on 
the Hudson River, about 40 miles N. of New York City. 
It contains the large village of Peekskill. Pop. 11,694. 

Cort'landville, a township of Cortland co., N. Y. It 
contains Cortland Village and McGrawville, and has exten¬ 
sive manufactures of lime, etc. Pop. 6082. 

Corto'na (anc. Corytum or Cory thus, afterwards Corto¬ 
na), a town of Italy, in the province of Arezzo, is on a high 
hill near the Lake of Thrasymene, 50 miles S. E. of Flor¬ 
ence. It is the seat of a bishop, and has an old cathedral, 
which contains fine works of art; a castle built by the 
Medici, a theatre, a museum of Etruscan curiosities, and a 
famous academy of sciences. Here was one of the twelve 
chief cities of ancient Etruria. Its ancient cyclopeau walls, 
supposed to have been erected 3000 years ago, remain per¬ 
fect in two-thirds of their extent. Etruscan bronzes of ex¬ 
quisite beauty have been found here. 

Corun'dum, Sapphire, Ruby, Oriental Ame¬ 
thyst, Oriental Topaz, Adamantine Spar, Sal- 
amstone, or Emery, a mineral consisting, when pure, of 
native oxide of aluminum, which is, however, almost inva¬ 
riably mixed with magnetic oxide of iron. It occurs crys¬ 
tallized, massive, granular, in impalpable powder, and in 
layers. Mineralogically, corundum is divided into three 
varieties: (1) Sapphire, which includes the purer kinds, as 
sapphire, ruby, oriental topaz, etc.; (2) corundum proper, 


the duller kinds crystallized or semi-crystalline, including 
adamantine spar; and (3) emery, the darker and coarser 
kinds. 

The specific gravity of corundum is about 4, while in 
hardness it is next to the diamond. It becomes strongly 
electrical by friction. Its crystalline form is rhombohedral. 
The ruby or red sapphire is valued next to the diamond, and 
beyond a certain size (three and a half carats) as equal to 
it in value. Its color is supposed to be due to chromic 
acid, but the amount of coloring-matter is so small that it 
eludes the ordinary tests. The crystals are seldom above 
half an inch in length. Two crystals an inch in diameter 
and about two inches long are said to be in the possession 
of the king of Burmah. The largest ruby known came from 
China, and after having been in the possession of Prince 
Mentzikoff, was finally made one of the jewels of the Rus¬ 
sian crown. The largest rubies come from the Capelan 
Mountains, Ava. Smaller ones are found in Saxony and 
Bohemia, and occasionally in other localities in Europe and 
the U. S. The blue sapphire occurs much larger, crystals 
three inches in length being sometimes found. The crystals 
sometimes exhibit a radiated interior with a play of colors, 
when it is known as asteria or asteriated sapphire. Sap¬ 
phires are brought from Ceylon, India, and China, princi¬ 
pally from the first-named country. Fine specimens are 
often found in the beds of streams, whither they have been 
carried after the decomposition of the rock originally en¬ 
closing them. The light-blue sapphires are often exposed 
to fire by lapidaries to render them more brilliant. With 
those from Epailly in France heating deepens the color. 
White sapphires are sometimes cut and passed for diamonds, 
which they much resemble. The Brazil sapphire is a blue 
tourmaline. 

The Gi’eek o-dn<j>et.pos, from which the name was derived, 
was, according to Dana, notour sapphire, but the stone now 
known as lapis-lazuli. Rubies and sapphires contain about 
1 per cent, of magnetic oxide of iron. 

Adamantine spar occurs in brownish crystals. It was 
used by the ancients as a polishing material, and continues 
to be used for fine work. The chief supplies are brought 
from China and the Ural Mountains. Salamstone occurs 
in pale reddish or bluish transparent crystals. Corundum 
is found abundantly in Chester co., Pa. 

Emery, or “ Armenian stone,” is mined in Naxos at Cape 
Emeri, in the vicinity of Smyrna, Asia Minor, in Saxony, 
the Ural Mountains, Greece, Spain, etc., and in the U. S. 
at Chester, Mass., and in North Carolina. It occurs in 
gneiss, granite, mica slates, and in some cases in limestone 
rocks. Small specimens are also found in several other 
localities. It is used as a polishing material. The rock 
is broken up by hammers, and then reduced to powder and 
sifted, after which, for the preparation of the liner kinds, 
elutriation is practised. Emery stones and wheels are made 
by pressing the powder, made into a paste with water, into 
moulds, and then exposing them to a high heat, no cement¬ 
ing material being required. Emery vulcanite for polish¬ 
ing wheels is made by mixing emery with rubber and sul¬ 
phur, and vulcanizing in moulds. (See India-rubber.) 
Emery contains from 13 to 30 per cent, of magnetic oxide 
of iron. The Naxos emery contains about 24 per cent., 
and the Chester emery, averaging about the same, contains 
from 9 to 50 per cent. The value of the samples is deter¬ 
mined by the amount of glass which a gWen quantity will 
wear away. The Ceylon sapphire, which is taken as a stan¬ 
dard, wears away four-fifths of its weight of glass. The 
consumption of emery in the United Kingdom is put at 
2000 tons per annum. (See Emery ; also valuable papers 
on emery by J. Lawrence Smith and C. T. Jackson in 
Silliman's ‘‘American Journal of Science” [2d series], vii. 
283; ix. 289; x. 354; xxxix. 87; xl. 112, 123.) 

C. F. Chandler. 

Corim'na, a province of North-western Spain, forming 
the N. W. part of Galicia, having the ocean W. and N., 
Lugo E., and Pontavedro S. It has fine forests and pas¬ 
tures and arable lands, besides iron-mines. Area, 3079 
square miles. Capital, Corunna. Pop. 609,337. 

Coruima [anc. Adrohicum; Sp. Coruna], a fortified 
city and seaport of Spain, capital of a province of its own 
name, is on the Atlantic Ocean, 320 miles N. AT. of Madrid ; 
lat. 43° 22' N., Ion. 8° 24' W. It has a safe harbor defended 
by two forts, and a lighthouse, which is called the Tower 
of Hercules, and is ninety-two feet high. It has a citadel, 
court-house, custom-house, arsenal, theatre, and the palace 
of the captain-general. Here are manufactures of linen 
and hats, cordage, canvas, and cigars. On Jan. 16, 1809, 
a battle occurred here between the French marshal Soult 
and the British general Sir John Moore, who was killed. 
Pop. 27,354. 

Corunna, a post-village, capital of Shiawassee co., 
Mich., on the Shiawassee River and the Detroit and Mil- 
















CORVALLIS—COSMOGONY. 


1165 


waukee R. R., 75 miles N. W. of Detroit. It has a national 
bank, two iron-foundries, and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 
1408. 

Corval'lis, the county-seat of Benton co., Or., on Wil¬ 
lamette River, 100 miles S. of Portland, contains the State 
Agricultural College, an academy, two public schools, three 
large saw and planing mills, a number of brick stores, and 
two weekly newspapers. It is surrounded by a rich agri¬ 
cultural country, which is very healthful. Steamboats visit 
the town during two-thirds of the year. The principal ex¬ 
port is wheat. R. (1. Head, Ed. “Democrat.” 

Corvee [etymology doubtful], a French term denoting, 
in feudal law, the obligation of the inhabitants of a district 
to perform certain services for the sovereign or feudal lord. 
Some of these, services were performed gratis, others for 
wages below the value of the labor. 

Corvette [from the Lat. cor bis, a “basket,” probably 
so called from some fancied resemblance in shape], a 
small vessel of war having three masts, flush decks, and 
one tier of guns on the upper deck. The masts are square- 
rigged. A corvette rarely carries more than twenty-six 
guns. 

Corvi'nus (Matthias) I., king of Hungary, a son of 
John Huniades, was born at Klausenburg in 1443. He was 
elected king in 1458. He waged war against the emperor 
Ferdinand III., the Turkish sultan, and the king of Poland. 
In 1485 he captured Vienna. He had superior military 
talents and was an able ruler. Died in 1490. (See Wen¬ 
zel, “Matthias Corvinus,” 1810.) 

Cor'vus (M. Valerius), a famous Roman general, born 
about 370 B. C., was elected consul in 348. He defeated 
the Samnites in 343, and was chosen dictator in 342 and in 
301 B. C. In the year 299 he was elected consul for the 
sixth time. Died about 270 B. C. 

Cor'win, a township of Ida co., Ia. It contains Ida, 
the county-seat. Pop. of township, 165. 

Corwin (Thomas), an American statesman and orator, 
born in Bourbon co., Ky., July 29, 1794, removed to Ohio 
in early youth, and studied law, which he practised with 
distinction. He was elected a member of Congress in 1830, 
joined the Whig party, and advocated the election of Gen. 
Harrison in 1840 by effective public speeches. In the same 
year he was chosen governor of Ohio. He was elected to 
the Senate of the U. S. in 1845, and was appointed secretary 
of the treasury by President Fillmore in July, 1850. In 
1858 he was chosen a member of Congress. He was sent as 
minister to Mexico in 1861, returned home in 1864, and 
died Dec. 18, 1865. 

Cor'wine, a township of Logan co., Ill. Pop. 1069. 

Coryban'tes [Gr. Kopoparres, the plural of Kopu/3a?; 
etymology doubtful], the name of the frantic priests of 
Cybele or Rhea. They were distinct from the Galli, who 
were eunuchs and priests of the same goddess. They cele¬ 
brated the festivals of Cybele with orgiastic dances and 
loud cries, beating on timbrels, and cutting their flesh with 
knives. 

Cor'ydon, a post-village, capital of Harrison co., Ind., 
is on Indian Creek, 115 miles S. of Indianapolis. It has 
two weekly newspapers, a furniture factory, two flour-mills, 
and an academy. It is a handsome place, has a sulphur 
spring, and is quite a summer resort. It was the capital 
of the State until 1824. Pop. 747. 

Geo. W. Self, Ed. “Republican.” 

Corydon, a post-village, capital of Wayne co., Ia., 
about 65 miles S. by E. from Des Moines, has two weekly 
newspapers. Pop. 618; of Corydon township, 1277. 

Corydon, a township of McKean co., Pa. Pop. 169. 

Corydoil, a post-township of Warren co., Pa. P. 411. 

Coryell, a county of Central Texas. Area, 960 square 
miles. It is intersected by the Leon River and Cowhouse 
Creek. The surface is undulating ,• the soil fertile. Stock- 
raising is the chief pursuit. Corn and wool are raised. The 
county has some timber, and is rather dry, but very healthy. 
Capital, Gatesville. Pop. 4124. 

Coryla'ceoc [from Corylus, one of the genera], a name 
given to a natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, 
which some botanists call Cupulifera). It contains the oaks, 
chestnuts, beeches, hazels, etc. 

Corylus. See Hazel-Nut. 

Cor'yml) [Lat. corymbus; Gr. Kopujuflos, the “top” of 
anything; also a “cluster of flowers or fruit”], in botany, 
a form of inflorescence consisting of a central axis and lat¬ 
eral pedicels, of which the lower are longer than the upper, 
and the lengths of the pedicels aro so graduated that the 
flowers are all on the same level, as in the Spirsea, Kalmia, 
and Cratsegus (hawthorn). 

Cor'ypha [from the Gr. Kopu^r?, “summit”], a genus of 


tropical fan-leaved palms, one of which, the Corypha um- 
braculifera, or talipot palm, grows in Ceylon to the height 
of sixty or seventy feet. The leaves of it are used as fans 
and umbrellas. 

CorypliaFus [Gr. /copv</>aios], sometimes written in Eng¬ 
lish Corypheus, the leader of the chorus in ancient 
dramas, by whom the dialogue between the chorus and the 
other actors of the drama was carried on, and who led in 
the choric song. The name is metaphorically applied to 
any great leader; thus Dr. Samuel Johnson is sometimes 
called “the coryphaeus of English literature.” 

Cos, or Kos [Gr. Ktos], called also Stail'chio, an 
island of Asiatic Turkey, in the Mediterranean, is separated 
from the coast of ancient Caria by a channel about three 
miles wide. It was called Lango in the time of the Knights 
of Rhodes. It is nearly 22 miles long and 5 miles wide. 
Area, 85 square miles. The surface is partly hilly, the soil 
is fertile, and the climate delightful. Among the products 
are cotton, silk, wine, and fruits. In ancient times it con¬ 
tained a celebrated temple of Aesculapius, and was the na¬ 
tive place of Hippocrates, Apelles the great painter, and 
Ariston the philosopher. Cos is also the name of a sea- 
port-town on this island. Its port is visited by many mer¬ 
chant-vessels. Pop. about 8000, two-thirds of whom are 
Greeks. 

Cosa'la, a Mexican mining-town in the state of Sinaloa, 
200 miles S. E. of El Fuerte. Pop. about 7000. 

Cosen'za, a province of Italy, bounded on the N. by 
Basilicata, on the S. by Catanzaro, and on the E. and W. 
by the sea. It is mountainous, and produces rice, saffron, 
honey, oil, and wine. Capital, Cosenza. It was formerly 
named Calabria Citeriore. Area, 2840 square miles. Pop. 
in 1871, 443,483. 

Cosenza (anc. Consentia), a fortified city of Italy, 
capital of the above province, is at the confluence of the 
rivers Crati and Busento, 12 miles E. of the Mediterranean. 
It is the seat of a bishop, and contains a fine court-house, 
a cathedral, a royal college, a theatre, several convents, and 
an old castle which has been converted into barracks. It 
has manufactures of cutlery and earthenware, and an active 
trade in silk, wine, manna, rice, etc. Consentia was the 
ancient capital of the Bruttii. Pop. 11,649. 

Coshoc'ton, a county of N. E. Central Ohio. Area, 
516 square miles. It is drained by the Tuscarawas and 
Walhonding rivers, which unite here to form the Muskin¬ 
gum. The surface is partly hilly ; the soil is fertile. Cat¬ 
tle, grain, and wool are largely raised, and manufactures 
are varied and quite important. Coal and iron are abun¬ 
dant here. It is intersected by the Pittsburg Cincinnati 
and St. Louis R. R. Capital, Coshocton. Pop. 23,600. 

Coshocton, a post-village, capital of the above county, 
is on the Muskingum River just below the junction of the 
Tuscarawas and Walhonding, on the Ohio Canal and on 
the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. R., 69 miles E. 
N. E. of Columbus. A bridge across the river connects it 
with Roscoe. Coshocton has two weekly newspapers, iron 
and steel works for axles, springs, and iron bridges, a 
paper-mill, and one national bank. Pop. 1754. 

T. W. Collier, Jr., Ed. Coshocton “Age.” 

Cosmog'ony [Gr. soerpoyovia, from koo > ios , the “world,” 
and yew, to “originate”], the science or theory which 
treats of the origin of the universe. If we except the cos¬ 
mogony of the East Indians, the earliest extant is that of 
Hesiod, which is delivered in hexameter verse. The first 
prose cosmogonies were those of the early Ionic philoso¬ 
phers, of whom Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander, and 
Anaxagoras are the most celebrated. In modern times a 
“Theory of the World” has been produced by Burnet. 
We do not include in this list of cosmogonies the researches 
of modern geologists, or the systems to which they have 
led. The different theories of the origin of the world may 
be comprehended under three classes: 1st. Those which 
suppose the world to have existed from eternity under its 
actual form. Aristotle embraced this doctrine, and, con¬ 
ceiving the universe to be the eternal effect of an eternal 
cause, maintained that not only the heavens and the earth, 
but all animate and inanimate beings, are without begin¬ 
ning. 2d. Those which consider the matter of the universe 
eternal, but not its form. This ivas the system of Epicurus 
and most of the ancient philosophers and poets, who im¬ 
agined the world either to be produced by the fortuitous 
concourse of atoms existing from all eternity, or to have 
sprung out of the chaotic form which preceded its present 
state. 3d. Those which ascribe both its matter and its 
form to the direct agency of a spiritual cause. 

The account given in Genesis of the creation is obviously 
not a scientific cosmogony, which would not only have been 
out of place in a divine revelation intended especially to 
impart religious truth, but would, it given in a scientific 






















1166 


COSMOS—COTEAU ST. AUGUSTIN. 




form (since science is constantly progressing and therefore 
changing), have been adapted to a single age or period 
only. Or, supposing the highest and ultimate facts of sci¬ 
ence had been given, it would have been so far in advance 
of all scientific thought yet reached, or that will be reached 
perhaps for fifty thousand years to come, that it would be 
wholly unintelligible, and would in all probability appear 
utterly absurd even to the most advanced intellects. There¬ 
fore those few great facts which were necessary to be indi¬ 
cated in order to point out the relation between the Creator 
and his works have been presented in a popular rather 
than a scientific form. Nor can it be said that they are 
any the less true because not presented in scientific phrase- 
An excellent exposition of the harmony between 
- ''the Mosaic and the geological record of creation is given 
y by Prof. Dana at the end of his “Manual of Geology,” to 
which the reader is referred. (See also Tayler Lewis's 
“Six Days of Creation.”) 

Cosmos, a post-township of Renville co., Minn. P. 62. 

Cosne fane. Caudate), a town of France, in the depart¬ 
ment of Nievre, on the Loire, 29 miles N. N. W. of Nevers. 
It has manufactures of hardware, cutlery, and anchors. 
Pop. 6575. 

Cos'sa, a township of Perry co., Ark. Pop. 240. 

Cos'sack [a term of Turkish origin, said to signify “rob¬ 
ber”]. The Cossacks area Slavic race intermixed with Kal¬ 
mucks and Tartars. They are divided into two classes— 
the Cossacks of the Don and the Cossacks of Little Russia, 
or Malo-Russian Cossacks. The latter were not known by 
the name of Cossacks until 1516. Stephen Bathori, king 
of Poland, formed them into regiments, under the control 
of a hetman or ataman, in 1592. They placed them¬ 
selves under the protection of Russia in 1654, and revolted 
in 1708. The Cossacks of the Don entered the service of 
Russia in the sixteenth century. Their territory now con¬ 
stitutes a government (province) of European Russia, with 
an area of 59,654 square miles, and a population in 1867 
of 1,010,135. Tscherkask, their capital, destroyed by fire 
in 1744, was rebuilt in 1805. They are extensively colon¬ 
ized in Siberia. 

The principal hetman (ataman) of the Cossacks is the 
heir-apparent of the Russian empire. The Cossacks serve 
in the army both as irregular cavalry and as light artillery. 
In 1870 there were 183,007 Cossacks, including officers, 
enrolled in the Russian service. This enrolment includes 
all the males. More than 30,000 were in the latter year 
serving in the Russian line, chiefly in Siberia. They also 
serve to some extent in the Turkish army. 

Cos'ta (Sir Michael), a musical composer, born in Na¬ 
ples in Feb., 1810, manifested early a taste for music, and 
studied under Tritto. He became conductor of the London 
opera in 1831. He has written “ Kenilworth ” and “ Sir 
Huon,” ballets, “ Malek Adel,” which failed in Paris, and 
“Don Carlos,” operas, and “Naarnan” and “ Eli,” ora¬ 
torios. 

Costa-Cabral, da (Antonio Bernardo), count of 
Thomar, a Portuguese statesman, born May 9,1803, became 
a judge of Lisbon, and entered the ministry in 1836. He 
controlled the government, supported by the court, and by 
oppressive unconstitutional measures brought upon him¬ 
self the hatred of all parties. He was obliged to retire in 
1846 in consequence of a popular insurrection, was recalled 
in 1849, but was obliged to flee the country in 1851. His 
brother Silvo led the opposition. 

Cos'ta lli' ca ( i . e. “rich coast”), the most southern 
state of Central America, is bounded on the N. by Nicar¬ 
agua, on the E. by the Caribbean Sea, on the S. E. by Pan- 
amd, and on the S. W. by the Pacific Ocean. It lies between 
lat. 8° and 11° 30' N. and Ion. 83° and 85° 40' W. Area, 
21,495 square miles. The surface is mountainous, the state 
being traversed by a range which is a continuation of the 
Andes or Cordilleras. Among the peaks of this range are 
several active and extinct volcanoes. Mount Cartago (or 
Irasu) rises about 11,480 feet above the level of the sea. 
This region is subject to frequent earthquakes. The rainy 
season continues about six months, between April and Oc¬ 
tober. The name of Costa Rica is said to be derived from 
the rich gold-mines which are found here. The soil of 
the table-lands and valleys is fertile. The staple produc¬ 
tions are coffee, maize, tobacco, sugar, and dyewoods. The 
country is extensively covered with forests, in which the 
mahogany, cedar, and other valuable trees abound. Cap¬ 
ital, San Jose. The government is called a republic, and 
was established in 1823. The president is elected for a term 

* When we remark in popular language, “ The sun rises,” who 
shall say that, though the expression is not astronomically true, 
we do not, for all practical purposes, utter as important a truth 
as when we say, “The earth by its revolution brings us to that 
point where the sun becomes visible ” ? 


of three years. Costa Rica was one of the states of the 
Confederation of Central America, from which she seceded 
in 1840. Pop. in 1870, 165,000. 

Coste (Jean Jacques Cypriex Victor), a French nat¬ 
uralist, born in Castries in 1807. He published, besides 
other works, a “Voyage of Exploration along the Coasts 
of France and Italy” (1855). 

Cos'tello (Louisa Stuart), an authoress, born in Ire¬ 
land in 1815. Among her works are a “ Summer amongst 
the Bocages and Vines ” (1840) and “ Memoirs of Eminent 
Englishwomen ” (4 vols., 1844). She produced a collection 
of translations from Persian poets entitled “ The Rose- 
Garden of Persia” (1845); also “Jacques Cceur, the French 
Argonaut, and his Times” (1 vol., 1847). Died April 24, 
1870. 

Cos'ter (Lawrence Jansen), mentioned by Adrian Ju¬ 
nius in “Batavia” (Leyden, 1588), an historical work 
written 1565-69, following an account current in Haarlem, 
as the original inventor of movable types. He first cut 
letters out of wood and printed from them the Dutch 
“ Ilailspiegel.” Afterwards he made his letters from lead 
and tin, and called in assistants, whom he swore to secresy. 
This was about 1440. One of the workmen, named Johann, 
stole his master’s type and forms, and afterwards printed 
books in Mayence. This story has always been upheld by 
the Dutch. 

Costi'lla, a county in the S. of Colorado, partly bound¬ 
ed on the IF. by the Rio Grande del Norte. The main 
chain of the Rocky Mountains extends along the eastern 
border of this county, which includes a large part of the 
fertile valley called San Luis Park. Near the middle of 
this park is San Luis Lake. The sides of the mountains 
are covered with forests of pine, fir, cedar, spruce, etc. Gold 
and silver are found here. Water and timber are abundant. 
Cattle and wool raising are the chief pursuits. Capital, 
San Luis. Pop. 1779. 

Cos'ton, a township of Worcester co., Md. Pop. 2832. 

Cos'tume [from the Lat. consuetudo, “custom,” “usage;” 
Fr. costume ] signifies, in its wider sense, the external ap¬ 
pearance which the life of a people presents, and in its 
more usual sense the modes of clothing and personal 
adornment which prevail in any period or country. In 
both senses it plays an important part in art and litera¬ 
ture. Homer brings it into view in narrating the achieve¬ 
ments of his heroes. In modern times Sir Walter Scott 
has introduced the fashion of minute description of ex¬ 
ternal costume. In the arts of the painter and actor at¬ 
tention to costume becomes indispensable. The sculptor 
has been sorely tried by the wigs and breeches of former 
times, and by the hats and other monstrosities of our own. 
One way of escaping from the difficulty was to discard the 
modern dress altogether, and substitute the ancient toga; 
another was to conceal the figure as much as possible in a 
cloak. The first of these expedients violates what artists 
regard as the laws of costume, by which they feel bound to 
represent every object with appropriate accessories; the 
second is often open in a less degree to the same objection. 
The great attention to costume in the earlier stages of art, 
though sometimes injurious to artistic effect, has been of 
great value for historical purposes. Among the old masters 
of the Italian and German schools there is a tendency to 
exhibit costume with painful minuteness. The mediaeval 
custom of representing historical and sacred characters in 
the costume peculiar to the country and period of the artist 
prevailed in the most flourishing age of Italian art. We 
may learn from Paul Veronese the aspect presented by a 
feast in the palace of a Venetian grandee, but we can have 
little conception of the costumes at the marriage in Cana 
and in other scriptural subjects treated by the Italian 
painters. The effort to avoid anachronism by antiquarian 
study belongs almost entirely to the modern schools of art. 
In dramatic representations attention to costume becomes 
imperative. When the religious mysteries were brought 
upon the stage in the Middle Ages, the costume adopted 
was that of the age and country in which the representa¬ 
tion took place ; and this state of things continued during 
the time of Shakspeare, Lope de Vega, and Moliere. 
About 1750 the French actress Clairon introduced a reform, 
but Talma was the first to bring on the stage a costume 
really true to history. Garrick and other eminent English 
actors followed his example. 

Cosum'nes, a township of El Dorado co., Cal. Pop. 
542. 

Cosumnes, a post-township of Sacramento co., Cal. 
Pop. 694. 

Coteau St. Augustin, a suburb of Montreal, in 
Hochelaga co., province of Quebec (Canada), has iron¬ 
works, large tanneries, and a glass-factory. Pop. about 
5000. —Cote St. Louis, an extra-municipal suburb of Mon- 
































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COTE-D’OR—COTTING. 


treal, has extensive quarries of building-stone. Pop. about 
4000.— Coteau St. Pierre, Cote St. Antoine, Cote St. 
Catharine, Cote des Neiges, Cote St. Paul, Cote St. 
Luc, etc., are all suburbs within the municipality of Mon¬ 
treal (which see). 

Cote-d’Or (?. e. “ region of gold,” named in allusion 
to the wealth of its vineyards), a department in the eastern 
part of France, formed of a portion of the old province of 
Burgundy. Area, 3383 square miles. The surface is diver¬ 
sified by hills and valleys, and partly traversed by a chain 
of low mountains called Cbte-d’Or. It is drained by the 
rivers Seine, Aube, and Saone. Among its minerals are 
coal, iron, marble, and gypsum. A large part of this de¬ 
partment is covered with forests. The soil is mostly fertile. 
It produces 18,500,000 gallons of wine annually. Here are 
raised the Burgundy wines. Capital, Dijon. Pop. 382,762. 

Cotent'nea, a township of Lenoir co., X. C. P. 1470. 

Co'terie [a word of French origin, supposed to be de¬ 
rived from the Lat. quota, a “share”], a word said to have 
been first applied to commercial associations in which each 
member contributed to the general fund. The name is now 
given to any circle of an exclusive character, Avhether so¬ 
cial, literary, or political. 

Cotes (Roger), an English clergyman, born at Burbage 
July 10, 1682, was a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. 
He became Plumian professor of astronomy in 1706, and 
published the second edition of Newton’s “ Principia,” with 
a learned preface (1713). He wrote “ Harmonia Mcnsu- 
rarum ” (1722). Died June 5, 1716. Newton had so high 
an opinion of his abilities that he exclaimed, “If Cotes 
had lived, we should have known something.” 

Cote Sans Besoin, a post-township of Callaway co., 
Mo. Pop. 869. 

C6tes-du-Nord (?. e. “northern coasts ”), a maritime 
department of France, formed of part of the old province 
of Bretagne. It is bounded on the N. by the English Chan¬ 
nel, on the E. by Ile-et-Vilaine, on the S. by Morbihan, and 
on the W. by Finistere. Area, 2268 square miles. The 
surface is partly mountainous; the soil is mostly fertile. 
Many horses and cattle are reared here. Lavge quantities 
of grain and linen goods are exported. Among the min¬ 
erals arc iron, lead, and granite. Capital, Saint-Brieuc. 
Pop. 641,210. 

Co-tidal Lines, a system of lines drawn upon a map, 
terrestrial globe, or chart, to illustrate the course of the 
tidal wave. They were devised by Dr. Whewell, and are 
given in the present work in Map No. III. Each of these 
lines passes through the places which have high water at 
the same hour, thus tracing the crest of the wave, and en¬ 
abling the eye to follow its course with all the modifications 
that it experiences in each ocean. 

A glance at the map of co-tidal lines, which gives the 
position and shape of the crest of the tidal wave at inter¬ 
vals of an hour, will show that the parent wave from the 
South Pacific moves on most swiftly in the open and deep 
ocean S. of the continents. There, also, its motion pre¬ 
serves its normal direction westward, and its crest extends 
from N. to S., while in the interior of the three oceans both 
are considerably deflected to the N., and even turned back 
to the E. (See Tides, by Prof. J. E. IIilgard, U. S. 
Coast Survey.) Arnold Guyot. 

Cotopax'i, a volcano of South America, in Ecuador, in 
the eastern Cordillera of the Andes, 34 miles S. S. E. of 
Quito; lat. 0° 40' S., Ion. 78° 39' W. Its form is almost 
perfectly conical. It rises 19,498 feet above the level of 
the sea, and 9800 feet above the adjacent valley, being the 
highest volcano in America that has been active in recent 
times. Its first recorded eruption occurred in 1532. In 
1698 an eruption destroyed the city of Tacunga, and in 
1738 the flames rose 3000 feet above the brink of the crater. 
A violent eruption occurred in 1768, when clouds of ashes 
and smoke darkened the air for a distance of many miles. 
During the eruption of 1803, Humboldt, who was at Guay¬ 
aquil, about 135 miles distant, heard the explosions of this 
volcano. A belt about 4400 feet wide is covered with per¬ 
petual snow. It was first ascended in 1872 by Dr. W. Reiss. 

Cotro'ne (anc. Crotona), a town of Italy, province 
of Catanzaro, on the Mediterranean Sea, 6 miles N. W. of 
Cape Nan. It is enclosed by walls and defended by a 
citadel. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a small harbor, 
a cathedral, and several hospitals and convents. Pop. 
5807. 

Cotta ( JonANN Friedrich), Baron yon Cottendorf, an 
eminent publisher, born at Stuttgart April 27, 1764, found¬ 
ed at Tiibingen in 1793 the “ Allgemeine Zeitung,” an able 
daily journal, afterwards published at Augsburg. He was 
a friend and liberal patron of Goethe and Schiller, whose 
works he published. He established a steam press at Augs- 


1167 


burg in 1824. He was for many years a member of the 
Wiirtemberg Diet, and in 1824 was elected vice-president 
of the second chamber. Died Dec. 29, 1832. 

Cotta (L. Aurelius), a Roman senator, became praetor 
in 70 B. C. He was consul for the third time in the year 
65, and co-operated with Cicero against Catiline in 63 B. C. 
He was an adherent of Caesar in the civil war which beo'an 
in 49 B. C. 

Cotta, von (Bernhard), an eminent German geologist, 
born in Thuringia Oct. 24, 1808, was appointed professor 
in the School of Mines at Freiberg in 1842. Among his 
important works are a geognostic map of Saxony in twelve 
sections, published conjointly with Naumann; “ Geognos- 
tische Wanderungen” (2 vols., 1836-38); “ Anleitung zum 
Studium der Geognosie und Geologie” (3d ed. 1849); 
“ Geologische Bilder” (4th ed. 1861); “ Deutschlands Bo- 
den” (2d ed. 1858); “Geologie der Gegenwart” (3d ed. 
1871). He has also since 1847 been editing the “ Ganen- 
studien.” He favors the theory of evolution. 

Cot'tage Grove, a township of Saline co., Ill. P. 713. 

Cottage Grove, a township of Allen co., Kan. P. 794. 

Cottage Grove, a post-township of Washington co., 
Minn., 13 miles S. E. of St. Paul. Pop. 705. 

Cottage Grove, a post-township of Dane co., Wis. 
Poj). 955. 

Cottage Hill College, for young ladies, at York, 
Pa., on the Northern Central R. R., 27 miles from Harris¬ 
burg and 58 miles from Baltimore, between which places 
there are five daily trains each way. There are also three 
daily trains to Wrightsville, making connection at Columbia 
for Reading and Philadelphia. The borough of York 
contains 11,003 inhabitants, and is noted for the health¬ 
fulness of its situation. The college grounds, upon which 
are several excellent springs of good water, contain nine 
acres, which are nicely ornamented with shade-trees and 
shrubbery. With the Codorus flowing near by the build¬ 
ings, and with the beautiful scenery around, this is one of 
the most delightful and attractive locations in the State. 
Cottage Hill College was founded in 1850 by Rev. J. F. 
Hey, who for a number of years conducted it as a female 
college with great success. Under his charge it rapidly 
increased in distinction until it justly ranked among the 
best female schools in the State, enjoying a large and in¬ 
fluential patronage. In Jan., 1866, the property was pur¬ 
chased from Prof. Hey, and the building has since been 
furnished with new furniture, new carpets, and new bed¬ 
ding; first-class musical instruments, a chemical and phi¬ 
losophical apparatus, globes, charts, and maps, have been 
procured; and many important improvements have been 
made, designed to secure the general comfort of the pupils. 
On the 21st of Feb., 1868, the institution was chartered by 
the legislature of the State, with full collegiate powers to 
confer all literally degrees and academic honors which are 
usually granted and conferred by other colleges for the 
education of young women. In 1863, Rev. J. F. Hey re¬ 
signed the charge of this institution, and Prof. L. B. 
Heiges conducted the school for the three succeeding years 
very successfully. In 1866, Rev. D. Eberly succeeded Prof. 
Heiges, and under his direction the institution was char¬ 
tered by the legislature of Pennsylvania, as already stated. 
In 1872, Rev. D. Eberly having resigned, Prof. J. Nelson 
Clark, M. D., was appointed president. Since the institu¬ 
tion was chartered thirty young ladies have graduated. 

J. Nelson Clark. 

Cott'bus, or Kottbus, a town of Prussia, in Bran¬ 
denburg, on the river Spree, 67 miles S. S. E. of Berlin, 
with which it is connected by a railway. It is enclosed 
by walls, and has a royal palace and a gymnasium; also 
manufactures of woollen cloths, linen goods, hosiery, to¬ 
bacco, etc. Pop. in 1871, 18,916. 

Cotting (John Ruggles), M. D., LL.D., born in Acton, 
Mass., in 1787, educated at Amherst, Dartmouth, and Cam¬ 
bridge. After spending fifty years of his life in New Eng¬ 
land, he was yet spared to enjoy thirty more in the valley 
of the Oconee, near Milledgeville, then the capital of Geor¬ 
gia, where he died, Oct. 13, 1867, and av«s buried, thus 
leaving the beautiful impress of that invisible but vital 
chain binding the hearts of this great people into ono 
mighty nation. Dr. Cotting, having acquired reputation 
by his publications in chemistry and geology, was induced 
by cotton-planters of Georgia to make an agricultural 
survey of two or three counties of that State, the maps 
and drawings of which Avere magnificently executed, and 
Avere deposited in the museum of the medical college in 
Augusta; and their fame reached even Russia, Avhose em- 
eror solicited a copy for the Royal Library ot St. Peters- 
urg. Ho was a Congregational minister, and had hold 
professorships in Amherst College and at Pittsfield Medi¬ 
cal School. Paul F. Eye. 












1168 


COTTON. 


Cot'ton [Fr. coton; Sp. algotlon; Arab, alqoton], the 
fibre which surrounds the seeds of various species of cot¬ 
ton-plant, though the numerous cultivated varieties (mostly 
annual or biennial) are now referred to two or three spe¬ 
cies, the Gossypium album, nigrum, and perhaps arboreum, 
plants of the natural order Malvaceae, to which an East 
Indian origin is assigned by the most recent authorities, 
though they have been grown from time immemorial in 
Africa and America. The first mention of cotton by any 



writer is by Herodotus, about 450 B. C. It is supposed 
that the cotton culture was first practised in India, but 
history furnishes no means of ascertaining when, or by 
what progressive stages of discovery and invention, cotton 
was first utilized by man. There is no record of any cot¬ 
ton being manufactured in Europe before the tenth cen¬ 
tury. Cotton is a tropical plant, and nearly all that is 
raised in the world is produced by the colored races. Its 
most northern limit is reached in Mahchooi’ia, where it is 
cultivated with success. Columbus found cotton in use 
among the natives of Hispaniola, but only in its most 
primitive form. In 1536 the cotton-plant was found grow¬ 
ing in the country drained by the Mississippi and in Texas, 
but it was first planted as an experiment in the U. S. in the 
year 1621. 

As early as the year 1736 the cotton-plant was known on 
the Eastern Shore of Maryland, in the lower counties of 
Delaware, and in other places in the Middle States, but it 
was chiefly regarded as an ornamental plant, and confined 
to gardens. It was not till after the Revolution that cot¬ 
ton culture was prosecuted with a view to export, though 
as early as 1739 it is reported that one bag of cotton was 
exported from Savannah, Ga., and about this time effort 
was made to bring cotton to perfection in South Carolina. 
In the year 1784 an American ship, which had on board 
eight bags of cotton for Liverpool, was seized, on the 
ground that so much cotton could not have been produced 
in the U. S. In 1785 the culture of short-staple cotton 
was commenced in the U. S., and 1,000,000 pounds in 1795 
were exported from Charleston, S. C. Since that time the 
use of cotton, which previously had been for the most part 
limited to the hot climates where it grew, has marvellously 
extended, so that at present it constitutes not only the en¬ 
tire clothing of a large majority of the human race, but it 
has become a part of the material in which the people of 
all lands arc clothed, excepting only the most debased and 
savage of races. For this great revolution the invention 
of improved machinery, and especially that of the saw 
cotton-gin, is the principal cause. 

The green-seed or short-staple cotton ( Gossypium album) 
is the kind principally used since the Revolution. The 
black-seed, or sea-island cotton ( Gosm/pium nigrum), which 
is considered very much superior to the former, was intro¬ 
duced about the year 1788, though this can only be grown 


successfully in certain localities, requiring low and moist 
land. The Peeler cotton-seed is in more general use at the 
present day. This is an upland cotton, but will do well on 
the lowlands. Several other kinds of cotton-seed have been 
introduced, and fabulous px-ices have been paid for some of 
them. 

In 1791 only 2,000,000 pounds of cotton were raised in 
the U. S., and 189,500 pounds exported; while in 1803 the 
amount exported from the U. S. was over 41,000,000 pounds. 
In 1791 a cotton-mill was erected at Providence, R. I., sup¬ 
posed to be the first one in America, and from this time 
cotton was used in this country, though for a few years to 
a very limited extent. During the year 1800, 500 bales, of 
300 pounds each, were consumed in the U. S. Ten years 
later (1810) 10,000 bales, of 300 pounds each, were used 
in our own counti’y, and we exported nearly 94,000,000 
pounds. Sixty-two mills were in operation during this 
year. In 1820 the U. S. cotton crop amounted to 369,000 
bales, of 300 pounds each, and we exported nearly 
128,000,000 pounds. Ten years later (1830) the export of 
cotton from the U. S. was 271,000,000 pounds, and the 
amount grown was over 1,000,000 bales. In 1840 over 
1,500,000 bales were raised in the U. S. Ten years later 
(1850) the home consumption of cotton in the U. S. was 
nearly 600,000 bales, while the amount raised was over 
2,000,000 bales. In 1S60 the total cotton crop of the U. S. 
was 4,675,000 bales; consumed here, 978,000 bales. 

From the year 1860 to 1870 there was a large decrease 
in the amount of cotton raised, owing to the civil war, 
which caused almost entire stagnation in all kinds of busi¬ 
ness in the southern part of our country, and the conse¬ 
quent liberation of the slaves. In 1870 the total cotton 
crop of the U. S. was only 3,000,000 bales, of which 
2,000,000 were exported. The last three years show a 
large increase, and we may look foi'ward with confidence 
that under the new order of things the cotton-growing 
States will become moi'e fully developed, and will astonish 
the world with their productions. Since the emancipation 
of the slaves in the U. S. a new impetus has been given to 
cotton-gi’owiug, and the business is so pi'ofitable that it is 
conducted very carelessly. 

The extremes of the cotton-belt, where it may be grown 
with profit, may be included between the 28th and 40th de- 
gi'ees N. lat.; but the cotton States, pi-operly speaking, are 
South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, the north¬ 
ern part of Florida, the northern half of Louisiana, and 
the eastern half of Texas. 

The principal cotton crop of the U. S., as of all other 
important cotton-regions, is of the short-staple Aariety. 
The long-staple sort is xxsed for making the best sewing- 
thread, for mixing with silk, and for certain other special 
uses. It is very much higher priced than common cotton, 
but can be grown only in peculiar and very limited dis- 
tricts, such as the islands on the coast of South Carolina 
and parts of the mainland of Florida. 

It is very unfortunate that better and more economical 
methods of planting, cultivating, and fertilizing cotton- 
lands have not been adopted in the U. S. Cotton is not 
natui-ally a very exhausting crop, but from the short¬ 
sighted policy of too many planters, gi'eat ai’eas of what 
was once good cotton-land are now quite unproductive. A 
very serious drawback in the cultivation of cotton is the 
existence of so many insect enemies. In some regions the 
ravages of insects and their larvae have led to the complete 
abandonment of the crop. 

British India produces more cotton than any other 
country except the U. S., and there the industry is one of 
great importance; but the fibre is generally found to be 
inferior to that grown in the U. S. Egypt produces much 
cotton, its best product taking a high rank as regards qual¬ 
ity and price. Bi'azil raises a considerable amount of fibi-e, 
and most other warm and tropical countries contribute 
more or less to the world’s supply of the commodity. 

Besides the uses of the cotton-fibre as a material for the 
manufacture of textile fabrics, and its secondary use in 
paper-making, the seed of cotton now furnishes a large 
supply of fixed oil obtained by expi'essing. The residue 
is useful for fattening stock, being used after the manner 
of oil-cake. It is also extensively employed in the South 
as a fertilizer. The cotton-seed oil and meal are exported 
to Europe in considerable quantities. The oil is used for 
soap-stock, for softening wool, lubricating machinery, 
dressing morocco, and for adulterating linseed and other 
more costly oils. It is considered to be a drying oil, and 
a small proportion may be used in paint. In the Southern 
States, when rectified, it is sometimes employed in phar¬ 
macy. Cotton-root is used to some extent in medicine, 
chiefly for its emmenagogue and abortifacient properties. 
In Brazil and other countries the leaves are believed to 
have highly important medicinal qualities. 

A. T. Longley, U. S. Agricultural Department . 

















































COTTON—COTTONWOOD TREE. 


1169 


Cot'ton, a township of Switzerland co., Ind. Pop. 1700. 

Cotton (Charles), an English humorous poet, born 
in Staffordshire in 1630, was an adopted son of Izaak Wal¬ 
ton. He translated Montaigne’s “Essays” into English, 
and wrote “ Scarronides, or Virgil Travestied” (1687), a 
“ Voyage to Ireland,” and other works. He is best known 
by his continuation of Walton’s “ Complete Angler.” Died 
in 1687. 

Cotton (John), a learned English Puritan minister, 
born at Derby Dec. 4,1585, preached over twenty years at 
Boston in England, emigrated to Massachusetts in 1633, 
was afterwards pastor of the First church in Boston (or¬ 
ganized in 1630), and acquired such influence that he 
was called the patriarch of New England. Died Dec. 23, 
1652. 

Cotton (Sir Robert Bruce), an English antiquary, 
was born in Huntingdonshire Jan. 22, 1570. He gradu¬ 
ated at Cambridge in 1585. Having a high reputation for 
prudence, he was often consulted and employed by King 
James I. and his ministers. He wrote several political 
and historical treatises. He died May 6, 1631, and left to 
his heirs a valuable library, which is now in the British 
Museum. 

Cotton-gin, a machine for freeing cotton from its 
seeds, which adhere to the fibre with considerable tenacity. 
Originally, the cotton-gin was an apparatus in which the 
cotton was passed between two rollers revolving in opposite 
directions. This, the “roller-gin,” is still used for ginning 
sea-island or black-seeded cotton, which is quite easily 
freed from its seeds. But green-seeded, upland, or short- 
staple cotton, the species most generally grown, cannot 
be ginned by such simple means. In 1793, Mr. Eli Whit¬ 
ney, a native of Massachusetts resident in Georgia, in¬ 
vented the saw-gin, consisting of a hopper, one side of 
which is composed of parallel wires, between which re¬ 
volve circular saws, the teeth of which drag the fibre 
through the wires, leaving the seeds behind. This inven¬ 
tion, which brought Mr. Whitney small profit and much 
litigation, has immensely increased the cotton industry of 
the world. 

Cotton Grove, a township of Davidson co., N. C. 

Pop. 868. 

Cotton, Gun. See Gun-Cotton, by Gen. H. L. Abbot, 
U. S. A. 

Cotton Hill, a post-township of Sangamon co., Ill. 
Pop. 751. 

Cot'ton Manufac'ture. The manufacture of cotton 
fibre into articles of use and ornament appears to have been 
carried on in India from the remotest antiquity, but it has 
not made any very great progress in the East. It was also 
known in ancient Mexico, and is still carried on in a rude 
manner by native African tribes. This industry, which 
now affords employment and subsistence to many hun¬ 
dreds of thousands of persons, is almost wholly the result 
of discoveries and inventions made in Great Britain and 
the U. S. since the middle of the last century. Previously 
to that period the manufacture was everywhere confined 
within the narrowest limits. Owing to the difficulty of 
separating the fibre from the seed, its price, so long as this 
operation had to be performed by hand, was naturally 
high; while the cost of spinning and weaving by the 
wheels and looms in use previously to 1760 added so much 
to the price of the cloth that its use was confined to the 
richer classes of society. But in this respect the most 
signal and extraordinary improvements have been made. 
The jenny, invented by Hargreaves in 1767, enabled one 
person to spin from 80 to 120 threads with about the same 
facility that a single thread had been previously spun. The 
jenny, however, was fitted only to spin the softer kinds of 
yarn, or that used as weft, being unable to give the firm¬ 
ness required in the yarn used as warp. But this deficiency 
was soon supplied; the genius of Arkwright completed 
(1785) what Hargreaves had begun, by inventing the spin¬ 
ning-frame—that wonderful piece of machinery which spins 
any number of threads of any degree of fineness and hard¬ 
ness, leaving to man merely to feed the machine with cotton 
and to join the threads when they break. Nearly at the 
same time that the spinning department was thus improved, 
Dr. Cartwright, a clergyman of Kent, invented the power- 
loom, which has already gone far to supersede weaving by 
hand. While these extraordinary inventions were being 
made, Watt was perfecting the steam-engine, and thus not 
only supplied the manufacturers with a new power applica¬ 
ble to every purpose and easy of control, but one that might 
be placed in the most convenient situations and in the midst 
of a population trained to industrious habits. Still, some¬ 
thing remained to complete this astonishing career of dis¬ 
covery. Without a vastly-increased supply of the raw 
material at a lower prico than it had previously brought, 
74 


the inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright, and Watt would 
have been of comparatively little value. What they did 
for the manufacturers, Mr. Eli Whitney did for the cotton- 
growers. He invented a machine by which cotton fibre is 
separated from the seed with the utmost facility and expe¬ 
dition. Previously to 1790, the U. S. did not export a 
single pound of raw cotton. In 1792 they exported 138,328 
pounds. Whitney’s invention came into operation in 1793, 
and in 1795, 5,276,306 pounds were exported. A cotton- 
mill is perhaps, all things considered, the most astonish¬ 
ing triumph of human skill and ingenuity. All the vari¬ 
ous operations, from the carding of the wool to its conver¬ 
sion into a texture as fine almost as that of the gossamer, 
are performed by machinery. 

China has an immense manufacture of cotton goods, but 
nevertheless imports them largely from England and Rus¬ 
sia. A large part of the Chinese cotton is grown at home, 
but much also comes from India and Burniah. Except the 
now comparatively unimportant production of the fabrics 
in India, most of the cotton manufacture of the present 
day is carried on in Europe and the U. S., Great Britain 
taking the lead, and France, Germany, Austria, Russia, 
Belgium, and Switzerland all having an extensive produc¬ 
tion of cotton goods. Many of the smaller European states 
have also considerable cotton manufacturing. 

In the U. S. the first successful cotton-mill was that of 
Mr. Samuel Slater (an Englishman by birth), established 
at Pawtucket, R. I., in 1790, though at Beverly, Mass., 
there had been a cotton-manufacturing company in exist¬ 
ence for several years, and similar attempts had been 
made, with small success, at East Bridgewater, Mass., and 
at Philadelphia. From these small beginnings this manu¬ 
facture has grown to be one of the most important in the 
land. The chief seats of the American cotton manufacture 
are in the New England and Middle States, but the area 
of the manufacturing district is widening. Especially in 
Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina there have been at¬ 
tempts made (and on the whole with very encouraging suc¬ 
cess) to organize a system of cotton manufacturing. If 
this attempt be fully realized, it would appear that the 
South, being the finest cotton-growing region in the world, 
and having abundant and constant water-power, might 
successfully compete with other regions which are obliged 
to transport the raw material for thousands of miles. The 
mills of the U. S. in 1870 were 958 in number, employing 
steam-engines with an aggregate horse-power of 47,117, 
water-wheels with the horse-power estimated at 99,191; 
running 157,310 looms, 3,694,477 frame spindles, and 
3,437,938 mule spindles; and employing 135,369 persons, 
considerably more than half of whom were females. The 
capital employed was $140,706,291; wages paid, $39,044,132; 
cotton used, 398,308,257 pounds; total value of products, 
$477,489,739. Since the census of 1870 the manufacture 
of cotton goods in this country has enormously increased. 


Cotton Plant, a post-village of Woodruff co., Ark., 
about 60 miles E. N. E. of Little Rock. Pop. of Cotton 
Plant township, 1007. 

Cotton Valley, a township of Macon co., Ala. Pop. 
2120. 


Cot'tonwood, a county in the S. W. of Minnesota. 
Area, 720 square miles. It is drained by the Des Moines 
and Little Cottonwood rivers. The surface is undulating; 
the soil fertile. It is intersected by the Sioux City and St. 
Paul R. R. Pop. 534. 

Cottonwood, a township of Siskiyou co., Cal. Pop. 
421. 

Cottonwood, a post-township of Tehama co., Cal. 
Pop. 240. 

Cottonwood, a township of Yolo co., Cal. Pop. 1319. 
Cottonwood, a twp. of Cumberland co., Ill. P.1342. 
Cottonwood, a township of Chase co., Kan., has a 
weekly newspaper. Pop. 315. 

Cottonwood, a post-township of Brown co., Minn. 
Pop. 607. 

Cottonwood Falls, a post-village, capital of Chase 
co., Kan., on the Cottonwood River and the Atchison Topeka 
and Santa Fe R. R., 65 miles S. W. of Topeka. Coal and 
ochre are found in the vicinity. It has good water-power 
and manufactures, and one weekly newspaper. 

W. A. Morgan, Ed. Chase County “Leader.” 


Cottonwood Springs, a post-village of Lincoln co., 
Neb., on the Platte River. 


Cot'tonwood Tree, a common name of the Populus 
onilifera, a species of poplar which grows on the margins 
f streams of the Western U. S. to the height of eighty 
•et or more. It has deltoid, taper-pointed, serrate leaves, 
he timber is soft and not very valuable. 



















1170 


COTTRELLVILLE—COUNT. 


Cot'trellville, a township of St. Clair co., Mich. Pop. 
2372. 

Cot'tus, a genus of acanthopterygian sea-fishes of the 



Four-horned Cottus. 

family Frigilidas, containing the “ miller’s thumb,” the sea- 
hullhead, the sculjiin, and numerous other fishes of re¬ 
markably repulsive appearance, though several are con¬ 
sidered good eating. The four-horned cottus ( Cottus quad- 
riconms ) is a species common to both sides of the Atlantic. 

Cot/uit, a post-village of Barnstable co., Mass., on 
Cotuit River, in Barnstable township, and on the line of 
Mashpee.— Cotuit Port, in the same township, 2 miles 
to the S. E., is a port on Cotuit Harbor. 

Cotyle'don [Gr. kotvAtjSuSi/], in botany, the seed-lobe 
or seminal leaf of a plant. This organ forms a part of the 
embryo, and nourishes the plumule and radicle at the first 
period of their development. Exogenous plants have gen¬ 
erally two cotyledons, and hence are called dicotyledonous, 
and endogenous plants, having a single cotyledon, are 
called monocotyledonous. Cryptogamous plants are acotyl- 
edonous — i. e. destitute of a cotyledon. 

Couch (Darius Nash), an American officer, born July 
23, 1822, in Putnam co., N. Y., graduated at West Point 
in 1846; and as lieutenant of artillery he served in the 
war with Mexico 1847-48, engaged at Buena Vista (brevet 
first lieutenant); at various posts 1848-55 ; and in Florida 
hostilities 1849-50 ; resigned April 30, 1855 ; merchant and 
copper-manufacturer 1855-61. In the civil war he resumed 
his sword as colonel of the Seventh Massachusetts Volun¬ 
teers, and July 4, 1862, became major-general U. S. volun¬ 
teers. He served in the defences of Washington 1861-62; 
in Virginia Peninsula, engaged at Yorktown, Williams¬ 
burg, Fair Oaks, Oak Grove, and Malvern Hill; in the re¬ 
treat from Manassas to Washington 1862; in Maryland 
campaign 1862, engaged at Harper’s Ferry, and in pursuit 
from Antietam to the Potomac; in the Rappahannock 
campaign 1862-63, engaged at Fredericksburg and Chan- 
cellorsville; in command of the department of the Sus¬ 
quehanna 1863-64, engaged in defence of Chambersburg, 
which was evacuated ; and in command of a division of the 
Twenty-third corps 1864-65, engaged in the battle of Nash¬ 
ville, and operations in North Carolina to effect a junction 
with Gen. Schofield. Resigned May 26, 1865, from volun¬ 
teer service. He was the Democratic candidate for gov¬ 
ernor of Massachusetts in 1865, but was not elected; U. S. 
collector for port of Boston 1866-67, and has been president 
of the Virginia Mining and Manufacturing Company since 
1867. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Couch'ant [from the Fr. coucher, to “ lay down ” or 
“ lie down ”]. In heraldry, a beast lying down, with his head 
raised, is couchant. If the head is down, he is dormant. 

Cou'dersport, a post-borough, capital of Potter co., 
Pa., 174 miles W. N. W. of Harrisburg, has a weekly paper, 
a tannery, a foundry, several mills, a public library, and 
graded schools. Pop. 471. 

John S. Mann, Ed. “ Potter Journal.” 

Cougar. See Puma. 

Cough [Lat. tussis], a physiological act or operation, 
which consists in the sudden expulsion of air from the 
lungs, at the beginning of which act the glottis is closed. 
Coughing is designed for the expulsion of foreign or se¬ 
creted matters from the air-passages. It is largely a reflex 
action, generally arising from local irritation. When the 
irritation is the result of disease, coughing may be a very 
important symptom. It is partly voluntary and partly 
involuntary. A cough may sometimes be relieved by ex¬ 
pectorant remedies, by mucilaginous diluent draughts, by 
warm foot-baths, by stimulants, and very often by small 
doses of opium or of other sedatives. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Cough'lan (Lawrence), an English Wesleyan preacher, 
born about 1760, was one of the principal founders of 
Methodism in Nova Scotia and the neighboring provinces. 
His labors were great, and he has been called the “ Apostle 
of Nova Scotia.” Died in that province in 1834. 

Coulin (F-), D. D., born at Geneva Nov. 17, 1828, 

is a distinguished preacher and writer of the Swiss Free 


Church, residing at Genthod. He was a delegate to the 
meeting of the Evangelical Alliance at New York in 1873. 

Council, a township of Crittenden co., Ark. Pop. 312. 

Council Bluffs, the capital of Pottawattamie 
co., and the metropolis of Western Iowa, is situated 
135 miles W. of Dos Moines and 4 miles E. of Omaha. 
It is the western terminus of the Chicago Burlington 
and Quincy, Chicago Rock Island and Pacific, and 
Chicago and North-western R. Rs., the eastern termi¬ 
nus of the Union Pacific, the southern terminus of 
the Sioux City and Pacific, and the northern terminus 
of the Kansas City St. Joseph and Council Bluffs 
R. Rs. The city is built principally upon a plain at 
the base of the high bluffs from which it derives its 
name, although not a few of the finest residences are 
to be found in the numerous “ glens ” which intersect the 
bluffs in every direction. The town is connected with 
Omaha by an iron bridge almost a mile in length, over 
which street-cars drawn by dummy engines, and regular 
passenger and freight trains, pass every fifteen minutes. 
One monthly, four weekly, and two daily papers are pub¬ 
lished here. Among the public buildings worthy of men¬ 
tion is the institution for the deaf and dumb, a large court¬ 
house, and an imposing high-school building. Council 
Bluffs contains 9 churches, 21 hotels, 17 telegraph-offices, 1 
savings, 1 private, and 2 national banks, 2 public libraries, 
and a free reading-room. A horse railway 5 miles in length 
connects its eastern, western, and southern extremes. Ow¬ 
ing to its superior shipping facilities, Council Bluffs is fast 
becoming an important manufacturing centre. Steam-en¬ 
gines in large numbers, milling and mining machinery, fan- 
ning-mills, agricultural implements of all kinds, cigars, 
cigar-boxes, and brooms are made here to good advantage. 
Pop. 10,020. S. W. Moorehead, Ed. “ Daily Globe.” 

Council Grove, a city, capital of Morris co., Kan., on 
the Neosho River and the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R., 
25 miles from Emporia. It has two churches, three schools, 
a national bank, two newspapers, and a coal-mine. Pop. 
712; of Council Grove township, 1080. 

John Maloy, Ed. Council Grove “ Democrat.” 

Council Mill, a township and post-village of Jo Da¬ 
viess co., Ill. The village is on the Illinois Central R. R., 
7 miles N. E. of Galena. Pop. of township, 725. 

Coun'cil, CEcumen'ical [from the Gr. oUovixtvn (>»}), 
i. e. the “habitable” (world); because the whole Christian 
world is, in theory, assembled], otherwise called General 
or Universal Council, a title given to certain great eccle¬ 
siastical assemblies, so called in distinction from diocesan, 
provincial, and national councils, which are more limited 
meetings of the same kind. The Greek and Latin churches 
acknowledge seven councils—viz.: (1) the first Council of 
Nice, 325 A. D.; (2) the first of Constantinople, 381 A. D.; 
(3) the first of Ephesus, 431 A. D.; (4) that of Chalcedon, 
451 A. D.; (5) the second of Constantinople, 553 A. D.; 
(6) the third of Constantinople, 681 A. D.; (7) the second 
of Nice, 787 A. D. To these the Roman Catholics add the 
following: (8) the fourth of Constantinople, 869 A. D.; (9) 
the first of Lateran, 1123; (10) the second of Lateran, 1139 ; 
(11) the third of Lateran, 1179 ; (12) the fourth of Lateran, 
1215 ; (13) the first of Lyons, 1245 ; (14) the second of Ly¬ 
ons, 1274; (15) that of Vienne, in France, 1311; (16) that 
of Constance, 1414-18 (in part); (17) that of Bale, 1431- 
38; (IS) the fifth Lateran, 1512—17; (19) that of Trent, 
1545-63; and (20) that of the Vatican, 1869-70. The most 
important of these are noticed under their alphabetical 
heads. 

Council of War, a conference of military or naval 
officers, called by the commander-in-chief to advise him in 
relation to some important business or movement. The 
commandant of a garrison often solicits the opinion of a 
council of war before surrendering to the enemy. But 
in the end the military codo leaves these matters to the 
discretion of the commander. 

Coun'over, a post-village of Calmar township, Win¬ 
neshiek co., Ia. It is on the Iowa division of the Chicago 
Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., at the junction of the Dcco- 
rah Branch R. R. 

Counsellor. See Advocate and Barrister. 

Count [from the Lat. comes (gen. comitis), a “ com¬ 
panion ;” Fr. comte; It. conte; Ger. Graf ], a nobleman 
of an order of nobility inferior to dukes and marquises, 
but superior to viscounts and barons. Counts had an¬ 
ciently territorial jurisdiction, but at present they are 
simply noblemen having this hereditary title. The use of 
the word comes in this sense dates from the reign of the 
Roman emperor Augustus, who conferred it upon the sen¬ 
ators who immediately surrounded him, and was afterwards 
commonly applied to their companions by other Roman cm- 





















COUNTER—COURBET. 


perors. It was used in Spain about 650 A. D., and for a 
long period seems to have been of equal dignity with that 
of duke, no distinction being made till 1207. in the Brit¬ 
ish empire the title of earl is always used instead of count. 

Counts-palatine were originally “ officers of the im¬ 
perial palace” in Germany, who possessed high judicial 
functions. The term was afterwards applied to feudatories 
who had palatine jurisdiction (see Palatine) over outlying 
territories, where they maintained a palace and the other 
machinery of a court. The term came still later to be applied 
as a title of honor by several princes, but is now obsolete. 

Coun'ter [from the Lat. contra, “against:” Fr. contre], 
a word often used as a prefix to other words, and signify¬ 
ing “ against,” “ corresponding to,” or “ in answer to.” 
(See etymology of Counterfeit.) 

Counterfeit [Fr. contre fait; literally, “made against”], 
a term applied chiefly to spurious coin or bank notes, or 
other factitious currency. The uttering of such coin or 
notes is a felony punishable by imprisonment, or even by 
death in some countries. To guard against counterfeiting, 
bank notes are engraved with designs which cannot be re¬ 
produced except at great expense. There are also secret 
marks and combinations of letters and figures known only 
to the proper authorities. A peculiar ink and paper are 
used. Pamphlets called “detectors ” are printed with lists 
and descriptions of counterfeit notes and coins. (See For¬ 
gery, by Prof. T. W. Dwigiit, LL.D.) 

Coilll'terfort [Fr. contrefort ], in architecture, a but¬ 
tress or pier built against or at right angles to a wall, to 
strengthen it and enable it to resist a particular thrust. In 
fortification, a mass of stone or brickwork added to the re¬ 
vetment of a rampart in such a way as to form a buttress. 

Coun'ter-Guard is an outwork designed to defend the 
two faces of a bastion or ravelin from a direct fire, so as to 
retard a breach being made. The counter-guard consists 
of two lines of rampart parallel to the faces of the bastion 
or ravelin, and separated from them by a narrow ditch. 

Coun'ter-Mark, in numismatics, a stamp often seen 
on ancient coins or medals, is generally a figure or inscrip¬ 
tion. Some antiquaries suppose this mark was struck on 
money taken from an enemy. 

Counterpart, a correspondent part, a copy, a dupli¬ 
cate. In law, when the parts of an indenture are inter¬ 
changeably executed by the several parties, that part which 
is executed by the grantor is termed the original , and the 
others are counterparts. 

Counterpoint [Fr. contrepoint; It. aontrapunto], the 
art of writing music in several distinct parts. The name 
is derived from the circumstance of the notes being placed 
one against or over the other on the score. (See Music, by 
Rev. William Staunton, D. D.) 

Counterpoise [Fr. contrepoids (i. e. that which “weighs 
against” something else)], a weight sufficient to balance 
another in the opposite scale; equal force or weight acting 
in opposition to something. In mechanics, a mass of metal 
connected with an instrument or machine, either for the pur¬ 
pose of giving steadiness or diminishing the pressure on 
some particular point. 

Counter-Proof, an impression obtained from a freshly- 
printed proof of an engraving, by laying it, before the ink 
is dry, on paper and passing it through the press. In this 
mode a reversed impression is obtained, which is useful in 
enabling the engraver to judge of the success of his work. 

Coun'terscarp, in fortification, is the side of the ditch 
opposite the scarp. A revetted counterscarp is constituted 
usually by a wall of masonry called a counterscarp-wall; 
an unrevetted counterscarp is of earth at its natural slope. 

Countersign, a watchword given daily by the com¬ 
mander of an army, in order that friends may be distin¬ 
guished from enemies by their knowledge, of it. Sentinels 
require every person who ajiproaches their posts by night 
to give the countersign. 

Countersign is also the signature of a public officer or 
secretary to the charter of a king, or to any writing signed 
by the principal or superior, as a certificate that the char¬ 
ter or instrument is authentic. 

Coun'ter-Tcn'or, in music, the highest adult male 
voice and the lowest female voice. 

Coun'ty [Fr. comte ], originally the territory of a count 
or earl. In modern usage it denotes a division of a state 
or kingdom. In England and Scotland the term is equiv¬ 
alent to a shire. The term shire in England is not applied 
to those counties which were originally distinct sovereign¬ 
ties, such as Kent, Essex, Norfolk, Cumberland, and Sus¬ 
sex. Lancaster, Chester, and Durham are called counties 
palatine. (See Palatine.) The primary divisions of the 
provinces of Ireland are called counties. Each State of the 
U. S., except Louisiana, is divided into counties, each of 


1171 


which contains a capital or county-town, in which the 
court-house is located. 

County Court, in several of the U. S., is the title of 
a tribunal higher in rank than the municipal or local courts, 
and inferior to the supreme court of the State. In some of 
the States, courts of this grade are called courts of common 
pleas, and in others superior courts. (See Courts, by 
George Chase, LL.B.) 

Coup, koo, a French word signifying a “stroke,” a 
“ blow,” is a part of many phrases which are often used by 
the English and other nations; as coup d’etat, a “ stroke of 
state,” a sudden, forcible political act, usually designed to 
subvert the constitution, or to increase the power of a ruler 
by encroachments on the constitution. Coup de main, in 
the language of war, means a “ sudden, unexpected attack,” 
a surprise. Coup d’oeil, a “ glance of the eye,” is used in 
the fine arts to express the general effect of a picture or 
group at first sight. The term sometimes signifies a view, 
prospect, survey. 

Coup'le of For'ces or Pressures, in statics, de¬ 
notes two equal pressures having precisely opposite direc¬ 
tions, but applied at different points of a body. Accord¬ 
ing to the ordinary method of the composition of parallel 
forces, the resultant of such a system would be a parallel 
force having the intensity zero, and applied at an infinite 
distance. In reality, two such forces have no single result¬ 
ant, their tendency being to produce rotation about an 
axis perpendicular to their plane. The theory of couples, 
their composition, resolution, etc., was first given by Poin- 
sot, and now constitutes an essential branch of statics. The 
distance between the parallel forces is called the arm of the 
couple, and the product of either force into the arm the 
moment of the couple. The statical effect of a couple is 
unaltered by transportation to a parallel plane, or by any 
variation in the magnitude and direction of its forces and 
arm, provided the moment remains the same. On this ac¬ 
count a couple, like a simple force, may be conveniently and 
perfectly represented by a line OA drawn from any origin 
0 perpendicular to its plane, having a length OA propor¬ 
tional to its moment, and a direction such that to an ob¬ 
server at A, looking towards 0, the rotation which it is the 
tendency of the couple to produce shall appear to be direct, 
like the hands of a clock. Such a line, limited in length 
and definite in direction, is called the moment-axis of the 
couple, to distinguish it from the rotation-axis, which is 
unlimited in length, and simply indicates the direction of 
the plane of the couple. This mode of representation 
being adopted, the composition and resolution of couples 
follow the same laws as those of concurrent simple pres¬ 
sures. Thus, if we regard the moment of a couple as posi¬ 
tive or negative, according as the rotation would be direct 
or retrograde, we may say, The resultant of two or more 
coaxal couples is another coaxal couple, whose moment is 
the algebraical sum of the moments of the components. 
Again: the moment-axis of the resultant of any two 
couples is the diagonal of the parallelogram whose sides 
are the moment-axes of the components. The above two 
properties of couples being established, the general problem 
of the composition of any number of pressures acting on a 
body in different directions becomes greatly simplified. 

Coup'le of Rota'tions, or An'gular Velocities, 

two equal and opposite rotations around parallel axes. The 
term was introduced by Poinsot, who first fully investigated 
the composition and resolution of rotations. A couple of 
rotations is shown to be equivalent to a translation of the 
whole body in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the 
rotation-axis, with a velocity equal to that which either 
axis possesses in virtue of its rotation about the other. 
The common A r elocity of all points of the body is expressed 
by the product of either of the equal angular velocities into 
the distance between the axes. This distance is called the 
arm of the couple, and the product its moment. A couple 
of rotations therefore may be represented perfectly by a 
single line, exactly as in the case of a couple of pressures, 
and the composition and resolution of both kinds of couples 
follow precisely the same laws. Velocities of rotation and 
translation are, as it were, reciprocal—a couple of either is 
equivalent to one of the other. 

Coupon [from the Fr. couper, to “cut”], a cheque or 
slip of paper cut off from a bond. The term is applied 
mostty to a dividend or interest certificate, which is attached 
to the bottom of a bond or debenture, and is cut off when the 
interest is due, and is then presented for payment. 

Courbet (Gustave), a French painter of landscape, 
animals, and figures, born at Ornans (Doubs) June 10, 
1819. His parents were people of moderate estate, who gavo 
him the best education in their power. His father would 
have had him a lawyer, and in 1839 he went to Paris to 
Study for that profession, but lie hesitated between the law 















1172 COUKBEVOIE—COURTRAY. 


and painting, and finally decided for the latter. On his 
first visit to the Louvre he was filled with enthusiasm for 
the works of the Flemish, Dutch, and Venetian painters, 
and repeated the legend of Correggio, by saying, when he 
saw Delacroix’s “ Massacre of Scio,” “ I could do as well 
as that if I wished.” Although he studied at different times 
in the painting-rooms of three artists, Flageoulot, Steuben, 
and Hesse, he says truly of himself that he never had a 
master. He exhibited for the first time in the Salon of 
1844. Characteristically enough, the picture was his own 
portrait. In the Salon of 1850-51, Courbet exhibited, 
among others, three pictures, “An Interment at Ornans,” 
“Peasants of Flagey returning from the Fair,” and “The 
Stone-Breaker,” which made an uproar in the artistic and 
cultivated world of Paris, and divided it into two fiercely 
hostile camps. Courbet’s party was strong, but so was 
that of his enemies; and, disgusted by the rejection of 
some of his most important pictures from the Salon of 
1855, Courbet determined to appeal to the general public, 
and, erecting a building at his own expense on a piece of 
ground as near as he could hire to the Salon, he opened an 
exhibition of forty pictures, charging a fee for admission. 
The catalogue was prefaced by his declaration of prin¬ 
ciples. It was long before the war thus begun ceased, and 
when it ended Courbet’s rank as a great but very unequal 
painter may be said to have been definitely fixed. Courbet 
has made himself notorious all his life by his extreme 
opinions in politics and religion, and of late by the part 
he played in the Commune. It was by his influence that 
the column of the Place Vendome was destroyed. For this 
act of vandalism Courbet was tried, but, after a long im¬ 
prisonment, was released. One of the first acts of the 
reactionary government that succeeded the rule of M. 
Thiers was to confiscate all Courbet’s property, to help to 
pay for the new column which it was voted to set up on the 
Place Vendome. Since 1870, Courbet has not been allowed 
to exhibit in the Salon, and his pictures, thus made a mark 
of, have gone up greatly in price. Clarence Cook. 

Courbevoie, a town of France, department of Seine, 
on the left bank of the river Seine, 5 miles N. W. of Paris. 
It has large barracks, and manufactures of white lead and 
brandy. Pop. 9862. 

Courcelle, a town of Belgium, on a railroad, 16 miles 
E. of Mons. It has linen and nail manufactures, and ex¬ 
ports coal. Pop. 7463. 

Courier [from the Fr. courir, to “run”], literally, a 
runner, a messenger or bearer of despatches, usually on 
public business. According to Xenophon, couriers were first 
employed by Cyrus the Great. Herodotus speaks of the 
Persian cassids or foot-messengers, who travelled with great 
rapidity. They were stationed, one man and one horse, for 
each day’s journey ; and by these messengers Xerxes sent 
the news of his defeat to Persia (480 B. C.). Gibbon bears 
testimony to the rapidity with which communication was 
carried on in the Roman empire by the regular institution 
of posts. The Mexican couriers, according to Prescott, trav¬ 
elled with incredible swiftness. The Peruvian chasquis or 
runners carried despatches at the rate of 150 miles a day. 

Courier, or Courier de Mere (Paul Louis), a French 
scholar and writer, born in Paris Jan. 4, 1772. He entered 
the army in 1792, and served with distinction. In 1809 he 
resigned his commission. He translated several Greek 
classics into French, and produced a good edition and ver¬ 
sion of Longus (1810). He was liberal in politics, and ac¬ 
quired a high reputation as a political writer. Among his 
writings, which display wit, eloquence, masculine sense, 
and genial satire, is the “ Pamphlet des Pamphlets ” (1824). 
He was assassinated on his estate in Touraine April 10, 
1825. The most complete collection of his writings is 
“Memoires, correspondance et opuscules” (1828). 

Cour'land, or Kurland, a Baltic province, incor¬ 
porated with Russia by the third partition of Poland, in 
1795. It is bounded on the N. by the Gulf of Riga and 
on the W. by the Baltic, and lies between lat. 56° and 58° 
N. and Ion. 21° and 27° E. Area, 10,556 square miles. 
The chief river is the Duna, which flows along the north¬ 
eastern border. The soil is in some parts very fertile, but 
there arc many forests, lakes, and swamps. The greater 
part is occupied by Germans. Courland was originally an 
independent duchy, but from 1561 to 1795 was in feudal 
subjection to Poland. Capital, Mitau. Pop. 597,288. 

Court [Fr. cour ; It. corte, perhaps from the Gr. ^opro?, 
an “enclosed place;” Lat. axda or regia], originally an 
enclosure or yard; the residence of a sovereign ; a royal or 
princely household. In England and some other countries 
the term usually denotes the family and attendants of the 
sovereign, regarded in a public capacity. Also a judicial 
tribunal, whether composed of one or more judges; some¬ 
times the hall or room in which judges sit and try causes. 


The term “court circle” in England is applied to the no¬ 
bles, bishops, ministers of state, and other persons who are 
in the habit of approaching the sovereign and of associ¬ 
ating with the other members of the royal family. 

Courtais, a township of Crawford co., Mo. Pop. 962. 

Court de Gobelin (Antoine), a French scholar and 
author, born at Nimes in 1725, was the son of Antoine 
Court, celebrated as the reviver of French Protestantism. 
He devoted much attention to mythology and the affinity 
of languages. Among his works is “The Primitive World 
Analyzed and Compared with the Modern ” (9 vols., 1773- 
84). He assisted Benjamin Franklin in editing a periodical 
entitled “The Affairs of England and America” (15 vols., 
Paris, 1776 et seq.). Died May 10, 1784. 

Courtenay (Edward H.), LL.D., an American officer 
and educator, born in 1803 in Maryland, graduated at 
West Point in 1821. He served, while lieutenant of en¬ 
gineers, as assistant professor at the Military Academy 
1821-24; in construction of Fort Adams, R. I., 1824—26; 
as assistant to chief engineer 1826-28; and as acting pro¬ 
fessor of natural and experimental philosophy at the 
Military Academy 1828-29 ; appointed full professor Feb. 
16, 1829, on the resignation of his lieutenancy, and with 
great credit to the Military Academy and profit to his pu¬ 
pils held the chair of philosophy till Dec. 31, 1834, when 
he accepted the professorship of mathematics in the Uni¬ 
versity of Pennsylvania, continuing in it till 1836; civil 
engineer New York and Erie R. R. 1836-37 ; at Fort Inde¬ 
pendence, Mass., 1837-41; and construction of dry-dock, 
Brooklyn navy-yard, 1841-42. He resumed his former vo¬ 
cation, for which he was admirably fitted, as professor of 
mathematics in the University of Virginia 1842-53; trans¬ 
lator and editor of Boucharlat’s “Mechanics” 1833, and 
was author of a “ Treatise on Differential and Integral Cal¬ 
culus, and Calculus of Variations.” Died Dec. 21, 1853, 
at Charlottesville, Va., aged fifty. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Court-house, a township of Montgomery co., Ala., 
includes part of the city of Montgomery. Pop. 9194. 

Court-house, a township of Camden co., N. C. P. 1759. 

Court-house, a township of Chesterfield co., S. C. P. 
1708. 

Court-house, a twp. of Spartanburg co., S. C. P. 1229. 

Court-house, a twp. of Taylor co., West Va. Pop. 753. 

CourVland, a township and post-village of Lawrence 
co., Ala. The village is on the Memphis and Charleston 
R. R., 45 miles W. of Huntsville. It has a court-house, 
male and female academies, two steam-mills, four churches, 
and a weekly newspaper. Pop. 2553. 

D. R. Hundley, Ed. “North Alabama Reporter.” 

Courtland, a township and village of De Kalb co.. Ill., 
about 50 miles W. of Chicago. Pop. 1293. 

Courtland, a township of Jo Daviess co., Ill. P. 1786. 

Courtland, a township of Kent co., Mich. Pop. 1338. 

Courtland, a post-township of Nicollet co., Minn. Pop. 
640. 

Courtland, a township of Columbia co., Wis. P. 1449. 

Court-Mar'tial, in the army, navy, and marines, a 
tribunal for the examination and punishment of offenders 
against martial law or against good order and military or 
naval discipline. The subjects of courts-martial are usu¬ 
ally officers or men in actual service, but when martial law 
prevails courts-martial sometimes punish offences com¬ 
mitted by persons not in the service. 

Courts-martial are called “general,” “garrison,” and 
“regimental.” Summary and informal courts held in the 
field are sometimes called “ drumhead courts-martial.” The 
officers of military and naval courts are a president, a 
Judge-Advocate (which see), and a clerk, all commissioned 
officers. The sentences passed by these courts are usually 
subject to the approval of department commanders or other 
high officers, or even to that of the President of the U. S. 
(See S. V. Benet on “ United States Military Law,” 1862.) 

Cour'town, Earls of, and Viscounts Stopford (1762), 
barons of Courtown (Ireland, 1796), Barons Saltersford 
(Great Britain, 1796).— James George Henry Stopford, 
fifth earl, born April 24, 1823, succeeded his father in 1858. 

Courtray [anc. Cortoriacum; Flem. Kortryk], a fortified 
town of Belgium, on the river Lys, 26 miles S. W. of Ghent. 
It is well built and clean, has a castle, a fine old bridge, a 
noble town-hall, and a beautiful Gothic church founded in 
1238. Here are manufactures of damasks and other linen 
fabrics, hosiery, lace, paper, cotton goods, soap, etc. This 
place was taken in 880 A. D. by the Normans, who fortified 
it. In July, 1302, the Flemings here defeated the French 
in the famous “Battle of the Spurs,” so called from the 
great number of spurs taken from the fallen knights. Pop. 
in 1864, 23,497. 













COURTS. 1173 


Courts (in law), public tribunals established for the ad¬ 
ministration of justice and the interpretation and enforce¬ 
ment of the law. The protection of private rights, the 
punishment of criminal offences, the regulation of conflict¬ 
ing interests of individuals and states, the exposition and 
application of legislative enactments, and, in some nations, 
even of constitutional provisions, are the various important 
functions which are generally deputed to such judicial or¬ 
ganizations. It cannot be said, however, that all tribunals 
which have been designated courts in various countries 
and at different epochs have enjoyed all these prerogatives, 
or have exercised them so exclusively as is understood to 
be the appropriate province of courts at the present day 
among civilized communities. In a primitive form of so¬ 
ciety the powers of the judiciary are usually much re¬ 
stricted, and subjected, to a greater or less degree, to 
executive and legislative interference. This remark applies 
also to despotic governments, even though a high degree 
of civilization be attained, as the history of France and 
Germany bears ample witness. In modern times, however, 
it has been recognized as a necessity to confer upon the 
courts the powers above enumerated, and to render their 
independence of the other departments of government as 
complete as possible. They are generally composed of dis¬ 
tinct bodies of officials holding their positions during stated 
terms, and are under no supervisory control for decisions 
rendered or other legal acts performed but that of superior 
or appellate organizations of a similar nature. In the 
exercise of their powers courts do not attempt to ferret 
out and redress every evil and form of injustice that may 
exist within society, and determine the law of their own 
motion by the direct establishment of legal principles, but 
are confined to the decision of controverted questions pre¬ 
sented to them by injured parties, and thus evolve the 
law indirectly and mediately. Criminal case3 .are pre¬ 
sented by the government, while those of a civil nature are 
brought either by states or individuals affected therein, at 
their own option. 

But while there is a general agreement among civilized 
nations at the present day in regard to the objects to be 
attained by the creation of courts, the modes by which the 
same results are sought are notably and strikingly diverse. 
The courts upon the continent of Europe and in Scotland 
administer a system of jurisprudence derived from the 
civil or Roman law, while in England and the U. S. they 
apply a system which they themselves have originated, 
called, by way of distinction, the “ common law.” In the 
latter the rule of precedent holds sway, in accordance with 
which principles determined in previous decisions are, in 
general, to be deemed authoritative in subsequent causes 
involving similar circumstances. In this system, more¬ 
over, the mode of trial by jury was developed as a safe¬ 
guard against oppressive action by the courts, and has 
been sedulously maintained as far as its application is 
reasonably practicable. The judge does not examine wit¬ 
nesses nor decide any questions but points of law, so that 
every inducement may be removed which would lead him 
to act as advocate instead of arbiter, and awaken his per¬ 
sonal interest in the cause. A broad distinction is also 
drawn between actions which are termed legal and suits 
which are called equitable, the latter dispensing with a 
jury, administering a more adequate relief in many in¬ 
stances, and in various ways supplementing the deficiencies 
of the proceedings applicable to the former. In the Euro¬ 
pean courts, on the other hand, which proceed upon the 
doctrines of the civil law, the force of precedent is not rec¬ 
ognized as a controlling principle. Jury trials have only 
been introduced as a foreign system, are employed in a 
comparatively small class of instances, and are looked upon 
with so little favor that any extension of their application 
is generally thought undesirable. The judges, moreover, 
may engage directly in the examination of witnesses and 
prisoners, and not infrequently, particularly in criminal 
trials, appear to become so strongly biassed in consequence 
as seriously to impair one’s belief in the impartial admin¬ 
istration of justice. And lastly, no distinction of causes 
and remedies as legal or equitable is attempted. In fact, 
the English practice in this respect has even excited the 
derision of continental lawyers, who charge that it pre¬ 
sumes two different kinds of justice. 

Besides these fundamental points of difference between 
the two systems, there are great diversities between the 
several countries in the number, the character, and the 
functions of the various courts which have been established, 
and their relations with each other, which will require an 
investigation into the judicial system of each of the more 
important modern nations specifically. England, Scotland, 
France, and the U. S. will be selected for this purpose, and 
reference made to their most important tribunals in detail. 

I. The Courts op England. —By the English and 
American common-law system courts are distinguished as 


those of record and those not of record. A court of the 
former class is provided with a clerk and a seal, and re¬ 
ceives its name from the fact that its proceedings are re¬ 
quired to be preserved in accurate records; courts of the 
latter class are inferior tribunals without clerk or seal, and 
their acts are not formally enrolled. Courts are said to 
have original jurisdiction before which causes are brought 
in the first instance ,• appellate jurisdiction when decisions 
rendered in inferior tribunals are transferred to them for 
review. Civil causes heard before a single judge, with a 
jury, are said to be heard at nisi prius or at circuit; when 
several judges sit to review causes on appeal they are said 
to sit in banc. Courts are also distinguished as civil or 
criminal, superior or inferior, as courts of law, of equity, 
of admiralty, etc.—distinctions which require no explana¬ 
tion. In the following synopsis of the English courts at 
the present time (Jan., 1874) an account will be given (1) 
of the superior common-law courts of record; (2) of the 
superior courts of equity; (3) of the courts of probate, 
divorce, and admiralty; (4) of the criminal courts; (5) of 
the appellate courts. 

(1) The Superior Common-Laic Courts of Record .—These 
are the Court of Common Pleas, the King’s or Queen’s 
Bench, and the Court of Exchequer. These several tribu¬ 
nals, which now enjoy very much the same jurisdiction, 
are considered to have been derived originally from a 
single organization, the Aula Regis (or King’s Council), 
which was the only superior court in the realm during the 
early history of the Roman kings. This had both civil and 
criminal jurisdiction, and was ambulatory, or attendant 
upon the person of the king, holding its sessions in such 
different parts of the kingdom as he entered in the course 
of his journeyings. The present courts were, when first 
created, nothing more than subordinate branches or com¬ 
mittees of the council, established for the more speedy 
transaction of business. The exchequer branch enter¬ 
tained questions relating to the royal revenue; that of the 
common pleas, civil suits between individuals except for 
forcible injuries; while there was left to the Aula Regis 
proper, jurisdiction in criminal causes and in civil actions 
for injury by violence, and a general controlling power 
over inferior tribunals. 

In the reign of Edward I. (1272) the three bodies were 
constituted separate courts, were all fixed at Westminster, 
and their powers, as distinct tribunals, determined. Each 
retained, however, its previous particular jurisdiction. 
But in the course of time, by a gradual process of en¬ 
croachment, justified by ingenious legal fictions, each court 
trenched upon the appropriate province of the others, as¬ 
suming thereby similar powers, so that at the present day 
they all entertain co-ordinate jurisdiction in nearly all civil 
causes. The Court of Queen’s Bench, however, still retains 
exclusive cognizance of criminal matters and the sole 
superintendence over inferior courts.and civil corporations; 
the Court of Common Pleas has alone the right to enter¬ 
tain real actions— i.c. actions for the specific recovery of 
real property (actions now rarely brought); while the 
Court of Exchequer still exercises entire control over strict 
questions of revenue. In other cases the parties to the ac¬ 
tion may select any one of the courts they may prefer. As 
regards the organization of these common-law courts, the 
Queen’s Bench and Common Pleas consist each of a chief- 
justice and five puisne justices ; the Exchequer, of a chief 
baron and five puisne barons. These judges hold office 
during good behavior, but may be retired on a pension 
after fifteen years’ service. An appeal lies from any one 
of these courts to the Exchequer Chamber, which, when 
hearing a cause sent from one of them, is composed of the 
judges of the other two. A second appeal may also be 
taken to the House of Lords. 

To remedy the inconvenience to suitors arising from the 
fixed establishment of these courts at Westminster, provision 
was made at an early period for the hearing of jury trials 
in every county one or more times during each year. The 
tribunals for this purpose are called courts of assize and 
nisi prius, are composed of two or more commissioners, of 
whom a superior court judge, a sergeant-at-law, or a bar¬ 
rister must be one, and in most counties they sit twice each 
year. Appeals from them, however, can only be heard at 
Westminster. 

(2) The Superior Courts of Equity .—It was found at an 
early period that the common-law tribunals, determining 
causes as they did only through the instrumentality of , 
juries in the first instance, and in all cases, where no de¬ 
mand was made for specific property, giving only pecuni¬ 
ary damages as relief, were totally inadequate to adminis¬ 
ter exact justice in a large variety of cases, and the separate 
system of equity jurisprudence was established to repair 
the deficiencies of the strict legal methods. These courts 
are likewise governed by the rule of precedent, but their 
modes of procedure are less technical, their forms of rem- 




















—MM———■———— ■— 1 ^— ——— 

1174 COURTS. 


edy more diverse, and they employ no juries, though a prac¬ 
tice exists of referring special questions to courts of law to 
be tried by a jury, whose verdict is reported to the equity 
judge to aid his future action. The equity judges consist, 
at present, of three vice-chancellors, a master of the rolls, 
two lords justices, and the lord chancellor. The vice- 
chancellors and the master of the rolls hold each separate 
courts at which causes are heard in the first instance; so 
that there arc four equity tribunals of original jurisdiction. 
Appeals may be taken from cither of them to the Court of 
Appeal in Chancery or to the lord chancellor. 

The Court of Appeal in Chancery is composed nominally 
of the two lords justices and the lord chancellor, but almost 
invariably it is held by the lords justices alone. Any two 
of these three judges, however, are sufficient for holding the 
court, or even the lord chancellor alone. Moreover, each 
of the justices may, under certain restrictions, sit alone. 
The chancellor may, in addition, exercise an independent 
jurisdiction, without acting as a member of the court of 
appeals. This jurisdiction is ordinary when according to 
common-law methods ; extraordinary, when equitable in 
its nature. An appeal may be taken to the House of 
Lords. The term of office of these judges is the same as 
that of the common-law judiciary, except in the case of 
the chancellor, who may be deprived of liis position at the 
pleasure of the Crown. 

(3) The Courts of Prohate, Divorce, and Admiralty .— 
The Court of Probate and that of Divorce were estab¬ 
lished in 1857 to supersede the former ecclesiastical courts, 
and received more extended powers. Their names suf¬ 
ficiently define the nature of their jurisdiction. The judges 
of either of these tribunals may try questions of fact with 
a jury, or may order an issue to be tried by a court of law. 
Appeals may be taken to the House of Lords. The Court 
of Probate has only a single judge, who may, however, as¬ 
sociate with himself a common-law judge or judges. The 
appropriate labor of this tribunal is facilitated by the es¬ 
tablishment of district registries throughout the realm. 
These are forty in number, besides the principal registry 
in London, all having power to grant probate and admin¬ 
istration. 

The Court of Divorce consists of the judge of probate, 
the lord chancellor, and the judges of the superior common- 
law courts. The probate judge is made judge ordinary, 
and may act alone or with the other judges. The power 
to grant divorce, which has been conferred upon this court, 
was exercised till 1S57 only by Parliament. Actions for 
criminal conversation may also be maintained in this 
court. 

The High Court of Admiralty has cognizance of causes 
of action arising from the navigation of the seas, as, e. g., 
claims for repairs of foreign vessels and for supplies fur¬ 
nished them, actions for pilotage fees, for seamen’s wages, 
for personal injuries inflicted at sea or injuries by collision, 
seizure, and the like; also to determine matters of prize in 
time of war, and decree the forfeiture of vessels of the 
enemy or of neutrals in proper cases. This court is held 
by a single judge, who is appointed by the Crown. He 
may be the same person as the judge of probate. 

(4) The Criminal Courts. —These are divided into the 
inferior and the superior, the former including the general 
and quarter sessions of the peace, while the latter embrace 
the assizes, the admiralty sessions, the Court of King’s 
Bench, and the Central Criminal Court. The assizes are 
held before commissioners twice a year in nearly all the 
counties. These officials act by virtue of various commis¬ 
sions, the most important of which are those of “ oyer and 
terminer” and “general jail delivery.” At oyer and ter¬ 
miner the judges can only act upon indictments found be¬ 
fore themselves, and they have jurisdiction whether the 
offender is or is not in custody. The commission of jail 
delivery authorizes the delivery of the jail of a specified 
town. Indictments may be tried found before other justices, 
but the persons charged must always be in custody to give 
the court jurisdiction. 

The King’s or Queen’s Bench is the highest court of 
criminal jurisdiction. This prerogative, as has been seen, 
it enjoys to the exclusion of the other superior common-law 
courts. 

The other criminal courts require no particular mention. 

(5) Appellate Courts. — (a) The Exchequer Chamber, to 
which appeals are first taken from the King’s Bench, the 
Common Pleas, and the Exchequer, is composed, as already 
explained, of the judges of the two courts in which the 
action was not heard originally. 

(h) The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council has 
exclusive jurisdiction of appeals in admiralty and ecclesi¬ 
astical cases, and in those coming from the colonies. It is 
a court of record, and is composed of a lord president, all 
the equity judges, the three chief judges of the common- 
law courts, and certain other officials to the number of 


twenty or more. Only four, however, are required to con¬ 
stitute a quorum. Four of the whole number of members 
receive a salary, are required to attend the sittings, and 
retain their positions during good behavior. But the mem¬ 
bers of the Council generally hold office during the pleasure 
of the Crown. There is no appeal to the House of Lords, 
and there is, consequently, danger of a conflict of authority 
between these tribunals of last resort. 

(c) The House of Lords. Though, in theory, this entire 
body constitutes the appellate tribunal, and any of the 
lords might, if so disposed, assume to act as judges, yet 
the judicial functions are, in reality, entirely delegated to 
a few members of the legal profession, known as tbe “ law 
lords.” The services of the others are only available when 
they are needed to make up a quorum, for which three 
members are required. The organization of this court has 
several objectionable features, since the sittings are only 
held while Parliament is in session; there is no regularity 
of attendance required on the part of members ; and a 
judge may sometimes sit in review of his own decisions. 
The decisions rendered, however, enjoy generally a great 
reputation from the .eminence of those who usually act as 
judges. 

There is a large number of other courts in England’s 
present judicial system, but they are all of minor import¬ 
ance and need no specific mention. 

The inconveniences arising from this complexity of court 
organization in England are so manifold that a reform has 
long been felt necessary. Accordingly, an act of Parlia¬ 
ment has been recently passed, entitled “ The Supreme 
Court of Judicature Act” (36 and 37 Viet., chap. 66), to 
come into effect in November of the present year (1874), 
by which a reorganization is to be effected. The chief 
tribunals now existing are to constitute in combination a 
single court, called the “Supreme Court of Judicature.” 
This is, however, to be separated into two divisions—one 
to be known as “Her Majesty’s High Court of Justice,” 
exercising mainly original jurisdiction, while the other will 
be named “ Her Majesty’s Court of Appeal,” with exclu¬ 
sive appellate powers except in some few classes of in¬ 
stances. There is to be no appeal to the House of Lords. 
The High Court is to consist of twenty-one judges—viz. 
all the present equity judges, with the exception of the 
lords justices, all the common-law judges (whose number, 
however, will be reduced in future to fifteen), the judge 
of the Court of Probate and Divorce, and the admiralty 
judge. Though the present lord chancellor will form a 
member of this court, his successor will not. The Court 
of Appeal will be composed of fourteen judges, of whom 
five will be judges ex officio / and nine ordinary judges. 
Additional members may also be appointed if desired. 
The ex-officio judges will be the lord chancellor, the mas¬ 
ter of the rolls, and the three chief-justices of the com¬ 
mon-law courts. All these, as has been seen, are also 
members of the High Court. The ordinary judges will be 
the two lords justices in Chancery, the four salaried judges 
of the Privy Council, and three others to be hereafter ap¬ 
pointed. These nine, and any additional judges who may 
be appointed, will be known as lords justices of appeal. 
All the judges of both tribunals will hold office for life, 
though they may be removed by the Crown on the address 
of Parliament. 

For the more convenient despatch of business, the High 
Court of Justice is to be divided into five divisions, cor¬ 
responding to the present tribunals, whose jurisdiction it 
has received. Thus, one division is to consist of the equity 
judges, who will be members of the High Court, and is to 
be known as the Chancery Division. In like manner, there 
will be the Queen’s Bench Division, the Common Pleas 
Division, the Exchequer Division, and the Probate, Di¬ 
vorce, and Admiralty Division; the first three of which 
will consist of the judges of the present courts from which 
they derive their names, while the last will be composed 
of the two judges of the Courts of Probate and Divorce 
and the Court of Admiralty. Provision is made for a re¬ 
duction or increase in the number of these divisions, or in 
the number of judges who may be attached to any partic¬ 
ular division, by order in council of the queen. Judges 
may also be transferred from one division to another by 
Her Majesty when it shall be thought desirable. Each of 
these divisions is to possess very much the same jurisdiction 
as the present court of the same name, and will be in fact 
the same tribunal, though with some important differences 
of authority. For instance, the courts which now proceed 
entirely upon common-law principles will then be enabled 
to apply the doctrines of equity jurisprudence, for it is 
provided that in every civil cause or matter entertained in 
the Supreme Court of Judicature law and equity shall bo 
concurrently administered, and that equitable rules shall 
supersede those of the law when any conflict arises. It is 
still true, however, that causes of action which in them- 














COURTS. 


selves have been hitherto considered distinctively equitable 
are to be brought before the Chancery Division, which takes 
the place of the four present chancery courts of original 
jurisdiction. 

In a large number of questions several divisions, it 
is evident, will have co-ordinate jurisdiction. It is ac¬ 
cordingly provided that any person commencing a cause 
may assign it to any proper division he may think fit by 
marking his documents with its name. If a wrong assign¬ 
ment be made, a transfer may be had, on proper applica¬ 
tion, by direction of the court or by a judge of the division 
in which the matter is brought, or the cause may even be 
retained if a transfer would be inexpedient. Such causes as 
may at present be heard by a single judge are to be heard 
in the same manner when this act goes into effect. Other 
matters are referred to divisional courts of the High Court, 
which are to be constituted of two or three judges. These 
divisional courts are not the same as the divisions already 
mentioned. Any number of them may sit at the same 
time, and they may consist of any of the twenty-one judges 
of the High Court. The divisional courts hear appeals 
from the decisions of single judges of the High Court and 
from inferior courts, decide various motions, etc. Appeals 
from inferior courts, such as the petty and quarter sessions, 
county courts, etc., here receive final determination. Other 
appeals may go on to the Court of Appeal. 

Every appeal to the Court of Appeal shall be heard 
either by the whole court or by a divisional court consist¬ 
ing of any number, not less than three, of the judges 
thereof. Appeals may also be reargued before decision, 
or be reheard before final judgment, before a greater num¬ 
ber of judges, if the Court of Appeal so direct. But no 
judgo shall hear a case on appeal which he himself de¬ 
cided, or helped to decide, originally. 

Provision is also made for the appointment of commis¬ 
sioners to hold circuit courts throughout the kingdom, as 
at present. Referees may also be appointed for the hear¬ 
ing of causes or the determination of much of the inci¬ 
dental business arising in the courts. The rules of practice 
and pleading are also to be considerably altered and sim¬ 
plified ; but for all these minor details reference must be 
made to the Judicature Act itself. This synopsis of the 
general organization of the courts shows how fundamental 
a revolution is to be effected in the judicial system as at 
present constituted. 

II. The Courts of Scotlanp. —Although both England 
and Scotland belong to one united kingdom and have but 
a single legislative body, the Houses of Parliament, their 
judicial organization is almost entirely diverse. There is 
one tribunal of supreme appellate jurisdiction, the House 
of Lords, which is common to both countries, but this is 
the only element of correspondence in the two systems. 
Scotland administers the civil law instead of the common. 
The courts of chief importance are the Court of the Sheriff, 
or sheriff-substitute, and the Court of Session. The Scot¬ 
tish sheriff differs from the English in not being confined 
to the performance of merely ministerial duties. He acts 
also as the chief local judge of the county to which he be¬ 
longs. The jurisdiction he exercises is both civil and 
criminal, and is quite extensive in its scope. In civil 
causes it extends to all actions on contract and for dam¬ 
ages, no matter how large the amount involved. In mat¬ 
ters, however, relating to landed property his authority 
is much restricted. He has also a summary jurisdiction, 
conferred by statute, in small-debt cases, where the sum 
involved is not above £12. In most cases of this kind 
there is no appeal from his decisions. The sheriff also 
takes cognizance of bankruptcy, insolvency, and admiralty 
questions. His criminal jurisdiction extends to all cases 
which do not infer death or banishment. No jury is em¬ 
ployed in the trial of civil causes, but only in those of a 
criminal nature. Though, however, these various powers 
are described as appertaining to the sheriff himself, yet in 
practice, so far as the capacity of hearing causes originally 
is concerned, they are delegated to a subordinate officer, 
appointed by the sheriff, and styled a sheriff-substitute. 
If it is desired to secure the review of a decision rendered 
by the substitute in the first instance, then the sheriff him¬ 
self acts in the capacity of an appellate judge. From him 
also, in proper cases, an appeal may be taken to the Court 
of Session, and thence to the House of Lords. 

The Court of Session is the highest civil tribunal in 
Scotland. It takes cognizance of all questions of a civil 
nature, whether legal, equitable, admiralty, or probate, and 
exercises both original and appellate jurisdiction. It was 
established in 1532, and, as originally constituted, con¬ 
sisted of fifteen judges, all of whom sat in a body to hear 
appeals. This arrangement occasioned great dilatoriness 
of procedure, but continued nevertheless for nearly three 
centuries, despite this and other commonly recognized in¬ 
conveniences. The present organization is much differ¬ 


1175 


ent. The number of members has been reduced to thirteen. 
Five of these are called “ lords ordinary,” exercise severally 
original jurisdiction, and constitute collectively what is 
known as the “ Outer House.” The eight remaining 
judges form the “ Inner House,” and have, as a general 
rule, only appellate jurisdiction. They are divided into 
two divisions of four each, either of which possesses the same 
authority, and may be selected by any party appealing, at 
his own option. One division is presided over by the lord 
justice clerk, the other by the lord president. In some 
few instances the Inner House may exercise original juris¬ 
diction, and in cases of exceptional difficulty the whole 
body of thirteen judges may consider a question upon 
appeal; but such cases are very rare. In the trial of 
civil causes in the first instance before a lord ordinary 
juries have been employed since 1815, but by no means to 
so great an extent as in the English practice. The jury 
system was introduced as an exotic, and does not thrive 
very vigorously under the unfavorable conditions of a 
common prejudice against it on the part of clients and hos¬ 
tile criticism by able members of the bar. Juries may be 
dispensed with, in general, in the discretion of the court 
or by consent of parties; and, as might be supposed, a 
resort to these expedients is not infrequent. The consti¬ 
tution of the appellate branches of the Inner House in this 
system is evidently faulty. There may be an equal divis¬ 
ion of the judges in either body, so as to render the deter¬ 
mination of any question impossible, or the decisions of 
one branch may directly contradict those of the other, so as 
to make the law fluctuating and uncertain. The first evil 
is remedied by calling in a lord ordinary or three judges 
of the other house to attend a rehearing of the cause, by 
which means the whole number of judges is made uneven 
and a majority rendered certain. In the second case the 
opinions of the whole court may be taken, but this mode 
of reference is discretionary, and therefore inadequate to 
meet the difficulty. The final appeal, which may be taken 
from the Court of Session to the House of Lords, has this 
peculiar consequence—that it refers questions arising un¬ 
der the civil-law procedure to jurists trained only in com¬ 
mon-law methods as a general rule. It cannot be said, 
however, that any practical evils have resulted from this 
co-operation of systems. 

There are several other courts in Scotland composed of 
members of the Court of Session. Only one, however, 
deserves mention—viz. the High Court of Justiciary, a 
tribunal exercising an important criminal jurisdiction. 
The other courts are of inferior importance. 

III. The Courts of France.— The most important 
courts are the Tribunals of the First Instance, the Courts 
of Appeal, the Courts of Assize, and the Court of Cassation. 
The Tribunals of the First Instance, as their name implies, 
entertain causes originally, and they exercise both civil and 
criminal jurisdiction. One of them is established in each 
of the arrondissements into which the Avhole country is 
divided. Each of these courts consists of from three to 
twelve judges, the number varying with the population of 
the districts. When their number is seven or more, they 
are formed into two chambers—one for the hearing of civil, 
and the other of criminal, causes. When there are twelve 
judges, three chambers are formed, two civil and one crim¬ 
inal. The tribunal at Paris is so large as to be divided 
into ten chambers. In civil cases three judges must con¬ 
cur in order to pronounce a decision, while in criminal ac¬ 
tions the agreement of five is necessary. Appeals may be 
taken to the Courts of Appeal. 

The Courts of Appeal are twenty-seven in number, and 
each of them is named from the city or place in which it is 
situated. They consist severally of at least twenty-four 
judges, who are generally divided into three chambers— 
one of civil jurisdiction, another of criminal, whilo the 
third hears appeals in police matters. Seven judges must 
concur in the determination of civil causes, five in criminal 
accusations. The Court of Appeal in Paris has six cham¬ 
bers and fifty-nine judges. Each chamber in all these 
courts has its own president. When momentous state 
questions are to be decided or causes of exceptional com¬ 
plexity two chambers may be united. This is called “ the 
solemn hearing,” and the concurrence of fourteen judges 
is required in order that a decision may be given. Appeals 
lie from these courts to the Court of Cassation. 

Tho Courts of Assize are composed of judges of the 
Courts of Appeal, and exercise only criminal jurisdiction. 
One of these tribunals is established in each of the depart¬ 
ments into which France is divided (about eighty in num¬ 
ber), and their institution is peculiar, as compared with 
French courts in general, in that it exhibits the employ¬ 
ment of the English jury system. The jurors, however, 
are not required to bo unanimous in their verdict, a ma¬ 
jority sufficing. Tho number of judges in each court is 
three, and sessions are held every three months. Tho large 










COURTS. 


1176 


amount of business in Paris, however, requires two sessions 
a month. Appeals may be taken to the Court of Cassa¬ 
tion. 

The Court of Cassation is the highest permanent court 
of appeal in France. It is composed of a first president, 
three presidents of chambers, and forty-five other judges 
called counsellors. It is divided into three chambers—one 
for the hearing of appeals in civil causes, another in those 
of a criminal character, while the third is termed the 
Chamber of Requests, and takes cognizance of petitions, 
determines whether appeals are admissible, etc. Appeals 
must be brought within three months after the previous 
decision was rendered. The judges, as in all the higher 
courts of France, hold office for life. The constitution and 
functions of the Court of Cassation differ quite essentially 
from those which are conferred upon appellate tribunals in 
England and generally in other countries, and even upon 
the subordinate French courts of appeal; for it possesses 
no power to affirm the judgment of the court below, but 
only, as its name indicates, to reverse a decision, and 
transfer the cause for another hearing to some tribunal 
having co-ordinate jurisdiction with the one in which 
judgment was first rendered. Moreover, notwithstanding 
the pre-eminent position of this court, its determination of 
the law is not considered authoritative upon inferior tri¬ 
bunals, but only as presumably correct and open to con¬ 
tradiction. Instances in which its views are disregarded, 
however, are of course very rare. 

Other French courts of limited jurisdiction but great 
usefulness are the Tribunals of Commerce, established in 
all the commercial cities and towns, and the Courts of 
Prudhommes, existing in Paris and a few of the larger 
cities. The former consist largely of men experienced in 
mercantile pursuits, and take cognizance of questions aris¬ 
ing in commercial transactions. The latter are mechanics’ 
courts, consisting of manufacturers and artisans, and take 
charge of matters arising from the relations of employer 
and employed. They relieve the ordinary courts of much 
labor. 

IV. The Courts of the United States. —In accord¬ 
ance with the provision of the Constitution establishing a 
Supreme Court and conferring upon Congress the power to 
create inferior tribunals, a regular system of courts has 
been formed throughout the Union. The most important 
are the District Courts, the Circuit Courts, and the Court 
of Claims. Final appeals are taken to the Supreme Court 
at Washington. All these tribunals exercise both law and 
equity jurisdiction, and the judicial authority given by the 
Constitution is variously apportioned among them. 

The District Courts are at present (1874) sixty in number. 
Each State generally constitutes a single district, though 
some of the larger ones, as New York, Pennsylvania, and 
a few others, are divided into two or three. New districts 
are formed by Congress as the population increases or new 
States are admitted, so that the number is subject to con¬ 
stant variation. Each court consists of a single judge, 
who must reside in the district for which he is appointed. 
Original jurisdiction is exercised in civil, criminal, and 
admiralty causes. The classes of questions of which these 
courts take cognizance are determined entirely by Congres¬ 
sional enactment, and are variously modified at different 
times. They entertain exclusively questions of admiralty 
or maritime jurisdiction in the first instance, including all 
seizures upon navigable waters under laws of imposts, 
navigation, or trade of the U. S., actions for injuries com¬ 
mitted upon the high seas, suits to recover upon maritime 
contracts, actions for salvage, for injuries by collision, and 
matters of prize. They also have sole original cognizance 
of questions arising from seizures upon land, and of all 
suits for penalties and forfeitures under the U. S. laws, 
and also of actions against consuls or vice-consuls. In ad¬ 
dition, they have original jurisdiction in all causes under 
the bankrupt laws. They exercise concurrent jurisdiction 
with the Circuit Courts of all crimes and offences against the 
U. S. the punishment of which is not capital, of patent and 
copyright cases, and of all causes, civil or criminal, affect¬ 
ing persons who are denied in the State courts their rights 
of citizenship under the U. S. laws. They also have con¬ 
current jurisdiction with the Circuit Courts or with the 
State Courts of all causes where an alien sues for a tort in 
violation of the law of nations or a treaty of the U. S., 
and of all suits at common law where the U. S. or any of¬ 
ficer thereof sue. The trial of issues of fact in the District 
Courts, except in civil causes of a maritime character, is 
by jury. No person can be arrested in one district for 
trial in another. Appeals are generally taken to the Cir¬ 
cuit Courts, though sometimes to the Supreme Court. 

The Circuit Courts are nine in number, and each circuit 
in which one of these courts is established consists of seve¬ 
ral States. The nine justices of the Supreme Court are 
allotted, by their own selection, each to a particular circuit, 


and each is required to attend at least one term of such 
court to which he is appointed in each district ot his cir¬ 
cuit during every period of two years. There is also ap¬ 
pointed a special circuit judge in each circuit, within whose 
limits he must reside. A circuit court is held by the Su¬ 
preme Court justice thereto allotted, or by the regular 
circuit judge, or by the district judge of the district sitting 
alone, or by the Supreme Court justice and circuit judge 
sitting together and the former presiding, or, in the absence 
of either of these, by the other (who then presides) and 
the district judge. Such courts may be held at the same 
time in the different districts of the same circuit. Two 
sessions of each court are held annually within each dis¬ 
trict of the circuit. The circuit courts have both original 
and appellate jurisdiction. Their original jurisdiction ex¬ 
tends, concurrently with that of the State courts, to civil 
suits in law or equity for more than $500 when the U. S. 
are plaintiffs, or an alien is a party, or the suit is between 
a citizen of the State where the suit is brought and a citi¬ 
zen of another State. They also entertain causes arising 
under the revenue laws and some questions of a particular 
nature in bankruptcy procedure. Their important concur¬ 
rent jurisdiction with the District Courts has already been 
mentioned. Provision is made, moreover, for the removal 
of certain causes—such as, e. g., actions against revenue 
officers, suits on titles to land derived from other States, 
etc.—from the State courts to the Circuit Courts, on proper 
petition by the defendant and the entering of security. 
The appellate jurisdiction of Circuit Courts extends to ad¬ 
miralty and maritime causes, and to civil actions referred 
from the District Courts, where the matter in dispute ex¬ 
ceeds the value of $50; also to patent and some other 
questions. Appeals from the Circuit Courts are taken to 
the Supreme Court. 

The Court of Claims is a tribunal established at Wash¬ 
ington, consisting of five judges, of whom one is appointed 
chief-justice. It has jurisdiction to determine all claims 
founded upon any law of Congress, or upon any regulation 
of an executive department, or upon any contract with the 
government of the U. S., which are presented to it by pe¬ 
tition. All petitions in regard to such claims introduced 
into Congress are required, unless that body otherwise 
orders, to be transmitted to this court. So the cabinet of¬ 
ficers may refer certain claims made upon their departments. 
Demands which are adjudged valid are payable from the 
national treasury. The Court of Claims has a single an¬ 
nual session. Appeals are taken to the Supreme Court. 

The Supreme Court is the highest tribunal of the U. S. 
It consists of a chief-justice’ and eight associate justices, 
and holds one term annually at Washington. Six justices 
are required to constitute a quorum. The jurisdiction ex¬ 
ercised is both original and appellate, but chiefly, in prac¬ 
tice, the latter. The original jurisdiction extends to all 
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and 
consuls, and those in which a State is a party, except that 
in the latter case no suit can be prosecuted against any 
State by the citizens of another State. In actions against 
ambassadors or other public ministers, and in many con¬ 
troversies where a State is a party, its jurisdiction is not 
only original, but exclusive. Its other original authority 
is shared with the inferior tribunals. In the exercise of 
its appellate powers the Supreme Court reviews the judg¬ 
ments or decrees of the Circuit Courts, of certain District 
Courts with Circuit Court powers, of the Court of Claims, 
and of some tribunals established in the Territories. More¬ 
over, the decisions of the highest State tribunals which are 
repugnant to the Constitution, treaties, or laws of the U. S. 
may be re-examined by the Supreme Court, and reversed 
or modified as may be necessary. Questions also which 
fail of determination in the Circuit Courts by reason of an 
equal division among the judges may be transferred to this 
court for final decision. It lias power to review both the 
law and the fact in any cause of which it takes cognizance 
on appeal. 

The Federal tribunals in this way possess exclusive juris¬ 
diction over subjects of such manifest national importance 
as patents, copyrights, admiralty causes, and questions of 
revenue, and have power to determine controversies be¬ 
tween States, and to declare void all laws, whether of Con¬ 
gress or of a State legislature, which are in contravention 
of the provisions of the U. S. Constitution. 

Y. The judicial systems of the various States of the Union 
are so diverse that to give any account of them would be 
impracticable. They all agree in having a number of tri¬ 
bunals, some of original and others of appellate jurisdic¬ 
tion, and the determination of the law by the courts of 
each State, subject to the review of the Supreme Court of 
the U. S. in constitutional matters, is conclusive within its 
own boundaries. Reference must be made to the constitu¬ 
tions and statutes of the States severally for further details. 

George Chase, revised by T. W. Dwight. 
















COUSCOUS—COVENANT. 


1177 


Cous'cous, called also Spotted Phalan'ger or 
Sham'sham, the Phalangista metadata, is a white marsu¬ 
pial with black and brown spots. It is about the size of a 
common cat, and has a prehensile tail and opposable thumbs 


on the hind feet. It is found in the Spice Islands, and is 
caught for its fur as well as its flesh, which is eaten. The 
animal has a disagreeable odor from a secretion of its anal 
glands. 

Coushat'ta Chute, a post-village, capital of Red 
River parish, La. It is on the Red River, and has one 
weekly newspaper. 

Cousin (Victor), a French philosopher, born Nov. 28, 
1792, was the son of a watchmaker of Paris. After bril¬ 
liant academic studies, though he had a strong inclination 
to music, his mind was directed towards philosophy under 
Laromiguiere, Royer-Collard, and Maine de Biran. In 
1815 he succeeded Royer-Collard as professor at the Sor- 
bonne, and continued the teaching of the Scotch philosophy 
initiated by him, and promoted the reaction against the 
sensualism of Condillac and the thinkers of the eighteenth 
century. In a journey to Germany he became indoctrinated 
with the idealistic philosophy. In 1820 he was suspended 
on political grounds. He published editions of Proclus (6 
vols. Svo, 1820-27) and Descartes (11 vols. 8vo, 1827), and 
his celebrated translation of Plato (13 vols. Svo, 1825-40). 
In 1827 he was replaced in his chair at the Sorbonne, and 
shared with Guizot and Villemain a popularity and power 
in the community unexampled in university annals. He 
was under Thiers (1840) minister of public instruction for 
eight months, and delivered in the Chamber of Peers his 
“ Defense de l’Universite et de la philosophic ” (Svo, 1844). 
The revolution of 1848 called forth, in refutation of social¬ 
ism, “ Justice et Charite.” “Du Vrai, du Beau, et du 
Bien ” appeared in 1853. He taught a philosophy called 
eclectic, which he said was not a method, but a manifesta¬ 
tion of the modern spirit of liberty and tolerance in phil¬ 
osophy. Of his numerous works have appeared in this 
country his “ Course of Modern Philosophy” (1855) and 
“ Lectures on the True, the Beautiful, and the Good ” (1857), 
translated by 0. B. Wight. Died Jan. 15, 1867. 

Coutances (anc. Constantia), a town of France, depart¬ 
ment of Manche, is on a conical hill 8 miles from the Eng¬ 
lish Channel and about 44 miles S. of Cherbourg. It was 
formerly fortified. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a 
handsome old cathedral, a public library, a theatre, and 
manufactures of druggets, worsted stuff's, hardware, etc. 
Pop. in 1866, 8139. 

Couture (Thomas), a French painter, pupil of Dela- 
roche, exhibited first in 1840 “ Jcune Venetien apres une 
orgie.” His works have brilliant color-effects; among 
them are “ Trouvere,” “ Fauconnier,” “ L’Amour d’or,” and 
the famous “ Romains de la decadence.” 

Cove, a post-township of Polk co., Ark. Pop. 456. 

Cove, a township of Barbour co., West Va. Pop. 1657. 

Cove Creek, a township of Washington co., Ark. 
Pop. 514. 

Cove Creek, a township of Watauga co., N. C. P. 887. 

Cleveland, a post-village, capital of Island co., Wash. 
Ter., near the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and about 112 miles 
N. of Olympia. 

Cov'enant [Fr. convenant (from convenir, to “agree”), 


literally, an “agreeing” or “agreement;” Gr. fit a6r, K r,-, Lat. 
fcedu8; Ger. Bund], in theology, the promises recorded in 
the Scriptures, made by God on certain conditions of obe¬ 
dience, faith, etc. on the part of man. The old dispensa¬ 
tion (or Old Testament) is called in 
Greek >) jraAaia SuxOrjicri, i. e. “ the old 
covenant;” and the new dispensation 
(or Testament), t) kcuG) fita0>?Kij, “the 
new covenant.” 

The so-called “ Theology of the Cov¬ 
enants” or “Federal System” began 
with Cocceius (1603-69), who taught: 
(1) the covenant of works before the 
fall; (2) the covenant of grace after 
the fall. And under this second cove¬ 
nant three economies : (1) prior to the 
law; (2) under the law; (3) under the 
gospel. 

Covenant [remotely from the Lat. 
convenio, to “come together”], in law, 
is a promise under seal. There are 
several words appropriated to sealed 
instruments or promises contained in 
them, such as bond, covenant, deed, 
and obligation. The first, third, and 
fourth words are used to express the 
entire instrument, while “covenant” 
is commonly employed to designate a 
particular clause in a sealed instru¬ 
ment. Thus, there may be many cove¬ 
nants in a deed. The subject is fruit¬ 
ful in distinctions, covenants being 
treated in the law-books as to their form, their nature, 
their relation to other covenants, their assignability, and 
the like. One of the most important of these is that which 
classifies covenants into those which “run with the land” 
and those which do not. To explain this subject it is 
necessary to state that in ordinary conveyances of land 
there are found certain clauses which affirm in substance 
that the grantor is owner in possession, actual or con¬ 
structive (or seized), and has a good right to convey; 
that there are no encumbrances on the land ; that the pur¬ 
chaser shall quietly enjoy the land without being evicted 
by any person having a superior title; that the grantor 
will warrant and defend the title; and that he will make 
such further deeds or conveyances as he may be called on 
to make to perfect the title. In brief terms and in tech¬ 
nical language these are covenants of seisin, good right to 
convey, against encumbrances, of quiet enjoyment, of war¬ 
ranty, and of further assurance. The first three of these, 
it will be observed, affirm an existing fact; the last three 
concern the future, and are promissory in their nature. 
The first three do not run with the land; the last three do. 
The reason of the distinction is technical. The first three, if 
untrue at all, are so at the very moment when the deed was 
delivered, and accordingly then conferred a right of action. 
This immediate right to sue is in the nature of personal 
property, and closely resembles ordinary rights of action, 
such as a claim on a promissory note already due. Accord¬ 
ingly, if the grantee in the deed should convey the land, he 
would not by that act alone transfer these rights of action ; 
they would not, in technical language, “ run with the land.” 
On the other hand, as to the three covenants in the future 
tense, it is clear that no action can be brought upon them until 
the event against which they are designed to guard happens, 
or, in other words, until the covenant is broken—that is, 
until the quiet enjoyment ceases or the grantee is evicted. 
Until that occurs the covenant will “ run with the land,” by 
which expression is meant that the mere conveyance to the 
second grantee transfers these covenants, as it would the 
houses, trees, and other additions to land. The distinction 
thus pointed out also applies to the case of landlord and 
tenant, and there are abstruse distinctions here to be noted 
which cannot properly be stated within the brief compass 
of this article. Some of the common covenants in a lease 
which run with the land are the agreement of the tenant to 
pay rent, or to make repairs, or to keep houses insured. It 
should be added that the rule respecting the assignability 
of covenants in leases applies to covenants binding either 
on the tenant or the landlord. There is a growing practice 
in conveyances of land in towns and cities to insert clauses 
binding the purchaser to use the land in a particular man¬ 
ner, as to build dwelling-houses upon it, and even such 
as are of a particular description. Although these clauses 
do not strictly fall within the technical doctrines of cove¬ 
nants running with the land, yet they are binding in equity 
law on a subsequent purchaser with notice. I he record of 
the deed containing them will in general be sufficient notice 
to such subsequent purchaser. The covenant may be en¬ 
forced through the medium of an injunction or other ap¬ 
propriate equitable remedy. T. W. Dwigiit. 



Couscous, or Spotted Phalanger. 
























—- 1 

1178 COVENANT, NATIONAL—COVINGTON. 


Cov'enant (National, of Scotland), an agreement 
to protect the Reformed religion in the Church of Scotland 
from the attempt of the English government to enforce the 
episcopal form of worship, was drawn up and published by 
the Four Tables in Edinburgh, Mar. 1,1G38. It professed 
to be based upon a document which James VI. had signed 
in 1580. The Four Tables, as they were called, consisted 
of—1, nobility; 2, gentry; 3, ministers; and 4, bui’gesses ; 
and in their hands the whole authority of the kingdom was 
vested. They elected a general assembly which met at 
Glasgow in Nov., 1G38, and abolished episcopacy; ordering 
that every person should sign the Covenant on pain of 
excommunication. The Covenanters prepared for war, and 
though a treaty of peace was concluded in June, 1639, they 
entered England in Aug., 1640. An agreement was signed 
at Ripon, Oct., 1640, by which commissioners were to be 
appointed, to whom the settlement of the points in dispute 
was referred. This covenant, under the name of the 
Solemn League and Covenant, was received by the Parlia¬ 
ment of the Assembly of Divines, Sept., 1643. It differed 
essentially from the covenant of 1638, and according to 
Hallam “ consisted in an oath to be subscribed by all sorts 
of persons in both kingdoms, Avhereby they bound them¬ 
selves to preserve the Reformed religion in the Church of 
Scotland, in doctrine, worship, discipline, and government, 
according to the word of God and practice of the best 
Reformed churches; and to endeavor to bring the churches 
of God in the three kingdoms to the nearest conjunction 
and uniformity in religion, confession of faith, form of 
church government, directory for worship, and catechising; 
to endeavor, without respect of persons, the extirpation of 
popery, prelacy (that is, church government by archbishops 
and other ecclesiastical officers), and whatsoever should be 
found contrary to sound doctrine and the power of godli¬ 
ness ; to preserve the rights and privileges of the Parlia¬ 
ments, the liberties of the kingdoms, and the king’s person 
and authority in the preservation and defence of the true 
religion and liberties of the kingdoms; to endeavor the 
discovery of incendiaries and malignants who hinder the 
reformation of religion and divide the king from his people, 
that they may be brought to punishment; finally, to assist 
and defend all such as should enter into this covenant and 
not suffer themselves to be withdrawn from it, whether to 
revolt to the opposite party or to give in to a detestable 
indifference or neutrality.” This document was signed by 
members of both houses and by civil and military officers. 
A large number of the beueficed clergy who refused to sub¬ 
scribe were ejected. Charles II. signed it very reluctantly 
at Spey in June, 1650, in the hope of recovering the Eng¬ 
lish throne. After the Restoration a majority in the House 
of Commons ordered it to be burned by the common hang¬ 
man in May, 1661. In the same year the Scottish Parlia¬ 
ment renounced the Covenant and declared the king su¬ 
preme. Under the reign of Charles II. the Covenanters 
were subjected to a fierce and cruel persecution, in which 
neither age nor sex was spared. It is in the standards of 
the Covenanters that we have to look for a true embodi¬ 
ment of the tenets held by the great body of English and 
Scottish Presbyterians of 1643. Others gave in to the 
Revolution settlement, and afterwards found cause to se¬ 
cede. The Covenanters never gave in, and of course never 
seceded. Although in point of fact an elder sister of the 
existing Church of Scotland and all its secessions, the 
Cameronian body did not assume a regular form till after 
the Revolution; and it was with some difficulty that it 
organized a communion with ordained ministers. The 
stedfastness of members was put to a severe trial by the 
defection of their ministers, and for a time the people were 
as sheep without a shepherd. After sixteen years they 
were joined by the Rev. John McMillan from the Estab¬ 
lished Church, in 1706. In 1743 they constituted a pres¬ 
bytery at Braehead, under the name of the Reformed Pres¬ 
bytery. Holding strictly to the covenants, the political 
position of the Covenanters is very peculiar, as they refuse 
to recognize any laws or institutions which they conceive 
to be inimical to those of the kingdom of Christ. The 
Reformed Presbyterians regard themselves as the modern 
representatives of the Covenanters. 

Cov'enanters, a name given to the signers of the 
Covenant in Scotland. (See Covenant.) The Covenanters 
were also called Camcronians, from Richard Cameron, the 
founder of the sect. (See Reformed Presbyterians.) 

Cov'ent Garden [a corruption of “ convent garden,” 
so called because it was once the garden of Westminster 
Abbey] is a square in London famous for its market of 
fruits and flowers. It was formerly a fashionable quarter 
of the town. Frequent allusions are made to this place in 
the old English comedies. The market originated about 
1656. Covent Garden is one of the most interesting of 
London sights; it is seen to the best advantage about three 


o’clock on a summer morning, Tuesday, Thursday, and 
Saturday being the principal days. The Covent Garden 
Theatre was opened in 1732, and has been several times 
burned. The present edifice was opened in 1858. 

Cov'entry [Lat. Coventria], a city of England, in the 
county of Warwick, on the Sherbourne, 10 miles N. N. E. 
of Warwick, on the London and North-western Railway. 
The modern part of it is well built. Among the remark¬ 
able buildings are St. Michael’s church, founded in 1313, 
which is a masterpiece of the lighter Gothic style, has a 
spire 303 feet high, and is said to be the largest parish 
church in England; Trinity church; Christ church, with 
a handsome ancient spire, belonging to the old Grayfriars’ 
convent from which the town has its name; and St. Mary’s 
Hall, built about 1450, an admirable specimen of orna¬ 
mental architecture. The ancient cathedral w T as destroyed 
by Henry VIII. Coventry returns two members to Par¬ 
liament. It has manufactures of ribbons, fringes, and 
watches, and is the greatest emporium for ribbons in Eng¬ 
land. It was formerly famous for the manufacture of 
broadcloth, caps, and blue thread. In 1044; Earl Leofric 
and his wife, the celebrated Lady Godiva, founded here a 
magnificent Benedictine abbey. In the fifteenth century 
religious mysteries were often acted here before the king. 
Pop. in 1871, 39,470. 

Coventry, a township and post-village of Tolland co., 
Conn. The village is near the Hartford and Providence 
R. R., 20 miles E. of Hartford. Total pop. 2057. 

Coventry, a post-township of Chenango co., N. Y. 
Pop. 1490. 

Coventry, a township of Summit co., 0. Pop. 1817. 

Coventry, a township and post-village of Kent co., 
R. I. The village is on the Hartford Providence and Fish- 
kill R. R., about 30 miles S. W. of Providence. The town¬ 
ship contains several manufacturing villages, and has a 
national bank at Anthony. Total pop. 4349. 

Coventry, a post-township of Orleans co., Vt. It has 
an academy, and manufactures of lumber, leather, and 
starch. Pop. 914. 

Coventry, Earls of, Viscounts Deershurst (England, 
1689).— George AVilliam Coventry, ninth earl, born May 
9, 1838, succeeded his grandfather in 1843. 

Cov'erclale (Miles), an English bishop and Reformer, 
born in Yorkshire in 1487. An Augustine monk in his 
youth, he was one of the first Englishmen who adopted 
Protestant doctrines. In,1535 he published an English 
translation of the Bible, which was reissued in 1537 with 
the royal sanction. The version of the Psalms is that of 
the present Prayer-Book. This was the first entire Bible 
ever published in English. He edited the “ Great Bible,” 
or Cranmer’s Bible (1540). In 1551 he was appointed 
bishop of Exeter. On the accession of Mary, in 1553, he 
was deprived of his office and imprisoned for two years. 
He was then permitted to take refuge on the Continent, 
whence he returned in 1558, and died in London in Feb., 
1568. 

C’ov'ert, a township and post-village of Seneca co., N. Y. 
The village is 1 mile S. W. of Cayuga Lake and 12 miles 
N. AY. of Ithaca. The township has five churches and 
some manufactures. Total pop. 2238. 

Cov'ert Way, or Covered Way, is a path outside 
the fosse or moat of a fortified place, betiveen the counter¬ 
scarp and the banquette of the glacis. It is about thirty 
feet wide, and is sunk so far below the crest of the glacis 
that soldiers standing upon it cannot be seen by besiegers; 
hence the name. Sentinels placed in the covert way pre¬ 
vent all access of the enemy’s spies, and musketeers 
mounted on the side next the glacis can pour fire on the 
enemy over the crest. The covert way is broad enough to 
allow troops to form on it, either to act defensively or make 
sorties; and to increase this accommodation enlarged por- 
tions, called places of arms, are made. 

Covilha/, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira, 
is situated among the mountains, 48 miles E. of Coimbra. 
It has thermal springs, and manufactures of a woollen 
cloth called saragoca. Pop. 9022. 

Cov'ington, a county in the S. of Alabama. Area, 
1000 square miles. It is intersected by the Conecuh River. 
The surface is nearly level; the soil sandy. Cotton, wool, 
and rice are raised. Capital, Andalusia. Pop. 4868. 

Covington, a county in the S. of Mississippi. Area, 
600 square miles. It is drained by Leaf River and several 
of its affluents. The soil is sandy, and partly covered with 
pine forests. Cotton, wool, and corn are raised. Capital, 
Williamsburg. Pop. 4753. 

Covington, a post-village, capital of Newton co., Ga., 
on the Georgia R. R., 41 miles E. by S. from Atlanta, is 













COVINGTON—COWPER. 1179 


the seat of the Southern Masonic Female College, ancl has 
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1121. 

Covington, a post-village, capital of Fountain co., 
Ind., on the Wabash River, the Wabash and Erie Canal, 
the Indianapolis Bloomington and Western, and a branch 
of the Chicago Danville and Covington R. Rs., 71 miles 
W. N. W. of Indianapolis, has two newspapers, a high 
school, a foundry, and four coal companies. Pop. 1888. 

J. II. Spence, Pcjb. Covington “ People’s Friend.” 

Covington, a city of Kentucky, Kenton co., is on 
the Ohio River opposite Cincinnati, and just below the 
mouth ot the Licking River, which separates it from New¬ 
port. It occupies a nearly level site, and is pleasantly 
situated. A noble suspension bridge across the Ohio con¬ 
nects it with Cincinnati. It has also a suspension bridge 
connecting it with Newport. Covington is the northern 
terminus of the Kentucky Central R. R., which extends 
to Nicholasville, Ky., and is connected with Louisville by 
another railroad. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic 
bishop, has twenty-six churches, six public schools, nine 
Roman Catholic schools, three English and one German 
weekly newspaper, three national and one State bank, 
waterworks, gasworks, paid fire department, and fire-alarm 
telegraph, two horse-car lines, one orphan asylum, one hos¬ 
pital, two rolling-mills, and one railroad-iron mill; also man¬ 
ufactures of stoves, wood-work, tobacco, etc. It has 40 miles 
of paved streets. Pop. 24,505. J. W. Davis, “ Journal.” 

Covington, a post-village, capital of St. Tammany 
parish, La., 45 miles N. of New Orleans. Pop. 585. 

Covington, a post-township of Dakota co., Neb., has 
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 225. 

Covington, a township and post-village of Wyoming 
co., N. Y. Pop. 1189. 

Covington, a post-village of Miami co., 0., on the 
railroad which connects Columbus with Chicago, 79 miles 
W. of Columbus, has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1010. 

Covington, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. P. 701. 

Covington, a township of Luzerne co., Pa. P. 1182. 

Covington, a township and post-borough of Tioga co., 
Pa., on the Blossburg and Corning and Tioga R. Rs. Pop. 
of township, 811. 

Covington, a post-village, capital of Tipton co., Tenn., 
on Big Hatchie River, 200 miles W. by S. from Nashville. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 447. 

Covington, a post-village, capital of Alleghany co., 
Va., on Jackson’s River and on the Chesapeake and Ohio 
R. R., 205 miles W. of Richmond. Pop. of township, 1268. 

Covocle (John), born in Westmoreland co., Pa., Mar. 
17, 1808, was brought up as a farmer and blacksmith, but 
in the early days of the Pennsylvania coal trade he went 
into that business with success, and afterwards was also a 
woollen manufacturer and railroad stockholder and direc¬ 
tor. He was a member of Congress from Pennsylvania, 
1854-70, and was distinguished for his energy and political 
influence. His freedom and impetuosity of speech made 
him many friends and enemies, and won him the title of 
“ Honest John Covode.” Died Jan. 11, 1871. 

Cow. See Cattle. 

Cow'an, a township of Wayne co., Mo. Pop. 492. 

CoAVanshan'nock, a township and village of Arm¬ 
strong co., Pa. The village is on the Alleghany Valley 
R. R., 48 miles N. E. of Pittsburg. Total pop. 2246. 

Cow'ansville, a post-village of Dunham township, 
Missisquoi co., Quebec (Canada), on the South-eastern 
Counties Junction Railway, 14 miles from West Farnham 
Junction. It has a weekly paper. Pop. about 600. 

Cow Bay, a port and post-village of Cape Breton co. 
and island, 22 miles from Sydney, has mines of bitumi¬ 
nous coal, and a breakwater for the protection of shipping. 
Pop. about 2500. 

Cow-bird, or Cow-bunting, the Molothrun pecoris, 
a bird of the IJ. S. belonging to the blackbird family. It 
takes its name from the fact that it associates with cattle 
in pastures, probably for the purpose of catching the in¬ 
sects which are aroused by the cattle. Like the European 
cuckoo, it lays its eggs in the nests of other birds, never 
hatching its own young. 

Cow Castle, a twp. of Orangeburg co., S. C. P. 720. 

Cow'ee, a township of Macon co., N. C. Pop. 760. 

Cowes, West, a seaport and watering-place of Eng¬ 
land, on the Isle of Wight, at the mouth of the river Me¬ 
dina, 10-1 miles S. S. E. of Southampton. It is built on a 
steep slope, and presents a fine appearance from the sea. 
Here are many elegant villas and good hotels. Cowes has 
an active coasting-trade. Pop. 5482. 

Cowc'ta, a county in the W. N. W. of Georgia. Area, 
378 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the Chat¬ 


tahoochee River. The surface is uneven ; the soil is mostly 
fertile. Cotton, wool, and corn are raised. It is intersected 
by the Atlanta and West Point It. It. Capital, Newnan. 
Pop. 15,875. 

Cow'hage, Cowitch, or Mu'cuna, a drug which 
consists of short, slender, brittle hairs, which grow on the 
pods of twining plants of the genus Mucuna or Stizolo¬ 
bium, natives of the tropical parts of America and Asia. 
This genus belongs to the order Leguminosae, and has a 
knotted, 2-valved pod, divided by transverse partitions. 
Most of the cowhage brought to market is from the Stizolo¬ 
bium prurieus and Stizolobium urens, natives of the West 
Indies. Stizolobium pruritum of the East Indies yields 
cowhage of similar qualitjL The hairs readily stick in the 
skin and cause intolerable itching. Cowhage is used in 
medicine, acting mechanically in killing and expelling 
worms, particularly the species of Ascaris. That it does not 
act on the inner surface of the intestinal canal is supposed 
to be owing to the mucous secretion. It is generally ad¬ 
ministered in syrup or honey. Before the pods of the cow¬ 
hage plants are ripe they are used as a vegetable, like 
those of beans, and are very palatable. 

Cow Island, a township of Lincoln co., Me. P. 19. 

Cow Lake, a township of Jackson co., Ark. Pop. 189. 

Cow'ley, a county in the S. of Kansas. Area, SOI 
square miles. It is intersected by the Arkansas River and 
Grouse Creek. There is considerable timber, and the soil 
is fertile. Coal and building-stone are found. Cattle, 
grain, and wool are raised. Capital, Winfield. Pop. 1175. 

Cow'ley (Abraham), M. D., an English poet, the son of 
a grocer, born in London in 1618, entered Trinity College, 
Cambridge, in 1636. He said that he became a poet from 
reading a volume of Spenser that lay in his mother’s parlor. 
Ho made verses at the age of ten, and his first volume, 
“ Poetic Blossoms,” he published at fifteen. He was ejected 
from college as a royalist in 1643. In 1646 he went to Paris 
with the queen, and remained ten years. He published in 
1647 “ The Mistress,” a series of poems which abound in 
frigid conceits. He was imprisoned as a royalist, but 
was released through interest, and obtained the usu¬ 
fruct of one of the queen’s estates, £300 yearly. He 
studied natural history, and issued “ Liber Plantarum ” 
(1662-78). The epic “ Davideis,” commenced in college, 
was never finished. His essays, as well as his anacre¬ 
ontics, evidence sensibility and refinement of thought, a 
facile imagination, a brilliant wit, and cultured mind, but 
are marred with the prevailing trivial love for glittering 
ingenuity of style. The most admired poet of his day, he 
is called on his tombstone “ Anglorum Pindarus, Flaccus et 
Maro.” His works were published in 1680 by Sprat, and 
by Aikin in 1802, 3 vols. Died July 28, 1667. 

Cowley (Henry Richard Wellesley), first Earl, a 
British diplomatist, a son of Sir Henry Wellesley and a 
nephew of the duke of Wellington, was born June 17, 
1804. He became minister to Switzerland in 1848, and was 
ambassador to Paris from 1852 to 1867. 

Cow'litz, a county in the S. W. of Washington Terri¬ 
tory. Area, 400 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by 
the Columbia River, and intersected by the Cowlitz. It is 
finely timbered and contains coal. It is intersected by 
the Northern Pacific R. R. Capital, Monticello. Pop. 730. 

Cow-Pars'nip, the popular name of certain plants 
of the genus Heracleum, of the order Umbelliferte, having 
petals bent in at the middle, and flat fruit. The Heracleum 
lanatum grows in the U. S., from North Carolina north¬ 
ward and westward. It is a coarse weed, from three to eight 
feet high, strong scented, and is said to be poisonous. One 
species is a native of Europe ( Heracleum Syphnodium ), the 
common cow-parsnip, a rank weed, with coarse, hairy leaves, 
and stem about three to five feet high. It is gathered in 
some parts of England for fattening pigs, and is said to 
afford wholesome food for cattle. Some Siberian species 
are much larger, and are valued for the abundant herbage 
which they yield very early in the season, particularly 
Heracleum Panacea, which sometimes attains a height of 
ten feet, and the root-leaves are three to five feet long. The 
species are mostly Asiatic. 

Cow'pens, a village of Spartanburg co., S. C., about 
100 miles N. N. W. of Columbia. Here the American gen¬ 
eral Morgan defeated Colonel Tarleton Jan. 17, 1781. The 
British lost about 300 killed and wounded, and 500 prisoners. 

Cow'per, Earls, Viscounts Fordwich (Great Britain, 
1718), Barons Cowper (England, 1706), Barons Butler of 
Moore Park (England, 1679), Barons Dingwall (Scotland, 
1607), and baronets ( 1642 ).—Francis Thomas de Grey 
Cowper, seventh earl, a prince of the Holy Roman Em¬ 
pire, captain of the corps of gentlemen-at-arms, born Juno 
11, 1834, succeeded his father April 15, 1856. 
































—— ^————— 1 ' 11 c 

1180 COWPER— COX. 


Cowper (William), Earl, an eminent English judge 
and orator, born in 1664. He was called to the bar in 1688, 
and elected to Parliament in 1695. He became an excel¬ 
lent debater and the leader of the Whig party in the House 
of Commons. In 1705 he was appointed lord chancellor. 
He resigned the great seal when the Tories obtained power 
in 1710, but was reappointed in 1714. Having resigned 
office in 1718, he was then created an earl. Died Oct. 10, 
1723. 

Cowper (William), an English poet, born at Great 
Berkhamstead, in Hertfordshire, Nov. 26, 1731, was the 
son of the rector, John Cowper, chaplain of George II., and 
nephew of Earl Cowper, noticed above. Deprived of his 
mother at the age of six, he was a tender, shrinking child, 
and a sensitive, melancholy boy at Dr. Pitman’s school, 
made more so by the rough fagging at Westminster School, 
where he advanced in classical studies. First articled 
to an attorney, living in the Temple in 1752, and called 
to the bar in 1754, he never practised. Appointed clerk of 
the journals in the House of Lords, he could not bring him¬ 
self to appear for nervousness. He determined on suicide, 
but wanted courage. Morbidly dejected, he was taken in 
1763 to Dr. Colton’s at St. Alban’s. In 1767 he went to 
Huntingdon, and came to know Mrs. Unwin, “Mary” in 
his poems. The acquaintance grew into a tender friend¬ 
ship. Residing with the Unwins amid gentle and religious 
influences, where his spirit found repose and ease, he visit¬ 
ed their friend, Rev. Mr. Newton, in 1773, whose gloomy 
religious views had the effect to bring back his mental 
malady. Tended by Mrs. Unwin through a long illness, 
in his convalescence he translated the hymns of Madame 
Guyon, and diverted himself with taming hares. Mrs. 
Unwin suggested a poem on the “ Progress of Error” in 
Dec., 1780, and in three months he wrote “Truth,” “ Ta¬ 
ble-Talk,” “ Progress of Error,” and “ Expostulation,” pub¬ 
lished in 1781. Lady Austen, whom he met in 1781, in¬ 
spired him to write “The Task” (1785), and to translate 
Homer (1791), and first told him the story of John Gilpin. 
“ The Task ” met with great success. In his later life Cow¬ 
per became more and more the prey of dejection and remorse, 
which sometimes deepened into insanity. His “ Private 
Correspondence” (2 vols., 1824) is gentle, thoughtful, and 
pervaded with playful humor. Cowper gave to English 
taste a simpler and more earnest cast. Editions of his 
works are Gilfillan’s (Edinburgh, 1854, 2 vols.) and South¬ 
ey’s (15 vols., 1837-38). (See the Lives in Southey’s edi¬ 
tion, and in that of Hailey.) Died April 25, 1800. 

Cowper’s Glands, two small and rather lobulated 
yellowish glands which in the male of the human species 
are found between the layers of the deep perinatal fascia, 
under the anterior part of the membranous portion of the 
urethra. They secrete a mucus which flows into the bulb¬ 
ous portion of the urethra by a duct an inch long. The 
vulvo-vaginal glands (glands of Bartholine) are the an¬ 
alogues in the female. 

Cow-Pox Inoculation. This species of inoculation, 
as a security against the smallpox, was introduced by 
Dr. Jenner, and it became general in 1799. The genuine 
cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the teats of the 
cow. It was first brought into use by Jenner, who first 
vaccinated from arm to arm in 1796. He had been study¬ 
ing and experimenting about it for a number of years be¬ 
fore. (See Inoculation and Vaccination, by Frank P. 
Foster, M. D.) 

Cow'ry [Hindostanee], the shell of Cyprsea, a genus of 



Cowry. 


prosobranchiato gasteropodous mollusks, of the family Cy- 
prseidae, to all the members of which the name cowry is 


often extended. They belong to the Siphonostomata, havo 
spiral, convoluted shells, the spire visible in the young, but 
entirely concealed in the adult, and the outer lip thickened 
and bent in. The aperture extends the whole length of the 
shell. The shells, often called “porcelain shells,” are 
sometimes beautifully enamelled. They are most abundant 
and attain the largest size in warm seas. Many species 
occur as fossils. A few very small living species are found 
on the British coasts. Several species occur on the east¬ 
ern and western shores of America. The name cowry is 
chiefly applied to the shells of Cyprsea moneta, which have 
commercial value from their use as a substitute for coin in 
many parts of Asia and Africa. They arc said to have been 
used by the ancient Assyrians, and specimens were found 
by Layard at Nimrood. They are not of great beauty, are 
yellow and white, often with a yellow ring ; they are about 
an inch long, and nearly as broad as long. They are found 
in the Indian and Pacific oceans, and are one of the most 
important exports of the Maidive Islands. In Bengal, 
3200 cowries are counted equal to one rupee (fifty cents). 
Yet cowries to the value of $100,000 are said to have been 
at one time imported annually into Bengal. Many tons 
of cowries are used in trade with the west of Africa. In 
1849, 300 tons were brought to Liverpool for the African 
trade. 

Cow'slip (Primula veris), an herbaceous plant of the 
order Primulacem, is a native of England and other parts 
of Europe. It bears a beautiful and fragrant flower, which 
is a general favorite. The flowers, which are small and 
grow in an umbel at the top of a scape, have sedative prop¬ 
erties, and are sometimes used as an anodyne and antispas- 
modic. American cowslip is a common name of the IJode- 
catheon Meadia, a plant of the same natural order, and a 
native of the U. S. It is cultivated in gardens for the 
beauty of its flowers. (See also Caltha.) 

Cow Tree, a name given to several trees of different 
natural orders, the bland juice (latex) of which is used in¬ 
stead of milk. They are natives of tropical climates. Some 
of them belong to the order Moraceae, and are allied to the 
fig; others to the closely-related order Artocarpaceae, one 
of which is the famous palo de vaca, or cow tree, of the 
Cordilleras (Brosimum utile). It grows in rocky situa¬ 
tions, at an elevation in equatorial regions of about 3000 
feet. It is a lofty tree, with leaves ten to sixteen inches long, 
and very small flowers. For several months in the year its 
branches appear dead, but as soon as the trunk is pierced 
there flows a full stream of sweet and nourishing milk. 
This juice flows most freely at sunrise. The natives then 
hasten from all directions with bowls to receive it. The 
milk has a pleasant odor, and a viscidity which does not 
belong to the milk of animals. It becomes yellow in a short 
time, and a cream rises to the surface, which gradually 
thickens into a cheesy consistency. This milk is much 
used by the negroes and Indians, but differs very much 
from the milk of animals, more than one-half being wax 
and a nitrogenous compound; a little sugar, a salt of 
magnesia,.and water chiefly making up the rest. The hya- 
hya (Taberniemontana utill8, of the order Apocynacese) also 
yields an abundant thick juice, which is used in Guiana 
and elsewhere as a substitute for milk, and is harmless, 
agreeable, and nutritious. The Gymnema lactiferum, an 
asclepiadaceous plant of Ceylon, yields a milk which is 
used as food. 

Cox (Abraham S.), M. D., born in New York in 1800, 
studied medicine, and attained great eminence in the prac¬ 
tice of his profession. Resigning his large and lucrative 
practice, he accepted, at the commencement of the civil 
war, the appointment of surgeon in the army, was pro¬ 
moted to be surgeon-in-chief of a division, and at the time 
of his death was attached to the Army of the Cumberland. 
The labor and exposure incident to the active campaigns 
of that army undermined his health, and he died July 28, 
1864, at Lookout Mountain, Tenn. 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk, Board of Engineers. 

Cox (David), an English aquarelle painter, born in 
Birmingham in 1793. “His foliage,” says Ruskin, “is 
altogether exquisite in color, in its impressions of coolness, 
shade, and mass.” He published a “Treatise on Painting 
in Water-Colors” (1814). Died June 7, 1859. 

Cox (Jacob D.), an American general and lawyer, born 
at Montreal Oct. 27, 1828. He became a major-general of 
Union volunteers in the autumn of 1862, and served under 
Gen. Sherman in Georgia in 1864. In December of that 
year he commanded a division at the battle of Nashville. 
He was elected governor of Ohio by the Republicans in 
Oct., 1865, and was appointed secretary of the interior 
in Mar., 1869. He resigned in Nov., 1870. 

Cox (Melville Beveridge), the first Methodist Epis¬ 
copal foreign missionary, born at Ilallowell, Me., in 1799, 
entered the ministry in 1822 , and sailed as missionary to 




































COX—COXE. 1181 


Liberia Nov. 3, 183.\ Here he labored with great zeal and 
success for some morths. He died of the “African fever” 
July 21, 1833. (See Stevens, “History of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church,” vol. iv., pp. 43, 451.) 

Cox (Richard), bishop of Ely, born in 1499, was the 
tutor of King Edward VI. He translated for “ the Bish¬ 
ops’ Bible” the four Gospels, the Acts, and the Epistle to 
the Romans. Died July 22, 1581. 

Cox (Samuel Hanson), D. D., LL.D., a Presbyterian 
author and divine of Quaker parentage, born at Leesville, 
N. J., Aug. 25, 1793, was ordained July 1, 1817. He was 
pastor of the Spring street church, N. Y. (1820-33), pro¬ 
fessor of sacred rhetoric at Auburn Theological Seminary 
(1834-37), and pastor of the First Presbyterian church, 
Brooklyn, N. Y. (1837-54). He was an early and eminent 
advocate of temperance, anti-slavery, and other reforms, 
and was distinguished for his brilliancy and effectiveness 
as a platform speaker. He wrote “ Quakerism not Chris¬ 
tianity,” 1833, and “Interviews, Memorable and Useful,” 
1853. 

Cox (Samuel Sullivan), a Democratic politician, born 
at Zanesville, 0., graduated at Brown University in 1846, 
was a member of Congress from Ohio (1857-65) and from 
New York City (1869-75). He is a well-known editor and 
lecturer, and has published “ The Buckeye Abroad ” (1852), 
“Eight Years in Congress,” etc. 

Coxal'gia, or Coxi/tis (Morbus coxarius, “hip-joint 
disease”), a chronic inflammation of the hip joint, which 
may begin either in the head of the thigh-bone or the 
socket of the hip-bone, or else in the membrane ( synovial ) 
that lines its cavity, but which finally extends to all its tis¬ 
sues, cartilages, ligaments, and surrounding soft parts. In¬ 
flammation of the bones (osteitis), by far the most com¬ 
mon origin of the disease in children, is chronic and insid¬ 
ious in its development, and is favored by the incomplete 
ossification and active nutrition of the bones in childhood. 
Inflammation of the lining membrane ( synovitis) is the most 
frequent form of hip disease in adolescence, and then is often 
of rheumatic origin. Chronic infantile coxitis principally 
affects children between one and five years of age, and is 
often awakened by a fall or blow, especially when such ac¬ 
cident occurs to children of a lymphatic or scrofulous con¬ 
stitution. The very first symptom is lameness, followed by 
pain, first felt in the knee, afterwards excited in the joint 
itself by direct pressure, by motion of the limb, or by the 
weight of the body resting upon it. To lessen this weight 
the patient rests on the ball of his toes, and drags the leg 
in walking, stiffly extending it. At this stage it is turned 
a little outward by spasmodic contraction of the muscles 
on the outer side of the joint. But very soon, in order to 
still further lessen the weight, the body bends over on the 
thigh, and the arm and lame part of the back, with the 
abdomen, are carried forward. When the patient lies down, 
therefore, a space is left between the body and the bed, and 
if the spinal column be forcibly straightened out and the 
curve flattened, the thigh in turn is bent on the body by 
dragging of the muscle that runs from the spinal column to 
the head of the thigh-bone (j)soas). Still, for the purpose 
of lessening weight, the hip3 are tilted towards the painful 
side, and appear oblique, while the leg is thus apparently 
lengthened. Behind, the nates are flattened. It soon be¬ 
comes impossible to glide the head of the thigh-bone in its 
socket; the whole hip moves with every motion communi¬ 
cated to the leg. This sign is most characteristic of the 
confirmed disease; it is due at first to the spasmodic rigid¬ 
ity of muscles—later to inflammatory adhesions. 

In the second stage liquid is poured out into the cavity 
of the joint to increase the space of this cavity, the thigh is 
more strongly bent on the body (flexed), and drawn in¬ 
ward (adducted), so that the foot crosses the opposite leg. 
The affected limb is therefore apparently shortened. A 
swelling appears in the groin and at the outer aspect of the 
thigh; °the pain becomes intolerably severe; standing and 
walking are impossible. 

In the third stage the cavity fills with matter, the liga¬ 
ments of the joint are relaxed, abscesses form in the neigh¬ 
borhood, and all the soft parts are swollen by inflammatory 
exudations. Dislocation occasionally though rarely occurs. 
More often the head of the thigh-bone separates from its 
shaft, and adheres to the socket of the joint, while the 
socket itself is enlarged. The patient’s strength is severely 
undermined, hectic fever sets in, the emaciation is extreme, 
and death may occur gradually from exhaustion, or more 
rapidly from acute absorption of pus. 

The diagnosis of morbus coxarius is only difficult in the 
first stage. The lameness may simulate that of muscular 
paralysis, from which it is distinguished by the freedom 
with which the head of the thigh-bone may be moved; or 
the pain in tho kneo may fix suspicion on tho wrong joint; 
or the thigh may exactly imitato hysterical muscular con¬ 


traction ; but in this affection the limb relaxes completely 
under chloroform. 

The prognosis for spontaneous cure is always very un¬ 
favorable. After suppuration death may be caused by 
pyamiia, by exhaustion, by general tuberculosis, or by amy¬ 
loid disease. Appropriate treatment of the first and sec¬ 
ond stages offers about 50 per cent, of recoveries; opera¬ 
tive treatment of the third stage has so far cured about 
one-third of the cases submitted to it. In a large number 
of cases, although the inflammation is arrested, and hence 
life is saved, the joint becomes permanently immobilized 
(ankylosis) by fibrous bands within and around its cavity, 
that hold the articular surfaces firmly together (false anky¬ 
losis). This result is to a certain extent favored by the 
treatment adopted for the cure of inflammations; it is im¬ 
portant therefore that the stiffened limb be left in the most 
favorable position for use—namely, extension. 

The treatment varies according to the stage of the dis¬ 
ease. During the primary osteitis that so often precedes 
inflammation of the joint, and is indicated by the one 
symptom of lameness, constitutional treatment is to be 
adopted—cod-liver oil, iron, cinchona, nourishing food, 
fresh air, and salt-water bathing. As soon as the move¬ 
ments of the joint are compromised, local treatment be¬ 
comes of primary importance. It aims—1st, to immobilize 
the joint, so as to prevent friction of the inflamed parts; 
2d, to extend the limb, so as to separate as much as pos¬ 
sible the folds of the lining membrane, to reduce to a 
minimum size the cavity of the joint, and thus favor the 
reabsorption of fluids; finally, to leave the limb in the 
best position for use should it become permanently stiff¬ 
ened. The limb can only be maintained in extension by a 
force sufficient to overcome the spasmodic muscular con¬ 
tractions. Many apparatuses are devised for this purpose, 
in which the limb is straightened out and fastened to an 
inflexible plane, and forcibly retained in this position by 
means either of a weight attached to the foot or a sliding 
screw at the knee. The simplest form of apparatus is 
made by swathing the limb in bandages stiffened by plas¬ 
ter of Paris or dextrine. These are only adapted to the 
earliest stage, or when cure is already progressing. It 
enables the patient to walk about. This facility is also 
afforded by steel apparatus that supports the limb at the 
waist and foot, and gradually extends it by continued trac¬ 
tion at the knee. In other cases the patient is kept in bed, 
the leg fastened to a simple long splint, with a cross-piece 
under the foot, to which is attached the weight. A large 
double gutter, in which were laid the entire pelvis and both 
lower extremities of the patient, was formerly famous, but 
is now seldom used. During the employment of such ap¬ 
paratus, ice may be applied to the joint to subdue acute 
inflammation, occasionally blisters, where fluid has been 
rapidly effused, more often pressure by means of elastic 
bands, a powerful means of promoting reabsorption. 
Leeching is useless, as also are applications of iodine; 
while cauterization, formerly much in vogue, is now gen¬ 
erally condemned. 

When suppuration has occurred within the joint, and 
especially when pus has discharged externally by one or 
more fistulae, it is necessary to amputate (resect) the head 
of the thigh-bone. Very extensive destruction of the hip¬ 
bone and certain general diseases, amyloid disease or gen¬ 
eral tuberculosis, with incoercible diarrhoea, contra-indicate 
the operation. After it, death may result from such com¬ 
plications or from surgical fever (pyaemia, septicemia). 
When successful, however, the patient is rescued from an 
otherwise certain death, and the joint recovers its integrity, 
ankylosis being much less frequent than after treatment by 
immobilizing apparatus. 

Mary C. Putnam Jacobi. 

Cox Creek, a post-township of Clayton co., Ia. Pop. 

989. 

Coxe (Arthur Cleveland), D. D., a son of Dr. S. H. 
Cox, noticed above, an American Episcopalian bishop, 
born at Mcndham, N. J., May 10, 1818, graduated at the 
University of New York in 1838, and took holy orders in 
1841. He wrote, besides other works, “ Christian Ballads ” 
(1840) and “Impressions of England” (1856). He became 
rector of Calvary church in the city of New York in 1S59, 
and bishop of Western New York in 1865. 

Coxe (John Redman), M. D., born at Trenton, N. J., in 
1773, received his medical education in Europe, settled in 
Philadelphia in 1796, was a professor in the University of 
Pennsylvania (1809-35), and was the author of several 
medical, scientific, and literary works. Died Mar. 22,1864. 

Coxe (William), an English historian, born in London 
Mar. 7, 1747. Ho was appointed curate of Denham in 
1771. Ho published, besides other works, « Travels in Rus¬ 
sia, Poland, Sweden, and Denmark ” (1784), a “ History of 
tho House of Austria” (1792), “Memoirs of Sir Robert 













1182 


COXE’S—CRAB. 








Walpole” (3 vols., 1798), and “Memoirs of the Kings of 
Spain of the House of Bourbon, 1700-88” (1813). He be¬ 
came archdeacon of Wilts in 1805. Died July 8, 1828. 

Coxe’s, a township and village of Etowah co., Ala., on 
the Selma Rome and Dalton It. R. Pop. 274. 

Coxsack'ie,a post-village of Greene co., N. Y., near the 
Hudson River, 22 miles S. of Albany. It has six churches, 
an academy, important manufactures of brick, a national 
bank, and one weekly newspaper. Pop. of Coxsackie 
township, 3829. 

Coyo'te [a Spanish American name, probably derived 
from the Mexican cayotl , “ wolf ”], a popular name tor 
the small barking or prairie wolf, of which several varie¬ 
ties occur in the U. S. and Mexico. (See Wolf.) 

Coyote, a township and village of Trego co., Kan., on 
the Kansas Pacific R. R., 273 miles W. of Topeka. P. 17. 

Coy'pu, the South American name of the Myopotamns 
Coypua, a quadruped allied to the beaver, with which it 

agrees in its teeth, limbs, 
feet, and in some of its 
habits; but it differs 
from the beaver in the 
form of the skull, hav¬ 
ing a more elongated 
muzzle and a contracted 
palate ; and in the tail, 
which resembles that of 
°- P u ‘ a rat. It is the only- 

known species of its genus, and inhabits South America 
on both sides of the Andes, burrowing in river-banks, and 
sometimes near the sea-beaches. It is nearly as large as 
the beaver, has small ears, very long and stiff whiskers, 
long hair mixed with dense, soft, short hair, the upper parts 
beautifully pencilled with shades of yellow, the sides and 
under parts lighter and more uniform in color. The fur 
has become an important article of commerce under the 
names of ragondin and nutria, the latter name (signify¬ 
ing in Spanish an “ otter”) being that chiefly in use in 
the U. S. 

Coz'zens (Frederick Swartwout), an American 
writer, born in New York Mar. 5, 1818, was a wine- 
merchant. He contributed to the “ Knickerbocker 
Magazine” and “Putnam’s Magazine.” Among his 
works are “ Prismatics ” (1853) and “ Sparrowgrass 
Papers” (1856). Died Dec. 23, 1869. 

Cozzens’ Landing, a village of Cornwall town¬ 
ship, Orange co., N. Y., near the West Point Military 
Academy, and on the Hudson River. 

Crab [Lat. cancer; Gr. /cdpa/3o?; Ger. Krabbe; Fr. 

crabe], a name popularly 
applied to many decapod 
crustaceans, arranged in 
the sub-orders Anomura 
(irregularly-tailed crabs) 
and Brachyura (short¬ 
tailed crabs). Among the 
very numerous species the 
following are important: 

1. Sub-order Anomura .— 
The Pagurus Bernhardus, the 
European hermit crab, has 
a hard shell, while the ab- 

Hermit Crab (with shell). J omi . nal portion is soft, 

forming a fleshy mass be¬ 
hind the cephalothorax. The comfort of the animal re¬ 
quires some shelter for this appendage, and for this 
purpose he selects the empty shell of some mollusk. 

He coils himself in this 
shell, and secures his 
position by a sucker at 
the extremity of the 
tail, and by several 
feet on the abdominal 
sac. He adheres so 
firmly to this home that 
he will be destroyed 
rather than loosen his 
hold. By protruding 
his body with his three 
pairs of legs, he is able 
to walk in search of 

Hermit Crab (without shell). prey, but if danger ap¬ 
proaches he hastens into the shell, the orifice being 
filled by one of his claws. He changes his residence 
as often as he needs a larger one, and may be seen crawl¬ 
ing in and out of shells cast upon the beach, in search 
of a suitable home. He returns to his old home after 
each trial until he finds one fitted for his comfort. There 
are many species of the hermit crab, one or more of which 


Eriphia spinifrons. 


Purse Crab: Birgua latro. 

are found on the American coasts. The purse crab (Birgus 
latro) is a hermit crab of Amboyna and some other islands. 


Spinous Spider Crab: Maia spinado. 

It inhabits the fissures of rocks, and seeks its food along 
the beach at night. When observed, it snaps its claws 




































CRAB-APPLE—CRABRO. 


1183 




or oval, the front transverse and knotted. They inhabit the 
muscle shell. The ancients were acquainted with one spe¬ 
cies of this crab, and believed that it found food for the 
mollusk and warned him of danger. There are several 
American species of this genus, one of which is a well- 
known parasite upon the oyster. The land crabs of the 
tropics are among the most curious members of this family. 
They live upon mountains at a distance from the sea, and 
have a kind of leaflet for retaining moisture in the branchial 
cavities. Once a year they visit the coast to deposit their 
eggs. It is said that in these journeys they have been ob¬ 
served to form a procession one hundred and fifty feet wide 
and three miles long. In Jamaica they are much valued 
as food. They live in moist regions, and make excava¬ 
tions which they inhabit during the day, seeking their 
food at night. Some species are said to live in dry 
woods. The violet crab (Cardisoma carnifex) inhabits 
the West Indian Islands, chiefly in the mangrove 
swamps. Its food is the fruit of a species of Anona, 
but it is said also to frequent cemeteries and devour the 
bodies. It is highly regarded as food, but only those 
are eaten which live at a distance from the cemeteries. 
Another kind of land crab (the Gelasimus) is named the 
calling crab, from the beckoning gesture of the claw 
which it makes when alarmed. This claw is larger than 
the other, and is used in digging its burrows. A com¬ 
mon American species, the Gelasimus vocans, is called 
the fiddler, because one of its claws is thought to re¬ 
semble a fiddle. It lives on the land, but is at home 
also in the water. It remains in its hole in the winter. 
The Thelphusm are land crabs, but some of them inhabit 
freshwater. Many of the so-called land crabs are prop¬ 
erly crayfish. (For the king-crab (usually regarded as 
an entomostracan) see King-crab.) 

Crab-Apple (Pyrus Coronaria), a small tree grow¬ 
ing wild in the U. S., bears rose-colored fragrant blos¬ 
soms and fragrant greenish fruit, which is prized for 
preserves. Another wild crab-apple, the Pyrus angusti- 
folia, also grows in the Southern States. The cultiva¬ 
ted crab-apple is the Pyrus baccata, a native of Siberia. 

(See Apple.) 

Crabb (George W.) was born in Tennessee, but re¬ 
moved to Alabama. He distinguished himself in the In¬ 
dian war in Florida, where he was made a major-general. 
He was elected a member of Congress in 1838, but defeated 
in 1841. Died in 1847. 

Crabbe (George), an English poet, born at Aldborough, 
Suffolk, Dec. 24, 1754. He learned the profession of sur¬ 
geon, which he soon renounced. He went to London in 
1780, and soon produced “The Candidate,” an unsuccessful 
poem, and was reduced to extreme poverty, from which 
he was relieved by the generosity of Edmund Burke, 
who received him as an inmate in his own house, and 
secured the publication of “The Library” by Dodsley 
(1781). Having taken holy orders in 1782, he became 
chaplain to the duke of Rutland at Belvoir Castle, and 
married Miss Sarah Elmy. His reputation was in¬ 
creased by the “The Village,” a poem (1783). He be¬ 
came curate of Strathern in 1785, and obtained the 
living of Trowbridge, in Wiltshire, in 1813. Among 
his works are “The Parish Register” (1807), “The 
Borough’'* (1810), and “Tales in the Hall” (1819). He 
was distinguished for his vigor and the “ Chinese ac¬ 
curacy” of his observation. “Mr. Crabbe,” says Lord 
Jeffrey, “is the greatest mannerist, perhaps, of all our 
living poets. The homely, quaint, prosaic style, the 
eternal full-lengths of low and worthless characters, 
with their accustomed garnishing of sly jokes and fa¬ 
miliar moralizing, are all on the surface of his writings.” 
Died Feb. 3, 1832. (See “Life of George Crabbe,” by 
his son, 1838.) 

Crabbe (Thomas), I'ear-admiral U. S. N., was born in 
Maryland in 1788, entered the navy when young, became 
a captain in 1841, a commodore in 1862, and rear-ad¬ 
miral in 1866. Died at Princeton, N. J., June 29, 1872. 

Crab Creek, a township of Henderson co., N. C. 
P. 607. 

Crab Orchard, a post-village of Lincoln co., Ivy., 
on the Knoxville branch of the Louisville and Nashville 
R. R., 40 miles S. by E. from Lexington. Here are 
important saline mineral springs, much resorted to from the 
Southern States. Pop. 631. 

Crab Orchard, a township of Mecklenburg co., N. C. 
Pop. 1522. 

Cra'bro [Lat. for hornet], a genus of hymenoptcrous in¬ 
sects belonging to the section Aculeata, or sting-bearers, and 
to the sub-section Fossores (burrowers). The hoi net ( C) a - 
bro vulgaris ) is the type of this genus, which is now raised 
to the rank of a family named Crabronidm. Somo insects 


fiercely and retreats. It is said to climb the cocoanut tree 
for the fruit, but this is probably untrue. 

2. Sub-order Brachyura .—This sub-order includes, among 
others, the following families : the Maiadae, or spider crabs, 
which live in deep water, and are seldom seen on the shore. 
One species, the Libinia canaliculata, found along the 
American coast north of the Chesapeake, is said to feed 
upon oysters. The family Canceridae includes those of 
which the common crab of Europe (Cancer pagurus) is the 
type. In these the shell is narrow behind and round in 
front, the claws of unequal size. These inhabit deep water, 
and are caught in nets or baskets. Many edible species are 


Parthenope horrida. 

known in various parts of the world. The Portunidae re¬ 
semble the Canceridae, and are called paddling crabs. The 
common edible crab of the U. S. (Lupea dicantha) is found 
along the whole coast. These, like other crabs, moult once 
a year, and are several days casting the shell, but a new 
one is soon formed. While the new shell is tender, or before 
it is formed, they are called soft-shell crabs, and are much 
esteemed as food. The common small edible crab ( Car- 
cinu8 moenas) is a small species found in England and 


The Red Sea Crab: Lupea pelagica. 

France, and one similar to it frequents our coast. These 
are found at low tide under stones and sand. Some crabs 
of the genus Lupea live in the ocean, floating on the sea¬ 
weed or resting on the surface of the water. They are called 
swimming crabs. The Eriphia spinifrons is found in 
nearly all seas. The Parthenope horrida lives in the In¬ 
dian and Atlantic oceans. The Lupea pelagica is from 
the Red Sea. The Ocypodidse include the little pea 
crab (Pinnotheres pisum). The carapace is quadrilateral 



































CRABTREE—CRANACH. 


1184 


of this family excavate their nests or retreats in wood. In 
the U. S. they build in fences, trees, etc. 

Crab'tree, a township and post-village of Haywood 
co., N. C. Pop. 1048. 

Crack'lins, a township of Montgomery co., Md. Pop. 
3477. 

Cra'coAV, or Kra'kow, a city in Austrian Poland, on 
the left bank of the Vistula, 158 miles S. S. W. of Warsaw. 
It is connected by a railway with Vienna, Berlin, and 
Warsaw. It is the seat of a Catholic bishop, and has a 
castle founded about 700 A. D., a magnificent cathedral, 
and once had seventy-six churches, but only thirty-six are 
preserved, besides seven Jewish synagogues, a university 
(begun in 1343, chartered in 1364, finished in 1401, and re¬ 
organized in 1817), a library of 30,000 volumes, a botanic 
garden, and many monasteries. Cracow was founded about 
700 A. D., and was the capital of Poland from 1320 to 1609, 
when the court was removed to Warsaw. In the six¬ 
teenth century it contained thrice its present population. 
On the third partition of Poland, in 1795, it was annexed 
to the dominions of Austria. It formed a part of the duchy 
of Warsaw from 1809 to 1815. By the Congress of Vienna 
(1815) Cracow, with a small territory, was organized as a 
republic, under the protectorate of Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia. After an insurrection in 1846 it was again an¬ 
nexed to Austria. Pop. in 1869, 49,835, about one-fourth 
of whom are Jews. 

Crafts (Samuel Chandler), born at Woodstock, Conn., 
Oct. 6, 1768, graduated at Harvard in 1790, settled in Crafts- 
bury, Vt., in 1790; held many important offices in Ver¬ 
mont, and was long one of the judges of the State courts; 
was a member of Congress 1817-23, governor of the State 
1829-32, and became U. S. Senator in 1842. In 1802 he 
explored the Lower Mississippi in company with F. A. 
Michaux. Died at Craftsbury, Vt., Nov. 19, 1853. 

Crafts'bury, a post-township of Orleans co., Vt. It 
has an academy, and manufactures of woollen goods, doors, 
sash and blinds, etc. Pop. 1330. 

Crag, the name given to a part of the pliocene forma¬ 
tion in the east of England, in France, Italy, etc. It con¬ 
sists of a shelly sand and gravel used to fertilize soils 
which are deficient in calcareous matter. The “ coralline 
crag,” etc. of the older pliocene is extensively found in 
Europe and Asia. 

Cra'gin (Aaron II.), born in Weston, Vt., Feb. 3, 1821, 
was a member of Congress from New Hampshire (1857-61), 
U. S. Senator (1865-71), and was re-elected in 1870 for six 
years. 

Craig, a county in the S. W. of Virginia, is drained by 
Craig’s Creek. The surface is partly mountainous; the 
soil is fertile. Tobacco, grain, wool, and fruit are raised. 
Capital, Newcastle. Pop. 2942. 

Craig, a township of Van Buren co., Ark. Pop. 282. 

Craig, a post-township of Switzerland co., Ind. Pop. 
1843. 

Craig (John), a Scottish Reformer, born in 1512. He 
entered the Dominican order, and had charge of the novices 
at Bologna. Converted to the doctrines of Calvin, he was 
tried and condemned to be burned by the Inquisition, but was 
saved b} 7 a mob, who, on the death of the pope, broke open 
the prison. He returned to Scotland, and became a colleague 
of John Knox in the church of Edinburgh. He was ap¬ 
pointed chaplain to James VI. in 1579, and wrote the Na¬ 
tional Covenant in 1580. Died in Dec., 1600. 

Craig (Lewis S.),an American officer, born in Virginia, 
entered the U. S. army as second lieutenant of dragoons in 
1837; transferred to the infantry 1838; promoted to be 
first lieutenant in 1840, and captain in 1846. He served 
with distinction during the war with Mexico at Monterey 
(brevet major), Cerro Gordo (brevet lieutenant-colonel), 
Contreras, and Churubusco, severely wounded in the latter. 
He was killed by deserters, while in discharge of his duty, 
June 6, 1852, near New River, Cal. 

Craig (Sir Thomas), a Scottish lawyer, born about 1540. 
He was appointed a judge (justice-depute) in 1564. He 
wrote, besides Latin poems, a celebrated “ Treatise on 
Feudal Law” (“ Jus Feudale,” 1655). Died Feb. 26, 1608. 

Craig'heacl, a county in the N. E. of Arkansas. Area, 
950 square miles. It is intersected by the St. Francis 
River and the Cache River. The surface is nearly level* 
the soil fertile. Corn, tobacco, cotton, wool, and live-stock 
are raised. Capital, Jonesborough. Pop. 4577. 

Craigs'ville, a post-village of Blooming Grove town¬ 
ship, Orange co., N. Y., has manufactures of cotton goods. 

Craik (Dinah Maria), better known as Miss Muloch, 
an English novelist, born at Stoke-upon-Trent in 1826. 
Her first novel, “ The OgUvies,” was published in 1849, 


and “John Halifax, Gentleman,” in 1857. In 1865 she 
married G. L. Craik, a nephew of the literary historian. 
Besides novels and other works, she has published a vol¬ 
ume of poems. 

Craik (George Lillie), one of the most useful writers 
of his time in the field of literary history and biography, 
was born in Fifeshire, Scotland, in 1799. In 1830 he pub¬ 
lished an interesting compilation of biographical anecdote, 
“ The Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties,” in one 
volume. This was originally issued by the Society for the 
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, but has since been many 
times reprinted. He wrote several of the books published 
by the above-named society in their well-known series, 
and he also rendered much valuable help in the prepara¬ 
tion of Knight’s “Pictorial History of England,” and 
wrote many of the historical and biographical articles in 
the “ Penny Cyclopaedia.” In 1836 appeared in the Use¬ 
ful Knowledge series “ Paris and its Historical Scenes,” 2 
vols.; in 1844-45, “ Sketches of the History of Literature 
and Learning in England,” six small volumes in three. 
This excellent work of permanent value was rewritten from 
chapters on the subject in the “ Pictorial History of Eng¬ 
land.” A new and enlarged edition, “Manual of English 
Literature and the English Language,” was published in 
1862. In 1845, Craik published “ Spenser and his Poetry,” 
3 vols., and in 1846-47, “Bacon, his Philosophy and Writ¬ 
ings,” 3 vols. Each of these books was reprinted in 1859- 
60 in one small volume. The “ Bacon ” is a remarkable 
piece of condensation, completeness, and accuracy. In 
1848 appeared another book of anecdote, which has had a 
wide popularity, “ The Romance of the Peerage.” In 
1849, Craik was made professor of history and of English 
literature in Queen’s College, Belfast, and in 1851 he pub¬ 
lished “ Outlines of the History of the English Language,” 
and in 1857 a well-known book, the parent of many others 
of its kind, “ The English of Sliakspeare illustrated by a 
Philological Commentary on his ‘ Julius Caesar.’ ” Besides 
much valuable information and suggestion, this edition 
of Julius Caesar contains two or three original emenda¬ 
tions, one of which is of real importance. Prof. Craik 
died June 25, 1866. A nephew of the professor, of the 
same name, married Miss Muloch (Dinah Maria). 

Clarence Cook. 

Craik (James), M. D., derives interest from his long 
and intimate association with Washington. Their commis¬ 
sions in the army were dated the same day, and their friend¬ 
ship was cemented by fifty years’ intercourse. lie was born 
in Scotland in 1731, was surgeon to the expedition against 
the Indians in 1754, was at Braddock’s defeat (9th July, 
1755), and subsequently served throughout the American 
Revolution. Washington said of him, “He was my com¬ 
patriot in arms, my old and intimate friend.” After the 
Revolution he practised at Mount Vernon, and was the 
family physician of Washington. Died Feb. 6, 1814. 

Paul F. Eve. 

Cramp (John Mockett), D. D., born July 25, 1796, at 
St. Peter’s, Isle of Thanet, Kent, England, educated at 
Stepney College, was ordained May 7, 1818, and became 
pastor of the Baptist church in Dean street, Southw 7 ark, 
London. In 1827 he returned to his native place, and 
was associated in the ministry there with his father. In 
1842 he became pastor of the Baptist church at Hastings, 
Sussex. In 1844 he became president of the Baptist col¬ 
lege, Montreal, Canada, and president of Acadia College, 
Nova Scotia, in 1851; the principal of the theological de¬ 
partment 1853-60 ; was reappointed president in 1860, and 
retired in 1869. In 1831 he published “A Text-Book of 
Popery;” in 1833, “The Reformation in Europe” (issued 
by the Religious Tract Society); in 1844, “ Lectures for 
these Times;” in 1868, “Baptist History;” and in 1871, 

“ The Lamb of God.” He has published about twenty 
sermons, lectures, or essays in pamphlet form. He has 
written also “ Paul and Christ: a Portraiture and an Argu¬ 
ment,” and a memoir of the late Madame Feller of the 
Grande Ligne Mission, Canada. 

Cramp'ton’s Gap, a pass in the South Mountains, 
near Burkittsville, Frederick co., Md. The left wing of Gen. 
McClellan’s army, under command of Gen. W. B. Frank¬ 
lin, approached this pass about noon of the 14th of Sept., 
1862, to find it defended by a portion of the Confederate 
general McLaw’s division of Lee’s army, under command 
of Gen. Howell Cobb. After a stubborn fight of four or five 
hours, the Confederates were forced out of the gap, having 
suffered severe loss in killed and wounded, besides 400 
prisoners and many small-arms. 

Cra'nach, or Kranach (Lucas), called the Elder, an 
eminent German painter and engraver, born at Cranach, a 
town near Bamberg, in 1472. His family name was Sunder. 
He became court-painter to Frederick, the elector of Saxony, 
in 1504, and worked for many years at Wittenberg, w’hero 














1185 


CRANACH, VON—CRANIUM. 


he was much respected and was made burgomaster. lie 
continued to hold the office of court-painter under the two 
successors of Frederick, John the Constant and John Fred¬ 
erick the Magnanimous, and when, after the battle of 
Muhlberg in 1547, John Frederick was taken prisoner, 
Cranach shared his five years’ captivity. They were both 
released in 1552. He was also an intimate friend of Luther 
and Melanchthon, whose portraits he both painted and en¬ 
graved. His works consist of oil paintings, engravings on 
copper, and woodcuts. His most important picture is at 
Weimar. It is an altar-piece. He was so rapid and pro¬ 
lific a worker that he was called pictor celeb err imus, and it 
is not surprising that his pictures arc found in every con¬ 
siderable collection in Europe. There are two good speci¬ 
mens of his work in the Bryan Gallery, New York His¬ 
torical Society, a “ Venus and Cupid” and a “ Portrait,” 
and one in the New York Metropolitan Museum, a portrait 
of John Frederick the Magnanimous. He died Oct. 1G, 
1553. (See Heller, “Das Leben und die Werke Lucas 
Cranach’s,” 2d ed., Bamberg, 1844. But the latest and 
best authority is Schuchaudt, “ Lucas Cranach des iElteren 
Leben und Werke,” Leipsic, 3 vols., 1S51-71.) 

Clarence Cook. 

Cranach, von (Lucas), a painter, a son of the pre¬ 
ceding, was born in 1515. He painted portraits with 
success. He was burgomaster of Wittenberg. A good 
specimen of his work is in the Metropolitan Museum, New 
York—“ Portrait of a German Lady.” Died in 1586. 

Cran'berry (?. e. “crane-berry,” so called because its 
slender stalks were fancied to resemble tho legs of a crane), 
the fruit of several species of a sub-genus, Oxycoccus, of 
small, mostly prostrate evergreen shrubs of the natural 
order Ericaceae, belonging to the genus Vaccinium, but 
differing from the rest of the genus in having a wheel¬ 
shaped corolla, with its four petals decidedly revolute. The 
species are few, natives of tho colder regions of the northern 
hemisphere. The fruit is acid, and is in great request for 
making sauces, jellies, etc. The only British species is the 
Vaccinium Oxycoccua, a native also of tho northern parts 
of Europe, Asia, and America. It grows in marshy grounds 
in the Northern States, and is a wiry shrub with creeping 
branches, and small oval leaves strongly revolute at the 
margin. The blossoms are small, but beautiful, and of a 
deep rose-color. Large quantities of the fruit are collected 
in the north of England and in other countries, but it is 
seldom gathered in the U. S. They are often kept for a 
long time in water. They are an excellent antiscorbutic, 
and valuable in sea-stores. A sort of wine is made from them 
in Siberia and Russia. The American cranberry ( Vac¬ 
cinium Macrocarpon ) is a larger and more erect plant, 
with larger leaves, less revoluto at the edges. Tho berries 
are larger and of a brighter red. It is a native of Canada, 
but is found as far S. as Virginia, growing in sandy bogs 
and also elevated situations. The berries are largely cul¬ 
tivated near the sea-coast in the Northern States, and 
large quantities of them exported to Europe. Cranberries 
are imported into Great Britain from Russia. The berries 
of the cowberry ( Vaccinium Vitis Idsea) are sold under 
the name of cranberries in Scotland, and used in tho same 
way. They also grow in New England, but are there 
scarcely edible. A third species of cranberry ( Vaccinium 
Erythrocarpon), a native of the Alleghanies in Virginia and 
Carolina, is a shrub four feet high, and with a habit more 
like that of the whortleberry than the other cranberries; 
it has an insipid fruit. The “ high-bush cranberry ” is the 
Viburnum Opulus of the U. S. and Europe. Its fruit has 
little value. The name mountain cranberry is often given 
to the Arctostaphylos Uva Ursi of the U. S. and Europe, a 
plant whose leaves are of value as a diuretic. 

Cranberry, a township of Alleghany co., N. C. Pop. 
458. 

Cranberry, a township of Mitchell co., N. C. P. 158. 

Cranberry, a township of Crawford co., 0. P. 1281. 

Cranberry, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 945. 

Cranberry, a township and post-village of Venango 
co., Pa., GO miles N. N. E. of Pittsburg. Pop. of township, 
2337. 

Cranberry Isles, a post-township of Hancock co., 
Me., consisting of small islands just outside of Mount 
Desert Island. The inhabitants arc engaged in the fish¬ 
eries. Pop. 350. 

Cran'bury, a post-village and township of Middlesex 
co., N. J., on the Camden and Amboy R. R. 

Cranch (Christopher Pearse), a son of the following, 
an American artist and poet, born at Alexandria, \ a., Mar. 
8, 1813, graduated at Columbian College, Washington, in 
1831, studied divinity, but became a landscape-painter and 
author. He published a volume of poems (1854), and two 
stories for children, “The Last of the Iluggcrmuggers” 
75 


(1856) and “Koboltozo” (1857); also a translation of 
Virgil’s “JEneid” (1872). Many of his finest poems ap¬ 
peared in the “Dial.” Revised by Clarence Cook. 

Cranch (William), LL.D., an eminent American jurist, 
born at Weymouth, Mass., July 17, 1769, graduated at Har¬ 
vard in 1787. He was appointed chief-justice of the U. S. 
circuit court for the District of Columbia in 1805. He held 
this position for fifty years, during which, it is said, only 
two of his decisions were overruled by the Supreme Court 
of the U. S. As reporter of the decisions of the Supreme 
Court he prepared nine volumes of reports (1801-15). His 
legal learning was very profound. Judge Cranch was first 
cousin to President John Quincy Adams. Died Sept. 1, 
1855. 

Crane [from the Anglo-Sax. c ran; Ger. Kranich; Gr. 
yepavoi; Lat. grus (gen. grids) ; Fr. grue], a popular name 
of various birds of the order Grallatores, and belonging to 
the family Gruidae, of which the genus Grus alone occurs in 
the U. S. This family differs from herons, storks, etc. in 
having the short hind toe placed much higher on the leg 
than the front ones. They are nearly all large birds, with 
long necks, long legs, and powerful wings. Their wings 
are not elongated, but rounded. One of these is the com¬ 
mon European crane ( Grus cinerca ), which breeds in the 
northern parts of Europe and Asia; it retires in winter to 
sub-tropical regions. Flocks of cranes periodically pass 
over the southern and central countries of Europe, utter¬ 
ing harsh cries, and often alighting for food. This crane, 
when standing, is about four feet high, its color ashen- 
gray, with face and neck nearly black. The visits of the- 
crane to Great Britain are now rare; formerly they were 
more frequent. It feeds on seeds and roots, insects, rep¬ 
tiles, and small quadrupeds. It is highly valued for the 
table. The whooping crane ( Grus Americana) is larger 
than the common crane, which it resembles, except that its’ 
plumage is pure white, the wings tipped with black. It 
frequents the southern parts of the U. S. in winter;: in 
summer it migrates northward. The U. S. have also the: 
sand-hill crane (Grus Canadensis) and the Grus /rater - 
cuius, the little crane. To this family belongs also the' 
demoiselle ( Anthrojjoidcs virgo) or Numidian crane, with 
which, rather than with the true crane, the Balearic cranes- 
(Balearica ) are ranked. Cranes use their bills as a weapon, 
of defence, attacking tho eyes of an assailant. The blue, 
heron (Ardea Herodias ) is sometimes called the blue crane. 

Crane, a machine employed to raise heavy weights and 
to deposit them at some distance from their former position. 
Tho most common crane consists of an upright revolving 
shaft, with a projecting arm or transverse jib, at the upper- 
end of which is a fixed pulley. At the other end is a cylin¬ 
der, which is put in motion by a wheel and pinion or cog¬ 
wheel. The weight is fastened to a rope which passes over 
the pulley and is wound round the cylinder, by means of 
which the weight is raised to the required height. 

Crane, a township of Paulding co., 0. Pop. 1686. 

Crane, a township of Wyandot co., 0. Pop. 3876. 

Crane (William Carey), D.D., born in Richmond, Va., 
Mar. 17, 1816, graduated at Columbian College and Hamil¬ 
ton Theological Seminary, pastor of a Baptist church in 
Montgomery, Ala., 1839-42. Since then he has occupied 
many positions of influence and responsibility in the South, 
and has been president of Baylor University (Independ¬ 
ence, Tex.) since 1863. He has contributed largely to tho 
periodical literature of both sections of our country. 

Crane (William Montgomery), an American naval 
officer, born at Elizabethtown, N. J., Feb. 1, 1776. Ho 
served with distinction in the war against Great Britain 
(1812-15). He became chief of the bureau of ordnance in 
1842. Died by suicide Mar. 18, 1846. 

Crane Creek, a township of Mason co., Ill. Pop. 1068. 

Crane Creek, a township of Barry co., Mo. Pop. 527. 

Cra'ney Island, at the mouth of Elizabeth River in 
Norfolk co., Va., has a lighthouse fifty feet high, standing 
in shallow water on iron screw-piles; lat. 36° 53' 28” N., 
Ion. 76° 20 r W. On this island the Confederates erected 
batteries during tho civil war. 

Crail'ford, a thriving post-village of Union co., N. J., 
on the Rahway River and on the Central R. R. of New 
Jersey, 161 miles from New York. It is finely laid out, and 
the surrounding region is fertile and picturesque. 

Cranganore, a maritime town of Southern India, is 
on the Malabar coast, about 18 miles N. ol Cochin. A 
Christian church has existed here at least since the fifth 
century. This place was taken from the Portuguese by 
the Dutch in 1663, and now belongs to the British. 

Craniology. See Phrenology, by S. R. Wells. 

Cranium. See Skull. 















1186 


CRANK—CRATES OF ATHENS. 


Crank [allied to the Icelandic kringr , a "circle”], an 
important contrivance which is a part of the machinery 
of steam-engines, and is the most usual mode of converting 
alternating circular or rectilinear motion into continuous 
circular motion, or vice versa; and for this purpose the 
crank must be connected by a rigid rod with the prime 
mover. The crank consists usually of a double winch, but 
is sometimes only single. The part between the two elbow- 
joints is termed the arm of the crank. The connecting rod 
which transmits the alternate motion is attached to the 
crank by a joint, and consequently is made to traverse the 
circumference of a circle of which the arm is the radius, 
and so to produce the rotation of the axis. When the con¬ 
necting rod is in a straight line with the crank (which 
occurs twice in every revolution), it has no tendency to 
turn the crank. A fly-wheel is attached to the shaft to 
equalize the motion, and prevent it from being much re¬ 
tarded at the "dead points”— i. e. the positions where the 
rod exerts no power. 

Cran'mer (Thomas), English reformer, born at Aslac- 
ton, in Nottinghamshire, July 2, 1489, of an ancient Nor¬ 
man family, lie studied at Jesus College, Cambridge, of 
which he became a fellow in 1510, and was well versed in 
Greek, Hebrew, and theology. lie lost his fellowship by 
marriage, but it was soon after restored on the death of his 
wife. In 1523 he was appointed lecturer on theology. He 
gained the favor of Henry VIII. in 1529 by advising that 
the question of the king’s divorce should be tried by the word 
of God and referred to the universities. He was appointed a 
chaplain to the king, who sent him to Rome on a special mis¬ 
sion. He married a niece of Osiander in 1532. He was ap¬ 
pointed archbishop of Canterbury in 1533 by the king, of 
whom he soon became the favorite minister and adviser. Ho 
co-operated with Henry in the suppression of monasteries, 
but in 1538 he opposed the law of the "Six Articles” or 
" Bloody Statutes.” He promoted the translation and cir¬ 
culation of the Bible. On the death of Henry VIII., Cran- 
mer. in accordance with the royal will, was appointed one 
of the regents of the kingdom. He was the head of a com¬ 
mission which composed the Liturgy of the Anglican Church 
in 1548, and efficiently supported the Protestant cause dur¬ 
ing the reign of Edward VI. On the accession of Queen 
Mary, in 1553, he was placed in the Tower on a charge of 
treason. He was also accused of heresy, and was induced 
by the hope of saving his life to recant six times, and to 
subscribe to the doctrines of the papal supremacy and the 
real presence; but his enemies were determined not to spare 
his life. He was burned at the stake Mar. 21, 1556, and 
met his death with great fortitude, thrusting his right hand 
into the flames before his body began to burn. According 
to Hume, "He was a man of merit, possessed of learning 
and capacity, and adorned with candor and sincerity, and 
all those virtues which were fitted to render him useful and 
amiable in society.” Macaulay and some other writers con¬ 
sider him an unscrupulous time-server. (See Archdeacon 
Todd, "Life of Cranmer,” 1831.) 

Crannoge,a term applied to a fortified island, such as 
are found in the lakes of Ireland and Scotland, and which 
were used as dwellings and places of refuge by the ancient 
Celtic inhabitants. The area of a small isle in some cases 
was enlarged by wooden piles or heaps of stones. Cran- 
noges are mentioned in Irish annals as early as the ninth 
century. (See Lake Dwellings.) 

Crans'ton, a township and village of Providence co., 
R. I. The village is on the Hartford Providence and Fish- 
kill R. R., 4 miles S. of Providence. It has extensive 
inanufactures of prints, cotton goods, thread, and ma¬ 
chinery. Total pop. 4822. 

Cranston (Henry Y.), born at Newport, R. I., in 
1790, was a prominent official of his native State and city, 
and was in Congress 1843-47. Died Feb. 12, 1864. 

Cran'tor [Kpayrop], a Greek Academic philosopher, 
born at Soli, in Cilicia, lived about 300 B. C. He was a 
pupil of Xenocrates at Athens, and wrote, besides other 
works, a " Treatise on Affliction,” which was highly es¬ 
teemed. He is mentioned by Horace as an eminent 
moralist. 

Cran'worth (Robert Monsey Rolfe), Baron, an Eng¬ 
lish judge, born at Cranworth, in Norfolk, Dec. 18, 1790. 
He was elected to Parliament as a liberal in 1832, became 
solicitor-general in 1831, and a baron of the exchequer in 
1839. In 1852 he was appointed lord chancellor by Lord 
Aberdeen. Having resigned in 1858, he was again lord 
chancellor from July, 1865. to June, 1866. Died July 26, 
1868. 

Crape [Fr. erdpe, from the Lat. crisp us, "crisped” or 
"curled”], a light, transparent fabric, made of raw silk 
deprived of its gloss. Crapes are crisped or smooth, ac¬ 
cording to the degree of twist in weaving. They are 


manufactured in Italy, England, and France, and arc ex¬ 
tensively used for mourning-dresses. 

Cra'shaw (Richard), an English poet, was the son of 
a clergyman. He was educated at the Charter-house and 
at Cambridge. In 1644 he was ejected from his fellow¬ 
ship for refusing to sign the Covenant. Going to France, 
he became a Catholic, and, befriended by Cowper, through 
the influence of Queen Henrietta Maria he obtained a sec¬ 
retaryship to a cardinal, and afterwards became a canon 
at Loretto, where he died in 1640. His works, marked 
with fertility of imagination and devout fervor, are " Steps 
to the Temple,” " Delights of the Muses,” and " Carmen 
Deo Nostro” (1646). 

Crassula'cefe [from Crassxda, one of the genera], also 
called Sempervi'vre, a natural order of exogenous plants 
(herbaceous or shrubby), all remarkable for the succulenco 
of their stems and leaves. It comprises about 300 species, 
widely distributed over the world, and abounding in South 
Africa. They grow in dry situations, and derive nourish¬ 
ment from the air rather than from the soil. Many of them 
are cultivated in green-houses on account of their grotesque 
forms. The Sedum (stone-crop), houseleek, and other plants 
of the U. S. belong to this order. 

Cras'sus (Marcus Licinius), a Roman triumvir, born 
about 108 B. C., was in his youth a partisan of Sulla. He 
was elected prmtor in 71 B. C., and defeated Spartacus, the 
leader of a servile revolt. In the year 70 he was chosen 
consul as the colleague of Pompey. He amassed an im¬ 
mense fortune by speculation, mining, dealing in slaves, 
and other methods. Avarice is said to have been his ruling 
passion, but for the sake of political success he gave large 
gifts to the people. About 60 B. C. he united with Cmsar 
and Pompey in a coalition called the first triumvirate. 
Crassus and Pompey having been chosen consuls in 56 
B. C., the former obtained command of Syria for five years. 
He invaded Partkia in the year 54, in order to enrich him¬ 
self by plunder. In 53 B. C. he was defeated with great 
loss by the Parthian general Surena, near Carrhse (the 
Haran of the Bible). He was treacherously killed at a 
conference with Surena soon after that battle (53 B. C.). 
(See Plutarch, " Life of Crassus.”) 

Cratae'gus [Gr. Kparcuyos, a "thorn-bush”], a genus 
of thorny shrubs of the natural order Rosacem, sub-order 
Pomese, which contains the pear, apple, etc., but distin¬ 
guished from the rest of the sub-order by its bony carpels. 
The species are numerous, natives of the temperate parts of 
the northern hemisphere, and often have flowers in beauti¬ 
ful corymbs. They are nearly all more or less spiny, hence 
the name thorn or thorn-bush is popularly applied to 
them. The only native of Great Britain is the hawthorn 
{Cratsegus Oxyacantha ), which is now naturalized in the 
Atlantic States of the Union. A number of other species 
are now found in plantations and hedges in Great Britain, 
of which the most common is the cockspur thorn (Cratsegus 
Crus Gctlli), a native of North America from Canada to Caro¬ 
lina. Its leaves are not lobed; its fruit rather larger than 
that of the hawthorn. The azarole (Cratsegus Azarolus), a 
native of the south of Europe, and the aronia (Cratsegus 
Aronia), a native of the Levant, are occasionally cultivated 
for their fruit, which is about as large as the Siberian crab, 
and is used for dessert or pies, as are the fruits of some 
American species in Canada. Cratsegus orientalis and 
Cratsegus tanacetifolia have also fruit of considerable size. 
The latter is much used in Armenia. Cratsegus Pyracantha 
differs in appearance from most of the genus. It is an ever¬ 
green shrub, with lanceolate, crenate leaves and clusters of 
rich red berries. It is a native of the south of Europe and 
the Caucasus. In Great Britain it is cultivated as an orna¬ 
ment, and known as the pyracantha. The American species 
are at least eleven in number. Apples, pears, and quinces 
are sometimes grafted upon thorn stocks. The thorn-bushes 
are used as hedge plants, but are apt to be infested by borers. 

Cra'ter [from the Gr. Kparijp, a "bowl” or "cup ”], the 
mouth or cup-shaped cavity at the summit of a volcanic 
mountain. Through this aperture the lava, scoriae, etc. are 
usually ejected, but these materials sometimes issue by im¬ 
mense rents in the sides of the mountain. (See Volcano, 
by Prof. Arnold Guyot, Pii. D., LL.D.) 

Crater (the "Cup”), one of Ptolemy’s northern con¬ 
stellations, situated near Cervus, the " Deer.” 

Crater, a township of Calhoun co., Ill. Pop. 564. 

Crat'erus [Gr. KpaTepos], an eminent Macedonian gen¬ 
eral, and one of the successors of Alexander the Great. 
He served under that prince in Asia, and was one of his 
favorite generals. After the death of Alexander (323 B. C.) 
he was associated with Antipater in the government of 
Macedonia. He was defeated by Eumenes, and killed in 
battle in Cappadocia in 321 B. C. 

Cra'tes [KpaTijs] of Athens, a Greek comic poet who 



























CRATES OF THEBES—CRAWFORD. 


flourished about 450 B. C. lie was also an actor, and per¬ 
formed parts in the plays of Cratinus. His works were 
greatly admired, and were praised by Aristotle. Only 
small fragments of them are extant. 

Crates of Thebes, a famous Cynic philosopher, lived 
about 320 B. C., and was a disciple of Diogenes at Athens. 
He had a high reputation for probity, wisdom, and self- 
control. He was rich in his youth, but set an example of 
voluntary poverty. Ho wrote poems and other works 
which are all lost. 

Crati'nus [KpariVo?], an eminent Athenian comic poet 
of the old comedy, was born in 519 B. C. He was a con¬ 
temporary and rival of Aristophanes. He was the first 
comic poet who introduced personal satire into the drama, 
and undertook to castigate the vices of his prominent con¬ 
temporaries. Pericles was among the objects of his satire 
and invective. Cratinus gained a prize for his “ Wine- 
Flask in 423 B. C., when Aristophanes was his competitor. 
Died in 422 B. C. 

Cratip'pus [Gr. KpaTi7rn-o?], a Greek Peripatetic phil¬ 
osopher, a native of Mitylcne. He was the most eminent 
philosopher of that age in the estimation of Cicero, who 
was his pupil and friend. Pompey, after his defeat at 
Pharsalia, had an interview with Cratippus, who conversed 
with him on Providence. Brutus attended his lectures at 
Athens in 44 B. C. Cratippus wrote a work “ On Divina¬ 
tion by Dreams.” 

Cra'ven, a county in the E. S. E. of North Carolina, 
bordering on Pamlico Sound. Area, 1000 square miles. 
It is intersected by the Neuse River. The surfae’e is nearly 
level, and partly occupied by swamps. Cotton, rice, and 
corn are raised. It is traversed by the Atlantic and North 
Carolina R. R. Capital, Newbern. Pop. 20,516. 

Craven, Earls of, Viscounts Uffington (United King¬ 
dom, 1801), Barons Craven (England, 1665).— George 
Grimston Craven, third carl, born Mar. 16, 1841, succeeded 
his father in 1866. 

Craven (Charles H.), U. S. N., born Nov. 30, 1843, in 
Maine, graduated at the Naval Academy as ensign in 
1863, became a lieutenant in 1866, and a lieutenant-com¬ 
mander in 1868. He served in the steam-sloop Housatonic 
off Charleston from early in 1863 to Feb. 14, 1864, when 
that vessel was blown up by a torpedo-boat. He was in 
the combined army and navy expedition which resulted 
in the capture of the greater part of Morris Island July 10, 
1863, and commanded a division of boats in the night as¬ 
sault upon Fort Sumter of Sept. 11, 1863. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Craven (Thomas T.), U. S. N., born Dec. 30, 1808, in 
Portsmouth, N. H., entered the navy as a midshipman 
May 1, 1822, became a passed midshipman in 1828, a lieu¬ 
tenant in 1830, a commander in 1852, a captain in 1861, a 
commodore in 1862, and a rear-admiral in 1866. During 
the summer of 1861 he commanded the Potomac flotilla. 
During the year 1862, while in command of the steam- 
sloop Brooklyn, he took part in the engagement with Forts 
St. Philip and Jackson and capture of New Orleans, and 
“excited the admiration of his officers and crew by his 
coolness and the masterly handling of his vessel.” He was 
engaged on the 28th of June, 1862, for two hours and forty 
minutes with the batteries at Vicksburg. In his report of 
the passage of the forts on his way to New Orleans, Ad¬ 
miral Farragut writes: “ It was not long before we were 
enabled to bear away and give the forts a broadside of 
shells, shrapnell, and grape, the Pensacola, at the same 
time, passing up and giving a tremendous broadside of the 
same kind to the starboard fort; and by the time we could 
reload, the Brooklyn, Captain Craven, passed handsomely 
between us and the battery, and delivered her broadside, 
and shut us out.” Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Craven (Tunis Augustus), U. S. N., born Jan. 11,1813, 
in the State of New York, entered the navy as a midship¬ 
man Feb. 2, 1829, became a passed midshipman in 1835, a 
lieutenant in 1840, and a commander in 1861. He com¬ 
manded the iron-clad Tecumseh in the engagement with 
Howlett’s battery, James River, June 21, 1864, and on the 
morning of Aug. 5, 1864, was blown up by a torpedo while 
gallantly leading the iron-clads into the bay of Mobile. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Craw'fish, or Cray'fish [etymologically related to the 
word errt5J, a name given to several long-tailed decapodous 
crustaceans, those of Europe and the Pacific States of our 
country belonging to the genus Astacns, while those of the 
Eastern States and the Mississippi Valley belong to the 
genus Ccunbarus . They inhabit fresh water, and dig long 
burrows in the earth. They feed upon insects, mollusks, 
dead animals, etc. By some they are esteemed for the table. 
Crawfishes do immense damage by opening passages for 
water through the levees of the Mississippi, which in some 


1187 


cases have caused extensive crevasses. In New England 
they are quite rare, but are occasionally seen. Certain 
salt-water crustaceans are popularly called crawfishes, es¬ 
pecially the spiny lobsters, of the genus Palinurm. 

Craw'ford, a county in the W. of Arkansas. Area, 585 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Arkansas River. 
The surface is partly mountainous. The soil is fertile. Tim¬ 
ber, lead, coal, and iron abound. Corn, tobacco, cotton, and 
wool are raised. Boston Mountain in this county is nearly 
2000 feet high. Capital, Van Buren. Pop. 8957. 

Crawford, a county in W. Central Georgia. Area, 289 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Flint 
River. The surface is uneven; the soil of the southern 
part is sterile. Cotton, corn, and wool are raised. Capital, 
Knoxville. Pop. 7557. 

Crawford, a county in the E. S. E. of Illinois. Area, 
420 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Wabash 
River, and drained by the Embarras River. It contains a 
large portion of prairie; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, 
tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital, Robinson. P. 13,889. 

Crawford, a county in the S. of Indiana. Area, 280 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Ohio River, 
and also drained by Blue River. The surface is uneven. 
The soil is fertile. Coal and iron abound here. Cattle, 
grain, tobacco, wool, and lumber are produced. Capital, 
Leavenworth. Pop. 9851. 

Crawford, a county in the W. of Iowa. Area, 700 
square miles. It is intersected by Boyer River and by the 
Chicago and North-western R. R. The soil is productive. 
Grain and wool are staple products. Cap. Denison. P. 2530. 

Crawford, a county in the S. E. of Kansas. Area, 504 
square miles. It is drained by small affluents of the Neo¬ 
sho River. It is a part of what was once known as the 
Cherokee Neutral Lands. The Missouri River Fort Scott 
and Gulf R. R. runs through the centre, and the Missouri 
Kansas and Texas R. R. through the N. W. portion of the 
county. The eastern portion is underlaid with fine beds 
of bituminous coal. The soil is fertile. Stock-raising and 
farming are the principal pursuits. The products are corn, 
wheat, root-crops, flax, castor beans, wool, tobacco, cotton, 
etc. Capital, Girard. Pop. 8160. 

Wasser &, Riddle, Eds. “Girard Press.” 

Crawford, a county in the N. of the southern penin¬ 
sula of Michigan. Area, 576 square miles. It is drained 
by the Au Sable River. 

Crawford, a county in S. E. Central Missouri. Area, 
600 square miles. It is intersected by the Maramec River. 
The surface is partly hilly. Productive mines of copper, 
iron, and lead have been opened here. Coal is also found 
in this county, which is traversed by the Atlantic and Pa¬ 
cific R. R. The soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are 
raised. Capital, Steelville. Pop. 7982. 

Crawford, a county in N. Central Ohio. Area, 412 
square miles. It is drained by the head-streams of the 
Sandusky and Olentangy rivers. The surface is nearly 
level; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are largely 
raised. Lumber, furniture, brick, clothing, metallic wares, 
etc. are manufactured. It is intersected by the Pittsburg 
Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R. Capital, Bucyrus. Pop. 
25,556. 

Crawford, a county in the N. W. of Pennsylvania. 
Area, 975 square miles. It is intersected by French Creek, 
and also drained by Oil and Shenango creeks. The surface 
is undulating; the soil is generally fertile. Cattle, grain, 
and wool are raised. Furniture, leather, lumber, barrels, 
carriages, etc. are manufactured. Large quantities of 
petroleum are procured in this county, which is traversed 
by the Atlantic and Great Western, the Pittsburg and Erie, 
and other railroads. Capital, Meadville. Pop. 63,832. 

Crawford, a county of Wisconsin, bordering on Iowa. 
Area, 612 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the 
Mississippi and on the S. E. by the Wisconsin River, and 
intersected by the Kickapoo. The surface is hilly; the soil 
fertile. Grain and wool are staple products. The Milwau¬ 
kee and St. Paul R. R. connects Milwaukee with Prairie 
du Chien, the capital of the county. Pop. 13,075. 

Crawford, a township of Yell co., Ark. Pop. 211. 

Crawford, a township of Madison co., Ia. Pop. 739. 

Crawford, a twp. of Washington co., Ia. Pop. 1317. 

Crawford, a township of Cherokee co., Kan. Pop. 593. 

Crawford, a twp. of Crawford co., Kan. Pop. 1535. 

Craivford, a post-twp of Washington co., Me. P. 209. 

Crawford, a township of Buchanan co., Mo. P. 1516. 

Crawford, a township of Osage co., Mo. Pop. 2438. 

Crawford, a township of Orange co., N. 1., on tho 
Middletown and Crawford R. R. It has five churches, and 

















1188 CRAWFORD—CREAM RIDGE. 


a scythe-factory and other manufacturing interests. Pop. 
2024. 

Crawford, a township of Currituck co., N. C. P. 1867. 

Crawford, a township of Coshocton co., 0. Pop. 1245. 

Crawford, a township of Wyandot co., 0. Pop. 1860. 

Crawford, a township of Clinton co., Pa. Pop. 400. 

Crawford, Earls or (1898), earls of Balcarres (1650), 
Barons Lindsay (previous to 1443), Barons Lindsay of 
Balcarres (1633), Lords Lindsay and Barneil (Scotland, 
1650), Barons Wigan (United Kingdom, 1826).— Alexan¬ 
der William Crawford Lindsay, twenty-fifth earl, M. A., 
author of “ Letters on Christian Art,” “ Lives of the Lind¬ 
says,” “ Progression by Antagonism,” etc., born Nov. 16, 
1S12, succeeded his father in 1869. 

Crawford (George W.), born in Columbia co., Ga., Dec. 
22, 1798, graduated at Princeton in 1820, was admitted to 
practise law in Georgia in 1822, was a member of Congress 
in 1843, governor of Georgia (1843-47), and secretary of 
war under President Taylor (1849-50). 

Crawford (Martin J.), an eminent citizen of Georgia, 
born Mar. 17, 1820, educated at Mercer University, rose to 
distinction at the bar, was elected to the State legislature 
in 1845, and elevated to the bench in 1853. In 1856 he was 
returned to Congress, and continued in the House of Rep¬ 
resentatives till Jan., 1861, when he withdrew on the se¬ 
cession of Georgia, and became a member of the Congress 
of the Southern States which met at Montgomery Feb. 4, 
1861. He was one of the three commissioners appointed 
by that body to treat with the authorities at Washington 
for a peaceful separation of the States. Since the war he 
has been actively engaged in the practice of his profession. 

Crawford (Nathaniel Macon), D. D., an American 
Baptist minister and eminent pulpit-orator, a son of Wil¬ 
liam H. Crawford, was born near Lexington, Ga., Mar. 22, 
1811. He became in 1854 president of Mercer University 
in Georgia. He was a prominent advocate of liberal edu¬ 
cation. Died Oct. 27, 1871. 

Crawford (S. Wyi.ie), an American officer, born in 
Franklin co., Pa., Nov. 8, 1829, graduated at the Uni¬ 
versity of Pennsylvania in 1847, appointed assistant sur¬ 
geon U. S. A. in 1851. He served principally in Texas and 
New Mexico. In 1861 he was appointed major Thirteenth 
Infantry U. S. A., promoted to be lieutenant-colonel Feb. 
17, 1864, and colonel Sixteenth Infantry Feb. 22, 1869; 
transferred to Second Infantry Mar. 15, 1869. On the out¬ 
break of the civil war, April, 1861, Gen. Crawford was among 
the garrison of Fort Sumter. He was commissioned brig¬ 
adier-general of volunteers April, 1862, and served in the 
Shenandoah campaign and with the Army of the Potomac 
up to the closing scenes at Appomattox Court-house, 1865. 
At Antietam, in 1862, he took command of Mansfield's 
division after the latter’s death, and was severely wounded. 
Brevet-colonel, brigadier-general, and major-general U. S. A. 
Retired from active service, on account of wounds re¬ 
ceived, Feb. 19, 1873. 

Crawford (Thomas), an American sculptor, born in 
New York Mar. 22, 1814. He was a pupil of Thorwakl- 
sen at Rome, where he worked for many years. He was 
employed in 1849 by the State of Virginia to execute a 
colossal equestrian statue of Washington, which is at 
Richmond. Among his works are a statue of “Orpheus,” 
and a colossal statue of the Genius of America, which is on 
the dome of the Capitol at Washington. Died in London 
Oct. 10, 1857. 

Crawford (William Harris), an American statesman, 
born in Amherst co., Va., Feb. 24,1772, removed to Georgia 
in his early youth. Having studied law, he was admitted 
to the bar in 1798, and settled at Lexington, Ga. He was 
elected a Senator of the U. S. in 1807 by the Democrats, 
and was sent as minister to France in 1813. He became 
secretary of war in 1815, and was secretary of the treasury 
from 1816 to Mar., 1825. In 1824 he was nominated for 
the presidency of the U. S. by a Congressional caucus. In 
the election of that year he had three competitors—Gen. 
Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and Henry Clay. Crawford 
received only forty-one electoral votes. Died Sept. 15, 
1834. 

Crawford County System. See Caucus, by Hon. 
Horace Greeley, LL.D. 

Craw'fordsville, a post-village of Crawford township, 
Washington co., Ia. Pop. 249. 

Crawfordsville, a post-village, capital of Montgomery 
co., Ind., on the Indianapolis Bloomington and Western 
R. R. where it crosses the Louisville New Albany and 
Chicago R. R., 44 miles W. N. W. of Indianapolis. It is 
the seat of Wabash College, founded in 1835, and has a 
national bank and three weekly papers. Pop. 3701. 

Craw'fordville, a post-village, capital of Wakulla 


co., Fla., 20 miles from Tallahassee. It has good soil and 
climate, and there are several mills and valuable mineral 
springs in the vicinity. 

Crawfordville, a post-village, capital of Taliaferro 
co., Ga., on the Georgia R. R., 65 miles W. of Augusta. 

Crayfish. See Crawfish. 

Cra'yon [from the Fr. crciie, “chalk”], a word of 
French origin, signifying something to mark with, hence a 
pencil; a cylinder of charcoal, pipeclay, or chalk colored 
with various pigments and used for drawing on paper. 
Cohesiveness is given to the paste of which the cylinder is 
formed by gum, wax, or soap. Crayons containing jilurn- 
bago are styled lead pencils. 

Crea / gerstown, a township and post-village of Fred¬ 
erick co., Md., 2 miles from the Western Maryland R. R., 
and about 40 miles N. W. of Baltimore. Pop. 2006. 

Cream [Lat. cremor ; Fr. creme ; Ger. Rhani], the oily 
or butyraceous part of milk, which being lighter rises to 
the surface. The berm cream is applied in different ways 
to various preparations, indicative of superior quality or 
of cream-like consistence, as cold cream, shaving cream, 
etc. The French expression “La creme de la creme” 
(“ The cream of the cream ”) signifies the most fashionable 
or aristocratic class of society. 

Cream of Tartar, Acid Tartrate of Potassa, 
Bitartrate of Potassa, Snpertartrate ofPotassa, 
or Potassie Bitartras [pharm.]; chemical constitution, 
KIIC 4 H 4 O 6 ; old system, KO,HO,(CsH 40 io), a compound 
existing already formed in the juice of the grape and in 
other vegetable juices. In the juice of the grape it is held 
in solution by the saccharine matters present, but as it is 
less soluble in solutions containing alcohol and less sugar, 
as the sugar is transformed into alcohol in the process of 
fermentation, it is deposited in the casks, forming the crude 
tartar or argol of commerce. The amount varies with the 
variety of the grape, its ripeness, and with the process pur¬ 
sued in making the wine. The well-known “crust” of 
port wine is simply a deposit of this crude tartar or argol. 
Cream of tartar was known to the ancients, the Greek 
name for it being rpvf, while the Latin term was fsex vini. 
Up to 1764 it was considered to be an acid, and even in 
1781 it was denominated in the Prussian Pharmacopoeia as 
acidurn tcirtari. Marggraf, however, showed in 1764 that 
the alkali existed in it already, and was not formed by in¬ 
cinerating it, as had been previously supposed. Argol is 
an article of export from wine-producing countries, the 
best qualities coming from Italy and the south of France. 
It is used as the source of tartaric acid and the various tar¬ 
trates employed in medicine and the arts. 

Argol, as met with in commerce, is of two kinds—red 
and white, according as it has been deposited in the manu¬ 
facture of red or white wines, some of the coloring-mat¬ 
ter of the wine always existing in it. It contains from 5 
to 45 per cent, of tartrate of lime, besides other impurities 
derived from the wine. It is refined by treatment with 
boiling water, in which the cream o*f tartar is quite solu¬ 
ble. The water being then cooled or evaporated, the salt 
crystallizes out; it is then redissolved in water, 4 or 5 per 
cent, of pipeclay added to the solution to precipitate the im¬ 
purities, the liquid drawn off and evaporated. Thus pre¬ 
pared, it consists of colorless rhombic crystals, which usu¬ 
ally contain 2 to 5 per cent, of tartrate of lime, besides, in 
some cases, traces of iron and copper. In damp situa¬ 
tions the tartrate of lime is apt to change to the carbonate, 
and hence is objectionable, both in the crude and the re¬ 
fined article. 

Cream of tartar has a pleasant acid taste, and is soluble 
in about 15 parts of boiling and 240 parts of cold water. 
It is much more soluble in water containing borax in solu¬ 
tion. It is frequently adulterated with sawdust, clay, gyp¬ 
sum, flour, chalk, alum, and sulphate of potash. Samples pur¬ 
chased from several grocers in New York in 1872 were found 
to contain considerable proportions of gypsum or sulphate 
of lime, in one case 70 per cent. Cream of tartar is ex¬ 
tensively used, in connection with bicarbonate of soda, as 
a substitute for yeast and leaven for raising bread. (See 
Bread.) Cream of tartar is often used as a mordant in 
dyeing wool. In medicine it is used for its cathartic, diu¬ 
retic, and refrigerant properties. It is frequently prescribed 
in combination with senna, sulphur, or jalap. It is also 
used for the preparation of soluble tartar (neutral tartrate 
of potash), Rochelle or Seignette salts (tartrate of potash 
and soda), tartar emetic (tartrate of potash and antimony), 
tartarized iron (tartrate of potash and iron), white and 
black flux, etc. Salt of tartar is the carbonate of potassa, 
prepared by the incineration of cream of tartar. 

C. F. Chandler. 

Cream Ridge, a post-township of Livingston co., Mo. 
Pop. 956. 













CREASY—CREED. 


1189 


Crea'sy (Sir Edward Shepherd), an English historian 
and lawyer, born at Bixley, in Kent, in 1812. He became 
professor of history in University College, London, in 1S50, 
and was appointed chief-justice of Ceylon in 1860. Among 
his works are “ Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World ” 
(1851) and a “ History of England” (5 vols., 1869-70). 

Cre'atilie [from the Gr. speas, “ flesh ”], a neutral prin¬ 
ciple discovered in 1835 by Chevreul in raw muscular flesh, 
and afterwards carefully studied by Liebig and others. 
Anhydrous creatine has the formula C 4 II 9 N 3 O 2 . Creatine is 
found in the flesh of many if not all vertebrate animals, 
but is now generally considered to be one of the products 
of the normal destruction of the tissues. It occurs in the 
urine. Combined with two equivalents of water, it readily 
forms brilliant, colorless, transparent crystals, soluble in 
water. 

Creat'inine, a powerful organic base or alkaloid 
(C4H7N3O) which exists in small quantities in the juice 
of animal flesh and in urine, as one of the products of the 
physiological destruction of tissues. When creatine is sub¬ 
jected to the action of strong acids, it is changed to crea¬ 
tinine, which is crystallized in colorless rhombic prisms. 

Crea'tionism, as distinguished from Traducianism 
and the doctrine of Pre-existence (which see), is the be¬ 
lief that the human soul is directly created by God, and 
that it joins the embryo soon after conception. Many pas¬ 
sages of Scripture, of the Fathers, and of Aristotle were 
quoted to sustain this view. 

Crebillon, tie (Prosper Jolyot), a French dramatic 
poet, was born at Dijon Jan. 13, 1674. He produced in 
1705 “Idomenee,” in i707 “ Atree,” “ Rhadamiste” in 1711, 
and “ Pyrrhus ” in 1726, after which he wrote nothing for 
twenty years. He was admitted into the French Academy 
in 1731. His genius was hampered by poverty. Among 
his later works is “Catilina” (1749). Died June 17, 1762. 
He is ranked among French dramatists of the first order. 
(See D’Alembert, “ ]£loge de Cr6billon.”)—His son, Claude 
Prosper Jolyot de Crebillon,^*, romancist, is known as 
one of the most libertine writers of a most dissolute age. 

Cr6cy, a small town of France, department of Somme, 
about 12 miles N. of Abbeville. It was the scene of a 
signal victory gained by Edward III. with 40,000 English 
soldiers over a French army of 100,000 on the 26th of Aug., 
1346. It is stated that nearly 30,000 of the French were 
killed in this action. 

Credentials [from the Late Lat. credentict, “evidence,” 
“ trust” (from credo, to “believe”); Fr. lettres de creance ], 
papers or letters given to an ambassador or other diplo¬ 
matic agent, in order to enable him to claim the confidence 
of the court to which he is sent. There are two sorts of 
credentials—the one sealed, drawn up and countersigned by 
the minister of foreign affairs; the other open, and signed 
only by the king. 

Cretli, di (Lorenzo Sciarpelloni), an Italian painter, 
born at Florence in 1452. He was a fellow-pupil of Leo¬ 
nardo da Vinci. Grace and depth of feeling mark his pic¬ 
tures. Died Jan. 12, 1537. 

Cred'it [Lat. creditnm, a “ trust,” from credo , creditnm, 
to “trust,” to “believe,” to “lend;” Fr. credit ], belief, re¬ 
liance, reputation for solvency and probity; honor or es¬ 
teem; influence of a good character. In bookkeeping, 
credit, abbreviated as Cr., is the reverse of debit, and de¬ 
notes in personal accounts those it’ems or values received 
from the party named at the head of the account. The term 
credit or creditor is also applied to the side of an account- 
book on which are entered all moneys, goods, etc. received 
by the party that keeps the book. In political economy, 
credit is used to express the lending of money or other prop¬ 
erty. The party who lends money or sells goods to be paid 
for at some future time is said to give credit, which is 
sometimes defined to be the acquisition by one party of the 
wealth of another in loan. In a majority of cases loans are 
made by persons who wish to retire from business, or who 
have more capital than they can advantageously employ, 
to parties entering into business or who wish to increase 
their business. “Public credit” is a phrase used to ex¬ 
press the general confidence placed in the solvency of a 
state, and in its fidelity as well as its ability to pay its debts, 
or at least the interest on the same. 

Credit Foncier [i. e. “ landed credit,” from fond, 
“bottom” or “ground”], in France, a plan of borrowing 
money by mortgaging land (for a sum not exceeding half 
its value), and repaying the borrowed money and interest 
in small and regular instalments. The Credit Foncier was 
established Feb. 28, 1852. 

Credit, Letters of. See Letters of Credit. 

Credit Mobilier (i. e.“ credit on movable or personal 


property ”*), a name given to a gigantic scheme or joint- 
stock company which originated in France in 1852, and 
was sanctioned by the government, with a capital of 
60,000,000 francs. The objects of it arc—1. To initiate 
trading enterprises of all kinds on the principle of limited 
liability; 2. To supersede or buy up trading companies— 
e.g. railway companies—and to substitute scrip and shares 
of its own for the shares and bonds of the company; and 
3. To carry on the business of a bank or bankers on the 
principle of limited liability. (See Aycard, “Histoire de 
Credit Mobilier,” 1867.) 

“The Credit Mobilier of America” is the title of an 
organization chartered in Pennsylvania in 1859 as a cor¬ 
poration for a general loan and contract business, and re¬ 
organized in 1864 with the intention, it would appear, of 
enabling the shareholders of the Union Pacific R. R. to 
construct their road without incurring any pecuniary lia¬ 
bility in case of the failure of the enterprise. To this end 
the Credit Mobilier was to contract for the construction of 
the road at the risk of its own stockholders. The honesty 
of its management having been impeached, the affairs of 
the Credit Mobilier received (1872-73) an investigation 
from Congress, certain members of which were charged 
with having unlawfully profited by the enterprise. 

Credit River, a township of Scott co., Minn. P. 448. 

Creed [from the Lat. credo, to “believe;” Fr. croyance; 
Ger. Glaube], a term originally signifying “ belief,” but 
commonly applied to a statement or profession of funda¬ 
mental points of belief [Lat. symbolum; Fr. symbole or 
profession de foi; Ger. Glaubensbekentniss ], especially ap¬ 
plied to summaries of Christian doctrine. The Protestant 
churches agree in considering creeds mere standards of 
belief, the Bible alone affording authoritative rules of faith 
and practice, but they differ in their estimate of the im¬ 
portance of symbols. Among the more important creeds 
are the following: 

The Apostles’ Creed, a summary of the Christian faith 
which most Christian churches accept. Many ancient 
writers assert that this was composed by the apostles them¬ 
selves, before they separated after our Lord’s ascension ; 
but this tradition is now almost universally rejected. The 
substance of it is no doubt very ancient, but in its present 
form it dates from the fourth century. 

The Athanasian Creed, once supposed to be the work of 
Athanasius, was certainly composed by some other hand. 
It probably originated in Gaul, not far from the middle of 
the fifth century, but its author is not known. It is now 
omitted from the services of the Protestant Episcopal Church 
in America, but it is still read in the Church of England. 

The Niceno-Constantinopolitan (or Nicene) Creed was 
first adopted at the Council of Nice, 325 A. D. This creed 
sets forth the faith of the Church in respect to the errors 
of Arianism. It is admitted by many Protestant churches, 
and is held as authority in the Roman and Greek churches. 
The form in which the Nicene Creed now appears in the 
Anglican prayer-books is essentially identical with the 
modified form of this creed adopted by the second oecu¬ 
menical council of Constantinople, 381 A. D., with the ad¬ 
dition of “and of the Son,” made at Toledo in 589. The 
above formulas are known as the three catholic or general 
creeds, because they are received by the Greek and Roman 
churches, as well as by several Protestant bodies. 

The Creed of Chalcedon was an exposition of faith de¬ 
clared by the fourth oecumenical council, held A. D. 451 
at Chalcedon. It embraced the Niceno-Constantinopolitan 
Creed, followed by a statement of the doctrine of Christ’s 
Person. 

The so-called Creed of Pope Pius IY. is a statement of 
the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, as established 
by the Council of Trent. It was issued in 1564 by Pius 
IV. as a bull. It is slightly altered from the Nicene Creed 
in the first part, but is much more complicated, and especi¬ 
ally enforces the doctrine of transubstantiation. It is some¬ 
times called the “ Tridentine Profession.” 

The Greek Church has no symbolical books, strictly 
speaking, but approves the “Answers of the Patriarch 
Jeremiah to the Lutherans” (1574-81), the “Orthodox 
Confession of Peter Mogila” (1643), and the “Eighteen 
Articles of the Synod of Bethlehem” (1672). 

The Russian Church, in addition to its use of the above- 
mentioned documents, has of its own : (1) the “ Primer lor 
Children” (1720); (2, 3) the “Shorter” and “Longer Cate¬ 
chisms” (1839); (4) the “ Treatise on the Duty of Parish 
Priests” (1776). 

The Lutheran Church has had many creeds and confes¬ 
sions. Besides the Apostles’, Nicene, and Athanasian 
Creeds, may be mentioned the Augsburg Confession (1530), 
the Articles of Schmalcald (1537), the Catechisms of Luther 

* The term “mobilier” is especially applied to stocks, govern¬ 
ment securities, and the like. 
























CEEEDMOOR—CREOSOTE. 


1190 


(1529), the Confession of Lower Saxony (1571), the Sua- 
bian-Saxon Formula (1575), the Torgau Formula (1570), 
and the Formula Concordi® (1580). 

The Calvinistic Confessions of B&le (1530), the Tetrapol- 
itan Confession (1531), that of the Helvetic churches (1536), 
the Palatine Catechism (1563), the “ Expositio Simplex ” 
(1566), the “ Formula Consensus” (1675), the Gallican Con¬ 
fession (1559), the Belgic Confession (1559-61), the Scot¬ 
tish Confession of 1560, and the great Westminster Con¬ 
fession (1646), and Catechisms (Shorter, 1647; Larger, 
1618), are among the most important Protestant symbols. 
The articles held by the Congregationalists and Baptists 
are based upon the Westminster Confession. 

The Church of England receives the three catholic creeds 

o 

and the “ Thirty-nine Articles.” The Anglican Creed at 
first (1552) consisted of forty-two Articles; in 1562 it was 
reduced to thirty-eight; and finally in 1571 it was put 
forth in its present form. A modification of these articles 
is received by the Protestant Episcopal Church in the U. S. 
The “ Articles ” of the Methodist Episcopal Church are also 
based upon the “Thirt} r -nine Articles.” 

Creed/moor, a station on the Central R. R. of Long Isl¬ 
and, 11 miles E. of New York City, in Queens co., N. Y., 
has the largest and most complete rifle-range in the U. S., 
and is much frequented for target-practice. The range is 
under the control of an incorporated association, and was 
established in 1871, chiefly at the expense of the State and 
the cities of New York and Brooklyn. 

Creek, a township of Dewitt co., Ill. Pop. 1022. 

Creek Indians, a tribe of American savages formerly 
living in Alabama and Georgia, were sometimes called Mus- 
cogees. They were numerous and warlike. In 1814 they 
waged war against the U. S., and were subdued by Gen. 
Jackson. In 1832 they ceded their lands to the U. S., and 
subsequently removed to the Indian Territory beyond the 
Mississippi. They are now in a. condition of advancing 
civilization, and numbered in 1872, 12,295. 

Creep'er [named from the movements of the bird], a 



Creeper. 


popular name for several passerine birds of the genus Cer¬ 
thia and other allied genera. The best-known North Amer¬ 
ican species are the brown creeper ( Certhia Americana) 
and the Certhia albifrons of the South-western States. They 
belong to the family Certhiad®. 

Creery (William R.), born in Baltimore, Md., in 1824, 
graduated at Dickinson College in 1842, taught in the Bal¬ 
timore schools (1842-48 and 1862-68), was professor of belles- 


lettres in Baltimore City College (1854-59), president of 
Lutherville Female Seminary (1859-62), and in 1868 be¬ 
came superintendent of public instruction in Baltimore. 
In conjunction with Prof. M. A. Newell, he has prepared 
the Maryland series of school-books. 

Cre'feld, a manufacturing town of Rhenish Prussia, is 
13 miles N. W. of Diisseldorf, on the railway to Cologne. 
It is well built, and has more extensive manufactures of 
silk than any other town in Prussia. Here are also manu¬ 
factures of cotton, linen, and woollen fabrics, lace, earthen¬ 
ware, etc. Pop. in 1871, 57,128. 

Creigh'ton (J. Blakeley), U. S. N., born Nov. 12> 
1822, in Rhode Island, entered the navy as a midshipman 
Feb. 10, 1838, became a passed midshipman in 1844, a lieu¬ 
tenant in 1853, a commander in 1862, and a captain in 1868. 
In 1862 he commanded the steamer Ottawa, South Atlantic 
blockading squadron. In 1863, while commanding the 
steamer Mahaska, he participated in several engagements 
with the forts and batteries of Charleston harbor. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Cre'ma, a town of Italy, province of Cremona, on the 
river Serio, 24 miles E. of Milan. It was founded by the 
Longobardsin the sixth century. It is well built, is enclosed 
by a wall, and has an old castle and a cathedral; also man¬ 
ufactures of silk and lace. Pop. 8075. 

Cre'mer (Jacob John), a Dutch novelist, born Sept. 1, 
1827, studied painting, but devoted himself to literature. 
His “Betuwsche Novellen ” (sketches of Dutch village life) 
have been followed by “ Anna Roose,” “ Dr. Helmond,” and 
others. 

Cremieux (Isaac Adolphe), a French advocate and 
republican, born of Jewish parents at Nimes Aj>ril 30, 
1796. He practised as an advocate in the court of cassa¬ 
tion in Paris. In 1842 he was elected a member of the 
Chamber of Deputies, in which he acted with the radical 
party. He was minister of justice in the provisional gov¬ 
ernment (1848), and retired from office in June. He was a 
member of the National Assembly in 1849-50. In Sept., 
1870, he became minister of justice after the deposition of 
Napoleon III. As president of the Universal Israelite 
Alliance of Paris he has displayed a remarkable activity in 
behalf of the Jews all over the world. 

Crem'nitz, a Hungarian town, in Bars, in a gold and 
silver mining region. It has a mint and paper and vitriol 
works. Pop. 8442. 

Cremo'na, a province of Italy, bounded on the N. by 
the provinces of Bergamo and Brescia, W. by Milan, S. by 
Piacenza, Parma, and Reggio, and E. by Venetia. Area, 
670 square miles. The soil is fruitful, producing grain, 
maize, rice, flax, wine, olives, etc. Capital, Cremona. Pop. 
in 1871, 300,595. 

Cremona, a city of Italy, capital of the above prov¬ 
ince, in Lombardy, on the Po, here crossed by a bridge, 47 
miles S. E. of Milan. It is surrounded by walls, is well 
built, with wide streets, and has handsome palaces and a 
cathedral. Connected with the cathedral is a belfry called 
Torazzo, 372 feet high, completed in 1284, and one of the 
most beautiful towers in Italy. Cremona is a bishop’s see, and 
\ has a city hall, two theatres, alyceum, a public library, and 
| several hospitals. Here are manufactures of silk and cotton 
i fabrics, porcelain, and chemical products. It was formerly 
1 celebrated for the violins of Amati (1590-1620), of Guarneri, 
and of Stradivari (1670-1728). Cremona was a populous 
town during the ancient Roman empire. Pop. 30,919. 

* Crenelle, or Crenel, a term used sometimes to denote 
a battlement, but more frequently an embrasure in a battle¬ 
ment. The word crenellated is employed to signify that a 
building is supplied with crenelles. 

Cren'shaw, a county in the S. of Alabama. Area, 
550 square miles. It is intersected by the Patsaliga River. 
The surface is nearly level. Corn, cotton, rice, and wool 
are raised. Capital, Rutledge. Pop. 11,156. 

Crenshaw (Anderson) was born in South Carolina, but 
removed early to Alabama, where he held positions respect¬ 
ively as a judge of the circuit court, as a judge of the su¬ 
preme court, and as chancellor of the southern division, 
lie died in 1847.— Walter H. Crenshaw, son of Anderson 
Crenshaw, came to the House in 1838, and served from 
that time to 1867 in one or the other branch of the legis¬ 
lature of Alabama, and was never defeated. 

Cre'ole [Sp. criollo, from criar, to “create,” to “be¬ 
get ;” also to “nurse;” originally, a “ child ” or “nursling,” 
a “descendant”], a native of the West Indies or South 
America who is descended from Europeans. The term is 
sometimes incorrectly applied to those whose ancestors 
were partly white, and have in their veins some blood of 
tho Indians or negroes. 

Cre'osote [Lat. creasotnm, from tho Gr. *peas, “ flesh,” 




















CRERTON—CRETE. 


and <rw£u>, to “ save,” referring to its antiseptic qualities], a 
colorless, syrupy liquid obtained for commercial purposes 
chiefly from the tar of beech-wood. It has a great refrac¬ 
tive power, and a density of 1.037. It boils at 397° F. Its 
taste is peculiar, and almost insupportable when placed 
even in a minute quantity upon the tongue. It has an odor 
resembling that of smoked meats, which doubtless owe 
their preservation to its presence in the smoke they absorb. 
Creosote is sparingly soluble in water, but readily so in 
ether and alcohol. It is generally adulterated in commerce 
with a large percentage of phenol (see Carbolic Acid), 
which can with difficulty be detected. The medical prop¬ 
erties of true wood-creosote are doubtless important, but 
have not been sufficiently studied. It is employed in tooth¬ 
ache, in obstinate vomiting,and as an outward application in 
cancer. In an over-dose it is an irritant poison, for which 
no antidote is known. Distilled with dilute sulphuric acid 
it yields creosol, C 8 H 10 O 2 . 

Crer'ton, a township of Sumpter co., Ala. Pop. 1562. 

Crescen'do [from the It. cresco, to “grow,” to “in¬ 
crease ”], in music, signifies a gradual increasing of sound, 
or changing from piano to forte and fortissimo. It is 

marked thus - --~ . or with the abbreviation cresc. The 

swell of a good organ produces a most perfect crescendo. 

Cres'ceilt [from the Lat. cresco, to “grow” or “ in¬ 
crease ”], the figure of the new moon. The term is often 
used as an emblem of progress. It is generally supposed 
to be the “ arms ” of the Turkish empire, but it is more 
properly the “ emblem ” of that empire. It was used by 
the Greeks, and was the symbol of the Byzantine people 
before it was adopted by the Turks. 

Crescent, a township of Del Norte co., Cal. Pop. 977. 

Crescent, a township of Pottawattamie co., Ia. Pop. 
1117. 

Crescent, a township of Alleghany co., Pa. Pop. 364. 

Crescent City, the capital of Del Norte co., Cal., is on 
the Pacific Ocean, about 260 miles N. N. W. of Sacramento. 
It has a small but safe harbor, and a lighthouse in lat. 41° 
44' 34“ N., Ion. 124° 11' 22“ W., with a flashing white light. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 458. 

Crescen'zi, tie’ (Pietro), an Italian senator, born at 
Bologna in 1230. He wrote in Latin a treatise on rural econ- 
omy(“Opus Ruralium Commodorum ”), the fruit of * long 
travel and observation and the origin of agricultural science. 
Died in 1307. 

Cres'co, a post-village, capital of Howard co., Ia., on 
the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 19 miles N. W. of Cal- 
mar. It has five churches, a union school, two newspapers, 
two foundries, and other manufactories, and shipped in 
1872, 378,000 bushels of wheat. Pop. 912. 

W. R. Mead, Ed. “ Iowa Plain Dealer.” 

Cresco, a township and village of Kossuth co., Ia. The 
village is on the Des Moines Valley R. R., 20 miles N. of 
Dakota. Pop. 309. 

Cres'kill, a post-village of Bergen co., N. J., on the 
Northern R. R. of New Jersey, 17 miles N. of Jersey City 
and 2£ miles W. of the Palisades of the Hudson. It is finely 
situated, and has two parks and a fine railroad station. 

Cre'sol [a term which appears to be derived from the 
first syllable of “creosote” and the first syllable of the Lat. 
oleum, “oil”], called also Cresyl'ic Ac'id and Cres'yl 
Al'cohol, a compound (CtH 8 0) derived from coal-tar or 
from wood-tar by fractional distillation. Most of the Car¬ 
bolic Acid (which see) of commerce contains a large per¬ 
centage of cresol. It combines with alkalies, like its ana¬ 
logue phenol, and hence is by some called an acid: it is 
isomeric with benzyl alcohol, and is itself properly one of 
the alcohols. It refracts light strongly, and boils at 397° 
F. It is sold in large quantities as “carbolic acid,” and 
used as a disinfectant. 

Cress, a name popularly applied to many cruciferous 
plants having a pungent taste and used in salads. The 
garden cress ( Lepidium sativum) is an annual, a native 
of Asia. It is easily raised by a little artificial heat in 
winter. It is antiscorbutic. The bitter cress or cuckoo 
flower (Cardamine pratensis) is common in moist meadows 
in Great Britain. The flowers are white or light purple, 
and have stimulant and diaphoretic properties. They had 
once a reputation for the cure of epilepsy, particularly in 
children. This plant is also a native of America, like many 
of the other cresses. The young leaves of this species, as 
well as of Cardamine amara and Cardamine hirsuta, both 
British, and the latter American, are used as salads in Eu¬ 
rope. The juice of Cardamine pratensis is much used as 
an antiscorbutic in the north of Europe. Water-cress 
( Nasturtium officinale) is a perennial, aquatic, cruciferous 
plant, used as a spring salad, and is a native of almost all 
parts of the world. It grows best in shallow running water, 


1191 


with a bottom of sand. Mud is injurious to its growth and 
flavor. It is often cultivated and brought to market in 
America and Europe. 

Cres'son, a post-village of Cambria co., Pa., on the 
Pennsylvania R. R., 252 miles W. by N.from Philadelphia, 
and 102 miles E. of Pittsburg, at the junction of the Ebens- 
burg branch. It is beautifully situated on the top of the 
Alleghany Mountain, about 3000 feet above the level of the 
sea. It is a fashionable place of summer resort, and is com¬ 
mended for the purity of its air. 

Cresso'na, a post-borough of Schuylkill co., Pa., on 
the Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven R. R., about 5 miles 
S. of Pottsville. Pop. 1507. 

Cressy, in France. See Crecy. 

Crest, in heraldry, the ornament affixed to the helmet, 
being a personal or hereditary device. Warriors bore in¬ 
signia peculiar to themselves in this manner among the 
ancients. The earliest instance of the heraldic crest in 
England is said to have been that of Edmund Crouchback, 
earl of Lancaster, about 1280. The crest is in modern 
blazonry a figure placed upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of 
maintenance, which surmounts the coat-of-arms. 

Crest, a town of France, department of Dr&me, on the 
river Drome, 14 miles S. S. E. of Valence. It has manu¬ 
factures of silk fabrics and cotton prints. Poj). 5351. 

Crest'line, a post-village of Crawford co., 0., on the 
Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R. where it crosses 
the Cleveland Columbus and Cincinnati R. R., 63 miles N. 
by E. from Columbus. It is the terminus of the B. and I. 
R. R. Here are extensive shops of the railroads; also 
lock-works and other manufactories, a fine park, a splendid 
public-school building, six churches, waterworks, and two 
weekly newspapers. Pop. 2279. 

A. Billow, Prop. “ Crestline Advocate.” 

Creston, a post-village of Ogle co., Ill. It is a station 
on the Chicago and North-western R. R., 70 miles W. of 
Chicago, and has one weekly newspaper. 

Cres'ton, a post-village of Union co., Ia., on the Bur¬ 
lington and Missouri River R. R., 190 miles W. of Burling¬ 
ton. Here are the engine-houses and repair-shops of the 
railroad company. It has three weekly newspapers. P.411. 

Cres'well, a township of Cowley co., Kan. Pop. 214. 

Creswell (John A. J.), an American lawyer, born at 
Port Deposit, Md., Nov. 18, 1828. He was chosen a Re¬ 
publican member of Congress in 1862, and a Senator of the 
U. S. for a short term in 1865. In Mar., 1869, he was ap¬ 
pointed postmaster-general of the U. S. He resigned in 
Mar., 1873, and was then reappointed. 

Cres'wick (Thomas), an English landscape-painter, 
born at Sheffield in 1811. He became an associate of the 
Royal Academy in 1842. He painted British scenery with 
success. Among his works are “The Weald of Kent,” a 
“ Shady Glen,” and “ Wind on Shore.” Died Dec. 28,1869. 

Cresylic Alcohol, or Cresylic Acid. See Cresol. 

Cre'ta [the Latin for “chalk,” originally signifying 
“Cretan earth”], a pharmaceutical name for chalk (native 
carbonate of lime) and for the precipitated carbonate of 
lime. The former is more generally used. The chalk is 
powdered, washed, and dried, and is then known as creta 
j)rseparata (“prepared chalk”), an excellent antacid rem¬ 
edy. Creta prsecipitata (the chemically-prepared chalk) is 
more finely divided. (See Chalk.) 

Creta'ceous [from the Lat. creta, “chalk”] Sys'- 
tein, in geology, a name applied to the last-formed or up¬ 
permost rocks of the secondary or mesozoic period. It 
takes its name from the chalk, which in Europe is one of 
the characteristic rocks of the lower strata of this system. 
Next below the cretaceous lie the Jurassic rocks, and next 
above come those of the eocene period, which are (he oldest 
of tertiary rocks. Cretaceous beds abound in the U. S.; 
and on the great plains and on both sides of the Rocky 
Mountains they are immensely developed, and contain 
great beds of valuable lignitic coal, which, however, is by 
some referred to the tertiary, or to a transition group be¬ 
tween the cretaceous and the eocene. 

Crete, or Can'dia [Gr. Kp^; Turk. Kiridi\, a large 
and famous island of the Mediterranean, is between lat. 
34° 57' and 35° 41' N., and Ion. 23° 29' and 26° 20' E. It 
is 150 miles long, and from 6 to 35 miles wide. The sur¬ 
face is mountainous. Mount Ida rises near the middle of 
the island to the height of 7674 feet. Numerous caverns 
occur here, and am extensive one near Mount Ida is fabled 
to have been that wdiich was anciently the retreat of the 
Minotaur. Among the minerals are limestone and slate. 
The chief productions of Crete are cotton, tobacco, olive 
oil, grapes, oranges, lemons, wine, silk, and wool. The 
population in ancient times is believed to have amounted 










CRETE—CRICHTON. 


1192 


to 1,200,000, and at the time when it was acquired by the 
Venetians, to 500,000; it is now estimated at 210,000, of 
whom about 50,000 are Mohammedans, nearly all the others 
being Christians belonging to the Greek Church, which has 
eight bishops in the island. 

History .—Crete is by some historians considered the 
cradle of the civilization brought to Europe by the Phoe¬ 
nicians and Egyptians. According to tradition, Minos, a 
celebrated legislator, reigned over this island before the 
beginning of the historical period. In the time of Ilomcr, 
Crete had a dense population of the Hellenic race, and 
contained a great number of flourishing cities. Crete was 
visited by the apostle Paul, who planted a church in it. 
The Venetians became masters of this island in 1204. The 
Turks conquered it from the Venetians in 1669. In 1866 
the Christian inhabitants revolted against the Turks, and 
demanded, annexation to the kingdom of Greece. This war 
excited much sympathy among Christian nations, but the 
Cretans were subdued in 1869. 

Crete, a township and post-village of Will co., Ill., 
about 34 miles S. of Chicago. Pop. 1468. 

Crete, a city, capital of Saline co., Neb., on the Bur¬ 
lington and Missouri It. R., at the junction of the Beatrice 
branch, 20 miles from Lincoln. It has four churches, seve¬ 
ral manufactories, and one weekly paper. 

Cre'tin [Fr. cretin], a person affected with Cretinism 
( which see). 

Cretineau-JoJy (Jacques), a French author, born 
Sept. 23, 1803, at Fontenay, studied theology in Paris, and 
wrote a number of works in defence of the interests of 
royalty and the Catholic Church. He is best known by his 
“History of the Jesuits” ( 6 vols., 1844-46), an elaborate 
work in defence of that order. Among his other works are 
“ Ilistoire de la Vendee Militaire” (4 vols., 5th ed. 1864), 
“Ilistoire de Louis Philippe d’Orl6ans et de l’Orleanisme ” 
(2 vols., 1861-63), “Le Pape Clement XIV.” (1853), “Le 
Cardinal Consalvi” (2 vols., 1864). 

Cret'inism [Fr. crStinisme; etymology uncertain], a 
name applied to epidemic idiocy or defective mentality, 
usually associated with physical deformity and moral de¬ 
basement. It is frequently hereditary, and is almost al¬ 
ways found in connection Avith goitre. It prevails espe¬ 
cially in deep alpine valleys, not only in Switzerland and 
Italy, but in the Pyrenees and Himalayas. It is also 
found in China, and in Bengal is frequent on calcareous 
plains. In Europe it is seldom found at a higher elevation 
than 3000 feet. Cretins are often very repulsive, dirty, and 
shameless, their appetite \ r oracious, the mouth large and 
open, the eyes small and usually crossed, the nose flat and 
broad, the skull wide at the top, with a narrow base, and 
the forehead retreating. The complexion is cadaverous, 
the limbs rachitic, the whole body dAvarfish except the 
hands and feet, which are large. Cretinism is a physical 
degeneration, caused by defective nutrition, bad ventila¬ 
tion, lack of sunlight, and especially by calcareous matter 
taken into the system in drinking-Avater. Like goitre, it 
is said to prevail especially where magnesian limestone 
abounds. Cretinism is often incomplete. The institution 
founded by Guggenbiihl on the Abendberg in SAvitzerland 
has been the model for many others for the improvement 
of cretins and other idiots. (See Idiocy, by Harvey B. 
Wilbur, M. I).) 

Cre'tius (Konstantin), a German artist, born Jan. 6, 
1814, studied Avith Iviinig. He has treated South European 
peasant-life and later history, especially the Cromwellian 
period. A seriousness of composition in his works and 
excellent coloring are to be remarked. 

Creuse, a department near the centre of France, has 
an area of 2151 square miles. The surface is mostly moun¬ 
tainous; the soil in some parts is thin and poor. The 
principal mineral productions are coal and salt. The rear¬ 
ing of cattle is one of the chief branches of industry. This 
is one of the poorest departments of France. Capital, 
Gueret. Pop. 274,057. 

Creu'zer (George Friedrich), a learned German phi¬ 
lologist and antiquary, born at Marburg Mar. 10, 1771. 
He became professor of philology and ancient history at 
Heidelberg in 1804, and retained that position for forty- 
four years. His principal work is his “Symbolism and 
Mythology of Ancient Peoples, especially the Greeks ” (4 
vols. 8vo, 1810-12). He ascribed to the pagan myths a 
mystical significance and a supernatural origin. The old 
poet Voss, in “Antisjunbolik,” contested the theory, and a 
lively controversy ensued. He edited the Oxford Plotinus 
(3 vols., 1835). Died Feb. 16, 1858. (See Creuzer’s 
autobiography, “Aus dem Lcben eines alten Professors,” 
1847.) 

Creuzot, Le, a town of France, department of Saone- 


et-Loire, 12 miles S. S. E. of Autun. It is situated in the 
midst of rich mines of coal and iron, and lias extensive 
blast-furnaces, iron-foundries, machine-shops, and glass- 
Avorks. Cannon, anchors, steam-engines, etc. are made 
here. This tOAvn has increased rapidly in recent times. P. 
23,872. 

Crevasse [a French word signifying a “crevice” or 
“crack,” from crever, to “burst,” to “ break,” to “split”], 
a breach in the dike or embankment of a river, as in the 
levees of the Mississippi. Crevasses are sometimes caused 
by the burrowing of crawfishes and other animals, and are 
frequently A T ery destructive. The name is also given to the 
fissures in glaciers. 

Crew, in nautical language, is the company of persons 
employed in a ship, but the name is mostly limited to sea¬ 
men and non-commissioned officers. There are upwards 
of eighty different grades or offices among the crew of the 
largest Avar-steamers. Besides the regular crew there are 
minor groups of Avorkmen, such as the cooper’s, carpenter’s, 
sailmaker’s creAv, etc. In England the master of a mer¬ 
chant-ship, before starting on a voyage, is obliged to send 
a list of his crew to the customs comptroller at the port 
of departure, and a similar list within forty-eight hours 
after his return. This, however, is required of the masters 
of coasting vessels only tAvice a year. The number of 
hands in large sea-going steamers is relatively great, oAving 
to the duties relating to the machinery, a steamer of a 
thousand tons sometimes requiring sixty or seventy hands. 
American ships carry smaller crews for their tonnage than 
those of other nations. This is regarded as a cause of 
many shipwrecks. 

Crewe, a toAvn of England, in Cheshire, 34 miles S. E. 
of Liverpool. It is a central station of five important rail- 
Avays, and has shops for the manufacture and repair of rail- 
Avay-carriages. Pop. 8159. 

Crib'bage [from crib, as used in the game], a popular 
game at cards, usually played by two persons. The game 
is sixty-one points, which are scored Avith pegs on a board 
called a cribbage-board having sixty-one holes on each 
side. In the U. S. the game, when two or four play, is 
decided by the Avinning of two out of three legs. Where 
three play, the first out in a double circuit of the board is 
the Avinner. When cribbage is played by three persons 
a three-cornered board is used. In this case each player 
receives five cards, and an extra card is dealt, Avhich is 
added to the crib. When four persons play each has a part¬ 
ner, and each receives five cards, of Avhich he discards one to 
form the crib. When only two persons play, six cards are 
dealt to each player, and each discards two, to form what 
is called the crib , which belongs to the dealer. The pack is 
then cut, and the dealer turns up a card, called the turn-up, 
which is reckoned in scoring as belonging to all the hands 
and the crib. The cards held in the hands are then played 
alternately, counting the pips (for every court card ten) up 
to thirty-one, for which two is scored to the person playing 
the card that makes it, and scoring in the same way for 
eA r ery combination made according to any of the following 
rules : Any combination of cards the united pips of which 
make up fifteen scores two points. A sequence in rank 
(without regard to suit) of three or more cards scores one 
for each card. Two similar cards of different suits (as two 
fives or two knaves) form a pair, and score tAvo; three 
form a pair-royal, and four a double pair-royal, scoring re¬ 
spectively six and twelve. When the cards are all played 
each hand is counted by itself, according to the same rules. 
For example, a hand containing two sevens, an eight, and 
a nine, with an eight turned up, would score twenty-four: 
four fifteens (produced by the different combinations of 
eight and seven)=8: four sequences of three each = 12; 
tAvo pairs = 4. If the cards in either hand, or the cards in 
the crib and turn-up, are all of the same suit, it is called a 
flush, and one is scored for each card. If a knaA r e of the 
same suit as the turn-up be in either hand or in the crib, 
the holder scores one; when the turn-up is a knave the 
dealer scores two. During the play, Avhen it is found im¬ 
possible to count to thirty-one Avithout passing that limit, 
it is called a go, and the last player scores one. 

Crich'ton (James), called the Admirable Crichton, 
born in Perthshire in 1551 or 1560, Avas a son of Robert 
Crichton, lord advocate of Scotland. Educated at St. 
Andrew’s, before he Avas twenty he had run through the 
entire circle of the sciences. He could speak in ten lan¬ 
guages, and was adroit in all manly accomplishments. He 
journeyed through Europe about 1580, challenging all 
scholars to a learned disputation in any of twelve tongues. 
He vanquished all the doctors of all the universities; more¬ 
over, he disarmed the most famous swordsman of the time 
in fencing, and by his grace and manly beauty his amorous 
triumphs were not less distinguished. He found his death in 
1583, at the hands of his pupil Vincentio, son of Gonzago, tho 












CRICKET—CRIME. 


1193 


duke of Mantua, a dissolute youth whom he had roughly 4 
jostled in a carnival encounter. Unmasking on discover¬ 
ing his young opponent, he presented his sword and bared 
his breast, and the brutal stripling stabbed him. “ lie was,’' 
says Scaliger, “ a man of very wonderful genius, more 
worthy of admiration than esteem.” The stories of his ac¬ 
complishments are no doubt exaggerated. (See P. F. Tyt- 
ler, “Life of the Admirable Crichton,” 1823.) 

Crick'et [probably so called from the sound they pro¬ 
duce], the popular name of certain orthopterous insects, 
nearly allied to locusts and grasshoppers, the type of the 
family Achetidie. The wings, being horizontially folded, 
form a slender point beyond the wing-covers. In virtue of 


a peculiar formation of the wing-covers, and by their fric¬ 
tion, the males produce that stridulous sound by which 
these insects are so well known. Of the typical genus 
Aclieta the U. S. have several species, including the com¬ 
mon black cricket ( Aclieta abbreviata). The common Amer¬ 
ican mole-cricket ( Gryllotalpa brevipennis ) has wings shorter 
than the mole-crickets of Europe. The mole-crickets con¬ 
struct chambers for their eggs beneath the surface of the 
earth, and the passages leading to these cells are long and 
tortuous, like those of the mole. The climbing crickets 
((Ecanthus ) are represented in the U. S. by several species. 
They are often found upon weeds and shrubs. 

Cricket [etymologically related to the word crook, it 
having been formerly played with a crooked stick for a bat], 
a sport well known as one of the national games of Eng¬ 
land, is of unknown though ancient date. It has become 
popular in England within the present century. It is 
played upon a tract of level, grassy ground, and requires 
players sufficient to form two sides of eleven, or twenty- 
two each. The variety of the game known as “ double 
wicket” is that which is generally played, requiring two 
sets of wickets and bails, two bats and a ball. “Single 
wicket” may be played by a less number of persons. When 
a match is to be played, they first “ pitch ” the wickets, 
which are wooden frames of three upright sticks or “ stumps ” 
twenty-seven inches high. Two horizontal pieces of wood 
called* “ bails ” are placed on the top of each wicket. The 
wickets are twenty-two yards apart. The players first toss 
for first innings, and the director of one side places a batter 
at each wicket; a wicket-keeper, a bowler, a “ long-stop,” 
and fielders are placed in position by the director of the 
other side. The object of the bowler is so to direct his ball 
towards the opposite wickets as to knock off the bails or 
strike down the stumps or upright rods, while the batter’s 
object is to protect his wicket by stopping the ball or driv¬ 
ing it out of the field. At a given signal the bowler de¬ 
livers the first ball. If the batsman misses the ball and it 
passes the wicket, the wicket-keeper stops it and returns it 
to the bowler, who delivers another. When the batsman 
strikes the ball away, ho runs to the opposite wicket, his 
companion crosses to his, and so on till the ball is returned 
by a fielder to the bowler or wicket-keeper. The batter 
may possibly have time to make two or three “ runs” be¬ 
fore the ball is returned. The scorers credit him with these 
runs. If the wicket-keeper or bowler touches the wicket 
with the ball before the batsman touches it with his bat or 
has reached his ground, the striker is out and another takes 
his place. If one of the opposite party catch a ball before 
it reaches the ground, or if the striker knocks down his own 
wicket, or if he prevent a ball from being caught, or strikes 


it twice, or if a ball which would have hit his wicket is 
stopped by any part of his person, the striker is out. The 
duty of the wicket-keeper is to stop with his hands the 
balls which the batsman misses. The long-stop stands be¬ 
hind him, and stops balls that escape the wicket-keeper. 
The fielders are posted in different parts of the ground. 
They must possess quickness of eye and foot, and much de¬ 
pends on their judgment of distance. Fielders throw the 
ball to the wicket-keeper, who returns it to the bowler. All 
change places at the end of every four bowls; every four 
balls are thus delivered from alternate wickets. Four balls 
are called an “ over,” and credited to the side which is in. 
The laws of the Marylebone Club of England are generally 
taken as the standard rules for this game. 

Crick'lade, a town of England, in 
Wiltshire, on the river Isis, 7 miles S. E. 
of Cirencester. It consists mainly of a 
single street of poorly built houses. It 
has two antique churches. It was former¬ 
ly a borough-town, but was disfranchised 
in 1782. Pop. in 1871, 43,552. 

Ciillon, de (Louis des Balbes de 
Berton), a famous French warrior, born in 
Provence in 1541. He served at the siege 
of Calais in 1558, and fought against the 
Huguenots in the civil wars. He distin¬ 
guished himself at Jarnac and Moncontour, 
and at the naval battle of Lepanto (1571). 
During the reign of Henry III. he fought 
for that king against the Catholic League. 
In 1589 he entered the service of Henry 
IV., who styled him “the bravest of the 
brave.” Ho contributed to the victory at 
Ivry (1590). Died 1615. (See Serviez, 
“ Histoire du brave Crillon,” 1844; Abbe 
be Crillon, “Vie de L. des Balbes de 
Berton de Crillon,” 3 vols., 1826.)—A de¬ 
scendant of “the brave” Crillon, Louis 
(1718-96), was a distinguished general of 
the Thirty Years’ war, and in the service 
of Spain became duke of Mahon, and commanded at the 
futile investment of Gibraltar in 1782.—His grandson, Due 
de Mahon (1775-1832), a Spanish general, was viceregent 
of Navarre under Joseph Bonajmrte. 

Crime, any act done in violation of those duties which 
an individual owes to the community, and for a breach of 
which the law has provided that the offender shall make 
satisfaction to the public. The ascertainment of these 
duties, which society imposes upon its members for the 
general welfare, is derived either from the common concur¬ 
rence of the moral sentiments of any community or from 
the enactment of specific laws defining and enforcing par¬ 
ticular obligations. Offences against the one variety of 
duties are said to be mala in se (wrongful in themselves), 
while those against the other are designated mala prohibita 
(wrongful because prohibited by statute). As a general 
practice, however, legislative prohibition is also extended 
to the case of crimes which are strictly mala in se, both to 
provide against uncertainty and fluctuation of opinion and 
to create additional sanctions; so that the precise original 
distinction between the two classes is no longer preserved. 
The laws of England recognize a larger variety of crimes 
not depending upon statute than is generally the case in 
the American States. But even here, as a rule, there are 
still some offences for which the common law alone makes 
provision. 

By the common law crimes are divided into two great 
classes—felonies and misdemeanors. The distinction is 
based upon the relative enormity of various offences. 
Thus, the term “felony” includes those which are of great¬ 
est magnitude, while “misdemeanor” is reserved for the 
residue. But nevertheless an understanding of the exact 
extent of meaning of these two designations can only be 
attained by an indirect mode of definition—viz. by show¬ 
ing the diversity of punishment in the respective cases. A 
felony was originally any crime for which the penalty might 
be a forfeiture of lands or goods; a misdemeanor was one 
which entailed a milder punishment. In some of the 
American States tho punishments distinguishing felonies 
have been changed, and are now either death or imprison¬ 
ment in a State prison. In others, while the common-law 
distinction has been discarded, no different one has been 
adopted to supply its place, so that the two terms are used 
without precision or definiteness of meaning. 

In order that a person may be guilty of a crime there 
must be a concurrence of capacity, 'intent, and wrongful 
act. The questions of capacity and intent are, in fact, 
closely related, since tho law adjudges a person incapable 
of a criminal offence only because it presumes him incom¬ 
petent to form a criminal purpose. Tho principal causes 



































CRIME. 


1194 


of incapacity are infancy and the want of mental sound¬ 
ness. Infancy exempts from responsibility only when chil¬ 
dren arc so young as to have no acquaintance with the 
nature of a criminal offence. At the common law a child 
under seven years of age is conclusively presumed to be 
unable to commit a crime; between seven and fourteen, his 
liability depends upon his actual discretion, which must 
be determined in each particular instance by special 
proof; after fourteen, he is considered presumptively cap¬ 
able. The want of proper mental capacity to form a crim¬ 
inal intention exists in the case of idiots, lunatics, and all 
persons who are either permanently of unsound mind, or 
so deranged at the time of the commission of any wrongful 
act as not to be aware of its guilty character. Exactly 
what degree of mental alienation should be sufficient to ex¬ 
empt from responsibility is a matter difficult'to determine. 
The only criterion that can generally be adopted is the 
wrong-doer’s power of appreciation of the wrongful nature 
of the particular act which he committed. (See Insanity.) 
Voluntary drunkenness, however, though it may confuse and 
disorder the moral perceptions, and produce a kind of tem¬ 
porary insanity as pernicious in its effects as natural aber¬ 
ration, affords, in general, no defence for the criminal of¬ 
fender. Only where a specific intent is an essential element 
to constitute a crime can a person intoxicated be excused for 
that particular offence. As a rule, the intent to drink is 
sufficiently culpable to make the resulting act punishable. 
If, however, true insanity or delirium tremens should be 
produced as a consequence of intoxication, and the victim 
of it should commit an act which if he were sane would bo 
a crime, he will be excused. The law in that case only re¬ 
gards the fact of insanity, without reference to the means 
by which it has been occasioned. Besides these natural in¬ 
capacities, which exempt from penalty, there exist certain 
other causes for exoneration, such as duress and coverture. 
Whenever an offence is not perpetrated voluntarily, but 
under the compulsion of force or fear, there is wanting that 
willing pursuit of crime which is alone a just reason for 
condemnation. In like manner, the stress of overwhelming 
necessity relieves from guilt the involuntary wrong-doer. 
Coverture also, or the condition of a married woman, ex¬ 
empts from liability in some instances, because her action 
is considered to have been occasioned by constraint ex¬ 
erted by her husband. Thus, all crimes committed by a 
wife in the presence of her husband, except some of a graver 
class, as treason, murder, robbery, and the like, are presumed 
to be done by coercion. This presumption is not a conclu¬ 
sive one, but relieves a married woman from any conse¬ 
quence of her action until rebutted by direct evidence that 
the crime was exclusively of her own commission. This 
mode of justification by alleging constraint only applies to 
married women. Servants and children are not excused, 
though acting under the command of masters or parents. 

The necessity for the existence of a criminal intent in 
order to make a person responsible for his wrongful acts 
forms an important distinction between criminal and civil 
liability, for in civil cases intent need not generally be 
proved. It has always been a well-recognized maxim in 
criminal jurisprudence that “ the act does not make a man 
guilty unless his purpose also' be guilty.” But the inten¬ 
tion need not necessarily contemplate the commission of 
the particular consequence which results. In most in¬ 
stances, of course, the act done will be the specific act in¬ 
tended. But yet, if there be a purpose to perpetrate one 
crime, and the means used for its accomplishment unex¬ 
pectedly result in a different offence or affect a person 
against whom they were not directed, there is still a suffi¬ 
cient connection of intent and act to warrant a holding to 
accountability. Thus, if a man intends to shoot A and 
his act results in the death of B, whom he did not intend 
to injure, he is nevertheless responsible, as though he had 
actually intended to kill B. This principle, however, is 
not in all its rigor applicable when the crime committed is 
strictly in the class of mala prohibita, for the original 
purpose is not then deemed sufficiently reprehensible. A 
still different case arises where the preconceived intention 
had reference to the specific act performed, but did not 
include knowledge of its criminality, as where a person 
shoots game at a certain season when it is prohibited, 
without being aware that he is violating the law. In this 
class of instances it is likewise true that all the necessary 
elements of a crime are sufficiently present to justify pun¬ 
ishment. The principle is, that ignorance of the law must 
afford no excuse. If such were not the rule, all laws would 
be ineffective, for would-be offenders would be likely to 
abstain from examining their provisions, and thereby se¬ 
cure impunity. The accompaniment of intent and act, 
therefore, which will constitute criminal transgression, may 
occur in three different forms: First, the intent may be 
wrongful, and contemplate the very offence committed; 
second, the intent may be wrongful, but contemplate an¬ 


other offence than the one committed; third, the intent 
may be really innocent, but contemplate an offence which 
happens to be prohibited by law, and so criminal. 

There are some cases in which, though no actual criminal 
intent is conceived, yet the law presumes its existence. 
When acts are characterized by such a degree of negligence 
or carelessness as to evince a culpable indifference whether 
wrong is done or not, the wanton disregard of commonly 
recognized duties is essentially criminal of itself. But if 
an unlawful act is committed, through mere accident or 
misfortune, in the prosecution of some legitimate under¬ 
taking, the unwitting offender is excused. In like manner, 
though ignorance of law affords no justification, ignorance 
of fact, where no reasonable opportunity is granted for 
acquiring correct information, is a valid excuse. The law 
may always be known when the facts cannot be ascertained. 
“ The guilt of the accused,” it has been said as to these 
matters of fact, “ must depend on the circumstances as 
they appear to him.” 

The necessity that an act must concur with the intent 
depends upon the principle that no mere mental conception 
or fancy, no matter how reprehensible morally, can ever be 
taken cognizance of at law without some overt expression 
of it in an objective result. 

The parties engaged in the commission of crimes are dis¬ 
tinguished either as principals or accessories. A principal 
in the first degree is one who is the actual, direct perpetra¬ 
tor of the offence. A principal in the second degree is one 
who is jiresent, aiding and abetting the act to be done. An 
accessory is a participant in the wrong-doing in some more 
remote manner, either by procuration or assistance before 
the act, or after its occurrence by sharing in the profits ac¬ 
quired or shielding the immediate offenders from justice. 
In the one case he is called an accessory before the fact; 
in the other, an accessory after the fact. This distinction 
between principals and accessories is maintained only with 
reference to felonies, and even among these an exception is 
made of the crime of treason. There is no accessory before 
the fact in the common-law crime of manslaughter, for in 
it there is no preconceived intent to kill. In treason and 
in misdemeanors all the participants are deemed princi¬ 
pals; in the one case, from the enormity, and in the other 
from the comparative triviality, of the offence. Where the 
distinction is preserved there is no reason for diversity of 
punishment as between principals and accessories before 
the fact. Accessories after the fact are not so severely 
punished, as their offence consists in an attack on the ad¬ 
ministration of justice. A wife is excused for thus shield¬ 
ing her husband. It was formerly the rule that the acces¬ 
sory could not be brought to trial before the principal, but 
this doctrine has been quite generally changed by statute. 

The various crimes which may be committed are classi¬ 
fied by legal writers in different ways. Blackstone in his 
Commentaries treats them as either offences against morals 
and religion or the law of nations, or as against the exist¬ 
ence of the goA^ernment or state, such as treason, or against 
public order under the respective titles of public justice, 
public peace, public trade, public health or economy, and 
finally, against individuals. These last are subdivided 
into those which are committed against the person, against 
habitations, and against property. This classification is 
incomplete, and no place can be found in it for certain well- 
established crimes, particularly those which have been 
created by statute. The most satisfactor}’’ treatment of 
the subject is that adopted by Mr. Bishop, who discusses 
the general principles of law governing crimes, and then 
considers specifically each crime known to the law under an 
alphabetical arrangement. It should be noticed that the 
criminal law of the Federal government is wholly created 
by statute, Congress having enacted so-called “ Crime 
Acts.” Under the State governments the common law of 
crimes exists unless changed by statute. It will be impos¬ 
sible in this brief notice to do more than to refer to some 
of the leading crimes, which are considered under their re¬ 
spective titles: Arson, Bribery, Burglary, Champerty, 
Cheating, Embezzlement, False Pretences, Forgery, 
Gaming, Larceny, Libel, Mayhem, Perjury, Piracy, 
Polygamy, Rape, Riot, Robbery, Treason, Usury. For 
punishment of crimes, see Punishment. 

In this brief account only the common-law doctrine of 
crimes could be considered. Upon this may be further con¬ 
sulted Blacicstone’s “ Commentaries,” book iv.; Bishop 
“ On Criminal Law;” Bishop “On Criminal Procedure;” 
Wharton’s “American Criminal Law;” Russell “On 
Crimes;” Hale, “Pleas of the Crown;” Hawkins, “Pleas 
of the Crown ;” East, “ Pleas of the Crown ;” and Foster’s 
“ Crown Law.” The statutes of the States severally should 
also be referred to. Upon the general subject of criminal 
offences may be consulted Ortolan’s “Droit Penal;” Bec- 
caria “On Crimes;” Mittf.rmaier “On Capital Punish¬ 
ment,” etc. T. W. Dwight. 
















CRIMEA, THE—CRITIC. 


1195 


Crime'a, The [Russ. Krim; anc. Taurica Clxersone- 
sus], a peninsula of Southern Russia, forms part of the 
government of Taurida, and is nearly surrounded by the 
Black Sea and the Sea of Azof. It is connected with the 
main land by the isthmus of Perekop, 5 miles broad. Its 
length E. and W. is nearly 200 miles, and its area 7654 
square miles. Pop. about 200,000. The north-western 
part of the Crimea is a treeless plain, the soil of which is 
impregnated with salt and fit only for pasturage. The 
south-eastern part is occupied by wooded mountains and 
fertile valleys, but they are ill cultivated. The highest 
peak of these mountains is 5180 feet above the level of the 
sea. Among the productions are grain, grapes, olives, silk, 
honey, and wine. Many horses and cattle are reared here, 
and salt is exported. The chief towns are Simferopol, Se¬ 
vastopol, and Baktshi-Serai. The majority of the popula¬ 
tion are Tartars. It was conquered in the thirteenth cen¬ 
tury by the Tartars, who converted it into the khanat of 
Krim Tartary. It was annexed to Russia in 1783. 

Crimean War, so called because it was chiefly waged in 
the Russian peninsula of the Crimea. It was carried on by 
France, Great Britain, Turkey, and Sardinia, against Russia. 
The motive of the allies was partly to check the growing 
power and encroachments of Russia, and to prop up the tot¬ 
tering throne of the Turkish sultan. One cause of the war Avas 
the claim of Russia to be the protector of the Greek Church 
in Turkey. After ineffectual negotiations between Russia 
and the Ottoman Porte, the Russian army entered the prin¬ 
cipalities in July, 1853, and war was declared by the sultan 
in October of that year. Early in Jan., 1854, the French and 
English fleets entered the Black Sea, and these allied powers 
announced to the czar Nicholas that their combined fleets 
must have command of that sea. A treaty of alliance be¬ 
tween France, England, and the Porte having been signed 
Mar. 12, the former two powers declared war Mar. 27 and 
28. The French and English fleets bombarded Odessa 
April 22. Lord Raglan took command of the British army, 
and Marshal Saint-Arnaud of the French. The allied 
armies landed at Varna May 29, and there suffered severely 
from cholera. The allies moved their armies to the Crimea 
early in September, and defeated the Russians at the river 
Alma on the 20th of that month. Prince Mentchikof com¬ 
manded the Russian army. The allies commenced the 
bombardment of Sevastopol Oct. 17, fought a battle at 
Balaklava Oct. 25, and gained a victory at Inkerman Nov. 
5. The British troops, being ill supplied with food and 
clothing, suffered great privations and hardships in the 
ensuing winter, and large numbers of them perished. The 
king of Sardinia joined the allies in Jan., 1855. In May, 
General Pelissier became commander-in-chief of the French 
army. On June 18 the allies attacked the important fort¬ 
resses known as the Malakoff and the Redan, but were 
repulsed. The French took the Malakoff by storm Sept. 
8, and the Russians evacuated Sevastopol about the 9th 
of that month. An armistice was concluded Feb. 26, 1856, 
and after the belligerents had met in conference at Paris, 
a treaty of peace was signed in that city Mar. 30, 1856. 

Criminal Law. See Law, by Prof. T. W. Dwight. 

Crim'mitschau, a town of Saxony, on the Pleisse and 
on the railway from Altenburg to Zwickau, 10 miles N. W. 
of the latter. It has manufactures of woollens and a num¬ 
ber of machine-works and breweries. Pop. 15,280. 

Crinoid'ea, or Crinoiilcne [from the Gr. npivov, a 



Apiocrinites trigintiductylus (a fossil encrinite). 


“lily,” and elSos, “appearance”], an order or family of 
radiated animals of the class Echinodermata. As fossils 
they are sometimes called stone-lilies, having a radiated, 
lily-shaped disk supported on a jointed stem. When this 
stem is cylindrical, the species are termed encrinites; when 
it is pentagonal, they are called pentacrinites. The recent 
species of Crinoidea are few, but the extinct species are so 
numerous that their fossils constitute the greater part of 
extensive strata of limestone. The Burlington limestone 
contains a great variety of beautiful crinoids. 

Crin'oline [from the Lat. crinis, “hair”], a name first 
given by the French to a fabric of horse-hair used in ladies’ 
dress. It is now applied generally to structures of steel 
wire called “hoops,” and used for the same purpose—that 
of distending the skirts. This was called fardingale in the 
time of Elizabeth. In 1744 hoops were so large that a 
woman occupied the space of six men. In 1796 they had 
been discarded in private life, but were worn at court until 
the time of George IV., who abolished them. Hoops have 
reappeared since 1850 ; they are made of steel wires covered 
with cotton thread, and form a skirt which varies in size 
and shape according to the changes of fashion. 

Cri'ospliinx [from the Gr. (cpio?, a “ram”], a term ap¬ 
plied to images, found in Egypt, of sphinxes having a ram’s 
head instead of a human head. The latter are termed and- 
rosphinxes. 

Cris'field, a post-village of Somerset co., Md., on the 
Little Annemessex River, and at the southern terminus of 
the Eastern Shore R. R., 19 miles S. by W. of Princess Anne. 
It has a tri-weekly steamboat connection with Norfolk, Va. 
It has two weekly newspapers. 

Cri' sis [Gr. (cpt<rt?, a “determination,” from /cpiVto, a 
“judge,” to “decide”], a term which is used by physicians 
to denote the sudden determination of disease towards re¬ 
covery or towards death. The doctrine of crises is con¬ 
nected with that of a materie8 morbi, or material of disease, 
in the blood. A doctrine associated with that of crises is 
the belief in certain days as showing characteristic symp¬ 
toms, sometimes prognostic of recovery or death. This old 
belief seems to have had a certain foundation in the facts 
observable in clinical medicine. The doctrine of crises and 
of a materies morbi is still sometimes taught. A sudden 
discharge of any suppressed secretion is called a critical 
discharge when occurring about the turning-point of the 
disease. 

Cris'pi (Francesco), an Italian statesman, born Oct. 4, 
1819, at Ribera, became a lawyer in Naples, was in 1848 
one of the heads of the insurrection in Palermo, and for 
two years one of the leaders of the Sicilians in their re¬ 
sistance to Ferdinand I. In 1859 and 1860 he was again 
at the head of the new revolution of Sicily, and co-operated 
with Garibaldi in the expulsion of the Bourbons, which 
caused the annexation of Naples and Sicily to the kingdom 
of Italy. He led in 1861 the constitutional opposition. 

Cris'pin, Saint, a native of Rome, is supposed to have 
worked at the trade of a shoemaker in Gaul. According 
to the legend, he was so benevolent that he stole leather to 
make shoes for the poor. In 287 A. D. he and his brother 
Crispinian suffered martyrdom. He is the patron saint of 
shoemakers. St. Crispin’s Day is October 25. 

Crispin, Knights of Saint, a secret society among 
shoemakers, founded in 1866 in Milwaukee, Wis., numbered 
in 1870 about 100,000 members in 300 lodges. They have 
an organization similar to that of the Free Masons and 
other secret orders. All the lodges of one State are under 
the jurisdiction of a State grand lodge, while the latter is 
subordinate to the U. S. grand lodge. The object of the 
order is to protect the interests of the workingmen against 
employers, to regulate the wages, and to establish special 
funds in support of the members of the order and their 
families in case of sickness and death. There is also an 
order of the “Daughters of Saint Crispin,” embracing wo¬ 
men employed in the manufacture of shoes and boots. 

Crit'ias [Kpin'a?], an Athenian orator and one of the 
Thirty Tyrants, was a pupil of Socrates. He was ban¬ 
ished from Athens about 406 B. C., but he returned with 
Lysander the Spartan in 404, and then became one of the 
ruling body called Thirty Tyrants. He caused the death 
of Theramenes. He was killed in a battle by the army of 
Thrasybulus in 404 B. C. 

Cl”it / ic [Gr. Kptruco? (from *piVw, to “judge”); Lat. crit- 
icu8; Fr. critique; Ger. Kritiker\, literally and strictly, 
“ [one] fit or competent to judge;” but the term is applied 
in common parlance to any one who takes upon himself to 
judge of works of literature, art, etc.—in short, ot any¬ 
thing which requires the exercise of the judging, and par¬ 
ticularly of the assthctic, faculty. To judge and condemn 
appear to bo considered by many as the principal part of 
the office of a critic. But he who is really “fit to judgo” 

























1196 


CRITICISM—CKOCKETT. 


will be no less able nor less willing to discover beauties, if 
they exist, than point out defects. It may indeed be the 
more frequent duty of a true critic to blame than to praise, 
because works of genuine merit are exceptions to the gen¬ 
eral rule; nevertheless, it is unquestionably a rarer, as it is 
a higher and nobler, office to appreciate and do justice to 
the various kinds and shades of excellence, than simply to 
condemn what merits condemnation. 

Of all the critics of antiquity, the greatest beyond com¬ 
parison was undoubtedly Aristotle. Aristarchus, who is 
often styled “the prince of critics/’ was more properly a 
grammarian and commentator than a critic, in the wider 
modern acceptation of this term. Among the Romans, 
Quintilian was especially distinguished as a critic, but 
the poet Horace was a critic of a higher and rarer order. 

In modern times the greatest names in general criticism 
among the English are those of Dryden, Pope, Doctor 
Johnson, S. T. Coleridge, Hazlitt, Mackintosh, and Hallam ; 
to which may be added those of Lords Jeffrey, Brougham, 
and Macaulay ; and lastly that of Carlyle, who, if too often 
extravagant and wayward, is perhaps, when not biassed by 
pique or prejudice, not surpassed by any in breadth of 
comprehension or truth of insight. Among the French the 
most celebrated names are those of Boileau, Voltaire, Ville- 
main, Sainte-Beuve, and Taine. The literature of Germany 
is rich in illustrious critics; among the greatest of these, 
in the department of general criticism, ai’e Lessing, Goethe, 
and the two Schlegels. It is proper to observe that the Ger¬ 
mans have studied the great principles which lie at the base 
of all sound criticism ( i . e. the art or science of judging) 
more philosophically and more thoroughly than the critics 
of other nations. But it is perhaps in particular criticism 
that the Germans are most distinguished. Among the 
most remarkable examples of this kind we may cite Kant 
in the department of philosophy, Winckelmann in art, and 
Niebuhr in history, besides a host of other less distin¬ 
guished names. 

Crit'icism [for etymology, see Critic] signifies both the 
act and the art of criticising. In its latter signification it 
has been defined as “ the art of judging with propriety con¬ 
cerning any object or combination of objects.” In a more 
limited meaning its province is confined to literature, phi¬ 
lology, and the fine arts, and to subjects of antiquarian, 
scientific, and historical investigation. The elements of 
criticism depend on the two principles of beauty and truth, 
one of which is the final end or object of study in every 
one of its pursuits—beauty in letters and the arts, truth 
in history and the sciences. Thus, historical criticism 
teaches us to distinguish the true from the false or the 
probable from the improbable in historical works; scientific 
criticism has the same object with respect to the different 
branches of science; while literary criticism, in a general 
sense, has for its principal employment the investigation 
of the merits and demerits of design, style, or diction, ac¬ 
cording to the general principles of composition and to 
the received standard of excellence in every language. In 
poetry and the arts, criticism develops the principles of 
that more refined and exquisite sense of beauty which 
forms the ideal model of perfection in each. 

Cri'to, or Cri'ton [Kpmov], a Greek philosojiher, was I 
a citizen of Athens, and a friend and disciple of Socrates, 
whom he attended in his last hours. He wrote seventeen 
dialogues on philosophy, which are not extant. Plato gave 
the name of “ Crito ” to one of his books. 

Critola'us [KpiroAaos], a Greek philosopher, born at 
Pliaselis, in Lycia. He was the head of the Peripatetic 
school in Athens, and was eminent as an orator as well as 
a philosopher. He was sent to Rome on an important em¬ 
bassy with Carneades about 155 B. C. 

Crit/tenden, a county in the E. of Arkansas. Area, 
750 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missis¬ 
sippi River, and on the S. W. by the St. Francis. The sur¬ 
face is mostly level; the soil is alluvial and fertile, except 
the swamps. Cotton, grain, and hay are raised extensively. 
It is intersected by the Memphis and Little Rock R. R. 
Capital, Marion. Pop. 3831. 

Crittenden, a county in the W. of Kentucky. Area, 
420 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the Ohio 
River, and on the N. E. by the Tradewater. The surface 
is undulating or nearly level; the soil is fertile. Cattle, 
wool, grain, and tobacco arc produced. Here are mines of 
coal, iron, and lead. Capital, Marion. Pop. 9381. 

Crittenden, a township of Champaign co., Ill. Pop. 
870. 

Crittenden, a post-village of Grant co., Ky. P. 295. 

Crittenden (George B.), General, a son of the fol¬ 
lowing, was educated at West Point, began to practise law 
in Kentucky in 1835, served with distinction in the Mex¬ 
ican war, resigned his commission of lieutenant-colonel in 


the U. S. army in 1861, and joined the Southern Confeder¬ 
acy. He became a major-general, was defeated at Mill 
Spring, Ky., Jan. 19, 1862, was kept in arrest by the Con¬ 
federates till Nov., 1863, and soon after resigned. 

Crittenden (John Jordon), an American statesman, 
born in Woodford co., Ky., Sept. 10, 1786. He studied 
law, which he practised with distinction, and was elected 
to the Senate of the U. S. for a short term in 1817. Hav¬ 
ing passed about sixteen years in private life, he was re¬ 
elected to the national Senate by the Whigs in 1835 for a 
term of six years. He was a personal and political friend 
of Henry Clay. In Mar., 1841, he was appointed attorney- 
general of the U. S., but he resigned in September of that 
year. He was again elected a Senator of the U. S. in 1843, 
and was chosen governor of Kentucky in 1848. He was 
attorney-general in the cabinet of President Fillmore from 
July, 1850, to Mar., 1853, soon after which he joined the 
Native American party. In 1855 he again became a IT. S. 
Senator. He opposed the secession movement in 1860-61, 
and, performing the part of a mediator, offered in the 
Senate a series of resolutions called the “ Crittenden Com¬ 
promise,” which were not adopted. Died July 26, 1863. 

Crittenden (Thomas Leonidas), an American general, 
a son of the preceding, was born at Russellville, Ky., in 
1819. He served with honor in the Mexican war. He 
commanded a division of the Union army at Shiloh, April, 
1862, and obtained the rank of major-general of volunteers 
in the summer of that year. He commanded a corps at 
the battle of Stone River, which ended Jan. 2, 1863. 

Croatan', a township and post-village of Craven co., 
N. C. Pop. 656. 

Croa'tia, a province of the Austro-Hungarian mon¬ 
archy, is bounded on the N. W. by Carniola and Styria, on 
the W. by the Adriatic Sea, on the N. E. by Hungary, and 
on the S. by Turkey and Slavonia. On the seaboard the 
olive grows, but in the mountainous regions the snow lies 
eight months. The Julian Alps, which occupy the entire 
midland, are of limestone formation, are mostly covered 
with forests, and contain many caverns. The principal 
rivers are the Save, the Drave, and the Kulpa. Among 
the chief articles of export are grain, wine, and chestnuts. 
Capital, Agram. Of the inhabitants, 94.55 per cent, are 
Croats and Servians, 2.76 percent. Germans, 1.38 percent. 
Magyars; the remainder are Israelites, Italians, and Alba¬ 
nians. Croats and Servians are two Slavic tribes which 
speak the same language, though the former use the Latin 
and the latter the Cyrillic alphabet. About 60 per cent, of 
the population are Roman Catholics, 33 per cent, belong to 
the Oriental Greek Church ; the remainder arc Protestants 
and Jews. This region was anciently inhabited by the 
Pannonians, who were conquered by the Romans in the 
reign of Augustus. In 640 A. D. the Croatians or Horvats 
migrated from the Carpathian Mountains to this country, 
and gave it the name of Croatia. For several centuries 
Croatia was an independent kingdom, until in 1097 it was 
conquered by the king of Hungary. This province, with 
Slavonia, now forms a division of the Hungarian king¬ 
dom ( Transleithania). Their united area is 8873 square 
miles. Pop. in 1869, 1,168,037, inclusive of the city of 
Fiurne, ivhich is placed under the immediate control of the 
Hungarian ministry. 

Crochet, kro'shi [a diminutive of the Fr. croche, a 
“ hook”], a kind of thread or worsted work consisting of a 
system of loops made with a small hook designed for the 
purpose. Various light and elegant patterns of crochet- 
work are made. Open work is made by omitting one or 
more loops. Wool and cotton of a great variety of shades 
and colors are used for crochet. 

Crock'er, a county of Iowa, bordering on Minnesota. 
Area, 432 square miles. It was organized since the U. S. 
census of 1870. The soil is fertile. Capital, Greenwood 
Centre. 

Crock'ery [from the Anglo-Saxon croc; Old English, 
erode, an “earthen vessel,” a “pot or jar”], a collective 
term including all kinds of earthenware used for household 
purposes. The principal kinds are common or coarse 
earthenware, stoneware, queensware, and porcelain. 

Crockery, a township of Ottawa co., Mich. P. 1125. 

Crock'd [allied to the word croole], in Gothic archi¬ 
tecture, an ornament resembling curved and bent foliage 
running up on the edge of a gable, pinnacle, or spire. The 
varieties of crockets are numerous, many kinds of leaf 
and flower being imitated for the purpose. Crockets only 
appear in pyramidal or curved lines, never in horizontal 
lines. 

Crock'ett, a county of the W. of Tennessee, formed 
since the census of 1870. It is in a good cotton region, 
and is intersected by the Memphis and Ohio R. R. Capi¬ 
tal, Alamo. 



















CROCKETT—CROMARTY FRITH. 


1197 


Crockett, a township of Arkansas co., Ark. Pop. 637. 

Crockett, a city, capital of Houston co., Tex., on the 
line of the International and Great Northern R. R., at the 
centre of the county. It has an active trade and is very 
thriving. Here are four churches, a male and female sem¬ 
inary, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. 538. 

Rainey & Frymier, Props. “ East Texas Herald.” 

Crockett (David), a famous American hunter and hu¬ 
morist, born in Tennessee Aug. 17, 1786. He was elected a 
member of Congress in 1827, 1829, and 1831, and was a 
political friend of General Jackson. His habits were ec¬ 
centric. He enlisted in the Texan army in revolt against 
Mexico, was taken prisoner at Fort Alamo, and massacred 
Mar. 6, 1836. 

Croc'odiie [Gr. /cpo/coSeiAo?, a “lizard”or “crocodile;” 
Lat. crocodilus'] , a genus ( Crocodilus) of saurian or rather 



Nilotic Crocodile. 


loricate reptiles, which gives its name to the family Croco- 
dilidae, other genera of which arc also called crocodiles. 
Like most reptiles, the crocodiles are carnivorous, and ow¬ 
ing to their great size, strength, and voracious habits, they 
are the dread of the countries which they inhabit. They 
have bony plates embedded in the skin, which form a strong 
armor. They are called Emydosauri, or tortoise-lizards. 
Some authors term them Loricata, or mailed reptiles (from 
the Latin lorica, a “coat of mail”). They are capable of walk¬ 
ing on land, but are much better fitted for the water. They 
are furnished with elevated nostrils at the extremity of the 
skull, so that they can almost wholly conceal themselves in 
water while breathing the air. The water does not enter 
the throat, which closes like the valves of the heart. The 
ears are also guarded by tightly-closing valves. The young 
crocodiles are hatched from eggs strangely small in pro¬ 
portion to tho size of the adult animal, being less in size 
than the eggs of the goose. 

These great reptiles are divided into two families—the 
true crocodiles and the alligators. They are easily distin¬ 
guished by the shape of the head, the muzzle of the croc¬ 
odiles being narrow behind the nostrils, while that of the 
alligator forms a straight line : and there are other anatom¬ 
ical distinctions. The gavial, or Gangetic crocodile (Ga- 
tnalis Gangeticus), is one of the largest of its order, some¬ 
times being thirty feet long. It has an extraordinary 
length of muzzle, which gives it a grotesque aspect. It 
has one hundred and twenty teeth, of similar appearance 
and equal length. Its color is a dark olive-brown, with 
black spots. The crocodile of the Nile ( Crocodilus vul¬ 
garis), now seldom seen below the first cataract, is a most 
formidable animal. Living exclusively on animal food, 
and preferring tainted meat, it is useful in purifying tho 
waters. It also feeds on fish, and is a dangerous foe to 
cattle and other animals. It is nearly as large as the 
former species. The Indian crocodile {Crocodilus porosus) 
is an Asiatic species; it is sometimes called the double- 
crested crocodile, because the head has two long ridges ex¬ 
tending from the front of the eye over the upper jaw. 
This is never found except in low lands with still water. 
It is very common in Ceylon. The marsh crocodile ( Croc¬ 
odilus palustris), frequently called mugger or goa, has a 
large range of locality, and sometimes grows to a great 
length; in the British Museum is a skull twenty-six inches 
long, denoting a total length of thirty-three feet. It is 
found in Asia, and is said to occur in Australia. Another 
species is the American crocodile ( Crocodilus acutus ), often 
confounded with the alligator. This is found in the hotter 
portions of America, and occurs in the U. S. It makes a 
hideous noise at night, so that one unaccustomed to it has 
no chance of sleep. The margined crocodile ( Crocodilus 
marqinatu8) inhabits the rivers of Southern Africa. It is 
distinguished from the Egyptian crocodile by the great 


concavity of the forehead and stronger dorsal plates. Sev¬ 
eral other living species are known. Many fossil species 
have been found, especially in the U. S. (See Alligator, 
Cayman, Gavial.) 

Cro'cus [Gr. /cp6*os, “ saffron”], a large genus of irida- 
ceous plants (herbs) native of Asia and Europe. The 
Crocus vernus and other species are well known as afford¬ 
ing many varieties of very early spring flowers which are 
common in cultivation. Crocus sativus and other species 
blossom in autumn. The autumn crocuses are rarely culti¬ 
vated in the U. S. Their orange-red stigmas, when dried, 
constitute the drug known as “true” Saffron (which see). 

Crocus of Mars, a name given to the finely-divided 
red oxide of iron, used in medicine and in the arts. The 
“crocus of antimony” of the old chemists was a mixture 
of the tersulphide and teroxide of antimony. The “cro¬ 
cuses” received their name from their saffron color. 

Crre'sus [Gr. Kpouros], a king of Lydia proverbial for 
his riches, was born about 590 B. C. He succeeded his 
father Alyattes in 560, and soon extended his dominions 
by the conquest of the iEolians, Ionians, and other peoples 
of Asia Minor. Sardis was the capital of his kingdom. 
He is said to have enriched himself by the golden sand of 
Pactolus. In 546 B. C. he was defeated in battle and 
taken prisoner by Cyrus of Persia, who treated him with 
generosity. 

Croetau', a township of Dare co., N. C. Pop. 255. 

Croft (William), an English composer of cathedral 
music, was born in Warwickshire in 1677. He was ap¬ 
pointed composer to the chapel-royal and organist of West¬ 
minster Abbey in 1708. He composed “ Divine Harmony” 
(1712) and “ Musica Sacra” (1724). Died Aug. 14, 1727. 

Cro'ghan, a township and post-village of Lewis co., 
N. Y. The village is about 50 miles S. of Ogdensburg. 
The township has manufactures of lumber, leather, etc. 
Total pop. 2433. 

Croghan (George), an inspector-general of the U. S. 
army, born in Kentucky Nov. 15, 1791. He served as vol¬ 
unteer aide in the battle of Tippecanoe 1811; was ap¬ 
pointed captain in the Nineteenth Infantry 1812, major 
1813, lieutenant-colonel 1814, and inspector-general, with 
the rank of colonel, 1825. He distinguished himself at the 
defence of Fort Meigs and sortie May 15, 1813, and for 
his gallant conduct in the defence of Fort Stephenson, 
against a greatly superior force of British and Indians, he 
was presented by Congress with a gold medal with suitable 
emblems and devices. Died Jan. 8, 1849, at New Orleans. 

Cro'ker (John Wilson), a writer and politician, born 
at Galway, in Ireland, Dec. 20, 1780. He was elected a 
Tory member of Parliament in 1807. He co-operated with 
Scott and others in founding the “ Quarterly Review,” to 
which he contributed many roughly satirical reviews. In 
Parliament he obstinately opposed the Reform Bill. Among 
his works are “Songs of Trafalgar” and an edition of 
Boswell’s “Life of Johnson ” (5 vols., 1831). Died Aug. 
10, 1857. 

Croker (Thomas Crofton), a popular Irish writer, born 
at Cork Jan. 15, 1798. He obtained a clerkship in the 
admiralty at the age of twenty-one, and retained that posi¬ 
tion until 1850. He published, besides other works, “ Re¬ 
searches in the South of Ireland” (1824), “Fairy Legends 
and Traditions” (1825), “Legends of the Lakes” (1828), 
and “My Village” (1832). Died Aug. 8, 1854. 

Cro'ly (George), LL.D., a poet, prose-writer, and pulpit- 
orator, born in Dublin, Ireland, in Aug., 1780. He took 
orders in the Anglican Church, and became in 1835 rector 
of St. Stephen’s, Wallbrook, London. Among his works 
are “ Salathiel, a Story of the Past, Present, and Future” 
(1827); “History of George IV.” (1830); “Poetical Works” 
(2 vols., 1830); “Catiline, a Tragedy,” which was praised 
in “Blackwood’s Magazine;” a “Life of Edmund Burke” 
(1840); and “ Marston,” a novel (1846). Died Nov. 24, 
1860. 

Crom'arty, a county of Scotland politically connected 
with Ross (which see), and comprising nine detached dis¬ 
tricts inside that county. Area, 344 square miles. 

Crom'arty, a town and seaport of Scotland, in the 
united counties of Ross and Cromarty, is finely situated at 
the entrance of Cromarty Frith, 18 miles N. N. E. of In¬ 
verness. It has a good harbor, which will admit vessels 
of 400 tons; also manufactures of ropes, sailcloth, and 
sacking. Hugh Miller was born here. Pop. in 1871,1476. 

Cromarty Frith, a landlocked inlet of the North Sea, 
in the N. E. part of Scotland. It communicates with Mo¬ 
ray Frith, and is adjacent to the counties of Ross and ( rom- 
arty. It is 18 miles long, varies in width from 3 to 5 miles, 
and forms a noble harbor, in which the largest fleet could ride 
safely. The entrance to this frith is a strait 1£ miles wide. 
























































CROMER-CRONOS. 


1198 


Cro'mer, a small seaport and watering-place of Eng¬ 
land, in Norfolk, and on the North Sea, 21 miles N. of 
Norwich. It stands on the top of a high cliff. It has a 
fine church in the Tudor style and a public library. All 
attempts to form a harbor here have been baffled by the 
heavy sea, which is continually encroaching on the land. 
Cromer Bay is dangerous to navigators, and is called by 
sailors “The Devil’s Throat.” 


Cro'mers, a township of Newberry co., S. C. P. 2224. 

Crom'lech [said to signify in Welsh a “bent or con¬ 
cave stone”], or Dolmen, a rude structure of two or 
more unhewn stones lixed vertically in the ground, and 
supporting a large flat stone placed in a horizontal po¬ 
sition. Cromlechs are found in England, Wales, Ireland, 
France, Germany, Denmark, Hindostan, and other coun¬ 
tries. The theory of the older antiquaries was that the 
cromlech was a Druidical altar, but the skeletons and other 
remains which have been found in many of them tend to 
confirm the opinion that cromlechs were originally the se¬ 
pulchral monuments of some now forgotten race. In many 
instances cromlechs have been discovered in the interior 
of earthen mounds or barrows. Among the remarkable 
cromlechs in England are Kit’s Coty House in Kent and 
Chun Quoit in Cornwall. The weight of the flat stone in 
the latter is estimated at twenty tons. 

Cromp'ton (Samuel), inventor of the spinning-mule, 
was born near Bolton, in Lancashire, England, Dec. 3, 
1753. Farming and weaving were the employments of his 
boyhood. For his invention, which was perfected in 1779, 
he received, in subscriptions from the manufacturers, only 
£67 6s. (Sd . Parliament in 1812 voted him £5000. He 
was a shy, sensitive, studious man, fond of mathematics 
and of music. Died at Bolton June 26, 1827. (See 
French, “Life of Crompton,” 1859.) 

Crom'well, a township and post-village of Middlesex 
co., Conn. The village is on the Connecticut Valley R. R., 
124 miles S. of Hartford. The town has quarries of brown- 
stone. Total pop. 1856. 

Cromwell, a post-village of Douglas township, Union 
co., Ia. Pop. 166. 

Cromwell, a township of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 
1380. 

Cromwell (Henry), a younger son of Oliver, was born 
at Huntingdon Jan., 1628. He served as colonel under 
his father in Ireland in 1649, became a member of Parlia¬ 
ment in 1653, and lord deputy of Ireland in 1657. His 
administration was moderate and popular. After 1659 he 
lived as a private citizen. Died in 1674. 

Cromwell (Oliver), lord protector of England, was 
born at Huntingdon April 25, 1599. He was a son of 
Robert Cromwell and a grandson of Sir Henry Cromwell. 
In 1616 he entered Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, 
which he quitted on the death of his father, in June, 1617. 
He married Elizabeth Bourcliier in 1620, and settled on his 
estate at Huntingdon. In the short Parliament of 1628 
he made but one speech, and during the eleven years proro¬ 
gation he devoted his time to the cultivation of his farms. 
He represented Cambridge in the Short Parliament, which 
met in April, 1640, and in the Long Parliament, which met 
the same year. He was then a zealous member of the 
Country party, and took an active part in the business of 
the House, but was not a fluent speaker. Once, when he 
rose to address the house, Lord Digby inquired of Hamp¬ 
den (who was Cromwell’s first cousin), “Who is that 
sloven ?” Hampden replied that it was Oliver Cromwell, 
and added, “ That sloven whom you see before you has no 
ornament in his speech; but if we should ever come to a 
breach with the king, that sloven, I say, will be the greatest 
man in England.” Having raised two companies of vol¬ 
unteers, he entered the army of the Parliament in 1642 as 
a captain of cavalry, and distinguished himself by his 
strict discipline. He soon became a colonel, and formed a 
body of fanatical soldiers, the redoubted “Ironsides.” On 
the 2d of July, 1644, he commanded the victorious left 
wing at Marston Moor. The Parliamentarians were divided 
into two parties, Presbyterian and Independent, of which 
latter Cromwell was the master-spirit. He was excepted 
from the “ Self-Denying Ordinance,” which excluded from 
military command members of Parliament. When the 
army was reorganized, and Fairfax appointed general-in¬ 
chief, Cromwell was promoted to the rank of lieutenant- 
general. In command of the right wing at Naseby, June, 
1645, he greatly contributed to that decisive victory. In 
May, 1646, the king surrendered himself to the Scottish 
army, which transferred him to the custody of the English 
Parliament, in which the Presbyterians had a majority. 
In June, 1647, the king was seized by one of Cromwell’s 
officers, and removed from the custody of Parliament into 
that of the army, which the Independents controlled. 




Charles hoped to profit by the dissensions between the 
Presbyterians and the Independents, and intrigued with 
both. Cromwell defeated the duke of Hamilton, who com¬ 
manded an army of Scottish royalists, at the battle of 
Preston Aug., 1648. In December of that year forty-one 
Presbyterian royalists were ejected from Parliament by 
Colonel Pride, acting under the orders of Cromwell. This 
was called “ Pride’s Purge.” Cromwell was a member of 
the court which tried the king and condemned him to death 
in Jan., 1649. Cromwell was now the most powerful man 
in the country, and became a member of the new council 
of state. In 1649 he went to Ireland as lord lieutenant 
with an army, and subdued the rebellious Irish royalists 
with extreme severity. The Scotch proclaimed Charles II. 
as their king, and raised an army for the invasion of Eng¬ 
land and the promotion of the royal cause, Cromwell, who 
had returned to England in May, 1650, was then appointed 
commander-in-chief. He signally defeated the Scottish 
army at Dunbar on the 3d of Sept., 1650, and took about 
10,000 prisoners. Charles II., having been reinforced, 
marched into England, and was pursued by Cromwell, who 
gained a decisive victory at Worcester Sept. 3,1651. In this 
great crisis he displayed eminent vigor and sagacity. Clar¬ 
endon observes that “ his parts seemed to be raised, as if he 
had concealed his faculties until he had occasion to use 
them.” In April, 1653, he dissolved the remnant of the 
Long Parliament, which was called the Rump, and he soon 
summoned a new Parliament. He assumed the title of Lord 
Protector of the Commonwealth in 1653. His domestic 
policy was favorable to religious liberty and conducive to 
the prosperity of the country. His foreign policy was dig¬ 
nified and enlightened, and secured for England a more 
commanding position than she had previously occupied. 
The title of king was offered to him by Parliament, but he 
declined it. He was stigmatized as an usurper by the royal¬ 
ists, and also by the republicans. He died on the 3d of 
Sept., 1658, and was succeeded by his son Richard. 

It was long the fashion for historians to represent Crom¬ 
well as a fanatic, a hyjmcrite, and a man of cruel temper 
and mediocre talents. His character has been vindicated 
from these calumnies by Carlyle and other recent writers, 
and it is now generally admitted that as a statesman and 
commander he displayed abilities of the highest order. 
“Never,” says Macaulay, “'was any ruler so conspicuously 
born for sovereignty. The cup which has intoxicated 
almost all others sobered him. His spirit, restless from its 
buoyancy in a lower sphere, reposed in majestic placidity 
as soon as it had reached the level congenial to it. Rap¬ 
idly as his fortunes grew, his mind expanded more rapidly 
still. Insignificant as a private citizen, he was a great 
general; he was a still greater prince.” (See Carlyle, 
“Letters and Speeches of Cromwell;” John Forster, “Life 
of Cromwell” in his “Statesmen of the Commonwealth of 
England,” 7 vols., 1840; R. Southey, “ Life of 0. Crom¬ 
well,” 1844; Villemain, “Ilistoire de Cromwell,” 1819.) 

Cromwell (Richard), a son of the preceding, was born 
at Huntingdon Oct. 4, 1626. He entered Lincoln’s Inn as 
a student of law in 1647, and married Dorothy Major in 
1649. He was a man of moderate capacity, virtuous and 
unambitious. After Oliver became Protector, Richard was 
elected to Parliament, and was a member of the privy 
council. He succeeded his father as Protector in Sept., 
1658, but the army was disaffected, and he was not earn¬ 
estly supported by the people. He resigned his power 
in April, 1659, and passed the rest of his life in obscurity 
and peace. Died in 1712. 

Cromwell (Thomas), earl of Essex, an English cour¬ 
tier and minister of state, was born at Putney about 1490. 
He became an agent of Cardinal Wolsey, who employed 
him in important business. Soon after the fall of Wolsey 
he entered the civil service of Henry VIII., whose favor 
he gained. He promoted the Reformation by his strenuous 
efforts to destroy the supremacy of the pope, and co-opie- 
rated with his friend Cranmer in establishing a new eccle¬ 
siastical polity. In 1534 he was appointed principal sec¬ 
retary of state, and about a year later vicar-general with 
power to suppress monasteries. He was for several years 
the most powerful subject in England, and was created earl 
of Essex in 1539. He was a man of superior talents, but 
is said to have been unscrupulous and rapacious. Froude, 
however, defends him against these imputations, and gives 
him a high character. He promoted the marriage of Henry 
VIII. with Anne of Cleves, because she favored the Lu¬ 
theran doctrines. His agency in this affair was conducive 
to his own ruin, for the capricious king regarded her with 
disgust. Cromwell was tried for treason, and was be¬ 
headed July 28, 1540. (See Michael Drayton, “Historic 
of the Life and Death of Lord Cromwell,” 1609; Froude, 
“History of England,” chaps, vi.-xvii.) 

Cro'nos [Kpovos], a god of the Greek mythology, was 











CRONSTADT—CROSMAN. 


said to be a son of Uranus, and the father of Jupiter, Nep¬ 
tune, Juno, and Ceres. He is commonly identified with the 
Roman Saturn. 

Cron'stadt [Ger. “crown city”], a fortified seaport- 
town of Russia, is on the flat and arid island of Kotlin, 
in the Gulf of Finland, about 20 miles W. of St. Peters¬ 
burg, and opposite the mouth of the river Neva; lat. 
59° 59' 42” N., Ion. 29° 46' 30” E. It is an important 
commercial town, and the greatest naval station of Russia. 
It is stated that two-thirds of the foreign commerce of 
Russia passes through Cronstadt, which has three harbors. 
The outer harbor, which is intended for ships of war, is 
capable of containing thirty-five ships of the line. The 
inner harbor is used for merchant-vessels, and has a ca¬ 
pacity for 1000 vessels. The place is very stronglj 7 forti¬ 
fied. Pop. in 1867, 45,155. Ice renders this port inacces¬ 
sible for nearly five months in the year. 

Cronstadt, in Transylvania. See Kronstadt. 

Crook, a post-township of Boone co., West Va. P. 702. 

Crook (George), an American officer, born Sept. 8, 
1828, near Dayton, O., graduated at West Point in 1852, 
and July 28, 1866, lieutenant-colonel Twenty-third In¬ 
fantry. He served on frontier duty 1852-61, in Rogue 
River expedition 1856, and in command of Pitt River expedi¬ 
tion 1857 ; engaged in several actions, in one of which was 
wounded with an arrow. In the civil war he became col¬ 
onel Thirty-sixth Ohio Volunteers, and was promoted Oct. 
21, 1864, to be major-general U. S. volunteers, serving in 
West Virginia operations 1861-62, engaged at Lewisburg 
(wounded and brevet major); in Northern Virginia cam¬ 
paign 1862; in Maryland campaign 1862, engaged at South 
Mountain and Antietam (brevet lieutenant-colonel) ; in 
operations in West Virginia 1862—63 ; in Tennessee campaign 
1863, engaged at Tullahoma, Hoover’s Gap, Chickamauga, 
and pursuit of Wheeler, with constant skirmishes (brevet 
colonel); in Northern Virginia 1864, making constant raids 
and in numerous actions (brevet brigadier-general U. S. A. 
and brevet major-general U. S. volunteers); in Sheridan’s 
Shenandoah campaign 1864, engaged at Berryville, Fisher’s 
Hill (brevet major-general U. S. A.), Strasburg, Opequan, 
and Cedar Creek; in command of cavalry of Army of 
the Potomac 1865, engaged atDinwiddie Court-house, Jet- 
tersville, Sailor’s Creek, Farmville, and Appomattox Court¬ 
house; and in command of the district of Wilmington, 
N. C., 1865-66. Since the war he has been on rifle tactics 
board 1866, in command of the district of Idaho 1866-72, 
and actively engaged against hostile Indians; and is 
(1873) in command of the district of Arizona, having 
quelled all Indian disturbances and compelled them to sue 
for peace. Promoted to be brigadier-general U. S. A. Oct. 
29, 1873. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Crook'ed Creek, a township of Boone co., Ark. P. 646. 

Crooked Creek, a twp. of Cumberland co., Ill. P. 981. 

Crooked Creek, a township of Jasper co., Ill. P. 1568. 

Crooked Creek, a township of Houston co., Minn. 
Pop. 465. 

Crooked Creek, a township of McDowell co., N. C. 
Pop. 389. 

Crooked Island, one of the Bahama Islands, has an 
area of 160 square miles. Salt is exported from it. 

Crooked Lake, in the western part of New York, 
extends from Penn Yan south-westward into Steuben co., 
and is about 18 miles long. The greatest width is one and 
a half miles. The surface is 718 feet above the level of the 
ocean. It is now generally called Keuka Lake, and is 
celebrated for the fine vineyards in the vicinity. It lies in 
a deep valley. 

Crooked River, a township of Ray co., Mo. P. 1622. 

Crooks (George R.), D. D., a Methodist divine and 
journalist, was born in Philadelphia Feb. 3, 1822, grad¬ 
uated in 1840 at Dickinson College, joined the Methodist 
ministry in 1841, travelled and preached extensively in 
Illinois, was appointed classical and mathematical tutor 
in Dickinson College in 1842, principal of the Collegiate 
Grammar School in 1843, and adjunct professor of ancient 
languages in 1846. In 1848 he resumed the ministry, oc¬ 
cupying important pulpits in Philadelphia, Wilmington, 
New York, and Brooklyn. In conjunction with Professor 
McClintock, he prepared “A First Book in Latin,” and “A 
First Book in Greek,” which have been successful text¬ 
books. He has also published Butler’s “ Analogy,” with 
an elaborate analysis of the work, notes, index, and life of 
Butler. IIis most important production is a “ Latin-Eng- 
lish Lexicon ” for schools and colleges, the preparation of 
which was shared by Professor Schein. His eminent jour¬ 
nalistic career began in 1860, when he was elected first 
editor of the “ Methodist,” a weekly newspaper established 
in New York City by a company of Methodist laymen who 


1199 


were favorable to independent or unofficial journalism in 
their Church. Under his control the “Methodist” has 
been an effective power in the denomination, visibly ele¬ 
vating the character of its journalism, successfully advo¬ 
cating lay representation in its councils, and freely dis¬ 
cussing all questions relating to its welfare. 

Crop, the first stomach of a fowl; also applied to grain 
and other plants or fruits cultivated on a farm. In geology, 
crop or outcrop signifies the edge of a stratum where it 
comes to the surface of the earth. Strata which are not 
horizontal, and which expose one edge at the surface, are 
said to crop out. 

Crop'scy, a township of McLean co., Ill. Pop. 859. 

Cropsey (Jasper Frank), an American landscape- 
painter, born at Westfield, Richmond co., N. Y., Feb. 18, 
1823. He became a resident of England in 1856. Among 
his works are “The Sibyl’s Temple” and “Niagara Falls.” 

Crop'well, a post-tp. of St. Clair co., Ala. Pop. 1080. 

Croquet, kro'kA [etymology uncertain], the French 
name of a game recently revived from obscurity, and in¬ 
troduced into this country. It is played with wooden balls 
and mallets, the object of the game being to propel a ball 
through a number of hoops or arches fastened into the 
ground to a fixed goal (turning-post), and thence back to 
the starting-point (winning-post). The laws of the game 
have been explained in various treatises. The game is a 
modification of the ancient sport called “ pell-mell.” The 
best place to play croquet on is a level grass-plot or lawn. 
It can be played by from two to eight persons. 

Cros'by, a township of Hamilton co., 0. Pop. 2514. 

Crosby (Alpheus), an American educator, born at 
Sandwich, N. H., Oct. 13, 1810, graduated at Dartmouth in 
1827, was tutor and professor of ancient languages in his 
alma mater (1829-57), and principal of the normal school 
at Salem, Mass. (1857-65). He edited Xenophon’s “Ana¬ 
basis,” and published a Greek grammar and other works, 
which have been extensively used. 

Crosby (Rev. Howard), D. D., LL.D., was born in New 
York City Feb. 27, 1826, graduated at the New York Uni¬ 
versity in 1844, became professor of Greek in the same 
in 1851, professor of Greek in Rutgers College, N. J., in 
1859, pastor of First Presbyterian church in New Bruns¬ 
wick in 1861, resigned his pastorate in 1862, and his pro¬ 
fessorship in 1863, when he became pastor of the Fourth 
Avenue Presbyterian church in New York City. In 1870 
he was elected chancellor of the University of New York. 
Of bold, ardent, and energetic temper, his scholarship has 
always been put to popular use. Besides other works, he 
has published “Lands of the Moslem” (1850), “Gklipus 
Tyrannus” (1851), “Notes on the New Testament” (1861), 
“Bible Manual” (1870), “Life of Jesus” (1871). 

Crosby (Pierce), U. S. N., born Jan. 16,1824, in Penn¬ 
sylvania, entered the navy as a midshipman in 1838, be¬ 
came a passed midshipman in 1844, a lieutenant in 1853, a 
commander in 1862, and a captain in 1868. He served 
on the E. coast of Mexico during the Mexican war, and in 
1861 was employed with the army, and rendered most im¬ 
portant service in Chesapeake Bay and in the sounds of 
North Carolina, particularly at the capture of Forts Ilat- 
teras and Clarke, where he was highly complimented for 
“ his efficient services ” by Major-General Butler, who com¬ 
manded the land forces in the attack. He commanded the 
Pinola at the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jackson 
and capture of New Orleans, April 24, 1862, and at the 
passages up and down the Mississippi past the Vicksburg 
batteries, June 30 and July 15, 1862. He did good service 
during the years 1863-64 in command of the Florida and 
Keystone State, North Atlantic blockading squadron, and 
in 1865 commanded the steamer Metacomet during the 
operations which led to the fall of Mobile. His services 
are thus highly spoken of by Rear-Admiral Thatcher in 
his official despatch to the navy department of April 12, 
1865: “I am also much indebted to Commander Crosby, 
who has been untiring in freeing the Blakely River of tor¬ 
pedoes, having succeeded in removing over 150—a service 
demanding coolness, judgment, and perseverance.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Cro'sier, or Crozier [Late Lat. cruciarium, from crux 
(gen. crucis), a “ cross ;” Fr. crosse], a staff surmounted by 
a cross, which is carried before an archbishop on solemn 
occasions. It is about five feet long and is hollow. The 
term is also somewhat incorrectly applied to the pastoral 
staff of Roman Catholic bishops, which is curved at the top 
in imitation of a shepherd’s crook. 

Cros'land’s, a township of Tuscarora co., Ala. P. 316. 

Cros'man (Alexander F.), U. S. N., born Juno 11,1838, 
at St. Louis, Mo., graduated at the Naval Academy in 1855, 
became a master in 1858, a lieutenant in 1861, a lieutenant- 













1200 


CROSS—CROSS-EXAMINATION. 


)°i n - Xw^j: 

(T); 




commander in 1862, and a commander in 1870. lie was at¬ 
tached to the steam-frigate Wabash during 1863 and 1864, 
during which period he was constantly in action on shore in 
co-operation with the army. He was with the naval brigade 
at the severe engagements of Boyd’s Neck and Tulifinny 
Cross-Roads Nov. 30 and Dec. 6,1864, 
and honorably mentioned in the of¬ 
ficial report of Commander George II. 

Preble of Jan. 10, 1865. Drowned at 
Greytown, Nicaragua, April 12, 1872. 

Foxiiall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Cross [Gr. <navpo s; Lat. crux 
(gen. cruets) ; Fr. croix; Sp. cruz; 

Ger. Kreuz; It. croce], an instru¬ 
ment anciently used for inflicting the 
punishment of death, for ever memo¬ 
rable as the means of our Saviour’s 
passion. As its Greek name indi¬ 
cates, it was often a simple stake, 
upon which the victim was either im¬ 
paled or tied. There were also other 
forms, as the crux decussata, or Saint 
Andrew’s cross (X),* the crux com 
missa, or Saint Anthony’s cross ( 
and the crux immissa (U upon 
which, according to uniform tradi¬ 
tion, our Lord suffered. (See Cruci¬ 
fixion.) 

Cross, in heraldry, an ordinary 
formed by lines drawn palewise and 
fesswise, enclosing (if bounded by 
the escutcheon) one-fifth of the shield, 

or one-third if charged. It is one of the honorable ordi¬ 
naries, and occurs with many varieties of forms. 

Cross, a county in the N. E. of Arkansas. Area, 600 
square miles. The soil is very fertile, partly level and 
partly hilly ; cotton, grain, and fruit are raised. Timber is 
abundant. It is intersected by the St. Francis River. Cap¬ 
ital, Wiltsburg. Pop. 3915. 

Cross, a township of Howard co., Md. Pop. 1734. 

Cross, a township of Buffalo co., Wis. Pop. 564. 

Cross (Charles E.), an American officer, born in Mas¬ 
sachusetts in 1837, graduated at West Point in the engineer 
corps in 1861, and at the time of his death was a captain 
of engineers, U. S. A. He served in constructing the de¬ 
fences of Washington, and on engineer duty in Manassas 
campaign of 1861,- in Peninsula campaign of 1862 (bre¬ 
vet major July 1, 1862); and at the battle of Antietam, 
Sept. 17, 1862 (brevet lieutenant-colonel); at the battle of 
Fredericksburg Dec., 1862, at the battle of Chancellors- 
ville May, 1863; and while in charge of bridge details at 
the third crossing of the Rappahannock this gallant and 
accomplished officer was shot through the brain, and in¬ 
stantly killed, June 5, 1863. Brevet-colonel June 5, 1863. 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Enfrs. 

Cross (George D.), born at Westerly, R. I., Jan. 24, 
1799, was for many years a prominent and public-spirited 
citizen of his native town and State, and was for a long 
time chief-justice of the common pleas court of Wash¬ 
ington co. Died Oct. 1, 1872. 

Cross (Joseph), D. D., a clergyman, first of the Metho¬ 
dist Episcopal Church, afterwards of the Protestant Episco¬ 
pal Church, born in Somersetshire, England, in 1813. He 
removed to the U. S. about 1825, and published various 
works, among which are “ Life and Sermons of Christmas 
Evans,” “Headlands of Faith,” and contributions to peri¬ 
odical literature. 

Cross (Trueman), an American officer, born in Mary¬ 
land, appointed an ensign in the Forty-second Infantry, 
U. S. A., April 27, 1814, second lieutenant Oct., 1814, first 
lieutenant Jan. 18, captain and assistant deputy quarter¬ 
master-general June 18, assistant inspector-general (rank 
of major) Oct., 1820. He served in the infantry 1821-26, 
when he wa3 transferred to quartermaster department; 
colonel and assistant quartermaster-general July, 1838. 
Killed April 21, 1846, by Mexican banditti near the camp 
opposite Matamoras, Tex., while serving as chief quarter¬ 
master Army of Occupation. 

Cross Anchor, a township and post-village of Spar¬ 
tanburg co., S. C. Pop. 1833. 

Cross-Bill, the name of several birds of the genus 
Loxia. The Loxia curviroetra inhabits the north of Eu¬ 
rope, and feeds on pine-cones, seeds, and nuts, its strong 
bill enabling it to break the shells with ease. The mandi¬ 
bles of the bill cross each other, and are crescent-shaped. 
The bird is about seven inches long, and subject to great 
changes of color. The older birds are of a greenish-yellow, 
spotted with white, and have a gray tinge. The males of 


a year old are red. r I he cross-bills migrate southwaid in 
winter, and are sometimes seen in England. Ihc American 
cross-bill (Loxia Americana) is distinct from the European, 
but much resembles it. It is a northern bird, but is some¬ 
times found in Pennsylvania. It feeds on seeds and buds 



Parrot Cross-Bill. 

of trees. The male is red, but of a whitish color beneath. The 
pai'rot cross-bill ( Loxia pityopsittacus) is seven inches and a 
half long, of a tile-red color, with dark streaks below. It is 
similar to the common cross-bill in its habits. It is some¬ 
times seen in England and France. The European white¬ 
winged cross-bill ( Loxia bifasciata) is six and a quarter 
inches long. It is of a brick-red orange or grayish-brown 
above, reddish-orange beneath; it is a rare species. The 
American white-winged cross-bill ( Loxia leucoptera) is of 
a crimson color, with black wings and tail; the wings have 
two white bands. It is about six inches in length. This 
bird is rarely seen farther S. than New York. 

Cross-B ow. See Arbalest. 

Cross Creek, a township of Cumberland co., N. C. 
Pop. 147. 

Cross Creek, a township of Jefferson co., O. P. 1800. 

Cross Creek, a post-township of Washington co., Pa. 
Pop. 1034. 

Cross Creek, a township of Brook co., W. Ya. Pop. 
1907. 

Crosse (Andrew), an English gentleman who gained 
distinction by his experiments in electricity, was born in 
Somersetshire June 17, 1784, and was educated at Oxford. 
He commenced in 1807 experiments with a view to form 
artificial crystals by a voltaic battery, in which he was suc¬ 
cessful. In the course of many years spent in this pursuit 
he obtained not less than twenty-four mineral crystals simi¬ 
lar in form to those produced by nature. These discoveries 
were not published until he explained them before the 
British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1836. 
Some excitement was produced in the same year by the ap¬ 
parent generation of insects of the genus Acarus during his 
experiments with a voltaic battery. (See Spontaneous 
Generation.) Died July 6, 1855. 

Cros'sen, a town of Prussia, in the province of Bran¬ 
denburg, at the confluence of the Bober with the Oder, 32 
miles S. E. of Frankfort. It has manufactures of woollen 
cloth and hosiery. Pop. in 1871, 6977. 

Cross-Examination, in the law of evidence, is the 
examination of a witness by a party against whom he is 
called to testify, and is thus distinguished from a direct 
examination, which is had by the party calling the witness. 
The range of a cross-examination is much wider than that 
of a direct examination, the party examining being allowed 
to impeach the credit of the witness, and to show the in¬ 
consistency of his statements, his bias, his want of memory, 
and other matters tending to reduce the value of his testi¬ 
mony. The course of the examination, depending on the 
circumstances of the case, must be largely left to the dis¬ 
cretion of the presiding judge. For these reasons leading 
questions are regularly allowed, though they are in general 
excluded on the direct examination, as tending to make 
the answers of the witness mere echoes of the questions 
asked. It is, however, a rule that if a merely collateral 
question be asked and answered, the cross-examining 
counsel will not be allowed to call witnesses to disprove the 







































CROSS HILL—CROUP. 


1201 


truth of the answer. This rule would not extend to a 
question as to the point whether the witness had not pre¬ 
viously given a different version of the facts from that to 
which he testifies. If such a question is properly put to 
him as to time, place, and circumstances, and he answers 
in the negative, he can be contradicted by other witnesses. 
The same remark may be made as to a question put to him 
as to expressions used by him showing hostility towards 
the party against whom he is called. A witness on cross- 
examination cannot be required to answer whether he has 
committed a crime the commission of which would subject 
him to punishment, or has done any act which would sub¬ 
ject him to a forfeiture of his estate; though this rule does 
not extend to an answer which would merely expose him to 
a civil liability. So he may, to a certain extent, be com- 
elled to answer questions tending to discredit and degrade 
im. Thus, according to the better opinion, he may be 
asked whether he has not been confined in the State prison, 
as the object of the question is not to exclude him from tes¬ 
tifying, but to affect the credit due to his statements. He 
could be shown to be incompetent to testify only by the pro¬ 
duction of the record of his conviction. The true theory 
of a cross-examination is to qualify the direct testimony, 
and accordingly the witness should not at this stage of the 
case be called on by the cross-examining counsel to give 
independent testimony sustaining his part of the issue, 
though this rule is not always adhered to in practice. (See 
Evidence.) T. W. Dwight. 

Cross Hill, a township and village of Laurens co., 
S. C. The village is 45 miles S. of Spartanburg. Total 
pop. 2393. 

Cross Keys, a township of Macon co., Ala. Pop. 2560. 

Cross Keys, a township and post-village of Union co., 
S. C. Total pop. 1349. 

Cross Keys, a post-office of Rockingham co., Va. An 
indecisive action took place here on June 8, 1862, between 
the armies under command of Gens. Fremont and Jackson. 
Gen. Fremont’s forces attacked “ Stonewall’s ” army at 9 
A. m. The battle continued with great violence till 4 p. m., 
and skirmishing and artillery fire till dark. During the 
night Jackson’s army retreated. 

Cross Plains, a township and post-village of Dane 
co., Wis., on the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. Total 
pop. 1506. 

Cross River, a post-village of Lewisboro’ township, 
Westchester co., N. Y., contains a number of manufactories. 

Cross Roads, a township of Blount co., Ala. P. 770. 

Cross Roads, a township of Etowah co., Ala. P. 345. 

Cross Roads, a township of Madison co., Ala. P. 336. 

Cross Roads, a township of Pike co., Ala. P. 1120. 

Cross Roads, a township of Wilson co., N. C. P. 694. 

Cross, The Order of the, originally a spiritual 
order of knighthood, which was founded in Palestine in 
the time of the Crusades, and was then called the “ Beth- 
lehemite Order.” In 1211 the knights of this order adopted 
the monastic life, and settled in Austria, Bohemia, and 
other parts of Europe. They still have two establishments 
in Austria, and one in the Netherlands. They are called 
“ Canons Regular of the Holy Cross.” The “ Regular 
Clerks of the Holy Cross ” were founded in 1834, in 
France, by Abb6 Moreau. They had in the U. S. in 1868 
about 170 members. A congregation of “ Daughters of 
the Holy Cross” was founded in the seventeenth century 
in France, and numbered in 1870 about 500 members. A 
second congregation of the same name was founded in 
1835 in Belgium. 

Cross, The Southern, the most conspicuous constel¬ 
lation of the southern hemisphere, is not visible in the 
northern hemisphere, except in regions near the equator. 
It consists of four bright stars arranged in the form of a 
cross. The two stars which mark the summit and foot of 
the cross have nearly the same right ascension, and serve 
as pointers to the South Pole. 

Cross'ville, a post-village, capital of Cumberland co., 
Tenn., about 110 miles E. of Nashville. Pop. 95. 

Cros'well (Edwin), an American politician and jour¬ 
nalist, born at Catskill, N. Y., in May, 1797, was a member 
of the Albany Regency. He became about 1824 editor of 
the “ Albany Argus,” a Democratic journal of great in¬ 
fluence, which he continued to direct until 1854. Died 
June 13, 1871. 

Crotala'ria [from the Gr. Kpora\ov, a “rattle ”], a genus 
of plants of the natural order Leguminosae, sub-order Pap- 
ilionaceoe, deriving its name from the inflated pods in which 
the ripe seeds rattle. It comprises numerous species, partly 
annual herbaceous plants and partly shrubs. The most im¬ 
portant of them is the Crotalaria juncea, the sunn hemp of 

76 


India, an annual plant extensively cultivated for its fibre, 
which is considered equal to Russian hemp. The Crotalaria 
mgittalis, or “rattle-box,” is a small annual growing in 
most of the U. S. Several other species grow in the South¬ 
ern States and the West. 

Crotalus. See Rattlesnake. 

Crotch (William), an English composer of music, born 
at Norwich July 5, 1775. He became professor of music 
at Oxford University in 1797. He published “Styles of 
Music of All Ages.” Died Dec. 29, 1847. 

Crotch'et [Fr. crochet, diminutive of croche, a “hook”], 
in music, one of the notes or characters of time, equal to 
half a minim. 

Cro'ton [Gr. upor wv], a genus of trees, shrubs, and herbs 
of the order Euphorbiacese; the species are numerous and 
mostly tropical. Some of them possess the acrid proper¬ 
ties of their order in excess. One of the most important is 
the Croton Tiglium, which yields croton oil. It is a native 
of the tropical parts of Asia. The seeds were formerly used 
as a purgative, but their use is disapproved on account of 
their uncertain and violent action; they are now chiefly 
valuable for the oil which they yield. Some species of 
croton are fragrant and aromatic, and are employed in 
medicine. One of these is the Cascarilla (which see). 
Eight species are native to the Southern States. 

Croton, a post-township of Newaygo co., Mich. P. 923. 

Croton, a village of Cortlandt township, Westchester 
co., N. Y., on the E. bank of the Hudson River and on the 
Hudson River R. R., 35 miles from New York and 4 miles 
above Sing Sing. It has four churches, five brickyards, a 
foundry, and a fine brick railroad station. Here are many 
fine country residences. Croton is justly celebrated for the 
beauty of its scenery. Croton Point, in the vicinity, is a 
peninsula which contains numerous thriving vineyards. 

Croto'na, or Cro'ton, an ancient Greek city of Italy, 
was in the peninsula of the Bruttii, and on the Mediterra¬ 
nean Sea. It was founded 710 B. C., and became a popu¬ 
lous and important city. The people of Crotona waged 
war with success against the Sybarites in 510 B. C. This 
city was the residence of Pythagoras, and the native place 
of Milo, a famous athlete. The site is now occupied by 
the town of Cotrone (which see). 

Croton Aqueduct. See Aqueduct, by Gen. M. C. 
Meigs, U. S. A. 

Croton Falls, a post-village of Westchester co., N. Y., 
in North Salem and Somers townships, on the Harlem 
R. R., 48 miles from New York. It has good water-power. 

Croton Oil (Oleum Tig Hi) is the expressed oil of the 
seeds of Croton Tiglium, a small tree which grows in Ilin- 
dostan, Ceylon, and other parts of India. In taste it is 
hot and acrid, varies from a pale yellow to a reddish-brown 
color, has a faint, peculiar smell, and is miscible with alco¬ 
hol, ether, and oil of turpentine. It is a powerful purga¬ 
tive, valuable because it can be employed with good effect 
in very minute portions. Great care must be used in its 
administration. It is applied externally as a counter-irri¬ 
tant in neuralgia, epilepsy, and pulmonary diseases. The 
pale oil comes directly from India; that of a darker color 
is expressed after importation. 

Croton River rises in Dutchess co., N. Y., flows south 
and south-westward through Putnam and Westchester coun¬ 
ties. It enters the Hudson River about 35 miles above New 
York City, which derives from this river its supply of water. 
Its length is estimated at 50 miles. 

Croup. All the forms of croup have one thing in com¬ 
mon—viz. an obstruction (catarrhal or inflammatory) in 
the interior of the larynx, particularly on the vocal chords. 
The milder form is called “ false croup ” or “ pseudo-croup.” 
The larynx is reddened, its mucous membrane swelled, and 
its secretion of mucus usually increased. Thereby the pas¬ 
sage of air through the larynx is impeded, and spasmodic 
action of its muscular apparatus effected. It is frequently 
found in children who have before suffered from “colds,” 
especially from catarrh of the throat and enlarged tonsils, 
and who have been too carefully kept from the contact 
with cold air and cold water. The attack of “pseudo¬ 
croup ” is sudden or preceded by nasal or bronchial catarrh. 
It takes place after the child has been asleep for some 
hours. It wakes up about midnight with a barking cough, 
loud and laborious respiration, small and frequent pulse, 
and more or less fever. In bad cases the veins of the neck 
and face swell, the face is bloated and bluish, and suffoca¬ 
tion appears imminent. This attack may last from half an 
hour to six hours. It terminates in perspiration, the cough 
becoming moister, the voice being hoarse, but may return in 
the next night. Some children are apt to have many attacks 
in the course of many years. There are no membranes in 
the throat, no glands swollen round the neck. A very severe 












1202 


CROW—CROWN. 


attack requires an emetic (powdered ipecac, sulphate of 
zinc, sulphate of copper, turpeth mineral); milder attacks 
require very little or no treatment. Let the child drink a 
little hot milk at short intervals. It must not sleep longer 
than an hour at a time, and should take a drink on waking 
up. Put a mustard-plaster round the neck, or apply cold 
water at short intervals. Where the throat is sore, ice-pills 
every five or ten minutes ; where inhalation is very spas¬ 
modic, half a teaspoonful of paregoric (one dose) or one 
grain of Dover’s powder. Treat the consecutive general 
catarrh for four or five days with uniform warm (not hot) 
temperature of the room, warm water inhalations (kettle on 
the stove), small doses (hourly) of ipecac, or an antimonial 
preparation or muriate of ammonia. Where there is a 
chronic catarrh of the throat (dryness, redness, swelled 
tonsils, hacking cough, snoring), a teaspoonful of glycerine 
as a preventive at bed-time. 

While this “ pseudo-croup,” commonly called “ croup,” 
is a very mild disease—we have never seen a case termi¬ 
nating fatally—the other form, or “ true croup,” “ mem¬ 
branous croup,” is very dangerous. Under ordinary cir¬ 
cumstances, and with a treatment exclusively medicinal, 
ninety out of a hundred die. It consists sometimes in 
simple inflammatory swelling (“ laryngitis ”), but usually 
in the obstruction of the larynx by a deposit of a whitish, 
grayish, or (through admixture with a little blood) darker 
“ croupous ” or “ diphtheritic ” membrane. The deposit may 
take place upon or into the normal tissue of the organ. It 
seldom originates in the larynx; sometimes ascends from 
the trachea; mostly descends from the throat, where it is 
discovered in one or more small spots or over a larger sur¬ 
face. In exceptional cases it extends over the interior sur¬ 
face of the nose and the mouth. Such deposits may be 
known to exist for days; they will then descend, result 
in hoarseness, increasing to complete absence of voice 
(aphonia), and in great difficulty of respiration, with final 
suffocation. When the deposits cover the whole interior of 
the larynx, both inspiration and expiration are impeded, 
and aphonia is complete. When they result in serous 
(watery) swelling of the larynx (especially the posterior 
insertion of the vocal chords) only, expiration is easier 
and the voice not entirely suppressed. The first stage is 
either that of throat diphtheria or of a simple catarrh only, 
which is attended with but little fever, and therefore little 
thought of. It may last a few days. In the second stage 
(twelve hours to fourteen days) the symptoms of obstruc¬ 
tion show themselves; the voice is hoarse, and at last ab¬ 
sent; respiration is slow, labored, and loud; the muscles 
of the neck and chest exerted to their utmost; the insertion 
of the diaphragm drawn in with every inspiration, deep 
grooves forming with every inspiration above and below 
the clavicle, the child tossing about, supporting itself on 
its knees, and throwing the head backward. The lips be¬ 
gin to exhibit a bluish hue. This symptom (cyanosis) in¬ 
creases in the third stage, where the influence of the 
insufficient oxygenizatiou of the blood is more visible in 
general paleness, bluishness, in sleepiness, in the frequent 
and irregular pulse, in the cool surface, convulsive twitch- 
ings, and loss of consciousness. Unfortunately, the latter 
synqAom is not constant, many children dying with undis¬ 
turbed intellect. Death is the result of direct suffocation, 
or the result of a complication of the disease with bronchitis 
or pneumonia. Medicinal treatment is very unsatisfactory. 
We seldom succeed in dissolving and removing the mem¬ 
branes. Nitrate-of-silver applications to the larynx have 
justly been discarded. Inhalation of diluted lime-water 
through an atomizer or of lactic acid in glycerine and water 
(1 : 8—10) has proved successful in a few instances. Emetics 
are of use in such cases only where the membranes are known 
to be partially loosened (peculiar flapping sound in respi¬ 
ration), or when the presence of mucus, in addition to a 
membrane, proves dangerous. Ice-pills frequently, ice ap¬ 
plications to the throat, moist air, 1-2 grains of chlorate 
of potassa in a teaspoonful of water every J-l hour : in¬ 
halations of carbolic acid, either through an atomizer or 
sprinkled through the room; muriate of ammonia evapo¬ 
rated on a stove or hot coal,—all such means may be tried, 
but not to such an extent as to interfere with a copious 
supply of pure air, the effect of which may still be improved 
by inhalation of oxygen gas. Where the disease runs its 
course with fever, quinia, seldom aconite or veratrum. 
Most cases will resist treatment. Twenty or twenty-five 
per cent, will be saved by tracheotomy, an operation con¬ 
sisting in the artificial opening of the windpipe below the 
obstructed larynx. This opening in the trachea is kept 
patent by means of a silver or hard-rubber tube inserted 
in it until the disease has disappeared from the larynx. The 
relief given by this operation is surprising, and although 
the mortality after its performance is still very great, death 
is almost always easier, resulting more from exhaustion 
than from suffocation. Abraham Jacobi. 


Crow [Ang.-Sax. crawe, so called from the sound pro¬ 
duced by the bird], a name popularly applied to several 
birds of the genus Corvus, which includes also the ravens, 
the rooks, the daws, and some other birds. The carrion 
crow of Europe is called in England by various names— 
flesh crow, black crow, etc. Its feathers are very black and 
glossy, with reflections of green and purple. It is a cau¬ 
tious and intelligent bird, and feeds on flesh. 

The common American crow ( Corvus Americanus) is not 
so large as the preceding. Its voice is less harsh, and it is 
somewhat gregarious in its habits. Its color is a glossy 
blue-black. It inhabits the civilized parts of North Amer¬ 
ica. It is hated and persecuted by farmers for its destruc¬ 
tion of Indian corn and the eggs and young of other birds, 
but has great cunning and tenacity of life. These crows 
are found more especially in the Northern than the South¬ 
ern States, as they are unable to contend with the vultures 
which abound in the latter. Many devices have been em¬ 
ployed to exterminate them, without much success. They 
accomplish soma good by devouring the grubs of injurious 
insects. 

The fish crow of the U. S. ( Corvus ossifragus) is sixteen 
inches long, black, and resembles the common crow, but is 
somewhat smaller, and may be distinguished by the naked 
chin. Other American species are the white-necked crow 
of Arizona ( Corvus cryptoleucus) and the fish crow of Puget 
Sound ( Corvus caurinus). 

The hooded crow of Europe ( Corvus cornix ) resembles the 



Hooded Crow of Europe. 


others in habits, but is more mischievous. It is of a shiny 
black, but its neck, back, and under parts are of a smoky 
gray. It is extremely sagacious; it is found in all parts of 
Europe. 

Crow'dcr’s Mountain, a post-township of Gaston 
co., N. C. Pop. 1931. 

Crown [Lat. corona; Fr. couronne ; Ger. Krone], orig¬ 
inally a fillet of leaves, and used by the ancients in the 
observance of religious rites and festive occasions. The 
Greeks used the crown as a symbol of office and a token 
of victory. It was not only bestowed on victors in the 
games, but also on citizens who had rendered great services 
to the country. The Romans used it as the reward of 
courage. The corona obsidionalis was most highly prized; 
this was bestowed by a besieged army or town on the gen¬ 
eral who came to their rescue. The civic crown, made of 
oak leaves and acorns, was given to any soldier who had 
saved the life of a citizen. This gave him a place next 
the senators on public occasions, and he, his father, and 
grandfather were released from all public burdens. The 
person whose life he had saved owed to him filial duty ever 
after. The corona muralis was bestowed on the first who 
entered a beleaguered city. It was a circlet of gold sur¬ 
mounted by turrets. The corona triumphalis was of three 
kinds, and the reward of a victorious general. 








































































CROWN AND HALF CROWN—CRUIKSHANK. 


The modern crown was introduced by Constantine I. 
(“ the Great”), whose reign began in 306. Crowns were 
first used by Spanish kings about 580, by the kings of 
Lombardy about 590, and in France in 768. The papal 
triple crown was at first a plain pointed cap. Pope Hor- 
misdas added the first crown (523), Boniface VIII. the 
second (1294-1303), and John XXII. the third (1316-34). 

Crown and Half Crown were originally English 
gold coins issued by Henry VIII. in 1527. The first com¬ 
mission for coining them of silv r er was signed by Edward 
VI. Oct. 1, 1551. The crown at present is a silver coin 
worth five shillings sterling—about $1.25 U. S. in silver. 

Crown Creek, a township of Stearns co., Minn. Pop. 

197. 

Crown Glass, the glass usually employed for win¬ 
dows. It is made of a mixture of 100 parts of sand, 35 of 
soda-ash or potash, and 35 of chalk. It is essentially a 
silicate of soda (or potash) and lime. 

Crown Imperial. See Fritillarv. 

Crown'ingshield (A. S.), U. S. N., born Mar. 14,1843, 
in the State of New York, graduated as ensign at the 
Naval Academy in 1863, became a lieutenant in 1866, and 
a lieutenant-commander in 1868. He served in the steam- 
sloop Ticonderoga in both the Fort Fisher fights, and was 
commended for efficiency by his commanding officer, Capt. 
Charles Steedman. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Crown Point, a post-village, capital of Lake co., Ind., 
on the Pittsburg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. R., 41 miles 
S. S. E. of Chicago. It has six churches, four graded 
schools, two banks, and a public library. Two weekly 
newspapers are published hei*e. 

Frank S. Bedell, Ed. Crown Point “ Register.” 

Crown Point, a post-village and township of Essex 
co., N. Y. The township was first settled by the French, 
who in 1731 built Fort St. Frederick (the “ Crown Point” 
of history) on a long cape projecting into Lake Champlain, 
which became the seat of thriving settlements, which were 
destroyed in 1759, and again in 1777, bylhe British troops. 
In 1775 it was surprised and taken by the provincial 
forces. The British fort at Crown Point, which cost 
$10,000,000, is now in a ruinous condition. Crown Point 
has extensive beds of rich iron ore and mineral phosphate 
of lime. Iron, lumber, and wooden wares are manufac¬ 
tured on an extensive scale. It has a lighthouse. Pop. 
of township, 2449. 

Crown Prince [Ger. Kron Prim ], in Prussia, Sweden, 
and some other European countries, is the title of the heir- 
apparent to the throne. 

Crown, Treaty of the, a treaty made at Vienna 
Nov. 16, 1700, in which the emperor Leopold recognized 
the elector Frederick III. as king of Prussia. Frederick 
engaged to furnish 10,000 men to support Austria in the 
Diet, and to vote as elector for the descendants of the em¬ 
peror’s son, Joseph, king of the Romans. 

Crows, or Absoro'kas, a tribe of American Indians 
inhabiting the northern part of Wyoming Territory and 
the southern part of Montana. They are divided into 
“ Mountain ” and “ River Crows,” and belong to the great 
Dakota family. 

Crow Wing, a county in N. Central Minnesota. Area, 
540 square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. and W. by 
the Mississippi River, and partly on the E. by Lake Mille 
Lacs. Capital, Crow Wing. It is intersected by the 
Northern Pacific R. R. Pop. 200. 

Crow Wing, a post-village, capital of the above 
county, is on the Mississippi River opposite the mouth of 
a small stream called the Crow Wing, and 120 miles N. W. 
of St. Paul. 

Croy'don, a market-town of England, in the county 
of Surrey, on the London and Brighton Railway, 104 miles 
S. of London Bridge. It has a fine Gothic church. The 
archbishops of Canterbury had a palace here until 1750. 
About a mile from Croydon is Addiscombe House, which 
became a military academy, and is now called the Royal 
India Military College. Pop. 20,325. 

Croy'tlon, a post-township of Sullivan co., N. II. 
Pop. 652. 

Croyle, a township of Cambria co., Pa. Pop. 886. 

Cro'zer Theolog'ical Sem'inary (Baptist) is lo¬ 
cated at Upland, Pa., 14 miles from Philadelphia, on the 
Philadelphia Wilmington and Baltimore R. R. It was 
founded and endowed through the liberality of the mem¬ 
bers of the Crozer family, residents of Upland and Phila¬ 
delphia, in 1868. It has (1873) 4 professors, 50 students, 
an endowment of $230,000, and a seminary building, 
library building, gymnasium, and three professors’ houses, 
delightfully situated on grounds twenty acres in extent. 


1203 


Crozet (Claude), an eminent educator, born in France, 
educated at the Polytechnic School of Paris, became an 
officer of artillery under Napoleon I. He emigrated to 
this country in 1816, and was appointed professor of en¬ 
gineering at the U. S. Military Academy at West Point; 
resigned in 1823, and became a civil engineer. Died in 
1863. 

Cru'cible [Late Lat. crucibulum ; see below], a vessel 
employed by chemists in heating and fusing metallic ores, 
glass, and other substances. Crucibles are generally made 
of materials capable of resisting high temperatures, such 
as fireclay, plumbago, porcelain, platinum, and silver. 
Crucibles are said to have been so called because they were 
formerly marked with a cross (Lat. crux, gen. cruets), 
which was thought by the alchemists to protect them from 
evil spirits. 

Crucif'erne [Lat. from crux (gen. crucis), a “ cross,” 
and fero, to “ bear,” alluding to the cross-shaped flowers], 
a large and well-marked order of exogenous herbs, charac¬ 
terized by flowers with four petals arranged in the form of 
a cross, and by two long and two short stamens. The 
seed-vessels are siliques, silicles, foments, or nut-like fruits. 
The juice is usually acrid, but none of the order are poison¬ 
ous. Among the cultivated Cruciferac are the cabbage, 
turnip, rape, and mustard. The wallflower, stock-gilli- 
flower, etc. are valued in ornamental horticulture. The 
number of genera is about 175, and the known species are 
over 1600. 

Cru'cifix, a cross with an image of Christ upon it, either 
carved or painted. At first only the naked cross was used ; 
then (in the time of Paulinus of Nola, 353-431 A. D.) the 
cross Avith a lamb at its foot to represent Christ. Justin II. 
(565-578) gave the bishop of Rome a cross with a bust of 
Christ at the top and bottom, and a lamb in the middle. 
From about 692 to the twelfth century, Christ was repre¬ 
sented as alive and clothed, with his hands extended in 
prayer. In the twelfth century four nails were used, the 
feet side by side. From the thirteenth century only three 
nails were used, and Christ Avas represented as dead or 
dying, with only a girdle about his loins. 

Crucifix'ion [Lat. crucifixio, from crucifigo, crucifix- 
urn, to “ crucify,” from crux, crucis, a “ cross,” and Jigo, 
fixum, to “fix” or “fasten”], literally, “fastening on the 
cross,” a form of capital punishment common among almost 
all ancient nations, except the Jews, who in their later his¬ 
tory probably borrowed it from the Romans. The hang¬ 
ing on a tree spoken of in Deuteronomy xxi. 22 apparently 
has reference to crucifixion after death. Tradition ascribes 
its invention to Semiramis. It consisted in nailing or 
binding the criminal to a Cross (which see), where he was 
left until dead from hunger or exhaustion. The legs were 
frequently broken to hasten death ; sometimes, hoAve\ r er, a 
fire was lighted under the cross for the same purpose, or 
wild beasts Avere let loose upon those crucified. The body 
was usually left on the cross till destroyed by the action of 
the elements. Crucifixion was abolished by Constantine 
the Great, probably in the year 315. 

This inhuman form of punishment was visited upon 
Christ by the Jews, in accordance with the unwilling sen¬ 
tence of Pontius Pilate. In addition to the scourging, 
which seems to haA r e been a legal part of the punishment, 
he Avas forced to Avear the crown of thorns, and subjected 
to other indignities by the brutality of the soldiers and 
populace. (See the accounts given in the four Gospels.) 

Cru'den (Alexander), author of the “ Concordance,” 
was born at Aberdeen, in Scotland, May 31, 1700. He was 
educated for the ministry of the Kirk, but never preached, 
having had his reason unsettled by disappointment in 
love. In 1722 he removed to London, and taught the 
classics, and shortly after to the Isle of Man. In 1732 he 
returned to London and opened a bookstore. In 1735 he 
became librarian to Queen Caroline, Avife of George II. 
In 1737 he published his “Complete Concordance of the 
Old and New Testaments,” which is still the best in our 
language. He was several times an inmate of lunatic asy¬ 
lums, and during all the latter part of his life Avas flighty 
and extravagant. He set up as a reformer, calling him¬ 
self “ Alexander the Corrector.” He died suddenly at 
Islington, Nov. 1, 1770. 

Cru'ger (Boscobel Post-office), a village of Cort¬ 
land township, Westchester co., N. Y., on the Hudson 
River and on the Hudson River R. R., 4 miles S. of Pecks- 
kill. It has extensive manufactories of brick. 

Cruik'shank (George), an English caricaturist, son 
of an engraver originally from Scotland, was born in Lon¬ 
don Sept. 28, 1792. He illustrated William Hone’s satiri¬ 
cal works. His comic humor and fertile imagination Avere 
displayed in illustrations for “The Comic Almanac,” 
“Peter Sclilemihl,” “Oliver Twist,” and “My Sketch- 











CRUIKSHANK—CRUSTACEA. 


1204 


Book.” With his brother Robert (1790-1856) he pro¬ 
duced “ Life in London.” In 1818 appeared “ The Bot¬ 
tle,” eight plates depicting the drunkard’s career. He 
subsequently devoted himself to oil painting. 

Cruikshank (William), F. 11. S. L., a Scottish anato¬ 
mist, born in Edinburgh in 1746. He became a resident 
of London, and a partner of Dr. William Hunter. He 
published, besides other works, “ Anatomy of the Absorb¬ 
ent Vessels” (1786). Died June 27, 1800. 

Crusade [from the Sp. cruzada (from cruz, a “cross”); 
Catalan, crusada ; Fr . croisnde ; It. crociata ; Ger. h reuz- 
zug], i. e. a war waged for the defence or advancement of 
the cross, but applied especially to the religious wars car¬ 
ried on by the Christians of the Middle Ages for the re¬ 
covery of Palestine from the Mohammedans. From a very 
early period the Christians were in the habit of making 
pilgrimages to Jerusalem and other parts of Palestine 
rendered sacred by events connected with the Saviour’s life 
and death. These pilgrimages continued with but little 
opposition till the year 1065, when Palestine, then gov¬ 
erned by the Egyptian caliphs, was overrun and conquered 
by hordes of Seljook Turks. The accounts (doubtless often 
exaggerated) of the indignities inflicted on the Christian 
residents and pilgrims by these barbarians produced a deep 
and powerful impression in all parts of Christendom. At 
length, Peter the Hermit, a monk and native of Amiens in 
France, having visited Palestine and witnessed the cruelty 
of the Turks, reported what he had seen to Urban II., by 
whom encouraged, he travelled through Italy and France, 
and by his zeal and eloquence excited an extraordinary re¬ 
ligious enthusiasm among all classes. In 1095, at a council 
held at Clermont, a crusade was resolved on. On this occa¬ 
sion the pope himself addressed the multitude. Previous 
to the setting out of the true crusade, four armies, consist¬ 
ing of disorderly multitudes of the very dregs of Christen¬ 
dom, had departed for Palestine. The first consisted of 
20,000 foot, commanded by Walter the Penniless. It marched 
through Hungary, but was almost entirely destroyed by the 
natives of Bulgaria, a few only escaping to Constantinople. 
It was followed by a second, consisting of 40,000 men, 
women, and children, under Peter the Hermit. The two 
united at Constantinople, crossed the Bosphorus, and en¬ 
countered the Turks at Nice. They were utterly routed. 
Another unorganized band of 15,000 Germans was cut to 
pieces in Hungary, and its fate was shortly shared by an 
immense mob of 200,000 persons from England, France, 
Flanders, and Lorraine. It was only now that the true 
crusaders entered upon the scene. Six armies, embracing 
all the chivalry of Europe, and led respectively by Godfrey 
of Bouillon, Hugh the Great (count of Vermandois), Robert 
Curthose, Count Robert of Flanders, Prince Bohemond of 
Tarentum (under whom was Tancred), and Count Raymond 
of Toulouse, set forth for Constantinople. Having united 
their forces and spent some time at this place, they crossed 
into Asia Minor Here their first step was the capture of 
Nice in June, 1097. They also defeated the sultan Soliman 
at Dorylaeum, and took the principality of Edessa. They 
then marched into Syria, and laid siege to Antioch. After 
a seven months’ siege, during which the crusaders suffered 
terribly from famine and disease, the city surrendered. The 
inhabitants were massacred by their captors, who were be¬ 
sieged in their turn by an army of 200,000 Mussulmans. 
On the 28th of June, 1098, the Mohammedans were put to 
rout, and the way opened to Jerusalem. In the summer of 
1099, 40,000 crusaders, the remnant of a vast host which 
had comprised not less than 600,000 warriors, laid siege to 
Jerusalem. The city was taken on the 15th of July, after 
a siege of somewhat more thart five weeks. Eight days 
later Godfrey of Bouillon was elected king of Jerusalem. 

The three Latin principalities of the East (Edessa, Anti¬ 
och, and Jerusalem) maintained themselves against the at¬ 
tacks of the Mohammedans till the year 1144, when the 
emir of Mosul conquered Edessa and massacred its Christian 
inhabitants. His son, Noor-ed-Deen, marched upon Syria 
and Palestine. A second crusade was preached by Saint 
Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, and in 1147 two armies, num¬ 
bering together 1,200,000 men, set out for Jerusalem. They 
were commanded by Louis VII., king of France, and Con¬ 
rad III., emperor of Germany. This expedition utterly 
failed through the treachery of the Greek emperor, Manuel 
Comnenus, and neither army ever saw the Holy Land. 

In 1187, Salah-ed-Deen (or Saladin), sultan of Egypt, 
invaded Palestine, and in October of that year took Jeru¬ 
salem. This event gave rise to a third crusade, under the 
leadership of Frederick Barbarossa, emperor of Germany, 
Philippe Auguste, king of France, and Richard Coeur-de- 
Lion, king of England. Barbarossa was drowned on the 
way. The crusaders gained some’ important victories, but 
they were not united among themselves, and the crusade 
was closed by a treaty in which Saladin agreed to impose 


no taxes on Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem. In 1195, 
Henry VI. of Germany undertook a crusade (sometimes 
called the fourth), but the death of the emperor caused the 
project to be abandoned. A fourth crusade, instituted by 
Pope Innocent III. in 1203, turned from its course to take 
possession of the Byzantine empire, and never reached Pal¬ 
estine at all. 

The Children’s Crusade in 1212 (of which an excellent 
account has been written by the Rev. George Zabriskie 
Gray, New York, 1870) is one of the strangest episodes in 
history. An army of unarmed French children, 30,000 
strong, headed by a boy named Stephen, set out for the 
Holy Land by way of Marseilles. A similar army of Ger¬ 
man children, 20,000 strong, led by a boy named Nicholas, 
crossed the Alps at Mont Cenis. A second army of German 
children, numbering nearly 20,000, the name of whose leader 
is not known, crossed the Alps by a more westerly route, 
touching the sea at Brindisi. Their idea was, that the 
Mediterranean would open a path for them to Palestine, 
and that the Holy Land would be recovered and the Mos¬ 
lems converted by miracles. Some of the children got dis¬ 
couraged and returned to their homes; many stopped by 
the way; but most of them either perished on the march, 
were lost at sea, or were sold into slavery. 

In 1228, Frederick II. of Germany commanded a fifth 
crusade, by which he became master of Palestine and was 
crowned king of Jerusalem. 

In 1239, the Turks having again seized upon Jerusalem, 
a sixth crusade was undertaken, under Thibaud, count of 
Champagne. A nominal surrender of the Holy Land was 
the result. 

In 1244, Jerusalem was burned and pillaged by a new 
race of Turks. A seventh crusade, headed by Louis IX. 
(Saint Louis) of France, set out in 1249. It was badly de¬ 
feated by the sultan of Egypt, who also made a prisoner of 
the king. Louis obtained his freedom by the payment of 
a large ransom. 

The eighth and last crusade was also undertaken by 
Saint Louis in 1270. The king died at Carthage of the 
plague, and Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I. of Eng¬ 
land, assumed the command of the army. The expedition 
accomplished nothing of importance, and in July, 1272, 
Edward returned to England with the last of the crusaders. 
The chief result of the Crusades was a better acquaintance 
of the people of Western Europe with two civilizations 
more advanced than their own—the Greek and the Sara¬ 
cenic. Thus a powerful impulse was given both to the 
literature and the commerce of Europe. (See Michaud’s 
“ Histoire des Croisades ;” Hallam’s “ Middle Ages;” 
Milman’s “Latin Christianity,” and Wilken’s “ Geschichto 
der Kreuzzuge.”) Revised bv R. D. Hitchcock. 

Cru'senstolpe (Magnus Jakob), a Swedish author, 
born Mar. 11, 1795. He wrote, besides historical novels, 
satirical political tracts. His “ Positions and Relations” 
brought upon him a three years’ imprisonment. Many of 
his works are translated into German. Died Jan. 18, 1865. 

Crushing Machinery. See Grinding and Crush¬ 
ing Machinery, by Paof. R. H. Thurston, C. E. 

Crusta'cea [neut. plu. of crustaceus, a Latin adjective 
signifying “ shelly,” or “having shells” like those of a lob¬ 
ster, from emsta, the “shell of a lobster”], a class of ar¬ 
ticulate animals considered by Linnaeus as insects, but now 
universally regarded as distinct, though having interesting 
resemblances to that class. They are usually divided into 
Decapods, Tetradecapods, Entomostracans (including 
Cirripeds), and Rotifers (which see). 

The decapods (crabs, lobsters, etc.) are at the head of this 
class, but many of the others are of very different forms and 
habits. In the most important members of this class the 
body is somewhat spindle-shaped, and composed of a num¬ 
ber of articulated rings, allowing of considerable move¬ 
ment. These divisions are sometimes of almost equal size, 
having similar appendages. In some cases a few of the 
segments attain a higher development than the others, and 
the organs of motion are confined to them, while the ap¬ 
pendages of the other segments approach a rudimentary 
condition ; and in the higher forms the anterior segments 
coalesce into a single mass, called the cephcdothorax, which 
bears the mouth and organs of motion. By means of a 
calcareous secretion the skin is hardened into a skeleton; 
this protects the soft parts of the body; a thin membrane 
joins the segments. The animal casts off its shell at cer¬ 
tain periods, and a new calcareous secretion is made. The 
form of the articulated appendages (legs and feet) is vari¬ 
ous. The nervous system of the Crustacea is formed by a 
series of ganglia running along the surface of the body, 
united to each other and to a cephalic ganglion or brain by 
a pair of nervous filaments, from which nerves proceed to 
the different organs of the senses, and is situated above 
the oesophagus. The digestive organs show a high degree 


















CRUVEILHIER—CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 


of development. The respiration takes place through bran¬ 
chiae of different forms. The species are mostly unisexual, 
and reproduction takes place by ova. 

Cruveilhier (Jean), a French anatomist, born at Li¬ 
moges Feb. 9, 1791. He obtained in 1835 the chair of 
pathological anatomy created in Paris by Dupuytren. He 
published an important work on “ The Pathological An¬ 
atomy of the Human Body” (2 vols., gr. fol., with 233 
plates, 1829-40), and other works. Hied Mar. 11, 1874. 

Cry'olite [from the Gr. /cpuo?, “ ice,” and Ai'0o?, a 
“ stono ”] is so named because it melts in the flame of a 
candle. It is a double fluoride of aluminium and sodium, 
and is important as a source of the metal aluminium. It 
is a rather rare mineral, found in Greenland, from which 
large quantities are imported into Europe and the U. S. for 
the manufacture of soda. When fused it may be made into 
table-ware much resembling porcelain, and known as “ hot- 
cast porcelain.” 

Cryoph'orus [from the Gr. spvos, “ ice,” and <f)epu, to 
“bear”], an instrument invented by Wollaston to freeze 
water by its own evaporation. It consists of a glass tube 
with a bulb at each end. One bulb contains water. A com¬ 
plete vacuum is produced in the tube and opposite bulb, 
and the empty bulb being placed in a freezing mixture, the 
vapor arising from the water is condensed, so that the water 
soon congeals in the other bulb, though the intervening 
tube be two or three feet long. 

Crypt [from the Gr. KpvnTot, “hidden”], the under or 
hidden part of a building; a vault under a church, either 
entirely or partly under ground. Crypts generally do not 
extend beyond the limits of the choir or chancel, and some 
are of smaller dimensions. They were sometimes used as 
places of sepulture, and seem indeed to have been designed 
at first for the reception of the bodies of saints, martyrs, 
and the higher dignitaries of the Church. The later 
Romanesque and the more recent styles of church archi¬ 
tecture generally have no crypt. One of the largest crypts 
in England is that under Canterbury Cathedral. 

Crypto-Calvinists, a name applied in the last half 
of the sixteenth century to the followers of Melanchthon 
(called also Philippists), who earnestly desired the union 
of the Lutherans and Calvinists, and were charged with 
leaning too strongly towards the Calvinistic doctrine of 
the Lord’s Supper. 

Cryptog'amous Plants, or Cryp'togams [from 
the Gr. Kponros, “ hidden,” and ydpos, “ marriage ”], a term 
applied to flowerless plants, the lower series of plants in 
the natural system, which have no true flowers, but have, 
instead of seeds, spores that consist of a single cell and 
contain no embryo. They have no obvious stamens or 
pistils. The name “ cryptogamous ” was first used by 
Linnaeus, and implied that in his opinion they had organs 
analogous in functions to stamens and pistils, but concealed 
from view ; and the correctness of his surmise is now con¬ 
firmed. He gave the name Cryptogamia to a distinct class 
in his artificial system. Many cryptogamous plants have 
no leaves, some have no root, and those which are lowest 
in organization consist only of a single cell. Many of 
them are parasitic. Cryptogamous plants are divided into 
two principal groups—namely, thallogens, in which the 
stem and leaf are not distinguishable; and acrogens, in 
which the stem and leaf are distinguishable. The former 
group comprises the Fungi, Lichens, Alg® (sea-weeds), and 
Characese, etc.; the latter, Filices (ferns), Musci (mosses), 
Equisetace®, Hepatic®, club-mosses, etc. The Proto- 
phytes, etc. are all cryptogamous, though hardly belong¬ 
ing to either of the above divisions. 

O 

Cryptog'raphy [from the Gr. KpcnTos, “hidden,” and 
ypdfa, to “ write”], the art of writing or telegraphing in 
cipher, or in such a way that the matter written cannot be 
read by any one not in possession of the necessary kej. 
Many plans have been devised for this purpose, but almost 
any person who has taste for the solution of puzzles or 
enigmas can readily understand most writing of this kind; 
and it is probable that no kind of cipher could be invented 
which would be proof against systematic and ingenious 
decipherers. Military and naval signals resemble cryp¬ 
tographic writing in this respect. Among the learned 
authors who have discussed this comparatively unimport¬ 
ant subject may be mentioned Lord Bacon, Doctor M illiam 
Blair, Bishop Wilkins, the marquis of Worcester, and many 
others. 

Crys'tal. See Crystallography, by Prof. Thomas 
Egleston, A. M., E. M. 

Crystal, a township of Hancock co., Ia. Pop. 58. 

Crystal, a post-township of Tama co., Ia. Pop. 542. 

Crystal, a township of Aroostook co., Me. Pop. 250. 

Crystal, a post-twp. of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 746. 


1205 

Crystal, a township of Oceana co., Mich. Pop. 181. 

Crystal Lake, a township of Benzie co., Mich. Pop. 
585. 

Crystal Falls, a series of cascades of the Cascade 
Creek, in Montana. The creek flows into the Yellowstone 
River from the W. side, between its upper and its lower 
falls. One mile from its mouth occur the principal falls, 
consisting of three leaps, which together measure 129 feet, 
perpendicularly. They are remarkably beautiful. 

Crystal Lake, a twp. of Hennepin co., Minn. P. 718 

Crystal Lake, a twp. of Marquette co., Wis. P. 550. 
Crystalline Lens. See Eye. 

Crystalline Rocks, a term applied in geology to 
such rocks as granite, quartz, and marble, which show by 
their crystalline structure that they have been brought into 
their present state by the action of chemical forces. In 
the early history of geology such rocks were called prim¬ 
itive, but they are not limited to any geological age, and it 
is not improbable that crystalline rocks may be in course 
of formation at the present time. The greater number of 
intruded igneous rocks (such as basalt) possess the crystal¬ 
line structure. 

Crystallography is the science of crystals. It is 
derived from the Gr. KpvaraWos, a “crystal,” and ypdcfxt), to 
“describe.” A crystal is a natural inorganic solid, bounded 
by plane surfaces, which are symmetrically arranged around 
certain imaginary lines called axes. KpvcrraMos originally 
meant “ice;” it was afterwards applied to the transparent 
variety of quartz, because it was thought that rock-crystal 
was water turned into stone; it was subsequently applied 
indifferently to any solid which assumed a geometrical 
shape by natural laws. 

All crystals may be referred to seven systems, six of 
which are referred to three axes, and one of them to four. 
These systems are divided into two classes, according as the 
axes are or not at right angles. Those which are at right 
angles are called the orthometric, and those which are not 
are called clinometric systems. In each one of them there 
are three varieties. When all the axes are equal and at right 
angles, the system is called isometric. When only two are 
equal, but all at right angles, it is called the tetragonal. 
When none of the axes are equal, but all are at right angles, 
it is called the orthorhombic. The clinometric systems are 
called, respectively, the monoclinic, the diclinic, and the 
triclinic, according as the axes have different inclinations. 
The single system of four axes is called the hexagonal. 

In all of these systems one axis is placed upright, and 
is called the vertical axis. In the isometric, tetragonal, 
and hexagonal systems the other axes are simply called the 
basal axes, while in each of the other systems each axis 
has its own name. The axes always terminate in homol¬ 
ogous parts, whether these parts are edges or angles. 

The axes form a system of co-ordinates by which the 
position of any face may be determined. Taking the most 
general case of three unequal axes, the vertical axis is usu¬ 
ally designated by a; the one from left to right, b; and the 
one from front to behind, c. Starting from the origin, the 
half-axes are determined as + or — (Figs. 43, 44). The 
distances on these half-axes, cut off by any crystal face, 
are called parameters. One of them can always be made 
equal to unity, so that ma : nb : c, with their signs, will 
always give the position of any crystal face with reference 
to a given variety of axes. When a face is parallel to an 
axis, it is said to cut it at a distance equal to infinity, and 
its coefficient for that axis will be so written, as ooa : oo b : c. 
Every face of a crystal which does not cut all the axes 
must either cut two or be parallel to two of them. Accord¬ 
ing to Weiss, the symbol of any face will be ma:nb:c. 
Naumann simplifies it by using two letters, or their numer¬ 
ical values, and writing between them the capital letter 
which represents the type of the system—0 for octahedron, 
P for pyramid, and R for rhombohedron. The two letters 
are always written in the same order: m is always equal 
to, greater or less than unity, and always greater than 
n,m = l, w>n. The coefficient 1 is never written. 

Dana’s symbols are simply a contraction of Naumann’s, 
in which the letters for the primitive form of the system 
are left out, and oo is written i. Thus, mOn becomes mn, 
and ooOx) becomes ii. 

In every crystalline system a single form is taken as the 
base of the system. Any form belonging to the system 
may be taken for this base, but it is generally conceded to 
adopt pyramids. From this form all the others are derived 
by three very simple laws: (1) All the similar parts of a 
crystal may be similarly and simultaneously modified. 
This gives rise to holohedral forms. (2) Half the similar 
parts may be similarly and simultaneously modified. This 
gives rise to hemihedral forms, which in some of the sys¬ 
tems are known as inclined, parallel, or gyroidal forms. 















CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 


1206 


(3) One quarter of the similar parts may be similarly and 
simultaneously modified, giving rise to tetartohedral forms. 

In the isometric system the modifications may be com¬ 
posed of one, two, three or six planes; in the tetragonal 
and hexagonal, of one and two; in the orthorhombic, mon¬ 
oclinic, diclinic, and triclinic, of only one plane at a time. 

ORTHOMETRIC SYSTEMS. 

Isometric System. —1. Holohedral Forms. 

Three axes, a, a, a (Fig. 1), all equal and at right angles. 
The base of the system is the octahedron. 

Octahedron, 0.—When the axes a cut in the relation 
a: a: a, the solid is made up of eight faces, which are 
equilateral triangles (Fig. 2). There can be but one 
octahedron. 

Hexahedron, ooOoo .—When the solid angles of the octa¬ 
hedron are modified by planes which are parallel to two of 
the axes, and cut one at a distance equal to unity, the re¬ 
sulting solid will be a cube, and will have the formula 
a : cca : cca (Fig. 3). 

Rhombic Dodecahedron, coO.—When the edges of the 
octahedron are modified in such a way that two of the axes 

ISOMETRIC 


are cut at a distance equal to unity, while the plane is 
parallel to the third, the formula will be a : a : c©« (Fig. 4). 
There can be but one rhombic dodecahedron. 

Tetrahexahcdron, ooO n. —When the edges of the octahe¬ 
dron are modified, so that one of the axes is cut at unity, 
one at infinity, and one at n, the formula will be co a : a : na 
(Fig. 5). As there is nothing to limit the inclination of 
the planes, there may be an infinite variety of tetrahex- 
ahedra (Figs. 5, 6, 7), the limit being coO on the one hand 
when n = 1, and coOqo on the other when n = co . 

Trigonal Trisoctahedron, m 0.—When the edges of the 
octahedron are replaced, so that two of the axes are cut at 
unity and the third at m, the formula is ma: a: a. Each 
plane of the octahedron becomes replaced by three tri¬ 
angular planes; hence the name trisoctahedron. As there 
is nothing to limit the inclination of the planes, there may 
be an infinite variety of trigonal trisoctahedra (Figs. 8, 9, 
10). Their limit will be 0 on the one hand when m — 1, 
and ooO on the other when m= oo. 

Tetragonal Trisoctahedron, mOm. —When the solid angles 
of the octahedron are modified so that two of the axes are 
cut at a distance m and the third at unity, the formula will 

SYSTEM. 


+a 


0j 

-a. 


+a 



i 

i 

• 

i 












6 



7 




be ma : a : ma. The faces of the octahedron will be replaced 
by three tetragonal planes. As there is nothing to limit 
the inclination, there may be an infinite number of tetrag¬ 
onal trisoctahedra (Figs. 11, 12, 13). Their limit will be 
0 on the one hand when m — 1, and ooOoo on the other when 
in = co. 

Hexoctahedron, mOn .—When the angles of the octahe¬ 
dron are modified so that each axis is cut at a different dis¬ 
tance, the formula will be ma : na : a. Each plane of the 
octahedron will be replaced by six triangular planes. As 
there is nothing to limit the inclination of the planes, there 
may be an infinite number of hexoctahedra (Figs. 14, 15, 
16). This solid is the most interesting of all the solids of 
the system, for by successively changing the values of m 
and n all the other forms of the system may be derived 
from it. They can all be seen upon it in outline. 

2. Ilemihedral Forms. 

In the isometric system there are three kinds of hemihe- 
dry : (1) inclined, (2) parallel, and (3) gyroidal. (1) The 
forms are said to be tetrahedral or inclined when the faces 


are not parallel. This is produced when all of the modi¬ 
fications are carried out on alternate homologous parts. (2) 
They are dodecahedral or parallel when alternate modifi¬ 
cations are carried out in the same order on all the homol¬ 
ogous parts. (3) Gyroidal forms are produced when alter¬ 
nate modifications are carried out alternately on all the 
homologous parts. The hexoctahedron is the only solid 
which allows of hemihedral forms according to the three 
laws. 

(1) Inclined or Tetrahedral Forms. 

Tetrahedron, ± —.—When alternate faces of the octahe¬ 
dron are produced to the exclusion of the others (Fig. 17), 
a tetrahedron (Fig. 18) is formed. There can be but two 
tetrahedra, which are distinguished as + and —. 

Hemi- Trigonal Trisoctahedron, ± ——.—When wiO is mod- 

* —j 

ified by this law, a tetrahedron is produced, each of whoso 
faces is replaced by three tetragonal planes (Figs. 19, 20, 





















































































































CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 


1207 


Hemi- Tetragonal 


Trisoctahedron, ± 


mOm 

~~ 2 ~ 


,—When mOm is 


modified by the same law, a tetrahedron is produced, each 
one of whose planes is replaced by three triangular planes 
(Figs. 23, 24, 25, 26). 


Hemi-Hexoctahedron Inclined, ± 


mOn 

~ 2 ~' 


— When mOn 


is 


modified by the same law, a tetrahedron is produced, each 
one of whose faces is replaced by six triangular planes 
(Figs. 27, 28). The other forms, ooOco, ooO, and ooO/t, do 
not admit of inclined hemihedry. 


duced (Figs. 36, 37). This solid has not been found in 
nature. 

(3) Tetartohedral Form. 

Tetartoid, ± rl—-~.—mOn is the only form which allows 

of the carrying out of this law. When the hexoctahedron, 
the diploid, or the hemi-hexoctahedron inclined, is modified 
as shown in (Figs. 38, 39, and 40, Figs. 41 and 42) are pro¬ 
duced, and as there are two pairs of these, which are right 
and left forms, they are distinguished as + and — r and l. 

Tetragonal System. 


(2) Parallel or Dodecahedral Forms. 

Hemi-Tetrahexahedron, ooOn.—When ccOu (Fig. 29) is 
modified, so that every alternate face is produced, a solid 
is formed (Figs. 30, 31, 32), which is often called pen¬ 
tagonal dodecahedron. 

Hemi-Hexoctahedron Parallel, ± .—When mOn 

is modified so that every other plane is taken in the same 
order on each face (Fig. 33), a solid (Fig. 34) is produced, 
which is often called the diploid. 

3. Gyroidal Form. 

Gyro id, ± ^^ —When mOn is modified in such a way 

that the faces are taken alternately above and below (Fig. 
35), a solid having twenty-four pentagonal faces is pro- 


The axes of this system (Fig. 43) are of two kinds: a, 
the vertical, being longer or shorter than b, b, which are 
both equal. 

Holohedral Forms .— Closed Forms. 

Tetragonal Pyramid of the First Order, P.—When the 
axes are cut in the relation a:b :b, the pyramid of the first 
order or protopyramid (Figs. 44, 45) is produced. The 
plane which includes the axes b is a square, and is called 
the basal plane, and its angles and edges are called basal 
angles and edges. The planes which include the axes a, b 
are rhombs, and are called the terminal planes, and their 
angles and edges terminal angles and planes, The gene¬ 
ral formula for these pyramids is ma :b : b, for which the 
symbol is mP, in which m = l; but in that protopyramid 
P which is selected for the base of the system the value of 
m is taken for unity. As m may have any value, there may 


TETRAGONAL SYSTEM. 



be any number of pyramids. They are called acute or ob¬ 
tuse according as the terminal angle is acute or obtuse. 

Pyramid of the Second Order, mPoo .—When the terminal 
edges of the protopyramid are modified by one plane in the 
relation ma: <xb : b, a solid exactly similar in all respects 
to the protopyramid is produced, but turned 90°, so that 
the basal axes terminate in the centre of the basal edges 
(Figs. 46, 47). As m may be §1, there may be an infinite 
number of deuteropyramids. The two forms, Poo and 2Pco , 
occur where m— 1 in the first case, and m == 2 in the second. 

Ditetragonal Pyramid, mVn .—When the terminal edges 
of the protopyramid are modified in the relation ma : nb : b, 
a solid is produced in which each plane of the protopyra¬ 
mid is replaced by two planes (Figs. 48, 49). This solid 
rn = 1, n> 1 < <x>; hence there may be any number of dite¬ 
tragonal pyramids. This solid bears the same relation to 
this system that the hexoctahedron does to the isometric 
system. 

Open Forms. 

Tetragonal Prism of the First Order, coP.—When the 
basal edges of P are modified by one plane, the axes will 
be cut in the relation coa:b:b, which produces simply four 
vertical planes (Fig. 50), which, as they are not closed, 
produce an open form and is the protoprism. 

Tetragonal Prism of the Second Order, coPco .—When the 
basal angles of the protopyramid are modified by one plane 
in the relation cea: cob : b, a prism (Fig. 51) is produced 
similar to the protoprism, but turned 90°. 

Ditetragonal Prism, ooP n .—When the basal angles of the 


protopyramid are modified by two planes in the relation 
co a : nb : b, a prism (Fig. 52), made up of eight faces, which 
are parallelograms, is produced. 

Basal Pinacoid, oP.—When the axes are cut by planes in 
the relation a : cob : cob, we have simply a pair of planes 
parallel to the basal axes. 

Py ramidal Hemihedral Forms. 

The pyramidal hemihedral forms of the tetragonal system 
are called (1) scalenohedral or sphenoidal, (2) trapezoidal, 
(3) pyramidal. 

(1) Scalenohedral. 

P 

Sphenoid of the First Order, ± ^ •—When alternate planes 

of P are produced, a solid resembling a tetrahedron is 
formed, in which the faces are isosceles triangles (Figs. 
53, 54). There will be two of these sphenoids. This solid 
is named after the mineral sphene, in which it frequently 
occurs. 

Sphenoid of the Second Order, ± —— .—When mPoo is 

treated by this law, another sphenoid is produced, similar 
in every respect to the sphenoid of the first order, but 
turned 90° (Figs. 55 and 56). 

Tetragonal Scalenohedron, ± — .—When two faces to¬ 
gether, taken alternately above and below, of mPii are 
taken (Fig. 57), the solid resulting is a sphenoid, each of 
whose faces is replaced by two planes (Fig. 58). 






























































































1208 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 


(2) Trapezoidal. 

Tetragonal Trapezohedron, rorl .—When mPn is mod- 

A 

ified by taking one plane alternately above and below 
(Fig. 59), a solid (Fig. 60) is produced; to distinguish them 
from the other hemihedral forms of mVn, they are called 
right, r, and left, l. 

(3) Pyramidal. 

. • r l »iP»i 

Tetragonal Pyramid of the Third Order, — and — ~ .— 

When mVn is modified, by taking one alternate plane, but 
the same plane above and below (Fig. 61), a pyramid is 
formed which resembles the other pyramids of this system 
(Fig. 62). It is, however, turned to one side more or less, 
depending on the angle of mPn. The relations of the pyr¬ 
amids and prisms of the three orders is illustrated by (Fig. 
63). Another pyramid Avhich is purely theoretical is formed 
as shown in (Figs. 64 and 65). 

Prismatic Hemihedral Forms. 

r l ccP n 

Tetragonal Prism of the Third Order, — or--—.— 

t V A 

When ceP n is modified so that only every other plane is 


taken (Fig. 66), a prism is produced resembling the prism 
of the second order, except that the basal axes terminate to 
one side of the centre of the faces of the prism (Fig. 67). 

Tetartohedral Forms. — Sphenoidal. 

V WlP/l 

Tetarto-Sphenoid, ± — ——.—When mPn is modified as 

t i 

shown in Fig. 68, it produces a sphenoid (Fig. 69), called 
the sphenoid of the third order. 

Plagio-Sphenoid .—When mP» is modified as in (Fig. 70), 
it produces a sphenoid (Fig. 71), called the sphenoid of the 
fourth order. It has not been found in nature. 

Orthorhombic System. 

The axes of this system (Fig. 72), a, b, c, all unequal, 
but all at right angles. 

Holohedral Forms.—Closed Forms. 

Rhombic or Protopyramid, P.—When the axes are cut in 
the relation a : b : c, the solid produced is a pyramid, whose 
faces are scalene triangles (Fig. 73). The planes ab, ac, 
and be are rhombs of different values. As the basal axes 
form the diagonals of the rhombs be, they are called, b the 
macro or longer, and c the brachy or shorter axis or diago- 


ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM. 






nal. In each species a value of a is selected for unity, and 
this value is represented in P, the base of the system. 
The general formula will, however, be ma : b : c, or mV, in 
which m = 1. 

Macropyramid, m¥n. —This solid (Fig. 74) resembles 
the protopyramid, but the symbol is ma : nb : c, in which 
m = 1. The macro axis has for its coefficient «>1. The 
planes, therefore, cut the macro axis extended. The long 
mark — through the P symbolizes this fact. 

Brachy pyramid, m?n. —In this form (Fig. 75) the sym¬ 
bol is ma : b : nc, in which m = 1 and n>I. The planes, 
therefore, cut the brachy axis extended, which is expressed 
by the curve drawn through the P. 

Open Forms. 

Rhombic or Protoprism, ooP. —When the basal edges of 
P are modified by one plane, which is parallel to the verti¬ 
cal axis a, according to the law go a : b : c, the resulting 
form is composed of vertical parallelograms (Fig. 76). 

Macroprism, coP n. —When the basal edges of mVn are 
modified by planes passed according to the law oo a : nb : c, 
in which «>1, the macro axis extended will be cut. The 
form consists of four vertical parallelograms (Fig. 77). 

Brachypriem, coPn.—When the basal of mVn edges are 
modified according to the law ooa : b : nc, in which n> 1 
(Fig. 78), the resulting form is a prism, in which the brachy 
axis extended is cut. 

Basal Pinacoid, oP.—When the axes are cut in the re¬ 
lation a : oc6 : goc, we have simply two pairs of planes. 

Macrodome, mPoo . —When the terminal edges of P are 


modified according to the law ma : ceb : c, in which m = 1, 
the form is roof-shaped, and is called a dome, from domus, 
a “house.” The dome is always over the axis from which 
it takes its name. 

Brachydome, toPco .—When the terminal edges are mod¬ 
ified according to the law ma : b : ooc, in which m = 1, a 
dome over the brachy axis is formed. 

Basal Pinacoid, oV. —When the axes are cut in the re¬ 
lation a:ccb: ooc, planes parallel to the basal axes are pro¬ 
duced. 

Macro Pinacoid, oepoo .—When the axes are cut accord¬ 
ing to the law oo a : ccb : c, planes parallel to the axis b 
are produced. 

Brachy Pinacoid, ooPco .—When the axes are cut accord¬ 
ing to the law cc a : b : coc, planes parallel to the axis c are 
produced. 

Hemihedral Forms. 

The hemihedral forms of this system consist of one solid, 
the rhombic sphenoid, and pairs of planes or single planes. 

mV 

Rhombic-Sphenoid, ± —When alternate planes of the 

A 

protopyramid are taken, a sphenoid is formed whose faces 
are scalene triangles (Fig. 81). 

Hemimorphic Forms. 

According to the law of symmetry, when a crystal is 
terminated by modifications at one extremity of an axis, 
the same planes should be repeated at the other. In this 
and the hexagonal system there occur crystals where this 


MONOCLINIC SYSTEM. 





law does not hold good, and these exceptions are called 
hemimorphic forms. 

Limit Forms. 

When the protoprism is accompanied by the macro and 
brachy pinacoids, the prism has a hexagonal section. 


When the angle of the prism is near 120°, forms are pro¬ 
duced which are so similar to hexagonal combinations that 
it is frequently difficult, without careful measurement or a 
determination of the optical properties of the mineral, to 
make the distinction. 






















































CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 


1209 


CLINOMETRIC SYSTEMS. 

Monoclinic System. 

The axes of this system (Eig. 82) are of three kinds, and 
have only a single inclination. The angle y of the plane 
ac = 90°, the angle a of the plane bc = 90°, the angle /3 of 
the plane ab <90°. a is called the vertical, b the clino, 
and c the ortho axis or diagonal. The plane of the basal 
axes is thus inclined to the vertical axis, while the ortho 
and clino axes are at right angles to each other. 

Holohedral Forms .— Open Forms. 

Monoclinic Pyramid, ± P.—As the axes b and c are of 
unequal length, and the plane which contains them makes 
two angles with the vertical axis, the one in front being 
an obtuse and the one behind making an acute angle, the 
relation a : b : c will produce only a hemipyramid or a 
pair of planes, above in front or behind below. The pyr¬ 
amid will be formed by these and the other pair of planes 
behind above and in front below. The pyramid itself will 
be ± P (Fig. 83). The two planes, above in front and below 
behind, are by convention called — P, and the others -f P. 
When m is not equal to 1, the symbol becomes ± mP. 

Orthopyramid, ± mVn. —When the axes are cut in the re¬ 
lation ma : b : nc, the two forms produce the orthopyra¬ 
mid (Fig. 84). 

Clinopyramid, ± mVn. —When the axes are cut in the re¬ 
lation ma : nb : c. the two forms produce the clinopyramid 
(Fig. 85). 

Protoprism, c»P.—When the basal edges of the proto¬ 
pyramid are modified, the axes are cut in the relation 
co a : b : c. A inonoclinic prism (Fig. 86) results. 

Orthoprism, coPm. —When the basal edges of the proto¬ 
pyramid are modified by one plane in such a way that the 
ortho axis extended is cut at a distance n, the relation is 
oo a : b : nc (Fig. 87). 

Clinoprism, coPh. —When the orthopyramid is modified 
so that the clino axis extended is cut at a distance n, the re¬ 
lation is co a : nb : c (Fig. 88). 


Orthodome, ±?nPco.—As the edges which join the axes 
a, b are of two kinds, only parallel planes will be produced 
by a single modification, ma : b : ccc. The orthodome (Fig. 

89) will therefore be made up of two hemi-orthodomes. 
The same convention for the signs + and — is made as for 
the pyramid. 

Clinodome, mPoo .—As the edges which join the axes a, c 
are alike, a dome results from the relation ma :<xb : c (Fitr. 

90) . 

Diclinic System. 


The axes (Fig. 91) of this system are of three kinds, and 
DICLINIC have two inclinations. The angle y of the 
SYSTEM. planes «6<90°, the angle a of the planes 
be = 90°, the angle /3 of the planes ac < 90°. 
The basal axes are thus at right angles to 
each other, but the plane which contains 
them has two inclinations to the vertical 


fi- 



+c 



.a. 


axis. 


a? 


91 


Diclinic Pyramid, F.—As the faces of 
the pyramid are equal only in pairs, the 
pyramid is made up of four tetarto pyra¬ 
mids. This system admits of only hemi 
forms and tetarto forms, a is called the vertical, b the 
macro, and c the brachy axis. It admits of tetarto, macro, 
and brachy pyramids and prisms, and tetarto, macro, and 
brachy domes and the pinacoids. Mitscherlich announced 
that he had discovered this system in a crystal of hyposul¬ 
phite of lime, but subsequent crystallographic and optical 
researches proved that this salt was triclinic; in conse¬ 
quence of which the system was abandoned by mostcrystal- 
lographers. It has, however, the same theoretical basis as 
any of the other systems, and there does not seem to be 
any good reason why it should not be preserved. 


Tkiclinic System. 

The axes of this system (Fig. 92) are of three kinds and 
have three inclinations, the ‘angles a, y, /3, are < 90°. 
The axis a is called the vertical, b the macro, and c the 
brachy axis. 


TRICLINIC SYSTEM. 



92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 


Triclinic Pyramid, |PJ.—When the axes (Fig. 92) are cut 
in the relation a : b : c, a pair of planes are produced. The 
pyramid is made up of four tetarto-pyramids, which are 
distinguished by accents. F signifies the planes right 
above, P the planes left above, P, the planes right below, 
and P the planes left below, with their diagonally opposite 
planes. The pyramid is P|. The protopyramid (Fig. 93) 
will always be mpj, except when m equals one, the macro¬ 
pyramid (Fig. 94) is m,P,n, and the brachy pyramid (Fig. 
95) mpn. 

Triclinic Prism, coP. — When the relation oo a:b:c is 
carried out, it produces a single pair of planes, whose 
symbol is coP or cop, according as the planes are to the 
right or the left. Each prism is made up of two hemi- 
prisms. The whole form (Fig. 96) is oo'P. The brachy 
prism (Fig. 97) is cop', and the macro prism coP'ji. 

Triclinic Domes. —The domes are single pairs of planes, 
and each dome is made up of two hemidomes. The ma¬ 
crodomes are made up of mP'oo and wipco (Fig. 98), and the 
brachydomes of »i,P'c© and mV, co (Fig. 99). 

The only other planes are the basal pinacoid, oP, the 
macro pinacoid, ooPco , and the brachy pinacoid, ccPco . 

SYSTEM WITH FOUR AXES. 

Hexagonal System. 

The hexagonal system is referred to four axes. One of 
these a (Fig. 100) is vertical. It is at right angles to the 
plane of the basal axes b, which are inclined to each other 
at an angle of 60°. The vertical is the optical axis, and 
is consequently the line of greatest physical as well as 
mathematical importance. 

Holohedral Forms.—Closed Forms. 

Hexagonal Pyramid, P.—When the axes (Fig. 100) are 
cut in the relation a : cab : b : c, the pyramid of the first 
order (Fig. 101), or protopyramid, is produced. In the 
form chosen for the base of the system the vertical axis 
is cut at a distance equal to unity, but it may be cut at 
other distances, w = l, so that the general symbol is mV. 
The pyramids are said to be acute or obtuse according 
as the terminal angle is acute or obtuse. 

Hexagonal Pyramid of the Second Order, mV2. —When 


the terminal edges of the protoprism are replaced by one 
plane, so that the axes are cut in the relation ma : 2 b:b: 2 b, 
another pyramid called the deuteropyramid (Fig. 102), 
which is similar in all respects to the protopyramid, except 
that it is turned 30° from it, is produced. 

Dihexagonal Pyramid, mVn .—When the terminal edges 
of the protopyramid are replaced by two planes, all three 
of the axes b will be cut at unequal distances. If the 
shortest parameter is called unity or b, and the longest nb, 

the third parameter will have a value of-and its 

n — 1 

length will be between 1 and 2. The axes will be in the 

n b 

relation ma : nb :b : --, or ma : nb : b : nb, in which m 

n—i 

= 1, n is 2, and n = (Fig. 103). 

/a — 1 

Open Forms. 

Hexagonal Prism, coP.—When the basal edges of the 
protopyramid are modified by one plane which is parallel 
to the vertical axes, they are cut in the relation coarcoi: 
b : b, and the protoprism (Fig. 104) is produced. 

Hexagonal Prism of the Second Order, <xP2.—When the 
basal edges of the deuteropyramid are modified by one 
plane parallel to the vertical axis, a deuteroprism is pro¬ 
duced (Fig. 105). The axes are cut in the relation oo a : 
2b : b : 2b. This prism is in every respect similar to the 
protoprism, but it is turned 30°. 

Dihexagonal Prism, coPn.—When the basal edges of the 
dihexagonal pyramid are modified by one plane, so that 

n . ,. 

the axes are cut in the relation co a : nb '• b : r b, a di- 

n~ 1 

hexagonal prism (Fig. 106) is produced. 

Basal Pinacoid, oP.—When the axes are cut in the re¬ 
lation a : co b : oo b : co b, the basal pinacoid is produced. 

Pyramidal Hemihedral Forms. 

This system admits of four different kinds of hemihedral 
forms, derived from its pyramids, which are called (1) sca- 
lenohedral, (2) trapezoidal, (3) pyramidal, and (4) trigonal 
hemihedry. 






























1210 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 


. (1) Scalenohedral. 

Rhombokedron of the First Order, db —When mP is 

Zi 

modified by producing every alternate plane (Fig. 107), 
the rhombohedron (Fig. 108) is produced. As there are two 
of them, they are designated by the signs + and—. 

ooP2 T - r , 

Rhombohedron of the Second Order, ± .—When 

co P2 is modified by the same law (Fig. 109), other rhom- 
bohedra (Fig. 110) are produced, similar to those of the 
first order, but turned 30°. As there is no limit to the angles 
of the pyramids from which they are produced, there are 
an infinite variety of rhombohedra. They are called acute 
or obtuse according as the terminal angle is acute or obtuse. 

Hexagonal Scalenohedron, ± ~ •—W hen the dihex- 

agonal pyramid is modified, so that every two alternate 
faces above and below are taken (Fig. Ill), the scalenohe¬ 
dron (Fig. 112) is produced. There are four of these 
scalenohedra. In order to get a clear idea of them, we 
have only to suppose that the terminal or basal edges of 
the rhombohedra were modified by two or the terminal 
angles by six planes. 


(2) Trapezoidal Hemihedry. 

Hexagonal Trapezohedron, r or l — — . When the dihex¬ 
agonal pyramid is modified by the extension of every al¬ 
ternate plane above and below (Fig. 113), the hexagonal 
trapezohedron (Fig. 114) is produced. They are distin¬ 
guished as right and left. 

(3) Pyramidal Hemihedry. 

r l mVn 

Hexagonal Pyramid of the Third Order, ~J or ~ * 

When mVn is modified as in Fig. 115, a hexagonal pyra¬ 
mid, in which the basal axes terminate to one side of the 
centre of the basal edges, is produced (Fig. 116), which, 
to distinguish it, is called the pyramid of the third order. 

(4) Trigonal Hemihedry. 

Ditrigonal Pyramid, r or l J •—When mVn is 

modified so that every alternate pair of planes, but the 
same planes above and below, are taken (Fig. 117), a di¬ 
trigonal pyramid (Fig. 118) is produced; to distinguish the 
symbol it is written in brackets. 




mP 


Trigonal Pyramid of the First Order, r or l —.—When 


«iP (Fig. 119) is modified by extending every other plane, 
but the same plane above and below, a trigonal pyramid of 
the first order (Fig. 120) is produced. 

Trigonal Pyramid of the Second Order, r or l -.— 

2 

When wiP2 (Fig. 121) is modified by the same law, a tri¬ 
gonal pyramid is produced. 

Prismatic Hemihedral Forms. 


Hexagonal Prism of the Third Order, or —-—.— 

t Yu 

When ccPn is modified by the extension of every alternate 
plane (Fig. 123), a hexagonal prism of the third order is 
produced. 

Ditrigonal Prism, r or l 


m- 


When 00 P» is modified 


by extending pairs of alternate planes (Fig. 125), a ditrig 
onal prism (Fig. 126) is produced. 


o>P 

Trigonal Prism of the First Order, ± —.—When coP is 

u 


modified by the extension of every other plane (Fig. 127), 
a trigonal prism of the first order (Fig. 128) is produced. 

Trigonal Prism of the Second Order, ± ———.—When 

Zj 

00 P2 (Fig. 129) is modified by the same law, an obtuse 
trigonal prism is produced (Fig. 130). 

The relation of all these forms to each other is made 
plain by Figs. 131 and 132. Fig. 131 shows the relative 
positions of the hexagonal pyramids and prisms of the 
first, second, and third orders, and the dihexagonal pyra¬ 
mid and prism (Fig. 132) shows the relations of the first, 
second, and third orders, the scalenohedron, the trigonal 
and ditrigonal pyramids and prisms. 

Pyramidal Tetartohedral Forms. 

There are two kinds of pyramidal tetartohedry in the 
hexagonal system, rhombohedral and trapezoidal. 

Rhombohedral Hemihedry. 

Y t YYi P Yt 

Rhombohedron of the Third Order, ± — or-.—When 

l r 4 

the dihexagonal pyramid or the hexagonal pyramid of the 
third order is modified as shown in Figs. 133 and 134, a 
rhombohedron of the third order (Fig. 135) is produoed. 


































































































































































CRYSTAL PALACE—CUBA. 


1211 


Trigonal 


Trapezoidal Hemihedry. 


Trapezohedron, ± r or l 


mVn 

4 


,—When »iP» is 


modified as shown in Figs. 136 and 138, the solids (Figs. 
137 and 139) are produced. These solids were formerly 
called plagihedra. They vary in form according as the 
terminal angle is acute or obtuse. 

Trigonal Pyramid of the Third Order, ± r or l \ 

When mPn is modified as shown in Fig. 140, 
pyramid (Fig. 141) is produced. 

Prismatic Tetartohedral Form. 




mV) 
t trigonal 


Trigonal Pr ism of the Third 


Order, ± r or l 


coPh 

4 - 


—When 


oo P/i is modified as shown in (Fig. 142), a trigonal prism is 
produced (Fig. 143). The position of these tetartohedral 
forms is illustrated in the diagram Fig. 144, which shows 
the relative position of the hexagonal pyramids of the first 
and second orders, the dihexagonal pyramid and prism, and 
the trigonal pyramids and prisms of the third order. 

Thomas Egleston. 

Crys'tal Pal'ace, a building ejected in London in 
1851, in which the great World’s Fair of that year was 
held. It was designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, and was 
composed of glass and iron, excepting the floors, which 
were of wood. It was 1851 feet in length, and covered an 
area of twenty-one acres. During the exhibition it was 
visited by over 6,000,000 persons. The whole structure 
was removed soon afterwards. A permanent crystal palace 
was erected in 1854 at Sydenham, eight miles from London. 
It cost £1,450,000, and contains an extensive museum, in 
which almost every department of art and science is repre¬ 
sented. In 1853 a crystal palace for another universal ex¬ 
hibition was erected in New York, after a design by Messrs. 
Carstenson and Gildemeister. It was burned in 1858. 
Others have since been erected for similar purposes in dif¬ 
ferent cities of Europe. 

Crystal Peak, a township of Washoe co., Nev. Pop. 


120 . 


Crystal Springs, a post-village of Copiah co., Miss., 
on the New Orleans Jackson and Great Northern R. R., 25 
miles S. W. of Jackson. Pop. 864. 

Csa'ba, a market-town of Hungary, 7 miles S. S. W. of 
Bekes, is well built. It has an extensive trade in grain, 
wine, and cattle. Previous to 1840 it was but a village. 
Pop. in 1870, 30,022. 

Csanad, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. 
by Bekes, on the E. by Arad, on the S. by Torontal, and on 
the W. by Csongrad. Area, 640 square miles. It consists 
of a plain, which is very fertile, but the climate and water 
are unhealthy. The chief products are wheat, wine, tobacco, 
and fruit. Chief town, Mako. Pop. in 1869, 95,847. 

Csanad, a decayed market-town of Hungary, in the 
county of Csanfid, on the Maros, 44 miles N. of Temesvar. 
Pop. in 1870,5250. 

Cserven'ka, a town of Hungary, in the county of Up¬ 
per Bdcs, on the Franzens Canal, 130 miles S. of Pesth. 
Pop. in 1870, 6877. 

Cson'grad, a county of Hungary, is bounded on the N. 
by Szolnok, on the E. by Bekes and Csanad, on the S. by 
Torontal, and on the W. by Pesth. Area, 1280 square 
miles. The soil and products are similar to those of Csanad. 
It is traversed by the Theiss. Chief town, Szegedin. Pop. 
in 1869, 207,585. 

Csongrad, a market-town of Hungary, in a county of 
its own name, is at the confluence of the Theiss with the 
Kords, 70 miles S. E. of Pesth. Pop. in 1870, 17,356. 

Cte'noid Fishes [from the Gr. *rei? (gen. ktcvo?), a 
“comb,” from the comb-like teeth of the scales], an order 
of fishes (in Agassiz’s former classification) characterized 
by having the skin covered with scales whose margins have 
notches or spines resembling the teeth of a comb. There 
are sometimes many rows of teeth or little spines, some¬ 
times but one, the rows wearing off successively as new 
ones are formed. Living fishes of this order are numerous ; 
among them are the turbot, perch, and flounder. Fossil 
fishes of this class are comparatively few. The word cte¬ 
noid is retained, as expressing an important character, but 
no such order as the above is now recognized. 

Cte'sias [Knj<n'a*], a Greek historian, a native of Cni- 
dos, in Caria, lived about 400 B. C. He passed many years 
in Persia as physician to King Artaxerxes Mnemon, and 
afterwards returned to his native place. He w rote a “ His¬ 
tory of Persia” (n«p<ri*a) and a “ Description of India.” 
His reputation for veracity is not high. 

Ctesib'ius [Krr)<n0to?], a famous Greek mechanician 


who flourished at Alexandria about 130 B C. He invented 
the clepsydra, a pump, and other machines Ho is said to 
have been the first who applied the elastic force of air as a 
motive-power. 

Ctes'iphon, an ancient city of Assyria, on the E. bank 
of the Tigris, 20 miles S. E. of Bagdad, was the capital of 
the kings of Parthia. Its ruins still attest its former mag¬ 
nificence. The site is now occupied by a village called 
Modain. 

Ctesiphon [Krija-i^uiv], an Athenian who proposed that 
a crown of gold should be given to Demosthenes for his pub¬ 
lic services. For this act he was prosecuted by Aeschines, 
and defended with success by Demosthenes in his famous 
oration “ On the Crown,” 330 B. C. 

Cu'ba, the largest of the Antilles or West Indian Islands, 
and the most important of all the Spanish colonial posses¬ 
sions, is in the Caribbean Sea, about 130 miles S. of Florida, 
from which it is separated by the Bahama Channel. It is 
about 45 miles W. of Hayti, and extends from Ion. 74° to 
84° 58' W. It is about 800 miles long E. and W., has a 
width varying from 130 to 25 miles, and an area of 45,883 
square miles. Good harbors occur on the coasts at Havana, 
Matanzas, and other places. Cuba is traversed length¬ 
wise by a mountain-chain. The highest peak, the Pico 
Turquinos, rises about 7750 feet above the level of the sea. 
From the base of the range the country expands into savan¬ 
nas or meadows, sprinkled with lagoons and swampy flats. 
The rivers are all small, and not navigable except for small 
boats. Granite, gneiss, and limestone are abundant here. 
Among the mineral resources of Cuba are copper, coal, sil¬ 
ver, iron, and marble. Several productive mines of copper 
have been opened in the mountains. 

The climate is hot and dry nearly all the year, the mean 
temperature near the sea-coast being about 78° F. In sum¬ 
mer the mercury seldom rises above 88°. Earthquakes fre¬ 
quently occur. The vegetation is very luxuriant, and the 
highlands are covered with forests of mahogany, ebony, 
cedar, and fustic. The pineapple, orange, banana, lemon, 
and melon flourish here. The cultivated lands produce 
abundantly sugar, cotton, coffee, rice, maize, tobacco, and 
indigo. Sugar is the chief article of export. In 1871 the 
sugar exported amounted to 1,126,141 boxes (551,896 to the 
U. S.) of 400 pounds each, and 416,153 casks (376,628 to the 
U. S.). The export of tobacco from Havana amounted in 
1869 to 22,000,000 pounds, exclusive of 179,000,000 cigars. 
The commerce of Havana embraces about 50 per cent, of 
the aggregate exports, and 75 per cent, of the imports 
of the island. The aggregate production is valued at 
$126,000,000. Of manufactures, the most important are the 
making of sugar, molasses, and rum, the preparation of 
coffee, the making of cigars, the bleaching of wax, and the 
manipulation of the minor staples of the island. Cattle- 
breeding is increasing, the number being estimated at about 
1,300,000 head. The number of vessels entering the port of 
Havana amounted in 1869 to 1669, of which 721 were from 
the U. S. The aggregate length of railroads in operation 
amounted in 1871 to 397 miles. The supreme political and 
military command is in the hands of a governor captain- 
general. The island is divided into two departamentos—the 
western and the eastern. The former is subdivided into two 
gobiernos (Havana and Matanzas) and twenty tenencias 
de gobierno; the latter into two gobiernos (Santiago de 
Cuba and Puerto Principe) and eight tenencias de gobierno. 
There is a university at Havana with about 400 students. 
The entire population (except foreign residents) belongs to 
the Roman Catholic Church, which has an archbishop at 
Santiago de Cuba and a bishop at Havana. Pop. in 1867, 
1,414,508, of whom 370,553 were slaves, 760,612 were 
white, and 283,343 free colored. Capital, Havana. 

History. —This island was discovered in Oct., 1492, by 
Columbus, who named it Juana; Cuba is the aboriginal 
name. He found it occupied by a mild and indolent race 
of aborigines. In 1511 this island was colonized by the 
Spaniards, who with a few short intervals have retained 
possession of it ever since that date. The cruel treatment 
of the Indians under the administration of Hernando 
greatly injured the prosperity of the island, as in 1553 the 
entire Indian population had become extinct. In 1534, 
and again in 1554, Havana was destroyed by the French, 
but each time it was speedily rebuilt, and in 1584 it was 
strongly fortified. In 1624 it was taken by the Dutch, but 
soon restored. In the second half of the seventeenth cen¬ 
tury the island greatly suffered from the invasion of filibus¬ 
ters, who in 1688 plundered and destroyed the city of 
Puerto Principe. After the suppression oi these bands of 
robbers the prosperity of the island rapidly increased, and 
in 1717 the Spanish government monopolized the tobacco 
trade. In 1762, Havana was taken by the English, who in 
1763 restored it in exchange for Florida. The Spanish 
government now found it necessary to allow the freo com- 
























CUBA—CUCKOO. 


1212 


mcrcial intercourse of Cuba with Spain. The commercial 
importance of tho island rapidly increased, but it became 
at the same time the centre of the slave-trade for all Span¬ 
ish South America. From 1789, in which year the slave- 
trade was freed from all former restrictions, to 1820, the 
average number of slaves imported was 7500 ; from 1820 
to 1811, about 13,000. In 1845 the importation of slaves 
was forbidden, and from 1845 to 1847 the vigilance of Cap¬ 
tain-General Concha suppressed the slave-trade almost en¬ 
tirely,* after that date it was again revived through the 
indulgence of the Spanish authorities. The commercial 
prosperity of the island had, in the mean while, been con¬ 
siderably increased by the decay of Hayti, the abolition of 
.the tobacco monopoly (1816), and the establishment of 
general freedom of trade (1818). Several insurrections of 
the negroes, the most important of which were those of 
1844 and 1848, were suppressed; in the latter more than 
10,000 negroes perished. Since the annexation of Florida 
to the U. S. the government of Washington has shown a 
considerable interest in the destiny of Cuba. In 1848, 
President Polk authorized the American ambassador in 
Madrid to offer the Spanish government $100,000,000 for 
the sale of Cuba, but the proposition was promptly rejected. 
In 1849, Colonel Narciso Lopez and other Cubans unsuc¬ 
cessfully attempted to revolutionize Cuba. In May, 1850, 
Lopez, who had fled to the U. S., sailed with 600 filibusters 
from the U. S., and landed at Cardenas, but had imme¬ 
diately to return. In Aug., 1851, another expedition of 
500 armed men under Lopez and the American colonel 
Crittenden landed at Playtas, but did not meet with the ex¬ 
pected support on the part of Cubans. Both Lopez and 
Crittenden were taken prisoners and executed. In 1859, 
President Fillmore refused to join a treaty proposed by 
England and France, which was to guarantee the posses¬ 
sion of the island to Spain. Hostilities committed by a 
Spanish man-of-war against the American steamer Black 
Warrior brought on a serious complication between the 
U. S. and Spain. In Oct., 1854, three ambassadors of the 
U. S. at European courts, Buchanan, Soule, and Mahon 
signed the Ostend manifesto, which claimed for the U. S., 
in case of a refusal on the part of Spain to sell the island, 
the right to take and annex it. The fear which the elec¬ 
tion of Buchanan as President of the U. S. caused to Spain 
was, however, not realized. The Spanish revolution of 
Sept., 1868, led soon to a rising of the friends of Cuban in¬ 
dependence. On Oct. 10, Manuel Carlos Cespedes, a law¬ 
yer of Bayamo, issued an address to the Cubans, in which 
he proclaimed the republic and separation from Spain. On 
Oct. 20 the Cuban insurgents had the first encounter with 
the Spaniards at Las Tunas. A provisional government, ap¬ 
pointed in Bayamo, promised the speedy abolition of sla¬ 
very. In April, 1869, a constituent assembly proclaimed 
the republic of Cuba, and elected Cespedes president. The 
total abolition of slavery and the introduction of freedom 
of religion were among the measures decreed by the as¬ 
sembly. The war was carried on on both sides, but in par¬ 
ticular on that of the Spaniards, with great severity. The 
Spanish volunteers even went so far as to defy the authority 
of Captain-General Dulce, who had to return to Spain. 
His successor, Caballero de Rodas, was equally unsuccess¬ 
ful in suppressing the insurrection, and was, in Dec., 1870, 
succeeded by Count de Valmaseda. In April, 1874, the insur¬ 
rection was not yet suppressed. (See Ramon de la Sagra, 
“ Historia fisica, economica, etc. de la isla de Cuba,” 1842- 
45, 11 vols.; Sievers, “Cuba,” 1861; La Pezuela, “His¬ 
toria de la isla de Cuba,” 1868-69, 2 vols.) 

A. J. Schem. 

Cuba, a township and village of Sumter co., Ala., on 
the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R. Pop. 480. 

Cuba, a post-village of Putnam township, Fulton co., 
Ill., on the Toledo Peoria and Warsaw R. R. Pop. 568. 

Cuba, a township and village of Lake co., Ill. P. 970. 

Cuba, a post-village and township of Allegany co., 
N. Y., on the Erie R. R. and Genesee Valley Canal, 12 
miles N. E. of Olean. It has manufactures of leather and 
other goods, a national and a private bank, and a large 
trade. It has also six churches and a weekly paper. Pop. 
of township, 2397. 

Cu'bature, the measurement of the volume of a solid 
body. If the equation to the surface enclosing the body be 
given in rectangular co-ordinates, its volume is expressed 
by the triple integral fff dx dy dz, where the integration is 
to be extended to all points of the solid, according to the 
methods explained in all text-books. When the equation 
to the surface is given in polar co-ordinates, its volume is 
expressed by the integral fff r 2 sin 9 dr d 9 d </>. 

Cubb Creek, a post-township of Jefferson co., Nob. 
Pop. 261. 

Cube [Gr. kv\ 3o?, a “die”], in geometry, a solid body 


contained by six equal squares. It is also called a regular 
hexahedron*, and is one of the five regular solids. It is a 
form which often occurs in nature, especially among crys¬ 
tals. In arithmetic the cube of a number is its third power, 
or the product obtained by multiplying that number by its 
square. The duplication of the cube—that is to say, the 
finding of a cube having double the volume of a given 
cube—is one of those problems which admit of no solution 
by common geometry, on which, as on the quadrature of 
the circle and the trisection of an angle, a vast amount of 
ingenuity has been vainly expended in every age since the 
dawn of mathematical science. The solid contents of a 
cube may be expressed by the third power of the number 
which expresses the length of one of its sides. 

Cu'beb [Lat. ctibeba ; Fr. cubebe ; Ger. Kubebc ; Ara¬ 
bic, kababeK], the dried, unripe fruit of the Cubeba offici¬ 
nalis (and probably of other species), climbing woody 
plants belonging to the order Piperaceae. The cubeb vine 
resembles that which produces the ordinary black pepper. 
Cubebs are brought chiefly from Java, Penang, etc., and 
are used as an aromatic and stimulant diuretic. Their ac¬ 
tive properties depend on the volatile oil which they con¬ 
tain. They also have a crystallizable principle called 
“cubebin,” and a balsamic resin. The oil, tincture, and 
extract are used in medicine. 

Cube Root. See Radical and Root. 

Cu'bie Equation, an equation which involves the 
cube of the unknown quantity. A pure cubic equation 
contains only two terms; as, e. g., sc* = 27; all others are 
said to be adfected; as, e. g., x 3 — 5a: 2 + 4a; + 7 = 1. 

Cu'bie Ni'tre, a commercial name applied to the ni¬ 
trate of soda, which is largely obtained from the desert of 
Atacama in Peru. It is used in the arts and as a manure. 

Cu'bit [Lat. cubitus, i.e. the “elbow;” Gr. nrixvs, the 
“ fore arm ”], a linear measure of the ancients, equal to the 
length of a man’s arm from the elbow to the tip of the 
middle finger. It is generally stated to be eighteen Eng¬ 
lish inches. The ancient Egyptian cubit, or “ cubit of 
Memphis,” was about 20.7 British inches. The mean of 
Sir Isaac Newton’s determinations, from the careful meas¬ 
urements of the great pyramid by Professor John Greaves 
(published in 1737), made it 20.672. The mean of still 
more careful measurement by Professor C. Piazzi Smyth 
in 1865 made it 20.73. According to Newton, the cubit of 
Babylon was very nearly 24 British inches; the royal cubit 
of Persia, 21.195 inches; the cubit of the Romans, 17.406 
inches; the cubit of the Greeks, 18.1308 inches; the Egyp¬ 
tian cubit in use in 1737, 21.888 inches; the sacred cubit 
of Moses he calculates not to have been greater than 
24.9389 inches, nor less than 24.7262, and its probable 
value to have been 24.7552 inches. Prof. Piazzi Smyth 
thinks that he has proved that the unit of measure em¬ 
ployed by the builders of the Great Pyramid in laying 
out the ground-plan of their work was identical with the 
sacred cubit of Moses, and that its value was 25.025 Brit¬ 
ish inches ; which is, according to the most recent determi¬ 
nations, almost exactly the 10,000,000tli part of the earth’s 
polar radius. He supposes, therefore, that this unit of 
measure, which was divinely given, was made by divine 
intention to be in this exact decimal relation to the invari¬ 
able line around which the earth revolves. If the British 
inch be increased by one-1000th part, its becomes what Pro¬ 
fessor Smyth calls a “pyramid-inch ;” and a pyramid-cubit, 
or sacred cubit, is 25 pyramid-inches, or one-10,000,000th 
part of the earth’s polar radius. Professor Smyth main¬ 
tains his hypothesis with much ingenuity, but it has not 
been generally received with favor. 

The value of the biblical “cubit of a man” is extremely 
uncertain. Dr. William Smith, in his “Dictionary of the 
Bible,” has discussed the question pretty fully, and inclines 
to regard it as having had a value, deduced by Thenius 
(“ Theologisclie Studien und Kritiken” for 1846) from the 
Egyptian cubit measure preserved in the Turin Museum, 
of 23 digits, each digit being 0.7938 British inch =18.257 
British inches. F. A. P. Barnard. 

Cuck'oo [Lat. cuculus; Fr. coucou; It. cucco, so named 
from its peculiar note], a name given to many birds of the 
order Scansores, of the genus Cuculus and its allied genera. 
The common cuckoo of Europe is fourteen inches long, gray, 
the breast barred with black. It is migratory, and arrives 
in Europe in the spring. It feeds on worms and insects, 
builds no nest, but deposits its egg in the nest of another 
bird, and the proprietor hatches it with her own. Tho 
young cuckoo crowds under the other birds, and throws 
them over tho edge to the ground. The great spotted 
cuckoo ( Cuculus glandarius ) is a native of Northern Af¬ 
rica ; it also uses the nests of other birds. It is said that 
even the hooded crow, a very sagacious bird, is thus de¬ 
ceived by it, and fosters tho young cuckoo with oare. It 














CUCKOO—CUICHUNCHULLI. 


1213 


migrates in summer to Southern Europe. The common 
American cuckoo ( Coccygus Americanus), sometimes called 
the yellow-billed cuckoo, is very slender, of a gray-brown 
color above, a lighter color beneath, and has a greenish 





Great Spotted Cuckoo, 
lustre. It feeds upon insects and the eggs of small birds. 
It is a timid bird, and conceals itself in the foliage of trees. 
Its eggs, from two to four in number, are of a pale blue- 
green. It does not lay its eggs in the nests of other birds. 
The black-billed cuckoo ( Coccygus erythroplialmus) inhabits 
the same regions as the common American cuckoo. It has 
a different note, and is less shy; the eggs are of the same 
color. Other species occur in the U. S. 

Cuckoo, a township and post-village of Louisa co., Ya. 
Total pop. 2199. 

Cu'cumber [Lat. cucumis; Fr. concombre ], a genus of 
plants of the order Cucurbitacem. The common cucumber 
{Cucumis sativus), a native of Middle and Southern Asia, 
has heart-shaped leaves, rough with hairs, and oblong fruit. 
It has been cultivated from the earliest times, and forms 
an important article of food in Europe and the U. S. Many 
varieties are cultivated, with fruit from four inches to two 
feet long. Pickles called gherkins are made from young 
cucumbers. A sunny exposure and a light., rich soil are 
best adapted to its culture. Many other species with edible 
fruit belong to this genus. 

Cucumber Tree, the Magnolia acuminata, a noble 
forest tree of the U. S., found from Niagara Falls south¬ 
ward to Georgia, chiefly along the Alleghanies. It is large, 
tall, and has rich foliage and large, beautiful flowers. Its 
wood is light, and is prized for making pumps and canoes, 
and is used in house-joinery. Its cucutnber-like fruit is 
soaked in spirits, and makes a very bitter drink, popularly 
used as a tonic and anti-rheumatic remedy. 

Cucurbita'ceae [from Cucurbita (a “ gourd”), one of 
the most important of its genera], a natural order of ex¬ 
ogenous plants, mostly inhabiting the hot countries of both 
hemispheres, having succulent stems and climbing by lat¬ 
eral tendrils. The fruit ( pepo ) has a thick, fleshy rind, is 
more or less succulent, and in some species attains a great 
size. The seeds are flat and ovate, embedded in a pulp, in 
some kinds dry, and in others juicy. The order contains 
about 300 species, including the melon, cucumber, gourd, 
squash, and pumpkin. The roots of some of them, such as 
the Momordica dioica and Bryonia umbellata of the East 
Indies, abound in a bland and edible fecula. The elate- 
rium and the common bryony, however, are remarkable for 
their acridity, and are sometimes used as drastic purgative 
medicine. The colocynth, which is valued for its medicinal 
properties, belongs to this order. 

Cud'bear [supposed to be a corruption of Cuthbert, from 
Dr. Cuthbert Gordon, who introduced the manufacture at 
Leith], a powder obtained from certain lichens by the ac¬ 
tion of ammoniacal liquids, and used for dyeing various 


colors. The name of cudbear lichen is often given to one 
particular species ( Lecanora tartarea), which abounds on 
rocks in the Highlands of Scotland, among the Alps, and 
in the northern parts of Europe. The dyestuff is obtained 
by macerating this for ten or twelve days in urine 
with chalk and water. Cudbear does not afford a 
very permanent color. 

Cud'dalore, a maritime town of Ilindostan, in 
Arcot, and on the Coromandel coast, 8G miles S. 
of Madras. It is one of the most populous towns 
in the south of India. It has a custom-house, and 
a port from which cotton goods are exported. It 
was taken from the English by the French in 1782, 
but restored to the British in 1795. Pop. 

Cud'weed, the name given to many species of 
the Gnaphalium, Antennaria, and Filago, belonging 
to the order Composite and sub-order Tubuliflora. 
The flowers, which are commonly called “ life-ever¬ 
lasting,” consist mostly of dry involucral scales, 
and the stems and leaves are more or less covered 
with white down. The cudweeds are common in 
Europe and North America, and some of them are 
used as diaphoretics in domestic medicine. 

Cud'worth (Rev. Ralph), D. D., an English 
philosopher and divine, born at Aller, in Somerset¬ 
shire, in 1G17. His father (also named Ralph Cud- 
worth), a man of genius and learning, was chaplain 
to James I. He graduated at Emmanuel College, 
Cambridge; and became master of Clare Hall in 
1644, and professor of Hebrew in 1645. In 1654 
he was chosen master of Christ’s College, and in 
1678 was appointed prebendary of Gloucester. He 
was one of those who were called “ Latitudinari- 
ans ” in theology. His great work, “ The True In¬ 
tellectual System of the Universe” (1678), displays 
great learning, liberality, and independence of 
mind. He favored the Platonic philosophy, al¬ 
though in physics he adopted the corpuscular 
theory. He died July 26, 1688, leaving a “ Treatise 
concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality,” pub¬ 
lished in 1731. A number of his unpublished manuscripts 
are in the British Museum. His sons appear to have died 
early. His daughter became Lady Masham and a friend 
of John Locke. (See Jannet, “ De Cudworthii Doctrina,” 
1849; Mackintosh, “View of the Progress of Ethical 
Philosophy ;” Tulloch, “ Free Thought in England,” vol. 
ii.) 

Cuen'ca, a province of Spain, in New Castile, is drained 
by the rivers Tagus and Jucar. Area, 6726 square miles. 
The surface is partly mountainous; coal, copper, iron, and 
silver are found here. Capital, Cuenca. Pop. 242,231. 

Cuenca, a city of Spain, capital of the above province, 
is picturesquely situated on a rocky eminence on the river 
Jucar, about 90 miles E. S. E. of Madrid. It has a richly- 
adorned cathedral, is the seat of a Catholic bishop, and has 
several convents and hospitals. Here is a fine bridge, erected 
over the Jucar in 1523. Cuenca was formerly celebrated for 
its arts, literature, and manufactures. Pop. 7284. 

Cuenca, formerly sometimes written Cuenza, a city 
of South America, in Ecuador, the capital of the province 
of Cuenca, is on table-land 8640 feet above the level of the 
sea, 189 miles S. of Quito, after which it is the most pop¬ 
ulous city of Ecuador. It is the seat of a Catholic bishop, 
and has a cathedral and a university; also several sugar- 
refineries and potteries. Pop. about 20,000. 

Cuesmes, a Belgian town in the province of Hainaut. 
It has breweries and coal-mines. Pop. 5721. 

Cue'vas de Ve'ra, a town of Spain, in Granada, is 
on th€ river Almanzor at its entrance into the Mediter¬ 
ranean, 42 miles N. E. of Almeria. It owes its thriving 
condition to recently-opened silver-mines. Pop. 7401. 

Cuf'fee (Paul), a negro philanthropist, born in Gos- 
nold, Mass., in 1759. He became a sea-captain, the owner 
of a vessel, the crew of which was composed of negroes, 
and acquired a competent fortune. He was deeply inter¬ 
ested in the subject of African colonization. Died Sept. 7, 
1818. 

Cu'fic Wri/ting [so named from the town of Cufa or 
Koofa, where the transcribing of ancient manuscripts was 
extensively carried on] was one of the most ancient forms 
of Arabic writing, and is supposed to have been introduced 
into Arabia a short time before the period of Mohammed. 
It was in common use till the tenth century, and afterwards 
was confined to coins and inscriptions. 

Cuichimchulli (Ionidium parmflorum ), a half-shrub¬ 
by Peruvian plant of the order \ iolaceoe, having active 
emetic and cathartic properties. It is reputed a certain 
remedy for elephantiasis tubcrculata , and the same medical 





























































CUIRASS—CULROSS. 


1214 


properties are attributed to other species of Ionidium. The 
root of one kind is called white ipecacuanha. 

Cuirass' [Fr. cuirasse, from cuir, “ leather ”],'originally 
a garment of leather for soldiers, so thick and strong as to 
be proof against a pistol ball. The term was afterwards 
applied to a breastplate, or a portion of armor made of 
metal, consisting of a backplate and breastplate hooked or 
buckled together. The cuirass is still worn by the British 
Horse Guards and other bodies of heavy cavalry, called 
cuirassiers. 

Cuivre, a township of Audrain co., Mo. Pop. 1480. 

Cuivre, a township of Pike co., Mo. Pop. 3271. 

Cuja'cius, properly Jacques Cujas, a celebrated 
French jurist, born at Toulouse in 1522. He learned 
Greek and Latin without a teacher, studied law at Tou¬ 
louse, and became in 1555 professor of law at Bourges. 
His lectures on the “Institutes” attracted students from 
all the countries of Europe. He developed a reform in 
modern law inaugurated by Alciat. The Roman law re¬ 
ceived a thorough interpretation from him, and according 
to its principles, which had until then been adopted par¬ 
tially as expediency suggested, the doctrine of the law was 
fundamentally renovated. He had in his library 500 man¬ 
uscripts of the Justinian laws. His works (1st ed. 1577 ; 
complete ed. Fabrot, 1658, 10 vols.) have been often re¬ 
printed, lately by Prato (1859). Died Oct. 4, 1590. ^(See 
Papire Masson, “ Yie de Cujas,” 1590 ; Bernardi, “ Eloge 
de Cujas,” 1775; Spangenberg, “J. Cujas und seine Zeit- 
genossen,” 1822.) 

Culawhee, a township of Jackson co., N. C. Pop. 520. 

Culdees', or Kildees' [supposed by some writers to 
have been derived from the Celtic cuildich, a “secluded 
corner,” by others from the Celtic kelede, “ man of God,” 
and by others from the Lat. cultores Dei, “worshippers of 
God ”], were a religious order established in Scotland, Eng¬ 
land, and Ireland in the latter part of the sixth century. 
When the monk Augustine had been sent by Gregory, 
bishop of Rome, as a missionary to the Saxons, he found 
the northern part of Britain already converted in a great 
measure to Christianity by the Culdees. Their origin is 
attributed to Saint Columba, the apostle of Western Scot¬ 
land, who in 563 founded an institution at Iona, where the 
order existed as late as 1203. Being invited by Oswald, 
king of Northumberland, to preach the gospel in England, 
they sent thither Aidan, whose labors were eminently suc¬ 
cessful. The Culdee institution at Iona differed essentially 
from a monastery, though sometimes called by that name. 
It was rather a place of retirement, where the Culdee fitted 
himself by study and prayer for missionary labor. Celi¬ 
bacy was not enjoined upon the recluses, they did not 
acknowledge the papal supremacy, and they were allowed 
to change their calling for another. “ The Culdees,” says 
Ebrard, “ read and understood the Scriptures in their orig¬ 
inal texts. But the Scriptures were more to them than a 
codex of authoritative doctrines of faith. They were the 
living word of Christ.” 

Cul-de-sac [Fr., the “bottom of a bag”], the name 
given to a street or alley open at one end only, sometimes 
called a blind alley. Also, in natural history, in buildings, 
in topography, and in military language, the term is used 
in an analogous sense for a passage with only one outlet. 

Cul'eilborg, a Dutch town in the province of Gelder- 
land, 6 miles N. N. W. of Tiel, on the Leek. It is sur¬ 
rounded with a wall. There are manufactures of furni¬ 
ture, stoves, etc., and a trade in corn. Pop. 6192. 

Culiacan', a town of Mexico, in the department of 
Sinaloa, on the river Culiacan, 105 miles S. E. of the city 
of Sinaloa. It has a seminary and mint. Pop. 10,925. 

Culil'awan Hark, called also Clove Hark, a valu¬ 
able aromatic bark, the product of the Cinnamomiim Culil- 
awan, a tree which grows in the Molucca Islands. It has 
a pungent taste and an odor resembling that of nutmeg 
and cloves. 

Cul'len, a township of Pulaski co., Mo. Pop. 849. 

Cullen (Paul), D. D., Cardinal, born in Dublin 
April 27, 1803, was educated at Rome, became archbishop 
of Armagh (1850), archbishop of Dublin (1852), and car¬ 
dinal-priest in 1866. In his “ Pastoral Letters ” he opposed 
the mixed system of education, and he has been the main 
supporter of the Catholic University of Dublin. 

Cullen (William), M. D., a celebrated British physi¬ 
cian, born of poor parents in Lanarkshire, Scotland, Dec. 
15, 1712. He acquired his profession amid great embar¬ 
rassments. In 1756 he obtained the chair of chemistry in 
Edinburgh, where he practised medicine with success. He 
published “First Lines of the Practice of Physic” (1775), 
his chief work, in which novel pathological theories are 
propounded, and which was translated into all European 


languages; a “Synopsis of Methodical Nosology” (in 
Latin, 1780), a “Treatise of the Materia Medica,” in which 
numberless errors were dispelled (1789), and other works. 
Died Feb. 5, 1790. (See Dr. John Thomson, “ Life and 
Writings of William Cullen,” 1832. This biography was 
completed by Dr. Craigie in a second volume, 1859.) 

Culle'ra, a fortified seaport-town of Spain, in the prov¬ 
ince of Valencia, is on the Mediterranean at the mouth of 
the Jucar, 24 miles S. S. E. of Valencia. Grain, wine, and 
fruits are exported. Pop. 9814. 

Cullo'den, also called Drummossie Moor, a battle¬ 
field of Scotland, is a desolate table-land, now partly culti¬ 
vated, in Inverness-shire, 6 miles E. N. E. of Inverness. 
Here the royal army, commanded by the duke of Cumber¬ 
land, totally defeated the Young Pretender, April 16, 1746. 

Cul'lum (George W.), an American officer, born Feb. 
25, 1809, in New York City, graduated at West Point in 
1833; colonel of engineers May 7, 1867, and brigadier- 
general of volunteers Nov. 1,1861. He served in the con¬ 
struction of Fort Adams, R. I., 1833-34, 1836-38, and 
1858-64; as assistant to chief engineer 1834-36; in build¬ 
ing pier, dyke, and lighthouse at Goat Island, R. I., 
1836-38; in erecting defences of New London harbor, 
Conn., 1838-55; in constructing sea-walls and fortifications 
at Boston harbor, Mass., 1846-47; in organizing engineer 
troops and preparing engineer and ponton equipage for the 
war with Mexico 1846-47; as instructor of practical mil¬ 
itary engineering, etc. at the Military Academy 1848—55, 
except while travelling abroad for recovery of his health; 
in building New York assay-office 1853-54; in charge of 
public works in North and South Carolina, particularly 
the construction of the defences (including Fort Sumter), 
lighthouses, and channel improvements of Charleston har¬ 
bor 1855-58; as member of special boards 1858-60; and in 
charge of sea-board defences from New Bedford, Mass., to 
Sound entrance to New York harbor, 1858-64. In the 
civil war he was A. D. C. (rank of colonel) to Lieutenant- 
General Scott, general-in-chief, 1861; chief of staff and of 
engineers to Major-General Halleck while commanding the 
departments of Missouri and Mississippi and general-in¬ 
chief of the armies of the U. S. 1861-64; engaged in estab¬ 
lishing defensive works, directing at Cairo operations 
auxiliary to the Western armies in the field, making armed 
reconnaissances of Columbus, Ky.; as chief of engineers in 
campaign and siege of Corinth, and fortifying its approach 
after its evacuation; as member of special and engineer 
boards, and in organizing the defences of Nashville, Tenn., 
the great depot of supplies for Western armies; and as 
superintendent of U. S. Military Academy 1864—66; brevet 
colonel, brigadier-general, and major-general Mar. 13, 

1865, for faithful, meritorious, and distinguished services; 
member of the board of engineers for fortifications since 

1866. He is author of a work on “ Military Bridges with 
India-rubber Pontons,” 1849; of “Register of the Officers 
and Graduates of the U. S. Military Academy,” 1850 ; of 
“Systems of Military Bridges,” 1863; of a “Biographical 
Register of the Officers and Graduates of the U. S. Mili¬ 
tary Academy,” 1868; of various military memoirs, re¬ 
views, reports, etc., 1833-73; and translator and editor of 
Duparcq’s “Elements of Military Art and History,” 1863. 
Retired from active service Jan. 13, 1874. 

Culm [Lat. culmus, “ straw ”], the botanical name of 
the peculiar cylindrical hollow and jointed stem of the 
grasses. Culm is also a popular name given in some parts 
of England to anthracite coal. 

Culm, a town of Prussia, regularly built on an eminence 
on the Vistula, 23 miles N. N. W. of Thorn. It pursues 
weaving, corn trade, and shipping. It was a Ilanse town. 
Pop. 8455. 

Culmina'tion [from the Lat. cxdmen (gen. culm inis), 
a “top”], an astronomical term signifying the passage of 
a celestial body over the meridian at the upper transit. 
The sun culminates at noon or midday, and the full moon 
culminates at midnight, 12 p. m. 

Cul'peper, a county in the N. E. of Virginia. Area, 
673 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Rap- 
pahannock, and on the S. by the Rapidan River. The sur¬ 
face is pleasantly diversified by hills and dales; the soil 
is fertile. Wool and grain are staple products. It is in¬ 
tersected by the Orange Alexandria and Manassas R. R. 
Capital, Fairfax or Culpeper Court-house. Pop. 12,227. 

Cul'peper (Thomas), second Lord, was one of the per¬ 
sons to whom Charles II. granted the territory of Virginia 
in 1673. He was the governor of Virginia from 1680 to 
1683. Died in 1719. This name in the baronage of Eng¬ 
land is written Colepeper. 

Culpeper Court-House. See Fairfax. 

Culross', a seaport-town of Scotland, in Perthshire, on 


















CULTIVATOR—CUMBERLAND. 


1215 


the N. shore of the Frith of Forth, 22 miles N. N. W. of 
Edinburgh. It is a place of great antiquity. The mon¬ 
astery of St. Serf was founded here about the sixth century. 
It has remains of Culross Abbey, successively the seat of 
the Bruce and Dundonald families. Pop. 500. 

Cultivator, an agricultural implement used in Eng¬ 
land and the U. S. before planting crops, and in the latter 
country for loosening the earth between rows of plants. 
American cultivators are either triangular or rectangular 
frames, with handles like those of a plough, a> greater or 
less number of plough-like teeth, and with their centre- 
beams projecting in front for the attachment of wheels and 
draught clevises. Cultivators are very extensively used 
and manufactured in the U. S. They are of late frequently 
called horse-hoes. 

Cul'verin [Fr. couleuvrine; etymology uncertain], a 
long cannon used from the fourteenth to the sixteenth cen¬ 
tury* generally carried a shot of eighteen pounds, and 
weighed about fifty hundredweight. A demi-culverin was a 
nine-pounder. 

Cul'vert [perhaps from the Fr. couvert, “ covered ”], an 
arched channel of masonry for the purpose of conveying 
water under ground. It is often built under canals, and in 
such cases it may be either a siphon or a surface-drain. 

Cu'rnae, an ancient and famous Greek city of Campania, 
situated on the Mediterranean, 11 miles W. of Naples. It 
was founded conjointly by colonists from Chalcis and Cyme 
in Asia Minor. According to Strabo, it was the most 
ancient of the Greek colonies in Italy. It became an opu¬ 
lent commercial city, built several harbors or port-towns, 
and for a period of 200 years (700-500 B. C.) was the most 
important city of Southern Italy. The people of Cumae 
waged war against the Etruscans, who disputed their su¬ 
premacy as a maritime power. Cumae was conquered by 
the Samnites in 420 B. C., and became a Roman municipium 
in 338. In the second Punic war Hannibal tried to capture 
it, but failed. Cumae was famous as the residence of the 
Sibyl (which see). It was the last stronghold of Italy 
that held out against the Byzantine army, which captured 
it from the Goths in 552 A. D. But few remains of Cumae 
are now in existence. 

Cumana, a department of Venezuela, is bounded on 
the N. by the Caribbean Sea and on the S. by the Orinoco. 
Capital, Cumana. Pop. 75,828. 

Cumana, a seaport-town of South America, in Vene¬ 
zuela, 1 mile from the Gulf of Cariaco, 180 miles E. of Carac- 
cas ; lat. 10° 28' N., Ion. 64° 16' W. It is the oldest Euro¬ 
pean city in America, having been founded in 1521 by 
Castellon. It has a good roadstead, and an export trade 
in cattle, cocoa, smoked meat, etc. It has been nearly de¬ 
stroyed by earthquakes several times. Pop. 6000. 

Cumberland [from Cymry (which see)], the most 
north-western county of England, is bounded on the N. by 
Scotland and the Solway Frith, E. by Northumberland and 
Durham, S. by Westmoreland and Lancashire, and W. by 
the Irish Sea. Area, 1565 square miles. The surface is 
mountainous and picturesque. The highest points are Sea 
Fell, 3100 feet, and Skiddaw, 3022 feet above the sea. The 
ohief rivers are the Esk, Eden, and Derwent. The scenery 
is adorned by numerous beautiful lakes, including Derwent- 
water and Ulleswater, the latter of which is 9 miles long. 
The land is divided into small freeholds. The main crops 
are wheat, oats, and turnips. Coal, copper, iron, lead, plum¬ 
bago, limestone, marble, and Silurian slate are found here. 
The chief town is Carlisle. This county formed part of the 
ancient Cumbria (which see). Pop. in 1871, 220,245. 

Cumberland, a county in the N. W. of Nova Scotia, 
extends from Northumberland Strait to the Bay of Fundy, 
and is bounded on the W. by Chignecto Bay. Here are 
rich coal-mines, and quarries from which good grindstones 
are exported to the U. S. It is intersected by the Interco¬ 
lonial R. R. Capital, Amherst. Pop. in 1871, 23,518. 

Cumberland, a county in the E. S. E. of Illinois. 
Area, 310 square miles. It is intersected by the Embarras 
River. The surface is diversified by prairies and groves ; 
the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, and lum¬ 
ber are important products. The Chicago branch of the 
Central and the St. Louis Vandalia and Terre Haute R. Rs. 
pass through this county. Capital, Prairie City or Major¬ 
ity Point. Pop. 12,223. 

Cumberland, a county in the S. of Kentucky. Area, 
375 square miles. Tobacco, grain, and wool are staple prod¬ 
ucts. It is intersected by the Cumberland River. The 
surface is partly hilly. Capital, Burkesville. Pop. 7690. 

Cumberland, a county in the S. W. of Maine. Area, 
990 square miles. It is bounded on the S. E. by the At¬ 
lantic Ocean, and on the S. W. partly by the Saco River. 
It contains Sebago Lake and other smaller ponds. It is 


traversed by several railroads, which meet at Portland, the 
capital. The soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are 
raised. Manufactures and commerce are extensive, the 
former embracing carriages, lumber, leather, metallic wares, 
clothing, saddlery, cooperage, etc. Casco Bay here affords 
facilities for navigation. Pop. 82,021. 

Cumberland, a county in the S. S. W. of New Jersey. 
Area, 480 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by 
Delaware Bay, and intersected by Maurice River. The 
surface is nearly level. Grain and wool are staple products. 
It has manufactures of lumber, iron, copper-wares, etc. 
It is intersected by the West Jersey and New Jersey South¬ 
ern R. Rs. Capital, Bridgeton. Pop. 34,665. 

Cumberland, a county in S. Central North Carolina. 
Area, 850 square miles. It is intersected by Cape Fear 
River. The soil is mostly fertile. Wool and corn are 
raised. The western part is based on granite. Pine lum¬ 
ber, tar, rosin, and turpentine are exported from this 
county. Capital, Fayetteville. Pop. 17,035. 

Cumberland, a county in the S. of Pennsylvania. 
Area, 545 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the 
Susquehanna River, and on the N. by the Blue Mountain. 
Between this ridge and the South Mountain lies the fertile 
Cumberland Valley, of limestone formation. Cattle, grain, 
and wool are raised. There are manufactures of flour, 
leather, furniture, carriages, saddlery, clothing, etc. etc. 
It is intersected by the Cumberland Valley R. R. Capital, 
Carlisle. Pop. 43,912. 

Cumberland, a county in Central Tennessee. Area, 
550 square miles. It is drained by Daddy’s Creek. The 
surface is hilly or mountainous. Tobacco and wool are 
staple products. Capital, Crossville. Pop. 3461. 

Cumberland, a county in Central Virginia. Area, 
310 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by James River, 
and on the S. E. by the Appomattox. The surface is undu¬ 
lating. Tobacco and grain are staple products. Capital, 
Cumberland Coui’t-house. Pop. 8142. 

Cumberland, a township and village of Clark co., 
Ill. Total pop. 1469. 

Cumberland, a township and post-village of Cumber¬ 
land co., Me. The village is on the Maine Central R. R., 
12 miles N. of Portland. Total pop. 1626. 

Cumberland, the county-seat of Allegany co., Md., 
is romantically situated on the Potomac. In population 
and commerce it is the second city in the State. It is the 
head of navigation of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal 
(leading to Georgetown, D. C.) and the shipping-point for 
the semi-bituminous coal produced in the vicinity, and 
which constitutes the principal traffic of that canal. It is 
178 miles W. by N. from Baltimore, and is the point of 
intersection of the Baltimore and Ohio and Pittsburg and 
Connellsville R. Rs. The Cumberland and Pennsylvania 
R. R., with its Eckhart branch, also centres here, and af¬ 
fords an additional outlet to the East and North, via the 
Pennsylvania system of railways. Its manufacturing in¬ 
dustries comprise extensive rolling-mills for rails and bars 
and factories for other railroad iron, a factory for the man¬ 
ufacture of steel, foundries, machine-shops, flour and ce¬ 
ment mills, and numerous minor enterprises. It has one 
State and two national banks, and two daily and three 
weekly newspapers. Its mercantile interests employ a 
large capital. Its hotels are numerous, the “ Queen City 
Hotel,” built by the Baltimore and Ohio R. R., being very 
large and well furnished. Its churches are also numerous; 
some of them are fine specimens of architectural beauty. 
An admirable system of waterworks (on the Holly plan) 
furnishes an abundance of water and good fire protection. 
The steadily developing coal-trade and its growing iron 
industries form the chief sources of its prosperity. Pop. 
8056; of Cumberland township (No. 13), 1324; (No. 6), 
1272. W. E. Weber, Ed. and Pub. “ Alleganian.” 

Cumberland, a post-village of Spencer township, 
Guernsey co., 0. Pop. 319. 

Cumberland, a township of Adams co., Pa. P. 1455. 

Cumberland, a township of Greene co., Pa. P. 1768. 

Cumberland, a township and village of Providence 
co., R. I. The village is on the Providence and Worcester 
R. R., 10 miles N. of Providence. It has one national 
bank. Total pop. 3882. 

Cumberland, a township and village of New Kent 
co., Va., 20 miles E. of Richmond. Pop. 1249. 

Cumberland (William Augustus), Duke of, the third 
son of George II., king of England, was born April 26, 
1721. He commanded the allied army which was defeated 
by the French at Fontenoy in 1745. lie defeated the army 
of the Pretender at Cullodcn in April, 1746, and was cen¬ 
sured for his cruelty in that bottle. During the Seven 

















1216 CUMBERLAND AND TEViOTDALE—CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, THE. 


Years’ war he commanded an English army, which was 
defeated at Ilastembeck in 1757. Died Oct. 31, 1765. 

Cumberland and Teviotdalc, Duke of (Great 
Britain, 1799), and earl of Armagh (Ireland, 1799), are 
titles borne by the ex-king of llanover, who is a prince of 
the blood in Great Britain, being first cousin to Queen Vic¬ 
toria. His full name is George Frederick Alexander 
Charles Ernest Augustus. He was born at Berlin May 
27, 1819, and was married Feb. 18, 1843, to the princess 
Alexandrina Marie of Saxe-Altenburg. He succeeded to 
the throne of Hanover Nov. 18, 1851, as George V., on the 
death of his father, Ernest Augustus. He took sides with 
Austria against Prussia in 1866, and in consequence was 
deprived of his kingdom, which was annexed to Prussia by 
decree Sept. 20, 1866. The ex-king is blind, but is a good 
musician.—His eldest son and the heir to the dukedom is 
Prince Ernest Augustus, born Sept. 21, 1845. 

Cumberland Court>house, a post-village, capital 
of Cumberland co., Va. 

Cumberland Gap, a narrow pass through the Cum¬ 
berland Mountains, on the line between Kentucky and 
Tennessee and at the western extremity of Virginia. It 
was an important strategic point in the late civil war, and 
was strongly fortified by the Confederates. It was aban¬ 
doned by them Jan. 18, 1862, and on the same day was oc¬ 
cupied by the national troops under Gen. G. W. Morgan. 
In Aug., 1862, Gen. E. Kirby Smith outflanked this posi¬ 
tion by a march through Big Creek Gap, and Gen. G. W. 
Morgan in consequence Was compelled to destroy and 
evacuate the works. He was hotly pursued northward by 
a force of Confederates under John H. Morgan. On Sept. 
9, 1863, Gen. Frazer, who held the gap with a brigade of 
Buckner’s troops, surrendered after a siege of only four 
days to Gen. Burnside’s troops. The gap itself is a cleft 
500 feet deep, and in some places is only wide enough for 
a road. If well provisioned, it might have been held by a 
small force against any opposing army. 

Cumberland Island, of North America, forms a 
portion of that coast of Davis Strait which lies between 
Hudson’s Strait and Lancaster Sound. 

Cumberland Mountains, a range of the Appala¬ 
chian system, forming part of the boundary between Vir¬ 
ginia and Kentucky. The range extends in a generally 
S. W. direction across Tennessee, dividing East from Middle 
Tennessee. These mountains here form an elevated pla¬ 
teau, seldom over 2000 feet high, but at some points nearly 
50 miles across. North-eastern Alabama and North-west¬ 
ern Georgia are broken by the southernmost extremity of 
the range. The Cumberland Mountains abound in caves, 
and in Tennessee they are very rich in coal and iron, con¬ 
taining nearly all the coal this State affords. The range 
in Tennessee has been described as capable of furnishing 
“ a highway from Kentucky to the Alabama line along its 
flat top, along which a traveller may pass without once de¬ 
scending, or even without discovering at any time his ele¬ 
vation.” On both sides the plateau breaks off in steep 
sandstone cliffs, the western side much notched, the eastern 
quite regular. Its immediate sides are from 800 to 1000 
feet high on either side. There are places where its upper 
surface is much broken by ridges and valleys. The iron 
deposits of this region are very remarkable, and there is 
every prospect that from the vast mineral wealth, delight¬ 
ful and healthful climate, good soil, and other great natural 
advantages, the Cumberland Mountain region of Tennessee 
will become one of the most wealthy and populous regions 
of the U. S. 

Cumberland Presbyterian Church, The, is a 

growth of the present century. In 1797 a very remarkable 
revival of religion began to develop itself in South-western 
Kentucky. The principal minister connected with its 
early developments was Rev. James McGready. Mr. Mc- 
Gready was a Presbyterian, and was educated in Western 
Pennsylvania, at what became afterwards Jefferson Col¬ 
lege, but he commenced his ministry in North Carolina. 
He was a man of unusual earnestness and power in the 
pulpit. His earnestness and zeal brought him into col¬ 
lision with the community in which he was laboring. The 
result was a removal from North Carolina to Kentucky in 
1796. He was settled in charge of three congregations— 
two in Logan co., Ky., Gaspar River and Little Muddy 
River; and one in Tennessee, Red River, near the dividing- 
line between the two States. 

Mr. McGready’s great zeal soon began to show itself in 
his new field of labor, and in order to bring his people 
into sympathy and co-operation with him, he proposed to 
them a written covenant, which they were to subscribe as 
a pledge of their earnest intention to fulfil its conditions. 
The measure was an incipient effort towards what was felt 
to be so necessary—a great revival of religion. A copy of 


this covenant is embodied here, as an illustration of the 
views and feelings, at the time, of a country pastor and a 
Christian people, surrounded as they were by a literal and 
a spiritual wilderness. “ When we consider,” say the 
covenanters, “ the work and promises of a compassionate 
God to the poor lost family of Adam, we find the strongest 
encouragement for Christians to pray in faith—to ask in 
the name of Jesus for the conversion of their fellow-men. 
None ever went to Christ, when on earth, with the case of 
their friends that were denied, and although the days of 
his humiliation are ended, yet for the encouragement of 
his people he has left it on record ‘that where two or three 
agree upon earth to ask anything in prayer, believing, it 
shall be done.’ Again, ‘ Whatsoever ye shall ask the 
Father in my name, that will I do, that the Father may be 
glorified in the Son.’ With these promises before us we 
feel encouraged to unite our supplications to a prayer¬ 
hearing God for the outpouring of his Spirit, that his 
people may be quickened and comforted, and that our 
children, and sinners generally, maybe converted. There¬ 
fore, we bind ourselves to observe the third Saturday in 
each month foj- one year as a day of fasting and prayer 
for the conversion of sinners in Logan county and through¬ 
out the world. We also engage to spend one half hour 
every Saturday evening, beginning at the setting of the 
sun, and one half hour every Sabbath morning, beginning 
at the rising of the sun, in pleading with God to revive 
his work.” 

This covenant was evidently not a mere formality. The 
hearts of the preacher and people were in it. In May of 
1797 occurred the first developments of the desired work. 
It is remarkable, too, that its first appearance was in the 
case of a female member of the church. She was in full 
communion, but was led to a re-examination of the ground 
of her hopes, and the result was a conviction that she “was 
still in the gall of bitterness and in the bond of iniquity.” 
She sought and found peace and joy in believing. This 
was a beginning. This occurrence, and a great many like 
it, made the impression upon the mind of Mr. McGready 
that a large proportion of the membership of the church 
were strangers to true religion. This impression gave a 
coloring to his preaching which it retained as long as he 
lived. He was terribly severe upon what he regarded as 
mere formalism. To have a name to live, and still to be 
dead, was to him the worst of conditions. 

The work advanced slowly until 1799. In this year, at 
the customary sacramental meeting at Red River in July, 
there was a great movement. Says Mr. McGready : “ Great 
solemnity pervaded the congregation from first to last, and 
particularly on Monday the presence of God had an over¬ 
whelming influence upon the assembled crowd. The boldest 
and most daring sinners in the country hid their faces and 
wept bitterly ; and such were the deep impressions made 
upon their minds that when the congregation was dismissed 
many remained around the doors of the church, unwilling 
to retire.” Thev were called back into the house; the 
preachers encouraged and prayed for them, and many were 
converted. In the following month, at Gaspar River church, 
the work went forward in still greater power. The following 
are specimens: A woman in the assembly in deej) distress 
sent for Mr. McGready, and addressed him thus: “ Sir, I 
was a member of your congregation in North Carolina, and 
in full communion, but I was deceived; I have no religion, 
and am going to hell.” “An aged man in great distress ad¬ 
dressed his wife and children thus: ‘ We are all going to 
hell together; we have lived prayerless and ungodly lives ; 
the work for the salvation of our souls is yet to be begun ; 
we must all have religion or we will be damned.’ ” 

In July of 1800 occurred the first camp-meeting that ever 
was held in Christendom. The plan of the meeting was 
suggested by the circumstances of the country, and the fact 
that vast crowds were in the habit of assembling at the 
sacramental meetings from distances varying from ten to 
a hundred miles. Great numbers professed religion at the 
camp-meetings and upon other occasions, and the work 
spread with wonderful rapidity and power over South¬ 
western Kentucky and what was called the Cumberland 
Country—now Middle Tennessee—lying adjacent. 

A large element of the population of these countries was 
either Scotch-Irish or of Scotch-Irish descent, and the 
Scotch-Irish are generally Presbyterian in their religious 
proclivities. It was so in this case. The ministers who 
co-operated with Mr. McGready were Messrs. William Mc¬ 
Gee, Samuel McAdoo, William Hodge, John Rankin, Pres¬ 
byterians, and Mr. John McGee, Methodist. These men 
were all of Scotch-Irish origin, and had emigrated from 
North Carolina. It may be mentioned here that when tlio 
Cumberland Presbyterian Church came to be fully organ¬ 
ized nine-tenths of its ministry, and at least four-fifths 
of its membership, were of Scotch-Irish descent. This fact 
is mentioned that the reader may know something of the 


















CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, THE. 


1217 


material of which this communion was originally composed. 
Some characteristics are charged upon Cumberland Pres¬ 
byterians which are in direct conflict with what would be 
inferred from their paternity. Everybody knows that a 
Scotch-Irishman is neither a patron of ignorance nor a 
fanatic in religion. Yet Cumberland Presbyterians have 
been charged with being fanatical in religion and the 
patrons of ignorance. Facts, as we shall see, as well as 
philosophy, vindicate them from the charge. It is utterly 
without foundation. 

_ The rapid progress and widespread influence of the re¬ 
vival produced the necessity of organizing a great many 
new congregations; and this, of course, created a necessity 
for more ministerial laborers. The Presbyterian Church 
could not supply them in the ordinary way. There were 
no schools, and if schools had been abundant the congre¬ 
gations could not wait until young men would be able to go 
through such a course of literary and theological training 
as is customarily required in the Presbyterian Church pre¬ 
paratory to licensure and ordination. No one complained 
of* the requisition, but its fulfilment seemed impracticable 
under the circumstances. The patriarch * of Presbyter¬ 
ianism in Kentucky visited the region of the revival, and 
seeing the necessities of the congregations, advised the 
ministers and leading laymen of the Church to select such 
young men as they thought promised usefulness, and direct 
their attention to the work of the ministry, although they 
might not be able to obtain what was considered a full 
ministerial education. The counsel seemed practical, and 
three young men at first were encouraged to prepare them¬ 
selves for the work as well as they could. These young 
men presented themselves to the Transylvania Presbytery 
in Oct., 1801. The presbytery hesitated, but at length, in 
Oct., 1802, they were all licensed as probationers for the 
holy ministry. At the same presbytery two others were 
received as candidates for the ministry. Opposition, how¬ 
ever, at once developed itself. In Oct., 1802, the Transyl¬ 
vania Presbytery was divided, and the Cumberland Pres¬ 
bytery was formed, embracing the more immediate region 
of the revivaf. The Cumberland Presbytery from time to 
time licensed a few others and ordained two or three. These 
were all what were called uneducated men; they were all, 
however, men of promise, and some of them became dis¬ 
tinguished in subsequent years. The opposition was con¬ 
tinued in the new presbytery. 

There was difficulty from another source. The revival 
ministers were warm-hearted, and controlled less by theo¬ 
logical and technical than by practical, and what they re¬ 
garded as spiritual, considerations. The young men, too, 
had not learned to split all the metaphysical hairs of the¬ 
ology, and there were some expressions in the Confession 
of Faith which seemed to them to teach the doctrine of 
fatality. This they could not receive, and were allowed to 
except to it in their licensure and ordination. 

There were thus two subjects of dissension between the 
parties: one was educational, the other theological. The 
revival ministers did not object to education for the minis¬ 
try, but to the rigid application of the rule in the circum¬ 
stances surrounding them. The young men did not object 
to the Confession of Faith, but to those expressions in it 
which seemed to them to imply the doctrine of fatality. 
Their warm-hearted and liberal fathers thought proper to 
indulge them in their skepticism on this subject. They 
adopted the Confession of Faith with the single exception. 
The difficulties became serious, and were finally brought 
before the synod of Kentucky. The synod of 1804 ap¬ 
pointed a committee to attend a meeting of the Cumber¬ 
land Presbytery and inquire into the condition of things. 
None of the committee fulfilled the appointment except 
one, and he was notoriously a persecutor, of the presbytery, 
and was regarded as a spy. Nothing good, of course, re¬ 
sulted. The synod at its next meeting, in 1805, appointed 
a commission consisting of fifteen members to visit the 
region in which the difficulties existed, to confer with the 
Cumberland Presbytery, and to endeavor to restore quiet and 
harmony. The commission met on Dec. 3, 1805, at Gaspar 
River meeting-house, in Logan co., Ky. The first measure 
of the commission was to require of the presbytery a sur¬ 
render of all the young men who had been licensed and 
ordained in what they regarded a questionable manner, for 
a re-examination by the commission, with a view to a con¬ 
firmation or an annulling of the proceedings of the pres¬ 
bytery in each particular case. It is to be borne in mind 
that several of the men thus required to be surrendered to 
the commission were themselves members of the presby¬ 
tery. The presbytery declined compliance, upon the ground 
that the constitution of the Presbyterian Church gives to 
the presbytery alone the power “ to examine and license 
candidates for the holy ministry; to ordain, install, remove, 


77 


* Rev. David Rice. 


and judge ministers;” that it gives no such power to a 
synod, much less to a commission of synod, nor to any 
other judicature of the Church. The commission then 
called upon the young men to submit themselves for re¬ 
examination; they also declined, whereupon the commis¬ 
sion passed the following resolution: “ Resolved , That as 
the above-named persons never had regular authority from 
the presbytery of Cumberland to preach the gospel, etc., 
the commission of synod prohibit, and they do solemnly 
prohibit, the said persons from exhorting, preaching, and 
administering the ordinances, in consequence of any au¬ 
thority which they have received from the Cumberland 
Presbytery, until they submit to our jurisdiction and 
undergo the requisite examination.” 

The names of the persons thus proscribed are omitted as 
a convenience. Four of them were ordained ministers and 
members of the presbytery; the others, eight in number, 
were either licentiates, candidates for the ministry, or ex- 
horters. Tho presbytery took the ground in the contro¬ 
versy that the proceedings of the commission were uncon¬ 
stitutional, and of course that the proscribing act was 
unconstitutional and void. Nevertheless, from a general 
respect to authority, and from an obvious desire to procure 
a reconciliation, and enjoy peace and quietude as far as 
possible, both the proscribed members, and those who had 
promoted their induction into the ministry and sympa¬ 
thized with them, constituting a majority of the presby¬ 
tery, organized themselves into what they called a council, 
determining in this manner to endeavor to carry forward 
the work of the revival, to keep the congregations together, 
but to abstain from all proper presbyterial proceedings, 
and await what they thought would be a redress of their 
grievances. The synod of Kentucky at its sessions in 1806 
dissolved the Cumberland Presbytery, and annexed the 
members who had not been placed under the ban of the 
commission to the Transylvania Presbytery. 

The council continued their organization from Dec., 1805, 
to Feb., 1810. By that time they became satisfied that they 
had nothing to hope either from the synod or the General 
Assembly. As a last resort, and in order to save what they 
represent to the General Assembly as “every respectable 
congregation in Cumberland and the Barrens of Kentucky,” 
two of the proscribed ministers, Finis Ewing and Samuel 
King, assisted by Samuel McAdam, one of those who had 
been placed under an interdict by the commission for his 
participation in what they denominated the irregularities 
of the presbytery, reorganized the Cumberland Presbytery 
at the house of Mr. McAdam, in Dickson co., Tenn., on the 
4th of Feb., 1810. It was organized as an independent 
presbytery. It will be observed that it was a reorganiza¬ 
tion of a presbytery which had been dissolved, and which 
had received its name from its locality. The Church which 
grew up from these beginnings naturally took the name of 
its first presbytery as a prefix. Hence this Church is called, 
from the circumstances of its origin, “ The Cumberland 
Presbyterian Church.” It extends now from Pennsylvania 
to the shore of the Pacific, but it originated in what was 
called, at the time, the “ Cumberland Country ” and from 
the Cumberland Presbytery. It is hoped that these details 
will not be considered useless. They are intended to en¬ 
able the reader to understand what most readers remote 
from tho scene of the transactions do not understand—that 
a Church of some extent should be so local in its name. 
The name suggests nothing connected with the denomina¬ 
tion except the locality of its origin, and this was acci¬ 
dental, or rather providential. 

The new presbytery immediately set forth a synopsis of 
its theology and the principles of action by which it pro¬ 
posed to be governed. Its theology was Calvinistic, with 
the exception of the offensive doctrine of predestination, 
so expressed as to seem to embody the old pagan dogma 
of necessity or fatality. Its rules of action were to be 
presbyterial. 

There is no probability that these good and earnest men 
had any adequate conception of what became the mag¬ 
nitude of the work upon which they were entering. They 
hardly thought of anything beyond an organization which 
would enable them, and perhaps their immediate successors, 
to labor with greater vigor and efficiency in promoting the 
work to which they thought God in his providence and 
by his Spirit had called them. We judge now that they 
did not think of originating a Church, but simply a pres¬ 
bytery. But God rules, and we have a thousand evidences 
that he ruled in this case. 

The new presbytery held its first adjourned meeting in 
March, the month following its organization. There were 
present four ordained ministers, six licentiates, and seven 
candidates for the ministry. These men constituted really 
the fathers and founders of the Cumberland Presbyterian 
Church. At the fourth session of the presbytery, held in 
Oct., 1811, a committee was appointed to meet committees 
















1218 


CUMBERLAND RIVER—CUMMINGS. 


from two of the neighboring presbyteries of the Presby¬ 
terian Church, with a view to “conferring on the subject 
of a reunion, and other matters relative to that harmony 
which should exist between the members and people of 
Jesus Christ.” This well-meant measure, however, failed 
of any good effect. Early in the j^ear 1813 the presbytery 
had become so large that it divided itself into three pres¬ 
byteries, and constituted the Cumberland Synod. This 
synod, at its sessions in 1816, adopted a Confession of 
Faith, catechism, and system of church order in conformity 
with the principles avowed upon the organization of the 
presbytery. The Confession of Faith is really a modifica¬ 
tion of the Confession of Faith of the Presbyterian Church. 
It was intended by the framers to exclude only the offensive 
doctrine which had been a principal cause of all the diffi¬ 
culties. The government is Presbyterian. 

In 1826 its first college was organized under the super¬ 
vision of the Church. It was located at Princeton, Ky. 
It was a manual-labor school. In 1830 its first paper was 
published under the patronage of the Church. It was a 
weekly religious and literary journal, also published at 
Princeton. In 1828 the Cumberland Synod was divided 
into three synods, and a General Assembly succeeded. The 
first meeting of the Assembly was held in May, 1829. 

At the last meeting of the General Assembly, which was 
held in May, 1873, there were reported 24 synods, 100 pres¬ 
byteries, 1223 ministers, 2212 congregations, 98,408 com¬ 
municants, 59,932 persons engaged in Sabbath school work, 
and $475,267 in contributions to church purposes. All 
these estimates are made from defective reports. The 
stated clerk of the General Assembly says that they would 
be increased by full reports. Probably a full estimate 
would place the membership at 120,000. 

The Church has under its patronage three weekly news¬ 
papers, one quarterly, and two monthlies—one devoted to 
the interest of females. It has also under its patronage 
three chartered universities and several colleges, both male 
and female and mixed. Two of its universities give in¬ 
struction to both males and females; the other has regular 
collegiate, theological, law, and medical departments. Cum¬ 
berland Presbyterians make no great parade of their cha¬ 
racter, numbers, or work, but they are willing that the world 
should know both what they are and what they do. 

Richard Beard. 

Prof, of Theology Cumberland University , Lebanon, Tenn. 

Cumberland River, an affluent of the Ohio, rises 
among the Cumberland Mountains in Kentucky, near the 
S. E. boundary of that State. It flows nearly westward, 
crosses the southern boundary of Kentucky, describes an 
extensive circuit in Middle Tennessee, passes by Nashville, 
and returns into Kentucky. It afterwards flows north¬ 
westward, and enters the Ohio at Southland. The Cum¬ 
berland and Tennessee rivers are only about 3 miles apart 
at a point nearly 20 miles from Southland. Length, esti¬ 
mated at 650 miles. Steamboats can ascend it to Nash¬ 
ville, about 200 miles from its mouth, and it is navigable 
above Nashville, at certain seasons, 400 miles. 

Cumberland University, at Lebanon, Tenn., belong¬ 
ing to the Cumberland Presbyterians, was founded in 1842. 
Its presidents have been as follows: F. R. Cossitt, D. D., 
1842-44; T. C. Anderson, D. D., 1844—66; B. W. McDon- 
nold, D. D., LL.D., 1867. Its departments are—arts, the¬ 
ology, medicine, natural science, commercial and poly¬ 
technic, preparatory. Whole number of graduates, 1260. 
Amount of “Ball endowment” subscribed, $250,000. Vol¬ 
umes in libraries, 8000. Price of tuition in college, per 
session, $35. Boarding in clubs, the prevailing method, 
costs $10 per month. B. W. McDonnold. 

Cumberland Valley, a post-township of Bedford co., 
Pa. Pop. 1357. 

Cum'bre, La (the summit), a principal pass across the 
Andes, between Santiago in Chili and Mendoza in the 
Argentine Republic. Elevation, 12,454 feet above the level 
of the sea. Men travelling on foot can pass over the 
Cumbre from May to the end of October. 

Cum'bria [named from the Cymry (which see), its an¬ 
cient inhabitants], an ancient British principality, com¬ 
prising Cumberland in England and that part of Scotland 
which now forms the counties of Ayr, Dumbarton, Dum¬ 
fries, Lanark, Peebles, Renfrew, and Selkirk. It was ruled 
by its own kings until about 950 A. D. Scottish Cumbria 
then became the kingdom of Strathclyde (which see). 

Cum'brian Mountains, a range or group of moun¬ 
tains in the N. of England, occupying parts of Cumber¬ 
land, Westmoreland, and Lancashire. This region, called 
the “English Lake District,” is remarkable for its pictu- „ 
resque scenery, and is much frequented by tourists. Here 
are numerous lakes, the largest of which are Windermere 
and Ulleswater. These mountains are mostly formed of 


granite and Silurian rocks. The highest point, Sea Fell 
Pike, rises 3166 feet above the sea. 

Cum'ingy a county in the N. E. of Nebraska. Area, 
400 square miles. It is intersected by the Elkhorn River. 
The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. Grain and 
wool are raised. Extensive prairies occur here. It is in¬ 
tersected by the Sioux City and Pacific R. R. Capital, West 
Point. Pop. 2964. 

Cuming City, a post-township of Washington co., 
Neb. Pop. 543. 

Cum / min-(or Cumin-) Seed [Lat. cuminum], the fruit 
of the Cuminum Cyminum, a plant belonging to the order 
Umbelliferse. It is the only known species, and is found 
in Egypt and the adjacent countries. It is an annual with 
branched stem, thread-like leaves, with umbels of small 
white or pink flowers. It has been cultivated from remote 
times for the sake of its seeds, which have an aromatic 
taste somewhat resembling caraway. In Germany and 
Holland it is used in cookery. As a medicine it is mostly 
limited to veterinary practice. It is cultivated in Northern 
Africa, India, and Southern Europe; but the seed are mostly 
imported from Sicily and Malta. Oil of cummin is abun¬ 
dantly obtained from the seed. The oil of cummin consists 
of a mixture of two distinct oils, one called cymene (C 20 H 14 ); 
the other regarded as a hydride of cumyl (C 20 H 11 O 2 .H). 
This oil is of a strong bitter, disagreeable taste, with the 
general properties of the other essential oils. 

Cum'ming, a post-village, capital of Forsyth co., Ga., 
about 40 miles N. N. E. of Atlanta. Gold is found in the 
vicinity. Pop. 267. 

Gumming (Alexander), a Congregational minister, 
born in Freehold, N. J., in 1729, was ordained to the Pres¬ 
byterian ministry in New York in 1747, and preached in 
New York 1750-53, when he was relieved at his own re¬ 
quest of his colleague pastorate. In 1761 he was ordained 
colleague pastor of the Old South church, Boston, Mass., 
where he thenceforth remained. He died Aug. 25, 1763. 

Gumming (Alfred), a Confederate brigadier-general, 
was born in Georgia in 1829, graduated at West Point in 
1849, became captain in the Tenth U. S. Infantry in 1856, 
resigned in 1861, entered the Confederate service, and fell at 
the battle of Jonesboro’, Ga., Sept. 1, 1864. 

Gumming (John), D. D., F. R. S. E., a popular Scotch 
preacher, born in Aberdeenshire Nov. 10, 1810. He be¬ 
came in 1833 minister to the Scottish church in Crown 
court, Covent Garden, London. He has published inter¬ 
pretations of the apocalyptic prophecies, “ The Great Trib¬ 
ulation,” “ The Destiny of Nations,” etc. He also is a 
zealous opponent of the Roman Catholic Church and a 
defender of the National Church of Scotland. 

Cumming (Rotjaleyn Gordon), known as the “lion- 
hunter,” was born at Altyre, Scotland, Mar. 15, 1820. He 
was the son of a baronet, was educated at Addiscombe, and 
entered a cavalry regiment in the East India service, and 
afterwards took a commission in the Cape Mounted Rifles 
in South Africa. While there he distinguished himself by 
his exploits in killing lions, elephants, and other wild 
beasts. Of his surprising adventures he wrote an account 
in book-form, which was highly popular, but after a time 
fell into a discredit which it hardly deserved. He after¬ 
wards became a popular lecturer in Great Britain upon 
sporting subjects. Died Mar. 24, 1866. 

Cumming (William), U. S. A., was born in Georgia 
in 1788, became in 1813 major of the Eighth U. S. Infantry, 
was wounded at Chrystler’s Fields, Nov. 11, 1813, became 
colonel and adjutant-general in 1814, was wounded a second 
time at Lundy’s Lane, and in 1847 declined a major-gene¬ 
ralship. A lawyer by profession, he never practised, being 
the possessor of a large fortune. In a political contest 
with George McDuffie of Georgia he was involved in a 
duel, in which McDuffie was wounded in the shoulder. 
Died at Augusta, Ga., in Feb., 1863. 

Cum'mings, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. P. 277. 

Cummings (A. B.), U. S. N., born June 22, 1830, in 
Pennsylvania, entered the navy as a midshipman April 7, 
1847, became a passed midshipman in 1853, a lieutenant 
in 1855, and a lieutenant-commander in 1862. He served 
in the steamer Richmond at the passage of Forts Jackson 
and St. Philip and capture of New Orleans, April 24,1862, 
at the passage of Vicksburg, June 28, 1862, and in the en¬ 
gagement with the batteries at Port Hudson, Mar. 14, 1863, 
where he fell mortally wounded “ while he was cheering the 
men at the guns.” The loss which the country and the 
navy sustained in the death of this gallant officer may be 
gathered from the following extract from the address of 
Captain Alden to the officers and crew of the Richmond on 
Mar. 22, 1863: “ With deep sorrow I call you together to 
announce the death of our late executive officer, Lieutenant- 












\ 


CUMMINGS—CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. 1219 


Commander A. B. Cummings, at New Orleans. It has pleased 
God to take from among us our gallant friend in the ful¬ 
ness of his energies and usefulness. You all well know the 
importance of his services in this ship; his conscientious de¬ 
votion to duty ; his justice and even temper in maintaining 
discipline ; his ability in preparing for emergencies, and 
his coolness in meeting them. All these qualities he brought 
to his country in the hour of nee>l, and he has sealed his 
devotion with his life. The fatal cannon-shot struck him 
when he stood on the bridge, cheering the men at their guns 
and directing their fire. He was thrown down upon the 
deck, but his presence of mind still remained. He said, 
1 Quick, boys ! pick me up; put a tourniquet on my leg; 
send my letters to my wife; tell her I fell in doing my 
duty.’ When below he said to the surgeon, ‘ If there are 
others worse hurt, attend to them first. Nolan, are you 
here, too ?’ He inquired about Howard, and his thoughts 
were directly of others and of success in the fight. When 
told that the noise he heard was from the escape of steam, 
and that the ship could no longer stem the current, he ex¬ 
claimed, ‘ 1 would rather lose the other leg than go back ; 
can nothing be done? There is a S. wind; where are the 
sails?”’ Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Cummings ( Joseph), D. D., LL.D., a Methodist Epis¬ 
copal theologian, was born at Falmouth, Me., Mar. 3, 1817, 
and graduated at Wesleyan University in 1840, entered the 
ministry in 1841, became in 1853 professor of theology in 
the biblical institute at Concord, N. II., was president of 
Geneva College (1854-57), and in the latter year became 
president of Wesleyan University, at Middletown, Conn. 

Cum'mington, a post-township of Hampshire co., 
Mass., the birthplace of the poet Bryant, of Hon. H. L. 
Dawes, of Luther Bradish, and of Dr. Thomas Snell, the 
historian and divine. It has manufactures of importance. 
Fine water-power is furnished by the Westfield River. The 
town has three churches, and an excellent public library, 
presented to the town by Mr. Bryant. Pop. 1037. 

Ciim'mins (Francis), D. D., born near Shippensburg, 
Pa., in 1752, was one of the framers of the Mecklenburg 
Declaration of Independence (May, 1775), and in 1780 was 
licensed by the presbytery of Orange, N. C., to preach. 
For many years he was the honored pastor of Presbyterian 
churches in the Carolinas and Georgia. Died Feb. 22, 1832, 
at Greensboro’, Ga. 

Cummins (Georoe David), D. D., an American clergy¬ 
man, was born near Smyrna, Del., Dec. 11, 1822. He was 
graduated from Dickinson College in 1S41, and was a 
licentiate in the Methodist Episcopal Church for two years. 
In 1845 he studied for orders in the Protestant Episco¬ 
pal Church, in October of the same year was ordained a 
deacon, and in 1847 a presbyter. For six years he was 
rector of Christ church at Norfolk, Va., and then succes¬ 
sively rector of St. James’s church, Richmond, Trinity 
church, Washington, St. Peter’s church, Baltimore, and 
Trinity church, Chicago. In 1866 he was elected assistant 
bishop of Kentucky. In Nov., 1S73, he resigned his posi¬ 
tion, withdrew from the Protestant Episcopal Church, and 
founded the Reformed Episcopal Church, of which he was 
made presiding bishop Dec. 2, 1873. 

J. B. Bishop, N. Y. “ Tribune” Ed. Staff. 

Cummins (Maria S.), a popular novelist, was born at 
Salem, Mass., April 10, 1827. Her most successful novels 
were “The Lamplighter”(1853),“Mabel Vaughan” (1857), 
and “ El Fureidis ” (1860). The first mentioned had a sale 
of 70,000 copies in a single year. Died Oct. 1, 1866. / 

Cum'ru, a post-township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 2573. 

Cunard' (Sir Samuel), Bart., was born in Nov., 1787. 
He was the eldest son of a gentleman in Halifax, Nova 
Scotia. He became the head of the extensive firm of steam¬ 
ship owners, Cunard & Co. He married a lady of Halifax, 
and in 1859 was made a baronet. Died April 28, 1865, 
leaving eight children.—He was succeeded in the baronetcy 
by his°son” Sir Edward, who married Miss Mary McEvers 
of New York. Sir Edward Cunard died April 6, 1869.— 
Sir Bache Cunard, the present baronet, was born May 15, 
1851. He resides chiefly in the U. S. 

Cunax'a, the ancient name of a place in Babylonia, on 
the E. bank of the Euphrates, about 45 miles N. of Baby¬ 
lon. In 401 B. C. a battle occurred here between Artax- 
erxes Mnemon, king of Persia, and his brother Cyrus (the 
Younger), who was defeated and killed. 

Cundinamar'ca, one of the United States of Colombia, 
separated by the Central Cordilleras from Antioquia and 
C&uca on the W., by the Orinoco from Cduca and Venezuela 
on the E., and bordering S. on C£uca, and N. on Boyaca 
and Antioquia. The climate varies from the tierra caliente 
of the valleys to the tierra fria of the high plateaux, and 
the products are very abundant. The chief exports are to¬ 
bacco and cinchona. Chief city, Bogota. P. in 18 1 0,409,602. 


Cunduran'go, or Condurango, a twining plant of 
the order Asclepiadacese, apparently belonging to the genus 
Nantonia, though its botanical relations are not well known. 
It grows in Ecuador, and has been sold in the U. S. and 
Europe at fabulous prices as a cure for cancer. It has, how¬ 
ever, no favorable effect upon that disease, though it prob¬ 
ably has active properties. Its name signifies “condor 
root,” and it is believed by the Indians that the condor 
uses it as a medicine. 

Cu'neiform [Lat. cuneiformis, from cuneus, a “ wedge,” 
and forma, “form”], having the form of a wedge; applied 
to one of the bones of the wrist and to three of the tarsus; 
also to certain wedge-shaped characters found on ancient 
monuments. (See next article.) 

Cu'neiform (or Arrow-headed) Inscriptions. 

The cuneiform characters used in the Euphrates valley had 
their origin in a hieroglyphic or picture system of writing. 
A few inscriptions, in a more primitive style than usual, re¬ 
tain considerable resemblance to the original hieroglyphics, 
though most of the Assyrian inscriptions preserve very little 
resemblance to their original pictures. The ordinary cha¬ 
racters are made up entirely of wedges, differently arranged, 
and ranging from a single one to a combination of twenty. 
Each character is either a syllable or a word, the analysis 
into consonant and vowel sounds being quite beyond the 
capacity of the Chaldean scribes. The choice of the wedge 
as the basis of all the characters is not arbitrary, but results 
from the employment of soft clay (instead of parchment), 
which was inscribed with a pointed stylus. 

From the earliest historical period, as now, the Euphra¬ 
tes valley has contained races existing side by side, but 
speaking diverse languages. At present the Persian, the 
Arabic, and the Turkish represent the three great families 
of languages, the Indo-Germanic, the Shemitic, and the 
Turanian; and the same three families are represented by 
the languages which we find in the early trilingual cunei¬ 
form inscriptions—one being in the Turanian Accad lan¬ 
guage, another in the Shemitic Assyrian, and the third in 
the Indo-Germanic Persian, or Achmmenian. 

The earliest civilization of the Euphrates was Turanian. 
It is indicated by the genealogy of Genesis x., which repre¬ 
sents Asshur as having descended from Cush. This Turanian 
people, called Accad, invented the form of writing which, 
with the modifications produced by ages of use, was adopted 
by all the other languages about them. But not being 
originally an alphabet of simple sounds, but characters 
representing words, it naturally became encumbered in the 
transfer with a multiplicity of sounds, which has been a 
great stumbling-block to those who have not made the 
language a study. 

Thus, for example, in Turanian the word par means “the 
sun,” and had its appropriate hieroglyphic, afterwards 
abbreviated into a conventional character, consisting of 
one upright wedge with two very short parallel wedges set 
obliquely by its left side. The meanings “ light ” and “ day ” 
were naturally enough attached to the same character, just 
as we say that the sun is very bright when we mean that 
its light is brilliant, and as an Indian speaks of three suns 
when he means three days. Any other word besides par, 
signifying in Turanian “sun,” “light,” or “day,” ivas 
attached to this hieroglyphic as its variant significations 
and pronunciations. When the character was transferred 
into the Assyrian language, it kept its significations, but 
utterly altered its pronunciations. In its sense of “the 
sun,” from par it became samas; in its sense of “ da} 7 ,” it 
became imma ; and so with other significations. The same 
was true in its transfer to the Persian. But another stage 
of change remains, the syllabic. 

It was a very simple step to abbreviate the sound allowed 
to a character. Thus, in Accad the word Annap means 
God, and is represented by two successive short horizontal 
wedges followed by a longer upright one. This character 
was not only employed to represent the idea of God, pro¬ 
nounced Annap in an Accad and Ilu in an Assyrian inscrip¬ 
tion, but also to represent the first syllable an of Annap. In 
a similar way the character pronounced pil, “ear,” in Ac¬ 
cad, came to represent the simpler syllable pi. There were 
thus as many simple syllables formed as could be made by 
the combination of twenty consonants with three vowels; 
it being remembered, however, that when the consonant 
followed the vowel no distinction was made between the 
different consonants of a class, whether sibilant, labial, 
dental, or guttural. Thus ab and ap are represented by the 
same character, and so is us, uz, and u followed by either 
one of two other sibilants. When these simple syllables 
were combined to form words, it became necessary to dupli¬ 
cate the vowel sound of a closed, syllable, as in the word 
habba, “sea,” which is written with the characters pro¬ 
nounced ha-ab-ba. 

These different stages of writing will be more or less com- 














1220 CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. 


bincd in any Assyrian inscription, so that we may have in 
the same line simple syllables,like those in ha-ab-ba, ‘‘sea,” 
complex syllables, like those in gul-lnl-tuv, “curse,” and 
ideographic signs, like that for rabu, “great.” And a 
single sign may have several different values; and cases 
occur in which, by a perversity of tho scribes, the same 
character is used in two successive syllables of the same 
word with different values, the practice which allows us to 
pronounce viz one way in “ vizier,” and another in the con¬ 
traction for “namely,” being carried to an extreme extent, 
so that there are cases of polyphony in which a single cha¬ 
racter has as many as five or six distinct values. 

The complexity of the Assyrian system of writing is so 
great that there was for a long time much skepticism 
about the trustworthiness of the decipherment, although 
there is scarce a feature of the system that is not paralleled 
in the existing Japanese writing. But the proofs of its 
correctness are beyond cavil. They are found in trilingual 
inscriptions of considerable length, where it is easy to com¬ 
pare the Assyrian with the Persian; in some long inscrip¬ 
tions of which we have a large number of copies, and in 
which the scribes have written the same word in several 
different ways, more or less contracted; and finally in the 
extensive syllabaries are grammatical texts of the monu¬ 
ments, which were prepared, as we prepare dictionaries 
and spelling-books, for the instruction of learners, and 
which explain the values of the characters. The proof of 
the correctness of these readings was first given, so as to 
make it beyond reasonable question, in 1857, when Sir 
Henry Rawlinson, William H. Pox Talbot, Esq., Rev. E. 
Hincks, D. D., and Doctor Jules Oppert prepared indepen¬ 
dent translations from copies of a long inscription of Tig- 
lath-Pileser. These translations were transmitted in sealed 
packets to a committee of the Royal Asiatic Society, and 
opened and compared by them. It was found that they 
were so nearly identical that it was preposterous to sup¬ 
pose that the true foundation had not been laid for the de¬ 
cipherment of the inscriptions. The amount of these in¬ 
scriptions collected by Botta and Layard is very great, and 
includes the complete historical annals of several kings, 
embracing the details of their various campaigns, a very 
large number of grammatical and lexicographical tablets, 
legal and commercial documents, such as bills of sale, des¬ 
patches to the king from the generals in the field, chrono¬ 
logical tables, accounts of eclipses and lunar conjunctions, 
and indeed almost everything that a people greatly given 
to writing would care to record. The fortunate ‘discovery 
of libraries or record-chambers of Sennacherib and Assur- 
banipal has been of incalculable service. 

Language .—Its entire vocabulary and its grammar clearly 
prove that the Assyrian language belongs to the Shemitic 
family, and to the same branch of it as the Hebrew and 
Phoenician, rather than to the Aramaean or to the Arabic 
branch. And yet it preserves many forms which are nearly 
or quite obsolete in Hebrew, such as the three case-endings 
of the noun, and the conjugations of the verb formed with s 
and t. The Assyrian is peculiar in its exceedingly rare use 
of the perfect (preterite) tense. So rarely is it used that the 
French scholars deny its existence entirely. A large ma¬ 
jority of the roots are the same as in Hebrew ; the sibilants 
are preserved, and not changed into dentals, as in Aramaic, 
which is considerably more remote from the Assyrian than 
is the Arabic. 

Mythology .—The chief Assyrian deity was Asshur, called 
“chief of the gods,” and replaced in Babylon by a deity 
called R or Ra. It is remarkable that no temples were 
built to this tutelary god of Assyria, although the oldest 
capital of the country, built before Nineveh, and the country 
itself, bear his name. His emblem was a winged circle en¬ 
closing or surmounted by a human bust. 

Subordinate to Asshur is the triad of Anu, Bel, and 
Hea or Ao, also called Sin. Anu was a very old deity, and 
in later mythology seems to have presided over the lower 
regions, and perhaps to have ruled Chaos. Bel, the or¬ 
ganizer of the world, judging from his Shemitic name, 
meaning “lord,” corresponds to the Roman Jupiter. Hea, 
or Ao, is tho god of wisdom, the Oannes of Berosus. To 
this trinity succeeds another, consisting of Iva (Bin), 
the “aether;” Shamas, the sun; and Sin, the moon. The 
five planets were identified with the gods Ninip (Adar?), 
Saturn; Merodach, Jupiter; Nergal, Mars; the goddess 
Ishtar, Venus; and Nebo, Mercury. With most of tho 
gods were connected corresponding female divinities, of 
whom the best known is Beltis, wife of Bel, who is the My- 
litta of Greek writers, in whose temple every Babylonian 
woman was obliged to prostitute herself once in her life. 

The ancient Babylonians were familiar with the story of 
the Deluge, as is proved by some very curious mythological 
tablets lately deciphered by Mr. George Smith, and proba¬ 
bly reaching back to the extreme antiquity of over 2000 
B. C. In this story Sisit (the Xisuthrus of Berosus) takes 


the place of Noah, and is warned by Hea to build a ship, 
that he and his family and individuals of all the animals 
may escape a flood sent to punish the wickedness of men. 
The vessel is calked with bitumen and roofed with reeds. 
Its dimensions are missing, but its breadth and height, 
unlike those of the biblical ark, are equal. Unlike the ark, 
it has a pilot. The rain lasts but seven days, and the birds 
sent out are a dove, a sv/allow, and a raven. The ark rests 
on the mountains east of Babylon, when the god lets Sisit 
and the animals out, and he ofFers a sacrifice. As a re¬ 
ward for his services he receives the gift of immortality. 
This story of the Deluge is on the eleventh of twelve tablets, 
of which one was for each month, this being for the “rainy 
month.” 

History .—The most important result of the decipherment 
of the cuneiform inscriptions is the addition of an almost 
entirely new chapter to the history of the ancient world. 
The Babylonians and Assyrians, unlike the early Hindoos, 
were exceedingly careful to preserve their historical records 
for posterity. Hundreds of copies exist of a single inscrip¬ 
tion giving an abstract of the victories of Assurnazirbal; 
and the very bricks of which a palace was built were 
stamped with the name of the ruling monarch. The frag¬ 
mentary and contradictory accounts of Berosus, Ctesias, etc. 
have been supplemented by an immense mass of contem- 
[ porary records, quite complete in some reigns, from which 
we can gain a very clear view of the rise and fall of the 
Assyrian and Babylonian powers. 

The earliest dynasty was an indigenous one, called by 
various authors Accad, Chaldaean, or Cushite. It began 
about 2200 B. C., and the names of a few kings are pre¬ 
served, among whom are Ur-hammu (perhaps the Orcha- 
mus whom Ovid reports to have been the seventh after Bel), 
his son Ilgi, Ismidagon, and Hammurabi, extending to the 
middle of the sixteenth century B. C., when Thothmes III. 
overran Mesopotamia, and established a line of Egyptian 
rulers whom Berosus calls Arabian. After two or three 
centuries, during which the Egyptians were paramount, 
we meet the name of Assur-bel-nisis hs the founder of the 
first Assyrian dynasty. He was an insignificant rnler, like 
his immediate successors, and not till Tiglath-ninip I., 
about 1300 B. C., was Babylon conquered by the king of 
Nineveh. Of his successors the most powerful was Tiglath- 
Pileser I., whose history is quite fully given, and who con¬ 
quered the Moschi of the Black Sea, Armenia, Western 
Media, the Syrian Hittites, and a portion of the Phoeni¬ 
cian coast. He records it as an extraordinary exploit that 
he entered a vessel of Aradus and killed a dolphin with his 
own hand. After some reverses in attempting to subdue 
the revolted city of Babylon, he succeeded in recovering 
for Nineveh the political supremacy. His third successor, 
Assur-rabu-amar, was conquered about 1070 B. C. by the 
Hittites, and lost all his Syrian conquests, thus allowing 
the development of the Jewish kingdom under David and 
Solomon. 

The earlier kings of a second Assyrian dynasty, begin¬ 
ning with the usurper Beletaras, are obscure, but with one 
of them, Vul-nirari II., chronology becomes certain, as we 
have a nearly complete list of the eponyms for each year 
for some centuries after his reign, with the names of the 
corresponding kings, the Assyrians having the habit of 
naming each year after some public functionary, who cor¬ 
responded in this respect to the Greek archons and the 
Roman consuls. The first king of note is the great con¬ 
queror Assurnazirpal, who carried his arms to the Medi¬ 
terranean Sea on the west, and into Media and Persia on 
the east. His son, Shalmaneser II., extended his conquests 
—or rather his campaigns, which often issued in only a tem¬ 
porary subjection—into regions beyond those visited by 
his father, but the most interesting are those in which he 
conquered Benhadad and Hazael, the successive kings of 
Damascus, the former of whom was aided by 10,000 troops 
from Ahab, king of Israel, though his successor, Jehu, gave 
tribute to Shalmaneser, and thus incurred the enmity of 
Hazael. Of the successors of Shalmaneser, the second, 
Vul-nirari III., was a great conqueror, and his wife, Sam- 
muramat, is the Semiramis of Herodotus. 

The Assyrian annals give no account of the fall of Nine¬ 
veh under Sardanapalus, and the identification of his name 
with that of Assur-nirari by the French Assyriologists de¬ 
pends on a very doubtful conjecture that the character read 
nirari by George Smith, and which appears sometimes to 
be equivalent to gabal, may, in a rare inflectional form of 
that root, have been tanagbal. The resulting name, 
Assur-tanagbal, would readily become Sardanapalus in 
Greek. Equally obscure is the biblical Pul, king of As¬ 
syria, who about this time received tribute from Menahem, 
king of Israel. Some scholars assume at this time, which 
closes the first Assyrian empire, a break in the table of epo¬ 
nyms of forty years, which reconciles these annals with the 
I Jewish history. If this break does not occur, the dates 










CUN EO—CUP AR-FIFE. 


1221 


given for the previous kings must be brought down forty 
years. 

In 744 B. C., Tiglath-Pileser II. commenced a new lino of 
Assyrian monarchs, founding the second Assyrian empire. 
Tho reconquest of Babylonia occupied the earlier portion 
of his reign, while the latter portion was taken up with ex¬ 
peditions against Syria, Phoenicia, and Israel. Pekah, 
king of Israel, was dethroned by him, and Menahem occu¬ 
pied the throne for eight years, until, taking advantage of 
Tiglath-Pileser’s campaign against Armenia, Pekah again 
recovered his position. This fact, given by the monuments, 
explains a discrepancy of eight years between the biblical 
dates of the Jewish and Israelite kings. Ahaz is mentioned, 
in the Assyrian as in the biblical records, as an ally of As¬ 
syria against Israel, and as doing homage with other kings 
to Tiglath-Pileser at Damascus. His son, Shalmaneser IV., 
succeeded him, and after a reign of five years was succeeded 
by his tartan (or general) Sargon in 721 B. C. Sargon was 
a great conqueror. It was he who carried Samaria captive, 
though the biblical record has been thought to imply that 
it was Shalmaneser. He extended his conquests over Syria, 
Phoenicia, and Palestine, and conquered the army of Egypt 
that was assisting the Philistine cities. The king of Egypt 
and the queen of Arabia gave him tribute. He then rav¬ 
aged Armenia, portions of Media, Parthia, Albania, Cili¬ 
cia, and Pisidia. When Babylon revolted he subdued it, 
placing a satrap of his own in command. He even received 
the submission of Cyprus, as a granite column discovered 
in Citium contains the cuneiform record and the represen¬ 
tation of Sargon. He was assassinated in 704 B. C., and 
succeeded by his son Sennacherib, also a famous conqueror. 
We possess long records of his reign, including full accounts 
of his campaign against all the countries ravaged by his 
father, among which was Judah, then ruled by Hezekiah. 
His son Esarhaddon (681-667) was also a warlike king. He 
had been viceroy of Babylon before his father’s assassination, 
and made that city his place of residence. He increased 
the Assyrian domain by an expedition into the Arabian 
peninsula and by the conquest of Egypt. His son Assur- 
banipal, the Greek Sardanapalus, was equally successful in 
war, and reconquered the rebellious Egyptians in three suc¬ 
cessive campaigns. Tyre was forced to yield after a stout 
siege, and the daughter of KingBahlu and other princesses 
were taken into the harem of the conqueror, who here first 
shows his sensuality. Then followed his treaty with Gyges, 
king of Lydia (of whose relations Avith the wife of Gan- 
daules, Herodotus tells so curious a story), and his war with 
Elam, concluded about 655 B. C. by the complete submis¬ 
sion of Elam. The Assyrian empire had now reached its 
greatest extent, including all the known world. From this 
time till his death, in 726 B. C., his task was to retain his 
unwieldy conquests, and especially to crush the rebellion 
of his brother, Saul-Mugina, at Babylon, aided by Tam- 
maritu of Elam. Assurbanipal was a munificent patron of 
learning, and founded large libraries, a large portion of 
which is now in the British Museum. He also built many 
temples and palaces. But his reign, which marks the grand¬ 
est era in Assyrian history, was the immediate precursor 
of the overthrow of the empire under his successor by the 
combined armies of Babylon and Media. 

In the cuneiform inscriptions we also have full records 
of the Babylonian monarchy which succeeded the Assyrian. 
This empire lasted for less than a century, and of the six 
kings only three have any note—Nabopolassar, its founder, 
his son Nebuchadnezzar, who raised it to its highest pitch 
of power, and Nabonidus, under whom it was overthrown. 
None of these monarchs were remarkable as warriors, al¬ 
though Nebuchadnezzar in the early part of his reign drove 
an Egyptian army as far as Pelusium, and destroyed Jeru¬ 
salem and Tyre. His annals are mainly filled with descrip¬ 
tions of the magnificent public buildings which he erected. 
Of his Iycanthropy the inscriptions give no record. About 
the time of his death (561 B. C.) the Persian power arose, 
and gradually assumed more threatening dimensions until 
Nabonidus, as related by the Greek historians, was con¬ 
quered, and his son Belshazzar—whom the inscriptions 
mention as regent under him in Babylon—was killed as 
described by Daniel. The subsequent history of Babylon 
belongs to Persian and Greek history. 

The inscriptions have greatly increased our respect for 
tho historical authority of Herodotus, and especially of Be- 
rosus, whose accounts are always confirmed. The same may 
be said of the biblical records, which receive great light 
from these historical monuments in confirmation of their 
general historical accuracy, although such facts as the over¬ 
throw of Sennacherib’s army and the insanity of Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar are omitted. 

(Of the works which have appeared on this subject since 
the decipherment of the inscriptions, the most important 
are the following: Of Assyrian texts, E. Botta and E. 
Flandin, “ Monuments do Nineve,” 5 vols., Paris, 1849—50 


(the vols. i., ii., and v. arc filled with representations of 
Assyrian art); A. II. Layard, “ Inscriptions in the Cunei¬ 
form Character from Assyrian Monuments,” British Mu¬ 
seum, 1851 (untrustworthy copies); Rawlinson, Fox Tal¬ 
bot, Hincks, and Oppekt, “Inscription of Tiglath-Pileser 
Translated” (translated in 1857, but published in the 
“Journal of the Royal Assyrian Society,” 1860); Rawlin- 
son and Norris, “The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western 
Asia,” vols. i., ii., iii., London, 1861-66-70 (the most im¬ 
portant body of inscriptions, but without translations); 
Menant, “Inscr. Ass. de Hammourabi,” Caen, 1863; Op- 
pert and Menant, “ Les Fastes de Sargon” (with trans¬ 
lation), Paris, 1863; also “Grande Inscription de Khors- 
abad” (with translation), 2 vols., Paris, 1S65; George 
Smith, “ History of Assurbanipal” (with translation), Lon¬ 
don, 1871. Of special grammatical and lexicographical value 
are the following : Rawlinson, “ Commentary on the Cunei¬ 
form Inscriptions of Babylon and Assyria,” London, 1850; 
“Babylonian Translation of the great Persian Inscription 
of Behistun,” London, 1851; Hincks, “ On Assyrian Verbs” 
(the first successful attempt at Assyrian grammar), in tho 
“ Journal of Sacred Literature,” 1855-56; also “ The Po¬ 
lyphony of the Assyrio-Babylonian Cuneiform Writing ” 
(from the “Atlantis”), 1863, and “Specimen Chapters of 
an Assyrian Grammar ” ,(of great value), in “Journal R. 
A. S.,” 1866 ; Oppert, “Elements de la Grammaire Assyri- 
enne,” Paris, 1860 (first attempt at a complete grammar; 
uses Hebrew type for Assyrian words—an excellent work, 
and considerably improved in the second edition of 1868); 
Menant, “ Expose des Elements de la Grammaire Assyri- 
enne,” Paris, 1868 (nearly the same as Oppert’s first 
edition, only using Assyrian type); Norris, “Assyrian 
Dictionary,” vols. i., ii., iii., London, 1868-70-72 (very 
valuable from the abundance of quotations in Assyrian 
type); A. II. Sayce, “Assyrian Grammar,” London, 1872 
(the most comprehensive manual yet published; uses Eng¬ 
lish letters for Assyrian words). Other important works on 
Assyrian history, mythology, art, etc. are Layard’s “ Monu¬ 
ments of Nineveh,” vols. i., ii., London, 1851-53 (very fine 
plates); G. Rawlinson, “Herodotus,”vol.i., London, 1858 
(contains valuable essays by Sir Henry Rawlinson); Op- 
pert, “ Expedition Scientifique en Mesopotamie,” vols i., 
ii., Paris, 1863; Lenormant and Ciievallier, “Manual 
of the Ancient History of the East,” vol. ii., Philadelphia, 
1869 (contains full abstracts, mainly trustworthy, of As¬ 
syrian and Babylonian discoveries); E. Schrader, “ Die 
Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,” Giessen, 1872 
(goes through the Old Testament, giving whatever illustra¬ 
tions are suggested from cuneiform discoveries); also “ Die 
Assyrisch-Babylonischen Keilinschriften,” Leipzig, 1872 (an 
exhaustive defence of the readings of the inscriptions).) 

William II. Ward. 

Cu'neo, a province of Northern Italy, forming part of 
Piedmont. Area, 2755 square miles. One-half of the 
province is level, the other half hilly. The chief river is 
the Tanaro. It produces wheat, maize, hemp, rice, and 
silk. Pop. in 1871, 597,279. 

Cun'ningliam, a township of Chariton co., Mo. Pop. 
761. 

Cunningham, a township of Fluvanna co., Va. Pop. 
2771. 

Cunningham (Allan), a Scottish author, born at 
Blackwood, Dumfries-shire, Dec. 7, 1785, worked as a 
stone-mason in his youth. He removed to London in 1810, 
and began to write for the newspapers. He was employed 
as foreman in Chantrey’s studio from 1814 to 1841. His 
“ Traditional Tales of the English and Scottish Peasantry,” 
“Songs of Scotland,” “Life of Wilkie,” and “Lives of 
British Sculptors, Painters, and Architects ” are his best 
known productions, besides some favorite songs. Died 
Oct. 29, 1842.—His son, Cart. J. D. Cunningham, has 
written a “History of the Sikhs.”—A second son, Alex¬ 
ander Cunningham, born Jan. 23, 1814, major-general in 
the Bengal Engineers, has published numerous papers on 
Indian archaeology.—Another son, Peter Cunningham, 
born April 17, 1816, an industrious writer, is known as the 
editor of Goldsmith and author of lives of Drummond of 
Hawthornden, Inigo Jones, and Turner (1852). 

Cunningham (Samuel B.), M. I)., a medical prac¬ 
titioner of East Tennessee, was born there Oct. 9, 1797. 
He received his degree at Transylvania University, Ivy. 
He served his generation most faithfully at Jonesboro’, 
Tenn., for nearly fifty years, and his loss was mourned as 
a public calamity, for to tho profession he was one ot its 
■purest and brightest ornaments. Died Sept. 4, 1867. 

1 Paul F. Eve. 

Cun'ninghanUs, a township of Person co., N. C. Pop. 
1119. 

Cupar-Fife, a royal burgh of Scotland, the capital of 
Fifeshire, i 3 in a beautiful vale on the river Eden, 32 miles 













1222 


CUPEL—CURFEW BELL. 



N. of Edinburgh. It has a public library, several news 
paper-offices, and manufactures of coarse linens, earthen 
ware, etc. A castle or fortress of the 
Macduffs, thanes of Fife, formerly 
stood here. Pop. in 1871, 5105. 

Cu'pcl [Fr. coupelle , a “little 
cup”], a shallow and porous vessel, 
somewhat cup-shaped, generally made 
of bone-earth. It is used in the pro¬ 
cess of assaying gold and silver, which 
are fused with lead upon a cupel. 

The lead is oxidized in the process 
and sinks into the substance of the 
cupel, leaving the metal pure. 

Cupella'tion [for etymology see 
preceding article] is the process of 
refining precious metals on a cupel, 
or the separation of one metal from 
another by the use of a cupel heated 
in a muffle furnace. (See Assay.) 

Cu'pid [Lat. CupidoJ, the Roman 
name of the god of love, correspond¬ 
ing to the Eros [’Epw?] of the Greek 
mythology. He was usually repre¬ 
sented as the son of Yenus, but an¬ 
cient authorities differ respecting his 
paternity. He is represented as a 
beautiful winged boy, bearing a bow 
and arrows. 


in the poultry-yards of South America. Among the best- 
known species are the crested curassow CCrax alector), the 


Galeatcd Curassow. 


Cu'pids, a post-village of Brigus 
district, on the N. side of Conception Bay, Newfoundland, 
2 miles from Brigus. Farming and cod and salmon fish¬ 
ing are carried on. Pop. 1200. 

Cu'pola [Fr. coupole], a spherical vault or concave 
ceiling raised over a building. Cupolas are sometimes 
hemispherical, and are constructed in various other forms. 
(See Dome.) Cupola is also the name of one form of blast¬ 
furnace for the reduction of metallic ores. 

Cup'ping [Lat. cucurbitatio (from cucurbita, a “gourd” 
or “cup”); Fr. la ventouse; Ger. Schropfen\, in surgery, 
the application to the skin of small cups from which the 
air is partly expelled. If it be designed to withdraw blood 
from the patient, the skin is first scarified, a partial vacuum 
is produced in the cup by direct suction or by the flame 
of alcohol or of burning paper, and the mouth of the cup 
is applied to the scarified surface. “Dry cupping” is the 
same process without scarification. In this case no blood 
is drawn, the object being to stimulate a diseased surface 
or to produce derivative action. 

Cura<;oa, or Curacao, ku-ra-so', one of the West 
India Islands, of a like-named group, belonging to the 
Dutch, is off the N. coast of Venezuela. Area, 164 square 
miles. Its N. point is in lat. 12° 24' N. and Ion. 09° 17' W. 
The chief article of export is salt, and more recently also 
cochineal. It is governed by a stadtholder and council. 
Capital, Willemstadt. Pop. in 1870, 21,089. 

Cura^oa, a liqueur which is made of Curapoa oranges 
or orange peel, by digesting in sweetened spirits along with 
a little cinnamon, and often a little mace or cloves. The 
spirits used contain nearly three and a half pounds of 
sugar to the gallon. It is imported from Holland. 

Cura'ri, Woora'li,or YVoora'ra, a celebrated arrow- 
poison used by the South American Indians. Its nature 
and origin are still unknown, but the principal ingredient 
is believed by some to be the juice of the Strychnos toxifera, 
a woody vine covered with long reddish hairs, having ovate 
leaves, rough and pointed, and large round fruit.. This is 
not its probable origin. It is, however, a vegetable extract, 
and not a snake-poison, as many have conjectured. There 
is more than one variety of the drug. The poison, when it 
enters the blood through a wound, causes paralysis, with 
convulsive motions, followed by death. It may be swal¬ 
lowed in considerable doses with impunity. It is regarded 
as the most powerful of all sedatives, and the employment 
of it in cases of tetanus and hydrophobia has been sug¬ 
gested. The best means of preventing its deadly effect is 
found in artificial respiration. 

Curas'sow, the name of several species of birds be¬ 
longing to the order Gallinm, having a strong bill, sur¬ 
rounded at the base with a skin sometimes of brilliant color, 
and on the head a crest of feathers which can be raised or 
lowered at pleasure. The species are found in the warmer 
parts of South America, Mexico, and Central America, 
where they congregate in flocks. They are about the size 
of turkeys, and their flesh is highly esteemed. They are 
also very easily domesticated and reared, and are common 


red curassow ( Crax rubra), and the Ourax pauxi, or gal- 
eated curassow. 

Cu'rate [Lat. curat U8 (from cur a, “care”); Fr. cur£\, 
one who has the cure of souls. The term has been vari¬ 
ously appropriated to different officers of the Church, but 
since the close of the sixteenth century in England has 
been restricted to assistant clergy, deputies, or substitutes. 
The bishop, or some officer having episcopal authority, ap¬ 
points the curate’s salary and grants his license. There are 
“temporary” and “perpetual” curates. The temporary 
or stipendiary can be removed at the will of the bishop or 
vicar. Perpetual curates cannot be thus removed. Their 
salary is paid from tithes established at the foundation of 
the chapel, and it becomes the duty of the impropriators to 
support them. The salaries of curates are too often dis¬ 
proportionate to their services, and they are almost desti¬ 
tute of legal rights, being entirely subject to episcopal 
authority. 

Curator. See Law, Civil, by Prof. T. W. Dwight. 

Curcu'lio [the Latin for “weevil”], a name given to 
many weevils or coleopterous insects of the family Curcu- 
lionidm, but perhaps most frequently applied to the Cono- 
trachelus nenuphar, a small dark-brown insect, speckled 
with yellowish-white and black. In spring and early 
summer it attacks the young fruit, such as apples, pears, 
apricots, etc., but its object of special attack is the plum. 
The female makes a crescent-shaped puncture in which she 
deposits her egg. The egg soon hatches, and the maggot 
feeds upon the young plum, ivhich generally falls to the 
ground in a short time, and the larva burrows in the earth, 
becoming a perfect insect in about three w T eeks. Several 
generations are said to appear in one season. The destruc¬ 
tion caused by this insect upon all kinds of smooth-skinned 
fruits is a very serious loss. Another destructive curculio 
is the plum-gouger ( Anthonomus prunicida ), which occurs 
very abundantly in the Western States. It makes a round 
puncture. It undergoes transformation inside the kernel 
of the plum. Another insect of this genus makes numerous 
holes in the apple; still another lays her eggs in the cran¬ 
berry, and then cuts off the stem. The grape curculio 
(Cceliodes insequalis) and other species are very destructive 
to grapes. Fruit trees and grapevines should be frequently 
shaken in summer, when the falling curculios may be caught 
upon a sheet and burned. Swine and sheep render great 
service by devouring the fallen fruit with the larvm con¬ 
tained in it. Nearly 10,000 species of this family have been 
described. They are arranged in more than 630 genera. 

Curcuma. See Turmeric. 

Curcls'ville, a post-township of Buckingham co., Ya. 
Pop. 2101. 

Cu'res, an ancient and famous city of Italy, the capi¬ 
tal of the Sabines, was near the Tiber, about 25 miles N. N. 
E. of Rome. The site is occupied bv the modern village 
ot Correse. Cures was colonized by Sulla about 100 B. C. 

Cur'few Hell, or simply Curfew [Fr. couvre-feu, 
i.e. “cover the fire” (from couvrir, to “cover,” and/e*/, 
“firo”)], was a bell rung at eight in the evening as a 































CUEIA—CURRANT. 


1223 


signal for extinguishing lights and fires—a practice said 
to have been introduced into England by William I. in 
1068. As the custom existed in France, Spain, and other 
countries at the same time, it is probable that it was not 
originated by William I., but the strictness with which he 
compelled its observance caused it to be attributed to him. 
The stringency of this law was i-elaxed by Henry I. in 
1103. In the reigns of Edward I. and Edward III. per¬ 
sons were not permitted to be abroad in the city, armed, 
after curfew. In many parts of England and the U. S. 
the practice of ringing the bell at eight or nine o’clock 
still prevails. 

Cu'ria (plu. Curioe), the name of the building in which 
the senate held its sessions in the cities of ancient Italy. 
Also a subdivision of the Roman patrician tribes, each of 
which was divided into ten cxirim. These tribes were three 
in number, the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, so that there 
were thirty curing. These curiae contained only the patri¬ 
cians or populus proper, but clients were regarded as pas¬ 
sive members of the curia of their superior. In early 
times the curiae were of the greatest importance. Each 
curia had its oavu name, but only a few of these names 
have come down to us. In later times the curiae lost their 
political importance, but long retained their ancient and 
mysterious religious rites, which were maintained by the 
priests called curio and Jiamen curialis. In still later times 
even these old offices were sometimes conferred upon ple¬ 
beians. The curiaj voting together constituted the comitia 
curiata, once a highly important public body with legisla¬ 
tive powers; but before the fall of the republic this body 
had fallen almost into disuse and oblivion, though it still 
had a formal existence. In it each of the curias had one 
vote, and in each curia each member had one vote. In the 
language of modern Europe, curia is the Latin word for 
court or place of justice. 

Curico', a province of Chili, is bounded on the N. by 
the province of Colchagua, on the E. by the Andes, on the 
S. by the province of Talca, and on the W. by the Pacific 
Ocean. Area, 2948 square miles. The country is moun¬ 
tainous and the soil fertile. Chief town, Curico. Pop. in 
1869, 98,859. 

Curico, a town of Chili, founded in 1742, is a pro¬ 
gressive place, with a college, on the Mataquito. Pop. 
5953. 


order Grallatores, natives of Europe and North America. 
Curlews have long, slender, and curved bills, long legs, and 
short tails. They frequent the sea-shore and open moor¬ 
lands, feeding on worms, mollusks, insects, etc. The com¬ 
mon curlew of England ( Numenius arquata) is pursued by 
sportsmen partly for its flesh, which is delicate and well 
flavored, and partly because its wild and shy habits render 
the pursuit exciting. Among the curlews of North America 
may be mentioned the long-billed curlew ( Numenius long- 


irostris) of all the temperate parts of North America. It 
is twenty-five inches long, the wing measuring about eleven 
inches. The bill is often eight inches long. It is of a pale- 
reddish color, with ashy tints and brown-black marks, and 
longitudinal lines of black. The short-billed curlew (Nu¬ 
menius hudsonicus) of the Eastern and Western coasts is 
two-thirds the size of the foregoing, with a bill about four 
inches long. The Esquimaux curlew ( Numenius borealis) 
is still smaller. 

Curl'ing, the name of a Scottish game which has been 
introduced into Canada and other countries where ice can 
be found of sufficient thickness. It is played with stones 
weighing from thirty to forty-five pounds, having handles 
by which they are hurled over the ice. Sides are made up, 
generally four against four ; a length of ice is chosen, 
from thirty to forty yards long, and eight or nine feet 
across. At each end of this rink, as it is called, marks 
are made consisting of several concentric rings called 
broughs, and a centre called the tee. The object of the player 
is to hurl his stone towards the tee with strength and pre¬ 
cision, and the interest of the game depends on the skill 
displayed by the players in placing their stones in good 
positions, and in driving those of their rivals out of such 
places. At a certain distance from the tees a score is drawn 
across the ice, and a stone not passing beyond this counts 
for nothing. 

Curling (Thomas Blizard), M. R. C. S., E. R. S., an 
eminent English surgeon, born in Jan., 1811, became an 
assistant surgeon in the London Hospital in 1834, lecturer 
on surgery in 1846, surgeon to the hospital in 1849, exam¬ 
iner in the University of London in 1859, and fellow of the 
Royal Society in 1850. He wrote a prize treatise on tetanus 
(1835), “Diseases of the Testis” (1843), and “Diseases of 
Rectum” (1851.) 

Curlls'ville, a post-village of Monroe township, Clarion 
co., Pa. Pop. 208. 

Cur'ran, a township and post-village of Sangamon co.. 
Ill. The village is on the Toledo Wabash and Western 
R. R., 7 miles S. W. of Springfield. Pop. 1000. 

Curran (John Philpot), an Irish orator, born at New¬ 
market, near Cork, July 24, 1750, was educated at*Trinity 
College, Dublin, studied law in the Middle Temple, London, 
and was called to the Irish bar in 1775. As a barrister he 
was very successful, and was distinguished for his humor 
and sarcastic speech. He became in 1783 a member of 
Parliament, in which he acted with the op¬ 
position party, of which Grattan was the 
leader. In 1806 he was appointed master of 
the rolls in Ireland. Died Oct. 14, 1817. 
(See Charles Phillips, “Curran and his 
Contemporaries,” 1850; T. Davis, “Life of 
Curran,” 1846.) 

Cm riant [from Corinth, in Greece, from 
which port this fruit was formerly exported], 
a common name of a kind of small raisin 
( Uva passula minor), the dried berry of a 
seedless variety of grape which is cultivated 
in the Levant. Currants are exported from 
Zante and some of the other Ionian Islands, 
and are used in cookery as an ingredient in 
cakes and puddings. Attempts to introduce 
the currant grape into other regions have 
thus far been unsuccessful. 

Currant [so called from its resemblance 
to the above fruit], the popular name of the 
berries of certain species of Ilibes, low shrubs 
of the order Grossulacem, distinguished from 
the gooseberries by the flowers, which grow 
in racemes, and by the fact that the currant 
bush is never thorny. The red currant (Ribes 
rubrum) is a native of Europe, Asia, and North 
America, is cultivated in gardens for its pleas¬ 
ant acid fruit, and is much used for the table 
and for jellies, conserves, etc. “Currant 
wine” is a domestic drink, made of currant 
juice, sugar, and water, which is allowed to 
undergo alcoholic fermentation. The black 
currant (Ilibes nigrum) is also cultivated, and 
in France large quantities of liqueur de cas¬ 
sis, a very agreeable and popular variety of 
currant wine, are prepared from it. More 
than sixty species of currant are described, about two- 
thirds of which are American. Several are highly orna¬ 
mental in cultivation. The varieties of fruit-bearing cur¬ 
rants in cultivation are very numerous. They are very 
readily propagated by cuttings, and in ordinary years will, 
.with a little care, yield a large supply of agreeablo and 
useful fruit. If the ground between the rows is ploughed, 
hoed, and kept clear of weeds, the productiveness and profit, 
as well as quality of the fruit, will be much increased. 


Cur'lew (Numenius), a name of a genus of birds of the 



Curlew. 



















































1224 CURRENCY. 


Cur'rency [from the Lat. curro, to “run,” t 9 “circu¬ 
late”], any substance generally accepted as a representa¬ 
tive of relative values in exchange. The following table 


It is evident that these various substances are not equally 
suitable for the purposes of currency; that as a class metals 
are more suitable than any other; that among metals silver 
and gold are most suitable; and that whenever practicable 
these (the “precious metals”) have always been employed 
for the purpose. The qualities which recommend them are 
mainly that they will neither decay, corrode, nor rot, are 
useful in a great variety of the arts, and can be converted 
to this use and into currency again with slight loss, are of 
uniform quality, can be divided and reunited without limit 
or impairment', are of limited and steady supply, are easily 
worked, transported, or concealed, are difficult to counter¬ 
feit or destroy, will resist friction, and are susceptible of 
being stamped with their weight and fineness, etc. These 
qualities seem to have been known and appreciated as 
early as the remotest periods to which authentic history 
relates; and until political freedom and security had placed 
commercial credit upon such a footing that paper currency 
became possible, the fluctuation of the world’s available 
stock of the precious metals marked the phases of its in¬ 
dustrial activity and those of the vast train of social phe¬ 
nomena that depend upon it. Even yet, while paper credit 
has but partially supplanted the precious metals as cur¬ 
rency, the supply and consumption of the latter exert the 
most important influence upon the industrial affairs of the 
world. 

The following tables—the early parts of which rest en¬ 
tirely upon the loose estimates of Jacob in his “History of 
the Precious Metals,” and must be received with caution, 
while the later parts, without any doubt, approximate, with 
considerable accuracy, to the truth—show the world’s stock' 
of gold and silver currency from the earliest ages for whioh 
any data exist to the present time: 


exhibits some of the substances that have at various time? 
and in various countries performed the functions of cur. 
rency: 


Gold and Silver Currency; amounts in Millions; the Pound Ster¬ 
ling reduced to Dollars at the Rate of $4.86f. 


Year, 

A. D. 

Amt. 

Authority. 

Year, 

A. D. 

Amt. 

Authority. 

14 

1742 

Jacob. 

662 

262 

Jacob. 

50 

1568 

44 

698 

235 

44 

86 

1411 

44 

734 

212 

44 

122 

1270 

44 

770 

191 

44 

158 

1143 

44 

806 

172 

44 

194 

1029 

44 

1066 

173 

44 

230 

926 

44 

1500 

170 

44 

266 

833 

44 

1546 

247 

44 

302 

750 

44 

1600 

633 

44 

338 

675 

44 

1700 

1445 

44 

374 

607 

44 

1700 

1318 

Tooke. 

440 

547 

44 

1809 

1687 

Gerbow. 

446 

492 

44 

1809 

1849 

Jacob. 

482 

443 

44 

1827 

1720 

Humboldt. 

518 

399 

44 

1829 

1557 

Jacob. 

554 

359 

44 

1830 

1600 

Storch. 

590 

323 

44 

1839 

' 1420 

44 

626 

291 

44 

1860 

2800 

The writer. 


Gold currency only; amounts in Millions; £1 = $5; 1 fr. — 0.20. 


Year, 
A. D. 

Amt. 

Authority. 

Year, 
A. D. 

Amt. 

Authority. 

1848 

1200 

Chevalier. 

1857 

1200 

Chevalier. 

1848 

1332 

Est. on Newmarch. 

1860 

1998 

Est. on Newmarch. 

1848 

1090 

“ “ Levasseur. 

1860 

2209 

44 44 44 

1849 

1853 

1306 

1464 

Jacob. 

Est. on Waguelin. 

1867 

2600 

Ruggles. 


At about the commencement of the Christian era the 
mines of the world failed, and the currency fell from a sum 
equal to about $1,742,000,000 (“ quadringenties millies”— 
Suetonius in Vespasiano , cap. xvi.) to $172,000,000 at the 


Date. 

B. 

C. 1900.... 

B. 

C. 1200.... 

B. 

C. 1184.... 

B. 

C.578. 

B. 

C. 534-269 

B. 

C. 269. 

B. 

C. 206. 

B. 

C. 55. 

B. 

C.—. 


A. D. 212... 
808... 
1066... 
1160... 

1275.. . 

1470.. . 

1574.. . 
Uncertain. 


44 

(4 

44 

44 

u 

44 


a 

a 

a 

a 

44 


Uncertain. 

(4 


A. D. 16—. 


44 

1631 

44 

1635 

44 

1690 

44 

1694 

44 

17— 

44 

1702, 

44 

1712, 

44 

1716. 

44 

1723, 

44 

1732. 

44 

1732. 

44 

1776. 

44 

1785. 

4« 

1849. 

44 

18—. 

44 

18—. 

44 

1863. 

44 

1863 

44 

1863 

44 

1863 

44 

1865, 

44 

1865. 

Uncertain 


(4 

44 

44 

44 


Country. 


Palestine . 
Phoenicia. 
Phrygia... 

Greece. 

home. 

44 

44 

44 

44 


Sparta. 

Carthage. 

Arabia. 

Rome. 

Lombardy. 

Britain. 

Italy. 

China. 

Granada. 

Holland. 

Iceland. 

Newfoundland. 

Norway and Greenland 
Hindostan and Africa.. 

Britain. 

N. American Indians... 


Africa. 

Eastern tribes. 

Abyssinia. 

Holland. 

Massachusetts. 

44 


England. 

Sweden.,. 

South Carolina. 

(4 44 

France. 

Pennsylvania... 
Maryland. 


Scotland. 

State of Frankland,U.S. 

California. 

Russia. 

Mexico, parts of.. 

North Carolina. 

Florence, S. C., camp at. 

United States. 

China and India....,. 

United States. 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

India. 

China. 

Africa. 

Not stated. 

Arabia. 


Currency. 


First currency mentioned in history. 

Phoenician coins, very ancient. 

First coins made by queen of Pelops. 
Brass coins. 


First copper coins. 

“ brass “ . 

.L. T. 

44 

“ silver “ . 

44 

“ gold “ .. 

44 

Tin and brass “ . 

44 


Iron “ . 

Leather currency. 

Glass coins. 

Lead coins plated with silver. 

Bank credits invented by the Jews. 

Human beings,at about £216s. 3d. per capita,L.T. 

Bills of Exchange invented by the Jews. 

Mulberry bark disks, stamped.L. T. 

Paper as representative money .L. T. 

Pasteboard. 

Dried fish. 

44 44 

Seal-skins and blubber. 

Cowrie-shells. 

Tin. 

Agate, carnelian, jasper, lead, iron, copper, gold, 
silver, terra cotta, mica, pearl, lignite, coal, 
bone, shell, chalcedony, wampum, peltry, etc. 

Bars of iron or machutes . 

Corn, oxen, camels, etc. 

Salt. 

Paper currency.L. T. 

Corn, at “market prices” (sic) . “ 

Musket-balls. 

Paper currency, colonial notes.L. T. 

Bank notes.'.. 

Iron and copper currency. 

Paper currency, colonial notes.L. T. 

Bank notes. 

Paper and stocks (interchangeable).L. T. 

Paper currency, colonial notes. 

Indian corn at 23d. per bushel. 

Tobacco at Id. per pound. 

Tenpenny nails. 

Linen at 3 s.6d. per yard, whisky at 2s. 6d. per 

gallon, and peltry.L. T. 

Gold-dust... 

Platina coins. 

Cocoa beans; at Castle of Perote (1847), soap.... 

Tenpenny nails at 5 cents each. 

Potatoes. 

Postage stamps for small change. 

Gold refused as currency, “Econ. of Cap.”. 

Nickel coined into 3-cent pieces. 

Turnips for small change. 

Gold, silver, paper, copper, and “ shells ”. 

Silver, copper, and “ pieces of silk ”. 

Silver, copper, “shells,” and “cotton strips ”.... 

Wooden tallies. 

Silver wire about one inch long, called a “ larin” 


44 

44 

44 


Authority. 


The Scriptures. 

Julius Pollux. 

Homer 

Die. of Dates. 


44 

44 

44 


44 

44 

44 


Dufresnoy. 

Anonymous. 

N. Y. “Tribune,” July 2, 1872. 
Anonymous. 

Die. Dates, article Bank. 
Henry, “Hist. G. B.,” iv. 243. 
Anderson, “ Hist. Com.” 

Marco Polo. 

Hunt’s Mag., Oct., 1862. 
Putnam’s Dictionary of Dates. 
Anonymous. 


Anonymous. 

Dufresnoy. 


Various. 

Montesquieu. 

Anonymous. 


44 

44 


Macgreggor. 

Anonymous. 

Macgreggor. 

McCulloch. 

Voltaire’s “Charles XII.” 

Macgreggor. 

Murray. 

Macgreggor. 

Anonymous. 

44 

Adam Smith. 

f Wheeler’s “ History North Carolina,” 
1 p. 94. 

Anonymous. 

44 

44 

44 

Yorkville “Enquirer.” 

Patterson, p. 14. 

Act Mar. 3, 1865. 

“ Ledger,” April. 

Patterson, p. 13. 


44 

44 

44 


44 

44 

44 


Kelly’s “Cambist,” ii. 219. 


Note. —The articles marked L. T. were made a legal tender. 

















































































































































































CURRENCY. 


1225 


time of the Heptarchy in England and Charlemagne in 
France. The social decadence, wars, political disturb¬ 
ances, poverty, ignorance, superstition, and tyranny that 
distinguish this period have justly claimed for it the desig¬ 
nation of the “ Dark Ages.” From this time to the dis¬ 
covery of America the currency, except so far as it was 
affected by the invention and use of bank credits, bills of 
exchange, and paper money in certain localities, remained 
absolutely stationary, while relative to population it con¬ 
tinued to diminish. This period was marked by the use of 
“ living money ” in Britain, the frequent debasement of coins 
throughout Europe, the search after the philosopher’s stone, 
the transmutation of metals, etc. From the beginning of 
the fifteenth to the nineteenth century the currency in¬ 
creased from $170,000,000 to $1,849,000,000. This was a 
period of rising prices, great commercial activity, indus¬ 
trial progress, and political advancement. In the early 
part of this century the mines partially failed, and the 
coin currency began to diminish—a fact marked by fre¬ 
quent financial panics and commercial revulsions. In 1848 
the California mines were opened, and the precious metals 
product again increased, so that in 1860 the coin currency 
was greater than it had ever been before. With this event 
coincides the most brilliant period of the world’s history. 

The following tables show the amount of currency in 
France and England respectively at the periods named: 

Currency of France at Various Periods; the Franc at $0.20; sums 
in millions of dollars and tenths. 


4 

■p« 

Kind of Currency. 

Pop. 

Amount of 
Currency. 

Authority. 

1789 

Total currency—all 
coin. 

25 

$430.0 

Necker. 

1789 

Total currency—all 
coin. 

25 

355.0 

Peuchet. 

1790 

Total currency—all 
coin. 

26 

440.0 

Arthur Young. 

1829 

Coin 450, paper 50.... 

32 

500.0 

Gallatin. 

1833 

“ 525, “ 30.... 

33 

555.0 

Woodbury on Marshall. 

1834 

“ 527, “ 30.... 

33 

557.0 

“ Est. on Fr. papers. 

1848 

Coin and paper. 

35 

400.0 

Newmarch. 

1848 

u u u 

35 

400.0 

Quoted by Carey. 

1852 


36 

700.0 

De Puynode. 

1860 

a u a 

37 

900.0 

Carey. 


Currency of England at Various Periods; the Pound at $4.80• 
Sums in Millions of Dollars and Tenths. 


Year. 

Kind of Currency. 

Pop. of Eng¬ 

land only. 

Amount of 

Currency. 

Currency per 

capita. 

Authority. 




$ 

$ 


1676 

Coin. 

5 

28.8 

5.8 

D’Avenant. 

1689 

U 

5 

33.6 

6.7 

Patterson. 

1700 

Coin and Paper. 

5? 

62.5 

11.4 

Patterson, “Econ. of 






Cap.” 

1711 

<( U iC 

5? 

57.6 

10.5 

D’Avenant. 

1750 

u u u 

6 

91.2 

15.2 

Anon.—Woodbury. 

1762 

u u u 

7 

76.8 

10.9 

Anderson. 

1763 

u u u 

7 

114.0 

16.3 

Chalmers — Adam 






Smith. 

1786 

Coin only. 


115.0 


Ch aimers—W oodb u ry 

1786 

Bank of England 





notes only. 


39.3 


McCulloch. 

1786 

Coin only. 


96.0 


Chalmers—Putnam. 

1796 



101.0 


Tooke. 

1796 

Bank of England 






notes only. 


51.5 


McCulloch. 

1799 

Coin 132, paper 1151 

8 

247.3 

30.9 

“ Eep. to U. S. Cong.,” 






1832. 

1800 

Coin only. 


177.6 


Phillips. 

1800 

Coin and paper. 

8 

288.0 

36.0 

Say. 

1810 

Paper only; of wh., 






Bk. of Eng., 105?. 

9 

220.3 


Gallatin. 

1815 

Bk. Eng. 129?, Pri. 






bks. 144, coin 40?. 

10 

314. 

31.4 

Hopkins and Martin. 

1829 

Coin 243?, paper 132 

12.5 

375.5 

30.0 

Marshall. 

1830 

“ 187?, S 144 

12.9 

331.5 

25.7 

White’s “ Reports,” 31, 






and Woodbury. 

1830 

Coin only. 


196.8 


Duke of Wellington. 

1833 

Coin 212,'paper 130. 

13.5 

342.0 

25.3 

Anon.—Woodbury. 

1834 

“ 214, A 339.. 

13.7 

353.0 

25.8 

« U 

1834 

“ 158?, “ 122? 

13.7 

281.0 

20.5 

Marshall. 

1839 

Coin only. 

14.9 

240.0 


Patterson. 

1841 

U U 

15. 

216.0 


Putnam. 

1848 

Coin and paper. 

16.5 

288.0 

17.5 

Levasseur. 

1849 

Coin only. 

16.7 

175.0 


Waguelin. 

1856 

Coin and paper. 

19. 

480.0 

26.3 

Levasseur. 

1857 

Coin only. 


250. 


Waguelin. 

1860 

Coin and paper. 

20. 

480.0 

24.0 

Newmarch. 

1864 

Coin 384, paper 192. 

20.8 

576.0 

27.7 

Patterson, p. 19. 


The currency statistics of the U. S. are alone sufficiently 
complete to afford an insight of the laws that regulate its 
influence upon industrial activity. These statistics are 
herewith collated and estimated mainly from the treasury 
reports from 1775 to 1873, inclusive. A portion of these 
data—a summary from 1834 to 1869, also collated by the 
writer—was published anonymously in 1869 in the N. Y. 
“ Economist,” and afterwards in Grosvenor’s work on 
“ Protection.” 


Currency of the United States from 1775 to 1873, inclusive; sums in Millions of Dollars and Tenths. 


Year. 

Coin. 

Treasury 

and 

U.S.Bank 

Notes. 

State Bank 
Notes. 

Total Paper. 

Total 

Currency. 

Pop. 

Per capita. 

Remarks. 

1775 

$ 

6. 

$ 

$ 

$ 

5. 

$ 

11. 

2.5 

$ 

4.40 

Lord Sheffield (Seybert, 554) says 9? coin. 

1775-81 








Era of Continental money. 

1790 

16. 

2. 

1 . 

3. 

19. 

3.9 

4.87 

Repudiation of Continental issues. 

1791 

16. 



9. . 

25. 

4.0 

6.25 

First Bank United States. 

1792 

17. 

5. 

2. 

7. 

24. 

4.1 

5.85 


1793 

20. 



11. 

31. 

4.3 ' 

7.20 


1794 

21.5 



11.5 

33. 

4.5 

7.40 


1795 

19. 



11. 

30. 

4.6 

6.50 


1796 

16.5 



10.5 

27. 

4.8 

5.60 


1797 

16. 



10. 

26. 

4.9 

5.30 

Suspension Bank of England; flux of gold. 

1798 

14. 



9. 

23. 

5. 

4.60 

1799 

17. 



10. 

27. 

5.2 

5.20 

Expiry of charter first Bank U. S. 

1800 

17.5 



10.5 

28. 

5.3 

5.30 

1801 

17. 



11. 

28. 

5.5 

5.10 


1802 

16.5 



10. 

26.5 

5.7 

4.70 


1803 

16. 



11. 

27. 

5.9 

4.60 


1804 

17.5 



14. 

31.5 

6.1 

5.30 


1805 

18. 



15. 

33. 

6.3 

5.20 


1806 

18.5 



17. 

35.5 

6.5 

5.50 


1807 

20. 



18. 

38. 

6.7 

5.70 

Embargo December 22; first steamboat. 

1808 

20. 



22.75 

44.7 

6.9 

6.40 


1809 

20. 



24. 

44. 

7.0 

6.10 

Suspension N. E. Banks. 4 Drain 

1810 

19. 



26. 

45. 

7.1 

6.10 

r of 

1811 

18. 



28. 

46. 

7.3 

6.10 

Apprehension of war. J specie. 

1812 

17. 



35. 

52. 

7.6 

6.80 

War declared. 

1813 

17. 



52. 

69. 

7.8 

8.80 

War continued; bank mania. 

1814 

17. 



51.5 

69.5 

8. 

8.70 

Aug. and Sept, all except N. E. banks sus- 

1815 

20. 



45.5 

65.5 

8.2 

8.00 

pend until Jan., 1817; Gold 114@120. 
February, peace ; gold 115@102. 

Gold 116@117; gold 107, second Bank U.S. 

1816 

24.5 



50. 

74.5 

8.4 

8.80 

1817 

22. 



55. 

77. 

8.6 

8.90 

Partial resumption ; second Bank U. S. 

1818 

20. 



60. 

80. 

8.8 

9.00 

Height of bank mania; drain. 

1819 

20. 



62.5 

82.5 

9.1 

9-20 

Revulsion. . ,, 

1820 

26.5 



58. 

86. 

9.4 

9.00 

Resumption Bank of England; efflux of gold. 

1821 

23. 



65. 

88. 

9.7 

9.10 

Spring stricture. 

1822 

18. 



70. 

88. 

10. 

8.80 

1823 

17. 



76. 

93. 

10.3 

9.00 


1824 

18. 



78. 

96. 

10.6 

9.10 


1825 

19. 



81. 

100. 

10.9 

9.20 

Temporary bank panic. 

1826 

20. 



80. 

100. 

11.1 

9.00 

1827 

22.5 



75. 

97.5 

11.5 

8.50 

Winter stricture. 

1828 

27. 

.. 


68. 

95. 

11.9 

8.00 

First railway in U. S. 



















































































































































































1226 CURRENT—CURRENTS, MARINE. 

Currency of the United States from 1775 to 1873, inclusive. —Continued. 


Year. 

Coin. 

Treasury 

and 

U.S.Bank 

Notes. 

State Rank 
Notes. 

Total Paper. 

Total 

Currency. 


$ 

$ 

$ 

$ 

$ 

1829 

31. 

12.5 

50. 

62.5 

83.5 

1830 

32. 



61. 

93. 

1831 

35. 



66. 

101. 

1832 

39. 



71. 

110. 

1833 

42.7 



77. 

119.7 

1834 

60. 



90. 

150.0 

1835 

80. 



103. 

183. 

1836 

65. 

11.5 

128.5 

140. 

205. 

1837 

73. 


149. 

149. 

222. 

1838 

87. 


117. 

116. 

203. 

1839 

87. 


135. 

135. 

222. 

1840 

83. 


107. 

107. 

190. 

1841 

80. 


107. 

107. 

187. 

1842 

60. 


83.7 

83.7 

143.7 

1843 

70. 


58.5 

58.5 

128.5 

1844 

100. 


75. 

75. 

175. 

1845 

96. 


90. 

90. 

186. 

1846 

97. 


105.5 

105.5 

202.5 

1847 

120. 


105.5 

105.5 

225.5 

1848 

112. 


128.5 

128.5 

240.5 

1849 

120. 


114.7 

114.7 

234.7 

1850 

154. 


131. 

131. 

285. 

1851 

186. 


155. 

155. 

341. 

1852 

204. 


156. 

156. 

360. 

1853 

236. 


144. 

144. 

380. 

1854 

240. 


178.6 

178.6 

418.6 

1855 

257.6 


187. 

187. 

444.6 

1856 

250.2 


190. 

196. 

446.2 

1857 

259.3 


215. 

215. 

474.3 

1858 

251.6 


155. 

155. 

406.6 

1859 

265.8 


193. 

193. 

458.8 

1860 

257.0 


207. 

207. 

457. 

1861 

241.4 


202. 

202. 

443.4 

1862 

298.5 


184. 

184. 

482.5 

1863 

100. 

411. 

161. 

572. 

672. 

1864 

90. 

513. 

140. 

053. 

743. 

1865 

85. 

604. 

65. 

669. 

754. 

1866 

100. 

713. 

37. 

750. 

850. 

1867 

140. 

704. 

nom. 

704. 

844. 

1868 

140. 

699. 

U 

699. 

839. 

1869 

140. 

692. 

u 

692. 

832. 

1870 

152.8 

704. 


704. 

856.8 

1871 

136.7 

723.7 


723.7 

860.4 

1872 

128.1 

741.4 


741.4 

869.5 

1873 

130. 

752. 


752. 

882. 

1873 

140. 

762. 

20. 

782. 

922. 


These facts establish several important conclusions: 1, 
that industrial activity is intimately and powerfully con¬ 
nected with fluctuations of the currency; 2, that neither 
the absolute amount nor the absolute amount per capita of 
the currency affects industrial activity ; 3, but that whether 
such amounts are increasing or diminishing, and the rapidity 
of such movement in time, are the vital considerations con¬ 
nected with industrial activity and currency. 

The following table, based upon tho last one, shows the 
general movement of the currency of the U. S. by periods 
of time: 


Period. 

Duration, 

Years. 

Movement. 

Industrial phase. 

1790—1814 

24 

Slow crescendo. 

Steady activity. 

1814—1817 

3 

u U 

Suspension. 

1817—1830 

13 

Diminuendo. 

Inertia. 

1830—1837 

7 

Rapid crescendo. 

Great activity. 

1837—1843 

6 

Rapid diminuendo. 

Great depression. 

1843—1857 

14 

Crescendo. 

Activity. 

1857—1861 

4 

Diminuendo. 

Inertia. 

1861—1864 

3 

Rapid crescendo. 

Great activity. 

1864—1873 

9 

Slow diminuendo... 

Shrinkage & panic. 


(For other facts and considerations relating to this subject, 
see Money, by Pres. F. A. P. Barnard.) Alex. Delmar. 

Cur'rent, a township of Dent co., Mo. Pop. 467. 

Current River, a township of Randolph co., Ark. 
Pop. 1378. 

Current River, a township of Ripley co., Mo. P. 960. 

Current River, a township of Shannon co., Mo. Pop 
325. 1 

Current River, of Missouri and Arkansas, rises in 
Texas co., Mo., flows south-eastward into Arkansas, and 
enters the Black River in Randolph co. Length, estimated 
at 250 miles. 

Currents, Electric, etc. See Electricity, by Pres. 
Henry Morton, Pii. D., and Magnetism, by Prof. A. M. 
Mayer, Pii. D. 

Currents, Marine. The ocean-currents are the groat 
rivers of tho sea. They inovo on steadily, through waters 
comparatively tranquil, often distinguished by a different 
color and temperature; but unlike tho inland streams, 
which are but threads on the surface of the continents, they 


Pop. 

Per capita. 

Remarks. 

12.4 

$ 

7.50 

Temporary bank panics; Pres. Jackson de- 



dares against rechartering U. S. Bank. 

12.8 

7.20 

Rep. Cong. com. favoring Bank. 

13.2 

7.65 

Bill introduced to recharter Bank. 

13.6 

8.10 


14. 

8.50 

Removal of deposits from Bank. 

14.4 

10.40 

Veto of Bank bill; repudiation by ISA’. Stock 



Exchange. 

14.8 

12.40 

Great fire in N. Y.; loss $20,000,000. 

15.3 

13.30 

Expiry of charter of second Bank U. S. 

15.8 

14.00 

Great suspension. 

16.2 

12.50 


Universal insolvency; general failure of 

16.7 

13.40 


commercial credit; general contraction; 

17. 

11.20 


fall in prices; stay-laws; bankruptcy laws; 

17.5 

10.70 


liquidation ; riots. 

18. 

8.00 

Repudiation of the States. 

18.6 

6.90 

Lowest depression; resumption. 

19.2 

9.10 

Increase of currency. 

19.8 

9.40 


20.4 

9.90 


21. 

10.70 


21.6 

11.10 

California mines opened. 

22.4 

10.50 


23.2 

12.20 


24. 

14.20 


24.8 

14.50 


25.6 

14.80 


26.4 

15.80 

Australian mines. 

27.1 

16.40 


27.7 

16.10 


28.4 

16.70 

Temporary panic; suspension. 

29.1 

14.00 

Resumption. 

29.7 

15.40 


31.5 

14.50 


32.3 

13.70 

Civil war; demand notes issued. 

22.9 

21.00 

Suspension; greenbacks “ 

24.5 

27.40 

Cir. of State banks supplanted by nat’l. banks. 

26.1 

28.50 

Nat’l. bank notes; highest inflation gold, 285. 

30.3 

24.90 

Peace; gradual contraction. 

36. 

23.60 

Rehabilitation of the South. 

31 

22.80 

Extinction of State bank circulation. 

38. 

22. 

Contraction continued slowly. 

39.1 

21.20 

U U it 

40.3 

21.20 


41.4 

20.80 

Great Chicago fire; loss, $150,000,000. 

42.6 

20.40 

Great Boston fire ; loss, $80,000,000. 



1 

Panic; $20,000,000 clearing-house certifi- 

4o.y 

ZU.Uo 


y cates and $10,000,000 treasury reserve is- 


Zl.UU 

1 

sued as money; gold imported. 


are scores, nay hundreds, of miles broad, and their course, 
as in the American Gulf Stream, extends over a large por¬ 
tion of the globe. The ocean streams are not only found 
at the surface, but also in deep waters, where they are often 
moving in different directions. 

The main cause of these vast movements of the ocean is 
found in the difference of temperature between the polar 
and tropical regions, which acts directly on the waters, and 
indirectly on them by the winds. 

The cold and heavier waters of the polar regions tend 
incessantly to flow into, and so to displace, the warm and 
lighter waters of the tropical zone; when both meet, tho 
cold waters sink and disappear below the warm waters, 
which return as surface-currents towards the polar regions. 
Hence two series of currents, the cold from the polar, tho 
warm from the tropical, regions. Both, however, are de¬ 
flected from their straight course by the steady action of 
the earth’s rotation—the polar currents more and more to 
the W., the tropical currents more and more to the E. Tho 
polar currents unite in the tropical zone, and, aided by tho 
powerful influence of the trade-winds, form the so-called 
Great Equatorial Current,'which, flows westward around tho 
whole globe. These general currents are further modified 
by the form of the basins of the three great oceans in which 
they move, in the following manner. 

Currents in the Pacific Ocean .—The vast expanse of tho 
Pacific Ocean gives full sway and great regularity to tho 
course of the main currents. 

Tho Great Equatorial Current begins to be felt at a dis¬ 
tance from the American continent, and, soon embracing 
the whole width of tho tropical zone, flows majestically, at 
the rate of two or three miles an hour, across that immense 
basin, being separated into two branches by a central 
counter-current flowing eastward. Arrested by the coasts 
of Asia and Australia, it divides. 

The S. branch sends an arm southward along the coast 
of Australia, the Australian Current, while the remainder is 
broken into numerous irregular currents among the islands 
of the Eastern Archipelago. 

The N. branch, reaching the Philippine Islands and For¬ 
mosa, bends to tho N. and N. E.,and becomes the Japanese 
Current (or Kuro-Sivo), tho Asiatic Gulf Stream. This noblo 
stream, with its vast body of deep blue and warm waters, 
flows swiftly along tho eastern coasts of Japan, and, con- 


























































































































































































































































































































































CUKEER BELL—CURSORES. 


tinuing its slanting course across the North Pacific, reaches 
the peninsula of Alaska. Turning thence southward, it 
glides along the coast of Oregon and California, as a cool 
current, and leaves again the continent of America to re¬ 
enter the Great Equatorial Current. Thus the North Equa¬ 
torial, the Japanese, and the North Pacific Currents form 
one immense whirlpool in the North Pacific Ocean. 

The polar currents are almost absent in the North Pacific 
Ocean, owing to the shallowness and narrowness of Behring 
Straits, which are the only passage open to them; but they 
are all the more mighty in the South Pacific. Here the 
broad Antarctic Drift Current, obeying the impulse of the 
prevailing winds of that region, carries the polar waters 
north-eastward to the W. coast of South America. Strik¬ 
ing the continent in the southern part of Chili, it divides. 
The main branch, called the Peruvian or Humboldt Current, 
flows to the N. along the coast of Peru, which it bathes 
with its cool waters, and leaving the continent at its ex¬ 
treme western projection, Punta Parina, flows thence west¬ 
ward, becoming the main feeder of the South Equatorial 
Current. The smaller branch, turning S. along the coast 
of Patagonia, bends around Cape Horn, and enters the At¬ 
lantic Ocean. 

Currents in the Atlantic Ocean. —Owing to the narrowness 
and irregularity of the basin of the Atlantic Ocean, the 
Equatorial Current in it has neither the size nor the sym¬ 
metry it shows in the Pacific Ocean. The northern branch 
is less marked, and the equatorial counter-current is well 
defined only near the coast of Africa. The course of the 
S. branch, however, is vei’y apparent. Proceeding west¬ 
ward from the coast of Africa, it crosses the basin of the 
Atlantic to the opposite shore, of South America, where, at 
Cape St. Roque, it divides, one branch flowing southward, 
forming the Brazil Current; another to the N. W., the 
Guiana Current. The Brazil Current proceeds along the 
coast of South America, but a part of its waters, sweeping 
back towards the S. and E., forms the South Connecting 
Current, which merges itself in the South Atlantic Current, 
and returns with it along the W. coast of Africa into the 
Equatorial Current. The Guiana Current runs from Cape 
St. Roque northward across the mouth of the Amazon, 
along the coast of Guiana, and, uniting with the waters of 
the North Equatorial in the Caribbean Sea, enters the Gulf 
of Mexico. 

The Gulf Stream originates in the Gulf of Mexico. It 
is the outlet of the accumulation of the waters of the Equa¬ 
torial Current in the Gulf of Mexico. It becomes fully 
apparent at the N. W. of the island of Cuba, where it pro¬ 
ceeds with feeble force to the E. Its course is then changed, 
by striking against the Bahama Banks, to the N.; and it 
flows with great rapidity along the coast of the U. S., 
gradually expanding in volume and diminishing in velocity 
as it proceeds northward. Reaching the latitude of New 
York, it gradually turns to the E., and crosses the Atlantic 
basin to the islands of the Azores. Here it divides; the 
main branch, bending its course southward, enters the 
tropical regions on the coast of Africa, and is swept back 
by the force of the North Equatorial Current to the Gulf 
of Mexico. Thus a great whirlpool is formed also in the 
North Atlantic Ocean, in the midst of which is accumulated 
the vast amount of sea-weed which bears the name of Mar 
de Sargasso. The northern branch continues its slanting 
course to the British Isles and Norway, and often carries to 
their shores the tropical seeds and driftwood coming from 
the West Indies. 

The high temperature of the Gulf Stream, as well as its 
blue coior and motion, distinguishes it from all other por¬ 
tions of the ocean. It carries warmth from the tropics to 
the W. coast of Europe, and gives to the British Isles the 
genial climate they enjoy even in the high northern latitude 
in which they are situated. 

The Atlantic Ocean is almost the only outlet of the N. 
polar waters towards the equatorial regions, as the Pacific 
is that of the Antarctic waters. Under the influence of the 
earth’s rotation the polar currents all crowd to the W. on 
the American coast. Two main currents, on each side of 
Greenland, carry the waters and masses of ice from the 
Frozen Ocean towards the warmer latitudes; the Greenland 
Current along the eastern coast and the Labrador Current 
on the W. form Baffin’s Bay. Joining their waters and 
their icebergs, they flow to Newfoundland, where they meet 
the outskirts of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, and, 
condensing the moisture of that mild atmosphere, produce 
the everlasting fogs peculiar to that region. Thence fol¬ 
lowing the coast between it and the Gulf Stream, the Polar 
Current makes itself felt as far as the latitude of New 
York, where it sinks under the warm waters of the Gulf 
Stream. 

Currents in the Indian Ocean. —In this ocean, surrounded 
on three sides by continents, the North Equatorial Current 
is destroyed by the influence of the season winds, called 


1227 


monsoons, which blow alternately from the S. W. and the 
N. W., and the waters mostly obey the direction of the 
winds. But the South Equatorial is quite regular, and ex¬ 
tends from Australia to Madagascar, where it divides 
one branch passing N. of the island, the other along its 
eastern coast. The N. branch, uniting with the waters 
from the N., forms the strong current of Mozambique, with 
which the eastern branch soon joins, and the united current 
moves on to the Cape of Good Hope. Here the current, 
slackened by the earth’s rotation and the meeting of the 
Antarctic waters, turns back and returns with them to the 
E., and reaching the coast of Australia re-enters north¬ 
ward the Great Equatorial. Thus in the three great oceans 
is kept up a constant circulation of the marine waters on 
a scale of magnitude which far transcends all similar 
movements on the surface of the continents. 

Arnold Guyot. 

Currer Bell. See Bronte (Charlotte). 

Currey (Richard 0.), M. D., born in Nashville, Tenn., 
Aug. 28, 1816. He graduated in the University of Nash¬ 
ville, and acquired from the celebrated Dr. Troost a taste 
for geology, mineralogy, and chemistry. He took the de¬ 
gree of M. D. in the University of Pennsylvania. He was 
elected professor of chemistry in the University of East 
Tennessee at Knoxville in 1846; he assisted in founding 
the Shelby Medical College in Nashville, in which he oc¬ 
cupied the chair of chemistry. For six or seven years he 
was editor of the “Southern Journal of Medicine and 
Physical Sciences,” and in 1859 was ordained a minister 
in the Presbyterian Church. Dr. Currey was a man wholly 
devoted to duty, and while in charge of 2000 Federal pris¬ 
oners, as surgeon in the Confederate army, at Salisbury, 
N. C., he contracted the disease of which he died (1865), 
by his devotion to them. The U. S. government ordered 
all of Dr. Currey’s property restored to his family when 
the war ended. Paul F. Eve. 

Cur'rituck, a county which forms the N. E. extremity 
of North Carolina. Area, 200 square miles. It is bounded 
on the E. by the Atlantic Ocean. The surface is level; the 
soil sandy. Corn and some wool are produced. Capital, 
Currituck Court-house. Pop. 5131. 

Currituck, a township of Hyde co., N. C. Pop. 1582. 

Currituck Court-house, the capital of Currituck 
co., N. C., is about 200 miles E. N. E. of Raleigh. 

Cur'ry, a county which forms the S. W. extremity of 
Oregon. Area, estimated at 1500 square miles. It is 
bounded on the W. by the Pacific Ocean, and intersected by 
Rogue River. The surface is mountainous, but very fertile. 
Wool is one of the staple products. The mineral wealth 
of this county is great. Capital, Ellensberg. Pop. 504. 

Curry, a township of Sullivan co., Ind. Pop. 2171. 

Curry, a township of Putnam co., West Ya. Pop. 1162. 

Curry (Daniel), D. D., a Methodist divine and jour¬ 
nalist, was born near Peekskill, N. Y., Nov. 26, 1809, grad¬ 
uated at the Wesleyan University, Conn., in 1827, was the 
same year principal of the Troy Conference Academy, en¬ 
tered the ministry in Georgia in 1841, and occupied pulpits 
in Athens, Savannah, and Columbus, S. C. He returned to 
the North after the division of his denomination through the 
slavery controversy, and joined the New York Conference, 
had pastoral charge of important churches in New York 
and other cities, was three years president of the Indiana 
Wesleyan University, resumed his labors in the East, con¬ 
tributed largely and ably to the periodical literature of his 
Church, and in 1864 was appointed editor of its chief offi¬ 
cial journal, “ The Christian Advocate,” New York City. 
He is author of a “Life of Wycliff” and “Metropolitan 
City of America.” He has edited Southey’s “Life of 
Wesley.” As a journalist he is able and independent. 

Curry (Jabez Lamar Monroe), D. D., LL.D., born in 
Lincoln co., Ga., June 5,1825, graduated at the University 
of Georgia in 1843 and at Dane Law School (Harvard 
College) 1845. He served in 1846 as a Texan ranger dur¬ 
ing the Mexican war. In 1847, 1853, and 1855 he was a 
member of the legislature of Alabama; in 1856 presiden¬ 
tial elector; from 1857 to 1861 member of Congress; in 
1861 elected to the Congress of the Confederate States; in 
1864 entered the Confederate army, and at the close of the 
war was in command of a regiment of cavalry. In 1865 
he was elected president of Howard College. Ala.; in 1866 
ordained to the Baptist ministry; since 1868 professor of 
the English language and literature in Richmond College, 
Ya. For twe?ity-five years past Dr. Curry has deservedly 
held an influential position in the Southern States. 

Curso'res [Lat., the “runners”], an order of birds 
comprising comparatively few species, but these mostly 
large, with large, strong, and often long legs, and wings not 
usually enough developed for flight. Iho bones arc nearly 













1228 


CURTAIN—CUSANUS. 


destitute of air-cells, and the breast-bone has little or no 
trace of a keel. The hinder toe is generally wanting. The 
running powers of these birds are remarkable. Among 
these birds are the ostrich, the rhea, the emeu, the casso¬ 
wary, the apteryx, and the bustards, though these last are 
by some placed among the waders and by others among 
the rasores. Unlike the others, the bustards can fly. The 
fossil cursores include the Notornis, the jEpyornis, the 
Dinornis, etc., huge birds, which were undoubtedly much 
larger than the ostrich, which is the largest of living birds. 

Cur'tain [Fr. courtine\, in fortification, that part of the 
rampart of the body of the place which lies between two 
bastions and connects their adjacent flanks. 

Cur'tin, a township and village of Centre co., Pa., on 
the Pennsylvania Central R. R., 21 miles S. W. of Lock 
Haven. Pop. of township, 459. 

Curtin (Andrew Gregg), governor of Pennsylvania, 
born April 22, 1817, was the son of Roland Curtin, one of 
the earliest iron-manufacturers in Centre co., who came 
to this country from Ireland in 1793. He studied law in 
Dickinson College, canvassed the State in 1844 for Henry 
Clay, was appointed secretary of the commonwealth in 
1854, and was elected governor in 1860, in which post he 
displayed great energy and promptitude when the first call 
for troops came at the opening of the civil war. In 1863 
he was re-elected by a large majority, and in 1869 was ap¬ 
pointed minister to St. Petersburg. 

Cur'tis, a township of Roane co., West Ya. Pop. 580. 

* Curtis (Benjamin Robbins), LL.D., an American law¬ 
yer, born in Watertown, Mass., Nov. 4, 1809, graduated at 
Harvard in 1829, and was admitted to the bar in 1832, 
after which he practised law in Boston. He was appointed 
a judge of the Supreme Court of the U. S. in 1851, but he 
resigned that office in 1857. He was one of the counsel 
who defended President Johnson in his trial before the Sen¬ 
ate in April, 1868. He is the author of several volumes of 
legal reports. , 

Curtis (George Ticknor), an eminent legal writer, a 
brother of the preceding, was born in Watertown, Mass., 
Nov. 28, 1812, graduated at Harvard in 1832, was admitted 
to the bar in 1836, and practised law in Boston. He has 
published, besides other works, a “ Treatise on the Rights 
and Duties of Merchant Seamen” (1841), a “Treatise on 
the Law of Copyright” (1847), and a “History of the Ori¬ 
gin, Formation, and Adoption of the Constitution of the 
U. S.” (2 vols., 1855-58); also “ Life of Daniel Webster” 
(2 vols. 8vo). 

Curtis (George William), LL.D., a popular American 
author and orator, born at Providence, R. I., Feb. 24,1824. 
He visited Europe, studied in the University of Berlin, 
and made an extensive tour in the Levant, from which he 
returned home in 1850. He published, besides other works, 
“ Nile Notes ofa Howadji ” (1851), “ The Howadji in Syria” 
(1852), “Lotus-Eating” (1852), and “ The Potiphar Pa¬ 
pers ” (1854). He has also distinguished himself as a pop¬ 
ular lecturer on various subjects, and as an orator of the Re¬ 
publican party. President Grant appointed him chairman 
of the advisory board of the civil service. He has been 
editor of “ Harper’s Weekly ” and of the “ Easy Chair ” in 
“ Harper’s Magazine.” He is one of the clearest and 
tersest writers of the day. 

Curtis (Joseph Bridgham), second son of George, and 
Julia Bridgham, Curtis, was born in Providence, R. I., Oct. 
25, 1836. He graduated at the Lawrence Scientific School, 
Cambridge, Mass., in July, 1856. In 1857 he was employed 
as a civil engineer on the New York Central Park, and on 
the breaking out of the civil war he was appointed engi¬ 
neer, with the rank of captain, in the Ninth regiment 
N. Y. S. M., April, 1861. On Sept. 16, 1861, he became 
second lieutenant of the Fourth regiment Rhode Island 
Volunteers, and was made first lieutenant of the regiment 
Oct. 2 of the same year. He served with Burnside in North 
Carolina, and was made assistant adjutant-general with 
General Rodman, June 9, 1862. In Aug., 1862, he became 
lieutenant-colonel of tho Fourth regiment Rhode Island 
Volunteers. He fought at South Mountain and at Antietam, 
and while in command of his regiment was killed at Fred¬ 
ericksburg Dec. 13, 1862. (For a fuller account see a 
memoir by his half-brother, George William Curtis, in 
“ Rhode Island in the Rebellion,” by J. R. Bartlett.) 

Clarence Cook. 

Curtis (Samuel Ryan), an American officer, born Feb. 
3, 1805, near Champlain, N. Y., graduated at West Point 
in 1831, serving at Fort Gibson in Seventh Infantry till he 
resigned Juno 30, 1832, civil engineer 1836-41; counsellor- 
at-law 1841-46 ; adjutant-general of Ohio 1846 ; and colo¬ 
nel Second Ohio Volunteers in the war with Mexico 1846- 
48, serving as governor of Camargo, and by his operations 
against Gen.. Urrea opening Gen. Taylor’s communications, 


and after his regiment was disbanded on Brig.-Gen. Wool’s 
staff and governor of Saltillo. Chief-engineer of several 
important works 1847-55, counsellor-at-law at Keokuk, 
la., 1855-61 ; and member of Congress 1857-61, being 
prominent on the committee on military affairs and Pacific 
R. R., of which he was a warm advocate. In the civil 
war he promptly resumed his sword to go to the relief of 
the capital; was subsequently elected colonel Second Iowa 
Volunteers, and obtained the rank, Mar. 21, 1862, of major- 
general U. S. volunteers, serving in various capacities in 
Missouri 1861-62; in command of Army of the South¬ 
west 1862, engaged in driving the enemy from Missouri, 
battle of Pea Ridge, and numerous actions on his difficult 
march of over 1000 miles to Helena, Ark.; on leave of ab¬ 
sence to attend the Chicago Convention (its president), 
which inaugurated the Pacific R. R.; in command of the 
department of Missouri 1862-63 ; organizing and directing 
the forces in the field; in command of the department of 
Kansas 1864-65, engaged against hostile Indians and 
forcing Gen. Price to the Arkansas; in command of the 
department of the North-west 1865, and as U. S. commis¬ 
sioner to negotiate Indian treaties 1865, and to examine 
the Union Pacific R. R. 1865-66, with which, from its first 
initiation, he had been closely identified, continuing on the 
same duty, though mustered out of volunteer service April 
30, 1866, till he died, Dec. 26, 1866, at Council Bluffs, la., 
aged sixty. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Cur'tius (Ernst), a German Hellenist, born at Liibeck 
Sept. 2, 1814. In 1837 he visited Athens, where he passed 
several years. He became, in 1856, professor in Gottingen, 
and in 1865 in Berlin. He published “ The Acropolis of 
Athens” (1844), “ The Peloponnesus” (1852), “ Attic 
Studies,” a “ His'tory of Greece” (3 vols., 1857-66), trans¬ 
lated into English by A. W. Ward (London, 1868-70, 3 
vols.), “ Seven Maps, illustrating the Topography of 
Athens ” (1868), “ Die Gastfreundschaft ” (1870), and other 
works. 

Curtius (Georg), a German classical scholar, a brother 
of the preceding, was born at Liibeck April 16, 1820. He 
became professor of classical philology at Leipsic in 1862. 
Among his works are a “Greek Grammar” (1855; 9th ed. 
4870), “Grundziige der Griech. Etymologic” (1862), and 
“ Studies in Greek and Latin Grammar ” (3 vols., 1868-71). 

Curtius (Marcus), a patriotic Roman youth, who is 
said to have sacrificed his life for his country about 362 
B. C. According to tradition, a chasm opened in the Fo¬ 
rum of Rome, which the soothsayers declared could not be 
filled except by the sacrifice of the chief wealth or strength 
of the Roman people. Curtius, completely armed, plunged 
on horseback into the chasm, which immediately closed up. 

Curtius (Quintus). See Quintus Curtius. 

Cll'rule Chair [Lat. sella curulis ; the latter word is 
supposed to be of Etruscan origin], among the ancient 
Romans, a throne or chair of state, one of the emblems of 
ancient kingly power, which was retained by the magis¬ 
trates of the republic. Its use was limited to the consuls, 
praetors, curule aediles, censors, the flamen dialis, and to the 
dictator or his deputies. In later times the emperors, as 
well as many inferior officers, sat upon it. Curule chairs 
were at first ornamented with ivory, and later sometimes 
made of ivory and inlaid with gold. 

Curule Magistracies were those of the greatest dig¬ 
nity in ancient Rome, and were so called because the per¬ 
sons who held them enjoyed the privilege of sitting on 
curule chairs ( sellse curules) when engaged in their public 
duties. (See jireceding article.) 

Curupaity, a fort on the left bank of the Paraguay 
River, in the republic of Paraguay, was in the late war 
between Paraguay and Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine 
Republic an important position. It was an advanced work 
of Fort Humaita, and was only taken by tho allies in Mar., 
1868, after it had been abandoned by its garrison, and 
Fort Humaita had been cut off from the interior. 

Curve [from the Lat. curvus, “bent”], in geometry, a 
line which continually changes its direction in accordance 
with some uniform law, which is expressed by the equation 
of the curte. In a plane curve all the points lie in the 
same plane. Other curves are called twisted or curves of 
double curvature. 

Cur'wensville, a post-borough of Pike township, 
Clearfield co., Pa. It has a national bank, a graded school, 
several factories, and one weekly newspaper. Iron ore and 
coal are abundant. Pop. 556. 

R. II. Brainard, Ed. Clearfield Co. “ Times.” 

Curzon, tie (Paul Alfred), a French landscape- 
painter, born Sept. 7, 1820, was a pupil of Cabat. He 
made tours through Southern Franco, Italy, and Greece, 
and painted from the sketches collected. 

Cusa'nus (Nicholas), Cardinal, an eminent German 
























CUSH—CUST1NE, HE. 


1229 


scholar, born in 1401, was the son of a boatman of Kues 
on the Moselle, by name Khrypffs. Doctor of laws from 
Padua, and early famous for eloquence and erudition, op¬ 
ponent of papal supremacy at the Council of Bale, then 
won over to the pope, he was at the head of every progres¬ 
sive movement of the Church. His works appeared at Bale 
in 1665; his life by Deux in 1847. Died Aug. 11, 1464. 

Cush, the name of a son of Ham; also applied in the 
Hebrew Scriptures to a country, supposed to be Ethiopia, 
which is called Keesh in the Egyptian inscriptions. 

Cush'ing, a post-township of Knox co., Me. Pop. 704. 

Cushing (Caleb), LL.D., an able American jurist and 
scholar, born at Salisbury, Mass., Jan. 17, 1800. He grad¬ 
uated at Harvard College, visited Europe in 1829, and pub¬ 
lished “ Reminiscences of Spain.” In 1835 he became a 
M hig member of Congress, in which he served four con¬ 
secutive terms. As a political friend of President Tyler he 
separated from the majority of the Whigs in 1841, and 
joined the Democratic party. He gained distinction as an 
eloquent debater. In 1843 he was nominated as secretary 
of the treasury, but was rejected by the Senate. He was 
appointed commissioner to China in the same year, and 
negotiated the first treaty between the U. S. and that em¬ 
pire. Having equipped a regiment at his own expense, he 
served as colonel in the Mexican war in 1847. He was ap¬ 
pointed a justice of the supreme court of Massachusetts in 
1852, and was attorney-general of the U. S. in the cabinet 
of Mr. Pierce from Mar., 1853, to Mar., 1857. He was one 
of the three lawyers appointed by President Grant to ad¬ 
vocate the interests and rights of the Americans before the 
tribunal of arbitrators who met in Geneva in 1871 for the 
settlement of the “Alabama claims.” Appointed minister 
to Spain in Dec., 1873, in place of Gen. Daniel E. Sickles, 
resigned. 

Cushing (Luther Stearns), an American jurist, born 
in Lunenburg, Mass., June 22, 1803. He was reporter to 
the supreme court of that State, and published eight vol¬ 
umes of reports. He also published a “ Manual of Parlia¬ 
mentary Practice” (1845), well known as “ Cushing’s Man¬ 
ual,” and “ The Law and Practice of Legislative Assemblies 
in the U. S.” (1855), etc. Died June 22, 1856. 

Cushing (Thomas), LL.D., born at Boston, Mass., 
Mar. 24, 1725, graduated at Harvard in 1744. His father, 
Thomas, was a prominent and public-spirited citizen. 
The younger Cushing was Speaker of the Massachusetts 
house of representatives 1762-74, and a member in 1774 of 
the provincial and the Philadelphia Congresses. He was 
regarded in Great Britain as the principal leader of sedi¬ 
tion. “One object of the Americans,” says Dr. Johnson 
in “Taxation no Tyranny,” “is said to be to adorn the 
brows of Mr. Cushing with a diadem.” He was occupied 
throughout the Revolution with the affairs of Massachu¬ 
setts, where he was a judge, and afterwards lieutenant- 
governor. Died Feb. 28, 1788. 

Cushing (William), LL.D., a jurist, born at Scituate, 
Mass., Mar. 1, 1733. He became chief-justice of the su¬ 
perior court of Massachusetts in 1777, and associate justice 
of the Supreme Court of the U. S. in 1789. Died Sept. 13, 
1810. 

Cushing (William B.), U. S.N., born Nov. 4, 1843, in 
Wisconsin, was appointed to the Naval Academy in 1857, 
and, being found “ deficient in his studies,” resigned in 
1858. He entered the service as a volunteer officer in 1861, 
and received a commission as lieutenant in the navy July 
16, 1862. He became a lieutenant-commander in 1864, and 
a commander in 1872. In 1861, Cushing distinguished 
himself on the Blackwater, in the Sounds of North Caro¬ 
lina, and at New River Inlet; in 1863 he added to his fame 
by his expedition up the Cape Fear and Little rivers and 
his brilliant operations on the Nansemond; and in 1864 he 
covered himself with immortal glory by blowing up the 
ram Albemarle at Plymouth, N. C. His adventures dur¬ 
ing the late civil war at Smithfield and Wilmington would 
alone have sufficed to establish his character for bravery, 
ability, and sound judgment, while his leading the men 
of the Monticello in the assault upon Fort Fisher—an 
act of which any other officer might well be proud— 
sinks into insignificance compared with his greater and 
more perilous exploits. Always complimented by his 
superior officers for his “ courage and conduct,” several 
times thanked by the navy department and once by Con¬ 
gress for “distinguished services,” Commander Cushing 
may surely be regarded as the most adventurous of our 
naval heroes since Decatur died. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Cushing’s Island, in the harbor of Portland, Me., 3 
miles from the city, has an area of 250 acres. If is a place 
of summer resort, and has fine sea-bathing. 

Cush'man (Charles H.), U. S. N., born Dec. 6, 1831, 


in Maine, entered the navy as a midshipman Mar. 24, 1849, 
became a passed midshipman in 1853, a lieutenant in 1856, 
and a commander in 1866. He served in the Pembina at 
the battle of Port Royal, Nov. 7,1861, and in the iron-clad 
Montauk at the first attack on Fort Sumter April 7, 1863, 
and in the many fights of that vessel with the defences of 
Charleston harbor during the summer and fall of 1863. He 
was at both the Fort Fisher fights, and led one of the storm- 
ing-parties in the assault on the fort of Jan. 15,1865, where 
he was severely wounded. He was recommended for pro¬ 
motion by Rear-Admiral Porter. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Cushman (Charlotte Saunders), a distinguished 
American actress, born in Boston July 23, 1816. She made 
her debut in 1835, and performed with success in tragedy 
and comedy. She visited England in 1845, and performed 
there for several years. Her public readings from Shak- 
speare and other writers, in the large cities of the U. S. in 
1872, were highly successful. In the opinion of many 
critics she is not surpassed in genius and power by any 
tragedienne of the present day, and she is generally ad¬ 
mitted to be the greatest of American actresses. 

Cushman (Henry Wyles), born at Bernardston, Mass., 
Aug. 9,1805, was educated at Norwich University, Vt., be¬ 
came lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts, 1851, and a 
member of the constitutional convention, 1853. Died Nov. 
21, 1863. 

Cushman (Robert), one of the founders of the Ply¬ 
mouth Colony, was born in England about 1580. He emi¬ 
grated to Plymouth in 1621, and preached in December of 
that year the first sermon that was ever printed in America. 
Died in 1625. 

Cusk, Tusk, or Torsk, popular names of a marine 
fish of the cod family, and of the genus Brosmius. Various 
species or varieties occur along the European and American 
coasts. 

Cusp [from the Lat. cuspis, a “point”], in architecture, 
is the point formed by the meeting of two small arches or 
foils, one of the projecting points of the featherings or foli¬ 
ations in Gothic panels, arches, or tracery. 

Cusp, in astronomy, is a point or horn of the moon or 
of one of the inferior planets. 

Cusp, in geometry, a point at which two tangents to a 
curve coincide. The two branches of the curve may either 
lie on the same side of the tangent, in which case the cusp 
is called ramplioid, or on opposite sides, when the cusp is 
ceratoid. The cissoid of Diodes furnishes an example of a 
cuspidate curve with a ceratoid cusp ; the cusps of the new 
moon are ramphoid. 

Cusset, a town of France, in the department of Allier. 
It has manufactures of cotton and wool, vineyards, and 
mineral springs. Pop. 6575. 

Cusse'ta, a township and post-village of Chambers co., 
Ala. Pop. 1205. 

Cusseta, a post-village, capital of Chattahoochee co., 
Ga., about 18 miles S. E. of Columbus. Pop. 216. 

Cussewa'go, a township of Crawford co., Pa. Pop. 
1674. 

Custard Apple. See Anona. 

Cus'ter (George A.), an American officer, born in 1840 
in Ohio, graduated at West Point in 1861 ; lieutenant- 
colonel Seventh Cavalry July 28, 1866, and brigadier- 
general U. S. volunteers April 15, 1865. He served in the 
civil war in the Manassas campaign 1861, engaged at Bull 
Run; in the Virginia Peninsula 1862, engaged at Yorktown, 
and aide-de-camp to Maj.-Gen. McClellan in the subse¬ 
quent operations of the campaign; in the Maryland cam¬ 
paign 1862, engaged at South Mountain and Antietam; in 
the Rappahannock campaign 1863, engaged on “Stone- 
man’s raid” and at Brandy Station; in Pennsylvania cam¬ 
paign 1863, engaged at Gettysburg (brevet major) and 
various minor actions; in operations in Central Virginia 
1863-64, engaged in numerous skirmishes, etc.; in the 
Richmond campaign 1864, engaged at Wilderness, Todd’s 
Tavern, Yellow Tavern (brevet lieutenant-colonel), Meadow 
Bridge, Haw’s Shop, Cold Harbor, Trevillian Station, etc.; 
in the Shenandoah campaign 1864-65, engaged at Opequan 
(brevet colonel), Cedar Creek (brevet brigadier-general 
U. S. volunteers), and numerous smaller engagements; in 
command of the cavalry division in the pursuit of Lee's 
army 1865, engaged at Dinwiddie Court-house, Five Forks 
(brevet brigadier-general), Sailor’s Creek, and Appomattox 
(brevet major-general); in command of the cavalry division 
in the military division of the South-west and Gulf 1865; 
as chief of cavalry in the department of Texas 1865—66. 
Since the war he has been on Western frontier duty. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Custine, de (Adam Philippe), Count, a French gen- 

























1230 CUSTINE, DE—CUTTINGS. 


eral, born at Metz Feb. 4, 1740. He served as colonel at 
Yorktown, Va., in 1781. He commanded brilliantly an 
army on the Rhine in 1792. His popularity and talents 
excited the jealousy of the Jacobins, and he was guillo¬ 
tined Aug. 28, 1793. (See his memoirs by D’Hillieks, 1795.) 

Custine, <le (Astolph), Marquis, a grandson of the 
preceding, born in 1793, travelled through England, Scot¬ 
land, Switzerland, Italy, Spain (1835), and Russia, and died 
in 1857. His work “ La Russie en 1839” (4 vols., 1843) 
created at the time of its publication a profound sensation, 
and the Russian government deemed it necessary to have 
an answer to it published. 

Cus'tis (George Washington Parke), an adopted son 
of Gen. Washington, was born in Maryland April 30, 1781. 
He was a grandson of Mrs. Martha Washington. He pro¬ 
duced several plays and orations, and wrote a volume of 
“ Recollections of Washington,” which was published in 
1860. Died Oct. 10, 1857.' 

Cus'to in - house [Fr. douane], the office at a port of 
entry where merchants and others are required to pay duties 
on imported goods, and where vessels are entered and cleared. 
They are also established at frontier inland towns. The 
chief officer connected with the custom-house is called a 
collector of customs. 

Cus'tos Rotulo'rum, a Latin term signifying “keeper 
of the rolls,” is the title given in England to the chief civil 
officer of a county, who is appointed to keep the county 
records. 

Ciistrin', a fortified town in Prussia, in the province 
of Brandenburg, at the confluence of the Oder and Warthe, 
52 miles E. of Berlin. It is surrounded by marshes. The 
Oder is crossed by a bridge 900 feet in length. Pop. 10,122. 

Cutch, or Kutch, a portion of Western Hindostan, on 
the Indian Ocean, lies between Sind and Guzerat, and is 
separated from the desert by the Runn of Cutch, 7000 
square miles of arid land encrusted with salt. Cutch is 
under the protection of the British. The natives are hardy 
sailors. The exports are cotton, glue, and oil. The polit¬ 
ical system is like feudalism, with a sovereign called a rao 
over about 200 chieftains. Capital, Bhooj. 

Cutch, a variety of Catechu (which see). It is used 
in tanning and in dyeing. 

Cutch Gunda'va, the most important province of 
Beloochistan, between lat. 27° and 29° 50' N., and Ion. 67° 
20' and 69° 15' E., E. of the Brahooick Mountains. Area, 
about 10,000 square miles. Surrounded by deserts, it is 
exceedingly fertile, exporting grain, cotton, and indigo. 
The inhabitants are Juts, with some Hindoos trading in 
the towns. 

Cutchogue, a post-village of Southold township, Suf¬ 
folk co., N. Y., is situated on the Long Island R. R., 85 
miles E. of New York. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Cuthic'ans, a name given by the Jews to the Samari¬ 
tans (which see). 

Cuth'hert, a post-village, capital of Randolph co., Ga., 
on the South-western R. R., 118 miles S. W. of Macon. It 
has two female colleges and a high school. One weekly 
newspaper is issued here. Pop. 2210. 

J. P. Sawtell, En. Cuthbert “Appeal.” 

Cuthbert (illustrious for skill), or Guthbert (worthy 
of God), one of the early English saints, born near Melrose- 
on-the-Tweed, entered the abbey there in 651, and in 664 
became its prior, and afterwards prior of Lindisfarne. He 
took also the bishopric of Lindisfarne in exchange for that 
of Hexham, to which he was chosen in 684. He had the 
credit of working miracles. His life was written by Bede. 
Died Mar. 20, 687.— Cuthbert, abbot of Jarrow, wrote a 
moving description of the death of the Venerable Bede, 
735. (In Twysden’s “Decern Scriptores,” 1652.) —Cuth¬ 
bert, twelfth archbishop of Canterbury (741-758), was a 
friend of Boniface, and sympathized with Pope Zacharias 
in his efforts to build up the papacy. His letter to Saint 
Boniface describing ecclesiastical abuses is in Hussey’s 
Bede’s “ Historia Ecclesiastica.” 

Cut'Ier, a post-township of Washington co., Me. It 
has manufactures of lumber and boxes. Pop. 925. 

Cutler (Lysander), a native of Maine, became colonel 
of the Sixth Wisconsin Volunteers in 1861, served with the 
greatest honor in the Army of the Potomac, where he be¬ 
came a major-general, and was twice wounded. Died at 
Milwaukee, Wis., July 30, 1866. 

Cutler (Manasseh), LL.D., an American botanist and 
Congregational minister, born at Killingly, Conn., May 3, 
1742, graduated at Yale in 1765. He described 350 species 
of plants indigenous in New England. He was a leader 
of a party that settled at Marietta, 0., in U88. He was 
also a lawyer and physician, and was a member of Con¬ 
gress (1800-04). Died July 28, 1823. 


Cutler (Timothy), D. D. Oxon., an American clergy¬ 
man, born in Massachusetts in 1685. He became president 
of Yale College in 1719, a member of the Episcopal Church 
in 1722, and rector of a church in Boston in 1723. Died 
Aug. 17, 1765. 

Cut'lery [from the Lat. cultellus , diminutive of culter, 
a “ knife ”], a term used to designate sharp and cutting in¬ 
struments made of iron or steel. The most primitive cut¬ 
ting instruments were flints, shells, etc., which were suc¬ 
ceeded by bronze implements and weapons. These were 
probably used to some extent by the Romans until about 
the commencement of the Christian era, as bronze surgical 
instruments have been found at Pompeii. During the Mid¬ 
dle Ages several cities of Spain and Northern Italy were 
renowned for the manufacture of cutting instruments, es¬ 
pecially swords. The cutlery of Sheffield in England has 
been generally regarded as superior to any other, but other 
European countries and the U. S.now rival England in the 
quality of their cutlery. Good table-knives are made of 
steel and iron welded together; the tang (which goes into 
the handle) and the shoulder are of iron, and the blade is 
steel. The blades of knives, razors, etc. are usually forged 
into shape while attached to the bar; they are smithed—• 
that is, beaten upon an anvil—to condense the metal, and 
slightly ground on a rough stone to finish the shaping and 
remove the black oxidized surface, which would interfere 
with the color of the tempering. • Cheap table-knives are 
made of iron entirely, and the difference of price is owing 
to the greater facility of working, as well as the cost of the 
material. In many articles made of steel and iron the 
saving of steel is not the only advantage, for as steel is 
more brittle than wrought iron, it is desirable that every 
part except the cutting edge should be of iron. The great 
value of steel for all cutting implements or those exposed 
to wearing friction depends pn its property of acquiring a 
great degree of hardness when heated and suddenly cooled, 
and of softening again by moderately reheating. The dry¬ 
grinding of forks, etc. is very injurious to the health of 
those engaged in it, owing to the particles of steel causing 
irritation of the lungs and a disease called “grinders’ 
asthma.” Pocket-knives are the work of many hands. 
There are, besides the blades, the separate pieces of the 
spring, handle, rivets, etc.; the making of each is a dis¬ 
tinct trade. The pieces are all finally fitted and put to¬ 
gether by the finisher; a two-bladed knife sometimes passes 
through his hands from seventy to a hundred times. 

Cutt (John), one of the founders of the Cutts families 
of Maine and New Hampshire, is said to have been a 
Welshman. He came to America before 1646 with Robert 
and Richard, his brothers, and became a wealthy merchant 
of Portsmouth, N. H. His brothers became prominent 
citizens of Portsmouth and Kittery. John was for a time 
president of New Hampshire. Died Mar. 27, 1681. 

Cut'tack, a city, the capital of a district of like name, 
is on the Mahanuddee River, 250 miles S. W. of Calcutta. 
It is healthy, and has a temple and mosques, chapels, and 
manufactures of shoes, brass, and salt. Pop. about 40,000 ; 
of district, 1,984,600. 

Cut'ter, a small vessel with one mast and a bowsprit, 
built with especial reference to speed. The distinction be¬ 
tween a cutter and a sloop is that in a cutter the jib has no 
stay to support it. The term “revenue cutters” is applied 
to those which are employed in the pursuit of smugglers. 
The cutters belonging to ships of war are clincher-built 
boats, about twenty-five feet long. 

Cut'ting (Francis Brockholst), born in New l T ork 
City in 1805, graduated at Columbia College in 1825. He 
was a distinguished lawyer and a prominent Democratic 
member of Congress in 1853-55. Died June 26, 1870. 

Cutting (Sewall Sylvester), D. D., born Jan. 19, 
1813, at Windsor, Vt., graduated at the University of Ver¬ 
mont in 1835, ordained pastor of a Baptist church in West 
Boylston, Mass., 1836, pastor of a Baptist church in South- 
bridge, Mass., 1837-45, editor of the “ New York Recorder” 
1845-50 and 1853-55, editor of the “Christian Review” 
1850-53, professor of rhetoric and history in the University 
of Rochester 1855-68, secretary of the American Baptist 
Educational Commission from 1868 to the present time 
(1873). He is author of “ Historical Vindications of the 
Baptists,” Boston, 1858. 

Cut'tings, portions of branches of trees or shrubs em¬ 
ployed to produce new plants by the insertion of the lower 
end into the earth. The willow, currant, and gooseberry 
are easily propagated in this mode, and many other trees 
or shrubs will grow from cuttings under favorable cir¬ 
cumstances, such as warmth, moisture, and shade. The 
branches which are young, but not less than a year old, 
are most adapted for this purpose. 














CUTTLE-FISH—CUZCO. 


Cut'tle-fish [Ger. Kuttelfisch ; Fr. seche], a name ap¬ 
plied to many dibranchiate 
cephalopodous mollusks, es¬ 
pecially to those of the fam¬ 
ily Sepiadm, the species of 
which are numerous and 
almost world-wide in distri¬ 
bution. The term popular¬ 
ly includes nearly all the 
dibranchiate cephalopods. 

They are characterized by 
the presence of an ink-bag 
filled with black or brown 
“ sepia,” a substance which 
the animal ejects when pur¬ 
sued, so as to conceal itself 
from view by coloring the 
waters around it. This sub¬ 
stance was formerly much 
employed in making sepia 
or India ink (now made of 
lampblack, etc.). This col¬ 
oring-matter is so perma¬ 
nent that it has occasionally 
been prepared from fossil 
specimens. “ Cuttle-fish¬ 
bone ” is in reality the calca¬ 
reous internal shell of these 
animals, especially that of 
the Sepia officinalis of Eu¬ 
rope. When powdered it is Cuttle-fish: Sepia officinalis. 

sold under the name of “ pounce,” and is used for polishing, 
for tooth-powder, and in making moulds for delicate cast¬ 
ings. It was formerly much used in medicine, but is only 
valuable for its feebly antacid properties. Cuttle-fish have 
been found of two tons weight in the tropical seas. They 
are all marine. Many fossil species occur. Several species 
are found on the Atlantic coast of the U. S. (See Squid.) 

Cllt/ty-Stool [Scottish, cutty or lcittie, a woman of 
light or worthless character], or Creep'ie Chair, for¬ 
merly a seat in Scottish churches where otfenders against 
chastity were obliged to sit for three Sundays, and receive 
a reprimand from the minister. 

Cut-W orm, a name given by agriculturists to many 
larvee, mostly belonging to lepidopterous insects of the 
family Noctumlitae, and especially to those of the genus 
Agrotis. They cut off corn, cabbage, and other plants just 
below the surface of the ground; and one species at least 
(Agrotis Gochrani) climbs apple and pear trees and destroys 
the young buds. No effective remedy for their ravages is 
known. 

Cuvier, a township of St. Charles co., Mo. Pop. 3174. 

Cuvier (George Chretien Leopold Frederic Dago- 
bert), Baron, a celebrated French naturalist, was born at 
Montbeliard, then in Wurtemberg, whither the family had 
removed from Jura in the sixteenth century upon embra¬ 
cing Protestantism, Aug. 23,1769. His father was an officer 
in a French regiment of Swiss mercenaries. He studied 
political science at the Carolinian academy in Stuttgart, 
through the interest of the duke. He was an enthusiastic 
student from boyhood, and his passion for natural history 
showed itself in his thirteenth year. He became in 1788 
tutor to the son of Count d’Hericy, who lived in Normandy, 
and remained in this situation nearly six years, at the same 
time pursuing his studies. Early in 1795 he removed to 
Paris, where he associated with Jussieu and Geoffroy 
Saint-Hilaire. He became in July, 1795, professor of com¬ 
parative anatomy in the Museum of Natural History, and 
began to form his great cabinet of comparative anatomy. 
In 1796 he was admitted into the Institute, then just 
founded. He displayed his genius for classification in a 
work called “ Tableau Elementaire des Animaux ” (1798), 
and succeeded Daubenton as professor of natural history 
in the College of France in 1800. In 1801 he commenced 
the publication of the important “ Legons d’anatomie com- 
paree” (1801-05, 5 vols.; new ed. 1840). He married 
Madame Duvaucel, the widow of a farmer-general, and was 
chosen perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences in 
1802. In 1808 he was appointed councillor to the Imperial 
University. He displayed a rare faculty of expressing 
scientific truths in popular and elegant language in his 
“ Discourse on the Revolutions of the Surface of the Globe,” 
in which he propounds the theory of the correlation of forms 
in organized beings. He was appointed master of requests 
by Napoleon in 1813, and councillor of state in 1814. He 
published in 1817 his celebrated “Animal Kingdom” 
(“Regne Animal distribue d’apres son Organisation,” in 
four volumes; new edition by his pupils, 11 vols., with 993 
plates, 1836-49), in which he proposed the arrangement pf 
animals in four divisions—the Vertebrata, Mollusca, Ar- 


1231 


ticulata, and Radiata. Soon after the restoration of the 
Bourbons he was appointed chancellor of the University 4 
of Paris by Louis XVIII. He was elected a member of 
the French Academy in 1818, and received the title of 
baron in 1820. He wrote many able notices of scientific 
men for the “ Biographic Universelle.” Among his other 
works is an excellent “Natural History of Fishes” (1818- 
30, with the continuation by Valenciennes, 22 vols.), of 
which eight volumes were finished during his life. As a 
professor he was distinguished for facility of elocution, 
clearness of ideas, and the art of fixing the attention in 
philosophical or historical digressions. He first applied 
to zoology the natural method, and founded a system on 
the basis of the invariable characters of anatomical struc¬ 
ture. He is regarded as the founder of the science of 
comparative anatomy, and his knowledge of that science 
was such that a bone or small fragment of a fossil animal 
enabled him to determine the order, and even genus, to 
which it belonged. During the last twelve years of his 
life he rendered important services as president of the 
committee of the interior. He was created a peer of France 
in 1831. Died May 13,1832. He had several children, but 
none of them survived him. His disposition was amiable, 
and his moral character unimpeachable. (See A. de Can¬ 
dolle, “Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de G. Cuvier;” 

R. Lee, “ Memoir of Baron Cuvier,” 1833 ; L. de Lomenie, 

“ G. Cuvier, par un homme de rien,” 1841; Flourens, 

“ Cuvier, Ilistoire de ses Travaux,” 1845.) —The brother 
of the naturalist, Frederic Cuvier, born June 28, 1773, 
published, with Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, “ Ilistoire naturelle 
des mammiferes,” interesting accounts of the habits of 
animals. 

Cuvillier-Fleury (Alfred Auguste), one of the edi¬ 
tors of the “Journal des Debats,” born in 1802, has pub¬ 
lished “Portraits politiques et revolutionnaires ” (1851), 
“Etudes historiques et litt6raires ” (1854), “Etudes et 
portraits” (1865-68), etc. 

Cuxha'ven, a town of Germany, is on the left bank of 
the Elbe, at its entrance into the German Ocean, about 60 
miles W. N. W. of Hamburg, to which it belongs. It has a 
good harbor, and is important as the port whence the 
Hamburg steamers depart when the Elbe is frozen. Pop. 
1698. 

Cuya'ba, or Cuiaba 9 a town of Brazil, the capital of 
the province of Matto Grosso, is on a river of its own name. 

It is a bishop’s seat, and has three churches and an im¬ 
perial hospital. Gold is found in this district. Pop. 7000. 

Cuyahoga, ki-a-ho'ga, a county of Ohio, bordering on 
Lake Erie. Area, 426 square miles. It is intersected by the 
Cuyahoga River. The surface is nearly level; the soil is 
fertile. Cattle, grain, and w T ool are staple products. The 
manufactures are very extensive and varied, including iron, 
machinery, paper, lumber, leather, furniture, and many 
other articles. It is traversed by several important rail¬ 
roads, which connect it with Cincinnati, Pittsburg, Chi¬ 
cago, etc. Capital, Cleveland. Pop. 132,010. 

Cuyahoga Falls, a post-village and township of 
Summit co., 0., on the Cuyahoga River and the Cleveland 
Mount Vernon and Delaware R. R., 34 miles S. S. E. of 
Cleveland. The river is here enclosed between rocky walls 
nearly 200 feet high, and affords abundant water-power, 
which is employed in several paper-mills, wire-works, roll¬ 
ing-mills, foundry, soap and glue factory, etc. It has one 
national bank and one weekly newspaper. Pop. of the 
village, which is coextensive with the township, 1861. 

E. D. Knox, Ed. Cuyahoga Falls “ Reporter.” 

Cuyler, kl'ler, a township and post-village of Cortland 
co., N. Y. Pop. 1357. 

Cuyler (Theodore Ledyard), D. D., born at Aurora, 
Cayuga co., N. Y., Jan. 10, 1822, graduated at PrincetoD 
College in 1841, at Princeton Seminary in 1846, preached 
three years at Burlington, N. J., was first pastor of the 
Third Presbyterian church at Trenton, N. J., then pastor 
of the Market Street Reformed church in New York City, 
and is now pastor of Lafayette Avenue Presbyterian 
church, Brooklyn, N. Y., enrolling more members than any 
other Presbyterian church in the U. S. He is the author 
of several little works, such as “ Cedar Christian,” “ Empty , 
Crib,” “ Heart-Life,” and “ Thought-Hives,” all of which 
have been republished in England. Has also published 
more than 1500 letters and articles in newspapers and 
magazines, many of which have been reprinted in Europe. 

Cuyp (Albert), a Dutch landscape-painter, pupil ot his 
father, Jacob Gerrits Cuyp (1575-1650), was born at Dort 
in 1606. His works, remarked for atmospheric effects, are 
many of them in England. Died after 1683. 

Revised by Clarence Cook. 

Cuz'co, the most populous department of Peru, is mostly 
between lat. 13° and 15° S. and Ion. 70° and 73° W. Area, 













































































1232 CUZCO— CYCLE. 


about 45,000 square miles. The surface is mountainous, 
with extensive table-lands; it is rich in metals, and favor¬ 
able to grazing and agriculture. Capital, Cuzco. Pop. 
about 404,000. 

Cuzco, a handsome city of Peru, the capital of the 
above department, is 200 miles N. of Arequipa, and 11,380 
feet above the level of the sea; lat. 13° 31 r S., Ion. 72° 4' 
W. It was formerly the capital of the Incas. It contains 
a fine cathedral, a university, several convents, and a mint, 
and is the seat of a bishop. Here are manufactures of 
cotton and woollen stuffs and jewelry. Massive specimens 
of ancient Peruvian architecture are visible. Pop. 25,000. 

Cyame'a [probably named from the nymph Cyane], a 
genus of radiate ani¬ 
mals of the class Dis- 
cophora (jelly-fishes), 
allied to the Medusae. 

The Cyansea capillata 
is one of the species 
which are known as 
sea-nettles. Its severe 
sting is one of the ter¬ 
rors of sea-bathers at 
some of the European 
watering-places. Cyanaea. 

Cy'ane [Gr. Kvavrj], the name of a water-nymph of 
classic mythology, who tried to rescue her playmate Pros¬ 
erpine, and was changed by Pluto into a fountain in Sicily. 
She is also called the wife of iEolus, god of the winds. The 
fountain Cyane, near Syracuse, still flows, and gives rise 
to a considerable river. Here grows the papyrus plant. 

Cy'anide, or Cyan'uret, a compound of cyanogen 
with a positive radical. Prussian blue is a cyanide (or 
rather a ferrocyanide) of iron. The cyanide of potassium 
is very useful in chemistry and the arts, and is also em¬ 
ployed in medicine as a sedative. It is a very active poison. 

Cyan'iline (C 14 H 14 N 2 ), a direct compound of cyanogen 
and aniline. It is very unstable, but crystallizes and forms 
salts with acids. 

Cy'anite, or Kyanite [from the Gr. Kvai/o?, “blue,” 
and A.i0os, a “stone”], a beautiful mineral, sometimes 
called Disthene, is a silicate of alumina. It often oc¬ 
curs crystallized, and generally in broad prisms. It is 
transparent or translucent, sometimes opalescent, and ex¬ 
hibits various shades of blue. Its formula is Al 203 Si 02 . 

Cy'anogen [from the Gr. uvavos, “ blue,” and yewdia, to 
“produce,” referring to “prussian blue,” one of its com¬ 
pounds], a compound negative radical composed of two 
equivalents of carbon with two of nitrogen, represented by 
the symbol C 2 N 2 , or, in its capacity of a quasi-element, by 
Cy. It is a colorless, inflammable, permanent gas, with a 
specific gravity of 1.806. At the temperature of 45° F., if 
submitted to the pressure of 3.6 atmospheres, it becomes a 
transparent, colorless liquid. It has the odor of peach- 
kernels. Combined with hydrogen, it produces prussic or 
Hydrocyanic Acid (which see), remarkable for its deadly 
action upon the animal economy. Cyanogen combines 
with metals and other positive radicals, and produces a 
class of compounds known as cyanides, which are analo¬ 
gous in character to the chlorides, iodides, etc. Some of 
these are of great importance in the arts, as in gilding, 
electro-plating, photographing, and as tests in the chemical 
laboratory. Some are used in medicine as sedatives, but 
they are in general extremely poisonous. Prussian Blue 
(which see) is one of the most important of the cyanides. 

Cyanom'eter [from the Gr.«vavos, “blue,” and/ueVpoi', 
a “measure”], an instrument for measuring the blueness 
of the sky. It consists, essentially, of a disk divided into 
sectors, the several sectors being colored with tints of blue 
gradually increasing in intensity. Held between the eye 
and the sky, some sectors will appear deeper, and some 
lighter in tint than the heavens. That one where the dif¬ 
ference is insensible is the measure of the blueness for the 
time being. 

Cyano'sis [from the Gr. /evavo?, “blue;” Fr. cyanose ], 
also called Cyanopathi'a [from Kv'avo?, “blue,” and 
naOos, “affection”], a condition in which the skin of a 
newly-born infant is of a blue color. It is the result of 
various congenital malformations and conditions of imper¬ 
fect development. Frequently the pulmonary circulation 
is defective. In some cases the foramen ovale remains 
open as in the foetal state. The venous and arterial blood 
are mingled, as is normal before birth. Cyanosis may prove 
fatal in a few days after birth, but normal development may 
take place and recovery follow, or the patient may live for 
years with this undeveloped condition of the blood-vessels. 

Cya'thea [from the Gr. kvolOos, a “cup,” alluding to 
the shape of its indusia], a genus of beautiful tree-ferns of 


the sub-order Polypodiacem, found in the tropical regions 
of the Old and New World. The species are numerous. 
Cyathea avborea, a native of the West Indies, Mexico, and 
South America, has bipinnate fronds. Cyathea medullaris, 
a New Zealand species, has edible starchy roots. 

Cyatliophyl'lum [from the Gr. KvaOos, a “cup,” and 
(/juAAor, a “leaf,” referring to the shape of the polypidoms], 
a genus of fossil stony corals having a simple or branched 
polyparium, internally lamellated, the lamellae having a 
quadripartite arrangement. This genus is found in abun¬ 
dance in the Devonian measures, and thirty-six species 
have been described from them. It disappeared at the 
close of the carboniferous period. 

Cyax'ares [Gr. Kva^dprjg; Old Persian, UvaJcshatara, 
i. e. “ beautiful-eyed”] 1., a king of the Medes, began to 
reign in 633 B. C. He waged war against the Scythians, 
who invaded his dominions, and against Alyattes, king of 
Lydia. A total eclipse of the sun which occurred about 
610 B. C. induced Cyaxares and Alyattes to make peace. 
Cyaxares and the king of Babylon took Nineveh in 625. 
He died in 593 B. C., and was succeeded by his son Astya- 
ges, who reigned from 593 to 569 B. C. 

Cyaxares II., a son of Astyages, grandson of Cyaxares 
I., and uncle of Gyms the Great. Though not mentioned 
by Herodotus or Ctesias, he is named by Xenophon as the 
successor of Astyages in the Median kingdom, and is prob¬ 
ably the same as “ Darius the Median ” spoken of by the 
prophet Daniel (v. 31). He is supposed to have reigned in 
Babylon for two years after its conquest by Cyrus in 538 
B. C. He came to the throne of Media in 569 B. C. 

Cyb'ele [Gr. Ki^Ay? or KvjSyjAyj], called also Cybe'be 
[Gr. Kv/3r?/3r}] and Rhe'a [Gr. 'Pet'a, 'Pea or'PeiTj], a goddess 
of classic mythology, received the appellation of “ Mother 
of the Gods” or “Great Mother.” She was supposed to 
be a daughter of Uranus and Terra, the wife of Saturn 
(Cronos), and the mother of Jupiter. Her priests were 
called Corybantes (which see). She was sometimes styled 
the “ Berecynthian mother,” from the hill Berecynthus, 
where she had a temple. She is generally represented 
riding in a chariot drawn by lions, with a diadem of towers 
upon her head. 

Cycada'ceae, or Cyca'deae [from Cycas (gen. cyc- 
adis), one of the genera], a small natural order of exogenous 
plants, indigenous in the tropical parts of Asia and Amer¬ 
ica. They are gymnosperms, and nearly related to the 
Coniferse, and are distinguished by their simple stems, 
large pinnate leaves, and antheriferous cones. The stems 
consist of a mass of pith, traversed by woody bundles. 
Thus they approach closely to the endogens, and seem to 
be a link between the latter and the exogens. This curious 
order comprises about fifty known species, none of which 
are natives of Europe. Many of them afford starch, which 
is wholesome and extensively used as food. Sago is ob¬ 
tained in Japan from the interior of the stem of the Cycas 
revoluta, and a similar substance is produced in the Moluc¬ 
cas by the Cycas circinalis. The large seeds of Dion edule, 
which grows in Mexico, afford a starchy food. The caffer- 
bread trees belong to this order. The Coontie (which see) 
is the only plant of this order in the U. S. 

Cy'chla, a genus of fishes of the family Cliromidae, 
many species of which are found in the tropical parts of 
America. They have small and crowded teeth, and are 
remarkable for the beauty of their colors. Some of them 
are greatly esteemed for the table. 

Cyc'lades [from the Gr. kvk Ao?, a “circle”], a name 
given to a group of islands in the iEgean, numbering 
twelve in all, according to Strabo, so called because 
they surrounded the sacred island of Delos. These islands 
are Syra, Delos, Andros, Tenos, Mykonos, Naxos, Paros, 
Antiparos, Siphnos, Seriplios, Kythnos, and Iveos. The 
present nome of the Cyclades (the tenth of fourteen in 
the kingdom of Greece) includes, in addition to the above, 
the following eight islands: Melos, Thera, Kimolos, Phol- 
egandros, Sicynos, Ios, Amorgos, and Anaphe. The sur¬ 
face is mountainous, the soil productive. Pop. of the 
nome in 1871, 123,299. Area, 926 square miles. Syra or 
Hermopolis is the most important city. 

Cyc'lamen [Gr. Kv/cAa/xivo?, from kvkAo?, “circle,” be¬ 
cause it was used for garlands], the name of a genus of 
plants of the natural order Primulaceae, having a wheel¬ 
shaped corolla, with a long reflexed limb, and flower-stalks 
twisted spirally after flowering. The species are herbaceous 
perennials, mostly natives of the south of Europe. Some 
of them are cultivated in gardens for the sake of the 
flowers, which are beautiful and fragrant. The root or 
subterranean stem is acrid and drastic. These properties 
depend on a peculiar principle called cyclamin. 

Cy'cle [Gr. kvk Aos, a “circle”], a period of time which 
finishes and recommences perpetually. The term has been 





























CYCLIC PLANES OF A CONE-CYCLOPS. 1233 


employed for marking the intervals in which two or more 
periods of unequal length are each completed in a certain 
number of times, so that both begin again exactly in the 
same relations as at first. The cycles used in chronology 
are three: the cycle of the sun, the cycle of the moon (or 
Metonic cycle), and the cycle of indiction. The cycle of 
the sun, or solar cycle, is a period of time after which the 
same days of the week recur on the same days of the year. 
If the number of days in the year were always the same, 
this cycle could only contain seven years; but the order is 
interrupted by the intercalations. In the Julian calendar, 
the intercalary day returns every fourth year, and the cycle 
consequently contains twenty-eight years. This cycle is 
supposed to have been invented about the time of the first 
Council of Nice (325 A. D.), but the first year of the first 
cycle is placed nine years before the commencement of the 
Christian era. Hence the year of the cycle corresponding to 
any given year in the Julian calendar is found by the follow¬ 
ing rule : add nine to the date and divide the sum by twenty- 
eight ; the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed, and the 
remainder is the year of the cycle. Should there be no 
remainder, the proposed year is the twenty-eighth, or last 
of the cycle. In the reformed calendar this rule can only 
apply from century to century, for the order is interrupted 
by the omission of the intercalary day every hundredth 
year. (See Dominical Letter.) The cycle of the moon 
is a period of nineteen solar years, after which the new and 
full moons fall on the same days of the year as they did 
nineteen years before. This cycle was invented by Meton, 
an Athenian astronomer, and is known as the “ Metonic 
cycle.” It contains 8940 days, which exceeds the true 
length of the nineteen solar years by nine and a half hours, 
nearly. On the other hand, it exceeds the length of 235 
lunations by seven hours and a half only. The framers of 
the ecclesiastical calendar, in adopting this period, altered 
the distribution of the lunar months, in order to accom¬ 
modate them to the Julian intercalation ; and the effect of 
the alteration was that every three periods of 6940 days 
was followed by one of 6939. The mean length of the cycle 
was therefore 6939f days, which agrees exactly with nine¬ 
teen Julian years. The number of the year in the cycle is 
called the Golden Number (which see). The cycle begins 
with the year in which the new moon falls on the first of 
January. To find the number of any year in the lunar 
cycle, or the golden number of that year, we have this 
rule: add one to the date and divide by nineteen; the 
quotient is the number of cycles elapsed, and the remainder 
is the year of the cycle. Should there be no remainder, 
the proposed year is the last or nineteenth of the cycle. 

The cycle of indictions, or Roman indiction, is a period 
of fifteen years, not astronomical, but entirely arbitrary. 
Its origin and purpose are alike uncertain, but it is con¬ 
jectured that it was introduced by Constantine the Great 
about 312 of the common era, and had reference to certain 
judicial acts that took place at stated intervals of fifteen 
years. It is considered as having commenced on the first 
of Jan., 313. By extending it backward to the begin¬ 
ning of the era, it will be found that the first year of the 
era corresponded with the fourth of the cycle. In order, 
therefore, to find the number of any year in the cycle of in¬ 
diction, we have this rule: add three to the date, divide 
the sum by fifteen, and the remainder is the year of in¬ 
diction. Revised by F. A. P. Barnard. 

Cyc'lic Planes of a Cone, the two planes through 
one of the axes which are parallel to the planes of circu¬ 
lar section of the cone. The perpendiculars to the cyclic 
planes through the vertex are the focal lines of the recip¬ 
rocal cone. A sphere around the vertex of the cone is cut 
by the latter, its cyclic planes, and its focal lines respect¬ 
ively, in a sphero-conic, its cyclic arcs, and its foci, and 
thus the reciprocal properties of cyclic planes and focal 
lines give rise to properties of sphero-conics, which are in 
many respects precisely similar to those of plane conics. 

Cyc'lic Po' ets [Gr. ol noLrjral kvkXlkol, the “ poets of 
the cycle” or “ routine” of mythology], a name originally 
given to Homer and certain epic poets who followed him, 
whose works treated of the mythological and heroic ages 
of Greece. In the second century B. C. these poems were 
arranged at Alexandria according to the order of the events 
they narrated. The whole collection was called the “ Epic 
Cycle.” The Homeric poems, though originally comprised 
in this cycle, are always treated as distinct from it, and the 
name “cyclic poet” became rather one of reproach, signi¬ 
fying a follower of an established “routine.” The princi¬ 
pal cyclic poets were Arctinus, Lesches, Agias, Eumelus, 
Stasinus, and Eugamon. Their extant writings are mere 
fragments. 

Cyc'lifying Line, Plane, and Surface. The de¬ 
velopable surface which contains a given non-plane curve, 
and which on being unfolded transforms that curve into a 
78 


circular arc of a given radius, is called the cyclifying sur¬ 
face, corresponding to that radius. Its tangent planes aro 
the cyclifying planes of the curve, and its generators the 
cyclifying lines. The theory of cyclifying surfaces is a 
generalization of that of the rectifying surface; which lat¬ 
ter, in fact, is a cyclifying surface corresponding to the 
radius infinity. The developable osculatrix of a common 
helix, or of any curve with constant radius of curvature, 
is a cyclifying surface. 

Cy'cloid [from the Gr. kvkAo?, a “circle,” and elSos, 
“form”], a name given to several important plane curves 
generated by a point in the plane of a circle when the lat¬ 
ter is rolled along a straight line. If the generating point 
is in the circumference of the rolling circle, a “common 
cycloid” is generated; if the generating point be outside 
the circle, it marks a “curtate” cycloid; while if it be a 
point within the circumference, a “prolate” or “ inflected” 
cycloid is the result. That part of the cycloid which is 
generated in one revolution of the generating circle is 
called one “branch ” of the cycloid. The branches may be 
infinite in number. That part of the straight lino which 
is traversed in one revolution of the generating circle is 
the “base” of one branch. A line bisecting the branch of 
a cycloid and its base is the “axis.” The common cycloid 
is the “line of quickest descent;” that is, if one point be 
placed above another, but not in the same vertical line, a 
falling body will move from the higher point to the lower 
more quickly along the arc of an inverted common cycloid 
than by any other course, even if that course be a straight 
line. If a pendulum be made to vibrate in the arc of a 
common cycloid, no matter what the length of the arc may 
be, the time will always be the same. In practice, how¬ 
ever, this result has never been attained. Experiments 
show that cog-wheels with teeth bounded by this curve 
have their friction reduced to the minimum. (See Epicy¬ 
cloid and IIypocycloid.) 

Cy'cloid, Companion to the, a name given by 
Roberval to a curve intimately connected with the cycloid, 
by means of whose properties he succeeded in 1634 in solv¬ 
ing the problem of the quadrature of the cycloid. The curve 
in question may be conceived to be generated by a point 
which always remains vertically over the point of contact 
of the rolling circle and its base, and in the same horizontal 
line as the describing point. Its area is equal to twice that 
of the rolling circle. The area of the space between the 
cycloid and its companion is precisely equal to that of the 
rolling circle, so that the area of the cycloid itself is three 
times that of the circle. 

Cy'clone [from the Gr. kvk\ os, a “circle”], a rotatory 
storm or whirlwind occurring in the tropical seas of China 
and the West Indies, but never on the equator. The diam¬ 
eter is generally about 200 or 300 miles, and sometimes ex¬ 
ceeds 500. The centre of the vortex (which is always calm) 
travels at a rate varying from eleven to thirty miles an 
hour. Cyclones are perhaps the most destructive of all 
storms. They rotate from right to left in the northern 
hemisphere, and from left to right in the southern. Ac¬ 
cording to Humboldt, the velocity of the wind is some¬ 
times from 200 to 300 miles an hour. (See Winds.) 

Cyclopae'dia [from the Gr. kvkAos, a “circle,” and 
nau&eia, “ instruction,” “ knowledge ”] properly signifies a 
work which takes in the whole circle of learning. The 
term is often, though incorrectly, applied to a work treat¬ 
ing very fully of some one or two important subjects, as 
Chambers’s “ Cyclopaedia of English Literature,” the “ Cy¬ 
clopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology,” etc. (See Ency¬ 
clopaedia.) 

Cyclo'pean Walls, a term applied to certain huge 
structures or walls of uncemented stones, the remains of 
which are found in Greece, Italy, and Asia Minor. These 
structures were so called because they were supposed to 
have been built by the Cyclopes of mythology. The archi¬ 
tecture is very different from that of the historic period. 
Some persons believe that they were erected by the Pelasgi, 
more than 1000 years before the Christian era. The Cyclo¬ 
pean walls at Tiryns in the Peloponnesus are formed of 
unhewn stones from six to nine feet long, and nearly three 
feet thick. At Mycenae are found massive walls of stones, 
which are more accurately fitted and are specimens of an 
architecture less rude than that of Tiryns. A more ad¬ 
vanced style of architecture appears in some remains of 
Etruria. In the Etruscan masonry called Cyclopean the 
stones are hewn or squared and laid in horizontal courses, 
but are not cemented. 

Cy'clopism, that form of monstrosity or malformation 
of the foetus in which only one eye is present, usually ou 
the median line of the head. (See Teratology.) 

Cy'clops [Gr. KukAcoi^ (?. e. “ round-eyed ”), from kvkAos, 
a “ circle,” and an “ eye ”], plu. Cyclo'pes, in classic 























1234 CYCLOPS—C YNTI-IIANA. 


mythology, a race of giants or monsters having each one 
eye in the middle of the forehead. According to Hesiod, 
they were the sons of Uranus, and were named Brontes, 
Arges, and Steropes. Homer represents them as gigantic 
and lawless shepherds and cannibals who lived in Sicily. 
The most famous among them was Polyphemus. 

Cyclops, a genus of minute entomostracous crusta¬ 
ceans, so named from 
the supposition that 
the animal had but 
one eye. It has since 
been discovered to 
have two eyes, form¬ 
ing a single spot in 
the centre of the fore¬ 
head. The species of 
Cyclops are numcr- Cyclops, 

ous, and inhabit both salt and fresh waters. Several spe¬ 
cies occur in the U. S. Whales devour large numbers of 
the marine species. 

Cyclo'sis [Gr. kv'/cAwo-is, a " going around,” from kvkXos, 
a " circle ”], a movement of elaborated sap, latex, or granu¬ 
lated protoplasm within the cells or vessels of plants. It 
was first observed and described by C. II. Schultz. In the 
milky or colored latex of some species of the genera Ficus 
and Euphorbia, and in the celandine ( Chelidonium majus), 
it is easily seen under the microscope, but is nowhere more 
beautiful than in the elongated cells of Chara and some 
other aquatic plants, especially with a magnifying power 
of about 1200 diameters. It has been observed in the needle¬ 
like hairs of the common nettle. There is usually a regu¬ 
lar rotation (whence the name) of the granules in each cell, 
up one side and down the other, with also smaller partial 
currents in different directions. Huxley considers the cause 
of the currents to exist in contractions of the protoplasm, 
too minute to be discerned except through their effects. 
(See Schultz, " Die Cyklose, etc. in den Pflanzen,” Breslau, 
1841.) 

Cyd'nus [Gr. KuSro?],a river of Cilicia, flowing through 
the city of Tarsus into the Mediterranean. It was cele¬ 
brated for the clearness and coldness of its water. It was 
anciently navigable up to Tarsus (12 miles), but its mouth 
is now obstructed by bars. This river was the scene of 
Cleopatra’s celebrated voyago to meet Antony in 41 B. C. 

Cydo'nia, an ancient city of Crete, was on the north¬ 
western coast of the island. It was noted for the produc¬ 
tion of the quince ( Cydonia ). 

Cyg'nus (the "Swan”), a constellation of the northern 
hemisphere between Lyra and Cassiopeia, comprises sev¬ 
eral bright stars. The parallax of the binary star 61 Cygni 
was measured by Bessel, who published in 1839 "Measure 
of. the Distance of the Star 61 in the Constellation of Cyg- 
nus.” By two distinct methods of observation the distance 
of this star has been shown to exceed 50,000,000,000,000 
miles. 

Cyl'inder [Gr. KvAirSpos, from /ci/AiVSw, to "roll”], the 
name of a genus of geometrical solid figures of which 
there may be endless species. The most common kind of 
cylinder is that which is generated by the revolution of a 
rectangular parallelogram about one of its sides, which 
line is called the axis of the cylinder. But in order to em¬ 
brace all varieties of cylinders we must generalize the 
mode of generation. A cylinder, then, is a solid generated 
by a line which moves parallel to itself while one end traces 
on a plane any curve whatever. When the position of the 
generating line is at right angles to the plane, the cylinder 
is right; when not, it is oblique. If the curve traced is a 
circle, and the line is perpendicular to the plane, the cyl¬ 
inder is a right circular cylinder. In all cases the content 
of the cylinder is found by multiplying the number of 
square units in the base by the number of linear units in 
the altitude. A sphere and a cylinder circumscribed to it 
have a remarkably simple relation to each other, first dis¬ 
covered by Archimedes, their volumes being as 2 : 3. 

Cylle'ne [Ki/AA^joj], a mountain of Greece, in the north¬ 
western part of Arcadia, was supposed to be the birthplace 
of Mercury (Hermes), who was called Cyllenius, and had 
a temple on its summit. Height above the sea, 7788 feet. 
It is now called Zyria. 

Cy'ma [Gr. nip-a, a "wave”], in architecture, a term 
applied to a moulding, so called because its contour resem¬ 
bles that of a wave, being, for example, hollow in its upper 
part and swelling below. Of this moulding there are two 
sorts—the cyma recta, just described, and the cynia reversa , 
of which the lower part is hollow. 

Cym'bal [Gr. Kvp.fia.\ov, from Kvp-fZos, "hollow”], a brass 
musical instrument of percussion, circular in form and 
about eight inches in diameter. Cymbals are played in 
pairs by striking one against the other, and produce a 


loud, harsh sound of no fixed pitch. The best are those 
made in China and Turkey. Cymbals arc of great antiq¬ 
uity, having been employed by the Greeks in the festivals 
of Ilacchus and Cybele. 

Cyme [from the Gr. Ki/xa, a " swelling ” or a " sprout ”], 
in botany, a form of centrifugal inflorescence consisting of 
convex or flat-topped clusters of flowers seated on the axils 
of dichotomous ramifications, as in the elder ( Sambucus) 
and several species of Viburnum. It differs from the corymb 
in its centrifugal flowering, and in the fact that its blos¬ 
soms are from terminal buds, and not from a central axis 
or flower-stalk. 

Cym'ry, the name given by the Welsh to their nation. 
It is frequently extended to the entire branch of the Celtic 
race to which the Welsh belong. To this branch also belong 
the peoplo of Bretagne in France and the ancient races of 
Cornwall, Cumberland, and Strathclyde. Attempts have 
been made to prove that the Cimmerii and the Cimbri were 
of this race, but the evidence fails to establish these points. 
There is reason to believe that a great part of the ancient 
British race was Cymric, and many Cymric roots appear to 
have been found in Gaulish and Belgic names. (See Celts 
and Wales.) 

Cynan'chum [from the Gr. kvuv, a " dog,” and ay\u, 
to "choke” (i. e. "dog-bane”)], a genus of plants of the 
order Asclepiadaceae. Cynanchum Monspeliacum, found on 
the shores of the Mediterranean, produces the Montpellier 
scammony. Caoutchouc is obtained to some extent from 
the Cynanchum ovalifolium , a native of Penang. Other 
species have been used in medicine. 

Cyn'ics [Gr. kwucoI, “ dog-like,” from kvW, a "dog”], 
a sect of philosophers among the Greeks, so called from 
their dog-like temper and their disregard of the conven¬ 
tional usages of society. It is difficult to give any satis¬ 
factory account of the tenets of this sect, as during all the 
period of its existence it was in a state of constant fluctua¬ 
tion. Its professed aim was to inculcate the love of l'igid 
virtue and a contempt of pleasure. On this point the tes¬ 
timony of Horace—himself a zealous adherent of the school 
of Aristippus, the very opposite of the cynical sect—even 
were there no other, must be held conclusive ; and accord¬ 
ing to his opinion the aim of the cynical philosophy was 
to induce every man to become "the guardian of real virtue.” 
Diogenes belonged to this sect. It was founded in the fifth 
century B. C. by Antisthenes, a disciple of Socrates, who 
sought to imitate his master in disregard of outward 
splendor and contempt of riches, but his indifference to 
these things soon degenerated into an ostentatious display 
of singularity. 

Cynoceph'alus [from the Gr. kvW, a "dog,” and 
Ke<f>aAij, " head ”], in Egyptian mythology, a dog-faced 
baboon. The Egyptians held these animals in great ven¬ 
eration, and professed to discover by their aid the periods 
of‘the sun and moon. The name is now applied to a genus 
of African monkeys. (See Baboon.) 

Cynosceph'alae [from the Gr. kvW, gen. kwo?, "dog,” 
and Ke<f>a\rj, a "head”], a locality in Thessaly, was the 
scene of two important battles. In the first the Thebans 
defeated the tyrant of Pherae, in 364 B. C. In the second 
the Roman general Flamininus defeated Philip of Macedon 
in 196 B. C. 

Cynosw'ra [Gr. Kwoaovpa, from kvu>v, kwos, “ dog,” and 
ovpa, "tail,” probably because four stars of Ursa Minor, 
including the North Star, were fancied to resemble a dog’s 
tail; Fr. and Eng. cynosure~\, a nymph of Ida, said to 
have been one of the nurses of Jupiter, who translated her 
into the constellation of Ursa Minor, which includes the 
North Star. In the language of poetry it signifies a 
"point of attraction.” 

“ Where perhaps some beauty lies, 

The cynosure of neighboring eyes.”— Milton. 

Cynthian'a, a city, capital of Harrison co., Ky., on the 
South Fork of the Licking River and on the Kentucky Cen¬ 
tral R. R., 66 miles S. of Cincinnati. It was first settled in 
1780, and was named from Cynthia and Anna Harrison, 
daughters of one of the early settlers. It has two weekly pa¬ 
pers and one national bank. It is noted for the manufacture 
of " Bourbon ” whisky. There are eight churches, a graded 
free school, a female college, two flouring-mills, and two 
carriage-factories. It is in a very fertile agricultural dis¬ 
trict, and is the site of a famous race-course. A Confede¬ 
rate force numbering 2200 men, with artillery, under Gen. 
J. H. Morgan, attacked the place July 17, 1862, garrisoned 
by 350 Federal soldiers. The place was surrendered, but 
not till the ammunition was exhausted. On June 11, 1864, 
Morgan with a large force attacked the place again, and 
after two days’ fighting captured Gen. Hobson with some 
1700 men. On the 14th, Gen. Burbridge, with 7000 men, 
fell upon Morgan (whose men were out of ammunition and 



















CYNTHIANA—CYPRUS. 


exhausted), and drove him out of Cjnthiana with consider¬ 
able loss. P.1771. A. J. Morey, Ed. and Prop. “News.” 

Cynthiana, a township of Shelby co., 0. Pop. 1597. 

Cypera'cere [from Cyperus , one of the genera], popu¬ 
larly called sedges, an order of endogenous plants nearly 
related to the grasses, and natives of all parts of the world. 
They are distinguished from the Graminaceoe by having 
stems which are solid and mostly triangular, not round and 
fistular, and nearly destitute of joints. They have closed 
sheaths and spiked, chiefly tri-androus flowers, one in the 
axil of each of the glume-like imbricated bracts, destitute 
of any perianth, or with hypogynous bristles or scales in 
its place. The ovary is 1-celled, and contains a single ovule, 
which becomes an achenium. This order comprises about 
2000 species, which mostly grow in marshy or moist places. 
Among them are the sedges (see Carex) and papyrus. 

Cype'rus [Gr. /ctbreipos, the name of a water-plant], a 
genus of plants of the order Cyperacem, distinguished by 
hermaphrodite flowers and compound spikes of numerous 
2-rowed glumes, without bristles. It contains numerous 
species, many of which are natives of the tropics, and others 
of the U. S. Some of them have tubers or conns which are 
mucilaginous and nutritious. The Cyperus csculentus (rush- 
nut), a native of Southern Europe, is cultivated in Italy, 
Spain, and France, and bears farinaceous tubers which aro 
as large as a hazel-nut, and are called amande de terre 
("ground almond”) by the Frenoh. They are eaten as 
dessert, and are used in making orgeat. The papyrus 
plant is often referred to this genus, though separated from 
/ it by some botanists. 

Cypher. See Cipher. 

Cy pres, in law, a rule of construction. (See Interpre¬ 
tation and Construction, by Prof. T. \V. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Cy'press [Gr. Kuirdpurcros, perhaps the Hebrew gopher ], 
( Cupre88U8 ), a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs of the 
natural order Coniferae, having globular cones, and very 
small and scale-like or awl-shaped leaves, which are ap- 
pressed and imbricated. The wood is valuable and ex¬ 
ceedingly durable. The common cypress ( Cupressus sem- 
pervirens), a native of the Levant and Northern Africa, is 
a tree of a conical form, sometimes growing to the height of 
a hundred feet or more. On account of its dark green leaves 
and sombre aspect it has from very early times been adopted 
as an emblem of mourning. The ancient Greeks and Ro¬ 
mans planted it in burial-grounds, and the same custom 
now prevails in Turkey. The wood has a pleasant smell, 
is not liable to be injured by insects, and is therefore valu¬ 
able to cabinet-makers. It is compact and durable. Speci¬ 
mens of this wood preserved in museums are said to be 
several thousand years old. Some critics believe that the 
kinds of timber called cedar and gopher-wood in Scripture 
were the wood of the Cupressus. Among the other species 
of this genus are the Cupressus thurifera of Mexico, the 
resin of which is burned for incense, and the Cupressus 
thyoides, which is a native of the U. S., and is commonly 
called white cedar. (See Cedar.) The popular name 
American cypress is given to the Taxodium distichum, a 
large and valuable deciduous tree which grows in swamps 
in the Southern U. S. It sometimes attains a height of 
120 feet, and is about ten feet in diameter at the base. This 
is valuable for timber, and is planted as an ornamental tree. 
The cypress of the North Pacific coast is Thuja gigantea. 

Cypress, a post-township of Monroe co., Ark. P. 655. 

Cypress, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 369. 

Cypress, a township of Harrison co., Mo. Pop. 1230. 

Cypress, a township of Nansemond co., Va. Pop. 2550. 

Cypress Bayou, a township of Arkansas co., Ark. 
Pop. 318. 

Cypress Creek, a twp. of Duplin co., N. C. P. 1024. 

Cypress Creek, a township of Franklin co., N. C. 
Pop. 1087. 

Cypress Creek, a township of Jones co., N. C. P. 541. 

Cyp'rian, Saint [Lat. Cyprianus'], or, more fully, 
Thas'cius Caecil'ius Cypria'nus, a bishop of Car¬ 
thage and Latin Father of the Church, was born in 200 
A. D. at Carthage. He was a teacher of rhetoric before his 
conversion, which occurred about the year 246, and he was 
chosen bishop of Carthage in 248 A. D. In 250 he retired 
into the desert to escape from the persecution which was 
ordered by the emperor Decius. He returned to Carthage 
in 251, and then assembled a council on the subject of apos¬ 
tates who had lapsed in consequence of persecution. He 
judged that these should be treated with moderation and 
lenity. He emphasized the idea of the Church, insisted 
upon the three orders of the ministry, and stoutly main¬ 
tained the parity of bishops against the assumptions of the 
bishop of Rome. He suffered martyrdom under Valerian 


1235 


in 258 A. D. He was eminent for his learning, eloquence, 
and zeal, wisely tempered with moderation. His works 
consist of thirteen treatises, the most important of which is 
his " De Unitate Ecclesise,” written in 252, besides eighty- 
one epistles, including a few addressed to him, all of which 
have reference to ecclesiastical affairs (See Gervaise, 
" Vie de Saint-Cyprien,” 1717; Poole, " Life and Times of 
Saint Cyprian,” 1840.) 

Cyprin'idse [from Cyprinus, one of the genera], the 
name of a family of malacopterous fishes, having only the 
pharynx or hinder part of the mouth furnished with teeth, 
the gill-rays few, and no adipose fin. They are fresh-water 
fishes, and are found in lakes and rivers. This order in¬ 
cludes the carp, roach, dace, tench, bream, minnow, gold¬ 
fish, barbel, etc. 

Cyprinodoil'tidse [from cyprinus, a "carp,” andoSou's, 
oSovtos, a "tooth”], a family of malacopterous fishes allied 
to the Cyprinidae, but having the jaws more protractile and 
toothed. They are found in Asia and America, and in both 
fresh and salt water. The Anahleps belongs to this order. 
(See Anableps.) 

Cypripe'dium, a genus of plants of the order Orchi- 
daceae, comprises several species natives of the U. S., and 
known by the popular names of lady’s slipper and mocca- 
son flower. They have beautiful flowers of curious struc¬ 
ture, in which the lip is a large inflated sac. They possess 
sedative properties, and are used to some extent in nervous 
diseases. 

Cy'pris, the name of a genus of minute entomostracous 
crustaceans of the order Branchiopoda, with the body en¬ 
closed in a bivalve shell. The antennae and feet are fur¬ 
nished with fringed bristles, by means of which they swim 
with ease. Their horny fossil shells are found in the 
wealden of England, and several species occur in the tri¬ 
ass ic rocks of the U. S. 

Cy'prus [Turk. Kihris ; Gr. KvTrpo?], an island of Asia, in 
the N. E. corner of the Mediterranean, is 44 miles S. of Cape 
Anamoor in Anatolia, and about the same distance W. of 
the coast of Syria. It is about 140 miles long, and 50 miles 
broad at the widest part. Area, 3678 square miles. Pop. 
estimated at 200,000. The interior is occupied by a range 
of mountains, the highest points of which rise nearly 7000 
feet above the sea. These mountains are of limestone for¬ 
mation, and are covered with vast forests of walnut, oak, 
and other good timber. The soil is generally very fertile, 
but the island is not liberally supplied with water. The 
staple products are cotton, wheat, tobacco, madder, silk; also 
grapes and other fruits. Wine of good quality is also made. 
A large portion of the population are Greeks. Capital, 
Nicosia. The foreign consuls reside at Larnica. In an¬ 
cient times Cyprus was devoted to the worship of Aphro¬ 
dite or Venus, who was fabled to have here risen from the 
sea. Her temple was at "Old Paphos,” now called Kxiklia. 
The original occupants of the island were probably the 
Japhetic Kittim (Gen. x. 4), who left their name in the old 
capital, Citium. Cyprus, scarcely ever for any great length 
of time independent, was held by the Phoenicians from 
about 1100 to 725 B. C.: by the Assyrians from about 700 
to 650 B. C.; by the Egyptians from about 550 to 525 B. C.; 
by the Persians from 525 to 333 B. C.; and then, after 323 
B. C., by the Ptolemies till 58 B. C., when it became a 
Roman province. In 44 A. D. it was visited by Paul in 
his first missionary tour. The Saracens (from 649 A. D.) 
took and retook it several times. Wrested from the Sara¬ 
cens by Richard Cceur de Lion in 1191, it was governed by 
kings of its own from 1192 to 1489, and belonged to Venice 
from that time till 1573, when it was conquered by the 
Turks, who still hold it. Perhaps no country on the face 
of the globe has changed masters so many times, or holds 
within its bosom the relics of so many civilizations. Dis¬ 
coveries of the greatest interest and importance have re¬ 
cently been made by Gen. di Cesnola, American consul in 
Cyprus. (See Cesnola; Unger and Kotchv, "Die Insel 
Cypern,” i865; " Storia dell’ Isola di Cipro,” narrata da 
Romualdo Cannonero, Iiiiola, 1870.) 

For many years Cyprus has been a hunting-ground for 
archmologists. The Codex Cyprius, containing the unmu¬ 
tilated Gospels, was found here in the ninth century, and 
was carried to Paris in 1673. Pococke saw ruins and 
tombs ; the abb6 Mariti, who visited the island in the latter 
part of the last century, describes marbles, coins, medals, 
idols, and lamps, but the Turks would not permit diggings. 
Later, a number of silver bowls were found, one of which, 
now in the collection of the due de Luynes, closely resem¬ 
bles those found by Layard at Nimroud. In 1845 a bas- 
relief in black basalt was found at Larnica, upon which is 
sculptured the figure of Sargon, king of Assyria, father of 
Sennacherib. This bore the inscription in cuneiform letters, 
" From the great king Sargon to his vassal friend, the 
king of Citium.” There had, however, been no systematic 













1236 


CYR—CYRIL. 


researches undertaken in the island until Di Cesnola began 
those which have resulted in the magnificent find which 
will for ever be associated with his name. In the article 
Cesnoi.a we have given a summary of the contents of the 
collection now deposited in the Metropolitan Museum of 
Art in New York. No complete catalogue has as yet been 
made out, and therefore it is not easy to give more than 
a general account of the contents of the collection. 

Among tho coins are some of the best Greek period, good 
examples of the Roman imperial times, with others belong¬ 
ing to the Alexanders, the Seleucidm, and the kings of 
Cyprus. In bronze, the articles are very curious and valu¬ 
able, though they have all suffered greatly from decompo¬ 
sition. There are several statuettes of Osiris, of Minerva, 
of Pomona, and one of a mounted warrior, with Greek 
initials on the pedestal. Besides these artistic objects there 
are a multitude of implements—bracelets, anklets, rings, 
amulets, hair-pins, mirrors and mirror-cases, brooches and 
buckles, strigils, tweezers, pincers, lamps, modelling tools, 
vases, cups, tripods, an inkstand with the incrusted ink, 
shields, spears, battle-axes, javelins, arrow-heads, hooks, 
and nails, and the small toothed sickles, such as are in use 
to-day in the island. There are many articles in gold and 
silver, and gems and stones engraved in intaglio and in 
relief—carnelian, carbuncle, jasper, garnet, onyx and agate, 
sapphire and amethyst, with some cameos of paste, one a 
head of a Cmsar, white on a dark-blue ground. The case 
containing jewelry is of great artistic and archaeological 
value, and the student will do well to compare its contents 
with those of the precious case belonging to the Abbot Col¬ 
lection of Egyptian Antiquities in the New York Historical 
Society. The Di Cesnola jewelry consists of rings, ear¬ 
rings, necklaces, amulets, bracelets, beads, buttons, spoons, 
and two or three collars of uncommon size and importance. 
Many of these ornaments are of gold alone, wrought with 
the pincers and the hammer, twisted, granulated, and em¬ 
bossed, showing great skill in execution and resource and 
freedom in design. The relationship between all this 
metal-work and that found in the Castellani and Campana 
collections (the first lately in Rome, but now in the British 
Museum; the second in the Louvre) is an extremely inter¬ 
esting subject of study. The objects in marble, alabaster, 
and stone are very numerous. The most interesting and 
important are the statues, but besides there are heads of 
animals, plates, tripods, ointment-boxes, tear-bottles, vases, 
seals, lamps, small altars, and pedestals. 

But the objects in glass and terra-cotta are the most 
numerous of all, and almost exhaust wonder and curiosit 3 r . 
There are 1700 pieces of glass, and between no two pieces 
is there more than a general resemblance. The cases sur¬ 
rounding one entire room are filled with this glass, the 
greater part of it probably of Phoenician make, though 
found in Greek tombs at Idalium (the modern Dali), and 
supposed to range from 400 B. C. to 100 B. C. It. would be 
impossible within any reasonable limits to give any satis¬ 
factory account of this astonishing collection. The objects 
consist of plates, cups, bottles—these last of all sizes and 
shapes—vases, buttons, necklaces, and seals, and one spoon 
—a unique specimen. Much of this glass has been oxi¬ 
dized by the action of time and burial in the earth, and 
the result is a splendid iridescence, differing greatly in 
amount in different specimens, and differing too in the 
chord of color. In general, the surface of these glass 
objects is little ornamented, but there are notable excep¬ 
tions, a few being either fluted, ribbed, or decorated with 
pressed ornaments or crinkled handles, or with twisted 
patterns in the glass itself, as in some specimens of Vene¬ 
tian glass. 

Nor are the objects in terra-cotta less numerous or less 
interesting. They are of all periods and races, and the 
visitor will find his interest divided between the Phoenician 
pottery and the Greek statuettes, lamps, and vases. The 
examples of Phoenician pottery are in incredible number; 
they are of every grotesque shape into which man can 
pinch, turn, or twist clay, but beautiful or graceful forms 
are rare, and the ornamentation is made up of circles, sin¬ 
gle or concentric, lines, zigzags, dots, and animals, princi¬ 
pally birds, drawn without other skill than that which 
knows how to keep a sort of symmetry and proportion. 
The series of lamps begins with the Phoenician, mere clay 
scoops, modeled from bivalve shells perhaps, as their oldest 
vases and bowls are from gourds; then come the Egyptian, 
and then the Greek, these last generally ornamented on the 
upper surface with figures in relief so spirited in design 
that one takes the same pleasure in examining them as in 
looking at Greek coins or gems of the best period. 

The statuettes in terra-cotta are of the highest interest. 
They are in great variety, and many of them are so odd 
that it is difficult not to believe them caricatures; but prob¬ 
ably we are studying the slow development of tho art of 
sculpture in the island. In one of the cases there are 


ranged in chronological order statuettes of Venus from tho 
earliest time, some of them most amusing in their de¬ 
formity, but the series culminates in several little figures 
of the purest Greek type and of the finest execution. Mr. 
Hitchcock, from whose account of the collection in “Har¬ 
per’s Monthly” for July, 1872—the best that has been 
written thu3 far—ours is mainly condensed, says of these 
statues that “no museum possesses a single statue of a 
period so remote as many of these, and some of them are 
by far the oldest known to exist.” (Besides the article in 
“Harper” above mentioned, see “Die Saminlung Cesnola, 
beschrieben von Johannes Doell,” published in the “Me¬ 
moirs of the St. Petersburg Imperial Academy of Sciences,” 
1873, with seventeen pages of beautifully executed litho¬ 
graph illustrations; also, “The Antiquities of Cyprus, 
photographed by Stephen Thompson, from a selection 
made by C. T. Newton, M. A., Keeper of Greek and Roman 
Antiquities at the British Museum, with an Introduction 
by Sidney Colvin, M. A.,” London, 1873.) 

Revised by Clarence Cook. 

Cyr, a township of Aroostook co., Me. Pop. 376. 

Cyrena'ica [Gr. Kvprjveua], the ancient name of a re¬ 
gion of Northern Africa, now known as Barca (which see). 
It is also called Pentapolis, from its five cities, Cyrene, 
Apollonia, Teuchira, Hesperides, Barca; afterwards Cy¬ 
rene, Apollonia, Ptolema'is, Arsinoe, Berenice. The prin¬ 
cipal city was Cyrene, from which the name was derived. 
Cyrenaica was bounded on the W. by Africa Propria, on 
the E. by Marmarica, and extended southward as far as 
Libya Inferior. The original inhabitants, now represented 
by the Berbers, were probably descendants of Phut, the 
third son of Ham (Gen. x. 6). The Greeks began to colo¬ 
nize this part of Africa about 631 B. C. Till 430 B. C., 
Cyrenaica was governed by a dynasty of eight kings, four 
of whom bore the name of Battus, and four the name of 
Arcesilaus. A democratic republic was then established. 
In 332 B. C. the people submitted to Alexander. Under 
the Ptolemies many Jews settled there. In 75 B. C., Cyre¬ 
naica became a Roman province, and afterwards a part of 
the Byzantine empire. In A. D. 616 it was conquered by 
the Persian Chosroes (Khosroo), in 647 was overrun by the 
Arabs, and now is under the rule of the Turks, whose au¬ 
thority, however, is hardly more than nominal. Its climate 
is delightful, and much of its soil very fertile. 

Cyre'ne [Gr. Kvpjjio?], the capital of Cyrenaica, was situ¬ 
ated about 10 miles from the Mediterranean, and 1800 feet 
above the level of the sea. It was founded about 631 B. C. 
by a colony of Greeks. Cyrene carried on an extensive 
commerce with Egypt and Greece through its port called 
Apollonia. It was the native place of Aristippus, Eratos¬ 
thenes, the poet Callimachus, and Carneades. Remains of 
its former magnificence are still visible. The site is now 
occupied by a poor town called Grenne or Kooreen. 

Cyre'nius, or Quiri'nus (Publius Sulpicius), a Ro¬ 
man governor (proconsul) of Syria. Recent investigations 
have rendered it highly probable that he held that office 
twice—first, from 4 to 1 B. C., when Christ was born (Luke 
ii. 2), and again from 6 to 11 A. D. (See Zumpt, “ Dc Syria 
Romanorum Provincia,” 1854.) 

Cyr'il, or Cyril'lus [Gr. KvpiAAos], Saint, bishop of 
Jerusalem, was born, probably at Jerusalem, in 315 A. D. 
He was ordained a deacon in 334 or 335, a presbyter in 
345, and became bishop of Jerusalem in 350 or 351. Aca- 
cius, bishop of Caesarea, who was an Arian and an enemy 
of Cyril, caused the latter to be deposed by a council in the 
year 358. He was restored in 359, again deposed in 360, again 
restored in 362, deposed the third time in 367, and the third 
time restored in 368. He is said to have predicted the fail¬ 
ure of Julian’s attempt to rebuild the Jewish temple in 
363. He died in 386. The best editions of his works are 
by Milles, Oxford, 1703, and by Toutt§e (Benedictine), 
Paris, 1720. They consist of eighteen catecheses, address¬ 
ed, in 347 or 348, to catechumens, five addressed to the 
newly baptized, a homily on the paralytic man, and a let¬ 
ter to the emperor Constantius, describing a luminous cross 
which he saw in the sky over Jerusalem in 351. His style 
is diffuse and inflated. His writings have no great doctrinal 
weight, but are of great arclneological and liturgical value. 

Cyril, or Cyrillus, Saint, an intolerant and arrogant 
prelate, born at Alexandria in Egypt. He became bishop 
of Alexandria in 412 A. D., persecuted the Jews, and was 
notorious for his fanatical zeal and turbulence. The cruel 
murder of the accomplished female philosopher Hypatia in 
415 has been laid to his charge, but without proof. He had 
a long controversy with Nestorius on the subject of the In¬ 
carnation, and presided over the Council of Ephesus in 431. 
Cyril died in 444 A. D. The best edition of his works is by 
Aubert, Paris, 1638, in seven volumes. His commentaries 
are worthless. His ablest work is the treatise against 
Julian, in ten books, written in 433. 



































CYRIL—CZERNY. 


Cyril, whose name originally was Constantine, son 
of Leon of Thessalonica, and elder brother of Methodius, 
was born between 810 and 830 A. D. .About 850, Cyril 
went as a missionary among the Chazars in the Crimea; 
in 861 Methodius went to Bulgaria; and in 863 the two 
brothers went together to Moravia. They were the apos¬ 
tles of the Slavic race. Cyril invented the alphabet, and 
translated into the Slavic language the Psalter and all of 
the New Testament, except the Apocalypse. In 868 he 
obeyed the pope’s summons to Rome, where he died Feb. 
14, 869. 

Cyrilla [named in honor of Domenico Cirillo], a genus 
of evergreen trees and shrubs of the natural order Cyril- 
laceae. Several varieties of Cyrilla racemifiora, a small tree 
or shrub, occur in the Southern U. S. The clusters of 
small white flowers appear in June. In cultivation this is 
one of our finest native evergreens. 

Cyrilla' cere, a small natural order of evergreen shrubs 
and trees, mostly North American, several of which occur 
in the Southern IT. S. This order, which includes the gen¬ 
era Cyrilla, Cliftonia, Elliottia, etc., is kindred to the 
Ericaceae, and contains no plants of industrial value. 

Cyrillic Alphabet, an alphabet invented about 863 
A. D. by Saint Cyril, the apostle of the southern Slavi. It 
was based upon the older Glagolitic alphabet. Some 
writers, however, make the Glagolitic to be the invention 
of Cyril, while the so-called Cyrillic they consider to be 
the invention of Clement, bishop of Welitza, who died in 
916 A. D. The Cyrillic, with a number of modifications, is 
the alphabet used in Russia and some other Slavic countries. 

Cy'rus [Gr. KGpo? (or KGpos 6 na.\au6s, i.e. “ Cyrus the 
Elder"); Persian, Kai-Khosroo; old (cuneiform) Persian, 
KooroosK], surnamed the Great, the founder of the Per¬ 
sian empire, and the greatest of the Persian heroes, was 
the son of Cambyses, a Persian nobleman. His mother 
was Mandane, a daughter of Astyages, king of Media. Ac¬ 
cording to a tradition which Herodotus adopted, Astyages 
was alarmed by a dream which portended that the offspring 
of Mandane would become king or conquer Media, and he 
commanded an officer named Harpagus to kill Cyrus. Har- 
pagus promised to obey the order, but privily committed 
the infant to the care of a herdsman, who brought him up 
with his own children. Cyrus, having discovered the secret 
of his birth, and having inured himself to the hardy habits 
of the warlike Persians, incited the latter to revolt against 
the king of Media. He defeated Astyages in battle, and 
ascended the throne in 558 B. C. He conquered Croesus, 
king of Lydia, in 554, and extended his dominions by the 
conquest of other states. Among his exploits was the cap¬ 
ture of Babylon, by diverting the river Euphrates from its 
channel, in the year 538, while Belshazzar was feasting. 
This event was foretold by the prophet Isaiah, who declared: 
“ Thus saith the Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose right 
hand I have holden to subdue nations before him.” (Chap, 
xlv. 1.) Cyrus issued an edict that the Jewish captives 
who had been deported to Babylon should return to Jeru¬ 
salem and rebuild their temple. Herodotus states that he 
afterwards invaded the country of the Scythian Massagetm, 
who were ruled by Queen Tomyris, and that he gained sev¬ 
eral victories over her, but was drawn into an ambush and 
killed in 529 B. C. According to Xenophon, Cyrus died a 
natural death at Pasargadm. He was succeeded by his son 
Cambyses. (See Xexophox, “ Cyropasdia;” Diodorus Sicu¬ 
lus, books ii., ix., x., xvii., and xxxi.; Schubart, “ Pro- 
gramma de Cyro,” 1743 ; Wetzke, “ Cyrus der Griinder des 
Persischen Reiches,” 1849; Rawlixsox, “Five Great Mon¬ 
archies,” 2d ed. 1871.) 

Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Cyrus the Younger was the second son of Darius 
Nothus, king of Persia, by whom he was appointed satrap 
of Lydia and Phrygia in 407 B. C. Having formed a de¬ 
sign to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes Mneinon, he hired 
a large army of Greek mercenaries, of whom Clearchus, a 
Spartan, was the leader. In the year 401 B. C. he moved 
his army from Sardis, but kept his soldiers in ignorance of 
their destination. Xenophon the historian took part in this 
expedition. Cyrus met the army of Artaxerxes at Cunaxa, 
where, rashly exposing himself in the front, he was killed 
about Sept., 401 B. C. His character is praised by Xeno¬ 
phon. (See Grote, “ History of Greece Xexophox, “Ana¬ 
basis” and “ Hellenica.”) 

Cyst [from the Gr. kvo-tis, a “bladder”], a word com¬ 
monly used to designate hollow tumors or pathological 
structures in the form of a bladder. The name is also ap¬ 
plied to hollow organs with thin walls, as the gall and uri¬ 
nary bladders. Pathological cysts are frequently transpa¬ 
rent and of great tenuity. They are mostly lined by an 
epithelium, and are either simple or compound, unilocular 
or multilocular; sometimes they are small and separate, 


1237 


sometimes very large and complex. They are usually filled 
with a fluid. Some of them are parasitic and of independent 
animal nature, as the hydatids. 

Cysticer'cus [from the Gr. kvo-tis, a “cyst,” and ks P k os, 
a “tail” (i. e. a “tailed cyst”)], a name applied to the 
scolices or larvae of certain Cestoid Worms (which see). 
They are often found in the flesh of pigs and other animals, 
and sometimes in the human body, causing the tumors 
known as hydatids. (See Hydatid.) 

Cystic Worms. See Cestoid Worms. 

Cyt'isus [Gr. /cvticto?], a genus of plants of the order 
Leguminosae, sub-order Papilionaceae, of which some spe¬ 
cies are popularly called broom. The common broom of 
Europe is the Cytisus Scoparius, (See Broom.) The genus 
comprises many species, some of which have beautiful 
flowers and are cultivated in gardens. 

Cyz'icus, a peninsula of Asia Minor, in Anatolia, ex¬ 
tending into the Sea of Marmora, is about 70 miles S. W. 
of Constantinople. It is connected by a narrow neck with 
the mainland, and is noted for its picturesque scenery. The 
ancient Greek city of Cyzicus was on this peninsula and 
on the Propontis. The site of this splendid city is marked 
by the ruins of an amphitheatre. 

Czar [from the Russian tsar, a “king”], the title of 
the emperors of Russia. As early as the twelfth century 
this title was given by the Russian annalists to the grand 
duke Vladimir and his successors, but it was not officially 
used till the sixteenth century. In the year 1505, Basil 
Ivanovitch assumed the name of samodershez (autocrat), 
and his son, Ivan the Terrible, caused himself to be crowned 
czar in 1547. In 1724, Peter the Great added the title 
imperator to that of czar, an assumption of dignity which 
some of the European powers refused to acknowledge. The 
wife of the czar was called czarina; she is now styled im- 
peratritza. Among the Russians the czar is popularly 
termed hossooclar. 

Czartorys'ki (Adam George), Prixce, a Polish patriot, 
a son of Prince Adam Casimir, president of the Polish Diet, 
was born at Warsaw Jan. 14, 1770. He fought against 
Russia in 1792, was taken to St. Petersburg as a hostage, 
and gained the favor of the grand duke Alexander, who 
appointed him assistant minister of foreign affairs in 1802, 
which position he resigned in 1808. In the revolution of 
1830 he supported the Poles against Russia, and was 
elected president of the new government Jan., 1831, but 
after the defeat of the Poles in August of that year went 
into exile. Died in Paris July 16, 1861. 

Czas'lau, a town of Bohemia, 45 miles E. S. E. of 
Prague. Its church, in which the Hussite leader Ziska 
was buried, is surmounted by a spire said to be the highest 
in Bohemia. Here Frederick the Great defeated the Aus¬ 
trians May 17, 1742. Pop. in 1871, 5998. 

Czeg'led, a market-town of Hungary, is on the railway 
from Pesth to Temesvar, about 50 miles S. E. of Pestli. It 
has some handsome buildings and large breweries; also a 
trade in red wine. Pop. in 1870, 22,206. 

Czensto'chow, a town of Poland, on the river Warthe. 
Here is a convent which has a dark-colored picture of the 
Virgin, visited by multitudes of pilgrims, and reputed to 
have miraculous power. Pop. 14,167. 

Czerka'sy, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Kiev, on the Dnieper, 156 miles E. S. E. from Berditchef, 
is the seat of the hetman of the Saporoj Cossacks. Pop. 
13,311. 

Czer'mak (Joiiaxx Nepomuk), born at Prague June 17, 
1828, became in 1865 professor of physiology at Jena. He 
published, among other works, “ The Laryngoscope, and 
its Practical Value for Physiology and Medicine” (1860), 
and “Information from a Physiological Study” (1864). 
Died Sept. 16, 1873, while professor at Leipsic. 

Czer'nowitz, capital of the Austrian duchy of Buko- 
vina, is on a hill near the river Pruth, about 160 miles 
S. S. E. of Lemberg. It is the seat of a bishop of the 
Oriental Greek Church, has a Greek theological seminary, 
a gymnasium, a Realschule, a school of midwifery, a pro¬ 
vincial library, a chamber of commerce, and manufactures 
of clocks, hardware, silver-ware, etc. Pop. in 1870, 33,884. 

Czer'ny (George), or Kara George (Black George), 
a Servian chief, born Dec. 21, 1766, was originally a peas¬ 
ant. He became in 1806 the leader of the Servians, who 
had revolted against Turkey. He defeated the Turks, cap¬ 
tured Belgrade in Dec., 1806, and liberated Servia, secretly 
aided by Russia. When Russia, invaded by Napoleon, 
could no longer support him, Czerny was driven out by the 
Turks in 1813. Having returned to Servia, he was mur¬ 
dered in July, 1817, at the instance of Milosch Obrcno- 
vitch.—His second son, Alexaxder Karageorgevitcii, 
was prince of Servia from 1842 to 1858. 




















D—DACIER. 


D, the fourth letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew, as 
well as of the Greek and Roman alphabets. The name in 
Hebrew ( ddleth ) signifies “ door/’ and the picture of a door 
was probably its original hieroglyphic form. Some have 
conjectured that the Greek delta (A) derived its form from 
the triangular door of a tent. The sound of the English d 
is formed by placing the tongue against the gums at the 
roots of the teeth. But in pronouncing the letter in several 
other languages (as the Spanish, Arabic, and Persian) the 
tongue is placed against the teeth themselves, and from 
this circumstance it is termed a dental. In the Sanscrit 
there are two letters which are represented, though not 
quite accurately, by the English d. The one is truly a den¬ 
tal, being similar to the Spanish d; the other is formed by 
turning the tip of the tongue back against the roof of the 
mouth, whence it is termed a palatal, and sometimes a 
cerebral, letter. D is often interchanged with other let¬ 
ters (as t and th (6)) of the same class. Hence burned be¬ 
comes burnt, passed becomes past, and so on ; and 
we have such variations as burden and burthen, 
murder and murther, though the latter is now ob¬ 
solete. 

The sound of dental d often approaches, or is 
actually changed into, that of th in this. Thus, in 
Spanish, d when between two vowels or at the end 
of a word, has almost, if not exactly, the sound of 
th in the English word smother; the same is sub¬ 
stantially true of the Danish ; hence the Danish 
words for “ brother” ( broder) and “ mother ” ( moder ) 
have nearly the same sound as their English equiv¬ 
alents. The delta (6) of the modern Greeks has 
exactly the same sound as our th in this. 

D, in music, is the second note in the scale, and 
is one tone above C. In chemistry D stands for didymium. 

Among the ancient Romans, D (capital) stood for 500, or 
as an abbreviation it stood for divus (a title signifying the 
“godlike”), and Decimus, a name. Among the ancient 
Greeks delta with a mark on it (S') stood for the number 4. 

Dab (Platessa limanda), a small, flat fish belonging to the 


Dab. 

same genus as the flounder. It is common on the more 
sandy coasts of Great Britain, is found in deeper water 
than the flounder, and does not enter the mouths of streams. 
The lemon or smooth dab (Platessa microcephala) is a larger 
species of the same genus, with a smooth body, very small 
head and mouth, and in color a mixture of brown and yel¬ 
low shades. The rusty dab (Platessa ferruginea ) is a rare 
fish of the New England coast. 

Daboll' (Nathan), born about 1750, was the author of 
“Daboll’s Arithmetic” (fonnerly very famous), and also a 
treatise on navigation. He was a teacher of Connecticut. 
Died at Groton, Conn., Mar. 9, 1818.—C. L. Daboll, his 
son, was the inventor of the fog-trumpet. Ho died Oct. 
13, 1866. 

Da Ca'po [It., da, “from,” and capo, “head,” “begin¬ 
ning”], a musical term, abbreviated thus, D. C., is an in¬ 
struction to the performer in such airs as end with the first 
strain to return to the beginning and repeat the first part. 

Dac'ca, one of the divisions into which the province 
of Bengal in British India is divided. Area, 21,418 square 
miles. Pop. in 1872, 9,317,777. It is divided into five dis¬ 
tricts, ono of which is called Dacca. The district of Dacca 
forms part of the delta of the Ganges and Brahmapootra. 
It extends from lat. 23° 12' to 24° 17' N., and from Ion. 90° 


11' to 90° 58' E. Area, 2897 square miles. The surface 
is low and level; the soil is well adapted to the produc¬ 
tion of rice. Capital, Dacca. Pop. in 1872, 1,853,416. 

Dacca, a city, the capital of the above district, is in 
Bengal, on the Burha Gunga, a navigable stream con¬ 
nected with the Ganges, 127 miles N. E. of Calcutta. It 
was once a populous city, but its prosperity has declined. 
It contains several ruined palaces, 180 mosques, 119 pago¬ 
das or Hindoo temples, a government college, and several 
hospitals. Dacca was formerly celebrated for the manu¬ 
facture of fine muslins, poetically termed “evening dew” 
and “ flowing water.” This manufacture is now extinct. 
Magnificent ruins of palaces, bridges, caravanserais, etc. 
are visible here. Pop. about 70,000. 

Dace, a fish of the family Cvprinidae, of the same genus 
(Leuciscus) with the roach, and not unlike it in form; the 
mouth is larger and the scales smaller. The upper parts 


Dace. 


are dusky blue, shading into white on the belly ,* the cheek 
and gill-covers are silvery white. Its flesh is not greatly 
esteemed. Dace are gregarious, swimming in shoals, and 
spawning in June. There are several species which inhabit 
clear, quiet streams, and are found in various parts of Eu¬ 
rope and the U. S. Some of the American species are as¬ 
signed to other allied genera. 

Dace'Jo [an anagram of alcedo, a “kingfisher”], 
a genus of Australian 
kingfishers, of which 
several species have 
been observed. Of these, 
the best known is the 
Dacelo gigas, or “ laugh¬ 
ing jackass,” a rather 
large and handsome bird 
of New South Wales. It 
takes its popular name 
from its harsh, dissonant 
cry, which greatly re¬ 
sembles the so-called 
laugh of the hyaena, 
and is not altogether 

unlike the bray of the Dacelo gigas cl¬ 

ass. This cry is uttered _ Laughing jackass.” 
at early dawn. The bird inhabits hollow trees, and feeds 
upon fish, reptiles, insects, etc. 

Da'ci, also called Ge'tae, an ancient barbarous people 
who inhabited Dacia. They are supposed to have emi¬ 
grated from Thrace to Dacia before the time of Alexander 
the Great. Their name, “ Getm,” is thought by critics to 
be identical with “ Gothi ” or Goths. If this opinion is 
correct, the Daci were a Germanic people. 

Da'cia, a former country of Europe, was occupied by 
the Daci, a warlike people. It was bounded on the N. by 
the Carpathian Mountains, and on the S. by the Danube. 
The Dacians waged against the Romans a long defensive 
war which began in 10 B. C., when Augustus sent an army 
to conquer them. In the reign of Domitian they compelled 
the Romans to pay tribute. Trajan conquered Dacia, and 
reduced it to a Roman province in 106 A. D. It was form¬ 
ally relinquished by Hadrian (117-138) on his accession 
to power, and yet remained under Roman masters till the 
time of Aurelian (270-275), when the Romans finally with¬ 
drew within the Danube, leaving the country to the Goths. 
This province comprised the eastern part of Hungary, 
Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallaohia. 

Dacier (Anne LEKiivrtE), a learned French lady, the 
wife of Andr6 Dacier, was born at Saumur in Mar., 1654. 

























DA COSTA—DAGUERRE. 


She was instructed in Greek and Latin by her father, the 
learned Tannegui Lefevre, became a resident of Paris in 
1672, and was employed by the duke of Montausier to edit 
several Latin authors for the use of the dauphin. She was 
married to Andre Dacier (1651-1722), librarian of the 
king, the translator of Plutarch, and editor of the Delphine 
Horace, etc., in 1683. She produced French translations 
of Anacreon (1681), of Terence, of Homer’s “Iliad” (1699), 
and of the “Odyssey” (1708). As an enthusiastic admirer 
of Homer and other ancient poets, she was engaged in a 
famous controversy with La Mothe, and wrote her “ Traite 
de cause de la corruption du goftt.” (See Burette, “Eloge 
de Mine, Dacier.”) Died Aug. 17, 1720. 

Da Cos'ta (J. M.), M. D., an eminent American phy¬ 
sician, was born in the island of St. Thomas, in the West 
Indies, Feb. 7, 1833, and received his medical education at 
Philadelphia and in Europe. He became professor of the 
practice of medicine at the Jefferson College in Philadel¬ 
phia in 1872. He has published, besides other works, an 
excellent treatise on “Medical Diagnosis” (3d ed. 1872). 

Dacota. See Dakota, by L. P. Brockett, M. D. 

D ac'tyl [from the Gr. S<xktv\o ?, a “finger,” because, like 
the dactyl, a finger has one longer and two shorter parts], 
the name of a metrical foot in Greek and Latin poetry, 
consisting of a long and two short syllables, as cdrmlna. 
The term is also applied in the English and other lan¬ 
guages to a foot or measure consisting of one accented and 
two unaccented syllables, as destiny. In Latin hexameters 
the next to the last foot is almost always a dactyl. 

Dactylology. See Deaf and Dumb. 

Dactylop'terus [from the Gr. 8<xktv\os, a “finger,” and 
mepov, a “wing”], a genus 
ofacanthopterygian fishes 
of the family Triglidae, re¬ 
markable for the great de¬ 
velopment of the pectoral 
fins. The beautifully-col¬ 
ored species Dactylopte- 
rus orientalis (commonly 
known as the Indian fly¬ 
ing gurnard) is found 
throughout the Indian 
Ocean and Archipelago. 

It is very striking in form, Dactylopterus. 

having lai*ge pectoral fins and two curved spines (or fila¬ 
ments) between the head and dorsal fin, the foremost of 
which is much elongated. Shoals of this fish are often 
seen flying above the surface of the water, and occasionally 
touching the summits of the highest waves. 

Dac'tylos [Gr. Solktv Ao?, a “ finger ”], a finger’s breadth, 
an ancient Greek measure, equal to 0.7586 inches. 

Da'cusville, a post-township of Pickens co., S. C. 
Pop. 1356. 

Dadd (George H.), M. D., a veterinary surgeon, born 
in England in 1813, removed to the U. S. in 1839, and be¬ 
came well known as a writer upon veterinary science and 
kindred topics. 

Dade, a county which forms the S. extremity of the 
mainland of Florida, comprising also a part of the “ keys” 
or islands. Area, 4400 square miles. The surface is low 
and level, and mostly occupied by the Everglades, in which 
multitudes of small islands are interspersed in an expanse 
of shallow water. Capital, Biscayne. Pop. 85. 

Dade, a county which forms the N. W. extremity of 
Georgia. Area, 160 square miles. The surface is finely 
diversified by valleys, and by mountains called Lookout 
Mountain and Missionary Ridge. Grain and wool are the 
chief products. It is intersected by the Alabama and 
Chattanooga It. It. Capital, Trenton. Pop. 3033. 

Dade, a county in the S. W. of Missouri. Area, 498 
square miles. It is intersected by Sac River, an affluent 
of the Osage. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. 
Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are produced. Capital, 
Greenfield. Pop. 8683. 

Dadeville, a post-village, capital of Tallapoosa co., 
Ala., 50 miles N. E. of Montgomery, on the Savannah and 
Memphis R. R., 30 miles N. W. of Opelika. It has a min¬ 
eral spring, two weekly newspapers, a female institute, and 
other schools. Pop. of township, 1266. 

J. M. Oliver, Ed. and Prop. “Tallapoosa News.” 

Da'do, an Italian word signifying a “die,” is applied 
in architecture to the cubic block which forms the body of 
a pedestal, and is between the base and the cornice. The 
term is also applied to the wainscoting of a room. 

Daul'alus [Gr. AaiSaAos], a personage of Greek my¬ 
thology, was celebrated as an inventor and mechanical 
genius. He was the reputed inventor of the auger, saw, 


and other tools. According to tradition, he built the Laby¬ 
rinth of Crete, the temple of Apollo at Cumae, and fabri¬ 
cated wings with which he flew from Crete to Sicily, lie 
was the father of Icarus (which see). 

Da;d&lus of Sicyon, son and pupil of Patrocles, 
himself a distinguished artist, flourished about 400 B. C. 
He made for the Eleans, after their victory over the Lace¬ 
daemonians, the trophy which they erected in the grove 
Altis. Besides this lie fashioned statues of several athletes, 
a Victory, and others enumerated by Pausanias. 

Henry Drisler. 

Daet, a town of Luzon, one of the Philippine Islands, 
capital of the province of North Camarines, is about 140 
miles S. E. of Manila. Pop. about 7500. 

DafTodil [Gr. do-$6SeAos; Lat. aspliodelus), the English 
name of those species of Narcissus which have a large 
bell-shaped corona. The common daffodil (Narcissus 
Pseudo-narcissus) is a native of England, having showy 
yellow flowers. Another species, called Narcissus minor , 
is cultivated in gardens for the sake of the flowers, which 
open early in spring. 

Dagg (John Leadley), D. D., LL.D., born in Middle- 
burg, Va., Feb. 13, 1794, pastor of the Fifth Baptist church, 
Philadelphia (1825-34), principal of Alabama Female 
Athenseum (1836-44), president of Mercer University 
(1844-54), and professor of systematic theology to 1856. 
He is author of “ A Manual of Theology,” “ Church Order,” 
“ Moral Science,” used as a text-book in several colleges, 
“ Evidences of Christianity,” etc.—all valuable and popular 
works. 

Dag'gett (David), LL.D., an able American lawyer 
and jurist, born at Attleborough, Mass., Dec. 31, 1764. He 
was a Senator of the U. S. from 1813 to 1819, and was ap¬ 
pointed in 1826 Kent professor of law at Yale College, of 
which he was a graduate. He became chief-justice of 
Connecticut in 1832. Died April 12, 1851. 

Daggett (Oliver Ellsworth), D. D., an American 
scholar and divine, son of David, noticed above, born Jan. 
14, 1810, at New Haven, Conn., graduated at Yale College 
(1828), ordained pastor of the South church, Hartford, 
Conn. (April 12, 1837), pastor of the First Congregational 
church, Canandaigua, N. Y., nearly twenty-three years, 
afterwards was professor of divinity in Yale College about 
three years, and is now pastor of the Second Congregational 
church, New London, Conn.; author of several printed 
sermons, of many articles in the “New Englander,” and 
also one of the compilers of the “ Connecticut Hymn-Book,” 
issued in 1845. 

Daghestan' [from the Persian dagh, “mountain,” and 
stan, “ country ”], a province of Russia, extends along the 
western coast of the Caspian Sea, from lat. 41° to 43° N., 
and is mostly between Ion. 46° and 50° E. It is bounded on 
the S. W. by the Caucasus Mountains, and the surface is 
generally mountainous. Area, 11,039 square miles. Chief 
town, Derbend. The country belonged to Persia until 
1812, when it was ceded to Russia, but the Russian rule 
was not fully established until the submission of Schamyl 
in 1859. Pop. 449,096. 

Dag'obert [Lat. Dagobertm ] I . 9 king of the Franks, 
born about 602 A. D., succeeded his father, Clotaire II., in 
628. He died in 638, leaving two sons, Sigebert, king of 
Austrasia, and Clovis II. of Neustria. 

Da'goe, or Da'go, an island of Russia, in the Baltic 
Sea, is a part of Esthonia, and is separated from the island 
of Oesel by the narrow Sele-Sund. It is nearly 34 miles 
long and 15 miles wide. Area, 234 square miles. Its soil 
is not fertile. The inhabitants (partly Swedish and partly 
Esthonian) number about 10,000. There are forests upon 
the island. The exports are fish, and cattle of a small and 
peculiar breed. 

Da'gon [a diminutive of endearment, and apparently 
masculine, from the Hebrew dag, u a fish”], a Philistine 
god, human down to the waist, with the tail of a fish; em¬ 
bodying the idea of fertility. The Phoenicians also had a 
fish-god, Dagon. The identity of the Assyrian Dagan with 
the Phoenician Dagon, affirmed by some, is denied by 
others. 

Dags'borough, a hundred and post-village of Sussex 
ct>., Del. The village is about 12 miles S. E. of George¬ 
town. Total pop. 2599. 

Daguerre (Louis Jacques Mande), the inventor of the 
daguerreotype, was born at Cormeilles in 1789. He became 
a skilful scene-painter, and was one of the inventors of the 
diorama. Daguerre and Niepce (1765-1833) began to make 
experiments in photography conjointly in 1826. After the 
death of Niepce, Daguerre succeeded in forming indelible 
images on metallic plates by the chemical action of light. 
He "continued to make improvements in photography. 
Died July 12, 1851. 























1240 DAGUERREOTYPE—DAIS. 


Dagucr'reotype [named from Daguerre, its inventor], 
the first successful (now obsolete) form of the photograph. 
A polished plate of silvered metal was exposed in dark¬ 
ness to the vapor of iodine mixed with bromine, or of 
iodine alone, until it took a reddish-yellow tint. It was 
then exposed to the luminous image of the camera, and 
quickly transferred to a dark room. Here the plate (on 
which no image was visible) was exposed to vapor of mer¬ 
cury, which brought out the figure by blending with that 
part of the surface which had been affected by the light in 
the camera. Next the plate was washed in a solution of 
hyposulphite of soda, which removed the unaltered iodo- 
bromide of silver, and left the picture untouched. The 
principles involved are discussed under Photography, by 
Prof. C. F. Chandler, Ph. D., LL.D. (which see). 

Daguscahon'da, a post-village of Elk co., Pa., is at 
the junction of the Daguscahonda R. R. with the Philadel¬ 
phia and Erie R. R., 5 miles W. of St. Mary’s. There are 
coal-mines in the vicinity. 

Dahl'en, a town of Germany in the Prussian Rhine 
province, in the circle of Geldern, has extensive manufac¬ 
tures. Pop. in 1871, 6162. 

Dahl'green, a township of Carver co., Minn. Pop. 
1303. 

DahPgren (John A.), IT. S. N., born Nov. 13, 1809, in 
Philadelphia, entered the navy as a midshipman Feb. 1, 
1826, became a passed midshipman in 1832, a lieutenant 
in 1837, a commander in 1855, a captain in 1S62, and a 
rear-admiral in 1863. On the 22d of April, 1861, through 
the abandonment of his trust by Capt. Franklin Buchanan, 
Dahlgren, then on ordnance duty, became commandant of 
the U. S. navy-yard, Washington, and to his firmness and 
sound judgment at that crisis the government was indebted 
for the preservation of the yard from falling into the hands 
of the Confederates. In the fall of 1862 Dahlgren was de¬ 
tached from the navy-yard, and appointed chief of the 
bureau of ordnance, and in June, 1863, became commander- 
in-chief of the South Atlantic blockading squadron, re¬ 
lieving Rear-Admiral S. F. Dupont of that command in the 
harbor of Port Royal, S. C., July 6, 1863. He at once 
commenced active operations in conjunction with Gen. 
Gillmore, U. S. A., which speedily resulted in the posses¬ 
sion of the greater part of Morris Island and the silencing 
of Fort Sumter, and secured a safe anchorage for the mon¬ 
itors inside the bar of Charleston, thus effectually putting 
a stop to the blockade-running which had been before so 
successfully practised, and reducing Charleston to a place 
of no importance for the rest of the war. After the fall 
of Charleston in 1865, Dahlgren resigned his command, 
and in 1866 was appointed commander-in-chief of the South 
Pacific squadron, in the discharge of which duty he remained 
for two years. In 1868 he was a second time appointed 
chief of the bureau of ordnance, from which station he was 
relieved at his own request in 1870, and ordered to the com¬ 
mand of the navy-yard at Washington, where he died July 
12, 1870. 

Rear-Admiral Dahlgren was a man of most exemplary 
character, of great personal bravery, and of rare ability. 
He is the author of the following works, viz.: “ Exercise 
and Manoeuvre for the Boat Howitzer U. S. N.” (1852), 
“System of Boat Armament U. S. N.” (1852), “Ordnance 
Memoranda ” (1853), “ Shells and Shell-guns ” (1856); and 
it is mainly to his labors that the navy is indebted for the 
great improvement in its ordnance which has taken place 
since 1840. The 9-inch and 11-inch Dahlgren “smooth¬ 
bores” are still the favorites of American seamen, and for 
lightness, range, and accuracy combined the Dahlgren 
howitzer is unsurpassed by any boat-gun in the world. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Dahlgren (Ulric), an American officer, born in 1842, 
was a son of Rear-Admiral Dahlgren. He was aide-de- 
camp to Gens. Burnside and Hooker, distinguished him¬ 
self by several acts of gallantry, and lost a leg at Hagers¬ 
town in July, 1863. He commanded a body of cavalry in 
a raid against Richmond, the outer works of which he as¬ 
saulted. During the retreat from that city he was killed 
Mar. 4, 1864. 

Dahl'gren Gun [named from Admiral Dahlgren, its 
inventor], an improved form of ordnance used for howit¬ 
zers, heavy artillery, and especially in naval gunnery. It 
having been demonstrated that in ordinary cast guns the 
weight of the metal forward is greater than is needed, and 
that by far the greatest strain in firing is at the breech, 
Dahlgren greatly increased the relative size and weight of 
the breech, with the best results. These guns are chiefly 
used by the U. S. forces. 

Dah'lia [named in honor of Andrew Dahl, a Swedish 
botanist], a genus of plants of the order Composite and 
cub-order Tubuliflorm. They are natives of Mexico, and 


the numerous varieties cultivated are chiefly derived from 
two species— Dahlia coccinea and Dahlia variabilia. New 
varieties are easily obtained by the artificial fecundation 
of one with the pollen of another. Dahlias have recently 
become very popular, being conspicuous for their varied 
and exquisite colors and regularity of form. The tuberous 
roots of these plants, although not agreeable in taste, are 
used as food in Mexico. A light and moderately rich soil, 
with plentiful moisture, appears to be best adapted to the 
cultivation of dahlias. 

Dahl'mann (Friedrich Christoph), a German histo¬ 
rian, born at Wismar May 13, 1785. He became in 1822 
professor of history at Kiel, in 1829 professor of political 
economy in Gottingen, and was in 1837, on account of his 
protest against the abolition of the fundamental law by 
King Ernest Augustus, deprived of his chair. In 1842 he 
was appointed professor of history at Bonn. In 1848 he 
was one of the leaders of the constitutional party. His 
chief works are a “ History of Denmark ” (3 vols., 1840-43), 
a “ History of the English Revolution ” (6th ed. 1864), and 
a “History of the French Revolution” (3d ed. 1864). A 
biography of Dahlmann has been published by Springer 
(1870). Died Dec. 5, 1860. 

Dahlone'ga, a post-village, capital of Lumpkin co., 
Ga., is on a hill about 66 miles N. N. E. of Atlanta. Gold¬ 
mines have been opened in the vicinity. Here was before 
the war a branch mint of the IT. S.; the building has re¬ 
cently been converted into the North Georgia Agricultural 
College, attended by 125 students. The village has one 
weekly newspaper. Pop. 471. The name of Dalilonega 
is a compound of Indian and English. When gold was 
first discovered here the Indians flocked in from the sur¬ 
rounding country. The Cheroltees then inhabited this 
part of Georgia. Nega was the Indian word for yellow, 
and they called gold dalla-nega, yellow dollar, putting the 
adjective after the substantive. The village that soon 
grew up here in the midst of the gold-region took the 
Indian name of Dalla-nega; the spelling, however, was 
afterwards changed by the introduction of the h and o, as 
it now stands. Pop. 471. Ed. “Mountain Signal.” 

Dahlonega, a post-township of Wapello co., Ia. Pop. 
623. 

Daho'mey, a kingdom of Western Africa, in Guinea, 
is bounded on the S. by the Gulf of Guinea, and partly on 
the W. by the river Volta, which separates it from Ashan- 
tee. Its limits are not exactly defined. Area, estimated 
at about 4000 square miles. The surface is generally level, 
but the northern part is diversified by hills, which are 
covered with luxuriant forests. The soil is fertile. Maize, 
cotton, sugar, yams, tobacco, beans, pease, and manioc are 
cultivated here. The cocoa-nut tree and other species of 
palm flourish. Among the wild animals are lions, tigers, 
and elephants. The people are pagans. The tiger is the 
principal fetish. The Dahomans are bloodthirsty and 
abject, but hospitable and courageous. They can only 
approach their despot by crawling w ith their faces in the 
dust. The monarch once a year sprinkles his ancestors’ 
graves with human blood. No one can take a wife except 
by gift or purchase from the sovereign. At the death of a 
king the multitude of wives in his seraglio set to butcher¬ 
ing one another till checked by the successor. The king 
has a standing army of about 6000 female warriors. Capi¬ 
tal, Abomey. Pop. about 180,000. (See Forbes, “Mis¬ 
sions to Dahomey,” 1851; Burton, “A Mission to Daho¬ 
mey,” 1864.) 

Daimiel, a town of Spain, in the province of Ciudad 
Real, 20 miles E. N. E. of the city of Ciudad Real. It has 
a Gothic church, a town-hall, and a hospital; also manu¬ 
factures of linen and woollen fabrics and blond lace. Pop. 
12.500. 

Daimio, di'me-o, the title of the feudal lords of Japan. 
They are 264 in number, and have exercised in their own 
districts the powers of petty sovereigns. Eighteen of 
these daimios were virtually independent w'ithin their own 
dominions, and hence arose many impediments to the in¬ 
tercourse of the Japanese with Europeans. The recent 
revolution in Japan brings this old feudalism to an end. 
(See Japan.) 

Daingerfield, a post-village of Titus co., Tex., 17 
miles S. E. of Mount Pleasant. It has one weekly and 
one monthly newspaper. Pop. 272. 

Dai'ry [supposed to be derived from an old English 
word, dey or day, “milk”], the department of farming 
which includes the production of milk; also the house or 
apartment where milk is kept, and where butter, cheese, 
etc. are manufactured. (See Butter, by Prof. C. F. 
Chandler, Pii. D., LL.D., and Cheese.) 

Da'is [Fr. dais, a “canopy;” It. desco ; probably akin 
to the Ger. Tisck, a “table”], in architecture, the platform 















DAISY—DAKOTA. 


1241 


at tho upper end of a dining-hall where stood the table 
for distinguished guests; also the canopied seat for those 
who sat there. Mediaeval writers used this word with con¬ 
siderable latitude, one of its significations being a canopy 
over a shrine or statue. 

Dai'sy [from the Anglo-Saxon dteges-age, i. e. “ day’s 
e 3' e ]> a genus ( Beilis) of small perennial plants of the 
order Composite. The daisy is a native of Europe, and 
very common in Great Britain, where its delicate crimson- 
tipped flower has been immortalized by Burns and other 
poets. The variety called “hen and chickens” has the 
main flower-heads surrounded by smaller ones, with short 
steins growing from the summit of the scape. New and 
very beautiful varieties have lately been introduced by the 
florists. In Scotland this flower is called gowan. A few 
species of Beilis have been discovered in the S. W. portion 
of the U. S. 

Dako'ta, a Territory of the U. S., in the N. central 
portion of the Union, lying W. of tho Red River of the 
North, and bisected diagonally by the Missouri River. It 
lies between the parallels of 41° 40' and 49° N. lat., and be¬ 
tween the meridians of 96° 25' and 104° W. Ion. from 
Greenwich. The greater part of its southern boundary lies 
along the parallel of 42° 30', but at its S. E. extremity it 
extends southward to the mouth of the Big Sioux River. 
The Territory is bounded on the N. by British America, 
and in part by the new province of Manitoba; on the E. 
by the States of Minnesota and Iowa; on the S. by Ne¬ 
braska ; and on the W. by the Territories of Wyoming and 
Montana. Its greatest length is 414 miles, and its greatest 
width 360 miles. Its area is 150,932 square miles, or 
96,595,840 acres, including a detached portion, 2000 square 
miles in area, lying W. of Wyoming Territor 3 \ 

Face of the Country .—The Missouri River traverses the 
whole Territory nearly from N. W. to S. E., and with its 
many tributaries—of which the Big Sioux, Vermilion, and 
Dakota on the E. side, and the Niobrara, which forms part 
of the southern boundary, the White (or, as it is sometimes 
called, the White Earth) River, the Wakpashicha or Bad 
River, the Big Cheyenne or Good River, the Moreau River, 
the Ree or Grand River, Heart River, and Little Missouri 
on the W. side—drains the greater part of the Territory, 
and furnishes more than 1000 miles of steamboat naviga¬ 
tion. The Red River of the North forms the eastern 
boundary of the Territory for 200 miles, and discharges its 
waters through Lake Winnipeg into Nelson’s River and 
Hudson’s Bay. It has numerous small tributaries in Da¬ 
kota, but except the Pembina, which drains the north¬ 
eastern portion of the Territory, they are mostly small. 
The only other considerable streams not connected with the 
Missouri or its affluents are the Little Souris or Mouse 
River, an inlet or tributary of Souris Lake, and the stream 
which connects the Turtle Lakes with Minnewakan or 
Devil’s Lake. The whole region E. and N. of the Missouri 
River is studded with great numbers of small lakes. The 
largest of these is Minnewakan or the Devil’s Lake, the 
waters of which are brackish, though liked by the buffaloes. 
It has an area of about 400 square miles. Tchanchikahah, 
Long Lake, Big Stone Lake, Lake Traverse, Wood Lake, 
the Turtle Lakes, Lake Kampeshka, and several others 
are considerable bodies of water. The surface of the Ter¬ 
ritory is greatly varied. In the south-eastern portion is a 
plateau or range of highlands which attains at its highest 
point an elevation of 2046 feet above the sea. This is 
called the Coteau des Prairies. W. of this, but with a con¬ 
siderable depression between (the valley of the Dakota 
River), is another range of highlands, known as the Coteau 
de Missouri. This extends to the banks of the Missouri, 
which in Central Dakota is 1300 feet or more above the 
sea. Northward of the Coteau des Prairies extends for 200 
miles the valley of the Red River of the North, about 
forty or fifty miles in width, and sloping northward, from 
an elevation of about 1000 or 1100 feet at Breckenridge to 
700 or 800 feet at Pembina. W. of this, another plateau, 
somewhat higher and not quite so fertile, extends to the 
western line of the Territory, and indeed to the foot-hills 
of the Rocky Mountains in Montana. W. of the Missouri 
the country rises gradually, and in the S. W. culminates in 
the Black Hills, an outlying range of the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains, in which, however, there are no considerable sum¬ 
mits in the Territory. In the extreme southern and south¬ 
western portion lying between the Big Cheyenne and the 
White River is a large tract extending into N. W. Ne¬ 
braska, known as Les Mauvaises Terres or the Bad Lands, 
perfectly sterile, and furrowed and ridged, by the action of 
water-currents upon the blue clay, into tho most fantastic 
forms, v' 

It will be seen then that nearly the entire surface of the 
country is composed of plateaus of greater or less eleva¬ 
tion, but none of them 60 high as those of Wyoming and 


Colorado. Scattered over these plateaus are numerous iso¬ 
lated buttes (peaks or summits), usually not rising more 
than from 500 to 1500 feet above the plains; these buttes 
have received the most fanciful names, such as Dog’s 
Ears, Deer’s Ears, Eagle’s Nest, Bull Butte, Maison du 
Chien (House of the Dog), Slim Butte, White Clay Butte, 
etc. etc.v 

Although a large portion of the surface of this Territory 
consists of prairie, there is a supply of timber sufficient for 
the use of settlers in nearly every locality, and the margins 
of most of the rivers are fringed with a fine growth of dif¬ 
ferent varieties of forest trees. In the neighborhood of 
the Black Hills extensive forests of excellent pine and 
other timber are found, v 

The basin of the Red River of the North consists mostly 
of open grassy plains, affording an abundant and nutritious 
pasturage through a great portion of the year, and with 
little labor and expense an ample supply of food may be 
secured for the keeping of live-stock during the severe 
winters of this high northern latitude. This region has 
long been noted for its extensive fur-trade, and although 
its agricultural capacities are of the highest order, the 
aversion of the fur-traders and trappers to the extension 
of the settlements has hitherto prevented the immigration 
which would otherwise doubtless have tended towards this 
favored portion of the Territory. * 

The climate of Southern Dakota is comparatively mild, 
but in the northern portions the winters are long and se¬ 
vere. The annual precipitation of moisture is twenty 
inches, and so distributed throughout the year as to bo 
amply sufficient for the perfect maturity of the crops. 4 

The climate and soil of Dakota are exceedingly favor¬ 
able to the growth of wheat, corn, and other cereals, while 
all of the fruits and vegetables raised in the Northern 
States are here produced in the greatest perfection.! 

Geology and Mineralogy .—The geology of Dakota is very 
simple. The greater part, of its surface-rocks belong to the 
cretaceous system and to formations still more recent. The 
only considerable exceptions are the valley of the Red River 
of the North, in which salt-springs and streams have been 
found, indicating that there the Silurian rocks had been 
reached, as all known salt-springs in the U. S. issue from 
that formation ; and the region of the Black Hills, in which 
are found gold, silver, copper, coal, iron, salt, and petro¬ 
leum, showing that it belongs to the earlier systems. Prof. 
F. V. Hayden in 1867 made a careful survey of these hills, 
and found that coming from the cretaceous rocks there was, 
first, a belt of three or four miles in width, surrounding the 
whole mass of Jurassic rocks ; within this a similar belt of 
carboniferous rocks; then a somewhat narrower belt of 
granitic and metamorphic rocks; and that the interior 
mass, a tract forty by sixty-five miles in extent, was wholly, 
on its surface, of the Potsdam sandstone formation. Some 
of the summits in this tract attain a height of 6500 feet. 
The upheaval of the region of which Dakota forms a part 
began in the N. E., in the valley of the Red River, and con¬ 
tinued towards the S. W., though probably the Black Hills 
emerged from the flood before some of the intervening lands. 
From the Red River of the North we pass S. W. over a 
broad cretaceous belt, and enter a newer formation when 
we cross the Missouri. This is the tertiary, and nearly 
one-half of Dakota is found to be no older than the tertiary 
belt along the Atlantic and Gulf, and not so old as most of 
the Pacific slope. The part known as the Bad Lands, W. 
of the Missouri and extending into Wyoming, belongs to 
the tertiary group of the cenozoic system. There is a deso¬ 
late geological sepulchre. The fossils are most interesting 
and remarkable. The surface has been cut by aqueous 
agencies into columns and buttresses, monumental domes, 
and massive walls with cathedral majesty. These are filled 
with fossil skulls, jaws, teeth, and thigh-bones of various 
races of mammals of which scarce a single specimen is 
familiar to the anatomist of the present day. The region 
in its other characteristics is forbidding. The water is 
brackish and very bad. The earth is burned by the sun in 
summer, arid, ashy, and almost of chalky whiteness. It is 
a treeless waste, in winter the abode of snow and tireless 
storms—a domain of death and desolation. About the Yel¬ 
lowstone River was the last of the inland seas to be drained, 
and the most recent geological formations and fossils are 
there found. Eastern Dakota belongs mainly to the creta¬ 
ceous age. At Sioux Falls, however, thero is an upheaval 
of azoic rocks, over which the Sioux River passes, descend¬ 
ing 100 feet in about half a mile. This rock is now known 
under the name of Sioux quartzite. It is very hard, being 
one of the most perfectly metamorphosed rocks known to 
scienoe. It is from a rosy to a flesh-red color. At Sioux 
Falls it is nearly horizontal, dipping at a very slight angle 
to the S. or S. W. The river at this point flows nearly due 
N. by a long S-shaped curve. Neither the upper nor lower 
limit or surface of the rock has been accurately determined, 










_ _ I I - II III II --——— — 

1242 DAKOTA. 


but the facts known show it to be 400 feet in thickness, and 
it may be much more. It is also found at the N. W. point 
of Iowa, and at places E. and N. E. of Sioux Falls. It also 
appears at intervals W. of these for fifty miles, and is 
largely exposed on the Dakota River in township 101, of 
range 58 W. It was metamorphosed from a pure sand by 
powerful igneous agency. The red pipestonc of the Indi¬ 
ans was changed at the same time from small pockets or 
drifts of fine pure clay, lying between the larger masses of 
sand, and both received their color from iron. A reddish- 
colored sandstone is found in large amount along the Da¬ 
kota River for many miles, but docs not appear until about 
twenty-five miles above Yankton. It is abundant, easily 
quarried and wrought, and very useful for all building pur¬ 
poses. The Sioux quartzite is strictly an unstratified rock, 
but is divided often quite regularly by transverse lateral 
and vertical rifts. It breaks by reason of these into rough 
blocks and slabs, rendering it available for most substantial 
and enduring building. It cannot be finely dressed, but is 
proof against time and elemental erosion. In the absence 
of hard limestones and other stratified economical rocks it 
must become valuable for foundations, exposed walls, and 
heavy substructures. Along the Missouri, and particularly 
at Yankton and above, is the chalk-rock, as it is commonly 
called. It is a soft, white, or blue-tinted impure carbonate 
of lime. It has some other alkalies in its composition. It 
appears in considerable amount in the hills along Clay and 
Turkey creeks, in the north-eastern parts of Yankton county. 
When exposed to water and freezing on the surface of the 
ground it decomposes slowly, and is slaked to a fine impal¬ 
pable powder, and when wet has a soft and soapy feel. It 
does not produce good lime. It has, however, been em¬ 
ployed considerably in building, and is durable when placed 
above the ground upon good foundations. Fossil fishes 
and shells, with sharks’ teeth in great numbers, are found 
in the chalk-rock and the dark-red sandstone on the Dakota 
River, while the Sioux quartzite is clearly without fossils 
of any kind. From Sioux Falls to the edge of the chalk- 
rock, in Yankton county, is not more than fifty miles, while 
the cretaceous formation extends eastward into Iowa for 
some distance. Between these is included—in theory at 
least—the Silurian, Devonian, and carboniferous systems. 
We are, therefore, not denied the hope of discovering coal. 
But over the whole area is spread the deep drift formation, 
with a gently undulating prairie surface, which has no pre¬ 
cipitous bluffs or deep ravines to expose the actual succes¬ 
sion of rocks. Only in the places mentioned do the rocks 
named appear at the surface, though search for coal is soon 
to be made by an organized company at Vermilion, They 
are preparing for deep boring at different points. It is 
feared, however, that the coal-bearing rocks are pinched 
out, as in North-western Iowa, and that coal may be found, 
if at all, only in detached and isolated outlying pockets. 
The valley of the Red River of the North is a very rich 
level or gently undulating region of the highest character 
for agriculture, and, more than any other part of the Ter¬ 
ritory, favored with timber and water. With many wind¬ 
ings the general course of the river is N., and it receives 
numerous tributaries from Dakota, several of which are 
streams of good size. These have pure water, and along 
all of them are heavy belts of timber of hard varieties. 

The mineralogy of Dakota has not been minutely studied. 
The cretaceous rocks yield most of the forms of hydraulic 
cement, and when burned make a lime of indifferent quality. 
The lignite-beds yield a fair quality of coal, though it has not 
yet been sufficiently tested to determine its relative value. 
The salt-springs of the Red River region produce a good 
and very pure salt. The Black Hills region forms a part 
of the Dakota Indian reservation, and there has been very 
little opportunity of studying the minerals in situ. It is 
known, however, that the various mineral forms of silver, 
copper, iron, quartz, and silica arc plentiful in that region. 

Climate .—The isothermal line of 70° average summer 
temperature—which is that of Philadelphia, Pittsburg, 
Chicago, and Southern Minnesota—passes through Central 
Dakota, crossing in the Territory the parallel of 47° N. lat. 
The isothermal for the winter temperature of those cities 
would pass very near the southern line of the Territory. 
The cold is sometimes severe in winter, but it is dry cold, 
and is more easily borne than a much higher temperature 
when damp and chilling. The climate is considerably 
milder on the same parallels than that of Minnesota, not 
being affected by the damp atmosphere from the great 
lakes. In Northern Dakota the winters are long, and there 
is considerable snowfall, but the spring opens about the 20th 
of March, and the vegetation comes forward rapidly, and 
all crops mature except the later and larger varieties of In¬ 
dian corn. The heats of summer are much moderated by the 
elevation of the plateaus. Northern Dakota is an excellent 
resort for invalids not too far reduced. The rainfall does 
not usually exceed, throughout the Territory, twenty inches 


per annum, and from sixteen to eighteen inches of this 
fall during the summer months. Southern Dakota has a 
fine climate, and on its fruitful soil the cereals, potatoes, 
and other root crops are as successfully cultivated as any¬ 
where on the continent. Small fruits, as strawberries, 
raspberries, whortleberries, cranberries, plums, grapes, etc., 
grow wild in great profusion, and when cultivated yield 
astonishing crops. The soil of the Red River region is 
rich and fertile, as is that of Southern Dakota. The Bad 
Lands are sterile, and, unless they possess mineral wealth, 
will hardly prove very profitable. There is good land 
around the Black Hills, as well as in North-western and 
Central Dakota, but there is a large admixture of gravel 
with some of it; yet the proportion of land which would 
yield good crops without irrigation is much larger than in 
most of the Western Territories, y 

Zoology, etc. —The wild animals are those of the eastern 
slope and plateaus E. of the Rocky Mountains generally, 
but they are found in much greater abundance than in most 
of the Territories. Dakota is the paradise of the trapper 
and hunter of furs, and most of the Indian tribes whose 
home is in the Territory are largely engaged in collect¬ 
ing furs. Pembina, in the extreme N. E. of the Territory, 
was for many years one of the most important settlements 
and trading-posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and vast 
quantities of furs were shipped from it. The buffalo is 
now more abundant in Northern Dakota than anywhere 
else. The musk-ox sometimes, though rarely, appears 
there. The moose, elk, and one or two species of deer are 
found there. Of beasts of prey, the bears (both the black 
and cinnamon species) are plenty; the panther, w r ild-cat, 
lynx, wolf, badger, wolverene, pine and stone marten, the 
skunk, the mink, and several varieties of foxes, are the 
principal. Among smaller animals, there are the gopher, the 
prairie-dog, the rabbit, several species, squirrels of several 
species, and quite an army of the smaller rodents. The 
birds ai’e essentially those of the Mississippi and Missouri 
valleys, and include a wide range, from the great eagles and 
vultures to the tiny humming-birds or the sad-voiced 
pewit. The rivers and lakes abound Avith fish, and reptiles 
are not wanting, though venomous ones are not abundant. 
The vegetation of Dakota Territory is not remarkable, 
though it is far from being a treeless region. The valley 
of the Red River of the North has its forests of hardwood 
trees—the oak, hickory, beech, birch, maple, etc. ; the 
other rivers have strips of timber along their banks, 
though generally of cottonwood or other inferior woods. 
Around the Black Hills there is a heaA r y groAvth of timber, 
mostly pine, spruce, and fir. In the Bad Lands there is 
no timber. In S. E. Dakota the settlers are planting many 
trees, which do well, and will eventually supply that region 
with abundant and valuable timber. 

Agricultural Products —According to the census of 1870, 
there were in the Territory that year 302,376 acres of land 
taken up as farms, of Avhich 42,645 were under cultivation 
and 259,731 used as pasturage or wood lands. The value 
of these farms was $2,085,265, and of farming implements, 
$142,612. The value of all farm products that year was 
$495,657; of animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter, 
$22,066. Home manufactures are put doAvn at $1677 ; 
forest products at $700, market-garden products at $500, 
and wages paid to farm laborers at $71,156. The amount 
of Avheat grown was 170,662 bushels, all but 202 bushels 
spring wheat; Indian corn, 133,140 bushels; oats. 114,327 
bushels; barley, 4118 bushels; buckwheat. 179 bushels. 
The number of horses reported was 3243; of neat cattle, 
56,724; of sheep, 1901 (evidently an error, as the avooI pro¬ 
duced the same year was stated at 8810 pounds); of swine, 
2033; and the total value of live-stock was stated at 
$779,952. The amount of hay cured Avas 13,347 tons; of 
tobacco, not given ; of sorghum syrup, 1230 gallons ; of pota¬ 
toes marketed, 50,177 bushels ; peas and beans, 456 bushels ; 
honey, 110 pounds; clover, grass, and flax seed not reported. 
The dairy products were butter, 209,735 pounds ; cheese, 
1850 pounds. These statistics represent very inadequately 
the present agricultural condition of Dakota. The exten¬ 
sion of several railroad lines into the Territory has brought 
in a large influx of immigrants of the agricultural class, 
and it is safe to say that the agricultural products of 1873 
were more than fourfold those of 1870. 

Manufacturing Industry. —The report of manufactures in 
Dakota Territory is obviously very defective. Of fifteen 
counties, ten are returned as having no manufactures, prob¬ 
ably from the negligence of the assistant marshals. Tho 
entire number of manufacturing establishments is 17, of 
Avhich 15 reported an aggregate of 324 horse-power; they 
employed 91 hands—89 men and 2 boys ; the amount of 
capital was $79,200 ; of Avages paid, $21,106 ; of raAv mate¬ 
rial used, $105,997; and of annual products, $178,570. Of 
these manufactories, 10 were saw-mills, employing 68 hands 
and $37,400 capital, paying $14,256 wages, using $32,772 

















DAKOTA. 1243 


worth of raw material, and producing $72,280 worth of 
lumber ; 2 were flour or grist mills, employing 5 hands and 
$1.1,000 capital, paying $2450 wages, using $60,600 of raw 
material, and producing flour and meal to the value of 
$80,990 ; 2 were breweries, employing 7 hands and $12,000 
capital, paying $1700 wages, using $5075 worth of raw 
material, and producing malt liquors valued at $9500 ; 2 
were tin or sheet-ironware factories, employing 4 hands 
and $14,000 capital, paying $900 wages, using $4050 of 
raw material, and producing goods worth $10,000; and 1 
was a wheelwright-shop, employing 7 hands and $2800 
capital, paying $1800 wages, using $3500 of raw material, 
and producing $5800 worth of work. The true report of 
manufactures in the Territory in 1873 would give nearly 
ten times these amounts. 

Railroads .—It is only within the last two years and a 
half that any of the numerous projected railroad lines of 
this region have entered the Territory. There are now 
(Oct., 1873) three railroads which have penetrated Eastern 
Dakota—viz. the Northern Pacific, completed as far as Bis¬ 
marck on the Missouri River, and graded a considerable 
distance farther. From Fargo, where it enters the Territory, 
to Bismarck, on the Missouri, is 196 miles nearly due W., and 
about on the parallel of 46° 52' N. lat. From the Missouri 
westward its course will trend slightly to the N., crossing 
the 47th parallel on the meridian of 102° 30', and continu¬ 
ing N. of that parallel till it approaches the Yellowstone 
River. The Dakota division of the Winona and St. Peter’s 
Railway enters the Territory in about lat. 44° 42', and run¬ 
ning about 30 miles N. W., turns suddenly to the W. for 
20 miles more to Lake Kampeshka on the Big Sioux River. 
The region through which it passes in Dakota has very 
few inhabitants, but it is a fine agricultural section. The 
Dakota Southern Railway extends from Sioux City, at the 
mouth of the Big Sioux River, the western terminus of sev¬ 
eral railways, to Yankton, the capital of Dakota, a distance 
of 61 miles. There are, then, about 308 miles of completed 
railway in the Territory. Aside from the farther prosecu¬ 
tion of the Northern Pacific, which may be delayed for a 
time, the St. Paul and Pacific, whose road is now com¬ 
pleted to Breckenridge on the Red River of the North, has 
two branches under way—one continuing up the valley of 
the Red River to Moorhead ; the other in Minnesota to St. 
Vincent, nearly opposite Pembina. From Yankton rail¬ 
roads are projected in all directions—one to Sioux Falls, 
and thence into Minnesota; another along the valley of 
the Dakota River to connect with the Northern Pacific; 
another along the Missouri Valley to Fort Sully ; another 
due E. into Iowa, and two S. into Nebraska. The sparse 
population of Dakota will prevent these and some other 
projected railways from being completed for some years, 
but eventually this Territory must be gridironed with rail¬ 
ways in order to its development. 

Finances .—In 1870 the total assessed value of real and 
personal estate in Dakota Territory was $2,924,489; the 
actual value, according to the estimates of the U. S. mar¬ 
shal and his deputies, was $5,599,752. That this valuation 
has greatly increased during the past three and a half years 
is unquestionable, but there are no existing data to show, 
accurately, the amount of the increase. The tax of 1870 
was $13,867, the greater part a county tax. The debt of 
the counties was $5761. Since that time Yankton co. alone 
has bonded itself for $200,000 for the completion of the 
Southern Dakota Railway. 

The commerce of Dakota is small, and mostly confined to 
the shipment of grain and stock by way of the Missouri 
River and its tributaries and the Southern Dakota Rail¬ 
way. From the Red River region there are shipments of 
furs to a considerable extent. The opening of the new 
railroads, and the demands for food, lumber, railroad ties, 
etc. along their route and by their employes, will develop 
this commerce healthily. 

Banks .—There was in Jan., 1873, one national bank (at 
Yankton), with a capital of $50,000, and three private 
banking-houses. There are no savings banks, and no fire 
or life insurance companies. 

Population .—The true population of Dakota, of all races, 
according to the census of 1870, was 40,501, of whom 12,887 
were white, 94 colored, 27,520 Indians, of whom 1200 were 
out of tribal relations, and 26,320 were nomadic or belongod 
to various tribes not located. The greater part of these In¬ 
dians were members of the difierent bands of the Dakotas 
or Sioux, the most formidable and warlike of all the north¬ 
ern tribes, though there are a few Mandans, Rees, Gros 
Ventres, and Assiniboines. The Territory was not organ¬ 
ized till 1861, and a considerable portion was cut olf in 1868 
to aid in forming the Territory of Wyoming. Tho popula¬ 
tion of what now constitutes the Territory (except nomadic 
Indians) in 1860 was 4837. Of tho 14,181 inhabitants, not 
Indians, in 1870, 9366 were natives of the U. S., and 4815 
of foreign birth. Of thoso of foreign birth, 1218 woro born 


in Great Britain and Ireland, 1179 in Norway, 906 in Brit¬ 
ish America, 563 in Germany, 324 in Austria and Bohemia, 
380 in Sweden, 115 in Denmark, and the remainder in the 
various smaller states of Europe and Spanish America. 
Of the entire population, 8878 were males and 5303 females; 
of the native population, 5562 were males and 3804 fe¬ 
males; of the foreign, 3316 were males and 1499 females. 
Of the white population, 8255 were males and 4632 females. 
Of the whole population, 10,640 were over the age of ten 
years; of these, 7047 were males and 3593 females. Of 
these, 5887 were engaged in all classes of occupations, of 
whom 2522 (all males) were engaged in agriculture, 2704 
(2562 males and 142 females) in professional and personal 
services, 204 (all males) in trade and transportation, 457 
(439 males and 18 females) in manufacturing, mining, and 
mechanical industries. The density of the population, in¬ 
cluding Indians, for the whole Territory, was in 1870 about 
one person to 3.78 square miles. South-eastern Dakota is, 
however, settled much more thickly than this. 

Education. — Notwithstanding its small and scattered 
population, Dakota has given much attention to education. 
In 1871 she had 31 school-houses, 36 schools, 53 teachers, 
and 1785 pupils, the entire number reported in the census 
as of school age; and of those of school age (5 to 21), 1767 
were enrolled, and 1700 was the average attendance. In 
1870 there were 35 educational institutions (34 of them 
public schools), with 52 teachers (48 of them in the public 
schools), and 1255 pupils, of whom 1223 were in the pub¬ 
lic schools. The total income of all the educational insti¬ 
tutions was $9284, of which $8684 belonged to the public 
schools. Of the inhabitants ten years old and over, 1563 
could not write, of whom 914 were whites, 31 colored, and 
618 Indians. Of the whites, 709 were over twenty-one 
years of age, 91 from fifteen to .twenty-one years, and 114 
from ten to fifteen years; 411 of the whole number were 
females. There is an organized school system under the 
Territorial school law, with a superintendent and deputy- 
superintendent of public instruction, and county superin¬ 
tendents in 1872 in seven counties. There was reported in 
1870 but one private or parochial school in the Territory, 
Dakota Hall at Yankton, under the direction of the Epis¬ 
copal Church. There are no colleges, universities, profes¬ 
sional or scientific schools. 

Libraries .—In 1870 there were 5 public libraries reported, 
with 2788 volumes; 14 private libraries, with 6938 volumes; 
in all, 19 libraries, with 9726 volumes. 

Newspapers .—There were in 1870 three weekly news¬ 
papers—two political and one miscellaneous—having an 
aggregate weekly circulation of 1652 copies, and an annual 
issue of 85,904 copies. 

Churches .—In 1870 there were 17 churches of all denomi¬ 
nations reported, 10 church edifices, with 2800 sittings, and 
church property valued at $16,300. The number has ma¬ 
terially increased in the three and a half years since the 
census was taken. In 1870 there were 2 Baptist churches 
—no particulars reported; at the close of 1872 there was 1 
association, 10 churches, 8 ministers, and 170 members. In 
1870, 1 Congregational church was reported, 1 church 
edifice, 200 sittings, $5000 of property; in 1872 there were 
9 churches, 5 ministers, 161 members, 380 children in Sab¬ 
bath schools. In 1870 there were 2 Episcopal churches, 2 
church edifices, with 350 sittings, and $4000 worth of church 
property; in 1872 there were four churches, 6 clergymen, 
168 communicants, 99 children in Sabbath schools, 1 paro¬ 
chial school; contributions, $2750. In 1870 there were 3 
Lutheran churches, 3 church edifices, 900 sittings, $2100 
church property; in 1872 there were 11 churches, 6 minis¬ 
ters, and about 450 communicants. In 1870 there were 5 
Methodist churches, 1 church edifice, 500 sittings, and $1200 
of church property; in 1872 there were 19 churches, 15 
ministers in full connection, 860 members, and church 
property valued at $7000. In 1870 there were 4 Roman 
Catholic congregations, 3 church edifices, 850 sittings, $4000 
worth of church property; in 1872 there were 4 churches, 
5 or 6 stations, 4 church edifices, 6 priests, and about 1500 
adherent population. 

Constitution , Courts, etc .—The Territorial constitutions 
are very similar to each other, and are generally intended 
to be temporary in their character, a convention forming a 
new constitution when the Territory is ready to become a 
State. In all cases the Territorial governor and secretary 
of state are appointed by the President of the U. S., as well 
as the chief-justice and assistant justices. The auditor, 
treasurer, and superintendent of public instruction are chosen 
by tho qualified electors. In Dakota every male inhabit¬ 
ant, except Indians not taxed, idiots, and convicts, having 
attained tho ago of twenty-one years, and being a resident 
of the Territory, is entitled to vote and is eligible for office. 
There is a very good school law, and a militia law passed 
in 1867, under which a militia foroo of eight companies has 
been organized. Tho judicial power is vested in a supremo 






















1244 


DAKOTA—DALE. 


court, district courts, and probate courts. There are three 
districts. The Territory is entitled to one delegate in Con¬ 
gress, who is elected by the people, and has the right to 
speak, but not to vote. 

Counties .—It is difficult to ascertain how many organ¬ 
ized counties there are in the Territory. The latest maps 
have forty-eight counties or more laid down, with their 
boundaries defined, but the census of 1870 gives but four¬ 
teen, and only thirteen of these voted in 1872. There are 
some white inhabitants in portions of the Territory not yet 
organized as counties. The Indian reservations in the 
Territory, including one which stretches into Montana, 
occupy 36,203,200 acres, or about three-eighths of the Ter¬ 
ritory—viz. the Yankton reservation, on the Missouri 
River, in the S. part of the Territory, 400,000 acres, for the 
Yankton Sioux; the Sisseton and Wahpeton reservation, 
of 1,241,600 acres, a triangular tract lying partly on Lake 
Traverse; another tract, of 345,600 acres, belonging to the 
same bands of Sioux at Miunewakan or Devil’s Lake; a 
reservation of 25,000,000 for ten bands of Sioux, about 
22,000 in all, lying in the S. W. part of the Territory, W. 
of the Missouri; the Ponca reservation, of 576,000 acres, 
near the mouth of the Niobrara ; and the reservation of the 
Arickarees, Gros Ventres, and Mandans in the N. W., ex¬ 
tending into Montana, and including 8,640,000 acres. The 
counties named in the census, all of them organized since 
1861, were—Bonhomme, 608 inhabitants; Brookings, 163; 
Buffalo, 246; Charles Mix, 152; Clay, 2621 ; Deuel, 37; 
Hutchinson, 37; Jayne, 5 ; Lincoln, 712 ; Minnehaha., 355 ; 
Pembina, 1213; Todd, 337; Union, 3507 ; Yankton, 2097. 
The unorganized portion of the Territory in 1870 contained 
2091 inhabitants. Of these counties, Jayne has either been 
relinquished or its name changed, while Turner, Arm¬ 
strong, Moody, Richland, and perhaps one or two more, 
have been organized. The principal towns are Yankton, 
which has about 1500 inhabitants; Vermilion, Elk Point, 
Sioux Falls, Canton, Bonhomme, and in the N. Fargo and 
Pembina. In the unorganized part, Fort Sully and its 
vicinity, Fort Rice, and Fort Buford, all on the Missouri 
River, have a considerable population around them. 

History .—Dakota is a portion of the old Missouri, or, 
earlier, the Louisiana Territory, ceded to the U. S. in 1803. 
It was first organized as a Territory Mar. 2,1861, and then 
included the entire territory from the northern boundary 
of Nebraska, and W. thereof, from the forty-third parallel, 
to the line of British America, and from the western 
boundary of Minnesota to the Rocky Mountains. Subse¬ 
quently (in 1863) the Territory of Idaho (now including 
both Idaho and Montana) was set off from it, and in 1868, 
by several exchanges, the present Territory of Wyoming 
was set off from Dakota. By these exchanges a tract of 
2000 square miles, lying W. of Wyoming Territory, and 
between 44° and 44° 30' N. lat., came into the possession 
of Dakota, and still remains a part of her territory, though 
separated from the remainder by the whole breadth of 
Wyoming. It is adjacent to the Yellowstone Park region. 
In 1862 the members of Little Crow’s band of Sioux, hav¬ 
ing undertaken a marauding expedition into Minnesota, 
attacked Breckenridge in that State, a town at the junc¬ 
tion of the Bois de Sioux and the Red River of the North, 
directly across the river from Fort Abercrombie in Dakota 
Territory, and having massacred the settlers at Brecken¬ 
ridge, crossed the river and laid siege to Fort Abercrombie, 
about Aug. 26. Early in September they made two as¬ 
saults on the fort, but were repulsed with heavy loss, and 
were finally brought to bay at Wood’s Lake, where they 
* were utterly defeated, and many of the worst Indians taken 
prisoners, of whom thirty-eight were afterwards hung. In 
1863 the Indians were again troublesome, and murdered 
about thirty Minnesota settlers; and it was resolved to 
punish them so thoroughly that they would not venture 
again upon such outrages. Accordingly, two expeditions 
were sent out — one under Gen. Sibley, with between 
2000 and 3000 men, by way of Breckenridge and Fort 
Abercrombie, to Minnewakan or Devil’s Lake, where the 
great body of hostile Indians were said to be gathered; the 
other, under command of Gen. Sully, to ascend the Missouri 
River from Sioux City, to cut off the retreat of the Indians 
whom Gen. Sibley should attack, and finally form a junc¬ 
tion with him. Though this result was not accomplished, 
both expeditions were successful. Gen. Sibley had several 
engagements with the Indians in the latter part of July, 
1863, and defeated and drove them to and across the Mis¬ 
souri. Gen. Sully was detained until the beginning of 
September from ascending the Missouri, but on the 3d of 
that month he encountered a large force of Indians at 
White Stone Hill, 130 miles above the Little Cheyenne 
River, a part of whom had been at the engagement with 
Sibley. He defeated them completely with heavy loss, and 
took 156 prisoners. Since that time the Sioux have been 
content to remain upon their reservations. 


Governors of the Territory. 

William Jayne. 1861-63 Andrew J. Faulk.1866-69 

Newton Edmonds. 1863-66 John A. Burbank. 1869-73 

As a Territory, Dakota has no electoral vote. 

L. P. Brockett. 

Dakota, a county in the S. E. of Minnesota. Area, 
570 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and N. E. by 
the Mississippi River, and on the N. W. by the Minnesota. 
The surface is undulating or nearly level; the soil is very 
fertile, and based on limestone. Extensive prairies occur 
here. Grain, wool, hay, butter, etc. are staple products. 
It is intersected by the Milwaukee and St. Paul and the 
Hastings and Dakota R. Rs. Capital, Hastings. Pop. 
16,312. 

Dakota, a county in the extreme N. E. of Nebraska. 
Area, 350 square miles. It is bounded on the N. and E. 
by the Missouri River. The surface is diversified by un¬ 
dulating prairies, and by numerous groves of hard timber. 
The soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, and hay are raised. Cap¬ 
ital, Dakota. Pop. 2040. 

Dakota, a post-village and township of Stephenson co., 
Ill. The village is on the Western Union R. R., 7 miles 
N. E. of Freeport. Pop. of township, 952. 

Dakota, a post-village, capital of Humboldt co., Ia., 
on the Dcs Moines River, 15 miles N. of Fort Dodge. It 
has one weekly newspaper, two churches, a court-house, 
and flour and carriage manufactures. Humboldt College 
is 1 mile N. of the town. Pop. of village, 162; of Da¬ 
kota township, 676. 

J. Van Meter, Ed. “Independent.” 

Dakota, a post-twp. of Waushara co., Wis. Pop. 477. 

Dakota City, the capital of Dakota co., Neb., is on 
the W. bank of the Missouri, 5 miles S. of Sioux City, Ia. 
It is the initial point of the Sioux City and Columbus R. R., 
and at the crossing of the Omaha and North-western and 
St. Paul and Northern Nebraska R. Rs. It contains a 
large brick court-house, the district land-office, two schools, 
one weekly newspaper, and two churches. Pop. 300; of 
township, 595. C. F. Bayha, Pub. “Mail.” 

Dako'ta In'diaus, a race or collection of tribes or 
“bands” of American savages, often called Sioux, who 
inhabit Nebraska, Wyoming, Dakota, etc. Among these 
tribes are the Santees, Yanktons, Sissetons, Brul6s, Mini- 
kanyes, Unkpapas, Ogalallahs, and Tetons. They formerly 
occupied the country as far E. as the Mississippi, which 
they ceded to the U. S. in 1851. The language of the 
Dakotas shows them to be of a different stock from most 
of the Indian tribes. The languages of the Assiniboines, the 
Pawnees, the Osages, the Comanches, the Crows, and others 
belong to the same class with the Dakota tongue. The 
name “Dakota” signifies the “allied.” (See Riggs, “Da¬ 
kota Grammar” and “ Dictionary.”) 

Dakota River, Riviere a Jacques, or James 
River, rises in the N. E. part of Dakota. It flows nearly 
southward, and enters the Missouri River about 8 miles be¬ 
low Yankton. Its whole length is estimated at 600 miles. 

Dal'amow, a city of India, in Oude, on the Ganges, 68 
miles above Allahabad. It has two antique temples of Siva, 
and is reputed a holy place. Pop. about 10,000. 

Dalaratlia. See Dalriada. 

Dal'berg, von (Karl Theodor Anton Maria), LL.D., 
a German prelate and author, born of a noble family at 
Herrnsheim Feb. 8, 1744. He became in 1802 archbishop 
of Mentz and arch-chancellor of the empire. Napoleon 
gave him in 1806 the title of prince-primate of the Confed¬ 
eration of the Rhine. He wrote, besides other works, 
“Contemplations on the Universe;” but in German litera¬ 
ture his name is best known from the liberality he showed 
towards the young Schiller. Died Feb. 10, 1817. 

Dalber'gia [named in honor of Nicholas Dalberg, a 
Swedish botanist], a genus of trees and shrubs of the order 
Leguminosae, having pinnate leaves. The fruit is a flat 
membranous pod containing one to three seeds. All the 
species are natives of tropical climates, and several of them 
afford valuable timber. The Avood of the sissoo of Bengal, 
the Dalbergia Sissoo, is extensively used and highly prized 
in India. The East Indian rosewood is the timber of Dal¬ 
bergia latifolia. . 

Dale, a county in the S. E. of Alabama. Area, 740 
square, miles. It is intersected by the Choctawhatchee 
River. The soil is generally sandy, and covered by forests 
of pine. Cattle, corn, oats, rice, cotton, tobacco, and wool 
are produced. Capital, Newton. Pop. 11,325. 

Dale, a township of McLean co., Ill. Pop. 1188. 

Dale, a township of Chesterfield co., Va. Pop. 1803. 

Dale, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. Pop. 991. 

Dale (Richard), an American commodore, born near 

























DALECARLI A—DALLAS. 


1245 


Norfolk, Va., Nov. 6, 1756, entered the merchant service 
when only twelve years of age, serving until the commence¬ 
ment of the Revolution, when he was made a lieutenant in 
the marine service of Virginia. He was shortly after cap¬ 
tured by an English vessel, and while confined on prison- 
ship his old companions, who surrounded him, influenced 
him to take sides with England, and he actually engaged 
on board a cruiser against his native State; he was 
wounded at an early day, and during his convalescence 
realized the error he had committed, and firmly resolved to 
stand by his own country in the future. He entered the 
U. S. navy in 1776 as midshipman, was captured in 1777, 
and confined in prison in London nearly two years, when 
he made his escape in disguise. He hastened to France, 
and embarked with Paul Jones, who soon made him a lieu¬ 
tenant of his own ship, and became much attached to him. 
In the action with the Serapis he greatly distinguished him¬ 
self, and was wounded. Returning to this country in 1781, 
he was appointed a lieutenant in the U. S. navy, and while 
serving on the Trumbull he received his third wound, and 
was captured for the fourth time. In 1794 he was made a 
captain, and a commodore in 1801. He served in com¬ 
mand of a squadron during the Tripolitan war, and on his 
return to the U. S. resigned in 1802. Died at Philadelphia 
Feb. 24, 1826. 

Dalecar'lia (i. e. “ the land of the men of the dales ”), 
or Dalarne, a former province of Sweden, now forming 
the lan or county of Kopparberg. It is famous for its 
beautiful mountain-scenery, its forests of pine, and its 
mines of iron and copper. The Dalecarlians are a bravo 
and patriotic people, and as a reward for their fidelity they 
all have the privilege of taking the hand of the king of 
Sweden when they meet him. Area, 12,127 square miles. 
Pop. in 1869, 175,927. 

Dale City, called also Meyer’s Mills, a post-village 
of Summit township, Somerset co., Pa., 100 miles S. E. of 
Pittsburg, on the Pittsburg Washington and Baltimore 
R. R., is on the Casselman River, and contains one iron- 
foundry, two planing-mills, one flouring-mill, one stone¬ 
ware manufactory', two newspapers, two banks, six churches, 
two hotels, furniture-works, etc. 

Suhrie & Smith, Pubs, op “ Independent.” 

Daleites, a body of Scotch Independents who were 
Calvinists and followers of David Dale (1739-1806), a 
benevolent manufacturer, the father-in-law of Robert Owen. 
The Daleites became affiliated with the Sandemanians for a 
time, but later were Independents. They never had more 
than one or two congregations. 

Daleville, a post-township of Dale co., Ala. Pop. 997. 

Dalf'sen, a town in Holland, on the Vecht, 4 miles E. 
of Zwolle. Pop. 5549. 

Dalhou'sie, a seaport, capital of Restigouche co., New 
Brunswick, at the mouth of the Restigouche River. It 
ships large quantities of salmon, lumber, and lobsters. 
Pop. about 600. 

Dalhousie, Earls of (1633), Barons Ramsay of Dal- 
housie (1619) and of Kerington (Scotland, 1633), Barons 
Panmure (United Kingdom, 1831).—Fox Maule, eleventh 
earl, was born April 22, 1801. He became a Whig mem¬ 
ber of Parliament in 1835, and was secretary at war from 
July, 1846, to Feb., 1852. In April, 1852, he succeeded his 
father as Lord Panmure. He was minister of war in the 
cabinet of Lord Palmerston from 1855 to Feb., 1858. In 
1860 he became earl of Dalhousie. 

Dalhousie (James Andrew Rainsay), Earl and 
Marquis of, a British statesman, born near Edinburgh 
April 22, 1812, was a son of the ninth earl of Dalhousie. 
He was returned to Parliament for Haddington by the 
Conservatives in 1837, and succeeded to the earldom on 
the death of his father in 1838. In 1845 he was appointed 
president of the board of trade by Sir Robert Peel. He was 
retained in that office by the Whig prime minister who 
came into power in 1846, and he became governor-gene¬ 
ral of India in 1847. His administration was successful, 
though his somewhat aggressive policy contributed to pro¬ 
duce the mutiny of 1857. He annexed Pegu, Oude, the 
Punjab, and Berar to the British dominions, and developed 
the resources of India by canals and other public works. 
In 1849 he was created marquis of Dalhousie. He re¬ 
turned to England in 1856, and died, without male issue, 
Dec. 19, 1860. (See Arnold, “ History of the Marquis of 
Dalhousie’s Administration of British India,” 1S63-64, 2 
vols.) 

Da'lias, a town of Spain, province of Almeria, is about 
4 miles from the sea and 20 miles W. S. W. of the city of 
Almeria. It has mines of lead and antimony. Pop. 9414. 

Dal'las, a county in W. Central Alabama. Area, 890 
square miles. It is intersected by the navigable Alabama 


River, which is joined by the Cahawba in this county. 
The surface is uneven; the soil is fertile. Cotton, corn, 
rice, and oats are produced. It is traversed by the Ala¬ 
bama Central and the Selma Rome and Dalton R. lls. 
Capital, Selma. Pop. 40,705. 

Dallas, a county in S. W. Central Arkansas. Area, 850 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Saline and 
on the W. by the Washita River. Salt and other minerals 
are found. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. 
Cattle, maize, and cotton are produced. Capital, Princeton. 
Pop. 5707. 

Dallas, a county in S. W. Central Iowa. Area, 576 
square miles. It is traversed by the Des Moines and Rac¬ 
coon rivers. The soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, hay, 
butter, etc. are produced. It is intersected by the Des 
Moines Valley and the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific 
R. Rs. Capital, Adel. Pop. 12,019. 

Dallas, a county in S. W. Central Missouri. Area, 576 
square miles. It is intersected by the Niangua River. The 
surface is diversified by prairies and forests; the soil is fer¬ 
tile. Grain, tobacco, and wool are staple products. Lime¬ 
stone is found here. Capital, Buffalo. Pop. 8383. 

Dallas, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 900 square 
miles. It is intersected by the Trinity River, and also 
drained by the West Fork of that river. The soil is fertile. 
Cattle, grain, cotton, wool, and fruit are raised. It is in¬ 
tersected by the Houston and Texas Central R. R. Capital, 
Dallas. Pop. 13,314. : 

Dallas, a township of Calhoun co., Ark. Pop. 383. 

Dallas, a post-village, capital of Polk co., Ark., is 
about 170 miles W. S. W. of Little Rock. 

Dallas, a post-village, capital of Paulding co., Ga., is 
about 32 miles W. N. W. of Atlanta. Here occurred a 
battle between Gen. Sherman and Gen. Johnston in May, 
1864. 

Dallas, a township of Huntington co., Ind. Pop. 1483. 

Dallas, a township of Dallas co., Ia. Pop. 338. 

Dallas, a post-township of Marion co., Ia. Pop. 1066. 

Dallas, a township of Taylor co., Ia. Pop. 604. 

Dallas, a township and post-village of Clinton co., 
Mich., on the Detroit and Milwaukee R. R., 10 miles W. 
of St. John. Total pop. 1360. 

Dallas, a township of De Kalb co., Mo. Pop. 807. 

Dallas, a township of Harrison co., Mo. Pop. 551. 

Dallas, a township of Holt co., Mo. Pop. 1285. 

Dallas, a township and post-village of Webster co., 
Mo. Pop. 1255. 

Dali as, a post-village, capital of Gaston co.. N. C., 
about 170 miles W. by S. from Raleigh. Pop. 299 ; of town¬ 
ship, 4006. 

Dallas, a township of Crawford co., 0. Pop. 370. 

Dallas, a post-village, capital of Polk co., Or., on the 
Rickreal River, 15 miles W. of Salem. It has a weekly 
newspaper. 

Dallas, a post-township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 985. 

Dallas, a city, capital of Dallas co., Tex., on the Trin¬ 
ity River, 3 miles below the mouth of Elm Fork. It is the 
point of crossing of the Houston and Texas Central and the 
Texas and Pacific R. Rs., 265 miles N. N. W. of Houston and 
186 miles W. of Shreveport, La. It has three weekly and one 
daily newspaper. A street railway runs from the court¬ 
house square to the railroad depot. This town was settled 
in 1841. John W. Swindells, Pub. “Herald.” 

Dallas (Alexander James), an American statesman, 
born in the island of Jamaica June 21, 1759. He emigrated 
in 1783 to Philadelphia, where he practised law, and pub¬ 
lished in 1790 “Reports of Cases in the Courts of the 
United States and Pennsylvania ” (4 vols.). In 1801 he 
was appointed a district attorney of the U. S. He became 
secretary of the treasury in the cabinet of Madison in Oct., 
1814, when the national revenue was insufficient and the 
public credit was impaired. He wrote an able report to 
Congress recommending the establishment of a national 
bank, raised money by a loan, and restored the public 
credit. He resigned office in Nov., 1816. Died Jan. 16, 
1817. 

Dallas (George Mifflin), LL.D.,an American states¬ 
man, a son of the preceding, was born in Philadelphia July 
10, 1792. He studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 
IS 13. In 1824 he supported Gen. Jackson as a candidate 
for the office of President. He was elected in 1831 to the 
Senate of the U. S. for a short term, which expired in Mar., 
1833. He was sent as minister to St. Petersburg in 1S37, 
returned in 1839, and was elected Vice-President of the 
U. S. in 1844, when Mr. Polk was chosen President. In 


























1246 


DALLAS CENTRE—DAMAGES. 


1846 he gave his casting vote in the Senate for a revenue 
tariff bill, which was opposed by the protectionist party. 
In Feb., 1856, he was appointed minister to England, where 
he remained until 1861. Died Dec. 31, 1864. 

Dallas Centre, a post-village of Adel township, Dal¬ 
las co., la. Pop. 133. 

Dallas City, a city of Hancock and Henderson cos., 
Ill., on the Mississippi, 240 miles above St. Louis and 18 
miles N. of Carthage. It has several manufactories and 
one weekly newspaper. 

Dallas Plantation, a township of Franklin co., Me. 
Pop. 159. 

Dalles City, or The Dalles, a post-village, capital 
of Wasco co., Or., is on the S. bank of the Columbia River, 
about 120 miles by water E. of Portland. It has one weekly 
newspaper and a large woollen factory. The navigation 
of the river is here obstructed by rapids. Pop. 942. 

W. M. Hand, Ed. “Mountaineer.” 

Dalles of the Columbia, a narrow portion of the 
Columbia River, 45 miles above the Cascades. The river 
here rushes violently through a chasm only fifty-eight 
yards wide, enclosed between steep walls of basaltic rock. 
Dctlle is a French word signifying “ flag-stone,” and also a 
“ spout ” for water. 

Dalles of the St. Louis, The, a beautiful series 
of rapids in the St. Louis River, near Duluth, Minn. The 
river falls 400 feet in four miles over a bed of slate. 

Dalling, Lord. See Bulwer (Henry Lytton). 

Dali’ Onga'ro (Francesco), an Italian revolutionist 
and author, born at Odezzo (near Venice) in 1808, became 
a priest, but was suspended for his independent preaching. 
He then renounced the Church, and became a revolutionary 
journalist in Triest, whence he was expelled in 1847. In 
1848 he established a journal at Venice called “ Fatti, e non 
Parole,” He took an active part in the revolutionary 
movements of that year, and was compelled to leave Italy. 
He became a contributor to several journals in Paris. In 
1859 he returned to Italy, and became professor of litera¬ 
ture at Florence. He has published tales, dramas, and lyric 
poems. 

Dalma'nia, a genus of trilobites which has many spe¬ 
cies in the Silurian' and Devonian rocks of the U. S. Of 
those the best known is Dalmania limulurus of the Niagara 
limestone. 

Dal ma'tia, a portion of the ancient Illyricum, now 
the southernmost province of Cisleithan Austria, is a long, 
narrow tract bounded on the N. by Croatia, on the N. E. by 
Herzegovina, and on the S. W. by the Adriatic Sea. It in¬ 
cludes a number of islands. Area, 4940 square miles. Pop. 
in 1869, 456,961. With the exception of about 80,000 
Greeks and a few Protestants and Jews, the population be¬ 
longs to the Roman Catholic Church. About 89 per cent, 
of the population are Slavic and 10£ per cent. Italian ; 28 
per cent, of the children attend school. The coast is bold 
and indented with bays which form good harbors. The 
surface is diversified with mountains (the Dinaric Alps) 
of limestone formation, the highest of which, Mount Orien, 
rises 6332 feet above the level of the sea. The soil in some 
parts is fertile, and produces wheat, oats, potatoes, maize, 
wine, and olives. Good timber for shipbuilding is procured 
on the islands. The chief towns are Zara, Spalato, Ragusa, 
and Cattaro. Dalmatia was conquered by the Romans in 
the time of Augustus. In the seventh century it was taken 
by the Slavonians, who founded in it a kingdom which 
lasted until 1050. In the Middle Ages it belonged to Hun¬ 
gary. In the fifteenth century it fell under the power of 
the Venetians, who ceded it to Austria in 1797. In 1805, 
Napoleon annexed it to the kingdom of Italy, and in 1810 
to the kingdom of Illyria. It reverted to Austria in 1814. 
The district of Cattaro in 1869—70 revolted against Austria, 
in consequence of changes in their old system of military 
service. After some concessions to the national pride of 
the Dalmatians, the revolt was suppressed in the latter 
year. (See Noe, “Dalmatien,” 1870.) 

Dalmatia, a township of Halifax co., N. C. P. 2796. 

Dalmat'ica, or Dalmat/ic, a mantle with long 
sleeves formerly used in Dalmatia. It was worn by the 
nations who were called barbarians by the Greeks and 
Romans. It was afterwards adopted by deacons when 
assisting the priest at the altar. It is still worn by deacons 
in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, though in a 
different form. 

Dalri'ada [a word which appears to have signified the 
“country of the race of Riada,” an Irish chieftain], the 
ancient name of a region in Ireland now known as the 
“ Route,” the northern half of the county of Antrim. Some 
of the race of Riada are said to have settled in Argyleshire, 
Scotland, where they founded a petty kingdom called also 


Dalriada. More than twenty kings of this line in Scot¬ 
land are mentioned before the Dalriads (or Scots) and the 
Piets became united under Kenneth MacAlpine, who be¬ 
came the first king of Albany. The region S. of the 
Irish Dalriada was called Dalaradia, probably from an¬ 
other chieftain who governed it. 

Dalrymple. See Hailes, Lord, and Stair, Earls of. 

Dalrym'ple (Alexander), a Scotch traveller, ayounger 
brother of Lord Hailes, born July 24, 1737, entered the 
East India Company’s service and explored many islands 
in the Eastern Archipelago. He was appointed hydrog- 
rapher to the East India Company in 1779, and to the 
admiralty in 1795. He wrote several geographical works. 
Died June 19, 1808. 

Dal'ton, a post-village, capital of Whitfield co., Ga., 
on the Western and Atlantic R. R., 99 miles N. N. AV. of 
Atlanta. It is the S. terminus of the East Tennessee Air- 
ginia and Georgia, S. E. terminus of the Nashville and 
Chattanooga, E. terminus of the Memphis and Charleston, 
and N. E. terminus of the Selma Rome and Dalton R. Rs. 
It has one weekly newspaper and a heavy trade in grain. 
Pop. 1809. 

Dalton (Dolten’s Station post-office), in Thornton town¬ 
ship, Cook co., Ill., is the junction of the Pittsburg Cin¬ 
cinnati and St. Louis and the Chicago Danville and A r in- 
cennes R. Rs., 20 miles S. of Chicago. 

Dalton, a post-township of AVayne co., Ind. P. 766. 

Dalton, a township of Aroostook co., Me. Pop. 445. 

Dalton, a township and post-village of Berkshire co., 
Mass., on the Boston and Albany R. R., 146 miles AY. of 
Boston. Here are important manufactures of paper, ma¬ 
chinery, woollens, and cotton goods. Pop. 1252. 

Dalton, a township of Muskegon co., Mich. Pop. 
401. 

Dalton, a township and post-village of Coos co., N. H., 
on the Boston Concord and Montreal R. R., 112 miles N. 
of Concord. It has manufactures of starch and lumber. 
Pop. 773. 

Dalton, a post-village of Sugar Creek township, AA r ayne 
co., 0. Pop. 412. 

Dalton (John), F. R. S., an English chemist, the 
author of the atomic theory, was born at Eaglesfiekl, in 
Cumberland, Sept. 5, 1766. He taught and gave lectures 
on physical science, and resided in Manchester. In 1802 
he announced his important theory of the constitution of 
mixed gases. The development of the laws of combining 
proportions and the atomic theory he explained in the first 
volume of his “New System of Chemical Philosophy” (3 
vols., 1808-27). (See Chemistry.) He wrote a number 
of scientific treatises, which were inserted in the “ Philo¬ 
sophical Transactions,” etc. Died July 27, 1844. 

Dalton (John C.), M. D., an eminent physiologist, born 
at Chelmsford, Mass., Feb. 2, 1825, graduated at Harvard 
in 1844. He took the degree of M. D. there in 1847. In 
1859 he published an excellent “Treatise on Human Physi¬ 
ology,” of which the fourth edition, enlarged, appeared in 
1867. Among his other works is a “Treatise on Physiology 
and Hygiene for Schools, Families, and Colleges” (1868). 
He is professor of physiology and hygiene in the New 
York College of Physicians and Surgeons. His original 
observations in embryology and other departments of 
physiology have given him a wide reputation. He is 
the author of the article on Embryology in this work. 

Dalton City, a post-village of Moultrie co., Ill., on 
the Paris and Decatur R. R., 29 miles N. AV. of Mattoon. 

Dalton-in-Fur'ness, a town of England, in Fur¬ 
ness, Lancashire, 18 miles W. N. AV. of Lancaster, and 3 
miles from the sea. Here are iron-works and iron-mines. 
Near Dalton are the ruins of the splendid Furness Abbey, 
founded in 1127 by Stephen, who was afterwards king. 

Dal'tonism, an inability to distinguish colors, was so 
called because the celebrated John Dalton and his brothers 
had a defect in vision in consequence of which red, blue, 
and green appeared alike. (See Color-Blindness.) 

Da'ly (Charles P.), LL.D., was born of Irish parentage 
in New York City, Oct. 31, 1816, was admitted to the bar 
in 1839, became judge of common pleas in that city in 1845, 
and chief judge in 1857. He was author of articles in the 
“New American Cyclopaedia,” lecturer at the Columbia 
College Law School, published a history of the courts of 
New Y r ork (1855), a memoir of Chancellor Kent, and many 
papers on banking, law, science, etc. He has been pres¬ 
ident of the American Geographical and Statistical So¬ 
ciety, and a prominent member of the Ethnological So¬ 
ciety. 

Damages. See Measure of Damages, by Prof. T. 
AY. Dwight, LL.D. 



















DAMAN—DAMIANISTS. 1247 


Dam&n', or Damaun, a seaport-town of Hindostan, 
in Guzerat, is on the Indian Ocean, about 100 miles N. of 
Bombay. It belongs to the Portuguese. The harbor affords 
a good shelter from the S. W. monsoon. Shipbuilding is 
carried on here. Daman is at the mouth of the Daman 
Gunga or Daman River. Pop. about 7000. 

Daman (an animal). See Hyrax. 

Damanhoor'(anc. Hermopolis Parva), a town of Lower 
Egypt, capital of the province of Bahreh, is about 40 miles 
E. S. E. of Alexandria. It has manufactures of cotton 
and wool. Pop. 10,000. 

Damar', or Demar, a town of Arabia, in Yemen, 60 
miles S. S. E. of Sana. It has a citadel, a college, and 
about 5000 houses. 

Damariscot'ta, a township and village of Lincoln co., 
Me. The village is on the Knox and Lincoln R. R., 20 
miles N. E. of Bath, and on the Damariscotta River. It 
has a national bank, some shipbuilding and other manu¬ 
factures, and a coasting-trade. Total pop. 1232. 

Damasce'rms (Joannes), a learned theologian, born 
in Damascus about 700 A. D. About the age of thirty he 
retired to the monastery of St. Saba, near Jerusalem, where 
he devoted his time to the study of philosophy and theology 
and to the composition of religious works. Ilis chief work 
is “An Accurate Exposition of the Orthodox Faith,” which 
is not so much a well-wrought system of divinity as a digest 
of the teachings of his predecessors, such as Athanasius, 
Basil, the Gregories, Chrysostom, and others. lie first ap¬ 
plied to scholasticism the philosophy of Aristotle. Died 
between 754 and 787 A. D. He was canonized by the Latin 
and the Greek churches. 

Damascenus (Nicolaus), a Greek historian and phil¬ 
osopher, born in Damascus in 74 B. C., was a friend of 
Herod, king of Judaea, at whose court he lived. He wrote, 
besides other works, a “ Universal History,” of which frag¬ 
ments are extant. 

Damas'cius [Gr. Aayjtao-Kio?], a pagan philosopher, born 
in Damascus about 480 A. D. He taught the Neo-Platonic 
philosophy at Athens, and when Justinian in 529 prohib¬ 
ited the pagans from teaching, he i*etii'ed to the court of 
Chosroes, king of Persia. He wrote a work entitled “ Doubts 
and Solutions of the First Principles,” which is still ex¬ 
tant. 

Damas'coville, or Damascus, a post-village of 
Butler township, Columbiana co., O. Pop. 94. 

Damas'cus [Arab. Sham el Keheer or es Shereef (“the 
great ” or “ the holy ”)], a celebrated city of Asiatic Turkey, 
in Syria, is situated on a triangular plain at the eastern 
base of the Anti-Libanus, 58 miles E. S. E. of Beyroot; 
lat. 33° 21' N., Ion. 36° 25' E. The plain of Damascus, 
regarded by the Arabs as the fairest of the four earthly 
paradises, is about 70 miles in circumference, and ex¬ 
tremely fertile, irrigated by the river Barada and other 
streams, and adorned with gardens and orchards. The 
magnificent appearance of this city from afar has been 
celebrated by ancient and modern travellers. Numberless 
cupolas and minarets are seen clustered about the towering 
mass of the great mosque. Within, the streets are narrow, 
and many of them have a gloomy and decayed appearance. 
The houses are mean in external aspect, and present a dead 
wall to the street, but the interiors are often elegant and 
richly furnished. Fine marble-paved courts ornamented 
with fountains and shrubs, rooms with arabesqued roofs 
and walls, are the common features of the houses of the 
rich Damascenes. Damascus continues to be Oriental in 
all its features and characteristics. The city is oval in 
form, surrounded by a picturesque wall with stately towers 
and gates, and intersected by the broad street which the 
Romans called Via Recta. The great mosque, 650 feet in 
length and 150 in breadth, was built by the Christians in 
the form of a cross, but has been occupied by the Mussul¬ 
mans since 705 A. D. Damascus has 248 mosques, many 
of them with splendid minarets. The huge quadrangular 
citadel, with massive towers, forms part of the city wall. 
No wheeled carriages or vehicles are used in the streets. 
There are important manufactures of cotton, silk, and 
woollen fabrics, jewelry, saddlery, glass, and arms. The 
Damascus blades, for which this city was once famous, have 
lost their high reputation. The bazaars, said to be finer 
than those of Cairo or Constantinople, are well supplied 
with European manufactures, in which Damascus has an 
extensive trade, carried on by means of camels and cara¬ 
vans, with Bagdad, Bassorah, Persia, etc. Here is as¬ 
sembled annually a large caravan of pilgrims, merchants, 
and other travellers, sometimes as many as 50,000, destined 
for Mecca. The date of the foundation of Damascus is not 
known, but it was a city in the time of the patriarch Abra¬ 
ham. (Sco Gen. xiv.) During the Hebrew monarchy it 
was the capital of Syria. It passed afterwards successively 


under the dominion of the Assyrians (740 B. C.), Baby¬ 
lonians (604 B. C.), Persians (540 B. C.), Macedonians (333 
B. C.), Romans (65 B. C.), Saracens (634 A. D.), and was 
finally captured by the Turks in 1516. Here the apostle 
Paul was converted and preached the gospel. Damascus 
is one of the sacred cities of the Mohammedans, and has 
long been known for the fanaticism of its inhabitants. In 
1860 the Druses entered the city and massacred a large 
number of the Christians. The present population is 
variously estimated at from 150,000 to 300,000, among 
whom there are about 15,000 Christians and 6000 Jews. 
(See Porter, “Five Years in Damascus.”) 

Revised by A. J. Schem. 

Damascus, a township and village of Henry co., 0. 
Pop. 1179. 

Damascus, a township and post-village of Wayne co., 
Pa., near the New York and Erie R. R. Pop. 2823. 

Damascus Blades, a name given to sword-blades 
of the highest excellence, formerly made at Damascus in 
Syria. Since the time of the Crusades they have been 
famous for their beautifully watered and lined appearance, 
as well as for their exquisite temper, which enabled them, 
when skilfully handled, to cut, not only bars of iron, but 
to divide films of gauze floating in the air. It is said that 
good blades of this kind can be bent into a hoop, and will 
fly back to their original shape without injury. The secret 
of their manufacture is unknown, but it is said that the 
Russians have recently pi'oduced swords which equal the 
best Damascus blades in beauty and temper. 

Dam'ask, the name given to certain rich stuffs of silk 
and linen because they were first manufactured at Damas¬ 
cus, whence the trade was carried to Venice, Lyons, and 
Genoa. The cloth is woven with flowers and regular figures, 
and in modern times is often made of worsted or worsted 
and cotton mixed. The fashion of wearing it was adopted 
in England by Henry V. and Edward IV. Damask table¬ 
cloths are said to have been first imported from France 
into England in 1575. 

Damaskeeil'illg [from Damascus, where the art was 
practised with great success], the ornamenting of steel or 
iron by inlaying with other metals, such as gold or silver. 
There are several methods of performing it. 

Damas'tes, son of Dioxippus, a Greek historian, was 
a native of Sigeum. He is called by Suidas a pupil of 
Hellanicus, and flourished about 440 B. C. Several works 
are ascribed to him, as “An Account of Events in Greece,” 
“ On the Ancestors of those who Warred against Troy ” in 
two books, “A Catalogue of Nations and Cities,” and a 
treatise “ Of Poets and Sophists.” Besides these, he com¬ 
posed a “Periplus,” which is referred to by later geograph¬ 
ical writers. Very few fragments remain, collected in 
MAller’s “ Fragm. Histor. Grxec.,” vol. ii., pp. 64—67. 

Henry Drisler. 

Dam'asus I. [Fr. Damase\, Saint, born, some say in 
Rome, others in Spain, in 306 A. D., was elected bishop 
of Rome in 366. A rival named Ursinus was at the same 
time elected by a party, but Damasus was recognized by 
the emperor Valentinian. Although elected by the Arian 
faction, he strenuously opposed Arianism. He employed 
violent methods, but was a man of learning and taste. We 
are indebted to him for Jerome’s new version of the Latin 
Bible. He improved the church service by introducing the 
Psalter. He also wrote hymns, two of which are given by 
Daniel in his “ Thesaurus Hymnologicus.” He is said to 
have been the first to employ rhyme. Died Dec. 10, 384 
A. D.— Damasus II., a German, and probably a Bavarian, 
was consecrated pope July 17, 1048, and died Aug. 9 of 
the same year. (See Jaffe, “ Regesta Pontificum Roman- 
orum.”) 

Dam'bool', a village of Ceylon, 45 miles N. W. of 
Kandy. Here is a mass of rock about 550 feet high, in 
which are cave-temples devoted to the worship of Booddha, 
and profusely adorned with sculpture and images. Among 
these is a coiossal image of Booddha, hewn out of the rock. 
These temples, which are partly artificial, were constructed 
about 100 B. C. 

Dame’s Quarter, a post-township of Somerset co., 
Md. Pop. 1565. 

Damia'ni (Pietro), known as Saint Peter Damian, 
an influential Italian prelate, born at Ravenna about 998 
A. D. He was appointed cardinal-bishop of Ostia in 105/. 
He opposed simony and other corrupt practices of tha 
clergy, and was a friend of Pope Gregory ^ II. He was a 
voluminous writer, and morally and intellectually one of 
the first men of his time. He is honored as one ot the 
doctors of the Church. Died Feb. 22, 1072. 

Da'mianists, a sect originating in the sixth century, 
were the followers of Damianus, a Monophysitc patriarch 

















1248 


DAMIANUS—DAN. 


of Alexandria, who taught a novel theory with regard to 
the Divine essence and the three Persons of the Godhead. 
They nearly agreed with tho Sab.ellians. They are some¬ 
times called Angelists. 

Damia'lius, a distinguished Sophist and rhetorician of 
Ephesus, of whom an account is given by his friend Phil- 
ostratus in his lives of the Sophists. In his youth Dami- 
anus had attended the lectures of Adrianus and Allius 
Aristides, and he formed himself after tho model of these. 
He taught rhetoric in his native place with great success. 
He was a man of wealth and of great liberality, and erected 
for his fellow-citizens a beautiful portico. He appears to 
have left no writings. Henry Drisleu. 

Damiet'ta, a town and river-port of Lower Egypt, is 
on the right bank of the E. mouth of the Nile, about 8 
miles from the Mediterranean and 110 miles N. by E. from 
Cairo; lat. 31° 25' N., Ion. 31° 47' E. It is meanly built, 
but has some good mosques and marble baths. The har¬ 
bor is not good, and a bar at the mouth of the river pre¬ 
vents the entrance of large vessels. The modern town was 
founded in 1251 a few miles S. of the ancient Tamiathis, 
which in the time of the Crusades was a strong fortress of 
the Saracens. The cloth known as dimity was first manu¬ 
factured in this town, and received from it its name. Pop. 
in 1871, 28,913. 

Damiron (Jean Philibert), a French philosopher, 
born at Belleville (Rhone) May 10, 1794, was a pupil of 
Cousin. Among his works is an “ Essay on the History of 
Philosophy in France in the Seventeenth Century” (2 vols., 
1846). Died in 1862. 

Damm (Christian Tobias), a learned Greek scholar 
and theologian, was born in 1699 at Geithain, near Leip- 
sic. He was appointed pro-rector in 1742, and afterwards 
rector of the Kolnisches Real-Gymnasium in Berlin, but 
was displaced in 1764 on a charge of Socinianism, founded 
on his translation of the New Testament. He died in 1778. 
Besides the New Testament, he translated the works of 
several Greek authors, and published editions of both 
Greek and Latin writers. His principal work, and that 
by which he is now known among scholars, was his Homeric 
and Pindaric Lexicon, Berlin, 1765, 4to, edited by J. M. 
Duncan, Glasgow, 1824, 4to, and still further improved by 
Rost, Leipsic, 1836, 4to. Henry Drisler. 

Dam'mar, or Damar [from the Hindostanee and 
Malay damar , “resin”], the name of a valuable varnish 
produced by the dammar pine (Dammar a orientalis), of the 
natural order Coniferae. This tree is a native of the Molucca 
Islands, and is distinguishable from most of the other trees 
of its order by the broad, lanceolate, leathery leaves. It 
grows to an immense height, and on its trunk, which is 
often nine feet in diameter, are many huge knots. The 
tree is not valuable as timber. The resin is used in var¬ 
nishes, but not being permanent, it cannot take the place 
of copal and amber. It is sometimes used in photography. 
The kauri pine (Dammara australis) produces kauri resin 
or kauri gum. It is a native of New Zealand. Black 
dammar is obtained from the Molucca Islands; it has a 
strong resinous odor, and is black when dried ; it is used 
as pitch, and by distillation a kind of turpentine is obtained 
from it. It is the product of a tree of the natural order 
Amyridaceae. Ganarium microcarpum is of the same 
order, and is also a native of the East. It yields a sub¬ 
stance called dammar, which is used as oakum in shipbuild¬ 
ing. When mixed with chalk and the bark of reeds it 
becomes hard as stone. Various other trees yield resins 
called dammar. 

Da'mo, daughter of Pythagoras, to whom he left his 
memoirs (vttoiju oj^wa), with strict injunctions not to allow 
them to pass out of his family. This injunction she obey¬ 
ed, though in great poverty and tempted with offers of 
considerable sums of money. She transmitted them to the 
care of her daughter Bitale. Henry Drisler. 

Dam'ocles [Gr. Aa^o/cV}?], a Syracusan parasite and 
courtier who lived at the court of Dionysius the Elder, and 
was the subject of an experiment recorded by Cicero. As 
an antidote to his fond admiration of regal luxury and 
happiness, the tyrant invited him to a sumptuous banquet 
over which a sword was suspended by a single hair. 

Da'mon, a distinguished musician of Athens, celebrated 
also as a Sophist. Plutarch ascribes to him the invention 
of one form of the Lydian melody. He taught Pericles 
music, and was his adviser also in many of his political 
measures. Plato has spoken highly of the abilities of Da¬ 
mon. Late in life he was banished from Athens, no doubt 
from the objectionable character of his political opinions. 

Henry Drisler. 

Da'mon and Pyth'ias (or Pliin'tias), two Syra¬ 
cusans and disciples of Pythagoras, celebrated for the 
fidelity of their friendship. Pythias was condemned to 


death by Dionysius, who kept Damon as a hostage ivhilo 
tho former went home to settle his affairs. Pythias re¬ 
turned punctually, to the surprise of the tyrant, who par¬ 
doned him, and desired to be a partner in their friendship. 

Damoph'ilus of Bithynia, called by Suidasa phil¬ 
osopher and Sophist, was reared by Salvius Julianus, who 
was consul under Marcus Antoninus. He wrote a number of 
works, of which Suidas says he found the following in the 
libraries: “ Philobiblus, concerning Books worth Possess¬ 
ing,” and “Concerning the Life of the Ancients.” (The 
notices of Damophilus are collected by Muller, “Fragm. 
Hist. Graec.,” vol. iii., p. 656.) Henry Drisler. 

Dam'ophon, or Demophon, a statuary of Messene, 
flourished about 370 B. C. He adorned A2gium, Messene, 
and Megalopolis with his works, which were chiefly statues 
of Parian marble and of wood. Pausanias mentions among 
the most important of his works a statue of Lucina, one of 
iEsculapius, of the Mother of the Gods, of Mercury, and of 
Venus. He was also employed to repair the Olympian 
Jupiter of Phidias, the ivory of which had become loosen¬ 
ed in many places. Henry Drisler. 

Damoph'yle, one of the large group of Greek lyric 
female poets who were pupils, companions, and followers 
of Sappho. She flourished about 610 B. C., and was a Pam- 
phylian by birth, but Pamphylia was largely Greek. Like 
her mistress Sappho, she instructed other young women. 
She wrote love-poems, and composed those hymns to Arte¬ 
mis which were sung at Perga. None of her works are now 
extant, and very few facts with regard to her are known. 

Damox'enus, a comic poet of the new Attic comedy, 
probably reaching back also into the middle. He is refer¬ 
red to by Atheneeus, who with Suidas has preserved the 
titles of two of his comedies, and has given considerable 
extracts from one of them. All that remains of his writings 
has been collected by Meineke, “ Fragm. Comic. Grcec.,” 
vol. iv., pp. 529-36. Henry Drisler. 

Damp'er [from damp, to “check,” originally to 
“ smother,” akin to the Ger. Damp/, “ vapor,” and d‘dmp>- 
fen, to “ suffocate,” “ smother,” or “ quench ”], a valve 
used to lessen the aperture of a chimney or air-flue for the 
purpose of checking combustion by diminishing the quan¬ 
tity of air. In the construction of the pianoforte a damper 
is used. This consists of a drop cushioned with flannel, 
which, falling on the string, checks the vibration, and gives 
distinctness to the passages and clearness to the sound. 

Dam'pier (William), an English navigator, born in 
Somersetshire in 1652. He joined in 1679 a party of buc¬ 
caneers who crossed the Isthmus of Darien, captured 
several Spanish vessels, and molested the settlements. In 
1684 he made a A r oyage to the East Indies, from which he 
returned to England in 1691, and published an interesting 
narrative, entitled “A Voyage Round the World.” In the 
service of the government he conducted in 1699 an expe¬ 
dition to the South Sea, and explored the western coast of 
Australia, the coast of Papua and other islands. He re¬ 
turned home in 1701, and published a narrative of this 
voyage. 


Dam'pier Archipel'ago is near the N. W. coast of 
Australia, about lat. 21° S. and Ion. 117° E. It comprises 
Enderby, Depuch, Lewis, and other islands. Dampier 
Strait, between Papua and Waigeeo, is 35 miles wide. 

Damprcmy, a town of Belgium, near Chatelet. It has 
coal-mines and glass-factories. Pop. 5235. 

Damps [Ger. Dampf, “vapor;” see etymology of 
Damper], the noxious exhalations of mines and excava¬ 
tions. The carburetted hydrogen of coal-mines is called 
fire-damp, and carbonic acid gas mixed with carbonic 
oxide is termed choke-dam\p. 

Dam'son [a contraction of Damascene, from Damas¬ 
cus], a variety of the common plum. It is a small, oval 
fruit, made use of in preserving. In England it is much 
used as a confection called damson cheese. It is cultivated 
in the U. S. 

Dam, Tinker’s, is the wall of dough or chewed 
bread which a tinker puts around the hole which he is 
stopping, so as to confine the melted solder to that point. 
After it is once used it of course loses its value, so that its 
name is often employed in popular slang as a symbol of 
utter worthlessness. 


Damug'go, a populous and dirty town of Africa, in 
LTpper Guinea, on the Niger, in lat. 7° N., Ion. 7° 50' E. 
The houses are mostly built of mud. 

Dan [Heb. p], a son of the Hebrew patriarch Jacob. 
Also a part of Palestine occupied by the tribe of Dan, and 
bounded on the W. by the Mediterranean. Joppa was its 
principal town. Dan (or Laish) was an ancient city in the 
extreme northern part of the Promised Land. 

Dan, a river of Virginia and North Carolina, rises in 












DANA—DANAID. 1249 

the southern part of Virginia, flows in a generally eastward 
direction, and crosses the boundary between those States 
five or six times. After a course of about 200 miles, it 
unites with Staunton River at Clarksville, Va. Below this 
junction the stream is called the Roanoke. 

Da'na, a post-township of Worcester co., Mass., on the 
Athol and Enfield R. R. Pop. 758. 

Dana, a village of Carbon co., Wy., on the Union Pa¬ 
cific R. R., 100 miles N. W. of Laramie. 

Dana (Charles Anderson), a journalist, born at Hins¬ 
dale, N. II., Aug. 8, 1819, studied two years at Harvard 
University, did not graduate owing to a disease of the 
eyes, but received the degree of A. M. He edited the “ Har¬ 
binger,” was a contributor to the Boston “ Chronotype,” 
was connected with the New York “ Tribune” from 1847— 
58, and is now editor of the “Sun.” He edited “The 
Household Book of Poetry ” (8vo, 1858), and in connection 
with George Ripley edited “The New American Cyclo¬ 
paedia.” He was assistant secretary of war (1863-G4). 

Dana (Edmund Trowbridge), J. U. D., political econo¬ 
mist .and publicist, a brother of R. H. Dana, Jr., born at 
Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 29,1818, was educated at the Uni¬ 
versity ot Vermont, the Cambridge Law School, and the 
German universities, and published translations of works 
on public law, etc. Died May 18, 1809. 

Dana (Erancis), LL.D., an American statesman and 
jurist, born at Charlestown, Mass., June 13, 1743, was a son 
of Judge Richard Dana. He was admitted to the bar in 
1767, and joined the “Sons of Liberty.” In 1776 he was 
chosen a member of council of Massachusetts, at that time 
the supreme executive power in the State. He was a dele¬ 
gate to the Congress of 1777, which formed the Confed¬ 
eration, and to the Congress of 1778. In Nov., 1779, he 
sailed to Europe as secretary to John Adams, who was sent 
to negotiate a treaty of peace and commerce with Great 
Britain. In Dec., 1780, Mr. Dana was apjjointed minister 
to Russia, in the capital of which he remained nearly two 
years. Having returned to Boston in 1783, he was ap¬ 
pointed a judge of the supreme court of Massachusetts in 
1785. He was chosen in 1787 a delegate to the convention 
which formed the Constitution of the U. S., but his judicial 
duties and ill-health prevented his attendance. He voted 
for that Constitution as a member of the State convention 
convened to ratify it in 1788. He was chief-justice of 
Massachusetts from 1791 to 1806. In politics ho was a 
Federalist. Died April 25,1811. He was the father of the 
poet Richard H. Dana. 

Dana (James), D. D., a Congregational theologian, born 
at Cambridge, Mass., May 11, 1735, graduated at Harvard 
in 1753, and was pastor of the First church at New Haven, 
Conn. (1789-1805). He published (1770-73) an “Exami¬ 
nation of Edwards on the Will,” in which he strongly op¬ 
posed the doctrine of utilitarian morality, and ably de¬ 
fended the freedom of the will. Died Aug. 18, 1812. 

Dana (James Dwight), LL.D., an eminent American 
naturalist and geologist, born at Utica, N. Y., Feb. 12,1813, 
graduated at Yale in 1833. He published a “ System of 
Mineralogy” (1837), of which a new edition, greatly im¬ 
proved, appeared in 1868. He sailed with Capt. Wilkes as 
geologist of the exploring expedition sent out by the gov¬ 
ernment in 1838. Some results of this exploration ap¬ 
peared in his “Report on Zoophytes” (1846), a “Report 
on the Geology of the Pacific” (1849), a “Report on the 
Crustacea” (1852-54), etc. He married a daughter of 
Prof. Benjamin Silliman, settled at New Haven in 1846, 
and became one of the editors of the “American Journal 
of Science.” In 1855 he was elected professor of natural 
history and geology at Yale College. Among his works 
are an excellent “ Manual of Geology ” (1862) and “ Corals 
and Coral Islands” (1872). He rejects the Darwinian 
theory. Prof. Dana combines with the habit of close and 
accurate observation powers of mind which place him in 
the very foremost rank of philosophic naturalists. 

Dana (James Freeman), M. D., a brother of Dr. S. L. 
Dana, was born at Amherst, N. II., Sept. 23, 1793, gradu¬ 
ated at Harvard in 1813, studied medicine in Boston, and 
chemistry in London. He subsequently took the degree of 
M. D. (1817), became professor and lecturer on chemistry, 
etc. at Harvard, Dartmouth, and the New York College of 
Physicians and Surgeons. He was the author of “ Chem¬ 
ical Philosophy” (1825), and of mapy scientific papers and 
other works. Died April 14, 1827. 

Dana (Napoleon Jackson Tecumseh), an American 
officer, born April 15, 1822, in Maine, graduated at West 
Point in 1842, and May 29, 1862, major-general U. S. vol¬ 
unteers. He served as an infantry officer till 1848, and 
then as an assistant quartermaster till he resigned, Mar. 1, 
1855. He served chiefly at frontier posts 1842-45; in the 
military occupation of Texas 1845, in the war with Mexico 
79 

1846-47, engaged at Fort Brown, Monterey, Vera Cruz, 
and Cerro Gordo (severely wounded and brevet captain), and 
on quartermaster duty 1848-55. He was a banker at St. 

Paul, Minn., till the beginning of the civil war, when ho 
became colonel First Minnesota volunteers, and served in 
guarding the upper ferries of the Potomac 1861, in Shen¬ 
andoah Valley 1861-62, in Virginia Peninsula 1862, en¬ 
gaged at Yorktown, West Point, Fair Oaks, Peach Orchard, 

Savage Station, White Oak Swamp, Glendale, and Malvern 

Hill; in Maryland campaign 1862, engaged at South Moun¬ 
tain and Antietam (severely wounded); in command of the 
defences of Philadelphia 1863 ; in operations in the depart¬ 
ment of the Gulf 1863-64, engaged at Fordoclie Bayou, ex¬ 
pedition to the Rio Grande, and the occupation of Mata¬ 
gorda Bay; and in command of the district of Vicksburg 
and of West Tennessee 1864, and of the department of Mis¬ 
sissippi 1864-65. Resigned May 25, 1865, and is now en¬ 
gaged in mining operations in California. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Dana (Richard), an able American lawyer, born at 
Cambridge, Mass., July 7, 1699, was the father of Francis 

Dana, noticed above. He graduated at Harvard in 1718, 
practised law at Boston with success, and was an active 
promoter of the popular cause in the period which preceded 
the war of Independence. Died May 17, 1772. 

Dana (Richard Henry), a poet, born at Cambridge, 

Mass., Nov. 15, 1787, a son of Chief-Justice Francis Dana, 
was educated at Harva’rd College, studied law, and was 
admitted to the bar of Boston in 1811. He was one of the 
editors of the “North American Review” in 1818 and 

1819. In 1821 he published “ The Dying Raven,” a poem. 

His poem entitled “The Buccaneer” (1827) was praised 
by Prof. Wilson of “Blackwood’s Magazine” in these 
terms: “We pronounce it by far the most powerful and 
original of American poetical compositions.” He published 
in 1833 a collection of his poems and prose works, includ¬ 
ing some essays which originally appeared under the title 
of “ The Idle Man,” in 1821-22. 

Dana (Richard Henry, Jr.), an eminent American law- • 
yer and author, a son of the preceding, was born at Cam¬ 
bridge Aug. 1, 1815. He entered Harvard College in 1832, 
but suspended his studies on account of the weakness of 
his eyes in 1834. He then performed as a common sailor a 
voyage to California, of which he wrote an interesting and 
popular narrative entitled “Two Years Before the Mast” 

(1840). Having graduated at Harvard in 1837, he studied 
law under Judge Story, and was admitted to the bar in 

1840. He published in 1841 “ The Seaman’s Friend, con¬ 
taining a Treatise on Practical Seamanship,” and also an 
edition of Wheaton’s “International Law” in 1865. He 
was one of the founders of the Free-Soil party in 1848, 
and an orator of the Republican party in 1856. 

Dana (Samuel Luther), M. D., LL.D., an American 
chemist and writer on agriculture, wa3 born at Groton, 

Mass., July 11, 1795. He was employed as chemist of the 
Merrimack Print-Works at Lowell, and invented a method 
of bleaching cotton goods which was extensively adopted. 

Among his works are the “Muck Manual ” (1842) and an 
essay on manures (1843). Died Mar. 11, 1868. 

Dana (Samuel Whittlesey), son of Dr. James Dana, 
noticed above, was born at New Haven, Conn., July, 1757, 
graduated at Yale in 1775, was a member of Congress 
(1796-1810), and U. S. Senator (1810-21). He was a lead¬ 
ing Federalist. Died July 21, 1830. 

Dana (William H.), U. S. N., born May 27, 1833, in 
Athens, 0., entered the navy as a midshipman May 1, 1850, 
became a passed midshipman in 1856, a lieutenant in 1858, 
a lieutenant-commander in 1862, and a commander in 1869. 

He served in the North Atlantic blockading squadron and 
the Western Gulf blockading squadron in 1863 and 1864, 
participating in the attack on Port Hudson, Mar. 6, 1863, 
and commanded the gunboat Winona, South Atlantic block¬ 
ading squadron, from the latter part of 1864 to the close 
of the civil war. Died at the naval hospital, Chelsea, 

Mass., Mar. 5, 1872. # 

FoxnALL A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Dan'ae [Gr. Aava-q], in classical mythology, was a 
daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos, who confined her in a 
brazen tower because an oracle had predicted that her son 
would kill her father. She became the mother of Perseus, 
whose father, Jupiter, is said to have obtained access to her 
in the form of a golden shower. 

Dan'aill [for etymology see below], an ingenious hy¬ 
draulic machine, consisting essentially of two hollow cylin¬ 
ders, placed one within tho other, with a (comparatively) 
narrow space between; the inner cylinder closed at bot¬ 
tom, the outer having an aperture at the bottom in the 
centre. Between the two bottoms are partitions radia¬ 
ting from the centre to the circumference, but the annular 










1250 DANAIDES—DANCE OF DEATH. 


cylindrical space is without partitions. The whole is sus¬ 
tained by a vertical axis, about which it turns easily. A 
jet or stream of water being now admitted into the annular 
space, as nearly tangential horizontally to the cylindrical 
surface as possible, sets the machine in motion, at first by 
mere friction, but presently the living force imparted to 
the water by revolution, acting on the radial partitions 
of the base, accelerates the velocity and increases the force. 
Experiments show that this machine utilizes from 70 to 75 
per cent, of the power due to the hydraulic head. The 
name seems to have been suggested by the fable of the 
Dana'ides pouring water for ever into a vessel, from which 
it continually escapes. 

Dana'ides [Gr. A<mu$e?], the fifty daughters of Danaus, 
a mythical king of Egypt, were married to fifty sons of 
iEgyptus, their uncle. By order of their father, each of 
the Danaides, except one, killed her bridegroom on the 
wedding-night. They were doomed in Tartarus to pour 
water for ever into a vessel perforated with holes. 

Dan'bury, a post-borough and semi-capital of Fairfield 
co., Conn., is at the northern terminus of the Danbury and 
Norwalk R. R., which is 23 miles long, and connects with 
the New York and New Haven R. R. It is 69 miles N. 
N. E. of New York. It has two national banks, a weekly 
newspaper, two savings banks, several hat-factories, one 
sewing-machine factory, one boot-and-shoe factory, two 
shirt-factories, and one foundry. It has extensive water¬ 
works, a town farm for the indigent, and a cemetery of re¬ 
markable beauty. It was settled in 16S4, and burned by 
the British in April, 1777. Pop. 6542; of township, 8753. 

J. M. Bailey, En. “ Danbury News.” 

Danbury, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H., on the 
Northern R. R., 30 miles N. W. of Concord. It has three 
churches, and manufactures of shoes and leather. P. 796. 

Danbury, a post-village, capital of Stokes co., N. C., 
about 112 miles W. N. W. of Raleigh. It has one weekly 
newspaper. 

Danbury, a township of Ottawa co., 0. Pop. 1252. 

Dau'by, a township and post-village of Ionia co., Mich., 
on the Detroit Lansing and Lake Michigan R. R., 16 miles 
S. E. of Ionia. Pop. 1176. 

Danby, a township and post-village of Tompkins co., 
N. Y., 8 miles S. of Ithaca. Pop. 2126. 

Danby, a township and post-village of Rutland' co., 
Vt., on Otter Creek and the Harlem Extension R. R., 18 
• miles S. of Rutland. It has a number of stores, one weekly 
newspaper, and manufactures of lumber, leather, boxes, 
cheese, and marble. Pop. 1319. 

J. C. Williams, Ed. “ Otter Creek Valley News.” 

Danby (Francis), A. R. A., a landscape-painter, born 
near Wexford, Ireland, Nov. 16, 1793. His works are 
marked by fine light-effects. Among his works are a “ Sun¬ 
set at Sea after a Storm” (1824), “ Christ Walking on the 
Sea” (1827), “The Embarkation of Cleopatra on the Cyd- 
nus” (1827), and “ Caius Marius among the Ruins of 
Carthage” (1848). Died Feb. 17, 1861. 

Danby (Thomas Osborne), Earl of, marquis of 
Caermarthen and duke of Leeds, an English Tory states¬ 
man, born in 1631. He gained the favor of Charles II., 
and became in 1673 lord treasurer, and the most powerful 
of the king’s ministers. In 1674 he was created earl of 
Danby. He was committed to the Tower by the Commons 
on a charge of treason in 1678, and was confined five 
years. In 1689 he was appointed president of the council 
by William III., and in 1694 was created duke of Leeds. 
Died July 26, 1712. 

Dan'by’s, a township of Pike co., Ala. Pop. 1743. 

Dance of Death [Mediaeval Lat. chorea Machabseorum; 
Fr. la danse Macabre or la danse des morts ; Ger. Todten- 
tanz ], an allegorical representation of the power of Death 
over all classes and conditions of men. The name “ Dance 
of Death ” is derived from the mocking activity usually 
displayed by the skeleton figure of Death as he leads away 
his victims. As for the ftame “Macabre” sometimes given 
to this subject, it has much puzzled scholars, and has pro¬ 
duced many absurd etymologies. The only one of these 
that needs to be noticed is that which connects the word 
with the Maccabees of the apocryphal Old Testament. 
These seven martyrs for the Law were never popular nor 
much known in the Western Church, and their legend has 
nothing in it that connects them with this subject. The 
most reasonable explanation of the origin of the word is 
that it is derived from the Egyptian anchorite Macarius, 
one of the most famous of the hermit-saints. His legend 
connects him directly with warnings of death to the living. 
Though, as he was a Greek saint, his pictures are rare in 
the West, yet he is twice represented in the cemetery of 
Pi sa _the Campo Santo—once by Pietro Laurati, and again 


in the fresco attributed to Orcagna and mentioned below. 
Vasari expressly tells us that the aged saint who is show¬ 
ing the three dead bodies to the hunting-party was meant 
for Saint Macarius; and it is possible that his name may 
in time have come to be applied to the subject of which 
this fresco is a famous illustration. 

Traces of the idea which was the foundation of the 
mediaeval acted dramas and pictured or sculptured repre¬ 
sentations of this subject are to be found in Italo-Greck 
and Roman antiquity. Douce says that on a sarcophagus 
found near Cumae are sculptured three dancing skeletons, 
and that the same subject is on a Roman lamp and in a 
Pompeian fresco. On an antique gem in the Royal Gallery 
at Florence there is engraved an old man piping to a dancing 
skeleton; and though the introduction of the skeleton is 
rare, yet it is common enough to find on the Roman sar¬ 
cophagi such representations of life interrupted by death as 
will abundantly connect the moralizing of those times with 
that of the Middle Ages. Probably the earliest of the 
modern treatments of this subject were in the form of 
dramatic representations—moralities—acted in churches. 
As early as 1453 a Dance of Death is recorded to have been 
acted in the cathedral of Besangon after mass, and we may 
suppose that this was not the only instance. Originally, 
it would seem that the “Dance of Death,” which, in the 
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, was made to include a 
considerable number of people, was restricted to a few. As 
early as the thirteenth century there appeared a French 
poem called “Li Trois Mors et li Trois Vis;” that is, “ Les 
Trois Morts et les Trois Vifs.” “ This poem relates that 
three noble youths when hunting in a forest were inter¬ 
cepted by the like number of hideous spectres or images 
of Death, from whom they received a terrific lecture on the 
vanity of human grandeur.” {Douce.) In 1335, Orcagna 
painted in the Campo Santo at Pisa his Triumph of Death, 
one of the earliest pictures of this subject, where three 
kings, with their ladies, companions, and servants, return¬ 
ing from hunting, come suddenly upon three open coffins 
containing the bodies of three persons, one of them a king, 
in various stages of decay. In his “Pardoner’s Tale” 
Chaucer has also introduced a most powerfully imagined 
variation of the same theme. Death (for so we understand 
it), under the disguise of an old man, appears to three 
riotous young men who in their bravado are in search of 
Death, to destroy him in punishment of his many murders, 
and directs them to a certain tree in the forest where he 
says he had left him sitting. They find him there in an 
unlooked-for fashion. 

The “ Dance of Death,” whether as a series of pictures 
showing the skeleton conqueror carrying away popes, kings, 
cardinals, bishops, priests, abbots and abbesses, nuns, 
queens, ladies, and lords, the bride and the bridegroom, 
judges and Scholars, merchants, warriors, ploughmen, 
market-women, and little children, or only a selection of a 
few of these, was painted “not only on the walls, but in 
the windows of many churches, in the cloisters of monas¬ 
teries, and even on bridges, especially in Germany and 
Switzerland. It was sometimes painted on church-screens, 
and occasionally sculptured on them, as well as on the 
fronts of domestic dwellings. It occurs in many of the 
manuscripts and illuminated service-books of the Middle 
Ages.” {Douce.) It is also found carved in wood, and 
made the subject of tapestries; and in one of Holbein’s 
finest drawings in the museum at Bale it is used to decorate 
a dagger-sheath. The subject had a wide popularity, and 
examples abound in England, Germany, and France, but 
fewer in Italy, and, so far as we know, none in Spain, 
though mention is made by some writers of an example 
in the palace of St. Ildefonso. (Qu. bishop’s palace at 
Alcala?) Mr. George Street, however, a most careful and 
accurate observer, in his “ Gothic Architecture in Spain ” 
does not mention a single picture or sculpture of this sub¬ 
ject. Douce gives a list of places where Dances of Death 
were painted, and among them we find Paris, Dijon, Bale, 
Liibeck, Anneburg, Erfurth, Lucerne, Amiens, Rouen, Fe¬ 
camp, Strasbourg, London, and Salisbury, with others less 
important. Most of these have disappeared; the one still 
to be seen on the old bridge at Lucerne has been very much 
repainted. Douce considers the oldest mentioned example 
to be that executed for the church of the Innocents at 
Paris in 1434. Among the most famous ones was that at 
Bale (long erroneously attributed to Holbein, who was not 
born till near a half century after it was painted) in the 
cloister of the Dominican monastery. Tradition says that 
this was made between 1431 and 1443, at the instance of 
the prelates who assisted at the great Council of Bale, and 
in allusion to a plague that raged at one time during its 
sitting. The monastery, having fallen into decay, was de¬ 
stroyed in 1806 to make room for certain municipal im¬ 
provements, and the frescoes went with it. But, perhaps, 
what keeps the name of the Dance of Death most securely 

















DANCING—DANIEL, BOOK OF. 1251 


in men’s minds is the series of wood-cuts indissolubly con¬ 
nected, whether rightly or wrongly, with the name of Hol¬ 
bein. These cuts originally appeared in a book of which 
the following is the title: “ Les simulachres et | historiees 
faces | de la mort autant ele | gammet pourtraictes que 
artifi | ciellement imagines. A Lyon Soubz lescu de 
Coloigne | M.D.XXX VIII. 4to;” and at the end, “ Excu- 
debant, Lugdu | ni Melchior et | Giaspar Trechsel | fratres 
1538.” In the first edition above cited there were only 
forty-one cuts; in later editions, which followed one an¬ 
other with great rapidity, they were increased, until in that 
of 1547, also published at Lyons, there were forty-nine. 
Holbein’s relation to these cuts is still, after much labori¬ 
ous and learned investigation, very obscure: it may be 
that we,owe nothing to him but a more artistic draught- 
manship, by which new life was given to the old compo¬ 
sitions, and it is at least possible that he had no hand in 
them whatever. (See Peignot, “ Recherches sur les Danses 
des Morts,” Dijon and Paris, 1826 ; “ The Dance of Death,” 
with a Dissertation, etc. etc., by Francis Douce, London, 
1833; Langlois, “ Essai historique, philosophique, et pit- 
toresque sur les Danses des Morts,” 2 vols., 50 plates, 
Rouen, 1852; Massmann, “ Literatur der Todtentanze,” 
Leipsic, 1841. “ La Danse Macabre: Histoire fantastique 
du XV. Siecle,” by Paul Lacroix, 1832-38, sometimes 
cited as an authority, is only a romance after the manner 
of Hugo’s “ Notre Dame.”) Clarence Cook. 

Dan'cillg, a succession of rhythmical movements of 
the body, often accompanied by music. Dancing is of 
very early origin. The ancients constituted it a part of 
their religious observances, and danced before their altars 
and the images of their gods. The ancient Egyptians 
ascribed its invention to their god Thoth. All the different 
passions were expressed in dancing by the Greeks, and the 
dance of the Eumenides or Furies was so expressive of 
vengeance that it inspired the beholders with terror. The 
attitudes of the public dancers were studied by the Greek 
sculptors in order to delineate the passions. Aristotle ranks 
dancing with poetry. The Spartans were required to train 
their children in this art from the age of five. This was 
publicly done, to train them for the armed dance, and was 
accompanied by songs or hymns. In ancient times, dan¬ 
cing in private entertainments was performed by profes¬ 
sionals. The Romans counted it disgraceful for a free citi¬ 
zen to dance except as a religious rite. 

In Egypt there are dancing and singing-girls, who im¬ 
provise verses and are called almeh. In India there are 
nautch- (natch-) girls, who dance on public occasions. 
Among savages dancing is still used as a religious rite or 
as a sort of state ceremony on important occasions. Among 
civilized nations it is a frequent mode of recreation. By 
many it is believed to have immoral tendencies, and is 
doubtless liable to serious abuse. 

Dancing Ma'nia, an epidemic disorder of the four¬ 
teenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, similar to chorea. 
It is supposed that much imposture prevailed in many 
forms of this epidemic, but there were also many cases in 
which the subject entirely lost control of the will. This 
disorder is even now known in Abyssinia. Something 
similar to it in Italy was ascribed to the bite of a spider 
called the tarantula, but its greatest prevalence was in the 
cities of Germany d*uring the Middle Ages. At Aix-la- 
Chapelle, in 1374, there appeared on the streets crowds of 
dancing men and women, apparently excited thereto by the 
frantic demonstrations at the festival of St. John. The 
dancers were said to be unobservant of outward things, but 
sensible of visions. They appeared to lose all self-control, 
and would dance till they .fell as if dead, and would some¬ 
times beat out their brains upon the ground. The mania 
extended to the Low Countries, as well as Cologne, Metz, 
and Strasburg, and caused much demoralization. Exor¬ 
cism was at first found remedial, and cold water, as applied 
by Paracelsus in the sixteenth century, was very efficacious. 
At the beginning of the seventeenth century the St. Vitus’s 
Dance, as the disorder was then called, was abating, and is 
now almost unknown. The “ St. Vitus’s Dance”*of our 
day is Chorea (which see). The excesses of the French 
“ prophets” of the last century and the convulsive disorders 
sometimes seen in the camp-meetings of our own country 
are probably of similar character with the dancing mania. 
(See J. F. C. Hecker, “Tanzwuth,” 1833, translated into 
English by B. G. Babington, M. D.) 

Dan'delion [from the Fr. dent de lion, “ lion’s tooth,” 
probably from the shape of its leaves; Ger. Loewenzalin], 
the Taraxacum dens-leonis , an herbaceous plant of the 
natural order Composite, with a perennial fusiform root. 
The leaves spring immediately from the root, are long, 
feather-shaped, with the divisions toothed, smooth, and of 
a fine green color. The plant grows spontaneously in most 
parts of the globe. The leaves when very young are tender, 


and are often used as a potherb, and it is cultivated and 
brought to market in considerable quantities for this use. 
It is a popular remedy with many medical practitioners in 
this country and Europe, having gentle tonic powers. The 
root is sometimes prepared and ground with coffee, the 
taste of which covers that of the dandelion. 

Dan'dolo (Enrico), a celebrated Venetian statesman 
and general, Lorn in 1108. He was eminent for learning 
and eloquence. In 1192 he was elected doge of Venice, the 
maritime power of which he greatly increased. He also 
extended the bounds of the republic in Dalmatia and 
Istria. Having formed an alliance with the leaders of the 
fourth crusade, he furnished vessels to transport their army 
to the Levant in 1201, and took command of the combined 
forces. They attacked Constantinople, and took it by 
storm in 1204. The throne was offered by the crusaders to 
Dandolo, but he declined it. He was blind in his old age. 
Died June 1, 1205. 

Dan'dridge, a post-village, capital of Jefferson co., 
Tenn., on the French Broad River, 30 miles E. of Knoxville. 

Dane, a county in S. Central Wisconsin. Area, 1235 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. W. by the Wisconsin 
River, and drained by the Catfish, which is the outlet of the 
Four Lakes. These lakes, the largest of which is 6 miles 
long, lie near the middle of the county. The surface is 
finely diversified by hills and prairies; the soil is fertile. 
Cattle, grain, potatoes, wool, tobacco, hay, butter, etc., are 
produced. The manufactures include wagons, harnesses, 
and flour. It is intersected by the Milwaukee and St. Paul 
and the Chicago and North-western R. Rs. Capital, Madi¬ 
son. Pop. 53,096. 

Dane, a township and post-village of Dane co., Wis. 
Pop. 1043. 

Dane (Nathan), LL.D., an American jurist, born in 
Ipswich, Mass., Dec. 27, 1752, graduated at Harvard in , 
1778. He was one of the most able lawyers of New Eng¬ 
land, and a member of the Continental Congress in 1785- 
88. In 1787 he framed the ordinance for the government 
and organization of the North-west Territory, in which he 
inserted a clause prohibiting slavery. He served in the 
State senate for several years (1794-98). He published 
“ An Abridgment and Digest of American Law” (9 vols., 
1823-29). In 1829 he gave $15,000 to Harvard College, to 
found the Dane professorship of law. Died Feb. 15, 1835. 

Da'negelt, or Danegold (i. e. “Dane-money” or 
“ Dane-tax ”), a tribute of one shilling levied on every 
hide of land by the Anglo-Saxon kings for the purpose of 
defending the country against the Danes. It was subse¬ 
quently increased to two shillings, and was continued to 
the reign of Stephen. 

Da'nelag [an Anglo-Saxon term signifying “ Danish 
law”]. Under the later Saxon and earlier Norman kings 
of England this name was applied to fifteen or more coun¬ 
ties of the north and east of England, where the Danish 
language and customs prevailed in consequence of the in¬ 
vasions and conquests of that race. 

Dan'forth, a township of Washington co., Me. P. 313. 

Dan'iel (“God is Judge,” or “God will judge”), one 
of the four greater Hebrew prophets, was a youth when he 
was carried with many other Jewish captives to Babylon in 
605 A. D. Whether he was of royal, or only of noble 
descent, cannot be determined. He was educated at the 
court of Nebuchadnezzar, and was eminent for learning 
and wisdom. His skill in the interpretation of dreams 
procured for him the favor of the king, who appointed him 
governor of the province of Babylon and chief of the Magi. 
He explained the handwriting on the wall at Belshazzar’s 
feast about 538 B. C. After the capture of Babylon by the 
Medes and Persians, Daniel gained the favor of Darius tho 
Mede, and*was the first of three presidents who had au¬ 
thority over the 120 satraps of the empire. He also “pros¬ 
pered in the reign of Cyrus the Persian,” and appears to 
have remained in Babylon when the other Jews returned to 
Jerusalem. He probably lived to the advanced age of at 
least ninety years. 

Daniel, Book of, an important canonical book of the 
Old Testament, assigned by some to the prophetic books, 
and by others to the Hagiographa or Chetubim. (See Bible.) 
The book has commonly been divided into two parts, of 
six chapters each—the first six historical, the last six 
prophetical. Some recent critics maintain that the first 
seven chapters treat of .the world-power in relation to the 
kingdom of God; the last five chapters treat of the king¬ 
dom of God, and its development in relation to the world- 
power. The book is remarkable both for its miracles and 
its prophecies. The close general correspondence of these 
prophecies with the recorded facts of history has led somo 
writers to the belief that the book is not the work of Daniel, 












1252 


BANIEL—DANISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


as it purports to bo, but that it was written by some unknown 
person at a much later period. This view, which is as old 
as the time of Porphyry, has been revived and maintained 
by Collins, Sender, l)e Wette, Ewald, and others. On the 
other side, the evidence for the genuineness of the book 
is satisfactory to the representatives of orthodox theology. 
Among the points in its favor are the following: 1. The 
New Testament decidedly affirms its authority in many 
places. 2. The Maccabean literature and the Septuagint 
translation show that the book was in existence before the 
date assigned to it by rationalists (175 B. C.). 3. The book 
was written partly in Hebrew and partly in the older Chal¬ 
dee, as might naturally occur at the period when it purports 
to have been written. This point appears decisive in favor 
of the genuineness of the work. 4. So far is the book from 
being a copy of history, that even now the historical appli¬ 
cation of some of its parts is a matter of controversy. 5. 
It is remarkably free from the characteristic beliefs of the 
later Judaism. The exegetic and controversial literature 
upon the book of Daniel is very extensive. 

Daniel (Hermann Adalbert), an eminent German di¬ 
vine and geographer, born in 1812, was until 1870 professor 
in the pedagogium in Halle. His chief theological works 
are “ Thesaurus Hymnologicus ” (5 vols., 1841—56) and 
“ Codex Liturgicus Ecclesiae Universm,” etc. (4 vols., 1847- 
54); his best geographical works are “ Leitfaden fur den 
Unterricht in der Geographie” (68th ed. 1872) and“Hand- 
buch der Geographie” (3d ed., 4 vols., 1870-71). Died 
Sept. 13,1871. (See “ H. A. Daniel, ein Lebensbild,” 1872.) 

Daniel (Peter Vyvian), a lawyer, born in Stafford 
co., Va., in 1785, graduated at Princeton in 1805. He be¬ 
came a member of the privy council in 1812, and was seve¬ 
ral times re-elected. He became an associate justice of the 
Supreme Court of the U. S. in 1841. Died May 31, 1860. 

Daniel (Samuel), an English poet, born at Taunton in 
1562, was educated at Oxford. He lived in London, where 
he associated with Shakspeare and Marlowe, and was em¬ 
ployed as tutor to Anne Clifford, who became countess of 
Pembroke. In 1603 he was appointed master of the queen’s 
revels. He wrote, besides other poems, “ The Tragedy of 
Cleopatra” (1594), an historical poem “On the Civil Wars 
of York and Lancaster ” (1595), “ Musophilus ” (1599), and 
a “ History of England” (1613-34). According to Ilallam, 
“ his English is pure, free from affectation and pedantic in¬ 
novation.” Died Oct. 14, 1619. 

Dan'iell (John Frederick), F. R. S., D. C. L., an 
English natural philosopher, born in London Mar. 12, 1790. 
He published “Meteorological Essays” (1823). In 1831 
he became professor of chemistry in King’s College, Lon¬ 
don. He was the inventor of the first form of galvanic 
battery by which it was made possible to maintain a cur¬ 
rent sensibly constant for a long period of time, and for this 
most valuable improvement he received the Copley medal 
in 1837. In 1839 he published an “Introduction to Chem¬ 
ical Philosophy.” His is one of the great names of elec¬ 
trical science. Died Mar. 13, 1845. 

Dan ielsonville (West Killingly Post-office), a bor¬ 
ough of Killingly and Brooklyn townships, Windham co., 
Conn., on the Quinebaug River and on the Norwich and 
Worcester R. R., 26 miles N. N. E. of Norwich. It has 
two large cotton-mills, several shoe-manufactories, two 
weekly papers, one bank, five churches, and excellent 
schools. J. Q. A. Stone, 

Ed. and Prop, op “Windham Co. Transcript.” 

Dan'ielsville, a post-village, capital of Madison co., 
Ga., about 85 miles E. N. E. of Atlanta. 

Da'nish Language and Literature. The Danish 
language in its present shape is the result of a long, generally 
slow, but at certain periods sudden and almost violent, de¬ 
velopment of the old tongue, which as late as 800 years after 
Christ was spoken with very slight modifications throughout 
the whole of Scandinavia, and which still exists as a living 
language in Iceland. The two most remarkable periods 
of its development fall in the latter part of the sixteenth 
and the latter part of the eighteenth century. In the first 
epoch the Reformation, in the latter the French Revolution, 
brought the whole mental life of the Danish people in such 
a commotion that ampler means of expression became ne¬ 
cessary. New words burst forth with new ideas; new 
forms followed the new logic; new phrases blossomed with 
the new passions. In both cases the German language 
served as a pattern, but its influence was in both cases 
legitimate and highly beneficial. The Danish language 
stands to-day as an original and self-consistent growth, as 
an independent and well-defined organism. It has a great 
part of its vocabulary in common with the German lan¬ 
guage, but the forms of the words are so differently cast 
that only the scholar can recognize the kindred material. 
Its grammar and phrases are singularly like those of the 


English language ; a Danish book translated word by word 
would give readable English, while the same process would 
produce only nonsense in the German language. Its style 
is more precise, but less pathetic, than that of the German 
language; more truthful, but less brilliant, than that of the 
French; more fanciful, but less sympathetic, than that of 
the English. 'It is not a beautiful language, but it is a 
highly developed one. Its speech has a monotonous sound, 
its main vowel being a mixture of a and e, and its most 
characteristic consonant a weak d ; but its rhythm is capa¬ 
ble of a most delicate and infinitely varied modulation. A 
foreigner can never learn to speak it with elegance, and 
even the native who resides for a long time among foreign¬ 
ers loses the most impressive graces of its accent. 

The Danish literature began immediately after the Ref¬ 
ormation, and began on such a scale as to make the student 
expect an Elizabethan era. The Bible was translated ; the 
history of the country was written; the old popular songs, 
which had been composed two or three centuries earlier, 
and handed down by tradition from generation to genera¬ 
tion, and which at this very day constitute an important 
element of Danish civilization, were collected and printed 
in a remarkably clever edition. Great scientists whom the 
world has heard of appeared; Tycho Brahe made his ob¬ 
servations, and the tables he left furnished the material 
from which his disciple Kepler abstracted the famous laws 
which bear his name; Niels Hemmingsen was a sharp and 
subtle theologian of a singularly pure and powerful mind. 
Comedies and tragedies were written both in Latin and 
Danish, and performed with great splendor in the streets of 
the great towns by the students of the colleges, to the in¬ 
struction and amusement of the population. In every field 
of literature and art there were activity and energy. But 
this splendid beginning ended in a sudden and utter fail¬ 
ure. Niels Hemmingsen was condemned to silence, Tycho 
Brahe was exiled, the stage grew dumb, and the songs which 
were gathered from the lips of the people mouldered on the 
shelves of the library. For two centuries there was no 
Danish literature, except the king’s orders for new taxes 
and the queen’s bill of fare for sumptuous court-dinners ; 
and both were written in German. Now and then a great 
scientist appeared, as Thomas Bartholinus, the celebrated 
anatomist, and Ole R6mer, who figured out the velocity 
of light. Now and then a little song flew out, or an awk¬ 
ward endeavor was made of imitating some classical pat¬ 
tern. But these feeble tokens of life make only the general 
misery more conspicuous. It was two centuries before 
literature in Denmark took a new start, but then it did it 
with success, and Ludwig Holberg (1684-1754) became the 
founder of a great and noble literature, which has proved a 
highly beneficial instrument in educating and elevating the 
Danish people. 

Holberg was a Norwegian by birth ; his ideas were Eng¬ 
lish and his patterns French, but the materials he used 
were exclusively Danish, and he handled them with such 
a. penetrating power of understanding, with such a happy 
talent for interpretation, and with such a superiority of 
judgment, that it has been said of him, with truth, that if 
the whole of Denmark were swallowed by the ocean, and 
nothing left but Holberg’s comedies, the world would have 
a perfectly clear and exhaustive idea of Danish society at 
that time. It is evident, however, that an author must be 
possessed of original ideas which take hold of the minds 
of the people, and original patterns which express the 
people’s taste, if he really shall create a literature, form a 
literary school, and awaken the slumbering genius of the 
nation. But with Holberg both ideas and patterns were 
borrowed, and died out among the Danes with him : and 
when he, nevertheless, is called the father of the Danish 
literature, it needs a little explanation. Holberg did not 
create a literature, but he created a public. He aroused 
the attention of the people for literary affairs. He taught 
them how to use a book as a means of education and en¬ 
joyment. He wrote exactly what they needed and liked, 
and whenever the interest slackened a little he whipped 
them with his satire until their attention was fully awake. 
There were ten readers in Denmark Avhen he began ; there 
were ten thousand when he finished. Next, he did not 
call forth new authors, but he made authorship possible. 
Before his time an author in Denmark was a beggar who 
tried to win a patron for his book by a high-flown dedica¬ 
tion, and who was paid for his work by a miserable alms 
from the patron. Holberg brought his books to the 
market through a bookseller, without any patron or dedi¬ 
cation, and the immense success with which his courage 
was rewarded made authorship a profession and book¬ 
selling a trade in Denmark. Finally, in his comedies, he 
gave the Danish literature one of its finest treasures. 
They are an inexhaustible source of refreshing and invigor¬ 
ating enjoyment. His characters are not deep; thev lack 
psychology; but they are well defined and sharply drawn. 
























DANITES—DANTE ALIGHIERI. 


and they carry along with them an historical significance 
which makes them highly interesting. His expressions are 
not elegant, but they are exceedingly witty, and they have 
a fluency and abundance which in the mouth of a well- 
trained actor make them sound like a merry song. His 
plots are without interest, considered as pictures of life, 
but they are eminently well fitted for showing off the cha¬ 
racter by help of the situation, and peals of laughter al¬ 
ways accompany the performance of these plays. 

The period following immediately after Holberg’s death 
was very curious—talents which ran wild and passions 
which fought against their own ideas; great exertions end¬ 
ing with bagatelles, and great energies producing nothing 
but noise; passionate debates about trifles, and sentimental 
wailings about nonsense; and all this done in the greatest 
good earnest, and with the lullest confidence that it was 
great. But the period is very interesting when viewed as 
a time of preparation; for so it was. Just with the new 
century he appeared who in the full sense of the word is 
the father of the Danish literature—he who truly is the 
representative of the genius of the Danish people—Adam 
Oehlenslager (1779-1850). Every one of Oehlenslager’s 
earlier works—when he grew older he repeated himself—be¬ 
came a new influence in the Danish civilization ; it opened a 
new mine, and scientists, poets, and artists gathered to work 
it. In his great epos, “ The Gods of the North/’ and in 
several tragedies, “ Hakon Jarl,” “ Palnatoke,” “ Hagbart 
and Signe,” etc., he gave a sublime and, in an artistic re¬ 
spect, perfect representation of the old pagan Scandinavian 
civilization, and by these works the study of Scandinavian 
antiquities became a popular interest, and pictures and 
ideas from the olden times, when Scandinavia was one, be¬ 
came an essential part of every man’s education in Den¬ 
mark, Norway, and Sweden; nay, they became a pas¬ 
sion in every man’s heart; and the political world has 
already heard something about this passion. In his com¬ 
edy, u The Play of St. Hans’ Night,” he gave a most lovely 
and charming picture of life as it is led by the Danish 
middle class, and Heiberg, Hertz, Overskou, and Hostrup 
followed the track with such a power and variety of talent 
that the theatre of Copenhagen during a whole generation 
exercised an influence on Danish culture hardly surpassed 
by that of the university. Most deeply, however, Oehlen- 
slager influenced the Danish people by his “ Aladdin;” by 
this work he touched the moral character of the people. 
“ Aladdin ” is a kind of drama which in a series of most 
brilliant pictures shows the contrast between the born 
genius who enters the world as he would his own house, 
and the ambitious, restless energy which toils and conquers 
only to fail at last. It is true that this book extricated 
Danish character from much narrow pedantry, in which an 
antiquated education kept it entangled; but it is also true 
that it allured the youth into a dream of being born 
geniuses from which it was hard to awaken. 

It must be remembered that contemporary with Oehlen- 
slager lived Thorwaldsen, the greatest modern sculptor; 
Orsted, the discoverer of electro-magnetism; Rask, the 
founder of comparative philology; Martensen, the leader 
of the speculative school of theology ; Gade, one of the fin¬ 
est and mightiest composers of our time; and that each of 
these men had a number of pupils, and each of these pupils 
an audience. Furthermore, it must be remembered that 
these exertions in science, art, and literature were made by 
a people comprising only two millions of souls, two-thirds 
of which—namely, the whole peasantry—lived in utter 
dulness, and the remaining third was not possessed of any 
extraordinary wealth. It will then easily be understood 
that the literary glory of this period was also a danger. 
Life became a refinement, instead of a development; illu¬ 
sion took the place of reality. But, fortunately, there 
came a warning. In a long series of very elaborate writ¬ 
ings, Soren Kierkegaard (1813-54) gave a sublime but 
austere exposition of the fundamental ideas of Christianity, 
and from this standpoint he criticised the life around him 
with the most biting sarcasm and an awe-inspiring severity. 
The effect was a painful silence. A feeling of guilt visited 
many a heart. But help there was none. Soren Kierke¬ 
gaard’s criticism was crushing, and his ideals were too 
strong. He would, no doubt, have left the whole Danish 
civilization prostrate and lame for a long time if it had 
not contained an undercurrent which he did not see, and 
which lay outside of his criticism. 

But there was from the very beginning of the period a 
spirit at work—awakened by Oehlenslager, yet deeper than 
he, nursed by all the fruits which science and art presented, 
but blended with a passionate craving for reality, and sup¬ 
ported by an eminently practical talent. Bishop Grundt- 
vig (1784-1871), a great poet, a great scholar, a great 
preacher, but greatest as a character, was the representa¬ 
tive of this spirit. For nearly half a century he and his 
disciples kept aloof from the general current of events, and 


1253 


lived as an obscure party. But when the day of collapse 
came, he stood in the gap with the means of reconstruc¬ 
tion. Ho found two powerful allies, kindred natures, though 
not disciples, in Carl Ploug, Denmark’s greatest lyrical 
poet, and a most eloquent newspaper writer, and Rasmus 
Nielsen, a thinker of rare acuteness and a most brilliant 
lecturer. Both these men, like Grundtvig himself, were 
men not only of literary talents, but of great literary 
meidts ; but literature was to them not an aim, but an in¬ 
strument. The idea was to throw away all finery, all that 
had not vigor and breadth enough to become public prop¬ 
erty ; to make religion and patriotism the basis of civiliza¬ 
tion, and living influence and practical consequence the 
test of all its elements; and then by an extensive scheme of 
education to lift the whole mass of the people up into this 
reconstructed civilization. And this idea was accepted with 
such an enthusiasm, and its realization inaugurated with 
such success, that the small tablet on which the Danish 
people records its life, is, in this moment, one of the most 
interesting parts of the great picture of modern civiliza¬ 
tion. Clemens Petersen. 

Dan'ites, among the Mormons of Utah, a secret or¬ 
ganization of men who are believed to have taken an oath 
to support the authority and execute the commands of the 
leaders of their sect at all hazards. Many massacres, rob¬ 
beries, and murders, committed during the earlier history 
of Utah, are ascribed to the Danites. 

Danka'li, an independent state of Abyssinia, is bound¬ 
ed on the N. E. by the Red Sea, and on the S. W. by a 
range of mountains. It is about 250 miles long. The cli¬ 
mate is very hot; the soil is arid and poor. The inhabit¬ 
ants are ferocious, treacherous, and fanatical Mohammed¬ 
ans. They number about 70,000. 

Dan'nebrog [etymology uncertain], the ancient battle- 
standard of Denmark, bearing the figures of a cross and 
crown. It was fabled to have fallen from heaven at the 
battle of Volmar in Esthonia (1219) during a crusade 
against the heathens. It was twice taken in battle and 
twice recaptured. In 1500 a mere fragment remained.— 
The Order of the Dannebrog is the second of the Danish 
orders of knighthood. It is said to have been founded in 
1219, but fell into decay, and was restored in 1671. 

Dan'n-ecker, von (Johann Heinrich), a German 
sculptor, pupil of Pajou in Paris and of Canova (1785-90) 
in Italy, born near Stuttgart Oct. 15, 1758. Having re¬ 
turned to Stuttgart in 1790, he was appointed professor of 
sculpture. He produced admirable busts of Schiller, Lav- 
ater, and other men of his time. He excelled in the ex¬ 
pression of individual character. Among the best pro¬ 
ductions of the Canova classicism are his Ariadne and Sap¬ 
pho, and a colossal statue of Christ. Died Dec. 8,1841. 

Dannelly (James), a minister of the Methodist Epis¬ 
copal Church South, born in Georgia Feb. 4, 1786. He 
joined the South Carolina Conference in 1818. He was of 
the Boanerges type, and labored extensively and success¬ 
fully in North and South Carolina and Georgia. He died 
in South Carolina April 28, 1855. T. 0. Summers. 

Dannemo'ra, a post-township of Clinton co., N. Y. 
It contains the Clinton State prison, and has mines of iron 
ore. Pop. 1512. 

Dan'nevir'ke (the “ Danish Work”), a boundary-wall 
in Sleswick, built by the Danes against the Franks about 
808, from the Baltic to the North Sea. The original line 
can be traced from the town of Sleswick to Hollingstedt. 
The line of the Dannevirke was restored in 1848 by a sys¬ 
tem of strong fortifications known as the “ Great” and the 
“ Little Dannevirke.” They were evacuated by the Danes 
Feb. 5, 1864, and destroyed by the allies. 

Dan River, a township of Caswell co., N. C. Pop. 1910. 

Dan River, a township of Patrick co., Va. Pop. 2778. 

Dan River, a township of Pittsylvania co., Ya. It 
contains the city of Danville. Pop. 10,306. 

Dans'ville, a post-village of Ingham township, Ing¬ 
ham co., Mich. Pop. 443. 

Dansville, the largest town in Livingston co., N. Y., 
situated at the head of the Genesee Valley, and the present 
terminus of the Dansville and Avon branch of the Erie R.W. 
It contains a hygienic institute, eight churches, one seminar}’, 
three banks (one national), two weekly newspapers, two pa¬ 
per-mills, mower and reaper works, a woollen mill, a foun¬ 
dry, a pail-factory, and tanneries. P. 3387 ; of North Dans¬ 
ville township, 4015. F. J. Robbins, Ed. “Express.” 

Dansville, a township of Steuben co., N. Y. P. 1981. 

Dan'te Alighie'ri, one of the greatest of poets, was the 
son of a lawyer in Florence, in which city he was born May 
14, 1265. Boccaccio, whose life of Dante, first published 
in 1477, is the best authority we have on the subject, says 
that Dante was of Roman origin, of the stock of the Frangi- 















DANTE ALIGHIERI. 


1254 


pani, one of whom, by the name of Eliseo, came to Flor¬ 
ence and settled there, founding the family of the Elisei. 
A descendant of this founder, named Cacciaguida, married 
•a lady of the Aldighieri family of Ferrara, and giving the 
name of his wife’s family to one of his children, it came 
about that they substituted it for their own family name. 
After a time the d was dropped, and the name became 
Alighieri; and Boccaccio says it was spelled so down to 
his own day. But it has been variously spelled in later 
times; among the changes that have been rung on the 
original, that of Alligkieri is the most common. The arms 
of the family—a golden wing (ala) on an azure field—would 
seem to be, as is so often the case, a pun upon the name, and 
to fortify the old spelling. The name of Dante, by which 
the poet was baptized, is commonly said to be an abbre¬ 
viation of Durante, but Boccaccio says nothing of this, and 
at the end of an eloquent enumeration of the gifts Italy had 
received from Dante, he somewhat obscurely plays upon 
the name, intimating that no other than that of the “ giver ” 
(dante) would become him. 

Little is known of either the father or mother of Dante. 
His mother’s name is said to have been Bella, and she was 
his father’s second wife. His father died while Dante was 
yet a child, but he seems to have been carefully instructed, 
and he had such a leaning to books, and such an aptitude 
for study, that in the end he became master of all the learn¬ 
ing of his time. Among his teachers was Brunetto Latini, 
a distinguished grammarian and the author of two poems, 
“ II Tesoro ” and “ II Tesoretto,” and he is believed to have 
studied at the universities of Padua and Bologna. He de¬ 
lighted in music and in painting; among his friends were 
the musician Casella and the painter Giotto, both of whom 
he celebrates in his great poem; and in the “Vita Nuova” 
he speaks of himself as on one occasion drawing an angel 
on a tablet while thinking of Beatrice. 

When he was nine years old he first saw Beatrice, the 
daughter of a wealthy Florentine, Folco Portinari, a child 
of eight years. Dante has described his mystic love for 
Beatrice in that most exquisite poem the “ Vita Nuova,” 
and she appears again in his “ Divine Comedy ” as his 
guide through Paradise. This love never found its earthly 
close; and there have not been wanting those who declare 
that it was a purely imaginary worship of an imaginary 
being, the Beatrice of the “Vita Nuova” and of the “ Par- 
adiso ” not having been Beatrice Portinari at all. How¬ 
ever this may be, Beatrice Portinari married Simone de’ 
Bardi, and died in her twenty-fourth year. Dante him¬ 
self married, in his twenty-sixth year, Gemma, a lady of 
the powerful family of the Donati. 

Our knowledge of his life is at best but fragmentary. 
He fought in the battle of Campaldino, in which the Floren¬ 
tines defeated the men of Arezzo, and he was with his 
countrymen again when they took Caprona from the Pi¬ 
sans. There are traditions that he studied medicine and 
that }ie entered the Franciscan order, but there is no cer¬ 
tain foundation for these stories, any more than for the 
many others that have been devised to fill up the gaps in 
the obscure story of his life. In the great contest between 
the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, Dante at first sided with 
the former: he was a Guelph by birth and education, and 
he had fought on the two occasions we have mentioned 
with the Guelphic party in Florence against the Ghibellines 
of other cities. 

In 1300, when he was in his thirty-fifth year, he became 
chief of the Priori—public officers who held office only for 
two months. While he was in office a local dispute split 
the Guelph into two subdivisions, calling themselves the 
Bianchi ( whiten ) and the Neri (blacks). In the rage of 
party the Neri proposed to appeal to Charles of Valois, 
then fighting for the pope against the emperor, but the Bi¬ 
anchi, to which faction Dante belonged, opposed the mea¬ 
sure, and he induced the Priors to settle the question by 
banishing the heads of both parties. Of course this made 
both factions his enemies; the Bianchi charged him with 
favoring the Ghibellines, and the Neri with favoring the 
Bianchi, and it had an ill look for Dante that the Bianchi 
were allowed to return to Florence before their time of 
exile had expired. The excuse was, that the place they 
had been banished to was unwholesome, and, indeed, 
Dante’s friend, Guido Cavalcante, died there; besides, 
Dante declared that he was no longer in office at the time 
of the recall. 

The demand for the mediation of Charles still being loud, 
Dante was sent as ambassador to Pope Boniface VIII. to 
urge him to discountenance the project. But the pope 
deluded Dante with vague promises, and secretly gave his 
voice for Charles, so that the Bianchi lost ground. The 
Neri, gaining power and influence, became masters of the 
city, and at once proceeded with all the cruelty of party 
against the absent Dante, denouncing him as a peculator, 
fining him in a large amount, and banishing him for two 


years. Later he was condemned to perpetual banishment, 
and threatened with burning at the stake if he should dare 
to return to Florence. 

After wandering far and wide, destined never again to 
see his wife, living upon the hard charity of some and the 
cold hospitality of others, he sought the roof of one who 
seems to have been a true friend, Guido Novello da Polenta 
of Ravenna, and, after fifteen years of exile, died there in 
1321, on the 14th of September, in his fifty-seventh year. 
Of his children by Gemma Donati, three sons died young, a 
daughter entered a convent, and two sons, Jacopo and 
Piero, followed their father into exile, and gained some 
reputation as scholars in Ravenna, where the race, accord¬ 
ing to Leigh Hunt (“ Stories from the Italian Poets”), 
though extinct in the imale line, was still surviving in 
1846, through a daughter, in the noble house of Serego 
Alighiari. 

In his long and weary exile Dante’s steps have been rev¬ 
erently traced through many cities of Italy, and even be¬ 
yond her boundaries as far as Paris, and even to Oxford. 
That he ever saw England there is no good reason to be¬ 
lieve, and the visit to Paris rests upon the slenderest evi¬ 
dence, though there seems some likelihood that he visited 
France. He describes the tombs at Arles as if he had seen 
them, and the dikes of Flanders; and if he really went so 
far north, he would hardly have failed of Paris, where were 
those miniature-painters, speaking of whom he says “ they 
call their art ‘ illuminating’ in Paris.” In Italy they point 
out his haunts at Siena, at Arezzo, in Bologna, and doubt¬ 
fully in other places, and unhappily too truly in Verona, 
with Can Grande della Scala, and at last in Ravenna, where 
his bones still repose, though repentant Florence has asked 
for them again and again in vain. Once in his lifetime 
she gave him leave to return, on condition of paying a 
certain sum of money and asking forgiveness—conditions 
which he justly refused and nobly resented. 

From Boccaccio’s life of Dante we give a few particulars 
of the poet’s appearance and habits; if we had space we 
should like to translate also the remarkable story Boccaccio 
tells illustrative of his power of mental concentration—a 
match for Alcibiades’ famous story of Socrates (Plato, 
“ The Banquet”). Unhappily, no portraits of Dante exist 
from which we can get an accurate notion of how he looked. 
The portrait painted by Giotto in the Palazzo dell’ Podesta 
at Florence, in which Dante was represented between Bru¬ 
netto Latini and Corso Donati, is so defaced that it is vir¬ 
tually lost, nor do any good copies of it exist. In the 
church of Santa Croce at Florence there is an altar-piece 
by Giotto, in which is a portrait of Dante, but it is small 
and so difficult to be seen that its existence is hardly 
known. The well-known mask of Dante, said to have 
been taken after death from the poet’s face, though it has 
been the foundation of all the later pictures of Dante, and 
may well serve as a likeness, since it is every way charac¬ 
teristic, is of doubtful authenticity. Its origin cannot be 
certainly traced, and it is doubted if the art of casting 
in plaster was known so early. Perhaps the best portrait 
of Dante is preserved in the following description by 
Boccaccio: “ Our poet was of middle stature, and after 
he reached mature age went somewhat stooping. His 
movements were grave and full of mansuetude. lie went 
always clad in plain garments of such a fashion as became 
his years. His face was long, with an aquiline nose, and 
eyes rather large than small; his jaw was large, and the 
under lip protruded beyond the upper. His complexion 
was dark, and both his hair and his beard were thick, black, 
and crisp, and in his aspect he was always melancholy and 
brooding. By which it came to pass that one day in Verona 
(the fame of his works, and especially of that part of his 
Comedy which is called Hell, having gone abroad and be¬ 
come known to many men and women) he was passing 
before a door where several women were sitting, when one 
of them in a low voice, yet not so low but that he and those 
who were with him heard it, said to the other women, 'Look 
at that man, who goes down to hell, and comes back again 
when he pleases, and brings news of those who are down 
there !’ To which speech one of the others answered in good 
faith, ‘ I believe that what you say is true; don’t you see 
how his hair is crisped and his complexion browned by the 
heat and the smoke below ?’ In his eating and drinking 
he was most temperate, taking food only at the ordinary 
hours, and then never passing the bounds of necessity, nor 
showing any excess of liking for one kind more than for 
another.” 

Besides the “Vita Nuova” and the “Commedia,” to 
which the epithet of “Divine” was given later by some 
editor, the title given by Dante being “ The Comedy of 
Dante Alighieri, a Florentine by birth, but not by man¬ 
ners,” Dante wrote a treatise on the vernacular tongue, 
“ De Vulgari Eloquio,” a commentary on some of his own 
minor poems, “ II Convito ” (“ The Banquet ”), and a trea- 















DANTON—DANUBE, REGULATION OF. 


1255 


tise “ l)e Monarchia,” in which he eloquently advocates 
the cause of the empire as against the pope. 

Books on Dante and his poem are in such number that 
the mere mention of their titles would fill pages. At the end 
of our article on the “ Divine Comedy ” the reader Will 
find the names of the principal editions and translations. 
Works more especially relating to Dante himself are Boc¬ 
caccio s “ Vita di Dante,” 1544; the notes and appendices 
to Longfellow’s translation of the “ Divine Comedy 
Ampere’s “ Grece, Rome, et Dante Leigh Hunt’s “ Stories 
from the Italian Poetsthe introduction to W. M. Ros¬ 
setti’s translation of the “ Infernoand the introduction 
to J. A. Carlyle’s noble translation of the same ; T. Car¬ 
lyle’s “ The Hero as Poet ” in “ Heroes and Hero Worship 
and in French, besides Ampere’s interesting essay above 
mentioned, the sections on Dante in the “ Histoire Lit- 
teraire de la France au quatorzieme siecle, par Victor le 
Clerc,’ Paris, 1805, short but full of meat; and, in an en¬ 
tirely different sort, Balzac’s “ Les Proscrits,” of which 
Dante at Paris disputing with the Churchmen is the hero. 
But a complete account of Dante’s life, or what is kuown 
of it, is much wanted in English, nor does it exist in any 
language. 

As we close this article the great work on which Prof. 
Ferrazzi has been so long engaged is completed, and in it 
will be found all that is known of Dante and his works, 
down to the minutest detail—a work in which an Italian 
worshipper of Dante has labored with a more than German 
thoroughness and patience. The title is “ Enciclopedia 
Dantesca, di Gius. Jacopo, Prof. Ferrazzi,” 4 vols., Bas- 
sano, 1871. (See also “Dante secondo la tradizioni e i 
novellatori,” E. Papanti, Livorno, 1873.) 

Clarence Cook. 

Danton (Georges Jacques), a famous French dema¬ 
gogue, born at Arcis-sur-Aube Oct. 28, 1759. He prac¬ 
tised law in Paris before the Revolution. Having a tall 
stature, a muscular frame, an ardent temperament, and the 
voice of a Stentor, he was well qualified for a revolutionist 
and agitator. “Nature has given me,” said he, “the ath¬ 
letic form and harsh expression of Liberty.” Danton and 
Marat founded the club of Cordeliers, which equalled or 
surpassed that of the Jacobins in violence and in hostility 
to the royalists. In 1791, Danton was appointed procu- 
reur-substitut for the city of Paris. As a favorite orator 
of the populace he instigated the bloody insurrection of 
Aug. 10, 1792, which initiated the Reign of Terror. Dan¬ 
ton then became minister of justice, and shared the supremo 
power with Robespierre and Marat. When the French 
people were alarmed by the approach of the Prussian in¬ 
vaders, their confidence was restored and their martial ar¬ 
dor excited by a powerful speech which Danton made Sept. 
2, 1792, which closed with this phrase: “De l’audace, en¬ 
core de l’audace, et toujours de l’audace!” Having been 
elected to the Convention, he resigned the office of minis¬ 
ter, and became the leader of the Mountain. He voted for 
the death of the king, and established in Mar., 1793, the 
revolutionary tribunal. He co-operated with Robespierre 
in the destruction of the Girondists, and was a member of 
the Committee of Public Safety. Robespierre regarded 
him with jealousy, and resolved to sacrifice him. Danton 
was aware of, but seemed reckless to his danger. In Mar., 
1794, he was arrested and taken before the revolutionary 
tribunal. When asked his name and residence, he an¬ 
swered, “ My name is Danton; my dwelling will soon be 
in annihilation, but my name will live in the Pantheon of 
history.” He exhibited after his condemnation his usual 
intrepid demeanor, and was guillotined April 5, 1794. 
“Nothing,” says Lamartine, “was wanting to make Dan¬ 
ton a great man except virtue.” (See Lamartine, “History 
of the Girondists ;” Thiers, “ History of the French Revo¬ 
lution;” Des Jardins, “Vie de Danton,” 1851.) 

Dant'zic [Ger. Danzig'], a fortified city and seaport of 
West Prussia, is on the left bank of the Vistula, 3i miles 
from its entrance into the Baltic Sea; lat. 54° 21' N., Ion. 
18° 40' E. It is traversed by the rivers Motlau and Ra- 
danne, which here enter the Vistula, and is the terminus 
of a railway from Berlin, 250 miles to the W. S. W. The 
mouth of the Vistula is obstructed by sand-bars, which 
prevent the access of vessels drawing more than nine feet 
of water. Dantzic is surrounded by walls, and defended 
by a citadel and outworks. It contains a fine cathedral, 
commenced in 1343 and finished in 1503; numerous Lu¬ 
theran and Roman Catholic churches; an exchange; a 
town-hall; a gymnasium; two grammar-schools; schools 
of navigation, midwifery, and commerce; a school of arts 
and trade; an observatory, a public library, a museum, 
and an arsenal. Excellent timber is exported from this 
place, and great quantities of wheat out of Poland. The 
granaries on the Speicher Island, on which fire is pro¬ 
hibited, are capable of storing two to three millions of 


bushels. Much of this grain comes down the Vistula and 
Bug on rude floats. The exports amount to $9,500,000 an¬ 
nually. Dantzic was founded in the tenth century or 
earlier. It was occupied by the Teutonic Knights from 
1310 till 1454, when it becamo a freo state under the pro¬ 
tection of Poland. It also was for a long time one of the 
cities of the Hanseatic League. On the partition of Poland 
in 1793 it was annexed to Prussia. Dantzic has been 
twice besieged. The first and most famous siege was 
made by the French in the winter and spring of 1807, 
after the conquest of Prussia by Napoleon. The rem¬ 
nants of the Prussian army endeavored to defend the 
strong places of Pomerania. Dantzic was held by 15,000 
Prussians and 6000 Russians, provided with 800 pieces 
of artillery and immense supplies, and commanded by 
Gen. Kalkreut. The besieging party, commanded by the 
veteran Marshal Lefebvre, consisted of the tenth army 
corps and Saxon and Baden troops. The famous engineer 
Gen. Chasseloup de Laubat directed the siege operations. 
The investment was completed Mar. 14, 1807. Gen. Kal¬ 
kreut, after a vigorous defence, during which the allies 
vainly made attempts to raise the siege, capitulated on the 
21st of May to avoid an impending assault. The utmost 
skill of the French engineer and the science of the French 
artillerist were illustrated in this siege (carried on over 
frozen ground, and with the trenches sometimes filled with 
snow), which sustained and enhanced the reputation they 
had already acquired throughout Europe. Marshal Lefebvre 
was created duke of Dantzic; “ the French annals had not 
before furnished an instance of so brilliant a recompense. 
Napoleon in this followed the example of the ancients, who 
bestowed upon their generals the names of the places or 
the nations of which she had made conquest.” 

The second siege was more properly a blockade made by 
the allies (Prussians and Russians) in the winter and spring 
of 1813 after Napoleon’s disastrous Russian campaign. 
Gen. Rapp, commanding the tenth corps, held the place, 
and brilliantly maintained himself until the cessation of 
hostilities (June 10) under the armistice concluded between 
Napoleon, Alexander, and tho Prussian king. Pop. in Dec., 
1871, 89,121. Revised by J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Dan'ube [anc. Ister and Danubius; Ger. Donau; Hun. 
Duna], a river of Europe, inferior in size only to the Volga, 
is formed from the union of two streams, called the Bri- 
gach and Brege, which rise in the eastern part of the Black 
Forest, in lat. 48° 6' N. and Ion. 8° 9' E., 2650 feet above 
the level of the sea. The Danube is from 1750 to 1850 
miles long, and drains an area estimated at 300,000 square 
miles. The average fall of the river is eighteen inches per 
mile. It is joined in its course by over fifty navigable 
rivers. Flowing in a north-easterly direction from its 
source, through Wurtemberg and Bavaria, it passes Ulm, 
where it becomes navigable for vessels of 100 tons. From 
the S. it receives the Iser and the Lech, flows past Ingol- 
stadt to Ratisbon, then proceeding in a south-easterly direc¬ 
tion, enters Austria. In its course eastward to Presburg, 
the Danube receives from the S. the Inn and the Ens, and 
from the N. the March. In the neighborhood of Vienna 
and Linz its waters often divide and form islands, among 
which are the Great and Little Schiitt, sometimes called 
the Golden Gardens. After leaving Presburg its course 
changes to the S. E., and passing Pesth it flows directly 
S., and enters the Hungarian plain, where it is constantly 
forming new channels. Leaving Orsova, the Danube 
passes the Iron Gate, a rocky pass 1400 yards wide. This 
rapid prevented the upward progress of vessels drawing 
more than two and a half feet of water. The obstruction 
having been to some extent removed, vessels of eight or 
nine feet draught can now pass at certain times of the year. 
The river farther on forms the boundary between Bulgaria 
and Roumania. Having received the Sereth and Pruth 
from the N., and after forming several deltoid islands, it 
flows eastward into the Black Sea. The mouth by which 
the greater number of ships enter is called the Sulina. 
Jetees have recently been constructed here for the protec¬ 
tion of shipping. In 1871 the number of clearances at 
the Sulina mouth was 2224, of an aggregate tonnage of 
546,510. The Danube is an important commercial high¬ 
way, and flows through a grand and picturesque country. 

Danube, Regulation of, consists essentially in 
changing the course of the Danube opposite Vienna, by 
confining its current to a straight, deep channel along a 
well-constructed quay, thus diverting it from a broad and 
intricate system of shallow channels, none of which were 
conveniently available for navigation to the city. A largo 
area of land will be reclaimed for agricultural purposes, 
and a fine water-front will be secured. The work was 
commenced in 1869, under a commission appointed by tho 
government, and is expected to cost not less than 30,000,000 
florins, equal to about $15,000,000. W. P. Blake. 





























DANUBE—DARBY. 


1256 


Dan'ube, a post-township of Herkimer co., N. Y. Pop. 
1324. 

Dan'vers, a township and post-village of McLean co., 
Ill. The village is on the Indianapolis Bloomington and 
Western R. R., 36 miles E. S. E. of Peoria. Total pop. 
1760. 

Danvers, a post-town of Essex co., Mass., at the inter¬ 
section of the Newburyport branch of the Boston and Maine 
and the Lawrence branch of the Eastern It. Rs., 18 miles 
N. by E. from Boston. It has one national bank, one sav¬ 
ings bank, two weekly newspapers, extensive manufactures 
of shoes, brickyards, lumber and coal wharves on Porter’s 
River at Danvers Port, eight churches, an iron-foundry, a 
carpet-factory, a new State insane asylum, etc. There are 
four post-offices and eight railroad stations in the township. 
Pop. 5600. Ed. “Mirror.” 

Dan'ville, a post-village of Shipton township, Rich¬ 
mond co., Quebec (Canada), on the Grand Trunk Railway, 
87 miles E. by N. of Montreal. It has a weekly newspaper. 
Pop. about 600. 

Danville, a post-township of Morgan co., Ala. Pop. 
1159. 

Danville, a post-village, the capital of Yell co., Ark., 
is on the Petit Jean River, about 40 miles from its mouth. 
It has a church, a school, one flour-mill, and one news¬ 
paper. J. B. Bezzo, Ed. “Argus.” 

Danville, a city, the capital of Vermilion co., Ill., is 
situated on the Vermilion River, at the convergence of the 
Toledo Wabash and Western, the Indianapolis Blooming¬ 
ton and Western, the Chicago Danville and Vincennes, the 
Paris and Danville, the Evansville Terre Haute and Chi¬ 
cago, and the Danville and Tuscola R. Rs. It has 3 news¬ 
papers and 1 magazine, 2 car-shops, 8 hotels, 23 factories, 
6 coal-mines, 10 churches, 3 banks (one national), a public 
park, a free library, and 1 high and 5 graded schools. 
Pop. 4737; of outside township, 2434. Ed. “ Times.” 

Danville, a post-village, capital of Hendricks co., Ind., 
on the Indianapolis and St. Louis R. R., 19 miles W. of 
Indianapolis. It has one national bank, one private bank, 
two weekly newspapers, good public buildings, a fine loca¬ 
tion, and good schools. Pop. 1040. 

John N. Scearce, Ed. “ Union.” 

Danville, a township and post-village of Des Moines 
co., Ia., on the Burlington and Missouri River R. R., 13 
miles W. N. W. of Burlington. Pop. 1604. 

Danville, a post-village, capital of Boyle co., Ivy., is 
on a branch of the Louisville and Nashville R. R., 96 miles 
S. E. of Louisville. It is the seat of Centre College, the 
Danville Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), the Southern 
Collegiate Institute, the Caldwell Female Institute, and a 
State asylum for the deaf and dumb. It has two national 
banks and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 2542. 

Ed. “ Kentucky Advocate.” 

Danville, a township of Blue Earth co., Minn. Pop. 
•557. 

Danville, a post-village, capital of Montgomery co., 
Mo., 80 miles W. of St. Louis. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. Pop. of township, 2254. 

L. A. Thompson, Ed. “ The Ray.” 

Danville, a post-township of Rockingham co., N. II. 
It has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 548. 

Danville, a post-borough, capital of Montour co., Pa., 
is on the North Branch of the Susquehanna and on the 
Lackawanna and Bloomsburg, the Philadelphia and Read¬ 
ing, and the Danville Hazleton and Wilkesbarre R. Rs., 50 
miles S. W. of Wilkesbarre and 67 miles N. by E. from 
Harrisburg. It contains two national banks, one semi¬ 
weekly and two weekly newspapers, a large steam printing- 
office, seven blast-furnaces, six rolling-mills, and numerous 
other manufactories. Good iron ore, limestone, and an¬ 
thracite coal are found in the vicinity. Pop. 8436. 

Bradley & Gordon, Pubs. “Montour American.” 

Danville, a post-village of Caledonia co., Vt., 20 miles 
E. N. E. of Montpelier, on the Portland and Ogdensburg 
R. R. It has one national bank, an academy, and a graded 
school, one weekly newspaper, and manufactures of lumber,- 
woollen goods, and threshing-machines. Owing to its 
mountain scenery, it is a summer resort. Pop. of Danville 
township, 2216. N. H. Eaton, Ed. “North Star.” 

Danville, a post-village of Dan River township, Pitt¬ 
sylvania co., Va., on the falls of Dan River, at the terminus 
of the Lynchburg and Danville R. R., and on the Richmond 
Danville and Piedmont R. R., 141 miles W. S. W. of Rich¬ 
mond. Leaf tobacco is largely exported. It has one 
national and two private banks, two weekly newspapers, 
an iron-foundry, fifteen tobacco-factories, machine-shops, 
and mills. It is the seat of Roanoke Female College and 


another female institute. The principal trade is in leaf 
tobacco. Pop. 3463. 

Abner Anderson, Ed. “Register.” 

Daph'ne, a genus of trees and shrubs of the order 
Thymelacese, having a 4-cleft, funnel-shaped perianth, 
eight stamens, and a 1-seeded succulent fruit. The leaves 
are sometimes deciduous and sometimes evergreen, and 
are more or less acrid. The berries are poisonous, but the 
flowers of some species are beautiful and of exquisite fra¬ 
grance. The garou bush (Daphne Gnidium ) of Southern 
Europe, and the mezereon, both used in medicine, belong 
to this genus. The spurge laurel (Daphne Laureola) is a 
native of Great Britain. Paper is made in India from the 
bark of the Daphne cannahina ; it is called Nepaul paper, 
and is distinguished for smoothness and durability. 

Daphne, a celebrated grove and sanctuary of Apollo, 5 
miles S. W. of Antioch in Syria, was frequented by heathen 
pilgrims and voluptuaries. Here was a temple of Apollo, 
surrounded by beautiful groves of laurel and cypress trees, 
gardens, and baths. This place was appropriated to the 
indulgence of licentious pleasures, and was the scene of an 
almost perpetual festival of vice. 

Daphne [Gr. Ad^rj], in Greek mythology, a nymph 
beloved by Apollo. To escape from him she besought the 
aid of the earth, which opened to receive her, and she was 
transformed into a laurel tree. 

Daph'nis [Ad<£vis], in Greek mythology, a beautiful 
youth of Sicily, was the son of Mercury and a nymph of 
the country. He was reared amid beautiful groves of laurel 
(Sd$v7j), whence his name, and was taught by Pan to play 
on the pipe. He became a herdsman, and tended his herds 
on Mount Altna, where he won the love of a naiad, who 
for his supposed unfaithfulness punished him with blind¬ 
ness. Having prayed his father for relief, Mercury trans¬ 
ferred him to heaven. The invention of bucolic poetry was 
ascribed to him. The story of Daphnis forms the subject 
of the first idyll of Theocritus, and the name frequently oc¬ 
curs as a character in descriptions of pastoral life. 

Henry Drisler. 

Da Pon'te (Lorenzo), an Italian poet, born at Ceneda 
Mar. 10, 1749. He became Latin secretary to the em¬ 
peror Joseph II. in Vienna, where he composed several 
operas. After he had resided for some years in London, 
he emigrated to New York in 1805. About 1828 he was 
appointed professor of Italian in Columbia College. He 
wrote the libretto for Mozart's “ Don Giovanni” and other 
works. Died Aug. 17, 1838. 

Dar'abghertV, a town of Persia, in the province of 
Farsistan, 155 miles S. E. of Sheeraz. It is in an extensive 
plain, amidst groves of oranges and lemons. It was for¬ 
merly a large and important city, and now has a popula¬ 
tion of 10,000 to 15,000. 

D’Arblay, Madame (originally Frances Burney), an 
English novelist, born at Lynn-Regis June 13, 1752, was a 
daughter of Charles Burney, the musician. Burke, Dr. 
Johnson, Garrick, and other literati frequented her father’s 
house and listened to his musical concerts, and in these 
assemblies she was a silent and diffident spectator. Her 
first novel, “Evelina,” published anonymously in 1778, 
had a great success. In 1782 she produced “ Cecilia.” 
She v r as second keeper of the robes to Queen Charlotte 
(1786-91), and wrote an interesting relation of court ex¬ 
perience in her “Diary and Letters” (7 vols., 1842-46). 
In 1793 she was married to Count d’Arblay, a French 
exile. She died at Bath Jan. 6, 1840. 

Darboy (Georges), a French ecclesiastic, born Jan. 16, 
1813, became in 1839 teacher of philosophy and theology 
at the seminary of Langres, in 1859 bishop of Nancy, 
and in 1863 archbishop of Paris. At the Vatican Council 
he was a decided opponent of papal infallibility, but he 
recognized it when it was promulgated. On April 5, 1871, 
he was arrested by the Communists, and when the govern¬ 
ment troops took the city he was with five others shot at 
St.-Roquette. Among his prominent works are “ Les 
saintes femmes” (1850), “Les femmes de la Bible” (2 
vols., 5th ed. 1859), “La vie de St. Thomas a Becket” (2 
vols., 2d ed. 1860). 

Dar'by, a township of Madison co., 0. Pop. 988. 

Darby, a township of Pickaway co., 0. Pop. 1548. 

Darby, a township of Union co., 0. Pop. 1142. 

Darby, a post-borough of Delaware co., Pa., on Darby 
Creek, 7 miles S. W. of Philadelphia, with which it is 
connected by a horse-railroad. Pop. 1205, or, including 
Darby township, 2200. 

Darby (William), an American geographer and statis¬ 
tician, was born in Pennsylvania in 1775. Ho was an 
officer under Jackson, serving in Louisiana, and assisted 











DARBYITES—DARIUS II. 1257 


in the survey of the boundary between the U. S. and Can¬ 
ada. He died at Washington, D. C., Oct. 9, 1854. He 
was the author of numerous works, among which are a 
“Geographical Description of Louisiana” (1816), “ Geog¬ 
raphy and History of Florida” (1821), a “Geographical 
Dictionary,” and a number of gazetteers and other works. 

Darbyites. See Plymouth Brethren. 

Darcet (Jean Pierre Joseph), a French chemist, born 
Aug. 31, 1777, was the son of Jean Darcet (1727-1801), 
director of the porcelain manufactory at Sevres, who estab¬ 
lished the combustibility of the diamond. He added several 
useful discoveries to practical chemistry, important im¬ 
provements in the manufacture of powder and in the com¬ 
position of bronze and steel, the production of soda from 
common salt, etc. Died Aug. 2, 1844. 

Dardanelle, a post-village of Yell co., Ark., on the 
Arkansas River, about 80 miles above Little Rock. It has 
two weekly newspapers, two steam flour-mills, a planing- 
mill, a steam cotton-gin, four churches, and two public 
schools. Pop. 926; of township, 1838. 

J. B. Bezzo, Ed. Danville “Argus.” 

Dar'danelles (anc. Hellespontus ), called also the 
Strait of Gallip'oli, a narrow channel connecting the 
Sea of Marmora with the Aegean Sea, and forming a part 
of the boundary between Europe and Asia. It extends 
from lat. 40° to 40° 30' N.; is bounded on the N. W. by 
Turkey and on the S. E. by Asia Minor, and is about 40 
miles long. The width varies from 1 to 4 miles. A rapid 
current runs from the Sea of Marmora south-westward. 
The Dardanelles is strongly fortified on both sides by forts 
and batteries. Two castles on the opposite shores occupy 
the sites of the ancient Sestos and Abydos. The Helles¬ 
pont is historically famous for the floating bridges thrown 
across it by Xerxes the Great. It is scarcely less renowned 
as the scene of the loves of Leander and Hero, the sub¬ 
ject of a famous epic poem by Musaeus. 

Dar'den (Miles), a person remarkable for his great 
size, was born in North Carolina in 1798. He was a man 
of active habits until he was fifty-five years old, when cor¬ 
pulency compelled him to lead a quiet life. He was seven 
and a half feet high, and weighed at his death over 1000 
pounds. Died in Henderson co., Tenn., Jan. 23, 1857. 

Dardenne, a township and village of St. Charles co., 
Mo., on the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R., 30 
miles W. N. W. of St. Louis. Pop. 3092. 

Dare, a county in the N. E. of North Carolina, border¬ 
ing on the Atlantic Ocean and Albemarle Sound. It was 
formed from Currituck, Hyde, and Tyrrel cos. since 1860. 
Capital, Manteo. Pop. 2778. 

Dare (Virginia), the first child born among the Eng¬ 
lish colonists in America, was born at Roanoke (now in 
North Carolina) in Aug., 1587. She was a granddaughter 
of the goveimor, John White. Her fate, like that of all the 
colony, is unknown. 

Da'res, a Trojan, companion of iEneas, distinguished 
for his skill in boxing. At the games in honor of Anchises 
in Sicily, Dares challenged all competitors, but was defeat¬ 
ed and nearly slain by the aged Entellus. 

Henry Drisler. 

Dares, a priest of Vulcan in Troy, to whom was as¬ 
cribed an Iliad, written before that of Homer on palm 
leaves. AElian states that he knew the work as existing in 
his own day (150 A. D.), but that work, whatever its cha¬ 
racter, must have been the production of some post-Ho- 
meric writer. There is still extant, under the name of 
Dares Phrygius, a narrative in prose of the destruction of 
Troy (“De Excidio Trojm Historia”) in forty-four chap¬ 
ters. A letter prefixed, addressed to the historian Sallust, 
states that this narrative was translated from the Greek by 
Cornelius Nepos, who met with the original in Athens. The 
Latinity shows the production to be of a later age than that 
of Nepos. It is probably, according to Dederich, a collection 
of extracts from different sources made in the sixth or seventh 
century. It was edited, along with “Dictys Cretensis,” 
by Madame Dacier, as one of the volumes of the Delphin 
classics, Paris, 1680; most recently by Dederich, Bonn, 
1835. Henry Drisler. 

Dar'foor', a country of Central Africa, in the E. part 
of Soodan, is mostly included between lat. 10° and 16° N. 
and Ion. 26° and 29° E. Its limits are not accurately de¬ 
fined. Area, about 106,000 square miles. The northern 
part is level, sandy, and nearly destitute of water. A ridge 
of mountains called Marrah extends through the central 
part. The soil produces maize, rice, millet, sesame, tobacco, 
and beaus. The rainy season begins in June and continues 
till September. The people are Mohammedans, a mixture 
of Arabs and negroes. Darfoor carries on a trade with 
Egypt by means of caravans, and exports slaves, ivory, 


copper, hides, and ostrich feathers. Pop. about 4,000,000. 
It is ruled by a sultan who has despotic power and re¬ 
sides at Tindelly. The chief commercial town is Koffe. 

Dar'gan (Edward S.), a distinguished lawyer and jurist 
in Alabama, a native of North Carolina, first taught school, 
then studied law, and upon being admitted to the bar set¬ 
tled in Mobile. In 1844 he was elected mayor of the city; 
from 1845 to 1847 he was representative in Congress. lie 
was the first proposer of the line of adjustment finally 
adopted on the settlement of the Oregon question with the 
British government. On his return from Congress he was 
elected judge of the supreme court of Alabama. 

Dar' ic [Gr. fiapeiKos, said to be derived from Darius], 
an ancient Persian gold coin, having on the obverse an 
archer crowned and kneeling, and on the reverse a quad- 
rata incusa or royal palla. Several of these coins are pre¬ 
served in European collections. The daric is essentially 
the same coin as the Greek chrysus (xpvaovs) and stater 
(oraTTjp) of gold, and also the Roman aureus (which, like 
xpva-ovg, signifies “ golden ”), though the last-named coin 
appears to have varied more in weight than the Greek 
stater, averaging about 121 grains. The Daric weighed 
two Attic drachmae = 133 grains Troy, or in later times 
considerably less. It was used in Greece, as well as in 
Asia. Its value in American gold would be nearly seven 
dollars, but, owing to the difference of purchasing power 
in gold at different periods, its true value cannot be accu¬ 
rately stated. 

Da'rien, a township and post-village of Fairfield co., 
Conn., on the New York and New Haven R. R., 35 miles 
S. W. of New Haven. Total pop. 1808. 

Darien, a port of entry and capital of McIntosh co., 
Ga., is on the Altamaha River, 12 miles from the sea and 
60 miles S. S. W. of Savannah. Pine lumber is exported 
from it. Pop. 547. 

Darien, a township and post-village of Genesee co., 
N. Y., on the Erie R. R., 25 miles E. of Buffalo. Total 
pop. 2054. 

Darien, a township and post-village of Walworth co., 
Wis., on the Western Union R. R., 50 miles W. of Racine. 
Pop. 1583. 

Darien', Gulf of, a portion of the Caribbean Sea, in 
the United States of Colombia, is bounded on the W. by the 
Isthmus of Darien (or Panama). It receives the river 
Atrato. 

Darien, Isthmus of. See Panama. 

Darius, eldest son of Artaxerxes Mnemon, was desig¬ 
nated by that monarch as his successor to the Persian 
throne. When Darius was fifty years old, his father, ac¬ 
cording to custom, asked the king-elect to choose any gift 
which it was in the father’s power to confer. By an estab¬ 
lished rule such a choice must be complied with at whatever 
cost. Darius chose Aspasia (or Milto), the beautiful and 
favorite Greek mistress of his father and of his late uncle, 
Cyrus the Younger. Though much enraged at this request, 
the old king promised to leave the matter to the decision 
of Aspasia, who preferred Darius. The king, however, 
broke his promise, and devoted the concubine to the service 
of the gods and to a celibate life. The anger of Darius at 
this act prompted him to enter into a conspiracy against 
his father, but the design was discovered and the prince put 
to death. 

Darl'us [Gr. Aapeio; ; old Egyptian, Ntreioush; mod¬ 
ern Persian, Dara or Darab; Heb. Daryavesh ; old Per¬ 
sian (cuneiform), Daryuhwsh ] I., or Darius Hystaspis, 
king of Persia, was the son of Hystaspes, a member of the 
noble family of AchoemenidEe. He was called Guslitasp in 
the legends of Persia. He was one of seven noble Persians 
who conspired against and killed the usurper Smerdis, 
whom he succeeded in 521 B. C. He married two daugh¬ 
ters of Cyrus the Great, and organized the extensive em¬ 
pire which Cyrus and Cambyses had enlarged by conquest. 
Babylon revolted against him, but was after a long siege 
reduced to subjection in 516. Soon after this date he con¬ 
ducted a large army against the nomadic Scythians of 
Europe, whom he was not able to conquer or defeat. He 
sent a great army to conquer and chastise the Greeks, some 
of whom had offended him by aiding the Ionians in their 
revolt against Darius. His army was routed at the great 
battle of Marathon, 490 B. C. He was preparing to renew 
the invasion of Greece, when he died in 486 or 485 B. C., 
and was succeeded by his son Xerxes, who reigned from 
486 or 485 to 465 B. C. (See Grote, « History of Greece.”) 
There is little doubt that at first the name Darius was a 
title rather than a proper name. 

Darius II., called Darius Ochus, or Nothus, king 
of Persia, was a natural son of Artaxerxes Longimanus. 
He married Parysatis, his aunt, a daughter of Xerxes I. 












1258 


DARIUS III.—DARMSTADT. 


In 424 B. C. he deposed and succeeded the usurper Sogdi- 
anus, who had killed Xerxes II., the lawful heir. His 
reign was ignoble, and disturbed by the rebellions of sev¬ 
eral satraps. He had sixteen brothers and half-brothers, 
who were illegitimate sons of Artaxerxes. His character 
was weak, and he was the slave of the eunuchs of his court. 
He died in 405 B. C., and was succeeded by his son Artax¬ 
erxes Mnemon. 

Darius III., surnamed Codomannus, the last king of 
the ancient Persian monarchy, was a descendant of the 
preceding. He ascended the throne in 336 B. C., on the 
death of Arses. In the year 334 his empire was invaded 
by Alexander the Great of Macedon, who gained a victory 
at the river Granicus. Darius, commanding in person, 
was defeated at Issus in 333, and again at Gaugamela, 
near Arbela, in 331 B. C. He retreated towards Bactriana, 
pursued by the victorious army, which had nearly over¬ 
taken him when he was murdered by Bessus, one of his 
satraps, in the year 330. The wife and daughters of Darius 
were captured at the battle of Issus. Alexander married 
his daughter Statira. 

Darius Hystaspis. See Darius I. 

Darius Ochus. See Darius II._ (For a good suc¬ 
cinct account of these Persian kings, see Rawltnson, 
“ Manual of Ancient History,” 1869.) 

Darius the Median. See Cyaxares II. 

Darjeel'ing, a sanitary station of British India, in the 
Sikkim Himalaya, is situated at an elevation of 7400 feet 
above the level of the sea, on the side of a large basin or 
hollow in which the river Runjeet flows. It is 308 miles N. 
of Calcutta, and commands a magnificent view of the snowy 
ranges of the Himalaya to the N. and W. The climate is 
salubrious, although the annual rainfall is great— i. e. 
about 120 inches. 

Dark A ges, a term somewhat vaguely applied to the 
period between the fall of the Roman empire and the re¬ 
vival of letters about the thirteenth century. As this re¬ 
vival occurred earlier in Italy than in Northern Europe, 
the Dark Ages may justly be said to have been of longer 
duration in the North than in the South. (See Middle 
Ages.) 

Dark Cor'ner, a township of Anderson co., S. C. 
Pop. 1178. 

Darke, a county of Ohio, bordering on Indiana. Area, 
609 square miles. It is drained by Greenville and Still¬ 
water creeks. The surface is nearly level; the soil is fer¬ 
tile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, hay, butter, and lumber 
are produced. Carriages, clothing, saddjery, etc. are manu¬ 
factured. It is intersected by the Dayton and Union R. R. 
and the railroad which connects Columbus with Chicago. 
Capital, Greenville. Pop. 32,278. 

Darke (William) was born near Philadelphia, Pa., in 
1736 ; removed with his parents to Virginia in 1740 ; served 
under Braddock at his defeat in 1755; and served through¬ 
out the Revolutionary war in the American army, in the 
latter part of which he held a colonel’s commission. He 
became an influential citizen and a major-general of Vir¬ 
ginia militia, served in Ohio and at St. Clair’s defeat (Nov. 
4,1791), acting as lieutenant-colonel of the levies, and fight¬ 
ing with desperate valor against the Miamis. He was 
dangerously wounded, and his youngest son was killed. 
Died in Jefferson co., Va., Nov. 26, 1801. 

Darkhan', Mount, a lofty granite mountain in Mon¬ 
golia, in lat. 47° 36' N., Ion. lio° 10' E., is 140 miles S. E. 
of Oorga. Here is a monument erected to the memory of 
Genghis Khan, to honor whom the Mongolians assemble 
here annually. 

Dar'Iey (Felix 0. C.), an eminent American designer, 
born in Philadelphia June 23, 1822. He became a resident 
of New York City in 1848. He has illustrated the novels 
of J. Fenimore Cooper, Irving’s “Sketch-Book,” “Rip 
Van Winkle,” some of the works of Dickens, etc. His out¬ 
line illustrations of Judd’s “Margaret” are among his most 
remarkable productions. 

Dar'ling, a river of Australia, in New South Wales, is 
formed by numerous branches which rise on the western 
declivity of the Australian Alps. They converge into a 
central basin of clay, where their channels unite and sepa¬ 
rate again into branches in a singular manner. Below the 
union of these branches the Darling flows south-westward 
through arid plains, and enters the Murray near lat. 34° S. 
The main stream is about 600 miles long. 

Darling (Grace), an heroic Englishwoman, born at 
Bamborough Nov. 24, 1815, was a daughter of the keeper 
of the Longstone lighthouse, on one of the Fame Islands. 
She rescued nine persons from the wreck of the steamer 
Forfarshire, Sept. 7, 1838. A public subscription of about 
£700 was raised for her. Died Oot. 20, 1842. 


Dar'lington, or Darnton, a market-town of Eng¬ 
land, in the county of Durham, on the Skerne, near its junc¬ 
tion with the Tees, 18 miles S. of Durham. It has a fine 
church built in the twelfth century, with a tower 180 feet 
high. The town is well built, and is connected by railway 
with Stockton and other places. It has manufactures of 
Brussels carpets, optical glasses, worsted yarn, and brass- 
ware. Pop. in 1871, 27,730. 

Darlington, a county in the N. E. of South Carolina. 
Area, 800 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by 
the Great Pedee River, and intersected by Black Creek. 
The surface is undulating; the soil is partly sandy, and is 
fertile near the streams. Cotton, corn, rice, and cattle are 
raised. It is intersected by the Wilmington Columbia and 
Augusta R. R. and the Cheraw^nd Darlington R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Darlington. Pop. 26,243. 

Darlington, a post-village of Dublin township, Har¬ 
ford co., Md. Pop. 168. 

Darlington, a. township and post-village of Beaver co., 
Pa., 15 miles S. W. of New Castle. Pop. 1811. 

Darlington, a post-village, capital of Darlington co., 
S. C., is’on the Cheraw and Darlington R. R., 75 miles 
E. N. E. of Columbia, and 30 miles S. of Cheraw. One 
weekly newspaper is published here. It has five churches, 
a Masonic hall, and two steam-mills. 

J. M. Brown, Ed. “ Soutiijern.er.” 

Darlington, a post-village, capital of La Fayette co., 
Wis., is on the Pecatonica River and on the Mineral Point 
R. R., about 50 miles S. W. of Madison. It has two weekly 
newspapers and four churches, good water-power, a large 
flour-mill, and other manufactures, and is an extensive 
market for grain and live-stock. Pop. of Darlington town¬ 
ship, 2773. J. G. Knight, Pub. “Democrat.” 

Darlington (William), M. D., LL.D., an American 
botanist, born in Chester co., Pa., April 28, 1782, practised 
medicine at West Chester. He was a Democratic member 
of Congress in 1815-17 and 1819-23. He published a valu¬ 
able work on the plants of Chester county, entitled “Flora 
Cestrica” (1837), “ Agricultui'al Botany ” (1847), “Memo¬ 
rials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall” (1849), 
and several other works. He organized societies for the 
study of natural history and botany in West Chester, where 
he was a bank president. He imparted his own enthusiasm 
for science to others, and did much to develop the literary 
and social culture of the community. The Darlingtonia 
Californica, a curious sarraceniaceous plant of the Pacific 
States, was named in his honor. As a botanist his fame 
was deservedly high, but he was better known in Europe 
than in his own country. Died April 23, 1863. 

Darlingto'nia [named by the late Dr. John Torrey in 
honor of Dr. William Darlington, noticed above], a genus 
of herbs of the natural order Sarraceniaceae, comprising 
but one known species, the Darlingtonia Californica, a 
perennial plant of California. Its leaves are all radical, 
and resemble somewhat closely those of the Sarracennias 
of the Atlantic States, but the size of the leaves of the 
Darlingtonia is much the larger, the length in some in¬ 
stances exceeding two feet. The leaves are hollow and 
twisted, the upper part being turned over into a hood-like 
dome or vault, beneath which is the orifice which opens 
into the cavity or pitcher of the leaf. On either side of the 
opening two lobes depend, which may be taken to repre¬ 
sent the true leaf, in which case the ascidium or pitcher 
must be considered as representing the petiole or leaf-stalk. 
Inside the pitcher the remains of insects are often found, 
their exit being impeded by long slender hairs within the 
leaf. The flower-stalk is sometimes four feet high, single, 
and furnished with bracts; the flower regular, nodding, 
and single, and about two inches across; the calyx straw- 
colored, of five sepals, all pointed; the five petals are pale 
purple, the stamens, twelve to fifteen, nearly hidden by the 
top-shaped ovary, upon which there is a style with a five- 
parted stigma. The capsule is five-celled, many-seeded, 
and one inch long. This plant is the representative of the 
Sarracennias of the Atlantic States, and with them and the 
Heliampliora. of South America constitutes the whole natural 
order as far as it is known at present. 

The name Darlingtonia was given by De Candolle to a 
proposed genus of herbs of the order Leguminosae, but it 
having been shown that the plants assigned to that genus 
belonged rather to the genus Desmanthns, the name was 
dropped. The same result followed the attempts of several 
other botanists thus to honor Dr. Darlington, until at last, 
by a happy choice, this remarkable plant was selected to 
bear his name. The genus is well marked, and the name 
Darlingtonia can hardly fail to bo a permanent one. 

Darm'stadt, a town of Germany, capital of the grand 
duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, is on the river Darm and on 
the Frankfort and Mannheim Railway, 15 miles S. of 














DARNEL—DARTMOUTH COLLEGE. 


Frankfort-on-the-Main. It is at the north-western ex¬ 
tremity of the Odenwald. It consists of an old and a new 
town, both surrounded by walls. The former is ill-built, 
but the new town has wide and handsome streets. It has 
five public squares, and two ducal palaces, one of which 
contains a library of 200,000 volumes and a valuable col¬ 
lection of 700 paintings. One of the Madonnas, supposed 
to be a copy of a Dresden Holbein, was a few years ago, 
by competent critics, pronounced a true Holbein, and even 
a better picture than the Dresden Madonna. Pop. in 1871, 
39,584, including the suburb Bessungen. 

Dar'nel (Lolium temvlentum), a grass well known in 
Europe, and naturalized in the U. S. The glumes are as 
long as the spikelets, or longer, and the spikelets have five 
to seven florets which are aw^ed.. The seeds of darnel are 
reputed poisonous, but recent researches are said to have 
established their harmlessness. It is often infested by 
ergot, and this may account for its poisonous qualities. 

Darnetal, a town of France, department of Seine-In- 
ferieure, on the Aubette, 2£ miles E. of Rouen. It has two 
Gothic churches, and manufactures of flannels and other 
woollen goods. Pop. 5909. 

Darn'ley, Earls of (1725), Viscounts Darnley (1723) 
and Barons Clifton (Ireland, 1721), Lords Clifton (England, 
1608).— John Stuart Blxgh, sixth earl, B. A., born April 
16, 1827, succeeded his father Feb. 11, 1835. 

Darnley (Henry Stuart), Lord, born in England in 
1541, was a son of the Scottish earl of Lennox. His mother 
was a niece of Henry VIII. of England. He had a hand¬ 
some person, but was profligate and de6cient in intellect. 
In 1565 he married Mary queen of Scots, whom he soon 
offended by his insolence and other faults. He also pro¬ 
cured the assassination of Rizzio, which aroused her deep¬ 
est indignation. The isolated house in which he lodged 
was blown up with gunpowder at the instance, it was sus¬ 
pected, of his wife, and he was killed Feb. 9, 1567. 

Darrtown, a post-village of Milford township, Butler 
co., O. Pop. 258. 

Dar'ter [so called from their manner of seizing their 
prey], ( Plotus ), a genus of birds, natives of warm climates, 



Darter. 

sometimes called snake-birds from the length of the neck. 
They are nearly allied to the cormorants, but they have a 
long, slender, straight, and sharp-pointed bill. They devour 
great numbers of fish. The common darter (Plotua An- 
hinga) is found along the coast of the Southern States. 

Dart'ford [Saxon, Darentford], a town of England, in 
Kent, on the river Darent, and on the London and Graves¬ 


end Railway, 17 miles by rail E. S. E. of London. It lies 
in a narrow valley between two steep hills. It has cotton 
and silk printing-works, large powder-mills, and manufac¬ 
tures of machinery, iron, and paper. Watling Street, an 
ancient Roman road, crosses the river here. Edward III. 
held a tournament at Hartford in 1331, and Wat Tyler’s 
insurrection broke out here in 1381. Pop. 5314. 

Dartford, a post-village, capital of Green Lake co., 
Wis., on the outlet of Green Lake, 65 miles N. N. E. of 
Madison. 

Dart/moor, an elevated moor or table-land and royal 
forest in the south-western part of Devonshire, England, 
noted for its rugged scenery and its cyclopean relics of pre¬ 
historic races. The royal forestand its adjuncts extend about 
20 miles from E.to W. and 22 from N. to S., being one-fifth 
of the whole area of Devonshire, and measuring more than 
130,000 acres. Elevated considerably above the surround¬ 
ing country, it culminates in Yes Tor, 2050 feet above the 
level of the sea. The geological formation of Dartmoor is 
chiefly granitic, but large masses of trap occur. Copper, 
tin, and manganese are found. The soil is mostly peat, 
which in some places is twenty-five feet deep. The moor 
affords pasturage. Many of the dells are fertile, and the 
region abounds with mosses and lichens. Among the an¬ 
tiquities of Dartmoor we may mention the Gray Wethers, 
a ruin of an ancient circular temple, and the remains of a 
large pre-historic village at Grimspound. The forest of 
Dartmoor was granted by Henry III. to his brother Richard, 
earl of Cornwall, and since 1337 a part of Dartmoor has 
been annexed to the duchy, but not to the county, of Corn¬ 
wall. Dartmoor is famous as the seat of a prison, near 
Prince Town, in which, during the war of 1812-15, a large 
number of American sailors were confined. Their suffer¬ 
ings were at times very great. 

Dartmouth, a seaport-town of England, in Devon¬ 
shire, 32 miles S. by W. from Exeter, picturesquely situ¬ 
ated on the terraced side of the right bank of the estuary 
of the Dart, near the ocean. The entrance to the river is 
defended by a castle and batteries. The chief exports are 
woollen goods, cider, and barley. Six steamers and about 
240 sailing vessels belong to this port, which is a bonded 
one, its jurisdiction extending about 40 miles along 
. the coast. Here Richard Lion-heart assembled the 
crusading fleet in the spring of 1190. Dartmouth was 
incorporated by charter of Edward III. in 1342, was 
attacked by the French in 1404, was taken by Prince 
Maurice in 1643, and recaptured in Jan., 1645-46, by 
Fairfax. Pop. in 1871, 4978. 

Dartmouth, a post-village, seaport, and township 
of Nova Scotia, in Halifax co., is on Halifax harbor, 
half a mile N. of the city of Halifax. It has a lunatic 
asylum, a gold-mine, a marine railway, boiler and en¬ 
gine works, foundries, tanneries, etc. P. about 2500. 

Dartmouth, a township and post-village of Bris¬ 
tol co., Mass. The village is 6 miles S. W. of New Bed¬ 
ford. The town has fifteen churches, lumber and salt 
works, and other manufactures, but is chiefly agricul¬ 
tural. It has several good harbors. Total pop. 3367. 

Dartmouth College, the fourth of the New Eng¬ 
land colleges in chronological order—preceded only by 
Harvard, Yale, and Brown—was an offshoot of Moore’s 
charity school, an institution for the education of In¬ 
dian youth, established in Lebanon, Conn., in the year 
1754, by the Rev. Eleazar Wheelock, D. D. The school 
was subsequently removed to Hanover, N. H., a charter 
for a college, to be connected with it, and yet a distinct 
institution, having been obtained. This charter was 
issued Dec. 13, 1769, by John Wentworth, the last of 
the ro 3 r al governors of New Hampshire. Dr. Wheelock 
was its first president, and in view of the interest taken 
in the school by Lord Dartmouth, an English nobleman, 
and of his benefactions to it, his name was given to the 
college. One of the most signal events in the history 
of the institution is the controversy out of which arose 
the famous Dartmouth College case. The legislature 
of New Hampshire passed an act in 1616, changing the 
name of the institution to u Dartmouth University,” 
and embracing other important and undesirable modi¬ 
fications. To this act the trustees were opposed, and 
with the design of testing its constitutionality, they 
brought an action before the supreme court of the State. 
By this tribunal the legislature was sustained, and appeal 
was taken to the Supreme Court of the U. S., John Marshall 
being then chief-justice. The cause of the college was there 
argued by Daniei Webster and other able counsel, and fully 
sustained by the court. The university organization was 
dissolved, and the old college board of trustees sustained. 
This great battle was fought by them not for themselves 
only; the principles concerned were vital to many other 






























































DARTMOUTH—DARWINISM. 


1260 


institutions. Dartmouth, in comparative poverty, was 
thus instrumental in vindicating and establishing the 
sacredness of private trusts. 

The college has had seven presidents: Eleazar Wheelock, 
D. D., inaugurated in 1769; John Wheelock, LL.D., in 
1779; Francis Brown, D. D., in 1815; Daniel Dana, D. D., 
in 1820; Bcnnet Tyler, D. D., in 1822; Nathan Lord, D. D., 
in 1828; the present incumbent, Asa Dodge Smith, D. D., 
LL.D., in 1863. The whole number of its alumni, as given 
in the “ Triennial” for 1870, is 3676. Of these, more than 
900 have entered the ministry. Perhaps the two professions 
that have drawn most largely upon the institution have 
been those of teaching and the law. A single class might 
be named, one-fourth of whose members have been either 
college presidents or professors; and it has been stated 
that at one time there were residing in Boston, Mass., no 
less than seven sons of the college, including Daniel Web¬ 
ster and Rufus Choate, “who were justly regarded as rank¬ 
ing among the brightest luminaries of the law.” 

While the institution has aimed from the beginning at a 
high religious tone, it is not sectarian. Most of the trus¬ 
tees and teachers are of the orthodox Congregational con¬ 
nection. As to methods of teaching, while the college has 
ever been conservative, it welcomes all real improvements. 
It holds to a carefully devised curriculum, but has divers 
options, both as to courses and particular studies. It re¬ 
tains and honors the ancient classics, but it favors science 
also. Of late much more has been expended on the scien¬ 
tific appointments of the institution than on the classical. 
The various departments are as follows: 1, the old academic 
department, with its four years’ curriculum; 2, the Chand¬ 
ler scientific department, with a regular course, chronolog¬ 
ically parallel to that of the academic; 3, the agricultural 
department, so called, or “ the New Hampshire College of 
Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts,” based on the Congres¬ 
sional land-grant, and having a regular three years’ course; 
4, the engineering department, or the “ Thayer School of 
Civil Engineering;” 5, the medical department, or the old 
New Hampshire Medical College. The last catalogue em¬ 
braces a faculty of instruction thirty-one in number, and 
in all the courses of study 408 students. Within the last 
seven years more than $500,000 have been secured for the 
various departments. Two new college buildings have also 
been erected, making the whole number eight; the ground 
has been broken for another, and arrangements are in pro¬ 
gress for the erection of a fire-proof library building. The 
number of volumes in the different libraries has risen to 
46,000 ; large additions have been made to the philosophical 
and chemical apparatus and the various museums, and the 
astronomical observatory has been furnished with one of 
the best telescopes in the country.*' 

A. D. Smith. 

Dartmouth, Earls of, and Viscounts Lewisham 
(Great Britain, 1711), Barons Dartmouth (England, 1682). 
—William Walter Legge, fifth earl, born in 1823, was 
M. P. for South Staffordshire 1849-53, and succeeded his 
father Nov. 22, 1853. 

Dar'trey, Earls of (United Kingdom, 1866), Barons 
Cremorne (Ireland, 1797), Barons Dartrey (United King¬ 
dom, 1847).— Richard Dawson, first earl, K. P., born Sept. 
7, 1817, succeeded his father as Baron Cremorne Mar. 21, 
1827. 

Daru (Napoleon), Count, a son of the following, was 
born at Paris June 11, 1807, served in the army in his 
youth, and in 1832 entered the Chamber of Peers. After 
the accession of Napoleon III. he became a prominent 
Orleanist. For a short time in 1870 he was minister of for¬ 
eign affairs under Ollivier, when by his interference in the 
affairs of the Vatican Council he became very unpopular. 

Daru (Pierre Antoine Noel Bruno), Count, a French 
statesman and author, born at Montpellier Jam 12, 1767. 
In the Reign of Terror he was confined in prison, where he 
translated the odes and epistles of Horace in verse. He 
became a member of the Tribunate in 1802, a councillor of 
state in 1805, and intendant-general of the imperial house¬ 
hold. In the campaigns against Prussia and Austria (1806- 
09) he accompanied Napoleon, whom he served with ability 
as a diplomatist and financier. In 1815 he was elected 
president of the French Academy. Among his work^ is a 
“History of Venice” (1819). Died Sept. 5, 1829. (See 
Lamartine, “ Eloge du Comte Daru.”) 

D’Arusmont (Madame Frances), a distinguished re¬ 
former, better known by her maiden name as Fanny 
Wright, was born at Dundee, in Scotland, Sept. 6, 1795. 
At her father’s house she came in childhood to be acquainted 
with Adam Smith, Dr. Cullen, and other distinguished men 
of that age, so full of new theories for the improvement of 
the conditions of human life. Hence she drew inspiration 
and courage for her future career, which, with all its faults, 
was characterized by benevolence, unselfishness, perfect 


honesty, and complete fearlessness. In her youth she pub¬ 
lished a defence of the doctrines of Epicurus, entitled “A 
Few Days in Athens.” She was in the U. S. from 1818 to 
1821, and then visited France, but returned in 1825, and 
purchased land where Memphis, Tenn., now stands for her 
famous experiment for the instruction and enlightenment 
of the colored race. After a number of years of expensive 
and unsuccessful effort, her people were freed and sent to 
Hayti. She lectured in many parts of the Union on social, 
religious, and political questions with such freedom as to 
incur much opposition. She was for a time associated with 
Robert Owen at New Harmony, Ind., and his son, Robert 
Dale Owen, went with her to Tennessee to assist in that 
philanthropic if misdirected effort for the benefit of the 
slaves to which we have referred. She visited France, and 
in 1838 married M. d’Arusmont, but the union was unfor¬ 
tunate, and with her daughter she returned to the U. S. 
She died at Cincinnati, O., Dec. 14, 1852. Besides other 
works, she published “Views on Society and Manners in 
America,” a tragedy called “Altorf” (1819), and “Lectures 
on Free Inquiry” (1836). (Her life has been published 
by J. Windt, 1844, and by A. Gilbert, 1855.) 

Dar'villes, a township and village of Dinwiddie co., 
Va. The village is 25 miles S. W. of Petersburg. Total 
pop. 3082. 

Dar'win, a post-township of Clark co., Ill. Pop. 1012. 

Darwin (Charles Robert), F. R. S., an eminent natu¬ 
ralist, a son of Dr. R. W. Darwin, F. R. S., and grandson of 
Dr. Erasmus Darwin, noticed below, was born at Shrews¬ 
bury, in England, Feb. 12, 1809. He was educated in the 
grammar-school of his native town, at the University of Ed¬ 
inburgh, and at Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he took 
his degree of M. A. in 1831. The same year he sailed with 
Capt. Fitzroy, of H. M. ship Beagle, as volunteer naturalist 
in the survey of the coast of South America, etc. After his 
return, in 1836, from this voyage, in which he sailed round 
the globe, Mr. Darwin published a “Journal of Researches 
into the Geology and Natural History,” etc. (1839; 2d ed. 
1854; New York ed. 1846), which has been pronounced the 
“most entertaining book of genuine travels ever written.” 
In 1839 he married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood, grand¬ 
daughter of Josiah Wedgwood. Mr. Darwin published 
(1840-42) the “ Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle,” a 
treatise on “Coral Reefs” (1842), on “Volcanic Islands” 
(1844), and “ Geological Observations ” (1846). His mono¬ 
graph on the Cirripedia (1851-53) would have given him a 
lasting reputation as a philosophic observer had he never 
written anything else. In 1859 he published his “Origin 
of Species by Means of Natural Selection,” a work which 
has gone through many editions at home and abroad, has 
attracted much attention, and given rise to warm contro¬ 
versy in all civilized countries. It is universally conceded 
that this treatise displays profound knowledge of the facts 
of natural science and great powers of generalization. His 
style is clear and even elegant, his temper is moderate and 
always courteous, and his statements of fact may be said to 
be.always accurate. He published a work on the “Fertil¬ 
ization of the Orchids ” (1862), the “ Habits and Movements 
of Climbing Plants” (1865), “Domesticated Animals and 
Cultivated Plants” (1867), the “Descent of Man” (1871), 
which has attracted scarcely less attention than the treatise 
on the “Origin of Species,” and which is indeed a con¬ 
tinuation of that work. He has also published “ The Ex¬ 
pression of the Emotions in Man and Animals” (1872). 
Mr. Darwin is a member of many learned societies, and 
has been the recipient of numerous medals and other dis¬ 
tinctions. He is perhaps equally eminent in geology, zoo¬ 
logy, and botany. (See Daravinism, by Profs. E. L. You- 
mans and J. H. Seelye ; and Evolution, by Prof. II. 
Hartshorne.) Charles W. Greene. 

Darwin (Erasmus), M. D., F. R. S., an English poet and 
philosopher, born at Elton Dec. 12, 1731. He studied at 
Cambridge and practised at Lichfield, from which he re¬ 
moved in 1781 to Derby. He gained distinction as a phys¬ 
iologist, and also as a poet. His “ Botanic Garden ” (1791), 
formerly very popular, is a poetical treatise on botany, full 
of extravagant imagery. Among his works are “ Zoonomia, 
or the Laws of Organic Life.” (1793), “Phytologia” (1800), 
and the “Temple of Natui’e” (1803). Many of his ideas 
on physiology contained the germs of important truths. 
Died April 18, 1802. 

Dar'winism, a term applied to a particular theory of 
development originated by Mr. Darwin. Darwinism, while 
based on the doctrine of evolution, is not identical with it. 
Darwinism is an attempt to explain the law or manner 
of evolution. (See Evolution.) It is well known that 
man can, by pursuing a certain method of breeding or 
cultivation, improve, and in various Avays modify, the cha¬ 
racter of the different domestic animals and plants. By 
always selecting tho best specimens from which to propa- 



















DARWINISM. 


gate the race, those features which it is desired to perpet¬ 
uate become more and more strongly developed, so that 
what are admitted to be mere varieties sometimes acquire, 
in tho course of successive generations, a character as strik¬ 
ingly distinct, to all appearance, from those of other varie¬ 
ties, as one species is from another species of the same 
genus. Hence it is inferred that what wo call species were 
originally only varieties. Mr. Darwin maintains that a 
system of influences, not wholly unlike to those which man 
brings to bear in the breeding of animals, is found in tho 
circumstances with which they are often surrounded in a 
state of nature. 

Plants and animals in a state of naturo are subject to 
certain external conditions, which influence and limit them 
in various ways. Among these are climate, station, cha¬ 
racter of soil, food-supply, and tho number and kind of 
living beings with which a given organism is surrounded. 
Tho workings of these conditions of existence are, for tho 
most part, complex and obscure, but enough has been made 
out to show that where a variety has once appeared, the 
influence they exert upon it is quite analogous to that 
exercised by man in selective breeding. 

Organized beings, as a rule, are gifted with enormous 
powers of increase. Wild plants yield their crop of seed annu¬ 
ally, and most wild animals bring forth their young yearly, 
or oftener. Should this process go on unchecked, in a short 
time the earth would be completely overrun with living 
beings. It has been calculated that if a plant produces 
fifty seeds the first year, each of these seeds growing up 
into a plant which produces fifty seeds, or altogether 2500 
seeds, the next year, and so on, it would, under favorable 
conditions of growth, give rise in nine years to more plants 
by five hundred trillions than there are square feet of dry 
land upon the whole surface of the earth. But fifty seeds a 
year is far below the reproductive capacity of many plants. 

The elephant is reckoned the slowest breeder of all known 
animals, yet Darwin says “that it will bounder the mark to 
assume that it begins breeding when thirty years old, and 
goes on till ninety, bringing forth three pairs of young in 
the interval.” If this be so, at the end of the fifth century, 
there would be alive fifteen million elephants, descended 
from the first pair. Slow-breeding man has been known to 
double his numbers in twenty-five years, and, according to 
Euler, this might occur in a little over twelve years. But, 
assuming the former rate of increase, and taking the popu¬ 
lation of the United States at thirty millions, in six hun¬ 
dred and eighty-five years their living progeny would have 
each but a square foot to stand upon were they spread over 
the entire globe, land and water included. Cases could bo 
given of introduced plants which have become common 
throughout whole islands in a period of less than ten years ; 
and Dr. Falconer states that there are plants which now rango 
in India from Cape Comorin to the Himalayas that were im¬ 
ported into that country from Amei’ica since its discovery. 

It is thus obvious that the rates of reproduction of liv¬ 
ing beings arc by no means adjusted either to the supply of 
nutriment, or even to the space to be occupied. The room 
is fixed and the food is limited, while the ratio of increase 
is so enormous that each species, if unchecked, would ulti¬ 
mately usurp the whole area and monopolize the earth. 
But millions of species arc doing the same thing, so that 
the inevitable result is conflict, the war of races, destruc¬ 
tion of life everywhere, and, as a result, what Mr. Darwin 
calls the struggle for existence. All over the globe, on the 
land and in the sea, animals and plants, high and low, are 
driven into this struggle by their ever-increasing numbers 
and the limited means of subsistence. The warfare is one 
of life and death; and its result, tho perishing of multi¬ 
tudes and the survival of comparatively few—the numbers 
remaining being in equilibrium with the supply of the 
means of subsistence. 

Now, the result of this strife cannot be a matter of 
chance. Which shall be destroyed, and which preserved, 
must depend upon determinate conditions. Obviously, those 
individuals or varieties having some advantage over their 
competitors will stand the best chance to live, while those 
destitute of such advantage will be liable to destruction. 
Some by superior vigor may be able to withstand a degree 
of heat or cold, moisture or dryness, which would be fatal 
to others. Of those that are pursued, the most fleet will 
escape, while the slower will be captured. Those which 
from greater strength or agility are best able to supply 
themselves with food in time of scarcity, or which have 
superior adaptation to the nature of the food which the 
locality affords, will be able to displace those lacking these 
advantages. Briefly, the animals best adapted to the re¬ 
quirements of the situation in which they are placed are the 
ones that will live and have'descendants, while those less 
in agreement with these surrounding conditions will as cer¬ 
tainly disappear. This process of Sorting is continually 
going on. Nature may metaphorically be said to choose 


1261 


which shall be preserved and which destroyed; and this is 
what Mr. Darwin terms “Natural Selection,” and what Mr. 
llei'bert Spencer calls tho “ Survival of the Fittest.” 

How races continually encroach on each other’s areas, 
tho stronger outrunning and extirpating the weaker in the 
competition of existence, is well shown by the spread of 
European plants and animals in New Zealand. Doctor 
Hooker states that the cow-grass has taken possession of 
the roadsides; dock and water-cress choke the rivers; tho 
sow-thistle is spread all over the country, growing luxuri¬ 
antly up to 6000 feet; white clover in tho mountain-dis¬ 
tricts displaces the native grasses; and the native (Maori) 
saying is: “ As the white man’s rat has driven away tho 
native rat, as the European fly drives away our own, and 
the clover kills our fern, so will the Maories disappear be¬ 
fore the white man himself.” 

That this kind of struggle among living creatures has 
always been going on, and must always continue to do so, 
is obvious; and .any one can see that it must be a winnow¬ 
ing and improving process, those least adapted to the sit¬ 
uation giving way before those better adapted, while tho 
struggle may be so close and sharp that a very trifling ad¬ 
vantage will turn the scale. But Mr. Darwin saw farther 
into the case than this. It was his merit to discover that 
natural selection is capable of 'producing fitness between 
organisms and their circumstances, and of discerning the 
importance of the consequences that follow. 

We have seen that universal variability, small in amount, 
but in evpry direction, and fluctuating about a mean con¬ 
dition in normal circumstances, is characteristic of living^ 
organisms; let us now see how this tendency may be made 
to advance in one direction, by natural selection, so as 
to produce divergence of characters by indefinite modi¬ 
fications of the forms of life. “A soil possessing some in¬ 
gredients in unusual quantity may supply to a plant an 
excess of the matter required for a certain class of its tis¬ 
sues, and may cause all the parts formed of such tissues to 
bo abnormally developed. Suppose that among these are 
the hairs clothing its surfaces, including those which grow 
on its seeds. Thus furnished with somewhat longer fibres, 
its seeds, when shed, are carried a little farther by the wind 
before they fall to the ground. The young plants growing 
up from them, being rather more widely dispersed than 
those produced by other individuals of the same species, 
will be less liable to smother one another, and a greater 
number may therefore reach maturity and fructify. Sup¬ 
posing the next generation subject to the same peculiarity 
of nutrition, some of the seeds borne by its members will 
not simply inherit this increased development of hairs, but 
will carry it farther; and these, still more advantaged in 
the same way as before, will, on the average, have still more 
numerous chances of continuing the race. Thus by tho 
survival, generation after generation, of those possessing 
these longer hairs, and tho inheritance of successive incre¬ 
ments of growth in the hairs, there may result a seed devi¬ 
ating greatly from the original. Other individuals of the 
same species, subject to the different physical conditions of 
other localities, may develop somewhat thicker or harder 
coatings to their seeds, so rendering them less digestible 
by the birds that devour them. Such thick-coated seeds, 
by escaping undigested more frequently than thinner- 
coated ones, will have additional chances of growing up and 
leaving offspring; and this process, acting in a correlative 
manner through successive years, will produce a seed di¬ 
verging in another direction from the ancestral type. Again, 
elsewhere some modification in the physiologic actions of 
the plant may lead to an unusual secretion of an essential 
oil in the seeds, which, rendering them unpalatable to 
creatures that would otherwise feed on them, may diminish 
the destruction of the seeds, so giving an advantage to tho 
variety in its rate of multiplication ; and this incidental pe¬ 
culiarity proving a preservative,” will, as before, be gradu¬ 
ally increased by natural selection, until it constitutes an¬ 
other divergence. Now, in these and countless analogous 
cases we see that plants may become better adapted, or re¬ 
adapted, to tho aggregate of surrounding agencies, not 
through any direct fiction of such agencies upon them, but 
through their indirect action—through the destruction by 
them of the individuals which are least congruous with 
them, and the survival of those that are most congruous 
with them. All these slight variations of function and 
structure, arising among the members of a species, serve as 
so many experiments; the great majority of which fail, but 
a few of which succeed. Just as we sec that each plant 
bears a multitude of seeds, out of which some two or three 
happen to fulfil all the conditions required for reaching 
maturity and continuing the race, so we see that each spe¬ 
cies is perpetually producing numerous slightly-modified 
forms deviating in all directions from the average, out of 
which most fit the surrounding conditions no better than 
their parents, or not so well, but some few of which fit tho 










DARWINISM. 


1262 


conditions better; and doing so, are enabled the better to 
preserve themselves, and to produce offspring similarly 
capable of preserving themselves. 

Most naturalists now admit that the principle of adap¬ 
tive modification or natural selection is potent in the pro¬ 
duction of varieties; yet it seems a tenable position to re¬ 
gard varieties as incipient species. .That there is no dis¬ 
tinct line of separation between varieties and sub-species, 


d° 


/ 


and between sub-species and species, is shown by the in¬ 
ability of naturalists in many cases to distinguish between 
them. Hundreds of instances might be given where what 
one naturalist regards as a species, another of equal au¬ 
thority ranks as a variety. Air. Darwin, therefore, holds 
that in the past periods of time this principle has played the 
leading part in producing the diversities of life, and he has 
constructed a diagram to show how these divergences have 

10 to t -,/0 

_X. 


ct 


,9\- 




i; ...» ■: 

ttv 


IX. 






8 


,8 


Tn 


8 


-VIII. 


c? X 


a 


f 


wL 




771 




\\ t 6 . 


nv 


8 


a S 


K 


5\i / 


-VII. 


.VI. 






y. 



A 


B 


0 


D 

9 

i 


\ 


l 


t 


Scheme Representing the Results of Variation with Descent. 


E 

* 

» 


arisen. It attempts to represent “the probable action of 
natural selection through divergence of character, and ex¬ 
tinction, on the descendants of a common ancestor.” 

The letters A to E are intended to represent the species 
of a genus widely distributed, and as in large genera the 
species often resemble each other in unequal degrees, this 
is shown by the letters standing at unequal distances. The 
species A is supposed to be extensively diffused, so as to 
embrace a wider diversity of conditions, and to be highly 
variable. The branching and diverging dotted lines pro¬ 
ceeding from A are intended to represent its varying off¬ 
spring. The variations may be slight, unequal, diverse, 
appear at different times, and endure for unlike periods. 
The short intermediate lines represent varieties which be¬ 
come extinct, while the most divergent lines represent those 
which survive and give rise to new species. That the in¬ 
termediates should die out and the extremes stand the best 
chance of living, results from the theory. The more they 
resemble each other and the parent form, the more restricted 
will they be to the same set of conditions, and the fiercer 
will be that struggle for existence which is a cause of the 
destruction of closely-competing races. On the other hand, 
the more divergent the descendants of any particular species 
in structure and habits, the more diverse will be the condi¬ 
tions that they can make available, the less the competition, 
and the greater the chance of survival. 

The intervals between the horizontal lines are each in¬ 
tended to represent a thousand generations. When a dotted 
line reaches across one of these intervals to a horizontal 
line, and is there marked by a small numbered letter, it is 
supposed that a sufficient amount of variation has been 
accumulated to form a fairly well-marked variety. Now, 
after a thousand generations, according to the diagram, the 
species A has produced two such varieties, marked o 1 and 
m l . These remaining exposed to the same conditions which 
made their parents variable, and with a tendency to varia¬ 
bility which is itself hereditary, tend to vary in nearly the 
same manner as their parents varied ,• also, being but slightly 
modified, and inheriting those general advantages which 
made the genus and the parent species large, they in turn 
are favorably situated for the production of new varieties. 
Their most divergent variations will generally be preserved 


during the next thousand generations, and thus is pro¬ 
duced variety a 2 , which, on the principle of divergence, will 
differ more from the species A than did variety a 1 . From 
m 1 two varieties, »i 2 and s 2 , have sprung, which differ from 
each other, and more considerably from their common 
parent A. The line of succession is seen to be broken at 
regular intervals. This is intended to designate when each 
successive form has become sufficiently distinct to be re¬ 
corded as a variety; but these breaks are imaginary, and 
might have been inserted anywhere after, intervals long 
enough to have allowed the accumulation of a considerable 
amount of divergent variation. At the end of ten thousand 
generations the species A is supposed to have produced 
three forms, a 10 , / 10 , and wi 10 , which from wide divergence 
will have come to differ largely from each other, and from 
their common parent. If the amount of change has been 
small in the time represented by the space between each 
horizontal line, these three forms may be only well-marked 
varieties; if, however, we suppose that each space repre¬ 
sents time enough for considerable change to have taken 
place, they may have reached the position of sub-species, 
or even, with a still greater amount of change, to that of 
well-defined species. 

The broken lines at the bottom of the diagram are sup¬ 
posed to lead up from an unknown species which was the 
common ancestor of the several species represented by the 
capitals. From this unknown ancestor, through variation 
and the action of natural selection, there descended five 
species, constituting a separate genus. One of these species 
is supposed to have been highly variable, and, standing at 
the extreme of the genus, to have gone on varying and im¬ 
proving without coming in conflict, until it became the parent 
of several new species. E represents a species which has gone 
on without change. (See Evolution ; also the able article 
on the “Development Hypothesis,” by Prof. Youmans, in 
the first volume of Johnson’s “Natural History.”) 

E. L. Youmans. 

A Criticism on Darwinism. 

Transmutation of Species never yet Observed .—Professor 
Huxley, after having elaborately advocated the Darwinian 
hypothesis, nevertheless declares it as his “clear conviction 
that, as the evidence now stands, it is not absolutely proven 




































DARWINISM. 


1263 


that a group of animals, having all the characteristics ex¬ 
hibited by species in nature, has ever been originated by 
selection, whether artificial or natural.”* ** 

It is well to keep this fact in mind. The Darwinian hy¬ 
pothesis, however plausible in its statement or ingenious in 
its application, is, at the best, only a possible, and wholly 
wants the evidence which can translate it into the actual, 
explanation of the facts to which it applies. That species 
vary, and some of them to a great extent, is admitted by 
all, but in no recorded observation do they cease to be the 
same species still. The cable which holds a ship to its 
moorings may be swayed by the waves and still not snap 
asunder. The moon varies in the time of her revolution 
around the earth, in her celestial longitude and latitude, in 
the motion of her nodes and perigee; and these variations 
were seriously thought, for a time, to require some new 
statement for the law of gravitation, until Olairaut demon¬ 
strated that these variations furnished a surprising exem¬ 
plification of the law. Cuvier has shown,f from Egyptian 
monuments and mummies, that the animals which lived in 
that country in the earliest records of its civilization are 
identical in species with those which live there to-day; and 
Agassiz has shown,J from the coral-reefs in Florida, that 
the animals of the Gulf of Mexico were of the same species 
30,000, and probably 200,000, years ago, as in the present 
time. Though man has been able to secure numerous and 
often surprising variations within a given species, he has 
never succeeded in obliterating the original lines of specific 
distinction, or in bringing out anything more prominent 
in their place. An Ancon sheep is no less a sheep, however 
much its legs may be like an otter’s. House-pigeons are 
house-pigeons still, whether carriers, or pouters, or fantails, 
or tumblers. The racer, the dray-horse, the barb has not 
changed its one specific characteristic, however different 
these varieties may be. The dog has been associated in 
close companionship with man from the earliest history, 
and, more than any other animal, has been subjected to 
decisive experiments continued through many generations, 
in order that every possible variation from the original 
stock might be secured. The result is apparent. The dif¬ 
ferences of dogs strike the dullest eye. And yet an au¬ 
thority inferior to none declares that “ under the extremest 
mark of variety so superinduced, the naturalist detects the 
unmistakable generic and specific characters of the Canis 
familiaris."$ Moreover, the dog himself sees this like¬ 
ness, notwithstanding the difference. Two dogs of very 
different varieties treat each other, on meeting, very differ¬ 
ently from what either of them would treat or be treated 
by a wolf or a fox. 

The same is the case with all the plants upon which man 
has made such copious and careful experiment. Not a 
single instance of one species changing into another has 
yet been found. The differences have been sufficient to in¬ 
duce some careful naturalists to suppose their possible pro¬ 
longation into difference of species, and some have thus 
been led to regard this possibility as though it were already 
translated into an actual fact. But the fact is still want¬ 
ing, and however plausible as a conjecture, or however ac¬ 
cordant with favorite theories of the universe, the Darwin¬ 
ian hypothesis may be, we must not forget that as long as 
we lack the first fact in its proof, it is a conjecture alone. 

Moreover, these variations, which man has secured by 
“ artificial selection,” if we look at them closely are not 
favorable to the conjecture. These deviations from the 
typical form and state, instead of being improvements out 
of which superior species may be gained, are monstrosities 
only kept up by man’s care. The species left to itself sloughs 
them off. As soon as the introduction of merino sheep ren¬ 
dered it no longer an object to raise Ancons, the latter va¬ 
riety disappeared, and for years no remnant of it has been 
seen. || Dogs show a continual tendency to revert to the 
common type.^f Prichard has also shown,*"* in reference to 
other domestic animals—the hog, the horse, the ass, the 
sheep, the goat, the cow, the cat, and gallinaceous fowls— 
originally transported by the Spaniards and others from 
Europe to this continent, that in instances where they have 
got out of man’s hands and run wild in the woods, they 
have lost all the most obvious appearances of domestication, 
and have approximated to the type which may be supposed 
to have belonged to the species in its original state. Dar¬ 
win himself declares that in his pigeons, even with breeds 
of hundreds of years’ standing, he was often met by sudden 


* “ Lay Sermons,” p. 295. 

f “Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles,” vol. i., p. 141. 

J “ Contributions to the Natural History of the United States,” 
vol. i., p. 53. 

a Owen, “ Classification of Mammalia,” p. 100. 

|| Huxley, “ Lay Sermons,” p. 269; “ Philosophical Transac¬ 
tions,” 1813, pp. 92,93. 

^ Prichard, “ Natural History of Man,” p. 57. 

** Ibid., pp. 28-59. 


returns in color and other striking appearances to the orig¬ 
inal type.j-j- The same is true with our cultivated plants. 
The extended varieties which man has brought out in some 
of these— e. g., the cabbage, the turnip, the beet, the po¬ 
tato—and from which he derives such benefit, arc only 
kept up by constant cultivation. The plant left to itself 
reverts to its wild and, to man, its comparatively useless, 
state. 

Now, while all these things show that the transmutation 
of species has not a fact which can prove it, and is at the 
best but a conjecture, they also render most unlikely the 
conjecture itself. For in the numberless species which 
have been minutely observed, over a great space and for a 
long time, if there were such a tendency to transmutation, 
how is it possible that no actual case of it has ever been 
found? Why are not cases occurring all the time and be¬ 
fore our eyes? Mr. Darwin admits the force of this in¬ 
quiry, but we cannot yield to the fitness of his reply. lie 
argues that in the struggle for life the improved offspring 
would exterminate the inferior progenitor, and that thus 
the old form disappears by the very process of the forma¬ 
tion of the new.JJ But if’this be true, and if the process 
of formation be going on before our eyes, why not that of 
disappearance also? In many animals the duration of the 
individual life is so short, and the succession of generations 
so rapid, that if this process of transmutation were actually 
at work, how could it fail to have furnished, thus far, a 
single instance of its accomplished fruits? Mr. Darwin 
often speaks of the frequent uncertainty of specific and 
even of generic distinctions, and these are sometimes so 
obscure that even the great Cuvier ranked the barnacle as 
a mollusk, while it is now classed as an articulate and a 
crustacean. But this uncertainty and liability to error cer¬ 
tainly admits a far other interpretation than what Mr. Dar¬ 
win adduces. If the species be sometimes separated by 
such narrow and almost indeterminate bounds, how does it 
happen that we never see these limits passed over, provided 
the transition be as easy as is claimed? It is hard to say 
whether certain living things are representatives of vegeta¬ 
ble or animal life. Different naturalists make very differ¬ 
ent divisions of the innumerable protozoa, some calling 
animals what others name plants; but if the distinction 
between the two be of such little account, why has no mem¬ 
ber of the one class ever been seen passing over into the 
other? How is it that such a phenomenon— e. g., as the 
growth of the highest alga into the lowest zoophite —a phe¬ 
nomenon for which sharp eyes have sought, and which is 
not only natural but inevitable on the Darwinian hypothe¬ 
sis, and whose discovery would make the fame of any ob¬ 
server—has never yet been seen ? 

Geological Evidence .—If One species springs from another 
by a long-continued process of slow variation and natural 
selection, the steps through which a parent has become lost 
in his descendants are very many—indeed, are practically 
innumerable. “ If my theory be true,” says Mr. Darwin,$$ 
“ numberless intermediate varieties, linking most closely all 
the species of the same group together, must assuredly have 
existed.” Therefore, also, if the theory be true, some evi¬ 
dence of these intermediate varieties must assuredly exist 
in the geological record. But no such evidence appears. 
Looking through all the vast cycles of time which geologi¬ 
cal changes are supposed to imply, we find the same clear 
distinctions of species as we observe in the historic period. 
Upon this there is no dispute. Mr. Darwin admits it,|||| and 
so do his disciples.^ This fact is sufficient to startle, if not 
to stagger, the boldest advocate of the theory. Mr. Dar¬ 
win acknowledges it to have the gravest force, but its weight 
is not essentially lessened by his very ingenious attempt to 
remove it. His explanation rests, in the main, upon the 
extreme imperfection of the geological record. This record 
gives us only a few disconnected leaves—and these often 
wellnigh effaced, and written in a changing dialect—of a 
great history, in which, if we could only decipher the faded 
lines and recover the missing parts, we should find the con¬ 
nections which, it must be acknowledged, we now lack. Sir 
Charles Lyell adds the weight of his high authority to the 
same scale. “ It is scarcely possible,” says this eminent ge¬ 
ologist, “ to exaggerate the defectiveness of our archives.”*"*'* 
“In the solid framework of the globe, a great part of what 
remains is inaccessible to man, and even of that fraction 
which is accessible, nine-tenths are to this day unex- 
plored.”j'f'f' But the facts which the paleontologist offers 
are neither few nor inconsiderable. There are over 30,000 
species of animals already discovered in the different for¬ 
mations. How is it, then, that these 30,000 species have 


If “Origin of Species,” p. 144; “Variation of Animals and 


Plants under Domestication,” vol. i., pp. 240-249. 
it “ Origin of Species,” p. 155. „ ., 

\\ Ibid., p. 161. ^ 111 Ibid., p. 246. 

flf Lyell, “Principles of Geology,” tenth edition, vol. n. 


*** Ibid., p. 463. 


fff Ibid., vol. i., p. 306. 


p. 462. 















1264 DARWINISM. 


been preserved, and are found clearly defined, while not a 
single individual in a transition state appears ? Many of 
these species aro represented in the rocks by thousands of 
individuals, and if the Darwinian hypothesis be true, and 
these individuals are only instances of species growing into 
and out of one another, why are the terminal links of the 
chain alone preserved ? The intermediate links do not differ 
from these except as would be required by the minutest 
scries of gradations; how, then, iff they ever existed, have 
they now so completely disappeared ? The general imper¬ 
fection of the record is no answer here, for we take the 
record as it is, and however imperfect, there ought surely 
to be seen, in the vast number of fossil species actually dis¬ 
covered, some of the missing links, if they ever existed. 
To Mr. Darwin’s explanation of this staggering fact a 
German professor has applied tho calculus of probabilities, 
with noticeable results.* If we suppose that of each species 
a hundred individuals have been found, and that between 
any two species there were only ten intermediate varieties— 
a number much smaller than Mr. Darwin claims—then the 
probability against the exclusive appearance of distinct 
species would be inconceivable millions to one. In exact 
terms, the probability that out of the millions of fossils 
which are found, no one should appear from which the pro¬ 
cess of transmutation could be positively affirmed, is as 1: 
10 100 ; i. e. } the exact probability of the Darwinian hypoth¬ 
esis, when judged by the actual facts of palaeontology, is 
no more than 1: 1 with a hundred ciphers annexed ! 

But this is not the only bar which geology sets in the 
way of this hypothesis. Some of the lowest and simplest 
orders of organized beings— e. g. the corals—are found 
among the first forms of life, and also among the latest. 
But how should this be? In the struggle for existence they 
should either tend to develop into something higher or 
they should not. But in the latter case the very ground of 
the hypothesis slips from under it, while in the former theso 
lower forms ought long since to have disappeared. 

But on the same ground it would seem as if we should 
find everywhere a law either of deterioration or develop¬ 
ment, but the facts are otherwise. Take the class of fishes. 
It is impossible to affirm that the present offers any fuller 
or more varied development of the entire class than has 
before been manifested, nor on the other hand that it has 
degenerated in regard to numbers, powers, bulk, or range 
of modification.f One consideration, however, seems clear 
—viz., that those species best adapted to afford mankind 
wholesome food, such as the cod, the herring, the salmon, 
the turbot, have greatly predominated at the period imme¬ 
diately preceding and accompanying the advent of man. 
It is certainly difficult to see what advantages, in the strug¬ 
gle for existence, these possessed above the bony garpikes 
which they have superseded. 

“ In the vast physical changes to which the earth has 
been subjected since the neozoic epoch, no revolutions seem 
more sudden or more pronounced than that connected with 
the glacial period. Yet the dicyclotherian mammoth lived 
before it, and passed through the ordeal of all the hard ex¬ 
tremes which it involved, bearing his organs of locomotion 
and digestion all but unchanged.”;]; But how was this pos¬ 
sible if species are so unstable and susceptible of such trans¬ 
mutation as the Darwinian hypothesis claims ? 

Still further: if one species has arisen out of another, all 
the geological facts indicate that this must have been sud¬ 
denly and not gradually. For the fact proclaimed by palae¬ 
ontology is that species appear suddenly, and disappear 
suddenly in successive strata.^ They are as common in the 


* Pfaff, “ Die Neuesten Forschungen und Theorieen auf dem 
Gebiete der Schopfungsgeschichte,” p. 99. 

[ Owen, “ Palaeontology,” p. 150. 

Falconer, “ Palaeontological Memoirs,” vol. ii., p. 253. 

Prof. Youmans’ explanation of this point (given in Johnson’s 
“Natural History,” pp. 33, 34) should be presented here: 

“ It is alleged that the great geological breaks in the course of 
past life, and the abrupt appearance of multitudes of new species, 
disprove their origin by gradual development. But the apparent 
suddenness of their appearance is, without doubt, illusory. It 
has been proved that the same effect might he produced by the 
migration of races from inhabited regions to a continent slowly 
rising from the sea. The following example will show how such 
breaks might arise in the regular course of geological change : 
‘Between England and the United States the ocean-bottom is 
being covered with a deposit of chalk—a deposit that has been 
forming, probably, ever since there occurred that, great depres¬ 
sion of the earth’s crust from which the Atlantic resulted in re¬ 
mote geologic times. This chalk consists of minute shells of For- 
aminifera, sprinkled with remains of small Entomostraca, and 
probably a few pteropod shells, though the sounding-lines have 
not yet brought up any of these last. Thus, in so far as all high 
forms of life are concerned, this new chalk-formation must be a 
blank. At rare intervals, perhaps, a polar bear, drifted on an 
iceberg, may have its bones scattered over the bed, or a dead 
decaying whale may similarly leave traces. But such remains 
must be so rare that this new chalk-formation, if visible, might 
be examined for a century before any of them were disclosed. If 
now, some millions of years hence, the Atlantic bed should be 


uppermost bed in which they occur as in the lowest or any 
intermediate bed. They neither increase successively in 
numbers, nor do they gradually dwindle down ; none of tho 
fossil remains, thus far discovered, show signs of a gradual 
improvement or of a slow decay.jj Moreover, the origina¬ 
tion of varieties, so far as we can observe it, is sudden, and 
not slow. The first Ancon sheep appears to have been as 
perfect as any of his descendants. Persons have been born 
with six fingers on each hand and six toes on each foot, 
and have propagated this peculiarity to their children and 
their children’s children, but no cause could be seen in any 
apparent previous preparation for such a phenomenon. A 
few years ago there were exhibited two dwarf and idiotic 
children as specimens of the race of the ancient “Aztecs,” 
but these children were found to have been born at San 
Salvador, dwarfed and of defective brains, of parents who 
neither in themselves nor in their other children revealed 
any such deviation from the normal type. 

In the oldest fossiliferous rocks wefind suddenly appear¬ 
ing, and at the same time, low and also highly organized 
structures, representing the four great types into which 
Cuvier has so successfully classified the animal kingdom. 
Radiates, mollusks, articulates, and vertebrates spring to 
life simultaneously and suddenly. Below these, absolutely 
no traces of life appear. If it be said that the lower rocks 
have been subjected to igneous agency, by which organic 
existences have totally disappeared, which might otherwise 
have been found, Agassiz has shown^f that in the great con¬ 
tinent of North America the palaeozoic rocks have under¬ 
gone so little alteration that the remains of the earliest 
representatives of the animal and vegetable kingdoms are 
as well preserved as in later formations. If it be said 
that any one of these types has been developed out of the 
other, Von Baer has shown*"* the impossibility of this from 
the facts of their embryonic growth and structure. 

Natural Selection cannot Account for the Changes tchich 
it is assumed to Produce .—It is very difficult to see how 
that gradual development of organs which this hypothesis 
assumes could have taken place in any such way as Mr. 
Darwin affirms. If we were presented with a single fact of 
such development, we should be obliged to assent to it, 
whether we could explain it or not; but we must remember 
that not one such fact is furnished, and we must therefore 
test the doctrine on its intrinsic probabilities. How, then, 
shall an organ be gradually developed by “natural selec¬ 
tion ” and in a “ struggle for life ” ? How can the organ 
give any aid in the struggle for life while it is in a process 
of formation, and thus how should natural selection have 
anything to do with its formation ? What sort of an agency, 
e.g., could natural selection have in the formation of mam¬ 
mary glands and their secretions ? How do these help the in- 
dividiial in the struggle for life ? According to the hypoth¬ 
esis, every new organ must have been in a process of slow 
growth through many generations, and therefore with num¬ 
berless individuals which did not need it, and could not use 
it at all. But the doctrine of natural selection affirms that 
only those peculiarities which are favorable for the strug¬ 
gle for life would have the advantage to perpetuate them¬ 
selves,' how, then, could organs unformed grow into their 
perfect form through long-continued generations? The 
force of this is not weakened by the existence of animals 
with so-called rudimentary organs. Some insects in deep 
caves are without eyes; others near the mouth of the cave 
can see, though indistinctly; while others still, nearly re¬ 
lated to these, but living outside the cave, have perfect 
eyes jj'j" but instead of inferring that there is a jirogress here 
by which no eyes have grown into eyes, it is certainly pos¬ 
sible, and it is much more credible, that there is a retrogres¬ 
sion, where insects with perfect eyes have lost them because 
placed where they could not see. The continued disuse of 
an organ is often followed by its loss, and we can easily see 
the reason for this ; but this does not help us at all in con¬ 
ceiving how an organ which does not exist at all could ever 
come into existence by any process of natural selection. 

Upon this notion of natural selection the facts of repro¬ 
duction seem absolutely without meaning. It is no ad¬ 
vantage to the individual to reproduce its kind. Indeed, 
with some insects the individual dies in the act of repro¬ 
duction. The reproductive, which is one of the most pow- 


raised, and estuary or shore deposits laid upon it, these deposits 
would contain remains of a flora or fauna so distinct from any¬ 
thing below them as to appear like anew creation. Thus, along 
with continuity of life on the earth’s surface, there not only may 
be, but there must be, great gaps in the series of fossils; and 
hence the gaps are no evidence against the doctrine of evolu¬ 
tion.’ ” 

|| Agassiz, “ Contributions to the Natural History of the Uni¬ 
ted States,” vol. iii.,p. 91. 

Iflbid., vol. i., p. 25. 

** “Ueber die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thieren,” vol. i., 
pp. 160 and 224. 

ft Pfaff, “Die Neuesten Forschungen u. s. f.,” p. 113. 













DARWINISM. 


1265 




erful of all impulses, is not for the sake of the individual, 
hut for the species. How, then, can “ natural selection ” 
have anything to do with it? “If it profit a plant,” says 
Mr. Darwin, “ to have its seeds more and more widely dis¬ 
seminated by the wind, I can see no great difficulty in this 
being effected through natural selection.” * But pray what 
profit is it to the individual plant to have its seeds thus 
disseminated, and how, therefore, should natural selection, 
which “can act only through and for the good of each be¬ 
ing,” f effect this? It is the species only that can thus be 
profited, and hence, if natural selection have any effect, it 
is for the profit and permanence, and not for the origin¬ 
ation, of species. 

“It is conceivable,” says Mr. Darwin, “ that flying-fish, 
which now glide far through the air, slightly rising and 
turning by the aid of their fluttering fins, might have been 
modified into perfectly winged animals.” J Such phrases 
as “it is conceivable,” “I see no difficulty in supposing,” 
“ I can see no insuperable difficulty in believing,” “ it seems 
to me unlikely,” etc., are often used by this author to in¬ 
troduce suppositions which he soon employs as though they 
were actual facts by which his deductions could be proved. 
But let us look at this supposition of the flying-fish with 
the sharp eyes of a naturalist not apt to be led away by his 
fancy. “ Some naturalists,” says the great Cuvier, “seeing 
that more or less use of an organ sometimes increases or 
diminishes its strength and size, have fancied that habits 
and outward influences, for a long time continued, might 
gradually change the form of animals to a degree which 
would ultimately bring out a difference of species. These 
writers consider the organized body as a plastic material to 
be moulded as with the fingers. But the moment they carry 
out their notion into details, they render themselves a 
laughing-stock. Whoever should venture seriously to sug¬ 
gest that a fish, by means of a dry habitat, might see its 
scales disparting into feathers and itself becoming a bird, 
would only prove thereby his most profound ignorance of 
anatomy. What relation is there between the complicated 
and admirable organization of the feather, so perfectly 
adapted to the nature of the bird, and a scale that might 
be conceived as disparting itself? Moreover, a scale is of 
such a nature that it would not be disparted by drying; and 
yet this is but a sample of what these boasted writers pro¬ 
pose !” $ 

The Law of Hybrid,ity. —Mr. Darwin gives much atten¬ 
tion to this law, and adduces many and curious instances 
to show that intei'breeding tends to deterioration, that 
strength comes from crossing, and that varieties of new 
vigor, which might develop into new species, may come 
from individuals of different species. But that interbreed¬ 
ing tends, in certain instances, to deterioration and sterility, 
may, for aught we know, be a natural consequence of the 
inheritance of disease, which close interbreeding may per¬ 
petuate, and which crossing might tend to remove. Now, 
no well-authenticated cases of perfectly hybrid animals arc 
known. Mr. Darwin himself admits this, || but argues that 
such cases are intrinsically possible, because we do know 
of numberless instances where varieties, when crossed, are 
not only fertile, but their progeny often surpass in fertility 
their parents. But the true inference from this is not the 
one he has drawn. These facts teach us rather the real and 
ineradicable difference between species and varieties. More¬ 
over, the instances which Mr. Darwin adduces furnish 
themselves the gravest difficulties to his hypothesis. For 
if close interbreeding tends to sterility, and if somewhat 
remoter unions diminish this tendency, and if when these 
unions are of two varieties the cross-breeds are more fertile 
than either pure stock, and if the difference between varie¬ 
ties and species be only one of degree and not of kind, how 
does it happen that when the divergence has passed over 
just that degree which separates the variety from the spe¬ 
cies, the whole tendency is instantly reversed, and the mon¬ 
grel, if produced, is sterile? 

Gradation not to be Confounded with Progress .—In the 
organic world an individual passes through stages of 
growth, each of which, compared with the preceding, 
marks a grade of progress. This is the individual’s de¬ 
velopment, in which case, however, it is not, strictly speak¬ 
ing, true to say that the higher lias been developed out of 
or by the lower, for the lower and the higher spring alike 
from a deeper source. They are both the unfolding of 
what lay mysteriously folded up in the germ before any 
manifestation of the individual life had appeared. So the 
facts teach us, and so a sound philosophy would declare. 
But though we might look upon gradation here as equivalent 
to progress, this by no means proves that it is such elsewhere. 


* “ Origin of Species,” p. 82. 
f Ibid./p. 80. t Ibid., p. 163. 

I “ Lemons d’Anatomie Comparee,” i., p. 100. 

|j “ Origin of Species ” p. 224. 

t “ American Journal of Science and Arts,” vol. xxxix., p. 178. 
80 


There is a gradation in the colors of the prism, but it would 
be absurd to call this a progress in any such sense as though 
one color had grown out of another. In like manner a 
gradation of species does not involve a progress of species, 
and we only confuse ourselves if we confound the two. 
Because a system of nature can be represented, in the con¬ 
templation of which we pass, by regular and successive 
steps, from the lowest and simplest structure to the highest 
and most complex, it by no means follows that the higher 
has proceeded from the lower, or that either has been 
evolved out of the other. Now, we need to remember that 
in natural history no such gradation can yet be repre¬ 
sented. There are broad gaps which require prodigious 
leaps of the imagination to span. Mr. Darwin urges that 
these gaps are apparent, but not real. They seem such 
only to our defective knowledge. If wo had the whole 
field instead of detached portions before us, wo should find, 
he claims, the gaps filled up and the gradation perfect. 
This we may admit. It seems possible, though as yet far 
from being proved. The discovery of the intermediate 
forms between the Palseotherium and the hoofed quad- 
x’upeds of to-day, which Cuvier desiderated, may no longer 
be lacking,** but the proof that the Palseotherium is the 
progenitor of our present existing hoofed quadrupeds is 
not advanced one jot by this discovery. Palxotherium and 
Equus remain just exactly as distantly related as before, 
notwithstanding all the help toward consanguinity which 
Paloplotherium, Anchitherium , and Hipparion can furnish. 
Indeed, the ease with which gradation becomes translated 
into progress, and the readiness with which this mistake is 
made to prove the transmutation of species, is somewhat 
surprising to one who thinks closely. The imagination, 
not to say the fancy, would seem to have a more prominent 
part to play in these processes than a faculty of rigorous 
logic. 

In the assignment of the links which are fancied to con¬ 
nect man, through the anthropoid apes, with the orang¬ 
outang and gibbon, it is argued that a perfect gradation is 
a sufficient warrant for the inference that the man has, in 
process of time, been evolved from the monkey. Now, we 
should not forget that the postulate here is only a fancy. 
The gradation is so far from perfect—indeed, is so grossly 
imperfect except in certain superficial characteristics—that 
the most accomplished naturalists declare that “man is the 
sole species of his genus and the sole representative of his 
order and sub-class.”ff While the studies of Duvernoy upon 
the gorilla, and of Gratiolet and Alix upon the chimpanzee, 
have shown that a monkey of the highest grade is none the 
less a monkey and none the more a man than one of the 
lowest,j;j; Pruner-Bey has also shown that in the most salient 
characteristics of the two there is an inverse order of devel¬ 
opment, which not only destroys the gradation, but makes 
it impossible that the higher should ever havo descended 
from the lower.$$ And if we pass from anatomical and 
physiological qualities to the higher psychological distinc¬ 
tions, we find a difference which cannot be bridged by de¬ 
grees, though extended to infinity. 

But even if there are men so sunk in a savage state that 
the difference between them and the people of the highest 
civilization seems greater than that which divides some 
monkeys from others, we have at least just as good reason 
for saying that the lowest has degenerated from the high¬ 
est, as that the highest has been developed from the lowest. 
The history of men is full of instances of deterioration. 
If we weigh it simply by number, whether of years or of 
nations or of individuals, degeneration and decay vastly 
preponderate. Where is the civilization now of Tyre, and 
Carthage, and Babylon, and Nineveh? and where are the 
arts which built the Great Pyramid and Baalbec ? All over 
the world we have evidence of a tendency among nations 
and men to sink away from civilization into barbarism, but 
history does not show an instance of a nation rising by its 
own efforts from barbarism to civilization. “ To believe,” 
says Mr. Darwin in his latest book, “ that man was aborig¬ 
inally civilized, and then suffered utter degradation in so 
many regions, is to take a pitiably low view of human na¬ 
ture.” mi But, alas ! this is exactly the view which the sad 
facts of history oblige us to take, and we must square our 
views of human nature to the actual facts of the case, 
whether or not it would better suit our desires and our the¬ 
ories to have them otherwise. The incontestable fact is, 
that human nature reveals no inherent impulse to improve 
or perfect itself. History gives unnumbered cases of a 
downward tendency, but not a single instance of a self- 
evolved progress. The lamp which lights one nation in its 

** Owen, “Anatomy of Vertebrates,” vol. iii., pp. 791, 1 92. 

ft Owen, “ Classification of Mammalia,” p. 108. 

%% Quatrefages, “ Rapport sur les Progres de l’Anthropologie 
Paris, 1867, p. 245. 

g? Ibid., p. 247. 

[||| “Descent of Man,” vol. i., p. 176. 



















1266 DASHIELL—DATIIOLITE. 


advancement has been always lighted by a lamp behind it. 
Civilization is never indigenous; it is an exotic plant 
wherever found. This is the simple truth of history, which 
makes all such discussions as Mr. Darwin’s respecting the 
descent of man as false to fact as they are abhorrent to 
philosophy. 

“ the constant working of his brain,” says Carl Vogt, 
“man gradually emerges from his primitive barbarism.”'*' 
But, aside from the crude materialism of which this writer 
is so fond, and which this sentence might illustrate, it is 
fair, again we say, to ask for some little evidence that this 
“ constant working of the brain ” starts from its own ac¬ 
cord. We have not a part icle of such evidence, and such a 
supposition is not only unsupported by a single fact, but 
is contradicted by all the facts of history. (See Prof. 
Seelye’s argument against Darwinism in Johnson’s “ Nat¬ 
ural History,” vol. ii.) J. H. Seelye. 

Dash'iell (Robert Lawrenson), D. D., was born in 
Salisbury, Md., 1826, graduated with honor at Dickin¬ 
son College 1846, joined the Methodist Baltimore Con¬ 
ference 1848, and occupied prominent pulpits in the Middle 
States down to 1868, when he was elected president of 
Dickinson College, Pa. He was appointed corresponding 
secretary of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Epis¬ 
copal Church in 1872. 

Dash'kof (Ekaterina Romanovna), Princess, a Rus¬ 
sian lady eminent for her talents and learning, was born 
of a noble family Mar. 28, 1743. She became the wife of 
Prince Dashkof and a friend of the empress Catharine II. . 
She was one of the chiefs of the conspiracy which de¬ 
throned Peter II. Soon after this event she lost the favor 
of Catharine, and passed several years in a tour through 
France, Germany, and Italy. Having returned home in 
1782, she was appointed president of the Academy of 
Sciences at St. Petersburg. She was the first president of 
the Russian Academy, founded in 1784, and she superin¬ 
tended the compilation of a great dictionary of the Rus¬ 
sian language. Died Jan. 16, 1810. (See “Autobiograph¬ 
ical Memoirs of her Life,” published in English in 1840.) 

Da'sya [from the Gr. Sac™'?, “hairy,” a term very ap¬ 
plicable to some of the species], a genus of red Algae, of the 
order Rhodomelacem, nine or ten species of which are found 
in the U. S., and seven species in the British Islands. They 
have pear-shaped spores, borne in ovate conceptacles upon 
the smaller branches. The genus includes some of our finest 
sea-weeds. 

Da'syure [from the Gr. Satrv?, “hairy,” and ovpd, the 
“tail”], ( Dasyurus ), a genus of carnivorous marsupial 
quadrupeds, allied to the opossums, but having only eight 
incisors in the upper and six in the lower jaw, and only 
twelve molars in each jaw. They also differ from the opos¬ 
sums in the absence of a hinder thumb, a prehensile tail, 
and in the want of a caecum. They are all Australasian. 
The ursine dasyure [Dasyurus or Diabolus ursinus), or Tas¬ 
manian devil, abounded in Van Diemen’s Land when it was 
first colonized. It is as large as the badger. The tail is 
half as long as the body, and like it is covered with coarse 
black hair with white bands. It is very wild, and makes 
its home in the ground. The spotted dasyure ( Dasyurus 
macrurm) is the size of a cat, has a tail as long as the body, 
and is of a deep brown color, spotted with white. This 
and a smaller species ( Dasyurus Mangir), called the wild¬ 
cat, are natives of Van Diemen’s Land, and both are very 
destructive to poultry. All the dasyures are fierce nocturnal 
quadrupeds, and cannot be tamed. 

Da'ta (plu.), [from the Lat. do, datum, to “give”], sig¬ 
nifies “things given” or admitted; quantities and facts 
given, known, or admitted, by which to find things or re¬ 
sults unknown; in geometry, the quantities or conditions 
which are assumed to be known in any problem. Thus, in 
the problem, Given the base, altitude, and area, to construct 
the triangle, the data are: 1, that the figure is a triangle; 
2, that it has a certain straight line for its base ; 3, that its 
vertex is at a known distance from its base; and 4, that its 
area has a known magnitude. 

Dat'ames, fourth century B. C., a Persian general and 
satrap, born of a Carian father and Scythian mother; his 
principal fields of action were Asia Minor and Syria. He 
experienced the fate accorded to many distinguished com¬ 
manders of antiquity, such as Sertorius, master of Spain 
eight years in the first century B. C., and Viriathus, sec¬ 
ond century B. C., and in modern times, Wallenstein and 
Guise, when they sought to maintain their independ¬ 
ence against despotism, or when they became dangerous 
to royalty. Too strong to be crushed out by force of arms, 
they were taken off by treachery and assassination, as was 
Datames about 362 B. C. He is known to modern times 
only by short notices of Diodorus of Sicily, about 50 B. C., and 

* “ Lectures on Man,” p. 468. 


of Polyen the Macedonian, second century A. D., author 
of “ Strategemata,” and through a very interesting account 
of him by Cornelius Nepos (first century B. C.), who con¬ 
siders him the most valiant and capable of barbarian— 
that is, foreign—generals, with the exception of the two 
Carthaginians, Hamilcar and Hannibal; as one who owed 
his success not to the command of great armies, but to an 
individual ability almost unequalled. From what is to be 
gathered from the scanty details furnished, he must, in one 
respect resembling the greatest of all generals of all times, 
Hannibal, have been more remarkable for stratagem than 
strategy, although not deficient either in tactics or strategy. 
Frontinus, a military writer of consular dignity and Roman 
commander-in-chief in Britain towards the end of the first 
century A. D., in his “ Strategematica and Stratcgicon” 
(Scott’s translation, 1811, 185), cites an evidence of his con¬ 
summate judgment, under fire, so to speak, similar to, but 
far better than, that which in 1646 distinguished Turenne in 
respect to the Wennarians when transferring their services 
to the Swedes. At first very successful in putting down an 
extensive confederated revolt, and thereupon invested w ith 
the command of the army destined to subject insurgent 
Egypt, Datames fell into disfavor with the Persian mon¬ 
arch Artaxerxes. Finding himself mistrusted and imper¬ 
illed, he set up for himself, and was victorious over the 
powerful forces sent against him. Found too great to be 
conquered, he was betrayed by a friend, and in a confer¬ 
ence murdered (exactly like the great Sertorius) about 362 
B. C. To few men of whom so little is known has a greater 
reputation been accorded, demonstrating that Datames made 
himself felt and obtained a name whose grandeur like a set 
sun is apparent from the continuing glow beyond the moun¬ 
tains which conceal the orb which irradiates the sky. 

J. Watts de Peyster. 

Da'tary [Lat. datarius, Horn datum, “given” (usually 
the first word in the date of papal documents; for example, 
“Datum Romm apud Sanctum Petrum,” etc., “ Given at 
Rome January 1st,” etc.)], the chancellor of the pope; a 
high dignitary of the Roman Catholic Church, who has the 
power in some cases of granting requests, instead of the 
pope himself. This arrangement was introduced to relieve 
the pope from the pressure of unimportant business. The 
datary is assisted by a pro-datary and a suo-datary. 

Date [Fr. datte; from the Gr. Sa/crvAos (i . e. a “ finger,” 
and also a “ date,” so called from its shape); Lat. dactylm; 
Sp. datil], the fruit of the date-palm (Phoenix dactylifera), 
a native of the north of Africa and the south-west of Asia. 
It also grows in Southern Europe, and to some extent in 
the Southern U. S. The stem grows to the height of thirty 
to sixty feet, is straight, and crowned with from forty to 
eighty smooth pinnate leaves or fronds eight to ten feet 
long, with lanceolate acuminate leaflets. The tree bears 
many spadices, each of which on the female tree bears from 
ISO to 200 dates, weighing in the mass from twenty to 
twenty-five pounds. This tree is one of the most highly 
prized of all the palms, furnishing food to millions of the 
human race. On the N. coast of Africa, in Pei'sia, and 
in Arabia dates form a chief article of food. They contain 
58 per cent, of sugar, combined with gum, pectin, etc. They 
are used both fresh and dried, and are prepared for market 
by pounding and pressing them into a solid mass. Both 
wine and vinegar are made from them by fermentation, and 
in Persia an ardent spirit is distilled from them. At the top 
of the stem is a soft pith, which, with the young leaves sur¬ 
rounding it, is called “ palm cabbage,” and is much esteemed 
as food. The undeveloped panicles of flowers are also eaten, 
and “palm wine” is made by fermentation of the sap, of 
which each tree yields from three to four quarts daily for 
ten days or a fortnight. The roasted seeds are used in 
North Africa as coffee. These seeds are also ground and 
an oil expressed from them, the paste which remains being 
used as food for cattle. Baskets are made from the leaf¬ 
stalks, and mats and bags from the leaves. The fibrous 
parts at the base of the stalks are made into cordage, and 
the wood is used in the construction of buildings. The 
toddy-palm ( Phoenix sylvestris) of India is perhaps a va¬ 
riety of this species. Like several other palms, it yields 
“jaggery” or palm-sugar. 

Date [from the Lat. datum, “given,” from do, datum, to 
“ give,” occurring in such phrases as the following : “ Given 
under my hand, this seventh day of April,” etc.; see Da¬ 
tary], a word used to denote the exact time when anything 
was done. The careful observance of dates is of the utmost 
importance in the proper writing of history. One of the 
best works on this subject is “ L’Art de verifier les Dates,” 
written by the Benedictines of St. Maur. (See Chronology.) 

Date Plum. See Diospyros. 

Dath'olite [from the Gr. Sa0o?, “turbid,” and Ai'flo?, a 
“stone”], a mineral composed of boracic acid, silica, and 
lime, with a little water. It occurs massive, and also crys- 















DATISCACEiE—DAUPHINE. 1207 


tallized in rhombic prisms, the edges and angles of which 
are cut off by planes. It becomes opaque when heated, 
hence the name. 

Dati sca'cea; [from Datisca, one of the genera], a 
small natural order of plants related to the Begoniacem, 
consisting of trees and herbs, principally native of the 
milder regions of Europe and Asia. Datisca cannabina, 
which is very similar to hemp in its general features, is a 
native of Crete, and is valuable as a tonic. An amylace¬ 
ous substance called datiscin is obtained from it. It also 
yields a yellow dye. 

Dative Case. See Declension. By J. Thomas, M. D., 
LL.D. 

Datu'ra [Arab, tatftrah], a genus of exogenous herbs 
of the order Solanacem, natives chiefly of warm climates 
in both hemispheres. The Datura Stramonium (thorn- 
apple, Jamestown or “Jimson” weed of the U. S.) is nat¬ 
uralized in this country, and furnishes the drug Stra¬ 
monium (which see). Many other species are cultivated in 
greenhouses for the beauty of their flowers. They all 
possess narcotic properties similar to those of belladonna. 

Daubenton (Louis Jean Marie), M. D., an eminent 
French naturalist, born at Montbar May 29, 1716. He 
studied medicine in Paris, and began in 1742 to assist Buf- 
fon in the preparation of his great work on natural history. 
He was well qualified for this task by his sound judgment, 
scrupulous accuracy, and patient industry, which enabled 
him to rectify some of Buffon’s errors and hasty theories, 
and to enrich the work with many new and important facts 
in the anatomy of animals. In 1745 he was appointed 
curator and demonstrator of the cabinet of natural history 
in Paris, of which he had charge for nearly fifty years. 
He became professor of natural history in the College of 
France in 1778. He contributed many scientific articles to 
the first “ Encyclopedic,” edited by Diderot. Died Jan. 1, 
1800. (See Cuvier, “ Notice sur la Vie de Daubenton. 

Daubeny (Charles Giles Bridle), M. D., F. R. S., an 
English chemist and naturalist, born at Stratton in 1795. 
He was for many years professor of chemistry, botany, and 
rural economy in the University of Oxford. He visited the 
U. S. in 1837. Among his works are a “ Description of Ac¬ 
tive and Extinct Volcanoes, with Remarks on their Origin '’ 
(1826), a “Sketch of the Geology of North America,” and 
“ Lectures on Agriculture” (1841). Died Dec. 12, 1867. 

Dau'ber, a name applied to various mud-wasps, hy- 
menopterous insects of the family Sphigidee and the genus 



Dauber. 


Pelopseus, natives of various parts of America, some of the 
species being quite common in the U. S. This name is 
given on account of the remarkable nest which the mother- 
insect constructs, bringing lumps of mud in her mouth, 
which she arranges into cells, inwardly very smooth and 
regular, but outwardly looking like masses of clay. In 
these cells she lays her eggs, one in each cell, and with it 
she seals up a large number of spiders, alive, but paralyzed 
by her sting. The eggs hatch, the grub feeds on the spiders, 
goes into the pupa state, and finally, having burst its co¬ 
coon, gnaws through the wall of earth and escapes a per¬ 
fect insect. 

D’Aubigne (Jean Henri Merle), D. D., an eminent 
Swiss divine and historian, born at Geneva Aug. 16, 1794. 
His father’s name was Louis Merle. Having been ordained 


as a Protestant minister, he preached about five year3 at 
Hamburg, and removed to Brussels in 1823. He became 
in 1831 professor of church history in a college at Geneva. 
His principal work is a “ History of the Reformation in 
the Sixteenth Century” (1835), translations of which havo 
obtained extensive circulation in Great Britain and tho 
U. S. In 1863 he began to publish a “ History of the 
Reformation in Europe in the Time of Calvin.” He also 
published the “Protector (Cromwell), a Vindication” 
(1848). He is most praised for the vivacity of his style, 
the fervor of his piety, and the pronounced orthodoxy of 
his opinions. He died at Geneva Oct. 21, 1872. 

D’Aubigne (Theodore Agrippa). See Aubigne, d’. 

Daubigny (Charles Francois), a French painter and 
engraver, born Feb. 15, 1817, studied with his father and 
Paul de la Roche, and spent three years in Italy. Among 
his numerous works are “ The Harvest,” “ The Banks of 
the Eure,” etc. His pictures show a careful study of na¬ 
ture. He also made many drawings for books and illus¬ 
trated newspapers. 

Daufus'kie Island, one of the Sea Islands of Beau¬ 
fort co., S. C., lying S. W. of Hilton Head Island. Its 
northern point is in lat. 32° 8' 42" N., Ion. 80° 49’ 58" W. 

Dau'lis, an ancient city of Greece, in Phocis, at the 
foot of Mount Parnassus. Its position rendered it an im¬ 
portant military station. Its site is occupied by the mod¬ 
ern village of Davlia, 9 miles N. W. of Livadia. 

Dau'mer (Georg Friedrich), a German pantheist, 
born at Nuremberg Mar. 5, 1800. He published, besides 
other works, a “ System of Speculative Philosophy ” (1831) 
and “ Philosophy, Religion, and Antiquity” (1833). Sev¬ 
eral of his works were noted for his violent attacks upon 
the Christian religion. In 1858 he joined the Roman Cath¬ 
olic Church, since which time he has published a number 
of works from a Catholic point of view. 

Daun, von (Leopold Joseph Maria), Count, an Aus¬ 
trian general, born at Vienna Sept. 25, 1705. He served 
with distinction against the Turks, and became a field- 
marshal in 1754. He was commander-in-chief of the im¬ 
perial army in the Seven Years’ war. On June 18, 1757, 
he defeated Frederick the Great at Ivolin, where the loss 
of the Prussians was very severe. On Oct. 14, 1758, ho 
gained a victory over Frederick at Hochkirchen. On Aug. 
15, 1760, he was defeated at Liegnitz, and on Nov. 3,1761, 
at Torgau. He was appointed president of the Aulic coun¬ 
cil in 1762. Died Feb. 5, 1766. 

Daunou (Pierre Claude Francois), a French states¬ 
man and author, born at Boulogne Aug. 18, 1761. He was 
elected in 1793 a member of the National Convention, in 
which he acted with moderation and opposed the proscrip¬ 
tion of the Girondists. He was the first president of the 
Council of Five Hundred, and a member of the committee 
which formed the constitution of the year VIII. (1800). 
He was editor of the “Journal des Savants” from 1816 to 
1838, and became professor of history in the College of 
France in 1819. He published an “ Essay on the Temporal 
Power of the Pope” (1810) and a “Course of Historical 
Studies” (20 vols., 1842 et seq.). Died June 20, 1840. 
(See Walckenaer, “ Notice sur la Vie de Daunou,” 1841.) 

Dau'phin [Lat. delphinus], the former title of the eld¬ 
est son and heir-apparent to the king of France. It was 
originally the title of the sovereign lords of the province 
of Dauphine. In 1349, Humbert, lord of Vienne, dying 
without issue, bequeathed his possessions to Charles of 
Valois, on condition that the heir-apparent to the throne 
of France should bear the title of dauphin of Vienne. This 
title was abolished at the revolution of 1830. 

Dauphin, a county in S. E. Central Pennsylvania. Area, 
530 square miles: It is bounded on the W. and S. W. by the 
Susquehanna River, and intersected by the Swatara. The 
surface is diversified by parallel mountain-ridges and val¬ 
leys, among the former of which is the Kittatinny or Blue 
Mountain. Mines of anthracite coal are worked in the 
county. Cattle, grain, wool, tobacco, hay, butter, and tim¬ 
ber are produced. There are manufactures of iron, leather, 
furniture, carriages, brick, lime, metallic wares, machinery, 
and a great variety of other goods. It is intersected by 
the Northern Central and the Schuylkill and Susquehanna 

R. Rs. Capital, Harrisburg. Pop. 60,740. 

Dauphin, a post-borough of Dauphin co., Pa., on the 

Northern Central R. R., 8 miles N. W. of Harrisburg, at the 

S. W. terminus of the Schuylkill and Susquehanna R. R. 
Pop. 739. 

Dauphin^, a former province in the S. E. of Irance, 
is now comprised in the departments of Diome, Ilautes- 
Alpes, and Isere. The chief towns were Grenoble, \ ienne, 
Gap, and Valence. After it had been long governed by 
counts called dauphins, it was ceded to the crown of 


































1268 


DAUW—DAVID. 


Franco in 1349. It was bounded on the W. by the river 
Rhone. 

Dauw, or Burchell’s Zebra (Asinus Burchelli), a 



Dauw. 


wild ass of Southern Africa, resembling the true zebra, 
but not so beautiful, its stripes being far less brilliant, and 
not distributed over the whole body. It feeds in troops 
on the plaihs, while the zebra lives in the mountains. It 
has been domesticated, and in the Jardin des Plantes at 
Paris has long been acclimatized. 

Dav'enant (Sir William), an English dramatic poet, 
born at Oxford in 1605. He succeeded Ben Jonson as poet- 
laureate in 1637. He was a royalist in the civil war, and 
was confined for two years in the Tower. His principal 
work is “ Gondibert,” an epic poem. Died April 17, 1668. 

Dav'enport, a city and river-port of Iowa, the capital 
of Scott co., is pleasantly situated on the Mississippi at the 
foot of the Upper Rapids, 330 miles above St. Louis and 
184 miles W. by S. from Chicago. It is now the most pop¬ 
ulous city in the State. It occupies the base and higher 
parts of a blulf which rises gradually and extends along the 
river three miles. The bluff commands extensive and beau¬ 
tiful views of the river and of the town of Rock Island on 
the opposite side of the Mississippi. The Chicago Rock 
Island and Pacific R. R. here crosses the river on a new 
iron bridge, which cost over $1,200,000. This city is the 
southern terminus of the Davenport and St. Paul R. R., 
and is also the terminus of the Chicago and South-western 
R. R. It contains twenty-five churches, Griswold College, 
a business college, a city training-school, the largest and 
most successful system of common schools in Iowa, the Ro¬ 
man Catholic academy of the Immaculate Conception, an 
opera-house, three national and two savings banks. Three 
daily (English), four weekly and three monthly, and one 
daily German paper are issued here. It has manufactures 
of machinery, woollen goods, farming implements, glue, 
corn-sugar, furniture, five lumber and fine flouring-mills. 
Davenport has fine waterworks, which cost $600,000, com¬ 
prising 20 miles of pipe, and 260 hydrants, horse-railroads, 
five public parks, a fire department, and gasworks costing 
$400,000, and is the market of a large farming region. 
Coal abounds in the vicinity. Large quantities of grain 
are shipper^ here. Pop. in 1860, 11,267 ; in 1870, 20,038; 
of Davenport township, 3414. Charles II. Playter, 

City Ed. of the “ Daily Democrat.” 

Davenport, a township and post-village of Delaware 
co., N. Y., 18 miles S. of Cooperstown. It has important 
manufactures. Pop. 2187. 

Davenport (Edward L.), an excellent actor, was born 
in Boston, Mass., in 1816. His debut was at the Lion 
Theatre, Providence, R. I., as Passion Will to Booth’s Sir 
Giles Overreach, which last is one of his own best charac¬ 
ters. He first appeared in Philadelphia (his present resi¬ 
dence, 1873) at the Walnut Street Theatre in 1838. He 
has played with success in Europe and in the principal 
American theatres. 


Davenport (F. O.), U. S. N., born Oct. 3, 1842, in Mich¬ 
igan, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1860, became a 
lieutenant in 1862, and a lieutenant-commander in 1866. 

He served at the naval battery near Alexandria, 
.Va., in the summer of 1861, and on board the 
gunboat Scioto during the bombardment and 
passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip and 
at the capture of New Orleans, April 24, 18G2. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Davenport (Henry K.), U. S. N., born 
Dec. 10, 1820, in Georgia, entered the navy as 
a midshipman Feb. 19, 1838, became a passed 
midshipman in 1844, a lieutenant in 1852, a 
commander in 1862, and a captain in 1868. He 
was present at the capture of the “ Barrier 
Forts,” China, in 1856, and at the bombard¬ 
ment and capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark, 
N. C., in 1861. lie was in command of the 
steamer Hetzel, North Atlantic blockading 
squadron, from the latter part of 1861 to the 
end of 1864, was in action with gunboats on 
James River in 1861, and commanded a column 
of gunboats at the capture of Roanoke Island 
and Elizabeth City, N. C., in 1862. He was 
for more than a year senior officer in the sounds 
of North Carolina, during which period he par¬ 
ticipated in many battles and skirmishes while 
co-operating with the army, at one time receiv¬ 
ing the thanks of the officer commanding Fort 
Anderson for saving his troops from capture by 
a superior force. In 1865-66 he commanded 
the Lancaster and Powhatan in the Pacific 
Ocean, and in 1871 was appointed to the com¬ 
mand of the frigate Congress, in which service 
he died Aug. 18, 1872. Captain Davenport was 
a thorough seaman, and when he died had seen 
twenty-two years of actual service at sea. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Davenport (John), B. D., an eminent Puritan divine 
and colonist, was born at Coventry, England, in 1597, was 
educated at Oxford, and entered the Anglican priesthood. 
In consequence of his Puritanical principles and practice 
he was obliged to leave the Established Church in 1635. In 
1637 he came to Boston, Massachusetts Bay, and in 1638 
became one of the founders of the New Haven colony. In 
1639 he became one of the “ seven pillars ” of the govern¬ 
ment. He protected Goffe and WhalJey, the regicides, and 
in 1668 became minister of the First church, Boston, where 
he died Mar. 15, 1670. 

David, a town of Colombia, in Veragua, is on the Isth¬ 
mus of Panama and near the Pacific Ocean. It has a trade 
in coffee, hides, rice, etc. 

Da'vid [Heb. *111, “ beloved ;” Gr. Aa/3i'S or Aam'8 ; Arab. 
JJCiood ], one of the most remarkable characters in history, 
a son of Jesse, was born at Bethlehem in Judam about 
1080 B. C. In his youth he followed the occupation of a 
shepherd, and he appears to have acquired great skill as a 
musician. "When about twenty-two years of age he was 
received into the household of Saul, king of Israel, who, 
we are told, was troubled with an “evil spirit.” David, 
by playing upon the harp, soothed and “refreshed” Saul, 
and “the evil spirit departed from him.” Not long after¬ 
wards, David slew in single combat a Philistine giant named 
Goliath, and, according to the promise of the king, received 
Michal, Saul’s daughter, in marriage. But Saul was offended 
by the praises which David received for his prowess, and 
not only regarded his son-in-law with bitter jealousy, but 
made repeated attempts upon his life. David was obliged 
to fly for safety to Achish, king of Gath. In 1055 B. C., 
Saul was slain in a battle with the Philistines, after which 
David was made king of the tribe of Judah, reigning at 
Hebron for seven years, while Ishbosheth, Saul’s son, was 
in power on the E. side of the Jordan, and for two years 
was obeyed by all the tribes except Judah. After the 
murder of Ishbosheth, in 1048 B. C., David became king 
of the whole nation. He was victorious in all his wars, 
and under his sway the kingdom of Israel acquired great 
prosperity and power. One of his sorest trials was the 
rebellion and death of his favorite son, Absalom. David 
died in 1015, and Solomon, his son, succeeded to the throne. 
In David all the feelings and passions appear to have been 
singularly intense and powerful, and by them he was again 
and again betrayed into great faults, and even crimes. Yet 
his character, on the whole, exhibits a rare magnanimity, 
as shown in his sparing Saul, his bitterest enemy, when 
that king was completely in his power. (See 1 Sam xxiv.) 
It should be borne in mind that David was not subjected to 
the powerful restraints which public opinion exercises in 
some directions on modern European monarchs. His fear 
of God and his generous feelings were the only checks to 






















































DAVID r.—DAVIDSON. 


his mighty passions and that license which long-continued 
success and a power all but unlimited in his own dominions 
tended to foster. If we consider these things, we shall 
probably find few sovereigns, even in the most civilized 
times, possessing despotic power, whose characters will 
bear a favorable comparison with that of David. As a 
writer of religious poetry, and especially of that kind which 
comes home to the feelings of all sorely-tried hearts, David 
has no equal among the poets of the human race. He wrote 
73 of the 150 lyrics which compose the book of Psalms. 
Of the many commentaries on the Psalter, some of the 
ablest and most important are those of Calvin (1578-1010), 
Hengstenberg (1849-52), Hupfeld (1855), Delitzsch (1860- 
67), and Perrowne (1864-68 ; 2d ed. 1870). Of recent Eng¬ 
lish versions, the most noteworthy are those of Noyes 
(1831; 2d ed. 1846) and Conant (1871). (See Rev. Samuel 
Chandler’s “ Critical History of the Life of David,” 2 
vols. 8vo, 1766, reprinted in one volume in 1853.) 

Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

David I., king of Scotland, the sixth son of Malcolm 
III., was born about 1080. He married, in 1110, Maud, a 
great-niece of William the Conqueror. He succeeded his 
brother, Alexander I., in 1124, and swore to maintain the 
right ot his niece Matilda to the throue of England in case 
her father, Henry I., left no male issue. Henry died in 1135, 
and David afterwards waged war against Stephen, who dis¬ 
puted her claim to the throne. David invaded England, 
and was defeated at Northallerton in 1138. He promoted 
manufactures, education, and civilization. He died in 
1153, and left the throne to his grandson, Malcolm IV. 

David II., or David Druce, king of Scotland, born 
in 1323, was a son of Robert Bruce, whom he succeeded in 
1329. His kingdom was invaded in 1332 by Edward Ba- 
liol, who defeated the army of David. The latter was ex¬ 
pelled, and retired to France, but his subjects continued to 
fight for him, and he recovered the throne in 1342. Hav¬ 
ing invaded England in 1346, he was defeated, captured, 
and detained until 1357. He died in 1370. 

David (Felicien-Cesar), a French musician and com¬ 
poser, born at Cadenet (Vaucluse) Mar. 8, 1810. He be¬ 
came about 1832 a disciple of Saint-Simon, and visited the 
Levant with eleven fellow-disciples, from which he returned 
to Paris in 1835. He published in that year “ Oriental 
Melodies” for the piano, which were not successful. In 
1844 he produced “ The Desert,” an odesymphonie, which 
had a great success. Among his other works are “ Chris¬ 
topher Columbus,” an odesymphonie (1847), “La Perle du 
Bresil,” an opera (1851), and “Herculaneum” (1859). 

David (Jacques Louis), a celebrated French historical 
painter, founder of the French classical school of painting, 
was born in Paris Aug. 31, 1748. He was a pupil of Vien, 
with whom he visited Rome in 1775. Having passed sev¬ 
eral years in Rome and painted the “Triumph of Paulus 
Ahhnilius” and other works, he returned to Paris in 1780. 
He was admitted into the Royal Academy in 1783, revisited 
Rome in 1784, and painted a picture of the “ Horatii,” 
which was greatly admired. He produced the “ Death of 
Socrates” in 1787, and “Brutus Condemning his Sons” in 
1789. In the Revolution he was a violent Jacobin. Hav¬ 
ing been elected to the Convention in 1792, he voted for 
the death of the king, and was an accomplice or partisan 
of Robespierre. He was the manager of the national fes¬ 
tivals and spectacles during the republic. He painted at this 
time several pictures relating to the events of the Terror—■ 
“The Death of Marat,” “The Murder of Pelletier,” “The 
Jeu des Paumes.” He was appointed first painter to Na¬ 
poleon about 1804, and was banished as a regicide in 1815. 
He afterwards resided at Brussels, where he died Dec. 29, 
1825. His body was refused burial irf France. “The Rape 
of the Sabines” is regarded as his masterpiece. (SeeMiEL, 
“Notice sur J. L. David,” 1834; Delecluze, “David et 
son Ecole,” 1855.) Revised by Clarence Cook. 

David (Jerome Frederic Paul), Baron, a French 
politician, born in 1823, a grandson of Jacques Louis David, 
has since 1859 been a member of the Corps L6gislatif and 
a leader of the ultra-Bonapartist party ; in 1867, and again 
in 1869, vice-president of the Corps Legislatif. After the 
resignation of the Ollivier ministry (Aug., 1870), he was 
minister of public works in the short-lived cabinet of Count 
Patikao. He wrote “ Reflexions et discours sur la propriety 
chez les Arabs” (1862). 

David (Pierre Jean), a French sculptor known as 
David d’Angers, born at Angers Mar. 12, 1789. He 
gained at Paris the first prize (with a pension) in 1811, and 
then went to Rome to pursue his studies. He formed a 
friendship with Canova, returned to Franco in 1816, and 
produced a statue of the great prince of Conde, by which 
he acquired a high reputation. In 1826 he became a mem¬ 
ber of the institute. Soon after the revolution of 1830 he 


1269 


was employed by the government to adorn the Pantheon 
with sculptures. Among his works are busts of Washing¬ 
ton, La Fayette, Arago, Goethe, and Lamartine, and statues 
of Cuvier, Racine, and Jefferson. He was a republican 
member of the National Assembly in 1848. Died Jan. 5, 
1856. Revised by Clarence Cook. 

Da'vidists, Da'vid-Geor'gians, or Jo'rists, a 
sect founded by David George or Joris, otherwise called 
John of Bruges, an Anabaptist leader, who was born at 
Delft in Holland in 1501 or 1502, and died at Bale in 1556. 
He pretended to be the Messiah, denied the resurrection, 
and held various heretical opinions. The sect existed in 
Holland nearly a century after his death. 

Davids Island [named from a former owner], an isl¬ 
and of 100 acres in Long Island Sound, within the town¬ 
ship limits of New Rochelle, Westchester co., N. Y. It was 
purchased in 1867 by the U. S. government for $38,500, to 
be used for military purposes. 

Da'vidson, a county in the S. E. of Dakota Territory. 
Area, 432 square miles. It is traversed by the Dakota 
River or Riviere-au-Jacques. This county has been form¬ 
ed since the census of 1870. There are fine intervale or 
bottom lands along the streams. 

Da'vidson, a county in W. Central North Carolina. 
Area, 620 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the 
Yadkin River. The surface is hilly : the soil is mostly fer¬ 
tile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, and hay are.raised. It 
is traversed by the North Carolina R. R. Gold, iron, cop¬ 
per, silver, and lead have been found here. Capital, Lex¬ 
ington. Pop. 17,414. 

Davidson, a county of Middle Tennessee. Area, 500 
square miles. It is intersected by the Cumberland River, 
navigable for steamboats. The surface is undulating; the 
soil is fertile. Grain, tobacco, cotton, wool, hay, etc. are 
produced, and the manufactures are varied, and embraco 
machinery, carriages, saddlery, harnesses, metallic wares, 
etc. Good limestone is abundant here. The Nashville and 
Chattanooga R. R. connects in this county with the Louis¬ 
ville and Nashville and other railroads. Capital, Nash¬ 
ville. Pop. 62,897. 

Davidson, a post-township of Sullivan co., Pa. P. 634. 

Davidson (James Wood) was born in 1829 in Newber¬ 
ry district, S. C., and graduated with honors at the South 
Carolina College in 1852 ; was professor of Greek in Mount 
Zion College, Winnsboro’, S. C., 1854-59, and has since 
been an instructor, except while serving in Virginia as au 
officer of Lee’s army. He has published a “ School His¬ 
tory of South Carolina” and “The Living Writers of the 
South,” besides other valuable works. 

Davidson (Lucretia Marta), an American poetess, 
born at Plattsburg, N. Y., Sept. 27, 1808. She wrote verses 
in early childhood, and is said to have composed 278 poems. 
Died Aug. 27, 1825. A collection of her poems was pub¬ 
lished, with a memoir, by S. F. B. Morse in 1829. 

Davidson (Margaret Miller), a poetess, a sister of 
the preceding, was born Mar. 26, 1823. She was distin¬ 
guished for her precocity and sensibility. Died Nov. 25, 
1838. Her poems were praised by Washington Irving, who 
wrote a memoir of her life. 

Davidson (Robert), D. D., was born at Carlisle, Pa., 
in 1808. His father was president of Dickinson College. 
The younger Davidson studied theology at Princeton, be¬ 
came president of Transylvania University, and was for 
some time superintendent of public instruction in Kentucky. 
Among his numerous writings are “ History of the Presby¬ 
terian Church in Kentucky,” “ The Christ of God,” and 
“ Elijah, a Sacred Drama.” 

Davidson (Tiiomas), F. R. S., F. G. S., an English 
paleontologist, born May 17, 1817, at Edinburgh. He has 
written “British Fossil Brachiopoda” and “ Illustrations 
and History of Silurian Life.” 

Davidson (Gen. William) was born in Lancaster co., 
Pa., in 1746. The family was of Irish extraction. In 1750 
they removed to Rowan co., N. C. William, the youngest 
son, was educated at Queen’s Museum, afterwards styled 
Liberty Hall, in Charlotte, the county-seat of Mecklenburg, 
adjoining Rowan. Old Mecklenburg had blazed out in the 
sacred cause of freedom long before the sparks were dis¬ 
cerned in some other parts of the land. Even her patri¬ 
otic women formed a solemn league against laggards, the 
universal sentiment being, “None but the brave deserve 
the fair.” He married a daughter of Mr. John Brevard 
of Centre, who had seven sons in the American army. 
Among these was Ephraim Brevard, the distinguished 
author of the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence. 
Our young hero was made major in one of the first regi¬ 
ments organized in North Carolina. He fought at Mon¬ 
mouth, Brandywine, and Germantown, and is said to have 



















1270 


DAVIDSON COLLEGE—DAVIES. 


commended himself to the approval of the great and good 
commander-in-chief himself. For his efficiency and fidelity 
he was promoted to be lieutenant-colonel, with the command 
of a regiment. With three years of such campaigning he 
brought back with him to his loved Carolina much military 
prestige. In a skirmish at Calson’s Mill a ball passed 
through his body. Upon his recovery he was made briga¬ 
dier-general. llis energy and popularity were made avail¬ 
able in his rallying and organizing the militia throughout 
this region. Days of darkness were now upon us. Lord 
Cornwallis had broken up camp at Winnsboro’, and had 
resolved to crush Morgan and Greene in succession. He 
had put himself upon the war-path. The haughty and 
bloodthirsty Tarletou was detached, and sent forward to 
take Morgan. He found him at Cowpens, and was sig¬ 
nally defeated. Tarleton returned to his master a sadder 
and a wiser man. There was now an interesting trial of 
speed for the Catawba. Morgan had a little the start, but 
his 500 British prisoners were a great clog to him. The 
Americans’ rear crossed at Sherrill’s Ford only two hours 
before the British van came in sight. Moi'gan’s main body 
moved on towards Salisbury. The prisoners were for¬ 
warded to Virginia. It was now sunset, and Cornwallis 
rested his jaded army that night on the W. bank. He slept 
secure of his victim, but Providence smiled on the patriot 
army. That night it rained heavily, and the next day 
and the next the river was booming. Cornwallis followed 
the stream in quest of a better crossing. Greene, full of 
good cheer and of mischief-making, had taken two or three 
trusty troopers and dashed across the country to Beattie’s 
Ford. There Morgan, Davidson, and Col. Washington 
met him by previous concert. Going out of camp a little 
distance, the four held a brief conference, and then each 
betook himself to his own post. Gen. Davidson, with 250 
militia and Capt. Graham’s cavalry, was soon en route for 
Cowan’s Ford, 4 miles below. This young cavalier was 
afterwards Gen. Graham, worthy father of a worthy son, 
ex-Gov. William A. Graham. As they rode along together, 
Gen. Davidsou remarked to Graham that though Greene 
saw the Catawba for the first time that day, he seemed to 
be more familiar with it than those who had been reared 
on its banks. The little band reached their destination 
about dusk. They could scarcely be expected to do more 
than mask the retreat of our little army, or at best hold 
Cornwallis in temporary check. It was of course uncertain 
where his lordship would choose to cross. He made a feint 
of so doing at Beattie’s Ford, whilst the main body of his 
army had, after midnight, been marched down to Cowan’s. 
This being a more private and dangerous crossing, he had 
hoped it might escape the attention of his adversary. The 
camp-fires on shore convinced him of his miscalculation. 
Though the swollen waters had only partially subsided, 
his destiny seemed to urge him onward. In the bold 
Britons plunged, and on they pressed. Owing to the dense 
fog which hung over the river, Lieut. Thomas Davidson’s 
picket stationed at the “ wagon ford ” did not discover 
them at once, but soon opened fire on them. The cavalry 
came to their aid. The general had encamped opposite 
the island, a quarter of a mile below, where the “horse 
ford” comes out. This ford begins where the other does, 
but then takes down stream and across the island, very 
much as at present. The wagon ford is very jagged and 
rough, bearing obliquely up. It is said that the reason 
they did not take the horse ford was that their guide 
abandoned them in mid-stream, and that, they, not know¬ 
ing the ford, bore right across. By the time the general 
reached the spot with the main force and took position, 
some of the British sections had gained the shore and 
commenced firing. It is not surprising that a few well- 
directed volleys from the British made his lordship master 
of the situation. The casualties on their side were thirty- 
one killed, among whom was a brave officer of the Guards, 
Col. Hall, and thirty-five wounded. We lost four killed, 
all privates, except the gallant Gen. Davidson, who, pierced 
through the breast with a rifle-ball, fell from his horse and 
expired without a struggle. He thus sealed with his life¬ 
blood his devotion to the cause so dear to his heart. By 
referring to the date, Feb. 1, 1781, we see that he was 
taken away in the full flush of manhood and of his useful¬ 
ness. He sleeps in the quiet cemetery of Hopewell church. 
His sword hangs in Chambers Hall at Davidson College. 
This flourishing institution received from him its name, 
and we fondly trust it will help to perpetuate his memory 
as effectually as the sculptured marble voted, but never 
erected over him, by a not the less grateful and apprecia¬ 
tive Congress. W. G. Richardson. 

Davidson College, Mecklenburg co., N. C., was 
founded in 1837. The name was given in honor of Gen. 
William Davidson, a Revolutionary officer who fell at 
Cowan’s Ford on the Catawba River, not far from where 
the college is situated. It had its origin in an hereditary 


thirst for sound learning and pure religion Avhich charac¬ 
terized the people of Western North Carolina from a very 
early period. As early as 1770 they obtained a charter 
from the colonial legislature to incorporate “ Queen’s Mu¬ 
seum ” at Charlotte in Mecklenburg county, which was the 
first college ever attempted in the State. This charter was 
repealed by royal proclamation, but the institution was not 
abandoned. In 1777 it was rechartered, as “Liberty 
Hall,” and continued its operations until 1780, when it was 
closed by the progress of the Revolution. Again, in 1820, 
earnest efforts were made in Western North Carolina to es¬ 
tablish an institution of high grade, to be called “Western 
College.” This also failed. The next movement began in 
1835 in Concord Presbytery. This led to the establish¬ 
ment of Davidson College in 1837, for which a charter was 
obtained in 1838. Thus it appears that Queen’s Museum, 
Liberty Hall, Western College, and finally Davidson Col¬ 
lege, have been so many successive efforts to embody in a 
practical, working form the intellectual and religious life 
of Western North Carolina. In all these efforts the Scotch- 
Irish Presbyterian element was predominant; and David¬ 
son College, while its charter distinctly announces that its 
object is “to educate*youth of all classes, without any re¬ 
gard to the distinction of religious denominations,” is 
under the government and control of Presbyterians ex¬ 
clusively. All the presbyteries of North Carolina and 
Bethel Presbytery in South Carolina are now represented 
in its board of trustees. 

The institution at the beginning received a valuable 
landed estate from William Lee Davidson, Esq., the son 
of Gen. Davidson. Upon this land the college buildings 
were erected. A small endowment was obtained by con¬ 
tributions from friends and patrons and by the sale of 
scholarships, but the college did not attain to its present 
efficient equipment until after the munificent bequest of 
$258,000 by Mr. Maxwell Chambers of Salisbury, N. C. It 
lost much of its endowment by the late war; but its build¬ 
ings, libraries, cabinets, apparatus, etc. are ample. It has 
seven professors and two organized courses of instruction 
—the one literary, and the other scientific. It has gradu¬ 
ated 352 students, and of those who have gone out from its 
i halls, about 100 have entered the gospel ministry. 

The Rev. R. H. Morrison, D. I)., to whose enlightened 
Christian zeal and well-directed energy Davidson College 
owes its existence and much of its prosperity, was its first 
president. He was succeeded by the Rev. Samuel William¬ 
son, D. D., in 1841; the Rev. Drury Lacy, D. D., became pres¬ 
ident in 1854, the Rev. J. L. Kirkpatrick, D. D., in 1860, 
and the Rev. G. Wilson McPhail, D. D., LL.D., in 1866. 
In 1871, when the presidency again became vacant by the 
death of Dr. McPhail, the trustees determined to substitute 
the office of chairman for the presidency of the college, and 
Prof. J. R. Blake was elected to the new office. 

J. R. Blake. 

Davidson’s, a township of Iredell co., N. C. Pop. 
1540. 

Da' vie, a county in W. Central North Carolina. Area, 
300 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Yadkin 
River. The surface is uneven. Tobacco, grain, and wool 
are staple products. Iron ores and limestone are found. 
Capital, Mocksville. Pop. 9620. 

Da' vie (William Richardson), General, was born in 
England June 20, 1756, and emigrated to America in early 
youth. He graduated at Princeton in 1776, served as col¬ 
onel in the Revolutionary war, and wms a delegate from 
North Carolina to the convention which formed the Federal 
Constitution in 1787. In 1799 he was chosen governor of 
North Carolina. Died Nov. 8, 1820. 

Da'vies (Charles), LL.D., an American officer and 
mathematician, born Jan. 22, 1798, in Washington, Conn., 
graduated at West Point in 1815. After a year in garrison 
at New England posts, he resigned Dec. 1, 1816, and was 
attached to the Military Academy as assistant professor 
till May 1, 1823, when he was appointed professor of 
mathematics, holding this position till May 31, 1837, when 
he again resigned for a like position in Trinity College, 
Hartford, Conn. He was appointed paymaster U. S. A. 
Nov. 17, 1841, holding office till Sept. 30, 1845, and was 
subsequently professor of mathematics and philosophy in 
the University of New York 1848-49, and of higher mathe¬ 
matics in Columbia College, New York City, 1857-65. 
After leaving West Point in 1837 he devoted most of his 
time and talents to the preparation of a complete series of 
mathematical text-books, adopted largely in public schools. 
He is a member of several scientific and educational asso¬ 
ciations. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Davies (Henry E., Jr.), an American lawyer and 
general, born in New York July 2, 1836, educated at Har¬ 
vard, Williams, and Columbia Colleges, studied law, and 
was admitted to the bar in 1857. In April, 1861, he en- 



















DAVIES—DAVIS. 1271 


tered the army as captain Fifth New York Volunteers— 
was transferred July, 1861, as major to the Second New 
York Cavalry, of which regiment he subsequently became 
colonel, remaining in command till Sept., 1863, when ho 
was commissioned a brigadier-general of volunteers, and 
assigned to a command in the cavalry corps of the Army 
of the Potomac, serving with distinction till the close of 
the war (brevet major-general of volunteers Oct., 1864). 
In June, 1865, he was made a major-general, and as¬ 
signed to the command of the middle district of Alabama, 
which he held till Jan. 1, 1866, when he resigned. He was 
public administrator of the city of New York from Jan., 
1866, to Jan., 1869, and assistant district attorney of the 
southern district of New York from July 20, 1870, to Dec. 
31, 1872. G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eng’r8. 

Davies (Sir John), an English poet and judge, born in 
Wiltshire in 1570, was educated at Oxford. lie was ap¬ 
pointed solicitor-general of Ireland in 1603, and published 
in 1612 an able work on the political state of Ireland. In 
1620 he was elected a member of the English Parliament. 
His chief poem is entitled “Nosce Teipsum” (1599). He 
became lord chief-justice in 1626, and died Dec. 7, in the 
same year. 

Davies (Samuel), D. D., a Presbyterian divine and 
eminent pulpit-orator of Welsh descent, was born near 
Summit Ridge, Newcastle co., Del., Nov. 3, 1723. He 
spent some years as a sort of missionary in Hanover co., 
Ya. He was one of the founders of the College of New 
Jersey, and succeeded Jonathan Edwards as president of it 
in 1759, and died Feb. 4, 1761. A collection of his sermons 
was published in London soon after his death. The last 
American edition, in three volumes (1849), which claims 
to be complete, contains an essay on the life and times of 
the author by Rev. Albert Barnes. President Davies takes 
rank among the greatest of pulpit orators. 

Davies (Thomas), famous as the author of the “Life 
of David Garrick” (1780), was born probably in 1712, 
studied at Edinburgh, and became an unsuccessful actor 
in London, where he was also a bookseller and publisher. 
He was a friend of Dr. Samuel Johnson, who was warmly 
attached to him. Attacked by Churchill in the “ Rosciad,” 
he was compelled by ridicule to leave the stage. Besides 
the work above mentioned, which brought him fame and 
profit, he published several other works, chiefly biograph¬ 
ical. Died in 1785. (See Boswell’s “Life of Johnson.”) 

Davies (Thomas A.), an American officer and mer¬ 
chant, born in 1809 in St. Lawrence co., N. Y., graduated 
at West Point in 1829. He served as lieutenant of infantry 
on garrison duty till he resigned Oct. 31, 1831; civil en¬ 
gineer on the Croton Aqueduct, New York, 1831-33 and 

1840- 41; and merchant in New York City 1833-39 and 

1841- 61. At the beginning of the civil war he resumed the 
military profession as colonel of Sixteenth New York vol¬ 
unteers, was appointed brigadier-general U. S. volunteers 
May 7, 1862, and served in Manassas campaign 1861, en¬ 
gaged at Bull Run; in Mississippi campaign 1862, en¬ 
gaged in the siege of Corinth ; in Northern Mississippi 
1862, engaged in the battle of Corinth, and command of 
various districts 1862-65. Brevet major-general U. S. 
volunteers July 11, 1865, for gallant and meritorious ser¬ 
vices, and mustered out of service Aug. 24, 1865. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Da'viess, a county in the S. W. of Indiana. Area, 
423 square miles. It is bounded on the S. and W. by the 
East Fork and West Fork of White River, which unite at 
the south-western extremity of the county. The soil is 
mostly fertile. Coal is found. Cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, 
and lumber are produced; carriages, wagons, etc. are 
manufactured. It is intersected by the Ohio and Missis¬ 
sippi R. R. Capital, Washington. Pop. 16,747. 

Daviess, a county in the N. W. of Kentucky. Area, 
550 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Ohio 
River, and on the S. and W. by Green River. The surface 
is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Coal is found here. To¬ 
bacco, cattle, grain, and lumber are produced. It is inter¬ 
sected by the Owensboro’ and Russellville R. R. Capital, 
Owensboro’. Pop. 20,714. 

Daviess, a county in the N. W. of Missouri. Area, 
576 square miles. It is intersected by Grand River. The 
surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, 
tobacco, and wool are staple products. It is traversed by 
a branch of the St. Louis Kansas City and Northern R. R., 
and by the South-western branch of the Chicago Rock 
Island and Pacific R. R. Capital, Gallatin. Pop. 14,410. 

Daviess (Joseph H.), an American lawyer and patriot, 
born in Bedford co., Va., Mar. 4, 1774, studied law and 
attained a high position in his profession, was U. S. at¬ 
torney for the district of Kentucky, and vigorously opposed 
Aaron Burr in 1806. lie was mortally wounded at the 


battle of Tippecanoe Nov. 7, and died Nov. 8, 1811. Seve¬ 
ral counties in the U. S. were named in his honor. 

Da'vila (Enrico Caterina), an Italian historian, born 
at Sacco, near Padua, Oct. 30, 1576. He was educated at 
Paris, and entered the service of Henry IV. of France, and 
about 1606 the service of the Venetian rejmblic, and com¬ 
manded with success in several actions. He published in 
1630 a “History of the Civil Wars of France from 1559 to 
1598 ” (“Historia della Guerre Civili,” etc.). Died in July, 
1631. 

Da'vis, a county in the S. S. E. of Iowa. Area, 480 
square miles. It is intersected by Fox River. The sur¬ 
face is undulating; ‘the soil is fertile and well watered. 
Cattle, grain, wool, hay, butter, and timber are staplo 
products. It is traversed by a branch of the St. Louis 
Kansas City and Northern, by the Burlington and South¬ 
western, and by the South-western branch of the Chicago 
Rock Island and Pacific R. Rs. Capital, Bloomfield. Pop. 
15,565. 

Davis, a county in N. E. Central Kansas. Area, 386 
square miles. It is intersected by the Kansas River, and 
also drained by the Republican River. ' The surface is un¬ 
dulating; the soil is fertile. Grain, hay, butter, etc. are 
staple products. It is traversed by the Kansas Pacific and 
the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. Rs. The greater part 
of the county is prairie. Capital, Junction City. P. 5226. 

Davis, a county in the N. E. of Texas. Area, 927 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Sulphur Fork 
of Red River. The soil is fertile, and heavily timbered. 
Cotton, wool, corn, rice, and fruit are raised. Iron ore 
abounds. Lumber, flour, pig iron, and copperas are manu¬ 
factured. Capital, Linden. Pop. 8875. This county was 
originally called Cass, but it was changed to Davis, and is 
so called in the U. S. census of 1870. In 1871 the name 
was again changed to Cass. 

Davis, a county in the N. of Utah, is bounded on the 
W. by the Great Salt Lake. It is intersected by the Utah 
Central R. R. Grain and wool are raised. Capital, Farm¬ 
ington. Pop. 4459. 

Davis, a township of Grant co., Ark. Pop. 578. 

Davis, a township of Van Buren co., Ark. Pop. 488. 

Davis, or Davisville, a post-village of Yolo co., Cal., 
at the junction of the Marysville branch with the Central 
Pacific R. R., 13 miles W. by S. of Sacramento. 

Davis, a post-village of Rock Run township, Stephen¬ 
son co., Ill., on the Western Union R. R., 13 miles N. W. 
of Freeport. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Davis, a township of Fountain co., Ind. Pop. 663. 

Davis, a township and village of Starke co., Ind. P. 244. 

Davis, a township of Davis co., Kan. Pop. 2748. 

Davis, a township of Caldwell co., Mo. Pop. 573. 

Davis, a township of Lafayette co., Mo. Pop. 1723. 

Davis, a township of Shenandoah co., Va. Pop. 2293. 

Davis (Andrew Jackson), a clairvoyant and prominent 
Spiritualist, was born Aug. 11, 1826, at Blooming Grove, 
Orange co., N. Y. His first work, “ The Principles of 
Nature, her Divine Revelations,” etc. (1845), professes to 
have been dictated by him under spiritual influence, at a 
time when he had received almost no education. He has 
since published a number of other works, of which the 
principal is “The Great Harmonia ” (5 vols., 1850-59). 
(Sec “ The Magic Staff, an Autobiography of A. J. Davis,” 
1857.) 

Davis (Benjamin F.), an American officer, born in Ala¬ 
bama in 1832, graduated at West Point in 1854, and served 
with distinction in the infantry and dragoons in New 
Mexico. In 1862 he became colonel of the Eighth New 
York Cavalry, and while leading a brigade to the charge 
was instantly killed, June 9, 1863, at the combat of 
Beverly Ford, Va. 

Davis (Charles A.), an able Methodist Episcopal 
preacher, born Oct. 7, 1802, was admitted to preach in the 
Baltimore Conference in 1824. He occupied several of the 
most important pulpits of his denomination. After the 
division of his Church into two bodies he joined the Meth¬ 
odist Episcopal Church South. Becoming a post-chaplain 
of the U. S. navy, he advocated the national cause during 
the civil war, and united again with the Methodist Epis¬ 
copal Church. He died at the Naval Hospital, Norfolk, 
Va., Feb. 20, 1867. 

Davis (Charles Henry), LL.D., XT. S. N., born Jan. 
16, 1807, in Boston, Mass., entered the navy as midshipman 
Aug. 12, 1823, became passed midshipman in 1829, lieuten¬ 
ant in 1834, commander in 1854, captain in 1861, commo¬ 
dore in 1862, and rear-admiral in 1S63. In 1859, Davis 
was appointed superintendent of the American “Nautical 












1272 


DAVIS 


Almanac.” In 1861 we find him a member of a board of 
officers assembled at Washington to inquire into and report 
upon the condition of the Southern coast, its harbors and 
inlets, with a view to offensive operations on the part of 
the government. This led to the organization of the ex¬ 
pedition against Port Royal, in which Davis bore a con¬ 
spicuous part as chief of staff. His services prior to and 
at the capture of Port Royal may be best gathered from 
Flag-Officer Dupont’s official report of Nov. 11, 1861, in 
which, referring to Charles H. Davis, he says: “ I have 
yet to speak of the chief of my staff and fleet-captain, 
Commander Davis. In the organization of our large fleet 
before sailing, and in the preparation and systematic ar¬ 
rangement of the details of our contemplated work—in 
short, in all the duties pertaining to the flag-officer—I re¬ 
ceived his most valuable assistance. He possesses the rare 
quality of being a man of science and a practical officer, 
keeping the love of science subordinate to the regular 
duties of his profession. During the action he watched 
over the movements of the fleet, kept the official minutes, 
and evinced that calmness in danger which, to my know¬ 
ledge for thirty jears, has been a conspicuous trait in 
his character.” On the 9th of May, 1862, Davis relieved 
Flag-Officer Foote of the command of the Western flo¬ 
tilla off Fort Pillow, and on the following day beat off 
a squadron of eight iron-clads, which had steamed up the 
Mississippi and attacked him. The vessels with Davis 
at the time were seven in number. The action was a 
spirited one, and lasted nearly an hour; three of the hos¬ 
tile gunboats were disabled, but, taking refuge under the 
guns of Fort Pillow, could not be captured. On the 5th of 
June Fort Pillow was abandoned by the Confederates, and 
on the 8th Davis fell in with their iron-clads and rams op¬ 
posite the city of Memphis. A running fight ensued, re¬ 
sulting in the capture of all the Confederate vessels but 
one, and the surrender of Memphis. For his services dur¬ 
ing the civil war Davis received the thanks of Congress 
and was made a rear-admiral. On his return from the 
Mississippi he was appointed chief of the bureau of navi¬ 
gation, and in 1865 superintendent of the Naval Observa¬ 
tory, in which capacity he served for two years, when he 
W'as detailed as commander-in-chief of our squadron on the 
coast of Brazil, where he remained until 1869. On his re¬ 
turn to the U. S. he was ordered to Washington on special 
duty, and in 1870 was appointed to the command of the 
U. S. navy-yard at Norfolk, Va., where he now is (1873). 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Davis (Daniel), an American lawyer, the father of 
Admiral C. H. Davis, was born at Barnstable, Mass., May 
8,1762, settled at Portland, Me. (then called Falmouth), in 
1782, and held many prominent offices in Massachusetts, of 
which Maine was then a part. In 1804 he removed to 
Boston, and in 1832 to Cambridge, Mass., where he died 
Oct. 27, 1835. He was the author of several legal works. 

Davis (David), LL.D., an American jurist, born in 
Cecil co., Md., Mar. 9, 1815, educated at Kenyon College, 
0., studied law with Judge Bishop in Lenox, Mass., and 
in the Law School at New Haven, Conn. In 1836 he 
settled in Bloomington, Ill., where he continues to reside; 
he was elected to the lower house of the Illinois legis¬ 
lature 1844-45, to the constitutional convention which 
framed a new constitution for the State 1847; elected 
judge of the eighth judicial circuit of Illinois in 1848, re¬ 
elected in 1855, and again in 1861. While serving this last 
term he was appointed by President Lincoln an associate 
justice of the Supreme Court of the U. S. Oct., 1862, which 
position he still holds. Ho was nominated by the Labor 
Reform party in 1872 as a candidate for the presidency. 

Davis (Edwin Hamilton), M. D., an American archae¬ 
ologist, born in Ross co., 0., Jan. 22, 1811, graduated at. 
Kenyon College in 1833. He became professor of materia 
medica and therapeutics in the New York Medical College 
in 1850. He wrote “Monuments of the Mississippi Valley” 
(in vol. i. of the “ Smithsonian Contributions”) and other 
works. 

Davis (Emerson), D. D., a Congregational divine and 
author, born at Ware, Mass., July 15, 1798, and gradu¬ 
ated at Williams College in 1821, was for some time tutor 
in that college and preceptor in the academy at Westfield, 
Mass. He became in 1836 pastor of the First Congrega¬ 
tional church in the latter town, where he remained for life, 
greatly honored and beloved, and exerting a wide and very 
useful influence, especially in educational affairs. In 1847 
he received the degree of D. D. from Harvard College. He 
was vice-president of Williams College from 1861 to 1868. 
He published “ The Teacher Taught ” (1839), “History of 
Westfield” (1826), “The Half Century” (1852), and vari¬ 
ous minor essays, sermons, etc., besides five manuscript 
volumes of biographical writings, as yet unpublished. Died 
at Westfield, Mass., June 8, 1866. 


Davis (Garret), born in Mount Sterling, Ky., Sept. 10, 
1801, was admitted to the bar in 1823, became a Whig 
member of Congress (1839-47), and a Democratic U. S. 
Senator from Kentucky (1S61-72). He was very active in 
preventing the secession of his native State in 1861. Died 
in Sept., 1872. 

Davis (George Leonard), U. S. N., born Aug. 10,1833, 
in Massachusetts, entered the navy as a paymaster April 
16, 1861, and commanded the powder division of the steam- 
sloop Pensacola at the passage of Forts St. Philip and 
Jackson and capture of New Orleans in 1862. His services 
on that occasion are thus honorably mentioned in the offi¬ 
cial report of the executive officer of the Pensacola to Capt. 
Henry W. Morris of April 30, 1862 : “ The powder division 
was perfectly served under the command of Paymaster 
George L. Davis. Its good order and efficiency are worthy 
of special notice.” Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Davis (George T.), U. S. N., born May 20, 1844, in 
Massachusetts, graduated at the Naval Academy as ensign 
in 1863, became a master in 1866, a lieutenant in 1867, and 
a lieutenant-commander in 1868. He was attached to the 
iron-clad steamer New Ironsides in 1863-64, during her 
various engagements with the forts and batteries in Charles¬ 
ton harbor, and was in both attacks on Fort Fisher in 1865. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Davis (George T.) was born in Sandwich, Mass., Jan. 
12, 1810, graduated at Harvard College in 1829, was ad¬ 
mitted to the bar in 1832, was a State senator in Massa¬ 
chusetts several terms, and a representative in Congress 
(1851-53). 

Davis (Henry), D. D., an American Presbyterian 
divine, was born at East Hampton, N. Y., Sept. 15, 1771, 
and graduated at Yale in 1796. He was for seven years a 
tutor in Williams and Yale Colleges; professor of Greek at 
Union College, Schenectady, N. Y., 1806-1)9; president of 
J Middlcbury College, Vt., 1809-17; president of Hamilton 
| College, Clinton, N. Y., 1817-33. He was a preacher of 
I very eminent ability, one of the founders of Auburn Theo- 
I logical Seminary, and an active friend of foreign missions. 
Died at Clinton, N. Y., Mar. 8, 1852. 

Davis (Henry Winter), LL.D., an American statesman, 
born at Annapolis, Md., Aug. 16, 1817. He was elected a 
member of Congress by the voters of Baltimore in 1854 and 
1856. He was an eloquent speaker, and acted with the 
“American” party. In 1858 he was re-elected. Soon 
after the civil war began he beeame a radical Republican. 
He was chairman of the committee of foreign affairs in the 
Thirty-eighth Congress (1863-65). Died Dec. 30, 1865. 

Davis (Isaac), LL.D., born in Northboro’, Worcester 
co., Mass., June 2, 1799, and graduated at Brown Uni¬ 
versity (of which he is now one of the fellows) in 1822. He 
had an extensive and lucrative legal practice in Worcester, 
Mass., where he still resides. He was president of the 
Massachusetts Baptist State Convention 1833-40, president 
of board of trustees of Worcester Academy 1833-73, Demo¬ 
cratic candidate for governor of Massachusetts in 1845, 1846, 
and 1861, mayor of Worcester in 1856, 1858, 1861, member 
of the State senate in 1843-54, member of governor’s coun¬ 
cil 1851, member of the house of representatives (State) 
and chairman of committee on judiciary in 1852, member 
of the Massachusetts constitutional convention in 1853, and 
member of the Massachusetts board of education in 1S52- 
60. Mr. Davis has been a liberal and judicious patron of 
education, and is one of the most respected and influential 
citizens of Massachusetts. His “ Addresses, Speeches, and 
Historical Discourses” have been published. 

Davis (Rev. James), an English dissenter, born in Kent 
June 1, 1812, graduated at Cheshunt College, became a 
preacher of London, and has been for many years secretary 
of the British branch of the Evangelical Alliance. He was 
a delegate of the Alliance at its meeting in New York in 
1873. 

Davis (Jefferson), LL.D., an officer and statesman, 
born June 3, 1808, in Christian co., Ky., graduated at West 
Point 1828, served as lieutenant of infantry at Western 
posts 1828-33, of First Dragoons as adjutant 1833-34, and 
on frontier service 1834. After resigning June 30, 1835, he 
became a cotton planter in Warren co., Miss., 1835-46, presi¬ 
dential elector from Mississippi 1844, member U. S. House 
of Representatives 1845-46, colonel First Mississippi Rifle 
Volunteers in the war with Mexico 1846-47, engaged at 
Monterey and Buena Vista (severely wounded), member of 
the U. S. Senate 1847-51, and chairman of the committeo 
on military affairs 1849-51, secretary of war in President 
Pierce’s cabinet 1853-57, member of the U. S. Senate and 
chairman committee on military affairs 1857-61, President 
of the Southern Confederacy Feb. 4, till captured May 10, 
1865, at Irwinville, Ga., prisoner of war 1865-67 at Fort 




















DAVIS—DAVIS’S STRAIT. 


1273 


Monroe, Va., and now president of Carolina Life Insurance 
Company. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Davis (Jefferson C.), an American general, born in 
Clarke co., Ind., Mar. 2, 1828. He was one of the garrison 
of Fort Sumter when it was bombarded by the insurgents 
in April, 1861. He commanded a division at the battle of 
Stone River, which ended Jan. 2, 1863, and a corps of the 
army of Gen. Sherman in the march from Atlanta to the 
sea, in Nov. and Dec., 1864. 

Davis (John), a prominent minister of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church, was born in Northumberland co., Va., 
Oct. 30, 1787, and became an itinerant preacher in 1810. 
For over forty years he was one of the leaders of his Church, 
an admirable presiding elder, and a very powerful and in¬ 
fluential preacher. He died in Hillsborough, Va., Aug. 

13, 1853. 

Davis (John), LL.D., born in Plymouth, Mass., Jan. 
25, 1761, graduated at Harvard in 1781, became a lawyer 
of Plymouth in 1786. After holding other important 
oflices, he became in 1795 comptroller of the U. S. treasury, 
in 1796 Massachusetts district attorney, and in 1801 U. S. 
district judge for Massachusetts. He was an eminent anti¬ 
quary and a learned scientist. Died at Boston, Mass., Jan. 

14, 1847. He was a prominent member of many learned 
societies, and published several addresses and papers, 
chiefly upon scientific and historical subjects. 

Davis (John), LL.D., an American Senator, was born 
in Northborough, Mass., Jan. 13, 1787, and graduated at 
Yale in 1812. He was elected a member of Congress in 
1824, and governor of Massachusetts 1833-35 and 1840-41. 
In 1835 he was chosen a Senator of the U. S. for six 
years by the Whigs, and again elected in 1845. He advo¬ 
cated a protective tariff. He was often called “ Honest 
John Davis.” Died April 19, 1854. 

'1 Davis (John A. G.), an able jurist of Albemarle co., Va., 
was born in 1801 in Middlesex co., Va., and graduated at 
William and Mary College, where he was a law professor 
1830-40 ; he was also a practising lawyer, and for some 
time a journalist at Charlottesville. He wrote a number of 
valuable legal works. Died Nov. 14,1840, from the effects 
of a shot fired at him by a student, y 

Davis (John Chandler Bancroft), an American law¬ 
yer, born at Worcester, Mass., Dec. 29, 1822, educated at 
Harvard College, studied law and followed the practice of 
his profession. In 1849 he was appointed secretary of lega¬ 
tion at London, but returned to the U. S. in 1852, and re¬ 
sumed his profession. He was assistant secretary of state 
1869-71, agent of the U. S. at Geneva during the meeting 
of the tribunal of arbitration for the settlement of all 
points of difference between the U. S. and Great Britain 
1871-72, and since 1873 has been assistant secretary of 
state, j/' 

Davis (Sir John Francis), Bart., K. C. B., an English 
officer and Orientalist, was born in London in 1795. He 
first went to China in 1816. He was chief superintendent 
at Canton, and in 1841-48 governor of Hong Kong. Among 
his works is “The Chinese, a General Description of China 
and its Inhabitants” (2 vols., 1836), which is highly es¬ 
teemed. He has written several works upon Chinese liter¬ 
ature, with which his acquaintance is remarkable. 

Davis (John Lee), U. S. N., born Sept. 3, 1825, at Car¬ 
lisle, Sullivan co., Ind., entered the navy as a midshipman 
Jan. 9, 1841, became a passed midshipman in 1847, a lieu¬ 
tenant in 1-855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a com¬ 
mander in 1866, and a captain in 1873. In Nov., 1849, 
Davis, with one of the boats of the Preble, carrying two 
officers and twelve men, boarded and captured a piratical 
Chinese junk off Macao, killing three of her crew and 
taking the rest prisoners. He was the executive officer of 
the Waterwitch in her engagement (Oct. 12,1861) with the 
Confederate ram Manassas, and afterwards with a squad¬ 
ron off Pilot Town, at the mouth of the Mississippi. He 
commanded the gun-boat Wissahickon in the fights with 
Fort McAllister of Nov. 19, 1862, and of Jan. 27, Feb. 1, 
and Feb. 28, 1863. On Mar. 9, 1863, off Charleston he 
sunk the blockade-runner Georgiana, and on June 5,1863, 
chased the Isaac Smith ashore off Fort Moultrie, where she 
was destroyed. In command of the iron-clad Montauk he 
participated in all the battles of the summer and fall of 
1863 in Charleston harbor with Forts Sumter, Gregg, Moul¬ 
trie, and Wagner and Batteries Bee and Cumming’s Point. 
In command of the Sassacus he took part in the Fort Fish¬ 
er fights, and was recommended for promotion by Admiral 
Porter. Since the war he has been constantly employed, 
either afloat or ashore, and was one of the members of the 
board of 1866-67 appointed to examine volunteer officers 
for admission into the navy. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Davis (John W.), M. D., a politician, was born in 1799 


in Lancaster, Pa., completed his medical studies at Balti¬ 
more, and in 1823 became a resident of Indiana, where he 
was soon chosen to fill responsible public offices. He was 
elected a surrogate, was twice Speaker of the Indiana 
house of representatives, a commissioner to treat with the 
Indians, was a Democratic member of Congress, elected in 
1835, in 1839, and in 1843, when ho was chosen Speaker 
of the House of Representatives at Washington. In 1848 
he became U. S. commissioner to China, was governor of 
Oregon Territory (1853-54), and in 1852 was president of 
the convention at Baltimore which nominated Franklin 
Pierce for President. Died at Carlisle, Ind., Aug. 22, 1859. 

Davis (Matthew L.), an American writer, born in New 
York in 1766, was an intimate friend of Aaron Burr. His 
chief work is “ Memoirs of the Life of Aaron Burr” (2 vols., 
1836-37). Died June 21, 1850. 

Davis (Nathan Smith), M. D., was born at Greene, 
Chenango co., N. Y., Jan. 9, 1817, and received his medi¬ 
cal education at Geneva, N. Y. He was in 1848 editor of 
the “ Annalist” in New York City. Since 1849 he has been 
a resident of Chicago. He was editor of the “ Chicago 
Medical Journal ” (1849-59), and in 1860 became editor of 
the “ Chicago Medical Examiner.” He has published a 
volume on “Agriculture,” a “History of Medical Educa¬ 
tion,” “Clinical Lectures” (1873), and other works. He is 
professor of the principles and practice of medicine in 
Chicago Medical College. 

Davis (Nathaniel), of Limestone, Ala., served in the 
house and senate of that State from 1S40 to 1852. He was 
uneducated, but not without considerable natural gifts. He 
died in 1853. 

Davis (Nicholas), a Virginian who settled in Lime¬ 
stone, Ala., was a representative in the first legislature 
held in Alabama, and served subsequently in the senate 
from 1820 to 1828. 

Davis (Noaii), a Baptist divine, born near Salisbury, 
Mass., July 28, 1802, entered the ministry in Norfolk, Va. 
He was one of the founders of the Baptist General Tract 
Society (established in 1824, afterwards the American Bap¬ 
tist Publication Society), of which he became the man¬ 
ager. He removed to Philadelphia, where he fulfilled his 
duties in the Tract Society with great energy and success. 
Died July 30, 1830. 

Davis (Noah), an American jurist, born at Haverhill, 
N. II., Sept. 10, 1818, attended the district school at 
Albion, N. Y., whither his parents had removed in 1825, 
then the seminary at Lima, and was admitted to the bar 
in 1841. In 1844 he entered into partnership with Sanford 
E. Church, afterwards judge of the court of appeals, with 
whom he practised law in Albion for about fourteen years. 
He was appointed a justice of the supreme court of New 
York upon the resignation of Hon. James Mullet, in which 
dignity he continued through the two terms succeeding, 
until in 1864 he resigned in order to take a seat in Con¬ 
gress. He commenced the practice of law in New York 
City in 1869, and the same year again took a seat in Con¬ 
gress, resigning in 1870 in order to assume the duties of 
U. S. attorney for the southern district of New York, and 
was elected judge of the supreme court of the same district 
in 1873. Soon after taking his seat on the bench there 
devolved upon him the conduct of the important trials of 
Edward Stokes for the murder of Fisk and of William M. 
Tweed for malfeasance in office. 

Davis (Reuben), a native of Tennessee, was born Jan. 
18, 1813. He was a physician, and afterwards a lawyer 
and judge in Mississippi, serving on the bench of the high 
court of errors and appeals, was for a time colonel of 
Mississippi Rifles in the Mexican war, and was twice 
elected to Congress from Mississippi before the late civil 
war, during which he favored the Confederate cause. 

Davis (Thomas T.) was born at Middlebury, Vt., Aug. 
22, 1810, graduated at Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., in 
1831, and was admitted to the bar in 1833. In 1862 and 
1864 he was elected a representative to Congress from New 
York. He is well known as a manufacturer, and is con¬ 
nected with coal-mining and railroad interests. 

Davis (Timothy) was born in Gloucester, Mass., April 
12, 1821, learned the printer’s trade, and was afterwards a 
merchant of Boston, Mass. He was elected in 1854 and 
1856 to Congress from the Gloucester district of Massa¬ 
chusetts, and in 1861 was appointed to a position in the 
Boston custom-house by President Lincoln. 

Davis’s Strait [named in honor of Capt. John Davis, 
noticed above] connects Baffin’s Bay with the Atlantic 
Ocean, and lies between Greenland and British North Amer¬ 
ica. It is about 160 miles wide at the narrowest part. A 
constant current runs southward through this strait from 
the circumpolar regions. Davis’s Strait is trequented by 
many whaling ships. 









































1274 DAVISON—DA WES. 


Da' vison, a township of Genesee co., Mich. Pop. 1124. 

Da'viston, a township of Tallapoosa co., Ala. P. 1578. 

Da'vits (plu.), [etymology uncertain], the wooden or 
iron frame used for hoisting and lowering boats on ship¬ 
board. The “ fish-davit ” is a galf used in fishing the an¬ 
chor. Boat-davits have been to some extent superseded 
by ingenious Boat-lowering Apparatus (which see). 

Da' vors (Jo.), author of a work, now rare and valuable, 
called “The Secrets of Angling” (London, 1613). This 
work is quoted by Walton, and the writer’s name is doubt¬ 
less a fictitious one. The authorship has been ascribed to 
John Bonne, John Davisson, John Davies, and other writers 
of that day. 

Davoud Pasha, a Turkish minister, born in Mar., 
1816, is a Catholic Armenian. He studied at Berlin, and 
became professor at the military college at Constantinople. 
He afterwards was secretary of the embassy at Berlin, be¬ 
came director of the construction of telegraphs, and in 1861 
was appointed governor of Lebanon during the strife be¬ 
tween the Druses and the Maronites, which post he resign¬ 
ed in 1868, becoming minister of public works. 

Davout, or Davoust (Louis Nicolas), duke of Auer- 
stadt and prince of Eckmiihl, an able French marshal, born 
near Noyers (Yonne) May 10, 1770. He was a fellow-stu¬ 
dent of Bonaparte at Brienne, and entered the army in early 
youth. In 1793 he gained the rank of general of brigade, 
and in 1798 went with Bonaparte to Egypt. He became a 
general of division in 1800, and commanded the cavalry of 
the army of Italy in that year. Having received a mar¬ 
shal’s baton in 1804, he led the right wing at Austerlitz in 
Dec., 1805, and defeated the Prussians at the battle of Auer- 
stadt, Oct. 14, 1806. For his services at Eckmiihl he was 
created prince of Eckmiihl in 1809. He took part in the 
Russian campaign of 1812, and was wounded at Borodino. 
He was afterwards governor of the Hanse Towns, and de¬ 
fended Hamburg for several months against the allies. 
During the Hundred Days (1815) he was Napoleon’s min¬ 
ister of war. He was commander-in-chief of the French 
armies in 1815, after the battle of Waterloo. Died June 4, 
1823. (See Chenier, “Vie du Marechal Davout,” 1866.) 

Da'vy (Sir Humphry), Bart., F. R. S., a celebrated 
English chemist, was born Dec. 17, 1778, at Penzance, 
Cornwall. At an early age he displayed a taste for fiction 
and poetry, and when eleven years old is said to have 
composed part of an epic of which the hero was Diomede, 
son of Tydeus. Even in this work he manifested great 
powers of imagination and invention. He has left some 
respectable fugitive poems of a later date. His father died 
when he was sixteen, and shortly after this event Gregory 
Watt, son of the inventor James Watt, took lodgings at his 
mother’s house. The young men were congenial in tastes, 
and a warm intimacy grew up between them, which seems to 
have played an important part in determining the studies 
and directing the genius of young Davy. But to Mr. Da¬ 
vies Gilbert the cause of science is still more indebted for 
the encouragement which he early gave to Davy, and finally 
for presenting him to the notice of the Royal Institution in 
London. He was associated in 1798 with Doctor Beddoes 
at Bristol in the Pneumatic Institution founded by that 
gentleman. The next year appeared his first contribution 
to science, under the name of “ Essays on Heat and Light, 
with a New Theory of Respiration,” which formed part of 
a volume published by Doctor Beddoes. In 1800 his “ Re¬ 
searches, Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning 
Nitrous Oxide and its Respiration,” attracted much atten¬ 
tion among scientists. These “ Researches ” made known 
his discovery of the peculiar intoxicating or exhilarating 
properties of nitrous oxide gas, and contain, besides, the 
results of interesting and dangerous experiments on the 
respiration of nitrogen, hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, 
carbonic acid, and nitrous gases. In 1801 he lectured for 
the first time before the Royal Institution, in which he was 
made a professor in 1802. He was pre-eminently success¬ 
ful as a lecturer. In 1807 he delivered before the Royal 
Society his second Bakerian lecture, in which he gave an 
account of the decomposition by galvanism of the fixed al¬ 
kalies, his great achievement, by which he proved that these 
alkalies are merely metallic oxides. It has been justly said 
that since the time of Sir Isaac Newton no contribution 
has been made to the “Philosophical Transactions” equal 
in importance to Davy's account of this great discovery. 
It is lamentable that one whose intellectual gifts were of 
so high an order should not have been above the intoxica¬ 
tion of fame. Yet it is true that after Davy’s rapid rise 
to fame he was sometimes guilty of an overbearing spirit, 
especially in his relation to younger seekers for distinction, 
a circumstance the less justifiable when we consider how 
much he himself owed to the kindness and generosity of 
scientific men. He was knighted in 1812, and not long 


afterwards he married a widow (Mrs. Apreece) of accom¬ 
plishments and fortune. He was made a baronet in 1818. 
One of the most important of his inventions is the safety- 
lamp (1815-17). He became president of the Royal So¬ 
ciety in 1820, and was elected to that office for seven suc¬ 
ceeding years. In 1827 his failing health compelled him 
to resign. He died May 28, 1829, at Geneva. 

The following are a few of his many important works : 
“Elements of Chemical Philosophy” (1812); “Elements 
of Agricultural Chemistry” (1813); papers concerning 
“ Fire-Damp,” etc. and accounts of his researches relating 
to “Oxymuriatic Acid” and “Fluoric Compounds.” After 
his death were published his “ Consolations in Travel,” 
consisting principally of reflections and speculations of a 
religious nature. Davy appears to have been endowed to 
the fullest extent with all those gifts necessary to a pro¬ 
found student of the laws of nature. His intellect was at 
once comprehensive and penetrating, and he possessed, in 
addition, an inexhaustible invention and fertility in re¬ 
sources, joined to an enthusiasm which no difficulties could 
discourage. (See “Life of Sir Humphry Davy,” by Dr. 
J. A. Paris, 1831; “Memoirs of the Life of Sir Humphry 
Davy,” by his brother, Dr. John Davy, 1836.) 

Revised by J. Thomas. 

Davy (John), M. D., a brother of Sir Humphry Davy, 
was born at Penzance, Cornwall, May 24, 1791, received 
his medical education at Edinburgh, graduating in 1814; 
entered the British army service, and was on duty chiefly 
in foreign parts. He published various professional and 
other works, of which the best known is a “Life” of his 
illustrious brother. He was himself an able scientific ob¬ 
server. Died April 24, 1868. 

Davy’s Safety-Lamp, invented by Sir Humphry 
Davy (1815-17), consists of a common oil lamp surrounded 
by wire gauze of 400 meshes to the square inch. It is used 
in coal-mines where fire-damp abounds. The explosion of 
fire-damp was formerly a very frequent cause of the de¬ 
struction of life and property. This loss has been mate¬ 
rially diminished by the safety-lamp. The principle is as 
follows: When fire-damp (light carburetted hydrogen gas 
mixed with air) is touched by a flame it explodes with great 
violence, but its flame cannot pass through fine wire net¬ 
ting, because the wire conducts away the heat, leaving the 
gas on the outside too cold to take fire, for it happily re¬ 
quires an intense heat to inflame the fire-damp. The space 
within the wire netting sometimes becomes filled with the 
flame. It is customary in well-regulated mines for the 
workmen to withdraw at such times until after good venti¬ 
lation has been restored. The safety-lamp is unfortunately 
no protection against the very explosive “ white-damp,” 
which is charged with sulphuretted hydrogen. This gas is 
readily detected by its smell, which resembles that of rot¬ 
ten eggs. It is fatally poisonous to miners even when 
much diluted with air. Latterly, various other safety- 
lamps have been invented, but thus far there is no absolute 
protection against the explosion of gases in coal-mines. 
Vigilance in observing the signs of the presence of dan¬ 
gerous gases, and in securing good ventilation, is indis¬ 
pensable to safety. Recent observations appear to show 
that terrestrial magnetism has a, certain influence, as yet 
unexplained, upon the generation of these gases. 

Daw, or Jackdaw, the Corvus monedula, a bird of 
the crow family, found in Europe, Asia, and Africa, four¬ 
teen inches long, black, with a smoky-gray neck. Daws 



.Daw, or JacKdaw. 


are very cunning, social, and active birds, often nesting in 
church-towers and old castles. They build a nest of sticks, 
of which they sometimes collect a large quantity. They 
frequent largo towns. 

Dawes (Henry Laurens), an American lawyer and 
statesman, born at Cummington, Mass., Oct. 30, 1816, 
graduated at Yale in 1839, was newspaper editor, and 
studied and practised law. Ho was a member of both 


















DAWIbON—DAY. 1275 


houses of the legislature of Massachusetts, district attor¬ 
ney, and has been a member of Congress since 1857, and 
occupied a prominent position as chairman of the commit¬ 
tee on appropriations and that of ways and means. 

Dawison (Bogumil), a German actor, born at Warsaw 
May 18, 1818, of Jewish stock. From 1852 to 1866 he was 
engaged at the royal theatre in Dresden, where his render¬ 
ings of Shakspcare's, Goethe’s, and Schiller’s characters 
were much admired. From 1866 to 1868 he was in Amer¬ 
ica. Died Feb. 2, 1872. 

Daw'soil, a county in the N. of Georgia. Area, 200 
square miles. It is drained by the Etowah River. The 
surface is hilly; the soil is partly fertile. Corn, cotton, 
wool, and tobacco are raised. Capital, Dawsonville. Pop. 
4269. 

Dawson, a county in the N. E. of Montana Territory. 
Area, 30,390 square miles. It is drained by the Missouri 
and Milk Rivers. Pop. 177. 

Dawson, a county in Central Nebraska. Area, 1008 
square miles. It is intersected by the Union Pacific R. R. 
and the Platte River. The surface is nearly level. Capi¬ 
tal, Plum Creek. Pop. 103. 

Dawson, a post-village, capital of Terrell co., Ga., on 
the South-western R. R., 98 miles S. S. W. of Macon. It 
has one weekly newspaper and a car-factory. It con¬ 
tains the South Georgia Male Institute. Pop. 1099. 

Weston & Combs, Props. “Journal.” 

Dawson (Henry Barton), an historian, was born at 
Gosberton, Lincolnshire, England, June 8,1821, and with his 
parents came to the U. S. in 1834. In 1845 he became a 
temperance journalist in New York. He has published 
several historical and antiquarian works, chiefly relating to 
the Revolutionary period in the U. S. He has been a Dem¬ 
ocratic editor in Yonkers, N. Y. (1855-66), and in the lat¬ 
ter year became editor of the “ Historical Magazine.” 

Dawson (John William), LL.D., F. R. S., an eminent 
geologist, born at Pictou, Nova Scotia, Oct., 1820. He was 
educated at the University of Edinburgh. Under the di¬ 
rection of Sir Charles Lyell he made explorations in the 
province of Nova Scotia in 1841, and gave an account of 
its geology in the “ Proceedings of the Geological Society 
of London.” He was appointed superintendent of educa¬ 
tion in Nova Scotia in 1850, and principal of McGill Col¬ 
lege at Montreal 1855, which position he still holds (1873). 
In 1848 he published a “ Handbook of the Geography and 
Natural History of Nova Scotia,” “ Hints to the Farmers 
of Nova Scotia” (1853), “Acadian Geology” (1855; en¬ 
larged ed. 1868), “Archaia, or Studies of the Cosmogony 
and Natural History of the Hebrew Scriptures ” (1859); 
also an excellent popular treatise on geology, published 
serially in the “Leisure Hour” (1871-72), republished 
(1873) under the title “The Story of the Earth and Man.” 
He has contributed numerous geological memoirs and art¬ 
icles to the “ Proceedings of the Geological Society of Lon¬ 
don,” “The Canadian Naturalist,” “Silliman’s Journal,” 
and other periodicals. He is author of the admirable 
article on Geology published in this work. 

Dawson (Lucien L.), U. S. M. C., born Feb. 5, 1837, 
in Kentucky, entered the marine corps as second lieuten¬ 
ant Jan. 13, 1859, became a first lieutenant early in 1861, 
and a captain Nov. 23 of the same year. He was brevetted 
major for gallant and meritorious services at the assault 
on Fort Fisher on Jan. 15, 1865, where he led the marines 
of the fleet. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Dawson (William C.), a distinguished lawyer, jurist, 
and statesman of Georgia, born Jan. 4, 1798, was educated 
at the university of the State, graduated in 1816, studied 
law at Litchfield, Conn., and settled at Greensboro’, Ga., in 
his native county. For twelve years he was clerk of the 
house of representatives of the general assembly of the 
State. He was several times a member of the house and 
senate of the State legislature. He was a member of the 
House in the Federal Congress from 1837 to 1842; after¬ 
wards he was judge of the superior courts in his State, and 
from 1849 to 1855 he was a Senator in Congress. He died 
May 5, 1856. 

DaAv'sonville, a post-village, capital of Dawson co., 
Ga., about 50 miles N. N. E. of Atlanta.' 

Dax (anc. Aquse Augustae), a town of France, department 
of Landes, is pleasantly situated on the A dour, 25 miles 
N. E. of Bayonne. It has a cathedral, a bishop’s palace, 
and some manufactures of earthenware, brandy, leather, 
etc. Here are hot saline springs, which were used for 
bathing by the ancient Romans, and are still frequented 
by invalids. Pop. 9469. 

Day [Lat. dies ; Fr .jour; Ger. Tag ], a word signifying 
either the interval of time during which the sun is above 


the horizon, or the time occupied by a complete revolution 
of the earth with reference to other celestial bodies. In the 
latter sense it denotes intervals of different duration, ac¬ 
cording as the body with which the revolution is compared 
is fixed or movable. 

The astronomical or solar day, also designated the appa¬ 
rent day, is the time which elapses between two consecu¬ 
tive returns of the same terrestrial meridian to the centre 
of the sun. Astronomical days are of unequal length, for 
two reasons: 1, the unequal velocity of the earth in its 
orbit, which results in a greater apparent daily motion of 
the sun in winter than in summer; 2, the obliquity of the 
ecliptic, which causes the sun’s apparent daily motion in 
right ascension (or in the plane of the earth’s equator) to 
be less at the equinoxes than at the solstices. The astro¬ 
nomical day is computed from noon to noon. 

The civil day, or mean solar day, is the time occupied 
by the earth in one revolution on its axis as compared with 
the sun. It is supposed to move at a mean rate in its orbit, 
and to make 365.2425 revolutions in a mean Gregorian 
year. This mode of measuring time makes the days all of 
equal length, and any special hour of the civil day some¬ 
times precedes, and sometimes succeeds, the corresponding 
hour of the astronomical day. Most nations agree in fixing 
the beginning and end of the civil day at midnight. 

The sidereal day is that portion of time which elapses 
between two successive culminations of the same star. 
Owing to the great distance of the stars, and their appa¬ 
rent fixedness in space, it is not perceptibly affected by the 
earth’s orbital revolution, as is proved by all known astro¬ 
nomical observations. A sidereal day contains twenty-four 
hours fifty-six minutes four seconds of mean solar time. 
It is divided into twenty-four sidereal hours, which are 
subdivided into sidereal minutes and seconds. This is the 
universal mode of computing time among astronomers. 

In most languages the word equivalent to our “ day” is 
also used in a much more extended sense to denote an in¬ 
definite period of time. We speak of events which have 
transpired “ in our own day.” This figure of speech is es¬ 
pecially common in Oriental languages, and is frequently 
found in the Bible. 

Day, a township of Montcalm co., Mich. Pop. 510. 

Day, a post-township of Saratoga co., N. Y. Pop. 1127. 

Day (Benjamin F.), U. S. N., born Jan. 16, 1841, in 
Ohio, graduated at the Naval Academy as ensign in 1861, 
became a lieutenant in 1862, and a lieutenant-commander 
in 1866. He was attached to the steamer New London, 
West Gulf blockading squadron, in 1862-63, and was 
wounded in a night engagement on the Mississippi July 9, 
1863. His services on this occasion are thus highly spoken 
of by his commanding officer, Lieut.-Com. George II. Per¬ 
kins, in his report to Rear-Admiral Farragut of July 13, 
1863 : “ The conduct of Lieutenant Day, my executive 
officer, deserves particular attention, who, after being 
wounded in the head, remained at his post and rendered 
valuable service, encouraging the men by his bravery and 
coolness.” He was in the engagement with Howlett House 
batteries on James River in 1864, and in both attacks on 
Fort Fisher in 1865. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Day (George Edward), D. D., was born at Pittsfield, 
Mass., Mar. 19, 1815, graduated at Yale (1833) and at tho 
Yale Theological Seminary (1838), was assistant instruc¬ 
tor in sacred literature there from 1838 to 1840, was twice 
settled in the ministry, from 1840-47 in Marlboro’, Mass., 
and from 1848 to 1851 in Northampton, Mass., from 1851 
to 1866 was professor of biblical literature in Lane Theo¬ 
logical Seminary, and since 1866 has been professor of the 
Hebrew language and literature and biblical theology in 
the theological department of Yale College. He has taken 
great interest in the instruction of the deaf and dumb, and 
has published (1845-61) two reports on the subject. From 
1863 he edited the “ Theological Eclectic” till 1871, when 
it was united with the “ Bibliotheca Sacra.” He trans¬ 
lated and edited Van Oostersee’s “Titus” in Lange’s 
“ Commentary,” and has also translated (1871) Van Oos¬ 
tersee’s “Biblical Theology of the New Testament.” He 
was one of the contributors to Smith’s “ Bible Diction¬ 
ary,” and has published numerous articles in several lead¬ 
ing reviews. 

Day (Rev. Henry Noble), an author and educator, was 
born at New Preston, Conn., Aug. 4, 1808, graduated at 
Yale in 1828, was ordained to tho Congregational ministry 
at Waterbury, Conn., in 1836, became professor of sacred 
rhetoric at the Western Reserve College, 0., in 1840. Ho 
was a railroad president for many years, and president of 
the Ohio Female College (1858-64). Among his numerous 
educational works are “The Art of Elocution, “Ele¬ 
ments of Logic,” and “ The Science of ^Esthetics.” Ho is 
now a resident of New Haven, Conn. 









1276 


DAY—DEACONESS. 


Day (J eremiah), D. D., LL.D., an American mathe¬ 
matician, born in New Preston, Conn., Aug. 3, 1773, grad¬ 
uated at Yale College in 171)5, became in 1801 professor of 
mathematics and natural philosophy in that college, and 
was president of the same (1822-1846). Among his works 
are an “Introduction to Algebra” (1814) and “Navigation 
and Surveying” (1817). Died Aug. 22, 1867. 

Day ( Thomas), an English author, born in London 
June 22, 1748, became heir to an ample fortune. He sym¬ 
pathized with the American patriots, and wrote two poems, 
entitled “The Devoted Legions” (1776) and “The Desola¬ 
tion of America” (1777). He selected from a foundling 
hospital two girls, whom he educated according to the sys¬ 
tem of Rousseau, with an intention to marry one of them, 
but he was disappointed by the ill-success of his experi¬ 
ment, and married Esther Milnes in 1778. His chief work 
is “ Sandford and Merton” (1783-89), a popular juvenile 
tale of great meyit. He was killed by the kick of a horse 
Sept. 28, 1789. / 

Day'ansville, a manufacturing village of New Bremen 
township, Lewis co., N. Y. 

Day-Lil'y ( Hemerocallis ), a genus of liliaceous plants 
having a perianth with bell-shaped limb and sub-cylindri¬ 
cal tube, and globose seeds. Several varieties are culti¬ 
vated in gardens,* among these is the fragrant yellow 
day-lily (Hemerocallis jlava). It is a native of Northern 
China, Siberia, and Hungary; it has been accounted good 
food for cattle, but another species, the Hemerocallis fulva, 
has more profuse foliage and is equally acceptable to cattle. 

Days'man, a name used in England in former times, 
and sometimes now used in the northern counties, to signify 
an umpire or elected judge. Its use dates from the Middle 
Ages, when the word “ day ” was specially employed in 
judicial proceedings to denote the day assigned for the 
hearing of a cause. This word is also used in Scripture: 
“Neither is there any daysman betwixt us, that might lay 
his hand upon us both.” (Job ix. 33.) 

Day'ton, a township and post-village of Marengo co., 
Ala. The village is 38 miles W. of Selma. Total pop. 
6731. 

Dayton, a post-township of La Salle co., Ill. Pop. 653. 

Dayton, a post-village of Sheffield township, Tippe¬ 
canoe co., Ind. Pop. 385. 

Dayton, a township of Adair co., Ia. Pop. 139. 

Dayton, a township of Bremer co., Ia. Pop. 419. 

Dayton, a township of Butler co., Ia. Pop. 383. . 

Dayton, a township of Cedar co., Ia. Pop. 1546. 

Dayton, a township of Chickasaw co., Ia. Pop. 543. 

Dayton, a township of Iowa co., Ia. Pop. 939. 

Dayton, a township of Webster co., Ia. Pop. 975. 

Dayton, a post-township of York co., Me. Pop. 611. 

Dayton, a township of Newaygo co., Mich. Pop. 771. 

Dayton, a township of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop. 660. 

Dayton, a post-township of Hennepin co., Minn. Pop. 
951. 

Dayton, a post-village, capital of Lyon co., Nev., is on 
Carson River, 12 miles E. S. E. of Virginia City. Silver- 
mines have been opened in the vicinity. Here are several 
quartz-mills. Pop. of township, 918. 

Dayton, a township and post-village of Cattaraugus 
co., N. Y., on the Erie R. R., 22 miles E. S. E. of Dunkirk. 
It has three cheese-factories and several lumber-mills. Total 
pop. 1267. 

Dayton, a handsome city, capital of Montgomery co., 
0., on the left (E.) bank of the Great Miami, at the mouth 
of the Mad River, 60 miles N. N. E. of Cincinnati, and 
67 miles W. by S. of Columbus; lat. 39° 44' N., Ion. 84° 
11' W. It is the terminus of the Atlantic and Great 
Western, the Cincinnati Hamilton and Dayton, the Day- 
ton and Michigan, and the Dayton and Union R. Rs., 
all connecting. The Pittsburg St. Louis and Cincinnati 
and the Short Line from Cincinnati pass through it, and 
also the Miami Canal, connecting the Ohio with Lake 
Erie. The granite court-house, designed after the Par¬ 
thenon, is 167 feet long and 62 wide. There are forty- 
five churches, among which the First Presbyterian and 
Grace (M. E.), built of Dayton granite, are fine specimens 
of architecture. The city has eight public schools, a high 
school, the Cooper Seminary for girls, and St. Mary’s 
(Catholic) Institute for boys. It has a public library of 
3500 volumes, 3 national and 4 private banks, 8 local insur¬ 
ance companies, 2 daily, 2 weekly, 1 tri-weekly and 2 
weekly (German), and 2 weekly religious papers; also 3 
semi-monthly and 5 monthly publications. There is a large 
water-power. A very extensive manufactory of railroad 
cars, a number of large agricultural implement works, em¬ 


ploying as many as 5000 hands, six large breweries, two dis¬ 
tilleries, factories of stoves, paper, cotton, and woollens, and 
extensive limestone quarries, which have furnished the ma¬ 
terials for many buildings in Cincinnati, are among the in¬ 
dustries of Dayton. Here is the National Soldiers’ Home 
for disabled soldiers and sailors, on whose roll are the names 
of 2000 veterans. It has an admirable hospital, a library 
of 4000 volumes, and extensive grounds—600 acres. The 
resident manager is Hon. Lewis B. Gunckel, M. C. for the 
Dayton district. The tax-duplicate of Dayton is $25,000,000. 
The streets of Dayton, some of them 133 feet w’ide, cross 
each other at right angles, and twenty-six macadamized 
pikes radiate from the city. It is the heart of the Miami 
Valley, a beautiful and productive region. Pop. in 1860, 
20,081 ; in 1870, 30,473. 

W. D. Bickham, Ed. Dayton “Journal.” 

Dayton, a township of Richland co., Wis. Pop. 908. 

Dayton, a township of Waupacca co., Wis. Pop. 871. 

Dayton (Elias), an American general, born in New 
Jersey in 1735. He became a colonel about 1777, and 
served at the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, and 
Monmouth. He was a member of Congress (1787-88). 
Died July, 1807. 

Dayton (Jonathan), LL.D., an American statesman, 
son of the preceding, born at Elizabethtown, N. J., Oct. 16, 
1760. He served with distinction in the Revolutionary 
war, and was a delegate from New Jersey to the convention 
which framed the Federal Constitution in 1787. In 1791 
he was elected a member of Congress, in which he acted 
with the Federal party. He was Speaker of the House of 
Representatives for two terms (1793-97), and was chosen 
a Senator of the U. S. in 1799. Died Oct. 9, 1824. 

Dayton (William Leavis), LL.D., an American states¬ 
man, nephew of the preceding, born in Somerset co., N. J., 
Feb. 17, 1807. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 
1830, and practised at Trenton. In 1842 he was appointed 
a Senator of the U. S. to fill a vacancy, and in 1845 he 
was elected to the national Senate by the legislature of 
New Jersey for a term of six years. He voted with the 
Whigs, and opposed the extension of slavery. In 1856 he 
was nominated as the Republican candidate for Vice-Presi¬ 
dent. Fremont and Dayton received 114 electoral votes, 
but they were not elected. Mr. Dayton was appointed 
minister to France early in 1861. Died in Paris Dec. 1, 
1864. 

De, a Latin particle, commonly signifying “down” or 
“from;” it is often intensive, and sometimes privative or 
negative, having occasionally nearly the force of the Eng¬ 
lish particle un; e. g. descendo (from de, and scando, to 
“ climb ”), literally, to “climb down;” decoquo, to “boil 
down,” to “ boil thoroughly ;” deform (from /ora*a, “ form,” 
“ beauty,” “ grace ”), to “ deprive of grace or beauty;” de~ 
compose, to “ mj-compound.” De is also a preposition, 
signifying “concerning,” also “from” or “down from.” 

Dea'con [from the Gr. Sidsovos, a “servant;” Ger. and 
Lat. diaconus], in early times an officer of a church, whose 
duty it was to collect and dispense alms. According to an 
opinion generally prevailing among Protestants, the office 
was at first secular, although it is evident that deacons fre¬ 
quently exercised spiritual functions. The church at 
Jerusalem first chose seven deacons, who taught and bap¬ 
tized, as is shown by the example of Philip the deacon. 
In the second and third centuries the duties of deacons 
were increased, and it subsequently became expedient.to 
divide their functions among the archdeacons, deacons, and 
sub-deacons. The offices of archdeacon and deacon were 
counted among the higher clerical orders ( ordines majores); 
and after the twelfth century that of sub-deacon w'as so 
reckoned. In the Greek, Roman Catholic, Anglican, and 
Methodist Episcopal churches deacons are clergymen in¬ 
ferior in rank to ministers or priests, and are usually pro¬ 
bationers for the latter office. In the Roman Catholic 
Church the peculiar robes of a deacon are the dalmatica 
and the stole. At Rome there are eighteen cardinal deacons, 
of whom the celebrated Antonelli is one. In Protestant 
churches the position of deacons is various. The Baptists 
and Congregationalists have deacons as superintendents of 
the temporal affairs of the church, and also as assistants in 
the administration of the sacraments. Among Presbyte¬ 
rians their place is often supplied by the ruling elders, but 
in the Free Church of Scotland and in some other Presby¬ 
terian bodies there are regularly ordained deacons. 

Dea'coness [Gr. r) Slolkovos ; Lat. ancilla, ministra, dia- 
conissa], the title of a rank of female officers in the apos¬ 
tolic and early Christian Church. They assisted in the 
care of the poor, especially of their own sex, gave instruc¬ 
tion to the younger catechumens, arranged the agapao or 
love-feasts, and took care of the sick. Until the fourth 
century, the deaconess was required to be a maiden, or 









































DEAD COLOR—DEAF AND DUMB. 



widow but onco married, and sixty years of age, but the 
age was fixed at forty by the Council of Chalcedon (451 
A. D.). She was assisted by the sub-deaconess. The office 
gradually died out, but sooner in the Latin than in the 
Greek Church. Several Western councils in the fifth and 
sixth centuries forbade the consecration of deaconesses, 
although the office appears not to have been wholly extinct 
till the tenth or eleventh century. At Constantinople there 
were deaconesses as late as the beginning of the thirteenth 
century, with no trace of them anywhere else in the East. 
In monasteries, nuns who take charge of the altar are called 
deaconesses. The Sisters of Charity and other like organ¬ 
izations perform a work analogous to that of ancient deacon¬ 
esses. There is a movement for the resumption of the 
office in the Anglican and some other Protestant churches. 
Among the German Protestants the experiment has been 
successfully tried. A large and excellent Protestant school 
for deaconesses was established in 1835 at Kaiserswerth, 
Prussia, and many similar institutions have since sprung 
Up in Europe. 

Bead Color. In painting, a color is said to be dead 
when it has no gloss upon it. This is effected by the use 
of less oil and more turpentine than in ordinary paints. 

Dead head, the extra length of metal given to a cast 
gun. It serves to receive the dross (Lat. caput mortnum, 
literally, “dead head ”) which rises to the top of the lique¬ 
fied metal, and which, were it not for the deadhead, would 
form the muzzle of the gun. When cooled and solid the 
deadhead is cut off. 

In popular language “dead-head” is used to denote a 
person who travels on a railroad or enters a place of amuse¬ 
ment, etc. without paying. 

Dead-Letter Office, in the U. S. postal department, 
is the place where unclaimed letters are sent. After re¬ 
maining one month at the post-office to which they are di¬ 
rected, “dead” or unclaimed letters are sent to Washing¬ 
ton, and are opened in the dead-letter office. When the 
writer’s name and address can be ascertained the letter is 
returned to him; otherwise the letter is destroyed. In 
1872 nearly 3,000,000 letters went to the dead-letter office. 
They are partly classified as follows: 58,000 letters had no 
county or State direction ; more than 400,000 lacked stamps, 
and 3000 were posted without any address at all. The sum 
of $02,000 in cash, and more than $3,000,000 in drafts, 
checks, etc., were found in these letters. It appeal's that 
on an average every letter that is misdirected, or that goes 
to the dead-letter office from any cause, contains one dollar. 

Deadly Nightshade. See Belladonna. 

Dead Net'tle ( Lamium ), a genus of plants of the or¬ 
der Labiatm, with a 5-toothed calyx and 2-lipped corolla, 
the upper lip arched, the lower trifid. The genera Galeop- 
sis and Galeobdolon, resembling the Lamium, are often 
called by this name. Lamium purpureum and other species 
are common weeds in Great Britain, and are naturalized 
in the U. S. There is an old belief that the touch of the 
dead nettle causes an irritation which may end in death ; 
hence the name. It appears, however, to be quite harmless. 

Dead Reck'oaing, a term used in navigation, signi¬ 
fies the calculation of a ship’s place at sea without taking 
observation of the heavenly bodies. The chief elements 
from which the reckoning is made are the point of depart¬ 
ure ( i . e. the latitude and longitude of the place from which 
she sailed), the course or direction of her movement (ascer¬ 
tained by the compass), the rate of sailing, measured from 
time to time by the log, and the time that has elapsed. The 
data are liable to errors and uncertainties, in consequence 
of currents, changes of the wind, etc. (See Navigation, 
by Lieut.-Commander Alex. H. McCormick, U. S. N.) 

Dead River Plantation, a township of Somerset 
co., Me. Pop. 100. 

Dead Sea, or Sea of Sodom [Arab. Bahr Loot, 
“Sea of Lot;” anc. Lacus Asphaltites ], called in Scripture 
the Salt Sea, a celebrated lake in the southern part of 
Palestine. Its northern end is about 20 miles E. of Jeru¬ 
salem. Its length, as determined by Lieut. Lynch in 1848, 
is 40 geographical miles, and its breadth from 9 to 9f geo¬ 
graphical miles. The greatest depth, according to Lieut. 
Dale (1848), is 1308 feet; according to Lieut. Symonds 
(1841), 1350 feet. Its depression below the Mediterranean, 
as measured by Lieut. Dale, is 1316.7 feet, and its bed is 
accordingly by far the deepest known fissure on the surface 
of the earth. The Dead Sea is fed by the Jordan and other 
streams, but has no apparent outlet, and the surplus water 
is carried off by evaporation. It is enclosed between naked 
cliffs of limestone, which on the eastern side rise 2000 feet 
or more above the water. The shores present a scene of 
desolation and solitude encompassed with deserts and dreary 
salt-hills. On the southern shore is a remarkable mass of 
rock-salt called Usdum (Sodom), which is supposed to in¬ 
dicate the site of the ancient city of Sodom. Large quan¬ 


tities of asphaltuin were thrown up to the surface of the 
lake by the earthquakes of 1834 and 1837. The water of 
this lake is remarkable for its great specific gravity (which 
is 1.25, or one-fourth greater than pure water) and its in¬ 
tense saltness, nearly seven times that of the sea, but vary¬ 
ing considerably at different seasons. About 25 per cent, 
is the average proportion of saline matter by weight. The 
chlorides of sodium, magnesium, and calcium are the most 
abundant salts dissolved in it. Ducks have been seen 
swimming on its surface. The bed occupied by this lake 
is part of a long and narrow depression or fissure which ex¬ 
tends from the Lake of Galilee southward, and is neaidy 200 
miles in length. The adjacent table-land is more than 3000 
feet above the Mediterranean, so that the fissure is nearly 
6000 feet deep. It is supposed that all of this depression 
was formerly covered with sea-water. (See Lieutenant 
Lynch, “ Narrative of the U. S. Expedition to the Biver 
Jordan and the Dead Sea,” 1849.) 

Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Deaf and Dumb, or Deaf-Mutes [Fr. sourds- 
muet8]. Those born deaf are dumb, because they cannot 
learn to speak without the guidance of the sense of hear¬ 
ing, which enables them to imitate sounds. The same is 
true of those made deaf by disease or accident in early 
infancy. After learning to speak, the occurrence of deaf¬ 
ness does not greatly impair the speech, although persons 
becoming deaf during childhood sometimes retain through¬ 
out life the childish tone which they have learned. The 
average number of deaf-mutes in Europe in 1830 was about 
1 in 1500 of the total population ; in 1850, according to 
the investigations of Dr. Peet, 1 in 1360. In the U. S. the 
census of 1870 gives the whole number of deaf-mutes as 
16,205, or over 1 to every 2379 inhabitants. Very possibly 
these returns are only approximative, parents being often 
reluctant to acknowledge this defect in their children, and 
census marshals negligent. 

Congenital deafness is reasonably believed to be caused 
by imperfection of development under influences which 
lower the grade of nutrition in the embryo during gesta¬ 
tion, or Which affect, through the constitution of one or 
both of the parents, the immediate result of conception. 
Among these influences the most marked appear to be in¬ 
temperance, marriages between those nearly related, syph¬ 
ilis, and scrofula. Boudin asserts that in France nearly 
25 per cent, of deaf-mutes are the offspring of marriages 
of consanguinity; and somewhat similar estimates have 
been obtained by Drs. Howe and Bemiss in their statistical 
inquiries upon the effects of such marriages in the U. S. 

On account of the comparative helplessness of deaf-mutes 
they were placed, in the code of Justinian, among persons 
incapable of the legal management of their affairs. Dur¬ 
ing the Middle Ages they were deprived of the right of 
feudal succession. Yet in all times they have occasionally 
shown considerable capacity for culture. Pliny mentions 
Quintus Pedius, a deaf-mute, related to the emperor Au¬ 
gustus, as a successful painter at Rome; and in later times 
the uncle of one of the kings of Sardinia, notwithstanding 
the same defect, acquired a good education. The earliest 
account of a deaf-mute being taught to speak is ascribed 
to Bede, about 700 A. D. Rodolph Agricola of Groningen, 
who died in 1485, first mentioned an instructed deaf-mute. 
Jerome Cardan, half a century later, wrote philosophically 
on the 23i’inciples involved in such instruction. Ponce de 
Leon, a Spanish monk, who died in 1584, and Pasch, a 
clergyman of Brandenburg, were the first teachers of whom 
we have any account. Juan Pablo Bonet published, at 
Madrid, the earliest known treatise on deaf-mute instruction. 
He gave a manual alphabet quite different from those which 
Bede has preserved as used by the ancients. About 1660 
to 1700 Dr. John Wallis of Oxford and John Conrad Am¬ 
man of Holland published remarkable treatises on this art. 

In England the first manual alphabet was published by 
George Dalgarno, by birth a Scotchman, but residing for a 
long time at Oxford. He died in 1687. The first school 
for deaf-mutes in Great Britain was established in Edin¬ 
burgh in 1760 by Thomas Braidwood. Some years after¬ 
wards it was removed to the neighborhood of London, and 
thus no doubt suggested the origination of an asylum in 
London in 1792, of which Dr. Joseph Watson was the first 
principal. The first public establishment in the world for 
the instruction of deaf-mutes was founded at Leipsic in 
1778 by the elector of Saxony, under the directorship ot 
Samuel Ileinecke. 

The credit of systematizing the instruction of the deaf 
and dumb in France is ascribed “to the abbe Charles 
Michel de l’Epee of Paris,” but greater success was in some 
individual cases attained by a Spaniard, Jacob Rodriguez 
Pereira, whose school was conducted at Bordeaux. These 
men undoubtedly both contributed to the, work; as did 
also Sicard, the successor of the abb6 de 1 Epee, and Hard. 
In the U. S. the system matured by the experience of 


















DEAF AND DUMB. 


1278 


the French was brought over in 1816 by the late Doctor 
Thomas II. Gallaudet, with the personal aid of Laurent 



Clerc, an educated deaf-mute. Other names especially as¬ 
sociated with useful labors on behalf of the same class are 
those of Dr. F. A. P. Barnard, Lewis Weld, and William 
W. Turner, of the Hartford Institution; H. P. Peet, LL.D., 



Two-handed Alphabet. 

of New York; Abraham B. Walton of Philadelphia, J. A. 
Jacobs of Kentucky, and the two sons of Thomas H. Gal¬ 


laudet (Thomas and E. M.), and Doctor S. G. Howe of 
Boston. 

The most remarkable instance on record, perhaps, i9 
that of the instruction, under the care of Doctor Howe, 
of Laura Bridgman, who was born blind as well as deaf- 
mute. By attracting her attention through the sense of 
touch, it was found possible to develop to a considerable 
degree her intelligence and capacity for communication with 
others. A similar example occurred earlier in Julia Brace 
in the Hartford Asylum, while under the charge of the Rev. 
Thomas H. Gallaudet. 

The two principal modes of conveying instruction to the 
deaf and dumb are by the manual siyn-language, and by 
the pupils watching the lips of the teacher during articula¬ 
tion. Real objects and models, pictures, etc. can of course 
also be used. The sign-language is much the most easily and 
rapidly acquired, and is more generally employed in Europe, 
as well as in this country. It is largely in use among the 
American Indians, and by means of it natives of the most 
distant portions of the continent can understand each other. 
It is said that a party of Indians present in London at an 
exhibition of performances by deaf-mutes were delighted to 
find themselves able to converse with the latter by signs. 

The method of teaching by articulation, the pupil learn¬ 
ing to recognize words (and, in time, to utter them) by 
closely watching the motions of the lips and tongue in 
speech, is not favored by all experienced instructors. Ex¬ 
cept in very few cases it has not been adopted in the Hart¬ 
ford Asylum. The argument urged against it is, that the 
great length of time required for its acquisition can be bet¬ 
ter employed in obtaining knowledge according to the sign- 
method. Yet it has sometimes proved very successful, as 
in the private school of Miss Rogers at Chelmsford, Massa¬ 
chusetts. In Christiania, Norway, in 1872, a deaf-mute was, 
by instruction in this way, prepared creditably to enter the 
university as a student. Some have supposed that by means 
of lip-teaching intelligent deaf-mutes might become pupils 
in the common schools. Itard, and his successor Blanchet, 
in France, and the Abbe Carton, founder of an institution 
for the deaf and dumb in Bruges, Belgium, are amongst 
those who have especially labored on behalf of the method 
of teaching by articulation. This method was at first em¬ 
ployed at the Clarke Institution at Northampton, Massa¬ 
chusetts, but has now given place to the Bell system. 

A new method of teaching articulation has recently been 
brought into notice in this country. It is called visible 



speech, and was invented by A. Melville Bell, a professor 
of vocal physiology in England, about 1848. It consists 
of a species of phonetic writing, based not upon sounds, 
but on the action of the vocal organs in producing them. 




























































DEAFNESS—DEAL FISH. 


1279 


The characters of this universal alphabet, as matured in 
1864, reveal to the eye the position of those organs in the 
formation of any sound which the human mouth can utter. 
Ill 1869 the first attempt was made in England to apply 
this alphabet in the instruction of deaf-mutes; and in 1872 
it was introduced by Mr. Abraham Bell, the son of the in¬ 
ventor, into the Clarke Institution at Northampton, where 
it has superseded the old method of imitation, and is the 
only method of teaching articulation used. It is now 
(1873) used in the American asylum, with a limited num¬ 
ber of both congenital and semi-mute pupils, with success. 
Its practical value as a means of instruction with all classes 
of deaf-mutes has not been as yet sufficiently tested. Mr. 
Abraham Bell has opened a school for instructing teachers 
in this system in Boston. 

Of institutions for the education of deaf-mutes there were 
in 1870 about 80 in Germany, 45 in France, 22 in Great 
Britain, and 36 in the United States. The largest in Eu¬ 
rope is that in London, with 300 pupils. The largest in 
America, and probably in the world, is in New York—588 
pupils. This was founded in 1818, that at Hartford in 
1817, and the asylum in Philadelphia in 1820. 

Institutions for the Deaf and Dumb in the United States , 

1872. 




Pupils. 

Teacbcrs. 

Name and Location. 

Opened. 

Male. 

C) 

a 

r—* 

Total. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

American Asylum, Hartford, 
Conn. 

1817 

179 

111 

290 

10 

7 

17 

New York Institution, City. 

1818 

349 

239 

588 

19 

11 

30 

Pennsylvania “ Philada... 

1820 

137 

125 

43 

262 

11 

3 

14 

Kentucky “ Danville.. 

1823 

54 

97 

4 

1 

5 

Ohio “ Columbus 

1829 

225 

163 

388 

8 

14 

22 

Virginia “ Staunton.. 

1830 

47 

42 

89 

7 

... 

7 

Indiana “ Indianap.. 

1834 

167 

137 

304 

8 

6 

14 

Tennessee “ Knoxville 

1845 

59 

44 

103 

8 

• •• 

8 

North Carolina “ Raleigh ... 

1845 

67 

52 

119 

7 

2 

9 

Illinois Institution, Jackson¬ 
ville . 

1846 

165 

144 

309 

16 

9 

25 

Georgia Institution, Cave 
Spring. . 

1846 

27 

34 

61 

4 

1 

5 

South Carolina Institution, 
Cedar Spring . 

1849 

11 

11 

22 

2 

1 

3 

Missouri Institution, Fulton 

1851 

90 

90 

186 

4 

4 

8 

Louisiana “ Baton 

Rouge. 

1852 

34 

20 

54 

4 

... 

4 

Wisconsin Institution, Dela- 
van. 

1852 

92 

72 

164 

8 

2 

10 

Michigan Institution, Flint. 

1854 

87 

72 

159 

9 

2 

11 

Iowa Institution, Council 
Bluffs. 

1855 

72 

59 

131 

5 

2 

7 

Mississippi Institution, 

Jackson . 

1856 

25 

17 

42 

3 

... 

3 

Texas Institution, Austin.... 

1857 

20 

10 

30 

2 

i 

3 

Columbia “ Washing¬ 
ton, D. C. 

1857 

34 

16 

50 

2 

l 

3 

National College, Washing¬ 
ton, D. C. 

1864 

67 

... 

67 

8 


8 

Alabama Institution, Talla- 

dega. 

1858 

19 

40 

59 

3 

l 

4 

California Institution, Oak- 
land. 

1860 

35 

25 

60 

4 

... 

4 

Kansas Institution, Olathe... 

1862 

43 

26 

69 

4 

i 

5 

Minnesota “ Faribault 

1863 

36 

24 

60 

3 

2 

5 

Massachusetts (Clarke) In¬ 
stitution, Northampton.... 

1867 

32 

28 

60 

... 

5 

5 

Arkansas Institution, Little 

Rock. 

1867 

87 

31 

68 

2 

3 

5 

Maryland Institution, Fred- 
erick City. 

1868 

65 

37 

102 

5 

4 

9 

Nebraska Institution,Omaha 

1869 

12 

14 

26 

1 

2 

3 

West Virginia “ Romney 

1870 

35 

21 

56 

2 

2 

4 

Oregon “ Salem... 

1870 

13 

11 

24 

1 

1 

2 

St. Bridget “ (Catholic), 

St. Louis, Mo. 

1860 

... 

11 

11 


2 

2 

St. Mary Institution (Cath¬ 
olic), Buffalo, N. Y. 

1862 

27 

31 

58 

1 

5 

6 

Institution for Improved In- 
struction, N. Y. City. 

1867 

38 

42 

80 

1 

6 

7 

Day School, Pittsburg, Pa.... 

1869 

23 

20 

43 

1 

1 

2 

Day School, Boston, Mass. 

1869 

22 

33 

55 

... 

4 

4 

Whipple’s Home School, 
Mystic, Conn . 

1869 

2 

2 

4 




Total in 36 Institutions, 1872 
--- - 


2447 

1903 

4350 

171 

105 

276 


Revised by Henry Barnard. 


DeaFness [Lat. surditas; Fr. sourdite; Ger. 
Taubheit], loss or imperfection of hearing, may be 
congenital or acquired, permanent or temporary, 
complete or incomplete. It may be (1), “ nerv¬ 
ous”—that is, caused by organic or functional 
disease of the auditory nerve or of the brain itself. 
Deafness of this kind is sometimes curable, but 
frequently it is permanent. It may be (2), the re¬ 
sult of local disease or accident. Disease of the 
structures of the ear frequently follows scarlet 
fever, and is often of a scrofulous character. When 
such disease leads to organic changes, even if they 


be slight, permanent and perhaps complete deafness may 
result. (3), Cerumen (ear-wax) frequently fills the passage 
of the ear. In such cases oil should be dropped into the 
ear, and a gentle flow of warm water from a syringe will 
generally remove the obstruction. (4), When the membrana 
tympani (ear-drum) is accidentally perforated, much good 
is often done by the use of Toynbee’s artificial ear-drum. 
(5), The Eustachian tube tnay be the seat of mucous in¬ 
flammation, and may require surgical treatment. Counter¬ 
irritation behind the ears, the use of general tonics, etc. 
may be beneficial; and this is more especially true of the 
deafness of aged people. (See Toynbee on “ Diseases of the 
Ear,” 1860 ; Roosa, “ On Diseases of the Ear,” new ed. 1874.) 

Since the year 1844, when the attention of physicians 
was first called to the subject, the growth of minute fungi 
( Aspergillus, etc.) in the ear has been reported to be a com¬ 
mon cause of disease of that part. The meatus and tym¬ 
panum are sometimes covered with the growth, in the form 
of white or yellow mould on their surfaces. Tinnitus, in¬ 
flammation, and the accumulation of wax are attendant 
symptoms, and the treatment consists in the application 
of a solution of carbolic acid, five grains to the ounce of 
water. The fungi are perhaps the effects of disease rather 
than the cause. Revised by Willard Parker. 

Deak (Francis), an eminent Hungarian statesman and 
orator, born at Kehida in the county of Zala (Szalad) Oct. 
17, 1803. He studied law, which he practised in' his youth, 
was elected to the National Diet in 1832, and became the 
leader of the liberal partj r . Soon after the revolution of 
Mar., 1848, he became minister of justice, and projected 
important reforms in that department. He resigned office 
when Kossuth obtained power in Sept., 1848. On the de¬ 
feat of the Hungarian patriots in battle in 1849, he quitted 
public life and retired to his estate. Having been elected 
to the Diet in 1861, he became the leader of the moderate 
party and the most popular man in Hungary. He was the 
author of the address sent by the Diet to the emperor, and 
of the protest against the imperial rescript in 1861. Deak 
is regarded as the master-spirit of the movement by which 
the constitutional autonomy of Hungary was restored in 
1867, and large concessions to civil and religious liberty 
were extorted from the emperor. He has ever since re¬ 
mained the recognized leader of the liberal party, which is 
commonly called, after him, the “ Deakist,” and which has 
had without interruption a majority of the Hungarian 
Diet. He has refused all offers of a place in the ministry, 
but no change in the ministry has been made without his 
consent. 

Deal [from the Ang.-Sax. dael, a “portion,” akin to the 
Ger. Theilf “part” or “piece,” originally a piece of any 
kind of timber, afterwards applied particularly to fir or 
pine], the commercial name used especially in Great Brit¬ 
ain for boards exceeding six feet in length and seven inches 
wide. Smaller boards are called battens. Deals are gen¬ 
erally three inches in thickness; when thinner, they are 
usually called planks, but thin boards are often called deals. 
They are imported into Great Britain chiefly from Sweden, 
Norway, and British America, and are sawed into thinner 
pieces for use. 

Deal, a maritime town and bathing-place of England, 
in Kent, is on an open beach of the North Sea, near the S. 
extremity of the Downs, 8 miles N. N. E. of Dover. It 
has been one of the Cinque Ports since the early part of 
the thirteenth century. A good anchorage extends between 
Deal and Goodwin Sands, 8 miles distant. The place is 
defended by Deal Castle, Sandown Castle, and Walmar 
Castle, in the last of which the duke of Wellington died in 
1852. Cmsar landed near Deal in 55 B. C. The castle was 
built by Henry VIII. in 1539. Its roadstead is famous as 
a resort for shipping. Here passengers and mails are 
landed, though less frequently than in former years. Its 
trade is small, and its manufactures are not important. 
Pop. in 1871, 8004. 

Deal, a post-village of Ocean township, Monmouth co., 
N. J., 5 miles S. of Long Branch. It is a place of summer 
resort, being more retired and quiet than Long Branch. 

Deal Fish [so called because its thin and wide body 



The Deal Fish. 



































































1280 


DEAN—DEAKBORN. 


somewhat resembles a deal or plank], the Gynetrus arcticus, 
a fish of the family Ccpolidm, is from four to six feet Ion#, 
eight inches broad, and one inch thick, and is found in high 
northern latitudes. 

Dean [Lat. decanus, from decern, “ten,” because the 
dean anciently presided over ten canons], an ecclesiastical 
title applied to officers of several different kinds. In some 
of the Anglican churches deans are dignitaries next in 
rank to the bishops. They preside over the chapters of 
canons and prebendaries, and in the old dioceses nominally 
elect the bishops. In England they are attached to each 
diocese. Rural deans are inspectors of parishes, who make 
report of their visitations to the bishop. Deans of college 
faculties are the presiding or executive officers. Various 
chapels in England and the chapel-royal of Scotland have 
deans attached to them. The three Scottish deans are Pres¬ 
byterians of the national Church. 

Dean (Amos), LL.D., was born at Barnard, Yt., Jan. 
10, 1803, graduated at Union College in 1822, became an 
eminent lawyer, and was a professor of medical jurispru¬ 
dence in the medical school and of law in the law school 
at Albany, N. Y. Died Jan. 26,1868. He was the author of 
many valuable law treatises, and also published “Philosophy 
of Human Life” (1839), “Medical Jurisprudence” (1854), 
and other works. Since his death his “History of Civili¬ 
zation” (7 vols. 8vo) has been published (1868-69). 

Dean (James), LL.D., was born at Windsor, Vt., Nov. 
26, 1776, graduated at Dartmouth in 1800, was tutor in the 
University of Vermont (1807-09), and professor of mathe¬ 
matics there (1809-14, 1821-24). He published a “Gazet¬ 
teer of Vermont” (1808). Died Jan. 20, 1849. 

Dean (John Ward), an antiquary, was born at AYiscas- 
set, Me., Mar. 13, 1815. He published a “Memoir of Rev. 
Nathaniel Ward” (1868), “'Memoir of Rev. Michael AVig- 
glesworth ” (1871), and a great number of accurate and 
valuable papers upon history, biography, and genealogy. 

Dean (J ulia), a beautiful and talented actress, was born 
at Pleasant A r alley, N. Y., July 22, 1830. Her grandfather 
and father (Samuel and Edwin Dean) were actors of repute. 
Her mother was the actress Julia Drake. She married a Mr. 
Hayne in 1855, was divorced in 1866, and married a Mr. 
Cooper soon after. She had great popularity in the West 
and South. Died Mar. 6, 1868. 

Dean (Rev. Paul), a distinguished minister of the 
Universalist and Unitarian denominations, was born in 
Barnard, Vt., in 1789. He held the doctrine of the so- 
called Restorationists, and was pastor of churches in Bos¬ 
ton and in Easton, Mass. He published numerous ser¬ 
mons, etc. Died at Framingham, Mass., Oct. 1, 1860. 

Dean (AAUlliam), D. D., a Baptist missionary, born at 
Morrisville, N. Y., June 21, 1807, and in 1834 became a mis¬ 
sionary of the society now known as the American Baptist j 
Missionary Union. His labors have been devoted to the 
Chinese in their native country, and also in Siam, where 
they are very numerous. He is the author of several re¬ 
ligious works in the Chinese language, into which he has 
translated parts of the Bible. —Mrs. Theodosia A. B. 
Dean, his second wife, died in 1843. A memoir of her 
life has been published. 

Deane (Charles), LL.D., was born at Biddeford, Me., 
Nov. 10, 1813, and became a merchant in Boston. He is 
the author of numerous historical papers of value, among 
which are “Notices of Samuel Gorton” (1850), “Memoir 
of George Livermore” (1869), and “The Forms of Issuing 
Letters-Patent by the Crown of England” (1870). 

D eane (James), a judge and missionary to the Indians 
of New York State, was born at Groton, Conn., Aug. 20, 
1748, and graduated at Dartmouth College in 1773. At 
the age of twelve he became associated with the Rev. Mr. 
Mosely, a missionary to the Six Nations. After graduat¬ 
ing from college he went as missionary to the Canadian 
Indians, and was employed by Congress to pacificate the 
northern Indians. He was commissioned as a major, and 
served in the Revolutionary war as an interpreter at Fort 
Stanwix. He was taken prisoner by the savages, but his 
life was saved by the efforts of some of their women. He 
was afterwards, for a long time, a judge in Oneida co., 
N. Y., and held other offices of trust. From him the vil¬ 
lage of Deanesville was named. He wrote upon Indian 
mythology a paper which is believed to be lost. Died at 
AYestmoreland, Oneida co., N. A.., Sept. 10, 1823. 

Deane (James), M. D., a geologist, born at Coleraine, 
Mass., Feb. 24, 1801, studied first law, and then medicine, 
of which he commenced the practice in 1831. He was an 
excellent operative surgeon. In 1835 he made known his 
discovery of remarkable fossil footprints in the new red 
sandstone near Greenfield. After his death his work upon 
these footprints was published by the Smithsonian Institu¬ 


tion. He was the author of a valuable report “On tho 
Hygienic Condition of the.Survivors of Ovariotomy,” and 
other papers. Died June 8, 1858. 

Deane (John), an English seaman, born about 1679, who 
while in command of the Nottingham galley was wrecked 
in 1710 on Boon Island, off the coast of Maine. Here 
the crew remained twenty-one days, and having eaten tho 
body of one of their number who had died, they were finally 
rescued. Deane published an account of this affair (Bos¬ 
ton, 1711; 5th ed. 1762), appended to a sermon on the 
event by Cotton Mather, but his mate and others of the 
crew published a different statement (London, 1711). Deane 
was (1714r-20) a naval officer under Peter the Great, but was 
banished to Kasan. He was afterwards a long time British 
consul at Ostend. His name is appended to a “Letter” 
(1699) from Moscow to the marquis of Caermarthen regard¬ 
ing the state of the Russian navy. Died at AATlford, Notts, 
Aug. 19, 1761. 

Deane (Samuel), D. D., a poet, born at Dedham, Mass., 
July 30, 1733, graduated at Harvard College in 1760, and 
was librarian and tutor there for several years. He was 
pastor of the Congregational church at Falmouth, after¬ 
wards called Portland, Me. (1764-1814), author of “Pitch- 
wood Hill ” and other poems, a “ Georgical Dictionary ” 
(1790), and other works. Died Nov. 12, 1814. 

Deane (Samuel), a divine, poet, and historian, was 
born Mar. 30, 1784, at Mansfield, Mass., and graduated at 
Brown University, Providence, R. I., in 1805. In 1810 he 
became pastor of the Second Congregational church in 
Scituate, Mass., where he remained for life. He published 
an excellent history of that town in 1831, besides several 
poems, sermons, etc. Died Aug. 9, 1834. 

Deane (Silas), an American diplomatist, born at Gro¬ 
ton, Conn., Dec. 24, 1737. He graduated at Yale College 
in 1758. He was a member of the Continental Congress 
in 1774, and was sent to France in 1776 as a political and 
financial agent. He was recalled in 1777, charged with hav¬ 
ing deviated from his instructions by making extravagant 
contracts, and by profuse promises to many French officers 
whom he persuaded to enter the service of the U. S. 
There is, however, very little doubt that Deane was a 
thoroughly able and honest man, as well as a zealous 
patriot. He was the victim of the unhappy jealousy of 
unworthy men, who wrought his social and financial ruin. 
Died in England Aug. 23, 1789. In 1842 too tardy justice 
was done his memory by Congress, which after careful ex¬ 
amination of his accounts found that a large sum was due 
to his heirs, which sum was paid fifty-three years after his 
death as a poor man in a land of strangers and enemies. 

Deane (William Reed), a genealogist, was born at 
Mansfield, Mass., Aug. 21, 1809. He was a nephew of 
Samuel Deane, the historian of Scituate. He was a large 
and able contributor to periodical literature, writing chiefly 
upon antiquarian subjects, genealogy, and the early New 
England history. Died June 16, 1871. 

Dean, Forest of, in Gloucestershire, England, is a 
picturesque hilly tract, having an area of 22,000 acres, be¬ 
tween the Severn and the AYye. It is mostly the property 
of the Crown, and nearly half of it is enclosed for the 
growth of timber for the navy. Here are forests of oak, 
beech, and other trees, coal and iron mines, and stone- 
quarries. This forest was formerly notorious for the de¬ 
based moral and social condition of its inhabitants, who 
have been largely reclaimed by the influence of religious 
instruction. 

Dean’s, a township of Edgefield co., S. C. Pop. 1320. 

Deans'ville, a post-village of Marshall and Kirkland 
townships, Oneida co., N. Y., on the Utica division of the 
New York and Oswego Midland R. R., 4 miles S. AY. by S. 
of Clinton. It has an academy and two churches. P. 195. 

Dear'born, a county in the S. E. of Indiana, border¬ 
ing on the Ohio River. Area, 291 square miles. It is 
drained by the AATiitcwater River. The surface is partly 
hilly; the soil is fertile, and is based on limestone. Dairy 
products, grain, wool, and hay are the staples. It is in¬ 
tersected by the Ohio and Mississippi R. R. and the In¬ 
dianapolis and Cincinnati R. R. Capital, Lawrenccburo-. 
Pop. 24,116. 

Dearborn, a township and village of AYayne co., Mich., 
on the Michigan Central R. R., 10 miles AY. of Detroit. It 
has a U. S. arsenal. Pop. of village, 530 ; of township, 2302. 

Dearborn (Henry), an American general, born in 
Hampton, N. II., Feb. 23, 1751. He served as captain 
at the battle of Bunker Hill, 1775, and as major in the 
campaign against Burgoyne in 1777. In 1778 he fought 
with distinction at Monmouth. He was a member of Con¬ 
gress from Massachusetts (1793-97), and secretary of war 
under Jefferson (1801-09). Having obtained the rank of 







































DEARBORN—DEBRECZIN. 


1281 


major-general, he captured York (now Toronto) in Canada 
April 27, 1813. lie was U. S. minister to Portugal (1822- 
24). Died June 6, 1829. 

Dearborn (Henry Alexander Scammell), a son of 
the preceding, was born at Exeter, N. H., Mar. 3, 1783, 
graduated at William and Mary College in 1803, became a 
lawyer in Massachusetts, was a brigadier-general of militia 
for the defence of Boston in 1812, was a member of Con¬ 
gress (1831-33), and as adjutant-general of Massachusetts 
loaned arms to Rhode Island during “ Dorr’s rebellion ” 
(1843), for which act he was removed. He was the author 
of several biographical and commercial treatises. Died 
July 29, 1851. 

Deas (Charles), an American painter, born in Phila¬ 
delphia, Pa., in 1818. He was a grandson of Ralph Izard, 
the patriot of South Carolina, and was a pupil of John 
Sanderson. The best known of his pictures were Indian 
and prairie scenes from the far West. He became insane 
and died in-. 

Deasy (Rickard), LL.D., an Irish Roman Catholic 
statesman and jurist, born in 1812 and educated at the 
University of Dublin (Trinity College), was called to the 
bar in 1335, became queen’s counsel in 1849, a serjeant-at- 
law in 1858, solicitor-general for Ireland in 1859, attorney- 
general in i860, and a baron of the Irish exchequer in 
1861. From 1855 to 1861 he was in Parliament, belonging 
to the “ moderate Catholic ” party, and representing the 
county of Cork. 

Death [Gr. 0avaTo<;\ Lat. mors, mortis ; Fr . mort ; Ger. 
Tod], the cessation of vital functions in animals and plants. 
The active phenomena observed after death, such as ma¬ 
terial decay and loss of heat, are merely continuations of 
processes which have been going on through life. The cor¬ 
responding operations of repair having ceased, the destruc- 
tive.processes become manifest. In a short time, however, 
in ordinary conditions, new and much more rapid destruc¬ 
tive changes are induced. (See Decay.) 

Local or partial death of an animal is called mortifica¬ 
tion, gangrene, or sphacelus; if in a bone, it is necrosis. 
Molecular death of animal tissue is called ulceration, except 
in bony tissues, when it has the name of caries. Systemic 
death is said by Bichat to be either—1, by “ syncope,” or 
fainting, when the heart’s action fails from lack of its usual 
stimulus ; 2, by “ asphyxia,”* when suffocation occurs or the 
lungs cease to act; or, 3, by (( coma,” when death begins 
at the brain. Other authorities add to these forms death 
by (4) “anaemia,” or deficiency of the blood, by (5) “as¬ 
thenia,” or weakness, and (6) by starvation; but these 
may be regarded as varieties of the first form, or syncope. 
Still others reckon as distinct forms of death (7) that by 
paralysis—which is indeed one of the causes of the second 
form—that produced by asphyxia, or apnoea. An eighth 
form, “ neersemia,” or death by the blood, when the latter 
element is poisoned or changed in character by disease, is 
mentioned by writers. It would be difficult to assign some 
instances (such as instantaneous death from an injury) 
to any one of these categories. It is asserted by many 
careful observers that death is usually painless, and that 
the apparent agony or struggle so often observed is au¬ 
tomatic. Cases are on record of burial after apparent 
death. Such terrible mistakes may be prevented by observ¬ 
ing the rule of preserving bodies until unequivocal signs 
of decay are observed. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Death Adder. See Acanthophis. 

Death, Brothers of, a name sometimes given to the 
monks of the order of St. Paul the Hermit, which was sup¬ 
pressed by Pope Urban VIII. about 1630. They always 
carried with them a death’s head to remind them contin¬ 
ually of death. 

Death, Punishment of. See Capital Punishment, 
by Rev. Abel Stevens, A. M., LL.D. 

Death-Watch, the name of certain small beetles in- 



Death-Watch. 


habiting human dwellings, and producing a sound like the 


*This use of the word “asphyxia” (which literally means 
“lack of pulse”) is most unfortunate, though sanctioned by 
usage. A better word is “ apncea ”— i. e . “ failure of breath.” 

81 


ticking of a watch. This sound being more readily heard 
in the stillness attending sickness, it has given rise to the 
superstitious belief that it prognosticates death; hence 
the name, “ death-watch.” The noise is produced by the 
insect beating its head against the wood in which it is con¬ 
cealed. It is supposed to be the call of the male to its 
mate. The common death-watch ( Anobium ) is a species 
of borer. It is about a quarter of an inch in length, and 
of a dusky-brown color. A number of species are found 
both in Europe and the U. S. The Artropos pulsatorius, a 
very different insect, is called in England by the same 
popular name, and for the same reason. 

De Augmentis, or, more fully, De Augmentis 
Scientiarum (i. e. “ On the Advancement of the Sci¬ 
ences,” or, as Bacon himself renders it, [“ On] the Ad¬ 
vancement of Learning,” employing this word in a some¬ 
what wider signification than is usual at the present time), 
a celebrated treatise written by Lord Bacon, and forming 
the opening chapter of his great work, the “ Instauratio 
Magna.” It is next to the “Novum Organum ” Bacon’s 
most important philosophical treatise. 

Debacle, a French word signifying “the breaking up 
of ice ” in a river or harbor. The term is used by geologists 
to denote a sudden rush or flood of water, which breaks 
down all opposing barriers, and leaves its path covered 
with scattered fragments of rock and other debris. 

De Bas'trop, a township of Ashley co., Ark. P. 1386. 
Debatable Land, a tract of country on the western 
border of Scotland and England, lying between the Esk 
and Sark. It was for a long time a cause of contention 
between the two countries, and even after its division by 
royal commissioners in 1542, continued to be a refuge for 
outlaws. It was divided by a line drawn from E. to W. 
between the rivers, the eastern part being adjudged to Eng¬ 
land, and the western half to Scotland. 

Debenture [from the Lat. debentur, “they (7. e. debts) 
are owing” (from debeo, to “owe”)], a term applied to dif¬ 
ferent documents or writings acknowledging a debt, as the 
acknowledgments given by railroad companies for special 
loans ; also an instrument or writing by which government 
is charged to pay to a creditor or his assigns sums found 
due. The term is particularly applied to custom-house 
certificates, entitling the exporter of goods to a drawback 
or bounty. 

De'bir {i.e. a “sanctuary”), a city of the tribe of 
Judah several times mentioned in the Bible, was situated 
W. of Hebron in the hill-country, and in a dry and arid 
place. It was captured by Joshua, or rather by Othniel, 
was inhabited by the Anakim, and had a Canaanitish king. 
It was afterwards given to the priests of the Hebrews. It 
was also called Kirjath-sepher and Kirjath-sannah. Its 
site is not at present accurately known. There was also a 
place of this name near Jericho, and probably another 
belonging to the tribe of Gad, E. of the river Jordan. 

Deblai [supposed to be derived from the Low Latin 
deblado, to “take away grain,” or perhaps anything of a 
granular or crumbling nature], in fortification, is any hol¬ 
low place or excavation in the ground made during the 
construction of a parapet or siege-work. The earth taken 
from the cavity is the remblai. 

De Blaquiere, Barons, a noble family of Ireland, 
received the baronetcy in 1784 and entered the baronage 
in 1800. —Sir William Bernard de Blaquiere, fifth Lord 
de Blaquiere, was born in 1814, and succeeded his brother 
in 1871. He is an officer of the royal navy, though now 
on the retired list. 

Deblois, apost-township of Washington co., Me. P. 139. 
Deb'orah, a Hebrew prophetess and judge, the wife 
of Lapidoth, gained celebrity by her successful efforts to 
liberate the Israelites from Jabin, king of Canaan. (See 
Judges iv.) She is supposed to have composed the spirited 
and beautiful lyric which forms the fifth chapter of Judges. 

Debouch [from the Fr. deboucher, to “pass out,” to 
“empty itself,” as a river], a military term, signifying to 
march out from a wood, defile, or other confined place into 
open ground ; also an outlet or available issue by which an 
army can march out. 

De Bow (James Dunwoody Brownson), an American 
writer on commerce and statistics, was born at Charleston, 

S. C., July 10, 1820. He studied law, and was admitted to 
the bar in 1844. In 1845 he removed to New Orleans and 
founded “De Bow’s Commercial Review,” which he edited 
for many years. He became in 1847 professor of political 
economy in the University of Louisiana. Died at Eliza¬ 
beth, N. J., Feb. 27, 1867. 

Debrec'zin, a royal free town of Hungary, capital of 
the county of Bihar, is on an extensive sandy plain 116 
miles E. of Pesth. The houses are mostly but one story 
































1282 


DEBT—DEBT, NATIONAL. 


high; the streets are unpaved and dirty. It contains a 
handsome town-hall, several hospitals, and a Calvinistio 
college with twenty-four professors and a library of 20,000 
volumes. It has manufactures of earthenware, combs, 
soap, and tobacco-pipes. Here are extensive markets for 
cattle and swine. A large majority of the inhabitants are 
Protestants and Magyars. It is connected with Pesth by 
a railway. Pop. in i860, 46,111. 

Debt, in law, means a sum of money due which is cer¬ 
tain in amount or capable of being reduced to certainty. 
Such an indebtedness may arise either as the result of a 
judgment of a court of justice, or on a sealed instrument 
(specialty), or on an unsealed instrument, or on a mere 
oral contract. Debts are thus distinguished into such as 
are of record, or of special contract or simple contract. 
They may arise either on an express or implied promise. 
Debts may be collected by an action of debt, or in some 
instances by an action of covenant. The last action is 
resorted to when the duty to pay is derived from a contract 
under seal. The form of action called indebitatus assumpsit 
(“ being indebted, he promised”) may also be used where 
the indebtedness is incurred by reason of a simple con¬ 
tract. A debt may be dischai’gcd in various ways, as by 
Accord and Satisfaction, Release, Payment, Novation, 
etc. The statute of limitations will be a bar to an action. 
The time within which the action must be brought under 
such a statute varies in the different States. (See Limita¬ 
tions, Statute of, by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Action of Debt is a common-law action brought to col¬ 
lect a debt. It is also used to collect a penalty given by 
statute. When an action of debt is brought on a written 
instrument, the defendant may deny its existence. If he 
asserts that there is no sfich record as the plaintiff alleges, 
his plea is called nuj, tiel record; if he claims that a sealed 
instrument which is set up as the foundation of an indebt¬ 
edness was never executed, his plea is non cst factum. 
These pleas merely deny the existence of the judgment or 
specialty. If he has any other defence, he should disclose 
it by specially setting it forth. So he may deny the exist¬ 
ence of a simple contract debt, or may set up in his jAead- 
ings any special facts which, while they admit the existence 
of the debt, show that the plaintiff has no right to recover. 
A judgment in the action for the recovery of a debt itself 
constitutes a new debt, on which another action may be 
brought, and so on, unless there be some statutory restric¬ 
tion of the right to bring an action upon a judgment, as 
there is in some of the American States. Under the codes 
of procedure of some of the States the technical action of 
debt no longer exists, as there is but one civil action. The 
same remedy may be had in substance under a complaint 
setting forth the facts constituting the cause of action. 

T. W. Dwight. 

Debt, National, of the U. S. The national debt of 
the U. S., as it existed at the commencement of the year 
1873, consisted almost entirely of obligations incurred or 
accruing since the beginning of 1861, and, as usually stated 
in official reports, it was, on Jan. 1, 1873, $2,162,252,338. 
But this sum embraces all known liabilities of the govern¬ 
ment, including the entire amount of currency outstanding 
issued by the treasury directly, with various items of old 
debts long unclaimed, and probably obsolete, though still 
necessarily carried on the books of the treasury. The fol¬ 
lowing is the official summary statement for Jan. 1, 1873 : 


Debt bearing interest in coin: 

Bonds at 6 per cent.$1,342,084,150 

Bonds at 5 per cent. 414,507 ,300 

$1,756,051,450 Interest, $40,040,292 
Debt bearing interest in lawful 


money: 

Certificates of indebtedness at 

4 per cent. 

Certificates at 3 per cent. 

Navy pension fund, at 3 per 
cent. 

Debt on which interest has 

ceased since maturity. 

Debt bearing no interest: 

Legal-tender notes. 

Old demand notes. 

Fractional currency. 

Certificates of deposit. 

Coin certificates. 


678,000 

2,780,000 

14,0 00,000 

$17,458,000 Interest, 204,273 

4,084,220 Interest, 345,991 

357,500,000 

1,142,294 

45,722,002 

25,370.000 

23,263,000 


$452,997,350 

Unclaimed interest. . . 16 595 

$2,231,191,026 $40,667,161 

Total debt.$2,271,85S,187 

Cash in treasury, coin. $74,359,276 

“ “ currency. 9,876,574 

Deposit held to redeem certif¬ 
icates. 25, 370,000 109,605,849 

Total debt, less cash in the treasury.$2,162,252,338 

Bonds issued to Pacific Railway companies. $64,623’512 


This repetition of the official statement is required to 
show that the debt proper is substantially little more than 
the first two items, of five and six per cent, gold-bearing 
bonds named above; the remaining items being nominal 
or contingent, at least as regards demands for interest or 
for repayment. The certificates of indebtedness are all 
to be retired; and the navy pension fund is a sum nomi¬ 
nally reserved, by act of July 1, 1864, to secure the annual 
interest of $420,000 required to pay pensions in the navy. 
The certificates of deposit and coin certificates represent or 
are exchangeable for cash in the treasury; and the currenc}', 
amounting to $403,232,062—exclusive of demand notes 
probably in greater part lost—is not likely to be retired or 
put in interest-bearing bonds. 

The six per cent, bonds, which constitute the bulk of the 
debt, are in rapid progress of cancellation by purchase in 
extinguishment of the debt, and also by substitution of 
new bonds at 5 per cent, interest. The total amount of 
such bonds purchased and cancelled from May, 1869, to 
Jan. 1, 1873, is $299,901,100 ; and the amount exchanged 
for 5 per cent, bonds under authority of the act of July 11, 
1870, is $200,000,000. The act of Jan. 20, 1871, authorizes 
a further issue of $300,000,000 of such 5 per cent, bonds, 
to bo applied exclusively to the cancellation of other bonds 
bearing 6 per cent, interest; and a contract for the ex¬ 
change of this entire sum has been completed, $100,000,000 
of the 6 per cents, being already notified as called in for 
redemption, and subscriptions having been received for 
a like sum of 5 per cent, bonds to replace them. On the 
completion of these exchanges the debt bearing 5 per cent, 
interest will be about $715,000,000, and that at 6 per cent. 
$1,042,000,000, should no other reductions take place. The 
reduction of the debt began in April, 1869 ; in the last nine 
months of that year it was reduced $71,903,524; in 1870 it 
was reduced $119,251,240; in 1871, $88,229,382; and in 
1872, $82,075,152. By various acts in 1870-72 large re¬ 
ductions were made in the leading sources of revenue, the 
customs and internal revenue, and it is probable that the 
monthly reductions will be less in 1873 than in either of 
the three previous years, and possibly not more than is re¬ 
quired by the sinking fund act, or about $32,000,000. 

Of the entire outstanding obligations of the U. S. gov¬ 
ernment there are the following items long remaining un¬ 
paid, and of which most of the vouchers are probably lost; 
but some portion may possibly be claimed : 

Old debt, prior to 1800, with items of 1812, and others to 


1837. $57,665 

Treasury notes, 1837-46, balance outstanding. 82,575 

Treasury notes of 1846. 6,000 

Mexican indemnity stock. 1,105 

Treasury notes of 1847. 950 

Loan of 1847. 1,650 

Bounty land-scrip, Feb. 11, 1847. 3,900 

Loan of Mar. 31, 1848. 5,500 

Texas indemnity stock, Sept. 19, 1850. 174,000 

Treasury notes of 1857. 2,000 


$335,345 

On the bonded items of this debt there is also an account 
of $75,596 accrued interest, constituting a nominal rather 
than a real charge, but entering into the aggregate of debt, 
as before stated. Of all the large creations of debt at the 
formation of the government, and again in 1813-15, 1837- 
45, and 1846-50, the small items above named alone remain. 
In 1858 a loan of $20,000,000 at 5 per cent, was issued, 
which is part of the existing debt, but the loan of 
$21,000,000 in 1860 is practically extinguished. With 
1861 the issue of the great existing loans began, and the 
following is a condensed account of the acts of authority, 
the issues, and the outstanding amounts of all the present 
debt. 

By the act of June 14, 1858, a loan of $20,000,000 at 5 
per cent, was authorized, to run fifteen years, all of which 
was issued, and is still outstanding, redeemable after Jan. 
1, 1874. By act of June 22, 1860, a loan of $21,000,000 at 
6 per cent., for twenty years, was authorized, $7,022,000 
only being issued, of which $10,000 only is outstanding. 
The series of loans called for by the war began with that 
authorized by the act of Feb. 8, 1861, of $25,000,000 at 6 
per cent, for twenty years, of which $18,415,000 were issued, 
nominally at par, but really costing about II per cent, in 
negotiation. All this loan is outstanding, and is known as 
part of the 6 per cents, of 1881. Next, on Mar. 2, 1861, 
treasury notes bearing 6 per cent, interest were authorized, 
of which $35,364,450 were issued; all being now redeemed 
but $3150. This was a most important act for the relief of 
the government, the notes being received for customs, and 
being redeemable within two years. Also on Mar. 2, 1861, 
bonds at 6 per cent., running twenty years, were authorized 
for the Oregon war debt; $1,095,850 being issued, of which 
$945,000 remain out, falling due in 1881. On July 17,1861, 
$250,000,000 of 7 per cent, bonds, to run twenty years, wera 
authorized, with authority to issue any part of this amount 










































DEBT, NATIONAL. 


in the form of treasury notes, running three years, at Vo 
per cent, interest, or notes not bearing interest payable on 
demand, or treasury notes for one year at 3 j- 6 ^ per cent, in¬ 
terest, exchangeable for 7.30 notes; but the whole amount of 
demand notes not at interest shall not exceed $50,000,000. 
An act of Aug. 5, 1861, authorized the issue of bonds at 6 
per cent, interest, running twenty years, to exchange for 
the one-year and three-year notes before authorized, with 
accumulated interest, at any time before or at their matu¬ 
rity ; and the demand notes were declared receivable for 
all public dues. These acts were most wisely designed and 
signally successful; the demand notes, though at first re¬ 
jected by the banks, before the close of the year were at a 
premium; and the interest-bearing notes became very ac¬ 
ceptable, and were readily converted, with their accumu¬ 
lated interest, into the permanent 6 per cent, bonds. The 
current of public preference was then changed in favor of the 
government issues, which at first were received with aver¬ 
sion, particularly by the banks. A very large issue of these 
notes took place, the 7.30 notes reaching $140,094,750, and 
the 3.65 one-year notes a large sum, with the full $50,000,000 
of demand notes. Of the 6 per cent, twenty-year bonds 
issued in redemption of the one- and three-year notes, there 
were $189,321,200, all being now outstanding, and due in 
1881. On Feb. 12,1862, $10,000,000 more of demand notes 
were issued, of which $88,296 remain outstanding; also 
$20,000 of the 7.30 notes are still out, both being probably 
lost. 

The preceding very successful issues laid the basis for 
the first great popular loan, authorized Feb. 25, 1862, of 
$500,000,000 of 6 per cent, bonds, redeemable after five and 
payable after twenty years—the standard 5.20s of the stock 
list. A large subscription was at once made, and the full 
$500,000,000 were issued. The acts of Mar. 3, 1864, and 
Jan. 28, 1865, added $15,000,000 more to the authorization. 
Being redeemable after five years, a large amount of these 
have been called in, only $267,289,400 remaining out Jan. 
1, 1873. By this act of Feb. 25, 1862, $150,000,000 of cir¬ 
culating notes were authorized and made a legal tender; 
$50,000,000 to be in place of the demand notes of July 17, 
1861. On July 11, 1862, $150,000,000 more were authorized, 
and on Mar. 3, 1863, $150,000,000 more—$450,000,000 in 
all. The whole amount was issued, and formed the great 
volume of currency known as greenbacks. Of this issue 
$400,000,000 was made permanent, but contractions in 1868 
and 1869 reduced the amount, and $358,557,907 only re¬ 
mained out Jan. 1, 1873. The act of Feb. 25, 1862, also 
authorized the acceptance of $25,000,000 of deposits at 5 per 
cent, interest; this authorization was increased to $50,000,000 
Mar. 17, 1862, and to $100,000,000 July 11, 1862. On Juno 
30, 1864, a further sum of $50,000,000 was added, this to 
pay 6 per cent, interest; all this, described as temporary 
loan, was to be repaid on ten days ’ notice, and was so re- 
* paid in 1865 and 1866, except $78,560 unclaimed. This 
temporary loan was very advantageous to both citizens and 
the government; the full amount authorized in each case 
was promptly offered, and the repayment reluctantly ac¬ 
cepted when the necessities of the government no longer 
required the money. 

The act of Mar. 1, 1862, authorized the issue of certifi¬ 
cates of indebtedness to public creditors in adjustment of 
any claims, such certificates to bear 6 per cent, interest, 
and to run one year. The sum of $561,753,241 of such cer¬ 
tificates was issued, all of which were redeemed in 1863, 
1864, and 1865, except $5000. A most important service 
was rendered by these certificates, particularly in obtaining 
war-supplies. They were readily taken, and facilitated the 
funding of general indebtedness as they matured. The act 
of July 17, 1862, authorized the issue of postage stamps as 
currency, and made them receivable in payments to the 
U. S. in sums less than five dollars. An act of Mar. 3, 1863, 
authorized the use of fractional notes (parts of a dollar) in 
place of postal currency, limit ing the amount to $50,000,000; 
which authorization was confirmed by the act of June 30, 
1864. This issue was promptly called for to the extent of 
$30,000,000, and it has varied from that sum to the present 
amount of $45,722,061, outstanding Jan. 1,1873. So much 
time has elapsed since the issue of the legal-tender notes 
and the smaller notes here described that it is safe to assume 
that without important changes in the general financial 
policy they are likely to remain as they are—nominal rather 
than real debt. No substitute for either can at present be 
found or appears to be desired. 

By act of Mar. 3, 1863, a loan of $900,000,000 was au¬ 
thorized at 6 per cent, for ten or forty years, principal and 
interest payable in coin; of which $75,000,000 only was 
issued, and taken at a premium of 34 to 4 per cent.; prefer¬ 
ence being given because of a possible distinction existing 
adverse to the payment of the principal of the 5.20s in coin. 
This act was repealed June 30, 1864, but the $<5,000,000 
remain outstanding. The same act, Mar. 3, 1863, also au- 


1283 


thorized $400,000,000 of one-, two-, and three-year treasury 
notes, at not over 6 per cent, interest, to be a legal tender 
for their face-value, principal and interest payable in lawful 
money. Of these there were— 

One-year notes, issued.$44,520,000, at 5 per cent. $93,795 out. 

Two-year notes, “ 166,480,000, at 5 “ 62,350 “ 

Three-year notes (comp’d)...266,595,440, at 6 “ 532,920 “ 

This act authorized the exchange of new treasury notes for 
any of these issues outstanding at any time; and provided 
for $150,000,000 more of currency, not at interest, to facili¬ 
tate such exchange. In all, $477,595,440 of these treasury 
notes of 1863 were issued; all of which, with the exception 
above stated, were cancelled or exchanged before May 15, 
1868. It will be seen that but a small amount of permanent 
loan was created in 1863, treasury notes being largely used. 
The loans of 1864 began with an issue of $200,000,000, au¬ 
thorized Mar. 2, 1864, at 5 or 6 per cent., principal and in¬ 
terest payable in coin; $196,117,300 was issued at 5 per 
cent., to run forty years—10.40s of 1864—and $3,882,500 
at 6 per cent. Most of the 5 per cents, brought a premium 
of from 1 to 7 per cent., and $194,567,300 remain out, with 
$2,298,000 of the 6 per cents. On June 30, 1864, another 
loan of $400,000,000 was authorized, at 6 per cent—5.20s 
of 1864—$125,561,300 being issued, and $68,974,680 re¬ 
maining out Jan. 1, 1873. But the demand was enormous 
at this time; and the loans not being fully taken, the act 
of June 30, 1864, authorized the issue of $200,000,000 of 
7.30 treasury notes, to run three years; which authority was 
extended by act of Mar. 3, 1865, to embrace $600,000,000 
more. Under this authority $829,992,500 of 7.30 interest- 
bearing notes were issued, all of which were duly redeemed 
or exchanged before the 15th of July, 1868, except the sum 
of $303,900, not presented, and in part probably lost. On 
July 1, 1864, the secretary of the treasury was directed to 
invest a part of the sum accruing from naval captures as a 
navy pension fund, in registered securities bearing 3 per 
cent, interest in currency; which was done to the extent 
of $14,000,000 ; but this is a nominal or contingent liability 
only, so far as the capital is concerned. 

The loans of 1865 began with the authorization of 
$600,000,000 of 6 per cent. 5.20 bonds by act of Mar. 3, to 
be applied only to the reimbursement of treasury notes or 
other outstanding obligations of the government. Two 
issues were made—on July 1, 1865, $322,998,950, and on 
Nov. 1, 1865, $203,327,250; of which issues $365,328,350 
were out on Jan. 1, 1873. By authority of the same act, 
as construed by act of April 12, 1866, a further issue was 
made in July, 1867, of $379,616,050, and of $42,539,350 on 
July 1, 1868; these sums being employed to retire treasury 
notes and other obligations, but not to increase the public 
debt. Most of these last issues remain out—viz. $315,874,000 
of 1867, and $38,638,400 of 1868. They are described as 
consols of 1865, 1867, and 1868. By act of Mar. 3, 1867, 
$50,000,000 of temporary loan certificates of deposit were 
authorized, bearing 3 per cent, interest, to be used to redeem 
compound-interest notes; and the act of July 25, 1868, au¬ 
thorized $25,000,000 more. Under both acts $85,150,000 of 
such certificates were issued, of which $2,780,000 were out¬ 
standing Jan. 1, 1873. 

On July 8, 1870, certain war-claims of Maine and Mas¬ 
sachusetts were adjusted by the issue of $678,362 of cer¬ 
tificates bearing 4 per cent, interest in currency; $678,000 
of which yet remain out. By act of July 14, 1870, $200,000,000 
at 5 per cent., $300,000,000 at 4i per cent.,and $1,000,000,000 
at 4 per cent, of new thirty-year bonds, principal and in¬ 
terest payable in coin, were authorized, to be used solely to 
retire 6 per cent, or other bonds of earlier issues. No action 
was taken until after the act of Jan. 20, 1871, which in¬ 
creased the 5 per cents, to $500,000,000, with interest pay¬ 
able quarterly. On May 1, 1871, $200,000,000 were issued, 
and exchanged for 6 per cents, at par; and on Feb. 1, 1S73, 
$300,000,000 more were contracted to be so exchanged, on 
the same terms as in 1871. No increase of the debt was 
authorized, but a sum of advance interest was granted on 
the new issues for three months, to cover all the costs of 
negotiation and exchange. The full sum of $100,000,000 
first offered to subscribers under the last negotiation was 
taken promptly, on being offered, before Feb. 20, 1873. 

By acts of July 1, 1862, and July 2, 1864, bonds guaran¬ 
teed by the U. S., and bearing 6 per cent, interest, to run 
thirty years, were authorized to be issued to the several 
Pacific Railway companies, on the completion and accept¬ 
ance of finished portions of the several roads. 1 Hiring 
1868 and 1869, chiefly, sums of $25,885,120 to the Central 
Pacific, of $27,236,512 to the Union Pacific, of $6,303,000 
to the Kansas Pacific, with $5,198,880 to certain branch 
roads, were duly issued. For the present the interest on 
these bonds has been paid by the U. S., but they are se¬ 
cured by mortgage on the entire lines of the roads, ot which 
they represent but one-half the capital stock. 

The mere numerical statement of the vast transactions 














1284 DEBT, NATIONAL. 


through which tho present debt was created almost pre¬ 
cludes explanation of tho not less remarkable circumstances 
transpiring in connection with these movetnents. Tho 
magnitude of these transactions is without a parallel in 
history, and the wholly unexpected power developed in 
1862 to conclude great loans without resort to European 
markets produced a profound effect on both the govern¬ 
ment and the people. The popular loan of $515,000,000 
in 1862 was the most remarkable of these events in its 
magnitude and its entire success; but subsequently a long 
period elapsed in 1863 and 1864 during which a permanent 
funded loan could with difficulty be placed. Very heavy 
issues of treasury notes and currency became necessary, 
with all tho aid derivable from temporary loans, certificates 
of indebtedness, and compound-interest notes. At this 
time the severest trial of the credit and resources of the 
government took place. Gold rose in Sept., 1864, to 250 
or more, and although many favorable results in practical 
business ensued from this high price of gold, investers in 
permanent securities were alarmed, and many looked for¬ 
ward to a necessity that might compel the scaling of tho 
existing debt and a funding at gold values, for the purpose 
of creating a stock certain to bo reimbursed, principal and 
interest, in gold. Heavy holders relieved themselves as 
far as practicable, and no opening appeared to place new 
loans advantageously. But at the close of 1864 a favor¬ 
able reaction took place: great profits had been realized 
on produce-shipments outward during the year; gold de¬ 
clined rapidly, and the basis of its highest advance was 
shown to have been in part fraudulent as well as simply 
speculative; confidence was restored, and the coming close 
of the war reassured the country as to future increase of 
the debt. So large a share of treasury notes and certificates 
bore interest as also to render claimants and holders easy 
until a proper opportunity should be afforded to consolidate 
this floating debt, and the apprehended decline of securities 
was, for these reasons, almost wholly averted. 

At this time the first material attempts at placing securi¬ 
ties abroad began, the German market being first opened, 
though leading bankers still refused to quote them at all.* 
In England an attempt to place the small sum of $10,000,000 
in Mar., 1863, on government account, wholly failed, and 
the bonds, which were 5.20s of 1862, were returned to the 
treasury. Great as was the profit of purchasing 6 per cent, 
gold-bearing securities at the low price they bore in gold in 
London, there was absolutely no investment in them, and 
only long afterward were any considerable numbers taken. 

This adverse opinion in Europe was not, on the whole, 
unfavorable to American interests, since the appreciation 
of values occurring at and after the close of the war was 
felt almost wholly by our own people. So strong had the 
people become through the self-reliance imposed by these 
trials that the productive force of the country was at its 
highest point, and profits were realized so largely as to 
render all alike indifferent to the standing our credit might 
have in any foreign market. Subsequent to the close of the 
Avar the securities of undoubted position as regards pay¬ 
ment of the principal in gold began to go abroad quite as 
freely as the public interests demanded. While discussions 
were pending in 1868 and 1869 as to the legal position of 
the principal of the 5.20s of 1862 and other like issues, tho 
market for these continued to be confined to the U. S., but 
no necessity at any time existed for enlarging it, and no 
public interest has been prejudiced by the general restric¬ 
tion of sales abroad. Active as the discussion was in 1868 
and 1869 as to the ultimate redemption of the issues re¬ 
ferred to, it had immediate good effects in favoring the ac¬ 
ceptance of the consols of 1867 and 1868, which were specif¬ 
ically pledged to be reimbursed in coin; and it ended in 
a general acquiescence in the view that sound policy re¬ 
quired that no distinction should be recognized in the basis 
of these great loans, and that they all could be and Avould 
be reimbursed in coin. The practical point Avas fully turned 
by the Fuuding act of July, 1870, under Avhich $500,000,000 
of stocks fully pledged as payable in coin are taking the 
place of a like capital sum of 6 per cents, of the earlier 
issues, covering nearly all upon Avhich doubt Avas at any 
time raised. 

The conspicuous measures of Avise legislation through 
which such vast sums have been raised and expended 
Avithin the brief period of ten or tAvelve years have in part 
been indicated in the course of the above citation of events. 
They Avere, briefly, the demand and interest-bearing notes 
of July, 1861, the popular loan of May, 1862, and the legal- 


* Among the efforts made to avert the danger and discourage¬ 
ments that appeared imminent in the latter part of 1864 Avas 
the preparation and publication of a statement of the national 
resources, issued under the auspices of the treasury department, 
and very largely distributed by that department, by the secre¬ 
tary of state to representatives of the government abroad, and 
by loyal associations in various States. 


tender issues of Feb. and July, 1862, and Mar., 1863. Tho 
National bank system Avas also important, together Avith tho 
large issues of treasury notes, temporary loans, etc. in 1864. 
After tho close of the Avar it became easy to fund all these 
temporary securities without loss to the government or its 
creditors. The full effect of these beneficial measures Avas 
seen in the unexampled prosperity of the country, not only 
while the debt Avas accumulating and prices were high— 
even inordinately so—but also through the entire period 
of gradual return to normal prices in 1869. At this time a 
great and steady reduction of the debt began, sustained by 
full or increasing revenues and reduced expenditures, for 
nearly four years to the close of 1872 ; the total cancellation 
of 6 per cent, bonds being $299,891,100, and the total re¬ 
duction of debt $363,697,000. Tho monthly interest charge 
is reduced one-fifth, being $8,516,808, as compared Avith 
$10,532,462 on Mar. 1, 1869. With the retirement of 
$300,000,000 of 6 per cents., and the substitution of a like 
sum of 5 per cents., as now provided, a further reduction 
of $250,000 Avill take place in the monthly interest charge, 
or over $3,000,000 yearly. 

The several issues of bonds constituting the body of tho 
funded debt have ahvays borne a premium in laAvful money, 
and have steadily appreciated in value as measured in gold. 
At the time of the first purchases in extinguishme nt of the 
principal, in May, 1869, the net cost of the bonds in gold 
Avas 83 per cent, of the par value; rising to 93.5 per cent. 
Jan. 5, 1870; to 97 per cent. Jan. 4, 1871, and to 99.99 per 
cent., or par, Jan. 4, 1872, and so remaining. The auiIuc 
of these securities is thus at par in gold for those liable to 
recall and cancellation, Avhile all not so liable have always 
borne a largo premium in currency, and usually a small 
premium in gold, being quoted in currency at 16 to 18 and 
sometimes 20 per cent, premium when gold was 12 to 14 
per cent., or 2 to 5 per cent, above par. The steady main¬ 
tenance, for the entire period since their issue, of a premium 
on all the permanent securities constituting the debt, is a 
remarkable proof of the stability of the public credit. 

By act of Feb. 25, 1862, an amount of the gold receipts 
from customs sufficient to pay, in each fiscal year, 1 per 
cent, of the entire debt of the U. S. was set apart as a sink¬ 
ing fund for its redemption ; but the pressure of current 
demands on tho treasury prevented any action under this 
Iuav until May, 1869 ; since which date, up to June 30,1872, 
there have been purchased $99,397,600 of bonds of the vari¬ 
ous issues known as 5.20s, at a net cost in currency of 
$110,997,186. The interest of the bonds or debt so pur¬ 
chased being also set apart for the same purpose, the sink¬ 
ing fund became, by act of July 14, 1870, a cumulative ap¬ 
propriation in extinguishment of the debt, though not dis¬ 
tinguished in operation from the regular mode of monthly 
purchase then begun with surplus funds of the treasury. 
Thus, though the general debt Avas less in 1872 than in 1870, 
the 1 per cent of the sinking fund, with its accumulated in¬ 
terest, gave the sum of $32,679,553 to be applied to such 
purpose in the latter year, as compared with $27,660,S79 
in 1870. The maintenance of the sinking fund as a prac¬ 
tical agency for paying the debt of course depends on the 
continuance of surplus revenues. If so continued, the debt 
will be rapidly paid; but the reduction of leading items of 
customs and internal revenue charges made in 1870 and 
1872 renders it doubtful Avhether more than the stipulated 
sums of the sinking fund will, at least for 1873, be available 
for the purpose. By direction of the act of July 14, 1870, 
the bonds purchased for the sinking fund, with all others 
purchased in extinguishment of the debt, Avere cancelled 
and destroyed, and the sinking fund Avas made a perma¬ 
nent annual appropriation from the customs revenues. 

The history of former loans of the U. S. government, as 
well as those of the last decade, sIioavs that only small re¬ 
ductions of their nominal or face-value have been suffered 
in negotiation, and that all obligations have been paid in 
full. By various small loans and issues of treasury notes 
$21,820,000 Avas borrowed from 1791 to 1800; the principal 
of debt remaining under the consolidation in 1791 being 
$75,463,476. Before the year 1810 this Avas reduced to 
$45,209,737, nothing having been borroAved from 1800 to 
1810. In 1810, $2,750,000 Avas borrowed; and in 1812-17, 
$107,511,234 was realized from various loans, an aggregate 
discount of $6,169,681 being submitted to in their nego¬ 
tiation—nearly 6 per cent. In 1820 and 1821 the sum of 
$8,000,000 more Avas borroAved, Avithout discount; and in 
1824 and 1825, $10,000,000 more, also at par. But the debt 
was rapidly reduced, and Avholly paid before the end of the 
year 1835; a large surplus revenue accumulating in 1836, 
which was distributed to the several States in 1837. In the 
same year loans again began, and the sum of $67,981,573 
Avas realized from such loans from 1837 to 1844, much loss 
being incurred. The debt was reduced in the two following 
years, standing at $15,550,000 in 1846; in 1847, 1848, and 
1849 largo loans Avere made, realizing $S2,967,200. Large 













DECAGON—DECAPOLIS. 


receipts of revenue served to reduce this debt to less than 
$30,000,000 in 1857, to which $20,000,000 of bonds was 
added in 1S58, with some treasury notes, giving $60,000,000 
of debt at the commencement of the late war. At one 
period only (in 1835) was the debt wholly paid off. 

Comparatively little has been written in permanent form 
on the subject of the national debt of the United States, 
other than tho official reports of the secretaries of the 
treasury, entitled the “Finance Reports,” 1861 to 1872. 
In these the principles and policy of tho government are 
clearly elucidated, and the history of the several issues, 
withdrawals, and cancellations is fully given. The princi¬ 
pal publications referring to the subject are J. G. Gibbons, 
“On the Public Debt of tho United States” (1867); “How 
the National Debt can be Paid,” by William Elder (1867); 
“ Is our Prosperity a Delusion?” (1868); «The Science of 
Wealth,” by Amasa Walker (1867-72); Baxter, “On the 
National Debt of England and the United States” (1872), 
with various pamphlets, speeches, reports, etc. by other 
authors. During tho war many pamphlets were published 
by individuals, proposing plans for tho liquidation or ex¬ 
tinguishment of the public debt, or in opposition to speci¬ 
fied measures of the government, but few were of great 
importance or of permanent value. The measures actually 
adopted were, on the whole, wisely framed and singularly 
successful in their operation. The difficulties temporarily 
existing, or feared by some, disappeared with the lapse of 
time, and the public acquiescence became universal. It is 
not easy now to see what one of the great measures actually 
inaugurated could have been spared from the list of enact¬ 
ments necessary to sustain the country in the peculiar ex¬ 
igencies arising during the last twelve years. 

Lorin Bloduet. 

Dec'agon [from the Gr. Sexa, “ten,” and yu)via, an 
“angle”], a plane geometrical figure having ten sides and 
ten angles. If the sides and angles are all equal, the figure 
is a regular decagon, and inscribable in a circle. A regular 
decagon may be formed from a regular pentagon by de¬ 
scribing a circle round the latter, bisecting the arcs between 
its angular points, and drawing lines joining the angular 
points to the points of the intermediate section. 

Decalitre [Fr.], a measure equivalent to ten litres. 
(See Litre.) 

Dec'alogue [Heb. 0"O“in rntJtp; Gr. 5e*aAoyo?, or 
oi Seica Aoyoi, “ the ten words”], called also the Ten Com- 
inandments, and often spoken of as the “moral law,” 
in distinction from the ceremonial law of the Jews, is that 
part of the law of Moses contained in Exodus xx. 3-17 
and repeated in a hortatory form in Deuteronomy v. 7-21. 
It was originally written upon two tablets of stone (Ex. 
xxx., etc.), which were placed within the ark of the cove¬ 
nant. The text of Scripture (Ex. xxxiv. 28) appears to 
fix the number of these commandments at ten, but various 
opinions exist as to the manner of dividing them. Tho 
arrangement recognized by the Greek Church and most 
Protestants, called the Origenian division, is that which 
was approved, though not originated, by Origen. It had 
been approved by Philo and Josephus, and was generally 
adopted by the Christian Church. But in the West it 
faded out, and was revived by Leo Judge (1482-1542) in 
his catechism, 1534, and by Calvin, 1536. The Roman 
Catholics, at least in their catechisms, unite into one what 
most Protestants consider the first and second command¬ 
ments, and divide the tenth Origenian commandment into 
two. This was Luther’s arrangement, and is generally, 
though not universally, followed by the Lutheran Church. 
It is called the first Masoretic arrangement. The modern 
Jews adopt what is called the Talmudical arrangement, 
which gives as the first commandment the words contained 
in Ex. xx. 2, and has for its second commandment the first 
and second of the Origenian arrangement. The second 
Masoretic, adopted by English Roman Catholics, differs 
from the first Masoretic only in inverting the order of the 
ninth and tenth commandments. The ten commandments, 
with the exception of the two regarding the Sabbath and 
reverence to parents, are negative ones, forbidding certain 
actions, and leaving positive procepts to other laws or to 
the individual conscience. The Decalogue is generally 
regarded as a moral code, binding from its own nature. It 
is, however, admitted that the fourth (or Sabbath) com¬ 
mandment has a positive as well as a moral element in it. 
Christ reduced the ten commandments to two. 

Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Decam'eron [It. Decamerone, from the Gr. fie'xa, “ ten,” 
and rjfiepa, a “ day”], the name given by Boccaccio to his 
celebrated collection of tales, which are supposed to be nar¬ 
rated in turn during ten days by a party of guests assem¬ 
bled at a villa to escape from the plague, which raged at 
Florence in 1348. 

De Camp (John C.), U. S. N., born Oct. 5, 1812, in 


1285 


New Jersey, entered the navy as a midshipman Oct. 1, 1827, 
became a passed midshipman in 1833, a lieutenant in 1838, a 
commander in 1855, a captain in 1862, a commodore in 18C6, 
and a rear-admiral (retired list) in 1870. He commanded 
the Iroquois at the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jackson 
and capture of New Orleans, and, in short, in every action 
on the Mississippi under Farragut, to and including Vicks¬ 
burg, in all of which he was conspicuous for gallant bear¬ 
ing. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Decamps (Alexandre Gabriel), a celebrated French 
painter of history and landscapes, was born in Paris Mar. 3, 
1803. He visited the Levant about 1827, and painted mostly 
Oriental scenes with striking light-effects. He painted his¬ 
tory, landscapes, genre, and animals, all with success. 
Among his works are the “ Defeat of the Cimbri” (1834), a 
“ Souvenir of Turkey in Asia,” and “ Les Singes Experts.” 
His historical works are commended for grandeur of concep¬ 
tion and a bold and free style of treatment. At the Expo¬ 
sition of 1855 his pictures divided the public attention with 
those of Ingres, Delacroix, and Vernet. Died at Fontaine¬ 
bleau Aug. 22, 1860. (Theophile Silvestre, “ Histoirc 
des Artistes Vivants,” Paris, 1856.) 

De Candolle (Augustin Pyrame), M. D., an eminent 
botanist of French extraction, born at Geneva Feb. 4,1778. 
He studied at Geneva, and in 1796 he removed to Paris, 
where he studied chemistry and medicine, and became a 
pupil of the botanist Desfontaines and enjoyed the friend¬ 
ship of Cuvier and Humboldt. He published a “ History 
of Succulent Plants” (1799-1803). In 1804 he graduated 
with an “ Essay on the Medicinal Properties of Plants.” 
Lamarck’s “Flora of France,” the first volume of which ap¬ 
peared in 1804, was prepared by him. He became in 1808 
professor of botany at Montpellier, and published in 1813 
his “ Elementary Theory of Botany,” a profound work, in 
which he developed his new system of classification accord¬ 
ing to the natural method. In 1816 he removed to Geneva. 
He projected a great work which should give a description 
of all known plants, and published two volumes (1818-21), 
with the title “ Regni Vegetabilis Systema Naturale.” 
Perceiving that the life of one man was not adequate to 
complete the work on so vast a scale, he modified his plan, 
and undertook to present a methodical arrangement of all 
known plants by orders, genera, and species in his “ Pro- 
dromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis” (10 vols., 
1824-46), which he did not live to finish. This is a very 
important book of reference for working botanists. Among 
his other works is “ Organographie Vegetale” (1827). 
Died at Geneva Sept. 9, 1841.—His son, Alphonse Louis 
Pierre de Candolle, born Oct. 28, 1806, has written sev¬ 
eral botanical works, published his father’s “Memoires et 
Souvenirs” (1862), and continued the “ Prodromus.” (See 
Flourens, “ Eloge historique de P. de Candolle,” 1842 ; 
Delarive, “A. P. Decandolle, sa Vie et ses Travaux,” 
1851.) 

Decanta'tion [from the Fr. decanter (It. decantare), 
to “pour”], the act of decanting; the pouring off a clear 
liquid from its sediment or subsidence. Chemists often re¬ 
sort to this process instead of filtration to separate the 
clear supernatant liquid from precipitates, and they some¬ 
times perform the decantation by means of a siphon. 

Decapita'tion [Late Latin decapitatio , from Lat. de, 
“from,” “off,” and caput (gen. capitis), a “head”], a form 
of Capital Punishment (which see) in which the head is 
severed from the body by an executioner. Under the Eng¬ 
lish government hanging has taken the place of decapita¬ 
tion, the last instance of the latter having occurred in 1745. 
This mode of punishment is still used in some of the Ger¬ 
man states and in France. In France the Guillotine 
(which see) is still used. Decapitation is of very ancient 
origin. It is a frequent punishment among Oriental nations. 

Dec'apod [from the Gr. Seiea, “ ten,” and ttoO? (gen. 
7 to 86?), a “ foot”], a name applied by Cuvier to an order of 
crustaceans, comprehending those which have ten thoracic 
feet. The same name is also applied to a tribe of cephal- 
opods, including those which have ten locomotive and 
prehensile appendages proceeding from the head, two of 
which are longer than the rest, and called tentacles. Decapod 
crustaceans are usually divided into three sub-orders—the 
long-tailed, the irregularly-tailed, and the short-tailed deca¬ 
pods. Shrimps, prawns, lobsters, and crawfish are ex¬ 
amples of the first sub-order ; the other two sub-orders con¬ 
tain the numerous species of crab. 

Decap'olis [from the Gr. SeVa, “ten,” and jroAi?, a 
“city”], a district containing ten cities of Palestine and 
Syria, founded principally by veterans from the army of 
Alexander, but recolonized and endow r cd with special privi¬ 
leges after the Roman conquest of Syria (65 B» C.). An¬ 
cient writers are not agreed in regard to the names of these 
cities. According to Pliny, they were Damascus, Phila- 










3 286 


DECATUK—DECENNIAL. 


delphia, Raphana, Scythopolis, Canatha, Dion, Gadara, 
Gerasa, Pella, and Hippos. All, except Scythopolis, were 
on the E. side of the Jordan. 

Deca'tur, a county which forms the S. W. extremity 
of Georgia. Area, 1062 square miles. It is bounded on 
the W. by the Chattahoochee, and intersected by the Elint 
River. The soil is generally fertile. Rice, maize, oats, 
tobacco, cotton, and wool are the chief products. It is 
partly traversed by the Atlantic and Gulf R. R. Capital, 
Bainbridge. Pop. 15,183. 

Decatur, a county in the S. E. of Indiana. Area, 372 
square miles. It is drained by Clifty and Sand creeks. 
The surface is undulating; the soil is based on limestone, 
and is fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, hay, and dairy products 
are raised. The most numerous manufactories are those of 
saddlery and harness. It is intersected by the Indian¬ 
apolis and Cincinnati R. R. Capital, Greensburg. Pop. 
19,053. 

Decatur, a county in the S. of Iowa. Area, 528 square 
miles. It is intersected by the Crooked Fork of Grand 
River. The surface is mostly undulating prairie; the soil 
is fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, hay, butter, and lumber are 
produced. Capital, Leon. Pop. 12,018. 

Decatur, a county in W. Central Tennessee. Area, 
325 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Tennes¬ 
see River. The soil is mostly fertile. Cattle, grain, to¬ 
bacco, cotton, and wool are raised. Capital, Decaturville. 
Pop. 7772. 

Decatur, a post-village of Morgan co., Ala., on the Ten¬ 
nessee River and the Memphis and Charleston R. R., which 
here connects with the Nashville and Decatur R. R., 122 
miles S. of Nashville (Tenn.). It has two weekly news¬ 
papers. Pop. of Decatur township, 2821. 

Decatur, the capital of De Kalb co., Ga., is finely 
situated on the Georgia R. R., 6 miles E. N. E. of Atlanta. 
Pop. 401. 

Decatur, a city, capital of Macon co., Ill., is about 1 
mile N. of the Sangamon River, and on the Central R. R. 
where it crosses the Toledo Wabash and Western R. R., 39 
miles E. of Springfield, the terminus of the Paris and De¬ 
catur, Mattoon Sullivan and Decatur, Decatur and East St. 
Louis, Pekin Lincoln and Decatur, Decatur and State Line, 
Indiana and Illinois Central, running to Indianapolis, 
Champaign Monticello and Decatur, and Peoria Atlanta 
and Decatur R. Rs., making nine railroads centering at 
this point. It has about four miles of street railway. It 
has twelve churches, one national bank, one rolling-mill, 
and several factories. One daily and five weekly news¬ 
papers are issued here. Decatur has increased rapidly in 
the last decade. Pop. 7161; of township, 1337. 

Miller & Addis, Pubs. “ Magnet.” 

Decatur, a post-village, capital of Adams co., Ind., on 
the St. Mary’s River and on the Cincinnati Richmond and 
Fort Wayne R. R., 21 miles S. S. E. of Fort Wayne. It 
manufactures wagon material and stoves. It has one 
weekly newspaper. Pop. 858. Ed. “ Eagle.” 

Decatur, a township of Marion co., Ind. Pop. 1559. 

Decatur, a post-township of Decatur co., Ia. P. 1046. 

Decatur, a post-village of Van Buren co., Mich., on the 
Michigan Central R. R., 116 miles E. by N. of Chicago. It 
has a national bank and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 
1420 ; of Decatur township, 2512. 

Decatur, a post-township of Burt co., Neb. Pop. 614. 

Decatur, a post-township of Otsego co., N. Y. P. 802. 

Decatur, a post-village of Byrd township, Brown co., 
0. Pop. 204. 

Decatur, a township of Lawrence co., O. Pop. 1761. 

Decatur, a township of Washington co., 0. P. 1437. 

Decatur, a township of Clearfield co., Pa. Pop. 1461. 

Decatur, a post-township of Mifflin co., Pa. Pop. 1171. 

Decatur, a post-village, capital of Meigs co., Tenn., on 
the Tennessee River, 140 miles E. S. E. of Nashville. P. 99. 

Decatur, a post-village, capital of Wise co., Tex., is 
200 miles N. of Austin City, on a beautiful eminence. It 
has one weekly newspaper. 

Decatur, a township of Green co., Wis. Pop. 2459. 

Decatur (Stephen), a famous American commodore, 
was born at Sinnepuxent, Md., Jan. 5, 1779, and entered 
the navy in 1798. In Feb., 1804, he led a small party 
which burned in the harbor of Tripoli the American frig¬ 
ate Philadelphia after she had been captured. For this 
gallant exploit he was raised to the rank of captain. 
Having taken command of the frigate United States, ho 
captured the British frigate Macedonian Oct. 25,1812. A 
gold medal was voted to him by Congress for this victory, 
lie was blockaded by a superior force in the harbor of New 


London in 1813-14. In May, 1815, he was appointed 
commander of a squadron of three frigates and seven 
smaller vessels, which was sent to chastise the Algerines. 
Ho captured two Algerine vessels of war June 17 of that 
year, and compelled the dey of Algiers to sue for peace. 
He was killed in a duel by Commodore James Barron Mar. 
22, 1820. He was noted for his resolute spirit and cool 
intrepidity. (See his life, in Sparks’s “Am. Biography.”) 

Deca'turville, a post-village, capital of Decatur co., 
Tenn., 6 miles from the W. bank of the Tennessee River, 
100 miles W. S. W. of Nashville. Pop. 188. 

Decay' [remotely from the Lat. decado, to “fall”] is 
the comparatively slow oxidation or burning which moist 
organic matter undergoes when exposed to air. It is not 
usually accompanied by perceptible increase of heat, unless 
putrefaction or fermentation is associated with it. Sub¬ 
stances rich in nitrogen are especially liable to decay; con¬ 
sequently, most animal substances decay more rajndly than 
any vegetable matters except the softest and most nitrogen¬ 
ous. The decay of animal substances after death is, accord¬ 
ing to the observations of Duvernoy, probably but the 
continuation of the normal disassimilation which goes on 
throughout life; but as the corresponding processes of repair 
have ceased, the decay becomes apparent for the first time 
after death. The decay of nitrogenous matters in the proper 
circumstances is accompanied by certain processes known 
as putrefaction and fermentation—processes which are ac¬ 
companied by the growth of fungi, often microscopical, and 
by complex chemical changes which materially hasten the 
process of destruction. 

Decazes (Elie), Due, a French minister, born Sejit. 
28, 1780. He was appointed minister of police in place of 
Fouche by Louis XVIII. in 1815, then minister of the in¬ 
terior, and prime minister in 1819. He resigned in Feb., 
1820, when accused of connivance with the assassination 
of the duke of Berry. Decazes still retained the favor of 
the king, who sent him ambassador to London, and gave 
him the title of duke. Died Oct. 25, 1860. 

Decazeville, a town of France, department of Avey- 
ron, about 20 miles N. E. of Villefranche. It has exten¬ 
sive blast-furnaces and iron-forges. Coal-mines are worked 
in the vicinity. Pop. 7106. 

Dec'cau [Sanscrit, Dacshina, “the south”], a term 
formerly applied to the whole of Hindostan S. of the Ner- 
budda River or Vindhya Mountains, but now usually 
limited to the country between the Nerbudda and the Kist- 
nah. It comprises Aurungab&d, Beeder, Berar, Bejapoor, 
Candeish, Gundwana, Northern Circars, and Orissa. 

Decem'ber [Fr. Decembre, from the Lat. decern, 

“ ten ”], the twelfth and last month of the year, is so 
called because in the ancient Roman calendar it was the 
tenth month of the year. 

Decem'viii (sing. Decemvir), [Lat., from decern, 
“ten,” and vir (plu. viri), a “man”], a name applicable 
to ten persons appointed for particular purposes, but more 
especially applied to the ten magistrates elected from the 
Roman patricians to draw up a code of laws founded on 
the more approved institutions of Greece; they were also 
invested with supreme authority to govern the state. The 
experiment proved entirely successful; their laws were ap¬ 
proved by the senate and engraven on ten metal tablets; 
and their official duties were discharged with so much sat¬ 
isfaction that, at the expiration of their year of office, it 
was resolved, as their work was not completed, to continue 
the same form of government. A new commission, in¬ 
vested with the same power, was appointed for the next 
year, to which the plebeians were admitted, the result of 
which was two additional tablets, thus completing the fa¬ 
mous Twelve Tables which in subsequent times became the 
foundation of all Roman law. The new decemviri, how¬ 
ever, proceeded to the most violent acts of despotism, per¬ 
petrating various outrages on the persons and families of 
the plebeians, which so exasperated the people that an in¬ 
surrection broke forth; the decemviri were driven from 
office, and the ordinary magistrates were re-established. 

The decemviri litibus judicandis (“ten men for settling 
lawsuits ”) formed a kind of court for trying civil cases, 
and, later, for matters involving life and death. The decem¬ 
viri sacris faciundia (the “ten men for performing sacred 
duties ”), first instituted about 367 B. C., were five patri¬ 
cians and five plebeians who had charge of the Sibylline 
books until the time of Cicero, when they were made fifteen 
in number. They were considered sacred to Apollo. There 
were also decemviri for dividing the public lands. 

Decen'nial [from the Lat. decennium, a “period of 
ten years” (from decern, “ten,” and annua, a “year”)], 
occurring every ten years. For example, the U. S. census 
is decennial. The decennial games ( decennia or decenna- 
lia) among the later Romans were celebrated in consequence 






















DECHANT—DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 


of the fact that the emperor Augustus pretended to refuse 
the empire for life, choosing to he elected to it for a period 
of ten years, at the end of which time he accepted it for 
ten years more, and so on till the end of his life. The fiction 
was kept up till the last days of the empire by the obser¬ 
vance of the decennial games. 

Dechant (Rev. Jacob William) was born at Kreuz- 
nach, in the Palatinate, Feb. 18, 1784, and emigrated to 
America in 1805. He was ordained to the ministry of the 
German Reformed Church in 1808. lie labored with suc¬ 
cess as a missionary among the Germans of Ohio and Penn¬ 
sylvania, and instructed numbers of theological students. 
Died of cholera Oct. 5, 1832. 

De Charms (Richard), an American Swedenborgian 
minister and writer, born in Philadelphia Oct. 17, 1796, 
graduated at Yale College in 1826. He published “ The 
New Churchman Extra,” and several volumes of sermons. 
Died Mar. 20, 1864. 

Decherd', a post-village of Franklin co., Tenn., is the 
E. terminus of the Winchester and Alabama R. R., and is 
also a station of the Nashville and Chattanooga R. R., 82 
miles from Nashville. 

Decid'uoiis [Lat. deciduua, from de, “down,” and 
ccido, to “fall”] Trees are trees whose leaves fall off in 
autumn and are annually renewed in the spring. The 
greater part of the trees and shrubs of temperate climates 
are deciduous, but in tropical countries the forest trees 
maintain generally a perennial verdure, except where the 
diversities caused by the wet and dry seasons are extreme. 
Trees that are not deciduous are called evergreen. 

Deciduous Teeth, called also, in mammals, temporary 
or milk teeth, are the teeth which appear in infancy, and 
which after a time fall out, and are succeeded by the per¬ 
manent teeth. In children there are twenty such teeth, 
ten in each jaw—four molar, two canine, and four incisor 
teeth. In reptiles and fishes all teeth are deciduous, being 
continually cast out and renewed. 

Decimal [from the Lat. decimus , “tenth” (from decern, 
“ten”)], a number written in the scale of tens. The name 
is especially applied to a Decimal Fraction (which see). 

Decimal Fraction is a fraction whose denominator 
is a decimal number or power of ten. Thus, ^2 34 j s a d e _ 
cimal fraction. It may be decomposed into the sum LQiL 0 

+ T§& + To°o + T¥o = 10 + 2 + TU + TFo- B y an obvious 
extension of the method of local values, where each digit 
has ten times the value of the like digit which immediately 
follows it, the above decimal fraction may be, and usually 
is, written thus: 12.34, where the decimal point after the 
2 merely serves to indicate which digit represents units. In 
this form a decimal fraction is termed a decimal. 

For the purpose of indicating the units’ place the method 
of Sir Isaac Newton, of using a point placed for distinction 
near the top of the figures, is frequently used. The opera¬ 
tions of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division 
may be applied to decimals in exactly the same manner 
as to integers. The only additional rules in decimals refer 
to the position of the decimal point. 

In their abbreviated form, decimal fractions are now ex¬ 
tensively employed in arithmetical calculations. A sub¬ 
division of weights and measures on the principle of deci¬ 
mal division was introduced into France at the time of the 
Revolution, and has since been adopted by a large portion 
of the civilized world. 

Decima'tion [Lat. decimatio, from decern, “ten”], in 
Roman history, the selection by lot of one man out of every 
ten, who was put to death in cases of mutiny or other grave 
offence committed by a body of troops. Decimation has 
seldom been practised in modern times. Bliicher decimated 
a body of mutinous troops before the battlo of Waterloo. 

Decimi, da'che-mee [from the Lat. decimus, “tenth”], 
an Italian term used in music, signifying an interval of 
ten diatonic degrees, as from C to E, or third above the 
octave, as which it is always treated in harmony. In double 
counterpoint, where a necessary difference has to be made, 
it is treated differently from the third, although the same 
harmonic rules obtain; also in thorough-bass, where the 
figure 9 rises a degree to 10, instead of falling a degree to 8. 

De'cius (Caius Messius Quintus Trajanus), a Roman 
emperor, born in Pannonia about 200 A. D. He became a 
general in the service of the emperor Philip, and had com¬ 
mand of an army which revolted against Philip and pro¬ 
claimed Decius. In the battle that ensued Philip was de¬ 
feated and killed in 249 A. D. A severe persecution of 
the Christians occurred in the reign of Decius, who was 
killed in battle by the Goths in Nov., 251 A. D. 

Decius Mus (Publius), a Roman consul and patriot 
who obtained celebrity by devoting himself to the Dii Manes 
as a sacrifice. In a battlo against the Latins (33 < 33. C.) ho 


1287 


rushed into the midst of the enemy and was killed. His 
son, P. Decius Mus, imitated his example in 296 33. C., 
when he commanded against the Gauls. 

Deck [from the Ang.-Sax. decan, to “cover,” and allied 
to the Lat. tectum, a “covering” or “roof” (from tc</o, 
tectum, to “cover”); Fr.^oat or tillac ], a planked flooring, 
forming also a covering or division to a ship. In large 
vessels there are several decks, as the upper, main, lower, 
and orlop decks. Smaller ships have two whole and one 
half deck, and still smaller only one of each. 

Deck'd, a township of Richland co., Ill. Pop. 971. 

Decker, a township of Ivnox co., Ind. Pop. 837. 

Decker (Thomas), an English dramatist, born before 
1600. He wrote several plays in partnership with Ford 
and Rowley. His principal works are “ Fortunatus, or the 
Wishing-Cap,” “The Honest Whore,” and the “Gull’s 
Horn-Book.” Died about 1638. 

Deck'ertown, a post-village of Wantage township, 
Sussex co., N. J., on the New York and Oswego Midland 
R. R., 66 miles N. W. of Jersey City. It has one national 
bank and one weekly newspaper. 

DecSara'tiou [Lat. declaratio, from declaro, to “make 
clear”], an affirmation; the act of declaring; a public an¬ 
nouncement; a public expression of facts or opinions; a 
proclamation. Among the most memorable of all political 
documents is the American Declaration of Independence 
(which see). The first Colonial Congress passed an import¬ 
ant “Declaration of Rights” at Philadelphia on the 14th 
of Oct., 1774. Though less famous than the Declaration 
of Independence, it is of scarcely less importance in the 
history of our country. (See Gillet’s “ Federal Govern¬ 
ment,” 1871, pp. 17-27.) A “Declaration of the Rights 
of Man” was adopted by the National Assembly at Paris 
Aug. 18, 1789. The “Declaration of Thorn” (Lat. declar¬ 
atio Thorunensis) was a confession of faith drawn up at 
Thorn, in Poland, in 1645, for the use of the Reformed 
churches, the design being to settle controverted points. 

Declaration, in law, is a specification of a cause of ac¬ 
tion by a plaintiff against a defendant; the pleading in 
which a plaintiff sets forth his case against the defendant. 
It contains certain formal or substantial parts, such as the 
title, venue, the cause of action, and the conclusion. If the 
plaintiff fails to declare within a certain time, the defend¬ 
ant may obtain judgment of non pros. The term is used 
in other significations in other branches of the law— e. g. 
declaration of trust, declaration of uses, declaration in evi¬ 
dence, etc. 

Declaration of War, the formal announcement by a 
government of its intention to wage war against another, is 
a proceeding which is observed among all civilized nations, 
though instances have frequently occurred where de facto 
wars have been carried on without such notification, as be¬ 
tween the English and Spanish at sea at various times 
during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. of England. 
Powerful nations have also sometimes, without any such 
declaration, attacked the weak, designing a breach of in¬ 
ternational law. In the U. S. the declaration of war is a 
power exercised by Congress alone. During the age of chiv¬ 
alry, a herald made declaration of war at the enemy’s court, 
his tabard on his arm. No offence was taken at his defi¬ 
ance, which was frequently rewarded by gifts of money 
from the party defied. (See International Law No. II., by 
Pres. T. D. Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D. 

Declaration of Independence.- The first Con¬ 
gress of the thirteen British colonies, which led to their 
ultimate union in resistance to the British crown, and their 
jointly throwing off their allegiance to the same, as well as 
their ultimate union as the United States of America, met 
in Philadelphia on the 5th of Sept., 1774. The immediate 
cause of this assemblage was what was called “the Boston 
Port Bill;” that is, an act of Parliament by which the port 
of Boston was closed and the custom-house removed to 
Salem, because of the destruction of the tea at the former 
place. This was looked upon by the friends of constitu¬ 
tional liberty in all the colonies as a direct attack by usurpa¬ 
tion upon the chartered rights of Massachusetts. If they 
should silently permit this gross outrage to be perpetrated 
upon a sister colony, they saw no security against similar 
outrages being perpetrated in turn upon their own char¬ 
tered or constitutional rights. It was now that the cry of 
“ Tho cause of Boston is the cause of us all ” was raised 
in Virginia, and extended from tho Penobscot to the Alta- 
maha. The result was the call of a general Congress of 
all tho colonies, to meet, by deputies, at the time and place 
stated, for joint consultation and joint action in mainte¬ 
nance of principles essential to the preservation of the 
rights and liberties of all. The idea of independence or 

* By Hon. Alex. H. Stephens. 















DECLAKATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 


1288 




separation was at this time entertained by no one. Upon 
the assembling of this Congress, Peyton Randolph of Vir¬ 
ginia was chosen the president of it, and Charles Thomp¬ 
son secretary. In all the deliberations of this body each 
colony stood upon an equal footing with the others, without 


regard to population, wealth, or the number of delegates 
sent. All questions were decided by the colonies present, 
each having one vote only. They urged several measures 
upon the consideration of their constituents as proper 
means for obtaining a general redress of grievances, and 


'j 




■ 


i 

; 


Old Pennsylvania State-house, or “ Independence Hall ” (where the Declaration was signed), as it appeared in 1776. 



also prepared and published a declaration of what they 
considered the indefeasible rights of all the colonies under 
the British constitution. They adjourned on the 26th of 
Oct., 1774, with a recommendation to the colonies to meet 
in Congress again, by deputies, on the 10th of May, 1775. 

In speaking of the papers issued by this assemblage, 
Lord Chatham said in the British Parliament that, though 
he had studied and admired the free states of antiquity, 
the master-spirits of the world, yet for solidity of reason¬ 
ing, force of sagacity, and wisdom of conclusion no body 
of men could stand in preference to this Congress. All 
this, however, incensed rather than appeased the ministry. 
On the 1st of April, 1775, they had 3000 troops in Boston 
for the purpose of enforcing their iniquitous measures at the 
point of the bayonet. Hostilities soon ensued. The battles 
of Concord and Lexington were fought. Engagements 
also took place at Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and Skenes- 
borough in New York. 

It was in this state of things that the second Congress of 
the colonies assembled at Philadelphia on the 10th of Ma} 7 , 
1775, according to the recommendation of its predecessor. 
Peyton Randolph of Virginia was again chosen president, 
but soon being called home on urgent business, John Han¬ 
cock of Massachusetts was, on the 24th of May, chosen 
president of the Congress in his stead. The crisis was now 
becoming not only serious, but alarming. The purpose of 
Great Britain to reduce the colonies to absolute subjection 
without any redress of grievances seemed to be evident. 
The Congress, with firmness and without hesitation, deter¬ 
mined to resist force by force. Troops were raised for the 
purpose. In setting forth the reasons for their action in 
thus defending themselves and their constituents, they de¬ 
clared that they had “ no wish to separate from the mother- 
country, but only to maintain their chartered rights.” “In 
our native land,” said they, “and in defence of the free¬ 
dom which is our birthright, and which we have ever en¬ 
joyed till the late violation of it, for the protection of our 
property, acquired solely by the honest industry of our 
forefathers and ourselves, against violence actually offered, 
we have taken up arms. We shall lay them down when 
hostilities shall cease on the part of the aggressors, and all 
danger of their being renewed shall be removed, and not 
before.” 

On the 14th of June, 1775, at the instance of Massachu¬ 
setts, George Washington, one of the delegates of Virginia, 
was unanimously appointed commander-in-chief of all the 
colonial forces. He was commissioned in the name of the 
united colonies, the name of each colony present by its 
deputies being set forth in the commission. This office he 


accepted on the condition that he should receive no salary 
except the payment of his actual expenses. 

Three days afterwards the battle of Bunker Hill was 
fought. Washington did not reach the vicinity of Boston 
until the 12th of July, 1775, when he assumed the command 
of the colonial army assembled there. It was not until the 
early part of the year 1776 that the public mind through¬ 
out the colonies began generally and seriously to consider 
the question of independence, though a portion of the peo¬ 
ple of North Carolina had taken this view of the subject 
almost from the beginning of the recent troubles. As early 
as the 20th of May, 1775, their celebrated Mecklenburg 
convention assembled and announced their famous decla¬ 
ration, severing for ever themselves from all their alle¬ 
giance to the crown of Great Britain. 

In Jan., 1776, Massachusetts instructed her delegates in 
the Congress of the colonies at Philadelphia to vote for in¬ 
dependence. South Carolina gave similar instructions to 
her delegates in March. Georgia and North Carolina did 
the same in April. In May, Gen. Washington wrote from 
the head of the army, then at New York, “A reconciliation 
with Great Britain is impossible. . . . When I took com¬ 
mand of the army I abhorred the idea of independence; 
but I am now fully satisfied that nothing else will save us.” 
In the same month Virginia instructed her delegates in 
Congress to vote for independence. New Hampshire, New 
Jersey, and Maryland followed in giving similar instruc¬ 
tions to their delegates early in June. Pennsylvania and 
New York delayed action, still indulging hopes of an ad¬ 
justment of the controversy. The general instructions of 
the colonies to their delegates were to renounce all alle¬ 
giance to the British crown, and to form a confederation 
among themselves as independent States. On the 7th of 
June, Richard Henry Lee, a delegate from Virginia, moved 
a resolution in Congress that “ these united colonies are, and 
of right ought to be, free and independent States, . . . . 
and that a plan of confederation be prepared and trans¬ 
mitted to the respective colonies for their consideration 
and approbation.” This resolution was adopted on the 
11th of June. Two committees were appointed under it— 
one to prepare a Declaration of Independence, and the 
other to prepare Articles of Union or Confederation. The 
committee to prepare the Declaration of Independence con¬ 
sisted of Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams of 
Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger 
Sherman of Connecticut, and Robert R. Livingston of New 
Tork. They reported on the 28th of June, but action on 
the report was deferred for some days for the delegates from 
Pennsylvania and New York to receive their instructions 



























































































































































DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 


1289 


and powers to vote for the Declaration. This celebrated 
paper was drawn up by Mr. Jefferson, the chairman of the 
committee, being only slightly modified in some parts, as 



The “ Liberty Bell ” was first imported from England in 1753. It 
was cracked at the first ringing after its arrival, and recast in 
Philadelphia in the same year. Upon the fillets around it were 
cast (twenty-three years before the Declaration of Independ¬ 
ence) the prophetic words, “ Proclaim liberty throughout all 
the land, unto all the inhabitants thereof.” After the first 
reading of the Declaration it was rung for more than two 
hours, with the firing of cannon and the heating of drums. 
The hell has been broken for many years. It now stands in 
the hall of the old State-House, Philadelphia. 

it now stands, at the Suggestion of other members. It 
came up for final action on the 4th day of July, when it 
received the unanimous vote, not only of all the colonies, 
but of all their delegates in Congress. It was voted upon 
by colonies as separate and distinct political bodies, and 
as it stands on the journal is in these words: 

In Congress, July 4,1776. 

The Unanimous Declaration op the Thirteen United 
States op America. 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes neces¬ 
sary for one people to dissolve the political bands which 
have connected them with another, and to assume, among 
the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to 
which the laws of nature and of nature’s God entitle them, 
a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that 
they should declare the causes which impel them to the 
separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are 
created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with 
certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, lib¬ 
erty, and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these 
rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving 
their just powers from the consent of the governed; that 
whenever any form of government becomes destructive of 
these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abol¬ 
ish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foun¬ 
dation on such principles, and organizing its powers in 
such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their 
safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that 
governments long established, should not be changed for 
light and transient causes; and accordingly, all experience 
hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, 
while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abol¬ 
ishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when 
a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invaria¬ 
bly the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under 
absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to 
throw off such government, and to provide new guards for 
their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance 
of these Colonies, and such is now the necessity which con¬ 
strains them to alter their former systems of government. 
The history of the present king of Great Britain is a his¬ 
tory of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having, in 
direct object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over 
these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a 
candid world: 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome 
and necessary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of imme¬ 
diate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their 
operation till his assent should be obtained; and, when so 
suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation 


of large districts of people, unless those people would re¬ 
linquish the right of representation in the Legislature; a 
right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places un¬ 
usual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of 
their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them 
into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for 
opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights 
of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to 
cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, 
incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at 
large for their exercise; the State remaining, in the mean 
time, exposed to all the danger of invasion from without, 
and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these 
States; for that purpose, obstructing the laws for the nat¬ 
uralization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to en¬ 
courage their migration hither, and raising the conditions 
of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by re¬ 
fusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the 
tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of 
their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their 
substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing ar¬ 
mies, without the consent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, 
and superior to, the civil power. 

He has combined, with others, to subject us to a jurisdic¬ 
tion foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by 
our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended leg¬ 
islation. 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment, 
for any murders which they should commit on the inhab¬ 
itants of these States: 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial 
by jury: 

For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended 
offences: 

For abolishing the free system of English laws, in a 
neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary 
government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render 
it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing 
the same absolute rule into these Colonies: 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valu¬ 
able laws, and altering, fundamentally, the powers of our 
governments : 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring them¬ 
selves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases 
whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out 
of his protection, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our 
towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign 
mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and 
tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and 
perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and 
totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on 
the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become 
the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall 
themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections among us, and has 
endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the 
merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is 
an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and con¬ 
ditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned 
for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated peti¬ 
tions have been answered only by repeated injury. A 
prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which 
may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British 
brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of 
attempts made by their legislature to extend an unwarrant¬ 
able jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the 
circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. Vi o 
have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, 
and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common 
kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevit¬ 
ably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, 
too, have been deaf to tho voice of justioo and oonsan- 
































1290 


DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 



guinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity 
which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold 
the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States 
of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to 
the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our 
intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the 
good people of these Colonies, solemnly publish and de¬ 
clare, That these United Colonies are, and, of right, ought 
to be,/bee and independent States; that they are absolved 


from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all polit¬ 
ical connection between them and the State of Great 
Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as 
free and independent States, they have full power to levy 
war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, 
and to do all other acts and things which independent States 
may of right do. And, for the support of this Declaration, 
with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, 
we mutually pledge to each other, our lives, our fortunes, 
and our sacred honor. 


yfffm 





















































DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, THE MECKLENBURG. 


1291 



Declaration of Independence, The Meck¬ 
lenburg. More than thirteen months before the adop¬ 
tion of the Declaration, above given, by the Continental 
Congress, a series of resolutions embodying a similar de¬ 
claration had been adopted by the citizens of Mecklenburg 
co., N. C., at a public meeting holden at Charlotte, the seat 
of justice of the county. Of this important historical in¬ 
cident different accounts are given. According to the state¬ 
ment generally received in North Carolina, the meeting 
above referred to was held on the 20th day of May, 1775, 
and the document itself was in the words following: 

“ Resolved , 1. That whoever directly or indirectly abet¬ 
ted, or in any way, form, or manner, countenanced the un¬ 
chartered and dangerous invasion of our rights, as claimed 
by Great Britain, is an enemy to this country—to America 
—and to the inherent and inalienable rights of man. 

“ Resolved, 2. That we, the citizens of Mecklenburg coun¬ 
ty, do hereby dissolve the political bands which have con¬ 
nected us to the mother-country, and hereby absolve our¬ 
selves from all allegiance to the British crown, and abjure 
all political connection, contract, or association with that 
nation, who have wantonly trampled on our rights and 
liberties, and inhumanly shed the blood of American pa¬ 
triots at Lexington. 

“ Resolved, 3. That we do hereby declare ourselves afreo 
and independent people; are, and of right ought to be, a 
sovereign and self-governing association, under the control 
of no power other than that of our God and the general 
government of the Congress ; to the maintenance of which 
independence we solemnly pledge to each other our mutual 
co-operation, our lives, our fortunes, and our most sacred 
honor. 


<( Resolved, 4. That as we acknowledge the existence and 
control of no law or legal officer, civil or military, within this 
county, we do hereby ordain and adopt as a rule of life, 
all, each, and every of our former laws; wherein, neverthe¬ 
less, the crown of Great Britain can never be considered as 
holding rights, privileges, immunities, or authority therein. 

(( Resolved, 5. That it is also further decreed that all, 
each, and every military officer in this county is hereby re¬ 
tained in his former command and authority, he acting con¬ 
formably to these regulations. And that every member 
present of this delegation shall henceforth be a civil officer 
—viz. a justice of the peace in the character of a ‘ commit¬ 
tee-man,’ to issue process, hear and determine all matters 
of controversy, according to said adopted laws, and to pre¬ 
serve peace and union and harmony in said county ; and to 
use every exertion to spread the love of country and fire of 
freedom throughout America until a more general organized 
government be established in this province/’ 

Other accounts give May 31, 1775, as the date of the 
meeting ; and make the declaration to consist of a pream¬ 
ble and twenty resolutions, of which twelve (the fourth to 
the fifteenth inclusive) make provision for the military or¬ 
ganization of the male population and for the administra¬ 
tion of justice, and the rest, with the preamble, are as 
follows: 

“ Whereas, By an address presented to His Majesty by 
both houses of Parliament in February last, the American 
colonics are declared in a state of actual rebellion, we con¬ 
ceive that all laws and commissions confirmed or derived 
from the authority of the king and Parliament are annulled 
and vacated, and the former civil constitutions of these 
colonies for the present wholly suspended. To provide in 








































1292 DECLARATION OF RIGHTS—DECLINATION OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE. 


some degree for the exigencies of this county in the present 
alarming period, we deem it proper and necessary to pass 
the following resolves—viz.: 

“ I. That all commissions, civil and military, heretofore 
granted by the crown to be exercised in these colonies, are 
null and void, and the constitution of each particular col¬ 
ony wholly suspended. 

“II. That the Provincial Congress of each province, 
under the direction of the great Continental Congress, is 
invested with all legislative and executive powers within 
their respective provinces, and that no other legislative or 
executive power does or can exist at this time in any of 
these colonies. 

“ III. As all former laws are now suspended in this prov¬ 
ince, and the Congress has not yet provided others, we 
judge it necessary, for the better preservation of good 
order, to form certain rules and regulations for the inter¬ 
nal government of this county until laws shall be provided 
for us by the Congress. . . . 

“ XVI. That whatever ])erson shall hereafter receive a 
commission from the crown, or attemjit to exercise any such 
commission heretofore received , shall be deemed an enemy to 
his country ; and upon confirmation being made to the cap¬ 
tain of the company in which he resides, the said company 
shall cause him to be apprehended and conveyed before two 
selectmen, who, upon proof of the fact, shall commit said 
offender to safe custody until the next sitting of the com¬ 
mittee, who shall deal with him as prudence may direct. 

“XVII. That any person refusing to yield obedience to 
the above rules shall be considered equally criminal and 
liable to the same punishments as the offenders last men¬ 
tioned. 

“ XVIII. That these resolves be in full force and virtue 
until instructions from the Provincial Congress regulating 
the jurisprudence of the province shall provide otherwise, 
or the legislative body of Great Britain resign its unjust 
and arbitrary pretensions with respect to America. 

“ XIX. That the eight militia companies of this county 
provide themselves with proper arms and accoutrements, 
and hold themselves in readiness to execute the commands 
and direction of the general Congress of the province and 
this committee. 

“ XX. That the committee appoint Col. Thomas Polk 
and Dr. Joseph Kennedy to purchase three hundred pounds 
of powder, six hundred pounds of lead, and one thousand 
flints for the use of the militia of this county, and deposit 
the same in such place as the committee may hereafter 
direct. 

“ Signed by order of the committee, 

“Joseph Brevard, Clerk of the Committee.” 

There seems to be no difficulty in believing that both 
accounts are true, and both documents genuine. The ac¬ 
tion of the 20th of May must have necessitated some more 
full provision for the public safety and for securing the 
order of society than had been made at that time; and such 
a meeting as that of the 31st must doubtless have been held, 
whether the previously adopted declaration had then been 
reiterated or not. (The historical questions connected with 
this matter, will, however, be found fully discussed by the 
Hon. William A. Graham of North Carolina, under the 
title Mecklenburg, which see.) 

F. A. P. Barnard. 

Declaration of Rights, a state paper presented to 
the prince and princess of Orange (afterwards William III. 
and Mary II.) at the time the crown was tendered to them 
(Feb. 13, 1689). The declaration had been drawn up by 
the Convention-Parliament, and complained of the follow¬ 
ing grievances which England had endured during the 
reign of James II.: The exercise of the dispensing power, 
the establishment of illegal ecclesiastic tribunals, unlawful 
taxation, the unlawful maintenance of the army, interfe¬ 
rence with the courts and the elections, the levying of ex¬ 
cessive bail, the infliction of barbarous punishments, and the 
refusal to hear petitions. The declaration then asserted 
the rights which had been thus violated, and claimed vari¬ 
ous privileges for the nation. The substance of this decla¬ 
ration became the “ Bill of Rights,” passed in the second 
session of the first Parliament under William and Mary. 

Declen'sion [Fr. declinaison; Lat. declinatio, from 
declino, declinatum, to “ bend aside,” to “ inflect ”], a term 
applied in grammar to the inflection of nouns, adjectives, 
and pronouns according to their different cases. Such 
inflections in English are limited to three cases—the nomi¬ 
native, the genitive or possessive, and the accusative or 
objective. Thus, the personal pronoun he is declined as 
follows : nom. he, gen. his, acc. him , etc. But this regular 
inflection is limited in our language to pronouns. Our 
substantives have ordinarily but one change of case inflec¬ 
tion, which occurs in the genitive, and is formed by the 
addition of s, with an apostrophe, to the nominative. In 


Latin there are six cases, in Greek five, in German four, 
in Russian seven, in Sanscrit eight, and in some languages 
even more. Of the cases, the first is the nominative or 
name-case (from the Lat. nomino, nominatum. to'“name,” 
and more remotely from nomen, a “ name ”). It is that form 
which is usually found in a list of nouns or names, in which 
case the subject-noun is always found. The genitive case 
(Lat. casus yenitivus, from gigno, genitum, to “beget,” im¬ 
plying the origin or source), also called the possessive case, 
indicates either the source or the possessor. Thus, when 
we say the “ sun’s light,” the sun is not the possessor of 
the light which it has emitted, but its source. In some 
cases the genitive implies a relation which is neither origin 
nor possession. Thus we speak of “ Caesar’s enemies,” in 
which case the possession is formal, and not logical. The 
dative case (Lat. casus dativus, from do, datum, to “give”) 
frequently denotes attribution or giving. Thus, in Latin 
we say “ Dedit mihi librum,” “He gave (to) me the 
book;” in which example the pronoun is dative. The 
dative, however, frequently does not imply any giving or 
attribution ; as in the Lat. “ Diis invisus,” “ hateful to the 
gods,” where a certain relationship is implied. The dative 
in Greek and Latin seldom signifies motion to any place. 
The accusative (from the Lat. accuso, accusatum, to “ ac¬ 
cuse”), called also the objective case, is frequently the 
object of an active verb or of a preposition, and in general 
is regarded as indicating the object towards which motion 
is directed or the place at which it ends. The vocative 
(from the Lat. voco, vocatum, to “call”) is the form of a 
noun in which a person is addressed or apostrophized. In 
English this case is identical in form with the nominative. 
The ablative (from the Lat. ab, “away,” and fero, latum , 
to “carry ”) is properly the case of a noun from which 
something is taken or carried away. The Latin ablative 
also represents the instrumental and locative cases. The 
instrumental case properly designates the means by which 
anything is done, and is found in the Sanscrit and Russian. 
In most languages some other case, or a preposition with 
its object, takes its place. The locative case (from the Lat. 
loco, location, to “place”) is that form of a noun which in¬ 
dicates that it stands for the place where anything is, or is 
done. It is used in Sanscrit and Russian. In the latter 
language it is called predlozhnii , or “ prepositional,” be¬ 
cause it is always accompanied by a preposition. 

The Latin ablative includes, as we have seen, also the 
locative and the instrumental. In the Sanscrit, to which 
the Latin has a very near affinity, the instrumental, dative, 
and ablative plural are, in many words, almost identical 
with each other. For example, in the Sanscrit blius (sig¬ 
nifying “the producer,” hence the “earth,” and also a 
“cow ”)—akin to the Lat. bos —has bhubhyas in the dative 
and ablative plural, and bhiibhis in the instrumental. The 
likeness between these forms and the Lat. biibus (dative and 
ablative of bos) is very remarkable, especially when we con¬ 
sider that bos in all its cases has a short penultima, except 
in the dative and ablative plural; while bhiis has also a 
short penultima except in the dative, locative, instrumental, 
and ablative plural cases, fully represented in Latin by the 
dative and ablative. 

Certain particular methods of inflecting words are also 
called declensions. Thus, declinable words are in some 
languages classified in groups according to the various 
methods in which their cases are formed. These groups are 
called the “ first declension,” “ second declension,” etc. 

J. Thomas. 

Declina'tion [Lat. declinatio, from declino, to “bend 
downward or deviate”], in astronomy, the angular distance 
of a celestial body from the celestial equator, measured 
along a great circle passing through the centre of the body 
and the poles of the heavens; or it may be defined to be 
the arc of a circle of declination passing through the place 
of the heavenly body, intercepted between that place and 
the celestial equator. The place of a star in the heavens 
is determined by means of its right ascension and declina¬ 
tion, which correspond to longitude and latitude on the sur¬ 
face of the earth. 

Declination of the Magnet'ic Nee'dle is the de¬ 
viation of the axis of a magnetic needle (that is, the straight 
line which joins its poles) from the astronomical meridian. 
This declination is sometimes towards the W. and some¬ 
times towards the E. From a table of observations made 
at Paris, it appears that since 1580 the declination has 
varied more than 31 degrees. In 1663 it vanished. From 
the date of the first observations till 1820 it advanced pro¬ 
gressively westward, but since that time it has assumed a 
retrograde movement towards the E. The declination of 
the magnetic needle at London in 1865 was 20° 30' At 
present it is scarcely perceptible at Cape Hatteras. To the 
W. of that point it is easterly, and to the E. the variation is 
westerly. (See Magnetism, by Prof. A. M. Mayer, Ph. D.) 












DECLINOMETER—DEED. 


1293 


Declinom'eter [a word improperly formed from the 
Lat. declinatio, “ declination/’ and the Gr. nerpov, a “ rneas- 
ure ”], an apparatus for measuring the declination of the 
magnetic needle, or the force of terrestrial magnetism in 
the plane of the horizon. 

Decomposition [from the Lat. cle, “ from,” “un,” 
and compono, compositum, to ‘‘put together”], a term used 
in chemistry to signify the separation of compound sub¬ 
stances into their elementary parts. When compounds are 
resolved into their elements, or when the chemical consti¬ 
tution of substances is altered, they are said to be decom¬ 
posed; and when in this operation new products are formed, 
such products are called the results of decomposition. Thus, 
ammonia is the result of the decomposition of certain animal 
substances; carburetted hydrogen gas is the result of the 
decomposition of pit-coal, etc. Chemists use the terms 
simple and compound, or single and double decomposition, 
to distinguish between the less and more complicated cases. 
When a compound of two substances is decomposed by the 
intervention of a third, which is itself simple or which 
acts as such, the case is one of simple decomposition; 
water, for instance, is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. 
When the metal potassium, which is a simple body, is 
thrown into it, it is decomposed; the hydrogen is liberated 
in the form of gas, and the oxygen combines with the potas¬ 
sium to form potassa. 

Deco'rah, a city of the second class, capital of Win¬ 
neshiek co., Ia., situated on the Upper Iowa River, is the 
terminus of the Decorah branch of the Milwaukee and St. 
Paul R. R. It contains the Norwegian Lutheran College, 
an excellent graded public school, three banks, two weekly 
newspapers, two semi-monthlies (printed in Norwegian), 
two woollen-mills, one paper-mill, two foundries, four flour¬ 
mills, three wagon manufactories, and other industries. 
Pop. 2110; according to State census 1873, 2232; of town¬ 
ship, 3723. A. K. Bailey & Bro., Eds. “ Republican.” 

Dec'orate [from the Lat. decoro, decoratum, to “adorn ”], 
to adorn, embellish; to cover with external ornaments. To 
decorate graves is to garnish them with flowers. The an¬ 
niversary on which flowers are placed on soldiers’ graves 
in the U. S. is called Decoration Day, and is observed on 
May 30th. 

Deco'ria, a post-township of Blue Earth co., Minn. 
Pop. 262. 

Decorated Style, in architecture, is also known as the 
“ Middle Pointed ” or pure Gothic style. It succeeded 
the First Pointed or Early English (1189-1272) by a tran¬ 
sition so gradual that its origin in England is variously 
assigned to dates between 1272 and 1307, although in Ger¬ 
many and France it was considerably earlier. It finally 
passed by an equally gradual transition into the Perpen¬ 
dicular Gothic of the fifteenth century. The Decorated 
Style is regarded as the perfect flower of Gothic architec¬ 
ture. It is marked by geometrical window-tracery, richly 
ornamented doorways, delicate mouldings, and elaborately 
carved imitations of leaves, as of the vine and oak, often 
conventionalized, but not unfrequently copied from nature. 

Decoy' [from de, “away,” and the old English verb 
coy, to “entice”], to entice; to lead by artifice into a snare 
or into danger; to entrap by insidious means. As a sub¬ 
stantive it signifies any object or thing by which persons 
or animals are enticed and lured into danger, etc.; a device 
by which aquatic birds, chiefly ducks, are enticed from a 
lake or river into a narrow winding canal or ditch, which, 
gradually becoming narrower, at last terminates under a 
cover of network several yards long. To draw the birds 
into this snare a tame duck called a decoy-duck is some¬ 
times employed. 

Decrescen'do, in music, is a gradual diminishing of 
sound, the reverse of Crescendo (which see). It is marked 
thus . 

Decre'tal [from the Lat. decretum, a “decree”], a decree 
of the pope, having the same authority in canon law as the 
decrees in civil. The body of the canon law consists—1st, of 
the Decretalium, a collection made by Gratian, a Benedict¬ 
ine monk, after 1150, and drawn from the opinions of the 
fathers, popes, and councils ; 2d, of the Decretalia, collected 
by Pope Gregory IX. (1227-41) from the decretal rescripts 
or epistles of the popes. A liber sextus was added by Boni¬ 
face VIII. (1294-1303), and other additions were made by 
succeeding popes. 

Decretals, False, otherwise called the Pseu'do- 
Isido'rian Can'ons, the name of one of the most re¬ 
markable literary forgeries of which we have any record. 
It designates a collection of papal letters, canons, etc., 
partly genuine, but mostly spurious. The name of the 
author is unknown, but they are ascribed in the preface to 
-one Isidorus Mercator (or, according to some MSS., Pecca- 
tor), and hence they were long believed to be the work of St. 


Isidore of Seville. They date from the first half of the ninth 
century. Their spuriousness was first established by German 
Protestant critics in the sixteenth century, and is now admit¬ 
ted by all Roman Catholic writers. It appears to have been 
the object of the author of this great fraud to assist in freeing 
the Church from secular domination. It is maintained by 
some Protestant historians that the primacy of the popes is 
mainly based upon the false decretals; but while it cannot 
be denied that certain popes used them freely for their own 
advantage, there is no evidence of intentional fraud on the 
part of the popes, for the decretals were generally received 
as genuine; and it is maintained by Roman Catholic wri¬ 
ters that the influence of the false decretals was small. 

Decu'rioil [Lat. decurio ], the leader of a decuria, or 
body of ten men, in the Roman cavalry. Three decurise con¬ 
stituted a turma, or body of thirty men, and the name 
decurio was afterwards given to the commander of the 
larger body. In Roman law it was the name given to sen¬ 
ators in the colonial governments. 

Decussa'tion [from the Lat. decussis, a Roman coin 
valued at ten asses (see As), and represented by the letter 
X], in anatomy, a crossing of nervous filaments, so called 
from a fancied resemblance to the letter X. The innermost 
fibres of the anterior pyramids and lateral columns of the 
medulla oblongata decussate freely from side to side; so that 
disease in one side of the brain frequently leads to paral¬ 
ysis of the opposite side of the body. Another decussation 
occurs between the optic nerves; this is often called the 
chiasma, also from its resemblance to the letter X (the 
Greek chi). The crossing of rays of light, etc. is also 
called decussation. 

Ded'ham, a post-township of Hancock co., Me. P. 448. 

Dedham, the shire-town of Norfolk co., Mass., is situ¬ 
ated on Charles River and on two branches of the Boston 
and Providence R. R., and is 10 miles S. W. of the State- 
house in Boston. It has a granite court-house, jail, house 
of correction, and town-hall, two insurance companies, a 
national bank, a savings bank, one weekly newspaper, 
eight churches—two Unitarian, two Baptist, one Orthodox 
Congregational, one Methodist Episcopal, one Protestant 
Episcopal, and one Roman Catholic. Dedham has two 
large woollen-mills, one extensive brush manufactory, one 
pianoforte manufactory, and one foundry. The New York 
and New England R. R. passes through a section of the 
town, and it has also a branch connecting the town with 
Norwood. The town has a large Roman Catholic institu¬ 
tion under the care of the Sisters of Charity, and a home 
for fallen women, which receives the assistance of the State 
and of many philanthropic people. Pop. of township, 
7342. S. H. Cox, Ed. of “ Dedham Transcript.” 

Dedication [Lat. dedicatio , from dedico, dedicatum, 
to “ dedicate”], a complimentary address to a particular 
person, prefixed by an author to his work. This custom 
was in use at a very early period. Horace, Virgil, Cicero, 
and Lucretius were among the number of those who prac¬ 
tised it. At the period of the revival of letters in Europe 
few works were published without dedications. Many of 
these are remarkable for their elegance and purity of style, 
and, from the matter which they contain, are of more value 
than the treatises to which they are prefixed. But the 
practice became perverted, and many authors of the suc¬ 
ceeding generations employ them chiefly with the view of 
securing the patronage of the great. Dedications were 
most abused in France under Louis XIV., and in England 
from 1670 to the accession of George III. Dry den was a 
great dedicator, and Johnson wrote dedications for money. 
Corneille got 1000 louisd’ors for the dedication of “ Cinna.” 
Some of the most beautiful dedications are those prefixed 
to the different volumes of the “Spectator” by Addison, 
and in more recent times those with which each canto 
of Sir Walter Scott’s “ Marmion ” is prefaced. A complete 
history of dedications would be of great value, as throw¬ 
ing light upon the history and character of many distin¬ 
guished persons, which are now involved in obscurity. 

Dedication, in law. See Hereditaments Incorporeal, 
by Prof. T. W. Davight, LL.D. 

Deduction [from the Lat. de, “from,” and duco, duc- 
tum, to “ draw ”] is the mental operation which consists 
in drawing a particular truth from a general principle 
already known. It is opposed to induction, which consists 
in rising from particular truths to the determination of a 
general principle. The syllogism is the form of deduction. 
(See Syllogism.) Before we can deduce a particular truth 
we must be in possession of the general truth. The 
mathematical and metaphysical sciences are founded on 
deduction; the physical sciences rest on Induction (which 
see). 

Deed [from the Ang.-Sax. deed, “done;” hence, as a 
noun, “something done” or “executed”], a writing on 











1294 


DEEMS—DEEP-SEA DREDGING. 


paper or parchment, soaled and delivered. This is its 
most general signification. In a restricted sense it means 
an instrument for the conveyance of real estate. Ac¬ 
cording to Lord Coke, it should possess the following 
requisites: writing, parchment or paper, a person able to 
contract, a sufficient name, a person able to be contracted 
with, a sufficient name, a thing to be contracted for, apt 
words required by law, sealing, and delivery. Deeds pur¬ 
sue a regular form—containing the premises, habendum, 
tenendum, reddendum, conditions, warranty, covenants, 
and conclusion. The premises express the names of the 
parties, the consideration to be paid for the conveyance, 
and a description of the jiroperty conveyed. This should 
be minute and accurate. The “habendum” expresses the 
interest which the grantee is to have, whether it be an estate 
in fee, for life, or an inferior estate. Tho “tenendum" 
refers to the tenure upon which the land is to be held, and 
is at present of no practical performance. The “ condition,” 
“warranty,” and “covenants” are not found in all deeds. 
They may be inserted whenever required to carry out the in¬ 
tention of the parties. When a condition is resorted to, it 
may be either precedent or subsequent. (See Conditions.) 
The covenants vary with the nature of the conveyance. 
In a conveyance in fee six covenants may be inserted (see 
Covenants) ; and in such case the instrument is called a 
deed with full covenants. In some instances the single 
covenant of warranty is introduced, when it is ordinarily 
termed a warranty deed. In many cases there are no cove¬ 
nants at all, the object of the transaction being only to 
convey whatever interest the grantor may have. It is a 
rule of the common law that some words in a conveyance 
used by a grantor will imply a covenant. This doctrine 
tends to mislead grantors who are not familiar with the 
rules of law, and it has been abrogated in some of the 
States—e. g. New York. There is, however, an important 
rule that a promise may be implied on the part of the 
grantee from his acceptance of an instrument containing 
words purporting to create a personal liability. Thus, if 
there are words to the effect that the grantee assumes the 
payment of a certain specified mortgage, he becomes liable 
by his acceptance, though he does not execute the instru¬ 
ment. Whether he is liable upon an implied covenant, or 
only upon a promise, is not clear upon the authorities. 

A deed may be either an indenture or a deed poll. The 
leading distinction between these terms is, that an indenture 
purports to be the act of both parties, a deed poll of only 
one. An indenture commences with the third person, a 
deed poll with the first. In an indenture the date is found 
at the beginning of the instrument, in a deed poll at the end. 
An instrument in the form of a deed poll may be in sub¬ 
stance an indenture if there be acts to be done by both parties. 
Between a strict deed poll and an indenture there is claimed 
to be an important difference in the construction of doubt¬ 
ful or ambiguous words. In tho former these are inter¬ 
preted against the grantor; the grantee may take the con¬ 
struction most favorable to himself if the words will 
reasonably bear it. To an indenture the rule has no appli¬ 
cation, and it is not regarded in any case with as much 
favor in modern law as formerly. In a country like our 
own, where many men not lawyers undertake to draw their 
own deeds, questions frequently arise as to the effect of 
omissions or insertions by mistake, or of alterations or 
erasions. These occur in many instances through mere 
inexperience, and without any evil intent. In the case of 
an omission or insertion of a clause by mutual mistake, an 
application may be made to a court of equity (see Equity) 
to rectify the conveyance and make it what the parties in¬ 
tended it should be. The case of an alteration by one of 
the parties creates more difficulty. One of the most per¬ 
plexing questions presented is, whether the fact of an 
erasure or other alteration raises any presumption that it 
was made after execution, or whether the opposite view 
should be taken, that there can be no presumption which 
would lead to the conclusion that the grantee has committed 
a wrong. The better view would seem to be that the atten¬ 
dant circumstances should go to a jury, without any pre¬ 
sumption either way, and should be passed upon as a 
matter of fact. A fraudulent alteration would in general 
vitiate the instrument, though it would not divest a title to 
land which had already become the property of the grantee. 
As to all instruments which did not confer an estate, but 
only created an easement or conferred a right of action, 
the alteration would be fatal. Conveyances in the U. S. 
are in general registered or recorded, their execution for 
that purpose being attended with prescribed formalities. 
(See Registration and Recording.) The instrument is in 
general valid between the parties without registration, its 
object being to protect subsequent purchasers or incum¬ 
brances. The requisites and validity of a deed of land 
in any particular State depend upon the law of the place 
where the land is situated, though the question concerning 


them be raised in the courts of another State. (See also 
Warranty, Quit Claim, Covenant, Bargain and Sale.) 

T. W. Dwight. 

Deems (Charles F.), D. D., was born in Baltimore, 
Md., in 1820, graduated at Dickinson College, served in the 
Methodist ministry of the South during several years, 
and has been professor in the University of North Caro¬ 
lina and in Randolph-Macon College, and president of 
Greensboro’ and Centenary Colleges. lie is now (1873) 
the successful pastor of the Church of the Strangers, New 
York City. He has been an abundant and able contributor 
to the “Southern Methodist Quarterly Review,” and is the 
author of a volume of sermons, a “ Life of Dr. Clark,” 
“ Devotional Melodies,” “ Home Atlas,” a volume of poems 
entitled “ Triumphs of Peace,” and a “ Life of Christ.” 

Deem'ster, or Doomster, formerly an officer in 
Scotland who read the sentence of condemned persons in 
open court. Deemsters in the Isle of Man and Jersey are 
judges who give decisions without writings or process. In 
the former island the two deemsters are the chief magis¬ 
trates. 

Deep Bottom, a point on the N. side of James River, 
in Henrico co., Va., about 12 miles by land and 20 miles by 
water below Richmond, opposite the peninsula of Jones’ 
Neck,and between Three-and Four-Mile creeks, and near the 
battle-ground of Malvern Hill. It was occupied by part of 
the troops of Gen. B. F. Butler, June 20,1864, and a pontoon 
bridge was thrown across the river. Near this point several 
important actions were fought during Aug. and Sept., 1864, 
the general result being favorable to the Union forces. Deep 
Bottom remained an important strategic point until after the 
fall of Richmond. 

Deep Creek, a township of Clinton co., Ia. P. 1081. 

Deep Creek, a township of Edgecombe co., N. C. Pop. 
1706. 

Deep Creek, a township of Jackson co., N. C. P. 553. 

Deep Creek, a township of Yadkin co., N. C. P. 1236. 

Deep Creek, a post-township of Norfolk co., Ya. Pop. 
2202. 

Deep River [Indian, SapponaK], a river of North 
Carolina, flows south-eastward through Randolph co., and 
nearly eastward through Chatham co., until it enters the 
Cape Fear River at Haywood. Coal abounds on its banks. 
Length, estimated at 120 miles. 

Deep River, a post-village of Saybrook township, in 
Middlesex co., Conn., on the Connecticut River and Con¬ 
necticut Valley R. R., 34 miles S. S. E. of Hartford. It has 
a national and a savings bank. 

Deep River, a post-townshiji of Poweshiek co., Ia. 
Pop. 799. 

Deep River, a post-township of Guilford co., N. C. 
Pop. 1071. 

Deep River Coal-Beds, a tract of coal-bearing 
lands in Chatham and Moore cos., N. C., in the valley of 
the Deep River, above noticed. They arc probably of 
triassic, and certainly not of the true carboniferous, age. 
The area of the productive basin is over forty square miles, 
though the beds can be traced through Granville and Wake 
counties, in a southward and westward direction, almost 
across the State, and extending a few miles into South 
Carolina. Indeed, the Dan River coal-beds of Rocking¬ 
ham and Stokes counties are believed to be the same beds, 
though detached from the larger area. The quality of the 
coal is always good, though variable, some being an ex¬ 
cellent and highly bituminous gas-coal, some good semi- 
bituminous coal, and some anthracite; while some is meta¬ 
morphosed into graphite. The total amount of available 
coal in the Deep River field proper has been estimated at 
240,000,000 tons. These coals have hardly been disturbed 
as yet, though they have been known for over 100 years. 
They have additional value from the fact that good iron 
and copper ores exist near them, the iron being often found 
in the same mines with the coal. By a system of slack- 
water navigation on the Deep and Cape Fear rivers the 
coal could be cheaply transported to Fayetteville, the pres¬ 
ent head of steamboat navigation on the latter river. With 
this point Wilmington, N. C., is connected by steamers; so 
that the Deep River beds might easily supply that city and 
her steam marine with excellent coal at a very low price. 

The bituminous coal of this field is clean and does not 
soil the fingers. It is a caking coal, makes an excellent 
coke for manufacturing purposes, is free from sulphur, 
yields an abundant illuminating gas of good quality, and 
is useful for the blacksmith’s forge, for the generation of 
steam, and for domestic uses. 

Deep-Sea Dredging. The use of iron dredges for pro¬ 
curing oysters, etc. in shallow or moderately deep water has 
long been known to the fishermen of all civilized countries. 




















DEEP-SEA DREDGING. 1295 


The instrument used for this purpose is large and heavy, 
usually consisting of a stout iron frame, several feet across, 
with one scraping edge, which acts something like a hoe; 
the arms to which the drag-rope is fastened are usually 
rigid, aud behind the frame there is a net with large 
meshes of twine or wirework. This instrument is very 
efficient for dredging large objects, like oysters, etc., for 
which alone it is intended; but for scientific purposes it 
would be of little use, for all the small kinds of animals, 
which constitute the greater part of the animal life of the 
ocean, would pass through the coarse meshes and be lost. 
Moreover, in sinking such a dredge in very deep water the 
chances are that it would frecpicntly fall wrong side up, 
and thus the time and labor would be lost. Consequently, 
■various modifications of this primitive form of the dredge 
have been devised by naturalists, in order to obtain a com¬ 
plete knowledge of the life of the bottom of the ocean at 
all depths, and several forms have been used with wonder¬ 
ful success. The two main points to be observed are: 1st, 
to have a net or bag of a texture open enough to let the 
water pass through freely, but fine enough to retain even 
the smallest animals sought for; and 2d, to have the dredge 
provided with two scraping edges, so that it will work 
equally well either side up. 

The naturalist’s dredge was first systematically used, if 
not invented, by Otho Frederick Muiler, previous to 1780, 
on the coasts of Norway and Denmark. This dredge ap¬ 
pears to have been square, with four scraping edges, but 
otherwise similar to those still in use. Some naturalists 
have used a triangular form with three scraping edges, but, 
like those with a square frame, this form gives too wide a 
mouth, so that the contents are liable to wash out, though 
it is still advantageously used for some purposes. 

The dredgo now generally used by naturalists, even for 
the deepest work, consists of a narrow rectangular frame, 
with two somewhat flaring scraping edges, the ends of the 
frame being of round iron, and each supporting a forked 
iron arm, each fork being bent around the end-piece of 
the frame at the corners, so as to turn freely upon it. The 
other end of each arm is furnished with a ring or eye, to 
which the drag-rope is attached. To the back of the rect¬ 
angular frame a bag-like net of stout twine, with small 
meshes, or else a bag of some kind of stout open cloth, is 
securely attached, either directly by means of holes drilled 
through the back part of the scrapers near the edge, or 
to small iron rings inserted into such holes. For dredging 
in shallow water or on rocky bottoms it is usual to pro¬ 
tect the inner net or bag with an outside bottomless bag of 
stout canvas or some similar material, otherwise the rocks 
will quickly destroy the net. To prevent the net from 
twisting or turning over the mouth of the dredge during 
its descent, a transverse bar of wood or iron, a little longer 
than the dredge-frame, is sometimes attached across the 
bottom of the outer bag; others use a U-shaped loop of 
stout wire, with an eye at each end by which to tie it to 
the middle of each end of the dredge-frame, the loop pass¬ 
ing down into the net. The drag-rope is usually attached 
securely to one of the arms of the dredge, while the other 
arm is tied to it by a smaller rope or by spun-yarn, so 
that in case the dredge becomes wedged between or under 
rocks the strain upon it may break away the weaker fast¬ 
ening, allowing the frame to straighten out and thus free 
itself. One or more weights are usually attached to the 
rope at a short distance in front of the dredge, partly to 
help sink the rope, partly to keep the edge of the dredge 
down upon the bottom in its proper position; the amount 
of weight must be varied according to the depth of water, 
velocity of currents, character of bottom, size of boat or 
vessel, weight of dredge, and size of the rope. In very 
deep water several hundred pounds are sometimes used, at¬ 
tached several hundred feet from the dredge. The size and 
weight of the dredges vary greatly, according to the depth 
of water, size of the vessel employed, and means of hoisting. 

A dredge suitable for use on board an ordinary sailboat 
or small steamer, when the hoisting is done by hand, which 
has done good service at all depths down to 430 fathoms, 
has the following dimensions: length of frame, 20 inches; 
width across back, 8 inches; across front or outer edge of 
the scrapers, 9 inches; length of arms, 14 inches; width of 
sides or scrapers, 2.5 inches; thickness of scrapers at back, 
.5 of an inch; holes for attachment of net, 1 inch apart; 
the ends of the dredge-frame are of five-eighth-inch round 
iron; the arms, half-inch round iron. All parts should be 
of the strongest bar iron. The net for the dredge just 
described is of stout twine, three feet deep, and just large 
enough at the mouth to go around the outside of the dredge- 
frame without stretching. Its meshes are a quarter of an 
inch on the sides of the net, but smaller towards the end. 
The outer bag is of stout canvas, and a little longer than the 
inner one. The drag-rope is of the best hemp, 1.75 inches 
in circumference. For shallow water a smaller rope would 


do, especially if used with a sailboat; and rnanila rope can 
also be used, though it is not so suitable for deep water, on 
account of its buoyancy and greater liability to kink. 

For the deep-sea dredging, and also for shallow water 
when large vessels are employed and steam-power used 
for hoisting, much larger and heavier dredges can be used. 
The English expedition on the Porcupine used a dredgo 
with a frame 4 feet 6 inches long, and 6 inches wide at the 
back, weighing 225 pounds. Weights amounting to two 
hundredweight were attached to the drag-rope at 500 fath¬ 
oms from the dredge. But Dr. Wyvillc Thomson, who had 
charge of the dredging in the deepest water (2435 fathoms), 
thinks that this dredge was too heavy. 

In all cases the dredge must be drawn very slowly over 
the bottom, either by the “ drifting” of the boat or vessel 
by the force of the tide, or by the wind without sails, or by 
an occasional turn of the wheels of a steamer. With a small 
boat or vessel, when there is but little wind or tide, a small 
amount of sail is often necessary. 

The writer in 1871 introduced a new form of dredge, 
known as the “ rake-dredge,” for use on muddy and sandy 
bottoms to procure burrowing animals. This has two stout 
iron bars, each provided with several thin, sharp teeth, 6 
or 8 inches long, arranged like those of a rake; these bars 
are bolted, back to back, to the lower ends of the side-pieces 
of a stout A-shaped iron frame; the drag-rope is attached 
to a ring at the apex of the A-shaped frame; following the 
rake, at the distance of two or three feet, is a large but light 
rectangular frame of half-inch round iron, a little larger 
than the rake; to this frame a net is attached, as to the 
frame of the ordinary dredge. This has been used very 
successfully for the special purposes for which it was de¬ 
signed. 

The English deep-sea dredging expeditions introduced 
the use of “tangles” in connection with the dredge, and 
these proved to be very valuable adjuncts. The “tangles” 
consist of pieces of frayed-out hemp rope, a few feet long, 
tied together at one end, so as to form large brushes. They 
generally fastened these to the iron rod attached across the 
end of the dredge-bag, so that they dragged over the bot¬ 
tom behind the dredge, and caught up all objects having 
rough or spiny surfaces; but many of the objects thus 
caught had been already broken or injured by the dredge. 
The writer has devised some improved forms of the tangles, 
and used them successfully during the summer of 1871 and 
’72 in connection with the U. S. Fish Commission. In these 
the tangles were used independently of the dredge, and in 
the best form the frayed-out ropes were attached along sev¬ 
eral small iron chains, which were fastened by one end to an 
iron bar; and the latter was raised from the bottom by be¬ 
ing bolted to the legs of the A-shaped frame already men¬ 
tioned, at about a foot from the lower end of the side-pieces. 
This form of apparatus can be used on very rough and 
rocky bottoms, where the ordinary dredge cannot be safely 
employed. It is very useful for procuring star-fishes, echini, 
corals, sponges, etc., but cannot be depended upon for shells. 

During the past twenty-five years dredging has been ex¬ 
tensively carried on along nearly all parts of the European 
and North American coasts, and in many other parts of the 
world, in waters of moderate depth, or from the shore to 50 
or 100 fathoms, and in some few regions down to 200 or 
300 fathoms, or even somewhat more. But within the past 
five or six years these investigations of the life of the bot¬ 
tom have been carried on successfully at far greater depths, 
both on the American and European sides of the Atlantic 
Ocean. On the coast of Norway and at the Lofoden Islands 
extensive collections were made at depths between 250 and 
450 fathoms by Dr. G. 0. Sars, and in 1868 his father, Prof. 
M. Sars, published a list of 427 species of animals living at 
those depths. In the year 1867 extensive deep-sea dredg¬ 
ings were commenced by Mr. L. F. de Pourtales of the U. S. 
Coast Survey in the Gulf Stream between Florida and Cuba. 
The important results of this expedition were published in 
December, 1867. In 1868 and 1869 these investigations were 
continued in that region by Mr. de Pourtales with great 
success and very important results. In these explorations 
dredgings were made on several lines across the Straits of 
Florida, from the shores to the deepest waters, but seldom 
in more than 600 fathoms. Largo collections, including 
many novelties, were made at all depths, and have been in 
part described in the publications of the Museum of Com¬ 
parative Zoology. In 1868 the English government fitted 
out the steamer Lightning, under the scientific direction of 
Dr. William B. Carpenter and Dr. Wyvillo Thomson, for 
the purpose of deep-sea dredging. They dredged between 
Scotland and the Faroe Islands, and to the south-west of 
those islands, at various depths down to 650 fathoms, with 
very interesting results, for life was found to be abundant 
at the greatest depths, and many new and remarkable forms 
w’ere discovered. In 1869 the Porcupine was fitted out for 
the same service, and made three cruises—first, off the W. 














1296 DEEP-SEA 


coast of Ireland, under the scientific direction of Mr. Gwyn 
Jeffreys, during which dredgings were made down to 1470 
fathoms; second, under Dr. Thomson, off the S. W. of Ire¬ 
land to a point off the Bay of Biscay, where dredgings were 
made in 2090 and 2435 fathoms; third, under Dr. Carpen¬ 
ter, between the Faroe Islands and the Shetland Islands, 
and N. of Scotland, where numerous dredgings were made 
at various depths to 767 fathoms. Large numbers of ani¬ 
mals were obtained in all these dredgings, many of them 
new and remarkable. In 1870 the same vessel made a cruise 
to the Straits of Gibraltar under the scientific direction of 
Mr. Jeffreys, which was afterwards continued in the Med¬ 
iterranean under Dr. Carpenter. On the first part of this 
cruise dredgings were carried down to 1095 fathoms off the 
coast of Portugal, and in the Mediterranean to 1412 fath¬ 
oms. In 1870, Mr. Marshall Hall dredged in deep water off 
the coasts of Spain and Portugal in his yacht Norna, with 
valuable results. In 1869, Dr. F. A. Smitt and Dr. A. 
Ljungman, naturalist of the Swedish frigate Josephine, 
dredged at many localities on both sides of the Atlantic, 
and especially off the Azores, and made important discov¬ 
eries. In 1871-72 the late Dr. William Stimson dredged 
in the Gulf of Mexico on board the U. S. Coast Survey 
steamer Bache, and in 1872, Mr. S. I. Smith and 0. Har- 
ger, on board the same steamer, made the deepest dredgings 
yet accomplished off the northern coast of the U. S. This 
was in 430 fathoms, off St. George’s Bank. In 1871-72, 
Mr. J. F. Whiteaves dredged in the deepest parts of the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence down to 310 fathoms, and made some 
interesting discoveries. Other dredgings have also been 
made in deep water within two or three years past, of which 
the results have not yet been published. In fresh-water lakes 
comparatively little dredging has been done. The most im¬ 
portant are the dredgings in Lake Michigan by Dr. William 
Stimson and others in 1870, and those in Lake Superior ac¬ 
complished by Mr. S. I. Smith in 1871, in connection with the 
U. S. Lake Survey, on the steamer Search. Mr. Smith made 
numerous dredgings from shallow water down to 169 fath¬ 
oms, which is the deepest water in the lake. Numerous inter¬ 
esting animals, mostly of small size, were found at all depths. 
Much more work of this kind should be done in our great 
lakes, as well as on our coasts. (See Dredging, by Gen. Q. 
A. Gillmore, U. S. A.) A. E. Verrill. 

Deep-Sea Soundings. It is difficult to define pre¬ 
cisely what is to be understood by the expression “ deep-sea 
soundings.” There are places in the ocean very near to the 
most frequented shores, like the Gulf Stream off Cape Hat- 
teras, where it has been found difficult, if not impracticable, 
to determine the depth of the water with certainty, owing 
to the rapidity of the current, combined with the great 
depth; or the same stream within a few miles of the N. 
shore of Cuba, where the depth of less than 1000 fathoms, 
combined with the strength of the current, for a long time 
baffled the skill of the best officers of the American navy in 
their efforts to obtain a section across the straits between 
Cuba and Key West. And on the other hand, there are 
areas extending hundreds of miles seaward from the coasts 
of continents, like the plateau off the coast of Ireland, where 
the depth hardly exceeds 500 fathoms, and soundings are 
so easily made that they would be classed in hydrographic 
work as “ off-shore soundings.” Other portions of the sea¬ 
bed, again, deepen gradually from the shores outward, and 
it would be difficult to say where off-shore soundings end 
and deep-sea soundings begin. 

The precise definition is of little importance, however, at 
the present time; but it may be said that in the early at¬ 
tempts to determine depths of the ocean out of sight of "land 
a depth of 1000 fathoms (or 6000 feet) was considered a 
deep-sea sounding. It is believed that there is no record 
of any successful effort having been made to determine 
depths greater than 1000 fathoms previous to that of Capt. 
James Ross in the year 1840. Up to that time navigators 
had been engrossed in geographical explorations, and had 
contented themselves with regarding the ocean as practi¬ 
cally unfathomable beyond a very narrow belt along the 
shores of continents. Capt. James Ross of the English 
navy was the first explorer who dispelled this idea by a 
successful effort to sound in what was evidently very deep 
water. In the year 1840, while off the western coast of 
Africa, he prepared several miles of sounding-line upon a 
reel, and having attached a weight of 540 pounds to the 
end of the line, this weight was allowed to descend to the 
bottom of the sea. A sudden cessation of the descending 
motion indicated that the bottom was reached, and it was 
found that the length of line run out was 2677 fathoms. 
In a subsequent attempt during the same voyage 4000 
fathoms of line were run out without finding bottom, and 
the line finally broke. The first sounding was doubtless 
as nearly correct as most of the soundings since made at 
the same depth by other explorers. 

Another attempt made in 1843 by officers of the English 


SOUNDINGS. 


navy, in the Southern Ocean, proved a failure, no bottom 
having been reached with 4000 fathoms of lino out. In 
1847 another sounding was made by Capt. Stanley, midway 
between the coasts of Africa and South America, bottom 
having been reported at 2600 fathoms, but the result was 
doubtful. 

These are the only recorded soundings made by the Eng¬ 
lish navy before the problem was taken up by the American 
navy. In 1843, Lieut.-Commander (now Admiral) Davis, 
who was then attached to the U. S. Coast Survey, made 
several successful soundings off Block Island, in water a 
little less than 2000 fathoms’ depth. A cup for bringing 
up specimens of the bottom was attached to the lead, and 
for the first time a portion of the deep-sea mud was brought 
to light from these depths. Deep-sea explorations became 
from that time invested with a special interest, from the 
discovery of the existence of animal life or the remains of 
minute animals in every specimen of the bottom brought 
to the surface. 

During a period of ten years subsequent to the explora¬ 
tions of Commander Davis, deep-sea soundings were con¬ 
tinued off the Atlantic coast by officers of the U. S. navy 
under the direction of Prof. Bache, superintendent of the 
U. S. Coast Survey, in a series of sections run perpendicu¬ 
lar to the coast, made with a view of tracing the form of 
the bottom along the course of the Gulf Stream. The 
temperature of the waters of the Gulf Stream, taken be¬ 
neath the surface at various depths, indicated, by successive 
bands of cool and warm water, the probable existence of 
submarine ranges of mountains having courses coincident 
with these bands, and the sections determined confirmed 
this idea wherever the depths could be determined. During 
the progress of these explorations the U. S. navy depart¬ 
ment, through the efforts of Lieut. Maury, undertook an 
extensive series of deep-sea soundings in various parts of 
the Atlantic, but as the observations were scattered and 
not confined to systematic lines, and were, moreover, made 
by a method which had in it great elements of uncertainty, 
the results, so far as the extension of exact knowledge in 
regard to the form of the ocean-bed was concerned, were 
very meagre. The explorations, however, served to pre¬ 
pare for this kind of service officers who subsequently did 
important work. Among these was Lieut. Berryman, who 
afterwards ran the first line of soundings across the North¬ 
ern Atlantic Ocean. The invention of the apparatus for 
detaching the heavy lead at the bottom, thus enabling a 
small line to be used for bringing up specimens of the 
bottom, was also one of the fruits of these explorations. 
Brooke’s lead, or detaching apparatus, became, both in the 
American and in foreign explorations, the most important 
feature of sounding-instruments. 

The first lines of sounding which were carried across the 
Atlantic were run by Lieut. Berryman of the U. S. navy, 
for the purpose of ascertaining the practicability of lay¬ 
ing a submarine cable. Upon the favorable report of his 
soundings it was determined definitely to undertake this 
work. Lieut. Berryman was followed in this field of ex¬ 
ploration by Lieut. Dayman of the royal navy, whose re¬ 
sults were confirmatory of those of Lieut. Berryman. 

The depths obtained by both these officers appeared, 
however, to have large probable errors, and the small 
number of observations made for so long a line rendered it 
impossible to construct a profile of the bottom of positive 
accuracy. The actual laying of the telegraph cables fur¬ 
nished the only convincing and satisfactory evidence of the 
existence of the conditions favorable to such an enterprise. 

After the laying of the Atlantic cable the English admi¬ 
ralty took up the question of deep-sea explorations in a 
thorough manner, and the field seems to have been aban¬ 
doned by the American navy altogether. 

Under the English admiralty the Mediterranean Sea has 
been explored; several new lines have been run across the 
North Atlantic; the banks off the coast of Ireland havo 
been mapped out; lines have been run and submarine 
telegraphs established eastward from the Red Sea to 
China; and more recently a line of soundings has been 
carried from the Cape of Good Hope through the midst of 
the Southern Atlantic northward to the English Channel. 

All these results, however, constitute only a beginning of 
the work of deep-sea explorations. The deepest parts of 
the ocean have probably not been sounded, and there are 
not yet sufficient results to determine with any degree of 
certainty the features of any considerable portion of the 
bottom of the sea. The general features, as thus far de¬ 
termined, seem to be as follows : The North Atlantic is a 
comparatively shallow basin, having, however, a deep val¬ 
ley or depression on the W. from Baffin’s Bay southward. 
Near Cape Sable, and within thirty miles of it, the depth 
is nearly 3000 fathoms. How far this deep valley continues 
towards the tropics is not known. On the E. side a deep 
valley is also found extending from the latitudo of the 












DEEP WATER—DEER. 


British Channel to the tropics. Between these two great 
depressions the North Atlantic presents depths consider¬ 
ably less, and irregularities have been detected which indi¬ 
cate that the configuration of the bottom presents features 
corresponding to those of the surfaces of continents. The 
South Atlantic basin has not been explored. 

In the Indian Ocean, along the lines of the telegraph 
across the Persian Gulf and Bay of Bengal, the depths in¬ 
crease gradually from the shores to a little over 2000 fathoms 
along both lines—one from the Malay Peninsula to Hin- 
dostan, and the other from Hindostan to the Red Sea. 

In the vicinity of the equator, in the South Atlantic 
Ocean, Capt. Shortland found a plateau extending about 
3000 miles in a N. and S. direction, on which are found the 
islands of St. Paul, Ascension, and the other well-known 
islands of this region. The depth on this plateau is about 
1500 fathoms. Its extent in an E. and W. direction is not 
known. The Southern and Pacific oceans have not been 
explored. 

In no instance yet recorded has a depth been reached ex¬ 
ceeding 3000 fathoms, but this is to be considered as owing 
to the failure of attempts made in greater depths, and is 
not to be taken as evidence that no greater depths exist. 
It is presumed, on the contrary, by those who have given 
attention to the subject, that vastly greater depths are of 
frequent occurrence in many parts of the sea. 

Methods of Sounding .—In ordinary depths the process of 
sounding is to attach a “lead” to the end of a small line, 
drop the lead into the sea, and allow it to sink to the bot¬ 
tom, the line being drawn down after the lead. If there is 
no current in the water nor drifting of the vessel or boat, 
and if the instant when the lead strikes the bottom can be 
distinctly noted, the length of line paid out will indicate the 
depth. As the depth increases, however, the friction of 
the line in the water becomes a strong resistance, requiring 
a very heavy lead to impart any considerable velocity to 
the descending plummet and line. This circumstance doubt¬ 
less prevented the earlier attempts to sound from being 
successful. 

Capt. Ross, in his first deep-sea sounding, employed a 
quarter of a ton weight as a sinker. A new difficulty, how¬ 
ever, presented itself—namely, the difficulty of noting the 
instant when the weight struck bottom. In water nearly 
3000 fathoms deep, whatever be the amount of the sinking 
weight, the downward motion became very slow, and it was 
only by noting the rate of descent by a watch that the in¬ 
stant the weight struck bottom was noted. It became cus¬ 
tomary afterwards, in all deep soundings, to note the time 
of running out of each successive 100 fathoms of line, and 
when the rate of descent became irregular or indeterminate 
it was taken for granted that the bottom was reached. 

This practice introduced a delusive test of reaching bot¬ 
tom, which rendered useless many subsequent laborious and 
earnest efforts. It was not until Davis introduced the prac¬ 
tice of bringing up specimens of the bottom, and Brooke 
invented his detaching apparatus, that any element of cer¬ 
tainty attended deep-sea explorations. 

There still remained two great difficulties to contend 
with—the drifting of the vessel from which soundings 
were taken, and the currents of the sea. Both of these 
occurrences rendered the measurements inaccurate, and in 
extreme cases, such as the rapid flow of the Gulf Stream 
along the coast of America, this method proved a failure. 
Many attempts have been made to sound the Gulf Stream 
N. of Cape Hatteras, but thus far without success. 

Lieut. Walsh and Commander Wainwright used small 
wires for sounding-lines, but without advantage. At a 
certain depth the wire ran out of its own weight, and it 
was difficult to determine when the weight struck bottom. 
In the Gulf Stream the current carried away the line so 
rapidly that it was found impracticable to reach bottom. 

The uncertainties and errors of these methods led to the 
invention of a recording apparatus, which was attached to 
the plummet in such a manner that the register, with the 
cup or tube for bringing up specimens of the bottom, was 
recovered, while the weight was detached and left at the 
bottom. The registers employed were generally revolving 
helices, which turned during the descent, the revolutions 
being recorded on wheel-work. Pressure-gauges were also 
tried, but owing to various causes of failure these devices 
have been generally abandoned. The revolving helices 
were found to require a constant velocity for perfect re¬ 
sults, and the slowness of the motion at great depths caused 
an error in the recording. Pressure-gauges failed, mainly 
on account of the change of temperature and the very great 
pressure to which they were subjected. 

The method still most commonly employed is that insti¬ 
tuted by Capt. Ross, with the addition of Brooke’s detach¬ 
ing apparatus. This method, however, has not thus far 
proved available for the deepest parts of the ocean. Among 
the devices which have been suggested for this difficult 
82 


1297 


problem may be mentioned that of the late Mr. Sidney E. 
Morse, in which no line was to be employed. A pressure- 
gauge was to be carried to the bottom by weights; the 
weights becoming detached, the gauge and part of fhe ap¬ 
paratus with which it was connected were brought back to 
the surface by the buoyancy of hollow spheres of glass. 

Another process, suggested by the writer of this article, 
may be termed the electric method. It consists in coiling 
a fine insulated wire within a’hollow tube attached to the 
weight, the wire being paid out from the tube as the weight 
descends. There being no motion of the line in the water, 
friction is thus avoided, and the plummet will descend with 
a sensibly uniform velocity (or at least with a velocity which 
will vary according to a known law). By connecting the 
wire with a battery on board the vessel, and making the 
shock of the weight on the bottom “make” the galvanio 
circuit, the time of descent can be exactly determined. 
Knowing the rate of descent and the time, the depth can 
easily be ascertained. This device seems to be better cal¬ 
culated for reaching the depths which have not heretofore 
been reached than any other. It would not be necessary 
or advisable to attempt to recover the wire, but it would 
probably be less expensive to take a new wire at each cast. 
The time of making a deep sounding would thus be greatly 
shortened. 

For further researches in determining depths of the ocean 
there is needed an apparatus which can be more frequently 
applied, so as to multiply soundings, and one which will 
attain the greatest depths with certainty of results. 

Wili.iam P. Trowbridge. 

Deep Water, a township of Henry co., Mo. P. 2055. 

Deer [etymologically related to the Gr. Or/p ; Ger. Thier, 
a “beast”], the name given to ruminating quadrupeds with 
deciduous horns or antlers, which form the essential cha¬ 
racter of the Linnaean genus Cervus, to which all these ani¬ 
mals belong. Deer are distinguished from other ruminants 
by the absence of a gall-bladder. The species of deer may 
be divided into two groups, of which one includes those 
with antlers more or less flattened ; the other those with 
rounded antlers. The elk or moose {Cervus alces) is the 
most characteristic species of the first group, and forms the 
type of the genus Alces of modern systems. It sometimes 
exceeds the horse in bulk; has a short body, with a still 
shorter neck. In the lower jaw it has eight cutting teeth, 
none in the upper. The muzzle is long, broad, and over¬ 
hangs the mouth like a square lapel; it is very muscular, 
and of service to the animal in gathering its food. The 
antlers of the elk appear first in the form of pointed stems ; 
these are followed by a stem bearing a few short branches. 
At five years he puts up antlers in the form of a triangular 
plate, supported on a stem and notched along the outer 
margin. Subsequently this plate becomes more expanded, 
and the points between the notches are developed into long 
branches or snags, of which a single antler sometimes has 
as many as fourteen; and the pair will then weigh about 
fifty pounds. 

The European fallow-deer ( Damn vulgaris), called by the 
ancients Platyceros, is a species of deer belonging to the 
flat-horned group. The male is known as a buck, the 
female as a doe, and the young as a fawn. 

The red-deer ( Cervus elaphus) and the roebuck ( Capreo - 
lus caprsea ) are European species, of which the stem of the 
antler shows a rounded form in section. The hart and hind 
are the male and female of the red-deer. The antlers are 
shed soon after pairing, and at this period the hart retires 
to the most unfrequented part of the grove. New antlers 
begin to grow very soon after the old ones are shed, and 
are completed in August. The skin which protects the 
vascular periosteum during the growth of the antlers now 
dries, and is rubbed off against any resisting object. 

The roebuck ( Capreolus caprsea ) is the smallest species 
of European deer; the male is monogamous, and the fe¬ 
male brings forth two fawns. This deer is found in Asia 
and wild parts of Europe, such as the Scottish mountains. 
The common American deer ( Cariacus Virginianus), called 
by the name of roebuck, jumping deer, etc., is about the 
size of the European fallow-deer, and resembles it in temper 
and character. Color, brown in summer, and gray-brown 
in winter; the fawns are spotted with white. Its food 
varies with the season ; in winter, buds of shrubs; in spring 
and summer, grass, grain, berries, and the like. This 
species is now rare in New England. In the Alleghany 
Mountains, from Northern New York to Georgia, it is still 
common. In Texas, Florida, and Mexico it is abundant. 

The mule-deer ( Cervus macrotis) is between the common 
deer and the American elk in size. Its horns are round 
and twice forked; its ears long, giving its name from their 
resemblance to those of the mule. It is confined mostly to 
the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, from lat. 54° to 
30°. The black-tailed deer ( Cervus Bichardsonii), some- 
















1298 


DEER CREEK—DEER LODGE CITY. 


what larger than the common deer, but smaller than the 
mule-deer, is found in the Pacific States and Rocky Moun- 



Mule Deer. 

tain region. The long-tailed deer (Cervus leucurm), so 
called on account of its long tail, which sometimes measures 
seventeen inches, is common on the Columbia River. The 
American elk or wapiti (Census Canadensis) is a large 
species resembling the European red-deer. It has tall 
branching horns, sometimes six feet high, which are shed 
in February or March. The animal is common in the 
North-western States. Its flesh is coarse, though the skins 
are much prized. Many other species of deer exist in South 
America, Africa, and especially in Asia and its islands. 
(See Reindeer, Cariboo, Elk, and Moose.) 

Revised by C. W. Greene. 

Deer Creek, a post-township of Tazewell co., Ill. Pop. 
763. 

Deer Creek, a post-township of Carroll co., Ind. P. 

3458. 

Deer Creek, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 1271. 

Deer Creek, a township of Miami co., Ind. P. 1173. 

Deer Creek, a township of Webster co., Ia. P. 266. 

Deer Creek, a township of Allen co., Kan. P. 614. 

Deer Creek, a township of Bates co., Mo. P. 1057. 
Deer Creek, a township of Madison co., 0. P. 823. 

Deer Creek, a post-township of Pickaway co., 0. 
Pop.1458. 

Deer Creek, a township of Mercer co., Pa. P. 579. 

Deer Creek, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. Pop. 

134. 

Deer'field, a township of Fulton co., Ill. Pop. 907. 
Deerfield, a post-township of Lake co., Ill. P. 1525. 

Deerfield, a post-township of Chickasaw co., Ia. P. 
599. 

Deerfield, a township and post-village of Franklin 
co., Mass., on the Connecticut River R. R., 33 miles N. of 
Springfield. The township contains the important manu¬ 
facturing village of South Deerfield. This township was 
the scene of several contests with the Indians in colonial 
times. Among these may be mentioned the “ Bloody Brook 
massacre” (1675), and the burning of the village by the 
French and Indians under De Rouville (1703). Deerfield 
has many points of interest to the tourist: the North and 
South Sugar Loaf Mountains, the latter rising 500 feet 
from the plain, and affording from its summit a most 
beautiful view of Mounts Holyoke, Tom, and Mettawampe, 


with the fertile Connecticut Valley; Arthurs Seat in the 
N. W.; the village of Old Deerfield, with its wide streets 
finely shaded with elms; and Deer¬ 
field Meadows, celebrated for its fine 
crops of tobacco. Old Deerfield has a 
beautiful soldiers’ monument, and there 
is at South Deerfield a marble monu¬ 
ment commemorative of the Bloody 
Brook disaster. Deerfield has a very 
fertile soil, an academy, two high 
schools, six churches, and is the birth¬ 
place of many distinguished men. It 
was the favorite summer residence of 
the late Prof. Agassiz. Pop. 3632. 

Deerfield, a township of Lapeer 
co., Mich. Pop. 419. 

Deerfield, a township and post¬ 
village of Lenawee co., Mich., on the 
Lake Shore and Michigan Southern 
R. R., 60 miles S. W. of Detroit. Pop. 
1234. 

Deerfield, a township of Living¬ 
ston co., Mich. Pop. 1128. 

Deerfield, a township and village 
of Mecosta co., Mich., on the Chicago 
and Michigan R. R., about 15 miles S. 
of Big Rapids. Pop. 564. 

Deerfield, a township of Van Bu- 
^ ren co., Mich. Pop. 677. 

Deerfield, a township and post- 
pi^ village of Steele co., Minn. Pop. 438. 
Deerfield, a townshiji and post¬ 
village of Vernon co., Mo., on the Mis¬ 
souri Kansas and Texas II. R., 288 
miles W. S. W. of St. Louis. Pop. 506. 

Deerfield, a post-township of 
Rockingham co., N. II. It has manu¬ 
factures of lumber, tubs, pails, doors, 
sash and blinds, boots and shoes, etc. 
Pop. 1768. 

Deerfield, a township of Cumber¬ 
land co., N. J. Pop. 1518. 

Deerfield, a post-township of Oneida co., N. Y. Pop. 
2045. 

Deerfield, a township of Morgan co., O. Pop. 981. 

Deerfield, a post-township of Portage co., 0. Pop. 
1025. 

Deerfield, a township of Ross co., 0. Pop. 1223. 

Deerfield, a township of Warren co., 0. Pop. 1965. 

Deerfield, a post-village of Warren co., 0. Pop. 274. 

Deerfield, a township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 665. 

Deerfield, a township of Warren co., Pa. Pop. 2324. 

Deerfield, a post-township of Dane co., Wis. P. 1040. 

Deerfield, a township of Waushara co., Wis. P. 234. 

Deer Grass ( Rhexia ), a genus of plants of the order 
Melastomacese. Eight species are natives of the U. S. 
They have brilliant rosy-purple flowers. 

Deer'ing, a post-township of Hillsborough co., N. H. 
It has an academy and manufactures of boots, shoes, and 
lumber. Pop. 722. 

Deer Island, an island of Charlotte co., New Bruns¬ 
wick, at the entrance to the Bay of Fundy, inhabited by 
fishermen and farmers. Pop. about 1000. 

Deer Island, in the harbor of Boston, Mass., contain¬ 
ing the city almshouse, a house of industry, and other 
charitable institutions. Pop. 1001. 

Deer Isle, a post-township of Hancock co.. Me. It 
includes Great and Little Deer Isles and lie au Haut, be¬ 
sides smaller islands, and has important fisheries. Lob¬ 
sters are here canned for market. By steamer it is 130 
miles from Portland. There are four churches. P. 3414. 

Deer Lodge, a county in the W. of Montana. Area, 
11,732 square miles. Is drained by the sources of Clarke’s 
River. The surface is mountainous. Gold is found here. 
There is considerable timber upon the mountains, and 
many of the valleys are exceedingly fertile, though gene¬ 
rally requiring irrigation. Grain, hay, and dairy products 
are raised. Capital, Deer Lodge City. Pop. 4367. 

Deer Lodge City, capital of the above county, situ¬ 
ated on Deer Lodge River, in Deer Lodge Valley, is 45 
miles N. of the Deer Lodge Pass. It has two weekly news¬ 
papers, a graded school, a national bank, a hospital in 
charge of the Sisters of Mercy, a Catholic and a Presby¬ 
terian church, and contains the Territorial penitentiary. 
Kerley Smith, McQuaid & Co., Props. “Independent.” 











































DEERMOUSE—DEFTER-DAR. 


Deer'mouse, or Jump'ing Mouse (Meriones ), a 
genus of rodents allied to the mouse and jerboa families, 
are natives of America. One species, the Labrador jump¬ 
ing mouse, is found far N. The Canada jumping mouse 
(Meriones Canadensis) is an active and beautiful animal, 
having long, slender hind legs and a very long tail. It can 
leap to the distance of four yards. It remains dormant 
during the winter. 

Deer Park, a post-township of La Salle co., Ill. P. S94. 

Deer Park, a township of Orange co., N. Y., 36 miles 
W. of Newburg. It is traversed by the Erie R. R., and 
contains the village of Port Jervis. Pop. 9387. 

De Fac'to, a Latin legal phrase, signifies “in fact,” 
“ in reality, ’ and is used to denote actual possession, how¬ 
ever acquired. A person who usurps a throne to which he 
has no title is king de facto, but the legitimate claimant is 
king de jure, “of right.” An officer de facto is one who 
performs the duties pf an office with apparent rights and 
under claim and color of appointment to such office, but 
without being actually qualified by law to act as an officer. 

Defamation. See Libel, by Prof. T. W. Dwight. 

Default' [Fr. defiant, from de, intensive, and faillir, to 
“fail;” It. dijfalta ], in law, is, in a general sense, the 
omission of any act which a party ought to perform in 
order to entitle himself to a legal remedy. Such is,'for ex¬ 
ample, non-appearance in court on a day assigned. If a 
plaintiff in an action make default, he is non-suited; if a 
defendant, judgment by default is passed against him. 
Judgment by default is not necessarily final. 

Default' er, a person who fails to perform a public 
duty; an officeholder wdio embezzles public money, or fails 
to account for money entrusted to his keeping. His offence 
is called defalcation. 

Defeas'ance [Norman Fr. defesance, from de, nega¬ 
tive, and faire, to “do or perform”], in law, a collateral 
deed made at the same time with a deed of conveyance, 
containing conditions on the performance of which the es¬ 
tate thus created may be defeated; also a defeasance as to 
a bond or recognizance is a condition contained in or en¬ 
dorsed on the instrument, which when performed defeats it. 

Defen'dant [Fr. defendeur ], in law, the party against 
whom a claim is made in an action or suit. The rule is 
now held to be that in personal actions ex contractu the 
action is to be brought against the person who either ex- 
pressty or implicitly made the contract; in personal actions 
ex delicto, against the person who either actually commit¬ 
ted the injury or aided in committing it. 

Defender of the Faith [Lat. Fidei Defensor'], a 
title given Oct. 11, 1521, by Pope Leo X. to Henry VIII. 
of England, on the publication of his writings against 
Luther. When the king suppressed the monasteries and 
convents the pope recalled the title. It was, however, con¬ 
firmed by Parliament in the thirty-fifth year of his reign, 
and has since been assumed by the sovereigns of England. 

Def'erent [from the Lat. defero, to “carry away” 
(from de, “from,” and fero, to “carry”)], a term used in 
the Ptolemaic system of astronomy, according to which the 
planets move in small circular orbits, the centres of which 
are carried round in the circumference of other larger cir¬ 
cles having the sun for their common centre. These prin¬ 
cipal circles are called the deferents, as carrying the orbits, 
those in which the planets move being called epicycles. 

“Deferent nerves” are those which convey impressions 
from the brain to the periphery or to the muscles. They 
are otherwise called motor nerves. In point of fact, most 
nerves contain both deferent and afferent (or sensitive) fil¬ 
aments. 

Defiant!, du (Marie be Vichy-Chamroud), Mar¬ 
quise, a French literary lady, born in 1697. She was 
beautiful, witty, and accomplished, but was a skeptic and 
egotist. Her house in Paris was frequented by many emi¬ 
nent authors and statesmen. She corresponded with Vol¬ 
taire, Horace Walpole, and D’Alembert, and wrote letters 
which are commended for style. Died Sept. 23, 17S0. 

Defiance, a county of Ohio, bordering on Indiana. 
Area, 414 square miles. It is intersected by the Maumee 
River, and partly drained by the Auglaize. The surface 
is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Lumber, dairy product's, 
cattle, grain, tobacco, wool, and hay are staple produc¬ 
tions. It is traversed by the Toledo Wabash and Western 
R. R. and the Wabash and Erie Canal. Capital, Defiance. 
Pop. 15,719. 

Defiance, a post-village, capital of the above county, 
is on the Maumee River at the mouth of the Auglaize, and 
on the Toledo Wabash and Western R. R., 50 miles W. S. W. 
of Toledo. It. has six churches, two weekly newspapers, 
and a national bank. Pop. 2750; of Defiance township, 
3615. 


1299 


Defi'cient Num'ber, in arithmetic, is one which ex¬ 
ceeds the sum of its aliquot parts. Thus 8 is a deficient 
number, since the sum of its aliquot parts, 1, 2, 4, only 
amounts to 7. 

Defilade [Fr. defilade, from the Lat. de, “away,” and 
filum, a “line,” referring to fortified lines]. Defilading, in 
fortification, is—1, so arranging the height of a work that 
the enemy cannot see into it; or, 2, so directing its faces 
that the enemy can neither enfilade them nor take them in 
reverse. 

Defile [Fr. defile, etymologically related to Defilade 
(which see), in military language, a narrow place or pas¬ 
sage through which troops can pass only in file or in a col¬ 
umn with a narrow front. Wherever free lateral movement 
is obstructed is a defile. If the defile cannot be avoided 
without making a long circuit, it is called a “ pass.” To 
defile is to march off by file. 

Definite Proportionals, in chemistry. See Chem¬ 
istry, by Prof. Gt. F. Barker, M.D. 

Definition [Lat. definitio, from de, intensive, and 
finio, finitum, to “mark limits” (from finis, an “end,” a 
“limit”)] is a proposition explanatory of the meaning of 
a word; a setting forth of a thing by its properties. In 
logic, definition signifies “an expression which explains 
any term so as to separate it from everything else, as a 
boundary separates fields.” (See Logic.) A good defini¬ 
tion must be—1st. Adequate—that is, neither so narrow as 
to explain a part instead of the whole, nor so extensive as 
to explain the whole instead of a part. 2d. It should be 
clearer ( i . e. be composed of ideas less complex) than the 
thing defined. 3d. It should be expressed in just a suffi¬ 
cient number of proper words. Metaphorical words are 
indefinite, and should not be used. (See Fleming, “ Vo¬ 
cabulary of Philosophy.”) 

Deflec'tion [Lat. deflexio, from de, “from ” or “down,” 
and fleet o, flexum, to “bend”], in architecture, the change 
of form produced in a beam when its upper surface be¬ 
comes depressed below its original level line, whether 
caused by an extraneous weight or merely by that of the 
unsupported portion of the beam itself. The laws which 
regulate the deflection of beams have been thus stated by 
Coulomb: 1. The deflection below the natural level is pro¬ 
portional to the weight; 2. The weight required to produce 
depression is proportional to the width of the bar, but in 
the ratio of the cube of the depth; 3. It is in the inverse 
ratio of the cube of the length. 

Deflection of a projectile is its perpendicular distance 
at any point of its flight, measured horizontally at that 
point, from a vertical plane passing through the prolonga¬ 
tion of the axis of the piece from which it is fired. 

Deflection, in optics. See Diffraction. 

De Foe (Daniel), an English ivriter, born in London in 
1661, was a son of James Foe, a butcher and non-conform¬ 
ist. In 1685 he joined the rebellion of the duke of Monmouth, 
after whose defeat he became a tradesman. He produced in 
1701 “The True-born Englishman,” a satirical poem de¬ 
signed to vindicate King William III., and was very suc¬ 
cessful. In 1702 he wrote an ironical pamphlet entitled 
“ The Shortest Way with Dissenters,” for which the House 
of Commons punished him with the pillory, a fine, and im¬ 
prisonment for two years. He advocated the principles of 
the Whigs and dissenters in several political works. In 
1706 the ministers employed him as one of the staff of com¬ 
missioners sent to Scotland to promote the union of the two 
countries. He published a “ History of the Union ” (1709). 
In 1713 he was again fined and imprisoned for one of his 
political writings. His most popular work is- “ The Ad¬ 
ventures of Robinson Crusoe” (1719). He wrote, besides 
numerous other works, a “Journal of the Plague” (1722), 
“The Adventures of Roxana” (1724), and “Memoirs of a 
Cavalier,” all of which produce a vivid impression of 
reality. He died April 24, 1731. He was a pithy and vig¬ 
orous writer, distinguished for his versatility of mind and 
fertility of invention. (See W. Hazlitt, “Memoirs of Do 
Foe,” 1.843; Sir Walter Scott, “Life of De Foe,’’prefixed 
to De Foe’s works; William Lee, “Life of Daniel Defoe,” 
3 vols., 1869.) 

De Forest (John William), an American author, born 
in Seymour, then part of Derby, Conn., Mar. 31,1826. In 
his early life he spent two years in travelling in the Levant 
and four years in Europe. He is the author of “Oriental 
Sketches” and “European Acquaintances,” light sketches 
of travels, and “Seacliff,” “Miss Ravenel,” “Overland,” 
“Kate Beaumont,” and “The Wetherel Affair,” all novels. 
In the civil war ho was three years in active service as 
captain of volunteers, was brevetted major, and commanded 
a Freedman’s Bureau district three years more, and after¬ 
wards resided in New Haven. 

Def'ter-Dar (literally, “bookkeeper”), the title given 














1500 DEGER—DEISTS. 

by the Turks to the minister of finance, who sits in the 
divan and disposes of all the public money. The title is of 
Persian origin, and is conferred upon certain officials in 
that country. 

De'ger (Ernst), a German historical painter of the 
Dusseldorf school, was born near Hildesheiin in 1809. lie 
became a professor of fine arts at Munich. 

Deg'gendorf, a town of Lower Bavaria, on the Dan¬ 
ube, 28 miles N. W. of Passau. The town has a consider¬ 
able trade in wood, etc. Pop. in 1871, 5452. 

Dego'nia, a township of Jackson co., Ill. Pop. 470. 

Dc Graff, a post-village of Miami township, Logan 
co., 0. It is on the Cleveland Columbus Cincinnati and 
Indianapolis It. R., 9 miles S. W. of Bellefontaine. It has 
one weekly newspaper. Pop. 624. 

Degree' [from the Lat. de, “intensive,” and gradus, a 
“step” or “ degree”], the 360th part of the circumference 
of a circle. (See below, Degree in Trigonometry.) 

Degree in Algebra, the magnitude of the greatest sum 
that can be formed by adding together the exponents of the 
facients or variables which occur in any single term of an 
equation or expression. The terms degree and order are 
frequently used synonymously in algebra, but have distinct 
meanings when applied to differential equations. 

Degree in Trigonometry is the angle subtended at the 
centre of any circle by an arc equal to the 360th part of 
its circumference; it is the 90th part of a right angle. A 
degree is subdivided into sixty minutes, and each minute 
into sixty seconds. The notation employed for an angle of 
six degrees fifty-two minutes and sixteen seconds is 6° 52' 
16”. The above division of the circle is of very remote 
origin. It is not certainly known what gave occasion to 
the adoption of the arbitrary number 360, but it probably 
had reference to the space described by the sun in one day 
in performing his annual revolution in the ecliptic, the 
number 360 being taken instead of 365, as being more con¬ 
venient for arithmetical operations on account of its con¬ 
taining a great number of divisors. The Chinese divide the 
circle into 3651 equal parts, so that the sun describes daily 
an arc of one Chinese degree. An attempt was made by 
the French philosophers, at the period of the Revolution, 
to introduce into works of science a division of the circle 
better adapted to our decimal arithmetic (the quadrant or 
right angle being divided into 100 degrees, the degrees into 
100 minutes, etc.); but though the system was adopted by 
some writers of the first order of merit (as by Laplace in 
the “Mecanique Celeste”), and extensive tables were com¬ 
puted for the purposes of astronomical calculations, it never 
came into general use. A division of this sort was recom¬ 
mended long ago by some of the most eminent mathema¬ 
ticians. (See F. A. P. Barnard, “Metric System,” 1872, 
pp. 84r-86.) 

Degree, as a Scholastic Distinction, is the grade or 
rank to which scholars are admitted, in recognition of their 
attainments, by a college or university. Collegiate degrees, 
in course, are given, or should be given, only upon examin¬ 
ation. Honorary degrees are sometimes conferred without 
examination. The pope and the archbishop of Canterbury 
also confer scholastic degrees, especially the doctorate. (See 
Arts, Degrees in.) 

Degree in Music, one of the small intervals of which the 
concords or harmonical intervals are composed; the differ¬ 
ence of position or elevation of the notes on the lines and 
spaces. AVhen notes are on the same line or space, they 
are on the same degree, even though one of the notes should 
be raised by a sharp or lowered by a flat. 

Degrees of Latitude and Longitude. The dis¬ 
tance from the equator to the poles, along a meridian, is 
called latitude, or width; the distance from an assumed 
prime meridian, along a parallel, in the direction of the 
earth’s rotation, is called longitude, or length. These ex¬ 
pressions have been handed down to us by the ancients, 
who used them because the w orld known to them was really 
more extensive, or long, from east to west, than wide, from 
north to south. The degrees of latitude are counted from 
the equator as zero, both north and south, making ninety 
degrees each way to the poles. It would be most desirable 
that all civilized nations should also agree on a prime me¬ 
ridian from which the degrees of longitude should be uni¬ 
formly counted; but it is not so. The English count 180 
degrees east and 180 degrees west from the meridian pass¬ 
ing through their national observatory at Greenwich, near 
London; the French start from the meridian of their ob¬ 
servatory at Paris; the Germans often take the meridian 
of Ferro, the most western of the Canary Islands, because 
it leaves all the lands of the Old World to the east, and 
those of the New World to the west; the Americans often 
use the meridian of the National Observatory at Washing¬ 
ton. Therefore, when the longitude of a place is men- 

tioned, the prime meridian from which it is reckoned must 
be indicated. The seafaring nations mostly use Greenwich 
longitude; the nations on the continent of Europe, Paris 
and Ferro. 

The relative position of these prime meridians is such 
that, Paris being zero, Greenwich is 2° 20' 22” W., and 

Ferro is assumed to be 20° W. from the Paris meridian. 
Washington is 79° 23' 28” W. from Paris, and 77° 3' 6" 
from Greenwich. The latitude and longitude of a point 
being known, it is evident that its true position on the sur¬ 
face of the globe is fully determined. 

The meridians being all great circles, the length of their 
degrees, or of the degrees of latitude, is about uniform; 
they only show slight elongation towards the poles, due to 
the polar compression. But the degrees of the parallels 
which mark the longitudes are rapidly decreasing with the 
circumference of the circles from the equator to the poles, 
as shown in the following table : 

Length of Degrees of Longitude in Different Latitudes , in English 

Miles. 

Degrees of Length of Circumf. Degrees of Length of Circumf. 

latitude. degrees. of parallel. latitude. degrees. of parallel. 

Equator.69.10.24,899 50°.45.55.16,037 

5° .68.90.24,805 55 39.76.14,314 

10 .68.12.24,523 60 34.67.12,482 

15 .66.82.24,056 65 29.31.10,553 

20 .65.02.23,407 70 23.73. 8,542 

25 .62.72.22,580 75 17.96. 6,466 

30 .59.95.21,581 80 12.05. 4,339 

35 .56.72.20,419 85 . 6 84. 2,464 

40 .53.06.19,101 90 0.00. Pole. 

45 .48.99.17,636 

The length of a minute of a degree of the equator is 
called a geographical mile, of which, therefore, there are 
sixty in one degree. This is the same as the nautical 
mile, used by all mariners in computing distances at sea. 

One degree of the equator contains 69.16 English statute 
miles. 

Finding the Difference of Longitude between Two Places .— 

As the earth revolves on its axis, each meridian is carried 
over 360 degrees in twenty-four hours, or 1440 minutes, 
and over one degree in four minutes, whatever be the 
length of the degree. The difference in longitude of two 
places can therefore be expressed by the difference in time 
of their meridians. That difference of four minutes for 
each degree is uniformly the same in all latitudes. A trav¬ 
eller going westward one degree of longitude with a good 
watch, will find it four minutes ahead of the time of the 
place; when travelling eastward, four minutes behind. 

When leaving New York, for example, and arriving at 
London, if we find the watch to be four hours and fifty-six 
minutes, or 296 minutes, behind the London—or, rather, the 
Greenwich—time, we conclude that the difference of longi¬ 
tude between the two places is -f-, or 74 degrees. Leav¬ 
ing New York for the Pacific coast, if we find that the time¬ 
keeper, which brings the true time of that place, marks 

3h. 14m. p. m. when it is noon at San Francisco, we again 
conclude that the difference of longitude between the two 
places is 194 minutes of time, which, divided by 4, makes 

48° 30' W. of New York, and 122° 30' W. from Greenwich. 

Arnold Guyot. 

De Grey, Earl. See Ripon, Marquis of. 

De Haas (Maurice F. II.), born at Rotterdam, in the 
Netherlands, about 1830, was a pupil of Louis Meyer and 
other eminent artists. He gave much attention to marine 
painting, in which he early acquired distinction. In 1857 
he was appointed artist to the Dutch navy. In 1859 he 
came to New York, where he has since occupied a high 
position as a painter. Most of his earlier pictures are from 
the British Channel and French coast, and are marked by 
vigorous and effective drawing and by fidelity to nature. 

His “ Farragut passing the Forts ” is his best-known Amer¬ 
ican work. 

De Ha'ven (Edwin J.), an American naval officer, 
born in Philadelphia in 1819. He conducted an expedition 
sent from New York in search of Sir John Franklin in 1850. 

Died in Philadelphia May 9, 1865. 

De'i Grat'ia, a Latin formula, signifying “by the 
grace (or favor) of God,” originally used by the clergy, 
but afterwards inserted in the ceremonial description of the 
title of a sovereign. 

De'ists [from the Lat. Deus, “ God ”], a name assumed 
in France and Italy about the middle of the sixteenth cen¬ 
tury by those who acknowledged the existence of a God, 
but rejected the Bible. Among the earliest advocates of 
these opinions in England was Lord Herbert of Chcrbury, 
whose work, “ De Veritate,” was published at Paris in 

1624. Hobbes, Blount, Bolingbroke, Shaftesbury, Hume, 
Toland, and Anthony Collins are among the principal Eng¬ 
lish deistical writers. As several of the early deists (in¬ 
cluding Bolingbroke) were men of more than doubtful 

















































DEJANIRA—DE LANCEY. 


1301 


moral character, the word came to be used in an unfavor¬ 
able sense, not implied in the etymology of the word (sig¬ 
nifying simply a “believer in God”), and a sense which 
does not attach to the term tkeist, which originally meant 
the same. (See Lechler, “Geschiehte des Englischen 
Deismus,” 1841.) In France deistical views were advo¬ 
cated by many of the prominent free-thinkers, and in Ger¬ 
many by a large number of rationalists. The term theist, 
which etymologically means the same, has now an entirely 
different meaning. (See Free-Thinkers, by Rev. 0. B. 
Frothingham.) 

Dejani'ra, or Deianeira [Gr. Aifiai'eipa or Arjaveipa], 
in Greek mythology, a daughter of ffineus, king of A3tolia, 
was the wife of Hercules. She preserved some blood of 
the centaur Nessus as a love-charm, and saturated with it 
a tunic of Hercules, who was poisoned by it. 

De Jure, “of right.” See De Facto. 

De Kalb, a county in the N. E. of Alabama. Area, 750 
square miles. It is drained by Wills Creek and Town 
Creek. It is partly occupied by Lookout Mountain and 
Sand Mountain, between which is a long and fertile valley. 
Grain, tobacco, cotton, and wool are raised. It is inter¬ 
sected by the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R. Bitumi¬ 
nous coal is mined. Capital, Lebanon. Pop. 7126. 

De Kalb, a county in N. W. Central Georgia. Area, 
350 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Chattahoo¬ 
chee River. The surface is undulating. A granite rock 
rises in this county about 2200 feet above the sea. Corn, 
cotton, wool, and tobacco are raised. It is intersected by 
the Georgia R. R. Capital, Decatur. Pop. 10,014. 

De Kalb, a county in the N. of Illinois. Area, 648 
square miles. It is drained by Sycamore and Indian 
creeks. The surface is undulating; the soil fertile. The 
greater part of it is prairie. Butter, cheese, cattle, grain, 
wool, and hay are largely raised. There are manufactures 
of carriages, wagons, etc. It is intersected by the Chicago 
and North-western and Chicago and Iowa R. Rs. Capital, 
Sycamore. Pop. 23,265. 

De Kalb, a county of Indiana, bordering on Ohio. 
Area, 346 square miles. It is drained by the St. Joseph’s 
River, a branch of the Maumee. The soil is fertile. Cat¬ 
tle, dairy products, lumber, wool, hay, and grain are the 
chief staples. It is intersected by the Fort Wayne Jack- 
son and Saginaw R. R., and the Lake Shore and Michigan 
Southern R. R. Capital, Auburn. Pop. 17,167. 

De Kalb, a county in the N. W. of Missouri. Area, 
440 square miles. It is drained by several small affluents 
of the Platte, and by Blue Creek, an affluent of Grand 
River. The surface is diversified by prairies and forests; 
the soil is productive. Cattle, grain, tobacco, and wool are 
raised. Capital, Maysville. Pop. 9858. 

De Kalb, a county of Middle Tennessee. Area, 300 
square miles. It is intersected by Caney Fork, an affluent 
of the Cumberland River. The soil is fertile. Cattle, 
grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital, Smithville. 
Pop. 11,425. 

De Kalb, a township of Grant co., Ark. Pop. 529. 

De Kalb, a township and village of De Kalb co., Ill., 
on the Chicago and North-western R. R., 58 miles W. of 
Chicago. It has a graded school, one weekly newspaper, 
and an artesian well. P. 2164. L. II. Post, Ed. “ News.” 

De Kalb, a post-village, capital of Kemper co., Miss. 

De Kalb, a post-village and township of St. Lawrence 
co., N. Y., on the Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg R. R., 
at the junction of branches from Potsdam and Ogdens¬ 
burg. The town has five churches, extensive dairies, and 
manufactures of lime. Pop. 3116. 

De Kalb, a township of Kershaw co., S. C. Pop. 2578. 

De Kalb, a township of Scott co., Va. Pop. 1975. 

De Kalb, a township of Gilmer co., West Ya. Pop. 848. 

De Kalb (John), Baron, a German general, born in 
Bavaria June 29, 1721, served first in the French army. 
He came to the U. S. with La Fayette in 1777, and was 
appointed a major-general by Congress in the same year. 
He served under Washington in Pennsylvania and New 
Jersey until the spring of 1780, and then became the sec¬ 
ond in command in the army of Gen. Gates. He was mor¬ 
tally wounded at the battle of Camden, S. C., and died Aug. 
19, 1780. (See Kapp, “ Leben des Amerikan. Generals, Joh. 
Kalb,” 1862.). 

De Kay (James E.), M. D., an eminent zoologist, born 
in New York in 1792, published, besides other works, 
“Sketches of Turkey,” and 5 vols. 4t,o on the existing 
fauna in the “ Report of the New York State Survey ” 
(1842). Died Nov. 21, 1851. 

Dekor'ra, a post-township of Columbia co., Wis. Pop. 
1397. 


Del (Artocarpus pubeecens), a tree of the same genus as 
the bread-fruit, is indigenous in the forests of Ceylon, and 
is valuable for its timber, which is used as a material for 
houses and for ships. 

De la Beche (Sir Henry Thomas), F. R. S., an Eng¬ 
lish geologist, born near London in 1796. Among his works 
are a “Geological Manual” (1832) and the “Geological 
Observer” (1851). Died April 13, 1855. 

Delacroix (Ferdinand Victor Eugene), an eminent 
French historical painter, born at Charenton, near Paris, 
April 26, 1799. He was a pupil of P. Guerin, but did not 
adopt his classical style. In 1822 he produced a picture 
of “ Dante and Virgil,” which attracted much attention. 
His “Massacre of Scio ” (1824) was generally admired. 
He soon became recognized as the chief of the romantic 
school, and displayed remarkable versatility of talent on 
a great variety of subjects. Among his best works are 
“ Mephistopheles appearing to Faust” (1827), “The Death 
of Sardanapalus ” (1827), “ The Women of Algiers ” (1834), 
“The Prisoner of Chillon ” (1835), “Medea” (1838), “The 
Death of Marcus Aurelius” (1845), and “The Farewell of 
Romeo and Juliet” (1846). He was admitted into the In¬ 
stitute in 1857. He has a high reputation as a colorist, but 
he does not excel in correctness of drawing. Died at Paris 
Aug. 13, 1863. (Theo. Silvestre, “Histoire des Artistes 
Vivants,” Paris, 1856; “Catalogue raisonne de l’oeuvre 
d’Eugene Delacroix,” par M. A. Moreau, Paris, 1873.) 

DeFafield, a post-twp. of Waukesha co., Wis. P. 1364. 

Delafield (Richard), an American officer, born Sept. 
1, 1798, in New York City, graduated at West Point in 
1818, chief of engineers April 22, 1864, with the rank of 
brigadier-general. He served on the northern boundary 
survey of the U. S. under the treaty of Ghent 1818; in 
building fortifications, improvement of rivers and harbors, 
constructing roads and canals, 1819-38 and 1846-64; as 
superintendent of the Military Academy 1838-45 and 1856- 
61; as member of boards of engineers 1845-64; as presi¬ 
dent of military commission to the Crimea and theatre of 
war in Europe 1854-56 (report thereon published by Con¬ 
gress 1860); on the staff of Gov. Morgan of New York to 
reorganize and equip State forces for service in the civil 
war 1861-63; in command of corps of engineers and in 
charge of engineer bureau, Washington, D. C., 1864-66; 
as inspector of Military Academy 1864-66; as member of 
lighthouse board and of commission for the improvement 
of Boston harbor 1864-70; and as regent of Smithsonian 
Institution 1865-70. Brevet major-general U. S. A. Mar. 
13, 1865, for faithful, meritorious, and distinguished ser¬ 
vice in the engineer department; and retired from active 
service Aug. 8, 1866. Died Nov. 5, 1873. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Bcla'goa Bay (i. e. “water bay”), an inlet of the In¬ 
dian Ocean, in South-eastern Africa, is 55 miles long and 
about 20 miles wide. It is about lat. 26° S. and Ion. 33° 
E. The shores are flat, marshy, and unhealthy, but the 
bay is commodious and safe. It is visited by many wha¬ 
ling-ships. Several rivers, one of which is the Delagoa, 
enter this bay. 

Belambre (Jean Baptist Joseph), a French astrono¬ 
mer, born at Amiens Sept. 29,1749, studied under Lalande. 
He produced “ Tables of the Orbit of Uranus ” in 1790, and 
in 1792 “Tables of Jupiter’s Satellites.” In the service 
of the government, Delambre and M6chain spent about 
seven years (1792-99) in the measurement of the arc of the 
meridian from Dunkirk to Barcelona. Delambre published 
the result of this operation in his “Base du Syst&me 
Metrique Decimal” (1806-10). He was admitted into the 
Institute in 1795, became perpetual secretary of the Academy 
of Sciences in 1803, and professor of astronomy in the Col¬ 
lege of France in 1807. Among his numerous and able 
works are “Theoretical and Practical Astronomy” (1814), 
a “History of Ancient Astronomy” (1817), a “History of 
Mediaeval Astronomy ” (1819), and a “ History of Modern 
Astronomy” (1821). Died Aug. 19, 1822. (See Fourier, 
“ Eloge de Delambre.”) 

De Lan'cey (James), an American jurist, born in New 
York in 1703, was the son of a Huguenot from Normandy. 
He was educated at Cambridge, England, returned to New 
York in 1729, became a justice in the supreme court of the 
province, and in 1733 its chief-justice. He w r as one of the 
founders of King’s (now Columbia) College, and was lieu¬ 
tenant-governor for several years. Died Aug. 2, 1760. He 
was a man of great talents, wealth, and learning, but is said 
to have been unprincipled and intriguing. Several members 
of the De Lancey family were prominent and bitter Tories 
during the Revolutionary war, but they were generally 
men of remarkable talents. 

De Lancey (William Heathcote), D. D., LL.D., D. 
C. L. Oxon., a Protestant Episcopalian bishop, born at 














1302 


DELANEY—DELAWARE. 


Mamaroneek, N. Y., Oct. 8, 1797, graduated at Yale in 
1817, was ordained deacon in 1819, priest in 1822, was pro¬ 
vost of the University of Pennsylvania (1825-30), and was 
consecrated bishop of Western New York in 1839. Died 
at Geneva, N. Y., April 5, 1865. 

Dcla'ney (Patrick), an Anglican theologian, born in 
Ireland in 1686, was educated at Dublin University. lie 
published (1732-36) a work entitled ‘•Revelation Examined 
with Candor,” a treatise which is still highly valued. Some 
of his other works, among which is a “ Life of David ” 
(1740), exhibit learning and ingenuity, without great excel¬ 
lence in other respects. Died in 1768. 

Delangle (Claude Alphonse), a French statesman, 
born at Varzy April 6, 1797, was advocate-general at the 
court of cassation from 1840 to 1846. In Dec., 1852, he 
became first president of the imperial court of justice, later 
was made a senator, was minister of the interior in 1858, 
minister of justice (1859 to 1863), and became in 1863 vice- 
president of the senate. Died in Paris Dec. 26, 1869. 

Del'ano, a township of Humboldt co., Ia. Pop. 145. 

Delano, a post-village of Wright co., Minn., on the St. 
Paul and Pacific R. R., 40 miles W. by N. of St. Paul. It 
has one weekly newspaper. 

Delano (Columbus), an American lawyer, born in 
Shoreham, Vt., in 1809, removed in his early youth to 
Ohio. He practised law with distinction, and was chosen 
a member of Congress in 1844. Having joined the Repub¬ 
lican party, he was again elected to Congress in 1864. Ho 
became commissioner of internal revenue in Mar., 1869, 
and secretary of the interior in the cabinet of General Grant 
in Oct., 1870. 

Delan'ti, a village of Stockton township, Chautauqua 
co., N. Y., has three churches and some manufactures. 
Pop. 245. 

Delaroche (Paul), a French historical painter, the 
chief of the modern eclectic school, was born in Paris July 
17, 1797. He was a pupil of Baron Gros, and adopted a 
style by which he endeavored to unite the dignity of the 
classic with the picturesqueness of the romantic school. In 
1824 he exhibited “Joan of Arc Interrogated in Prison.” 
His reputation was increased by the “ Death of Queen 
Elizabeth” (1827) and “The Children of Edward IV. in 
the Tower of London” (1831). He was admitted into the 
, Institute in 1832, and married a daughter of Horace Vernet. 
Among his masterpieces are “ Cromwell Gazing on the 
Corpse of Charles I.” (1832), “Napoleon at Saint-Ber- 
nard” (1850), and “ The Girondists in Prison ” (1855). He 
adorned the semicircular saloon of the Palais des Beaux- 
Arts with an admirable composition, which represents the 
artists of all ages, and contains about seventy figures. 
Died Nov. 4, 1856. 

De la Rue (Warren), Ph. D., F. R. S., an English 
physicist and inventor, born about 1815, was educated in 
Paris, and afterwards followed his father’s employment as 
wholesale stationer and manufacturer of card-paper. He 
has invented processes for photographing the heavenly 
bodies, improvements in color-printing, in envelope-folding 
machines, in oil-refining, etc., and has published important 
reports of original observations in chemistry, astronomy, 
and physics. 

Delator (pin. Delato'res), [from the Lat. defero, 
delatum , to “carry off - ”], a Latin word, literally meaning 
“ carrier,” came to be applied to the carriers of evil re¬ 
ports, informers, or public spies. Under the Roman em¬ 
perors the delatores were a class of men who gained their 
living by informing against their fellow-citizens. They 
constantly brought false charges forward to gratify the 
jealousy or avarice of the different emperors, and were 
generally paid according to the apparent consequence of 
the information they gave, although in some cases the law 
specified the sums which were to be given to informers. 
Thus, if a murder had been committed in a family, and any 
slaves ran away before inquest ( qusestio) had been made, 
whoever apprehended such slaves received for each one so 
apprehended five pieces of gold from the estate of the de¬ 
ceased, or, if the estate could not pay it, the government 
gave the reward. At various times attempts were made to 
regulate the pay of public spies and informers, who at last 
became so numerous, and gave rise to so much trouble in 
society, that the emperors were obliged to expel and va¬ 
riously punish great numbers of them. 

Delaunay (Charles Eugene), F. R. S. L., a French 
mathematician and astronomer, born April 9, 1816, was 
educated at the Polytechnic School, where he graduated in 
1836 with the highest honors. He was subsequently ap¬ 
pointed principal engineer of mines of the first class, and 
professor of mechanics in the Polytechnic School and in 
the Faculty of Sciences. He was also an officer of the Le¬ 
gion of Honor, a member of the Institute, and was the re¬ 


cipient of numerous native and foreign honors and distinc¬ 
tions. He became a member of the Academy in 1855, of the 
bureau of longitude in 1862, and director of the Parisian 
! Observatory in 1870. He has written, among other works, 
“Traits de MScanique Rationelle” (3d ed. 1862), “Theorie 
de la Lune” (1866), “ Rapport sur le Progres de l’Astrono- 
mie ” (1867). He was drowned at Cherbourg Aug. 5, 1872. 

Del'avan, a post-village of Tazewell co., Ill., on the 
Chicago and Alton R. R. and the Pekin branch of the To¬ 
ledo Wabash and Western R. R., 157 miles S. W. of Chicago. 
It has two weekly newspapers, a library, two banks, two 
manufactories, a park, and a high school. Pop. of Dela- 
van township, 1957. Ed. “Independent.” 

Delavan., a post-village of Faribault co., Minn., on the 
Southern Minnesota II. R., 162 miles W. of La Crosse. It 
has one weekly newspaper. 

Delavan, a post-village of Walworth co., Wis., on Turtle 
Creek and the Western Union R. R., 58 miles S. W. of Mil¬ 
waukee. It has a national bank, the State institution for 
the deaf and dumb, five churches, a foundry, a cheese-fac¬ 
tory, one graded school, and one weekly newspaper. Pop. 
1688 ; of Delavan township, 2509. Ed. “ Republican.” 

Delavan (Edward C.), an American temperance re¬ 
former, born in Schenectady co., N. Y., in 1793, accumu¬ 
lated by industry and economy a large amount of property 
at Albany, N. Y. Here he erected the “ Delavan House,” 
which was for a long time a famous temperance hotel. He 
became a distinguished editor and speaker upon temper¬ 
ance, and expended a large amount of money in the cause. 
Died Jan. 15,1871, after losing a large part of his property. 

Delavigne (Jean Francis Casimir), a French dram¬ 
atist, was born April 4, 1793, at Havre. After the Res¬ 
toration he wrote a series of patriotic lyrics called “ Mes- 
seniennes,” which were received with favor. The dramas 
“The Sicilian Vespers” (1819), “The Comedians ” (1820), 
and “ The Pariah ” (1821) increased his fame. In 1830 he 
wrote “La Parisienne” and other revolutionary songs. 
Delavigne occupies an intermediate position between the 
classical and romantic school. There are more piquancy 
and realistic sentences in his delineations of characters 
than in those of Voltaire, but less passion and fire of im¬ 
agination than in those of Victor Hugo. He died Dec. 11, 
1843.—His brother, Germain Delavigne (born 1790), 
wrote with Casimir the words to Halevy’s opera of “Charles 
VI.,” and in collaboration with Scribe “ Le Vieux Gar§on” 
and other vaudevilles. Died in 1868. 

DeUaware [named in honor of Lord Delaware, second 
governor of Virginia], a river of the U. S., rises in New 
York, and is formed by the Coquago and the Popacton, 
which unite at Hancock on the boundary between New 
York and Pennsylvania. It flows south-eastward to Port 
Jervis on the Erie R. R., and reaches the northern extremity 
of New Jersey. Below this point it forms the boundary 
between Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and runs south- 
westward to the Delaware Water Gap, where the river 
passes through a picturesque gorge in the Ivittatinny Moun¬ 
tain. Thence it flows southward to the northern extremity 
of Bucks county, and south-eastward to Trenton, where it 
meets tide-water. Below Bordentown it flows south-west¬ 
ward until it enters Delaware Bay, about 40 miles below 
Philadelphia. Its whole length is about 300 miles. It is 
navigable for steamboats to Trenton, and ships of the larg¬ 
est size can ascend to Philadelphia, where it is nearly one 
mile wide. It is connected with the Hudson River by the 
Morris Canal and the Delaware and Hudson Canal. Large 
numbers of shad are caught in the Delaware. 

DelaAvare, one of the Middle States of the Atlantic 
coast, and one of the original thirteen which united in the 
war of Independence. It is situated between the parallels 
of 38° 28' and 39° 50' N. lat., and between the meridians 
of 75° and 75° 46' W. Ion. from Greenwich. It has a 
length of 96 miles from N. to S., and a breadth ranging 
from 9 to 12 miles in the N. to 36 or 37 miles on or near its 
S. line; and is bounded on the N. and N. N. W. by Penn¬ 
sylvania, on the E. by Delaware River and bay and the 
Atlantic Ocean, on the S. and W. by Maryland. Its area 
is 2120 square miles, or 1,356,800 acres, being, with the ex¬ 
ception of Rhode Island, the smallest State in the Union 
in territory. 

Face of the Country .—The peninsula lying between the 
Chesapeake and Delaware bays and the Atlantic Ocean, of 
which Delaware forms the N. E. portion, is' for the most 
part nearly level, and, except on the shores of the Delaware 
River and bay, very generally sandy. There are no moun¬ 
tains, though in the northern portion of the State, which is 
somewhat assimilated to the character of the Pennsylvania 
lands, there is some fine rolling country, with pleasant hills 
and dales; but below New Castle the only variation from 
an absolute level is a sandy and somewhat marshy ridge, 




























DELAWARE. 1303 


nowhere exceeding 60 or 70 feet in height, running south¬ 
ward near the western boundary of the State, and forming 
the backbone of the peninsula. From the marshes of this 
ridge most of the streams which drain the State take their 
rise. Of these the affluents of the Pocomoke, the Nanti- 



Delaware Seal. 


coko, the Choptank, the Chester, and the Elk rivers flow 
into Chesapeake Bay, while the Brandywine, White Clay 
Creek, Christiana Creek, Appoquinimink, Duck Creek, 
Murderkill, Mispillion River, Broadkill, Indian, and other 
rivers and creeks are tributaries of the Delaware River and 
bay, or discharge their waters into the Atlantic. There 
are no considerable indentations of the coast except below 
Cape Henlopen, where the surf has thrown up long spits of 
sand enclosing the shallow but landlocked sounds known as 
Rehoboth Bay, Indian River Bay, and the northern portion 
of St. Martin’s Bay. Most of the larger streams are navi¬ 
gable for coasters and fishing-vessels of light draught for 
a short distance, but Christiana Creek is the only one nav¬ 
igable for merchant-ships. Rehoboth Bay admits vessels 
drawing six feet of water. Delaware Bay, which for more 
than half of its course along the eastern shore of the State 
is rather an estuary than a bay, is a fine body of water, 
with a deep though tortuous channel, having from 35 to 75 
feet of water; but along the Delaware shore it is at most 
points much silted up and its banks are marshy and low. 
The only good harbors in the State are those of Wilming¬ 
ton on Christiana Creek, New Castle, and Lewes, just in¬ 
side of the Breakwater. 

Geology .— The northern portion of the State, including 
nearly one-half of New Castle county, belongs to the same 
group of cretaceous rocks with the West Jersey marls and 
greensand; from this point down to the banks of Murder- 
kill the tertiary formations predominate; the southern por¬ 
tion is wholly alluvial. In the extreme southern part of the 
State is the Cypress Swamp, a morass 12 miles long and 6 
miles wide, containing a dense growth of cypress and other 
evergreens and shrubs, and abounding in noxious reptiles. 
The soil for eight or ten miles inward from Delaware Bay 
is for the most part a rich clayey loam, but W. of this it is 
sandy, and unless constantly enriched yields but light crops. 
Of minerals, the most important are bog-iron ore, found in 
all the swamps, shell marl in the greensand region, and 
kaolin or porcelain clay, also found abundantly and of good 
quality in the northern part of- the State. The climate is 
mild and favorable to agricultural pursuits. In the N. the 
air is pure and healthy; in the S. the presence of swamps 
causes the prevalence of intermittent and remittent fevers 
to some extent. The natural vegetation does not differ 
from that of the more level portions of the Middle States 
generally. Except in the swampy districts, there are no 
extensive forests, the land being generally under cultiva¬ 
tion. In the swamps the trees are largely of a sub-tropical 
character. There are few wild animals in the State, though 
in the Cypress Swamp, as well as in other swamps, there is 
no lack of formidable reptiles. The shores of Delaware 
Bay are frequented in their season by immense flocks of 
ducks and teal, and at times by wild-geese. The other 
birds of the State are those common to the Middle States 
lying on or near the Atlantic. 

Agricultural Products .—Delaware is eminently a fruit¬ 
growing State. Her peaches and apples and her small 
fruits are in demand in the markets of Philadelphia and 
New York, and, in connection with New Jersey and Mary¬ 
land, almost completely supply the ever-increasing demand 
for these products. According to the census of 1870, 
1 052,322 acres, or ten-thirteenths of her entiVe area, was 
in farms, and of this amount 698,115 acres were under cul¬ 
tivation, while 354,207 acres were either woodland or other¬ 
wise unimproved. The average size of her farms was 138 


acres; the value of her farms was set down at $46,712,870, 
or an average of $45 per acre; the value of farming im¬ 
plements, $1,201,644; the value of all farm products, 
$8,171,667; of animals slaughtered, etc., $997,403; of homo 
manufactures, $33,070 ; of forest products, $111,810; of mar¬ 
ket-garden products,$198,075 (evidently an under-estimate); 
of orchard products, $1,226,893 (this is also understated); 
of wages paid to farm hands, $1,696,571; wheat har¬ 
vested, 895,477 bushels; rye, 10,222 bushels; Indian 
corn, 3,010,390 bushels; oats, 554,388; barley, 1799; 
buckwheat, 1349; flax, 878 pounds; wool, 58,316 pounds; 
hay, 41,890 tons; hops, 800 pounds; tobacco, 250 pounds; 
sorghum molasses, 65,908 gallons; common potatoes (So¬ 
latium tuberosum), 362,724 bushels; sweet potatoes ( Batatas 
edxdis), 85,309; peas and beans, 3123 bushels; beeswax, 
800 pounds; honey, 33,151 pounds; domestic wine, 1552 
gallons; cloverseed, 2228 bushels; flaxseed, 356 bushels; 
grass-seed, 60 bushels. Of some of these items we have 
later statistics in the careful estimates of the agricultural 
department; these gave for the crop of 1871 (two years 
later than that of the census), Indian corn, 3,575,000, an 
average of 22 bushels to the acre, and worth $2,145,000; 
wheat, 688,000 bushels, 11.5 bushels to the acre, and valued 
at $1,045,760; rye, 10,100 bushels, an average of but 5 
bushels to the acre, worth $7575; oats, 398,000 bushels, an 
average yield of 20 bushels to the acre, worth $163,180 ; 
barley, 1700 bushels, 17 bushels to the acre, worth $1360; 
buckwheat, 1100 bushels, 12.5 bushels to the acre, worth 
$847; potatoes (common), 238,000 bushels, 120 bushels to 
the acre, worth $119,000 ; hay, 33,000 tons, 1.25 tons to the 
acre, worth $577,500. The estimated amount of live-stock 
in the State in Feb., 1872, was—horses, 20,000, valued at 
$1,516,400; mules, 4000, valued at $455,960 ; oxen and 
other cattle, 33,400, valued at $606,544; milch cows, 26,000, 
valued at $832,000 ; sheep, 25,300, valued at $101,200 ; 
hogs, 46,000, valued at $230,000. The peach crop of Dela¬ 
ware ranges from 3,300,000 to 3,800,000 baskets, or even 
more in favorable years, representing a value of $1,300,000 
to $3,000,000 ; while the apples, pears, and small fruits are 
worth more than as much more. In 1872, 3,472,000 quarts 
of strawberries were shipped in twenty-five days, yielding 
nearly $250,000. 

Manufacturing and Mining Industry .—According to the 
census of 1870, there were in the State 800 manufacturing 
establishments, having for motive-power 164 steam-engines 
of 4313 horse-power, and 234 water-wheels of 4220 horse¬ 
power, employing 9710 hands—viz. 7705 adult males, 1199 
adult females, and 806 children; having a capital of 
$10,839,093; paying wages to the amount of $3,692,195; 
using raw materials valued at $10,206,397 ; and producing 
goods and wares annually worth $16,791,382. That the 
manufacturing industry of the State is greatly understated 
in this report (doubtless from the carelessness or incom¬ 
petency of the census marshals) appears from the fact that 
a very careful census of the manufacturing establishments 
of the city of Wilmington alone, taken in Oct., 1872, gives 
capital invested in that city in manufactures, $12,275,000, 
and value of manufactured products for the year preced¬ 
ing, $20,125,000,or $3,334,000 more than the product of the 
whole State in 1870. Wilmington is unquestionably the 
largest manufacturing town or city in the State, but it does 
not monopolize more than three-fourths of the manufactur¬ 
ing of the State. The most important/ manufactures of the 
State are—the various departments of iron manufacture, 
which produce annually about $3,000,000; flour and 
flouring-mill products, about $2,500,000; morocco and 
other leather, tanned, curried, and enamelled, $2,500,000 
($2,000,000 worth of morocco alone is made in Wilming¬ 
ton); shipbuilding, iron and wood, $1,600,000 ; machinery, 
car-wheels, etc., $2,600,000; railroad and horse-railroad 
cars, $1,900,000; cotton goods, $1,600,000 ; paper, $1,400,000; 
powder and chemicals, $1,450,000; carriages and wagons, 
$1,500,000 ; tobacco, cigars, and snuff, $1,000,000 ; woollen 
goods, $800,000 ; boots, shoes, and findings, $650,000. 

Railroads. —There are now completed in Delaware about 
383 miles of railroad, belonging to thirteen different lines, 
the greater part of them leased to the Philadelphia Wil¬ 
mington and Baltimore Railway, which by these leases con¬ 
trols most of the travel between New England, New York, 
and Philadelphia, and Norfolk and other Southern cities. 
A ship-canal is in progress between Bombay Hook and the 
Sassafras River, connecting the Chesapeake and Delaware 
bays. 

Finances. —The State debt of Delaware Dec. 15,1872, was 
$1,325,000. She had investments in dividend-paying stocks 
to the amount of $471,800, besides her school fund, which 
amounted to $452,410. The receipts of the State treasurer 
for the year ending Dec. 15, 1872, were $204,708.17, and 
the expenditures for the same time, $186,311.61. In Jan., 
1873, the State had to her credit $171,286.88. In 1S70 
the assessed valuation of real and personal estate was 



















































1304 


DELAWARE. 


$64,787,223 ; the estimated true value was $97,180,833. In 
1872 the valuation of the city of Wilmington alone was 
$43,000,000. The total taxation, State, county, and city, 
in 1870 was $418,092. 

Commerce .—Until within the past two or three years the 
commerce of the State has been conducted almost entirely 
through Philadelphia and Baltimore, but recently Wil¬ 
mington has begun to develop a commercial spirit, and now 
has a line of steamers plying to New York and numerous 
coasting-vessels running to various ports. The extensive 
interest in shipbuilding, especially of iron ships, of that 
city, has tended to increase her commercial activity. The 
commerce of the State consists mainly in the shipping to 
other States and cities of its agricultural and manufactur¬ 
ing products, and bringing in, in return, the raw materials 
and goods necessary for its own consumption. Its amount 
cannot be definitely ascertained. 

Banks .—The State had in June, 1873, 11 national banks, 
with an aggregate capital of $1,528,185 ; 5 State banks, with 
an aggregate capital of $780,000; no savings banks, and 
two private banking-houses. 

Insurance Companies .—There were on the 1st of July, 
1873, 4 fire insurance companies, 3 of them at Wilmington 
and 1 at Dover, 1 a joint-stock company, with $100,000 
capital, and 3 mutual companies, the whole reporting assets 
of $1,696,000. There is one mutual life insurance company 
at Wilmington, organized in 1867, with a capital of $100,000, 
and assets in April, 1873, of $153,431. 

Population .—At the time of the Revolutionary war Dela¬ 
ware had probably not much more than 30,000 inhabitants. 
Her progress since the first decennial census is seen in the 
following table: 


Census. 

Whites. 

Free 

Col’d 

Slaves. 

Males. 

Females. 

Total. 

Density 

1790 

46,310 

3 

899 

8,887 

30,314 

28,772 

59,094 

27.87 

1800 

49,852 

8 

268 

6,153 

32,243 

32,070 

64,273 

30.31 

1810 

55,361 

13 

136 

4,177 

36,662 

36,012 

72,674 

34.23 

1820 

55,282 

12 

958 

4,509 

36,939 

35,810 

72,749 

34.31 

1830 

57,601 

15 

855 

3,292 

38,533 

38,215 

76,748 

36.20 

1840 

58,561 

16 

919 

2,605 

39,256 

38,829 

78,085 

36.83 

1850 

71,169 

18 

073 

2,290 

45,955 

45,577 

91,532 

43.18 

1860 

90,589 

19 

829 

1,798 

56,689 

55,527 

112,216 

52.93 

1870 

102,221 

22 

794 


62,628 

62,387 

125,015 

58.97 


According to the census of 1870, 115,879 of the inhabitants 
of Delaware were natives of the U. S., and 9136 were for¬ 
eign born. Of the latter, 5907 were born in Ireland, 1421 
in England, 1142 in Germany, 229 in Scotland, 112 in Brit¬ 
ish America, 127 in France, and 208 in other countries. Of 
foreigners over ten years of age, 2469 could not read or 
write, and 20,631 natives above ten years of age were 
equally illiterate. Of these, 11,280 were whites and 9351 
colored. Of the whites, 1878 (1035 males and 833 females) 
were between ten and fifteen years of age, 1370 (718 males 
and 652 females) were between fifteen and twenty-one years, 
and 8032 (3466 males and 4566 females) were twenty-one 
years of age and over. Of the colored illiterates, 1785 
(925 males and 860 females) were from ten to fifteen years 
of age, 2065 (1054 males and 1011 females) were between 
fifteen and twenty-one years, and 7970 (3765 males and 
4205 females) were over twenty-one years old. 

Education .—Public school education in Delaware, except 
in the city of Wilmington, is not in so prosperous a condi¬ 
tion as it should be. In 1871 there were 383 school dis¬ 
tricts and 421 public schools in the State, 19,018 scholars 
in attendance, and $144,509.08 was received and expended 
for public school purposes, $94,781.93 of it in New Castle 
co. All the schools for colored children are supported by 
voluntary contributions, except that an appropriation of 
$1000 was made by the Wilmington board of education to 
the Upward School of that city. In 1870, according to the 
ninth census, there were 326 public schools, with 388 
teachers (107 male and 281 female) and 16,385 pupils 
(7694 male and 9141 female), and an income of $127,729 
for their support, of which $120,429 was derived from tax¬ 
ation and $7300 from tuition and other sources. There 
were 9 academies, with 48 teachers (25 male and 23 female) 
and 722 pupils (463 male and 259 female), having a total 
income of $35,200, derived from tuition and other sources; 
there were also 14 private (day and boarding) schools, with 
24 teachers (4 male and 20 female) and 482 scholars (223 
male and 259 female), xvith a total income of $11,572, de¬ 
rived from tuition and other sources. There are in the 
State two colleges—Delaware College, at Newark, founded 
in 1867, a State institution, having 10 instructors and pro¬ 
fessors and 105 students, 93 of them (45 males and 48 fe¬ 
males) in the preparatory department, and 12 (all male) in 
the collegiate department, and 6000 volumes in its libraries; 
and the Wesleyan Female College, at Wilmington, founded 
in 1839 and chartered in 1851, an institution under the di¬ 
rection of the Methodist Episcopal Church, having 12 pro¬ 


fessors and instructors (5 male and 7 female), 132 students 
(all female), and 3500 volumes in its libraries. 

Libraries .—There were 252 public libraries in the State 
in 1870, containing 92,275 volumes, and 221 private libra¬ 
ries, containing 91,148 volumes. The State Library at 
Dover has, it is said, 30,000 volumes; the Wilmington In¬ 
stitute Library, 11,000 volumes, and the library of the New¬ 
castle Library Company, 6254. 

Newspapers and Periodicals .—There were, according to 
the census of 1870, 17 periodicals and newspapers issued 
in the State, having an aggregate circulation of 20,860, and 
issuing annually 1,607,840 copies. Of these, 1 was a daily 
paper, having a circulation of 1600 copies; 3 semi-weekly, 
with a circulation of 3660 ; 12 were weekly, having an 
aggregate circulation of 13,600; 1 was a monthly, with 
2000 circulation. Of these, 2 were literary and miscel¬ 
laneous, with 1500 circulation; 14 were political, with 
17,360 circulation ; 1 (monthly) religious, with 2000 circula¬ 
tion. 

Churches .—In 1870 there were in the State, according to 
the census, 267 churches of all denominations, with 252 
church edifices, 87,899 sittings, and church property valued 
at $1,823,950. Of these, there were Baptist churches, 8; 
church edifices, 7 ; sittings, 2950; church property, $131,000 
(according to the “Baptist Year-Book” for 1873, there 
were in the State in 1872, 9 Baptist churches, 6 ordained 
ministers, 770 members, 104 Sunday school teachers, and 
1206 Sunday school scholars). In 1870 there were 29 
Protestant Episcopal parishes, 27 church edifices, 8975 sit¬ 
tings, and $246,850 of church property. (The “Episcopal 
Almanac ” for 1873 gives the number of clergymen as 22, 
with 1 bishop and 1 episcopal diocese, 1641 communicants, 
280 Sunday school teachers, 2412 Sunday school scholars, 
and $38,186 of benevolent contributions.) In 1870 there 
were 8 societies of Friends, with 8 meeting-houses, 3425 
sittings, and $64,600 of meeting-house property; 1 Lu¬ 
theran church, 1 church edifice, 300 sittings, and $5000 of 
church property; 173 Methodist churches, 166 church edi¬ 
fices, 51,924 sittings, and $781,000 of church property; in 
1872 there were 53 travelling and 163 local preachers, 157 
churches, 11,269 members, 954 probationers, and $141,013 
of church property. In 1870 there was 1 New Jerusalem 
(Swedenborgian) church, 1 church edifice, 300 sittings, and 
$20,000 of church property. The same year there were 
32 Presbyterian churches, 32 church edifices, 13,375 sit¬ 
tings, and $384,500 of church property. There were in 
1870, 13 Roman Catholic churches, 8 church edifices, 6000 
sittings, and $170,000 of church property; in 1873 the 
Roman Catholic diocese of Wilmington, comprising the 
State of Delaware and the Eastern Shores of Maryland and 
Virginia, had 1 bishop and 1 vicar-general, and in Dela¬ 
ware 11 churches, 10 clergymen, 4 parochial schools, with 
1210 pupils, and 3 institutions. The adherent Catholic 
population is estimated (rather loosely) at about 15,000. 
There was 1 Unitarian church, 1 church edifice, 300 sit¬ 
tings, and $17,000 of church projmrty; one Universalist 
society, with 1 church edifice, 350 sittings, and $4000 of 
chui'ch property. 

Constitution, Courts, etc .—The constitution of Delaware 
has not been materially changed since 1833. It gives the 
elective franchise to every free white male citizen of the 
age of twenty-two years who has resided for one year in 
the State and the last month thereof in the county, and 
who has within two years paid a county tax assessed at 
least six months before the election; but every free white 
male citizen over twenty-one and under twenty-two years 
may vote without paying any tax. Idiots, insane persons, 
paupers, and felons are excluded from voting, and the 
legislature may impose forfeiture of the right of suffrage 
as punishment for crime. Under the operation of the fif¬ 
teenth amendment of the Constitution of the U. S., colored 
men are allowed to vote, subject to the above restrictions. 
The governor is elected by the people for a term of four 
years; he must be thirty years of age and have resided in 
the State for six years next before the election. The 
secretary of state is appointed by the governor, and serves 
for four years. The State treasurer and auditor are elected 
by the legislature for two years. The attorney-general is 
appointed by the governor, and holds office for five years. 
The legislature consists of a senate of nine members (three 
from each county), chosen for four years, and a house of 
representatives of twenty-one members (seven from each 
county), chosen for two years. The sessions of the legis¬ 
lature are biennial. As New Castle county now contains 
double the population of the other counties, this mode of 
representation is manifestly unjust, and its influence is felt 
on many of the topics of legislation. The judicial power 
of the State, is vested in a court of errors and appeals, su¬ 
perior court, court of chancery, orphans’ court, court of 
oyer and terminer, court of general sessions of the peace 
and jail delivery, register’s court, and justices of the peace. 



































DELAWARE. 


1305 


These courts are presided over by five judges—viz. the 
chancellor of the State, who is president of the orphans’ 
court of the respective counties, and who sits in that court 
with the associate judge of the county; the chief-justice 
and three associate judges, one for each county, who, sit¬ 
ting together, form the court of errors and appeals; and 
the chief-justice and two of his associates constitute the 
superior court and court of general sessions. The court of 
oyer and terminer, like the court of errors, comprises the 
whole bench, except the chancellor. Judges are appointed 
by the governor, and hold office during good behavior. 
Probate courts are held by registers of wills, with appeal 
to the superior court. The chancellor holds a court of 


chancery in each county of the State. The sheriff of each 
county is elected by the people every two years. The 
clerks of the courts and registers of wills are appointed by 
the governor for the term of five years. In some of her 
penal enactments Delaware is rather antiquated. She has 
maintained public whipping at the whipping-post as a 
punishment for larceny and other minor offences up to the 
present time (Oct., 1873). These offenders receive from 
twenty-five to sixty lashes on the bare back, and are also 
exposed in the pillory for an hour or more. The State is en¬ 
titled to two Senators and one Representative in Congress. 

Counties. —There are three counties in the State. Their 
population at each census was as follows : 


Counties. 

1790. 

1800. 

1810. 

1820. 

1830. 

1810. 

1850. 

I860. 

1870. 

Remarks. 

Kent. 

New Castle. 

Sussex . 

18,920 

19,686 

20,488 

19,554 

25,361 

19,358 

20,495 

24,429 

27,750 

20,793 

27,899 

24,057 

19,913 

29,720 

27,115 

19,872 

33,120 

25,093 

22,816 

42,780 

25,936 

27,804 

54,797 

29,615 

29,804 

63,515 

31,696 

Central county. 
Northern county. 
Southern county. 


Principal Towns. —Wilmington, situated on Christiana 
and Brandywine creeks, is the most populous and import¬ 
ant city in the State. It is largely engaged in manufac¬ 
turing. Its population in 1870 was 30,841, and is now 
(Oct., 1873) estimated at 37,000. Dover, the capital of the 
State and of Kent co., has a population of 1906 in the 
town, and of 6394 in the hundred or township in which it 
is situated. The other towns of 2000 inhabitants or more 
are New Castle and Smyrna. North Milford, Seaford, Lewes, 
Laurel, Delaware City, South Milford, and Georgetown are 
also thriving towns. The divisions of the counties, which 
in most of the States are called townships, aro in this State 
denominated hundreds. 

History .—Delaware takes its name from the bay and 
river, which were so called from the lord de la Warr, gov¬ 
ernor of Virginia, who entered the bay in 1610, though 
both bay and river had been explored by Hendrick Hud¬ 
son in 1609. The first attempt at settlement was made by 
the Dutch, under De Vries, with thirty colonists, in 1630, 
in the vicinity of Lewes, Sussex co., but this colony was 
destroyed by the Indians in 1633. In 1637 a colony of 
Swedes and Finns, sent out by the Swedish West India 
Company, purchased the land from Cape Henlopeu to 
Trenton Falls, erected a fort at the mouth of Christiana 
Creek, and called the country New Sweden. Soon after, 
they erected another fort on Tinicum Island, a few miles 
below Philadelphia. The Dutch colony at New Amster¬ 
dam (now New York) protested against this invasion of 
their territory, and built Fort Cassimir, now New Castle, 
5 miles S. of Fort Christiana. In 1654 the Swedes cap¬ 
tured this fort, but in 1655 the Dutch attacked and cap¬ 
tured all the Swedish forts, and sent back to Europe those 
colonists who would not swear allegiance to Holland. In 
1664, when New Netherlands was conquered by the Eng¬ 
lish, the duke of York claimed these settlements on the 
Delaware as belonging to him. Lord Baltimore also 
claimed them as being within his grant, but without avail. 
In 1682, William Penn bought from the duke of York his 
claims, and, after some litigation with Lord Baltimore, es¬ 
tablished his right to the territory in 1685. The present 
State was called in the colonial records of Pennsylvania, 
“ the territories, or the three lower counties on the Dela¬ 
ware.” For twenty years they were considered a part of 
the colony of Pennsylvania, and sent eighteen delegates, 
six from each county, to the colonial assembly. In 1703 
they obtained liberty to secede and establish a distinct 
legislature for themselves, but until the Revolution they 
were under the same'governor as Pennsylvania, and the 
proprietary, on the ground of purchase, claimed all his 
rights. The colony suffered less from wars with Indians 
or foreign powers than most of the other colonies. In the 
French war, which terminated in 1763, she furnished her 
full quota of troops, who distinguished themselves for 
bravery and zeal; and in the Revolutionary war “the 
Blue Hen’s chickens,” as the Delaware soldiers were called 
from their flag, were second to none in efficiency. In 1776 
the people of Delaware proclaimed themselves free and in¬ 
dependent, and formed a constitution, Sept. 20, 1776. They 
came heartily into the old Confederation, and ratified the 
Constitution of the U. S. Dec. 7, 1787. In 1792 a second 
State constitution was adopted, which, with some amend¬ 
ments, is still the organic law of the State. The subse¬ 
quent career of the State has been for the most part quiet, 
but prosperous. It has lacked in enterprise, in the ad¬ 
vancement of education, and in the development of its 
resources, but up to the commencement of the late civil 
war the State had had no debt and had levied no general 
tax on its landed property. At the beginning of the civil 
war, though a majority of its citizens were in favor of 
maintaining the Union and sustaining the U. S. govern¬ 


ment, a large minority sympathized with the Southern 
Confederacy, as was to be expected, ihe State having been 
in all its past history a slaveholding State. Still, it con¬ 
tributed seven regiments of infantry, a battalion of cavalry, 
aud two or three batteries of artillery, in all about 10,000 
men, to the war. Yet its general position was for years 
one of steady but passive hostility to the general govern¬ 
ment and to the amendments to the Constitution of the 
U. S., which drew upon it in two or three instances the 
interference of the government, but never led to any active 
resistance. The governor and legislature protested against 
negro suffrage, and obstructed it as far as possible, but 
finally submitted to it as inevitable. Of late, wiser coun¬ 
sels seem to prevail, and there is reason to believe that the 
gallant little State will become distinguished, as of old, for 
her patriotism, loyalty, and fidelity to truth and right, and 
place herself in the front rank in education, enterprise, and 
social and moral progress. 

Governors of the State. —In the period between the Dec¬ 
laration of Independence in 1776 and the adoption of the 
Constitution of the U. S. at the close of 1787, Delaware had 
for its chief magistrates, under the title of president, at least 
two distinguished citizens of Pennsylvania, who were chief 
magistrates also of that colony—viz. John Dickinson and 
Thomas McKean—thus maintaining, in effect, the previous 
custom of having the two colonies ruled by the same gov¬ 
ernor ; but in 1789 the first of the governors of the State 
of Delaware was inaugurated, and the succession from that 
time has been as follows : 


Joshua Clayton.1789-96 

Gunning Bedford.1796-97 

Daniel Rogers.1797-98 

Richard Bassett.1798-1801 

James Sykes (acting).1801-02 

David Hall.1802-05 

Nathaniel Mitchell........1805-08 

George Truett.1808-11 

Joseph Haslett.1811-14 

Daniel Rodney.1814-17 

John Clarke.1817-20 

Jacob Stout (acting).1820-21 

John Collins.1821-22 

Caleb Rodney (acting)... 1822-2.3 

Joseph Haslett.1823-24 

Samuel Paynter.1824-27 


George Poindexter.1827-30 

David Hazzard.1830-33 

Caleb P. Bennett.1833-37 

Cornelius P. Comegys....1837-40 

William B. Cooper.1840-44 

Thomas Stockton.1844-46 

Joseph Maul (acting).1846-46 

William Temple.1846-46 

William Thorp.1846-51 

William II. Ross.1851-55 

Peter F. Cansey.1855-59 

William Burton.1859-63 

William Cannon.1863-65 

Gove Saulsbury.1865-69 

James Ponder.1869-71 

James Ponder.1871- 


Electoral and Popular Vote at Presidential Elections: 1. 
Electoral Vote for President and Vice-President. 


Elec¬ 

tion. 

Year. 

Candidates Voted for. 

No. of 
votes. 

1 st. 

1788 

George Washington, scattering. 

3 

2d. 

1792 

George Washington and John Adams . 

3 

3d. 

1796 

John Adams and Thomas Pinckney. 

3 

4th.... 

1800 

John Adams and Charles C. Pinckney. 

3 

5th.... 

1804 

Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus King. 

3 

6th.... 

1808 

Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus King. 

3 

7th.... 

1812 

De Witt Clinton and Jared Ingersoll. 

4 

8th.... 

1816 

Rufus King and Robert G. Harper . 

3 

9th.... 

1820 

James Monroe and Daniel Rodney . 

4 

10th... 

1824 

f John Q. Adams and John C. Calhoun... 

{ W. H. Crawford and Henry Clay. 

1 

2 

11th... 

1828 

John Q. Adams and Richard Rush. 

3 

12th... 

1832 

Henry Clay and John Sergeant. 

3 

13th... 

1836 

Wm. H. Harrison and Francis Granger... 

3 

14th... 

1840 

Wm. H. Harrison and John Tyler. 

3 

15th... 

1844 

Henry Clay and Theo. Frelinghuysen. 

3 

16th... 

1848 

Zacharv Taylor and Millard Fillmore. 

3 

17th... 

1852 

Franklin Pierce and William R. King. 

3 

18th... 

1856 

.Tas. Buchanan and John C. Breckenridge. 

3 

19th... 

I860 

John C. Breckenridge and Joseph Lane... 

3 

20th... 

1864 

Geo. B. McClellan and Geo. H. Pendleton 

3 

21st... 

1868 

Horatio Seymour and F. P. Blair, Jr. 

3 

22d.... 

1872 

U. S. Grant and Henry Wilson. 

3 









































































































1306 DELAWARE—DELAWARE WATER GAP. 


2. Popular Vote for President —Until the election of 1828 the vote for electors in Delaware was cast by the legislature; 
since that time it has been as follows: 


Election. 

Year. 

Candidate. 

Popular 

Vote. 

Candidate. 

Popular 

Vote. 

Candidate. 

Popular 

Vote. 

Candidate. 

Popular 

Vote. 

lltli. 

12th. 

13th. 

14th. 

15th. 

16th. 

17 th. 

18th. 

19th. 

20th. 

21st. 

22d. 

1828 

1832 

1836 

1840 

1844 

1848 

1852 

1856 

1860 

1864 

1868 

1872 

Adams. 

Clay. 

Harrison. 

Harrison. 

Clay. 

Taylor. 

Scott. 

Buchanan. 

Breckenridge.... 

McClellan.... 

Seymour. 

Grant. 

4,769 

4,276 

4,738 

5,967 

6,278 

6,421 

6,293 

8,004 

7,347 

8,767 

10,980 

11,115 

Jackson. 

Jackson. 

Van Buren. 

Van Buren. 

Polk. 

Cass. 

Pierce. 

Fillmore. 

Bell. 

Lincoln. 

Grant. 

Greeley. 

4,349 

4,110 

4.155 
4,884 
5,996 
5,898 
6,318 
6,175 
3,864 

8.155 
7,623 

10,206 

Van Buren. 

Hale. 

Fremont. 

Lincoln . 

80 

62 

308 

3815 

Douglas. 

1023 


Delaware, a county in the E. of Indiana. Area, 400 
square miles. It is intersected by the White and Missis- 
sinewa rivers. The surface is nearly level; the soil is 
mostly fertile. Cattle, dairy products, wool, and grain are 
raised. Flour is the chief article of manufacture. It is 
traversed by the Fort Wayne Muncie and Cincinnati Pc. R. 
and another railroad called the Bee Line. Capital, Muncie. 
Pop. 19,030. 

Delaware, a county in the E. N. E. of Iowa. Area, 
576 square miles. It is intersected by the Makoqueta 
River. The surface is uneven ; the soil productive. Cattle, 
dairy products, grain, hay, and wool are staples. The most 
numerous manufactories are of wagons, etc. The railroad 
which connects Dubuque with Sioux City passes through 
it. Capital, Delhi. Pop. 17,432. 

Delaware, a county in the S. S. E. of New York. Area, 
1580 square miles. It is bounded on the N. AV. by the 
East Branch of the Susquehanna, and on the S. A\ r . by the 
Delaware. It is drained by the Coquago and Popacton. 
The surface is hilly; the soil of the valleys is fertile. Cat¬ 
tle, grain, wool, hay, and potatoes are largely raised, but 
dairying is the principal industry. There are manufactures 
of lumber, leather, furniture, cooperage, harness, metallic 
wares, etc., but, though the water-power is very great, 
manufactures are not yet extensive. It is intersected by 
the New York and Oswego Midland R. R., and the Erie 
R. R. passes along the south-western border. Capital, 
Delhi. Pop. 42,972. 

Del aware, a county in Central Ohio. Area, 478 square 
miles. It is intersected by the Scioto and Olentangy rivers. 
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, 
wool, hay, potatoes, and dairy products are the staples. 
Among the manufactures are carriages, brick, and saddlery. 
It is traversed by the Cleveland Columbus and Cincinnati 
R. R. Capital, Delaware. Pop. 25,175. 

DelaAAare, a county which forms the S. E. extremity 
of Pennsylvania. Area, 180 square miles. It is bounded 
on the S. E. by the Delaware River and on the AT. by 
Brandywine Creek. The surface is mostly undulating or 
hilly; the soil is fertile, and is adapted to pasture. Many 
dairies are kept here, and grain, potatoes, and hay are 
raised. There are manufactures of flour, lumber, carriages, 
cotton and woollen goods, and many other articles. It is 
intersected by the Pennsylvania R. R., and by several rail¬ 
roads connecting Philadelphia with Baltimore and AVest 
Chester. Capital, Media. Pop. 39,403. 

DelaAvare, a post-township of Yell co., Ark. P. 550. 

Delaware, a township of Delaware co., Ind. P. 1210. 

Delaware, a township of Hamilton co., Ind. P. 1434. 

DelaAvare, a township and post-village of Ripley co., 
Ind., on the Ohio and Mississippi R. R., 47 miles W. of 
Cincinnati. Pop. 1559. 

DelaAvare, a township and post-village of Delaware 
co., Ia., on the Davenport and St. Paul and the Dubuque 
and Sioux City R. Rs., 41 miles AA r . of Dubuque. P. 2727. 

DelaAvare, a township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 865, ex¬ 
clusive of the city of Des Moines. 

DelaAvare, atwp. of Leavenworth co., Kan. Pop. 1641. 

DelaAvare, a township of AA r yandotte co., Kan. P. 926. 

DelaAvare, a township of Sanilac co., Mich. P. 741. 

DelaAvare, a township of Shannon eo., Mo. P. 198. 

DelaAvare, a township of Otoe co., Neb. Pop. 597. 

DeIaAA r are, a township of Camden co., N. J. P. 1625. 

DelaAvare, a township of Hunterdon co., N. J. P. 2959. 

DelaAvare, a township of Sullivan co., N. Y. P. 1998. 

DelaAvare, a township of Defiance co., 0. Pop. 1160. 

DelaAvare, a city, capital of Delaware co., 0., on the 
Olentangy River and tho Cleveland Columbus and Cincin¬ 


L. P. Brockett. 

nati R. R., 24 miles N. of Columbus. It is the seat of Ohio 
AVesleyan University and Ohio AVesleyan Female College. 
It has thirteen churches, good schools, three banks, a semi¬ 
monthly and three weekly newspapers, large railroad repair- 
shops, two foundries, two flouring and one oil mill, a wool¬ 
len-factory, and manufactures of bagging, chairs, iron 
fences, carriages, lumber, beer, and other goods. It is hand¬ 
somely situated and well built. There are valuable medi¬ 
cinal springs in Delaware and vicinity. Pop. 5641; of 
Delaware township, 6861. A. Thomson, Ed. “ Gazette.” 

DelaAvare, a township of Hancock co., O. Pop. 1280. 

Delaware, a township of Juniata co., Pa. Pop. 1079. 

DelaAAare, a township of Mercer co., Pa. Pop. 1703. 

DelaAAare, atwp. of Northumberland co., Pa. P. 1879. 

DelaAvare, a post-township of Pike co., Pa. P. 758. 

DelaAA r are, or more correctly, DelaA\ r arr (Thomas 
West), Lord, the twelfth baron of that title, the second 
governor and first captain-general of A r irginia, was a de¬ 
scendant by the female line of an old and noble family, 
which derived its name, according to some authorities, from 
an estate called La AA^arre (or AFarwick) in Gloucestershire, 
England. He took his title in 1602. He was named cap¬ 
tain-general of A r irginia (which comprehended nearly all 
the present eastern coast of the U. S.) in a charter dated 
May 23, 1609. He visited the colony in 1610, and returned 
in the following year to England. He expended large 
sums of money in establishing the colony of Virginia. lie 
died at sea, “not without suspicion of poison,” June 7, 
1618, while on his second voyage to America. He appears 
to have been a noble and philanthropic man. 

DelaA\ r are Bay, a wide estuary between the mouth 
of the Delaware River and the Atlantic Ocean, separates 
the State of Delaware from the southern part of New Jer¬ 
sey. The entrance between Capes May and Henlopen is 
13 miles wide; the greatest breadth of the bay is about 25 
miles. A safe and capacious harbor has been formed in 
this bay by the construction of a Breakwater (which 
see, by Gen. J. G. Barnard, U. S. A.) near Lewes. This 
structure is in lat. 38° 59' 07" N., Ion. 75° 6' 9" W. The 
western part of the bay is generally shallow, but it has a 
deep though not very direct channel for shipping. 

DelaAA r are City, a post-borough of New Castle co., 
Del., on the Delaware River, about 40 miles below Phila¬ 
delphia. It is the eastern terminus of the Chesapeake and 
Delaware Canal. It has five churches and one national 
bank. Pop. 1059. 

Del'aAA r are In'dians, a tribe belonging to the Algon¬ 
quin family, called in their own language Lenni-Lenape, 
lived originally on the banks of the Delaware and Schuyl¬ 
kill, but are now mostly found in the Indian Territory, in 
the valley of the Verdigris. They were, according to tra¬ 
dition, a bold and powerful race, but were overcome by the 
Iroquois, who compelled them in 1744 to leave their orig¬ 
inal settlement. Some of them removed to Ohio about 1780. 
They were friendly towards the U. S., and formed several 
treaties with them. They next crossed the Mississippi and 
settled in Kansas, where their number in 1869 was 1005. 
They were in 1870 for the most part removed to their new 
lands in the Indian Territory, and in part incorporated 
with the Cherokees. They have a few schools, and carry 
on farming and cattle-raising to some extent, but their 
chief occupation is hunting and fishing. They are gene¬ 
rally good trappers, brave, and comparatively intelligent. 

DelaAA r are Water Gap, a summer resort of Monroe 
co., Pa., on the Delaware River where it passes through the 
Ivittatinny Mountain, and on the Delaware Lackawanna 
and AA 7 estern R. R., 108 miles N. of Philadelphia and 92 
miles AAL of New York. The river here flows through a 
narrow gorge between steep rocky banks, which rise nearly 
| 1200 feet above the water. 


























































































DE LA WARE—DELILLE. 


1307 


l)e la Warr, Earls, and Viscounts Cantalupe (Great j 
Britain, 1761), Barons de la Warr (1209), Barons West 
(1343), Barons de la Warr (England, 1579, by patent).— 
Charles Richard Sackville West, sixth carl, major- 
general, born Nov r . 13, 1S15, succeeded his father Feb. 23, 
1S69. 

Del Cred'ere [from the It. credere, to “trust” or 
“credit ] Commission, in mercantile law, signifies an 
additional premium charged by a factor or commission- 
merchant on the price of goods consigned to him when he 
guarantees the solvency of the purchaser who buys them on 
credit. Thus, if the percentage for effecting the sale is 2J, 
he might charge 2| per cent, more for the guarantee. 

Dele [imperative sing, of the Lat. deleo, to “blot out,” 
to " destroy ’], in printing, a direction inscribed on the 
margin ot an article to remove something which has been 
put in type; it is usually thus expressed, J. 

Dele'gate [from the Lat. de, “away,” and lego, lega¬ 
tion, to “send as an ambassador”], a person appointed and 
sent with powers to transact business for the party who 
sends him ; a representative, a deputy. This term is ap¬ 
plied in the U. S. to the members of political and consti¬ 
tutional conventions chosen by the people. The represent¬ 
atives sent to the first Continental Congress in 1774 xvere 
called delegates. Members of Congress from the Terri¬ 
tories are still called delegates. 

Delegates, Court of, formerly the highest ecclesias¬ 
tical court of appeal in England. Its members were ap¬ 
pointed by the king’s commission to represent his royal 
person and to hear all appeals to him, by virtue of the 
statute 25 Henry VIII., c. 9. Appointments to this com¬ 
mission were made from the lords spiritual and temporal, 
and from the judges and doctors of civil law. This court 
was abolished by 2 and 3 Will. IV., c. 92, and its juris¬ 
diction was transferred to the privy council. 

Delegation [Lat. delegatin'], the appointment of a 
delegate; also a number of delegates or persons deputed to 
act for a party or represent a constituency. In civil law, 
delegation is the act by which the debtor, with the assent 
of the creditor, substitutes another debtor in his place, 
and becomes himself discharged from the debt. There is 
necessary to the validity of such an act the concurrence of 
three parties—that of the original debtor, that of the sub¬ 
stituted debtor, as well as that of the creditor who consents 
to the discharge and substitution. The substitute may 
himself owe the original debtor, but this is not an essential 
element in the case. The case sometimes assumes a more 
complicated form, and the substituted debtor is made liable 
to pay a fourth person pointed out by the creditor, instead 
of himself. (For a more full discussion of the whole sub¬ 
ject, see Novation; also consult Domat on “ Civil Law,” 
title Delegation.) 

Delegation [It. delegazione], the name of former prov¬ 
inces or divisions of Lombardy, Venetia, and the Papal 
States. An officer called a delegate presided over the gov¬ 
ernment of each delegation. In the Papal States the dele¬ 
gate was always a prelate. If he was a cardinal, he was 
called a legate, and his province was a legation. 

Delegation, in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, the 
name of the deputies who are chosen by the Cisleithan and 
Transleithan parliaments for taking action on those ques¬ 
tions which are counted among the common affairs of the 
empire. (See Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, by Prof. 
A. J. Schem.) 

Delescluze (Louis Charles), a French politician, born 
Oct. 2, 1809, took part in 1830 in the republican move¬ 
ment, was, after the revolution of 1848, for a short time 
commissioner-general in the departments Du Nord and Pas 
de Calais, published then several ultra-radical papers in 
Paris, was in 1857 deported to Cayenne. During the reign 
of the Commune, of which he was the leading spirit, he was 
at the head of the war commission with almost unlimited 
powers, and issued the notorious incendiary orders. His 
fall, on the 28th of May, 1871, on the barricade in the Rue j 
de Angoulthne, ended the resistance of the Commune to the I 
troops of the government. 

Delfi'co (Melchior), an Italian political economist, 
born in the Abruzzo Aug. 1, 1744. He became councillor 
of state at Naples in 1806. Among his works are an 
“ Essay in Favor of Free Trade ” and “ Thoughts on the 
Uncertainty and Inutility of History” (1806). Died at 
Teramo June 21, 1835. 

Delft, a town of the Netherlands, province of South 
Holland, is on the railway from Rotterdam to The Hague, 

4 miles S. E. of the latter. It is well built of brick, and 
clean,, and is intersected by a number of canals. It has a 
richly-adorned town-hall, and a Gothic church containing 
a magnificent monument to William prince of Orange, who 
was assassinated here in 1584. Delft was formerly noted 


for glazed earthenware, which throughout Holland came to 
have the name of delft-ware. The same kind of pottery, 
now mostly made in England, is still called del/. Here 
are manufactures of carpets, woollen cloths, soap, etc. Pop. 
in 1870, 22,909. 

Dellts'haven, the port of the above place, is on the 
river Meuse, 2 miles S. W. of Rotterdam. It has a hand¬ 
some church. The inhabitants are partly employed in 
shipbuilding, iron-foundries, and distilleries. Pop. in 1868, 
7288. 

Delf'zijl, a fortified seaport in the Netherlands, in the 
province of Groningen, on the Dollart, is the key of Gron¬ 
ingen and Friesland. Pop. 5476. 

Delga'da, or Ponta Delgada, a city of the Azores, 
is on the S. side of the island of St. Michael, and is the 
capital of that island and of St. Mary : lat. 37° 45' N., 
Ion. 25° 40' W. It has considerable trade in fruit, grain, 
and orchil. The government is here constructing a break¬ 
water and docks for shipping. Pop. 15,885. 

Del'hi, a district of India, includes a small portion of 
the former province of Delhi. Area, 4057 square miles. 
The southern part is rocky and barren; the northern and 
north-western parts are watered by the Jumna, and are 
more fertile. Delhi is one of the administrative divisions 
of the North-west Provinces. Capital, Delhi. Pop. 
1,328,650. 

Delhi [Sanscrit, Indrajirasthct], a celebrated city of 
Hindostan, called by the Mohammedans Shahjehan- 
abad, is situated on the Jumna, about 790 miles N. W. of 
Calcutta; lat. 28° 40' N., Ion. 77° 18' E. It was formerly 
the capital of the Mogul empire, and was the largest city 
of Hindostan, having a population of 2,000,000. An ex¬ 
tensive tract, covered with the ruins of palaces, pavilions, 
baths, and mausoleums, marks the dimensions of the ancient 
metropolis of the Mogul empire. The modern city, which 
was founded by Shah Jehan in 1631, has a circumference 
of seven miles, and is surrounded by walls of red sand¬ 
stone thirty feet high. It has seven colossal arched gates, 
defended by round bulwarks. The streets arc mostly nar¬ 
row, but one of the main avenues is 120 feet wide. The 
palace of the Great Mogul, built by Shah Jehan, is the 
most magnificent in India. Its stupendous towers, sur¬ 
mounted by elegant pavilions, its marble domes and gilded 
minarets, present a very imposing appearance. Among 
the other remarkable edifices is the Jamma mosque, a 
splendid structure in the Byzantine style, built of white 
marble and red sandstone. Delhi has about forty mosques, 
many of which have lofty minarets and gilded domes. Here 
is Delhi College, which was founded in 1792, and has a 
separate department for each of these languages—Arabic, 
English, Persian, and Sanscrit. The goldsmiths of Delhi are 
famous for the beauty of their work. Many Cashmere shawls 
are here embroidered with silk and gold. The city, which 
has been frequently captured by hostile armies, was taken 
by the British general Lord Lake in 1803, and it has con¬ 
tinued under British domination ever since that time. In 
May, 1857, Delhi was occupied by the mutinous Sepoys, 
who here murdered a number of English people. A British 
army commenced the siege of this place in June, and took 
it by assault, after a severe fight of seven days, in Sept., 
1857. Pop. in 1870, 154,417. 

Delhi, a township and post-village, capital of Delaware 
co., Ia., near the Maquoketa River, about 40 miles W. of 
Dubuque. It is on the Davenport and St. Paul R. R., and 
has several fine stone-quarries, two flouring-mills, a fine 
school building, several nurseries, etc. It has one weekly 
newspaper. Total pop. 1174; of village, 413. 

J. B. Swinburne, Ed. “ Monitor.” 

Delhi, a post-village of Richland co., La., on the North 
Louisiana and Texas R. R., 35 miles W. by N. of Vicksburg. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 186. 

Delhi, a township and village of Ingham co., Mich., on 
the Michigan Central R. R., 33 miles N. of Jackson. Pop. 
1259. 

Delhi, a post-village, capital of Delaware co., N. Y., 
on the N. bank of the Delaware River (W. branch) and on 
a branch of the Midland R. R. It has a court-house, jail, 
county poor-house, an academy, four churches, a woollen 
mill, two national banks, and three weekly papers. Pop. 
1223; of Delhi township, 2920. 

Delhi, a post-township of Hamilton co., 0. Pop. 2620. 

Delille (Jacques), L’Abbe, a French didactic poet, born 
at Aigueperse, in Auvergne, June 22, 1738. He was edu¬ 
cated at a college in Paris, and became professor of hu¬ 
manities at Amiens. Ilis reputation was established by a 
translation of Virgil’s “Georgies” (1769). In 17S0 he 
published “ Les Jardins.” He translated into French verso 
Virgil’s “iEneid” (1804) and Milton’s “ Paradise Lo«t. ” 









































1308 


DELIRIUM—DELPHI. 


(1805). His version of the “iEneid” is considered the 
best in the language. Among his works is a poem en¬ 
titled “ Imagination” (1806), which is lpghly commended. 
Died May 1, 1813. (See Campenon, “Eloge de Delille.”) 

Delir'ium [Lat. from deliro, to “be insane,” which is 
said by some to be from de, “from,” and lira, a “ridge,” 
or “ furrow j” thus an insane person was likened to one 
ploughing out of the proper line], a condition in which the 
ideas of a sick person are in a confused, wild, or wandering 
state. It differs from insanity in being a symptom of acute 
disease, like fever, while insanity is an evidence of chronic 
disease. 

Delir'ium Tre'mens (t.e. “trembling delirium”), a 
morbid affection caused by the action of alcoholic drinks, 
and often afflicting hard drinkers after severe accidents or 
attacks of acute disease. Delirium, Hembling and subsul- 
tus of the muscles and tendons, wakefulness, and rapid 
pulse, are characteristic symptoms. The patient sometimes 
suffers extremely from the most frightful apprehensions, 
and frequently thinks he sees grotesque and horrible ob¬ 
jects. The tongue has a thick furry coat, the skin is gen¬ 
erally cool and covered with sweat, and the patient gives 
forth a characteristic saccharine odor. The blood and 
fluids of the brain are loaded with alcohol, and often (es¬ 
pecially in old patients) there are abundant degenerative 
changes in the brain, lungs, liver, etc. Death occurs in 
about one-sixth of the cases. The mortality appears to 
have been formerly much greater than at present. The 
treatment is various. Sleep may be induced by the use of 
chloral or bromide of potassium, and in long-continued 
cases opiates may be cautiously administered with the hap¬ 
piest results. Patients nearly always call for alcohol in 
some form, but this desire should not, as a general rule, be 
gratified. The strength should be kept up by beef-tea, 
milk, raw eggs, etc. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Delisle (Guillaume), an eminent French geographer, 
born in Paris Feb. 28, 1675. He reformed the system of 
geography, and published in 1700 a map of the world and 
celestial and terrestrial globes. He wrote several memoirs 
on geography, and produced maps of ancient and modern 
countries. Died Jan. 25, 1726.—His brother, Joseph Nicho¬ 
las Delisle (born April 4, 1688), founded a school of as¬ 
tronomy at St. Petersburg, and wrote an account of the 
Russian search for a passage from the South Sea to the 
north of America. In Delisle’s thermometer, used in Rus¬ 
sia, the boiling-point of water is zero, and the freezing- 
point is 150°. Died Sept. 11, 1768. 

De'litzsch, a town of Prussian Saxony, the capital of 
a circle, is on the river Lober, and on a railway, 15 miles 
N. of Leipsic. It has three churches, a castle, and manu¬ 
factures of woollen hosiery and gloves. Pop. 8112. 

Delitzsch (Franz), a German theologian, was born at 
Leipsic Feb. 23, 1813, of Jewish parents, and was educated 
at Leipsic. In 1846 he became professor of theology at 
Rostock, in 1850 at Erlangen, and in 1867 at Leipsic. He 
is a master of biblical exegesis and of the immense Jewish 
literature. He has published numerous devotional and 
theological works, among which are “ The House of God ” 
(1848), “History of Jewish Poetry” (1836), “ Biblico-Pro- 
phctic Theology” (1845), “Biblical Psychology” (1855), 

“ Christian Apologetics” (1869), “A Day in Capernaum” 
(1871), and many valuable commentaries. 

De'lius (Nikolaus), a German scholar, well known as 
a writer on Shakspeare, was born at Bremen in 1813, and 
became in 1855 professor of Sanscrit and of the Romance 
and English literature at Bonn. He has published a criti¬ 
cal edition of the works of Shakspeare (2d ed. 1863-64 ; 
supplement 1865), the “ Mythus of William Shakspeare” 
(1851), “ Shakspeare Lexicon ” (1852), “ The English Thea¬ 
tre in Shakspeare’s Time” (1852), and works on Provencal 
and Pracrit literature. 

Del'la Crus'ca (i . e. « of the straw or chaff,”* so called 
because its chief aim or office was the winnowing or puri¬ 
fying of the national language), the name of a celebrated 
academy founded at Florence in 1582 for the purpose of 
establishing a standard of the Italian tongue. This academy 
published a dictionary, which became a great authority in 
relation to classical purity of language. The Della Cruscan 
Academy was afterwards incorporated with the Florentine 
Academy (which see). 

Del'la Cruscan School, a name derived from the 
celebrated academy Della Cruscaof Florence (seepreceding 
article), and applied to certain affected English writers re¬ 
siding at Florence in 1785. Gifford satirized their ab¬ 

* Ilallam calls attention to the fact that the Italian academies 
of that period were remarkable for “names humorously quaint.” 
One (that of Viterbo) was called the academy of “ the Obstinates,” 
another (that of Sienna), of “ the Blockheads.” 


surdities with scathing severity in his “Baviad” and 
“Maeviad,” and “completely killed this school.” Among 
the Della Cruscans were Bertie Greathcad, Robert Merry, 
Mrs. Thrale Piozzi, and William Parsons. 

Delict (James) was born in South Carolina, but settled 
at Claiborne, Ala. He was returned to the first legislature 
under the State government in 1819, and to Congress in 
1837. He died in 1849. 

Dell Prairie, a post-twp. of Adams co., Wis. P. 534. 

Dell Itapids, a post-village of Minnehaha co.. Dak., 
on the Big Sioux River. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Del'mar, a post-village of Sussex co., Del., on the 
Maryland line, is the S. terminus of the Delaware R. It. 
and the N. terminus of the Eastern Shore R. R. 

Delmar, a post-village of Bloomfield township, Clinton 
co., Ia., at the junction of the Davenport and St. Paul, the 
Iowa Midland, and the Sabula Ackley and Dakota R. Its. 
It has one weekly newspaper. 

Delmar, a township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 18. 

Delmar (Alexander), a political economist of Spanish 
extraction, was born in New York City Aug. 9, 1836. He 
was editor of the “Social Science Review” (1864—66), or¬ 
ganized the U. S. bureau of statistics (1866), and was its 
director (1S67-68). He has published, besides other works, 
“ Gold Money and Paper Money” (1862), “Essays on Po¬ 
litical Economy” (1865), the “International Almanac” 
(1866), “What is Free Trade?” (1868), “Letter on the 
Finances” (1868), and “The Suppressed Report” (1869). 

Del Nor'te, a county which forms the N. W. extremity 
of California, is bounded on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. 
Area, 1500 square miles. It is partly drained by the Kla¬ 
math River. The surface is mountainous, and is diversified 
by prairies and forests of redwood and spruce. Gold and 
copper are found here. Cattle, wheat, barley, and wool are 
raised. Capital, Crescent City. Pop. 2022. 

Del Norte, a post-village of Saguache co., Col., on the 
Rio Grande, 144 miles S. of Pueblo. 

De Lolrae (John Louis), a Swiss lawyer, born at Geneva 
in 1740. He emigrated in his youth to England, where he 
was reduced to indigence. In 1771 he published “ The 
Constitution of England” (in French), which he translated 
into English (4th ed. 1784; new ed., with life, 1853). He 
returned to Switzerland in 1775. Died July 16, 1806. 

Dclo'na, a post-township of Sauk co., Wis. Pop. 536. 

Delorme (Philibert), a French architect, born at Ly¬ 
ons in 1515, studied at Rome. He planned the Tuileries, 
begun in 1564 for Catharine de Medici, and built the Cha¬ 
teau de Meudon. He wrote “ Nouvelles Inventions pour 
bien batir” and a treatise on architecture. Died in 1577. 

De'los [Gr. AijAos], also called Orty'gia, a small island 
in the Aegean Sea, belonging to the group of Cyclades, was 
celebrated in ancient times as the birthplace of Apollo and 
Diana. According to tradition, it was originally a floating 
island, and was rendered immovable by Jupiter, in order 
that it might be a place of refuge for Latona. It was the 
site of a famous temple and oracle of Apollo, and was the 
centre of a great periodical festival in honor of him. In 
426 B. C., Delos was purified by the Athenians, who removed 
all the tombs, and enacted a law to prevent it from being 
polluted by births or deaths. It was reputed one of the 
holiest places in Hellas. On the formation of the confed¬ 
eracy in 477 B. C. for the purpose of resisting the Persian 
invaders, Delos was chosen as the common treasury of the 
Greek allies. After the fall of Corinth (146 B. C.), Delos, 
which had a good harbor, was the centre of an extensive 
commerce. Here was a town of the same name, which is 
now a mass of ruins. Shiploads of columns and other re¬ 
mains have been carried away to Venice and Constanti¬ 
nople. The island has an area of 32 square miles, and is 
at present not inhabited. 

Del'phi [Gr. AeA^oi'], an ancient town of Phoeis, and 
one of the most celebrated places in the Hellenic world, on 
account of its oracle of Apollo. It was situated at the 
southern base of Mount Parnassus, in the narrow vale of 
the Pleistus, amidst sublime and beautiful scenery. It oc¬ 
cupied the central area of a great natural theatre or semi¬ 
circular recess, partly enclosed by stupendous rocky bar¬ 
riers. The original or proper name of the oracle was 
Pytho. The name Delphi does not occur in the poems of 
Homer, who mentions that Agamemnon consulted the ora¬ 
cle at Pytho. The Pythian games were celebrated here 
every four years, the first celebration occurring in 586 B. C. 
Delphi became an opulent city and independent state, de¬ 
riving its riches and importance from its oracle, which was 
the most famous of all the oracles. In the eighth century 
B. C. its reputation extended not only throughout Hellas, 
but also among foreign nations. Croesus, king of Lydia, 












DELPHI—DEMAVEND. 1309 


gave rich presents to the Pythian Apollo. The oracles were 
uttered by a female called Pythia, who sat on a tripod 
placed over the mouth of a cavern. She is said to have 
breathed an intoxicating exhalation of vapor which issued 
from this cavern or chasm, and was supposed to inspire her 
with the gift of prophecy. The fountain of Castalia, issu¬ 
ing near the base of Parnassus, supplied holy water for the 
temple of Apollo, which was one of the largest and most 
beautiful in Greece, and had a front of Parian marble. 
In 480 B. C., Xerxes sent a detachment of his army to 
plunder this temple, which contained a large amount of 
treasure. As the Persians were climbing up the rugged 
path to the shrine, on a sudden thunder was heard to 
roll, the war-shout sounded from the temple of Athena, 
and two huge crags rolled down the mountain, crushing 
many to death. The surviving Persians were seized with a 
panic, and retreated without having effected their object. 
In 357 B. C. the Phocians seized the temple, and thus 
provoked the Sacred war, during which a portion of the 
treasures was expended in paying the troops of Phocis. 
Delphi w y as attacked in 279 B. C. byBrennus and an army 
of Gauls, who, it is said, were repulsed by the same super¬ 
natural agency as the Persians. The Delphic oracle was 
finally silenced by the emperor Theodosius. The site of 
Delphi is occupied by the modern town of Castri or Kastri. 
Pop. about 600. 

Delphi, the capital of Carroll co., Ind., on the Wabash 
River and the Toledo Wabash and Western R. R. and the 
Indianapolis Delphi and Chicago R. R. It has six 
churches, a fine court-house, two weekly newspapers, two 
paper-mills, two planing-mills, excellent water-power, 
and one national bank. The Wabash and Erie Canal 
passes through it. Pop. 1614. 

II. C. Craft, Ed. “ Journal.” 

Del'phin Classics, an edition of the principal Ro¬ 
man classics prepared by thirty-nine of the best schol¬ 
ars of the time for the use of the dauphin of France (in 
ii8um delphini). Their work was superintended by Bossuct 
and Huet, preceptors to the dauphin, who was a son of 
Louis XIV. 

Delphiii/ium [so called from the resemblance of the 
nectary to the form of the dolphin], the name of a genus 
of poisonous herbs of the natural order Ranunculacem, 
commonly called larkspurs. The seeds of Delphinium 
Staphisagria and Delphinium consolidci have powerful ca¬ 
thartic properties, and the alkaloid ( delphinia ) is recom¬ 
mended for paralysis and rheumatism. Both the annual 
and perennial kinds are favorite garden flowers; the double 
rocket larkspurs are especially rich and varied in color, 
and resemble hyacinths in their regular clusters. The 
genus Delphinium is closely allied to the aconites. Several 
species are natives of Europe, the U. S., and Mexico. 

Delphi'nus [the Lat. term for dolphin], the name of 
one of the constellations of the northern hemisjAere. 

Delphi'nus, in zoology, a term limited to the species 
of Cetacea, having teeth simple and almost all conical in 
both jaws. They live in communities, and are the most 
carnivorous of the whole order. The.Linnaean genus Del- 
phinuft is subdivided into Delphinus proper, Phoceena, the 
common porpoise, Dclphinnpterus, represented by the Be¬ 
luga, and Hyperoodon, of which the bottle-nosed dolphin 
is the type. (See Dolphin.) 

Del'phos, a post-village of Allen and Van Wert cos., 0., 
on the Miami Extension Canal and on the Pittsburg Fort 
Wayne and Chicago R. R., 45 miles E. of Fort Wayne. It 
has a national and a savings bank, one newspaper, two 
building and loan associations, and good water-power, 
while fifteen smokestacks attest its industi-ial importance. 
Pop. 1667. D. H. Tolan, Ed. “ Herald.” 

Del'ta [so named from their resemblance in form to the 
fourth letter (a) of the Greek alphabet], the triangular ex¬ 
panses of alluvial deposit formed at the mouths of certain 
rivers. They commence at the point where waters laden 
with mud first meet the sea, and from the constant mud- 
deposits gradually widen, until some, like the deltas ot the 
Mississippi and the Nile, advance many miles beyond the 
coast-line. Deltas occur not only in the sea whore fresh 
water meets the salt and is checked by the tides, but also 
in lakes, the accumulation projecting in the form of a 
tongue beyond the point at which the river enters the lake. 
The’ delta of the Ganges is the largest in the world. It is 
estimated that its head commences 220 miles from the sea, 
and its base-line measures about 200 miles. 

Del'ta, a county of Michigan, in the S. part of the 
Upper Peninsula, is bounded on the S. by Lake Michigan. 
Area, 1100 square miles. The largest crop is of oats. It 
is intersected by the Escanawba and other small rivers, also 
by the Peninsular R. R. Capital, Escanawba. Pop. 2542. 


Delta, a county in the N. E. of Texas, organized since 
the census of 1870. Area, about 350 square miles. It is 
very fertile and well timbered, and is a good region for 
grain, cotton, and stock-raising. Capital, Cooper. 

Delta, a township of Clay co., Ala. Pop. 924. 

Delta, a post-village, capital of Madison parish, La., 
on the Mississippi opposite Vicksburg, Miss., with which 
it is connected by ferry. It is the E. terminus of the North 
Louisiana and Texas R. R. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Ed. “ Madison Journal.” 

Delta, a township and post-village of Eaton co., Mich. 
Pop. 1154. 

Delta, a post-village of Lee and Western townships, 
Oneida co., N. Y., has a tannery and a foundry. P. 270. 

Delta, a post-village of Fulton co., 0., on the Lake 
Shore and Michigan Southern R. R., 25 miles W. by S. 
from Toledo. It has one newspaper-office. Pop. 753. 

Dcl'ton, a township of Delta co., Mich. Pop. 833. 

Deluc (Jean Andre), F. R. S., a Swiss geologist and 
natural philosopher, born at Geneva Feb. 8, 1727. He in¬ 
vented a portable barometer, and published in 1772 “ Re¬ 
searches on the Modifications of the Atmosphere.” Soon 
after that date he removed to England, was chosen a fellow 
of the Royal Society, and became reader to the queen. He 
published in 1778 “ Letters, Physical and Moral, on the 
History of the Earth and Man,” in which he defended the 
cosmogony of the Bible, and ascribed the formation of the 
present continents to a great and violent revolution which 
occurred about 4500 years ago. He wrote several other 
works in French. He became a professor in Gottingen in 
1798, but subsequently returned to England, and died at 
Windsor Nov. 8, 1817. 

Del'uge [Lat. diluvium, from di (for dis), “apart,” and 
luo, to “ wash ”], an inundation or overflow of land by water, 
a term especially applied to the flood in the time of Noah, 
an account of which is given in Genesis vi., vii., and viii. 
It is often estimated to have occurred B. C. 2516, but its 
date may have been much earlier. Traditions of the Flood 
occur in many countries. Among the more important of 
these is the Chaldsean account preserved in a fragment of 
Berosus, and somewhat resembling that given in the Bible. 
Mr. George Smith has published (1872), from the cuneiform 
inscriptions, a very remarkable account of the Flood, cor¬ 
responding in many particulars with those of Moses and 
Berosus. Bunsen states that no trace of Noah’s deluge is 
found in the Chinese traditions, but missionaries, both 
Protestant and Roman Catholic, assert that the Chinese 
have a story remarkably like that contained in the Bible. 
The Mahfibharata of the Hindoos contains still another 
tradition of the same event. The ancient Mexicans and 
many other tribes of American Indians have similar ac¬ 
counts. The same is true of the ancient Phoenicians, 
Greeks, and many other nations, ancient and modern. 
The Egyptian monuments appear to have no account of a 
general flood. 

It is now generally held by Christian scholars that the 
flood recorded in the Bible was local, and not universal. 
The language of the original account does not necessarily 
imply more than this. 

Delusion. See Insanity, by W. A. Hammond, M. D. 

Del'vino, a fortified town of European Turkey, in 
Albania, is situated on a hillside covered with olive and 
orange groves, 47 miles W. N. W. of Yanina. It has a trade 
in olive oil. Pop. about 10,000. 

Dema'des [Gr. Ar^aSr)?], an Athenian orator and dema¬ 
gogue, who was a violent opponent of Demosthenes. He 
was witty, eloquent, and profligate, and acquired great po¬ 
litical influence. He fought against Philip of Maccdon at 
Chmronea, 338 B. C., but afterwards took a bribe from that 
king, and favored the interest of Philip and his son Alex¬ 
ander. He was put to death by order of Antipater (or Cas- 
sander) in 318 B. C. 

Demand and Supply. See Political Economy. 

Demarcation, or Demarcation, a line or bound¬ 
ary by which one object is separated or marked off from 
another; a limit ascertained and marked, or the act of as¬ 
certaining and marking a limit; the “ dead lino " between 
two armies. The “ line of demarcation” is a name given 
esjmcially to an imaginary N. and S. line drawn by Pope 
Alexander VI., 360 miles W. of the Azores, all newly-dis¬ 
covered lands to the eastward being granted by him to 
Portugal, and all westward to Spain (1494). 

Demavend', a volcanic mountain of Persia, about 45 
miles N. E. of Tehenln, is the highest peak of the Elburz 
chain, which separates the low shores ot the Caspian Sea 
from the high table-land of Persia. It has a conical form 
and a crater-shaped summit, which is covered with a largo 





















1310 DEMBEA—DEMI-GOD. 


deposit of sulphur. Its height is about 21,000 feet, as re¬ 
cently determined by the Russian survey. An Englishman 
(William T. Thompson) ascended to the top of Demavend 
in 1837. As it is a conspicuous object from the great trade- 
route between India and Western Asia, it is connected with 
the early Persian legends as Etna with those of the Greeks. 
It is classed among extinct volcanoes. 

Dem'bca, or Tzana, a lake of Abyssinia, in lat. 12° 
N. and Ion. 37° 15' E., is 40 miles long, and has an average 
width of 25 miles. It occupies part of a fertile plain, and 
is 6108 feet above the level of the sea. A branch of the 
Blue Niles issues from this lake. 

Dembin'ski (Henry), a Polish general, born in the 
palatinate of Cracow Jan. 16, 1791. He fought against 
Russia in the revolution of 1830, and made a masterly re¬ 
treat from Lithuania in July, 1831. He afterwards passed 
many years in exile, and was appointed commander-in¬ 
chief of the Hungarian army by Kossuth in Feb., 1849. 
His success was hindered by the enmity of Gorgei, who re¬ 
fused to serve under him. Dembinski soon resigned the 
command, and fled to Turkey. Died June 13, 1864. 

Dement, a township of Ogle co., Ill. Pop. 1120. 

Demeil'tia [from the Lat. de, priv., and mens, “ mind”], 
a form of insanity characterized by gradual extinction of 
all the mental powers. It is one of the most hopeless forms 
of mental disease. 

Demera'ra, a small river of South America, in British 
Guiana, flows northward, and enters the Atlantic Ocean 
near lat. 6° 50' N. and Ion. 58° 20' W. 

Demerara is also the name of a county in British 
Guiana, intersected by the above river. Its inhabitants 
are Europeans, Indians, coolies, and negroes. Capital, 
Georgetown. Pop. about 80,000. 

Demesne, de-men', or Demain, in law, originally 
that portion of the lands belonging to a lord which was 
held in his own occupation or reserved for his immediate 
use. Hence it is sometimes used to denote those parts of 
a manor which the lord has in his own hands. In the 
present day it maybe defined as the right which the owner 
in possession of lands in fee simple has in his estate. 

Demeter. See Ceres. 

De me'trias [Gr. Arj^rpuis], a city of Thessaly, at the 
head of the Pagasman Gulf, founded about 290 B. C. by 
Demetrius Poliorcetes, became a favorite residence of the 
Macedonian kings. Its remains are still visible. 

Deme'trius, an architect who is said to have completed, 
in conjunction with Pmonius the Ephesian, the temple of 
Diana at Ephesus. His period and country are not certainly 
known. Henry Drisler. 

Deme'trius, probably of Alopece in Attica, a statuary 
who flourished, according to Sillig in his “ Dictionary of 
Artists,” about B. C. 440. He imitated nature so closely 
in his works that he reproduced imperfections as well as 
beauties, for which he is censured by Quintilian. Among 
his productions are a statue of Lysimache, priestess of 
Minerva, one of Minerva Musica , so called from the serpents 
of the Gorgon on it emitting a musical sound when struck, 
and an equestrian statue of Simon, the first writer on horse¬ 
manship. Henry Drisler. 

Deme'trius, a silversmith of Ephesus, who made silver 
shrines for Diana. When Saint Paul was in Ephesus, gain¬ 
ing many, both Jews and Greeks, to the true faith, this 
man excited a tumult against him among his fellow-crafts¬ 
men. Henry Drisler. 

Deme'trius [Russian, Dmitri ], czar of Russia, usually 
called the False Demetrius. He pretended to be a son 
of Ivan IV., who at his death in 1584 left two sons, Feodor 
and Demetrius. The latter probably died in 1591. The 
subject of this article raised an army of Poles in 1603, in¬ 
vaded Russia, and defeated Boris in battle. He began to 
reign in Moscow in 1605, but his partiality to the Poles 
offended the Russians, who revolted and killed him May 
28, 1606. He was succeeded by Basil III., or Shuisky. 

Deme'trius Phale'reus, an eminent Grecian orator 
and philosopher, born at Phalerum in Attica about 345 
B. C. He was a disciple of Theophrastus the philosopher. 
Ho was appointed governor of Athens by Cassander in 
317 B. C., and held that office ten years. His administra¬ 
tion was so prosperous and popular that the Athenians 
erected to him, it is said, 360 statues. He escaped to Egypt 
when Athens was taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes in the 
year 306. He was the author of many historical and phil¬ 
osophical works, which, with the exception of fragments, 
are not extant. Died in Egypt about 284 B. C. 

Demetrius Poliorce'tes [Gr. Ayp.rjrpio<; iioAiopkyjtt?? 
{i. e. “ Demetrius the besieger of cities”)], a king of Ma- 
cedon, born about 335 B. C., was a son of Antigonus, king 


of Asia. He was surnamed Poliorcetes, “ besieger of cities,” 
on account of his success as a general. He fought for his 
father against Ptolemy of Egypt in Syria. In 306 B. C. 
he captured Athens from Cassander, and defeated Ptolemy 
in a naval battle near Cyprus. He gave proof of superior 
military skill in a long siege of Rhodes, but he failed to 
take that city. After the death of Antigonus (299 B. C.) 
he formed an alliance with Seleucus. He usurped the 
throne of Macedon in 294, but was driven out by Pyrrhus 
and Lysimachus. Died about 283 B. C. (See Plutarcii, 
“ Life of Demetrius.”) 

Demetrius of Byzan'tium, a Peripatetic philoso¬ 
pher—probably the same, Westermann thinks, with the 
Demetrius who sought to dissuade Cato from suicide at 
Utica. Athenaeus quotes a work of his by the title “ nepl 
noL7]T(nv” and sometimes by that of “n-epl iroi^paTinv,” but 
they are no doubt the same work. Some fragments of this 
writer have been found in manuscripts discovered at Her¬ 
culaneum. Henry Drisler. 

Demetrius of Sll'uium, a distinguished Cynic phil¬ 
osopher, enjoyed a high reputation for correctness of life 
and firmness of principle. He lived at Rome under the 
emperors from Caligula to Domitian, and was the friend of 
Thraseas Poetus and of Seneca. Living with the greatest 
strictness himself, he did not hesitate to censure even those 
in high position, for which freedom of speech he was ban¬ 
ished. He is probably the same philosopher as the Deme¬ 
trius of Corinth mentioned by Philostratus, according to 
Ritter, who gives a summary of his doctrines in his “ His¬ 
tory of Philosophy,” vol. iv., p. 168, English translation. 
He left no writings. Henry Drisler. 

Demetrius of Scex>'sis ? a Greek grammarian, flou¬ 
rished about 210 B. C. From Strabo and Athenmus we learn 
that he composed an extensive work in at least twenty-six 
books, full of historical and geographical information 
about the places mentioned in the catalogue of ships in the 
second book of the “ Iliad ” (“ Tpcoucb? &uxKocrpo<; ”). The 
fragments are indicated in Muller’s “ Fragm. Hist. Grmc.,” 
vol. iv., p. 382. Henry Drisler. 

Deme'trius So'ter [Gr. A^T-pio? Scurr^p (i. e. “Deme¬ 
trius the Preserver”), so called by the Babylonians because 
he freed them from their tyrants], a king of Syria, born 
about 185 B. C., was a son of Seleucus Philopator. He 
was a hostage at Rome when his father died in 175 B. C., 
and his uncle, Antiochus Epiphanes, obtained the throne. 
Having escaped from Rome in 161, he was proclaimed 
king by the Syrians. He waged war against the Macca¬ 
bees. Syria was invaded by Alexander Balas, by whose 
army Demetrius was defeated and killed in 150 B. C. His 
son, Demetrius Nicator, eventually became king of Syria. 

Demetrius the [Second] False, another pretender 
to the throne of Russia, began to urge his claim in 1607. 
He affirmed that he was Demetrius, the son of Ivan IV., 
and was supported by many partisans. He was killed by 
a Tartar chief in 1610. 

Deme'trius Triclin'ius, a Greek scholiast who flou¬ 
rished in the fifteenth century. He is known for a recen¬ 
sion of the text of Sophocles, which long served as a basis 
of subsequent revisions. He also composed scholia on 
Sophocles, first published by Turnebus in his edition, and 
two other works on the same poet, the one on the metres 
(nepl fjiiTpojv), the other on the figures (nepla\rip6.TO)v), which, 
however, are of no great value. He compiled scholia also 
on Hesiod, Pindar, and Aristophanes. 

Henry Drisler. 

Deme'trius Ze'nus, of Zacynthus, about 1530 A. D. 
translated the “ Batrachomyomachia ” into modern Greek 
in the so-called trn'xot tto\ltlkol (popular verses). This is 
printed in Ilgen’s edition of the “ Homeric Hymns,” pp. 
123-139, with a Latin translation by M. Crusius. The best 
edition is that of Miillach, Berlin, 1837. He composed a 
poem in the same measure on Alexander the Great, printed 
at Venice, 1829. Henry Drisler. 

Demetz (Frederic Auguste), a French philanthropist 
and judge, born 'May 12, 1796. He visited the U. S. in 
1836, for the purpose of examining the prisons. About 
1840 he founded at Mettray, near Tours, an institution for 
the reformation of juvenile offenders, which was successful. 
His system has been adopted in England. Died Nov., 1873. 

Dem'i, a prefix derived through the French from the 
Lat. dimidium, “half” (from di, “through,” and medium , 
the “middle”), denoting a division into two parts; thus a 
demi-lune is a half moon; a demi-god is a half-divine 
being, etc. 

Dem'i-Bast'ion, in fortification, a half bastion, which 
frequently terminates the branches of a crown-work or 
horn-work, and is occasionally used in other places. 

Demi-god [Gr. jj/xiAfcos; Lat. 8emidcus ; Fr. demi-dieu / 




















DEMI-LUNE—DEMOCKACY. 


Ger. Halbgott ], literally, “half-god,” the name given to 
certain fabulous heroes of the Greek and Homan mythol- 
. ogies. They were sometimes deified heroes, and sometimes 
the offspring of a divinity and a mortal. 

Dcmi-Luiie [a Fr. term signifying “half-moon,” so 
called because it is somewhat crescent-shaped], in fortifica¬ 
tion, is a work constructed to cover or defend the curtain 
or wall of a place and the shoulders of the adjoining bas¬ 
tions. It is composed of two faces, forming a salient angle 
towards the outside. 

Demi-Monde [Fr.], the “half-world,” a name applied 
originally to those classes in large cities who, with neither 
wealth, rank, nor culture, adopt a fashionable mode of liv- 
ing. Of late it designates that class of Parisian women 
who, while they are leaders of fashion, are excluded from 
the best society on account of their doubtful reputation. 

Dem'ing (Henry C.), born at Middle Haddam, Conn., 
in 1815, graduated at Yale in 1836 and at Harvard Law 
School in 1838. lie translated some of Eugene Sue’s 
novels, but was better known as an able lawyer and Demo¬ 
cratic politician of Hartford, Conn. He held many prom¬ 
inent State offices. In 1861 he became colonel of the 
Twelfth Connecticut Volunteers, serving in Louisiana, and 
was mayor of New Orleans (1862-63). He was a Repub¬ 
lican member of Congress from Connecticut (1864-68). 
Died at Hartford, Conn., Oct. 9, 1872. 

Demir-IIissar (“iron castle”), a town of European 
Turkey, province of Room-Elee, on the river Struma, 13 
miles N. N. W. of Seres. It is defended by an old castle. 
Pop. about 8000. 

Demiur'gus, or Dem'inrge [from the Gr. Sr^ioupyo?, 
“ working for the people,” from 6r)/uo?, the “ people,” and 
epyou, “ work ”], a word originally applied to an artisan ox- 
workman, afterwards used by Plato, and especially by the 
Neo-Platonists and the Gnostics, to designate the Creator 
of the world, who was conceived by the Gnostics to be a 
being inferior to the Supreme Deity. The name was also 
given to the highest magistrate in some of the Gi-ecian cities. 

Deminin', a town of Prussia, in Pomerania, on the 
river Peene, about 75 miles W. N. W. of Stettin. It is very 
old, and was formerly fortified. It has manufactures of 
hats, woollen and linen fabrics, hosiery, etc. Pop. 9050. 

Dem'mit, a county in the S. of Texas. Area, 1050 
square miles. It is intersected by the Nueces. Wood and 
water are scarce, but the pasturage is fine. Pop. 109. 

D emoce'des [Gr. Ar^o/crjSr)?], an eminent Greek phy¬ 
sician of Crotona, was born about 550 B. C. He was taken 
prisoner by the Persians, and carried to the court of Darius 
I., to Avhom he gave medical advice. The queen Atossa, 
whose favor Democedes had gained, persuaded Darius to 
send him to Gi-eece with a small party of Persians on a 
secret mission. Democedes escaped from them and returned 
to Crotona. 

Democh'ares [Gr. A^oxapn?], an Athenian orator, a 
nephew of Demosthenes, was a leader of the anti-Mace¬ 
donian party. He was banished about 295 B. C., but re¬ 
turned in 287 or 286, after which he rendered important 
service as minister of finance. Died after 280 B. C. 

De' modes (At^zokAt)?), an Attic orator trained in the 
school of Theophrastus, was a contemporary and opponent 
of Demochares (which see). He is believed to have left 
written orations, since Dionysius of Halicarnassus attrib¬ 
utes to him an oration previously ascribed to Dinarchus. 
Dionysius and Suidas call him Democlides. 

Democracy [Gr. Srjjuo/cpan'a, from Sr/p. 09 , “the people,” 
and teparetj, to “rule”]. A state in which the people at 
large possess the whole sovereignty is rightly denominated 
a democracy. At most, there are Ixut thi-ee clearly distin¬ 
guishable methods of government—the monarchical, the 
aristocratic, and the democratic; that is to say, the rule of 
one, of a number, or of the whole. The first two are of 
like nature, and might properly be treated as one; the last 
is altogether antagonistic to both of the others. The pre¬ 
fixes despotic, hereditary, and elective merely describe 
varieties of the fii-st; an oligarchy is only a particular kind 
of the second; and such terms as republic and common¬ 
wealth import little that is distinctive as to political struc¬ 
ture. Statesmen and philosophical writers apply them 
indiscriminately to states which differ greatly in the prin¬ 
ciples of their respective governments. 

Of sovereignty in other foi-ms there has been ample ex¬ 
perience, but governments based exclusively upon the 
democratic principle, without any admixture of other ele¬ 
ments, have not been known until a recent period on any 
considerable scale. Consequently, the true nature and 
tendency of that principle form an interesting theme. 

A pure or simple democracy may conveniently regulate 
a prescribed portion of the civil authority within a subor- 


mi 


dinate district; and perhaps it is competent to the exercise 
of supreme power in an independent state of slight extent; 
opinions concur in denouncing it as impracticable in a 
large one. Deciding questions of policy by direct vote is 
a practice of this nature, but when performed by ballot it 
is subject to serious objections. If the entire elective body 
could meet at the same time and place, and in such a way 
as to admit of deliberate conference and consultation, the 
judgment of a majority might be esteemed valid. This, 
howevei-, is not possible; nor can its place be supplied by 
discussion in partial assemblies, much less by the essays 
of a various pi-ess, each addressing its own nai-row circle, 
and mainly uni-ead beyond. 

The repi-esentative form may therefore be regarded as the 
only practicable method of administering government on 
the democratic principle. Consistently with it political 
power may be denied to some members of the state, who 
arc nevertheless entitled to protection and such privileges 
as are suitable to their condition. Age, sex, or ascertained 
unfitness may form grounds of exclusion; so in respect to 
a distinct race very inferior in numbers, as, for instance, 
the whites of Ilayti. The right to exclude criminals after 
their guilt has been ascertained is indispensable to the 
preservation of social ox-der—and, practically, it may be 
aimed against a class, as in the known instance of certain 
polygamists—but it should never operate otherwise than 
upon the offending individual as a consequence of his per¬ 
sonal delinquency. Even in this case, peniicious opinions 
cannot properly be held to impair the citizen-i’ight, though 
foi-eignci-s known to entertain them may be denied natu- 
ralization or hospitality in any form. With this qualifica¬ 
tion, it may be broadly asserted that democracy, as a prin¬ 
ciple, entitles each citizen, in common with every other, to 
an equal intei-est in the state. A government based upon 
it can acknowledge no conflicting interests among the peo¬ 
ple to be favoi-ed or opposed. All its legitimate ends are 
accomplished when public safety and individual liberty are 
maintained. Restraining the turbulent and disorderly by 
a just administx-ation of general laws, and pi - oviding food, 
raiment, and asylum for the impotent, it should leave all 
others in the quiet enjoyment of such social conditions as 
they may have created for themselves or derived from the 
ordinary incidents of life. In the main, it should be un- 
fclt and unseen, or at least unperceived; the citizen should 
have xxo more vivid consciousness of the power which guards 
his civil rights than of the agencies whence flow his phys¬ 
ical health or content of mind. Where the voice of the 
people is actually sovereign this must ever be the fact, for 
it is an irresistible deduction of reason that the supreme 
will never can intentionally enact a law which is not re- 
quired, or, in other words, lay upon its own freedom any 
needless restraint. Hence the axiom, that in a democracy 
cvei-y positive regulation, not actually indispensable to the 
public and genei ; al welfai'e, which restrains, or even indi- 
rectly tends to restrain, individual liberty in any degi-ee, 
however slight, so far violates the spirit of the constitution. 
It is an infraction of popular rights, and may justly be de¬ 
nounced as the offspring of unlawful foi-ce or of fraud. 
These agencies cannot be wholly expelled from any sphere; 
but it is the office of democracy to restrain their influence 
in official action within the nai-rowest limits. A contrast 
with its rivals will afford the best means of illustrating its 
tendency and usefulness. 

The investiture of individuals with permanent political 
power by a title derived from personal descent is the pri¬ 
mary element in monarchical and aristoci-atic statc-s, as the 
absence of any such practice is the distinguishing feature 
of a democracy. An inequality of civil or political rights 
among those who were alike in all other inspects could 
never have been deduced from the ancestry of individuals 
but for the assumed saci'edness of office. At the outset the 
monaix-h could have been no more than the first officer of 
the state; the incipient aristocracy must have been com¬ 
posed of his subordinates ; and it was not until offices be¬ 
came hereditary that the state was divided into two per¬ 
manent classes, the rulers and the ruled. The existence of 
these two classes is the very essence of monarchy. Their 
intei-ests are necessarily adverse—a circumstance enfoi*cing 
upon the former a general activity in support of their pre¬ 
eminence. In states actually or approximately despotic 
standing armies and fx-equent wars are the forces for this 
pui-pose; where a nominal place is assigned to the demo¬ 
cratic principle, permanent political parties might sei-ve in 
lieu of the soldier to uphold the political machinery, but, 
in general, they only supplement him. The measure of 
governmental activity in monarchical states has varied from 
the grinding tyranny prefigured by Nimrod the man-hunter 
down to that modern crown which is a mere bauble, abso¬ 
lutely inert, save so far as it involves expense and aconscquent 
burden upon labor. From the earliest times wars have been 
found necessary, not only to give employment to the state 













1312 DEMOCRACY. 


officers— i. e. the king and his nobles—but also to color the 
pretence of their usefulness, and through military discip¬ 
line to organize in their hands a power adequate to support 
their authority. Thus, in great monarchies the so-styled 
common people have always been oppressed by enormous 
establishments, military or naval, or both. These are easily 
justified to unreflecting observers on the score of necessity, 
for aggressive wars by monarchs in furtherance of ambi¬ 
tious designs being of constant recurrence, armed organi¬ 
zation for defence seems a requisite. War, with its inherent 
rapine and cruelty, is not, indeed, due to the crimes of any 
one monarch; but the fact remains patent that it is an evil 
founded in the principle of monarchy, and inseparable from 
it. The active and enterprising spirits of every clime and 
age have found seductive occupation in these war-estab¬ 
lishments, and through their agency large portions of soci¬ 
ety have always been withdrawn from useful employments 
to feed upon the labor of the rest. The desolation pro¬ 
duced by foreign wars, and the internal oppression result¬ 
ing in time of peace from war-establishments and their ad¬ 
juncts, are both due to the vices of the ruling classes. In 
this self-evident proposition effectual reforms must long 
since have taken root but for the natural tendency to ac¬ 
cuse our neighbors instead of correcting our own faults, and 
the difficulty of the latter task in any one of many neigh¬ 
boring independent states. 

The annals of government are consequently little else 
than a recital of the devices by which from the beginning 
every civil society has been preyed upon by its own offi¬ 
cial corps. This is easily effected wherever monarchy or 
aristocracy prevails. Democracy, being based upon abso¬ 
lute equality, admits of no governing class, nor of any in¬ 
terest adverse to the people in those who conduct the public 
business. But by artifice and irregular methods the latter 
may become a class, may grasp powers incompatible with 
the nature of the government, and may involve their 
country in all the evils incident to hereditary rule. Per¬ 
secution for moral non-conformity, so grateful to the ill- 
regulated mind, may be from time to time practised until 
resistance is provoked and a color afforded for war. To this 
condition the grandly patriotic spirit engendered by free 
institutions gives great force and breadth; the entire people 
at once rush to arms, and public debt is incurred at a pace 
twenty-fold more rapid than would be tolerated under the 
cautiously regulated corruption of monarchies. These are 
abuses, and are deviations from the democratic principle. 
Their prevention is the duty of every good citizen. 

Unmixed democracy is the principle of government rec¬ 
ognized in Switzerland and in various portions of the Amer¬ 
ican continent. In the U. S. of America it nominally ex¬ 
ists, and upon the grandest scale. They therefore present 
the best practical illustration of what it is in its present 
stage of development. Any shortcomings in practice there 
discernible may serve to indicate the advisable line of prog¬ 
ress in endeavoring to perfect its machinery; and what many 
other nations seem inclined to imitate ought to be freed, if 
possible, from existing defects. 

The founders of the American Union recognized not only 
the ineptitude of monarchy and ai'istocracy, but the neces¬ 
sity of repressing in the newly conceived system their 
most conspicuous abuses. Standing armies were denounced 
as dangerous to liberty ; wars for the extension of territory 
were regarded as unjust, foreign alliances as inexpedient, 
and public debt as mischievous; but, strangely enough, no 
barriers whatever were instituted against any of these 
practices. On the contrary, powers to introduce and foster 
the most dangerous of them were expressly delegated, in 
the name of the people, to their public agents. The nat¬ 
ural ill-effects were foreseen; but they were deemed sus¬ 
ceptible of being kept within endurable bounds. Monarchy 
and aristocracy were indeed effectually repudiated for the 
time. Neither could long exist without hereditary distinc¬ 
tions, nor could these be upheld where commerce in land 
was free, and inheritances were equally partible by com¬ 
pulsion or from social habit; so primogeniture and the ac¬ 
customed contrivances for rendering estates permanently 
inalienable were extirpated. This was effected by laws 
harmonizing so perfectly with the common instincts of 
humanity as to seem proof against repeal. In view of 
these things, and of the advances attained in civilization 
and power of thought, the most despondent do not antici¬ 
pate that distinct ranks in society can ever be re-established. 
Americans therefore regard monarchy and aristocracy as 
utterly and irrevocably banished from their country, and 
consequently suppose that in the U. S., and for those coun¬ 
tries which may reconstruct their political fabrics upon the 
American model, democracy has fulfilled its mission. Yet 
perhaps this great and just principle has not yet accom¬ 
plished more than a modification of the social evils initi¬ 
ated, nurtured, and brought to maturity in the Old World 
by its opposites, monarchy and aristocracy. 


% 

In framing every government hitherto instituted amongst 
men, one of the aims was to enable the rulers—by which is 
meant the office-holders—to gratify their ambition or their * 
avarice, or both, at the expense of the ruled—that is to 
say, the mass of the people. The former, as military or 
political leaders, have always laid the foundations, and 
have anticipated, at the least, employment in superintend¬ 
ing the structure. Purity of motive may be admitted in 
many cases, so far as individual consciousness is concerned; 
but self-love is both inherent and blind. The founder, 
while conscious of no object but the public good, has 
always had an eye to his own gratification, and his work 
has invariably been in some respects accommodated to that 
end. This infirmity tainted the most ancient political 
structures, and has in some degree affected all their suc¬ 
cessors. Organizing places and public employments has 
ever received an attention not measured by necessity, 
or, in other words, by the interests of the people. We 
have seen, accordingly, that whilst ostracising monarchy 
the founders of the American Union invested it with most 
of the powers by which the few had oppressed the many in 
all previous times. 

The State governments were framed in the same way. 
The powers of government in common use, originally de¬ 
signed by the office-holding aristocracy to create or uphold 
their own interests against the governed mass, were all 
sanctioned. Under the vicious and unjust systems pre¬ 
viously existing they were no doubt indispensable; they 
were therefore assumed to be necessary, even in a repre¬ 
sentative democracy. Conceding all these functions to be 
thus inseparable from regular government in any of its 
forms was the error of that day. Assuming this, the mani¬ 
fest and undeniable tendency to abuse furnished no sup¬ 
port to any useful argument. It only led to further error. 

It was thought to prove the necessity of devising vai-ious 
new artificial checks. And in compliance with this reason¬ 
ing there was generated, in the councils of a simple and 
frxxgal people, a goveninient which, though based upon a 
single principle, and that of the simplest nature, was with¬ 
out a parallel in the multitude of its offices, in the multi¬ 
fariousness of its forms, and in its general complexity. 

As the checks and balances of the mixed system existing 
in England had developed the best administi-ation then 
known, it was thought that, monarchy and all hereditary 
distinctions being excluded, complexity would afford ade¬ 
quate preventives of official malvei-sation. The same ex¬ 
ample induced a l'eliance upon the fi'ee action of political 
pai'ties as a motive-power to keep the official counter¬ 
checks in healthy action. Obvious distinctions between 
the old and the new governments seem to have been over¬ 
looked. In the foi-mer permanently antagonistieal intei'ests 
were legalized, and so commingled in the political consti¬ 
tution as to induce and necessitate continual conflict as a 
duty. Each of the three estates was there obliged to main¬ 
tain a constant contention with the others, in order to pro- 
tect its own peculiar and rightful privileges; whilst in the 
U. S. there were to be no classes, no separate estates, and 
no peculiar privileges. Everything was reduced to the 
dead level of absolute eqxxality; there was nothing funda¬ 
mental that needed a check or reqxxiring to be balanced; 
peace and tranquillity were the spirit and nature of the 
government adopted. The practicability of a govei-nment 
amongst frail mortals with objects and leading to results 
so grandly beneficent was, however, an untried experiment. 
Those who inaugurated it did well; their achievements 
were creditable, even though perfection may not have been 
attained. Progi-ess in modes of enforcing the principle 
instituted was, doubtless, the patriotic expectation of those 
who, while dreading the powei's created, found themselves 
unable, from want of apposite precedents or experience, to 
construct at that time a more perfect system. Oppression 
by a permanently privileged class had theretofore been the 
grievance of nations. Such a contradiction in terms, and 
apparently in fact, as oppression of the people by them¬ 
selves was not anticipated; to their virtue and intelligence 
it was thereforc committed to carry the experiment to its 
full fruition, with an admonitory warning that perpetual 
vigilance was the price of liberty. The extent to which 
popular vigilance could be kept in beneficial action was 
then a problem; in some respects it is still so. 

In a great and prosperous state the private interests of 
business or pleasure afford engrossing employments. Minds 
fully occupied with such subjects cannot be at the same 
time employed on large conceptions of governmental 
policy and in devising plans for their execution. This is 
more especially true in respect to that portion of the citi¬ 
zens who ax*e most favored by fortune or have enjoyed the 
highest advantages of education and culture. It is emi¬ 
nently true of those in affluence. An active attention to 
great political interests by the latter is a rare phenomenon. 
The wealthy who are unsatisfied and still thirsting for 






















DEMOCRACY. 


1313 


more are equally regardless of governmental action, unless 
led to seek aid for their private enterprises through official 
favoritism. The necessary, and of course quite excusable, 
pre-occupation of the citizens in their private affairs, not 
lack of judgment or intelligence, will be found, on a careful 
scrutiny, to be the great impediment to wise and just ad¬ 
ministration in representative democracies. There is much 
injustice on both sides in the mutual criminations which 
disfigured the early debates of parties in America on this 
topic. It was never a fact that one party distrusted the 
popular judgment, or that the other relied upon it. All the 
leaders well knew that, as the political system was ar¬ 
ranged, the people could never act directly on public 
affairs, and those leaders failed to devise an effectual 
method of securing in permanence the choice of desirable 
legislators. It is a delusion to suppose that in a repre¬ 
sentative democracy popular attention can be kept riveted 
on public affairs by the contentions of party. In mixed 
governments this may be possible. There antagonistical 
parties are supposed to be founded on conflicting ideas or 
principles expressed in intelligible maxims, and the orig¬ 
inal faith of each party, together with the social and po¬ 
litical condition in which it originated, is consequently 
perpetuated in the same lines from generation to genera¬ 
tion. It may thus acquire a fixed place in the mind and 
heart, and may become an active moral sentiment. In a 
representative democracy there is no legitimate basis for 
just and honorable antagonisms of this permanent cha¬ 
racter. During the brief period of unsettled opinion whilst 
the constitution is being constructed and put into operation 
there may be aliment for such parties, but fundamental 
differences of political sentiment must soon disappear. 
The citizens then find themselves blended together as one 
class, and occupying without distinction the same unalter¬ 
able plane of absolute equality. Honest and intelligent 
political contention in the true sense of the expression 
must then cease. Thenceforth democrats are the only 
legitimate party; if any other can be supposed to exist, its 
members are foes to the constitution. It was only prior 
to and during the first decade of their constitutional union, 
if ever, that a monarchical party existed in the American 
States. During that brief period pure and honorable minds 
might have hoped for the re-establishment of ancient prin¬ 
ciples. When that hope perished a great change com¬ 
menced. As in the nature of things was inevitable, the 
so-called political parties have ever since been gradually 
losing their hold upon distinctive opinions, and tending to 
a unity of views and purposes in which principles have 
little part. With such a unity parties can be nothing more 
than bands of rival leaders, keeping on foot, and employed 
as their respective forces, bodies of traders in the business 
or occupation of manipulating the masses, the ballots, or 
the returns. A government carried on by such agencies 
must at last attain a worse perfection than any which could 
exist under monarchical forms. According to these, the 
king and his nobles, as ruling officers, have a permanent 
interest in the state descendible to their heirs. For the 
protection of that inheritance and for the benefit of their 
posterity they will take some care of the state. In a rep¬ 
resentative democracy the office-holders of the hour are 
the rulers of the hour; their term is brief, and if corrupt 
they will, like the similarly situated pashas of Turkey, 
make haste to grow rich, for their positions are soon to be 
surrendered to others. 

It is not through parties contending for control of the 
government that the benefits of democracy can bo realized. 
The principle itself must be placed beyond the power of 
such parties. Permanent barriers, like those devised 
against monarchy, must be introduced, which shall abso¬ 
lutely restrain governmental agents—that is to say, the 
office-holders—from any action not indispensably neces¬ 
sary to the common weal. Public offices and employments 
must be thus rendered undesirable to the indolent and the 
avaricious. If this can be effected under any form, it. is 
possible in a representative democracy. The other prin¬ 
ciples are directly opposed to it, and wholly incompatible 
with it. Its practicability in the former depends upon the 
question whether a persistently active and capable super¬ 
vision of the ruling office-holder can be established among 
those who neither hold nor expect office—that is to say, 
among the burden-bearing multitude who support the offi¬ 
cial corps. The last requisite is thus pointedly.defined for 
the purpose of excluding from reliance in their assumed 
office as “ sentinels on the watch-tower of liberty ’ the 
organized class of office-seekers, constituting, in partisan 
phraseology, the opposition. In effect, and quite consci¬ 
ously too during advanced stages of political degradation, 
these will actually become allies of the party in power. 
Their function is to perpetuate among the people a delu¬ 
sive reliance upon that pretended but unreal conflict con¬ 
cerning principles which traders in politics always affect. 
83 


Through the ordinary revolutions of the political lottery 
such contestants divide between themselves, and alter¬ 
nately enjoy, all that through the forms of law can be 
wrung from the multitude. They have been known to 
concert in perfect harmony before elections the means of 
accomplishing a prearranged result. 

Democracy, regarded as a principle, plainly indicates 
the means of instituting this needful supervision. On 
public emergencies the heroic virtues do indeed exhibit 
themselves in acts of great disinterestedness, but there is 
very little of this spirit displayed whilst nations are in 
their normal condition. In an exceedingly small or greatly 
impoverished country the vices natural to rulers may, in¬ 
deed, be without opportunities; but in a great and prosper¬ 
ous state there is no possible safeguard against robbery by 
those who control the machinery of government, if the 
machinery be, in itself, adequate to effect that object when 
pushed to its utmost capacity. Those who enact the laws 
and administer them will always promote their private in¬ 
terests at the public cost if vested with sufficient power. 
Such is human nature, no matter what form or name the 
government may adopt. Democracy accepts this as an 
indisputable truth, and, distrusting all rulers, it gives to 
none of them any power that can safely be withheld. The 
policy of instituting checks upon power unavoidably 
granted, though not to be absolutely repudiated, is of little 
value. Appointing one set of official persons to watch 
another is a bootless contrivance. The remedy really ag¬ 
gravates the disease; it fostex-s the primary evil of govern¬ 
ment—a multiplication of public agents. The watcher 
and the watched soon learn to co-operate for joint benefit 
in the work of deluding the mass, whom it is the interest 
of both to circumvent. The judiciary may form an ex¬ 
ception. The ancient practice of assigning reasons for 
the judgment pronounced still exists, and the duty is re¬ 
garded as unavoidable. This, with the institution of re¬ 
view on appeal, does afford a protection of some strength. 
Besides, for the honor of our common nature let it be said, 
as it is true, that the habitual study of justice tends to 
create a sincere love of it. 

The inherent vice of all governments is a tendency 
amongst the official rulers to devour the people’s substance, 
and the only remedy is in a strict application of the demo¬ 
cratic principle. All powers which can be dispensed with 
should be withheld from the goveimment, and numerous 
vicious methods now in the highest favor should be sup¬ 
pressed. Permitting revenue or the means of defraying 
public expenditures to be drawn frem duties, imposts, ex¬ 
cises, loans, or any souree whatever other than immediate 
taxation, enables those who control the administration to 
conceal their waste of the people’s wealth, and protects 
them from axxy effective supervision. Compelling them to 
procure all revenue frem the last-named source would ob¬ 
viate both of these evils. 

This assertion may require preof. It has been shown 
that the whole electoral body cannot directly goveim. Even 
were the electors composed only of the most learned and 
enlightened of the non-office-holders, they could afford 
neither the time nor leisure to goveim directly bj r their own 
act, or to watch the machinery of goveimment in its varied 
details, and by that sort of guardianship prevent abuse. 
They could not even study, in this extended sphei'e, the 
character and capacity of their representatives. To hope 
for any of these things were idle and visionai'y. There is 
just one thing tending to secure good government, and one 
only that the mass can do. Each citizen can for himself— 
and if suitably spurred to the duty he will—give attention 
to preventing exactions frem his own private purse, made 
directly before his eyes by government officials. Frem this 
tendency of the human mind a supervisory spirit among 
the tax-paying electors may be evoked. In great emer¬ 
gencies patriotic zeal may be relied upon, but the needs of 
every-day life can be supplied in no other way than by thus 
appealing to the common and constantly active impulses 
of mere individual self-interest. The difficulty of inducing 
the citizen to pay taxes directly must be admitted. The 
vei*y quality of mind which is relied upon for thus utilizing 
public expenditure, and consequent taxation, creates an 
aversion to this duty. The evil art of the politician who 
calls himself a statesman consists in perceiving and acting 
upon the absurd preference for being robbed extensively 
through the secret and unfelt instrumentality of duties, 
excises, and the like, rather than paying directly moderate 
exactions in tho form of taxes. This weakness ol the 
citizen forms the strength of those evil counsellors who 
misgovern the state. It must be corrected, or intolerable 
evils will ensue. In the action of Congress, ot the thaie 
legislatures, and of the municipalities official extravagance 
has been fostered to a shocking extent by allowing these 
unfelt methods of raising revenue, borrowing money for 
long terms on tho public credit being the most promi- 

































1314 DEMOCRACY. 


nent. Unless the numerous governments intertwined in the 
American system can be checked in this career, the system 
itself must ere long perish. This cannot be accomplished 
otherwise than by absolutely forbidding all methods of ob¬ 
taining revenue or funds for outlay other than immediate 
taxation. The use of those other methods is the root of 
every avoidable governmental abuse that exists in the U. S., 
or that, in the nature of things, can exist in any country 
blessed with a democratic constitution. If taxes form the 
only allowed sources of expenditure, frugality will ensue, 
and under the shadow of frugality serious mischiefs can 
scarcely prevail. Though labor may ultimately sustain it, 
simple taxation must always be paid, in the first instance, 
by those who possess property. A policy which would 
draw directly at the moment of need, and from the pockets 
of this class, through the immediate agency of the tax- 
gatherer, the whole supply for public expenditure, would 
keep its members, from a regard to their own private in¬ 
terests, under the pressure of a constant and potent stim¬ 
ulus to restrain injudicious enterprises in war or peace. 
Such a policy would induce effective attention to the elec¬ 
tion of inexpensive legislators. It would form a double 
goad, prompting the constituent to vigilance on this one 
point in the choice of his representative, and coercing the 
latter to frugality. A more extensive sphere than this will 
never be acted on by any beneficial vigilance of the elector : 
the unalterable constitution of human nature forbids it. 

Perhaps the class referred to will never consent to place 
themselves under this incitement to diligence. If so, the 
great North American republic should not be adopted as a 
model by revolutionists, for ere long, in closing its career 
as a democracy, it may extinguish the last hope of good 
government, and confirm views expressed by a philosophi¬ 
cal historian two thousand years ago. “ From the despo¬ 
tism,” says he, “ in which it naturally begins, every human 
society passes through a succession of governments, each 
more liberal than its immediate predecessor, but each in 
its turn decaying from internal abuses, until at last, having 
reached the loosest or most liberal form attainable, a refuge 
from intolerable evils is found by completing the circuit 
and returning to that arbitrary rule under which it com¬ 
menced. Thus it has ever been and ever will be with 
human governments.” This prediction may not be verified 
if the Americans will expunge from their fundamental law 
the powers which are foreign to its nature and fatal to its 
usefulness. The changes needed are not organic except 
in form; they involve no departure from any principles 
adopted or sanctioned by the fathers; they only remove 
the seeds of decay inadvertently sown by copying adminis¬ 
trative rules from monarchical precedents. The most im¬ 
portant of these changes has been stated; some further 
illustration may be proper. 

The creation of public debt diminishes present drafts upon 
the people, as duties, excises, and the like expedients con¬ 
ceal them. Both, consequently, facilitate wars and need¬ 
less public works. War delights inconsiderate youth by 
its excitements and grasping age by its tender of the most 
desirable investments. Thus, the greatest of evils is hailed 
as a blessing, and profligate expenditure for purposes civil 
and military made easy. If, on the contrary, every govern¬ 
mental outlay were immediately defrayed by the tax¬ 
payers, very different results would ensue. The most 
wary and influential of the citizens, instead of being 
tempted to foster expense, would find in the shadow of 
the approaching tax-gatherer a potent stimulus to labor 
for its prevention. The consequent diminution of govern¬ 
ment jobs would relieve from public employ the multitudes 
whom corrupt officials now drive to the polls as cattle to 
the shambles. Free trade would follow as an inevitable 
consequence, and the enormous patronage of the custom¬ 
house would cease, together with a multitude of connected 
abuses and oppressions. The rapine and favoritism dis¬ 
played in taxing all others for the means to confer a bounty 
upon manufacturers would likewise disappear. The pre¬ 
valent weakness before adverted to is exhibited in advocat¬ 
ing a tariff reduced to the revenue standard. Obtaining 
revenue in this secret or unfelt method, independently of 
its keeping up a costly and vicious establishment, is in 
itself a positive evil. A sensibly felt pressure, in the form 
of taxation, is an indispensable provocative to that vigi¬ 
lance among the tax-paying electors which cannot be dis¬ 
pensed with. Indeed the only political evil to be appre¬ 
hended from the extensive reforms suggested in this article 
is that the expenses of government might become so reduced 
that taxation to defray them would cease to be felt, and 
consequently cease to spur the elector to care in the choice 
of his representatives. 

There should be no governmental authority over the 
coinage, over any currency of commerce, or to issue paper 
for circulation as money. No revenue or income should be 
derived from the public domain, nor should any gifts be 


made therefrom, unless in limited portions and for the 
encouragement of actual settlers. 

By means of general laws admitting of no favoritism or 
partiality all requisite facilities, through corporate forms 
or otherwise, should be afforded to individuals for conduct¬ 
ing every description of lawful business. This should 
include banking, insurance, establishing roads, canals, 
docks, fairs, or markets, and furnishing supplies of every 
description, and like objects. Under this head there is the 
greatest room for progress in effectively applying the de¬ 
mocratic principle, so as to prevent any needless action by 
the government, or the employment of its officers in any 
affairs that experience might show could be safely com¬ 
mitted to individuals as a business. Regulation by general 
laws being sufficient for all useful ends in that connection, 
no power should exist to create, repeal, or alter any private 
corporation. Monopolies and fraudulent or extortionate 
rivalries in trade should be alike prohibited, as well as all 
power of enacting private laws. A general structural law 
for each kind of civil division, say counties, towns, cities, 
and villages, should be adopted, subject to alteration only 
by amendments likewise general in their application. This 
w r ould at once reduce the volume of statute law, simplify 
its form, conduce to its intelligibility, diminish litigation, 
and restrain corrupt practices. Under a system of which 
this affords a specimen, laws might become few, simple, 
and easily understood. We should not behold in one 
single State of the Union a legislative body sitting for 
four months of each year, surrounded by a hired lobbjq 
and engaged in confounding the courts and the people with 
two thousand pages of additional legislation, most of it 
hurriedly passed during the last week of the session in 
such confusion and disorder that the clerks, if disposed, 
can make alterations in bills after their passage and before 
their formal engrossment or authentication as laws. 

The power to declare and wage war cannot be withheld, 
but it should be as much restricted as possible. Perhaps 
withholding power to borrow money is alone sufficient for 
this purpose. Some ingenuity might be required in fram¬ 
ing inhibitions of other devices for the creation of public 
debt, but absolute prevention is not impossible, and is im¬ 
peratively necessary. The power to borrow money, if it 
exist at all, cannot be limited or duly guarded. In a great 
and populous state, separated by a wide ocean from any 
powerful rival or enemy, armies, navies, forts, arsenals, 
military schools, and standing armies or navies of any de¬ 
scription, however slight, might safely be dispensed with. 
Until a period quite recent, agriculture, manufactures, and 
commerce were degrading employments; no occupation 
was honorable except that of a soldier. This distinction 
might ere long be precisely reversed, and military service, 
as the adopted pursuit of a lifetime, be entirely unknown. 
Even before the telegraphic current had traversed the ocean 
the diplomatic corps was useless; it should be abolished. 
These alterations, besides reducing the cost of government, 
would leave unemployed a large amount of public property 
which might be judiciously applied to the reduction of ex¬ 
isting debts. Dispensing with all preparation for public 
defence, and trusting for the safety of the state in every 
emergency to the means which might then be brought to¬ 
gether, would not be hazardous. The history of our race 
affords abundant proof that in populous countries the spirit 
which rejoices in any opportunity to make war has always 
exceeded the necessity for its employment. Loyalty might 
imagine a danger to government from lack of power to sup¬ 
press rebellion, but the policy suggested would render for¬ 
midable rebellions impossible. Besides, wars are becoming 
disfavored even in monarchical states. The light of sound 
morality is penetrating even the dark jungle of hereditary 
domination, and creating a general repugnance to this mis¬ 
chief. 

Little progress has been made in practically applying 
the democratic principle since its adoption. Few of the 
steps hitherto taken or as yet proposed by parties with that 
professed object are of a beneficial tendency. It might ex¬ 
cusably have been imagined, though quite false in fact, 
that in the great exemplar of Americans, the aristocratic 
quasi republic of Great Britain, election by ballot would be 
a boon to the miserable mine-laborer or cottier. In free, 
fertile, and prosperous America it was wholly needless; 
its acceptance was a reproach to the poorer citizen and a 
scandalous acknowledgment of timidity in the rich. It 
opened the door to frauds innumerable. Its inutility to 
the dependent poor has been demonstrated. The govern¬ 
ing faction of a city that employs in public works one- 
tenth of its electoral body has sent its workman to the poll 
in charge of a whipper-in, who, when near the ballot-box, 
furnished him with the favored ticket, and thence until its 
delivery to the official receiver watched the hand in which it 
had been placed. After the ballot there came, by degrees, 
direct election to a very great multitude of offices. This 













DEMOCEAT-DEMOCRATES. 


folly has reached its climax. In New York, the greatest 
of the States, not one of the best-informed, most active- 
minded, and experienced citizens has within a quarter of a 
century exercised an intelligent choice in selecting the 
numerous ballots required at an annual election. The 
thing is absolutely impossible, unless submitting to the dic¬ 
tation of a caucus composed of politicians by trade can be 
deemed an intelligent act of the will and judgment. Know¬ 
ledge as to the capacity or fitness of the nominees for the 
various stations to be filled could not exist in any instance, 
and consequently there could not be an enlightened choice. 
No people can ever sustain the burden of directly choosing 
numerous administrative officers. The popular voice should 
not be called into action except in selecting a very moderate 
number of officers, say the chief executive and the legisla¬ 
ture. The fallacy of presidential electors should of course 
be abolished. The existing embarrassments under this head 
are about to be carried to the last measure of complication 
which perverse ingenuity is supposed to be capable of de¬ 
vising. The conception called cumulative voting is sus¬ 
ceptible of being embodied in forms of innumerable va¬ 
riety. It demands a measure of skill, intelligence, care, and 
attention in the ordinary citizen which Newton or La Place 
could scarcely have commanded and brought into efficient 
action under the pressure of such disturbing influences as 
are necessarily attendant upon a popular election of the 
horde annually chosen. Indeed, the pursuits of the gam¬ 
bler would afford the best apprenticeship for the elector 
under such a system. In respect to all three of these de¬ 
vices, the ballot, the direct choice of administrative officers, 
and cumulative voting, candid and thoughtful minds can 
hardly differ. The tendency of each and all of them is un¬ 
deniably to establish on a permanent basis the trade of 
politics. 

The unsound conceptions which gave rise to the ballot 
are precisely paralleled in the recent laws limiting the hours 
of labor on public works. That law indicates among Amer¬ 
icans a preparedness for servile dependence. A freeman 
should submit to no law on such a subject; his own volun¬ 
tary contract should alone control. 

Ancestral memories amongst Americans have consecrated 
religious liberty, and it has hitherto been maintained; but 
reformatory progress threatens to extinguish it by a polit¬ 
ical recognition of dogmas in Christian theology. The 
citizens who are not Christians, and at least one-fifth of 
those who are, would thus be rendered non-conformists, 
and might be made liable to disabilities, if not to pains and 
penalties, for their disloyalty to the orthodox constitution. 
The advocates of this measure may not be very powerful as 
yet, but among them are persons of high position and wide 
influence. This same pernicious conception may ultimately 
prevail in another form. The revolting sons of the early 
colonists were without adequate means of educating the 
young. Many of the race born in the city of New York 
during the present century attained full age without learn¬ 
ing to read. A State school system was deemed judicious, 
and doubtless was so. Medicine is properly applied by 
charity or bounty to remove disease. This system, where- 
ever applied, had, in its early stages, a beneficial effect. It 
dispelled that low grade of ignorance which was the only 
evil under this head demanding strong measures. But in 
process of time the trading politician seized upon State 
education, and rendered it, to a considerable extent, another 
foster-parent of the jobbery and electioneering abuses inci¬ 
dent to a loose administration. It is in some places enor¬ 
mously expensive, a means of official patronage, and a foot¬ 
ball to be tossed to and fro in factious contentions. It 
seems a favorite design of many to render the education of 
children under State regulations compulsory upon their 
parents, notwithstanding that those regulations should re¬ 
quire the use of particular religious books, and the conse¬ 
quent inculcation of theological opinions which may be dis¬ 
believed by the latter and not sought by the former. This 
would be a plain infraction of religious liberty. Religion 
can exist only as a conviction deeply seated in the indi¬ 
vidual mind, and it is believed to be essential in forming 
good citizens; yet from the variety of its forms non-inter¬ 
ference with it by government is a fixed democratic dogma. 
Theoretically, there seems an inconsistency in these propo¬ 
sitions, but practically they are found to harmonize. Re¬ 
ligious convictions bring into full action the voluntary 
principle, and divine worship is nowhere more amply pro¬ 
vided for than in the U. S. The differences of opinion con¬ 
stituting what is called sectarianism, apart from which re¬ 
ligion is unknown, form 'the precise objection to govern¬ 
mental interference with religious worship hitherto relied 
upon. The education of youth in a method which should 
studiously exclude religious, or what, as has been seen, is 
the same thing, sectarian ideas, would be pernicious, as tend¬ 
ing necessarily to form bad citizens. This would seem to 
show conclusively that in the present advanced state of 


1315 


American social life education of the young, like religious 
worship for the mature, should bo left to the voluntary 
principle. To perfect the policy which from the first for¬ 
bade governments to interfere with the latter, they should 
now be commanded to withdraw from control of the latter. 

There is room for the introduction of many real reforms. 
Short terms and frequent elections are no doubt necessary 
as to the chief executive and the legislative bodies. Due 
responsibility to the real sovereignty— i. e. the people— 
cannot otherwise be maintained ; but as to all other officers 
removals should be for cause only—that is to say, fault or 
incapacity. Rotation in respect to public agents of any 
kind is a mistake in doctrine. Faithful service and proved 
capacity are singular grounds of disqualification. It must 
be admitted, however, that no absolute right of the citizen 
is invaded by introdneing certain limits to eligibility; and 
expediency may require it in respect to one office. Indeed, 
it can hardly be doubted that a long quarantine should be 
required between exercising military command and aspir¬ 
ing to the chief magistracy. 

To guard against fraud, registry laws are expedient in 
densely-peopled districts. A considerable period should 
elapse between the registry and the vote, without allowing 
exceptions on account of intermediate changes in residence. 
The more fixed and permanent the elector’s habits, the bet¬ 
ter his duties will be performed. No public interest is sub¬ 
served by a multitudinous or floating constituency; it is 
enough if the electoral body be sufficiently large to secure 
efficient supervision in the choice of representatives. It 
would be expedient to exclude from the elective franchise 
all officers and employes receiving pay from the public. 
Vast benefits would result from this measure, and also from 
denouncing severe penalties against compelling this class to 
contribute towards the expense of elections. 

The Federal government was designed as an organ of 
limited powers, yet it has exhibited ample capacity to 
crush or modify at will not only State institutions, but the 
States themselves. Practically considered, the latter exist 
merely by sufferance, holding, as it respects the essentials 
of political power, no higher relation to the central author¬ 
ity than towns or counties do to the States in which they 
are situated. As bulwarks of liberty or constitutional 
rights they are nearly if not entirely powerless. But while 
thus superannuated and rendered ineffectual for the high 
purposes of the founders, they exercise a power which 
tends to serious mischiefs. Through their conflicting legis¬ 
lation, enforced by independent judiciaries, the} r may ulti¬ 
mately derange the laws concerning trade, contracts, and 
some other subjects of general concern. By the identity 
of their language, moral ideas, and social habits, and by 
their essential proximity effected through railroads and 
telegraphs, Americans have become commercially and so¬ 
cially one nation. Conflicting laws and a jarring juris¬ 
prudence amongst them should be prevented, if prevention 
be practicable. A court of ultimate appeal, as well from 
the States as from the Federal tribunals, composed of judges 
selected by the States, and neither subject to official inter¬ 
ference nor possessing coercive machinery of its own, might 
preserve this desirable unity of jurisprudence throughout 
the whole country. The want of such an institution has 
been keenly felt by the confederate cantons of Switzerland. 
A precedent may be found in that modern tribunal at Lii- 
beck which reviewed the judicial action of four perfectly 
independent republics. Probably the Amphictyonic Coun¬ 
cil of ancient times had its origin in similar objects. Such 
a court might defend the political autonomy of the States 
against encroachments; and the Federal government could 
neither forbid appeals, nor force a judicial sanction of its 
own unauthorized acts by increasing the number of judges 
or otherwise. Indeed, the existing Supreme Court, which 
is enfeebled by its liability to such coercive measures, might 
then be dispensed with. 

The course of reform suggested would eventually mature 
the democratic system by securing to all citizens the ut¬ 
most measure of freedom, affording material progress every 
aid to its most perfect development which an equal and 
impartial government can bestow, and terminating official 
misrule. Its aim is to break the sceptre of the trading 
politician, and thus, at last, to establish liberty on the only 
reliable basis—a popular censorship on democratic prin¬ 
ciples, perpetually stimulated to its duty by the simple ope¬ 
ration of intelligent self-interest. 

Charles O’Conor. 

Dem'ocrat, a township of Carroll eo., Ind. Pop. 1122. 

Pemoc'rStes (Arjjao/cparrjs), .a supposed Pythagorean 
philosopher, under whose name a collection of moral say¬ 
ings called the “ Golden Maxims” (yvufxaL xpvcra't) hasi como 
down to our time. These are written in the Ionic dialect, 
and arc remarkable for their simple and correct character. 
The author is otherwise unknown, and the age of the col- 















1 o 1G DEMOCEATES—DEMOPOL1S. 


lection is not determined. They are printed along with 
the collection of Demophilus (which see). 

Henry Drisleu. 

Democrittes, an Attic orator of the time of Demos¬ 
thenes, was an opponent of the Macedonian party, lie is 
mentioned in the Decrees in the oration of Demosthenes, 
“ De Corona,” as serving with Demosthenes on two em¬ 
bassies—the one to Philip to receive the oaths, the other to 
the Thebans to enlist them on the side of Athens against 
Philip. Henry Drisler. 

Dc moc'ritus [Hr. Arj/xckpiro?], a celebrated and pro¬ 
found Greek philosopher, born at Abdera, in Thrace, about 
400, or, some say, 409 D. C. He is supposed to have been 
a disciple of Leucippus, and to have received lessons from 
some Chaldiean magi. He inherited it is said, from his 
father, a fortune of one hundred talents. In early life he 
travelled in pursuit of knowledge in Egypt, Greece, Persia, 
and India, and continued his travels until ho had spent 
nearly all his patrimony. Having returned to Abdera, he 
declined political honors and employment, preferring to 
pass his life in study and retirement. He had a high repu¬ 
tation for virtue as well as learning. He appears to have 
been versed in geometry, physics, natural history, and ethics, 
on which subjects he wrote numerous works, but none of 
them are now extant. According to the later biographers 
he was called the “ laughing philosopher,” from his habit 
of laughing at the follies of mankind. He was a man of noble, 
pure, and diligent life. It appears that he admitted the 
existence of law in nature, but not that of design. He died 
357 B. C. His system of philosophy is known as the atomic 
system. He taught that matter is eternal, and that the 
universe is composed of empty space and indivisible atoms 
which are infinite in number. To these atoms he attributes 
a primary motion, which brings them into contact and forms 
innumerable combinations, the result of which is seen in 
the multifarious productions and phenomena of nature. 
II e imagined that the soul or thought is produced by the 
motion of round fiery atoms. Many of his ideas and the¬ 
ories were adopted by Epicurus, and explained by Lucre¬ 
tius in his poem “De Rerum Natura.” Of his works only 
the smallest fragments have been preserved. (See G. H. 
Lewes, “Biographical History of Philosophy;” Ritter, 
“ History of Philosophy.”) 

Democritus (Arjp.dKpi.Tos), a statuary of Sicyon (whence 
his name appears also in the Doric form Damocritus), 
flourished B. C. 380. Pliny says that he made statues of 
several philosophers, and Pausanias assigns to him statues 
of victors in the games. Henry Drisler. 

Demod/ocus (AijpoSokos), the celebrated bard of the 
Phgeacians, who is represented in the “ Odyssey ” as sing¬ 
ing at the banquet of Alcinous the battles and the fate of 
the Greeks who went to Troy, with the conquest and 
destruction of that city, and also the loves of Mars and 
Venus. Later writers, who regarded him as an historical 
personage, represent him as an old and blind musician and 
poet of Corcyra, who composed a poem on the destruction 
of Troy (’iAiov aAwo-is), and another on the loves of Mars 
and Venus. Henry Drisler. 

Demogor'gom [from the Gr. 8a.Lfj.wv, a “divinity,” and 
7 op-yog, “terrible”], a dreadful and mysterious being al¬ 
luded to by some of the later classical writers, and by Boc¬ 
caccio, Ariosto, Spenser, Milton, Shelley, and others. In 
Shelley’s “ Prometheus Unbound ” he is the conqueror 
of Jupiter. The ancients dreaded the very mention of his 
name. 

Demoiselle [a French word signifying “young lady ”], 
the name of a genus of birds ( Anthropoidea ) belonging to 
the family Gruidse, remarkable for their grace and sym¬ 
metry of form. (See Crane.) None of them occur in 
North America. 

De'mon, or Dre'mon [Gr. Saipaov or Sai/xovLov; Lat. 
daemon ], a term of Greek origin, used in classical writers 
primarily for the Supreme Divinity, sometimes as a syno¬ 
nym for 0eos, a “god;” and later more especially as a tute¬ 
lary or guardian divinity which was supposed to attend 
upon men. Thus, Socrates is commonly feaid to have been 
attended by a beneficent daemon. It may well be doubted, 
however, whether such an idea is justified by the language 
of Xenophon (see “Memorabilia,” I., 2 et seq .) or Plato 
(“Apol. Socr.”). Socrates appears to have meant simply 
that a divine influence or intimation of some kind within 
him, a sign or voice (o-rjpeioi', 4>wvrf, in Plato), controlled his 
actions. (See Socrates.) According to Plato, “ Every dae¬ 
mon is a middle being between God and man.” “ Intercourse 
between gods and men is carried on by daemons.” Ho 
further says, “ The poets speak excellently when they say 
that when good men die . . . they become daemons.” These 
ideas were greatly amplified by the Neo-Platonists, who 
divided the daemons into good and bad. The dread of evil 


daemons became so great that in time the word came to be 
almost always used in a bad sense. In the Greek New 
Testament evil spirits are often called daemons (Saipoiaa, 
commonly translated “ devils ”), and Beelzebub is spoken 
of as the prince of daemons (6 apxwv rwv ScuponW). 

Demon (Arjpun'), an Attic orator, was a nephew of 
Demosthenes, and belonged to the party opposed to the 
Macedonians. After the death of Alexander, Demon pro¬ 
posed a decree, which was passed, for recalling Demosthenes 
from exile. Henry Drisler. 

Demon (Ar/pun/), a Greek writer, author of an “Atthis,” 
or “History of Attica,” flourished about 280 B. C. His 
writings were regarded as of no great authority. He is 
also the author, according to Schneidewin and Muller, of 
a work on proverbs (7repl napoLp.Lwv). Of both these works 
some fragments still exist. Those of the proverbs have been 
inserted in the “ Paroemiographi Graeci ” of Schneidewin 
and Leutsch, and all the extant remains have been collected 
by Siebelis, “ Phanodemi, Demonis, etc. ’AtOlSwv Fragm.,” 
Leipsic, 1802, and by Muller, “ Hist. Gram. Fragm.,” vol. i., 
pp. 378-383. Henry Drisler. 

Demo'nax [Arfpwva^], a celebrated Cynic philosopher 
who lived and taught at Athens in the second century A. D. 
His claim to distinction, however, is not so much that of 
a teacher of philosophy as of a model Cynic, and in this 
character he is depicted in Lucian’s treatise called after 
his name. Though a native of Cyprus, he passed most 
of his life in Athens, where he was greatly honored while 
living, and when dead he was buried by the public with 
great magnificence. An outline of his doctrines will be 
found in Ritter’s “History of Philosophy ” (English trans¬ 
lation), vol. iv., p. 169, and several of his apothegms are 
given in Oiielli’s “Opuscula Gram. vet. Sententiosa,” 
vol. ii., pp. 144 seq. Henry Drisler. 

Demo'niac [Gr. SaipovL^opevo? ; Lat. dtemojit'acus], a 
person possessed of or controlled by evil spirits. The New 
Testament abounds in narratives of demoniacal possession, 
and various opinions are entertained in regard to the cha¬ 
racter of this affliction. 

Demonol'ogy [from the Gr. 8aip.wv, a “ dmmon,” and 
Adyos, a “treatise”], a treatise upon evil spirits; also the 
doctrine or science treating of the nature or character of 
evil spirits. Many works have been written on this sub¬ 
ject. One of the most popular is Sir Walter Scott’s “ Let¬ 
ters on Demonology and Witchcraft.” 

Demonstra'tioil [Lat. demonstratio, from de, inten¬ 
sive, and monstro, monstratum, to “ show ”], in mathemat¬ 
ics, is an indubitable proof of a proposition. The term was 
used by old writers to signify any manner of showing either 
the connection of a conclusion with its premisses or that of 
a phenomenon with its asserted cause; but it now signifies 
in philosophical language only that jirocess by which a re¬ 
sult is shown to be a necessary consequence of the premisses 
from which it is asserted to follow. In common language 
it signifies an exhibition or disjilay. 

Demonstration, in military operations, is a movement or 
manoeuvre, the chief object of which is to deceive the enemy, 
and to induce him to divide his force or divert his atten¬ 
tion from the real point of attack. 

Demoph'ilns [Arjpo<)uAos], a philosopher of the new 
Pythagorean school, whose age is not certainly known. 
He was the author of a work entitled /3toi> Oepanela, from 
which there is still extant a collection of moral precepts 
entitled yviopucd bp.oLwp.ara, which are edited, along with 
the “Golden Maxims” of Democrates, by Sciiier, Leipsic, 
1754, and which are printed also in Orelli’s “ Ojmscula 
Graec. vet. Sententiosa,” vol. i., p. 1 seq. 

Henry Drisler. 

Demopli'ooiqor Dem'ophon [Arjpo^diov, or Arjpo^wi'], 
in Grecian mythology, a king of Athens, son of Theseus 
and Phaedra, who is said to have accompanied the Greeks 
on their expedition against Troy, whence he rescued his 
grandmother iEthra. When Diomed, on his return from 
Troy with his Argives, ran in by night to the coast of 
Attica, and began to plunder it, Demophon attacked him 
and carried off the Palladium. Demophon is said also to 
have assisted the Ileraclidae against Eurystheus, who was 
slain in the battle that took place, and to have received 
Orestes when, after his mother’s murder, he sought refuge 
at Athens. Henry Drisler. 

Demop'olis, a township and post-village, capital of 
Marengo co., Ala., on the Tombigbce River just below 
the mouth of the Black Warrior, and on the Alabama Cen¬ 
tral R. R., 50 miles W. of Selma. It has four white and 
two colored churches and one weekly newspaper, a cotton 
and woollen factory and a private bank; also an active 
trade in cotton, which is shipped here. Pop. including the 
township, 4245 ; of village, 1539. 

M. C. Burke, Ed. “ Bigbee News.” 
















DE MORGAN—DEMURRER. 1317 


De Mor'gan (Augustus), an English mathematician, 
born in the isle of Madura, near Java, in June, 1806, was 
educated at Cambridge. He was for many years professor 
of mathematics in University College, London. He wrote 
numerous works, among which are “ Elements of Algebra” 
(1835), an “ Essay on Probabilities” (1838), and “ Formal 
Lo gic, or the Calculus of Inference, Necessary and Proba¬ 
ble ” (1847), and contributed largely to the “ Penny Cyclo¬ 
paedia.” Died Mar. 18, 1871. 

De'mos [Ur. StJ/ao?, the “people”], the name given to 
the smaller divisions of the Attic tribes, somewhat similar 
to the townships into which counties are divided. When 
Clisthenes broke up the four old Attic tribes into ten new 
ones, Herodotus states that he subdivided these into 100 
demes, but as there is no other authority for such statement, 
and the number of demes was actually 173 or 174, different 
explanations have been attempted of the passage in Herod¬ 
otus. The demes were local divisions, in the registers of 
which the citizens had to enrol their names for political 
and other purposes. These demes were named sometimes 
after places, sometimes after persons, and those of the 
same tribe were not always adjacent, but might be in quite 
different parts of Attica. They had each its own presiding 
officer (fijjftapyos), treasurer, and other officers, and its own 
assembly, in which the business of the deme was transacted. 
Lists of the names of the demes under their proper tribes 
are given by Iv. F. Hermann, “ Griech. Alterth.,” anhang 
iv., by Leake, in his “ Demes of Attica,” and by Muller, 
“ Hist. Gram. Fragm.,” vol. ii., pp. 357-359. 

Revised by Henry Drisler. 

Demos'thcnes [Gr. ATjjuoo-fleVq;], the most eminent 
orator of antiquity, and probably the greatest of whom his¬ 
tory gives any account, was born in Attica, in the demos of 
Pseania, near Athens, about 382, or, according to some au¬ 
thorities, in 385 B. C. His father (also named Demosthenes) 
was a cutler and maker of furniture. He died when his son 
was seven years of age, leaving fifteen talents (more than 
$15,000) to be divided between the young Demosthenes and 
his sister. The guardians converted a large part of this money 
to their own use. Demosthenes studied rhetoric with Ismus, 
and philosophy, according to some authorities, with Plato. 
Cicero states that he was instructed in oratory by Isocrates, 
but the fact is not established. Demosthenes, when about 
eighteen years old, prosecuted his guardians, pleading his 
own cause, but though the case was decided in his favor, 
he received only a part of his dues. Before this time it is 
said that he had resolved to devote his whole attention to 
oratory, from witnessing the forensic triumphs of Callistra- 
tus. But his health was feeble, his manners ungraceful, 
his breath short, and voice stammering and indistinct. In 
order to remedy these defects we are told that he adopted 
the practice of speaking with pebbles in his mouth; that 
he was wont to declaim upon the sea-shore, so as to be able 
to be heard in the tumult of popular assemblies; and that 
he often practised before a mirror, so as to observe and 
rectify any awkwardness of gesture. Nevertheless, his first 
appearance before a popular assembly was, according to 
Plutarch, a failure, exciting only the laughter of the mul¬ 
titude. But encouraged by Satyrus, an actor, who gave him 
useful instruction, he devoted himself with the utmost dili¬ 
gence to his task. We are told that he shaved one side of 
his head, that it might be absolutely impossible for him to 
go into society. He made the writings of Thucydides his 
model for style, and it is said that he transcribed the writ¬ 
ings of that historian no less than eight times. In 355 
B. C. he delivered his oration against Leptines, with com¬ 
plete success. Soon after this he entered upon his great 
though unsuccessful life-work, the defence of Grecian lib¬ 
erty against the designs of Philip of Macedon. Between 
the" years 352 and 340 B. C. he pronounced eleven or per¬ 
haps twelve orations against Philip. Four of these are 
especially denominated “ Philippics.” He took part in 
338 B. C. in the disastrous battle of Clueronea. It having 
been proposed by Ctcsiphon that the Athenian state should 
bestow upon Demosthenes a golden crown as reward for 
his services, there followed a contest of several years with 
his rival iEschines, which was triumphantly closed in 330 
B. C. by the delivery of Demosthenes’ celebrated oration 
“ On the Crown,” which is generally regarded as his finest 
effort. Demosthenes was afterwards accused of having 
received a bribe from the Macedonians, and though, in the 
opinion of the best historians, the accusation was entirely 
unjust,.he was sentenced to pay a heavy fine, and left the 
country. He returned after the death of Alexander, but 
having been condemned to death by Antipater, he took 
poisoiT and died in 322 B. C. Sixty extant orations and 
many fragments aro ascribed to Demosthenes, but several 
of these are regarded as spurious. 

Demosthenes appears to have been extremely averse to 
extemporaneous speaking, although we are told that his 


unpremeditated speeches were superior to his more elaborate 
efforts. The success of his oratory was due in a very great 
degree to the steadfastness with which he kept the atten¬ 
tion of his hearers riveted on the one great object in view. 
Nothing superfluous, nothing which did not contribute to 
that object, was admitted into his discourse. “He uses 
language,” says Fenelon, “as a modest man uses his dress 
—simply to cover him. We think not of his words; we 
think only of the things which he says. He lightens, ho 
thunders, he is a torrent which sweeps everything before it. 
We can neither criticise nor admire, because we have not 
the command of our own faculties.” “ His style,” observes 
Hume, “is rapid harmony exactly adjusted to the sense; it 
is vehement reasoning without any appearance of art; it is 
disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, involved in a continued 
stream of argument; and of all human productions his 
orations present the models which approach the nearest to 
perfection.” “ Such was the first of orators,” says Lord 
Brougham : “ at the head of all the mighty masters of speech, 
the adoration of ages has consecrated his place, and the loss 
of the noble instrument [the Greek language] with which 
he forged and launched his thunders is sure to maintain it 
unapproachable for ever.” (See Grote, “History of Greece,” 
vol. xi., ch. lxxxvii.; Tiiirlwall, “History of Greece;” 
Brougham, “Dissertation on the Eloquence of the An¬ 
cients ;” Schafer, “ Demosthenes und seine Zcit,” 3 vols., 
1856-58.) One of the best editions of his works is that of 
W. Dindorf, with copious notes and the Greek scholia, Ox¬ 
ford, 1846-51, 9 vols. 8vo. 

Revised by J. Thomas. 

Demos'tlienes, an Athenian general who acted a 
prominent part in the Peloponnesian war. He and Eurym- 
edon jointly commanded an army sent in 413 B. C. to re¬ 
inforce Nicias at Syracuse. After the Athenians had been 
defeated he surrendered, and was put to death by the vic¬ 
tors in 413 B. C. 

Demot'ica (anc. Didymotichos), a town of European 
Turkey, in Room-Elee, on the river Maritza, 25 miles S. of 
Adrianople. It is defended by a citadel or castle, and has 
several Greek churches; also manufactures of silk and wool¬ 
len goods and pottery. Here Charles XII. of Sweden lived 
as a prisoner about 1712. Pop. about 8000. 

Demotic Characters. See Enchorial Writing. 

Demp'ster (John), D. D., an eminent Methodist 
preacher, born at Florida, N. Y., Jan. 2, 1794, was the son 
of the Rev. James Dempster, a Scottish Presbyterian, who 
had been a Wesleyan preacher. The younger Dempster 
entered the itinerant ministry in 1816, and became a mas¬ 
ter of pulpit oratory. From 1836 to 1841 he was a mission¬ 
ary in Buenos Ayres. From 1S45 to 1863 he was a profes¬ 
sor in the biblical institutes at Newbury, Vt., Concord, 
N. H., and Evanston, Ill. The success of these schools was 
largely owing to his energetic labors. Died at Chicago 
Nov. 28, 1863. (See Stevens, “ History of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church,” vol. iii.) 

Dempster (Thomas), a learned Scottish writer, born 
at Muiresk Aug. 23, 1579. He studied at Cambridge, went 
to France to finish his education, and became regent of a 
college in Paris. He had a quarrelsome temper, which in¬ 
volved him in violent brawls. He was afterwards profes¬ 
sor at Pisa and Bologna. He wrote “Historia Gentis 
Scotorum,” reprinted in 1829. Died at Bologna Sept. 6, 
1625. 

Dcmiil'cent [Lat. demulcens, present participle of 
demulceo, to “soothe,” to “soften”], a name applied to med¬ 
icines of a mucilaginous or oily consistency, such as starch, 
gum, etc., which are given for the purpose of soothing irri¬ 
tation of the mucous membrane and promoting the increase 
of the secretions. They are also used as poultices, etc. 

Demur'rage, in mercantile law, is an allowance made 
to the master or owners of a ship by the merchant or 
freighter when he detains the ship in port beyond the time 
specified in the charter-party. It is usually stipulated in 
the charter-party or agreement that if delay occurs in load¬ 
ing or unloading the vessel, the merchant who charters and 
freights her shall pay a certain sum per diem for the extra 
time. The rule is, that during the loading and unloading 
the merchant runs all the risk of interruptions, even from 
necessary and accidental causes. But no demurrage can 
be claimed for the delay caused by the detention of a ship 
by a public enemy, or for delay caused by the fault of the 
master, owners, or crew. The word demurrage is also em¬ 
ployed to mean the delay itself. 

Dcmut'rer, in law, is a suspension of action in a cause 
until the determination of some point by the court. In a 
pleading in equity, as well as at law, it raises a question as 
to the sufficiency "in law of the case as stated by the oppo¬ 
site party. There may also be a demurrer to evidence, on 













DENAIN—DENISON UNIVERSITY. 


1318 


the ground that the testimony offered by a party in a cause 
is insufficient to maintain or overthrow the issue. 

Denain, a town of France, department of Nord, on the 
Scheldt, and on a railway, 5 miles W. of Valenciennes. It 
is in an extensive coal-field, and has iron-works and manu¬ 
factures of beet-root sugar. Pop. 11,022. 

Dena'rius [a Lat. term, from deni, “ten”], a Roman 
silver coin, originally equal to ten asses, was first coined 
209 B. C. Its weight varied at different periods, and its 
value was afterwards equivalent to sixteen asses, or about 
8d. of English money. 

Den'bigh, a county of North Wales, bounded on the N. 
by the Irish Sea and on the W. by the river Conway. Area, 
603 square miles. The surface is mostly rugged and moun¬ 
tainous, but fertile and beautiful valleys occur. Coal, cop¬ 
per, iron, lead, limestone, and slate are found in this county. 
The chief towns are Denbigh, Wrexham, Abergele, Llan¬ 
gollen, and Ruthin. Pop. in 1871, 104,266. 

Denbigh, a town of Wales, the capital of the above 
county, is in the Vale of Clwyd, 22 miles W. of Chester. It 
stands on the sides and at the base of a steep limestone hill, 
crowned by the imposing ruins of a castle built in 1284, and 
has many handsome antique houses. Pop. in 1871, 6322. 

Denbigh, a township of Warwick co., Va. Pop. 391. 

Denbigh, Earls op (1622), Viscounts and Barons 
Fielding (1620), Barons St. Liz (England, 1664), earls of 
Desmond (1622), Viscounts Callan and Barons Fielding 
(Ireland, 1619).— Rudolph William Basil Fielding, 
eighth earl, M. A., born April 9, 1823, succeeded his father 
June 25, 1865. 

Den'derah (anc. Tentyra, probably taken from Tei n 
Athor, “abode of Athor”), a town of Upper Egypt, near 
the left bank of the Nile, in lat. 26° 13' N., Ion. 32° 40' E., 
and opposite Keneh. Here are the ruins of a celebrated 
temple, one of the most imposing and best-preserved of the 
ancient monuments of Egypt. It is 220 feet long, and has 
a portico supported by twenty-four columns. The columns 
and walls are covered with carved figures and hieroglyphics. 
On the ceiling of the portico of this temple is one of the 
famous zodiacs discovered by the French in 1799. On the 
exterior wall are figures of Cleopatra and her son, proba¬ 
bly meant for portraits. 

Denderinoii/tle, or Termon'de, a fortified town of 
Belgium, in East Flanders, is at the confluence of the Den- 
der and the Scheldt, and on the railway from Mechlin to 
Ostend, 16 miles E. of Ghent. It has a town-house, and a 
very old church called Notre Dame; also manufactures of 
lace, cotton yarn, and woollen goods. Pop. 8300. 

Den'drite [perhaps a corruption of dendrolite, from the 
Gr. SeVSpov, a “tree,” and At0os, a “ stone”], the name of a 
peculiar mineral, containing internally, or having its sur¬ 
face covered with, filamentary forms resembling moss, ferns, 
trees, etc. Moss agate and Mocha stone are examples. 

Dendro'bium [from Sev&pov, a “tree,” and /3 low, to 
“live,” so called because they live on trees], a genus of 
epiphytic orchids, mostly natives of the tropical parts of 
Asia and Australia. They have flowers of great beauty 
and fragrance, sometimes also remarkable for grotesqueness 
of form. 

Den'drolites [from the Gr. SeVSpov, a “tree,” and Ai'flo?, 
a “stone”], the name given to petrifactions found in sec¬ 
ondary and coal formations. They consist of plants and 
fragments of trees, having, generally, nothing in common 
with those now growing in the same regions. They are 
mostly cycads, tree-ferns, conifers, etc. 

Den'drophis [from the Gr. SevSpov, a “tree,” and 04 . 1 s, 
a “serpent”], a genus of serpents belonging to the Colu- 
bridoe. They are distinguished for their brilliant colors and 
very slender forms, live among branches of trees, feed upon 
insects, and have large and prominent eyes. They are na¬ 
tives of the warm parts of Asia, America, etc., none being 
found in Europe. 

Dengue,® dSng'gi, a disease known by the names of 
dunga, dandy, breakbone fever, etc., an epidemic, seldom 
fatal, which has prevailed at different times in the southern 
parts of the U. S. and in the East and West Indies. Its 
symptoms are headache, fever, pain and swelling of the 
smaller joints, an eruption of the skin, and gouty pains 
which often cause lameness for a considerable time. It 
appears to be of a rheumatic character. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Den'ham (Col. Dixon), an English traveller, born in 
London Jan. 1, 1786. He accompanied Clapperton and 
Oudney on an expedition to Timbuctoo in 1821. They pro- 

* Dengue is the Spanish for “dandy” or “fop,” and is applied 
to this disease on account of the remarkable stiffness of the pa¬ 
tient’s motions. 


ceeded to Kooka on Lake Tchad in 1823, and there Den¬ 
ham parted from his companions. He afterwards visited 
Mandara, and returned to England in June, 1825. He 
published a narrative of his journey. Having been ap¬ 
pointed vice-governor of Sierra Leone, he died there May 
9, 1828. 

Denham (Sir John), an English poet, born in Dublin 
in 1615. He graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 
1634, and studied law. He wrote “ Sophy” (1641), a tra¬ 
gedy, and a poem entitled “Cooper’s Hill” (1643). He 
was a royalist in the civil war, and fled to France in 1648, 
but returned in 1652. Died in Mar., 1668. “ Denham,” says 
Dr. Johnson, “ is deservedly considered as one of the fathers 
of English poetry.” 

Deni'na (Giacommaria Carlo), an Italian historian, 
born at Revello, in Piedmont, Feb. 28, 1731. He published 
“The Vicissitudes of Literature” (“Vicende della Lettera- 
tura,” 1760). His principal work is a “History of the 
Revolutions of Italy” (“Istoria delle Rivoluzioni d’ltalia,” 
3 vols., 1769-70;. Having been invited by Frederick the 
Great, he removed to Berlin in 1782. In 1804 he was ap- 
jiointed by Napoleon imperial librarian at Paris. Among 
his works is a “History of Western Italy” (1809). Died 
in Paris Dec. 5, 1813. (See Carlo G. Reina, “Vita di C. 
Denina,” 1820.) 

Deni'o (IIiram), an American jurist, born in Rome, 
N. Y., May 21, 1799, began the practice of law in 1821, 
was circuit judge (1834-38), judge of the court of appeals 
(1853-66), and author of several important legal works. 
Died at Utica, N. Y., Nov. 5, 1871. 

D enis (James Ferdinand), a French traveller, born 
Aug. 13, 1798, has published multitudinous books, the 
fruits of journeys in South America, Spain, and the East. 

Denis, Saint [Lat. Dionysius'], the patron saint of 
France and first bishop of Paris. According to Gregory 
of Tours (540-594 A. D.), he was one of seven missionaries 
sent from Rome about 250 A. D. to preach the gospel to 
the Gauls, and after he had converted great multitudes 
suffered martyrdom in 272, or, as some say, 290 A. D. His 
festival is on Oct. 9. 

Den'ison, a township of Lawrence co., Ill. Pop. 1668. 

Denison, a post-village, capital of Crawford co., Ia., 
on Boyer River and on a branch of the Chicago and North¬ 
western R. R., 64 miles N. N. E. of Council Bluffs. It has 
one weekly newspaper. Pop. of Denison township, 633 : of 
village, 326. 

Denison (Rev. Charles Wheeler), born in New Lon¬ 
don co., Conn., in 1809, has been a large contributor to 
periodical literature, and has published a volume of poems, 
several works of fiction, etc. He was an early abolitionist 
and a temperance writer, and was editorially connected with 
the “Emancipator ” and the “Olive Branch,” both in their 
time widely-known journals. He has resided in England, 
and was for a time an editor in London. He has been a 
U. S. consul in British Guiana, and wrote a popular life of 
Gen. U. S. Grant. 

Denison (John Evelyn), Lord Ossington, an English 
statesman, born in 1800, was elected a member of Parlia¬ 
ment in 1823, and acted with the Liberal party. He was 
chosen Speaker of the House of Commons in 1857, in 1859, 
in 1866, and in 1868, and became Viscount Ossington in 
1872. Died Mar. 8, 1873. 

Denison (Mary Andrews), wife of Rev. C. W. Deni¬ 
son, was born in 1826 in Cambridge, Mass. She is the 
author of numerous works, chiefly tales of a domestic 
character and designed for the young. These books have 
been quite successful. 

Denison City, a post-village of Grayson co., Tex., at 
the junction of the Missouri Kansas and Texas and the 
Houston and Texas Central R. Rs., 150 miles S. of Parsons 
City, Kan. It has a national bank, one daily and two 
weekly newspapers. 

Denison University, formerly Granville College, 
at Granville, Licking co., O., was established and located 
at Granville by a vote of the Ohio Baptist Education So¬ 
ciety May, 1831. It was at first intended for a manual- 
labor school, and hence located on a 200-acre farm, a mile 
and a half W. of the town. As a manual-labor school it 
was, like most others of the time, a failure—as a school of 
instruction, a success. It was incorporated by the Ohio 
legislature Feb. 3, 1832, under the name of the “Gran¬ 
ville Literary and Theological Institution.” The name 
was changed in 1845 to “ Granville College,” and this again 
under the general law of Ohio was changed, June, 1856, 
to the name it now bears. Instruction was commenced in 
Dec., 1831, the principal and sole teacher being Prof. John 
Pratt, who brought to the position the reputation of an en¬ 
thusiastic and accomplished teacher, and fully sustained it. 























DENIZEN—DENMARK. 


1319 


The number of students the first quarter was thirty-seven. I 
Tt was the day of small things, the beginning of greater. | 
In thoroughness of instruction, from the beginning till , 
now, no institution W. of the Alleghanies has been its su¬ 
perior. It had alternations of prosperity and decline. The 
great want was a living endowment. It was removed from 
the farm, and in Sept., 1856, instruction was commenced 
on the new site. Since that date it has been advancing in 
every element of prosperity, and now stands in the fore¬ 
most rank of Western colleges. 

The buildings are situated on a hill N. of the town, less 
than halt a mile from the public square. The site contains 
twenty-four acres, nearly half of it, in the rear, being cov¬ 
ered with a grove of old forest trees. The buildings are 
three, containing dormitories and study-rooms for 178 
students, besides a fine chapel, natural history room, two 
society halls and libraries, college library (with over 11,000 
volumes), lecture-rooms, recitation-rooms, etc. 

The university is a proper college, furnishing the regular 
four years’ course in classical, scientific, and philosophical 
studies, similar to the best American colleges; embracing 
also, under the same government, a preparatory depart¬ 
ment, classical, with a two years’ course as a feeder to the 
regular course, and English, to fit for business, school¬ 
teaching, or the scientific course. The scientific embraces 
most of the studies of the regular college course, except the 
Latin and Greek languages, but in the mathematics and 
the natural sciences it is more extensive. Those who com¬ 
plete this course are entitled to a diploma and the degree 
of.bachelor of sciences. For the last four years the whole 
number of full-course college students has been 49, 56, 58, 
and 67, and the entire number, including preparatory, etc., 
175, 202, 191, and 190. 

The board of instruction, as now constituted, consists of 
six professors (including the president), one principal of 
the preparatory department, and two tutors—nine in all; 
and all the nine fully employed in the business of instruc¬ 
tion. There have been five presidents. The name and 
time of entering upon office of each are as follows : Rev. 
John Pratt, A. M., 1831; Rev. Jonathan Going, D. D., 
1837; Rev. Silas Bailey, D. D., 1847; Rev. Jeremiah Hall, 
D. D., 1853; Rev. Samson Talbot, D. D., 1863. Dr. Going 
died in Nov., 1844, after which there was a vacancy of 
over two years. Dr. Talbot died June 29th of this year 
(1873); his successor is not yet appointed. The fixed 
property of the university, in ground, buildings, etc., is 
estimated at $80,000, and the productive endowment is 
$190,000, making a total of $270,000. 

Denison, though one among some forty universities and 
colleges in Ohio, anticipates a prosperous future. 

J. Stevens. 

D en'izeil [etymology doubtful], in English law, an 
alien who has received from the sovereign letters patent to 
make him an English subject. He may take lands by pur¬ 
chase and devise, but cannot inherit nor enjoy offices of 
trust or receive a grant of land from the Crown. 

Deniz'li, or Begnizli, a town of Asia Minor, in Ana¬ 
tolia, 53 miles S. E. of Alashehr. It is surrounded by 
mountains or hills, and has a castle and several mosques. 
Leather is made here. It is stated that 12,000 of its in¬ 
habitants were killed by an earthquake in 1715. Pop. 
about 20,000. 

Den'man (Thomas), first Lord Denman, an English 
judge, born in London Feb. 23, 1779. He was called to 
the bar in 1806, and elected to Parliament in 1818. In 
politics he was a liberal. He became attorney-general in 
1830, and chief-justice of the king’s bench in 1832. In 
1834 he was raised to the peerage. Died Sept. 22, 1854. 

Den'mark, a kingdom of Northern Europe, consists 
of the peninsula of Jutland and several adjacent islands 
of the Baltic Sea—viz. Seeland, Fiinen, Falster, Laaland, 
Samsbe, Bornholm, Langeland, and Mden. Area, 14,753 
square miles. Pop. in 1870, 1,784,741. Besides Denmark 
proper, the Danish monarchy possesses Greenland, Iceland, 
the Faroe Islands, and the West India islands of Santa 
Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. John. Area of the colonies, 
87,258 square miles. Pop. in 1870, 127,401. Jutland is 
bounded on the N. by the Skager-Rack. on the E. by the 
Cattegat, and on the W. by the North Sea. Its surface is 
low and level, and was formerly covered by forests of beech, 
birch, oak, etc. The coasts are indented with numerous 
bays or fiords, and extensive marshes occur in various 
parts of the peninsula and the islands. Denmark has no 
considerable river. Seeland is separated from Sweden by 
the Sound, and from the island of Fiinen by a channel 
called the Great Belt. 

Climate, Soil, etc. —Tho climate is humid, and is modi¬ 
fied by the proximity of the sea, so that the winter is 
milder than that of Northern Germany. The mean an¬ 
nual temperature is about 46° F. The weather is change¬ 


able, and the transition from winter to summer is more 
sudden than in some other countries. In spring and sum¬ 
mer the W. wind prevails. The soil is generally produc¬ 
tive, and alluvial or sandy. The marshy districts produce 
good pasture. Denmark is said to be pre-eminently an 
agricultural country. The staple productions are barley, 
oats, wheat, rye, buckwheat, potatoes, beans, peas, and 
flax. The Danish farmers derive a large part of their 
revenue from cattle, horses, and the products of the dairy. 
The chief articles of export are cereal grains, butter, 
horses, hides, and fish. The fiords abound in salmon, cod, 
herring, and other fish. Denmark is very deficient in 
mines and mineral resources, and, in consequence of the 
lack of coal, metals, and water-power, has comparatively 
few important manufactures. The peasant s and people of 
the rural districts weave at their homes linen and woollen 
stuffs for the use of their families. There are in the king¬ 
dom numerous iron-foundries, sugar-refineries, paper-mills, 
and distilleries. 

Commerce, Revenue, etc. —The commerce of Denmark is 
carried on mainly with Great Britain, Germany, and Swe¬ 
den. The Danish official returns do not give the value of 
exports or imports, but only the weight of the same. The 
exports from Denmark to Great Britain in 1870 were val¬ 
ued at £3,053,425. The total exports for the year 1870-71 
weighed 10,360,000 quintals, and the imports for the same 
year amounted to 19,770,000 quintals. (A quintal = about 
*112 pounds.) The revenue for 1870-71 was 23,419,623 
rigsdalers, and the expenditure was 21,904,003 rigsdalers. 
In Mar., 1871, the public debt was 117,058,367 rigsdalers. 
The movement of shipping for the year 1870-71 was as 
follows: inland passages, 46,061 vessels, of 615,892 tons; 
outward passages, 36,755 vessels, of 1,092,742 tons. The 
merchant navy on Mar. 31, 1871 (exclusive of vessels of 
less than four tons), consisted of 2735 vessels, of 181,494 
tons; this number includes 87 steamers, of 11,979 tons. 
The aggregate length of railroads which were in operation 
on Jan. 1, 1871, was 763.5 kilometers; the aggregate length 
of telegraph-lines was 1962.30 kilometers; the length of 
telegraph-wires 5096.67 kilometers. (See later statistics 
in “Almanach de Gotha” for 1873.) 

Religion and Education .—The established religion is 
Lutheran, to which 99 per cent, of the population belong, 
and the king must be a member of the Lutheran Church. 
Other sects are tolerated. This kingdom has a good system 
of education, which is generally diffused among the people. 
All children between the ages of seven and fourteen are 
compelled to attend school. All the educational institutions 
are managed by a royal college or board, consisting of three 
assessors and a president. Education is given gratuitously 
in the public schools to children whose parents are too poor 
to pay for it. Of higher schools, Denmark has a good 
university at Copenhagen, several academies, twenty-two 
gymnasia, and seven seminaries. 

Government. —The government is a hereditary constitu¬ 
tional monarchy. The present constitution is embodied in 
the charter of June 5, 1849, according to which the execu¬ 
tive power belongs to the king, and the legislative power 
is vested in the king and diet ( Rigsdag) jointly. The 
Rigsdag is composed of two houses, called the Landstliing 
and the Folkething. The latter, which is the lower house, 
consists of about one hundred members, elected by uni¬ 
versal suffrage for a term of three years. Capital, Copen¬ 
hagen. Military service begins with the age of twenty- 
two, and lasts for the line and the reserve (“first call”) 
eight years; the “ second call” is liable to military service 
to the age of thirty-eight. The first call comprises 37,000 
men; the second call, 15,600; total strength of the army 
on the war-footing, 52,600 men. The war navy consists of 
twenty-nine steamers (among which are seven iron-clads), 
bearing 287 guns. 

History .—Denmark is one of the three Scandinavian 
kingdoms. (See Scandinavia.) On the decline of the Ro¬ 
man empire the Scandinavians, under the name of North¬ 
men or Normans, became a formidable and aggressive race, 
much addicted to piracy and maritime enterprises. The 
Danes invaded England with success in the ninth century, 
and completed the conquest of it about 1016, in the reign 
of Canute or Knud, who was perhaps the most powerful 
monarch of his time. He reigned over Denmark as well 
as England, and is said to have introduced Christianity 
into his dominions. Margaret, queen of Denmark and 
Norway, conquered Sweden in 1388, and procured the adop¬ 
tion of the “ Union of Calmar” (1397), by which the three 
Scandinavian kingdoms were united, and her nephew Eric 
was appointed her heir. At her death (1411) each kingdom 
chose its separate ruler. In 1448 the Danes elected Chris¬ 
tian I., count of Oldenburg, who was the founder ot tho 
royal family that has continued to reign to the present 
time. The monarchy was electivo until 1660, when the 
clergy and people, impelled by enmity to the nobility, or- 























1320 DENMARK—DENSITY OF THE EARTH. 


daiued that the power of the king should be hereditary and 
absolute. As an ally of Napoleon, Denmark was involved 
in a war against England and Russia, and suffered great 
disasters. The British licet bombarded Copenhagen in 
Sept., 1807. Denmark was compelled to cede Norway to 
Sweden in 1814. Christian VIII., by the “Open Letter” 
of 1846, declared his intention to extend the law of succes¬ 
sion of Denmark proper to the duchies of Sleswick-IIol- 
stein, the inhabitants of which are mostly Germans, in 
order to secure in this way the indivisibility of the Danish 
monarchy. When Frederic VII. in 1848 proclaimed the 
incorporation of Sleswick with Denmark, a three years’ 
war ensued, which was ended by the intervention of Aus¬ 
tria and Prussia (Jan., 1851). In the mean while the non- 
German great powers and Sweden had agreed (June, 1850) 
to declare the indivisibility of Denmark, and Austria soon 
after (Aug., 1850) acceded to this declaration. On June 
5, 1851, Prince Christian of Sleswick-IIolstein was desig¬ 
nated in the “protocol of Warsaw” as heir to the throne, 
and on May 8, 1852, he was recognized as such by the great 
powers and Sweden. In 1849, Denmark had obtained an 
extremely liberal constitution, which secured the most en¬ 
tire civil liberty and universal right of suffrage. The 
duchies, however, had no part in this constitution. A 
second constitution (1855), which divided the council of 
the kingdom into two chambers (Landsthing and Folke- 
thing), subjected the duchies to a Danish majority. In 
Nov., 1858, the king abolished the joint constitution of the 
Danish state for Holstein and Lauenburg, and restored 
absolute monarchy in these countries. By a proclamation 
of Mar., 1863, Denmark treated the duchies of Holstein 
and Lauenburg as tributary appendages, while, on the 
other hand, a new fundamental law was prepared for Den¬ 
mark and Sleswick. War with Germany broke out soon 
after, and was terminated by the peace of Vienna (Oct., 
1864), and Denmark was compelled to renounce all claim 
on Sleswick-Holstein. (See Sleswick-IIolstein.) On 
Nov. 2, 1867, Denmark sold the West India islands of St. 
Thomas and St. John to the U. S., but the treaty did not 
receive the sanction of the U. S., and was therefore not 
carried into effect. (See Allen, “ Haandbog i Fadrelandets 
Ilistorie,” 6th ed. 1863; Dahlmann, “ Geschichte von 
Danemark,” 3 vols., 1840-43.) A. J. Schem. 

Deu/mark, a post-township of Lee co., Ia. Pop. 1011. 

Denmark, a post-township of Oxford co., Me. It has 
four churches, and manufactures of furniture, etc. Pop. 
1069. 

Denmark, a post-township of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop. 
816. 

Denmark, a township of Washington co., Minn. Pop. 
824. 

D enraark, a post-township of Lewis co., N. Y., on 
the Utica and Black River R. R. It has seven cheese- 
factories, and manufactures of various kinds. Pop. 2109. 

Denmark, a post-township of Ashtabula co., 0. Pop. 
544. 

Deu'ner (Balthasar), a German portrait-painter, born 
at Hamburg in 1685. His works are remarkable for mi¬ 
nuteness of finish. Died in 1747. 

Dennery (Adolphe Philippe), a French dramatist, 
born in Paris June 17, 1811, of Jewish parents. He first 
essayed art, then journalism, and then produced numerous 
dramas, comic operas, and vaudevilles, among them “ The 
Market of London ” and “ The Bohemians of Paris.” 

Den'newitz, a village of Prussia, province of Bran¬ 
denburg, 42 miles S. S. W. of Berlin. Here the Prussians 
defeated a large French army commanded by Marshal Ney 
on Sept. 6, 1813, after a very obstinate fight. The French 
lost about 15,000, killed, wounded, and prisoners. 

Den'nie (Joseph), an American author and critic, born 
at Boston Aug. 30, 1768. He studied law, which, however, 
he did not practise. Having removed to Philadelphia in 
1799, he founded the “Portfolio,” a literary magazine, 
which he edited with ability from 1801 till 1812. Among 
his writings is “ The Lay Preacher,” which first appeared 
in the “Farmer’s Museum.” Died Jan. 7, 1812. 

Den'ning, a post-township of Ulster co., N. Y. It has 
manufactures of lumber. Pop. 1044. 

DenTlis, a township of Somerset co., Me. Pop. 37. 

Dennis, a township of Wicomico co., Md. Pop. 683. 

Dennis, a post-township of Barnstable co., Mass., on 
the Cape Cod R. R. The township extends across Cape 
Cod, has extensive fisheries, produces large crops of cran¬ 
berries, and has manufactures of salt. There are four 
churches, five post-offices, fifteen schools, a free library, 
and many small but beautiful lakes. Pop. 3269. 

Dennis, a township of Cape May co., N. J. Pop. 1640. 


Dennis (John), an English dramatist and writer of 
satires and pamphlets, was born in London in 1657. He 
produced dramas called “Liberty Asserted” and “A Plot 
and No Plot.” His temper was quarrelsome, and he pro¬ 
voked the enmity of many persons by his libels. He was 
lampooned by Swift, and satirized by Pope in the “ Dun- 
ciad.” Died Jan. 6, 1733. 

Den'nison, a post-village of Tuscarawas co., 0. Pop. 

828. 

Dennison, a township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 972. 

Dennison (William), a statesman, born in Cincinnati, 
0., Nov. 23, 1815, graduated at Miami University in 1835, 
became a lawyer, a railroad and bank president, and a 
leading Republican politician, was governor of Ohio (1860- 
62), and was postmaster-general (1864-66). 

DeiVnysville, a post-township of Washington co., Me. 
It has manufactures of lumber, etc. Pop. 488. 

Demomi'nator [a Lat. term, from denomivo, denomi- 
natum , to “name” or “designate”], literally, “that which 
designates,” in arithmetic, is the number placed below the 
line in fractions, giving its name to the fraction, and show¬ 
ing the number of parts into which the integer is divided. 

Denoii (Dominique Vivant), Baron, a skilful French 
artist and author, born at Chalons-sur-Saone Jan. 4, 1747. 
He became charge d’affaires at Naples in 1782, and a mem¬ 
ber of the Royal Academy in 1787, after which he devoted 
himself to art, and gained distinction as an art-critic. He 
accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798, and in 1802 he 
published an admirably illustrated work entitled “ Travels 
in Upper and Lower Egj r pt.” He died April 27, 1825, leav¬ 
ing an unfinished “ History of Art.” 

Dens (Peter), a Flemish Roman Catholic theologian, 
born near Antwerp in 1690. He published a systematic 
exposition and defence of the Roman Catholic doctrines in 
his “ Theologia Moralis et Dogmatica,” which has been 
extensively used as a text-book. Died Feb. 15, 1775. 

Beil'sity [Lat. densitas, from densus, “thick”], a term 
used in physics to denote the quantity of matter which a 
body contains in a given or determinate space; for ex¬ 
ample, a cubic foot. The quantity of matter in any body 
is called its mass, and is measured by the weight of the 
body, to which it is ahvays proportional. Hence, the den¬ 
sity of any body is great in proportion as its weight is 
great and its volume small; or the density of bodies is 
directly as their mass and inversely as their volume. It 
follows that if two bodies have the same volume, their den¬ 
sities are directly as their masses o*r weights; and if two 
bodies have the same mass or weight, their densities are 
respectively in the inverse ratio of their volumes. The 
term is often used as synonymous with specific gravity. 

Density of the Earth is the ratio of the mass of 
the earth to that of the same bulk of water. The data of 
astronomy, in conjunction with the laws of gravitation, 
give the jiroportion of the mass of the earth to the masses 
of the sun and the principal planets; and thus the deter¬ 
mination of the absolute mass of the earth will determine 
the absolute masses of the sun and planets; and then their 
density can be found. Experiments have been devised 
for determining the earth’s density by observations upon 
the attraction of a mountain, and have been tried in the 
Scheliallion experiment by Maskelyne, James, and others. 
The direction of gravity changes very nearly one second 
of angle for every 100 feet of horizontal distance. Suppose 
that two stations were taken on a mountain—one on the 
N. and the other on the S. side—and that their distance 
apart was 4000 feet. If the direction of gravity had not 
been influenced by the mountain, the inclination of the 
plumb-line at these two places would have been about forty 
seconds. Suppose, on applying the zenith sector, the in¬ 
clination was found to be fifty-two seconds. The dif¬ 
ference, or twelve seconds, could only be explained by the 
attraction of the mountain, which, combined with the na¬ 
tural direction of gravity, produced directions inclined to 
these natural directions. In the Schehallien experiment a 
calculation was made of what would have been the dis¬ 
turbing effect of the mountain if it had been as dense as 
the interior of the earth, showing that it would have been 
about twenty-seven seconds. The disturbance proved to 
be only twelve seconds, and therefore the density of the 
mountain to that of the earth was as 12 to 27. It follows 
from this that the mean specific gravity of the earth would 
be nearly five times that of water. The effect produced by 
the attraction of a mountain on the direction of a plumb- 
line was observed by Bouguer at Chimborazo in 1738. Col. 
James, by observations on Arthur’s Seat near Edinburgh, 
has deduced a mean density of 5.316. 

In 1826, Prof. Airy suggested the solving of the problem 
by pendulum experiments at the top and bottom of a deep 
mine. Suppose a spheroid concentric with the external 












DENT—DENTISTRY. 


1321 


spheroid of the earth to pass through the lower station in 
the mine. The attraction of the shell included between 
these has the same effect at the upper station as if all its 
matter Avere collected at the earth's centre. At the loAver 
station there is the attraction of the interior mass only; at 
the upper station that of the interior mass and the shell. 
By making the proportion of these theoretical attractions 
equal to the proportion observed by means of the pendu¬ 
lum, we have the elements for finding the proportion of the 
shell s attraction to the mass’s attraction. The mean den¬ 
sity is found from these data. The astronomer-royal hav¬ 
ing twice tried the experiment and failed, the attempt was 
renewed in 1854 at a colliery near South Shields, England, 
where the depth Avas reputed to be 1260 feet. A place Avas 
chosen for tAvo stations in the same vertical. An invariable 
pendulum Avas mounted in each station, \ T ibrating by means 
o! a knife-edge upon plates of agate. Behind it Avas a clock, 
and before it a telescope so mounted that coincidences of 
the pendulum of the clock might be obseiwed through a 
slit. The acceleration of the pendulum at the depth of 
1260 feet Avas tAvo and a quarter seconds a day. Taking 
into account the configuration and nature of the surround¬ 
ing mass, Airy estimated the earth’s density at 6.565. 

Two leaden globes, 174 pounds in Aveight each, are sup¬ 
ported six feet apart, by a horizontal frame capable of ro¬ 
tation. Above the centre is suspended horizontally, within 
a narrow glazed box, by a delicate Avire forty inches long, 
a slender deal rod, carrying at its extremities two equal 
leaden balls one one-hundredth part as heavy as the globes. 
The rod being at rest, the globes are brought as near to the 
balls as the dimensions of the protecting box will allow, 
their separate attractions tending to turn the rod in the 
same direction. The amount of torsion produced is ob¬ 
served from a distance with a telescope. By rotation the 
disturbing force of the globes is then brought to act in the 
opposite direction, and the torsion is once more observed. 
Cavendish concluded that the force of mutual attraction 
between the globes and balls, the distance between their 
centres being 8.85 inches, Avas of a grain; Avhence he 
deduced the total mass of the earth, and (its bulk being 
knoAvn) its mean specific gravity also, which he put at 
5.480. The experiments of Beich give 5.438, and those of 
Baily, 5.660. The mean of all the results obtained is 5.639. 
It may, then, be assumed that the earth’s mean density is 
not very far from 5.6 times that of Avater. Combining this 
result Avith what is known with respect to the dimensions 
of the earth, we find that its Aveight in tons is roughly ex¬ 
pressed by 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000. 

Dent, a county in the S. E. of Missouri. Area, 700 
square miles. It is partly drained by the Maramec River, 
which rises in it, and partly by the head-streams of the 
Current Rh r er. The surface is diversified by hills and val¬ 
leys; the soil of the latter is fertile. Grain, tobacco, and 
avooI are raised. Capital, Salem, or Bent 
Court-house. Pop. 6357. 

Dent, a toAvnship of San Joaquin co., 

Cal. Pop. 1115. 

Dent, a township of Iron co., Mo. Pop. 

417. 

Dent (Dennis) was born in Maryland. 

He served in the Indian Avar in Florida as a 
major-general, and removed to Tuscaloosa, 

Ala., in Avhose legislature he served from 
1838 to 1850. He died in 1860. 

Dent (John Herbert), an American 
naval officer, born in Maryland in 1782. 

He commanded a vessel in the war against 
Tripoli in 1804, and gained the rank of cap¬ 
tain in 1811. Died July 31, 1823. 

Denta'llum [from the Lat. dens, a 
“ tooth,” alluding to the shape of the shell], 
a genus of gasteropodous marine carniv¬ 
orous mollusks, called tooth - shells, from 
their curved, tubular shape. The shells are 
open at each end. There are many living 
and fossil species, of Avhich the Dent all um 
elephantinwn , or elephant’s tooth, is the best 
knoAvn. 

Denta'tus (Manius Curius), a Roman 
plebeian consul noted for his martial ex¬ 
ploits, frugality, and integrity, is said to 
iave been born Avith teeth; hence the sur¬ 
name. He defeated the Samnites in 290 
B. C., and gained a decisive victory over 
Pyrrhus near Bencventum in 275. He Avas 
consul for the third time in 274, and censor 
in 272 B. C. During his censorship he con¬ 
structed an aqueduct Avhich conveyed Avater from the Anio 
to Rome. Died in 265 B. C. 


Dentalium ele~ 
phantinum. 


Dcn'tcx [perhaps derived from the Lat. dens, on account 
of their numerous teeth], a genus of acanthopterous fishes 
belonging to the Sparidm, resembling the perch in form, 
Avith a deep compressed body, scaly cheeks, a single dorsal 
fin, and numerous small teeth, Avith four large canine teeth 
curved imvard in each juav. The Dcntex vulgaris, some¬ 
times called the four-toothed sparus, is found in great num¬ 
bers in the Mediterranean, and sometimes on the southern 
coasts of Great Britain. It is of largo size, often three feet 
long, and is an important article of commerce. 

Deil'tifrice [Lat. dentifricium, from dens, a “ tooth,” 
and frico, to “rub”], tho name given to poAvders and 
Avashes of various kinds used for cleaning the teeth. Among 
the substances employed are charcoal, chalk, common salt, 
myrrh, catechu, cinchona, phosphate of soda, and cream of 
tartar. 

Den'tils [from the Lat. dens (gen. dentis), a “tooth”], 
in architecture, square blocks or projections in tho bed- 
mouldings of the cornices of tho Corinthian, Ionic, and 
composite orders. The term is also apjplicd to ornaments 
in cornices of rooms Avhich are founded on the same stylo 
of decoration. 

Dentin, or Dentine. See Teeth. 

Dentiros'tres [from the Lat. dens (gen. dentis), a 
“tooth,” and rostrum, a “beak”], a tribe of birds of the 
order Insessores, characterized by a notch or toothlike pro¬ 
cess on each side of the margin of the upper mandible. 
These birds have rapacious habits, and prey on smaller 
birds as well as insects. The butcher-bird is an example 
of this tribe. 

Dent'istry [from dentist (from the Lat. dens, dentis, a 
“tooth”), and ry, a suffix denoting “art,” “profession,” 
etc.]. In every age and country, even among the rudest 
and most barbarous nations, the teeth as useful and beau¬ 
tiful organs have attracted attention, and been regarded as 
of great importance in giving beauty and symmetry to the 
face. Lord Chesterfield says that “fine and clean teeth are 
among the first recommendations to be met Avith in the com¬ 
mon intercourse of society.” Lavater, the learned physi¬ 
ognomist, remarks that “ the countenance is the theatre on 
Avhich the soul exhibits itself,” and adds, “ as are the teeth 
of man, so is his taste.” “White, clean, and Avell-arrangcd 
teeth, visible as soon as the mouth opens, but not project¬ 
ing nor always entirely seen, I haA r e never met with,” says 
he, “except in good, acute, honest, candid, and faithful 
men;” that “short, broad teeth, standing close to each 
other, show tranquil, firm strength; and that melancholy 
persons seldom have well-arranged, clean, and Avhite teeth.” 

By the ancients, white and Avell-formed teeth Avere con¬ 
sidered as characteristics of beauty. Jacob, in blessing 
Judah, says, “His teeth shall be white Avith milk.” Joseph 
Murphy, in his “ Natural History of the Human Teeth,” 
states that the Brahmans are extremely delicate in every 
point relating to their teeth. Every morning when they 
rise they rub them for upwards of an hour with a twig 
from a racemiferous fig tree, at the same time addressing 
their prayers to the sun, and calling doivn the blessings of 
Heaven on themselves and their families. As this practice 
is prescribed in their most ancient books of law and di¬ 
vinity, Ave imagine it coeval Avith the date of their religion 
and goA'ernment. These people also separated their teeth 
with a file as soon as the second set Avas perfectly formed, 
which Avas doubtless done for the purpose of ensuring 
cleanliness and preventing decay. 

The inhabitants of many Oriental countries stain their 
teeth. Many women in Sumatra have their teeth filed to 
points, removing the enamel from the surface that they 
may be more easily dyed black. The'Abyssinians and 
other African nations file their teeth to points, and thus 
increase the savmgeness of their aspect. Whether this cus¬ 
tom Avas folloAved as a matter of ornament or fashion, it 
doubtless had its origin in the fact that teeth with sufficient 
space between their edges to prevent the accumulation of 
food Avere much less liable to be affected by caries. 

In the time of Herodotus the art of dentistry appears to 
have been practised in Egypt, as was also the treatment of 
diseases of the eye and the ear. In the ancient tombs of 
this people artificial teeth of ivory or Avood Avere found by 
Belzoni and others, some of Avhich Avere fastened on gold 
plates; it is stated that the teeth of mummies have been 
found filled Avith gold, and others with a Avhite cement. 

To what extent the Greeks or Egyptians practised dental 
surgery as a specialty before the Christian era, there is but 
little upon record that gives us any definite knowledge. 
The essays or books upon the subject, if there Avere any, 
are lost. The only Avidtings of ancient times extant, whero 
dentistry is spoken of as an art, are those of Galen, avIio 
Avrote in the second century after Christ; and from then 
until Ambrose Pare Avrote his celebrated work on surgery 
there was but little to improve the practice or satisfy tho 





























1322 


DENTISTRY. 


student in dental surgery. During the sixteenth century, 
from 1550 to 1580, there were published six essays or dis¬ 
sertations upon the anatomy, treatment, and preservation 
of the teeth. The seventeenth century was more favored; 
from 1614 to 1690 there Avere forty dissertations on tooth¬ 
ache, teething, diseases of the teeth, etc. During the eigh¬ 
teenth century, from 1702 to 1799, there were one hundred 
and thirty such volumes and essays, many of them works 
of merit, and the result of the labors of such as Hunter, 
Jourdain, Lecluze, Blake, etc. 

In the present century, from 1800 to 1830, sixty-eight 
volumes were added to the literature of dental surgery. 
Among the more prominent authors of these were Bell, 
Baume, Duval, Rousseau, Delabarre, Laforgue, Fox, Maury, 
Murphy, Parmly, Fitch, and Gardette. The last three were 
American practitioners as well as writers. From 1830 to 
1873 there have been contributed near forty volumes. 
Among the more prominent authors of these are Robinson 
and Tomes of London; Goddard, Harris, Taft, Arthur, 
Garretson, Richardson, and J. W. White of the U. S. 

During the eighteenth century dental surgery became a 
subject of more critical inquiry and thorough investiga¬ 
tion. Men of education and talent devoted themselves to 
it exclusively, and from that period it has progressed rapidly 
in importance. But not until within the last few years has 
it been enabled to claim a recognition from its sister pro¬ 
fessions of medicine and surgery. Until the latter part of 
the eighteenth century any advance in dentistry was con¬ 
fined to Europe. Dr. Harris, in his work on the “Princi¬ 
ples and Practice of Dental Surgery,” gives the following 
account of its introduction into the U. S.- He says: “It 
was during our Revolutionary struggle for independence 
that the first knowledge of dental surgery was introduced 
into this country, and the first dentist in the U. S. of whom 
we have any account was a man by the name of Le Mair, 
who accompanied the French army which came over to our 
aid during that period. Soon after the arrival of Lc Mair 
a dentist by the name of Whitlock came over from England, 
and from him and Le Mair dental surgery may be said to 
have had its origin in the U. S. With regard to the pro¬ 
fessional ability of these gentlemen little is known, but it 
is probable that it was limited, and that their practice con¬ 
sisted chiefly in the carving of artificial teeth from blocks 
of ivory and extracting and cleaning natural teeth. 

“ Mr. John Greenwood, however, I believe, was the first 
native American dentist, and he commenced practice in 
New York about the year 1788, and is said to have been 
the only dentist in that city in the year 1790. It was in this 
year he constructed an entire denture for General Washing¬ 
ton, and in 1795 another, which for neatness of execution 
was unsurpassed by any of the European artificial teeth at 
that period. They were c'arved from ivory, and secured in 
the mouth with spiral springs.” 

About the year 1792, Dr. Spence, who had received some 
instructions from Le Mair, commenced practice in Phila¬ 
delphia; soon afterwards he was joined by Dr. Gardette, 
who came from France, where he had previously received 
instruction. He soon acquired a reputation which he en¬ 
joyed through life. Dr. Hudson of Dublin soon followed 
Gardette to Philadelphia, and from his previous education 
and skill became the most prominent dentist in this country. 

In the year 1800, Dr. II. II. Hayden commenced the prac¬ 
tice of dental surgery in Baltimore; in 1807 he was joined 
by Dr. Koecker of London, who, after practising a few 
years in Baltimore, removed to Philadelphia. From this 
time until 1820 the ranks received accessions from Europe, 
with many in this country—some few with previous educa¬ 
tion, but others entirely deficient in theoretical or practical 
knowledge—so that the number of dental practitioners in 
the U. S. was now little more than one hundred. The 
next decade had increased them to three hundred, and 
in ten years more they had been quadrupled; while the 
next twenty years gave us at least five thousand in 1860, 
and in 1873 the dentists in the U. S. numbered ten thousand, 
while those in other countries combined do not exceed five 
thousand. 

With this great increase in the number of dental practi¬ 
tioners the progress of dentistry as a science has been very 
marked. From the more simple and comparatively not diffi¬ 
cult operations of cleansing, extracting, and filling small and 
superficial cavities, it has extended to a thorough and scien¬ 
tific treatment of the mouth, with the view not only of 
saving teeth but slightly decayed, but all teeth, and also of 
anticipating decay by such operations as shall make it pos¬ 
sible for the patient to keep the mouth thoroughly cleansed, 
and the teeth free from the deleterious effects of the ferment¬ 
ation of portions of food or other substances in the mouth. 
Cleanliness is indispensable to sound teeth, and the most 
fruitful source of decay is admitted to be the presence of 
decomposing portions of food lodged between them and in 
the interstices of the crown. In view of these facts all den¬ 


tists urge the importance of children acquiring the habit 
of brushing their teeth daily. 

In the successful treatment of teeth where the nerve or 
pulp is exposed, much credit is due to Dr. Spooner of Mon¬ 
treal, who in 1838 first recommended the use of arsenic for 
the purpose of destroying the vitality of the nerve. This 
substance has been used since in combination with sulphate 
of morphine and tannin, with creosote sufficient to form a 
thick paste; and though many teeth were saved for years 
by the use of this escharotic, yet for some time the course 
was unscientific and far from satisfactory; for when the 
vitality of the pulp was destroyed and the tooth filled with¬ 
out removing the devitalized tissue, it invariably resulted 
in a fistulous opening being established in the gum oppo¬ 
site the apex of the root or fang, through which was a con¬ 
stant discharge of pus. The difficulty is invariably re¬ 
moved by opening into the tooth, cleansing out the fang, 
and injecting creasote until its presence is recognized at 
the fistulous opening in the gum. 

The last ten years have been replete with various expe¬ 
dients by capping to preserve the vitality of the pulp, even 
though exposed; and the efforts have been crowned with 
such a degree of success that there is reason to hope the 
day is not distant when such teeth will be saved, and their 
vitality and lifelike appearance also preserved. The prep¬ 
arations which have been used for capping are lead, tin, 
asbestos, gutta-percha, Hill’s stopping (made of gutta¬ 
percha and felspar pulverized), clarified quill, and oxychlor¬ 
ide ; the latter, made of oxide of zinc and dilute deliquescent 
chloride of zinc, is the most in favor for the purpose, and 
offers much the larger proportion of successful results. 

The various materials used for filling or stopping teeth 
are gold, tin, amalgam, chloride of zinc (or oxychloride, as 
it is more frequently called), Hill’s stopping, and gutta¬ 
percha. The requirements for a filling are ability to with¬ 
stand the mechanical influences of mastication ; resistance 
to chemical agents; non-susceptibility to thermal changes; 
qualities to admit of ease of introduction into a cavity and 
consolidation; harmony in color; and the absence of prop¬ 
erties injurious to the structure of the tooth or to the sys¬ 
tem at large. Of such materials, the very best as a perma¬ 
nent filling is gold; after this amalgam and tin, the other 
agents being employed chiefly for temporary purposes. 

Of the instruments used in filling teeth, the variety is 
numberless, so far as excavators and ordinary pluggers arc 
concerned; the last few years have given us a number for 
condensing the gold, representing the mallet in modified 
forms. The small mallet was used some forty years since 
for a time to a limited extent; the last decade has again 
brought it generally into favor. It is made either of steel, 
ivory, vulcanized rubber, lead, or hard wood. In addi¬ 
tion to these, there are much in use two automatic mallets, 
besides Bonwill’s electric mallet. The last year has also 
given to the profession several drills for the preparation of 
cavities and the finishing of fillings; three of them have the 
motive-power of a foot-lathe, while one has that of a gal¬ 
vanic battery. All are arranged with a mandrel, into which 
fit burr and chisel drills of various sizes. 

The “ rubber dam ” given to the profession by Dr. Bar- 
num, as also the steel clamps for holding it in place around 
the neck of the tooth intended to be protected, is one of the 
most valuable acquisitions given to the dental practitioner. 

The want of matrices in the construction of a temporary 
wall for the conversion of approximal cavities into simple 
holes had long been felt. A matrix invented by Dr. Louis 
Jack, and given to the profession, has attained a most de¬ 
served popularity. In addition to these, the small corundum 
wheel invented by Dr. Arthur (rapidly taking the place of 
the file in both separating teeth and finishing fillings) is 
considered a not less important acquisition in dentistry. 

The great progress made in the dental profession has been 
contributed to and stimulated not a little by the organiza¬ 
tion of colleges, formation of societies, and publication of 
journals. An important event in the history of dental sur¬ 
gery in this country was the establishment of the “ Ameri¬ 
can Journal and Library of Dental Science” in Baltimore 
in 1839. The scattered members of the profession, who 
had long toiled in comparative obscurity, almost unknown 
to each other and the world, found through this journal an 
appropriate medium through which to communicate with 
each other. Several other important journals devoted to the 
interests of dentistry have since been established in the 
U. S. and Canada. 

The formation of the “ American Society of Dental Sur¬ 
geons ” soon followed the establishment of the above jour¬ 
nal ; and at its second annual meeting an arrangement was 
made with the publishers by which it became both the 
property and organ of the association. Two years after¬ 
wards another society of dentists like that of Baltimore was 
organized at Richmond, Va., and in Aug., 1844, a third 
was formed at Cincinnati, 0., styled tho “Mississippi Val- 














DENT 


ley Association of Dental Surgeons.” In Aug., 1850, the 
National Convention of Dentists was formed, and its first 
annual meeting was held in Philadelphia. Just previous 
to this the Pennsylvania Association of Dental Surgeons 
w T as organized, and some years subsequent, in 1863, the 
Odontographic Society of Philadelphia. In addition to 
these, there are throughout the country fifty-five other State 
and county societies, the latter holding meetings generally 
monthly. In 1839 the legislature of Maryland chartered 
the “ Baltimore College of Dental Surgery.” It was the first 
dental college in the country. It held its thirty-third an¬ 
nual commencement this year (1873), and in the graduating 
class receiving the honors of the institution was one lady, 
she being its first female graduate. Its alumni number 
over 700. 

The “Ohio College of Dental Surgery” was chartered in 
1845. It is located in Cincinnati. Its alumni number about 
250. It has for the last fifteen years admitted ladies equally 
with gentlemen, and several have taken their degree. The 
“Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery” was chartered 
in 1856; it is located in Philadelphia. It held its seven¬ 
teenth annual commencement in 1873. Its alumni numbered 
488, of which 443 were regular graduates, 10 honorary, and 
35 received the degree after a satisfactory examination, 
they having been in pi’actice some years previous to the 
establishment of dental colleges. Among the graduates was 
one lady, now practising in Berlin ; she received the degree 
in 1869. The “ Philadelphia Dental College” was chartered 
in 1863 ; its alumni number 260. The “New York College 
of Dentistry” was chartered in 1865, and established in 
New York City. Its alumni number 68. The “Missouri 
Dental College,” chartered in 1866, is in St. Louis, Mo.; 
its alumni number about 50. The “New Orleans Dental 
College,” in New Orleans, La., was chartered in 1867; its 
alumni number about 30. The “Boston Dental College” 
and the “Dental School of Harvard University” were both 
chartered in 1868. They held their fifth annual commence¬ 
ment in 1873. The alumni of the latter number about 35. 

A growing desire on the part of the liberal and educated 
men in the profession that their specialty should be raised 
above a mere mechanical trade has created an interest in 
the education of dental students, and a corresponding de¬ 
sire for a more extended and liberal curriculum in the col¬ 
leges, many of the best men in the profession believing that 
a thorough medical education, preparatory to studying 
the specialty of dentistry, would make more efficient and 
useful practitioners; so that a patient with an oral disease 
of any complexity, trusting himself to the average dentist, 
would not meet with disaster because of the absence of sur¬ 
gical knowledge and skill; in fact, that dentistry should 
be practised as a specialty of medicine; that the practi¬ 
tioner should understand that the welfare of the teeth is 
intimately connected with that of the general system; and 
that a knowledge of the diseases whose effects may reach 
these organs is essential to the scientific dentist. His know¬ 
ledge of anatomy should not be confined to the structure 
of the tooth, to the pulp which fills its internal cavity, to 
the position of the nerves which communicate its com¬ 
plaints to the brain, nor to the manner in which it is held 
fast in its socket; but his education should embrace a 
thorough acquaintance with the anatomical and sympa¬ 
thetic relations of the organs of the mouth with all parts 
of the system. 

From what was originally called dentistry there have 
very naturally and almost without an effort been evolved 
two widely different occupations. They may properly be 
termed operative dentistry, or dental surgery, and mechan¬ 
ical dentistry; and as competition necessitates and stimu¬ 
lates proficiency, more distinctly marked must this division 
become. The artisan who works in his laboratory making 
casts, swedging plates, grinding and filing down teeth, 
and finally soldering them to the plate, and finishing the 
whole as neatly as a piece of jewelry-work, cannot keep 
his hands in a condition to successfully perform the delicate 
manipulative operations required in treating the natural 
teeth. Delicacy of touch is indispensable in a skilled ope¬ 
rator, and one who does not possess it proportionally fails 
just where it is most essential his operations should be 
perfect. 

Mechanical dentistry has again been relieved of a por¬ 
tion of the labors originally performed by the dentist— 
that of carving or moulding the teeth used. The early 
dentists carved from ivory the teeth and plate in one piece, 
and if a partial set was inserted, the teeth were fastened to 
the adjoining natural ones by means of ligatures; if a full 
set was required, springs were used. Ivory and natural 
teeth were objectionable from their liability to be acted 
upon by the fluids of the mouth. Absorbing as they do 
these secretions, they soon become offensive, and ofton 
rapidly decay. Porcelain teeth, well named incorruptible, 
perfectly resist the destructive action of these fluids; and 


LSTKY. 1323 


as they are made nearly perfect in color and shape, they are 
not easily detected. Though of French origin, they owe the 
perfection to which they have been brought to the energy 
and ingenuity of the American manufacturer. 

Mr. Charles W. Peale of Philadelphia has the reputation 
of making in 1807 the first manufactured in the U. S. He 
made a set for his son, Rembrandt Peale, in 1808, and gave 
instruction in his methods to Mr. Barabino, a dentist then 
practising in Philadelphia. The first regular manufac¬ 
turers were Greenwood, Woffendale, and Parkhurst, who 
were engaged in the business in 1825. The manufacture 
of mineral teeth for the supply of dentists was first under¬ 
taken by Samuel W. Stockton in Philadelphia about the 
year 1835, and to him, together with Neal and Acock, is due 
the credit of establishing this branch of business in the 
U. S. The present perfection in moulding and enamelling 
the teeth was not attained for some years afterwards, nor 
was the color so life-like or the shades so varied. For 
many years the coloring was put on in the shape of paint. 
The teeth were moulded and partially burned, when they 
were subjected to the process of painting, and again placed 
in the furnace. Much of the improvement made between 
1840 and 1849 in the transparency of the tooth, the gran¬ 
ulated appearance of the gum enamel, and the almost un¬ 
limited variety of shades, was due to the persistent and 
untiring experiments of Dr. Elias Wildman of Philadel¬ 
phia. The use of the purple of Cassius, or oxide of gold, 
now so generally used in gum-color, was brought to its 
present state of perfection through his untiring efforts. 

An artificial tooth must possess certain qualities apart 
from size, shape, and color—a front surface which must 
closely resemble the enamel or external covering of the 
natural tooth, and a body having the toughness which 
allows the vigorous use of the hammer in riveting without 
fracture, and the use of the blowpipe in soldering without 
liability to crack. If the tooth were one homogeneous mass, 
the requisite amount of vitrifaction necessary to imitate the 
enamel would render it brittle; but a proper amount of 
translucency must be preserved, or there will be the opaque, 
clay-colored tooth, which proclaims its artificial character 
to the most casual glance; so that a nice calculation is ne¬ 
cessary not to sacrifice beauty to strength. There must also 
be the distinctly-marked clear cutting edge of enamel pro¬ 
jecting beyond the body of the tooth, and contrasting, as 
in Nature’s work, with the yellow or brown base, and yet 
this depth of color in the body and translucency of the 
point must be so nicely blended that the line of union can¬ 
not be determined. These and many other valuable results 
have been secured by patience of research and skill in ap¬ 
plication. 

The principal materials entering into the composition of 
mineral teeth are felspar, silex (flint), and kaolin (clay), 
with various fluxes, so known in chemistry, more familiarly 
characterized as glasses, used to determine the point of fu¬ 
sion desired, of different parts of the tooth. The general 
tone or tint of these materials is white or dusky yellow, so 
that coloring forms a prime adjunct in the process. 

The chief coloring substances are titanium for yellow, 
platina sponge for gray, oxide of cobalt for bright blue, 
and oxide of gold for red. These, with others in varying 
combinations, are used to color the body, point, and out¬ 
side enamels. There are more than forty shades of color 
in the bodies used, and an equal number in the point and 
outside enamels. Thus, starting with the lightest shade of 
body known as “A,” forty different grades may be pro¬ 
duced by using a different point-enamel, and on each of 
these a different effect by the use of various outside enamels, 
so that with a single body of any one color one may produce 
64,000 varieties or gradations of color; and as there are 
thirty-nine other bodies, a smart calculator can determine 
the many changes of which they are capable. Some idea 
may be formed of the need of variety by the fact that out 
of innumerable trials in the way of combinations, 130 stand¬ 
ard shades are made, duly arranged, and classified by 
numbers, forming a gradual but quite perceptible progres¬ 
sion from the most delicate blue-white to the dark tobacco- 
stain. For the production of these colors one is not to 
think of a dyer’s vat, but to remember that their bath is a 
glowing muffle at incandescent heat. 

Many teeth, good in themselves, have an artificial ap¬ 
pearance in the mouth, simply because the dentist, though 
an excellent mechanic, has lacked the perception to dis¬ 
cover the shade made necessary by the complexion, hair, 
and eyes of the wearer. 

One establishment in Philadelphia turns out 400,000 
teeth per month, about half what are made in Europe and 
America. In Europe a substance resembling Wedgwood 
ware is of late much used for artificial teeth, and its tough¬ 
ness and durability are admirable. 

In fitting artificial teeth it is very important to take a 
good impression of the shape ot the mouth. V arious sub- 










1324 DENTITION—DE PEEE. 


stances have been used for the purpose, such as wax (either 
pure or mixed with paraffin, gutta-percha, or other mate¬ 
rials) ; gutta-percha alone or combined; plaster of Paris 
alone. These substances have each their merits, and the 
choice for any particular case is to bo determined by ex¬ 
perience. The two materials principally employed in mak¬ 
ing the plate upon which the teeth are fastened are gold 
and vulcanized rubber. The principal advantage of the 
latter material is its cheapness, which is more than counter¬ 
balanced by its clumsiness, fragility, and its irritating effect 
on the mouth. C. Neavlin Pierce. 

Dentition. See Teeth. 

Den'ton, a county in the N. of Texas. Area, 900 square 
miles. It is intersected by several branches of Trinity 
River, one of which is called Denton Fork. The surface is 
diversified by prairies and extensive forests; the soil is fer¬ 
tile. Wheat, corn, cotton, cattle, swine, tobacco, and wool 
are raised. Capital, Denton. Pop. 7251. 

Denton, a township and post-village, capital of Caro- 
line co., Md., on the E. bank of the Choptank River, 05 
miles E. of Annapolis. It has two weekly newspapers, one 
iron-foundry, one academy, five churches, and two churches 
for the colored people. The river on which it is situated is 
famous for shad and herring. Total pop. 475. 

Wm. Henry Legg, Ed. “Journal.” 

Denton, a post-village, capital of Denton co., Tex., on 
the Texas Pacific R. R., 45 miles S. W. of Sherman. It 
has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 361. 

C. W. Geers, Ed. “ Monitor.” 

Demula'tion [from the Lat. denuclo, denudation, to 
“lay bare”], in geology, is defined by Lyell as “ the re¬ 
moval of solid matter by water in motion, whether of rivers 
or of the waves and currents of the sea, and the consequent 
laying bare of some inferior rock. This operation has ex¬ 
erted an influence on the structure of the earth’s crust as 
universal and important as sedimentary deposition itself; 
for denudation is the necessary antecedent of the produc¬ 
tion of all new strata of mechanical origin. The formation 
of every new deposit by the transport of sediment and 
pebbles necessarily implies that there has been somewhere 
else a grinding down of rock into rounded fragments, sand, 
or mud equal in quantity to the new strata.” Denudation 
may be divided into subaerial , which is effected by the ac¬ 
tion of wind, rain, and rivers, and submarine, which is 
caused by tides and currents of the sea. In many instances 
deep and wide channels or valleys have been excavated in 
rocky strata by the long-continued action of rivers; and 
these are called valleys of denudation. As the strata ex¬ 
posed on the sides of these valleys correspond to each other, 
both in composition and order of position, it is evident that 
they were originally continuous. “ The larger part of the 
valleys of the world,” says Dana, “ are formed entirely by 
running water. . . . Many examples are on record of gorges 
hundreds of feet deep cut out of the solid rock by two or 
three centuries only of work.” 

Deii'ver, a handsome city of Colorado, the capital of 
the Terriiory and of Arapahoe co., is beautifully situated 
on the South Platte River, 15 miles E. of the base of 
the Rocky Mountains and 5375 feet above the level of 
the sea; lat. 39° 47' N., Ion. 105° W. It is the western 
terminus of the Kansas Pacific R. R., and the northern ter¬ 
minus of the Denver and Rio Grande R. R. The Denver 
Pacific R. R., 106 miles long, extends from Denver north¬ 
ward to Cheyenne. Denver is the commercial centre and 
most populous city of Colorado. It commands a magnif¬ 
icent view of mountain-scenery and of several peaks cov¬ 
ered with eternal snow. The climate is peculiarly serene, 
healthy, and delightful. The city occupies a scries of pla¬ 
teaus rising as they recede from the river by gentle ascents. 
It contains a IT. S. branch mint, three seminaries, and three 
national and four private banks. Exchange drawn in 1872, 
$21,000,000. Eight weekly, one semi-weekly, two monthly, 
and three daily newspapers are published here. The Col¬ 
orado Central R. R. connects this place with Golden City, 
17 miles distant. The Denver and Boulder Valley Railway, 
44 miles long, was completed in Sept., 1873, to Boulder 
City. The Denver South Park and Pacific is a new narrow- 
gauge railway; making altogether six railroads diverging 
from Denver. The value of the goods sold here in 1872 
was estimated at $18,000,000. Denver was first settled in 
1858. There are eighteen churches, numerous manufac¬ 
tories, Avater and gas-works, and street railways. P. 4759. 

William N. Byers, Ed. “ Rocky Mountain Neavs.” 

Denver, a tOAvnship of Richland co., Ill. Pop. 952. 

Denver, a post-toAvnship of NeAvaygo co., Mich. Pop. 
777. 

Denver (James W.), an American general, born at 
Winchester, Va., in 1818. Ho"removed to California, Avas 
elected a member of Congress in 1854, and Avas governor 


of Kansas from Dec., 1857, to the autumn of 1S5S. He be¬ 
came a brigadier-general of Union volunteers in 1861. 

Den'vcrton, a post-toAvnship of Solano co., Cal. P. 470. 

De'odaiul [Lat. deodandum, from Deo (dative of Dens, 
“God”), and dandum, future passive participle from do, to 
“give;” literally, that \vhich is “to be given or dedicated 
to God”], in English laAv, a name applied to any personal 
chattel which had caused the death of a human being, and 
for that reason was applied to pious uses, or, as the term 
implies, given to God. It Avas, in fact, forfeited to the king, 
and distributed in alms by his high almoner. The laiv of 
deodand is uoav abolished in England, and is unknoAvn in 
American Irav. 

Deodar. See Cedar. 

Deo'datus, or Deas'dcdit, Saint, pope, succeeded 
Boniface IV. in 615, died Nov. 9, 618, and Avas succeeded 
by Boniface V. He is regarded as a Avorker of miracles. 

Deodorizers. See Disinfection, by Prof. Henry 
IIartsiiorne, M. D. 

Deoxida'tion [Lat. deoxidatio, from de, priv., and 
oxygen], the chemical process by which oxygen is ab¬ 
stracted from a compound. This term when applied to 
metals is synonymous av ith reduction. A compound of a 
metal Avith oxygen may in many cases be reduced or de¬ 
oxidized by heating it Avith carbon or in a stream of hy¬ 
drogen gas. 

Depart/ment [Fr. departement, from dejiartir, to “di¬ 
vide”], literally, a “division ;” a portion; a distinct prov¬ 
ince; a territorial division; a principal division of execu¬ 
tive government. In the U. S. each of the secretaries and 
other functionaries Avho form the cabinet is the head of a 
department. These are called the departments of agricul¬ 
ture, education, interior, justice, navy, post-office, state, 
treasury, and Avar. A department is not defined by the 
Constitution, but is recognized and mentioned several times 
in that instrument. It is a division of government busi¬ 
ness over which the head, by law, exercises exclusive con¬ 
trol, subject only to the supervision and direction of the 
President. The attorney-general is the head of the de¬ 
partment of justice, established in 1870. Portions of the 
duties of several departments arc allotted to bureaus, but 
there are no separate bureaus in the department of state or 
that of the post-office. The term department is also ap¬ 
plied to the three principal branches or co-ordinate powers 
of the republic. “Under the Federal Constitution,” says 
Gillet, “the national government is composed of three dis¬ 
tinct and independent departments—the legislative, the 
judicial, and the executive.” The whole territory of the 
U. S. is divided into military departments, each under a 
general officer. 

Department, in geography, a primary division of France. 
In 1790 the old divisions called provinces were abolished, 
and the country was divided into eighty-three departments, 
most of which were designated by the names of French 
rivers or mountains. During the first empire the number 
increased to 130, including Belgium, portions of Italy, etc. 
At the beginning of the German war in 1870 the number 
of departments was eighty-nine. In 1871, France ceded to 
the German empire the whole of Bas-Rhin, a large part of 
Ilaut-Rhiu, nearly all of Moselle, a small part of the de¬ 
partment of Vosges, and a part of Meurthe. Each depart- 
ment is divided into arrondissements, and is governed by a 
prefect (prifet). The principal divisions of Bolivia, Peru, 
and some other South American republics are also called 
departments. 

Departure, in navigation. See Navigation, by Lieut.- 
Com. A. II. McCormick, U. S. N. 

Depau'ville, a post-village of Clayton township, Jef¬ 
ferson co., N. Y., at the head of navigation of Chaumont 
River. Pop. 235. 

Dc Pere, a township of Brown co., Wis., containing 
the villages of De Pere and West De Pere, situated on op¬ 
posite sides of the Fox River. They arc connected by a- 
bridge 1500 feet in length, and contain, together, eight 
churches, three public and one private school, four smelting- 
furnaces, one large railroad car-shop and iron-works, a 
foundry, machine-shop, and hub-and spoke-factory, three 
flouring, two wooden-ware, three shingle, and four saw 
mills, five wagon-shops, besides various other industries. 
The Milwaukee and Northern Raihvay runs on the river 
bank through De Pere, and the Chicago and Nortli-Avestern 
depot is in West De Pere. The Goodrich line of steamers 
makes regular trips to Chicago, and the Buffalo line takes 
freight from the Avharves to Buffalo and intermediate ports. 
It has one weekly newspaper. The water-poAver is made 
by the first dam on the Fox River of the Green Bay and 
Mississippi Canal Company. Pop. of township, 2800 ; of 
De Pere, 1372; of West De Pere, 875. 

P. R. Proctor, Ed. “Neavs.” 


«K58W 


J 















DE PEYSTER—DEPOSITION. 


1325 


De Peys'ter, a post-village and fertile township of 
St. Lawrence co., N. Y., named after Frederic (I.) de Pey- 
ster, bounded on the W. by Black Lake, and intersected by 
the Oswegatchie Itiver. Pop. 1138. 

De Peyster (J. Watts), born Mar. 9, 1821, is of the 
seventh generation residing or born in the first ward of the 
city of New York. The first of the name in America, Jo¬ 
hannes, of Huguenot extraction, a person of property, came 
from Holland, was schepen in 1656, etc., alderman in 1666, 
etc., burgomaster in 1673, and then deputy-mayor in 1677, 
of New York, refusing the mayoralty because he could not 
speak English. He had an opportunity for displaying his 
patriotism and firmness (1673) in one of the most trying 
crises of the Dutch colony. His eldest son, Abraham (I.), 
was a man of very great ability and most genial nature. 
He was acting governor and president of the council in 
1700 ; chief-justice, 1700—01; colonel commanding the colo¬ 
nial militia of the city and county of New York, and treas¬ 
urer for many years of the colonies'of New York and New 
Jersey. His eldest son, Abraham (II.), succeeded him as 
treasurer in 1721, and continued in office during his life¬ 
time (1767). James (I.), his eldest son, was a merchant of 
great note and of much benevolence. In this generation, 
Arent Schuyler de Peyster, the grandson of Abraham (I.), 
ultimately colonel B. A., and commanding the Eighth or 
King’s regiment of foot, exercised a vast command and 
influence in the N. W. with his head-quarters at Michili- 
macinac, but will be better known by his literary connec¬ 
tion with the poet Burns—a private in the Dumfries Vol¬ 
unteers, of which de Peyster was colonel—who dedicated 
to his military superior his “Poem on Life.” The nephew 
of the preceding, bearing the same name, was a fear¬ 
less navigator, and has left a memorial in the de Peyster 
Islands, a group of seventeen in the South Pacific (Mul- 
grave Archipelago), discovered by him in 1819. The three 
sons of James (I.), Abraham (III.), Frederic (I.), James 
(II.), were officers in the British service. Abraham (III.) 
was second in command in the battle of King’s Mountain 
(1780), and after displaying great valor, severely wounded 
at the conclusion of this contest, the most desperate and 
sanguinary at the South. In this battle British troops 
(and perhaps any troops in the field) were first armed with 
breech-loading rifles, the invention of Patrick Ferguson, 
major B. A., and colonel and acting brigadier in America, 
chief in command of the royal forces in this decisive 
collision. Frederic (I.) was also severely wounded in 
the Carolinas, and James (II.), captain-lieutenant in 
America, and subsequently lieutenant in the Royal Artil¬ 
lery, one of the handsomest men in the British army, 
was killed under the most extraordinary circumstances 
at the assault of the French lines of Menin, in Flanders 
(1793), having been previously buried alive by the ex¬ 
plosion of a mine at the siege of Valenciennes, and 
brought back to light and life almost by a miracle. (See 
“Gentleman’s Magazine,” 1793.) Frederic (II.), third son 
of Frederic (I.), president of the New York Historical So¬ 
ciety and prominent member of a number of literary and 
charitable institutions, is the author of a number of able 
pamphlets, denoting great knowledge, research, ability, 
and influence.—J. Watts de Peyster has published a 
number of military, historical, and ethnological, etc. works, 
of which the most prominent are biographies of the Swe¬ 
dish field-marshal Torstenson (seventeenth century); of 
Major-General Philip Kearny; of Coehorn, “prince of 
engineers;” of Carausius; of the History of the Third 
Corps of the Army of the Potomac ; of the decisive conflicts 
of the great American civil war, and of the Last Campaign 
of the Army of the Potomac, etc. etc. etc. For the first 
work he was the recipient of three splendid medals, etc. 
from Oscar I., king of Sweden, and, for valuable services, 
of the only brevet major-generalship ever conferred, after 
debate, by a special law or concurrent resolution of his 
native, or of any other, State. His writings have won 
for him the endorsement of a number of our most distin¬ 
guished generals as “the foremost military writer of the 
country.” He was the first to urge in a series of reports, 
made in 1852-53, the advantages of a paid fire department 
for this city, in conjunction with steam as applied to the 
means of combating fire. His three sons, J. Watts de Pey¬ 
ster, Jr., Frederic, Jr., and Johnston L., were respectively 
brevetted colonel, major, and lieutenant-colonel U. S. vol¬ 
unteers, and all three colonels N. Y. volunteers, for gal¬ 
lant and meritorious services during the great American 
conflict. Charles W. Greene. 

De Peyster (J. Watts, Jr.), born Dec. 2, 1841, dis¬ 
played in early age great decision of character, power of 
command, laborious research, and practical power of appli¬ 
cation. In Mar., 1862, he left the Law School of Colum¬ 
bia College, N. Y., joined his cousin, Maj.-Gen. Philip 
Kearny, as volunteer aid, and was greatly distinguished 


for gallantry and good conduct in the battle of Williams¬ 
burg. Promoted to a lieutenancy, and while commanding 
a company of New York volunteer cavalry, he won the re¬ 
spect and esteem of his colonel, a man of great culture and 
observation, who testified “that with experience (which he 
was rapidly acquiring) he would have been one of the best 
of cavalry officers.” Again promoted major of the First 
New York Volunteer Artillery, he returned to the Penin¬ 
sula, and, attached to the stafl' of Maj.-Gen. Peck, acquired 
the respect, the regard, and good-will, not only of his im¬ 
mediate commander, but of every general with whom he 
was brought in contact or with whom he served in the 
course of most varied duties. Prostrated by James River 
fever, after many months’ struggle between life and death 
he hastened back to the field in the winter of 1863, and, 
although pronounced by medical examiners as unfit for 
active duty, he displayed a zeal, capacity, and energy in 
the campaign of Chancellorsville which elicited the most 
remarkable commendations from the commander-in-chief, 
the magnificent hero of the “battle above the clouds,” 
Joseph Hooker, who recommended Maj. de Peyster for 
brevet as eminently deserving, having been no less re¬ 
marked for his coolness and courage at Fredericksburg 
than at Williamsburg; likewise from his immediate su¬ 
perior, Gen. Albion P. Howe. 

Maj., Brevet Col. de Peyster, continued to command a 
brigade of artillery until midsummer, 1863, when the con¬ 
sequences of his faithful service in such a deteriorated san¬ 
itary condition developed diseases which neither science 
nor time could alleviate; and although he survived until 
13tli April, 1873, this whole period was one long, hopeless 
struggle of unyielding constancy against the unrelaxing 
siege of death. Charles W. Greene. 

Depil'atory [Lat. depilatorius, from de, priv., and 
pilus, the “hair”], a name given to applications used to 
remove hair from any part of the body. A thin paste 
of powdered quicklime and water applied to any part until 
a burning sensation is produced, and then wiped off with a 
wet sponge, will generally remove hair. 

Deploy' [F x. deploycr, to “unfold,” to “spread”], a 
military term, signifies to open or extend troops from col¬ 
umn into line; to spread out a body of troops so as to pre¬ 
sent a wider front. To reverse this movement is to p(oy. 

Deporta'tion [from the Lat. de, “from,” and porto, 
portatnm, to “carry”], a compulsory removal from one 
country to another; a banishment. The kings of ancient 
Assyria attempted to secure their conquests by the deport¬ 
ation of a large part of the native population, as in the case 
of the Jews, who were carried as captives to Babylon. In 
French law, deportation is a punishment equivalent to 
transportation in English. It is ranked as third in degree 
after capital punishment, the second being condemnation 
to the galleys or hard labor for life. Deportation has often 
been inflicted in France as a punishment for political of¬ 
fences since the revolution of 1789. 

Depos'it [Fr. depot; from the Lat. depono, deposition, 
to “lay down”], any matter laid down; that which is 
thrown down from a liquid in which it has been suspended. 
In geology, a bed or stratum of rock formed of matter that 
has settled from suspension in water. Deposits are cha¬ 
racterized, according to the conditions under which they 
were formed, as marine, lacustrine, or fluviatile. 

Depos'it, a post-village situated partly in Broome and 
partly in Delaware co., N. Y., on the Erie R. R. where it 
crosses the Delaware River, 177 miles N. W. of New York. 
It has a national bank, a newspaper, an academy, stock- 
yards, a planing-mill, a flouring mill, etc. Pop. 1286, of 
which 496 are in Delaware county. Ed. “ Courier.” 

Deposi'tiotl [Lat. depositio, from de, “down,” and 
pono, position, to “ put”], in law, the testimony of a wit¬ 
ness set down in writing in answer to interrogatories legally 
exhibited. Depositions are taken either by a judge or a 
commissioner specially appointed for that purpose. The 
questions to which the depositions are answers are usually 
put by the parties to the suit or their legal representatives, 
under the control of the court by whose authority the 
commission to take the testimony issues. Such depositions 
form an established medium of proof in the English court 
of chancery. It is a rule in the law of evidence that a de¬ 
position cannot be read where the witness himself might 
be produced, because his oral testimony is the most satis¬ 
factory medium of proof. 

Deposition, in geology, the process by which sediment¬ 
ary deposits or strata are formed. The greater portions 
of the strata of sandstone, limestone, and slate are the re¬ 
sult of deposition. During the process of deposition each 
separate layer was once the uppermost, and was in contact 
with water, as is proved by the numerous fossils of marine 
animals found in it. “By attending, says Lyell, “to the 























1326 DEPOT—DERBY. 


nature of these remains, we are often enabled to determine 
whether the deposition was slow or rapid, and whether it 
took place in a deep or shallow sea.” 

Depot [Fr. d&pGt, d&'po', from the Lat. de, “down,” 
and pono, position, to “put” or “place”], a storehouse or 
place for the reception of goods for safe keeping}* a mili¬ 
tary station, where supplies are kept, recruits received and 
trained, and the needs of soldiers provided for. The term 
is also applied to that portion of a battalion remaining 
when the rest are ordered upon foreign service. The com¬ 
bining of several battalions of depots forms a depot battal¬ 
ion. In America the name depot is popularly and some¬ 
what incorrectly given to railroad stations. 

Dep'ping (George Bernard), a litterateur, born at 
Munster May 11, 1781, removed in early life to Paris. He 
wrote “The Maritime Expeditions of the Normans in the 
Tenth Century” (1826), “History of Normandy” (1835), 
and other works. Died Sept. 5, 1853. 

Depression of Equations, in algebra, the deri-' 
ration from a given equation of another lower in degree, 
whose roots are related in a known way to those of the first. 
This reduction can always be effected by simple division 
when one or more of the roots are known; but without 
knowing the roots beforehand the equation may be de¬ 
pressed—1st, when some particular relation subsists be¬ 
tween two (or more) of the roots; for example, if an equa¬ 
tion contain equal roots, these may be found and the 
equation reduced by as many dimensions as there are equal 
roots; 2d, if two roots of an equation be equal in magni¬ 
tude, but opposite in sign ; and 3d, if the equation be a 
reciprocal one—that is to say, such that its form is not 

changed by changing x into^r. (See Equation, by Pres. 
F. A. P. Barnard, S. T. D.,'LL.D., L. H. D.) 

Dept'ford, a town and naval port of England, is on the 
Thames, 4 miles below London Bridge, and is separated 
from Greenwich by the Ravensbourne, which here enters 
the Thames. It is partly in Kent and partly in Surrey. 
It contains a large naval arsenal and dockyard. Here are 
extensive market-gardens. Pop. 45,973. 

Deptford, a township of Gloucester co., N. J. Pop. 
4663. 

Dep'llty [Fr. depute, from the Lat. deputo, to “judge,” 
to “ destine,” to “appoint”], a person appointed to act for 
another as representative, lieutenant, viceroy, or agent ; a 
delegate; a legislator chosen to represent his constituents. 
One of the legislative bodies of France under the monarchy 
(1814-48) was called the Cliambre des Deput6s, and the term 
depute is now applied to the members of the French Na¬ 
tional Assembly. In the kingdom of Italy the lower house 
is called Camera de’ Deputati, “ Chamber of Deputies.” It 
consists of about 508 deputies, elected by the people who 
pay taxes. 

De Quin 'cey (Thomas), an English author, born in 
Manchester Aug. 15, 1785. He was a younger son of a 
wealthy merchant. He once ran away from school and 
went to London, where he passed nearly two months in ex¬ 
treme want and strange adventures. He entered the Uni¬ 
versity of Oxford in 1803, and there contracted a habit of 
using opium. In 1808 he quitted the university, became a 
friend and associate of Coleridge, Southey, and Wordsworth, 
and began to reside at Grasmere in the Lake district. He 
married in 1816, devoted his time chiefly to literature, 
made good translations from Lessing and Jean Paul Rich¬ 
ter, and contributed articles on biography, philosophy, and 
other subjects to “Blackwood’s Magazine.” When in the 
prime of life he reformed the habit of the excessive use of 
opium, and in 1821 he published “Confessions of an Eng¬ 
lish Opium-Eater.” He removed to Scotland in 1843, and 
passed the later years of his life near Edinburgh. He was 
one of the most brilliant magazine-writers of his time, and 
wrote on a great variety of subjects, but his works are 
mostly fragmentary. The first edition of his collected 
works was published by Ticknor & Fields, Boston (18 vols., 
1851-58). He died in Edinburgh Dec. 8, 1859. 

Der'a Ghazee' Khan, a town of Afghanistan, hard 
by the river Indus and 65 miles N. W. of Bhawlpoor. It 
is advantageously situated for trade, and has manufactures 
of silk and cotton goods and cutlery. Pop. estimated at 
25,000. 

Derah [Arab, deraa ], the unit measure of length in 
Egypt. The subdivisions are the kadam = one-half of a 
derah, the abdat= one-sixth of a derah, and the kerat — 
one-twenty-fourth of a derah. Several derahs are in use— 
viz. the common derah of Egypt =22.37 British inches; 

* The original idea of depot is that of a place where something 
is “ put down ” for a short time, to be taken up again. Reposi¬ 
tory (from re, “back,” and pono, to “put”) is a place where 
something is put back (out of the way), to be kept a long time. 


the derah Hendazch, by which dry goods are sold =25.5 
British inches; the derah Istambouli (Constantinopolitan 
derah), used for European dry goods = 66.34 British inches ; 
and the ancient derah of the Nile or of Memphis = 20.699 
British inches. The first three values above are given on 
the authority of the “ Report of the International Confer¬ 
ence on Moneys, Weights, and Measures,” Paris, 1867 ; and 
the last on that of Prof. Piazzi Smyth. This measure has 
some interest, in consequence of its connection with recent 
discussions concerning the Great Pyramid of Egypt, and 
the purpose of its construction. 

Der'a Isma'eel' Khan, a town of Afghanistan, in 
Derajat, on the Indus, 17 miles N. N. W. of Bukkur. It 
has an active trade and manufactures of cotton cloth. Pop. 
about 8000. 

Derayeh, El, a town of Arabia, in Nedjed, about 430 
miles N. E. of Mecca, was formerly the capital of the 
Wahabees. It has a beautiful situation, with gardens and 
fertile fields in the environs. It was once a populous town, 
and contained about thirty mosques, but it was taken and 
partly destroyed by Ibrahim Pasha in 1819. Pop. about 
15,000. 

Der'bend', a fortified maritime town of Russia, cap¬ 
ital of Daghestan, is on the W. shore of the Caspian Sea; 
lat. 42° N., Ion. 48° 15' E. It is situated at the foot of a 
mountain, and at the entrance of a defile called by the an¬ 
cients Albaniee Pylse, and now the Pass of Derbend. It is 
enclosed by walls which are supposed to be 1000 years old 
or more, and are eight feet thick and twenty-six feet high. 
The harbor is poor, and accessible only to small boats. Der¬ 
bend was taken from Persia by the Russians in 1795. Pop. 
in 1869, 15,739. 

Der'by, an inland county of England, bounded on the 
N. by Yorkshire, has an area of 1030 square miles. It is 
drained by the rivers Trent and Derwent. This county is 
remarkable for the variety of its scenery, and is partly oc¬ 
cupied by the Penine chain, formed of carboniferous lime¬ 
stone, which abounds in precipices, caverns, and rocking- 
stones. The Peak, the highest hill in Derbyshire, has an 
altitude of 2000 feet. This county is rich in minerals— 
viz. coal, copper, iron, lead, zinc, marble, fluor-spar, etc. 
Here are important manufactures of cotton, silk, and worsted 
goods, metallic wares, and porcelain. It is traversed by 
several canals and railways. Capital, Derby. Pop. in 
1871, 380,538. 

Derby, a manufacturing town of England, capital of 
the above county, is on the river Derwent, at the junction 
of the main branches of the Midland Railway, 119 miles 
N. N. W. of London and 35 miles N. N. E. of Birmingham. 
The private houses are mostly built of brick. Here is a free 
grammar school founded in 1162. Derby has manufactures 
of silk, cotton, lace, hosiery, porcelain of great beauty, 
jewelry, and ornaments of fluor-spar; also iron-foundries, 
rolling-mills, and tanneries. The staple manufacture is 
throwing silk, introduced early in the eighteenth century. 
Pop. in 1871, 49,793. 

Derby, or Derby Narrows, a post-village of New 
Haven co., Conn., is at the confluence of the Naugatuck 
with the Housatonic River, and on the Naugatuck and 
the New Haven and Derby R. Rs., 10 miles W. of New 
Haven. A bridge over the river connects it with Birming¬ 
ham. It has extensive and varied manufactures, and a 
savings bank. Pop. 3168; of township, including Derby 
Village, Ansonia, and Birmingham, 8020. 

Derby, a post-township of Orleans co., Vt. It is the 
scat of an academy. It has five churches, manufactures 
of lumber, starch, and woollen goods, and a national bank, 
the latter at Derby Line, on the Canada frontier. North 
Derby is the junction of the Connecticut and Passumpsic 
Rivers R. R. with the Massawippi Valley R. R. and the 
Stanstead branch. The town lies on the E. side of Lake 
Memphremagog. Pop. 2039. 

Derby (Edward Geoffrey Smith-Stanley), four¬ 
teenth earl of, an English statesman, was born in Lan¬ 
cashire Mar. 29, 1799. He was educated at Oxford, was 
elected to Parliament in 1820, and represented successively 
Preston, Windsor, and North Lancashire. In 1825 he mar¬ 
ried a daughter of Lord Skelmersdale. He supported the 
Reform bill, and became chief secretary for Ireland in 1830. 
In 1833 he entered the Whig ministry as secretary for the 
colonies, but he resigned office in 1834, and joined the con¬ 
servative party. He was secretary for the colonics in the 
cabinet of Sir Robert Peel from 1841 to 1845. Having 
been created Baron Stanley in 1844, he then passed into 
the House of Lords. He resigned office in 1845, because 
he was opposed to the repeal of the Corn laws, and soon 
after this date began to be regarded as the leader of the 
conservatives and protectionist party. He stood in the fore¬ 
most rank as a parliamentary debater. On the death of his 


















DERBY—DERRY. 


1327 


father, in 1851, he succeeded him as earl of Derby. He Avas 
prime minister from Feb. to Dec., 1852, and Avas then suc¬ 
ceeded by Lord Aberdeen. He Avas the leader of the oppo¬ 
sition during the administration of Lord Palmerston, Avho 
resigned in Feb., 1858. Lord Derby then formed a iicav 
ministry, in Avhich he Avas first lord of the treasury (pre¬ 
mier). He introduced a bill for electoral reform, but the 
House adopted an amendment offered by Lord John Rus¬ 
sell. Lord Derby therefore dissolved Parliament and ap¬ 
pealed to the country, but the liberals obtained a majority 
in the ocav House of Commons Avhich met in June, 1859, 
and Lord Derby then resigned office. He produced a trans¬ 
lation of Homer’s “Iliad” into blank verse (1865), Avhich 
is highly commended. Russell and Gladstone, Avhose Re¬ 
form bill had been rejected by the House of Commons, re¬ 
tired from poAver in June, 1866, and Lord Derby Avas then 
requested by the queen to form a ncAv ministry. He failed 
in his effort to draw several Whig or liberal leaders into a 
coalition. His principal colleague Avas Disraeli, who pre¬ 
pared a neAv Reform bill, passed in 1867, extending the 
right of suffrage to great numbers of the middle class. He 
resigned in Feb., 1868, and was succeeded by Disraeli. 
Died Oct. 23, 1869. 

Derby, Earls of (England, 1485), Barons Stanley 
(United Kingdom, 1832), and baronets (1627). The kings 
of Man Avere of this line from 1406 till 1505, when they 
took the title of lords of that island. The lordship of 
Man passed from the Derby family in 1735. — Edavard 
Henry Smith-Stanley, fifteenth earl, P. C., D. C. L., was 
born at Knowsley Park July 21, 1826. He was formerly 
styled Lord Stanley. He Avas educated at Trinity College, 
Cambridge, Avhere he graduated as first class in classics in 
1848, and Avas elected to Parliament in the same year. He 
was one of the most liberal members of the conservative 
party. In Feb., 1858, he entered the cabinet as secretary 
for the colonies, and in the ensuing May he became com¬ 
missioner for the affairs of India. He retired from office 
when the liberals came into power, in June, 1859. On the 
formation of a conservative ministry by his father in June, 
1866, he Avas appointed secretary for foreign affairs. He 
presided over the conference of the European powers which 
Avas held in London in May, 1867. He resigned Avith his 
colleagues in Dec., 1868, and inherited the title of earl of 
Derby in Oct., 1869. 

Derby (Elias IIasket), a merchant, born at Salem, 
Mass., Aug. 16, 1739, Avas a distinguished ship-owner, and 
in the Revolutionary war engaged extensively and success¬ 
fully in privateering upon British commerce. He after¬ 
wards established the American China and East India 
trade. Died at Salem, Mass., Sept. 8, 1799. —General 
Elias IIasket Derby, born at Salem Jan. 10, 1766, was 
also one of the founders of the India trade. He also began 
the manufacture of American broadcloth, and is believed 
to have been the first importer of merino sheep. Died 
Sept. 16, 1826. —Elias IIasket Derby, a son of the pre¬ 
ceding, born Sept. 24, 1803, graduated at Harvard in 1824, 
became an eminent laivyer and railroad president, and is 
well knoAvn for his contributions to the “Atlantic Monthly,” 
“ Edinburgh Review,” etc. He labored with zeal in the 
construction of iron-clad vessels during the civil war. 

Derby (George H.), an American officer and humorist, 
born in 1823 in Norfolk co., Mass., graduated at West 
Point in 1846, and July 1, 1860, captain of topographical 
engineers. He ser\ r ed in the Avar with Mexico 1846-47, 
engaged at Vera Cruz and Cerro Gordo (severely wounded 
and brevet first lieutenant); on various surveys and ex¬ 
plorations 1846-52; on improvement of San Diego harbor, 
Cal., 1853-54; on staff of commanding general and in 
charge of military roads department of the Pacific 1854-56; 
on coast survey 1856; and lighthouse engineer 1857-59. 
Under the nom-de-plume of “John Phoenix ” he was author 
of “ Phoenixiana, or Sketches and Burlesques,” I860, of 
“Squibob Papers,” 1860, and of numerous humorous effu¬ 
sions. Died May 15, 1861, at New York City, aged thirty- 
eight. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Derbyshire Spar, a name given to the fluoride of 
calcium or Fluor-Spar (which see). 

Dercyl'lidas [Aep/cvAAiSas], a Spartan commander sent 
to aid the Asiatic Greeks in their resistance to the Persian 
forces under Pliarnabazus and Tissaphernes, B. C. 399. 
lie captured a number of cities in Asia Minor, and built a 
Avail to protect the Greeks of the Chersonesus against the 
Thracians. He was superseded by Agesilaus, B. C. 396. 

Henry Drisler. 

Derecskc, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bihar, 
12 miles S. of Debreczin. Near it are several small lakes, 
in one of which pearls are found. Pop. about 6000. 

Derg, Lough (“Red Lake”), a small lake of Ireland 
between Donegal county and Tyrone. It encloses an isle 


called St. Patrick’s Purgatory, which is visited annually 
by nearly 12,000 devotees, and is the most celebrated place 
of pilgrimage in Ireland. 


Derin'da, apost-toAvnship of Jo Daviess co., Ill. P. 804. 

Derived Fimc'tioo, or Derivative, a term first 
used by Lagrange in his “ Calcul des Fonctions” to indi¬ 
cate the coefficient of h in the development of a function 
F(x + h) according to powers of h. It is itself a function of 
x, and is usually represented by the symbol F'(a;). In a 
similar manner the derived function of F'(x) is termed the 
second derived function of F(«), and is denoted by the 
symbol F”(x). By allowing h to diminish indefinitely, the 
identity of the derived function and the differential coeffi¬ 


cient 


dF(x) 

d X 


is at once seen. (See Differential Coeffi¬ 


cient, by Pres. F. A. P. Barnard, S. T. D., LL.D., L. H. D.) 

Der'matophytes [from the Gr. Seppa (gen. Sepparos), 
the “skin,” and <f>vrov, a “plant”], a term applied to cryp- 
togamic vegetable growths Avhich inhabit the cuticle or 
epidermis, and give rise to certain skm-diseases, such as 
favus, ringworm, etc. It is held that the various forms of 
these plants are in many cases transmutable into each other. 
For example, the favus plant, the barber’s-itch plant ( Acho - 
rion ), and the chloasma plant ( Microsporon ) are only forms 
of the yeast plant ( Torula or Cryptococcus cerevisise ). 

Derinop'tera [from the Gr. Seppa, “skin,” and nrepov, 
a “wing” or “fin”], an order of cartilaginous fishes cha¬ 
racterized by the absence of pectoral and A'entral fins. The 
rays of the vertical fins are soft and delicate, or imjiercepti- 
ble. The lancelet and lampreys are of this order. 

Derinoskel'eton [from the Gr. Seppa, “skin,” and 
tr/ceAerov, a “skeleton”], a term applied to the crustaceous, 
testaceous, or osseous integument Avhich covers many in¬ 
vertebrate animals, as the beetle and lobster; also some 
vertebrate animals, as the tortoise. It serves to protect the 
soft parts of the body, and affords points of attachment for 
the organs of locomotion. 

Der'iie, Der'na, or Bcl'c(l-al=-Soor (anc. Dann's), 
a seaport-town of Northern Africa, in Barca, is 1 mile from 
the Mediterranean; lat. 32° 46' N., Ion. 22° 41' E. Its 
harbor is insecure. During the hostilities between the 
U. S. and Tripoli this town Avas taken in 1805 by the 
American forces under Gen. Eaton. Pop. about 6000, 

Der'num, atoAvnship of Randolph co., Ark. Pop. 1764. 

De Rosset (John Arjiand), M. D., of Wilmington, 
N. C., Avas one of the most remarkable men of the medical 
profession of the U. S. Born in 1767 in North Carolina, 
of Huguenot descent, he graduated in Princeton College, 
studied under Dr. Rush (receiving the highest mark of 
distinction), practised his profession sixty-nine years, and 
died in the ninety-second year of his age. When eighty 
years old he said, “I have prescribed for six generations 
in one family.” His grandfather, father, himself and two 
sons have all practised medicine in Wilmington, N. C. Of 
him it has been said, “ In every respect he was a model of 
the Christian and gentleman.” Paul F. EA r E. 

Der'rick [said to be the name of a celebrated hangman 
at Tyburn in the seventeenth century; hence, literally, a 
“hanger”], a mechanical invention used for lifting ma¬ 
chinery, raising wrecks and other great weights, and 
transporting them from one place to another. A floating 
derrick or crane consists of an iron pontoon, divided into 
several watertight compartments, from the centre of Avhich 
rises a tripod mast. Across the mast turns a boom of 
great strength: one arm of the boom is furnished Avith 
fourfold blocks, through which pass the chains intended 
to hoist the weight; the chains pass over the top of the 
mast to the opposite end of the boom, and thence descend 
to the side of the A r essel, where they are connected Avith 
steam-engines in the pontoon. Water is admitted into the 
compartments of the pontoon as a counterpoise to the 
Aveight suspended. 

Der'ry, a township of Pike co., Ill. Pop. 1327. 

Derry, a township and post-village of Rockingham co., 
N. II. The village is on the Manchester and LaAvreuce R. R., 
11 miles S. E. of Manchester. It is the seat of Pinkerton 
Academy and of Adams Female Seminary (East Derr} 7 ). 
It has a national bank, and manufactures of lumber, boots 
and shoes, edge-tools, etc. Pop. of toAvnship, 1809. 

Derry, a township and borough of Dauphin co., Pa., on 
the Philadelphia and Reading It. R., 13£ miles E. ol Har¬ 
risburg. Pop. of township, 1824; of borough, 216. 

Derry, a township of Mifflin co., Pa. Pop. 1901. 

Derry, a township of Montour co., Pa. Pop. 888. 

Derry, a township and village of Westmoreland co., 
Pa., on the Pennsylvania It. R., 46 miles E. S. E. of Pitts¬ 
burg. Pop. 5170. 

























1328 


DERRYNANE—DESCARTES’ RULE OF SIGNS. 




Derrymane, a township of Le Sueur co., Minn. P. 759. 

Be Hussy (Rene Edward), an American officer, born 
in 1791 in New York City, graduated at West Point in 1812, 
colonel of engineers Mar. 3, 1863. In the war of 1812-15 
with Great Britain he was engaged on the Canadian fron¬ 
tier in the repulse of the British tlotilla at French Creek 
1813, battle of Chrystler’s Field 1813, attack on La Cote 
Mill 1811, battle of Plattsburg 1814, and after Gov. Pro¬ 
vost’s defeat was chief engineer of Gen. Macomb’s division, 
lie served in the construction of fortifications 1816-33; as 
superintendent of the Military Academy 1833-38; in building 
coast defences and improving harbors and rivers 1838-65 ; 
as member of various boards of engineers 1S48-64; and 
in command of corps of engineers 1858-61. Brevet brig¬ 
adier-general, Mar. 13, 1865, for long and faithful service. 
Died Nov. 23, 1865, at San Francisco, Cal., aged seventy- 
five. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Do Ruyter, a post-village of Madison co., N. Y., on 
the Auburn braneh of the New York and Oswego Midland 
R. R., about 25 miles S. S. E. of Syracuse. It has one 
newspaper, is the scat of the De Ruyter Institute, and is 
in a good hop and dairy section. Pop. 605; of De Ruyter 
township, 2009. John R. Beden, Pub. “ New Era.” 

Der'vish [from darvesh or dancesli, a Persian word 
signifying ‘‘poor;” also a “mendicant”], a name applied 
to the orders of Mohammedan monks in Persia, India, and 
Turkey. Some belong to communities, and reside partly in 
monasteries and partly outside; others wander solitarily 
through the land, living on alms and professing abstinence 
and holiness, but belonging to no particular sect. Their 
worship consists in prayers, mortifications, and religious 
dances. Dervishism is supposed to have taken its rise in 
Persian Soofeeism. 

Der'wentwater, a’so called Keswick Lake, a 

beautiful lake of England, in Cumberland, is an expansion 
of the river Derwent. It extends southward from Keswick, 
is 3 or 4 miles long and G miles wide. Its banks are rocky, 
abrupt, and picturesque. On this lake is a remarkable 
lloating island, covered with vegetation and full of air- 
bubbles, which render it buoyant. 

Derweutwater (James RatclifFe), Earl of, an Eng¬ 
lish Catholic and Jacobite, born in Northumberland June 
28,1689. He inherited the earldom from his father in 1705. 
In 1715 he raised a small body of his retainers to fight for 
the Pretender. He was one of the leaders of the army that 
was defeated at Preston (Nov. 13), and was taken prisoner. 
He was convicted of treason, and beheaded Feb. 24, 1716. 
His estates were given to Greenwich Hospital. 

Devzha'vin, written also Derzavm or Derjaviiie 

(Gabriel Romanovitcii), a celebrated Russian lyric poet, 
born at Kazan July 3, 1743. He entered the army in 1760, 
and was raised to the rank of colonel. Having gained the 
favor of the empress Catharine, lie was appointed secretary 
of state in 1791. He became a senator in 1793, imperial 
treasurer in 1800, and minister of justice in 1802. In 1810 
he published four volumes of poems, remarkable for origi¬ 
nality, sublimity, and for purity of sentiment. His most 
popular poem is an “ Ode to the Deity” (“ Oda Bogu ”), 
which lias been translated into English, Chinese, and other 
languages. Died July 6, 1816. 

Dcsaguade'ro (?. e. the “outlet”), a river of Bolivia., 
issues from Lake Titicaca, of which it is the only outlet. It 
flows southward about 190 miles and enters Lake Aullagas. 
It is the highest considerable river in America, for the ele¬ 
vation of its source is 12,846 feet, and that of its mouth is 
not much les3. 

Desaguadero, a vast table-land in Bolivia and Peru, 
between two ranges of the Andes. It extends from PotosI 
to the peak of Vilcanota, and is about 400 miles long. 
Area, estimated at 150,000 square miles. It contains the 
great lake Titicaca, 12,846 feet above the level of the sea, 
and Lake Aullagas, which has no outlet. 

Desaix de Veygoux (Louis Charles Antoine), an 
able French general, born near Riom, in Auvergne, Aug. 
17, 176S. He served with distinction in several campaigns 
of the army of the Rhine, and was rapidly promoted to the 
rank of general. In 1798 he took part in the expedition 
to Egypt. He gained a victory at Sidiman in October of 
that year, and completed the conquest of Upper Egypt in 
1769. He afterwards governed that province with such 
moderation and justice that the natives called him “ The 
Just Sultan.” In May, 1800, he returned to France, and 
hastened to join the army in Italy. The French were 
about to retreat at Marengo, when Desaix arrived with a 
reserve, and converted defeat into a decisive victory, but he 
waj? killed in this action, June 14, 1800. (See J. Lavallee, 
“ Eloge historique du General Desaix;” Thiers, “History 
of the Consulate.” 


De Sanctis (Luigi), a leader of the Protestant move¬ 
ment in Italy, born Dec. 31, 1808, was for some years a 
priest and professor of theology in Rome, became a Prot¬ 
estant in 1847, established the Protestant periodical “ Eco 
della Verita,” and was in 1868 appointed professor of the¬ 
ology at the Waldensian Seminary in Florence. He wrote 
a number of treatises against the Roman Catholic Church 
which have been translated into several languages. Died 
Dec. 31, 1869. 

Des Arc, a township of White co., Ark. Des Arc 
post-office is in Prairie co., and has one weekly newspaper. 
Pop. of township, 861. 

Desaugiers (Marc Antoine Madeleine), a French 
song-writer, born at Frejus Nov. 17, 1772. lie produced 
many popular songs and comedies or vaudevilles. He 
taught pianoforte-playing for some years in the U. S. 
Died Aug. 9,1827. 1 

Desault (Pierre Joseph), an eminent French surgeon, 
born Feb. 6, 1744, was a pupil of Antoine Petit. He was 
considered the most skilful French surgeon of his time, and 
had a very large practice. Died June 1, 1795. His doc¬ 
trines were published in the ‘(.Surgical Works” of his 
scholar, Bichat. (See Petit, “ Eloge dc Desault,” 1795.) 

Descartes (Rene), [Lat. Renatus Cartesius ], an illus¬ 
trious French philosopher and mathematician, born at La 
Ilaye, in Touraine, Mar. 31, 1596. He was educated at the 
college of La Fleche, where he acquired great proficiency 
in mathematics and astronomy, and formed an intimate 
friendship with Mersenne. He left college in 1612, dis¬ 
satisfied with the method and doctrines which were then in 
vogue. He resolved to efface from his mind all scholastic 
dogmas and the prejudices of his education, to reject the 
authority of books, and to admit only that which was con¬ 
firmed by reason and experiment. He entered the Dutch 
army in 1616, and that of the duke of Bavaria in 1619, but 
lie renounced the military profession in 1621. In pursuit 
of knowledge he travelled for several years in Italy, France, 
and other countries. He settled in Holland in 1629, in order 
to devote himself to the study of mathematics, astronomy, 
metaphysics, etc. He made important discoveries in alge¬ 
bra and geometry, which he announced in his “ Discourse 
on the Method of Reasoning Well and of Investigating 
Scientific Truth,” 1637 (“Discours sur la Metliode pour 
bien conduire sa Raison,” etc.). This work comprises ti-ea- 
tises on metaphysics, dioptrics, and geometry. He was the 
first who introduced exponents or applied the notation of 
indices to algebraic powers, and he gave a new and inge¬ 
nious solution of equations of the fourth degree. 

He published in 1641 “ Meditationes de Prima Philo- 
sophia,” which gave a wonderful impulse to philosophical 
inquiry. lie founded the superstructure of all positive 
knowledge on the basis of self-consciousness, or the rela¬ 
tion between consciousness and existence, which he ex¬ 
pressed in this phrase: “ Cogito, ergo sum”—“I think, 
therefore I exist.” He worked a greater change in meta¬ 
physical thought than any modern philosopher. The in¬ 
novations and paradoxes of the Cartesian philosophy ex¬ 
cited much hostility among the theologians and the disciples 
of Aristotle. His book was condemned by the college of 
cardinals at Rome. Among his other works is “ Principles 
of Philosophy” (“ Principia Philosophic,” 1644), in which 
he propounds his theory of the w’orld—that the sun is the 
centre of a vortex of an ethereal fluid, whose whirling mo¬ 
tion produces the revolution of the planets and other phe¬ 
nomena. The French court granted him a pension of 3000 
livres in 1647. Having been invited to her court by Chris¬ 
tina, queen of Sweden, he w T ent to Stockholm in 1649, 
where he died next year from a cold he caught by stand¬ 
ing in shoes and silk stockings on the cold marble floor, to 
teach philosophy early in the morning to the queen, still 
in bed. Complete editions of his works were published 
in 1690 and 1824. (See G. H. Lewes, “Biographical 
History of Philosophy;” Adrie^ Baillet, “Vie de Des¬ 
cartes,” 2 vols., 1691: Thomas, “ Eloge de Descartes,” 1765; 
G. H. Gaillard, “Eloge de Descartes,” 1765; Millet, 
“Descartes, sa Vie, etc.,” 1869.) 

Descartes’ Rule of Signs, a theorem by means of 
which the maximum number of positive or negative roots 
of an equation can be ascertained by inspection. The 
theory reduces itself essentially to this: The number of 
positive roots of an equation cannot exceed the number 
of variations in the signs of its coefficients, considered in 
their proper order. As an illustration, take the cubic equa¬ 
tion F(cc) = 3a- 3 — 7x 2 -I- llx + 4 — 0. Inasmuch as there arc 
but two variations of signs on passing from one extreme 
term to the other, through the intermediate ones, we con¬ 
clude that the cubic cannot have more than two positive 
roots. To ascertain the maximum number of negative 
roots, it is merely necessary to apply the same theorem to 
the equation which is obtained from the original by chanf- 
































DESCENT—DESEET. 


ing x into —a:. Thus the positive roots F(— cr) = — 3a: 3 
— 7x 2 — llx +4—0 are negative roots of the original cubic, 
and by Descartes’ rule their number cannot exceed one. 
This rule is a particular case of Fourier’s theorem. 

Descent', in law, is the succession to landed estate 
after the owner’s death, in cases where he has not made 
previous disposition of the estate. The rule of descent 
among the ancient Greeks was that the sons shared alike, 
and the daughters were dependent upon the bounty of their 
brothers. Among the Hebrews the eldest son had a double 
portion. With the ancient Romans sons and daughters 
shared alike. The former English law was very compli¬ 
cated, but has of late received important modifications. 
The law of primogeniture prevails as to males, while sev¬ 
eral females of equal degree claim as one heir. 

The subject of descent is regulated by positive rules in 
the U. S., and but few of general application can be stated. 
The following may be referred to as either of common 
recognition or having some peculiarity worthy of notice : 

1. Title by descent depends upon a rule of law. The 
person from whom the land descends is termed an ancestor; 
the one to whom it passes is called an heir, who has no 
volition in the matter. The estate is cast upon him, at the 
death of the ancestor, even against his consent. 

2. The persons to whom land descends are specifically 
designated by positive rule, and may be grouped as follows : 
(1) Lineal descendants. These, if of equal degree, take 
equally undivided shares or are “ tenants in common.” If 
of unequal degree, those who are more remote take the 
share that would have belonged to their parent if living. 
Thus, if the ancestor had left a son A, and C, D, E, children 
of a deceased son B, the grandchildren taken together 
would have the share of B. Those who inherit on equal 
terms are said to take per capita; those who take the shares 
of deceased persons, as above illustrated, are said to take 
per (stirpes. (2) Where there are no descendants, the next 
claimants would regularly be the parents (the father being 
frequently preferred to the mother), as they are removed 
but one degree from the intestate, while the nearest collat¬ 
eral relatives (brothers and sisters), reckoning according 
to the methods of the civil law (see Consanguinity), are two 
degrees. Still, if the estate descended to the intestate from 
maternal relatives, there are cogent reasons for preferring 
the brothers and sisters to the father, and the same reasons 
for preferring them to the mother where the land came from 
paternal relatives. Under these circumstances the law of 
some of the States gives the land to the father or mother 
for life only, as the case may be, and the ostate itself to the 
brothers and sisters. (3) If there be no father or mother 
or descendants, the land will descend to the brothers and 
sisters equally, with tho same distinctions as to taking per 
capita and per stirpes as noticed under subdivision (1). 
(I) The next claimants are either grandparents, or, if these 
be passed over, as may be the case, uncles and aunts and 
their descendants. In the instance of uncles, etc. the law 
of some of the States distinguishes between the case where 
the intestate acquired the estate by his own act and where 
he obtained it by inheritance. In the former instance the 
descent would take place to maternal and paternal uncles 
and aunts and their descendants, without discrimination ; 
in the latter, the uncles, etc. belonging to that branch of 
the family from which the estate was derived would have 
the preference. More remote claimants need not here be 
noticed. (5) Distinctions sometimes are recognized between 
relatives of the whole blood and those of tho half blood, so 
that the latter are excluded from inheriting. An illustra¬ 
tion is found in the law of New York, under which, for ex¬ 
ample, a brother of the half blood on the maternal side 
{f rater uterinus) cannot inherit land from a brother having 
a different father, which land such brother had inherited 
from his father, as the claimant is not in that case of the 
blood of the immediate ancestor from whom the estate was 
derived by the brother from whom inheritance is claimed. 

( Wheeler vs. Clutterbuch, 52 New York Reports 67, 1873.) 
(6) Posthumous children inherit as if they had been born 
during the life of the ancestor. They must be born alive, 
and of such a state of development that by the laws of 
physiology they are capable of living. (7) The English 
common law will prevail unless abrogated by statute. 
Thus, in New York, where the special cases referred to in 
the statute of descents do not occur, primogeniture still is 

recognized. . 

3. Illegitimate relatives cannot in general inherit, though 
in a number of the States they may under certain qualifica¬ 
tions, particularly from the mother and maternal relatives. 

4. The law of the State where the land is situate governs 
descent, without reference to the law prevailing where the 
owner resides. 

5. In general, all interests in and rights to land are gov¬ 
erned by the rules of descent. Ihus, should the intestate 
have only a right of action, or be the owner of a future 

84 _ 


1329 


estate, or have simply a beneficial ownership, such as an 
estate held in trust, his rights and qualified estates of this 
nature will be transmitted under the same general rules as 
if he were legal owner in possession. This proposition is 
in some respects in marked contrast with the doctrines of 
the common law. This system required the ancestor to have 
been at some time seized or to have an estate of which 
seizin could be affirmed. (See Seizin.) Accordingly, if 
he had acquired only a right of action, this could not de¬ 
scend from him, nor could in general an estate of which he 
had acquired the ownership, subject to a life estate in an¬ 
other. Still, if he had once been seized, the unlawful de¬ 
privation of his seizin would not prevent the operation of 
the law of descent. 

6. In a number of the States aliens cannot inherit. This 
is a rule of the English common law. In other States it 
has been abrogated. 

(Accurate knowledge of the law of descents in any State 
can only be acquired by an examination of its statutes. 
See also Washburn “ On Real Property,” and Blackstone’s 
and Kent’s “ Commentaries.”) T. W. Dwight. 

Deschainhault, a post-village of Portneuf co., Que¬ 
bec (Canada), on the N. side of the St. Lawrence River, 
45 miles above Quebec. It has a convent of Sisters of 
Charity. Pop. about 500. 

Deschamps (Emile), a French poet and dramatist, 
born at Bourges Feb. 20, 1791. He produced in 1818 two 
successful comedies, entitled “ Selmours et Floriau” and 
“Le Tour de Faveur.” In 1828 he published a volume of 
poems called “ French and Foreign Studies.” IK con¬ 
tributed to the journals some prose tales. Died April, 
1871. 

Desclianel (Martin), a French author, born at Paris 
Nov. 14, 1819, published in 1850 “ Catholicisme et Social- 
isme,” and articles for the republican press which caused 
his banishment. Returning in 1859, he became an editor 
of the “ Journal des Debats.” He printed “Les Courte- 
sanes de la Grece ” (1854), “ Histoire de la Conversation” 
(1858),Physiologie des 6crivains et des artistes ” (1864), 
and “Etudes sur Aristophane” (1867). 

Descriptive Geom'etry is a branch of practical 
mathematics, the object of which is to obtain representa¬ 
tions on plane surfaces of accurately-defined bodies in 
space, for the investigation of their metrical as well as de¬ 
scriptive properties. It differs from ordinary perspective, 
inasmuch as by the latter method the actual dimensions 
of a body cannot be ascertained from its representation. 
In descriptive geometry points in space are represented by 
their orthographical projections on two planes at right 
angles to each other, called the planes of projection. It is 
usual to suppose one of the planes of projection to be hor¬ 
izontal, in which case the other is vertical; and the projec¬ 
tions are called horizontal or vertical according as they are 
on the one or the other of these planes. Any curve in space 
will be represented by two curves in the horizontal and ver¬ 
tical planes, and a curved surface by the corresponding 
representations of certain points and curves on that sur¬ 
face. Thus, a plane would be completely defined by its 
intersections with the planes of projection. The intersec¬ 
tions of a line or surface with the planes of projection are 
called its traces. Again, a sphere may be represented by 
the projections of its horizontal (or vertical) great circle; a 
cylindrical surface by its trace on one of the planes of pro¬ 
jection, and the projection of any generator on the other; 
a cone by the projections of its vertex, and by one of its 
traces, etc. Although applicable to sculpture and all me¬ 
chanical arts, it is especially useful to civil and military 
engineering. Among the best works on the subject are 
those of Monge, Hachette, Lacroix, and Leroy. 

Des'eret, a name given by the Mormons to the Terri¬ 
tory of Utah (which see). The Mormons claim that in 
the language of their sacred books this word means 
“ honey-bee.” 

Des'ert [from tho Lat. deserta, neut. plu. of desertus, 
passive part, from desero, desertum , to “ forsake,” “ for¬ 
saken ” places], a term generally used to designate a bar¬ 
ren or uninhabited place, but applied more particularly to 
the vast sandy and stony plains of Africa and Asia. In 
every region of the globe plains arc to be found which, 
though resembling each other in their grand outlines, ex¬ 
hibit, with the different latitudes in which they are placed, 
a corresponding variety of character. There arc consider¬ 
able tracts of desert land in Nevada, Arizona, and other 
parts of the IT. S. Such are the “ Bad Lands ’ L. ot the 
Rocky Mountains; these are not plains, but are. gene¬ 
rally peculiarly broken and rocky surfaces. 1 he principal 
desert of South America is the nearly rainless Atacama 
region. The most striking feature of North Africa is its 
immense deserts; of these the chief is tho Sahara, or The 
Desert , so called by way of eminence. 



















1330 DESERTER—DES MOINES. 


The great deserts of Africa are separated from those of 
Asia only by the valley of the Nile and the Red Sea, the 
sandy zone extending throughout the breadth of the old 
continent from Western Africa to 120° E. longitude. 

In many parts the dreary waste of loose and hardened 
sand is broken by low hills of naked sandstone or by tracts 
of arid clay, and occasionally it is enlivened by verdant isles 
or oases, which serve as resting-places for caravans. It 
has been computed to cover an area of 6,500,000 square 
miles, but the Asiatic portion of this tract includes many 
chains of mountains and fertile valleys. It is character¬ 
ized by arid wastes of sand or clay, sometimes with saline 
incrustations on the surface. Except the Nile, the Eu¬ 
phrates, the Indus, and the Oxus, there are no large rivers 
in a region which embraces almost a fourth part of both 
Africa and Asia. This portion of Central Asia forms a 
series of elevated plains 6000 miles in length from E. to W. 
“ Some of these plains,” says Humboldt, “ are covered with 
herbage; others produce only evergreen saliferous plants ; 
but a great number glitter from afar with a saline efflores¬ 
cence that crystallizes in the semblance of lichens, and 
covers the clayey soil with patches like new-fallen snow.” 

In the Old Testament four words are employed, all of 
which are sometimes, not uniformly, rendered in our Eng¬ 
lish version “ desert,” but no one of them denotes a sandy 
waste. Desert, in the Hebrew sense, is simply untilled 
pasture-land, which may be covered with a luxuriant vege¬ 
tation. In the New Testament, epij/aos has the same sense, 
which of course is quite at variance with classic usage. 

Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Deser'ter [for etymology see preceding article], a sol¬ 
dier or seaman who abandons the public service without 
permission. In England this crime was formerly punish¬ 
ed by death, but is now left to the discretion of a court- 
martial. In time of war in the U. S. deserters from the 
army and navy may be sentenced to death, or otherwise 
punished as a court-martial may decide. For desertion in 
times of peace the punishment is much less severe. 

Desfontaines (Rene Louiche), a French botanist, 
born in Feb., 1752. In 1798 he published “ Flora Atlantica” 
(2 vols. 4to), which treats of the plants of Africa. He dis¬ 
covered the difference in the growth and structure of en¬ 
dogenous and exogenous plants. Died Nov. 16, 1883. (See 
A. P. de Candolle, “ Notice Historique sur la Vie de M. 
Desfontaines,” 1834.) 

Desgenettes (Nicolas Rene Dufriche), M. D., Baron, 
a French physician, born at Alengon May 23, 1762. He 
was chief physician of the army of Italy in 1795-96, and 
was physician to the grand army during the empire. He 
wrote'several medical works. Died Feb. 3, 1837. 

Desha/, a county in the S. E. of Arkansas. Area, 750 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Mississippi 
River, and intersected by the Arkansas and White rivers. 
The surface is an alluvial plain, partly liable to inunda¬ 
tion ; the soil is fertile. Cotton is the chief crop. Capital, 
Napoleon. Pop. 6125. 

Deshoulieres (Antoinette du Ligier de la Garde), 
a French poetess, was born in Paris about 1634. She was 
distinguished for wit and beauty, and was married in 1651 
to an officer named Deshoulieres. Among her works are 
“ Les Moutons,” an idyl, eclogues, odes, “ Moral Reflec¬ 
tions,” and a tragedy called “ Genseric.” Died Feb. 17, 
1694. 

Des'iccant [Lat. desiccans, from de, intensive, and 
siccans, pres. part, of sicco, siccatum, to “ dry”], in medi¬ 
cine, an application used to check the secretion of a mem¬ 
brane or ulcer. 

Desiccation [Lat. desiccatio, from de, intensive, and 
sicco, siccatum, to “dry”] is a process of extracting 
moisture by chemical agency or by the use of air and heat. 
Chloride of calcium, quicklime, fused carbonate of potash, 
and oil of vitriol are used for this purpose. 

Design' [Fr. desstn, from the Lat. designo, to “mark 
out”], a plan or scheme formed in the mind; an intention, 
purpose, or project. In the fine arts, the idea formed in 
the mind of an artist on any particular subject; a prelimi¬ 
nary work, either in outline or color, in which the concep¬ 
tion of the artist is indicated and partly expressed. The 
design ought to exhibit the whole composition and draw¬ 
ing of the work, though the last only in a general way. 
The design ought thus to be a correct, though not a com¬ 
plete, representation of the future work. A sketch differs 
from a design in that the former is usually applied to a first 
drawing of an object placed before an artist; the latter to 
a first drawing of an object or subject which he has im¬ 
agined or modified by his faculty of invention. Unity of 
design, combined with variety of form and embellishment, 
is essential to a perfect work of art. In architecture, the 
term design is applied to a drawing mathematically cor¬ 


rect, but in which the effects which will ultimately be pro¬ 
duced by distance and by light and shade are altogether 
ignored. Design is also an important term in philosophy, 
and is used as synonymous with final cause. 

Design, Schools of, are institutions where ornamental 
artistic or mechanical drawing is taught. The most perfect 
institutions of the kind are in Europe, but most of our large 
cities have similar schools. Massachusetts gives free in¬ 
struction in these branches. One of the largest schools of 
design is in the Cooper Union building in New York. 
The “National Academy of Design” is a beautiful build¬ 
ing in the Venetian style, at the corner of Fourth Avenue 
and Twenty-third street, New York. This academy was 
founded in 1828, and the present building (which cost 
$150,000) was completed in 1864. There is in it an annual 
exhibition (from April to July) of paintings by artists con¬ 
nected with the institution. 

Desima, a Japanese island in the Bay of Nangasaki, 
contains the factories of the Dutch. 

Desinidia'cea? [from Desmidium, one of the genera], 
an order of the green Algae, closely approaching the Dia- 
tomacese, but differing by the absence of siliceous frustules 
and also by their green endochrome. These plants consist 
of connected joints, and they are increased by the addition 
of two half-joints in the centre. It is said fecundation 
sometimes takes place by the conjugation of two plants by 
means of simple contact. The spores take a variety of 
forms, and from them the new plant is produced by the 
formation of a vertical partition in the centre, and the sub¬ 
sequent growth of two new half-joints. The Dosmidiacem 
are abundantly found in limpid fresh water, causing a 
green scum, which under the microscope presents an aston¬ 
ishing variety of beautiful forms. The late Prof. J. W. 
Bailey of West Point made them a subject of special obser¬ 
vation. The number of species is very great. 

Des Moines, de-moin', a river of the U. S., and the 
largest that traverses the State of Iowa., rises in the S. W. 
part of Minnesota. It flows in a S. S. E. direction to the 
capital city of Des Moines, below which it runs nearly 
south-eastward until it enters the Mississippi River at the 
S. E. extremity of Iowa, about 4 miles below Keokuk. 
Length, estimated at 500 miles. It flows through fertile 
undulating prairies, and through a large field of bituminous 
coal. 

Des Moines, a county in the S. E. of Iowa. Area, 
408 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missis¬ 
sippi River, and on the S. W. by the Skunk River. The 
surface is diversified by woodlands and fertile undulating 
prairies. Cattle, grain, wool, hay, and dairy products are 
extensively raised. Of manufactories those of wagons are 
most numerous. Coal and limestone are abundant here. It 
is intersected by the Burlington and Missouri River R. R. 
and the Burlington Cedar Rapids and Minnesota R. R. 
Capital, Burlington. Pop. 27,256. 

Des Moines, a township of Boone co., Ia. Pop. 5241. 

Des Moines, a township of Dallas co., Ia. Pop. 802. 

Des Moines, a township of Jasper co., Ia. Pop. 2105. 

Des Moines, a township of Jefferson co., Ia. Pop. 1280. 

Des Moines, a township of Lee co., Ia. Pop. 1104. 

Des Moines, a township of Mahaska co., Ia. Pop. 
1101 . 

Des Moines, a township of Pocahontas co., Ia. Pop. 
256. 

Des Moines, the capital of Iowa and seat of justice for 
Polk co., is situated on the Des Moines River at the mouth 
of the Raccoon, on the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R., 
i 357 miles W. of Chicago, 174 miles W. of Davenport, and 
138 miles E. of Omaha, on the Des Moines Valley It. R., 
connecting it with Keokuk and Fort Dodge, on the Des 
Moines and Indianola R. R., on the Des Moines and W in¬ 
terset R. R., and on the Des Moines and Minnesota Nar¬ 
row-gauge Railway. The State capital was removed in 
1855 to this place, at that time called Fort Des Moines. 
A new State-house is now in the process of erection, the es¬ 
timated cost of which is $3,000,000. The State library con¬ 
tains some 20,000 volumes. The State arsenal, a large 
building, contains, besides military equipments for the 
State, the tattered flags of all Iowa regiments engaged in 
the war of 1861-65, and numberless other trophies and 
valuables of interest. The city has twenty or more churches; 
three national and three private banks; a U. S. court-house 
and post-office, built of marble and costing $250,000; and 
a large county court-house; and it has complete gasworks, 
a street railroad, the Holly system of waterworks, numer¬ 
ous handsome residences, and other public improvements 
necessary in first-class modern cities. Three daily, seven 
weekly, and three monthly papers are published here. 
Mines of excellent coal arc oxtonsively worked. There is 













1331 


DES MOINES—DETERMINANT. 


plenty of water, plenty of timber, and plenty of coal. 
Numbers of manufactories of various kinds are in opera¬ 
tion. Des Moines has increased rapidly during the last 


decade, and is the largest city in the interior of the State. 
Pop. in 1860, 3965; in 1S70, 12,035. 

R. P. Clarkson, Ed. “Iowa State Register.” 



New State Capitol (Des Moines, Iowa). 


Des Moines, a township of Van Buren co., Ia. P. 1078. 

Des Moines, a township of Jackson co., Minn. P.548. 

Des Moines, a township of Clarke co., Mo. Pop. 1235. 

De Soto, a township and post-village of Jackson co., Ill., 
on the Illinois Central R. R., 63 miles N. of Cairo. P. 1433. 

De Soto, a post-village of Dallas co., Ia., on the Chi¬ 
cago Rock Island and Pacific R. R., 22 miles W. by S. of 
Des Moines. 

De So'to, a parish in the N. W. of Louisiana. Area, 
910 square miles. It is bounded on the S. W. by the Sa¬ 
bine River. The soil is fertile. Cotton and corn are raised. 
Capital, Mansfield. Pop. 14,962. 

De Soto, a county in the N. W. of Mississippi. Area, 
900 square miles. It is drained by the Coklwater Creek. 
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Cotton is 
the staple product, but corn, cattle, wool, and tobacco are 
raised. It is intersected by the Mississippi and Tennessee 
R. R. Capital, Hernando. Pop. 32,021. 

De Soto, a post-village of Jefferson co., Mo., on the St. 
Louis and Iron Mountain R. R., 43 miles S. W. of St. Louis. 
It has one weekly newspaper. 

De Soto, a post-village of Washington co., Neb., is on 
the Missouri River and the Omaha and North-western R. R., 
26 miles N. N. W. of Omaha. It is on the site of a former 
Mormon settlement. Pop. of township, 288. 

De Soto, a post-village of Vernon co., Wis., on the 
Mississippi River halfway between La Crosse and Prairie 
du Chien. It has one weekly newspaper. 

De So'to (Hernando), a Spanish explorer, born in 
Estreinadura in 1500. He explored in early youth the 
coasts of Guatemala and Yucatan. Having a high com¬ 
mand under Pizarro, he contributed largely to the conquest 
of Peru. He conducted an expedition from Spain to Flor¬ 
ida in 1539, and discovered the Mississippi River. He 
died in Louisiana June 5, 1542. 

Des'sau, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of 


Anhalt, is on the Mukle near its entrance into the Elbe, 80 
miles by railway S. W. of Berlin. It is well built, and con¬ 
tains a fine ducal palace, a town-hall, a theatre, a college, 
and a normal school. Here are many paintings of the 
early German masters. It has manufactures of woollen 
cloth, hosiery, hats, tobacco, etc. Pop. in 1871, 17,464. 

De Stael-XIolsteiii (Anne Louise Germaine). See 
Stael, De. 

Dester'ro, or Nos'sa Senho'ra do Dester'ro (7. e. 

“Our Lady of Desterro”), a seaport of Brazil, capital of 
the province of Santa Catharina, is on the island of Santa 
Catharina, 460 miles S. W. of Rio Janeiro. It has a trade 
in feathers and artificial flowers; is defended by several 
forts, and has a good harbor; lat. 27° 36' S., Ion. 48° 40' 
W. Pop. 8000. 

Dcter'minant. This term is used to express a certain 
symmetrical algebraic function of n 2 quantities of very 
frequent recurrence in the theory of equations, and still 
more in the higher geometry. A definition of the term, 
with a statement of a few of the elementary properties of 
determinants, and of some of their most simple applica¬ 
tions, is all that can be attempted here. 

If we take the product 0162 ^ 3 . ..n n of n factors, and per¬ 
mute the subscript indices in every possible way, we shall 
have 1.2.3....n products. If now we give to each one of 
these several products a plus sign whenever the number of 
interchanges of indices necessary to produce it trom the 
above product is even, and a minus sign when the number 
of interchanges is odd, and add the results, we have the 
determinant of the n 2 quantities 01 , b\, c\, ...n 1 , < 12 , l> 2 , c 2 , 
...« 2 , 03 , & 3 , etc. etc. 

The determinant is usually written thus : 

«i b\ c\ ... «i 
<*2 b’l Ci ... «2 
«3 h CS ... »3 


bfl Cyl ... Ujl 

but it is also sometimes written 2 ± (ai& 2 C 3 -..»n), whore tho 

























































































































DETERMINATE PROBLEM—DE TROBRIAND. 


ooz 


product written in the parenthesis is that of the letters 
along the diagonal of the matrix, beginning at the upper 
left corner. 

The following equations and propositions will servo to 
illustrate the definition. Most of them may be verified by 
inspection, or by actual expansion according to the rule: 


1 . 


2 . 


«i h 
a 2 b 2 
oi bi ci 
or2 bz C2 


2 ±(«i?> 2 ) = ( 1162 — a^b\. 
2±(ai&2C3)* 


az bz 03 

= «i 

Z>2 C 2 

— 02 

bi Cl 

+ 03 

[Z>1 Cl 



bz cz 


bz cz 


|&2 c 2 


3. 


= a\b'zcz 
a\ b\ ci d\ 
Cl2 bz C 2 dz 
«3 Z>3 C3 c/3 
a i hi C 4 . d± 


= 2±(«1&2C3<^4)> 


«1 

b 2 C 2 dz 

— a 2 

b\ ci d\ 

+ 03 

Z >1 ci c/i 

— 04 

b\ ci c/i 


bz cz dz 


bz cz dz 


bz cz dz 


bz cz dz 


Z >4 C 4 di 


64 C 4 c /4 


bi C 4 c /4 


bz cz dz 


=a\b<iczd^—aibzcidz+aibzcidz—a\bzC'id±-ra\b±czdz—a\lHCzdz 
—ciib\czd±-\-a<ib\Cidz—a‘ibzCid\ J ra.<Lbzc\di : —a2bi(:\dz J ra2biCzd\ 
+azbic<j,di—azbicid<i+azb‘2.cidi—azb2c\di+azbic\d2—nzb^c2di 
— aibiczdz+aibiczdz — aibzczd\-\-aibzCidz — a^bzcidz+a^bzczdi 

4. The determinant is a linear function of each element. 

5. A single interchange of two adjacent rows, or two ad¬ 
jacent columns, changes the sign of the determinant. Two 
such interchanges leave the determinant unaltered. 

6 . The value of a determinant is not affected by chang¬ 
ing the rows into columns and the columns into rows. 

7. The determinant is zero when two columns are equal, 
or when two rows are equal. 

8 . The product of two determinants is a determinant. 

9. The differential co-efficient of a determinant with 
respect to any element is a determinant. 

An idea of the use of determinants in the theory of 
equations and in geometry may be formed from the state¬ 
ment of a few propositions : 

1. If aix+biy+ciz=d\, azx+bzy+czz=dz, and ctzx+bzy+ 


"5 + 


( d\b2Cz) 


<*3 


2 ± (U 1 & 2 C 3 )’ 


r 


2 ±(aic/ 2 c 3 ) 
2 ± ^a\bzcz) 


and 


dz, then x = 

2 ±(aife 2 ^s) 

2 ±(oi&2C3) 

2. Similar values are obtained for n unknown quantities 
from n linear equations. 

3. Three straight lines whose equations are of the form 

' a b c 

ax + by + c = 0 intersect in one point if a 1 b’ c’ 

a"b"c" 

4. The area of a triangle, the rectangular co-ordinates of 

x\ y\ 1 

whose angles are x\y\, xzyz, a *3 yz, is one-half of ? 2 y 2 1 • 

xz yz 1 

straight line 
Hence, the equation of a 

* y 1 


= 0 . 


5. These three points of No. 4 are in 
when the determinant is zero. 


line passing through two given points is 


P y' 1 

x"y"\ 


= 0 . 


minant 


6 . The volume of a pyramid in terms of the rectangular 
co-ordinates of its four summits is one-sixth of the deter- 

xi yi zi 1 

X2 y2 22 1 

xz yz 231 

a*4 iji z 4 1 

7. The equation of a plane passing through three given 
x y z 1 

" 1 0 . 


points is 


y 


oc r 

x" y" z" 1 
x'"y"'z'" 1 


There is in all parts of the mathematics, but especially 
in higher geometry, a frequent recurrence of symmetrical 
forms which may be written as determinants. Hence, 
great importance attaches to all propositions respecting 
them. There is an elementary explanation of determinants 
in the last three chapters of Todhunter’s “ Theory of Equa¬ 
tions.” Their properties and use in plane geometry are 
developed in full in Whitworth’s “ Trilinear Co-ordinates.” 
In Salmon’s “ Higher Algebra ” there is an introduction 
to the theory of linear transformations, a large department 
of mathematical science which has been created within the 
past few years. H. A. Newton. 

Deter'minate Piob'lem, a problem in geometry 
which admits of a limited number of solutions, an indeter¬ 
minate problem being ono which admits of an indefinite 
number of solutions. Thus, the problem, “ Given the base, 
perimeter, and area, to construct the triangle,” is determi¬ 
nate, there being in general but four solutions. By omitting 


one of the three data, however, the problem becomes inde¬ 
terminate. For instance, an infinite number of triangles 
having the same perimeter can be constructed on a given 
base. The problem, however, is not perfectly indeterminate, 
for the vertices of all such triangles are restricted to a cer¬ 
tain locus— i. e. the ellipse whose foci are the extremities 
of the given base. In general, the omission of one of the 
conditions or data which render a problem determinate leads 
to a local problem. 

Det’inue [an Old Fr. word, from detenir, to “detain,” 
literally, that which is “ detained ”], in law, an action for 
the recovery of a personal chattel wrongfully detained, or 
its value, with damages and costs. The action is for the 
recovery of a specified article; the chattel therefore must 
be of such a character that it can be distinguished from 
others, as a horse. The plaintiff must have an absolute or 
special property in the article at the time he brings the 
action. The defendant must have had possession at some 
time, which should have been acquired in some lawful 
manner, as by contract or finding. The nature of the pos¬ 
session must also continue. As if a finder should sell the 
thing found before action, the proper remedy would be an 
action for conversion, though if he had not sold there 
might be a case of detinue. 

Det'mold, a town of Germany, capital of the princi¬ 
pality of Lippe-Detmold, on the Werra, 42 miles S. W. of 
Hanover. It has a fine castellated palace, a theatre, a pub¬ 
lic library, and a celebrated teachers’ seminary; also manu¬ 
factures of linen and woollen goods. Its people are remark¬ 
able for culture and taste. Near this town is the battlefield 
where Hermann destroyed the Roman army of Varus in 9 
A. D. Pop. in 1871, 0469. 

De Tocqueville (Alexis Charles Henri Clerel), a 
renowned French statesman and political economist, was 
born in Paris July 29, 1805. He studied law, and in 1827 
became judge-auditor at the tribunal of Versailles. In 1831 
he was commissioned to investigate the penitentiary sys¬ 
tems of the U. S., which he visited in company with Gus¬ 
tave de Beaumont. In 1832, having returned from the 
U. S., he resigned his office, and in 1835 he gave to the 
public the first volume of his work “De la Democratic en 
Amerique” (“On Democracy in America,” 4 vols., 1835- 
40), which met with a brilliant success. About this time he 
married Mary Mottly, an English lady. De Tocqueville, 
though himself opposed to democracy, foretold its rapid 
growth in the world. In 1838 he tvas made a member of 
the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, and in 1839 
he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. He became a 
member of the French Academy in 1841. In 1848, having 
been elected to the Constituent Assembly, he lent his sup¬ 
port to the cause of order. In 1849 he was minister of for¬ 
eign affairs from June 2 to Oct. 31. The coup-d’ 6 tat of 
Dec. 2, 1851, drove him from the public service. He pub¬ 
lished in 1856 his “ L’ancicn Regime et la Revolution” 
(“ The Old Regime and the Revolution ”), a very excellent 
work. Died at Cannes April 15, 1859. 

Detona/tioil [from the Lat. detono, detonatum, to 
“ thunder ”], combustion with explosive rapidity, accom¬ 
panied with sound and light, as in the case of gunpowder, 
percussion-caps, and fulminating-powder. When a mix¬ 
ture of oxygen and hydrogen is inflamed by the electric 
spark, it is said to detonate. Detonation is due either to 
the sudden liberation and expansion of large volumes of 
gases, or to the sudden contraction of gaseous matter and 
its reduction to a liquid or solid state. 

Detri'tus [from the Lat. de, “down” or “off,” and 
tero, tritum , to “ rub ”], literally, that which is rubbed or 
worn off, a geological term applied to material composed 
of small portions of a rock or a deposit which have been 
detached and removed to a distance by the action of any 
abrading power. 

De Trobriand (Philip Regis), an officer of the IT. S. 
army, born in Tours, France, Juno 4,1816, and a French bar¬ 
on by inheritance; “ Bachelier-es-iettres” (University of 
Orleans), “ Licenci 6 -en-droit” (legal faculty of Poitiers). 
During the recent civil war he entered the service as colonel 
of the Fifty-fifth New York Volunteers, July, 1861; com¬ 
manding brigade (Third corps) 1862-63; appointed brig¬ 
adier-general volunteers Jan., 1864; commanded defences 
of New York May, 1864; commanded brigade (Second 
corps) July, 1864; brevet major-general volunteers com¬ 
manding division (Second corps) April, 1865; appointed 
colonel Thirty-first Infantry U. S. A., July, 1866; brevet 
brigadier-general U. S. A., Mar., 1867; commanding tho 
district of Dakota Aug., 1867; colonel Thirteenth In¬ 
fantry U. S. A., and commanding tho district of Montana, 
Mar., 1869 ; Camp Douglass 1870 ; Fort Steele 1871; now 
in command of the district of Green River. Author of 
“ Les Gentilshommes de l’Ouest,” Paris, 1841; “ Quatro 













































DETROIT—DEUTERONOMY. 


1333 


ans de Campagnes a l’armGe du Potomac,” Paris et Brux¬ 
elles, 18G7 ; editor and publisher of the “ Revue du nouveau- 
monde, ’ New York, 1849—50 ; editor of the “ Courrier des 
Etats-Unis,” New York, 1854-61. 

Detroit', a post-township of Pike co., Ill. Pop. 1056. 

Detroit, a post-village of Dickinson co., Kan., on the 
Kansas Pacific R. R., 19 miles S. W. of Junction City. 

Detroit, a township and post-village of Somerset co., 
Me., on the Maine Central R. R., 30 miles W. of Bangor. It 
has three churches and manufactures of leather and lumber. 
Pop. 690. 

Detroit [Fr. Detroit, “the strait”], the metropolis of 
Michigan, and capital of Wayne co., is situated on the W. 
bank of the Detroit River, 18 miles from Lake Erie and 7 
miles from Lake St. Clair, in lat. 42° 19' 53” N., Ion. 82° 
58' W. The Detroit River, forming the boundary-line be¬ 
tween the U. S. and Canada, is of varying width, being 
half a mile broad opposite the city, and of great depth, 
forming the most perfect harbor on the whole chain of lakes. 

Detroit is the centre of the Michigan system of railroads, 
being the terminus of the Michigan Central and its branches, 
also of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, the Detroit 
Eel River and Illinois, the Detroit Lansing and Lake 
Michigan, the Detroit and Milwaukee, the Detroit and 
Bay City, the Grand Trunk of Canada, the Great Western 
of Canada, and the Canada Southern, which crosses the 
river at Trenton, a few miles below, and has a branch run¬ 
ning to the city. The site upon which the city is built rises 
from the edge of the river, the inclination being gradual, 
at the rate of about 58 feet per mile, affording the most per¬ 
fect drainage, which has been taken advantage of by the 
building of a system of sewers over eighty miles in length, 
costing $1,264,890, and permeating every quarter of the 
city. 

The city is abundantly supplied with water, there being 
151 miles of pipe laid up to the close of 1872, at which 
period the aggregate cost of construction of the water¬ 
works amounted to $1,338,047. It was found that the in¬ 
crease of population was so rapid as to give promise of 
presently exceeding the capacity of the works, and the 
legislature of 1873 authorized the loan of $1,000,000 for 
the purpose of extending them. Plans for this have been 
completed, and the work is in progress. The city has a 
perfectly disciplined paid fire department, with steam ap¬ 
paratus, etc., costing $243,479, and also a fire-alarm tele¬ 
graph. The annual expense of the department is a little 
over $72,000.* The city has a uniformed metropolitan po¬ 
lice force, with a central and two sub-stations in communi¬ 
cation with all quarters of the town by means of a police 
telegraph. The expenses of the force for 1872 were $92,000. 
There are 25 public school buildings, valued at $547,410, 
with 138 separate schools of all grades, 177 teachers, and 
an enrolment of 11,764 pupils. The annual expenses of 
the schools are $170,228. There are, besides, 3 seminaries, 
27 Roman Catholic parish schools, 9 German Lutheran 
schools, and a large number of private institutions, in¬ 
cluding 3 commercial colleges. The assessed valuation 
of the real and personal property of the city in 1872 
was $23,615,674; the cash valuation for the same year 
$78,718,913. Since then an additional ward has been 
added, and the valuation has risen to $86,743,947. There 
are two gas companies which supply the city, and the num¬ 
ber of street lamps at the close of 1872 was 1137. There are 
eight handsome public drinking-fountains, but the principal 
work of art adorning the city is the Michigan Soldiers’ and 
Sailors’ Monument, designed by Randolph Rogers, and built 
of bronze and granite at a cost of $58,000. The struc¬ 
ture is fifty-five feet high, surmounted with a colossal 
bronze allegorical statue of “ Michigan.” The chief public 
building is the city hall, situated on the Campus Martius 
and facing upon four streets, being in length 200 feet, in 
width 90. The style is Italian, with mansard roof, and a 
central tower 180 feet high. The walls are built of Am¬ 
herst sandstone. The whole cost of the building, regarded 
as one of the finest in the West, was $600,000. The house 
of correction is also a very fine building, and has attained 
a national and European reputation. The value of it is 
fixed at upwards of $300,000, and it has a capacity for 450 
prisoners. The county jail is a substantial structure. There 
are eight lines of street railway in operation, and two lines 
of transit railway and one of street railway in process of 
construction. The public library contains 22,136 volumes, 
the bar library 3280 volumes, the mechanics’ library 4000, 
and the Young Men’s library 12,000. There are 2 medical 
colleges, 4 public hospitals, 4 orphan asylums, 2 foundling 
and women’s hospitals, 1 insane asylum, a house of shelter 
for magdalens, 1 industrial school, and 1 old ladies’ home. 
There are 59 churches and 4 chapels. Some of these church 
edifices are noble specimens of architecture. The city con¬ 
tains 3 national, 5 savings, and 16 other banks. It is the 


seat of the U. S. circuit court for the sixth circuit, and the 
U. S. district court tor the eastern district of Michigan, 
the Wayne county circuit court, the superior court, the 
recorder’s and the probate court of Wayne county. The 
U. S. custom-house for the port of Detroit and the internal 
revenue office are located here, as are also the principal 
office of the U. S. lake survey, the department in charge 
of the lake lighthouses, and the head-quarters of the mili¬ 
tary department of the lakes. Fort Wayne, designed to 
be the most extensive American fortification on the north¬ 
ern frontier, is located just below the city, commanding 
both it and the river. Though in an incomplete state, it 
includes a series of batteries protected by earthworks, and 
is garrisoned by a force of infantry and artillery. There 
are eight cemeteries—two, Woodmere and Elmwood, being 
upon locations of great natural beauty, are also embel¬ 
lished by skilful landscape gardening and monuments of 
taste. 

The manufacturing advantages of the city are great, and 
these have been taken advantage of by the establishment 
of many foundries, blast-furnaces, copper-smelting works, 
locomotive and car works, shipyards, drydocks, iron-bridge 
works, safe manufactories, furniture and other establish¬ 
ments using wood as the chief material, and the most ex¬ 
tensive tobacco and cigar factories in America, producing 
each year goods worth many millions of dollars. There 
are a number of pork-packing establishments, and the 
shipping trade of the city in produce and manufactures is 
very large. There are 8 daily papers published in the city, 
3 being in the German language, 3 tri-weeklies, 11 week¬ 
lies, and 4 monthlies. 

The present site of the city was occupied by Indian vil¬ 
lages at the period of the discovery of the country. In 
1610 it was first visited by the French, and remained under 
their dominion until 1762. The first legitimate settlement 
was made in 1701, at which time a fort was erected called 
Ponchartrain, the first governor being the Sieur de la Motte 
Cadillac; and from time to time emigrants were sent here 
by the French government. In 1763 the British assumed 
possession, erecting fifteen years later a fort. In 1787 its 
government was assumed by the U. S., Gen. Arthur St. Clair 
being the first governor. In 1812 it was surrendered to the 
British, and was retaken in 1813. The history of Detroit 
is intimately connected with the history of the whole North¬ 
west. Three different sovereigns have claimed its allegiance, 
and since the U. S. have held it thrice has its government 
been transferred. It has twice been besieged by Indians, 
once captured in war, and once totally consumed by fire. 
It has been the scene of one surrender, fifty pitched battles, 
and twelve bloody massacres. For the rest, the streets are 
broad and well paved, handsomely embellished with shade 
trees, and ornamented with beautiful private residences, 
while the business quarters are well built up with lofty, 
substantial, and beautiful structures. Pop. 79,577. 

W. E. Quimby, Managing Ed. “ Free Press.” 

Detroit, a post-village of Becker co., Minn., on Detroit 
Lake and the Northern Pacific R. R., 206 miles W. of Du¬ 
luth. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Detroit River issues from Lake St. Clair, flows nearly 
southward, forms part of the boundary between Michigan 
and Canada, and enters Lake Erie. It is about 24 miles 
long, and from half a mile to one mile wide. It is navi¬ 
gable for vessels of the largest size. 

Dett'va, a town of Hungary, in the county of Solil, 20 
miles E. of Altsohl. Pop. in 1869, 10,035. 

Deiica'lion [Gr. Aev/caAiW], a personage of the Greek 
mythology, was a son of Prometheus and the husband of 
Pyrrha, and was the father of Amphictyon and Hellen. 
According to tradition, he saved himself and his wife from 
a deluge by building a ship or ark, which, when the water 
subsided, rested on Mount Parnassus. They threw stones 
behind them, which were transformed into men and women. 

Deu'el, a county in the E. of Dakota, is partly bounded 
on the E. by Big Stone Lake. The surface is elevated ; part 
of the soil is fertile. This county contains a part of the 
Coteau des Prairies. Pop. 37. 

De'iis ex Mach'ina [a Latin phrase, signifying a 
“god from a machine,” alluding to the machinery of the 
theatrical stage], an expression borrowed from the classic 
stage. The poets of Greece often had recourse to the in¬ 
tervention of a god, who descended by stage machinery, 
and brought about a speedy denouement of the plot. The 
proverb has also been applied to .savants or philosophers 
who, unable to explain facts by known laws, have had re¬ 
course to the aid of a supernatural power. 

Denteron'omy [Lat. Denteronomium; Septuagint Gr. 
tevTepovofj.i.oi', the “duplicate law,” from Seurepo?, “second,” 
and vop. 09, “law”], the last book of the Pentateuch, con¬ 
sisting, in part, of a restatement of the law, as given in 














1334 DEUTZ 


Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, and containing also, be¬ 
sides special commands and admonitions not previously 
given, an account of the death of Moses. The authorship 
of this book has been traditionally assigned to Moses, but 
of course the part relating to his death is not supposed to 
have been written by himself, and indeed the last four chap¬ 
ters may have been added by another hand. Of late years 
much critical labor, has been bestowed upon the book, and 
its Mosaic authorship has been both assailed and defended 
with great learning and ability. 

Deutz (anc. Tuitium), a fortified town of Prussia, on 
the right bank of the Rhine, opposite Cologne (which see). 
It is the terminus of a railway extending to Minden. Pop. 
in 1871, 11,881. 

Deut'zia [named in honor of Deutz, a botanist], a 
genus of shrubs belonging to the order Saxifragacem, and 
indigenous in Northern India, China, and Japan. Deutzia 
scabra has leaves very rough, with siliceous hairs, which 
are used in Japan for polishing wood, and which are most 
beautiful objects under the microscope. Deutza gracilis, 
a hardy shrub with elegant white flowers, is much culti¬ 
vated in American gardens. 

Deux Ponts. See Zweibrucken. • 

Dev, or Dew, a Persian word, akin to the Sanscrit deva 
(a “ god ”), but applied in the system of Zoroaster to a class 
of demons supposed to be servants of Ahriman. (See Zo¬ 
roaster, Religion of.) 

Deva, da/va, a Sanscrit word signifying “god,” and 
forming a part of many names in Hindoo mythology, as 
Kamadeva (“the god of love”), Mahadeva (the “great 
god”), a name of Siva (which see). 

Devall’s Bluff, a post-village, capital of Prairie co., 
Ark., on White River and the Memphis and Little Rock 
R. R., 48 miles E. of Little Rock. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper and two schools, and is situated in a cotton and corn¬ 
growing region. 

James II. Balding, Ed. White River “Journal.” 

D evanagari. See Sanscrit, by Prof. W. D. Whitney, 
Ph.D., LL.D. 

Devapraya'ga, a town of Northern Ilindostan, in 
Gurwhal, in lat. 30° 8' N., Ion. 78° 39' E., is at the junc¬ 
tion of the Alakananda and Bhagiratlii, which unite to 
form the Ganges. As the origin of that sacred river, it is 
considered a holy place by the Hindoos, and is visited by 
multitudes of pilgrims. Here are two ancient temples. The 
permanent population consists of about 1000 Brahmans. 

Dev'asaw, a township of Grant co., Ark. Pop. 357. 

Devel'op [Fr. developper\, in algebra, to expand an 
expression by writing out in full the operations previously 
indicated by symbols. In geometry to develop a curve or 
a curved surface is to find an equivalent straight line or 
plane surface, by rolling the former on the latter. The 
equivalent straight line or plane surface thus formed is 
called the development of the curve or curved surface rolled. 

Development. See Evolution, by Prof. H. IIarts- 
horne ; also Darwinism, by Profs. Youmans and Seelye. 

Development of the Embryo. See Embryology, 
by Prof. J. C. Dalton, M. D. 

Dev'ens (Charles, Jr.), an American jurist, born in 
Charlestown, Mass., April 4, 1820, graduated at Harvard in 
1838, and was admitted to the bar in 1841; member of the 
Massachusetts State senate 1848-49; U. S. marshal for the 
district of Massachusetts 1849-53. On the outbreak of the 
recent civil war he entered the service as major of the third 
battalion of Rifles Massachusetts volunteers, was appointed 
colonel Fifteenth Massachusetts Aug., 1861, and was pro¬ 
moted brigadier-general April 15, 1862; brevet major-gen¬ 
eral U. S. volunteers for gallant and meritorious conduct at 
the capture of Richmond, April 3, 1865 ; military governor 
East district of South Carolina Sept., 1865, to June, 1866, 
when he was mustered out of the service; wounded at 
Ball’s Bluff, Fair Oaks, Chancellorsville, and Cold Harbor. 
Throughout the war Gen. Devens was conspicuous for iral- 
lantry and ability, from the early engagement at Ball’s 
Bluff' till the closing scenes at Appomattox Court-house, 
lie was appointed associate justice of the superior court of 
Massachusetts in 1867, which position he retained until 
Oct., 1873, when he was appointed associate justice of the 
supreme court of Massachusetts, which office he now holds. 

Dev'enter [Lat. Daventria ], a fortified city of Hol¬ 
land, in the province of Overyssel, is on the river Yssel, 
about 60 miles E. by S. from Amsterdam. It is surrounded 
by walls or ramparts, and has a good harbor. It contains 
a large town-house, a court-house, five or more churches, 
and several hospitals. It is the seat of an old Catholic 
(Jansenist) bishopric. About 600,000 pounds of butter 
are annually exported from this place. It has manufac- 


DEVIL. 


I tures of carpets, hosiery, etc., and iron-foundries. Pop. 
18,218. 

De Vcre (Maximilian Schele), LL.D., a writer, born 
in Sweden Nov. 1, 1820, emigrated to the U. S., and became 
in 1844 professor of modern languages and belles-lettres in 
the University of Virginia. Among his works arc “ Out¬ 
lines of Comparative Philology” (1853) and “ Stray Leaves 
from the Book of Nature” (1856). 

Devereaux, a township of Washington co., Me. P. 8. 

De Vesci, Viscounts (1776), Barons Knapton (1750, 
Ireland), and baronets (1698).— Thomas Vesey, third vis¬ 
count, born Sept. 21, 1803, elected a representative peer 
for Ireland in 1857, was M. P. for Queen’s county 1835-37 
and 1841-52, and succeeded his father Oct. 19, 1855. 

Devi, a Sanscrit word signifying “goddess,” but ap¬ 
plied par excellence as a surname to Parvati (which see). 

Deviation of the Compass is the variation of a 
ship’s compass from the true magnetic meridian, caused by 
the proximity of iron. In iron ships it depends upon the 
direction, with regard to the magnetic meridian, in which 
the ship was built. It is least when the ship has been built 
with her head to the south. Armor-plated ships should bo 
plated with the head in the opposite direction to that in 
which they are built. Two methods are employed by which 
this variation is attempted to be neutralized : the first is by 
ascertaining the actual variation in every position of the 
ship with regard to the magnetic meridian, and working by 
a table of errors; the other is by introducing on board 
ship masses of iron and magnets to neutralize exactly the 
action of the ship’s magnetism. The latter method is now 
very generally employed. It is very important that the 
ship should not be hurried out immediately for a long voy¬ 
age, and that her compasses should be readjusted before 
sailing. 

Deviation of the Plumb-Line has been especially 

observed near mountains, in which case it is evident that 
the attraction of the mountain lias drawn the line out of 
the perpendicular. Maskelyne took advantage of this fact 
in his experiments to determine the density of the earth. 
(See Density of the Earth.) The same phenomenon has 
been observed on plains, and is probably caused either by 
great caves under ground, or by large masses of matter 
near the surface greatly surpassing in density the average 
of the earth near the point of observation. 

De View, a post-township of Woodruff co., Ark. Pop. 
1204. 

De Vigny (Alfred Victor), Comte, a distinguished 
French author, was born at the castle Loches Mar. 27, 1799. 
In 1828 he published a collection of poems called “ Poe'mes 
antiques et modernes.” He also produced (1826) “Cinq- 
Mars, or a Conspiracy under Louis XIII.,” which was very 
favorably received; “ Stella, or the Blue Devils,” a narra¬ 
tive ; and the tragedy of “ Chatterton ” (1835). Died Sept. 
18, 1863. 

Dev'il [Persian dev or dew, a “demon;” Ger. Teufel; 
Gr. Sid/3o\os(i.e. “accuser” or “slanderer”); Lat. diab- 
olus; Fr. dinble], the name among Christians of any evil 
spirit, but especially of the chief of evil spirits, nearly cor¬ 
responding in the latter sense to the Hebrew Satan and 
the Mohammedan Iblis or Shytan. It is proposed in this 
article to limit ourselves chiefly to a notice of the popular 
and prevailing notions entertained of the devil in Europe 
during the Middle Ages and later; referring the reader to the 
article Satan for a consideration of those graver questions 
respecting the character of the great Enemy of mankind 
which may be said to belong more properly to theology. 
The Greek for devil appears to be derived from the charac¬ 
ter of Satan as presented in the book of Job—that of a fault¬ 
finder or slanderer. In the Middle Ages, and even later, 
the devil was supposed to possess in the highest perfection 
every kind of skill and knowledge—a skill and knowledge 
resembling that of man, indeed, but immeasurably surpass¬ 
ing it in degree. The devil was believed to possess tran¬ 
scendent skill in all the magic arts, and when a man of 
genius had accomplished some wonderful feat which seemed 
clearly above the unassisted powers of the human mind, it 
was commonly supposed (especially if he was not pre¬ 
eminently a religious man) that he had been either assisted 
by the devil, or that the latter had performed for him the 
entire work; in which case, of course, some promise (such 
as the final surrender of the soul of the assisted party) or 
reward had to be given as an equivalent for his services. 
This idea, once almost universal in Europe, furnished the 
basis of the legend respecting Dr. Faustus. 

It would seem probable that the.prevailing superstitions 
of the Middle Ages respecting the devil might have been 
considerably influenced by the notions entertained of the 
character of Loki, the god of evil in the Norse mythology. 
As Loki is said to have taken various forms—sometimes 













DEVIL’S DUST—DEW. 1335 


of a woman and sometimes of one of the lower animals— 
in order more successfully to deceive, so the devil was 
supposed to assume at one time the appearance of a most 
beautiful woman to mislead and ruin the souls of men, at 
another time to take the form of a hunted animal to draw 
the too eager pursuer into danger and death ; but all his 
wiles were of course lost upon those who looked to Heaven 
for help, and called upon the protecting saints. 

J. Thomas. 

Devil’s Dust. See Shoddy. 

Devil-worshippers, or Yezidees, a sect of relig¬ 
ionists, founded by one Yezeed, and living in Armenia, 
Koordistan, etc. They number more than 200,000. They 
treat the devil with great respect, because they believe he 
will be l’estored to heaven, where they wish him to be their 
friend. There are various other sects of devil-worshippers. 
One in Southern India pays especial reverence to a malig¬ 
nant being called Sattan. 

Devi'zes, a parliamentary borough of England, in Wilt¬ 
shire, on the Avon and Ivennet Canal, 22 miles N. N. W. 
of Salisbury. It stands on an eminence near the northern 
limit of Salisbury Plain. It has two old churches, a large 
corn exchange, silk-throwing mills, and manufactures of 
snuff and malt. Here are ruins of a castle of the time of 
Henry I. Pop. in 1871, 6840. 

Dev'on [Lat. Devonia], a county of England, is bounded 
on the N. by the Bristol Channel, and on the S. by the Eng¬ 
lish Channel. Area, 2590 square miles. The surface is 
mostly hilly, and in some parts rocky. The highest point, 
called Yes Tor, has an altitude of 2050 feet. Granite, 
magnesian limestone, Devonian and Silurian rocks occur 
here; also copper and tin. It is drained by the rivers 
Exe, Dart, Tamar, and Torridge, the estuai-ies of which 
form good harbors. The climate of the S. coast is mild; 
the soil is generally fertile. This county produces good 
apples, and is famous for cider. The Red Devon bi'eed of 
cattle is highly esteemed. The chief exports are butter, 
cheese, cattle, and sheep. The lai’gest towns are Exeter 
(the capital), Plymouth, Devonport, Tiverton, Tavistock, 
and Dartmouth. Pop. in 1871, 600,814. 

Devo'nian Age [named by Mui'chison from Devon- 
shii’e, England, where rocks of this age abound], in geol¬ 
ogy, the time succeeding the Silurian and preceding the 
carboniferous age. The American Devonian rocks are as¬ 
signed to five divisions or periods of time, known as the 
Oriskany (the oldest), the Corniferous, the Hamilton, the 
Chemung, and the Catskill periods. The Devonian sti'ata 
of Europe are variously divided in different countries. The 
old red sandstone of Scotland and Herefordshire was for 
sometime described by English geologists as the only group 
of l’ocks separating the Silurian system from the carbonif¬ 
erous. The discovery made by Mui’chison and Sedgwick, 
that the calcareous slates and limestones of Devonshire 
were contemporaneous with the old red sandstone and with 
the Eifel series, was a great step in advance, and tended to 
fix important positions in geological classification. Nor¬ 
mandy presents Devonian rocks in a characteristic state. 
The system is also largely developed in Russia, as well as 
in Western New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, In¬ 
diana, etc. The Devonian rocks of the U. S. are rich in 
fossil shells of mollusks and in fishes. “ In the Devonian 
age/’ says Dana, “the fishes are the dominant type.” (See 
Geology, by Prof. J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F. R. S.) 

Dev'onport (before 1824 called Plymouth Dock), a 
maritime and fortified town of England, is in Devonshire, 
on the E. shore of the estuary of the Tamar (called the 
Hamoaze), 2 miles W. N. W. of Plymouth. It occupies 
high ground, and has ramparts defended by batteries. It 
derives its importance from the dockyard and naval ai’senal, 
which is pei’haps the largest in Great Britain. The national 
works occupy about 350 acres, and the dockyard comprises 
six building-slips for vessels of various rates. Here are 
also five docks, and manufactures of sails, ropes, anchors, 
soap, etc. Devonport has a residence for the port-admiral, 
a military hospital, and a large barrack. It retui’ns two 
members to Parliament. Pop. of municipal borough in 
1871, 50,094; of parliamentary borough, 64,684. 

Dew [Sax. cleaio; Ger. Thau], moisture deposited during 
the night on the surfaces of bodies exposed in the open 
air. Dew is produced by the condensation of watery 
vapor from the atmosphere. Its deposition is, however, 
unaccompanied by the appearance of any visible mist. 
Such mist appears when the condensation takes place 
within the body of the air itself, and is then called “fog” 
in the lower regions of the atmosphere, and “cloud ” in the 
higher. Dew occurs only at the sui’faces of contact with 
solids, the air above remaining clear. The deposit of dew 
is caused by the cooling of the bodies bedewed, and this 
takes place in consequence of the radiation ol heat into 


open space, without any equivalent return. Experiments 
on vaporization have shown that when a liquid is exposed 
in a confined space to a constant temperature, vapor will 
be foi-med from it until the density reaches a certain deter¬ 
minate limit, invariable for the temperature, but greater as 
the temperature is higher, after which evaporation will 
cease. This maximum density is called the density of 
satxxration, or the density due to the tempei-ature. Air is 
said to be saturated with vapor when the density of the 
vapor in it is the density due to its temperature. Should 
the temperature of a body of air in this condition be in the 
slightest degi-ee depressed, the air will be supersaturated, 
and sonxe of the vapor will be condensed, forming a visible 
cloxxd. But if, the temperature remaining the same, a body 
colder than the air be immersed in it, condensation will 
occur on the surface of that body only, and the air itself 
will remain clear. If, as is usual in the atmosphere, the 
air contain vapor without being saturated, it may be 
brought by cooling to a temperatui-e at which it will be sat¬ 
urated, and then any further cooling will produce precipi¬ 
tation, as in the case before supposed. Or if the tempera¬ 
ture of air in this condition l’emain unchanged, a body 
colder than the air immersed in it may produce condensa¬ 
tion, provided its temperature be as low as the point of 
saturation, or lower, but not otherwise. This point is 
called the dew-point. (See Dew-Point.) 

During the day the loss of heat by bodies on the earth, 
in consequence of radiation, is more than compensated by 
the amount received dii'ectly or indirectly from the sun. 
After sunset all such bodies begin to cool, but they cool 
with xxnequal rapidity, because of their different relations 
to heat. The atmosphei'e cools very slowly. Badly con¬ 
ducting solids cool rapidly. Good conductors, if in contact 
with the earth, cool much less rapidly, because the heat they 
lose by radiation is, to an extent proportioned to their con¬ 
ducting power, restored by conduction from the earth be¬ 
neath. If of small mass, however, and insulated by bad 
condxxctors, their temperature falls much more rapidly. So 
soon as the cooling process has depi'essed the temperature 
of any object down to the point of saturation for the vapor 
pi’esent in the air, dew will begin to form upon it. Some 
bodies are bedewed vei-y soon, others moi'e tardily, and 
some occasionally escape altogether. Grass, which radi¬ 
ates well and conducts ill, is in the first class; wool and 
woollen stuffs, cotton, linen, silk, wood, earth, gravel, stone, 
and metals conti-act dew with less and less facility, nearly 
in this order. Polished metallic surfaces often remain 
untarnished by moistui’e throughout the night. In clear 
nights the difference of tempei’ature shown by two ther¬ 
mometers, one lying on the gi'ass and the other suspended 
in the open air a few feet above, is often 8° or 10° F., and 
is sometimes much greater. In one instance, Mr. Glaisher 
(Phil. Trans., 1847) obseiwed a difference as great as 28^° 
F., the lower thermometer lying on raw wool. 

Clouds check the fonnation of dew by obstructing radi¬ 
ation, or restoring by counter-radiation some of the heat 
lost. When the sky is wholly overcast no dew is foi-med. 
Neither is any dew formed beneath an open shed or shelter, 
though the earth ai’ound may be so distinctly wet as to 
leave the form of the roof distinctly marked on the ground. 
Facts of this kind were long supposed to prove that the 
dew descends like rain—a belief of which the ti'ace is still 
preserved in the expression “the falling of the dew.” 
Even a very slight sci’een, as a sheet of paper or a cambric 
handkei’chief, spread out above an object exposed in the 
open air, will protect it perfectly against moisture from 
dew. Wind also prevents the formation of dew, by con¬ 
tinually changing the strata of air in contact with the 
colder solids. The nights most favorable to the deposit of 
dew are those in which the sky is quite clear and the air 
quite motionless. The profuseness of the deposit will de¬ 
pend, however, upon the hygrometric state of the atmo¬ 
sphere. Y 

Very various and very absurd notions pi’evailed among 
the ancients in regard to the dew. By some it was sup¬ 
posed to descend from the stars, and to be possessed of 
wonderful virtues. The Roman ladies were accustomed to 
use it as a cosmetic, supposing it superior to all other ap¬ 
plications for the improvement of the complexion. If 
the cosmetics of those days were no better than those in 
use at present, their opinion was doubtless correct, though 
the grounds of it were mistaken. The true theory of dew 
was first clearly set forth by William Charles Wells, a phy¬ 
sician of London, in his famous “Essay on Dew,” first 
published in 1814. This has been many times reprinted, 
and still continues to be the standard authority on the sub¬ 
ject./' ■ F. A. P. Barnard. 

Dew (Thomas R.), an American writer, born in Vir¬ 
ginia Dec. 5, 1802. He became professor of political econ¬ 
omy anil history in William and Mary College in 1827, and 
president of that institution in 1836. He published, besides 













1336 


DEWEES—DEWSBURY. 


other works, an “ Essay in Favor of Slavery” (1832), and 
a “ Digest of the Laws, Customs, etc. of Ancient and Mod¬ 
ern Nations” (1853). Died in Paris, France, Aug. 6, 1846. 

Dewees' (William Potts), M. D., an American physi¬ 
cian, born at Pottsgrove, Pa., May 5, 1768. He practised 
in Philadelphia, and became in 1834 professor of obstetrics 
in the University of Pennsylvania. He published, besides 
other works, an excellent “System of Midwifery” (1825). 
Died May 20, 1841. 

Deweese, a twp. of Mecklenburg co., N. C. P. 1606. 

De Wet'te (Dr. Wilhelm Martin Lebereciit), an 
eminent German biblical critic, born at Ulla, near Weimar, 
Jan. 14, 1780. In 1810 he became professor of divinity at 
Berlin, and as a preacher and writer he soon won a wide 
fame. He was a moderate rationalist in his opinions. In 
1821 he was called to the chair of divinity at Bale, where 
he died June 16, 1849. Among his works are a “ Commen¬ 
tary on the Psalms” (1811), “Jewish Archaeology ” (1814), 
“Christian Dogmatics” (1813-16), “Introduction to the 
Old and New Testaments” (1817-26), translated by Theo¬ 
dore Parker and Frederick Frothingham (1843-58), “Les¬ 
sons on Morality” (1824). (See accounts of De Wette by 
Schenkel (1849), Hagenbach (1849), and Lucike (1850).) 

Dew'ey, a township of La Porte co., Ind. Pop. 202. 

Dewey (Charles Augustus), LL.D., was born at Wil- 
liamstown, Mass., Mar. 13, 1793, and graduated at Wil¬ 
liams College in 1811. He began the practice of law in his 
native town in 1814, and removed to Northampton about 
1826. He became judge of the Massachusetts supreme 
court in 1837, and retained the office till he died, Aug. 22, 
1866. 

Dewey (Chester), D. D., LL.D., an American botanist 
and teacher, born at Sheffield, Mass., Oct. 25, 1781. He 
was for many years professor of natural philosophy at 
Williams College, became principal of the Collegiate Insti¬ 
tute at Rochester, N. Y., in 1836, and in 1850 professor of 
chemistry in the University of Rochester. He wrote many 
excellent monographs on the Carices of North America, etc. 
for the “American Journal of Science” and other publica¬ 
tions. Died Dec. 15, 1867. 

Dewey (George), U. S. N., born Dec. 26, 1837, in Ver¬ 
mont, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1858, became a 
lieutenant in 1861, a lieutenant-commander in 1865, and a 
commander in 1872. He served on board the steamer 
Mississippi a't the passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip 
and capture of New Orleans, April 24, 1862, and is thus 
handsomely spoken of in the official report of his com¬ 
manding officer, Commander Melanchthon Smith : “ I have 
much pleasure in mentioning the efficient service rendered 
by Executive Officer George Dewey, who kept the vessel 
in her station during the engagement, a task exceedingly 
difficult from the darkness and the thick smoke that envel¬ 
oped us from the fire of our vessel and the burning gun¬ 
boats.” He was on board the Mississippi when she was 
lost in attempting to pass the batteries at Port Hudson, 
Mar. 14, 1863, and gained the commendation of his com¬ 
mander a second time by his “coolness” on this trying 
occasion. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Dewey (Orville), D. D., LL.D., an eminent Unitarian 
minister, born in Sheffield, Mass., Mar. 28, 1794. He gradu¬ 
ated at Williams College in 1814, and preached in the pul¬ 
pit of Dr. Channing as his assistant for nearly two years. 
He was pastor at New Bedford from 1823 to 1833, after 
which he preached about fourteen years in the city of New 
York. In 1858 he became minister of the New South 
church in Boston. He is an original thinker and an im¬ 
pressive pulpit-orator. He has produced, besides other 
works, “The Unitarian Belief” and “The Education of 
the Human Race.” His lectures before the Lowell Insti¬ 
tute, on “ The Problem of Human Destiny,” embrace a 
very able discussion of profoundly interesting questions. 

De Wint (Peter), an English painter in water-color, 
born in 1783. He was the son of Harry De Wint, an 
American who went to England and married. He was a 
distinguished member of the Old Water-color Society, and 
was formed by the influences that produced Turner, I). Cox, 
Stanfield, and Prout. His subjects were usually of a very 
simple character, but treated in a large and masterly style. 
He died in 1849. Clarence Cook. 

De Witt, a county in Central Illinois. Area, 450 square 
miles. It is drained by Salt Creek. The surface is nearly 
level, and is diversified by prairies and forests; the soil is 
fertile. Grain, cattle, wool, and dairy products are raised. 
The most numerous manufactories are those of wagons and 
carriages. Coal is found here. The county is intersected by 
the Illinois Central and the Gilman Clinton and Spring- 
field R. lls. Capital, Clinton. Pop. 14,768. 

De Witt, a county in S. Central Texas. Area, 898 
square miles. It is intersected by the Guadalupe River. 


The surface is one half prairie; the soil is generally fertile. 
Cattle, corn, cotton, wool, pork, and tobacco are raised. 
Capital, Clinton. Pop. 6443. 

De Witt, a post-vill age, capital of Arkansas co., Ark., 
on the left bank of the Arkansas River, about 70 miles S. 
E. of Little Rock. It has one weekly newspaper. 

De Witt, a township and post-village of De Witt co., 
Ill., on the Gilman Clinton and Springfield R. R., 53 miles 
N. E. of Springfield. Pop. 1061. 

De Witt, a post-village in Clinton co., la., on the Dav¬ 
enport and St. Paul R. R. where it crosses the Chicago and 
North-western R. R., 25 miles N. of Davenport. It has 
one weekly newspaper, two banks, and some manufactures. 
Pop. 1749; of De Witt township, 3186. 

Ed. “ Observer.” 

De Witt, a post-township of Clinton co., Mich. P. 1306. 

De Witt, a post-village of Grand River township, Car- 
roll co., Mo. Pop. 317. 

De Witt, a post-township of Onondaga co., N. Y. 
It contains several mineral springs and caves, and has a 
number of manufacturing villages and live churches. Pop. 
3105. 1 

De Witt (Cornelius), a Dutch naval officer and states¬ 
man, born at Dort June 23, 1623, was an elder brother of 
John, noticed below. He had a high command under Do 
Ruyter in 1666, when he burned the English shipping in 
the Thames. He distinguished himself in the naval battle 
of Solebay in 1672. In the same year he was falsely ac¬ 
cused of complicity in a plot to poison the prince of Orange. 
He was imprisoned, tried, and acquitted, but was murdered 
by a mob (Aug. 20, 1672) as he was coming out of prison. 

De Witt (John), an eminent Dutch statesman and re¬ 
publican, born ,at Dort Sept. 25, 1625. He was a leader of 
the party which was hostile to the House of Orange, or 
wished to reduce the power of the prince of Orange, who 
was sujiported by the populace and clergy. De Witt, who 
opposed the war against England, was elected grand pen¬ 
sionary of Holland in 1653. He had the chief control of 
the government during the minority of William, prince of 
Orange (who was afterwards king of England). In 1654 
he negotiated with Cromwell a treat}' of peace, in which a 
secret article stipulated that no member of the Orange fam¬ 
ily should ever be stadtholder. He was re-elected grand 
pensionary for a term of five years in 1658, and again in 
1663. In 1665, Charles II. of England declared war against 
the Dutch, whose fleet entered the Thames and burned 
some shipping at Chatham. De Witt conducted this war 
with ability, and it was terminated by a treaty of peace in 
July, 1667. He joined England and Sweden in a triple 
alliance against Louis XIY. of France, but the latter soon 
seduced Charles II. to become his ally, and he invaded 
Holland with a large army. De Witt being unable to repel 
the enemy, who captured several towns, was blamed for 
these misfortunes, and lost his popularity. William of 
Orange was chosen general-in-chief and stadtholder. De 
Witt went to a prison to visit his brother Cornelius, who 
had been tried and acquitted. They were both murdered 
by the populace at the prison Aug. 20, 1672. (See P. 
Simon, “ J. de Witt en Zijn Tijd,” 3 vols., 1832-35; Ma¬ 
caulay, “ History of England,” vol. i., cli. ii.) 

De Witt/ville, a post-village of Chautauqua township, 
Chautauqua co., N. Y. Pop. 262. 

Dew-point, the temperature at which watery vapor 
in the air begins to be condensed. Its determination is of 
great importance to the meteorologist, as by comparing it 
with the actual temperature he can tell the relative hu¬ 
midity of the air. He knows that at the actual tempera¬ 
ture the air would be saturated if it contained a certain 
quantity of moisture; and also that the actual quantity 
present is only such as would suffice to saturate air at the 
observed dew-point; the ratio of this last quantity to the 
former expresses the relation between the actual humidity 
of the air and the humidity of saturation at the observed 
temperature. The dew-point in the evening further shows 
the temperature near which the minimum during the night 
is likely to be. When the temperature has fallen to the 
dew-point, the vapor in the air will be condensed, and an 
amount of heat will be set free which will raise the tempera¬ 
ture of the air. The temperature will again sink by radia¬ 
tion somewhat below the dew-point; dew will be formed, 
and the temperature again be raised. 

Dews'bury, a manufacturing town of England, in the 
West Riding of Yorkshire, on the river Calder, 8 miles 
S. S. W. of Leeds. It is on the Lancashire and Yorkshire 
Railway, and is connected with London by another rail¬ 
way. It has manufactures of blankets, carpets, and coarse 
woollen goods made from shoddy (?. e. refuse rags worked 
over). There are collieries and iron-works in the vicinity. 
Pop. in 1871, 24,773. It is 1 mile S. of Batley, which has 















DEXTER—DHOLKA. 


1337 


extensive manufactures of army cloths and coarse woollen 
goods. Pop. of Batley in 1871, 20,868. 

Dex'ter, a post-village of Dallas co., Ia., on the Chicago 
Rock Island and Pacific R. R., 35 miles W. by S. of Des 
Moines. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Dexter, a post-village of Penobscot co., Me., on a 
branch of the Maine Central R. R., 70 miles N. E. by N. 
from Augusta. It has manufactures of woollen goods, and 
several mills. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of 
Dexter township, 2875. R. 0. Robbins, Prop. “ Gazette.” 

Dexter, a township of Washtenaw co., Mich. Pop. 889. 

Dexter, a post-village of Scio township, Washtenaw 
co., Mich., on the Huron River and the Michigan Central 
R. R., 47 miles W. of Detroit. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper, two flouring-inills, a woollen-mill, planing-mill, and 
car-works. Pop. 1161. A. McMillan, Ed. “ Leader.” 

Dexter, a township of Mower co., Minn. Pop. 120. 

Dexter (Franklin), LL.D., a son of Samuel Dexter, 
noticed below, was born at Charlestown, Mass., Nov. 5, 
1793, and graduated at Harvard in 1812. He practised 
law in Boston with marked success. He was a member of 
the State legislature and senate, and in 1849 was ap¬ 
pointed U. S. distriot attorney for Massachusetts. In 
1830 he was opposed to Daniel Webster in the famous mur¬ 
der trial of the Knapps. Died Aug. 14, 1857. 

Dexter (Henry), a successful sculptor, born in New 
York, was originally a blacksmith in Connecticut. Among 
his productions are “The Young Naturalist,” “The First 
Lesson,” and others, besides many excellent portrait-busts. 
Mr. Dexter resides at Cambridge, Mass. 

Dexter (Henry Martyn), D. D., an eminent Congre¬ 
gational minister, was born at Plympton, Mass., Aug. 13, 
1821, graduated at Yale in 1840, and at Andover in 1844, 
was pastor in Manchester, N. H. (1844-49), and of tho 
present Berkeley street church, Boston (1849-67). From 
1859 to 1865 he was one of the editors of the “ Congre¬ 
gational Quarterly,” and in 1867 became editor-in-chief of 
the “ Congregationalist.” He is the author of “ Street 
Thoughts” (1859), “Twelve Discourses” (1860), and of 
several other works, the most important of which is his 
“ Congregationalism,” a work of high authority, which 
reached a second edition in 1871. He has made the Mas¬ 
sachusetts “ Pilgrims” his special study, and is now (1873) 
preparing an elaborate “ History of the Plymouth Colony.” 

Dexter (Samuel), LL.D., an American jurist and states¬ 
man, born in Boston May 14, 1761. He was admitted to 
the bar in 1784, attached himself to the Federal party, and 
was elected a Senator of the U. S. in 1798. He was ap¬ 
pointed secretary of war in 1800 by John Adams, and be¬ 
came secretary of the treasury early in 1801. When the 
executive power was transferred to Jefferson in 1801, Dexter 
retired from the public service and resumed the practice of 
law in Boston. He had no superior and few equals as an 
advocate before the Supreme Court in Washington. As a 
supporter of the war against England, he separated from 
the Federalist party in 1812. Died May 4, 1816. 

Dexter (Timothy), an eccentric American merchant, 
born at Malden, Mass., Jan. 22, 1747. He rose from pov¬ 
erty to affluence, and assumed the title of “Lord Timothy 
Dexter,” by which name he is generally known. Many 
traditions with regard to his life are current in New Eng¬ 
land. Died at Newburyport Oct. 22, 1806. (See his Life 
by S. L. Knapp, 1823.) 

Dex'frine [from the Lat. clexter, the “right hand”], 
(CellioOgl, British Gum, Alsace Gum, Gom'me- 
line, or Lei'ocome, a gum-like substance produced from 
starch by the action of heat, dilute acids or alkalies, dias¬ 
tase, saliva, bile, blood serum, pancreatic juice, etc., and 
by the action of sunlight on starch paste. It is soluble in 
water, and its solution turns the plane of polarization of a 
luminous ray to the right; hence the name dextrine. It 
is prepared from starch (potato starch is preferred on ac¬ 
count of its cheapness and purity) by several processes: 
(1) By heating it in sheet-iron trays to a temperature of 
300° F., by which it is changed into semi-transparent, yel¬ 
lowish-brown lumps, which are converted into a pale yellow 
powder by grinding between millstones. It is sometimes 
roasted in iron or copper cylinders or coffee-drums. (2) 
By the action of nitric acid (Payen’s process): 1000 parts 
of starch are mixed with 2 parts of nitric acid (specific 
gravity, 1.4), diluted with 300 parts of water, and the 
mixture is carefully dried, the temperature being finally 
raised to between 230° and 250° F. The transformation 
is completed in about an hour and a half. (3) By care¬ 
fully boiling starch with dilute acids: the operation must 
be discontinued as soon as the starch has all disappeared, 
which is shown by the failure to obtain the blue coloration 
characteristic of starch on adding iodine solution to a por¬ 


tion of the liquid. For 100 parts of starch, 25 of sulphuric 
acid and 280 of water may be used; the mixture to be 
heated to about 194° F. When the reaction is complete, 
the acid is neutralized with chalk, the insoluble gypsum 
separated by filtration, and the solution concentrated to a 
syrup or to a semi-solid mass, which can be transferred to 
a hot-air chamber and completely dried. Thus prepared, 
it contains a little gypsum. This impurity is avoided by 
using 300 parts of starch, 1500 of water, and 8 of oxalic acid, 
heating over a water-bath till all the starch has disappeared, 
neutralizing with carbonate of lime, filtering after two days’ 
standing, and evaporating. (4) By the action of the dias¬ 
tase of malt: 80 parts of water are heated with 1 part of 
ground malt to 167° F., and 125 parts of starch are added 
in small portions. As soon as the starch has all passed 
into dextrine the solution is boiled to arrest the action of 
the diastase, which would otherwise change the dextrine 
to glucose. The solution is filtered and concentrated. 

Cellulose is changed by the action of strong sulphuric 
acid into a substance resembling dextrine, but which ro¬ 
tates the plane of polarization to the left. Commercial 
dextrine always contains some glucose (grape-sugar), and 
generally some unchanged starch. It may be purified from 
the latter by solution in cold water and filtration; from the 
former, by repeated precipitation from its solution by alco¬ 
hol or by dialysis. 

Dextrine occurs in old potatoes and in young wheat 
plants in very small quantity. In the sprouting of seeds 
and buds it is produced from starch: hence it occurs in 
malt and malt liquors. In the baking of bread it is formed 
from the starch of the flour, and often constitutes 10 per 
cent, of the loaf. The glazing on the crust is chiefly a coat¬ 
ing of dextrine. Limpricht found four-tenths of 1 per 
eeut. of dextrine in the flesh of a horse. 

Dextrine is an uncrystallizable, translucent solid, re¬ 
sembling gum-arabic. It is soluble in water and in dilute 
alcohol, but insoluble in absolute alcohol. Its aqueous 
solution is clear and limpid when dilute, but adhesive, 
viscid, and gummy when concentrated; it rotates the plane 
of polarization to the right, while the natural gums rotate to 
the left. It is not colored blue by iodine. By boiling with 
dilute acids or caustic alkalies it is converted into glucose. 
It is precipitated from its solution by an excess of strong 
alcohol. It has the same percentage composition as starch 
and cellulose. Dextrine is extensively used as a substitute 
for gum-arabic and other gums in stiffening, sizing, and 
glazing calicoes, nets, crapes, laces, silks, papers, cards, etc., 
as mucilage on every office-table, and for the adhesive layer 
on the back of postage stamps and on self-sealing enve¬ 
lopes. (Interesting observations on the transformation of 
starch into dextrine are recorded in the annual volumes of 
Wagner’s “ Jahresbericht der Chemischen Technologie.”) 

C. F. Chandler. 

Dextrogyrate [from the Lat. dexter, the “ right hand,” 
and gyro, to “turn”], a term applied in optics to crystals 
which have the power to rotate a plane of polarization of a 
plane polarized ray towards the right. It is opposed to 
Isevogyrate, which expresses the power to rotate the plane 
in like manner towards the left. 

Dey, da [etymology doubtful], a Turkish title of dig¬ 
nity given formerly to the governors of Algiers (before the 
French conquest), and still given to the chief ruler of Tri¬ 
poli. Tunis was governed by a dey at one period, but this 
title in the latter country has long been supplanted by that 
of bey. 

Dezfbol', a town of Persia, in the province of Khoozis- 
tan, on the Dezfool River, here crossed by a fine bridge of 
twenty-two arches, 28 miles W. N. W. of Shooster. It is 
the chief mart of Khoozistan. Ancient ruins and mounds, 
evidently of Sassanian origin, are found in the vicinity. 
Pop. estimated at 15,000. 

Dhar, a decayed town of Central Hindostan, in Malwa, 
the capital of a protected state of the same name, 32 miles 
W. S. W. of Indore. It has two large mosques of red stone, 
and other traces of former magnificence. 

Dhawalaghi'ri, a lofty peak of the Himalaya Moun¬ 
tains, in Northern Hindostan, was formerly supposed to be 
the highest mountain of the earth. It is in Nepaul, in lat. 
28° 42' N., Ion. 82° 32' E. Its altitude is 26,826 feet. 

Dhole, dol {Cams scylax ), a wild dog found in the 
Western Ghauts and other mountainous parts of India. 
It is of a light-bay color, with a sharp muzzle, large and 
pointed ears, and in size is somewhat less than a wolf. 
This species is remarkable for fierceness and courage, and 
for hostility to tigers and other feline races. 

Dhol'ka, a town of British India, in the presidency of 
Bombay, 22 miles S. W. of Ahmedabad. It is in the midst 
of ruined palaces, mosques, mausoleums, and spacious tanks 
lined with masonry. It is enclosed by a mud wall. Pop. 
about 25,000. 

















DIALOGUE. 


1338 


DHOLPOOK- 


DhoFpoor, a town of Hindostan, on the Chumbul, 34 
miles S. of Agra, is the capital of a protected state. Here 
are some old freestone mosques and mausoleums. 

Dhtibboree', a decayed town of Hindostan, in Guzerat, 
78 miles N. E. of Surat. It has a ruined rampart two miles 
in circuit, and numerous Brahmanical temples built of hewn 
stone and adorned with sculptures. 

Dhun'chee, or Dhanchi, a plant of the natural order 
Leguminosm, of the genus Sesbania, having an extended 
loment with many seeds. It is an annual plant, cultivated 
extensively in some parts of India for its fibre, which is 
used in the manufacture of paper, cordage, canvas, and 
cloth. The plant has a slender stem about eight feet high. 

Dia [Sid], a Greek preposition and particle signifying 
“ through,” “ apart,” implying “ separation ” and “ dis¬ 
tinction ;” “ across,” “ between,” implying mutuality. (For 
examples or illustrations, see Diagonal, Diamagnetism, 
and Dialogue.) 

Diabe'tes [Gr. Sic^tt}?, from Sid, “ through,” and 0<uVa>, 
to “go”], the name of two diseases characterized by the 
excessive excretion of urine; whence the name. Diabetes 
insipidus (now called Polyuria, which see) is distinguished 
from the other much more dangerous disease by the fact 
that the urine consists chiefly of water. It is neither fre¬ 
quent nor formidable. But Diabetes mellitus, “ sweet” or 
“honeyed diabetes” ( Mellituria ), is one of the most in¬ 
curable and serious of diseases. The urine has its specific 
gravity greatly increased by the presence of diabetic sugar, 
a substance believed to be identical (in most cases) with 
liver-sugar, and very closely approaching grape-sugar in 
its composition and reactions. In some cases it appears to 
be muscle-sugar ( inosite ). The disease is further character¬ 
ized by indigestion, intense thirst, wasting, prostration of 
mind and body, and in many cases by degenerative changes 
in the tissues. Its causes are obscure and its treatment not 
well understood. Some cases are greatly benefited by opium 
and the use of strictly nitrogenous food, like gluten bread 
and skim-milk. Temporary diabetes has been observed 
after the administration of woorari poison and other drugs. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Diadel'phia [from fit's, “twice,” and aSe\<j>os, a “broth¬ 
er”], in botany, the seventeenth class of the Linnaean arti¬ 
ficial system. It comprises plants of which the filaments 
arc united in two sets or brotherhoods. These are called 
diadelphous. Many plants of the natural order Legumi- 
nosm and a few other plants belong to this class. 

Di'atle m [Gr. 8ux8r)/j.a; Lat. diadema], the symbol of 
royalty among several Oriental nations, was originally a 
fillet wound round the forehead and temples. The diadem 
of the Egyptian goddesses and kings bore the symbol of 
the serpent. Among the Persians the diadem was bound 
round the tiara or turban, and was of a blue color. Dio¬ 
cletian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem. 
After his time it was adorned with a single or double row 
of pearls or precious stones. Diadem is sometimes used 
as synonymous with crown. 

Diagno'sis [Gr. Sidyruuns, from 8i<£, “apart,” and 
yiyvuxTKw, to “ know ”], the discovery of the nature and 
seat of disease, one of the most difficult and important 
branches of medicine and surgery. Diagnosis is based 
upon “physical signs and rational symptoms;” “signs” 
being appreciable by the senses, and “symptoms” arrived 
at by the educated judgment. Both, however, are popu¬ 
larly known as symptoms. Diagnosis is best learned at 
the bedside, under the guidance of good instructors. The 
stethoscope, thermometer, laryngoscope, etc. furnish im¬ 
portant aid in this branch of medical practice. The term 
is often used by naturalists for the discrimination of spe¬ 
cies of animals, plants, or minerals. 

Diagom'eter [from the Gr. 8iay<o, to “conduct,” and 
Iuerpov, a “ measure ”], an electric instrument for determin¬ 
ing the conducting power of fixed oils, invented by M. 
Rousseau. It consists of a dry pile, by means of which a 
current is passed through the oil, and the strength of the 
current determined by a magnetized needle. It is used 
especially for the detection of the adulteration of olive oil, 
which is said to have the lowest conducting power of 
such oils. 

Diag'onal [Lat. diagonalis; Gr. 8iayaJi/io?, from Sia, 
“through,” and ywvt'a, an “angle”], a straight line drawn 
through a figure, joining two opposite angles. The term is 
chiefly used in geometry in speaking of four-sided figures, 
but it is also properly applied with reference to all poly¬ 
gons of which the number of sides is not less than four. 
Euclid uses the term diameter in the same sense, but mod¬ 
ern geometers use diameter only when speaking of curved 
lines, and diagonal when speaking of angular figures. 

Diag'oras [Aiayopas], a Greek poet and philosopher, 


born in the island of Melos, lived about 425 B. C., and is 
said to have been a disciple of Democritus of Abdera. He 
was a citizen or resident of Athens. As he rejected or 
doubted the popular religion and polytheism, he was stig¬ 
matized as an atheist. He fled from Athens in 411 B. C., 
or, as some say, was banished for impiety. He appears 
to have been a witty and fearless man of good moral cha¬ 
racter. His works are not extant. (See Reuthen, “ Do 
Atheismo Diagorm,” 1812.) 

Di'al [from the Lat. dialis , belonging to the day; Lat. 
solarium], an instrument which shows the hour of the day 
by the shadow of a gnomon or style cast by the sun on a 
graduated arc ; it is also called Sun-Dial. The invention 
is of great antiquity, the Greeks having, it is said, learned 
its use from the Chaldaeans. In the construction of a dial 
the object is to find the sun’s distance from the meridian 
by means of the shadow. When this is known, the hour 
also is known, provided we suppose the sun’s apparent mo¬ 
tion to be uniform, and that it moves in a circle parallel to 
the equator during the whole day. In point of fact, neither 
of these conditions is fulfilled, but the error arising from 
this is of small amount. Although dials have many differ¬ 
ent constructions, the general principles are the same. The 
style, gnomon, or axis of the dial is either a cylindrical rod 
or the edge of a thin plate of metal. It must be parallel to 
the earth’s axis, and thus it may be considered, on account 
of the smallness of the earth’s diameter compared with the 
distance of the sun, as coinciding with the axis of the diur¬ 
nal rotation; consequently the plane which passes through 
the centre of the sun, and the style will coincide with the 
shadow, and will turn with the sun, as the sun turns round 
the style, by the effect of the diurnal motion. Dials are 
horizontal, vertical, or inclined, according to the position 
of the plane of the dial with respect to the horizon of the 
place. The essential principle of the dial is, that the rod 
shall point to the pole of the heavens. 

Dial, a township of Laurens co., S. C. Pop. 2529. 

Di'al, The, a literary journal, the organ of the so- 
called “New England Transcendentalists,” w T as founded in 
1840 under the editorship of Margaret Fuller, assisted by 
George Ripley and R. W. Emerson. After a time, Mr. 
Emerson became its sole editor. It was published only 
four years, but was noted for the unusual number of per¬ 
sons of genius who contributed to it. 

Di'alect [Gr. SidAe/cro?, from 8id, “apart,” implying 
“difference,’Land Aeyw, to “speak;” Lat. dialectus ], a pro¬ 
vincial form or manner of speaking or writing a language. 
The four Greek dialects, Attic, Doric, Ionic, and A3olic, 
were the four written varieties of the language, each hav¬ 
ing a literature of its own. No cultivated modern tongue 
resembles the Greek in this respect, as in all one dialect 
has been adopted as the standard of literature and polite 
society. In almost all languages there are still dialectic 
variations, in so far as colloquial discourse is concerned. 
English is a notorious example. 

Dialectic [Gr. SiaAe/cTi*^, from 8iaAeyojaai, “ I con¬ 
verse”] is a technical expression much used both in the 
Greek and German philosophy, but of a somewhat vague 
signification. In the Greek philosophy it may be best ex¬ 
plained by considering it in its relation to logic. Logic 
was the science of the forms of thinking, the science of 
conclusion and evidence; it taught the manner by which 
to arrive at truth. Dialectic treated of the truths arrived 
at; it was the science of expressing and setting forth ideas, 
the science of definition. With an idealistic thinker like 
Plato, with whom truth is an intuition and the idea an in¬ 
spiration, dialectic, the science of definition, the art of de¬ 
fining, means the highest function of science—science 
itself. With a realistic thinker like Aristotle, with whom 
truth is the result of induction and deduction, and the idea 
an evidence, dialectic means only a part, and even an in¬ 
ferior one, of logic. Hence the multitude of contradic¬ 
tions which invests this word all around. In the German 
philosophy it may be best explained by considering it in 
its relation to the expression “ dogmatical.” Dogmatical 
is applied to a definition when it excludes absolutely the 
opposite; “ dialectical,” when it combines the opposites as 
correlatives. According to the dogmatical definition, every¬ 
thing is either good or bad; and if it is good, it is not bad; 
if it is bad, it is not gbod. According to the dialectical 
definition, anything which is essentially good may have 
some bad in it, and anything which is essentially bad may 
have some good in it. According as the object passes under 
different views, the different constituents of the idea shift 
place and importance in the definition; relativity is the 
character of the actual world, relativity must be the cha¬ 
racter of the world of thought. Both in the Greek and 
German philosophy the word dialectic is sometimes used 
to signif}^ a mere word-fence. Clemens Petersen. 

Di'alogue [Gr. SidAoyo?, from Sid, “between,” or 
















DIALYSIS—DIAMAGNETISM. 


1339 


“among,” 


and Aoyos, a “discourse”], originally a discourse 
between two or more persons. In literature, a composition 
in the torm of a conversation between two or more indi¬ 
viduals. Ihe dialogue was the form most generally adopted 
by the ancients for the conveyance of instruction, and was 
considei'ed applicable to the gravest and most philosophical 
subjects. It was adopted by Plato, Cicero, and Lucian with 
great success. 1 he philosophical dialogue has also been 
employed by several eminent modern writers, as Fenelon, 
Fontenelle, Macchiavelli, Berkeley, Lessing, and Herder. 
In the drama, dialogue is combined with action, and those 
dramas which are not written for the stage ditfer from the 
dialogue chiefly in having a plot and a denouement, while 
the dialogue is more strictly didactic. 

Dial'ysis [Gr. SidAvcn?, a “separation;” from Sid, 
“apart, and Av'u>, to “loose”], the separation of certain 
substances by means of liquid diffusion. The dialyzer 
is usually a hoop of wood, gutta-percha, or metal on a low 
broad glass bell-jar, open above as well as below. A piece 
of wet parchment paper is stretched over the hoop and 
securely tied in place. The fluid to be dialyzed is poured 
into the hoop to the depth of half an inch, and the whole 
is floated on distilled water. Crystallizable bodies, as com¬ 
mon salt, nitrate of potassa, etc., and bodies closely allied 
to them, such as hydrochloric acid and alcohol, pass 
rapidly through the membrane into the water ; while bodies 
which do not crystallize, but are inclined to assume the 
gelatinous form, such as silicic acid, hydrated alumina, 
starch, gum, caramel, tannin, albumen, gelatine, and ex¬ 
tractive matters, diffuse with extreme slowness. Such 
bodies are called colloid, from koAAt?, “glue.” When a 
mixture of sugar and gum was placed in the dialyzer, 
three-quarters of the sugar passed through in twenty-four 
hours, without a trace of the gum. On treating silicate of 
soda (soluble glass), acidulated with hydrochloric acid, in 
the same way, seven-eighths of the silicic acid was left in 
the dialyzer at the end of five days, without a trace of 
hydrochloric acid or chloride of sodium. Urine dialyzed 
for twenty-four hours gave a liquid so free from mucous 
and gelatinous matter that on evaporating to dryness and 
extracting with alcohol a solution was obtained which 
gave pure urea in crystalline tufts. 

The purification of soluble colloids is best effected by 
dialysis; they are thus completely freed from crystalloids. 
A solution of pure hydrated alumina is obtained by dialyz¬ 
ing its solution in the chloride or acetate. In a similar 
manner may be obtained, in solution , hydrated sesquioxide 
of iron and of chromium; Prussian blue from its solution 
in oxalatic acid; an aqueous solution of silicic acid from 
silicate of soda and hydrochloric acid; pure albumen from 


albumen and acetic acid 


pure 


•rummic acid from 


gum- 


arabic (gummate of calcium) and hydrochloric acid. Mr. 
Whitelaw was granted a patent for the application of 
dialysis to brine from salted and corned meats. The salt 
and nitre pass rapidly through the parchment paper, while 
the nutritious extractive matters dissolved out of the meats 
are retained, and may be used for soup. (For the applica¬ 
tion of dialysis to the purification of beet-molasses, see 
Endosmose.) 

Dialysis is specially useful in examining animal fluids 
for poisons where the presence of the colloids interferes 
with the ordinary tests. Arsenious acid may be readily 
separated in twenty-four hours from the contents of a 
stomach in sufficient purity to be immediately recognized 
by the usual tests. Tartar emetic, morphine, strychnine, 
and, in fact, almost all soluble poisons, may be thus 
separated. 

Decompositions are also effected by dialysis. Bisulphate 
of potassa is partially separated into neutral sulphate and 
hydrated sulphuric acid; alum is partially separated into 
sulphate of alumina and sulphate of potassa ; sulphate of 
potassa and lime-water yield considerable hydrate of po¬ 
tassa and sulphate of lime. Separations and decomposi¬ 
tions of this kind undoubtedly occur in plants and animals, 
and in the soil; and dialysis is probably one of the most 
common processes in nature. (See Watts’s “Dictionary 
of Chemistry,” under “Liquids, Diffusion of;” also the 
original papers of Prof. Graham, who minutely investi¬ 
gated this subject, in the “Philosophical Transactions” 
for 1850 and 1862, and in the “ Journal Chem. Soc.,” iii. 60, 
257; iv. 83; xv. 216.) C. F. Chandler. 

Diamagnetic. See Diamagnetism, by Prof. Alfred 
M. Mayer, Ph. D. 

Diamagnetic Polarity. It is well known (see Elec¬ 
tro-Magnetism) that if a bar of iron be placed in a helix 
or spool of copper wire, through which circulates a current 
of electricity, the bar will be magnetized; and if we look 
at the end of the bar round which the current passes in the 
same direction as the motion of the hands of a watch, this 
end will be a south magnetic pole. When a bar of bismuth 


replaces the bar of iron, we find that the end above spoken 
of is a north magnetic pole in the bismuth ; that is, bis¬ 
muth has its poles the reverse of iron when it is placed in 
the same conditions of magnetization. Weber held to the 
opinion of the reversed polarity of bismuth, but Faraday 
denied any such condition. Tyndall settled the question 
by a series of experiments of great delicacy made with an 
apparatus designed for that purpose by Weber, and proved 
conclusively the existence of reversed polarity, not only in 
bismuth, but also in other diamagnetic solids and liquids. 
(By the author of the following article.) 

Diamagnetism [for etymology see below]. The line 
joining the two opposite poles of a horseshoe magnet is 
called the axial line, while a line bisecting at right angles 
this axial line is called the equatorial line of the magnet. 
The space included between the opposite polar surfaces of 
the magnet is called the magnetic field. 

When small bars of iron, nickel, cobalt, manganese, etc. 
are suspended between the poles of a magnet, they place 
their lengths in the axial line. Substances taking the above 
position are called magnetic substances, or, as Faraday 
termed them, paramagnetic substances. The majority of 
bodies, however (e. g. bismuth, antimony, phosphorus, 
heavy glass, wood, water, blood, bread, hydrogen, and am¬ 
monia), when delicately suspended in the magnetic field, 
place their lengths equatorially, and to distinguish them 
from magnetic substances they were called diamagnetic 
(Sid, “across,” and ndyvris, the “magnet”) by Faraday, who 
in Dec., 1845, gave the discovery of diamagnetism to the 
world in a paper read before the Boyal Society of London. 

The difference in the behavior of magnetic and diamag¬ 
netic substances in the magnetic field was thus concisely 
stated by Faraday : Magnetic substances tend to go from 
weaker to stronger places of magnetic action, while diamag¬ 
netic bodies tend to go from stronger to weaker jilaces in 
the magnetic field. 

Faraday found that not only solids, but also liquids and 
gases, possessed magnetic and diamagnetic properties. In 
experimenting with these bodies he enclosed them in glass 
tubes, whose magnetic behavior was determined before they 
were filled with the liquids or gases to be examined, and the 
previously determined action of the magnet on the empty 
tube was deducted from the resultant magnetic effect on both 
the tube and its contained liquid or gas. Or two tubes of 
exactly the same size and material were hung opposite each 
other from the ends of a short piece of light wood, which 
was then placed across the end of a longer wooden rod, and 
the latter was suspended by silk fibres or by a fine silver 
wire. The two tubes hung on opposite sides of the axial 
line of the magnet, and with their centres equidistant from 
it. By this ingenious arrangement it is evident that the ac¬ 
tions exerted by the magnet on the glass tubes neutralized 
each other, and whatever motion he observed was due to the 
difference in the action of the magnet on the two substances 
they contained. By filling one of the tubes with water or 
air, and the other successively with different liquids and 
gases, he determined the specific magnetism of these sub¬ 
stances relatively to water or air taken as unity. Further 
experiments on the action of the magnetic field on water 
and air enclosed in a vacuum gave the data for reducing 
all of his measures to what he would have found had all tho 
substances been suspended in vacuo between the poles of 
the magnet. Pliicker in Germany and E. Becquerel in 
France also made very refined measures of these actions. 

In the following table are contained the results of Fara¬ 
day’s measures of the actions of attraction or repulsion of 
magnetism on various substances, determined by means of a 
delicate torsion balance. In the comparisons equal volumes 
of the substance were used, and the action on water taken 
as the unity of intensity. The sign + indicates that the 
substance is magnetic, while — shows that it is diamagnetic: 

Table of Specific Magnetism. 


Substances. 


Iron. 

Protochloride of 
iron (saturated so^ 

lution). 

Protoammoniuret of 


copper. 

Perammoniuret 


of 


copper.... 

Oxygen. 

Air. 

Olefiant gas. 

Nitrogen. 

Carbonic acid... 

Hydrogen. 

Ammonia (gas). 

Cyanogen. 

Glass. 

Zinc. 

Ether. 


Powers. 

Substances. 

Powers. 

+ 2,500,000 

Absolute alcohol. 

— 0.815 

Essence of citron.... 

— 0.828 


Camphor. 

— 0.855 

+ 62. 

Camphine. 

— 0.859 


Linseed oil. 

— 0.886 

+ 1.390 

Olive oil. 

— 0.88G 

Wax.. 

— 0.887 

+ 1.240 

Nitric acid. 

— 0.911 

+ 0.181 

Liquid ammonia. 

— 1.010 

• 1-0.035 

Bisulphide of carbon 

— 1.031 

+ 0.006 

Nitrate of potassa 


+ 0.003 

(saturated solu- 

— 1.036 

0.000 

tion). 

— 0.001 

Sulphuric acid. 

— 1.081 

— 0.005 

Sulphur. 

— 1.221 

— 0.009 

Chloride of arsenic.. 

— 1.260 

— 0.188 

Borate of lead. 

— 1.413 

— 0.772 

— 0.797 

Bismuth. 

— 20.369 





















































DIAMAGNETISM. 


1340 


The general law of these actions was discovered by Far¬ 
aday, and Bccqucrel has formally stated them as follows : 
If we place in the neighborhood of a magnetic pole a fixed 
vessel filled with a fluid, the latter will experience no mo¬ 
tion. Imagine any portion of the interior of the fluid mass 
isolated; it is solicited, according as it is magnetic or dia¬ 
magnetic, by a force/, positive or negative; and as it is not 
displaced, the medium which surrounds it must necessarily 
exert on it an equal and contrary pressure equal to —f; 
this is to say, that the principle of Archimedes applies as 
well to these-forces as to gravity. Replace now the mass 
of the fluid we supposed isolated from the same fluid sur¬ 
rounding it by another which is bounded by the same sur¬ 
face as the former, but of a different magnetic nature; it 
will receive from the magnet a different action f l , positive 
or negative, and from the surrounding fluid the same action 
as above,/,- the resultant action on the new substance will 
be / l —/. Consequently, the action which the pole of a 
magnet exerts on any body whatever, plunged in a fluid 
medium, is equal to the difference of the actions which it 
exerts separately on this body and on the fluid in which it 
is suspended. 

From these considerations the following consequences 
result : When the medium is magnetic, / is positive, and 
f l —f is negative; consequently, any body whatsoever tends 
to become diamagnetic in a magnetic fluid or medium. 
Conversely, in a diamagnetic medium / is negative, and 
—/ is positive; and the substance may act as though it 
were magnetic, even when it really is not when tested in a 
vacuum, and will become more diamagnetic when it really 
is diamagnetic when suspended in a vacuum between the 
poles of the magnet. 

Faraday beautifully illustrated the above principle by 
the following ingenious experiments: He filled glass tubes 
with solutions of sulphate of iron (a magnetic substance) 
of different degrees of strength, and suspended them be¬ 
tween the poles of his magnet in similar solutions, also of 
different degrees of strength. When the solution in the 
tube was stronger, or contained more iron, than that in the 
solution in which it was suspended, it pointed axially; 
when it was weaker, or contained less iron, than that in the 
surrounding liquid, it pointed equator tally; and when the 
solution in the tube and outside of the tube were of the 
same degree of strength, the tube was indifferent. 

In Sept., 1847, Banealari of Italy discovered that when 
the flame of a candle was placed between the poles of an elec¬ 
tro-magnet, it was deflected into the equatorial line the 
moment the iron of the magnet was magnetized, and the 
flame returned to its first position when the magnet was 
demagnetized. Faraday repeated these experiments with 
the powerful magnet of the Ptoyal Institution, and greatly 
extended these observations by his discovery of the mag¬ 
netic character of oxygen, olefiant gas, and nitrogen, when 
these gases were contained in tubes and placed in a vacuum 
in the magnetic field; and observed that hydrogen, cyan¬ 
ogen, and ammonia were diamagnetic when placed in sim¬ 
ilar conditions. Faraday made many important experi¬ 
ments on the effects of the change of temperatui*e and pres¬ 
sure in modifying the magnetic conditions of gases, and found 
that the action in the magnetic field on these bodies dimin¬ 
ished with an elevation of their temperature and a dimi¬ 
nution of their density. Thus, hot air is shown to be dia¬ 
magnetic when allowed to ascend through cold air between 
the poles of the magnet. This and other similar facts he 
showed by causing the currents of gas in their progress 
towards the magnetic field to pass over pieces of paper 
saturated with chlorhydric acid, while between, around, 
and above the poles were placed little tubes moistened 
with ammonia. When the gases entered one of these tubes 
the fact was known by the formation in it of white fumes 
of chloride of ammonium. He thus found that the heated 
air on reaching the magnetic field was repelled from the 
poles, while a descending current of cold air was attracted 
towards the poles. 

The writer of this article has recently devised a superior 
method of observing these phenomena, by passing through 
the gases, as they ascend or descend or pass between the 
poles, a strong diverging beam from an electric or calcium 
light. The difference in refracting power of the hot or cold 
gas currents and the surrounding air causes shadows of the 
currents to be projected on a screen placed on the side of 
the magnet opposite the light; and thus can be seen at once 
all the parts of the phenomena; and he has thus been able to 
draw and even to photograph them. In these experiments 
the writer used the powerful electro-magnet of the Stevens 
Institute of Technology. With this magnet the experi¬ 
ments of Banealari are very remarkable. On bringing the 
flame of a candle slowly upward between the poles of the 
magnet, the top of the flame is first depressed and spread 
out equatorially in the magnetic field; as we elevate the 
flame it spreads out yet more, and often takes the form of 


an oval-shaped vase flattened equatorially, with an interior 
depression extending down nearly to the base of the wick. 
A larger flame becomes compressed into a flattened ellipti¬ 
cal dish, with two curved arms or handles projected up¬ 
ward. 

After Faraday had discovered the magnetic properties of 
oxygen, he experimentally determined that one cubic metre 
of this gas equalled in magnetic effect fifty-four centi¬ 
grammes of iron, and hence that the whole atmosphere 
acted as would a layer of iron which enveloped the earth 
and had a thickness of one-tenth of a millimetre. Parts 
of this gaseous magnetic shell are successively heated—and 
therefore weakened in magnetic intensity—by the sun in 
his apparent daily and yearly changes of position ; and 
hence Faraday reasoned that here was certainly a true, and 
probably a sufficient, cause of the diurnal variation of the 
needle. {Phil. Trans. R. S., Nov., 1850.) 

Faraday, in the course of his experiments on bars of 
bismuth, met with the following anomalous actions. He 
found that some cast bars of bismuth pointed axially, 
others equatorially, while yet other bars took intermediate 
positions of rest. These extraordinary phenomena both 
he and Pliicker of Germany endeavored to explain, and 
they both observed that there was some relation between 
the positions of crystals in the magnetic field and their 
crystalline forms. The phenomena received their full ex¬ 
planation at the hands of Tyndall, whose subtile examina¬ 
tion and lucid explanation of these phenomena—though 
not popularly known—we think form his greatest claim to 
illustrious distinction as a man of science. 

We can best make clear Tyndall’s discoveries by quoting 
from his paper “ On Diamagnetism and Magne-crystallic 
Action” ( L., E., and D. Phil. May., July, 1850) the follow¬ 
ing experiments, and then give in his own words the law 
which embraces their characteristic phenomena : “ If we 
take a slice of apple about the same size as a penny, but 
somewhat thicker, and pierce it through with short bits of 
iron wire in a direction perpendicular to its flat surface, 
such a disk, suspended in the magnetic field, will, on the 
evolution of the magnetic force, recede from the poles and 
set its horizontal diameter strongly equatorial; not by re¬ 
pulsion, but by the attraction of the iron wires passing 
through it. If, instead of iron, we use bismuth wii'e, the 
disk, on exciting the magnet, will turn into the axial posi¬ 
tion ; not by attraction, but by the repulsion of the bismuth 
wires passing through it. 

“ If we suppose the slice of apple to be replaced by a 
little cake made of a mixture of flour and iron filings, the 
bits of wire running through this will assert their pre¬ 
dominance as before; for, though the whole is strongly 
magnetic, the superior energy of action along the wire will 
determine the position of the mass. If the bismuth wire, 
instead of piercing the apple, pierce a little cake made of 
flour and bismuth filings, the cake will stand between the 
poles as the apple stood; for though the whole is diamag¬ 
netic, the stronger action along the wire will be the ruling 
energy as regards position. 

“ Is it not possible to conceive an arrangement among 
the particles of a magnetic or diamagnetic crystal capable 
of producing a visible result similar to that here described ? 
If, in a magnetic or diamagnetic mass, two dii’ections exist, 
in one of which the contact of the particles is closer than in 
the other, may we not fairly conclude that the strongest 
exhibition of force will be in the former line, which there¬ 
fore will signalize itself between the poles in a manner 
similar to the bismuth or iron wire ? . . . 

“ If analogic proof be of any value, we have it here of 
the very strongest description. For example: bismuth is 
a brittle metal, and can readily be reduced to a fine powder 
in a mortar. Let a teaspoonful of the powdered metal be 
wetted with gum-water, kneaded into a paste, and made 
into a little roll, say an inch long and a quarter of an inch 
across. Hung between the excited poles, it will set itself 
like a little bar of bismuth—equatorial. Place the roll, pro¬ 
tected by bits of pasteboard, within the jaws of a vice, 
squeeze it flat, and suspend the plate thus formed between 
the poles. On exciting the magnet the plate will turn, with 
the energy of a magnetic substance, into the axial position, 
though its length may be ten times its breadth. 

“Pound a piece of carbonate of iron into fine powder, 
and form it into a roll in the manner described. Hung be¬ 
tween the excited poles, it will stand as an ordinary mag¬ 
netic substance—axial. Squeeze it in the vice and suspend 
it edgeways, its position will be immediately reversed. On 
the development of the magnetic force the plate thus formed 
will recoil from the poles as if violently repelled, and take 
up the equatorial position. 

“ We have here ‘ approach ’ and 1 recession/ but the cause 
is evident. The lino of closest contact is perpendicular in 
each case to the surface of the plate—a consequence of tho 
pressure which the particles have undergone in this direc- 


















1341 


DIAMANTIN A—DIAMOND SPRING. 


tion; and this perpendicular stands axial or equatorial 
according as the plate is magnetic or diamagnetic.” 

Prof. Tyndall thus sums up the law which rules all of 
these actions : “ If the arrangement of the component par¬ 
ticles ot any body be such as to present different degrees 
of proximity in different directions, then the line of closest 
proximity, other circumstances being equal, will be that 
chosen by the respective forces for the exhibition of their 
greatest energy. If the mass be magnetic, this line will 
stand axial; if diamagnetic, equatorial.” 

The above law explains clearly the anomalous actions 
Faraday observed in his bars of bismuth. Bismuth is a 
crystallized body, and the lines of greatest proximity of its 
particles are in the direction of its cleavage planes. There¬ 
fore, this line of greatest condensation will always place 
itself equatorially in the magnetic field. In other words, 
the planes of cleavage will take an equatorial direction. 
But in casting bars of bismuth, these planes may, on the 
solidification of the bismuth, take various positions in ref¬ 
erence to the length of the bars; hence the anomalous ac¬ 
tions which are sometimes observed in these bars. 

When the crystal cleaves equally easy in two planes, the 
lines of greatest compression will be parallel to both of 
these planes, and therefore the intersections of these planes 
will determine the position the crystal takes in the magnetic 
field. This is confirmed by experiment. 

If there are three cleavage planes, perpendicular to each 
other, as in rock-salt, or if there are none, as in quartz, 
there will be no line of elective polarity, and the body will 
act as though it were not crystallized. 

Finally, when three planes of cleavage are not perpen¬ 
dicular, there is generally one direction of greatest com¬ 
pression, which is found—for example, in calo-spar—par¬ 
allel to the axis of crystallization ; this lino will place itself 
axially if the crystal is magnetic, and equatorially if it is 
diamagnetic. This deduction is confirmed by experiment. 

Alfred M. Mayer. 

Diamanti'na (formerly Tejuco), a city of Brazil, in 
the province of Minas Geraes, is the chief town in a diamond 
and gold mining district, and is situated in a valley be¬ 
tween high mountains, 220 miles N. N. E. of Ouro Preto. 
It is 5700 feet above the level of the sea. It is the seat of 
a bishop, and is a handsome and wealthy place. Diaman- 
tina became a city in 1831. Pop. about 12,000. 

Diam'eter [from the Gr. 6u£, “ through,” and perpov, a 
u measure ;” Fr. diamltre], a right line drawn through the 
centre of a circle, and terminated on both sides by the cir¬ 
cumference. Diameter in architecture is the measure across 
the lower part of the shaft of a column, which is usually 
divided into sixty minutes, and forms a scale for the meas¬ 
urement of all the parts. In astronomy the apparent diam¬ 
eter of a celestial body is the angle which the latter sub¬ 
tends at the eye, and is measured by the micrometer. The 
distance of the body in question from the earth, when mul¬ 
tiplied by the sine of this angle, gives the real diameter of 
the body. In elementary geometry, diameter is any right 
line through the centre of a figure. In conics a diameter 
always bisects a system of parallel chords. Newton showed 
that the centres of mean distances upon a system of parallel 
lines, of the n intersections of each with a curve of any 
order, always lie on a right line, which may be called a 
diameter. A diameter of any curve is simply the polar 
line with respec„t to the curve of an infinitely distant point. 
The rth diameter is the rth polar of an infinitely distant 
point, and consequently a curve of the ( n —r) th order. The 
(n—2) th diameter is called the diametral conic, the (n —3) th 
the diametral cubic, etc. The same extension is applicable 
to surfaces. When the primitive surface is of the second 
order, there is but one diametral surface, and that is the 
diametral plane which bisects a system of parallel chords. 
Three diametral planes so situated with respect to each 
other that each bisects all chords parallel to the intersec¬ 
tion of the other two, constitute a system of conjugate 
diametral planes, and intersect each other in conjugate 
diameters. 

Di'amontl [Fr. diamant; Ger. Diamant or Dcmant, a 
corruption of Adamant (which see)], the most valuable 
of precious stones and the hardest of known substances, 
consists of pure carbon. The primary form of the diamond 
is a regular octahedron, but it often occurs in cubes and 
rhoinboidal dodecahedrons, and sometimes in twin crystals; 
the faces are frequently convex. The finest diamonds are 
transparent and colorless, but those which are of decided 
tints of pink, green, or blue are prized, while those which 
arc slightly colored are held in least estimation. They are 
found in alluvial deposits, from which they are extracted 
by washing. The most celebrated mines are those of India. 
In 1728 diamonds were found in Brazil, and since that 
time the mines of Minas Geraes have produced most of the 
diamonds of commerce until quite recently. At present 


there is a considerable importation from Southern Africa, 
where they were first discovered in 1870. They have also 
been brought from Siberia, Borneo, and other countries. 
The largest known diamond is probably that mentioned by 
Tavernier as belonging to the Great Mogul. It was found 
in Golconda in 1550, and it is said to have weighed in its 
original state 900 carats. Among the crown-jewels of Rus¬ 
sia is a diamond weighing 194 carats ; it is of the size of a 
pigeon’s egg, and was stolen from a Brahmanieal idol by a 
French soldier. It was ultimately bought by Catharine of 
Russia for about $450,000 and an annuity of $20,000. One 
of the most perfect diamonds was brought from India by 
a gentleman named Pitt, who sold it to the regent-duke 
of Orleans for about $625,000. The celebrated Koh-i-noor 
(the “ mountain of light”) became the property of Queen 
Victoria on the annexation of the Punjab by the East India 
Company in 1850. It is mentioned by Tavernier in 1665 
as the property of the Mogul emperor, and, together with 
the Duriya-i-noor (“sea of light”), formed part of the 
plunder seized by Nadir Shah at the taking of Delhi in 
1739. It weighed originally 186jg carats, but it has been 
recut and reduced to 103£ carats, and it is greatly improved 
in appearance. The diamond was first proved to be com¬ 
bustible in 1694 by the Florentine academicians, who found 
that when exposed to the heat of the sun in the focus of a 
large lens it burnt away with a blue lambent flame. The 
products of its combustion were first examined by Lavoisier 
in 1772, who showed that when burnt in air or oxygen it 
produced carbonic acid. Subsequent experiments have de¬ 
monstrated that nothing but carbonic acid is thus formed. 
Diamonds of inferior quality have extensive employment 
in the diamond-drill (see Blasting, by Gen. J. G. Foster), 
and in machines for sawing stone, dressing mill-stones, etc. 
(See also Gems, by Prof. II. B. Cornwall, E. M.) At¬ 
tempts have been made to produce true diamonds by the 
crystallization of carbon, but thus far without success. 

Revised by C. W. Greene. 

Diamond, in printing, a very small type, less than 
pearl, and next larger than brilliant. 

Diamond Beetle ( Curculio ), a coleopterous insect 
belonging to the weevil tribe, remarkable for the splendor 
of its colors. It is golden-green, with two black bands on 
the thorax; on the wing-covers are rows of depressed spots 
of a sparkling green color, with intervals of black. 

Diamond Bluff, a post-township of Pierce co., Wis. 
Pop. 475. 

Diamond City, a post-village, capital of Meagher 
co., Mon., about 32 miles E. by N. from Helena. Gold is 
found in the vicinity. 

Diamond Creek, a township of Chase co., Kan. P. 469. 

Diamond Harbor, in British India, the port of Cal¬ 
cutta for large ships, is in the river Hoogly, 34 miles below 
that city, with which it is connected by an excellent road. 
The adjacent country is so swampy and unhealthy that few 
Europeans reside here. 

Diamond Hill, a township of Abbeville co., S. C. 
Pop. 1760. 

Diamond Necklace, a celebrated necklace contain¬ 
ing 500 diamonds, and valued at 1,800,000 livres (about 
$400,000), made in 1773-75 by order of Louis XV. for 
Madame du Barry, his mistress; but before it was finished 
the king died, and Du Barry was excluded from court. In 
the years 1783-84 the prince-cardinal de Rohan was per¬ 
suaded by the so-called countess Jeanne de Lamotte-Va- 
lois, an unscrupulous adventurer, that the queen Marie 
Antoinette regarded him with interest, which would be in¬ 
creased if he would assist her in buying the diamond neck¬ 
lace by becoming her surety for the payment of its price to 
the makers of the ornament, MM. Boehmer and Bassanges. 
The next steps in the affair are involved in some mystery. 
Tho count Cagliostro was probably one of the participants 
in the plot. The queen was believed (unjustly, as it is 
thought) to have been also involved in it. Certain it is that 
the cardinal agreed to stand surety for the payment—that 
the necklace was delivered to him, was stolen from him, was 
broken up, and sold in pieces. The jewellers, not having 
received their pay, went to court and made complaint. 
Cagliostro, the cardinal, and others were thrown into the 
Bastile. The trial in 1785-86 proved the guilt of no one 
but the countess Lamotte, who, with her husband, was 
branded on each shoulder and sentenced to a life imprison¬ 
ment, from which she shortly afterwards escaped to Lon¬ 
don, where she died Aug. 23, 1791, having fallen from a 
window as she was trying to hide from her creditors. There 
is little doubt that the pretended signatures of the queen 
upon the papers and agreements made respecting this affair 
were clever forgeries. 

Diamond Spring, a post-township of El Dorado oo., 
Cal. Bop. 1055. 












DIANA—DIASTASE. 


1342 


Dian' a, an ancient Italian divinity worshipped by the 
Romans as the goddess of light. She was identified by the 
later Romans with the Artemis of the Greeks, who was 
often called Delia, from her native island, Delos. She was 
supposed to be the daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and 
the sister of Apollo, with whom she shared his attributes 
of destruction and healing. She was represented as a 
virgin armed with bow and arrows, and was regarded as 
the patroness of chastity. As the goddess of the moon she 
was often called Selene and Phoebe. 

Diana, a post-township of Lewis co., N. Y. It has 
iron mines ancl furnaces and many rare minerals. Joseph 
Bonaparte once had a summer residence here. The town¬ 
ship contains several manufacturing villages and four 
churches. Pop. 1778. 

Diana, Temple of, at Ephesus, one of the Seven 
Wonders of the World, built at the common charge of all 
the Asiatic states. The chief architect was Chersiphron; 
and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing 
this temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet 
long, 225 broad, and was supported by 127 columns of 
Parian marble (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons), fur¬ 
nished by so many kings. It was set on fire on the night 
of Alexander’s nativity by an obscure individual named 
Erostratus, who confessed on the rack that the sole motive 
which had prompted him to destroy so magnificent an 
edifice was the desire of transmitting his name to future 
ages (356 B. C.). The temple was rebuilt, and again burned 
by the Goths in their naval invasion (A. D. 256). 

Diane tie Poitiers, a beautiful French lady, born 
Sept. 3, 1499, was married at the age of thirteen to Louis 
de Brez 6 . After his death (1531) she became a favorite of 
the king’s son, who in 1547 ascended the throne as Henry 
II., and created her duchess of Valentinois in 1548. She 
had great influence over the king, who permitted her to ex¬ 
ercise royal power and control his foreign policy. She 
maintained her ascendency until the death of Henry in 
1559. Died April 22, 1566. 

Dianthus. See Pink. 

Diapa'son [Gr. Sid, “through,” and naa-iov (genitive 
plural feminine of Tras, “all”)], in music, a term by which 
the ancient Greeks designated the octave. In modern 
music, diapason is used to denote the range or compass of 
the voice or of an instrument. The French use the term 
as equivalent to pitch, and apply it also to the steel instru¬ 
ment commonly called “tuning-fork” in English, which is 
employed to give a certain pitch. Diapason is also the 
name given by organ-builders to certain stops of pipes in 
the organ of eight feet pitch. (See Organ.) 

Di'aper [Fr. cliapre, a corruption of d’Ypres, a town of 
Flanders, where it was first manufactured], a linen fabric 
woven in flowers or regular patterns, chiefly used for nap¬ 
kins, table-cloths, etc. Diaper is also made in Scotland, 
Ireland, and Germany. 

Diaph'anous [Gr. Sia4>avrj<;, “transparent,” from Sia, 
“through,” and <f>cuVe>, “to shine”], a term nearly synon¬ 
ymous with translucent, is applied to bodies which like por¬ 
celain, permit light to pass through their substance. The 
term transparent is applied when the distinct forms of ob¬ 
jects can be seen through the body. 

Diaphore'sis [Gr. 8 iatf>opT)<n 9 , from 8 ia, “ through,” and 
(f>epi o, to “carry”], the excretion of sweat from the skin 
without perceptible moisture; insensible perspiration. Med¬ 
icines promoting this excretion are called “diaphoretics,” 
while those producing perceptible wetness of the skin are 
called “ sudorifics.” Of late, however, the terms “diapho¬ 
retic ” and “ diaphoresis ” are frequently applied to both the 
sensible and insensible perspiration. 

Diaphragm [Gr. 4>prjv or Sid^paypia, from Sid, “apart,” 
and 4>pdyvvpn ( <j>pdaaio), to “fence,” to “ enclose”], or 
Mitl'riff' [from the Ang.-Sax. mid, “middle,” and hrif, 
the “abdomen”], a thin musculo-aponeurotic septum which 
in mammals separates the abdominal cavity from the thorax. 
Its centre in man is occupied by the cordiform tendon or 
trifolium (trefoil), so called from its shape, which roughly 
resembles a clover-leaf (Lat. trifolium). The diaphragm 
is attached to the vertebral column by two muscular but¬ 
tresses or pillars called, in the plural, crura. These crura 
bear the names “right” and “left crus” (Lat. crus, cruris, 
a “ leg,” so called from their shape and position). The dia¬ 
phragm is traversed by the phrenic (internal respiratory) 
nerves, and is, like the other respiratory muscles, partly in¬ 
voluntary. In forcible inspiration it is drawn down like 
the piston of an air-pump. It is one of the principal agents 
in the various expulsive acts, and also in sneezing, coughing, 
and laughing. Hiccough (Lat. singultus) is a clonic spasm 
of the diaphragm. 

The term diaphragm is frequently applied by mechanics 
and others to a thin layer of leather, metal, or other mate¬ 


rial stretched across a cavity, after the manner of the above 
muscle. 

Diarbckir' [Turkish, Kara-Amid], a town of Asiatic 
Turkey, capital of a pashalic of its own name, is situated 
on the right bank of the Tigris, near its source, and about 
200 miles N. E. of Aleppo ; lat. 37° 55' N., Ion. 39° 52' E. 
It is enclosed by a high, strong stone wall flanked with 
towers. It is the seat of a Nestorian and a Jacobite 
patriarch, and of a Catholic and an Armenian bishop. It 
has numerous handsome mosques, bazaars, and khans. It 
was formerly a more populous city, and had extensive 
manufactures of silk and cotton, but these have declined. 
The manufacture of silk is still carried on here. Pop. 
45,000. 

DiarrhfD'a [Gr. Sidppoia, from Sid, “through,” and pe<a, 
to “ flow ”], a disease characterized by frequent soft alvino 
discharges; acute or chronic intestinal catarrh. Many 
writers have drawn nice distinctions between the various 
assumed varieties of this disease, which indeed is very 
frequently a symptom rather than a distinct disease; but 
nearly every case is in reality due to inflammation or irri¬ 
tation of some part of the intestinal canal. Diarrhoea as 
a symptom of cholera, dysentery, typhoid fever, pulmonary 
consumption, and some forms of peritonitis, is treated of 
under these respective heads. When resulting from local 
or general disease of the alimentary canal, its symptoms 
and treatment vary greatly according to the age of the 
patient. In infants both its acute and chronic forms are 
very frequent and fatal. These cases often depend on im¬ 
proper food and clothing—less frequently upon disturbances 
caused by dentition than is generally supposed. These cases 
require, first, a careful attention to hygienic conditions. 
Flannels should be worn next to the skin. If a milk diet 
should disagree, as it often does, finely-cut raw beef or 
i strong broth may be given to the child. Medication should 
generally be cautious, but active. Many children suffer or 
die from over-medication, and still more probably from 
lack of active treatment. If scybalous masses of faecal 
matter exist in the bowels, they should be cleared out by 
cathartics, such as rhubarb, etc., with aromatics, or castor 
oil. The proper use of astringents, tonics, and opiates in 
infantile diarrhoea is a matter requiring much discrimina¬ 
tion. Chronic diarrhoea in the adult is an obstinate and 
rather common disease. A certain proportion of the cases 
are improved by iron, quinia, salicine, and other tonics. 
Change of climate, visits to mild saline chalybeate springs, 
sea-bathing, etc. are useful in many instances. Balsam of 
copaiba relieves some patients with surprising readiness. 
Astringent remedies and opiates have much value as pal¬ 
liative, and sometimes as curative, agents. In the simple 
| acute diarrhoea of temperate climates, adults previously 
well are in general promptly cured by these agents, ju¬ 
diciously administered. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Di'astase [Gr. Sidaraais, “division,” “separation,” from 
Sid, “apart,” and i arruxi, to “stand”], a name given to the 
constituent of malt (germinated barley) which changes 
starch to dextrine and glucose (grape-sugar). Diastase 
may be extracted from ground malt by treating it with 
tepid water (80° F.), heating the solution to 160° F. to co¬ 
agulate the albumen, filtering, and precipitating the dias¬ 
tase by absolute alcohol. It is purified by redissolving in 
water and reprecipitating by alcohol. Malt does not yield 
more than 0.002 to 0.003 per cent, of diasfase. Thus ob¬ 
tained, diastase is a white amorphous substance, soluble in 
water and in dilute alcohol. It has not been obtained suf¬ 
ficiently pure for analysis. It is supposed to be a nitrogen¬ 
ous body. Mulder believes it to be a group of bodies, not 
a single, well-defined compound. Its most characteristic 
property is its action upon starch. At a temperature of 
158° F. it rapidly changes this substance to a mixture of 
dextrine and glucose. Payen and Persoz say 1 part of 
diastase will change 2000 parts of starch. It was at first 
supposed that the starch was first changed to dextrine, and 
the dextrine then changed to glucose. Musculus claimed 
to have proved that the two products resulted simulta¬ 
neously from the starch, in the ratio of 1 equivalent of 
glucose to 2 of dextrine, and that diastase would not 
change dextrine to glucose. Payen proved that diastase 
does change dextrine to sugar, but that the process is in¬ 
terrupted by the presence of a certain percentage of glu¬ 
cose, to be resumed when this glucoso has been destroyed 
by fermentation. Schultz and Marker confirm to a certain 
extent the observations of Musculus; they claim to have 
proved the simultaneous formation of both products, and 
propose the following expression for the reaction : 

Starch. Water. Dextrine. Glucose. 

2 CfiHio 05 -f- ll-iO = C6II10O5 + C6H12O6. 

Before Payen and Persoz discovered diastase, Saussuro 
obtained a substance from malt which changed starch to 













DIATHESIS—DICAST. 


1343 


dextrine and glucose, for which he proposed the name mu¬ 
cin. This name having been previously applied to a sub¬ 
stance obtained from animal mucus, Ritthausen changed it 
to mucidin. Mucidin is probably identical with diastase. 
Dubrunfaut has obtained a body from malt which he calls 
maltm. It is precipitated from malt extract by tannin. He 
describes it as “ a diastase of a true platonic character.” 
The action of diastase on starch is prevented by nitric, 
sulphuric, hydrochloric, phosphoric, oxalic, tartaric, or 
citric acids; also by caustic potassa, soda, or lime, sulphate 
or acetate of copper, corrosive sublimate, nitrate of silver, 
alum, copperas, and borax. It is retarded by formic acid, 
arsenious acid, magnesia, ammonia, and alkaline carbon¬ 
ates; slightly by acetic acid, hydrocyanic acid, strychnine, 
quinine, morphine, and their salts. Essential oils, creosote, 
alcohol, and ether do not interfere with its action. Starch 
is also changed to dextrine and glucose by dilute acids, 
putrid flesh, yeast, gastric juice, by animal membranes, 
and in fact by all albuminoids in a certain stage of de¬ 
composition. (See Starch, Dextrine, Glucose, Fermen¬ 
tation.) 

It is probable therefore that diastase is not a definite 
compound, but a certain condition of albuminous matter. 
Diastase plays a very important part in the germination of 
seeds and the sprouting of buds in tubers and stems con¬ 
taining starch. It serves to render the starch and albumen 
soluble, and thus facilitates their circulation and assimila¬ 
tion. (See Germination.) In the manufacture of beer 
and spirits the diastase changes the starch into dextrine 
and glucose, and thus makes fermentation possible. (See 
Beer, Alcohol, Whisky.) (The investigations with regard 
to the nature and action of diastase are recorded in Liebig 
and Kopp’s “ Jahresbericht,” and Wagner’s “Jahres- 
berieht.”) C. F. Chandler. 

Diatli/esis [Gr. Sidfleo-i?, from Sid, “ apart,” and Ti6r][x i, 
to “ place ;” Lat. disposition, in medicine, a predisposition ; 
a constitution of body tending towards some particular dis¬ 
ease. Writers mention the strumous, cancerous, scorbutic, 
rheumatic, gouty, haemorrhagic, and other diatheses. These 
tendencies exercise a most powerful influence upon life and 
health, and their detection and treatment are matters of 
great practical importance. 

Diatoma'ceae [named from Diatoma, one of the gen¬ 
era.], an order of microscopic plants which are usually 
referred to the class Algge. Owing chiefly to the curious 
movements which the Diatomaceae exhibit, they have been 
by some few naturalists considered as animals, and by others 
as belonging to a class of organisms intermediate between 
the animal and vegetable kingdoms; but movements like 
those of the Diatomaceae are by no means absent from the 
higher vegetable world, and are especially frequent among 
the Protophytes; while it is certain that the organisms we 
are considering are closely akin to the Desmidiaceae, which 
are confessedly of vegetable nature. They also contain 
endochrome (chlorophyll), which, however, is, during life, 
of a brown color, owing to the presence of iron. 

Each diatom consists essentially of a single cell, and the 
wall of each cell is a layer (frustule) of silex, interpene¬ 
trated by organic matter chemically identical with the 
cellulose of higher plants. Each frustule is curiously 
marked with lines or dots, often of the most beautiful 
characters when seen under a powerful microscope. The 
interior contains endochrome and often oil-globules. Many 
diatoms have a protoplasmic layer outside the frustule, and 
it is upon contractions of this layer that the motions above 
alluded to are supposed to depend. Many of the most in¬ 
teresting diatoms are strung together in filaments; others 
are agglutinated in masses. Their reproduction is not well 
understood, but it is certain that they increase by the conju¬ 
gation of cells, and also by fission. 

The Diatomaceae are found fossil in vast deposits. Berg- 
xnehl, tripoli, flint, and rotten-stone consist principally of 
these fossils. Bog-iron ore consists chiefly of these plants, 
which in some of the species incorporate large propor¬ 
tions of iron into their frustules. Diatoms are found in 
guano and in fresh and salt water, in some cases attached 
by stalks to fixed objects, and in other cases floating in the 
water in such numbers as to color it with their character¬ 
istic brown tint. They are eaten by the minute animals 
which form so large a part of the food of the whale. They 
abound especially in polar regions, some species ranging 
from Spitzbergen in the N. to Mount Erebus in the farthest 
S. A stratum eighteen feet thick of their fossil frustules 
underlies the city of Richmond, Va. On the Columbia 
River there is a mass of these fossils 500 feet thick. Liv¬ 
ing specimens are extensively found in soils and in the 
mud of many salt-water inlets and harbors. The ice in 
both polar regions is often colored with them; they also 
occur alive in springs whose water is near the boiling-point. 
(See Carpenter on “ The Microscope,” and the articles 


of Prof. Bailey and others upon this subject in the “ Ameri¬ 
can Naturalist,” vol. i. et seq.) Chas. W. Greene. 

Diaton'ic Scale of Col'ors, the spaces occupied by 
the seven primary colors in the solar spectrum, and sup¬ 
posed by Newton to be exactly proportional to the length 
of strings that sound the seven notes in the diatonic scale 
of music. It is now known, however, that this theory is 
not well founded, although there is an analogy between*the 
pitch of sounds and the color of bodies. 

Diaz (Bartolomeu), a Portuguese navigator, eminent 
for his learning, talents, and enterprise. He commanded 
an expedition sent in 1486 to explore the western coast of 
Africa. He sailed or was driven by the wind around the 
southern extremity of Africa, to the mouth of the Great 
Fish River. Returning homeward, he discovered the cape 
which he had previously doubled unawares, and called it 
Tormentoso, which was soon exchanged for the name of 
Cape of Good Hope (Cabo de Buena Esperanza). He was 
captain of one of the ships in the fleet of Cabral, which 
sailed for India in 1500, and he perished by shipwreck May 
29 of that year. 

Diaz de la Pena (Narcisse-Yirgile), a French 
painter, born at Bordeaux Aug. 20, 1809. He began as a 
landscape-painter, but later he occupied himself with sub¬ 
jects of pure fancy, filling a crowd of small canvases with 
nymphs and cupids, and with boys and girls dressed in 
costumes that might pass for Eastern, but in which no 
attempt at faithfulness to details is allowed to interfere 
with the effects of color, which is all the artist aims at, and 
which he is often successful in obtaining. At one time the 
pictures of Diaz fetched high prices, and when he first 
made a name it was by work that showed an original vein ; 
but he has greatly deteriorated, and by flooding the mar¬ 
ket with pictures merely made to sell, he has nearly lost 
all reputation. He obtained a third-class medal in 1844, a 
second-class in 1846, and the first-class in 1848.—He has a 
son, M. Eugene Diaz, who has some local repute as a musi¬ 
cal composer. Clarence Cook. 

Dib'din (Charles), an English musician and writer of 
songs, was born at Southampton in 1745. He composed 
over 1000 sea-songs, among them “ Tom Bowling” and 
other favorites of the English tars. Died July 24, 1814.— 
His son, Thomas Dibdin, born in 1771, was an actor and 
author of innumerable melodramas, farces, etc., of which 
the best known is “ The Cabinet.” Died Sept. 16, 1842. 

Dibdin (Thomas Frognall), D. D., an English bibliog¬ 
rapher, born in Calcutta in 1776, was a nephew of Charles, 
noticed above. He took orders as a priest in 1804. He 
published, besides other w T orks, “ Bibliomania ” (1809); a 
new edition of Ames’s “ Typographical Antiquities of Great 
Britain ” (4 vols., 1810-19); “ Bibliographical Decameron, 
or Ten Days’ Pleasant Discourse over Illuminated MSS.” 
(1817); and “Reminiscences of a Literary Life” (2 vols., 
1836). Died Nov. 18, 1847. 

Dibrell (Anthony), a minister of the Methodist Epis¬ 
copal Church South, born in Virginia Aug. 19, 1805. He 
was educated at the University of North Carolina, studied 
law, entered on the practice of his profession at Lynchburg, 
abandoned it for the ministry, and in 1830 joined the Vir¬ 
ginia Conference, in which he became eminent for piety, 
talents, and zeal. Died in Norfolk, Va., of yellow fever. 
Sept. 1, 1855. T. O. Summers. 

Dicse'um [from the Gr. SiWo?, “decent,” “well-or¬ 
dered,” alluding to the habits 
of these birds], a genus of ten- 
uirostral birds remarkable for 
their beauty, their rapid flight, 
and the sweetness of their long- 
continued though very soft 
notes. They are of small size, 
and inhabit the highest trees. 
They weave a purse-shaped nest 
from the down found about the 
seeds of many plants. The best 
known species are the Austra¬ 
lian dicaeum (Dicseum hirundi- 
naceum) and the Dicseum cruen- 
tatnm of India. 

Di'cast [Gr. Si/cacrr^?, from 
Slkti, “justice”], a name for a 
body of Athenian citizens, con¬ 
sisting of 6000, who were chosen 
yearly by lot from the body of 
freemen for the purpose of as¬ 
sisting in the administration of 
justice. They were divided 
into ten sections, generally 
about 500 each, before which causes were tried. The lead¬ 
ing points of law and evidence were previously ascertained 






































1344 


DICE—DICKINSON. 


before a magistrate, and the conflicting issues were reduced 
to a formal statement called the anakrisis. This was car¬ 
ried for decision before a section of the dicasts, who were 
supreme judges of the law and the fact. They were kept 
in ignorance of the cause which was to come before them, 
and each dicast was sworn to vote according to the law and 
justice. The analogies of the system to jury trial are ob¬ 
vious, as are also the differences between the two systems. 

The word dicasterion was used to denote both the whole 
body of the dicasts and the place where their session was 
held. * 

Dice (plu. of Die), [Lat. alea and tessera Gr. |3oAi? ; Fr. 
de ; It., Sp., and Port, dado ; Ger. Wurfel], small cubes used 
in playing certain games of chance. They are made of bone, 
ivory, or close-grained wood, having their six sides marked 
with black dots from one up to six. These dots are so ar¬ 
ranged that the numbers on two opposite sides taken together 
always count seven. The dice are shaken in a box called 
a dice-box, and then thrown on a board or table, and the 
number of dots on the upper faces decides the game. The 
invention of dice is very ancient, and is variously ascribed 
to the Greeks and Egyptians, and by Herodotus to the 
Lydians. Dice similar to those of our day have been found 
in Thebes. The Greeks gave the names of their gods and 
heroes to the different throws. The game of dice was pop¬ 
ular among the Romans, and it is said that during the 
decline of the empire wealthy Romans not unfrequently 
staked their whole fortunes on a single throw. Gamblers 
resort to the practice of loading dice by adding lead to 
them on one side, so that the higher numbers are almost 
sure to turn up. When this trick is suspected, the thrower 
should turn down the mouth of the box abruptly, and this 
will prevent the dice from rolling and arranging themselves 
unjustly. 

Dicen'tra [from the Gr. St'?, “twice,” or “two,” and 
k ivTpov, a “spur,” a term descriptive of the blossom of 
these plants], a genus of herbaceous perennials belonging 
to the order Fumariacese. They are found in moist, rich 
woodlands, and flower in spring. Among the species native 
in the U. S. are Dicentra Cucullaria (commonly called 
Dutchman’s breeches), Dicentra Canadensis (squirrel corn), 
and Dicentra eximia. Dicentra chrysantha, found in Cali¬ 
fornia, has large golden-yellow flowers. Dicentra specta- 
bilis, introduced from Japan about 1846, grows sometimes 
to the height of three feet, and produces long racemes of 
rosy blossoms of great beauty. 

Dichlamyd'eons [from the Gr. Si?, “ twice” or “two,” 
and x^a/uv?, a “ short cloak”], a botanical term applied to 
flowers or plants having both calyx and corolla. In the 
system of Decandolle exogenous plants are divided into 
dichlamydeous and monochlamydeous. 

Dichot'omous [from the Gr. Si'xa, “double,” and renvoi, 
“to cut”], two-forked, a term in botanjq is applied to 
branches or stems which bifurcate, and are repeatedly di¬ 
vided into pairs. The stems of some ferns, the fronds of 
some algae, and the stems of several phanerogamous plants 
are dichotomously branched. 

Dichot'omy [for etymology see Dichotomous], an arti¬ 
ficial system for the arrangement of natural objects, based 
upon principles of binary distinction. 

In logic, the division of a class into two sub-classes, 
which are opposed to each other by contradiction. 

In anthropology, the recognition of two factors, and only 
two, in man—the physical and the spiritual—contrasted 
with trichotomy, which recognizes in man three factors— 
viz. body, soul, and spirit, (See Dr. Boardman’s articles 
in “Baptist Quarterly,” vol. i.) 

Di'chroism [from the Gr. Si'?, “twice,” and XP uS?, 
“color”], the property possessed by some crystallized bodies 
of showing two different colors, according to the direction 
in which rays of light pass through them. The crystals of 
the double chloride of palladium and potassium appear 
deep red along the axis, and vivid green in a transverse 
direction. 

Di'chroite [etymology same as for Dichroism], also 
called Folite, a mineral so called from the different colors 
it exhibits, is a silicate of magnesia, iron, and alumina. It 
is found in prisms belonging to the trimetric system, and is 
sometimes used as a gem. 

Dick (James T.), an artist born in New York City in 
1834, was a son of A. L. Dick, an engraver of good reputa¬ 
tion. The younger Dick gained several prizes at the ago 
of fourteen, and was one of the founders of the Brooklyn 
Art School and of the Academy of Design. Died Jan. it), 
1868. 

Dick (Thomas), LL.D., a Scottish author, born near 
Dundee Nov. 24, 1774, was educated for the ministry in 
connection with the Secession Church. He taught school 
for many years at Perth, and wrote numerous popular sci¬ 


entific and religious works, among which are “ The Chris¬ 
tian Philosopher ” (182.3), “The Philosophy of Religion” 
(1825), “ The Philosophy of a Future State” (1828), “ Ce¬ 
lestial Scenery” (1838), and the “Sidereal Heavens” 
(1840). Died July 29, 1857. 

Dick'ens (Charles), one of the greatest novelists that 
England has produced, was born at Landport, Portsmouth, 
on Feb. 7, 1812. His father was John Dickens, who held a 
position in the navy pay department, and who afterwards 
became parliamentary reporter for one of the London daily 
papers. After studying in a college near Rochester, young 
Dickens was placed in an attorney’s office to learn the jiro- 
fession of the law. This pursuit proving uncongenial to 
his taste, he left it and obtained a position as reporter on 
the staff of the “ Morning Chronicle.” In this paper ap¬ 
peared the first efforts of his genius, his “ Sketches of Life 
and Character,” which in 1836 were collected and published 
in two volumes under the title “Sketches by Boz.” The 
public gave these a favorable reception, and in 1837 they 
were followed by “ The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick 
Club,” which first appeared as a serial in monthly parts. 
The work had an immediate and almost unparalleled suc¬ 
cess, and raised its author at once to the first rank among 
the popular writers of the day. In its peculiar vein of 
humor it has never been equalled in English literature. 
He was married in 1838 to the daughter of George Hogarth, 
a musical critic, and in the same year appeared “Oliver 
Twist,” a novel in three volumes. This was followed by 
“The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby ” (3 vols., 
1839), “ Master Humphrey’s Clock” (1840-41), and “Bar- 
naby Rudge” (1841). In 1841 he visited the U. S., and in 
the following year appeared his “American Notes for Gen¬ 
eral Circulation,” in which American life and character 
were somewhat severely satirized. The “Notes” were fol¬ 
lowed in 1843-44 by the “ Life and Adventures of Martin 
Chuzzlewit” (3 vols.), a work which reflected still more on 
the faults and foibles of our countrymen. 

In 1844, Mr. Dickens went to Italy, whence he returned 
in 1845, and towards the end of that year he assumed the 
chief editorship of the “Daily News,” a Liberal journal 
then just established. He soon, however, resigned this 
position. In 1847-48 appeared his “ Dombey & Son,” which, 
in some of its passages at least, is not surpassed by any of 
his works either in power or pathos. It was followed in 
1850 by “The Personal History of David Copperfield,” 
which is regarded by many as the best of all his novels. 
Certainly in none other is the interest more intense or better 
sustained from the beginning to the end. It is commonly 
understood that in the story of “David Copperfield” the 
novelist has introduced many of the incidents or circum¬ 
stances of his own life, without, however, following so 
closely the real history as in any way to compromise the 
characters of those with whom he associated. Among his 
other works may be mentioned “Bleak House” (1852), 
“Hard Times” (1854), “Little Dorrit” (1857), “A Tale of 
Two Cities” (1860), “ Great Expectations ” (1862), “Our 
Mutual Friend” (1864—65), and “ The Mystery of Edwin 
Drood,” left unfinished at his death. “ Household Words,” 
a weekly periodical originated by him in 1850, had a very 
extensive circulation. He afterwards in 1859 started an¬ 
other weekly journal entitled “All the Year Round.” In 
1867 he made a second visit to the U. S., and met every¬ 
where with a cordial and even enthusiastic reception. He 
gave in the principal cities public readings from his own 
works, which were attended by crowded audiences. He re¬ 
turned to his native country in the spring of 1868, and died 
at Gad’s Hill June 9, 1870. J. Thomas. 

Dick'eyville, a post-township of Aroostook co., Me. 
It has a high school and some manufactures. Pop. 1851. 

Dick'ins (John), a Methodist Episcopal preacher,born 
in London in 1746, studied at Eton, and came to America 
before the Revolutionary war. In 1774 he became a 
Methodist, and soon began to preach. He was one of the 
ablest preachers of his day, and contributed much to the 
foundation of Cokesbury College and the Methodist Book 
Concern. Died of yellow fever in 1798. 

Dick'inson, a county in the N. W. of Iowa. Area, 
430 square miles. It is drained by the Okoboji River, and 
contains several lakes, one of which is called Spirit Lake. 
The soil is mostly fertile, and grain is produced. Capital, 
Spirit Lake. Pop. 1389, 

Dickinson, a county in E. Central Kansas. Area, 
846 square miles. It is intersected by the Kansas River. 
The surface is partly ocoupied by extensive prairies ; the 
soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, hay, butter, etc. are produced. 
It is traversed by the Kansas Pacific R. 11. Capital, Abilene. 
Pop. 3043. 

Dickinson, a post-township of Franklin co., N. Y. 
Pop. 1990. 




























DICKINSON—DICTATOR. 


i'64o 


Dickinson, a post-township of Cumberland co., Pa. 
Pop. 1017. 

Dickinson (Anna Elizabeth), an American reformer 
and popular public speaker, was born of Quaker parents at 
Philadelphia Oct. 28, 1842. Her father died when she was 
but two years old, and her early years were spent in poverty. 
She was educated in the Friends’ free schools. Her first 
public speech was delivered in Jan., 1800, at a meeting for 
the discussion of women’s rights, and at once established 
her reputation. During the civil war she delivered many 
patriotic and political addresses, and since that time she 
has spoken much upon labor reform, woman’s suffrage, etc. 
She published in 1808 “ What Answer ?” a novel. 

Dickinson (Daniel Stevens), LL.D., an American 
Senator and lawyer, born in Goshen, Conn., Sept. 11, 1800. 
He was elected as a Democrat to the senate of New York 
in 1836, and became lieutenant-governor of that State in 
1842. In 1844 he was chosen a Senator of the U. S. for 
six years. He was distinguished as a debater, and was the 
leader of the conservative (“Hunker”) Democrats of New 
York. After he retired from the Senate he practised law at 
Binghamton, with a high reputation. In 1861 he was 
elected attorney-general of New York. During the civil 
war he zealously supported the cause of the Union by pub¬ 
lic speeches. He was appointed district attorney for the 
southern district of New York in the spring of 1865. Died 
April 12, 1866. (See “Life and Works of D. S. Dickin¬ 
son,” by his brother, 2 vols., 1867.) 

Dickinson (Edward), LL.D., an American lawyer, 
was born at Amherst, Mass., Jan. 1, 1803, graduated at 
Yale with the highest honors in 1823, studied at the Law 
School of Northampton, Mass., and in 1826 became a 
lawyer of his native town, where he has since resided. 
He became treasurer of Amherst College in 1835, holding 
that position nearly forty years, greatly to the advantage 
of the college. In 1838, 1839, and 1873 he was chosen 
representative to the general court of Massachusetts, was 
State senator 1842-43, State councillor 1845-46, and a 
Whig member of Congress 1854—55, having declined other 
important public trusts. He is a prominent supporter of 
the railroad interests of his town and State, and is distin¬ 
guished for integrity, public spirit, and professional success. 

Dickinson (John), LL.D., an American statesman and 
lawyer, born in Maryland Nov. 13, 1732. He received his 
legal education in London, practised law with success in 
Philadelphia, and was a deputy to the first Colonial Con¬ 
gress in 1765. He was a member of the Continental Con¬ 
gress in 1774, and wrote for that body several important 
state papers, among which was a “Declaration to the 
Armies.” He was an eloquent and ready debater. In 1776 
he spoke against the Declaration of Independence, which he 
regarded as premature, and he was one of the few members 
of Congress who did not sign that declaration. He con¬ 
sequently became unpopular, and was defeated in the next 
election, but he served as a private soldier in the war of 
Independence. In 1779 he represented Delaware in Con¬ 
gress. He was president of Pennsylvania in 1782-85. He 
wrote numerous political essays, and had a high reputation 
for learning. In 1783 he founded and endowed Dickinson 
College at Carlisle, Pa. Died Feb. 14, 1808. 

Dickinson (Rev. Jonathan), a Presbyterian theolo¬ 
gian, born at Hatfield, Mass., April 22, 1688, graduated at 
Yale College in 1706. He preached at Elizabethtown, N. J., 
for more than thirty years, and was elected president of 
the College of New Jersey in 1746. He wrote several works 
on theology. Died Oct. 7, 1747. 

Dickinson College, next to the University of Penn¬ 
sylvania, is the oldest college in the State; the former was 
founded in 1753, the latter in 1783. As to its establish¬ 
ment and its location in Carlisle, the board of trustees in 
1784 set forth the following : “ The fitness of the situation, 
not only central to the State, but to the several States of 
the Union, the healthfulness and beauty of the country 
around, recommend the fitness of the situation. The great 
embarrassments learning lay under during the war pointed 
it out as a virtue peculiarly commendable to use our en¬ 
deavors to revive the drooping sciences. Gratitude to God 
for the prosperous conclusion of the war laid us under obli¬ 
gation, our new relations to the other nations of the world, 
and especially the important interests of religion and virtue 
in this growing empire.” In consequence of the valuable 
gifts to,°and personal interest in, the college of Hon. John 
Dickinson, “ president of Pennsylvania,” the institution 
received his name. The first president was Charles Nisbet, 
D. D., a native of Scotland, and minister at Montrose. 
During the Revolutionary war his voice was in favor of the 
colonies. The college has had eleven presidents : Charles 
Nisbet, D. D., elected 1784; Robert Davidson, D. D., in 
1804; Jeremiah Atwater, D. D., in 1809; John M. Mason, 
85 


D. D., in 1821; William Neill, D. D., in 1824; Samuel B. 
How, in 1830; John P. Durbin, D. D., in 1833; Robert 
Emory, D. D., in 1845; Jesse T. Peck, D. D., in 1848; 
Charles Collins, D. D., in 1852; Herman M. Johnson, 
D. D., in 1860; Robert L. Dashiell, D. D., in 1868; James 
A. McAuley, D. D., in 1872. 

The institution is denominational. Until 1833 it was 
under Presbyterian control, but the division of that Church 
into the old and new branches brought the college under 
grave embarrassments. The Old School kept the educa¬ 
tional funds; the Ne\* School had a majority of the board 
of trustees, but, being without funds, transferred the college 
to the Methodist denomination, under whose care it now 
remains. At the breaking out of the late civil war it had 
many students from the Southern States; these left, others 
were called to the battle-field, and the college suffered in its 
finances until the year of the centenary of Methodism, when 
its endowment fund was increased $100,000. 

The course of study retains the old classical course, but 
allows a divergence in the junior and senior years from the 
ancient languages in two directions—one in favor of the 
Hebrew language and literature, to accommodate those 
studying for the ministry; and the other in favor of na¬ 
tural science. The old prominence of the ancient classics 
has yielded much in favor of modern languages, literature, 
and the natural sciences. 

The buildings are three in number. The libraries con¬ 
tain 26,000 volumes ; the scientific apparatus is very exten¬ 
sive and valuable. S. D. Hillman. 

Dickinson’s Landing, a port of entry of Osna- 
bruck township, Stormont co., Ontario (Canada), on the 
N. side of the St. Lawrence River, at the head of the Corn¬ 
wall Canal, 96 miles from Kingston. It has a lighthouse. 
Pop. about 300. 

Dick Johnson, a township of Clay co., Ind. P. 868. 

Dick' son, a county in the N. of Tennessee. Area, 600 
square miles. It is partly bounded on the N. E. by the Cum¬ 
berland River, and drained by the Harpeth. The surface is 
undulating; the soil is productive. Tobacco, wool, cattle, 
and grain are staple products. It is intersected by the Nash¬ 
ville and North-western R. R. Capital, Charlotte. P. 9340. 

Dickson, a township of Edwards co., Ill. Pop. 526. 

Dickson, a township of Lewis co., Mo. Pop. 204. 

Dickson, a borough of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 391. 

Dickson (Samuel Henry), M. D., LL.D., was born of 
Scottish parentage at Charleston, S. C., Sept. 20, 1798, 
graduated at Yale in 1814, and received the degree of M. D. 
at the University of Pennsylvania in 1819. In 1824 he be¬ 
came professor of the institutes and practice of medicine at 
Charleston medical school (S. C.), was professor of practice 
in the University of New York (1847-50), and again in 
Charleston. In 1858 he was called to the chair of practice 
at Jefferson College, Philadelphia, which he filled with 
great ability. He was the author of several valuable works 
and numerous brochures upon medicine and other subjects. 
Died Mar. 31, 1872. 

Dicotyled'onous [from the Gr. St (for Sis), “'twice” 
or “ double,” and kotvAtjSuji', a “cotyledon ”] Plants, the 
name given to plants which have the embryo furnished 
with two, or more than two, Cotyledons (which see). More 
than two are of rare occurrence, but are found in the fir, 
larch, spruce, etc. of the Coniferte. As a general rule, exo¬ 
gens are dicotyledonous, while endogens are almost always 
monocotyledonous. (See Exogenous Plants.) 

Dicta'tor [Fr. dictateur, from the Lat. dicto, dictatum, 
to “say often,” to “ dictate”], the title of an extraordinary 
magistrate in the republic of ancient Rome, who was in¬ 
vested with nearly absolute power for a period of six 
months, and was irresponsible. Dictators were appointed 
when the republic was in danger, or when an important 
crisis demanded the prompt decision and vigorous action 
of a single executive chief. The first dictator, according 
to some authorities, was Titus Lartius, who was appointed 
501 B. C.; the last, Marcus Junius Pera (216 B. C.). In 
general, no one could be made dictator who had not pre¬ 
viously been consul. It is doubtful whether election by 
the curiae was necessary to his appointment, but the nom¬ 
ination by the consul was indispensable. The dictator ap¬ 
pointed a magister equitum (“master of the horsemen’), 
who in his absence acted as his deputy or lieutenant. The 
office of dictator was at first confined to patricians, and the 
first plebeian dictator was C. Marcius Rutilus, appointed 
in 356 B. C. The power of the dictators was subject to 
these limitations: they could not touch the treasury, they 
were not permitted to leave Italy, nor to ride through Romo 
on horseback without the consent ot the people. The dic¬ 
tatorships of Sulla and Cmsar, both of whom transcended 
their limitations, were irregular and illegal, entirely ditler- 
ent from the former dictatorships. 













1346 DICTIONARY—DIDYMUS. 


D ic'tionary [Modern Latin, dictionarium, from dictio, 
a “ word,” and -arium, a suffix, denoting a “ place where 
things arc keptFr. dictionnaire; It. dizionario ; Sp. dic- 
cionario ], a book giving the words of a language in alpha¬ 
betical order, and explaining their meaning. It is also a 
general term for works on science, literature, and art, giv¬ 
ing information under separate classified heads, and in mod¬ 
ern times under heads alphabetically arranged. The multi¬ 
plication of books upon history, science, and literature has 
made it necessary to reduce the body of knowledge in spe¬ 
cific branches of inquiry to the foran of dictionaries, with 
the topics alphabetically arranged for convenience of refer¬ 
ence. The earliest work of the kind is in the Chinese 
language, compiled about 1100 B. C. One of the first 
lexicographers among classic writers was M. T. Yarro 
(128-116 B. C.), but the most celebrated dictionary of 
antiquity is the “ Onomasticon ” of Julius Pollux, com¬ 
pleted early in the third century. In modern times the 
first Latin dictionary was published by Balbi of Genoa 
(1460). Sebastian Munster’s “ Chaldee Dictionary” ap¬ 
peared in 1527; Pagninus’s “Lexicon of the Hebrew Lan¬ 
guage” (1529); Stephens’s “Thesaurus” (1535); Erpe- 
nius’s “Arabic Dictionary” (1613); Schindler’s “ Lexicon 
Pentaglottum” (1612); Castell’s “Lexicon Ileptaglotton ” 
(1669); Moreri’s “ Dictionnaire ” (1673); Bayle’s “ Histori¬ 
cal and Critical Dictionary” and the “ Dictionary of the 
French Academy ” (1694); Dr. Johnson’s “English Diction¬ 
ary” (1755); Grose’s “Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue” 
(1785); Walker’s “Dictionary” (1791); Webster’s (1806); 
Webster’s “American Dictionary” (1828); revised edition, 
unabridged (1864); Richardson’s “Dictionary of the Eng¬ 
lish Language” (1835-37; reissued with a supplement in 
1856); Worcester’s (1830-60); J. L. Grimm’s “German 
Dictionary” (“ Deutches Worterbuch,” begun in 1852 ; still 
unfinished). Among works of the kind may also be men¬ 
tioned Wm. Smith’s “Dictionary of Antiquities” (1842), 
“Dictionary of Biography” (1849), and his “Dictionary 
of Ancient Geography” (1857). His “Bible Dictionary” 
(1860-63) and his Latin Dictionaries (1855 and 1870) are 
valuable. Littre’s “Dictionnaire de la Langue Fran- 
§aise ” (1863-73); the Greek-German Lexicon of Passow, 
translated into Greek-English by Liddell and Scott, and 
enlarged by Drisler; Yonge’s English-Greek Lexicon, 
greatly enlarged by Drisler; Barretti’s Italian Dictionary; 
Adler’s German and English Dictionary (1848), and So¬ 
phocles’ Dictionary of Byzantine Greek (I860), are among 
the best -works of the kind. E. A. Andrews’s Latin Dic¬ 
tionary, based upon that of Freund, and the lexicographic 
works of the late Prof. Anthon, are of much value. Quite 
recently much attention has been given in the U. S. to the 
compilation of dictionaries of the aboriginal languages of 
the country—a task upon which much valuable labor has 
been bestowed. 

Dic'tyogens [from the Gr. SUtvov, a “net” or “net¬ 
work”], a name proposed by Lindley for a sub-class of 
plants included by other botanists among endogenous 
plants. While they agree with endogens in the structure 
of the embryo, they are distinguished by having net- 
veined instead of parallel-veined leaves, and the growth 
of their stems appears to be partly exogenous and partly 
endogenous. The most important natural orders referred 
to this class are Dioscoreaceae and Sinilaceai, and among 
the plants are the different species of yam and sarsapa¬ 
rilla. 

Dicyn'odon [from the Gr. Si (for «?), “twice” or 
“ two, kvu)v, a “ dog,” and 68ou? (gen. oSopto?), a “tooth”], 
literally, having two tusks or canine teeth, the name ap¬ 
plied to a genus of fossil reptiles whose remains have been 
found in South Africa. Animals of this genus united in 
their structure the characteristics of different reptiles. The 
closed orbits and sharp, compressed jaws covered with a 
horny plate ally it closely to the tortoise, but it also has 
affinities with the lizard and crocodile. It takes its name 
from a pair of sharp-pointed tusks growing downward, 
one from each side of the upper jaw. The articulating sur¬ 
faces of the vertebrae being hollow, it may be supposed 
these reptiles were good swimmers; and if they were in¬ 
habitants of the water, the construction of the bony pas¬ 
sages of the nostrils proves that they must have come to 
the surface to breathe air. 

Didac'tic [Gr. SiSaKTLKos, from fiiSao-Kw, to “teach”], a 
word signifying skilled in teaching, imparting instruction. 

Didactic Poetry, a term applied to that poetry the 
chief object of which is to teach some art, science, or sys¬ 
tem of philosophy. Among the most remarkable examples 
of ancient didactic poems arc the following: Lucretius’s 
“De Rerum Natura ” (designed to explain and defend the 
philosophy of Epicurus), which Macaulay pronounces “the 
finest didactic poem in any language;” Virgil’s “Georgies” 
(a treatise on agriculture); and Horace’s “ De Arte Poeticfi ” 


(“On the Poetic Art”). Many fine didactic poems have 
also been written in modern times. Among the principal 
of these are Vida’s “ Art of Poetry ” (“ De Arte Poeticfi ”); 
Boileau’s “Art of Poetry” (“L’Art poetique”); Pope’s 
“Essay on Criticism” and “Essay on Man;” Darwin’s 
“Botanic Garden;” and most of Cowper’s longer poems. 

Didelphys. See Opossum. 

Diderot (Denis), a French philosopher, born at Lan- 
gres Oct. 5, 1713, and educated by the Jesuits, was des¬ 
tined for the Church, and later for the law, but eagerly 
embraced the study of literature. His father, a prosperous 
cutler of stern character, withdrew from him all support 
upon his refusal to pursue his professional studies. Among 
his first writings were “ Essai sur le Mtfrite et sur la Vertu ” 
and “ Lettre sur les Aveugles” (1749), which last estab¬ 
lished his reputation, but cost him a year’s imprisonment. 
His earlier works were all written under the duress of pov¬ 
erty. His reputation is founded chiefly on the “ Encyclo¬ 
paedia” (“ Encyclopgdie, ou Dictionnaire raisonnee des 
Sciences, des Arts et Metiers”), of which he and D’Alem¬ 
bert were joint editors. He wrote the articles on ancient 
philosophy, history, and on the arts and trades, and super¬ 
vised other parts of the work. He expended many years 
on this arduous labor, for which he was qualified by great 
quickness of intellect and extent of information. Grimm 
expressed the opinion that he had perhaps the most ency¬ 
clopedic head that ever existed. The first volume of this 
work was published in 1751. The government suspended 
the publication, because it advocated infidel doctrines, but 
it was finished in 1765. Catharine II. of Russia granted 
him a pension in 1765, and invited him to St. Petersburg, 
whither he went in 1773, but he soon returned to France. 
Among his works are novels entitled “The Nun” and 
“ Jacques the Fatalist.” He is considered as the chief of 
the skeptical philosophers called Encyclopedists. Died in 
Paris July 30, 1784. His complete works were published 
by Naigron (15 vols., 1798; new ed.; 22 vols., 1821). (See 
Damiron, “ Mgmoirc sur Diderot,” 1852; Carlyle, “ Es¬ 
say on Diderot;” Rosenkranz, “ Leben und Werke Dide¬ 
rots,” 2 vols., 1866.) 

Dul'ius (Salvius Julianus), a Roman emperor, born 
at Milan in 133 A. D. He had a high command in the 
army, and was chosen consul with Pertinax, after whose 
death (193 A. D.) the praetorians offered the empire at 
public auction to the highest bidder. Didius, who was 
very rich, gave 6250 drachmas to each soldier, and was 
proclaimed emperor. After he had reigned nearly two 
months he was killed (June 1, 193) in his palace by his 
soldiers. He was succeeded by Severus. 

Di'do (“the fugitive”), [Gr. Ai5t6], whose real name 
was Elissa or Elisa, a daughter of the Tyrian king 
Matgen, after whose death she and her younger brother 
Pygmalion (Piimelium) were to reign conjointly. But 
Pygmalion, aided by democratic partisans, usurped the 
whole authority, and procured the assassination of her 
husband, Zicharbaal (the Sichaeus of Virgil). She then 
fled with many Tyrians by sea, and founded Carthage 
about 870-860 B. C. Virgil has been charged with com¬ 
mitting an anachronism in representing her as contem¬ 
porary with iEneas. (See Virgil, “JEneid,” i., ii., and iv.) 

Didot (Francois), born at Paris in 1689, was the foun¬ 
der of a famous house of printers and type-founders in 
Paris. Died Nov. 1, 1757. The business was carried on 
by his sons, Francois Ambroise (born in 1730, died July 
10, 1804), who made improvements in the printing-press 
and paper manufacture, and Pierre Francois. Of the 
sons of the former, Pierre (born 1760, died Dec. 31, 1853, 
leaving as his successor his son Jules) took charge of the 
printing-house in 1789, and published magnificent folio 
editions of Virgil, Horace, Racine, and other classic authors; 
and Firmin (born 1764, died April 24, 1836) took charge 
of the type-foundry, improved the art of stereotyping, 
and became known also as an author and translator. His 
business was inherited by his sons, Ambroise Firmin (born 
Dec. 20, 1790) and Hyacinthe Firmin (born Mar. 11, 
1794). 

Didron (Adolphe Napoleon), a French archaeologist, 
born at Hautvillers (Marne) Mar. 13, 1806. He began in 
1844 to publish “ Annales Archeologiques,” devoted to me¬ 
diaeval art and antiquities. His chief work is “ Christian 
Iconography” (1843). Died Nov. 13, 1867. 

Didym'ium [from the Gr. SiSu/uo?, a “twin”], a rare 
metal, so named from its resemblance to lanthanum, and 
the difficulty of separating the two. It is a dyad, its sym¬ 
bol D; atomic weight, 96. It forms a protoxide (D 2 0), 
Avhich is a powerful base, and forms with acids rose- or 
violet-colored salts. It was discovered in 1841 by Mosander. 

Did'ymus [Gr. Ai'Svjuuk], a grammarian of Alexandria 
in Egypt, was born about 62 B. C., and was surnamed 












DIDYMUS—DIESIS. 


1347 


Chalcentertjs. He was noted for his fecundity as a writer, 
and is said to have written nearly 4000 treatises, mostly 
frivolous, on various subjects. All of his works have per¬ 
ished. r 

Didymus (the Blind), one of the most learned men 
of his age, was born at Alexandria A. D. 308, became blind 
in his fifth year, and was at the head of the theological 
school in Alexandria from 390 to 395, the year in which he 
died. His most important extant works are a treatise upon 
the “ Spirit” and a treatise upon the “ Trinity.” 

(anc. Dca \ ocontiorum), a walled town of France, 
department of Drbme, on the river Drome, 26 miles E. S. E. 
of \ alence. It has manufactures of silk and paper, and is 
the seat of a Catholic bishop. Pop. in 1866, 3762. 

. Die (plu. Dies), in coinage, the instrument by which 
impressions are stamped upon coins. The intended device 
is first engraved upon a plug of forged steel, which, when 
complete, is hardened, and is called a matrix. From this, 
by means of a powerful fly-press, an impression in relief is 
taken upon another piece of soft steel, which, when duly 
shaped and hardened, is called the punch. From this again 
indented impressions upon pieces of steel are taken, which, 
being shaped in the lathe and tempered, are the dies. A 
good pair of dies will sometimes yield from two to three 
hundred thousand impressions before they become too much 
worn for use. 

Die-sinking has acquired increased importance on ac¬ 
count of the great extension of tho process of stamping 
metal. Manj^ kinds of work formerly made by the ham¬ 
mer and punch are now shaped by a few blows between 
suitable dies. As examples of these we may mention the 
ornamental work of gas-fittings, buttons, common jewelry, 
ornamental trays, dishes, boxes, small parts of firearms, etc. 
For such purposes a pair of dies is required—one in relief, 
the other in intaglio—and the metal is pressed between 
them. The astonishing cheapness of many of the metallic 
wares is mainly due to the use of dies for doing by a single 
blow the work that formerly required long anil tedious 
manipulation. 

Die, in architecture, is that part of a pedestal which lies 
between its base and its cornice. 

Die (plu. Dice). See Dice. 

Die'bitseh, surnamed Sabalkanski (Hans Karl 
Friedrich Anton), Count, a Russian general, born in 
Silesia May 13, 1785. He served at the battle of Auster- 
litz, 1805, and became a major-general in 1812. Having 
distinguished himself at the battles of Liitzen, Dresden, 
and Leipsic, he was raised to the rank of lieutenant-general 
in 1813. He was appointed chief of the imperial staff about 
1820. Having obtained command of an army in the war 
against the Turks, he took Varna in 1828, and became 
general-in-chief in 1829. He defeated the Turks and 
crossed the Balkan, hence his title Sabalkanski (“Trans- 
Balkanian”). He was raised to the rank of field-marshal, 
and in Jan., 1831, took command of an army sent to sub¬ 
due the Polish insurgents. After the indecisive battles of 
Praga and Ostrolenka, he died of cholera June 10, 1831. 
(See Belmont, “Graf Diebitsch,” 1830.) 

Die'denhofen, a fortified town in Elsass-Lothringen, 
on the left bank of the Moselle, 14 miles below Metz. Pop. 
7155. 

DieFfenbach (Johann Friedrich), a skilful Prussian 
surgeon, born in Konigsberg Feb. 1, 1794. He graduated 
in 1822, and began to practise in Berlin, where lie gained 
a high reputation. He was a professor in the University 
of Berlin, and wrote, besides other works, “Die Operative 
Chirurgie” (12 vols., 1844-48). He made improvements 
in plastic surgery. Died Nov. 11, 1847. 

Dielec'tric [from the Gr. Sid, “between,” and elec¬ 
tricity], a non-conducting body which permits the force of 
electricity to act through it. For example, the interposi¬ 
tion of thin glass plates does not prevent electric induction 
from taking place; hence glass is dielectric. 

Die'men, vail (Anthony), a Dutch naval officer, born 
at Ivuilenburg in 1593. He served for many years in the 
East Indies, and became an admiral. He was appointed 
governor-general of the Dutch East Indies in 1636, and 
sent out in 1642 an exploring expedition under Abel Tas¬ 
man, who discovered Van Diemen’s Land. Died at Bata¬ 
via April 19, 1645. 

Die'penbeck, van, written also Diepenbeke 
(Abraham), an eminent Dutch historical painter, born at 
Bois-le-Duc in 1607, was a pupil of Rubens. In 1641 ho 
was chosen director of the Academy of Antwerp. He 
painted with facility on glass and tapestry, imitated Ru¬ 
bens with great freedom, and gained a high reputation by 
his skill in composition and coloring. Among his works 
is a series of fifty-eight designs called “The Temple of the 
Muses.” Died in 1675. 


Dieppe, a seaport-town of France, in the department 
of Seine-Inferieure, is on the English Channel at the mouth 
of the river Arques, and at the northern terminus of the 
Rouen and Dieppe Railway, 33 miles N. of Rouen, and 143 
miles by rail N. W. of Paris; lat. 49° 55' N.. Ion. 1° 5' E. 
It stands between two high ranges of chalk-cliffs, and is 
defended by a wall and a castle built on a high cliff. Ves¬ 
sels of 500 tons can enter the harbor at high water, but at 
low tide the harbor is nearly dry. Dieppe has a town-hall, 
theatre, and public library; also manufactures of watches, 
lace, fine linen, paper, and ivory wares. It was formerly 
the principal port of France, and is now one of the most 
fashionable watering-places of that country. Dieppe is a 
favorite landing-place of English tourists visiting France. 
Pop. 19,946. 

Di' es I'rse, a Latin hymn written about the year 1250 
by a Franciscan friar, Thomas da Celano, commencing— 

“ Dies Irie, dies ilia, 

Solvet sieclum in favilla, 

Teste David cum Sibylla.” 

Day of Wrath! On that dread day 
In ashes earth shall pass away. 

Attest the King’s, the Sibyl’s,* lay. 

The Western Church soon gave it a place in its offices as the 
“ Sequence for the Dead,” so called because in the Roman 
mass it is sung between the Epistle and the Gospel, following 
immediately after the Gradual Hymn, when that is sung. 
In an English form it has also been adopted into the hymn- 
books of the Church of England, and into the new Hymnal 
of the Protestant Episcopal Church of our country. It is 
chief among the “ Seven great Hymns of the Medimval 
Church,” among which are “Jerusalem the Golden,” “ Come, 
Holy Ghost” ( Veni Sancte Spiritus), etc. Of all these 
sacred lyrics none can compare in point of sublimity or 
touching pathos with the “ Dies Irae.” For centuries it has 
been the favorite alike of Roman and Protestant Christen¬ 
dom. The most renowned of modern poets, composers, and 
divines have bent in admiration at its shrine, and multi¬ 
tudes have essayed in vain to transfer its force and beauty 
to their own language. (Am. Ch. Rev.) 

The composition is evidently suggested by the words 
of Zephaniah, in the Vulgate : “ That Day, a Day of Wrath, 
a day of trouble and distress, a day of wasteness and de¬ 
solation, a day of darkness and gloominess, a day of clouds 
and thick darkness, a day of the trumpet and alarm against 
the fenced cities and against the high towers!” which the 
opening stanza, already quoted, coupled with the third 
stanza— 

“ Tuba mirum spargens sonum, 

Per sepulcra regionum, 

Coget omnes ante thronum ”— 


forcibly renders, though, with poetical license, the last 
trumpet “ scattering) a wondrous sound” through “earth’s 
sepulchres,” and “compelling all before the throne” for 
judgment, is substituted for the battle-trumpet which 
“alarms” the “fenced cities.” The translations and ver¬ 
sions of this hymn in modern languages are numbered by 
scores, perhaps by hundreds; but the Latin verse of the 
Franciscan monk, simple and easy as it appears at the first 
glance, has in it a secret force which baffles the ingenuity 
and skill of translators. “After a close scrutiny, we must 
confess (says the “Amer. Church Review ”) that the version 
of Dr. Irons (the one adopted in ‘Hymns Ancient and 
Modern,’ ‘ The People’s Hymnal,’ and our new Hymnal) 
expresses most clearly the language and force of the origi¬ 
nal. The second best (which many rank as the best) has 
an historic interest attached to it; for it was the work of 
our own Christian soldier and statesman, Major-General 
John A. Dix, now governor of the State of New York, 
while in command of Fortress Monroe during the war with 
the South. As when, in the early days of the Christian 
Church, the Vandal legions encompassed his beloved city 
and diocese of Hippo, the holy Augustine found time and 
opportunity to compose his immortal ‘ City of God,’ so, in 
the darkest days of a cruel war, the rhythms of Thomas da 
Celano found a fitting exponent in the person of one who 
was alike true to his country and faithful to his God.” 
(Amer. Church Revieio, April, 1873.) The third best Eng¬ 
lish translation is, according to the same authority, one by 
Dr. Abraham Coles, an American who has made thirteen 
excellent versions. The words of the “ Dies Ira; consti¬ 
tute the principal subject of the music of the famous “ Re¬ 
quiem” of Mozart, to which, from the circumstances under 
which it was composed, a mysterious interest is attached. 

J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 


Di'esis [Gr. &W, a “gradation,” from Sid, “ through,” 
and bjni, to “send”], in music, an interval less than a com¬ 
ma. Tho harmonical diesis is the difference between tho 
small and the great semitone, as from C to C sharp, and 
from C to D flat. 
































1348 


DIESKAU, VON—DIFFERENTIAL THERMOMETER. 


Dies'kau, von (Ludwig August), a German officer, 
born in 1701, entered the French service. He commanded 
a force which marched from Canada in 1755, and attacked 
Fort Edward in New York. Here he was wounded and 
taken prisoner by the British. Died near Paris Sept. 8, 
1767. 

Diest, a town of Belgium, in the province of South 
Brabant, on the river Demer, 17 miles N. E. of Louvain, 
is strongly fortified. It has manufactures of hosiery and 
woollen goods, and exports much good beer. It was taken 
by Marlborough in 1705. Pop. 7561. 

Di es'terweg (Friedrich Adolph Wilhelm), an emi¬ 
nent German teacher and writer, born at Siegen Oct. 29, 
1790. He taught in Berlin, and published numerous edu¬ 
cational works. Died July 7, 1866. 

Di'et [from the Gr. SiWa, “manner of living,” “main¬ 
tenance ;” Lat. diseta], a term signifying in its popular 
sense the food and drink which are taken to maintain life. 
Originally, however, the term included all the conditions 
of living, such as clothing, shelter, and exercise. (See 
Food, by Edward Smith, M. D., LL.B., F. R. S., London.) 

Di'et [Lat. diseta; from the Gr. Suurdu), to “govern”], 
the name of the assembly of the German states, which, 
originating at a very remote period, was reconstituted by 
the emperor Charles IV. in 1356. The sessions were made 
permanent at Ratisbon in 1663, and were removed to 
Frankfort by the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806. 

Dietary, Military. See Subsistence of Armies. 

Diet'erichs (Joachim Friedrich Christian), a Ger¬ 
man veterinary surgeon and writer, born at Stendal in 
1792. He published, besides several professional works, 
a treatise “On the Education of Horses” (1825) and a 
“Manual of the Practical Knowledge of Horses” (1834). 

Dieteri'ci (Karl Friedrich Wilhelm), a Prussian 
political economist, born in Berlin Aug. 23, 1790. He 
became professor of political economy at Berlin in 1834, 
director of the national bureau of statistics in 1844, and 
member of the Berlin Academy. He published, besides 
other works, “Public Welfare in the Prussian States” 
(1846) and “Manual of the Statistics of the Prussian 
State,” continued by his son (1858-61). Died July 29, 
1859.—His son, Friedrich Dieterici, has published an 
Arabic grammar and edited Arabic writings. Ho was born 
July 6, 1821, and became professor at Berlin in 1850. 

Dietet'ics [from the Gr. Si'aira, “manner of living”], 
that branch of medicine which treats of food and drink. 
In a wider sense it may treat of the recovery or mainten¬ 
ance of health by means of correct habits with regard to 
eating, drinking, exercise, the wearing of proper clothes, 
etc. (See Hygiene, by Prof. Henry Hartshorne.) 

Die'trich, or Dietricy (Christian Wilhelm Ernst), 
a German painter and engraver, born at Weimar Oct. 30, 
1712. Among his works is an “Adoration of the Magi.” 
Died April 24, 1774. (See monograph on his works, in Ger¬ 
man, by J. F. Linck, Berlin, 8vo, 1846.) 

Dieu et mon Droit [Fr.], (“God and my right”), 
the motto of the royal arms of England. It was the parole 
given by Richard I. at the battle of Gisors in 1198, and 
was assumed by him and his successors, but it did not 
appear on the broad seal until the time of Henry VIII. 
Queen Anne substituted “ Semper eadem” for the old motto, 
but the latter was restored by George I. 

Diez (Friedrich Christian), Ph. D., a German philol¬ 
ogist, was born at Giessen Mar. 15, 1794. He was appointed 
professor of modern literature at Bonn in 1830. He pub¬ 
lished “The Life and Works of the Troubadours” (1829), 
a “ Grammar of the Romance Languages” (1842 ; entirely 
new ed., 3 vols., 1850-60), and an “Etymological Diction¬ 
ary of the Romance Languages” (1853; 3d ed. 1869). 

Difference [Lat. differentia, from dif (for die), 
“apart,” and fero, to “bear”], in arithmetic and algebra, 
is the excess of one quantity over another, or the result 
of the operation of subtraction. 

Difference, in logic, is that quality which distinguishes 
the species from its genus, and is said logically to be part 
of the essence of the object; e. g. to the genus “animal” 
add the difference “ having the power of articulate speech,” 
and we obtain the species “man”—a species distinguished 
from all other animals by that peculiarity. 

Difference Engine, the name given to calculating- 
machines which operate by the method of differences. Such 
are the calculating-machines of Babbage and Scheutz. (See 
Calculating-Machines.) 

Differences, Method of, in algebra, a method of 
finding any distant term of a series, or the sum of a definite 
number of terms, by means of the differences between the 
initial terms, the differences of their differences, and so on. 


A first order of differences is found by taking each term 
of the series from the next term following. Thus, if the 
series be a, b,'c, d, etc., the first order of differences is 
6 — a, c — b, d — c, etc.; and the first of these (b — a) may be 
indicated by d\. The second order of differences will be 
found by taking each first difference from the next follow¬ 
ing first difference, and the first of the second differences 
may be indicated by di. In like manner are found dz, di, 
etc. If the law of the series be expressed by a formula in 
which the indices of the powers of the variable are integral, 
or Avhich is capable of being transformed into such an one, 
the differences of the order denoted by the highest power 
of the variable will be equal, and those of higher orders 
will be zero. Thus, if this highest power be the wi th , there 
will be m orders of differences. Then, putting T for the 
« th term after the first, or the (n -t- l) th of the series, 

n(n —I) n(n —1)(«—2) 

T = a + ndi -1-— c ?2 H- ( 3 . 

n (n —1).( n — m + 1) . 

---- dm. 

1.2.3. m 

To find the sum of n terms of the given series, a, b, c, 
d, etc., prefix zero to this series, and form a new series, of 
which each succeeding term shall be the sum of all the 
terms of the given series up to the term of the same name; 
as 0, a, a + b, a + b + c, etc. It is evident that the terms 
a, b, c, d, etc. of the given series form the first order of 
differences of the new; the first order of differences of the 
given series, the second order of the new, and so on. The 
(n + l) th term of this new series will therefore be the sum 
of n terms of the given series; and representing this sum 
by S, we shall have, 


S = n a + 


n{n— 1) 7 , «(«—1)(»—2) 

- d\ -1-—--u2.+ 


1.2 * ‘ 1.2.3 

n(n —1). (n — m) 

1.2.3.(ro + lj dm ' 


F. A. P. Barnard. 


Differencial, a term belonging to mathematical anal¬ 
ysis. When a variable quantity, as x, is taken in two 
states indefinitely near to each other, as x and x -f h, the 
infinitely small difference, li, is called the differential of the 
variable, and is written in analysis, dx. If the given 
quantity is not x itself, but a function of x, say F(x), then, 
when x becomes x + h, F(x) becomes F(x + h), and the 
differential is F(x + It) — F(x), which may be written 
F'(x, li). The analytic method which is founded on differ¬ 
entials is called the differential calculus. (See Calculus.) 

Differential Calculus. See Calculus, by Gen. J. 
G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Differencial Coeffic'ient , in the calculus, is the value 
of F'{x, h) as defined in the last article, divided by h — dx, 
the differential of the variable. Putting u for F(x), and u r 
for F{x + h), then the differential of F(x), which is F(x + h) 

— F(x ) = a' — u, and is written du. Hence, —- = — ^ ^ 

dx h 

is the only quite general expression for the differential co¬ 
efficient of a function. But if the function is pui'ely alge¬ 
braic, more explicit forms may be found. Thus, let F(x) 
= x m . And in the expression for the differential of F(x), 
viz. du — F(x + h) — F(x) = (x + h) m — x m , develop the first 
expression, and we shall have, du — x m + mx m ~ l , h + in . 
m — 1 

—-— x m ~ 2 , 7t 2 +. h m — x m . 

dU 

Substituting dx for h, and then dividing by the same, 
i. e. dx, there results, 

du , . m — 1 _ . m — 1 m — 2 


, -= m. x m ~ 1 + in .—- 
dx 2 


~x m — 2 dx + m. 


x 


■m — 3 


2 3 

dx 2 +. dx m — 1 ; 

in which all the terms multiplied by the infinitely small 
factor dx and its powers are of no appreciable value com¬ 
pared with mx m ~ 1 , the first term. Consequently, — = 

dx 

mx m — 2 , or the differential coefficient of any power of a 
single variable, is found by multiplying the given expres¬ 
sion by the exponent of the power, and then diminishing 
this exponent by unity. The differential coefficient of an 
algebraic function consisting of more terms than one is the 
sum of the differential coefficients of the several terms. 
The differential coefficient of any algebraic function is 
identical with the derivative of that function. (See De¬ 
rived Function.) F. A. P. Barnard. 

Differencial Rcsol'vent, a certain linear differen¬ 
tial equation of the (n — l) th order which is satisfied by 
each of the roots of an equation of the u th degree, whose 
coefficients are functions of a single parameter. 

Differencial Thermom'eter is a thermometer for 
indicating very slight variations of temperature. The in¬ 
strument as here described was invented by Sir John Les- 






























DIFFERENTIATION—DIGGES. 


lie. It consists of two glass bulbs connected by a narrow 
tube, which is usually bent in the form of a U. The bulbs 
are uppermost, and are filled with air, while the tube con¬ 
tains a column of mercury or sulphuric acid. The measure¬ 
ment is effected by the expansion of the air in one of the 
bulbs. This instrument is far more sensitive than mercu¬ 
rial and most other thermometers, owing to the greater 
expansive power of gases. It is estimated that a change 
not greater than the GOOOth part of a degree Fahrenheit can 
be indicated by it. The differential thermometer has of late 
in a great measure been superseded for delicate measure¬ 
ments of temperature by the Thermopile (which see). 

Differentiation is the operation in mathematics by 
which the differential of a function is determined. The 
allied operation, which leads to the determination of the de¬ 
rived function (or differential coefficient), is usually termed 
derivation. The partial differentiation of a function of 
two or more independent variables is the differentiation of 
that function, on the hypothesis that one only of these 
variables suffers change. “ Finite differentiation ” is the 
operation by which the difference of a function correspond¬ 
ing to a finite difference of the variable is determined. The 
term is also used to denote the process of development in 
plants and animals from simple to complex organizations. 

Diffrac'tion [from the Lat. dif (for dis), “ apart,” and 
frango, fractum, to “break”], in optics, a deviation or de¬ 
flection which the rays of light undergo in passing very near 
any opaque body. It had been observed by Grimaldi, but 
Newton first explained its cause. Let a beam of solar light, 
reflected horizontally, be admitted into a dark chamber 
through a small round hole, and received on a white screen. 
If the hole have a sensible diameter, the image of the sun 
on the screen will suffer no sensible alteration of color; but 
if we place in the axis of the beam, and at a distance of 
five or six feet from the hole through which it is admitted, 
a metallic plate having a very fine puncture, and inter¬ 
cepting all other light than that which passes through the 
puncture, the appearance on the wall will be surrounded 
with several concentric colored rings, covering a space far 
exceeding in extent that which the solar beam ivould have 
occupied if its rays had followed their rectilinear direction. 
By substituting a very narrow slit for the puncture in the 
plate, or several punctures or slits close to each other, very 
beautiful phenomena are produced. (See Optics.) 

Diffusion of Gases. See Gas. 

Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, Society for, 

was organized in London in 1827. 

Digam'ma [Gr. Slya^fia, “double gamma,” from Si, 
for Si?, “double,” and ya^na, “gamma” (the third letter 
(r) in the Greek alphabet), so called from its shape (F)], an 
ancient aspirate or consonantal Greek letter, chiefly found 
in the iEolic dialect. It does not occur in extant literature, 
various substitutes having been employed for it, but its 
form and name have been preserved by the scholiasts. In 
many instances it disappeared altogether from the words 
where it was anciently employed; in others it became / 3 , </>, 
v, or o, or took the form of a simple rough breathing. In 
Latin and in the Teutonic languages we find abundant 
traces of the Greek digamma. Thus, the old iEolic pro¬ 
noun Foi (the Attic oi) is the Latin qui; the Latin name 
for the city Vella is given in the Greek as 'Ye'Arj, Be'Aea, and 
’EAea; the Greek ot/co? is the Latin vicus; olvo? is vinum; 
and the digamma lost from the Greek vaOs reappears in the 
Latin navis. The digamma is not found in the Homeric 
writings, but its influence is perceptible in the metre, as 
was first shown by Bentley. The iEolians called the di¬ 
gamma Fau (the Hebrew Vau), and it was used in Boeo¬ 
tian monumental inscriptions as late as 200 B. C. (See 
Heyne, “Homer’s Iliad” (1802), Hermann’s “Review of 
Heyne” (1803), Boeckh, “On the Versification of Pindar” 
(1809), and the Greek grammars of Buttmann, Kuhner, 
and Valpy.) 

Dig'by, a county in the W. of Nova Scotia, bordering 
on the Atlantic. The surface is hilly. Copper is found 
here. Capital, Digby. Pop. in 1871, 17,037. 

Digby, a seaport-town, capital of the above county, is 
on the Bay of Fundy and on Digby Neck, about 110 miles 
W. of Halifax. It is the seat of an academy. Mackerel 
and herrings of good quality are exported from this place. 
Shipbuilding and the lumber-trade are largely carried on. 
Pop. about 1300. 

Digby (George), earl of Bristol, an English royalist 
noted for his instability and inconsistency in politics, was 
born in Madrid in 1612. Having been exiled during the 
civil war, he went to Franco and became a Catholic. Ho 
returned home in 1660, and rashly impeached Lord Claren¬ 
don in 1663. He was the author of “Elvira,” a comedy. 
Died Mar. 20, 1677. 

Digby (Sir Ivenelm), F. R. S., a learned English author, 


1349 


a son of Sir Everard (born in 1581, and executed Jan. 30, 
1606, for abetting the Gunpowder Plot), was born June 11, 
1603. He was a gentleman of the bedchamber at the court 
of Charles I., and was a royalist in the civil war. In 1636 
he was converted to the Catholic Church. He passed much 
time in France, and was an associate of Descartes. His 
wife was Venetia Anastasia Stanley, a well-known beauty. 
He wrote, besides other works, a “ Treatise on the Nature 
of Bodies ” (1644), “ The Body and Soul of Man,” “ Chemi¬ 
cal Secrets,” a famous treatise on sympathetic cures, and 
“Private Memoirs of Sir Kenelm Digby” (1827). Died 
in London June 11, 1665. 

Digby (Kenelm Henry), M. P., was born in Ireland 
in 1800, was educated at Cambridge, and, having become a 
Roman Catholic, devoted himself to scholastic theology and 
medimval antiquities. He published “ The Broad Stone of 
Honor ” (1829), “ Mores Catholici” (1840), “ Compitum ” 
(1851), and other works, which have many warm admirers, 
and are imbued by the nobler characteristics of Middle Age 
thought. 

Digest, in legal terminology, is a condensation or sys¬ 
tematic arrangement of laws, statutes, or decisions. The 
name is sometimes applied to the Pandects of Justinian. 

Digester, Papin’s [named from Denis Papin, a 
French savant, who invented it in 1681], an invention by 
which bodies may be subjected to the action of high-pres¬ 
sure steam or water raised above its ordinary boiling tem¬ 
perature to 400° F., and sometimes higher. The digester 
is a strong boiler made of copper or iron, with a tightly- 
adjusted cover furnished with a safety-valve. It has the 
power of dissolving even bones, and has been employed in 
France to a considerable extent in preparing soup from 
bones. 

Diges'tion [Lat. digestio, from di (for die), “ apart,” 
and gero, gestum, to “ carry ” ( digero , the compound verb, 
often means to “distribute,” to “dissolve”); Ger. Ver- 
dauung ], a physiological process observable in all animals 
(with the exception of certain entozoa, which appear to 
have this work performed by proxy), and which constitutes 
one of the distinguishing marks of the animal kingdom. 
It is believed that vegetables absorb their nourishment 
without any process analogous to digestion; while it is re¬ 
garded as certain that every animal requires to have its 
food undergo digestion—that is, a mechanical and chemical 
change, effected by the agency of the animal economy, 
preparatory to absorption and conversion into nutritive ma¬ 
terial. This process, in man and the higher animals, seems 
to commence before the food is swallowed. During masti¬ 
cation the saliva becomes mixed with the food, and imme¬ 
diately begins to convert the starchy parts into grape-sugar, 
a step preliminary to its absorption into the blood. This 
process is further carried on by the other secretions of the 
alimentary canal; and the sugar thus produced, together 
with that eaten in the form of sugar, is absorbed by the 
mucous membranes, and passes directly into the blood with¬ 
out change, except that cane-sugar and milk-sugar are 
changed (probably for the most part in the intestines) into 
grape-sugar before absorption. 

The action of the stomach upon food is partly mechan¬ 
ical, partly solvent, and partly chemical. The chemical 
action is to some extent catalytic— i. e. not explicable by 
ordinary theories of chemical reaction. The gastric juice, 
the principal secretion of the stomach, contains two active 
elements—free acid (chiefly lactic acid) and pepsin. The 
most important part of their action is the solution of the 
nitrogenous parts of the food, and their conversion into 
albuminose (peptone). The albuminose is absorbed by the 
coats of the stomach, and passes directly into the portal 
circulation, while the sugar, much of the starch, and prob¬ 
ably all of the fat, pass on to be subjected to the action 
of the pancreatic juice, the bile, and the intestinal fluids. 
The pancreatic juice has the power of digesting fats by 
converting them into a fine emulsion, which is absorbed to 
some extent by the veins, but principally by the lacteals. 
It also converts cane-sugar and starch into grape-sugar, 
which is rapidly absorbed by the intestinal veins. The 
pancreatic juice probably completes the digestion of such 
albuminous matters as have escaped digestion in the stom¬ 
ach, being assisted in this work by the intestinal secretion. 
The bile is believed to be auxiliary to the other secretions 
in the intestinal digestion, but its part in the process is by 
no means well ascertained. C. W. Greene. 

Digges, an English family, several members of which at¬ 
tained note as scholars and writers.— Leonard, born at Bar¬ 
ham, was educated at Oxford, and died about 1573. He wrote 
“ Tectonicon: Measuring of Land,” etc. (1556), an arith¬ 
metic, and a military treatise entitled “ Stratonicos, which 
was enlarged by his son Thomas (died 1596), who edited 
his father’s works and published “ Celestial Orbs,’ “ Pan- 
tometria,” a geometrical work, etc.— Sir Dudley, son ot 












DIGHTON—DILKE. 


1350 


the last named (1583-1639), was the author of “ Right and 
Privileges of the Subject ” (1642) and the “ Compleat Am¬ 
bassador” (1655).—His son Dudley published “ Unlaw¬ 
fulness of Subjects Taking up Arms against their Sov¬ 
ereign ” (1643). Died in 1642. 

Digh'ton, a township and post-village of Bristol co., 
Mass., on the Old Colony and Newport R. R., 6 miles S. of 
Taunton. It gives its name to the Dighton Rock, a stone 
bearing a rude inscription, which has been by some at¬ 
tributed to the Northmen. This rock is in the adjoining 
town of Berkley. Dighton has important fisheries, and 
manufactures of cotton, shoddy, paper, white lead, and 
iron. It has seven churches, and is extensively engaged 
in the raising of strawberries. Pop. 1817.*/ 

Dig'it [Fr. doigt, from the Lat. digitus, a “finger”], in 
arithmetic, one of the ten symbols, 0, 1, 2, 3, etc., by which 
all numbers are expressed. In astronomy the term is used 
in speaking of eclipses to denote the twelfth part of the 
diameter of the sun or moon. Thus the eclipse is said to 
be of ten digits if ten parts of twelve of the disk are con¬ 
cealed. It is also a measure of dimension equal to the 
breadth of a finger, and estimated at about three-fourths 
of an inch. 

Digita'lis [from the Lat. digitale, the “finger of a 
glove ;” Fr. digitale ; Ger. Fingerhut ], a genus of plants 
belonging to the order Scrophulariacem. With the excep¬ 
tion of the common foxglove {Digitalispurpurea), which is 
a native of Great Britain, the species are mostly found in 
Southern Europe and different parts of Asia. Digitalis 
purpurea has narcotic and poisonous leaves and seeds, 
which are valued for their medicinal properties. The fresh 
leaves are cathartic and emetic, and when dried are admin¬ 
istered in diseases of the heart, brain, and nervous system, 
in which they act as a powerful sedative. They contain a 
crystalline principle called digitalin. Several of the species 
are cultivated in gardens. 

Dig'itate [Lat. digitatus, from digitus, a “finger”], a 
botanical term applied to compound leaves, the leaflets of 
which are all borne on the apex or tip of the petiole, as 
the clover and horse-chestnut. Such leaves are also called 
palmate. 

Digitigra'da, or Dig'itigrades [from the Lat. dig¬ 
itus, a “finger,” and gradior, to “walk”], a term applied 
to those carnivorous quadrupeds that walk on their toes. 
A group of Carnivora is so called in the system of Cuvier. 
Among the Digitigrada are included the cat, the dog, the 
hymna, weasel, etc. 

Digna'no, a town in Austria, province of Triest, in a 
fertile region. Pop. 6405. 

Di gne (anc. Dinia), a town of France, capital of the 
department of Basses-Alpes, on the river Bleone, 60 miles 
N. E. of Marseilles. It has a cathedral, a public library, 
and several tanneries; also a trade in almonds, prunes, 
grain, honey, wax, and hemp. It has given title to a bishop 
since 340 A. D. Pop. 7002. 

Dig'nitary [from the Lat. dignitas, “dignity” or 
“worth”]. In the canon law, this term signified origin¬ 
ally an ecclesiastic of higher rank than an ordinary priest. 
To this class exclusively belonged all bishops, deans, and 
archdeacons, but it now includes also prebendaries and 
canons. Any officer of high rank may be called a dignitary. 

Di gres'sion [Lat. digressio, a “stepping aside,” from 
di, “apart,” and gradior, gressus, to “go,” to “step”], the 
act of deviating or wandering from the main subject or 
argument in writing or oral discourse; in astronomy, the 
apparent distance of the inferior planets, Mercury and 
Venus, from the sun. Mercury is never seen at a greater 
distance than about 28° from the sun; this is called its 
greatest digression. 

Dihong', also called Sanpoo', a large river of Asia, 
rises on the N. side of the Himalayas, traverses part of 
Thibet, and bursts through that mountain-chain near lat. 
28° 15' N. It unites with another river to form the Brahma¬ 
pootra. 

Dijon (anc. Dibio), a handsome town of France, capital 
of the department of Cote-d’Or, is delightfully situated in 
a plain on the river Ouche, about 175 miles S. E. of Paris 
and 120 miles N. of Lyons, with both of which it is con¬ 
nected by a railway. Its environs are remarkably beau¬ 
tiful. Dijon was formerly the capital of Burgundy. It is 
well built, has spacious and clean streets, and is enclosed 
by ramparts. Among the principal public edifices are the 
palace of the princes of Cond6; the cathedral, a Gothic 
structure founded in the thirteenth century; the noble 
Gothic church of Notre Dame; a theatre and town-hall. 
Dijon has a large public library, a botanic garden, and an 
academie universitaire ; also manufactures of woollen cloth, 
blankets, hosiery, chemical products, and cotton fabrics. 


Its prosperity is largely derived from the trade in Bur¬ 
gundy wines. Pop. 39,193. 

Dike [Dutch, dyk; Ger. Deick; Fr. digue or levie~\. an 
embankment or mound erected on the shore of tlm sea or 
of a river in order to prevent inundation. Such embank¬ 
ments raised along the Mississippi River are called levees. 
The coasts of Holland are protected against the encroach¬ 
ments of the sea by dikes constructed on a grand scale and 
in a systematic manner. A large part of that country is 
so low that it would be overflowed by the sea during high 
tides if it were not protected, partly by natural sandhills 
or dunes and partly by artificial dikes. The latter are also 
raised on the banks of the Rhine, Waal, and other rivers 
near their mouths. The dikes are broad at the base, and 
are usually of such magnitude that there is room on the 
top for a public road. The fabric is strengthened by wil¬ 
lows, either growing or interwoven as wicker-work on the 
sides of the dike, which should present a very gradual 
slope towards the sea or river. The Ammophila and other 
creeping grasses are carefully cultivated on some of the 
dykes, and contribute much to their security. The base is 
often faced with masonry, and protected by vast heaps of 
stones (usually brought from Norway), and by rows of 
piles projecting six or seven feet above ground, connected 
by timber, and filled in with fascines weighted with stones. 
The most stupendous of these embankments are the dykes 
of the Helder and of West Kappel, at the W. extremity 
of the island of Walcheren. The term dike, as the equiva¬ 
lent of the Fr. digue, is also applicable to Breakwaters, 
Jetties (which see), and also the stupendous dams of Hol¬ 
land constructed for engineering purposes, the most re¬ 
markable of which is the recent work by which the Y is 
isolated from the Zuyder Zee (see Canal), and also that 
by which one of the outlets of the Maas has been obstruct¬ 
ed. (See “Prof. Papers Corps of Engineers,” No. 22.) 

Revised by J. G. Barnard, IT. S. A. 

Dilapidation [Lat. dilapidatio, from di (for dis), 
“apart,” and lapis (gen. lapidis), a “stone”], originally 
the falling apart of the stones in a building, is used in 
ecclesiastical law where an incumbent of a benefice suffers 
the parsonage-house or outhouses to fall down or decay for 
the want of necessary repairs, or commits any wilful waste 
of the inheritance of the Church. 

Dilem'ma [Gr. SiA.7)|u.jua, from Si (for Sis), “twice,” 
“ double,” and the verbal noun Arjiujua, an “assumption,” 
from Aajui3dva>, to “ take ;” Lat. dilemma ] is a syllogism with 
a conditional premiss, used to prove the absurdity or false¬ 
hood of some assertion. A conditional proposition is as¬ 
sumed, of which the antecedent is the assertion to be dis¬ 
proved, and the consequent is a disjunctive proposition 
setting forth the supposition on which the assertion can 
be true. If the supposition be denied, the assertion must 
also be denied. Thus, if A is B, either C is D or E is F; 
but C is not D, and E is not F; therefore A is not B. The 
dilemma was called the syllogismus cornutus (“ horned syl¬ 
logism ”), the two members of the consequent being the 
“horns of the dilemma,” on which the adversary is caught. 
Since there may be more than two horns to the dilemma 
(giving us a trilemma, tetralemma, or polylemma), Hamil¬ 
ton proposes the term hypothetica-disjunctive. 

Dilettail'te [fromthe Lat. diligo, dilectum, to “love”], 
an Italian term naturalized in England, France, and Ger¬ 
many, was originally synonymous with an amateur or 
lover of the fine arts. It is sometimes applied to a person 
who pursues an art without serious purpose or for mere 
amusement, and is often used as a term of reproach for 
one whose knowledge is superficial and affected. 

Dilettan'ti Soci'ety, The, was established in Great 
Britain in 1760 to encourage a taste for the fine arts. They 
sent an expedition to the East in 1764, and published in 
1769 the first part of the “Ionian Antiquities,” the third 
part of which appeared in 1840. Chandler’s “ Travels in 
Asia Minor ” came out in 1775, and his “ Travels in Greece ” 
in 1776. The “ Unedited Antiquities of Attica” appeared 
in 1817, and “Antique Sculpture” in 1835. The society 
consists of fifty members. 

Dili gence [a Fr. word signifying “ diligence,” “speed,” 
“promptness”], a four-wheeled public vehicle used in Eu¬ 
rope. The French diligence is very strongly built, and 
drawn by four or six horses at the rate of six miles an 
hour. The front, called the coupe, holds three persons, the 
second compartment (the interieur) six, and the rotonde, 
entered from behind, also holds six. Diligences are also 
used in Germany, Italy, Spain, and Russia; the German 
diligence (Eilwagen and Postwagen) is attached to the 
post-office. Diligences are much less used than formerly, 
owing to the facilities of railway travel. 

Dilke (Charles Wentworth), an English editor, born 
Dec. 8, 1789. He purchased in 1830 “ The Athenaeum,” 


/ 












DILKE—DIMINUTIVE. 




1351 


which he edited with ability and success until 1846. He 
was afterwards editor of the “ Daily News/’ a liberal jour¬ 
nal. Died in 1864. 

Dilke (Sir Charles Wentworth), Bart., an English 
republican politician, is the grandson of the preceding, and 
son of Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, M. P., editor of the 
“ Athenasum,” who was actively connected with the exhibi¬ 
tions of 1861 and 1862. He was born Sept. 4, 1843, edu¬ 
cated at Cambridge, and called to the bar in 1866. He 
travelled through the U. S., and on his return published 
“Greater Britain, a Record of Travel in English-Speaking 
Countries during 1866—67 ” (1868), which speedily passed 
through several editions, and procured the author’s election 
to Parliament for Chelsea. He is a recognized leader of 
the republicans in England. He is the proprietor and 
editor of the “ Athenmum.” 

Dill, a plant of the order Umbelliferm, having com¬ 
pound umbels, yellow involute petals, dorsally compressed 
lenticular fruit, and the border of the calyx minute and 
five-toothed. The common dill (Anethum graveolens), an 
annual or biennial plant, is a native of Southern Europe 
and Asia, and has long been cultivated for its stimulant 
and carminative seeds. It is also highly aromatic, and the 
leaves are used to flavor sauces, etc. Dill-seed is adminis¬ 
tered in the form of dill-water, obtained from oil of dill, a 
pale-yellow essential oil. The fruit of the Anethum Sotoa, 
which grows in the East Indies, is used for flavoring and 
medicine. 

Dil'lard’s, a township of Etowah co., Ala. Pop. 962. 

Dil'len [Lat. Dillenius], ’(Johann Jakob), M. D., a 
German botanist, born at Darmstadt in 1687. In 1721 he 
removed to London, where he edited Ray’s “ Synopsis of 
Plants” (1724). He obtained in 1728 the chair of botany 
founded by Sherard at Oxford. He published “ Hortus 
Elthamensis ” (1732) and a good “History of Mosses” 
(1741). Died April 2, 1747. 

Dilleni a'ceae [from Dillenia, one of its genera, named 
after the above], a natural order of plants containing about 
200 species, allied to the Ranunculaceae and Magnoliaceac. 
They are mostly trees or shrubs, and natives of tropical 
countries. They have thick, leathery leaves, without sti¬ 
pules, and generally alternate; flowers sometimes in ra¬ 
cemes, sometimes solitary, with five persistent sepals and 
five deciduous petals; numerous stamens; fruit consisting 
of two to five carpels, and the seeds have an aril. They 
are generally astringent, and several species are valued as 
medicine, while others are excellent as timber. Many of 
the Dillenias are conspicuous for the beauty of their flower 
and foliage. 

Dil'lingen, a town of Bavaria, in the circle of Suabia, 
on the Danube, 24 miles N. W. of Augsburg. It is enclosed 
by old walls, has a palace, three Catholic churches, a gym¬ 
nasium, and a Catholic institution for deaf and dumb girls, 
with which is also connected, since 1869, an institution for 
cretins. The university, which was established in 1554, 
and was a chief seat of the Jesuits, was suppressed in 1809. 
The town has also manufactures of cutlery. Pop. 5220. 

Dil'lingham (Paul) was born in Shutesbury, Mass., 
in 1800, removed with his father to Waterbury, Yt., in 1805, 
was admitted to the bar in 1824, was a member of Con¬ 
gress (1843-47), and was governor of Vermont (1865-67). 

Dill'mann (Christian Friedrich August), a German 
theologian and Orientalist, born in 1823, became professor 
of exegetical theology at Tubingen in 1853, of Oriental lan¬ 
guages at Kiel in 1854, of exegetical theology at Giessen in 
1861, and at Berlin in 1869. Ho chiefly distinguished him¬ 
self by his works on the Ethiopic language, among the most 
important of which are “ Grammatik der iEthiopischen 
Sprache” (1857), “ Chrestomathia iEthiopica” (1866), 
“Lexicon lingum iEthiopicae ” (3 parts, 1862-65), an edi¬ 
tion of the old Ethiopic version of the Bible (1855-73) and 
of the apocryphal book of Enoch (1851), and author of 
the able article on the Ethiopic Language in the present 
work. 

Dil'lon, a post-village of Bolton township, Brome co., 
Quebec (Canada), has important copper-mines. Pop. 
about 400. 

Dillon, a township of Klamath co., Cal. Pop. exclu¬ 
sive of Indians, 79. 

Dillon, a post-township of Tazewell co., Ill. P. 1126. 

Dillon (John B.), an American author, born in Brooke 
co., Va., about 1807. His parents removed to Ohio in his 
infancy. He became a printer in his youth, and contributed 
poetical articles to various journals. In 1834 ho removed 
to Indiana, where he became well known as a lawyer, a 
writer, and a friend of education. He published “ Historical 
Notes” (1842) and a “ History of Indiana” (1859). 

Dillon, Viscounts (Ireland,1622).— -Theobald Dominick 


Geoffrey Dillon Lee, fifteenth viscount, born April 5, 
1811, succeeded his brother in 1865. 

Dills'burg, a post-borough of York co., Pa. Pop. 281. 

Dilman', a town of Persia, in the province of Azcr- 
bijan, 50 miles N. N. W. of Ooroomeeyah. It is about 4 
miles E. of an old ruined town of the same name. It is 
surrounded by gardens and orchards. Pop. about 15,000. 

Dilu'vial [from the Lat. diluvium, a “deluge”], a geo¬ 
logical term applied to deposits that are the result of a 
flood, or accumulations of gravel and angular stones which 
have been produced by a sudden and extraordinary rush of 
water. 

Dilu 'vium, a Latin word signifying Deluge (which 
see). This term was applied by the older geologists to cer¬ 
tain gravels and comparatively recent deposits which ap¬ 
pear to be the result of a deluge, in order to distinguish 
them from the fine sand and mud which is washed down 
by rivers, and is called alluvium. The term diluvium is 
now chiefly used to designate the gravels of one geological 
period—namely, that of the boulder clay. 

Di' ma, a large town of Abyssinia, in Amhara, 150 
miles S. E. of Gondar. It has a large church and many 
stone houses. 

Di'man (Rev. Jeremiah Lewis), D. D., was born at 
Bristol, R. I., May 1, 1831, graduated at Brown University, 
1851, and at Andover Theological Seminary, 1856, spend¬ 
ing in the mean time two years in study abroad. lie was 
settled over the First Congregational church in Fall River, 
Mass., in 1856, and over the Harvard church in Brook¬ 
line, Mass., in 1860. In 1864 he was elected professor of 
history and political economy in Brown University. He 
has published numerous addresses and articles in the lead¬ 
ing reviews, and takes high rank as an accomplished scholar 
and orator. 

Dime [from the Fr. disme, the “tenth part,” a “tithe” 
(from the Lat. decimus, “tenth”)], a silver coin of the 
U. S. equivalent to ten cents or one-tenth of a dollar. It 
was formerly written disme. 

Dimension [Lat. dimensio, from di, “apart,” and 
metior, mensus, to “ measure ”], measure in a single line, 
extension. Dimensions, in the plural, signifies length, 
breadth, and thickness. In geometry, a line, whether 
straight or curved, has only one dimension—namely, 
length; a surface has two—length and breadth ; and a 
solid has three dimensions—length, breadth, and thickness. 
In algebra, the term dimension is applied in nearly the 
same sense as degree, to express the number of literal fac¬ 
tors that enter into a term. 

Dim'ick (Justin), an American officer, born Aug. 5, 
1800, in Connecticut, graduated at West Point in 1819; 
colonel First Artillery Oct. 26, 1861. He served chiefly at 
seaboard posts 1819-59; at the Military Academy 1822; 
on ordnance duty 1834-35 ; in Florida war 1836 (brevet 
major), where he killed two Seminole savages in personal 
encounter; in suppressing Canada border disturbances 
1838-39 ; in military occupation of Texas 1845-46 ; in the 
war with Mexico 1846-48, engaged at Palo Alto, Resaca do 
la Palma, La Hoya, Contreras, and Churubusco (brevet 
lieutenant-colonel), Chapultepec (brevet colonel), and the 
city of Mexico; in the Florida hostilities 1849-50 and 
1856-57; on the Western frontier 1859; in command of 
the artillery school for practice 1859-61 ; in charge of Fort 
Warren depot of prisoners 1861-64; and governor of 
“Soldiers’ Home,” near Washington, 1864-68. Brevet 
brigadier-general U. S. A. Mar. 13, 1865, for long, gallant, 
and faithful services to his country, and retired from active 
service Aug. 1, 1863. Died Oct. 13, 1871, at Philadelphia, 
Pa., aged 71. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Dimid'iate [from the Lat. dimidius, “half,” from 
di, “ through,” and medium, the “ middle ”], divided into 
halves. In botany, a leaf which has only one side devel¬ 
oped, and a stamen which has only one lobe, are called 
dimidiate. 

Dimimien'do [the It. gerund of diminuire, to “di¬ 
minish”], the same as Decrescendo (which see). 

Dimiim'tion [Lat. diminutio, from minuo, minutum, 
to “lessen”], the act of making or becoming less; decrease; 
in architecture, the gradual decrease in the diameter of a 
column from the base to the upper end. In heraldry, the 
word diminutions is sometimes used for differences, marks 
of cadency, and brisures indifferently. 

Dimin'utive [Lat. diminutivus, from di, intensive, and 
minuo, to “lessen;” Fr. diminutif; It. diminutivo], a term 
applied to a derivative word, formed by the addition of ono 
or more syllables in such a way as to soften its meaning or 
diminish its original force. All languages are susceptible 
of diminutives, but the Italian surpasses all others, both 
ancient and modern, in this respect. 














1352 DIMITY—DINORNIS. 


Dim'ity [from Damietta in Egypt, where it was for¬ 
merly manufactured], a cotton fabric of thick texture, and 
generally figured or striped. It was formerly much used 
for bed-hangings and window-curtains. The figure or stripe 
is raised on one side and depressed on the other, so that 
the two faces present reversed patterns. 

Dim'mick, a township of La Salle co., Ill. Pop. 1222. 

D im'ock, a post-township of Susquehanna co., Pa. 
Pop. 1124. 

Dimor'phism [from the Gr. Si'?, 

twice” or “two,” and p.op</»?, a “form”], 
the property of assuming two distinct crys¬ 
talline forms. (See Dimorphous.) 

Dimor'phous, a term applied to a body 
which has the property of crystallizing in 
two distinct forms, as, for example, sulphur 
and some other solids. Sulphur, as found 
crystallized, naturally presents itself in 
crystals of the form of octahedra with a 
rhombic base, and thus belongs to the pris¬ 
matic system; but when sulphur is heated 
to fusion, and then slowly cooled, prismatic 
crystals are obtained which belong to the 
oblique system. The latter form of sulphur 
is not permanent. Carbon affords another 
example of dimorphism. 

Di'nalnirg, a strongly fortified town of 
Russia, is in the government of Vitebsk, on 
the river Diina, where it is crossed by the 
railway from Warsaw to St. Petersburg, 
about 120 miles S. E. of Riga. Another 
railway connects Dinaburg with Riga. It 
is an important military position, and has 
an active trade. Pop. in 1S69, 29,613. 

Dinagepoor', a district of British 
India, province of Bengal, has an area of 
3820 square miles. The surface is nearly 
level. Rice is the staple product of the 
soil. Pop. in 1872, 1,501,924. 

Dinagepoor, a city of India, the capital of the above 
district, 250 miles N. of Calcutta. It is meanly built. Pop. 
about 30,000. 

Dinan, an old town of France, department of Cotes- 
du-Nord, on the river Ranee, 30 miles N. W. of Rennes. 
It stands on a hill of granite about 250 feet above the 
river, is enclosed by walls and defended by a castle. It 
has a handsome cathedral, a public library, a college, and 
a town-hall. Here are manufactures of linen and cotton 
fabrics, sailcloth, hats, beet-root sugar, etc. The Ranee is 
navigable from its mouth to Dinan. Pop. 8510. 

Dinant' [Lat. Dinantiuni], a town of Belgium, prov¬ 
ince of Namur, is bn the river Meuse, 15 miles S. of Na¬ 
mur. It is on the declivity of a rocky hill, and is sur¬ 
rounded by picturesque scenery. It has a Gothic cathedral, 
a town-house, and two hospitals; also manufactures of 
cutlery, paper, woollen goods, hats, and leather. Dinant 
was founded in the sixth century, was strongly fortified as 
early as the twelfth century, and has suffered much from 
sieges. Pop. 7208. 

Dinapoor', a town and important military station of 
British India, province of Bengal, on the right bank of the 
Ganges, about 12 miles above Patna. Here are spacious 
barracks, and about 3200 houses, mostly of mud. 

Dinar'ic Alps [Lat. Alpes Dinaric^e], the portion of 
the Alpine system which connects the Julian Alps with the 
western ranges of the Balkan, and occupies part of Croatia, 
Dalmatia, and Herzegovina. The highest summits are 
Mount Dinara and Mount Prolok, the former of which 
rises about 6000 feet above the sea. The rocks of this 
range are mostly limestone. 

Dindigul', a town of India, in the British district of 
Madura and presidency of Madras, 259 miles S. W. of the 
city of Madras. Here is a fort on a naked steep rook 
which rises 280 feet. Pop. 9000. 

Di n'dorf (Wilhelm), a German philologist, born at 
Leipsic Jan. 21, 1S02. He became professor of history and 
literature in Leipsic in 1828, but resigned in 1833 in order 
to devote himself to the publication of a new edition of the 
“ Thesaurus ” of Stephanas, which his brother Ludwig Din- 
dorf and Hase had begun in Paris. He also wrote com¬ 
mentaries on Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and pre¬ 
pared an edition of Demosthenes for the University of Ox¬ 
ford (1849). 

Ding'elstedt, von (Franz), a German poet, born at 
Ilalsdorf, in Hesse, Jan. 30, 1814. He wrote popular po¬ 
litical poems entitled “ Songs of a Cosmopolitan Night- 
Watch” (1840). He was appointed librarian to the king 
at Stuttgart in 1843, intendant of the royal theatre of 


Munich in 1850, director of the court opera at Vienna 
in 1867, and director of the burg theatre of Vienna in 
1871. Among his works are “The House of Barneveldt,” 
a tragedy (1850), and a poem called “ Night and Morning ” 
(1851). 

Ding'man, a township of Pike co., Pa. Pop. 519. 

Din'go, an Australian dog, supposed to bo a distinct 
species by some naturalists. It is sometimes found domes¬ 
ticated. The wild dingo is somewhat larger than a shep¬ 


herd’s dog, of a tawny color, with a large head, ears short 
and erect, and tail bushy. In its wild state it does not bark. 

Dinich'thys [Gr. Seivo?, “terrible,” and ix^us, “fish”], 
a remarkable placoderm fish found in the upper Devonian 
rocks of Ohio, and described by Prof. Newberry. It was 
allied to Coccostem, but was very much larger; the head 
was three feet in length, the lower jaws two feet long and 
very massive, the central dorsal shield two feet in diameter, 
etc. One species was without proper teeth, but the jaws 
played on each other like huge shears. 

Dink'elstmhl, a walled town of Bavaria, district of 
Middle Franconia, on the river Wernitz, 44 miles S. W. 
of Nuremberg, was formerly a free city of the empire. It 
has a Latin school, and manufactures of hosiery, coarse 
linen, paper, gloves, etc. Pop. in 1871, 5213. 

Dinor'nis [from the Gr. Seivos, “ terrible,” and opv«, a 
“bird”], an extinct genus of gigantic birds of the tribe 



Dinornis (restored). 

Brevipennes, of which the bones have been found in the 
most recent deposits of New Zealand. In the traditions 
of that country these birds are known by the name of 
moa. They are said to have been much esteemed, both 



56s- V 4 

Dingo. 
































































^ ^»— WMIM III ■ ! ■■■ ■■■ . HI 

DINOSAURIA—DIOGENES OF APOLLONIA. 1353 


for their flesh and gaudy plumage, and are described as fat 
and stupid birds, incapable of flying, but feeding on vege¬ 
table food, and living in forests. Their bones, which ap¬ 
pear to confirm this description, are not properly fossil or 
mineralized, but retain a great part of their animal mat¬ 
ter. It is perhaps not impossible that some of the smaller 
species of dinornis may still exist, but the larger ones are 
undoubtedly extinct. Some of the bones of these birds are 
at least twice the size of those of the ostrich. The frame¬ 
work of the leg is the most massive of any in the class of 
birds, and the bones are remarkable for their solidity, the 
toe-bones of Dinornis elcphantopes almost rivalling those 
of the elephant. The bones of several species of dinornis 
have been described. 

Dinosau'ria [Gr. Seivos, “ terrible ” or “ wonderful,” and 
cravpo?, a “lizard”], the name of an order of extinct sau- 
rians found in the oolite, lias, and wealden. Their struc¬ 
ture resembled the mammalian type more than others of 
their kind. They had four strong limbs, and the sacrum 
was composed of five amalgamated vertebra?. The Megci- 
losaurus, Iguanodon, and Hglseosaurus are the principal 
genera of this order. 

Dinothe'rinm [Gr. Set vos, “ terrible,” and GepLov, a 
“ beast”], an extinct animal, the remains of which have 
been found in the miocene formations of France and Ger¬ 
many. It had long tusks like the elephant and walrus; 
these projected from the end of the lower jaw, which was 
bent downward at a right angle to the body of the jaw. 
Besides the two tusks, it had five double-ridged grinders 
on each side of both jaws, and the nasal cavity was large. 
As no bones of the body or limbs have been found cor¬ 
responding with those of the skull, the position of the 
dinotherium has not been determined. De Blainville sup¬ 
posed it to be a herbivorous cetacean, while Cuvier regarded 
it as allied to the tapir, and others to the dugong. 

Dins'inoor (Gen. Samuel) was born at Londonderry, 
N. II., July 1, 1766, and graduated at Dartmouth in 1789. 
He was for many years general of militia and judge of 
probate, was a member of Congress (1811-13), and gov¬ 
ernor of New Hampshire (1831-34). Died at Keene Mar. 
15, 1835. 

Dinsmoor (Samuel), LL.D., a son of the foregoing, 
was born at Keene, N. H., May 8, 1799, graduated at Dart¬ 
mouth in 1814, and became a lawyer. He was governor 
of New Hampshire (1849-53). Died Feb. 24, 1869. 

Dins'more, a post-township of Shelby co., 0. Pop. 
1700. 

Dinwid'die, a county in the S. E. of Virginia. Area, 
540 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Appo¬ 
mattox River, and on the S. W. by the Nottoway. The 
surface is undulating. Wool, grain, and tobacco are raised, 
and tobacco is manufactured here. The Southside R. R. 
and the railroad which connects Petersburg with Weldon 
pass through this county. Capital, Dinwiddie Court-house. 
Pop. 30,702. 

Dinwiddie (Robert) was born in Scotland about 
1690. He was appointed governor of Virginia in 1752, 
and filled that office until 1758, when he returned to Eng¬ 
land. Died in Clifton, England, Aug. 1, 1770. 

Dinwiddie Court-house, a post-village, capital of 
Dinwiddie co., Va., is on Stony Creek, 35 miles S. by W. 
from Richmond. 

Di'ocese [from the Gr. St (for Su£), “through,” and 
o’uceu), to “ manage a household”), the name given to the 
district under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of a bishop, 
was formerly used to designate the collection of churches 
under the care of an archbishop. Under Constantine tho 
Great the Roman empire was divided into thirteen civil 
territories called dioceses, which were again subdivided 
into 120 provinces. These dioceses ivere governed either 
by prefects, proconsuls, or vicars, and the provinces by rec¬ 
tors. Before 400 B. C. the Church had a similar division, 
the dioceses being what are now termed patriarchates. 

Diocle'tian [Lat. Diocletianus], or, more fully, Caius 
Valerius Aurelius Diocletianus, a Roman emperor, 
born of humble parentage in Dalmatia in 245 A. D. He 
served with distinction in the army under Aurelian and 
Probus. On the death of Numerianus, in 284, he was pro¬ 
claimed emperor by the army at Chalcedon. In the year 
286 he adopted Maximian as his colleague in the empire, 
which was disturbed by incursions of barbarians and men¬ 
aced by the Persians. They suppressed revolts in Gaul, 
and in order to divide the labor of ruling so vast an em¬ 
pire chose Galerius and Constantius Chlorus as their as¬ 
sistants in 292 A. D., and gave them the title of caesar. 
This was the beginning of the division of tho empire into 
Eastern and Western. Diocletian reserved to himself 
Asia and Egypt; Maximian received power over Italy and 
Africa; Thrace and Illyricum were assigned to Galerius; 


and Gaul and Spain to Constantius Chlorus. The suprem¬ 
acy of Diocletian (whose court was at Nicomedia) was 
acknowledged by the other three. After this distribution 
of power the Roman armies gained successes in Egypt, 
Persia, and Britain. Diocletian protected or omitted to 
persecute the Christians until 303 A. D., when a persecu¬ 
tion was commenced at the instigation of Galerius. Dio¬ 
cletian abdicated the throne in 305 A. D. in favor of Gale¬ 
rius, and retired to Salona, in Dalmatia, where he devoted 
his time to horticulture. Died in 313 A. D. He was a ruler 
of superior talents. (See Gibbon, “ Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire;” Tillemont, “Histoire des Empereurs;” 
Vogel, “Der Kaiser Diocletian,” 1857.) 

Diocletian Era (called also the Era of Martyrs, 

on account of the persecution in Diocletian’s reign) was 
used by Christian writers until the introduction of the 
Christian era in the sixth century, and is still employed by 
the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on 
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 
Aug. 29, 284 A. D. 

Dioda'ti (John), a Calvinistic theologian, born of an 
Italian family at Geneva June 6, 1576. He was appointed 
professor of Hebreiv at his native place in 1597, and became 
professor of theology there in 1609. In 1618 he repre¬ 
sented the church of Geneva in the Synod of Dort, where 
his reputation was so high that he was one of the persons 
appointed to write the articles of faith. He produced Ital¬ 
ian and French translations of the Bible, and wrote several 
treatises against the doctrines of the Roman Catholic 
Church. Died Oct. 3, 1649. 

Di'odon [from the Gr. Si (for Sis), “ double,” and oSov's 
(gen. oSoutos), “ tooth,” because all the teeth of each jaw are 
united into one], the name of a genus of marine fishes of the 
order Plectognathes, without distinct teeth, but having the 
jaws covered with an ivory-like substance, which is formed 
by the blending of the teeth into one. Some of them have 
the power of filling their stomachs with air and assuming a 
globular form, whence they are called globe-fish; others 
are designated porcupine-fish from their numerous spines, 
which stand out like those of a hedge-hog. Most of the 
diodons of our Atlantic waters are called balloon-fish. 
They are of several species. 

Diodo'rus Sic'ulus, a Greek historian, born at Agy- 
rium in Sicily, flourished about 50-20 B. C. He travelled 
in Europe and Asia in order to collect materials for a uni¬ 
versal history, and afterwards became a resident of Rome. 
He expended many years in the composition of his history, 
which is entitled “Historical Library” (“ Bi/3Aio0j}K 77 
ioropi/cr; ”), in forty books. It is a history of the world from 
the earliest times to 60 B. C. As an historian he is defi¬ 
cient in critical judgment and other qualifications, but he 
has preserved important facts. Fifteen entire books of 
his work, and some fragments of the others, are extant. 
Among the best editions of his works are those by Bekkcr 
(4 vols., 1853-54) and by L. Dindorf (5 vols., 1867-68). 

Diog' enes [Gr. AioyeVr)?], a famous Cynic philosopher, 
born at Sinope in Asia Minor, flourished about 400-330 
B. C. He was a pupil of Antisthenes at Athens. His 
habits were austere, eccentric, and frugal. He inured him¬ 
self to extreme privations, and manifested or affected a 
contempt for the comforts of life, as well as for the customs 
of the world. According to tradition, he usually lodged in 
a cask or tub. He was a severe and caustic censor of the 
follies and vices of the Athenians, who allowed him a great 
latitude of comment and reproof. He was renowned for 
his witty and sarcastic sayings. He once received a visit 
from Alexander the Great, who inquired, “What can I do 
for you ?” Diogenes replied, “ Cease to stand between me 
and the sun.” Having been captured by pirates, who 
offered him for sale in a slave-market of Crete, he was 
asked what he could do, and replied, “ I can govern men; 
therefore sell me to some man who needs a master.” He 
was purchased by Xeniades, a citizen of Corinth, who was 
a kind master, and soon liberated him and employed him 
as tutor of his children. Diogenes died about 323 B. C. 
(See Ritter, “History of Philosophy;” Grimaldi, “Vita 
di Diogene Cynico,” 1777.) 

Diogenes Laer'tius [Gr. AioyeVrj? 6 Aaepnos], a Greek 
compiler, born at Laertes in Cilicia. The period in which 
he lived is not known, nor is anything known of his per¬ 
sonal history, except that he compiled “ The Lives and 
Doctrines of the Ancient Philosophers.” It contains in¬ 
teresting information and anecdotes, with extracts from 
lost works, but is destitute of critical merit, and is not 
well planned nor well digested. Among the best editions 
of it is that published by Hiibncr (Leipsic, 4 vols., 1828-33). 

Diogenes of Apollonia, an ancient Greek philoso¬ 
pher, born in Crete, was a disciple of Anaximenes. He 
lived about 470 B. C., and taught philosophy at Athens. 












1354 DIOMEDEA—DIONYSIUS THE ELDER 


He regarded air as the first principle of all things, and 
wrote a work on nature or cosmology, which is not extant. 

Diomedea. See Albatross. 

Di' omede Islands, a group of three small islands in 
the middle of Behring’s Strait, midway between Asia and 
America. 

Diome'des, often anglicised Di'omede or Di'omed 
[Gr. AiojmijST}?], a brave Greek warrior and king of Argos, 
celebrated in the ancient legends as a son of Tydeus (hence 
he was called Tydides), and a favorite of Minerva. lie 
fought with distinction at the siege of Troy, and, accord¬ 
ing to Homer, ventured to attack Mars, who defended the 
Trojans. Diomedes and Ulysses are said to have carried 
away the Palladium of Troy. Some writers relate that 
after the capture of Troy he settled in Italy. 

Diomedes, a king of the Bistones in Thrace, is fabled 
to have fed his horses on human flesh. He was slain by 
Hercules. 

Di' on [Gr. AiW], an eminent statesman of Syracuse, 
born about 410 B. C., inherited an ample fortune from his 
father. He acquired great influence at the court of Dion¬ 
ysius the Elder, who had married Aristomache, a sister of 
Dion. He was a pupil and intimate friend of Plato, who 
taught at Syracuse. After the accession of Dionysius the 
Younger, Dion persuaded him to invite Plato to return to 
Syracuse. The virtue and austere morals of Dion rendered 
him obnoxious to the dissolute tyrant and his courtiers. 
He was banished, and took refuge at Athens, leaving at 
Syracuse his wife Arete, who was compelled to marry an¬ 
other man. In order to revenge himself and liberate his 
country, he raised a small body of troops in 357 B. C., and 
attacked Syracuse, which he occupied without much resist¬ 
ance. He expelled Dionysius, but was soon deprived of 
power by the intrigues of Heraclides. Dion was recalled 
by the people, but he was assassinated by Calippus about 
354 B. C. (See “Life of Dion,” by Plutarch, who com¬ 
pares him to Marcus Brutus; Cornelius Nepos, “Dion.”) 

Dion, or Dio, surnamed Chrysostom (“golden¬ 
mouthed”), a Greek sophist or rhetorician, born at Prusa 
in Bithynia about 50 A. D. He received a liberal educa¬ 
tion, which was perfected by travel. He became a resident 
of Rome in 96 A. D., and gained the favor of Nerva and 
Trajan. The latter esteemed him so highly that he per¬ 
mitted him to ride in the imperial chariot. Dion died about 
117 A. D., and left numerous orations, of which eighty are 
extant. They are remarkable for beauty of style and Attic 
purity of language. Best edition by Emperius, Bruns., 1844. 

Diome'a [a name of Venus'], a genus of plants of the 
natural order Drosera- 
cem, having five petals, 
calyx 5-partite, from ten 
to twenty stamens, and 
one style, with five unit¬ 
ed stigmas. One species 
only is known, Diomea 
muscipula, commonly 
called Venus’s flytrap. 

It grows in marshy 
ground in the southern 
parts of North America 
as far N. as the Caro- 
linas. The plant is pe¬ 
rennial, with a rosette 
of root-leaves, from the 
midst of which a scape 
about six inches high 
arises, terminating in a 
corymb of white flowers. 

It derives its popular 
name from the singular 
irritability of its leaves. 

The elongated leaf-stalk 
is winged, and bears an 
orbicular leaf at its ex¬ 
tremity, having the mar¬ 
gin set round with long 
bristly hairs. On its upper surface are many small glands, 
and three slender irritable hairs on each side, so that an 
insect can hardly cross the leaf without touching one of 
them, when the two sides of the leaf instantly close together, 
the marginal bristles crossing each other, and thus prevent¬ 
ing any possibility of escape. The leaf remains closed 
until the insect is dead. Insects appear to be attracted by 
the juice from the glands. That the plant derives nourish¬ 
ment from the bodies of the insects has been conjectured, 
but not proved. 

Di'on Cas'sius, Dio Cassius, or, more fully, Cas¬ 
sius Dion Cocceia'nus, an eminent historian, born at 
Niciea in Bithynia about 155 A. D., was descended from 


Dion Chrysostom. He became a Roman senator in the 
reign of Commodus, and was chosen consul in the year 
229, through the influence of the emperor Alexander Sev- 
erus. He wrote in Greek a “History of Rome ” in eighty 
books, from the arrival of AEneas to 229 A. D. Only eigh¬ 
teen books (from 36 to 54) have been preserved entire. As 
a historian he is commended for accuracy in dates, dil¬ 
igence in research, and elegance of style. Among the best 
editions of Dion Cassius are those of Bckker (2 vols., 1849) 
and L. Dindorf (5 vols., 1863-65). 

Dionys'ia [Gr. Aiowfcria] were great annual festivals in 
honor of Dionysus (Bacchus), and are said to have been 
introduced into Greece from Egypt in 1415 B. C. They 
were of four kinds—the rural or lesser, the Lenaean, the 
Anthesterian, and the great Dionysia. They were chiefly 
celebrated at Athens. (See Boeckii, “Abhandlung Berliner 
Akademie,” 1816-17, pp. 47-124.) 

Dionys'ius Exig'uus, a learned monk, born in 
Scythia, was a friend of Cassiodorus. lie lived at Rome, 
and wrote several works, among which is a collection of 
apostolical canons and decisions of councils. He fixed the 
year of the Incarnation as coincident with the year 753 
of Rome. He was the first who computed the Christian 
era from the birth of Christ, instead of his death. His 
name Exiguus, “the little,” refers to his small stature. 
Died about 556. 

Dionys'ius of Halicarnas'sus [Gr. AnwvVios 6'AAi- 
Kapvacro-evs], an eminent Greek historian and critic, born at 
Halicarnassus in Caria about 70 B. C. From his own writ¬ 
ings we learn that he removed to Rome in 30 B. C., and 
passed more than twenty years in that capital in the study 
of Latin and in the composition of a history (in Greek) 
entitled “Roman Antiquities” (“ 'Pwjmaixrj ’ApxaioAoyi'a”), 
in twenty books. Nine entire books, and fragments of the 
others, are extant. This work includes the period from the 
origin of Rome to 265 B. C. He is not considered a high 
authority as an historian, but he has a good reputation as a 
critic. Among his critical works are a “ Treatise on Rhet¬ 
oric ” and “ De Compositione Verborum.” Died about 6 B. C. 
The best edition of his works is that of Reiske, 6 vols., Leips., 
1774-77; text of Rom. Antiq. by Kiessling (4 vols., 1860-70.) 

Dionysius, Saint, a native of Alexandria, was a dis¬ 
ciple of Origen. He became patriarch of Alexandria in 
248 A. D., and was driven out of that city by severe perse¬ 
cution in 250. In 257 A. D. the persecution was renewed, 
and Dionysius was banished to Libya, but he was restored 
in the year 260. He wrote many letters and religious trea¬ 
tises, which are not extant. Died in 265 A. D. 

Dionysius the Areop'agite is mentioned in the 
Acts of the Apostles (chap. xvii. 34) as one of the persons 
converted at Athens by the apostle Paul. He is supposed 
to have been a member of the court of the Areopagus when 
Paul appeared before that tribunal. According to an early 
tradition, he was the first bishop of Athens, and, according 
to a later tradition, suffered martyrdom there. In France 
he has been confounded with the Dionysius who went as 
missionary bishop to Paris about the middle of the third 
century. The spurious mystical writings which bear his 
name appear to have had their origin in Egypt during the 
fifth century. In the ninth century they were brought 
into Western Europe, and translated into Latin by Scotus 
Erigena. 

Dionysius [Gr. Aiovvo-ios] the Eliler, a celebrated 
tyrant of Syracuse, born about 430 B. C. He was in his 
youth an obscure private citizen, and became a general in 
the service of the republic of Syracuse when Sicily was in¬ 
vaded by the Carthaginians. In the year 405 he usurped 
the supreme power in Syracuse, w r hich then ceased to be a 
republic. He suppressed several insurrections of his sub¬ 
jects, and in 397 B. C. commenced or renewed hostilities 
against the Carthaginians, who then held some towns in 
Sicily. His fleet was defeated by the Carthaginians, who 
besieged Syracuse, but their success was hindered by a pes¬ 
tilence, and Dionysius gained a decisive victory over them 
after they had lost great numbers by disease. He also 
captured several towns in Sicily, and made conquests on 
the Italian peninsula. He was an able ruler, displayed 
superior political talents, and was one of the most powerful 
princes of his time. At the request of Dion he invited 
Plato to his court, but the lectures of that philosopher 
offended the tyrant, who ordered the oaptain of a ship to 
take Plato away and sell him as a slave. He was ambi¬ 
tious of literary fame, and wrote poems and tragedies, some 
of which he sent to the Olympic games, but lie failed to 
obtain a prize. It is stated that in the latter part of his 
life ho was very suspicious, and took many precautions 
against the traitors and conspirators who (he imagined) in¬ 
tended to kill him. He died in 367 B. C., and" was suc¬ 
ceeded by his son Dionysius. (See Grote, “ History of 



Dioncea: Venus’s Flytrap. 
























DIONYSIUS THE YOUNGER—DIPHTHERIA. 


Greece,’’ part ii., chaps, lxxxi.-lxxxiii.; Thorkil Baden, 
“ Bes Gestm Dionysii Syracusii recognitce,” 1795.) 

Dionysius the Younger, tyrant of Syracuse, was a 
son of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 3G7 B. C. 
He was indolent, dissolute, and inferior to his father in 
political talents. He was persuaded by Dion to invite 
Plato to his court, but the eloquence and wisdom of that 
philosopher were unavailing to reform him. Dionysius 
banished Dion, who in 357 B. C. returned with a small 
army and expelled the tyrant. The latter fled to Locri, 
and became the despotic ruler of that city. He recovered 
power in Syracuse about the year 346, soon after which 
the oppressed Syracusans applied for aid to the Corinth¬ 
ians, who sent Timoleon with an army in 344 B. C. 
Dionysius was then deposed, and went as an exile to Cor¬ 
inth, where he is said to have taught school. (Sec Grote, 
“ History of Greece,” part ii., chaps, lxxxiv., lxxxv.) 

Diony'sus [Gr. Anb'vaosor Aiuivvcros], the original Greek 
name of the god of wine. (See Bacchus.) 

Diophau'tine [from Diophantus (which see)] 
ysis, a branch of algebra not reducible to systematic rule, 
which treats of indeterminate problems, principally such as 
involve square or cube numbers, or the relations of the parts 
of right-angled triangles; and in which integral or com¬ 
mensurable values are found for the indeterminates by 
means of artifices suggested by the nature or conditions 
of the problems themselves. Success in this rather fasci¬ 
nating but not particularly useful branch of investigation 
depends very much upon the ingenuity of the investigator. 
An example of a Diophantine problem is the following: 
To find three numbers such that the sum of their squares 
shall be a square. The numbers are 2, 3, and 6, or any 
equimultiples of these. 

Diophan'tus [Gr. Aio^avTos], a Greek mathematician 
who lived at Alexandria, probably between 200 and 400 
A. D. He is the author of the most ancient extant treatise 
on algebra, and is the reputed inventor of algebra, accord¬ 
ing to Lagrange and others. He wrote an important work 
called “ Arithmetica,” in thirteen books, of which only six 
are extant. 

Diop'sis [from the Gr. 6u£, “ through” or “ across,” 
also “ apart,” and oi/us, “ vision ”], the name of a genus 
of dipterous insects remarkable for having the eyes and 
antennm at the end of long, horny stalks growing from the 
sides of the head. In some instances the distance of the 
eyes from the head is almost as great as the length of the 
wings. 

Diop'trics [from the Gr. Sionrpov, “anything which 
one looks through,” a “transparent substance” (from 6u£, 
“through,” and the obsolete verb 6ttto>, to “see”)], that 
branch of geometrical optics which treats of the refraction 
of light, or of the changes which take place in the direction 
of rays transmitted from one medium to another (as from 
air to water, etc.), or through media of varying density. 
It is applied chiefly in the construction of telescopes, micro¬ 
scopes, and other instruments requiring the use of refract¬ 
ing lenses. (See Optics and Lens.) (See Littrow, “ Di- 
optrik,” 1830; Prechte, “ Practische Dioptrik,” 1828.) 

Dioptric System, an arrangement of lenses for con¬ 
densing light in lighthouses, devised by Fresnel about 
1819, based on the discoveries of Buffon, Condorcet, Brew¬ 
ster, and others. (See Lighthouses, by Prof. Joseph 
Henry, LL.D.) 

Diora'ma [from the Gr. St (for Sn£), “through,” and 
opapa, “ that which is seen” (from 6p<xw, to “ see ”)], a mode 
of scenic display invented by Daguerre and Bouton, and 
first exhibited in Paris in 1822. The painting is viewed 
through a large aperture or proscenium, beyond which it 
is placed at such a distance that the light is thrown upon 
it at a proper angle from the roof, which is glazed with 
ground glass, and cannot be seen by the spectator, who is 
in comparative darkness, receiving no other light than 
what is reflected from the painting itself. By means of 
shutters or curtains the light may be diminished or in¬ 
creased at pleasure; and some parts of the picture being 
transparent, light may be admitted through it—an artifice 
which secures the advantages of painting in transparency 
without its defects. 

Dioscorea'cene [from Dioscorea, one of the genera], 
a natural order of plants, ranked by Lindley among the 
Dictyogens (which see), mostly natives of tropical coun¬ 
tries. They are classed among endogenous plants by most 
botanists. They are twining shrubs with large tubers 
either above or under ground. The most important plants 
of tho order are the species of Dioscorea or Yam (which 
see). The order comprises one British plant, the black 
bryony, and the Dioscorea vxllosa , which grows in many 
parts of tho U. S. 


1355 


Dioscor ides Peda / nius [AioaKoupiSr)? neSavios], a 
Greek botanist, born at Anazarba in Cilicia, lived between 
50 and 200 A. D. He travelled in Asia Minor, Greece, and 
Italy to procure information about plants, and wrote a cele¬ 
brated work on materia medica (in Greek), in which he 
describes or names more than 500 plants. This work was 
regarded as the highest authority for fifteen centuries or 
more, and was universally used by medical and botanical 
students. Best edition by Sprengel, 2 vols., Leips., 1829-30. 

Dioscu'ri [Gr. AiocrKovpoi], (i. e. “sons of Jupiter”), a 
name given to Castor and Pollux (which see). 

Dios'ma [from the Gr. 61007 x 0 ?, “transmitting smell,” 
or perhaps “having a strong smell ” (from SLa, “ through,” 
and 607 x 17 , “smell”)], agenus of plants of the natural order 
Rutacem and Linnaean class Pentaudria. The buchu leaves 
are obtained from the Diosxna crenata and other species. 

DiospyYos [probably the Sioo-nvpov of Theophrastus, a 
name signifying in Greek the “wheat” or “bread of Zeus”], 
a large genus of trees of the ebony family, comprising about 
one hundred species, mostly natives of the tropical parts 
of the Old World. They generally have hard wood, and 
many of them yield edible fruits. 

The persimmon tree of the Atlantic States and Mississippi 
Valley ( Diospyros Virginiana) is well known for its fruit, 
which becomes edible late in autumn, and for its wood, 
which is used by makers of lasts for shoes. It is represented 
in Texas, California, etc. by the Diosjjyros Texanci (per¬ 
simmon, ebony, or japote). 

The pishamin or date-plum {Diospxyros Lotus) grows in 
Europe as far N. as London, and its fruit is made into pre¬ 
serves or eaten without cooking. Other species are prized 
for their fruit in China, Africa, and Japan. The Calaman- 
der-wood (which see) and several other Diospyri of Asia 
are greatly valued for their timber. Among these is the 
true ebony (Diosjjyros Ebenum ), which grows principally 
in Ceylon. (See Ebony.) Remains of many fossil species 
are found in the eocene of the U. S. 

Dioszeg, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bihar, 
on the Er. It exports wine and tobacco. Pop. 5774. 

Dip aiul Strike. In geology, the angle of inclination 
of a stratum to the horizon is called its dip or pitch. Strata 
presenting this inclination must cut the surface in a line, 
and this line, called the outcrop of the rocks, has a definite 
direction, which in geological language is called the strike 
(from the German streichen, to “reach,” to “extend”). 
The strike of rocks is therefore the compass direction of 
the intersection of their plane of stratification with the 
plane of the horizon. When strata are moderately regular, 
the line of strike is a very useful fact to determine, as it 
enables the geologist to follow the same bed, and when 
concealed, suggests the place where he should seek for it. 
The dip must be at right angles to the strike, for that is the 
direction in which the plane of the bed dips down towards 
the interior of the earth. Beds dipping at a high angle are 
soon lost sight of, being covered up with other deposits of 
newer date. In the direction opposite to that of the dip 
beds of older date come up from below, or “ crop out.” The 
amount of inclination as required for practical purposes can 
be measured by a simple instrument, the clinometer. 

Diplithe'ria [from the Gr. S^Oepa, the “skin” of an 
animal, in allusion to the false membrane described below], 
an acute disease, characterized by inflammation of the mu¬ 
cous membrane of the pharynx, attended by an exudation 
of lymph, often assuming the character of a false mem¬ 
brane, which may extend into the larynx and air-passages, 
into the oesophagus, and into the mouth, occasionally also 
appearing upon raw or mucous surfaces of other parts of 
the body; it is also attended by prostration and albumi¬ 
nuria, which may or may not be persistent. Diphtheria is 
not a new disease, but its nature having been investigated 
by Bretonneau (who gave it the name diplitheritis), it has 
of late received much attention, more especially from its 
present frequency and the terrible fatality which distin¬ 
guishes it. Its duration and symptoms are variable, and 
the distinctive exudation is by no means of uniform appear¬ 
ance. In general, the mucous membrane is dark and con¬ 
gested, and the exudation growing from one or more cen¬ 
tres if torn away leaves a bleeding and sensitive surlace. 
The membrane itself frequently is the seat of a microscopic 
vegetable growth ( o'idium ), believed by some to be an es¬ 
sential part of the disease itself. The prognosis is always 
grave, no case being free from danger. The mildest attack 
may he followed by paralysis or by fatal prostration. No 
routine treatment can be laid down for this disease. In 
mild cases it is permissible to use detergont chlorinated 
washes for the mouth, and the general treatment may bo 
mainly expectant, provided the pulse is firm. Sulphate of 
quinia has the happiest effects upon many cases. The in¬ 
halation of vaporized water is an excellent measure. The 













DIPHTHONG—DIPSOMANIA. 


1356 


treatment of the various sequelae of diphtheria requires 
the careful use of tonics, such as strychnia and iron, with 
the best hygienic conditions. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Diph'thong [Gr. Si<f)9oyyo^, from Si (for Si's), “double,” 
and </>06yyos, “voice,” “sound;” Lat. diphthongus ] is the 
union of two vowels pronounced together in one syllable. 
A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels are sound¬ 
ed, as in boil, out. An improper diphthong is one in which 
only one vowel is sounded, as in Caesar, beat. 

Diplacail'thus [from the Gr. SittAos, “double,” and 
aKavOa, a “thorn” or “spine”], the name of a genus of 
ganoid fishes found only in the old red sandstone. They 
have small scales on the body, a large head, wide mouth, 
and two dorsal fins with a strong spine in front. 

Diplograp'sus [from the Gr. S«rA6s, “ double,” and 
ypa>f><i), to “ mark ” or “ write ”], a genus of zoophytes exist¬ 
ing in great numbers in the anthracite shales of the Silu¬ 
rian formation. They are marked with a double series of 
cells. 

Diplo'ma [Gr. SinX^pa, from SiTrAow, to “double,” or 
“ foldLat. diploma], a term formerly applied to every 
sort of royal charter or letter-patent. These were so called 
because under the Roman emperors charters were inscribed 
on two tablets of copper, joined together so as to fold in 
the form of a book. The charter by which a physician or 
surgeon is declared qualified to practise his profession is 
called a diploma. The term is also applied to the certificate 
of graduation given to every one who has taken a degree 
in a college or university. 

Diplo' macy [from diploma, originally signifying 
“credentials” or “ letters-patent ” (see Diploma)] is the 
art of conducting the official intercourse between foreign 
states, and is generally managed by ambassadors instructed 
in the policy to be pursued. The negotiation of treaties 
forms an important part of the duties of these envoys, but 
frequently they exercise a delicate and yet profound in¬ 
fluence over the nation with which they are sent to deal. 
In receiving his instructions, much must sometimes be left 
to the discretion of the diplomatist. Very early in history 
heralds and ambassadors are found bearing messages from 
one power to another. Generally these messages were 
special. It is only in modern times that diplomatists are 
established permanently in foreign courts to watch the in¬ 
terests of their own governments. From the very neces¬ 
sities of the case, ambassadors have been held personally 
sacred, since, were it not so, it would be impossible for 
them to venture into unfriendly states. Even among bar¬ 
barians their privileges were respected; and in our own 
times they are not subject to the municipal laws of the 
states in which they reside, but can be sent home for 
punishment if they offend those laws. When resident am¬ 
bassadors first came to be employed they were looked on 
as spies, but as the usage became general its advantages 
were made manifest. It tends to bring nations nearer to¬ 
gether, and to make them respect one another, when there 
are representatives of foreign states in each country; the 
community of nations is more vividly felt. Ambassadors 
become acquainted with the laws, institutions, and history 
of the land where they reside; they protect their country¬ 
men who are there as travellers or residents; they foresee 
difficulties and are able to prevent them; they put their 
countries on their guard against the preparations for war of 
other states; and when they withdraw on account of war 
their absence causes the separation of the two countries to 
make more impression. Even the exchange of compliments, 
the opportunity of representing their country in expressions 
of friendship at public and festive gatherings, as well as by 
condolence and forms of sympathy,—these minor uses of 
resident ministers will not be despised by those who rightly 
estimate the effect of such things on national feeling. 

The highest diplomatic office is that of ambassador. In 
the Roman Catholic states of Europe the legates and nun¬ 
cios of the pope take rank with the highest class. The 
second grade includes ministers plenipotentiary, the inter¬ 
nuncios of the pope, envoys ordinary and extraordinary, 
and all agents accredited directly to sovereigns. The third 
order are eharges-d’affaires, who are generally accredited 
to the department of foreign affairs. The appointment of 
diplomatic agents in the U. S. belongs to the President, 
but his choice must be confirmed by the Senate. The sec¬ 
retary of state superintends our diplomatic relations. 

Revised by T. D. Woolsey. 

Diplomatics [from the Gr. SinXtopa, “something 
folded;” see Diploma], originally the science of decipher¬ 
ing ancient writings. Previous to the fifth century writing 
was done extensively on papyrus. In that century parch¬ 
ment appears to have been generally used, and the oldest 
documents in our possession bearing the character of diplo¬ 


mas have no higher antiquity. The science of diplomatics 
teaches the different styles and forms adopted in ancient 
public documents, the titles, rank, etc. of public officers 
whose names are subscribed to them, etc. Its origin is 
attributed to a Jesuit of Antwerp named Papebroeck, who 
about 1675 applied himself to the exposition of old diplo¬ 
mas. Mabillon, however, whose work “ De Re Diploma- 
tica ” came out in 1681, was the first who established it on 
a sure foundation. The principles laid down in this work 
were more fully developed in the “Nouveau Traits de Di¬ 
plomatique,” by Toussaint and Tassin (1765). Among 
other valuable works on this subject may be named De 
Vainer’s “Dictionnaire Raisonnee de Diplomatique” (Paris, 
1774) and Gatterer’s “Abrissder Diplomatik” (Gottingen, 
1798). 

Diplop'terus [from the Gr. Sin-Ao?, “double,” and 
nrepov, a “wing” or fin”], a genus of ganoid fishes of 
the palaeozoic age, having double dorsal and anal fins, 
heterocercal tails, scales perforated with small foramina, 
and a large and flattened head. 

Dip of the Horizon, in navigation, is the differ¬ 
ence between the altitude of a heavenly body, as observed 
from the deck of a ship, and the altitude of the same body 
observed from the level of the sea. If the height of the 
spectator above the surface of the sea be « feet, then the 
correction for dip = 1.063 Vo. Experiments, however, 
seem to show that refraction diminishes the amount of dip 
by about three-fortieths of itself; hence the common table of 
dip used in navigation may be computed from the formula 
= dip U X 1.063 X Va = 984 Va. 

Dip'per ( Cinclus ), a genus of birds of the ouzel 
family (Cinclidae), found in Europe, Asia, and America. 
They feed chiefly on mollusks and on aquatic insects and 
their larva?, which they seek in clear lakes and streams, 
frequently diving with great facility, and moving about 
under water by means of their wings. They resemble the 
wren in their manner of dipping the head, accompanied 
with an upivard jerking of the tail. The dippers build 
very curious nests of inteiwoven moss, having the en¬ 
trance in one side. 


Dipping Needle. When a magnetic needle is hung 
within a stirrup so as to move freely in a vertical direction, 
and the whole system is suspended by a thread, it will ad¬ 
just itself in the magnetic meridian, and its pole will dip 
towards the north pole of the earth. Such a needle is 
called a dipping needle, and its de\ r iation from the horizon¬ 
tal line is its inclination. When the needle is carried nearer 
the magnetic pole, the inclination increases. Sir James 
Ross in 1832 saw the dipping needle stand Avitliin one 
minute of a degree of the vertical position near Baffin’s Bay. 
Approaching the equator, it becomes less and less inclined, 
until a point is reached at which it is quite horizontal. 
This point will be in the magnetic equator, or line of no 
dip, which is near, but not coincident Avith, the equator of 
the earth. When tracing the lines of equal dip on a Mer¬ 
cator’s map, Ave find that they coincide in a remarkable 
manner with the isothermals or lines of equal mean tem¬ 
perature, indicating a close connection of the distribution 
of heat with that of magnetism, and seemingly a common 
cause for both. 

The inclination, like the declination, is subject to periodic 
and secular variations. The last is shown in the folloAving 
table: 


Inclinations observed in Paris. 


Year. Inclination. 

1671.75° 00' 

1780.71 48 

1798.69 51 

1814.68 36 


Year. Inclination. 

1820.68° 20' 

1825.68 00 

1831.67 40 

1853.66 28 


It appears from the table that since the year 1671 the. 
inclination has steadily diminished at the rate of about 
three to five minutes a year. Arnold Gua ot. 

Dipsa'ceoe [from Dipsacus, one of the genera], a nat¬ 
ural order of herbaceous exogenous plants, mostly natives 
of the south of Europe. They are nearly allied to Com¬ 
posite, from Avhich they differ by having the stamens dis¬ 
tinct. Among the plants of this order is the Dipsacus ful- 
lonum (fullers’ teazel). (See Teazel.) 

Dip'sas [Gr. 5u^ds, the name of a venomous snake 
Avhose bite caused intense thirst, from Sixpa, “thirst”], a 
genus of non-venomous serpents belonging to the Colubri- 
dse. They are tree-snakes, greatly elongated in form, and 
having a broad, thick head. They are natives of the 
warmer parts of America and Asia. Some of them are 
of large size. Like many other modern scientific names, 
the designation of this genus is etymologically inappro¬ 
priate. 


Dipsoma'nia [from the Gr. Stya, “thirst,” and pavia, 
“frenzy”] is a term sometimes applied to Delirium Tre- 


















DIPTERA—DISCIPLES OF CHRIST. 


1357 


mens (which see), but of late more especially used to des¬ 
ignate a morbid craving for alcoholic drinks, sometimes 
called methomania. Of late, this craving is looked upon 
as a disease, and it has been very successfully treated in 
“inebriate asylums” in various countries. 

Dip'tera [Gr. fit (for fits), “twice” or “two,” and nrepov, 
a “ wing ”], an order of insects having for their distinguish¬ 
ing characteristic two wings only, corresponding to the an¬ 
terior pair, instead of four. In addition they have two 
short clubbed appendages, called “ halters ” or balancers, 
probably rudiments of the posterior pair in four-winged 
insects. They are marked also by having the mouth in 
the lorm of a sucker, constructed of from two to six lancet- 
shaped, elongated scales, enveloping a canal upon the upper 
surface of a fleshy proboscis. The larvse or maggots of dip- 
terans generally have a membranous head, and always have 
the stigmata, or breathing-pores, placed in the second and 
terminal segments of the body. In some species of these 
insects the eggs are hatched within the body of the parent— 
for instance, the blow-fly; in others, as the forest-fly, the 
larvaj are metamorphosed in the parent’s body, and the 
young are excluded as pupae. 

Dipterocarpa'ceae, or Diptera'ceae [from Diptero- 
carpus, one of the genera], a natural order of exogenous 
trees, indigenous only in the East Indies. It comprises 
about fifty known species, mostly beautiful and majestic 
trees, some of which are valuable for timber. They have 
simple, alternate leaves, with large stipules, and 1 -celled, 
1-seeded fruits. They abound in balsamic resin and resin¬ 
ous products, among which are camphor, copal, and dam¬ 
mar. The sal, one of the best timber trees in India, be¬ 
longs to this order. (See Dipterocarpus.) 

Dipterocar'pus [from the Gr. SiVrepo?, “two-winged,” 
and Kapnos, “ fruit ”], a genus of plants of the order Dip- 
teraceas, comprises several species of the noblest trees of 
India. ‘They bear clusters of largo fragrant flowers, and 
abound in a resinous juice which is used medicinally and 
for burning in torches. The fruit is furnished with two 
membranes like wings. The Dipterocarpus turbinatus , or 
goorjun tree, often attains a height of 200 feet, and has no 
branches except near the summit. The wood is hard, close- 
grained, and durable. From the trunk exudes a fragrant 
oil which is valuable for varnish, for an ingredient of paint, 
and for medicine. 

Dip 'terus [from the Gr. SiVrepo?, “ having two wings ” 
or “fins”], a genus of ganoid fishes, two species of which 
are found in the old red sandstone. They have a large and 
flattened head, and double anal and dorsal fins, opposite to 
each other. 

Dip'tych [Lat. diptychum, from the Gr. fit's, “twice,” and 
n-Tv'f (gen. tt-tvxos), “fold ” or “tablet”], a register used by 
the ancients at an early period. It consisted of two tablets 
of ivory or wood, covered with wax. Diptychs were of 
two kinds, sacred and profane, the latter being the more 
ancient form. The profane diptychs contained the name 
and titles of the consul, and were distributed by him among 
his friends on entering his office. On one side of the sacred 
diptych were inscribed the names of living, and on the 
other those of deceased, ecclesiastics and benefactors of the 
clergy, which were read during service by the deacon. 
They were often decorated with scenes from biblical his¬ 
tory. Diptychs are still used in the Eastern churches. 

Dirae. See Eumenides. 

Direct/or [from the Lat. dirigo, directum, to “ arrange” 
or “direct;” Fr. directeur], literally, “one who directs or 
manages,” usually applied to one of a number of individ¬ 
uals whose duty it is to conduct the affairs of certain en¬ 
terprises, such as banks, railways, insurance companies, 
etc. Directors are usually elected by the stockholders from 
their own number; they have the right of supplying casual 
vacancies, and may delegate their powers to committees of 
such number as they may judge expedient. The title is 
also usually given to the chief officer or superintendent of 
an astronomical or physical observatory. 

Directory [Fr. Directoire~\, in French history, the 
name given by the constitution of 1795 to the executive 
body of the French republic. It consisted of five persons 
called Directors ( Directeurs ), who were selected by the 
Council of Elders from a list of candidates presented by the 
Council of Five Hundred. Their names were Barras, Car¬ 
not, Lar 6 veillere-Lepaux, Letourneur, and Rewbell. One 
of them retired every year, and was succeeded by another 
chosen in the same way. They came into power at a time 
when France was involved in war against nearly all Eu¬ 
rope, and was distracted by domestic factions. The French 
armies gained many victories under this rigime, but the 
home policy of the Directory was unpopular. The Direc¬ 
tory was divided into two parties, and the majority, con¬ 
sisting of Barras, LarSveillere-Lepaux, and Rewbell, re¬ 


moved their adversaries by the coup-d’etat of the 18th Fruc- 
tidor (Sept. 4, 1797). In 1797 the directors were Barras, 
Ducos, Gohier, Moulins, and Sieyes. The Directory was 
abolished by the coup-d’6tat of the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9, 
1799), in which Bonaparte and Sieyes were the prominent 
actors. (See Barante, “ Histoire du Directoire,” 1855.) 

Directory, a book containing the names of the in¬ 
habitants of a city arranged in alphabetical order, together 
with the numbers of the houses in which they reside. The 
first London directory, “A Collection of the Names of Mer¬ 
chants, etc.,” came out in 1677. In the U. S. every town 
of importance has its own directory. In several States 
there are also published “State directories.” In New York 
City the earliest published was in 1786—a small volume of 
82 pages, printed by Shepherd Ivollock, Wall street. The 
names of the individuals and firms include about 900, and 
occupy 38 pages, the remainder being filled with general 
statistics of the city, U. S. government, post-office regula¬ 
tions, etc. In his address the editor states that it was the 
“ first directory ever attempted in this country.” The New 
York Historical Society possesses a complete set from its 
first publication. 

Direc'trix, plu. Direc'trices [the feminine of the 
Lat. director, a “ guide ”], a term in geometry applied to 
a line which serves for the description of a curve or surface. 
The directrix of a conic is a right line perpendicular to the 
axis, whose distance from any point on the curve bears a 
constant ratio to the distance of the same point from the 
focus. Quadric surfaces have also directrices possessing 
analogous properties. When a surface is conceived to be 
generated by the motion of a line, right or curved, which 
always rests on other fixed lines, the latter are sometimes 
called directrices, but more frequently directing lines or 
directors, the former being distinguished as the generator. 

Dirge [a contraction of the first word of an ancient Latin 
funeral hymn, “ Dirige gressus meos” —“ Direct my steps ;” 
the word dirge is written “dirige” in old books], a hymn 
of a mournful character sung at funerals, much used in the 
services of the Roman Catholic Church. “Dirge” is used 
also by poets to characterize sad verses on the dead. 

Dir'schau, a town of Prussia, in the province of Prus¬ 
sia, on the river Vistula, and on the railway from Berlin to 
Dantzic, 20 miles S. S. E. of Dantzic. It has machine- 
works, tanneries, etc., an enormous railroad bridge 2843 
feet in length, and a transit trade by the river. Pop. in 1871, 
7761. 

Dirt- Bed, a name given to deposits of dark-brown or 
black earthy lignite situated in the lower Purbeck series in 
Europe, near the top of the middle secondary or mesozoic 
rocks. Through the beds, which are from twelve to eigh¬ 
teen inches thick, are distributed stones from three to nine 
inches in diameter, also the silicified trunks of cycadaceous 
trees like Zcnnia. For many miles this black earth may be 
traced, containing fragments of fossil wood. The name 
“dirt-bed” is also given by geologists to the strata in the 
carboniferous rocks, etc. in which fossil roots of trees are 
found in situ. 

Dis [contracted from the Lat. dives, “rich”], a name 
of Pluto, sometimes applied to the infernal regions. (See 
Pluto.) 

Dis, or Di, a Latin particle signifying “apart” or 
“off,” usually implying separation, as in “dismiss,” “dis¬ 
join.” It is sometimes equivalent to “un,” being negative 
or privative, as in “ displease,” “ disorder.” The Greek 
particle fit's or fit usually means “twice” or “double.” 

Disability, in law, signifies a state which renders a 
person incapable of enjoying certain legal benefits or dis¬ 
ables him from doing a legal act. The disability is either 
absolute, as in the case of outlawry or attainder, or it is par¬ 
tial, as in the case of infancy and coverture. It may arise 
from the act of God, of the law, of the person himself, or 
of his ancestor. (See Capacity, by Prof. T. W. Dwight.) 

Disband'illg is the breaking up of a military organi¬ 
zation and the discharge of soldiers from military duty. 

Disbar', a term applied in England to barristers, who, 
in accordance with authority reposed in the benchers of tho 
four inns of court, subject to an appeal to tho common-law 
judges, may be expelled from the bar. 

Disc. See Disk. 

Discharge, from military service, is sometimes hon¬ 
orably obtained by non-commissioned officers and privates 
with the consent of the commanding officer; sometimes on 
a surgeon’s certificate of disability. Soldiers are also dis¬ 
charged with ignominy for great offences, being in some 
cases stripped of their decorations and drummed out of tho 
regiment. 

Disciples of Christ, or, as they generally call them¬ 
selves, Christians or Church of Christ, a body of 
























1358 DISCIPLINE—DiSFKANCHISEMENT. 


Christians frequently called Campbellites, taking the 
latter name from Alexander Campbell (see Campbell, Alex¬ 
ander), one of their most distinguished elders, and from his 
father, Rev. Thomas Campbell, a Scotch-Irish “ Seceder,” 
who came to the U. S. in 1807, and with his son began to 
labor in Western Pennsylvania for the restoration of Chris¬ 
tianity to apostolic practice. In 1811 they organized the 
Brush Run church in Washington co., Pa. In 1812 this 
church adopted Baptist views, and in 1815 they, with other 
sister congregations, joined a Baptist association. But as 
the principles and practice of the Campbells and their fol¬ 
lowers were distasteful to many Baptists, much agitation 
followed, and in 1827 the Baptist churches generally with¬ 
drew from fellowship with the reformers, who consequently 
organized themselves anew, professing to reject all creeds, 
and to receive the Bible alone as their authority in faith and 
practice. They, however, though rejecting the Trinitarian 
terminology, are, in fact, in essential agreement with other 
evangelical Christians in their opinions with regard to the 
person and work of Christ and the future resurrection and 
judgment. They celebrate the Lord’s Supper weekly, hold 
that repentance and faith should precede baptism, though, 
from the importance they attach to the latter ordinance,., 
they are often charged with holding to baptismal regene¬ 
ration. On all other points they allow and encoui-age 
independence of individual opinion. Their church organi- 
zation is congregational. Their officers are of three classes : 
(1) elders, called also bishops, pastors, and presbyters; (2) 
deacons; and (8) evangelists, who are itinerants supported 
by the free offerings of the congregations. This denomi¬ 
nation is distinguished for its efforts in behalf of education. 
They hold that the laborer is worthy of his hire, and teach 
the duty of the Church to provide amply for its ministers’ 
support. They sustain several religious quarterly and 
monthly reviews and many weekly pei'iodicals in the IT. S., 
and several in Great Britain and her colonies. Among 
their numerous institutions of learning are Bethany Col¬ 
lege, in West Va., Hiram College, Hiram, 0., the North¬ 
western Christian University, Indianapolis, Ind., Eui’eka 
College, Ill., Kentucky University, Lexington, Ky., and 
Oskaloosa College, Oskaloosa, la., besides a large number 
of seminaries and schools of a high grade. 

Revised by B. A. Hinsdale. 

Discipline [Lat. disciplina, from discipulus, a “ schol¬ 
ar”], education, training; the treatment suited to a learner 
or disciple; subjection to rules and regulations. It some¬ 
times signifies punishment or chastisement. The term is 
applied figui'atively to a peculiar mode of life in accordance 
with the rules of some pi-ofession or society. 

Discipline, in military and naval affairs, is a general 
name for the rules and regulations prescribed and enforced 
for the proper conduct and subordination of the soldiei*s, etc. 

Discipline, Ecclesiastical, is a term used to designate 
the means employed by churches to maintain correctness 
of life among their members, orderly government in church 
affairs, and to prevent the spread of heresy in their ranks. 
In the Middle Ages discipline was either penitential (that 
is, inflicted on those who confessed their sin; see Penance) 
or punitive, which was, in theory at least, frequently admin¬ 
istered by the civil power. 

Discipline, First Book of, an important document 
in the ecclesiastical history of Scotland. It was drawn up 
in 1560 by John Knox and four others. It lays down rules 
for the election of ministers and other officers, but deals 
more especially with ecclesiastical discipline. Though sub¬ 
scribed to by many of the nobles, it was never acknowledged 
by an act of Pai’liament. The “Second Book of Discipline” 
was drawn up by a committee of the General Assembly 
in 1578. Andrew Melville took a leading part in prepar¬ 
ing it. 

The “ Discipline” of the Methodist Episcopal Church is 
a volume containing all the doctrines, administrations, and 
ritual forms of that denomination, and is revised every four 
yeai*s, so as to include changes made by the quadrennial or 
General Conference. 

Disclaim'er, in law, a plea containing an express de¬ 
nial or renunciation of some claim alleged to have been 
made by the party pleading. This term is also applied to 
the act of one who renounces or refuses to accept a gift or 
devise made to him of land or other property, and generally 
to the waiver of any claim. In the law of landlord and 
tenant it means a denial by the tenant of the landlord’s 
title, in such a way as to cause a forfeiture of the tenant’s 
estate. 

Discob'oli (plu. of Discob'olus), [Gr. Sio-k6|3oAo?, 
from Stc TKos, a “disk” or “quoit,” and /3dAAw, to “throw,” 
also to “put” or “place,” so called in allusion to the habit 
of the fish of placing its disk on some firm body], the name 
of a family of malacopterous fishes, having the ventral 
fins united to form a sucking disk on the under surface of 


the body, by which the animal is enabled to firmly attach 
itself to a rock or other fixed body in order to obtain food. 
To this family belongs the lumpsucker ( Cyclopterus lumpm). 

Discontinuous Function, in mathematics, is a 
function which does not continuously increase or diminish 
when the independent variable increases uniformly. The 
function tan. x is discontinuous; for though the arc x in¬ 
creases uniformly from 0° to 360°, tan. x changes abruptly 
from -f co to — oo at x = 90° and x = 270°. 

Discord [Lat. discordia], want of concord; dissension, 
strife; a combination of sounds which have no harmonical 
relation. In music, a combination of notes more or less 
disagreeable to the ear. Discords are largely employed in 
musical compositions, being introduced by way of transi¬ 
tion between successive concords, of which they serve, by 
contrast, to heighten the pleasing effect. They are, there¬ 
fore, indispensable to the highest order of musical expres¬ 
sion. The concoi’d preceding a purposely introduced dis¬ 
cord is called the preparation, and that which follows, the 
resolution. 

Discount [from dis, “un” or “off,” and coxmt], an 
allowance or deduction made for cash or advanced pay¬ 
ments. Thus, in mercantile transactions a bill purchased 
may amount to $250. The seller allows the purchaser a 
discount of 15 per cent, for prompt or advanced payment, 
making the amount paid $212.50 ; in other words, $250 — 15 
per cent. = $212.50. Discount is a form of interest. To 
borrow $100 at 6 per cent, for four months, and paying 
$102 at the expiration of the time stated, is interest, but 
does not differ materially from taking $98 at once, under 
promise to pay $100 at the end of four months; this latter 
method is called discounting. The rate of discount is usu¬ 
ally agreed upon by the parties directly interested. 

Discourse [Lat. discursue], conversation, talk: the 
expression of ideas; a formal treatise or dissertation ; in 
rhetoric, a series of sentences and arguments arranged 
according to the rules of art. In logic, this term is applied 
to the operation of the mind commonly called reasoning. 

Discovery, in equity jurisprudence (see Equity), the 
act of disclosure by a defendant of facts to which he is re¬ 
quired to answer by reason of a “ bill of discovery ” which 
has been filed against him. The court entertains such a 
bill to secure the due administration of justice. There must 
be an interest on the pai-t of the plaintiff in the subject to 
which the discovery refers, and the information sought 
must appear to be material either to the prosecution of the 
suit or of some other suit or action then pending or which 
may be commenced. The defendant will not be compelled 
to make the discovery when disclosure would subject him 
to criminal proceedings or to a forfeiture. (The works on 
equity jurisprudence should be consulted for more full in¬ 
formation : Story, “ On Equity;” Adams, on the same; 
Spence, “Equitable Jurisdiction,” etc.) In a number of 
the American States, following the lead of the New York 
code of procedure, the bill for discovery is abolished. Either 
party to an action under that system may obtain an order 
from a judge to examine a party to an action before trial. 
The mode of examination is regulated by rule of coui't. 
This px'oceeding is a substitute for the former bill of dis¬ 
covery. T. W. Dwight. 

Discovery, of countries. See International Law 
No. I., by Pres. T. D. Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D.) 

Discussion of a problem or formula in mathematics, 
is the process of assigning to the arbitrary quantities which 
enter into it every reasonable value, and especially limiting 
values and interpreting the results. 

Disease [from the Fr. des, negative, and aisc, “ease;” 
Lat. morbus; Fr. maladie; Ger. Krankheit], a deviation 
from a state of health, consisting in most cases (if not in 
all) in some change, palpable or impalpable, of some one 
or more of the tissues, rendering such tissue (or the organ 
containing it) incapable of performing its proper part in 
the economy of the organism to which it belongs. In a 
less general sense, a particular form of ill-health is called a 
disease. Diseases are either diathetic (arising from the dia¬ 
thesis or predisposition of the patient) or enthetic (arising 
from without the patient). It is at present a favorite theory 
with many that enthetic diseases arise from minute organ¬ 
isms or disease-germs. (See Germ-Theory.) 

Diseases, Distribution of. See Geographical 
Distribution of Diseases. 

Disfran'chisement, the act of depriving a person of 
any privilege, liberty, franchise, or immunity—such as de¬ 
priving a member of a corporation of his corpoi’atc rights. 
It is distinguished in this case from “amotion,” which re¬ 
fers to the removal of an officer of the corporation from 
office, without affecting his membership. Another instance 
is the act of depriving a person of the rights and privileges 
of citizenship. This term is often applied to the act of de- 













DISHONOR—DISLOCATION. 


1359 


priving a person of the right to vote, and in England to 
the act which deprives a borough of the right of returning 
a member to Parliament. 

Dishon'or [from the Lat. dis, “un,” and honor, 
u honor ”], in mercantile language, signifies to refuse or 
neglect to pay (or to accept) a draft or a bill of exchange. 
The act of drawing or indorsing such a bill or draft in¬ 
volves the drawer and indorser in an obligation to pay it 
in case the drawee dishonors the same. In order that the 
person in whose favor it is drawn may have recourse 
against the drawer and indorser, it is necessary that notico 
of the dishonor shall be given to these parties without un¬ 
reasonable delay. 

Disinfection [from the Lat. dis, “un,” and inficio, 
infset am, to “ stain,” to “ taint,” to “ poison ”] is the de¬ 
struction or removal of the causes of disease present in 
any locality or material. It may be applied therefore to 
the atmosphere, to sewage or other liquid or solid filth, to 
ships, houses, clothing, merchandise, etc. Cologne-water 
and other merely odorous substances, while they may dis¬ 
guise foulness of the air, do not really disinfect. The 
power of the substances commonly used for this purpose 
has been overrated; they seldom destroy the contagious or 
infectious materials which produce diseases, yet they often 
do good by removing the conditions which favor their in¬ 
crease and dissemination. Cheapest among disinfectants 
are dry earth, lime, charcoal, and tar; and they ai’e all 
positively useful. Earth immediately destroys the odor of 
excrement covered by it, and prevents unwholesome emana¬ 
tions. The same is true also of lime. Charcoal is a very 
powerful absorbent of gases and purifier of liquid and semi¬ 
liquid substances. Common wood-tar has similar properties 
to a less degree, but its partial volatility enables it to act 
more favorably upon an impure atmosphere. Chlorine is 
probably equal to any other substance in destroying in the 
air morbific materials of organic origiu. It is usually em¬ 
ployed,as it is given off from chloride of lime (bleaching- 
powder) or chloride of soda solution (Labarraque’s liquid). 
Chloride of zinc, dissolved in water (Burnett’s liquid), and 
proto- or sesquichloride of iron are serviceable for the dis¬ 
infection of privies, sewers, etc. Solution of nitrate of lead 
(Ledoyen’s liquid), by the affinity of lead for sulphur, de¬ 
composes sulphuretted hydrogen, the most common noxious 
ingredient in foul atmospheres. Protosulphate of iron is 
much used for the disinfection of sewage and of privies. 
Permanganate of potassa (Condy’s liquid) as an oxidizing 
agent has analogous utility, but is more expensive. The 
crude permanganate will answer very well for this purpose. 
Sulj)hurous acid and nitrous or hyponitric acid, both gaseous, 
are available for the fumigation of unoccupied rooms; they 
are irrespirable. Iodine (solid) and bromine (liquid) have 
both been found practically similar, and perhaps equal, to 
chlorine for the disinfection of wards of hospitals. Car¬ 
bolic acid (phenic acid or carbol) has of late years been 
the most popular of all disinfectants. It is obtained, 
along with cresylic acid, in the distillation of coal-tar. 
More than any other of the substances named, it is believed 
to have the power of destroying minute living vegetable 
and animal organisms in the air or elsewhere. Ozone is 
asserted by some experimenters to be a valuable disin¬ 
fectant, but it has not yet been much employed for that 
purpose. Chloralum (chloride of aluminum) and bromo- 
chloralum have been recently introduced, and are under 
trial, with somewhat conflicting reports concerning their 
value. 

The modes of action of the above-named disinfectant 
substances maybe classified as follows: 1. By absorbing 
gases and preventing their emanation—dry earth, lime, 
charcoal. 2. Neutralizing sulphuretted hydrogen gas— 
nitrate of lead. 3. Decomposing sulphuretted hydrogen 
and dead organic matter—chlorine (by its affinity for hy¬ 
drogen, setting oxygen free), iodine, bromine, permanga¬ 
nate of potassa. 4. Arresting decay and putrefaction (i. e. 
by antiseptic action) in vegetable and animal materials— 
sulphurous and hyponitric acid gases, chloride of zinc, 
protosulphate, protochloride, and sesquichloride of iron, 
wood-tar, coal-tar, carbolic acid (by its affinity for water, 
and by combining with and fixing albumen and similar 
principles). 5. Destroying minute organisms, vegetable or 
animal (disease-germs), in the atmosphere—carbolic acid; 
perhaps chlorine, iodine, and bromine. 

Quantities of disinfectants for use may bo thus stated. 
For privies or sewers, a pound of sulphate or chloride of 
iron or chloride of lime, diffused in a gallon of water, will 
answer for a very large amount of foul material. Burnett’s 
liquid contains twenty-five grains of chloride of zinc in 
each fluiddrachm of water. A pint of this in a gallon of 
water will be strong enough for use. For water-closets or 
bed-pans, Labarraque’s solution of chloride of soda, a fluid- 
ounce in a quart of water; or permanganate of potassa, 


ten grains to a quart of water; or carbolic acid, twenty 
grains to a pint. A 70-per-cent, solution of this last sub¬ 
stance is often used also. Drinking-water is best purified 
by filtration through charcoal, but it may be improved, 
when containing an excess of organic matter, by a small 
amount of permanganate of potassa, enough to make it 
very slightly pink in color in a strong light. Articles of 
clothing may be disinfected by boiling them in a solution 
of the permanganate, an ounce to three gallons of water. 
Greatly contaminated garments or bedding, as from small¬ 
pox patients, should be burned. Occupied rooms may bo 
disinfected by fresh chloride of lime, placed about in saucers 
in convenient places to give off chlorine. 

Ledoyen’s liquid is made by dissolving a pound of lith¬ 
arge in seven ounces of nitric acid and two gallons of 
water. Ridgewood’s disinfectant consists principally of 
carbolic acid, lime, and fuller’s earth. McDougall’s (much 
used in England and India) contains the sulphites of mag¬ 
nesia and lime and carbolate of lime. 

But the most effective, indeed the only certain, disinfect¬ 
ant agencies are cold and heat. Malaria (the local cause 
of ague and remittent fever) is disarmed of its noxious 
power by a single hard frost; and the same is true of tho 
infection of yellow fever. Cholera disappears almost always 
in temperate climates with the approach of winter. The 
continuance, and even increase, of smallpox, typhus, and 
some other contagious diseases during cold weather is due 
to the closing up of houses to keep them warm, thus 
diminishing ventilation and concentrating the morbid 
poison. Yet no considerable use can be practically made 
of the disinfectant action of low temperature, on account 
of the difficulty of producing it at will on a sufficiently 
large scale. 

Heat was known by the ancients to exert an influence 
antagonistic to infection. Fires were in early times burned 
in the streets of cities to dissipate the plague. Pliny wrote, 
“ Est in ipsis ignibus medica vis”—“ There is in fire itself 
a medicating power.” Yet only latterly has this been clearly 
verified by science. Dr. Henry of Manchester, England, 
in 1824, performed a series of experiments, by which he 
proved that the contagious property of smallpox and cf 
vaccine virus, and that of typhus and scarlet fever, are de¬ 
stroyed by a temperature of from 140° to 200° F., and that 
such a heat does not injure such fabrics as are commonly 
used for clothing. In 1851, Dr. von Busch of Berlin made 
a trial of this agent in a large lying-in hospital, in the 
wards of which puerperal fever had been very destructive. 
After all ordinary methods of fumigation and disinfection 
had failed to eradicate the disease, he had all the patients 
removed and the wards heated by stoves, for two days, up 
to the temperature of 150° F. The same class of patients 
being then reintroduced, not a single case of the fever fol¬ 
lowed. Dr. W. Ferguson, inspector-general of the British 
navy, and Dr. A. N. Bell of Brooklyn, N. Y., have reported 
equally satisfactory success in extirpating yellow fever from 
large vessels at sea or in port. Dr. Bell and Dr. E. Harris 
of New York also made use of superheated steam as a dis¬ 
infectant, with good effect, in New York City during the 
cholera season of 1866. It is probably one of the most 
efficacious of all the means yet employed for this purpose. 

Henry Hartsiiorne. 

Disintegration [from the Lat. dis, negative, and 
integer, “entire”], the separation of the integrant parti¬ 
cles of a body; the destruction of cohesion; in geology, 
the gradual wearing away of a rock by ordinary atmo¬ 
spheric action, etc.; the process by which a solid rock is 
reduced and comminuted to sand, gravel, or soil. Soil or 
arable land is formed and prepared by the disintegration 
of rocks. The action of the weather is helped by frequent 
alternations of temperature above and below the point at 
which water attains its greatest density— i. e. 39° F. 

Disk, or Disc [from the Lat. discus (Gr. StV/co?), a 
“disk” or “quoit”], in astronomy, the face of the sun, 
moon, or a planet, such as it appears to us projected on tho 
sky. Tho forms of the celestial bodies being nearly spheri¬ 
cal, their projections are circular planes. The fixed stars, 
when viewed through a telescope, present spurious disks , 
in consequence of the diffraction of light. 

Disk, or Disc, in botany, is a fleshy expansion of tho 
receptacle of the flower; a part of the receptacle, or a 
growth from it enlarged under and around the pistil; also 
the central part of a head of flowers ot the order Compos¬ 
ite, as the Coreopsis. 

Dislocation [from the Lat. dis, “apart,’’ and loco, 
location, to “place”], otherwise called Titixn tion [from 
the Lat. luxo, luxation, to “loosen”], in surgery, is tho 
displacement of a bone from its proper relation to another 
bone with which it is articulated. A complicated dis¬ 
location is the displacement of a bone, accompanied b\ a 
severe local lesion of the sott parts, or fractuio ot a bone. 









DISMAL—DISSENTERS. 


1360 


“ Congenital ” dislocations are those which occur before 
birth. The restitution of a dislocated bone is called its 
“reduction.” Reduction of recent luxations is usually a 
comparatively easy task to those who have the requisite 
knowledge and experience, but in old and long-neglected 
cases it is frequently a most formidable operation, and is 
liable to be followed by bad consequences to the patient. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Dis'mal, a post-township of Sampson co., N. C. Pop. 
746. 

Dismal Swamp, a great morass in the counties of 
Nansemond and Norfolk in Virginia, and in Gates, Cam¬ 
den, and Pasquotank counties in North Carolina, is about 
30 miles long and 10 miles wide. A large portion of it is 
covered with dense forests of juniper, cypress, white cedar, 
and gum trees, from which lumber is exported. Near the 
middle of the swamp is Lake Drummond, which has an 
area of about 6 square miles, and abounds with fish. A 
canal through the Dismal Swamp opens steam communica¬ 
tion between Chesapeake Bay and Albemarle Sound. The 
Dismal Swamp is remarkable for its considerable elevation 
above the surrounding country. The water of thi§ swamp, 
known as “juniper water,” is of a dark reddish color, and 
is carried in large quantities to Norfolk and Hampton 
Roads for shipping purposes. It is highly prized for its 
excellent quality, and is not liable to become corrupt by 
keeping, t 

Dis'part [etymology uncertain], in gunnery, half the 
difference between the diameter of the base-ring at the 
breech of a gun and that of the swell of the muzzle. 

Dispeil'sary [from the Lat. diapendo, diapensum, to 
“ distribute ” (from die, “ apart,” and pendo, to “ weigh ”)], 
a charitable institution in which medical and surgical aid 
is gratuitously furnished to the poor. During the Middle 
Ages dispensaries were set up in the houses of the wealthy 
and in monasteries, and towards the end of the eighteenth 
century were established in their present form. They now 
are established in most or all large cities. The oldest in 
the U. S. was founded in 1795 in New York. The poor re¬ 
ceive treatment and medicine in them free of charge. 

Dispensation [Lat. dispenaatio, perhaps from dia, 
“apart,” and penso, to “judge,” frequentative of pendo, to 
“ weigh”], in the Roman Catholic Church, is an exemption 
from some canon or other law. Bishops and priests grant 
dispensations in some cases, but the pope alone has the 
power of giving them in the more important ones. Papal 
dispensations Avere first granted in 1200 by Innocent III. 
After the English Reformation the dispensing power was 
assumed by the kings, but it was abolished by the Bill of 
Rights (1689). (See Pardon.) 

Dispen'satory [for etymology see Dispensary], a 
book containing an account of the physical qualities and 
medicinal powers of different drugs, with their natural and 
commercial history, and their preparation and combina¬ 
tions. One of the most complete works of the kind is the 
“United States Dispensatory,” by Wood and Bache (1833; 
13th ed. 1870). 

Disper'sion [Lat. diaperaio, from dia, “apart,” and 
epartjo, ajiarsum, to “ scatter ”], in optics, is the angular 
separation of the constituent rays of light when decomposed 
by the prism. Owing to the unequal refrangibility of the 
rays of different colors, a beam of light admitted through a 
small aperture in the shutter of a darkened room, and re¬ 
fracted by passing through a prism, forms an elongated 
image or spectrum; the red rays, which are the least re¬ 
fracted, occupying one end of the spectrum, and the violet 
rays, which have the greatest refraction, the other end. 
The rays after refraction are no longer parallel, so that the 
index of refraction (the ratio of the sine of incidence to the 
sine of refraction) is different for each ray; and the differ¬ 
ence of the indices for the extreme rays is called the disper¬ 
sion of the light. It had been supposed by Sir Isaac New¬ 
ton that the dispersion was proportioned to the refraction, 
but it was soon found that although the colors in spectra 
formed by prisms of different substances are always ar¬ 
ranged in the same order, they do not occupy the same rela¬ 
tive amount of space ; a prism of flint-glass giving, in pro¬ 
portion, less red and more violet than a prism of crown- 
glass, and that substances for which the index of refraction 
of the middle ray of the spectrum is nearly the same, pro¬ 
duce spectra of different lengths. 

Disposition [Lat. diapositio, from diapono, depos¬ 
ition, to “dispose,” to “put in order,” to “arrange”], in 
architecture, one of the six essentials of the art. It is the 
arrangement of the whole design by means of the ichnog- 
raphy (plan), orthography (section and elevation), and 
scenography (perspective.view), and differs from distribu¬ 
tion, which signifies the particular arrangement of the in¬ 
ternal parts of a building. 


Disposition, a musical term employed in organ-building, 
and referring to the combination and arrangement of the 
stops on the rows of keys and pedals, with the pitch of each 
stop or length of the lowest CC pipe. 

Disra'eli (Rt. Hon. Benjamin), D. C. L., an eminent 
English statesman and novelist of Jewish extraction, was 
born in London Dec. 21, 1805. He published novels en¬ 
titled “Vivian Grey” (1826), “ The Young Duke” (1830), 
“ Contarini Fleming” (1832), and “Henrietta Temple,” 
some of which were successful. He began his political career 
as a radical, and offered himself as a candidate for Parlia¬ 
ment in 1831, but was defeated. Having become a Tory, 
he was again repulsed by the electors of Taunton in 1835, 
but was elected a member of Parliament for Maidstone in 
1837. His maiden speech was so pretentious, and uttered 
with gestures so extravagant, that he excited the laughter 
of the House, and closed abruptly, saying, “I shall sit down 
now, but the time will come when you will hear me.” He 
married in 1839 the widow of Wyndham Lewis. Having 
gradually acquired skill as a debater, he became about 1842 
the leader of the “ Young England party ” and an oppo¬ 
nent of Sir Robert Peel, whom he denounced with unspar¬ 
ing invective because Peel advocated the repeal of the 
Corn laws. In 1844 he produced “ Coningsby,” a political 
novel, which was much admired. In 1846 he was returned 
to Parliament for Buckinghamshire, which he represented 
for many years. He succeeded Lord Bentinck, who died in 
1848, as leader of the protectionist party in the House of 
Commons. He was chancellor of the exchequer in the con¬ 
servative ministry of Lord Derby for nearly nine months in 
1852. About the end of that year he resumed the post of 
leader of the opposition in the House of Commons. Early 
in 1858 he was again appointed chancellor of the exchequer 
in the new conservative Derby-Disraeli ministry. In 1859 
he introduced a bill for parliamentary reform, which was 
rejected by a majority of the House of Commons. He there¬ 
fore resigned with his colleagues in June of that year. He 
opposed the electoral Reform bill of Russell and Gladstone, 
which was defeated in June, 1866. The liberal ministers 
then resigned, and the conservatives formed a new cabi¬ 
net, in which Disraeli was chancellor of the exchequer. He 
also became the leader of the House of Commons, and the 
most prominent minister except the premier, Lord Derby. 
He was the principal author and manager of the Reform bill 
which became a law in Aug., 1867, and extended the right 
of suffrage to every householder in a borough. This bill 
enfranchised nearly a million of men, mostly workingmen, 
and was considei'ed a dangerous innovation by the conser¬ 
vatives. Disraeli succeeded Lord Derby, who resigned the 
place of prime minister in Feb., 1868. He opposed the 
resolutions or bill which Mr. Gladstone introduced to dis¬ 
establish the Irish (Episcopal) Church. After a long debate, 
Mr. Gladstone’s resolutions were adopted by the House of 
Commons on the 1st of May, 1868, by a majority of 64. 
Disraeli, though defeated on this important question, re¬ 
solved not to resign office, but to wait for the result of the 
general election which occurred in the next November. 
The liberal party having secured a large majority in the 
new Parliament, he and his colleagues resigned Dec. 2, 
1868, and Mr. Gladstone then became prime minister. 
An early poetical work, entitled “A Revolutionary Epic,” 
was republished in 1864. As Mr. Disraeli declined a seat 
in the House of Lords which was offered to him, his wife, 
in acknowledgment of her husband’s official services, was 
raised to the peerage of the United Kingdom as Viscountess 
Beaconsfield, Nov. 28, 1868. Among the works published 
by Mr. Disraeli since his entrance on political life are 
(besides “Coningsby”) “Sybil,” “ Tancred,” “A Vindica¬ 
tion of the English Constitution,” “A Biography of Lord 
J: Bentinck,” and “Lothair,” a novel published in 1870. 
He was chosen regent of the University of Glasgow, 1S73, 
and became prime minister again in 1874. 

Revised by A. J. Sciiem. 

Disraeli (Isaac), D. C. L., an English litterateur, the 
father of the preceding, was born at Enfield in May, 1766. 
He studied in Amsterdam and Leyden, and spent some 
years in France. Inheriting a fortuno from his father, a 
Hebrew merchant originally from Venice, and belonging 
to one of the Jewish families who escaped to Venice from 
the Inquisition in Spain in the fifteenth century, he de¬ 
voted himself to the study of literary history. His prin¬ 
cipal works are “Curiosities of Literature” (1790), “Ca¬ 
lamities of Authors” (1812), and “Amenities of Literature” 
(1841). Died Jan. 19, 1848. 

Disruption [from the Lat. dia, “apart,” and rumpo, 
ruptum, to “ break ”], a term generally applied to the schism 
in the Church of Scotland which occurred in 1843. (See 
Free Church of Scotland, by David Inglis, LL.D.) 

Dissenters [from the Lat. dia, “apart” (or “differ- 










DISSEIZIN—DISSOCIATION. 


1361 


ently ”), and sentio, to “think”], or Non-Conformists, 
the name given to English Protestants who differ in their 
views from the Church of England. After the act of Uni¬ 
formity was passed (1662), about two thousand clergymen 
seceded, and were called Dissenters. All who refused to 
take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and the Eucha¬ 
rist according to the rites of the Established Church, were 
excluded by the Test act (1673) from government employ¬ 
ment. By the Toleration act (1689), Dissenters obtained 
legal security in celebrating their worship, and the Corpo¬ 
ration and Test Repeal act (1828) enabled them to accept 
public employment without taking the Eucharist. In 1836 
they were first authorized to solemnize marriages in their 
own places of worship or at a registrar’s office. The “ Gen¬ 
eral Body of Protestant Dissenting Ministers of the Three 
Denominations ” is the official name of the union of the 
three boards of Presbyterian, Independent, and Baptist 
ministers resident in and about the cities of London and 
Westminster. This union was organized July 11, 1727, 
and has always taken a leading part in the struggle for the 
disestablishment of the Church of England. In some Euro¬ 
pean countries Dissenters are called Dissidents. (See also 
Non-Conformists, by Rev. Beverly R. Betts.) 

Dissei'zin [from dis, “un,” and seizin], in law, a 
term signifying an unlawful ejection of one who is seized 
of a freehold in lands, so as to deprive him of the seizin 
and place it in another. The modern equivalent for this 
word is “adverse possession.” There is also “disseizin by 
election,” where a person chooses to consider himself dis¬ 
seized, though he is not so in fact, in order to avail himself 
of legal remedies applicable to a true disseizin. (See Seizin, 
by Prof. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

Dissep'iment [Lat. dissepimentum, from dis, “apart,” 
and sepio, to “hedge,” to “enclose”], a botanical term ap¬ 
plied to the partitions that are formed in the ovary by the 
united sides of the cohering carpels. Sometimes dissepi¬ 
ments meet in the centre, and divide the ovary or fruit into 
cells; in other cases they are partial, and leave the ovary 
one-celled. 

Dissidents. See Dissenters. 

Dissociation, or Disassocia'tion [dis, “apart,” 
and socius, “a companion”], in chemistry, is applied to 
the investigation of the influence of heat and pressure on 
chemical action. The word was first introduced into chem¬ 
ical nomenclature by Henry St. Claire Deville, who pre¬ 
sented a paper to the French Institute Nov. 23, 1857, “On 
the Dissociation or Spontaneous Decomposition of Bodies 
under the Influence of Heat.” Deville says in this paper: 
“ When heat acts upon any body it produces an expansion 
which we attribute to a force called the repulsive force of 
heat. By selecting a proper compound and heating it 
sufficiently, the distance between the molecules can be in¬ 
creased to such an extent that they will separate into their 
elementary condition. This is a spontaneous deconqmsi- 
tion, not determined by any chemical action. I propose 
to call it the dissociation of compound bodies.” 

The decomposition of water by fused platinum in the 
celebrated experiment of Grove, performed in 1846, was 
attributed by Berzelius to the catalytic action of the metal; 
this phenomenon is now explained on the principle of dis¬ 
sociation. Deville repeated Graham’s experiment on a 
large scale by pouring melted platinum into water, and 
obtained an explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen 
disproportionate to the theoretical quantity; from which 
he concluded that the molecules recombined on cooling in 
the water. He believes that at the temperature of melted 
silver, water is dissociated into its constituent elements. 

The next step in the literature of the subject was the 
publication, Mar. 18, 1861, of a series of researches upon 
the influence exerted by certain porous vessels upon the 
composition of the gases that pass through them. Al¬ 
though outside of the line of his studies, yet under the 
advice of M. Jamin, Deville concluded to publish these 
researches. A porous porcelain tube was placed in the in¬ 
terior of a large glass tube, and each was provided with 
separate escape-tubes. On causing hydrogen to pass 
through the interior tube, and carbonic acid gas through 
the outer space, the two gases were found to exchange 
places, and an inflammable gas was given off at the end 
of the carbonic acid tube. It thus appeared that the hy¬ 
drogen passed through the pores of the porcelain tube and 
was replaced by the carbonic acid. There was nothing 
new in this experiment, as the principle is described in 
Gmelin’s “Chemistry” under the head of adhesion, and 
the subject was familiar to Priestley. Gmelin says if gas 
be evolved in an earthen retort or conducted through an 
earthen tube, a portion of it escapes through the tube, and 
is replaced by the external air or by nitrogen, or carbonic 
acid if the vessels be in a fire. He further describes an 
experiment made by Priestley when an earthen retort is 
86 


placed under a bell-jar over mercury and heated by a 
burning glass. If the outer bell-jar contains hydrogen, 
and the retort atmospheric air and water, the hydrogen 
will be found to pass through the pores into the retort, 
and air and water will collect over the mercury under the 
bell-jar. This was the celebrated experiment of Dr. 
Priestley, made in the days of phlogiston, and is essen¬ 
tially the same as that described by Deville. Similar ex¬ 
periments were made by Pfaff in 1816, which are reported 
in Schweigger’s “Journal,” vol. xviii., page 80. But in 
the next paper published by Deville, Feb. 2, 1863, he car¬ 
ries the research further than it was done by any other 
philosopher, and brings it within the domain of dissocia¬ 
tion. 

The previous experiment of hydrogen and carbonic acid 
was repeated with steam. In a furnace fed with very 
compact coal, capable of producing a heat of 1100° to 
1300° C., he placed two tubes; through the interior tube, 
made of porous clay, he forced a gentle current of steam, 
and through the annular space of the outer tube a stream 
of carbonic acid gas. A part of the vapor of water is de¬ 
composed spontaneously or dissociated in the tube of por¬ 
ous clay; the hydrogen is filtered through to the annular 
space (as in the previous experiment with carbonic acid 
and pure hydrogen), and the oxygen remains in the in¬ 
ner tube mixed with a considerable quantity of carbonic 
acid. Deville obtained in this way one centimetre cube 
of gas to one gramme of water. The separation of the 
oxygen is thus accomplished by physical agency. The 
free hydrogen at this high temperature reduces some of 
the carbonic acid to carbonic oxide, producing water. 
There is thus a loss of hydrogen in this experiment, so 
that the oxygen is always in excess of the quantity de¬ 
manded by the formula of water. The carbonic acid also 
brings with it a small quantity of nitrogen of the air. The 
explosive gas obtained had the following composition: 



I. 

II. 

Oxygen. 

. 55.7 

48.6 

Hydrogen. 

. 24.3 

13.1 

Carbonic oxide. 

. 0.0 

25.3 

Nitrogen. 

. 20.0 

13.0 


100.0 

100.0 


It will thus be seen that Deville was able to dissociate the 
oxygen and hydrogen of water, and to obtain these gases 
in a separate condition. His experiment indicates a 
method for the accomplishment of this desirable result in 
an economical manner. By employing the carbonic acid 
resulting from the fire used to generate the steam, we can 
conceive of a simple system of tubes that would enable us 
to dissociate water in a way that would yield hydrogen 
and oxygen for light and heat. 

Deville published an account of another series of experi¬ 
ments Feb. 13, 1865. He conducted these upon a some¬ 
what different plan. He had early observed that although 
compounds were dissociated at high temperatures, yet on 
cooling the elements recombined before they could be col¬ 
lected; it therefore became necessary for him to devise 
some plan to obviate this difficulty. He hit upon the fol¬ 
lowing expedient: Through the centre of the system of 
tubes he arranged a tube for conducting a constant stream 
of cold water. While the outer vessel was raised to the 
highest temperature of the furnace, the inside was cold, 
and thus two surfaces were exposed to the gas—one for 
dissociating it, the other for condensing one of the con¬ 
stituents before it could recombine. In this way he suc¬ 
ceeded in dissociating sulphurous acid at 1200° C. into 
sulphur and anhydrous sulphuric acid; hydrochloric acid 
into hydrogen and chlorine; carbonic oxide into carbon 
and carbonic acid; and carbonic acid into carbonic oxide. 
In discussing these experiments, Deville uses the phrase 
tension of dissociation, just as we have long employed the 
expression “tension of vapors,” and he says this tension 
for hydrochloric acid at 1500° C. is very feeble. 

In a subsequent article, Jan. 14, 1867, Deville gives a 
more full development of his theory of dissociation, and 
furnishes extended tables of the tension of dissociation for 
a large number of substances. He endeavors to show that 
it will be possible to accurately ascertain the exact point 
of dissociation for many bodies now only obscurely under¬ 
stood; and when this point is settled we shall have a new 
method for the decomposition of compound substances. 

A Dutch physicist, Van der Kolk, published a long arti¬ 
cle in 1866, in which he tried to refute the arguments ad¬ 
vanced by Deville in support of his theory, and also criticised 
many points in Deville’s mathematical calculations; but 
as he repeated none of the experiments, and the errors in 
the tables were accidental, and corrected by Deville him¬ 
self before the appearance of the criticism, the value of 
Van der Kolk’s articlo is chiefly confined to tho analysis 
he gives of tho researches of Deville and the meaning to 




















DISSOLUTION—DISTILLATION. 


1362 


be attached to the word dissociation. According to Van 
der Ivolk, the new theory can be summed up as follows: 

“1. From the heat of combustion of two gases and the 
specific heat of the compound the temperature of the flame 
can be calculated. The calculated temperature of the oxy- 
liydrogen flame is 6880° C. Devillc believes, however, 
that the decomposition of water vapor takes place at 2500° 
C., and that the temperature of decomposition of all gases 
is below the calculated temperature of its flame. 

“ 2. The temperature of decomposition changes accord¬ 
ing to pressure, and is in this particular analogous to the 
temperature of condensation of vapors. 

“ 3. The temperature under one atmosphere for water 
vapor being taken v= t, the temperature of condensation 
in this case is equal to 100° C. Deville assumes that at t° 
the vapor of water is partially decomposed into explosive 
gas; it is then in the condition of dissociation or state of 
partial decomposition. 

“4. The degree of dissociation is expressed in numbers 
which, in analogy with the expansion of vapors, is called 
the tension of dissociation. There is a perfect analogy 
between condensation and chenjical union.” 

Several recent writers have had recourse to Deville’s 
theory of dissociation in explanation of the origin of rocks 
and the action of forces in primeval chemistry. Among 
these may be mentioned Fournet and the distinguished 
American geologist, Sterry Hunt. 

Debray, in some researches on dissociation, shows that 
the law holds good with reference to solids formed by the 
direct union of a fixed and volatile body. His experiments 
were made upon Iceland spar heated in mercury vapor 
350° C., sulphur 440° C., cadmium 860° C., zinc 1040° C. 

Lamy has applied these results to the construction of a 
pyrometer for the measurement of high temperatures. The 
instrument consists of a porcelain tube glazed within and 
without, filled with pure carbonate of lime, closed at one end, 
and connected at the other with a manometer. By read¬ 
ing the volume of the gas in the pressure-gauge, and con¬ 
sulting the tables of tension, the temperature is determined. 

A very full discussion of the subject of dissociation by 
Mene may be found in the “ Revue Hebdomadaire de 
Chimie,” vol. iii., 1871. See also the researches of Gra¬ 
ham, Debray, Grove, Regnault, Lamy, Isambert, Frank- 
land, and Clausius. Charles A. Joy. 

Dissolution [from the Lat. dis, “ apart,” and solvo, 
solutum, to “ loosen ”], literally, the act or process of dis¬ 
solving; the separation of any substance into its compo¬ 
nent parts; the liquefaction of a solid body in a men¬ 
struum. The term is also applied to the breaking up of a 
partnership or of a political or legislative assembly. Thus 
we speak of the dissolution of Parliament when the mem¬ 
bers are dispersed without the Parliament being regularly 
adjourned. 

Dissolving Views are the enlarged images of trans¬ 
parent pictures thrown upon a screen by means of two 
magic lanterns placed side by side, with their lens tubes a 
little convergent, so that the projected images may be su¬ 
perposed. By means of mechanical contrivances, which 
differ in different forms of the apparatus, one of the images 
is gradually extinguished while the other is similarly de¬ 
veloped. At the middle point the two are confusedly in¬ 
termingled, and afterwards one seems to swallow up the 
other. (See Magic Lantern.) 

Dis'sonance [from the Lat. dis, negative, and semo, 
to “ sound”] is the opposite of consonance, and is applied 
to those intervals in music whose relative proportions are 
unsatisfactory to the ear. In a special sense, the term is 
applied to a dissonant interval purposely introduced by the 
addition of a dissonant note to a concord, or by the substi¬ 
tution of a dissonant for a concordant note. The founda¬ 
tion of dissonance is generally allowed to be more acsthet- 
ical than intellectual. Dissonance is not a necessity of 
musical composition, and persistent dissonance would be 
a blemish; but its introduction transitionally, in passing 
from concord to concord, is a source of richer and more 
pleasing effects than could be produced by any succession 
of perfect harmonies. (See Discord.) 

D is'taiF [Ang-Sax. distsef], an implement formerly 
used in spinning flax or wool, which was fastened on a 
staff from which the thread was drawn by the fingers. The 
Fates are represented as spinning the thread of life from 
the distaff. The distaff is at present not much used except 
in rude and barbarous countries; but no spinning-wheel, 
much less any machinery driven by water or steam, has 
ever produced work which can compare in delicacy with 
the finest products of the distaff. 

Distance, in music, is the interval between two notes. 
In astronomy, “ real distance” is an interval between two 
heavenly bodies expressed in terrestrial measures, as miles, 
mdtres, etc.; “ mean distance” is a mean between the peri¬ 


helion and the aphelion ; “curtate distance” of a planet is 
the distance from the sun or earth to that point whero a 
perpendicular let fall from the planet meets with the ecliptic. 
“ Line of distance” in perspective is a straight line from 
the eye to the principal point of the plane. The “point 
of distance” is that point in the horizontal line which is 
at the same distance from the principal point as the eye is 
from the same. “Distance” in navigation is the number 
of miles from point to point in a shijFs course. The arc 
of a rhumb line between two places is the “nautical dis¬ 
tance.” “Distance” in horse-racing is the last 250 yards 
of the course. Any horse not reaching the distance-post 
before the winning horse has reached the end of the course 
is said to be distanced. 


Distem'per [Fr. detrempe; It. tempera ], a method of 
painting in which the pigments are ground up with size 
and water, with gum-water, or similar vehicles. It is em¬ 
ployed in scene-painting and in the preparation of wall¬ 
paper. Distemper was the ordinary method of painting in 
the higher departments of art before the invention of paint¬ 
ing in oil. The rapidity with which the vehicle dries ren¬ 
ders it difficult to blend the tints in distemper. 

Distemper, the name of certain diseases of animals. 
(See Dog Distemper and Horse Distemper.) 

Dis'tich [Gr. Sio-nyo?, from Si (for Si'?), “twice” or 
“two,” and o-n'xo?, a “row,” a “verse”], a couplet of 
verses. In the Greek and Latin languages this term is ap¬ 
plied to a poetical sentence consisting of two lines in hex¬ 
ameter and pentameter verse. The distich was much used 
by the Greeks and Romans in the expi’ession of single 
thoughts and sentiments, and in the composition of epi¬ 
grams. 

Distilla'tion [from dis, “apart,” “one by one,” and 
stillo, 8tillatum, to “ drop ”], in chemistry and the arts, 
a process by which substances which are vaporized at dif¬ 
ferent temperatures are separated from each other, or sub¬ 
stances which can be vaporized are separated from those 
which cannot. When the vaporized substance assumes a 
solid form after distillation, the process is called “ sublima¬ 
tion.” Distillation is usually performed by means of a 
boiler for raising the vapor, and a condenser for reducing 
the vapor to a liquid or solid form. The condenser is often 
a spiral tube or “ worm,” which is kept cool by water wnile 
in use. Various instruments for distilling are used in the 
laboratory of the chemist. “ Dry ” or “ destructive ” dis¬ 
tillation is the production of new compounds by submitting 
substances of organic origin to a high but carefully regu¬ 
lated heat. These products are often complex, but some¬ 
times perfectly definite. “Fractional” distillation is the 
separation of one volatile substance from another, by keep¬ 
ing the mixture at that temperature at which the most 
volatile will pass over into the condenser. 

To produce spirits two distinct operations are required : 
one to convert vegetable principles into alcohol; the other 
the separating of the alcohol from the several substances 
with which it is united while being produced. Sugar is the 



Distillation Process. 


principle which is necessary to the formation of alcohol, 
and is used directly when molasses and similar saccharine 
products are submitted to quick fermentation; and indi¬ 
rectly when sugar is produced from the starch which certain 
grains contain, and afterwards converted into alcohol. Tho 
latter method is commonly employed in distilleries, and 
grains of various kinds, generally with some malt, are 
mashed. To accomplish this, a mixture is made of tho 
ground grain and crushed malt, and infusion made in hot 








































































DISTILLED WATER—DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 1363 


water, constantly shaken, in the mash-tun, after which the I 
wort is run off and water added until the soluble matter of 
the grain is extracted. While in process of mashing, sugar 
is formed from the starch, and changes into alcohol while 
fermenting; the mash gradually becomes thinner in conse¬ 
quence, and as soon as the proper state is reached, which 
the hydrometer determines, in order to prevent acetic fer¬ 
mentation it should be distilled. 

Much skill and care in mashing, fermentation, and dis¬ 
tilling is necessary to the successful production of the 
greatest possible amount of alcohol from a given quantity 
of grain, fruit, or other raw material. According to Herm- 
stadt, about, 51 pounds of alcohol and 49 of carbonic acid 
may be obtained from 100 pounds of sugar: 100 pounds of 
starch yield 35 pounds of alcohol, and the same quantity of 
the following grains yields a spirit containing 45 per cent, 
of alcohol—namely, wheat, 40 to 45 pounds; rye, 36 to 42; 
barley, 40; oats, 30 ; buck wheat, 40 ; maize, 40. 

Revised by Charles W. Greene. 

Distilled Water (aqua destillata ) is the condensed 
product obtained by the distillation of water, which sepa¬ 
rates from it all saline matter and impurities, and also most 
of the air which it had previously contained. On this ac¬ 
count it is flat and vapid to the taste. It is much used in 
chemical and pharmaceutical operations. In some points 
on the Gulf Coast of the U. S.. as at Brazos Santiago, 
Tex., where streams are unknown and springs scarcely ex¬ 
ist, water is procured for drinking and other economical 
purposes by distillation from the sea. On some sea-going 
steamers the product of the condensers of the low-pres¬ 
sure engines is utilized for cooking, washing, etc., and is 
used for drinking to some extent. 

Distillery, an establishment fitted up with the neces¬ 
sary apparatus for the distillation of spirits. (See Distil¬ 
lation.) 

Distress', or Distrain', in English law, is the taking 
of a personal chattel without process of law out of the pos¬ 
session of a wrong-doer, by way of pledge for redress of an 
injury or for the performance of a duty, as for non-pay¬ 
ment of rent or taxes, etc. 

Distribution of Species. See Geographical Dis¬ 
tribution of Species. 

Dis'trict, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 724. 

Dis'trict [from the Lat. distringo, districtum, to 
“ bind ;” also to “ divide ”], a territorial division ; a defined 
portion of a state or city, which is divided into districts for 
judicial, fiscal, or elective purposes. In the U. S. each 
State is divided into Congressional districts, which are 
nearly equal in population, and elect each one member of 
Congress. Every State is also divided into senatorial dis¬ 
tricts, each of which sends a member to the senate of that 
State. Townships in many parts of the U. S. are divided 
into school districts, each of which maintains and man¬ 
ages one or more public schools. There are also military 
and other districts. 

District Attorneys of the United States. The 

name of these officers does not indicate their duties or the 
extent of their official jurisdiction. Formerly, in England, 
and now in some of the American States, a district of country 
embracing several counties was assigned to a judge, in which 
he held criminal courts called Oyer and Terminer—to “ hear 
and determine.” An attorney to represent the Crown or 
State was necessary to enter upon trials. As he was selected 
to proceed through the whole district, he received the appel¬ 
lation of “ district attorney.” In the Federal courts, and 
in many of the States, the duties of this officer have become 
local, confined to a particular county or place of holding a 
single court. But the name of the officer continues the 
same as formerly, when there was reason for its application 
to him. District attorneys represent the U. S. in all their 
business in the circuit and district courts, both civil and 
criminal. In civil suits they stand in the same relation to 
the government that other attorneys do to their clients. 
The/ also represent the U. S. in the prosecution of all 
crimes and misdemeanors. This office is one largely sought 
for by lawyers. The position is considered highly respect¬ 
able, and is often exceedingly profitable. The district 
attorneys receive a nominal salary of two hundred dollars, 
and the residue of their compensation is mainly derived 
from fees prescribed by an act of Congress. When they 
defend officers and others at the instance of the govern¬ 
ment, their remuneration is not regulated by law, but de¬ 
pends upon agreement. The district attorneys are required 
by law to report to the attorney-general an account of their 
official proceedings, and the state and condition of their 
offices, at such time and in such manner as he may direct. 
(See “ Federal Government,” by R. II. Gillet.) 

District Courts of the United States. See 

Courts, by George Chase, LL.B. 


District of Columbia, a tract of territory lying on 
the Potomac River, about 300 miles from the ocean by that 
river and the Chesapeake Bay, between the parallels of 
38° 51' and 39° N. lat., and the meridians of 76° 58' and 
77° 06' of W. Ion. from Greenwich. The exact latitude 
and longitude of the “Observatory,” which is our national 
prime meridian, is lat. 38° 53' 39'' 25”' N., and Ion. 77° 
2' 48” W. from Greenwich. It is bounded N., N. W., E., 
and S. E. by Maryland, and W. and S. W. by the Potomac 
River. Its present area is 64 square miles. Originally its 
area was 100 miles, consisting of a square tract lying on 
both sides of the Potomac, and measuring ten miles on 
each side. The portion E. of the Potomac, containing 64 
square miles, was ceded to the general government by the 
State of Maryland, and that W. of the river, containing 

36 square miles, by the State of Virginia in 1788-89, 
was accepted in 1790, and since 1800 has been used as 
the seat of government of the U. S. In 1846 a desire 
having been expressed, both by the inhabitants of the 
portion of the District W. of the Potomac and the State 
of Virginia, that that portion (which included the city of 
Alexandria) should be retroceded to Virginia, a resolution 
was passed in Congress July 9, 1846, consenting to the 
retrocession, upon condition of the approval of the citizens 
residing in that part of the District. On the 1st and 2d of 
September of the same year a vote was taken, and the retro¬ 
cession was desired by a vote of 763 in its favor, and 222 
against it. The President issued his proclamation ratifying 
the transfer Sept. 7, 1846. The present District therefore 
includes only the territory originally ceded by Maryland. 
This territory is about 10 miles long from N. W. to S. E., 
and forms the county of Washington, containing the two 
cities of Washington and Georgetown, and a tract of about 

37 or 38 square miles outside of the cities. The surface is 
rolling and diversified, some of the hills being 200 or 300 
feet in height. The sites of Columbian University and the 
University of Georgetown are both considerably elevated, 
and the Capitol and the President’s Mansion are on high 
land overlooking the other portions of the city of Wash¬ 
ington. The soil is a light, rather sandy, but tolerably fer¬ 
tile loam, easily tilled. The District is well watered. The 
Potomac, which washes its western and south-western 
borders, is navigable for the largest class of vessels as far 
as Grcenleaf’s Point, the southern extremity of the city of 
Washington, and for smaller vessels to Georgetown. Tide¬ 
water ceases at Little Falls, 3 miles above Georgetown. 
The Eastern Branch of the Potomac, called also Anacostia 
Creek or River, is a large and navigable stream for vessels 
of large draught as far as the navy-yard, and for coasting- 
vessels nearly to Bladensburg, and forms the S. E. boundary 
of the city of Washington. It has the U. S. navy-yard on 
its banks. There are nine or ten small creeks falling into 
the Potomac within the limits of the District, one of them, 
Rock Creek, though not navigable, being a considerable 
stream. The whole of the present territory of the District 
belongs, so far as superficial rocks are concerned, to that 
extensive cretaceous formation which extends in a belt from 
five to fifteen miles in width from Staten Island to Fort 
Washington opposite Alexandria, Va. Through West New 
Jersey, Northern Delaware, and Central Maryland, as well as 
in the District, it is characterized by large deposits of marl, 
and forms the basis of a soil which furnishes the means of 
its own renewal. It is underlaid by gneiss, the trend of 
which is nearly E. and W., and which comes to the surface, 
across the Potomac, iD that part of Virginia which origin¬ 
ally appertained to it. A considerable portion of the Dis¬ 
trict is covered, above the cretaceous rocks, by drift, con¬ 
sisting of sandstone, limestone, jasper rocks, quartz in 
boulders, pebbles, gravel, sand, clay, and loam. The mix¬ 
ture of clay and loam abounds in a peculiar state of aggre¬ 
gation, as if it had been at first separate, and then con¬ 
glomerated in masses of considerable size. Some of this 
conglomerate, having, however, a large mixture of pebbles 
and jasper rock, has been taken from the bed of the Potomac 
and cut and polished for use in pillars for the interior of 
the Capitol, for which purpose it is regarded as superior to 
breccia. The simpler forms of the conglomerate are well 
adapted to brickmaking. The minerals are those usually 
occurring in cretaceous deposits, and possess little special 
interest. Gold has been discovered in small quantities at 
the Great Falls of the Potomac. 

Zoology .—In so limited and, for the most part, densely 
populated a tract as the District of Columbia it is not to 
be expected that there should be any great number of wild 
animals. The fauna of the district is. generally identical 
with that of Maryland and Eastern Virginia. There are 
a few deer, and foxes of two species, the red and gray; rab¬ 
bits, field-mice, muskrats, and squirrels are abundant. The 
otter, though now rare, is occasionally met with along the 
Potomac. The skunk, secure in his powers of offence and 
defence, is sufficiently plentiful, while the raccoon and opos- 
















1364 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 


sum, the mink, a species of weasel said to be identical with 
the English stoat or ermine, though not assuming the white 
coat, five species of squirrel, the wood-chuck, four species 
of wild rat, three of shrew-mice, the jumping mouse, two 
species of long-tailed wild mice, six species of bats, the 
common and star-nosed mole, make up the quadrupeds of 
the District. Of birds there have been 236 species collected 
within the Distinct. There are included in these the numer¬ 
ous swimmers and waders which frequent Chesapeake Bay 
and the adjacent rivers, as well as the great variety of 
song-birds which abounds throughout the Middle States. 
Of the reptiles, 52 species have been collected, though 
some of them are very rare. Among these there are nine 
species of turtles and terrapin, three species of true lizards, 
twenty-one species of serpents, of which only the copper¬ 
head (Ancistrodon contortrix) is venomous, nine species of 
frogs and toads, and ten species of salamanders or water- 
lizards. The following fish are brought into market from 
the Potomac within the bounds of the District: Shad and 
herring (the Potomac herring is regarded as greatly supe¬ 
rior to all others, and is taken in immense quantities), cat¬ 
fish, chub, eel, gar-fish, white and yellow perch, pike, rock- 
fish, sturgeon (of enormous size), sun-fish, suckers, and 
black and other bass. 

Vegetation. —There are fifteen species of oak, of which 
the scrub or bear oak, the laurel oak, and Bartram’s oak 
are the most common. The other forest trees are the 
chestnut, two or three species of hickory, black walnut, 
butternut, yellow pine, and, less abundant, the American 
elm, linden, and rarely the tulip tree and red maple. On 
the old fields the dwarf pine, Virginia cedar, and sassafras 
grow where other vegetation fails. Most of the forest 
trees are of the second or third growth. 

Climate. —The temperature of the District has a wide 
annual range—from 105° F. (in the shade) to —12° F. But 
these are extremes rarely reached. The mean temperature 
of January, the coldest month, is about 32°, and of July, 
the warmest, about 77°. The mean temperature of the 
year is about 56°. The worst feature of the climate is one 
common to a large section of the Middle States—the sud¬ 
den falling of the temperature to the extent of thirty de¬ 
grees or more in the course of a few hours. These sudden 
changes come oftenest in winter, and are usually accom¬ 
panied with a N. W. wind. The low grounds in the river- 
bottom are decidedly miasmatic, and bilious and remittent 
fevers and bilious pneumonia are very prevalent at that 
season. Of Lxte years the winters have been much more 
moderate than they were in the early history of the Dis¬ 
trict. The river is usually closed by ice in the early part 
of January, but of late years there has been no crossing of 
heavy teams on the ice, as was the case forty to sixty years 
ago. The prevailing wind in winter is from the W. or 
N. W., and in summer from the S. The average annual 
fall of rain is forty inches, the larger portion falling in the 
summer months. The range of the barometer is nearly or 
quite two inches. Storms seldom last so long as twenty- 
four hours, and foul weather usually commences about 
4 A. m. or 3 p. m. 

Agricultural Products. —The area of the District com¬ 
prises 40,'960 acres, but of this a considerable portion is 
water, and the cities of Washington and Georgetown oc¬ 
cupy nearly 8000 acres. There were in 1870 only 11,677 
acres reported as farms in the District (the market-gardens 
do not seem to have been reported); of these, 3411 were 
either woodland or other unimproved lands. The whole 
number of farms was 209, ranging from 3 acres to 100 or 
more. The value of the farms was stated at $3,800,230, 
an average of about $325 to the acre. The value of farm¬ 
ing implements, etc. was $39,450; wages paid, $124,338; 
value of farming products for the year, $319,517; produce 
of market-gardens, $112,034; of orchard products, $6781. 
The staple products were—40 bushels of peas and beans ; 
27,367 bushels of Irish potatoes ( Solatium tuberosum) and 
5790 bushels of sweet potatoes ( Batatus edulis)-, 900 gal¬ 
lons of wine; 4495 pounds of butter; 126,077 gallons of 
milk sold; 2019 tons of hay. 

Manufactures. —According to the census of 1870 there 
were in the District 952 manufacturing establishments, the 
motive-power of which was 54 steam-engines of 789 horse¬ 
power and 15 water-wheels of 1100 horse-power. These 
establishments employed 4685 hands—viz. 4333 men, 216 
women, and 136 children. The capital invested was esti¬ 
mated at $5,021,925 ; the wages annually paid at $2,007,600 ; 
the raw material used at $4,754,883; the annual product 
at $9,292,173. The manufacture of largest aggregate 
amount was of flour and grist-mill products (the llouring- 
mills of Georgetown having a national reputation); there 
are nine of these mills, and their annual product is reported 
at $1,543,576. Next to this is carpentering and building, 
in which 68 establishments, employing 506 men, report an 
annual product of $1,195,728; printing and publishing 


produced $688,605 ; bread, crackers, etc., $550,943 ; the man¬ 
ufacture of gas (two establishments), $550,760 ; men’s 
clothing, $442,020 ; boots and shoes, $291,136; tin, copper, 
and sheet-iron ware (44 establishments), $246,157; plumb¬ 
ing and gas-fitting, $177,155 ; painting and paper-hanging, 
$245,305; brick, $257,800; lumber, $207,000 ; liquors, 
$168,950; marble and stone-work, including monuments, 
$241,050 ; carriages and wagons, $248,897 ; leather, tanning 
and dressing, $146,475; iron and iron castings, $146,695; 
blacksmithing, $151,258; masonry, brick and stone, 
$128,730; confectionery, $112,664; butchering and meat 
products, $124,372; sash, doors, and blinds, $109,000. 

Railroads. —The territory of the District is so small that 
there is little room for railroad extension. It has, how¬ 
ever, two lines of railway connecting it with Baltimore; a 
metropolitan branch railway, extending to Bockville; a 
line extending across the Potomac, and there connecting 
with the AVashington and Ohio, the Orange and Alexan¬ 
dria, and other Southern R. Rs.; and several street rail¬ 
ways. The entire length of railway track in the District 
is probably not far from 42 miles, of which all except the 
metropolitan and street railways is controlled by companies 
outside of the District. 

Finances .—The valuation of real estate (except that of 
the U. S.) in the District for the year 1873 is $95,500,000. 
The real estate belonging to the government in the District 
is estimated at $104,500,000. There is no valuation of per¬ 
sonal property by the District authorities. The “true” 
valuation reported by the U. S. marshal in 1870, of real 
and personal estate, was $126,873,618. The bonded debt 
of the District Nov. 1, 1873, was $9,902,251.18. How 
much floating debt there was aside from this at that date 
does not appear. The income from taxes (2 per cent.) for 
the year ending June 30,1874, was estimated at $1,910,000 ; 
from other sources, $300,000; total, $2,210,000; the esti¬ 
mated expenditure, $2,224,907.46. To meet this excess 
there were arrears of taxes from previous years amounting 
in all to several hundred thousand dollars. Large sums 
had been expended by the board of city works in grading, 
paving, sewering, and improving the broad streets of the 
city of Washington, as well as in building drives and 
boulevards into the adjacent country, and the debt created 
for these purposes was large for the amount of property 
subject to taxation. The U. S. government has, however, 
made very liberal grants in aid of the District, as indeed 
it was in duty bound to do, from the lai-ge amount of gov¬ 
ernment pi'operty in the District. The internal revenue 
receipts from the District for the year ending June 30, 
1873, were $133,424.58. 

Commerce .—Georgetown has a considerable coasting- 
trade, which has been steadily maintained for nearly 
eighty years. The city is a port of entry, and includes in 
its territory the whole District of Columbia. The imports 
at the port for the year ending June 30, 1873, were $18,867, 
and the exports $10,688. The amount of coastwise tonnage 
entered at the port in the year ending June 30, 1871, was 
280 vessels (184 steam and 27 sailing). Their aggregate 
tonnage was 104,858 tons, and the crews numbered 3662 
men and boys. The clearances for the same year were 158 
(84 steam and 74 sailing) vessels, having an aggregate ton¬ 
nage of 66,359 tons, and crews numbering 2219 men and 
boys. The monthly returns for 1873 indicate about the 
same number of vessels, etc. 

Ranks .—There were in 1871 six national banks in the 
District, but of that number two have since failed, and one 
has gone into liquidation. The capital of the remaining 
national banks is $650,000. There are two other banks of 
discount and deposit—the Farmers’ and Mechanics’ Bank 
of Georgetown, capital $300,000, and the Washington 
Bank, with $279,000 capital. There are also two savings 
banks—the AVashington City Savings Bank and the Freed- 
men’s Savings and Trust Company. There are also six or 
eight large private banking-houses. 

Insurance .—There were July 1,1873, seven fire insurance 
companies in the District, having an aggregate capital of 
$900,000, and assets reported at $2,265,000. There was one 
life insurance company—the National Life Insurance Com¬ 
pany of the United States, capital $1,000,000, reported 
assets $2,563,912. 

Population. —The population of the District in 1800 was 
14,093; in 1810, 15,471; in 1820, 23,841; in 1830, 30,261; 
in 1840, 33,745; in 1850, 51,687 ; in 1860, 75,080; in 1867, 
the census of the educational department, 126,990 ; in 1870, 
131,700; estimated population in Nov., 1873, 169,000. Of 
the population in 1870,115,446 were natives of the country, 
16,254 foreign born, 34,106 had one or both parents for¬ 
eigners, 29,183 had both parents foreigners. Of the native 
population 72,107 were whites and 43,325 colored; of the 
entire population, 62,192 wero males, 69,508 females; of 
the native population, 54,159 were males and 61,287 fe¬ 
males ; of the white population, 42,980 were males and 














DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 


1365 


45,298 females; of the colored population, 19,197 were 
males and 24,207 females. There were 3 Chinese and 15 
Indians among the inhabitants. Of the total male popu¬ 
lation, 26,824 were of military age— i. e. between eighteen 
and forty-five years; 33,329 were twenty-one years and 
upwards, of whom 31,622 were citizens. Of the entire 
population, 16,954 males and 18,615 females were of school 
age, or between five and eighteen years. The District in 
1870 had 78 blind persons (43 males and 35 females), 134 
deaf-mutes (92 males and 42 females), 479 insane persons 
(341 males and 138 females), and 50 idiotic persons (38 
males and 12 females). It should be remarked in relation 
to the deaf-mutes and the insane, that there is a national 
institute and college for the former, and a national asylum 
for the latter, and to both large numbers are admitted who 
do not belong in the District. The area of the District is 
so small, and so much of it is covered by cities, that the 
density of the population is eleven times greater than that 
of any of the States or Territories. In the census of 1870 
it is stated at 2057.81 per square mile. 

Education .—Of the 35,569 children of school age in the 
District in 1870, only 19,941 were reported as attending 
school. Of these, 5122 were colored and 14,819 whites; 
22,845 persons of ten years old and over could not read, 
and 28,719 could not write. The report of the commis¬ 
sioner of education for 1872 gives the following statistics 
of education for the year ending Aug. 31, 1872: school 
population (by the laws of the District between six and 
seventeen years), 31,671; pupils enrolled in 1872, 15,555; 
pupils in private schools, 5882; making in all 21,437 under 
instruction; 14,063 seats provided in the public schools; 
263 teachers; amount of school-tax and other income for 
public schools in 1872, $355,640.07; total payments for 
public school purposes in 1872, $479,995.94; value of public 
school property, $951,700. The colored public schools of 
Washington and Georgetown are remarkably well con¬ 
ducted. There are nine school-houses, several of them 
very elegant and commodious buildings; 4661 children are 
enrolled, full one half of the school population; the average 
attendance is 3261; there are 4259 sittings in the school- 
houses, and in all 75 schools for the colored children; 84 
teachers, all females, and the average salaries of the teach¬ 
ers $756 per year. The number of private schools in Wash¬ 
ington and Georgetown in 1872 was 122, with an attendance 
of 6217. The colleges, etc. are—the Georgetown College 
or University, situated on the heights of Georgetown, 
founded in 1789, under the control of the Jesuits, having 
classical, law, and medical departments. The classical de¬ 
partment has 21 professors and 179 students; the medical 
department has 10 instructors and 62 students ; and the law 
department, 4 professors and 46 students. The library 
contains 22,000 volumes. It is liberally endowed. Co¬ 
lumbian University, formerly Columbian College, on the 
heights overlooking Washington, established in 1814 and 
opened for students in 1822, has three departments, aca¬ 
demic, medical, and law, and through the liberality of W. W. 
Corcoran, Esq., and other friends of the university, is now 
organizing scientific and art departments, for which the 
capital affords extraordinary advantages. It has 8 profes¬ 
sors and 120 students in the academic department, 3 pro¬ 
fessors and 150 students in the law school, and 8 or 10 
professors and 53 students in the medical school. Its 
library contains about 8000 volumes, and the students have 
access to the Library of Congress, the largest in the U. S., 
as well as to other local libraries. Howard University, in¬ 
corporated in 1867, and intended to have preparatory, 
normal, academic, theological, medical, law, and agricul¬ 
tural departments, was founded mainly for colored men, 
though there is no restriction of race or sex in its act of 
incorporation. It has now in operation a normal school with 
180 students, a preparatory with 60, and another with 30 
pupils; a collegiate department with 32 students, a law de¬ 
partment with 71, a commercial with 30, a medical with 37, 
and a theological with 26 students. There are 22 professors. 
The university is insufficiently endowed. It has a library of 
about 7000 volumes. The National Deaf-Mute College, in 
connection with the Columbia Institution for the Deaf and 
Dumb, is the only college for deaf-mutes in the world. It 
has 8 professors and 66 students. The course does not differ 
materially from that in other colleges. Gonzaga College is 
an institution in Washington under the direction of the 
Jesuit Fathers, and, though possessing a college charter, is 
rather a collegiate school than a college. It has 7 instruc¬ 
tors and about 150 students. Wayland Seminary, a col¬ 
legiate, theological, and normal institute for the training of 
freedmen as teachers and preachers, is under the control of 
the Baptists, and has 3 instructors and 85 students. There 
are besides these a business college with 160 students, the 
Jaw college of the (projected) National University, with 3 
professors and about 70 students, and a National College of 
Pharmacy, recently organized. There are also tho Smith¬ 


sonian Institution, with its magnificent collections from 
the government expeditions; the museums of the several 
departments, agricultural, naval, medical and surgical, etc.; 
the Library of Congress and numerous other public libra¬ 
ries; the Naval Observatory, etc. etc. There are in the 
District 5 hospitals (including one for the insane), 8 homes 
and asylums for different classes, 5 orphan asylums, and 4 
industrial and reform schools. There were in 1870, 127 
public libraries in the District, having an aggregate of 
409,936 bound volumes, and 569 private libraries, with an 
aggregate of 383,766 volumes. The Library of Congress 
alone had 266,000 volumes in 1873, besides 45,000 pamph¬ 
lets. The District in 1870 had 22 newspapers, with an an¬ 
nual issue of 10,092,800, and a circulation of 81,400 copies. 
Of these, 3, with a circulation of 24,000, were dailies; 1 
tri-weekly, with 2000 circulation ; 12 weekly, with 41,900 
circulation; 6 monthly, with 13,500 circulation; 1 quar¬ 
terly, with 3000. 

Churches .—In 1873 there were 84 churches in Washing¬ 
ton, and about 120 in the District. Of these, 21 were 
Baptist, with 18 ordained ministers and 7410 members, 22 
Sunday schools, 387 teachers, and 2954 scholars; 1 Chris¬ 
tian, with 400 sittings and $5000 church property; 2 Con¬ 
gregational, with 1800 sittings and $115,000 church prop¬ 
erty (in 1873 there was but 1 Congregational church, with 
1000 sittings, an average congregation of 800, church prop¬ 
erty valued at $125,000; the membership was 338; there 
were 16 ordained ministers, besides the pastor (one since 
dead), and 2 licentiates; 1187 children in Sunday schools, 
and annual contributions $9873). In 1870 there were 16 
Episcopal parishes, with 16 church edifices, having 6680 
sittings, and church property valued at $563,500 (in 1873 
there were 16 parishes, 24 clergymen, and an assistant 
bishop, residing at Bladensburg). The district is in the 
Protestant Episcopal diocese of Maryland, and its statis¬ 
tics cannot be separated from those of the diocese. The 
Evangelical Association is reported in 1870 as having 1 
congregation, 1 church edifice, 800 sittings, and $20,000 
worth of church property. The Friends had in 1870 and 
in 1873, 1 Orthodox and 1 Hicksite meeting, 2 meeting¬ 
houses, about 250 sittings, and not far from $30,000 worth 
of meeting-house property. There were 2 Jewish syna¬ 
gogues in 1873, 1 claiming to be Orthodox, with about 800 
sittings and $30,000 of synagogue property. There were 
10 Lutheran congregations in 1870, with 10 church edifices 
(7 of them in Washington), 3700 sittings, and $223,000 
worth of church property. In 1870 there were reported 33 
Methodist churches, 36 church edifices, 20,860 sittings, and 
the value of the church property $815,600. This included 
at that time the Methodist EjAscopal Church, the Meth¬ 
odist Episcopal Church South, and the Protestant Meth¬ 
odists (in 1873 there were 21 of these churches in Wash¬ 
ington and Georgetown). The number has somewhat 
increased in the District, but owing to the Methodist 
Episcopal division of their churches into several dis¬ 
tricts, and to the different denominations which claim 
the name, it is impossible to say just how much. There is 
1 New Jerusalem (Swedenborgian) society and 1 church 
edifice, with 480 sittings and $15,000 property. In 1870 
there were 13 Presbyterian churches and 15 church edifices, 
with 9250 sittings and $405,500 of church property. The 
number has since increased, and there are now 11 Presby¬ 
terian churches in Washington alone, and certainly 7 or 8 
in the remainder of the District. There was 1 German 
Reformed church in 1873, with 1 church edifice, 300 sit¬ 
tings, and about $10,000 of church property. In 1870 
there were 11 Roman Catholic congregations and the same 
number of church edifices, with 9250 sittings, with $886,000 
worth of church property (in 1873 there were 14 congrega¬ 
tions and the same number of churches and chapels, 22 
clergymen, besides a number of professors in Georgetown 
and Gonzaga Colleges). The church property has also in¬ 
creased in value. There is also a Second Advent church, 
of which there are no published statistics, and 1 Unitarian 
society, with 1 church edifice, having 400 sittings and 
$30,000 worth of church property; one Universalist so¬ 
ciety, with 1 church edifice (hired); and one Christadel- 
phian synagogue, particulars unknown. 

Constitution , Courts, etc .—The District, as such, was an 
unorganized territory under the sole government of Con¬ 
gress from its first purchase by the U. S. government to 
Feb., 1871. It had indeed a county organization, and tho 
cities of Washington and Georgetown had charters for 
their local government; but there was no territorial gov¬ 
ernment; the citizens had no vote, either in District or 
national affairs, and were not represented in Congress by 
a delegate, as even the newest and least populous Terri¬ 
tories were. Of all the inhabitants of the U. $., tho in¬ 
habitants of the Federal District, as it was called, alone 
had no national citizenship. A committee of Congress at 
each session recommended such legislation and appropria- 










1366 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 


tions us were deemed needful for them, but this committee 
were not, of course, citizens of the District, nor specially 
interested in its growth and prosperity. As the District 
increased in population, and came to have more inhabit¬ 
ants than most of the Territories, this condition of affairs 
naturally induced great discontent, and in the first session 
of the Forty-second Congress an act was passed organizing 
a Territorial government for the District of Columbia. This 
act was approved Feb. 21, 1871. Of course, a Territorial 
government was the only one possible for it, as it was se¬ 
lected as the site of the capital of the U. S. on the distinctly 
avowed principle that all interference with the national 
government by the influence of any State should be avoided. 
This organic act directed that the government thus created 
should be known by the name of “ The District of Colum¬ 
bia;” that it should be constituted a body corporate with 
the usual privileges, have a seal, and exercise all other 
powers of a municipal corporation not inconsistent with 
the Constitution and laws of the U. S. and the provisions 
of the organic act. The act jn-ovided that the executive 
power and authority in and over the District should be 
vested in a governor, appointed by the President of the 
U. S. with the advice and consent of the Senate, to serve 
for four years and until his successor was appointed and 
qualified. The governor must be a citizen of the District, 
and have resided there for twelve months prior to his ap¬ 
pointment. The governor was to have power to grant 
pardons and respites, commission officers, take care that 
the laws were faithfully executed, and possess a veto power 
on all bills passed by the District legislature, which could 
only be overcome by a two-third vote of both houses, taken 
by yeas and nays. The secretary of the District was also 
to bo appointed by the President, to serve for four years, 
and to act as governor in case of death, resignation, dis¬ 
ability, or absence of the governor. The legislature was 
to consist of a council and a house of delegates; the coun¬ 
cil to consist of eleven members, of whom two should be 
residents of Georgetown, two of the county outside of 
Washington and Georgetown, and seven from the city of 
Washington, all to be appointed by the President by and 
with the advice and consent of the Senate. They were to 
hold office for two years, but so classified that five were 
appointed one year and six the next. The District was 
apportioned into eleven districts for the appointment of the 
council. The house of delegates was to consist of twenty- 
two members, elected by the people by districts, each dele¬ 
gate to be an inhabitant of the district from which he was 
elected. Twenty-two districts were apportioned for this 
purpose. The delegates hold office for one year. The ses¬ 
sions of the legislature were annual, and were limited to 
sixty days, except the first, which might be one hundred 
days. The portions of the county outside of the cities 
might be laid out in townships not exceeding three in 
number, and township officers, to be elected by the people, 
be prescribed. Suffrage was declared to be universal to 
all male citizens of the U. S. of twenty-one years or over, 
except those who were non compos mentis, or convicted of 
infamous crimes. Defaulters, bribe-takers, perjurers, or 
persons convicted of infamous crimes were not to be eligible 
to the legislature nor to any office of profit or trust. Mem¬ 
bers of the legislature were required to take a very strin- 
ent oath both as to allegiance and to their not taking any 
ribes or presents to influence their action. The powers of 
the legislature were restricted in certain directions in ac¬ 
cordance with the Constitution of the U. S. and the pecu¬ 
liar situation and circumstances of the District. A system 
of free schools was ordered to be established. 

The courts of the District remain as established by Con¬ 
gress before the Territorial organization. They are—a 
supreme court of the District of Columbia, consisting of a 
chief-justice and four associate justices, having general 
jurisdiction in law and equity, and possessing also the 
powers formerly exercised by the judges of the orphans’ 
courts ; and a police court, presided over by a single judge. 
The justices of the peace are deprived of police jurisdiction, 
but have authority in all civil causes where less than $100 
is involved, and to bind over persons arrested for crime to 
the supreme court. A board of health and a board of pub¬ 
lic works were to be constituted, the members of both to be 
appointed by the President of the U. S. and confirmed by 
the Senate. Of the latter board the governor was to be ex 
officio a member. The salary of the governor to be $3000 
per annum; of the secretary of the District, $2000; of the 
members of the legislative assembly $4 a day, and of the 
presiding officer of each house $8 a day ; the other officers 
of each house to receive the same pay as members. A dele¬ 
gate in Congress was to be elected by the people in the 
same way as in the Territories, and for the same time. The 
members of the board of public works receive a salary of 
$2500 each, and of the board of health a salary of $2000 
each, paid by Congress, except that the governor receives 


no additional salary as a member of the board of public 
works, and that any army officer who may be a member ot 
said board cannot receive any increase of pay for his ser¬ 
vices. 

Counties and Principal Towns .—Since the retrocession of 
Alexandria county and the trans-Potomac portion of the 
District to Virginia in 1846, there has been but one county 
in the District, that of Washington. Its population in 1850 
was 51,687 ; in 1860, 75,080; in 1870, 131,700. The only 
towns or cities in the county of considerable size are V' ash- 
ington and Georgetown. The population of Washington in 
1870 was 109,199; of Georgetown, 11,384; and that of the 
remainder of the District, 11,117. 

History .—That portion of the District comprised in the 
present site of the city of Washington was originally a 
favorite camping-ground and place of council for the In¬ 
dian tribes inhabiting the shores of the Potomac (or “ River 
of Swans,” as they called it) and its vicinity. Here were 
held also their war-dances when they were preparing for a 
hostile expedition against any of the adjacent tribes. Not 
far from 1660 an English gentleman by the name of Pope, 
who was somewhat eccentric, purchased a considerable tract 
of land here, gave to a creek which flowed through his 
lands the name of Tiber, which it still bears; to the adja¬ 
cent hill, on which now stands the Capitol, that of Capito- 
line Hill, and to the whole tract the name of Rome; and 
amused himself by drawing a plot of a city to be built on 
his lands, to which he affixed the names of the streets and 
public places of ancient Rome. He gravely signed his let¬ 
ters and documents “ Pope of Rome.” In 1718, George 
Boone, an English gentleman, grandfather of the celebrated 
pioneer, Daniel Boone, purchased several tracts of land in 
Berks co., Pa., Maryland, and Virginia, and among them 
that part of what was afterwards the District of Columbia 
which Georgetown and its vicinity now occupies. Here he 
laid out a town, which he named after himself, Georgetown, 
and which had in the next eighty years attained a consid¬ 
erable growth. The first idea of selecting a portion of ter¬ 
ritory for the seat of government seems to have been sug¬ 
gested by an insult offered to Congress in 1783, while in 
session in Philadelphia, by a mob of mutineers which the 
city authorities could not break up, and which compelled 
Congress to adjourn to Princeton, N. J. Elbridge Gerry, 
afterwards Vice-President, offered a resolution that a dis¬ 
trict should be selected on the banks of the Delaware, and 
also at the Falls of the Potomac, near Georgetown, for the 
seat of government. This resolution was adopted, but 
afterwards repealed. It contemplated two capitals, which 
was thought objectionable. An attempt was subsequently 
made to fix upon a site at the Falls of the Delaware near 
Lamberton, N. J., and commissioners were appointed for 
the purpose, but failed, and the matter rested till Sept., 
1787, when a provision was inserted in the Constitution of 
the U. S., drawn by the Federal Convention, authorizing 
the legislature of the U. S. “ to provide for the establish¬ 
ment of a seat of government not exceeding — miles square, 
in which they shall have exclusive jurisdiction.” This was 
ratified by the requisite number of States, and at the first 
session of Congress under the new Constitution, in 1789, the 
subject was earnestly debated, offers of cession of territory 
not exceeding ten miles square being made by Pennsyl¬ 
vania, Virginia, and Maryland. The “actfor establishing 
the temporary and permanent seat of the government of the 
U. S.,” was finally approved July 16, 1790, and provided that 
the seat of government should be and remain in Philadel¬ 
phia from Dec., 1790, to Dec., 1800, when it should be re¬ 
moved to “ a district of territory not exceeding ten miles 
square located on the river Potomac between the mouths of 
the Eastern Branch and Conogocheague,” and three com¬ 
missioners were appointed to perfect the purchase and 
transfer of the territory and the cession of jurisdiction, and 
to “provide suitable buildings for the accommodation of 
Congi’ess and the President, and for the public offices of the 
government of the U. S.” President Washington, after a 
careful examination of the region, issued his proclamation 
Jan. 24, 1791, directing the commissioners to locate a part 
of the district within certain described lines, and submitted 
to Congress certain questions in regard to the location of 
the remainder. By another proclamation, Mar. 30, 1791, 
President Washington declared the entire district located. 
The commissioners appointed by him subsequently (July 
22, 1791) to secure the title to the soil and its proper trans¬ 
fer, as well as a cession of jurisdiction, were Thomas John¬ 
son, Daniel Carroll of Maryland, and David Stewart of 
Virginia. The land was mostly held by eighteen or nine¬ 
teen proprietors, who sold it to the government at an agreed 
price, reserving to themselves rights to their buildings, 
graveyards, timber, and wood, except where they interfered 
with the plan for the Federal city. The small remainder of 
lands, whether owned by small proprietors or minor heirs, 
etc., were by an act of the Maryland legislature condemned 


I 










DISTRICT SCHOOLS—DIVERTIMENTO. 


and appraised, and sold to the government on a fair valu¬ 
ation. The Federal city, afterwards called Washington, 
was laid out from a plan furnished by Major L’Enfant, and 
the buildings necessary for the accommodation of Congress 
and the government were erected and completed before 
Dec., 1S00. Presidents Jefferson and Madison did much to 
ornament and beautify it. In the summer of 1814 it was 
occupied by the British naval and land forces, who wan¬ 
tonly set fire to the Capitol, the President’s House, the pub¬ 
lic offices, navy-yard, and printing-offices, destroying prop¬ 
erty to the amount of nearly $2,000,000. These were all 
rebuilt on a larger scale, and some of them have been since 
that time again reconstructed, in accordance with the de¬ 
mand for greater room and accommodations. In 1840 the 
Virginia portion of the District was retroceded to Virginia. 

During the late war the city and District were for a few 
days in April, 1861, isolated from the North by the destruc¬ 
tion of the railroads between Baltimore and Washington. 
It Avas more than once in some danger of capture, and 
Avas protected by strong forts and earthworks manned by 
large bodies of troops. There were more than twenty of 
these fortifications Avithin the boundaries of the District 
in 1863. There Avei - e also during the Avar many large hos¬ 
pitals for the sick and wounded soldiers in the vicinity of 
Washington and GeorgetoAvn. Since the war the District 
has made rapid progress in population and wealth, and 
every year adds largely to its resources for intellectual and 
aesthetic culture. 

Governors. — Since its organization in Feb., 1871, the 
District of Columbia has had two governors — viz. Henry 
D. Cooke, from 1871 to 1873, and Alexander R. Shepherd, 
from 1873 to-. Its citizens haA'e no vote for President. 

(For many interesting facts and statistics of this article, 
as Avell as for the complete account of its Territorial organ¬ 
ization, finances, etc., Ave are indebted to His Excellency 
Goal Shepherd, and his very thoughtful and courteous 
private secretary, William Tindall, Esq.) 

L. P. Brockett. 

District Schools. See Coaimon Schools, by Rev. 
Joiix G. Baird, Asst. Sec. Conn. State Board of Education. 

Ditch, or Fosse [Lat. fossa], in fortification, a deep 
trench or excavation around a fort, serving as an obstacle 
to the enemy and supplying earth for the parapet or ram¬ 
part. It is generally dry, but is sometimes filled Avith Avater. 
In permanent Avoi'ks, such as the regular fortifications of a 
town, the rampart and ditch are the most important; the 
former being inside the latter, and formed of earth exca¬ 
vated from it. The ditch is often 100 feet wide, and twelvo 
feet deep beloAV the natural level of the ground. 

Dith'yramb [Lat. dithyrambus; Gr. Si0upa/u./3o?; ety¬ 
mology doubtful], a kind of lyric poem sung in honor of 
Bacchus. It Avas of a lofty but often inflated style; hence 
the term dithyramb is frequently applied to any lyric of a 
wild and boisterous character, such as might be supposed 
to be composed in a state of intoxication. 

Dit'marsch, North and South [Ger. Norder and 
S'uder Ditmarschen], a portion of the duchy of Holstein 
betAveen the Elbe and the Eider. Area, about 500 square 
miles. The people of this district have preserved in a re¬ 
markable degree the peculiarities of the ancient Germans 
and the distinctive features of the old Teutonic character. 
Ditmarsch has its oivn code or collection of Lays, adopted 
in 1321. Pop. in 1871, 75,193. 

Dit'tany [from the Gr. Sucraju.ro? ; Lat. dictamnus, so 
named from Mount Dicte in Crete, Avhere it greAV in abun¬ 
dance], a genus of plants belonging to the order Rutacem, 
Avith the calyx 5-partite, five petals, unequal, ten stamens, 
and five one to three-seeded follicular capsules. The Dic¬ 
tamnus Fraxinella (ruber or albus) is a perennial indigenous 
in Southern Europe, and is often cultivated in gardens. It 
has red or white flowers, of a powerful spicy fragrance. In 
the U. S. the name of dittany is given to the Cunila Mari¬ 
ana, of the order Labiatm. It is probable that the dictam¬ 
nus of the ancients Avas the Origanum Dictamnus, a labiate 
plant to Avhich the old authors ascribe the most marvellous 
powers. 

Dittee'ah, or Duttee'ati, a town of Hindostan, in 
Bundelcund, 125 miles S. E. of Agra. It is enclosed by a 
stone Avail thirty feet high. It is the capital of a rajah- 
ship of its own name. Pop. about 50,000. 

Dit'ton (Humphrey), an English mathematician, born 
at Salisbury May 29, 1675, was minister of a dissenting 
church at Tunbridge. He was befriended by Sir Isaac New¬ 
ton, who procured his appointment as mathematical master 
of Christ’s Hospital. He wrote able works entitled “ Laws 
of Nature and Motion” (1705), a “ Treatiso on Fluxions” 
(1706), and “Synopsis Algebraica” (1709). Died Oct. 15, 
1715. 

Di'u, a fortified seaport of Hindostan, on the Arabian 


1367 


Sea, and on an island of its own name near the coast of 
Guzerat. It has a tolerably safe harbor, and the remains 
of a famous Hindoo temple. It has been possessed by the 
Portuguese since 1515. Area of the island, 64 square miles. 
Pop. in 1864, 12,303. 

Dilir'nal [from the Lat. diurnus, “ daily,” from dies, 
a “day”], as an adjective, is employed either to designate 
that Avhich pertains to the day as opposed to the night 
(thus, “diurnal insects” are those Avhich are abroad in the 
day, Avhile “nocturnal” ones fly by night), or more fre¬ 
quently it is applied to events which occur every day of 
tAventy-four hours. “Diurnal” is also a name sometimes 
given to the Roman Catholic breviary. 

Divan, de-van' [Persian divan or diwdn; Fr. divan; 
Ger. Divan; It. divano; Sp. divan], a word common to 
several Oriental languages. It is employed by the Per¬ 
sians to denote a collection of poems by one author, as the 
divan of Saadi and the divan of Hafiz. The term is also 
applied to a muster-roll or military day-book. The Turk¬ 
ish divan is the great council of the empire or supreme 
judicial tribunal. The word divan is also among the Turks 
a common appellation for a saloon or hall which ser\ r es for 
the reception of company. Along the sides of this saloon 
are arranged low cushioned seats or sofas; hence the name 
has been given in Western Europe to a kind of sofa. 

Di r ver ( Colymbus ), a genus of birds belonging to the 
family Colymbidae. The bill is straight, strong, and point¬ 
ed, tail and wings short, and the toes webbed. They dh r e 
with great facility, and pursue the fish on which they live 
under the water. The principal species are the loon or great 
northern dh r er ( Colymbus glacialis), the black-throated diver 
(Colymbus arcticus), and the red-throated diver ( Colymbus 
septentr ion aids). 

Divergent (or Diverging) Series, in mathematics, a 
series in Avhich each succeeding term is greater than the 
term befoi-e it. Thus, a series constructed on the formula 
x 1 + 2x, by substituting for x each of the natural numbers 
in their order, increasing successively, Avhich Avould give 3, 
8, 15, 24, 35, etc., is a diverging series. 

Di' vers (in the pearl-fishery) descend through the water 



to the bank round Avhich the oysters are clustered, placing 
their feet, to secure greater rapidity, on a stone attached to 
the end of a rope, the other end of which is made fast to 
the boat. They carry Avith them another rope, the ex¬ 
tremity of Avhich is held by tAvo men in the boat, w T hile to 
the loAver part, that descends Avith the diver, there is 
fastened a net or basket. Besides these, eA^ery diver is 
furnished Avith a strong knife to detach the oysters or 
serve as a defensive Aveapon in case he should be attacked 
by a shark. As soon as the di\ T er touches bottom, he gathers 
the oysters with all possible speed, and having filled his net 
or basket, he quits his hold of the rope with the stone, pulls 
the rope which is held by the sailors in the boat, and rapidly 
ascends to the surface of the sea. Sponges are obtained 
by a similar process. (Johnson’s Natural History, vol. ii., 
p. 525.) 

Divertimento [an Italian word signifying a “diver- 
sion ”], or Divertissement [Fr. for the same], a kind of 
musical composition arranged tor one or more instruments. 
It has generally no fixed character, and may bo classed 
between the etude and the capriccioso. The term is also 































— ■■ .. . I .- I II " .""" ■ 1 

1368 DIVIDEND—DI YIN A COMMEDIA. 


applied to a ballet, or songs introduced between the acts of 
an opera. 

Dividend [Fr. dividende, from the Lat. divido, to 
“ divide ”], in arithmetic, the number or quantity given to 
bo divided; also the sum apportioned to creditors from 
the realized assets of a bankrupt’s estate. The term divi¬ 
dend is also applied to the annual or half-yearly interest 
on the public funds or national debt, and to the distributed 
profits of joint-stock companies, which are paid annually 
or half-yearly to each stockholder. 

Dividers are instruments for "dividing” or marking 
off distances, or for drawing circles, ellipses, and other 
curves. They sometimes consist of two or even three bars 
or legs, joined at one end by a hinge. Sometimes two 
movable points are arranged to slide along a " beam” or 
straight bar. " Proportional dividers ” are made of bars 
crossing each other and pointed at both ends. By means 
of a sliding joint at the point of union, dimensions in¬ 
cluded between one of the pairs of points may be made 
greater or less than those included between the other at 
the same time in any proportion. 

Dividing Engine, a machine for marking the divis¬ 
ions of scales of measurement in scientific, mathematical, 
and astronomical instruments. Scales for mechanics’ work 
were formerly divided by hand, but it is impossible to at¬ 
tain accurate results by such methods, while by a carefully 
made engine a most surprising degree of precision is reach¬ 
ed. The engines are of various kinds. Their success de¬ 
pends upon the skill, patience, and mathematical know¬ 
ledge of the constructor. Test-plates for the microscope 
have been ruled by Mr. F. Nobert of Barth, Pomerania, 
with divisions only of a French inch asunder. 

DP vi- di' vi ( Cnesalpinia Coriaria), a leguminous shrub 
of tropical America, is valued for its pods, which contain 
tannin and gallic acid. It grows to the height of twenty 
feet, and the pod is three inches long. It is used princi¬ 
pally for tanning leather and dyeing cloth, and large quan¬ 
tities are exported from Savanilla, Bio Hache, and Mara¬ 
caibo. 

Divi'na Comme'dia [It.], or Divine Comedy, 

the name of one of the most remarkable productions of 
the human mind, a poem composed by Dante Alighieri. 
(See Dante.) It is not known when or where it was 
composed, but from the poet’s having given "the middle 
of the journey of his life” (i. e. about 1300) as the date 
of the opening of his story, there can be no doubt that 
it was written after that time, and in all probability after 
his banishment, which occurred in 1302. The "Divine 
Comedy ” describes a vision in which Dante visits in suc¬ 
cession Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. The structure of 
the poem consists of three great divisions—"L’Inferno,” 
Hell; "II Purgatorio,” Purgatory; "II Paradiso,” Para¬ 
dise. The Inferno is related in thirty-four cantos, but each 
of the other divisions in thirty-three, so that the whole 
poem contains one hundred cantos in all. The poet’s con¬ 
ception of Hell makes it a vast, irregular, funnel-shaped 
abyss opening directly under Mount Sion, on which stands 
Jerusalem, and having its apex at the centre of the earth. 
The sides of this pit are not smooth, but broken by terraces 
or platforms, each of which extends round the whole circle, 
and is separated from those above it and from those below 
it, so that entrance and exit are impossible except to those 
who, like the poet, are divinely guided. Owing to the 
funnel-like shape of the pit, these circles necessarily grow 
smaller and smaller as they descend. Commentators have 
exercised their ingenuity in calculating the width and depth 
of the pit, the widths of the different platforms, and the 
distances that separate one from the other, but no common 
reckoning has been arrived at. We must imagine the plat¬ 
forms, or "circles,” as they are usually called, to be not 
narrow ledges or steps, but regions of vast extent, and 
varying greatly in character. In one the ground, or at 
least a part of it, is covered with fresh, green grass; in an¬ 
other there is no footing, but Dante and his guide look out 
from the edge of the abyss to where the spirits are whirled 
about in air dark as pitch, like troops of starlings before the 
wind: another circle welters in darkness and cold, with 
hail and mud and snow, and the earth gives out a stench; 
another is a marsh, in which the sinners are immersed, and 
through it runs a river on whose opposite bank rises the 
city of Dis. In other circles are rivers of blood; here is a 
vast plain filled with tombs like those of the cemeteries at 
Arles and Pola; in another is a lake of pitch, and in an¬ 
other a vast forest where the trees contain the souls of sin¬ 
ners. In one place the ground is covered with hot sand, 
while a continual rain of fire falls upon those who tramp 
wearily along; in another the plain is honeycombed with 
pit 3 , into which the sinners are plunged head-foremost; 
and in another still they are frozen in a lake of ice. 

It seems obvious that we must argue from the implied 


vastness of the circles to the dimensions of the whole fun¬ 
nel-pit of the Hell, and not, by limiting ourselves to certain 
measurements of the breadth and depth of the pit, run the 
risk of belittling the platforms themselves. Yet this is 
what naturally results from the measurements given by the 
commentators, for we are told that "the latest calculation 
gives 245 miles as the diameter of the abyss at its opening, 
which reduces the different platforms to a size compara¬ 
tively small.” But no one can read the poem and think 
of the platforms as anything but vast, and any reasoning 
that ends by making them small must be wrong reasoning. 

Dante is conducted through the Hell and through the 
Purgatory by the poet Virgil (representing human wisdom), 
who has been sent to his aid by Beatrice (representing 
heavenly wisdom), she herself having been despatched to 
Virgil with this commission by Lucia (enlightening grace), 
who had been sent by a gentle lady (Divine Mercy) to the 
aid of Dante, lost in a dark wood in the middle of his life’s 
journey, and terrified by the aspect of threatening wild 
beasts. Under Virgil’s guidance he begins his memorable 
journey. The events we have thus hinted at occupy the 
first and second cantos, which are merely introductory. In 
the third, after passing through the gate of Hell, Dante 
and his guide find themselves in a region where are the 
souls of those who, when on the earth, lived for themselves 
alone. They were mixed with the angels who in the war 
with Satan stood for neither side—hateful to God and to 
his enemies. "Do not let us talk about them,” said Virgil, 
" but look at them, and pass on.” They then come to the 
river Acheron, over which we are to infer that Charon fer¬ 
ries them, since Dante says that he fell asleep after a dis¬ 
cussion with the grim ferryman as to his right to pass over 
with the condemned souls, and that when he awoke he was 
with Virgil in the First Circle. In this First Circle, how¬ 
ever, it is not sinners who are punished, but the whole 
world of the unbaptized and of those who lived before the 
birth of Christ. This is the Limbo into which the legends 
make Christ to have descended, and from which he released 
certain souls. The doom of these is sorrow without tor¬ 
ment; Dante hears no lamentations, but only sighs, with 
which the air trembles. With the Second Circle and the 
fifth canto begin the true punishments of sinners, the sins 
deepening in guiltiness as the pit descends, and the punish¬ 
ment growing more intense, painful, and horrible as the 
circles decrease in size. All the circles, beginning with the 
second, are included in three great divisions, each set of 
circles separated from the others by wide spaces. These 
divisions, to name them after the sins punished in them, 
are I. Incontinence; II. Malice; III. Bestiality. The 
sinners whose punishments are included in the first of these 
great divisions, that of Incontinence, are—1. The carnal; 
2. The gluttonous; 3. The avaricious and prodigal; 4. The 
angry and the sullen. In the circle of the sullen are in¬ 
cluded the heretics. The second division, that of Malice, 
includes—1. The violent against their neighbors; 2. The 
violent against themselves; 3. The violent against God, or 
against Nature, the daughter of God, or against Art, the 
daughter of Nature. The third division, of Bestiality, 
has two subdivisions. In the first are seducers, flatterers, 
demoniacs, soothsayers, barrators, hypocrites, thieves, evil- 
counsellors, schismatics, falsifiers. In the second are 
traitors to their kindred, traitors to their country, traitors 
to their friends, traitors to their lords and benefactors. 
( Longfellow , " The Divine Comedy ,” vol. i., p. 170.) On 
reaching the bottom of the pit Satan is found, a monster 
with three heads and champing a sinner in each bloody 
mouth. These sinners are the three arch-traitors, Judas 
Iscariot, who betrayed his God, and Brutus and Cassius, 
who betrayed Rome. Satan is plunged up to his middle 
in the vortex of the pit, and the two poets, Virgil leading, 
climb down his shaggy body, holding by his fell of hair, 
until they reach the monster’s haunches, when they turn 
and climb up the legs, until at length they find themselves 
at the foot of a gloomy cavern up whose sides they mount 
with difficulty, and emerge at the foot of the Mount of 
Purgatory, a lofty cone that rises in the exact antipodes of 
Mount Sion on an island in the Southern Ocean. Around 
it are seven terraces, on which are punished those who have 
committed the seven mortal sins. These are pride, envy, 
anger, sloth, avarice and prodigality, gluttony, and lust. 
From the first canto to the ninth the action is outside 
the entrance to Purgatory. From the ninth canto to the 
twenty-eighth the seven circles are described, and from 
the twenty-ninth to the end the Terrestrial Paradise at 
the summit of the Mount of Purgatory. When the poets 
have reached the summit of the mountain they are met by 
Beatrice, who has descended from Heaven for the purpose, 
and returning draws Dante after her. The Paradise or 
Heaven is founded upon the Ptolemaic system, which was 
the one accepted in Dante’s time. Beatrice leads Dante in 
succession to the seven planets—namely, the Moon, Mer- 
















DIVINATION—DIVING BELL. 


1369 


cury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. From 
thence they mount to the sphere of the fixed stars, then to 
the primum mobile, and finally to the empyrean, where, 
after a vision of Christ and the Virgin, the poet has a 
glimpse of the Creator, and the poem closes. 

This is the bare skeleton of a work which holds an eter¬ 
nal place in the heart, the intellect, and the conscience of 
the world, and which numbers now more students and ad¬ 
mirers than in any preceding time. It must be closely 
read and studied to be in any degree understood, and no 
abstract, or even analysis, of it would be of much service 
to a person who had not read with deliberate care the whole 
poem from beginning to end. 

The name “ Comedy ” was given to the poem by Dante 
himself. In a letter which he wrote to Can Grande, and 
of which an abstract and partial translation is given by 
Dr. J. A. Carlyle in the introduction to his admirable prose 
translation of the Inferno, we find that he says : The title 
of this work is, “ Begins the Comedy of Dante Alighieri, a 
Florentine by birth, but not by manners ” (Incipit Comoedia 
Dantis Allagherii, Florentini natione, non moribus). He 
then gives the definition of the words Comedy and Tragedy 
from their supposed etymologies, and says that Tragedy 
“speaks in a style elate and sublime, and at the beginning 
is admirable and quiet—at the end or exit fetid and horri¬ 
ble ; while Comedy begins with the asperity of a subject, 
and ends prosperously, and speaks in a remiss and humble 
style;” from which he concludes it will be easy to see why 
the present work is called a comedy. For if we consider 
the subject thereof, at the beginning it is horrible and fetid, 
being Hell; at the end prosperous, desirable, and grateful, 
being Paradise. And if we consider the style of speech, 
that style is remiss and humble, being the vulgar speech, 
in which even the women talk with one another. Where¬ 
fore it is evident why the work is called a Comedy. As 
for the word “ Divine” prefixed to the title, it is not known 
just when it began to be used. The first printed edition 
with the title “ Divina Commedia” is said to be the ono 
printed at Venice in 1516 by Bernardino Stagnino do Mon- 
ferra. Dr. Carlyle says that this edition being very scarce 
he has not been able to verify this assertion, but lie finds 
the title “Divina Commedia” in the edition printed by 
Gabriel Giolito di Ferrarii in Venice in 1555. Whoever 
may be responsible for the word, it is so appropriate, both 
from the argument of the poem and from its beautiful 
style, that it can never be separated from the title. 

The “Divine Comedy” exists in a great number of 
manuscripts. Of these the most are in Italy, but there are 
several in England, and others in France and Germany. 
There have been over 300 editions printed, and it has been 
translated into every European language. The earliest 
printed edition is that of Johanni Numeister, Fuligno, 
1472. Dr. Carlyle, in speaking of the edition of Vendelin 
da Spira, printed at Venice in 1477, says that in some 
verses at the end is found the epithet “Divine” applied to 
Dante ( divo dante alleghieri Fiorentina poeta), and that 
“later editions speak of the exceho, glorioso, divino, or 
venerabile poeta Fiorentino long before they begin to apply 
the title of Divine to the poem itself.” The earliest Flor¬ 
entine edition is that of 1481, to which was added the com¬ 
mentary of Christoforo Landino. Leaving these earliest 
editions, we find others following in an irregular way, of 
which Dr. Carlyle gives this brief summary: “Fifteen 
authentic editions, besides five of doubtful authenticity, 
were printed within the last thirty years of the fifteenth 
century; forty-two in the sixteenth; four in the seven¬ 
teenth, or poorest century of Italian literature; forty in the 
eighteenth ; and in the present century more than one hun¬ 
dred and fifty.” The earliest of all the many commentaries 
upon the poem is that of Jacopo, Dante’s son, written in 
the year 1328. Later came the comment called generally 
the Ottimo or Best, but also the Anonimo, Buono, Antico; 
then the comment attributed to Pietro, another of Dante’s 
sons. This was first published by Lord Vernon in sump¬ 
tuous style, at his own expense, at Florence in 1845. It 
was written in 1340. In Aug., 1373, the republic of Flor¬ 
ence established a professorship of Dante, and Boccaccio 
was the first lecturer. The salary was 100 gold florins. 
He began his lectures in the church of San Stefano in Oct., 
1373, and continued them till his death in 1375. Other 
valuable comments are those of Benvenuto da Imola, Boc¬ 
caccio’s pupil and friend; of Landino, one of the successors 
of Boccaccio, who lectured on Dante from the year 1457; 
Bernardino Daniello of Lucca, printed at Venice in 1568— 
this last especially well spoken of by Dr. Carlyle. Merely 
to name the translations of the “Divine Comedy” would 
overrun the limits of our article. The best are in England, 
Germany, and America. In England, Cary’s translation 
of the whole poem is reckoned the standard one; Wright’s 
is also a valuable translation. W. M. Rossetti has pub¬ 
lished a good translation of the Hell, but by far the best 


translation is that of Dr. J. A. Carlyle, which unfortunately 
is only of the Hell, though it has been reported that the 
other parts are to be translated by the same hand. This 
version is in prose, but prose so strong, so idiomatic, and 
so choice that it seems to give back the original almost in 
its own noble music. The introduction and notes, too, are 
almost models of what such illustrations should be. 

In speaking of the comments upon Dante, we should have 
mentioned the “ Commento Analitico ” of the late Gabriele 
Rossetti, professor of the Italian language and literature 
in King’s College, London. In this comment, and in his 
book “The Antipapal Spirit of Dante,” the author en¬ 
deavors to prove that Dante’s poem was purely allegorical, 
and intended as a masked attack upon the Romish Church. 
Professor Rossetti was the father of the W. M. Rossetti men¬ 
tioned above; and a daughter has recently published a 
useful guide to the study of the “ Divine Comedy,” called 
“A Shadow of Dante.” 

In Germany there are excellent translations and several 
editions of value. Kaunegiesser’s translation is praised 
(3 vols., Leipsic, 1814-21); so is that of A. Kopisch (1 
vol., Berlin, 1842). The first is a remarkable piece of work 
in the measure and rhyme of the original; the second is in 
blank verse, following the Italian line for line. But by 
far the best German translation is that by the late King 
John of Saxony, just dead in 1873. He translated the 
Inferno in 1839; the Paradise did not appear until ten 
years later (1849). His translation appeared with the nom- 
de-plume “ Philalethes.” The best German edition is that 
of Karl Witte ; it was published in Berlin in 1862. 

In America the “ Divina Commedia ” has been translated 
by H. W. Longfellow, and the Hell by Dr. T. W. Parsons, 
who is intending, however, to translate the whole, and has 
in fact nearly completed it. 

It may not be amiss to mention the fact that illustrations 
of Dante’s poem have been published by John Flaxman, 
William Blake, and in our own day by Gustave Dore. (See 
Batini’s “Bibliografia Dantesca,” Prato, 2 vols., 1845-48; 
also “ Bibliographia Dantea ab anno 1865, inchoata. Edidit 
Julius Petzholdt, Dresdrn,” 1872; Leigh Hunt, “ Stories 
from the Italian Poets,” a useful sketch, but injured by 
much childish animadversion.) Clarence Cook. 

Divina'tioil [Lat. divina tio, from divino, divinatum, to 
“ foretell,” to “ divine ”], the art of foretelling future events 
by superstitious experiments, etc., by observing the flight 
of birds, the planets, clouds, and also by the alleged in¬ 
fluence of spirits. Among the ancient Romans divination 
was practised in various forms, and is supposed to have 
originated among the Etruscans. The Israelites were for¬ 
bidden by the law of Moses from performing divination of 
any kind. Among the ancient Greeks divination was ex¬ 
tensively practised, but it flourished especially in Chaldma 
and Egypt. 

Divine Right (of Kings), a term used to express the 
doctrine, probably of very ancient origin, that a monarch 
was the immediate representative of Deity, by whom alone 
he could be held responsible for his actions. It would ap¬ 
pear that the idea was never clearly developed and system¬ 
atically advocated till the early part of the seventeenth 
century, when the great controversies arose in England 
between the royalists and the parliamentary or common¬ 
wealth parties. The doctrine was maintained by Hobbes, 
Sir Robert Filmer, and others; it was opposed by Milton 
and Algernon Sydney. 

Diving Bell, a hollow, bell-shaped chamber, open at 
the bottom, used by divers to descend into deep water for 
the purpose of conducting various subaqueous works or 
explorations. A kind of kettle is said to have been used 
by divers in the time of Aristotle. John Taisnier (born 
1509) makes in his works the earliest mention of the prac¬ 
tical use of the diving bell in Europe. In 1665 it was used 
to raise portions of the Spanish Armada. Though of 
clumsy dimensions and imperfect in the manner of supply¬ 
ing air, it was similar in construction to those of the present 
day. Dr. Halley’s plan for supplying fresh air was intro¬ 
duced about 1715. His diving bell consisted of a wooden 
chamber open at the bottom, where it was loaded with lead 
to keep it perpendicular in its descent. Light was ad¬ 
mitted through glass set in the upper part. Air was sup¬ 
plied by means of a hose attached to casks filled with air 
and weighted with lead, which were let down lower than 
the bell. In the year 1779, Smeaton first applied the 
diving bell to engineering purposes, and in 1 < 88 he con¬ 
trived to supply it with air by the use of the force-pump. 
He constructed a diving bell of cast iron, its greatest thick¬ 
ness being at the lower part, that it might not overturn. 
It sinks by its own weight. In shape it resembles a square 
chest, and it affords room for two men, being four and a 
half foot long, the same in height, and throe feet wide. 
This construction of the diving bell gives those within it 












1370 DIVING DRESS—DIX. 


no power to raise or sink it. The blows of a hammer on 
the inside of the bell can be heard by those above the water, 
and in this manner the divers communicate with the assist¬ 
ants by a scries of concerted signals. On account of the 
cumbrousness of this apparatus, it is little used except for 
heavy works of subaqueous engineering. For most opera¬ 
tions carried on beneath the water a “ submarine armor ” 
or diving dress is employed, described in the following 
article. 

Diving Dress, the name applied to a waterproof dress 
worn by divers, enabling them to walk and work under 
water. An aquatic armor, consisting of a leather dress 
and a helmet, is described in Schott’s “ Technica Curiosa,” 
published in 1664. An India-rubber cloth diving dress has 
been more recently used, with a metal helmet having in 
front pieces of plate glass. Attached to the helmet are 
two tubes—one to admit fresh air in the same manner as 
for the diving bell, the other to carry off the waste air. 
Leaden weights are attached to the diver, enabling him to 
descend and walk about. Communication can be carried 
on with those above by means of a cord running between 
the diver and the attendants. The diving dresses in use 
at present make the diver independent of any connection 
with persons above the water. They arc elastic and her¬ 
metically closed. The diver carries upon his back a res¬ 
ervoir containing air compressed to thirty or forty atmo¬ 
spheres, which is supplied to him for breathing by a self¬ 
regulating apparatus at a pressure corresponding to his 
depth. When he wishes to ascend, he simply inflates his 
dress from this reservoir. Still other forms of diving dress 
are in use. (For full information on the subject of this arti¬ 
cle and the preceding, see Pres. Barnard’s “ Report on the 
Paris Exposition of 1867.”) 

Divi'niiig Hod [Lat. virgula divina ], a forked branch 
of wood used for discovering mines, treasures, or water 
under ground. This use of the divining rod is a supersti¬ 
tion of very great antiquity. In Europe it is usually a 
forked branch of the rowan tree. The favorite in the U. S. 
appears to be the witch-hazel. 

Divinity. See Theology, by Pres. E. G. Robinson, 
I). D., LL.D. 

Divisibility [from the Lat . divido, division, to “di¬ 
vide ”] is that quality of bodies through which they may be 
separated into parts. The question whether matter can be 
iniinitely divided or not has often been discussed by phil¬ 
osophers. The subdivision of matter in nature is beyond 
calculation, nor can it be appreciated by our senses. A 
tube of glass has been drawn out by the blowpipe to the 
fineness of a silk fibre, still preserving the form of a tube. 
In the gilding of buttons five grains of gold, applied as an 
amalgam with mercury, are allowed to each gross, so that 
the coating left must amount to the 110,000th part of an 
inch in thickness. A single grain of blue vitriol will tinge 
five gallons of water. The divisibility of matter is best 
illustrated in the case of odors. The particles which im¬ 
press the sense of smell must fill the whole atmosphere for 
hundreds of cubic feet, and yet a grain of musk may per¬ 
fume a large apartment for years with scarcely a sensible 
loss of weight. 

Divis'ion [Lat. divisio, from divido, divisum, to “di¬ 
vide”], one of the four fundamental rules of arithmetic, its 
object being to find out how often one number is contained 
in another. The dividend is the number to be divided ,• the 
divisor, the number of parts into which it is to be divided; 
and the value of one of these parts is the quotient; or the 
divisor may be one of these parts, and the quotient the num¬ 
ber of them in the dividend. Division is an inverse pro¬ 
cess, whose effect is annulled by the direct operation of 
multiplication. It is necessary in dividing a number to 
have recourse to tentative processes, suggested by previous 
knowledge, and the accuracy of the procedure may be tested 
by multiplication. 

Division in logic is the enumeration of the species which 
make up a given genus; thus tree is divided into oak, elm, 
etc. 

Division in military language signifies—1, two or more 
brigades under a general officer; 2, two guns of a battery 
of artillery, with their equipment, etc.; 3, two companies of 
a battalion arranged in column of two companies. 

Division in music is the separation of the interval of an 
octave into a number of lesser intervals. 

Division of Labor, in political economy, designates 
the plan by which a mechanic or laborer, instead of finish¬ 
ing the whole of any piece of work, is kept employed upon 
one special department of that work. Many persons are 
in some trades employed in turning out a piece of work 
which would formerly have been finished by one man. The 
first result of the division of labor is the great increase of 
production, for ten men, each employed upon a special 


branch of work, will turn out more and much better work 
than the same ten men would do if each began and finished 
an entire piece of mechanism. It is objected, on the other 
hand, to the division of labor that it tends to diminish the 
versatility and excellence of individual workmen ; and this 
objection is not without force. Division of labor is extend¬ 
ing with the advance of civilization. Even the learned pro¬ 
fessions are influenced by it. Lawyers more and more de¬ 
vote themselves to particular departments of their profes¬ 
sional work. Medicine is becoming divided into specialties. 
No one man is equally expert in every branch of a great 
science like chemistry, some giving their attention, for ex¬ 
ample, to organic chemistry, some to toxicology, others to 
analvsis, etc. The general result will undoubtedly be bene¬ 
ficial to society. 

Divorce [Lat. divortium, from di, “apart,” “away,” 
and vorto, an old form of verto, to “ turn ”] is the dissolu¬ 
tion of a marriage by a court of law, or, in some cases, by 
a legislative or parliamentary act. In heathen nations 
divorces have generally taken place at the will of the parties 
concerned, and even the ancient Romans, during the later 
period of the republic and under the emperors, allowed the 
greatest license in this respect. Divorce existed to some 
extent among the Greeks, more especially at Athens. Easy 
divorce, which had prevailed among the Hebrews, was re¬ 
strained and discouraged, though not done away with, by 
the laws of Moses. Among Christian nations marriage is 
for the most part looked upon as possessing at once a re¬ 
ligious and a civil importance. The Roman Catholic Church 
denies the possibility of divorce, although there are cases 
in which, according to the canon law, the union is declared 
to have been illegal from the first, and in reality never to 
have existed at all. In English law, the word divorce has 
been ajiplied to two distinct classes of cases—one where the 
marriage is by competent authority declared to be void from 
the beginning; the other, where it is conceded to have been 
valid in its origin, but for some cause subsequently arising 
it is dissolved or suspended. The first instance is some¬ 
times termed a case of nullity—the second, a case of disso¬ 
lution or of judicial separation. Sentences of nullity and 
of judicial separation, not amounting to dissolution, might 
take jdace in the ecclesiastical courts. A marriage could 
only be dissolved by act of Parliament. In the year 1857 
an act was passed establishing the “ Court for Divorce and 
Matrimonial Causes,” in which was vested the power pre¬ 
viously exercised by the ecclesiastical courts as well as by 
Paidiament. In the U. S., as there are no ecclesiastical 
courts in the English sense, matrimonial jurisdiction is 
established by statutes in the different States, enumerating 
the causes of divorce, which are by no means uniform. 
These, as a rule, are more numerous in the Western States 
than in the Eastern. The power to grant divorces is in 
general exercised by courts having equity jurisdiction, 
though it exists in the legislature, unless taken away by 
the State constitution. This is the case in a number of the 
States, and among them New York. 

Revised by T. W. Dwight. 

Dix, a township of Ford co., Jll. Pop. 782. 

Dix, a township of Schuyler co., N. Y. It contains the 
greater part of Watkins, the county-seat, as well as other 
villages. “Watkins Glen,” in this township, is a favorite 
place of summer resort. Pop. 4282. 

Dix (Dorothea Lynde), an American philanthropist, 
born at Worcester, Mass., about 1794, was a school-teacher 
in her youth. She devoted much time to the work of ame¬ 
liorating the condition and treatment of prisoners, lunatics, 
and paupers, for which purpose she visited nearly every 
State of the Union. She efficiently promoted the establish¬ 
ment of lunatic asylums in New York, Pennsylvania, North 
Carolina, Illinois, Indiana, and other States. She published 
several books for children and tracts for prisoners. By 
petitions to Congress she induced that body in 1854 to ap¬ 
propriate 10,000,000 acres of public land in order to endow 
hospitals for the insane, but President Pierce vetoed the 

bin: y 

Dix (John Adams), LL.D., an American statesman and 
general, born at Boscawen, N. H., July 24, 1798. He en¬ 
tered the army in 1812, and became a captain in 1825, but 
SQon resigned and studied law. He removed to Coopers- 
town, N. Y., joined the Democratic party, and was elected 
secretary of state in 1833. After he had passed several 
years in private life, he was elected to the Senate of the 
U. S. in 1845, to fill a vacancy. He advocated in the Sen¬ 
ate the principles of the Free-Soil Democrats, whose candi¬ 
date for governor he was in 1848. He was chairman of the 
Senate committee on commerce. His term expired in Mar., 
1849, and he was then succeeded by Mr. Seward. Having 
visited various countries of Europe, he published a “ Sum¬ 
mer in Spain and Florence” (1855). He was secretary of 
the treasury of the U. S. for two or three months from Jan. 















JDIX—DOBBS FERRY. 


1371 


rents, commenced life in a counting-house. lie settled in 
London in 1840, and contributed to the “Daily News.” 
His articles on “ London Prisons,” which subsequently ap¬ 
peared, revised and enlarged, in book form, in 1850, were 
the precursors of Mayhcw’s inquiries into the condition of 
the London poor. In 1849 he published a “ Life of John 
Howard,” which was successful. His reputation was estab¬ 
lished by “William Penn, an Historical Biography ” (1851), 
in which he set right the mistaken animadversions of Ma¬ 
caulay on the character of the philanthropical Quaker. 
He became the chief editor of the “ Athenaeum ” in 1853, 
and vacated the editorial chair in 1869. Among his other 
works are a “Personal History of Lord Bacon” (1861), 
“The Holy Land” (1865), “New America” (1867), “ Spir¬ 
itual Wives” (1868), “Her Majesty’s Tower,” “ Free Rus¬ 
sia” (2 vols., 1870), and “The Switzers” (1S72). 

Dixon Mills, a post-township of Marengo co., Ala. 
Pop. 1000. 

Dixon’s, a township of Pike co., Ala. Pop. 2240. 

Dixon’s Entrance, a strait on the W. coast of North 
America, is 100 miles long. It separates Queen Charlotte 
Island from the Prince of Wales Archipelago. 

Dixon’s Tavern, a township of Queen Anne co., Md. 
Pop. 3626. 

Dix well (John), one of the famous English regicides, 
was a wealthy gentleman of Folkestone, Kent, born about 
1608. He was an active Parliamentarian, and a colonel 
under Cromwell. Having been a member of the high court 
which condemned Charles I., he fled, after the Restoration, 
to Germany, but finally became a resident of New Haven 
colony in New England, where he died Mar. 18, 1689. 

Djemil Pasha, or Jemeel Pasha, a Turkish states¬ 
man, born at Constantinople in 1827, was the eldest son of 
the late Resheed Pasha. He was educated at Paris and 
London, and has for many years been a public officer, es¬ 
pecially in diplomatic affairs. In 1866 he was appointed 
ambassador to Paris. 

Dmit'rof, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Moscow, 40 miles N. of Moscow. It has seven churches, 
one college, and manufactures of cotton and silk goods. 
Pop. 8042. 

Dmitrovsk', a town in Russia, in the government of 
Orel, 28 miles S. W. of Orel. It has various manufactures. 
Pop. 7603. 

Dniep'er (anc. Borysthenea ), a river of Russia, rises in 
the government of Smolensk. It flows nearly southward 
to Kief, below which its direction is south-eastward to 
Ekaterinoslaf. It afterwards runs south-westward, and 
enters the Black Sea on the N. side. Its length, including 
windings, is about 1170 miles. The greater part of it is 
navigable, but numerous rocky rapids occur below Ekater¬ 
inoslaf. These obstructions have been partly removed by 
blasting. The Borysthenes was known to the ancient 
Greeks, who regarded it as the greatest river of the globe, 
next to the Nile. 

Dnies'ter (anc. Tyras, afterwards Danaster ), a river of 
Europe, rises in the Carpathian Mountains in Galicia, and 
flows south-eastward into Russia. It forms the boundary 
between Bessarabia on the right and Podolia and Kherson 
on the left, and enters the Black Sea near Akerman, about 
30 miles S. of Odessa. Its total length is about 760 miles. 
The chief towns on its banks are Mohilef, Bender, and 
Akerman. The navigation of it is difficult. 

Doab' (7. e. “two waters”), a name applied in Hin- 
dostan to a tract between two rivers, and especially to that 
between the Ganges and the Jumna. This doab extends 
from Allahabad to the base of the Himalayas, a distance 
of 500 miles or more. 


to Mar., 1861, and as such issued this famous order: “If 
any man attempts to haul down the American flag, shoot 
him on the spot!” In May, 1861, he became a major-gen¬ 
eral of volunteers, and in July, 1862, he took command of 
Fortress Monroe. He was appointed commander of an army 
corps in Sept., 1862, and ascending York River in June, 
1863, cut Gen. Leo’s communications. He was minister to 
France in 1867-68, and was chosen president of the Union 
Pacific R. R. In 1872 he was elected governor of New 
York by the Republicans. 

Dix (Morgan), S. T. D., a son of General J. A. Dix, 
noticed above, an Episcopalian divine, was born in New 
\ork City Nov. 1, 1827, and educated at Columbia College. 
He became in 1862 rector of Trinity church, New York; 
he is also president of the standing committee of the dio¬ 
cese of New York, vice-president of the New York Prot¬ 
estant Episcopal public school, and holds various other 
offices. Among his works are “Commentaries on Romans, 
Galatians, and Colossians,” “ Lectures on Pantheism,” 

“ Lectures on the Two Estates,” a brochure on “ Christian 
Art,” and numerous sermons, pamphlets, etc. 

Dix'field, a post-township of Oxford co., Me. It has 
manufactures of lumber and carriages. Pop. 1049. 

Dix' ie, a name popularly applied to the Southern States 
of the Union. The name originated from a well-known 
song in praise of the charms of “ Dixie’s Land,” a Utopian 
region so named, it is said, by slaves in honor of a gentle¬ 
man named Dixie, who was celebrated for his kindness to 
his servants. 

Dix Island, 10 miles S. by E. from Rockland, Me., 
contains about 55 acres, not of land but of rock, the very 
best of granite. The Treasury building at Washington was 
built of this stone. The U. S. post-office and court-house 
building now in process of erection in the City Hall Park, 
New York, at a cost of over $5,000,000, is built of granite 
obtained on this island; the stones are all fitted and marked 
for their place, and are made ready before they are sent. 
Each stone, large or small, has its own history; e. g. “first 
story, ornamented column, 15 feet 7 inches long. Time ex¬ 
pended on it, 127i days. Total cost, $745.11.” The exact 
cost for one blacksmith, one cutter, one carpenter, and 
teaming is stated. It is the same with every stone in that 
immense structure. There are about 1200 men on the 
island, besides about 100 women and children. There are 
three large boarding-houses, besides some sixteen other 
houses ; one school of thirty children ; forty workshops, in 
which some 800 men are employed finishing the stone, and 
sixty forges for sharpening tools.— Manuf. and Builder. 

Dix'mont, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. It 
has manufactures of lumber, carriages, etc. Pop. 1309. 

Dix'on, a county in the N. E. of Nebraska. Area, 550 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Missouri 
River. The surface is undulating; the soil is fertile. 

' Grain is the chief product. Capital, Ponca. Pop. 1345. 

Dixoil, a post-village of Silveyville township, Solano 
co., Cal., on the California Pacific R. R., 21 miles W. by S. 
of Sacramento. Pop. 317. 

Dixon, a city, capital of Lee co., Ill., on Rock River, 
and on the Illinois Central R. R. where it crosses the Chi¬ 
cago and North-western R. R., 98 miles W. of Chicago and 
40 miles E. of Clinton, la. It has a seminary, seven 
churches, two national banks, and two weekly and one 
monthly newspaper, and has good water-power with flour- 
ing-mills, four plough and other factories. Pop. 4055; of 
Dixon township, 4687. Ed. “ Telegraph.” 

Dixon, a post-village, capital of Webster co., Ky., 
about 62 miles E. N. E. of Paducah. It has one weekly 
newspaper. Pop. 330. 

Dixon, a township of Preble co., 0. Pop. 1123. 

Dixon (James), D. D., an English Methodist minister 
distinguished as a preacher and thinker. He occupied im¬ 
portant pulpits in his denomination, was the president of 
its conference in 1841, and its delegate to the American 
Methodist General Conference in 1848. He wrote, besides 
other works, “ Methodism, its Origin, Economy, and Pres¬ 
ent Position,” and a “ Tour in America.” Died in 1872. 

Dixon (James), an American statesman, born at Enfield, 
Conn., Aug. 5, 1814, graduated at Williams College in 1834, 
became a lawyer, was a member of Congress from Connec¬ 
ticut (1845-49), and U. S. Senator (1857-69). Died at Hart¬ 
ford, Conn., Mar. 27, 1873. 

Dixon (Joseph), an eminent inventor, born about 1798, 
was a printer in his youth, and afterwards a wood-engraver, 
lie made important improvements in photography, lith¬ 
ography, banknote-printing, lens-grinding, steel-refining, 
etc. Died at Jersey City, N. J., June 14, 1869. 

Dixon (William Hepwortii), an English author and 
critic, born in Yorkshire Juno 30, 1821, of dissenting pa- | 


Doane (George Washington), D. D., LL.D., an Amer¬ 
ican bishop and poet, born at Trenton, N. J., May 27, 1799. 
He graduated at Union College in 1818, was ordained as an 
Episcopalian clergyman in 1821, preached in New York 
City, and was chosen bishop of New Jersey in 1832. He 
published a volume of poems (1824) and several works on 
theology. Died April 27, 1859.—One of his sons, William 
Creswell Doane, was on Feb. 2, 1869, consecrated bishop 
of Albany.—A second son, George II. Doane, is a Roman 
Catholic priest, and was in 1873 appointed vicar-general 
of the diocese of Newark. 

Dob'bin (James Cochrane), an American politician, 
born at Fayetteville, N. C., in 1814. He became a member 
of Congress in 1845, and was appointed secretary of the 
navy by President Pierce in 1853. Died Aug. 4, 1857. 

Dobbs Ferry, a post-village of Greenburg township, 
Westchester co., N. Y., on the Hudson River and on the 
Hudson River R. R., 20 miles N. of New York. It is a 
place of summer residence, and has four churches and re- 










DOBELL—DOCKS. 


1372 


mains of the military works erected during the Revolu¬ 
tionary war. 

Dobell' (Sydney), an English poet, horn at Peckham 
Rye in 1824, was a son of a wine-merchant. He began his 
literary career by “The Roman,” a poem (1850). Among 
his other works are “Raider” (1854), “England in Time 
of War ” (1856), and “ England’s Day ” (1871). His poems 
exhibit a mixture of the philosophical and poetical spirit. 

Do'beln, a town of Saxony, on the Mulde, a railway 
station, 36 miles S. E. of Leipsic. It has a hospital, a 
realschule, and manufactures. Pop. in 1871, 10,078. 

Do'brizhofTer (Martin), a Jesuit, born at Gratz, in 
Styria, in 1717. He went as a missionary to Paraguay in 
1749, and published at Vienna in Latin a “ History of the 
Abipones” (3 vols., 1784), which was translated into Eng¬ 
lish by Sara Coleridge. Died July 17, 1791. 

Dobrow'ski (Joseph), a Bohemian author and philolo¬ 
gist, born near Raab Aug. 17, 1753. He was liberally edu¬ 
cated, joined the Jesuits, and distinguished himself by his 
researches into the language and literature of the Slavonic 
nations. His most important works are a “ Grammar of 
the Bohemian Language,” a “ History of the Bohemian 
Language and Literature” (1792), and a“ German and Bo¬ 
hemian Dictionary” (2 vols., 1802-21). Died Jan. 6, 1829. 

Dotmid'scha, or Dobrujda, a name given to the 
N. E. portion of Bulgaria, which is separated from Mol¬ 
davia and Wallachia by the Danube. It is bounded on the 
E. by the Black Sea. 

Dob'soil, a post-village, capital of Surrey co., N. C., 
about 55 miles W. N. W. of Greensborough. Pop. of Dob¬ 
son township, 1255. 

Dobson (William), an English painter of portraits 
and history, was born in London in 1610. He succeeded 
Van Dyck as court-painter to Charles I. He was reputed 
the best English portrait-painter of his time. Died in 1646. 

Do 'ce, Rio (t. e. “ sweet river ”), a river of Brazil, rises 
in Minas Geraes, flows north-eastward, and entei-s the At¬ 
lantic 60 miles N. of Victoria. Length, including wind¬ 
ings, about 500 miles. Its navigation is obstructed by 
rapids. 

Doce'tse [from the Gr. Sokem, “to appear,” to “seem”], 
an heretical sect which arose in the first century, denying 
the incarnation of God in Christ. Some of the Docetaa 
affirmed the body of Christ to be a mere deceptive ap¬ 
pearance; others only denied its fleshly character. Doce- 
tism was a form of Gnosticism (which see). 

Do^'imacy [Fr. docimasie; Gr. Sojciju-acria, from Sokli aafw, 
to “test,” to “examine” or “prove”], or Dociinastic 
Art, the art of assaying minerals or ores with a view of 
determining the quantity of metal they contain. 

Dock, a perennial herbaceous plant of the order Poly- 
gonacem and genus Rumex, found chiefly in temperate cli¬ 


mates. They have large ovate or lanceolate leaves, and 
greenish flowers in panicles. They increase rapidly from 
the seed, and having long tap-roots become very trouble¬ 
some as weeds. The roots of several species are valued in 
medicine for their astringent properties; they are also used 
in dyeing. The yellow dock (Rumex c rispus) is esteemed in 
the U. S. as an alterative. 

Dockery (Gen. Alfred), born in North Carolina Dec. 
11, 1791, was many years a prominent Whig politician and 
office-holder in his native State, from which he was elected 
to Congress in 1845 and 1851. He opposed the Demo¬ 
cratic party after the close of the civil war. Died in Rich¬ 
mond co., N. C., Dec. 4, 1873. 

Dock'et [from dock, to “cut off”], a summary, an 
abridged entry of a proceeding on a piece of paper or 
parchment. Exemplifications of decrees in chancery, fiats 
in bankruptcy, and other instruments are thus docketed 
for purposes of reference. The word docket is frequently 
employed to designate an abridged entry in a book, as in 
the case of judgments of courts, in order to make them a 
lien upon land. Docket also denotes a list or calendar of 
causes ready for hearing or trial, prejiared for the use of 
courts. 

Docks are artificial basins for the reception of ships, 
and are of two kinds, wet and dry. A wet dock is a large 
basin in which the water is kept at a certain level by means 
of walls, so as to be unaffected by tidal changes, in order 
to facilitate the loading and unloading of cargoes. A dry 
dock is intended for the repairing and examination of 
ships, the water, after the entrance of the vessel, being re¬ 
moved by pumps or other means. 

In ports where vessels would be naturally much exposed 
during rough weather, or where the changes in the tide are 
very great, the necessity of secure and well-sheltered docks 
or artificial basins, in which ships may be safely moored 
and kept at one level, is especially manifest. In the north¬ 
ern parts of Europe the rise and fall of the tides are so 
great that every port which has any pretensions to a first- 
class mercantile harbor is necessarily supplied with one or 
more wet docks; at most of the ports of England, and es¬ 
pecially at those of Liverpool and London, docks have 
been constructed on a truly magnificent scale. 

Notwithstanding the obvious importance of wet docks to 
the vast trade of London, it was not until a few years 
previous to the beginning of the nineteenth century that 
plans for docks on anything like an adequate scale were, at 
the request of a parliamentary committee, submitted by 
Messrs. Telford and Douglas, among other plans for the 
improvement of the port of London. The act authorizing 
the construction of the West India Docks was passed in 
1799; work was begun in Feb., 1800, and in 1802 they 
were so far completed that a homeward-bound vessel en¬ 
tered them. 

These, the first docks of London, with their entrances 


Fig. 1. 


and 0LACKWALL R 


limestbnei 

’Entrance 



WestUnCrance 



AouthBockbS'Wiie 
trc.nce27 dee/t 


THE WEST INDIA DOCK’S. 


and basins, extend across the isthmus (at low water) of the 
island formed by the Thames on the Middlesex side of the 
river, and called the “Isle of Dogs.” They originally 
consisted of an Import Dock containing an area of 30 acres, 


and an Export Dock with an area of 24 acres; connecting 
at both ends by basins and locks with the Thames. They 
were constructed of brickwork and timber. There was a 
canal on the S. side of the docks which has recently been 














































































DOCKS. 


converted into a new dock called the South Dock. The re¬ 
taining walls of this new dock, which is one of the finest 
basins of the West India Dooks, are 34 feet 10£ inches in 
height from the bottom of the dock to the top of the cop¬ 
ing, where the width is 11£ feet, spreading downward with 
a batter of 1 in 24; the face and back of the wall are of 
brick, the former 3 feet 4£ inches, the latter 18 inches thick, 
connected by vertical transverse walls 2 feet 3 inches in 
thickness, and placed 10 feet apart, the pockets thus form¬ 
ed being filled with concrete; upon a foundation of which, 
31 feet in thickness, the wall stands. The bottom of the 
dock is covered throughout with a layer of puddle 18 inches 
in thickness. On the N. side are sixteen jetties, projecting 
into the dock, of timber, 130 feet in length, furnishing ac¬ 
commodations for thirty-two vessels, and opposite each jetty 
is a buoy for mooring vessels. The area of the South Dock 
is 27£ acres. 

The general plan of these docks, with their entrances and 
connections, entrance-basins, locks, warehouses, railway 
connections, etc., is shown in the figure. The cost of the 
South Dock, with the machinery, railway extension, dock- 
basins, warehouses, etc., was $2,850,000. It will be seen 
from the plan that an incoming vessel can pass directly 
into the Import Dock, unload her cargo, and then, without 
being locked out into the Thames, when the tide permits 
may pass into the Export Dock to receive her outward- 
bound cargo. 

The West India Docks proved a very successful under¬ 
taking; all West India vessels frequenting the Thames 
were, for twenty years after their completion, obliged to 
use them. After declaring annually a dividend of 10 per 
cent, they had in 1819 an accumulated fund of $2,500,000. 
Since then their monopoly has expired, and their dock- 
rates have been reduced from time to time, so that their 
profit has been greatly diminished. 

The East India Docks, which are a short distance to the 
eastward of the above, were at first intended exclusively 
for ships in the East India trade, but are now open to ves¬ 
sels from all parts. Their area is 27 acres, exclusive of 
entrance-basins, and their depth of water is never less than 
23 feet. They belong now to the same company as the 
West India Docks, and have attached to them magnificent 
warehouses for tea, indigo, drugs, spices, etc. 

The London, the St. Katherine, and the Victoria Lon¬ 
don Docks, also on the N. side of the Thames, are under 
the control of one company. The London Docks have a 
water-area of 34 acres, the St. Katherine Docks a water- 
area of 11 acres, and the Victoria London Docks, situated 
immediately below the East India Docks, have an area of 
74 acres in the inner dock alone, exclusive of 16 acres in 
the tidal basin. The depth of water in the inner dock 
varies from 24£ feet to 264 feet. The entrance to this dock 
from the Thames is by means of a lock 320 feet in length, 
80 feet in width, and with a depth of water on the sill of 28 
feet. The jetties, with the sides of the dock and of the basin, 
provide a length available for quay-room of nearly 3 miles. 

On the Isle of Dogs, S. of the West India Docks, are the 
Millwall Docks, recently constructed, and comprising two 
basins, one having a water-area of 25 acres, the other of 
10i acres. The Surrey Commercial Docks, intended for 
ships with bulky commodities, are upon the S. side of the 
Thames, and have a water-area of 176 acres. 

The warehouses belonging to the different dock establish¬ 
ments are of immense size; that of the London Docks, in¬ 
tended for the storage of tobacco, is one of the largest, 
best-arranged, and finest buildings of its kind in the world. 
It will contain 24,000 hogsheads of tobacco, and covers 
nearly 5 acres; the vaults under this and the other ware¬ 
houses of these docks have an area of 181 acres of storage 
space. On five of the jetties of the Victoria Dock are ex¬ 
tensive warehouses, and on the N. side of the dock are 
several large ones, one of which has an area of 4 acres of 
flooring. In some cases the warehouses are built close to 
the water's edge, so that goods may be hoisted into them 
direct from the hold of the vessel; while generally railway 
connections are made with the dock, so that goods may be 
taken to any part of the kingdom without change of car¬ 
riage. The docks are also provided with cranes and other 
appliances, worked by steam or hydraulic power, for the 
rapid transfer of cargoes. 

The dock establishments of Liverpool are not excelled 
in extent and arrangement by those of any port through¬ 
out the world. Though the number of vessels belonging 
to this port is less than that of London, yet the fact that 
they cannot lie with safety or ease in the Mersey on ac¬ 
count of its rapid current and exposed situation, and the 
great rise and fall of the tides (21 feet at neap and 31 feet 
at spring tides), require the dock accommodations to be of 
sufficient extent for the entire trade of the port; while at 
London the Thames affords a secure and convenient berth 
for a great number of vessels. 


1373 


The Liverpool docks have, on the side next the river, a 
sea-wall of 5 miles in extent, which, when considered in 
connection with the obstacles to be overcome, is one of the 
greatest works of modern times. In most cases docks are 
formed by excavations made on the bank of the river, but 
at Liverpool they have been formed in the river itself by 
enclosing, within the wall referred to, a portion of the beach 
of the Mersey, and afterwards excavating the part thus re¬ 
claimed to a proper depth. The wall is 11 feet in thickness 
and 40 feet in height from the foundation, the more modern 
parts being faced with granite. There are between thirty 
and forty docks, having a water-area of 239 acres, exclu¬ 
sive of 19 acres of entrance-basins. The quay-space is 
over 18 miles. Most of the docks have a separate entrance 
from the Mersey, and communicate with each other, so that 
ships may pass from one to another without the necessity 
of being locked out into the river and back again into the 
docks. They are also connected with the different railways 
entering the town, and by a series of locks with the Leeds 
and Liverpool Canal. 

The whole of this immense dock estate is vested in the 
Mersey Docks and Harbor Board, who enforce strict rules 
for the maintenance of good order and prevention of fire - 
and depredation. Every precaution is taken to prevent 
the injury of the docks from the accumulation of mud, by 
the use of steam dredging-machines. The income of the 
Mersey Docks and Harbor Board for 1867 was $4,430,000. 
The revenue of this board, after paying expenses and in¬ 
terest on money borrowed, is applied to the reduction of 
the dock rates. 

The present importance of the port of Liverpool may be 
said to be chiefly owing to these magnificent docks; for, 
though it is the emporium of a district rapidly increasing 
in manufactures and population, the advantages given to 
commerce and navigation by them have brought to it the 
greater part of its business and wealth. 

Birkenhead, on the Mersey, directly opposite to Liver¬ 
pool, has a water-area of 165 acres of docks and subsidiary 
basins; among them are two large docks, one of 52, the 
other of 59 acres. The quay-space is between 10 and 11 
miles in length. Here are also warehouses with their ap¬ 
purtenances, planned on the most approved principles, for 
loading and unloading ships, safe storage of cargoes, etc. 
At Bristol about three miles of the old channel of the river 
was converted into a dock, about 55 acres of which are 
available for large vessels. Hull has five docks with a water- 
area of 491 acres. Grimsby, Lincoln county, has, in ad¬ 
dition to the old works, a new dock of 25 acres, with a 
tidal basin of 15 acres; the new dock is entered from the 
basin by two locks of massive masonry, furnished with 
double sets of gates for ebb and flood tides, the largest of 
which is constructed to admit the largest class of war- 
steamers. At Southampton there are docks surrounded by 
quays, and bonded warehouses, and provided with power¬ 
ful shears for shifting boilers, heavy machinery, masts, etc. 
Among other ports of the British Islands which possess 
large docks may be named Glasgow, Leith, Newcastle-on- 
Tyne, Tyne, Cardiff, Belfast, and many more. 

At Havre, where the rise of the tides is from 20 to 27 
feet, there are capacious docks. At Antwerp, where in 
1803 Napoleon I., who intended to make it a great naval 
establishment, undertook the construction of docks on a 
grand scale, new and convenient ones with warehouses 
have been opened. At Bremen and Amsterdam docks 
have been constructed and recently improved. 

To give an idea of the importance attached in England 
to dock accommodations may be mentioned the Barrow 
Docks at Barrow-in-Furness, a town of 20,000 inhabitants, 
on the sea-coast opposite the Isle of Man. These docks, 
opened in 1867, comprise 1£ miles in length of stone quays 
and 100 acres of wharf-area. The entrance-basin is closed 
by gates in the usual manner, while the dock is closed by a 
caisson placed across the entrance and held by a groove in 
the masonry on both sides. The caisson, when filled with 
water to the higher water-level, remains standing upon the 
dock-sill and closes the passage, but when water is allowed 
to escape from the caisson, so as to fall to the lower level, 
it floats, and can be drawn to one side, so as to leave the 
entrance clear. The water maintained in the dock is 22 
feet above the dock-sill, the tide outside varying from 25J 
feet at spring tides to 18 feet at neap tides. 

The new Hendon Dock at Sunderland has been con¬ 
structed on land wholly reclaimed from the sea; and from 
the exposed character of the coast, great depth below the 
surrounding works, the great head of water constantly 
standing in the old docks in close proximity to the new 
works, and the exceedingly porous nature of the strata, the 
difficulties presented to the engineer were of unusual mag¬ 
nitude. The work was enclosed in sections, with barriers 
formed of timber planking and piling filled with well- 
puddled clay, and protected with heavy limestone blocks. 














DOCKS. 


1374 


The rock was porous and crumbling, and the greatest care 
was necessary to prevent the water from penetrating and 
impoverishing the masonry before it set. In the case of 
the entrances the whole surface of the rock was covered 
with a watertight platform of brickwork set in the best 
Roman cement, filling up every crevice in the rock; and 
upon this the masonry of the walls and sills was laid. 

This new dock is 11 acres in extent; the entrance is 
provided with two pairs of gates, and is crossed by a 
wrought-iron railway bridge, balanced and turned upon a 
water-centre, the usual rollers and turntable being entirely 
dispensed with. The gates and sluices are worked by hy¬ 
draulic machinery, and there are hydraulic pumps to re¬ 
move the water between the two pairs of gates, so as to 
maintain a head of water upon the outer or sea gates 
during stormy weather, and thus prevent their movement. 
The entrance is further protected at such periods by booms 
reaching from side to side, which, by means of a crane 
fixed on the pier-heads, are dropped into grooves in the 
masonry fitted for their reception. The walls of the en¬ 
trance are faced with large blocks of freestone, ashlar 
masonry, none of the courses of which are less than 2 feet 
in thickness, backed up by rubble masonry composed of 
large flat-bedded stones built in the best blue lias pozzuo- 
lana. The width of the entrance is 60 feet, and the depth 
of water above the sills at high water of spring tides is 
26J feet. 

In many ports throughout the world—such, for example, 
as that of New York, where the harbor is naturally pro¬ 
tected, and as also in the Mediterranean, where the rise 
and fall of the tides is so small as not to obstruct the load¬ 
ing and unloading of ships—wet docks are not an absolute 
necessity to commerce, though there is no doubt that the 
excellent appendages which are attached to them, such as 
the wharf-room, the magnificent quays and warehouses, 
the railway connections, cranes, etc. of the docks of Liver¬ 
pool and London, and, by no means least of all, the excel¬ 
lent police arrangements for effecting order and safety from 
fire and depredation, would most certainly greatly promote 
the commercial prosperity of any port. 

But, though in many cases wet docks may be dispensed 
with, all first-class ports need dry docks for the examina¬ 
tion and repair of those parts of a ship which are usually 
immersed in water. Dry docks may be separated into two 
classes—the stationary dry dock, to which the name grav¬ 
ing dock is generally applied; and the floating dock, of 
which there are several varieties, to be described hereafter. 

In ancient times, where there was no rise and fall of the 
tides, vessels were hauled up on the beach and “ careened;” 
where the tides permitted they were grounded at high 
water, so as to be exposed at low. Sometimes the heaving- 
down plan was adopted; this was to attach ropes to the 
heads of the masts of the vessel and to the mooring rings 
of a quay, or to the deck of another vessel, so as to haul 
the ship over into a nearly horizontal position on the water, 
the ballast or weights being removed or shifted. It was 
while undergoing this very dangerous operation that the 
Royal George foundered at Spithead in 1782, with 600 per¬ 
sons on board. 

This method was supplanted by the graving dock, gene¬ 
rally constructed of stone, though sometimes of timber, and 
usually of such dimensions as to contain only one vessel at 
a time. The sides are formed in steps or altars, so that the 
form of the dock is somewhat similar to that of the vessel 
which it is to contain, but sufficient space is left around it 
to enable the workmen to get at every part of the bottom of 
the vessel, and to afford sufficient light for their work. The 
entrance is closed by gates, which open sideways, like a 
lock or fall, upon the bed of the entrance, or by caissons; 
the latter, since the introduction of iron for shipbuilding 
purposes admits of their being made of that material, are 
almost universally adopted for large docks, and have the 
advantage of affording the means of retaining the water 
inside the dock, as well as of keeping it out; which is of 
importance, where the tide is ebbing rapidly, in allowing 
time to adjust the vessel before it settles down on the keel- 
blocks. The vessel is floated into the dock at high water, 
the gates closed, the sluices opened, and the water allowed 
to run out with the ebb of the tide, or, where the fall of the 
tide will not permit, is pumped out, leaving the dock per¬ 
fectly dry; the vessel being supported on timber struts and 
shores resting upon the steps already mentioned as form¬ 
ing the sides of the dock. 

The U. S. naval graving dock at the Brooklyn navy- 
yard is, in its dimensions and workmanship, one of the 
finest in the world. It also possesses many features and 
improvements that at the time of its construction were un¬ 
equalled by any other graving dock. Owing to the nature 
of the soil selected for its site, the excavation for the foun¬ 
dation was attended with many obstacles, and afforded op¬ 
portunity for the display of great engineering skill. This 


lower soil was an almost impalpable quicksand, becoming 
semi-fluid when saturated w'ith water; and before the re¬ 
quired level for the foundation had been reached springs 
coming from a great depth burst up through it, rendering 
necessary measures to overcome it. This was finally done 
by driving piles into the cavities formed by the springs, on 
which a flooring of plank was laid; upon this bricks were 
laid in hydraulic cement, and upon the brick floor concrete 
masonry; the whole being done with the greatest despatch; 
vent-holes for the water were left until the permanent foun¬ 
dations were completed, but in this manner the flow of sand 
was checked. 

The floor, from 4 feet to 6 feet in depth, is an inverted 
stone arch, to strengthen it against the pressure of water 
from below. The masonry foundations are 400 feet in 
length and 120 feet in breadth. The facing of the masonry 
is of granite, the side walls being laid up with English 
bond—that is, alternate courses of headers and stretchers; 
the courses are generally 2 feet thick, a few near the bot¬ 
tom being 27 inches. The facing stones, averaging 6000 
pounds in weight, were backed up with a course of scabbled 
stone, the interior and rear of the walls being laid up with 
coursed rubble. The mitre-sills and the keystone are mass¬ 
ive granite blocks. The whole was laid in mortar made 
of the best hydraulic cement and sand. The gates, of iron, 
are supported on friction rollers, and, with the machinery 
for turning them, weigh near 200 tons. The caisson is an 
iron vessel, with keel and stems made to fit the grooves in 
the masonry at the entrance of the dock. It is 50 feet in 
length at the keel, and 68 feet 8 inches in length at the 
rail; its breadth at the centre of the top is 16 feet, at the 
keel 7 feet. The grooves in the masonry, in which the 
stems and keel of the caisson fit, are 26 inches in width 
and 12 inches in depth, from the top to the bottom of the 
side walls and in the floor. By admitting water into the 
chambers of the caisson it settles into these grooves and 
closes the entrance; it is removed by pumping out sufficient 
water to float it clear of the grooves. Its weight is nearly 
218 tons, exclusive of ballast. It is used when greater 
length of dock may be required, when the turning-gates 
need repair, or to partially relieve the strain upon them. 
The engine and pumps are of very large capacity, and will 
relieve the dock of water in about two hours. In order that 
the bottom may be dry and free from water, there is a slight 
inclination in the bottom of the dock, and a gutter is car- 

Fig. 2. 



Plan of Dry Dock at Brooklyn Navy-yard. 


ried across at the lower end, leading into a culvert which 
passes entirely around the dock, from which the water is 
constantly pumped. Several flights of steps are provided 
in the different parts of the dock for the use of the work¬ 
men, by which they are enabled to reach any part of the 
vessel with great facility. The main chamber of the dock 
is 286 feet in length and 30 feet in breadth at the bottom; 
307 feet in length and 98 feet in breadth at the top; by 
using the caisson an additional length of 52 feet may be 


Fig. 3. 



Section of Dry Dock at Brooklyn Navy-yard. 


obtained, giving a total length of 359 feet. The height of 
the walls is 36 feet, and the sills are 26 feet below high 
water. The total cost, including all machinery and appur¬ 
tenances, w r as about $2,000,000; the work was completed 
in 1851. 

The naval graving dock at Boston, built of granite and 
completed in 1833, is 253 feet in length and 86 feet in width 
inside the chamber; the turning-gates and the caisson are 


































































DOCKS. 


1375 


of timber and composition fastened with copper bolts; the 
caisson being 60 feet in length, 30 feet in height, and 16 
feet in width amidships. The total cost of this dock was 
about $700,000. The naval graving dock at Norfolk is 
almost precisely similar in style and dimensions to that at 
Boston, and cost about $950,000. 

The cost of the construction of graving docks depends 
greatly upon the situation selected. In some places they 
ai'e simple to construct and maintain, as at Birkenhead, 
where they are hewn out of the solid rock, a red sandstone, 
which is sufficiently hard and homogeneous to support the 
heavy weights, and at the same time soft enough to be 
worked. At this place (Birkenhead) five graving docks, 
having an aggregate length of 1690 feet, were hewn out 
of the rock at a cost of $430,000. The materials of which 
the docks are constructed also affect the cost; most of those 
belonging to the governments of different countries being 
made of finely-dressed ashlar masonry in a manner involv¬ 
ing a considerable expense, while many of the most suc¬ 
cessful docks on the Thames have been built of timber and 
brick at a cost which is trifling by comparison. A heavy 
item of expense in those places where the fall of the tide 
is not sufficient to empty the dock is the cost of the large 
engines and pumps needed to remove the water. 

In addition to her magnificent wet docks, Liverpool pos¬ 
sesses a large number of graving docks, there being on the 
side of the Mersey on which that city is situated no less 
than sixteen, having an aggregate length of over miles; 
of these, the Sandon Graving Docks, six in number, are 
each 540 feet in length at the bottom, with entrances of 
from 45 feet to 70 feet in width. On the Birkenhead side 
are six docks, of which four belong to Laird Brothers. 

Among the largest graving docks are the double dock at 
Brest, 721 feet in length, 92 feet in width, with a depth of 
55 feet of water over the sill; and the double dock at 
Portsmouth, England, 644 feet in length by 80 feet in 
breadth. Portsmouth has besides nine single graving 
docks, the largest of which is 406 feet in length at the 
bottom. Devonport has five, Cherbourg eight, Sheerness 
five, Toulon six, Brest four. There are several on the 
Thames, and many other ports have one or more. South¬ 
ampton has three; one of which, the Eastern Dock, is 425 
feet in length, with a width of entrance of 80 feet, made in 
1854 of brickwork with Portland copings, and is stated to 
have cost $260,000. 

At the Southampton Docks, 693 vessels were docked 
during the seven years ending in 1867, average tonnago 
being 1400 tons per ship. The cost of docking, including 


pumping, labor, and repairs to the docks, was, on an aver¬ 
age, $65 per ship, while the average sum paid for each 
vessel, for docking and for the use of the dock during the 
time it remained in it, was $275. Total amount earned 
during the seven years, about $192,000 ; expenses, $39,000. 
The capital of the Graving Dock Establishment at South¬ 
ampton has been taken at $750,000, but this sum is consid¬ 
erably over the cost of the docks. As regards speed of 
working at Southampton, on one occasion three large ships 
of more than 2000 tons required to be docked in a hurry ; 
two were docked and undocked, and the third docked and 
placed on the blocks, between daylight and dark. 

One of the largest and deepest single graving docks is 
the Somerset Dock, constructed by the British government 
at Malta. The length on the floor is 428 feet, at the coping 
line 468 feet; the width of the floor is 42+ feet, and be¬ 
tween the copings the width is 104 feet; the width of the 
entrance is 80 feet; the length of the entrance from the 
caisson in the centre is 256 feet; the depth of the entrance 
and floor is 33£ feet below the average sea-level. The cais¬ 
son is 83 feet in length on the deck, 41 feet in height, and 
12i feet in width. The upper deck forms a roadway be¬ 
tween the two sides of the dock-entrance, and the caisson 
is arranged to go into a camber when the entrance is to 
be opened. The caisson differs from those previously con¬ 
structed in the fact that it is worked by steam, and not by 
hand. In excavating for this dock it was found necessary 
to cut a tunnel through the solid rock 230 feet in length, 
for the purpose of removing the excavated material. Dur¬ 
ing the work fissures were met with discharging into the 
excavation large quantities of water charged with black 
mud, which gave great trouble. The inner or exposed lin¬ 
ing was formed of ashlar masonry of the hard crystalline 
limestone of the Maltese Islands; the backing was from 
an inferior quality of the same rock, some of which came 
from the excavation. There being but little change in the 
tides, the dock is emptied by lai'ge pumps worked by two 
powerful engines. The engines and pumps are placed in a 
cast-iron tank sunk in the rock. 

Of the floating dock there are several distinct varieties: 
the sectional dock, such as is in use in the Philadelphia 
and San Francisco navy-yards; the Gilbert balance dock, 
in use in the Portsmouth and Pensacola navy-yards; the 
iron floating dock of the Bermuda dock pattern; G. B. 
Rennie’s 'patent iron floating dock, of which the Cartagena 
dock is an example; and Edwin Clark’s hydraulic lift dock , 
in use in the Victoria London Docks. 

The sectional floating dock in the Philadelphia navy- 


Fig. 4. 



yard is made in nine separate and independent sections, 
differing only in their widths. Each section consists of a 
pontoon or tank, watertight, 105 feet in length, 30 or 32 
feet in width, and 11 feet in depth; two end-frames, and 
two end-floats. Together, the sections form a floor of over 
300 feet in length and 105 feet in width. At each end of 
each section is an open frame in which is a float, connected 
with the four posts of the framework, which is raised and 
lowered by machinery—raised to assist in sinking the main 
tank to the depth required, or lowered into the water to 
give it greater buoyancy. 

When the dock is to be used a sufficient number of these 
sections are joined together to give the length required, 
and firmly connected by beams so arranged that they may 
be placed from 6 inches to 6 feet apart, though they are not 
generally farther apart than 3 feet. They are then con¬ 
nected by means of shafting with the engines, of which 
there are four. At each end of each section are three 


pumps. When the vessel is ready to be docked the main 
tanks or pontoons are filled with water, the end-floats 
raised by machinery upon the end-frames until the dock is 
sunk to the proper depth. The ship is then hauled over 
the dock, and the end-floats depressed into the water until 
its keel has a bearing upon the keel-blocks ; the shores or 
supports for the vessel are then adjusted, and the water is 
pumped from the tanks, the end-floats being used, if ne¬ 
cessary, to preserve the proper equilibrium. 

This dock, as well as Gilbert’s balance dock, is used in 
connection with a basin and railways. The basin in the 
Philadelphia navy-yard is 350 feet in length by 226 feet in 
width. The floor, of granite 10 inches in thickness, is laid 
upon a pile and concrete foundation, and is perfectly lex el; 
on three sides of this floor are granite walls 14-J teet in 
height. The “bed-ways” are two, and each consists of 
three << ways”—one to support the keel, and two to sup¬ 
port the bilges; each is 350 feet in length and 26 feet in 


































































































DOCKS. 


1376 


width. The basin and “ ways ” are used thus: the dock, 
with the ship upon it, drawing from 8 feet to 10 feet of 
water, is hauled into the basin by means of capstans; the 
line of the ship’s keel is brought into the line of the “bed- 
ways,” water is admitted to the tanks, and the dock settled 
firmly upon the stone platform of the basin. The vessel, 
by means of hydraulic power and a cradle, is slid upon the 
bed-ways, and the dock may be immediately used for an¬ 
other vessel. The dock without the basin may be used for 
repairing a vessel. This dock was completed in 1851 at a 
total cost of about $814,000. Its lifting power is near 6000 
tons. 

The California sectional dock is composed of ten sec¬ 
tions, 100 feet in length, 32 feet in breadth, and 11 feet 9 
inches in depth. 

The balance floating dock was invented by Mr. John S. 
Gilbert of New York City. Like the sectional dock, it is 
constructed of timber, and consists of a pontoon bottom 
with two side walls, possessing sufficient displacement to 
carry the whole weight of the dock and the vessel to be 
raised. The side walls are hollow and of considerable 
width, serving, like the floats in the sectional dock, to pre¬ 
serve its stability in rising and sinking. The outside of 
these walls is vertical, while the inside is sloping, so as to 
conform to a certain extent to the shape of the ship. Port¬ 
holes are made in the walls for ventilation. The walls also 
afford the means of shoring up the ship, as in a stone dock; 
on the top are the engine-house, pumps, and working plat¬ 
form. There are sometimes gates at the ends for enclosing 
the dock, which are used only when vessels of great weight 
are to be lifted. Of this description is the Portsmouth 
navy-yard dock, which is 350 feet in length, 38 feet in 
depth, and 90 feet in inside width. This dock, with the 
basin and railways, cost $733,000. The Pensacola dock, 
which is similar, cost $923,000. There are also balance 
docks at New York, Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, and 
New Orleans. Mr. Gilbert constructed a balance dock for 
the Austrian government at Pola, a naval station on the 
Adriatic, with a width inside of 211£ feet, and a length 
of 311J feet. There are also a basin and two railways for 
hauling vessels upon, each of 700 feet in length. 

The iron Bermuda dock (or iron camel, as it is some¬ 
times called) is made of wrought iron; the transverse sec¬ 
tion is U-shaped; the bottom and sides aro hollow, and 20 
feet through; the ends are closed by caissons 25J feet 
through; the length of the dock over all is 381 feet, be¬ 
tween the caissons, 330 feet; breadth over all, 124 feet, 
inside of the dock, 84 feet; depth over all, 72 feet. It is 
divided into six longitudinal compartments or chambers, 
watertight and distinct from each other, these compart¬ 
ments having transverse divisions. The weight of the 
dock without the caissons is about 8200 tons. This huge 
vessel, if it may be so called, was completed in the latter 
part of the year 1868, and in the summer of 1869, with two 
vessels on either side and two ahead, was towed down Sheer¬ 
ness harbor to the Nore. It was then taken under the stern 
of the Northumberland, and made fast to one of the im¬ 
mense hemp hawsers, 30 inches in circumference, made for 
the purpose; a second hawser was passed from the North¬ 
umberland to the Agincourt’s stern and secured, the Ter- ; 
rible taking her position at the stern of the dock to assist 
in steering. These vessels took the dock to Madeira, where 
the Warrior and the Black Prince took the places of the 
Northumberland and the Agincourt, and proceeded directly 
to Bermuda. The voyage, a distance of 4000 miles, was 
successfully accomplished in thirty-six daj r s. The caissons 
were sent out in sections. This dock is lowered by filling 
some of the chambers by means of pumps on the top of 
the dock, and by opening some of the valves; water is also 
allowed to run into the dock itself, and when the proper 
depth is reached, the caissons are taken out, the ship 
brought in over the blocks and shored, and the caissons 
put in place; the water in the dock is then allowed to run 
into some of the chambers, which have been kept empty; 
in which state the dock remains until the vessel is ready 
for undocking. By means of the admission or exclusion 
of water into or from the different chambers, the dock can 
be balanced in any position, and even be heeled over on 
one side, so as to expose the bottom for examination and 
repair. This dock is capable, without the caissons, of tak¬ 
ing in the largest vessel afloat except the Great Eastern, 
and can lift and lay completely dry a vessel weighing 8000 
tons. 

An iron floating dock, after the patent of Mr. G. B. 
Rennie, an English naval architect, has been constructed 
for the Spanish naval yard at Cartagena; it is 320 feet in 
length; 105 feet in breadth outside; breadth inside, 79 
feet; height outside, 48 feet; height inside, 36£ feet; 
weight, 4400 tons. This dock, possessing many points of 
resemblance to Gilbert’s balance dock, may be described 
as an oblong rectangular box or trough, without top or 


ends; walls and bottom hollow, and divided into several 
independent chambers; the side walls act as floats to pre¬ 
vent the dock from sinking too rapidly, and eventually 
from being entirely submerged. The operation of docking 
is performed thus : Water is admitted to the base compart- 

Fig. 5. 



A. Level of water when ready to receive a ship. 

B. “ “ with ship docked. 

C. “ “ when light. 


ments by sluices and pipes; the dock gradually sinks to a 
depth sufficient to admit the vessel, which is then hauled 
in and shored in the usual manner; the engines and pumps 
then discharge the water from the base compartments until 
the floor of the dock is out of water. 

Among the largest vessels which this dock has lifted is 
the Spanish iron-clad Numancia, of 21£ feet draught and 
weighing 5600 tons. This vessel remained supported 
eighty days without damaging or straining the dock. The 
draught of water of the dock, with the Numancia in, and 
with 800 tons of water in the chambers, was 111 feet; 
without a load the draught of the dock is 4 feet 7 inches. 
Mr. Rennie has also constructed at Cartagena a basin and 
railways similar to those used with the American floating 
docks. 

Clark’s Hydraidic Lift Dock. —This style of dock was 
first constructed by Mr. Edwin Clark at the Victoria Docks. 
The vessel to be docked is raised by hydraulic power, tho 
dock (or rather the "lift”) being formed of two rows of 
cast-iron columns placed at a sufficient distance apart to 
admit a vessel between them. Each column encloses a hy¬ 
draulic press, the ram of which is connected by chains with 
a transverse beam extending to the opposite column. These 
transverse beams form a platform, upon which is floated a 
shallow pontoon of sufficient size to accommodate the ves¬ 
sel to be docked; the platform and pontoon are then sunk, 
and the vessel floated into its proper position over the lat¬ 
ter. The pumps of the hydraulic presses are then set to 
work, the platform is raised, and with it the pontoon and 
the vessel, the latter being supported upon the keel-blocks 

Fig. G. 



and the sliding bilge-blocks, which are hauled into their 
places by chains. When the pontoon is lifted clear of the 
water, the latter flows out through the valves in the bot¬ 
tom, these being closed when the pontoon is emptied; the 
platform is then lowered until the pontoon, with the vessel 
upon it, is afloat. Thus in about thirty minutes a vessel 
drawing 20 feet of water is left afloat on a shallow pontoon 
drawing only 4 or 6 feet, and may be taken into the shal¬ 
low dock prepared for its reception. These docks are sur¬ 
rounded by workshops and tools, with shelter for the men 
close up to tho bulwarks of the ship. The vessel is, in 
fact* brought bodily into the centre of a convenient work¬ 
shop. It is taken to the smiths’, the carpenters’, or the 
machine shops, according to the nature of the repairs re¬ 
quired, and is moved easily from one to the other. In tho 































































































































DOCK-YARDS—DODD. 1377 


\ ictoria Docks the shallow berths to which the pontoons 
are floated are only 6 feet in depth; there are in all eight 
berths, each GO feet in width, and from 300 to 400 feet in 
length. 

The pontoons are very shallow, and, being open-topped, 
do not possess any great amount of rigidity, but Mr. Clark 
considers this flexibility an advantage; and from the results 
of the practice at the Victoria Docks it certainly seems that 
it is not so excessive in amount as to do any harm. One 
great advantage of Mr. Clark’s plan is, that by a single 
lift, in connection with a great number of pontoons, an 
equal number of vessels can be floated in shallow water at 
a comparatively slight expense. It seems particularly ap¬ 
plicable to situations which are sheltered, where the tidal 
changes are not great, and where a foundation can be read¬ 
ily obtained for the columns. A dock on this plan has been 
recently constructed by Mr. Clark at Malta. 

A plan has been proposed by a Mr. Zanicki before the 
French Society of Engineers for a floating dock composed 
of a number of pontoons from.which the water is driven by 
compressed air; stability being given to the pontoons by 
lateral moving floats. Samuel II. Shreve. 

Dock-yards in Great Britain are government estab¬ 
lishments corresponding to the U. S. navy-yards. There 
are dock-yards at Portsmouth, Devonport, Sheerness, Chat¬ 
ham, Woolwich, Deptford, Plymouth, Pembroke, Ilaulbow- 
line, Gosport, etc. 

Doc'tor [Lat. doctor, a “ teacher,” from doceo, doctum, 
td “ teach ”], a title of honor which was applied in early 
times to teachers of doctrine in the churches, and in more 
recent times conferred by universities ; at first as the equiva¬ 
lent of “ master ” ( mar/inter ), and afterwards as a still higher 
degree. Four of the Greek Fathers (Athanasius, Basil, Nazi- 
anzen, and Chrysostom), and three Latin Fathers (Jerome, 
Augustine, and Gregory the Great), were distinguished as 
“doctors of the Church.” Thomas Aquinas, Bernard of 
Clairvaux, Bonaventura, and others bore the same title in 
later days. The distinction is usually conferred after death. 
The title “doctor” was given later in the Western Church to 
prominent teachers of scholastic theology. Many of these 
titles were- conferred by their followers, and had an ad¬ 
ditional epithet, designed to be expressive of some spe¬ 
cial excellence. Thus, William Hales was called “ Doctor 
Irrefragabilis ”—the “irrefutable doctor;” William Ock¬ 
ham was called by his admirers “Doctor Singularis”— 
the “pre-eminent doctor,” a title given to several others. 
Doctor of laws, LL.D., or J. U. D. ( doctor utriusque juris, 
“teacher of both laws,” i. e. the civil and the canon law), 
was the first title of the kind conferred by the univer¬ 
sities. Bologna appears to have been the place whore this 
title was first conferred, but the University of Paris soon 
followed, first giving this degree in 1145. Doctors of laws 
(except when bearing a merely honorary title) long had a 
certain jurisdiction in the courts, which is even now scarcely 
extinct in England. (See article Doctors’ Commons, and also 
Shakspeare’s “Merchant of Venice,” act iv., scene i.) In 
the English universities the doctorate in law is given in 
course at Oxford under the form D. C. L., and at Cam¬ 
bridge and London under the form LL.D. At the two 
former universities it is occasionally conferred as honorary. 
The degree of S. T. D. ( Sacrosanctse Theologise Doctor, i. e. 
“ Teacher of Sacred Theology”), or D. D. (Doctor of Di¬ 
vinity), otherwise written T. D. (Doctor of Theology), is 
still given at all the European universities after examina¬ 
tion in the regular university course. It is also conferred 
in many cases as an honorary title. The popes and arch¬ 
bishops of Canterbury have long claimed and exercised the 
right of conferring the doctorate both in law and divinity. 
The degree of doctor in medicine has been traced back to 
1384, and that of doctor of music is nearly or quite as old. 
Ph. D. (Doctor of Philosophy) is the title conferred at 
German and other European universities after examination 
by the faculty of philosophy, chiefly on students of phil¬ 
ology. It is also conferred at several American colleges. 
The doctorate of literature, or of letters ( literarum human- 
iorum doctor ), written L. II. D., is conferred by the regents 
of the University of the State of New York, at Albany, as 
their highest honor. Besides the above there are several 
other doctorates, mostly of recent origin. (See Arts, De¬ 
grees in.) 

The word “doctor” as used in the New Testament is 
taken in its primitive Latin meaning, “teacher,” and cor¬ 
responds to the Hebrew word mori (“teacher”) or to the 
title rabbi (“master”), which was conferred during the 
centuries immediately preceding and following the birth 
of Christ by the “nasi,” the chief of the Sanhedrim, ac¬ 
companied by the ceremony of the laying on of hands. At 
present, the Jewish doctorate is conferred by the universities. 

Doctors’ Com'mons, the popular name for the 
courts and offices once occupied by the body incorporated in 
87 


1768 under the title of “The College of Doctors of Law 
exercent in the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts.” 
These courts were on the S. side of St. Paul’s churchyard. 
The college consists of a president (the dean of the arches 
for the time being) and of those doctors of law who, having 
regularly taken that degree in either of the Universities 
of Oxford or Cambridge, and having been admitted advo¬ 
cates in pursuance of the rescript of the archbishop of Can¬ 
terbury, have been elected fellows of the college in the man¬ 
ner prescribed by the charter. But the practical functions 
of this body of lawyers have been materially diminished, 
and the college has been empowered to sell its property and 
surrender its charter. 

Doctors of the Church (see Doctor), in the Roman 
Catholic Church, are certain saints who after death receive 
this title on account of their superior wisdom and excel¬ 
lence. They are at present seventeen in number, viz.: Sts. 
Hilary of Poitiers (died 367 A. D.). Athanasius (373), Basil 
(379), Gregory Nazianzen (389), John Chrysostom (407), 
Jerome (420), Augustine (430), Peter Chrysologus (450), 
Leo (460), Gregory (604), Isidore (636), Peter Damian 
(1072), Anselm (1109), Bernard of Citeaux (1153), Thomas 
Aquinas (1274), Bonaventura (1274), and Alphonsus of 
Liguori (1787). The last-mentioned saint first received 
this honor Mar. 23, 1871, by decree of Pius IX. Outside 
the Roman Catholic Church the seven Christian Fathers 
mentioned in the article “Doctor” are more especially 
designated by the title “Doctors of the Church.” 

Doctrinaire, a French term, originally applied to a 
party of politicians who just after the restoration of 1815 
occupied in the Chamber of Deputies a place between the 
Centre and the extreme Left. The chief men of this party 
were systematic writers and speakers on government, who 
wished to establish a form of constitution somewhat re¬ 
sembling that of England, and supported scientific doc¬ 
trines of constitutional liberty against the arbitrary will 
of the king. The word doctrinaire was used by their oppo¬ 
nents to stigmatize them as pedantic and unpractical theo¬ 
rists. The leaders of the Doctrinaires were Royer-Collard, 
Guizot, the due de Broglie, and Decazes. 

Doctrine. See Theology, by Pres. E. G. Robinson, 
D. D., LL.D. 

Doc'ument [Lat. documentum, from doceo, to “teach,” 
to “furnish information”], an original or official paper or 
writing relied on as the basis or proof of something; in 
law, a written instrument adduced for the purpose of evi¬ 
dence. 

Dod (Albert Baldwin), D. D., an American scholar 
and teacher, born in Mendham, N. J., Mar. 24, 1805, grad¬ 
uated at the College of New Jersey in 1822. Though li¬ 
censed to preach, he was never a pastor. In 1830 he was 
chosen professor of mathematics in the College of New 
Jersey, discharging the duties of the office with signal 
ability till his death, Nov. 20, 1845. He contributed largely 
to the “ Princeton Review.” The family to which he be¬ 
longed has for several generations been remarkable both 
for mathematical taste and talent. 

Dot! (Daniel), an American machinist, born in Vir¬ 
ginia in 1788, was the father of the preceding. He con¬ 
structed the engine of the Savannah, the first steamboat 
that crossed the Atlantic. He was killed by the explosion 
of a boiler near New York in 1823. 

Dodd (Charles), the assumed name of Hugh or Rich¬ 
ard Tootle, a Roman Catholic priest of England who died 
about 1745. He was the author of Dodd’s “Church His¬ 
tory of England” (3 vols. folio, 1737-42), and of several 
other works, chiefly polemical. His history was a reply to 
that of Burnet, and has been in part republished (1839-43). 
Its value is regarded as considerable, though it is character¬ 
ized by severity and unfairness. 

Dodd (James B.), an American mathematician, was 
born In Virginia in 1807. In 1841 he was chosen professor 
of mathematics, astronomy, etc. in Centenary College, Miss., 
and in 1846 became a professor in Transylvania University, 
of which institution he was acting president (1849-55). He 
has published several mathematical text-books, besides re¬ 
views, etc. 

Dodd (Mary Ann Hanmer), born at Hartford, Conn., 
Mar. 5, 1813, is the author of many poetical productions ot 
unusual merit, printed chiefly in periodicals. A volume of 
her poems appeared in 1843. 

Dodd (Ralph), an English engineer, born in North¬ 
umberland about 1756. He was the first projector ot the 
Thames Tunnel, and ho planned the Surrey Canal. He 
wrote, besides other works, an “Account of the Principal 
Canals of the World” (1795). Died April 11, 1822. 

Dodd (William), LL.D., an English clergyman, born 
at Bourne, in Lincolnshire, in 1<29. He was ordained in 
1753, and became a popular preacher in London. He was 














DODDER—DODO. 


1378 


also chaplain to the king, and preceptor to Philip Stan¬ 
hope, earl of Chesterfield. Among his works are “ Reflec¬ 
tions on Death,” “ The Visitor,” and “ Sermons.” In 1777 
he was. convicted of forging the signature of the earl of 
Chesterfield to a bond for £4000, and was put to death 
June 22 of the same year. 

Dod'tler [Ger. Dotter, signifying the “ yolk of an egg,” 
so called from the color], ( Cuscuta , Engelmannia, etc.), 
leafless parasitical plants, generally placed by botanists in 
the order Convolvulaceae, but sometimes made a distinct 
order called Cuscutaceae. They have twining thread-like 
stems of an orange-yellow, and flowers in thick clusters. 
They are found native in the Old and New Worlds, and are 
sometimes injurious to crops by smothering the plants. 
The dodders are remarkable for having seeds without cotyl¬ 
edons. The vine grows up from the ground, and having 
attached itself as a climbing parasite to herbs and shrubs, 
the proper root dies, leaving the vine to subsist upon the 
juices of the plant which supports it. This it does by 
means of papilla, which penetrate the bark of the plant 
on which it lives. Huge dodders in Afghanistan grow 
upon the trees, and even prey upon themselves. The 
dodders of the U. S. are quite numerous, and have been 
especially studied by the botanist Engelmann of St. Louis. 

Dodder-laurels (Cassythaceas), an order of parasitic 
plants having the habit and appearance of dodders, but in 
other respects resembling the laurels, to which they are 
generally referred. They replace the dodders in hot regions, 
where alone they grow. The U. S. have but one known 
species, the Cassytha Jilifonnis of Florida. 

Dod'ilriilge, a county of the N. part of West Virginia. 
Area, 300 square miles. It is drained by the Hughes River 
and Middle Island Creek. The surface is hilly ; the soil is 
good for pasture. Grain, tobacco, and wool are raised. 
Coal and iron are produced. It is intersected by the Balti¬ 
more and Ohio R. R. Capital, West Union. Pop. 7076. 

Dod'dridge (Philip), D. D., an eminent English 
preacher and author, was born in London June 26, 1702. 
He became pastor of a dissenting congregation at Kibworth 
in 1723, and removed in 1729 to Northampton, where he 
was principal of a theological seminary, and at the same 
time pastor of a large congregation. In 1730 he married 
Mrs. Mercy Maris. He was an earnest and devout preacher, 
and acquired a high reputation as a writer. His most im¬ 
portant works are “ The Rise and Progress of Religion in 
the Soul” (1745) and “The Family Expositor” (2 vols. 
4to, 1739-40). He wrote 374 hymns, some of which are 
admirable. He died at Lisbon (whither he had gone for 
his health) Oct. 26, 1751. (See Job Orton, “Life of Dod¬ 
dridge,” 1766.) 

D odcc'agon [from the Gr. SioSexa, “twelve,” andywvta, 
“ angle ”], a regular polygon of twelve equal sides and 
twelve equal angles. 

Dodecahe'dron [from the Gr. SutSexa, “twelve,” and 
eSpa, a “base”], one of the five Platonic bodies or regular 
solids, is bounded by twelve equal and regular pentagons, 
has thirty equal edges and twenty equal solid angles, each 
formed by the meeting of three equal plane angles. Its 
volume is nearly 7.66312 times that of the cube of one of 
its sides. 

Dodecan'dria [from the Gr. ScoSexa, “twelve,” and 
avr/p (gen. avSpo ?), a “man or male”], the eleventh class of 
plants in the artificial system of Linnaeus, characterized 
by the presence of twelve stamens; but as the number of 
plants so characterized is small, it was made to include all 
plants with more than ten and less than twenty stamens. 

Dodeca'theon [from the Gr. SASexa, “twelve,” and 
Oeoi, “gods,’’ probably an allusion to its curious nodding 
flowers, about twelve in number], a genus of plants of the 
order Primulacese. The Dodccatlieon Meadia of the U. S. 
is an elegant plant called American cowslip, pride of Ohio, 
or shooting star. In cultivation it is very fine. 

Dd'derlein (Ludwig), a German philologist, born at 
Jena Dec. 19, 1791. He was appointed professor of phil¬ 
ology at Erlangen in 1827. .Among his works are “ Latin 
Synonyms and Etymologies” (6 vols., 1826-38) and “Ho- 
merisches Glossarium,” 3 pts. (1850-58). Died Nov. 9,1863. 

Dodge, a county in S. Central Georgia, formed since 
the census of 1870. It is in the fertile valley of the river 
Altamaha, which bounds it on the S. W. The county is 
traversed by the Macon and Brunswick R. R. Capital, 
Eartmon. 

Dodge, a county in the S. E. of Minnesota. Area, 432 
square miles. It is partly drained by the S. branch of the 
Zumbro River. The surface is undulating or nearly level; 
the soil is calcareous and fertile. Grain, wool, hay, and 
dairy products are raised. This county contains extensive 
prairies. It is intersected by the Winona and St. Peter 
R. R. Capital, Mantorville. Pop. 8598. 


Dodge, a county in the E. of Nebraska. Area, 600 
square miles. It is bounded on the S. by the Platte River 
and intersected by the Elkhorn. The surface is undulating; 
the soil is based on limestone and is fertile. Grain is the 
chief product. The Union Pacific R. It. passes through 
the southern part of this county, and it is intersected by 
the Sioux City and Pacific R. R. Capital, Fremont. Pop. 
4212. 

Dodge, a county in S. E. Central Wisconsin. Area, 
930 square miles. It is intersected by Rock River and by 
Crawfish and Beaver Dam creeks. The surface is diversi¬ 
fied by prairies, forests, and oak-openings ; the soil is very 
fertile. Grain, cattle, wool, hay, and dairy products are 
raised. The manufactures include furniture, wagons, coop¬ 
erage, saddlery, brick, flour, etc. Limestone and iron ore 
are found here. It is intersected by the Chicago and North¬ 
western R. R. and by the Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R. 
Capital, Juneau. Pop. 47,035. , 

Dodge, a township of Boone co., Ia. Pop. 1297. 

Dodge, a township of Dubuque co., Ia. Pop. 979. 

Dodge, a post-township of Guthrie co., Ia. Pop. 293. 

Dod ge, a township of Union co., Ia. Pop. 229. 

Dodge (Ebenezer), D. D., LL.D., an American Baptist 
divine and scholar, was born at Salem, Mass., April 22, 
1819, graduated at Brown University in 1840, and at New¬ 
ton Theological Institution in 1845; was instructor in 
Hebrew at Covington Theological School (1845-46), pro¬ 
fessor in the theological department of Madison University, 
Hamilton, N. Y. (1853-68), and president of the university 
from 1868 till the present time (1874). He has published 
“Evidences of Christianity,” several able reviews, etc. 

Dodge (Grenville M.), an American general, born at 
Danvers, Mass., April 12,1831. He commanded a brigade 
at Pea Ridge in Mar., 1S62, and became a major-general 
of Union volunteers in June, 1864. He directed a corps of 
Gen. Sherman’s army in the campaign against Atlanta 
(May to Sept., 1864), and succeeded Rosecrans as com¬ 
mander of the department of Missouri in December of that 
year. He represented a district of Iowa as a member of 
Congress in 1867-69. 

Dodge (Henry), General, was born at Vincennes, 
Ind., Oct. 12, 1782. He served with distinction in the war 
of 1812 and in various Indian wars, was governor of 
Wisconsin Territory (1836-41 and 1845-4S), a delegate to 
Congress (1841-45), and U. S. Senator from "Wisconsin 
(1849-57). Died at Burlington, Ia., June 19, 1867. 

Dodge (Mary Abigail), a popular American writer, 
whose assumed name is Gail Hamilton, was born in Ham¬ 
ilton, Mass., about 1830. She was a school-teacher in her 
youth. Among her works are “ Country Living and Country 
Thinking” (1862), “Gala Days ” (1863), “ Woman’s "Wrongs, 
a Counter-Irritant” (1868), “Skirmishes and Sketches,” 
and “The Battle of the Books” (1870). She has con¬ 
tributed to the “Atlantic Monthly.” 

Dodge (William E.), an American philanthropist, born 
in Hartford, Conn., Sept. 4, 1805, removed to New York in 
his thirteenth year. At the age of twenty-one he went 
into business on his own account, and became an extensive 
importer and manufacturer. He is an active member of 
many benevolent and religious societies, was a member of 
the peace convention of 1861, and a Republican member 
of Congress 1866-67. 

Dodgeville, a post-village, capital of Iowa co., Wis., 
45 miles W. by S. from Madison. It has six -churches. 
Mines of lead and copper have been opened in the vicinity. 
It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1407; of Dodgeville 
township, 3708. 

Dod'ington (George Bubb), Lord Melcombe, an Eng¬ 
lish politician, born in 1691. He was elected to Parliament 
in 1715, and became a lord of the treasury in 1724. He was 
long a partisan of Walpole, but he turned against him in 
1740. He was notorious for his venality and intrigues. He 
died July 28,1762, and left a “Diary,” which was published 
in 1784. 

Do'do ( Dhlus ), an extinct genus of birds, usually classed 
among the Brevipennes or struthious birds, but by many 
authorities referred to the Columbidm (pigeons), and pecu¬ 
liarly interesting from the fact that its extinction has but 
recently taken place—the Didus ineptus having been in 
existence less than three hundred years ago. The dodo was 
an inhabitant of the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius, and 
possibly of Madagascar. When Mauritius was first visited 
by voyagers, the dodo was very abundant, and running 
slowly and being wholly unable to fly, was easily killed. It 
is described as larger than a swan; of a clumsy form, with 
a large head and enormous bill, the upper mandible being 
the longer and hooked at the point; short, thick legs, cov” 
ered with scales; four rather short toes, three before and 
















DODONA—DOG DISTEMPER. 1379 


one behind; and a plumage of grayish down. The flesh, 
though tough, was eatable. In several works of the seven¬ 
teenth century are rude representations of the dodo, the 
best being one in Bontius, edited by Piso, who calls the 



Dodo. 


bird doronte or dodaers. There is also a painting perfectly 
corresponding with this in the British Museum, and in Sa- 
very’s picture of “ Orpheus and the Beasts” at The Hague, 
Prof. Owen discovered what he considers a study of the bird 
from nature. A foot of the dodo is preserved in the British 
Museum, and a head and foot in the Ashmolean Museum at 
Oxford. 

Dodo'na [Gr. AcoSuS^r)], an ancient city of Epirus, the 
seat of a celebrated oracle and temple of Jupiter. This 
was the most famous oracle of Greece except those of De¬ 
los and Delphi. Its origin was attributed to Deucalion. 
This oracle was consulted by the Athenians, Spartans, and 
other nations, and its responses were delivered from an 
oak tree. The temple of Dodona was destroyed by the 
Altolians in 219 B. C. Its site has not been accurately 
identified. 

Dods'ley (Robert), an English bookseller and author, 
born near Mansfield in 1703. He opened a bookstore in Lon¬ 
don, and became a friend of Pope, and prospered in busi¬ 
ness. He produced in 1737 a farce called “ The King and 
the Miller of Mansfield,” which was successful. His trag¬ 
edy of “Cleone” (1758) was performed with great applause. 
He purchased Dr. Johnson's “London” for ten guineas, 
and his “Vanity of Human Wishes ” for fifteen guineas. 
He published a “ Select Collection of Old Plays” (12 vols. 
8vo, 1780) and other works. Died Sept. 25, 1701. 

Dod/son, a township of Highland co., 0. Pop. 1710. 

Dod'son’s, a township of Tuscaloosa co., Ala. Pop. 
924. 

Dod'well (Col. Edward), an English antiquary and 
artist who left college in 1800. He afterwards passed many 
years on the continent of Europe, and published a valuable 
illustrated work called “Classical and Topographical Tour 
through Greece” (1818), also “ Thirty Views in Greece” 
(1821), and other works. Died at Rome May 14, 1832. 

Dodwell (Henry), a chronologist, born in Dublin, Ire¬ 
land, in 1641. He became professor of history at Oxford 
in 1688, but was soon deprived of that chair because he 
refused to take the oath of allegiance to William III. Died 
June 7, 1711.—His oldest son, of the same name, who died 
in 1763, wrote a book covertly attacking Christianity. 

Doe (John), the fictitious plaintiff in ejectment. (See 
Ejectment, by Prof. T W. Dwight, LL.D.) 

DofTer, that part of a carding-machine which takes 
the cotton from the cylinder w T hen it is carded. 

Dog, the Canis familiar is of the naturalists, a carniv¬ 
orous mammal of the family Canidm, nearly related to the 
wolf and the fox, is one of the most remarkable of all 
brutes, being possessed of sagacity, acute senses, and in¬ 
stincts often exceeding reason. He seeks the society of 
man, and makes himself a trusty servant, putting at man’s 
disposal all the faculties which nature has given him. It 
is the opinion of some naturalists that the various kinds of 
dog are specifically identical with the wolf and the jackal. 

The more important varieties of dog have been arranged 
in three classes, as follows : 

I. Those having the parietal bones of the skull widest at 
the base and gradually approaching each other as they as¬ 


cend, the condyles of the lower jaw being on the same line 
with the upper molar teeth. The Danish dog, the dingo, 
and the greyhound belong to this class. 

II. Those having the head moderately elongated, and 
the parietals diverging from each other as they rise upon 
the side of the head, enlarging the cerebral cavity and the 
frontal sinus. The most valuable dogs, such as the spaniel, 
setter, pointer, Newfoundland dog, Esquimaux, etc., belong 
to this class. 

III. Those having the muzzle more or less shortened, the 
frontal sinus enlarged, the cranium elevated and diminished 
in capacity. To this class belong the bulldog, the mastiff, 
some of the terriers, etc. The greyhound ( Canis familiaris 
leporarius) is a variety of which there are many kinds, all 
characterized by a small head, slender limbs, and a gaunt 
form. In hunting they usually follow by sight, not by scent. 
They are not intelligent, nor are they distinguished by at¬ 
tachment to their masters. Some are favorites because of 
their swiftness, others for the extreme elegance of their 
shape. The Mount St. Bernard dog, often called the Al¬ 
pine spaniel ( Canis familiaris montanus ), is one of the most 
celebrated of the shaggy or woolly breeds. It is peculiar to 
the Alps, and is noted for its sagacity, strength, and fidelity 
in saving the lives of travellers. The Newfoundland dog 
(Canis familiaris Term Novee) originated in the island 
which gives it its name, and is probably derived from a 
cross of a dog carried thither by English settlers and a 
native breed. It is of large size, and is valuable and use¬ 
ful, remarkably docile, and obedient and very serviceable. 
The shepherd’s dog is one of the most interesting and use¬ 
ful of the species. The hunting-dogs, hounds, and spaniels 
are generally of medium size, the ears are long and pend¬ 
ent, the scent acute, and intelligence great. In general the 
covering is smooth, though instances of rough hair occur. 

The spaniel is probably of Spanish origin, hence his 
name. The ears are large and pendent, the tail elevated, 
the fur of a different length in different parts of the body, 
but longest about the ears, under the neck, behind the 
thighs, and on the tail, varying in color, but most com¬ 
monly white with brown or black patches. 

The dingo of Australia has an elongated head, flat fore¬ 
head, and short and erect ears. Two kinds of hair thickly 
cover the body—one woolly and gray, the other silky and 
yellow. In form and proportions the dingo resembles the 
shepherd’s dog. He very seldom barks, but whines and 
growls, like most wild dogs. These animals were formerly 
numerous in Australia, but are now rare. 

Revised by C. W. Greene. 

Doga/ua ( i. e. the house (casa) of the doge, who as 
head of the republic had charge of the customs), the com¬ 
mon name in Italian of a custom-house. It originated with 
the Venetians, who were long the chief commercial power 
of Europe. From dogana comes the French douane, hav¬ 
ing the same signification. 

Dog'baiie ( Apoqynum ), a genus of plants of the natural 
order Apocynacese, having bell-shaped flowers, no style, and 
the fruit a long linear follicle. Some of the species are her¬ 
baceous, others shrubby, and some are found in colder cli¬ 
mates than is usual for plants of this order. The dogbane 
of North America ( Apoqynum androseemifolium) is a peren¬ 
nial herbaceous plant about four feet high, with smooth 
stem, milky juice, smooth ovate leaves, and light pink 
flowers. It grows in open, barren places from Canada to 
Georgia, and is valued for the medicinal properties of the 
bark of the root, which is emetic, diaphoretic, and in small 
doses tonic. The Apoqynum cannabinum of the U. S. is 
also useful in medicine. 

Dog Bluff, a township of Horry co., S. C. Pop. 789. 

Dog Days, or Canic'nlar Days, the name given to 
the forty days between July 3 and Aug. 11. Canicular is 
derived from Canicula, the Latin name of Sirius, the dog- 
star, which rose heliacally near the 1st of July. The an¬ 
cients ascribed the great heat of summer to the influence of 
this star, but it was by accident only that its rising co¬ 
incided with the warmest season. The time of its rising 
depends on the latitude of the country, and, owing to 
precession, is later every year. 

Dog Distcm'per, a disorder common among young 
dogs, is considered to be of a catarrhal character. A gen¬ 
eral running from the nose and eyes is a leading symp¬ 
tom, together with a short dry cough, succeeded by loss of 
strength and wasting of the body. The flow from the nose, 
at first watery, in a little time becomes mucous and puru¬ 
lent, filling the eyes and choking up the nostrils, attended 
by coughing and vomiting, with an increased wasting ot 
flesh and loss of appetite. A convulsive twitching, paral¬ 
ysis of the extremities, attended by fits, with symptoms 
of an affection of the brain, appear when the disease be¬ 
comes malignant. At such a time the sight of another dog 




























DOGE—DOLABELLA. 


1380 


often brings on a fit, which may be somewhat checked by 
fondling. The fits usually prove fatal if they continue to 
increase in violence and frequency. A frequent conse¬ 
quence of the distemper is inflammation of the lungs and a 
dysenteric discharge, indicating ulceration of the intestines. 

The leading remedies, which must be applied in the early 
stage of the disease, are laxatives, emetics, occasional bleed¬ 
ing, etc. Astringents should be used to check the diar¬ 
rhoea, and the violence of the fits may be quelled by warm 
baths and anodynes. 

Doge, doj [It. pron. do'ji, a modification of cluce (from 
the Lat. clux), “ duke”], the title of the chief magistrate in 
the republics of Venice, Amalfi, and Genoa. The origin 
of the office in Venice dates as far back as 697. Previously 
Venice had been governed by seven tribunes, but the in¬ 
trigues consequent on their election, and the rising power 
of the republic, made it expedient to concentrate the power 
of the government. The first doge was Paoluccio Anapeste. 
The doges were elected by the people, and were invested 
with almost absolute power till 1177, when the legislative 
power was placed in the hands of a great council of 470 
members. This council elected twenty-four of their mem¬ 
bers, who in turn elected twelve of their own number, upon 
whom the choice of the doge devolved. The first doge 
elected in this manner was Sebastiano Ziani, who, on the 
occasion of his installation in office, scattered money among 
the people to compensate them for the loss of their rights 
—a custom which was followed by his successors. This 
doge also introduced the custom of wedding the Adriatic 
Sea. This was a marriage ceremony which took place on 
Ascension Day, and which typified the absolute dominion 
which the Venetians claimed over that sea. On these oc¬ 
casions a ring was thrown into the sea from the ship Bu- 
centaur. From this time the council gradually narrowed 
the powers of the doge, till in 1628 the offices of command¬ 
er-in-chief of the army and high-admiral of the navy 
ceased to belong to the dogate (or dogado, as the dignity 
was called), unless by a special decree of the Council of 
Forty, a high court of justice composed of forty members. 
In the fourteenth century the Council of Ten was estab¬ 
lished, and vested with the highest power in the state, which 
entitled it to pass judgment even upon the doge himself. 
About this time the powers of the doge became so restricted 
as to be little more than nominal, and the constant espion¬ 
age to which he was subjected made the office no longer 
an object of ambition. In 1339 it was found necessary to 
pass a law prohibiting a doge who had been elected from 
resigning his place. The office disappeared with the fall 
of the Venetian republic in 1797. Lodovico Manin, elected 
in 1788, was the seventy-third and last doge of Venice. 

The first doge of Genoa was Simon Boccanera, elected by 
the people in 1339. Like that of the doge of Venice, his 
office was originally for life. His powers were shared, 
though not restricted, by twelve aldermen. In 1528 the 
Genoese framed a new constitution, by which the doge was 
to be re-elected every two years, and the powers of the 
office were restricted by two councils, of which one com¬ 
prised 300 and the other 100 members. In 1797, when the 
French occupied Genoa, the office of doge ceased to exist. 
In 1802 it was restored with the restoration of the republic, 
but it finally disappeared in 1804. The republic of Amalfi 
in 897 A. D. exchanged its government by annually chosen 
consuls for the dogate, which was held for life; but its re¬ 
publican government ce.ased in 1350. 

Revised by C. W. Greene. 

Dog-Fish, the name of several small species of shark 
belonging to the genera Scyllium, Spinax, Must elm, etc., 
so named probably from their pursuing their prey like dogs 
hunting. They have five gill-openings on each side, the 
tail fin is longer than it is broad, and they have spout- 
holes. The spotted dog-fishes ( Scyllium canicula and 
Scyllium cntulus) are common on the British coast. The 
Acanthias vulgaris, or common dog-fish, is found in great 
quantities on the coasts of the Hebrides and Orkneys, 
where it is used as food. This fierce and greedy fish is 
abundant along the New England coasts, and is caught for 
its excellent oil. Other species occur on the American coast. 
Their bite is much dreaded by sailors. A sort of shagreen 
is made of their skins. The dog-fish of the Western States 
is the Amia calva (which see). 

Dog-Fox, the name of a small animal found in Asia 
and Africa, belonging to the family Canida?, and of the 
genus Cynalopex. They have erect pointed ears, a sharp 
muzzle, somewhat resembling that of a greyhound, and a 
bushy tail. 

Dog'ger [Dutch dogger, “cod-fish”], a two-masted 
fishing-boat of the ketch build, with bluff bows. It is used 
by the Dutch for the Doggerbank fishery. 

Dog'gerbank, an extensive sandbank in the middle 
of the German Ocean, between England and Denmark. It 


extends from lat. 54° 10' to 57° 24' N., and from Ion. 1° to 
6° 7' E. Length, about 320 miles; average width, 40 miles. 
In some parts it is covered with only nine fathoms'of water. 
Here are important cod-fisheries. An indecisive battle was 
fought here between the Dutch and English fleets in Aug., 
1781. 

Dog'gett (David Seth), D. D., a bishop of the Meth¬ 
odist Episcopal Church South, was born in Virginia in 
1810. He was educated at the University of Virginia, and 
entered the itinerant ministry in the Virginia Conference 
of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1829. He was pro¬ 
fessor in Randolph-Macon College, Va., for several years, 
and was consecrated bishop in 1866, since which time his 
residence has been in Richmond, Va. He is a learned and 
eloquent divine, and is very efficient in the exercise of his 
episcopal functions. 

Dog Island Light, on the S. coast of Florida, is a re¬ 
volving light 45 feet above the water; lat. 29° 46' 51" N., 
Ion. 84° 38' 37" W. The island is 30 miles E. of Appala- 
chicola, and the light is 1 mile E. of its W. end. 

Dog'rna [Gr. Soy/xa, from Sok«o, to “ seem,” “ that which 
seems true;” Fr. dog me ; It. domma; Sp. dogma], originally 
an opinion, afterwards an article of belief derived from 
authority. The term is sometimes applied to what are 
regarded as the essential doctrines of Christianity, as con¬ 
tained in the Scriptures or the writings of the Fathers of 
the Church. The study or science of dogmas (Dogmatik) 
has a separate professorship in the Protestant universities 
of Germany. The term “doctrine” is a preferable one, as 
“dogma” is coming more and more to be used in an un¬ 
favorable sense. 

Dog’s-Tail Grass ( Eleusine ), a genus of grasses, the 
species of which are found native in Europe and Asia. The 
crested dog’s-tail grass ( Eleusine cristata) is much prized 
in England for lawns and sheep-pastures. The Eleusine 
Indica is extensively naturalized in the U. S. 

Dog Star, a popular name of Sirius, a star of the first 
magnitude in the constellation Canis Major, and the bright¬ 
est fixed star in the firmament. 

Dog'tooth, a township of Alexander co., Ill. P. 301. 

Dogtooth Spar, a name given to certain pointed 
crystals of calcareous spar, from their fancied resemblance 
to the tooth of a dog. 

DogWatch, on shipboard, a short watch of two hours. 
There are two dog watches — the first usually from 4 to 6 
o’clock p. m., and the second from 6 to 8 p. jr. 

Dog'wood, a township of White co., Ark. Pop. 513. 

Dogwood, a name given in the U. S. to several small 
trees, especially to the Cornus florida and others of its 
genus, which contains also the cornel trees or dogwoods 
of Europe. The larger species are characterized by their 
hard wood, which is useful in turnery, and by their bitter 
tonic bai’k. The Cornus florida is well known for its white, 
showy involucral blossoms, appearing in May and June. 
In the West Indies, etc. various other trees are known as 
“ dogwoods.” One of these, the Piscidia Erythrina, or 
Jamaica dogwood, a small leguminous tree, found also in 
Florida, has a valuable and very hard timber. Its bark is 
a powerful narcotic and anodyne poison. 

The “poisonous dogwood” or “poison sumach ” (Rhus 
venenata) of the U. S. is probably much the most poison¬ 
ous to the touch of all our native plants. It closely resem¬ 
bles the Rhus Vernix or varnish tree of Japan, and may be 
distinguished from the harmless sumachs by its panicles, 
which are loose (not thyrsoid or closely clustered in a spike, 
like the harmless ones), and which are axillary, while those 
of the harmless species are terminal. (See Ruus.) 

Dogwood Neck, a township of Horry co., S. C. 
Pop. 573. 

Dohud, a town of Upper India, on the boundary between 
Malwali and Guzerat; lat. 22° 55' N., Ion. 74° 20' E. It 
is on the road to the Gulf of Cambay, and is much visited 
by merchants. 

Doit [said to be derived from the Fr. dhuit, “of eight,” 
it being the eighth part of a penny or stiver], the name of 
a small Dutch coin used in Scotland during the reign of 
the Stuarts, supposed to be worth about half a farthing. 

Do'kos, a dwarfish race of negroes, inhabiting a re¬ 
gion of Africa S. of Abyssinia, and living in a perfectly 
wild state. They are captured in large numbers by the 
slave-dealers. 

Dolabel'la (Publius Cornelius), a profligate Roman 
patrician, born about 70 B. C., married Cicero’s daughter 
Tullia. He fought for Cmsar at Pharsalia in 48 B. C., and 
became consul about the year 44. He was afterwards a 
partisan of Antony, was defeated by Cassius in Syria, and 
killed himself in 43 B. C. 












DOLAN—DOLLINGER. 


1381 


Do'lan, a township of Cass co., Mo. Pop. 1475. 
Dolan’s Ranche, a township of Ellis co., Kan. P. 17. 

Dol'd (Carlo), an Italian painter, born at Florence 
May 25, 1616, was a pupil of Jacopo Vignali. His works, 
which are numerous and scattered over all Europe, are very 
finely finished. Died Jan. 17, 1686. 

Dol'cinites, or Dul'cinists, a sect founded by Dol- 
cino, an Italian born at Novara in the thirteenth century. 
They opposed the popes, and, according to Milman, held 
kindred tenets with the Fraticelli or Spiritual Franciscans, 
with some leaven of the old doctrines of the Patarines 
( Puritans) of Lombardy. Dolcino and some of his fol¬ 
lowers were burned alive in 1307. 

Dole [Ang.-Sax. dselan ; Dutch deelen ; Ger. theilen, to 
“ distribute,” “ deal out in small quantities ”], a gift of food 
or money to the poor at funerals. The custom was formerly 
very prevalent in Great Britain and Ireland. 

Dole [Lat. Dola or Tollium~\, a town of France, de¬ 
partment of Jura, is at the base of a vineclad hill on the 
river Doubs, about 30 miles S. E. of Dijon. It is connected 
by railway with Dijon and Lyons. It has a large cathe¬ 
dral, a court-house, a theatre, and a public library ; also 
manufactures of hardware, pottery, straw hats, and chem¬ 
ical products. Dole was formerly the capital of Franche- 
Comte. It is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient 
Homan Dola Sequanorum. Pop. 11,093. 

Dolet (Etienne), a learned French writer, born at Or¬ 
leans in 1509. lie lived at Lyons, where he established a 
printing-press and published able works on theology and 
other subjects. His writings were burned by order of Par¬ 
liament as heretical in 1543. He translated some works of 
Plato and Cicero, and wrote a “ Commentary on the Latin 
Language” (1536). He was burned at the stake in Paris 
on a false charge of atheism Aug. 3, 1546. 

Dolgclly, a market-town of Wales, capital ofthe county 
of Merioneth, on the Mynach, here crossed by a bridge, 
46 miles W. of Shrewsbury. It is in a rich valley at the 
foot of Cader Idris, and is surrounded by beautiful scenery. 
It has manufactures of coarse woollens called webs. 

Dolichocephal'ic [from the Gr. SoAtxo?, “long,” and 
Ke<t>a\r), the “head”], a term applied to human skulls which 
have the occipito-frontal diameter (that from the back to 
the front) much in excess of the transverse diameter. The 
native Australians and West African races afford extremo 
examples of this form of skull. Those skulls which have 
a relatively short occipito-frontal diameter aro called bra- 
ehycephalic — i. e. “short-headed.” Examples of both 
forms here noted are found among the remains of the pre¬ 
historic races of Europe. Which of the two types belong 
to the earliest period is an unsettled question. Among the 
historic peoples of Europe the dolichocephalic form prevails 
among the Indo-European varieties, and the brachycephalic 
among the Finnic. (Sec Wilson, “ Pre-historic Annals of 
Scotland,” and Lubbock, “Pre-historic Races,”pp. 90-116.) 

Dol'ichos [Gr. SoAtyo?, “ long,” so called from the length 
of its pods], a genus of leguminous plants, allied to Phase- 
olus. They are natives of the East and West Indies, where 
the pods and seeds are used as food. The Chinese sauce 
called soy is made from the Lolichos Soya, or soy bean, and 
the tuberous roots of some species are eaten in China. 
Other species arc cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. 

Doli'na, a town of Austrian Galicia, about 75 miles S. 
of Lemberg. It has extensive salt-mines. Pop. 6200. 

Do'lium [Gr. a “cask.” from the hooped appearance 



Dolium Galea. 


of the shell], a genus of gasteropod mollusks of the whelk 
family, having spirally furrowed shells. Some fourteen 


living species are found in the warm seas of the Eastern 
hemisphere, and seven fossil ones, mostly from the tertiary. 

Doll [Fr. poupee ; Ger. Puppe; perhaps a contraction 
of Dorothy, but supposed by some to be an abbreviation of 
idol, i. e. an “ image ”], a toy of wax, wood, or plaster, made 
like the image of a child, and used as a plaything. Dolls 
were in use in the earliest times, and those of the Greek 
and Roman children were buried with them when they died. 
Great Britain was formerly supplied with these toys prin¬ 
cipally from the Netherlands, but there are now many ex¬ 
tensive manufactories of them in London and other Eng¬ 
lish towns. Many of those which come to the U. S. are 
manufactured in Nuremberg, Germany. 

Dol'lar [Ger. Thaler ; Dan. Daler ; see below], a gold 
or silver coin of different values current in the U. S. and 
several countries of Europe. Its name is derived from 
Joachim’s Thai (Joachim’s Valley) in Bohemia, where dol¬ 
lars were first coined (1518). The dollar is the unit of ac¬ 
count in the monetary system of the U. S. It was coined 
in silver only until 1849, when a coinage was authorized 
of dollars in gold. Its value was originally the same as 
that of the Spanish piastre of eight reals, but is now some¬ 
what below. The weight of the silver dollar was fixed by 
law in 1837 at 412£ Troy grains. The U. S. dollar is not 
now represented by any silver coin. The silver half-dollar 
weighs 12£ grammes, or two silver half-dollars 25 grammes. 
(Act of Congress, approved Feb. 12, 1873.) The act re¬ 
ferred to created also a silver “ trade dollar,” weighing 
420 grains, for use in commercial transactions in the East. 
The gold dollar weighs 25.8 grains= 1.672 grammes, ex¬ 
ceeding If grammes, or 5 ter-grammes, by only six one- 
thousandths of a gramme. The standard fineness of 
both silver and gold for coinage is nine-tenths ( i . e. one- 
tenth of it is alloy). The British standard of fineness is 
eleven-twelfths for gold, and thirty-seven-fortieths for sil¬ 
ver. Half-dollars, quai-ter-dollars, and dimes are coined 
in silver. A silver half-dime was also coined before 1873. 
The half-dollar (since 1873) weighs twelve and a half metric 
grammes—the smaller coins proportionately less. The 
actual value of the U. S. gold dollar, in British currency, 
is 4s. 1 The gold coins of the U. S. are legal tenders 
for all sums; the silver coins are legal tenders only for 
sums not exceeding five dollars. Accounts in dollars and 
cents are written thus: $13.78 = thirteen dollars and sev¬ 
enty-eight cents. The coins are double-eagles, eagles, half¬ 
eagles and quarter-eagles, valued at twenty, ten, five, and 
two and a half dollars; also, three-dollar and one-dollar 
pieces. The German thaler has different values. The 
most current, that of Prussia, is worth seventy-one cents. 
(See Rixdollar; also Coinage, by E. B. Elliott.) 

F. A. P. Barnard. 

Dol'lart, The, a gulf of the German Ocean, is at the 
mouth of the river Ems, between Hanover and Holland. 
It is 10 miles long and 7 miles wide. It was formed by an 
inundation in 1276. 

Dol'linger (Johann Joseph Ignaz), D. C. L., an emi¬ 
nent German divine and leader of the “Old Catholic” 
movement, was born at Bamberg, in Bavaria, Feb. 28, 1799. 
He received priestly orders in 1822, and almost immedi¬ 
ately after became chaplain to the diocese of Bamberg. 
“The Doctrine of the Eucharist during the First Three 
Centuries” was published by him in 1826, and he was in¬ 
vited the same year to lecture on the history of the Church 
before the University of Munich. The substance of these 
lectures appeared in 1828 in his “ Manual of the History 
of the Church,” and again, more extended, in his “Treatise 
on the History of the Church” (1838). He turned his at¬ 
tention to politics in 1845, and represented the University 
of Munich in the Bavarian Parliament. In 1849, when a 
delegate to the Diet of Frankfort, he voted for the absolute 
separation of the Church from the State. He delivered in 
1861 lectures advocating the abandonment of the temporal 
power by the Holy See. He published “ Origins of Chris¬ 
tianity ” (1833-35), “ The Religion of Mohammed ” (1838), 
“The Reformation, its Interior Development and its Ef¬ 
fects” (3 vols., 1846-48), “A Sketch of Luther” (1851), 
“Hippolytus and Callistus, or the Roman Church in the 
First Half of the Third Century” (1854), “ Paganism and 
Judaism” (1857), “ Christianity and the Church” (1860; 
2d ed. 1868), “The Church and the Churches, or the Pa¬ 
pacy and the Temporal Power” (1861), a translation of 
which appeared in 1862, “Papal Legends ot the Middle 
Ages” (1863), and a “History of the Religious Sects of 
the Middle Ages” (3 vols., 1870). Dr. Dollinger has in 
particular obtained wide fame by his opposition to the de¬ 
crees of the Vatican Council, and particularly to that ono 
declaring the infallibility of the pope when addressing the 
Church ex cathedra, on questions of faith and morals. Ho 
published on this subject the pamphlets “A Few Words on 
the Infallibility Address” and “The New By-Laws of the 



















1382 DOLLOND-DOMENICHINO. 


Council” (1870), and he was commonly believed to be one 
of the authors of the “Janus,” one of the most important 
works published against Papal infallibility. As he em¬ 
phatically declined to submit to the decrees of the Vatican 
Council, he was, on April 17, 1871, formally excommuni¬ 
cated by the archbishop of Munich. On July 20, 1871, he 
was elected rector of the University of Munich, receiving 
54 out of 63 votes cast. He took a leading part in the Old 
Catholic congresses of Munich (1871) and Cologne (1872). 
In the former he showed himself opposed to the measures 
adopted by the majority for effecting a permanent ecclesi¬ 
astical organization of the Old Catholics; in the latter he 
was elected chairman of a special committee on the re¬ 
union of the Christian churches, a subject to which he has 
for years devoted a special attention. He has been for 
years a member of the first chamber of the Bavarian Diet. 

Dol'loiul (John), F. R. S., an English optician well 
versed in mathematics, was born in London June 10, 1706. 
He was a silk-weaver in his youth, and employed his leisure 
hours in the study of sciences and languages. In 1752 he 
became a partner of his son Peter (born 1730, died July 
2, 1820) in the business of optician. They fabricated tele¬ 
scopes of superior quality. John Dollond invented the 
achromatic telescope, for which he received the Copley 
medal of the Royal Society in 1758. Died Sept. 30, 1761. 

Dol' men, a word of Cymric origin, nearly synonymous 
with Cromlech (which see). The proper dolmen consists 
of one large unhewn stone, resting on two or more unhewn 
stones placed erect in the ground. The term is sometimes 
applied to structures where several blocks are raised on 
pillars so as to form a sort of gallery. Near Saumur in 
France is a dolmen called Pierre Convert , which is sixty- 
four feet long and fifteen feet wide. Such structures are 
now generally referred to pre-historic races. 

Do'lo, a town of Italy, in Venetia, on the river Brenta, 
12 miles W. of Venice, on the railway to Padua. Here are 
many fine villas of the Venetian nobility. Pop. 5523. 

Dolomieu, de (Deodat Gui Sylvain Tancrede de 
Gratet), a French geologist and mineralogist, born at 
Dolomieu, in Dauphiny, June 24, 1750. lie joined the 
order of the Knights of Malta in his youth, and having 
returned to France in 1791, he explored the geology of that 
country, and wrote several geological treatises, which were 
inserted in the “ Journal de Physique.” He was one of 
the savants who accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798. 
He was thrown into a prison by the Neapolitans in 1799, 
and released the following year; he was appointed profes¬ 
sor of mineralogy in the Museum of Natural History. He 
died Nov. 26, 1801. (See Lacepede, “Notice historique 
sur la Vie de Dolomieu,” 1802.) 

Dol'omite [named in honor of the savant Dolomieu], 
or Magnesian Limestone, a mineral consisting of car¬ 
bonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia in variable pro¬ 
portions, which are sometimes nearly equal. Its crystals 
are usually rhomboidal. Dolomite is extensively used as a 
building-stone, and is converted into good lime by burning. 
The new British houses of Parliament are built of this 
stone. In England, fossiliferous dolomites form the greater 
part of the Permian limestones from Durham to Notting¬ 
hamshire. Large mountain-masses of crystalline dolomite 
occur in the Tyrol. It is also abundant in the eastern parts 
of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and other States. 

Dol'phin [Gr. SeXfyLv, Lat. delphinus; Fr. dauphin ] is 
properly the name of a cetaceous mammal of the Mediter¬ 
ranean (Delphinus delphis), the dolphin of the cla-ssic poets. 
It is six or eight feet in length, and very active in its 
habits. There are many similar species known as dolphins 
in various parts of the ocean. The dolphin of modern 
sailors, the beauty of whose colors when dying is so cele¬ 
brated, is a true fish, the Con/phsena hippuris, abounding 
in the warmer parts of the Atlantic, where it wages inces¬ 
sant warfare against the flying-fish and other inhabitants 
of the sea. It is often eaten, and is very palatable, but 
its flesh is said to be sometimes poisonous. The colors of 
the dying dolphin appear to be owing to the gradual evap¬ 
oration of the water retained between the scales of the fish 
(which are translucent, while the body is white), causing 
the irised appearance seen in soap-bubbles, and known as 
the “colors of thin plates.” The beauty, which is very 
real, has been much exaggerated by poets who have never 
personally observed it. 

Dol'son, a township and post-village of Clark co., Ill. 
Pop. 1221. 

Dorn, or Don [from the Lat. dominus, a “lord”], a 
title originally assumed in the Middle Ages bv the popes. 
It was afterwards borne by bishops, and sometimes given 
to monks, as Dorn Calmet and Dom Mabillon. In Portugal 
the title dom is confined to the king and his family. The 
Spanish don was formerly a title confined to noblemen, but 


is given by courtesy as indiscriminately as the English Mr. 
In the U. S., Roman Catholic dignitaries of German origin 
have the title dom. 

Domain' [Fr. domaine ; Lat. dominium, from dominus, 
a “lord”], empire, authority; the territory over which au¬ 
thority is exercised ; landed estate; an estate which a per¬ 
son has in his own right; that portion of the territorial 
possessions of a lord which he retains in his own occupa¬ 
tion, sometimes called Demesne (which see). The term 
domaine is applied in France to public property in general. 
The public land belonging to the government or people of 
the U. S. is often called the public or national domain. 

Domain, Eminent. See Eminent Domain, by Prof. 
T. W. Dwight, LL.D. 

Domat (Jean), a French jurist, born at Clermont, in 
Auvergne, Nov. 30, 1625. He was a friend of Pascal and 
other recluses of Port Royal. He officiated for many years 
as king’s advocate at Clermont, and published an import¬ 
ant systematic work entitled “ The Civil Laws in their Nat¬ 
ural Order” (1689). Died in Paris Mar. 14, 1696. (See 
E. Cauchy, “Etudes sur Domat,” 1852.) 

Dom-boc, or Doom Book ( Liber Judicialis ), the 
name of a code of laws compiled by King Alfred, partly from 
the Kentish collection of Ethelbert and the Mercian laws of 
Offa, but chiefly from the laws made by his own ancestor, 
Ina. Alfred made few original laws, but restored and reno • 
vated those already existing. The laws of England, up to 
the time of the Norman Conquest, were administered in the 
vernacular speech of the people. Alfred’s Christian cha¬ 
racter is clearly indicated in his code, which commences 
thus: “ The Lord spake all these words, saying, ‘I am the 
Lord, thy God.’ ” Then followed the ten commandments, a 
part of the Mosaic law, and passages from the New Testa¬ 
ment, including the Golden Rule. The code was ratified 
by the Witan, as Alfred informs us. 

Dombrow'ski (John Henry), a Polish general, born 
in the palatinate of Cracow Aug. 29, 1755. He fought 
against Russia in the war of 1792-94, during which he ob¬ 
tained the rank of general. In 1795 he entered the French 
service, and in 1797 passed into that of the Cisalpine repub¬ 
lic as commander of a Polish legion. In 1806 he raised 
an army of 30,000 Poles to fight for Napoleon. He gained 
a victory at Dirschau in 1809, and took part in the Russian 
campaign of 1812. Died June 6, 1818. 

Dombrowsky (Jaroslav), a Polish revolutionist, 
born at Cracow in 1826, served first in the Russian army, 
and was in 1862 compelled to flee in consequence of hav¬ 
ing participated in the Polish insurrection. He is also 
accused of having been a counterfeiter and a traitor to 
the Poles. He formed in the beginning of the French-Ger¬ 
man war a Polish legion, was on April 8, 1871. appointed 
to the command of the insurgent troops at Asniers, and on 
May 9 succeeded Rossel as commander-in-chief of all the 
forces of the Paris Commune. On May 22 he was mortally 
wounded, and died on May 23. 

Dome [It. duomo, originally the “house ( domus ) of 
God,” afterwards applied in Italian to a cathedral, of which 
a dome in the common English sense of this word is one of 
the most remarkable features]. This word, though used 
often to signify a cupola, means, strictly, the outer part of 
a spherical roof, of which the cupola is the inner part. In 
Italy, however, it has a wider significance, being used to 
designate the chief church of a town. As all the chief 
churches were roofed in this way, the name of the church 
was applied to the kind or species of roof. The origin of 
the dome is often traced to the Eastern empire, because it 
was in the Byzantine provinces that it was first applied to 
ecclesiastical building. But the Romans really invented 
the dome, and originated all applications of the semicircular 
arch. The dome of the Pantheon is one of the most mas- 
nificent in the world, and domes of smaller size are in the 
temples of Bacchus, Vesta, Hercules, Romulus, etc. The 
three most renowned modern domes are those of St. Peter’s 
at Rome, St. Paul’s in London, and the Pantheon at Paris. 

The dome of the Capitol at Washington is the finest in 
America. It is made of cast iron, and is surmounted by a 
bronze statue of Liberty twenty feet high, designed by Craw¬ 
ford. The dome is considered the finest iron structure in 
the world. 

Domeiiiclii'no, an Italian painter, whose proper 
name was Domenico Zampieri, was born at Bologna Oct. 
21, 1581. He was a pupil of Annibal Caracci at Rome, 
where he worked for several years. He was employed as 
painter and architect by Pope Gregory XV. Among his 
masterpieces are “ The Communion of St. Jerome ” (in the 
Vatican), “ The Martyrdom of St. Agnes,” and the “ Cure 
of the Demoniac Boy.” In the latter part of his life ho 
worked in Naples, where he died April 15, 1641. (Sco 
Lecarpentier, “Notice sur D. Zampieri,” 1812.) 














DOMESDAY BOOK—DOMINGO, SANTO, PROJECTS OF ANNEXATION TO TIIE U. S. 1383 


Domesday Book. See Doomsday Book. 

Domestic Animals are such as are reared by man 
for his own use, and at the same time tamed or familiarized 
to some extent to man’s presence; for bees, silkworms, and 
a few other insects reared by man are never really tamed, 
though modified in many eases in form by the influence of 
man. A great many animals may be tamed, and yet not 
truly domesticated, for true domestication implies a course 
of breeding for many generations. 

flic more important domestic animals are the ox, buffalo, 
yak, sheep, goat, reindeer, camel, llama, alpaca (ruminants), 
the horse, ass, elephant, swine (pachyderms), rabbit, guinea- 
pig (rodents), dog, cat, ferret (carnivores), and of birds, the 
hen, turkey, peacock, guinea-fowl, pheasant (gallinaceous 
birds), goose, duck, etc. (natatores), besides the pigeons and 
various song-birds. The breeding of fishes for food is not 
true domestication. 

The wonderful changes of form, habit, and temper ob¬ 
served in various breeds of the dog, and the still more 
remarkable variations in the form of pigeons, have sug¬ 
gested to many naturalists the idea of the mutability of 
species. (For a discussion of the question in this aspect, 
see Darwin “ On Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants,” 
1867, and the articles Evolution, by Prof. Henry IIarts- 
horxe, and Darwinism, by Profs. Youmans and Seelye.) 

Dom'icile [Lat. domicilium, from downs, a “ house;” 
Fr. domicile], a mansion ; a place of permanent residence; 
in law, the place where a person has his home or his legal 
place of abode. 

A distinction must be taken between residence and domi¬ 
cile. A person may have two or more residences, but can 
have only one domicile. A domicile may be said to be the 
place where a person has his true fixed and permanent 
home and principal establishment, and to which, whenever 
he is absent, he has the intention of returning. A domicile 
may be acquired in three ways—by birth, by choice, or by 
operation of law. Domicile acquired in the first inode is 
frequently called “ domicile of origin.” When of choice, it 
must consist both of an act and an intent. A mere intent 
to acquire a domicile will have no effect. Nor will a pro¬ 
longed residence in a particular placo constitute a domicile, 
unless accompanied by an intent to acquire it. Domicile is 
acquired by operation of law when it is a consequence of 
certain legal relations, as in the instance of a wife. The 
rules affecting domicile have much importance in inter¬ 
national law, whether public or private, and for this pur¬ 
pose it may be distinguished into domestic and national. 
Questions concerning the validity of marriages and di¬ 
vorces, the execution and construction of wills, and suc¬ 
cession to estates, frequently depend on the law of domicile. 

The leading rules governing domicile are these: 1. The 
domicile of origin continues until a new one is acquired. 
The same rule of continuance applies to successive domi¬ 
ciles. 2. A person having legal capacity may, in general, 
change his domicile at will. Persons under legal disability, 
such a3 minors and lunatics, have no such power. The 
domicile of a minor is in general that of his parent or 
guardian. 3. The law in some cases fixes the domicile of 
a person at the place where the person is under a duty to 
reside. Under this rule the holder of an office may be 
domiciled at a place where official duty requires him to re¬ 
side. On the same principle the wife’s domicile follows that 
of the husband, though this rule is modified in matters of 
divorce. 4. To change one’s domicile there must be both 
an intent and an act. The intent may be inferred from a 
variety of circumstances, and in some instances the inquiry 
ranges over a period of many years. Under this rule an 
enforced sojourn in a place will not in general constitute a 
domicile. (See International Law, Private, by Pres. 
T. D. Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D.) * T. W. Dwight. 

Dominant [Lat. dominans, present part, from dominor, 
to “ rule,” to “ prevail”], in music, the fifth tone of the 
scale, agreeing with the note GL The dominant is the ruling 
tone of the key, and next in importance to the first tone of 
the gamut. 

Domingo, Santo. See Santo Domingo. 

Domingo, Santo, Projects of Annexation to 

the U. S. Investigations and negotiations looking to¬ 
wards the annexation of the republic of Santo Domingo, 
or the cession of valuable parts of it, to the U. S. extend 
over a period of nearly thirty years. The series of Demo¬ 
cratic administrations between 1844 and 1860 had con¬ 
stantly in view the policy of the acquisition of territory in 
the West Indies, and made several investigations within 
the territory of the Dominican republic. That this did not 
end in annexation was evidently due not so much to the 
opposition of the Dominicans as to the half-heartedness of 
influential American politicians, arising from the peculiar 
condition of parties in the U. S. The statesmen of the 
slave-holding States and their allies from the free States 


were then in power at Washington. They felt the need of 
additional slave States in the West Indies to balance the 
inevitable increase of free States in the North, but they 
evidently dreaded to add a republic in which the blacks 
were free and their equality recognized by law and custom. 

The first negotiation seems to have been made in 1845, 
when President Polk sent Mr. Hogan as commissioner 
to the island. His reports were favorable, and during 
the next year Lieut. D. D. Porter, now (1874) admiral of 
the navy, was sent to make an additional investigation of 
the resources and condition of the country. His exami¬ 
nation was thorough and his report favorable. But the 
difficulty arising from negro freedom and equality in the 
island was revealed as fully as its material wealth, and 
nothing was done. 

The Taylor-Fillmore administration paid little if any at¬ 
tention to this subject, but one of the first acts of the suc¬ 
ceeding administration, that of Pierce, was to send Capt. 
(since Maj.-Gen.) G. B. McClellan to make a more thorough 
survey than had been made, especially of the Bay of Sa- 
mana. Capt. McClellan visited the island in 1854. His sur¬ 
vey was made with great care, and he reported strongly in 
favor of the acquisition of at least a portion of the Sa- 
mana peninsula as a naval station for the U. S. His only 
error seems to be in overrating the mineral wealth of Sa- 
mana; the want of thorough geological knowledge caused 
him to mistake beds of lignite for beds of coal. But into 
this mistake even so eminent an authority as Sir Robert 
Schomburgk had fallen before him, and this error was per¬ 
sisted in until geologists connected with the commission of 
1871 made thorough examination ; it detracts, however, very 
little from the general value of McClellan’s conclusions. 

Another negotiation looking towards the acquisition of 
territory followed, but with no result. The struggle during 
the great civil war in the U. S. seems to have diverted 
thought in Washington from any efforts in the West In¬ 
dies likely to arouse the ill-feeling of European powers. 
But hardly was that contest ended when the subject came 
up again. The necessity of an American naval station in 
the West Indies had been brought home to the administra¬ 
tion by difficulties in dealing with blockade-runners during 
the civil war, and in 1867, Mr. Seward, the secretary of 
state, with a considerable retinue of officials, visited the 
Dominican capital, and had an interview with the author¬ 
ities. But other projects of annexation were preferred by 
the Johnson administration, and this was postponed. 
Shortly after the accession of Gen. Grant to the presidency 
the subject was again brought up by overtures from the 
Baez government, then in control of the Dominican re¬ 
public. For some time nothing was done. A reaction 
against the extension of territory had set in. There was 
a general feeling that the recently acquired territory 
of Alaska had cost more than its value, and this feeling 
was strengthened by the news of the St. Thomas earth¬ 
quakes, which contributed so much to the failure of the 
attempt to acquire that island. 

The early communications by President Baez were re¬ 
ceived with distrust at Washington, but at last a commu¬ 
nication was received from him to the effect that the diffi¬ 
culties of the Dominican republic had become so great that 
if it could not make terms with the U. S., self-preservation 
would force it to do so with some other nation. In view 
of this, President Grant sent Gen. 0. E. Babcock on a con¬ 
fidential mission to the Baez government. Gen. Babcock 
made two visits to the island, and the result was the project 
of a treaty signed by the Dominican government on the 
one hand, and afterwards ratified by the Dominican people; 
and on the other hand signed by the Washington adminis¬ 
tration, awaiting ratification by the Senate. The main 
points in the treaty were that the Dominican republic was 
to come under the government of the U. S. as a Territory, 
receiving $1,500,000 in order to extinguish her debt; 
and as security for such application of funds the U. S. 
was to have a lien on all the lands of the republic. It 
was also stipulated that no further grant or concession 
should be made by the Dominican government, and no 
further debts contracted, after the execution of the treaty. 
In addition to the annexation treaty, having reference to 
the entire territory of the republic, there was prepared a 
convention for the lease of Samana Bay to the U. S. for 
fifty years, the annual rental to be $150,000, and the first 
instalment to be paid at once. If the treaty lor the ac¬ 
quisition of the island should be ratified, this first annual 
payment was to be deducted from the million and a half 
to‘be paid'under that treaty. A clause in the treaty re¬ 
quired it to be ratified by a popular vote of the Dominican 
people. This took place in Feb., 1870, the official returns 
showing for the measure over 15,000 votes, and against it 
less than 400. 

The treaty having been sent to the Senate, a very strong 
opposition was developed, and in consequence it lingered 













DOMINIC—DOMINICAL LETTER. 


1384 


until it expired by its own limitation on May 29. On May 
31 the treaty was renewed, and. the debate upon it was one 
of the most earnest and brilliant in American annals. The 
leaders against the treaty were Senators Sumner and 
Schurz, and the leaders in its support Senators Morton and 
Conkling. 

While the measure was pending, circumstances occurred 
which greatly embittered the whole question. A petition 
was received from one Davis Hatch, a citizen of Connec¬ 
ticut, claiming that he had been arrested and condemned to 
death by the Dominican government, and that, although the 
penalty in his case had been changed to banishment, he 
had been detained in prison longer than he would other¬ 
wise have been, by the machinations of the American 
negotiator of the treaty, Gen. Babcock. The cause alleged 
for this was fear lest Mr. Hatch should return to the U. S. 
and denounce the treaty before its publication. A special 
committee of the Senate, appointed to investigate this case, 
presented a majority report, very voluminous, declaring 
the charges against Gen. Babcock “totally unfounded,” 
and that “his whole conduct had been marked by honor, 
truth, and fidelity, and the evidence leaves him without a 
stain.” 

An additional difficulty was caused by the dealings with 
the republic of Hayti, adjoining the Dominican republic. 
A war had been going on for nearly thirty years between 
the two republics, and a bitterly hostile feeling was the re¬ 
sult. The efforts of the Haytians to overthrow the Baez 
government, and so prevent the treaty with the U. S., led 
to the sending of some American armed vessels upon the 
Haytian coast while the treaty was pending, and into the 
Haytian harbors; and it was charged that some of the 
American officers assumed too dictatorial a tone with the 
officials of the Haytian republic. The result was that the 
treaty was finally rejected. 

In his message at the beginning of the next Congress, in 
view of the many charges which had been preferred, the 
President recommended the appointment of a commission 
to proceed to the island and make a thorough investiga¬ 
tion of the important points that had been raised in the 
debates. A second struggle followed, more bitter than the 
first. The opponents of the administration were not less 
vigorous in opposing the investigation than they, had been 
in opposing the treaty. But the measure was finally car¬ 
ried by an overwhelming vote in both Houses. The com¬ 
missioners appointed were Benjamin F. Wade of Ohio, 
Andrew D. White of New York, and Samuel G. Howe of 
Massachusetts. To them were attached Judge Burton, 
formerly minister to Bogota, as secretary, and Frederick 
Douglass and Gen. Franz Sigcl as assistant secretaries. In 
view of the fact that several of the questions to which 
answers were required by Congress demanded scientific in¬ 
vestigation, a number of scientific gentlemen of eminence 
were attached. The commission sailed from New York 
Jan. 17,1871, and reached Samana Bay the following week. 

The work before them was carried out with great care. 
Expeditions were sent through various parts of the island. 
Full testimony was taken regarding the purchases or leases 
of land by Americans, the mineral wealth and agricultural 
capabilities, the fisheries, and the condition of the country 
as regards health. Botanists were also employed to ex¬ 
amine into the production of choice woods, and agricultu¬ 
rists of experience to examine as to the capabilities of the 
soil. Besides this, a very careful investigation was made 
as to the general condition of the people, and their feelings 
regarding the annexation and the ratification of the treaty 
with the U. S., and especially to find whether the popular 
vote was fairly taken. In accomplishing this the commis¬ 
sion took testimony at all important points in the republic. 
Dr. Howe made an extended journey from E. to W., and 
Mr. White crossed the island, passing from Santo Domingo 
City through the great valleys and over the mountains of 
the Cibao to the leading commercial city of Puerto Plata 
on the N. side of the island, making examinations at the 
intervening towns. Besides this, fourteen expeditions, pro¬ 
vided with careful instructions and full schedules of ques¬ 
tions to ensure careful investigation, were sent into the 
various parts of the republic; so that, with the exception 
of the extreme western part, overrun by Haytian troops, 
every part of the country was very thoroughly examined. 

The report of the commission, with the accompanying 
testimony, has since been published by Congress. As to 
the condition of the country, the commission finds “that 
there is no opponent of the present administration of that 
republic who has now, or who ever has had, any claim to 
the chief magistracy by a title superior to that of the 
present incumbent.” It condemns the factions seeking to 
overthrow the existing government, and submits proofs 
that they are inspired by the government of Hayti. It 
calls attention to the fact that, in spite of the sad condition 
of the republic, some local liberties have been preserved 


which show capacity for self-government. It also shows 
the reason why the Spanish government, after being called 
to the island, was necessarily expelled. Very thorough 
statements are made regarding the desire for annexation 
by the people. The commission found that everywhere 
this desire was most earnestly manifested. They attribute 
this feeling in part to ideas which have come from Amer¬ 
ican colored colonists, but far more to the absolute neces¬ 
sity of some refuge from the constant war with Hayti, and 
the anarchy resulting from the cabals of military leaders. 
The commission found a remarkable absence of prejudice 
regarding class, race, and color. Also that there is no in¬ 
tolerance towards the small number of Protestants—that 
there is very little education, but considerable desire to 
obtain it. As to population, they set it down at about 
150,000. As to race, they say : “ White blood preponderates 
largely in Santo Domingo, but pure whites, in the popular 
sense of the word, are not numerous. The majority are of 
a mixed race, nearer white than black.” As to mineral 
products, the geologists report the existence of iron, cop¬ 
per, gold, lignite, rock-salt, and petroleum. Iron ore is 
especially abundant. As to the soil, they find the eastern 
districts of the republic rich and fertile, but some of the 
western part arid; and sum up by saying that this is 
naturally the richest of the West Indian islands. The por¬ 
tion of the report devoted to agricultural products and 
forest products, and that regarding the fisheries, are very 
carefully given. As regards climate and health, the com¬ 
missioners come to the conclusion that with care life is as 
safe in Santo Domingo as in the Northern States of the 
U. S., and that no more die of malignant fevers in Santo 
Domingo than of pulmonary complaints in New England. 
Much stress is laid upon the value of the Bay of Samana 
as a naval port. The public debt is shown to be about 
$1,500,000 ; the income of the government about $800,000. 
They find that the Dominicans do not at all expect to enter 
into the Union as a State. Much stress is laid upon the 
influence which the acquisition of Santo Domingo would 
have in breaking down slavery in the adjoining islands of 
Cuba and Porto Rico, as all duties on products would be a 
discrimination against slave-labor. 

The commission also visited the capital city of Hayti, 
and made investigations there Avhich confirm them in the 
opinion that the Haytian government, instead of being 
injured by the Dominican republic, is constantly provok¬ 
ing civil war within the boundaries of Santo Domingo. 

The commission arrived in Washington early in April. 
On receiving their report, the President sent it with a mes¬ 
sage to Congress, stating that although it confirmed him in 
his opinions as to the desirableness of the island and the 
advantage to result from a treaty, he left it now entirely to 
the American people without any recommendation. No 
action resulted, and the matter was indefinitely postponed. 

As it became evident that governmental action, even if it 
ever came, was to be long delayed, there was formed in New 
York “ The Samana Bay Company,” which leased from the 
Baez government the peninsula and adjacent waters of Sa¬ 
mana, and obtained large privileges for trade at an annual 
rental of $150,000. This company, up to this day (1874), 
seems not to have met its own anticipations, and recent 
communications from the Dominican government are given 
urging upon the U. S. to take some final step in the mat¬ 
ter, but so far nothing appears to be done in regard to it. 

A. D. White. 

Dom'illic [Sp. Domingo de Guzman'], Saint, the founder 
of the order of Dominicans, was born at Calahofra, in Old 
Castile, in 1170. He gained distinction as a preacher and 
as a persecutor. He was one of the instigators of the cru¬ 
sade against the Albigenses in 1208. In 1215 he founded 
the order of Preaching Friars or Dominican monks, which 
was approved by the p»pe in 1216. (See Dominicans.) 
Dominic was the first general of the order. He died Aug. 
6, 1221, and was canonized by Pope Gregory IX. in 1234. 
He was a canon, a priest, and an archdeacon successively. 

Domill'ica (“Sunday Island”), discovered by Colum¬ 
bus on Sunday, Nov. 3, 1493, a British West India island, 
is 22 miles N. of Martinique; lat. 15° 18' N., Ion. 61° 24' 
W. It is 29 miles long, and has an area of 291 square 
miles. It is of volcanic origin, and is the highest, of the 
Lesser Antilles, the summit having an altitude of 5314 feet. 
The soil of the valleys is fertile. The staple productions 
are coffee, sugar, cotton, tobacco, cocoa, copper ore, rum, 
and timber. The abolition of slavery increased the pros¬ 
perity of this island. Dominica was ceded to Great Britain 
by France in 1763. The public revenue in 1870 amounted 
to £15,721; the expenditure to £15,248; the public debt to 
£7230. The total tonnage of vessels entered and cleared 
(exclusive of coasting-trade) was 19,160; the total value 
of imports, £60,278. Pop. in 1870, 28,517. 

Domin'ical [from the Lat. dominica , the “ Lord’s day ”] 












DOMINICANS—DONALDSON. 


1385 


Letter. The Romans used the first eight letters of the 
alphabet (A to H) to mark the consecutive days of their 
recurring nundinal period. The early Christians adopted 
the same plan lor marking the days of the week, dropping 
the last one (II) as unnecessary. In the Church calendar 
A has always stood for the first day of January, B for the 
second, and so on. Gi therefore marks the seventh day, and 
the cycle begins again with A on the eighth. A returns in 
like manner on the 15th, the 22d, and so on. Each day in 
the year has thus its calendar letter; and the letter which 
falls on Sunday is called the dominical letter of the year. 
The 28th of February has always the letter C, and the 1st 
of March has always the letter D. The 29th day of Feb¬ 
ruary in leap-year has therefore no letter provided for it; 
and this makes a change in the Sunday letter after Febru¬ 
ary; so that in leap-year there are two dominical letters. 
As the common year contains fifty-two weeks and one day, 
the dominical letter changes from year to year, going back¬ 
ward one place for every common year, and two places 
every leap-year. This mode of representing the days of 
the week has been uninterruptedly employed in the calen¬ 
dar of the Church throughout the world from the earliest 
ages of Christianity. ” F. A. P. Barnard. 

Domin'icaiis, an order of mendicant friars founded 
by Saint Dominic at Toulouse, was confirmed by Pope In¬ 
nocent III. in 1210. They were called Black Friars in 
England, and Jacobins in France, from the Rue St. Jacques 
(Jacobus), where they first established themselves. In 1216, 
Honorius III. constituted the order under the rules of Saint 
Augustine, which enjoined almost continual fasts, perpetual 
silence, and other mortifications. In 1221 the order was in¬ 
troduced into England, and their first establishment made 
at Oxford. In 1276 the corporation of London granted the 
order two lanes near the Thames, where a monastery was 
erected, the neighborhood of which is still called Blackfriars. 
The order of Dominican nuns was founded in 1206. 

Among the men of genius and eminent scholars belong¬ 
ing to this order were Thomas Aquinas and Albertus Mag¬ 
nus. The reputation of the Dominicans in history, however, 
is stained by their cruel persecution of the Albigenses and 
the prominent part they took in the establishment and ad¬ 
ministration of the Inquisition. Their principal rivals were 
the Franciscans, and the two orders for a long time divided 
between them the control of the Church, and frequently of 
the Catholic states of Christendom. The Jesuits in the six¬ 
teenth century gradually took possession of the power for¬ 
merly exercised by the Dominicans. Dominican monks and 
nuns are, however, still found in most countries. In the 
U. S. their numbers are increasing. 

Dominion of Canada. See Canada, Dominion of, 
by Prof. A. J. Schem. 

Dom'inis, de (Marcantonio), an Italian theologian, 
born in the isle of Arba, near Dalmatia, in 1566. He be¬ 
came professor of philosophy at Padua, and wrote a curious 
treatise on light entitled “De Radiis Visus et Lucis in Vi- 
tris Perspective et Iride” (1611), in which the phenomena 
of the rainbow were explained for the first time. After he 
had been appointed archbishop of Spalatro he went to Eng¬ 
land in 1616, and became a Protestant. He wrote “ De Re- 
publica Ecclesiastica” (“On the Ecclesiastical Republic,” 
1617). In 1622 he returned to Italy, and relapsed into the 
Roman Catholic Church. Died Sept., 1624. 

Domin'ium [from dominus, a “master,” a “lord”], a 
legal term of the Romans, signifying a full legal right in 
and to an object, but which could not be conferred by actual 
possession alone unless such possession had endured for the 
period of legal prescription. 

Dom'ino, an Italian word, is the name of a long loose 
cloak of black silk, furnished with a hood, worn at masque¬ 
rades by persons of both sexes. 

Dom'inoes, a game played by two or more persons 
with twenty-eight pieces of ivory or bone variously dotted. 
It is said to have been first introduced into France from 
Italy, and soon became popular throughout Europe. Va¬ 
rious games are played with dominoes. 

Domi/'tian [Lat. Domitianus], or, more fully, Titus 
Flavius Domitianus, a Roman emperor, born in 
51 A. D., was the second son of Vespasian. He succeeded 
his brother Titus in the year 81, and began his reign with 
moderation and apparent respect for justice. In the year 
87 he was defeated by the Dacians, who compelled him to 
pay tribute. He afterwards became extremely cruel and 
suspicious, and caused many innocent persons to be put to 
death. Ho banished a number of eminent men and phil¬ 
osophers, including Epictetus. He was assassinated by 
conspirators in his palace in 96 A. D., and was succeeded 
by Nerva. (See Suetonius, “ Domitianus.”) 

Don. See Dom. 

Don (anc. Tanaie ), a river of Russia, rises in the gov¬ 


ernment of Tula, and flows in a general S. E. direction to 
Katschalinsk. Below the town it runs nearly south-west¬ 
ward, and enters the N. E. part of the Sea of Azof near 
the town of Azof. Its total length is about 950 miles. The 
navigation of it is difficult during low water, but when the 
water is high ( i . e. in April and May) vessels can ascend 
about 600 miles from its mouth. The Don is connected by 
a canal with the Volga. 

Don, a river of Scotland, in Aberdeenshire, rises in Ben 
Aven, and enters the North Sea 1 mile from Old Aberdeen. 
Its general direction is eastward, and its length, including 
windings, 78 miles. Nearly a mile from its mouth it is 
crossed by the “ Brig o’ Balgownie.” 

Dona Ana, or Bon'na An'na, a county in the S. E. 
of New Mexico, is bounded on the W. by the Rio Grande 
del Norte. The surface is partly mountainous. The soil 
in some places is fertile. Wheat, corn, and wool are raised. 
Silver is found. Salt lakes occur in some parts. Capital, 
Mesilla. Pop. 5864. 

Dona Ana, a post-village of the above county, is on 
the Rio Grande, about 50 miles N. W. of El Paso (Texas). 

Donaghadee', a seaport of Ireland, in the county of 
Down, and on the Irish Channel, 18 miles E. N. E. of Bel¬ 
fast. It has a good harbor, and trade in cattle, grain, etc. 
The embroidery of muslin is carried on here. Poji. in 
1871, 2664. ■ 

Don'ahue, a village of Sonoma co., Cal., on San Pablo 
Bay, 35 miles N. of San Francisco. It is the southern ter¬ 
minus of the San Francisco and North Pacific R. R., and 
is connected with San Francisco by steamboats. 

Don'aldson (Edward), U. S. N., born Nov. 17, 1816, 
in Maryland, entered the navy as a midshipman July 21, 

1835, became a passed midshipman in 1841, a lieutenant 
in 1847, a commander in 1862, a captain in 1866, and a 
commodore in 1871. He commanded the steam-gunboat 
Scioto at the passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip and 
capture of New Orleans April 24, 1862, and at the passage 
of the Vicksburg batteries June 28, 1862. Referring to the 
former battles, Commodore Henry H. Bell, Farragut’s 
fleet-captain, writes : “ Throughout the trying scenes of 
this dashing expedition, which is second to none on record, 
Captain Donaldson, his officers, and crew were conspicuous 
for their coolness, intrepidity, and good conduct.” And in 
his report of the Vicksburg fight Rear-Admiral Farragut 
says: “It gives me great pleasure to mention that the 
officers and men of the ships which accompanied me up 
the river behaved with the same ability and steadiness on 
this occasion as in passing Forts Jackson and St. Philip.” 
He commanded the steamer Seminole at the battle of Mo¬ 
bile Bay, and for his services on this occasion is thus highly 
complimented by Captain John B. Marchand in his official 
despatch of Aug. 7, 1864 : “ Commander Edward Donald¬ 
son, commanding the Seminole, which was lashed along¬ 
side of this ship, rendered most efficient service by his 
coolness and judgment in piloting both vessels until pass¬ 
ing Fort Morgan, the regular pilot being sick. My addi¬ 
tional thanks are due him and all his officers and men for 
volunteering to aid in manning the guns of the Lacka¬ 
wanna, and the continuous fire which they kept up whilst 
their guns could bear upon the enemy.” 

Foxhadl A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Donaldson (James Lowry), an American officer, born 
Mar. 17,1814, at Baltimore, Md., graduated at West Point 

1836, and July 28, 1866, assistant quartermaster-general 
U. S. A. (rank of colonel). He served in the artillery till 
Mar. 3, 1847, and subsequently in the quartermaster’s de¬ 
partment; on topographical duty 1836; in Florida war 
1836-38; in emigrating Cherokees to the West 1838; on 
Maine frontier pending boundary controversy 1840-42; 
on the north-eastern boundary survey 1844-45; in the 
military occupation of Texas 1846 ; in the war with Mex¬ 
ico 1846-48, engaged at Monterey (brevet captain) and 
Buena Vista (brevet major); on quartermaster duty at 
various posts 1848-58; and chief of quartermaster’s de¬ 
partment of New Mexico 1858-62. He served in the civil 
war in command of the district of Santa F6, N. M., 
1861-62, engaged at Valverde; as quartermaster at Pitts¬ 
burg, Pa., 1862-63; as chief quartermaster of the middle 
department 1863 ; as supervising quartermaster of the de¬ 
partment of the Cumberland 1864—65, being in command of 
quartermaster’s forces at the battle of Nashville; and as 
chief quartermaster of the middle division of the Tennes¬ 
see 1865-66 ; of the department of the Tennessee 1866 ; 
of the military division of the Missouri 1866—69. Brevet 
oolonel and brigadier-general Sept. 17, 1864, for distin¬ 
guished services in the Atlanta campaign, and major- 
general U. S. A. Mar. 13, 1865, and major-general U. S. 
volunteers June 20, 1865, for faithlul and meritorious ser¬ 
vices; and retired from active service Mar. 15, 1869. lie 

























1386 DONALDSON—DONEGAL. 


is author of “ Sergeant Atkins,” a tale of adventures in the 
Florida war, 1871. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Donaldson (John William), D. D., an English phil¬ 
ologist, born in London in 1811. He published, besides 
other works, “ The New Cratylus ” (1839, enlarged in 1859), 
a Greek grammar and a Latin grammar. lie was a fellow 
of Trinity College, Cambridge. Died Feb. 10, 1861. 

Donaldson (Thomas Leverton), Ph. D., ari English 
architect, born in 1795, studied architecture in Italy and in 
Greece. lie was long the professor of architecture in Uni¬ 
versity College, London, from which he retired in 1864. lie 
has published works upon ancient and modern art, and de¬ 
signed many fine buildings in London and its vicinity. 

Don'aldsonville, a post-village, capital of Ascen¬ 
sion parish, La., is on the Mississippi River at the origin 
of the Bayou Lafourche, 82 miles above New Orleans. 
It was formerly the capital of the State. Pop. 1573. 

Dona'ti’s Com'et was first discovered in June, 1858, 
became distinctly visible in September, reached its perihe¬ 
lion about Oct. 1, and arrived at its nearest point to the 
earth Oct. 10, when its apparent length was 51,000,000 
miles. It afforded a most magnificent spectacle. Its re¬ 
turn to the solar system is expected after about 1950 years. 
Its aphelion distance is computed at 15,000,000,000 miles. 
The discoverer lived at Bologna, and died of cholera, which 
attacked him while visiting the Vienna Exposition in 1873. 

Do'natists, in ecclesiastical history, a party in the 
North African Church which effected a schism that lasted 
from 311 A. D. till the sixth century. They took their name 
from Donatus the Great, who was their bishop after Majori- 
nus, from 315 to 348. The early history of this deeply in¬ 
teresting movement is obscure and complicated. A power¬ 
ful exciting cause of the schism was the question as to the 
mild or severe discipline of Christians who left the faith 
in times of persecution, the Donatists advocating rigorous 
measures ; but there were numerous other questions in¬ 
volved in the controversy, the most important being that 
of the union of the whole people within the Church (as 
maintained by the Catholic party), while Donatus de¬ 
manded the separation of the Church from the world. 
Early in his reign Constantine the Great excluded the 
Douatists from the privileges conferred upon the Church, 
and in 316 A. D. he issued penal edicts against them. A 
fierce persecution ensued, lasting till 321, when the emperor 
granted them liberty of conscience.. After his death the 
penal laws against them were revived, but they defended 
themselves with much spirit until, in 361 A. D., Julian 
(the so-called Apostate) restored to them their full freedom. 
Prosperity followed, and they boasted at one time of having 
400 bishops in Africa ; but controversies sprang up with each 
other and with the Catholic party, and in 415 their assem¬ 
blies were forbidden on pain of death, Augustine himself 
joining in the persecution. Donatism, as well as the Afri¬ 
can Church in general, was overwhelmed by the Vandal 
conquest (428 A. D.), yet it survived in a feeble condition 
for many years. 

The Donatists are held by many historians to have erred 
by excessive fanaticism and a schismatical spirit, while it 
is generally conceded that the treatment they received from 
the state Church was severe and injudicious. In doctrine 
they were essentially orthodox, and the charges of immo¬ 
rality brought against them appear to have been the inven¬ 
tions of their enemies. There were doubtless errors on both 
sides, but the general position of the Donatist party ap¬ 
pears to have been in accord with that now taken by those 
Protestant churches which demand a personal experience 
of regeneration, as separating their membership from the 
world at large. (See Schaff, “ History of the Christian 
Church;” Neander, “ Church History.”) 

Revised by R. D. Hitchcock. 

Dona'to, or Donatello, called Donato di Niccolo 
di Betto Bardi, a distinguished sculptor. (Donatello 
is simply a diminutive.) He was born in Florence, prob¬ 
ably in 1386, and died in that city, according to Vasari, on 
the 13th Dec., 1466, but according to Palmieri in 1468. 
His first work of importance was a beautiful bas-relief of 
the Annunciation in the church of Sta. Croce. On the 
campanile of the cathedral of Florence are statues of Saint 
Matthew and Saint Mark (on the western face). That of 
Saint Matthew has a bald head, and from the resemblance of 
this to a gourd the Florentines nicknamed it II Zuccdne, or 
the “ great gourd.” This, of all his works, was Donatello’s 
favorite, and he was so pleased with the life he had been 
able to impart to his statue, that, as the story goes, while 
he was working at it ho would strike it impatiently, cry¬ 
ing, “ Why don’t you speak, then ?” He also used, says 
Vasari, to express the confidence he had in anything by 
the expression, “ By the faith I have in my Zuccdne.” 
Donatello was a prolific worker, and much of his work re¬ 


mains in good condition to attest his vividness of concep¬ 
tion, his noble strong ideal, and his beautiful execution. 
His most famous work is the statue of Saint George, the 
patron saint of the sword-makers and armorers, which he 
made for that guild, and which was placed in a niche de¬ 
signed for it on the outer wall of the church of San Mi¬ 
chele, under which was a bas-relief representing the fight 
of the saint with the dragon. To protect it from the action 
of the weather, the statue has been removed to another 
niche on the opposite side of the building. 

Vasari makes Donatello one of the three successful com¬ 
petitors for the gates of the Baptistery—he and Brunel¬ 
leschi withdrawing in favor of Ghiberti. Another famous 
work of this master is the bronze equestrian statue of Gat- 
tamelata (Erasmo da Narni, called Gattamelata, a condot- 
tiere (leader) of the Venetian troops), made at the command 
of the Signoria of Venice for the city of Padua. It stands 
on the platform of the church of Saint Antony. Donatello 
made a bronze statue of David, which is now in the Museo 
Nazionale (Bargello); a statue in wood of Mary Magdalen 
for the Baptistery, where it is still to be seen; and a statue 
of Judith, in a niche over one of the arches of the Poggia 
dei Lanzi, with a crowd of other works, no one of which is 
without interest. 

Donatello’s life has been very entertainingly written by 
Vasari. (See also Perkins’s “ Italian Sculptors,” and 
Lubke, “ History of Sculpture,” a superficial book, but 
useful. Dr. Hans Semper began in A. Von Zahn’s now 
discontinued “Jahrbiicher fiir Kunstwissensehaft,” 3d year, 
1870, Part 1, a valuable series of articles: “Donatello, 
seine Zcit und Schule.” Of this only the first part, “Erster 
Abschnitt: Die Vorlaiifer Donatello’s,” has appeared.) 

Clarence Cook. 

Dona'tus, bishop of Casae Nigrae in Numidia, an early 
leader in the Donatistic schism, but not to be confounded 
with Donatus the Great, a much abler man, vrho was the 
second schismatic bishop, as noticed above. 

Donatus (.ZElius), an eminent Latin grammarian, 
born about 333 A. D., taught rhetoric at Rome. He was 
the teacher of Saint Jerome, who expressed a high opinion 
of his talents. He wrote a work on grammar, which was 
commonly used in the schools of the Middle Ages. The 
word Donat became synonymous with grammar. 

Do'nauxvorth, a walled town of Bavaria, on the Dan¬ 
ube, at the mouth of the Wernitz, 25 miles N. N. W. of 
Augsburg. It was formerly a free town of the empire, but 
has declined in importance. It has several churches and 
hospitals. Here Marlborough defeated the Bavarians in 
1704, and here the French general Soult gained a victory 
over the Austrian general Mack Oct. 6, 1805. Pop. 3559. 

Do 'nax [from the Gr. Sova£, a kind of fish], a genus of 
bivalve mollusks of triangular form, belonging to the Tel- 
linidse. There are forty-five living European and tropical 
species, and thirty fossil ones from the eocene of Europe and 
the U. S. Donax is also the specific name of a reed or 
gi’ass (Arundo Donax) found in the south of Europe, used 
for fishing-rods and other purposes. 

Don Beni'to, a town of Spain, in the province of 
Badajoz, near the river Guadiana, 55 miles E. of Badajoz. 
It has manufactures of woollen goods, wine, and oil. Pop. 
about 14,800. 

Don'caster (anc. Danum), a market-town of England, 
in the West Riding of Yorkshire, and on the river Don, 35 
miles S. of York. It is pleasantly situated and well built. 
The Don is here crossed by two stone bridges. Doncaster 
has a fine parish church, a public library, and a theatre. 
It was burned by lightning in 759 A. D. It is famous for 
its annual horse-races. Colonel St. Leger founded in 1776 
the stakes, for which the best horses of England annually 
contend. Pop. in 1871, 18,758. 

Don'dra Head, the most southern extremity of Cey¬ 
lon, is in lat. 5° 55' N., Ion. 80° 38' E. 

Donegal', a county in the extreme N. W. part of Ire¬ 
land, province of Ulster, is bounded on the N. and W. by 
the Atlantic Ocean. Area, 1859 square miles. The coast¬ 
line is 395 miles long, and is deeply indented by many bays 
and loughs. The surface is mountainous, moory, and 
boggy. About one-third of it is arable. Granite, De¬ 
vonian rocks, and carboniferous limestone are found here. 
This county has some manufactures of linen and worsted 
hose. Capital, Lifford. Pop. in 1S71, 217,992. 

Donegal, a seaport of Ireland, in the above county, on 
Donegal Bay, at the mouth of the Eske, 11 miles N. N. E. 
of Ballyshannon. It has a harbor for vessels which draw 
twelve feet of water. Lat. 54° 39' N., Ion. 8° 6' W. 

Donegal, a township of Butler co., Pa. Pop. 852. 

Donegal, a township of Washington co., Pa. Pop. 

2068. 

















DONEGAL—DON QUIXOTE DE LA MANCHA. 1387 


Donegal, a post-township of Westmoreland co., Pa. 
Pop. 1304. 

Donegal, Marquesses of (1791), earls of Donegal 
(1647), earls of Belfast (1791), Viscounts Chichester and 
Barons Belfast (Ireland, 1625), Barons Fisherwick (Great 
Britain, 1798), Barons Ennishowen and Carrickfergus 
(United Kingdom, 1841). —George Hamilton Chichester, 
third marquess, K. P., G. C. H., F. R. S., aide-de-camp of 
the queen, born Feb. 10, 1798, succeeded his father in 1844. 

Don'elson (Andrew Jackson), LL.D., an American 
officer and diplomatist, born Aug. 25,1800, near Nashville, 
Tenn., graduated at West Point in 1820. He served (1821- 
22) as lieutenant of engineers and as aide-de-camp to his 
uncle, Maj.-Gen. Jackson, when governor of Florida, just 
acquired from Spain. He resigned from the army Feb. 1, 
1822, studied law, and became a cotton-planter near Nash¬ 
ville, Tenn. During President Jackson’s administration 
(1S29-33) he was his efficient private secretary; charg6 
d’affaires to Texas 1844—45, negotiating its annexation to 
the U. S.; and U. S. minister plenipotentiary to Prussia 
1846-49; and to the federal government of Germany 1848- 
49. Soon after his return from Europe he became enlisted 
in efforts to secure the settlement of the slavery agitation 
growing out of the acquisition of territory from Mexico. 
With strong national views he became editor of the “ Wash¬ 
ington Union” 1851-52, and in 1856 the American candi¬ 
date for Vice-President of the U. S. After his defeat ho 
retired altogether from public life, and devoted his time to 
planting interests in Mississippi, till he died June 26, 1871, 
at Memphis, Tenn., aged seventy-one. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Donelson, Fort, a strong position on the W. bank of 
the Cumberland River, in Stewart co., Tenn., 2 miles below 
Dover, and 12 miles E. of Fort Henry. In the early part 
of the late civil war it was strongly fortified by the Con¬ 
federates. On Feb. 14, 1862, this position, being held by 
Gen. J. B. Floyd with 15,000 men, was attacked by a fleet 
of gunboats under Commodore Foote, who was repulsed 
with considcrableloss. Meanwhile, the army of Gen. Grant, 
advancing from the capture of Fort Henry, successfully 
fought the Confederates outside their works. Floyd and a 
large part of his force escaped by means of rafts. On the 
morning of the 16th, Gen. Buckner, in command of the re¬ 
maining Confederates, proposed terms. Grant replied, 
“No terms except immediate and unconditional surrender 
will be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon 
your works.” On the same day the fort wa3 surrendered, 
with 8000 prisoners. 

Doneraile, Viscounts (1785), and Barons Donerailo 
(Ireland, 1786).— IIayes St. Leger, fourth viscount, born 
Oct. 1,1818, and elected a representative peer for Ireland in 
1855, succeeded his father in 1854. 

Do'nets, a river of Southern Russia, the chief affluent 
of the Don, rises in the government of Koorsk. It flows 
nearly south-eastward, and enters the Don 40 miles N. E. 
of Novo-Tcherkask. Length, about 400 miles. 

Dong-nai, a river of Anam, enters the China Sea about 
40 miles below the city of Saigon. It is navigable for large 
ships to Saigon. 

Dong-liai, a town on an affluent of the above river, is 
about 25 miles N. E. of Saigon. 

Don'gola, a province of Upper Nubia, is mostly in¬ 
cluded between lat. 18° and 19° 30' N., and is about 150 
miles long. It is a narrow plain intersected by the river 
Nile. 

Dongola, New, also called Mara'ka,a town of Nu¬ 
bia, the capital of the above province, is on the left bank 
of the Nile, in lat. 19° 10' N., Ion. 30° 22' E. It is im¬ 
portant as a military depot and as a place of trade. Here 
is an indigo-factory. Pop. estimated at 20,000. 

Dongola, Old, a ruined town of Nubia, on the Nile, 
75 miles S. S. E. of New Dongola. 

Dongo'la, a township and post-village of Union co., 
Ill., on the Illinois Central R. R., 26 miles N. of Cairo. 
Pop. 3095. 

Don'iphan, a county which forms the N. E. extremity 
of Kansas. Area, 391 square miles. It is bounded on the 
N. E. and E. by the Missouri River. The surface is diver¬ 
sified by river “ bottoms ” and undulating prairies ; the soil 
is fertile. Cattle, grain, and lumber are produced. It is 
intersected by the St. Joseph and Denver City and the 
Atchison and Nebraska R. Rs. Coal abounds here. Capi¬ 
tal, Troy. Pop. 13,969. 

Doniphan, a post-village of Wayne township in Doni¬ 
phan co., Kan., on the Atchison and Nebraska R. R. and 
the Missouri River, 6 miles N. E. of Atchison. Pop. 528. 

Doniphan, a post-village, capital of Ripley co., Mo., 


on the Current River, about 150 miles S. by W. of St. 
Louis. Pop. 146. 

Donizet'ti (Gaetano), a famous Italian composer, born 
at Bergamo Sept. 25, 1798. He served for several years in 
the Austrian army, which he left about 1822. He composed 
numerous operas which had little success. His opera 
“Anna Bolena” (1830) was received with more favor. He 
afterwards produced numerous popular operas, among 
which arc “Lucrezia Borgia” (1833), “ Marino Faliero,” 
“ Lucia di Lammermoor ” (1835), and“ Lindadi Chamouni” 
(1842). IIo became chapel-master and composer to the 
court at Vienna. Died April 8, 1848. 

Don'jon, or Dun'geon [from the Celtic dun, a 
“height” or “hill”], the central building, tower, or keep 
of an ancient castle or fortress of the Middle Ages. It was 
often erected on a natural or artificial elevation. The lower 
story of the donjon was used as a prison. 

Don Juan, a mythical personage, was, according to 
Spanish tradition, a profligate nobleman who killed in a 
duel the father of a lady he had attempted to seduce. Hav¬ 
ing afterwards invited to a feast the statue erected to his 
victim, he challenges the spirit, whose existence he denies, 
to manifest itself to him. The spirit thereupon proves its 
power, and condemns him to perdition. This story was 
dramatized by Tirso de Molina; it also forms the subject 
of one of Moliere’s comedies and Mozart’s celebrated opera, 
and gives name to one of Byron's most famous poems. 

Donkey. See Ass. 

Donkey-Engine, a small auxiliary engine used on 
shipboard, in factories, etc. for hoisting and lowering goods, 
for working the ship’s rigging, raising anchors, etc. 

Don'naldsville, a post-township of Abbeville co., S. C. 
Pop. 1155. 

Donne (John), D. D., an English poet, born in London 
in 1573. He married a niece of Lord Chancellor Egerton, 
and became a priest of the Anglican Church, although of 
Roman Catholic parentage. Having gained distinction as 
an eloquent preacher, he w r as appointed dean of St. Paul’s, 
London, in 1621. He wrote elegies, satires, and other poems, 
and belonged to the school called “ Metaphysical Poets,” 
whose works abound in forced conceits. Some of his early 
poems are very licentious, but many have great poetic 
merits. His sermons are justly admired. The first com¬ 
plete edition of his poems was issued in 2 vols., London, 
1872. Died Mar. 31, 1631. (See Izaak Walton, “Life 
of J. Donne,” 1640; H. Alford, “Life of Donne,” 1839.) 

Don'ner Lake, a small lake in Nevada co., Cal., near 
the Central Pacific R. R., 154 miles from Sacramento. It 
is a place of summer resort. It takes its name from the 
tragical fate of a party of overland emigrants, led by a 
man named Donner, who in the winter of 1846 were snow¬ 
bound at this point, and nearly all starved to death, the 
survivors having eaten the flesh of their dead comrades. 

Don'llybrook, a parish and village of Ireland, in the 
county of Dublin. The village is about 2 miles S. E. of 
Dublin. It has a magdalen asylum, a dispensary, a hos¬ 
pital for incurables, and a lunatic asylum, called the Bloom¬ 
field Retreat, established by the Society of Friends. Here 
is a famous annual fair, held during the week commencing 
Aug. 26. Pop. in 1861, 1892. 

Dono'so Cortes (Juan), Marquis de Valdegamas, a 
Spanish writer and diplomatist, born in Estremadura May 
6, 1809. He opposed Don Carlos, and became secretary to 
Queen Isabella in 1844. In 1848 he was sent as ambassador 
to Berlin. He was conservative in politics, and defended 
the Roman Catholic religion in his “ Essay on Catholicism, 
Liberalism, and Socialism” (1851). He died May 3, 1853, 
in Paris, whither he had been sent as minister. 

Donoughmore, Earls of, and Viscounts Suirdale 
(1800), Barons Donoughmore (Ireland, 1783), Viscounts 
Hutchinson (United Kingdom, 1821).— John Luke George 
IIely Hutchinson, fifth earl, born Mar. 2, 1848, succeeded 
his father Feb. 22, 1866. 

Don Quixo'tede la Man'cha is the title of a well- 
known work by the celebrated Cervantes (first published 
1605-15). “Don Quixote,” says Hallam, “is the only book 
in the Spanish language which can now be said to possess 
much of a European reputation. . . . It is to Europe in gen¬ 
eral what Ariosto is to Italy, and Shakspeare to England— 
the one book to which the slightest allusions may be made 
without affectation, but not missed without discredit. 
Numerous translations and countless editions of them, in 
every language, bespeak its adaptation to mankind ; and no 
critic has been found paradoxical enough to withhold his 
admiration. . . . Few books of moral philosophy display 
as deep an insight into the mechanism of the mind as 
‘ Don Quixote.’ And when we look also at the fertility of 
invention, tho general probability of the events, and the 

















1388 • DOO—DORAMA. 


great simplicity of the story, we shall think Cervantes fully 
deserving of the glory that attends this monument of his 
genius.” 

Doo (George Tiiomas), F. R. S., a skillful English his¬ 
torical engraver, born in Surrey Jan. 6, 1800. He became 
historical engraver to Queen Victoria in 1842, and was 
elected a Royal Academician in 1856. Among his works 
are “ Ecce Homo,” after Correggio,- “ Knox Preaching,” 
after Wilkie; and “ Pilgrims Coming in Sight of Rome,” 
after Eastlake. He exhibited at the Great Exposition of 
Paris in 1867 his engraving of “Saint Augustine and Saint 
Monica,” after Scheffer. 

Doobov'ka, a town of European Russia, government 
of Saratof, on the river Volga, 180 miles S. S. W. of Saratof. 
It has an active trade by the river. Pop. in 1867, 13,676. 

Doo'little (James Rood), LL.D., born Jan. 3, 1815, at 
Hampton, Washington co., N. Y., graduated at Hobart 
College in 1834, was elected U. S. Senator from Wis¬ 
consin in 1857, and re-elected in 1863. Mr. Doolittle re¬ 
sides at Racine, Wis., though in legal partnership with his 
son in Chicago. 

D oo'ly, a county in S. W. Central Georgia. Area, 800 
square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Flint River. 
The surface is level; the soil is mostly fertile. Cotton, 
corn, and wool are raised. Capital, Vienna. Pop. 9790. 

Dooly (Johx M.), a law.yer and judge of Georgia, 
greatly distinguished in his day, and the most famous wit 
ever produced in the State. His sayings and repartees 
have formed the staple of the raciest bar anecdotes through¬ 
out the commonwealth for the last half century, and are 
likely to be transmitted in legendary tradition, within the 
same sphere, to many generations hereafter. Born in 1772, 
and died in 1827. 

Doom [probably allied to the verb “deem,” to “think,” 
to “judge”], the name formerly given to the Last Judg¬ 
ment, and to representations of it in churches by painting 
or otherwise. Most of these were obliterated in the time of 
Edward VI., but a fine one still exists in the church of the 
Holy Trinity at Coventry. 

Doo m (or Dum) Palm ( Hyphsene Tkebaica), a native 
of Upper Egypt and Central Africa, where it sometimes 
forms forests, growing even in the deserts. The lower part 
of the stem is single, and invariably divides at a certain 
height into two branches, each of these again being bifur¬ 
cated, always in two sets. The wood is tougher than that 
of most other palm trees. It has fan-shaped leaves, 
elongated fruit about the size of an orange, with the outer 
skin red, enclosing a thick, spongy substance which re¬ 
sembles gingerbread. From this substance, which forms 
an article of food, it has been called the gingerbread tree. 
Ornaments are made from the hard, semi-transparent kernel 
of the fruit. This tree produces the gum resin called 
Egyptian bdellium, and its fibre is made into ropes which 
are dyed black. 

Dooms'day Book, or Domesday Book, often 
called simply Domesday, the name of an ancient record 
of England containing a statistical account of the state of 
that country, made by William the Conqueror in the year 
1086. Several of the northern counties were not included 
in this account. The origin of the name is not precisely 
known, but it seems to indicate the absolute authority of 
the book in doom or decision on matters of which it treats. 
The original record, in two parts, the “Great” and “Lit¬ 
tle Domesday,” is still preserved at Westminster. It was 
also known as the Liber Regis, or the “ King’s Book;” the 
Scriptura Thesauri Regis, or “ Record of the King’s Treas¬ 
urythe Liber Censualis Anglise, or “Rate Book of Eng¬ 
land,” etc. This work is very comprehensive and minute, 
and forms the basis of all historical accounts of those times. 
It was the first great English record published at the cost 
of the nation, and appeared in two folios, printed with 
types cast for the purpose. It was ten years in passing 
through the press, being completed in 1783; and later sup¬ 
plementary records have been since published. Several 
other ancient English records are known as Dornesdays. 
For example, the registers of the visitations and inquisi¬ 
tions made by the dean and chapter of St. Paul’s, London 
(1181-1222), were published in 1857 by the Camden Society 
as the “ Domesday of St. Paul’s.” 

Doon, a river of Scotland, rises in Ayrshire, flows 
nearly north-westward, and enters the Frith of Clyde 2 
miles S. of Ayr. It is 30 miles long, and passes through 
picturesque scenery. The Doon has been immortalized by 
the poet Burns. Loch Doon, an expansion of this river, is 
5 miles long, and is enclosed by mountains. 

Doon, a post-village of Lyon co., Ia. It has one weekly 
newspaper. 

Door [a word etymologically related to the Dutch door, 


“through,” the prominent idea being that of a “ place to 
go through ”], the panel of wood or other material by which 
the entrance of a house, etc. is opened or closed. Doors 
are of different kinds, the most common being made to 
move on hinges. Others, called sliding doors, are moved 
on rollers. A trap-door opens vertically over a hole in a 
roof or floor, while a jib-door is made even with the wall, 
and concealed as nearly as possible. Doors are also made 
of bronze, iron, and stone. 

In architecture, great attention has been paid to the or¬ 
namentation of doors. Perhaps the finest example in the 
U. S. of ornate doors is afforded in the bronze doors of the 
old Representatives’ Hall in the Capitol at Washington, 
which were cast in Munich, and are covered with beautiful 
historical and emblematic figures. 

Door, a county in the N. E. of Wisconsin, is a narrow 
peninsula between Lake Michigan and Green Bay, and is 
surrounded by water on all sides except the S. Area, 400 
square miles. Grain and wool are the chief products. 
Capital, Sturgeon Bay. Pop. 4919. 

Doo'ra, or Dhurra, called also Indian Millet ( Sor¬ 
ghum vulgare), a kind of grain much cultivated in Asia, 
Africa, and Southern Europe. The genus differs from 
Andropogon in having hermaphrodite spikelets and glumes, 
with three small teeth at the end. The species are mostly 
tall, broad-leaved annual grasses, with large panicles, and 
strong culms containing a sweet and juicy pith. The doora 
(sometimes called jowai-ee in India) has grain somewhat 
larger than mustard-seed; it yields abundant crops, and 
the stalks and leaves are food for cattle and horses. The 
sugar-grass or Chinese sugar-cane ( Sorghum saccharatum), 
a sugar-pi’oducing plant, lias been introduced into the U. S. 
and cultivated with success. The Caffer corn ( Sorghum 
Caffrorum) is chiefly valued as food for horses. The dooi’a 
grows well in the U. S., but has not been found profitable 
for cultui-e. 

Doorak', a town of Persia, in Khoozistan, at the con¬ 
fluence of the Doorak and Jerahi l'ivers, is about 200 miles 
S. W. of Ispahan. It has manufactures of silk handker¬ 
chiefs. Pop. about 8000. 

Doorkeeper of the House of Representatives 

of the U. S. At the commencement of each Congress a 
doorkeeper is elected viva voce, and he continues in office 
until a successor is qualified. He takes the usual oath of 
office, with the addition that he will keep the secrets of the 
House. His genei’al duties are those described as apper¬ 
taining to the same officer in the Senate. He keeps hung 
up at each entrance-door of the Repi’esentatives’ chamber 
printed lists of those entitled to enter, so that visitors may 
understand his duties and their privileges. The galleries 
of both houses ai'e open to all orderly people; the diplomatic 
corps, the importers, the ladies, and gentlemen without 
them, having separate enti'anccs and divisions assigned 
them. His salai-y is $2592. (See Gillet, “ Fedei’al Gov¬ 
ernment,” 1872.) 

Doorkeeper of the Senate of the U. S. The 

sergeant-at-arms of the Senate is, ex officio, dooi’keeper to 
that body, having an assistant dooi-keeper to aid him in 
pei’fonning his duties, and who, in fact, acts as doorkeeper. 
He keeps the doors of the Senate, and announces from them 
messages from the President and House of Representatives. 
As doorkeeper he appoints superintendents of the folding- 
room and document-room, messengers, pages, folders, and 
laborers, and discharges various duties not enumerated in 
the rules. He folds and distributes extra documents, fur¬ 
nishes members with printed bills, l'eports, and other docu¬ 
ments, conveys messages for members, and keeps the hall, 
galleries, and committee-rooms in order. The assistant 
doorkeeper’s salary is $2592. (See Gillet, “ Federal 
Government,” 1872.) 

Doonfboom (“thorn tree,” Acacia horrida), a trae 
growing abundantly in South Africa, so named by the 
Dutch on account of its sharp and numei'ous spines. Its 
usual height is about thirty feet, and the wood is valued 
for building. 

Doos'tee, a river of Beloochistan, enters the Arabian 
Sea in lat. 25° 15' N., Ion. 61° 50' E. It is nearly 900 miles 
long, but is shallow in all parts of its course. 

Dore, Mont, a group of high mountains in Auvergne, 
Fi’ance, in the department of Puy de Dome. They ai-e of 
volcanic-formation. The highest summit is the Pic de 
Sancy, which has an altitude of 6190 feet. 

Do'ra, a township of Moultrie co., Ill. Pop. 924. 

Do'ra Baite'a (anc. Daria Major), a river of Italy, in 
Piedmont, rises at the foot of the Little St. Bernard, and 
enters the Po near Croscentino. Length, about 90 miles. 

Dora'ma, a town of Arabia, in Nedjcd, 30 miles N. E. 
of Derayeh. The caravans moving between Persia and 



















DORCAS SOCIETY—DORIC ORDER. 1389 


Mecca halt here to obtain supplies. It was taken in 1818 
by Ibrahim Pasha, who killed nearly all the inhabitants. 
Pop. about 8000. 

Dor cas Soci'ety, a benevolent association of ladies, 
usually ol the same congregation, for the purpose of pro¬ 
viding the poor with clothing. It is so called from Acts 
ix. .10 : “ And all the widows stood by him weeping, and 
showing the coats and garments which Dorcas made while 
she was with 111601 .” 

Dor Chester (anc. Durnovaria and Durinum), a town 
and parliamentary borough of England, the capital of Dor¬ 
setshire, is on the river Frome and on the South Downs, 
llo miles W. S. W. of London and 7 miles from the Eng¬ 
lish Channel. It sends two members to Parliament. The 
South-western Railway connects it with London on the 
one hand and Weymouth on the other. Here are the re¬ 
mains of the most perfect Roman amphitheatre in England, 
218 feet long and 1C3 feet wide. Pop. in 1871, 6915. 

Dorchester, a county of Canada, in the E. part of 
Quebec, bordering on the State of Maine. It is partly 
drained by the Chaudiere River. Pop. in 1871, 17,779. 

Dorchester, a river-port and capital of Westmoreland 
co., New Brunswick, is on the Memracook River, near its 
mouth, and on the Intercolonial Railway, 115 miles E. N. E. 
of St. John. Large ships can ascend from the Bay of 
Fundy to this place, which has an active trade. Gas-coal 
and building-stone are largely exported. It has a court¬ 
house, jail, and many fine buildings. Pop. including 
Dorchester township, 5617. 

Dorchester, a county in the S. E. of Maryland. Area, 
about 770 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the 
Chesapeake Bay, on the N. by the Choptank River, and on 
the S. E. by the Nanticoke. Both of these rivers arc 
navigable. The surface is level; the soil productive. 
Wheat, corn, fruit, timber, fish, and oysters are exported. 
Capital, Cambridge. Pop. 19,458. 

Dorchester, a former town of Norfolk co., Mass., on 
Massachusetts Bay, 4 miles S. of Boston. It was annexed 
in 1869 to the city of Boston, of which it forms the sixteenth 
ward. It contains a national bank, and several paper- 
mills, iron-foundries, and other manufactories. 

Dorchester, a post-township of Grafton co., N. II. 
It has manufactures of lumber and furniture. Pop. 689. 

Dordogne, a department in the S. W. part of France, 
has an area of 3545 square miles. It is drained by the 
river Dordogne. The surface is diversified by hills, marshes, 
and fertile valleys. The soil is generally sandy. Chest¬ 
nuts and wine are among the staple productions. Here 
are mines of coal, copper, and iron, and quarries of marble 
and alabaster. It has manufactures of paper, brandy, 
hosiery, and iron. Capital, Perigucux. Pop. in 1872, 
480,141. 

Dordogne, a river rising in the S. central part of 
France, flows nearly westward through the departments of 
Correze, Lot, and Dordogne, and enters the Garonne 13 
miles N. of Bordeaux. It is about 220 miles long, and is 
navigable for 150 miles. 

Dordrecht. See Dort. 

Dore (Paul Gustave), a French painter and designer, 
born at Strasburg Jan. 6, 1833. He was educated at Paris, 
and in 1848 made his first public appearance as an artist 
with some pen-and-ink drawings sent to the Salon. His 
first successes were obtained by his paintings, chiefly of 
landscape subjects, but in 1854 he illustrated an edition of 
“ Rabelais,” and in 1856 published a series of designs illus¬ 
trating the story of the Wandering Jew, by which per¬ 
formances the public attention was strongly directed to¬ 
wards him. In the same year (1856) he illustrated an 
edition of Balzac’s “ Contes Drolatiques,” which is the 
work that shows all his powers in their fullest and freest 
exercise. One would say that the stories were written for 
the designs, so perfectly do these follow and reflect the au¬ 
dacious indecencies of that most libertine of books. Mean¬ 
while, Dore was making himself known in a wider and 
happier circle with his designs for Perrault’s “ Fairy Tales ” 
(1861), “Don Quixote” (1863), the “ Travels in the Py¬ 
renees” of Taine (1859), which has just been translated 
and published with Dore’s designs in New York (1873), 
and the “Fables” of La Fontaine (1867). These works 
were suited to the artist’s talent, but he overleaped the 
saddle when his ambition led him to try to illustrate Dante 
and the Bible. Though his designs for these works cre¬ 
ated a wide interest, and it was felt that he showed a great 
deal of facility and felicity in his inventions, yet it was 
also felt that they were wholly inadequate, and they have 
failed of any lasting success. Indeed, they were mere 
publishers’ ventures, and of late years Dor6 has come to 
be a mere hack worker. His “ Rabelais,” however, pub¬ 


lished in 1873, an enlarged issue of his early work, shows 
him more at home in his proper field. In 1866-68 he was 
laid hold of by English publishers, who persuaded him to 
illustrate Tennyson's “ Idyls,” a work of whose very ex¬ 
istence, and naturally, the Frenchman was ignorant, and 
into the spirit of which he was powerless to enter. The 
work was an unhappy failure. Dore is one of the most 
prolific designers that ever lived, but it would be unfair to 
conceal the fact that he owes much of his success to the 
admirable wood-engravers who havo translated him to the 
public. In these successive publications Pisan and Du¬ 
mont and Gauchard have created a new era in the art of 
engraving on wood. Clarence Cook. 

Doree [Fr. doree, “gilded”], the name of several species 
of fish of the genus Zeus. The one most common on the 
British coasts is Zeus faber, commonly called jolin dory, a 
corruption of the French jaune doree (golden-yellow). Its 
color is dusky-green, tinged with gold; the head is large, 
and on each side of its body is a dark oval spot. It is 
highly prized by epicures. 

Do'ria, the name of one of the four most noble and 
powerful families of Genoa. It was attached to the Ghibel- 
line party. In 1339 the families of Doria, Spinola, Gri¬ 
maldi, and Fieschi, which had by their rivalry long troubled 
the republic, were exiled. —Paganino Doria, a famous Gen¬ 
oese admiral, gained a naval victory over the Venetian ad¬ 
miral Pisaniin 1352. 

Doria (Andrea), a celebrated Genoese admiral and 
patriot, born at Oneglia Nov. 30, 1468, is called the restorer 
of Genoese liberty. He entered the French navy about 
1490, gained the rank of admiral, and commanded with 
success the fleet of Francis I. in the war against Charles V. 
In 1524 he defeated the imperial fleet near Marseilles. He 
also captured Genoa, from which he expelled the Adorni. 
In 1528 ho abandoned the service of Francis I., and be¬ 
came an ally and adherent of Charles V., on the condition 
that Genoa should be a free and independent state. He 
entered Genoa in 1529, was welcomed by the citizens, and 
gave them a free constitution, which remained in vigor 
until the republic ceased to exist. He afterwards acted as 
admiral in the service of the emperor, and gained a victory 
over the Turks near Patras in 1532. In 1535 he contributed 
greatly to the conquest of Tunis. Charles V. gave him 
the title of prince of Melfi. Doria died without issue at 
Genoa Nov. 15, 1560. (See Carlo Sigonio, “ De Vita et 
Gestis A. Dorim,” 1586 ; Richer, “ Vie d’Andre Doria,” 
1789.) 

Do'rians [Gr. Au)pieis],onoof the four principal branches 
or tribes of the ancient Hellenic people, claimed that they 
were descended from Dorus, a son of Hellen. They are 
supposed to have originally lived in Doris, from which they 
migrated to the Peloponnesus, where they founded Sparta, 
Argos, and Messenia. The migration of the Dorians to 
the Peloponnesus, which is called the return of the Heracli- 
dae, and forms a celebrated epoch in ancient chronology, is 
said to have occurred soon after the siege of Troy, in 1104 
B. C. Dorian colonies were planted in Crete, Sicily, and 
Asia Minor. The Dorians were the most powerful and 
warlike of the Hellenic tribes. They used a peculiar dia¬ 
lect, called the Doric. They surpassed the Ionians in 
solidity and earnestness of character, but were less refined 
and ingenious. (See K. 0. Muller, “ Die Dorier,” 2 vols., 
1824; 3d ed. 3 vols., 1844; Curtius, “History of Greece.”) 

Dor'ic Di'alect, one of the principal dialects of tho 
ancient Greek language, took its name from the Dorians, 
among whom it was the principal dialect used. It was dis¬ 
tinguished by its strength and the broadness of its sounds, 
and was much less finished than the Attic and Ionic. 

Doric Order, one of the orders of classic architecture, 
takes its name from the Dorians, its possible inventors. It 
is popularly considered the oldest of the Greek orders, but 
Fergusson, Viollet-le-Duc, and other scholars think the 
Ionic or Ionian style was brought earlier from Asia into 
Greece. However it may have been—whether the earlier 
buildings were built of wood and so perished, or wdiether 
the style was simply abandoned for the severer Doric—it 
is certain that the Greeks showed a marked preference for 
the Doric, and used it in all the buildings of which we 
have any knowledge from their remains, until the time 
of the Roman conquest. The order is characterized by an 
air of dignity and strength. The true Doric column rests 
upon a stylobate of three courses, together equal to one in¬ 
ferior diameter of the shaft, which is itself from four to six 
diameters in height. Its superior diameter is three-fourths 
of the inferior, the latter being the unit of measure. This 
diminution is reached by an entasis or slight curve. Doric 
columns generally havo twenty shallow flutes, separated 
by a sharp edge. The capital is about half a diameter in 
height, composed of an abacus, resting upon an echinus 










1390 


DORIS—D’ORSAY. 


i 




Doric Order. 


and cornice were ornamented with simple yet beautiful 
mouldings of various forms. 

Revised by Clarence Cook. 

Do'ris [from the Gr. Awpt's, the name of a daughter of 
Nereus], a genus of marine gasteropodous mollusks belong¬ 
ing to the section Nudibranchiata. They are found mostly 
in southern seas, but several species are native on northern 
coasts. They have an oval body; the mouth is a proboscis 
with two tentacula, and the vent is encircled by branched 
gills. They are sometimes called sea-lemons. 

Do' ris [Awpis], a small district of ancient Greece, was j 
bounded on the N. by Thessaly, and on the other sides by 
Locris, Phocis, and iEtolia. The surface is mountainous. 
The people were called Dorians (which see). Doris is now 
an eparchy in the government of Phocis.—The name Doris 
is also given by some ancient writers to that part of Caria 
which was occupied by Dorian colonists and their de¬ 
scendants. 

Dor'mant [present part, of the Fr. dormir, to “ sleep ”], 
in heraldry, a sleeping animal, with its head resting on its 
fore paws, as a lion dormant. 

Dormant Animals. See Hybernation. 

DorTner [probably from the Fr. dormir (Lat. dormio, 
dormire), to “sleep,” because it lighted sleeping apart¬ 
ments], or Dormer Window, also written Dorment or 
Dormar, a window inserted on the inclined plane of the 
roof of a house, the frame being placed nearly vertically 
with the rafters. It is often used for the purpose of light¬ 
ing the attic or garret of modern dwelling-houses. 

Dor mouse [a contraction of dormant mouse, because 
the animal is dormant in winter], a small rodent animal of 
the genus Myoxis, regarded as a connecting link between 
the Sciuridse (squirrels) and the Muridae (mice, etc.). Each 
jaw contains four molar teeth on each side; there are no 
cheek-pouches; each of the fore paws has four toes and a 
rudimentary thumb, and they have five toes on the hind 
feet. They have ears like mice ; their fur is soft and fine, 
and the tail long. They are mostly natives of Southern 
Europe. The muscardine or red dormouse ( Myoxis avel- 
lanarius) is the only British species. The fat dormouse 
(Myoxis glis) is about the size of a rat, of a brown-gray 
color, with a bushy tail. It is prized as food by the Italians. 
The garden dormouse ( Myoxis nitela) is found in the cen¬ 
tral parts of Europe. It is often injurious to fruit trees. 
They all remain dormant the greater part of the winter. 

Dorn (Johann Albrecht Bernhard), a German Orient¬ 


alist, born in Saxe-Coburg Mar. 11, 1805. lie became in 
1843 the chief librarian of the imperial library at St. Peters¬ 
burg. 

Dorn'birn, a town of Austria, in Tyrol, about 7 miles 
S. of Bregenz, which is on Lake Constance. The men are 
mostly carpenters, employed in the construction of wooden 
houses, which are exported. It has manufactures of cotton 
fabrics. Pop. in 1869, 8486. 

Dor'ner (Isaac August), D. D., an eminent Protestant 
theologian, born in Wiirtemberg June 20, 1809. He was 
educated at Tubingen, and became professor of theology at 
Tubingen (1838), Kiel (1839), Ivonigsberg (1840), Bonn in 
1847, and at Berlin in 1857. He wrote, besides other works, 
a “History of the Development of the Doctrine of the Per¬ 
son of Christ” (1839), and an able work entitled “History 
of Protestant Theology, especially in Germany” (1867). 
He visited the U. S. in 1873 as a delegate to the meeting 
of the Evangelical Alliance. 

Dor'nic, Dornick, or Dor'noek [from Doornik , 
Flemish for Tournay], the name of a kind of figured linen 
of coarse qualiiy, originally made at Tournay. 

Dor'noch, a royal burgh of Scotland, capital of the 
county of Sutherland, is on an inlet of the sea called 
Dornoch Frith, 14 miles N. of Cromarty. It has an old 
cathedra], which was restored bv the duchess of Sutherland 
in 1837. Pop. in 1871, 625. 

Do'rogoboozh', a town of Prussia, in the government 
of Smolensk, on the river Dnieper, about 55 miles E. N. E. 
of Smolensk. The Russians here defeated the French in 
Oct., 1812. Pop. 7865. 

Dorosma, a town of Central Hungary, in Little Cu- 
mania, 6 miles W. N. W. of Szeged. Pop. in 1870, 9688. 

Dorp, a town of Prussia, in the Rhine province, on tho 
Wupper, has iron, steel, and paper factories. Pop. in 1871, 
10,690. 

Dor'pat, or Derpt [Russ. Yoorief], a town of Russia, 
in the government of Livonia, is on the river Embach, 138 
miles N. E. of Riga. It is well built, and has a stone 
bridge across the river. The old ramparts have been con¬ 
verted into gardens and public promenades. Here Gus- 
tavus Adolphus founded in 1632 a university which became 
a large and celebrated institution. Nearly all the lectures 
at the university are given in the German language, but 
the Russian government is making great efforts to substi¬ 
tute the Russian for the German. Struve and Madler have 
successively directed the astronomical observatory of Dor- 
pat, which their labors have made famous. The town has 
a gymnasium. Dorpat was founded in 1030, became an im¬ 
portant town, sank into decay, but revived at the beginning 
of the last century. It was captured by the Swedes in 1625, 
and by the Russians in 1704. Pop. 20,780. 

Dorr, a township of McHenry co., Ill. Pop. 2681. 

Dorr, a township and post-village of Allegan co., Mich., 
on the Kalamazoo Allegan and Grand Rapids R. R., 18 
miles S. of Grand Rapids. Total pop. 1518. 

Dorr (Benjamin), D. D., was born at Salisbury, Mass., 
Mar. 22, 1796, graduated at Dartmouth in 1817, studied law 
and then theology, was ordained to the Protestant Episcopal 
ministry in 1820, was a rector in Lansingburg, Waterford, 
and Utica, N. Y., general agent for the domestic committee 
of the Board of Missions (1835-37), and afterwards rector 
of Christ Church, Philadelphia. He published, besides 
other works, “The Churchman's Manual,” “ Recognition 
of Friends in Another World,” “ Travels in Egypt, the 
Holy Land,” etc. Died Sept. 18, 1869. 

Dorr (Thomas William), born at Providence, R. I., Nov. 

5, 1805, graduated at Harvard in 1823, was a Democrat and 
a leader of the suffrage party. Under the old charter the 
right to vote was limited to men who possessed a certain 
amount of real estate, and to their eldest sons. In 1841 the 
suffrage party formed a new constitution, and chose Mr. 
Dorr governor of the State. His official action was resisted 
in May, 1842, by the government chosen according to the 
old charter. Dorr was arrested, convicted of treason, and 
sentenced to imprisonment for life, but he was pardoned in 
1847. Died Dec. 27, 1854. 

Dor'rance, a post-township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 
646. 

Dor'relites, the followers of a man named Dorrel, who 
lived in Leyden, Mass., and who claimed to be equal to 
Christ and invulnerable; but having been soundly beaten 
by one of his hearers, his congregation was at once dis¬ 
persed. 

D’Orsay (Alfred Guillaume Gabriel), Count, a 
French artist and leader of fashion, was born at Paris in 
1798. He married a daughter of Lord Blessington in 
1827, but subsequently separated from her, and became 


























































































































































































































































































the intimate friend of Lady Blessington. His wit, man¬ 
ners, amiability, and brilliant talents made him very pop¬ 
ular in the society of London. Died at Paris Aug. 4, 1852. 
Dorse (Morrhuci callanas), a fish sometimes called 


Baltic Cod, from the great numbers found in the north¬ 
ern seas. It is less in size than the cod, and differs from it 
also in having a longer upper jaw. 

Dor'sct, a county in the S. part of England, is bounded 
on the N. by Somerset and Wiltshire, on the E. by Hamp¬ 
shire, on the S. by the English Channel, and on the W. by 
Devonshire. Area, 988 square miles. The surface is partly 
hilly and occupied by chalk-downs. The chief rivers are 
the Frome and the Stour. Among the mineral resources 
are chalk, china clay, and the celebi'ated Portland building- 
stone. The chalk-downs or hills produce fine pasture, on 
which vast numbers of Southdown sheep feed. Dorset is 
mainly a pastoral county, and exports cattle, sheep, butter, 
and cheese. The chief towns are Dorchester (the capital), 
Poole, Bridport, Weymouth, and Shaftesbury. Pop. in 
1871, 195,544. 

Dorset, a post-township of Ashtabula co., 0. Pop. 372. 

Dorset, a post-township of Bennington co., Vt., on the 
Harlem Extension It. R., 22 miles S. of Rutland. It has 
manufactures of lumber, marble, leather, boxes, tubs, etc. 
Pop. 2195. 

Dorset (Charles Sackville), K. G., sixth earl of, 
an English courtier and wit, born in 1637, was a son of 
Richard, the fifth earl of Dorset. He was brave, witty, 
and generous, and had superior talents, but was indolent 
and unambitious. His popular qualities rendered him 
a general favorite. He was distinguished as a patron of 
literary men, and bestowed his bounty with equal judgment 
and liberality. Dryden was one of the authors who enjoyed 
his bounty. Lord Dorset was appointed lord chamberlain 
by William III. in 1689. He wrote several admired satires 
and songs. Died Jan. 16, 1706. 

Dorset (Thomas Sackville), K. G., first earl of, an 
English statesman and poet, born in 1536. He wrote a 
tragedy entitled “ Gorboduc, or Ferrex and Porrex” (1561), 
which was praised by Sir Philip Sidney, and also the “ In¬ 
duction to the Mirror for Magistrates.” He received the 
title of Lord Buckhurst in 1566, and was sent as minister 
to France in 1570. In 1599 he succeeded Lord Burleigh 
as lord treasurer of England. He was afterwards created 
earl of Dorset by James I. He died April 19, 1608, and 
was succeeded by his son Robert. 

Dor'sey (John Syng), M. D., an American physician, 
born in Philadelphia Dec. 23, 1783, was a nephew of Dr. 
Physick. He studied in London and Paris, and became in 
1813 professor of materia medica in the University of 
Pennsylvania. He published “ Elements of Surgery ” 
(1813), which was highly esteemed. Died Nov. 12, 1818. 

Dort, also called Dor'drecht [Lat. Dordracum ], a 
fortified town of the Netherlands, in South Holland, is on 
an island in the Meuse, 10 miles S. E. of Rotterdam. It 
is traversed by canals, is accessible to large ships, and 
has an active trade in grain, flax, timber, and salt fish. 
Here are shipbuilding docks, sugar-refineries, saw-mills, 
and manufactures of tobacco, white lead, etc. In 1421 a 
terrible inundation destroyed seventy villages, and con¬ 
verted the ground where Dort stands into an island. The 
Synod of Dort met here in 1618, and condemned the doc¬ 
trines of Arminius. Pop. in 1870, 25,359. 

Dort'mund, a walled town of Prussia, in Westphalia, 
on the Embscher and on the Cologne and Minden Rail¬ 
way, 47 miles N. N. E. of Cologne. It has several fine 
churches, three hospitals, a Protestant gymnasium, and 
a realschule; also manufactures of cotton, linen and wool¬ 
len fabrics, cutlery, and nails. It was a city of the Han¬ 
seatic League, and was the chief seat of the Vchmic Court. 
Its trade was nearly ruined by the Thirty Years’ war. 
Dortmund was ceded to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna 
in 1815. Pop. in 1871, 44,454. 

Dort, Synod of [Lat. Synodus Dordracena ], a great 


synod of the Dutch national Church, convened at Dort 
from Nov. 13, 1618, to May 9, 1619, consisting of 39 min¬ 
isters, 18 ruling elders, and 5 professors, deputies from the 
several states ot the Netherlands, besides 24 foreign depu¬ 
ties representing the Anglican and most of the 
Calvinistic churches. The synod was convoked 
by the States-Geueral on account of the contro¬ 
versies between the Gomarists (Calvinists) and 
Remonstrants (Arminians). The synod was con¬ 
vened in the Calvinistic interest, and there has 
been much difference of opinion as to the fair¬ 
ness of its proceedings. The principal work of 
the synod was the preparation of canons setting 
forth the Calvinistic doctrines, and the publica¬ 
tion of an Ecclesiastical Censure against the Re¬ 
monstrants, calling upon the civil power to en¬ 
force the decrees of the synod by banishment, im¬ 
prisonment, or fines imposed upon the refractory. 
The canons are ably drawn up, and were officially received 
by the Reformed chui*ches of the Low Countries, France, 
Switzerland, and the Palatinate, but were some years later 
rejected by the Church of England. (See the official “Acta 
Synodi,” 4to, 1620.) 

Dosith'eans, the name of a Samaritan sect founded 
by Dositheus in the first century after Christ. In the fourth 
century there still remained a few Dositheans, who believed 
their master to have been the true Messiah. 

Dotis, or Totis, a market-town of Western Hungary, 
in the county of Comorn, 37 miles W. N. W. of Pesth. It 
has several Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue, and a 
gymnasium. Here is a splendid chateau of the Esterhazy 
family, with extensive wine-vaults. Pop>. in 1869, 9855. 

Douai [Lat. Duacurri], a fortified town of France, de¬ 
partment of the Nord, on the river Scarpe and on the Rail¬ 
way du Nord, about 21 miles S. of Lille. It is well built, has 
several fine churches and hospitals, a theatre, an arsenal, a 
botanic garden, a national college, and a Roman Catholic 
college for the education of British Roman Catholics. Hero 
are manufactures of cotton stuffs, lace, gauze, paper, glass, 
pottery, and soap. Douai existed in the time of Cmsar. It 
has often been besieged and taken by the French and Flem¬ 
ings. Pop. 24,195. 

Douai Bible, The, was translated by English Roman 
Catholic divines connected first with the college at Rheims, 
and afterwards with the college at Douai. According to 
Dodd, the translators were Gregory, Martin, William Allen, 
Richard Bristow, John Reynolds, and others. The New 
Testament was published at Rheims in 1582. The Old 
Testament, then already translated, was published at Douai 
in 1609-10. Both Testaments were translated from the Vul¬ 
gate. The annotations were quite copious, and intensely 
Roman Catholic. Numerous editions have appeared, which 
greatly vary both in the text and in the notes. An exact 
reprint of the original Rheims New Testament was pub¬ 
lished in New York in 1833. Of the original Douai Old 
Testament there has been no exact modern reprint. (See 
Cotton, “ Rhemes and Doway,” Oxford, 1855.) 

Douarnenez, a town of France, in the department of 
Finistere, 14 miles W. N. W. of Quimper. It has large 
fisheries and a considerable coasting-trade. Pop. 5434. 

Douay (Charles Abel), a French general, born in 
1809, served in Algeria, in the Crimean war, and in 1S59 in 
Italy, where he distinguished himself at Solferino, became 
in 1866 general of division, and 1869 inspector of the mili¬ 
tary academy at St. Cyr. In the French-German war he 
commanded the second division under MacMahon, and was 
killed on Aug. 4, 1870, in the battle of Weissenburg. 

Douay (Felix), a French general, a brother of the pre¬ 
ceding, born in 1816, served in Algeria, the Crimea, in the 
Italian war, and as general of division in 1862 in Mexico. 
In the war against Germany he commanded the seventh 
army corps, was taken prisoner at Sedan, and having re¬ 
turned to France in 1871, organized an army against the 
insurgents in Paris. He was the first one to enter Paris 
on the 22d of May. After the restoration of order he was 
appointed to the command of the fourth army corps. 

Doub (Peter), D. D., an eminent minister of the Meth¬ 
odist Episcopal Church South, born in North Carolina Mar. 
12, 1796. He joined the Virginia Conference in 1818. He 
performed an immense amount of service in Virginia and 
North Carolina. Many thousands were brought into the 
Church by his ministry. He was a polemic of great power. 
He was for three years before his death professor of biblical 
literature in Trinity College, N. C. He died in Greensboro’, 
N. C., Aug. 24, 1869. T. 0. Summers. 

Double-acting Pump, a pump that lifts and forces 
water alternately on each side of the course by means of 
a solid piston or plunger, and an entrance and exit valve 



Dorse. 




















1392 


communicating with each side. 

P. Barnard, S. T. D., LL.D., L. H. D.) 

Double Consciousness, sometimes called Double 
Personality, is a form of mental disease involving con¬ 
fusion in the idea of personal identity. Persons with this 
disorder are variously affected; some conceive that parts of 
their frame belong to another person ; others that they are 
inhabited by another entity in addition to their own, and 
which opposes itself to their will and interests ; others ap¬ 
pear to be possessed at one time of one personality, at 
another of another, according to the mental or physical 
conditions under which they are placed. In the last-named 
form of the phenomenon neither consciousness has any 
knowledge of the other, nor can the person affected remem¬ 
ber in one state the events which happened during the other. 
The phenomena of double consciousness have never received 
a satisfactory explanation. (For some striking examples of 
the last-named variety, see Wayland, “ Intellectual Phil¬ 
osophy.”) 

Doub'le Dag'ger, in printing, a character marked 
thus, J, used as a reference to marginal notes. 

DoubTeday (Abner), an American general, born in 
Saratoga co., N. Y., June 26, 1819, graduated at West 
Point in 1812. He became a captain in 1855, and was one 
of the garrison of Fort Sumter in April, 1861. It is stated 
that he fired the first gun for the Union (April 12). lie 
commanded a division at Antietam, Sept. 17, 1862, and 
obtained the rank of major-general of volunteers in No¬ 
vember of that year. He served at Gettysburg, July 2 and 
3, 1863. 

Double-Eagle, a gold coin of the U. S. bearing the 
figure of an eagle, and equivalent to twenty dollars in 
value. 

Double Refrac'tion, a phenomenon exhibited by 
Iceland spar and several other crystals. A ray of common 
light passing through them is divided into two polarized 
rays, which take different directions and are refracted ac¬ 
cording to different laws. (See Refraction and Polariza¬ 
tion.) 

Double Shoal, a post-township of Cleveland co., N. C. 
Pop. 1410. 

Double Stars, or Binary Stars. It was announced 
in 1803 by Sir William Herschel that there exist sidereal 
systems composed of two stars, one revolving around the 
other, or both about a common centre. Subsequent observ- i 
ations have confirmed this discovery, and in some instances 
the periods of revolution have been determined. Some of 
these binary systems have periods of great length. The 
period of 61 Cygni is supposed to be about 500 years, but 
others have much shorter periods, and have been observed 
through their entire orbits. The remarkable double star 
called Castor, or a Geminorum, is easily separated by a mod¬ 
erately good telescope. Sir J. Herschel computed its period 
at 252 years. The star q Coronae completes a revolution in 
about forty-three years. Some of the binary systems afford 
curious instances of contrasted colors, the color of the smaller 
star being complementary to that of the larger. In such 
instances the larger star is usually red or orange, and the 
smaller star blue or green. “ It may be easier suggested in 
words,” says Sir J. Herschel, “than conceived in imagi¬ 
nation, what variety of illumination two suns —a red and a 
green, or a yellow and a blue one—must afford a planet 
circulating round either.” Catalogues containing several 
thousand binary stars have been published by Struve and 
others. 

Doubling Gap Springs, in Cumberland co., Pa., 30 
miles W. of Harrisburg, are 8 miles from Newville, on the 
Cumberland Valley R. R. A part of the springs have car¬ 
bonated saline chalybeate waters, and others are saline sul¬ 
phur springs. They are useful in a wide range of chronic 
disease. 

Doubling the Cube, a geometrical problem of great 
antiquity, the object of which was to find the side of a cube 
containing twice as much as another given cube. Many 
ancient geometers attempted its solution without success. 
The problem was shown in its true light by the analytical 
method introduced by Descartes. It is only a special 
case of the solution of a cubic equation— a solution impos¬ 
sible by the use of the circle and straight line, though it 
may be represented by the intersection of two conic sec¬ 
tions, one of which may be a circle. Descartes made use 
of the parabola with the circle, which is the simplest method. 
With numbers, the problem is only one of the extraction 
of the cube root. If the side of a cube is one foot, its solid 
content = 1 cubic foot. The side of a cube containing 
two cubic feet is -f/2 = 1.259921. 

Doubloon' [Fr. doublon ; Sp. doblon, from doblnr, to 
“double”], a Spanish gold coin nearly equivalent to six¬ 
teen dollars. It is the double of a pistole. 


Doubs (anc. Dubis), a river of France, rises in the Jura 
Mountains, flows nearly south-westward through the de¬ 
partments of Doubs and Jura, and enters the Saone at 
Verdun-sur-Saone. Total length, about 250 miles. The 
chief towns on its banks are Besanfon and Dole. It is 
navigable to Dole. 

Doubs, a department in the E. part of France, border¬ 
ing on Switzerland. Area, 2018 square miles. It is inter¬ 
sected by the river Doubs. The surface is traversed by 
several ridges of the Jura Mountains, which are covered 
with forests of pine, walnut, and other trees. The soil of 
the valleys is fertile, and produces good pasture. Here are 
mines of coal and iron and quarries of marble. Among 
the exports are cattle, horses, iron, and butter. Capital, 
Besangon. Pop. in 1872, 291,251. 

Dough'erty, a county in the S. W. of Georgia. Area, 
300 square miles. It is intersected by the Flint River. 
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Cotton, corn, 
and wool are the chief products. It is traversed by a branch 
of the Atlantic and Gulf It. R. Capital, Albany. Pop. 
11,517. 

Doug'las, a seaport and the principal town of the Isle 
of Man, is on the E. coast, 80 miles N. W. of Liverpool. 
It stands on a picturesque bay, and has a harbor which 
will admit vessels drawing ten or twelve feet of water. It 
contains a custom-house, handsome villas, good hotels, and 
baths. The excellence of its sea-bathing renders this an 
important watering-place. Pop. 9894. 

Douglas, a county in the E. of Colorado. Area, 5500 
square miles. It is partly drained by the South Fork of 
the Platte and by Beaver Creek. The surface in the western 
part is mountainous. Copper, iron, lead, and coal are 
found here. It is intersected by the Kansas Pacific and 
the Denver and Rio Grande R. Rs. It has great quantities 
of pine timber. Grain, cattle, butter, and timber are pro¬ 
duced extensively. Capital, Franktown. Pop. 1388. 

Douglas, a county in the E. of Illinois. Area, 375 
square miles. It is intersected by the Embarras and 
Kaskaskia rivers. The surface is nearly level; the soil is 
fertile. Cattle, grain, and wool are raised. It is traversed 
by the Chicago branch of the Illinois Central R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Tuscola. Pop. 13,484. 

Douglas, a county in the E. part of Kansas, has an 
area of 470 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the 
Kansas River and intersected by the Wakarusa. The sur¬ 
face is undulating; the soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, tobacco, 
wool, dairy products, hay, and potatoes are raised. Lime¬ 
stone abounds here. This county contains large prairies. 
It is traversed by the Leavenworth Lawrence 1 and Galves¬ 
ton, and other railroads. Capital, Lawrence. Pop. 20,592. 

Douglas, a county in the W. of Minnesota. Area, 
720 square miles. It contains numerous small lakes, the 
outlet of which is Long Prairie River. The surface is 
pleasantly diversified by prairies and groves. Grain, hay, 
and dairy products are raised. Capital, Alexandria. Pop. 
4239. 

Douglas, a county in the S. cf Missouri. Area, 648 
square miles. It is drained by Bryant’s Fork and the 
North Fork of White River. The surface is partly hilly. 
Lead is found here. Grain, tobacco, and wool are the 
chief products. Capital, Arno. Pop. 3915. 

Douglas, a county in the E. of Nebraska. Area, 350 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Missouri 
River, on the W. by the Platte, and intersected by the 
Elkhorn River. The surface is undulating; the soil is 
very fertile. Wheat, corn, and hay are important crops. 
The manufacturing interests are important and varied. 
Manufactories of clothing, jewelry, and bread were the 
most numerous, according to the census of 1870. Lime¬ 
stone abounds in it, and the scenery is very beautiful. It 
is traversed by the Union Pacific R. R. Capital, Omaha. 
Pop. 19,982. 

Douglas, a county in the W. of Nevada, is bounded 
on the W. by Lake Tahoe, which separates it from Califor¬ 
nia. The surface is mountainous, and a granite mountain 
called Job’s Peak rises here about 6000 feet. Gold and 
silver are found. The county contains much good land. 
Grain, hay, and stock are raised, and timber is sawed. 
Capital, Genoa. Pop. 1215. 

Douglas, a county in the S. W. of Oregon, is partly 
bounded on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. It is intersected 
by the Umpqua River and its forks. The Cascade Range 
extends along the eastern border of this county, the surface 
of which is mostly mountainous. The long valley of the 
Umpqua is fertile, and is enclosed by ranges of grassy hills 
which produce good pasture. Cattle, grain, fruit, hay, 
wool, and dairy products are raised. It is intersected by 
the Oregon and California R. R. Capital, Roseburg. Pop. 
6066. 


DOUBLE CONSCIOUSNESS—DOUGLAS. 
(See Pump, by Pres. F. A. 


















DOUGLAS. 


1398 


Douglas, a county which forms the N. W. extremity 
of Wisconsin. Area, 1350 square miles. It is bounded 
on the N. by Lake Superior, and drained by the St. Croix, 
which rises in it. The surface is hilly, and extensively 
covered with forests of pine, oak, etc. Copper is found 
here. Capital, Superior City. Pop. 1122. 

Douglas, a township of Arkansas co., Ark. Pop. 760. 

Douglas, a township of San Joaquin co., Cal. P. 1751. 

Douglas, a post-village, capital of Colfee co., Ga., 
about 120 miles W. S. W. of Savannah. 

Douglas, a township of Clark co., Ill. Pop. 555. 

Douglas, a township of Effingham co., Ill. Pop. 3222. 

Douglas, a township of Iroquois co., Ill. Pop. 2399. 

Douglas, a township of Saline co., Ill. Pop. 1437. 

Douglas, a township of Adams co., la. Pop. 333. 

Douglas, a township of Appanoose co., Ia. Pop. 590. 

Douglas, a township of Boone co., Ia. Pop. 879. 

Douglas, a township of Bremer co., Ia. Pop. 587. 

Douglas, a township of Clay co., Ia. Pop. 320. 

Douglas, a township of Harrison co., Ia. Pop. 185. 

Douglas, a township of Ida co., Ia. Pop. 61. 

Douglas, a township of Madison-co., Ia. Pop. 938. 

Douglas, a township of Mitchell co., Ia. Pop. 282. 

Douglas, a township of Montgomery co., Ia. P. 467. 

Douglas, a township of Page co., Ia. Pop. 503. 

Douglas, a township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 613. 

Douglas, a towmship of Sac co., Ia. Pop. 358. 

Douglas, a township of Union co., Ia. Pop. 824. 

Douglas, a township of Webster co., Ia. Pop. 513. 

Douglas, a township of Jackson co., Kan. Pop. 1760. 

Douglas, a township and post-village of AVorcester 
co., Mass., on the Boston Hartford and Erie R. R., 48 miles 
S. W. of Boston. It has stone-quarries, a public library, 
a weekly newspaper, five churches, and good water-power. 
At East Douglas axes and edge-tools are extensively manu¬ 
factured. Total pop. 2182. 

Douglas, a township of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 215. 

Douglas, a township of Dakota co., Minn. Pop. 707. 

Douglas, a township of Douglas co., Neb. Pop. 174. 

Douglas, a township of Nemaha co., Neb. Pop. 393. 

Douglas, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 1072. 

Douglas, a post-township of Montgomery co., Pa. 
Pop. 1604. 

Douglas, a township of Clarendon co., S. C. Pop. 310. 

Douglas, a township of Marquette co., Wis. Pop. 616. 

Douglas, the name of an ancient noble family of Scot¬ 
land which has produced many eminent men. The first 
member of the family who appears on record was William 
of Douglas, who lived about 1175-1200, and was succeeded 
by his son Sir Archibald. Sir William, a grandson of Sir 
Archibald, was a turbulent subject and the possessor of 
extensive estates. He fought under Sir William Wallace 
against the English in 1297. He was succeeded by his more 
famous son, Sir James the Good, who is called the hero of 
seventy fights, and was Robert Bruce’s greatest captain. 
He commanded a wing at Bannockburn in 1314. During 
a journey to Palestine, to which he was carrying the heart 
of Robert Bruce, he was killed by the Saracens in Spain in 
1331. His estate was inherited by his brothers, Hugh and 
Archibald, the latter of whom was slain at the battle of 
Halidon Hill in 1333. He left a son, Sir William, who, 
having fought with distinction at Poitiers and other places, 
was created earl of Douglas in 1357. He was a competitor 
for the crown, but he agreed to recognize his rival, Robert 
II., on the condition that his son James should marry a 
daughter of that king. He had a second son, George, earl 
of Angus. The earl of Douglas died in 1384, and w r as suc¬ 
ceeded by his son James, earl of Douglas and Mar, who had 
married Margaret, a daughter of Robert II. He was a re¬ 
nowned warrior, and was killed at the battle of Otterburn 
in 1388. As he left no lawful issue, Archibald the Grim, 
a natural sou of Sir James the Good, became the third earl 
of Douglas. He died in 1400, leaving a son, Archibald, the 
fourth earl, who married a daughter of King Robert III. 
Douglas fought at Shrewsbury (1403), where he is said to 
havtTunhorsed King Henry IV., and was killed at Verneuil 
in France in 1424. He was succeeded by his son Archibald, 
the fifth earl, who was also duke of Touraine (France). 
Died in 1439. His son and heir, William, the sixth earl, 
was born about 1422. His power and foreign possessions 
rendered him an object of tear and suspicion to the couit. 
lie was beheaded after a hasty trial, Nov. 24,1440, and left 
88 


no issue. The earldom was then given to his grand-uncle 
James, who died in 1443, and was succeeded by his son 
William, the eighth earl, a powerful and turbulent person. 
He was appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom by 
James II., but soon lost the royal favor. He was killed by 
that king Feb. 22, 1452, and was succeeded by his brother 
James, ninth earl of Douglas, who waged open war against 
King James II. in 1454. He was defeated and taken pris¬ 
oner in 1484, and died in 1488, when that branch of the 
Douglas family became extinct. The earls of Angus and 
earls of Morton, besides other noble lines, belonged to the 
family of Douglas, which is now represented in the peer¬ 
age by the earls of Selkirk. William Jacobs. 

Douglas (Archibald), fifth earl of Angus, surnamed 
Bell the Cat, was a son of George, the fourth earl, who 
died in 1462. He (the son) was a powerful and ambitious 
subject, and held the highest offices in the state. He ivas 
the father of Gawin Douglas, the poet, and of other sons. 
Died in 1514. His grandson Archibald became the sixth 
earl of Angus, and married in 1514 Margaret, who was a 
sister of Henry VIII. of England and widow of James IV. 
of Scotland. He had a daughter, who became the wife of 
the earl of Lennox and the mother of Lord Darnley. The 
sixth earl died about 1660, and his title was inherited by 
his nephew George, who was a brother of Regent Morton. 
The eleventh earl of Angus was created marquis of Douglas 
in 1633. (See David Hume, “ History of the Houses of 
Douglas and Angus,” 1644.) 

Douglas (David), a Scottish botanist, born at Scone, 
in Perthshire, in 1798. As an agent of the London Horti¬ 
cultural Society he visited the U. S. in 1823 to collect bo¬ 
tanical specimens. He returned to England in 1827, and 
afterwards went on a scientific excursion to the Sandwich 
Islands, where he was killed by a wild bull July 12, 1834.V 

Douglas (Gawin), a Scottish poet, born in 1474, was 
the third son of Archibald, fifth earl of Angus. He was 
educated for the Church, and became bishop of Dunkeld in 
1515. His most remarkable production is a translation of 
Virgil’s “iEneid” into Scottish verse (1513), which is high¬ 
ly commended. His chief original poem is “ The Palace 
of Honor.” Died in 1522. 

Douglas (Sir Howard), Bart., D. C. L., G. C. B., a Brit¬ 
ish general, born at Gosport, in Hampshire, July 1, 1776, 
was a son of an admiral. He served in the Peninsular war 
(1808-12), was governor of New Brunswick (1823-29), and 
a member of Parliament for Liverpool (1842-47). In 1851 
he was raised to the rank of general. He wrote, besides 
other works, a “ Treatise on Naval Gunnery ” (1819), which 
is regarded as a standard authority in foreign countries as 
well as in England. Died Nov. 8, 1861. 

Douglas (Stephen Arnold), one of the most eminent 
of American statesmen in his day, was born at Brandon, 
Rutland co., Vt., April 23, 1813. He was of poor but re¬ 
spectable parentage. His father was a practising physician, 
with prospects of success, but died suddenly of apoplexy 
soon after .the birth of the subject of this notice. His 
mother, with another infant, a daughter, not yet two years 
old, was thus left a widow, with means, in addition to her 
own exertions, barely sufficient to support herself and her 
two orphan children, without being able to give them more 
than the rudiments of a good English education. At the 
age of fifteen the son, with the consent of his mother, en¬ 
gaged himself to work in the cabinetmaking business for 
the purpose of raising means to carry him through college. 
After a few years of labor in this trade he was able to enter 
upon an academical course, first at Brandon, Vt., and then 
at Canandaigua, N. A". At the latter place he remained 
until 1833, and took up the study of the law at the office 
of the Messrs. Hubbel, and prosecuted this in connection 
with his academic course. Early in 1833, before he was 
twenty, his funds running low, he determined to abandon 
further attempts at education, and to enter at once into 
the conflicts of life with such acquisitions of knowledge as 
he had then obtained and might be enabled afterwards to 
obtain. After some wanderings in the Western States in 
quest of a new home where his fortunes were to be tried, 
he took up his abode at Jacksonville, Ill., where, after 
teaching school for three months, he was admitted to the 
bar, and opened an office in 1834. lie rapidly rose in his 
profession. Within a year from the time that he received 
his license to practise he was elected attorney-general of 
the State. Having been reared in the Jeffersonian school 
of politics, Mr. Douglas zealously espoused the Democratic 
side on all public questions then agitated, and soon beccrmo 
one of the most popular orators of his party in Illinois. 
He was, at an early day in his political life, styled “ I ho 
Little Giant,” in allusion to his diminutive stature in 
contrast with the extent and comprehensiveness of his 
intellectual powers. In 1835 ho resigned his position as 
attorney-general upon his being elected a member of the 












DOUGLAS. 


1394 


State legislature. In 1841 he was chosen one of the judges 
of the supreme court of the State. This position he re¬ 
signed in 1843 to take a seat in the House of Represent¬ 
atives of the Congress of the U. S. His debut on this 
elevated arena was upon the bill to refund to Gen. Jackson 
the fine of $1000 imposed by Judge Hall in New Orleans 
during the war of 1812. His first speech placed him high 
in the ranks of the most promising young men of mark of 
that period. On all questions of constitutional law he at 
once took position among the ablest members of the House, 
in which then figured, as they had for years before, such 
men as Daniel D. Barnard, Alexander Dromgoole, Joseph 
R. and Charles J. Ingersoll, Garrett Davis, Robert C. 
Winthrop, R. Barnwell Rhett, Henry A. Wise, and John 
Quincy Adams, to say nothing of many others of the illus¬ 
trious compeers of these acknowledged leaders, who were 
then making such a deep impress upon the history of the 
country. Mr. Douglas was among the most zealous, as 
well as the most efficient, advocates of the admission of 
Texas as a State into the Union by joint resolution of both 
houses of Congress. He sustained the constitutionality of 
the measure in a speech of great power and effect. He 
defended that feature of the resolutions known as the ex¬ 
tension of the line of the “ Missouri Compromise,” simply 
as a pledge of his adherence to the principle of a division 
of the public domain between the two great sections of the 
country, North and South, as it had been tendered by the 
North and accepted by the South in 1820. As an original 
question Mr. Douglas did not believe that Congress had 
any rightful power to impose an anti-slavery restriction 
upon an} 7 of the Territories or States of the Union; but 
being willing to abide by the principle of division as es¬ 
tablished in 1820 as to the Louisiana acquisition, he was 
for its reaffirmance in 1845 as to the new acquisition then 
to be made on the acceptance by Texas of the terms pro¬ 
posed for her admission into the Union. He was also one 
of the ablest supporters of the administration of President 
Polk during the war which ensued with Mexico. 

When Mr. David Wilmot of Pennsylvania, in Aug., 1846, 
moved his celebrated “ Proviso ” for slavery restriction to 
any new territory that might be acquired from Mexico in 
a treaty of peace, Mr. Douglas was one of five only in the 
House, from the entire North, who took decided position 
against that measure. He did it for the same reason and 
upon the same principles that Mr. Jefferson acted on when, 
though then in private life, he spoke and wrote against a like 
restriction upon the Louisiana Territory, when it was pro¬ 
posed in Congress in 1818-19. Mr. Douglas, like Mr. Jeffer¬ 
son, was opposed to African slavery, but, like him, he main¬ 
tained that the Congress had no constitutional power to 
impose the restriction. The internal polity and domestic 
institutions of the several States composing the Union 
were subjects, in his judgment, over which the Federal 
legislative authority did not extend under the limitations 
of the Constitution. He was still willing to abide by a 
further extension of the “ Missouri Compromise” line, so 
called, and in many speeches, with most patriotic fervor, 
urged the adoption of this policy. 

In all the subsequent agitation of this question the 
speeches of Mr. Douglas, while he remained in the House, 
were clear, earnest, and masterly. In 1847 he was elected 
to the Senate for a full term of six years. In that body he 
was no less distinguished than he had been in the House. 
No man in the Senate, not excepting Mr. Clay or Mr. 
Webster, acted a more conspicuous part than he did in 
what is known as the “ Compromise” or adjustment of the 
sectional questions of 1850. While the success of this com¬ 
promise is generally attributed to the lead and auspices 
of Mr. Clay, yet it is due to Mr. Douglas to state that Mr. 
Clay’s celebrated “Omnibus Bill,” so called, which pro¬ 
vided for the settlement of the five great questions of dis¬ 
content, as stated by him, was made up of several distinct 
bills on the same subject previously introduced by Mr. 
Douglas. The full and minute history or nature of that 
compromise it is not proposed to give in this connection: 
suffice it to say that no one acted a more important and 
efficient part in effecting it than did Mr. Douglas, and that 
it was based throughout upon what he had ever main¬ 
tained to be the true constitutional principles of the gov¬ 
ernment. In 1852 he was again elected to the Senate 
for another full term. In 1854, when, as chairman of the 
committee on territories, he introduced bills for the organi¬ 
zation of governments in the Territories of Kansas and 
Nebraska, the whole subject of slavery agitation in the 
Territories was again renewed, and with increased fierce¬ 
ness. The policy and provisions of these bills, he main¬ 
tained by argument and eloquence seldom surpassed, were 
in strict accordance with the principles established by the 
tcrritoi'ial policy adopted in 1850. Under his lead the 
Kansas-Nebraska bill was triumphantly carried in the 
Senate, on the grounds that the principle of a division of 


the public domain between the sections by the Missouri or 
any other line had been totally abandoned by the adjust¬ 
ment of 1850, and the principle of non-intervention by 
Congress anywhere in the Territories substituted in its 
stead. On the like ground it was triumphantly carried in 
the House, and constitutes what is known as the “Terri¬ 
torial legislation of 1854.” Mr. Douglas’s views of the 
rights of the people of a Territory under the Constitution 
of the U. S. gave rise to what is styled the doctrine of 
“ squatter sovereignty,” for which he was assailed quite as 
bitterly at the South as at the North. It is not the pur¬ 
pose of this notice to go into any elaboration on this point. 
His doctrine, briefly stated, was, that the inestimable right 
of local self-government was the seminal principle from 
which all American free institutions sprung; it was on this 
that each of the original thirteen colonies had been planted; 
and that it was for the maintenance of this sovereign right 
on the part of the peoples of the several States of the Union 
that their independence had been declared and their first 
confederation entered into. With Mr. Jefferson and all 
strict constructionists, Mr. Douglas held that the Federal 
government possessed no inherent powers, and could exer¬ 
cise none except those delegated by the States; that the 
delegated powers are specific and enumerated in the Con¬ 
stitution ; and that Congress cannot rightfully exercise any 
power which is not thus enumerated or incident to some or 
more which are. The power conferred upon Congress in 
the Constitution, “to dispose of and make all needful rules 
and regulations respecting the territory or other property 
belonging to the U. S.,” he, with the Jeffersonian school 
generally, maintained referred to the territory as land or 
public domain only, and carried with it no power whatever 
for the government of the inhabitants thereof. The Terri¬ 
tories, with their inhabitants, politically considered, he 
regarded as inchoate States, and bearing towards the gov¬ 
ernment of the Union a relation not unlike, in man} 7 re¬ 
spects, that which the colonies bore towards the mother- 
country. The great right of local self-government belonged 
equally to both. This is a brief outline of what lie styled 
popular sovereignty in the Territories. His views at large 
upon it are to be found, not only in numerous speeches in 
the House and Senate during a period of many years, but 
in a very compact and condensed form in “ Harper’s Maga¬ 
zine” of Sept., 1859. This article was republished in 
pamphlet form, and extensively circulated. It consisted 
of forty pages, and, however it may have been regarded by 
extreme partisans of either side at the period of its publi¬ 
cation, it unquestionably presents an argument which 
every student of American history may read with both in¬ 
terest and profit. Among American state papers it is en¬ 
titled to rank with Madison’s celebrated report on the 
Virginia resolutions of 1799. In 1858, Mr. Douglas was 
again re-elected to the Senate for another full term, after 
one of the fiercest and bitterest contests ever before waged 
in the U. S. for a similar position. At this time he suc¬ 
cessfully breasted all the combined powers of the opposing 
party, then styled Republican, under the lead of Mr. Lin¬ 
coln, his competitor, and that of the Democratic adminis¬ 
tration at Washington, under the patronage of Mr. Buch¬ 
anan, the President. 

As early as 1852 the name of Mr. Douglas had been 
brought prominently before the Democratic nominating 
convention at Baltimore as a candidate for the presidency, 
but, at his own instance, was not pressed by his friends. In 
1856, it was again, in like manner, presented to the Cincinnati 
Convention, but as soon as he discovered that Mr. Buchanan 
had a majority in that body he gave positive instructions to 
his friends in t hat convention, by telegram from Washington, 
to withdraw his name, and not to allow it to be used in any 
contest for the nomination under the two-thirds rule. The 
platform of political principles which had been adopted 
there before the subject of nominating candidates had been 
taken up was just such as had governed the whole of his 
public life, and he gave Mr. Buchanan a cordial support 
upon his endorsement of them. In 1860, after his triumph¬ 
ant return to the Senate at his last election, he was the most 
prominent candidate of the Democracy of the U. S. for the 
presidential nomination at the convention held that year 
in Charleston, S. C., and very probably would have re¬ 
ceived it by a two-thirds vote but for the withdrawal of 
the delegates of the States of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, 
Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and a majority of 
those from Georgia. On the withdrawal of these delega¬ 
tions the friends of Mr. Douglas moved and carried an ad¬ 
journment of the convention, to reassemble at Baltimore 
on a subsequent day. This was done with a view that the 
Democratic party, in the mean time, in the several States, 
might fill the seats made vacant in the convention by the 
withdrawing delegates. The object failed of accomplish¬ 
ment. On the reassembling of the convention another 
withdrawal of delegations took place. These now met in 














DOUGLASS—DOUGLASTOWN. 1395 


another part of the city and put in nomination for the 
presidency John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky. The Demo¬ 
cratic party ot the Union was thus irreconcilably torn asun¬ 
der. fhose who adhered to the regularly called conven¬ 
tion, which had first met at Charleston, and had adjourned 
to Baltimore, constituted the larger portion. This body 
now unanimously put the name of Mr. Douglas in nomina¬ 
tion for the presidency, though against what was known to 
be his wishes. The presidential canvass this year was per¬ 
haps the most exciting that had ever occurred since that 
between Mr. Jefferson and the elder Adams in 1800. Four 
tickets for President and Vice-President were in the field 

Lincoln and Hamlin, supported by the Republicans ; Bell 
and Everett, supported by those styling themselves the 
American party; Douglas and Johnson, supported by one 
wing of the Democracy, and Breckenridge and Lane, sup¬ 
ported by the other. The chief objection to Mr. Douglas 
on the part of his former Democratic associates, who re¬ 
fused to support him, was what was called his squatter- 
sovereignty doctrine. The result of the election, by the 
popular vote, was, for Lincoln and Hamlin, 1,857,610; for 
Douglas and Johnson, 1,365,976; for Breckenridge and 
Lane, 847,953 ; and for Bell and Everett, 590,631. The 
result bj T the college of electors, however, was very different. 
By this Messrs. Lincoln and Hamlin received 180 votes; 
Messrs. Breckenridge and Lane, 72; Messrs. Bell and 
Everett, 39; Messrs. Douglas and Johnson received 12 
only. 

The great events of 1861 followed in rapid succession. 
Mr. Douglas was spared their full development. He died 
after a short illness, at his residence in Chicago, on the 3d 
of June, 1861, soon after reaching the 48th year of his 
age. On the 15th of March, a little over two months before 
his death, and after seven of the Southern States had passed 
their ordinances of secession, in view of the then threaten¬ 
ing prospect of affairs, he spoke, in the Senate, at great 
length on the general state of the country, and in the 
course of his remarks used these words in addressing the 
Republican side: “In my opinion, we must choose, and 
that promptly, between one of three lines of policy: 1. 
The restoration and preservation of the Union by such 
amendments of the Constitution as will ensure the domestic 
tranquillity, safety, and equality of all the States, and thus 
restore peace, unity, and fraternity to the whole country. 

2. A peaceful dissolution of the Union by recognizing the 
independence of such States as refuse to remain in the 
Union without such constitutional amendments, and the 
establishment of a liberal system of commercial and social 
intercourse with them by treaties of commerce and amity. 

3. War, with a view to the subjugation and military occu¬ 
pation of those States which have seceded or may secede 
from the Union. I repeat, that in my opinion you must 
adopt and pursue one of these three lines of policy. The 
sooner you choose between them, and proclaim your choice 
to the country, the better for you, the better for us, the 
better for every friend of liberty and constitutional govern¬ 
ment throughout the world. In my opinion, the first prop¬ 
osition is the best, and the last the worst.” 

Soon after the fleet sailed from New York to provision 
the garrison in Fort Sumter, “peaceably if possible, but 
forcibly if necessary.” After the fall of that garrison, Mr. 
Douglas, in Springfield, Ill., and at other places, made 
speeches in which he sustained Mr. Lincoln’s call for 75,000 
troops to defend the Federal Capital. The last intelligible 
words uttered by him were a message to his sons, Robert 
and Stephen, then at college, “ to obey the laws and sup¬ 
port the Constitution of the U. S.” 

Mr. Douglas was twice married. His first wife was Miss 
Martin of North Carolina. She was the mother of his two 
sons referred to, who were his only surviving children. His 
second wife was Miss Cutts, a most beautiful and accom¬ 
plished lady of Washington City. By her he left no child. 
As a debater Mr. Douglas was never overmatched, either 
in the House or Senate. His death at the time was regarded 
in all sections as a gi*eat public calamity. However widely 
many differed with him on some questions, all acknowledged 
his very great ability, while very few, if any, seriously ques¬ 
tioned either his integrity or patriotism. 

Alexander II. Stephens. 

Doug'lass, a county in the N. W. of Georgia, consti¬ 
tuted since the census of 1870. It contains about 450 
square miles, and is bounded on the S. E. by the Chatta¬ 
hoochee River. Capital, Douglassville. 

Douglass (David Bates), an eminent American civil 
and military engineer, born at Pompton, N. J., Mar. 21, 
1790, graduated at Yale College Sept. 18, 1813, and Oct. 1, 
1813, was appointed a second lieutenant in the corps of en¬ 
gineers U. S. A. He entered upon duty at West Point as 
commander of sappers and miners, and was later commander 
of the post. In the war with Great Britain he commanded 


in 1814 his company of sappers and miners on the northern 
frontier; participated in the battle of Niagara and siege of 
Fort Erie, followed by the memorable sortie from that work 
Sept. 17, 1814, breaking the enemy’s lines and compelling 
him to retire. For “distinguished and meritorious ser¬ 
vices in superintending the construction of defensive 
works, in command of battery, etc.,” on this occasion, he 
was promoted first lieutenant and brevet captain. On the 
close of the war he returned to West Point, 1815, and dur¬ 
ing the subsequent fifteen years was variously engaged as 
professor of natural and experimental philosophy, of 
mathematics, and of engineering till 1831, when he re¬ 
signed to enter upon the profession of civil engineering. 
During these years he was engaged upon important in¬ 
spections, surveys, and estimates for important canals and 
other works of internal improvement. He was also astro¬ 
nomical surveyor of the commission for determining the 
U. S. boundary from Niagara to Detroit in 1819 ; was con¬ 
sulting engineer of the board of commissioners of internal 
improvements of Pennsylvania. Having become greatly 
interested in the introduction of inclined planes into ope¬ 
ration in place of locks for canal navigation, and having 
accepted from the Morris Canal Company the appointment 
of chief engineer of the same, which duty he found required 
all his time, his sense of duty led him to resign his position 
in the army Mar. 1, 1831; he was at once appointed chief 
engineer of the Morris Canal Co., and devoted himself en¬ 
tirely to the improvement with which he had become iden¬ 
tified. The inclined plane proved a success. In Oct., 1830, 
a trial of the plane at Montville was made, and in six 
minutes and a half a boat containing 200 persons passed 
a plane 1040 feet long, with a descent of 70 feet, and ad¬ 
vancing 770 feet. The canal was carried forward to a 
successful completion in 1832. During this year he was 
appointed professor of natural philosophy and civil en¬ 
gineering in the University of the City of New York, but 
relinquished this position in 1833, though his name was 
continued on the rolls of the college as professor of civil 
engineering and architecture till 1840. In 1833 he sur¬ 
veyed the Brooklyn and Jamaica R. R., Long Island; was 
one of the engineers of the Croton Aqueduct from 1833 to 
1835, during which time he made the surveys, plans, and 
estimates for supplying the city of New York with water 
from the Croton River, the entire duty falling upon him 
in consequence of other professional engagements which 
occupied the entire time of the engineer named in connec¬ 
tion with Major Douglass. His report showed so clearly the 
practicability of the project that the necessary legislation 
to procure its execution was obtained in May, 1834, and 
Major Douglass as chief engineer completed his plans and 
laid out the line of the aqueduct until Oct., 1836, at which 
date, owing to difference of views which existed between 
himself and the board of commissioners, he was removed; 
but his reports and surveys were adopted and followed in 
the construction of that important work. From 1837 to 
1840, in addition to other duties, he was chief engineer of 
Greenwood Cemetery, which he planned and the location 
of which he selected; his engineering ability as well as his 
artistic taste and skill are shown in the present develop¬ 
ment of that beautiful city of the dead. In 1840 he re¬ 
signed his superintendence of Greenwood to accept the 
presidency of Kenyon College, 0., with which institution 
he remained till 1844, when he returned to New York, and 
was engaged until 1848 as chief engineer to plan and lay 
out the Albany and Quebec cemeteries; in important en¬ 
gineering work at Brooklyn, such as providing for a sup¬ 
porting wall for Brooklyn Heights, the supplying of that 
city with water, etc., and in developing the landscape fea¬ 
tures of Staten Island. In 1848 he accepted a call from 
Geneva College, N. Y., as professor of mathematics, which 
position he retained during the remainder of his life. 
Died at Geneva, N. Y., Oct. 9, 1849. At the request of the 
cemetery board his remains were removed to Greenwood 
Cemetery. G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Engineers. 

Douglass (Frederick), an American orator, originally 
a slave, was born in Talbot co., Md., about 1 SI 7. He 
learned to read and write by stealth, ran away from his 
master in 1838, and became a resident of New Bedford, 
Mass. In 1841 he began to give public lectures against 
slavery. He gained distinction as a public speaker, pub¬ 
lished his “Autobiography” in 1845, and visited England, 
where he made eloquent anti-slavery speeches.^ He after¬ 
wards became the editor of the “North Star,” a journal 
published at Rochester, N. Y. In 1870 he began to edit 
the “National Era.” In 1872 he was the first in the list 
of presidential electors chosen by the Republican party ot 
the State of New York. 

Doug'lassville, a post-village, capital of Douglass co., 
Ga., about 30 miles W. of Atlanta. 

Doug'lastOAvn, a port and post-village of Northumbcr- 





























1396 


DOUR—DOVEK, STRAIT OF. 


land co., New Brunswick, on the N. bank of the Miramichi, 
3 miles above Chatham and 3 miles below Newcastle. It 
saws and ships large amounts of lumber. Pop. about 400. 

Dour, a town of Belgium, department of Hainaut, 9 
miles W. S. W. of Mons. It derives its prosperity from 
mines of coal and iron, iron-works, weaving, and bleach¬ 
ing. Pop. 8501. 

Don' ro [Sp. Duero; anc. Durius], a large river of 
Spain and Portugal, rises in Old Castile, in the province 
of Soria. It flows generally westward through the prov¬ 
inces of Valladolid and Zamora until it touches the N. E. 
extremity of Portugal. It next runs south-westward, and 
forms part of the boundary between Spain and Portugal. 
Resuming a westward direction, it traverses the northern 
part of Portugal, and enters the Atlantic 3 miles below 
Oporto. Its total length is nearly 500 miles. Rocks, sand¬ 
banks, and the rapid current render its navigation difficult. 

Dove (in natural history). See Pigeon. 

Dove [supposed to be derived from a root akin to“ dive;” 
Lat. columba ; Ger. Taube]. The dove in Christian art is 
used as a symbol of purity and an emblem of the Holy 
Spirit. Issuing from the lips of dying saints and martyrs, 
it represents the soul purified by suffering. Holding in its 
mouth an olive branch, it is the emblem of peace. In 
Catholic churches the pyx or ciborium containing the Host 
is sometimes in the form of a dove. 

D o've (IIeinkich Wilhelm), an eminent German phys¬ 
icist, born at Liegnitz, in Silesia, Oct. 6, 1803, graduated 
at the University of Berlin in 1826. He became professor 
of physics in that university in 1829, after which he made 
researches into the laws of climate and atmospheric phe¬ 
nomena. He published, besides other works on meteorology, 
electricity, etc., “ Meteorological Researches” (1837), “ On 
Electricity” (1848), and a “Treatise on the Distribution 
of Heat on the Surface of the Globe,” which was published 
in 1853 by the British Association. 

Dove (Richard Wilhelm), an eminent German jurist, 
son of the preceding, born in Berlin in 1833, became in 
1859 privatdocent at the University of Berlin, in 1862 
professor at the University of Tubingen, in 1865 at Kiel, 
and at 1868 at Gottingen. In 1871 he was elected to the 
German Reichsrath, where he votes with the national lib¬ 
eral party. He began in 1860 the publication of the 
“ Zeitschrift fiir Kirchenrecht,” the leading periodical in 
Europe on all questions relating to church law, of which 
he has ever since remained the chief editor. 

Do 'ver (anc. Dubris), a city and seaport of England, 
in the county of Kent, on Dover Strait, 66 miles E. S. E. 
of London and 27 miles from Calais, in France. It is 
the point in England that is nearest to the Continent, 
and is the terminus of the South-eastern Railway. It 
stands at the entrance of a deep depression in an amphi¬ 
theatre of chalk-hills and cliffs. This city is defended by 
Dover Castle, which is built on chalk-cliffs 320 feet high, 
and is a fortress of great strength and extent. This castle 
is said to have been founded by the ancient Romans. Dover 
contains a custom-house, a town-hall, a theatre, and a mili¬ 
tary hospital. The harbor is protected by a stone pier built 
of solid masonry, 60 feet wide, and extending about 1800 
feet into the sea. Dover is the chief port of communication 
between England and France, and is only 21 miles distant 
from the nearest part of the Continent. Steamers ply daily 
between this port and Boulogne and Calais. Dover returns 
two members to Parliament, and is one of the Cinque Ports. 
A submarine cable was laid from Dover to Calais in 1850. 
Pop. in 1871, 28,270. (See Breakwater, by Gen. J. G. 
Barnard, U. S. A.) 

Dover, a post-township and village, capital of Pope 
co., Ark, about 90 miles N. W. of Little Rock. Pop. of 
township, 1063. 

D over, the capital of the State of Delaware and seat 
of justice of Kent co., is on the Delaware R. R., 48 miles 
S. of Wilmington and about 5 miles W. of Delaware Bay. 
It has a State-house, with a State library containing 30,000 
volumes, 6 churches, 1 national bank, 1 State bank, 1 weekly 
newspaper, 2 fruit-packing houses, 2 steam saw-mills, 1 
large water and steam flouring-mill, sash and fruit-crate 
factory, gasworks, 1 foundry, 1 carriage manufactory, 2 
public schools, 3 select schools, and 1 Methodist Episcopal 
academy for boys. It is the centre of a great fruit-grow¬ 
ing section. Pop. 1906; of Dover hundred, 6394. 

Ed. “ Delawarean.” 

Dover, a post-township of Bureau co., Ill. Pop. 1402. 

Dover, a township of Fayette co., la. Pop. 1150. 

Dover, a post-township of Shawnee co., Kan. Pop. 611. 

Dover, a post-village of Mason co., Ivy., 12 miles below 
Maysville. A large quantity of tobacco and hemp is ex¬ 
ported from this place. Pop. 532. 


Dover, a post-village, capital of Piscataquis co., Me., 
on the Piscataquis River and the Bangor and Piscataquis 
It. R., 53 miles N. W. of Bangor. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper, a heavy trade, and manufactures of woollens. Pop. 
of Dover township, 1983. 

Dover, a township and post-village of Norfolk co., 
Mass. Here are three churches and a paper-mill. Pop. 
of township, 645. 

Dover, a township and village of Lenawee co., Mich., 
on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. R., 5 miles 
W. of Adrian. Pop. 1494. 

Dover, a township of Monongalia co., Minn. Pop. 266. 

Dover, a township and village of Olmsted co., Minn. 
Pop. 822. 

Dover, a post-township of Lafayette co., Mo. Pop. 2251. 

Dover, a handsome town, capital of Strafford co., N. II., 
is on Cocheco River and on the Boston and Maine R. R., 68 
miles N. of Boston and 12 miles N. W. of Portsmouth. The 
Dover and Winnipiseogee R. R. connects it with Alton Bay, 
and the Dover and Portsmouth R. R. connects it with the 
last-named place. It is at the head of sloop-navigation 
and at the lower falls of the river, which has here a fall of 
thirty-two feet and affords abundant water-power. It con¬ 
tains a city-hall, ten or more churches, three national 
banks, one daily and four weekly newspapers, and one 
monthly publication. The printing establishment of the 
Free Baptist denomination is also located here, which 
issues two semi-monthly juvenile papers, denominational 
and Sunday-school books, etc. It has an efficient public 
high school, a flourishing private academjq and a city 
library of considerable value. Here are four large cotton- 
mills and am extensive printery belonging to the Cocheco 
Manufacturing Company. Dover has also manufactures 
of shoes, woollen cloths, flannels, oil-cloths, glue, etc. It 
was founded in 1623, and is the oldest town in the State. 
Pop. 9294. George T. Day, Ed. “ Morning Star.” 

Dover, a post-village of Morris co., N. J., on the Mor¬ 
ris Canal, the Rockaway River, and the Morris and Essex 
R. R., 33 miles W. N. W. of Newark. It has several iron- 
forges, iron-foundries, steel-works, spike-factories, and roll¬ 
ing-mills; also one weekly newspaper, and one national 
bank. 

Dover, a township of Ocean co., N. J. It contains 
Tom’s River, the capital of the county. Pop. 3044. 

Dover, or Dover Plains, a post-village of Dutchess 
co., N. Y., on the New York and Harlem R. R., 78 miles 
N. N. E. of New York. It has a national bank and one 
weekly newspaper. The township has five churches, mar¬ 
ble-quarries, iron-mines, and much fine scenery. Pop. of 
Dover township, 2279. 

Dover, a township and post-village of Craven co., N. C., 
on the Atlantic and North Carolina R. R., 24 miles W. of 
Newbern. Pop. 2206. 

Dover, a township of Athens co., O. Pop. 1697. 

Dover, a township and post-village of Cuyahoga co., 0. 
Pop. 1445. 

Dover, a township of Fulton co., 0. Pop. 930. 

Dover, a township of Tuscarawas co., O., contains tho 
village of Canal Dover (which see). Pop. of township, 
3515. . 

Dover, a township of Union co., 0. Pop. 929. 

Dover, a township and post-borough of York co., Pa. 
Pop. of township, 2281; of borough, 418. 

Dover, a post-village, capital of Stewart co., Tenn., on 
the Cumberland River, 75 miles W. by N. from Nashville, 
and 1 mile E. of Fort Donelson. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper, and a national cemetery a quarter of a mile W. of 
Dover. Pop. 430. James P. Flood, Ed. “ Weekly Record.” 

Dover, a post-township of Windham co., Vt. It has 
manufactures of lumber, tubs, kegs, etc. Pop. 635. 

Dover, a township of Goochland co., Ya. Pop. 3667. 

Dover, a township and village of Racine co., Wis., on 
the Western Union R. R., 21 miles W. of Racine. P. 1047. 

Dover Hill, a post-village, capital of Martin co., Ind., 
92 miles S. S. W. of Indianapolis. 

Do'ver’s Pow'tler [named from Dr. Dover, its in¬ 
ventor, an English physician], (Pulvis Ipecacuanh.se et Opii), 
consists of ipecacuanha and opium in fine powder, sixty 
grains each ; sulphate of potassa, a troy ounce : rubbed to¬ 
gether to a very fine powder. Dover’s powder acts as a 
sudorific, and where the brain is unaffected and the tongue 
and skin moist, is of great service. Its composition now 
differs considerably from that given in Dover’s formula. 

Dover, strait of [Fr. Pas de Calais; Lat. Fretinn Gal- 
licum ], the strait which separates England from France, 
and connects the English Channel with the North Sea. It 















DOVREFIELD—DOWNE. 


is about twenty miles wide at the narrowest part. The 
depth varies from six to twenty-nine fathoms. The Eng¬ 
lish side of the strait is bordered by chalk-cliffs, some of 
which are about 600 feet high. Chalk-cliffs also occur on 
the French shore. 

Dov'refieltl, a mountainous plateau in Norway, form¬ 
ing the northern end of the central mass of the Scandina¬ 
vian system. It extends along the N. side of the Rauma 
Valley, which separates it from the Langfjeld plateau, to the 
sources of the Lougen, and thence N. E. to those of the Glom- 
men. Its highest peak is the Sneehsettan, 7613 English 
feet, formerly considered the highest in Scandinavia. 

Dow, or Douw (Gerard), a celebrated Dutch painter, 
born at Leyden April 17, 1613, was a pupil of Rembrandt. 
He excelled in chiaroscuro and in technical skill, and fin¬ 
ished his works with excessive delicacy. Among his works, 
which are small in dimensions, are “ The Charlatan,” “ The 
Dropsical Woman,” “ The Dentist,” and “ The Village 
Grocer.” He died in Feb., 1675. 

Dow (Lorenzo), an eccentric Methodist preacher, born 
in Coventry, Conn., Oct. 16, 1777. He labored in many 
States of the Union, and also in England and Ireland. He 
was distinguished for his courage and zeal, and for some 
singularities in his habits. Died Feb. 2, 1834. 

Dow (Neal), a reformer, born at Portland, Me., in 
1803. As a member of the legislature of that State he pro¬ 
cured in 1851 the passage of a law to prohibit the sale of 
ardent spirits, which is called the “ Maine law.” He be¬ 
came a brigadier-general of Union volunteers early in 1862, 
and was taken prisoner near Port Hudson in July, 1863. 

Dow'ager [Fr. douairiere, from dovaire, a “dower”], 
a widow endowed ; that is, who either enjoys a dower from 
her deceased husband, or has property of her own brought 
by her to her husband on marriage, and settled on herself 
after his decease. This is called her dowry. In England 
the queen-dowager, as the widow of the king, enjoys most 
of the privileges which belonged to her as queen-consort, 
but no man can marry a queen-dowager without special 
license from the king. A queen-dowager does not lose her 
regal title when she marries a subject. 

Dowa'giac, a post-village of Cass co., Mich., on the 
Dowagiac River and the Michigan Central R. R., 105 miles 
E. of Chicago. It has one national bank and one weekly 
newspaper. Pop. 1932. 

D ow'd, a name given to a pin used horizontally for 
joining two pieces of material in a building, the dowel 
being inserted in its socket in the one piece before the 
other substance with its socket is forced into its place. 

Dow'er [from the Fr. douer, to “ endow”], in the com¬ 
mon law of England, is an estate for life which a widow 
has in one-third part of all the lands and tenements of 
which her husband was seized beneficially, or of an estate 
of inheritance at any time during the marriage. 

1. The Nature of the Estate. —Dower passes through three 
stages. While the husband lives it is but an inchoate right 
and incapable of enforcement. Should the husband sell to 
a stranger and leave her destitute, she would have no claim 
to the land while the husband lived. On her husband’s 
death, and before dower is assigned, she has a right of ac¬ 
tion. After dower is assigned she has an estate in the land. 
The rights of dower depend upon a rule of law which is 
founded on public policy. The law of the place where the 
land is situated governs it. 

2. The Requisites of Dower. —These are threefold—mar¬ 
riage, seizin of the husband, and his death. The leading 
questions on this subject concern seizin. By this is meant 
beneficial ownership of a present estate of freehold, which 
may descend to the husband’s heirs. There can be no 
dower in an estate for years, however long it may last. 
Nor can there be in a reversionary estate which is preceded 
by a prior estate of freehold or for life owned by another 
person, though there may be where the prior estate is for 
years. The Avidow of a trustee cannot be endowed, as he is 
not a beneficial owner. This proposition would be applied 
to the widow of a deceased partner, who could only be en¬ 
dowed subject to the adjustment of the affairs of the part¬ 
nership. Formerly, the trust estate itself was not the sub¬ 
ject of dower. This rule does not prevail in the U. S., and 
dower may sometimes be had in money, which by a legal 
fiction is a substitute for land. Whenever the husband’s 
estate is defeated by a superior title, dower falls with it. 

3. Assignment of Dower. —As dower is one-third part of 
the husband’s estate, it must be assigned either by the par¬ 
ties or by act of the law. Certain legal rules must regu¬ 
larly be followed, when dower is said to be assigned of com¬ 
mon right. These may be relaxed by agreement under 
seal, when the assignment is said to be against common 
right. 

4. Barring of Dower. —The right cannot bo destroyed 


1397 


by the mere act of the husband. Creditors also take sub¬ 
ject to this claim. It can in general be barred only by the 
wife’s own act, as by joining in a conveyance with the hus¬ 
band, or by a jointure settled before marriage. The hus¬ 
band often in his will, either expressly or by implication, 
gives his Avife property in lieu of dower. In this case she 
may, after his death, elect to take such property or her 
dower, but cannot take both. 

This right occasioned much inconvenience in England by 
impeding the conveyance of property. For this reason, 
by the Dower act of Aug. 29, 1833, the right of doAver 
was virtually placed entirely in the hands of the husband 
in the case of all marriages contracted after Jan. 1, 1834. 
The husband may iioav dispose of his lands by Avill or 
otherwise, free from any claim of doAver on the part of his 
wife. If, hoAvever, he dies intestate, his widow, under the 
statute of distribution, receives not merely for life, but ab¬ 
solutely, one-third of his personal estate. In the U. S. the 
general rules of the English common law still prevail. As 
a general rule, also at least one-third of the husband’s 
personal estate is given to the wife, as by the English 
statute of distribution. T. W. Davight. 

Dow'las [supposed to be derh r ed from Doullens in 
France, Avhich Avas noted for its manufacture], a strong, 
coarse linen fabric much used by the Avorking class, is man¬ 
ufactured in the north of England and in Scotland. 

Dow'latafoad, a fortified and decayed toAvn of Hindos- 
tan, in the Nizam’s dominions, 10 miles N. W. of Aurang¬ 
abad. It is defended by a rock-fortress Avhich occupies the 
summit of an isolated rock about 500 feet high. The low¬ 
est third of this rock is perpendicular, so that the summit 
is accessible only by a passage excavated in the interior. 
Near this town are the ca\ r e-temples of Elora. 

Dow'ler (Bennet), M. D., born at ElizabethtoAvn (doav 
Moundsville), Ohio co., Va., April 16, 1797, was educated 
at the University of Maryland, and has long been a lead¬ 
ing physician of Ncav Orleans. He has published many 
valuable contributions to the pexnodical literature of the 
profession, and is the author of a “ Tableau of the YelloAV 
FeA r er of 1853,” etc. (1854). He is editor of the “NeAv Or¬ 
leans Medical and Surgical Journal,” and a member of 
many American and European scientific associations. Ho 
founded the New Orleans Academy of Sciences. 

Dovv'ling (John), D. D., was born in the county of 
Sussex, England, May 12, 1807, and became a resident of 
the U. S. in 1832, and an eminently successful writer and 
Baptist preacher of New York City. He has published a 
“ Vindication of the Baptists,” “Defence of the Protestant 
Scriptures” (1843), “History of Romanism” (1845), and 
other Avorks. 

Down, or Dune [Fr. dune, from the Celtic dun, a 
“hill”], a name of the sandbanks or sandhills which the 
sea gathers and forms along its shores. The term down is 
also applied in England to large tracts of poor hilly land 
which is covered with short grass and appropriated to pas¬ 
turage. It is specially applied to two broad ridges of un¬ 
dulating chalk-hills S. of the Thames. From the mid¬ 
dle of Hampshire these extend eastward—the one (the 
North Downs), through Surrey and Kent, to Dover, and 
the other (the South Downs), through the south-eastern part 
of Hampshire, to Beachy Head. BetAveen the two ridges, 
the former of Avhich is nearly 120 miles long, lies the valley 
of the Weald, from which the chalk strata are supposed to 
have been removed by denudation. The highest point of 
the down is 880 feet above the level of the sea. These up¬ 
lands produce fine aromatic grass, on which the famous 
South Down sheep are pastured. 

Down, a county in the N. E. part of Ireland, in Ulster, 
is partly bounded on the N. by Belfast Lough and on the 
E. and S. E. by the Irish Sea. Area, 954 square miles. 
The chief rivers are the Bann and the Lagan. The sur¬ 
face is mostly hilly or undulating, and the southern part is 
occupied by the Mourne Mountains, the highest peak of 
Avhich is 2796 feet high. The soil of many parts is fertile. 
The chief articles of export are linen fabrics, hosiery, grain, 
butter, pork, and hides. Capital, Downpatrick. Pop. in 
1871, 277^775. 

Down'cast is a name which is sometimes given in 
mines to the shaft through which air for ventilation de¬ 
scends. A fire is kept up at the bottom of a flue or “up¬ 
cast,” and the impure air ascends through this flue, Avhile a 
fresh supply of air descends through the “ downcast.” In 
other mines various forms of the bloAving-machine are used 
to secure ventilation. 

Bcnvne, a township of Cumberland co., N. J., on Dela¬ 
ware Bay. Pop. 3385. 

Downe, Viscounts (Ireland, 1680).— Hugh Richard 
Daavnay, eighth viscount, born July 20, 1804, succeeded 
his father in 1857. 










1398 DOWNER’S GROVE—DRACO. 


Down'er’s Grove, a township and post-village of 
Du Page co., Ill., on the Chicago Burlington and Quincy 
R. R., 22 miles W. by S. of Chicago. Pop. 2518. 

Downes (John), an American naval officer, born at 
Canton, Mass., in 1784, entered the navy in 1802. He 
served as lieutenant of the Essex, under Capt. Porter, 
against the British (1812-14). He captured an Algerine 
frigate in 1815, and became a captain in 1817. Having 
taken command of a squadron in the Pacific in 1832, he 
chastised the people of Quallah Batoo in Sumatra for out¬ 
rages on American seamen. Died Aug. 11, 1854. 

Downes (John), U. S. N., born Aug. 25, 1822, in Mas¬ 
sachusetts, entered the navy as a midshipman Sept. 4,1837, 
became a passed midshipman in 1843, a lieutenant in 1851, 
and a commander in 1862. He commanded the iron-clad 
Nahant at the bombardment of Fort McAlister, Mar. 3, 
1863, and in the first attack upon Fort Sumter of April 7, 
1863, and is mentioned in Rear-Admiral Dupont’s ‘‘de¬ 
tailed report” of the latter fight as one of those “who did 
everything that the utmost gallantry and skill could accom¬ 
plish in the management of their untried vessels.” He par¬ 
ticipated in the capture of the Confederate iron-clad At¬ 
lanta, and is thus spoken of in Rear-Admiral Dupont’s 
report of that affair, dated June 19, 1863: “Commander 
Downes, with his usual gallantry, moved as rapidly as pos¬ 
sible towards the enemy, reserving his fire until he could 
get into close action, but lost the opportunity, from the 
brief nature of the engagement, of using his battery.” 
Died Sept. 21,1865. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Dow'nieville, a post-village, capital of Sierra co.. Cal., 
is on the North Yuba River, 62 miles N. E. of Marysville. 
It is surrounded by high mountains, and has deep gravel, hy¬ 
draulic, placer, and quartz mines in its immediate vicinity. 
It contains a court-house, foundry, a graded school, water¬ 
works, and one weekly newspaper. Altitude, 3000 feet. P. 
704. J. A. Vaughan, Ed. “Mountain Messenger.” 

DownieviUe Butte, a mountain-peak in Sierra co., 
Cal., about 12 miles E. N. E. of Downieville. Altitude, 
about 8800 feet above the sea. 

Down'ing (Andrew Jackson), an American landscape- 
gardener and pomologist, born at Newburg, N. Y., Oct. 31, 
1S15. He was almost entirely self-taught. In 1841 he 
published an excellent “Treatise on the Theory and Prac¬ 
tice of Landscape Gardening.” His “Fruit and Fruit 
Trees of America” (1845) is highly esteemed, and has 
passed through many editions. He began in 1846 to edit 
the “ Horticulturist,” published monthly at Albany. Among 
his other works is “Cottage Residences” (1842). He was a 
man of fine taste, and had a high reputation as a landscape- 
gardener. He was drowned in the Hudson River July 28, 
1852, when the steamboat Henry Clay, on which he was a 
passenger, was burned. (See George W. Curtis, “Memoir 
of A. J. Downing,” prefixed to a volume of “ Rural Es¬ 
says,” edited by Mr. Curtis after Downing’s death.) 

Down'iiigtowii, a town of Chester co., Pa., in Chester 
Valley, on the Pennsylvania Central R. R., at the junction 
of the Waynesburg branch railroad, 32 miles W. of Phila¬ 
delphia. It is the western terminus of the Chester Valley 
R. R. It has one national bank and one weekly newspaper, 
waterworks, a carriage and a shoe factory, a limestone quar¬ 
ry, ayoung ladies’ academy, and the Chester Valley Academy 
for young men and boys. Pop. 1077. 

J. S. Corderv, Ed. “Independent.” 

Downpat'rick, or Down, a seaport of Ireland, the 
capital of the county of Down, is near the mouth of the 
Quoyle (which enters Lough Strangford), 21 miles S. S. E. 
of Belfast. It has a cathedral, a court-house, and a hos¬ 
pital ; also manufactures of linen, soap, and leather. It is 
said to be the oldest city in Ireland, and was burned by 
Edward Bruce in 1315. The see of Down was united with 
that of Connor in 1442, and with that of Dromore in 1842. 
Pop. 3685. 

Downs, a township and village of McLean co., Ill. 
Pop. 1196. 

Downs, The, a portion of the North Sea off the S. E. 
coast of Kent, England, between the North and South Fore¬ 
lands, is important as a shelter for shipping, which is pro¬ 
tected by Goodwin Sands, a natural breakwater. This large 
natural harbor of refuge is 8 miles long and 6 miles wide, 
having an anchorage which varies from four to twelve fath¬ 
oms in depth. It is safe except during a S. wind. In time 
of war it is a place of rendezvous for the royal navy. 

Down'shire, Marquesses of (1789), earls of Hills¬ 
borough (1751), Viscounts Hillsborough (1717), Viscounts 
Kilwarlin (1751), Barons Hill (Ireland, 1717), earls of 
Hillsborough and Viscounts Fairford (1772), and Barons 
Harwich (Great Britain, 1756).— Arthur Wiles Blundell 
Trumbull Sandys Roden Hill, fifth marquess, born Dec. 
24, 1844, succeeded his father Aug. 6, 1868. 


DoAv'ry [from the Fr. douer, to “endow;” Lat. dos; 
Fr. dot], the marriage portion brought by a w r ife to her 
husband. This term is often confounded with dower, but 
it has a different signification. 

Doxol'ogy [Gr. So£oAoyi'a, from Sofa, “ praise,” and Aoyo?, 
a “ word,” “ expression ”], a form of praise said or sung in 
divine service, commonly at the close of a prayer. The 
Great Doxology, as it is called, is an expansion of the an¬ 
gelic hymn, and is sung in the Roman Catholic Church at 
the celebration of the Eucharist. It begins with the words 
“Gloria in excelsis Deo.” The Lesser Doxology is the 
“ Gloria Pati’i,” the substance of which appears in the 
metrical doxologies in use amongst Protestants generally. 

Doyle, a township of Clarke co., Ia. Pop. 965. 

Doyle, a post-township of Marion co., Kan. Pop. 124. 

Doyle (Richard), an English artist and caricaturist, 
born in London in 1826, was a son of John Doyle, a pop¬ 
ular artist, whose political sketches were signed “II. B.” 
He contributed satirical designs to the London “ Punch.” 
Since 1850 he has been employed in the illustration of books. 

Doyllesport, a post-township of Barton co., Mo. P. 385. 

Deylestown, a post-borough, the capital of Bucks co., 
Pa., on a branch of the North Pennsylvania R. R., 25 
miles N. of Philadelphia, has waterworks built in 1869, 
gasworks, a public library founded in 1856, two private 
academies, and five weekly newspapers. It is much fre¬ 
quented by summer visitors from Philadelphia, and its 
situation is elevated and healthy. It has one national 
bank. Pop. of borough, 1601; of township, 1954. 

II. T. Darlington, Ed. “Bucks Co. Intelligencer.” 

Do'zy (Reinhart), a Dutch Orientalist, born at Ley¬ 
den Feb. 21, 1820, graduated in the university of that city 
in 1844. In 1850 he became professor of history at Leyden. 
Among his works is “ Researches into the Political and Lit¬ 
erary History of Spain during the Middle Ages” (1S49: 
2d ed. 1860). 

Dracue'na Dra'co, or Dragon Tree, a tree belong¬ 
ing to the order Liliaceae, some examples of which grow to 
prodigious size in the Canaries and India. The height is 
not proportioned to the thickness of the stem, and the 
head is crowned with short branches having tufts of sword¬ 
shaped leaves. It produces a part of the resin called 
Dragon’s Blood (which see). A specimen in the island of 
Teneriffe is described by Humboldt as having a stem about 
forty-five feet in circumference in 1799. It had the same 
measurement in 1402. It was worshipped by the Guanclies, 
and its hollow trunk was converted by their conquerors 
into a chapel. This extremely old tree has been lately re¬ 
ported to have fallen. 

Drach'enfels (?. e. “ dragon’s rock ”), a mountain-peak 
in Rhenish Prussia, on the Rhine, about 8 miles S. E. of 
Bonn, has an altitude of 1056 feet. It rises abruptly from 
the river, and is renowned in Byron’s verses commencing— 

“The castled crag of Drachenfels 
Frowns o’er the wide and winding Rhine.” 

Its summit, crowned by a ruined castle, commands a beau¬ 
tiful prospect. 

Drachm, or Dram [Gr. Spay/xi?; Fr. dr a chme; Lat. 
drachma; see below]. There are two drachms in our sys¬ 
tem of weights—namely, the avoirdupois drachm, which 
is one-sixteenth part of an avoirdupois ounce; and the 
apothecaries’ drachm, which is the eighth part of a troy 
ounce. The orthography dram is commonly employed in 
avoirdupois weight, and drachm in apothecaries’ weight. 
In apothecaries’ measure a fluiddrachm is one-eighth of a 
fluidounce. Drachma -was also the name of a silver coin, 
the unit of the monetary system of ancient Greece. The 
Athenian drachma was equivalent to six oboli, or nearly 
twenty cents, and weighed from sixty-three to sixty-six 
grains. Other Greek states had drachmas of different 
values. 

Dra'co [ApdKwF)> a Greek physician, son of the cele¬ 
brated physician Hippocrates, to whom some of the writ¬ 
ings that pass under the name of the latter are ascribed. 

Henry Drisler. 

Dra'co, or Dra'con [Gr. ApaKwv]* an Athenian legis¬ 
lator who was archon in 624 B. C., and was the author or 
compiler of the first written laws among the Athenians. 
This code was extremely severe and sanguinary, and made 
even petty larceny a capital crime. It remained in force 
until the time ol Solon, who substituted milder penalties. 
The term draconic is sometimes applied to laws which are 
excessively severe. 

Draco, or The Dragon, a constellation of the north¬ 
ern hemisphere. It was from observations upon the star y 
Draconis that Bradley was lod to his brilliant discovery of 
the aberration of light. It is a star nearly in the solstitial 
colure, and consequently the minor axis of the small ellipse 
















DRACO OF STRATONICEA—DRAGONNADE. 


l^yy 


which its apparent place describes in the heavens lies in 
the meridian at its transit. 

Draco [ApaKwv], of Stratonicea, in Caria, a Greek 
grammarian, of whose life .few traces are found, but who 
flourished probably about 125 A. I). Suidas and Eudocia 
assign to Draco a great number of works on grammar, on 
metre, and on the poems of Pindar and Alcmus, which have 
all, with one exception, perished. There is extant a trea¬ 
tise on Greek metres (nepl p.irpinv noi.riTi.Kthv), which Hermann 
considers an epitome of Draco’s work, with numerous in¬ 
terpolations from other quarters by a later hand. This was 
edited by Hermann, Leipsic, 1812. 

Henry Drisler. 

Dracon'tium [Gr. SpaKovTiov, a “ little dragon,” prob¬ 
ably from the burning taste of some species], a genus of 
plants of the natural order Aracem. The Dracontium poly- 
phyllum, a native of Guiana, India, and Japan, has a pow¬ 
erful action on the nervous system, and is 
used as a remedy for asthma. The flower 
emits an intolerable stench when it first 
opens. The Dracontium of the U. S. Phar¬ 
macopoeia is the skunk-cabbage ( Symplo - 
carpus foetidus), which has similar medi¬ 
cal properties. It is kindred to the true 
Dracontium, and like it has a strong offen¬ 
sive odor. 

Dracon'tius, a Christian poet of Spain 
who lived under Theodosius II., about 431 
A. D. Isidorus ascribes to him a poem in 
hexameter verse entitled “ Hexaemeron,” 
which is a poetical narration of the six 
days of Creation. This poem was some¬ 
what changed and enlarged by an account 
of the seventh day by Eugenius, bishop 
of Toledo, in the seventh century. A supplement to his 
work was written by the author in elegiac verse, addressed 
to the younger Theodosius. Both works are contained in 
the edition of Carpzov, Helmstadt, 1794. (For further in¬ 
formation consult Baiir’s “ History of the Christian Poets 
of Rome,” vol. i., p. 59.) Henry Drisler. 

Dra'cilt, a post-village of Middlesex co., Mass., on the 
Merrimack River opposite Lowell. It has large woollen 
and paper mills, and is in a good agricultural township. 
Pop. of Dracut townshij), 2078. 

Draft [originally draught; Ang.-Sax. drdht, past part, 
of dragan, to “ draw ;” literally, “ something drawn,” hence 
a “drawing”], a bill of exchange; an order for the pay¬ 
ment of money drawn by one person upon another. 

Drag [Ang.-Sax. dreage, from dragan, to “drag,” 
allied to the Ger. tr'dge, “slothful,” “slow”], the name 
given to inventions used for the purpose of slackening the 
speed of vehicles. It consists of a mechanical combina¬ 
tion of rods and levers, which may be operated upon by 
the driver without leaving his seat. By means of a handle 
a species of shoe is pressed against one of the wheels with 
sufficient force to retard the motion. It is more frequently 
called a brake. 

Drag'oman [Fr. drogman; It. dragomano, a corrup¬ 
tion of the Arabic tarjumdn, “interpreter”], a name given 
in the Levant to an interpreter or guide for foreigners. The 
ordinary dragoman corresponds to the Italian cicerone. The 
dragoman of the Sublime Porte is an important Turkish 
officer, who forms the medium of communication between 
his own government and foreign ambassadors. The term 
is also applied to the interpreters attached to European 
embassies and consulates in the Levant. They are usually 
natives of Italian extraction. They and their families are 
not subject to the Turkish laws, but are under the protec¬ 
tion of the embassies which they serve. 

Drag'on [from the Gr. Spdicuv, a “serpent,” a “ dragon 
Lat. draco; Fr. dragon; 

Ger. Drachen ], small, in¬ 
offensive East Indian liz¬ 
ards of the genus Draco, 
called winged dragon, or 
flying dragon (Draco Jim- 
briatm and volans), remark¬ 
able for an expansion of the 
skin on each side, forming 
a kind of wing, which sus¬ 
tains the animal like a par¬ 
achute. Other species, the 
dragon lizards (Ada), be¬ 
longing to the Tegidm, are 
natives of America only. 

They have the tongue fork¬ 
ed like a serpent, back and 

tail crested, and are sometimes six feet long. They haA 
no parachute; they are bold and resolute in self-defence. 


Flying Dragon : Draco volaiis. 


The name Dragon has also been given to a fabulous 
monster, represented in the mythology of many nations as 
a huge winged serpent. In the New Testament the word 
is used for the personification of sin, and in Christian art 
it is the type of sin and idolatry. Hercules, Perseus, and 
Apollo in Greek mythology, and Thor in the Scandinavian, 
were renowned as dragon-slayers, as was Saint George in 
the early Christian legends. The dragon is still an heraldic 
bearing in Europe. 

Among the Chinese the dragon was believed to be a being 
of superhuman power, a sort of deity; and hence became 
a symbol of divinity. According to Chinese tradition, some 
of the earliest emperors of that country are represented as 
having the form of flying dragons, and representations of 
such dragons belong to the heraldry of the imperial coat- 
of-arms. 

Drag'onet ( Callionymus ), a genus of fishes belonging 


Gemmeous Dragonet. 

to the Gobiadee, or goby family. They have no air-bladder, 
the ventral fins are larger than the pectorals and placed 
under the throat, and the gill-openings are reduced to a 
small hole on each side of the nape. One of the finest 
species is the gemmeous dragonet (Callionymus lyra), of 
a golden color, variegated with sapphire-blue. They are 
found on the European coasts. 

DragOll-Fly [Fr. demoiselle; Ger. Stechfiiege ], the 


The Virgin Dragon-Fly : Libellula virgo. 

popular name of a family (the Libellulidm) which includes 
an immense number of species of neuropterous insects. 
They have large globular heads, strong mandibles, eyes 
lateral, large, and projecting, antennae short, four narrow, 
gauze-like wings, strongly reticulated, and the abdomen 
often remarkably slender. They are found in northern 
countries, but they are most common in the warmer cli¬ 
mates, and frequent marshes, lakes, and rivers. I heir food 
is insects, which they devour with great voracity. I hey 
are sometimes known as “ devil s darning-needles, and are 
often regarded by the ignorant with groundless dread. 

Dragonnade, a name of the persecutions which the 
French Protestants suffered in the reign of Louis XIV., 
which were so called because dragoons (Fr. dragons) wero 
employed as instruments of the persecution. A body of 











































1400 DRAGON’S BLOOD—DRAMA. 


dragoons led by a bishop and intendant marched through 
the provinces, requiring the Protestants to abjure their re¬ 
ligion, and persecuting those who refused. 

Dragon’s Blood, or Gum Dragon [Lat. sanguis 
draconis], a resin obtained from various trees growing in 
warm climates. Among these are the Dracaena Draco 
(which see), the red sandal-wood {Pterocarpus Santalinus) 
of the East Indies, the Pterocarpus Draco, a leguminous 
tree of South America, and the Calamus Draco, an East 
Indian rattan palm. The dragon’s blood of commerce is of 
a dark reddish-brown color, smooth, and brittle, and dis¬ 
solves in oil, alcohol, and ether. The solution is used for 
staining leather, wood, and even marble. The resin is also 
an ingredient of some varnishes and lacquers. It comes 
from the Moluccas, Socotra, Brazil, and Teneriffe. 

Dragoon. See Mounted Troops, by Gen. J. Watts 
de Peyster. 

Draguignan, a town of France, capital of the depart¬ 
ment of Yar, about 40 miles N. E. of Toulon. It is charm¬ 
ingly situated in a valley between hills which are covered 
with vineyards and olive trees. It has a court-house, a 
botanic garden, and many public fountains,* also manu¬ 
factures of woollen fabrics, hosiery, silk stuffs, brandy, 
pottery, and oil. Pop. 9819. 

Drain'age, the removal of the excess of water from 
the soil, either by means of canals and open ditches, or by 
underground sewers, pipes, and hollow tiles. The drainage 
of cities is noticed under Sewer (which see). No part of 
farm-husbandry pays a larger profit upon capital invested 
than the judicious drainage of land. There is very little 
ground that is not too wet in rainy weather and too dry in 
our frequent and long-continued droughts. Thorough 
drainage not only relieves the first-mentioned evil, but, 
strange as it at first appears, it greatly mitigates the bad 
effects of dry weather. When soil is drenched with water 
and dried by evaporation, it becomes hard, especially if it 
be argillaceous; land that is dried by drainage is porous 
and permeable to the dews and showers; while the soil 
deepened by drainage permits growing crops to put forth 
longer roots, and thus become secured against drought. 

It appears also that good drainage diminishes the rela¬ 
tive number of fevers, especially those of a malarial origin, 
while it is almost certain that excessive moisture in the 
soil is a fruitful cause of consumption. So important is 
this subject considered in England that Parliament in 1846 
offered in the Drainage act to advance money on easy 
terms to landholders for the purpose of improving the 
drainage of land. The act has proved a very great bless¬ 
ing to the country. 

Underground drainage is the best for land that is not 
decidedly marshy; and of all underground drains those 
made with tiles (hollow cylinders of porous burned clay) 
are the most effective. The tiles should be laid near enough 
to the surface to effect a thorough drying after rains, and 
deep enough to escape the plough. It is very important to 
avoid curves and angles in the vertical plane of drains, 
because any earth which may enter the tiles will be sure to 
lodge at depressed points, and spoil the drains. 

Draining lakes and marshes is a matter requiring great 
capital and much engineering skill, but it is sure to become 
a very important question in our Southern and Western 
States. In Holland, steam-pumps, wind-mills, and tide- 
gates are used extensively. The great Haarlemer-meer 
was drained and is kept drained by steam-power. 

Drainage of Cities. See Sewers and Drains, by 
E. S. Chesbrough, C. E. 

Drake (Benjamin M.), D. D., a distinguished minister 
of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, born in North 
Carolina Sept. 11, 1800. He joined the Tennessee Confer¬ 
ence in 1820, but the next year was transferred to the Mis¬ 
sissippi Conference, in which he rose to an imperial posi¬ 
tion. He built the first Methodist church in New Orleans, 
was president of Elizabeth Female Academy (.the first 
Methodist school established in Mississippi), and was pres¬ 
ident of Centenary College. He was greatly loved and re¬ 
vered. He died in Mississippi in 1860. T. 0. Summers. 

Drake (Charles D.), a jurist, a son of Dr. Daniel 
Drake, was born at Cincinnati, O., April 11, 1811. He 
served as midshipman in the navy (1827-30), and was ad¬ 
mitted to the Ohio bar in 1833. In 1834 he removed to St. 
Louis, where he became eminent as a lawyer and politician, 
was U. S. Senator (1867-71), and was appointed chief-jus¬ 
tice of the U. S. court of claims in 1871. He has published 
“Law of Attachments” (1854) and “Life of Dr. Daniel 
Drake” (1871). 

Drake (Daniel), M. D., born at Plainfield, N. J., Oct. 
20, 1785. In infancy he was brought to Kentucky, then 
almost a wilderness, and received a very limited prepara¬ 
tory education. At fifteen ho was apprenticed to Dr. Go- 


fort, and attended lectures in the University of Pennsylvania, 
where he took the degree in medicine in 1815. Soon after 
this he accepted a professorship in the University of Tran¬ 
sylvania at Lexington, Ky.; in 1819 he founded the Medi¬ 
cal College of Ohio at Cincinnati; then filled a chair in 
the Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia; was called 
twice to the school in Louisville, and finally returned to 
Cincinnati, where he died. He had an intense love for the 
great West, especially for Cincinnati; was ever active in 
the profession, establishing journals, sustaining hospitals, 
blind asylums, the temperance cause, and doing all he 
could for Church and State. Dr. Drake was a true philan¬ 
thropist, a noble patriot, a sincere Christian. Among his 
works is a “ Systematic Treatise on the Principal Diseases 
of the Interior Valley of North America, etc.” (2 vols., 
1850-54). Died Nov. 6, 1852. Paul F. Eve. 

Drake (Sir Francis), an English navigator, born in 
Devonshire about 1540. He served as a captain under Sir 
John Hawkins in his expedition to the Spanish Main in 
1567, obtained a commission frem Queen Elizabeth in 1570, 
cruised in the West Indies, and enriched himself by plunder 
taken from the Spaniards. He conducted in 1572 an expe¬ 
dition against the Spanish in America, captured valuable 
prizes, and saw the Pacific from the Isthmus of Darien. 
He sailed in 1557 with five vessels on a marauding expe- 
pedition against the Spaniards. He entered the Pacific, 
sacked several towns of Chili and Peru, and captured a 
galleon laden with silver. Hoping to find another passage 
to the Atlantic, he sailed northward to lat. 48° N., but he 
failed, and took shelter in the Bay of San Francisco. He 
next steered to the Moluccas, returned by the Cape of Good 
Hope, and arrived at Plymouth in Sept., 1559. He was 
the first Englishman who circumnavigated the globe. The 
queen rewarded him with knighthood. He was appointed 
commander of a fleet in 1587, when Spain was prejmring 
the Armada. He entered the harbor of Cadiz, where he 
destroyed nearly one hundred vessels and captured im¬ 
mense booty. The exploit was called “ singeing the king 
of Spain’s beard.” He was vice-admiral of the fleet which 
in 1588 opposed the Invincible Armada. In 1592 he was 
elected to Parliament. He died near Puerto Bello Dec. 27, 
1595. 

Drake (Francis Samuel), an American author, born 
at Northwood, N. II., Feb. 22, 1828, is a son of the well- 
known antiquary and historian, S. G. Drake, noticed below. 
He has published a valuable “ Dictionary of American 
Biography” (1872), the most complete work that has been 
published on the subject, and has prepared a volume of 
memorials for the Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati, 
and a “Life of General Henry Knox” (1873). 

Dra'ke (Friedrich), a German sculptor, born at Pyr- 
mont June 23, 1805, was a pupil of Rauch. He gained a 
high reputation by statues and busts of many eminent 
Germans of the present century, including the Humboldts, 
Rauch, and Oken, and two colossal statues of King Fred¬ 
erick William III. Among his other works is an allegor¬ 
ical group of the “Eight Provinces of Prussia” (1844), in 
the castle of Berlin. 

Drake (Joseph Rodman), an American poet, born in 
the city of New York Aug. 7, 1795. He studied medicine, 
graduated about 1815, and married in 1816 a daughter of 
Henry Eckford, a noted naval architect. He became an 
intimate friend of Fitz-Greene Halleck. Among his works 
are “The Culprit Fay” and verses on the American flag, 
which are greatly admired. Died Sept. 21, 1820. 

Drake (Samuel Gardner), an historical writer, born 
at Pittsfield, N. H., Oct. 11, 1798. He opened an anti¬ 
quarian bookstore in Boston in 1828. He published, be¬ 
sides other works, “Indian Biography” (1832), “The 
Book of the Indians” (1833), “History and Antiquities cf 
Boston” (1856), and “Annals of Witchcraft in the U. S.” 
(1869). 

Drakeville, a township and post-village of Davis co., 
Ia., on the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R., 137 
miles S. W. of Davenport. Pop. 534. 

Dram. See Drachm. 

Dram'a [Gr. Spapa, from Spau>, to “do,” to “act;” lit¬ 
erally, an “acting,” a “performance;” Fr. drame; Ger., 
Dutch, Dan., Sp., and Port, drama; It. dramma; Sw. 
dram] signified originally the exhibition of human actions 
(especially those which reveal the feelings and passions) 
upon the stage. The ancient Greek drama, comedy as well 
as tragedy, had its origin in the worship of Bacchus (Dion¬ 
ysus). The Dionysian dithyrambs sung at the festivals of 
Bacchus sometimes expressed wild and boisterous gayety, 
at other times passionate sorrow. From the former was at 
length developed the old Greek comedy, which maybe said 
to have attained its highest perfection in the plays of Aris¬ 
tophanes (which see); from the latter arose the Greek 












DRAMATIS PERSONAE—DRAUGHTS. 


tragedy, which found its most perfect expression in the 
immortal works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. 

The Roman drama was derived from the Greek, to which, 
in the opinion of all the most distinguished critics, it was 
much inferior. The most celebrated Roman dramatic poets 
were Plautus and Terence, who appear to have taken Me¬ 
nander and Philemon (of the New Greek comedy) as their 
models, and whose productions have exercised considerable 
influence on the modern comedy. In tragedy ancient Rome 
produced one truly great poet, Seneca. 

The Hindoo drama, quite independent in its origin of the 
drama of Europe, has produced some works of great merit, 
the most celebrated of which is the “ Sakoontala, or the 
Lost Ring,” of Kalidasa (who is supposed to have lived 
about 50 B. C.)—a work which has received the highest 
commendation from some of the most eminent critics of 
modern Europe, and has been pronounced not unworthy 
of the genius of Shakspeare. This remarkable production, 
instead of being divided into five acts, like the classic and 
modern drama, consists of seven acts. 

The Chinese also have a drama, but greatly differing in 
some respects from that of the Western nations; a single 
piece, it is said, being often extended through no incon¬ 
siderable portions of several successive days. 

In modern times the drama has been cultivated with suc¬ 
cess, it may be said, by all the principal European nations, 
but more especially by the Italians, the Spaniards, the 
French, the English, and the Germans. For a long period 
the French were generally supposed to surpass all other 
nations in the genius and skill of their dramatic writers, as 
well as in the admirable performance of their actors. The 
French critics usually insisted on the strictest adherence to 
the rules of the classic drama, and particularly to what are 
commonly termed “the three unities.” Until the time of 
Lessing the German theatre was scarcely more than a re¬ 
flection of that of Paris, but that great author and critic 
taught his countrymen to throw off the trammels and affec¬ 
tations of a foreign school, and to give entire freedom to 
the cultivation of the national genius. Since that time the 
German authors, taking the English for their models rather 
than the French, but without servilely following any, have 
produced the finest dramatic works that have appeared in 
Europe since the time of Shakspeare. Among the German 
dramatic writers, Goethe and Schiller, by universal consent, 
occupy the foremost rank. Denmark has also produced 
some eminent dramatic writers, among whom GCiilen- 
schlager (which see) is the most celebrated. Italy can 
scarcely be said to have produced any dramatic poets of 
the highest order; among her best are perhaps Goldoni in 
comedy, and Alfieri, Manzoni, and Silvio Pellico in tragedy. 
The Spanish drama has given to the world many produc¬ 
tions displaying rare genius, but none that are worthy to 
be placed by the side of the greatest dramatic works of 
Greece, England, Germany, or France. The most cele¬ 
brated names in Spanish dramatic literature are those of 
Lope de Vega and Calderon; the former surpassing all 
that is recorded in the history of the human mind in the 
marvellous fertility of his genius; the latter pre-eminent 
for the brilliancy of his imagination, as well as for the 
fertility’' of his invention, but neither of them producing 
any work of the very highest order. 

The French drama justly holds a very high place in Eu¬ 
ropean literature. It is not too much to say that in comedy 
the writers of no other nation, either in ancient or modern 
times, have equalled the French. The best plays of Mo- 
liere may be said to be not only unrivalled, but unap¬ 
proached, by those of any other author, Shakspeare alone 
excepted. In tragedy, Corneille, Racine, and Voltaire all 
exhibit genius of the very highest order, but Racine, in 
the natural, graceful simplicity, as well as in the exquisite 
finish, of his productions, is generally admitted to have 
approached most nearly to the most perfect specimens of 
the ancient Greek tragedy. 

Though the dramatic literature of England presents us 
with fewer writers of the highest order than that of France, 
the former can boast of one whose dramatic genius sur¬ 
passes everything to be found in ancient or in modern 
times. While in his best comedies Shakspeare is perhaps 
not inferior to Moliere, in his tragedies, not merely in the 
exhibition of the conflict of the mightiest human passions, 
but also in his representation of the workings of the most 
intricate and subtlest of human motives, he has no equal 
nor second among the sons of men. 

In the opinion of many critics the highest exhibition of 
poetic genius is to be found in the tragic drama, which 
naturally combines the fire and passion of lyric inspiration 
with that representation of outward circumstances, conduct, 
and events which belongs to epic poetry. It thus unites 
every advantage for the exhibition of human character. It 
not only shows us the external conduct, but in the various 
soliloquies and discourses of the dramatis personse it re- 


1401 


veals to us the hidden thoughts and passions of the soul. 
In this last respect, it has a great superiority over epic 
poetry, in which, though the expression of feeling occasion¬ 
ally occurs, it is always made subordinate to the events of 
the story. J. Thomas. 

Dram'atis Perso'iicC, a Latin term signifying the 
characters or persons represented in a drama. 

Dram'burg, a town of Prussia, in the province of 
Pomerania, 53 miles E. of Stettin, has a normal school and 
large woollen factories. Pop. in 1871, 5473. 

Dram'men, a seaport-town of Norway, in Aggershuus, 
on both sides of the river Drammen, near its entrance into 
the Christiania Fiord, about 24 miles S. W. of Christiania. 
It has a college, and manufactures of sailcloth, ropes, etc. 
Large quantities of timber are exported from this port. 
Pop. in 1870, 15,458. 

Dranesville, a post-village and township of Fairfax 
co., Va., 17 miles W. by N. of Washington, was the scene 
of a very spirited engagement and Federal victory Dec. 20, 

1861. Pop. of township, 2055. 

Dra'per (John William), M. D., LL.D.*, a distinguished 
chemist and writer, born near Liverpool, England, May 5, 
1811, was educated at the University of London, and emi¬ 
grated to the U. S. in 1833. He graduated as M. D. in the 
University of Pennsylvania in 1836, was professor of chem¬ 
istry and jdiysiology at Hampden-Sidney College (1836- 
39), and became professor of chemistry in the University 
of New York in 1839. In 1841 he was appointed professor 
of chemistry in the newly-founded medical department of 
that university. In 1839 he took the first photographic 
portrait ever taken from the life. He discovered many of 
the fundamental facts of spectrum analysis, and published 
them (1841-50). He published, besides other works, “ Hu¬ 
man Ph}’siology, Statistical and Dynamical, of the Con¬ 
ditions and Course of Life in Man” (1856), a “History of 
the Intellectual Development of Europe” (1863), and a 
“History of the American Civil War” (3 vols., 1867-68), 
and numerous monographs on mathematics, chemistry, and 
optics. 

Draper (Lyman C.), an author, was born near Buffalo? 
N. Y., Sept. 4, 1815. Since 1833 he has edited four volumes 
of the Wisconsin Historical Society’s “ Collections,” and 
has written much upon the history and biography of the 
West. He published in 1857 an account of Madison, the 
capital of Wisconsin. 

Draper (Simeon) was born in 1804, and became a mer¬ 
chant in New York. He was the active political friend of 
W. II. Seward, fulfilled for many years important public 
duties, was appointed provost-marshal of New York in 

1862, and collector of the port in 1864. Died Nov. 6, 1866. 
He was a man of ability, generosity, and integrity. 

Dra'pery [Fr. draperie, from drap, “cloth”], cloth or 
woollen stuffs, clothing, or apparel. The dealers in such 
commodities are called drapers in England. Drapery in 
painting and sculpture is the clothing applied to the hu¬ 
man figure, the various costumes and modes of dress used 
by different nations and classes of people. The ancient 
Greeks, although they often executed nude statues of heroes 
and gods, surpassed all other artists in the representation 
of drapery and costume. The art of disposing the folds of 
drapery forms a considerable part of the painter’s and sculp¬ 
tor’s study, and requires good taste and judgment. 

Dra'pier Let/ters, The, were written under the sig¬ 
nature of “M. B. Drapier” by Dean Swift. They attacked 
the government for granting a patent in 1722 to a man 
named Wood, in order to supply a deficiency of £108,000 
in the copper coinage of Ireland. They created an almost 
unparalleled sensation in Ireland on their first appearance 
in 1723. Harding, their printer, though prosecuted and 
imprisoned by the Crown, refused to betray the author. 
The patent was abandoned after £40,000 in halfpence had 
been coined, and Wood was compelled by the popular in¬ 
dignation to leave the country. 

Draught, or Draught of Water, a nautical term for 
the depth a ship sinks in water when afloat. The draught 
is marked from the keel upward—on the stem and on the 
stern-post. 

Draughts [probably because a move was formerly called 
a “ draught;” Fr. le jeu de dames; It. dama; Ger. Damen , 
probably from davieh, the Egyptian name ot the game], 
commonly called Checkers in America, a game played by 
two persons upon a board divided into sixty-tour squares 
of alternate colors, each person having twelve pieces or 
counters, distinguished by their color from those of the op¬ 
posite party. The success of the game depends upon the 
■skill of either party in capturing all the pieces of an ad- 
versarv, or hemming them in so that no further mo\e can 
be made. The counters of each player are placed beforo 












1402 DRAUGHTSMAN—DREAM. 


him upon the first three lines of squares of the same color, 
and each piece is moved diagonally forward one square to 
the right or left. It is the duty of each player to take the 
piece of the other when a vacant square is found behind it, 
which is done by jumping over into that square, and remov¬ 
ing the piece “jumped ” or passed over. Several pieces may 
be jumped at one time when the diagonals forward are ex¬ 
posed, and the taking piece is placed upon the square be¬ 
hind the one taken last. When the last row on the opposite 
side of a board is reached, the piece is called a king, and is 
crowned by placing one of the counters before captured 
upon it; and this king can then be moved diagonally for¬ 
ward or backward, one square only at a time. If a piece 
is touched it must be moved if possible. The piece exposed 
must be taken by the player having the move; in case he 
neglects to do so, his adversary may remove the piece which 
should have made the capture. When lots are drawn for the 
first move, he who gains the choice may move or require 
his adversary to do so. The game is supposed to have origi¬ 
nated more than 2000 years B. C., and to have preceded 
chefcs. It was introduced into Europe from Egypt three or 
four centuries ago. 

Draughts'man, a person who draws pictures, plans, 
or maps; one who delineates or draws a sketch or design. 
The term is not usually applied to those who produce origi¬ 
nal designs. 

Drave [anc, Dravus; Ger. Drau; Slavonic Drava], a 
river of Europe, rises in the Tyrol, and flows nearly east¬ 
ward, through Carinthia and Styria, to the western frontier 
of Hungary. It afterwards runs south-eastward, and forms 
the boundary between Hungary on the left and Croatia and 
Slavonia on the right, until it enters the Danube 14 miles 
E. of Essek. Its total length is nearly 400 miles. It is 
navigable for 200 miles or more. 

Draw'back, a loss of advantage, success, profit, or 
value; anything that deducts from a step gained; a dis¬ 
couragement or hindrance. Commercially, an allowance 
made by the government to merchants on the re-exporta¬ 
tion of certain imported goods liable to duties; also a re¬ 
payment or remission of a duty laid on any article pro¬ 
duced in a country and suitable for the foreign market, 
when such article is entered for exportation. In some cases 
this allowance or remission consists of the whole of the cus¬ 
toms or excise duties; in others, of a part only. In the 
U. S. drawback has been regulated by various acts of Con¬ 
gress. Such duties are, of course, an enhancement of the 
natural price of the commodity on which they are imposed. 
The object of the allowance or remission is to establish or 
stimulate a trade with foreign countries in the commodity. 
Adam Smith, in his “Wealth of Nations,” thus speaks of 
the remission or repayment of the latter form of duty : “ To 
allow,” he says, “the merchant to draw back, upon expor¬ 
tation, either the whole or a part of whatever excise or in¬ 
land duty is imposed upon domestic industry, can never 
occasion the exportation of a greater quantity of goods than 
what would have been exported had no duty been imposed. 
Such encouragements do not tend to turn towards any par¬ 
ticular employment a greater share of the capital of the 
country than what would go to that employment of its own 
accord, but only to hinder the duty from driving away any 
part of that share to other employments. They tend not 
to overturn that balance which naturally establishes itself 
among all the various employments of the society, but to 
hinder it being overturned by the duty; they tend not to 
destroy, but to preserve what it is in most cases advan¬ 
tageous to preserve, the natural division and distribution 
of labor in the society.” These remarks are subject to this 
qualification : provided the drawback is equally applicable 
to all domestic productions that are sought to bo exported. 
It might, perhaps, be shown also, by experience, that the 
practice of giving drawbacks is liable to abuse; for, sup¬ 
posing a great fall in the value of some excisable article, it 
may be exported with a view, partly or entirely, to get the 
drawback. An important species of commerce would thus 
be fostered. Of course the government must guard against 
deceptions by exercising an oversight of the packing, 
weighing, tying, and sealing of such goods, of their owner¬ 
ship, of the time when such goods were charged with the 
duties, and of the exportation; and in some particulars it 
requires a verification by oath. 

Revised by T. D. Woolsf.y. 

Draw'bridge, the name applied to the whole or part 
of a bridge which may be moved to admit or hinder 
communication. There are several varieties of these struc¬ 
tures. They are respectively known as bascules or lifting 
bridges, from their turning vertically on a hinge; swivel or 
swing bridges, from moving horizontally on a pivot; and 
rolling bridges, from being propelled on friction rollers. 
They are principally used on navigable streams to permit 
vessels to pass. 


Drawbridge, a post-township of Dorchester co., Md. 
Pop. 1087. 

Drawing, in the fine arts, is the delineation of form 
in contradistinction to color, light, and shade, and, as it in¬ 
cludes a knowledge of anatomy, proportion, and perspec¬ 
tive, iji the foundation of everything in art, and the most 
important feature of a finished painting. In power and 
beauty of drawing the Italian and Flemish schools stand 
pre-eminent. At the period when Greek art had attained 
its highest perfection drawing was a regular branch of edu¬ 
cation, as it is at present in the public schools of Germany, 
Switzerland, and other European nations. In Massachu¬ 
setts drawing is taught in the public schools of the larger 
towns, and artisans, mechanics, and others who may desire 
it receive gratuitous instruction in free-hand as well as me¬ 
chanical drawing in the evening schools. Similar instruc¬ 
tion is given in several of the larger cities of other States. 

Draw-plate, a metal plate placed before or over a fire¬ 
place, for the purpose of forcing the air through the fire; 
also a steel plate with graduated orifices, through which 
metals are drawn into bars or wires. 

Dray'ton, a post-village of Wellington co., Ontario, 
Canada, on the Guelph branch of the Great Western Rail¬ 
way. It has some manufactures and one weekly news¬ 
paper. Pop. about 500. 

Drayton (Michael), an English poet, born in Warwick¬ 
shire in 1563. Few events of his life have been recorded. 
His chief work is “ Poly-Olbion ” (1613), a poetical descrip¬ 
tion of the mountains, rivers, valleys, and forests of Great 
Britain, with the traditions connected with them. Dray¬ 
ton was appointed poet-laureate in 1626. Among his nu¬ 
merous works are “ The Barons’ Wars” (1596) and “ Nymjih- 
idia,” a fairy poem (1627). Died in 1631. 

Drayton (Percival), U. S. N., born Aug. 25, 1812, in 
South Carolina, entered the navy as a midshipman Dec. 1, 
1827, became a passed midshipman in 1832, a lieutenant in 
1833, a commander in 1855, and a captain in 1862. He 
served in the South Atlantic squadron from the fall of 1861 
to the summer of 1863, commanding the steamer Poca¬ 
hontas at the battle of Port Royal, and the iron-clad Pas¬ 
saic during the bombardment of Fort McAlister of Mar. 
3, 1863, and at the first attack upon Fort Sumter of April 
3 of the same year. He is handsomely mentioned in sev¬ 
eral of the official despatches of Rear-Admiral Dupont, who 
in his last report speaks of him as an officer “ of the highest 
professional capacity and courage.” He commanded the 
Hartford at the great battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, 
and is thus commended by Farragut in his detailed report 
of the events of that glorious day: “ The Hartford, my 
flag-ship, was commanded by Captain Percival Drayton, 
who exhibited throughout that coolness and ability for 
which he has been long known to his brother-officers. But 
I must speak of that officer in a double capacity. He is 
the fleet-captain of my squadron, and one of more deter¬ 
mined energy, untiring devotion to duty, and zeal for the 
service, tempered by great calmness, I do not think adorns 
any navy. I desire to call your attention to this officer, 
though well aware that in thus speaking of his high qual¬ 
ities I am only communicating officially to the department 
that which it knew full well before.” Early in 1865, Drayton 
was appointed chief of the bureau of navigation, in the 
discharge of which high office he died (Aug. 4, 1865), uni¬ 
versally regretted. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Drayton (William), an American officer, the father of 
the preceding, was born in St. Augustine, Fla., Dec. 30, 
1776. He served as colonel in the war of 1812, became a 
member of Congress in 1825, and was a leader of the Union 
party of South Carolina in 1830. He was chosen president 
of the U. S. Bank in 1839, as the successor of Nicholas 
Biddle. Died May 24, 1846. 

Drayton (William Henry), an American patriot, born 
in South Carolina Sept., 1742. He wrote political works, 
was chosen chief-justice of South Carolina in 1776, and 
president of that State in 1777. In 1778 he became a mem¬ 
ber of the Continental Congress. He died Sept. 3, 1779, 
leaving in MS. a “ History of the Revolution,” which was 
published by his son (2 vols., 1821). 

Dray'ton-in-Hales, or Market-Drayton, a town 

of England in Shropshire, on the Tern, 19 miles N. N. E. 
of Shrewsbury. It has manufactures of paper and of hair 
seats for chairs. Here the partisans of the house of York 
defoated the Lancastrians in 1459. Pop. 5242. 

Dray'tonsville, a township of Union co., S. C. Pop. 
1864. 

Dream [Lat. Bomnium ; Fr. songe and rive ; Gr. Traum], 
a series of thoughts, feelings, and acts of the imagination 
occurring in sleep. In some cases the reasoning powers 
are abnormally active in dreams, but in general the mental 
action is incongruous. Dreams usually aro evidence of im- 











DREBBEL, VAN—DREDGING AND SCOURING. 


1403 


perfect sleep. They take their character from some preced¬ 
ing state of the mind, and are often modified by the con¬ 
ditions of the health. The Bible speaks of dreams as being 
sometimes prophetic or suggestive of future events. This 
belief has prevailed in all ages and countries, and there 
are numerous modern examples, apparently well authenti¬ 
cated, which would appear to favor this hypothesis. The 
interpretation of dreams was a part of the business of the 
soothsayers at the royal courts of Egypt, Babylon, and 
other ancient nations. 

Dreb'bel, vail (Cornells), a Dutch philosopher, born 
at Alkmaar in 1572. He removed to England about 1620, 
and was patronized by James I. He invented several 
curious machines, and wrote two works entitled u On the 
Nature of the Elements ” and “ Quintessence ” (1621). He 
is said to have invented the thermometer, but the state¬ 
ment has been disputed. Died in London in 1634. 

Dredging and Scouring, terms applied to those 
processes by which materials are removed from the bottom 
of ship-channels and harbors, and the navigable depth of 
water increased thereby. By dredging is meant more 
particularly the raising of the materials to the surface by 
mechanical appliances, and their transportation and depo¬ 
sition elsewhere, while scouring implies their gradual and 
progressive removal by the force of the current. In order 
to increase the effective scouring-power of streams it is 
customary to narrow and straighten their natural water¬ 
way by bulkheads, jetties, and other works of improve¬ 
ment; and sometimes the drainage waters in inland, and 


the ebb flow in tidal streams, are held back by gates, and 
let out through the channel at stated periods with great 
violence. This method of scouring, called flashing or flush¬ 
ing, is a very efficient mode of dredging in the few locations 
favorable for its application. At Ramsgate, Dover, and 
other places in England large scouring-basins or reservoirs 
to retain the water have been constructed. To facilitate 
the scouring, the bottom may be loosened up by dragging 
heavy rakes over it during the period of strongest current. 
The oldest dredging-machines were probably of this cha¬ 
racter, and were used in Holland. They consisted of float¬ 
ing frames, with teeth or bars projecting down to the bottom 
from the under side, which stirred up the sand and mud as 
the machine was floated along by the current. 

Where bars are short, with deep water on either side, or 
where the bottom is lumpy, scrapers have been advan¬ 
tageously employed to smooth off the bottom. The material 
scraped from the shoal places subsides in deep water, and 
the available depth is thereby increased. The scrapers 
may be attached to a tug moving up and down the channel, 
or to a scow towed by a tug. Fig. 1 shows a side view of 
a scow and scraper designed and used by Major Houston, 
U. S. corps of engineers. On each side of the scow there 
is a long arm a pivoted at b, and connected at the lower 
end by a crossbar c, to which the scrapers d, three in num¬ 
ber, are attached side by side. Each scraper is a semi¬ 
cylinder of J-inch boiler iron, 3 feet in diameter and about 
21 feet long on the longest side, open at both ends, the 
lower end terminating obliquely to the axis, like a scoop. 

The effective velocities of currents in moving materials 


Fig. 1. 



of various kinds and sizes, as established by different ob¬ 
servers, are as follows: 

0.170 miles per hour will just begin to work on fine clay, 


0.340 

<< 

a 

u 

will lift fine sand. 

0.454 

U 

u 

u 

will lift sand. 

0.082 

it 

u 

u 

will sweep along fine gravel. 

1.3G4 

u 

« 

u 

will roll along round pebbles nearly one 
inch in diameter. 

2.045 

a 

a 

u 

will move slippery, angular stones the size 
of a hen’s egg. 


Sir John Leslie gives the formula V= 4 Va for finding 
the velocity required to move rounded stones or shingle, 
in which V denotes the velocity of the water in miles per 
hour, and a the edge of the stone if a cube, or the mean 
diameter if a rounded stone or boulder. 

The mode of deepening channels by stirring up the bot¬ 
tom in streams where there are effective currents in one, or 
alternately in both directions, has been successfully fol¬ 
lowed at the mouth of the Mississippi River. The appa¬ 
ratus used was a large double-ender dredge-boat, of like 
shape and construction at both ends, provided with two 
strongly built, four-bladed propellers, one at each end, on 
separate shafts, powerfully driven by separate engines, and 
with water compartments or tanks, such that when they 
are empty and the coal-bunkers full, the boat will draw 
fourteen feet, and when full twenty-two feet. The blades 
of the propellers extend about two feet below the vessel’s 
keel. When operating, the boat is sunk by means of her 
tanks to a draught fully equal to and generally exceeding 
the soundings on the bar; she then steams alternately up 
and down the channel, cutting her way through and stirring 
up the bottom with the propellers. The material thrown 
into suspension is carried off by the current and subsides 
in deep water. In exceptional cases the boat, when draw¬ 
ing fifteen feet, has cut her way through where there were 
but ten feet of w r atcr. The up-stream or stern end of the 


boat has a deflector a few feet in rear of the propeller. 
When steaming down stream on an ebb current, the effect 
of this deflector is to carry upward into the upper and 
stronger current the backwater from the propeller, and 
consequently the solid material with which it is charged. 
Upon one occasion the amount excavated by this dredge- 
boat in four days, working twenty-eight and a quarter 
hours, was upwards of 22,000 cubic yards, but this is con¬ 
siderably in excess of the average results. Auxiliary 
scrapers are also used with this boat to stir up the bottom 
on each side of the propellers. To guard against stoppage 
from accidents, two boats are deemed necessary to maintain 
a constant depth of twenty feet at low tide. (See Fig. 2.) 

In tidal streams the inward and outward flow of the 
tidal wave is a most efficient scouring agent for maintain¬ 
ing the channel at the greatest practicable depth of which it 
is capable; and a judicious regulation and control of the 
tidal currents, by giving uniformity in depth and width to 
the channel, and straightening it wherever practicable, has 
in many instances converted a narrow, crooked, and shallow 
stream into a deep and navigable channel. A recognized 
principle in hydraulic engineering is that the flow of the 
tidal wave should be facilitated, and not obstructed ; hence 
a deepening of the water-way should always accompany 
a reduction in width. The tidal wave is propagated with 
greater velocity in deep than in shallow channels, the ratio 
of velocities for different depths being approximately as 
the square roots of those depths. 

Scoops of various forms, filled by drawing them along 
the bottom, and then raising them to the surface and empty¬ 
ing them into scows, have been used in many places—a de¬ 
vice which was afterwards extended by attaching a series 
of scoops or buckets to an endless belt or chain attached 
to the side of the vessel, or over an opening amidships, and 
working over pulleys or wheels so arranged that the chain 
can be lowered or raised to suit various depths of water. 



























DREDGING AND SCOURING. 


1404 


The buckets descend empty, fill themselves at the bottom, 
and when they rise over the upper wheel discharge into 
troughs leading to scows alongside. 

Fig. 3 shows a longitudinal section, and Fig. 3a an en¬ 
larged view of buckets and lower wheel, of a powerful 
steam-dredger used on the river Clyde, Scotland. The hull 
is of boiler plates and angle iron, being 161 feet long, 29 
feet breadth of beam, and 10 feet greatest depth of hold. 
An endless band, carrying 40 dredge-buckets of nearly 14 
cubic feet capacity each, works through a well amidships, 
passing over two wheels, one at either end of an iron 
bucket-girder 90 feet long, and weighing 125 tons when 
working, inclusive of the contents of the ascending buckets 


and hoisting chains. The axis of the upper wheel is sta¬ 
tionary at the height of about 30 feet above the water, and 
the girder revolves about this axis sufficiently, by raising 
and lowering the submerged end, to allow the dredging to 
be carried on at any depth from 6 feet to 30 feet. One man 
by means of a lever on deck has complete control of raising 
and lowering the bucket-girder. The main frame carrying 
the girder and its gear is well secured and braced, so as to 
distribute the strain it has to bear over a large portion of 
the hull. 

The dredged material is delivered, after passing over the 
upper wheel, into inclined shoots at either side of the vessel, 
with suitable arrangements, worked by steam, for closing 


Fig. 2. 


END ELEVATION. SIDE ELEVATION. 



one shoot and opening the other simultaneously. At the 
bow there are three large independent double-powered 
crab winches, combined in one machine for convenience in 
handling by one man. These crabs control one U-inch 
head chain and two f-inch side mooring chains, provided 
for guiding the dredger to the cutting place. At the stern 
four similar crabs are placed to work the stern and side 
moorings. By these appliances provision is made for 
moving the vessel ahead, astern, and athwartship. Surg¬ 
ing heads are also fitted to the crabs to haul the hopper 
barges alongside, also hand gear to work the surging heads 
independent of steam. Friction gearing is provided and 
adapted to work these moorings at three different speeds. 
The main gearing and girder hoisting gear are also fitted 
with adjustable friction-wheels, to prevent accidents in case 
of undue strain coming on the buckets or girder. Steel has 


been used in various parts of the machinery of this dredger, 
such as the dead-eye brackets for suspending the top end 
of the bucket girder, bars .for upper and lower tumblers, 
bearings of lower tumbler shaft, spindles of bucket rollers, 
bucket cutting lips, and bushes for the bucket link-eyes. 

The working power consists of a pair of horizontal con¬ 
densing engines to drive the buckets, hoisting gear for 
bucket girder, and bow crabs. Two pairs of non-condensing 
engines are also provided to drive the stern crabs, side 
shoots, etc. A donkey double-acting pump connected to 
bilges and sea feeds the boiler, etc. 

This dredger working at full speed in 10 or 15 feet of 
water can raise about 500 tons or 3S0 cubic yards of ordi¬ 
nary soil per hour. 

This method of dredging, considerably modified, was ap¬ 
plied on a very extensive scale in excavating the Suez 



Canal, but the dredgings, instead of being always delivered 
into scows alongside, were generally deposited on the banks 
of the canal through long shoots having but a slight incli¬ 
nation. The dredge-boats were built of boiler iron, and 
the largest ones were 108 feet long, 27 feet broad, and 10£ 
feet deep in the hold, with 5 feet draught of water. The 
engine was vertical, direct acting, and condensing, with 
two cylinders, and nominally 35 horse-power, the boiler 
heating surfaee being 1163 superficial feet. The capacity 
of some of the dredge-buckets was 10.6 cubic feet, and 
others 14.74 cubic feet. The upper rollers, over which the 
endless chain carrying the buckets passed, were in some 
dredges 37 feet 5 inches above the water, and in others 48 
feet. For the former the shoots to deliver the materials on 
the canal banks were 195 feet long, and for the latter 227J 
feet long. The shoots are not supported by the dredger, 
but are constructed each upon a sepai’ate barge, and are 
sustained by a lattice girder resting upon the barge on 
telescopic supports, so that it can be raised and lowered by 
a hydraulic hoist and set at different angles of inclination. 
To accommodate the changes of inclination, the attachment 
of the shoot to the dredger is made by means of a hori¬ 


zontal joint, and the lattice girder can also be revolved 
horizontally on its supports, so that it can be turned 
parallel to the sides of the barge and of the canal when 
moving it from place to place. The shoot is semi-elliptical 
in cross section, being 1 foot 114 inches deep and 5 feet 11 
inches wide. To aid the flow and discharge of the dredg¬ 
ings, a stream of water is thrown into the upper end of the 
shoot by two rotary pumps placed upon the dredge; and in 
case this supply is insufficient a portable engine located on 
the barge supporting the shoot, and working a pump capa¬ 
ble of throwing 5000 cubic feet of water per hour, is set in 
motion. This pump delivers its water along the entire 
length of the shoot, through a pipe pierced with holes at 
short intervals. The shoot is further provided with an 
endless chain, carrying scrapers which move along in the 
bottom whenever the dredgings are not voided freely by 
water alone. Fine sand confined within a channel will de¬ 
scend rapidly on an inclination of 4 to 5 feet in 100, when 
washed with half its bulk of water. For clays a descent 
of not less than 6 to 8 feet in 100 is necessary, but less 
water is required. 

Fig. 4 shows a section of dredge with long shoot. A 

















































































































































































































DREDGING AND SCOURING. 


1405 


portion of the shoot and supporting girder, about 73 feet 
in length, is omitted for want of space. Where the banks 
of the canal were too high to use the long-shoot dredger, 
an elevating apparatus was employed, consisting of a por¬ 
table tramway supported by two parallel lattice girders, the 


lower end, about 10 feet above the water, resting upon a 
barge in the canal, and the shore end, 45 feet above the 
water, upon a truck running upon a railway laid along the 
bank of the canal. In operating this apparatus the dredg¬ 
ings are first delivered from the dredge into boxes arranged 



side by side upon a raft or float; the raft is then floated 
under the lower end of the tramway, and the boxes are 
hooked on, one after another, to the lower side of the tram¬ 
way truck, and conveyed to the upper end of the tramway 
and tipped by steam-power. This arrangement is shown 


at Fig. 5, a portion of the shore end being omitted for want 
of room. The tipping is effected by two wheels attached to 
the lower rear edge of the box which run up a steep incline 
at the upper end of the tramway. 

Wheel Dredgers .—Instead of an endless chain to carry 


Fig, 5, 






the buckets, these are sometimes placed upon the perimeter 
of a wheel 25 to 30 feet in diameter, or larger according to 
the depth to be dredged. This wheel is set in a well in the 
boat, its axle or shaft working in boxes that can be lower¬ 
ed or raised by suitable machinery as the depth requires. 
As the wheel revolves the buckets scoop themselves full at 
the bottom, and in ascending lift in succession the upper 
end of a shoot adjusted against the perimeter of the wheel, 


which, falling back to its place, causes the bottom of the 
bucket to unlatch, and the contents to be discharged into 
the shoot, and thence into a scow alongside. The dredge- 
boat is drawn along by a cable leading to the engine at tho 
precise rate which the progress of the excavation requires. 
Under favorable circumstances a 24-foot wheel carrying 
four buckets has been known to excavate 1200 cubic yards 
in ten working hours. (See Fig. 5o.) 



Clam-shell Dredgers .—Each dredge-boat operates but one 
bucket, which is in two parts hinged together horizontally, 
something like a clam shell, with arrangements by which 
it is opened and closed by the same power which lowers and 


raises it through the water. 1 he bucket being open and 
suspended from the end of a crane-jib, descends vertically 
through the water until it rests on the bottom. It is then 
filled !>y closing together the two parts, when it takes tho 






































































































































































































































1406 


DREDGING AND SCOURING. 


form of a short horizontal trough or hollow semi-cylinder 
closed at the ends. It is then raised out of the water, swung 
round over a scow, opened and emptied. 

The two parts of the bucket—each being a quarter of a 
hollow cylinder with closed ends—are hinged along their 
common axis, and from their outer upper edges tie-rods or 
links extend to a crossbar directly over the centre or axis. 
This crossbar works in guides up and down. By raising 
the crossbar in the guides the two parts of the bucket are 
opened; by lowering it to its lowest point the bucket is 
closed. This raising and lowering of the crossbar in the 
guides—and consequently the opening and closing of the 
bucket—is effected by two chains passing over pulleys at 
the end of the crane-jib and down to separate drums operated 
by the engine. One chain is attached directly to the cross¬ 
bar, and supports the weight of the open bucket whilst de¬ 
scending to the bottom. The other chain is made fast to 
the groove of a pulley placed below the crossbar, and (by 
means of two smaller pulleys on either side of it fixed to 


the same shaft) working on the principle of the wheel and 
axle, transmits its leverage (by means of chains fastened 
to the grooves of the smaller pulleys) to the under side of 
the crossbar. The strain being brought upon this last-men¬ 
tioned chain after the bucket reaches the bottom, the cross¬ 
bar is by this means hauled down, the two parts of the 
bucket are closed, and the bucket filled before it commences 
to ascend. When working in hard material like compact 
clay, hard sand, or gravel, the cutting edges of the bucket 
arc provided with sharp teeth. 

The hoisting apparatus consists of a pair of horizontal 
engines, which by means of a friction-clutch can be made 
to drive either of the chain drums at pleasure. The bucket 
is guided in its descent by a pair of wooden poles attach¬ 
ed to the guides of the crossbar, and working up and down 
through eyes near the end of the crane-jib. For raising 
stones, logs, fragments of wreck after blasting, etc., a 
strong grapple with steel-pointed prongs is used in place 
of the bucket. 



Perhaps the best type of the clam-shell dredger is that 
manufactured by Messrs. Morris & Cuming of New York 
City. Fig. 6 is a longitudinal section of their dredger 
above described; Figs. 7 and 8 give enlarged views of the 
bucket and grapple. For these dredges two sizes of buck¬ 
ets are usually made; the smallest weighs 3500 to 4000 
pounds, with 14 cubic yards actual capacity, or 2 yards 
when heaped up, and the largest weighs 6500 or 7000 pounds, 
with 3 cubic yards actual capacity, or 44 to 5 yards when 
heaped up. The teeth are made from 6 to 9 inches long. 
The grapples also are of various sizes, the largest being °5 
feet along the hinge, and 8 feet wide between the points of 
the prongs when open. In 25 feet of water three lifts can 
be made in two minutes with the 3-yard bucket. The largest 
dredge-boats are 80 feet long and 30 feet wide, and°the 
smallest 60 feet long and 25 to 30 feet wide. The power 
for the heavy grapple is supplied by two 20-inch cylinders 
with 20 inches stroke, 45 pounds steam-pressure, and mak¬ 
ing from 40 to 60 revolutions per minute; for the large 
buckets, two 121-inch cylinders with 30 inches stroke, 75 
pounds steam-pressure, and making from 60 to 70 revolu¬ 
tions per minute; and for the small buckets, two 10-inch 
cylinders with 24 inches stroke, 75 pounds steam-pressure, 
and making from 60 to 70 revolutions per minute. 

In Baltimore harbor a machine with a 3-yard bucket 
operating partly in soft mud and partly in oyster shells, in 
26 working days, of which 7 were lost by breakages and 
bad weather, leaving only 19 days’ work of 10 hours each, 
raised 26,334 cubic yards, or a daily average of 1386 cubic 
yards. The best day’s work was 1980 cubic yards. The 
average depth of water-way was 21 feet, with occasional 
lumps with 16 feet soundings. The depth to be attained was 


24 feet. Another machine with bucket of the same size, in 
26 days, of which two were lost, raised 48,800 cubic yards. 
In the same harbor, operating in soft mud in a 16-feet 
channel, to make it 24 feet deep, a machine with a 14-yard 
bucket, working 26 days, of which 74 were lost, "raised 
23,310 cubic yards. The best day’s work of 10 hours was 
1665 cubic yards. Another machine of the same size, 
working 21 days, of which two were lost, raised 19,109 
cubic yards. The aggregate quantity raised by the four 
dredgers during the respective periods above specified, 
agreed -to within about 150 cubic yards with the return made 
by the engineer inspector, upon which payment for the 
work was made. At South Amboy, a dredger with a 3- 
yard bucket, working in stiff mud mixed with sand, in 
deepening a 9-feet channel to 15 feet, raised 73,000 cubic 
yards in 35 working days, an average of 2085 yards per 
day of 10 hours. In the same place a 3-yard bucket, 
working 12 consecutive days, raised 19,200 cubic yards, an 
average of 1600 cubic yards per day of 10 hours. Another 
3-yard machine averaged 1383 cubic yards per day of 10 
hours. The falling off in the two last-mentioned eases was 
attributed to an increase in the proportion of sand in the 
material raised. In Boston harbor a Morris & Cuming 
3-yard bucket, working 26 days in stiff whitish-gray clay, 
raised only 3335 cubic yards, or 1281 yards per day of 10 
hours. In this case the teeth did not penetrate more than 
8 or 9 inches, tearing up the clay in large lumps, but not so 
as to fill the bucket. At the foot of Pike street, New York, 
a 14-yard bucket, working 6 days in mud, gravel, and 
cobble-stones, raised 4075 cubic yards, or 679 cubic yards 
per day of 10 hours. 

In making shallow cuts much time is lost in moving 
































































































































































































DREDGING AND SCOURING. 


1407 


the dredger forward. A small Morris & Cuming dredger 
with a 1-yard bucket, working in a mixture of soft mud 
and sand in the Savannah River, to deepen a 10-feet chan¬ 
nel to 124 feet, had to be moved for every 15 yards raised. 
In 11 working days of 8 hours 4054 cubic yards were 
raised, or 369 yards per day. Only one scow could be kept 
alongside, in consequence of the tide. The actual time lost 
in fleeting and changing scows was 4 hours out of 8. The 
dredger working from a fixed position would therefore have 
doubled the amount of work actually performed. 

The crew required for working the small dredger consists 
of captain, who handles the levers ; engineer, who tends to 
the tire and machinery; and five deck-.hands; on board 


the larger dredgers about eight deck-hands are required. 
When the dredged material has to be deposited at any con¬ 
siderable distance, it has been found that with a tow of 
from one to one and a half miles, one tug and two scows 
will keep a dredger in constant work. When the tow is in¬ 
creased to 7 or 8 miles, two or three tugs with seven or 
eight scows are required. The power of the tugs varies 
from 50 to 100 horse-power, and the sizes of their cylinders 
range from 16 to 30 inches diameter. The crew of a tug¬ 
boat consists usually of captain, engineer, fireman, cook, 
mate, and two or three deck-hands. Each scow has also 
one man constantly on board to attend the doors. 

Single-Scooj) Dredgers (Fig. 9).—By these machines 


Fig. 9. 



10' s' o 10 20 

It - 1" * . i G i . . I . - 1- 

dredging is performed with a single bucket, shaped, as the 
name implies, like a scoop or dipper, having a swinging 
door closing with a catch at its back, by which it is emptied. 
This bucket is fixed to a beam or handle of a length suit¬ 
able for any depth of water in which the dredger is intended 
to work. The bucket with its handle is worked from a crane, 
which has its post set on a movable platform placed in the 
centre of the bow of the dredge-boat. The crane-post, jib, 
and stay are each built of two parallel timbers, secured to 
one another at the foot of the stay, neck of the post, and 
end of the jib. The bucket handle works in the space left 
between these parallel timbers. This beam or handle is 
slotted for the greater portion of its length, and on the 
back, on either side of the slot, has two racks working on 
pinions whose shaft is fixed upon the crane-jib about one- 
third its length from the post. These racks are kept in con¬ 
tact with their pinions by a friction-roller pressing on the 
front of the handle, and made fast by a link passing through 
the slot to the shaft of the pinions. When digging, in order 
to prevent the handle rising on its pinions when the hoist¬ 
ing chain is lifting the bucket through its cut, a hand-lever, 
worked by the crane-man and connected with the pinions 
by an endless chain passing round a rag wheel on the pinion 
shaft, stops their motion, and consequently the rising of the 
handle, and compels the bucket to describe an arc of a circle 
with the pinion shaft as its centre. Immediately the bucket 
has made its cut the leverage is taken off and the handle 
rises on its pinions. The hoisting chain is fastened near 
the nose of the bucket, passes over a shive at the outer end 
of the crane-jib, returns through a pulley on the bucket, is 
carried over a second shive at the end of the crane-jib, and, 
guided by pulleys through the centre of the swinging points 
of the crane, is then carried to the hoisting drum operated 
by the engine. Another chain, called the backing chain, is 
fastened to the lower part of the handle near the bucket, 
and is carried to the backing drum. The backing chain is 
used for bringing the bucket back from its centre of gravity 
to any point near the bow of the dredge-boat where the cut 
is to be commenced. The bucket and handle arQ lowered 
by their own weight, regulated by the hoisting chain, and 
placed in position by the backing chain. The hoisting ap¬ 
paratus consists of a pair of horizontal engines, which by 
means of clutches or friction bands move either the hoist¬ 
ing or backing drums independently of one another. 

An improvement on the ordinary crane, which had a 
radius of about nineteen feet, has been lately applied to the 
scoop machine manufactured by Messrs. Osgood of Troy— 
namely, an extension of the end of the crane-jib, by which 
a longer cut ahead can be made by the bucket and a greater 
width of bottom covered by the swing of the crane, thus 
saving time which would otherwise be lost in moving the 
machine. The extension of the jib is carried out nearly 
horizontally, the bucket being suspended as before described, 
with the exception that the outer shive at the end of the 
jib becomes a travelling one, with a tendency to keep a 
position directly over the bucket. In making a cut, there¬ 
fore, the outer shive, starting from the inner edge of the 
horizontal extension, follows the bucket in its cut, which is 
not immediately the arc of a circle with the pinion as a 
centre, but a continual forward thrust until the travelling 


30 ft 

shive is at the outer end of the extension, and not until 
then does the pinion become the centre from which the arc 
is described for the remainder of the cut. When the exten¬ 
sion is used, the strain is carried from its outer end to the 
neck of the crane-post by tie-rods, as shown in the draw¬ 
ing. In machines with the larger-sized buckets the cranes 
have a counterpoise attached. In very hard ground the 
bucket is taken otf and a pick or plough attached, with 
which the ground is broken up, to be afterwards picked up 
with the bucket. The method of operating is as follows: 
the bucket, being clear of the water,'is drawn back bj r the 
backing chain, at the same time descending by the slacken¬ 
ing of the hoisting chain and its own weight; as it strikes 
the water and is drawn back, the pressure closes the swing¬ 
ing door or back of the bucket, when it is immediately 
caught and held fast by the catch. Having reached the 
bottom, the strain is brought upon the hoisting chain, and 
the backing chain slackened. The bucket then travels 
forward as before described, the racks and pinions being 
stopped at the proper time by the lever applied by the 
crane-man. The bucket having passed through its cut, the 
leverage is taken off, the bucket and handle raised, and the 
crane on its movable platform swung to either side as de¬ 
sired. A line attached to the catch of the swing door at 
the back of the bucket, which by the raising has come to 
be the under side, is then pulled by the crane-man, the 
back opened, and the bucket emptied. 

These machines are made of various sizes, these most 
commonly built having buckets of 3, 1J, and 1^ cubic 
yards capacity. The dimensions of boat for the larger 
machines are about 65 feet length, 26 feet beam, and 64 feet 
depth of hold, and having a hoisting chain of II inches. 
Their power is derived from a pair of 15-inch cylinders 
with 12 inches stroke. The dimensions of boat for the 
smaller machines are somewhat less, being about 60 feet 
length, 24 feet beam, and 5 feet depth of hold, the power 
being derived from 7 to 10 inch cylinders, with from 12 to 
15 inches stroke. 

The larger machines of this pattern, with 3 yards capa¬ 
city of bucket, when working in soft mud under the most 
favorable circumstances—that is to say, from a fixed posi¬ 
tion—will average in 20 feet of water about 2000 cubic 
yards per day of 10 hours. Under ordinary circumstances 
it may be expected, in a series of working days of 10 hours 
each, to average about 1300 cubic yards of soft mud or 800 
cubic yards of gravel and sand. 

In the slips of New York a machine with a bucket of 14 
cubic yai’ds capacity, 7-inch cylinders with 12 inches stroke, 
a steam-pressure of 60 pounds, and with 200 revolutions, 
working in soft mud, in 12 days of 10 hours lifted. 10,302 
cubic yards, or 859 yards per day. The best day’s work 
was 968 yards. The same machine working in soft 
mud at Wallabout, Brooklyn, with a cut of from 2 lcet 
above to 10 feet below low water, in 131 working days of 
10 hours lifted 72,621 cubic yards, or nearly 555 yards per 
day of 10 hours. At the same place the same machine, 
working in gravel and sand, with a cut of from 15 to 22 
feet below low water, in 14 days lifted 5591. cubic yards, or 
nearly 399 yards per day of 10 hours. 

Another machine, with a lf-yard bucket, and with cyl- 


























































































































































DREDGING AND SCOURING. 


1408 


inders of 10 inches diameter and 15 inches stroke, cutting 
to a depth of 10 feet through a meadow at the junction of 
the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, the material seemingly 
consolidated mud, in 20 working days of 10 hours lifted 
12,532 cubic yards, an average of 482 yards per day. The 
same machine, near Philadelphia, working from a fixed 
position, picking up soft mud which had been dumped 
under it from scows, and loading into cars, lifted 1000 cubic 
yards in 10 hours; its average, however, was about 800 
yards per day. These working days include the time lost 
in repairing chains and other slight damages incidental to 
the best running machines. 

The crew of one of these dredgers consists of engineer, 
fireman, and two or three deck-hands, including crane¬ 
man. 

A tug of 100-horse power can, with 4 scows of about 
150 yards capacity each, keep one of the smaller machines 
busy when the tow does not exceed three miles. The 
smaller dredger consumes about 1J tons, and the tug about 
li tons, of coal per day. A tug is usually manned by a 
captain, engineer, fireman, cook, and one or two deck¬ 
hands. 

Pump Dredger .—A novel device for utilizing the powers 
of the centrifugal drainage pump has recently been put 
in successful operation by the writer in deepening the chan¬ 
nel over the bar at the mouth of the St. John’s River, Fla. 
Upon this bar the ocean swell which constantly prevails 
is of such exceptional magnitude and violence that the 
usual method of dredging into lighters or scows, ordinarily 
pursued in still water with either of the dredgers above 
mentioned, is entirely impracticable. The plan adopted 
was to provide a suitable steamer by charter, and fit her 
out with a 9-inch centrifugal drainage pump, two branches 
of 6-inch suction pipe, and timber bins on deck for holding 
the sand pumped up from the bottom; the pump engine to 
be driven by steam from the steamer’s boiler, and the sand 
to be discharged overboard at selected points by flooding 
the bins with clear water from the pump. , 

The steamer is 132 feet long on the keel, 24J feet broad 
on the beam, and when ballasted to an even keel draws 
about 5£ feet of water. She was modelled with a view 
to speed, and carries only 100 tons on a draught of 7 feet, 
is strongly built with side wheels and short guards, has 
one low-pressure engine of 120-horse power, and ample 
boiler capacity. A boat with more beam and a fuller 
model fore and aft under the water-line would have been 
better. 

The Pump .—A No. 9 centrifugal drainage pump of the 
Andrews patent is located on the main deck aft, about 35 
feet from the stern-post. Its suction and discharge open¬ 
ings are each 9 inches in diameter. To the suction open¬ 
ing there are connected, by a 2-way branch-pipe, two 6- 
inch suction-pipes, instead of one 9-inch, as usual, the 
object being not only to work on both sides of the boat 
simultaneously, but to render the necessary handling of 
the pipes as easy and prompt as possible. There is, on 
the other hand, considerable disadvantage in working with 
two suction-pipes instead of one, on account of a greater 
amount of friction for an equivalent suction capacity ; 
for while a 9-inch pipe has an area of 81 circular inches, 
two 6-inch pipes have an aggregate area of only 72 circular 
inches. The friction surface is therefore increased as 27 
to 36, making the disadvantage from or loss by friction 
from this cause as 2 to 3. As a partial compensation for 
this increased amount of friction, an increased velocity is 
given to water in suction-pipes of less aggregate area than 
the discharge-pipe, and a larger proportion of sand is 
thereby carried up. 

It was necessary also to encounter another disadvantage 
by using several bends, of which there were two in each of 
the suction-pipes and one in the discharge-pipe, those in 
the suction being each one-eighth of a circle, and that in 
the discharge-pipe one-fourth of a circle. These bends 
reduce the delivery at the rate of 10 per cent, for each turn 
of 90°, and about 6 per cent, for each turn of 45°, the re¬ 
ductions in each case being calculated upon the quantity 
passing the preceding bend. Thus, the first one-eighth 
bend in the suction reduces the quantity to 94 per cent., the 
second to 88 per cent., and the one-fourth bend in the dis¬ 
charge to 79 per cent. The disadvantages, therefore, under 
which the apparatus labored may be briefly summed up as 
follows : 1. The loss by friction due to the use of two 6-inch, 
instead of one 9-inch, suction-pipe is increased 50 percent.; 
2. The unestimated loss by friction due to the use of suction- 
pipes three times as long as the height to which the mate¬ 
rial is to raised ; 3. The loss of 21 per cent, by bends in the 
suction and discharge-pipes. 

The engine used to drive the pump consists of two cylin¬ 
ders connected upon one crank at right angles to one an¬ 
other, and 10 inches in diameter by 10-inch stroke each. 
Steam is conveyed from the steamer’s boiler to the pump- 


engine through a 3-inch iron pipe, the usual pressure car¬ 
ried upon the boiler being about 25 pounds to the square 
inch. This pressure develops about 26 useful horse-power 
(after deducting 25 per cent, for friction of engines and dif¬ 
ference of pressure in the cylinder and boiler), and gives a 
speed of about 180 revolutions per minute to the engine 
shaft. On this shaft is a pulley 42 inches in diameter, car¬ 
rying a rubber belt 12 inches wide, communicating the 
power to the pump-shaft through a pulley 24 inches in 
diameter, thus giving the pump-disk and wings about 315 
revolutions per minute. This speed in the No. 9 pump is 
equal to the work of raising 3000 gallons of clear water per 
minute 30 feet high through a 9-inch straight vertical pipe. 
The actual height raised above the water on the St. John’s 
bar varies with the amount of sand taken on board, from 
10 to 11 feet, but as the pipes are 50 feet long, with bends, 
and are in two branches instead of one, and as a mixture 
of sand and water is heavier and more impeded by friction 
than clear water, the loss by friction from all these causes 
combined reduces the useful working of the pumps consid¬ 
erably below the average attainable under more favorable 
conditions. For these reasons, although 200 revolutions 
of the pump-disk per minute will easily raise 3000 gallons 
of clear water 12 feet high through a straight vertical 9-inch 
pipe, 300 revolutions are required to raise 2500 gallons of 
sand and water 11 feet high through the two inclined suc¬ 
tion-pipes having two turns each, discharged through a 
pipe having one turn. To prevent the ends of the suction- 
pipes being lifted off the bottom by the pitching of the boat, 
and as a precaution against accident, a portion of each 
pipe is made flexible, being composed of 6-inch rubber hose 
stretched over a coil of wire. In addition the ends are 
loaded with an iron frame or drag, each weighing about 
250 pounds, which is intended to move flat along the 
bottom during the operation of dredging. To the under 
surface of this frame, directly below the mouth of the pipe, 
a number of teeth or knives are attached to stir up the sand 
and aid its entrance into the pipes. A chain attached to 
each drag, and leading to the deck of the steamer on either 
side, takes the strain from the pipe when the drag is down 
and the steamer in motion. Tackles are arranged for lift¬ 
ing the pipes from the bottom when not dredging, or when 
pumping clear water to discharge the sand from the bins. 

For receiving the sand, bins are located along the main 
deck, fore and aft, on each side of the steamer’s engine, each 
bin being provided with a sliding gate over the steamer’s 
side, which can be opened and closed at pleasure. The 
bottom of the bins slopes downward towards the gates. 
They are filled from two open troughs, one from each 
branch of the discharge-pipe, provided at suitable intervals 
with valves or gates, so that the load can be distributed to 
the bins wherever desired. 

The proportion of sand that can be pumped depends 
greatly upon its specific gravity and fineness. The calca¬ 
reous and argillaceous sands flow more freely than the 
silicious, and fine sands are less liable to choke the pipe 
than those that are coarse. When working at high speed, 
50 to 55 per cent, of sand can easily be raised through a 
straight vertical pipe, giving for every 10 cubic yards of 
material discharged 5 to 5^ cubic yards of compact sand. 
With the appliances used on the St. John’s bar the propor¬ 
tion of sand seldom exceeded 45 per cent., generally rang¬ 
ing from 30 to 35 per cent, when Avorking under the most 
favorable conditions. In pumping 2500 gallons, or 12.6 
cubic yards, of sand and Avater per minute, avc Avouhl there¬ 
fore get from 3.7 to 4.3 cubic yards of sand. During the 
early stages of the work, before the teeth under the drag 
had been properly arranged to aid the Aoav of sand into the 
pipes, the yield Avas considerably below this average, not 
often exceeding, and frequently falling below, 2 cubic yards 
of sand per minute during the time actually employed in 
pumping. 

The manner of conducting the dredging may be briefly 
described as follows: The steamer, Avith the suction-pipes 
up, first crosses the bar to the outside, then turns around 
and steams slowly over the bar with just sufficient speed 
to maintain steerage-way, lowering the pipes and starting 
the pump as soon as the outer edge of the bar is reached. 
Arriving at the inside, the pump is stopped, the pipes 
raised, and the . steamer turned round again. She then 
crosses sloAvly to the outside, pumping as before,- and the 
quantity of sand discharged into the bins during these two 
passages over the bar is a load, whether great or small. 
While the steamer is turning around on the outside, pre¬ 
paratory to taking in another load, the side gates of the 
bins are opened, the suction-pipes are raised from the bot¬ 
tom, and the pump is run at full speed on clear water. By 
this means, assisted to some extent Avhen necessary by men 
in the bins Avith hoes, the sand is all discharged into deep 
water by the time the steamer has again reached the outer 
edge of the bar, when the dredging is resumed. The time 















——-I - -- , __ _^ ^ 

DEED SCOTT CASE—DKESDEN. 1409 


required to turn the steamer twice is 12 to 13 minutes, one 
half of which, or the time occupied in making the turn on 
the inside, is lost, as neither the work of dredging the sand 
nor discharging it from the bins is in progress during that 
interval. 

The last work carried on with this dredger was during 
the first few months of the fiscal year ending June 30, 
1873, for a period of 74 days, of which 23 days were lost 
by bad weather. The expenses were the same as for work¬ 
ing days, the boat being under charter. 

The average time worked per day w as 6 hours ; the aver¬ 
age quantity of sand removed per hour was 78 cubic yards; 
the average quantity of sand removed per day was 468 
cubic yards, the total quantity in 51 working days being 
23,868 cubic yards; the average cost for the entire period 
was 31yg cents per cubic yard. The least cost during any 
one month for dredging and dumping the sand was in July, 
1872, when it amounted to 234 cents per cubic yard; the 
least cost during any one week was 19-4 cents per cubic 
yard; the least cost during any one day was 15 cents per 
cubic yard. 

With a centrifugal drainage pump sand can be easily 
discharged at a height of 30 feet above the level of the 
water; and when the distance to which it has to be con¬ 
veyed is so great that open troughs from the discharge- 
pipe to the dumping-ground cannot have sufficient inclina¬ 
tion to secure a free flow of the sand and water, it would 
be necessary to make the discharge through pipes, increas¬ 
ing the power expended in proportion to their length, so 
as to ensure a velocity that will transport the sand and 
prevent choking. The pump itself should in all cases be 
placed as low as possible, and it would generally be prac¬ 
ticable to locate it from three to five feet above the surface 
of the water. 

The first or contractor’s cost of dredging under these 
circumstances, with a 9-inch pump, would probably not 
exceed 8 or 9 cents per cubic yard, inclusive of running 
expenses, wear and tear of machinery, and all stoppages 
for repairs and other contingencies. Indeed, assuming 
the pump on St. John’s bar to have worked continuously 
in raising sand 10 hours per day, except Sundays, during 
the month of May, 1872, with the same average results per 
hour actually attained while pumping, thus charging the 
six working days of each week with the expense of seven, 
the cost of raising the sand into the bins would have been 
only 8j 6 ^ cents per cubic yard, and if it could at the same 
time have also been continuously discharged to the dump¬ 
ing-ground through either open troughs or pipes, no addi¬ 
tional expense, except a trifle for increased power, would 
have been incurred. There were, moreover, constant losses 
encountered on the bar while actually pumping which 
would not occur in still water, and of which no account has 
been taken, due to the pitching of the boat, which fre¬ 
quently lifted the ends of the suction-pipes from the bot¬ 
tom. It is therefore considered safe to estimate the con¬ 
tractor's cost of removing sand at 9 cents per cubic yard 
when the conditions are such that the work of raising the 
sand and discharging it to the dumping-ground can be 
carried on simultaneously and continuously. (See Deep- 
Sea Dredging, by Prof. A. E. Verrill.) 

Q. A. Gillmore, U. S. A. 

Dred Scott Case (the case of Scott v. Sandford in 
the Supreme Court of the U. S. in 1856, 19 Howard R., 
393). A slave named Dred Scott was carried by his mas¬ 
ter (Sandford) from Missouri into Illinois and Wisconsin, 
and thence back to Missouri. Scott was descended from 
African ancestors, who were slaves. He brought an action 
in the circuit court of the U. S. to assert his title to free¬ 
dom. The judgment of that tribunal was carried by writ 
of error to the Supreme Court. It was there decided by a 
majority of the court that if Scott were assumed to be free, 
he was not a “citizen of a State,” so as to bring the action; 
and further that he was still a slave. Accordingly, the case 
was dismissed for want of jurisdiction on the part of the 
circuit court. In reaching the conclusion that he was still 
a slave, the court held that the act of Congress which pro¬ 
hibited a citizen from holding slaves in the Territories of 
the U. S. north of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes 
N. latitude was unconstitutional and void. The action 
of the court has been severely criticised in respect to this 
last point, as being unwarranted after the decision was 
made that Scott, considered as a freeman, was not a citizen. 
It is maintained, on the other hand, that both questions 
under the pleadings were properly decided. Some recent 
information as to the circumstances under which the de¬ 
cision was rendered will be found in letters of Justices 
Campbell and Nelson in Tyler’s ‘‘Life of Chief-Justice 
Taney,” pp. 382-385. The chief-justice, when delivering 
the opinion of the court, made an historical survey of the 
public opinion of the civilized world, at the time of the 
formation of the American Constitution, concerning the 


African race. Among other things he said: “They (the 
Africans) had for more than a century before been regarded 
as beings of an inferior order, and altogether unfit to asso¬ 
ciate with the white race, either in social or political rela¬ 
tions, and so far inferior that they had no rights which tho 
white man was bound to respect.” Much injustice has been 
done him by an erroneous statement, still occasionally re¬ 
peated, that the chief-justice had himself affirmed that the 
negro had “ no rights which the white man was bound to 
respect.” T. W. Dwight. 

Dreisse'na [named in honor of Dr. Dreyssen, a Bel¬ 
gian naturalist], a genus of fresh-water lamellibranchiate 
mollusks of the mussel family (Mytilidse), differing, how¬ 
ever, from the true mussel in having the mantle closed ex¬ 
cept at the branchial and anal slits. Dreissena 2 >olymor- 
])ha, a Russian species, is remarkable for its recent arrival 
into English waters, where it has invaded even the water- 
pipes of London. Ten species are fossil in Europe. 

Drelinconrt (Charles), a French Protestant minister, 
born at Sedan July 10, 1595. He preached at Charenton 
near Paris, and gained great popularity. He was also dis¬ 
tinguished as a writer of polemical theology. Among his 
very numerous works was “Consolations against the Fear 
of Death” (1651), which was translated into English, and 
passed through many editions. Died in Paris Nov. 3, 1669. 
—His son, Charles Drelincourt (1633-97), physician to 
William III. and Queen Mary, was the author of numerous 
medical works. 

Drenthe, a province of tho Netherlands bordering on 
Prussia, has an area of 1032 square miles. The surface is 
level, and partly occupied by marshes. A large portion 
of the soil is poor. The rearing of cattle is the principal 
branch of industry. Pop. in 1870, 108,056. Capital, Assen. 

Drepa'nius (Latinus Pacatus), a Gallic rhetorician, 
born in Aquitania, in the south of Gaul, is classed among 
the Latin Panegyrists. He attained the rank of proconsul 
A. D. 390, and under this title was addressed by Ausonius 
in one of his poems, in which he pays a high tribute to 
the poetical abilities of Drepanius. Of his poetry nothing 
remains, but the panegyric which he delivered in the 
presence of the emperor Theodosius in 389 A. D., when 
lie was sent to congratulate the conqueror on the overthrow 
of Maximus, is extant, and is contained in the collection 
entitled “ Panegyrici Yeteres,” edited by Jaeger, Nurem¬ 
berg, 1799, 2 vols. 8vo. It is published separately also by 
Arntzen, 1753, 4to, Amsterdam. •- Henry Drisler. 

Dres'bach, a post-township of Winona co., Minn. 
Pop. 311. 

Dres'den, the capital of the kingdom of Saxony, is 
situated in a beautiful valley on both sides of the river 
Elbe, 116 miles by railway S. of Berlin and 62 miles E. S. E. 
of Leipsic; lat. 51° 3 r 16” N., Ion. 13° 44' E. It is di¬ 
vided by the Elbe into the old town and new town, the lat¬ 
ter of which is on the right bank of the river, here crossed 
by a fine stone bridge. Railways extending in several di¬ 
rections connect Dresden with Berlin, Leipsic, Prague, and 
other cities. The Altstadt has narrow streets bordered by 
high houses. The most remarkable public edifices arc the 
royal palace, founded in 1534; the prince’s palace; the 
Japanese palace or Augusteum; the Briihl terrace; a hand¬ 
some church called Frauenkirche, which has a tower 355 
feet high; the Roman Catholic church, with a tower 378 
feet high ; and the Sophienkirche. Dresden has a royal 
public library containing over 300,000 volumes; an acad¬ 
emy of art; a museum of natural history ; an opera-house ; 
a theatre; a mint; two gymnasia; a polytechnic school, 
realschulen, two normal schools, one female high school, 
two schools of commerce and veterinary medicine, and asy¬ 
lums for the blind and for the deaf and dumb; and a cele¬ 
brated picture-gallery, which is considered the richest 
collection in Germany. It contains nearly 1500 paintings, 
mostly by Italian and Flemish masters. In the royal pal¬ 
ace are the celebrated “ Green Vaults,” containing a very 
large and valuable collection of gems, articles of vertu, etc. 
This city has manufactures of silk and woollen stuffs, jew¬ 
elry, porcelain, silver-ware, gloves, carpets, musical instru¬ 
ments, chemical products, and painters’ canvas. Steam¬ 
boats navigate the Elbe between this place and the sea. 
The environs of Dresden are delightful, and arc furnished 
with fine gardens and promenades. The city was founded 
about the eleventh century, and became the capital ot Sax¬ 
ony in 1270. It was fortified in 1510, and suffered severely 
in the Thirty Years’ w r ar, and also in 1813, when it was the 
head-quarters of Napoleon’s array. (See Dresden, Battle 
of.) Pop. in 1871, 177,089. 

Dresden, a township of Chickasaw co., Ia. Pop. 535. 

Dresden, a township and post-village of Lincoln co., 
Me., on the Maine Central R. R., about 20 miles S. ot Au¬ 
gusta. Fop. 990. 










DRESDEN—DRISLER. 


1410 


Dresden, a post-village of Elk Fork township, Pettis 
co., Mo., on the Missouri Pacific R. R., 70 miles W. by N. 
of Jefferson City. Pop. 348. 

Dresden, a township of Washington co., N. Y. P. 684* 

Dresden, a post-village of Torrey township, Yates 
co., N. Y. It is situated on Seneca Lake, at the terminus 
of Crooked Lake Canal, and has a steamboat landing. 

Dresden, a post-village of Muskingum co., 0., at the 
head of navigation of the Muskingum River, is the north¬ 
ern terminus of the Cincinnati and Muskingum Valley 
R. R., 14 miles N. of Zanesville, and is on the Pittsburg 
Cincinnati and St. Louis R. R. Coal is mined in the 
vicinity. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1156. 

Dresden, a post-village, capital of Weakley co., Tenn., 
on the Nashville and North-western R. R. It has two 
churches, a high school, and one weekly newspaper. Cot¬ 
ton and corn are the chief exports. Pop. 355. 

T. H. Baker, “West Tennessee Democrat.” 

Dresden, Dattle of. Dresden was occupied by a 
French army of 30,000 men, when, on the 23d of Aug., 
1813, the army of the allies appeared before it. Napoleon, 
with the main army, came to relieve it, and entered the 
city on the 26th of the same month. Schwarzenberg, the 
commander of the allied army, immediately assaulted and 
bombarded the city. Having been repulsed by a sally of 
the French guard on the 26th, he renewed the attack on the 
27th, when a great pitched battle was fought, Napoleon 
gaining the victory. 

Dress [from the Fr. dresser, to “make straight,” to 
“adjust”], the general name for the artificial vesture worn 
more or less by nearly all the human race. Among savage 
nations such coverings were originally made of the skins 
of animals, the inner bark of plants, etc., and were worn 
sometimes for protection against the weather, and some¬ 
times from a desire of ornament. As civilization advances 
these primitive coverings give place to manufactured fab¬ 
rics of silk, wool, cotton, and flax. Profane history has 
no mention of a time when clothes were unknown to the 
human race ; and the distinction between the dresses of the 
different sexes appears to have been observed from imme¬ 
morial time. Homer mentions the “trailing robes” of the 
Trojan ladies, and the oldest sculptures seem to confirm this 
view. 

Dres'sing, a term applied to gum, starch, and other 
substances used to stiffen and prepare linen, cotton, and 
similar fabrics. 

Dressings, in architecture, mouldings and simple 
sculptured decorations around doors and windows. 

Dreux (anc. Durocasses), a town of France, department 
of Eure-et-Loir, on the river Blaise, about 50 miles W. S. W. 
of Paris and 22 miles N. of Chartres. It has a fine Gothic 
church, a town-hall, and a theatre; also manufactures of 
serge, woollen hosiery, hats, etc. Here the Catholic army 
led by Constable Montmorcnci defeated the prince of Conde 
and the Huguenots in 1562. Pop. 7237. 

Drew, a county in the S. E. of Arkansas. Area, 900 
square miles. It is partly drained by Bayou Bartholomew, 
and the Saline River forms part of the western boundary. 
The soil is fertile. The surface is level, partly timbered 
and partly prairie. Corn and cotton are raised. Capital, 
Monticello. Pop. 9960. 

Drew (Daniel), a noted New York capitalist, was born 
in Carmel, Putnam co., N. Y., in 1797, commenced active 
life as a cattle-drover, became conspicuous in the steamboat 
business, still later in that of railroads, especially in the 
fortunes and misfortunes of the Erie road, and at last was 
recognized as a chieftain in the stock speculations of Wall 
street. He has also been distinguished by liberality to 
certain educational interests of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church, having founded the Drew Ladies’ Seminary at 
Carmel, N. Y., and the Drew Theological Seminary at 
Madison, N. J. 

Drew (Samuel), a noted Wesleyan theologian and met¬ 
aphysician, was born at St. Anstell in 1765, settled in Lon¬ 
don in 1819, and died at Helston in 1833. He was an in¬ 
timate friend of the famous Dr. Adam Clark, and of Dr. 
Thomas Coke, the first American Methodist bishop, whose 
“Life” he wrote. Among his other works, the principal 
are “ Essay on the Immateriality and Immortality of the 
Soul” (1802), “Essay on the Identity and General Resur¬ 
rection of the Human Body” (1809), and “ History of Corn¬ 
wall ” (1820-24). “ His theological writings, though show¬ 
ing more of ingenious subtlety than of logic, are surprising 
examples of intellectual power in a special direction, and 
have given him a widespread, if not a permanent, fame.” 
( Stevens’s History of Methodism.) 

Drew Plantation, a township of Penobscot co., Me. 
Pop. 85. 


Drew'rysville, a post-township of Southampton co., 
Ya. Pop. 1811. 

Drew Theological Seminary was founded in 1868 
at Madison, N. J., by a donation of about half a million 
dollars from Daniel Drew. (See above.) It was organized 
chiefly by the Rev. Dr. J. McClintock, who became its first 
president. (See McClintock.) Its real estate and build¬ 
ings are ample and beautifully located, and its faculty 
effective. It has (in 1873) about a hundred students. It 
is under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 

Drey'se, von (Johann Nikolaus), the inventor of the 
“needle-gun,” was born at Sommerda, in Prussia, Nov. 20, 
1787. He was the son of a locksmith, worked from 1809 
to 1814 in a Paris gun-factory, established after his return 
to Germany, in his native town, an iron-ware factory, and 
devoted his attention chiefly to the improvement of fire¬ 
arms. After several attempts, he perfected the famous 
Needle-Gun (which see) in 1836. It was introduced into 
the Prussian army in 1840. In 1841 he established an ex¬ 
tensive gun and ammunition-factory. He died Dec. 9, 1867. 
—His son, Franz von Dreyse, born Mar. 2, 1822, has con¬ 
siderably enlarged the establishment. 

Drift, in geology (more fully Glacial Drift), is a term 
applied to boulder clay and collections of stones and earth 
formed in the tertiary period by the agency of glaciers. 
Some geologists limit the term drift to material that has 
been recently moved by water, thus including sands, marls, 
and gravels, stratified and unstratified. Such deposits are 
sometimes called diluvium. They include the remains of 
animals that have recently inhabited the earth, and of 
some species which are now extinct. Human remains have 
also been found in these drift deposits in sufficient abun¬ 
dance to render it probable that the human race existed con¬ 
temporaneously with the elephants, rhinoceroses, and gigan¬ 
tic deer of the tertiary period. These remains render the 
drift one of the most interesting of deposits. (See Geology, 
by Prof. J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F. R. S., and Glacial 
Period.) 

Drift, in navigation, signifies the deviation in a ship’s 
course caused by the action of a contrary wind, or the angle 
which the line of a ship’s course makes with the meridian 
when she is driven by the wind or waves, and is not gov¬ 
erned by the helm. 

Drift/way, a small subterranean gallery driven in 
advance of a tunnel, is the first operation in tunnelling, 
and everything depends on its being correctly planned and 
located. 

Drift'wood, a township of Jackson co., Ind. Pop. 922. 

Drill, or Drilling [Ger. Drillicli\, a strong and fine 
linen fabric of a satin-like finish, used for summer clothing 
for gentlemen. Ordinary plain drills are worked with five 
shafts. 

Drill. See Blasting, by Gen. J. G. Foster, U. S. A. 

Drill, an old English word for an ape, is supposed by 
Huxley to be the source of the name mandrill (i. e. a “ man¬ 
like ape”), but the latter word appears to be the original 
one. (See Mandrill.) The term drill is now applied 
especially to the Cynocephalus leucopheeus, a baboon of 
Africa. 

Drill, in agriculture, the sowing of crops in rows by 
means of various machines of comparatively recent inven¬ 
tion. The advantage of this mode of cultivation is, that 
it admits of destroying the weeds and stirring the soil be¬ 
tween the row T s of plants. Wheat is cultivated in drills in 
parts of Europe with great success. 

Drill, Military, the name given to the instruction of 
soldiers and the exercises through which they are required 
to pass. There are many varieties of drill, that of the cav¬ 
alry, infantry, and artillery being all different. The bat¬ 
talion-drill, company-drill, squad-drill, and skirmish-drill 
likewise vary in the routine of exercises. In the navy, also, 
the drilling of seamen is different, according to their duties. 

Drip, in architecture, the same as Corona (which see). 

Dris'ler (Henry), LL.D., an American scholar, born 
Dec. 27, 1818, graduated at Columbia College in 1839, was 
classical instructor in its grammar-school for several years, 
appointed tutor of the Greek and Latin languages in the 
college (1843), adjunct professor in the same department 
(1845), professor of Latin (1857), and transferred to the 
chair of Greek on the death of Dr. Anthon, in 1867 ; in 
the same year was acting president of the college during 
President Barnard’s absence as a commissioner to the Ex¬ 
position Universelle in Paris. For several years after leav¬ 
ing college he was engaged with Dr. Anthon on his series 
of classical text-books, etc. Besides several pamphlets and 
school-books, his contributions to classical learning are 
an enlarged edition of Liddell and Scott’s translation of 
Passow’s “Greek Lexicon” (1846), and a revised and 
















DRIVER—DROWNING. 


greatly enlarged edition of Yonge’s " English-Greek Lex¬ 
icon” (1870). 

Dri' ver, also called the Spanker, in navigation, is a 
large quadrilateral sail hoisted on the inizzen gaff, and ex¬ 
tended at the bottom by a boom called the driver-boom. It 
is the principal " fore-and-aft ” sail, and is very important 
in an adverse wind. 

Dri'ving Wheel. In machinery, this term is applied 
to the wheel which communicates the motion to the pinion, 
or the second wheel deriving its motion from the first, which 
may be either a multiplying or diminishing wheel. The 
large wheels of locomotive engines are also called driving 
wheels. 

Drogheda', a seaport-town of Ireland, in Leinster, on ■ 
the boundary between the counties of Louth and Meath, 
and on the river Boyne, 4 miles from its entrance into the 
sea, and 25 miles N. of Dublin; lat. 53° 44' N., Ion. 6° 12' 
W. The Dublin and Belfast Railway here crosses the Boyne 
by a viaduct ninety-five feet high. It has a Roman Cath¬ 
olic cathedral, a custom-house, and several convents; also 
manufactures of cotton and linen fabrics, steam-engines, 
etc. \ essels of 400 tons can ascend the river to this port, 
from which grain, cattle, linen, hides, butter, and ale are 
exported, mostly to Liverpool. Pop. in 1871, 16,135. 

Drogheda, Marquesses of (1791), earls of Drogheda 
(1661), Viscounts Moore (1621), Barons Moore (Ireland, 
1616), Barons Moore of Moore Place, Kent (United King¬ 
dom, 1801).— Henry Francis Seymour Moore, third mar¬ 
quess, Iv. P., P. C., born Aug. 14, 1825, succeeded his uncle 
in 1837. 

Drohohicz, a town of Austria, in Galicia, is on a tribu¬ 
tary of the Dneister, 18 miles S. E. of Sambor. It has a 
castle, two handsome churches, a monastery, and extensive 
salt-works. Pop. in 1S69, 16,884. 

Droit'wich (anc. Saliiue), a town of England, in Wor¬ 
cestershire, on the Bristol and Birmingham Railway, 7 
miles N. N. E. of Worcester. It derives its prosperity 
chiefly from its tradp in salt, for which it has been famous 
from remote times. Here are brine-springs rising from a 
depth of 200 feet through new red sandstone, and yielding 
annually about 100,000 tons of salt, said to be the best in 
Europe. Pop. in 1871, 3504. 

Drome, a department in the S. E. part of France, has 
an area of 2519 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by 
the river Rhone, and drained by the Drome. The surface 
is partly hilly and mountainous. Coal, copper, iron, lead, 
and marble are found here. The highlands are covered 
with forests of oak, pine, beech, and chestnut. Among the 
staple productions are grapes, olives, chestnuts, silk, and 
wine of excellent quality. The wine called L’Hermitage is 
celebrated. Drome is intersected by the Lyons and Avi¬ 
gnon Railway. Capital, Valence. Pop. in 1872, 320,417. 

Drom'edary [from the Gr. Spojao?, a "running,” so 
named from its swiftness], (Camelns dromedarius), the name 
given to the Arabian and African camel, a species differing 
from the Bactrian camel in having only one hump on the 
back. It has also more slenderness and symmetry of form. 
Its usual pace is a trot, which it often maintains for many 
hours together at the rate of nine miles an hour. Tho 
dromedary surpasses other camels in speed, and can travel 
several days without drink. It is extensively used as a 
beast of burden in the deserts of Africa and Arabia. (See 
Camel.) 

Dropping Tube, in chemistry, a slender tapering tube 
open at both ends, but terminating at the lower in a narrow 
orifice, used to supply liquids in delicate experiments, drop 
by drop. A bulb to hold the liquid is blown near the upper 
extremity. The flow is regulated by placing the finger on 
the open*upper end, so as partially or entirely to close it. 

Drop'sy [a corruption of the old English hydropsy; Gr. 
{J5pw^, from i'Sojp, "water;” Lat. hydropisis; Fr. hydropisie; 
Ger. Wassersucht (i. e. "water-sickness”)], a disease cha¬ 
racterized by excess of the natural secretion of fluid in any 
of the serous cavities of the body or in the areolar tissue. 
If the cerebro-spinal fluid be increased, it constitutes hy¬ 
drocephalus, or "water on the brain.” If the excessive 
secretion (exudation) takes place from.the pleura, it is 
called hydrothorax, or "dropsy of the chest.” If the fluid 
collect in the abdominal cavity, the disease is called ascites 
(from the Gr. cuts os, a " skin ” or leathern bag for water or 
wine, alluding to the form of the patient’s body), a disease 
which ma}’ arise without assignable cause, but which most 
frequently comes from cirrhosis of the liver, a contracted, 
hardened condition of that organ, mechanically obstruct¬ 
ing the portal circulation, and thus leading to transudation 
of°serum from the blood-vessels. Habitual intemperance 
is its most frequent cause. General dropsy of the serous 
and areolar tissues is called anasarca (from the Gr. avd, 


1411 


"throughout,” and <rdp£ (gen. oapKos), the "flesh”). Ob¬ 
structive organic disease of the heart and degenerative dis¬ 
eases of the kidneys are the most frequent causes of gene¬ 
ral dropsy, which is therefore a very important symptom. 
Hydropericardium, or " water on the heart,” hydrarthrus, 
or effusion into a joint, hydrorachis, which is seated in the 
spinal canal, and hydrocele, in the scrotum, are forms of 
dropsy. Ovarian dropsy or ovarian tumor is a fluid collec¬ 
tion occurring in ovarian cysts, which may be unilocular 
(of one sac) or multilocular (composed of many aggre¬ 
gated cysts), the whole frequently forming a mass of enor¬ 
mous size. Thus far, its only successful treatment con¬ 
sists in the removal of the cysts by excision, one of the 
boldest, and, on the whole, one of the best, of the more 
recent surgical operations. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Dros'era [from the Gr. Spoa-epo?, "dewy”], a genus of 
perennial herbaceous plants of the order Droseraceas, popu¬ 
larly called sun-dew, several species of which are natives 
of the U. S. and of England. From the glands of the leaves 
exude drops of a clear fluid glittering like dewdrops; hence 
the name. The flower opens only in sunshine. 

Drosera'ceae [from Drosera, one of the genera], a 
natural order of herbaceous exogenous plants which grow 
in bogs or marshy places in many parts of the world. 
They mostly have glandular hairs, and hypogynous, pen- 
tamerous flowers. The fruit is a 1-celled pod or capsule. 
This order comprises the Venus’s flytrap (see Dion^a) and 
the Drosera (sun-dew), several species of which are natives 
of the U. S. 

Drosom'eter [Gr. Spoo-o?, "dew,” and p.e'rpor, "meas¬ 
ure”], an instrument for measuring the quantity of dew 
which falls upon the surface of an exposed body. It is in 
the form of a balance; the body under observation is sup¬ 
ported by one arm, while the weights are placed in a scale- 
pan attached to the other, and protected from the dew. 

Dros'seil, a town of Prussia, in the province of Bran¬ 
denburg, has a normal school, tanneries, cloth-factories, 
and important cattle-markets. Pop. in 1871, 5231. 

Dros'te zu Visch'ering, von (Clemens August), 
Freiherr, a German archbishop, born Jan. 22, 1773, be¬ 
came vicar-general in 1805, assistant bishop of the diocese 
of Munster in 1825, and archbishop of Cologne in 1835. 
In consequence of difficulties with the Prussian govern¬ 
ment in regard to mixed marriages, which the archbishop 
forbade the priests to solemnize unless they received the 
promise that all the children would be brought up in the 
Catholic religion, he was imprisoned in the fortress Minden 
in 1837, but was released in 1841, and died Oct. 19, 1845. 
His imprisonment called forth an extraordinary excitement 
in Germany, and greatly strengthened the influence of the 
Catholic Church. » 

Drouyn de Lhnys (Edouard), a French diplomatist, 
born at Paris Nov. 19, 1805. He was appointed director 
of the commercial bureau in the ministry of foreign affairs 
in 1840. Having voted in the Chamber of Deputies against 
the ministry, he was removed from office in 1845. He was 
minister of foreign affairs in the first cabinet of Louis Na¬ 
poleon in 1848, was sent as minister to London in 1849, and 
was a conservative member of the National Assembly in 

1851. He was appointed minister of foreign affairs in July, 

1852, resigned in 1855, and was restored to that position in 
Oct., 1862. He again resigned office in 1866. 

Drown'ing, death by long-continued submersion in 
water. The recovery of persons after apparent death from 
drowning is a very important subject. The following rules 
are derived from the experience of the best physicians : (1) 
It is necessary in all cases to keep the body cool until res¬ 
piration be re-established, since the application of warmth 
(both in frozen and nearly drowned persons) seems to arouse 
those dormant energies that absolutely require the aeration 
of the blood, which failing, death ensues. (2) Respiration 
must be artificially established, either by direct inflation 
of the lungs by the breath or the bellows, or, much better, 
by the "Marshall Hall method” or some of its modifica¬ 
tions. The patient being in a horizontal position to facili¬ 
tate the exit of water from the lungs, and the head being 
slightly raised, the lungs are alternately inflated and com¬ 
pressed by gently rolling the body from a prone to a half- 
prone position (upon one side), and reversing the process. 
The lungs may also be inflated by retracting the arms with 
some force, and by pressure upon the thorax. (3) Expose 
the face and chest to the air, unless the weather be very 
cold. (4) Rub the limbs upward, and as soon as dry cloth¬ 
ing can be procured put it upon the patient. (5) A\oid 
the use of the galvanic battery, which is always dangerous, 
even in experienced hands. (6) Continue these operations 
until, if possible, natural respiration be re-established. ( ases 
are reported where artificial respiration had to be kept up 














1412 


DROYLSDEN—DRUMMOND OF HAWTHORNDEN. 


for hours before signs of life appeared. Similar treatment 
should be employed in all cases of so-called “ asphyxia” 
from whatever cause. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Drowning, as a capital punishment, was formerly prac¬ 
tised in various parts of the Old World. In the Anglo- 
Saxon codes women convicted of theft were condemned to 
be drowned. The ancient Burgundians condemned a faith¬ 
less wife to be smothered in mud. This form of punish¬ 
ment was common in the Middle Ages, and seems to have 
been principally inflicted upon women. It was not abol¬ 
ished in Scotland till 1685, and in Austria it lasted till 1776. 

Droyls'den, a village of England, in Lancashire, on 
the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, 4 miles E. of Man¬ 
chester. It has extensive manufactures of cotton and sev¬ 
eral dye-works. It has increased rapidly in recent times. 
Pop. 5980. 

Droy'sen (Joiiann Gustav), a German historian, born 
at Trepton July 6, 1808. He became in 1833 lecturer on 
history in the University of Berlin, in 1840 professor at 
Kiel, in 1851 at Jena, and in 1859 at Berlin. He published, 
besides other works, a ‘‘History of Alexander the Great” 
(1833), a “History of Hellenism” (2 vols., 1836-43), a 
“ Life of Field-marshal Count Tork von Wartenburg ” (4th 
ed. 1863), and an “Outline of the Science of History” (3d 
ed. 1869). His “ History of Prussian Politics” (vol. i.-iv., 
1855-70) is called his most important work. 

Droz (Francois Xavier Joseph), a French author and 
moralist, born at Besan§on Oct. 31, 1773. He produced in 
1806 an “Essay on Happiness,” and gained the Montyon 
prize in 1824 for his treatise “ On Moral Philosophy.” His 
reputation is founded chieflv on his “ History of the Reign 
of Louis XVI.” (3 vols., 1839-42). Died Nov. 4, 1850. 

Druey (Charles), a Swiss politician, born in 1799, was 
a leader of the liberal party. He was president of the 
provisional government formed in 1845, and was an op¬ 
ponent of the Sonderbund. He promoted the adoption 
of the new constitution in 1848, and was president of the 
federal council in 1850. Died Mar. 29, 1855. 

Drug [Fr. drogue; It. droga ], any substance used in the 
preparation of medicine. In commerce, the term includes 
also dyestuffs, chemicals, varnishes, etc. 

Drug'get, a coarse woollen fabric used for covering 
carpets or as a substitute for carpets. It was formerly 
used for clothing by the women of the lower classes. 

Dru'ids [Gr. SpviSai.; Lat. druids’, thought by some to 
be derived from the Celtic deru; Gr. 6p0?, an “ oak,” a tree 
which they revered, but pex-haps from the Celtic de-rouyd, 
“ God’s speaker ”], the priests of the ancient Celtic religion. 
In Caesar’s time they formed an exclusive class, which 
shared with the nobility and the knights the rule over the 
people, and were free from taxes and from military service. 
They presided at the sacrifices, instructed the youth, and 
guarded the secret doctrines of religion. They acted as 
judges in the difficulties between different tribes, and ex¬ 
ercised the art of prophecy and of sacred minstrelsy. They 
were also skilled in medicine, in astrology, the division of 
time, and other branches of knowledge, which were kept 
secret from the masses of the people. They practised the 
sacrifice of human beings, recognized a ruling destiny and 
the immortality of the soul, and reverenced the oak and 
mistletoe as sacred. Their political importance ceased on 
the subjection of Gaul to the Romans, and their religious 
service was abolished by a decree of the emperor Claudius. 
There were also druidesses of several ranks. Of the druid- 
ical doctrines little is known. 

Druids, Orders of. In London in 1781 a club of 
“Druids” was founded for mutual entertainment. The 
society thus begun gradually extended, forming an organi¬ 
zation for reciprocal assistance in cases of sickness or death. 
A system of ceremonies was adopted similar to that of the 
Freemasons, but professedly based on traditions handed 
down from the ancient Druids. As the society extended, 
many changes were introduced, and the original organiza¬ 
tion in course of time was divided into a great number of 
independent “ Orders of Druids.” The oldest branch of the 
society holds its sessions in London. Another branch, 
calling itself the “ Order of Druids in England,” is very 
numerous in that country ; in 1870 it numbered 1022 lodges, 
with 52,946 members. The whole number of members be¬ 
longing to the different orders in Great Britain, Australia, 
and the TJ. S. is estimated at above 100,000. The first 
lodge in the U. S. was founded in New York in 1833. Tba 
society continued to extend, and at length arose the “ Grand 
Grove of the U. S. of the United Ancient Order of the 
Druids,” under whose auspices there had been established 
in 1870, 149 “groves,” numbering in all about 15,000 
members. Of latter time different degrees have been insti¬ 
tuted. In America, besides the degree conferred at the 


first entrance, there are five others. Degrees have also been 
instituted in England, but they are different from those 
used in the U. S. Though of purely English origin, the 
German element in the orders of Druids has of late ob¬ 
tained a decided preponderance in the U. S., so that nearly 
if not quite two-thirds of the “groves” conduct their pro¬ 
ceedings in the German language. 

Drum [Fr. tambour; Ger. Trommel ], a martial musical 
instrument, is a hollow cylinder of wood or metal having skin 
or parchment stretched across one or both ends, on which 
the drummer beats with a wooden stick called a drum-stick. 
The military drum is used to give various signals, as well 
as for music. There are three kinds of drums—the side 
drum, the big or bass drum, and the kettle drum. The first 
of these is suspended at the side of the drummer, who beats 
on one end of it only. Strings of catgut, called snares, are 
stretched across the other end; hence it is often called a 
snare drum. The bass drum is beaten on both ends. The 
kettle drum is of hemispherical form, and has but one head 
or parchment. It was formerly used in martial music, but 
is now confined to the orchestra. 

Drum, in architecture, the upright part of a cupola above 
or below a dome. The term is generally applied to the 
lower part. The solid part or vase of a Corinthian or 
Composite capital beneath the acanthus leaves is called a 
drum. The term drum is applied in machinery to a hollow 
cylinder fixed upon a shaft for the purpose of driving 
another cylinder by a band. 

Drum, the name given in the eighteenth century to a 
crowded fashionable assembly, so styled, says Smollett, 
“ from the noise and emptiness of the entertainment.” A 
large assembly of the kind was called a “ drum-major.” 

Drum (Simon H.), an American officer, born in 1807 in 
Pennsylvania, graduated at West Point in 1830, and Aug. 
18, 1846, captain Fourth Artillery. He served at the Mili¬ 
tary Academy as assistant instructor 1830-32; on Black 
Hawk expedition 1832; chiefly at sea-board posts 1833- 
36; in Florida war 1836-37 and 1838-39; removing 
Cherokees to the West 1838; suppressing Canada border 
disturbances 1839-41; as assistant quartermaster 1846; 
in the military occupation of Texas 1846 ; and in the war 
with Mexico 1846-47, engaged at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, 
Contreras (recaptured Capt. O’Brien’s guns lost without 
dishonor at Buena Vista), Molino del Rey, Chapultepec, and 
assault of the city of Mexico, where, after entering the 
Belen Gate, and while directing the fire of a captured 
9-pounder (added to the battery commanded by him) with 
consummate skill, indomitable energy, and most conspic¬ 
uous gallantry, he was killed Sept. 13, 1847, aged forty. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Dru'mann (Karl Wilhelm), a German historian, 
born near Halberstadt June 11, 1786. He obtained the 
chair of philology at Konigsberg in 1817. His most im¬ 
portant work is a “ History of Rome” (6 vols., 1834-44), 
which is highly esteemed. Died July 29, 1861. 

Drum'fish ( Pogonias chromis), a marine fish of the 
U. S. coasts, found as far S. as Florida. It derives its name 
from the peculiar sound it emits, somewhat resembling 
the beat of a drum. It produces this sound after it is 
caught as well as when in the water. It is caught in great 
numbers on the south shore of Long Island, and when 
young is delicate eating. It sometimes reaches eighty 
pounds in weight. The Pogonias fasciatus of the American 
Atlantic coasts emits the same sounds. These fishes are 
of the family Scienidae, many members of which can pro¬ 
duce remarkable sounds. 

Drum'mer, a person who beats on a drum. Each 
company of U. S. infantry has one fifer and one drummer, 
who rank as privates. They execute signals, perform at 
parades, drills, and reviews, and attend the wounded on the 
battle-field. The drummers and fifers collectively consti¬ 
tute the regimental music or drum-corps, and are under a 
principal musician, sometimes called a drum-major. 

Drum'mond, a county of Canada, in Quebec, has an 
area of about 600 square miles. It is intersected by the 
river St. Francis. Capital, Drummondville. Pop. in 1871, 
14,281. 

Drummond (Thomas), Captain R. E., a Scottish en¬ 
gineer, was born in Edinburgh in Oct., 1797. He was well 
versed in mathematics and skilful in mechanics. He was 
one of the royal military engineers employed in the trigo¬ 
nometrical survey of Scotland. In 1825, while engaged 
in this operation, he made successful experiments with in¬ 
candescent lime to render distant objects visible. (See 
Drummond Light.) He was appointed under-secretary for 
Ireland in 1835. Died April 15, 1840. 

Drummond (William) of Hawthornden, a Scot¬ 
tish poet, born of a noble family, Dec. 13, 1585, was liberally 
educated. He studied law in France, from which he re- 

























DRUMMOND GROVE—DRYING OIL. 1413 


turned in 1609. He resided on his beautiful paternal estate 
of Hawthornden, where he passed his life in retirement and 
in literary pursuits. He married Elizabeth Logan about 
1630. In 1619, Ben Jonson travelled several hundred miles 
in order to visit Drummond, who wrote “Notes of Ben 
Jonson’s Conversation’' on this occasion. These notes are 
among his most interesting productions. He was author 
of sonnets, and a poem called “Tho River Forth Feasting." 
Died Dec. 4, 1649. 

Drummond Grove, a township of Ford co., Ill. P. 568. 

Drummond Island, in Lake Huron, is the most 
Western of the Manitoulin Islands, and belongs to Michi¬ 
gan. It is 20 miles long and 10 miles wide. 

Drummond Light [named from Thomas Drummond, 
its inventor], also called Lime Light, Calcium Light, 
etc., an intense light produced by throwing the oxyhy- 
tlrogen blowpipe flame upon a pencil of lime, which is 
thereby raised to very vivid incandescence. If magnesia 
or metallic magnesium be used instead of lime, the light is 
very rich in actinic rays, and hence is useful in photogra¬ 
phy. Zirconia is often employed instead of lime, on ac¬ 
count of its non-volatility. 

Drnm'mondville East, a post-village, capital of 
Drummond co., Quebec (Canada), in Grantham township, 
and on the St. Francis River, 24 miles from Melbourne. 
Pop. about 400. 

Drummondville West, a post-village of Stanford 
township, Welland co., Ontario (Canada), half a mile from 
Niagara Falls, has two observatories, each 74 feet high, 
which afford a fine view of the Falls and the surrounding 
region. Pop. about 1000. 

Dru' more, a township of Lancaster co., Pa., on the E. 
shore of the Susquehanna. Pop. 3061. 

Drunkenness. See Dipsomania and Intemperance. 

Drupa'ceie [from Drupe, which see], a natural order 
of plants, regarded by some botanists as a sub-order of 
the Rosacem. It is characterized by polypetalous regular 
flowers, a solitary carpel, the style of which proceeds from 
the apex, and a drupaceous fruit. The peach, apricot, plum, 
and cherry are examples. 

Drupe [Lat. drupa ; Gr. Spvmra (from Spv ttctijs, “over¬ 
ripe," “ ready to fall from the tree”)], in botany, a 1-celled, 
superior indehiscent fruit, having a single seed or kernel, 
usually enclosed in a hard and bony endocarp called a stone, 
as a peach or a plum. The outer part of the fruit, which 
is succulent or fleshy, is called the sarcocarp or mesocarp. 
The term putcimen is applied to the hard, stony substance 
which encloses the kernel. 

Dru'ry, a post-township of Rock Island co., Ill. P. 1331. 

Dru'ses, written also Druzes and Droozes [from El 
Dorrtzy, a Persian and minister of state to El Hakem, sixth 
Fatimite caliph in Egypt; Ger. Brusen], a people of mixed 
race (largely Persian and Arab), almost limited to the Leba¬ 
non, Wady-el-Teim, and the Hauran, speaking the Arabic 
language, and professing a religion of which until quite 
recently almost nothing was known. They number, some 
say, nearly 100,000 ; others say, only about 50,000. They 
are industrious, hospitable, and very proud of their birth 
and pedigree. Their chief business is the production and 
manufacture of silk. For about 800 years they have main¬ 
tained a distinct religion and an independent nationality. 
El Dorazy, who was the first to assert the divinity of El 
Hakem, is now repudiated by the Druses, who honor Ham- 
zeh-ibn-Ahmed, another Persian, as the real founder of 
their religion, which dates from the early part of the 
eleventh century. They emphasize the unity of God, suc¬ 
cessive manifestations of God, and the transmigration of 
souls. A terribly bloody war between them and the Maron- 
ites led, in 1860, to European intervention on behalf of the 
Christians. (See Maronites. See also the Earl of Car¬ 
narvon’s “ Druses of the Lebanon," 1860 ; Rev. John Wor- 
tabet, “Researches into the Religions of Syria," 1860.) 

Dru'sus (Claudius Nero), a Roman general, born in 
38 B. C., was a younger brother of the emperor Tiberius. 
His mother Livia was a wife of the emperor Augustus. 
He married Antonia, a daughter of Mark Antony. In 13 
B. C. he defeated the Germans near the Rhine. Having 
conquered the Sicambri and Frisii, he extended the Roman 
empire to the German Ocean and to the river Elbe. For 
these victories he received the surname of Germanicus. 
He died in 9 B. C., leaving two sons, Germanicus and Clau¬ 
dius, the latter of whom became emperor. 

Drusus (Marcus Livius), a Roman orator and poli¬ 
tician, who became tribune of the people in 122 B. C. as a 
colleague of Caius Gracchus. He supported the cause of 
the senate and optimates, opposed the policy of Gracchus, 
and gained popularity by planting colonies. He was elected 
consul for 112 B. C. 


Drusus (Marcus Livius), called Drusus Junior, was 
a son of the preceding and an uncle of Cato Uticensis. Ho 
is said to have been ambitious, proud, and arrogant, and a 
champion of the senate or aristocratic party. Having been 
chosen tribune of the people for 91 B. C., he courted the 
popular favor by passing an agrarian law. He formed a 
design to admit the Italiotes to the right of citizenship. 
His official conduct was condemned by the senate. He died 
in 91 B. C. 

Dry'ad [Gr. 6pvas, plu. SpvaSe $ (from an “oak" or 
any tree); Lat. dryades ]. In Greek mythology, the dryads 
were nymphs or goddesses supposed to preside over woods 
and groves. 

Dry Bank Light, on the Florida Reef, stands on Som¬ 
brero Shoal, near Dry Bank, Coffin’s Patches, and Som¬ 
brero Key, in lat. 24° 37' 36" N., Ion. 81° 6' 43" W. It is an 
open framework of iron 149 feet high, with a fixed white 
dioptric light of the first class. 

Dry Creek, a township of Blount co., Ala. Pop. 442. 

Dry Creek, a township of Sacramento co., Cal. P. 603. 

Dry Creek, a township of Howell co., Mo. Pop. 177. 

Dry Creek, a township of Maries co., Mo. Pop. 422. 

Dry'den, a post-township of Lapeer co., Mich. Pop. 
1695. 

Dryden, a township of Sibley co., Minn. Pop. 443. 

Dryden, a township and post-village of Tompkins co., 
N. Y., on the Southern Central R. R., 32 miles N. of Owego. 
It has one weekly newspaper, one large woollen-factory, a 
tannery, a graded school, and a magnetic spring. Here is 
the Dryden Spring Place, a resort for invalids. Total pop. 
4818; of village, 672. W. E. Orum, Pub. “Herald.” 

Dryden (John), an eminent English poet, born at Ald- 
winckle, Northamptonshire, on the 9th of Aug., 1631, was 
a grandson of Sir Erasmus Driden, created a baronet in 
1619. He was a pupil of Dr. Busby, and entered Trin¬ 
ity College, Cambridge, in 1650. Having graduated as 
master of arts in 1657, he became a resident of London. 
He wrote “Heroic Stanzas on the Death of Cromwell" 
(1658), and celebrated the restoration of Charles II. in 
1660 by a poem entitled “Astrma Redux." His first drama 
was the “Wild Gallant" (1662). He married Lady How¬ 
ard, a daughter of the earl of Berkshire, in 1663, and pro¬ 
duced in 1667 a poem called “Annus Mirabilis, or Year of 
Wonders." In 1668 he was appointed poet-laureate, with 
a salary of £200 annually. He afterwards wrote numer¬ 
ous comedies and tragedies, among which are “Marriage 
a la Mode," “'All for Love" (1678), and “ Aurungzebe." 
His political and poetical satire of “ Absalom and Achito- 
phel" (1681) is a A 7 ery famous and brilliant production 
directed against the party of which Lord Shaftesbury and 
the dukes of Buckingham and Monmouth were the leaders. 
He announced his conversion to the Roman Catholic re¬ 
ligion by his allegorical poem called “ The Hind and the 
Panther" (1687). He produced in 1696 a metrical transla¬ 
tion of Virgil, which Pope commended as “ the most noble 
and spirited translation I know in any language." It is, 
however, deficient in fidelity. Among his other works 
are an excellent prose “Essay on Dramatic Poesy ” (1660) 
and an “ Ode for Saint Cecilia’s Day." He died May 1, 
1700, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His later 
works exhibit a purer taste and a more natural style than 
his dramas. 

Dry Dock. See Docks, by S. H. Shreve, C. E. 

Dry Fork, a township of Randolph co., West Va. Pop. 
659. 

Dry Grove, a township of McLean co., Ill. Pop. 1267. 

Drying Machine, a term applied to various inven¬ 
tions for extracting the moisture from fabrics. A machine 
most commonly used by dyers and large laundry establish¬ 
ments, called an “extractor," consists of two cylinders, one 
within the other. The inner one is the receptacle for the 
goods, and is made to revolve with great rapidity, expelling 
the water through perforations made in the sides. The outer 
cylinder receives the water, and from thence it is carried off 
by means of a pipe. By this process the drying is not quite 
complete, but what remains is expelled by drying in a hot 
chamber or in the open air. A more simple drying machine 
for domestic use is constructed of two wooden or India-rub¬ 
ber rollers mounted one above the other. They are parallel, 
and arranged in such a manner that the distance between 
them can be varied at will. The end of the goods being 
inserted between the rollers, one is turned by a handle, caus¬ 
ing both to revolve and the clothes to pass between, thus 
extracting the moisture by pressure. 

Drying Oil, the name given to linseed and several 
other seed-oils used in painting, and which have the prop¬ 
erty of drying quickly. Tho process of drying is hastened 
by heating the oil with oxide of lead. 












DRYOBALANOPS—DUBICZA. 


1414 


Dryobalanops. See Camphor. 

Dry' ophis [from Spvs, a “tree,” an “oak,” and 6<f>is, a 
“serpent”], a genus of snakes belonging to the Colubridm, 
are natives of tropical America and the East Indies. Like 
the Dendrophis, to which they arc allied, they have elon¬ 
gated forms and live on trees. 

Dry Pile, a kind of voltaic pile or battery, constructed 
without liquids, and furnishing a feeble electric current. 
The dry piles of Zamboni and De Luc consist of disks of 
copper and zinc papers placed in pairs back to back and 
piled up or packed in glass tubes, with the copper surfaces 
all in the same direction. 

Dry Point, a sharp etching-needle used by engravers 
to incise tine lines in a copper plate which is not covei'ed 
with etching-ground. No acid is applied to eat the lines 
made by the dry point, which produces very delicate work. 

Dry Point, a township of Shelby co., Ill. Pop. 1671. 

Dry Process. See Photography, by Prop. C. F. 
Chandler, Ph. D., LL.D. 

Dry Rot, called also Sap Rot, is a diseased state in¬ 
cident to timber, which reduces its substance to a mass of 
dry dust by decomposing the fibres. It is caused by various 
species of fungi, among which are Merulius lachrymam and 
Polyporus destructor. In the navy-yards of Great Britain 
great ravages have been ascribed to some species of Sporo- 
triehum. The ends of the timber are generally affected by 
this disease, and the decay often makes great progress with¬ 
out being suspected. The chief causes of dry rot are stag¬ 
nation of air, as under the floor of a building or behind a 
wainscot, and imperfect drying of the timber. That which 
is well seasoned will resist the fungi for many centuries, as 
is shown by wood brought from the frieze of the Parthenon, 
which had been placed there more than 2300 years ago. 
Various substances have been used for the prevention of 
dry rot, one of the most successful of which is a solution 
of corrosive sublimate introduced into the pores of the 
wood by an air-pump. 

Dry' -stove, a glazed structure designed for the protec¬ 
tion of the plants of dry, arid climates; a hot-house in which 
the air is kept less moist than in the bark stove. It is par¬ 
ticularly adapted to succulent plants. The temperature 
should be higher than that of a green-house. 

Dry Tortu'gas [Sp. tortuga, a “tortoise”], a group of 
ten small, low, barren islands belonging to Monroe co., Fla., 
situated over 40 miles W. of the most western of the Florida 
Keys proper. On the south-westernmost island, called 
Loggerhead Ivey, stands a brick lighthouse 150 feet high, 
with a fixed white dioptric light of the first order; lat. 24° 
38' 5” N., Ion. 82° 52' 53'' W. There is also a smaller 
light for Dry Tortugas Harbor (lat. 24° 37' 47'' N., Ion. 
82° 52' 53'' W.). This lighthouse stands inside Fort Jeffer¬ 
son, an important fortification on Garden Key. The Dry 
Tortugas served as a place of imprisonment for persons 
under sentence by courts-martial during the late civil war. 
Several criminals concerned in the conspiracy in which 
President Lincoln was murdered were confined here. 

Dry'town, a post-township of Amador co., Cal. P. 853. 

Dry'wood, a township of Bourbon co., Kan. P. 1199. 

Drywooil, a post-township of Vernon co., Mo. P. 475. 

Du'alin [so called because it is a mixture of two differ¬ 
ent substances], an explosive compound introduced in 1868 
by Dittmar, is composed of Nitro-glycerine (which see) 
mixed with saw-dust, or wood-pulp such as is used in paper- 
mills; the latter being first treated with nitric and sul¬ 
phuric acids. The object of the mixture is to diminish the 
danger connected with the storage and transportation of 
nitro-glycerine. (See Explosives, by Gen. H. L. Abbot, 
U. S. A.) 

Dll'alism [from the Lat. dtialts, “containing two”], 
in metaphysics, the doctrine that the universe exists by 
the concurrence of two principles, the spiritual and the 
material, each necessarily independent and eternal. The 
“ dualism ” of Zoroaster belongs rather to religion than to 
philosophy. It assumed two independent principles—one 
good, the other evil—through the collision of which was 
explained the disorder, moral and physical, of the world. 
The Gnostics in the second century adopted these views in 
a greater or less degree. The Greek philosophers are called 
dualists, inasmuch as the most of them held to the belief 
that matter and spirit were each self-existent and inde¬ 
pendent in origin. Their statements of the doctrine differ 
from each other, and are vague and indistinct. But the 
Stoical doctrine of a soul of the world, contradistinguished 
from matter without qualities (anoios v\ri), represents the 
general drift of the Greek thought. The prevailing mode 
of thought among Christian theists recognizes the real 
being of mind and matter in the constitution of man and 
the order of the universe, while it attributes self-existence 


and creative power solely to the Supreme Mind. In con¬ 
nection with theories of perception the term Dualism has 
been used to denote the soul and the inodes of matter in 
relation and opposition while the mind is in the act of ac¬ 
quiring knowledge of the external world. (See Hamilton’s 
ed. of Reid, p. 817.) 

Revised by M. B. Anderson. 

Du'al Num'ber, in grammar, is that form of the noun, 
adjective, or verb denoting in some languages the number 
two. For example, in the ancient Greek there were three 
numbers in grammar, the singular, the dual, and the plural; 
but the dual was not very often used, and is never found in 
Alolic or in Hellenistic Greek. It occurred most frequently 
in the Attic dialect. 

Duane, a post-township of Franklin co., N. Y. It has 
beds of magnetic iron ore. Pop. 234. 

Duane, du-an' (James), a mayor of New York, was 
born in that city Feb. 6, 1733. He became a lawyer and 
a leading revolutionist in the war of Independence, was a 
member of Congress (1774-77 and 1780-82), was the first 
mayor of New York in 1784, and U. S. district judge 
(1789-94). Died at Duanesburg, his patrimonial estate, 
Feb. 1, 1797. 

Duane (James C.), an American officer, born in 1824 
in New York, graduated at West Point in 1848, and Mar. 
7, 1867, lieutenant-colonel of engineers. He served at the 
Military Academy with engineer troops and as assistant in¬ 
structor 1848-54; in the construction of fortifications 
1849-56; as lighthouse engineer 1856-58; on Utah expedi¬ 
tion 1858; at the Military Academy as instructor of prac¬ 
tical engineering, etc., 1858-61. In the civil war he served 
in defence of Fort Pickens, Fla., 1861; in the defences of 
Washington, organizing engineer troops and equipage, 
1861-62; in the Virginia Peninsula 1862, engaged in com¬ 
mand of engineer battalion at Yorktown, Gaines’s Mill, and 
construction of field-works, roads, and bridges; in the 
Maryland campaign as chief engineer of the Army of the 
Potomac 1862, engaged at South Mountain, Antietam, and 
several skirmishes; as chief engineer of the department of 
the South 1862-63, engaged in the attack on Fort Mc¬ 
Allister, Ga., and operations against Charleston, S. C.; as 
chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac 1863-65, engaged 
at Manassas Gap, Rappahannock Station, Robertson’s Tav¬ 
ern, Wilderness, Spottsylvania, Cold Harbor, Petersburg, 
Hatcher’s Run, and Appomattox Court-house. (Brevet 
lieutenant-colonel and colonel for meritorious and faithful 
services in the Richmond campaign, and brigadier-general 
for gallant and meritorious services in the siege of Peters¬ 
burg and subsequent operations.) He has served since in 
the construction of the defences of the eastern entrance to 
New York harbor 1S65-68; member of engineer boards 
1867-73; and is now lighthouse engineer of the N. E. 
Atlantic coast and superintendent of the fortifications in 
Maine and New Hampshire. Author of “A Manual for 
Engineer Troops,” 1862. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Duane (William), an American politician and printer, 
was born near Lake Champlain, N. Y., in 1760. He passed 
some years in India and in England, from which he re¬ 
turned to the U. S. in 1795. He then became the editor of 
the “ Aurora,” which was published at Philadelphia, and was 
the influential organ of the Democratic party. He served 
in the war of 1812 as adjutant-general with the rank of 
colonel, and published a “ Military Dictionary ” (1810), be¬ 
sides numerous other works, chiefly upon military subjects. 
Died Nov. 25, 1835. 

Duane (William John), an able lawyer and statesman, 
born at Clonmel, Ireland, in 1780, was a son of the preced¬ 
ing. He practised law in Philadelphia, and published, be¬ 
sides other works, “ The Law of Nations Investigated in a 
Popular Manner” (1809). He was appointed secretary of 
the treasury of the U. S. early in 1833, but was dismissed 
from office in September of that year by President Jackson, 
because he refused to remove the deposits of public money 
from the Bank of the U. S. Died Sept. 27, 1865. 

Duanesburg, a township and post-village of Sche¬ 
nectady co., N. Y., on the Albany and Susquehanna R. R., 
24 miles N. W. of Albany. A branch railroad extends to 
Schenectady. Pop. 3042. 

Duban (Jacques Felix), a French architect, born in 
Paris Oct. 14, 1797. He completed the Palace of the Fine 
Arts, and became a member of the Institute and com¬ 
mander of the Legion of Honor (1868). 

Dubhoy', a town of the East Indies, in the dominion 
of the Guicowar, 38 miles N. E. of Baroach. It was once 
strongly fortified. It contains handsome gates and a 
splendid tomple. In the last century it had 40,000 in¬ 
habitants. 

Dubie'za, a fortified town of European Turkey, is on 

















DUBLIN—DUBOSSARY. 


the northern frontier of Bosnia, and on the river Unna 
about 10 miles from its entrance into the Save, and 23 miles 
\V\ of Gradiska. Pop. 6000. On the opposite bank of the 
Unna is Austrian Dubicza, which is a fortified town. 

Dub'lin, a county of Ireland in Leinster, has an area 
of 354 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Irish 
Sea, and is intersected by the river Liffey, which flows into 
Dublin Bay. The surface is nearly level; the soil is pro¬ 
ductive and well cultivated. Granite, copper, lead, and 
carboniferous limestone occur here. Chief town, Dublin. 
Pop. in 1871, 405,625. 

Dublin [said to be derived from the Irish dabh-linn , 
*• f* “black pool;” anc. Eblana ], the capital of Ireland, 
is in the above county, on the river Liffey at its entrance 
into Dublin Bay, 66 miles W. of Holyhead and 135 miles 
W. of Liverpool; lat. 53° 20' 38" N., Ion. 6° 17' 30" W. 
Mean annual temperature, 40° P. The river, which runs 
eastward, divides the city into two nearly equal parts, which 
are connected by seven stone and two iron bridges. In the 
north-eastern and south-eastern parts are many beautiful 
squares, streets, and terraces, occupied by the aristocratic 
class. The mercantile business is mostly transacted in the 
central and north-western portions, where are many resi¬ 
dences ot the middle class. The city is surrounded by the 
Circular Road, nearly 9 miles long, which is a favorite 
drive and promenade of the citizens. The most imposing 
street of Dublin is Sackville street, which is 120 feet wide 
and nearly 700 yards long. Among the numerous squares 
is Stephen’s Green, having an area of nearly twenty acres. 
The most remarkable public buildings are the Bank of Ire¬ 
land (formerly the Parliament House), Trinity College, the 
custom-house, the Four Courts, Dublin Castle, occupied by 
■the lord lieutenant, and St. George’s church with a steeple 
200 feet high. Near the N. end of Sackville street is a 
monument to Lord Nelson, which is 134 feet high. Among 
the literary and scientific institutions are the University 
(see Dublin, University of), the Royal College of Science, 
the Roman Catholic University, the College of Surgeons, 
the Royal Dublin Society, the Royal Irish Academy, the 
Hibernian Academy for Paintings, and the National Gal¬ 
lery. Dublin is the seat of a Protestant Episcopal and a 
Roman Catholic archbishop. In the environs of Dublin, 
which are remarkably beautiful, is Glasnevin, once the 
favorite residence of Addison, Steele, Swift, and Sheridan; 
and Phoenix Park, which contains nearly 2000 acres, and 
is frequented by great numbers of persons for recreation. 
The fine scenery of this noble park, the massive public 
buildings, the spacious squares, the clean granite quays 
which line the river, and the beauty of the bay which ex¬ 
pands before the city, render Dublin one of the most beau¬ 
tiful and agreeable capitals of Europe. Railways extend¬ 
ing in several directions connect this place with the chief 
towns of Ireland. It is the eastern terminus of the Grand 
and Royal Canals, and has a good harbor, which has been 
improved by the construction of two breakwaters. Vessels 
of 900 tons can come up to the wharves and docks. This 
city has several glass-works, foundries, and distilleries; also 
manufactures of poplin, which is much celebrated. Dublin 
returns two members to Parliament, besides two who rep¬ 
resent the university. It is a very old town, and occupies 
the site of the Eblana of Ptolemy. It was captured by the 
Danes in the ninth century. Pop. in 1871, 246,326, of whom 
195,ISO were Roman Catholics, and 39,897 Protestant Epis¬ 
copalians. Revised by A. J. Schem. 

Dublin, a township of Dallas co., Ala. Pop. 707. 

Dublin, a post-village, capital of Laurens co., Ga., is 
near the Oconee River, and 120 miles W. by N. from Sa¬ 
vannah. 

Dublin, a post-village of Wayne co., Ind., on the Pitts¬ 
burg Cincinnati and St. Louis R. R., 17 miles W. of Rich¬ 
mond. Pop. 1076. 

Dublin, a post-village and township of Harford co., 
Md. Pop. of village, 123; of township, 3862. 

Dublin, a township of Somerset co., Md. Pop. 1454. 

Dublin, a post-township of Cheshire co., N. H. P. 930. 

Dublin, a township of Mercer co., 0. Pop. 1599. 

Dublin, a township of Fulton co., Pa. Pop. 879. 

Dublin, a township of Huntingdon co., Pa. Pop. 984. 

Dublin, a township and post-village of Pulaski co., 
Va., on the Atlantic Mississippi and Ohio R. R., 104 miles 
W. S. W. of Lynchburg. Total pop. 2722. 

Dublin, University of, otherwise called Trinity 
College, Dublin, is said to have been founded in 1320, 
but having gone to decay, was re-established in 1593 by 
Queen Elizabeth. It was endowed by tho corporation of 
Dublin and by private gifts, and still further by grants of 
James I., who in 1613 gave it representation in Parliament, 
which it still possesses, sending since 1832 two members to 


1415 


the House of Commons. Its government is modelled upon 
that of the English universities, but its fellows (since 1840) 
are at liberty to marry. It has a very full corps of pro¬ 
fessors in all departments of knowledge, who, like the fel¬ 
lows, are liberally supported from the income of the college. 
The students are of four classes: (1) Noblemen, baronets, 
and the sons of noblemen, who have peculiar privileges, 
and, with the exception of baronets, obtain the degree of 
B. A. without examination. They pay about $500 a year 
in fees. (2) Fellow-commoners, who dine with the fellows, 
and have one less examination than the third class, at 
about one-half the cost in fees of the preceding. (3) Pen¬ 
sioners, to which class most of the students belong. Their fees 
are little more than half as great as those of the second class. 
(4) Sizars, thirty in number, who pay a nominal fee. Each 
of the ranks wears a distinctive dress. The examination 
on entrance is thorough. It is possible to obtain degrees 
without great exertion, but the honors can be obtained only 
by severe study. No restriction is made with regard to the 
admission of those who are not members of the Anglican 
Church. The fees for graduation are much higher than in 
American colleges. Dublin University occupies a high rank 
among European institutions of learning. It has special 
departments for the study of medicine, divinity, and engi¬ 
neering. Among the eminent graduates were Berkeley, 
Ussher, Swift, Burke, Goldsmith, and Sheridan. An unsuc¬ 
cessful attempt made Mar. 11, 1873, in the British Parlia¬ 
ment to unite the Catholic University, Magee College, Bel¬ 
fast, and the Queen’s Colleges of Cork and Belfast to the 
University of Dublin, and to abolish the Queen’s College at 
Galway, led to the temporary disruption of the Gladstone 
ministry. 

Dub' ner (Friedrich), a French philologist, born at • 
Horselgau, in Germany, Dec. 21, 1802. He was from 1826 
to 1831 professor at the gymnasium of Gotha, and after 
1831 lived in Paris, where he at first took an active part in 
Didot’s new edition of the "Thesaurus” of Stephanus, and 
was subsequently one of the editors of the “ Bibliotheca 
Graeca” of the same publishers. Besides editions of a 
number of Latin and Greek classics, he published a Greek 
grammar (1855) and a French-Greek Lexicon (1860). Died 
Aug. 16, 1867. 

Dubnit'za, a town of European Turkey, province of 
Room-Elee, on the river Djerma, 22 miles S. of Sophia. It 
has extensive iron-works. Pop. about 7000. 

Dub' no, a town of Russia, in Volhynia, is on the small 
river Irwa, 32 miles W. of Ostrog. It has several Greek 
and Roman Catholic churches. The houses are mostly built 
of wood. Pop. 7628. 

Dubois', a county in the S. W. of Indiana. Area, 420 
square miles. It is intersected by the Patoka River, and 
partly bounded on the N. by the East Fork of White River. 
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Coal is 
found here. Tobacco, wool, cattle, and grain are raised. 
Capital, Jasper. Pop. 12,597. 

Dubois (Guillaume), a French cardinal and prime 
minister, born at Brives-la-Gaillarde Sept. 6, 1656. He 
was preceptor to the due de Chartres, who became duke of 
Orleans and regent of France in 1715. Having gained the 
favor of this prince by pandering to his vices, he was ap¬ 
pointed a councillor of state. He exhibited much political 
cunning and talent for intrigue. Among his important 
diplomatic acts was the treaty between France, England, 
and Holland called the Triple Alliance (Jan., 1717). lie 
became about 1718 minister of foreign affairs, and, though 
his morals were depraved, archbishop of Cambray in 1720. 
He was appointed prime minister in 1722, and retained 
power until he died, Aug. 10, 1723. 

Dubois (Jean Antoine), Abbe, a French missionary, 
born in Ardeche in 1765. He spent many years in India, 
and wrote in English a valuable work on “ The Character, 
Manners, Customs, and Institutions of the People of India” 
(1816). Died in Paris Feb. 7, 1848. 

Dubois (Paul Francois), a French politician, born 
June 2, 1795, at Rennes, became professor of rhetoric at the 
Lyceum Charlemagne in Paris in 1814. As one of tho 
founders of the “ Globe,” he contested the restoration of 
the Bourbons. In 1840 he succeeded Cousin as director of 
the Normal School, and for many years took a prominent 
part in public instruction. 

Du Bois-Reymond (Emil), a German physiologist, 
born Nov. 7, 1818, succeeded in 1858 his teacher, Johannes 
Muller, as professor at the University of Berlin, and be¬ 
came a member of the Academy of Sciences, of which ho 
has been secretary since 1867. He is regarded as one of tho 
foremost writers on physiology, his chief work being “ Re¬ 
searches on Animal Electricity” (185<). 

Dubossa'ry, a town of Russia, in the government of 














" ■ . - ■■■■ ■ ■■■■■■■ 

1416 DUBUAT—DUCIC. 


Kherson, on the Dniester, 85 miles N. E. of Odessa, has 
several factories. Pop. 5547. 

Dubuat (The Chevalier), an eminent French experi- 
mentalist and writer on hydraulics. He may be said to 
have laid the foundations of hydro-dynamics, being the 
first who succeeded in ascribing to the different forces, 
friction, cohesion, etc., which act on fluids in a state of 
uniform motion, their effective share in determining their 
velocity. He was the first to ascertain and measure by 
striking and original observations (long neglected, but 
which have since claimed attention) the effect of the co¬ 
hesion and inertia of the air in retarding the motions of 
the pendulum. His most important work is entitled “ Prin¬ 
ciples d’Hydraulique et de Pyrodynamique,” Paris, 1816; 
the latter subject being the action of heat upon matter in 
its different states of solid, fluid, and vapor. He was an 
officer of the “ corps du genie ” (engineers), in which he 
became a colonel—subsequently engineer in ordinary to 
the king. 

Dubilfe (Claitde Marie), a French painter of history 
and portraits, was born in Paris in 1790. He was a fashion¬ 
able portrait-painter. Died April 21, 1864. 

s 

Dubufe (Edouard), a portrait-painter, a son of the 
preceding, was born in Paris about 1818. He painted por¬ 
traits of several eminent persons with success. 

Dubuque, du-buk', a county in the E. of Iowa. Area, 
600 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Mis¬ 
sissippi River. The surface is undulating; the soil is 
fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, hay, potatoes, and dairy- 
products are raised. Carriages, beer, clothing, and flour 
are among the chief articles of manufacture. Limestone 
occurs here as a surface-rock. This county has rich 
mines of lead. It is intersected by the Dubuque and Sioux 
City R. R. and other railroads. Capital, Dubuque. Pop. 
38,969. 

Dubuque, a city of Iowa, capital of the above county, 
occupying 13 square miles of plateau and bluff on the W. 
bank of the Mississippi River, 470 miles N. of St. Louis, 
321 miles S. of St. Paul, and 199 miles W. of Chicago. It 
is the centre of a large and ever-widening railroad system, 
and during the season of navigation has two lines of 
steamers plying to St. Louis and St. Paul. It is distin¬ 
guished for the excellence of its educational institutions. 
It is the seat of the Iowa Institute of Science and Arts, a 
widely known and very useful institution. Dubuque is 
opposite the point where the line between Wisconsin and 
Illinois reaches the Mississippi, and is in one of the richest 
lead-regions known. It was in 1870 the largest city in the 
State except Davenport. Dubuque is the terminus of a 
railroad which extends westward 327 miles to Sioux City. 
The Chicago Dubuque and Minnesota R. R. extends from 
this place to La Crescent in Minnesota. This city is also 
the north-eastern terminus of the Dubuque and South¬ 
western R. R. It is the chief depot of the lead region of 
Iowa. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic and a Protestant 
Episcopal bishop. It contains a large cathedral, a city- 
hall, a custom-house, three national banks, a German Pres¬ 
byterian theological school, and an Episcopal seminary. 
It has large and increasing manufactures of shot, steam- 
engines, farming-implements, machinery, brick, white lead, 
leather, wooden ware, etc. Three daily and six weekly 
papers are published here. Dubuque is connected with 
Dunleith (Ill.) by a noble railway iron bridge, which is 
a “ marvel of lightness and strength,” and cost several 
millions of dollars. This bridge belongs to the Illinois 
Central R. R. This city was named in honor of Julien 
Dubuque, a French trader who, with ten others, settled 
here in 1788 to mine the ores of lead. This was the first 
settlement in what is now the State of Iowa. The settle¬ 
ment was abandoned after Dubuque’s death in 1810, and 
the site was not again occupied till 1833. This last was 
the first permanent settlement in Iowa. It is the entrepot 
of a very extensive trade, both by rail and river. Pop. in 
1860, 13,000; in 1870, 18,434. 

S. W. Russell, formerly Asso. Ed. of “Herald.” 

Du Cange (Charles du Fresne), a French historical 
writer, born at Amiens Dec. 18, 1610. He was liberally 
educated and studied law. Among his most important 
works are a “History of the Empire of Constantinople 
under the French Emperors” (1657). a “ Glossarium ad 
Scriptores Mediae et Infimac Grsecitatis ” (2 vols. folio, 1688), 
and a “Glossarium ad Scriptores Mediae et Infimae Lati- 
nitatis” (3 vols. folio, 1678, enlarged to 6 vols. folio in 
1733-36, and reissued with additions, in 7 vols. quarto, in 
1840-50). He passed many years of his mature life in 
Paris, where he died Oct. 23, 1688. 

Du' cas (Michael), [Gr. MiyarjA 6 AoS/cas], a Byzantine 
historian who flourished about 1450, was related to the 


imperial family of Constantinople. He wrote a “ History 
of the Decadence of the Byzantine Empire, 1355-1453.” 
This work is a part of the collection called “ Historia 
Byzantina.” He retired to Lesbos when the Turks cap¬ 
tured Constantinople in 1453. Died after 1463. 

Duc'at [from the Lat. dux (gen. ducts), a “leader” or 
“duke,” because it was first coined by Italian dukes; It. 
ducato ; Sp. ducado], a name of a gold coin which origin¬ 
ated in Italy, and was afterwards coined in several coun¬ 
tries of Europe. In 1559 the ducat was adopted as a legal 
coin of the German empire. There was much difference in 
the value of the ducats which circulated in various coun¬ 
tries. Those of Austria, Holland, and Hamburg contain 
about 52.8 grains of pure gold, and are nearly equivalent 
to two dollars of our coin. The Spanish silver ducat (du¬ 
cado) is worth about one dollar. The ducat is said to have 
been first struck in the sixth century by Longinus, duke or 
duca of Ravenna, but Gibbon attributes its origin to the 
dukes of Milan. 

Du Chaillu (Paul Belloni), a French traveller, born 
about 1830, the son of a French merchant in Equatorial 
Africa, was naturalized as a citizen of the U. S. He ex¬ 
plored the Gaboon region, etc., and published, besides 
other works, “ Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial 
Africa” (1861), “A Journey to Ashango Land” (1867), 
and “My Apingi Kingdom” (1871). He was one of the 
first travellers who described the gorilla. 

Duchatel (Charles Marie Tanguy), Comte, a French 
politician, born in Paris Feb. 19, 1803. He became a po¬ 
litical friend of Guizot, and minister of finance in Sept., 
1836. He resigned in April, 1837, and was minister of 
the interior from Oct., 1840, until Feb., 1848. Died Nov. 5, 
1867. 

Duchatel (Pierre), [Lat. Castellanus], a liberal French 
prelate who was born in Burgundy about 1500. He be¬ 
came a thorough Greek scholar, assisted Erasmus, was a 
proof-reader at Bale, studied at Rome, travelled in the 
East, was made bishop of Tulle by Francis I. (1539), bishop 
of Macon (1544), bishop of Orleans (1551), grand almoner 
of France (1547), and died at Orleans Feb. 2, 1552. He 
was a zealous advocate of the interests of the Gallican 
Church. 

Duche (Jacob), D. D., an American Episcopal clergy¬ 
man, born in Philadelphia in 1739. He gained distinction 
as an eloquent preacher, and was chosen- chaplain to the 
first Continental Congress in 1774. He served as chaplain 
to several successive Congresses, but after the British oc¬ 
cupied Philadelphia he abandoned the popular cause, and 
wrote to Washington a letter in which he urged him to 
submit and become a Tory. Duche soon fled to England, 
but he returned to Philadelphia in 1790. Died Jan. 3. 
1798. 

Duchesne (Andre), a learned French historian, born in 
Touraine in May, 1584. He became geographer and histori¬ 
ographer to the king. He wrote many valuable works, 
among which are “Ancient Historians of the Normans” 
(“Historian Normanorum Scriptores Antiqui,” 1619) and 
“Contemporary Writers of the History of the Franks” 
(in Latin, 5 vols., 1636-41). Died May 30, 1640. 

Duch' ess [Fr. duchcsse'], the title given to the wife of 
a duke or the female possessor of a duchy in her own 
right. 

Duchobor'zi (?. e. “champions of the Spirit”), a sort 
of Quaker sect among the peasantry of Russia. They 
seceded from the Molokan sect in the eighteenth century, 
and are at present not very numerous. The sect was 
founded by one Ilarion Pobirochin,who taught the Trinity 
and the transmigration of souls, forbade his followers from 
serving in the army, and considered himself, it is said, to 
be the son of God. They were banished in consequence to 
the regions near the Sea of Azof. In 1839 they were ban¬ 
ished to the Trans-Caucasus, where they are now chiefly 
found, though they probably still exist in small numbers 
in other parts of Russia. 

Duchonquet, a township of Auglaize co., O. It con¬ 
tains the village of Wapakoneta (which see), the capital 
of the county. Pop. of township, 3959. 

Du' cie, Earlsof (United Kingdom, 1 837), Barons Ducie 
(England, 1763), Barons Moreton (United Kingdom, 1837). 
—Henry John Reynolds Moreton, third earl, P. C., 
F. R. S., born July 26,1827, was M. P. for Stroud 1852-53, 
and succeeded his father in 1853. 

Duck [from the verb duck, to “dive;” Lat. anas ; Ger- 
Ente; Fr. canard), a name applied to many swimming 
birds of the family Anatidac, belonging to the old genus 
Anas, which is now divided into many smaller genera. 
The true ducks, or Anatinae, frequent fresh water, feeding 
on both animal and vegetable matter. They are grega- 
















DUCK—DUDLEY. 


rious, and the males are larger and handsomer than the 
females. They are shot for food and for sport, and in Eu¬ 
rope they are caught in great numbers by nets. The com¬ 
mon domesticated duck is a descendant of the mallard 
(Anas boschas), which is found wild in Europe, Asia, and 
America. Eight genera of true ducks are found in North 
America, and several species are common to the Old and 
New Worlds. The sea-ducks (Fuligulininae) differ from 
the foregoing in having a large flap or lobe under the hind 
toe. The eider-duck, the canvas-back, and the surf-duck 
are well-known examples of this sub-family. There are 
also tree-ducks, which approach the character of geese. 
The more important birds of this numerous group are de¬ 
scribed under their alphabetical heads. 

The different breeds of domesticated ducks, with the prob¬ 
able exception of certain varieties in China and the neigh¬ 
boring countries, are all descended from the mallard, as 
above stated ; but in domestication the ducks become po- 
lygamous, although they always live in pairs when wild. 
The male also ceases to care for his offspring; and even the 
females are sometimes not good mothers, so that it is always 
better to hatch ducks’ eggs under a hen. The eggs, from 
their somewhat rank taste, are less prized than those of the 
hen ,• but the flesh of some breeds, such as the Aylesbury 
duck, is considered a great delicacy. Young ducks should 
be allowed free access to the water. 

Duck [from the Dutch doclc, “coarse linen cloth,” “can¬ 
vas,” akin to the Ger. Tuch, “cloth”], a name given to a 
coarse, heavy linen fabric, highly glazed, which is used as 
a material for clothing by sailors, men employed in smelt¬ 
ing-furnaces, and others. Duck is also a heavy cotton or 
linen fabric used for sailcloth, water-hose, etc. 

Duck-bill, the English name of the Oniithorftynchrw 
paradoxus, a monotrematous mammal found in Van Die- 



Duck-bill : Ornithorhynchus. 

men’s Land and Australia. In its bill-like jaws, its spurs, 
its monotrematous character, its non-placental development, 
and its anatomy, it appears to be a connecting link between 
birds and mammals. 

The duck-bill is the only animal of its genus. It is about 
fifteen inches long, with a brown fur. It has a sort of horny 
tooth near the base of each jaw or mandible, and the males 
have spurs on the hind legs. The female has no nipple, but 
the young (which are at first very slightly developed) draw 
the milk through a slit-like opening. 

Thi3 animal inhabits ponds and quiet streams, where it 
swims about on the surface of the water with its head some¬ 
what elevated, often diving for its food, which consists of 
insects and other small aquatic animals. It climbs trees 
with facility, and is sometimes seen in small parties on the 
limbs of trees near the water. It digs a burrow, often 
thirty feet long, in the river-bank, with one opening above 
and another below wator. 

Duck Creek, a hundred of Kent co., Del. Pop. 4279. 

Duck Creek, a township of Madison co., Ind. P. 789. 
Duck Creek, a township of Stoddard co., Mo. P. 781. 


1417 


Ducking-Stool, a contrivance formerly used in Great 
Britain and in some parts of the U. S. for the punishment 
of scolds. The most common form seems to have been 
that of a strong wooden chair attached to one end of a 
beam, which pivoted midway on a post planted in the 
ground at the edge of a pond or stream. The woman hav¬ 
ing been secured in the chair, the beam was worked up and 
down by a chain at the other end, and she was thus plunged 
into the water or “ ducked.” The practice of ducking 
originated towards the close of the fifteenth century, and 
very generally prevailed until the early part of the eigh¬ 
teenth, and in some places to a later date. At Leominster, 
England, a ducking-stool was in use as late as 1809. 

Duck River, of Tennessee, rises in Coffee co., flows 
nearly westward through Middle Tennessee, and enters the 
Tennessee River in Humphries co. Length, about 250 
miles. 

Duck Sirring, a township of Etowah co., Ala. P. 372. 

Duck'town, a post-village of Polk co., Tenn. It is in 
the S. E. corner of the State, about 60 miles E. of Chat¬ 
tanooga. It has remarkable copper-mines. 

Duck'water, a township of Nye co., Nev. Pop. 145. 

Duck-weed ( Lemna ), a genus of endogenous plants 
placed by some botanists in the natural order Lemnaceae, 
while others refer them to the order Araceae. They are 
mostly floating plants, with unisexual flowers, without 
calyx or corolla, and with loose hanging roots. They are 
widely distributed over the world, and several species are 
found in the U. S., covering the surface of stagnant waters 
with their flat green fronds. 

Duclos (Chari.es Pineau), a witty French writer, born 
at Dinan Feb. 12, 1704. Having written several successful 
romances, he was admitted into the French Academy in 

1747. He was appointed his¬ 
toriographer of France in 1753. 
Among his works are moral es¬ 
says entitled “ Considerations 
sur les Moeurs de ce Siecle” 
(1750) and “Secret Memoirs of 
the Reigns of Louis XIV. and 
Louis XV.” Died Mar. 26, 1772. 

Ducrot (Etienne), a French 
general, born in 1817, command¬ 
ed a brigade in the Italian cam¬ 
paign, and the first division of 
the first army corps in the Ger¬ 
man-French war; was taken 
prisoner of war at Sedan, but 
escaped to Paris, where he took 
a prominent part in the defence 
of that city. After the capitula¬ 
tion he was elected a delegate to 
the National Assembly. 

Ductil'ity [Lat. ductilitas, 
from ductilis, “easy to be drawn” 
(from duco, ductum, to “ draw ”)], 
a capability of being drawn out 
into a long and slender form 
without a breach of continuity. 
This term is applied almost ex¬ 
clusively to that property of cer¬ 
tain metals which enables them 
to be elongated or drawn out into 
wire. The metals having the 
greatest ductility are gold, sil¬ 
ver, platinum, and iron. A grain 
of gold may be drawn into 500 feet of wire, and a wire of 
platinum not exceeding a 30,000th of an inch in diameter 
has been obtained by placing a fine wire of platinum in 
the axis of a larger silver wire, then drawing the com¬ 
pound wire in the usual mode, and finally dissolving the 
silver by nitific acid. The ductility of glass (when melted 
or heated to a red heat) is almost unlimited. The ductil¬ 
ity of many bodies is modified by temperature. 

Dudevant, Madame. See Sand, George. 

Dud'ley, a parliamentary borough of England, is a 
part of Worcestershire, surrounded by the county of Staf¬ 
ford, 9 miles W. N. W. of Birmingham. It is well built, 
and is one of the chief seats of the iron-trade. Here are 
manufactures of glass, grates, fire-irons, nails, vices, chain- 
cables, etc. Near Dudley are the ruins of Dudley Castle, 
founded in 760 A. D. by Dudo, a Saxon prince. Mines of 
coal and iron and quarries of Silurian limestone are worked 
in the vicinity. Dudley returns one member to I arliament. 
Pop. of municipal borough in 18< 1, 43, <81. 

Dudley, a township of Henry co., Ind. Pop. 1339. 

Dudley, a post-township of V orcestcr co., Mass., on the 






































1418 DUDLEY—DUENNA. 


Norwich and Worcester and a branch of the New York and 
New England It. R. It is the site of Nichols Academy, 
and has woollen, linen, and jute mills. Pop. 2388. 

Dudley, a township of Ilardin co., 0. Pop. 1008. 

Dudley, a post-village of Huntingdon co., Pa., is tho 
E. terminus of the Broad Top City branch of the Hunting¬ 
don and Broad Top R. It. 

Dudley (Benjamin Winslow), M. D., LL.D., Avas born 
in Virginia in 1785. Receiving an imperfect preliminary 
education, he commenced the study of medicine in Lexing¬ 
ton, Ky., and took his degree in the University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania in 1806. He went to Europe in 1810, and during his 
four years of absence studied with Sir Astley Cooper, Aber- 
nethy, Cline, Larrey, Dubois, Boyer, Marjolin, and others. 
In 1817, in conjunction Avith Blythe, Caldwell, Brown, 
Richardson, Drake, etc., he organized the medical depart¬ 
ment of the University of Transylvania, Avhich Avas long 
the leading school of medicine in the West. In all its 
changes Dr. Dudley ever Avas emphatically its head; he 
occupied the professorships of anatomy and surgery, which 
required him to lecture nine times every Aveek. He never 
had his equal W. of the mountains, and probably but one 
in America—viz. Valentine Mott. Peiv surgeons operated 
more cautiously, although Dr. Physick may have done so. 
None ever prepared his patients more thoroughly, none did 
more with the roller, prescribed simpler diet or feAver medi¬ 
cines than he. A distinguished English surgeon in London 
declared him to be “the lithotomist of the nineteenth cen¬ 
tury.” It has been published that he cut a hundred times 
in succession for stone in the bladder, Avithout a death or 
failure. The last report of his lithotomy cases—and they 
Avere all carefully selected—numbered 225, with an admis¬ 
sion of some six deaths; unfortunately, hoAvever, the im¬ 
portant particulars in regard to age, sex, Avhen and where 
operated upon, condition of patient, etc. etc., are generally 
omitted. Nevertheless, this report is a Avonderful one. Dr. 
Dudley performed the lateral operation exclusively, and 
almost always with the gorget, an instrument iioav becom¬ 
ing obsolete. He Avas a small man, very active in his move¬ 
ments, strictly temperate, using cold bathing every morn¬ 
ing, and is said never to have Avorn gloves or used an over¬ 
coat until injured by a fall on the ice in the streets of 
Lexington. He died Jan. 20, 1870. Paul F. Eve. 

Dudley (Charles Edavard), a Senator, born in Staf¬ 
fordshire, England, May 23, 1780, emigrated to the U. S. 
in 1791. He Avas elected mayor of Albany in 1821, and a 
Senator of the U. S. for an unexpired term of four years in 
1829. He founded at Albany the Dudley Observatory, to 
which his widow gave $70,000. Died Jan. 23, 1811. 

Dudley (Joseph) was born in Roxbury, Mass., July 23, 
1617. He was appointed chief-justice of Massachusetts in 
1686, chief-justice of Neiv York in 1690, and Avas governor 
of his native province from 1702 to 1715. Died April 2,1720. 

Dudley (Paul), F. R. S., a lawyer, a son of the pre¬ 
ceding, was born Sept. 3, 1675. He was distinguished for 
his eloquence and talents, became attorney-general of Mas¬ 
sachusetts in 1702, and chief justice of that province in 
1715. Died Jan. 25, 1751. 

D udley (Thoaias), born at Northampton, England, in 
1576, served in Holland in Queen Elizabeth’s army, and in 
1630 came to Boston as deputy-governor of Massachusetts 
Bay under his son-in-laiv, Governor Bradstreet. He held 
the office twelve years. He Avas governor of the colony in 
1631, ’10, ’45, and ’50, and became major-general in 1614. 
Died July 31, 1653, at Roxbury, where he left an estate 
long held by his descendants. 

Dudley Lake, a toAvnship of Jefferson co., Ark. P. 292. 

Dud'leyville, a tAvp. of Tallapoosa co., Ala. Pop. 1600. 

Dud'weiler, a tOAvn of Prussia, in the Rhine province, 
has several large coal-mines. Pop. in 1871, 8920. 

Dueast’s', a township of Cabarrus co., N. C. P. 1015. 

Du'el [Lat. duellum (perhaps a contraction of duorum 
helium, a “ Avar of two ”); Fr. duel; Ger. Buell and Zwei- 
Jcampf; It. and Port, duello; Sp. duelo] appears to have 
signified originally a trial by battle resorted to by tAvo in¬ 
dividuals, either for the purpose of determining the guilt 
or innocence of a person charged with a crime, or of de¬ 
ciding a disputed right. In more recent times it is used 
to denote a hostile meeting between tivo persons in conse¬ 
quence of an affront given by one to the other, and for the 
purpose of affording satisfaction to the injured party. 

The practice of fighting duels as a means of deciding 
private differences seems to be of comparatively recent 
date. That it originated with the feudal system is suf¬ 
ficiently clear. We should not, however, confound two 
very different institutions—the appeal to arms as an alter¬ 
native for the trial by ordeal, and the A r oluntary challenges 
or defiances resorted to for the purpose of settling disputes 


supposed to involve the honor of gentlemen. This last 
custom Avas first elevated to the dignity of an established 
institution by Philip le Bel of France (1308). 

In England, duelling does not appear to have prevailed 
until the latter part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. At 
this period appeared the famous “ Treatise of Honor ” by 
Yincentio Saviolo, a fierce and punctilious Italian. He was 
a fencing-master by profession. His work, published in 
1594— noAV little knoAvn—appears to have been adopted as 
a standard book of reference in cases of supposed insult. 
Saviolo resolves all quarrels into the lie —that is, he sup¬ 
poses the original insult to be followed by a regular series 
of replies and retorts, until one of the parties is reduced to 
give the lie direct; Avhich, like the phrase “stupid youth” 
in some German universities, Avas immediately followed by 
the appeal to arms. 

Henry II. of France issued an edict in 1547 prohibiting 
the public or judicial combat. This decree Avas caused by 
the death of his favorite La Chataigneraye from Avounds 
received in the lists. The public duel survived longer in 
Italy. Its abolition in France Avas not followed by the good 
effects Avhich the statesmen of those days probably antici¬ 
pated from it. Private duels, conducted Avith a sanguinary 
spirit before unheard of, became very prevalent. Brantome 
gives instances of duellists avIio prided themselves on ad¬ 
vantages Avhich they had taken of their opponents, and 
Avere not less esteemed in society for haA r ing done so; there 
Avere said to be regiments in the same sendee, the officers 
of Avhich Avere bound to fight one another whenever they 
met. Lord Herbert of Cherbury mentions the honor in 
which the French ladies held the brave Balagny, a man 
with neither Avit, figure, nor fortune, but whose merit con¬ 
sisted in the fact that he had killed eight or nine of his 
friends in single combat. 

In the reign of Henry III. the custom of the seconds 
taking part in the quarrels of their principals seems first to 
have been established—a custom which did not cease till 
the beginning of the last century. When such practices 
Avere rife in all parts of France we can scarcely doubt the 
extraordinary assertions of writers of those times—that 120 
gentlemen Avere killed in duels in a single province in six 
months; that in the reign of Henry IV. 4000 fell in two 
years; and that this mania cost France more gentle blood 
than thirty years of cndl war. Henry IY. issued edicts 
against duelling; Louis XIII. proceeded against it with 
such severity that it is said Avounded duellists Avere dragged 
from the field to the gibbet; but this extreme severity, as 
usual in such cases, appears to have had no good effect. In 
the minority of Louis XIY. the duke de Nemours, a prince 
of the blood, fell, with two of his seconds, in a quarrel Avith 
another grandee. Soon after this many noblemen and gentle¬ 
men of undoubted courage made a voluntary compact to 
abstain from duelling. This resolution Avas seconded by 
Louis XIV. when of age, in several edicts. It should be 
remembered to the honor of that monarch that he labored 
during his whole life to correct this abuse, and with con¬ 
siderable success. One of his expedients was the establish¬ 
ment of a court of chivalry, the members of which were the 
marshals of France, which was to decide on’all questions 
in which a gentleman might conceive his honor to be in¬ 
volved. Killing in duels in France is noAV punishable as 
homicide, and a civil action lies on behalf of the friends of 
the man avIio has been slain. 

The first attempt made in England to introduce legisla¬ 
tive enactments for the suppression of duels is said to have 
taken place in 1713, when, after the famous duel of Duke 
Hamilton with Lord Mohun, a bill for that purpose was 
brought into the Commons, but lost on the third reading. 
A challenge to fight is now a high misdemeanor. In Scot¬ 
land as late, it would appear, as the middle of the sixteenth 
century, licenses for duelling were granted by the Crown, 
and formed a source of revenue; killing in a duel without 
license Avas murder. The new codes of Bavaria and Prussia 
contain a number of provisions against duels, challenges, 
etc. In no country were duels more prevalent formerly than 
in Ireland. In France the period of the restored monarchy 
(1815-48) was one of those in Avhich duels Avere most rife, 
not only among the military, but among civilians; but 
since 1848 they have greatly diminished. In Great Britain 
a heavy bloAv Avas aimed at duelling in the army by the new 
article of Avar of 1844, rendering it an offence punishable by 
cashiering. For some years duels, either military or civil, 
have been comparatively rare. 

In America the practice of fighting duels was formerly 
\ r ery common. But in more recent times duelling in any 
part of tho U. S. is rarely heard of. It is not only made 
illegal by statute, but is forbidden in the army and navy 
by the Articles of War. 

Reviseo by J. Thomas. 

Duen'na [Sp. duetto], the chief lady-in-Avaiting on the 
quoen of Spain. In a more general sense it is applied to a 



















DUKE—DU GUESCLIN. 


1419 


woman holding a middle station between a governess and 
a companion, and appointed to take charge of young ladies. 

Du' er (John), LL.D., an able American jurist and legal 
writer, born at Albany, N. Y., Oct. 7, 1782, was a son of Col. 
William Duer. He practised law in New York City, whither 
he removed in 1820, and was elected a judge of the superior 
court of that city in 1849. Among his works is “ The Law 
and Practice of Marine Insurance” (2 vols. 8vo, 1845-46). 
He succeeded Oakley as chief-justice of the superior court 
in 1857. Died Aug. 8, 1858. 

Duer (William Alexander), a jurist, horn in Dutchess 
co., N. Y., Sept. 8, 1780, was a brother of the preceding. 
His mother was a daughter of Lord Stirling. He was ad¬ 
mitted to the bar in 1802, and became a partner of Edward 
Livingston in New Orleans, but returned to the city of New 
lork about 1812. He was a judge of the supreme court of 
New York from 1822 to 1829. In the latter year he was 
chosen president of Columbia College. He was the author 
ot a ‘‘Treatise on the Constitutional Jurisprudence of the 
U. S.” (1856). Died May 30, 1858. 

Duet' [It. duetto (from the Lat. duo, “two ”); Er. duo], 
a piece of music composed for two performers, either vocal 
or instrumental. 

Due West, a post-village and township in Abbeville 
co., S. C. It is distinguished chiefly as a seat of learn¬ 
ing. Erskine College and Erskine Theological Seminary, 
under the control of the Associate Reformed Presbyte¬ 
rians, are located here, as well as a female college. There 
are five public libraries in the town, and one weekly paper. 
Pop. 400; of Due West township, 1030. 

J. I. Bonner, Pub. “Associate Ref. Presbyterian.” 

Dufau (Pierre Armand), a French author, born at 
Bordeaux in 1795. He wrote several works on political 
economy and French history, and was an editor of several 
liberal journals of Paris, and is the author of several works 
on the education of the blind. 

Dufaure (Jules Armand Stanislas), a French orator 
and statesman, born at Saujon, in Charente-Inferieure, 
Dec. 4, 1798. He practised law at Bordeaux, and was 
elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1834. He became 
an influential leader of the liberal party. After the for¬ 
mation of the republic in 1848 he was a moderate repub¬ 
lican member of the Assembly, and was minister of the 
interior for about two months ending in December of that 
year. He filled the same office from June to Oct., 1849, 
and was driven from the public service by the coup- 
d’etcit of Dec., 1851, after which he gained great emi¬ 
nence at the bar. He was appointed minister of jus¬ 
tice by Thiers in Feb., 1871. 

Dufay ( Charles Francois de Cisternay), a French 
savant, born in Paris Sept. 14, 1698. He was the au¬ 
thor of the theory of two kinds of electricity, vitreous 
and resinous. He wrote treatises on chemistry and 
other sciences. Died July 16, 1739. 

Duff (Alexander), D. D., LL.D., a Scottish Pres¬ 
byterian missionary, born in Perthshire in 1806 or 
1808. He was educated at St. Andrew’s. He went to 
India in 1830, and labored there with great zeal and 
success for many years as a missionary. In 1839 he 
published a work “ On India and the Missions.” After the 
disruption of the Scottish Church in 1843 he was the chief 
agent of the mission which the Free Church maintains at 
Calcutta. He visited the U. S. in 1854, returned to India 
in 1855, and remained there until 1863. After his return 
to Scotland he became professor of evangelistic theology in 
the theological schools of the Free Church. 

Duf'ferin, Earls of (United Kingdom, 1871), Barons 
Dufferin and Clanderboye (Ireland, 1800), Viscounts Clan- 
derboye (1871), Barons Clanderboye of Clanderboye (United 
Kingdom, 1850). — Frederick Temple Blackwood, first 
earl, K. P., K. C. B., born in June, 1826, was under-secre¬ 
tary of state for India 1864-66, and for war 1866, and suc¬ 
ceeded his father in 1841. He became in 1872 governor- 
general of Canada. 

Duf'field, a post-township of Charles co., Md. Pop. 
3485. 

Duffiekl (George), D. D., was born at Strasburg, Lan¬ 
caster co., Pa., July 4, 1794, and was educated at the Uni¬ 
versity of Pennsylvania. He was for many years a pastor 
of Presbyterian churches in Philadelphia, New York, and 
Detroit. He was an active leader of the “New School” 
movement. Died at Detroit, Mich., Juno 26, 1869. 

Duf'fy’s, a township of Tallapoosa co., Ala. Pop. 
1273. 

Dufour (Guillaume Henri), an able Swiss general, 
born at Constance Sept. 15, 17S7. He entered the French 
army in 1809, and became a captain in the Swiss service 
about 1S15. In 1847 he was chosen commandcr-in-chief 


of the federal army raised to defend the integrity of the 
republic against the Roman Catholic Sonderbund. He 
quickly quelled the rebellion. In 1864 he was president 
of the Geneva convention. He published, besides other 
works on tactics, etc., a “ Memoir upon Ancient and Medie¬ 
val Artillery” (1840) and “ Permanent Fortification ” (1850). 

Duganne (Augustine Joseph Hickey), an American 
poet and novelist, born in Boston in 1823. He published a 
volume of poems in 1856, and a prose work entitled a 
“Class-Book of Governments and Civil Society” (1859). 
Among his poems are “ The Iron Harp” (1847) and “The 
Mission of Intellect” (1852). 

Dugas (Louis Alexander), M. D., LL.D., was born in 
Washington, Wilkes co., Ga., Jan. 3, 1806, received his 
medical education at the University of Maryland and in 
Europe, and was one of the original founders of the Medi¬ 
cal College of Georgia (1832), in which he still is professor 
of surgery (1874). He has published many contributions 
in professional periodicals, was many years editor of the 
“Southern Medical and Surgical Journal” (Athens, Ga.), 
and is the author of a “ New Principle of Diagnosis of Dis¬ 
locations of the Shoulder-Joint” (1857). 

Dug'dale (Sir William), an English antiquary, born 
in Warwickshire Sept. 12, 1605. He was appointed blanch- 
lyon pursuivant-extraordinary in 1638, rouge-croix pur¬ 
suivant-in-ordinary in 1640, became Chester herald in 1644, 
was a royalist in the civil war, and became Norroy king of 
arms in 1660, after the restoration of Charles II., and Gar¬ 
ter king of arms in 1677. Dugdale and Dodsworth pub¬ 
lished an important work on English monasteries entitled 
“ Monasticon Anglicanum ” (3 vols., 1655-73). Among his 
other works are “Antiquities of Warwickshire” (1656), 
which is highly esteemed, and “Origines Juridiciales ” 
(1666). Died Feb. 10, 1686. (See “Life and Diary of Sir 
W. Dugdale,” edited by Hamper, 1827.) 

Dughet (Gaspard), called Caspar Poussin, a painter 
of French extraction, was born at Rome in 1613, and stud¬ 
ied under his brother-in-law, Nicolas Poussin, whom he 
followed as a painter of the heroic landscape, excelling him 
in the grandeur of his distances, his development of the 
middle ground, rich foliage masses agitated by the wind, 
and the bold treatment of landscapes. His chief works are 
in Rome, where he died in 1675. 

Du'gong [a word of Malay origin], a marine animal 
of the genus Halicore, belonging to the Sirenia. The du- 



Dugong. 

gong of the Indian seas is generally from eight to twelve 
feet long, though it is said to attain sometimes the length 
of twenty-five feet. The upper lip is thick and fleshy, and 
forms a kind of snout; the upper jaw bends downward al¬ 
most at a right angle; the eyes are very small, with a nic¬ 
titating membrane; the skin thick and smooth. In its in¬ 
ternal structure it has considerable resemblance to the 
pachyderms, and it feeds chiefly on algae. It is also re¬ 
markable for the ventricles of the heart being entirely 
detached from each other. Its flesh is said to resemble 
beef, and is prized as food. The oil is recommended as a 
substitute for cod-liver oil. Various species occur in the 
Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, etc. 

Duguay-Trouin (Rene), a celebrated French admi¬ 
ral, born at Saint Malo June 10, 1673. As captain of a 
privateer frigate he cruised about the high seas, and took 
many prizes from the English between 1690 and 1697. In 
the latter year he entered the royal marine with the rank 
of captain. He served with distinction in the war of the 
Spanish succession, which began in 1702. In 1707 he cap¬ 
tured three English ships of war and about sixty trans¬ 
ports of merchant vessels. Among his famous exploits was 
the capture of Bio Janeiro in 1711. He was raised to the 
rank of lieutenant-general in 1728. Died Sept. 27, 1736. 
(See his autobiographic “Memoirs,” 1740, and English 
translation, 1742.) 

Du Guesclin (Bertrand), the greatest French gen¬ 
eral of his time, was born near Rennes about 1314. llo 
fought against the English, who ocoupied many places in 
France, and ho defeated the duke of Lancaster at Rennes 





























1420 DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU—DULUTH. 


in 1356. In 1360 he commanded an army which fought 
for Henry de Trastamare against Peter the Cruel of Cas¬ 
tile. He gained a victory over Peter, but he was defeated 
and taken prisoner by the English Black Prince in 1367. 
He paid a large ransom, and was soon released. Having 
been appointed constable of France in 1369, he defended 
the country against the English invaders, whom he ex¬ 
pelled from nearly every province of France before 1375. 
Died July 13, 1380. (See Froissart, “Chronicles;” Jami¬ 
son, “ Life of Duguesclin,” 1864.) 

Duhamel du Monceau (Henri Louis), an eminent 
French botanist and rural economist, born in Paris in 1700. 
Among his numerous useful works are a “ Treatise on the 
Culture of Land” (1751), a treatise on the structure and 
physiology of plants entitled “ De la Physique des Arbres” 
(1758), and “Elements of Agriculture” (1762). He was a 
member of the Academy of Sciences. Died Aug. 23, 1782. 

Duil'ius, or Diliriius (Caius), a Roman general who 
became consul in 260 B. C., during the first Punic war. 
He built ships of war after the model of one taken from the 
enemy, and was the first Roman who gained a naval vic¬ 
tory over the Carthaginians, whom he defeated in the year 
260 near the Lipari Islands. 

Duil'liaii Col'umn, the Columna Rostrcita which was 
erected in the forum at Rome (as Quintilian states) to com¬ 
memorate the naval victory of C. Duillius. (See Duil- 
ius.) Columns of this kind were called rostratse, from 
having the beaks of ships ( rostra) projecting on each side. 
The restoration of the Duillian column by Michael Angelo 
is now preserved in the Palazzo de’ Conservatori on the 
Capitoline Hill, retaining in the pedestal a portion of the 
original inscription in archaic Latin. The inscription has 
been copied and printed, and may be found at the end of 
the fourth book of Duker’s “ Florus.” 

Henry Drisler. 

Duis'burg, a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Ruhr 
and near the Rhine, 16 miles N. of Diisseldorf. It is an 
old town, and has a church founded in 1187. Here is a 
gymnasium, with a realschule and a female high school; 
and there are also manufactures of cotton and woollen fab¬ 
rics, hosiery, porcelain, soap, etc. In the thirteenth cen¬ 
tury it was a city of the Hanseatic League. The railway 
which connects Cologne with Minden passes through this 
place, which has been declared a free port. Pop. in 1871, 
30,520. 

Dujardin (Felix), a French naturalist, born at Tours 
in 1801. He wrote, besides other works, a “Natural His¬ 
tory of Infusoria” (1841) and a “Manual of the Observer 
with the Microscope” (1843). Died in 1860. 

Dujardin, or De Jardyn (Karel), a skilful Dutch 
painter, born in Amsterdam about 1640, was a pupil of 
Berghem. He studied in Rome and painted pastoral land¬ 
scapes. He made also a series of fifty etchings of rural 
subjects, which are much sought. During a second visit 
to italy he died at Venice Nov. 20, 1078. 

Duke [from the Lat. dux (gen. ducis), a “leader” or 
“general;” Fr. due; It. duca; Sp. duque; Ger .Herzog], 
a title originally given in the Byzantine empire to military 
governors of provinces, and previous to the time of Theo¬ 
dosius regarded as inferior to that of count. Dukes in Ger¬ 
many became in course of time the chief princes of the 
empire. In France and Italy dukes form the second rank 
in the nobility, being next below princes; in England they 
are first. The title was introduced in the reign of Edward 
III., whose eldest son, the Black Prince, was made duke of 
Cornwall. In 1351, Henry Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster, 
became duke of Lancaster. The dignity thus created in ' 
these instances was not a dukedom by tenure; it has always 
remained a personal title only, hereditary according to the 
limitations of the patent. The Austrian archdukes and the 
Russian grand dukes are princes of the blood. The princes 
of the royal house of Saxony also have the title of duke. 
In Bavaria and Wiirtemberg the side branches of the reign¬ 
ing family are called dukes in Bavaria and dukes of Wiir- 
temberg. In Prussia the title was conferred in 1840 upon 
the Prince Hohenlohe Waldenburg Schillingsfiirst (duke of 
Ratibor), and in 1861 upon Prince Hohenlohe Ochringen 
(duke of Ujest). Several reigning sovereigns of German 
states have the title of duke (Anhalt, Brunswick, Saxe- 
Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg) or of grand 
duke (Baden, Hesse, Oldenburg, Saxe-Weimar, Meeklcn- 
burg-Schworin, and Mecklenburg-Strelitz). Royal dukes in 
Great Britain are princes of the blood. British dukes have 
no territorial jurisdiction. The English dukes are next to 
the peers of the royal blood and the two archbishops of 
Canterbury and York, the first peers of the realm. There 
were in 1873 twenty dukes in England (exclusive of the 
duchess of Inverness, the widow of the duke of Sussex), 
namely: Norfolk (title created in 1483), Somerset (1547), 


Richmond (1675), Grafton (1675), Beaufort (1862), St. 
Alban’s (1684), Leeds (1694), Bedford (1694), Devonshire 
(1694), Marlborough (1762), Rutland (1703), Brandon 
(duke of Hamilton, 1711), Portland (1716), Manchester 
(1719), Newcastle (1756), Northumberland (1766), Wel¬ 
lington (1814), Buckingham and Chandos (1822), Suther¬ 
land (1833), Cleveland (1833). There are also seven Scotch 
and one Irish duke, who, however, do not sit in the im¬ 
perial Parliament as dukes, but as marquesses, earls, vis¬ 
counts, or barons. Revised by A. J. Schem. 

Dukes, a county of Massachusetts, consisting of Mar¬ 
tha’s Vineyard and other smaller islands in the Atlantic 
Ocean, has an area of about 118 square miles. The largest 
of these islands is about 5 miles from the mainland. Many 
of the inhabitants are employed in fisheries. The soil is 
partly fertile. Some iron ore is found, and salt is made 
from the sea. Wool is the chief agricultural product. Cap¬ 
ital, Edgartown. Pop. 3787. 

This county (officially called “the county of Dukes 
county”) was named from the fact that, with the province 
of New York, it was under the government of the duke of 
York (King James II.). It became a part of Massachusetts 
in 1692. 

Dulci'gno [ane. Olcinium; Turk. Olgoori), a town and 
seaport of European Turkey, lat. 41° 54' N., Ion. 19° 12' 
E., is in Albania, on the Adriatic Sea, 14 miles W. S. W. 
of Scutari. It is the seat of a Catholic bishop, and has a 
trade in timber and oil. Pop. 7000. 

Dul' cimer [Sp. dulcemele, from the Lat. dulcis, “ sweet,” 
and melos, “ music ”], the name of a musical instrument 
shaped like a triangle, and having brass wire strings, set 
in motion by rods of wood or iron. The form and nature 
of the instrument called by this name in the Bible are not 
known. 

Diil'ken, a town in Germany, in the Rhine Province, 
8 miles S. S. E. of Kempen. It has manufactures of cot¬ 
ton, silk, thread, ribbons, linens, and wire. Flax is ex¬ 
tensively cultivated. Pop. 5816. 

Dulong (Pierre Louis), a French chemist and savant, 
born at Rouen Feb. 12, 1785. He discovered the chloride 
of nitrogen in 1812, and became an associate of Berzelius 
in chemical researches. In 1823 he was chosen a member 
of the Academy of Sciences. He wrote treatises on the 
theory of heat and on gases. Died at Paris July 19, 1838. 

Dulse, the name given to many of the red-spored sea¬ 
weeds. The Rhodomenia palmota , belonging to the Rho- 
domeniacem, grows on rocks on the coasts of Great Britain, 
the U. S., and other regions. It has sessile fronds of a 
dark-red or purple color, irregularly notched, and of a 
leathery texture. It is an important article of food in Ice¬ 
land, where it is dried and stored in casks. It is abundant 
on all the British coasts, and is sometimes used as food, 
either raw or cooked. The Schyzimenia edidis, of the order 
Cryptonemiaceae, is also called dulse, and is used as food. 
This also occurs in the U. S. “ Pepper dulse,” of tho 
genus Lciurentia and order Laurentiaceae, is eaten in Scot¬ 
land. It grows on our Pacific coasts. 

Duluth', a city, capital of St. Louis co., Minn., is situ¬ 
ated at the W. extremity of Lake Superior, 155 miles N. 
N. E. of St. Paul. It is the eastern terminus of the North¬ 
ern Pacific R. R., now (1874) running 452 miles westward 
to the Missouri River, and the northern terminus of the 
Lake Superior and Mississippi R. R., running from St. 
Paul. It has 12 church-edifices—1 Catholic, 1 Episcopal, 
2 Presbyterian, 1 Methodist Episcopal, 1 Congregational, 1 
Swedish Methodist, 1 Swedish Lutheran, 1 Norwegian Lu¬ 
theran, 1 German Evangelical, 1 Union or Universal, and 1 
Baptist; two grain elevators, a custom-house, and a weather- 
signal office. The Northern Pacific R. R. has in construc¬ 
tion some of the largest private docks in the U. S. The 
harbor, entered by a ship-canal 250 feet wide, is landlocked, 
being formed by Minnesota and Rice’s Points; the former 
is a scythe-shaped natural breakwater running out 7 miles 
into the lake. The harbor has been improved by the con¬ 
struction of several docks and piers, independent of the 
railroad company’s works. The outer harbor is protected 
by a partially constructed breakwater, on which has been 
expended $150,000; two-thirds of this sum by the govern¬ 
ment. Duluth has a large stove-factory, machine and car¬ 
building works, and other manufactories. In May, 1869, 
the site of the city was a forest—the old Duluth, at that 
time situated on Minnesota Point, consisted of a few cabins. 
The place is named after Capt. John Duluth, a French 
traveller, who visited the country and built a hut in 1760. 
The town has five newspapers, two of them daily. Large 
quantities of wheat and Hour are shipped from here, prin¬ 
cipally to Buffalo, N. Y. It has one national bank. Pop. 
in 1869, 38; in 1870, 3131. 1 

R. D’Unger, Ed. “Herald.” 



















DULWICH-DUMONT D’URVILLE. 


1421 


Dul'wicli, a suburb of London, England, in Surrey, 5 
miles S. of London. It is pleasantly situated near Syden¬ 
ham, and has numerous handsome villas and mansions. 
Here is Dulwich College, founded in 1619 by Edward 
Alle 3 r ne, a tragic actor, and a picture-gallery. 

Dumangas, a town in Panay, one of the Philippine 
Islands, is near the sea. Rice abounds here. Pop. about 
25,000. 

Dlimas (Alexandre), a popular French novelist and 
dramatist, born at Villers-Cotterets (Aisne) July 24, 1803. 
He was not liberally educated. He went to Paris in 1823 
to seek his fortune. In 1828 he produced “Ilenri III./’ a 
drama, which was very successful. He was a writer of 
the romantic school, and was remarkable for literary fecun¬ 
dity. Dumas displayed much skill in the construction of 
plots. Among his novels are “The Three Musketeers” 
(30 vols., 1844-45) and “The Count of Monte-Christo” 
(12 vols., 1845). It appears that a large part of the works 
published in his name were written by other men. Died 
at Puys, near Dieppe, Dec. 5, 1870. 

Dumas (Alexandre), a novelist and comic writer, a 
son of the preceding, was born in Paris July 28, 1824. 
Abandoning the imaginative romance of his father, he ap¬ 
plied himself to the study of society, and sought by veri¬ 
similitude to make good his deficiency in dramatic con¬ 
struction. His works treat mostly of the equivocal aspects 
of French life. His first novels, “ La Dame aux Camelias” 
(1848), “Diane de Lys” (1851), etc., were attended with 
great success, as also the plays which afterwards chiefly 
employed his. pen. In 1872, in “ L’Homme-Femme,” a 
social tract, he attacked the French marriage system. 

Dumas (Alexandre Daa'y de la Pailleterie), a 
French general, born in St. Domingo Mar. 25, 1762, was 
the father of Alexandre Dumas (1803-70). His mother 
was a negress. He became a general of division in 1793, 
and defeated the Austrian general Wurmscr at Mantua in 
1796. He commanded the cavalry in Egypt in 1798. Died 
in 1807. 

Dumas (Jean Baptiste), a French chemist and writer, 
born at Alais (Hard) in 1800. He became a resident of 
Paris, and married a daughter of the well-known chemist 
A. Brongniart. He acquired a European reputation by his 
discoveries in organic chemistry, isomerism, the law of sub¬ 
stitutions, and other parts of chemical philosophy. In 1832 
he was admitted into the Institute, and in 1834 he became 
professor of organic chemistry in the School of Medicine. 
His chief work is a “ Treatise on Chemistry Applied to the 
Arts” (8 vols., 1828-45). He was minister of agriculture 
and commerce from Oct., 1849, to Jan., 1851, after which 
he became a senator. 

Dumas (Mathieu), Count, a French general, born at 
Montpellier Dec. 23, 1753. He fought for the U. S. in 
1780-82, and was a moderate member of the Legislative 
Assembly in 1791. In the Reign of Terror he was con¬ 
demned to death, but he escaped and went into exile. He 
became a general of division in 1805, and served at Ulm 
and Austerlitz. In 1812 he was intendant-general of the 
grand army in Russia. He wrote a narrative of the French 
campaigns"from 1798 to 1807, entitled “Precis des Evene- 
ments Militaires ” (19 vols., 1816-26), and “Souvenirs,” an 
account of his career. Died Oct. 16, 1837. 

Dumbarton, a county of Scotland, has an area of 
297 square miles. It consists of two detached parts, one 
of them bounded on the E. by Loch Lomond, on the S. by 
the estuary of the Clyde, and on the W. by Loch Long; 
the other, much smaller, portion lying on both sides of the 
Forth and Clyde Canal. The surface is mountainous, and 
presents much picturesque scenery. Here are mines of coal 
and iron and quarries of limestone and slate. Capital, 
Dumbarton. Pop. in 1871, 58,839. 

Dumbarton, a seaport of Scotland, the capital of the 
above county, is on the river Leven near its entrance into 
the Clyde, 13 miles N. W. of Glasgow. Steamboats ply 
regularly between this port and Glasgow. It has manu¬ 
factures of glass, machinery, and ropes. Here, on a steep, 
rugged basaltic rock, rising to the height of 560 feet, stands 
the famous Dumbarton Castle, which has been a stronghold 
for many centuries. Pop. of parliamentary borough in 1871, 
11,414. 

Dumb Cane (Diejfenbachia Scr/uina), a West Indian 
shrub, so named from its acrid juice causing the tongue to 
swell. It belongs to the order Araceae. The root and the 
juice have medicinal properties, and are used in sugar-re¬ 
fining. 

Dumb'ness, when associated with deafness, is usually 
the result of that deafness; the child being unable to hear, 
of course is unable to learn to talk ; but there are at least 
two important varieties of dumbness which are the direct 
results of disease. The first of these is what physicians call 


aphonia, a loss of voice which may be transient or perma¬ 
nent, functional or structural. Diseases of the larynx or of 
the nerves supplying it are frequent causes. A much more 
formidable disease or symptom is aphasia, which is a loss 
of language rather than of speech. It is a symptom of 
brain disease, the patient having the power to articulate, 
and even to think, but not to express his thoughts. (See 
Deaf and Dumb, revised by Hon. Henry Barnard, LL.D.; 
also Aphasia and Aphonia.) 

Dum'dum, a town of British India, in Bengal, 8 miles 
N. E. of Calcutta. Here are a cantonment and a cannon- 
foundry. 

Dumfries', a county in the S. of Scotland, is bounded 
on the S. by Solway Frith, on the E. by Cumberland, on the 
N. by Roxburgh, Selkirk, Peebles, and Lanark, and on the 
W. by Ayr and Kirkcudbright. Area, 1129 square miles. 
It is drained by the Annan, the Esk, and the Nith rivers. 
The surface is mountainous in the N. and undulating in 
the S. The valleys of the Annan, Esk, and Nith are fer¬ 
tile. Among the minerals of this county are coal, lead, 
silver, limestone, and new red sandstone. It is traversed 
by two railways extending to Edinburgh and Glasgow. The 
chief towns are Dumfries, Annan, Moffat, and Sanquhar. 
Pop. in 1871, 74,794. 

Dumfries, a seaport of Scotland, the capital of the 
above county, is on the river Nith 9 miles from its entrance 
into Solway Firth, and 64 miles S. by W. from Edinburgh; 
lat. of Solway Frith light, 54° 48' N., Ion. 3° 32' W. It is 
well built of red freestone, and is regarded as the capital 
of the south of Scotland. Two bridges across the river 
connect it with Maxwelltown. The high tides of Solway 
Frith bring vessels of sixty tons to the town, and larger 
vessels to the river quays near Dumfries. Here are manu¬ 
factures of woollen cloths (tweeds), hosiery, hats, etc. 
Among the notable objects of the place is the tomb of Burns, 
who here officiated as exciseman. Pop. in 1871, 15,435. 

Dumfries, a post-township of Prince William co., Ya. 
Pop. 844. 

Dii'michen (Johannes), a German Egyptologist, born 
Oct. 15, 1833, studied at Berlin, and passed many years in 
archaeological research in the Valley of the Nile. He has 
written several treatises on Egyptian inscriptions. 

Dum'mer, a township of Coos co., N. H. It has manu¬ 
factures of lumber, etc. Pop. 317. 

Dummer (Dr. Jeremiah) was born at Boston, Mass., 
and graduated at Harvard in 1699, afterwards studying at 
Utrecht, where he obtained his doctor’s degree. Unsuccess¬ 
ful as a preacher, he became the agent of Massachusetts in 
England (1710-21). He wrote with great ability in defence 
of colonial rights, and presented 800 volumes to Yale Col¬ 
lege. Died in England May 19, 1739.—His brother, Lieu¬ 
tenant-Governor William Dummer (1677-1761), founded 
Dummer Academy at Newbury, Mass, (opened in 1763). 

Dum'merston, a township and post-village of Wind¬ 
ham co., Vt., on the Vermont Valley R. R., 5 miles N. of 
Brattleboro’. Pop. 916. 

Dumont' (Ebenezer), an American general and law¬ 
yer, born at Vevay, Ind., Nov. 23, 1814. He became a 
brigadier-general of Union volunteers in Sept., 1861, and 
defeated the Confederates at Lebanon, Ky., in May, 1862. 
Having resigned his commission early in 1863, he was a 
Republican member of Congress for two terms (1863-67). 
Died April 16, 1871. 

Dumont (Pierre Etienne Louis), a Swiss author, born 
at Geneva July 18, 1759. He was a Protestant minister, 
and emigrated in 1782 to St. Petersburg, where he preached 
eighteen months. In 1785 he removed to England, and 
became tutor to the sons of Lord Shelburne. He was in¬ 
timate with Sir Samuel Romilly and Jeremy Bentham. He 
passed the years 1790 and 1791 mostly in Paris, where he 
associated with Mirabeau, whom he aided in composing his 
speeches and reports. Having returned to England in 
1792, he edited and popularized Bentham’s works on legis¬ 
lation—namely, “Trait6s de Legislation” (1802) and 
“Theories des Peines et Recompenses ” (1810). He died 
at Milan Sept. 29, 1829, leaving “ Souvenirs sur Mirabeau” 
(183£). (See A. P. de Candolle, “Notice sur la Vie et 
les Ecrits de M. Dumont,” 1829.) 

Dumont d’Urville (Jules Sebastien Cesar), a 
French navigator, born in Normandy May 23, 1790. He 
commanded an expedition sent in 1826 to obtain tidings of 
La Perouse and to survey the coasts of New Zealand, New 
Guinea, etc. His discoveries were published in a work 
called “ Voyage of Discovery Around the W orld (22 vols., 
1832-34). In 1837 he conducted an exploring expedition 
to the Antarctic regions. He discovered land, which he 
called Terre Adelie, in lat. 66° 30' S.; returned in 1840, 
and became a rear-admiral. Died May 8, 1842. 











DUMOULIN—DUNDALK. 


1422 


Dumoulin [Lat. Molinteue], (Charles), an able French 
jurist, born in Paris in 1500. He was a Protestant, and 
was often persecuted for his religion. He wrote several 
legal works which were highly esteemed, and a book against 
the acts of the Council of Trent (published in 1564). Hied 
in 1566. 

Dumouriez (Charles Francois), a French general, 
born at Cambrai Jan. 25, 1739. He served as an officer in 
the Seven Years’ war, was quartermaster-general in Corsica 
in 1768, and was employed in a secret mission to Poland 
by the duke of Choiseul in 1770. Between 1776 and 1787 
ho was commandant at Cherbourg, where he planned and 
directed great naval works. In the Revolution he acted 
with the Girondists. He was appointed minister of foreign 
affairs in Mar., 1792, and acquired the confidence of the 
king. War having broken out between France and Austria, 
he resigned office in June, 1792, in order to take command 
of the army; invaded Flanders in Oct., 1792, and defeated 
the Austrians at Jemmapes in November, and conquered 
Belgium. According to Lamartine, he was at this period 
the virtual dictator of all parties. Instead of prosecuting 
the war with vigor, he plotted a counter-revolution, and 
negotiated secretly with the Austrians. The Convention, 
suspecting his design, sent four commissioners in April, 
1793, to summon him to Paris. Dumouriez refused to obey 
the Convention, and when the commissioners ordered the 
soldiers to arrest him he sent them as prisoners to the Aus¬ 
trian camp. His army refused to support him in this de¬ 
fection, and he became a fugitive and exile. He died in 
England Mar. 14, 1823. (See “ Memoires de Dumouriez,” 
by himself, 2 vols., 1794.) 

Dumpy Level, a levelling instrument with a short tele¬ 
scope of .large aperture, and compass-box beneath. 

Dun, a Celtic or Gothic word signifying a “hill” or 
“height.” It is the root of the names of many places 
(often modified into Dum or Don), as Dunkirk, Dumbarton, 
Donegal, etc. 

Duna Foldvar, a town of Hungary, in the county of 
Tolna, 28 miles N. of Tolna, on the Danube. Here is a 
Franciscan cloister and two match-factories. Pop. 12,382. 

Dunbar', a royal burgh and seaport of Scotland, in 
Haddingtonshire, is at the mouth of the Frith of Forth, 
27 miles E. N. E. of Edinburgh; lat. 56° N., Ion. 2° 29' W. 
The harbor will admit vessels of 300 tons. Dunbar is a 
fine old town, containing the remains of Dunbar Castle, 
which was the scene of many historical events. Dunbar 
has valuable herring-fisheries. Cromwell gained near this 
town a decisive victory over the royalists, Sept. 3, 1650. 
Pop. in 1871, 3311. 

Dunbar, a township of Faribault co., Minn. P. 203. 

Dunbar, a township and post-village of Fayette co., 
Pa., on the Pittsburg Washington and Baltimore R. R., 4 
miles S. of Connellsville. Pop. 2972. 

Dunbar (William), an eminent Scottish poet, born at 
Salton about 1460. He was a Franciscan friar and itin¬ 
erant preacher in his youth. He was employed by James 
IV. as clerk of embassy. Among his works are “ The 
Thistle and the Rose ” (1503), an allegory in honor of the 
marriage of James IV., and “ The Merle and Nightingale,” 
poems showing a rich fancy. Died about 1530. 

Dunbar'ton, a post-township of Merrimack co., N. H. 
It has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 778. 

Dunc'an, a post-township of Monroe co., Ark. Pop. 
1334. 

Duncan, a township of Mercer co., Ill. Pop. 974. 

Duncan, a township of Cheboygan co., Mich. P. 831. 

D uncan, a township of Sullivan co., Mo. Pop. 1064. 

Duncan (Adam), Viscount Duncan of Camperdown, 
a British admiral, born at Dundee July 1, 1731. He en¬ 
tered the navy in 1746, and became a post-captain in 1761. 
In 1789 ho obtained the rank of rear-admiral of the blue. 
With the rank of vice-admiral he was appointed com¬ 
mander of a fleet in the North Sea in 1795, and waged war 
against the Dutch. Many of his men mutinied and de¬ 
serted in 1797, but finally returned to their duty. He de¬ 
feated the Dutch near Camperdown in Oct., 1797, and was 
raised to the peerage for that service. Died Aug. 4, 1804. 

Duncan (James), an American officer, born in Sept., 
1810, at Cornwall, N. Y., graduated at West Point 1834, 
and inspector-general U. S. A. Jan. 26, 1849, to which date 
he served in the artillery. He served chiefly at seaboard 
posts 1834-45 ; as assistant professor at the Military Acade¬ 
my 1855 ; in Florida war 1855-56, engaged at Camp Izard 
(wounded) and Olaklikaha; in removing Cherokees to the 
West 1838; in suppressing Canada border disturbances 
1838-41; in the military occupation of Texas 1845-46; in 
the war with Mexico 1846-48, engaged at Palo Alto (brevet 


major), Resaca de la Palma (brevet lieutenant-colonel), 
Monterey (brevet colonel), Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Ama- 
zoque, San Antonio, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, Chapul- 
tepec, and the city of Mexico; and on inspection duties 
1849. Died July 3, 1849, at Mobile, Ala., aged thirty-six. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Duncan( James Henry), LL.D., born at Haverhill, Mass., 
Dec. 5, 1793, graduated at Phillips (Exeter) Academy and 
Harvard College 1812, admitted to Essex bar 1815, and en¬ 
tered upon the practice of law in Haverhill, Mass., where 
he resided till his death, Feb. 8, 1868. He was a member 
of the Massachusetts general court 1827-28, 1837-38, and 
1857; member of governor’s council 1839-40; from 1848 
to 1852 member of Congress from the Essex district, Mass.; 
for many years chairman of the board of managers of the 
American Baptist Missionary Union, a trustee of Newton 
Theological Institution, and a fellow of Brown University. 
He was active and influential in all that concerned the wel¬ 
fare of his town, his Church, and the general interests of 
humanity. 

Duncan (Johnson Iv.), a general, born in Pennsyl¬ 
vania in 1826, graduated at West Point in 1849. He en¬ 
tered the service of the Confederate States in 1861, and 
took command of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, on the 
Mississippi below New Orleans. After the fleet of Farra- 
gut had passed these forts Duncan surrendered them, April 
29, 1862. Died in Jan., 1863. 

Duncan (Joseph), an American legislator, born in Ken¬ 
tucky about 1790. He served in the war of 1812, after 
which he removed to Illinois. As a member of the senate 
of Illinois he originated a law establishing common schools. 
He was chosen a member of Congress in 1827, and governor 
of Illinois in 1834. Died Jan. 15, 1844. 

Duncan (Thomas), A. R. A., a Scottish painter, born in 
Perthshire in 1807. He painted portraits and historical 
and fancy subjects with success. He was elected an asso¬ 
ciate of the Royal Academy of London in 1843. His works 
are mostly illustrative of Scottish history, life, and charac¬ 
ter. Died in 1845. 

Duncan (William Cecil), D. D., was born in New York 
City Jan. 24, 1824, graduated at Columbia College in 1843, 
and studied at Hamilton Theological Seminary. He was 
ordained to the Baptist ministry in 1848. He was for some 
time editor of the “ South-western Baptist Chronicle,” and 
for three years professor of Greek and Latin in the Univer¬ 
sity of Louisiana. During his pastorate over the Coliseum 
place Baptist church, New Orleans, he was compelled (1861) 
to leave the South for a considerable time. He was the au¬ 
thor of several volumes of religious and denominational 
literature. Died May 1, 1864. 

Duncan and Hinton Creek, a township of Cleave- 
land co., N. C. Pop. 1242. 

Duncan'non, a post-village of Penn township, Perry 
co., Pa., on the W. bank of the Susquehanna, and on the 
Pennsylvania R. R., 16 miles N. by W. of Harrisburg. It 
has important iron-works and one weekly newspaper. 

Dun'cansby Head (anc. Berubhim), a promontory 
forming the N. E. extremity of Scotland and of Caithness, 
is li miles E. of John o’ Groat’s House; lat. 58° 40' N., 
Ion. 3° 8' AY. 

Duu'can’s Creek, a post-township of Rutherford co., 
N. C. Pop. 999. 

Dun'ciad, The, a keen poetical satire, written by 
Alexander Pope, and published complete in four books 
(1742). It is a fierce onslaught on his numerous detractors, 
who have thereby obtained an unenviable immortality. 

Dunck'er (Maximilian Wolfgang), a German histo¬ 
rian, born in Berlin in 1812. He became professor of his¬ 
tory at Halle in 1842, a member of the German national as¬ 
sembly in 1848, professor at Tubingen in 1857, and received 
an appointment in the Prussian ministry in 1861. Among 
his works are “ Origines Germanicm” (1840) and a “His¬ 
tory of Antiquity” (1852). 

Dun'combe (Thomas Slingsby), an English radical, 
born in 1797, was elected to Parliament in 1826. He repre¬ 
sented Finsbury from 1834 to 1861, advocated the vote by 
ballot, extension of suffrage, and other reforms. He was 
a witty, fluent, and popular speaker. He made in 1858 a 
motion which resulted in the relief of the Jews from politi¬ 
cal disabilities. Died Nov. 13, 1861. 

Dun'daff, a post-borough of Clifford township, Susque¬ 
hanna co., Pa. Pop. 187. 

Dundalk', a seaport-town of Ireland, the capital of 
the county of Louth, is at the mouth of Castleton River 
and on Dundalk Bay, 50 miles N. of Dublin, with which 
it is connected by railway. It has a safe harbor, which 
admits vessels drawing sixteen feet of water. The chief 
articles of export are linen, timber, iron, dairy products, 











DUN DAS—BUNKERS. 


1423 


and live-stock. Here are manufactures of soap, pins, 
leather, starch, etc. Edward Bruce took Dundalk in 1315, 
and held his court here until he was killed in 1318. Pop. 
in 1871, 10,893. 

Dundas', a county in Ontario, Dominion of Canada, is 
bounded on the S. E. by the river St. Lawrence, and inter¬ 
sected by the Grand Trunk R. R. Pop. in 1871, 18,777. 

Dundas, a post-town of Wentworth co., Ontario, Do¬ 
minion of Canada, is at the W. end of Lake Ontario, and at 
the head of the Desjardins Canal, on the Great Western 
R. R., 7 miles W. ot Hamilton. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper, and manufactures of machinery, axes, combs, wool¬ 
lens, castings, soap, etc. It has many fine buildings. Pop. 
in 1871, 3135. r 

Dundas (Henry), Viscount Melville, a Scottish law¬ 
yer and statesman, born about 1741 of a family distin¬ 
guished tor forensic ability through several generations, 
the son of Robert Dundas, Lord Arniston (1685-1753), who 
was lord advocate of Scotland (1720—25), was admitted to 
the bar in 1763. He became lord advocate of Scotland in 
1/75, and a member of Parliament, in which he promoted 
the war against the U. S. He joined the party of Pitt, who 
appointed him president of the board of control in 1784, 
after which he was a constant supporter of that minister. 
In 1791 he was appointed secretary of state for the home 
department, and in 1794 he became secretary at war. He 
resigned in 1801, received the title of Viscount Melville in 
1S02, and was appointed first lord of the admiralty in 1804. 
In 1805 he was impeached for malversation, but he was 
acquitted by the Peer3. Died May 27, 1811.—His son, 
Admiral Richard Saunders Dundas, born April 11,1802, 
commanded a fleet in the Baltic in Feb., 1855, which bom¬ 
barded Sweaborg. Died June 3, 1861. 

Dundas (Sir James Wiiitley Deans), a British admi¬ 
ral, born Dec. 4, 1785.. He commanded a fleet in the Black 
Sea in 1854, during the war against Russia. Died Oct. 3, 
1862. 

Dundas’ Strait, Northern Australia, separates Mel¬ 
ville Island from Coburg Peninsula, and is 18 miles wide. 

Dundee' [Lat. Taodummi], a royal burgh and seaport 
of Scotland, in the county of Forfar, is finely situated on 
the N. side of the wide estuary of the Tay, 10 miles from 
the sea and 50 miles by water N. N. E. of Edinburgh ; lat. 
56° 27' 36" N., Ion. 2° 57' 45" W. The principal public 
edifices are the royal exchange, opened in 1856 ,• the corn 
exchange; St. Paul’s church, with a tower and spire 217 
feet high; the infirmary and town-hall. Here is a remark¬ 
able tower 156 feet high, built in the twelfth century, to 
which three parochial churches under one roof have been 
annexed. Dundee has a theatre, a public library, and an 
asylum for the insane. It is the chief seat in Great Brit¬ 
ain of the manufacture of coarse linen fabrics—namely, 
osnaburgs, sheetings, ducks, dowlas, drills, and canvas. 
It has also manufactures of jute, confectionery, and ma¬ 
chinery. The annual value of the flax, hemp, and jute 
manufactures of Dundee is about £3,000,000. Dundee has 
an excellent harbor, and extensive docks which cost 
£600,000. It is connected with Edinburgh by a railway, the 
passengers of which cross the Friths of Tay and Forth by 
large steamboats. Here are a number of shipbuilding 
yards. Pop. in 1871, 118,974. 

Dundee, a post-village of Kane co., Ill., on Fox River, 
48 miles by railroad W. N. W. of Chicago. Pop. of Dun¬ 
dee township, 2079. 

Dundee, a post-township of Monroe co., Mich. It has 
four churches, two schools, and one newspaper, a bank, one 
paper and two planing mills. Pop. 2384. 

John Ciieever, Pub. “ Enterprise.” 

Dundee, a post-village of Starkey township, Yates co., 
N. Y., about 12*miles from Watkins and 32 miles N. by W. 
from Elmira. It has one weekly newspaper, four churches, 
a bank, an academy, two furnaces, mills, etc. Pop. 730. 

J. M. Wescott, Ed. “ Record.” 

Dundom'ald, Earls of (1669), Barons Cochrane (Scot¬ 
land, 1647).— Thomas Barnes Cochrane, eleventh earl, 
born April 18, 1814, succeeded his father in 1860. 

Dundonald (Thomas Cochrane), tenth earl of, 
an able British admiral, born Dec. 14, 1775, was a son of 
the ninth carl. He entered the navy in 1793, captured many 
prizes from the French, and became a post-captain in 1801. 
In April, 1809, he was selected for the daring and perilous 
service of burning the French fleet in Basque Roads, and 
he successfully performed that exploit. Before this date he 
had been elected to Parliament by the Whig voters of West¬ 
minster. In 1814 he was accused of complicity in fraudu¬ 
lent stock-jobbing transactions, and of spreading a false 
rumor of the fall of Napoleon to raise the price of stocks. 
He was unjustly convicted, fined £1000, dismissed from the 
service, and imprisoned. His constituents re-elected him 


to Parliament, and he escaped from jail to reappear in the 
House. He commanded the fleet of Chili (1818-22), and 
fought for the Greeks against Turkey in 1827. He suc¬ 
ceeded to the earldom in 1831, was restored to his rank in 
the navy in 1833, and was appointed a vice-admiral in 1841. 
He died Oct. 30, 1860, leaving “The Autobiography of 
a Seaman ” (1859-60). 

Dune [from Ang.-Sax. dun, a “hill”], the name given 
to low mounds of movable sand which are found on the 
coasts of Great Britain and the continent of Europe. They 
are formed by deposits of fine sand borne forward by the 
wind till it is obstructed by large stones or other obstacles, 
around which it accumulates. Dunes often cause great 
damage by their inroads upon the country, the department 
of Landes in France having been nearly overwhelmed by 
them. The annual inland progress of the sand is estimated 
at seventy-two feet. Trees and shrubs planted close to¬ 
gether have been found to be the best protection against 
the encroachments of the dunes. (See Down.) 

Duned'in, a seaport-town of New Zealand, the capital 
of the province of Otago, is on the S. E. coast of the Middle 
Isle; lat. 45° 50' S., Ion. 170° 36' E. It was founded in 
1848, since which it has increased rapidly. It is the seat 
of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. The chief product is 
wool, of which 900,000 pounds were exported in 1859. Pop. 
in 1871, 14,857. 

Dunel'len, a post-village of Piscataway township, Mid¬ 
dlesex co., N. J., on the Central R. R. of New Jersey, 14 
miles S. W. of Elizabeth. 

Dunferm'line, a handsome royal burgh of Scotland, 
in Fifcshire, is on a long ridge 3 miles from the Frith of 
Forth and 15 miles N. W. of Edinburgh. It derives its 
prosperity chiefly from manufactures of linen, cotton, 
worsted, iron, etc., and is said to be unrivalled by any 
British town in the manufacture of damask linen. Here 
are also several iron-foundries, collieries, dye-works, and 
bleaching-works. Dunfermline was a town as early as 1100 
A. D. Malcolm Canmore founded here about 1080 a Bene¬ 
dictine abbey, of which some ruins are still visible. Here 
was also a regal palace of the Stuarts, now ruined. Robert 
Bruce was buried at Dunfermline. Pop. in 1871, 14,958. 

Dun'fish, in the U. S. a name given to codfish cured 
in such a manner as to give them a “dun ” color. Fish for 
“dunning” are caught in February or in early spring. 
The fish are taken in deep water, are split and incompletely 
salted, then laid in a pile for two or three months in a dark 
place, and covered with salt hay, eel-grass, etc., and pressed 
by some weight. They are then uncovered and closely 
packed for several months, when they are ready for use. 
They acquire a peculiar flavor, which is greatly liked by 
many. The Isles of Shoals (Me. and N. H.) are a princi¬ 
pal seat of this method of curing. 

Dungar'van, a seaport and bathing-place of Ireland, 
in the county of Waterford, is on Dungarvan Bay, 40 miles 
E. N. E. of Cork. Its harbor admits only small vessels. 
It has three convents, and an old castle now used as a bar¬ 
rack. Pop. in 1871, 7700. 

Dung Beetle, a name given to many coleopterous 
insects of the family Scarabaeidm and of the genera Copria, 
Phaneua, Aphodiua, Geotrupca, Bolbocerus, Trox, and others. 
Some of these insects enclose their eggs in pellets or globes 
of manure. There are many species in America, Europe, 
Asia, and Africa. The sacred scarabaeus of the Egyptians 
was a true dung beetle, the Ateuchua sacer of the Old World. 

Dun'geon (originally Donjon, which see), a prison; a 
dark and subterraneous cell or place of confinement. 

Dimg'lison (Robley), M. D., LL.D., was born at Kes¬ 
wick, England, Jan. 4, 1798, received his medical educa¬ 
tion at London and Erlangen, was professor of medicine in 
the University of Virginia (1824-33), of therapeutics in the 
University of Maryland (1833-36), and of the institutes 
of medicine (1836-68) in the Jefferson Medical College, 
Philadelphia. He published about twenty volumes, among 
which are “Human Physiology” (1832), a “Medical Dic¬ 
tionary” (1833), a work of vast erudition and great value, 
“Therapeutics and Materia Medica” (1836), and a dic¬ 
tionary for the blind. Died April 1, 1869. 

Dun'ham, a township of McHenry co., Ill. Pop. 999. 
Dunham, a post-township of Washington co., 0. I\ 755. 
Dun'kard, a post-township of Greene co., Pa. P. 1520. 
Dunkeld', a small town of Scotland, in Perthshire, is 
on the Tay, 15 miles N. N. W. of Perth. It is in a vale en¬ 
closed by mountains. A cathedral was built hero in 1330, 
several centuries after the foundation of Dunkeld, which 
became the seat of a bishop in 1127. Here is the man¬ 
sion of the duke of Athole, with the largest and finest park 
in Scotland, including twenty square miles of larch woods. 
Dunk'ers, Dunk'ards, or Tunk'ers [from the Gcr. 
























1424 


DUNKIRK—DUNNVILLE. 


tunken, to “ dip ”], a sect of German American Baptists, 
called by themselves Drethren, said to have been founded 
at Schwarzenau in Westphalia by one Alexander Mack in 
1708, and named from their manner of baptism by trine im¬ 
mersion of believers. Having been driven from Germany 
by persecution between 1719 and 1729, they settled in Penn¬ 
sylvania, and subsequently in Ohio, Indiana, Maryland, 
Virginia, and several other States. Their doctrines are 
similar to those of the Mennouites, and in the simplicity 
of their dress and speech they somewhat resemble the So¬ 
ciety of Friends. They use the kiss of charity, love-feasts, 
feet-washing, laying on of hands, anointing with oil, etc. 
They have bishops, elders, teachers, and deacons. They 
condemn war and will not engage in lawsuits. They hold 
an annual meeting about Whitsuntide, which is attended 
by the bishops, teachers, and representatives chosen by 
the congregations. The belief in universal redemption, 
though not an article of faith, is commonly held by 
them. They are opposed to statistics, 
which they believe to savor of pride, and 
trustworthy statements of their number 
can, therefore, not be given. The entire 
population connected with the denomina- 
tion is estimated at about 100,000. They _Jrrf 

have a monthly publication called the .; 

“ Gospel Visitor.” From the Dunkers as 
a sect must be distinguished the Seventh- 
Day Dunkers, commonly called German 
Seventh-Day Baptists (which see), who 
are sometimes confounded with them. 

Dun'kirk [Fr. Dunkerque], a fortified 
seaport-town in the extreme northern part 
of France, is in the department of Nord, 
and on the Strait of Dover, about 40 
miles N. W. of Lille and 46 miles E. of 
Dover ; lat. 51° 3' N., Ion. 2° 22' E. It 
is the northern terminus of the Railway 
du Nord. It is well built, with wide and 
well-paved streets, and is defended by a 
citadel and ramparts. The harbor is 
shallow, but the roadstead is large and 
safe. Dunkirk has several fine churches, 
a college, a theatre, a public library, and 
a town-hall; also manufactures of soap, 
starch, cordage, and leather, with metal- 
foundries and shipbuilding yards. It 
became a free port in 1826, since which it has an active 
trade in wines, liqueurs, etc. A church is said to have 
been built here in the seventh century among the sandhills 
or dunes, and hence its name, which signifies “church of 
the dunes.” Dunkirk was taken by the English in 1658, 
but was sold to the French king by Charles II. in 1662. 
Pop. 33,083. 


Brockden Brown” (1827), “History of the Rise and Pro¬ 
gress of the Arts of Design in the U. S.” (1834), and a 
“History of the American Theatre” (1833). Died Sept. 
28, 1839. 

Dunleith', a city of Jo Daviess co., Ill., on the Mis¬ 
sissippi River opposite Dubuque, and 16 miles N. W. of 
Galena, at the N. W. corner of the State. It is on the Illi¬ 
nois Central R. R., which here crosses the Mississippi by a 
noble bridge. The town has manufactures of machinery, 
castings, agricultural implements, beer, etc., and has a trade 
in grain. Pop. including Dunleith township, 1352. 

Dun-le-Roi, a town of France, department of Cher, 
16 miles S. E. of Bourges. It is an iron-mining district. 
Pop. 5454. 

Dun'lin, called also Sea Snipe and Oxbird (Tringa 
variabilis), is a species of sandpiper found in most parts 
of North America and Europe. It is eight inches long, of 



Dunlin. 

a black, rufous, and gray color on the back, and black and 
white beneath. Audubon calls it the red-backed sand¬ 
piper (Tringa alpina). 

Dun'more, a post-borough of Luzerne co., Pa., 2 
miles N. E. of Scranton. It derives its prosperity chiefly 
from coal-mines which are worked in the vicinity. Pop. 
4311. 


Dunkirk, a post-village and port of entry of Chau¬ 
tauqua co., N. Y., is on Lake Erie and on the Lake Shore 
and Michigan Southern R. R., 40 miles S. W. of Buffalo. 
It is the westei-n terminus of the Erie R. R., which connects 
it with New York City, 459 miles distant, and the northern 
terminus of the Dunkirk Alleghany Valley and Pittsburg 
R. R. It has a good harbor and an advantageous position 
for trade. It has two banks, locomotive-works employing 
600 men, a foundry, a coal and grain elevator, and various 
mills and factories. The village is lighted by gas, and 
supplied with water from Lake Erie by the Holly system, 
and has nine churches, a horse railroad, an orphan asylum, 
an opera-house, a library and free reading-room, etc. Two 
weekly newspapers are published here. Pod. 5231 ; of Dun¬ 
kirk township, 6912. 

Monroe T. Cushing, Ed. “Advertiser and Union.” 

Dunkirk, a post-village of Blanchard township, Har¬ 
din co., O., on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R., 
84 miles E. by S. of Fort Wayne, Ind. 

Dunkirk, a post-township of Dane co., Wis. P. 2179. 

Dunk'lin, a county in the S. E. of Missouri. Area, 
525 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the St. 
Francis River. The surface is nearly level; the soil is 
fertile, but partly subject to inundation. Grain, tobacco, 
and wool are raised. Capital, Ivennett. Pop. 5982. 

Dunklin, a township of Greenville co., S. C. P. 1457. 

Dunlap, a post-village of Harrison co., Ia., on the 
Chicago and North-western R. R. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. It is a flourishing place, with an active trade. 

L. F. Cook, Ed. and Prop. “ Reporter.” 

Dunlap, a post-village, capital of Sequatchie co., Tenn., 
on the Sequatchie River, about 94 miles S. E. of Nashville. 

Dunlap (William), an American painter and writer, 
born at Perth Amboy, N. J., Feb. 19, 1766. Among his 
paintings are “Christ Rejected” (1821) and “Calvary” 
(1828). lie wrote, besides other works, a “ Life of Charles 


Dunmore, Earls of (1686), Viscounts Fincastle and 
Lords Murray (Scotland, 16S6), Barons Dunmore (United 
Kingdom, 1831).— Charles Adolphus Murray, seventh 
earl, born Mar. 24, 1841, succeeded his father in 1845. 

Dunn, a county in the W. of Wisconsin. Area, 864 
square miles. It is intersected by the Red Cedar River, 
which enters the Chippewa River in the southern part of 
the county. The surface is diversified by forests and 
prairies ; the soil is productive. Lumber, dairy products, 
grain, wool, and hay are the staples. It is traversed by 
the West Wisconsin R. R. Capital, Menomonee. Pop. 
9488. 

Dunn, a township of Dane co., Wis. Pop. 1172. 

Dunn, a township of Dunn co., Wis. Pop. 990. 

Dun'nage [etymology uncertain], on shipboard, the 
name given to the loose wood, fagots, and rubbish placed 
on the bottom of the hold to raise the cargo, either to keep 
it dry or to keep the ship in trim. 

Dun'nct Head, a rocky peninsula of Scotland, 100 to 
600 feet high, in Caithness, is the most northern point of 
Great Britain. Here is a lighthouse 340 feet above the sea. 

Dun'ning (John), Lord Ashburton, an eminent Eng¬ 
lish lawyer, born at Ashburton Oct. 18, 1731. He was 
called to the bar in 1756. was appointed solicitor-general 
in 1767, and became a Whig member of Parliament in 
1768. He was a witty and sarcastic speaker, and stood in 
the foremost rank among English advocates. He married 
Elizabeth Baring in 1780, and received the title of Baron 
Ashburton in 1782. Died Aug. 18, 1783. 

Dunn’s, a township of Tuscaloosa co., Ala. Pop. 556. 

Dunn’s, a township of Franklin co., N. C. Pop. 838. 

Dunn’s Rock, a post-township of Transylvania co., 
N. C. Pop. 420. 

Dunn'ville, a post-village of Monck co., Ontario, Can- 





















































































DUNRAVEN AND MOUNT EARL—DUPLEIX. 1425 


ada, is on Grand River and the Grand Trunk R. R., 38 
miles W. of Buffalo. One weekly newspaper is published 
here. Steamboats can ascend the river from Lake Erie to 
this place, which has a large trade, a tine water-power, 
and considerable manufactures. Pop. 1452. 

Dunra'ven and Mount Earl, Earls of (1822), Vis¬ 
counts Mount Earl (1816), Viscounts Adare (1822), Barons 
Adare (Ireland, 1800), Barons Kenry (United Kingdom, 
1866), and baronets (1781).— Windham Thomas Windham 
Quin, fourth earl, born Feb. 12, 1841, succeeded his father 
in 1871. 

Duns Sco'tus (John), surnamed the Subtle Doctor, 
a celebrated theologian and scholastic philosopher, was 
born^about 1265. He is claimed as their countryman by 
the Scots, the English, and the Irish. He was of gentle 
blood, studied at Oxford, became a Franciscan friar, and 
in 1301 professor of theology at that place. In 1304 he 
removed to Paris, where he taught theology with great dis¬ 
tinction. He wrote many works on theology and meta¬ 
physics, and was a realist in philosophy. He affirmed, 
against Thomas Aquinas, that the individuality of the soul 
is independent of its union with the body; that the will is 
free; and that the faculties of the soul are not subjectively 
distinct from each other, but are constant modes of action 
of a unit of existence. In theology he favored the doc¬ 
trine of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary. 
He was the founder of a school called Scotists, who main¬ 
tained for several centuries a controversy With tho Thomists 
(>• e. the disciples of Aquinas). He died at Cologne in 1308. 

Dun'staMe, a township and post-village of Middlesex 
co., Mass. Dunstable Station is on the Boston Lowell and 
Nashua R. R., 33 miles N. W. of Boston. Pop. 471. 

Dunstable, a township of Clinton co., Pa. Pop. 515. 

Dun'stan, Saint, an English prelate, born at Glaston¬ 
bury in 925 A. D. He was a man of extraordinary abili¬ 
ties, and gained renown by his ascetic piety. Ho acquired 
the favor of Edred, who began to reign in 946 A. D., and 
he took a prominent part in the government during his 
reign. He was banished by Edwy, but obtained the chief 
power under Edgar, who became king in 959, and ap¬ 
pointed Dunstan archbishop of Canterbury. Dunstan pro¬ 
moted the papal supremacy, enriched and exalted the monks, 
and compelled the clergy to practise celibacy. He was de¬ 
prived of power on the accession of Ethelrcd in 978. Died 
May 19, 988 A. D. 

Dun'ster (Henry), the first president of Harvard Col¬ 
lege, was born in Lancashire, England, and educated at 
Magdalen College, Cambridge. He came to New England 
in 1610, and entered upon his presidency Aug. 27th of that 
year. In 1654 he was compelled to resign, in consequence 
of having borne public testimony against the baptism of 
infants, for which offence he was afterwards tried by a jury 
and placed under bonds. Still later, he was again pre¬ 
sented by the grand jury for neglect to have one of his chil¬ 
dren baptized. He was esteemed for learning and piety. 
He assisted in the preparation of the “New England 
Psalm-book” (1640). Died at Scituate, Mass., Feb. 27, 
1659. (See “ Life of Dunster,” by J. Chaplin, D. D., 1872.) 

Dun'ton (John), an eccentric English writer and dis¬ 
senter, born at Graffham May 4,1659. He opened a book¬ 
store in London about 1685, but failed in business. He 
wrote, besides other works, “ The Athenian Mercury” (20 
vols., 1690-96), the “Dublin Scuffle” (1699), and “The Life 
and Errors of John Dunton, with the Lives and Characters 
of a Thousand Persons,” containing an account of a visit to 
Boston and Salem, and sketches of ministers and prominent 
citizens of New England in 1685 (1705; new ed. 1818). 
Died in 1733. 

Dunwotly (Samuel), a minister of the Methodist Epis¬ 
copal Church South, born in Pennsylvania Aug. 3, 1780. He 
was forty-eight years a minister in the South Carolina Con¬ 
ference, which extended into North Carolina and Georgia. 
He was a bold pioneer of Methodism, a powerful controvert- 
ist, an original thinker, and a successful preacher. He or¬ 
ganized the first Methodist church in Savannah, Ga., in 1807. 
lie died in South Carolina July 8, 1854. T. 0. Summers. 

Duodecimals [from the Lat. duodecim, “twelve”], 
called also Cross-Multiplication, is the name given to 
a method by which the area of a rectangular surface is cal¬ 
culated when the length and breadth are stated in feet, 
inches, and lines. It is principally used by artificers in 
finding the contents of their work. The operation is per¬ 
formed by substituting the duodecimal scale of notation for 
the decimal. 

The Duodecimal Scale is the scale of notation obtained 
by the division of unity into twelve equal parts. Compu¬ 
tation in this manner has some advantages, as 12 may be 
divided into so many equal parts—viz. 2, 3, 4, and 6; but 
90 


the decimal scale, which coincides with our system of nota¬ 
tion, is now universally preferred. 

Duodecimo [from the Lat. duodecim, “twelve”], a 
term signifying “twelfth,” is applied to a book when every 
sheet being six times folded forms twelve leaves. It is usu¬ 
ally abbreviated into 12mo. 

Diiode'num [from the Lat. duodeni, “twelve,” be¬ 
cause it is about twelve finger-breadths long in man], that 
part of the small intestine which is nearest the stomach. 
In man it is eight or ten inches in length. It is the widest, 
shortest, and most fixed part of the small intestine, having 
no mesentery. It is somewhat horseshoe-like in form, the 
convexity to the right. It receives the secretions of the 
liver and the pancreas. Its muscular fibres are more nu¬ 
merous than in the rest of the small intestine. 

Du Page, a county in the N. E. of Illinois. Area, 340 
square miles. It is drained by the branches of the Du 
Page River. The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. 
Cattle, grain, wool, hay, and dairy products are the staples. 
The most numerous manufactories are those of carriages. 
It is intersected by the Chicago Burlington and Quincy 
R. R. and the Chicago and North-western R. R. Capital, 
Wheaton. Pop. 16,685. 

Du Page, a post-township of Will co., Ill. Pop. 1118. 

Dupanloup (Feltx Antoine Philibert), a French 
bishop, born at Saint-Felix, in Savoy, Jan. 3,1802. He be¬ 
came bishop of Orleans in 1849, and was admitted into the 
French Academy in 1854. He wrote, besides other works, 
a popular treatise on education (3 vols., 1855-57). In 1871 
he was elected a member of the National Assembly. Ho 
was nominated archbishop of Paris in 1871, but declined 
that office. 

Duperre (Victor Guy), Baron, a French admiral, born 
at La Rochelle Feb. 20, 1775. He gained the rank of vice- 
admiral in 1826, and commanded the fleet which aided the 
army to conquer Algiers in 1830, and was made admiral. 
Died Nov. 2, 1846. 

Duperrey (Louis Isidore), a French navigator and 
hydrographer, born in Paris in 1786. He conducted an 
exploring expedition in 1822 to the islands of the Pacific. 
Ho surveyed the coasts of New Zealand and parts of Aus¬ 
tralia, returned in 1825, and published a “ Voyage Round 
the World in the Corvette La Coquille” (1826-30). 

Dupetit-Thouars (Abel Aubert), a French admiral, 
born Aug. 3, 1793, was the son of Abel Aubert Dupetit- 
Thouars, captain of the ship Lc Tonnant, destroyed in the 
battle of Aboukir, and nephew of Louis Marie Aubert 
Dupetit-Thouars, botanist (born Nov. 11, 1758, died in 
1831), who explored the botany of Africa, Madagascar, etc. 
He was appointed commander of the naval forces in the 
Pacific Ocean, and"seized the island of Tahiti in 1842, but 
this act was disavowed by his government. He published 
a “Voyage Round the World” (10 vols., 1841-49). Died 
Mar. 17, 1864. 

Dupin (Andre Marie Jean Jacques), a French lawyer 
and statesman, born at Varzy, in Nievre, Feb. 1,1783. He 
gained distinction as the advocate of Marshal Ney, B6ran- 
ger, and other persons tried for political offences. In 1826 
he was elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies, in 
which he acted with the liberals. He promoted the revo¬ 
lution of 1830 and the accession of Louis Philippe. He was 
chosen president of the Chamber of Deputies eight times 
between 1832 and 1848, and was admitted into the French 
Academy in 1832. In Feb., 1848, he supported the count 
of Paris as the successor to Louis Philippe, but he recog¬ 
nized the republic which was then formed. He was a 
prominent member of the Constituent Assembly, and was 
president of the Legislative Assembly in 1849. In 1857 he 
was appointed procureur-gen6ral of France. He published, 
besides other works, “Memoireset Plaidoyeurs” (20 vols., 
1806-30). Died Nov. 10, 1865. 

Dupin (Francois Pierre Charles), Baron, a French 
geometer, a brother of the preceding, was born at Varzy 
Oct. 6, 1784. He visited England in 1816, and published 
“ Travels in Great Britain ” (6 vols., 1820-24). He became 
professor of mechanics at the Conservatoire des Arts et 
Metiers in 1810. He wrote on geometry and mechanics, 
and did much to advance the useful arts and improve the 
condition of the laboring people. In the legislature his 
labors were extensive. He was an Orleanist. Died Jan. 
18, 1873. 

Duplain', a post-township of Clinton co., Mich. Pop. 
1493. 

Dupleix (Joseph), Marquis, a French governor, born 
about 1695. He amassed a fortune by commercial opera¬ 
tions in India, and in 1742 was appointed governor of Pon¬ 
dicherry and all tho French possessions in India. Ho 
formed the project of founding a European empire in that 


£ 













1426 


DUPLICATE RATIO—DUKA MATER. 


country, and soon made himself master of the Carnatic, 
partly by fighting and partly by political intrigues, lie 
was opposed by the English general Clive, who defeated the 
French in several battles. Dupleix was removed from tho 
command in 1754, and returned to France, where he died 
in 1763. 


Duplicate Ratio, the ratio of squares. Thus, tho 

the duplicate ratio is 2 2 :4 2 


2 .— 1 
2 ) 


simple ratio of 2 to 4 is 

_ 4 _ 1 

~ 1 5 ~ 

Duplin, a county in the S. E. of North Carolina. Area, 
060 square miles. It is intersected by the North Branch 
of Cape Fear River. The surface is level; the soil is mostly 
sandy, and is partly covered with forests of pine. Cotton, 
corn, rice, wool, and cattle are raised. It is traversed by 
the Wilmington and Weldon R. R. Capital, Ivenansville. 
Pop. 15,542. 


Dupon'ceau (Peter S.), LL.D., a French lawyer and 
scholar, born in the island of Rhe June 3, 1760. He emi¬ 
grated to the U. S. in 1777, and served in the army as aide- 
de-camp to Baron Steuben. He practised law in Philadel¬ 
phia with distinction, and was president of the American 
Philosophical Society. He wrote on philosophy and other 
subjects. In 1838 lie published a work on Indian lan¬ 
guages. Died April 1, 1844. 


Dupont', a post-township of Waupacca co., Wis. Pop. 
150. 

Dupont (Pierre), a popular French song-writer, born 
at Lyons April 23,1821. He composed the words and airs 
to his poems at the same time. Among his works are 
“The Two Angels,” a poem (1842), the “Song of Bread,” 
and the “Song of the Workers.” Died at Lyons July 25, 
1870. 

Du Pont (Samuel Francis), U. S. N., born of French 
descent Sept. 27, 1803, at Bergen Point, N. J., entered the 
navy as a midshipman Dec. 19, 1815, became a lieutenant 
in 1826, a commander in 1842, a captain in 1855, and a 
rear-admiral in 1862. To attempt to give even a brief 
outline of the services of one whose naval life of fifty years 
was but a record of constant and continuous devotion to 
the navy and the country, within the limits assigned in 
this volume to biography, would indeed be vain. The 
writer must therefore restrict himself to saying that while 
in command of the Cyane on the W. coast of Mexico dur¬ 
ing our war with that republic, Du Pont added to a name 
already distinguished a reputation for ability, sound judg¬ 
ment, discreetness, and daring which all his after service 
tended greatly to strengthen; so that when the first act of 
the drama of the civil war opened with the fall of Fort 
Sumter, Du Pont stood prominently forward, by the side of 
Farragut and Foote, as one to wliom might safely be en¬ 
trusted the honor and welfare of his country in this her 
hour of need. So soon, therefore, as the government had 
decided “to seize and occupy one or more important points 
on our Southern coast,” it confided to his care that part of 
the joint army and navy expedition organized for this pur¬ 
pose, upon which the success of the whole depended; and 
when he unfurled his flag from the masthead of the Wabash, 
the desk of the secretary of the navy was filled with appli¬ 
cations from officers asking to servo under him; for all 
were anxious to follow whithersoever Du Pont might choose 
to lead. How well founded their confidence the result 
shows; for on the evening of the ninth day after sailing 
from Hampton Roads, Du Pont, with his fleet of fifteen 
vessels, was in possession of Port Royal Bay, one" of the 
finest and largest harbors of the South, after a brilliant 
and successful engagement of four hours with two strong 
forts splendidly garrisoned and mounting forty-three guns, 
all but four of which were of heavy calibre. He now 
established a rigid blockade of the coast, pushed his ves¬ 
sels into almost every bay, inlet, and river of South Caro¬ 
lina, Georgia, and Florida, and took possession of several 
strong places which served as points d'appui for the army. 

On the 7th of April, 1863, at 3 p. m., he engaged Fort 
Sumter with eight iron-clads, and, not having silenced the 
fort at 4.30 p. M., made signal then “to withdraw from 
action,” intending to renew the engagement on the follow¬ 
ing morning; but, finding that many of his vessels were 
injured, and one, the Keokuk, sunk, he became convinced 
that to do so would be “to convert failure into disaster,” 
and abandoned his design, expressing to the department 
his opinion that Charleston could not be taken “ by a purely 
naval attack ”—a judgment that the events of the next two 
years amply vindicated and sustained. In July, 1863, 
being relieved from the command of the South Atlantic 
fleet, he returned to his home, where he died on the 23d of 
June, 1865, sincerely regretted by the whole navy. 

A thorough seaman, an accomplished officer, a Christian 
gentleman, he was beloved by all who came in contact with 
him, and best by those who knew him best. His mind, 


like his stature, was above that of ordinary men, his person 
graceful and commanding, his countenance handsome, 
thoughtful, and interesting; and “in looking upon him,” 
as Tacitus says of the wise and virtuous Agricola, “ you 
would have been easily convinced that lie was a good man, 
and you would have been willing to believe him a great 
one.” Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Dupont de l’Etang (Pierre), a French general, born 
at Chabannais July 14, 1765. He served with distinction 
at Jena (1806) and Fricdland (1807). Having obtained 
the command of an army in Spain, he was defeated at 
Baylen in June, 1808, by De Castanos, who took from him 
18,000 prisoners. For this ill-success he w r as disgraced 
and imprisoned. Died Feb. 16, 1838. 

Dupont dc l’Eure (Jacques Charles), a French 
judge and legislator, born in 1767. He was liberal in poli¬ 
tics, and represented his native department (L’Eure) in the 
Chamber of Deputies (1817-48). He was chosen president 
of the provisional government in Feb., 1848. Died in 1855. 

Dupont de Nemours (Pierre Samuel), a French 
economist, born in Paris Dec. 14,1739. He became a mem¬ 
ber of the National Assembly in 1790, and of the Council 
of Ancients in 1795. In 1795 he was admitted into the In¬ 
stitute. He refused to take office under Napoleon, and 
emigrated to Delaware in 1815. He wrote several treatises 
on political economy and natural history, and “Philosophic 
de FUnivers” (1796). Died Aug. 6, 1817. 

Dupre (Giovanni), an Italian sculptor, born at Sienna 
Mar. 1, 1817, first practised his father’s trade of wood¬ 
carving. His works treat mostly of religious subjects; 
among them are “Abel ” and a “ Pieta.” Died Sept., 1869. 

Dupre (Jules), a French landscape-painter of the 
realistic school, born at Nantes in 1S12, was the son of a 
maker of porcelain, in which occupation he first engaged. 
He first exhibited in 1831. 

Dupuis (Charles Fran£OIs), a French philosopher, 
born at Trie-le-Chateau (Oise) Oct. 16, 1742. He became 
professor of rhetoric in the College of Lisieux in 1766, and 
was a friend and pupil of Lalande the astronomer. Ilis 
“ Origine de tous les Cultes, ou la Religion Universelle” 
(12 vols., 1794), contained bold speculations on religion. 
Died Sept. 29, 1809. 

Dupuytren (Guillaume), Baron, a French surgeon 
and anatomist, born Oct. 6, 1777, became professor of sur¬ 
gery in Paris in 1811. He was reputed the most skilful 
French surgeon of his time, made important discoveries in 
morbid anatomy, and invented several useful instruments. 
Died Feb. 8, 1835. (Sec Cruveiliiier, “Vie de Dupuy¬ 
tren,” 1841.) 

Duquesne, du-kain', a former borough of Alleghany 
co., Pa., on the right bank of the Alleghany River. It has 
been annexed to Allegheny City, of which it forms the 
eighth ward. 

Duquesne (Abraham), Marquis, a famous French 
naval commander, born at Dieppe in 1610. lie served with 
distinction against the Spaniards at Tarragona in 1641. In 
1643 he defeated the Danes near Gothenburg, and compelled 
them to make peace. He defeated the Spanish and Dutch 
fleet under De Ruyter in the Mediterranean, near Catania, 
in April, 1676. Died at Paris Feb. 2, 1688. (See Andre 
Richer, “Vie du Marquis Duquesne,” 1783.) 

Duquesnoy (Francis), called II Fiammingo, a sculp¬ 
tor, born at Brussels in 1594, was a friend of N. Poussin, 
and a rival of Bernini at Rome. Died in 1646. 

Duquoin, a city of Perry co., Ill., on the Illinois Cen¬ 
tral R. R., 76 miles N. of Cairo, at its junction with the St. 
Louis and Southern Illinois R. R. It has four churches, 
one graded school, a park and public library, a foundry 
and machine-shops, salt-works, two flouring-inills, stave- 
factory, and twelve coal-mines. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. Pop. 2212. R. Berrey & Co., Props. “ Tribune.” 

Du'ra Ma'ter [the Lat. for “hard” or “unyielding 
mother,” so named because it is more unyielding than the 
“pia mater”], the outermost of the three meninges or 
membranes enveloping the brain and spinal cord in verte¬ 
brate animals. Within the skull it is so completely joined 
to the bones that it may be regarded as their endosteum. 
Its inner surface is covered with pavement epithelium, and 
perhaps by the parietal layer of the arachnoid membrane, 
but this is denied by Kolliker. The dura mater sends out 
sheaths for the nerves as they go through their foramina. 
It is usually studded, except in infancy, by numerous small 
whitish masses called tho Pacchionian bodies, whose use is 
not understood. The tentorium and the falces (falx cerebri 
and falx cerebelli) are induplications of tho dura mater 
sent into the cavity of the skull. Within the spinal canal 
the dura mater becomes a fibrous tube, separated from the 
vertebras (which have an endosteum) b}' a loose areolar 
















DURAMEN—DURER. 1427 


fatty tissue and a plexus of veins. It is much larger than 
the spinal cord, the space between being filled by the other 
meninges and by the cercbro-spinal fluid. 

Dura'men [from duro, to “harden”], a Latin word 
signifying a “ hardening,” is a term applied in botany to 
the hardened and matured central layers of exogenous 
trees, commonly called “ heart-wood.” It is more dense, 
compact, and durable than the alburnum or sap-wood, and 
its tubes are filled with the peculiar secretions of the tree, 
so that the sap no longer circulates freely through them. 
In many species it is of a darker color than the alburnum. 
The duramen is the most valuable part of the tree for tim¬ 
ber and for the use of the cabinet-maker. 

Durance [Lat. Druentia], a river in the S. E. part of 
France, rises among the Cottian Alps in the department 
of Hautes-Alpes. Its general direction is nearly south- 
westward. It flows through the department of Basses- 
Alpes, forms the south-western boundary of Vaucluse, and 
enters the Rhone 3 miles below Avignon. Its total length 
is nearly 200 miles. Marseilles is supplied with water from 
this river by an aqueduct 51 miles long. 

Durand', a township and village of Winnebago co., Ill., 
on the Western Union R. R. Pop. 1578. 

Durand, a post-village, capital of Pepin co., Wis., is 
in Durand township and on the Chippewa River, about 20 
miles N. of Wabashaw (Minn.). It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. Pop. of township, 917. 

S. A. Foster, Ed. “ Times.” 

Durand (Asher Brown), an eminent American painter 
and engraver, born at Jefferson, N. J., Aug. 21, 1796. He 
engraved several portraits for the “ National Portrait Gal¬ 
lery,” also Trumbull’s “ Declaration of Independence.” 
After 1835 he devoted himself almost exclusively to paint¬ 
ing, and gained brilliant fame as a landscape-painter. 
Among his paintings are “ The Capture of Major Andr6,” 
“ The Wrath of Peter Stuyvesant,” “ A Primeval Forest,” 
“Franconia Mountains,” and “The Rainbow.” 

Durand (Guillaume) de Saint-Pourcain, known 
as the “ Most Resolute Doctor,” a scholastic divine, born at 
St.-Pourgain, Auvergne, about 1280. He was a Dominican 
friar in his youth. In 1318 he became bishop of Puy, and 
bishop of Meaux in 1326. He died about 1332. He was a 
decided nominalist, and by his independent thinking is be¬ 
lieved to have contributed to the rise of the Reformation. 
His best-known writings are commentaries on Peter Lom¬ 
bard, and a work on the canon law (“ De Origine Jurisdic- 
tionum ”). In his treatise “ On the State of the Pious 
Dead” he attacked the opinions of Pope John XXII. 

Duran'do (Giacomo), an Italian general, born at Mon- 
dovi in 1807. He printed in 1847 a brochure in favor of 
Italian unity under a constitutional government, which had 
an extensive influence. He was minister of war at Turin 
in 1854-55, and became a senator in 1860. In 1862-63 he 
was minister of foreign affairs in the cabinet of Ratazzi. 

Durun'go, a state of Mexico, bounded on the N. by 
Chihuahua, on the E. by Cohaliuila, on the S. by Xalisco, 
and on the W. by Cinaloa. The surface is mostly moun¬ 
tainous. It belongs to the N. part of the table-land of 
Anahuac. Area, 42,645 square miles. Gold and silver are 
found here. Capital, Durango. Pop. in 1871, 185,077. 

Durango, or Guadiana, a town of Mexico, capital 
of the above state, is about 150 miles N. W. of Zacatecas; 
lat. 24° 2' N., Ion. 103° 34'W. It is nearly 7000 feetabove 
the level of the sea. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a 
cathedral, a college, a mint, several convents, and a theatre; 
also manufactures of tobacco and iron. Pop. in 1868, 
12,449. 

Durant', a post-village of Farmington township, Cedar 
co., Ia., on the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R. 
Pop. 373. 

Durant, a post-village of Holmes co., Miss., on the 
Mississippi Central R. It., 59 miles N. by E. of Jackson. 
Pop. 375. 

Duran'te (Francesco), an Italian composer, born Mar. 
15, 1684, studied music at Naples under Gaetano Greco 
and under Scarlatti, and in 1742 became director of the 
conservatory of Sta. Maria di Loreto at Naples. His com¬ 
positions consist solely of church music, and are marked 
by loftiness and purity of style. Died Aug. 13, 1755. 

Dura'zzo [Turkish Drasch ; anc. Epidamnus, after¬ 
wards Dyrrhachium ], a fortified maritime town of Euro¬ 
pean Turkey, in Albania, is on the Adriatic; lat. 41° 18' 
N. Ion. 19° 28' E. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic 
archbishop. It has a safe harbor and an active trade. 
Grain, tobacco, and olive oil are exported from it. The 
ancient Epidamnus was a populous city. The expulsion 
of its aristocracy in 436 B. C. was the origin of the Pelo¬ 
ponnesian war. The Romans changed the name to Dv r- 

x 


riiaciiium (which see). It was captured by the Norman 
chief Robert Guiscard in 1082, and by the Venetians in 1205. 
Pop. about 8000. 

Dur'bin (John Price), D. D., an American Methodist 
preacher, born in Bourbon co., Ky., in 1800, was educated 
at Miami Uuiversity and Cincinnati College, and entered 
the ministry in 1819. He became president of Dickinson 
College in Pennsylvania in 1834. Having visited Europe 
and the Levant, he published “Observations in Europe, 
principally in France and Great Britain” (2 vols., 1844), 
and “ Observations in Egypt, Palestine, etc.” (2 vols., 1845). 
For many years he was secretary of the Methodist Episco¬ 
pal Church, and displayed great eloquence and adminis¬ 
trative ability in its affairs. He resigned the presidency 
of Dickinson College in 1845. He has furnished many 
contributions to periodicals, etc. 

Dii'ren, or Mark Diiren (anc. Marcodurum ), a town 
of Rhenish Prussia, on the river Roer and on the Cologne 
and Aix-la-Chapelle Railway, 18 miles E. of Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle. It has a Catholic gymnasium, a high-school, a 
female high-school, an asylum for the blind, several fine 
churches, and manufactures of woollen cloth, carpets, cot¬ 
ton goods, etc. It was besieged and taken by Charles V. 
in 1543. Charlemagne held diets here in 775 and 779 A. D. 
Pop. in 1871, 12,850. 

Dii' rer (Albrecht), a celebrated German painter and 
engraver, born at Nuremberg in 1471. The day of his 
birth is uncertain, owing to the way in which it is inserted 
in his father’s diary, but' it was probably May 21st. He 
was a pupil of Michael Wohlgemuth, with wliQm he studied 
and worked three years (1486-89). He afterwards passed 
four years in travel, visiting various parts of Germany, and 
returned to Nuremberg in 1494. In the same year he mar¬ 
ried Agnes Frey, with whom he is said to have lived un¬ 
happily, though there is no good authority for the wide¬ 
spread belief. He visited Venice in 1505, and while there 
painted a picture for the Tedeschi, or guild of German mer¬ 
chants, which was probably “ The Feast of the Rose Gar¬ 
lands,” now in the monastery of Strahow at Prague. This 
was his first picture of importance. In 1520 he went to the 
Netherlands, accompanied by his wife; and during his jour¬ 
ney, the object of which is not known, he kept a minute 
diary, which was first published in Von Murr’s “Journal 
zur Kunstgeschichte ” (1775-88). This curious and inter¬ 
esting record of early travel has been several times trans¬ 
lated into English. Diirer returned home in 1521, and con¬ 
tinued to live in his native town until his death, April 6, 
1528. Diirer’s works consist of paintings in oil and en¬ 
gravings on wood and copper. He has also left a number 
of etchings; and over 500 of his drawings in pen and ink, 
water-color, chalk, charcoal, India-ink, and with the silver 
point, exist in public and private collections. These draw¬ 
ings and sketches are remarkable for their precision, deli¬ 
cacy, and firmness of touch, and for the power of observa¬ 
tion and patient study they reveal in the master. The 
finest collections are in the British Museum, the Albertina 
Gallery at Vienna, and the Uffizi at Florence. His most 
celebrated paintings are “ The Four Apostles,” originally 
presented by him to the city of Nuremberg, but now in 
Munich; his own portrait in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence; 
and an “Adoration of the Magi,” a most beautiful picture, 
well worthy of the place it occupies in the tribune. His 
best wood-cuts are the four series “ The Apocalypse,” “The 
Great Passion,” “The Little Passion,” and “The Life of 
the Virgin,” but there are many fine single cuts. Diirer is 
not believed to have engraved all the wood-cuts that bear 
his monogram, but only to have made the designs. Per¬ 
haps the works by which Diirer is most widely known are 
his engravings on copper. Of these the most famous aro 
the “ Adam and Eve,” the “ Melancholia,” the “ Knight, 
Death, and the Devil,” the “Saint Eustache,” “Saint Je¬ 
rome in his Study,” and “The Great Fortune.” These are 
all large, but many among the smaller engravings are equal 
miracles of execution. Diirer was much beloved by the em¬ 
peror Maximilian I. and by many of the most distinguished 
men of his time—by Luther, by Melanchthon, by Erasmus, 
as well as by lesser men, such as Camerarius and Pirk- 
heimer. When in Venice he received much kindness from 
Bellini, and Raphael and he exchanged specimens of their 
work. Diirer has left us valuable portraits of Melanchthon, 
Erasmus, Pirkheimer, and many other notables of his time. 
He was the author of several treatises—“ The Art of For¬ 
tification,” “Instruction in the Art of Mensiration with 
the Rule and Compass,” with one on “ The Proportions of 
the Human Body,” published after his dca h. A work on 
the “Proportions of the Horse” is now lost, as is also one 
on “The Art of Fencing,” with perhaps some others whose 
names are not known. (See J. Heller, “ Das Leben uud 
die Werke A. Diirers,” 1827-31; only the second volume 
of this valuable work ever appeared. See also lives of 













1428 DURESS 


Diirer by Roth, Nagler, Yon Eye, in German, Charles 
Narrey in French, and in English by Mrs. C. Heaton, 
18G9, and W. B. Scott, 1869.) Of late years a great in¬ 
terest has been felt in Diirer, and many important publi¬ 
cations relating to him have appeared in Germany. A 
photo-lithographic imitation of his “ Little Passion,” in 
thirty-seven sheets, was published by J. W. Bouton in 1868, 
and copies of his copper-plates by J. R. Osgood, Boston, 
in 1872. Clarence Cook. 

Du'ress [Lat. duritia, “ hardship”], in law, is either of 
the person or of goods. 1. Of the Person .—This is exer¬ 
cised in two modes, either by threats or by imprisonment. 
Duress by threats (per minas), according to the older au¬ 
thorities, occurred where a person entered into a contract 
or performed some other act through fear of loss of life or 
limbs, or grievous bodily harm. It was even an excuse for 
some crimes, but not for those of the graver class, such as 
the killing of an innocent person. The modern cases do 
not take quite so technical a view of the subject, and the 
tendency is to make the presence of duress turn on positive 
inquiry whether the threat was of a kind calculated to over¬ 
come the will of a person of ordinary firmness and prudence. 
In equity jurisprudence the word is used in a broader sense 
than in the courts of common law, and includes cases where 
a party is in extreme necessity and distress ; and duress 
may be exercised not only towards the person who makes 
a contract, but in certain cases towards one standing in 
confidential relations with him. Thus, a threat to prose¬ 
cute criminally a son, whereby a father is induced to execute 
a deed in order to save him from arrest, is sufficient duress 
in equity to furnish a basis to set the conveyance aside. A 
contract executed under duress is not void, but only void¬ 
able at the election of the injured party. Duress of im¬ 
prisonment can only be affirmed of the case of unlawful 
restraint. 

2. Duress of Goods .—This phrase refers to a case where 
a person having goods illegally detained pays money to 
obtain their release. If such payment is made under pro¬ 
test, the money may be recovered back, as being paid under 
compulsion. An instance is an exaction of unauthorized 
duties upon goods by the collector of a port. The mode of 
making the protest in this special case is regulated in the 
U. S. by act of Congress. 

The question has been raised whether the doctrine of 
duress can be applied in international law to relieve a 
nation from the obligations of a treaty of peace. The 
answer must in general be in the negative, as the terms 
of peace, however humiliating, are the chances of war to 
which the parties have appealed. T. W. Dwight. 

Duret (Francisque Joseph), a French sculptor, born 
Oct. 19, 1804, studied with his father, with Bosio, and at 
Rome. His works, among them “Fisher-boy Dancing” 
(1833), “Vintager” (1839), and statues of Moliere and 
Chateaubriand, are noble compositions of great spirit and 
correctness. Died in May, 1865. 

Dur'fee (Job), LL.D., an American jurist, born at Tiver¬ 
ton, R. I., Sept. 20, 1790, graduated at Brown University 
in 1813, became a member of Congress in 1820, and chief- 
justice of Rhode Island in 1835. He wrote, besides other 
works, “ What Cheer ?” a poem on the adventures of Roger 
Williams (1832). His life and writings were published by 
his son (1849). Died July 26, 1847. 

D’Ur'fey (Thomas), an English dramatist, born at Ex¬ 
eter, gained the favor of Charles II. He wrote successful 
comedies, popular songs, and odes. Died in 1723. 

Durga, or Dourga, a Sanscrit word signifying “diffi¬ 
cult of access,” and forming one of the many names of Par- 
vat! (which see). 

Dur'ham, a county in the N. part of England, is bounded 
on the N. by the river Tyne, on the E. by the German Ocean, 
and on the S. by the river Tees. Area, 973 square miles. 
The surface is hilly, but the greater part of the land is ara¬ 
ble. The rocks which underlie it are new red sandstone, 
carboniferous limestone, and magnesian limestone. Among 
its mineral resources are coal, iron, lead, and marble. The 
collieries of Durham are the most extensive and valuable 
in England. Durham produces a celebrated breed of short¬ 
horned cattle. The chief towns are Durham, Sunderland, 
Darlington, South Shields, and Gateshead. Durham is onq 
of the three counties palatine of England. Pop. in 1871, 
685,045. 

Durham [Sax. Dunholme, from dun, a “ hill,” and holme, 
a “river”], an episcopal city of England, the capital of the 
above county, is on the river Wear, 14 miles S. of Newcastle. 
It is built around a steep rocky hill, the top of which is 
occupied by a castle and cathedral. It is connected by 
railways with Newcastle and other towns. It sends two 
members to Parliament. Here is a castle founded by Wil¬ 
liam the Conqueror about 1072. The magnificent cathedral 


DUKOC. 


of Durham was founded in 1093, and is a Norman struc¬ 
ture 507 feet long by 200 wide, with a central tower 214 
feet high. This cathedral contains the tombs of Saints 
Cuthbert and Bede. The see of Durham was long the rich¬ 
est bishopric in England. This city is the seat of the Uni¬ 
versity of Durham, which was opened in 1833. Pop. in 
1871, ‘14,406. 

Durham, a county of Ontario, Dominion of Canada. 
Area, 620 square miles. It is bounded on the S. by Lake 
Ontario, and intersected by the Grand Trunk R. II. and 
the Midland Railway of Canada. Capital, Port Hope. 
Pop. in 1871, 37,381. 

Durham, a post-village of Gray co., Ontario. It has 
a Aveekly newspaper and important manufactures. Pop. 
about 2500. 

Durham, a post-township of Middlesex co., Conn. It is 
the seat of an academy. Pop. 1086. 

Durham, a post-township of Hancock co., Ill. Pop. 
1019. 

Durham, a post-township of Androscoggin co., Me. 
It has manufactures of carriages and cooperage. Pop. 1350. 

Durham, a township and post-village of Strafford co., 
N. II., on the Boston and Maine R. R., 6 miles S. of Dover. 
It has manufactures of brick, wall-paper, etc. Pop. 1298. 

Durham, a post-township of Greene co., N. Y. It has 
several tanneries and mills. Pop. 2257. 

Durham, a township and post-village of Orange co., 
N. C., on the North Carolina R. R., 25 miles N. W. of Ra¬ 
leigh. It has manufactures of tobacco. One weekly news¬ 
paper is published here. The surrender of Gen. J. E. 
Johnston, April 25, 1865, took place near by. Pop. 2323. 

Durham, a post-township of Bucks co., Pa. P. 1209. 

Durham, Earls of, and Viscounts Lambton (1833), 
Barons Durham (United Kingdom, 1828).—George Fred¬ 
erick D’Arcy Lambton, second earl, born Sept. 5, 1828, 
succeeded his father in 1840. 

Durham (John George Lambton), Earl of, an Eng¬ 
lish statesman, born in the county of Durham April 12, 
1792. He was elected to Parliament by the Whigs in 1813, 
and was an advanced liberal. He was created Baron Dur¬ 
ham in 1828, became lord privy seal in the cabinet of Earl 
Grey in Nov., 1830, and was one of the four persons who 
prepared the Reform bill of 1831, which he supported in 
the House of Lords. In 1833 he resigned the office of lord 
privy seal and received the title of earl. He was sent as 
ambassador to Russia in 1835, and was appointed gover¬ 
nor-general of Canada in 1838, but returned suddenly in 
Dec., 1839. Died July 28, 1840. 

Durham Dreed of Cattle. See Short Horns. 

Dur'hamville, a post-village of Verona township, 
Oneida co., and of Lenox township, Madison co., N. Y., is 
on the New York and Oswego Midland R. R., 55 miles 
S. E. of Oswego, and on the Erie Canal. It has manufac¬ 
tures of glass, leather, and castings. Pop. 859. 

Du'rian, or Durion (Durio Zibethinus), a tree of the 
order Sterculiacem, a native of the Malay peninsula, cul¬ 
tivated by the Malays for its delicious fruit, which forms a 
great part of their food. It is a lofty tree, with simple 
leaves and large clusters of jiale yellow flowers. The fruit 
is globular or oval, about ten inches in diameter, and has a 
hard, thick, prickly rind enclosing a creamy pulp and about 
ten seeds, which are eaten roasted. It combines the most 
delicious flavor with a very offensive odor, and brings a 
higher price than any other fruit. 

Durivage (Francis Alexander), was born in Boston, 
Mass., in 1814. He published a “ Cyclopaedia of History,” 
“ Stray Subjects,” and other w r orks, including popular tales, 
poems, and plays. 

Dur'kee (Charles), a politician, was born at Royalton, 
Vt., Dec. 5, 1807, removed to Wisconsin Territory in 1830, 
was a Free-Soil member of Congress (1849-55), U. S. Sena¬ 
tor (1855-61), and governor of Utah (1865-70). Died Jan. 
14, 1870. 

Durk'heim, a town of Bavaria, on the Isenach, 20 
miles N. of Landau. It has a castle, a hospital, and 
manufactures of paper and glass. It is surrounded by 
beautiful scenery, and is a resort of invalids. It has an ac¬ 
tive trade in wine. Pop. in 1871, 5572. 

Dur'lach, a town of Germany, in Baden, on the river 
Pfinz, and on a railway, 3 miles E. of Carlsruhe. It is at 
the base of the Thurmberg, a hill the top of which is oc¬ 
cupied by a ruined castle. Pop. in 1871, 6327. 

Duroc (Gerard Christophe Michel), duke of Friuli, 
a French general and diplomatist, born at Pont-a-Mousson 
Oct. 25, 1772. He became in 1796 aide-de-camp to Bona¬ 
parte, whom he accompanied to Egypt in 1798. During 












DURUY—DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


the consulate and empire he Avas sent on diplomatic mis¬ 
sions to Berlin, Vienna, and other courts. He Avas a favor¬ 
ite officer of Napoleon, whom he attended in the campaigns 
of 1806 and 1807. He Avas killed at Markersdorf, in Sax¬ 
ony, May 23,1813. 

Duruy (Victor), a French historian, born in Paris Sept. 
11, 1811. He published many popular and excellent his¬ 
torical and geographical Avorks, some of Avhich Avere de¬ 
signed lor schools. He Avas minister of public instruction 
from June, 1863, to Jul}', 1869, and made important changes 
in the educational system of France. 

Dushore, a post-borough of SullRan co., Pa., on the 
Sullivan and Erie R. R., about 35 miles N. W. of Wilkes- 
barre. It has one Aveekly neAvspaper. Pop. 376. 

Dusky Bay, of New Zealand, is a large inlet on the 
S. W. coast of the Middle Island. It affords good an¬ 
chorage. Lat. 45° 40' S., Ion. 166° 20' E. 

Diis'seldorf, a toivn of Rhenish Prussia, the former 
capital of the duchy of Berg, is finely situated on the right 
bank of the Rhine, at the mouth of the river Diissel, 17 
miles N. N. W. of Cologne; lat. 51° 13' N., Ion. 6° 45' E. 
It is connected by railways with Cologne, Elberfeld, and 
other tOAvns. The Rhine is here crossed by a bridge of 
boats. Diisseldorf is mostly built of brick, and has Avide 
and regular streets. It contains an old electoral palace, a 
gymnasium, a realschule, a toAvn-hall, a public library, a 
theatre, an observatory, and several fine churches. Here are 
manufactures of woollen and cotton fabrics, jewelry, hats, 
leather, carpets, etc. Its prosperity is derived partly from 
trade and the navigation of the Rhine. Here is a fine pub¬ 
lic garden called the Ilofgarten, and a celebrated academy of 
art. This toAvn became a free port in 1829. It has in¬ 
creased rapidly in recent times. Pop. in 1871, 69,351. 

Diisseldorf School of Painting, The Diisseldorf 
Academy, founded in 1767 by Prince Charles Theodore, 
led a languishing life until, under the patronage of Fred¬ 
erick William III., Cornelius was appointed director, 
which position he continued to fill until his remoA r al to 
Munich in 1826. A man of such ability and force natu¬ 
rally quickened the growth of art, and the academy soon 
became the centre of a new life. On the departure of Cor¬ 
nelius, William von Schadoiv Avas made director, and his 
great skill as a teacher, added to his proficiency in his art, 
increased the reputation of the academy as a school, and 
drew to it more and more of the rising, undeveloped talent 
of Young Germany. The names that make this period in 
the history of German art, in the eyes of Germans at 
least, a modern Renaissance — Koch, Overbeck, Veit, 
Schnorr, Von Schwind—are most widely known by the 
frescoes with which they adorned so many palaces, villas, 
churches, and public buildings in Rome, Munich, and Ber¬ 
lin; but the artists of the Diisseldorf School have spread 
the name of their Alma Mater far and wide by means of 
their easel-pictures. Their chief influence outside of Ger¬ 
many has been in America, Avhere many of their best Avorks 
have been exhibited and sold, and whither several artists, 
mostly of American birth, have brought the doctrines they 
learned at Diisseldorf, either in the academy or in the 
studios of German artists residing there, and have gained 
much influence and a Avidespread reputation at home and 
abroad by putting them in practice. In 1853 an exhibition 
of Diisseldorf pictures, belonging to Mr. Boker, was opened 
in the city of New York, and long continued one of the prin¬ 
cipal attractions of the town. It made Americans familiar 
with the names of Lessing, Hiibner, Ivarl Sohn, Hildebrand, 
Steinbriick, Andreas Achenbach, Hasenclever, and Preyer; 
and as the specimens of their work contained in this gallery 
were of the best, there came nearer to being a real enthusiasm 
on the subject of art awakened in our Eastern States than 
was ever before, or than has since, been possible. A group 
of Americans, Eastman Johnson, George H. Hall, W. 
Whittredge, Avere someAvhat influenced by their studies at 
Diisseldorf, but fortunately for his country other and larger 
influences saved the first of these from being spoiled by 
the teachings of the-academy, and preserved to us one of 
the best of our painters. But we were not so fortunate in 
the cases of Leutze and Bierstadt, two artists of consider¬ 
able native ability, who Avere fatally overmastered by the 
Diisseldorf Academy, and whose influence in this country 
has set art back for fifty years. While it Avould not be fair 
to compare their works with those of ttie more famous 
members of the school in Europe, it cannot be denied that 
their pictures Avere the direct outcome of the system taught 
at Diisseldorf, though it must be admitted that the system 
was unfortunate in its representatives—men of small cul¬ 
ture, and Avorking in a community where art was neces¬ 
sarily little understood. 

The school at Diisseldorf was early divided into two 
* parties—the Catholic and the Protestant, the former seek¬ 
ing to restore the ancient exclusive devotion of art, as in 


1429 


the Old Cologne School, to religious, chiefly Roman Catho¬ 
lic, subjects; the other, of which Lessing Avas the acknoAV- 
ledged head, refusing to be shut up in such narroiv limits, 
and painting all subjects—landscape, genre, historical, and 
religious—having, hoAvever, a strong leaning to the Prot¬ 
estant side. The harm the Diisseldorf School has done is 
not perhaps greater than has been done by the schools of 
Berlin and Munich: it seems greater to an American, be¬ 
cause we have suffered so much from it. It inculcates the 
fatal doctrines that art can be taught, and that its minis¬ 
try is that of a preacher of doctrines or a narrator of an¬ 
ecdotes, religious, historical, domestic. It confounds art 
with science, and dissects where it ought to create. But 
in their OAvn namm, pedantic field here Avere men of sense, 
talent, learning, industry—everything but genius; the 
men of genius in Germany, as eA T erywhere, have groAvn up 
and Avorked outside of all schools—and they have had the 
reward that always awaits the commonplace and the prac¬ 
tical. They have been extremely popular, they have 
stimulated a great number of kindred minds, and they 
have more than supplied the demand for works of art that 
everybody can understand. Clarence Cook. 

Dutch Creek, a post-township of Yell co., Ark. Pop. 
466. 

Dutch Creek, a post-township of Washington co., la. 
Pop. 1228. 

Dutch'ess, a county in the E. S. E. of New York. 
Area, 810 square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the 
Hudson River, and is drained by Fishkill River. The 
surface is hilly; the soil is generally fertile. Cattle, grain, 
tobacco, wool, potatoes, hay, butter, and milk are largely 
produced. The manufacturing interests are varied and 
quite extensive, embracing iron, metallic wares, clothing, 
flour, cooperage, sash, doors, and blinds, carriages, etc. 
Limestone, marble, iron, and lead are found here. It is in¬ 
tersected by the Hudson River R. R., the Harlem R. R., 
and the Dutchess and Columbia R. R. Capital, Pough¬ 
keepsie. Pop. 74,041. 

Dutch Flat, a mountain-village of Placer co., Cal., on 
the Central Pacific R. R., 67 miles from Sacramento. It 
has productive hydraulic gold-mines. Pop. about 2000. 

Dutch Fork, a township of Lexington co., S. C. Pop. 
1352. 

Dutch Gap Canal, a cut through the narrow isthmus 
of a peninsula knoAvn as Farrar’s Island, in the James 
River, about 5 miles beloAV Richmond, Va., designed to af¬ 
ford the national A r essels a nearer approach to the Confed¬ 
erate works, to avoid the great obstructions which had 
been placed in the curve of the river, and to outflank the 
heavy Howlett House batteries. It Avas executed under 
Major P. S. Michie, by order of Gen. B. F. Butler. The 
work was undertaken Aug. 15, 1864, and finished Jan. 1, 
1865; but a large part of the bulkhead of clay Avhich Avas 
blown out by powder on that occasion fell back, so as to 
obstruct navigation for the time. It was of no service to 
either side during the war, but has since shortened the 
navigation of the river to Richmond some seven miles. 

Dutch Gold, an alloy of copper and zinc, closely re¬ 
sembling common brass, but having rather less zinc in its 
composition than brass generally has. It is used for beat¬ 
ing into thin plates, resembling gold-leaf in appearance 
when new, and used for ornamentation instead of gold-leaf. 
It tarnishes readily, and may be tested by the application 
of strong nitric acid, which will not injure gold-leaf, but 
which readily dissolves the imitation. 

Dutch Guiana. See Guiana. 

Dutch Language and Literature. The Dutch is 
the language spoken by the inhabitants of the Netherlands. 
It is so closely allied to the Flemish that in their earlier 
forms, at least, the two may be considered as one and the 
same tongue. The Dutch belongs to the Aryan (otherwise 
called the Indo-European) family of languages, and to the 
Teutonic subdivision of that great family. The study of 
the Dutch language is of especial interest to the student of 
English, as well as to the general philologist, as presenting 
one of the most important links that connect our tongue 
with the German, and also as bearing a very close relation¬ 
ship to the LoAvland Scotch. 

The Dutch alphabet consists of the same letters as our 
own. The A'OAvels a, e, i, o, u are essentially the same in 
sound as in French ; but u, followed by a consonant in the 
same syllable, is pronounced nearly like short u in Eng¬ 
lish. Y (noAv mostly replaced by ij) has the sound of the 
long i (i) in English. A long voAvel sound before a conso¬ 
nant in the same syllable is usually indicated by doubling 
the vowel, as laat (“ late”), been (“ bone ”), zoon ( te son ), 
duur (“ duration ”). Ae is equivalent to long a; it is uoav re¬ 
placed in spelling by aa. El or eij sounds like long i in Eng- 













1430 DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 

lish; cu is like eu in French ; ie like onr ee. Ij, as already 
intimated, is pronounced like our long i. Oe sounds like 
our oo; ui or uy like oi. The consonants b, c,f, h, Ic, l, m, n, 
p, r, 8, t, x, and z are essentially the same in sound as in 
English. D at the beginning or in the middle of a word is 
pronounced like the English d, but at the end of a word 
sounds like t; g has nearly the sound of the German ch in 
ach; v at the beginning of a word has a sound intermediate 
between our/and v; io sounds almost as in English; ch is 
pronounced like ch in German; sch, however, has not, as 
in German, the sound of our sh, but preserves that of the 
guttural ch, with the pure sound of s, being pronounced 
somewhat like sk. 

The Dutch nearly resembles the German in the inflections 
of the nouns and verbs, and in the construction of the sen¬ 
tences, as well as in many of its words, as may be seen 
from the following examples: 

Singular. 

Dutch. (German.) 

Nominative, de honing (der IConig), the king. 

Genitive, des honings* (des Koniges or Kbnigs), of the king. 

Dative, den honing (demKbnige), to the king. 

Accusative, den honing (den Konig), the king. 

Plural. 

Nom. de honingen (die IConige), the kings. 

Gen. der honingen * (der IConige), of the kings. 

Dat. den honingen (den Kbnigen), to the kings. 

Acc. de honingen (die Konige), the kings. 

The following is an example of the article with an adjec¬ 
tive and substantive : 

Singular. 

Dutch. (German.) 

Nom. de goede vriend (der gute Freund), the good friend. 

Gen. des goeden vriends * (des guten Freundes ), of the good friend. 
Dat. den goeden vriend (dem guten Freunde), to the good friend. 
Acc. den goeden vriend (den guten Freund), the good friend. 

Plural. 

Nom. de goede vrienden (die guten Freunde), the good friends. 

Gen. der goede vrienden *(der guten Freunde), of the good friends. 
Dat. den goeden vrienden (den guten Freunden), to the good friends. 
Acc. de goede vrienden (die guten Freunde), the good friends. 

The plural of the nouns is generally formed by adding 
en or n to the singular, as een boom (masc.), “atree,” boomen, 

“ trees;” eene Jcerk (fern.), “ a church,” kerken, “ churches;” 
een ho/d (neut.), “a head,” hofden , ‘‘heads;” bede, a 
“ prayer,” beden, “ prayers.” Kind, a “ child,” is an ex¬ 
ception ; it takes the addition of even to form the plural, like 
our word child, which originally made the plural in the 
same way, child-eren, afterwards contracted into children. 
Many nouns change the final consonant of the singular 
into another of the same class, as die/, “ thief,” dieven, 

“ thieves ;” liuis, “ house,” huizen, “ houses,” etc.: often a 
double vowel in the singular is changed to a single one in 
the plural, as maan, “ moon,” manen, “ moons;” zoon, “ son,” 
zonen, “sons,” etc.; not unfrequentlyboth vowels and con¬ 
sonants are changed, as baas, “ master,” bazen, “ masters ;” 
graaf, “count,” graven, “counts,” etc. Nouns ending in 

r, l, en, and em frequently form the plural by simply adding 

s, as broeder, “ brother,” broeders, “ brothers ” (also formed 
by adding en, as broederen) ; moeder, “mother,” moeders, 

“ mothers ;” appel, “ apple,” appels, “ apples ;” bessem, 
“broom” or “besom,” beseems, “brooms;” kindeken, a 
“ little child,” lcinderkens, “little children.” 

The Dutch numerals are as follow: 

1, een. 18, achttien. 

2, twee. 19, negentien. 

3, drij. 20, twintig. 

4, vier. 21, een en twintig. 

5, vijf. 22, twee en twintig. 

6, zes. 23, drij en twintig, and so on. 

7, zeven. 30, dertig. 

8, acht. 40, veertig. 

9, negen. 50, vijftig. 

10, tien. 60, zestig. 

11, elf. 70, zeventig. 

12, twaalf. 80, tachtig. 

13, dertien. 90, negentig. 

14, veertien. 100, honderd. 

15, vijftien. 200, twee honderd. 

16, zestien. 1,000, duizend. 

17, zeventien. 1,000,000, millioen. 

Ordinal Numbers. 

de eerste, the first. de dertiende, the thirteenth, 

de tweede, the second. de veertiende, the fourteenth, 
de derde, the third. de twintigste, the twentieth, 

de vierde, the fourth. de een en twintigste, the twenty-first, 

de vijfde, the fifth. de dertigste, the thirtieth, 

de zesde, the sixth. de veertigste, the fortieth, 

de zevende, the seventh, de vijftigste, the fiftieth, 
de achtste, the eighth. de zestigste, the sixtieth, 
de negende, the ninth, de zeventigste, the seventieth, 
de tiende, the tenth. de tachtigste, the eightieth, 

de elfde, the eleventh. de negentigste, the ninetieth, 

de twaalfde, the twelfth, de honderdste, the one hundredth. 

* It is proper to observe that instead of the forms des honings, 
der honingen, des goeden vriends, we may also use van den honing, 
van de honingen, van den goeden vriend, etc. 

The principal Dutch pronouns are declined as follows: 
Singular. Plural. 

(German.) (German.) 

Nom. ih (ich), wij ( wir), we. 

Gen. mijner (meiner), onzer (wiser or onser), our. 

Dat. mij (mir), ons (uns), to us. 

Acc. mij (mich), ons (uns), us. 

* Plural* 

( German.) 

Nom. gij (or gijlieden) (ihr), ye, you. 

Gen. van u (or nicer) (euer), your. 

Dat. u (or ulieden) (euch), to you. 

Acc. u (or ulieden) (euch), you. 

Singular. 

Nom. hij (er), he. 

Gen. vaii hem, or zijns (seiner), his, or of him. 

Dat. hem (Him), to him. 

Acc. hem (ihn), him. 

Plural. 

Nom. zij (sie), they. 

Gen. hunner (or van hen) (Hirer), them. 

Dat. hun (or aan hen) (ihnen), to them. 

Acc. hen (or ze) (sie), them. 

Singular. Plural. 

(German.) (German.) 

Nom. zij (sie), she. zij (sie). 

Gen. barer (Hirer), her or hers, barer (Hirer). 

Dat. haar (ihr), to her. haar (ihnen). 

Acc. haar and ze (sie), her. haar and ze (sie). 

Het, “it,” has no inflections, the cases being formed by 
prefixing prepositions, as van het, “of it,” aan het, “to hit,” 
etc. The plural is like the plural of zij, except that it does 
not take ze in the accusative. Zich (like the German sich, 
to which it corresponds exactly in pronunciation as well as 
signification) signifies “ himself,” “ herself,” “ itself,” “ them¬ 
selves;” it is only found in the oblique cases, never in the 
nominative. 

The Dutch pronominal adjectives are— 

Singular. 

Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 

Nom. de mijne, de mijne, het mijne, mine. 

Gen. des mijnen, der mijne, des mijnen, of mine. 

Dat. den mijnen, der mijne, den m ijnen, to mine. 

Acc. den mijnen, de mijne, het mijne, mine. 

Plural. 

Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 

Nom. de mijnen, de mijnen, de mijnen. 

Gen. der mijnen, der mijnen, der mijnen. 

Dat. den mijnen, der m ijnen, den mijnen. 

Acc. de mijnen, de mijnen, de mijnen. 

De onze, “ ours,” de uwe, “yours,” de zijne, “ his,” dehare, 

“hers,” etc., are declined in a similar manner. 

The demonstrative adjectives (otherwise called demon¬ 
strative pronouns) are deze (masc. and fern.), and dit (neut.), 

“this;” in the plural deze (“these”) for all three genders : 
and genef (masc. and fern.) and geen (neut.), “ that.” The 
latter is often compounded with the definite article, as degene 
(masc. and fern.), hetgene (neut.), “that';” degene, “those,” 
forming the plural for all three genders; and with die, dat, 
as diegene (masc. and fern.), datgene (neut.), “that;” plural, 
for the three genders, diegene, “those.” 

The relatives are— 

Singular. 

Mascidine. Feminine. Neuter. 

Nom. die, who; die, who; dat, which. 

Gen. diens, whose; dier, whose; diens, of which. 

Dat. dien, to whom; dier, to whom •- dim, to which. 

Acc. dien, whom; die, whom; dat, which. 

Plural. 

Nom. die, die, die. 

Gen. clier, dier, dier. 

Dat. dien, dier, dien. 

Acc. die, die, die. 

Welke (masc. and fern.), “who,” and wellc (neut.), 

“ which,” are also used as relatives, especially in elevated 
discourse. 

The interrogative wie (masc. and fern.), “ who,” and wat 
(neut.), “ what,” are declined like die, dat, as given above. 

The following are the principal tenses, etc. of the verb 
zijn, to “ be :” 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Dutch. (German.) 

ih ben (ich bin), I am. 

gij zijt (ihr seid), you are (or thou art). 

hij is * (er ist), he is. 

wij zijn (wir sind), we are. 

gij (or gijlieden) zijt (ihr seyd), you are. 

zij zijn (sie sind), they are. 

* The Dutch may be said to have, properly speaking, no second 
person singular; but gij is always used, even in Scripture, for 
the singular as well as the plural. 

f Cognate with the German jener, jene, etc., which in a similar 
manner is compounded with the article, as derjenige, dasjenige, 
etc. 
























DUTCH LANGUAGE AND L1TEKATUKE. 


1431 


Imperfect. 

(ich war), I was, etc. 

(ihr ward). 

(er war). 

(wir waren). 

(ihr ward). 

(sie waren). 

Perfect. 

(ich bingewesen I have been, etc. 

(ihr seyd gewesen). 

(er ist gewesen ), etc. 

In the future the Dutch use the auxiliary zal, unit, zed, 
zullen, zult, zullen, as ik zal zijn (“I shall bo”), gijzultzijn, 
etc. (the Germans use werde, wirst, wird, werden, etc.). 

Zoude (“ should ”), zoudet, zoude, zouden, zoudet, zouden, 
is used to form the conditional (instead of which the Ger¬ 
mans use wurde, etc.). 

Participles. 

(German.) 

Present, zynde ( seyend). 

Past, geweest (gewesen). 

The regular active verb hooren, to “hear,” is conjugated 
as follows: 


ik was 
gif waart 
hij was 
wij waren 
gif waart 
zij waren 

ik ben geweest 
gij zijt geweest 
hij is geweest 


Indicative Present. Imperfect. Perfect. 

ik hoor , I hear. ik hcorde. ik heb gehoord, I have heard, etc. 

gij hoort , you hear, gij hoordet. gij hebt gehoord. 

hij hoort, he hears, hij hoorele. hij heeft gehoord. 

wij hooren, we hear, wij hoor den. wij hebbengehoord. 

gij hoort, you hear, gij hoordet. gij hebt gehoord. 

zij hooren, they hearty hoorden. zij hebben gehoord. 

Pluperfect. Future. Conditional, 

ik had gehoord. ik zal hooren. ik zoude hooren. 

gij hadt gehoord. 
hij had gehoord. 
wij hadden gehoord. 
gij hadt gehoord. 
zij hadden gehoord. 

Imperative Mood. 
hoor, hear thou. 

la at hem (or hij) hooren, let him hear. 
laat ons (or laten wij) hooren, let us hear. 
hooret, hear ye. 

laat hen (or laten zij) hooren, let them hear. 

The subjunctive mood is omitted here, as presenting 
nothing especially remarkable. 

The present participle is hoorende , “ hearing the future, 
zullende hooren, “going to hear,” literally, equivalent to 
“ shading to hear,” or, as the Greek neatly expresses it, 
geWinv anoveiv. 

The passive voice of verbs is formed with the auxiliary 
worden (imperfect, werd or wierd), to “be” or “become,” 

Indicative Present. 

( German.) 

(ich werde gehbrt), I am heard, 
(du wirst gehbrt) [etc. 

(er wird gehbrt). 

(wir werden gehbrt). 

(ihr werdet gehbrt). 

(sie werden gehbrt). 

Imperfect. 

ik werd (or wierd) gehoord (ich wurde (or ward) gehbrt ),Iwas 

gij werdt (or wierdt) gehoord (du wurdest gehbrt). [heard, etc. 

hij werd (or wierd) gehoord (er wurde gehbrt). 
wij werden (or wierden) gehoord (wir warden gehbrt). 
gij werdt (or wierdt) gehoord (ihr wurdet gehbrt). 
zij werden (or wierden) gehoord (sie warden gehbrt). 


ik tvord gehoord 
gij wordt gehoord 
hij wordt gehoord 
wij worden gehoord 
gij wordt gehoord 
zij worden gehoord 


Perfect. 

ik ben gehoord ivorden (ich bin gehbrt worden), I have been 

heard, etc. 

Pluperfect. 

ik was gehoord ivorden (ich war gehbrt worden ), I had been 

heard, etc. 

First Future. 

ik zal gehoord worden (ich werde gehbrt werden), I shall be 

heard, etc. 

Second Future. 

ik zal gehoord worden zijn (ich werde gehbrt worden seyn), I shall 

have been heard, etc. 


Essential Resemblance between Dutch and German Words. 
—This resemblance is often much greater in reality than 
appears to the eye. Thus, the Dutch zijn and the German 
seyn (to “be”), so different in appearance, have not only 
the same meaning, but precisely the same pronunciation. 
The same is also true of several other parts of the above- 
named verb; for example, in the subjunctive mood the 
Dutch zij, zijt, and zijn, and the German sey, seyd, and sey’n 
(for seyen), are pronounced exactly alike. So buigen and 
beugen (to “bend”), lesen and lezen (to “read”), meel and 
Meld (“ meal ”), nicer and mehr (“more ”), mijn and mein 
(“my” or “ mine ”), nemen and nehmen (to “take”),^>n}zen 
and preisen (to “praise”), zijn and sein (“ his ”), bloed and 
Blut (“blood”), bloem and Blum’ (for Blame, “flower”), 
broeder and Bruder (“brother”), hoed and Hut (“ hat”), 
hoef and Huf (“hoof”), hoen and Huhn (“fowl,” “hen”), 
hoe and Kuli (“cow”), moed and Math (“spirit, “cour- 
age”), moes and Mas (“pap,” “sauce”), roem and Ruhm 
(“fame,” “glory ”), brood and Brbd (“ bread”), boon and 
Holm (“ insult”), nood and Noth (“need,” “necessity”), 


rood and roth (“ red ”), stroo and Stroh (“ straw ”), troon and 
Thron (“throne”), troost and Trust (“comfort”), zaat and 
Saat (“seed”), zacht and saclit (“soft,” “gentle”), zand 
and Sand (“sand”), zeer and sehr (“very”), zegen and Sc- 
gen (“blessing ”), zijde and Seide (“silk”), zin and Sinn 
(“ sense ”), zo and so (“ thus,” “ also,” “ as ”), zoon and Sohn 
(“ son ”), etc. 

A great multitude of instances might be cited in which 
the meaning is the same, and the pronunciation nearly the 
same, or the difference, at most, is between letters of the 
same class, as d and t, b and v, p and /, or v and f, eh and 
h, etc.; as blijven and bleiben (to “remain”), doen and 
thun (to “do”), dood and Tod (“death”), dood and tudt 
(“dead”), dragen and tragen (to “bear”), and the past 
tense of the same, droeg and trug (“bore”), rijden and rci- 
ten (to “ride”), roepen and rufen (to “call”), strijden and 
streiten (to “light,” to “strive”), treden and treten (to 
“tread”), vallen and fallen (to “fall”), vechten and fecliten 
(to “fight”), vinden and finden (to “find ”), voor and vbr 
(“before”), vraag and Frag’ (for Frage, a “question”), 
werpen and werfen (to “ throw ”), wij hen and weichen (to 
“retire,” to “yield”), wijzen and weisen (to “show”), 
zoeken and suchen (to “ seek ”), zwijgen and schweigen (to 
“be silent”), etc. 

There are, in regard to certain letters, changes that very 
frequently if not invariably take place when a word passes, 
so to speak, from the German to the Dutch. The following 
changes take place in diphthongs and vowels: (1.) The Ger¬ 
man an usually becomes o or oo in Dutch; for example, 
avf (“on,” “up”) is changed to op (for the change of f to 
p, and that of other consonants, see below); Baum (“tree”) 
to boom; Haufe (“heap”) to hoop; Haupt (“head”) to 
hoofd; kaufen (to “buy”) to Jcoopen; Lauf (a “running”) 
and laufen (to “run”) to loop and loopen; Raub (“prey,” 
“plunder”), Rauber (a “robber”) and Rauben (to “rob”) 
to roof, roover, and rooven; Rauch (“smoke”) and ran¬ 
ch en (to “smoke”) to rook and rooken; Saum (a “hem,” 
“seam”) to zoom; taub (“deaf”) to toof; tauf’ or taufe 
(“dipping,” “baptism”) to doop; Traum (“dream”) to 
droom. (2.) The German au also not unfrequently becomes 
ui in Dutch, as aus (“out”), nit; Bauch (“belly”), built; 
braun (“brown”), bruin; Braut (“bride”), braid; Daum 
(“thumb”), duirn; faul (“foul”), mil; Faust (“fist”) 
vuist; Haas (“ house ”), huis; Laus (“louse”), luis; Mans 
(“mouse”), muis; Baum (“space,” “room”), mini; rau- 
sclien (to “rush,” to “roar ”), ruischen; sauber (“clean,” 
“pure”), zuiver; saufen (to “drink,” to “tipple”), zuipen; 
Staub (“dust”), stuif; Strauch (“ shrub”), struxk; Strauss 
(“ostrich”), strut's; Taube (“dove,” “pigeon”), duif; 
Traube (“grape”), druif; Zaun (“hedge” or “fence”), 
tuin. (3.) Ei in German frequently becomes ee in Dutch, 
as allein (“alone”), alleen; Rein (“leg,” “bone”), been; 
Eich (an “oak”), eelc; cin (“one”), een; kein (“no,” as an 
adjective), geen; Stein (a “ stone ”), steen, etc. (4.) But ei, as 
well as ey, is often changed to ij, as preisen (to “praise”) 
to prijzen; sein (“ his ”) and seyn (to “ be ”) to zijn, etc., etc. 
(5.) Eu and its equivalent du, commonly become ui, having 
essentially the same sound, as beugen (to “bend”), buigen; 
Beule (a “boil”), bail; keusch (“chaste”), kuisch; sdugen 
(to “suckle”), zuigen; sdumen (to “delay”), zuimen; Zeug 
(“stuff,” “materials,” “tools”), tuig, etc., etc. (G.) Oe or d 
in German often becomes oo in Dutch, as bose, boos (“bad,” 
“evil”); blode, bloo or bloode (“bashful”); horen, hooren 
(to “ hear”)/ schon, schoon (“beautiful”); schbnheit, schoon- 
lteid (“beauty”), etc. (7.) Ue or ii in German often becomes 
u in Dutch, the latter being the natural equivalent of the 
former; as Brucke, brug (“ bridge”); biicken, bukken (to 
“stoop,” to “bow”); Burger, burger (“citizen”); diinken, 
dunken (to “seem ”). The German mich diinkt, and Dutch 
mij dunkt, explains the origin of our phrase methinks ( i. e. 
“ it seems to me ”). 

In the first paragraph treating of the resemblance between 
Dutch and German, the reader will see numerous examples 
of the correspondence of the German long o with the Dutch 
oo (as Sohn and zoon, etc.), and the German u with the 
Dutch oe (as gut and goed, etc.), precisely the same .sound 
being represented by the corresponding words. The Ger¬ 
man u, however, often becomes o in Dutch, as Bund, bond 
(a “covenant”); Bundel, bondcl (“bundle”); bunt, bont 
(“variegated”); Grund, grond (“bottom,” “ground”); 
Hand, bond (“dog”); Krumrn, krom (“crooked”), etc., etc. 

Of the consonants (l),/in German commonly becomes 
in Dutch,* as may be seen in the following verbs: helfen 
(to “help”), helpen; hoffen (to “hope”), hopen; reifen (to 
“ripen”), rijpen; rufen (to “call”), roepen; werfen (to 
“throw”), werpen. In like manner from the German 
Dorf (“village”), Harfe (“harp”), reif (“ripe”), Scliiff 

^In a few instances the reverse occurs; that is, the sound of 
p in German is changed to/ in Dutch ; as Haupt, hoofd (“head ”); 
Dieb (pronounced as if written diep), dief ( u thief”); Raub (pro¬ 
nounced as if written raup), roof (“ plunder ”), etc. 












DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


1432 


(“ship ”), Waffe (“ weapon ”), etc., we have in Dutch, dorp, 
harp, rijp, schip, wapen, etc. (2.) B is usually changed to 
v , as shown in the following examples: bleiben, blijven (to 
“ remain ”); schreiben, schrijven (to “ write ”); sterben, 
sterven (to “die”). (3.) A initial or medial in German be¬ 

comes z in Dutch; for example, seyn, zijn (to “be”); lesen, 
lezen (to “read”), etc. (4.) The German s terminal gene¬ 
rally becomes t in Dutch, as bloss, bloot (“mere,” “naked”); 
Fuss, voet (“foot”); gross, groot (“great”); Maas, maat 
(“measure”); Schloss, slot (“lock,” “castle”). To which 
may be added es, het (“it”); das, dat (“that”); was, wat 
(“what”). (5.) Z initial is usually changed to t, as Zahl, 

tal (“number”); zahlen, tellen (to “tell”); bezalilen, betalen 
(to “pay”); Zaum, toom (“bridle”); Zeichen, teeken 
(“sign,” “token”); Zeit, tijd (“time”); Ziegel, tegel (a 
“tile”); Zimmer, timmer (a “room,” also “timber”); Zin- 
ne, tinne (“pinnacle”); Zins, tins (“rent”); zu, toe (“to”); 
zwei, twee (“two”); Zweifel, twijfel (“doubt”); Zweig, 
twijg (a “branch” or “twig”); zicelf, twaalf (“twelve”); 
Zunge, tong (“tongue”); zwanzig, twintig (“twenty”); 
Zwist, twist (“strife,” “discord”). (6.) Ch in German is 
often changed to k in Dutch, as Buck, boek (“book”); 
Jluchen, vloeken (to “curse”), and Fluch, vloek (a “curse ”); 
suchen, zoclcen (to “ seek ”), etc.; but this is very far from 
being always the case. The most numerous class of excep¬ 
tions consists of words beginning with sell — e. g. German 
Schaf, Dutch schaap (“sheep”); German Schiff, Dutch 
schip (“ ship ”), etc. 

It will be observed from the foregoing examples that 
almost invariably where the Dutch consonant differs from 
the German it corresponds to the English whenever there 
is any English word at all resembling either; compare, for 
example, the German Zeit, the Dutch tijd, and the Old 
English tide, in the sense of “time”; German Zeichen, 
Dutch teeken, English token, etc. 

It has seemed proper to explain somewhat fully the prin¬ 
ciples of such changes from the one tongue to the other as 
would be likely to escape the notice of those who should 
make only a cursory examination of the two languages. 
But it has not been deemed necessary to dwell at length 
upon the more obvious correspondences between them. It 
may not, however, be without interest to present some ex¬ 
amples of such correspondences: Band, band (a “band”); 
Berg, berg (“mountain”); bersten, bersten (to “burst”); 
bergen, bergen (to “conceal;”) Bescheid, bescheid (“infor¬ 
mation”); bescheiden, bescheiden (“modest,” “discreet”); 
bescheiden, bescheiden (to “appoint”); Brand, brand (a 
“burning”); branden, branden (to “rage”); Hand, hand 
(“hand”); Handel, handel (“trade”); hangen, hangen (to 
“hang”); Helm, helm (“helm” or “helmet”); Hemil, hemd 
(“shirt”); Kind, kind (“child”); klein, klein (“small”); 
krank, krank (“sick”); Kunst, kunst (“art”); Land, land 
(“land”); lang, long (“ long ”); Last, last (a “burden”); 
leicler, leider (“alas!”); Lcder, leder (“leather”); licitt, 
licht (“light”); lichten, lichten (to “lighten,” to “illumi¬ 
nate”); Linde, Unde (a “linden tree”); List, list (“cun¬ 
ning,” “craft”); listig, listig (“crafty,” “cunning”); Lust, 
lust (“pleasure”); Markt, markt (“market”); Mast, mast 
(“mast”); Merle, merle (“mark”); merken, merken (to 
“mark”); Minne, minne (“love”); Morgen, morgen 
(“morning”); Nacht, nacht (“night”); Nagel, nagel 
(a “nail”); nimmer, nimmer (“never”); Bad, rad (a 
“wheel”); Rand, rand (“margin,” “border”); Rede, rede 
(“speech”); Regen, regen (“rain”); rein, rein (“clear,” 
“pure”); Rente, rente (“rent”); Spiegel, spiegel (a “mir¬ 
ror”) ; Vogel, vogel (“bird,” “fowl”); Wacht, wacht 
(“ watch ”); Wagen, wagen (“ wagon,” “ carriage ”); wegen, 
wegen (to “ weigh”); Werk, wer/c (“ work ”); Winter, winter 
(“ winter”). 

The character of Dutch literature may be said to cor¬ 
respond, to a great extent, to the national character, which 
has been formed in a constant conflict with the most for¬ 
midable and most unconquerable of all the elements. “ The 
Dutch have taken their possessions from the dominion of 
the deep; and the exercise of the perpetual thought, care, 
and industry necessary first to raise and then to keep up 
such mighty embankments as defend them from their con¬ 
stant assailant, the raging sea, has educated a people ad¬ 
venturous, brave, and cautious.” ( Bosworth’s Anglo-Saxon 
Dictionary, p. xcii.) The spirit of industry and energy thus 
acquired may be said to pervade their literature, which is 
characterized rather by solid strength than by a versatile 
fancy or soaring imagination. Much of the Dutch poetry, 
however, is not without the charm of unaffected simplicity 
and great expressiveness of language. In fact, the dis¬ 
tinguishing characteristics of the Dutch language may be 
said to be directness of expression and descriptive energy. 
In simplicity and directness indeed it bears a near resem¬ 
blance to the English, over which its greater fulness of in¬ 
flections gives it some decided advantages, especially on the 
score of variety and flexibility. In another respect, also, 


it is on some accounts superior to our tongue. We allude 
to the facilities it possesses for forming compound words. 
Many technical terms which the English borrow from the 
Latin or Greek are formed by the Dutch from their own 
indigenous roots. In this respect the Dutch even surpasses 
the German. Thus, for astronomy they have sterrekunde 
(“star-knowledge”), a word which explains itself without 
the necessity of having recourse to a Greek etymology. 
Such Dutch terms are usually much more euphonious than 
their literal English equivalents, because they generally 
employ connecting vowels, thus rendering the sound much 
softer, instead of running the terminal and initial conso¬ 
nants together, as is continually done in English in the 
formation of compound words; thus, we say eaDLcss, but 
the Dutch say eindEloos; the same may be seen in the above- 
cited sterrekunde, and in numerous other compound words. 

It may be proper to remark here that the Dutch having 
been pre-eminently a commercial and maritime nation long 
before England could boast of being the mistress of the sea, 
from them have been derived many of our nautical terms 
and phrases, such as boom, literally, “ tree or beam;” skip¬ 
per (Dutch schipper, the ch being hard), literally, a “ ship¬ 
per ;” schooner, etc. 

Some of the oldest extant specimens of the Dutch lan¬ 
guage are supposed to date as far back as the ninth cen¬ 
tury. They bear a near resemblance to the Low German. 
All the earlier specimens, indeed, of the Teutonic dialects 
prove, by the remarkable affinities which they bear to each 
other, that they originated from a common source. We have 
already spoken of the essential identity of the Dutch and 
Flemish, the difference between these two languages being 
scarcely more than a difference of pronunciation and or¬ 
thography. The celebrated poem called “ lleinaert de Vos ” 
(“Reynard the Fox”), the first part of which was written 
originally in the old Flemish dialect about 1150, afl’ords one 
of the finest of the early specimens of the Flemish or Dutch 
language. From it was made a free translation into Low 
Saxon, “ Reineke Vos,” under which form it became widely 
known and very popular. 

Jacob van Maerlant is regarded as the father of Dutch 
poetry. He was born at Damme, in Flanders, in 1235, and 
died in 1300. He made various translations into Dutch 
poetry, of which the following may suffice as a specimen : 

“ Diese bloemen hebben wi besocht, 

En uten Latine in Dietche broclit, 

Ute Aristotiles boelcen.” 

Translated literally : 

“These flowers (beauties) have we sought, 

And out of Latin into Dutch brought, 

From Aristotle’s books.” 

Perhaps his most celebrated work is his “ Spiegel His- 
toriael” (“ Historic Mirror”). The“Rijmkronik ” (“Chron¬ 
icle” in verse) of Melis Stoke was written about 1290. The 
following is an interesting sample of that early rhyme: 

“ Dese pine ende dit ghepens 
send ic u Heer Grave Florens 
Dat glii moget sien ende horen 
Wanen dat ghi sijt geboren, 

Ende bi wat redenen glii in liant 
Hebbet Zeelant ende Hollant; 

Ende bi wat redenen dat ghi soect 
Vrieslant dat u so sere vloect.” 

Literally translated: 

“ These labors (pains) and these thoughts 
send I to you, Sir Count Florens, 
that you may see and hear (learn) 
whence [it is] that you are born 
(descended), and by what right 
(reasons) you have Zealand and 
Holland in hand (in your possession), 
and by what right you seek 
Friesland, that curses you so sorely.” 

Jan van Heelu, the contemporary of Stoke, also wrote 
chronicles in verse (“ Rijmkronik ”), w T hich display con¬ 
siderable poetic spirit. 

The culture and development of what may be strictly 
termed Dutch literature, as distinguished from the Flemish, 
may be said to date from the establishment at Amsterdam 
(about 1570) of a sort of literary academy called Rederijks- 
kamer (“Chamber of Rhetoric”), under the auspices of 
Coornhert, Spiegel, and Visscher. Somewhat later appeared 
Peter Ivornelius Hooft, whom Yondel calls, playing upon 
his name (signifying “head”), “Dat doorluchtig Hooft der 
Ilollandsche poeten”—“ That illustrious head of the Dutch 
poets.” The merits of Hooft are so great that he has been 
styled the creator of Dutch literature. He imparted a sweet¬ 
ness and harmony to the poetry of his native language un¬ 
known before his time, and not surpassed by any later 
author. He also excelled as a writer of history. Jacob 
Cats (1577-1660), or Father Cats, as his countrymen in 
their affection delighted to call him, was emphatically the 
poet of the people, and his productions are still admired 
and loved by all classes. Joost van den Yondel (1587- 














DUTCH LIQUID—DUVEYKIER. 


1433 


1679) is one of the greatest names in Dutch literature. He 
excelled in satirical and lyric poetry, and also in tragedy. 
About the end of the seventeenth century there was a de¬ 
cline in Dutch poetry, caused in part by the influence of 
the French school of criticism, but a new poetical era com¬ 
menced in the latter half of the next century, introduced 
by J. Bellamy (about 1770), whose ballad of “Rosje” is 
regarded as the most beautiful in the language. In touch¬ 
ing simplicity it reminds us of some of the finest of the 
Scottish ballads. Bilderdijk (1756-1831) was not only one 
ot the greatest of Dutch poets, but was distinguished in 
almost every department of literature. Tollens (1780- 
1856) is perhaps the most popular of recent Dutch poets. 
Among his most celebrated productions are “ De Over¬ 
wintering op Nova Zembla” (“The Wintering on Nova 
Zembla ”), a narrative poem giving an account of the fa¬ 
mous expedition of Barentz (1594—96), and his splendid 
war-lyric entitled “Wapencreet” (“Call to Arms”). 

In classical learning the Dutch have taken a high place 
among the nations of Europe. Among the most distin¬ 
guished of their scholars are Erasmus, Lipsius, Daniel 
and Nicholas Ileinsius, Grotius, Gronovius, Vossius (Ger¬ 
ard de \ os), Hemsterhuis, etc. In science they have had 
Huygens, Leewenhoek, Ruysch, and Swammerdam. In 
theology they can boast of Arminius, besides many others. 
In philosophy there is perhaps no greater name in modern 
times than Spinoza; and in medicine few, if any, more 
illustrious than those of Boerhaave and Von der Kolk. 

J. Thomas. 

Dutch Liquid, or Eth'ene ChJo'ritle* received its 
first name because it was first discovered by Dutch chemists 
in 1795. It is a combination of ethene (olefiant gas, C 2 II 4 ) 
with chlorine, and its formula is C 2 II 4 CI 2 . It is a thin, in¬ 
flammable, colorless liquid of an agreeable fragrance and 
pleasant taste, somewhat resembling chloroform. Like 
chloroform, it has great anaesthetic powers when its vapor 
is inhaled, but the medical profession are not satisfied of 
its safety. Modifications of this compound (such as C 2 H 3 CI, 
C 2 II 3 CI 3 , and C 2 II 2 CI 2 ) are also sometimes called Dutch 
liquids, and the whole are known as the “ Dutch liquid se¬ 
ries.” 

Dutch Reformed Church. See Reformed Church 
in America. 

Dutch'ville, a post-township of Granville co., N. C. 
Pop. 1752. 

Dutens (Joseph Michel), a French political economist, 
born at Tours Oct. 15,1765. He published “ The Philoso¬ 
phy of Political Economy ” (2 vols., 1835) and other works. 
Died Aug. 6 , 1848.—His uncle, Louis Dutens, F. R. S., 
born at Tours Oct. 15, 1765, removed to England, where he 
obtained from the duke of Northumberland the lucrative 
living of Elsdon. He wrote a treatise maintaining the 
antiquity of many discoveries, numismatical treatises, and 
“Memoires d’un Voyageur qui so repose” (Paris, 1806). 
Died May 23, 1812. 

D u'ties [from due, i. e. “something owed ;” Fr. douane], 
in their general sense, are those things which a man is, by 
any natural, moral, or legal obligation, bound to do or to 
refrain from doing. The word is also used commercially, 
and then, in its most enlarged sense, is nearly equivalent 
to taxes, embracing all impositions or charges levied on 
persons or things; but in its more restricted sense it is often 
used as equivalent to customs or imposts, being those taxes 
which are payable upon goods and merchandise imported 
or exported. (See the Constitution of the U. S., Art. I., s. 8 , 
n. 1, and Art. I., s. 10, n. 2.) The import duty is held to 
be a personal debt, chargeable upon the importer, as well 
as a lien on the goods themselves. 

As used in the U. S., the term duties does not include the 
taxes on property, real or personal, nor the poll-tax; nor, 
in its popular sense, does it include the excise. In the 
U. S. there is no duty on exportation, nor is any State 
allowed to collect duties or imposts. 

Dutrochet (Rene Joachim Henri), M. D., a French 
physiologist, born in Poitou Nov. 14, 1776. He graduated 
as M. D. in 1806, and devoted his time chiefly to the study 
of natural history and physiology. He published “Re¬ 
searches in Endosmosisand Exosmosis ” (1828), and “Me¬ 
moires pour servir a l’Histoire anatomique et physiologique 
des Vegetaux et Animaux” (1837). Died Feb. 4, 1847. 

Dut'ton (Arthur II.), an American officer, born at 
Wallingford, Conn., in 1839, graduated at West Point, 
and was appointed brevet second lieutenant in the corps 
of engineers June 24, 1861; promoted to be first lieu¬ 
tenant of engineers Mar., 1863, and captain Oct., 186.). 
During the civil war he served on staff and engineer 
duty from July, 1861, to July, 1862, being assistant engi¬ 
neer on the defences of Washington and in the Florida 
expedition with Gen. H. G. Wright. Ho was appointed 


Sept., 1862, colonel of the Twenty-first Connecticut Volun¬ 
teers, which regiment he led at Antietam and Freder¬ 
icksburg; commanded a brigade in the Ninth army corps 
at Newport News and about Suffolk, Va., Feb. to Aug., 1863 ; 
was chief ot staff to Major-General Peck, in command of 
the district of North Carolina; during the operations of 
the Army of the James at Bermuda Hundred, Va., 1864, he 
commanded his regiment, distinguishing himself at the 
battle of Drury’s Bluff, May 16; and while reconnoitering 
the Confederate works May 26 was mortally wounded. Died 
at Baltimore, Md., June 5, 1864. Brevet major Dec., 1862, 
lieutenant-colonel May, 1863, colonel and brigadier-general 
May, 1864, for gallant and meritorious services. 

, Dutton (II enry), LL.D., a jurist, was born at Ply¬ 
mouth, Conn., Feb. 12,1796, and graduated at Yale in 1818, 
was professor of law in Yale (1847-55), became governor 
of Connecticut in 1854, and was a judge of the superior 
court and court of errors (1861-66). He prepared several 
digests, compilations of State statutes, etc. Died April 
26, 1869. / 

Du'ty, a township in Lawrence co., Ark. Pop. 573. 

Duum'viri, or Duo'viri [Lat., the plural of duumvir, 
from duo, “two,” and vir (plu. viri), a “man” (i. e. the 
“two men”)], the title of various magistrates of ancient 
Rome and her colonies. Two men jointly held the office, 
whence the name. The duumviri, “ juri dicundo” (“for 
pronouncing judgment ”), wei’e chief magistrates in muni¬ 
cipal towns. Naval duumviri were occasionally appointed 
to equip fleets. Duumviri “ perduellionis” were appointed 
to try cases of treason ( jjerduellio) and parricide. Quin¬ 
quennial duumviri were the censors of municipal towns, 
and were chosen every five years, hence called quinquen- 
nales (from quinque, annus), but the duties of the office 
occupied only one year. The position was one of great 
dignity. Sacred duumviri were sometimes appointed to 
erect temples. There were also duumviri for performing 
other minor duties. 

Duval', a county in the N. E. of Florida. Area, 860 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Atlantic 
Ocean, and is intersected by the St. John’s River. The 
surface is low and nearly level. Lumber, market veget¬ 
ables, and rice are the most important products. It is 
traversed by the Florida R. R. and the Jacksonville Pen¬ 
sacola and Mobile R.R. Capital, Jacksonville. Pop. 11,921. 

Duval, a county in the S. of Texas, partly drained by 
the Nueces River. Area, 1650 square miles. Wood and 
water are scarce, but the pasturage is good. Cattle and wool 
arc the chief products. Pop. 1083. 

Duval, a township of Lincoln co., W. Va. Pop. 604. 

Duval (Alexandre), born April 6 , 1767, served in the 
American Revolution on a French vessel, was then engi¬ 
neer, architect, and, after 1792, devoted himself to dra¬ 
matic composition. He succeeded in mingling comic traits 
with serious action, and many of his pieces have kept the 
stage. Died Jan. 10, 1842.—His brother, Amaury Duval, 
born Jan. 28, 1760, acquired note by treatises upon antiq¬ 
uities. Died Nov. 12, 1838. 

Duvaucel (Alfred), a French naturalist,born in Paris 
in 1792, was a stepson and pupil of the celebrated Cuvier. 
He passed nearly six years in the exploration of the nat¬ 
ural history of India, to which he went in 1818. He died 
near Madras in Aug., 1824. 

Duvergier de Hauraune (Prosper), a French states¬ 
man, born at Rouen in 1798. He was elected to the Cham¬ 
ber of Deputies in 1831, acted with the Doctrinaires, and 
advocated electoral reform. He was a conservative mem¬ 
ber of the National Assembly in 1848. He wrote a “His¬ 
tory of Parliamentary Government in France” (2 vols., 
1857), and “On the Principles of Representative Govern¬ 
ment, and on their Application ” (1838), which is full of 
admiration of English institutions. 

Duvernoy (Georges Louis), M. D., a French zoologist 
and anatomist, born at Montbffiiard Aug. 6 , 1777. Ho 
edited Cuvier’s “ Lectures on Comparative Anatomy ” 
(1805) at his request. He succeeded Cuvier in 1837 as 
professor in the College of France, and became in 1850 
professor of comparative anatomy. Among his important 
works is “Lectures on Organic Bodies” (1842). Died 
Mar. 1,1855. 

Duveyrier (Henri), a French traveller, born Feb. 28, 
1840, was the son of Charles Duveyrier, a political and 
dramatic writer, and nephew of Anne Joseph Duveyrier, 
who, under the pseudonym of Melesville, wrote a great 
number of theatrical pieces in collaboration with Scribo 
and others. He has published “ Exploration of Sahara ” 

(vol. i., 1864), and numerous papers in geographical peri¬ 
odicals which contribute much to a knowledge of Northern 
Africa and the Great Desert. Ho travelled two years in 


























1434 DUXBUKY—DWIGHT. 


the interior, and under the protection of the Tuarick chiefs 
penetrated to the centre of Soodan. 

Dux'bury, a towushij) and post-village of Plymouth 
co., Mass., on the South Shore It. K., 5 miles N. of Ply¬ 
mouth. It is the seat of an academy. Here the French 
Atlantic telegraph terminates. Duxbury has an iron light¬ 
house ; lat. 41° 59' N., Ion. 70° 38' W. It has also four 
churches, a soldiers’ monument, and a monument to Miles 
Standish. Pop. 2341. 

Duxbury, a township of Washington co., Yt. It con¬ 
tains the Camel’s Itump Mountain, and has manufactures 
of lumber. Pop. 893. 

Duyc'kinck (Evert Augustus), an American editor 
and essayist, born in the city of New York Nov. 23, 1816, 
and graduated at Columbia College in 1835. He was the 
founder and editor of the “Literary World.” With the 
aid of his brother George he published a “ Cyclopaedia of 
American Literature” (2 vols., 1856), which is highly es¬ 
teemed. Among his works is a “'History of the War for 
-the Union” (3 vols., 1861-65). 

Duyckinck (George Long), a brother of the preced¬ 
ing, was born in New York Oct. 17, 1823, graduated at the 
University of New York in 1843. He was joint-author of 
the “ Cyclopaedia of American Literature” (1856), and pub¬ 
lished several biographies, among which was a “ Life of 
George Herbert” (1S58). Died Mar. 30, 1863. 

Dwara'ca, or Dxvarka, a maritime town of India, 
in Guzerat, is on the Arabian Sea a few miles S. of the 
Gulf of Cutch, 95 miles N. W. of Joonaghur. Here is a 
temple of Krishna, which is annually visited by multitudes 
of pilgrims. The great temple is an ancient sculptured 
stone structure, with a massy gate and a long flight of 
steps. In front is a sacred stream. 

Dwarf [Ang.-Sax. dveorg; Ger. Zwerg; Swedish and 
Dutch, dwerg], the name given to any animal or plant 
greatly below the usual size of its kind, particularly a 
human being of small dimensions. In ancient times dwarfs 
were kept by persons of rank for their amusement, and the 
Roman ladies employed them as domestics. In Europe the 
passion for dwarfs reached its height under the reigns of 
Francis I. and Henry II. of France. Among the most cel¬ 
ebrated dwarfs were the following: Philetus of Cos, a 
philosopher and poet, who lived about 330-285 B. C.; 
Geoffrey Hudson, born in 1619, who was three feet nine 
inches high; Joseph Borowlawski, born in 1739, who at¬ 
tained the height of thirty-nine inches, and was remarkable 
for acute intellect; and Nicolas Ferry or Bebe (thirty-three 
inches high), who was a favorite of Stanislas, king of 
Poland. In recent times Tom Thumb (Charles S. Stratton), 
born at Bridgeport, Conn., in 1837, is the most celebrated, 
and his performances as an actor have been received with 
applause both in Europe and America. 

The dwarfs of Scandinavian mythology are represented 
as deformed and crafty elves, distinguished for their skill 
in magic and the working of metals. 

Dwarfed Trees may be produced in three different 
ways—by grafting on dwarf slow-growing stocks, as, for 
example, the pear on the quince; by planting in small pots 
filled with poor soil, by which the plant is starved and 
stunted; and by causing a portion of the extremity of a 
branch to produce roots, and then cutting it off and plant¬ 
ing it in a pot with poor soil. The last is the Chinese 
method, and is thus performed : The extremity of a branch 
two or three feet long in a fruit- or flower-bearing state is 
selected, and a ring of bark is taken off at the point where 
it is desired that roots should be produced. The part thus 
denuded of bark is covered with a ball of clay, kept moist 
with the frequent application of water. After the roots 
have grown out the branch is cut off, planted in a pot of 
poor soil, and sparingly supplied with water. The dwarf 
tree will remain nearly of the same size for years. The 
pear tree especially is often dwarfed, because in this condi¬ 
tion it will produce fruit while still very young. Some 
varieties of pear may remain unfruitful for many years 
unless dwarfed. 

Dwight, a post-village of Livingston co., Ill., on the 
Chicago and Alton R. R., 72 miles S. AV. of Chicago. It 
has one weekly newspaper. It is a terminus of the west¬ 
ern division of the same railroad. Pop. 1044; of Dwight 
township, 1804. Er>. “ Star.” 

Dwight, a township of Huron co., Mich. Pop. 335. 

Dwight (Benjamin AVoodbridge), Pn. D., born at New 
Haven, Conn., April 5, 1816, and graduated at Hamilton 
College, N. Y., in 1835, was principal and proprietor of 
a high school for boys in Brooklyn and New York City 
for many years. lie is the author of “ The Higher Chris¬ 
tian Education,” “Modern Philology, First and Second 
Series,” “The History of the Strong Family,” 2 vols., and 
also of “The History of the Dwight Family in America,” 


2 vols., “AYoman’s Higher Culture,” and “The True Doc¬ 
trine of Divine Providence.” lie resides now (1874) at 
Clinton, Oneida co., N. Y., where he is engaged in literary 
labor. 

Dwight (Edmund), a merchant, born at Springfield, 
Mass., Nov. 28, 1780. He graduated at Yale in 1799. He 
was a member of business firms which established cotton- 
mills at Chicopee and Holyoke. Ho gave $10,000 to sup¬ 
port normal schools in Massachusetts. Died April 1, 1849. 

Dwight (Francis), born at Springfield, Mass., Mar. 14, 
1808, graduated at Harvard College in 1827, and at the 
Law School in 1830, travelled extensively in Europe, and 
afterwards practised law for a few years (1834—38), but in 
1838 turned the whole force of his strong nature towards 
the promotion of common-school education in our country, 
and established at Albany, N. Y., in 1840, “The District 
School Journal,” under State patronage. Here he had 
full scope for liis fine, highly-cultured faculties of mind 
and his glowing zeal in behalf of the most improved style 
of popular education. His name stands, for honor, by the 
side of that of Horace Mann in the thoughts of those who 
know how the present superior style of public instruction 
has been reached in those parts of the land where it is 
highest in its form. He died in the fulness of his influence 
for good, Dec. 15, 1845. 

Divight (Rev. Harrison Gray Otis), D. D., born at 
Conway, MasS., Nov. 22, 1803, graduated at Hamilton Col¬ 
lege, N. Y., in 1825, and became a missionary of the A. B. 
C. F. M. in 1830 to the Armenians, making Constantinople 
the centre of his field of operations. He was abundant in 
his labors with tongue and pen, and is one of the most 
noted of all American missionaries hitherto for his great 
skill and success in his work. He published in America 
and England several volumes at difierent times, as “ Re¬ 
searches of Smith and Dwight in Armenia,” “Memoir of 
Mrs. Elizabeth B. Dwight,” “ Christianity Revived in the 
East,” “A Complete Catalogue of Literature in Armenia,” 
etc. He composed also several books and tracts in the 
native languages of the East. He was killed suddenly, 
when on a brief visit to his native land, by an accident on 
the Troy and Bennington R. R., Jan. 25, 1862. 

Dwight (John) graduated at Oxford University, Eng¬ 
land, in 1682, was secretary to three successive bishops of 
Chester, England (AA'alton, Feme, and Hall). He estab¬ 
lished in 1684, at Fulham, “ a manufactory of white gorges, 
marbled porcelain ware, statues, and vessels never before 
made in England, and also of China and Persian wares, 
and the Cologne and Hessian wares.” He invented moulds 
and models and processes of his own, and manufactured 
the only porcelain that was made in England in his day. 
His inventive talents are described in leading English 
works on pottery and porcelain ware as having been of the 
very highest order. The great potteries at Fulham, Chel¬ 
sea, etc. are ascribed to him as their real founder. 

Dwight (John Sullivan), a musical critic, born in 
Boston May 13, 1813, graduated at Harvard in 1832. He 
studied divinity, entered the Unitarian ministry, and 
preached about six years. In 1842 he joined the Brook 
Farm enterprise at AVest Roxbury, Mass., where he re¬ 
mained until the institution was broken up. In 1852 he 
established “Dwight’s Musical Journal,” an excellent 
periodical, of which he is still the editor. Mr. Dwight 
has also published many admirable reviews, lectures, etc., 
and is the author of the song “ God Save the State ” (1844). 

Dwight (Joseph), Brigadier-General, born at Hat¬ 
field, Mass., Oct. 16, 1703, graduated at Harvard Univer¬ 
sity in 1722, was judge of the court of common pleas of 
Hampshire co., Mass., and afterwards of Berkshire county, 
and judge of probate. He was eminent both as a judge 
and a soldier. He commanded the Massachusetts artillery 
at the reduction of Louisburg in 1745 with distinction, and 
led a brigade at Lake Champlain in the second French war 
in 1756. He was also for eleven years member of the gen¬ 
eral council of Massachusetts. Died in 1765. 

Dwight (Rev. Nathaniel), M. D., brother to Dr. Tim¬ 
othy Dwight of Yale College, born Jan. 31, 1770, at North¬ 
ampton, Mass., prepared and published the first school 
geography ever issued in this country. It was in the form 
of questions and answers, and was extensively used. He 
was also the author of “ The Great Question Answered,” 
and of “A Compendious History of the Signers of the 
Declaration of Independence.” He resided chiefly at 
AVethersfield, Conn. Died June 11,1831, at Oswego, N. Y. 

Dwight (Samuel), M. D., of Fulham, England, gradu¬ 
ated at Oxford University (son of John Dwight of Fulham, 
the great inventor and first manufacturer of porcelain 
ware in England), was the author of three different medi¬ 
cal works—viz. “ De Vomitiono” (London, 1722), “Do 
Hydropibus” (1725), and “De Febribus” (1731). 















DWIGHT—DYEING. 


Dwight (Seheno Edwards), D. D., an American divine, 
born at Greenfield Hill, Conn., May 18, 1786, was a son of 
Timothy Dwight, noticed below. He graduated at Yale in 
1803, and practised law with success (1810-16). He was 
afterwards pastor of Park street church, Boston (1817-26), 
and was president of Hamilton College (1833-35). He 
wrote, besides other works, “ The Hebrew Wife” and a “ Life 
of Jonathan Edwards,” and edited the works of the same 
author (10 vols. 8vo). Died Nov. 30, 1850. 

Dwight (Theodore), an able journalist, an uncle of the 
preceding, was born at Northampton, Mass., Dec. 15, 1764. 
He was a member of Congress (1806-07). He practised law 
with distinction, and was a leader of the Federalist party. 
He was secretary of the Hartford Convention in 1814. His 
mother was a daughter of Jonathan Edwards. In 1817 he 
founded the “ New York Daily Advertiser,” which he edited 
until 1835. He published “ The Life and Character of Thomas 
Jefferson ’ and “ The Histoi’y of the Hartford Convention.” 
He was a brilliant political writer. Died July 12, 1846. 

Dwight (Theodore), an author, a son of the preceding, 
was born at Hartford, Conn., Mar. 3, 1796, and graduated 
at Yale in 1814. He wrote, besides other works, a “Tour 
of Italy” (1824), a “History of Connecticut” (1841), a 
“Life of Garibaldi” (1859), “A School Dictionary of 
Roots and Derivatives,” “ The Northern Traveller,” “ The 
Tour of New England,” “ The Father’s Book,” “First Les¬ 
sons in Modern Greek,” “ The E,oman Republic of 1849,” 
and “The Kansas War.” Died Oct. 16, 1866. 

DAvight (Theodore William), LL.D., an American 
jurist, professor, and editor, born July 18, 1822, at Catskill, 
N. Y., graduated at Hamilton College, N. Y., in 1840, and 
studied his profession at Yale Law School, under the late 
distinguished Judge Hitchcock. In 1846 he was elected 
Maynard professor of law in Hamilton College, and there 
established a law school. In 1858 he was chosen professor 
of municipal law in Columbia College, N. Y. His inaug¬ 
ural address was published. Ho was soon made warden of 
the law school, a department of the college organized under 
his direction, and now (1874) numbering 425 students, 
drawn from all parts of the U. S. He received the degree 
of doctor of laws from Rutgers College, N. J. (1859), and 
from Columbia College (1860). He published an “Argu¬ 
ment in Rose Will and Charity Cases ” (1863), and other 
arguments in leading law cases. In association with Dr. 
E. C. Wines he published “ Prisons and Reformatories in 
the U. S.” He edited “ Maine’s Ancient Law.” As asso¬ 
ciate editor of the “American Law Register” he has writ¬ 
ten articles which have been separately published, as 
“ Trial by Impeachment,” etc. He was elected non-resi¬ 
dent professor of constitutional law in Cornell University, 
N. Y. (1868), and lecturer in Amherst College, Mass., on 
the same subject (1869). Ho was a member of the New 
York constitutional convention of 1867, and early in 1873 
was vice-president of the New York board of State com¬ 
missioners of public charities, president of the New York 
prison association, and an active member of the well-known 
“committee of seventy” of the city of New York. In 
Jan., 1874, he was appointed by Governor Dix of New 
York a judge of the commission of appeals, a court sharing 
the duties of the court of appeals, y 

DAvight (Timothy), D. D., LL.D., an eminent American 
divine and scholar, born at Northampton, Mass., on the 
14th of May, 1752. His mother was Mary, daughter of 
Jonathan Edwards. He graduated at Yale College in 1769, 
after which he was a tutor in that institution for six years. 
In 1777 he married Mary Woolsey. Between 1778 and 
1782 he was a chaplain in the army, or lived with his 
mother at Northampton ; in 1783 he became minister of a 
church at Greenfield, Conn., where also he was principal 
of a flourishing academy. In 1795 he was elected presi¬ 
dent of Yale College, in which he also became professor of 
theology at the same time. He was an able preacher, and 
was eminently qualified as an instructor of young men. 
He continued to be president of Yale College until his death. 
His chief works are “ The Conquest of Canaan,” an epic 
poem (1785), “Theology Explained and Defended in a 
Series of 173 Sermons” (5 vols., 1818), often reprinted, and 
“ Travels in New England and New York” (4 vols., 1821). 
Died at New Haven Jan. 11, 1817. (See W. B. Sprague, 
“Life of T. Dwight,” in Sparks’s “ American Biography,” 
vol. iv., second scries; also Sprague’s “Annals of the 
American Pulpit,” vol. ii., pp. 152—165.) 

DAvight (Wilder), an American officer, born in Spring- 
field, Mass., in 1833, graduated at Harvard College in 
1853, entered the army as major of the Second Massachu- 
setts ? regiinent of volunteers, and served in the Shenandoah 
campaign under Gen. Banks, displaying groat bravery dur¬ 
ing the famous retreat. He was engaged at the battle of An- 
tietam Sept. 17, 1862, where he was mortally wounded, but 
survived till the 19 th, when he expired in hospital at Boones- 


1435 


ville. At the time of his death he was lieutenant-colonel of 
his regiment. G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Eng’rs. 

DAvight (Rev. William Theodore), D.D., son of Pres¬ 
ident Timothy Dwight of Yale College, Conn., born June 
15, 1795, at Greenfield Hill, Conn., graduated at Yale in 
1813, practised law in Philadelphia for ten years (1821-31), 
when he entered the ministry, and was settled as a Congre¬ 
gational clergyman at Portland, Me., where he remained for 
thirty-two years (1832-64), when he resigned his pastorate 
on account of poor health. His ministry was one of great 
success, and his influence as a thinker, preacher, superior 
platform-speaker, and presiding officer in ecclesiastical 
councils and conventions was very great, not only through¬ 
out his adopted State, but also throughout the Congrega¬ 
tional denomination at large. He was several times invited 
and urged to accept of other positions of honor and influ¬ 
ence, and was solicited in vain by three different theological 
seminaries to take the chair of doctrinal theology in them. 
He excelled alike in the art of fine rhetorical composition 
and of easy and effective extempore speaking. His per¬ 
sonal appearance was—like that of his father and of his 
brother, Dr. Sereno E. Dwight—fine and commanding. 
He died at Andover, Mass., Oct. 22, 1865. 

Dwi'na, or Duiia (anc. Tin-unthus), a river of Russia, 
rises in the government of Tver, near the source of the 
Volga. Its general direction is nearly north-westward. It 
forms the boundary between Livonia and Courland, and en¬ 
ters the Gulf of Riga 7 miles below the town of Riga. Length, 
about 600 miles. The navigation is obstructed by rocks 
and sandbanks, but during the floods of spring and autumn 
it is easily navigated. 

DAvina, or Northern DAA'ina, a large river of Rus¬ 
sia, is formed by the confluence of the Sookhona and 
Vitchcgda, which unite in the government of Vologda. It 
flows nearly north-westward through Archangel, and enters 
the White Sea 20 miles below Archangel. Its length, ex¬ 
cluding the branches above named, is estimated at 450 miles. 
It is navigable, and is an important channel of trade, but 
there are shoals at its mouth which obstruct the entrance 
of vessels drawing more than fourteen feet of water. 

Dyaks, the aborigines of Borneo (which see, revised 
by Prof. A. J. Sciiem). 

Dy'berry, a post-township of Wayne co., Pa. P. 1190. 

Dyce (Rev. Alexander), a critic and divine, born in 
Edinburgh June 30, 1797, was educated at Edinburgh and 
Oxford. He removed to London in 1827, and edited several 
old English dramatists and other writers, including Beau¬ 
mont, Fletcher, and Marlowe. In 1858 he published a 
good edition of Shakspeare (6 vols.), which displays much 
critical ability. Died May 15, 1869. 

Dyce (William), a painter of eminence, was born in 
1806 at Aberdeen, Scotland. He studied at Rome, and 
practised his art in Scotland and in London, where he was 
head-master of the school of design, 1838-43, and was em¬ 
ployed upon works for Buckingham Palace. In 1845 he 
painted the “ Baptism of Ethelbert ” for the House of Lords. 
He painted various scriptural and ecclesiastical scenes, and 
gained distinction by his frescoes. Died Sept. 14, 1864. 

Dyck, van (Anthony). See Vandyke. 

Dyeing [Lat. tinctura; Fr. teinture; Ger. Farben or 
Fiirbekunst], the art of coloring yarn or cloth, has been 
practised from the most remote antiquity. The fibres and 
fabrics usually dyed are either cotton, linen, silk, or wool. 
(See Textile Fabrics.) The coloring-matters employed 
are either the natural products of animals or plants, or 
are the results of chemical processes. (See Dyestuffs.) 
Thorough cleansing of the fibres is an almost indispensable 
preliminary to dyeing. Resinous and oily matters must be 
removed to give the dye liquors free access to the fabrics, 
and natural coloring-matters must be destroyed in order to 
secure the brightest and clearest tints of the dyes. Cotton 
is successively boiled with lime, soda-ash, and rosin; it is 
then soured with dilute sulphuric acid, and finally treated 
with hypochlorite of lime (bleaching-powder). Linen is 
subjected to repeated treatment with water, alkalies, acids, 
and hypochlorite of lime, alternating with exposure on the 
grass to air and sunlight. Silk is boiled in a solution of 
fine soap to remove the gelatinous, resinous, and fatty mat¬ 
ters which make up a large proportion of its weight. Wool 
is thoroughly cleansed by washing in weak soap or soda- 
lye, putrid urine, or weak ammonia. (lor the details of 
these operations see Bleaching.) 

The dyeing is usually effected while the fibres are in the 
yarn, although the woven cloth is dyed in some cases. The 
special operations of dyeing vary with the fabric and the 
coloring-matters employed. Some colors combine ivith the 
fibres very readily as soon as they arc immeisod in their 
solutions; such colors have been called substantive. Silk 
and wool take colors much more readily than cotton and 













1436 


DYEING. 


linen ; many dyes are therefore substantive for these ani¬ 
mal fibros. Nearly all the aniline colors belong to this 
class. With such colors the operations of dyeing arc very 
simple. They consist in the mere immersion of the yarn 
or cloth in cold or hot solutions of the dye, with sufficient 
handling to secure the even distribution of the color. 
Agents arc often added to fix or set the color, such as 
acids, alkalies, tin salt, alum, etc. A few colors are sub¬ 
stantive for cotton and linen, as the safflower pink. 

For dyes which will not unite directly with the fibres, 
oalled adjective, the aid of mordants is necessary. Mor¬ 
dants are bodies which possess an affinity for the colors, 
and which can be fixed in an insoluble condition on or 
within the fibres. Some are metallic oxides or salts, as 
alumina, oxide of iron, oxide of tin, tannate of tin, soap, 
etc.; others, as albumen, gluten, caseine, tannin, acids, etc., 
are of a different character. The mode of applying the 
mordant depends on the fabric, as well as on the character 
of the mordant itself. Silk and wool, when immersed in a 
solution of alum, take up a considerable quantity of the 
salt without decomposing it. The acetates of alumina and 
iron are easily decomposed, with the liberation of a portion 
of the acetic acid and the formation of an insoluble basic 
acetate. By boiling cotton in their solutions the fibres be¬ 
come thoroughly impregnated with the insoluble compounds, 
and when the yarn is transferred to the solution of the dye¬ 
stuff, the color unites with the mordant, forming insoluble 
colored bodies in or upon the fibres which are called Lakes 
(which see). The goods thus become permanently dyed. 
The same decomposition of the aluminous or ferrous salt 
occurs if the goods are simply immersed and then hung 
up in the air. Chloride of tin is decomposed by boiling 
its dilute solution, with the liberation of hydrochloric acid 
and the formation of insoluble oxide of tin. Sometimes 
the insoluble oxide or salt is produced by first immersing 
the goods in a soluble salt, and then passing them through 
a second solution of another agent. Exposing fabrics to 
an iron salt, and then to an alkaline lye, fixes oxide of iron. 
A lead salt and an alkaline lye fix oxide of lead. Stan- 
nate of soda, followed by a solution of nutgalls, sumach, 
etc., fixes tannate of tin in the fibres. 

In some cases the mordant is mixed with the color, and 
both are applied simultaneously, to be subsequently fixed. 
Thus, aniline colors are mixed with albumen, applied to 
the cloth, and fixed by steaming, which coagulates the 
albumen, rendering it insoluble. Mixtures of the acetates 
of alumina and iron, of the chloride of tin, etc. with colors, 
are also fixed by steaming. This method of fixing colors 
is extensively practised in Calico-Printing (which see), as 
it renders it possible to produce patterns by applying the 
colors to certain portions of the cloth, or by applying dif¬ 
ferent colors to different portions. Mordants often affect 
the natural tints of the dyes, thus enabling the dyer to pro¬ 
duce a variety of shades with the same dye. Oxide of iron 
is most remarkable in this respect; it changes the red color 
of madder, logwood, Brazil-wood, etc. to shades of purple, 
lilac, chocolate, and even black, according to the propor¬ 
tions in which it is employed. The most durable blacks 
are obtained with oxide of iron, combined with logwood, 
sumach, catechu, etc. The oxide of tin tends to brighten the 
shades, while alumina fixes them in their natural tints. 
This is a very important circumstance in calico-printing, 
as it enables the dyer to produce several colors on the same 
cloth by one operation of dyeing; the mordants, acetate of 
alumina, acetate of iron, and mixtures of the two salts in 
varying proportions, being printed on the cloth. The ox¬ 
ides are rendered insoluble by hanging the cloth in the air 
(ageing), and by washing in alkaline solutions of silicate, 
arseniate, or phosphate of soda (dunging). On passing the 
mordanted cloth through a mixture of madder-root, Brazil¬ 
wood, etc. in warm water, patterns in pink, red, purple, 
lilac, chocolate, and black are produced. Metallic pig¬ 
ments are often produced in the yarn or cloth by the suc¬ 
cessive application of the agents necessary for their pro¬ 
duction. Thus, when cloth mordanted with oxide of iron 
is passed into an acidulated solution of ferrocyanide of 
potassium, an insoluble Prussian blue is at once produced. 
Goods impregnated with oxide of lead by immersion in ace¬ 
tate of lead become bright yellow in a solution of bichro¬ 
mate of potash, owing to the formation in the fibres of in¬ 
soluble chromate of lead. By subsequently boiling with 
lime-water the yellow is changed to orange basic chromate. 
Pigments are also fixed upon the cloth by albumen; this is 
specially the case in the application of the chromates of 
lead, ultramarine, and Guignet’s green in calico-printing. 
Indigo blue is produced in cotton by immersion in a solu¬ 
tion of colorless reduced indigo (the indigo vat) and ex¬ 
posure to the air, when the indigo blue is regenerated by 
oxidation in an insoluble form. Tho following are a few 
of the principal methods of dyeing; more detailed state¬ 
ments aro given under the different dyestuffs: 


Reds. 

On Cotton. —(1) Mordant with sumach, then with red 
spirits (a solution of 2 oz. of tin in 3 oz. hydrochloric acid, 
1 oz. nitric acid, and 1 oz. water); then dye in a mixture 
of Lima-wood and fustic. (2) The most beautiful red on 
cotton, Turkey red, is produced by boiling the cloth in a 
mixture of oil and a little carbonate of soda. It is then 
dried, freed from the excess of oil by pcarlash, passed 
through a bath of nutgalls and alum; then through hot 
water holding chalk in suspension. It is then ready to be 
dyed in a boiling bath of madder. It is then washed, and 
the treatment with galls and alum, chalk and madder re¬ 
peated. It is then cleared or brightened by boiling in 
soap and pcarlash, then in soap and protochloride of tin; 
finally, it is immersed in a bath of sour bran. (3) Aniline 
reds and pinks on cotton mordanted in nutgalls or sumach, 
followed by perchloride of tin. 

On Wool. —(4) Mordant with alum and bichromate of 
potash, and dye with peach and Lima-wood, with alum. 
(5) Scarlet. Cochineal, with cream of tartar, sumach, and 
fustic. (6) Crimson. Cochineal, with cream of tartar and 
protochloride of tin. (7) Pink. Cochineal, tartar, alum, 
and red spirits. (8) Aniline shades are fixed on wool with¬ 
out mordants. 

On Silk. —(9) Peach-wood and fustic, followed by red 
spirits, with annatto for scarlets, cochineal and safflower 
for finer tints. (10) Pink. Safflower, with sulphuric acid 
and cream of tartar. (11) Beautiful tints have been ob¬ 
tained from lac-dye. (12) Anilines are applied to silk in a 
warm bath, slightly acidulated with acetic, tartaric, or sul¬ 
phuric acid. 

Blues. 

On Cotton. —(13) Prussian blue produced by an iron mor¬ 
dant, followed by ferrocyanide of potassium. (14) Indigo 
vat, a solution of reduced indigo. (15) Aniline bines. 
Mordant with soap, then sumach, the protochloride of tin; 
dye in warm bath. 

On Wool. —(16) Prussian blue, as for cotton. (17) In¬ 
digo extract, with argol and alum. (18) Aniline blue, with 
starch, sulphuric acid, and gum-arabic. 

On Silk .—(19) Prussian blue, as for cotton. (20) Indigo ex¬ 
tract and alum. (21) Anilines, with soap and sulphuric acid. 

Yellows and Oranges. 

On Cotton. —(22) Chromate of lead, produced by bath of 
acetate of lead, followed by bichromate of potassa, deep¬ 
ened by the addition of annatto. (23) The chrome yellow 
is deepened to orange by boiling in lime-water. (24) Mor¬ 
dant in acetate of alumina and dye in yellow weed (weld). 
(25) Mordant in weak protochloride of tin; dye in quer¬ 
citron bark, fix with protocliloride of tin. (26) Coralline 
orange. Mordant with stannate of soda, then with sumach. 

On Wool .—(27) Mordant in tartar and alum; dye in mix¬ 
ture of quercitron, sumach, fustic, and red spirits. (28) 
Weld, with alum and tartar. (29) Picric acid. (30) Ani¬ 
line yellow. (31) Naphthaline yellow. (32) Orange. Su¬ 
mach, with cochineal, fustic, tartar, and red spirits. (33) 
Aniline orange. 

On Silk. —(34) Yellow to orange. Annatto, with alum 
and white soap. (35) Weld, with alum and tartar. (36) 
Picric acid. (37) Aniline yellow or orange. (38) Naph¬ 
thaline yellow. 

Greens. 

On Cotton .—(39) Dye blue, then yellow with fustic or 
quercitron bark. (40) Aniline green, on cotton mordanted 
with sumach; brighten the tint with picric acid. 

On Wool .—(41) Dye yellow with fustic and alum, then 
blue ivith indigo. (42) For olive, use fustic with logAvood, 
madder and peach-wood; following with copperas. (43) 
Aniline green. (44) Picric acid and indigo carmine. 

On Silk .—(45) Fustic, with sulphate of indigo and alum, 
using logwood and copperas to darken shades. (46) La- 
kao, or Chinese green, gives beautiful shades. (47) Ani¬ 
line green, with sulphuric acid or cream of tartar. (48) 
Picric acicl and indigo carmine. 

Purples, Violets, and Lilacs. 

On Cotton. —(49) Mordant Avith red spirits, and dye with 
logwood, to Avhich a little red spirits and acetate of alumina 
have been added. (50) Dye light blue, then redden in log¬ 
wood Avith 'alum. (51) Mordant in sumach, then in red 
spirits, and dye in logwood. (52) Sajflower lavender. Dye 
light blue, then cover with safflower pink. (53) Dye mad¬ 
der on a mordant of alumina and oxide of iron. (54) A in¬ 
line colors. Mordant Avith perchloride of tin or with su¬ 
mach, folloAved by perchloride of tin or tartar emetic; fix 
with gelatine or albumen. 

On Wool. —(55) Cudbear, logAvood, barwood, cnniAvood, or 
peach-Avood, Avith alum. (56) Murexide, fixed by corrosive 
sublimate, acetate of soda, and acetic aoid. (57) Anilines. 














1437 


DYER—DYESTUFFS. 


On Silk. —(58) Archil or cudbear. (59) Murexide, as for 
wool. (60) Anilines. 

Blacks. 

On Cotton. —(61) Sumach, followed by copperas, then 
by logwood, then by weak copperas; the color is improved 
by adding fustic and replacing the second copperas bath by 
acetate of iron. (62) For blue-black precede 61 by the 
indigo vat. (63) Aniline black is not available for dyeing, 
although the best black for many styles of calico-printing. 

On Wool. —(64) Camwood, followed by copperas, then 
logwood, finally copperas. (65) Mordant in bichromate 
of potassa, with alum and fustic; hang in the air; dye in 
logwood, barwood, and fustic; finish in copperas. 

On Silk. —(66) Copperas and logwood, repeated; the 
addition of nitrate of iron and fustic improves. (67) For 
blue-black, dye in Prussian blue and follow with 66. 

Drabs. 

On Cotton. —(68) Sumach, followed by weak copperas, 
then fustic, Lima-wood, and logwood; raised with alum. 

On Wool. —(69) Madder, peach-wood, logwood, fustic, 
with alum and copperas. 

On Silk. —(70) Sumach, fustic, and logwood, with cop¬ 
peras. 

Browns. 

On Cotton. —(71) Dye yellow, then with Lima and log¬ 
wood, and fix with alum. (72) Catechu brown. Boil in 
catechu, pass through hot bichromate of potassa, wash in 
hot water containing a little soap. (73) Chocolate or 
French brown. Dye in spirit yellow, 25, then in logwood, 
and raise with acetate of alumina. 

On Wool. —(74) Pass through a bath of fustic, mad¬ 
der, peach, and logwood; then through dilute copperas. 
(75) Bath of bichromate of potassa, argol, and alum; then 
of madder, peach, and logwood. (76) Aniline brown. 

On Silk. —(77) First orange, with annatto, then pass 
through copperas, then bath of fustic, logwood, archil, 
and alum; modify with fustic for yellowish, peach for red¬ 
dish, logwood for bluish brown. (78) Aniline brown. 

(For special works on dyeing, see article on Calico- 
Printing.) C. F. Chandler. 

By' er, a county in the W. of Tennessee. Area, 650 
square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Mississippi 
River and intersected by the Obion River. The surface is 
level, the soil fertile. Lumber (mostly of the poplar or 
tulip tree) is exported from this county. Cattle, grain, 
wool, cotton, and tobacco are raised. Capital, Dyersburg. 
Pop. 13,706. 

Dyer, a township of Saline co., Ark. Pop. 512. 

Dyer, a township of Washington co., Me. Pop. 24. 

Dyer (Alexander B.), an American officer, born in 
1817 in Virginia, graduated at West Point in 1837, and 
Sept. 12, 1864, chief of ordnance with the rank of brigadier- 
general. He served in the artillery at Fortress Monroe, 
Va., and in the Florida war 1837-38, and in the ordnance 
at various arsenals 1838-46; as chief of ordnance of the 
army invading New Mexico 1846—48, engaged at Canada, 
Taos (brevet first lieutenant), and Santa Cruz de Rosales, 
Mexico (brevet captain) ; on ordnance duty and in com¬ 
mand of various arsenals 1848-61 ; and member of ord¬ 
nance board 1859. He served in the civil war in command 
of Springfield Armory 1861-64, largely extending the 
manufacture of small-arms ; as member of ordnance board 
1860-63; and as chief of ordnance and in charge of ord¬ 
nance bureau at Washington, D. C., since 1864. Brevet 
major-general Mar. 13, 1865, for faithful, meritorious, and 
distinguished services. George W. Cullum, IT. S. A. 

Dyer (Rev. George), an English antiquary and scholar, 
born in London Mar. 15, 1755. He was educated at Cam¬ 
bridge, became a Baptist minister, and preached for some 
years at Oxford, from which he removed to London in 1792. 
He edited Valpy’s Classics, and wrote, besides other works, 
a “History of the University of Cambridge” (2 vols., 
1814). Died Mar. 2, 1841. 

Dyer (Rev. John), an English poet, born in Carmar¬ 
thenshire in 1700. He was originally a painter, and studied 
art in Italy. He published in 1728 a poem entitled “ Gron- 
gar Hill,” Having taken holy orders, he obtained the 
livings of Calthorpe, Coningsby, and Bedford. Among his 
works are the “ Ruins of Rome” (1/40), and “ The Fleece, 
a didactic poem (1754). Died July 24, 1758. 

Dyer, orDyre (Mrs. Mart), a member of the Society 
of Friends who suffered death for her religion. She was 
hanged on Boston Common, a willing martyr, June 1, 
166CL (See Hildreth, “ History of the U. S.,” vol. i.) 

Dyer (N. Mayo), U. S. N., born Feb. 19, 1839, in Mas¬ 
sachusetts, appointed a master’s*mate in the volunteer navy 
May 2, 1862, became an acting ensign in 1863, an acting 
master in 1864, and an acting lieutenant in 1865. He re¬ 


ceived a commission as lieutenant-commander in the regu¬ 
lar navy Dec. 18, 1868. On the night of May 18, 1862, 
Master’s Mate Dyer, in charge of the second cutter of th? 
steamer R. R. Cuyler, off Mobile, boarded a blockade-run-, 
ner which had accidentally grounded within 200 yards of 
Fort Morgan, and captured her officers and crew. Then, 
observing that a gunboat was coming towards him, Dyer 
set fire to the vessel, which, being filled with cotton, was 
soon destroyed, and made his way in safety with his pris¬ 
oners to the Cuyler. Ho served on board the Metacomet 
at the battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and is thus 
honorably mentioned by his commanding officer, Lieuten¬ 
ant-Commander James E. Jowett, in his official report to 
Rear-Admiral Farragut of the part taken by the Metacomet 
in the action: “For the efficient handling of the vessel I 
am much indebted to Acting Master N. M. Dyer, who had 
permission to go North on leave, but volunteered to remain 
to assist in the attack upon the forts.” 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Dyer (Rev. Sidney), a Baptist minister and author, was 
born at White Creek, Washington co., N. Y., in 1814. Ho 
became a soldier of the U. S. army in 1831, and remained 
in the service nearly ten years. In 1842, after laborious 
study, he was ordained, and afterwards was a missionary 
to the Choctaws. In 1852 he became pastor of a church in 
Indianapolis, and in 1859 one of the secretaries of the Bap¬ 
tist Publication Society in Philadelphia. He has pub¬ 
lished “Voices of Nature,” “Songs and Ballads,” many of 
them very popular, “Winter’s Evening Entertainment,” 
“ Great Wonders in Little Things,” and other works. 

Dyers’ Broom, called also Woodwaxen, Dyers’ 
Green-Weed, and Whin, a low shrub with yellow 
flowers and simple leaves. It is the Genista tinctoria, a 
European leguminous plant now thoroughly naturalized in 
New England. It is said to be the genet, the bush which 
gave its name to the Plantagenet family. It was intro¬ 
duced into this country for garden cultivation, for its tops 
were formerly used to make a yellow dye for domestic pur¬ 
poses. It is used in Russia as a preventive to hydrophobia, 
but it appears to be simply a hydragogue cathartic of no 
great value. 

Dy'ersburg, a post-village, capital of Dyer co., Tenn., 
on Forked Deer River, about 160 miles W. of Nashville. 
Two weekly newspapers are issued here. Pop. 683. 

ByersviSle, a city of Dubuque co., Ia., on the Illinois 
Central R. R., 29 miles W. of Dubuque. It has four churches, 
a flour-mill, two breweries, two schools, and one weekly 
newspaper. Rose & Son, Pubs. “ Commercial.” 

Dyers’ Weed or Weld, also called Woold and 
Itocket, the Reseda Luteola, a European herb of the order 
Rcsedacem, naturalized about New York. It considerably 
resembles its congener, the mignonette. It is extensively 
cultivated in Holland and France, and to some extent in 
England, and is a valuable yellow dyestuff. Its quality is 
much improved by cultivation. It was formerly used in 
medicine as a sedative, diaphoretic, and diuretic. 

DyestufFs. The bodies used to impart color to textile 
fibres and fabrics are either derived from the animal or 
vegetable kingdom, or are prepared artificially, either 
from mineral or vegetable products. Many colors exist 
already formed in plants; others are produced from color¬ 
less bodies by oxidation or other processes. Lakes are 
compounds of coloring-matters with metallic oxides, such 
as alumina, the oxides of tin, lead, antimony, and barium. 
They are generally prepared from cochineal, madder, weld. 
Brazil-wood, coralline, aniline colors, etc. (See Lakes.) 
The following are some of the most important d 3 T estuffs: 

I. Animal Dyes. — Cochineal, the female insect of the 
species Coccus cacti, is by far the most important. Its 
coloring principle is carminic acid. It produces scarlets 
and crimsons of great brilliancy on silk and wool. Car¬ 
mine is nearly pure carminic acid. Kermes, kermes grains, 
alkermes is the insect Coccus ilicis, one of the most ancient 
dyes for red shades on silk. Lac is the Coccus lacese, a 
similar insect. The Tyrian purple was obtained from mol- 
lusks: it is no longer used. Galls are excrescences pro¬ 
duced on the leaves and leaf-stalks of the oak by punctures 
of the gall-wasp, made for the purpose of depositing her 
eggs. Their characteristic constituent is tannic acid, which 
produces drabs and blacks with iron salts. They also serve 
as a mordant for some aniline colors, and are the basis of 
most writing inks. Sej)ia is the fluid of cuttle-fish; it is 
not used as a dye, but as a water-color by artists. Murexide 
is a purple compound produced by the action ot nitric acid 
and ammonia on uric acid from guano; it is no longer used. 

II. Vegetable Dyes. —These are extremely numerous, 
although only a few are in general use. They are derived 
from different parts of plants : (1) From roots the most im¬ 
portant is madder (Rubia tvictorum ), which contains two 


















DYING DECLARATION—DYNAMICS. 


1438 


principles, alizarine and purpnrine. These bodies produce 
on cotton the most permanent reds, purples, and chocolates, 
which makes them specially applicable for calico-printing. 
Madder appears in commerce in the form of ground root; 
flowers of madder, the ground root washed and fermented; 
garancine, the ground root boiled with sulphuric acid and 
washed; and extract, a tolerably pure alizarine. Recently 
the alizarine has been manufactured artificially from the 
anthracene of coal-tar, and there is reason to believe that 
the artificial product will almost entirely supersede the 
natural root. Munjeet is the Indian madder. Alkanet is 
the Anchusa tinctoria, formerly used for lilac, lavender, 
and purple on silk. Its colors were always fugitive. Bar¬ 
berry produces a yellow of little importance. Turmeric, or 
Indian saffron, produces a fugitive yellow. It is now 
chiefly used for yellow lacquers, as a test for alkalies, for 
mixing with curry-powder and with mustard. Soorangee 
is a yellow much used in India. (2) Among the more im¬ 
portant woods are logwood, containing hmmatoxylin, ex¬ 
tensively used for reds, purples, violets, blues, and blacks; 
Brazil-wood, comprising several species of Csesalpinia, found 
in Central and South America and in Japan, known as 
“ Lima,,” “ Pernambuco,” “ Santa Martha,” “ Peach,” “ Nic¬ 
aragua,” “ Sapan ” or “ Japan,” etc. It yields a coloring- 
matter known as brazilin, which produces rich reds. San¬ 
dal-wood from Ceylon, and cam and bar wood from Africa, 
contain santalin, which gives reds, violets, and scarlets. 
Fustic, or “yellow wood,” is the Morns tinctoria from the 
West Indies. Fustet, “ voung fustic,” or “Hungarian yel¬ 
low wood,” is the Rhus Cotinus. (3) The only bark of spe¬ 
cial importance is the quercitron, which produces a rich 
yellow, and greens when combined with blue. Lo-kao, or 
Chinese green, is a green lake prepared by the Chinese from 
the bark of a species of Rhamnus, or buckthorn. (4) Leaves 
of the Rhus Cotinus are known as sumach; they produce a 
yellow, but are generally used, on account of the tannic 
acid they contain, cither as a mordant or to produce blacks, 
etc. with iron salts. Chica, which gives an orange on cot¬ 
ton, consists of the leaves of Bignonia Chica. (5) Flowers. 
The petals of Carthamus tinctorius constitute “ safflower.” 
They contain a useless yellow coloring-matter, soluble in 
water, and a beautiful pink (carthamin ), soluble in alkalies, 
which is used for red on silk and cotton. This is the ma¬ 
terial used for dyeing red tape and for preparing red saucers. 
Saffron, a beautiful yellow dye, consists of the stigmas of 
Crocus sativus. (6) Fruit. “Persian,” “French,” “Tur¬ 
key,” etc. berries are derived from several species of Rham¬ 
nus. They contain a beautiful yellow dye ( clirysorham- 
nine) and olive-yellow ( xanthorhamnine ). They are used 
in calico-printing, for paper pulp, and for lakes. Annatto 
or annotto is an extract of the seed-pellicles of Bixa Orel¬ 
lana. It is used for yellows, oranges, and iVith reds for 
scarlet. It is also employed for coloring butter and cheese. 
JDivi-divi is the pod of the Cxsalpinia Coriaria. It contains 
tannic acid. Catechu , terra japonica, and gambir are the ex¬ 
tracts prepared from the fruit, wood, twigs, and unripe pods 
of several plants growing in India. Their active princi¬ 
ple, as well as that of divi-divi, is tannic acid. They are 
used as mordants, with iron salts for drabs and blacks, and 
in tanning skins. (7) Entire plants. Indigo from various 
species of the Indigofera, and woad from the Isatis tinc¬ 
toria, contain a glucoside ( indican ) which by fermentation 
yields indigo blue ( indigotinc). This color has long been 
used as one of the most permanent blue dyes. Several 
preparations are employed by the dyer: (a) solution of 
colorless or reduced indigo, with which the cloth or yarn 
is impregnated, and from which the insoluble blue indigo- 
tine is precipitated on exposure to the air; (6) in solution 
in sulphuric acid as sulpho-purpuric acid, purple blue, or 
as sulpho-indigotic acid, deep blue; (c) as carmine of in¬ 
digo, the soda compounds of the above-mentioned acids. 
It is used for cotton, silk, and wool, and in calico-printing. 
Lichens. A variety of lichens yield, by a kind of fermen¬ 
tation, a series of products known as archil or orseille, 
cudbear or persio, and litmus. The weeds (from the Ca¬ 
naries, the Pyrenees, etc.) are pulverized and moistened with 
urine, when certain acids they contain are changed to the 
coloring-matter orcein. Archil appears in commerce as a 
purple paste, cudbear as a red powder, litmus as a blue lake. 
Before the introduction of the aniline colors the most beau¬ 
tiful purples for silk were obtained from archil. Weld, the 
Reseda Luteola, contains lutioline, which yields a rich but 
fugitive yellow. 

III. Artificial or Chemical Colors.— (1) Pigments 
are insoluble metallic compounds, either produced in the 
yarn or cloth by successively applying the necessary re¬ 
agents, or attached mechanically to the surface by albumen 
or other adhesive substances. Prussian blue is a ferro- 
cyanide of iron; chrome yellow and orange are chromates 
of lead; Schweinfurt green is the aceto-arsenite of copper; 
Guignet’s green is a hydrated oxide of chromium; ultra¬ 


marine is a compound of alumina, silica, soda, and sulphur. 
(2) Coal-tar colors. Within the past few years a revolu¬ 
tion has taken place in silk and wool dyeing, and even 
cotton-dyeing and calico-printing have been very consid¬ 
erably involved. An entirely new class of d} r cstuffs has 
been created by modern chemistry, all of which are derived 
from the refuse tar produced in gas-works from bituminous 
coal. These colors belong to four distinct series : (a) The 
aniline series, including the red rosaniline salts, the purple, 
violet, and blue substitution products derived from them, 
the greens, yellows, browns, black, and pinks, all of which 
are described under Aniline Colors (which see), (b) The 
phenol or carbolic acid series, including picric acid (yel¬ 
low), pheniciene, coralline (red and orange), and azuline 
or phenyl blue. (See Phenol Colors.) (c) The naphtha¬ 
line series; Martin’s yellow, dinitronaphthol yellow, Mag- 
dala red, and violet and blue substitution products derived 
from it. (See Naphthaline Colors.) (d) Anthracene 
series, of which artificial alizarine and anthrapurpurine 
are the representatives. (See Anthracene, Alizarine, 
and Madder.) 

All the important animal and vegetable dyestuffs above 
mentioned are described more fully under their respective 
titles. (For fuller information consult the works on dye¬ 
ing mentioned in the article Calico-Printing.) 

C. F. Chandler. 

DyAng Declaration, in law, is a statement made by 
a person in the prospect of impending death with regard to 
the method of his death. In most countries such state¬ 
ments cannot be received in civil cases as evidence, and in 
criminal cases only when the manner of death of the de¬ 
ceased is the subject of the charge. They must be made 
with full knowledge of approaching death, must relate to 
facts only, must be complete and unqualified, and must be 
freely made. They are further subject to the ordinary 
rules of evidence. The theory is, that the knowledge of 
the approach of death creates an obligation at least equal 
to that of a judicial oath. 

Dyke, or Dike [from the Dutch dijk, a “dike” or 
“wall;” Fr. digue), a term applied by geologists to the 
molten material filling a wide fissure or rent in rocks, such 
as often occurs in volcanic formations. This molten mat¬ 
ter on cooling was solidified, so as to form a wall separa¬ 
ting the edges of the disjointed strata. Such walls of in¬ 
truded matter occur in stratified rocks of all ages, are usu¬ 
ally nearly vertical, and are supposed to have been caused 
by volcanic eruptions. A dyke differs from a fault in not 
involving a shifting of the opposite sides of the fissure. The 
material with which the fissure is filled is often crystalline 
and porphyritic. In many cases the dyke is composed of 
lava, greenstone, or trap. Trap-dykes often project above 
the surface of the ground in consequence of the abrasion 
or denudation of the softer rock which was contiguous, and 
they form prominent objects in the landscape. 

Dyke, a rampart against the encroachments of the sea. 
(See Dike, revised by Gen. J. G. Barnard, U. S. A.) 

DyAnond (Jonathan), an English moralist and writer, 
born at Exeter in 1796, was a member of the Society of 
Friends and a linen-draper. He wrote an able work en¬ 
titled an “Inquiry into the Accordancy of War with the 
Principles of Christianity” (1823), anil “Essays on the 
Principles of Morality, and on the Private and Political 
Rights and Obligations of Mankind” (1829), which are 
highly esteemed and have often been reprinted. Died May 
6, 1828. 

Dynam'eter [from the Gr. SuVapis, “power,” and peVpov, 
a “measure ”] is an instrument for determining the magni¬ 
fying power of a telescope. This power is the ratio of the 
solar focal distance of the object-glass to the focal distance 
of the eye-piece, considered as a single lens ; and this ratio 
being the same as the ratio of the effective diameter of the 
object-glass of the telescope to the diameter of the ima°-e 
of the same formed at the solar focus and seen through the 
eye-piece, the object of the instrument is to measure the 
exact diameter of this image, which can be either projected 
on mother-of-pearl or measured by optical means. Rams- 
den proposed for this purpose the double-image dynameter, 
or micrometer, which is formed by dividing the'eye-lens 
of a positive eye-piece into two equal parts, and mounting 
them so that the divided edges are made to slide along each 
other by means of a fine screw apparatus. Each semi¬ 
lens gives a separate image; and the distance of the two 
centres, measured by the revolutions of the screw when the 
borders of the two images are brought into contact, gives 
the distance of the centres of the images or the diameter 
of one of them. 

Dyimm Acs. The term dynamics, in its literal signifi¬ 
cation, as well as in its more modern acceptation, relates to 
or designates the science which has for its object the in- 












DYN 


vestigation of the laws and principles which govern the 
action ot forces. The science of dynamics may be divided 
into various branches, each embracing the principles ap¬ 
plicable to some special conditions of the action of forces 
or of the bodies acted on, such as the subject of statics, or 
the equilibrium ot torces ; the subject of kinetics, the action 
ot torces in connection with the motions and changes which 
they produce; and the special applications of both these 
subjects to bodies in the solid and fluid states. 

the abstract idea of force is derived from our know¬ 
ledge and experience in regard to the forces of nature— 
gravitation, inertia, friction, molecular force, muscular 
force, etc. These torces are so far similar and identical in 
their effects as to admit of a common measure, and of being 
subjected to the same laws and principles. In general they 
arise from the action of one body on another, in such a 
manner that this action is distributed among all the par¬ 
ticles or is exerted through a surface. But it is nearly 
always possible to assume a single force acting through a 
definite point and in a particular direction, which shall be 
equivalent, in its effects, to such combined or distributed 
forces. The force of gravity, for instance, is an attractive 
influence exerted between two bodies, which can only be 
supposed to be exerted by the separate particles or mole¬ 
cules ot each, and yet a single force equivalent to the sum 
of the attraction of all the particles of a body, and acting 
through its centre of gravity, is usually assumed to repre¬ 
sent this attraction. A force may thus be regarded as an 
influence or action which requires three elements for its 
determination—its line of action, its point of application, 
and its magnitude. 

This abstract idea is applicable to all forces, and furnishes 
the starting-point or basis of the system of principles which 
constitutes the science of force. These principles depend 
also on certain axioms of physical science derived from a 
consideration of the nature of forces and their effects; and 
also upon certain geometrical laws involving the relation 
between the magnitudes of forces and motions, and their 
equivalent components. To compare the magnitudes of 
forces a standard unit or measure must be adopted which 
is applicable to all forces under all ordinary conditions. 
As all standards of measure are arbitrary, such a unit of 
measure may be found in the effects which a given force 
will produce under conditions which permit of the effect 
being measured by some other known standard of measure. 

To explain the standard or unit of force adopted in 
dynamical science, it will be necessary to explain just what 
is understood by the mass of a body. If we suppose ( for 
the purpose of this explanation only) that the ultimate par¬ 
ticles or molecules of all substances are the same, and that 
we may designate by the term density the degree of prox¬ 
imity of the particles of any body to each other, then the 
number of particles in a given volume may be taken to de¬ 
note the mass of the body; i. e. this number would repre¬ 
sent the quantity of matter in the body. This quantity of 
matter or mass has important properties as regards force. 
First, the action of the force of gravity upon the body is 
directly proportional to the mass; and this mass possesses 
a peculiar power of resistance to any force which acts to 
change its condition in respect to motion. It is inert as 
regards any power in itself to change, but a force of resist¬ 
ance is developed with the action of an impressed force. 
The truth of this principle is so well established that the 
following relation between an impressed force, the mass of 
a body free to move without resistance (other than its 
inertia), and the velocity which is produced in a unit of 
time, has the force of a scientific axiom. This relation 
may be stated as follows : The velocity produced in a body 
free to move without resistance in a unit of time will be di¬ 
rectly proportional to the intensity or amount of the impressed 
force, and inversely jx'oportional to the mass of the body. 
In algebraic symbols, if v be the velocity, F the force, and 
M the mass, the relation will be expressed by the equation 
F 

v ——. From this is determined the value of the force 
M 

F = My. If the mass M be that of a given volume of some 
substance assumed as a standard, the unit of force may be 
assumed to be that force which will produce a given 
velocity—the unit of velocity, for instance—in a unit of 
time. This is an absolute unit of force, and serves as a 
universal measure. Another measure adopted is more 
specific, but not an invariable standard. It is, however, 
that in most common use, and is perhaps the most univer¬ 
sally understood as the standard of measure for forces. If 
the force F, instead of being any force, be taken as the 
force of gravitation, the total attraction of the earth at a 
given place on the mass M will be what is commonly called 
the weight of the body; representing this by W, we shall 
have W = My. If the same standard mass be chosen as 
before, the weight of this mass may be taken as the unit 


AMICS. 1439 


of force. Such a unit has been generally adopted for dif¬ 
ferent national standards. For English measures the mass 
M is that ot a piece of platinum carefully preserved, the 
weight of which is called 1, or one pound. This weight 
will differ for different latitudes, because the force of at¬ 
traction of the earth varies with the latitude, and hence 
this measure is not absolute in its character, but it is con¬ 
venient for use, and is universally employed. If any mass 
be allowed to fall under the influence of gravity, the ve¬ 
locity generated in one second may be determined experi¬ 
mentally, and the equation W = Mv will give the relation 
between the weight, mass, and velocity under these circum¬ 
stances. In the latitude of London this velocity is 32.2 

W 

feet, approximately; so that - ■ = M. The mass of a 

body is thus found by dividing the weight by 32.2. The 
unit of force, for British measures, may therefore be said to 
be one pound avoirdupois, and the mass of a body may be 
found by dividing the weight by the number 32.2; these 
quantities representing British measures referred to the 
latitude of London. The corresponding French unit of 
force is 1 kilogramme, equivalent to about 2.2 British units. 

A force being fully represented by its magnitude, direc¬ 
tion, and point of application, the first problems in order in 
the action of impressed force, relate to the laws of equi¬ 
librium, or the rules for finding the resultant of any num¬ 
ber of forces acting on a body. If the lines of direction of 
the forces all pass through the same point, the resultant 
may be found by the application of the geometrical theorem 
called the parallelogram of forces. If two forces act upon 
one point, and portions of their lines of direction be taken 
to represent the magnitude of the forces, their resultant, 
or a single force equivalent to the action of the two, will 
be represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram con¬ 
structed on the lines of the other two. By counting the 
forces which act on a point two and two, and repeating the 
process, a single resultant for all may be found. Or, to 
determine graphically the resultant, from the extremity of 
the line representing one of the forces draw a line parallel 
to the direction of any other force, of a length representing 
the magnitude of this force; then from the extremity of 
this last line draw another, pai-allel to and equivalent to 
another force, and so on; the final resultant will be a line 
drawn from the extremity of the last line to the origin, or 
point of application; if this line is zero, then the forces are 
in equilibrium. If the forces do not all act on one point 
in the body, the conditions of equilibrium require that the 
action of the forces shall be such that they not only pro¬ 
duce no motion of the body in a straight line, but there 
must be no unbalanced etfort to turn the body about any 
line as an axis. 

The moment of a force in reference to an axis is the 
product of the intensity of the force into the perpendicular 
distance of its line of action from that axis. 

Several special cases may be considered as leading to 
the most general case of the equilibrium of any number of 
forces acting upon a rigid body in any direction. 

1st. To find the resultant of two parallel forces acting 
in the same direction, divide any line across their common 
direction into parts inversely proportional to the magni¬ 
tudes of the forces ; the point of application of the resultant 
may thus be found, and its magnitude will be equal to the 
sum of the magnitudes of the two forces. A third force 
equal and opposed to this resultant will produce equi¬ 
librium. 

2d. The resultant of any number of parallel forces acting 
in one plane and in the same direction may be found by 
first finding the resultant of two, then the resultant of this 
with a third, and so on. 

3d. For any number of parallel forces not in one plane, 
the conditions of equilibrium require that the algebraic 
sum of the forces shall be equal to zero, and the algebraic 
sum of the moments of the forces in reference to any two 
rectangular axes in the plane; that is, the combined action 
of the forces must produce neither a motion of translation 
nor of rotation. The resultant of such a system, if there 
be a resultant, may be a single force, or two forces forming 
what is called a couple. 

4th. Two equal parallel and contrary forces not acting 
on the same point produce a couple which has no single 
resultant. 

5th. When a system of forces act in various directions and 
on various points of a rigid body, if their axes be assumed 
at right angles to each other, each of the forces may be re¬ 
placed by three component forces in the direction of these 
axes. The components of each force being found by mul¬ 
tiplying the magnitude of the force by the cosine of the 
angle which its line of action makes with the direction of 
the component (a process which depends on the theorem 
of the parallelogram of forces), then the conditions of equi- 














1440 


DYNAMIC UNITS—DYNAMOMETER. 


librium of the system are that the algebraic sums of the 
components in the directions of the three axes shall be 
zero, and also the algebraic sums of the moments of the 
forces in reference to these axes must be zero. 

The application of these principles to find the centres of 
gravity of various lines, surfaces, and solids is made by 
supposing the body to be divided into small elementary 
portions, and these portions to be acted on by the parallel 
forces of gravity acting on each. In a corresponding 
manner the centre of pressure of fluids resting upon sur¬ 
faces may be found. 

The various cases of equilibrium when no other forces 
act on a body than the force of gravity, and the pressure 
between the body and fixed supports, constitute a large 
class of problems which occur in the applications of dy¬ 
namics to engineering; the stresses and strains which are 
produced in the pieces of a structure being the principal 
objects for calculation. In the action of forces where mo¬ 
tion is produced, the elements of time, space, and velocity 
enter into the discussion, as well as the mass of the body 
acted on. 

The three fundamental axioms or truths on which the 
science of dynamics principally rests are— 

1st. Every body continues in its state of rest or of uni¬ 
form motion until compelled by impressed forces to change 
its state. 

2d. Change of motion is proportional to the resultant of 
the impressed forces, and takes place in the direction of 
the straight line in which that force acts. 

3d. There can be no action of a force without a contrary 
and equal reaction. 

The work of a force is the product obtained by multiply¬ 
ing the intensity of the force by the space passed over by 
its point of application. 

According to the above axioms or fundamental principles, 
the effort of any fox-ce must be opposed by an equal and 
contrary effort from some other foi'ce. In cases of bodies 
free to move under the influence of any force, a portion of 
the resistance to the external force is always supplied by 
the inertia of the body. If no other force acts upon the 
body than the force which produces the motion, the whole 
of the resistance will be supplied by inertia, and the ex¬ 
pression which has been employed, F = Mr, gives the rela¬ 
tion between the force and the resistance in terms of the 
mass and velocity. The quantity Mr, called by some writers 
quantity of motion, and by others momentum, may be in¬ 
terpreted as implying that this is the measure of a force 
which, acting for a unit of time, generates the velocity v . 
If the force continue to act on tlie body so as to accelex-ate 
the velocity, the toork of the impressed force must be equiv¬ 
alent to the work of the resistance during any given time 
or thi*ough any given space. A body moving, for instance, 
with a velocity v , and having by the action of an impressed 
force its velocity changed to v', the change of momentum 
will be M.(»- v '). The force necessax-y to produce this 

v — v f 

change in the time t will be F = M .-. If during this 

time we suppose the body to have passed with a uniformly 
accelerated velocity over the space s , the icork of the force 
F will be Fs. But the space s is equal to the mean velocity 

multiplied by the time, or equal to — t , and we have 


v — V 

F X s = M-.X 

t 


V + 


, f = M. ( - ). 


2 " ■ “ • V 2 

If the body start from rest, the initial velocity will be 0, 
and we shall have 

„ , Mr ' 2 

x-?.— 2 

The same may be proved whether the impressed force is 
constant or variable; and the important principle is thus 
established that the product of the mass of a body multi¬ 
plied by half the square of the velocity with which the 
body is moving, is equivalent to the work of tho impressed 
force which produces this velocity in the body. And gen- 

Mr 2 

erally a change in the value of ——— is always equivalent 
to the work of the force which produces the change. The 
quantity —— is called living force , and sometimes actual 

A 

energy of the body, because a body moving with the velocity 
v will always require the expenditure of the work l-epre- 
Mr 2 

sented by — - — to bring it to rest. 

Jml 

In cases where external resistances act on the body in 
opposition to the impressed force, the work of the resist¬ 
ance, added to the work of inertia, will be equivalent to 
the work of the impressed force. This gives rise to a very 
simple enumeration of the laws of all machines—viz. the 
work of the effort or prime mover must always, during any 


interval of time, be equal to the total work of the resistances 
added to the actual energy or living force accumulated in 
the moving pieces. If during a given period the living 
force of any piece is alternately increased and diminished, 
the quantities of energy stored and re-stored may just 
equalize each other; and such a piece may be employed 
simply for the purpose of storing up and restoring work, 
as a regulator. The common fly-wheel is such a piece in 
machinery. 

If a body has a rotai’y motion about any axis, the actual 
energy or living force due to tho rotation is expressed in 
terms of the angular velocity and the moment of inertia 
of the body with reference to the axis. If the angular 
velocity be repi’esented by a, the actual energy due to rota- 

Cl 2 

tion will be ——I: the moment of inei’tia I being found by 
2 9 

means of what is called the radius of gyration, which is 
that radius or distance in a rotating body the square of 
which is the mean of the squares of the distances of the 
particles of the body from the axes. It is found by geo¬ 
metrical solution. For the fly-wheel this radius is approx¬ 
imately equal to the mean radius of the rim. 

When a body in motion is constrained to move in a curve, 
the force which causes it to deviate at each instant from the 
tangent is found by multiplying the mass by the square of 
the velocity, and dividing by the radius of curvature. The 
deviating force is equal and opposite to the influence which 
tends to draw the body away from the axis, the centrifugal 
foi-ce, and hence the centrifugal force is always pi’oportional 
to the square of the velocity, and inversely as the radius of 
curvature. 

In the application of the laws of dynamics to fluids the 
principle of living force holds time as for solids. Every 
fluid mass in motion has a living force proportional to the 
mass, multiplied by the square of the velocity. 

The foi’ce of heat is derived from the same general dy¬ 
namical law. It has been demonsti’ated that the molecules 
of all bodies have a constant vibratory motion, and these 
molecules having weight, the energy exerted when a body 
is cooled is equivalent to the expenditure or change of liv¬ 
ing foi-ce; and when a body is heated, the vibratory motion 
of the particles being increased in velocity, living force or 
actual enei'gy is stored. 

The pi’ojxerty of matter which is called inertia, by virtue 
of which masses in motion possess a force which is appro¬ 
priately called living force, is of great importance in the 
economy of machines, and of special impoi’tance also to 
living beings. In neai'ly all motions of animals this prin¬ 
ciple acts to aid tho muscles in the execution of particular 
movements, which would otherwise be accomplished by 
fatiguing exertions, and would often be otherwise imprac- 
ticable. 

The demonstrations and applications of the various prin¬ 
ciples which have been enunciated, with their secondary 
consequences, usually occupy entire volumes. Works of 
this character have generally been entitled woi'ks on me¬ 
chanics, and are often divided into two subjects or parts, 
statics and dynamics , but the tendency of modern writers 
is to exclude the word mechanics from definitions connected 
with abstract science, and to employ the term dynamics to des¬ 
ignate the whole science of force. W. P. Trowbridge. 

Dynamic Units are units for measuring forces and 
their effects. The simple unit of force has been defined 
under Dynamics. A unit of work combines two elements—• 
viz., foi'ce acting, and space tlii'ough which it acts; and is 
tho product of a unit of force and a unit of distance. 
Such is the foot-pound, which is the work done in raising 
one pound one foot; or the kilogrammetre, the work done 
in raising one kilogi-amme one metre. A unit of power , or 
of rate of working , involves the additional consideration 
of time. It is a definite amount of woi'k conventionally 
fixed upon for purposes of comparison as the work of a 
unit of time. Thus, the horse-power, the unit of rate com¬ 
monly used in this country in estimating the performance 
of machines, is 550 foot-pounds per second, or 33,000 per 
minute. The cheval-vapeur (French horse-power) is 75 
kilogrammeti'es per second, or 4500 per minute; equal to 
542£ foot-pounds per second, or 32,550 per minute, nearly 
—a little less than the former. W. P. Trowbridge. 

Dynamite. See Explosives, by Gen. II. L. Abbot, 
U. S. A. 

Dynamom'eter [from the Gr. 6vv«|ou?, “ force,” and 
Ij-erpor, a “measure”], an instrument or apparatus for 
measuring energy exerted or work performed. Any con¬ 
trivance may be so called which indicates the intensity of 
a force used to produce motion. The work done is found 
by multiplying the mean effort thus indicated into the 
space passed over by the point where the force is applied. 
A dynamometer may record only the intensities of the 
force, space being ascertained independently; or it may 


























DYNASTY—DZIGGETAI. 


1441 


record both force and distance traversed. A spring at¬ 
tached to a plough-beam may, by suitable mechanism, be 
made to record the varying force of traction, and thus be¬ 
come a dynamometer. The mean force shown by it, mul¬ 
tiplied into the length of the furrow, will give the work of 
the animals drawing the plough. Prony’s friction dyna¬ 
mometer is the form most easily applied to revolving shafts. 
A flexible band, enveloping either the shaft or a drum 
turning with it, resists the driving force by its friction, 
t he lesistance is measured by the weight required to keep 
the band from turning with the shaft; and this weight, 
multiplied by the distance it would have been carried in a 
gii en time if it had revolved with the shaft, gives the work 
of the prime-mover. Ilirn’s torsion dynamometer meas- 
uies the force applied to a shaft, by the torsion caused by 
such force in the shaft itself. The torsion dynamometer 
and the spring dynamometer are best suited to measure 
variable forces; but there are instruments of this class in 
which force is measured by the resistance of fluids driven 
through small apertures. For measuring the work of 
fluid pressure, the steam-engine indicator is the dynamom¬ 
eter in common use. In this, the pressure of'the fluid 
upon a small piston is resisted by a spiral spring. A pen¬ 
cil which moves with the piston traces upon a moving slip 
of paper a curve, of which the ordinates give the pressure, 
while a straight line perpendicular to these shows the dis¬ 
tance passed by the surface pressed. The mean pressure 
multiplied by this distance gives the work done. (For 
Brewster’s chromatic dynamometer see Polarization op 
Light.) W. P. Trowbridge. 

Dy'nasty [Gr. Swaa-reCa, from SwdcTTr]i, a “lord;” Fr. 
dynastie], a family of sovereigns or rulers reigning by he¬ 
reditary succession; a series of kings of the same family. 

Dyrrha'chium. See Durazzo. 

Dy' sart, a royal burgh and seaport of Scotland, in 
Fifeshire, on the Frith of Forth, 12 miles N. N. E. of Edin¬ 
burgh. The High street is lined with many antique houses. 
Dysart has manufactures of damasks and ticking; also 
shipbuilding yards. Coal-mines are worked in the vicin¬ 
ity. Pop. in 1871, 8920. 

By'sartsville, a township of McDowell co., N.C. P.767. 

Dyscra'sia [from the Gr. Sv?, “evil,” and KpSo-w, a 
“ composition,” a “ mixture ”], in medical terminology, a 
diathesis, a tendency towards a particular disease, a consti¬ 
tutional peculiarity which gives character to all attacks of 
disease from which a patient may suffer. The word is also 
used to designate a depraved and dangerous condition of 
the system, not constitutional, but accidental. The term 
is a vague one, and is not much employed. 

Dys'entery [Gr. Sv^evrepia, from 5i>?, “ill,” “painful,” 
and evTepa, “ intestines ”], a febrile disease, characterized 
by paroxysms of pain in the bowels, and by scanty though 
often frequent bloody, mucous stools. The glands and tis¬ 
sue of the large intestine are inflamed, and sometimes, 
though rarely, the small intestine shares the disorder. It 
may be acute or chronic, and is a frequent and formidable 
disease, especially in hot climates. It is sometimes epi¬ 
demic, and then is peculiarly fatal among children. Many 
times it attacks and decimates armies. Sporadic cases in 
civil practice usually recover with little treatment. Pain 
is relieved by opium or Dover’s powder. Gentle purgatives 
are extremely useful. Enemata of warm water will often 
relieve tenesmus. Astringents, copaiba, opiated starch in¬ 
jections, etc., are useful adjuvants in some cases. 

Niemeyer regards epidemic dysentery as a disease dis¬ 
tinct from the common or sporadic disease. Ho considers 
it truly infectious. The severer cases of this disease are 
not much benefited by treatment. Even the mild cases arc 
apt to assume a chronic form, which may prove fatal. This 
disease is akin to cholera, and perhaps to intermittent fever. 
It is endemic in Southern Europe. The endemic dysentery 
of Egypt is a distinct disease, caused by the presence of a 
trematode worm (the Bilharzia hsematobia) in the walls of 
the intestine. Revised by Willard Parker. 

Dysmenorrhce'a [from the Gr. Su?, “ill,” p.r)v, a 
“month,” and pew, to “flow”], painful and difficult men¬ 
struation, is sometimes caused (1) by flexion or displace¬ 
ment of the uterus, in which case the proper treatment is 
the restitution of that organ to its normal position; (2) by 
an excessively or morbidly excitable nervous condition, best 
relieved by sedatives at the time of attack, and by support¬ 
ing treatment and correct hygienic regimen; (3) it is said 
to be caused by uterine rheumatism, in which case it may 
require the treatment appropriate to rheumatism ; (4) when 
associated with endocervicitis or endometritis it is often 
benefited by local treatment with caustics, etc.; (5) a variety 
of other local troubles may cause it, and may require spe¬ 
cial treatment. 

Dyspep'sia [Gr. Svsne^ia, from 5a?, “difficult,” and 
91 


nenru, to “digest”], a disordered functional state of the 
stomach without appreciable organic disease; indigestion 
of food, with the resulting symptoms, such as flatulence, 
pyrosis, pain, etc. Dyspepsia may be the forerunner or 
concomitant of consumption or of Bright’s disease, but it 
is much more frequently the result of improper habits with 
regard to food, exercise, etc. Its treatment is important 
and difficult. In cases where the coats of the stomach are 
irritable, bismuth is a standard, safe, and useful remedy. 
The mineral acids, as the nitro-muriatic, are believed to 
correct depraved secretions. The hyposulphites are some¬ 
times useful where microscopic plants ( Sarcina and Tor- 
ula) exist in the stomach. Rhubarb with alkalies, followed 
by sulphate of quinia, is frequently beneficial. The bitter 
tonics tend to correct gastric atony. In all cases the pa¬ 
tient should have the best hygienic conditions. 

When there is no gastric catarrh or ulceration there is 
great, and often complete, relief obtained by sea-bathing, 
nutritious food, and the administration of iron. Dyspepsia 
with depression of spirits and a red uric-acid deposit in the 
urine is often cured by water-treatment, with visits to saline 
mineral springs. In short, there is no disease with a 
greater variety of causes and symptoms, or which requires 
more judgment and skill in treatment. Neglected dyspep¬ 
sia must be placed in the numerous class of causes which 
tend, by impairing nutrition and depressing the tone of the 
system, to prepare the way for pulmonary consumption. 

Revised by Willard Parker. 

Dyspha'gia [from the Gr. Svj, “difficult,” and 4>ayeiv, 
“to eat”], a difficulty in swallowing, caused by paralysis, 
disease of the muscles of the throat, quinsy, oesophagitis, 
carcinoma, stricture, or spasm of the oesophagus ; or it may 
be a symptom of hysteria, tetanus, or hydrophobia. Its 
treatment is various, according to the disease of which it is 
a symptom. 

Dyspho'nia [from the Gr. 6v?, “difficult,” and (froovtco y 
to “speak”], a difficulty in speaking. The most common 
variety is the dysphonia clericorum, or “ clergyman’s sore 
throat,” a follicular inflammation of the pharynx, accom¬ 
panied by huskiness of the voice, with more or less cough¬ 
ing, hawking, and expectoration. The follicles of the fauces 
and the pharynx are larger or more apparent than in 
health. The follicles occasionally discharge hard or elastic 
lumps of mucus, greatly to the alarm of the patient. Ul¬ 
ceration may supervene, and the patient may be constantly 
inclined to swallow. Time, rest, muscular exercise, tonics, 
travelling by sea or land, are all useful in the treatment. 

Dyspnce'a [Gr. Susm-oia, from “difficult,” and irveu, 
to “breathe”], a difficulty in breathing, a common symp¬ 
tom in most diseases of the heart or lungs. If the difficulty 
is increased by lying down, so that the patient can only 
breathe with any comfort when erect, it is called orthopneza. 
Dyspnoea is sometimes the result of some functional or or¬ 
ganic nervous disease, as hysteria. It is then relieved in 
most cases by diffusible stimulants. In other cases the 
character of the dyspnoea is remarkably varied, and the 
treatment is as various; belladonna, stramonium, cannabis, 
chloral, ipecac, and many other remedies are often useful. 
Strict temperance in eating and drinking should always be 
observed. 

Dytis'cidac [from Dytiscus (the diminutive of the Gr. 
Svtt ]?, a “diver”), one of the genera], a family of aquatic 
coleopterous insects formed from the Linnsean genus Dy- 
tiscus, now divided into several genera. There are many 
species, of which the largest attain a length of nearly two 
inches. The general form is oval and the surface smooth. 
They are pentamerous—that is, have all the tarsi five- 
jointed. They are remarkable for the oar-like shape of 
their swimming-legs. All the species are found in marshes, 
lakes, and the still parts of rivers. When they come to the 
surface to breathe, they rest with the back downward and 
the extremity of the abdomen exposed to the air, the organs 
of respiration being in the last segment. They feed vora¬ 
ciously upon all kinds of animal food. They fly well, and 
often leave the water by night. Before changing into 
pupse the larvrn secrete themselves in the earth. The larvae 
are called “water-tigers,” from their habit of attacking and 
devouring insects, tadpoles, and even fishes. 

Dziggetai, or Koillan ( Asinm Onager), a species of 
wild ass abounding in Eastern Turkey, Persia, Afghanis¬ 
tan, and the Punjab. It is one of the swiftest of quadru¬ 
peds, and cannot ordinarily be overtaken, even by the 
Arabian horse, and the greyhound can follow it successfully 
only on the open plains. These animals live in troops, 
under a leader who rules them despotically. They are ex¬ 
tremely wild, for they are much hunted, not only for their 
excellent flesh, but for the great difficulty and excitement 
of the chase. They are pursued by falconry, but are more 
frequently shot with the rifle. They are of a brown color, 
with a black stripe along the back. 




















1442 


E—EAGLE. 


E. 


E (pron. ee), the fifth letter and second vowel of the 
Roman and of most modern alphabets. The Greeks had 
two vowels represented by the Latin e—the one short (e, 
epsilon), the other long (tj, eta ); € stood for the number 5, 
r) usually represented 8. The Sanscrit has only one e; 
this is always long (see Sanscrit), and is usually repre¬ 
sented in the Western languages by e circumflexed (e). In 
the Arabic and Persian the vowel fatha (see Arabian Lan¬ 
guage), being a somewhat obscure sound, is often repre¬ 
sented in the European languages by e (short), though it 
properly corresponds to short a; thus we may write el-Ko- 
rdn or al-Koran for V the Koran,” er-rasheecl (rashid) or ar- 
rasheed, the surname of Haroon (Ilaroun), the celebrated 
caliph of Bagdad. In like manner, the Arabian prophet's 
name may be written either Mo*hammed or Mohammad. 
The Arabs have no vowel sound corresponding to long e 
(e), although this frequently occurs in the Persian. 

In most of the modern European languages e occurs 
more frequently than any other letter. This remark is 
especially true of the French and English. One reason of 
this is that e (mute) in these languages usually replaces the 
terminal letter or letters of Latin or Greek words, as in the 
following nouns : farnE, from the Latin /am A; mns E (Lat. 
musA; Gr. juoucra); p lumE (Lat. plum a ) ; bilE (Lat. bills); 
conE (Lat. conus; Gr. kui'o?) ; fac e (Lat. /acius); so also 
in adjectives, as pronE (Lat. joronus); purE (Lat. yntrus); 
vUe (Lat. vi7is), etc. All the foregoing derivative words 
are French as well as English. In a few instances the final 
e, though found in English, is omitted in French; as pinE 
(Lat. join us; Fr. pin); winE (Lat. vinvu ; Fr. via), etc.; 
but more frequently the reverse occurs, particularly in ad¬ 
jectives; thus we have arid (Lat. aridvs; Fr. aridE); 
avid (Lat. avidvs ; Fr. avidE) ; livid (Lat. li nidus ; Fr. li¬ 
vid e), etc., etc. (For the different sounds of our e, see 
Pronunciation of the English Language.) 

E in music is the third note in the diatonic natural scale. 
As a Latin preposition, e is put for ex by way of euphony, 
both as a separate word and in composition. 

Eacli'arcl (John), D. D., an English clergyman, born 
in Suffolk in 1636. He became a fellow of Catherine Hall, 
Cambridge, in 1658. He wrote “ The Ground and Occa¬ 
sions of the Contempt of the Clergy and Religion inquired 
into ” (1670), and a “ Dialogue on Hobbes’ State of Nature ” 
(1672). He was a writer of considerable humor, but of no 
great ability. Died July 7, 1697. 

Ea'die (John), D.D., LL.D., a divino of the Scottish 
United Presbyterian Church, was born at Alva, Stirling¬ 
shire, May 9,1814, and was educated at Glasgow University. 
He published a “Biblical Cyclopaedia,” “Life of Kitto,” a 
“ Condensed Concordance to the Scriptures,” etc. 

Ead'mer, or Edmer, an English historian and monk. 
He entered in his youth the Benedictine monastery at 
Canterbury, and became a friend of Saint Anselm. He was 
elected bishop of St. Andrew’s in 1120, but the Scottish 
king would not allow him to be consecrated by the arch¬ 
bishop of Canterbury, and he soon returned to his monas¬ 
tery. He wrote in Latin a “Life of Saint Anselm,” and a 
“History of [his own] Times,” from 1066 to 1122, which 
was printed by Selden in 1623. These, and some other 
writings of his, are published with the works of Anselm. 
Died Jan., 1124. 

Eagle [Lat. aquila; Fr. aigle; Ger. Adler\ the name 
of several species of rapacious birds of the order Raptores 
and family Falconidm. They belong to the genera Aquila, 
Haliaetus, etc., and are characterized by hooked beaks and 
sharp, powerful claws. About seventy species are known. 
They have great powers of flight and of vision, are diurnal 
and solitary in their habits, and use their claws in killing 
their prey. The eagle was regarded by the ancients as a 
symbol of royalty, and has the proverbial distinction of 
being the king of birds. Large specimens of the eagle 
measure three and a half feet in length, and nine feet from 
tip to tip of the expanded wings. These birds usually 
breed in mountainous districts or forests, remote from 
human habitations. They are all monogamous, and it is 
said that a pair will live together in perfect harmony until 
death separates them. They build their nests on a high 
tree, a ledge of rock, or on some inaccessible cliff. The nest 
is inartistically constructed of sticks, which are rudely ar¬ 
ranged. The eagle is supposed to live to a great age, more 
than one hundred years. 

The golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos) is a magnificent 
bird found in Europe, Asia, and North America, deriving 


its name from the golden-red color of the feathers which 
cover its head and neck. The plumage of the body is a 
rich dark-brown. This species is the largest of the Euro¬ 
pean eagles. It feeds on hares, lambs, pigs, fish, etc., which 
it carries to its nest. When in pursuit of its prey it is very 
audacious, and has been seen to carry off a hare before the 
noses of a pack of hounds. 

It is stated that the golden eagle can be tamed, and has 
been trained to catch game for its master. The flight of 
this bird is very graceful, and presents an interesting spec¬ 
tacle. It sweeps through the air in a series of spiral curves, 
rising with every spire, and making no perceptible effort or 
motion with its wings. According to Ruskin, “ the projec¬ 
tion of the brow is the essential point in an eagle’s head. 
To keep the sunshine above from teasing it, the eye is put 
under a triangular pent-house, which is precisely the most 
characteristic thing in the bird’s whole aspect.” The im¬ 
perial eagle {Aquila imperialis), which inhabits Asia and 
Southern Europe, is nearly as large as the golden eagle, 
and is similar in appearance. It may be distinguished 
from the other species by the white patch on its scapularies. 
Its head and neck are covered with feathers of a deep fawn- 
color. It generally builds on lofty trees. 

The national bird of the U. S. is the bald eagle ( Halia'etus 
leucocephalus), which has a white head, neck, and tail. It 
is said to lay its eggs in the same nest year after year. It 
is fond of fish, which it generally steals from the osprey. 
Its habit is to watch near a river or other water until an 

osjirey has caught a fish, which 
the eagle snatches in the air or 
catches as it falls from the claws 
of the osprey. The bald eagle is 
widely distributed through differ¬ 
ent regions of North America, and 
frequents the sea-coasts, lakes, 
and large rivers. It measures 
from thirty-five to forty inches in 
length. (See Bald Eagle.) 

The genus Harpyia includes a 
single species, the harpy eagle 
{Harpyia thrasaetos), a fierce and 
powerful bird of Mexico and of 
Central and South America. A 
single stroke of its bill has been 
known to break a man’s skull. 

Eagle, a gold coin of the U. S., is equivalent to ten 
dollars, and bears the figure of an eagle. The largest gold- 
piece coined in the U. S. is a double-eagle = $20. The 
eagle weighs 258 grains Troy, and being nine-tenths fine, 
contains 232 t 2 q grains pure gold. 

Eagle is also the name of an ancient coin of Ireland, cur¬ 
rent in the thirteenth century. 

Eagle, in heraldry, a bearing of frequent occurrence, 
and often assumed by sovereigns as the emblem of empire, 
from having been borne on the legionary standard of the 
ancient Romans. The eagle of Russia is or, with two 
heads displayed, sable, each ducally crowned of the field; 
the whole imperially crowned, beaked, and membered gules. 
The eagle of Austria is also displayed with two heads. 
The Prussian eagle has only one head. The U. S. adopted 
(1785) the bald eagle, his wings displayed, proper, as the 
national emblem. 

The eagle was also one of the most ancient Roman mili¬ 
tary standards. In 104 B. C. it became the distinctive en¬ 
sign of the Roman legions. It was made of bronze or silver, 
and was carried upon a short staff. An eagle of gold was 
the royal emblem of ancient Persia. 

Ea'gle, a township of Bradley co., Ark. Pop. 255. 

Eagle, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. Pop. 889. 

Eagle, a township of La Salle co., Ill. Pop. 870. 

Eagle, a township of Monroe co., Ill. Pop. 2388. 

Eagle, a township of Boone co., Ind. Pop. 2327. 

Eagle, a township of Black Hawk co., Ia. Pop. 507. 

Eagle, a township and post-village of Clinton co., 
Mich. Pop. 1008. 

Eagle, a post-township of Wyoming co., N. Y. It has 
three cheese-factories. Pop. of village, 110; of twp., 1040. 

Eagle, a township of Brown co., Ohio. Pop. 1166. 

Eagle, a township of Hancock co., Ohio. Pop. 1330. 

Eagle, a township of Vinton co., Ohio. Pop. 681. 

Eagle, a township of Harrison co., W. Va. Pop. 1560. 



Harpy Eagle. 













EAGLE—EAR, ANATOMY OF TIIE. 


1443 


Eilgle, a township of Richland co., Wis. Pop. 1083. 

Eagle, a post-village and township of Waukesha co., 
Wis., at the junction of the Western Union and the Prairie 
du Chien division of the Chicago Milwaukee and St. Paul 
R. Rs. Pop. of township, 125(5. 

Eagle (Henry), U. S. N., born April 7,1801, in the city 
of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman Jan. 1, 
181N, became a lieutenant in 1827, a commander in 1844, a 
captain in 1855, and a commodore in 1862. He command¬ 
ed the bomb-vessel A3tna at the siege of Vera Cruz, and 
was civil and military governor of the province of Tobasco, 
Mexico (1847-48). He commanded the Monticello at the 
attack on Sewell’s Point Battery, Va., May 19, 1861, and 
Irom June, 1861, to July, 1862, commanded the frigate 
Santee of the Gulf blockading squadron, during which 
service a boat-expedition from the Santee captured and 
destroyed the privateer Royal Yacht in the harbor of Gal¬ 
veston, Texas. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Eagle, Huhl. See Bald Eagle. 

Eagle Bridge, a post-village of Iloosick township, 
Rensselaer co., N. Y., on the Iloosick River and on the line 
of White Creek township, Washington co. It is at the 
junction of the Troy and Boston R. R. with a branch of 
the Rensselaer and Saratoga R. R., 24 miles N. E. of 
Troy. 

Eagle Creek, a township of Lake co., Ind. Pop. 737. 

Eagle Creek, a township of Scott co., Minn. Pop. 
1120. 

Eagle Grove, a post-township of Wright co., Ia. 
Pop. 195. 

Eagle Harbor, a post-township of Keweenaw co., 
Mich. It contains the port of Eagle Harbor, whence cop¬ 
per is shipped. Pop. of village, 233; of township, 778. 

Eagle Harbor, a post-village of Gaines and Barre 
townships, Orleans co., N. Y., on the Erie Canal, has a 
number of manufacturing establishments. Pop. 315. 

Eagle Hawk (Aforphuus), a name given to several 
species of birds of prey of the family Falconidae, similar 
in form to the eagle, but inferior in size. They are natives 
of South America, the East Indies, and Africa. They have 
short wings and long legs. Some of them are beautiful. 

Eagle Isle, a township of Hancock co., Me. Pop. 30. 

Eagle Lake, a township of Otter Tail co., Minn. 
Pop. 80. 

Eagle Lake Plantation, a township of Aroostook 
co., Me. Pop. 143. 

Eagle Mills, a post-township of Iredell co., N. C. 
Pop. 1090. 

Eagle Pass, a post-village, capital of Maverick co., 
Tex., on the Rio Grande, about 450 miles S. W. of Austin 
City. During the civil war it had a large trade with 
Mexico. 

Eagle Point, a post-township of Ogle co., Ill. Pop. 
777. 

Eagle Point, a township of Chippewa co., Wis. Pop. 
1667. 

Eagle River, a post-village, capital of Keweenaw co., 
Mich., on Lake Superior, about 195 miles E. N. E. of Du¬ 
luth. Copper is mined in the vicinity and shipped here. 

Eagle Wood, the fragrant wood of Aloexylon Agallo- 
chum or Aquilaria ovata, a tree of the order Aquilariacem, 
indigenous in the tropical parts of Asia. It is used for 
burning as incense. 

Ea'gre [probably from the sea-jotun G3gir (which see)], 
a Norse word used to express the sudden rise of the tide in 
the mouth or estuary of a river. It is often called the Bore 
(which see, by Prop. Arnold Guyot, Ph. D., LL.D.). 

Eames (Charles), an eminent lawyer and journalist, 
born at New Braintree, Mass., Mar. 20, 1812, graduated at 
Harvard in 1831 and studied law. In 1845 he took a situ¬ 
ation in the navy department at Washington, and soon be¬ 
came an editor of the Washington “ Union.” He was sent 
by President Polk as commissioner to the Sandwich Islands, 
whence he returned in 1850. After several years of jour¬ 
nalism he became U. S. minister to Venezuela under Presi¬ 
dent Pierce. After his return, in 1858, he attained high 
reputation as an admiralty lawyer. Died at Washington, 
D. C., Mar. 16, 1867. 

Ear, Anatomy of the. For the perception of sound 
the essential structure is a nerve capable of receiving and 
transmitting sonorous vibrations. Some animals (as spi¬ 
ders), possessing no special organ of hearing, nevertheless 
show a distinct recognition of sounds. The lowest animals, 
Protozoa, have no specialized organs of sensation. In some 
of the Acalephoa (belonging to the Radiata of Cuvier), as 
Medusa, small sacs arranged around the margin of the disk 


appear to represent the ear in a rudimentary form. Many 
of the Mollusca have auditory organs. In Gasteropoda (e. y. 
snails) these are connected with the pedal ganglia, seeming 
thus to aid directly in the guidance of locomotion. Cepha¬ 
lopoda, the highest of the Mollusca, have the organs of 
hearing connected with the head, as they are in Vertebrata. 
Worms also often have auditory vesicles in the head, con¬ 
nected with the oesophageal nervous ring. Grasshoppers 
and locusts have similar organs, either at the sides of the 
first abdominal segment or on the main segments of the an¬ 
terior legs. In the lobster and other large Crustacea they 
are placed in the basal joints of the first pair of antennas. 
Probably they have a similar situation in some insects, 
which appear to find each other by hearing sounds, made 
especially by those of the male sex. 

All vertebrate animals, except Amq)hioxus, have distinct 
organs of hearing. They differ much, however, in the differ¬ 
ent classes. Fishes have no external or middle ear, and no 
cochlea in the. internal ear. Amphibia also are without a 
cochlea; some have a tympanum, others none. Reptiles, 
except the crocodile, are quite destitute of external ears. 
All of them except serpents have a tympanum, and several 
an externally visible membrana tympani. The columella 
in them is either one small bone or a row of bones in the 
tympanic cavity. It is homologous with the stapes or stir¬ 
rup-bone of mammals. Comparative anatomists generally 
consider the other tympanic bones (incus and malleus) to 
be homologous with the “quadrate” and “jugal” bones, 
which support the jaws in birds, reptiles, and fishes; being 
thus, in all of these animals, outside of the ear. Some an¬ 
atomists, however, assert the existence within the tympa¬ 
num of reptiles of a rudimentary incus and a cartilaginous 
malleus. No external ear exists in any fish or reptile. 
Birds, especially owls, present it in the form of a circular 
arrangement of feathers. In birds the middle ear (tym¬ 
panum) contains only a single bone, the columella, with 
processes of cartilage representing the other bones. The 
cochlea of the internal ear is, in birds, a conical, slightly 
twisted double canal; the semicircular canals in them are 
large. 

Mammals always have the internal and middle ear com¬ 
plete, and mostly also an external ear. This is slight, 
however, in diving quadrupeds, as the otter and beaver, 
and wanting altogether in the whale, seal, mole, ornitho- 
rhynchus, and armadillo. Several aquatic animals have a 
valve near the entrance of the external meatus or canal of 
the outer ear, which closes when they are under water, pro¬ 
tecting the membrana tympani against excessive pressure. 
The elephant also is provided with a sort of valve or ear- 
flap. Bats are endowed with very large and sensitive ex¬ 
ternal ears. Many quadrupeds (e. g. the horse and dog) 
have considerable muscular power over their ears, by which 
they can turn them so as to receive sound from different 
directions. Man has three rudimentary muscles of the same 
kind, but they are commonly powerless and without use. 

The Human Ear .—This consists of three distinct, though 
connected, parts—the external ear, the middle ear or tym¬ 
panum, and the internal ear or labyrinth. 

Of the outer ear, the expanded part is the pinna; its 
prominent rim or margin is the helix. The ridge next 
within this is called the anti-helix; it divides above. Its 
lower and front part encircles a cavity, the concha, below 
which are two opposite prominences, tragus and anti-tragus. 
The lowest, soft, flexible part is the lobule. The whole ex¬ 
ternal ear, except the lobule (which is formed of fat and 
connective tissue), is composed of cartilage covered with 
skin, well supplied, however, with nerves as well as blood¬ 
vessels. The entrance to the ear is the meatus auditorius 



The Human Ear. 


externus. It is about an inch and a quarter long, directed 
forward and inward, slightly curved. Near its orifice are 















1444 EARBUS—EARLY. 


the ceruminous glands, secreting the ear-wax. At the bot¬ 
tom of the meatus is the meinbrana tympani. 

The middle ear, or tympanum, is a sort of drum or hol¬ 
low organ, containing air, and through its middle a small 
chain of bones—the malleus, or hammer-bone, the incus, 
or anvil, and the stapes, or stirrup. The tympanum com¬ 
municates with the throat (pharynx) by means of the Eu¬ 
stachian tube. The fenestra ovalis, or round window of 
the tympanum, is a membranous partition between the in¬ 
ternal part of the tympanic cavity and the vestibule of the 
labyrinth or internal ear. The fenestra rotunda is a round 
membranous “window” between the tympanum and the 
cochlea of the labyrinth. Three muscles are asserted by 
most anatomists to exist in the tympanum—the tensor 
tympani, luxator tympani, and stapedius. The second of 
these is considered by some to be only a ligament. 

The internal ear is composed of the vestibule, cochlea, 
and three semicircular canals. The vestibule is the middle 
portion, the cochlea is anterior, and the three canals are 
above and behind the vestibule. Within the latter aro two 
small bodies, the otoliths, or ear-stones, composed of carbo¬ 
nate and phosphate of lime. The semicircular canals always 
differ definitely in their direction, two being vertical and 



The cochlea (enlarged). 


one horizontal. The cochlea is shaped somewhat like a 
snail-shell. In its centre is a conical bony axis, the modi¬ 
olus. Around this is a spiral canal, within which is the 
lamina spiralis, pai’tly composed of bone and partly mem¬ 
branous. This divides the canal into two passages or scalas— 
the upper, communicating with the vestibule, scala vesti- 
buli, and the lower, communicating through the fenestra 
rotunda with the tympanum, scala tympani. The bony 
part of the lamina spiralis has a grooved margin, the upper¬ 
most edge of which, towards the scala vestibuli, supports a 
finely-toothed membrane, lamina denticulata. From each 
of these margins of the lamina spiralis is given off a fine 
periosteal layer—the upper one the membrane of Corti, the 
lower the basilar layer. Between these is a space called by 
Kolliker the scala media. Within this space are arranged 
two sets of minute rod-like bodies, parallel to each other, 
radiating from the axis of tho cochlea, those of the two sets 
being inclined towards each other above. These are tho 
rods of Corti. Looked at in a certain direction with the aid 
of a lens, they resemble somewhat the keys of a piano. 

The whole inner surface of the bony labyrinth is lined by 
a fibro-serous periosteal tissue. This secretes a thin fluid, 
the perilymph. The membranous inner labyrinth, which 
duplicates, as it were, the osseous wall of the vestibule and 
semicircular canals, secretes a similar liquid, the endo- 
lymph. The auditory nerve (portio mollis of the “seventh 
pair” of cephalic nerves, according to anatomists) is sub¬ 
divided into branches which are distributed to all the parts 
of the internal ear. Those filaments which enter the cochlea 
form a sort of ganglionic plexus in the scala tympani; 
thence proceed some very delicate nervous extremities, 
which, in the scala media, aro brought into relation with 
the rods of Corti, and probably also with certain largo 
nucleated cells in their vicinity called the cells of Claudius. 
(For th a physiology of the auditory apparatus, see the arti¬ 
cle on Acoustics.) See also “ Treatise on Diseases of the 
Ear,” by D. B. St. John Roosa, New York, 1873. 

Henry Hartshorne. 

Ear'bus, a township of Sumter co., Ala. Pop. 520. 

Earl [from the Ang.-Sax. eorl, “hero,” “chief,-” Norse, 
Jarl], a British title of nobility, next in rank to a marquis, 
and one degree higher than a viscount. It was formerly 
the highest rank of hereditary nobility of England. After 
the Norman Conquest the title of earl was used by the Eng¬ 
lish to express the French comte, “count” (Lat. comes). 
Hence the wife of an earl is still styled a countess. In the 
reign of Edward III. earldoms were granted by letters- 
patent to earls and the heirs of their bodies. Earldoms were 
gradually converted from territorial into merely titular hon¬ 
ors. The earl’s coronet is a circle of gold rising at intervals 
into eight pyramidal points or spikes, each tipped with a 
pearl. The style of an earl is “ right honorable.” 


Earl, a post-township of La Salle co., Ill. Pop. 2129. 

Earl, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 1622. 

Earl, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop. 2975. 

Earle (Pliny), an American inventor, born at Leicester, 
Mass., Dec. 17, 1762. He invented a machine for making 
cards for carding cotton and wool. Died Nov. 29, 1832. 

Earle (Pliny), M. D., was born at Leicester, Mass., 
Dec. 31, 1809. He was a son of Pliny Earle, the inventor. 
He was educated at the Friends’ school at Providence, R. I., 
and graduated as M. D. in 1837. He was resident physi¬ 
cian of the insane asylum at Frankford near Philadelphia 
(1840-42), physician in the Bloomingdale asylum, N. Y. 
(1844-49), and has long been superintendent of the insane 
asylum at Northampton, Mass. He has published many 
valuable reports and papers on the treatment of the insane. 

Earle (Thomas), a lawyer, a brother of the preceding, 
was born at Leicester, Mass., April 21, 1796. He practised 
law in Philadelphia, was distinguished as an opponent of 
slavery, and was a member of the constitutional convention 
of 1837. In 1840 he was nominated for the office of Vice- 
President of the U. S. by the Liberty party. Died July 14, 
1849. He published several legal and other works. 

Ear'ley, a post-village of Fox township, Elk co., Pa., 
is the southern terminus of the Daguscahonda R. R. There 
are coal-mines in the vicinity. 

Earrham, a post-village of Madison township, Madi¬ 
son co., Ia., on the Chicago Rock Island and Pacific R. R., 
30 miles W. by S. of Des Moines. Pop. 222. 

Earlham College was chartered in 1859. The pres¬ 
ident’s chair was not filled for a few years at the first. The 
first president was Prof. Barnabas C. Hobbs, A. M. The 
chair for five years past has been occupied by Joseph 
Moore, A. M. Both sexes are admitted. There is a pre¬ 
paratory department, with a two years’ course of study, 
two college courses, a classical and a scientific, of four years 
each. In the department of instruction there are six pro¬ 
fessors and three preparatory teaejiers. Number of stu¬ 
dents the past year, 220; number in the collegiate depart¬ 
ment, 70. The government is designed to be as nearly as 
possible that of a well-ordered family. A majority of the 
students board at a general dining-hall, where a superin¬ 
tendent and matron preside. An endowment fund of 
$50,000, together with the proceeds of a farm of 160 acres, 
very materially lessens the general expenses of the students. 
The libraries contain 3500 volumes. A large reading-room 
is furnished with the best magazines and periodicals of the 
times. The college is healthfully located about 1 mile W. 
of Richmond, Ind. The play-grounds, walks, groves, and 
lawns are ample. Joseph Moore. 

Earl Marshal, of England, one of the great officers of 
state tvho regulates ceremonies, is the head of the college of 
arms, takes cognizance of all matters relating to honor, arms, 
and pedigrees, and superintends the proclamation of war 
or peace. This office is at present hereditary in the family 
of Howard, and is enjoyed by its head, the duke of Norfolk. 

Earl'ville, an incorporated town in La Salle co., Ill., on 
the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 73 miles W. S. W. 
of Chicago. It has two manufactories, a steam-mill, and 
two newspapers. Ed. “ Gazette.” 

EarlviSle, a post-village of Oneida township, Delaware 
co., Ia., on the Dubuque and Sioux City R. R., 37 miles W. 
of Dubuque. 

Earlville, a post-village of Hamilton township, Madi¬ 
son co., and of Sherburne township, Chenango co., N. Y., 
on the Midland R. R. at the junction of the Syracuse and 
Chenango Valley R. R., and very near the Delaware Lack¬ 
awanna and Western R. R. Pop. 399. 

Ear'ly, a county in the S. W. of Georgia. Area, 500 
square miles. It is bounded on the W. by the Chattahoo¬ 
chee River. The surface is level ,• the soil is fertile. It is 
partly covered with forests of pine. Rice, cotton, corn, 
and wool are raised. Capital, Blakely. Pop. 6998. 

Early (John), D. D., bishop of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church South, was born in Bedford co., Va., in 1786, joined 
the Virginia Methodist conference in 1807, was one of the 
chief founders of Randolph-Macon College, Va., and was 
a laborious and eminently successful preacher of Meth¬ 
odism in his native and adjacent States. He took a prom¬ 
inent part in the proceedings which in 1844 divided his 
denomination into Northern and Southern sections, was 
elected first book-agent of the Southern division, and in 
1854 was ordained as one of its bishops. He was distin¬ 
guished by long public services, administrative ability, and 
great energy of character. Died Nov. 5, 1873. 

Early (Jubal A.), an American general and lawyer, 
born in Virginia about 1818, graduated at West Point in 
1837. He afterwards studied law, and served in the Mex¬ 
ican war as a major. He joined the Confederate army, was 

























EARNEST—EARTH, THE. 


1445 


a major-general at Gettysburg in July, 1863, and com¬ 
manded an army which invaded Maryland in July, 1864. 
He was defeated by Gen. Sheridan near Winchester, and at 
Fisher’s Hill in Virginia, on the 19th and 20th of Septem¬ 
ber.^ On the 19th of Oct., 1864, he attacked the Union army 
at Cedar Creek, Va., in the absence of Gen. Sheridan, who 
arrived in time to rally his retreating army and to gain a 
decisive victory. After the war he returned to the practice 
of law in Richmond, Va. 

Ear'nest, the payment of money, the delivery of a part 
of any goods sold, or the performance of a simple ceremony 
to “ bind a bargain.” The performance of ancient and now 
meaningless ceremonies as a pledge of good faith is lawful 
earnest in Scotland and some other countries, but money or 
goods only are held to constitute earnest in England and 
the U. S. The seller cannot sell to a third party that for 
which earnest has been paid. A party who has paid earn¬ 
est can demand the goods, but the seller is not obliged to 
deliver them till the whole price is paid. If the buyer fail 
to demand and pay for his goods, the seller, after due no¬ 
tice, can sell again and keep his earnest. In some coun¬ 
tries a party who fails to keep a contract loses his earnest, 
and may be compelled to fulfil his contract besides. 

Earring. See Jewelry. 

Ear-shell, the shell of various gasteropods of the 



Ear-shell. 

Haliotidae family. Of these, the Haliotis tuberculcitci, a 
mollusk of Europe and the tropics, is edible. The genera 
and species, living and fossil, of this family are numerous 
and widely distributed. Some of the shells are used in 
inlaying, and resemble Mother-of-Pearl (which see). 

Earth, The, is the dwelling-place of man; the noble 
garden given him by his Creator to cultivate and to enjoy; 
the scene of his activity, the means of his development, 
and the theatre of his history. As such it cannot fail to 
become one of the most prominent objects of his study. 

I. The Earth in the Universe and the Solar System .—The 
earth is a star among the innumerable stars which float in 
the boundless space of the heavens. Unlike those bright 
bodies, however, the existence of which is revealed to us 
only by the rays of light which they send to our eyes, it is 
not self-luminous ; it possesses no other light than the feeble 
reflected rays which it borrows from the splendor of a 
mighty neighbor. The earth is one of the more modest 
members of a small family of similar stars, clustered and 
revolving around the central luminous orb of the sun, with 
which they form the Solar System (which see). 

The arrangement of the members of the solar system 
shows law and order everywhere, and strongly favors the 
idea, suggested by the celebrated astronomer Laplace, of a 
common origin, which makes it really a family of stars, 
whose parent is the sun. 

The planets, in their order of distance from the sun, are 
Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars, all of small size, 
which form a first group; then comes the cluster of the as¬ 
teroids, followed by another group of four large planets— 
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—whose orbit forms 
the extreme boundary of the solar system. 

In the first group, that of the small planets nearer the 
sun, no satellites are found except one, the moon, which 
graces the earth. In the second, that of the large planets, 
they are numerous. Jupiter has four. Saturn’s heaven 
presents the glorious spectacle of eight moons, accompanied 
by the phenomenon, unique in the solar system, of a broad, 
flat, luminous double ring, revolving, like its satellites, 
around the body of the planet. Uranus has four, and per¬ 
haps more; Neptune, as yet, is known to have but one. 

The distances of the planets from the sun are not equal. 
They gradually increase from Mercury to Neptune, so that 
the distance from the orbit of Mercury to that of each fol¬ 


lowing planet is nearly double the distance from Mercury 
to the preceding one. That ratio fails, however, in the 
case of Neptune. For each planet one revolution around 
the sun is a year; one rotation on its axis, marked by a 
succession of light and darkness, is a day. 

The velocity of these motions is also subject to law. The 
rapidity of revolution around the sun is greatest in Mer¬ 
cury, and gradually diminishes in the other planets, as 
their distance from the sun increases, to Neptune, in which 
it is slowest. The velocity of rotation, on the contrary, is 
greatest in the large planets more distant from the sun, 
Jupiter and Saturn turning upon themselves in about ten 
hours, while the four smaller planets have, like the earth, a 
day of about twenty-four hours. 

The density of the planets, again, varies with their dis¬ 
tance from the sun. Mercury is the most dense, and has a 
specific gravity of about eight times that of water, which is 
a little more than that of iron; the earth five and a half, 
and the other small planets nearly the same; while the 
specific weight of Jupiter is one and a third, or little more 
than that of water; and that of Saturn, the lightest of all 
the planets, is only seven-tenths, or less than water, which 
makes it comparable to a similar volume of cork or light 
wood. 

Thus, in all respects, the earth occupies a happy in¬ 
termediate position. By its size it belongs to the group 
of the small planets, but it is the largest of them. Its 
distance from the sun makes it equally free from the in¬ 
tense glare and the burning heat which prevail on Mer¬ 
cury, and from the dimness of light and the cold which 
probably are the share of the mighty sister planets, Ju¬ 
piter and Saturn. The relative length of its day, sea¬ 
sons, and year establishes harmonious relations between 
them, such as cannot exist in the outer planets, owing to 
the great disproportion between the excessive shortness 
of their days compared with the great length of their year. 

The earth thus seems to be better fitted than any other 
member of the solar system for sustaining that noble 
world of living forms, vegetable, animal, and human, 
which adorn its surface and give to our globe its highest 
value. Nay, whatever be the past or future destinies of 
the other planets in this respect, it may be doubted 
whether any of them possesses, at present, the physical 
conditions without which a life-system at all similar to 
our own cannot be conceived as possible. 

II. The Earth considered in itself, as a great individual 
organization, can be studied under two aspects—either in 
its past or its present condition. A close examination of 
the earth’s crust and its organic contents shows that the 
terrestrial globe, like every individual body in nature, large 
or small, had its period of gradual growth before its present 
perfect state. The ver} r structure of the rocks proves a 
gradual formation. The continents emerged by successive 
steps from the bosom of the ocean; their surface was wrin¬ 
kled by mountain-chains rising one after the other; tribes 
of plants and minerals, different from the existing ones, 
succeeded each other during untold ages. These great 
phases of the existence of the earth, geology studies and 
describes. (See Geology.) Physical geography considers 
the globe in its present condition, as the full-grown earth, 
with man upon it, in its state of highest perfection. 

III. General Form and Dimensions. —The general form 
of the earth, like that of most of the heavenly bodies float¬ 
ing in space, is a sphere, on which, for the sake of conveni¬ 
ence, we may distinguish theposes, or the two extremities of 
the axis of its rotation ; and the equator, which is a great cir¬ 
cle traced midway between the two poles, the plane of which 
passes through the centre of the sphere, cutting its axis into 
two equal parts. The mean diameter of the earth, given by 
the great geodetic measurements, by which the true form and 
dimensions of the globe have been ascertained, is about 
7916 English statute miles. The equatorial diameter, how¬ 
ever, which measures 7925^ miles, exceeds the length of the 
polar diameter, or the length of the axis, which is only 7899, 
by about twenty-six and a half miles, so that a point on the 
surface of the polar region is over thirteen miles nearer the 
centre of the globe than a point on the surface of the equa¬ 
torial regions. This proves that the earth is not a perfect 
sphere, but a sphere-like body, or spheroid, slightly com¬ 
pressed about the poles and bulging about the equator. 
That form is accounted for by the effect of the rotation 
of the earth, which causes a tendency of the matter to fly 
off and to recede from the poles, where the velocity of rota¬ 
tion is but slight, towards the equator, where the velocity 
is greatest. That small deviation from the regular spher¬ 
ical form is in itself of little importance, but it teaches us 
that at some former period the earth must have been in a 
semi-fluid state, after which it was consolidated in its pres¬ 
ent shape. 

The most recent and accurate measurements seem to in¬ 
dicate some other irregularities in the figure of various 















1446 EARTH, THE. 

parts of the globe, which, however, arc not yet sufficiently 
determined to bo mentioned here. 

The following table gives the principal dimensions of the 
earth in English statute miles: 

Dimensions of the Earth. 

Equatorial diameter.7925.65...Radius.3962.82 miles. 

Polar diameter.7899.17...Radius.3949.58 “ 

Difference. 26.48...Difference. 13.24 “ 

Mean diameter.7916.17...Radius. 3968 “ 

Circumference at the equator 24,899 miles. 

Surface of the globe.196,900,278 miles. 

Contents or bulk. 260,000 millions of cubic miles. 

In round numbers easily remembered: diameter, 8000; radius, 
4000; circumference, 25,000 miles; surface, 197,000,000 square 
miles. 

IV. The Globe and its Circles. —The representation of 
the earth most true to nature is the artificial globe, which, 
however, looks like a perfect sphere, for the polar compres¬ 
sion is too small to be visible to the eye. On a globe of 
twelve inches the difference between the polar and equatorial 
diameters would amount only to a twenty-fifth of an inch. 
The outlines of the continents and oceans, the course of 
rivers, and other geographical features of the surface can 
be drawn correctly on the globe, while on flat maps there 
can be only an approximation to their true form. 

On the globe are seen several sets of circles not belonging 
to the natural features of the surface, the object of which 
will be easily understood. 

Parallels and Meridians. —In order to find out the pre¬ 
cise location of a place or of any point on the face of tho 
earth, two sets of circles are traced—one in the same direc¬ 
tion as tho equator, the other at right angles, passing through 
both poles. The first are called parallels, because they aro 
parallel to the equator and to one another. The last are 
called meridians (from the Latin meridies , “noon”), be¬ 
cause all places situated on such a circle have mid-day at 
the same time. 

All tho parallels except the equator are small circles—that 
is, smaller than the greatest circumference. All the me¬ 
ridians are great circles which intersect each other at the 
poles, and the planes of which pass through the axis of the 
earth. 

All these circles, great or small, are divided into 360 
equal parts, or degrees, each degree into sixty minutes, and 
each minute into sixty seconds; further subdivisions are 
given in decimal parts of a second. Tho mode of express¬ 
ing these divisions in writing is seen in the following fig¬ 
ures : 20° 32' 5".9 /y/ , which mean twenty degrees, thirty- 
two minutes, five seconds, and nine-tenths of a second. 
(See Degrees of Latitude and Longitude.) 

Climatic Zones. —There are four parallels, usually made 
prominent in globes and maps, which are peculiar limits in 
the distribution of light on the surface of the earth. Two 
are traced at the distance of about 23J° on each side of 
the equator, and are called on the north the Tropic of Can¬ 
cer, and on the south the Tropic of Capricorn. The other 
two, 23£° from either pole, are the North Polar and the 
South Polar Circles, also called the Arctic and Antarctic Cir¬ 
cles. The two tropics mark the extreme limits of the cen¬ 
tral region where the sun, in its yearly course, can be seen 
vertical, the sun being vertical on these parallels on the 
longest days of the year—viz., the 21st of June in the north¬ 
ern, and the 21st of December in tho southern hemisphere. 
The polar circles are the parallels on which the longest day 
is twenty-four hours, and mark the limits of the circular 
area around the poles within which the summer sun does 
not set every day. The globe is thus divided into six bands, 
or zones, in three groups, which, from the general character 
of their temperature, are termed tho warm or torrid, the 
temperate, and the frigid zones. The portion of the earth’s 
surface occupied by each of the zones is very unequal. 
Their comparative area, in English square miles, is as fol¬ 
lows : 

North tropical zone.39,109,628 ) 

South tropical “ .39,109,628j 'Vaxm regions.78,219,256 

North temperate zone.51,110,763 ( + 

South temperate “ 51,110,763 } T em P era te regions...102,221,5-6 
North polar “ 8,229,748 ) 

South polar “ 8,229,748 } Col(i re S 10ns .16,459,496 

The whole globe.196,900,278 English square miles. 

It is thus seen that, by a wise arrangement of Providence, 
the temperate regions, most favorable to man’s develop¬ 
ment, are the most extensive; next are the warm regions; 
while the frigid zones, unfit for man’s progress, cover but 
an inconsiderable portion of the earth’s surface. 

Ecliptic. —A last great circle is to be noted, which inter¬ 
sects the equator at an angle of about 23J°, and touches 
the two tropics. When the axis is inclined 23^° from the 
perpendicular position, the plane of this circle is horizon¬ 
tal, representing the plane of the orbit in which the earth 
moves around the sun. This circle is the line through 
which the plane of the orbit cuts the surface of the earth, 
and marks the apparent course of the sun from one tropic 

to the other during the seasons. It is called ecliptic because 
eclipses happen only when tho moon is in tho same plane, 
or very near it. 

V. Density and Weight of the Earth. —To find out tho 
absolute and specific weight of the enormous mass of the 
earth, and by it that of all the bodies of the solar system 
and of the sun itself, seems so bold an undertaking for man’s 
littleness as to savor of rashness. Still, it has been done 
quite satisfactorily by physicists and astronomers. 

If we weigh equal volumes of pure water, stone, iron, 
lead, gold, and other substances, their weights are found 
greatly to differ. A cubic foot of stone weighs as much as 
two cubic feet and a half of water; one of iron, as much 
as seven and a half; of lead, as eleven and a half ; of gold, 
as nineteen. That is to say, that, under the same volume, 
the last substances contain as many times more matter than 
water, and their density, or specific weight, is greater in the 
same proportion. By three different methods, the results 
of which very nearly agree, the average density of the earth 
has been found to be five and two-thirds times as great as 
that of water. In other words, it would require five and 
two-thirds globes of water of equal bulk to balance tho 
globe of the earth. The volume of the earth being known, 
as well as its density, its absolute weight may be computed, 
which is about 5852 trillions of tons—a number which we can 
write down, but of the magnitude of which we can scarcely 
form any conception. (See Density of the Earth.) 

Considering that the materials composing the surface— 
water and rocks—have a density so much smaller than the . 
average, we must surmise that in the interior of the globe 
cither the metallic substances greatly prevail, or that mat¬ 
ter is in a state of very great compression. 

VI. The Earth’ 8 Internal Temperature. —We are so much 
accustomed, at the surface which we inhabit, to look to the 
sun—that is, to an outside source—for all the heat w'e 
enjoy, that we almost forget to ask whether the earth has 
a temperature of its own, independent of that which it re¬ 
ceives from that great common reservoir. But when we re¬ 
member that tho warm springs around which so many gather 
for health or pleasure rise from beneath the surface; when 
we observe the greater heat of the waters of the Artesian 
wells, the even and warm temperatures of tho deep mines, 
and especially the torrents of hot steam, of molten rocks, 
which ascend from unknown depths to the mouths of vol¬ 
canoes and flow along their slopes,—we must recognize 
that tho interior mass of the globe has a higher tempera¬ 
ture than that of its surface, the source of which is in it¬ 
self. The earth, like the sun, is a warm body in the midst 
of the cold space of the heavens. 

But if so, can wo form an idea of the amount of that 
proper heat ? To do this, we must try to establish the 
law of its increase from the surface downward. 

Warm or Thermal Springs. —The temperature of the in¬ 
numerable springs which bring back to the surface the 
rain-waters absorbed by the earth-crust, feed the brooks 
and rivers, and minister to the wants of life, vegetable and 
animal, is generally about equal to the mean annual tem¬ 
perature of the air and the ground at the places where they 
issue. It is nearly the same in all seasons, so that spring- 
water appears cold in summer and warm in winter. But 
while spring-water is scarcely ever cooler than the mean 
temperature of the surface-ground, it is often found to pos¬ 
sess a much higher temperature, ranging even to that of 
boiling water. These springs, warmer than the average, 
are termed thermal springs, even though their temperaturo 
be but a little superior to that of ordinary springs. 

It is believed that this higher temperature is imparted 
to the spring-water by the deep-seated layers of rock among 
which it circulates. The deeper the rain-water penetrates 
into the earth’s strata the warmer it becomes. This view 
is sustained by the fact that the thermal springs most 
abound in the mountains and in all the regions where the 
earth’s strata are most disturbed, broken, and creviced, as 
in the volcanic districts. (See Thermal Springs.) 

The famous Geysers (or spouting springs) of Iceland, 
which, volcano-like, throw out at intervals, with tremendous 
force, from a vertical chimuey, a column of boiling water 
sometimes ten feet in diameter, and reaching often over 100 
feet in height, give us a magnificent as well as instructive 
exhibition of the power of steam generated and gradually 
accumulated in a heated volcanic soil. Similar spouting 
springs, on a still grander scale, are found at the head-waters 
of the Yellowstone, Madison, and Snake rivers in the Rocky 
Mountains. (See Yellowstone Valley.) The temperature 
of the water in the Geysers is fully 212° F., and even higher 
a few feet down in the shaft. Thermal springs of all grades 
of temperature are abundant in all parts of the globe. 

The phenomenon of the warm springs is thus too general 
to be attributed to local or accidental causes. It proves 
that at no great depth below the surface a temperaturo 
exists which is not inferior to that of boiling water; but as 

• 


























EARTH, THE. 


we do not know from what depth these warm waters come, 
they do not afford the means of ascertaining the law of 
its distribution. This we have to learn from observations 
made at known depths in Artesian wells and in mines. 

Careful observations, made by sending down self-register- 
ing thermometers to different depths in Artesian wells, give 
us a clue as to the temperature of the strata in which the 
water is contained, and the law of its distribution. In 
order, however, to obtain the true rate of increase, we must 
start, from the mean annual temperature of the ground, 
which is not always found at the surface. The surface 
layers are affected by the heat of the seasons, and are 
warmer in summer and colder in winter. But these varia¬ 
tions gradually diminish downward to a depth at which they 
become insensible, and where the degree of heat is constant, 
and equal to the average annual temperature of the air 
above. It is evident that the greater the extremes of heat 
and cold, the deeper will they be felt below the surface. In 
our latitude the layer of invariable temperature reaches the 
depth of from sixty to eighty feet; while in the equatorial 
regions, where the temperature is nearly the same the 
whole year, it is found at a few feet, and grows gradually 
deeper towards the colder and more variable latitudes. 
From this invariable layer the increase downward has to be 
reckoned. 

Among the most remarkable of the Artesian wells in 
which such observations have been made are those named 
in the following table, which gives the temperature observed 
in these wells at these various depths: 



Depth in feet. 

Temperature, 

Fahr. 

Number of feet 
increase of 1° Fa 

Grenelle. 


. 82.4.. 

.58 

Neu Salzwerk. 

..2288 . 

. 92.5. 

.55 

Mouillelonsje. 

.2677 . 

.101.0. 


St. Louis, Mo. 

.2199. 

. 79.2. 

.88 

Louisville, Kv.... 

.2086. 

. 82.5.. 

.67 

Columbus, Ohio.., 

.2775. 

. 88.0. 



This shows that the temperature invariably increases 
from the surface downward, but also that temperature at 
the same depth is different in different wells, and therefore 
the rate of increase greater in some places than in others. 

Temperature in Mines. —Observations of temperature 
made in deep mines, first in France in the middle of the 
last century, and since in all parts of Europe, give similar 
results. The increase of heat downward is constant, but 
the rate of increase often differs widely, even in mines situ¬ 
ated at no great distance from each other, according to the 
nature of rocks and their power to transmit heat. In the 
Prussian mines, where a long series of investigations have 
been made with the greatest care, the most rapid rate is 1° 
Fahrenheit for every 27 feet; the slowest, 1° for every 197 
feet—the average 1° for 92 feet. In the mines of Saxony 
the average is 1° for 72 feet. Six of the largest mines in 
England give 1° for 44 feet; Dalcoath mine, in Cornwall, 
1° for 75 feet. In America, the Virginia coal-mines show 
an increase of 1° for 60 feet. Even the frozen soil of the 
middle Siberian plains, which has a thickness of nearly 
600 feet, and near the surface a temperature of only 10° 
Fahrenheit, shows a steady increase down to the depth at 
which the temperature reaches the melting-point. 

The average of all known observations, made in various 
parts of the globe, both in Artesian wells and mines, gives 
an increase of heat towards the interior of about one degree 
of Fahrenheit for every fifty-five feet—a very rapid rate 
indeed, which leads to an important conclusion. 

Conclusion. —If this universally increasing temperature 
in the interior of our earth continues in a regular progres¬ 
sion downward, the temperature of boiling water will bo 
reached at 9000 feet, or less than two miles from the sur¬ 
face— a distance only equivalent to a moderate-sized moun¬ 
tain. At thirty miles the heat would be sufficient to melt 
all the rocks and metals contained in the earth’s crust. 
But as we have some reason to believe that the progression 
becomes gradually slower, we may admit as probable that 
the solid, unmelted crust has a greater thickness, reaching, 
perhaps, if not exceeding, 100 miles. 

Startling as this result may be, it is the hypothesis which 
best accounts for the facts just mentioned, and for tho phe¬ 
nomena of geology. 

Volcanoes. —Artesian wells and thermal springs prove an 
internal temperature reaching the boiling-point of water; 
but volcanoes, and the torrents of melted, fiery lava, which 
escape from their open mouths, demonstrate the existence 
in the bowels of our planet of extreme temperatures, which 
tell us that the above conclusion is not a mere fancy, for 
the volcanic phenomena are too general, and too much con¬ 
nected with the great fractures of the earth’s surface, to 
be accounted for, as has been tried, by mere local chemi¬ 
cal causes. (See Volcanoes.) 

Arrangement of Volcanoes on the Earths Surface. 
While the reader is referred to the article Volcanoes for a 
particular description of them, it scorns proper to offer here 


1447 


some remarks on their general distribution, as forming one 
of the most remarkable features of the earth’s surface. 
Though volcanoes are but local.and apparently independ¬ 
ent accumulations of ejected materials, they are mostly 
arranged in long, straight lines, more or less interrupted. 
Humboldt was the first to show that the six volcanoes of 
Mexico, among which the noble Orizaba and Popocatepetl 
are kings, are on a straight line which stretches across the 
continent, and, when prolonged beyond in the Pacific, 
strikes the volcanic islands of Revillagigedo. He draws 
from that fact the plausible inference that they have all 
issued from one long fissure extending across the body of 
the table-land. The volcanoes of South America are all 
on the long line of the Andes; those of North America on 
the line of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges. On a 
similar line are also the numerous volcanoes of Sumatra, 
those of Java, and many others along the coast of the 
Asiatic continent. 

Other volcanoes seem more isolated, or form groups com¬ 
posed of a central volcano surrounded by secondary ones. 
Vesuvius and Etna in Europe; the Canary Islands, the 
Azores, and Iceland in the Atlantic; the Sandwich Islands 
and the numerous groups of Polynesia in the Pacific, and 
many more in the Indian Ocean, are usually considered as 
examples of this class. 

Linear and Central Volcanoes. —The celebrated geolo¬ 
gist L. von Buch first called attention to this difference, 
and accordingly divided volcanoes into linear and central. 
The first class he conceived as raised on a single fissure; 
the second, on a number of crevices radiating from a cen¬ 
tre, as if the result of a violent vertical upheaval. This 
classification, however, has hardly the importance which 
has been attached to it, for the groups of the so-called cen¬ 
tral volcanoes are mostly arranged on a line or zone; and 
even in many groups, as in Iceland and the Sandwich Isl¬ 
ands, the disposition of the single volcanoes in parallel lines 
is unmistakable. 

Distribution of Volcanoes. —Though volcanoes are found 
in every continent and ocean, and in all latitudes, they are 
not equally distributed on the surface of the globe. They 
follow certain lines and cluster in distinct groups. The 
most important feature of their distribution is, that nearly 
all are situated along the mountain-chains and rows of 
islands which border the shores of the continents, while 
the interior of these great land-masses is nearly free from 
them. Leaving out a few extinct volcanoes, the only well 
authenticated exception to that rule is the existence of a 
few volcanic centres around the Thian-Shan Mountains, in 
the very heart of the continent of Asia, midway between 
the Arctic and Indian oceans, nearly two thousand miles 
from the sea in every direction—the volcano Bo-Shan, with 
lava streams; that of Turfan; the Solfatara of Ourumtzi, 
which sometimes emits ashes. 

The number of volcanoes, extinct and active, is variously 
estimated. Humboldt, in “ Cosmos,” counted 407. More 
recently, Dr. Fuchs enumerates 672, of which 270 are still 
in a state of undoubted activity. Of these 270, 175 are on 
islands, and 95 on the continents, but again mostly on the 
sea-shore. This uniform proximity of volcanoes to the sea 
has caused a prevalent belief that sea-water is a necessary 
condition of their existence. It will be seen, however, that 
this may perhaps be a hasty conclusion. 

Two Great Volcanic Zones .—There are two great terres¬ 
trial zones in which are found, arranged in long lines or 
isolated groups, nearly all the volcanoes of the globe. 

The first zone is the vast circle of mountain-chains, pen¬ 
insulas, and x'ows of islands which surround the Pacific 
Ocean and girdle it with a belt of burning mountains. Be¬ 
ginning at the extreme point of South America, in Terra 
del Fuego, with the somewhat doubtful volcano of Sarrni- 
ento, it extends along the Andes, in which are found three 
of the most remarkable series of volcanoes, separated by 
intervals of hundreds of miles, those of Chili, Bolivia, and 
Ecuador counting together sixty-seven volcanoes, twenty- 
seven of which are still active. Then follows the rich group 
of Central America, with fifty-seven volcanoes, twenty-two 
being active. The series of Mexico has six active volca¬ 
noes, besides full as many extinct ones. In North America., 
the series of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains, tho 
group of Alaska, and the long series of the Aleutian Islands, 
have together over eighty volcanoes, half of which are act¬ 
ive, mostly in the Aleutian Islands. Passing to the Asiatic 
continent, we find the seriesof Kamtchatka peninsula, with 
not less than thirty-eight volcanoes, twelve of which are 
active; the line of the Koorile Islands with twenty volca¬ 
noes, half of which are now extinct; the group of the Japan 
Islands, which numbers forty-six volcanoes, with only seven 
active. Between Japan and the Philippine Isles twenty- 
three volcanoes may be counted, of which seven are active; 
in the Philippine and Molucca Isles, thirty-one, most, of 
which are in a state of activity. At last the Australian 



































1448 EARTH, THE. 


line: New Guinea, with three active] New Britain, with 
two active and one extinct; New Hebrides, with two; New 
Zealand, with seven extinct and two active volcanic cones, 
terminate that brilliant girdle of fiery beacons around the 
Great Ocean. Including those which are extinct, the num¬ 
ber of volcanoes in that zone reaches 392. 

The second volcanic zone, though less continuous, is 
hardly less remarkable. It is a belt of broken lands, islands, 
peninsulas, and inland seas, which runs in a slanting direc¬ 
tion around the globe, separating the northern from the 
southern continents. Starting from Central America, with 
its isthmus full of volcanoes, its landlocked seas, its penin¬ 
sulas and islands, and the volcanic series of the Lesser An¬ 
tilles, it passes through the volcanic groups of the Azores 
and Canary Islands to the Mediterranean and its penin¬ 
sulas, including the active volcanoes of Europe—Vesuvius, 
Etna, the Lipari Islands, and Santorin. Entering Asia 
Minor, with its numerous extinct volcanoes, it passes 
through Arabia, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the two 
peninsulas of India, all rich in traces of the activity of the 
internal fires. Thence crossing the East Indian Archipel¬ 
ago and its hundreds of burning mountains, it reaches those 
of the Friendly Isles, and running through all the Polyne¬ 
sian volcanic groups, meets again the great isthmus of Cen¬ 
tral America. Including those of the latter region, we find 
in this zone 168 volcanoes. 

The two zones just described contain therefore, together, 
no less than 560, or five-sixths of all the existing volcanoes. 

Where the two zones intersect each other, in Central 
America and in the East Indian Archipelago, the volcanic 
forces also display their greatest intensity. Central Amer¬ 
ica, with Mexico and the Antilles, has eighty-five vol¬ 
canoes. In the East Indian Archipelago, the long line of 
the Sunda Islands alone possesses eighty, and those of the 
Philippine Islands with the Moluccas, and of New Guinea 
with New Britain, swell the number to 117. Thus in these 
two regions are crowded over 200, or nearly one-third of 
all which are known. 

The remaining volcanoes not included in these two great 
belts are either scattered in the midst of the oceans, as the 
Sandwich Islands group in the Pacific ; Bourbon and Mau¬ 
ritius in the Indian; Cape Verde Islands, Ascension, St. 
Helena, Tristan da Cunha in the Atlantic Ocean ; or in the 
broken polar lands, like Iceland and Jan Mayen Island in 
the Arctic; Erebus and Terror in the Antarctic Ocean. 

Height of Volcanoes. —Volcanoes are of all heights, from 
the submarine cones which do not reach the surface of the 
ocean to that of Sahama in Bolivia, the highest of the 
known volcanoes, which rises to 23,000 feet above it. 
Nay, if we accept as probable the idea that such volcanoes 
as Mauna Loa, nearly 14,000 feet high, have their base at 
the bottom of the deep ocean which surrounds them, the 
total elevation of such a structure may even reach that of 
the highest mountains of the globe. 

The peculiar distribution of volcanoes on the surface of 
the globe, described above, may help us to understand the 
nature and the causes of volcanic action, which are not to 
be confounded with the more general force which has up- 
heaved the continents and sunk the basins of the oceans. 
Three facts are here prominent and significant: 1st. Nearly 
all volcanoes are either along the highest edge of the conti¬ 
nents, or in the great central zone of fracture. 2d. Most 
of them affect a linear arrangement. 3d. The agent at 
work in these mighty engines is mainly vapor of water, or 
steam-power. 

If we admit, as we have every reason to do, that the in¬ 
terior of the earth is a fiery mass, this must be considered 
the primary source of volcanic action. Its effect will be 
most intense in the deep fissures which establish a ready 
communication with the surface. Nowhere are the earth’s 
strata more deeply broken than on the very edge of the 
continents; and geology demonstrates that it is on the 
mighty chasms caused by the upheaval of these vast bodies 
of land that mountain-chains like the Andes, the Sierra 
Nevada, and the other mountains encircling the basin of 
the Pacific Ocean have been raised. There also the vol¬ 
canic vents abound in long lines, following either the top 
or the foot of the mountain-chains. The same may be said 
of the central zone of fracture. 

It is not, however, to the heat of this fiery interior mass, 
but to its slow cooling, and the contraction which is the 
consequence, that we must ascribe the wrinkling and break¬ 
ing up of the solid exterior crust, and the formation of 
those grand features of the surface of our planet which add 
so much to its beauty and usefulness. 

In this view, volcanic action is not the cause, but a con¬ 
sequence, of the upheaval of mountain-chains and conti¬ 
nents, and the frequent proximity of volcanoes to the sea 
does not imply the necessity of sea-water for their forma¬ 
tion. Rain-water and Artesian waters also, which, instead 
of reappearing on the surface in the form of springs, pene¬ 


trate a few miles deep in these subterranean cavities, may 
become so overheated, under high pressure, as to explain 
the usual volcanic phenomena. If so, the lavas flowing 
from a volcanic chimney may not necessarily ife connected 
with the great reservoir of the melted interior. There can 
be no doubt that a close connection exists between the phe¬ 
nomena of volcanoes and those of earthquakes. (See E autii- 
quakes.) 

VII. Terrestrial Magnetism. —The earth exerts a directing 
force upon the magnetic needle, acting like a magnet. (See 
Magnetism.) In whatever portion of the globe—on the 
ocean or on land, on mountains or deep valleys—a mag¬ 
netic needle, freely suspended so as to move easily in every 
direction, no matter how it is placed, will always turn in a 
definite direction, one pole pointing towards the north, and 
the other towards the south pole of the earth. The pole of 
the needle directed by the north pole of the earth, being of 
contrary magnetism, is the south pole of the needle, but 
for convenience is marked north on the compass, because it 
points towards the geographical north. 

The magnetic poles, however, do not coincide with the 
geographical poles, but are found to be more than 20° from 
them; nor do the magnetic meridians passing through the 
poles of the needle, and the magnetic poles of the earth, 
coincide with the geographical meridians. The needle, 
therefore, seldom points to the true north, but usually to 
the east or west of it. The difference between the magnetic 
and the true north is called magnetic variation or declina¬ 
tion. This declination may be either east or west of the 
true north; but there will be also a line where the needle 
points to the true north, and which is the line of no declin¬ 
ation, from which the variation has to be counted. By 
connecting together all points which have equal declination 
we obtain a system of lines which show at a glance, as in 
Map No. II., the direction of the needle in all parts of the 
world. On the map the eastern declination is distinguished 
by dotted lines and a light-brown color, and the western by 
full lines and blue color, the line of no declination between 
being heavier. 

Secular Variation .—It is found that the declination does 
not remain the same at any one place, but the magnetic poles 
with their system of meridians are gradually travelling 
from west to east and from east to west; and as these oscil¬ 
lations take centuries to complete their course, this is called 
secular variation. A map of the lines of declination must 
therefore refer to a particular date. The one here given 
shows the declinations as observed in the year 1858. It 
will be seen that the line of no declination in the Western 
World passes through Rio de Janeiro, the mouth of the 
Amazon, somewhat west of Washington, through Lake 
Huron, and the magnetic pole as found by Sir James Ross 
in Boothia Felix, under the 70th degree of N. lat. In the 
Eastern World it passes through the western part of Aus¬ 
tralia, west of the peninsula of India, and through the 
Caspian and White seas. A region of abnormal declina¬ 
tions in Central Siberia seems to indicate the existence of 
a secondary magnetic pole in that part of the world. 

The map shows that when crossing the Atlantic from 
Liverpool to New York the voyager will find the variation 
of the compass, which in Liverpool is about 25° west, in¬ 
creasing to 30° in mid-ocean, and then rapidly diminishing 
from Newfoundland to New York, where it is only about 
7°. Beyond the line of no variation, passing near Wash¬ 
ington and the great lakes, the needle points east of the 
true north, and continues so across all the continent and 
the Pacific Ocean, where it again begins to point west be¬ 
fore reaching the islands and the coast of Asia. It is evi¬ 
dent that both the traveller on land and the mariner have 
to correct the indications of the needle for variation to get 
the true points of the compass. The amount of declination 
can easily be found by comparing the direction of the 
needle with the north star. 

The following table of the declinations observed in Paris 
since 1580 will show the course of the secular variation in 
the northern hemisphere: 


Declinations observed in Paris. 


Year. 

Declination. 

Year. 

Declination. 

1580. 

. 11° 30' east. 

1816. 

.22° 25' 

west. 

1618. 

. 8 

1817. 

.22 

19 

U 

1668. 

. 0 “ 

1823. 

.22 

23 

it 

1678. 


1827. 

.22 

20 

u 

1700. 

. 8 10 “ 

1828. 

. 22 

5 

it 

1780. 

.19 55 “ 

1829. 

. 22 

12 

it 

1805. 

.22 5 “ 

1835. 

. 22 

4 

it 

1814. 

.22 34 “ 

1854. 

.. 22 

10 

tt 


This table shows that— 

1st. The extent of the variation was over 31°. 

2d. In 1663 the declination was zero, the needle pointing 
due north. 

3d. From 1580 until 1814 the needle moved towards the 
west. 





























West 88 43 S Longitude from 37 AffashiiigtaiL 77 117 * East 157 188 










































































































EAETH, THE. 


1449 


4th. Since 1814 it has moved backward towards the east. 

5th. The rate of this movement is not uniform, but is 
greater near the minimum, and least near the maximum 
point of declination. 

There are minor variations in the declination which fol¬ 
low the periods of the day and of the year, and seem to be 
in close connection with the temperature of the atmosphere 
and the position of the sun. 

The mariner’s compass is but a needle attached to a cir¬ 
cular sheet of talc moving freely on a pivot, on which is 
marked the direction of the winds according to thirty-two 
points of the compass. The whole is placed in a box with 
double suspension, so as to keep it horizontal even amid 
the motion of the waves. 

Magnetic Inclination. —A magnetic needle so suspended 
as to move freely in a vertical direction will adjust itself in 
the magnetic meridian, and in each hemisphere one of its 
poles will dig) towards the pole of the earth. This is called 
the Magnetic Inclination, and the needle itself is called a 
dipping needle. (See Dipping Needle.) At the magnetic 
pole the needle stands vertical; at the magnetic equator, 
horizontal; between these extremes it takes all intermediate 
positions. The inclination, like the declination, is subject 
to periodic and secular variation. In Paris, as will be 
seen in the table below, it was 75° in 1671, while in 1853 
it was only 66° 28'. 

Sir James Ross in 1832 saw the dipping needle stand 
within one minute of a degree of the vertical position near 
Baffin’s Bay. When tracing the lines of equal dip on a 
Mercator’s map, we find that they coincide in a remarkable 
manner with the isothermals or lines of equal mean tempe¬ 
rature, indicating a close connection of the distribution of 
heat with that of magnetism, and seemingly a common 
cause for both. 

The inclination, like the declination, is subject to periodic 
and secular variations. The last is shown in the following 
table: 


Inclinations observed in Paris. 


Year. 

Inclination. 

Year. 

Inclination. 

1671. 


1820. 

.68° 20’ 

1780. 

.71 48 

1825. 

.68 

00 

1798. 

.69 51 

1831. 

.67 

40 

1814. 

.68 36 

1853. 

.66 

28 


It appears from the table that since the year 1671 the 
inclination has steadily diminished at the rate of about 
three to five minutes a year. 

Magnetic Intensity .—The intensity of magnetic force can 
be measured by causing a dipping needle to oscillate, and 


counting the number of its oscillations in a given time. 
The greater the number of oscillations in a minute of time, 
the more intense is the attractive force. The lines of equal 
magnetic force, though not identical with, are very similar 
to, those of equal inclination. 

Modern science is inclined more and more to consider 
magnetism as but a form of electric activity, for every 
electrical current causes a magnetic current moving at right 
angles to it. If we admit, with the learned Ampere, that 
electrical currents caused by the action of the sun on the 
revolving earth are constantly moving from east to west 
around the globe, we must expect a magnetic current at 
right angles which will make our earth a magnet. 

If the earth is a magnet, so are, no doubt, all the other 
planets, and the sun itself; and our globe is but a link in a 
great chain of heavenly magnets bound together by mutual 
attraction and comprising the whole solar system. 

VIII. The Surface of the Earth. —The surface of the 
earth, as stated before, measures 197,000,000 of English 
square miles. Nearly three-quarters of it are covered by 
the waters of the sea, one-quarter only of the solid crust 
rising above them. Both dry land and water are sur¬ 
rounded by the atmosphere as by a common garment. 

The solid land, the liquid surface, and their gaseous en¬ 
velope are the three geographical elements which, under 
the influence of the sun, support life, vegetable and animal, 
and the mutual play of which it is the province of physical 
geography to consider. As the extent and forms of tho 
land-masses and oceans, and their relative situation, deeply 
modify the nature of tho climate and regulate the distribu¬ 
tion of life, the study of their general arrangement is of 
primary importance. 

General Arrangement of Land and Water. —The principal 
facts in this respect are the following: 

1. The solid land is not gathered together in a single 
large mass, nor is it uniformly scattered over the sea in 
fragments of about equs^ size, but forms a few large bodies, 
called continents, and a multitude of much smaller frag¬ 
ments, called islands, which surround the coasts of the con¬ 
tinents and dot the broad expanse of the oceans. This 
peculiar division into individual bodies favors diversity of 
climate and richness of development in the domain of life. 

The relative amount of land and water on the surface 
of the globe is made clear to the eye in the following dia¬ 
gram, in which the large square is the surface of the globe; 
the inner squares, the area of the continents and islands; 
and the surrounding area, the water-surface. The figures 
indicate the areas in English square miles : 


Fig. 1. —Relative Area of Land and Water, in English Square Miles. 


Entire 

Surface of the Globe, 
196,900,000. 


Water, 

144,000,000. 


Continents, 

50,000,000. 


Islands, 


2,900,000. 


Proportion of 
Surfaces. 


Globe.100. 

Land. 27. 

Water. 73. 


2. Looking on the artificial globe from above, we see the 
masses of land crowded around the North Pole to about 
the 70th degree of latitude, and from there extending to¬ 
wards the South Pole in three directions, dividing into three 
bands of land, which taper as they advance, and terminate 
in three points—South America, Africa, and Australia, far 
away from tho Antarctic Pole. Looking on the globe from 
the opposite side, we see the broad sea surrounding the 
South Pole, and sending three great arms between the 
bailds of land, the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans. 
The North Pole might be called the Continental; tho South 
Pole, the Oceanic Pole. 


3. We observe, further, that each of these main bands 
of land is cut transversely in two by a region of inland 
seas and broken lands, isthmuses, peninsulas, and islands; 
the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, with the great 
isthmus of Central America and the Antilles, separating as 
well as uniting North and South America; the Mediterra¬ 
nean Sea, with its peninsulas and islands, lying between 
Europe and Africa; and tho Malayan Archipelago, with 
its lines of islands and landlocked seas, between Asia and 
Australia. 

These regions are parts of a broad transverse band, whose 
position can be traced from Behring Straits as a centre, with 





































1450 


EARTH, THE. 


a meridian arc of 80° as a radius, and which we would call 
the central zone of fracture. This disposition is shown in 
the accompanying map on a polar projection, in which the 


zone of fracture is marked by a circle passing through the 
middle of it. 

4. As the lands are nearer the North Pole, and expand 



to the north while they taper to the south, the northern the southern hemisphere, in which w&ter correspondingly 
hemisphere contains nearly three times as much land as predominates, as shown in fig. 3. 

Fig. 3. 


Northern Hemisphere. 


Southern Hemisphere. 



The New World. 


The Old World. 






























































EARTH, THE. 


! 

I 

I 


1451 


5. As the lands are crowded on the north and east sides 
of our planet, the north-eastern hemisphere contains more 
land and the south-western hemisphere more water than 
any other we can devise. They are therefore contrasted by 
the celebrated Carl Ritter as the Land and Water Hemi¬ 
spheres. In the land hemisphere are gathered together 
the largest parts of all the great continents, making over 
six-sevenths of all the land, and occupying only a little 


less than one-half of the surface. In the water hemi¬ 
sphere, Australia, the smallest of the continents, stands 
alone, with only the southern points of Asia and South 
America, making less than one-seventh of the land, and 
leaving twelve-thirteenths of the surface to the water. 
The centre of the land hemisphere is about London; that 
of the water hemisphere at some point in the ocean south 
of New Zealand. 


Land Hemisphere. 


Fig. 5. 


Water Hemisphere. 



6. The central zone of fracture divides the land masses 
into three northern and three southern continents, which 
form two groups of a very different nature, the northern 
continents being mostly situated in the temperate and the 
southern in the tropical regions. 

The relative extent of the various groups just mentioned 
are here tabulated for convenient reference, and the areas 
given in English square miles: 


Land and Water. 


The earth.. 

North hemisphere. 

Southern hemisphere, 
Eastern hemisphere.. 
Western hemisphere.. 

Land hemisphere.. 

Water hemisphere. 


Land. Water. 

.52,900,000.144,000,000, 

.38,780,000.59,670,000, 

.13,965,000.84,485,000 

.36,100,000.62,350,000 

..15,900,000.82,550,000 

.45,000,000.53,450,000 

.. 7,000,000.91,450,000, 


Total. 

196,900,000 

..98,450,000 

..98,450,000 

..98,450,000 

..98,450,000 

..98,450,000 

98,450,000 


Fig. 6.— The Areas of Continents compared in English Square Miles. 



Europe, 


North America, 

3,785,800. 


8,892,000. 


Asia, 



17,317,900. 


Africa, 


South America, 

11,556,700. 

i 

6,957,500. 


Australia, 


. 

3,425,200. 


The general distribution of land and water, just con¬ 
sidered, and the extent and relative position of the great 
land masses among themselves, are of the utmost import¬ 
ance. The action and reaction of land and water upon 
each other greatly modify the distribution of heat and 
moisture, due to the general laws arising, as we shall see, 
from the spherical form of the globe. Land absorbs and 
radiates heat more readily than water, and thus causes 
extreme temperatures, which never occur on the surface of 
the ocean. Similar extremes of moisture and dryness are 
found only on the continents. As heat and moisture 
essentially regulate the development of organic life, the 
final character and value of each part of the globe, in this 
respect, are determined by the size, form, and grouping of 
the bodies of land in the midst of the oceans. We have 
now, therefore, to turn our attention to the specific forms 
of the continents and oceans, on which so much depends. 

Land and its Configuration .—The portion of the solid 
crust of the earth rising above the surface of the ocean is 
divided, as we have seen, into six great bodies, the conti¬ 
nents, besides innumerable smaller ones, the islands. In 
both we must notice the horizontal forms, or the line of 
contact of land and water as shown in the maps, and the 
vertical forms, the elevations and depressions, the moun¬ 
tains and plains, or the forms of relief. (See Continent.) 

The amount of indentation in each continent is shown in 
the following diagram (fig. 7), in which the inner square 
represents the line enclosing the unindented area, without 
the islands; the outer line, the actual length of the coast 
with its windings. The difference between the two gives 


the true measure of the indentation. It is easy to perceive 
at a glance how much the northern continents differ from 
the southern in this respect: 

It is a fact full of meaning that the indented, well articu¬ 
lated continents are also, and have always been, the abode 
of the most civilized nations. The unindented ones, shut 
up in themselves, and less accessible from without, have 
played no important part in the drama of history. We 
must remember, however, that the variety of contours is 
but the expression of a more complicated inner structure, 
which, together with the climatic situation of the northern 
continents in the temperate regions of our globe, has a large 
share in this remarkable result. 

The following table gives the length of the coast lines of 
the six continents compared with their area, without the 
islands, in English miles : 

Area and Length of the Real Coast Line of each Continent. 


Area. 


Length of 
coast line. 


Europe. 

Asia. 

North America 

Africa. 

Australia. 

South America 


3,565,200 sq. miles 
.16,216,600 “ 

8,261,000 “ 

11,314,300 “ 

2,948,300 “ 

6,889,500 “ 


19,800 miles. 
35,500 “ 

27.700 “ 
.16,200 “ 

8,760 “ 

15.700 “ 


The table shows that Europe has 4000 miles of coast 
more than Africa, which is three times larger; and that 
North America, which is only little larger than South Amer¬ 
ica, has 12,000 miles more of coast. 

We have thus far taken a view of the outward forms of 
the masses of land as bounded by the waters of the ocean. 










































































1452 EARTH, THE. _ 

Tig. 7 .—Length of the Coast Line in each Continent , compared with the Line Enclosing its Area. 

Northern Continents. 

Asia, 35,500. 


North America, 
27,700. 


8,261,000 
Sq. miles. 


South America, 

15,680. 


6,889,500 
Sq. miles. 


Europe, 

19,800. 


3,505,200 
Sq. miles. 


Africa, 

16,200. 


11,314,300 
Sq. miles. 



Australia, 

8760. 


2,948,300 
Sq. miles. 


To complete our view we must consider them as solid 
bodies, and study their vertical forms. 

Vertical Forms, or Relief .—The configuration of their 
surface, as diversified by plains, highlands, mountains, and 
valleys, constitutes the relief of the continents, the charac¬ 
teristic features of which reveal their internal structure. 

The elevation of a place above the level of the sea is 
usually reckoned from the level of the sea as a common 
base, and its height above the ocean is called its absolute 
height or altitude. 

Though the loftiest mountains of the globe, compared 
with the diameter of the earth, are but as grains of sand 
on a globe of several feet in diameter, this element of alti¬ 
tude acts so powerfully on climate and organic life that its 
knowledge is of primary importance. An elevation of 
level of 350 feet is sufficient to diminish the mean tempera¬ 
ture of a place by one degree Fahrenheit : that is to say, 
the effect is the same as if the place were situated seventy 
miles farther north. A few thousand feet of height change 
entirely the aspect and usefulness of a country. It is, 
again, the relief which controls the drainage of the conti¬ 
nents, directs the course of the flowing waters, and shapes 
the river-basins. Although the forms of relief are infinite¬ 
ly varied, we may refer them to two great classes: 

1st. The elevations in mass and by great surfaces, which 
are called plains or lowlands when they are only a little 
elevated above the level of the ocean, and plateaus or table¬ 
lands when their elevation is more considerable and pre¬ 
sents a solid platform, a basis of great thickness. 

2d. The linear elevations or chains of mountains, which 
are distributed on the borders of the plains and table¬ 
lands, or, more rarely, scattered in isolated groups. To 
the mountain-chains tfie valleys correspond, as the low 
plains to the plateaus. 

Plains and Lowlands .—The lowlands and plains occupy 
nearly one-half of the surface of the continents. They are 
most extensive and unbroken on the Arctic slopes of the 
three continents of the north, and on the eastern or At¬ 
lantic side of the New World. The great Siberian plains 
extend from the north-eastern part of Asia to the Ural 
Mountains and the Caspian Sea, and continue through 
Russia and Northern Germany to the low land of Holland. 
In North America we find extensive lowlands marked by 
the valley of the Mackenzie River and the plains of the 
Mississippi Valley. In South America, the Llanos or 
plains of the Orinoco, the Selvas or plains of the Amazon, 
the Pampas or plains of the La Plata basin, form an unin¬ 
terrupted series of lowlands which continue through the 
Patagonian plains to the extremity of the continent, along 
a line of 3500 miles. We may mention, again, among the 
large plains of the world, the interior of the Australian 
continent. The historical plains of China, Hindostan, and 
the Euphrates in Asia, celebrated and useful as they al¬ 
ways have been, are smaller and of a more local character. 

The nature of the surface in the lowlands is extremely 


variable. The vast alluvial plains, almost perfectly level, 
which are the work of the present rivers, and are formed 
along the great streams and in the deltas formed at their 
mouths, correspond best with the idea of a low plain. Such 
are the plains of the delta of the Mississippi, including the 
flat bottom, from thirty to eighty miles, comprised between 
the bluffs of the river ; the plains of the Amazon ; those of 
the Orinoco and La Plata; the plains of the lower Ganges 
and Brahmapootra; the delta of the Nile; the plain of 
Lombardy, and others of less note. In all these the view 
stretches unobstructed, as on the broad ocean, without 
meeting an elevation deserving the name of a hill. Ollier 
plains, like those of Northern Germany, the Caspian Sea, 
and a part of the Siberian plains, are the sandy bottom of 
an ancient ocean, and offer slight inequalities incident to 
local accumulation of sand drifted by the currents, or to 
some other accidental cause. Others, again, are undulating, 
like many of the vast treeless plains which cover most of 
the western portion of the Mississippi basin, or, like the 
eastern Siberian plain, are diversified by numerous hills. 
The nature of their surface is not less varied. In the Si¬ 
berian plains large tracts called Tundra are endless frozen 
swamps full of mosses and lichens, while the hilly parts are 
covered with forests. To the south-west stretch immense 
grassy steppes, in which roam the nomadic Ivirgheez. Salt 
sandy plains surround the Caspian Sea. Dense forests 
cover Central Russia, open treeless but fertile prairies its 
more southern plains. In North America, the wet, alluvial 
plain of the Mississippi delta, the open and fertile prairies 
of the upper Mississippi, the barren and, in part, salt plains 
of the far West, are very distinct types, with a value to 
man not less different. In South America, the Llanos of 
the Orinoco, a burnt waste one half the year, a rich pastu¬ 
rage the other half; the plains of the Amazon, covered 
with a luxuriant forest of over a million of square miles ; 
and the treeless Pampas, with their tall grass and forests 
of thistles, are all forms which exhibit the endless variety 
of nature. 

The low plains may be counted among the most valuable 
portions of our globe. There the waters, rushing down the 
slopes of the continents, meet, and bringing with them the 
spoils of the uplands, accumulate the rich alluvial soil on 
which at all times men have gathered by millions. There 
civilization began and developed, and an inexhaustible fer¬ 
tility supplied all the wants of the full-grown nations. 
China, India, Babylonia, and Egypt had their heart and 
centro in the alluvial plains, fertilized by the mighty rivers 
which traverse them. 

The altitude of these useful basins is remarkably small. 
The central part of each of those just mentioned docs not 
average 500 feet above the sea-level. The Mississippi at 
St. Louis, 1000 miles from the sea, is hardly 400 feet above 
it. The Amazon, at a similar distance inland, does not 
roach 250 feet of altitude. The Siberian plains, those of 
the Ganges, Euphrates, and the valley of the Nile, have all 




























































EARTH, THE. 


1453 


2 

3 

3 

TO- 

2 

7 > 

4 
"5" 
6 
T 


altitudes of the same order. It would require, therefore, 
but a slight depression of the continents to cover all these 
rich countries with the waters of the ocean. 

The following table shows the approximate area covered 
by the lowlands in each continent, in English square miles, 
with the proportion to the whole surface: 

Lowlands. Proportion. 

Asia. 7,116,000 square miles. y 

Europe. 2,541,000 “ . 

Africa. 3,614,000 “ .. 

North America... 3,840,000 “ . 

South America... 5,417,000 “ .. 

Australia. 2,551,000 “ . 

Plateaus and Highlands .—The name of plateau is usually 
applied to elevations in mass, or surface elevations, the ab¬ 
solute height of which exceeds a thousand feet. Plateaus, 
or table-lands, are swelled portions of the continents, often 
raised to a great height between two chains of mountains, 
which form their margin, as the plateau of the Great Amer¬ 
ican Basin between the chains of the Rocky Mountains and 
the Sierra Nevada, and that of Thibet between the snowy 
chains of the Himalaya and Ivuen-Lun. Or they descend 
by a series of terraces to the sea, as the plateau of Mexico, 
or, again, slope gradually into the lowlands, as the great 
plains of the far West in North America, which from an 
altitude of five or six thousand feet at the foot of the Rocky 
Mountains, pass by imperceptible steps into the centre of 
the Mississippi Basin. 

Though the name plateau rather implies a flat surface, it 
may also be hilly, or even mountainous, but in all cases the 
lowest part of it still remains thousands of feet above the 
ocean. If no well defined limit can be given at which a 
rising surface begins to deserve the name of plateau, strik¬ 
ing differences in the climate and the vegetable and animal 
life distinguish the table-lands as one of the main types of 
geographical forms. 

The plateaus most remarkable for their elevation are the 
elongated, valley-like highlands situated between the two 
chains of the Andes in South America, which have an alti¬ 
tude of from 10,000 to 13,000 feet, and those of Thibet be¬ 
tween the Himalaya and the Kuen-Lun, which average 
from 10,000 to 16,000 feet. These may be called plateaus 
of the first order. The plateaus of a second order, though 
less elevated, averaging from 4000 to 7000 feet, are the most 
extensive, such as those of East Toorkestan and Mongolia 
in Central Asia; of Iran in Western Asia; the vast plateau 
which extends over all the southern half of Africa and Abys¬ 
sinia; the long and broad swell which fills the western half 
of North America with a continuous mass of highlands from 
Alaska to Mexico. Plateaus of a third order, with from 
2000 to 3000 feet altitude, occupy the large peninsulas of 
Deccan in India,, of Arabia, Asia Minor, and Spain. The 
central part of France, Switzerland, and Bavaria, at the 
north foot of the Alps, and Transylvania, are plateaus of the 
same order. 

The plateaus, together with accompanying mountain- 


chains, form the backbone, or kernel, of almost every con¬ 
tinent, determining its general shape, and to a great extent 
its drainage and water-courses. But they are in nearly all 
the least fertile and useful portions of the surface. 

Mountains and Valleys. —Unlike the broad, elevated sur¬ 
faces just described, the mountains rise in long and com¬ 
paratively narrow lines or ridges, the tops of which are 
often deeply indented, offering to the eye a series of peaks 
apparently detached from each other. Each of these peaks 
or distinct elevations being often called a mountain, and 
receiving a special name, the appearance suggests for such 
a structure the usual name of a chain of mountains. 

A mountain-chain, therefore, is not to be considered as a 
necklace of isolated mountains, touching each other only 
by their base, but rather as a solid prism, with a broad 
base and two opposite slopes, of which the upper edge is 
either nearly even, as in the middle Appalachian chains in 
Pennsylvania, or indented, as in the Rocky Mountains and 
the Alps. These indentations, however, even in extreme 
cases, as in the Alps, do not reach lower than half the 
height, leaving the larger part an unbroken, continuous 
mass. 

The top of the chain from which the waters flow on op¬ 
posite sides is the crest, and the notches between the peaks 
are the passes, from which usually descend transverse val¬ 
leys, like deep furrows along the slopes. The mountain- 
ridges are seldom isolated, but usually united into systems 
of mountains, composed of a large number of more or less 
parallel chains with their intervening valleys. The Alle- 
ghanies, the Alps, and the Andes are such systems, and not 
simple chains. 

Formation of Mountains. —Geology demonstrates that 
the mountain-chains are mostly formed by the uplifting 
of the layers of rock which compose the earth’s crust. (See 
Geology.) These rocks having been deposited at the bot¬ 
tom of the ocean, as is proved by their texture and the 
abundant marine shells which they contain, were originally 
in a horizontal position, and are still so in the plains at the 
foot of the mountains. In the mountain-chains, however, 
the same are found in all degrees of inclination, up to a 
vertical position, the marine shells and pebbles in them 
standing on their edges, thus testifying that they have been 
disturbed since their materials were deposited. Indeed, 
most of the mountain-chains seem to have been produced 
by tremendous lateral compressions in the crust of the 
earth, which caused either a series of long folds, as in the 
Appalachians, or, when the action was more violent, deep 
fissures, whose upturned edges rose into high ridges, as in 
the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains, the broken strata 
forming ragged peaks. There are, accordingly, two main 
types of mountain-chains, very distinct from each other. 
One we call mountains by folds, which are generally of 
moderate elevation; and the other, mountains by fracture, 
to which belong the highest of the globe. The Appala¬ 
chian system in North America and the Jura Mountains 
in Switzerland are examples of the first; the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains, the Alps, and the Himalaya, of the second. 


Fig. 8. — Chain of Mountains by Folds. 

THE JURA. Transverse Section. 


Direction of 
Upheaving Fore 



In the Appalachian and the Jura the mountains are 
curved into arches, either entire or broken on the top, 
forming a system of long, straight parallel ridges of about 
equal height, with intervening trough-like valleys, justifying 


a comparison to the folds of a garment. The crest of the 
ridges, seen at the horizon, appears like a uniform unin¬ 
dented line without sharp peaks or deep passes. The main 
valleys are longitudinal, the transverse valleys being few 


Fig. 9. — Chain of Mountains by Fracture. 

THE ALPS. MONT BLANC. Transverse Section. 



Direction of 
Upheaving Force. 


and unimportant. Here and there, however, deep gaps cut 
the chains transversely to their base, allowing the rivers to 
escape from one valley to the other. In systems by frac¬ 
ture, like the Rocky Mountains and the Alps, there is one 
main central with lower subordinate chains. The parallel 
chains and the longitudinal valleys which separate them 
have not the same regularity. The crests are deeply in¬ 
dented, and cut down, to one-third or one-half of their 
height, into isolated mountain-peaks and passes, present¬ 
ing to the eye the appearance of a saw, or in Spanish 
sierra, in Portuguese serra, which names are applied to 


mountain-chains of this description. The longitudinal 
valleys, though sometimes of considerable size, are few, the 
transverse valleys numerous, with bald picturesque Out¬ 
lines and a series of fertile basins united by deep gorges 
and defiles. These systems of mountains are not to be 
conceived as one single chain; they are large mountainous 
zones, several hundred miles broad, whose general slopes, 
therefore, average but a few degrees. It is the peculiar 
combination of mountain-systems with plateaus and plains 
which constitutes the distinctive forms of relief of each 
continent, and also determines its general contours. 
















































1454 


EARTH, THE. 


General Laws of Relief .—The examination of the general 
vertical forms of the masses of dry land leads to a recog¬ 
nition of certain great laws of relief which apply to every 
continent, or to certain groups of continents, or to the 
whole earth. 

1st. Each continent has on one side a large system of 
highlands, plateaus, and mountain-chains which consti¬ 
tutes the principal feature of its structure, and may be 


called its main axis. On the other side, along the opposite 
shore, is found a similar system, but diminutive in all its 
dimensions, extending over only a part of the continent, 
and forming a secondary axis. Between the two a general 
depression or low plain fills the interior. The direction of 
these two fundamental lines of highlands is not parallel, 
but converging, which gives to all continents the triangular 
form mentioned in the article Continent (which see). 


Fig. 10. — Typical Form of Continents, shown in North America. 

WESTERN HIGHLANDS. 

Sierra Nevada. Rocky Mountains. 


Pacific 

Ocean. 


Basin of Mississippi. 



Appalachian 

Mountains. 

Atlantic 
Ocean. 


MAIN AXIS. 


CENTRAL DEPRESSION. SMALL AXIS. 


A large swell cn one side, a smaller converging one on 
the other, and a depression between the two, is the typical 
form of a continent. An island, however large, is never 
more than a part of it. 

This typical structure can be traced in all continents, but 
in none more clearly than in North America. Here the 
main axis is formed by the large swell of the western high¬ 
lands, stretching from the north-west to the south-east, 
without interruption, for 4500 miles, steadily growing in 
height from the shores of Alaska to the south end of 
Mexico, and filling from one-third to one-half of the width 
of the continent. The plateaus contained between the 
border chains of the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains average full 4000 feet, and reach in Mexico double 
that altitude, the high peaks of the mountain-ranges reach¬ 
ing from 12,000 to 15,000 feet. The secondary axis is the 
Appalachian system, extending from Nova Scotia to Ala¬ 
bama, in a south-westerly direction, for 1500 miles. Its 
average width is hardly one-fifth, and its elevation, pla¬ 
teaus, and peaks not one-half, that of the western high¬ 
lands; but still it determines the trend of the Atlantic 
coast. Between the two axes the lowlands of British 
America and the vast plains of the Mississippi Basin 
stretch for 3000 miles from the Arctic shores to the Gulf 
of Mexico, hardly interrupted by a slight central swell 
of 1000 or 1000 feet in the region of the sources of the 
Mississippi. * 

In the sister continent of South America the same normal 
structure is evident. On the extreme western margin the 
high and massive swell which bears the peaks of the Andes, 
the highest of the New World, rises from the Pacific shores 
as a continuous wall of 4500 miles from the Isthmus of 
Panama to Cape Horn. Opposite this main axis, on the 
Atlantic side, the Brazilian plateau, with its border chains 
2000 miles long and from 3500 to 9000 feet high, forms 
the secondary axis. In the interior, 4000 miles of low 
plains extend without interruption along the eastern foot 
of the Andes, from the Llanos of Venezuela to the southern 
extremity of Patagonia. 

In Asia and Europe, which together form one great conti¬ 
nental mass, the typical structure, owing to the compli¬ 
cation of their forms of relief, is not so easily traced, but 
it is none the less real. Here, instead of a continuous body 
of highlands, as in North and South America, we meet 
with a series of separated systems. The highest and most 
prominent chains of mountains, forming the main axis, are 
all nearer the southern edge—the Himalaya, the Caucasus, 
the Alps, and the Pyrenees. The low and extensive plains 
are all on the north, and about the centre lines of lower 
mountains mark the smaller axis. Asia-Europe, however, 
is divided into three distinct parts, each of which is almost 
a continent, Eastern and Western Asia and Europe, which 
have to be considered separately. 

In Eastern Asia the main axis is clearly marked at the 
south by the gigantic swell of land contained between the 
border chains of the Himalaya and the Kuen-Lun, in 
which are found the highest plateaus and mountains of the 
world. On the north side we recognize the secondary axis 
in the chains of the Thian-shan and the Altai. Between 
these two zones of highlands extend, in a vast depression, 
the plains of East Toorkestan and of the so-called plateau 
of Mongolia, which, though having an altitude of from 
2000 to 4000 feet, lie full 10,000 feet lower than the neigh¬ 
boring plateaus of Thibet. In Western Asia the plateau 
of Iran has its main swell on the south border, in the high 
mountains of Koordistan and the Taurus, and in the 
eastern half the river Ilmend marks the direction of a 
central depression which sinks from 4000 to 5000 feet 
below the surrounding plains. 

In Europe, the highest chains, the Pyrenees, the Alps, 
and the Balkans, which form the main axis, are all on the 
southern edge of the continental triangle, separating the 


three Mediterranean peninsulas from the main body. In 
the centre, a slanting line of lower chains, the Carpathian 
and the Sudetic Mountains, the Riesengebirge, and the 
chains bordering the low plains of Northern Germany, 
form the minor axis. Between the two lie the low plains 
of Wallachia and Hungary and the numerous basins of 
Central Germany. 

Africa has a double structure. The northern half con¬ 
forms to Asia-Europe, its mountain-chains and plateaus 
running east and west, which explains its projection far 
into the Atlantic. The highlands of the Atlas along the 
Mediterranean, and the Kong Mountains on the Sea of 
Guinea, are two border swells, between which stretch the 
vast plains of the Sahara, whose average altitude does not 
much exceed 1500 feet. The southern half, as ascertained 
by Dr. Livingstone, is an unbroken plateau with two border 
swells running from north to south, as in North and South 
America, the higher one on the east, the smaller one, hardly 
less elevated, on the west, and a depression two or three 
thousand feet lower in the centre. 

Australia has also a main swell on the east, with plateaus 
of 3000 feet and mountains of over 7000 feet; and a lower 
one in the west, extensive plains filling the centre between 
the two. It has, therefore, the real continental structure, 
and cannot be counted, as it sometimes erroneously is, 
among the islands. 

2d. From this peculiar structure of the continents results 
the fact that in all the line of greatest elevation is placed 
out of the centre, on one of the sides, at an unequal dis¬ 
tance from the shores of the seas. Hence arise two slopes, 
unequal in length and inclination. In North America, for 
example, the Rocky Mountains, which divide the Pacific 
and Atlantic slopes, are 800 miles from the Pacific shore, 
and over 2000 miles from the Atlantic, the western slope 
being less than one-third of the eastern. In South America 
the inequality is still greater. The Amazon takes its rise 
hardly more than a hundred miles from the Pacific, and its 
waters reach the Atlantic 2000 miles farther east, making 
the eastern slope twenty times longer than the western. 
This peculiarity has, as we shall see, the greatest influence 
upon the character of the drainage and the arrangement 
of the river-systems in each continent. 

3d. All the prominent plateaus and mountain-systems 
of the globe are found to stretch chiefly in two principal 
directions. They extend either from east to west, with a 
slight deviation towards the north, on a line nearly parallel 
to the ecliptic, or else from north to south, slightly deviat¬ 
ing to the east or west, and thus on a line at right angles 
with the first. The direction east and west predominates 
in the Old World, and controls the high ranges and pla¬ 
teaus which form the main body of the continents of Asia, 
Europe, and North Africa. The direction north and south 
predominates in the American continents, and gives them 
the great elongation towards the south which is character¬ 
istic of the New World. It is also found in South Africa 
and Australia. Distinguished geographers in the last cen¬ 
tury had already noticed these prevalent directions in 
mountain-chains, and called one class parallel and the other 
meridian mountains. 

4th. The mountain-ranges and plateaus in the New 
World all belong to the north-and-south system, the trans¬ 
verse being almost absent; hence the great simplicity of 
structure and of outlines which characterizes the American 
continent. In Asia and Europe the two intersect each 
other. Though the main body is due to the chains and 
plateaus of the east-and-west system, it is crossed at right 
angles by numerous chains of the second system, which 
greatly diversify the surface and divide it into distinct 
regions, and, projecting far into the sea, form the beautiful 
peninsulas which so much vary their contours and enrich 
these continents. The high Bolor and the Ural Mountains 
in the interior of Asia, the chains which fill the peninsulas 


















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EARTH, THE. 


1455 


of Kamtchatka, Corea, and of Indo-China, iho Ghauts of 
India, the mountains of tho Hellenic peninsula, the Apen¬ 
nines, the Scandinavian Alps, all belong to tho north-and- 
south system. Tho samo can bo said of tho southern half 
of Africa and Australia. 

ath. Iho altitude of both tho surface elevations and the 
mountain-peaks gradually increases along tho axes of tho 
continents to a maximum which is placed beyond tho cen¬ 
tre, towards one end, from which the heights rapidly de¬ 
crease. Here also, as in tho transverso sections of tho con¬ 
tinents, there is a long and a short slope. The following 
table of altitudes will exhibit this law, and also show that 
the two Americas form together ono system of increasing 
heights from north to south, interrupted only by tho zono 
of broken and sunken lands in Central America, and that 
Europe^ and Asia form another, increasing from west to 
east. Volcanoes, being but exceptions in the general relief, 
aro omitted, unless they owe their altitude to the elevation 
of tho base on which they stand. (Sec profile in Map I.) 

New World. 

A orth America—Western Highlands. 

Mountains. Eng. feet.' 

Northern Rocky M’tns.4,000 

Mt. Murchison, Brit. Col..14,431 

Mt. Hood, Oregon.11,225 

Mt. Shasta, California.14,440 

Fremont Peak, Wyoming 

Territory.13,570 

Gray’s Peak, Col. Terr.14,290 

Pike’s Peak, Col. Terr.14,000 

Mt. Whitney, Sierra Ne¬ 
vada .15,000 

Popocatepetl, Mexico.17,784 

Orizaba.17,879 


Surface Elevations. Eng. feet. 

Plains of Alaska. 800 

Polly Banks, Upper Yukon.1400 
Central Plateau of British 

Columbia.2000 

Great Plains of the Colum¬ 
bia .2000 

Great Basin, Utah, average..4500 


Great Salt Lake, 
Colorado Plateau, 
Plateau of Mexico, 
City of Mexico, 
City of Toluca, 


..4236 

..6000 

.8000 

..7473 

..8818 


South America — Andes. 


Surface Elevations. Eng. feet. 
City of Bogota, New Gran. 8,655 

City of Quito, Ecuador. 9,520 

City of Cuzco, Peru.11,500 

Lake Titicaca, Bolivia.12,800 

City of La Paz, “ 12,230 

City of Potosi, “ 13,330 

Plateau of Catamarca, Ar¬ 
gentine Republic.12,000 

Valley of Tenuyan, Andes 
of Chili. 7,500 


Mountains. Eng. feet. 

Tolima, New Granada.18,360 

Cayambe, Ecuador.19,386 

Chimborazo, “ 21,414 

llhampu, or Nevada de 

Sorata, Bolivia.25,000 

Illimani, “ 24,155 

Aconcagua, Chili.22,422 

Yanteles, Patagonia. 8,030 

Sarmiento, Terra del Fue- 
go. 6,910 


Eastern Chain. Eng. feet. 

Mt. Wachusett, Mass.2018 

Grand Monadnock, N. H....3718 

Moosehillock, N. H.4790 

Mt. Lafayette, W. Mts.,N.H..5290 


Mt. Washington, “ 


“ ..6288 


Green Mountains. Eng. feet. 

North Beacon, Highlands...l471 

Greylock, Mass.3505 

Killington Peak, Vt.4221 

Mansfield Mt....4389 

Mt. Marcy, Adirond’k Mts..5370 


Southern half, from North to South. 


The Great Central Valley. Eng. feet. 

Easton, Pa. 165 

Harrisburg, Pa. 328 

Salem, Upper Roanoke. 1014 

Mt. Airy, Va. 2595 

Bristol, Va. 1678 

Knoxville, Tenn. 900 


Surface Elevations. Eng. feet. 

Plateau of Spain. 2,300 

“ Bavaria. 1,800 

“ Asia Minor. 3,000 

“ Armenia. 4,500 

“ West Iran, Per¬ 
sia. 4,000 

“ East Iran, Af¬ 
ghanistan.... 6,000 
“ West’n Thibet.15,000 
“ East’n Thibet.,11,000 


It 

it 

U 

u 


it 

it 


Thus the highest lands of the New World, surface eleva¬ 
tions, and mountains are found in tho plateau of Bolivia, 
around Lake Titicaca, and the heights steadily increase 
from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to that point for 7500 
miles, while the line of descent to the Southern Ocean is j 
only 2500 miles. 

The same law is shown in tho smaller axes, along tho 
Atlantic in both continents, with some modification in tho 
Appalachian system. Here the lowest part is a little above 
the middle point, about New York and New Jersey. Thence 
the heights increase towards the north and the south, but 
more gradually and to a greater altitude in the southern 
half, as shown in the following table: 

Appalachian Mountains—Northern half, from South to 

North. 


Mountains. Eng. feet. 

Blue Ridge, N. J. 1500 

Peaks of Otter, Va. 3993 

White Top, Va. 5530 

Black Dome, or Mitchell’s 

High Peak, N. C. 6707 

Clingman Mt., N. C. 6660 

Great FrogMount’n, Tenn. 4226 


In South America the Atlantic border of the Brazilian 
highlands rises to an altitude of about 3000 feet in the 
north, 4000 in the centre, and culminates with 9500 in the 
Serra Mantiqueira, south-west of Rio de Janeiro. 

Old World. 

Europe and Asia, from West to East. 

Mountains. Eng. feet. 

Pyrenees, Pic Anethou... 11,168 

Alps, Mt. Blanc. 15,781 

Caucasus, Mt. Elboorz. 18,572 

Hindoo-Koosh Chain. 20,000 

Karakorum Chain, Mt. 

Dapsang... 28,278 

Dhawalagiri, Himalaya... 26,826 
Gaurisankar, or Mt. Ever¬ 
est. 29,002 

Chamalari, Bhootan. 23,944 


In tho smaller axis in Europe also tho heights are stead¬ 
ily increasing from north-west to south-east. The Weser 
Mountains only averago 1500 feet; tho Thuringian Forest, 
3000; the highest peak in the Riesengcbirge rises to 5254; 
the culminating point in the Tatra, or High Carpathian 
Mountains, has an altitudo of 8685 feet. 

In tho smaller Asiatic axis tho Altai Mountains, which 
averago about 5000 feet, culminate in tho Bielucha, 11,000 
feet, and tho Sajau Mountains, 11,452 feet, in the west, and 
decrease towards tho north-east. 

In the New World, therefore, the highest lands are piled 
up in the south-west; in the Old World, in the south-east. 
In Africa, also, tho land-masses increase in altitude from 
west to cast and from north to south. The westei’n sys¬ 
tems, the Kong Mountains and the Atlas, aro plateaus of 
from 2000 to 3000 feet in altitude, with mountain-chains in 
the latter of from 7000 to 11,000 feet. The volcanic group 
of tho Cameroons, near the Gulf of Guinea, reaches 13,000 
feet. The eastern swell rises to plateaus of 6000 to 8000 
feet in Abyssinia, with mountain-peaks of 16,000 feet. 
The course of tho Nile marks a long slope running up from 
the Mediterranean to the highlands of Abyssinia; and far 
beyond, on the samo line, under the equatorial sun, tho 
snowy peaks of Kenia and Kilimandjaro rise to 20,000 
feet, and mark the culminating points of tho whole conti¬ 
nent. In tho southern half also the two border swells 
unite into tho high plateau of 5000 feet which fills tho 
broad and massive point of tho continent in the territory 
of tho Cape Colony. 

In Australia tho samo tendency is observed; the lands 
rise towards the south-east corner, and culminate there in 
the Australian Alps, where Mt. Ilotham exceeds 7000 feet. 

6th. On the whole, the reliefs begin with tho vast low 
plains around the polar circle, and go on increasing from 
the shores of the Arctic Ocean towards the tropical regions. 
The highest elevations, however, aro not found at the equa¬ 
tor, but north of the Tropic of Cancer in tho Old World, 
in the Himalayas, 28° N. lat.; and north of the Tropic 
of Capricorn in the New World, in the Andes of Bolivia, 
16° S. lat. The effect of this law is to temper the burning 
heat of the tropical regions, and give them a variety of 
climate which seems not to belong to these countries. If 
this order were reversed, and tho elevation of land went on 
increasing towards the north, the now most civilized part of 
the globe would become a frozen and uninhabited desert. 

7th. The distribution of low plains, plateaus, and moun¬ 
tains is far from being uniform. Not only has each con¬ 
tinent a different share, but also one or the other form of 
relief so predominates as to give it a special character, 
which has the greatest influence upon its climate and func¬ 
tions, both in nature and in man’s history. The large, 
fertile basins of the Mississippi and Amazon are the most 
valuable and characteristic parts of the American conti¬ 
nents; they are the continents of low plains. Africa has 
no low plain of any great extent, but is filled with vast 
table-lands ; it is the continent of plateaus. Europe in its 
xvestern and most important half is but a network of 
mountain-chains without high plateaus, and is the conti¬ 
nent of mountains. Asia, as the common root of all, has 
all the forms of relief on the grandest scale and in equal 
proportion; the most extensive plains in the north, the 
largest plateaus in its centre, the highest mountains on its 
border, with the greatest variety in their combination. It 
is the master continent, the full type of all the others. 

8th. All that has just been said of the general reliefs of 
the globe is summed up in a single great fact which can be 
thus expressed: 

All the long, gentle slopes descend towards the Atlantic 
and its prolongation, the Arctic Ocean, while all short and 
rapid slopes are directed towards the Pacific and its de¬ 
pendant, tho Indian Ocean. 

Formation of the Relief .—These general laws which regu¬ 
late the inequalities of our globe seem to point to a com¬ 
mon geological cause, which may perhaps be found in the 
gradual cooling of our planet. We may conceive that ow¬ 
ing to the contraction of the interior the hard crust, having 
become too large for its contents, shrunk and shriveled. 
Vast portions of its surface subsided, and formed tho 
oceans where the waters are gathered together. Between 
these sinking areas the other portions of the crust were 
forced up in large swells, wrinkled into folds, or broken 
into high mountain-ranges, and formed between the Pacific 
and tho Atlantic the American continents on one side, 
Europe and Asia on the other; between the Indian Ocean 
and the Atlantic, South Africa; between the same and the 
Pacific, Australia. This view is confirmed by the fact, 
pertinently pointed out by Prof. Dana, that the height ot 
the border mountains and plateaus is in proportion to the 
width of tho oceans which bathe their feet. The Pacific, 
which is the larger ocean, has on its border tho high chains 
of tho Andes and Sierra Nevada, and tho short slopes; 











































































1456 EARTH-CLOSET—EARTHQUAKES. 


while the Atlantic has the Brazilian and the Appalachian 
Mountains, and the long slopes; and a similar arrange¬ 
ment is found in the other continents. The interior, more 
remote from the seat of the upheaving force, remains de¬ 
pressed. The cause of the typical structure of all conti¬ 
nents above described therefore becomes evident. Thus 
the almost infinite variety of the inequalities of the earth’s 
surface is actually subject to a general law. Here, as else¬ 
where, everything has been made with order and measure, 
and no doubt with regard to a final aim, which it is for 
science to discover by patient and intelligent research. 

Islands. —The innumerable smaller bodies of land called 
islands form only one-seventeenth of the total surface of 
the dry land. They are of two classes—the Continental 
and the Pelagic (or oceanic) islands. 

The continental islands are mere fragments of the conti¬ 
nental structures, situated by the side of them or not far 
away, as the British Isles; or in lines parallel to their 
coasts, as the Japanese and Australian islands and the West 
Indies; or forming a continuation into the ocean of their 
chains of mountains, only partially submerged, as the long 
line of the Sunda Islands. They have the same kind of 
rocks and of mountain forms, the same variety of plants 
and large animals, as the neighboring coasts of the conti¬ 
nents to which they belong. They vary in size, from a 
mere isolated rock to such large bodies as the British Isles, 
the Japanese Islands, Madagascar, Sumatra, and the most 
extensive of all (if we exclude Greenland), Papua and Bor¬ 
neo, whose area exceeds 2,000,000 square miles. 

The pelagic (or oceanic) islands are scattered, far away 
from the continents, in the midst of the oceans to which 
they belong. Their size is always small. Though some¬ 
times found in lines, they are oftener arranged in groups. 
Navigators distinguish among them two classes, the high 
and the low islands, which are found actually to correspond 
to two natural groups, distinct in their forms, geological 
nature, and mode of growth. The high islands are vol¬ 
canic cones with craters, many of them still active. The 
low islands are all of a coralline nature, and are the tops 
of submarine coral reefs. 

Volcanic Islands. —It is a remarkable geological fact that 
the rocks which make up the body of the continents, such 
as sandstones, slate, granite, and the various metamorphic 
rocks, are entirely absent in the oceanic islands. We can¬ 
not therefore expect here the variety of mountain forms, 
hills, and valleys which diversifies the surface of the conti¬ 
nents. The volcanic islands being the tops of volcanic cones 
rising above the surface of the ocean, the more or less cir¬ 
cular form of their outlines, their elevation and rapid slopes, 
and their moderate size are easily understood. Some hardly 
reach the surface, their crater being filled by the water of 
the sea, as in Barren Island; others rise to alpine heights, 
as the peaks of Hawaii in the Sandwich Islands, reaching 
nearly 14,000 feet, the Pico de Teyde, over 12,000 feet, in 
the Canary Islands, and Tahiti, over 7000. Sometimes 
two or more volcanoes clustered together form a single 
island, which may then have a larger size and more irreg¬ 
ular outlines. 

Cored Islands and their Formation .—The coral islands 
are among the most striking phenomena of the tropical 
seas. (For description, see Coral Islands.) 

IX. Water. —Water is the second great geographical ele¬ 
ment to be considered. It is the universal solvent which, 
by disintegrating and rearranging the materials of the 
earth’s crust, was in geological times the principal agent in 
forming what is now the solid land. It is equally indis¬ 
pensable in fertilizing the soil and carrying on the process 
of animal and vegetable life. 

The common reservoir of water is the sea, which, as we 
have seen, covers nearly three-quarters of the surface of the 
globe. By slow but constant evaporation it is carried into 
the atmosphere in the shape of invisible vapors, which, 
borne by the winds over the continents, are condensed and 
fall in beneficent rains. A portion of the rain-water evapo¬ 
rates again in the atmosphere, another sinks into the 
ground, through which it percolates, and reappears at the 
surface in the form of springs, or fills the quiet sheets of 
water which feed the Artesian wells. The remainder flows 
over the surface in rivulets and brooks, which unite, and, 
receiving new accessions at every step, form the mighty 
rivers which carry the surplus water back to the ocean from 
whence it came. 

Thus is produced the vast network of streams which, 
like the arteries of the human system, convey the life- 
giving element to all parts of the globe. 

Surface depressions filled by streams or springs form the 
numerous lakes spread over the continents. 

In this ceaseless circulation we have to consider the 
oceanic, the atmospheric, and the inland waters (for which 
see Ocean, River, Lake, Rains). Arnold Guyot. 

Earth-closet, a form of close-stool, designed to take 


the place, to some extent, of the water-closet, and fre¬ 
quently made portable for convenience. It is well known 
that dry soils have w onderful disinfecting powers, owing to 
their property of absorbing ammonia and other gases. It is 
upon this absorbent quality that the usefulness of manures, 
when applied to soil, depends. Advantage is taken of this 
absorption in the construction of the earth-closet. The 
feces arc covered by a small quantity of thoroughly dried 
soil or peat, which completely absorbs all unpleasant and 
injurious vapors, and after a time the mass becomes per¬ 
fectly inodorous.- It is found that the same earth may,, if 
necessary, be used over and over again, and that finally, 
when it has become thoroughly charged with excrementi- 
tious principles, it is one of the best forms of concentrated 
fertilizing material known. Considering the increasing 
value of commercial manures, and the serious prevalence 
in country as well-as city, and in winter as well as in sum¬ 
mer, of diseases caused by defective sewerage, it may be 
readily seen that the earth-closet question may become one 
of much importance. (See Waring, “ Earth-Closets and 
Earth-Sewage.”) 

Earth Currents. See Magnetism, Terrestrial. 

Earth'enware, a general term for all wares made of 
earth, and afterwards baked. (See Pottery, by Prof. C. 
E. Chandler, Ph. D., LL.D.) 

Earth House, or Eird House, the name given in 
Ireland and Scotland to a building under ground anciently 
used as a place of retreat for the people in time of war. It 
consisted generally of one chamber from twenty to sixty 
feet long, from four to ten in width, and from four to seven 
in height. It was built of unhewn stones, and entered from 
the top by an opening admitting only one at a time. They 
are sometimes called Piets’ houses. They were mostly 
built on hillsides and other dry places. In the moor of 
Clova, in Aberdeenshire, more than forty of these houses 
are found near together. Bronze swords, earthen vessels, 
and implements of various kinds have been found in them. 

Earth Nut, a popular name given to the tubers or 
subterrauean stems of several plants — viz. the Banium 
Jlexuosum, an umbelliferous plant which grows in Europe; 
the Cyperus rotundus, a native of Egypt; and the Arachis 
hypogsea, a leguminous plant often called peanut. The 
tubers of the Bunium, which resemble chestnuts, and are 
sometimes called earth chestnuts, are extensive^ used for 
food. 

Earthquakes. We are accustomed to consider the 
ground on which we live as terra firma, a solid foundation 
for our heaviest structures. The earthquakes teach us, 
however, to our dismay, that it is by no means absolutely so. 

These movements of the earth’s crust are of all degrees 
of intensity, from the almost imperceptible vibration to the 
most violent convulsions, which change the face of the 
ground, and reduce the most substantial works of human 
handicraft to a mass of ruins. 

The appalling nature of these commotions, and the phe¬ 
nomena attending them, were fully exhibited in the re¬ 
markable and oft-described earthquake at Lisbon, Portugal, 
on the morning of Nov. 1, 1755, the great festival of All 
Saints. The churches of the city were full to overflowing, 
when at forty minutes after nine a rumbling noise was 
heard like distant thunder, which gradually increased until 
it resembled the sound of heavy artillery. A faint shock 
was followed by a more terrific one, which levelled to the 
ground a greater part of the city, and in the space of six 
minutes 30,000 persons were buried under the ruins of the 
churches and other edifices, and 30,000 more perished be¬ 
fore the end of the catastrophe. The ground seemed to 
undulate like the waves of the sea, the surrounding moun¬ 
tains of Arrabida and Estrella were seen rocking violently 
on their base, and broad chasms were opened in the earth 
and shut again. More than 3000 persons had taken refuge 
on a broad marble quay just constructed on the banks of the 
Tagus, when the sea, which had before retreated, came back 
with fury in a wave forty feet high, and swallow r ed up that 
unfortunate multitude, of which not one was ever seen 
again; then, rushing against the doomed city, continued its 
work of devastation. These oscillations of the sea were 
repeated several times, and on the spot occupied by that 
massive structure several hundred feet of water were found. 
Fires, kindled in the fallen dwellings, soon spread their 
flames over this scene of desolation, and the mass of burn¬ 
ing ruins presented at night the spectacle of a vast confla¬ 
gration, which finished the work of destruction. After this 
catastrophe the commotion of the ground continued for 
several weeks, and a very severe shock was experienced in 
December. 

One of the notable features of the earthquake of Lisbon 
is the great extent of country over which it was felt. On 
land it was not confined to the Spanish Peninsula, but 
shook all Western Europe, pervading France, Northern 












EAKTHQUAKES. 


1457 


Italy, Switzerland, Germany, the British Isles, reaching as 
far as Scandinavia. The northern coast of Africa suffered 
considerably; nearly all the cities in Morocco were de¬ 
stroyed; the earth was rent asunder, letting out streams of 
water. The ocean was hardly less disturbed. An English 
ship, the Nancy, when 100 miles west of Cape St. Vincent, 
in Portugal, experienced a shock from below so violent that 
the men on the deck were thrown over a foot from the floor. 
It was supposed that the ship had run against a rock and 
touched bottom, while the sounding-lead indicated deep 
water all around, proving that the solid floor of the ocean 
had been shaken and the commotion transmitted through 
the water. Huge waves, raised by these oscillations of the 
earth s crust above and below the level of the sea, were 
hurled on the shores of the continents. In Cadiz a mon¬ 
strous wave sixty feet high was seen to come from the high 
sea and dash against the city. In Tangiers, on the African 
coast, the sea rose and fell eighteen times, and fifteen times 
in I unchal on the island of Madeira. These commotions 
of the sea crossed even the Atlantic. In some of the Lesser 
Antilles the sea rose to twenty feet, and similar waves were 
observed in the harbors of New York and Boston. 

The immediate area of concussion, including the portion 
of the Atlantic affected by it, comprised a surface as large 
as the continent of Europe. If we add the extensive area 
covered by the earthquake waves which brought to the 
American shores the tidings of these convulsions, and that of 
the American coast which experienced slight shocks during 
the same period, the surface disturbed by the earthquake 
of Lisbon amounts, according to Humboldt, to four times 
that of the European continent. The propagation of the 
movement seems to have been such that Lisbon was the 
centre of a system of undulations or earthquake waves, 
decreasing in violence with their distance from that centre. 

Another earthquake, not less celebrated in the annals of 
science on account of the thoroughness with which its 
phenomena were studied and recorded, is that which oc¬ 
curred in Calabria in the year 1783. Like that of Lisbon, 
it was a central earthquake, but its area did not much ex¬ 
ceed 500 square miles. The violence of the convulsions, 
however, and the variety of their effects, were perhaps still 
more remarkable. On the 5th of Feb., 1783, the first shock 
threw down, in two minutes, most of the houses of the 
numerous cities and villages in a radius of fourteen miles 
around the city of Oppido, which seems to have been the 
centre of the earthquake. The undulations were so great 
that tall trees, bent to the earth, were seen touching the 
ground with their tops alternately on each side of the 
wave. The surrounding mountains were all in motion. 
Some of them seemed to jump up and down, and the 
shape of their summits was permanently changed. Houses 
were thrown up bodily, as by the power of an exploding 
mine, .and placed on higher ground. Deep chasms opened 
and shut again; others remained gaping ; land-slides ob¬ 
structed the rivers, the courses of which were altered; and 
the surface of the country changed its aspect. 

Three Kinds of Motions .—The Italians long ago distin¬ 
guished three kinds of earthquake motions. The first is 
the undulatory or loctve-like motion, which is the most com¬ 
mon and the least destructive. The waves travel either in 
one direction, like the waves of the sea, or from a centre in 
somewhat concentric lines. 

The second kind of motion is the vertical, acting from 
beneath, as the explosion of a subterranean mine. When 
violent, no human structure can resist its action. This 
kind, as well as the first, was repeatedly exhibited in the 
earthquake of Calabria. In the catastrophe which in 1797 
destroyed the city of Riobamba in the Andes of Quito, says 
Humboldt, many corpses of the inhabitants were thrown 
several hundred feet high, on a hill beyond the brook 
Lican. A similar occurrence is recorded in the terrific 
earthquake of 1868. In the cemetery of Arica, on the 
coast of Peru, a large number of skeletons were disinterred 
and spread on the surface of the earth. The earthquake 
of the 18th of Sept., 1828, in Calcutta, owed its destructive¬ 
ness to the fact that the main shock was a vertical one. 

* Another one in Murcia, Spain, in 1829, destroyed or se¬ 
verely injured more than 3500 houses. 

The third kind of motion is what is termed the whirling 
motion, the most dangerous, but also the rarest of all. It 
is thought to be proved by facts observed in the earthquake 
of Calabria, such as the twisted position of the several 
stones composing the two obelisks placed in the facade of 
the convent of St. Bruno in the small town of Stefano del 
Bosco. In the formidable earfhquake of 1692 in Jamaica 
the surface of the ground was so agitated and broken up 
that some fields planted in different crops changed places, 
and were found as if twisted into each other. 

The normal motion, however, is the wave-like, and it is 
possible that the other kinds are but the effect of various 
systems of waves intersecting each other. 

92 


The propagation of these undulations takes place either 
in a linear direction, along the mountain-chains, the undu¬ 
lations being then at a right angle with them, as in most 
of the earthquakes of the Andes; or from a centre, form¬ 
ing a series of concentric waves diminishing in intensity 
and gradually dying out, as in the earthquakes of Lisbon 
and Calabria. The first are linear, the second central 
earthquakes. 

Velocity of the Earthquake Waves .—The velocity with 
which the earthquake waves move is variable, according to 
circumstances. Humboldt seems to assume, as an average 
between extreme cases, a velocity of twenty-three to thirty- 
two English miles in a minute, and this estimate does not 
seem far from the truth. 

Duration of Earthquakes. —Though slight concussions or 
single vibrations of the ground often occur isolated, the 
great earthquakes hardly ever consist of one singlo shock, 
but of a series of successive shocks, some of which are of 
exceptional violence. These convulsions of the ground 
may be repeated at longer or shorter intervals during a 
period of several days and weeks, or even of several months 
and years, before the earthquake is at an end. The earth¬ 
quake of Calabria was in this respect also remarkable. A 
careful and intelligent local observer, Dr. Pignataro, 
counted 949 shocks in the year 1783, 501 of which were 
of the first magnitude; and 151 in 1784, of which 90 were 
classified by him as of the first degree of force. Nearly 
four years elapsed before these oscillations ceased entirely 
and the earth came again to a state of complete rest. Dur¬ 
ing the terrific earthquake of Cumana on the coast of Ven¬ 
ezuela, which began on the 21st of Oct., 1766, destroying 
the city in a few minutes, the earth continued to be shaken 
almost every hour during fourteen months, and it was only 
when the commotions occurred once a month that the un¬ 
happy inhabitants dared to begin rebuilding their houses. 
After the earthquake which laid the beautiful city of Mes¬ 
sina in ruins, the ground continued to be convulsed almost 
daily for ten years, which caused a feeling of insecurity of 
life which had the worst effect on the moral condition of 
the inhabitants. In the appalling catastrophe which de¬ 
stroyed the city of Lima and its harbor, Callao, in Peru, in 
Oct., 1746, the shocks were repeated every seven or eight 
minutes, and over 200 of the most violent kind were 
counted within twenty-four hours. In the great earth¬ 
quake of Caraccas on the 26th of Mar., 1812, fifteen shocks 
were felt on the first day, and they continued numerous 
every day until the 5th of April. 

The general character of earthquakes seems to have been 
the same in all times. The descriptions of the most ancient 
on record and the most recent offer a striking coincidence. 

All the phenomena above described have been repeated in 
the latest of the great earthquakes, that which shook the 
western coast of South America and the moyntain region 
of the Andes from Chili to Ecuador, on a line of over 1000 
miles, in Aug., 1868. The flourishing city of Arica in Peru, 
the main harbor of commerce for Bolivia, was obliterated 
in a few moments. The beautiful city of Arequipa, in the 
Andes of Peru, was levelled to the ground, and its 50,000 
inhabitants left houseless, and soon starving in the midst 
of its ruins. In the Andes of Ecuador the city of Cato- 
cachy disappeared, and a lake covers the spot where it 
once stood. The cities of Ibarra, Ottavalla, and others 
were swallowed up, and not one of their 10,000 inhabitants 
was ever seen again. Over 300,000 people were left house- 4 
less, and the whole number of victims of that awful catas¬ 
trophe is yet to be counted. The movements of the sea 
were not less striking. In Arica the sea retreated from 
the shore, carrying with it five ships which were in the 
harbor, and returning in a high and furious wave dashed 
to pieces four of them, and carried the fifth, the U. S. 
steamer Wateree, two miles inland. Similar motions were 
observed on the coast of Chili and of Peru, and an im¬ 
mense earthquake wave is said to have crossed the Pacific 
Ocean, striking in its course the Polynesian Islands, and 
reaching the Australian shores. 

None of the natural phenomena are so immediately de¬ 
structive of human life as earthquakes, as the recent ex¬ 
amples just quoted suffice to show. These are equalled, 
and even surpassed, by some of older times. In the earth¬ 
quake of Sicily in 1693 over 60,000 people perished. His¬ 
tory has recorded an earthquake in the year 19 after Christ, 
at the time of the emperor Tiberius, which destroyed 
120,000 lives. Another in 526, in the reign of the emperor 
Justin, which destroyed a number of largo cities in Syria, 
among which was Antioch, cost the lives of over 200,000 
human beings. Considering the greatness of the danger, 
the suddenness of action, the sense of perfect helplessness 
and insecurity it engenders, and all the appalling circum¬ 
stances connected with an earthquake, no one can wonder 
that the feeling of terror which it inspires is one which in¬ 
creases with every new experience. 













1458 EARTHS—EARWIG. 


The number of earthquakes is much greater than is gen¬ 
erally supposed. Carefully prepared catalogues of all re¬ 
corded cases, such as those of Perrey, Kluge, and others, 
swell their number to several thousands. Indeed, the record 
of the last century, which, owing to the increased attention 
bestowed on natural events, is certainly more complete, 
shows that wo may place earthquakes among the regular 
and continuous terrestrial phenomena; for though the great 
catastrophes may be rare, a week scarcely elapses without 
a commotion of the ground worthy of notice taking place 
somewhere on the surface of the globe. 

Connection with Volcanic Eruptions .—The immediate con¬ 
nection of earthquakes with volcanic eruptions is evident 
in many instances, but these arc of a special kind. On the 
other hand, volcanic eruptions take place without earth¬ 
quakes, as in the Sandwich Islands; and even in volcanic 
districts the most extensive earthquakes bear apparently no 
relation to the surrounding volcanoes, while a considerable 
number of severe and extensive ones occur in regions far 
removed from any active volcano, or even deprived of all 
volcanic rocks. Though the two phenomena may have a 
common cause or condition, they cannot be confounded in 
the same class. 

Connection with the State of the Atmosphere. —The com¬ 
mon belief is that earthquakes are accompanied by some 
extraordinary condition of the atmosphere, such as a very 
low or high barometric pressure, profound calm or high 
wind, sultry and damp weather, a prolonged drought, or 
peculiar electrical or magnetic disturbances; all of which 
have been considered as warnings of the coming event. But 
a careful scrutiny of the cases leaves this matter at present 
doubtful. 

Influence of the Seasons and the Hour of the Day. —The 
dependence of earthquakes upon the seasons is more de¬ 
cided. Their number seems to be greater about the tiino 
of the equinoxes, especially the September equinox, than at 
any other. In the Molucca Islands during these periods, 
which are marked by the tempests accompanying the change 
of monsoon, the inhabitants do not dare to remain in their 
houses, but spend the season under tents. According to the 
records, a greater number of earthquakes occur in winter 
than in summer, which is the reverse of what is observed 
in volcanic eruptions. They seem also to bo more frequent 
at night than in the daytime. 

Astronomical Influences. —By comparing 7000 observa¬ 
tions, Perrey found that the number of earthquakes is greater 
at the time of thesyzygies, when the attractions of the sun 
and moon are combined and the moon is nearest to the 
earth, than at the time of the quadratures, when the moon 
is more distant; and also that the shocks are more fre¬ 
quent at the places where the moon is ia> the meridian. 
Wolf finds a coincidence with the periodicity of the sun’s 
spots, the years in which the spots are most numerous being 
also those in which the earthquakes moro frequently occur. 

Distribution of Earthquakes. —The law of the distribu¬ 
tion of earthquakes on the surface of the globe is of para¬ 
mount importance for the explanation of these mysterious 
phenomena. The most general facts in this respect are the 
following : 

1. There is no part of the globe absolutely free from 
earthquakes; the phenomenon is general. 

2. There are circumscribed regions in which the surface 
is liable to be shaken simultaneously; such a region is an 

y earthquake area. 

3. A very significant fact, however, is that the most ex¬ 
tensive of these areas of concussion, and those in which the 
earthquakes are the most numerous and violent, are situ¬ 
ated within the two great zones of broken lands described 
above—the border zone around the Pacific Ocean, and the 
central zone separating the northern from the southern 
continents. In the first are found the celebrated earthquake 
areas of the Andes, that of the western coast of North Amer¬ 
ica, and those of Ivamtchatka, Japan, and New Zealand. 
In the second we meet with the great Mediterranean area 
from Spain to Syria, with Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, and 
North Africa. The Arabian and Indian areas are in the 
same zone; and the two regions of the earth most convulsed 
by these terrific shocks, the earthquake areas of Central 
America with the Antilles, and that of the East Indian 
Archipelago, the really classic soil of earthquakes, are situ¬ 
ated at the intersection of the two zones. Outside of these 
two zones only a few more large areas are found like that 
of which Iceland is the centre, and which extends to Scot¬ 
land and Scandinavia, and another in Central Asia. 

The analogy of this distribution with that of volcanoes 
is evident, but the domain of earthquakes, as remarked 
above, extends far beyond that of volcanoes. Both are most 
intense in their action along the great fractures of our 
planet, but it would be rash to infer from this fact that one 
is the cause of the other; they only require similar condi¬ 
tions for their manifestation. 


Theory of Earthquakes. —Many explanations of the phe¬ 
nomenon of earthquakes have been proposed, but science 
must confess its inability to give, at present, a satisfactory- 
one. Earthquakes are obviously due to various causes. 
Those preceding or accompanying a volcanic eruption 
must be, no doubt, referred -to the action of the volcano; 
but the extensive earthquakes disturbing areas of hundreds 
of thousands of miles, and those which take place outside 
of volcanic districts, require a more general cause. Per¬ 
haps this may bo found, which is also the opinion of Prof. 
Dana, in the increasing tension produced in the earth strata 
by the steady contraction of our cooling planet. To this 
cause geology refers the rising of mountain-chains on long 
fissures in the hard terrestrial crust, in the form of prisms 
with inclined planes, or of a succession of folds with largo 
internal cavities. The settling under their own weight of 
these vast structures, and the lateral tensions thus engen¬ 
dered, coming from time to time to a paroxysm, might per¬ 
haps explain these crackings of the ground and convulsions 
along the mountain-chains and in the broken parts of the 
earth. In this view every difference of pressure, atmos¬ 
pheric or astronomical, from lunar and solar attraction, may 
have a share of influence in the phenomenon. 

As to the influence of the seasons, the time of the day, 
of electricity, magnetism, and the solar spots, they show 
once more, if finally proved, how intimate arc the relations 
of all physical agencies with each other, and how close an 
analysis is required to understand so complex a phenom¬ 
enon. Arnold Guyot. 

Earths, in chemistry, a term applied to compounds con¬ 
sisting each of a metal combined with oxygen. The earihs 
proper are the dyad-oxides, glucina, thoria, didyinia, lan- 
thana, yttria, and erbia. They and their carbonates are 
insoluble in water. Alumina, zirconia, and ceria (tetrads) 
are of the same general character, and are properly called 
earths. Magnesia, baryta, lime, and strontia are called al¬ 
kaline earths, because they are less soluble in water than 
true alkalies, though they exhibit alkaline reactions. 

Earth-shine, a reflection of the sun’s light from the 
earth to the moon, and back to the earth again. This phe¬ 
nomenon is often seen when the moon is very old or very 
new, the outlines of the full moon being rendered visible 
by the reflection. 

Earth'works, a military term applied to fortifications 
or constructions, whether for attack or defence, in which 
earth is the principal material employed. (See Fortifica¬ 
tions, by Col. A. H. Brialmont, Belgium.) 

Eartli'worm ( Lumbricus ), the popular name of a 
genus of Annelida of the order Terricolae. The species are 
numerous, and they are found wherever the soil contains 
sufficient moisture to sustain their life. The earthworm 
has no head distinct from its body. It is composed of a 
succession of rings, sometimes amounting to 120 in num¬ 
ber; it is without eyes or other external organs, excepting 
that on each ring it has eight short bristles pointing back¬ 
ward, which it uses in locomotion as the snake uses its 
scales. The mouth consists of two lips, the upper one 
being elongated; it has no teeth, and subsists by swallow¬ 
ing particles of earth, which, after the digestible matter 
has been extracted, is voided often on the surface of the 
ground in small intestine-shaped masses called worm-casts. 
It respires through pores which communicate with little 
sacs. It is hermaphrodite, but mutual fecundation take3 
place. The eggs often contain two embryos. The earth¬ 
worm is covered with mucus, which enables it to glide 
through the ground without retaining a particle ot the 
soil. Large specimens attain a length of nearly a foot. 

Eart'mon, a post-village, capital of Dodge co., Ga., on 
the Macon and Brunswick R. R., 56 miles S. S. E. of Macon. 

Ear Trumpet, an instrument for the relief of defec¬ 
tive hearing. Ear trumpets are of a great variety of forms, 
but they all depend upon the same principle—that of col¬ 
lecting and condensing the sound waves, and thereby in¬ 
tensifying the impression made upon the ear. It is found 
in practice that a nice adjustment of parts is not necessary ; 
sound being readily reflected along conical tubes, either 
straight or coiled, with great facility. Cases of compara¬ 
tively slight deafness are aided by the wearing of “ cornets,” 
or small ear trumpets attached by a spring to the ear, and 
concealed by the hair of the wearer. 

Ear Wax. See Cerumen. 

Ear'wig [Ang.-Sax. eor-wiega, literally, “ ear-beetle ;” 
Fr . perce-oreille; Ger. Ohr'wurni], (Forficulariae), a family 
of insects, so named from the popular delusion that they 
have a propensity to creep into the ear. They form a con¬ 
necting link between the Coleoptera and the true Orthop- 
tera. They have a narrow body, strong and horny mandi¬ 
bles, long antennae, and a pair of forceps at the extremity 
of the abdomen. 




















EASELY—EAST BRUNSWICK. 


Easely, a township of Pickens co., S. C. Pop. 1089. 

Easement, a legal term denoting, in its most compre¬ 
hensive sense, the right which the public or an individual 
has in the lands of another, not inconsistent with a general 
property in the latter. It is in the nature of a charge or 
burden upon land. It is called a dominant right, while the 
land burdened is termed the servient estate. Easements 
may be mere personal rights, when they are said to be in 
gross, or they may be connected with the ownership of land. 
The latter only will be considered. 1. They are incor¬ 
poreal. 2. They are imposed on corporeal property. 3. 
They confer no right to tho substance of the land. 4. There 
must be two distinct estates—the dominant, to which the 
right belongs; and the servient, upon which the obligation 
rests, they are affirmative or negative. Affirmative, when 
the owner of the dominant estate may do some act on the 
servient; and negative, when the owner of the servient 
estate must refrain from doing some act, otherwise lawful, 
on his land. The most important instances are the right of 
way (the right of the owner of one piece of land to pass 
over the land of another), of water (the right of the owner 
of the dominant estate to receive water from or discharge 
it across the servient estate), of support of the soil or of 
the buildings of the dominant estate by the adjacent soil 
or buildings of the servient estate. 

Easements exist at common law, and may be created 
by statute. Common-law easements may arise in various 
modes. 1. By nature. This is a brief form of expression 
of a legal rule, that the owners of adjoining parcels of land 
may have a burden imposed upon them not to disturb the 
natural state of things. Thus, where a natural stream of 
water flows from the land of one owner through the land 
of another, the former cannot divert or diminish the quan¬ 
tity of water which would otherwise descend to the propri¬ 
etor below, nor can the latter prevent the stream from dis¬ 
charging its water across his land. Each has an easement 
“by nature” in the land of the other. 2. By dedication. 
This means an appropriation of land by its owner to a 
public use; e.g. as a street or park or public landing-place. 
The legal title to the land dedicated is not changed, but tho 
public acquires a right to use it for the special purpose to 
which it is dedicated. These easements are sustained in 
law on the doctrine of estoppel, although there is no spe¬ 
cific grantee. No particular form or ceremony is necessary 
to constitute a dedication. It is sufficient if the intention 
to dedicate appear, either by positive acts of the owner or 
long-continued acquiescence, and the public act accord¬ 
ingly. 3. By actual grant. In this case the nature and 
extent of the easement are determined by the words of the 
instrument creating it, which must be sealed. 4. By im¬ 
plied grant. An easement is created by implied grant 
when it is necessary for the enjoyment of that which is ex¬ 
pressly granted or reserved. Thus, if A is tho owner of 
two lots, the first of which can be approached only over 
the second, and conveys either to B, the owner of the back 
lot has by implication a right of way across the front lot. 
5. By prescription. This is the enjoyment of the right or 
privilege for so long a time as to raise the presumption of 
a grant. The length of time necessary to raise this pre¬ 
sumption varies in different States, but, after the analogy 
of the statute barring disputed claims to land, it is usually 
twenty years. To obtain by prescription an easement in 
the land of another its enjoyment must have been uninter¬ 
rupted for the required number of years, adverse to the 
owner of such land, and exercised under a claim of right. 
It must be open, so that the owner may be presumed to 
know of it. In England it is held to be a rule of the com¬ 
mon law that the right to light may be obtained by pre¬ 
scription. This is called the doctrine of “ancient lights.” 
It would take place where the owner of one lot of land had 
windows opening on the vacant lot ot another for twenty 
years. He would acquire such a right that buildings could 
not be constructed on the vacant lot so as to shut out the 
light from his windows. But in the U. S. this rule has fre¬ 
quently been repudiated by the courts as inapplicable to 
our rapidly growing and rapidly changing condition ; and 
in a number of States an easement of light can be acquired 
only by express or implied grant. 

Easements may be extinguished by a release given by 
the owner of the dominant to the owner of the servient 
estate, or by abandonment. The failure to make use of an 
easement (technically called non-user) for twenty years is 
strong evidence of abandonment if the easement was ac¬ 
quired by prescription, although the presumption may be 
rebutted; but if the easement were acquired by actual 
grant, no length of mere non-user would operate as an 
abandonment. In that case there must be acts inconsistent 
with the existence of the easement. An easement may 
also be extinguished by a union of the two estates in the 
same person. This is technically called “ merger.” 

T. W. Dwight. 



1459 

East, a township of Monroe co., Ala. Pop. 859. 

East, a township of Carroll co., 0. Pop. 827. 

East Aldington, a post-village and the principal di¬ 
vision of Abington township, Plymouth co., Mass., 20 miles 
S. by E. of Boston, on the Old Colony R. R. It has a 
savings bank, a newspaper, three churches, and is well 
supplied with stores. It has large manufactures of boots 
and shoes. Pop. about 4500. (See new town of Rock¬ 
land.) J. S. Smith, Ed. “Standard.” 

Eastaboga, a post-twp. of Talladega co., Ala. P. 973. 

East Al bany is the N. part of Greenbush village, 
Rensselaer co., N. Y. It is on the Hudson River, directly 
opposite Albany, with which it is connected by bridges. It 
has extensive freight-houses and machine-shops. 

East Al'len, a twp. of Northampton co., Pa. P. 1180. 

East Alli'ance, a post-village of Smith township, 
Mahoning co., 0., is a suburb of Alliance (which see). 

Eastaloe, a post-twp. of Pickens co., S. C. P. 1099. 

East Am'well, a twp. of Hunterdon co., N. J. P. 1802. 

East An'dover, a post-village of Andover township, 
Merrimack co., N. IL, 25 miles N. W. of Concord, on the 
Northern R. R. It has manufactures of hosiery, lasts, 
lumber, and woollens. 

East Arlington, a post-village of Arlington township, 
Bennington co., Vt. It has manufactures of wooden ware. 

Eastatoee, a twp. of Transylvania co., N. C. P. 351. 

East Auro'ra, a post-village of Aurora township, Erio 
co., N. Y., is beautifully situated on the Buffalo New York 
and Philadelphia R. R., 17 miles S. E. of Buffalo. It has 
a weekly newspaper, an academy, six churches, five hotels, 
a foundry, numerous stores and shops, and is the business 
centre of a wealthy farming region. The above descrip¬ 
tion includes the neighboring village of Willink. East 
Aurora was once the residence of ex-President Fillmore. 

C. C. Bowsfield, Ed. and Prop. “ Erie co. Advertiser.” 

East Baton Rouge, a parish in the S. E. of Louisi¬ 
ana. Area, 500 sq. m. It is bounded on the E. by the Amite, 
and on the W. by the Mississippi. The surface is level; 
the soil fertile. Corn, cotton, sugar, and molasses are pro¬ 
duced. Pop. 17,816. Capital, Baton Rouge. 

East Bay, a twp. of Grand Traverse co., Mich. P. 400. 

East Bear River, a twp. of Yuba co., Cal. Pop. 603. 

East Beiul, a twp. of Champaign co., Ill. Pop. 043. 

East Bend, a post-township of Yadkin co., N. C. 
Has an academy. Pop. 1353. 

East Beth'lehem, a post-township of Washington 
co., Pa. Pop. 1621. 

East Birmingham, a borough of Alleghany co., Pa., 
on the Monongahela River, about 2 miles S. E. of Pitts¬ 
burg. Has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 9488. 

East Bloom / field, a post-twp. and village of Ontario 
co., N. Y., has an academy. Pop. 2250; of village, 320. 

' Eastbourne, a watering-place of Sussex, England, 3 
miles N. N. E. of Beachy Head, in a chasm between two cliffs, 
has a martello tower, a fort, and a chalybeate spring. P. 5795. 

East Boy'er, a township of Crawford co., la. P. 231. 

East Brad'ford, a twp. of Chester co., Pa. P. 1033. 

East Bra'dy, a post-borough of Clarion co., Pa., is 
situated about 70 miles N. of Pittsburg, on the Alleghany 
River. It has had a remarkably rapid growth, having at¬ 
tained its present population (about 3000) in four years. 
The iron-works of the Brady’s Bend Iron Company are lo¬ 
cated on the opposite bank of the river, and give employ¬ 
ment to 1500 persons. East Brady is but 7 miles distant 
from the Butler county oil-regions, and to this place much 
of the oil produced is run in pipe-lines, whence it is shipped 
to Pittsburg and other markets. It contains the usual 
number of schools, churches, business houses, etc., and one 
weekly newspaper. Pop. in 1870, 728. 

Samuel Young, Ed. and Prop, of “Independent.” 

East Bran'dywine, a twp. of Chester co., Pa. P. 1011. 

East Bridgewater, a post-township of Plymouth co., 
Mass., on the Old Colony and Newport R. R., 25 miles S. E. 
of Boston. It has valuable water-power, and large man¬ 
ufactures of brick, lumber, cotton-gins, iron, chains, nails, 
boots, shoes, and other goods. There are five churches, a 
savings bank, good schools, and one weekly newspaper. 
Pop. 3017. Ed. of “News.” 

East Brook, a twp. of Hancock co., Me. Pop. 187. 

East Brook'field, a thriving post-village of Brook¬ 
field township, Woi-cester co., Mass. 

East Bruns'wick, a township of Middlesex co., N. .T. 
Its inhabitants are extensively engaged in fruit-culture for 
1 the New York market. Pop. 2861. 















1460 EAST BRUNSWICK—EASTEIl. 


East Brunswick, a twp. of Schuylkill co., Pa. P. 1661. 

East BufTalo, a twp. of Union co., Pa. Pop. 1011. 

East'burn (James Wallis) was born in London, Eng¬ 
land, Sept. 26, 1797, and graduated at Columbia College in 
1816. lie was ordained deacon Oct. 20, 1818, by Bishop 
Ilobart in Trinity church, New York, and soon after became 
rector of St. George's, Accomac, Va. He wrote an admir¬ 
able Trinity hymn, besides versions of some of the Psalms. 
In 1817-18 he and his friend Robert C. Sands produced a 
poem called “ Yamoyden.’ , He died at sea Dec. 2, 1819. 

Eastburn (Manton), D. D., a Protestant Episcopal 
bishop, a brother of the preceding, was born in England 
Feb. 9, 1801. He came to New York, graduated at Co¬ 
lumbia College in 1816, was ordained in 1822, became rector 
of the church of the Ascension in New York in 1827, and 
bishop of Mass, in 1843. He published lectures and ad¬ 
dresses, “ Lectures on the Epistle to the Philippians ” 
(1833), and other works. Died Sept. 12, 1872. 

East Cain, a township of Chester co., Pa. Pop. 1309. 

East Canaan, a post-village of Grafton co., N. H., on 
the Northern R. R., 52 miles N. of Concord. It has five 
churches, one newspaper, two steam-mills, and numerous 
stores and shops. Principal business, farming and the man¬ 
ufacture of lumber. C. 0. Barney, Ed. “Reporter.” 

East Chatham, a post-village of Chatham township, 
Columbia co., N. Y., on the Boston and Albany R. R., 29 
miles S. E. from Albany, has a number of manufactories. 

East Chester, a post-township of Westchester co., 
N. Y. It contains Mt. Vernon and numerous other sub¬ 
urban villages near New York City. Pop. 7491. 

East Chester, a twp. of Chester co., S. C. Pop. 732. 

East ChUna, a twp. of St. Clair co., Mich. Pop. 297. 

East Cleveland, a p.-twp. of Cuyahoga co., 0. P. 5050. 

East CocaUico, a twp. of Lancaster co., Pa. P. 1992. 

East Conemaugh, borough, Cambria co., Pa. P. 381. 

East Cov'entry, a p.-twp. of Chester co., Pa. P. 1318. 

East Deer, a township of Alleghany co., Pa. P. 1390. 

East Don'egal, a twp. of Lancaster co., Pa. P. 3254. 

East Dorset, a post-village of Dorset township, Ben¬ 
nington co., Vt., on the Harlem Extension R. R., 25 miles 
S. of Rutland. It has marble-quarries of great value. 

East Douglas, a post-village of Douglas township, 
Worcester co., Mass., on the Boston Hartford and Erie 
R. R., 16 miles S. S. E. of Worcester and 46 miles S. W. 
of Boston. The extensive works of the Douglas Axe Co. 
are here. Pop. about 1500. Spencer Brothers, 

Pubs, of the “Worcester South Compendium.” 

East Earl , a township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop. 2310. 

East Eden, Me. See Eden. 

East Elina, a post-village of Elma township, Erie co., 
N. Y. Pop. 112. 

Eas'ter [Ger. Oster; Gr. nacrxcij Lat. pas'cha; Fr. 
pdques; etymology doubtful], the principal festival of • 
the Christian year, observed in commemoration of the 
resurrection of our blessed Lord. The returns of this 
anniversary were originally regulated, and in imitation 
of this early usage have always continued to be, by the 
calendar of Judea, in which the months were conterminous 
with the revolutions of the moon. A mean lunation being, 
roughly, twenty-nine and a half days long, twelve lunar 
months, or a lunar year, fall short of a solar year by about 
eleven days. The beginning of the Jewish year therefore 
goes backward on the natural year eleven days annually, 
requiring an intercalary month to be introduced in the third 
year, and again in the sixth, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth, 
and so on. Any anniversary regulated by such a calendar 
as this is consequently movable in reference to a calendar 
regulated by the sun. The Resurrection took place just after 
the Jewish feast of the Passover, which was held on the 

fourteenth day of Nisan, the first month of the year_that 

is to say, the fourteenth day of the moon, or not far from 
the time of full moon. The Christians of Jerusalem, and 
after them those of the Asiatic churches generally, were 
accustomed to hold the feast of Easter on this same day 
or simultaneously with the Jewish Passover. This usage 
was unacceptable to the Gentile churches in Italy and the 
West generally, which preferred to celebrate Easter on the 
Sunday following the fourteenth day of the moon; and 
the difference of practice in this particular led to grave 
dissensions between the East and West, which were at 
length pacified by the agreement reached in the Council of 
Nicsea (A. D. 325), to make the Western usage universal. 
Since this early period Easter has always been observed 
throughout the world on the Sunday following the four¬ 
teenth of that lunation of which this fourteenth day falls 
on the 21st of March or next later. In order to find the 


time of Easter for any given year, it would seem that we 
should calculate the exact time of the new moon in that 
year for March, and try whether the fourteenth day of that 
moon (the day of new moon itself being counted the first) 
would fall not earlier than the 21st; in which case the Sun¬ 
day following this fourteenth day might be presumed to be 
Easter. But should this fourteenth day fall earlier than 
the 21st of March, we should conclude that the new moon 
of April must be taken. The ecclesiastical calendar, how¬ 
ever, is only nominally dependent on the moon in the 
heavens, the true moon and the calendar moon sometimes 
differing in their age more than two days. The practical 
reason for this is, that if the astronomical time of new 
moon is taken, this time will not be the same in the local 
times of different longitudes; so that a meridian may 
always be assigned such that the same new moon may 
fall on different calendar days on different sides of it. And 
if the calculation is very nicely made, when new moon 
happens exactly at midnight of Saturday or Sunday in the 
middle of a large city like London, the east and west 
halves of the city may have their Easter upon two very 
different days. The ecclesiastical moon is therefore an 
ideal or artificial moon; and in determining the beginning 
and end of each lunation no account is taken of any differ¬ 
ences smaller than a day. In order to divest the ecclesias¬ 
tical calendar as much as possible of complexity, advantage 
I is taken of the fact discovered by Meton, an Athenian as- 
j tronomer in the fifth century before our era, that in a period 
of nineteen solar years* the sun and the moon return almost 
exactly to the same relative positions which they occupied at 
the beginning of this period, the difference amounting to 
little more than the space the moon would move over in 
two hours. The calendar therefore assumes that the moons 
determining Easter will recur in the same order every nine¬ 
teen years throughout an entire century, and sometimes 
throughout two or three centuries. The Easters them¬ 
selves do not therefore necessarily recur on the same days 
of the month of March or April in each of these successive 
series of nineteen years, but would do so if the same days 
of the week always corresponded to the same days of the 
month. This, however, is not usually the case; and as 
Easter must be Sunday, it is necessary, in order to fix 
definitely the date of Easter in any given year, to know 
both the place of the year in the series of nineteen (or in 
the Metonic cycle) and also the day of the week on which 
the year began, or (what is practically the same thing) the 
dominical letter for the year. Various methods have been 
given for finding Easter, but all of them commence, ex¬ 
pressly or implicitly, with the determination of these two 
elements. The rules given by Prof, de Morgan in the 
“Companion to the British Almanac” for 1845 occupy 
about a page. The formulae of Delambre, in the first 
volume of his “ History of Modern Astronomy,” and those 
of Gauss, given in the first volume of the “ Theoretical and 
Practical Astronomy ” of the same writer, though concise 
as mathematical expressions, involve much laborious com¬ 
putation in their practical application. The following rules, 
however, originally devised by the writer of the present 
article, are very simple and easy. It is to be observed, 
first, that the fourteenth day of the Easter moon, being 
approximately the time of full moon, is called the paschal 
full moon. The number of the year in the lunar cycle is 
also called the Golden Number. (See Golden Number.) 
Then, supposing that we know the golden number and the 
dominical letter, we find, for the present century, the pas¬ 
chal full moon as follows : 

If the golden number is odd: To four times the golden 
number add ten; and 

If the golden number is even : To four times the golden 
number add twenty-five. 

The result, in either case, if greater than twenty and less 
than fifty, is the date of paschal full moon, considered as a 
clay of March, (that is to sayj if it happens to be, say, thirty- 
three, it is the thirty-third of March = the second of April, 
and so on). If not greater than twenty and less than 
fifty, add thirty, or subtract thirty, or twice thirty, if ne¬ 
cessary to make it so, and the result is once more paschal 
full moon. 

Then, to find Easter: To the constant number eighteen 
add the numerical value of the dominical letter (i. e. A = 1; 
B = 2; C = 3, etc.), and the sum, if greater than the value 
of paschal full moon just found, is the date of Easter; but 
if not, add seven, or twice seven, or three times seven, and so 
on till a total is obtained which exceeds that value; and this 
total is the date of Easter considered as a day of March. 

To find the golden number and the dominical letter: In 
either case first separate the hundreds in the number ex¬ 
pressing the given year of our Lord from the years less 
than a hundred, and treat the parts independently of each 
other. First, for the dominical letter: If the hundreds bo 
divided by four, the remainder from the division will have 











EASTER. 1461 


ono or other of the following values—viz., 0, 1, 2, 3. And 
the dominical letters belonging to the hundreds which give 
these remainders respectively will be A, C, E, G = 1, 3, 5, 7. 
These, for convenience, call centurials. Then for the years 
take half the largest number divisible by four — i. e. half 
the number of the latest leap-year—increase this by seven, 
and subtract the excess of fours (i. e. the remainder left in 
the previous division by four). To this result add the cen- 
turial, and the excess of sevens in the sum will be the 
value of the dominical letter; it being observed that if 
there is no excess the dominical letter has the value of 
seven itself, or is G. Leap-years have two dominical let¬ 
ters—one for January and February; the other, which is 
less than the former by a unit, for the remainder of the 
year. This last, which only is used in finding Easter, is 
that given by the rule. 

To find the dominical letter for Old Style the process is 
the same except as to the centurial. The centurial for old 
style is found by adding three to the number of hundreds, 
and suppressing sevens. Thus, if the hundreds be fifteen, j 
we have 15 + 3 = 18. And 18 with seven dropped as often 
as possible, leaves 4, which is the old style centurial. If 
there is no excess of sevens, the centurial is seven itself. 

Secondly, for the golden number: Add a unit to the num¬ 
ber expressive of the given year; then divide the years by 
twenty, and add the quotient to the remainder. Next divide 
the centuries by four, and add the quotient to five times the 
remainder. Finally, add the two results, and the sum, if 
nineteen or less, is the golden number. If it exceeds nine¬ 
teen, drop nineteen, or, if necessary, twice nineteen, and 
the number left, being not greater than nineteen, will be 
the golden number. 

Take, as an example, the year 1873. For the dominical 
letter: 18 4 gives 2 remainder, and the centurial is ac¬ 

cordingly 5. The number of the largest leap-year in 73 is 
72, and the half of this is 36. Then 36 + 7 = 43, and 43 
— 1 = 42. Finally, 42 + 5, with the sevens suppressed, is 
evidently 5 = E, which is the dominical letter of 1873. 

For the golden number: 1873+ 1 = 1874. Then, 74 -f- 20 
= 3, with 14 remainder, and 14 + 3=17. Also, 18 = 4=4, 
with 2 remainder, and 2X5 + 4= 14. Then, 17 + 14 = 31, 
and 31 —19= 12, the golden number for 1873. 

For Easter in 1873: 12X4 + 25 = 73. Then 73 — 30 = 
43, or paschal full moon is the 43d day of March. To 18 
add 5, the value of the dominical letter, and the result, 23, 
is smaller than the date of paschal full moon. But 23+7 
+ 7 + 7 = 44, which is greater than that date (43), and 
Easter is the 44th day of March, or the 13th day of April. 

There is one case not provided for in the foregoing. If 
in finding paschal full moon we obtain a result which is 
exactly twenty or exactly fifty, adding or subtracting thirty 
will not bring it between those limits. In this case paschal 
full moon must be taken at 49. There is also an irregu¬ 
larity arbitrarily introduced by the mathematicians of 
Pope Gregory XIII., by whom the calendar was regulated, 
which is this: Should the rules above laid down give 
forty-nine directly as the date of paschal full moon, this 
must be reduced to forty-eight in case the golden number is 12 
or upward; not otherwise. 

For centuries earlier or later than the present, the rules 
are the same,' except that the numerical terms ten and 
twenty-five used in finding paschal full moon are liable to 
variation (but do not always vary) in passing from century 
to century. The second of these terms always exceeds the 
first by fifteen. The first may be found for any century up 
to the forty-second by the following rule: From the num¬ 
ber of the centuries take its fourth part and its third part 
(disregarding fractions in both cases), and increase the re¬ 
sult by two. Thus, for the twentieth century we have 20 — 

5 _ 6 -f 2 = 11 . Hence, these numerical terms for the next 
century will be 11 and 26. In old style dates these numer¬ 
ical terms are invariable, and are always two for odd golden 
numbers and seventeen for even. For more complete infor¬ 
mation on this subject the reader is referred to the essay 
above mentioned. The author of this article has also 
designed an instrumental contrivance for finding Easter 
by inspection, for any year from the beginning of the 
Christian era down to the end of hundredth century, in 
old style or new. This is constructed of card-board, and 
a facsimile of it, reduced in size, is given below. In the 
centre is a rotary disk, on the lower border or limb of which 
arc inscribed the numbers below 100 which consist of even 
twenties, and also the zero. These are called vigesimals. 
On the upper limb appear all the numbers less than twenty, 
called residuals, the leap-year numbers being written twice. 
Around this disk is a fixed ring, bearing the dominical let¬ 
ters above and the centurial numbers below—the new style 
centurials being on the left, and the old style centurials on 
the right. The centurial numbers here employed are 
simply the remainders left in dividing the hundreds by 4 
for new style and by 7 for old style. To use this for find¬ 


ing the dominical letter, turn the disk till the proper vigesi¬ 
mal of the given year stands opposite the proper centurial; 
then opposite the proper residual will be found the do¬ 
minical letter (or letters) of the year. In case of leap- 
years there will be found two such letters, of which the 
lesser or right-hand one is the Easter dominical letter. 

Around the fixed ring here described is a rotary ring 
bearing the numbers from 1 to 19 (the golden numbers), 
twice repeated, and at the left of these the vigesimals, ar¬ 
ranged in regular order. Outside of this rotary ring is a 
second fixed ring, which bears on the left the numbers 0 to 
19, arranged en Schelon, so as to allow the natural sequence 
to be observed. These are called the centurials of the lunar 
cycle, and are simply what remains after suppressing the 
nineteens out of the hundreds in the given year of our 
Lord. Thus, in the year 4173 there are forty-one hun¬ 
dreds, from which, if we suppress 19X2 = 38, there will 
remain 3, which is the centurial for the forty-second cen¬ 
tury. On the right the same fixed ring bears the residuals, 

I or excesses of twenties in the years of the incomplete cen¬ 
tury, in which it is not necessary to duplicate the leap-year 
numbers. When the movable ring is turned so that the 
proper vigesimal’ stands opposite the proper centurial, the 
golden number for the year will be found opposite the 
proper residual. 

On this same fixed ring, outside of the numbers already 
mentioned, is an annular row of figures distributed without 
any obvious order, which embraces all the possible golden 
numbers from 1 to 19, each entered twice. Of these, all up 
to 11 are printed in full face; all from 12 to 19 inclusive in 
outline. Their use will presently appear. 

Around this second fixed ring is a second rotary ring, on 
which are inscribed all the da 3 T s of March and April on 
which paschal full moon or Easter can fall; together with 
the calendar letters belonging to them severally. From the 
17th to the 25th of April the day numbers and letters are 
entered twice, the second or inner series being advanced 
beyond the outer by a single place. This same rotary ring 
also bears an arrow, which is designed to bo used as an in¬ 
dex. Finally, surrounding this rotary ring there is another 
fixed ring, in the several divisions of which are written the 
centuries from 15 up to 100, none below 15 being necessary, 
as the new style, or Gregorian reckoning, began in 1582. 
The use of the last-mentioned rotary ring is to find, first, 
the date of paschal full moon, and subsequently, by conse¬ 
quence, the date of Eastei\ In employing it, the ring is 
turned until the arrow points to the golden number for the 
year, when the date of paschal full moon will be found op¬ 
posite the proper centurial number in the outer fixed ring. 
Then, looking along the series of letters to the right of the 
date of the paschal moon, Easter will be found immediately 
over the next succeeding dominical letter for the year. If 
the time of Easter for years before 1582 is sought, the 
paschal moon will be found, not opposite the century, but 
opposite the words “ Old Style ” written in one of the com¬ 
partments into which the outer fixed ring is divided, and 
Easter will be opposite the proper dominical letter next 
following, as before. 

As it is arbitrarily ruled that the paschal full moon shall 
never fall later than April 18th, and as a consistent method 
of computation or of instrumental determination would 
make it sometimes fall on the 19th, the double series of 
days and letters is introduced at the end of April in the 
outer revolving ring to meet this case. When, therefore, 
in the use of the instrument, paschal full moon would seem 
to fall on the 19th of April by the series of outer, full-faced 
figures, we must pass to the inner series of figures printed 
in outline, which will give paschal full moon on the 18th. 
Also, if the outer series of full-faced figures should at any 
time directly give paschal full moon on the 18th, we must 
pass to the inner series again, and make paschal full moon 
the 17th, provided the arrow stands ojiposite a golden num¬ 
ber printed in outline, but not otherwise. When the light¬ 
faced numbers are- thus used instead of the full-faced for 
the paschal moon, the light-faced letters must of course also 
be used in finding Easter. 

The table in the figure is adjusted for the Easter of 1873. 
In 73 the vigesimal is 60 and the residual is 13. For 18 
(centuries) the centurial is 2, and the Easter sought belongs 
to new style. It is seen that, 60 being opposite 2 , the resi¬ 
dual, 13, is opposite E; which is the dominical letter of 
1873. In the first rotary ring the same vigesimal, 60, is 
opposite the golden number centurial, w r hich is 18; and 
under the residual 13 we have 12, the golden number for 
1873. Bringing, finally, the arrow of the outer rotary ring 
opposite to the golden number, 12 , we find under 18 in the 
outer row of centuries, the 12th of April, which is the date 
of paschal full moon for 1873; and opposite E, the domini¬ 
cal letter of the year next following the date of the paschal 
full moon thus found, we have April 13th for the date of 
Easter. 














1462 


EASTER ISLAND—EASTERN QUESTION. 


This little instrument is useful in the solution of many 
questions connected with chronology and the calendar, be¬ 
sides that for which it was expressly constructed. Any 


person possessed ol a little mechanical skill can construct 
a working instrument of this kind for himself, by copying 
this diagram on a scale about one-fourth larger. 


The Churchman’8 Companion to the Calendar, 
BY PRESIDENT BARNARD. 



The principal festivals and fasts of the Church dependent 
for the time of their celebration upon Easter are Septua- 
gesima Sunday, nine weeks before Easter; Ash Wednes¬ 
day, which is the Wednesday of the seventh week before 
Easter; Good Friday, which is the Friday next before 
Easter; Ascension Day, which is the Thursday of the sixth 
week after Easter; Whitsun Day, the seventh Sunday after 
Easter; and Trinity Sunday, the eighth Sunday after Easter. 

F. A. P. Barnard, Columbia College. 

Eas'ter Island, a small island of volcanic origin in 
the Pacific Ocean, is in lat. 27° 6' S., Ion. 109° 30' W., and 
is 12 miles long and 4 miles wide. It rises 1200 feet above 
the level of the sea, and is scantily supplied with water. It 
is the easternmost inhabited Polynesian island. Its people 
are cannibals. They have traditions of their ancestors hav¬ 
ing come from the island of Oparo, 1900 miles distant. The 
island has wonderful colossal statues in stone, but the na¬ 
tives have no account of their sculptors. 

Eas'tern ArchipeTago, The, also called The Ma¬ 
lay Archipelago and Australasia, comprises all those 
islands which lie in the north-eastern part of the Indian 
Ocean. Area, about 650,000 square miles. They are di¬ 
vided, according to their position, into three groups. The 
first group comprises the Molucca Islands, the Spice Isl¬ 
ands, Banda, Amboina, Ternate, and the Philippines; 
the second group consists of Sumatra, Java, and the small 
Sunda Islands east of Java, from Bali to Timorlaut; and 
the third comprises Borneo and Celebes, together with a 
large number of smaller islands, as Billiton, Banca, Sin¬ 
gapore, etc. In its position this archipelago forms the 
connection between Asia and Australia. The soil is very 
fertile, and resembles in its products that of the neigh¬ 
boring countries of Asia. It has therefore attracted at 
all ages almost every nation. The original inhabitants 


consisted of many tribes, but all belonged to one race 
called the Malay Race (which see). At a later age the 
Arabs came to these islands, and as a consequence Mo¬ 
hammedanism gained a good many followers. At last, 
the Europeans came, and subjugated almost the entire 
archipelago, and especially the Dutch have become mas¬ 
ters of the greatest number of islands; while the Spaniards 
have only the Philippines; the Portuguese, Dilli and part 
of Timor; and the British, Singapore and Labuan. Be¬ 
sides these races, a large number of Chinese are found 
throughout the islands. The total population is estimated 
at 22,829,000. 

Eastern Churches is a title given to certain bodies 
of Christians of Western Asia, Eastern Europe, and of 
Africa. These are the Greek, the Armenian, the Jacobite 
(or Syrian), the Nestorian, the Coptic, and the Abyssinian 
Church, and the Christians of St. Thomas. The entire popu¬ 
lation connected with the Eastern churches may be estimated 
at about 76,500,000, of whom 70,000,000 are of the Greek 
Church, 3,000,000 are Armenians, 3,000,000 Abyssinians, 
and the remainder belong to the other communions. 

Eastern Empire. See Byzantine Empire. 

Eastern Question, in European diplomacy, signifies 
the problem of the future of Turkey, especially of the Eu¬ 
ropean portion ; and in a more extended sense expresses 
those difficulties which have from time to time arisen with 
regard to the relations of Turkey to Russia, Austria-Hun¬ 
gary, Greece, and Egypt; the affairs of the Danubian 
provinces; the navigation of the Black Sea; the supposed 
ambitious designs of Russia; and the difficulties between 
Christians and Mohammedans in Palestine, Crete, and 
other parts of the East. These questions have led to some 
of the most serious complications which have happened in 

















































































EASTERN RITE—EAST HENRIETTA. 


Europe during the last one hundred years. (See Turkey, 
Russia, Crimean War.) 

Eastern Rite, or Oriental Rite. Those branches 
of the Roman Catholic Church which acknowledge the su¬ 
premacy of the pope, but which do not employ the Latin 
ritual, are said to be of the Eastern rite. In fact, they em¬ 
ploy several different rituals. According to the “ Roman 
Almanac ” for 1872 (“ La Gerarchia Cattolica ”), there were 
bishoprics of the following rites : I. Armenian; II. Coptic 
(1> Egyptian; 2, Ethiopian or Abyssinian); III. Greek 
(1, Roumanian ; 2, Ruthenian ; 3, Bulgarian ; 4, Melchite); 
IV. Syrian (1, Syrian; 2, Syro-Chaldaean ; 3, Maronite). 
The aggregate number of episcopal sees, according to the 
same authority, in 1872, was 78; of which five were patri¬ 
archal and twenty-six archiepiscopal. The United Chris¬ 
tians of St. Thomas have no bishop of their own, but are 
under the vicar-apostolic of Verapoli, who is of the Latin 
rite, but the people and clergy use, in part, a modified 
Syrian rite. 

The Eastern rite differs from the Latin, not only in the 
languages employed in the service (Greek, Slavic, Arme¬ 
nian, Syriac, Ethiopic, Coptic), but generally also in the 
use of both elements for the laity in the Eucharist, and in 
the permission of marriage to the lower clergy. 

Eastern Shore, a name given to those parts of Mary¬ 
land and Virginia which are E. of Chesapeake Bay,and some¬ 
times applied to the whole peninsula, including, in addition, 
the entire State of Delaware. The Eastern Shore has been 
proverbial for its conservatism, and from the character of 
its inhabitants claimed the title of “ the land of gentle¬ 
men ;” but it is now traversed by railroads, and the excel¬ 
lence of its soil and climate for peach-culture and market¬ 
gardening has caused the development of much industrial 
enterprise. Its western side is remarkably indented by 
navigable rivers and creeks, affording great commercial 
advantages. The waters on both sides abound in oysters, 
which are a source of great wealth. The fisheries are also 
extensive. Most of the surface is low and level, but healthy. 
Malarial fevers are endemic at some places. The climate is 
singularly mild. Bog-iron ore of fine quality is exten¬ 
sively mined in some parts. Kaolin is found in the ex¬ 
treme N. Oak timber is cut in some parts for market. The 
Eastern Shore was the scene of many of the labors and tri¬ 
umphs of Asbury and the early Methodists, and it is still 
one of the strongholds of their faith. Its people are famed 
for hospitality and generosity. 

East Ev'ans, a post-village of Evans township, Erie 
co., N. Y., 4 miles from Angola Station, on the Lake Shore 

R. R. Pop. 100. 

East Fair'field, a twp. of Crawford co., Pa. P. 741. 

East Fal'lowfield, a township of Chester co., Pa. 
It is traversed by the Wilmington and Reading R. R. Pop. 
1291. 

East Fallowfield, a township of Crawford co., Pa. 
It is traversed by the Franklin branch of the Atlantic and 
Great Western R. R. Pop. 1167. 

East Felician'a, a parish in the E. of Louisiana. 
Area, 480 square miles. The Mississippi River touches the 

S. W. extremity of this parish, which is bounded on the E. 
by the Amite. The surface is undulating; the soil is fer¬ 
tile. It is traversed by the Clinton and Port Hudson R. II. 
Corn and cotton are the chief products. Capital, Clinton. 
Pop. 13,499. 

East Fin'ley, a post-village and township of Wash¬ 
ington co., Pa., 17 miles S. S. W. of Washington, the 
county-seat. Pop. 1186. 

East Fish'kill, a post-township of Dutchess co., N. Y., 
on the New York Boston and Northern R. R. Pop. 2306. 

East'ford, a post-township of Windham co., Conn. 
Eastford Village is 11 miles W. of Putnam, a station on 
the Norwich and Worcester R. R. It has a savings bank. 
Pop. 984. 

East Fork, a township of Conway co., Ark. Pop. 410. 

East Fork, a post-township of Montgomery co., Ill. 
It is 11 miles E. of Hillsborough, a station on the St. Louis 
Alton and Terre Haute R. R. Pop. 1421. 

East Fork, a township of Barton co., Mo. Pop. 452. 

East Fork, a township of Douglas co., Nev. Pop. 132. 

East Fork, a township of Haywood co., N. C. P. 286. 

East Fox'borough, a post-village of Foxborough 
township, Norfolk co., Mass., 22 miles S. S. W. of Boston, 
on the Boston and Providence R. R. 

East Frank'lin, a township of Armstrong co., Pa. 
Pop. 1451. 

East Gale'na, a twp. of Jo Daviess co., Ill. P. 856. 

East Ger'mantown, a post-village of Jackson town¬ 
ship, Wayne co., Ind. Pop. 536. 


1463 


East Gloucester, a post-village of Gloucester town¬ 
ship, Essex co., Mass., on the seashore, 2 miles from Glou¬ 
cester. It is a fashionable summer resort, and has a fine 
soldiers’ monument. 

East Go'shen, a township of Chester co., Pa. P. 696. 

East Gran'by, a post-township of Hartford co., Conn. 
Pop. 853. It is 3 miles E. of Granby Station, which is 
on the New Haven and Northampton R. R. 

East Green'bush, a post-township of Rensselaer co., 
N. Y. Pop. 1845. 

East Green'wich, a post-village and township, capital 
of Kent co., R. I., is on Narragansett Bay and on the 
Providence and Stonington R. R., 14 miles from Provi¬ 
dence. It has a national bank, a savings bank, an acad¬ 
emy (under the supervision of the Boston University), a 
weekly newspaper, two cotton-mills, one w T oollen-mill, 
print-works, free library, six churches (one of them built 
and supported by a single individual), three hotels, a 
court-house and jail, and a good harbor. It is one of the 
healthiest places on the seaboard. Incorporated Oct. 31, 
1677. Pop. of township, 2660. 

W. N. Siierman, Ed. “R. I. Pendulum.” 

East Grove, a township of Lee co., Ill. Pop. 765. 

East Had'tlam, a post-township of Middlesex co.. 
Conn. It has one national bank, manufactures of various 
kinds of goods, and a brisk trade. The town lies on the E. 
bank of the Connecticut River, 30 miles below Hartford. 
Pop. 2951. 

East'liam, a post-township of Barnstable co., Mass., 
on the Cape Cod R. R., 24 miles from Barnstable. Pop. 668. 

East Ham'burg, a post-township of Erie co., N. Y. 
It has five churches, and is the seat of “ East Hamburg 
Friends’ Institute.” It is 7 miles E. of Hamburg Station, 
which is on the Lake Shore R. R. Pop. 2270. 

East Ham'ilton, a post-village of Hamilton township, 
Madison co., N. Y. It is on the Utica division of the Del¬ 
aware Lackawanna and Western R. R. Pop. 53. 

East Hamp'ton, a post-village of Chatham township, 
Middlesex co., Conn., on the New Haven Middletown and 
Willimantic R. R. 

East Hampton, a post-village of Hampshire co., 
Mass., on the New Haven and Northampton R. R., 5 miles 
S. W. of Northampton, and on a branch of the Connecticut 
River R. R. It has a national and a savings bank, and 
manufactures of suspenders, pumps, thread, vulcanized rub¬ 
ber, buttons, etc., and is the seat of Williston Seminary, an 
excellent school for young men. It has four churches, a 
public library, a fine town-hall, a fire department, and fif¬ 
teen public schools. Pop. of East Hampton township, 3620. 

East Hampton, a post-township of Suffolk co., N. Y. 
Pop. 2372. At the beach of East Hampton is very fine 
surf-bathing. The township is the easternmost part of 
Long Island. 

East Han'over, a twp. of Dauphin co., Pa. P. 1723. 

East Hanover, a post-township of Lebanon co., Pa. 
Pop. 1737. 

East Hard'wick, a post-village of Hardwick town¬ 
ship, Caledonia co., Vt., on the Portland and Ogdensburg 
R. R., 31 miles N. W. of St. Johnsbury. It has one weekly 
newspaper. 

East Hart'ford, a post-township of Hartford co., 
Conn., on the Connecticut River opposite Hartford, with 
which it is connected by a bridge, and by the Hartford 
Providence and Fishkill R. R. Pop. 3007. 

East Ha'ven, a post-township of New Haven co., 
Conn. It is on the Shore Line R. R. and on Long Island 
Sound, 4 miles E. of New Haven. Here is Saltonstall Lake, 
which affords large quantities of ice. Copper-smelting is 
largely carried on here. Pop. 2714. 

East Haven, a post-township of Essex co., Vt. P. 191. 

East Hat'ley (called also Hatley and Charleston- 
Hatley), a post-village of Hatley township, Stanstead co., 
Quebec, Canada, 2^ miles from Massawippi Station, is the 
seat of Charleston Academy, and has a large cheese-factory. 
Pop. about 300. 

East Ha'verhill , a post-village of Haverhill township, 
Grafton co., N. II., on the Boston Concord and Montreal 
R. R., 5 miles E. of Haverhill. It has manufactures of 
lumber, charcoal, and starch. Here is the Owl’s Head, a 
lofty cliff of rock. The village stands at the base of Moose 
Hillock Mountain. 

East Hemp'field, a post-township of Lancaster co., 
Pa. It is on the Lancaster branch of the Reading and 
Columbia R. R. (Petersburg Station). Pop. 2602. 

East Henrietta, a village of Henrietta township, 
Monroe co., N. Y., is the seat of Monroe Academy. 

















1464 EAST HUMBOLDT MOUNTAINS—EASTMAN. 


East Humboldt Mountains, a lofty range in Elko 
co., Nev., some of whose peaks exceed 15,000 feet in height. 
Secret Valley and Fremont Pass cut the range, which is in 
parts well timbered with pines and firs, affording lumber. 
Its snows feed the springs by which Lakes Franklin and 
Ruby are supplied. Silver is reported to exist in the 
mountains. 

East Huntingdon, a township of Westmoreland co., 
Pa. Pop. 2134. 

East In'dia Com'pany, a famous joint-stock trading 
company formed in England to carry on commerce with the 
East Indies. In 1600 a royal charter was granted to a 
number of London merchants under the title of “ The Gov¬ 
ernor and Company of Merchants of London trading to the 
East Indies.” This charter gave them an exclusive right 
to trade for fifteen years within certain limits, which were 
of immense extent. They established factories at Surat, 
Cambay, and other places in India about 1612. The charter 
was renewed from time to time. Madras was founded in 
1639, and Calcutta in 1645. In 1698 the king granted a 
charter to a rival company, but the two companies were 
united in 1702 under a new charter, with the title of “ The 
United Company of Merchants trading to the East Indies.” 
Every person who held £500 of the company’s stock became 
a member of the court of proprietors, who annually chose 
a court of directors composed of twenty-four members, each 
of whom must own £2000 of the stock. The executive 
power of the company was vested in this court of directors, 
each of whom retained his office for four years. 

In 1708, Parliament granted the company the exclusive 
privilege of trading to all places eastward of the Cape of 
Good Hope to the Strait of Magellan. The monopoly of 
the China trade was abolished in 1833, and the company 
was then deprived of its original character as a commercial 
association. Many years before this date the company had 
become a great territorial power, and had laid the foun¬ 
dation of the British empire in India. By conquest and 
other means the company obtained sovereign power over 
vast regions of Hindostan. This region was coveted by 
the company not only as a source of commercial profit, but 
as a field in which their relatives might enrich and distin¬ 
guish themselves bv political and military enterprises. By 
the act 3 and 4 William IV. the functions of the East India 
Company were rendered merely political. It w T as to con¬ 
tinue to govern India, with the concurrence and under the 
supervision of the board of control. All the real and per¬ 
sonal property belonging to the company on April 22, 1834, 
was vested in the Crown, and to be held or managed by 
the company in trust for the same ; and the stockholders 
were to receive an annual dividend of 10£ per cent, on a 
capital of £6,000,000 out of the revenues of India. The 
Sepoy mutiny of 1857, which was repressed with a great 
expenditure of life and treasure, combined with other causes, 
induced Parliament to transfer the dominion of India to the 
Crown. This change was effected, after strenuous oppo¬ 
sition from the company, in 1858. (See India.) The po¬ 
litical affairs of British India are now managed by a min¬ 
ister, who is styled secretary of state for India, and a council 
of fifteen members. 

The Scottish East India Company was formed in 1695, 
but soon met a calamitous fate. 

The Danish East India Company was first organized in 
1618. It was dissolved in 1634 and reorganized in 1670. 
A new company was formed in 1686, and a fourth in 1731. 
The king purchased the rights of the company in 1777. 
The charter was renewed in 1792, but the company has 
long since ceased to exist. 

The Dutch company was formed in 1595, and several 
companies of the kind were united into one in 1602. 

The French company was established in 1664, and dis¬ 
solved by Louis XV. in 1770. A new one was formed in 
1785, and dissolved in 1790. 

A Swedish company was formed in 1741, and reorganized 
in 1806. 

The Ostend India Company was created in 1718. In 
1721 all Dutchmen were prohibited from supporting it, on 
pain of death. The emperor Charles VI. dissolved it in 
1731. 

East In'tlies [Fr. Les hides Orientates], a collective 
term vaguely applied to Hindostan, Farther India, and the 
Malay Archipelago. (See India.) 

East Ir'ving, a village of Iowa township, Benton co., 
Ia. Pop. 84. 

East JafTrey, a post-village of Jaffrey township, Ches¬ 
hire co., N. H., on the Monadnock R. R., 10 miles N. of 
Winchendon, Mass. It has a national and a savings bank, 
three churches, and manufactures of wooden-ware, shoes, 
boxes, and cotton drillings. 

East Kingston, a post-township of Rockingham co., 


N. H., on the Boston and Maine R. R. It has manufactures 
of shoes, etc. Pop. 553. 

East Lackawan'nock, a township of Mercer co., Pa. 
Pop. 672. 

East Lake, a township of Dare co., N. C. Pop. 251. 

East'lake (Sir Charles Lock), F. R. S., D. C. L., an 
English historical painter, born at Plymouth Nov. 17, 1793. 
He visited Italy in 1817, and passed about nine years in 
Rome (1820-29). In 1828 he exhibited an admired picture 
of “ Pilgrims to Rome Coming in Sight of the Holy City.” 
He was chosen a Royal Academician in 1830, and became 
president of the Royal Academy in 1850. Among his 
works are “ Christ Weeping over Jerusalem ” (1841), “ He¬ 
lena ” (1849), “ Violante” (1853), and “Beatrice” (1855). 
He was appointed director of the National Gallery in 1855, 
and wrote “Materials for a History of Oil Painting” 
(1847), “ Contributions to the Literature of the Fine Arts,” 
and other works. He translated Goethe’s “ Farbenlehre ” 
and Kugler’s “History of Painting.” Died Dec. 23, 1865. 
A biography of Eastlake was published by his widow, Lady 
Eastlake (born Elizabeth Rigby), in the second series of 
the “Contributions to the Literature of the Fine Arts” 
(1870). 

East Lam'peter, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. 
Pop. 2263. 

East Lan'caster, a village of Berne township, Fair- 
field co., 0. Pop. 566. 

East'lantl, a county in N. Central Texas, has an area 
of 790 square miles. It is drained by the sources of Leon 
River. The eastern part is densely timbered with oak. A 
part of the county is rocky and hilly, but there are fine 
level plains which are fertile. Pop. 88. 

Eastland, a village of Eastland co., Tex. Pop. 88. 

East LeAV'istown, a post-village of Beaver township, 
Mahoning co., O., 5 miles N. of Columbiana, which is a 
station on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago R. R. 
Pop. 105. 

East Liberty, a suburb of Pittsburg, Pa. (Allegheny 
co.), 5 miles E. of the city, on the Pennsylvania R. R., is 
the seat of the Western Pennsylvania Hospital, and has 
many fine residences. 

East Lin'coln, a twp. of Logan co., Ill. Pop. 3397. 

East Liv'ermore, a post-township of Androscoggin 
co., Me., on the Androscoggin R. R. and River, 71 miles 
N. of Portland. It has manufactures of lumber, condensed 
milk, clothing, carriages, needles, ploughs, etc. Pop. 1004. 

East Liv'erpool, a post-village of Columbiana co., O., 
on the Ohio River and the Cleveland and Pittsburg R. R., 
44 miles W. N. W. of Pittsburg. It has extensive potteries 
and manufactures of stone-ware, and two weekly newspa¬ 
pers. Pop. 2105. 

East Lyme, a post-township of New London co., Conn. 
Pop. 1506. 

East Machi'as, a post-township of Washington co., 
Me., 4 miles N. of Machias Port. It has an academy, 
three churches, and extensive manufactures of lumber, car¬ 
riages, etc. Pop. 2017. 

East Maho'ning, a twp. of Indiana co., Pa. P. 1139. 

East'man, a post-twp. of Crawford co., Wis. P!1214. 

East'man (Charles Gamage), an American poet and 
journalist, born at Fryeburg, Me., June 1,1816. He edited 
the “ Spirit of the Age ” and the “ Vermont Patriot,” which 
latter was published at Montpelier. He has also been con¬ 
nected with various other journals and contributed much 
to periodical literature. In 1848 he produced a volume of 
poems. 

Eastman (Mary Henderson) was born in Warrenton, 
Va., in 1818. Her father was Dr. Thomas Henderson, and 
in 1835 she married Captain Seth Eastman of the U. S. 
army, and long resided on the frontier. She has published 
many works illustrative of Indian character, among which 
are the following: “Dahcotah” (1849), “Romance of In¬ 
dian Life” (1852), “Chicora” (1854), and also “Aunt 
Phillis’s Cabin” (1852), a reply to “Uncle Tom’s Cabin.” 
This work had a very large sale. 

Eastman (Philip), LL.D., born ia Chatham, N. H., 
Feb., 1799, graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820, became 
a lawyer, and practised at North Yarmouth, Harrison, and 
Saco, Me. Died Aug. 7, 1869. He was one of the editors 
of the “ General Statutes of Maine ” (1840), and published 
a “Digest” of Maine law reports (1849). 

Eastman (Seth), an army officer, born in Brunswick, 
Me., Jan. 24, 1808, graduated at West Point in 1829. Ho 
entered the infantry, and was teacher of drawing at West 
Point (1833—40). He published a “ Treatise on Topograph¬ 
ical Drawing” (1837) and a “History, etc. of the Indian 

















EASTMANN—EAST RIVER BRIDGE. 1465 


Tribes ’ (1850-57). In 1863 he was retired with the rank 
of lieutenant-colonel and brevet brigadier-general. 

East'mann, a township of Pulaski co., Ark. P. 1731. 

East Maryborough, a twp. of Chester co., Pa. P.1401. 

East Mauch Chunk, a post-borougli of Carbon co., 
Pa., on the Lehigh River opposite Mauch Chunk, and on 
the Lehigh and Susquehanna R. It. Pop. 1585. 

East Monroe, a post-village of Fairfield township, 
Highland co., 0., on the Marietta and Cincinnati R. R. 
(Monroe Station). Pop. 163. 

East Montpe'lier, a post-township of Washington 
co., Vt. It has manufactures of woollen goods and musical 
instruments, and produces much maple-sugar. Pop. 1130. 

East Morrisa'nia, a village of Morrisania township, 
Westchester co., N. Y., has an academy and a convent of 
Ursuline nuns. 

East Mor'row, a village of Salem township, Warren 
co., 0., is a suburb of Morrow (which see). Pop. 262. 

East Mount Ver'non, a village of East Chester 
township, Westchester co., N. Y. Pop. 500. 

East Nant'meal, a twp. of Chester co., Pa. P. 920. 

East Nas'sau, a post-village of Nassau township, 
Rensselaer co., N. Y. Pop. 192. 

East Nel'son, a twp. of Moultrie co., Ill. Pop. 1021. 

East New Mar'ket, a post-township of Dorchester 
co., Md. Pop. 2347. 

East New York, a post-village of New Lots township, 
Kings co., N. Y., on the Brooklyn Central branch of the 
Long Island R. R., 6 miles S. E. of New York City. It 
has two weekly newspapers and manufactures of shoes, etc. 
It is connected with the Brooklyn ferries by horse-railroad. 

East Norwegian, a twp. of Schuylkill co., Pa. P. 983. 

East Nottingham, a twp. of Chester co., Pa. P. 1400. 

East Oakland, a twp. of Coles co., Ill. Pop. 1500. 

Eas'ton, a post-twp. of Fairfield co., Conn. P. 1288. 

Easton, a post-twp. of Leavenworth co., Kan. P. 1169. 

Easton, a post-village, capital of Talbot co., Md., is on 
Tred Haven Creek, a navigable branch of the Great Chop- 
tank River, 16 miles from Chesapeake Bay and 35 miles 
E. S. E. of Annapolis, and on the Maryland and Delaware 
R. R., 42 miles from Clayton, Del., in a fine peach-growing 
region. It has a good trade, a national bank, a building 
association, a peach-canning establishment, a fruit-drying 
house, and manufactures of lumber, sash, castings, and farm¬ 
ing implements. It has six churches, an orphan asylum, 
gas-works, and a high school. It is the seat of a Protestant 
Episcopal bishop, and has the schools of the diocese of 
Easton. It has three weekly newspapers. Pop. 2110; of 
Easton district, 4637. Thomas Iv. Robson, En. “ Star.” 

Easton, a post-township of Bristol co., Mass. Here 
are extensive shops for the manufacture of spades and 
shovels. It has a national bank, a savings bank, cotton- 
mills, a free library, and manufactures of boots, shoes, 
castings, etc. Pop. 3668. 

Easton, a post-township of Ionia co., Mich. P. 1401. 

Easton, a post-village of Marion township, Buchanan 
co., Mo., on the Hannibal and St. Joseph R. R. Pop. 318. 

Easton, a post-township of Washington co., N. Y. 
Pop. 3072. It is the seat of Marshall Seminary, and has 
important manufactures. Excellent limestone abounds. 

Easton, a city, the capital of Northampton co., Pa., is 
situated at the confluence of the Delaware and Lehigh 
rivers, the scene of the famous treaty with the Five Na¬ 
tions, recorded as having taken place at the Forks of the 
Delaware. It is 75 miles from New York by the Central 
R. R. of New Jersey and the Morris and Essex R. R., and 
60 miles from Philadelphia by the Belvidere Delaware 
R. R. The Lehigh Valley and the Lehigh and Susquehanna 
R.Rs. traverse the coal-regions and connect it with the North 
and West, and the unfinished Easton and Amboy II. R. will 
extend to New York Bay. Easton is the seat of Lafayette 
College, and has numerous churches, a fine opera-house, 
gas and water works, two national and two savings banks, 
three street railways, two daily and four weekly newspa¬ 
pers, etc. Its vicinity abounds in rolling-mills, furnaces, 
and other manufactories. Pop., exclusive of its extensive 
suburbs, 10,987. Cole & Morwitz, Pubs. “Argus.” 

Easton, a post-township of Adams co., AVis. Pop. 338. 

Easton (Col. James), a Revolutionary officer, born at 
Hartford, Conn. He became a resident of Pittsfield, Mass., 
in 1763. He raised a Berkshire regiment in 1775, served 
at Ticonderoga, and in Canada under Montgomery, ex¬ 
pending his whole fortune in the service. In U 76, after 
receiving the thanks of Congress, ho was obliged by his 


enemy, Benedict Arnold, to leave the army, and died at 
Pittsfield, Mass., in poverty. 

Easton (Nicholas), born about 1593, emigrated from 
Wales to Ipswich (Mass.) in 1634, and afterwards lived in 
Newbury, Mass., and Hampton, N. H. Having had trouble 
with the officials, he removed to Rhode Island in 1638, and 
built the first house in Newport. He was governor of the 
United Colonies (Rhode Island, Providence, etc.) 1650-52. 
Died Aug. 15, 1675.—His son, John Easton, was governor 
of Rhode Island (1690-95), and wrote a “Narrative of the 
Causes which led to Philip’s Indian AVar,” which was pub¬ 
lished in 1858. 

East Or'ange, a pleasant post-township of Essex co., 

N. J., on the Morris and Essex R. R., 12 miles from New 
York. It has fine suburban residences. Pop. 4315. 

East Ot'to, a post-township of Cattaraugus co., N. Y. It 
has four churches and five cheese-factories. Pop. 1164. 

East Pal'estine, a. posUvillage of Unify township, 
Columbiana co., 0. (Palestine R. R. Station), on the Pitts¬ 
burg Fort AA r ayne and Chicago R. R. 

East Par'is, a village of Bourbon co., Ivy. (See Paris.) 
Pop. 212. 

East Pem'brokc, a post-village of Pembroke and 
Batavia townships, Genesee co., N. Y., is the seat of an 
academy. Pop. 156. 

East Penn, a township of Carbon co., Pa. Pop. 862. 

East Penns'borough, a township of Cumberland co., 
Pa. Pop. 2719. 

East Pikelaiul, a township of Chester co., Pa. P. 826. 

East Pike Run, a twp. of AVashington co., Pa. P. 817. 

East Point, a post-village of Fulton co., Ga., 6 miles 
from Atlanta, at the junction of the Atlanta and AA r est Point 
and the Macon and AA^estern R. Rs. 

East'port, a port of entry of AVashington co., Me., is 
on Moose Island in Passamaquoddy Bay, at the extreme 
eastern point of the territory of the U. S. It has a good 
harbor, in which the tide rises twenty-five feet; also a 
national bank, seven churches, a savings bank, a fire insur¬ 
ance company, and a newspaper. Its prosperity is mostly 
derived from the lumber-trade and fisheries. It is a place 
of great natural beauty. Steamers ply to Boston, Port¬ 
land, Calais, and St. John, N. B. Pop. of township, 3736. 

Eastport, a village of Mill township, Tuscarawas co., 

O. Pop. 25. 

Eastport, a village of Southampton township, Suffolk 
co., N. Y. Pop. 135. 

East Portland, a post-village of Multnomah co., Or. 
Pop. 830. 

East Prov'idence, a twp. of Bedford co., Pa. P. 1274. 

East Providence, a post-township of Providence co., 
R. 1., on a branch of the Boston and Providence R. R.. 4 
miles E. of Providence. The township is traversed also 
by the Providence AA T arren and Bristol R. R., and is on the 
E. bank of Providence River. Pop. 2668. 

East Ran'dolph, a post-village of Randolph town¬ 
ship, Cattaraugus co., N. Y., contains several manufactories 
and has a weekly newspaper. 

East River, a post-village of New Haven co., Conn., 
on the East River, a stream flowing into Long Island 
Sound, and on the Shore Line R. R., 18 miles E. of New 
Haven. 

East Riv'er, of New York, is a strait connecting Long 
Island Sound with New York Bay, and separating the city 
of New York from Brooklyn, which is about three-fourths 
of a mile distant. It is nearly 20 miles long, and is navi¬ 
gable by large vessels. A bridge is now (1874) in course 
of construction across this strait at New York. About 7 
miles from that city, on this strait, is a narrow and formerly 
dangerous pass called Hell Gate (which see), from which 
the obstructions are being removed. The East River is an 
important arm of New York harbor, and for miles its shores 
are lined with piers and slips for shipping. Its tides are 
higher and somewhat later than those which enter the har¬ 
bor through the Narrows. Hence the phenomenon of 
double tides often observed in the North River. 

East River, a township of Page co., la. Pop. 977. 

East River, a twp. of Mercer co., AA r . A r a. Pop. 1419. 

East River Bridge, a structure now (1874) in pro¬ 
cess of construction over the East River, for the purpose 
of connecting the cities of New A ork and Brooklyn. Mr. 
John A. Roebling, of Trenton, N. J., was at first the chief 
engineer for its construction. He had already built two of 
the finest bridges of this kind in the world that at Niag¬ 
ara Falls and that at Cincinnati, both of which will be far 
surpassed in dimensions by tho Last River suspension 












1466 


EAST RIVER BRIDGE 


bridge. Including its approaches, it will be over one mile 
long, and the bottom will be, in clear height, 130 feet over 
the channel of the river. Mr. Roebling was spared long 


enough to complete the plans for this colossal work, the 
execution of which is, since his death, entrusted to his son, 
Col. W. A. Roebling. 



East River Bridge. 


The bridge will have only two piers, situated on the 
shores, thus not in any way obstructing navigation. They 
are 1620 feet apart, and 280 feet in height—higher than 
the cross on the spire of Trinity church, the highest in 
New York. The base of these piers, at the water-line, 
is 134 feet long and 56 feet wide; their height, 130 feet 
below the floor and 150 above it, not including balustrade 
and ornamental blocks. In each pier are two arches for 
entrances to the bridge; each archway, being 32 feet wide, 
gives passage to a railroad-track, a carriage-way, and a 
sidewalk. These openings, or archways, are intended to 
be 120 feet high. The piers are built wholly of granite, 
and hollow; each will contain over 900,000 cubic feet of 
stone, and weigh over 70,000 tons. The bridge will weigh 
3600 tons; its maximum transitory weight by crowds of 
people, railway-trains, carriages, and horses being 1400 
tons, gives together 5000 tons. As the base of each pier is 
nearly 5000 square feet, there is a weight of about 17 tons 
per foot, which cannot be safely constructed without en¬ 
larging the foundation considerably. At the lower part of 
the foundation, therefore, the surface will be 17,000 square 
feet, reducing the pressure from 17 tons to a little over four 


tons per square foot, which is perfectly safe, especially in 
view of the considerable depth to which the foundation 
will be laid, the nature of the compact, gravelly sand on 
the Brooklyn side, and the rock which probably will be 
reached on the New York side. 

The whole bridge will be supported by four cables, con¬ 
sisting of parallel steel wires, stretched in a bundle nearly 
one foot thick. These cables are anchored in solid walls, 
1337 feet from the pier on the New York side, and 837 feet 
from the pier on the Brooklyn side. The real span of the 
suspension bridge, from anchor-wall to anchor-wall, is thus 
1337 + 1620 + 837, or 3794 feet. The approaches beyond 
these points are of arched masonry, thrown, like the half¬ 
spans between anchorage and piers, over houses and streets. 

Each of the four cables enters the anchor-walls through 
the masonry to a distance of twenty feet, where it connects 
with the anchor-chains, composed of ten links, each 12 feet 
or more in length, together measuring 130 feet, and forming 
a downward curve of a quarter of a circle, in order to con¬ 
vert a portion of the tension into downward pressure—a 
plan always followed in the anchorage of suspension bridges. 
The tension, or pull, of each of these four cables on the an- 



&i isnyrtsnsi 


SECTION OF SHOE 




HICHWTER 


LOW WATER 


REOM*n-K£,MNY SCjy'y' 


-102 FEET- 

Section of Caisson for East River Bridge, 


chorage will be 5600 tons, which is only about one-tenth 
of the breaking strain of the structure. 

The cables have, however, not to support the whole bridge. 
It is also secured by straight stays running from the top 
of each pier towards the bottom of the bridge, as seen in 
the engraving. Mr. Roebling asserts that the bridge would 
not fall even if the cables were removed, the stays being 
sufficient to hold it—only it would sag in the middle. The 
cables have, therefore, only to sustain a portion of the 
weight and to give stiffness to the bridge, so that it will not 
be swayed by heavy gales. A simple arrangement of the 
cables increases this stiffness against side pressure. The 
outside cables are much farther apart at the piers than 
the width of the bridge, and approach each other; while 
with the two middle cables the reverse is the case. They 
are near together at the piers, where they pass over the 
middle between the two arches, and widen towards the mid¬ 
dle of the bridge. 

The bridge will commence in New York City at the City 
Hall Park, at the foot of Chatham street. Slowly rising Si- 
feet in 100, it will cross William street and Franklin Square, 
so high that no interruption of street travel will result. It 
will be supported by arches, girders, and trusses till it ar¬ 
rives at the anchorage of the chains, 90 feet above high 


tide, located in the block bounded by Cherry, Water, and 
Dover streets, where the suspension commences; and the 
whole structure runs over all the houses to the pier at the 
river-side, a distance of 1337 feet* Here the full sweep of 
the cables, passing over the top of the piers, 260 feet high, 
descends 130 feet below that point, and rises to the same 
height on the Brooklyn pier, to descend to the Brooklyn 
anchorage, situated in James street; and, beyond that, by 
an archway of masonry and trusses, to extend to the junc¬ 
tion of Fulton and Band streets, almost on a level with 
Brooklyn Heights. 

Having thus given a general description of the bridge as 
a whole, we will proceed to the details of construction. The 
first step is, of course, the laying of the foundation for the 
piers. The labor on the Brooklyn pier was commenced Jan. 
3, 1870, and was afterwards continued by means of dredging- 
machines, etc., preparatory to sinking the colossal caisson. 

A caisson is literally a chest. Applied to bridge-build¬ 
ing, the term,, signifies a wooden box or frame of strong 
timbers, used for laying the foundations of a bridge in situ¬ 
ations where the coffer-dam cannot be employed. In the 
present instance there having been no suitable rock foun¬ 
dation found on the Brooklyn shore, the caisson itself was 
made part of the foundation, as we shall show. The system 


































































































































































EAST RUSHVILLE—EAST TENNESSEE UNIVERSITY. 


1467 


adopted involves also the principle of the pneumatic pile, 
which is usually a tubular pile or cylinder of large dimen¬ 
sions forced down by atmospheric pressure. In this case, 
however, the atmospheric pressure was assisted by the con¬ 
tinual excavation of material beneath the mass. In fact, 
there was also something of the diving-bell in this apparatus. 

I he caisson proper, or chamber within which the work 
of excavation was carried on, was rectangular in shape, 168 
feet long and 102 wide on the outside, and about 15 feet 
high. 1 he sides were wedge-shaped in section, the lower 
edge being eight inches, and the upper eight feet three 
inches thick. The roof resting on these sides was five feet 
thick, leaving a working-chamber (the dimensions of roof 
and sides being allowed for) 166 by 98 feet in ground-area, 
and 9 feet in height. The whole was constructed of yellow- 
pine timbers a foot square; the seams were payed with a 
vegetable tar, to render them impervious to water; and be¬ 
tween the outside layers of timber was a sheathing of tin 
between two of felt, intended to prevent air from leaking 
through. As the sharp lower edges were intended to facili¬ 
tate the sinking of the caisson, they were made very strong. 
The first course of timber was oak ; to this was bolted a cast- 
iron shoe, eight inches wide and oval on its face, being 
three inches thick in the centre. Around the shoe was placed 
an armor of boiler-iron, extending three feet above, on both 
sides of the wall, the whole being strengthened by heavy 
interior angle-irons. Especial pains were taken to prevent 
the corners at the bottom from “ spreading” under the great 
pressure to which they were subjected. At each corner in the 
second course was inserted a knee of hard-wood timber, ex¬ 
tending twenty feet each way. The timbers of the caisson 
were all bolted together vertically, horizontally, and diagon¬ 
ally, with 11-inch bolts, varying in length from two to seven 
feet. The bolts were, on an average, eighteen inches—none 
more than two feet eight inches—apart throughout the 
whole structure; and the heads and nuts were made air¬ 
tight by rubber washers. 

As this huge frame was sunk to its desired position, thirty 
feet below low tide, additional courses of timber were laid 
on the top to the height of fifteen feet, and filled in with 
concrete ; and when the whole mass had become fixed in its 
final resting-place, the tower w r as built on the solid founda¬ 
tion thus obtained. 

Six shafts, lined with half-inch boiler-iron, passed through 
the roof of the caisson. The two outside ones were rectan¬ 
gular, and 6 feet 6 inches by 7 feet in size. These were the 
water-shafts, in which the water collecting in the caisson 
rose by the atmospheric pressure to the height of the tide 
outside. Next to these were the two man-shafts or supply- 
shafts, circular in form. Through these the workmen could 
pass and the earth be hoisted. The last pair were the air- 
shafts, also circular, and 42 inches in diameter. The shafts 
were made in couples, both for convenience and for safety. 
Through the air-shafts large air-pumps forced air into the 
caisson, expelling the water, and enabling the workmen to 
descend and work upon the bottom. The earth excavated 
was deposited around the square water-shafts; and a Cum¬ 
mings dredging-machine lifted the mud and dumped it 
into scows. Gas was introduced for lighting the caisson. 
The following figures will give some idea of the size and 
importance of this construction: Length of caisson, 168 
feet; width, 102 feet; height, 15 feet; height, including 
superincumbent timber and concrete, 30 feet; timber in 
caisson, 1,500,000 feet (105,000 cubic feet); weight of 
caisson, 2500 to 3000 tons ; wrought iron employed in bolts, 
angle-irons and plates, 100 tons; lumber in launching- 
frames and ways, 127,000 feet.— Manuf. and Build., N. Y. 
(See Bridge, by Gen. J. G. Barnard, U. S. A.) 

East Rush'ville, a village (Rushville P. 0.) of Rich¬ 
land township, Fairfield co., O., on the Cleveland Colum¬ 
bus Cincinnati and Indianapolis R. R. Pop. 221. 

East Sag'inaw, a city of Saginaw co., Mich., on the 
navigable Saginaw River, 17 miles from its mouth, and on 
the Flint and Pere Marquette, the Jackson and Saginaw, 
the Saginaw and St. Clair, and the Saginaw Valley and St. 
Louis R. Rs. It is well laid out and substantially built, 
has Holly waterworks, two horse-railroads, and a good 
system of public schools. It has a large trade by lake and 
rail in lumber and salt, having seventeen saw-mills, ca¬ 
pable of producing 135,000,000 feet of lumber per annum, 
and eleven salt-manufactories, which can produce nearly 
200,000 barrels of salt in a year. The assessed valuation 
in 1873 was $3,304,663. In that year $1,000,000 were ex¬ 
pended in erecting buildings, of which five alone cost 
$400,000. The surrounding country is very fertile, but 
manufacturing is the chief pursuit. It is a very thriving 
and enterprising town, the increase in population being 
some 40 per cent, per annum. It has the car-shops of the 
Flint and Pere Marquette R. R., six large machine-shops, 
three national banks, a library association, eleven fine 


churches, two daily and three weekly newspapers, and is 
the base of supplies for a large lumber-region. It is nearly 
opposite the city of Saginaw. Pop. 11,350. 

E. Cowles, Ed. “ Courier.” 

East Salaman 'ca, a post-village of Salamanca town¬ 
ship, Cattaraugus co., N. Y., at the junction of the Erie 
and the Atlantic and Great Western R. Rs., 413 miles from 
New York. It has large repair-shops and manufactures of 
leather and lumber. 

East Spring'fieUl, a post-village of Springfield town¬ 
ship, Otsego co., N. Y., is the seat of a seminary. 

East Springfield, a post-village of Salem township, 
Jetferson co., O. Pop. 170. 

East St. Lou'is, a post-village of St. Clair co., III., 
on the Mississippi River opposite St. Louis. It is the ter¬ 
minus of several railroads. It is the seat of a Roman 
Catholic college. Two weekly newspapers are issued here. 
Pop. 5644. 

East Stough'ton, a thriving post-village of Stough¬ 
ton township, Norfolk co., Mass., on the Old Colony R. R., 
L7 miles S. of Boston. It has extensive manufactures of 
boots. 

East Strouds'burg, a post-village of Monroe co., Pa., 
on the Delaware Lackawanna and Western R. R., 1 mile 
N. of Stroudsburg, the county-seat. Stroudsburg R. R. 
Station is at this point. 

East Taunton, Mass. See Taunton. 

East Ta'was, a post-village of Iosco co., Mich., on 
Tawas Bay, Lake Huron, 2 miles E. of Tawas City, the 
county-seat. 

East Tem'pleton, a post-village of Templeton town¬ 
ship, Worcester co., Mass. It has manufactures of chairs. 

East Tennessee University. In 1806 the U. S. 
ceded to the State of Tennessee certain public lands, upon 
condition that Tennessee should appropriate 100,000 acres 
of land for the use of two colleges, “one in East Tennes¬ 
see and one in West Tennessee.” In 1807 the State estab¬ 
lished East Tennessee College at Knoxville, as one of the 
beneficiaries of this endowment. The legislature, how¬ 
ever, failed to fulfil its trust concerning the appropriated 
lands, and the college languished for many years. Blount 
College was incorporated in 1792, while Tennessee was yet 
the “ Territory south of the river Ohio.” By consent of 
its trustees its charter was annulled, and its small property 
transferred to East Tennessee College. In 1838 the legis¬ 
lature partially remunerated the college for the almost 
total loss of its original endowment by appropriating to it 
a half township of land in the “Ocoee District.” With 
the fund derived from that source the college entered upon 
a period of comparative prosperity. In 1840 it obtained a 
university charter. Owing to several causes, the institu¬ 
tion began to decline a few years later, and from 1850 until 
1858 was in a very depressed condition. It then revived, 
but the war intervened, and from 1862 to 1866 it was en¬ 
tirely suspended. Its buildings were seriously injured by 
the U. S. army, which occupied them for nearly two years, 
and its cabinets, apparatus, and library were nearly or 
altogether destroyed. 

In these circumstances, and with little available pecuni¬ 
ary means in the hands of the trustees, the prospect in 
1866 was discouraging. To add to the difficulties of the 
situation, education in the State, especially because of its 
long interruption by the war, had fallen into an extremely low 
condition, and but few youth could be found able and will¬ 
ing to enter college classes. Notwithstanding, the college 
was reopened, and the work of instruction began with a 
crude mass of pupils in the preparatory department. At 
length higher classes were formed, and in 1871, 1872, and 
1873 students were graduated. In 1869 the legislature ap¬ 
propriated to East Tennessee University the proceeds of 
the land script received by the State from the U. S. under 
the law of Congress approved July 2, 1862, for the main¬ 
tenance of a college. The trustees accepted the trust with 
its conditions, and proceeded to establish the Tennessee 
Agricultural College, in which three courses of stud}' are 
provided. Each succeeding year it increases in usefulness. 
The number of students entered in 1872-73 was 271, of 
whom 187 were appointed by the State. 

The names of the presidents of East Tennessee College 
(now University) from its foundation are as follows, viz.: 
Rev. Samuel Carrick, A. M., from 1808 to 1809; Rev. 
David Sherman, A. M., from 1820 to 1825; Rev. Charles 
Coffin, D. D., from 1827 to 1832; James II. Piper, A. M., 
from 1833 to 1834; Joseph Estahrook, A. M., from 1834 to 
1850; Hon. Wm. B. Reese, LL.D., from 1850 to 1853; 
Rev. George Cooke, A. M., from 1853 to 1857; Rev. Wm. 
D. Carnes, A. M., from 1858 to 1860; Rev. Joseph I. Rid¬ 
ley, D. D., from 1860 to 1862; llov. Thomas W. Humes, 
S.'T. I)., from 1865 to-. T. O. Summers. 






















EAST TOLEDO—EATON. 


1468 


East Toledo, 0. See Toledo. 

East'town, a township of Chester co., Pa. Pop. 736. 

East Troy, a post-township of Walworth co., Wis. 
Pop. 1431. 

East U'nion, a village of Stock township, Noble co., 0. 
Pop. 857. 

East Union, a post-township of Wayne co., 0. Pop. 

1865. 

East Union, a township of Schuylkill co., Pa. Pop. 
614. 

East'ville, a post-village, capital of Northampton co., 
Va., is on a narrow peninsula, “ the Eastern Shore,” be¬ 
tween the Atlantic Ocean and Chesapeake Bay, about 4 
miles E. of the latter and 180 miles by water E. ol Rich¬ 
mond. Pop. of Eastville township, 3395. 

East Vin'cent, a post-township of Chester co., Pa. 
Pop. 1961. 

East Wa'co,a village of McLennan co., Tex. P. 612. 

East Wa'terloo, a township of Black Hawk co., Ia. 
Pop. 913. . 

East Wal'lingford, a post village of Wallingford 
township, Rutland co., Vt., on the Central Vermont R. R. 
(Rutland division), 13 miles S. S. E. of Rutland. (See 
Wallingford.) 

East Wey'mouth, a post-village of Weymouth town¬ 
ship, Norfolk co., Mass., on the South Shore R. R., 14£ 
miles S. of Boston. It has important manufactures of 
boots, nails, etc. (See Weymouth.) 

East Wheat'field, a township of Indiana co., Pa. 
Pop. 1101. 

East Whiteland, a township of Chester co., Pa. Pop. 
1222. 

East'wick (Edward B.), an English Orientalist, born 
in 1814, entered the service of the East India Company, 
became in 1845 professor of Ilindostanee and Teloogoo, 
and 1850 librarian at the college of the company in Hailey- 
bury. He published a “Vocabulary of the Sindhi Lan¬ 
guage ” (1813), a “Grammar of the Ilindoostanee Lan¬ 
guage” (1817), Sadi’s “ Gulistan ” and a translation of it 
(1850), and several Indian works. 

East Wil'ton, a post-village of Wilton township, 
Franklin co., Me., near the Androscoggin R. R., 5 miles S. 
of Farmington. It has manufactures of scythes, pegs, 
lumber, and other goods. (See Wilton.) 

East Wind's or, a post-township of Hartford co., Conn. 
Pop. 2882. 

East Windsor, a township of Mercer co., N. J. Pop. 

2383. 

Eat'on, a county in S. Central Michigan. Area, 576 
square miles. It is intersected by Grand River, and also 
drained by Battle Creek. The surface is undulating; the 
soil is fertile and deep. Lumber, cattle, grain, wool, pota¬ 
toes, hay, and butter are produced. It is traversed by the 
Grand River Valley R. R. and the Peninsular R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Charlotte. Pop. 25,171. 

Eaton, a township of Aroostook co.. Me. Pop. 522. 

Eaton, a post-township of Eaton co., Mich. Pop. 2035. 

Eaton, a post-township of Carroll co., N. H. Pop. 657. 

Eaton, a post-township of Madison co., N. Y., con¬ 
tains Morrisville, the county-seat, and several canal reser¬ 
voirs. Eaton Village has the county poor-house, a bank, a 
tannery, a distillery, a woollen-mill, a forge, and other 
manufacturing interests. Pop. of township, 3690. 

Eaton, a township of Lorain co., 0. Pop. 1052. 

Eaton, a post-village, capital of Preble co., 0., on 
Seven-Mile Creek and the Cincinnati Richmond and Chi¬ 
cago R. R., 53 miles N. of Cincinnati. It. has one national 
and one independent bank, three newspapers, five churches, 
two school-houses, one grist-mill, three saw-mills, several 
stores, two machine-shops, one school-seat factory, three 
benevolent societies, and is surrounded by a fine farming 
country. Pop. 1748. 

W. F. Albright & Co., Pubs, of “Register.” 

Eaton, a post-township of Wyoming co., Pa. Pop. 830. 

Eaton, a township of Brown co., Wis. Pop. 358. 

Eaton, a township of Clarke co., Wis. Pop. 316. 

Eaton, a post-township of Manitowoc co., Wis. Pop. 
1468. 

Eaton, a township of Monroe co., Wis. Pop. 392. 

Eaton (Amos), an American botanist, born in Chatham, 
N. Y., in 1776, graduated at Williams College in 1799. He 
studied law and was admitted to the bar. In 1828 ho be¬ 
came principal and senior professor of Rensselaer Institute 
at Troy. He published, besides other works, a “ Manual 


of the Botany of North America” (1833). Died May 6, 
1842. 

Eaton (Amos B.), an American officer, born in 1806 in 
New York, graduated at West Point in 1826, and June 29, 
1864, commissary-general of subsistence U. S. A., rank of 
brigadier-general. He served as infantry officer, chiefly on 
the Northern frontier, till July 7, 1838, when he was trans¬ 
ferred to the subsistence department, and served as com¬ 
missary in the Florida war 1837-41, during Canada bor¬ 
der disturbances, and in New York City 1841-46; as chief 
commissariat of Major-General Taylor’s army in Mexico 
1847-48, engaged at Buena Vista (brevet major), of the 
department of the Pacific 1851-55, and at New York City 
1855-61. In the civil war was depot commissary at New 
York City, and purchasing commissary for the armies in 
the field 1861-64; and since June 28, 1864, has been in 
charge of the commissary bureau at Washington, D. C. 
(Brevet major-general U. S. A. for faithful, meritorious, 
and distinguished services.) 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Eaton (Daniel Cady), an American botanist, was born 
at Fort Gratiot, Mich., Sept. 12, 1834, graduated at Yale in 
1857, and at Lawrence Scientific School (Harvard) in 1860. 
He became professor of botany at Yale in 1864. He is the 
author of that part of Chapman’s “ Flora of the Southern 
States” (1860) which treats of the Ferns, and the corre¬ 
sponding part of “ Gray’s Manual ” (5th ed. 1867), and has 
published various scientific papers.—His cousin, Daniel 
Cady Eaton, is professor of the history and criticism of art 
in Yale College. 

Eaton (George W.), D. D., LL.D., an American scholar 
and Baptist minister, was born at Henderson, Huntingdon 
co., Pa., July 3, 1804, and was educated at Ohio University 
and Union College, Schenectady, N.Y.; he was a fellow and 
tutor in Union College (1829-30), professor of ancient lan¬ 
guages in Georgetown College, Ky. (1831-33), professor of 
mathematics and natural philosophy (1833-37) and eccle¬ 
siastical and civil history (1837-50) at the Literary and 
Theological Institution, Hamilton, N. Y., and professor of 
systematic theology at the same place (1850-61), president 
of Madison University (1856-68), president of Hamilton 
Theological Seminary and professor of homiletics (1861-71). 
Died Aug. 3, 1872. 

Eaton (Horace), M. D., was born at Barnard, Vt., June 
22, 1804, graduated at Middlebury in 1825, graduated in 
medicine in 1828, was professor of chemistry and natural 
philosophy at Middlebury College (1848-54), and governor 
of Vermont (1846-48). Died Juty 4, 1855. 

Eaton (John, Jr.), Ph. D., an American educator, born 
Dec. 5, 1829, at Sutton, N. H., graduated at Dartmouth-in 
1854, was superintendent of public schools, Toledo, 0. (1856- 
59), studied theology at Andover (Mass.) Theological Semi¬ 
nary (1859-61), ordained by the Maumee (0.) Presbytery 
(1861), commissioned chaplain of the Twenly-seventh Ohio 
Volunteers (Aug. 15, 1861), appointed superintendent of 
contrabands (Nov. 14, 1862) by General Grant, general su¬ 
perintendent of freedmen for Mississippi, Arkansas, West 
Tennessee, and North Louisiana (Dec. 15, 1862), and served 
as such till May 27, 1865, commissioned colonel of the Sixty- 
third U. S. colored troops (Oct. 2,1863), brevetted brigadier- 
general of volunteers (Mar. 13,1865), assistant commissioner 
of the bureau of refugees, freedmen, and abandoned lands 
(May 27, 1865), established and edited the “ Daily Post” at 
Memphis, Tenn. (1866-70), State superintendent of public 
instruction for Tennessee (1867-69), secretary of the board 
of visitors to the West Point Military Academy (1869), and 
was appointed U. S. commissioner of education (Mar. 17, 
1870), which position he still occupies. He has published 
many addresses and reports, chiefly upon education and the 
public affairs with which he has been connected. 

Eaton (John Henry), politician, was born in Tennessee 
about 1790, and represented that State in the U. S. Senate 
(1818-29), was secretary of war under his friend Gen. Jack- 
son (1821-31), governor of Florida Territory (1834-36), and 
U. S. minister to Spain (1836-40). He published a “ Life 
of Jackson” (1824). Died Nov. 17, 1856. 

Eaton (Gov. Theophilus) was born in Stony Stratford, 
England, about 1591, and was the son of a clergyman. He 
was for a time English agent at the Danish court, and after¬ 
wards was a reputable merchant of London. He came to 
Massachusetts in 1637, and was chosen a magistrate. He 
went to New Haven in 1638, and was the first governor of 
the New Haven colony (1638-57). Died Jan. 7, 1657. 

Eaton (William), General, an American officer, born 
at Woodstock, Conn., Feb. 23, 1764, was educated at Dart¬ 
mouth College, and entered the army in 1792. He became 
consul at Tunis in 1799, and displayed courage and enter¬ 
prise in a successful expedition which he conducted against 
Derne. He was about to attack Tripoli, when his opera- 













EATON CORNER—EBERHARD. 


1469 


twns were suspemled by a treaty of peace between the U. S. 
and I npoli in 1805. The Massachusetts legislature granted 
him 10,000 acres of land in Maine as a reward for his valor. 
Died June 1, 1811. 

Ea ton Cor ner, a post-village of Eaton township, 

ompton co., Quebec, Canada, is the seat of an academy. 
Pop. about 200. 

Eat oil Rap'ids, a post-village of Eaton co., Mich., 
on Grand River and the Grand River Valley R. R., 24 
miles N. N. W. of Jackson. It is noted for its mineral 
magnetic springs, which are visited annually by thousands, 
and has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1221; of Eaton Rap¬ 
ids township, 3636. 

Eat onton, a post-village, capital of Putnam co., Ga., 
on a branch of the Central Georgia R. R., 21 miles N. N. W. 
of Milledgeville, has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1240. 

Eat ontown, a post-village of Monmouth co., N. J., on 
the New Jersey Southern R. R., 4 miles S. of Long Branch. 

Eau Claire, o klair', a county in the W. of Wisconsin. 
Area, 648 square miles. It is partly drained by the Eau 
Claire River, an affluent of the Chippewa, which flows 
through the north-western part of the county. The soil is 
mostly fertile. Grain, wool, and lumber are produced. It 
is intersected by the West Wisconsin R. R. Pop. 10,769. 
Capital, Eau Claire. 

Eau Claire, a city, capital of Eau Claire co., Wis., at 
the junction of Eau Claire and Chippewa rivers, and on the 
West Wisconsin R. R. and head of navigation on Chippewa 
River, has a national bank, a bank of deposit, one daily 
and two weekly newspapers in English, and one in Ger¬ 
man, two foundries, thirteen saw-mills, three planing-mills, 
four grist-mills, three graded schools and one common 
school, a Wesleyan seminary, two parks, six hotels, ten 
churches, carriage and railroad bridge over the Chippewa, 
two carriage and railroad bridges over the Eau Claire, and 
a large number of stores and wagon and boiler shops. The 
principal business is lumbering, over 150,000,000 feet being 
manufactured in the vicinity yearly, and over 250,000 feet 
in the city and its immediate vicinity. It is the chief com¬ 
mercial city of N. W. Wisconsin. The improvements dur¬ 
ing the past four years in the city have cost $1,694,000. 
Pop. in 1870, 1476. 

Brackett & Hunker, Props. “ Daily Free Press.” 

Eau Claire City, a village of Eau Claire co., Wis., is 
near the Chippewa River, 1 or 2 miles W. of Eau Claire, 
the county-town. It has many steam saw-mills and an ac¬ 
tive trade in lumber. Pop. 2293. 

Eau de Cologne, o deh ko-lon' (Fr. pron. 6 deh ko'- 
lon'), or Cologne Water, a celebrated liquid perfume 
invented by Farina of Cologne, where large quantities of 
it are prepared. It is also made in France and almost all 
other countries. The following recipe affords a good imita¬ 
tion of the original article : Take of alcohol 1 pint; of the 
oils of bergamot, orange peel, and rosemary, each 1 drachm; 
of bruised cardamom seeds, 1 drachm; orange-flower water, 

1 pint: distil one pint from a water-bath. 

The secret of the composition of true cologne has been 
carefully preserved by the Farina family, and the different 
business-houses of Cologne bearing the name of Farina 
prepare perfumes which are by no means identical in odor. 
One of the family is reported to have published in 1863 
the following as the formula for genuine eau de cologne: 
Take of oil of lavender 4 ounces; purified benzoin, oil of 
rosemary, each 2 ounces ; strong alcohol, 9 gallons : dis¬ 
solve the oil and benzoin in the alcohol, and to the solution 
add successively oil of neroli, oil of young orange (huile 
des petits grains), oil of lemon, each 10.4 ounces; oil of 
sweet orange, oil of lime-peel, oil of bergamot, each 20.8 
ounces; tincture of rose-geranium flowers, a sufficient 
quantity. Macerate for several weeks, and then bottle the 
mixture. There are hundreds of recipes, many of which 
are vouched for as the genuine, but all, no matter how 
complicated the formula, are simply aromatized alcohol. 

It is essential that the alcohol be perfectly deodorized and 
freed from fusel oil before use. 

There is a class of cologne-water obtained by macerat¬ 
ing aromatic substances in alcohol for some time, and then 
distilling the whole. But these waters require to be al¬ 
lowed a few months of rest to develop their better quali¬ 
ties. It is probable that the original article was of this 
class. Good colognes have a rich and permanent odor, 
not clearly alcoholic. Not one of the essential oils em¬ 
ployed should be recognizable by the sense of smell. The 
best brands have long borne the name of Jean Maria Farina, 
and there are many claimants to the original proprietor¬ 
ship of the name. In Cologne all children who can law¬ 
fully bear that name are promptly baptized with it. 

Eau de Javelle, or Javelle’s Solution, a chlori¬ 
nated solution of potash, analogous to Labarraque’s solu¬ 


tion of soda. It has bleaching and disinfecting properties, 
and is employed in removing fruit-stains, etc. from linen. 
Vi hen swallowed in considerable quantity it has remark¬ 
ably poisonous effects. 

Eau de Luce ( Aqua Incise), a soapy liniment made 
of ammonia-water mixed with tincture of oil of amber, 
mastic, and sometimes Mecca balsam. It is employed in 
Europe and the East as a remedy for the bites of snakes 
and insects. 

Eau de Vie, the French for Brandy (which see). 

Eau Gatle, a post-township of Dunn co., Wis. P. 978. 

Eau Galle, a township of St. Croix co., Wis. P. 535. 

Eau Pleine, a post-twp of Portage co., Wis. P. 333. 

Eaux Bonnes, o bon (i. c. “ good waters ”), a fashion¬ 
able resort of France, department of Basses-Pyrenees, 22 
miles S. of Pau. Hero arc warm sulphur-springs, which are 
efficacious for affections of the lungs and chest, the skin, etc. 

Eaux Chaudes, Les, laz o shod, a village of France, 
2 or 3 miles S. W. of Eaux Bonnes, has warm medicinal 
springs. The waters have a wide range of usefulness in 
the diseases of the lungs, joints, and skin. 

Eaux Vives, a town of Switzerland, canton of Geneva, 
near the city of Geneva. Pop. in 1870, 5875. 

Eaves [Ang.-Sax. efese, “brim,” “ brink,” “eaves”], in 
architecture, the lowest edges of the inclined sides of a 
roof, which project beyond the face of the wall, so as to 
throw off the water from the roof. The eaves are sometimes 
provided with a semicircular cast-iron gutter and a down- 
pipe; at other times they discharge the water directly on 
the ground. 

Eb'bert (Isaac), D. D., a minister of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church South, born at Ellicott’s Mills, Md., Mar. 
2, 1817, He graduated at Augusta College, and joined the 
Ohio Conference in 1840. At the division of the Church 
he joined the Kentucky Conference, the Memphis Confer¬ 
ence in 1858, and in 1870 the Little Rock Conference. He 
died in Paducah, Ky., in 1872. T. 0. Summers. 

E'bel (Hermann Wilhelm), one of the most prominent 
writers on Celtic language and literature, born in 1820, be¬ 
came in 1858 professor at the gymnasium in Schneidemiihl. 
He published, among other works, a new edition of Zeuss’s 
“ Grammatica Celtica” (1871), and many essays in the 
“Zeitschrift fur vergleiehende Sprachforschung,” and in 
Kuhn’s and Schleicher’s “Beitrage zur vergleichenden 
Sprachforschung,” some of which have been translated 
into English under the title “Celtic Studies” (1863). / 

Ebe'liaus [called in Germany, Mucker, “ hypocrites ”], 
a sect of religionists, taking their name from Johann Wil¬ 
helm Ebel (1784-1861), one of their founders. Ebel, a 
preacher of Konigsberg, was a follower of Schonherr the 
theosophist. Teaching the doctrine that the relation of the 
sexes is a symbol of the relation between the spiritual and 
material principles, he was joined by many even of the 
upper classes, and his followers are accused of making this 
doctrine a pretext for immorality. 

Ebena'cese [from the Lat. eb'enus, the “ebon tree” 
(see Ebony)], a natural order of exogenous plants (trees or 
shrubs), mostly natives of tropical countries. They are 
allied to Oleacem and to Aquifoliacem. They have alternate 
entire leaves and axillary flowers, which are monopetalous 
and usually unisexual. Some species of this order are re¬ 
markable for the hardness and blackness of their wood, as 
the ebony. This order comprises the American persimmon 
(JDiospyros Virginiana) and the Chinese kaki, the fruit of 
which is edible, like that of many other species. There 
are eight or ten genera and numerous species, of which a 
large majority are tropical. 

Ebene'zer, a post-village of West Seneca township, 
Erie co., N. Y. Pop. 449. 

Ebenezer, a township of York co., S. C. Pop. 2157. 

Eb'ensburg, a post-borough, capital of Cambria co., 
Pa., is on the Ebensburg and Cresson branch of the Central 
R. R., 26 miles W. of Altoona. It has two weekly news¬ 
papers and one monthly publication. Pop. 1240. 

E'ber [Lat. Ebe'rus ], (Paul), a German Protestant 
theologian, born at Ritzingen Nov. 8, 1511. He became 
professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg in 1556. Among his 
works are an “Exposition of the Gospels” and a “ History 
of the Jews” (1561). He was a friend of Melanchthon. 
Died Dec. 10, 1569. 

Eb'erhard (Johann August), D. D., a German philoso¬ 
pher, born at Halberstadt Aug. 31, 1739, studied theology 
at Halle. He gained distinction as an elegant writer, and 
became professor of philosophy at Halle in 1778. He was 
a rationalist in theology, and an adversary of Kant in 
phi losophy. Among his best works are an “Apology for 
Socrates” (1772), a “ Theory of the Fine Arts and Sci- 
































1470 EBERHARD 


ences ” (1783), a“ General History of Philosophy” (1788), 
and an excellent “Dictionary of German Synonyms” (6 
vols., 1793-1802). Died Jan. 6, 1809. 

Eberhard (Konrad), a German sculptor and painter, 
born in Bavaria Nov. 25, 1768. Ho became professor of 
sculpture in the Academy of Munich in 1816. Among his 
works are statues of St. George and St. Michael. Ilis best 
works are in Munich. Died Mar. 12, 1859. 

Eberhard im Eart, the first duke of Wiirtemberg, 
born in 1445, became count of Wiirtemberg when only four¬ 
teen years old, and led a wild and dissipated life, but re¬ 
formed after a voyage to Palestine, and became one of the 
most popular princes of Germany. Having consolidated 
his part of Wiirtemberg with that of his cousin, the em¬ 
peror created him in 1495, in consequence of his services 
to the empire, duke of Wiirtemberg. Died in 1496. (See 
Pfister, “ Eberhard im Bart, erstcr Herzog in Wurtem- 
berg,” 1S22.) 

Eb'erle (John), M.D., an American medical writer, born 
in Hagerstown, Md., Dec. 10, 1787. He was professor in 
Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, and other medical 
colleges, and published a “Treatise on Therapeutics” and 
other works. Died at Lexington, Ky., Feb. 2, 1838. 

E'berling (Christoph Daniel), a German scholar and 
writer, born at Ilildesheim Nov. 20, 1741. He devoted 
himself chiefly to geographical studies, and for his great 
work, “Geography and History of North America” (Ham¬ 
burg, 5 vols., 1793-99), he was thanked by the Congress of 
the U. S. His valuable collection of books and maps re¬ 
lating to this subject was purchased in 1818 by Israel 
Thorndike, and presented to Harvard College. Died June 
30, 1817. 

E'bernburg, a small town of Bavaria, on the river 
Nahe, 20 miles S. W. of Mentz. Here is an old ruined 
castle which belonged to Franz von Sickingen, and was 
used as a place of refuge by Melanchthon and other Re¬ 
formers. 

E'bers (Georg Moritz), an eminent Orientalist, born in 
1837, lectured since 1S65 in Jena on the language, history, 
and monuments of ancient Egypt, and became in 1870 pro¬ 
fessor of Egyptian archaeology in Leipsic. His chief work 
is a “ Commentary on the Books of Moses” (“Die Bucher 
Moses. Sachlicher Commentar zu Genesis und Exodus,” 
vol. i., 1868). He also published a novel, “The Daughter 
of an Egyptian King” (3d ed. 1873), which was translated 
into English, both in London and in the U. S.; an essay in 
Virchow and Von Holtzendorf’s collection, “ Hieroglyph- 
isches Schriftsystem” (1871), and “Through Goshen to 
Sinai,” an account of his travels in Palestine (1872). In 
this work he agrees with Lepsius, and differs with Robin¬ 
son, in making Serbal the mountain of the Law. 

E'bert (Friedrich Adolph), a German bibliographer, 
born near Leipsic July 9,1791. He became chief librarian 
of the royal library at Dresden in 1828. Ho published, 
besides other works, a “ Universal Bibliographic Diction¬ 
ary ” (2 vols., 1821-30). Died Nov. 13, 1834. 

Ebert (Johann Arnold), a German poet, born at Ham¬ 
burg in 1723. He translated Young’s “Night Thoughts” 
into German, and wrote several original iioems. Died Mar. 
19, 1795. 

Eberus. See Eber. 

E'bingen, a town of Wiirtemberg, 39 miles S. W. of 
Stuttgart, has large velvet, hat, and shoe factories. Pop. 
in 1871, 5029. 

E'bionites [Ileb. ebion, “poor”], a name given at first 
to all Christians, on account of their poverty; then given 
by Gentile Christians to Jewish Christians; and finally re¬ 
stricted to heretical Jewish Christians. Irenmus (between 
182-188 A. D.) is the first to mention the Ebionites by name, 
though they are thought to be the “ heretics ” spoken of by 
Ilegesippus some years earlier. The Pharisaic Ebionites 
rejected the writings of Paul, insisted upon the observance 
of the Mosaic ritual, and were humanitarians and mille- 
narians. The Essenic Ebionites were more speculative and 
ascetic. Ebionism dates, according to Gieseler, from about 
107 A. D., and in the fifth century had wholly disappeared. 

Eblana. See Dublin. 

E'boli, or Evoli (anc. Ebnri), a town of Italy, prov¬ 
ince of Salerno, about 16 miles E. S. E. of Salerno. It 
has an annual fair. Pop. in 1861, 6946. 

Eb'oli (Ana de Mendoza), Princess of, a Spanish 
lady, born in 1535, became the wife of the prince of Eboli. 
She was a mistress of Philip II. of Spain, and was accused 
of complicity in the assassination of Escovedo. Schiller 
has idealized her character in his “ Don Carlos.” 

Eb'omitc [named from its resemblance to ebony], a 
hard black compound obtained by blending caoutchouc 


ECCE HOMO. 


with variable proportions of sulphur, generally about half 
its weight. It is called vulcanite in the U. S. 

Eb'ony [Lat. eb'enum; Fr. ebene], a very hard, heavy 
wood of a deep black color, is the duramen or heart-wood 
of (Several species of Diospy'ros, a tree of the natural order 
Ebenaceac. It is heavier than water, takes a good polish, 
and emits an aromatic odor when burned. Ebony of ex¬ 
cellent quality is obtained from the Diospy'ros eb'enum, 
which abounds in Ceylon and attains a large size. The 
ebony which comes from Mauritius and Madagascar is the 
produce of the Diospy'ros reticula'ta. Another species of 
Diospyros produces the beautiful wood called Calamander 
(which see). Ebony is also obtained from the Diospyros 
tomento'sa, which grows in India. This wood is mentioned 
by Virgil as coming from India: “ Sola India nigrum fert 
ebenum.” (Georgies, book ii. 116.) It is used by cabinet¬ 
makers. Ebony is produced in Texas, Mexico, and Cali¬ 
fornia from the japote or persimmon ( Diospyios Texana). 

Eboulemens, a post-village of Charlevoix co., Quebec, 
Canada, on the N. shore of the St. Lawrence River, 69 miles 
below Quebec. Pop. about 2400. 

E'brard (Johann Heinrich August), a German Prot¬ 
estant theologian, born, at Erlangen Jan. 18, 1818. Ho 
obtained the chair of theology at Erlangen in 1847, be¬ 
came in 1853 consistorial councillor in Spires, and resigned 
in 1861. lie is a prominent representative of the orthodox 
school. Among his works are “Christian Dogmatics” (2 
vols., 1852), “The Divine and Human in Christianity” 
(1844), and a “Manual of the History of the Christian 
Church and Doctrines” (4 vols., 1864-66). 

E'bro [anc. Ibc'rus; Fr. Ebre], a river of Spain, rises 
in the Cantabrian Mountains near the northern boundary 
of the province of Burgos. It flows nearly south-eastward 
through the provinces of Navarre and Saragossa, forms 
the boundary between Iluesca and Teruel, and enters the 
Mediterranean 22 miles E. of Tortosa. The chief towns on 
its banks are Logrono, Tudela, Saragossa, and Tortosa. Its 
whole length is about 350 miles. Its navigation is ren¬ 
dered difficult by rapids and rocks. A canal nearly 100 
miles long has been cut along the Ebro below Tudela. 

EbulTioscope [from the Lat. ebul'lio, to “boil,” to 
“bubble,” and the Gr. o-Koneoj, to “see”], an instrument for 
ascertaining the strength of alcohol or other distilled liq¬ 
uids by observing the boiling-point and the barometrical 
pressure at the time of the experiment. These instruments 
are of various kinds; those of Vidal and of Conatty arc the 
best known. 

Ebnlli'tion [from the Lat. ebullio, to “boil”], boiling; 
the violent agitation into which liquids are thrown by the 
rapid escape of their vapor when sufficiently heated. Before 
ebullition begins, if sufficient heat is applied, the tempera¬ 
ture of the liquid continually rises; but when the liquid 
reaches the “boiling-point”—the point at which ebullition 
is seen—the temperature is constant. Ebullition is caused 
by the rapid escape of vapor. (See Boiling-Point.) 

Ebnri. Sec Eboli. 

Ebarovices. See IvigA. 

EcbaVana, or Agbatana [Fr. Ecbatane ], a cele¬ 
brated ancient city, the capital of Media, was situated near 
the base of Mount Orontes ( Elwend ), about 165 miles S. W. 
of Teheran. Its foundation is attributed by tradition to 
Semiramis, but according to Herodotus it was founded by 
Deioces (708 B. C.). It stood on a conical hill, and was 
surrounded by seven concentric walls, each of which was 
higher than the next outer one. It was the favorite sum¬ 
mer residence of the kings of Media and Persia, who had 
here a magnificent palace and a citadel of immense strength. 
Alexander the Great captured it in 331 B. C., and obtained 
a very large booty. This city is called Achmetha in the 
book of Ezra. Some recent writers believe it to be the 
modern IIamadan (which sec). Rawlinson attempts to 
identify it with the ruined Taklit-i-SoleimCtn. 

Eccaleo'bion [from the Gr. e/c<aAeu> fiiov, “I call out 
life”], a mechanical contrivance for hatching eggs by arti¬ 
ficial heat. It consists of an oven with shelves, on which 
the eggs are placed, ranged one above the other. The 
temperature is kept of uniform warmth by steam or hot 
water conveyed in pipes. A somewhat similar machine 
has long been employed in Egypt with success. 

Ec/ce Ho'mo [Lat., meaning “Behold the Man !”], the 
words uttered by Pilate (John xix. 5) when he brought 
Jesus forth to the people. Monkish tradition points out the 
spot, now marked by an arch called Ecce Homo, only the 
piers of which appear to be ancient. It spans the Via Do¬ 
lorosa at its highest point, and has “a narrow gallery or 
chamber on the top.” “Ecce Homo” is the name given to 
pictures of Christ crowned with thorns. Correggio’s, in the 
National Gallery, London, is generally considered the best. 
















ECCENTRIC-ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 


In 1864, Prof. Seeley, then of London, now of Cambridge, 
England, published a book entitled “ Ecce Homo,” which 
made a great stir. 

Ecccn trie [from the Gr. £k, “ out of,” and KeVrpov (Lat. 
cen'trum), a ‘‘point,” a “centre”], in machinery, a device 
by which circular motion gives rise to “ to-and-fro ” mo¬ 
tion. In one of the forms of the eccentric a disk is made 
to revolve around a point not in its centre. The disk turns 
in a metallic collar, which is thrown back and forth by the 
revolutions, and to the collar a rod is attached which re¬ 
ceives the required to-and-fro motion. This arrangement is 
often used to give motion to sliding valves in steam-engines. 
Ecchelensis. See Echellensis. 

Ec'cles (Henry), Q. C., a Canadian barrister, born at 
Bath, England, in 1817, was educated by his father, an 
accomplished army officer, long resident in Canada. He 
was called to the bar in 1842, became queen’s counsel in 
1866, and attained the highest rank in his profession. Died 
at Toronto Nov. 22, 1863. 

Ec'clesfielil, a parish of England, in the West Riding 
of Yorkshire, 5 miles N. of Sheffield. It has manufactures 
of cutlery, linen, and nails. Coal mines are worked in the 
vicinity. 

Eccle'sia [Gr. eKKK^o-ia, an “assembly,” from eV, “out,” 
and (taAea), to “call”], the Latin name for Church (which see). 

Ecclesia [for etymology see above], the great assem¬ 
bly of the Athenians, in which every free citizen might 
vote. Although possessing supreme authority in the state 
from a very remote period, it was after a time seldom con¬ 
vened, so that the management of the state fell into the 
hands of the archons, who were elected from the nobles. 
Solon afterwards appointed it to meet four times every 
thirty-five days, besides extraordinary occasions on which 
it might be assembled. The subjects discussed in the ec¬ 
clesia were restricted by Solon to such as had passed 
through the senate of five hundred, but this rule was not 
strictly observed. The magistrates who managed these as¬ 
semblies were the prytanes, prohedri, and epistates; the 
first convened the people, the second proposed the subjects 
on which they were to decide, the third presided over the 
whole. The name ecclesia was afterwards given generally 
to any public assembly regularly convoked. 

Ecclesias'tes [Septuagint Gr. 'EKKX-qcnaaT^, the 
“ preacher,” from e/cKArjaia, an “ assembly ;” Hebrew Kohe- 
leth , a noun feminine in form, meaning “preacher” or 
“gatherer”], a canonical book of the Old Testament. Its 
, author is called “ Ivoheleth ” (t. e. the “preacher ”), and he 
is described as king in Jerusalem and son of David— i. e. 
Solomon. Since the time of Grotius (1644) the Solomonic 
origin of the book has been denied by continental critics 
generally, even by orthodox writers like Hengstenberg, Keil, 
and Delitzsch, the dates assigned ranging from 536 to 150 
B. C. Its post-Solomonic origin has been argued (1) from 
the Aramaic and other foreign words which occur in it; (2) 
from the sentiments expressed. On the other hand, the old 
traditional ascription of the book to Solomon has been de¬ 
fended by such scholars as Schelling, Van Essen, Hahn, 
Pusey, Wordsworth, and Tayler Lewis. The two leading 
ideas of the Preacher are the vanity of earthly good and the 
certainty of judgment. The alleged epicureanism of sev¬ 
eral passages, so much emphasized by some critics, is thought 
by others to be simply ironical. 

Ecclesiastical Commissioners, in England and 
Wales, are the archbishops, bishops, the principal deans, 
several of the principal judges, the chief baron of the ex¬ 
chequer, the master of the rolls, and twelve lay members, 
all churchmen, who are appointed for the purpose of ex¬ 
amining the state of dioceses and the episcopal revenues, 
of uniting or dividing parishes (when expedient), and of 
carrying out other measures for the benefit of the Estab¬ 
lished Church. Much popular indignation has been ex¬ 
cited by their large expenditures of money in renewing and 
improving the bishops’palaces; and it is evident, whatever 
may be the good or evil they have accomplished, that there 
is a large possibility that their powers may be misused. 
The commission was established in 1835. 

Ecclesiastical Courts, in England and Wales, 
until 1857, had important jurisdiction not only in mar¬ 
riage and divorce cases and the probate of wills, but in 
some cases they could exercise the discipline of the Church 
for heresy, incontinence, defamation, and other faults, 
though in more recent times the latter duties were exer¬ 
cised only in cases where clergymen were accused. It is 
said that the publication of Dickens’s novel “ David Cop- 
perfield” hastened the transfer of non-ecclesiastical busi¬ 
ness from these courts to those of the civil law. There are 
(1) “peculiar courts” of many grades, from the royal to 
the parochial; (2) archdeacons’ courts; (3) commissaries’ 
courts; (4) diocesan courts; and (5) provincial courts at 


1471 


London and York. (See Arches, Court of ; Delegates, 
Court of; and Doctors’ Commons.) In civil causes their 
jurisdiction is virtually at an end. 

Ecclesiastical History. I. Nature and Object. — 
Ecclesiastical history or church history is one of the four 
divisions of theological science—viz., exegetical (or bibli¬ 
cal), historical, systematic (or philosophical], and practical 
(homiletical and pastoral) theology. Of these divisions 
the historical is the most extensive in bulk, and furnishes 
material to all the rest. In importance it yields only to 
exegetical theology, which has to do with the interpreta¬ 
tion of the Holy Scriptures. Historical theology begins 
with the creation of man in the image, and for the glory, 
of God, and comes down to the present as its relative goal, 
but will go on till the general judgment or the final settle¬ 
ment of all the affairs of men. It embraces within these 
limits all that belongs to the religious development of the 
race within the line of revelation—the origin, progress, and 
fortunes of the kingdom of God, and its relations to the 
kingdoms of this world. Since the fqll of man it has as¬ 
sumed the character of a history of redemption (and is so 
represented, for instance, by Jonathan Edwards in his well- 
known popular book). In a narrower sense, church his¬ 
tory is the history of Christianity from the birth of Christ, 
or, according to others, from the day of Pentecost (A. D. 
30), when Christianity first assumed an organized form 
distinct from Judaism, down to the present time. 

II. Church History and Secidar History. —They differ as 
Church and State, as Christianity and humanity, as the 
order of grace and the order of nature. Yet they are in¬ 
separably connected and interwoven, and the one cannot 
be understood without the other. Among the Jews the 
spiritual and secular history together form one history of 
theocracy. Both currents intermingle in the old Byzafitine 
empire, in the European states and the Latin Church dur¬ 
ing the Middle Ages, in the period of the Reformation, 
during the colonial period of America, and in all countries 
where Church and State are united. Gibbon’s “History 
of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ” is in great 
part also a “History of the Rise and Progress of Chris- 
tianitjq” which survived the fall of the Old and New Rome, 
and went forth to conquer the barbarian conquerors by 
Christianizing and civilizing them. Every history of the 
papacy is also a history of the German empire, and vice 
versd. No history of the sixteenth century can be written 
without constant reference to the Protestant Reformation 
and the Roman Catholic reaction. (Compare, e.g., Hume, 
Macaulay, and Burnet for England; Ranke for Germany; 
Motley for Holland.) The Puritan settlements of New 
England are the beginning alike of the ecclesiastical and 
secular history of North America. In modern times the 
tendency is more and more towards separation of the 
spiritual and temporal, the ecclesiastical and civil powers; 
nevertheless, the Church will always be more or less influ¬ 
enced by the surrounding state of civil society, and must 
adapt itself to the wants of the age and progress of events; 
while, on the other hand, the world will always feel the 
moral influence, the restraining, ennobling, stimulating, 
purifying, and sanctifying power of Christianity, which 
works like a leaven from within upon all ramifications of 
society. 

III. Periods and Epochs. —These represent the different 
stages in the religious development of the race, and must 
not be arbitrarily made according to a mechanical scheme 
(such as the centurial division adhered to by Mosheim), but 
taken from the actual stops or starting-points (h rox>j) and 
circuits (irepioSos) of the history itself. The following are 
the natural divisions: 

A. Sacred' or Biblical History, the history of the Divine 
revelation from the creation to the close of the apostolic 
age, running parallel with the Scriptures from Genesis to 
Revelation. Here we must distinguish the dispensation of 
the Law and the dispensation of the Gospel, or the history 
of the Old Testament religion and of that of the New Tes¬ 
tament religion. 

(a) Under the Old Dispensation, from the creation down 
to John the Baptist. Subdivisions : The antediluvian 
period; the patriarchal period; the Mosaic period (the es¬ 
tablishment of the Jewish theocracy); the period of the 
Jewish monarchy and prophecy; the period of the Baby¬ 
lonian exile; the period of the restoration, the Maccabees, 
the Roman rule till Herod the Great (or down to the de¬ 
struction of Jerusalem). 

(b) Under the New Dispensation. Christ and the apos¬ 
tles, or primitive and normative Christianity in its divine- 
human founder and inspired organs. Subdivisions: The 
preparatory mission of John the Baptist; the life of Christ; 
the founding of the Church by the apostles; the labors ot 
Peter, Paul, and John. 

B. Christian History, or Church History proper, from the 
close of the apostolic age to modern times. Subdivisions: 


















1472 


ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 


(a) History of Ancient Christianity, embracing the first 
six centuries to Gregory I. (590): Graeco-Latin, patristic, 
Catholic, the common stock from which the Greek, tho 
Roman, and the Protestant churches have sprung. Sub¬ 
divisions : (1) The apostolic age (sec A b) ; (2) the age of 
persecution to Constantine the Great and the Council of 
Nicaea (225); (3) the age of patriarchs, Christian emperors, 
and oecumenical councils (to 590). Some historians carry 
the age of ancient Christianity down to Charlemagne, A. D. 
S00 (so as to include John of Damascus, the last of the 
Greek Fathers), and the beginning of the German Roman 
empire and the temporal power of the papacy. In this 
case we have a fourth subdivision, from Gregory I. to 
Charlemagne (A. D. 590 to 800). 

(b) History of Medieval Christianity, from the close of 
the sixth to the beginning of the sixteenth century, or from 
Gregory I. (A. D. 590), the first mediaeval pope, to Luther 
(A. D. 1517). Character: The Greek and Roman churches, 
divided, pursue their independent course ; the Latin Church 
extending west among the Celtic and Germanic races, the 
Greek north-east among the Slavonians (in Russia); con¬ 
version of the barbarians ; conflicts with Mohammedanism ; 
the Crusades ; rise and progress of the papacy, scholasti¬ 
cism, mysticism ,• the reformatory councils of Pisa, Con¬ 
stance, and Bale; revival of letters; invention of printing ; 
discovery of America; biblical theology: forerunners of 
Protestantism (Wycliffe in England, IIuss in Bohemia, Sa¬ 
vonarola in Italy, Wessel in Holland, etc.). Subdivisions: 
(1) The missionary period of the Middle Ages, from Greg¬ 
ory I. to Hildebrand or Gregory VII. (590 to 1049); (2) 
the palmy period of the papacy, from Gregory VII. to Boni¬ 
face VIII. (1049 to 1294); (3) the decay of (lie mediaeval 
papacy and scholasticism, and the preparation for the Ref¬ 
ormation, from Boniface VIII. to Leo X. or Martin Luther 
(1294-1517). 

(c) History of Modern Christianity, from the Reformation 
of the sixteenth century to tho present time. Protestant¬ 
ism and Romanism; founding of the various evangelical 
churches, the Lutheran, Calvinistic, Anglican, etc.; prog¬ 
ress of Christianity among the Teutonic races; restoration 
of Romanism; Jesuitism; Jansenism; Puritanism and 
Methodism in England ; Pietism and the Moravians in Ger¬ 
many ; settlements in North America; growth of the Greek 
Church in Russia, and of the Protestant in the United 
States; revival and triumph of ultramontane Romanism; 
conflict of faith with modern rationalism and infidelity; 
immense activity in theology, literature, missions, and all 
forms of Christian philanthropy. Subdivisions: (1) The 
ase of the Protestant Reformation and the Roman Catholic 
counter-reformation or reaction (from 1517 to 1600, perhaps 
better to 1648); (2) the age of scholastic and polemic con- 
fessionalism in conflict with non-conformity and subjective 
piety (from the middle of the seventeenth to the middle of 
the eighteenth century); (3) the age of revolution and revi¬ 
val, and conflict between Christianity and various forms of 
skepticism and secularism (from deism in England and (he 
French Revolution to our time). 

IV. Sources. —They are mostly written, in part unwrit¬ 
ten. The written sources include (a) the official documents 
of ecclesiastical and civil authorities, such as acts of coun¬ 
cils, creeds, liturgies, hymn-books, church laws, papal bulls 
and encyclicals ; (b) the writings of the personal actors in 
the history, and contemporary observers and reporters, such 
as the Fathers for ancient Christianity, the Schoolmen for 
mediaeval, the Reformers and their opponents for the 
Reformation period; (c) inscriptions on walls, pictures, 
churches, tombstones, and other monuments. 

The unwritten sources are works of Christian art, as 
churches, chapels, pictures, sculptures, crosses, crucifixes, 
relics, and other remains which symbolize and embody the 
spirit of Christianity in different epochs and phases. Thus, 
the Roman catacombs, with their vast extent, their solemn 
darkness, their labyrinthine mystery, their rude epitaphs 
and sculptures, their symbols of faith and their relics of 
martyrdom, give us a lifelike idea of the Church in the pe¬ 
riod of persecution, its trials and sufferings, its faith and 
hope, its simple worship and devoted piety. “ He who is 
thoroughly steeped in the imagery of the catacombs will be 
nearer to the thoughts of the early Church than he who has 
learned by heart the most elaborate treatises of Tertullian 
or Origen.” The basilicas are characteristic of the Nicene, 
the Byzantine churches of the Byzantine age, the Gothic 
cathedrals of the palmy days of the Middle Ages, the Re¬ 
naissance style of the revival of letters. Even now most 
churches and sects can be best appreciated in the locali¬ 
ties and in view of the monuments and the people where 
they originated or have their centre of life and action. 

V. Duty of the Historian. —He must (1) master the sources 
in the original languages in which they were written (Greek, 
Latin, and the modern languages of Europe); separating 
the genuine from the spurious, the original from corrup¬ 


tions and interpolations; sifting the truth from falsehood, 
the facts from fiction and partisan judgment; comparing 
tho accounts of all actors, friend and foe, narrator, eulogist, 
advocate, and antagonist, whether orthodox or heretic, 
whether Christian, Jew, or Gentile; aiming in all this labo¬ 
rious investigation at u the truth, the whole truth, and 
I nothing but tho truth.” (2) He must then reproduce (ho 
clearly ascertained facts and results of his investigation in 
a faithful and lifelike narrative, so as to present the ob¬ 
jective course of history itself as it were in a miniature 
photograph. Tho genuine writer of history differs as much 
from the dry chronicler of isolated facts and dates as from 
the novelist; history has a body and a living soul, and its 
facts are animated by thoughts and principles. The histo¬ 
rian must exhibit both; he must be able to particularize 
and to generalize, to descend into minute details, and to 
take a comprehensive bird’s-eye view of whole ages and 
periods. He must have a judicial mind, which deals im¬ 
partially with all persons and events coming before his tri¬ 
bunal, and is swayed by no consideration but that of strict 
justice. This aim should be constantly kept in view, 
although in the limited and imperfect state of our informa¬ 
tion, and the inability to emancipate one’s self from all the 
influences of education and prevailing opinions and preju¬ 
dices, we can expect no more than an approximate solution 
of the difficult task. It is the exclusive privilege of the 
Divine Mind to view all things sub specie ctcrnitatis, to seo 
the end from the beginning. We can only know things con¬ 
secutively and in fragments. But history is its own best 
interpreter, and the farther it advances the more we are 
able to understand and appreciate the past. 

VI. Value .—The study of history enables us to under¬ 
stand the present, which is the fruit of tho past and the 
germ of the future. It is the richest storehouse of wisdom 
and experience. It is tho best commentary of Christianity. 
It is full of comfort and encouragement. It verifies on every 
page the promise of the Saviour to be with his people al¬ 
ways, and to build his Church on a rock against which the 
gates of hell cannot prevail. It exhibits the life and power 
of Christ in all its forms and phases/and the triumphant 
march of his kingdom from land to land and generation to 
generation. Earthly empires, systems of philosophy have 
their day, human institutions decay, all things of this world 
bloom and fade away like the grass of the field; but the 
Christian religion has the dew of perennial youth, survives 
all changes, makes steady progress from age to age, over¬ 
comes all persecution from without and corruption from 
within, is now stronger and more widely spread than ever 
before, directs the course of civilization, and bears the hopes 
of the human race. The history of the world is governed 
in the interest and for the ultimate triumph of Christianity. 
The experience of the past is a sure guarantee of the future. 

VII. Literature. —(1) Works on General Church History : 
Eusebius (died 340), “ Church History,” from the birth of 
Christ to Constantine the Great (324). His successors in 
the Greek Church: Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret. The 
“ Magdeburg Centuries,” by Matthias Flacius (died 1575) 
and other Lutheran divines of Germany (Bale, 1559-74), 
covering thirteen Christian centuries in as many volumes, 
the first history from a Protestant point of view in opposi¬ 
tion to the claims of Romanism. The “ Ecclesiastical An¬ 
nals ” of Caesar Baronius (died 1607), in 12 folio volumes, 
published at Rome, 1588 sqq., to which were added the con¬ 
tinuations of Raynaldus, Spondanus, and others—a work of 
astounding learning and industry, but altogether in (he in¬ 
terest of the papacy. Tillemont (died 1698), in his invalu¬ 
able “Memoires” (Paris, 1693-1712, 16 vols.), wrote the 
history of the first six centuries from the sources, in bio¬ 
graphical style and in the spirit of the more liberal Gallican 
Catholicism. Gottfried Arnold (died 1714), of the Pie- 
tistic school of Spener, in his “ Impartial History of the 
Church and of Heretics ” (Frankfort, 1699 sqq., 4 vols. fob, to 
A. D. 1688), advocated the interests of practical piety and 
the claims of heretics and schismatics and all who suffered 
persecution from an intolerant hierarchy and orthodoxy. 
J. L. Mosheim (died 1755) wrote his “Institutes of Eccle¬ 
siastical History ” (in Latin, Helmstadt, 1755, and often since 
in several translations) in the spirit of a moderate Lutheran 
orthodoxy, w T ith solid learning and impartiality, in clear 
style, after the centurial arrangement of Flacius, and fur¬ 
nished a convenient text-book which (especially in Mur¬ 
dock’s translation) has continued in use in England and 
America even to this day. Schroeckii’s “ Christian Church 
History” (Leipsic, 1768-1810, in 45 vols.) is afar more ex¬ 
tensive and far less readable work, but invaluable for refer¬ 
ence, full of reliable information from the sources; it for¬ 
sakes the mechanical centurial division, and substitutes for 
it the periodic arrangement. Henke (died 1809) followed 
with a thoroughly rationalistic work in 9 vols. (1788-1810). 
Neander (professor of church history in Berlin, died 1850) 
marks an epoch in this branch of theological literature, and 





























ECCLESIASTICAL LAAV—ECHIMYS. 1478 


by his truly Christian, conscientious, impartial, truth-lov¬ 
ing* j us t; liberal, and withal thoroughly learned and pro¬ 
found spirit and method, he earned the title of “father of 
church history.” llis “ General History of the Christian 
Religion and Church ” (Hamburg, 1825-52,11 vols.), though 
incomplete (it stops with the Council of Bale, 1430) and 
somewhat diffuse and monotonous in style, is an immortal 
monument of genius and learning ; it pays special attention 
to the development of Christian life and doctrine, and is 
edifying as well as instructive. It has been naturalized in 
England and America by the translation of Prof. Torrey 
(Boston, 1847-52, 5 vols.; 12th ed. 1872), and will long be 
studied with profit. Equally valuable, though of an alto¬ 
gether different plan and spirit, is the “ Church History” 
of Gieseler (Bonn, 1824-56), translated from the German 
first by Cunningham in Philadelphia (1846), then by David¬ 
son and Hull in England, and revised by II. B. Smith of New 
York (1857 sqq.). The text is merely a meagre skeleton of 
facts and dates, but the body of the work consists in care¬ 
fully selected extracts and proof-texts from the sources, 
which furnish the data for an independentjudgment. Baur’s 
“ Church History ” (partly published after his death, Tu¬ 
bingen, 1861, in 5 vols.) is distinguished for philosophic 
grasp, critical combinations, and bold conjectures, especial¬ 
ly in the treatment of the ancient heresies and systems of 
doctrine. Hagenbach’s “ Church History ” (now completed 
in 7 vols., Leipsic, 1S73) is an admirable digest of the vast 
material for the lay reader. Schaff’s “ History of the 
Christian Church” (New York, 1859-67, in 3 vols.; Ger¬ 
man ed. Leipsic, 1868) is the first general church history 
prepared on American soil, but not yet completed (two more 
volumes are in course of preparation). Of English church 
historians, Waddington represents the general history in 
six volumes to the Reformation, inclusive (1835 sqq.) ; Rob¬ 
ertson in three (1854 sqq.) to the close of the Middle Ages. 
The older work of Milner (died 1797) is written in popular 
style for edification. Of the numerous compends of church 
history in one or more volumes, we mention those of Bol¬ 
linger, Mohler, Ritter, Alzog, among Roman Catholics; 
Hase, Niedner, Guericke, Kurtz, Ebrard, among Prot¬ 
estants: all in German, some also translated into English. 

(2) Works on special departments of church history. On 
Old Testament history : Milman (“ History of the Jews ”), 
Ewald (“'History of Israel,” 7 vols., translated by Russell 
Martineau), Stanley (“ History of the Jewish Church”). 
Life of Christ: Neander (German and English), Lange 
(German and English, 6 vols.), Pressense (French and 
English), Ellicott, Andrews, Ewald, Riggenbacii, Sepp 
(R. C.), Paulus (rationalistic), Strauss (mythical theory), 
Renan (legendary theory). History of the Apostolic Church 
from A. D. 30 to 100 : Neander, Lange, Thiersch, Schaff, 
Reuss, Conybeare and IIowson (on St. Paul). History 
of Christian Doctrines, or Dogmatic History : Petavius 
(R. C.), MOnscher, Baumgarten Crusius (2 vols.), Ha- 
genbach (translated by Buch, revised by H. B. Smith, New 
York, 1861, 2 vols.), Neander (1 vol., posthumous), Baur 
(Leipsic, 1867, posthumous, 3 vols.; also a compend in 1 
vol.), Sherd (New York, 1863, 2 vols.), Beck, Schwane 
(R. C.); “History of Protestant Theology,” by Dorner 
(Munich, 1867; also in English, Edinburgh, 1871); “His¬ 
tory of Roman Catholic Theology,” by Werner (Munich, 
1866). History of special doctrines : Baur on the “ Trinity 
and Incarnation” (3 vols.), on the “Atonement” (1vol.); 
Dorner on “ Christology ” (2 vols.; also in English); 
Ebrard on the “Lord’s Supper.” History of Councils: 
Mansi, IIardouin, Walcii, Fuchs, Hefele. History of 
Church Polity : Planck, Ritschl, Sugenheim, Greenwood. 
History of Missions : Blumiiardt, Wiggers, and numerous 
monographs. Patrology and Patristics : the Benedictine 
editions, and large collections of the works of the Fathers 
by Gallanri, Migne, etc. The biographical and literary 
works on the Fathers, by Tillemont, Du Pin, Ceillier, 
Cave, Lumper, Mohler, Fessler, Alzog, Bohringer. 
Separate biographies of Tertullian and Chrysostom, by Ne¬ 
ander ; Justin Martyr, by Semisch ; Origen, by Tiioma- 
sius; Augustine, by Bindemann; Jerome, by Zockler. 
Ecclesiastical Antiquities, by Bingham, Augusti, Siegel, 
Coleman. On Ancient Christianity: Mosheim, Milman, 
Schaff, Pressense; “History of the Greek (Eastern) 
Church,” by Dean Stanley (London and New York, 1862); 
“ History of Latin Christianity,” by Dean Milman (to the 
Pontificate of Nicholas V., London and New York, 1860 
sqq ) • “ History of the Crusades,” by Michaud, Wilken, 
Spittler. The Papacy: Walch, Planck, Spittler, 
Greenwood (“ Cathedra Petri”), Riddle, Bauer, Wylie ; 
also many monographs on single popes, as Voigt on Greg¬ 
ory VII., Hurter on Innocent III. (4 vols.), Reuter on 
Alexander III. (3 vols.). Scholasticism and Mysticism of 
the Middle Ages: Stockl (“History of the Philosophy 
of the Middle Ages,” Mayence, 1864 sqq., 3 vols.) ; Gorres 
(“ History of Christian Mysticism,” 1836-42, 4 vols.); and 
93 


the monographs of Hasse on Anselm of Canterbury, Wer¬ 
ner and Vaughan on Thomas Aquinas, Neander and 
Morison on St. Bernard, Christlieb on Scotus Erigena, 
Liebner on Hugo of St. Victor. History of Monasticism : 
Spittler, Munch, Boring, Montalembert, and especially 
the colossal biographical work of the Jesuits, “Acta Sanc¬ 
torum ” (for every day in the year, not yet completed). 
Revival of Letters and Forerunners of the Reformation: 
Ullmann on the “Reformers before the Reformation ” (2 
vols., Hamburg, 1841); Vaughan on John Wycliffe (London, 
1854); Leciiler on Wycliffe (Leipsic, 1873, *2 vols.); IIel- 
fert and Gilette on lluss and Jerome of Prague; Meier, 
Rudelbach, Perrens, Madden on Savonarola; Muller 
on Erasmus; Strauss on Ulrich von Hutten; Seeboiim on 
“The Oxford Reformers, John Colet, Erasmus, and Thomas 
More” (London, 1869). “ History of the Reformation,” by 

Marheineke, Neudecker, Ranke, Merle d’Aubigne, Bol¬ 
linger (R. C.), Fisher (just published, New York, 1873), 
Kaiinis (1873); not to mention the numerous monographs 
on Luther, Melanchthon, Zwingli, Calvin. On the English 
Reformation in particular: Strype (“Ecclesiastical Memo¬ 
rials and Annals of the Reformation;” also his “Memo¬ 
rials of Cranmer, Parker, Grindal, Whitgift,” etc.); Bur¬ 
net, Collier (non-juror), Dodd (R. C.), Cardwell, Ful¬ 
ler, Soames, Froude (from the fall of Wolsey to the death 
of Elizabeth). On the Reformation in Scotland : Buchanan 
(“ Rerum Scoticarum Historia ”), J. Knox (till 1567), Cald- 
erwood, Robertson, M’Crie (“Life of John Knox”), 
Hetherington, Rudloff. On the literature of the modern 
history of the principal churches and sects see the respec¬ 
tive articles. Philip Schaff. 

Ecclesiastical Law. See Canon Law'. 

Ecclesias'ticus [Gr. e/c/cArja-iacrTiKo?, probably.meaning 
the “church-book,” because anciently read in “church” 
(eKK\ri<TLa)], or the Wisdom of Jesus the Son of 
Sivach, a book considered apocryphal by Jews and 
Protestants, and received as canonical by the Roman Cath¬ 
olic and Greek churches. By the Anglican Articles it is 
recommended to be read for edification. It appears to 
have been written in Hebrew by one Jesus (Joshua), the 
son of Sirach, at Jerusalem, at an uncertain date. 

Ecclesiol'ogy [Gr. eKK^arCa, “church,” and Ao-yo?, 
“treatise”], a word denoting properly the doctrine of the 
Church and its government, but commonly applied to the 
building and furnishing of church edifices. The subject 
has attracted much attention in Great Britain of late years. 
There are societies for promoting the study, a journal (“ The 
Ecclesiologist”) is published, and thero is “A Handbook 
of English Ecclesiology ” (London, 1847). 

Echellen'sis (Abraham), a learned Maronite, born at 
Eckel in Syria. He was professor of Arabic and Syriac at 
Rome, and removed about 1630 to Paris, where he assisted 
in the edition of Le Jay’s polyglot Bible. He was the 
author of an “Oriental Chronicle.” Died in Italy in 1664. 

r 

Echelon [a French word signifying the “round ” of a 
ladder], a military term applied to a certain arrangement 
of troops when several divisions are drawn up in parallel 
lines, each to the right or the left of the one preceding it, 
like “steps” or the rounds of a ladder, so that no two are 
on the same alignment. Each division by marching di¬ 
rectly forward can form a line with that which is in ad¬ 
vance of it. There are two sorts of echelon, direct and ob¬ 
lique, the former of which is used in an attack or a retreat. 

Echevin [Lat. scabinus ] in France from the time of 
Charlemagne to the Revolution (17S9), a royal officer of 
justice and of finance, whose duties were various in differ¬ 
ent periods. For the last six hundred years of the duration 
of the office it was chiefly exercised in the cities. The 
echevins of Paris were assessors, and had authority as 
magistrates in some kinds of civil business. 

Echitl'na [Gr. "Ex^a], in Greek mythology, a monster, 
half serpent and half woman, supposed to be the daughter 
of Tartarus, and the mother of Cerberus and the Chiuuera. 

Echidna, a genus of Australian quadrupeds belong¬ 
ing to the order Monotremata. The Echidna is covered 
with spines, and is nearly as large as a hedgehog. It de¬ 
viates in a remarkable manner from the typical structure 
of the Mammalia in the organization of the generative and 
osseous systems. The muzzle is elongated and slender, 
and the mouth destitute of teeth. The feet are armed 
with claws, which enable the Echidna to hurrow with great 
rapidity. It feeds on ants, which it catches by means of a 
long adhesive tongue. 

Echi'mys [from the Gr. i\ivo s, a “hedgehog,” and 
a “mouse”], a South American genus of rodent mammals 
called “ spiny rats.” They are about the size of large rats, 
and have numerous spines scattered through their hair. 
They are of six or eight species, and are a kind of link be¬ 
tween the rats and the true porcupines. 












14 " 4 ECHIN ADES—ECIJA. 


Echin'ades [Gr. ’Exu'aSe?, from a " hedgehog,” 

alluding to their irregular, sharp outlines], the ancient 
Greek name of a group of islands of the Ionian Sea, off the 
mouth ot the Achelous. Some of the ancient islands have 
been joined to the mainland by alluvial deposits. The 
islands are small, rocky, and unimportant. Seventeen of 
these islands have names, but only nine are cultivated. 
They are now called Kurtzelari Islands, and the largest is 
named Petala; but Oxi&, Makrf, and Vrdmona are the most 
important. Lat. of the S. end of Oxi£, 38° 17' N., Ion. 21° 
6' B. 

Ech'inate [from the Gr. ex<To?, a “ hedgehog”], in 
botany, furnished with rigid hairs or prickles, as the husk 
of the chestnut. 

Echill'ida [named from Echi'nua, one of the genera], 
called also Ech'ilioids or Sea Ur'chins (urchin being 
the old English for hedgehog), an order of echinoderms 
with calcareous shells more or less globular, and composed 
of symmetrically-arranged plates, bearing tubercles armed 
with movable spines. They have no arms like star fishes, 
but the five radiations are distinctly marked by holes, 
through which the ambulacra are protruded. These holes 
occur in the alternate plates. These animals are divided 
into regular sea urchins (Cidaridae), often spherical or oval, 
and irregular sea urchins, of which there are several fam¬ 
ilies. Many species of echinoids occur in the American seas. 

Echinoder'mata (plu.), or Ech'inoderms [from the 
Gr. e’xu'o?, a “ hedgehog,” and Se'p/xa, a "skin”], the highest 
class of animals of the Cuvierian sub-kingdom Radiata, 
having a tough covering, containing more or less calcareous 
matter, or composed of pieces which are either movable or 
bound together and covered with spines (whence the name); 
the body divided into two parts, the actinal (or oral) and 
the abactinal portion. Along certain of the rays are reg¬ 
ular rows of tube-like suckers (ambulacra) used in locomo¬ 
tion. The muscular system is well developed. The inter¬ 
nal vessels, etc. have walls of their own. The principal 
nerve-centre is a peri-oesophageal ring; all are oviparous. 
Echinoderms have their parts in multiples of five. The 
living species are all marine. They are divided into five 
orders—the holothurians, the sea urchins (echinoids), the 
star fishes (asteroids), the ophiuroids, and the crinoids. 
To these some append the siphunculoids as a sixth order. 

Eclii'nus [Gr. ex£ro?, a “ hedgehog,” a name applied to 



Shell of Sea Urchin {Echinus), with the spines, 

this genus on account of its spines], a genus of Ecliino- 
dermata, of the family Cidaridae, comprising a large num- 



Echinus . divested of its spines. 


ber of European sea-urchins, several species of which are 
used as food. Forbes counted on one of these animals 
more than 300 polygonal plates, over 4000 spines, and 
nearly 1900 suckers. 

Echinus, in architecture, a moulding consisting of a 
series of egg-shaped or alternately egg- and anchor-shaped 
ornaments. It especially appears as an ornament of the 
Doric capital or cushion, and is one of the characteristic 
decorations of early Gi'eek art. It is said to have taken its 
original form and its name from the chestnut and its spiny 
burr. 

Echmiedzin', or Eschmiazin, a celebrated Arme¬ 
nian monastery in the province of Erivan, in Asiatic Rus¬ 
sia, 15 miles W. of Erivan. It is the residence of the ca- 
tholicos or head of the entire Armenian Church. Twelve 
archbishops and bishops, four vartabeds, about sixty cler-. 
ical and five hundred lay monks live in the monastery, 
the archbishops, bishops, and vartabeds constituting the 
synod of the catholicos, which must be consulted on all 
important occasions. The monastery was founded in 524. 

Ech'o [Gr. ’Hyio], in classic mythology, was a nymph 
who aided Jupiter in escaping the watchfulness of Juno, by 
detaining the latter with her amusing talkativeness; but 
that goddess, discovering the deception, ordained that she 
should not be able to speak until some person had spoken 
to her, nor to be silent after any one had spoken to her. 
Cherishing for Narcissus a passion which was not requited, 
she pined away until nothing remained of her but her 
voice. 

Echo [for etymology see preceding article], the reflection 
of sound from a distant surface. Several conditions must 
be fulfilled before an echo can be produced. The ear must 
be situated in the line of the reflection; and in order that 
the person who emits the sound may himself hear the echo, 
this line must be perpendicular to the reflecting surface, 
but if there are several such surfaces the sound may bo 
brought back by a series of successive reflections. The 
opposing surface must be at a certain distance from the 
ear, for if the direct and reflected sounds succeed each 
other with great rapidity, they are confounded. Thus, 
vaulted caves and large rooms have a strong resonance, 
but produce no echo. 

Sound passes through the atmosphere at the rate of about 
1125 feet in a second; hence, a person placed at half that 
distance would hear the echo exactly one second after the 
sound was emitted by him. The least distance of the re¬ 
flecting surface from the point whence the sound is emitted 
must be about fifty feet. 

Unless the surface reflecting the sound is of considerable 
extent, the echo will be too feeble to be heard. Some con¬ 
cavity in the surface by which diverging rays of sound are 
concentrated at the point where the echo is audible, is favor¬ 
able, if not absolute!} 7 essential, to the production of echoes. 
It is a property of the ellipse that every sound proceeding 
from one of its foci and impinging against the curve is re¬ 
flected into the other focus; whence two persons placed in 
the two foci of an elliptic chamber may converse with each 
other in a whisper, and not be heard by those Avho are in 
the other parts of the room. Thus, walls or buildings ap¬ 
proaching the elliptic form return sounds with great force 
and distinctness. The faintest sound is conveyed from one 
side of the "whispering gallery” of St. Paul’s, London, to 
the other, but is not heard at any intermediate point. Some 
echoes are remarkable for their frequency of repetition. An 
echo in Woodstock Park, England, repeats seventeen syl¬ 
lables by day and twenty by night. An echo in the Simo- 
netta palace, near Milan, is said to repeat the report of a 
pistol sixty times. 

Echo, in music, is the repetition of a musical phrase often 
written for the organ, by the stops of which it can be pro¬ 
duced with facility. 

Ech'o, a township of Dale co., Ala. Pop. 950. 

Ech'o Cafl'on, Utah Territory, is a remarkable ravine 
or defile visible to passengers on the Union Pacific R. It., 
975 miles from Omaha. It- is in Summit co., and is enclosed 
between high vertical walls of rock. The scenery is of sur¬ 
prising grandeur and beauty. 

Ech'o Cit'y, a post-village of Summit co., Ut., on the 
Union Pacific It. It., 39 miles S. E. of Ogden. It is pictu¬ 
resquely situated more than 5000 feet above the sea. 

Ech'ols, a county in the S. of Georgia. Area, 400 
square miles. It is intersected by the Allapaha River. The 
i surface is level; the soil sandy. Corn, rice, and wool are 
raised. It is traversed by a branch of the Atlantic and 
Gulf R. R. Capital, Statenville. Pop. 1978. 

Ecija, i'the-nS, (anc. As'tigi), a city of Spain, in Anda¬ 
lusia, on the river Genii, about 50 miles E. N. E. of Seville. 

I It is well built, and has numerous churches, convents, and 
hospitals; also manufactures of linens and coarse woollen 




































ECIv, VON—ECLIPSE. 


1475 


fabrics. On the border of the river is an alameda (prornen- 
aile) adorned with statues and fountains. Many Roman 
remains are found here. The climate is so hot that Ecija 
is called “ the frying-pan ot Andalusia.” The ancient As- 
ticji was one of the chiet towns of Ilispania Bmtica. Pop. 
in 1860, 27,216. F 

Eck, von (Johann Mayr), [Lat. Eck'ius, or Ec'cius], 
D. D., a German theologian and able adversary of Luther, 
was born at Lck, in Suabia, Nov. 13, 14S6. He was a pro¬ 
fessor in the University of Ingolstadt, and was noted for 
his skill in disputation. He went to Rome in 1520, and 
instigated the pope to persecute Luther. At the Diet of 
Augsburg held in 1530 he controverted the Lutheran con¬ 
fession of faith. Among his works is a “Manual of Con¬ 
troversy.” Died Feb. 10, 1543. 

Eek art, the greatest among the mystic writers of Ger¬ 
many during the Middle Ages, was vicar of the Dominican 
order in Erfurt, then vicar-general in Bohemia, and in 1327 
provincial in Cologne. He introduced many reforms into 
tho monasteries, attracted great attention by his sermons 
in the German language, and was connected with the 
Brethren of the Free Spirit. A papal bull issued soon 
after his death condemned twenty-eight sentences in his 
sermons. He has been called the “ father of modern pan¬ 
theism,’ and is regarded as one of the greatest men of the 
German race, and one of the deepest thinkers of all ages. 
Died in 1329, near the beginning of the year. A collection 
of his writings, as far as they have been preserved, has been 
published by Pfeiffer in the second volume of “ Deutsche 
Mystiker” (1857). 

Eck'ert (Thomas Thompson), born in St. Clairsville, 0., 
April 23, 1824. In 1849 he was appointed postmaster at 
Wooster, and placed in charge of the telegraph-office there; 
in 1852 he was appointed superintendent of telegraph, which 
position he held till 1859, when he accepted the management 
of a gold-mining company in North Carolina, which he re¬ 
tained till the spring of 1861, when on the outbreak of war 
he was compelled to abandon all he possessed. He reached 
Cincinnati nearly destitute. His information of the con¬ 
dition of affairs in the South was valuable, and he was in¬ 
vited to Washington by the authorities for consultation. 
He was at once placed in charge of the military telegraph- 
office at the head-quarters of Gen. McClellan. In 1862 he 
accompanied the Army of the Potomac as superintendent 
of military telegraph, with the rank of captain and acting 
quartermaster. In Sept., 1862, he was called to Washing¬ 
ton to establish the head-quarters of the military telegraph 
at the war department, with the rank of major. His ser¬ 
vice in organizing and conducting the immense system was 
freely acknowledged, and he enjoyed the confidence of both 
President Lincoln and Secretary Stanton. In the latter 
part of 1864 he was made assistant secretary of war, which 
office he retained till Aug., 1866. (Brevet lieutenant-col¬ 
onel 1864, brevet brigadier-general 1865.) Immediately 
after his retirement from the war department he accepted 
the general superintendence of the Western Union Tele¬ 
graph in the East; which position he now holds, perform¬ 
ing the duties of his office with great ability, and securing 
valuable results both to the public and the telegraph service, 
and to himself a high reputation as a telegraph manager. 

G. C. Simmons, Clerk Board of Engineers. 

Eck'ford, a township of Calhoun co., Mich. Pop. 1011. 

Eckford (Henry), born in Scotland Mar. 12, 1775, re¬ 
moved to the city of New York in 1796. During the war 
of 1812-14 he was employed by the U. S. to build fleets for 
the lakes. He also built ships of war for foreign nations. 
His ships were remarkable for strength and speed. In 
1831 he entered the service of the Turks as naval construc¬ 
tor. Died at Constantinople Nov. 12, 1832. 

Eckley, a post-village of Foster township, Luzerne co., 
Pa., on a branch of the Lehigh Valley R. R. It has pro¬ 
ductive mines of excellent anthracite coal. 

Eck'miihl [Ger. Eggmiihl], a village of Bavaria, 13 miles 
S. S. E. of Ratisbon. ’ Here on the 22d of April, 1809, Na¬ 
poleon defeated the Austrian archduke Charles, who lost 
5000, killed and wounded, besides 7000 prisoners. Da- 
voust received the title of prince of Eckmiihl for bis con¬ 
duct in this battle. 

Eclec'tic [Gr. e/cAe/cri/co?, from eK, “out,” and Ae'yw, to 
“choose;” Lat. eclec'ticus; Fr. eclectique\, selected or 
chosen from several others. This term was applied to 
philosophers who endeavored to select from the systems of 
various schools the true or most probable doctrines, and to 
combine these into a harmonious system. An eclectic spirit, 
it is evident, can only exist or prevail at a period of some 
maturity in philosophical speculation. In one sense of the 
word, Plato and Aristotle may be regarded as eclectics, for 
they both availed themselves largely of the doctrines of 
preceding philosophers. But in the hands of these great 


thinkers the discerpta membra are endued with a principle 
ot vitality, .and reunited as coherent parts of a harmonious 
system. The term eclectic is especially applied to phil¬ 
osophers of a later age and inferior order. Among these 
may bo classed Epictetus, Potamon, Plutarch, and Plotinus. 
Plutarch, a man of great and various endowments, may be 
taken as an example of false eclecticism. His great object 
seems to have been to reconcile the profound speculations 
and pure morality of the philosophers with the fanciful in¬ 
ventions and gross mythology of the poets and priests. Plo¬ 
tinus and others endeavored to reconcile Neo-Platonism with 
Christianity. Among the most eminent modern eclectics 
Victor Cousin, the French translator and interpreter of 
Hegel, affords a favorable specimen of the eclectic spirit. 
He was perhaps the most ingenious thin ker of modern France. 
(See his “Lectures on the History of Philosophy.”) 

Eclipse [Gr. e*Aeu/u9, from e/cAein-co, “ to fail;” Lat. de- 
fectus'], in astronomy, the obscuration of a celestial body by 
another. Eclipses are divisible into three classes, viz.: 
1 , the obscuration of the sun by the moon, which is called 
a solar eclipse; 2, the obscuration of the moon by tho 
shadow of the earth, which is a lunar eclipse; and 3, the 
obscuration of a satellite of a planet by the shadow of tho 
primary, which is called the eclipse of a satellite, as dis¬ 
tinguished from an occultation of the satellite, by which is 
to be understood the disappearance of the satellite behind 
the body of the primary. The most interesting of these 
phenomena are the eclipses of the sun and moon. The 
earth and the moon cast their shadows in a direction oppo¬ 
site to the sun ; and as the earth and moon are nearly 
spherical, and the sun is larger than either, it is evident 
that these shadows must be nearly conical in form. The 
moon is eclipsed when it enters the shadow of the earth ; 
in other words, when the earth is interposed between it and 
the sun. This can occur only at the time of full moon, or 
when the moon is in opposition to the sun, and when both 
bodies are at the same time near ono of the moon’s nodes; 
that is to say, near to the points in which her orbit inter¬ 
sects the plane of the ecliptic. When at the time of mean 
full moon the difference of the mean longitude of the moon 
and of her node is greater than 13° 21', there cannot be an 
eclipse; when less than this, there may be; and when less 
than 7° 41', there must be. These distances are called the 
lunar ecliptic limits. If only part of the moon’s disk enters 
the earth’s shadow, the eclipse is called partial; but if the 
whole disk is involved in the shadow, it is total. The orbit 
of the moon is inclined about 5° to the plane of the ecliptic, 
and this is the reason why eclipses do not happen every full 
moon. The moon cannot be eclipsed more than twice during 
the year, and it may escape eclipse for an entire year alto¬ 
gether. Lunar eclipses are visible to all parts of the earth 
at which the body is above the horizon at the time of their 
occurrence. 

Solar eclipses occur at the time of new moon, or when the 
moon is between the sun and the earth. If at the time of 
mean new moon the difference between the mean longitudes 
of the sun or moon and the node is greater than 19° 44', 
there cannot be an eclipse; if less than this, there may be; 
and if less than 13° 33', there must be. These distances 
| are called the solar ecliptic limits. They are greater than 
! the lunar ecliptic limits; and hence eclipses of the sun are 
more frequent than those of the moon. To all parts of the 
i earth on which the moon’s true shadow or umbra falls, the 
eclipse is total; to those from which only a portion of the 
solar disk is concealed, it is partial; and the diminution of 
the sun’s light over these regions defines what is called the 
penumbra or partial shadow. The greatest breadth of the 
moon’s true shadow on the earth’s surface never exceeds 
127 miles; the breadth of the penumbra may reach 4900 
miles. At the time of new moon, or when the moon is 
between the sun and the earth, her shadow or penumbra may 
fall on a part of the disk of the earth, and produce tho 
phenomenon of a total or partial eclipse of the sun, which 
is limited to the portions of the earth on which the moon’s 
shadow or penumbra happens to fall. The shadow of tho 
moon does not always extend so far as the earth. In the 
two following diagrams the former represents the case in 
which the shadow does reach, and the latter illustrates tho 
case in which it does not reach, the surface of the earth. 



portion of the earth between m and m', and the inhabitants 
of that portion will witness a total eclipse of the sun. But 
in the second diagram, where the shadow ot the moon does 


















1476 


ECLIPTIC—ECOUTES. 


not reach the earth, if we suppose the dark conical shadow 
n n' to be produced into the small opposite cone in in', 



meeting the surface of the earth, it will be obvious that to 
any spectator within this latter cone, or any inhabitant of 
the portion m in' of the earth, the central part of the sun’s 
disk will be covered or obscured by the moon, and the un¬ 
obscured part of the sun will present the appearance of a 
beautiful luminous ring or annulus. This phenomenon is an 
annular eclipse of the sun. In other cases, the moon’s 
penumbra N N' is projected against a portion of the earth’s 
surface, so as to cause a partial eclipse. The diagram, owing 
to the disproportion between the relative distances and 
magnitudes of the bodies, exaggerates the extent of the 
penumbra, which is never large enough to cover the entire 
disk of the earth. 

The largest number of eclipses of both sun and moon 
which can occur in any one year is seven, of which five will 
be of the sun and two of the moon. The smallest number 
possible in one year is two, both of which will be of the 
sun. The sun passes each of the moon’s nodes once only 
in a year, unless the first passage occurs near the first of 
January, in which case, owing to the retrogradatiou of the 
nodal points, it may pass one node twice and the other 
once. Two solar eclipses may then occur in January', two 
in midsummer, and one in December, making five in all. 
But owing to the limited extent of the earth’s surface to 
which solar eclipses are visible, they are less frequently 
observed at the same place than lunar. The eclipses of 
Jupiter’s satellites, which can be calculated long before¬ 
hand, afford a convenient method of determining longitude. 

The duration of an eclipse is the time between the im¬ 
mersion and the emersion. Immersion signifies the moment 
when the luminary begins to be obscured, and emersion is 
the reappearance of the luminary from behind the body by 
which it has been obscured. The term digit is used to de¬ 
note one-twelfth part of the diameter of the sun’s disk, and 
the eclipse is said to be of ten digits if ten out of twelve 
parts of its diameter are obscured when the phase is max¬ 
imum. A total eclipse of the sun is an impressive phe¬ 
nomenon, and was regarded by the ancients as a very 
portentous, supernatural, and alarming event. The Chris¬ 
tians of the Dark Ages offered formal prayers in order to 
avert the recurrence of eclipses. Even brute animals are 
filled with dismay by the lurid gloom or peculiar twilight 
of a total eclipse, during which the temperature of the air 
sinks rapidly. The duration of such an eclipse is usually 
only about three or four minutes, but may extend to eight. 
A total eclipse of the sun was visible in some parts of the 
U. S. Aug. 7, 1S69, when the duration of totality was two 
minutes and forty-two seconds. The corona of this eclipse 
is thus described by a person who observed it: “ On look¬ 
ing up, one of the grandest spectacles met the eye of which 
it is possible to conceive. Surrounding the dark body of the 
moon was a crown of light, with rays shooting out in five 
great sheaths to a distance equal to the sun’s diameter, or 
nearly a million of miles. We gazed for eight or ten seconds 
with astonishment at this magnificent spectacle. No paint¬ 
ing can represent it, and no pen can describe it.” “ The pe¬ 
culiar phenomena which have attracted so much attention 
in solar eclipses are only visible during the brief period of 
totality. The difficulty of observing them lies in this exceed¬ 
ing brevity, and in the tact that however much the observer 
may have studied the experiences of others, the phenomena 
come upon him as a complete surprise. The moment that 
the last ray of light disappears with the extinguishment of 
Bailly’s beads there bursts upon him a vision so marvel¬ 
lously beautiful, so startling by its novelty, that his self- 
possession and self-control desert him.” “No one,” he 
adds, “ who has not seen a total eclipse can fully appreciate 
the grandeur of the occasion. As the light, ray by ray, is 
cut off, a strange and ghastly darkness comes down upon 
us; not like the darkness of night, but a violet-colored 
darkness, which makes the faces of our neighbors turn ashy 
pale, and gives to the landscape the hues which it takes 
in a stereoscopic picture.” ( Annual of Scientific Discovery 
for 1870.) A total eclipse occurs very infrequently at any 
one place. J. P. Nichol states that no total eclipse was 
visible at London for a period of 575 years (1140-1715). 
The occurrence of eclipses at the exact time predicted by 
astronomers is a signal demonstration of the constancy of 
the laws of Nature, and of the undeviating punctuality with 
which her grand operations arc performed. 

Great importance has heretofore been attached to spec¬ 


troscopic and polariscopic observations of the sun’s enve¬ 
lopes and coronal appendages during solar eclipses, llc- 
cently, however, it has been found practicable to make such 
observations quite as satisfactorily when the body is en¬ 
tirely unobscured. These observations have already added 
much to our knowledge of the physical condition and 
chemical constitution of our great central luminary ; and 
there is reason to expect that in coming years they will be 
still more fruitful in interesting discovery. (See Sun and 
Corona.) 

Eclip'tic [so called because eclipses can only occur 
when the moon is on or very near its plane], in astronomy, 
the great circle of the heavens which the sun appears to 
describe in his annual revolution. It is the circle to which 
longitudes and latitudes in the heavens are referred. From 
time immemorial the ecliptic has been divided into twelve 
equal parts, called signs of the zodiac—Aries, Taurus, 
Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, 
Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces. These signs, however, 
do not coincide with the constellations of the same names, 
but are merely arcs of thirty degrees reckoned from the in¬ 
tersection of the ecliptic and equator, which is not a fixed 
point, so that they are carried backward by the precession 
of the equinoxes. The sign Aries is now in the constella¬ 
tion Pisces. The angle which the plane of the ecliptic makes 
with the plane of the equator is called the obliquity of the 
ecliptic, which is a variable quantity—about 23° 27' 30". 
The change of seasons is the result of this angle. 

Eclogue, £k'log [Lat. ec'loga; Gr. ckX oyrj. a "selec¬ 
tion ”], originally the select pieces of an author. The word 
usually signifies a pastoral poem, the main and proper sub¬ 
jects of which are the loves of shepherds or their adven¬ 
tures. These shepherds, however, are mostly imaginary per¬ 
sonages, whose sentiments and circumstances belong rather 
to an ideal golden age than to the realities of common life. 
The “Bucolics” of Virgil are often called eclogues, bur 
they have not all the true pastoral character, some of them 
being occasional poems on events of the day, only slightly 
enveloped in the pastoral costume. Spenser and Philips 
are among the eminent English pastoral poets. It is worthy 
of notice that this species of composition is now nearly ob¬ 
solete. 

r 

Ecolc Polytechnique. See Polytechnic School. 

Econom'ic Geol'ogy, also called Practical Ge¬ 
ology, is that branch of the science which relates to the 
distribution, modes of occurrence, properties, and uses of 
minerals employed by man. The applications of geology 
are—1, to agriculture, in the knowledge it conveys of the 
composition, structure, and origin of soils, the distribution 
and properties of mineral fertilizers, etc.; 2, to architecture, 
in materials for construction; 3, to engineering, in drain 
age, excavations, and construction ; 4, to manufactures, in 
its revelations of the distribution, properties, and uses of 
ores, fuels, clays, oils, asphalts, gems, and other minerals 
employed in the arts. It also includes the theory and prac¬ 
tice of mining. By its investigations into the structure and 
resources of the earth, economic geology may have an im¬ 
portant bearing upon the health, Avealth, occupations, and 
history of every community and nation. 

Econ'omy [Lat. cecono'inia; Fr. economic, from the Gr. 
oIkos, a “house,” and vou-os, “law” or “regulation”], the 
regulation and government of a household or family; a 
frugal and prudent use of money or commodities; prudent 
management of affairs; sometimes the regular operations 
of nature in the reproduction, nutrition, and preservation 
of animals and plants. Rural economy is nearly synonymous 
Avith agriculture and the pursuits of farmers. 

Econ'omy, a post-village of Beaver co., Pa., on the 
Ohio River and on the Pittsburg Fort Wayne and Chicago 
R. R., 18 miles N. W. of Pittsburg. It was settled by Ger¬ 
man socialists called the Harmony Society. It has manu¬ 
factures of cotton and wool. Pop. of Economy tOAvnship, 
1324. (See Harmonists.) 

Economy, Political. See Political Economy. 

Ecora Fabra, a tOAvnship of Ouachita co., Ark. Pop. 
2325. r 

r 

Ecorche, VkoR'slnV [a French word, past part, of 
Scorcher, to “flay,” to “skin ”], is a figure used as a model 
by artists, in which the muscles are represented deprived 
of the skin. In a portion of the figure the upper muscles 
are also removed, so that those lying below them may be 
seen. The ecorche is sometimes represented in action. This 
Avas first done by the French artist and anatomist Salvage. 

Ecorse, a post-township of Wayne co., Mich. P. 2211. 

Ecoutes, Vkoot' [a French word from Scouter, to 
“listen”], in military engineering, are small galleries ex¬ 
cavated at regular intervals beyond the glacis and towards 
the enemy’s Avorks, whose mining operations may by this 
means be heard and estimated. 




























ECRASEUK 

Mlcraseur, a-kR&/zuR [Fr., signifying “ crusher,” from 
(eraser, to “crush”], a surgical instrument for performing 
amputation, invented by Chassaignac of Paris. The cutting 
is done by a small but very strong steel chain, a loop of 
which is passed around the tumor or other part to lie rc- 
mo\ ed. The two ends ot the chain run through .a steel tube, 
and m operation .are drawn through the tube by an endless 
scicw with a lever handle, which puts the ends of the chain 
into tension, diminishing the size of the loop and very slowly 
but irresistibly tearing away the enclosed substance. Its 
use is always to be preceded by an anaesthetic. Its advan¬ 
tages aie that, the haemorrhage following its judicious use 
i> usually slight, and that healing takes place rapidly, with 
comparatively little suppuration. The shock is also com- 
paiatively slight; but it can never be used where nice dis¬ 
section and skilful operation are required; and it is also 
somewhat unmanageable in its effects. Its use is becoming 
limited to a small and peculiar class of operations, chiefly 
upon mucous surfaces; in theso cases its value is great. 

Ectozo'on (plu. Ectozo'a), [from the Gr. «t6 ?, “ with¬ 
out/ “ outside,” and C,w6v, an “animal”], a term used in 
contradistinction to Entozoa [euros, « within,” and tu>6v, an 
“animal ], to indicate parasitic animals which live upon 
the outside of other animals, such as lice and ticks, and the 
crustaceans found upon fishes and whales. A more com¬ 
mon name for these creatures is Epizoa (which see). 

Ecuador, 3k-w3,-doR / [Fr. L*Equateur; Port. Equador], 
(/. e. “equator”), a republic of South America, so called 
because it is situated under the equator. It extends from 
lat. 1° 35' N. to 5° 50' S., and is about 800 miles long 
from E. to W. Area, estimated at 250,000 square miles; 
Guvot says 206,692. It is bounded on the N. by Colombia, 
on the E. by Brazil, on the S. by Peru, from which it is 
separated by the river Amazon, and on the W. by the Pa¬ 
cific Ocean. Its limits are nearly the same as those of the 
former Spanish province of Quito. 

Physical Features and Climate .—This region presents a 
great variety of surface and climate in its lofty mountains, 
elevated valleys or plateaus, and low tracts called tierras 
calientes, the temperature of which is intensely hot. The 
surface is mostly mountainous, except the plains called 
Llanos in the eastern part. Ecuador is traversed by two 
Cordilleras of the Andes, many peaks of which, called neva- 
dos, rise above the limit of perpetual snow. About sixteen 
active volcanoes occur in this republic, one of which, Coto¬ 
paxi, is 18,875 feet high, and is remarkable for its symmet¬ 
rical form, resembling a truncated cone. The highest peak 
in Ecuador is Chimborazo, which rises 21,424 feet above 
the level of the sea, and belongs to the western range. The 
culminating points of the Eastern Cordillera are Cayambe, 
19,535 feet, and Antisana, 19,137 feet high. Between these 
two cordilleras is the long valley or table-land of Quito, 
which is 9543 feet above the level of the sea, and enjoys a 
temperate and very equable climate. Here and jn the high 
valleys of Cuenca and Hambato prevails delightful weather, 
like perpetual spring. Winter is only distinguishable from 
summer by a greater quantity of rain. Copious rains often 
fall at Quito, and a regular rainy season prevails in the 
vicinity of Guayaquil on the coast, where the temperature 
is often above 100° Fahrenheit. Ecuador is subject to fre¬ 
quent earthquakes. 

The chief rivers arc the Amazon (here called the Maranon) 
and its tributaries, the Napo, Tigrc, Pastaza, and Putumayo 
or Iya. The last of these forms the north-eastern boundary 
of the republic. They flow in a south-east direction, except 
the Maranon, which flows nearly eastward. They are navi¬ 
gable for steamboats in the lower part of their course. The 
Putumayo and Napo are said to be navigable for 500 miles 
or more. 

Minerals, Animals, and Plants .—Granite, syenite, tra¬ 
chyte, and porphyry abound in the Andes of Ecuador. 
Among its mineral resources are gold, silver, mercury, cop¬ 
per, antimony, lead, iron, zinc, and salt. The forests are 
infested with the cougar ( Felis concolor), the jaguar or 
American tiger, the panther, the bear, and the ounce. The 
tapir, armadillo, vicuila, guanaco, monkey, sloth, llama, 
and antelope are also found here. Large numbers of wild 
horses and cattle roam over the plains or llanos. Noxious 
rep tiles and insects are very numerous and troublesome in 
some parts of the country. Ecuador is partly covered with 
extensive forests of large timber, and is said to surpass most 
other countries in trees suitable for shipbuilding and cabi¬ 
net-work. The cinchona abounds here. Among the vegetable 
productions are vanilla, cocoa, balsam of tolu, caoutchouc, 
croton oil, the orange,cherimoya, pineapple, and many other 
tropical fruits. Cotton, sugar-cane, rice, pepper, coffee, and 
the banana are cultivated in the lowlands, and maize, wheat, 
and barley flourish in the high table-lands of Quito. 

Divisions, Towns, Population, Religion, Education .— 
Ecuador is divided into three departments—viz., Assuay, 


ECUADOR 1477 


Pichincha, and Guayas, which, after their capitals, are also 
•called Cuenca, Quito, and Guayaquil. The departments are 
subdivided into provinces, the department of Quito contain¬ 
ing the provinces of Pichincha, Imbabura, Leon, Chimbo¬ 
razo, Esmeraldas, and Oriente; the department of Guaya¬ 
quil, the provinces of Guayaquil and Manano; and the 
department of Cuenca, the provinces of Cuenca and Loja. 
The chief towns are Quito (which is the capital), Cuenca, 
Riobamba, Guayaquil, and Loja. Guayaquil is the prin¬ 
cipal seaport of the republic. According to Villavicencio 
(“ Geografia de la Republica del Ecuador,” 1858), the popu¬ 
lation amounted in 1858 to 1,108,082, exclusive of 200,000 
uncivilized Indians. Wappaus (“Geograph. Ilandbuch,” 
new ed. 1871) estimates it, on the basis of an official census 
of 1856, at 881,943, exclusive of 150,000 uncivilized Indians. 
About 600,000 inhabitants are of Spanish or European ex¬ 
traction ; the remainder, with the exception of a small num¬ 
ber of negroes (about 8000) and mestizoes (about 36,000), 
aro Indians. All the races enjoy political equality. The 
entire population, except the uncivilized Indians, belong to 
the Roman Catholic Church, and the public exercise of any 
other form of religion is forbidden. The Roman Catholic 
Church has in Ecuador the archdiocese of Quito and the 
dioceses of Cuenca, Guayaquil, Riobamba, Ibarra, Loja, and 
Puerto Viejo, the last four of which have been established 
by Pius IX. The republic has a university at Quito (estab¬ 
lished in 1684), four colleges, eleven other high schools, 
several seminaries, and about 290 primary schools, of which 
only thirty arc for girls. The Indian population grows up 
almost entirely without education. In accordance with the 
concordat of 1863, the entire public instruction is in agree¬ 
ment with the Catholic Church. 

Government, Finances, Commerce, Army, and Navy .—The 
constitution of Ecuador, which is democratic and republi¬ 
can, was adopted in 1845, and amended in 1852 and 1853. 
The executive power is vested in the president, and in case 
of a vacancy of the presidential chair, in the vice-president. 
According to a law passed in 1869, the minister of the in¬ 
terior is at the same time vice-president of the republic. 
The legislative power is vested in a congress, consisting of 
a senate of eighteen members and a house of representatives 
consisting of thirty members. Congress assembles annually 
at Quito on Sept. 15, without being convoked by the presi¬ 
dent. The revenue of the republic amounted in 1870 to 
1,813,870 piastres (1 piastre = 1 dollar), the chief source of 
the revenue (more than two-thirds) being duties on imports. 
The expenditures amount to about 1,400,000 piastres. The 
home debt was, in 1865, 9,390,554 piastres ; the foreign 
debt, 3,692,955 piastres. Nearly the whole foreign trade 
passes through the port of Guayaquil, the ports of Manta 
and Esmeraldas being as yet of only small importance. 
The aggregate value of the exports from Guayaquil during 
the year 1871 amounted to 3,807,105 piastres, exclusive of 
precious metals, the exports of which in 1870 amounted to 
1,135,467 piastres. The most important articles of export 
are cacao (2,134,000 piastres), gum (867,000 piastres), straw 
hats (93,000 piastres), cinchona bark (115,000 piastres), cot¬ 
ton (38,000 piastres). The total number of vessels entering 
the port of Guayaquil in 1870 was 125 (among which were 
72 English and 18 German), of an aggregate tonnage of 
55,310. The army consists of one regiment of artillery, 
four battalions of infantry, and three regiments of cavalry; 
in all, 3151 men. The navy is composed of only two steamers 
and one pilot-boat. The roads throughout the republic are 
in a shocking condition, and at the close of the year 1872 
no beginning had been made yet with the construction of 
either railroad or telegraph. 

According to the traditions of the Indians, Ecuador was 
anciently a mighty kingdom, consisting of fifty provinces, 
and probably much larger than it is at present. The name 
of the kingdom was Quito, and that of its inhabitants 
Quitoos or Quichoos. About the tenth century a strange 
people called Cara, who had come from the coast, conquered 
the Quitoos, and reigned for about 500 years. In 1475 
the nation was conquered by the inca Huayana-Capac, 
called the “ Great,” who divided his dominions between his 
two sons, Huascar and Atahuallpa. Huascar became inca 
of Peru, and Atahuallpa king of Quito. Dissensions be¬ 
tween the two brothers ultimately led to war, and in 1530 
Huascar was conquered and kept a prisoner in his own 
capital. Atahuallpa thus became ruler of the whole em¬ 
pire of the incas, but in the war against the Spaniards 
he lost his throne and his life. (See Peru.) The Span¬ 
iards, after subduing the entire country, made Quito a 
presidency in the vice-kingdom of New Spain, which for 
nearly three centuries yielded to Spain large quantities of 
gold and silver, and was at one time its richest and most 
profitable colony. In some of its districts, however, the 
mines were utterly destroyed by the Indians, who by 
Spanish despotism were driven to desperation. 

The first attempt to establish their independence was 











1478 


ECUMENICAL—EDELINCK. 


made by the colonists in 1809, but it was unsuccessful. A 
second attempt in 1812 had the same fate. More successful 
was the revolution which in 1820 began at Guayaquil under 
the leadership of Bolivar. Two years later, Ecuador joined 
the republic of Colombia, which had been formed by New 
Granada and Venezuela, and in Dec., 1824, the battle of 
Ayacucho for ever overthrew the Spanish rule. In 1831, 
Ecuador separated from Colombia and became an inde¬ 
pendent republic, of which General Juan Jose de Flores, 
the companion of Bolivar, was the first president. Since 
then the history of Ecuador has been an almost uninter¬ 
rupted series of revolutions and wars with neighboring re¬ 
publics. Flores remained at the head of the republic, either 
as president or as general-in-chief, until 1845, when he was 
forced to sign an agreement that he would leave the coun¬ 
try. An insurrection attempted by the party ot Flores in 
Oct., 1846, against the new president, Vicente Roca, was 
unsuccessful. In 1850 the candidate of the clerical party, 
Noboa, was elected president, but as early as July, 1851, he 
was deposed and exiled. President Urbina (1851-56) was 
a representative of the ultra-democratic party. During the 
administration of his successor, General Francisco Robles 
(1856-59), the French decimal system of currency, weights, 
and measures was adopted. A war with Peru led to the 
blockade of the port of Guayaquil, and was terminated by 
a convention concluded between Gen. Guillermo Franco, 
the commander of Guayaquil, and the commander of the 
Peruvian squadron. President Robles refused to ratify the 
convention, resigned, and went to Chili. In Jan., 1861, a 
national convention elected Dr. Garcia Moreno, the leader of 
the conservative and clerical party, president, while Flores 
was appointed governor of Guayaquil. Two wars with 
New Granada, which were carried on during the administra¬ 
tion of Moreno, ended unfortunately for Ecuador. Moreno 
resigned in 1865; a defensive and offensive alliance which 
he had arranged with Chili was rejected by congress during 
the administration of his successor, Geronimo Carrion, but 
on Jan. 30, 1866, Ecuador joined the alliance of Chili, Peru, 
and Bolivia against Spain. Carrion, who resigned in Nov., 
1867, was succeeded by Dr. Espinosa. In Aug., 1868, the 
country severely suffered from a terrible earthquake, by 
which more than 3000 persons perished. In Jan., 1869, a 
revolution, headed by Moreno, overthrew the administra¬ 
tion of Espinosa. Moreno was for a short time dictator, 
until in May a national convention elected Dr. Carvajal 
provisional president. At the new presidential election 1 
Moreno was again elected president. In 1872 an insurrec¬ 
tion of the Indians took place, which was not suppressed 
until many farms had been laid waste. In June, 1872, a 
large college, embracing schools of art, a polytechnic school, 
and an astronomical observatory, was opened at Quito under 
the direction of European professors. 

A. J. Schem. 

Ecumen'ical [Lat. oecumen'icus; Fr. cecumenique or 
icumenique, from the Gr. oi/cou/oieVrj, the “habitable world”], 
a term signifying universal, applied to councils of the 
Christian Church in which all parts of the world are repre¬ 
sented. (See Council, (Ecumenical.) The latest of the 
councils called ecumenical (the Roman Catholic Council 
of the Vatican, 1869-70) proclaimed the infallibility of 
the pope. 

E cusson. See Escutcheon. 

Ec'zema [Gr. ex^e/ia, an “eruption,” from e/c, “out,” 
and £«o>, to “boil”], commonly called Salt Rheum, a 
vesicular disease of the skin, characterized by watery 
blisters smaller than those of herpes and larger than ordi- 
dinary sudamina, such as are sometimes seen in the diffi¬ 
culty known as “prickly heat.” Eczema is often accom¬ 
panied by intense itching, and is frequently transformed 
into a pustular or scabbing disease. It is generally chronic. 
Its treatment is both local and general. The local treat¬ 
ment, when the epidermis is thickened, is by alkaline ap¬ 
plications with or without tarry or astringent admixtures. 
The “benzoated ointment of oxide of zinc” is an excellent 
application. If the system has received a specific taint, 
the iodides, with mercury judiciously used, are indispen¬ 
sable, and produce the happiest results. Arsenic in small 
doses is an extremely useful tonic in many cases. Change 
of air and visits to thermal and other springs and baths, 
though not strictly curative, often appear to be wonderfully 
palliative. 

Edam' [Lat. Eda'mum ], a town of Holland, province 
of North Holland, has a port on the Zuyder Zee, 12 miles 
N. N. E. of Amsterdam. It derives its prosperity from ship¬ 
building and a trade in cheese and wood. Pop. in 1867, 
5267. 

Ed'da [Norse for “great-grandmother,” so named by 
Bishop Sveinsson, either on account of its great age, or, 
according to some, as being a compilation of “ grandmothers 
tales ”], a collection of ancient Scandinavian poems and tales 


illustrating the mythology of the Northern nations. It con¬ 
sists of two parts—(1) the poetic, old, or Smmundic Edda, 
named from its compiler, Soemund Sigfusson Frodi (1054- 
1133), who was a priest in Iceland: this was first pub¬ 
lished by Sveinsson in 1643 ; (2) the prose, or New Edda, 
called also “ Snorro’s Edda,” which is the work of several 
writers, though ascribed to Snorro Sturleson (1178-1241). 
Editions of the older Edda are those of Rask (1818), Munch 
(1847), and Mobius (1859). The edition of Rask includes 
the prose Edda also. The extreme antiquity of the Eddas 
lias been called in question by some German critics, but in 
arguments which have attracted very little attention. 

Ed'dington, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. 
Pop. 776. 

Eddy (Samuel), LL.D., jurist, was born at Johnston, 
R. I., Mar. 31,1769, and graduated at Brown University in 
1787, became a lawyer, was clerk of the supreme court of 
Rhode Island (1790-93), secretary of state (1798-1819), 
member of Congress (1819-25), and chief-justice of the 
supreme court of Rhode Island (1827-35). Died at Provi¬ 
dence Feb. 2, 1839. He published a volume of “ Antiqui¬ 
ties ” and valuable historical papers. 

Eddy (Thomas M.), D. D., an eloquent Methodist di¬ 
vine, was born Sept. 7, 1823, in Hamilton co., 0., studied 
in the classical seminary of Greensboro’, Ind., joined the 
Indiana conference in 1842, was editor of the “North¬ 
western Christian Advocate” from 1856 to 1868, served as 
pastor in Baltimore three years, was appointed to the Me¬ 
tropolitan church, Washington, D. C., in 1872, and elected 
the same year corresponding secretary of the Methodist 
Missionary Society. He was pre-eminent as a journalist, and 
is author of a “History of Illinois during the Civil War,” 
2 vols. 8vo. 

Eddy (Zachary), D. D., son of the Rev. Isaac Eddy, 
and the seventh in descent from the Rev. William Eddy, 
vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, England, was born at Stock- 
bridge, Vt., Dec. 19, 1815, was ordained by the (Cumber¬ 
land Presbyterian) presbytery of Pennsylvania in 1835, was 
for several years a home missionary in Western New York 
and Wisconsin, was pastor of the Congregational church at 
Warsaw, N. Y., from 1850 to 1855, of the First church at 
Northampton, Mass., from 1857 to 1867, of the Reformed 
(Dutch) church on the Heights in Brooklyn, N.Y., from 
1867 to 1871, and was then settled over the Central Congre¬ 
gational church in Chelsea, Mass. Besides occasional ser¬ 
mons and pamphlets, he has published “ Immanuel, or the 
Life of Jesus Christ,” 1868, and was the principal compiler 
of “ Hymns of the Church” (Reformed), 1869. 

Ed'dystone Lighthouse is in the English Channel, 
14 miles S. S. W. of Plymouth Breakwater, and 9 miles 
from the coast of Cornwall; lat. 50° 10' 54” N., Ion. 4° 15' 
53” E. It stands on the Eddystone Rocks, which are daily 
submerged by the tide, and it rises about eighty-five feet 
above the high-water mark in the form of a circular tower, 
which gradually decreases in diameter, with a curved out¬ 
line resembling the trunk of a tree, from the bottom to the 
top. It was erected in 1757-59 by Mr. Smeaton. (See 
Lighthouse.) The material is Portland limestone. It has 
a fixed light seventy-two feet high, visible at a distance of 
13 miles. The first lighthouse here (1699-1703) was de¬ 
stroyed by a storm. The second was burned in 1755. 

Ed'dytown, a post-village of Starkey township, Yates 
co., N. Y., is the seat of Starkey Seminary, under the pa¬ 
tronage of the Christian denomination. 

Ed'dyville, a post-village of Wapello co., Ia., on the 
river Des Moines and the Central Iowa R. R. where it con¬ 
nects with the Des Moines Valley R. R., 16 miles N. W. of 
Ottumwa,has one weekly newspaper. Pop. 1212. 

Eddyville, a post-village, capital of Lyon co., I\y.,on 
the Cumberland River, near the Elizabethtown and Padu¬ 
cah R. R., about 36 miles E. by S. from Paducah. Pop. 386. 

Eddyville, a village of Kingston township, Ulster co., 
N. Y., on Rondout Creek, 21 miles above Rondout, is the 
terminus of the Delaware and Hudson Canal, and has a 
cement-factory. 

Ede, a town of the Netherlands, in the province of 
Gueldern, 24 miles E. of Utrecht. Pop. in 1867, 10,452. 

Ed'elinck (Gerard), an excellent Flemish engraver, 
born at Antwerp in 1649. He worked for many years 
in Paris, and was patronized by the French court and 
Louis XIV. He engraved portraits of many eminent per¬ 
sons, the “Holy Family,” after Raphael, the “Virgin,” 
after Guido, and several works of Lebrun. His engrav¬ 
ings are commended for fidelity of design, freedom of 
touch, and harmony. He carried what is called color in 
engraving to greater perfection than any artist before his 
time. He is ranked among engravers of the first order. 
Died April 2, 1707. 













EDEN—EDGEMONT. 


E'den [a Hebrew term signifying “ delight ”], the name 
given in Genesis to the region including the garden where 
at first dwelt Adam and Eve, the first parents of mankind, 
and from which they were expelled in consequence of diso¬ 
bedience. Much discussion has prevailed among critics as 
to the country where this early paradise was situated. Cey¬ 
lon, the Vale of Cashmere, the lower, middle, and upper re¬ 
gions of the Euphrates, the Caucasus, Toorkistan, and other 
regions, have been named. At present our choice appears 
to lie between Armenia and Babylonia, with a preponder¬ 
ance ot argument and authority in favor of the latter. The 
difficulty consists in identifying the four rivers mentioned 
in the biblical narrative. Some commentators believe the 
story of Eden to be allegorical. 

E'den, a township of Alameda co., Cal. Pop. 3341. 

Eden, a township of La Salle co., Ill. Pop. 1523. 

Eden, a township of La Grange co., Ind. Pop. 930. 

Eden, a township of Benton co., Ia. Pop. 804. 

Eden, a township of Clinton co., Ia. Pop. 985. 

Eden, a township of Decatur co., Ia. Pop. 1005. 

Eden, a post-township of Fayette co., Ia. Pop. 927. 

Eden, a post-township of Marshall co., Ia. Pop. 649. 

Eden, a post-township of Hancock co., Me., on Mount 
Desert Island, is famous for its beautiful scenery, and is a 
place of summer resort. It has fourteen hotels, and manu¬ 
factures of lumber. Pop. 1195. 

Eden, a post-township of Erie co., N. Y. Pop. 2270. 

Eden, a village of Brown township, Delaware co., 0., 
on the Cleveland Columbus and Cincinnati R. R. (P. 0. 
name, Leonardsburg.) Pop. 191. 

Eden, a township of Licking co., O. Pop. 782. 

Eden, a township of Seneca co., 0. Pop. 1483. 

Eden, a township of Wyandot co., 0. Pop. 1423. 

Eden, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop. 1075. 

Eden, a post-township of Lamoille co., Vt. It has 
manufactures of lumber and starch. Pop. 958. 

Eden, a post-twp. of Fond du Lac co., Wis. Pop. 1448. 

E'denburg, a post-village of Shenandoah co., Va., on 
the Manassas division of the Washington City Virginia 
Midland and Great Southern R. R., 106 miles W. of Alex¬ 
andria. Pop. 452. 

E'denkobeil, a town of Bavaria, in the circle of Pfalz, 
is on a railway, 7 miles N. of Landau. It has mineral 
springs and manufactures of firearms. Pop. 5103. 

Eden Lake, a township of Stearns co., Minn. P. 244. 

Eden Prairie, a post-twp.of Hennepin co., Minn. P.576. 

Edenta'ta (plu.), [from the Lat. e, privative, and dens, 
dentis, a “tooth”], an order of mammals named by Cuvier 
from the fact that they are either without teeth, or in other 
cases without incisors. Wagner and others extend the order 
so as to include the Monotremata (which see), but the ar- 
x-angement which places the latter animals below the mar¬ 
supials is the more philosophical. Indeed, the Monotre¬ 
mata among non-placental appear to repi’esent the Eden- 
data among placental mammals. The order includes the 
sloths, the armadilloes, the true ant-eaters, etc., mostly 
natives of the warm parts of the southern hemisphere. The 
fossil bones of the Megatherium, Glyptodon, etc., which are 
found in Brazil and other countries, show that animals of 
this order were once large and numerous. 

E'denton, a port of entry and the capital of Chowan 
co., N. C., is on Edenton Bay, which opens into Albemarle 
Sound, and about 150 miles E. of Raleigh. It has a news¬ 
paper office. Pop. 1243; of Edenton township, 3664. 

Edes (Benjamin), a Revolutionary journalist, was born 
at Charlestown, Mass., Oct. 14, 1732. With John Gill he 
began in 1755 to publish the “ Boston Gazette and Country 
Journal,” a newspaper zealously advocating the cause of 
liberty, and which he continued to edit for forty-three 
years. Died Dec. 11, 1803. 

Edes'sa [Fr. Edesse\ , or Callirrhoe, an ancient c.ity 
of Mesopotamia, supposed to be on or near the site of Ur 
of the Chaldees, mentioned in Genesis xi. The extreme 
antiquity of its origin is undoubted. It was 78 miles S. W. 
of Diarbekir. It became the capital of an independent 
kingdom in 137 B. C., and was tributary to Rome in the 
reign of Trajan. In 216 A. D. it became a Roman mili¬ 
tary colony. It was an important place in the early his¬ 
tory of the Christian Church, contained numerous mon¬ 
asteries, and was the residence of Ephrnem Syrus. For 
many years it was the principal centre of Oriental learning. 
Baldwin, a leader of the crusaders, and afterwards king of 
Jerusalem, became prince or count of Edessa in 1097 A. D., 
and made it the capital of a Latin principality. This city 
was captured about 1144 by the Saracen chief Noor-ed- 


1479 


Deen, who massacred the inhabitants. It was afterwards 
possessed successively by the Byzantine emperors, the 
Mongols, Persians, and Turks. The site is occupied by 
the modern town of Oorfa (which see). 

Edessa, the ancient capital of Macedonia, about 46 
miles N. W. of Salonica ( T/iessalonica ). It continued to 
be the burial-place of the Macedonian kings after the court 
was removed to Pella. Philip, father of Alexander the 
Great, was killed here. This site is occupied by Vodina. 

Edesville, a post-township of Kent co., Md. P. 3343. 

Ed'foo, or Edfou [anc. Apollinopolis Magna; Coptic, 
Atbo'], a small town of Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of the 
Nile, about 60 miles above Thebes. It has two temples, the 
larger one of which, recently cleared out by Mariette, is on 
a grand scale, and being in excellent preservation gives a 
good idea of the Egyptian temples in their glory. It was 
built chiefly by Ptolemy Philometor (181-145 B. C.), the 
last king of Egypt who is noticed in saci’ed history. Its 
entire length (including court and temple) is 405 feet. On 
each side of the entrance is a pyramidal tower 108 feet 2^ 
inches high, adorned with gigantic sculptures. The town 
has manufactures of blue cotton cloth and earthenware, and 
is noted for the importunity and insolence of its beggars. 
Pop. 2000. 

Ed'ford, a township of Henry co., Ill. Pop. 948. 

Ed'gar, a county of Illinois, bordering on Indiana. 
Area, 600 square miles. It is partly drained by Little Em- 
bai-ras River. The surface is nearly level, the soil fertile. 
Grain, cattle, wool, hay, butter, etc. are produced. Car¬ 
riages, saddlery, etc. are among its most important manu¬ 
factures. A large part of the county is prairie. It is in¬ 
tersected by the Indianapolis and St. Louis, the Paris and 
Decatur, and the Paris and Danville R. Rs. Pop. 21,450. 
Capital, Paris. 

Edgar, a township of Edgar co., Ill. Pop. 1617. 

Edgar, a post-village, capital of the parish of St. John 
the Baptist, La., is situated on the W. bank of the Mississippi 
River. It has a court-house, two Catholic and two Prot¬ 
estant churches, sugai’-mills, one steam rice-mill, a number 
of stoi'es, and two newspapers. 

Dumez & Bellow, Eds. of “The Meschacebe.” 

Ed'gartown, a port of entry and the capital of Dukes 
co., Mass., is on the E. shore of the island of Martha’s Vine¬ 
yard, 30 miles from New Bedford. It is a much-frequented 
watering-place, containing the noted camp-meeting grounds 
of Oak Bluffs. It lias a national bank, a savings bank, a 
newspaper, three churches, good schools, and numerous 
hotels. It has a small but safe harbor, and a pier on which 
is a fixed light 37 feet high, in lat. 41° 23' 25" N., Ion. 70° 
29' 51" W. This place formerly sent out many whaling- 
ships, but that business has of late declined. Edgai-town 
has communication by steamboat with the mainland. Pop. 
of Edgartown township, 1516. 

E. Marchant, Ed. “Vineyard Gazette.” 

Edgecomb, a post-twp. of Lincoln co., Me. P. 1056. 

Edgecombe, a county in the N. E. of North Carolina. 
Area, 600 square miles. It is intersected by the Tar River. 
The sui-face is nearly level; the soil is mostly sandy. Cot¬ 
ton,rice, and corn are raised. The Wilmington and Wel¬ 
don R. R. passes through the western part of the county. 
Capital, Tarborough. Pop. 22,970. 

Edgefield, a county in the W. of South Carolina. Area, 
1540 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Saluda 
River and on the S. W. by the Savannah. The surface is 
diversified by hills of moderate height; the soil is fertile. 
Grain, cattle, cotton, wool, and lumber are produced. It is 
intersected by the Charlotte Columbia and Augusta R. R. 
and the South Cai'olina R. R. Pop. 42,486. Capital, Edge- 
field Court-house. Since the census of 1870 a part of this 
county has been included in the new county of Aiken. 

Edgefield, a village of Davidson co., Tenn., on the 
right bank of the Cumberland River, opposite Nashville, 
with which it is connected by a suspension bridge. Pop. 
4389. 

Edgefield Court-house, a post-village, the capital 
of Edgefield co., S. C., is about 24 miles N. of Augusta, Ga. 
It has three or four churches and one weekly newspaper. 
Pop. 846. 

Edgehill, a ridge in England, in Warwickshire, 7 miles 
N. W. of Banbury, was the scene of the first great battle of 
the civil war, which occurred Oct. 23, 1642. The royalist 
army was commanded by Charles I., and that of the Par¬ 
liament by the earl of Essex. Prince Rupert, by a charge 
of cavalry, broke the left wing of the Parliamentarians, 
whom he pursued to Keinton, while the right wing of Es¬ 
sex’s army defeated the royalists. 

Edgemont, a post-twp. of Delaware co., Pa. Pop. 678. 












1480 EDGEKTON—EDINBUKGH. 


Edg'erton, a post-village of St. Joseph’s township, 
Williams co., 0. Pop. 690. 

Edgerton, a post-village of Rock co., Wis., on the 
Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 25 miles S. E. of Madison. 
Good cream-colored bricks are made here. 

Edge water, a post-village of Middletown and South- 
field townships, Richmond co., N. Y. It is on Staten Island, 
and is inhabited chiefly by New York business-men and 
their families. 

Edgewater, a borough of Allegheny co., Pa. Pop. 
380. 

Edgeworth (Maria), a popular English authoress, 
born near Reading Jan. 1, 1767. She removed with her 
father, Richard Lovell Edgeworth, to Edgeworthstown, in 
Ireland, in 1782. She assisted him in the composition of a 
“ Treatise on Practical Education ” (179S) and in an “ Essay 
on Irish Bulls” (1802). In 1801 she produced “Castle 
Rackrent,” the first of a series of novels, which have a 
good moral tendency, are pervaded with agreeable humor 
and sound sense, and give a graphic delineation of cha¬ 
racter. Among these novels, which obtained a durable 
popularity, are “Belinda” (1803), “Leonora” (1806), 
“Patronage” (1814), “Ormond” (1817), and “Helen” 
(1834). She also published “Popular Tales” (1804) and 
“Tales of Fashionable Life” (1809-12). Died May 21, 
1849. “The writings of Miss Edgeworth,” says Lord 
Jeffrey, “exhibit a singular union of sober sense and in¬ 
exhaustible invention, and a minute knowledge of all that 
distinguishes manners or touches on happiness in every 
condition of human fortune.” (See “Edinburgh Review” 
for July, 1809, July, 1812, and Aug., 1817; also Sir Wal¬ 
ter Scott’s critique in the “Edinburgh Review” for Jan., 
1814.) 

Edgeworth (Richard Lovell), F. R. S., an English 
writer and philosopher, the father of the preceding, was 
born at Bath in 1744. He inherited from his father an 
estate at Edgeworthstown, in county Longford, Ireland. 
He married a Miss Elers about 1764, after which he resided 
in Berkshire, England, where he associated intimately with 
Dr. Darwin and Thomas Day. In 1782 he removed to 
Edgeworthstown. Among his works are “Professional 
Education,” a “Treatise on Practical Education” (1798), 
“Irish Bulls” (1802), and autobiographic memoirs. He 
was a man of genial temper and versatile talents. Died 
June 13, 1817. 

Edg'ington, a post-township of Rock Island co., Ill. 
Pop. 1106. 

E'dict [Lat. edic'tum; Fr. edit], a public decree or proc¬ 
lamation issued by a sovereign or other potentate; an in¬ 
strument signed and sealed as a law. In ancient Rome the 
power of making edicts was principally exercised by the 
prsetor urbanus and the prsetor peregrinus, who on coming 
to office published rules for regulating the practice of their 
courts, etc. The edicts of a praetor were not binding on his 
successor, but if confirmed by the latter they were called 
edicta vetera (old edicts), as distinguished from the edicta 
nova (new edicts) framed by himself. A digest of the best 
decisions of the pnetors was made under the emperor Ha¬ 
drian by Sylvius Julianus. It was called “ Edictum Per- 
petuum,” and made the invariable standard of civil juris¬ 
prudence. The “ Edict of Milan ” was issued, after the con¬ 
quest of Italy, by Constantine (313 A. D.), to secure to 
Christians their civil and religious rights. 

Edict of Nantes, one of the most famous edicts of his¬ 
tory, was issued by Henry IV. of France in 1598, to secure 
to the Protestants the free exercise of their religion. This 
act was repealed by Louis XIV. in 1685, and its°revocation 
led to a renewal of the bloody scenes which before the issu¬ 
ing of this edict had been carried on against the Huguenots. 
The depopulation caused by the sword was also increased 
by emigration. Above half a million of her most useful 
and industrious subjects deserted Franco, and exported, to¬ 
gether with immense sums of money, those arts and manu¬ 
factures which had chiefly tended to enrich the kingdom. 
About 50,000 refugees passed over into England, and many 
more into Germany and America; and there can be little 
doubt that the cruelties perpetrated by the king of France 
tended to excite the suspicion of the English against their 
own Roman Catholic sovereign, and accelerated the revo¬ 
lution of 1688. 

Edi'na, the county-seat of Knox co'., Mo., 40 miles 
N. W. of Quincy, Ill., on the Quincy Missouri and Pacific 
R. R. It has two newspapers, five churches, a public 
school building completed at a cost of $10,000, and two 
hotels. Pop. 807. 

James C. Claypool, Ed. of “Sentinel.” 

E<I'in!)oro, a post-borough of Erie co., Pa. It is the 
seat of a State normal school. Pop. 801. 


Edinburg, a post-village of Johnson co,, Ind., on the 
Blue River and Indianapolis and Louisville R. R., 29 miles 
S. of Indianapolis. It has one bank, three churches, a high 
school, two hominy-mills, a starch-factory, good water¬ 
power, and one newspaper. Pop. 1799. 

A. M. Ernsberger, Ed. “Watchman.” 

Edinburg, a township of Penobscot co., Me. Pop. 55. 

Edinburg, a post-village, capital of Hidalgo co., Tex., 
on the Rio Grande, about 50 miles above Brownsville. It 
has a custom-house. 

Edinburgh, capital of Scotland and of Edinburgh¬ 
shire or Mid-Lothian, is picturesquely situated about 1 
mile S. of the Frith of Forth, 399 miles by railway N. 
X. W. of London; lat. 55° 57' N., Ion. 3° 12' W. It is 
divided into the Old and New Town, the former of which 
occupies the middle and highest of three ridges extending 
E. and W. The Old Town is separated by a narrow hollow 
or ravine from the New Town, which is built on a broader 
ridge with more gently sloping sides. Edinburgh is re¬ 
markable for the elegance and solidity of its buildings, 
which are all of stone. The adjacent country is pleasantly 
diversified with hills and plains. On the south-eastern border 
of the city a hill called Arthur’s Seat rises to the height of 
822 feet, and about 4 miles S. W. of Edinburgh is the range 
of the Pentland Hills. 

The principal street of the Old Town is that which ex¬ 
tends along the crest of the ridge, bearing in different parts 
the names of Canongate, High street, Lawn Market, and 
Castle Hill. It is more than a mile long, and rises with a 
regular but rather steep acclivity from the palace of Holy- 
rood, which is at its eastern end, to the huge rock on which 
stands Edinburgh Castle, 443 feet above the level of the sea. 
This street is lined with lofty and antique residences, many 
of which have seven or more stories. The houses of the 
New Town are built of a fine white freestone quarried in 
the vicinity, and are remarkably handsome. Here are three 
parallel avenues called Queen street, George street, and 
Prince’s street, the last of which extends along the S. side 
of the New Town, close to the hollow which separates it 
from the Old. Prince’s street is the most agreeable prom¬ 
enade in the city, and as it is lined with houses only along 
its northern side, it commands a fine view of the Old Town 
with its lordly castle and of the intervening valley adorned 
with public gardens. At the eastern end of this street is a 
rocky eminence called Calton Hill, the broad verdant sum¬ 
mit of which commands a beautiful view of the Frith of 
Forth, here about 6 miles wide. Arthur’s Hill and another 
high hill called Salisbury Crags afford prospects of almost 
unrivalled beauty and magnificence. 

The most remarkable public edifices and monuments are 
the castle, which is a large fortress capable of accommo¬ 
dating 2000 men, and is one of the oldest structures in the 
city ; the royal palace of Holy rood, or Holy rood House, the 
oldest part of which was built about 1528: this palace is 
quadrangular in form, with a central court 94 feet square, 
and is famous as the residence of Mary queen of Scots; the 
cathedral of St. Giles, a large and ancient edifice of un¬ 
known date, in the later Gothic style; Victoria Hall, or 
Assembly Hall, a magnificent structure, which stands at the 
head of High street, has a spire 241 feet high, and is the 
place where the General Assembly of the Church of Scot¬ 
land annually meets; the Parliament House, now a hall 
connected with the courts of law ; and the admirable monu¬ 
ment erected to Sir Walter Scott, which stands on Prince’s 
street, is 200 feet high, and is unequalled among the monu¬ 
ments of this metropolis for artistic beauty. Among the 
other objects of interest are the old Tron church; the Free 
St. George’s church ; the Free High church ; the university 
buildings; the observatory; the National Gallery of Art; 
the Royal Institution, a beautiful Grecian edifice contain¬ 
ing the apartments of the Royal Society; a chapel belong¬ 
ing to the ruined abbey of Holyrood, founded by David I. 
about 1128 ; the theatre; and the National Monument (an 
imitation of the Parthenon) on Calton Hill. 

In 1861, Edinburgh contained 115 churches and chapels, 
classified as follows : Free Church, 31 ; Church of Scotland, 
26; United Presbyterian, 18 ; other Presbyterian, 3 ; Epis¬ 
copal, 13; Baptist, 7; Congregational, 3; Roman Catholic, 3; 
Methodist and Evangelical, 4 ; Unitarian, 1 ; other bodies, 6. 
It is the seat of a bishop of the Episcopal Church and of a 
Roman Catholic vicar-apostolic. It has numerous large and 
richly endowed hospitals and charitable institutions, among 
which is Ileriot’s Hospital, founded for the education and 
maintenance of poor boys. This city is important as a 
centre of learning, and is distinguished for the number and 
excellence of its literary, scientific, and educational institu¬ 
tions. The aristocracy, the literati, and professional men 
form an unusually large proportion of its population, which 
is extensively engaged in the business of printing and pub¬ 
lishing books. Edinburgh is the head-quarters of the book- 















EDINBURGH—EDMONSON. 1481 


trade in Scotland, and as a literary mart is second only to 
London among British cities. Here is the celebrated Uni¬ 
versity of Edinburgh, founded by Janies VI. in 1582, which 
has a library of about 140,000 volumes. (See separate arti¬ 
cle.) The other chief educational institutions are the High 
School, which occupies a handsome Doric edifice 270 feet 
long; the New Academy (or college) of the Free Church ; 
the Royal College of Surgeons; the medical school; the 
Royal Academy of Fine Arts, and the Royal Society. The 
Advocates’ Library has the largest and most valuable col¬ 
lection of books in Scotland—about 170,000 volumes. 

Edinburgh is the seat of the supreme courts of Scotland, 
the principal of which is the court of session, composed of 
thirteen judges. This court tries all civil'causes, and de¬ 
cides not only on the law of the case, but also in questions 
of equity. This city returns two members to Parliament. 
By virtue of ancient charters and modern acts of Parlia¬ 
ment it is a royal burgh, governed by a town council 
elected by popular vote, and by a lord provost, who is elect¬ 
ed by this town council. It is the terminus of important 
railways—viz., the North British, the Edinburgh and Glas¬ 
gow, and the Caledonian Railway. This city has two ports 
on the Frith of Forth—Leith and Granton, the former of 
which is 2 miles from the Cross of Edinburgh. Pop. in 
1871, 196,500. 

History .—This place was recognized as a burgh by David 
I. in 1128, and a Parliament was held here in 1215. It be¬ 
came the capital of Scotland about 1436, when its castle 
was selected as the only place of safety for the royal house¬ 
hold and the Parliament. It was enclosed by walls in the 
fifteenth century, and for a long period was confined to the 
central ridge. The hollow between this and the northern 
ridge was filled with water, called the North Loch. The 
New Town originated about 1765, when a bridge was 
erected across that loch to connect the Old Town with the 
New. Here occurred in May, 1843, the disruption of the 
Established Church, from the General Assembly of which 
203 members seceded and organized the Free Church. Sir 
Walter Scott and Lord Brougham were born here. 

Edinburgh, a post-village of Grundy co., Mo., is the 
seat of Grand River College, founded in 1858. 

Edinburgh, a post-township of Saratoga co., N. Y. It 
, has manufactures of lumber. Pop. 1405. 

Edinburgh, a post-township of Portage co., 0. P. 929. 

Edinburgh (Alfred Ernest Albert), Duke of, sec¬ 
ond son of Victoria, queen of Great Britain, was born at 
Windsor Castle Aug. 6,1844. He was educated chiefly by 
private tutors. He entered the British navy in 1858, and 
served chiefly on foreign stations. In 1862 he declined the 
crown of Greece, which was offered him, and in 1S66 took a 
seat in the House of Peers by his present title. In 1867 he 
set sail in command of the frigate Galatea, visiting Austra¬ 
lia, Japan, China, India, etc. At a picnic at Clontarf, New 
South Wales, Mar. 12, 1868, he was slightly wounded by a 
pistol-shot fired by a Fenian named O’Farrell. The latter 
was soon afterwards executed. The full title of this prince 
is, “ His Royal Highness Prince Alfred Ernest Albert, Duke 
of Edinburgh, Earl of Kent, and Earl of Ulster, K. G., K. P.” 
He is also a duke of Saxony and prince of Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha. 

Edinburgh Review, a celebrated critical journal 
founded at Edinburgh in 1802, is the oldest of the great 
British quarterly reviews. Francis Jeffrey, Sydney Smith, 
Henry Brougham, and Francis Horner were the founders and 
first contributors of this review, which was a strenuous ad¬ 
vocate of Whig principles. Sydney Smith edited the first 
number, of which 750 copies were printed. Mr. Constable 
was the original publisher. Lord Jeffrey became its editor 
in 1803, and conducted it with great ability and success for 
twenty-six years. The brilliant wit, the critical keenness, 
the eloquent style, and the extensive knowledge, displayed 
by the contributors produced a great sensation in the lite¬ 
rary world. Its circulation had risen to 9000 in 1808, and 
12,000 or more in 1813. Among the eminent men who 
contributed largely to this review were Macaulay, Carlyle, 
Lord Brougham, Sir J. Mackintosh, and Henry Rogers. 
Macvey Napier succeeded Lord Jeffrey as editor in 1829. 
The price paid to contributors was at first ten guineas a 
sheet, but it was soon raised to sixteen guineas. 

Ed'inburghshire, or Mid-Lothian, a county in 
the S. E. part of Scotland, has an area of 397 square miles. 
It is bounded on the N. by the Frith of Forth. The surface 
is diversified by plains and high ridges, among which are 
the Moorfoot Hills and the Pentland Hills, composed of 
porphyry. The highest point of the Pentland Hills rises 
1339 feet. The rocks of this county belong mostly to the 
carboniferous and Silurian formations. A aluable coal mines 
are worked in the valley of the Esk. Tho soil is generally 
fertile and well cultivated. Near the metropolis are many 
nurseries, dairy pastures and vegetable gardens. It is trav¬ 


ersed by five great railways. Pop. in 1871, 328,335. Cap¬ 
ital, Edinburgh. 

Edinburgh, University of, was founded by James 
VI. of Scotland in 1582. In 1600 the senatus academicus 
consisted of a principal and four regents. The first chair 
of theology was founded in 1642, and the first professor of 
medicine was appointed in 1685. In 1760 the senatus aca¬ 
demicus consisted of a principal and eighteen professors. 
Since that date ten chairs have been added. In 1858 its 
constitution was changed by an act of Parliament, which 
took the government out of the hands of the lord provost 
and town council of Edinburgh, and gave it to the senatus 
academicus and a university court. The patronage of the 
chairs was then transferred to seven curators, three of whom 
arc nominated by the university court and four by the town 
council. The university consists of the faculties of arts, 
medicine, theology, and law. The faculty of arts comprises 
the chairs of humanity, Greek, mathematics, logic and meta¬ 
physics, moral philosophy, natural philosophy, rhetoric and 
belles-lettres, universal history, astronomy, agriculture, and 
music. Connected with this university are a large library, 
a museum of natural history, and a botanic garden. 

Ed'isto, a river of South Carolina, is formed by the 
North and South Edisto, which unite at Edisto, a station 
on the South Carolina R. R. The North Edisto is the 
boundary between Barnwell and Orangeburg counties. 
The main stream flows south-eastward and southward 
through Colleton county, and enters the Atlantic Ocean 
by two channels, called the North and South Edisto Inlets, 
between which is Edisto Island. 

Edisto Island, one of the most important of the Sea 
Island group, is in Charleston co., S. C., between the North 
and South Edisto Inlets. It produces sea-island cotton. 
It has a post-office of the same name. Pop. 2762. 

Ed'meston, a post-twp. of Otsego co., N. Y. P. 1744. 

Ed'nionds (Francis W.), an American painter, born 
at Hudson, N. Y., Nov. 22, 1806. He visited Rome in 
1840, before which date he had exhibited, besides other 
works, “The City and Country Beaux” and “Dominie 
Sampson.” Died about 1860. 

'Edmonds (John Worth), an eminent American jurist, 
was born at Hudson, N. Y., Mar. 13, 1799, and graduated 
at Union College (now Union University) at Schenectady, 
N. Y., in 1816. In 1819 he was admitted to the bar, and 
in 1820 commenced the successful practice of law in his 
native town. In 1831 he entered the New York legislature 
as a member of the Assembly, and in 1832 became a Stato 
senator. In 1836 he was appointed a U. S. Indian agent. 
He retained the position for two years, and became familiar 
with several Indian languages. In 1841 he re-entered upon 
the practice of law, and opened an office in New York City, 
which was from that time his home. In 1843 he was ap¬ 
pointed one of the State prison inspectors, and labored with 
zeal and success in introducing reforms in prison discipline. 
In 1845 he was appointed a circuit judge, and in 1847 be¬ 
came one of the judges of the supreme court, New York. In 
1852 he was appointed to the bench of the court of appeals, 
from which in 1853 he retired to the private practice of law, 
in which he was after a time a partner with Hon. William 
II. Field. In 1851, Judge Edmonds became a convert to 
the doctrines of Spiritualism, and in 1853 openly avowed 
and defended his belief of that unpopular faith by the pub¬ 
lication of a work entitled “Spiritualism.” He subsequent¬ 
ly published many other writings in favor of his belief, of 
which he became one of the leading champions. He also 
became an active medium, and believed himself to be in 
almost constant communication with departed spirits. 
There can be no doubt that his advocacy of Spiritualism 
cost him his place on the bench. Judge Edmonds was a 
man of cultivated mind and of singularly pure and amiable 
character. In public and private life alike he was honor¬ 
able and universally respected. As a lawyer he w T as able 
and learned. As a judge he was sound, wise, and above 
any suspicion of wrong-doing. He avowed his peculiar 
religious views, with the greatest courage and persistency, 
and there can be no question that he was fully convinced 
of the truth of what he professed. During the latter part 
of his life he sufferod much from a severe chronic disease, 
but his legal advice was much sought in difficult cases to 
the last. Ho died April 5, 1874, an unwavering believer 
in the truth of Spiritualism. , 

Ed'momlson, a county in S. W. Central Kentucky. 
Area, 230 square miles. It is intersected by Green River. 
The surface is undulating or hilly : the soil fertile. Tobacco 
and grain are staple crops. Beds of coal and cavernous 
limestone underlie this county, in which the celebrated 
Mammoth Cave is situated. Capital, Brownsville. P.4459. 

Ed'monsoiij a township of Crittenden oo., Ark. Pop. 
160. 













1482 EDMONTON 


Eil'inonton, a post-village, capital of Metcalfe co., 
Ky., about 50 miles E. of Bowling Green. Pop. 140. 

Ed'mund I., king of the Anglo-Saxons, born about 922 
A. D., was a sou of Edward the Elder and a grandson of 
Alfred the Great. lie became king in 941, and conquered 
the Britons of Cumbria, lie is said to have been a brave 
and prudent ruler. He was assassinated by Liof May 26, 
946, and was succeeded by his brother Edred. 

Edmund II., surnamed Ironside, king of England, 
born in 989 A. D., was a son of Ethelred II. At the death 
of the latter, in 1016, the Danes possessed the greater part 
of England. Edmund, who was renowned for courage, 
waged war against Canute the Dane, and gained several 
victories, but was defeated at Assandun. The two rivals 
then agreed to divide the kingdom, of which Edmund re¬ 
ceived the southern part. lie died Nov. 30, 1016, and 
Canute then became sole king. 

Ed'mmids, a township of Washington co., Me. P. 448. 

Ed'munds (George F.), an American lawyer and Sen¬ 
ator, born at Richmond, Vt., Feb. 1, 1828. He was chosen 
in 1854 a member of the legislature of his native State, 
which in 1865 elected him to the Senate of the U. S. He 
was re-elected as a Republican for a term of six years 
(1869-75). In Dec., 1872, he was appointed chairman of 
the committee on the judiciary. 

Ed'na, a post-township of Cass co., Ia. Pop. 367. 

Ecl'iieyville, a post-township of Henderson co., N. C. 
Pop. 1125. 

Eilom, a name of Esau (which see). 

Edom, a country of Asia. See Idumaea. 

Ed'red, king of the Anglo-Saxons, was a son of Ed¬ 
ward the Elder. He succeeded his elder brother, Edmund 
I., in 946 A. D. Saint Dunstan acquired an ascendency 
over Edred, and was his most powerful minister. Edred 
died Nov. 23, 955, and was succeeded by his nephew Edwy. 

Edriophthal'ina [from the Gr. efipalo?, “ fixed,” and 
6<£0aAjUos, “eye”] are a group of crustaceans called the ses¬ 
sile-eyed Crustacea, because their eyes are placed directly 
upon the shell, instead of being mounted upon footstalks. 
They have the organs of respiration connected with the 
organs of locomotion. None of the Edriophthalma attain 
more than an inch and a half in length. They are gen¬ 
erally marine, though some of them of the order Arnphip- 
oda inhabit fresh water, and a few, belonging to the Isop- 
oda, such as the wood-louse, are terrestrial, but inhabit 
damp places. To the Amphipoda belong the common sand- 
hoppers, which are found in myriads along sandy shores. 
Some of the Edriophthalma are parasitic on other marine 
animals. 

Edri'si, or Edree'see, an eminent Arabian geogra¬ 
pher, was born at Ceuta, in Africa, about 1100. He was 
descended from the royal family of Edrisites. He travelled 
extensively in Europe and Asia, and passed many years at 
the court of R.oger II., king of Sicily, by whom he was 
liberally patronized. Edrisi made for this prince a sil¬ 
ver terrestrial globe, and wrote a large book on geography, 
which was long a standard work. M. Jaubert published a 
French translation of it in 1836. Died about 1175. 

Ed' son, a township of Chippewa co., Wis. Pop. 231. 

Education [Lat. educatio]. The word educate signi¬ 
fies “ to lead out,” or, as applied to the human mind or 
body, to draw forth its faculties into vigorous action. Edu¬ 
cation may be defined, the process of developing and train¬ 
ing the powers and capacities of human beings. It pertains 
not to any part, as the mind in distinction from the body 
or the moral faculty, but in its widest and truest sense it 
relates to the whole of man. The education of any part 
exclusively or unduly results in disproportion or distortion 
in development, and destroys harmony and symmetry in 
mind and character. 

In determining beforehand what course of education 
shall be adopted, it is essential to have a definite concep¬ 
tion of the object to be attained. Different opinions as to 
the proper object to be sought will lead to the choice of dif¬ 
ferent courses and methods. Each enlightened nation of 
both ancient and modern times has had its own general 
theory of the purpose of education, and has made its prac¬ 
tice conform thereto. The object, and therefore the method, 
of education in ancient Greece and ancient Romo were es¬ 
sentially unlike. And so the several nations of modern 
Europe have differed in their views on this subject, and 
have illustrated their differences in their educational sys¬ 
tems. In the U. S. there has prevailed an ideal, and a cor¬ 
responding practice, unlike those of any other country. 
Different sections or states in the same nation have also 
had their peculiar views and usages. Ancient Athens and 
Sparta had very little resemblance, though both were 
prominent cities in the same country. 


EDUCATION. 


Without attempting to give even an outline of the vari¬ 
ous theories as to the object of education, and of the sys¬ 
tems based upon them, the following is suggested as a 
supreme object which can hardly fail to commend itself to 
candid and thoughtful persons. Education, wisely di¬ 
rected, should aim to accomplish three things: (1) the im¬ 
parting and acquiring of knowledge as extensive, various, 
and comprehensive, and also as thorough and complete, as 
practicable; (2) the training, discipline, and culture of all 
the faculties, physical, intellectual, social, and moral, to as 
high a degree of effectiveness for their several functions as 
opportunities and circumstances permit; and (3) the eleva¬ 
tion of the whole man to as high and worthy a character 
as can be attained. To lead men to know, to do, and to 
become—these three results education should achieve. 

1. The imparting and acquiring of knowledge. This is 
the first step in human development. The mind of a new¬ 
born child is an utter blank. The miniature man contains 
the germs and possibilities of all that he may afterwards 
become. The body has the organs of sense, by which its 
indwelling soul is to communicate with the outward world, 
and the soul has those latent susceptibilities and faculties 
and tendencies which will be disclosed as development and 
education draw them forth into activity. The theory of 
“innate ideas” has also strong claims to be recognized as 
true. The opposite theory, that all knowledge is derived 
from communication between the soul and the visible world 
through the senses, is manifestly not true. But education, 
while it should recognize the reality and high importance 
of these “innate ideas”— e.g. those of right and justice, 
of extension and duration—is mainly concerned, at first, 
with the giving and receiving of knowledge respecting 
those objects which come within the range of the child’s 
observation. The aspects and qualities of any object are 
new and strange and wonderful to the infant’s opening 
mind. He is perpetually investigating and examining and 
inquiring, and thus gathering up new truths. The ceaseless 
inquisitiveness of children is sometimes sharply rebuked. 
Doubtless, it is somewhat annoying, but it is inevitable. 
The little world in which they live is, for them, full of 
wonders and mysteries, and their minds crave knowledge 
as eagerly as their bodies crave food. A healthy mind 
healthily trained never loses this instinctive longing for 
new truth. The sources and objects of knowledge are 
innumerable. The material world gives rise to the ever- 
increasing number of sciences, or rather branches of sci¬ 
ence, for every science is connected, nearly or remotely, 
with every other. The human body is itself a most inter¬ 
esting and important subject of study. But careful thought 
respecting the body naturally suggests further inquiry as to 
the nature and source of the life that dwells within it, and 
this leads by easy transition to the discussion of the nature 
and the faculties of the human soul, or from material to 
mental science. Then the pursuit of this latter science 
leads upward from man to higher beings, even to the 
Highest of all. Thus, the acquirement of knowledge is, 
in point of time, the beginning of education, though it 
may also continue through all subsequent life. 

2. The discipline, culture, and training of the several 
faculties. The mere acquisition of knowledge is not edu¬ 
cation. In early childhood it is doubtless the most import¬ 
ant part, and almost the only part that is practicable. But 
it calls into exercise chiefly the observing or perceptive 
powers and the memory; the latter faculty being employed, 
at that stage of education, in storing up an ever-growing 
multitude of facts. But the development of memory alone 
is not education. Knowledge is the food of the mind. In 
order that food may strengthen the body, it must be duly 
digested and assimilated. And so knowledge must be not 
merely grasped, in its rudiments, by the indiscriminating 
memory, but must be comprehended, and, so to speak, 
digested, in order that it may nurture the mind. The 
body is of more worth than the food that sustains it; 
the mind is of more value than all the knowledge it can 
acquire. In the process of mastering that knowledge it 
puts its powers into exercise, and thus learns how to use 
them. Knowledge is good in itself, and may wisely be 
sought for its own sake. But the immense majority of 
mankind can spend but a very small part of their lives in 
acquiring it. Necessity demands of them to make some 
practical use of their powers, both of body and mind. 
Their education must not be for the gratification of tasto 
nor for display, but must fit them for some active service 
in the world. It is a common error to suppose that the 
ability to excite astonishment by the array of learning is 
proof of thorough education. But he who, in mastering 
knowledge, acquires full mastery of himself, and is thus 
able to employ any faculty as duty or inclination may re¬ 
quire, is most truly educated. Power is what men instinct¬ 
ively desire. They can gain it by so training their faculties 
as to have them always at command. To know how to uso 


















EDUCATION. 


1483 


the mind or the body is to have given it a real education. 
It is well known that great scholars are often men of little 
practical efficiency. Cloistered students, who seldom min¬ 
gle with the world, are more useful to it than is generally 
believed, but not many can thus serve their generation. 
Ihe education demanded is one that shall train the facul¬ 
ties, by exercising them, for wielding power. The body, 
the intellect, the conscience, the affections, the will, the 
whole man, is to be disciplined and cultured to labor in and 
for the world. 

3. But the kind of power which a man shall wield is 
even more important than the degree. The quantity of 
power in any man depends upon his natural gifts, and his 
acquired ability to use them effectively; the quality of his 
power is determined by his character. The world is un- 
, happily too familiar with those who have used great power 
in doing great harm. Selfishness, ambition, greed of gain, 
indifference to the rights and the sufferings of others, have 
characterized multitudes of the world’s great men. Any 
person, whether his power be great or small, is a blessing 
or a curse to his generation and to the world, according as 
his character is good or evil. The moral element of educa¬ 
tion determines its quality. The spirit of gentleness, kind¬ 
ness and beneficence invariably carries joy and gladness 
wherever it goes; the opposite spirit as invariably pro¬ 
duces pain and grief. Character determines what kind of 
exertion any one shall put forth, and what direction shall 
be given to it. A noble character is the grandest and 
most permanent result of education. Knowledge is at the 
best partial and fragmentary. Only an infinitesimal part 
ot the universe of truth can be grasped by any mind. 
Human wisdom or power, however great, is weakness 
itself when compared with the boundless physical power 
that is latent in nature, and is nothing in comparison with 
the wisdom and might of the Infinite One. Let knowledge 
be increased. Let discipline and culture be carried upward 
to the highest attainable point. But, especially, let educa¬ 
tion be directed towards the building up of strong, sym¬ 
metrical, well-balanced, pure, exalted, perfect character. 
Learning is good, power is good, culture is good, but 
character is more important than all of them. Knowledge 
and culture are in the man, but character is the man. 
Education should regard what he is to know, and what he 
shall be able to do, but, above all, what he is to become. 
It should develop and train him with continual reference 
to the destiny that awaits him as heir to an endless, God¬ 
like existence. 

Since the object to be sought by education is nothing 
less than the perfecting of human character and the exalta¬ 
tion of human nature, the next point to be considered is, 
How may this be most surely accomplished? The difference 
between a human being at the beginning of his existence, 
and that which he may become when ennobled, by means 
of education, to the highest conceivable perfection, is almost 
infinite. The process of thus lifting him up ever higher 
and higher cannot be an easy nor a sudden one. The work 
is so great, and the difficulties so many; the workers, the 
instruments, and the material wrought upon are so im¬ 
perfect; and the time requisite for completing the work is 
so long, that the perfected result must come, if at all, in 
the far-off future. But a high ideal is of great worth, even 
though it be far beyond present attainment. 

Any process of education, to be successful, must conform 
to the natural order of human development. There is a 
regular fixed succession in the growth of the human soul, 
as in the growth of the body. 

1. Physical education demands the earliest care. This 
includes the observance of the laws of health in respect to 
food, clothing, cleanliness, pure air, and exercise and rest 
in due measure and alternation. Soon comes the period 
for practising and training the various members of the 
body, to strengthen them, and to give the will perfect con¬ 
trol over them, so that they shall perform their several 
functions accurately, vigorously, and promptly. The habits 
of the body as regards its modes of action are acquired 
very early. The flexible limbs of children may readily be 
trained to easy, graceful motions. Those persons whose 
earliest years are passed in cultivated society acquire 
almost unconsciously an ease and freedom of manner 
which no later training could impart. The impressions 
which the human body receives and the lessons which it 
learns in its infancy can never afterwards be effaced. 
Children instinctively imitate older persons, even in trifling 
particulars. The importance of good models and correct 
examples is therefore obvious. Education in manners, 
though it may seem to be merely superficial, has a closer 
connection with character than is often believed. 

2. The intellect is the part of man most commonly con¬ 
sidered in education. In the process of intellectual educa¬ 
tion a careful observance of the mind’s natural order of 
development is indispensable. The mental faculties are 


developed in an unvarying order, (a) The perceptive 
powers are first called into activity. There is an exact 
adaptation of these powers to the phenomena of the visible 
world. The newly-awakening senses observe these phe¬ 
nomena, curiosity is excited, and ideas of form, size, color, 
space, and distance are acquired. Especially does a young 
child learn very early to read human character, and to in¬ 
terpret with accuracy the meaning of tones of voice and 
expressions of countenance. Beauty and brightness attract 
him, and he distinctly reveals his preference for gentleness 
and kindness. A very few years are past ere he has gained 
complete use of his bodily senses, and of the perceptive 
powers that are so intimately connected with them. The 
other mental faculties await their time while these powers 
are unfolding. Their office is to ascertain facts, and to 
report them to the memory, which holds them in readiness 
for subsequent use. ( b ) Next appears in activity the power 
of expressing the ideas that have been acquired; in other 
words, the use of language. The learning of a language 
requires the recollection of a large number of words and 
of their several meanings. A child’s memory is adapted to 
this kind of recollection. It lays hold of particulars, and 
retains them singly, while he is not yet able to grasp their 
connections. So readily do children acquire language that 
many cases have been known of their learning simul¬ 
taneously to talk in two or more languages, and to use 
each correctly in conversing with those unacquainted with 
the others, passing readily from one to another in address¬ 
ing different persons. But for the great majority a single 
language suffices. Those early years are the time when it 
should be learned correctly. Vicious habits of speech com¬ 
monly result from incorrect early training, and, like other 
lessons of early childhood, they are seldom perfectly un¬ 
learned. Children have also a strong propensity to copy 
visible objects. Next to a living animal itself, they admire 
a picture of it, and they soon desire to make such a picture. 
Their first efforts of this kind are necessarily crude and 
unsuccessful, but the disposition to make such efforts is a 
clear indication, in the order of mental development, that 
education at that period should be directed to training the 
eye and the hand in the useful arts of writing and drawing. 
Working with Nature, and at the time which she indicates 
as the best, will be most successful, (c) A little later in 
the process of intellectual development comes the power of 
perceiving the connections of truths. The understanding 
is developed, and facts acquire new meaning as their rela¬ 
tions and combinations are understood. There is a unify¬ 
ing of the knowledge previously gained, and principles are 
recollected instead of isolated facts. This perception of the 
logical relations of truths enables the learner to think con¬ 
secutively and to reason correctly. He can advance into 
new regions of thought and master new truths, acquainting 
himself with them not in their isolation, but as parts of a 
harmonious system. The man who has not learned to 
think logically may accumulate in memory vast numbers 
of facts, but he cannot use them; they are a burden and a 
hindrance to further mental growth. He cannot be a man 
of power, for he has not learned to use his acquisitions. 
(d) But logical power is not the highest development of 
the mind. Logic arranges knowledge and makes it avail¬ 
able. Higher than mere logic is the reason. This faculty 
connects man most nearly with his Maker. It rests not 
upon the opinions and deductions of men ; it is not depend¬ 
ent upon the processes of logic ; but it summons all human 
thoughts and opinions before its tribunal, and pronounces 
upon them in accordance with the eternal principles of 
right and truth. It takes cognizance of truths and laws 
of which the senses can give no evidence, and perceives a 
unity where the multiplicity of facts tends to produce con¬ 
fusion. It leads up from all visible things, and from the 
phenomena of the self-conscious soul, to the invisible and 
almighty Author of all. 

3. The moral faculty of the soul also requires education. 
The development of this faculty and of the intellect ad¬ 
vance simultaneously. Moral education is the training of 
the will to act firmly in accordance with the dictates of con¬ 
science. This training should begin with intancy. Intel¬ 
lectual training culminates in the development and suprem¬ 
acy of reason; moral training, in the complete subordi¬ 
nation of all propensities and desires to the control of 
conscience. Every child has an inborn perception ot the 
distinction between right and wrong, but experience abun¬ 
dantly proves that the tendency to disregard the inward 
command to do right is universal, there is from the out¬ 
set a necessity for strengthening the moral faculty, and tor 
educating the young to obey its commands. 1 he inclination 
to disobey or disregavd it tends to weaken it, and to dctiact 
from the clearness of its perceptions and the force of its 
mandates. This tendency must be resisted and overcomo 
by education. At first, this education must involve obedi¬ 
ence to authority. A command is to bo given in accordance 

















1484 EDUCATION. 


with the right, and absolute submission to such command 
must be enforced. Afterwards the right and wrong of 
proposed conduct must be shown, and the child trained to 
do the right because it is right. When he does this volun¬ 
tarily, he has begun to submit his will to his conscience. 
By constant, careful, and persistent training, with judicious 
encouragement and aid, or, if necessary, with occasional 
severity, lie learns self-control. Moral education must lead 
to the voluntary doing of the right and rejection of the 
wrong. The decision for the right must be reached in spite 
of temptations and inclinations to the contrary. The most 
weighty reason for choosing the right is that it conforms to 
the will of the Supreme Author and Controller of human 
destiny. Perfected moral education results in entire con¬ 
formity to that Will which is in supreme accord with Right. 

Physical, intellectual, and moral education includes all 
the powers and capacities of man. To train all these 
aright is to fit him for his duties and his destiny—to make 
him, ultimately, the wise, exalted, and happy being that 
he is fitted to become. But the relations in which men 
stand to each other and to Him who made them may prop¬ 
erly receive a brief consideration. From the first-named 
relation certain duties resitlt, for which preparation is 
requisite. This preparation may be termed— 

4. Social or Political Education .—Social education is 
acquired chiefly by intercourse with mankind. It is largely 
the result of the incidental connection of people with each 
other in the ordinary transactions of life. But an essential 
part of a right social education is a careful regard for the 
rights of others, and a manifest desire to promote their 
enjoyment. This connects it closely with moral education. 
There is a social training which is wholly superficial, which 
is profuse in professions of interest and good-will, but 
deficient in proof of them. There is another kind which 
unduly neglects to manifest interest and regard that are 
really felt. Both the feeling and the manifestation, in due 
measure, are requisite to a symmetrical social education. 
Political education concerns the relations of the citizen to 
the government. In a nation where the government is “of 
the people, by the people, and for the people,” the necessity 
and importance of this education are obvious. The rights 
and duties of citizens; their obligation of obedience to 
law; of seeing that good laws are enacted and enforced; 
that the weak and helpless are protected ; that the grasping 
and unjust are restrained and evil-doers punished; that 
the enacting, explaining, and enforcing of laws are en¬ 
trusted to competent and trustworthy men; that the rights 
of both labor and capital are duly protected; that the 
nature and rights of property are understood; and that 
all necessary burdens of taxation are equitably adjusted, 
and all productive industries properly encouraged,—these 
are some of the lessons included in political education. 

5. The relation of man to his Maker necessitates religious 
education. This explains the intuitive conceptions aud 
feelings of the soul with regard to what it recognizes as 
good and right, and teaches that the Author of the soul is 
supremely just and good. It shows in what way his will is 
made known, and what are the proofs that he has revealed 
himself to man. It declares his earnest desire that all shall 
be perfect in rightness and happiness, and shall attain to 
the Godlike nobility and glory for which they are to be 
qualified by being made “ partakers of the Divine nature.” 
Especially, it declares his inconceivable gentleness, good¬ 
ness, and condescension, and his boundless compassion and 
helpfulness for those who struggle upward towards the 
good, in opposition to downward tendencies, both without 
and within. It tells of an endless future destiny, and of 
the divine Deliverer from evil and Redeemer unto purity 
and nobleness of life, the climax of which shall be another 
life, whose enjoyment and progress and duration shall have 
no limit. Religious teaching, like all other, should have 
careful regard to the natural order of intellectual and 
moral development. It should begin at a very early period 
of life, and should be adapted to the advancement of the 
child in knowledge and character. It should continue not 
through childhood only, but through life. No part of edu¬ 
cation, whether of body, mind, or conscience, is ever abso¬ 
lutely completed, but religious education, as it has the 
widest scope and pertains to the most enduring interests, 
should continue to the end of life. 

Having thus considered the object of education, and the 
mode of accomplishing that object, the way is prepared for 
answering the inquiry, By whom shall education bo con¬ 
ducted ? In other words, Who shall make sure that the 
benefits of education arc shared as generally and as com¬ 
pletely as possible ? Preliminary to the determining of 
this question, two others arise—viz., How many shall be 
educated? and, to what extent? The answer to these 
questions is near at hand: all should receive at least the 
rudiments of education, and in each case the training 
should be as complete and thorough as practicable. As 


regards the education of children —to which this part of the 
discussion will be mostly restricted—all must be done for 
them. They are not competent to know what they need, 
much less to devise the means for gaining it. When a 
person has passed beyond childhood, and is fitted by 
maturity of mind and knowledge of himself to decide what 
his future training shall be, he may safely be left to him¬ 
self and to such advisers as are within his reach. Profes¬ 
sional education is of this kind, and therefore is not here 
to be discussed. The extent and completeness of that kind 
of education must be decided in each case by the inclina¬ 
tion, the opportunity, or the resources of the student. But 
for securing ordinary and general education some provision 
must be made. Who shall make that provision ? and who 
shall see that it is sufficient and well directed ? 

1. In the order of nature the earliest teachers are the 
parents. The instinctive love of parents for their children 
leads them naturally to do what they can for their depend¬ 
ent little ones. Bodily care and training devolve by nature 
upon parents alone. The duty of providing for the intel¬ 
lectual and moral education of children is also the untrans¬ 
ferable duty of parents. The development of an infant's 
mind, the gradual manifestation of consciousness, observa¬ 
tion, perception, and knowledge, cannot but interest pro¬ 
foundly every parent’s heart. And when there comes at 
length the necessity for imparting instruction, the mother 
is the person designated by the law of nature to perform 
that service. But the time arrives when the teaching of a 
household would require more time and thought and labor 
than this first and natural teacher can bestow. Successful 
teaching is an art, to be acquired, like any other art, by 
study and labor. In every country where education has 
been duly regarded, persons have devoted themselves to the 
distinctive work of teaching. Families or communities 
depute this work to persons believed to be fitted for per¬ 
forming it. But who shall select teachers? and who shall 
decide upon their qualifications? Primarily, this is the 
duty of parents, and their responsibility for it can never be 
transferred. But if the children of several families are to 
be educated together, some agreement for this purpose must 
be made between the parents. In this way a school comes 
into existence. But if it is actually established in this 
manner, some part, and possibly the larger part, of the 
children may not be reached by it. Social or class preju¬ 
dices, or the poverty of some parents, or the indifference 
of others, or family feuds, or other causes, may effectively 
shut out multitudes of the young from all opportunity of 
education. This is not mere theory. In thousands of 
cases precisely this result has been witnessed. How shall 
these neglected multitudes be reached ? The gifts of the 
benevolent have been profusely bestowed to remedy the 
evil, and it has thus been much diminished. But such 
gifts can benefit only particular places, which will naturally 
be those where wealth most abounds and where education 
is appreciated. The communities most destitute of educa¬ 
tional opportunities are those last reached by the occasional 
beneficence of individuals. Excellent as the schools thus 
founded may be, they cannot be extended into a complete 
system; they cannot fully supply the imperative want of 
the entire country. There is need of some agency that 
shall be felt everywhere and shall reach every part of the 
land. This agency some would find in an organization 
which exists in all Christian countries, and this organiza¬ 
tion is— 

2. The Church .—The earliest endeavors to educate all 
the people originated in the Christian Church. Through 
all the centuries of Christianity the great power of the 
Church has been generally in favor of education, though 
corruptions within it have at times given it the opposite 
tendency. The church schools of the early centuries were 
designed especially to give instruction in Christian doc¬ 
trines, and the same class of schools in later times have 
usually the same object. If this kind of instruction satis¬ 
fies the wants of the people, and if they are substantially 
of one mind in regard to accepting it, it may for the time 
suffice. But where there is freedom of religious thought, 
different sects will spring up, each strenuous for its own 
particular tenets. No one party in the Church can then 
claim the right to control the instruction of all the people. 
If such a claim were made it would be strenuously resisted 
by all other parties. Not even a majority may rightfully 
compel the whole to accept what education the stronger 
party may choose. But why not permit each sect to have 
its own schools and to educate its own children ? This 
would draw the lines of sectarian division deeper than 
they now are, and would aggravate an evil already too 
great. Some sects are wealthy, others comparatively poor; 
some zealous for education, others comparatively indiffer¬ 
ent. There are also large numbers not belonging to any 
sect. For these the scheme now under consideration would 
mako no provision. Furthermore, in small communities 














EDUCATIONAL REFORM IN JAPAN AND CHINA. 1485 


several feeble schools might be established where a much 
smaller number would better serve the people. Then, 
again, the day for church dogmas as the staple of educa¬ 
tion is past. Religion is not less esteemed, but intelligent 
people wish their children to be taught something more 
closely connected with the active business of life than the 
ancient church dogmas. In whatever way the subject is 
regarded, the theory that the Church, or any part of it, 
shall control education is at variance with the spirit of the 
age and the necessities of the times. 

3. But if parental control alone, or when supplemented 
by the liberality of the benevolent, cannot cover the whole 
ground, and if church control will not meet the emergency, 
where shall tho direction of education be placed ? There 
is need of an agency coextensive with the entire com¬ 
munity, and equally concerned with all classes of people. 
This agency may be found in tho civil government. There 
are three institutions which exist by tho same divine .au¬ 
thority—the Family, the Church, and the State. The 
necessary and intimate relations of tho first of these to 
education has already been pointed out. The historical 
connection of the second with the instruction of the jieople 
has been recognized, and its duty to teach them religion is 
undeniable. But that is its controlling object. It would 
train only one part of the human being, and thus destroy 
the harmony which should prevail between the several 
parts. The State has tho same kind and degree of connec¬ 
tion with men of all sects and parties. It can therefore 
act impartially towards them all. It aims to promote their 
welfare in all their relations. Especially, it must protect 
itself from the perils inseparable from widely prevailing 
ignorance. It must recognize the need of both intelligence 
and good morals to its safety and perpetuity. It must ac¬ 
cordingly provide that the schools under its control give 
attention to the morality as well as the intelligence of their 
pupils. It may even provide for instruction in tho general 
principles of religious truth, giving no place to sectarian 
peculiarities. The control of education by the civil au¬ 
thority is no mere theory. It has been tried for centuries, 
and is successfully operating to-day in the best-educated 
nations of the world. Other nations are adopting it, and it 
bids fair to prevail at last in every enlightened part of the 
world. 

Thus have been considered in succession the object, the 
method, and the agency of universal education. The world 
has much yet to learn upon this subject. A few years may 
bring changes of opinions and of systems, but education 
in the future will certainly be more general and more com¬ 
plete than in the past. John G. Baird, 

Asst. Sec. Conn. Board of Education. 

Educational Reform in Japan and China. 
The first full annual report of the new educational depart¬ 
ment of Japan has ‘lately been received in this country. 
The plans which it unfolds are surprisingly liberal, com¬ 
prehensive, and wise. If once thoroughly carried out, 
they will in due time work a marvellous transformation of 
the nation. Japan has at one bound jumped from the 
fifteenth to the nineteenth century. The material, intel¬ 
lectual, and moral advancement has been truly marvellous, 
but of all her progressive movements her educational plans 
are the most significant and prophetic. Recognizing the 
fact that ignorance has proved to them a source of waste 
and weakness, the Japanese have already demonstrated 
that knowledge is power. They fully appreciate the bear¬ 
ing of popular education on national industry, thrift, and 
prosperity. 

Schools are no new thing in Japan. They have long 
existed, and education is far more general than in any 
other country of the East. The following are the more 
prominent features of the newly adopted system: 1. It is 
to embrace youth of all classes, without distinction of caste 
or rank, so that education shall become truly universal 
throughout the empire. 2. The new system is to be uni¬ 
form throughout the whole country, and to incorporate 
and remodel all the existing schools and educational insti¬ 
tutions. 3. Its administration will be national rather than 
provincial, and will be under the charge of the central 
educational department. 4. The whole empire is divided 
into eight collegiate departments, and in each a college is 
to be organized. 5. Each collegiate division is to contain 
thirty-two academies or high schools, making 256 academies 
in all. 6. Each academic division is to contain on an average 
210 schools, making 53,760 schools in all. 7. Attendance 
is to be compulsory for children over six years of age. 8. 
Female education having hitherto been less cared for, pro¬ 
vision is to be made for the education of gii'ls as well as 
boys. 9. Teachers are to be selected irrespective of sex. 
10! Normal schools are to be established. 11. Charity 
schools, evening schools, and schools for the trades are to 
be encouraged. 12. Technical institutions for applying 
science to industrial pursuits arc to be established. 13. An 


educational report is to be published annually by the de¬ 
partment of education. 14. The number of government 
students to be sent abroad annually is 180. 15. At home 

promotion is to be made from grade to grade solely on the 
ground of merit. 16. “ Foreign students” are to be selected 
by competitive examination—thirty from the colleges, who 
are to be allowed each $1600 annually, and 150 from the 
secondary schools, who are to receive each $1000 per year. 
Students under fourteen years of age will be allowed $800 
a year. All these sums are paid in gold. 17. Scholarships 
and other rewards will be offered to the most meritorious in 
the schools at home. 18. In the primary schools no foreign 
language will be taught. 19. In the higher schools students 
can pursue any three modern languages they may select. 

The above outline is enough to show that the new system 
of the Japanese is neither American nor European. It is 
not a mere copy or imitation of any foreign system. After 
studying all other improved plans, they have wisely con¬ 
structed one for themselves, fitted to their exigencies, in 
some measure built upon old foundations, so as to intro¬ 
duce innovations without doing violence to cherished tra¬ 
ditions. The fact that it is thus a truly Japanese system, 
both in its nature and origin, is one of its characteristic 
excellences. Obviously, no foreigner could get up a system 
“ready made” that would “fit.” It could not be “made 
to order” without the most intimate knowledge of the 
Japanese, such as they only can have. The plan for this 
empire, therefore, should not be the Swiss, German, English, 
or American. It should not seem exotic. If not indigenous 
in origin, it must be grafted on a native stock, and become 
thoroughly acclimated. 

The most important institution yet organized in Japan is 
the Imperial College of Yedo (or Tokei, as it is now called). 
Five years ago this institution, though a college in name, 
was little more than a large school, especially of foreign 
languages, and English and other foreign clerks, bar¬ 
tenders, and even sailors, were tried as teachers. For¬ 
tunately, a scholarly American missionary of the Dutch 
Reformed Church, Rev. Guido F. Verbeck, was called to 
preside over this institution. He found in it 1100 pupils 
and 77 teachers, seventeen of whom were foreigners. A 
native of Holland, educated in the U. S., well versed in the 
Japanese language and familiar with Japanese character, 
from a twelve years’ missionary service there, he has rare 
qualifications for his important post. He has won the 
confidence both of the government and the people, has 
thoroughly reorganized the college, reduced the number 
about one-half, “relieved” the incompetent teachers, and 
selected with care able and cultured assistants from abroad. 
The new instructors well merit the name of a faculty. 

The present is a critical time in the history of the 
Japanese. They have been the victims of frauds and 
spoliations by foreign traders and contractors. Enormous 
outlays have been made in the grand system of internal 
improvements now so rapidly progressing. A debt for 
$140,000,000 has been contracted, besides a large amount 
of paper currency now in circulation. Until the renewal 
of the treaties with the other powers, they are debarred the 
privilege of a proper and remunerative tariff, for in some 
cases the customs have little more than paid the expense 
of their collection; yet Japan is, and still more is to be, a 
country of vast resources, mineral, agricultural, and manu¬ 
facturing. When the new tariff is established, and their 
mines and varied industries fully developed, their means 
will be ample. 

The educational system outlined above is prospective; 
as yet it is a plan on paper. Even such a grand ideal will 
be an inspiration to the nation. Ardent, hopeful, and en¬ 
thusiastic, perhaps the Japanese consider less the obstacles 
to be overcome than the advantages to follow the introduc¬ 
tion of a system of universal education. 

New Educational Movements in China. —The present 
educational movement of China is justly regarded as a new 
departure for the oldest and largest nation of the globe. 
If wisely managed at the outset, it will expand into broad 
agencies and vast results. This scheme originated with 
Mr. Yung-Wing, whose peculiar history evinces his special 
fitness for this work. He graduated at Yale College in 
1854, where he took high rank as a. scholar, and won prizes 
even for English composition. He has since gained still 
higher eminence and influence in his native country. 
Eight years ago he was sent to America to secure the most 
improved modern inventions and machinery of various 
kinds, but especially for the manufacture ol firearms. The 
models which he took home, the large and successful 
arsenals since established, and the other new or improved 
manufactures thus introduced, demonstrated the superiority 
of our inventions, applied science, and mechanic arts. I ho 
success of the new arsenals, now manned by Chinese engi¬ 
neers and artisans, has produced a profound impression. 
There are made the best of breech-loading rifles and 

















r 


I486 


EDUCATION, COMMISSIONER OF—EDWARD V. 


“ repeaters/’ There their gunboats, iron-clads, and forts 
are supplied with light and heavy ordnance. The result 
has verified the remark which Yung-Wing made soon after 
his graduation : “ By introducing the practical and material 
advantages of modern science, I can accomplish more for 
the improvement of my country and the introduction of 
Western culture than by direct missionary service.” New 
ideas of growth and power now pervade the land. New 
methods of developing the mineral wealth and exhaustless 
resources of that vast country are introduced and are 
highly appreciated. 

The great material progress already made is, however, 
only a preparation for higher intellectual and moral achieve¬ 
ments in the future. “The wall” of exclusiveness is broken 
down and prejudice is yielding. An American missionary, 
Rev. Dr. Martin, presides in the new Imperial College at 
Peking, and now Chinese youth are sent by their govern¬ 
ment to America for a thorough course of education. The 
present educational mission to this country is the result of 
plans of Mr. Yung-Wing, formed years ago, and steadily 
pursued in the face of many obstacles. It is a striking 
feature of this movement that it is wholly Chinese in its 
origin. Other schemes for national improvement or for the 
increase of international intercourse and influence have 
been prompted, if not pushed, by foreigners, but in this 
case the Chinese element predominates. No outside pres¬ 
sure has been used to induce the government to take this 
step. The plan is Chinese in its execution as well as its 
origin. This plan contemplates the thorough education of 
120 Chinese students in this country. They are to remain 
fifteen years, so as to allow time for a complete course of 
study, academic, collegiate, and professional. Four Chinese 
commissioners come to supervise this movement. Under 
their direction one hour a day is devoted to the study of 
the writings of Confucius and Chinese language and liter¬ 
ature generally. As these youth are preparing for positions 
of responsibility at home, the knowledge of their vernacular 
and history should be kept up and enlarged. The thirty- 
two of these boys who have been in Connecticut and Massa¬ 
chusetts nearly one year are models of studiousness and good 
deportment. Thirty others have since arrived, and at once 
begin their course of study. They are evidently “picked 
specimens.” Having been invited by the commissioners to 
aid in the organization of this plan, the writer has been highly 
gratified by the remarkable progress of these student s. They 
are contented and happy, as well as studious and exemplary. 
The hope that they may become the exponents of our cul¬ 
ture, science, and civilization, and thus the benefactors of 
their country, is already an inspiration to these ambitious 
youth. Filial piety and patriotism are carefully inculcated. 
Love of country is manifestly a strong incentive to them, 
and to a rare degree they appreciate their privileges and 
responsibilities. Sixty other boys will in due time follow 
the students now here, and it is not improbable that soon, 
like the Japanese students, they will come by hundreds. 

Nothing should be omitted on our part to give efficiency 
and success to this comprehensive scheme. The movement 
is most significant and prophetic. It is already seen and 
felt that the education of the boys will necessitate the 
higher culture of the girls. Those who here learn the 
refinements and amenities of our best society will need 
companions of kindred taste and culture. 

B. G. Northrop, Sec. Conn. Board of Education. 

Education, Commissioner of. By act of March 
2, 1867, the Congress of the U. S. established a department 
of education, consisting of a commissioner and three clerks. 
The commissioner of education is appointed by the Presi¬ 
dent, subject to confirmation by the Senate. Ilis duties 
are “to collect such statistics and facts as shall show the 
condition and progress of education in the several States 
and Territories;” to diffuse such “information respecting 
the organization and management of schools and school 
systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people 
... in the maintenance of efficient school systems, and 
otherwise promote the cause of education;” . . . and also 
“to present annually to Congress a report embodying 
the result of his investigations and labors, together with a 
statement of such facts and recommendations as will in his 
judgment subserve the purpose for which the department 
is established.” In 1868 the department was abolished, 
and the commissioner of education became an officer of the 
department of the interior, but his duties remain substan¬ 
tially as before. 

Edivard, surnamed the Confessor, an Anglo-Saxon 
king of England, was born at Islip in 1004. He was a son 
of Etkelred II. After the death of Etlielred, in 1016, 
Canute the Dane became master of the kingdom, and 
married Emma, the mother of Edward. The latter suc¬ 
ceeded his half-brother, Hardicanute, in 1042. He married 
Editha, a daughter of Earl Godwin, but did not permit her 


to share his bed, and for this ascetic virtue was surnamed 
“the Confessor.” He died Jan. 5, 1066, and was succeeded 
by his wife’s brother, Harold. Edward the Confessor is 
honored as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church. 

Edward I., surnamed Longshanks, king of England, 
the eldest son of Henry III. and his wife Eleanor, was 
born at Westminster in 1239. He fought for his father 
against the barons in the war which began in 1263. In 
1265 he gained a decisive victory at Evesham. He took 
part in a crusade to Palestine in 1271, and returned to 
England and took his deceased father’s throne in 1274. 
The conquest of Wales he completed in 1282, after a war 
of several years. In 1291 several competitors for the crown 
of Scotland recognized Edward as lord-paramount, and 
chose him as umpire. He decided in favor of John Baliol, 
who took the oath of fealty to the English king. The 
Scots took arms to maintain their independence. In 1296, 
Edward invaded Scotland, dethroned Baliol, and made 
himself master of the kingdom. The national cause was 
bravely defended by Sir William Wallace, who gained a 
victory at Stirling in 1297. Edward invaded Scotland in 
1303, and captured Wallace, who was hanged as a traitor 
in 1305. The English king was marching against Robert 
Bruce, who had renewed the contest, w r hen he died near 
Carlisle July 7, 1307. Edward was an ambitious and able 
ruler, having great political talents as well as military 
genius. He greatly promoted the improvement of law and 
the reformation of civil abuses. Among the important 
events of his reign was the institution of the House of 
Commons. He was succeeded by his son, Edward II. 
(1284-1327), a feeble prince. 

Ed\v r ard III., king of England, the eldest son of 
Edward II., was born at Windsor Nov. 13, 1312. He as¬ 
cended the throne Jan. 24, 1327, but during his minority 
the royal power was exercised by the queen-mother and 
Roger de Mortimer. Edward married Philippa of Ilai- 
nault in 1328. In 1330, Mortimer was arrested, tried, and 
executed by the order of the young king, who then assumed 
the rd>yal power. To support Edward Baliol, who claimed 
the Scottish throne at the death of Robert Bruce, Edward 
invaded Scotland, and defeated the Scotch at Halidon Hill 
in 1333. The Scottish people generally refused to recog¬ 
nize Baliol, and although the English army ravaged their 
country in several campaigns, they again and again ral¬ 
lied and fought resolutely for independence. When his 
uncle, Charles IV. of France, died without male issue, Ed¬ 
ward claimed the throne of France, but Philip of Valois 
was recognized by the French peoj)le. The English king 
began war in 1339, but hostilities were several times sus¬ 
pended by truce. In 1346, Edward, with his son, the Black 
Prince, invaded France, marched to the gates of Paris, and 
gained a complete victory at Crecy (Aug. 26). He took 
Calais after a siege of several months in 1347, and a long 
truce was then concluded between the two powers. The 
war having been renewed in 1356, the Black Prince de¬ 
feated the French at the great battle of Poitiers, Sept. 19th 
of that year, and took King John prisoner. In 1360 the 
war was suspended by a treaty, in accordance with which 
Edward retained the French provinces which he had con¬ 
quered. King John’s successor, Charles V., renewed the 
war in 1370, gained a series of victories, and recovered 
nearly all the French territory which the English had occu¬ 
pied. Edward died June 21, 1377, and was succeeded by 
his grandson, Richard II. He was popular, and left a 
high reputation for ability. 

Edward IV. ? king of England, born at Rouen in 1441, 
was a son of Richard, duke of York. After the death of 
his father, in 1460, Edward was the head of the house of 
York, then waging a civil war against the Lancastrians, who 
fought for Henry VI. Edward gained a victory at Morti¬ 
mer’s Cross, near Hereford, entered London in February, 
and was proclaimed king Mar. 4, 1461. His courage, hand¬ 
some person, and other popular qualities rendered him a 
favorite of the people of London. The cause of the Lan¬ 
castrians was supported by Margaret of Anjou, the am¬ 
bitious queen of Henry VI., whose army was defeated at 
Towton in Mar., 1461. Edward gained another victory at 
Hexham in 1464, and took Henry VI. a prisoner. By his 
marriage with Elizabeth Woodville (1464), Edward of¬ 
fended the earl of Warwick, the most powerful of his sub¬ 
jects. Warwick expelled Edward from the country in 
1470; but the latter returned in 1471, defeated Warwick 
at Barnet (April 14), and recovered the throne. On May 
4, 1471, he gained a decisive victory at Tewkesbury, which 
ended the War of the Roses. He died April 9, 1483. 

Edward V., king of England, born in Westminster 
Nov. 4, 1470, was the eldest son of Edward IV., whom he 
succeeded April 9, 1483. His uncle Richard, duke of Glou¬ 
cester, then became protector of the kingdom, and obtained 
possession of the person of Edward V. The young king 


















EDWARD VI.—EDWARDS. 


1487 


and his brother disappeared in June, 1483, and were prob¬ 
ably murdered in the Tower by the order of Richard, who 
then.usurped tlie throne. 

Edward VI., king of England, a son of Henry VIII. 
and^ Jane Seymour, was born at Hampton Court Oct. 12, 
1537, and succeeded his father Jan. 28, 1547. His uncle, 
Edward Seymour, earl of Hertford (afterwards duke of 
Somerset), acted as regent with the title of lord protector. 
The latter promoted tho Protestant cause. During this 
reign the images were removed from the churches, the arti¬ 
cles known as the “ Bloody Statute” were repealed, and the 
Reformation.made great progress in England. Somerset 
invaded Scotland, because the Scottish government refused 
to form a matrimonial alliance between Mary Stuart and 
Edward VI. He defeated the Scots at Pinkie in 1547. 
Somerset s enemy, John Dudley, earl of Warwick, obtained 
the ascendency in 1550, and caused him to be executed. 
Dudley persuaded the young king to exclude the princesses 
Mary and Elizabeth from the throne, and to appoint Lady 
Jane Grey as his successor. Edward died July 6, 1553. 
(See Sharon Turner, “History of the Reigns of Edward 
VI., Mary, and Elizabeth,” 1829.) 

Edward, prince of Wales, called the Black Prince 
(from the color ot his armor), born June 15, 1330, was the 
eldest son ot Edward III. ot England. He commanded a 
part of his father’s army at the battle of Crecy (1346), and 
then adopted the crest of ostrich feathers and the motto 
Ich dien (“ I serve ”). This crest and motto had been borne 
by John, king of Bohemia, who was slain at that battle. 
Ever since it has been borne by the princes of Wales. He 
gained in 1356 a brilliant victory over tho French at Poi¬ 
tiers, and took their king, John, a prisoner. In 1361 ho 
married his cousin Joanna, a daughter of the earl of Kent, 
and received from his father the title of prince of Aquitaine. 
He defeated Henry de Transtamare in battle, and in 1367 
restored Henry’s rival, Peter the Cruel, to tho throne of 
Castile. He died June 8, 1376, leaving a son, who became 
king as Richard II. Tho Black Prince was a splendid ex¬ 
ample of the virtues and qualities fostered by the spirit of 
chivalry. 

Ed'wardes (Sir Herbert Benjamin), K. C. B., an Eng¬ 
lish officer, born in Shropshire Jan. 17, 1820. He entered 
the army of the East India Company in 1840, and defeated 
the Dewan Moolraj near Chenab in 1848. In 1851 he pub¬ 
lished “A Year on the Punjaub Frontier, 1848-49.” He 
was appointed commissioner of Peshawur in 1853. Died 
Dec. 23, 1868. 

Ed'wards, a county in E. S. E. Illinois. Area, 200 
square miles. It is partly drained by the Little Wabash 
River, an affluent of the Wabash, which latter touches the 
S. E. corner of the county. The soil is fertile. Cattle, grain, 
tobacco, and wool are raised. Capital, Albion. Pop. 7565. 

Edwards, a county in the S. W. of Texas. Area, 1225 
square miles. It is partly drained by the East Fork of the 
Rio Nueces. It is a rocky region, and has forests of cedar. 

Edwards, a post-township of St. Lawrence co., N. Y. 
Pop. 1076. 

Edwards, a township of Wilks co., N. C. Pop. 1556. 

Ed'wards (Arthur), an able Methodist journalist, was 
born in Ohio in 1834, graduated at Ohio Wesleyan Univer¬ 
sity in 1858, entered the ministry in the Detroit conference 
in 1858, during the civil war was chaplain in the army for 
two years and a half, and served for some years as assistant 
editor of the “ North-western Christian Advocate,” the offi¬ 
cial organ of his denomination in that part of the country. 
His superior editorial ability led, in 1872, to his election as 
editor-in-chief of that journal. 

Edwards (Bela Bates), D. D., an American theolo¬ 
gian, born in Southampton, Mass., July 4, 1802, graduated 
at Amherst College in 1824. In 1833 he founded the 
“ American Quarterly Observer.” He became editor of the 
“Biblical Repository” in 1835, professor of Hebrew at 
Andover in 1837, and editor of the “ Bibliotheca Sacra ” in 
1844. In 1848 he obtained the chair of biblical literature 
at Andover Seminary. He was equally distinguished for 
the exactness of his scholarship and for the modesty and 
beauty of his character. He published a “ Life of Elias 
Cornelius” (1842), a work on the Epistle to the Galatians, 
and other works. Two volumes of his sermons, addresses, 
etc., with a memoir of his life by Prof. E. A. Park, were 
published in 1853. Died April 20, 1852. 

Edwards (Brvan), an English writer, born at West- 
bury May 21, 1743, passed many years in Jamaica, where 
he became a wealthy planter. He wrote an interesting 
“History of the British Colonies in the West Indies” (1793), 
which was highly esteemed, and an “Historical Survey of 
St. Domingo” (1797). He died in England July 15, 1800. 

Edwards (George), F. R. S., an English naturalist, 


born in Essex April 3, 1694. Ho travelled on the Conti¬ 
nent, and acquired skill in drawing and coloring figures of 
animals. He published a good “ Natural History of Birds,” 
with colored plates (1743), and “ Gleanings of Natural His¬ 
tory ” (1763). Died July 23, 1773. 

Edwards (IIenri Milne). See Milne-Ed-wards. 

Edwards (Henry Waggaman), LL.D., born in New 
Haven, Conn., in 1779, was a grandson of Jonathan Ed¬ 
wards. He graduated at Princeton in 1797, and studied 
at Litchfield law-school, was a member of Congress from 
Connecticut (1819-23), U. S. Senator (1823-27), Speaker of 
the House in the State legislature (1830), and governor 
(1833 and 1835-38), besides holding other important offices. 
Died at New Haven July 22, 1847. 

Edwards (Jonathan), a celebrated divine and meta¬ 
physician, born at East Windsor, Conn., Oct. 5, 1703. His 
father, Timothy Edwards, a man of talents and of uncom¬ 
mon learning for those times, was settled as minister at 
East Windsor. Jonathan is said to have commenced the 
study of Latin when only six years old. When he was ten 
years of age he composed an essay in which he ridiculed 
tho idea, which some one had recently put forth, of the ma¬ 
teriality of the human soul. In 1716 he entered Yale Col¬ 
lege, and graduated in 1720. Strong religious impressions 
appear to have been made on his mind in early childhood, 
but he dated his “conversion” from about his seventeenth 
year, after which all nature seemed changed in his view, 
everything revealing to his purified understanding the wis¬ 
dom, glory, and love of God. In 1723 he took at Yale the 
degree of master of arts. He was tutor at Yale two years 
(1724-26). In the early part of 1727 he was settled as pas¬ 
tor of a church at Northampton. He was soon after mar¬ 
ried to Miss Sarah Pierrepont of New Haven, who in the 
sweetness and purity of her spirit, in the elevation of her 
character, and in her entire devotion to duty, may be said 
to have greatly resembled him. After some years of com¬ 
parative peace and happiness, a difficulty arose in his con¬ 
gregation which put his firmness and conscientiousness to 
a severe test. It had become a custom in the church to 
admit to the communion-table all who professed with the 
congregation, without any inquiry as to whether they had 
been truly converted, or whether their spirit and life were 
consistent with their external profession. Jonathan Ed¬ 
wards believed that it was his duty to adopt a higher and 
purer standard. But his attempted reform caused great 
dissatisfaction, and he was at length driven forth from his 
congregation, not knowing whither to go and without any 
means of support for his family. Not long afterwards, how¬ 
ever, he was offered the situation of missionary at Stock- 
j bridge, among the Housatonic Indians. About this time he 
wrote out his celebrated treatise on the “Freedom of the 
Will,” the plan of which had been matured, it is said, while 
he was still a student at college. In 1757 he was appointed 
president of Princeton College in New Jersey, where he 
died March 22, 1758. 

As a close and subtle reasoner Edwards has no superior, 
perhaps no equal, among those who have written in the 
English language. But he has a still higher claim to our 
respect and admiration—the spotless purity of his character 
and the faultless consistency of his Christian life. 

Among his various writings are a “ Treatise concerning 
the Religious Affections” (1746), and “An Inquiry into the 
Qualifications for Full Communion in the Church” (1749); 
his great work, “An Inquiry into the Modern Prevailing 
Notions respecting that Freedom of the Will which is sup¬ 
posed to be Essential to Moral Agency” (1754); “The 
Great Christian Doctrine of Original Sin Defended ” (1757); 
“ The History of Redemption,” etc. His works were pub¬ 
lished at Worcester, Mass., in 1809, in eight volumes; and 
again, including much new material, in 1829, in ten volumes. 
A work of his, entitled “ Charity and its Fruits,” was pub¬ 
lished in 1852 for the first time. (See S. Edwards Dwight, 
“Life of Jonathan Edwards,” 1830; Samuel Hopkins, 
“Life of Jonathan Edwards;” and his life in Sparks’s 
“American Biography,” written by Samuel Miller; also 
Thomas’s “Dictionary of Biography and Mythology.”) 

Edwards (Jonathan), D. D., a son of the preceding, 
was born at Northampton, Mass., May 26,1745, and gradu¬ 
ated at Princeton in 1765. He was minister of a church at 
White Haven, near New Haven, Conn., from 1769 to 1795, 
and was dismissed for his religious opinions. lie became 
president of Union College, Schenectady, in 1799, and pub¬ 
lished several sermons and theological treatises. He is 
commonly known as “tho younger Edwards.’ Died Aug. 
1, 1801. 

Edwards (Jonathan W.), a lawyer, a son of the pre¬ 
ceding, was born at New Haven, Conn., Jan. 5, 1772, and 
graduated at Yale with distinction in 1/89. He practised 
law at Hartford. Died April 3, 1831. 
















1488 EDWARDS—EFFINGHAM. 


Edwards (Justin), D. D., an American clergyman and 
writor, born at Westhampton, Mass., April 25, 1787. Ho 
graduated at Williams College in 1810, and for fifteen years 
was pastor of a Congregational church at Andover, lie re¬ 
moved to Boston, where he preached for two years more. 
He resigned on account of failing health, and became sec¬ 
retary of the American Temperance Society, of which he 
was the originator. While in this office he prepared the 
“ Temperance Manual,” of which nearly 200,000 copies 
have been printed. He was one of the founders of the 
Tract Society at Boston. Of his “Sabbath Manual” over 
500,000 copies have been printed. Died at Virginia Springs 
July 23, 1853. 

Edwards (Ninian), an American lawyer and Senator, 
born in Montgomery co., Md., in Mar., 1775. In 1808 he 
became chief-justice of the State of Kentucky, and in 1809 
governor of Illinois. He was U. S. Senator from Illinois 
(1818-21), and governor (1826—30). Died July 20, 1833. 
Ilis wife was a sister of Mrs. Abraham Lincoln. 

Edwards (Ogden), a son of Pierrepont Edwards, was 
born in Connecticut in 1781. He became a prominent mem¬ 
ber of the New York bar, and, besides holding other public 
offices, was a circuit judge (1821-41) of the first judicial 
district. Died at Staten Island April 1, 1862. 

Edwards (Pierrepont), a lawyer, and son of Jonathan 
Edwards, born April 8, 1750. He commenced practice in 
New Haven in 1771. He served in the Revolutionary army, 
and was a member of the old Congress (1787-88). At the 
time of his death he was judge of the U. S. district court 
of Connecticut. Died April 14, 1826. 

Edwards (Tryon), D. D., great-grandson of Jonathan 
Edwards, was born at Hartford, Conn., Aug. 7, 1809, and 
graduated at Yale in 1828. He has been pastor of churches 
at Rochester, N. Y., and at New London, Conn. He has 
published memoirs of Bellamy and of the younger Jonathan 
Edwards, “The World’s Laconics” (1852), “ Wonders of 
the World” (1853), and numerous other works, chiefly of a 
religious character. 

Edwards (William), an American inventor, born 
Nov. 11, 1770, at Elizabethtown, N. J. His father was a 
son of Rev. Jonathan Edwards, president of the college 
at Princeton, N. J., in 1755, and his mother was a sister of 
Aaron Ogden, a governor of New Jersey. William Ed¬ 
wards introduced the system now employed in nearly all 
American tanneries by which leather is made in about one- 
fourth of the time required by the old European process. 
His first tannery was built at Northampton, Mass., and 
the first leather made in it was sent to Boston in 1794. 
The supply of hemlock bark having failed in the valley 
of the Connecticut, he turned his eyes towards the vast 
hemlock forests on the Catskill Mountains; and in 1817 
he removed to Hunter, Greene co., N. Y., and erected on 
the Schoharie Creek his model tannery, which was capable 
of converting imported hides into sole leather with marvel¬ 
lous rapidity. From this establishment about 10,000 sides 
of sole leather were sent to the city of New York annually. 
He not only invented several machines, but he adapted 
many devices previously used for other purposes to the art 
of tanning, and thus he was enabled to make water-power 
take the place of manual labor to a great extent. The 
success which has attended the manufacture of leather in 
the U. S. must be ascribed not only to the plentiful supply 
of tanning material, but also to the improved methods first 
employed by Edwards. Died Dec. 1, 1851, at Brooklyn, 
N. Y. Samuel D. Tillman. 

Edwardsburg, a post-village of Ontwa township, 
Cass co., Mich., on the Peninsular R. R. Pop. 297. 

Ed'wardsport, a village of Vigo township, Knox co., 
Ind.,on the Indianapolis and Vincennes R. R., 20 miles N. 
E. of Vincennes, and on the West Fork of the White River. 
Here are mines of excellent coal. 

. Ed'vvardsville, a post-village, cap. of Cleburne co., Ala. 

Edwardsville, a post-village, capital of Madison co., 
Ill., on Cahokia Creek and the Toledo Wabash and West¬ 
ern R. R., 19 miles N. E. of St. Louis, Mo. It has three 
weekly newspapers. Pop. 2193. 

Eeck'hout, van den (Gerbrand), an eminent Dutch 
painter, born at Amsterdam Aug. 19, 1621, was a pupil of 
Rembrandt, whom he imitated with success. He excelled 
in history and portraits, and was very skilful in the expres¬ 
sion of character. Among his masterpieces is “ Christ in 
the midst of the Doctors.” Died July 22, 1674. 

Eeckhout (Jacob Joseph), one of the most prominent 
Dutch painters of the nineteenth century, born in 1793, 
was first jeweller, then sculptor, and, after his twenty-eighth 
year, painter. He published in 1822 a lithographic collec¬ 
tion of 60 portraits of Dutch masters. 

Ee'cloo, or Eccloo, a town of Belgium, province of 


East Flanders, 11 miles N. W. of Ghent. It has a town- 
hall, a convent, and several churches; also salt-refineries, 
oil-mills, and manufactures of cotton and woollen fabrics, 
hats, soap, tobacco, etc. Here is a large weekly market for 
grain. Pop. in 1866, 9564. 

Eel [Lat. anguilla; Fr. anguille; Ger. Aal; Ang.-Sax. 
tel], a name applied to many fishes of elongated and more 
or less serpentine shape, but properly belonging to the An- 
guillidae, a family of apodal malacopterygians, of which 
the type is the common fresh and salt water eel ( Anguilla 
vulgaris), having in Europe and America many varieties, 
which by most writers are considered distinct species. The 
Conger (which see), the Gymnotus (see Electrical Fishes), 
and the Mursena are among the most remarkable eels. The 
sand-eels, or launces ( Arnmodytes), have a very long dorsal, 
a long anal, and a forked caudal fin. They are all marine, 
and bury themselves in the sand. 

Eel, a township of Cass co., Ind. Pop. 160. 

Ee'lee, Ele, Hi, or Gooldja, a fortified city for¬ 
merly in the Chinese empire, now (1874) in the newly formed 
empire of Jakoob Kushbegi, on the river Eelee. It was a 
place of banishment for Chinese criminals, is enclosed by 
a stone wall, and contains barracks, forts, granaries, many 
mosques and Chinese temples, etc. It is one of the most 
important commercial towns of Central Asia. It is about 
lat. 43° 46' N., Ion. 82° 30' E. Pop. 80,000. 

EeJee, a river of Central Asia, rises on the N. side of 
the Thian-shan Mountains, flows through a part of Chinese 
Tartary (the new Kushbegi empire), and empties itself, 
after a course of 600 miles, into Lake Balkash. At various 
times the valley of the Eelee has been the course of Oriental 
nations who have invaded Europe, while at present the 
Russians make it their course for approaching China. 

Eel Kiv'er, of Indiana, rises in Allen co., flows south- 
westward, and enters the Wabash at Logansport. It affords 
abundant water-power. Length, about 100 miles. Another 
Eel River rises in Boone co., Ind., and after a course of 
nearly 100 miles enters the West Fork of White River, in 
Greene co. 

Eel River, a post-twp. of Humboldt co., Cal. P. 827. 

Eel River, a post-township of Allen co., Ind. P. 1217. 

Eel River, a township of Greene co., Ind. Pop. 501. 

Eel River, a township of Hendricks co., Ind. P. 1676. 

Effect' [Lat. effectus, from effi.cio, effecium, to “ accom¬ 
plish,” “effect,” or “bring to pass;” Fr. effet], that which 
is produced by a cause or agent; a result of causation; a 
consequence; validity, reality. Cause and effect are cor¬ 
relative terms in natural science. In the plural, effects 
signifies goods, chattels, or personal property. In the fine 
arts, effect is that quality whose tendency is to give partic¬ 
ular efficacy to other qualities, so as to attract the eye of the 
spectator, or the impression which a picture produces when 
seen at a distance so great as to render the details invisible. 

Ef'fen, van (Justus), a popular Dutch writer, born at 
Utrecht in 1684. He was the chief editor of an able re¬ 
view called “The Literary Journal,” published in French 
at The Hague (1715-18). He published in Dutch the 
“Hollandsche Spectator” (1731-35), which was formed 
on the model of Addison’s “ Spectator,” and obtained a 
durable popularity. He passed several years in London as 
secretary of embassy. Died in Bois-le-Duc Sept. 18, 1735. 

Efferves'cence [from the Lat. effcrvesco, to “boil 
over”], the agitation caused by the sudden escape of gas 
when certain substances are mixed or combined ; the escape 
of gaseous matter from liquids. An example of efferves¬ 
cence is seen when carbonate of lime is put into dilute 
muriatic acid. All liquids from which bubbles of gas es¬ 
cape rapidly are said to effervesce. 

Effervescing Poav tiers, in medicines, are of various 
kinds, usually put up in two papers—one containing an 
alkaline bicarbonate, and the other citric or tartaric acid. 
After dissolving and mixing the solutions, carbonic acid 
escapes with effervescence. These powders are useful re¬ 
frigerants, and are gently laxative. Rochelle salts are often 
added to increase the laxative effect, constituting what are 
called Seidlitz powders. 

Ef'figy [Lat. effigies, from effingo, to “form,” to “fash¬ 
ion ”], a representation of a person ; sometimes applied to 
a portrait, but more usually to a sculptured figure on a 
monument, and to the heads of monarclis, etc. stamped on 
coins and medals. (See Brasses, Monumental.) 

Ef'fingham, a county in the E. of Georgia. Area, 4S0 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the Savannah 
River and on the W. by the Ogeechee. The surface is 
nearly level; the soil is sandy. Rice and corn are staple 
products. It is intersected by the Central Georgia R. R 
Capital, Springfield. Pop. 4214. 
















EFFINGHAM—EGG HABBOK. 1489 


Effingham, a county in S. E. Central Illinois. Area, 500 
square miles. It is intersected by the Little IVabash River. 
The surface is nearly level; the soil is fertile. Lumber, grain, 
cattle, wool, hay, butter, etc. are produced. A large part of 
it is prairie. It is traversed by the Chicago division of the 
Illinois Central R. R., and by the St. Louis Vandalia and 
Terre Haute R. R. Capital, Effingham. Pop. 15,653. 

Effingham, a post-village, capital of the above county, 
is on the Chicago division of the Central R. R. where it 
crosses the St. Louis Vandalia and Terre Haute R. R., 98 
miles E. N. E. of St. Louis, and 199 miles S. by W. from 
Chicago. It has two weekly newspapers and extensive 
manufactures of bricks. Pop. 2383. 

Effingham, a post-township of Carroll co., N. II. It 
has six churches, a literary institute, and manufactures of 
baskets, spools, rakes, etc. Pop. 904. 

Effiores'cence [from the Lat. cffloresco (ef (for ex), 
“out,” and Jloreaco, to “bloom”), to ** flower” or “bloom”], 
in botany, the expansion of the flower-buds, or the time of 
flowering; in chemistry, the spontaneous conversion of 
transparent or saline crystals to powder, in consequence 
of the loss of their water of crystallization. 

EHin'vium (plu. Eiiln'via), a Latin word signifying 
a “flowing out” [from effluo, to “flow out”], is applied to 
vapors or exhalations arising from putrefying matter, es¬ 
pecially to vapors of a morbific quality. 

Eft, or Ev'et, the popular name of many small lizards 
and of several tailed batrachians. One of the best known 
is the common red salamander (Salomctndra rubra), a ba- 
trachian of the U. S. There are numerous allied species, 
which are incorrectly believed by many to be venomous. 

Effu' sion [Lat. effusio ], the act of pouring out or shed¬ 
ding, as effusion of blood ; the escape of any liquid out of 
its natural vessel or viscus into another cavity or into the 
cellular texture; also openness of heart or exuberance of 
sympathy. 

Egalite [Fr. for “equality”], one of the popular watch¬ 
words of the first French revolution—“Liberty, 4galit6, 
fraternite” (“Liberty, equality, fraternity”). The duke 
oj Orleans (1747-93) assumed in 1792 the name of “Citizen 
Egalite.” (See Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, Duke op.) 

E' gan, a township of Dakota co., Minn. Pop. 670. 

Egan (Pierce), an author, artist, and journalist, born 
in London, of Irish descent, in 1815. He has published 
more than twenty novels, among which are “ Robin Hood,” 
“The Flower of the Flock,” and “The Poor Girl.” He has 
furnished many excellent designs on wood for the “Illus¬ 
trated London News,” and was long an editor in London. 
He has contributed largely to English and American jour¬ 
nals. 

Eg'bert, surnamed the Great, a Saxon king of Eng¬ 
land, was a descendant of Cerdic. He passed many of his 
early years at the court of Charlemagne, and began to reign 
in 800 A. D. At this date England was divided into three 
separate kingdoms, Mercia, Northumbria, and Wessex. 
He defeated the Mercians at Ellandune in 823, soon after 
which he completed the conquest of Mercia and Northum¬ 
bria, ruled over all the states of the Heptarchy, and gave 
the name of England to the whole. In 835 he defeated an 
army of Danes who had invaded England. He died in 836 
A. D., and was succeeded by his son Ethelwulf. (See Lap- 
penberg’s “ History of England under the Anglo-Saxon 
Kings,” translated by Thorpe, 1845.) 

Eg'ede (Hans), a Danish missionary, born at Harstad, 
Norway, Jan. 31, 1686. He became pastor of the church 
of Vaagen in 1707, and went in 1721 to Greenland, where 
he founded a mission for the conversion of the natives. 
He labored in Greenland about fifteen years, and endured 
great* privations. His wife, who had accompanied him, 
died in 1735, and he then returned to Copenhagen, where 
he was appointed a bishop in 1/40. He wrote an account 
of his missionary labors (1738), and a “Description of 
Greenland” (1741-44). Died Nov. 5, 1758. (See Rudel- 
bach, “ Christl. Biographie,” part vi.) His son Paul, born 
in 1708, went with his parents to Greenland in 1721. Ho 
assisted Hans in the work of converting and teaching the 
heathen, and remained there until 1740. He became bishop 
of Greenland in 1776. He published a valuable dictionary 
(1754) and grammar (1760) of the Esquimaux: and also 
“ Information on Greenland ” (1789), besides other works. 
Died June 3, 1789. 

Eg'er, a river of Bohemia, rises near the town of Eger, 
and enters the Elbe 33 miles N. N. W. of Prague, after a 
course of about 125 miles. 

Eger, a town of Bohemia, on the river Eger, 92 miles 
W. of Prague, was formerly fortified. It is situated at the 
junction ot six railroad lines. It is built on a rock, and 
was an important fortress. Here are the ruins of a citadel 
94 


or castle formerly the residence of kings and emperors. 
Eger has seven churches, a fine town-hall, and two mon¬ 
asteries; also manufactures of broadcloth, cotton goods, 
chintz, and soap. Wallenstein was assassinated here in 
1634. Near it is the watering-place Frauzcnsbad, with five 
springs. Pop. in 1869, 13,441. 

Eger, in Hungary. See Erlau. 

Ege / ria [Fr. Egerie], a nymph who, according to the 
Roman mythology, was one of the Camense, and was a 
prophetic divinity from whom Numa derived religious in¬ 
spiration and directions respecting the forms of worship. 
The poets feigned that Numa had interviews with her in a 
grove, and that when he died she melted away in tears, 
which became a fountain. 

Egeria, one of the asteroids of the solar system, was 
discovered at Naples in Nov., 1850, by De Gasparis. 

Egerton (Francis Henry). See Bridgewater, Earl 
of. 

Eg'erton (Francis Leveson Gower), Earl of Elles¬ 
mere, an English author and patron of art, was born in 
London Jan. 1, 1800. He was the second son of the first 
duke of Sutherland, and his original name was Francis 
Leveson Gower, but he assumed the name of Egerton in 
1833, when he inherited the estate of the last duke of 
Bridgewater. He entered the House of Commons in 1820, 
became chief secretary for Ireland in 1828, and was secre¬ 
tary at war for several months in 1830. Among his works 
is a poem called “The Camp of Wallenstein.” He was 
created earl of Ellesmere in 1846. His gallery of paint¬ 
ings was one of the most valuable collections in England. 
Died Feb. 18, 1857. 

Egg [Lat. o'vutn; Fr. ceuf; Ger. Ei] is properly the name 
of the ovum of certain animals (birds, reptiles, fishes, in¬ 
sects, etc.) which discharge the embryo with its envelopes 
before the development of the organism. The name is 
frequently used in an extended sense to include all ova. 
The most perfect examples of the egg are those of birds 
and the higher reptiles. These eggs consist of a shell 
{'puta'men) consisting of carbonate of lime, a little animal 
matter, and traces of magnesia, phosphorus, iron, and sul¬ 
phur. Lining the inside of the shell, we find the tough 
shell-membrane. The albumen, or white of egg, differs from 
the albumen of the blood in some of its chemical reactions, 
and is distinctively known as egg-albumen. It is of great 
importance in the arts, chiefly in the preparation of albu- 
menized paper for photographers’ use. In medicine it is 
used as an antidote for poisoning by corrosive sublimate 
and sulphate of copper, with which it forms insoluble com¬ 
pounds. The yolk (vitellus) is a highly nutritious substance, 
containing large proportions of nitrogenous and fatty mat¬ 
ter. The structure and development of the different parts 
of the egg are described under Embryology (which see). 

Egg, or Eigg, an island of Scotland, is 8 miles S. W. 
of Skye, and 12 miles from the W. coast of Inverness-shire. 
Length, 4^ miles. Here are some remarkable cliffs of trap 
or basalt, and columns of pitchstone nearly two feet in 
diameter. 

Egg (Augustus), an English painter, born in London 
May 2, 1816. He was elected an associate of the Royal 
Academy in 1848. Among his works are illustrations of 
comic scenes in Shakspeare’s plays, and “ The Life and 
Death of Buckingham.” Died at Algiers Mar. 26, 1863. 

Eg'ga, a populous town of Africa, in Guinea, on the 
right bank of the Niger, in lat. 8° 42' N. and Ion. 6° 20' 
E. It extends nearly 2 miles along the river. The houses 
are mostly small huts of clay. Narrow cotton cloth is 
manufactured here in large quantities. Egga has an ac¬ 
tive trade in corn, yams, calabashes, dried fish, etc. 

Egg Bird, or Soot'y Tern {Sterna fuliginosa), the 
name of a bird belonging to the gull family, and having 
the back and wings sooty black and the under parts white. 
The wings and tail are long and pointed, the latter deeply 
forked. It abounds in the West Indian seas and in Florida. 
It lays its eggs in a small excavation in the sand. Its flesh 
is said to be very delicious, and is much sought after. 

Eg'ger (Emile), Dr. Lit., was born of German descent, 
in Paris July 13, 1813, and received his degree in letters in 
1833. He has held various professorships of ancient lan¬ 
guages in Paris, and is well known for his editions of the 
less known Latin writers. He is a member of the Institute 
and of the Academy, and an officer of the Legion of Honor. 
He has published “ Latini Sennonis Vetustioris Reliqum 
Selects” (1843), “Notions Eleinentaires de Grammaire 
Comparee” (1852), “Memoires d’Histoire Ancicune et do 
Philologie ” (1863), and numerous other works. 

Egg Har'bor, a township of Atlantic co., N. J. Pop. 
3585. 

Egg Harbor, or Egg Harbor City, a post-villa.'" 










1490 


EGG IIAKBOR—EGYPT. 



of Galloway township, in Atlantic co., N. J., on the Camden 
and Atlantic R. R. The large majority of the inhabitants 
are Germans. It has one English and two German weekly 
newspapers, and four German churches. Pop. 1311. 

Egg Harbor, a post-township of Door co., Wis. Pop. 
165. 

Eg'glcston, a township of Muskegon co., Mich. Pop. 
233. 

Eggleston (Edward), D. D., a distinguished Methodist 
divine and author, was born in Vevay, Ind., in 1837, joined 
the Methodist ministry in his nineteenth year, and preached 
during ten j T ears in Minnesota. He began his literary ca¬ 
reer in 1866 as editor of “ The Little Corporal/’ commenced 
in 1867 the “Sunday-School Teacher,” in 1870 went to New 
York City and became editor of “ The Independent,” was 
some time editor of “ Hearth and Home,” and contributor 
to “ Scribner’s Monthly.” His tales commanded immediate 
and general interest, and his success led him to retire from 
editorial life and devote his time exclusively to authorship. 
In 1871 appeared his “ Hoosier Schoolmaster,” the remark¬ 
able excellences of which immediately determined his rank 
as among the first of American novelists; it has been ex¬ 
tensively reproduced in translations in Europe. In 1872 
was published his “End of the World,” and in 1873 “The 
Mystery of Metropolisville.” 

Egg Plant ( Sola'num Melonge'na), an annual herba¬ 
ceous plant of the same genus as the potato and night¬ 
shade, is a native of India and Northern Africa. The fruit 
is a globose or egg-shaped berry about four inches in diam¬ 
eter, but the size varies much according to the quality 
of the soil and climate. It is cultivated for food in India, 
the U. S., and various warm climates, and is cooked before 
it is eaten. This plant flourishes in New Jersey, but not so 
well in the more northern States of the Union. The seeds 
should be sown in a hot-bed in April, and transplanted in 
May or June. There are several varieties of this plant, 
which produce respectively purple, white, and red fruits. 
In some countries it is called auberjine or aubergine. 

EgTiam, a village of England, in Surrey, on the Thames, 
18 miles W. of London and 3 miles E. of Windsor. Here is 
the field of Runnymede, where King John and the barons 
held a conference which resulted in the signing of Magna 
Charta in 1215. Egham is near Cooper’s Hill, which was 
the subject of one of Denham’s poems. 

Egidistadt. See Nagy Enyed. 

Egina. See JEgina. 

Eginhard, or Eginard, a French historian, was born 
in Austrasia, and was a pupil of Alcuin. He gained the 
confidence of Charlemagne, who appointed him his secre¬ 
tary. He accompanied that emperor in his journeys and 
military expeditions. After the death of Charlemagne ho 
passed into the service of Louis le Dcbonnaire. According 
to a doubtful tradition, he married Emma, a daughter of 
Charlemagne. His chief works are a-“Life of Charle¬ 
magne” (in Latin), which Parke Godwin characterizes as 
“ a neat and lively specimen of biography,” and “ Annals 
of the French Kings from 741 to 829 ;” best edition of 
both in Pertz, “Monumenta Germanise llistorica,” vols. i. 
and ii. Died in 844 A. D. 

Eg'lantine [Fr. eglantine, probably akin to the Fr. 
aiguille, a “needle,” so called on account of its prickles], 
a name of the Ro'sa rubigino'sa, a species of rose some¬ 
times called sweetbrier. It is a native of Europe, and is 
naturalized in the U. S. The flower is single and fragrant. 
The leaves also emit a peculiar fragrant odor from their 
russet-colored glands. This plant sometimes attains the 
height of eight feet, and is often found in fields and road¬ 
sides. 

Eg'linton Cas'tle, in Ayrshire, Scotland, 2 miles N. 
of Irvine, is a magnificent Gothic structure, surrounded by 
a park of 1200 acres. (See next article.) 

Eg'linton and Win'ton (Archibald William Mont¬ 
gomerie), Earl of, a British peer, born Sept. 29, 1812. He 
succeeded the fourteenth earl of Eglinton in 1819. In poli¬ 
tics he was a conservative. He was appointed lord lieu¬ 
tenant of Ireland in 1852 and in 1858. A famous tourna¬ 
ment occurred at his castle (above noticed) in 1839, and 
•was attended by Louis Napoleon, afterwards emperor. 
Died in Oct., 1861. 

Eg'mont or Egmond (Lamoral), Count of, and 
Prince de Gavre, an eminent Flemish nobleman and 
general, born in 1522. He was descended from the dukes 
of Gelderland, and married Sabina, duchess of Bavaria, 
about 1545. He served in the armies of Charles V., who 
created him a knight of the Golden Fleece in 1546. In 
1557 he commanded the cavalry of the Spanish army, and 
defeated the French at Saint-Quentin. He gained a decis¬ 
ive victory at Gravelines in 1558, and acquired much popu- 


| larity. As an associate of William, prince of Orange, ho 
opposed the intolerant and despotic policy of Philip II., 
but he constantly adhered to the Catholic Church, lie was 
appointed a member of the council of state in 1559. He 
ceased to act with the popular party after they revolted 
against the Spanish king, but the latter regarded him with 
jealousy and hatred, and sent the duke of Alva to Flanders 
with viceregal power in 1567. Alva was a bitter enemy of 
Egmont, and is said to have brought his death-warrant 
from Philip. Egmont and Count Horn were arrested, tried 
for treason, and executed June 5, 156S, at Brussels. This 
cruel act provoked a general revolt against Philip II. The 
story of Egmont is the subject of a tragedy by Goethe. 
(See Motley, “ Rise of the Dutch Republic,” chap, ii., part 
3; Brunelle, “Eloge du Comte Egmont,” 1820.) 

Eg'mont, Mount, an active volcano of New Zealand, 
is in the northern island or New Ulster, 18 miles S. of New 
Plymouth. It rises 8840 feet above the level of the sea. 

Egmont, Port, is on the N. coast of West Falkland 
Island, between Keppel and Saunders islands. It affords 
good anchorage and fresh water, but the adjacent shore is 
nearly destitute of wood. 

Eg'remont, a township of Berkshire co., Mass. Pop. 
931. 

E'gret, or Aigret [the diminutive of the provincial 
Fr. egron or aigron, a “ heron ”], a name applied to several 
species of heron. The egret is a handsome bird with soft 
flowing plumage, pure white excepting the train, which has 
a creamy tinge. The plumes are much used for ornamental 
purposes, particularly those of the little egret (Arclea gar- 
zetta). The egret frequents low, marshy grounds, and sub¬ 
sists on fish, frogs, snakes, lizards, etc. 

Egripo, or Egripos, a town of Greece. See Ciialcis. 

E'gypt [Gr v Ai-yvTrro?; Lat. jEgyp'tus ; Heb. Mizr or 
Mizraim; Fr. Egypte ; Ger. Acgypten ; Coptic, Cham or 
Khem; It. Egitto ; Arab. Misr or Mwr\, a country in the 
N. E. part of Africa, is bounded on the N. by the Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea, on the E. by the Red Sea, on the S. by Nubia, 
and on the W. by the Great Desert. Being isolated on 
several sides by seas and sandy deserts, its limits have re¬ 
mained nearly the same in all the successive periods of its 
history. It extends from lat. 24° 2' to 31° 37' N., and is 
about 525 miles long N. and S. It comprises the lower por¬ 
tion of the valley of the Nile, from the cataract of Asswan 
to the mouth of the river. This region is unique in several 
respects, and is renowned as the home of the first civilized 
nation of the world—the foremost pioneers in the march of 
human progress. When Plato was born the monuments of 
Egypt had stood for many centuries, and they still exist. 
The area of Egypt Proper is estimated, in the official “ Guide 
General d’Egypte” (Alexandria, 1870), at 216,200 square 
miles, of which only 9737 are under cultivation, and only 
2040 square miles more are adapted for cultivation. But 
the rulers of Egypt also claim jurisdiction over all the 
Soodan, embracing all Nubia, Sennaar, Dongola, Taka, 
Fazogloo, Ivordofan, the provinces of the White Nile, and 
Khartoom. In this wider sense the area of Egypt is gene¬ 
rally estimated at about 659,000 ^square miles; but E. do 
Regny, in his “ Statistique de l’Egypte d’apres des docu¬ 
ments officiels ” (Alexandria, 1872), claims 927,000. 

Besides the Delta and several oases in the Desert, Egypt 
Proper is a valley about 500 miles long, confined between 
two ridges or continuous chains of barren limestone hills. 
Anciently, the desert east of the Nile supported a consider¬ 
able population, chiefly pastoral. The altitude of the high¬ 
est hills is not much over 1200 feet. The average breadsh 
of the valley is about seven miles. The fertility and ver¬ 
dure of this narrow tract present a remarkable contrast 
to the aridity and desolation that prevail on either side. 
The most important physical feature of Egypt is its great 
and unique river, the Nile, which in the last 1300 miles of 
its course receives no tributary stream, and is the source of 
all the country’s fertility. The periodical overflow of this 
once mysterious river is among the most remarkable in¬ 
stances of the stability of the law r s of nature. For several 
thousand years the average height and duration of the in¬ 
undation have continued nearly the same. The ordinary 
rise of the water at Thebes is about thirty-six feet, and at 
Cairo about twenty-five feet. The average rate of addition 
to the soil is about four and a half inches in a century. 
About 100 miles from the sea the Nile divides into seve¬ 
ral channels, and its narrow valley expands into the vast 
level and alluvial plain of the Delta. According to 
Herodotus, the Nile had seven mouths in ancient times, 
but at present there are only two large navigable chan¬ 
nels—namely, the Damictta and the Rosetta mouths. This 
country is divided into three primary divisions—the Said 
or Upper Egypt, theVostani or Middle Egypt, and the 
Delta or Lower Egypt. The term Delta, however, is some- 













EGYPT. 


1491 


times restricted to the triangular tract enclosed between 
the two main channels of the Nile. 

Ihc great Libyan desert lying W. of the Nile is diversi¬ 
fied by several fertile oases. The Great Oasis, situated near 
the W. border of Upper Egypt, is nearly 100 miles long. 
The oasis of Seewali (auc. Ammonium) is about 300 miles 

. of Cairo. Here was the site of the famous temple of 
Jupiter Ammon. The date-palm, grapevine, and fig tree 
flourish in this oasis, but all the divisions of Egypt are des¬ 
titute ot forests and deficient in timber. But forests have 
been planted by the khedive in the Delta, and it is asserted 
that the annual rainfall has already been greatly increased 
thereby. It appears that all the ancient temples were built 
to shed rain. The climate is remarkably dry, serene, and 
equable. Rain seldom falls in Upper Egypt. In the Delta 
the mean temperature ot winter is about 54° Fahrenheit, and 
that of summer 82°. A hot and pernicious south wind called 
khamseen or simoom prevails for nearly two months in 
spring. During eight months in the year the north wind 
blows, and favors those who wish to sail up the river. The 
Nile, replenished by the annual rains which fall on the 
highlands of Abyssinia, begins to overflow in July, and 
continues to rise until September. The inundation reaches 
its maximum near the autumnal equinox. The water, in 
which fertilizing mud and slime are suspended, is distrib¬ 
uted over the valley by numerous canals, for the purpose of 
irrigating the land in summer. In October the country re¬ 
sembles a sea, in which the towns and villages appear as 
islands. After the inundation has subsided, grain and seeds 
are sown, and the earth is rapidly covered with verdure, so 
that nature here displays the brightest green in the winter 
months of December and January. The chief productions 
are wheat, barley, maize, cotton, tobacco, sugar, beans, mil¬ 
let, durrah (Sorghum vulyare), indigo, hemp, flax, onions, 
clover, oranges, figs, and grapes. Two crops are raised in 
a year on the same piece of land. The wheat harvest 
comes in April, or earlier in some parts of Egypt. The soil 
in the Delta is said to be fifteen feet deep. 

Minerals, Animals, etc .—Limestone, sandstone, and red 
granite or syenite are abundant here. The last is found in 
the southern part, at Asswan, the ancient Syene, from the 
cliffs of which were obtained the material for the obelisks 
and other colossal monolithic monuments of ancient Egypt. 
Between Asswan and Esneh is an extensive sandstone for¬ 
mation, which supplied material for' the great temples at 
Thebes and other ancient cities. The Pyramids are built 
of limestone quarried in their vicinity. In the Jebel Mo- 
kattem, between the Nile and Suez, is a tract covered with 
the silicified trunks of trees. A similar phenomenon of a 
petrified forest occurs also in the desert of the natron lakes 
near the western border of the Delta. The soil of Lower 
Egypt is an alluvium deposited by successive inundations, 
and consists of a dark-brown mould or argillaceous loam 
mixed with sand. This delta has increased enormously 
within the historic period. Among the minerals of Egypt 
are alabaster, porphyry, and emeralds. The principal wild 
animals are the wolf, hyaena, jackal, antelope, crocodile, 
and jerboa. The hippopotamus was formerly found here. 
The domestic animals of Egypt are camels, horses, horned 
cattle, asses, sheep, etc. Among the birds are the vulture 
and the ibis, the latter reputed sacred by the ancient Egyp¬ 
tians. The flora of Egypt abounds in dicotyledonous plants 
armed with thorns and bearing pale-green leaves, as the 
acacia. The principal trees are the date-palm (which is 
commonly cultivated), the doum-palm, the sycamore, the 
cypress, and the tamarisk. Among the indigenous plants 
are the papyrus, the lotus, a species of water-lily, and the 
Acacia vera (or nilotica), from which gum-arabic is ob¬ 
tained. 

The Turks have been the ruling class in Egypt since they 
conquered the country, and they still occupy most of the 
high places in the civil administration as well as in the 
army. The ruling dynasty is descended from them, but of 
late has begun to favor the Arabic element of the popula¬ 
tion in preference to the Turkish. The Bedouins, whose 
number is officially estimated at about 400,000, are the un¬ 
mixed descendants of the Arabs; while the Arabs of the 
towns and the Fellahs, the peasants and laborers, are be¬ 
lieved to descend from a mixture of the ancient Arabs and 
the ancient Egyptians. The Copts (which see) are the un¬ 
mixed descendants of the ancient Egyptians. Nominally, 
Egypt is still a pashalic of Turkey, but in 1841 a hatti- 
sherif made the rule over it hereditary in the family of 
Mehemet Alee, the oldest living male member of the family 
being entitled to succession in accordance with the law 
which also predominates at Constantinople. In 1866 the 
sultan, at the request of Ismaeel Pasha, changed the law 
of succession so as to make the pashalic hereditary in the 
direct male line of the ruling prince. At the head of the 
administration are a council of state, established in 1852, 
and consisting in 1872 of the eldest son of the khedive as 


president, of a son-in-law of the khedive, and five of the 
most prominent statesmen ; and of a state ministry, which 
in 1S72 was divided into seven departments—namely, jus¬ 
tice and grace, foreign affairs, finances, interior, public in¬ 
struction and public works, war, and navy. An assembly 
of deputies was for the first time convoked by the khedive 
on Nov. 27, 1866, and has since met annually. It is to 
control the administration of the country and to fix the 
budget. For administrative purposes Egypt Proper is di¬ 
vided into fourteen provinces, at the head of each of which 
is a governor called moodeer. The cities of Cairo, Alex¬ 
andria, Suez, Port Saeed, Damietta, Rosetta, and Cossaieer 
do not belong to any of the provinces, but have their spe¬ 
cial governors. The provinces are subdivided into districts, 
and these into cantons. Special governors have also been 
appointed at Massowah and Sooakin, who are dependent 
upon the governor-general of the Soodan, who resides at 
Khartoom. A large majority of the inhabitants are Mo¬ 
hammedans of the Sunnite sect. The supreme authority 
for all matters of religious law is the council of ulemas at 
Cairo, consisting of the heads of each of the four orthodox 
rites of the Sunnites, of the head of the Cairo University, 
of the chief kadi of Cairo, and the nakees or chiefs of the 
descendants of the Prophet. Among the Mohammedan high 
schools, the one which is connected with the Mosque al Az- 
har at Cairo, often called the University of Cairo, is the 
most celebrated. It was formerly one of the chief seats of 
Arabic learning, and had sometimes as many as 20,000 stu¬ 
dents ; and even at present it attracts students from all parts 
of the Mohammedan world. A great progress in the cause 
of education was made by the establishment in 1868 of 
government schools in the large towns of the countries. 
These schools numbered in 1870 about 4000 pupils, and 
embrace both primary and secondary instruction. In the 
latter department a number of special schools, as a poly¬ 
technic school, a law school, a philological school, an art 
school, a medical school, a naval academy, are included, 
and more recently Prof. Brugsch of the University of Got¬ 
tingen has received and accepted a call from the Egyptian 
government to organize an academy of Egyptian arche¬ 
ology. The periodical press is still in its infancy. In 1870 
there was only one weekly newspaper published in the Ara¬ 
bic language; all the other papers appeared in the French, 
Italian, or Greek language. 

The population of Egypt Proper was in Mar., 1871, offici¬ 
ally estimated at 5,203,405; inclusive of the Soodan, it was 
believed to amount to 8,000,000. The number of foreign 
residents was 90,000, embracing 34,000 Greeks, 24,000 
Italians, 17,000 Frenchmen, 6000 Austrians, 6000 English¬ 
men, and 1100 Germans. The two largest cities are Cairo, 
the capital, and Alexandria. The revenue in the budget 
for the year Sept., 1871, to Sept., 1872, was estimated at 
1,458,729 purses (1 purse = $20); the expenditures, at 
1,283,830 purses; the surplus, at 174,900 purses. The pub¬ 
lic debt in Jan., 1872, amounted to £40,550,000. The value 
of the imports of Alexandria in 1871 was 560,900,000 pias¬ 
tres, that of exports, 999,500,000; in the same year, 2921 
vessels entered the port of that city, and 2787 were cleared. 
The army, which is recruited by conscription, numbers 
about 14,000 men, and the navy consists of twelve steamers. 
A ship-canal connecting the Mediterranean with the Red 
Sea has been cut through the Isthmus of Suez under the 
direction of M. de Lesseps. It was opened on the 17th of 
Nov., 1869; it is about 100 miles long, 25 feet deep, and 71 
feet wide at the bottom. The receipts during the year 
1871 were 13,276,674 francs; the expenditures, 15,918,579 
francs. In 1871 the canal was traversed by 765 vessels, of 
761,467 tons ; during the first nine months of 1872, by 827 
vessels, of 880,096 tons. In Jan., 1872, Egypt had 711 Eng¬ 
lish miles of railroad in operation; the aggregate length of 
telegraph lines was 3904 miles, and of telegraph wires, 8292 
miles. 

Ancient History and Monuments .— “ Egypt,” says Bunsen, 
“ is the monumental land of the earth, as the Egyptians are 
the monumental people of history.” The same writer calls 
the Egyptians u the chronometers of universal history.” 
The sacred history of the Hebrews informs us that the 
Egyptians were descendants of Ham. The other chief 
authorities in relation to the antiquities and chronology 
of Egypt are Bunsen, Champollion, Lepsius, Wilkinson, 
Sharpe, and Poole, who differ widely in their computations. 
The first mortal who is recorded to have reigned over all 
Egypt was Menes, the founder of the first of thirty dynas¬ 
ties. His epoch is fixed by Bunsen at 3643, by Lepsius at 
3892, and by Poole at 2717 B. C. Before Menes, Egypt was 
perhaps divided into two or more independent kingdoms. 
Menes is said to have founded Memphis, but no contempo¬ 
rary monuments of his reign exist. The great pyramid of 
Cheops is supposed to have been built by a king of the fourth 
dynasty, and is among the oldest Egyptian monuments that 
are extant. According to a somewhat doubtful tradition, 


















—f: 

1492 EGYPT. 


Cheops, who reigned nearly 500 years after Menes, oppressed 
his subjects with forced labor in the construction of this 



Sphinx and Pyramid. 


pyramid. Memphis was the capital of many of the kings 
who reigned before the time of the eleventh dynasty. Each 
king appears to have founded a pyramid as a memorial of 
his reign or as a monument for himself. Among the oldest 
cities of Egypt was Thebes (jDioa'polis, called No or A T o- 
Ammon in the Bible), the temples and palaces of which are 
at this day the most magnificent ruins on the globe. Before 
the foundation of Carthage and Rome, Egypt was the cen¬ 
tral point of the civilization of the world. Among the 
famous kings of the twelfth dynasty was the warlike Osir- 
tesen I., who is supposed to have been the Sesostris of the 
Greeks. An obelisk which he erected at Heliopolis is still 
standing. Amenemha, a king of the twelfth dynasty, ex¬ 
cavated Lake Moeris, and constructed the famous Laby¬ 
rinth, which Bunsen describes as “ the most gorgeous edifice 
on the globe/’ It contained twelve palaces and 3000 sa¬ 
loons. (See Labyrinth.) After the fourteenth dynasty the 
Hyksos or “shepherd kings,” who were of foreign origin, 
ruled over Lower Egypt for several centuries. According 
to some writers, the Hyksos invaded Egypt about 2200 B. C. 
With the eighteenth dynasty, about 1525 B. C., commences 
the most brilliant period of Egyptian history and the great¬ 
ness of Thebes. Among the most famous of the Theban 
kings were Amenoph I., Thothmes I., Thothmes III., Am- 
enoph II. and III., and Llorus, of the eighteenth dynasty, 
and Sethos and Rameses II. of the nineteenth. These 
kings builded the grand temples and palaces of Ivarnak 
and Luxor. Their conquests and victories over the Assyr¬ 
ians, Ethiopians, and other nations are recorded on obelisks, 
temples, and tombs with elaborate art and very copious de¬ 
tails. “ The most splendid period of the empire of Thebes,” 
says Heeren, “must have occurred between 1800 B. C. and 
1300 B. C.” Probably no ancient nation has worked with 
such assiduity and ingenuity to perpetuate the record of 
its life and actions, and to eternize the memory of its ideas 
and institutions. In consequence of the peculiarly dry and 
equable climate and the solidity of Egyptian architecture, 
the monuments of this country have surpassed all others in j 
durability. The permanence of the institutions of Egypt 
was doubtless promoted by the sight of public monuments 
which had defied the corroding power of time. “ No people, 
ancient or modern,” says Champollion, “ has conceived the 
art of architecture on a scale so sublime, broad, and grand¬ 
iose as the ancient Egyptians.” “In ancient art,” says the 
“ Encyclopaedia Britannica,” “the Egyptian has the high¬ 
est place with respect to intention, and equals that of Greece 
and Assyria in the excellence with which that intention has 
been carried out.” According to Bunsen, the “ Egyptians 
left imperishable monuments of deep ethical thought, of 
high artistic instincts, and of noble institutions.” 

A king of the twenty-second dynasty, called Shishak in 
the Bible, captured Jerusalem in the reign of Rehoboam, 
about 972 B. C. The Hebrew writers employ the name of 
Pharaoh as a general title of the kings of Egypt. Among 
the notable kings of the twenty-sixth dynasty was Psammet- 
ichus, who began to reign about 670 B. C., and favored the 
immigration of the Greeks into Egypt. A revival of art 
occurred in his long reign, which was an important epoch. 
His son and successor, Necho, defeated Josiah, king of 
Judah, at Megiddo. Egypt was conquered about 525 B. C. 
by Cambyses, king of Persia, but regained its independence 
under Amyrtmus, a king of the twenty-eighth dynasty. In 
the year 350 B. C., Egypt was again conquered, by the army 
of Darius Ochus, king of Persia, and Nectanebus II., the 
last king of the thirty dynasties, ceased to reign. The 
succession of Egyptian monarclis, embracing a period of 
3553 years, is unexampled in history. In 332 B. C., Alex¬ 
ander the Great invaded Egypt, which became an easy 
conquest, as the natives refused to fight for their Persian 
masters. He founded Alexandria, and partially Ilellenized 
the country, but the Egyptians continued to be governed 
by their own laws. The regulations which he made for the 


government of Egypt were equally wise and populai. The 
privileges of the priests were secured to them, but the 
Greeks” became the dominant class. Egypt continued to 
be a prosperous and powerful kingdom under several Gre¬ 
cian or Macedonian kings named Ptolemy. Under the rule 
of the Ptolemies, and of the Romans, who became masters 
of Egypt about 30 B. C., Alexandria was a famous centre 
of learning and philosophy, as well as a great commercial 
emporium. According to some Egyptologists, the first 
seventeen dynasties were not consecutive, but some of them 
were contemporaneous, and two kings reigned at the same 
time over different portions of the country. (Some notice 
of the ancient monuments of Egypt may be found under 
the heads of Thebes, Edfoo, Kaunak, Pyramid, and Obe¬ 
lisk.) 

Among the peculiarities of this nation was the hiero¬ 
glyphic mode of writing, and the practice of covering their 
obelisks and the outer and inner walls of temples and 
palaces with sculptured bas-reliefs and hieroglyphic sym¬ 
bols, which not only recorded historical events, but also 
represented in copious detail their social customs and pri¬ 
vate life. They lavished labor and expense on temples and 
tombs, while their private houses were plain and inexpen¬ 
sive. The priests were the ruling class, and were distin¬ 
guished by their superior science, which they kept secret. 
The government was a limited hereditary monarchy. The 
priests were in ordinary times the real governing body. 
They were the sole depositaries of learning and science. 
The chief priests were the judges of the land, the council¬ 
lors of the sovereign, the legislators, and the guardians of 
the great mysteries. The king himself was anciently a 
priest. Nowhere in the ancient world was the number of 
temples so great as in Egypt; nowhere was ordinary life so 
intimately blended with religion. The ancient Egyptians 
were people of a devout, serious, and contemplative dispo¬ 
sition. They believed in the immortality of the soul, and 
apparently also in the resurrection of the body, but they 
worshipped beasts, reptiles, and even vegetables, probably 
as symbols. They were bravo in war, and less cruel than 
the Assyrians. They excelled in magic arts, and had made 
much progress in various sciences before the time of Moses, 
who was “learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians.” 
They calculated solar and lunar eclipses, and carried as¬ 
tronomy to the highest point it could attain without the 
aid of modern instruments. They appear to have been 
well versed in geometry, arithmetic, mechanics, and hy¬ 
draulics, and must have had a considerable knowledge of 
chemistry. Herodotus and Cicero concur in the opinion 
that they were the most learned and accurate of all nations 
in relation to their native annals. More than 1000 years 
before Phidias was born they had attained great proficiency 
in sculpture. Champollion, in a letter dated at Thebes, 
says: “ I write these lines almost in the presence of bas- 
reliefs which the Egyptians executed with the most elegant 
delicacy of workmanship 1700 years before the Christian 
era.” In their temples and palaces we see massive grandeur 
of form, noble taste in design, exquisite finish in decoration, 
and a pervading expression of repose which is one of the 
highest results of art. Among the arts in which they ac¬ 
quired skill was music, and it appears that they played on 
the harp, lyre, and sistrum during the twelfth dynasty or 
earlier. The Greeks attributed to them the invention of 
the lyre and flute. They also fabricated glass bottles and 
beads, some of which arc marked with symbols indicating 
a date of 1500 B. C. Women enjoyed nearly equal rights, 
and were so well treated that their condition was more 
favorable in Egypt than in other ancient nations. Several 
women, among whom was Nitocris, a queen of the sixth 
dynasty, inherited the throne and exercised royal power. 
The soldiers, who were all landholders, constituted the 
highest class except the hereditary priesthood. According 
to Strabo, there w r ere only three castes—priests, soldiers, 
and husbandmen (farmers). The stamp of caste was not 
indelible. The land was divided into three unequal por¬ 
tions, of which one belonged nominally to the king, and 
was held by tenants, who paid a low rent or one-fifth of 
the crop ; another portion was possessed by the priests, who 
paid no rent or tax ; the third part was held by the mili¬ 
tary class or order, who amounted to 410,000 men, and had 
six acres each, for which they paid no rent, but they were 
bound to serve in the army in time of war. They used 
many war-chariots, which appear to have been introduced 
about the time of the eighteenth dynasty. The ancient 
Egyptians carried on an extensive commerce, for which 
their position was very advantageous. The navigation of 
the Nile (the longest inland navigation known to the an¬ 
cients) and the Red Sea enabled them to command the trade 
of several foreign countries. The rich products of India 
and Arabia have in almost all ages passed through Egypt 
on their way to Europe. Necho, the Nekao II. of Man- 
i etho, and the Pharaoh-Necho of Scripture (611-595 B. C.), 















































EGYPT. 


1493 


of the twenty-sixth dynasty, is said to have been the first 
of their kings who had a navy of war-vessels. Ilis navy 
was built by Phoenicians in the Red Sea, and having sailed 
around Africa, entered through the Strait of Gibraltar into 
the Mediterranean. This statement is doubted by some 


writers. Diodorus states that the population amounted to 
7,000,000 in the Pharaonic era. 

The style of architecture and decorative art which pre¬ 
vailed in ancient Egypt was one of the characteristic and 
almost unchangeable peculiarities of the race. For example, 





IDi hjDljuuijli 


aouacmuDd 


BHH5SI 


mmiitirtiii 


Temple of Denderah. 


the celebrated temple of Denderah has been assigned to a 
date of the most extreme antiquity, though it is now gen¬ 
erally referred to the early Roman period. The ceiling of 
this temple is adorned with figures arranged in the style of 
a zodiac, and well known as “ the Zodiac of Denderah;” 
but some recent writers deny that it has any astronomical 
significance. The temple itself is believed to have been 
dedicated to the service of the goddess Athor, the Egyptian 
Venus. 

Modern History .—When the Roman empire was divided, 
on the death of Theodosius in 395 A. D., Egypt became a 
part of the dominions of Arcadius, emperor of the East. 
For several centuries after the time of Constantine the 
Great (306-337 A. D.), Egypt was greatly disturbed by 
religious controversies and violent tumults between the 
different sects or parties of Christians, who were very 
numerous there. The Arians and orthodox shed torrents 
of blood in Egypt. In 610 A. D. the Arabs, led by Amroo, 
a general of the caliph Omar, invaded Egypt. The op¬ 
pressed Egyptians, being disaffected to the emperor Ile- 
raclius, and having no strong motive to fight, offered little 
resistance, and the conquest of the country was easily 
effected in December, 640. Amroo wrote to Omar that “ he 
had taken a city [Alexandria] which beggared all descrip¬ 
tion, in which he found 4000 palaces, 400 theatres,” etc. 
Greek civilization and literature, which had flourished in 
this country for 900 years, then came to an end, and Egypt 
became a part of the kingdom of the caliphs who reigned 
at Damascus and afterwards at Bagdad. About 970 A. D., 
Egypt was conquered by the Fatimite dynasty, under which 
Cairo was founded and became the capital. Saladin, the 
famous adversary of the crusaders, obtained the sovereign 
power as sultan of Egypt about 1170. lie died in 1193, 
leaving several sons, among whom his extensive empire was 


divided. Louis IX. of France conducted a crusade against 
Egypt in 1248, but was defeated and taken prisoner by the 
Saracens. In 1250 the government was revolutionized by 
the Mamelukes (slaves of Turkish or Caucasian origin), 
who deposed the sultan and usurped the chief power. This 
country was conquered in 1517 by the Ottoman sultan, Selim 
I., who reduced it to a Turkish province. The turbulent 
Mamelukes afterwards filled the country with disorder for 
more than two centuries, and it was under their domina¬ 
tion when it was invaded by the French in 1798. A French 
army of about 35,000 men, commanded by Bonaparte, was 
conveyed to Egypt by a fleet, and arrived at Alexandria in 
July, 1798. This expedition was accompanied by a large 
number of savants and artists, among whom were Ber- 
thollet, Monge, and Denon. Bonaparte defeated the Mam¬ 
elukes at the battle of the Pyramids, Jul}’ 23d, and took 
Cairo on the 24th. The conquest of Egypt was soon com¬ 
pleted. The French savants and artists explored the to¬ 
pography, natural history, and antiquities of Egypt, and 
obtained materials for a great descriptive work, which was 
published x by the government under the title of “ Descrip¬ 
tion de l’Egypte, etc.,” with more than 900 engravings (25 
vols., 1826)." In Aug., 1799, Bonaparte returned to France, 
leaving his army, under the command of Gen. Ivleber, to 
contend against the combined forces of Great Britain and 
the Turkish sultan. After several battles at Heliopolis, 
Aboukeer, etc., the French were expelled from Egypt in 1801. 
Mehemet Alee was appointed pasha of Cairo in 1804, and 
massacred a large number of the Mamelukes in 1811. llo 
founded colleges and schools, promoted commerce and man¬ 
ufactures, and introduced European civilization. As viceroy 
of Egypt he was nominally a vassal of the Turkish sultan, 
but his power was nearly absolute. In 1830 he invaded 
and conquered Syria. He afterwards revolted against tlio 





































































































































































































































































































































1494 


EGYPT—EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 


sultan, whose army he defeated at Nizeeb in Syria in June, 
1839, soon after which the great powers of Europe inter¬ 
vened to check his victorious progress. Peace was restored 
in 1841 by a treaty which made the viceroyalty hereditary 
in the family of Mehemet Alee. When Mehemet Alee be- 


the reforms which had been introduced by his predecessors. 
His successor was Saeed Pasha, a younger son of Mehemet 
Alee, who reigned from 1854 to Jan., 1863, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by Ismaeel Pasha, a son of Ibraheem, who in 1867 
received from the Turkish government the title of khedive. 
(See Bunsen, “Aegyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte,” 5 
vols. 8vo, 1845-57, and English translation of the same; 
Lepsius, “Denkmaler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien,” 12 
vols. folio, 1849-59; Wilkinson, “ Manners and Customs 
of the Ancient Egyptians,” 6 vols. 8vo, 1840-47; Sharpe, 
“History of Egypt,” 2 vols., 1838; 5th ed. 1870; Lane, 
“Modern Egyptians,” 2 vols. 8vo, 1842; Mariette-Bey, 
“ Apergu de l’Histoire d’Egypte,” 2d ed. 1870; Stephan, 
“Das heutige Aegypten,” 1872; Regny, “Statistique de 
l’Egypte d’apres des documents officiels,” published annu¬ 
ally since 1S70.) Revised by A. J. Schesi. 

E'gypt, a township of Ashley co., Ark. Pop. 513. 

Egypt, a township of Yancey co., N. C. Pop. 781. 

Egyptian Architecture is characterized by an almost 
monotonous simplicity, and a wonderful solidity and heavi¬ 
ness of structure. It has been assumed, perhaps too hastily, 
that the sloping walls and ponderous, almost imperishable, 
structure of the Egyptian temples was an imitation of the 
caverns or of the excavations in which its inhabitants are 
assumed to have dwelt in primitive times ; and facts are not 
wanting which would appear to confirm the opinion that the 
pre-historio Egyptians were troglodytes or cave-dwellers. 

The pyramid, though not peculiar to Egyptian architec¬ 
ture, seems to have lent its solidity to all the important 


came imbecile (he died Aug. 2, 1849) the Turkish govern¬ 
ment in July, 1848, appointed his adopted son Ibraheem, 
and after Ibraheem’s death (Nov. 10, 1848) a grandson of 
Mehemet Alee, Abbas Pasha, regent of Egypt, who showed 
himself a fanatical Mohammedan, and repealed many of 


buildings, the walls of which generally incline inward, and 
are never more than one story high. The use of columns, 
often monolithic, far exceeded the requirements of safety 
or strength, the shafts being very large and short, and set 
very near each other. The form of many is suggestive of 
that of the date-palm with its crown of leaves. They are 
sometimes polygonal. Burnt or sun-dried brick, granite, 
limestone, marble, syenite, and a great, variety of materials 
were employed. The roof of important buildings was of 
great masses of stone, requiring the use of numerous in¬ 
terior columns. The roofs, though flat, are said to be 
always inclined, so as to shed rain. All buildings, with 
scarcely an exception, were rectangular. 

The decorations were chiefly of a hieroglyphic character; 
and those which were not hieroglyphic had to a great ex¬ 
tent, it is believed, an emblematic purpose. Many other 
decorations were illustrative of the daily life and industries 
of the people. The vastness, darkness, and enduring cha¬ 
racter of these prodigious structures were well calculated to 
impress the mind with feelings of the mystery and dignity 
of the religious system which so completely pervaded the so¬ 
cial life of ancient Egypt. The palm-branch, the lotus, the 
vulture’s wings, the human head, and various emblems from 
animal and vegetable life, adorn the capitals of columns. 

Whether the Egyptians invented the arch is not known, 
but it was used, it is said, as early as the eleventh dynasty, 
but at no period was it very freely employed. It is still a 
great mystery how the ancient Egyptian builders could 
have raised to position the prodigious, blocks of stono which 
they employed in building. 



Zodiac of Denderah. 







































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































EGYPTIAN VULTURE-EIDER. 


1495 


_ Egyptian (or Maltese) Vulture, called also Pha¬ 
raoh’s lien {Neophronpercnopterus), a small vulture of 
Southern Europe, Northern Africa, and of Asia, having 



Egyptian Vulture. 

almost perfectly white plumage with black quill-feathers. 
These birds arc protected by law and custom, and are valu¬ 
able scavengers, and consequently are half domesticated. 

Ehnin ger (John Whetton), an American artist, born 
in New York July 22, 1827. He graduated at Columbia 
College, and studied art in Europe, was a pupil of Cou¬ 
ture in Paris, and was much in Diisseldorf and the great 
European capitals. His pictures have merit, but he is 
best known by his illustrative drawings and etchings, sev¬ 
eral series of which have been published and gained a wide 
popularity. 

Ehrenberg, a post-village, capital of Yuma co., Ara., 
7 miles S. of La Paz, on the Colorado. 

Eh'renberg (Christian Gottfried), M. D., an emi¬ 
nent German naturalist and microscopist, born at Delitzsch, 
in Prussian Saxony, April 19, 1795. He studied medicine 
at Leipsic, and graduated as M. D. in 181S. Among his 
favorite studies was botany, on which he wroto several 
treatises in his youth. In company with Dr. Hemprich, he 
visited Egypt, Arabia, and Syria, and spent about six years 
(1820-26) in the exploration of the natural history of those 
countries. Having returned to Berlin, he obtained in 1826 
a chair of medicine in the university of that city. He pub¬ 
lished in 1828 “ Scientific Travels through Northern Africa 
and Western Asia,” and “Physical Symbols of Birds, In¬ 
sects, etc.” (in Latin). In 1S29, Humboldt and Ehrenberg 
performed together an excursion to the Ural and Altai 
mountains. Ehrenberg afterwards made interesting discov¬ 
eries with the microscope, and published important works 
entitled “The Infusoria as Perfect Organisms ” (1838) and 
“Mikro-Geologie” (1854-56). He discovered that creta¬ 
ceous and other strata of great extent are composed of mi¬ 
croscopic organisms. His reputation as an observer is justly 
great, while the conclusions he has drawn from his obser¬ 
vations are frequently faulty. 

Ehrenbreitstein, a'ren-brlt'stin (i. e. “honor’s broad 
stone”), a fortified town of Rhenish Prussia, is pictur¬ 
esquely situated on the E. bank of the Rhine, opposite Cob- 
lentz, with which it is connected by a bridge of boats. It 
stands at the base of a rocky hill. On the summit of this 
hill stands the citadel of Ehrenbreitstein, situated on a 
rocky promontory which rises 400 feet above the water, in¬ 
accessible on three sides, and defended on the N. and only 
attackable front by a double intrenchment. It contains 
casemates for the whole garrison, artillery, and stores, and 
forms the key of the whole fortified position of Coblentz. 
It has been a fortress from time immemorial, the first origin 
of it dating from the time of Drusus, when the Romans 
erected various castles and strongholds on the Rhine, and 
a stone bridge over that river at Engers, between Coblentz 
and Neuwied, where Caesar is also supposed to have con¬ 
structed his first bridge. It was besieged without success in 
16S8 by the French, who took it after a long siege in 1799. 
The citadel was rebuilt in 1815 by the Prussian general 


Aster, the projector of all the works at Coblentz. The pres¬ 
ent improved construction has been by some military writ¬ 
ers regarded as impregnable except to famine, as the old 
castle sustained a siege of eleven months with a 
small garrison; but modern developments of 
artillery-power furnish new elements which may 
have some influence in forming a present judg¬ 
ment on this point. The artillery is mostly in 
casemates, of which there are 181, and the Eng¬ 
lish colonel Humfreys states that “with suffici¬ 
ent artillery a battalion (say 1000 or 1200 in all) 
could hold the position ” against an attack in 
force. Pop. in 1871 (without the garrison), 2504. 

J. G. Barnard. 

Eibenstock, i'ben-stock, a town of Saxony, 
16 miles S. S. E. of Zwickau. It has manufac¬ 
tures of muslin, lace, chemical products, and tin¬ 
ware. Tin-mines have been opened in the vicin¬ 
ity. Pop. in 1871, 6362. 

Eibergen, a town of the Netherlands, in Gel- 
derlaud. It has calico-factories. Pop. 5324. 

Eich'berg (Julius), a musical director, was 
born in Germany in 1825, and was educated at 
the Conservatory of Brussels, where he received 
several first prizes for excellence. He was after¬ 
wards musical director in Germany and Switzer¬ 
land, and in 1856 established a conservatory of 
S*} music at Boston, Mass., where for some years he 
has been principal music-teacher in the public 
schools. He was one of the directors in the Peace 
Jubilee of 1872 at Boston, and is the author of 
successful operas, etc., such as “The Doctor of 
Alcantara,” “ The Rose of the Tyrol,” etc. 

Eichhoff (Frederic Gustave), a philologist, 
born at Havre Aug. 17, 1799, was the son of a mer¬ 
chant formerly of Hamburg. He devoted himself at Paris to 
Oriental languages, and established his reputation by his 
“ Parallele des Langues ” (1836). He has written on the In¬ 
die origin of the Slavic tongues, the mythology of the Edda, 
the roots of the German language, the poetry of the Hindoos, 
and a “ Grammaire Generale Indo-Europeenne” (1867). 

Eich'liorn (Johann Gottfried), an eminent German 
scholar and biblical critic, was born at Dbrenzimmern Oct. 
16, 1752. He was educated at Gottingen, and became pro¬ 
fessor of Oriental languages at Jena in 1775. In 1788 he ob¬ 
tained the chair of Oriental and biblical literature at Got¬ 
tingen, which he filled nearly thirty-eight years. He edited 
the “General Repository of Biblical Literature” (10 vols., 
17S7-1S01), and wrote numerous works, which display 
an almost unequalled knowledge of Oriental and biblical 
antiquities. As a biblical critic he belongs to the ration¬ 
alistic school. Among his principal works are an “ In¬ 
troduction to the Old Testament” (3 vols., 1783), an 
“Introduction to the New Testament” (2 vols., 1804-10), 
“Primitive History” (“ Urgeschichte,” 3 vols., 1790-93),* 
a “Universal History” (5 vols., 1799), and a “History of 
Literature from its Origin to the Most Recent Times” 
(6 vols., 1806-12). Died June 25, 1827. 

Eichhorn (Ivarl Friedrich), a jurist and historian, a 
son of the preceding, was born at Jena Nov. 20, 1781. He 
was professor of German law at Gottingen from 1817 to 
1828. He published, besides other works, a “German Po¬ 
litical and Legal History” (4 vols., 1808-23; 5th ed. 1843- 
45). Died in July, 1854. 

Eichstadt, iK/st6t, or Aichstadt [Lat. Aurea'tum or 
Dryop'olis~\, a town of Bavaria, on the river Altmuhl, about 
42 miles W. S. W. of Ratisbon. It has a Gothic cathedral 
founded in 1259, a ducal palace once belonging to Eugene de 
Beauharnais, a public library, a museum, and the castle of 
St. Wilibald, now used as a barrack; also manufactures of 
hardware, cotton and woollen fabrics, stoneware, etc. A 
bishopric was founded here about 745 A. D. Eichstadt was 
given to Prince Eugene de Beauharnais in 1817. Pop. in 
1871, 7011. 

Eich'wald (Edward), an eminent Russian naturalist 
of German extraction, was born at Mitau in 1795. He 
visited the Caspian Sea and Persia, and became professor 
of mineralogy and zoology at St. Petersburg in 1838, after 
which he made scientific excursions to several parts of Rus¬ 
sia and Italy. Among his works are “ Travels to the Cas¬ 
pian Sea and the Caucasus” (1834), “Fauna Caspio-Cau- 
casia” (1841), “ The Primitive World in Russia” (“Die 
Urwelt Russlands,” 4 vols., 1S40—47), and “ The 1 almon- 
tology of Russia” (1851). 

Eider, i'der [Lat. Eider a], a river of Germany, form¬ 
ing the boundary between Sleswick and Holstein, rises 
about 10 miles S. W. of Kiel, flows nearly westward, and 
enters the German Ocean at Tunning. It is about 90 miles 
long, and is navigable from its mouth to Rendsburg. A 











































1496 


EIDER DUCK—EITELBERGER VON EDELBERG. 



canal cut from Rendsburg to Kielfiord opens a communi¬ 
cation from the Baltic to the North Sea. 

Ei'der Duck [so named, it is supposed, because often 


vi\\N 




Eider Ducks. 

found on the river Eider; see preceding article], ( Soma - 
teria), a genus of sea-ducks, natives of the northern parts 
of Europe and America. They are somewhat larger than 
the common duck, and the color of the plumage in the 
male varies with the changing seasons. The female is of a 
light reddish-brown color, transversely marked with darker 
shades. They construct their nests of fine mosses and sea¬ 
weeds, and their eggs, from five to seven in number, are 
about three inches long and two broad, and of a light green 
color. During incubation the female deposits in the nest 
the down which she plucks from her breast. When this is 
removed by the hunters she furnishes another supply, and 
if this is taken the male contributes down from his breast. 
This down is of the finest quality, and is an important arti¬ 
cle of commerce. The eggs also are highly prized as food. 
The king eider (Somateria spectabilis) is found in great 
numbers on the coasts of Nova Zembla, Greenland, Spitz- 
bergen, etc., but is rarely seen in Britain. 

Eight-hour Law, a measure to provide for the im¬ 
provement of the condition of the laboring classes which 
has been agitated in the U. S. since 1866. A law of this 
name, adopted by Congress in 1868, and by the legisla¬ 
tures of New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, and Iowa 
in 1868 and 1869, provides that all government work is to 
be performed in eight hours’ work per day; and when the 
government officials gave this law the interpretation that 
the laborers should only receive four-fifths of their former 
wages when they worked ten hours per day, President 
Grant decided that they should receive their full pay; 
which decision was sustained by both houses of Congress. 
The object of the workingmen’s associations throughout the 
country is to reduce the length of a working day to eight 
hours, with the same or very nearly the same wages. This 
question was first agitated in England, where it was de¬ 
cided by parliamentary investigation that a legal restric¬ 
tion of laboring time was necessary for the preservation of 
society; because otherwise, through the weakness of the 
laborers in their opposition to capital, they are overworked, 
their health ruined, their mean length of life reduced from 
fifteen to twenty-five years, their moral education neglected, 
their capability for self-help and self-rule destroyed; whence 
great dangers for the state and for the community may 
arise. Since 1840 a number of laws have been passed re¬ 
ducing the length of a working day from sixteen or twenty 
hours, which had been not uncommon as a day’s work up 
to that time for adult persons, and very little less for chil¬ 
dren, first to twelve, then to eleven, and at last to ten, and 
for children to eight hours. The reports of the govern¬ 
ment inspectors of factories, as well as those of physicians, 
state that these laws will produce the most beneficial effects 
upon both laborers and employers. IIow, indeed, some oc¬ 
cupations, like that of farmers, with whom longer hours of 
labor are necessary at some times, will fare under the eight- 
hour law, only the future can determine. A. J. Schem. 


Eight Mile Grove, ap.-twp. of Cass co., Neb. P. 480. 

Ei'kon Basil'ike, or I'con Uasil'ice [Gr. ebewv 
/3a<7iAi/<>?, “the royal likeness”], a famous book descriptive 
of the sufferings of King Charles I. of 
England, was long believed by the royal¬ 
ists to have been written by the king him¬ 
self, but most critics now believe that it was 
composed by Bishop Gauden (1605-62). 

Eilenburg, i'len-booRG', a town of 
Prussian Saxony, on an island in the river 
Mulde, 27 miles E. N. E. of Merseburg. It 
is enclosed by walls, and has an old castle 
and two bridges; also manufactures of 
calico, woollen yarn, brandy, starch, and 
tobacco. Pop. in 1871, 10,135. 

Eim'beck, or Einbcck, a town of 
Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Hanover, is on the river lime, about 40 
miles S. S. E. of the city of Hanover. It 
is enclosed by old ruinous walls, and is 
less important than it was in the fifteenth 
century. It has three churches ; also man¬ 
ufactures of cotton and woollen goods and 
chemical products. Pop. in 1871, 6189. 

Ei'meo, one of the Society Islands, in 
the Pacific Ocean, about 30 miles N. W. 
of Tahiti. Taloo Harbor is in lat. 17° 30' 
S., Ion. 149° 47' W. Eimeo is 9 miles long 
and 5 miles wide. The surface is diversi¬ 
fied by valleys and hills, which produce 
excellent timber. Here is a missionary 
station connected with the London Mis¬ 
sionary Society. 

Einsiedeln, in'see-deln, a town of 
Switzerland, in the canton of Schwytz, 
about 24 miles S. S. E. of Zurich. Here is a famous Bene¬ 
dictine abbey, containing a black image of the Virgin 
Mary, which is visited annually bj r about 150,000 pilgrims. 
An abbey w r as built here in the ninth century, but the 
present edifice was erected about the year 1720. It con¬ 
tains a library of 28,000 volumes. Zwingle the Reformer 
was curate of Einsiedeln in 1516. Pop. in 1870, 7633. 

Eisenach, i'ze-n&K, a town of Germany, in Saxe- 
Weiunfr, is finely situated amid wooded hills on the river 
Horsel and on the railway from Leipsic to Cassel, about 48 
miles W. of Weimar. It is well built, with wide and clean 
streets, is enclosed by walls, and has a handsome ducal 
palace, several churches, and a school of design. It is the 
chief town in the Thuringian Forest. Here are manufac¬ 
tures of cotton and woollen fabrics, carpets, soap, white 
lead, etc. In close proximity to this town is the castle of 
Wartburg, formerly a residence of the landgraves of Thu¬ 
ringia, and memorable as the place of refuge in which 
Luther remained secreted ten months (1521-22), having 
been carried thither for safety by his friend the elector of 
Saxony. Pop. in 1871, 13,967. 

Ei'senberg, a town of Germany, in Saxe-Altenburg, 
is near the Saale, 26 miles E. of Weimar. It has a castle, 
an observatory, and a town-house; also manufactures of 
porcelain and woollen stuffs. Pop. in 1871, 5261. 

Ei'senbnrg [Hun. Fas], a county of South-western 
Hungary, is bounded on the N. by Odenburg, on the E. by 
Veszprem, on the S. by Zala, and on the W. by Styria. 
Area, 1945 square miles. The soil is very fertile. The 
chief products are grain, tobacco, flax, wine, and fruit. 
Pop. in 1869, 331,602. 

Eisenerz, i / zen-§Rts / (t. e. “iron ore”), also called 
Innerberg, a town of Austria, in Styria, is at the base 
of the Erzberg, 20 miles W. N. W. of Bruck. The Erzberg, 
which is 2800 feet high, is a solid mass of iron ore of rich 
quality. Mines have been worked here for 1000 years. 
Eisenerz has twelve smelting-furnaces. Pop. in 1869,3841. 

Ei'senstaclt [Hung. Kis M&rtoii], a royal free town of 
Hungary, is near the W. bank of Lake Neusiedl, 12 miles 
N. N. W. of ffidenburg. Here is a palace of Prince Ester- 
hazy, having 200 chambers for guests. Connected with 
this palace is a zoological garden, an orangery, and a con¬ 
servatory containing 70,000 exotic plants. P. in 1869, 2476. 

Eis'Ieben, a town of Prussian Saxony, about 20 miles 
W. of Halle, with which it is connected by a railway. It 
is divided into the old and the new town, the former of 
which is enclosed by walls. It has an old castle and a 
gymnasium, also manufactures of potash and tobacco. 
Copper and silver are mined in the vicinity. Martin Lu¬ 
ther was born here in 14S3, and died here in 1546. Pop. 
in 1871, 13,434. 

Eit'elberger von Edelberg (Rudolf), a German art- 
historian, born in 1817, became in 1852 professor of art-his- 

































































EJECTMENT—EL AIN. 


1497 


tory at the University of Vienna, and has contributed much 
to the improvement of Austrian industry and art. Ho wrote, 
among other works, “Die Reform des Kunstunterrichts” 
(1848), “ Mittelalterliche Kunstdenkmale des Oesterreichis- 
chen Kaiserstaats ” (2 vols., 1858-60), and « Quellenschrif- 
ten zur Geschichte der Ivunst des Mittelalters und der Re¬ 
naissance” (1871). 

Eject'meilt [Lat. ejec'tio fir'mse, from ejic'io, ejec'tum, 
to “cast out ], in law, is a mixed action, as it is resorted 
to in order to recover the possession of land, and damages 
for the wrongful withholding of it, though the damages are 
nominal. Originally, it was a “possessory” action—that is, 
adapted to the recovery of the possession of land. By a 
series ol fictions it finally came to be a convenient means of 
testing the title. The substance of the fiction was a suppo¬ 
sition that a lease for a certain number of years had been 
made to a tenant, John Doe, who had entered into posses¬ 
sion, and had then been ejected by a person supposed to 
represent the party to be ultimately made defendant. This 
person was termed “a casual ejector,” and was usually re¬ 
presented as Richard Roe. An action was then brought 
substantially under the following title: “Doe, as tenant of 
Edwards (claiming the land), against Roe.” A written 
notice was thereupon sent in the name of Roe by Edwards’s 
attorney to the opposing claimant (Archer), who is the party 
in possession. By this notice Archer was advised to defend 
the action, otherwise Roe would allow judgment to be taken 
against him and the possession would be lost. Archer, on 
making application to be made defendant, was allowed to 
defend upon condition that he would admit the validity of 
the fictitious portion of these proceedings; so that the mat¬ 
ter was narrowed down to a trial of the merits of the case. 
The action was now deemed really to be between Edwards 
and Archer, though Doe still remained plaintiff on the re¬ 
cords of the court. It is a well-settled rule in this action 
that the plaintiff can only recover upon a legal title, as dis¬ 
tinguished from a title in a court of equity. He can suc¬ 
ceed only upon the validity of his own title, and not upon 
the weakness of that of his adversary. He must also have, 
in legal phrase, a “right of entry.” Where that does not 
exist, another form of action must be adopted. There was 
one serious practical inconvenience following this method 
of procedure. There was no limit in law to the number of 
successive actions of ejectment that could be brought by a 
plaintiff, although he had been worsted. He had only to 
substitute another fictitious tenant in the place of Doe, and 
all the proceedings might be gone through with again. The 
only check upon repeated actions of this kind was a resort 
to a court of equity for an injunction to prevent harassing, 
and perhaps exhausting, litigation. The fictitious portion 
of the proceeding was abolished in England by the Com¬ 
mon-Law Procedure act of 1852, and the action placed upon 
satisfactory grounds. The same result had been accom¬ 
plished as early as 1830 in New York. 

Should the plaintiff succeed in his action, he has also an 
independent cause of action for the loss of profits sustained 
by reason of the defendant’s wrongful possession. This is 
known as an action of trespass for mesne (intermediate) 
profits. In some of the American States— e. g. New York—•. 
this cause of action may be united with the action of eject¬ 
ment. The recover} 1, would, by the statute of limitations, 
commonly be limited to the mesne profits for the last six 
years. T. W. Dwight. 

Ejutla, d-Hoot'lL a town of Mexico, in the province of 
Oajaca, about 250 miles S. S. E. of the city of Mexico. 
Pop. about 7000. 

Ekaterinburg, a town of Russia, in the government 
of Perm, 160 miles S. E. of Perm. It was founded in 1722, 
has straight broad streets, many churches, a government 
mint for copper coins, is the principal city of the mining 
district in the Ural Mountains, and is surrounded by moun¬ 
tains on every side. Pop. in 1867, 24,508. 

Ekaterinoslav, a government of South-western Rus¬ 
sia, is bounded on the N. b} r Kharkof and Poltawa, on the 
E. by the country of the Cossacks of the Don, on the S. by 
Tauria and the Sea of Azof, and on the W. by Kherson- 
Area, 13,758 square miles. It is traversed by the Dnieper, 
the Samara, and the Waltschija, and consists almost entirely 
of large steppes. The soil is fertile. Pop. in 1867, 1,281,482. 

Ekaterinoslav, a city of Russia, capital of the above 
government, 115 miles S. W. of Kharkof, on the Dnieper. 
It has a monument of Catherine II., a large cloth factory, 
and many other manufactures. Pop. in 1867, 22,548. 

Ek' ron, an important city of the ancient Philistines, 
was in Judea, about 25 miles W. by N. from Jerusalem. Its 
site is identified with the modern Akir or Akree. 

El is the Arabic definite article, often spelled al, the 
vowel employed in Arabic being the short, obscure a, whose 
sound approaches that of our short e. El is also the mascu¬ 


line article in Spanish. El occurs frequently as an initial 
or as a final syllable in Hebrew proper names. It is one 
of the Hebrew names of God. 

E'la, a post-township of Lake co., Ill. Pop. 1277. 

Ela (Jacob H.) was born in Rochester, N. II., July 18, 
1820. He became a printer, was an editor of Free-Soil Dem¬ 
ocratic journals, holding several important public offices. 
He was U. S. marshal for New Hampshire (1861-66), and 
member of Congress (1867-69) from New Hampshire. 

Elmagna'ceae [from Elfeag'nm y one of the genera], a 
natural order of exogenous plants (trees or shrubs), natives 
of Europe, North America, and other parts of the northern 
hemisphere, being rare south of the equator. They have 
entire leprous or scurfy leaves, superior ovary, and apetal- 
ous flowers. Several species indigenous in Persia and Ne- 
paul bear edible berries. This order also comprises the 
Sliepher'dia argen'tea or buffalo berry, which grows near 
the upper Missouri River, and bears a pleasant acid fruit; 
this and the Shepherdia Canadensis and the Elseagnus 
argentea (silver berry of the North-west) are the only known 
North American species. The oleaster ( Elteag'nus angusti- 
fo'lia) is a native of the Levant and Southern Europe. 
This tree is often planted in shrubberies for the sake of its 
fragrant yellow flowers and its silvery white foliage. It 
attains a height of nearly twenty feet. 

Elmagnus. See Ela:agnace,e. 

Elne'is [from the Gr. e\aiov, “oil”], a genus of trees of 
the natural order Palmacece. The Else'is Guincen'sis, or 
oil-palm, a native of Western Africa, produces the palm 
oil which is extensively used in the manufacture of candles 
and soap. This tree abounds in the tropical parts of Africa, 
and bears a very large quantity of fruit, from the outer 
fleshy rind or coating of which the oil is obtained by boil¬ 
ing in water. This oil is made into soap more readily than 
any other known oil. A still further supply of oil can be 
obtained from the fruit by treatment of the boiled fruit. 
This is called “palm-nut oil.” This species and others of 
the genus have been naturalized to some extent in tropical 
America, where they are cultivated for their oil. They also 
yield a pleasant alcoholic drink. 

Ekeocarpa'cere [from Elseocar'pus, one of the genera 
(from the Gr. e'Acuov, “ oil,” and k apnos, “ fruit”)], an order of 
exogenous plants allied to the Tiliacese, are mostly natives 
of the East Indies. Several species produce edible fruit. 

Eloeococ'ca [from the Gr. eXcuov, “oil,” and KOACAC09, cl 
“berry”], a genus of plants of the natural order Euphor- 
biaceee. Useful oil is obtained from the seeds of several 
species. A tree called Elseococ' ca verrueo'sa is cultivated 
in Mauritius and Japan for its oil, which is used for burn¬ 
ing. One or more species in China yield drying oils, used 
in that country for preparing varnishes and jiaints. These 
oils have acrid properties. 

Elncoden'dron [from the Gr. ZXcuov, “oil,” and SeVSpov, 
a “ tree”], a genus of trees belonging to the order Celas- • 
traceaa. Elseodendron croceum, commonly called saffron- 
wood, grows near the Cape of Good Hope, where it is 
prized for building and cabinet-work. Elseodendron glau- 
cum, found in Soiithern India, is called the Ceylon tea tree. 
Some of the species yield a fixed oil resembling oil of 
olives. 

Elaeop'tcn [from the Gr. e'Aaior, “oil,” and 7 TTrjVOS, 
“ flying,” hence “ volatile ”], the liquid portion of certain 
volatile oils when separated from the concrete part, which 
is called stearopten. 

Elagaba'lus, or Ileliogaba'his [Fr. Elagabale or 
Heliogabale~\, (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), a Roman 
emperor, born at Antioch in 204 A. D. His original name 
was Varius Avitus Bassianus, but on being appointed a 
priest of the god whom the Syrians called Elagabal, he as¬ 
sumed that name. On the death of Caracalla, in 218 A. D., 
he was proclaimed emperor by the army, through the in¬ 
trigues of his grandmother Julia. He was cruel, and in¬ 
dulged in excessive debauchery. He was assassinated by 
his soldiers in 222 A. D., and was succeeded by Alexander 
Severus. Elagabalus was one of the most infamous of all 
the Roman emperors. 

El Ahsa. See Laiisa. 

Ela'in [from the Gr. e\aiov, “oil”], that portion of oil 
or fat which remains liquid at ordinary temperatures; the 
oily principle of solid fats. It is generally called olein, 
and is not of invariable composition ; but in all cases it 
consists of oleic acid, or of some acid homologous with the 
oleic, combined in various definite proporl ions \\ ith glycei in. 
Drying oils and volatile oils do not Contain elain. I ho clain 
of commerce is chiefly a crude oleic acid prepared from 
palm oil in the British candle-factories. “ Lard oil ” is a 
similar product derived from lard in the U. S. Both aro 
now chiefly used for oiling machinery. 


















1498 


ELAM—ELATER. 


ETain, the name given in the Bible and in the cunei¬ 
form inscriptions to that part of the ancient Persian em¬ 
pire called Susiana and Cissia hy the Greeks; for the 
Elvmais of the Greeks appears to have been only that part 
of Susiana next the Persian Gulf. Shushan or Susa was 
its chief city. The ancient, like the modern, people were 
chiefly nomadic. The northern part is mountainous, the 
southern flat, the gulf coast marshy and unproductive. 

E land [the Dutch name for the elk, incorrectly applied 



Eland. 

to this animal], {Antilope, or Boselaphus oreas ), a species 
of African antelope, the largest of the family. It is about 
the size of a horse, measuring five feet high at the shoulder, 
with two horns, nearly straight, about a foot and a half 
long and turned backward. In form it somewhat resembles 
the ox tribe, being much less slender in the body and limbs 
than other antelopes. It also has a large protuberance on 
the larynx, like that of the elk. The elands are gregari¬ 
ous, and are found in large herds in South Africa. A 
variety has been discovered by Dr. Livingstone marked 
with narrow white bands across the body. The flesh of 
the eland is highly prized. The eland has been bred in 
England with complete success. His flesh is considered 
equal to the best beef, and has considerably less bone than 
that of the ox. The eland is a great eater, and hence his 
domestication may prove unprofitable. His flesh is re¬ 
markably tender. It is asserted by the best authorities 
that the eland never drinks, even upon his dry native 
plains. He is always fat, and hence is so unable to run 
that he falls an easy prey to the hunter. The eland is 
called impoofo or pohu by the natives. There are several 
varieties, besides the bastard eland {Boselaphus Ganna), 
which is generally regarded as a distinct species. It is 
somewhat smaller than the true eland, but much resembles it. 

Elanet {Elanus), a genus of birds of the kite kind, but 
differing from them in having the claws, except that of the 
middle toe, rounded, and the tarsi partly covered with 
feathers. The black-shouldered hawk {Elanus dispar) is 
found in the U. S., and Elanus melanopterus is a native of 
Africa and India, and is found in Europe, and even in 
Australia. The elanet is a bold and active little bird, feed¬ 
ing mostly on insects, but often capturing snakes, and 
more rarely mice and birds. Several other species of the 
genus are described. 

E'laps [Lat. elaps; Gr. eAo<^; originally the name of 
a harmless serpent], a genus of mostly venomous snakes, 
natives of tropical America, Australia, etc. Three species 
are found in the U. S. They are very slender in form, 
often brilliant in color, and feed chiefly on other reptiles. 
The Elapes of the U. S. are scarcely venomous. The best 
known of them is the Elaps fulvius, or bead snake, which 
is often dug up in sweet-potato fields in the Southern 
States. It is one of the handsomest snakes known, having 
bands of jet black, carmine red, and golden yellow. It 
has erect poison-fangs, but is never known to use them. It 
may be handled without fear, since it is of very gentle dis¬ 
position. The Labarri snake of South America (Elaps 
lemniscatus) is a large, fierce, and mortally poisonous rep¬ 
tile. The same is true of Elaps luhricus of that continent. 

El Araiseh, called Carache, or Earache, a forti¬ 
fied town of Morocco, in the province of Avgar, at the 
mouth of the Luccos, which forms an excellent but shal¬ 
low harbor. It is 15 leagues S. W. of Tangier. The 
surroundings are covered with olive groves and rich pome¬ 
granate and orange orchards, but they are unhealthy. It 
has a fine old mosque and market-place. The exports of 


Lat. 30° 
The Garden 


corn, cork, avooI, and beans are considerable. 

13' N., Ion. 6° 9' W. The name signifies “ T 
of Enjoyment.” Pop. 4000. 

El Arish (anc. Rhinocolura), a walled town of Egypt, 
on the confines of Palestine, near the “river of Egypt” 
(Wady el Arish). It is situated on an eminence half a mile 
from the Mediterranean, in lat. 31° 6' N., Ion. 33° 56' E., 
195 miles N. E. of Cairo, and 52 miles S. of Gaza. It has 
a few remains of the Homan period. Pop. in 1871, 2255. 

The ancient Rhinocolura or Rhinocorura is said to have 
taken its name (signifying “the cutting off’ of the nose”) 
from the fact that King Actisanes of ^Ethiopia founded it 
as a penal colony, and the convicts sent thither had their 
noses cut off. Before the rise of Alexandria it was a great 
emporium of the Red Sea trade. 

The Wady el Arish is supposed to be the “river of Egypt” 
mentioned in the Bible (in Num. xxxiv. 5 and elsewhere). 
It drains the central part of the peninsula of Sinai, and 
empties into the Mediterranean at El Arish. It is a small 
brook, which dries up in the summer. 

Elas'tic Curve, in mechanics, is defined by James 
Bernoulli as the figure which would be assumed by a thin 
horizontal elastic plate if one end were fixed and the other 
loaded with a weight. The equation of the curve to rect¬ 
angular co-ordinates, of which the origin is at the fixed 
extremity and the abscissa axis horizontal, is y — h (3 ax' 2 
— a; 3 ), where h is a small quantity depending on the ratio of 
the attached weight to the elastic force of the plate, whose 
length is a. 

Elasticity [from the Gr. eAao-nfc, “that which drives 
or strikes,” from eAaww, to “ drive,” to “ strike,” and hence 
to “ strike back,” as a spring] is that property in ph 3 7 sics 
possessed by certain bodies of recovering their original 
form and size after the external force is withdrawn by which 
they have been compressed. Matter is believed to be com¬ 
posed of molecules or small particles, acted upon by attract¬ 
ive and repulsive forces ; and from the combined action of 
these forces result the various forms and properties of mat¬ 
ter. According to this view, molecules are not in contact, 
but at an infinitesimal distance from each other, which, 
however, may be increased or diminished. "When the body 
is at rest the opposite forces which any of its molecules 
exercise on each other are in equilibrium. If the distance 
between the molecules be increased within the limits of the 
action of the forces, both forces are diminished; and if the 
distance is lessened, both are increased, but not in the same 
proportion. Solid bodies are imperfectly elastic, and do not 
entirely recover their form when the disturbing force is re¬ 
moved ; but there seems to be no limit to the elasticity of 
gases. The phenomena of elastic bodies are—], That a 
perfectly elastic body exerts the same force in restoring 
itself as that with which it was compressed; 2, The force 
of elastic bodies is exerted equally in all directions, but the 
effect takes place chiefly on the side where the resistance is 
least; 3, When a solid elastic body is made to vibrate by a 
sudden stroke, the vibrations are made in equal times to 
whatever part of the body the stroke may be communicated. 
.No theory of elasticity founded on any assumed hypothesis 
as to the molecular constitution of matter has as yet been 
found satisfactory when applied to solids. In this case, 
therefore, the theory of elasticity is best investigated with¬ 
out resorting to any such hyjmtheses. 

Elas'tic Tis'siie, a form of fibrous tissue sometimes 
called A r el!ow Fibrous Tissue, is so named from its 
peculiar property of allowing its fibres to be drawn out to 
twice their original length, and returning again to the same. 
It is found in the membranes which connect the cartilagi¬ 
nous rings of the trachea and various other structures of 
the animal body requiring elasticity. In the human body 
perhaps the most remarkable example of the elastic tissue 
is seen in the ligamenta suhjiava, or intervertebral ligaments. 
Almost all other ligaments are unyielding and inelastic, 
but these are extremely elastic. Their action is to help 
restore the spinal column to its vertical position when it has 
been deflected by muscular action. In some of the lower 
animals the ligamentum nuchse, the great ligament of the 
nape of the neck, is highly elastic, and serves to maintain 
the proper equilibrium between the muscles that erect 
and those that depress the head, as when the animal 
is grazing. 

El'ater [Gr. eAarrjp, a “ driver ”], a Linncean genus of 
coleopterous insects, now the type of a very large and dis¬ 
tinct family of the serricorn Coleoptera, called Elateridae. 
They have a narrow, elongated body, and are distinguished 
by the presence of a strong spine projecting from the pos¬ 
terior margin of the prosternum, and a groove or socket 
fitted for the reception of the spine. If they fall on their 
back, they recover their feet by a violent muscular effort, 
which throws them into the air with a jerk and a clicking 




























ELATEKIUM—ELCHE. 


sound. Hence they are called click-beetle, snap-hug, etc. 
This movement is the rebound caused by the sudden disen¬ 
gagement of the spine from its socket. The wireworrus of 
the U. S. are larvas of the Elateridm, and are very destruc¬ 
tive to growing crops. The elaters feed on flowers, leaves, 
and other soft parts of plants. The firefly of tropical 
America is the Elater or Pyro]jhoru8 noctilucus, and it has 
been discovered that the larvse of at least one North Amer¬ 
ican species of Melanactcs are luminous. 

Elate'rium [Gr. eAa/njpiov, a “ cathartic,” from eAauVw, 
to “ force”], a drug obtained from the Ecbalium ayreste, or 
wild cucumber, called also squirting cucumber. It is an 
annual belonging to the order Cucurbitacese, with a trailing 
stem, heart-shaped leaves, lobed and toothed, yellow flow¬ 
ers, axillary: fruit grayish-green, about an inch and a half 
long, covered with soft prickles. The fruit in parting from 
its stalk expels the seeds, along with a mucus, through the 
opening in which the stalk was inserted. Elaterium is con¬ 
tained in the thick green mucus surrounding the seeds. It 
is a powerful and dangerous cathartic, and is very irritat¬ 
ing to the eyes and skin. The active principle called ela- 
terin is obtained from it. Elaterium is sometimes used in 
dropsy. 

E'lath [Heb. Eloth, “trees;” Lat. JEla'na or Ela'na], 
a town several times mentioned in the Bible, was built at 
the foot of the valley El Ghor in Idumma, and at the head 
of the Elanitic arm of the Bed Sea (now known as the Gulf 
of Akabah), near lat. 29° 30' N., Ion. 30° E., ten miles E. 
of Petra. It was conquered by King David, and under 
Solomon became an important commercial emporium. It 
continued to be a seaport of importance under the Romans. 
It was twice taken by the Crusaders (1116 and 1182 A. D.), 
but after their time fell into decay. It stood on or near the 
spot now occupied by the fortress of Akabah, which is held 
by a small garrison of Egyptian troops. Extensive ruins 
are found there. 

El'ba [Fr. Elbe; anc. IVva and xEtha'lia; Gr. AlflaAi'a], 
an island of Italy, is in the Mediterranean Sea, between 
Corsica and Tuscany, from which latter it is separated by a 
’ channel about five miles wide. It is about 18 miles long, and 
varies in width from 24 to 10 miles. The coasts are bold, 
and deeply indented by several gulfs which form good har¬ 
bors. The surface is mountainous, and the highest point 
has an altitude of about 3500 feet. Among the productions 
are iron, good wine, wheat, olives, and various fruits. Pop. 
in 1862, 20,340. Capita], Porto-Ferraio. By the treaty of 
Paris this island was designated as the residence of Na¬ 
poleon I., who removed to it in May, 1814, and escaped iu 
Feb., 1815. 

El'ba, a post-village, capital of Coffee co., Ala., on Pea 
River, about 75 miles S. by E. from Montgomery. 

Elba, a township of Knox co., Ill. Pop. 1045. 

Elba, a township of Gratiot co., Mich. Pop. 323. 

Elba, a township of Lapeer co., Mich. Pop. 1001. 

Elba, a post-township of Winona co., Minn. Pop. 681. 

Elba, a township of Genesee co., N. Y. Pop. 1905. 

Elba, a township of Dodge co., Wis. Pop. 1496. 

El Ilacharieh (anc. Oasis Trinytheos), one of the 
Libyan oases, N. of El Ivhargeh, about lat. 28° N. It 
yields fruit and alum, and is chiefly remarkable for its 
ancient Artesian wells. It has ruins, principally of the 
Roman period. 

Elbe [anc. AVbis; Bohemian, La'be; Dutch, El've], 
an important river of Germany, rises in the N. E. part 
of Bohemia, among the mountains called Riesengebirge. 
One of its sources is about 4500 feet above the level of 
the sea. It flows generally in a north-western direction, 
drains the northern part of Bohemia, intersects Saxony 
and Prussia, and enters the German Ocean near Cuxhaven. 
It drains an area of 59,000 square miles. Its total length 
is about 700 miles. This river is several miles wide at 
everv point between its mouth and Altona, a distance ot 
nearly seventy miles. Its principal affluents are the Havel, 
the Moldau, the Saale, and the Eger. The chief towns on 
its banks are Dresden, Magdeburg, Hamburg, and Altona. 
Between Dresden and Aussig it flows between high rocky 
banks like natural battlements, and presents very pictu¬ 
resque scenery. Vessels drawing fourteen feet of water can 
ascend at all times to Hamburg. Small steamboats navi¬ 
gate the Elbe between Hamburg and Magdeburg, and be¬ 
tween Meissen and the mouth of the Moldau. 

El'berfeld, an important manufacturing town of Rhen¬ 
ish Prussia, is on the Wipper, 16 miles E. of Dusseldorf, 
with which it is connected by a railway. It is irregular in 
plan, and is several miles long. The newer streets are well 
paved. Barmen, a rich and prosperous town, is contiguous 
to the eastern part of Elberfeld, which has a gymnasium, a 
museum, a public library, and a school of manufactures. 


1499 


Here are extensive manufactures of silk stuff's, velvets, cot¬ 
ton fabrics, merinoes, ribbons, and tapes. Elberfeld has about 
seventy dyeing establishments, ten bleaching-grounds, and 
several print-works. It is famous for the dyeing of Turkey 
red, and this dye is said to be imparted here at a cheaper 
rate and with more firmness of color than at any other town 
in Europe. Pop. in 1871, 71,394. 

El'bert, a county in the E. N. E. of Georgia. Area, 
420 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Sa¬ 
vannah River, and on the S. by the Broad River. The 
surface is hilly; the soil is partly fertile. Corn, cotton, and 
wool are staple products. Capital, Elberton. Pop. 9249. 

Elbert (Samuel), a Revolutionary officer, born in South 
Carolina in 1743. He distinguished himself as colonel in 
the war for independence. In 1785 he became governor of 
Georgia. At the time of his death he was major-general 
of militia. Died Nov. 2, 1788. 

Elberton, a post-village, capital of Elbert co., Ga., lies 
near the Savannah River, 78 miles N. W. of Augusta. It 
has four churches, one male and one female academy, one 
newspaper, one hotel, one mill, and a number of stores, all 
of which are sustained by the cotton-trade. 

J. T. McCarty, Ed. “ Gazette.” 

Elbeuf, or Elbceuf, a town of France, department of 
Seine-Inferieure, is beautifully situated on the left bank 
of the Seine, 12 miles above Rouen and 75 miles N. W. of 
Paris. Several of the newer and finer streets converge to 
a spacious open area called the Champ de Foire. It has 
eight artesian wells and six public fountains, and is lighted 
with^gas. Among the finest edifices are the churches of 
St. Etienne and St. Jean Baptiste. Steamers ply daily 
between this place and Paris and Havre. It has important 
manufactures of fine flannels, billiard-table covers, habit 
cloths, chequered stuffs, woollen fabrics, chemical products, 
machinery, etc. Pop. 21,784. 

El'bing [Lat. Elbinya ], a fortified town and river-port 
of Prussia, is on the navigable river Elbing, 5 miles from 
its entrance into the Frische Haff, and about 40 miles 
E. S. E. of Dantzic. It has eight or more Protestant 
churches, a gymnasium founded in 1536, and a large pub¬ 
lic library also manufactures of cotton and linen fabrics, 
sailcloth, soap, tobacco, leather, etc. Here are a number 
of iron-foundries, dye-works, print-works, sugar-refineries, 
and breweries. Nearly 500 vessels are employed in the 
trade of Elbing, which is connected by a railway with Ber¬ 
lin and other towns. Pop. in 1871, 31,162. 

El'briilge, a post-township of Edgar co., Ill. Pop. 
1807. 

Elbridge, a township of Oceana co., Mich. Pop. 
524. 

El bridge, a township and post-village of Onondaga 
co., N. Y. The village is nearly 2 miles from the Central 

R. R., and 16 miles W. of Syracuse. Chairs, buckets, etc. 
are made here. It is the seat of a collegiate institute with 
a very fine building. Pop. of village, 463. The township 
contains several other villages. Total pop. 3796. 

Elbrooz', Elbruz, or Elburz, a range of high 
mountains in Asia, in the northern part of Persia, form¬ 
ing the connecting chain between the Anti-Taurus and the 
Kuen-Lun. The Elboorz extends nearly parallel with the 

S. shore of the Caspian Sea, and forms the southern bound¬ 
ary of the basin of that sea. The highest point of this 
range is the volcanic peak of Demavend, which rises 20,000 
feet or more above the level of the sea. This name is also 
applied to the loftiest range and summit in the Caucasus, 
between the Black and Caspian seas. Mount Elboorz is 
situated in lat. 43° 20' N., Ion. 60° E.; its altitude is 18,526 
English feet. 

Elces'aites, or Elkesaites [a name said to be de¬ 
rived from Elxai, their pretended founder, though it is 
believed by some that the name is derived from Elkesi, a 
village of Galilee, while others say it is from Elxai, a book 
which was their great authority in doctrine], a sect of Es- 
seuian Ebionites, or of Jewish Christians who mingled 
Judaism and Christianity in their doctrines, adding to 
them certain pagan or Gnostic views and magical prac¬ 
tices. This sect appears to have originated in the early 
part of the second century, and probably lasted till the 
fourth century. 

El'che (anc. Il'ici or U'lice),a town of Spain, in the 
province of Alicante, about 6 miles from the sea and 15 
miles S. W. of the city of Alicante, is enclosed by walls. It 
is situated on both sides of a steep ravine, which is ciossed 
by a handsome bridge. It has an Oriental aspect, being 
built in the Moorish style and surrounded by large groves 
of date-palms. Among the remarkable edifices are an old 
castle, and a church which has a majestic dome and a fa¬ 
mous organ. It has manufactures of cotton and linen stuffs, 












ELCHINGEN—ELECAMPANE. 


1500 


brandy, wine, cigars, and soap. Many dates are exported 
hence. Pop. about 18,000. 

El'chingen, a village of Bavaria, on the left bank of 
the Danube, 8 miles N. E. of Ulm. Here the French mar¬ 
shal Ney defeated the Austrians on the 13th of Oct., 1805. 

El'cho (Francis Wemyss-Charteris), Lord, eldest 
son of the carl of Wemyss, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, 
in 1818, and was educated at Oxford. He became a con¬ 
servative member of the House of Commons in 1841, and 
a lord of the treasury in 1853. He took a prominent part 
in the formation of the national rifle association in 1860. 
In 1866 he opposed the Reform bill of Russell and Glad¬ 
stone, and was connected with the party called “ Adullam- 
ites.” He represented Haddingtonshire in Parliament for 
twenty years or more. 

El Dakkel (anc. Oasis Minor), the third of the five 
Egyptian or Libyan oases, situated in lat. 29° 10' N. It is 
well watered and has warm springs. It anciently yielded 
much wheat, and now furnishes dates, olives, etc. 

El der [Fr. sureau; Ger. Holunder~\, ( Sambu'cus ), a 
genus of shrubby plants belonging to the order Caprifo- 
liacem. The common elder {Sambucus nigra) is indigenous 
to Europe and parts of Asia and Northern Africa. It 
sometimes attains the size of a small tree, having pinnate 
leaves, terminal cymes of creamy white flowers, and small 
black berries, 3-seeded. The young shoots contain a great 
deal of pith. The common elder ( Sambucus Canadensis) 
of North America grows from five to ten feet high. An¬ 
other American species is the red-berried elder {Sambucus 
jmbens), which is found in rocky woods and among moun¬ 
tains. The Sambucus glauca grows in the West. There is 
also a scarlet-fruited elder {Sambucus racemosa) found in 
some parts of Europe, which is prized as an ornamental shrub 
in Gi’eat Britain. The dwarf elder or danewort {Sambucus 
Ebulus) is seen occasionally in Great Britain. It was for¬ 
merly believed to have sprung from the blood of Danes killed 
in the Anglo-Saxon wars. The flowers of the elder are used 
in medicine, and elder-flower water, employed in perfumery, 
is distilled from them. Wine is also made from the berries. 

Elder [Heb. zaken, “ an old man;” Gr. npeaPvrepos, 
“ senior ”], a term in use among the Hebrews and other 
ancient nations, originally indicative of age, but acquiring 
in time a secondary official sense. Each Hebrew town had 
its senate of elders, who administered justice. (Deut. xix. 
12.) Commonly, each synagogue had also its board of 
elders, although in smaller towns there was often but a 
single rabbi. The early Christian Church is believed by 
many to have borrowed its eldership from the Jewish 
synagogue. In the New Testament elder and bishop are 
thought by many Christians to be identical, but opinion on 
this point is by no means uniform. But at least as early 
as the second century (in the Ignatian Epistles) we find the 
three orders of bishops, presbyters (or elders), and deacons. 
Presbyterians have both “ teaching ” and “ ruling ” (or lay) 
elders, but whether this distinction existed in the apostolic 
age is still a mooted question. 

El'don (John Scott), Earl of, lord chancellor of Eng¬ 
land, was born at Newcastle June 4,1751. He was educated 
at Oxford, where he gained in 1771 a prize of £20 for an 
English prose essay. In 1772 he contracted a clandestine 
marriage with a lady named Elizabeth Surtees, and by this 
act forfeited a fellowship which he had obtained in the col¬ 
lege. He studied law in the Middle Temple, was called to 
the bar in 1776, inherited £3000 from his father in that j r ear, 
and began to practise in the northern circuit. After four 
years of moderate success, he gained great distinction, and 
rose rapidly to fame and affluence. He became in 1783 a 
member of Parliament, in which he supported Mr. Pitt, and 
showed himself an able debater. He was appointed solicitor- 
general in 1788, and attorney-general in 1793. During the 
excitement of the French revolution he prosecuted Horne 
Tooke and others who were accused of treason, but they 
ypere defended by Erskine and acquitted. In 1799 he be¬ 
came chief-justice of the court of common pleas, was created 
Baron Eldon, and entered the House of Peers. On the for¬ 
mation of a new ministry by Mr. Addington in 1801, Lord 
Eldon was appointed lord chancellor. He appears to have 
owed this promotion to the favor of the king. He continued 
to fill that high office under several successive administra¬ 
tions for a period of twenty-six years, except an interval 
of nearly a year in 1806-07. His reputation as a judge was 
very high, but as a statesman his merit was not great. Ho 
was an enemy of religious liberty, and opposed the abolition 
of the slave-trade and parliamentary reform. He received 
the title of earl in 1821, and was compelled to resign the 
great seal when Canning became prime minister in 1827. 
He died Jan. 13, 1838. His brother William was ap emi¬ 
nent judge, and bore the title of Lord Stowell. (See Twiss, 
“The Public and Private Life of Lord Eldon,” 3 vols., 
1844; Lord Campbell, “ Lives of the Lord Chancellors.” 


Eldo'ra, a post-village, capital of Hardin co., Ia., on (ho 
Iowa River and the Central R. R. of Iowa, about 66 miles 
N. N. E. of Des Moines. It has two newspaper-offices. It 
has a State reform school. Pop. 1268 ; of Eldora twp., 2070. 

Eldora, a township of Surry co., N. C. Pop. 858. 

El Dora'do, a Spanish term signifying “golden” re¬ 
gion, was the name given by the Spaniards in the sixteenth 
century to a country supposed to be situated in South 
America between the rivers Amazon and Orinoco. By 
fabulous reports, which were generally credited, this region 
was represented as abounding in gold and precious stones, 
and surpassing Peru in riches and splendor. Expeditions 
were conducted by Sir Walter Raleigh and others to dis¬ 
cover this imaginary paradise of gold-seekers, but they 
were not successful. The term El Dorado has passed into 
the language of poetry, in which it is used to express a land 
of boundless wealth, or a region in which riches and pleas¬ 
ure are as abundant as they were supposed to have been in 
the Elysium of the Greeks and in the primeval golden age. 

El Dora'do, a county of California. Area, estimated 
at 1800 square miles. It is drained by the Middle and 
South Forks of the American River, and bounded on the 
N. E. by Lake Tahoe. The eastern part is occupied by the 
high mountains of the Sierra Nevada, and is covered with 
forests from which good pine and oalc timber is procured. 
Rich gold-mines have been opened here. Cattle, wheat, 
barley, fruit, wine, wool, butter, etc. arc produced. Capi¬ 
tal, Placerville. Pop. 10,309. 

El Dorado, a post-village, capital of Union co., Ark., 
about 145 miles S. by W. from Little Rock. It has two 
newspaper-offices. Pop. of El Dorado township, 2349. 

Eldorado, a twp. of McDonough co., Ill. Pop. 1105. 

El Dorado, a post-township of Saline co., Ill. Here 
the Cairo and Vincennes R. R. crosses the St. Louis and 
South-eastern R. R., 76 miles N. E. of Cairo. Pop. 1691. 

Eldorado, a township of Benton co., Ia. Pop. 777. 

El Dorado, the capital of Butler co., Kan., on Walnut 
River, has a national bank, a newspaper, an academy, two 
churches, aflouring-mill, three hotels,and good water-power. 
It is in a fine agricultural region. Pop. of township, 797. 

T. B. Murdock, Ed. and Prop. “Times.” 

Eldorado, a twp. of Montgomery co., N. C. Pop. 887. 

Eldorado, apost-twp.ofFonddu Lacco.,Wis. P. 1674. 

El 'dred, a township of Jefferson co., Pa. Pop. 832. 

Eldred, a township of Lycoming co., Pa. Pop. 739. 

Eldred, a township of McKean co.. Pa. Pop. 897. 

Eldred, a township of Monroe co., Pa. Pop. 937. 

Eldred, a township of Schuylkill co., Pa. Pop. 96S. 

Eldred, a township of Warren co., Pa. Pop. 557. 

E'lea, or Ve'lia, an ancient Greek city of Southern 
Italy, in Lucania, on the Mediterranean Sea. It was the na¬ 
tive place of Parmenides and Zeno. (See Eleatic School.) 

Eleanor (el'e-nor) [Fr. Eleonore ] of Guienne, queen 
of France, and subsequently queen of England, was born 
about 1122. She was the daughter and heiress of the last 
duke of Aquitaine, and was married in 1137 to Louis VII. 
of France, with whom she went to the Holy Land in 1147. 
She was divorced from Louis in 1152, and was soon mar¬ 
ried to Henry II. of England. It appears that she insti¬ 
gated her sons to rebel against their father (Henry II.), 
who imprisoned her for fifteen years. She acted as regent 
while her son, Richard I., conducted a crusade to Palestine. 
Died in 1203. 

Eleat'ic School, a system of philosophy founded by 
Xenophanes of Elea, who flourished about 530 B. C. While 
the Ionic school gave their attention to outward nature, 
and investigated the laws which regulate its progress, the 
Eleatic philosophers directed their speculations to the idea 
of Being in itself, which they conceived to be the only ob¬ 
ject of real knowledge. They regarded as vain and illu¬ 
sory the world of change and succession, which they des¬ 
ignated to yiyvop.evov (“that which becomes or happens,” as 
by accident). Time, space, and motion they considered as 
phantasms, caused by the deceiving senses, and incapable 
of scientific explanation. They distinguished between the 
pure reason, the correlative of being, and opinion or com¬ 
mon understanding, which judges according to the impres¬ 
sions of sense. Parmenides and Zeno were the most cele¬ 
brated disciples of Xenophanes ; the former was the author 
of an epic poem on the Eleatic and Ionic systems. 

Elecampane {In'ula), a genus of plants belonging to 
the order Composite. The common elecampane {Inula 
Helenium) is indigenous to Middle and Southern Europe, 
and grows in various parts of the U. S. The root some¬ 
what resembles camphor in taste, and has sudorific and 
diuretic properties. It contains the principles lielenin or 
elecampane oamphor, and inulin, which resembles starch. 


















ELECTION—ELECTORS. 


1501 


Elec'tion [Lat. elec'tio, from elec'turn (from e, “out,” 
and It'(jo, to “ gather”), to “choose,” to “ read”], in law. 
The law frequently imposes upon a party the duty to choose 
between two inconsistent or alternative rights or claims. 
This obligation may present itself in all branches of the 
law, and often occurs as a rule of practice. In a court of 
law, as distinguished from equity, there may be a case of 
election where a contract is to be performed in the alterna¬ 
tive, as where an insurance company stipulates that in case 
of loss of a building by fire it may either pay its value or 
rebuild. In such a case, should the company elect to re¬ 
build, its election would be irrevocable. It may also hap¬ 
pen that a creditor will have a right, from the circumstances 
of the case, to elect one of two persons as his debtor. A case 
of this kind occurs in the law of agency, when an agent 
purchases goods on credit for an undisclosed principal; the 
seller, on subsequently discovering the principal, may elect 
to regard the sale as having been made to him or to the agent, 
as he may see fit. An instance of election in the case of 
real estate is that of dower in land which the husband ex¬ 
changed for other land. The widow has her choice to take 
dower in either parcel, but she cannot take it in both. 

In courts of equity the doctrine of election assumes great 
importance. The case may occur where alternative benefits 
may be presented to a person by a will or other legal in¬ 
strument, or more generally he may be required to choose 
between a gift made to him and something to which he is 
already entitled. The duty to choose in such a case is not 
a positive rule of law, but a matter of equity practice, and 
is not imperative when this artificial doctrine is not known 
to be a legal rule by the party to whom the gift is made. 
The fact of election must be shown by some positive act; 
and if a party who ought to elect holds two estates under 
inconsistent titles, there is no evidence of an election hav¬ 
ing been made. A person under a duty to elect between the 
retention of his own property and the gift of another, may 
retain his own without forfeiting the gift, but must make 
due compensation. Thus, if a testator devises an owner of 
property land of his own, and then assumes to dispose of 
the property of the devisee, and the latter elects to retain 
his own property, he does not forfeit the devise, but is re¬ 
quired to make compensation to the testator’s estate equiva¬ 
lent in amount to the property retained by him. Election 
in procedure may take place in the choice of remedies; as 
where an owner has been wrongfully deprived of a chattel, 
he may elect to sue for its value or for the chattel itself. A 
court will in some cases require a party to an action to elect 
as between inconsistent allegations as to the cause of action. 

T. W. Dwight. 

Election, in politics, is the choice of public officers by 
those persons who possess the right of suffrage, as distin¬ 
guished from “ appointment,” which is such choice made 
by superior officers. Popular elections were held in ancient 
times, as, for example, in the Roman comitia and the Athe¬ 
nian popular assemblies; but soon after the establishment 
of the Roman empire elections, outside the Christian Church, 
became obsolete. Elections reappear in mediaeval Europe 
in the choice of representative burgesses, who stood for the 
third estate. Certain monarchs, as the German emperors 
and the kings of Poland, were also elected to their place, 
but not as popular representatives. In no other European 
country did the election of representatives become so im¬ 
portant in the Middle Ages as in England; and the repre¬ 
sentative systems of other nations have been chiefly imita¬ 
tions of, and in some cases improvements upon, the Eng¬ 
lish system. Especially is this the case in the U. S. (See 
Representative System.) Elections are called direct 
when officers are chosen by a direct vote of their constitu¬ 
ency ; indirect, when electors are chosen for the purpose of 
designating the persons who shall exercise official powers. 

With regard to the officers voted for, political elections 
are distinguished into local or municipal elections, at which 
officers for some particular town or locality are chosen ; 
general or State elections, at which officers for the whole of a 
commonwealth are elected (the most important of which are 
the gubernatorial and presidential elections for filling the 
places of governor and President) ; and congressional or 
legislative elections, at which members of Congress or legis¬ 
latures are voted for. Vacancies in offices are sometimes 
filled, and the acceptance or rejection of particular laws is 
decided, by special or supplementary elections. All questions 
relating to political elections must be fully provided for in 
the election laws of the State. The great interests which 
are frequently at stake at elections naturally tempt bad men 
to election frauds, which have assumed in some countries, 
and in particular in some parts of the U. S., the most alarm¬ 
ing dimensions. In view of them honest statesmen con¬ 
sider it their duty to improve, as much as possible, the 
existing election laws. Special attention has been gi\ en 
for that purpose to stringent registration laws, requiring 
every voter to register his name some time before the day 


of election, in order to enable the authorities to verify his 
claim to taking part in the election. The inspectors of elec¬ 
tions, whether appointed or elected, are generally taken 
from the different political parties which engage in the 
contest. The excitement which often prevails at political 
elections is apt to lead to election riots. These are of fre¬ 
quent occurrence in England, Ireland, and Greece, and have 
also of late caused considerable trouble in the U. S.; they 
are almost unknown in France and Germany. As in most 
cases the instigators and leaders of election riots are acting 
under the influence of intoxicating liquors, many States 
have provided by law that on election days all liquor-stores 
must be closed. When the defeated party believes or claims 
that the declared majority owes its success to election frauds, 
the elections are likely to be contested. At elections to 
legislative assemblies these assemblies decide finally on the 
claims of rival candidates; in most other cases the decision 
rests with the courts. If a presidential election is con¬ 
tested in republics, there is danger of civil Avar, of Avhich, 
in particular, the republics of South and Central America 
furnish many examples. Of still more frequent occurrence 
have been, in consequence of the Aveakness of the federal 
authority, the civil Avars in the particular states constitut¬ 
ing these federal republics in case the election for governor 
is contested. The U. S., which, on the Avliole, have been 
free from the sad experience of the South and Central 
American republics, had in 1873 a conspicuous instance 
of a contested gubernatorial election and its disastrous con¬ 
sequences in Louisiana, Avliere for several months tAVO rival 
governors claimed each to be the laAvful executive of the 
State, and tried to enforce his claim, until on May 22, 1873, 
the President of the U. S. interfered by a proclamation in 
favor of one. (See also Nomination, Plebiscite, Repre¬ 
sentative System, Suffrage, and Vote.) 

Election, in theology. See Calvinism, by Prof. A. 
A. Hodge, S. T. D. 

Elective Gov'emments are those in which the 
rulers and public functionaries are chosen by popular \ T ote 
or by the votes of a privileged class. The republics of 
ancient Athens and Rome were elective governments. 

Elec'tor [Fr. electeur; Ger. Kurfurst; Lat. elec'tor, 
from el'igo, elec'turn, to “choose”], a title of those German 
princes who had the right or privilege of electing the em¬ 
peror of Germany. There Avere originally (1256 A. D.) 
seven—namely, the electors of Cologne, Mentz, Treves, 
Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony, and the elector Palatine. 
The first three were archbishops of Cologne, Mentz, and 
Treves. The electors had several important privileges, and 
a very peculiar position in the empire. They usually chose 
the heir or near relative of the preceding emperor. As the 
electoral dignity of the Palatine had been transferred to 
the dukes of Bavaria, an eighth electorate Avas established 
by the peace of Westphalia in 1648 for the Palatine, Avhich 
ceased in 1777, when the House of Bavaria became extinct. 
In 1692 the electorate or dignity of elector Avas conferred 
on the dukes of BrunsAvick-Liineburg, Avho Avere afterwards 
styled electors of Hanover. The electors Avere entitled to all 
royal dignities and honors except the title of majesty. In 
1803 the duke of Wiirtemberg, the margrave of Baden, the 
landgrave of Ilesse-Cassel, and the archbishop of Salzburg 
Avere made electors in the place of the electorates of Co¬ 
logne and Treves, Avhich Avere abolished. On the dissolu¬ 
tion of the German empire in 1S06, the office became obso¬ 
lete, but the title Avas retained by the rulers of Ilesse-Cassel 
until 1866, when that state was united to Prussia. 

Electoral Crown, or Cap, was a scarlet cap worn 
by the electors of the German empire. It Avas surmounted 
with a golden demicircle, which was ornamented with 
pearls and a golden cross at the top. 

Elec'tors, in the political system of the U. S., is the 
title of the persons Avho are chosen by the people of the sev¬ 
eral States to elect the President and Vice-President. Each 
State chooses a number of electors equal to the whole num¬ 
ber of members it sends to both houses of Congress. No 
Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of 
profit or trust under the U. S., can be appointed an elector. 
The electors must be chosen on the same day in all the States 
—that is, on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in No¬ 
vember. The Constitution ordains that the electors shall 
meet in their respective States on the first W ednesday in 
December, and vote by ballot for President and A ice-Presi- 
dent, one of Avhom at least shall not be an inhabitant of the 
same State with themselves; and they shall make distinct 
lists of all persons voted for as President, etc., and of the 
number of votes for each; Avhich lists they shall sign and 
certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the 
U. S., directed to the president of the Senate. The electors 
of all the States constitute the electoral college. A majority 
of the whole number of electoral votes is necessary to elect 
the President and Vice-President. In 1872 the whole nurn- 
















ELECT K A—ELECTRICITY. 


1502 


ber of electors was 366. They meet at the capitals of their re¬ 
spective States. The electoral votes arc opened and counted 
on the second Wednesday of February by both houses of 
Congress, which meet in the chamber of the Representatives. 
In the actual mode of performing their duty the electors do 
not exercise any judgment or discretionary power in'the 
choice of President and Vice-President, but cast their votes 
for the candidates previously nominated by their party, 
usually in a national convention. If no candidate has a 
majority of all the votes, the House of Representatives has 
a right to choose either of the three persons having the 
highest number of votes, d 

Elec'tra [Gr. ’HAeVrpa], a daughter of Agamemnon, king 
of Mycenae, was sister of Orestes and wife of Pylades. She 
was sometimes called Laodice. Her story is the subject of 
dramas written by iEschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, and Ra¬ 
cine. The most perfect of the ancient tragedies ot “ Elec- 
tra ” is that of Sophocles; in this she stimulates her brother 
Orestes (whose life she has saved from the violence of her 
father’s murderers) to avenge the death ot that parent. 
This he accordingly does, with the aid of Apollo. 

No less than five* other persons of this name occur in the 
Greek mythology. 

Elec'trical Fishes are remarkable as being probably 
the only animals having the power to give sensible shocks 
of electricity. Nine or more species of very diverse cha¬ 
racter are known to have this power. Three species of Tor- 
pe'do (of the ray family), one of which is occasionally found 
on our Atlantic coast, are among the best known electric 
fishes. The Trichiu' tur, a sword-fish of the Indian seas, 
and the Tetra'odon, a balloon-fish of the Comoro Islands, 
have not been as well studied. The Gymno'tus elec'triewt, 
a fresh-water eel of South America, sometimes twenty feet 
long, has the power of overcoming men, and even horses, 
by its tremendous shocks. Two species of Malapteru'rus 
( Silu'rus ) of the African rivers are also electric. Faraday 
observes that the Gymnotus may produce a shock equal to 
that of fifteen Leyden jars, containing in all 3500 square 
inches, charged to the highest degree. The force is ordi¬ 
nary static electricity, and readily affords a spark. The 
Torpedo and Gymnotus have electric organs intimately con¬ 
nected with the nervous system, consisting of a series of 
highly vascular cells or hollow prisms containing a watery 
fluid. Other electric fishes have a less definite apparatus for 
this function. It is not known that this remarkable power 
is of any service to these fishes, except in self-protection. 

Elec'tric Clocks are of several kinds, but are nearly 
all constructed on one of the two following princqiles : (I) 
electricity is the motive-power which propels the machinery 
of the clock ; or (2) power is obtained from weights or 
springs, and electricity is used for controlling or regulating 
the motion. 

In some electric clocks there is an electro-magnet, which 
attracts a soft iron keeper whenever a current passes through 
it. The keeper gives motion to the clock-hands by an ex¬ 
tremely simple arrangement of levers and wheels. The 
current is made and interrupted by the vibrations of a 
standard clock, which may serve to give time to any num¬ 
ber of secondary electric clocks, even if they are at a great 
distance from each other. 

Bain’s clock has a soft, hollow electro-magnet for a pen¬ 
dulum, swinging between the like poles of two permanent 
magnets, the current in the pendulum being broken and re¬ 
versed in every swing, so that it is forcibly repelled from 
each magnet. 

Electric clocks are capable of running a long time with¬ 
out attention, but when moved by electricity alone arc not 
very regular in their motion, owing to slight irregularities 
in the electric currents ; but when electricity is used as a 
regulating power, it is capable of rendering important ser¬ 
vices in making ordinary clocks do accurate work. For 
example, an astronomical clock of great precision is con¬ 
nected in the proper manner by telegraph wires with a great 
number of common clocks, in such a way that signals are 
sent at given intervals. Now, supposo that any one of the 
common clocks has gained or lost a small interval of time 
between two signals, the electric current is found in prac¬ 
tice to retard or accelerate the motion just enough to correct 
the work, and to impart to all the common clocks the precis¬ 
ion of the astronomical clock. In these cases the common 
clocks are often fitted with a Bain’s pendulum, but there are 
other successful modes of attaining the same result. 

Elec'tric Col'nirm, an instrument formed of nume¬ 
rous alternating disks of zinc-leaf, silver-leaf, and paper, was 
invented by Do Luc. It is generally called a “ dry battery ” 
or “dry voltaic pile.” The moisture of the air is an essen¬ 
tial element in the operation of the “dry pile;” for if the 
apparatus be placed in an artificially dried atmosphere, it 
ceases to Avork, while in ordinary air it will act for years, 
with a somewhat feeble current. 


lectric'ity. 1. 

The science of elec¬ 
tricity owes its 
name to an obser¬ 
vation attributed 
by Diogenes Laer¬ 
tius to Thales, one 
of the Seven Wise 
Men, who about 
the year 500 B. C. 
flourished, like his 
remote successor, 
Franklin, as a 
statesman and nat- 
question was, that 
when amber had been rubbed it acquired the property of 
attracting light bodies, and from the Gieek name of amber 
(rjKeKTpor) comes our term Electricity. 

As knowledge was extended, however, it was found that 
many effects, such as those produced by magnets and by 
chemical action upon certain metals, which had at first 
sight no relation to this property of amber, were never¬ 
theless due to the same force; and thus the title “elec¬ 
tricity” in its widest sense comes to include the science 
relating to all those actions depending upon the force first 
seen in the amber, and must be divided into Statical or 
frictional, Dynamic or galvanic, and Magnetic electricity. 

Of these we will first consider the one first named— 
Statical Electricity. 

2. The observation of Thales may be well regarded as 
one of the fundamental facts of the science, and as ex¬ 
tended and modified by subsequent observers may be thus 
described : 

If a light body A, such as a pith-ball, is attached to the 
p IO j end of a thread of shellac, a straw, or 

a other light rod, suspended in the manner 

shown in the accompanying figure (Fig. 
1), it will form a very sensitive means 
of recognizing the existence of forces of 
attraction or repulsion. If, then, a piece 
of amber, rosin, sulphur, glass, or the like 
is rubbed or beaten with a woollen cloth, 
» silk handkerchief, piece of fur, or any 
similar material, and brought near to the 
pith-ball A, it will be found that this 
moves towards it, giving evidence of attraction. 

3. A piece of metal held in the hand and similarly 
treated will fail to produce any such effect, but if sup¬ 
ported on a rod of glass, or cut off from contact with the 
body by any of the above-mentioned substances, it will act 
as well as the others; and in fact we shall find that if the 
proper precautions are taken, not amber alone, but all 
bodies, can exhibit this power of attraction after friction. 

We see, however, already, that this action is due to 
something which is carried off and lost by metals and the 
human body, but retained by glass, rosin, etc. We are 
therefore led at once to divide substances into electric 
“conductors,” or those which will transmit this influence 
from one place to another, and “non-conductors,” which 
refuse so to do. A wider experience, however, shows us 
that this is only a question of degree, the best conductor 
offering some obstacle or “resistance” to the transfer of 
electric force through it, and the worst conductor allowing 
some to pass; and that, moreover, every degree of trans¬ 
mitting power can be found in some substance or other— 
from silver, which is the best conductor, to dry air or other 
gas, which is perhaps the worst. 

4. Returning to our first experiment, if we allow the ball 
A, when attracted by the rubbed or “excited” amber or 
other like body, to touch it, we shall find that the condi¬ 
tions are now reversed, and that in place of being attracted 
by the “excited” substance, it is repelled. This at once 
seems to indicate that whatever caused the excitement of 
the amber and its attractive action is self-repellent in its 
nature, since a portion of it, communicated by contact to 
the pith-ball, and reacting with the remainder in the am¬ 
ber, has overcome the attraction before exhibited and sub¬ 
stituted a repulsion. If, again, while the pith-ball is still 
in this new (or, as we call it, “charged”) state, we bring 
near it the “rubber” (?. e. woollen cloth or other substance 
with which the excitement Avas produced), the ball Avill be 
very powerfully attracted. Care, of course, must be taken 
that the “excitement” in this as in the previous case is not 
lost by contact Avith the hand or other conductor. 

This last experiment teaches us that there is something 
developed in the “rubber” opposite in character to that 
found in the amber, since Avhere the latter repels, it attracts. 

Again, if avc take a rod of glass and a silk handkerchief, 
and rub them together, and then, Avhile the ball is still in 
the condition Avhich causes it to fly from the amber, ap¬ 
proach it with the excited glass, avc shall find that the 



Electricity. 

ural philosopher. The observation in 
































ELECTRICITY. 


1503 


glass attracts it as did the woollen cloth, while at the same 
time the silk handkerchief repels it as did the amber. 

We thus learn that the cause of the opposite excitements 
first noticed in the amber and cloth did not lie in the fact 
of one being the rubber and the other being rubbed, blit in 
the nature of the substances themselv r es. 

5. Similar experiments repeated with a great number of 
bodies will show us that this ability to secure one or other 
of these sorts of excitement is not of essence, but of degree ; 
so that if all bodies were arranged in a list according to 
this ability, any one when rubbed with a substance above 
it would acquire one kind, and with one below it the other 
kind of excitement. 

These kinds ot excitement are for distinction called posi¬ 
tive and negative, the kind produced in glass when it is 
rubbed with silk being positive, and that developed in 
amber when rubbed with wool, negative. These contrary 
terms are only employed to distinguish, and not to describe, 
the states, the negative being just as active, powerful, and 
efficacious for practical purposes as the positive. 

A few familiar bodies are arranged in accordance with 
this view in the following table: 


Most Positive .— 
Catskin, 
Diamond, 
Flannel, 

Ivory, 

Rock-crystal, 

Wool, 

Glass, 

Cotton, 

Linen cloth, 
White silk, 
The dry hand, 


Wood, 

Sealing-wax, 

Rosin, 

Amber, 

Sulphur, 

India-rubber, 

Gutta-percha, 

Prepared paper (i. e. parch¬ 
ment paper), 

Collodion, 

Gun-cotton .—Most Negative. 


(De la Rive, “Traite (VElectricite,” tome ii., p. 549.) 

6. To take an example from the foregoing table: Sup¬ 
pose a fragment of rock-crystal to be rubbed against some 
ivory; the crystal would acquire negative excitement, but 
if it were rubbed with wool it would be positive. Of course 
the most powerful effect would be obtained by selecting the 
substances at the extremities of the table, but the question 
of convenience from a mechanical point of view will here 
have great weight. 

Another table frequently quoted gives the following 
order of many substances not included in the foregoing: 


Positive. —Fur, 

Smooth glass, 
Woollen cloth, 
Feathers, 
Wood, 


Paper, 

Silk, 

Lac, 

Rough glass, 
Sulphur.— Negative. 


The difference between the positions of smooth and 
rough glass will indicate the cause of the great deteriora¬ 
tion which the plate of an electrical machine suffers when 
it gets scratched to any considerable extent. Of course, all 
substances in nature might be arranged in such a table, 
but these brief lists will answer as a scaffolding into which 
we may fit such other members as we may from time to 
time wish to locate. 

7. With the few simple facts which have been so far 
stated we can now proceed to an intelligible explanation of 
the electrical theories generally in use; which, however, are 
regarded rather as convenient means of associating and 
remembering the facts of the subject than as philosophical 
explanation of their ultimate cause. 

The theory which owes its origin to Franklin, and is 
also called the single-fluid theory; assumes that all matter 
in its normal condition contains an imponderable fluid 
which attracts matter generally, but is self-repellent. 
Friction of dissimilar substances causes this substance to 
accumulate in one at the expense of another. Thus, the 
surcharged body attracts unexcited bodies general^, and 
repels others like itself, while the bodies more or less 
emptied of electricity are likewise attracted by unexcited 
matter, by reason of the reduction of repellent force be¬ 
tween their fluid and that of the normal substances. The 
repulsion of negatively excited substances is due likewise 
to the superior attraction of surrounding matter generally, 
aided by certain actions called induction, to be presently 
explained. Conduction would on this theory be simply 
the flow of this fluid, and its tendency to pass from a 
positive to a negatively excited substance resemble the 
rush of air from a compressed reservoir into a vacuum. 

8. The theory of double fluid, due to Dufay, assumes 
the existence of two fluids, alike in certain properties, but 
opposite in what we regard as their electric actions. 
These, in a proportionate mixture, exist in all substances 
without affording- any indication of their presence. Fric¬ 
tion of unlike materials separates them, and each being 
self-repellent, but attractive of the other, all the phe¬ 


nomena of attraction and repulsion already mentioned arc 
equally well accounted for on this hypothesis. 

9. Other theories, such as a dynamical theory, which 
represents the positive and negative states as vibrations 
of an opposite character, have also been proposed, but 
these, while deficient in that fulness and precision which 
can entitle them to confidence, are far less effective than 
the old ones as mnemonic aids, and have therefore, we 
think, deservedly failed to replace the former in the lan¬ 
guage of science or in works of reference and general 
treatises on this subject. 

As regards the former (or fluid) theories, no facts now 
known to science are fatal to either of them; and though 
the general tendency of discovery in cognate subjects leads 
us to feel that the true theory is something else than either 
of these, we do not believe that this “ true” theory has been 
as yet developed. 

Minutely to discuss the merits of the two theories would 
be here out of place; suffice it to say that either will serve, 
and that the experiments regarded at one time as fatal to 
the first have been proved not to be so, and that it is rather 
gaining than losing ground at the present day. 

As, however, the double-fluid theory furnishes us with 
the simplest and most direct expression for the co-ordina¬ 
tion of facts, and is to be more generally encountered in 
works of reference, we shall adopt it, in the present exposi¬ 
tion as a matter of convenience. 

The Double-fluid Theory. —10. According, then, to this 
view, a non-excited body contains equal or equivalent 
quantities of the two opposite fluids, which we may well 
designate by the signs + and —. When two such bodies 
are excited by friction, some of the positive fluid goes out 
of one into the other, being replaced at the instant by an 
equal amount of negative fluid leaving the second. Ex¬ 
citement therefore does not imply a change in the total 
amount of the fluids in a body, but only in the proportion 
of the mixture, the interchange being invariably reciprocal, 
as above stated. Thus, A being a normal or unexcited 


A. 

H-1-1— + 

10 + 

11 - 


B. 

H—1-1-1—b 

_l—|—|-1—j—1_ 

_j—|-1-1—j- 

1G + 

5- 


C. 

-+ - + - 

4 + 

17- 


body, with about equal numbers of positive and negative 
units, B would be the same, positively charged, in which 6 
positive units had been substituted for 6 of the negative 
ones; while C would represent the same in an equal neg¬ 
ative state, having 6 negative units more than A. To in¬ 
troduce a single positive or negative unit without abstract¬ 
ing a corresponding one of the opposite kind in each case, 
is to be regarded as, in the nature of things, impossible. 
Every transfer is an interchange. 

11. Remembering the self-repellent character of each 
fluid, it will be easily understood that in charged bodies 
the particles of the fluid in excess, flying as far as possible 
from each other, will accumulate on the surface, and espe¬ 
cially on points and edges. 

If B and C were brought into contact, the excess of 
positive fluid in B would go to C, receiving in exchange 
the excess of negative from this last; and so both would be 
left in the condition of A. 

The amounts of the fluids which we can displace in 
bodies it must, however, be remembered, are very small as 
compared with the total quantities which they contain. 

12. Some bodies allow the electric fluids to pass freely 
from particle to particle, while others resist their transfer, 
and allow them to move from one to another only when a 
certain change or “polarization” (to be more full}’ con¬ 
sidered under “Induction”) has reached a high degree 
of intensity. 

Bodies of the first class are called conductors, and of the 
latter, non-conductors or insulators. This, however, is a 
distinction of degree, since no known body is either a- 
“perfect” conductor or insulator, while every degree of 
perfection in one property or tbe other may be found 
among existing substances. 

13. When the electric fluids, by reason of excessive ac¬ 
cumulation of single kinds at certain points, acquire power 
enough to force their way through a resisting material, 
their passage through is always accompanied by an evolu¬ 
tion of light and heat. This is not the result ot the ming¬ 
ling of the opposite fluids, but of the resistance offered to 
their mutual approach. 

Sources of Electricity. —14. Friction, as we have 
already seen, is the most evident source of electric action; 
and in order that it should be developed by this means 
with the greatest facility certain electrical machines have 
been from time to time devised. We w-ill select typical 
forms of the most important classes. 





















1504 


ELECTRICITY. 


The Plate Electrical Machine. —This consists, in the first 
place, of a glass disk A mounted on an axle and turned by 
a handle. Against this is caused to press a “rubber” (be¬ 
low and to the right of B), which is made of two brass 
plates covered on their faces with leather sprinkled with 
“mosaic gold” (bisulphide of tin), and held against the 
opposite sides of the plate by a stiff brass spring sustained 
by the column under B. At F are two brass rods, armed 
on their inner sides with points, which are turned towards 
the surfaces of the plate rotating between them. These are 
supported from the end of a metal cylinder G, resting on a 
glass column, and called the prime conductor. 


Fig. 2. 




The operation of the apparatus is as follows: The glass 
plate, by friction, takes positive fluid from the rubbers, 
giving them negative in exchange, and passes in the direc¬ 
tion BEF inside of a silk bag or apron. When the plate 
comes between the points attached to F, it gives to them 
positive fluid, receiving negative at the same time until it 
has been restored nearly to a normal state. The positive 
fluid thus brought to F passes into G, and is diffused gen¬ 
erally over it. if B were allowed to remain insulated, of 
course the amount of positive electricity which it could give 
up would be soon exhausted ; we therefore connect it by a 
chain or wire with the ground, which is best done by pass¬ 
ing the chain over a gas or water pipe. If we desire to col¬ 
lect negative electricity, we connect the “prime conductor” 
G with the ground, in place of B, and then get our supply 
of negative fluid from B. 

A cylinder of glass is sometimes used in place of the 
disk, but the principle and mode of action are identical in 
the two cases. 

The H\jdro-Electrical Machine .—15. An accidental ob¬ 
servation with a leaking boiler, followed up by Armstrong, 
led to the construction of this curious machine. (Phil. 
Mag., 1840, vol. xvii., pp. 370-452, etc.) It was after¬ 
wards thoroughly investigated by Faraday (Phil. Trans., 
1843, p. 17), who showed the true source of the very 
powerful effects which it develops. It 
consists essentially of a steam-boiler 
placed on insulated supports, and pro¬ 
vided with a series of outlets or jets, by 
which wet steam (i. e. steam carrying 
particles of water) may be made to es¬ 
cape with much friction. Fig. 3 shows 
the structure of the individual jets. The 
particles of water carried by the steam 
play the part of the glass plate in the 
ordinary machine, while the metal sur¬ 
faces of the jets act as the rubber. The 
jets and boiler thus become negatively 
charged, while the water-spray is positive, and will com¬ 
municate that electricity to a set of points presented to it. 

16. The electrophorus and its development, the Holtz 
machine, will be explained under “ Induction,” as this action 
is essentially involved in their operation; and the induc¬ 
tion coil will be fully described after the points in galvan¬ 
ism and electro-magnetism necessary for its explanation 
“have been handled. 

17. Not only does actual friction tend to develop elec¬ 
tricity, but anything resembling friction, such as the split¬ 
ting or fracturing of crystals, or the act of solidifying in 
certain instances. So likewise does a change of tempera¬ 
ture in some crystals, such as the tourmaline. Chemical 
action, as we shall presently see in connection with gal¬ 
vanism or dynamic electricity, is another fertile source. 

18. All are familiar with the existence of electrical dis¬ 
turbances in the atmosphere, but their cause is rather a 
subject of conjecture than knowledge. (Be la Rive, “ Elec- 
tricite,” Walker’s translation, vol. iii., p. 116.) 

By attaching to an arrow a fine wire whose farther end 
terminated in an instrument for measuring electricity, 
Becquerel showed that positive tension was manifested 
when the arroiv was shot up, but none appeared when it 
was shot in a horizontal direction. 


Fig. 3. 





The connection which, in the opinion of many, has been 
shown between the auroral displays and solar disturbances 
gives a cosmical interest to this special portion of our 
atmospheric excitement. 

Animal electricity is noticed under “Galvanism,” far¬ 
ther on. 

Apparatus for the Recognition and Measurement 
of Electricity.—19. The gold-leaf electroscope is one of 
the simplest of these, and consists of two strips of gold- 
leaf hung side by side from an insulated metallic support 
within a cylinder of glass, on whose inner surface are 
attached strips of tin-foil. When an excited body is 
brought in contact with the metallic support, the fluid, 
entering both strips of gold-leaf alike, causes them to re¬ 
cede from each other; and lest they should be in danger of 
touching and clinging to the glass, the strips of tin-foil are 
placed there to discharge them and make them fall back. 

20. In the modification knowm as Bohnenberger’s elec¬ 
troscope a single strip hangs between two plates which 
form the terminals of a “dry pile” (see farther on, under 
“Galvanic Batteries”), and are therefore feebly and con¬ 
stantly charged in opposite senses. If, then, the leaf re¬ 
ceives any charge, it will strongly incline towards the 
plate of the opposite kind. 

21. The electrometer of Coulomb consists of a light rod 
carrying pitli-balls at each end, or one ball with a counter¬ 
weight suspended by a silk thread within a glass case. A 
rod with brass balls at each end enters through the side 
of the case. This being charged, attracts one of the pith- 
balls, or after contact repels it, the force being measured 
by the amount of twist necessary to give the thread in 
order to keep the ball at a certain distance. This instru¬ 
ment was much improved by Snow Harris. 

22. Peltier's electrometer, shown in the figure, consists 

Fig. 4. of a convenient support, etc. 

carrying a light bent rod of 
aluminum turning on a pivot, 
and having a small compass- 
needle attached to it. The 
needle gives it a delicate di¬ 
rective force, and a charge 
communicated to the central 
part, which is insulated, will 
cause the aluminum rod to be 
repelled from the heavier brass 
one. The amount of dis¬ 
placement is read directly on 
the graduated circle. 

23. Thomson’s quadrant 
electrometer consists of four 
metallic segments supported in 
the same plane, but not in con¬ 
tact. They are connected al¬ 
ternately with the two pro¬ 
jecting rods and balls at the 
right. Over these hangs a 
piece of aluminum by a fine wire from the inside of a 
Leyden jar feebly charged. If, now, one pair of sectors 
are charged, while the others are connected with the earth, 
the strip will move towards them if the charge is opposite 
Fig. 5. to that of the 

jar; or away 
from them 
and over the 
others if the 
charge is the 
same in kind 
as that of the 
jar. To give 
directive force 
a small mag¬ 
net is at¬ 
tached willi 
the aluminum 
strip, and for 
measurement 
a minute mir¬ 
ror (a) is also 
fastened 
above it, and 
a ray of 
light reflect¬ 
ed by this 
upon a scale. 

A much 
more delicate 
and elaborate 
instrument is 
described by 

bir \\. Thomson in the “ British Association Reports ” for 
1867, part i., p. 4S9. 





































































































































































— — _ —— 1 

ELECTKICITY. 


1505 


Induction. —24. Next in importance to the simple yet 
fundamental facts of attraction and repulsion between 
electrically excited bodies, or, in the words of theory, 
between bodies containing excess of the positive or neg¬ 
ative fluids, we come to the action of induction. 

Induction is the general term used to designate the 
mutual or reciprocal action of the electric fluids in adjacent 
but electrically separated bodies, and is sometimes described 
as “action at a distance” or “excitement by influence.” 
All the effects produced by this means are called inductive. 
This force is not like that of gravity, unaffected by the 
interposed material, but acts with different amounts of 
energy through different substances. This difference in the 
power of transmitting this influence is designated as 
specific inductive capacity; and by Faraday and Harris 
the following values have been assigned to different sub¬ 
stances : 


Air. 


Spermaceti. 


Resin. 


Pitch. 



Wax. 1.86 

Glass. 1.90 

Shellac. 2.00 

Sulphur...... 2.24 


The higher the inductive capacity of a substance, the 
greater will be the action which it transmits. 

25. Passing now to a study of the action of induction, 
we will at once take an illustration, as an example will be 
worth more than any amount of general definition in such 
a case. Let A and B be metal spheres suspended by silk 
threads or sustained by 
any other non-conduct¬ 
ing supports, and let A 
be positively charged 
(t. e. have some of its 
normal negative elec¬ 
tricity replaced by posi¬ 
tive). Let B, however, 
be in its normal state, or 
charged with equal quan¬ 
tities of both fluids. We know that the positive fluid in A 
will strongly attract the negative in B, and as strongly repel 
its positive; hence, we may well figure B as having all its 
negative on its left, and all its positive on its right side. 
This representation must not carry us too far, however, and 
make us think that these exact locations have any special 
meaning; rather we should regard the positive fluid as put 
in the condition of trying to escape, and the negative as so 
contracted or drawn together as to allow room for more. 
The mode of representation used is, however, convenient 
for expression. 

Let us now suppose that for a moment B is put in con¬ 
nection with the earth, a practically infinite reservoir of both 
electricities. Evidently, the repelled positive fluid will es¬ 
cape, and its place will be supplied by negative, and the body 
B will be now negatively charged. But will its condition 
be exactly that of a single body with a negative charge? 
The negative fluid added to B was brought there solely by 
the mastering attraction in A, and if it had had any power 
of repulsion under that influence, it could not have been 
forced against its nature to _ enter with the negative fluid 
already in B. It is simply because it has been seized, cap¬ 
tured, and bound by the positive A that it is now in B, and 
therefore cannot, while under this influence, exert its 
natural powers like a free agent. If, however, A is re¬ 
moved, then B will become in all respects a body negatively 
charged, and capable of giving out its excess of negative 
fluid, and influencing other bodies in its turn. The nega¬ 
tive fluid in it, however, while A is present, is very appro¬ 
priately called “bound electricity.” 

26. The subject of induction owes its thorough exposi¬ 
tion to Faraday, according to whose view it is an action 
propagated or conveyed through the substance separating 
the bodies under consideration by successive polarization 
or forcible rearrangement of its particles. Thus, in the 
case just given the attractive and repellent influence of the 
fluid in A is transmitted to B by a successive change in the 
particles of the intervening air. This change might be 
considered as identical in character with that already 
described in B before it was connected with the ground, 
though it is usual to associate it with a change of position 
or polarization in the material particles. Thus, if the little 
circles in Figs. 7 and 8 represent the atoms of air, and 


Fig. 6. 



Fig. 7. 



their black halves the negative fluid, we may imagine them 
when between two normal bodies, as in Fig. 7, to have 
these negative sides turned in all directions. If, however, 
95 


as in Fig. 8, A is positively charged, then in the adjacent 
particles the negative sides or negative fluids will be turned 
towards A by reason of their attraction for the positive 
fluid in it, and, as a consequence, their positive sides will 

Fig. 8. 


B 



face the other way. The positive fluid in these will then 
exert a similar influence upon the next row of particles, 
and so on. This change, it should be remembered, may be 
regarded either as a rotation of the particles, with fixed 
positions for their fluids, which is the stricter idea of 
polarity, or as a shifting of the fluids in the particles, ex¬ 
actly as in the case of B in Fig. 6. 

27. When this action has reached a certain intensity, a 
transfer of the fluids occurs bodily from one particle to 
another, and this is conduction; the difference between 
good and bad conductors consisting simply in this, that in 
the former but little inductive excitement is needed to bring 
about the transfer, while in the latter this must reach a 
high degree of intensity, and a large amount of the oppo¬ 
site fluids must be brought to the adjacent surfaces of the 
particles before this transfer or discharge can take place. 

28. Induction plays an important part in almost every 
action connected with electricity, and, simple as it is in 
principle, develops some complex results. We will briefly 
consider a few of the more important cases, beginning with 
the simplest. 

Induction concerned in Simple Illustrations of Attraction 
and Repxdsion. —When an excited body is brought near to 
a neutral one, the unlike fluid of the latter is drawn near, 
and its like fluid repelled, and even expelled if any outlet 
is available; and thus the effectiveness of the attractive 
force is increased. Moreover, the “induced” excitement 
of the second body will react upon the “mixed” fluids 
which still exist, as we have before mentioned, in even the 
most powerfully charged object, and by separating them in 
the same manner as its own were before separated will yet 
further intensify the action. 

29. It is in consequence of this reaction or reinforcement 
of action that the attractive forces in excited bodies do not 
always vary, like those of gravitation, light, heat, etc-, in¬ 
versely as the squares of the distances, but according to 
laws which depend upon the conditions by which this rein¬ 
forcement or the reverse action is controlled. Thus, as has 
been shown by Snow Harris, if a small surface which is 
maintained at a constant degree of charge is caused to act 
with another which is insulated, so that its repelled elec¬ 
tricity cannot escape, the force of attraction will vary in¬ 
versely as the square roots of the distances. (Phil. Trans., 
1834, part ii., p. 213.) If, however, the charge of the first 
surface could be kept constant, while the other was allowed 
to give up its repelled fluid and take the opposite, but not to 
cause a rise of charge by reaction in the first, the attrac¬ 
tion would vary inversely with the squares of the distances. 
Again, if the reaction, as well as action, were allowed full 
play, the force would vary inversely with the cube of the 
distance. These last points have been developed, and Har¬ 
ris’s results in the same connection corrected, by Sir Wil¬ 
liam Thomson. (See “Phil. Mag.,” 1854, vol. viii., p. 42.) 

The same laws hold good with reference to repulsion, 
although much greater difficulties are experienced in mak¬ 
ing the measurements. If an excited ball w T ere placed in 
the centre of a hollow sphere, its inductive force would be 
equally distributed on all sides, and would decrease out¬ 
ward as the square of the distance increased; but if the 
ball be made to approach one side of the globe, almost the 
entire inductive force will be concentrated on that point, to 
the neglect of the other and more distant parts. 

As we have already noticed, a large part of the apparent 
repulsion exhibited by excited bodies is due to the attrac¬ 
tion of surrounding objects excited bv induction. This is 
well shown by the following familiar experiment: To an 
ordinary electrical machine is attached a doll's head cov¬ 
ered with long hair; on working the machine the individ¬ 
ual hairs stand out in every direction by their mutual 
repulsion. If now the hand or any other conductor con¬ 
nected with the ground is brought near, all the hairs in its 
vioinity turn towards it, and even crowd upon each other 
to approach it. The same actions of induction, and conse¬ 
quent exhibitions of attraction and repulsion, are illus¬ 
trated in the numerous electrical toys with which most col¬ 
lections of apparatus arc profusely furnished, such as the 
chime of bells, the sportsman and birds, dancing figures, 
dancing pith-balls, etc. 

The Electrophorus. —30. One of the most important in- 






















150G 


ELECTRICITY. 


Fig. 9. 



struments in which induction is largely involved is the elec- 
trophorus. This consists of a 
metal dish filled with rosin or 
shellac, or similar non-conductor 
easily excited, and also of a me¬ 
tallic plate smaller than the dish 
and provided with an insulating 
handle. To use this apparatus, 
we first beat the shellac with a 
cat skin or other appropriate rub¬ 
ber, and then, setting the plate 
on the surface of the shellac, 
touch it with the finger. After 
this, if the plate is lifted up by its insulated handle, it will 
be found to have acquired a positive charge. 

31. The theory of its operation is as follows:. The fric¬ 
tion with the fur excites in the shellac negative electricity. 
When the metal plate rests upon it the repulsion existing 
between the negative electricities causes that of the brass 
plate to be repelled, and to escape in part when the plate 
is touched with the finger, its place being supplied by an 
equal amount of positive entering from the hand at the same 
time. This, however, as long as the plate is near the shellac, 
is “bound,” exactly as was the case in the first instance of 
induction, which we illustrated with the bodies A and B in 
Fig. 6. But when we raise the plate by its handle, the re¬ 
straining force is escaped as the plate recedes from the shel¬ 
lac, and the lately “bound” fluid exhibits its properties 
as free positive electricity. 

As often as we please we can discharge the movable 
plate, and by merely placing it on the shellac and touching 
it can restore its charge; for, taking nothing from the 
shellac, it in no way exhausts its charge. The plate is of 
course attracted by the shellac, and the force expended in 
pulling it away is the full mechanical equivalent of the 
electric action developed. 

32. A pretty application of the electrophorus is found in 
the many effective and artistic contrivances for lighting 
gas by its means which have been devised by Mr. Robert 
E. Cornelius of Philadelphia; and a development of the 
same principle, which is one of the most striking discov¬ 
eries in connection with this subject, is exhibited in the 
Holtz machine, which may be well defined as a continuous 
electrophorus. 

A convenient form of this machine is that shown in the 
figure, which represents a modification devised and con- 

Fig. 10. 



structed by Mr. E. S. Ritchie of Boston. In this a largo 
vertical plate of glass serves as the support for the various 
parts of the machine. From its edges are sustained four 
glass sectors, and between these and the plate is a glass 
disk capable of rapid rotation, and driven by the pulley 
seen at the left. Between this disk and the large plate, 
moreover, are four combs, corresponding to the sectors, and 
connected with the discharging posts by wires piercing the 
plate. On one edge of each sector is a narrow strip of var¬ 
nished paper with a projecting point. 

33. The action of the machine is briefly as follows: We 
set the disk in rotation, and at the same time hold an ex¬ 
cited body, such as the plate of an electrophorus, a piece 
of charged vulcanite, or the like, against one of the paper 
slips. This gives the paper a charge—let us say, of posi¬ 
tive electricity; this, acting upon the disk, repels the posi¬ 


tive electricity from the corresponding part of its farther 
surface into the metallic combs which are there located. If 
the disk stood still, this would happen, once for all, at a 
single point; but as the disk rotates, every point is in suc¬ 
cession brought under the same influence. The portions 
of the plate passing away from this place as it rotates are 
therefore negatively charged, having lost some of their 
positive, and therefore having acquired a corresponding 
amount of negative fluid. As soon, however, as they pass 
the farther edge of the first sector, or that one on whoso 
edge was the paper we began with, they experience the fol¬ 
lowing action with the point attached to the paper of the 
next sector: Being negatively charged, they tend to repel 
negative electricity, and thus this negative charge, being 
on the farther side of the disk, repels some negative from 
the nearer side, and drives it into the paper strip, so mak¬ 
ing it negative. Thus, while the first paper was positive, the 
second will be negative; hence it will tend to drive out of 
the rotating disk into the second comb exactly that negative 
fluid which had been drawn from the first comb; and so, 
the first comb being made positive, this will be negative. 

Exactly the same action will be observed in the case of 
the other sectors, which will be successively positive and 
negative, and each will feed the paper strip of its suc¬ 
cessor, so that the action being once started will continue 
indefinitely without further assistance. Here, however, as 
in the case of the electrophorus, the reacting bodies attract, 
and the force required to maintain the motion in opposition 
to this is an exact expression of the mechanical equivalent 
of the electric force developed; not all of which, however, 
is necessarily available. 

There are many curious reactions involved in this ma¬ 
chine, and many improvements or modifications in its 
structure, which we cannot even enumerate here, but will 
refer the reader to the following papers, in which he will 
find the subjects extensively discussed: “ Cosmos,” 1865, 
p. 689; “Journal of the Franklin Institute,” vol. lii., pp. 
281-420; vol. liii., pp. 36, 119, 121, 253, 255, 344; vol. Ivii., 
p. 335 ; vol. lviii., p. 32 ; vol. lx., pp. 58,117. Also to Pog- 
gendorff’s “Annalen,” vol. exxv., p. 469; vol. exxvi., p. 
157 ; vol. cxxvii., pp. 177 and 320 ; vol. exxx., pp. 287 and 
518; vol. cxxxi., pp. 215 and 495; vol. cxxxv., p. 120; 
vol. exh, pp. 168, 276, and 560; vol. cxliii., p. 285; vol. 
cxlv., pp. 1 and 333; vol. cxlvi., p. 288. Also Ganot, 
“ Traite de Physique,” edition of 1870. 

34. The next application of induction is found in the 
Leyden jar. This consists of a glass jar coated inside and 
out to within a few inches of its edge with tin-foil, and 
having a wooden cover, through which passes a 
metallic rod terminating above in a knob or ball, 
and below being in connection with the inner lining 
of tin-foil. Suppose this jar to stand on a table 
and within a short distance of an electric machine, 
so that a spark might go to its knob. If a spark 
of positive electricity enter, it will diffuse itself over 
the inner surface of the glass by aid of the conduct¬ 
ing power of the tin-foil, and by induction it will 
draw into the outer coating and surface of the glass 
a nearly equal quantity of negative fluid. The mu- 


Fig. 11. 



tual attraction of these, acting through the glass, will cause 
each to bind the other to a great extent, and thus the orig¬ 
inal positive charge, in place of having a tendency to escape 
to surrounding objects, is largely confined by this attractive 
action to the inner surface of the glass. 

In acting through the glass a certain resistance is en¬ 
countered, and thus the charge drawn to the outside must 
be always less than that drawing it; and again, this ex¬ 
terior charge will lose some of its power in transmission. 
If, for example, this difference amounts in all to one-tenth, 
then evidently nine-tenths of the interior charge will be 
bound, and only one-tenth will be free. The tendency to 
escape and resistance to the entrance of additional fluid 
depends only on the free electricity; therefore in such a 
case ten times as much electricity can be stored in a given 
space as if no such action were made available. 

The form of ajar is of course in no way essential for the 
principle here stated, and in fact plates of non-conductors 
coated with tin-foil are largely used when we want to store 
electricity in a small space for any purpose. 

35. The same principle of induction is similarly involved 
in the case of that attachment to an electroscope known as 
a condenser. In this case the upper cap of the instrument 
carries a varnished metallic plate, on which can be placed 
another plate of equal size having a glass handle. The 
plates being superposed, if a feeble source of electricity is 
connected with the lower one, and the upper one is con¬ 
nected with the ground by being touched with the finger, a 
charge of “bound” electricity will accumulate, just as in 
the case of the Leyden jar above described. On removing 
the upper plate this charge will be set free, and will produce 
its effect upon the indicating parts of the instrument. 
























































































































































ELECTRICITY. 


1507 


Sir William Thomson has devised a number of beautiful 
applications of induction as a means of developing elec¬ 
trical charge, such as a series of drops of water falling 
within a cylinder, a flame similarly placed, copper filings 
running from one vessel to another, and various more com¬ 
plex instruments. (See “ Proc. Roy. Soc.,” June 20, 1867; 
“Phil. Mag./’Jan., 1868.) 

Transfer of Electricity.— 36. There are three meth¬ 
ods by which electricity may pass from place to place— 
namely, Conduction, Convection, and Discharge. 

Conduction has already been discussed to some extent 
(see §$ 3 and 27); and in addition we may say that it might 
be defined as the passage of electricity between particles 
sensibly in contact. 

When the conducting substance is of such a nature and 
amount as to carry the electric force without much resist¬ 
ance, no visible effect is produced; but if this is not the 
case, striking phenomena of heat and light may be ex¬ 
hibited. Thus, if the united charge of several Leyden jars 
is caused to traverse a strip of gold-leaf enclosed between 
slips of glass, the gold will be fused into the glass, causing 
a purple stain, and a flash of light will at the same moment 
be seen. Fine wires similarly treated may be fused, and 
the effects of lightning on bell-wires and other small con¬ 
ductors illustrate the same thing. 

Different substances possess this property of conduction 
' in the most various degree, but this action will be moro 
fully discussed under “ Galvanism,” or dynamical elec¬ 
tricity, where the means for its accurate measurement will 
be described. 

37. The velocity with -which an intense charge of elec¬ 
tricity travels in a good conductor under certain conditions 
was shown by Wheatstone (Phil. Trans., 1834, p. 689) to 
be 288,000 miles in a second. His method, which was a 
very beautiful one and most fruitful in applications, con¬ 
sisted in viewing in a rapidly rotating mirror the images 
of three sparks taken at the ends and in the centre of a 
long line. The displacement of any image as compared 
with the others gave a means of finding the time of its 
occurrence when the velocity of the mirror was known. 
It was shown by Faraday that the velocity of conduction 
varied with the intensity of the charge and with tho nature 
of the conductor. 

38. Convection is the transfer of electricity from one 
body to another by moving particles of an interposed 
fluid. Thus, if a charged conductor stands exposed in 
the air, particles of that fluid touch it, are charged, are 
repelled, and travel off to distant objects, to which they 
give up their charge, and then are ready to return for 
more. This action can be well illustrated by holding a 
candle near a point projecting from an electrical machine. 
The flame will be almost blown out by the current of 
charged particles flying away. 

39. Discharge, which may be of various kinds, consists 
in general of the simultaneous transfer of the electricity 
developed by induction along a line of resisting particles 
between two conductors, and is always accompanied by 
some development of light and heat. The passage of the 
fluids may be variously resisted, and thus the character of 
the discharge be modified to any extent; but we may con¬ 
veniently divide discharges into two kinds — the flash, 
spark, or disruptive discharge, and the flame, or diffused 
discharge. 

40. The spark discharge is illustrated in its simpler form 
by the flash which passes from the prime conductor of an 
electrical machine to tho hand or any other conductor 
brought suddenly near to it. It then appears, through 
persistence of vision, as a blue, irregular line. When a 
greater amount of electricity is accumulated, as in the 
Leyden jar, tho spark or flash looks whiter. By modifica¬ 
tions of Wheatstone’s revolving mirror and other methods 
its character, duration, and composition have been studied 
by Fedderscn (Pogg. Ann., vol. ciii., p. 69) and Prof. O. N. 
Rood. The last-named physicist, who has carried out his 
researches in a most complete manner, has proved that the 
discharge of a jar charged by an induction coil consists of 
a series”of acts whose total duration varies with the area 
of coated surface, the distance of the electrodes, etc., but 
that the first and brightest portion does not last, with ajar 
having a surface of 114.4 square inches, more than the 175- 
billionth of a second. Prof. Rood has also proved that 
with ajar having a surface of 11 square inches, the dura¬ 
tion was only 40-billionths of a second. The successive dis¬ 
charges or other steps involved in this act have been made 
the subject of extended investigations by Prof. Rood, pub¬ 
lished with the above in the “Amer. Jour, of Science ” for 
1872, vol. iv., pp. 249 and 371; 1869, vol. xlviii., p. 153; 
also 1871, vol. ii., p. 160, and 1872, vol. iv., p. 249. 

41. The spark is in all cases found to carry away with it 
minute particles of the bodies between which it leaps, which 
are intensely heated by the action; and it has thus become 


a very useful means for the spectroscopic study of certain 
substances. (See Huggins, “ Phil. Trans.,” 1864, part ii., 
p. 139.) By taking the spark between a platinum wire 
and the surface of a solution, metallic elements present in 
the solution may in many cases be recognized by the aid 
of the spectroscope. 

With powerful sources of electricity, such as the Holtz 
machine or the induction coil, which will be subsequently 
described, many beautiful illustrations of spark discharge 
may be exhibited. Thus, if the terminals of a large coil 
are brought near the extremities of a long sheet of metallic 
paper, such as is often used for enveloping tea and cofl'ee, 
and whose surface has been broken by rumpling, at each 
discharge brilliant flashes of light will stream across in 
lightning-like paths. Again, narrow strips of tin-foil hav¬ 
ing been attached in a convoluted but continuous line to a 
plate of glass, a knife is drawn across them at points cor¬ 
responding to the outlines of some design, such as a bird 
or flower. When this is made the line of a series of dis¬ 
charges, the design appears pricked out in stars of light. 

42. Besides the influence on the duration of the spark 
exerted by the size of the charged surface, as shown by 
Rood, an effect is produced by the nature of the transmit¬ 
ting material. Thus, the spark from a Leyden jar carried 
directly to points immersed in loose gunpowder will scatter 
the powder without igniting it; but if part of the circuit 
consists of a wet string or like imperfect conductor, tho 
spark will pass more slowly, and will ignite tho powder. 

43. The most magnificent display of the disruptive dis¬ 
charge is, however, furnished in the lightning. Here 
flashes occur as much as three miles in length. The failuro 
of some attempts to measure their duration has occasioned 
a general impression that they are exceedingly brief. 
Faraday, however, in 1857 noticed that some flashes seemed 
to him fully as long in duration as one second, and Prof. 
O. N. Rood, with a very efficient form of apparatus, has 
extensively investigated the subject, with the following 
result: He finds that lightning-flashes generally consist 
of several acts, varying individually in duration from less 
than one one-thousandth of a second to more than one- 
twentieth of a second’; even these extreme varieties being 
found at times in a single flash, whose total duration may 
be fully one second.* The cause of this great duration is 
probably to be found in the extent and character of tho 
electric distribution in the cloud. 

The brush and glow discharges are simply aggregations 
of numerous and very minute sparks. The glow sometimes 
seen on the spars of vessels, and called Saint Elmo’s fire, 
is of this character.f 

44. While air at its normal density and temperaturo 
offers so great a resistance to the passage of electricitjq it 
is found that when highly rarefied its power of transmis¬ 
sion is greatly increased, and that under these conditions 

the discharge passes in a diffused and 
flame-like form. To exhibit the cha¬ 
racteristics of this discharge in va¬ 
rious gases and at various degrees of 
rarefaction, we employ glass vessels, 
either of an egg shape or globular 
form, provided with metallic caps se¬ 
curely cemented to their ends, and 
sliding rods, stopcocks, etc. These 
may be exhausted with the air-pump, 
and the flashes of a coil being passed 
through, the appearances of the dis¬ 
charge may be studied. Under these 
conditions we find that the color of 
the discharge varies in different parts, 
being usually blue near the negative 
pole, and pinkish near the positive, 
and variously tinted, moreover, ac¬ 
cording to the degree of the rarefac¬ 
tion and the nature of the gas. Thus, 
under certain states of rarefaction, 
nitrogen gas gives a light of a pink- 
purple, carbonic acid of a green, hy¬ 
drogen of a violet, and oxygen of a 
peach-blossom tint. 

45. Moreover, at a certain degree 
of exhaustion the discharge is seen 
i to be crossed by dark layers or strata, 
as shown in Fig. 12. These have 
been elaborately studied by De la 
Rive, who considers them to be due 
to variations in density produced in 
the rarefied gas by the electric force 
prior to the actual passage of tho 
discharge. (Ann. de Chem. et de Pliys., Aug., 1866, vol. viii., 

* “ American Journal of Science,” 1873, vol. v., P- 163. 

f“ Spectrum of Glow,” “Am. Jour, of Science ” 186 7, vol. xlin., 

p. 394. ' 





























1508 ELECTRICITY. 


p. 437.) Plucker found that these strata, and also the 
streams and glows of the discharge, obeyed magnetic influ¬ 
ences in a remarkable way. (Phil. Mag., 1858, p. 119.) 
These discharges were also studied by Gassiot, and pro¬ 
duced by a galvanic battery, as well as by other forms of 
electrical generators. (Pror. Hoy. Soc., 1859, p. 36.) 

46. Geissler, a very skilful glassblower in Bonn, was 
employed by Plucker 
to make some perma¬ 
nently exhausted tubes 
for such experiments, 
and, enlarging on the 
idea, has developed one 
of the most beautiful 
illustrations in the 
whole range of the 
subject. These instru¬ 
ments, called “Geissler 
tubes,” are of an infi¬ 
nite variety in pattern, 
containing different 
gases variously rare¬ 
fied, thereby giving 
every imaginable tint. 

They are also often 
made of fluorescent 
glass, or are surrounded 
with glass jackets (as in 
Fig. 13), which arc 
filled with fluorescent 
solutions, thereby yet 
further increasing the 
brightness and beauty 
of their appearance. 

Dynamic Electric¬ 
ity, or Galvanism.— 

47. To the accidental 
observation that a frog’s leg made a convulsive movement 
when brought in contact with two dissimilar metals, this 
subject owes its introduction into the world of science, and 
from Galvani, professor of physics at Padua, by whom the 
observation was made and followed up, it has derived its 
name. Without following the history of the steps by which 
the true nature of the action observed by Galvani, and soon 
afterwards much further developed by Volta, has been elu¬ 
cidated, we will pass at once to a consideration of this as a 
condition of those electric fluids which we have already 
assumed as the cause of electric phenomena in general. 

48. If a plate of zinc, or other metal having a strong 
affinity for oxygen, is immersed in some such liquid as 
water, which contains oxygen and is capable of being 
decomposed, the metal will, by reason of its superior chem¬ 
ical attraction, take a certain portion of oxygen to itself, 
so liberating a corresponding amount of hydrogen. In 
this act of separation, however, not only are the material 
particles of the oxygen and hydrogen drawn asunder, but 
the electric fluids also are divided, the negative going with 
the oxygen to the zinc, and the positive with the hydrogen 
being repelled. 

49. We may make a material illustration of this by com¬ 
paring the water to a mixed mass of spun glass and silk 
fibres. If the silk could be pulled out at one side and the 
glass threads at the other, we should evidently have the 
silk powerfully excited negatively by the friction involved 
in this act of separation, and the glass as highly charged 
with positive fluid. Returning to our actual case of the 
water, the force which was able to separate the electricities 
would evidently be able to keep them apart, but yet there 
would be a strong tendency towards a return and-recom¬ 
bination, and this would render it more and more difficult 
for the zinc to decompose successive portions of the water, 
since it would be obliged to force the hydrogen and positive 
fluid into a surrounding region, getting more and more 
highly charged with this same fluid. A point would there¬ 
fore soon be reached where the power of the zinc to decom¬ 
pose more water would be annulled by the tendency of the 
positively charged and liberated hydrogen to return into 
combination. 

Under these conditions, suppose that some good con¬ 
ductor which is entirely without chemical action on the 
solution is introduced in some other part of the vessel, and 
connected by a wire with the zinc. It will at once share 
with the zinc its negative charge, and so become as attrac¬ 
tive to the hydrogen and positive fluid as the zinc, but will 
be without any of that chemical force which acted as a re¬ 
pellent influence in the case of the zinc and hydrogen. 
The freed hydrogen will therefore run to this conducting 
plate with its negative fluid, discharge itself, and relieve 
the tension in the liquid, so that the action of the zinc upon 
the water may go on freely again. The power of separat¬ 
ing the electricities of the water possessed by the zinc or 


other active metal constitutes what is called the “electro¬ 
motive force” of the system. This evidently is due to the 
difference between the attractive energies of the zinc and 
the hydrogen of the water for the oxygen ; they pull against 
each other, and the resulting available force is simply their 
difference. To this we can even give a numerical expression 
in any case; thus, the total mechanical equivalent of zinc 
being 42.575 units per atom, and that of hydrogen being 
33.808, the available energy, or “electro-motive force,” 
would be 8.767, or, in other words, about one-fifth of .the 
total amount residing in the metal consumed. The electro¬ 
motive force would of course vary with the nature of the 
liquid and active element used, depending upon the relation 
of their attractive forces. 

50. The above considerations will show us at the outset 
what is the relation between the conditions of the present 
subject and of that before discussed. We have here the 
fluids separated by a relatively feeble power of dissociation, 
but in quantities which will be very great if the resistance 
opposed to their reunion is slight. To give a physical 
illustration, we may regard this action of the metal on the 
liquid with reference to either of the electric fluids as a 
power of raising its level. Thus, suppose that a sieve 
placed vertically in a trough of water had the power of 
pushing the water towards one end, and so raising the level 
a very little on one side. When the water had reached the 
full height at which the power of the sieve would maintain 

it, all further action would cease; but if we 
now made a communication by which the 
water from the higher side could run around 
to the lower, then the sieve would continue 
to keep up the head, and a constant current 
would result. Again, if several sieves were 
placed in series, then each in turn starting 
with the water which had been raised by its predecessor, 
and raising it higher, the level at the end of the tank would 
be as much higher as the sieves were more numerous. 

This is not, of course, intended to be a statement of fact 
about sieves and water, but to be a purely imaginary illus¬ 
tration, which may aid us in remembering the general fact 
that the nature of the action of the elements in a galvanic 
couple on the electric fluids is to accumulate, each one 
slightly on opposite sides; in consequence of which they 
act in all respects as would material liquids in whose level 
a similar slight change had been effected. It will, in fact, 
be found to be of the greatest convenience to acquire the 
habit of thinking of the electricities developed in galvanic 
actions as fluids with certain “ levels,” which give the cor¬ 
responding tendencies to flow. 

51. Carrying this view back into our former subject, we 
would regard the fluids in charged bodies as having a 
great “head” or high level. It will be evident on this 
view that a sufficient number of galvanic elements in 
series (as illustrated above by the succession of sieves) 
should give us a “ head ” equal to that of a statically 
charged body. In fact, Gassiot, with a battery of 3400 
pairs of zinc and copper plates in distilled water, produced 
all the effects of attraction, repulsion, discharge, etc. which 
are obtained from bodies excited by friction (Phil. Trans., 
1844, p. 39), and the present writer, with a series of 15,000 
such cells, made by Mr. Charles T. Chester of New York, 
has obtained similar results in a yet more striking manner. 
Indeed, with the delicate instruments now at command wc 
can readily exhibit the actions of attraction and repulsion 
with the electricity set free by a single galvanic couple of 
the simplest description, thus proving the identity in nature 
of the two actions of frictional and chemical “ excitement.” 

52. Such being a general view of the condition of gal¬ 
vanic electricity, we will next pass to the methods used for 
its development. We have above spoken only of a metal 
(say zinc) and water as the active agents; but in fact there 
would be practical difficulties in using these alone, among 
which we will first consider only the fact that the oxide of 
the metal would soon cover its surface and cut off all ac¬ 
tion. For this reason, as well as others, we introduce with 
the water, some acid capable of dissolving the metallic 
oxide, but not able to attack the other conductor. This 
introduces another element. The solution of the oxide in 
the acid furnishes another source of force, and our numer¬ 
ical relation of energies thus takes a new shape, which is 
well expressed by Rankine as follows: 


Total “ equivalent ” due to oxidation of zinc and solution 

in sulphuric acid and water. 3006 

Total “equivalent” consumed in liberating hydrogen from 
the dilute acid. 2106 

Total “ equivalent ” of force developed. 900 


These numbers, expressing “British thermal units,” we can 
easily reduce at once to a practical expression, and say that 
the total force which can be developed by a pound of zinc 
in such a combination would be 900 X 722 = 694,800 foot¬ 
pounds, or about one-sixteenth of that developed by burn- 





U 



Ud 












































































































ELECTRICITY. 


1509 


ing a pound of pure coal or carbon. We of course hare 
neglected all causes of loss in both cases, but this is the 
highest result possible with all causes of loss excluded. 

5d. There are evidently two directions in which this 
result can be improved: 1st. By increasing the relative 
attraction between the active element and the liquid which 
is the first cause of the action; 2d. By reducing the attrac¬ 
tion to be overcome in separating the expelled element 
from the liquid. 

For the first object we may use in place of zinc some 
more chemically active body, such as magnesium or sodium, 
or substitute some other fluid for water. But in practice 
it has been found that no substance which by reason of its 
cost or other considerations is available will give us better 
results than zinc and water acidulated with sulphuric acid. 

With reference to the second point, however, much may 
be done. Thus, it sulphate of copper were mixed with the 
acidulated water, that compound would as a final result be 
decomposed, its copper being deposited on the inactive ele¬ 
ment as a substitute for the hydrogen. Now, the expul¬ 
sion of copper from this compound does not require as 
much force as does the liberation of hydrogen from water, 
and thus we get an obvious increase of effect, as follows: 

Total equivalent of combination of zinc with oxygen, sul¬ 
phuric acid, and water. 3006 

Total equivalent consumed in expelling copper from solu¬ 
tion of sulphate... 1537 

Total equivalent of force developed. 1419 

1419 X 722 = 1,095,468 foot-pounds per pound of zinc ; 

which is, however, less than one-tenth of the total force 
developed by the combustion of a pound of pure coal or 
carbon. 

54. The decomposition of nitric and chromic acids re¬ 
quires still less force than does that of sulphate of copper, 
and thus by substituting these still better results may be 
obtained; but we must not forget that the upper limit, or 
highest attainment of theoretical 'perfection , would be to gain 
the whole 3006 units due to the combination and solution 
of the zinc, which would, after all, amount to but one-fourth 
the total energy developed by a pound of pure coal. 

Passing from these general considerations to questions 
of detail, we notice, in the first place, that if in the sim¬ 
plest form of galvanic apparatus we employ a plate of 
ordinary zinc and one of copper immersed in a vessel of 
diluted sulphuric acid, as was at first done, several diffi¬ 
culties are encountered. 

55. In the first place, impurities, in the shape of specks 
of iron, cadmium, etc., scattered through the zinc, impair 
the action by establishing “ local circuits," in which the 
impurity acts as the second clement, and sends a part of 
the current back to the zinc without traversing the con¬ 
necting conductor, so causing it to elude our use. This 
difficulty is remedied by coating the zinc with mercury. 
This substance dissolves a portion of the zinc and forms a 
sort of metallic varnish, which is of course perfectly homo¬ 
geneous and covers up all irregularities. The mercury 
does not dissolve in the acid, but yields the zinc, itself 
dissolving a fresh supply as fast as it is required. 

56. Secondly, the hydrogen going to the copper plate 
collects on it in a layer of bubbles, by which the contact 
with the liquid is diminished, and which, moreover, by 
reason of its strong negative condition, tends to combine 
with oxygen and reverse the battery action. (See “ Gas 
Battery," farther on.) To remedy this difficulty, Smee 
proposed the use of platinum plates covered with fine par¬ 
ticles of platinum, obtained by electric decomposition (see 
“ Electrolysis," farther on), which “shed" the hydrogen 
bubbles. He also used silver plates coated with platinum, 
or plates of lead first silvered and then coated with pla¬ 
tinum. The silver plates in time become brittle, and the 
others lose their coating; and this has led to the adoption 
of plates of compact carbon, made from the graphitic 
deposit found in coal-gas retorts. These are also platinized 
by painting them with a solution of platinic chloride, and 
then immersing them in their own solutions, with the cir¬ 
cuit closed for a few minutes. 

57. The present writer has used with good effect, where 
a continuous, uninterrupted action for a limited time was 
required, and where the first cost of the apparatus was 
important, a combination of zinc and sheet-iron plates in 
acidulated water. A battery of this sort, having a zinc 
surface of about 240 square feet, was used on several occa¬ 
sions for twelve hours at a time, with a very satisfactory 
result. 

58. The employment of sulphate of copper was first in¬ 
troduced by Prof. Daniell, and in order to prevent the 
copper from depositing on the zinc, and thus establishing 
local circuits which would soon have interfered with the 
useful action of the battery, ho divided the vessel into two 
parts by a porous partition made of parchment, bladder, 
leather, or porous earthenware. In one part was placed 


the zinc surrounded by acidulated water, and in the other 
a copper plate immersed in solution of sulphate of copper. 
We may here explain that it is not supposed, when a 
molecule of water is decomposed by the action of the zinc, 
that its hydrogen atom travels bodily across to the other 
plate, but that it simply displaces the hydrogen in the next 
molecule of water, and this in turn acts on the next, and 
so on. Thus, in the Daniell battery the liberated hydrogen 
travels by such successive displacements through the acid¬ 
ulated water, with which the porous partition also is 
soaked; and when the copper solution is reached, the dis¬ 
placement of a copper atom is substituted for that of 
hydrogen, the hydrogen atom taking at its entrance oxygen 
from a molecule of oxide of copper, and so setting free the 
copper atom, which is thenceforth “exchanged” on, until 
the last in the series is reached, when a particle of the 
metal is thrown down on the copper plate. 

59. This form of battery has many advantages, but is 
open to two serious objections: the porous cell or other 
partition, while allowing the transfer of elements to take 
place through it, does not do so without offering a con¬ 
siderable resistance; and again, the copper is liable to de¬ 
posit in its metallic state in the porous part, so closing it, 
and finally, getting upon the zinc, destroys its efficiency by 
local circuits or local action. To remedy these defects a 
great variety of modifications have been adopted, which 
may be called as a rule gravity batteries. These depend 
upon the difference in density of the solutions, to maintain 
their separation. Thus, the first of the class, invented by 
Meidingcr, consisted of a plate of copper attached to an 
insulated wire and placed at the bottom of the jar; upon 
this was thrown a quantity of sulphate of copper. The jar 
was then filled up with water, with a little sulphate of zinc 
to give it conducting power, and in this was hung the zinc. 
The superior weight of the sulphate of copper solution was 
relied upon to keep it away from the zinc. This was much 
modified in detail, and was in many cases effective, so that 
such batteries could be left in closed circuit for months 
without getting out of order. 

60. A recent modification of this gravity battery, known 
as the Lockwood battery, seeming to involve some action 
which has not yet been fully determined, appears to be won¬ 
derfully efficient in practice. 

61. When nitric acid was introduced by Grove, a porous 
cell of earthenware became absolutely requisite, and a plate 
of platinum for the negative element. For this last, Bunsen 
substituted gas carbon to diminish the expenss; then Pog- 
gendorff proposed a mixture containing free chromic acid 
to replace the nitric. This mixture is obtained by mixing 
1 part by weight of bichromate of potash with 10 of water 
and 3 of common oil of vitriol. This has the advantage of 
cheapness, and also of avoiding fumes, as chromic acid re¬ 
duces to a solid sesquioxide of chromium, which of course 
remains in the solution. Its disadvantage is that it is less 
efficient than the nitric acid, and soon loses effect in closed 
circuit through the accumulation of sesquioxide of chro¬ 
mium upon the negative element, this body requiring time 
to dissolve. This difficulty has been met by the addition 
of nitric acid to the solution. In this case the nitric acid 
first loses its oxygen, but immediately takes it again from 
the chromic acid; thus, while no fumes of nitrous acid are 
developed, the action on the chromic acid is diffused more 
generally, and we have the quickness of the nitric acid, 
combined with the good qualities of the other material. 

62. The above chromic-acid mixture, without nitric acid, 
may be used in a battery of zinc and carbon plates, pro¬ 
vided these be only immersed when in use. The convenient 
“French flask batteries" are thus made, and for use with 
the large electro-magnet of the Stevens Institute of Tech¬ 
nology, and his own induction coil, where great power in a 
compact form is needed for a short time, the present writer 
caused to be constructed four sets, of three cells each, on 
the same general principle. These expose surfaces of about 
five square feet of zinc in each cell, or sixty feet in the ag¬ 
gregate. During three years’ constant use they have given 
entire satisfaction for the purposes named. 

63. A battery of zinc and carbon, in which the exciting 
fluid is a strong solution or paste of acid sulphate of mer¬ 
cury, is very convenient for medical use. The present 
writer pointed out some years ago that this substance 
could be replaced with advantage by a mixture of glauber 
salt and chloride of mercury, and that even glauber salt, a 
harmless and non-corrosive substance, would in many 
cases answer very well alone. (Jour, of the Franklin Insti¬ 
tute, vol. 1., p. 68, 1865.) 

64. The Maynooth battery, in which the elements are 
zinc and cast iron, the iron being in contact with a mix¬ 
ture of strong sulphuric and nitric acids, makes a very 
powerful combination, but the fumes evolved in filling and 
emptying it arc very objectionable. 

65. For running electric clocks and such work, not re- 

























ELECTRICITY. 


1510 


quiring much force, the Leclanchc battery is found to bo 
very convenient. This consists of a square-shaped glass 
vessel, within which is set a porous cylinder containing a 
plate of carbon, and small fragments of black oxide of 
manganese packed tightly around it. In one corner of 
the square vessel is placed a rod of zinc, and the vessel is 
partly filled with a strong solution of sal-ammoniac. ( Les 
Mondes, 1868, vol. xvi., p. 532.) Chloride of zinc is formed 
in this battery, and the hydrogen liberated is taken up by 
oxygen of the oxide of manganese, or escapes. 

Dry Piles .—66. The slight amount of moisture which 
even ordinary paper will retain is sufficient to produce a 
galvanic action with dissimilar metals, and this may be¬ 
come quite appreciable if a sufficient number of elements 
are used. Thus, if we take silver paper and paint one side 
with a mixturo of black oxide of manganese and gum, and 
w r hen dry fold it up and with a wad-cutter strike out many 
thousand disks, these, placed in a tube to keep them in 
position, will exhibit opposite electric excitement at their 
opposite ends. This arrangement was devised by Zam- 
boni, who found that such an arrangement, containing 
some 20,000 disks of paper, would keep a light ball in 
motion between brass balls connected with its poles for 
years. A thorough drying caused all action to cease, but 
exposure to moist air restored it. As before mentioned, a 
dry pile is used in Bohnenberger’s electroscope. 

Grove’s Gaa Battery .—67. We have already mentioned 
that a plate of platinum covered with hydrogen was 
strongly positive, and, following out this principle, Grove 
constructs what has been called a gas battery. In this a 
number of vessels are provided each with two platinum 
strips. The vessels contain acidulated water, and the 
strips, partly immersed in this, are covered with bell jars, 
one containing oxygen, the other hydrogen. Under these 
conditions the hydrogen in contact with the platinum acts 
like zinc, and combines with some of the oxygen of the 
water, setting free other hydrogen, which, passing to the 
other strip, there combines with some of the free oxygen. 

68. On a principle suggested by this action and some of 
its relations are constructed what are called Secondary 
Piles. If, for example, we immerse two or more plates of 
lead in a solution of glauber salt, and pass the current of a 
small battery for some time between the plates, there will 
be formed on one plate a film of oxide of lead, while the 
other will acquire a layer of excited hydrogen. If the 
charging battery be now removed, and the terminals of the 
other arrangement brought together, a brief but very pow¬ 
erful current will be developed by the combination of the 
hydrogen at one side and the oxygen at the other. 

(For a very full discussion of this subject, see J. Thom¬ 
son, “ Pogg. Ann.,” 1865, vol. exxiv., p. 498, and of an im¬ 
proved form by G. Plaute, “ Phil. Mag.,” 1868, vol. xxxvi., 
p. 159.) 

Instruments for the Measurement of the Galvanic Current. 

The Voltameter .—69. This instrument is based upon the 
principle that a current can only pass through such a sub¬ 
stance as water by decomposing it, and that thus the 
amount of water decomposed or of gas liberated will 
afford a true indication of the amount of electricity which 
has been transmitted. For all practical purposes this is 
strictly true, whatever may be thought as to the absolute 
accuracy of the statement. We have therefore, for this 
purpose, a vessel with two strips of platinum entering it 
from below, partly filled with slightly acidulated water, 
and a graduated bell-jar or closed tube filled with water 
placed over them. When a current passes, bubbles of oxy¬ 
gen and hydrogen gases will rise, and the quantity col¬ 
lected in a minute will give us an indication of the amount 
of the electric current that has passed. The amount of 
force required to carry an electric current through the re¬ 
sisting liquid is, however, very great, and thus for very 
many purposes this instrument would not be available. 

70. In 1820, Oersted discovered that when a galvanic 
current was passing through a wire a magnetic needle 
tended to set itself at right angles to the wire. The di¬ 
rection in which the needle turned from a position parallel 
to the wire depended upon the direction of the current and 
upon the location of the wire ( i. e. whether it was above 
or below the needle). It thus came about that if a needle 
was suspended in a coil, the parts of the coil above and 
below would reinforce each other in their action on the 
needle, and that a reversal in the direction of the current 
would be indicated by a reversal in the position of the 
needle. Moreover, certain relations may be established 
between the amount of angular deflection of the needle 
and the quantity of the current by means of which this last 
may be determined. 

A galvanometer, then, in general consists of a magnetic 
needle suspended in a coil of wire, which is placed in the 
magnetic meridian (7. e. N. and S.), or in the samo direction 


as the needle. To the needle is attached a pointer, by which 

the angular dis¬ 
placement which 
it suffers may bo 
read off on a di¬ 
vided circle. 

For various 
uses different 
forms and com¬ 
bination s aro 
adopted, of which 
we shall mention 
the principal. 

The Tangent 
Galvanometer. — 
71. A simple 
trigonometrical 
discussion (see 
Sabine on tho 
“ Electric Tele¬ 
graph,” p. 237) 
will show that if 
the needle is very 
small in compari¬ 
son with the size 
of the coil—say, 
one-fifteenth of 
its diameter—the 
force of the cur¬ 
rent will vary as 
the tangent of the 
angle of deflec¬ 
tion for small dis¬ 
placements. With 
a coil so distant 
from the needle 
as this condition 
involves it would 
only be possible to measure very powerful currents in this 
way; butGangain has shown that if the coil be wound in 

the surface of a 
frustum of a cone 
whose apex passes 
through the centre 
of the needle, the 
same relation be¬ 
tween the current 
and deflection will 
be maintained, 
even when the di¬ 
ameter of the coil 
is but five or six 
times the length 
of the needle. F'or 
certain purposes 
the coil in this in¬ 
strument is made 
in two equal parts, 
so that cither half 
or all of it may be 
used at pleasure. 
Fig. 16 shows one 
of these instru¬ 
ments, as made by 
Messrs. Knox <fc 
Shain of Philadel¬ 
phia. 

The Sme Galvanometer. —72. In this instrument the coil 
is movable, and in making observations it is rotated until 
its plane coincides in direction with the needle. Under 
these circumstances it may be shown that the force of the 
current varies with the sine of the angle of deflection. (See 
Sabine on the “ Electric Telegraph,” p. 241.) 

The Astatic Galvanometer .—73. Yet further to increase 
tho delicacy of this instrument we diminish the directive 
Fig. 17. force of the needle without di¬ 

minishing the influence of tho 
coil upon it, by uniting two 
needles rigidly, but at a dis¬ 
tance, one over the other, with 
their poles reversed. By this 
means, if the needles were ab¬ 
solutely equal they would stand 
E. and AY.; and if not abso¬ 
lutely equal, they take some in¬ 
termediate position between this and the magnetic merid¬ 
ian, with a directive force which is diminished as their 
complete equality is approached. Tho astatic combi¬ 
nation is then so introduced in the coil that one of tho 
needles is inside, and the other outside. If we now bear 
in mind that the direction in which tho needle tends to 



Fig. 16. 















































































































ELECTRICITY. 


1511 


Fig. 18. 


move is reversed—1st, by a reversal of the current; 2d, by 
a reversal of the magnet in relation to it; and 3d, by re¬ 
versal of its relation with reference to being above or 
below—we will see that the action of the currents on the 
two needles will coincide in direction, and so assist each 
other in producing the deflection. 

74. One of the most complete instruments of this type is 
Sir W. Thomson’s double 
coil astatic galvanometer. 

In this instrument we have 
two coils, which are exactly 
equal in resistance and in 
their effect upon the in¬ 
cluded magnets. These two 
magnets are rigidly con¬ 
nected with reversed poles, 
and the upper one carries a 
small mirror. Above them 
is a bar magnet, which 
serves to regulate their 
sensitiveness by counter¬ 
acting more or less the in¬ 
fluence of the earth’s mag¬ 
netism, and also to give us 
a means of bringing them 
to a fixed position. The 
binding screws at the base 
allow us to bring the two 
coils into any relation wo 
please, either to use them 
in combination or opposed 
to each other. The instru¬ 
ment here represented has 
its coils composed of very 
fine wire in very many 
turns, but it is also made 
with a short thick wire for 
other purposes. 

The movements of the 
astatic combination of nee¬ 
dles is read in the follow¬ 
ing manner : At a distance 
of about two feet in front 
of the instrument is placed 
the frame and lamp shown in Fig. 19. (The instrument 
would be to the right, as 
this is shown in the cut.) ^ IG< 

The light from the lamp, 
passing through the vertical 
slit in the frame, falls on the 
mirror in the upper part of 
the galvanometer, which is 
curved so as to throw an 
image of the flame back 
upon a scale attached to the 
other side of the frame. The 
motion of this image indi¬ 
cates the movement of the 
needles. 

Resistance Coils. —75. For 
use with these various in¬ 
struments we have sets of 
“ known resistances,” con¬ 
sisting of bobbins of insulated German silver wire, care¬ 
fully graduated to correspond with fixed standards. These 
bobbins are placed in a box with their terminals attached 
to a series of heavy brass pieces, between which fit conical 
plugs. When these plugs are in place they form with the 
brass pieces a conductor of inappreciable resistance, but by 
taking out any one, the current is obliged to pass through 
the corresponding coil, and so experience its resistance. 
These resistances are expressed in units called “ohms.” 
Of these there are two standards, slightly differing—one, 
known as Siemen’s unit, defined to be the resistance of a 

Fig. 20. 





prism of pure mercury of one square millimetre section, and 
one metre long, at 0° C.; the other, known as the British 


Association unit, or B. A. unit, is founded on an absoluto 
determination of the relation of resistance to work or 
energy through the production of heat. The unit first ob¬ 


tained, and known as the 


metre 

second 


unit, when raised to tho 


seventh power, gives us the B. A. unit, or ohm, whose rela¬ 
tion to Siemen’s ohm is as 1.0456 to 1. One million of ohms 
make a megohm; one-millionth of an ohm is a microhm. 

Thermo-electric Co)iples. —76. A separation of the elec¬ 
tricities similar in character to that which we have just 
described as accomplished by chemical force is brought 
about by the direct action of heat on dissimilar conductors 
in contact. Thus, if we have a series of 
bars of antimony and bismuth united at 
their alternate ends, as shown in Fig. 21, 
and heat one side, DC, while the other, 
AB, is either exposed to the air or other¬ 
wise cooled, a separation of the electric 
fluids will be effected, and one extremity 





Fig. 22. 



of the series will acquire a positive, while 
the other gains a negative, charge. As 
can easily be imagined, the electro-motive force is very 
feeble in this case, and thus very delicate instruments are 
required to recognize the effect. Moreover, the internal 
resistance of the system will bo very small, since it consists 
entirely of conductors, and we must therefore employ low- 
resistance circuits for the measuring instruments to be used 
with it. 

By uniting a large number of minute bars of antimony 
and bismuth in the manner indicated into a square prism, 

a “thermo-electric pile” is 
formed. This is generally en¬ 
closed in a brass case, provided 
with hollow conical reflectors, 
such as a, for its ends, and sup¬ 
ported on a stand. It then forms 
with an astatic galvanometer 
(see £ 73) tho most delicate 
means we possess of indicating 
changes in temperature, the 
change in temperature being 
estimated from the effect of the 
electric action which it produces. 
Many experiments have been 
made by Becquerel, Bunsen, Mar¬ 
cus, and others on the develop¬ 
ment of this source of electric 
force. (See “ Phil. Mag.,” 1865, 
vol. xxix., pp. 159, 406 ; also vol. 
xxx., p. 77; likewise “Jour, of Fr. Inst.,” vol. xlix., p. 
420.) Much also has been done in this line by Moses G. 
Farmer of Boston. 

Animal Electricity. —77. It has been shown that pieces 
of muscular tissue from animals recently killed will develop 
actions identical in character with those produced by chem¬ 
ical or heat forces, as before described, and moreover that 
certain animals, notably the torpedo and electric eel, have 
the power of giving at pleasure heavy discharges by means 
of a special apparatus which resembles in its structure a 
series of galvanic couples. ( Faraday , Phil. Trans., 1839, 
part i., p. 1.) It has been shown by Matteucci that in 
living animals an electric current is perpetually circulating 
between the internal and external portions of the muscles. 
This no doubt derives its source from the chemical actions 
constantly in progress in connection with the vital pro¬ 
cesses. 

Other, and what may be called secondary, methods of ex¬ 
citing galvanic electricity, such as that of induction from 
another current or from a magnet, will be given farther on, 
after the subject of induction itself has been discussed. 

Mechanical Effects of Electric Currents .—78. Our con¬ 
sideration of that form of electrical development known as 
galvanic or dynamic has led us thus far rather to notice 
its close resemblance to, or rather general identity with, the 
statical or frictional form of the same action; but while 
there is this exceedingly close relation between the two— 
while, in fact, they only differ in the degree of some of 
their conditions—it is yet true that this amount of differ¬ 
ence is great enough to warrant the division of the subject 
which exists, and to make two classes of phenomena, which, 
while equally existing in both, are each of them pre-eminent 
in one of the two subjects, and practically inappreciable in 
the other. 

These marked differences are in the quantity and in¬ 
tensity of the electric disturbances. In the case of the 
simple galvanic couple already described the amount of the 
fluids which can be separated is immense, but the separat¬ 
ing force is so deficient in intensity that it can accomplish 
no condensation of the fluid in an insulated conductor, but 
can only do its work when the fluids are allowed to flow 
round and unite as fast as they are developed. It is like 









































































































1512 


ELECTRICITY. 


one of the great wheels used in draining the Haarlem Lake, 
which by rotating in a broad canal pushed the whole body 
of water along, and raised it only a few inches. It could 
produce the current as of a river through a nearly level 
channel, but for producing a “head” of water or high 
pressure it was all but powerless. 

On the other hand, the frictional methods of excitement 
give us a means of packing away or condensing the fluid 
to any extent, but are able to put but little in motion at a 
time. To carry out our former illustration, they might be 
compared to the pumps of hydrostatic presses, which can 
produce a tremendous “head” of water, but deliver only a 
few ounces at each stroke. 

The great self-repellent force of each fluid makes the 
condensation of even a small amount into a limited space 
a work requiring great intensity of power, while the want 
of weight in the electric substance makes the movement of 
great quantities a matter dependent simply on what might 
be called frictional resistance (t. e. the obstacle offered by 
the transmitting material or conductor to their passage). 
It thus comes that while in statical electricity we have 
chiefly to do with what we may consider highly compressed 
fluids forcibly accumulated in different bodies, in dynamical 
electricity we have to consider the flow of large volumes 
of the same fluids but little compressed, and thus having 
little mutual repulsion or tendency to diverge. Thus, it 
comes that in the first case we can only have marked results 
as a rule from the properties these fluids possess when at 
rest. There will not be volume enough to produce any 
effect if let out as a current. It would be like letting out 
the water from a hydraulic press against a mill-wheel. 
And so, on the other hand, we must have a clear circuit 
and free passage for the fluids in order to obtain the 
dynamical phenomena. The quietly flowing river can 
swing round a hundred wheels, but would not push down 
a handful of earth that fenced it off from some child’s ex¬ 
cavation in its beach. 

While, therefore, there are tension and accumulation and 
every effect resulting from the properties of the fluids when 
at rest, in dynamic electricity; we have to consider mainly 
the effects of currents flowing easily in closed circuits. Ac¬ 
cording to our double-fluid theory, we know that if the 
positive fluid is moved into one body, the negative equally 
goes into the other, and that thus the flow of one in one 
direction will involve the flow of the other in the opposite. 
It therefore becomes an unnecessary repetition to go over 
each description a second time, simply reversing the order, 
and we therefore commonly confine our descriptions to the 
motions of the positive fluid, assuming that the negative 
follows the same track, “the other way round.” 

Attractions ancl Repidsions of Electric Currents. —79. The 
attraction for light bodies exhibited by those excited by 
friction evidently depends upon the accumulation of one 
or the other fluid in the excited body; but nothing like 
this can exist with a current, which being, as we have seen, 
duplex in its character (i. e. an equal flow of positive in 
one direction and negative in the other), can have no accu¬ 
mulation or charge of either fluid at any point. Thus, no 
phenomena of attraction and repulsion are to be expected 
from closed circuits upon light bodies. 

We may, however, expect that two currents, or the con¬ 
ductors carrying two currents, should attract or repel each 
other, and that this attraction and repulsion should depend 
upon the relation of their directions. This is indeed found 
to be the case. If two currents flow in parallel wires in 
the same direction, the wires tend to approach; if the 
directions are opposite, they tend to recede. This fact 
may be illustrated in a variety of ways, but perhaps that 
which is at once the simplest and most striking is to have 
two pieces of wire bent so as each to form three sides of a 
square; then so to weight these by rods rigidly attached 
that they will stand on their ends. Four slight hollows 
containing mercury are then so arranged as to receive the 
ends of these wires when they stand close together and 
parallel. If, then, the mercury cups are so connected that 
a current from a battery will traverse the two wires succes¬ 
sively in the same direction, they will be seen to approach; 
if in opposite directions, they will recede. 

80. If straight conductors carrying currents are so 
placed as to form an angle with each other, they will 
attract if both currents go towards or from the apex of 
the angle, but will repel if one approaches and the other 
recedes. This is, however, a direct consequence of the 
former law. The action of a sinuous current is equal to 
that of a rectilinear one equal to its length in projection. 

81. From the law of angular currents we easily derive 
the law regarding currents at right angles to each other— 
one in a fixed conductor and the other movable round an 
axis or in any direction parallel with itself. If the current 
in the movable conductor approaches the fixed one, then it 
will cause the movable conductor to advance in a line paral¬ 


lel to that of the fixed conductor, in a direction opposite to 
that of its current, and in the same direction as this cur¬ 
rent if the direction of the current in the movable wire be 
away from the fixed one. Consequently, a vertical rectan¬ 
gle or circle carrying a current will tend to assume a posi¬ 
tion parallel to a horizontal conductor, and so as to bring 
the horizontal currents of both into the same direction. 

' 82. Again, as a direct consequence of the reactions of 
angular currents not in the same plane, we will see that a 
current in a wire occupying the relation of a radius to the 
line around which it is free to move will tend to perform a 
continuous rotation if acted upon by a current in a tan¬ 
gent or circumferential 
conductor in or parallel 
to its plane of motion. 
A current in a wire per¬ 
pendicular to this same 


affected. 

Thus, if a current is 


Fig. 23. 


B 


r 

c A 

D 


or i 

L 


made to pass up through a central column, and then divide 
in opposite directions through wires A B, then descending 
into a trough of mercury while another current or a contin¬ 
uation of the same passes through a surrounding ring of 
wire, EF, a continuous rotation will be maintained. 

These are some of the results of the simple general law 
that currents in the same direction attract, and in opposite 
directions repel. 

Relations between Magnets and Currents. 83. The theory 
of Ampere, fully explained in another place (see “ Mag¬ 
netism”), develops all the properties of magnets, from the 
assumption that they are equivalent to spirals carrying 
currents, or are made up of particles, each ot which has in 
it a closed circuit, all moving in the same direction. (See 
Figs. 24 and 25.) From this it would naturally follow 
that mutual actions would exist between magnets and cur- 


Fig. 24. Fig. 25. 




rents, such as might be derived from the elementary law 
and examples given above. Such is indeed the case. 
Moreover, the earth itself playing the part of a powerful 
magnet, we should expect certain, relations to subsist be¬ 
tween its directive force or polar action and the movements 
of free conductors carrying currents. These also we find. 

84. Thus, we have, as perhaps first in importance, the 
fruitful fact discovered by (Ersted that a magnet tended to 
set itself at right angles to the line of a current, and recip¬ 
rocally that a conductor carrying a current would set itself 
at right angles to a magnet. Regarding the magnet sim¬ 
ply as a series of currents in planes perpendicular to its 
length, these actions are simply examples of the tendency 
of currents to get into parallel planes, resulting from the 
first simple law of their attraction and repulsion. For 
exactly similar reasons, free conductors carrying currents 
place themselves at right angles to the magnetic meridian. 

85. The rotations of magnets around conductors and 
conductors around magnets, which flow from this saino 
relation, are as numerous as their explanation, by refer¬ 
ence to the above general considerations, is obvious. For 
an extended discussion of these the reader is referred to Do 
la Rive’s “ Traite d’Electricite,” tom. i., chap. 2. 

86. A solenoid is a helix or spiral, with the wire of which 
it is formed returned along its axis. When therefore a 
current traverses it the longitudinal effect of the spiral is 
counterbalanced by that of the return wire, and it becomes 
in all respects equivalent to a series of equal and parallel 
circular currents. In fact, it fulfils exactly Ampere’s de¬ 
scription of a magnet. As might be expected, therefore, 
it behaves in all respects exactly like one. 

Magnetization by Currents. —87. If a bar of soft iron is 
inserted in a solenoid, it is found to become powerfully 
magnetic as long as the wire is traversed by a current, tho 
order of the poles being as follows: if the current passes 
round in the direction of the hands of a watch, tho pole 
on the near side will be a south pole. 

If in place of a solenoid, we surround the iron bar with 
a multiple coil of many layers of insulated wire, the cur¬ 
rent acting repeatedly will produce a greatly-increased 
effect. By this means magnets of the greatest power are 
produced. They are called, for distinction, electro-mag¬ 
nets, and, as has been already remarked, lose their power 
practically with tho cessation of the current. 

































ELECTRICITY. 


The largest and most efficient electro-magnet yet con¬ 
structed is one built, after the designs prepared by Prof. A. 
M. Mayer and the present writer, by Mr. William "Wallace 
of Ansonia, Conn., for the Stevens Institute of Technol¬ 


1513 


ogy. It weighs with its armatures about 1800 pounds, has 
cores of soft iron six inches in diameter and three feet three 
inches each in length, and surpasses any similar instrument 
in the intensity of its effects. 


Fig. 26. 



On the peculiar properties of the electro-magnet was 
founded the invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph. 
(See Telegraph.) 

88. The great power which an electro-magnet exerts on 
a body near it has led many to attempt the application of 
this as a motor in driving machinery. A consideration 
of the numerical results given at $£ 52 and 53, in con¬ 
nection with the explanation of the origin of the galvanic 
force, will, however, show us that zinc consumed in one of 
the forms of galvanic battery which does not involve the 
use of some other very expensive material will yield us but 
about one-tenth to one-sixteenth the force produced by coal 
in its combustion; and even if made perfectly available by 
some discovery not yet even hinted at, would be but one- 
fourth as effective as coal. The price of zinc is moreover at 
present about forty times that of coal. Our present steam- 
engines give us about five per cent., or one-twentieth, of 
the total force evolved by their fuel; so that with an abso¬ 
lutely perfect battery and electro-motor the economic rela¬ 
tion would be eight times in favor of the steam-engine 
with such batteries as could be used—twenty and thirty- 
two times if the engine were absolutely perfect,- but with 
the best form of engine yet devised it would be 100 to 160 
times more expensive to obtain power by a galvanic motor 
than by a steam-engine. 

Laws of Electro-Magnetism. —89. It has been shown by 
Lenz and Jacobi that with an uniform current—1st, Mag¬ 
netism in any given bar is directly proportional to the num¬ 
ber of coils which act upon it. 2d, The diameter of the coils 
has no effect, the greater length of the larger coil exactly 
compensating for its greater distance. 3d, The thickness 
of the wire has no effect, the condition first named of a 
constant current being maintained. Of course, with the 
same battery the amount of the current will be largely influ¬ 
enced by the size and consequent resistance of the wire. 
4th, The strength of the magnetism is proportional to the 
quantity of the current. This and certain other relations, 
it will be readily seen, have a limit in the capacity of a bar 
of iron to receive a magnetic charge. 5th, The attractive 
power of the electro-magnet for a saturated steel bar 
varies with the inverse square of the distance, but for a 
bar of soft iron, where induction comes in, with some func¬ 
tion approaching the inverse cube of the distance. 6th, 
The retentive power varies with the square of the charge 
or of the quantity of current. 7th, The amount of mag¬ 
netism developed is largely influenced by the surface of the 
iron, though not depending only on that; so that a tube 
whose thickness is about one-sixth its diameter would be 
equivalent to a solid bar of the same diameter. 8th, The 
length of the bar has no effect on its magnetic force, beyond 
that of diminishing the interfering action of the opposite 
poles by separating them. 9th, The position of the bar in 
the helix, whether in or out of its axis, is immaterial. 

An excellent research on several of these points, involving 
a very beautiful and accurate method for comparison of 
magnetic forces, was published by Prof. A. M. Mayer in 
the “Am. Jour, of Science” for Sept., 1870. 

Electrolysis, or Chemical Action of an Electric Current. 
—90. As a chemical combination is on the one hand an 
effective source of the electric current, so on the other side 


this current may expend itself in reversing this action, or 
in decomposing such compounds as in their formation gave 
it birth. Thus, if the current from a series of galvanic 
elements be made to pass through a solution of sulphate 
of zinc, the oxide of zinc will be decomposed, metallic zinc 
appearing at one side, and oxygen gas being given off at 
the other. So with the sulphate of copper and other salts 
not too difficult to decompose; and in such cases it is found 
that if the conductor to which the oxygen goes is of a metal, 
such as copper, iron, zinc, etc., which can combine readily 
with that element, an oxide will be formed and dissolved 
by the liberated acid. 

On this fact are founded the various processes of electro¬ 
plating, of electrotyping, and the like. 

A conducting matrix or mould or object is suspended in 
a solution of the metal to be deposited, in connection with 
the zinc or negative pole of the battery, and a plate of the 
same metal is suspended in the same liquid and in con¬ 
nection with copper, carbon, or other positive pole of the 
battery. The metal is then deposited gradually on every 
portion of the mould or object, and may either be left there, 
as in plating, gilding, etc., or stripped off, as in electrotyp¬ 
ing, where it becomes the cast or duplicate original which 
is to be used. 

91. The firmer the union of the elements or compounds 
the more difficult it is to separate them. Thus, if such a 
salt as sulphate of soda is placed in solution between the 
poles of a moderate battery, we can readily separate the 
acid from the base, but not the elements of the base. For 
this a very powerful combination is required, such as was 
used by Davy when he first separated, and so discovered, 
the metallic elements of the alkalies and earths. The ele¬ 
ments of water are not very difficult thus to dissociate, 
and this has been adopted as a convenient means for 
measuring the quantity of the current. By employing the 
most intense means at our command, we can even act upon 
the elementary gases, so as to effect a possible separation 
of these. (See Ozone.) 

92. A fluid state, as might naturally be expected, allow¬ 
ing of motion among the particles, seems to be essential to 
electrolysis, and we obtain this either by solution or fusion 
where it does not exist already; and we find that in all 
cases the most electro-negative element or component of 
the compound collects on the zinc pole, and the more pos¬ 
itive on the other. 

Transfer of Dynamic Electricity — Conduction. — 93. 
Conduction in dynamic electricity resembles in all respects 
the same action in the statical condition of the fluids. It 
varies in the same way with different substances, but can 
bo more readily studied and measured. Moreover, on 
account of the inappreciable “condensation of a current, 
the conductor does not act mainly by its surface, but by its 
entire section. The following list will give some idea of 
the relation of a few substances in this respect. 


Silver. 

Copper, pure.. 

“ best commercial 
“ ordinary “ 

Brass. 

Zinc. 

Steel. 


. 100 . 

. 99.9 

.... 85-95. 
.... 40-70. 

. 20 . 

. 29. 

about 16. 











































































































































































































































































































1514 ELECTRICITY. 


Iron. about 15. 

German silver. 12-16. 

Lead. 8.3 

Platinum. 6.9 

Mercury. 1.6 

Pure graphite... 0.069,3 

Coke, or coal-gas graphite. 0.038,6 

Tellurium. 0.000,77 

Red phosphorus. 0.000,001,23 

Solution of sulphate of copper, saturated. 0.000,000,005,4 

Sulphuric acid and water, 1-11 vols. 0.000,000,088 

Sulphate of zinc, saturated solution. 0.000,000,005,7 

“ “ “ half saturated. 0.000,000,007 

“ “ “ quarter “ . 0.000,000,005,4 


From this table will be noticed the great effect which the 
presence of any impurity has upon the conducting power 
of a metal, and the very inferior conducting power of 
alloys as compared with their constituents. 

Again, we see the vast difference between the conductivity 
of metals and that of non-metallic bodies and solutions, 
and that, moreover, in some solutions the conductivity 
reaches a maximum at a certain strength, and declines 
either by concentration or dilution. 

94. It is observed, moreover, that in the case of metals 
the conductivity varies inversely with the temperature, 
while the non-metallic ones rise in conductivity as the tem¬ 
perature is elevated. Thus, in gutta-percha used to in¬ 
sulate cables for submarine telegraphy, the conductivity 
increases about thirty-six times in passing from 32° to 90° 
F. Glass at a red heat becomes a good conductor. The 
same general action takes place in liquids, conductivity in¬ 
creasing with temperature; and thus we find a moderate 
heat favorable to battery-action and to electrolysis. 

95. Gases under ordinary circumstances are almost per¬ 
fect insulators, but it has been shown by Andrews, Hankel, 
E. Bccquerel, and Buff that some slight indications of con¬ 
duction could be obtained, and Magnus found that hydrogen 
exceeded other gases in this respect. When intensely 
heated, however, as in certain spectrum or Geissler tubes, 
gases seem to conduct with a sensible facility; possibly 
also in the electric arc. 

Heating and Luminous Effects .—96. When a galvanic 
current passes through a conductor, heat is developed to a 
degree varying with the amount of the current and the 
resistance of the wire. Other things being equal, an in¬ 
crease of resistance will diminish the amount of the current, 
but if we keep the current constant by adding to the electro¬ 
motive forces urging the current, then we shall find the 
heat developed increase with the resistance. If the quan¬ 
tity of the current is increased, the heat will increase as 
the square of this quantity. In ordinary experiments it 
is more easy to increase the amount of tbe current trans¬ 
mitted by decreasing the length of the resistance, and thus 
obtaining a greater development of heat in a part of the 
line. Thus, if we have a platinum wire stretched between 
two rods or posts, and, connecting one of them with one 
pole of a powerful battery, draw the other terminal along 
the wire, beginning with the farther end, the heat in the 
wire will increase as the part through which the current 
passes decreases in length, until, if the battery is sufficiently 
powerful, the wire is at last even fused. Again, if a wire 
of some length is kept at a red heat by a battery, we may 
make one part glow much more brightly by cooling another 
with cold water. The reason is, that by cooling we increase 
the conducting power or diminish the resistance of that 
part, and so allow more current to be forced through the 
remaining portion. Many similar examples might be cited 
did space permit. 

97. The interesting conclusion has been reached by 
Favre (Collates Rendus, vol. lv., p. 56) that the total 
amount of heat generated by the solution of a given quan¬ 
tity of zinc in galvanic circuit is constant, being diminished 
in the battery as it is increased in the exterior circuit; and 
moreover that heat is lost when motion is produced just 
in the proportion that Joul’s theory and equivalent would 
require. 

98. From what has been said above, we see that if elec¬ 
tric fluid could be forced in any amount through a non¬ 
conducting substance, very intense effects of heat and light 
ought to be produced. This is in fact observed in the case 
of the statical discharge in air, which affords us the most 
intense exhibition of these forces with which we are ac¬ 
quainted. With galvanic electricity it is, however, under 
ordinary conditions, impossible to obtain sufficient concen¬ 
tration to rupture the resistance of air. If, however, the 
poles of a powerful battery of, say, forty or fifty Grove or 
Bunsen elements are brought into contact, and then slightly 
separated, a bridge of particles torn off from the positive 
and hurled upon the negative pole is formed, and main¬ 
tains the connection. Resistance enough, however, is 
offered to develop a light of the most dazzling brightness. 

It is found most convenient to make the terminals in 
this case from a very dense and, in an ordinary sense, in¬ 


combustible carbon or “coal-gas graphite” (such as is used 
for elements in the battery cells, except that a finer and 
purer preparation is here essential). Even this material 
is slowly dissipated in the intense heat of the electric arc, 
and various forms of self-adjusting regulators have there¬ 
fore been devised by which the carbon points are made to 
approach each other as they are consumed. 

99. If the lower carbon is hollowed into a cup, various 
substances, such as the metals and salts, can be placed in 
it, and converted into incandescent vapor by the action of 
the discharge. By this means the peculiar colored lights 
which they emit may be analyzed with a prism and pro¬ 
jected as “ spectra” on a sci'een with a very beautiful 
effect. 

AVhile, as wo have already shown (<j> 88), a galvanic cur¬ 
rent derived from chemical actions involving the use of 
zinc and other expensive materials is not at all able to com¬ 
pete with the coal-consuming engine as a source of me¬ 
chanical power, yet by reversing the order of conversions 
and employing the cheap mechanical power of the steam- 
engine to develop a galvanic current (see £ 104), and using 
this to produce light as above, something useful may be 
accomplished. In an interesting paper on the cost of the 
electric light {Am. Jour, of Science, 1868, vol. xlv., p. 113), 
Moses G. Farmer has shown that Avhere a light of about 
1000 candles was required it could in this way be produced 
at one-tenth the cost of the same amount of gas-light. 

Galvanic or Dynamic Induction .—100. This action, whose 
theoretical explanation has defied the insight even of Fara¬ 
day, is in its simplest form of exhibition as follows: Sup¬ 
pose that two wires are arranged side by side, but mutually 
insulated for some length, and that one of them is con¬ 
nected in closed circuit with a delicate galvanometer, while 
the other may be made at will the path of a current from 
a galvanic battery. If this connection is made, we will 
notice an instantaneous movement of the needle in the 
galvanometer, indicating a momentary current in the op¬ 
posite direction to that of the battery. While this battery 
flows all is absolutely at rest, but the moment that an in¬ 
terruption occurs, another instantaneous current is shown 
by the galvanometer, but now in the same direction as the 
battery current followed. These momentary currents are 
called secondary or induced currents, and that producing 
them is called the “primary” current. 

If the two wires, in place of being in parallel straight 
lines, had been wound each in a flat spiral, and these spirals 
had been in close proximity, the effect would have been the 
same. In this case, moreover, if instead of causing the 
primary current to start and stop, we allowed it to flow 
continuously, but brought the spirals quickly together and 
then as quickly separated them, the same induced currents 
would have been generated as before. 

Bearing in mind, as has been already stated, that a mag¬ 
net represents in all respects a spiral carrying a current, it 
is evident that the mutual approach and separation of 
magnets and helices should produce secondary currents in 
the latter, and so likewise the charging and discharging 
of electro-magnets in the presence of spirals or other con¬ 
ducting circuits. 

101. Again, this “induced current” may be developed in 
the primary circuit or wire itself. It is then called the 
extra current. Also, as Prof. J. Henry has shown, the 
secondary current may in its turn be made to develop an¬ 
other, and this again a fourth, and so on to an indefinite 
limit. 

In addition to their great scientific interest, these actions 
above briefly noticed have developed two of the most 
remarkable instruments for the production of electric 
phenomena, the induction coil and the magneto-electric 
machine. 

102. The induction coil consists of a thick wire wound 
into a spiral around a bundle of soft iron needles. This 
receives, through a “break-piece” or “interrupter,” either 
automatic or moved by hand, a discontinuous current from 
a galvanic battery. Around this primary spiral, but most 
thoroughly insulated from it, even by a heavy glass jar, is 
another or secondary spiral of very fine wire and of great 
length. The terminals of this furnish the positive and 
negative fluids. To do away with the interfering action 
of the “extra current,” a condenser is connected with the 
primary circuit at either side of the break-piece. This 
condenser is equivalent to a Leyden jar of great surface, 
and is made of tin-foil separated by oil-silk. 

The battery connections being made, and the interrupter 
put in action, at each break of circuit flashes of elec¬ 
tricity pass between the terminals with a length and bril¬ 
liancy depending upon the size and perfection of tho 
instrument. One of these coils, built for the present writer 
by Mr. E. S. Ritchie of Boston, to whom the instrument 
owes its efficient and practical development {Jour, of the 
Franklin Institute, vol. xl., p. 64), is shown in the accom- 






























ELECTRICITY. 1515 


panying cut. (See Fig. 27.) The outer or secondary coil 
of this instrument contains fifty miles of wire, .007 inch in 
diameter, covered with silk; the primary wire is 200 feet 


long and 0.1055, or about one-sixth of an inch, thick. The 
condenser contains 325 square feet of coated surface. With 
three cells of battery, each having in use, when freshly 
charged, not more than half a square foot of active surface, 
this instrument throws sparks in the air through a distance 
of twenty-one inches, and pierces solid blocks of glass three 
inches thick. When connected with a large Leyden jar the 
sound of its discharge is painful. 

103. In addition to its numerous applications in scientific 
connections, this instrument has been used with great suc¬ 
cess as a means of lighting instantaneously the numerous 
gas-burners in public buildings, such as theatres. Many 
of these buildings in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia 
are so lit up. It is also employed in the Lenoir gas-engine 
to ignite the mixture of gas and air in the cylinder. 

Magneto-Electric Machines. —104. If a coil of wire is 
rapidly caused to approach and recede from a permanent 
magnet, a series of induced currents will be developed in 
it. An easy way of securing this approach and withdrawal 
is to make several such coils rotate in front of large mag¬ 
nets in the manner shown in the cut. (See Fig. 28.) If 
bars of soft iron are fixed in the coils, they will receive and 


Fig. 28. 



lose their charge, and so greatly add to tho effect. Thus, 
then, such a machine may be constructed, and by terminat¬ 
ing the coils in plates on opposite sides of the axis, which 
thus will alternately touch springs resting against it on 
either side, we may correct the reversal of the currents, and 
get them from these springs in a constant direction. This 
machine has received a great number of modifications, of 
which the important ones are Siemcn’s armature and 
Wilde’s application of cumulative action. 


105. Siemen’s armature consists of a small cylinder of 
iron having two deep grooves cut along its length on 
opposite sides. In these grooves the wire is wound, and 

by this means the whole piece can 
be placed between the poles of a se¬ 
ries of horseshoe magnets, or other¬ 
wise in a very intense field of force. 
It is moreover in a form admirably 
adapted for rapid rotation. 

106. Wilde was the first to apply 
the discovery that the current devel¬ 
oped by one magneto-electric ma¬ 
chine could charge electro-magnets 
with a far greater force than ex¬ 
isted in the magnets of the first ma¬ 
chine. Thus, by having one machine 
to charge the electro-magnets of 
another, a very great electric cur¬ 
rent could be readily produced. 
This plan was adopted in the ma¬ 
chine shown in tho accompanying 
cut. (See Fig. 29.) A number of 
permanent magnets placed above 
produce in the armature rotating 
between them a current which 
charges the large electro-magnets 
below, and the armature rotating 
within these electro-magnets yields 
a current of great power. 

107. Ladd of London has carried this idea yet farther 


Fig. 29. 



by dispensing with the upper machine, and causing part 
of the current developed by the large armature to circulate 
in the magnets around it. Some trace of magnetism will 
be found in any piece of iron, and this is enough to start 
the action, which, reacting on itself, soon brings the ma¬ 
chine to its maximum energy of action. 

108. These developments of electric action are not ob¬ 
tained without corresponding expenditure of force. The 
armatures are powerfully attracted by the magnets, and 
must be forcibly pulled away. Indeed, one of Wilde’s 
machines when producing a very intense electric light re¬ 
quires about five horse-power to drive it.* 

109. Not only do magnets develop currents of electricity 
in coils of wire, but also in any moving conductors, and 
the currents so produced react upon the magnets, and also 
in passing through the conductors themselves develop heat. 
Thus, if a copper disk or tube is rotated in a powerful 
magnetic field, it will become very hot; indeed, fusible 
metal placed in such a tube may even be melted. So, 
again, a disk of copper rotated under a magnetic needle 
will cause this to be displaced. The magnet induces cur¬ 
rents in the rotating disk, and these in turn aflect the 
magnet. 

Electrical Measurements. — General Considerations 
and Definitions. —110. We have already at the outset, 
when considering the source of galvanic electricity, pretty 
fully discussed the meaning of electro-motive force, and 
have shown that it means simply the power of separating 

* These machines are now employed with entire success to 
deposit copper for electrotyping, as at the establishment ot Mr. 
L L Smith, 135 West Twenty-fifth street, New York, and for 
some lighthouses. An account of the magneto-electric machino 
of M. Gramme, in the London “Standard ” of April 9, 1873, con¬ 
firmed by other information, leads to the belief that a decided 
improvement has been made in these machines. 


Fig. 27. 





















































































































































1516 


ELECTRICITY. 


the electric fluids resulting from a difference in chemical 
attractions under certain conditions. We have compared 
this power, with reference to each of the fluids considered 
separately, to an imaginary property which we might sup¬ 
pose some substance to possess of forcing water through it 
in one direction until a slight difference in level had been 
established on opposite sides, when the action would be 
restrained by the hydrostatic pressure or head of the higher 
level. Now, it is evident that the quantity of liquid made 
to pass by such an action would depend on two things—on 
the intensity of the moving force (electro-motive force), 
and on tho total resistance experienced to such motion, in¬ 
cluding both the resistance in the source of force itself (the 
sieve, for instance, in our illustration) and the channel by 
which the liquid could descend again to its first level. 

Clearly, if the propelling force were constant the amount 
of liquid moved (there being in this case no question of 
inertia) would be so much the more as the resistance was 
less, and vice versa. We therefore see that this simple 
equation will express the relation between these three 
things; Q being the quantity of fluid moved, E the electro- 

~ B . 

motive force, and R the resistance: Q— —. Ibis is the 

R 

famous law of Ohm, on which is founded the whole science 
of electrical measurement. 

111. We will now consider a few cases in detail as a 
means of more clearly understanding the relations of this 
principle. Suppose that we have a number of electro¬ 
motive elements, such as galvanic battery couples, and 
arrange them in series (?.-£. each one working into the 
next, as it were), and have an outside connection so short 
and of such a good conductor that it will offer no appre¬ 
ciable resistance. What will be the quantity of fluid set in 
motion in such a case, as compared with what a single ele¬ 
ment would yield with the same good outside connection ? 
To make our equation full in its expression, we would 

E - nE 

have Q = ——— for the single element, and Q' = —-- for 

R + r «R + r 

the number of elements; R being the resistance of the ele¬ 
ment itself, and r that of the exterior connection. Now, 
it is evident that if r= 0;-.as we have supposed in the case 

nE E 

taken above, the second equation becomes Q' 


nR 


= R’ ° r 


identical with the first; or, in other words, that the series 
of cells, however great their number, will set in motion no 
more fluid than a single one. 

Let us give the above a numerical shape. Let E = 50, 

50 ^ 10X50 

E Too and ” ; Q= 20T0 =2 - 5 ’ andQ io^To 

= 200 = 2 - 5 - 

112. Let us now consider the reason of this in the light 
of our illustration. Suppose we have a single sieve forcing 
water through a trough, and that this water can flow back 
with perfect freedom. There will then be no appreciable 
head acting against the sieve, and it will therefore force all 
the water that it is capable of transmitting. Now, suppose 
another sieve to take the water which has passed through 
the first; it will simply transmit it as did the other, with¬ 
out giving it any head or otherwise affecting it; for it must 
be borne in mind that we are not dealing with a dense ma¬ 
terial, which can acquire momentum, but with an impon¬ 
derable fluid. 

But now let us suppose that the exterior resistance was 
considerable—that, for example, the water raised to one side 
in the trough could only flow out by a narrow tube. Then 
clearly the sieve would produce a difference of level ap¬ 
proaching that which was its maximum, and could then 
only pass on more water as the pipe allowed the accumulated 
quantity to flow back.* If, now, a second sieve were added 
to the first, it would take the water at the height to which 
the first sieve had raised it, and would raise it just as much 
higher, so giving it twice the head to force it through the 
pipe; and for a fluid without weight this would cause a 
double flow. Returning to our equation, we would then 
have this case expressed as follows, making r no longer 

E nE 

equal to 0, but, say, to 30: Q = —;—and Q” = —-; 

^ R + r nR + r 

50 10 X 50 500 

Q = ^ 1 and = = 2.17. In 


20 + 30 ~ 10X 20 + 30 230 

other words, in place of having the same quantity in both 
cases, as before, we now have more than twice as much in 
the one instance as in the other. It thus becomes evident 
that to obtain the best effect a certain proportion ought to 
exist between the exterior resistance and that of the electro¬ 
motor or battery, and our illustration will give us an easy 
way of seeing what this must be. 

* Moreover, this flow would evidently depend for its quantity 
on the amount of head propelling it. 


113. It is, in the first place, evident that if the resist¬ 
ance of the exterior circuit is greater than that of the bat¬ 
tery, the latter will “pump up ” the fluid faster than it can 
come down again, and that so its whole capacity will not 
be utilized; while, on the other hand, if the exterior resist¬ 
ance is less than that of the battery, then the latter will be 
doing unnecessary work in raising the fluid to a higher 
level and giving it a greater “head” to flow down than is 
needed to keep up the supply; or, in other words, that we 
could very greatly decrease the number of active elements, 
and thus the expenditure of force, and yet but little dimin¬ 
ish the amount of fluid put in motion. Thus, suppose we 
have 30 elements, each with an electro-motive force of 12 
and a resistance of 2, and have an exterior resistance of 40; 

«E 30X 12 360 „ T , 

then Q = ——- = —--- = — — 3.6. Ii we now take 

nR + r 30X2 + 40 100 

away 10 elements, or diminish the expenditure of material by 
, . , nE 20 X 12 240 o 

one-third, we will have <j- = ;^- 20><2 + 40 = ^ = 8 > 

or a diminution in the current of only .6, or one-sixth of 
its former amount. 

These examples, with the foregoing definitions, render 
the meaning of electro-motive force and Ohm’s law suf¬ 
ficiently clear; and we will therefore pass to the next point, 
or the meaning of the terms— 

Tension or Potential. —114. These terms are used to in¬ 
dicate the condensation or accumulation of the fluids at 
any points, as compared with some standard assumed con¬ 
stant for the time being; or, turning to our former and 
convenient illustration, the tension or potential of any part 
of a circuit is the “head” or “hydrostatic column” of fluid 
at that point. Thus, suppose that A, B, C, D, E represented 
a series of galvanic elements or cells, with their negative 
pole connected with the ground at N, and the positive pole 

Fig. 30. 





d / 




c / 




* / 




a / 




4- 



ABODE 

insulated; then the successive levels a, b, c, cl, e would in¬ 
dicate the + tensions of the various points, the relative 
tensions being expressed by vertical lines drawn to a com¬ 
mon level. This shows us also at a glance the relation 
between electro-motive force and tension. The tension 
due to each cell equals its electro-motive force, and the 
total tension or maximum tension of the series is equal to 
the sum of the electro-motive forces; but the tension of 
each point is different, while the electro-motive force is 
uniform. 

Fig. 31. 



Again, let us suppose that the + pole of battery E of the 
last diagram were connected by a long wire with the earth 
at F; then the positive tension at F would be nothing, and 
at various points in the line would be represented by the 
heights of corresponding points on the line eF. Or, to 
revert to our hydrostatic comparison, suppose water to bo 
supplied to a pipe GF at G, and to run out freely at F, 
the head at any intermediate point, II, might be supposed 
to be HI. As we have before remarked, we do not propose 
this as an illustration in hydraulics, though by adding tho 
necessary conditions it could be carried out in that shape, 
but simply as giving a physical shape to the idea of tho 
electric state, which may render it more easy to handle. 

Derived Circuits. —115. When more than one passage is 
presented to an electric fluid, it will divide itself between 
them in proportion to the ease of passage, or inversely to 
the resistance. Thus, suppose two circuits open to tho cur¬ 
rent, one offering a resistance of 9 and the other of 1 unit. 
Then one-tenth of the current will flow through the first, 
and nine-tenths through the second; and whatever be the 































































































ELECTRICITY. 


1517 


number, and however great the difference of the circuits, 
this rule will be rigorously carried out. Again, if two 
sepaiate circuits have resistances of 2 in one case and 9 in 
another, and we wish to find what their resistance would 
amount to when they both acted together as parallel roads 
for the fluid, we easily derive it in this manner. If their 
resistances are 9 and 2 respectively, their conducting powers 
w r ill be one-ninth and one-half, or the reciprocals of their 
resistances. Now, the sum of these, which would evi¬ 


dently be their united conducting power, would be — + — 
_ 9 2 

_ 2 + 9 

_ 9 ~<2 ’ ^ 11S being the conducting power, the resist- 


9X2 18’ 

ance is its reciprocal, or --= —= \ JL. 

1 ’ 2 + 9 11 1T- 


But from the 


above example we can derive the rule—namely, the resist¬ 
ance of a compound of two parallel circuits is the product 
of the resistances divided by their sum. 

116. One of the applications of this principle is in the 
use of what are called shunts. These are resistances bear¬ 
ing some convenient relation to that of the galvanometer 
used, and therefore diverting a proportional amount of the 
current, so that we can measure with an instrument a cur¬ 
rent which would otherwise be much too powerful. Sup¬ 
pose, for example, that we have a coiled wire whose resist¬ 
ance is to that of the galvanometer as 1 to 9; then the total 
amount of current transmitted will be that due to their 
u combined” resistance when they form parallel connections. 
9X19 

Thus, y ^ = — will be the resistance of this “ combined 


circuit, and hence its transmitting power will be j while 
the galvanometer resistance being 9, its transmitting power 
will be or one-tenth of this; hence, with this shunt in 
action, the force measured by the galvanometer will be 
one-tenth of the total amount passing, and hence all its 
indications should be multiplied by ten. In tho same way 
we may use shunts whose resistances are to those of the 
galvanometers as 1:99 or 1: 999, and so measure the one 
one-hundredths and one one-thousandths of the current. 

Measurement of Resistances .—“ Wheatstone’s Bridge .” 
—117. Suppose that the positive pole of a battery, with a 


Fia. 32. 


A 



tension represented by the height AB, is connected at B to 
two wires, BC and BD, whose resistances are represented 
by the lengths of those lines, and that these lines are both 
connected with the earth at their ends, C and D respect¬ 
ively. They will then of necessity have the same tension 
at B, and none at all at C and D, and at any point between 
their tensions would be represented by the heights of lines 
drawn to AC and AD respectively. Now, if any line be 
drawn parallel to BD, cutting AC and AD, as at F and G, 
it is evident—1st, that the tensions of the corresponding 
points II and I of the wires will be equal, being measured 
by the equal lines FH' and GI', and hence that if these 
points were connected by a conductor no current would 
pass, as there would be no reason for it to go from F to G 
or from G to F. 2d, By the similarity of triangles ACD 
and AFG, AG : AF :: GD : FC, from which we would con¬ 
clude that if we unite two points in two circuits, so that 
the four segments are proportional in their resistance, no 


Fig. 33. 



current will pass. We have only considered the one fluid, 
the positive, but of course the same reasoning would apply to 
the negative, and being true for each would be true for both. 


Let us now consider an application of this general prin¬ 
ciple. Suppose that we have adjustable and known resist¬ 
ances so arranged that a battery current entering at A 
divides on AG and AF ; that from G to CD are arranged 
other known resistances, while between F and CD we intro¬ 
duce some unknown resistance which we wish to measure. 
The points G and F are connected through a galvanometer. 

118. Suppose, then, that we make the adjustable resist¬ 
ance on AG 10, and that on AF 100, and then introduce re¬ 
sistances on G-CD until the galvanometer ceases to show 
any current. We will then know that AG : AF :: G-CD : 
F-CD, or x. If therefore we had found it necessary to in¬ 
troduce resistances of 173 at G-CD, we would have 10 : 
100 :: 173 : x, x = 1730. This method, which admits of a 
very wide range of application, is perhaps more exten¬ 
sively used than any other. 

With a double-coil galvanometer we may measure resist¬ 
ances by making the current divide and pass in opposite 
senses through the two coils. If each branch has an equal 
resistance, the two currents will be exactly equal, and their 
effects upon the needle or needles will neutralize each other. 
The unknown resistance being introduced in the one branch, 
we place known resistances in the other until a balance 
is obtained, and then know that the resistance so intro¬ 
duced equals the unknown one. Where the resistance is 
too great for our standards, we can, by introducing shunts 
on that side, increase their value 10, 100, or 1000 times. 
For resistances higher than can be measured in this way 
we note the deflection produced by the current, and com¬ 
pare it with that obtained with known resistances, either 
with or without shunts. 

Induction. —119. This action in the case of insulated 
wires is exactly the same as that already discussed in the 
Leyden jar. It is measured by noting the deflection pro¬ 
duced by charging and discharging the insulated wire im¬ 
mersed all but its ends in water connected with the other 
pole, and comparing this deflection with that obtained by 
like treatment with condensers of known capacity. The 
unit here used is the farad, for whose relations to other 
measures see “ Electrical Units.” 

Resistance of Batteries. —020. With a double-coil gal¬ 
vanometer this measurement presents little difficulty. We 
connect one or more cells of the battery with a set of ad¬ 
justable resistances, and pass the current through one coil 
of the galvanometer, introducing as much resistance as is 
necessary to bring the deflection to a sensitive point. We 

E 

note this effect, and then know that it or Q = —-; 

’ R + r + r’' 

R being the battery resistance, r the resistance of the gal¬ 
vanometer, and r' the additional resistance which we have 
introduced. We now pass the current through both coils 
in the same direction, and add resistance until we get the 
same deflection as before. We then know that since by 
passing twice as often round the needle the electro-motive 
force has been doubled in efficiency, and yet has only pro¬ 
duced an equal effect, the resistances must all have been 
doubled. Now, r is doubled by the use of the second coil, 
and we know the amount of >■', which is what we added 
to regulate the deflection; therefore any additional quan¬ 
tity which we have employed must be the duplicate of R, 
the battery resistance. 

121. To compare the electro-motive force of batteries, 
we first determine their resistance, and then, connecting 
them successively to the same galvanometer, add resist¬ 
ances till they all make the same deflection; then their 
electro-motive forces will be inversely as the total resist¬ 
ances in the several cases, including those of the batteries 
themselves. 

122. We have here given all the fundamental processes 
of measurement, but there are of course countless modifica¬ 
tions which cannot be even named within our present brief 
limits. For these we must refer the reader to the works of 
Sabine, Clark, and Culley on this special subject, and to 
the numerous papers in the “Reports of the British Asso¬ 
ciation” and in the scientific journals. 

123. As a matter of interest to the general reader, we 
may mention that the location of faults in submerged 
cables is accomplished by the application in some modified 
form of one or other of the methods already described, 
according to the nature of the fault. Thus, if the fault is 
an entire rupture, it is located by comparing the resistance 
of the piece left with that of known lengths of the same 
wire. If the conductor is fractured inside of its insulating 
sheath, the inductive charge is measured, and we thus know 
how much wire remains on the nearer side of the break. 
Of course complicated cases require special treatment. 

Electrical Units.— The unit of resistance or ohm has 
been already given at $ 75. 

The unit of tension or electro-motive force, or volt, does 
not differ much from that of a Daniell's cell. One million 
volts make a megavolt, and one-millionth of a volt is a 























1518 


ELECTRICITY, ANIMAL—ELECTRO-DYNAMIC ENGINE. 


microvolt. Sir W. Thomson makes the volt equal to .9268; 
the electro-motivo force of a Danicll’s cell or the Daniell = 
1.079 volts. 

The unit of quantity is a farad, tho megafarad and 
microfarad bearing the same proportion of a million times 
and a millionth as with the ohms and volts. The farad is 
that quantity of electricity which with an electro-motive 
force of one volt would flow through the resistance of one 
megohm in one second. The British Association unit of 
current is a current of one farad per second. 

The Electro-chemical Unit. —Experiment shows that a 
unit current decomposes in one second .143 grains of water, 
or liberates 1.02 cubic inches of mixed gas. 

Henry Morton. . 

Electricity, Animal. See Electricity, $ 77, p. 
1511, by Pres. Henry Morton, Ph. I). 

Electric Light is the result of heat produced by the 
force of electricity, which is usually evoked by the chem¬ 
ical reaction of a metal and an acid. This combination is 
termed a battery, and from its opposite ends the opposite 
kinds of electricity are conducted by wires, terminating in 
pencils of hard coke. These pencils being brought into 
contact and then separated, the opposing electric currents 
rush together to form again neutral electricity, and this 
act gives rise to a very great amount of heat. This heat 
will ignite the intermediate stratum of air to a point at 
which it evolves light, but this amount of light is small 
compared with that given out by the ignited ends of the 
coke pencils and the particles of carbon thrown off by these 
pencils. The most beautiful of all artificial lights is pro¬ 
duced in this way. 

In using the electric light it is found that the carbon 
points waste rapidly, the positive point especially so. One 
of the best methods of keeping the light constant is a de¬ 
vice by Duboscq, whereby clockwork is made to move tho 
points slowly towards each other—the positive at about 
twice the rate of the negative point. In order to prevent 
the points from striking each other the current is made to 
pass through a coil around an electro-magnet, which at¬ 
tracts a keeper, thus stopping the clock; but when the 
points are burned away the clock is started by the falling 
of the keeper, and the current is so quickly renewed (if the 
apparatus be good) that no sensible disturbance of the light 
takes place. This light is much employed for experimental 
purposes, and has been used with success in lighthouses. 

Electric Telegraph. See Telegraph, by Prof. A. 
M. Mayer, Ph. D. 

Elec'trodes (plu.), [from electricity and the Gr. oSos, 
a “ way ”], the surfaces by which electricity passes into and 
out of different media. The poles of the voltaic battery or 
pile are especially termed electrodes. The so-called positive 
electrode is the “ anode,” and the negative is the “ cathode.” 

Electro-dynamic Engine, a form of engine in which 
electro-magnetism is the motive-power. Immediately after 
the invention of the electro-magnet in 1827 by Prof. Henry, 
the instantaneousness with which, in this contrivance, force 
may be developed, destroyed, or reversed, led many persons 
of an inventive turn to attempt its application to some use¬ 
ful purpose in the arts. Many forms of vibrating and rotat¬ 
ing apparatus were constructed by Prof. Henry and others 
to illustrate the principle; but the first electro-dynamic 
engine, properly so called, was the invention of Thomas 
Davenport of Vermont, by whom it was exhibited to Prof. 
Henry in 1835, and brought out publicly in New York a 
year or two later. In this machine a number of fixed elec¬ 
tro-magnets were arranged, with poles presented inward, 
upon the circumference of a horizontal circle, within which 
an equal number, V-shaped in form, with their branches in 
the direction of radii, revolved. By a system of pole-chang¬ 
ing thimbles the battery current in the revolving magnets 
was reversed at the moment of nearest approach of the fixed 
and movable poles, so that during approach they were at¬ 
tracted towards each other, and after the passage repelled. 
The success of a small machine of this construction was 
such as to encourage Mr. Davenport to attempt one on a 
scale sufficiently large, by calculation, to drive a power¬ 
printing-press ; but this last proved a complete failure, and 
the engine was heard of no more. The discrepancy in this 
case, as in many others where similar disappointment has 
been encountered, between calculation and experimental re¬ 
sults, was in great part owing to the fact that moving mag¬ 
nets, whether permanent or temporary, always generate, in 
closed conducting circuits in their neighborhood, secondary 
or induced electric currents, which act in opposition to the 
primary currents, and tend in all electro-dynamic engines 
to diminish the effective energy of the magnets, whether 
they act by attraction or by repulsion. But had not this 
difficulty existed, the engine would hardly have been an 
economical success, since the materials consumed in the bat¬ 
tery, metallic zinc and acids or salts, are products of indus¬ 


try prepared by the aid of heat; and the heat necessary for 
such preparation is capable, if directly applied to the pro¬ 
duction of steam, of performing a larger amount of work 
than would be derived from the electro-dynamic engine, 
even were it not subject to the disadvantage above men¬ 
tioned. Indeed, it has long since been regarded as settled 
that motive-power derived from electro-magnetic combina¬ 
tions can only be secured at an expense which forbids its 
employment upon a large scale; but for many minor pur¬ 
poses, in which the consideration of cost is unimportant, the 
convenience of application of this power has secured for it 
an acceptance which in France and England is becoming 
every year more general. 

The extensive introduction into families of the sewing- 
machine has created a special demand for small powers; 
and it is here that the electro-magnetic engine finds a field 
of usefulness to which it is peculiarly adapted. An engine 
of this kind, the invention of Mr. J. II. Cazal of Paris, was 
exhibited in the Universal Exposition of 1867, and received 
from the jury the distinction of an honorable mention. 
This is exceedingly compact, and as the driving machinery 
takes the place and has the appearance of the fly-wheel of 
the common sewing-machine, it adds nothing to the weight 
or to the seeming complication. It is formed of a thick 
disk of soft iron cut into the shape of a gear-wheel, a deep 
groove being afterwards cut down in the middle of the cir¬ 
cumference, which is wound with insulated wire. The ends 
of the wire are soldered to insulated thimbles, which, by 
means of tangent-springs, introduce the battery current in 
the usual way. Surrounding this magnetic wheel is a heavy 
iron ring, indented on its interior surface in a manner to 
present elevations corresponding to the teeth or salient 
points of the wheel. This ring is fixed, and the whole ap¬ 
paratus is more or less concealed by a neat annular metallic 
envelope. When the teeth of the wheel pass before the 
prominent parts of the surrounding ring, there is a near 
approach to contact, and the attraction is strong. W hen 
these teeth are halfway between those points, the opposite 
attractions are balanced. At the moment of nearest ap¬ 
proach the current is arrested; it is renewed again at the 
intermediate position. In the interval, while the current 
is not flowing, the magnetic wheel maintains the motion in 
the manner of a fly-wheel. 

Another engine was exhibited in the same exposition by 
a company calling itself the Birmingham Electro-Magnetic 
Manufacturing Company, established at Birmingham in 
England. This engine is provided with four sets of fixed 
electro-magnets of the U or horseshoe form, two sets at each 
end of an oscillating beam, by which the power is to bo 
utilized. The magnets of each set are arranged in two tiers, 
one above the other. The armatures of these several mag¬ 
nets are carried by rods depending from the ends of the 
beam, but the rods pass freely through these armatures, 
without being fastened to them. When, therefore, an ar¬ 
mature, in the descent of the rod, comes into contact with 
the magnet to w T hich it belongs, the rod continues its mo¬ 
tion, and leaves the armature resting there. In the return 
motion the rod lifts the armature again by means of a col¬ 
lar or enlargement which has been given to it at the place 
intended. Each armature has thus its collar, and these 
several collars have been so fixed upon the suspended rods 
that the armatures reach the faces of their respective mag¬ 
nets successively, and no two at the same time. In the 
action of the machine the battery current actuates the mag¬ 
nets on the side of the descent, while on the other side the 
current is cut off. The machine acts therefore only by at¬ 
traction. The armatures are of soft iron. As these arma¬ 
tures approach their magnets successively, it will happen 
that whenever one becomes inefficient, by coming into con¬ 
tact with its magnet, the next will be in position to exert 
a very high attractive force. And this force increases until 
this next makes contact with its magnet in like manner. 
The arrangements of this machine, though extremely simple, 
are not unfavorable to the object of securing the largest 
amount of effective power from a given battery current. 

A third motor of this class, which made its appearance at 
the same Exposition, was the invention of Ivravogl of Inns¬ 
bruck in the Tyrol, and is described by Robert Sabine, Esq., 
member of the British commission to the Exposition, to be 
“ a hollow heavy wrought-iron wheel, rotated by means of 
a permanent magnet creeping up inside it. In principle, 
the apparatus resembles exactly a treadmill. Inside the 
outer case of iron, in the centre of the section, is a circular 
tube of brass, and in the annular space between the two 
tubes three coils of insulated wire are wound at right angles 
to the tangents of the periphery, and connected with con¬ 
tacts properly placed at the axis. Inside the interior brass 
tube or ring is a magnet carried on anti-friction wheels, 
and occupying perhaps one-third of the whole circle. When 
a current is sent through the wire surrounding the magnet, 
the latter is deflected, or creeps up the ring on one side or 












ELECTRO-DYNAMICS—ELECTROTYPE. 


the other according to the direction of the current, and by 
doing so displaces the centre of gravity of the whole sys¬ 
tem towards that side. In consequence, the wheel must 
turn slightly on its axis to compensate this displacement. 
But while it does so the magnet creeps up still farther, so 
that the wheel acquires a continuous rotatory motion. There 
is very little friction in this machine, and it is probably one 
of those in which the equivalent of mechanical force, gained 
by an expenditure of a unit of current, would be found the 
highest. This is not saying much, however, for in the best 
constructed machine this found value must fall far short of 
the theoretical equivalent.” From this statement it appears 
that, whatever may be the coefficient of effective force in the 
machine described, the absolute amount of work which it is 
capable of performing must always be extremely limited, 
since at maximum it cannot exceed the weight of the mag¬ 
net lifted through a space equal to that described by a point 
in the periphery of the wheel, taken at the mean distance 
of the magnet trom the centre of motion. In the machine 
exhibited the magnet, though of course concealed from ob¬ 
servation, could not, from the visible dimensions of the 
apparatus, have exceeded a pound or two in weight. To 
construct a machine on this principle of any considerable 
power it would be necessary very greatly to enlarge these 
dimensions. 

Many other inventions of this kind might be enumerated, 
but the foregoing will suffice to sl\ow the principles on which 
they must all depend. F. A. P. Barnard. 

Elec'tro-Dynam'ics is the science which treats of 
the phenomena of electric currents. (See Electricity, by 
Pres. Henry Morton, Pii. D.) 

Electrol'ysis [from electricity and the Gr. Auto, to “set 
free ”], the chemical decomposition of a substance by means 
of electricity. It the poles of a galvanic battery are ter¬ 
minated by slips of platinum, and these are immersed in 
water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid, they will im¬ 
mediately become covered with bubbles of gas, which soon 
begin to rise through the water, and these gases will bo 
found to be oxygen and hydrogen, the two components of 
water; the oxygen rising from the positive and the hydro¬ 
gen from the negative pole. This process can only take 
place when the substance to be decomposed is in the liquid 
state; for it includes, if it does not wholly depend on, a 
convective action, during which the parts of the body are 
transferred, one to one side, the other to the other; and it 
therefore requires the free mobility of the liquid form. 
During electrolysis the components of the electrolyte are 
resolved into two groups, one of which goes to the positive 
pole, and the other to the negative pole; and the electro¬ 
lytic action of the current is the same at all parts of the 
circuit. The quantity of the electrolyte decomposed in a 
given time is in simple proportion to the strength of the 
current; and the same quantity of electricity decomposes 
chemically equivalent quantities of different electrolytes. 
When several electrolytes are mixed, a strong current will 
generally act a little on all of them, and the quantity in 
which the elementary-bodies appear will depend upon the 
quantities of the compounds in the mixture, and on the 
relative ease with which they yield to decomposition. 

Electro-Magnetism. See Electricity, by Pres. 
Henry Morton, Ph. D. 

Electro-Metallurgy. See Electrotype. 

Electrom'eter [from electricity and the Gr. p-irpov, a 
“measure”] is sometimes used as the name of an instru¬ 
ment employed in detecting electric excitation, but more 
commonly called electroscope; but the term properly des¬ 
ignates those instruments by which the attempt is made to 
measure the amount of the electric force. Coulomb’s elec¬ 
trometer measures this force by the amount of twist it will 
give to a silken thread; others measure the arc through 
which a suspended pith ball is repelled by electricity. 

Electroph'orus [from electricity and the Gr. <£e'pu>, 
to “produce”] is an instrument for obtaining electricity 
by means of induction. A shallow brass or tin tray, 
called the form, is filled with a compound of equal parts of 
shell-lac, resin, and Venetian turpentine. A tin plate with 
well-rounded edges and a glass handle is made to cover the 
resinous plate very nearly, without approaching too closely j 
to the edges of the form. The resinous plate is then struck 
or rubbed with warm and dry catskin or flannel, and thus 
becomes negatively electrified. The tin plate is placed on 
the resin and touched by the finger, which conducts off a 
certain amount of the natural negative electricity of the 
tin plate ; the latter has therefore become positively electri¬ 
fied, and on withdrawing the finger and raising it will fur¬ 
nish a positive spark. As the negative electricity of the 
resin acts only inductive^, the process may be repeated 
indefinitely. 

Electro-lHating is the covering of the surface of ar- 


1519 


tides formed of the cheaper metals with gold, silver, pla¬ 
tinum, nickel, copper, or other costly metal by means of the 
electric current, on the same principle as that which is em¬ 
ployed in electrotyping. German silver is one of the best 
substances to receive an electro-plate, though copper and 
its alloys are excellent. If iron, zinc, or pewter are to be 
used, they are first plated with copper, and they then 
readily take the electro-plate of gold or silver. All articles 
to be plated are most carefully cleaned and scoured. They 
are then dipped in a solution of nitrate of mercury, and re¬ 
ceive therefrom a thin film of mercury, which causes the 
plate to adhere firmly. The bath of silver, gold, or pla¬ 
tinum contains 100 parts of water, 10 of potassium cyan¬ 
ide, and 1 of the cyanide of the precious metal to be em¬ 
ployed. The articles to be plated are suspended in this 
bath, and treated as described in the article Electrotype 
(which see). After removal, they are brushed and bur¬ 
nished. The above account is necessarily very general, for 
though the principle is simple, there are in practice many 
details which require careful attention in order to secure 
success. This process is of great importance in the arts, 
one of its latest applications being the operation of Nickel- 
plating (which see.) 

Elec'troscope [from electricity and the Gr. cnco-niu, to 
“ see”], an instrument for the detection of the presence of 
electricity. Suspended balls of pith or slips of gold-leaf, 
from their extreme lightness, will readily diverge from 
each other; and this, or some similar device, is the essen¬ 
tial element of most electroscopes. They depend for their 
action on the elementary law, that bodies charged with like 
electricity repel, while those charged with unlike electricity 
attract each other. The electroscope most used is Bennet’s 
gold-leaf electroscope. This consists of a glass shade with 
a wide mouth, which is closed by a wooden stopper which 
can be taken out and replaced at pleasure. A glass tube 
passes vertically through the centre of the wooden stopper, 
while a metallic rod is fixed in the centre of the glass tube. 
The lower end of the rod terminates in a small flat plate, 
to the sides of which two narrow strips of gold-leaf are 
soldered, and are thus attached opposite each other; and 
the upper end of the rod is furnished either with a circular 
horizontal plate or with a brass knob. If an electrified 
body be brought near to the top of the instrument, the top 
becomes electrified oppositely to the body presented, and 
the gold leaves similarly. As they are both charged with 
the same kind of electricity, they repel each other, and 
diverge more or less in proportion to the strength of the 
charge and to the nearness of the electrified body; and 
thus show us the presence of free electricity. Besides Ben- 
net's electroscope, there are the single gold-leaf electroscope, 
Volta’s condensing electroscope, and Bohnenberger’s elec¬ 
troscope. 

Elec'trotint, an art by which drawings are made with 
any substance insoluble in the solution of sulphate of cop¬ 
per. When the design is completed the plate is immersed 
in the solution, and a reverse made by the electro-copper¬ 
ing process, called electrotype or voltatype. 

Elec'trotype [from electricity and type~\ is the name 
given to the cast of an object procured by the gradual de¬ 
position of a metal from a solution by means of a current 
of electricity. When two pieces of clean platinum are put 
into a solution of sulphate of copper, no change takes place. 
But if an electric current is transmitted through the solu¬ 
tion by means of these platinum plates, copper is at once 
precipitated upon the platinum, which forms the cathode, 
the anode remaining clean. If the current be reversed, 
the copper will be transferred from the platinum plate on 
which it had been deposited to the clean plate. By thus 
reversing the direction of the current the copper may bo 
sent backward and forward, being always deposited upon 
the negative pole, or that surface by which the electric cur¬ 
rent leaves the electrolyte or solution that is undergoing 
decomposition. By continuing the electric currents, and 
keeping up the strength of the solution by adding fresh 
portions of the salt of copper, the metallic film on the 
cathode may bo made of any required thickness, and after¬ 
wards peeled off the platinum surface. The texture of the 
copper deposited varies with the battery-power employed 
and with the strength and temperature of the solution, and 
may be hard, brittle, and crystalline, or tough and malle¬ 
able, according to the management of the operator. A 
current of low intensity, a moderately strong solution of 
sulphate of copper acidulated with sulphuric acid, and a 
temperature not below 60°, are the most favorable circum¬ 
stances for obtaining the best deposit of copper. W hen 
the negative pole or cathode is irregular (like a coin or 
medal), instead of being a plane surface of platinum, an 
exact impression of the device may be taken off on the 
precipitated copper. Gold and other metals may be sub¬ 
stituted for copper by proper management, or if the pre- 













ELECTRUM—ELEPHANT. 


1520 


cipitated metal be left upon the surface on which it is 
thrown down, gilding, silvering, etc. may be done exten¬ 
sively and with fine effect. This art is called electro-pla¬ 
ting. Proficiency in electrotyping or the galvano-plastic 
art requires but little apparatus, and involves no great ex¬ 
pense. A medal may be either copied directly, and an 
inverted impression obtained from which a second electro¬ 
type can be taken, or a cast of the medal may be first made 
in stearin or plaster. In the latter operation, which is the 
most generally used, the mould, if of plaster, must be first 
soaked in oil, tallow, or melted spermaceti, so as to render 
it impervious to water. It must then be made a conductor 
of the current, and this is done by thoroughly brushing 
black lead over the surface which is to be reproduced. In 
case the medal itself is used, in order to prevent the depo¬ 
sition of copper which would take place upon the edges and 
upon the reverse of the medal, those parts should be cov¬ 
ered with sealing-wax, varnish, or shell-lac. The introduc¬ 
tion of this valuable art has been ascribed to different per¬ 
sons. Daniell is said to have been the first to notice the 
deposition of metallic copper by electricity while working 
with his battery; Jacobi of St. Petersburg first published 
in 1839 a practical application of this fact, which publica¬ 
tion called out announcements from Spencer and Jordan, 
two Englishmen, who were both working independently at 
the same object as Jacobi. Messrs. Elkington soon after 
applied the process to the gilding and plating of goods on 
a large scale. Electrotyping has to some extent super¬ 
seded the old stereotype process for making plates for 
printers’ use, especially for the reproduction of engravings 
and where large numbers are to be printed. In large elec¬ 
trotyping establishments, gutta percha moulds are almost 
exclusively employed at present, and in place of galvanic 
batteries magneto-electrical machines driven by steam are 
used. 

Elec'trum, the Latin name of Amber (which see); also 
a natural alloy of gold and silver, in the proportion of two 
of gold and one of silver. It is found in Siberia, Norway, 
and California, and occurs in tabular crystals or imperfect 
cubes of a silver-white color. 

Elec'tuary [Lat. electua'rium, from the Gr. «, “out,” 
and Aet'xw, to “ lick,” because designed to be licked with the 
tongue from the spoon], in pharmacy, a variety of confec¬ 
tion thinner than a conserve, and composed of powdered 


drugs mingled with honey, syrup, glycerin, or other ve¬ 
hicle. Electuaries are not now recognized in the U. S. and 
British pharmacopoeias. 

El'egy [Lat. elegia; Gr. eAeyeta ; Fr. elegie; Ger. Elegie], 
the name given by the ancient Greeks and Romans to poems 
of various kinds, being applied to the martial lyrics of 
Tyrtmus, the aphorisms of Theognis and Solon, the melan¬ 
choly effusions of Mimnermus, and the erotic poems of 
Ovid, Catullus, and Tibullus. In modern times the name 
is applied chiefly to poetical compositions of a melancholy 
character. 

EEement [Lat. elemen'tum; Fr. element], a term used 
in various senses; a first principle; a rudiment; a con¬ 
stituent part of a compound; sometimes the proper state or 
sphere of a person or an animal. In the plural, the first 
principles or rules of a science or art; also the bread and 
wine in the Eucharist. Ancient philosophers applied this 
term to fire, air, earth, and water, each of which, in their 
several systems, was supposed to be the first principle of 
all things. The elements of the alchemists were sulphur, 
mercury, and salt. As a modern scientific term, element 
signifies a simple substance, or one which chemists have not 
yet decomposed. 

Elements, in astronomy, are the data required in 
order to compute the place of a planet, satellite, or comet; 
those numerical quantities, etc. which are employed in the 
construction of tables exhibiting the motions of the moon 
and planets. They comprise the greatest, least, and mean 
distances of the planets from the sun, the eccentricity of 
their orbits, their mean motions, daily and annual, their 
masses, densities, etc. 

Elements, Chemical. See Chemistry, by Prof. 
George F. Barker, M. I). 

El'emi, the name of a fragrant resinous substance pro¬ 
cured from several species of trees of the natural order 
Amyridace®. It exudes from incisions made in the bark, 
is at first soft, but becomes hard and brittle. It is generally 
pale yellow, semi-transparent, and soluble in alcohol except 
a residue called elemin. It is obtained from the Idea Ici- 
cariba, which grows in Brazil; from Elaphrium elemiferum, 
of Mexico; and from Canarium commune, of Manila. El- 
emi is used in the preparation of ointments and plasters. 

El'ephant [Gr. eXecpai ; Lat. elejihas, gen. elephantis ], 



African Elephant. 


a gigantic animal of the order Proboscidea, is the largest 
and heaviest of existing quadrupeds, and is celebrated for 
sagacity and docility. The genus is characterized by hav¬ 
ing grinders composed of alternating vertical plates of 
ivory, enamel, and caementum; and two ivory tusks in the 
upper jaw. Elephants are the only living Mammalia that 
have a proboscis or trunk longer than the head. Cuvier 
included the genus Elephas and the extinct mastodon in a 
family of pachyderms, which he called Proboscidians. The 
proboscis is a very remarkable feature, and presents an as¬ 
tonishing combination of flexibility and strength. It is an 


organ of touch, is four or five feet long, has neither bone 
nor cartilage ; and this constitutes the peculiarity of its 
mechanism. Two tubes or canals, which are prolongations 
of the nostrils, extend through its whole length. The 
mechanism of the trunk is unique among animal structures, 
and renders it capable of performing operations as different 
as picking up a pin and tearing up a tree by its roots. The 
animal uses his trunk to convey food and drink into his 
mouth, but he rarely uses it as a weapon. As an organ of 
touch the trunk is exquisitely fine. The elephant has so 
high an opinion of the importance of its trunk that when 


* 


























ELEPHANTA—ELEPHANTIASIS. 1521 


attacked by a tiger or exposed to other danger he carries 
it high in the air. The tusks, which correspond to the 
canine teeth of other quadrupeds, sometimes measure nine 
feet in length and weigh 150 pounds each, but the average 
weight is not over 100 pounds. The tusks are formidable 
defensive and offensive weapons. The curvature of the 
tusks is subject to great variations. Some of the Indian 
elephants have their tusks varying from a projecting hori¬ 
zontal but rather elevated curve to a form almost straight. 
Others resemble in shape the letter S. Although the sub¬ 
stance of which they are composed, called ivory, is differ¬ 
ent from the bone of other teeth, it is formed, like other 
teeth, by successive secretions from a pulpy root. The 
tusk has no adhesion to this root, but is held in its alveole 
(socket) as a nail is held in a plank. The elephant feeds 
on vegetable food exclusively, and the construction of its 
grinding teeth is a striking example of the adaptation of 
the teeth of every animal to its peculiar mode of subsist¬ 
ence. The duration of the teeth of quadrupeds is in pro¬ 
portion to their ordinary term of existence. To an animal 
that feeds on grass, leaves, etc. the destruction of the teeth 
involves a speedy death. Each grinder is composed of ver¬ 
tical laminae covered with enamel, and joined together by a 
substance like ivory. This latter, being much softer than 
the enamel, wears away faster, so that the enamel remains 
higher, and the surface of each grinder always presents 
several ridges. Thus, by the renewal of the grinding sur¬ 
face the teeth of the elephant will last 100 years or more. 
According to Pliny and Aristotle, the elephant is capable 
of living 200 years. 

Besides many species which are extinct, the genus Ele- 
phct8 comprises only two species now living—namely, the 
Asiatic or Indian elephant (El'ephaa In'(liens) and the Af¬ 
rican (El'ephas Africa'nua). The former has small ears 
and a concave forehead, and its skull is higher in propor¬ 
tion to its other dimensions. The forehead of the African 
species is somewhat convex, and it has enormous ears, 
which cover the shoulders. The ear is the most conspicu¬ 
ous external character by which the two species may be 
distinguished. The height of the Indian elephant from the 
ground to the top of the shoulder seldom exceeds ten feet. 
The African is larger, and sometimes measures twelve feet 
high. F. Cuvier and others regard it as of a distinct 
genus, and name it Loxodonta Africana. There is a skele¬ 
ton of an elephant in the Museum of St. Petersburg which 
measures sixteen and a half feet in height. 

A large elephant weighs about 7000 pounds. The ordi¬ 
nary period of gestation is twenty months and some days; 
only one calf is produced at a birth. The quantity of food 
consumed daily by a full-grown elephant is enormous, prob¬ 
ably not less than 300 pounds. The skin is hard, thick, and 
nearly naked, or furnished with a few scattered hairs. 

The Asiatic species is found in all the southern countries 
of Asia and in the adjacent islands. The African abounds 
in nearly all parts of the continent S. of the Desert of Sa¬ 
hara. Both species live in large herds, reigning the almost 
exclusive occupants of immense forests, and marshy plains 
covered with long grass and jungle. Their favorite habitat 
is in well-watered regions and plains or lowlands where the 
vegetation is luxuriant. It is stated that more than 1000 
have been seen in one herd. “ A herd of elephants,” says 
Pringle, “browsing in majestic tranquillity amidst the wild 
magnificence of an African landscape, is a very noble 
sight.” The people of Africa do not tame the elephant or 
use it as a beast of burden, but they kill great numbers 
for the sake of the ivory, which they sell, and the flesh, 
which they esteem as food. “There were periods in the 
history of the refined nations of antiquity when the de¬ 
struction of the elephant was as great as in modern times; 
when Africa yielded her tribute of elephants’ teeth to the 
kings of Persia; when the people of Judaea built ivory 
palaces (Psalm xiv. 8); when the Etruscan attributes of 
royalty were sceptres and thrones of ivory ; when the an¬ 
cient kings and magistrates of Rome sat in ivory seats 
(sellse curules) ; and when colossal ivory statues of their 
gods were raised by the Greeks of the age of Pericles.” 
(Library of Entertaining Knowledge .) The ancient Cartha¬ 
ginians and other nations employed elephants in war, not 
only as beasts of burden, but as combatants. These ani¬ 
mals formed part of the army which Hannibal led across 
the Alps, and they are said to have decided the victory at 
the battle of Trebia. For a long period the elephant was 
as important an arm of war as the artillery of modern na¬ 
tions/ The Asiatic species was also employed for this pur¬ 
pose, and Seleucus is said to have had more than 100 ele¬ 
phants at the battle of Ipsus. 

The African hunters shoot them in the head or heart 
with rifles, and sometimes disable them by cutting the ham¬ 
string or tendon of the hind leg with a sword. Two hunt¬ 
ers, naked, mounted on the back of the same horse, will ap¬ 
proach an elephant, and when he assumes the offensive will 
96 


retreat in a circuitous course with many devious turns. At 
length, one of the men, armed with a sword, alights on the 
ground near the elephant, and while the horseman occupies 
his attention in front the footman cuts the tendon just above 
the heel. At this critical moment the horseman wheels, 
takes his companion up behind him, and rescues him from 
the enraged animal by riding oft' at full speed. The chase 
of the elephant is attended with great danger, and many 
hunters have been killed in it. It appears that no people 
of Africa now capture elephants alive, or avail themselves 
of their services in a domesticated state, but in Asia large 
numbers of them are caught and tamed. The various 
modes of capturing wild elephants in India have prevailed 
without much change for centuries, and are practised in 
several Asiatic countries where elephants are required to 
maintain th,e splendor of Oriental luxury and figure in the 
pomp and pageantry of monarchs. In 1794 the nabob of 
Oudewent upon a hunting expedition with 1000 elephants. 
The rudest mode of capturing them is by digging a pit 
which is covered with loose boards or with boughs and 
grass, and a tame elephant decoys a herd of them to tread 
on the trap. Pliny, who mentions the taking of elephants 
in pits, says the companions of one who has been thus en¬ 
trapped will endeavor to liberate him by throwing mate¬ 
rials into the pit. In other methods of capturing them 
man avails himself of the docility of tame female elephants, 
who serve as decoys and display a treacherous ingenuity 
as well as a desire to assist their masters in this business. 
While the female by her caresses diverts the attention of a 
wild animal, one hunter fetters his fore legs with a strong 
rope, and another ties his hind leg to a tree. If no tree is 
near in the first instance, they fasten to his leg a long cable, 
which trails behind him when he moves, until he comes near 
a large tree, to which he is secured. He is kept bound in 
that position until his rage is exhausted, and he is left to 
the further operation of hunger until he is subdued into 
docility. Among the animals which will attack an ele¬ 
phant are the tiger and rhinoceros. The animals to which 
the elephant is most nearly allied are the horse, pig, and 
rhinoceros. 

According to Pliny, it was not uncommon at Rome to 
see tame elephants hurl javelins in the air and catch them 
with their trunks, and then execute a pyrrhic dance. They 
also danced upon a rope. This feat of dancing or walking 
on a rope is confirmed by other ancient writers. One of the 
strongest instincts of the elephant is that which impels him 
to try the stability and strength of any structure or surface 
which he is required to cross, before he will expose himself 
to the risk of breaking it down with his weight. 

Remains of extinct species of elephant have been found 
in many parts of Europe, North America, and Siberia. 
Among them is the mammoth (Elephas primigenius), which 
occurs in the post-pliocene deposits. An entire specimen 
was discovered in 1799 in the frozen soil at the mouth of 
the river Lena in Siberia. (See Mammoth.) In the cave of 
Kirkdale, Yorkshire, England, the bones of elephants were 
found by Prof. Buckland, mixed with those of the rhino¬ 
ceros and hymna. Many of these fossils have also been 
dug up in the U. S., near the Ohio River and at other 
places. “ There is not a canton in Siberia,” says Pallas, 
“which does not possess fossil bones of elephants.” Their 
tusks are there so abundant as to be an important article 
of commerce. William Jacobs. 

Eleplian'ta, an island of British India, in the harbor 
of Bombay, 7 miles from that city, derived its name from a 
gigantic stone figure of an elephant which formerly stood on 
the shore. The island is 6 miles in circumference. Here are 
several remarkable ancient cave-temples excavated out of 
the native rock, and adorned with numerous sculptured 
figures of the Hindoo mythology. The largest of these 
cave-temples is about 133 feet long, and is supported by 
twenty-six pillars. 

Elephant Bay, an inlet of the Atlantic, in Benguela, 
Africa, is in lat. 13° 14' S., Ion. 12° 33' E. It affords good 
anchorage, but no fresh water. 

Elephantiasis [from the Gr. e’Ae'(f>«?, an “elephant,” 
because it was fancied that the legs of those who suffered 
with it resembled those of an elephant], as at present used, 
designates the disease anciently known as elephantiasis 
Arabian, the “ elephantiasis of the Arabians,” so called to 
distinguish it from the elephantiasis Grrecorum, the “ele¬ 
phantiasis of the Greeks,” which was probably identical 
with leprosy. Elephantiasis is rare in Europe and North 
America, though not unknown in cither. It is endemic in 
the Levant and the East and IVest Indies, flhe foot and 
leg, or sometimes other parts, become greatly enlarged and 
enormously increased in density and hardness, the skin 
assuming a remarkable roughness and usually a daikness 
of hue. ^ The prognosis is usually grave, very few cases 
recovering, though many cases remain completely station- 












1522 ELEPHANTINE—ELF ARROW-HEADS. 


ary after the disease is once established. In fatal cases 
suppuration and erysipelas are the active symptoms. The 
treatment is thus far unsatisfactory. The use of iron, 
iodine and quinia, with bandaging, is recommended. 

Elephan'tine, an island of the river Nile, on the 
boundary between Egypt and Nubia, is opposite to Asswan 
(the ancient Syene). It is 1 mile long, and is partly occu¬ 
pied by gardens and houses interspersed among ruins of 
ancient temples erected by the Pharaohs. Among its 
monuments is the Nilometer mentioned by Strabo, and 
designed to record the height of the inundations of the 
Nile. Here are quarries of syenite, a variety of granite. 
This island was garrisoned by the ancient Persians and 
Romans. It is now inhabited by Nubians. 

Elephant Seal (Macrorhinus proboscidens), sometimes 
called the Proboscis Seal and Sea Elephant, is by 
far the largest of the Phocidae or seal family, being some¬ 
times thirty feet in length, and having a circumference at 
the thickest part of nearly eighteen feet. The color is 
generally bluish-gray, but occasionally dark brown. Its 
body is unevenly covered with short hair, the tail not more 
than six inches long, the swimming paws very large and 
strong, and having five nails; the hind paws, which are 
constructed like the webbed foot of a bird, are without even 
the rudiments of nails. The head is large, the eyes large 
and prominent, and there are no external ears. The canine 
teeth resemble tusks in their size and massiveness; the nose 
of the male is prolonged into a proboscis about a foot long, 
which, however, does not serve the same purpose as that 
of the elephant. The skin is very thick and strong, and is 
of great value for harness-making; the flesh is dark and 
unwholesome, the tongue only being prized as food. These 
seals are found in the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, 
Kerguelen’s Land, etc. They arc hunted to a great extent 
for their oil, which is of excellent quality and yielded in 
great quantity, one seal sometimes affording seventy gal¬ 
lons* They migrate to the south early in the summer, and 
northward in the beginning of winter. They feed chiefly 
on cuttlefish and other cephalopods. 

Elephant’s Foot ( Testudinaria elephantipes), a plant 
sometimes called “ Hottentots’ bread,” belongs to the order 
Dioscoriaeese, having a large, fleshy root-stock, abruptly 
truncated at the end. This root-stock is eaten by the Hot¬ 
tentots. It is covered with a soft, rough bark, from which 
springs a climbing stem, bearing the leaves and flowers. 
The same name is also given to a genus of the order Com- 
positae (Elephantopus), of which two species are found in 
the southern Atlantic States. 

Eletz, a town of Russia, in the government of Orel, 220 
miles S. S. E. of Moscow, on the Sosna. It has many fac¬ 
tories, and has a large trade in wheat flour. Pop. in 1867, 
30,182. 

Eleusi'ne, a genus of grasses (Graminacese), comprises 
several species which are natives of India and other warm 
climates, and are cultivated for food. Elusine Coracana is 
extensively cultivated for its large farinaceous grain in In¬ 
dia, China, and Japan. The grain called tocusso in Abys¬ 
sinia is produced by the Elusine Tocusso. The Elusine In¬ 
dian is naturalized about dooryards, etc. in the U. S. 

Eleusin'ia, or Eleusin'ian Mys'teries [Gr. ’EAev- 
aivia], an annual festival celebrated in ancient Greece in 
honor of Demeter (Ceres) and Persephone (Proserpine). 
The worship of Demeter originally took place at Eleusis 
only, but after the conquest of that city by the Athenians 
feasts were celebrated in her honor in various Grecian cities. 
The origin of these mysteries is uncertain, but the popular 
tradition was that Demeter herself, while searching for her 
daughter Persephone, came to Attica, where she taught the 
inhabitants the use of corn and instituted the mysteries. 
The festival consisted of the greater and the lesser mys¬ 
teries. The lesser feast was held in the month of Anthes- 
terion at Agrae, on the Ilissus, and was only a preparation 
for the real or greater mysteries. The latter took place in 
the month of Boedromion, beginning on the 15th and end¬ 
ing on the 23d. On the first day, called ayvp^o? (the “ as¬ 
sembling ”), the mystae— i. e. those who had been initiated 
in the lesser Eleusinia—assembled at Athens. On the 
second they walked to the sea in procession and were puri¬ 
fied. The third day appears to have been a day of fasting, 
and, according to some authorities, sacrifices of fish and 
cakes of barley from the Rarian plain were offered. On 
the fourth day the procession of the sacred basket (*cdAa0o? 
KdOoSos) took place. This basket contained pomegranates 
and poppy-seeds, and was drawn on a cart by oxen, and 
followed by women bearing mystic cases. The fifth day 
appears to have been known as the torch-day, and prob¬ 
ably symbolized the seareh of Demeter for Persephone. 
The mystae walked with torches to the temple of Demeter 
at Eleusis, where they seem to have remained all night. 
The sixth day, called Iakchos, from a son of Demeter, was 


the most solemn of all. A decorated statue of Iakchos 
was carried from Athens to Eleusis, where the votaries 
again passed the night and were initiated into the last 
mysteries. Under an awful oath of secresy they were ad¬ 
mitted into the inner sanctuary, where they were allowed 
to see the sacred things, after which they were called 
epoptse — i. e. “ contemplators.” On the seventh day they 
returned to Athens with jests and music, resting at the 
bridge over the Cephisus, where they ridiculed all who 
passed. The eighth day is supposed to have been added 
to the original number, so that those might be initiated 
who had been unable to attend on the sixth day. On the 
ninth and last day two vessels filled with wine or water 
were emptied—one towards the east, the other towards the 
west—by the priests, who at the same time uttered some 
mystical words. Besides these ceremonies there were seve¬ 
ral others, of which the Eleusinian games, supposed to 
have taken place on the seventh day, and to have been the 
most ancient in Greece, were the chief. Nothing certain is 
known respecting the doctrines revealed to the initiated, 
but they are supposed to have contained comforting assur¬ 
ances with regard to a future state. Distinctions of class 
were abolished at the Eleusinia, and with this view Lycur- 
gus forbade any woman to ride in the procession in a cha¬ 
riot, under penalty of a heavy fine. 

Eleu' sis [Gr. ’EA everis or ’EAevo-iV], an ancient and cele¬ 
brated city of Greece, was situated in Attica, near the 
northern shore of the Gulf of Salamis, and about 12 miles 
N. W. of Athens. It was the chief seat of the worship of 
Ceres, whose mystic rites, called Eleusinian Mysteries 
(which see), were here performed annually with great 
pomp. Here was a large temple of Ceres. The site of 
Eleusis was near the modern village of Levsina. (See 
Wordsworth, “Greece,” 1853.) 

Eleu'thera, one of the Bahama Islands, in the Atlantic 
Ocean, is about 50 miles N. E. of New Providence. It is 
80 miles long and about 10 miles wide. The soil is rather 
fertile, and produces pineapples, oranges, cascarilla bark, 
etc. Lat. of the northern point, 25° 34' N., Ion. 76° 43' W. 

Eleiithe'ria [from the Gr. 'EAevflepo?, “ free ”], a national 
festival of the ancient Greeks, instituted in 479 B. C. to com¬ 
memorate their deliverance from the Persian armies which 
had invaded Greece. It was celebrated annually at Platma 
in the early part of autumn. 

Eleva'tion [Lat. eleva'tio, from el'evo, eleva'tum, to 
“lift up” or “raise”], the act of raising to a higher level 
or place; the act of exalting in rank; altitude; height 
above the surface; sometimes exaltation of mind or style; 
a hill or elevated ground. In engineering and architec¬ 
ture, a geometrical representation of a building or other 
object, as if projected (hence also styled a projection) upon 
a vertical plane by perpendicular lines drawn through its 
defining lines or points. It differs from a true pictorial 
representation or perspective view in this, that the pro¬ 
jecting lines in the latter converge to the eye, as do visual 
rays; from a section, in that the latter represents, instead 
of the visible exterior, what would be exposed to the eye 
were all that part of the object in front of an intersecting 
vertical plane removed. 

Elevation, in astronomy, the angular height or the alti¬ 
tude of a celestial object above the horizon, measured by 
the arc of a vertical circle passing through it and the 
zenith. Thus, the elevation of the pole denotes the arc of 
the meridian intercepted between the pole and the horizon, 
and is always equal to the latitude of the observer. The 
greatest elevation of a star occurs when that star is on the 
meridian. 

Elevation in gunnery is the inclination of the axis of 
the cannon or gun above the object aimed at, to counteract 
the effect which the force of gravity causes. It varies with 
the range. 

Eleva'tion, a township of Johnston co., N. C. Pop. 
1459. 

Elevation of the Host ( eleva'tio hos'tise), in the Ro¬ 
man Catholic ritual of the mass, is the lifting up of the 
elements after consecration for the adoration of the people. 

Elf, plu. Elves [Ang.-Sax. selfj Ger. EVfe; Swed. elf; 
Dan. alf~\. Elves are a class of imaginary beings whose 
existence is especially believed in among the peasantry of 
Scandinavia and North-western Europe, in whose mythology 
they had a prominent place. They were of two kinds, the 
good and bad elves, and their exploits gave origin to a great 
number of marvellous tales. It appears that the elves were 
celebrated among Germanic peoples, and especially among 
the Norse, while fairies were described in Celtic legends; 
but in England, at least, the names were confounded. 

Elf Ar'row-heads, called also Elf Stones, etc., 
the popular name in Great Britain of the flint arrow-heads 
which were used by the pre-historic inhabitants. Accord- 


















ELGIN—ELIOT. 


ing to a prevailing superstition, (hey were shot at human 
beings and cattle by the fairies or elves. These stones are 
worn, as a talisman against witchcraft and poison. 

LI gill, a royal burgh of Scotland, the capital of the 
county of Moray or Elgin, is on the river Lossie, 5 miles 
from the sea and 118 miles N. of Edinburgh, with which it 
is connected by a railway. It is beautifully situated in a 
fertile valley, has ten churches, a hospital, and an institu¬ 
tion which Gen. Anderson endowed with £70,000 for the 
education ot orphans. Elgin has the ruins of a cathedral 
founded in 1224. These are the most extensive and beau- 
tilul of ancient Scottish remains. Here are the ruins of a 
castle which was the residence of the earls of Moray. El¬ 
gin has iron-foundries and woollen-factories. Pop of par¬ 
liamentary burgh in 1871, 7339. 

El gin, a county of Ontario, Dominion of Canada, has 
an area of about 700 square miles. It is bounded on the S. 
by Lake Erie, and partly drained by -the river Thames. 
The soil is productive. It is intersected by the London and 
Port Stanley R. R. Capital, St. Thomas. Pop. 33,666. 

Elgin, a city of Kane co., Ill., on Fox River, 36 miles 
W. by N. from Chicago, has a fine water-power and more 
than twenty manufacturing concerns, including a large 
woollen-mill, mower-and-reaper manufactory, engine and 
boiler works, and a wringer-factory. It is the seat of the 
National watch-factorj 7 , employing 1000 skilled operators, 
the Northern Insane Asylum, costing $500,000, and the 
Borden milk-condensing factory. It has an excellent acad- 
emy and several fine churches. One of the chief industries 
is cheese and butter making in factories. Has two national 
banks and three newspapers, one monthly. Three railroads 
pass through the city—the Chicago and North-western, the 
Chicago and Pacific, and the Fox River R. Rs. Pop. 5441; 
of Elgin township, exclusive of the city, 1298. 

S. L. Taylor, Ed. and Prop. “Advocate.” 

Elgin, a township of Plymouth co., Ia. Pop. 429. 

Elgin, a post-township of Wabashaw co., Minn. Pop. 
878. 

Elgin (James Bruce), eighth earl of, born in Lon¬ 
don July 20, 1811, was educated at Oxford. He succeeded 
his father in 1841. This earldom was a Scottish peerage, 
which did not admit him into the House of Lords. He be¬ 
came governor of Jamaica in 1842, and of Canada in 1846. 
Canada prospered under his administration, which lasted 
eight years. He was created a peer of the United King¬ 
dom in 1849, was sent on a mission to China in 1857, and 
negotiated the treaty of Tien-Tsien (1858). In 1859 he 
was postmaster-general, and in 1861 was appointed gov¬ 
ernor-general of India. Died Nov. 20, 1863. 

Elgin (Thomas Bruce), seventh earl of, the father 
of the preceding, was born in Scotland in 1766. He ob¬ 
tained the rank of general in the army, and was sent as 
envoy extraordinary to Berlin in 1795. In 1799 he was 
appointed ambassador to Constantinople. He expended a 
large sum of money (about £50,000) in the removal of 
statues, bas-reliefs, and other remains of ancient art from 
the Parthenon and Acropolis of Athens to England. (See 
Elgin Marbles.) Died Nov., 1841. 

Elgin Marbles, a collection of sculptures taken from 
the Acropolis, mainly from the Parthenon at Athens. They 
are so called from the earl of Elgin, who, by permission of 
the Porte, brought them to England, from 1808 to 1812. 
The government bought them in 1816 for £35,000, a little 
more than two-thirds of the cost of excavating and trans¬ 
porting them. They consist of colossal statues and pieces 
of statues, bas-reliefs, caryatides, bits of column, urns, etc. 
The marbles from the Parthenon exhibit Greek art in its 
highest perfection. Their influence on English art has been 
very great. The students of art in America have them in 
the form of casts. Lovers of plastic art are grateful to 
Lord Elgin, instead of indignant with him, for bringing 
within their reach these masterpieces of beauty. (See Lyon, 
“Outlines of the Elgin Marbles,” 1816 ; “ The Elgin Marbles 
from the Temple of Minerva at Athens,” 1816 ; Lawrence, 
“Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon at Athens,” 1818; and 
Ellis, “The Elgin and Phigalian Marbles,” 2 vols., 1836.) 

Elginshire, a county of Scotland, is bounded on the 
N. by the German Ocean, on the E. by Banffshire, on the 
S. by Inverness, and on the W. by Nairn. Area, 473 square 
miles. It is divided into two separate parts by a part of 
Inverness-shire. The climate is mild and dry, and the soil 
open, sandy, and gravelly, and very fertile in the N. The 
chief products are wheat, oats, and other kinds of grain. It 
was formerly called the granary of Scotland. Here are 
some manufactories of woollen goods. The chief articles 
of export are cattle, salmon, grain, and timber. It sends, 
together with Nairnshire, one member to Parliament. Pop. 
in°1871, 43,598. Chief town, Elgin. 

Elia. See Lamb (Charles). 


1523 


Eli'as Levi'ta, a learned Jewish rabbi, born in 1472, 
was probably a native of Italy. He taught Hebrew at 
Rome and Venice, was distinguished as a grammarian, and 
published numerous works, among which are a “ Hebrew 
Grammar,” a “ Chaldaic, Talmudic, and Rabbinical Lexi¬ 
con,” and “Massorah,” containing critical notes on the text 
of the Bible. Died at Venice in 1549. 

Eli'da, a post-village of Winnebago township, Winne¬ 
bago co., Ill. Pop. 468. 

Elicla, a post-village of German township, Allen co., 0. 
Pop. 533. 

Elie de Beaumont (Jean Baptiste Armand Louis 
Leonce), a French geologist, born at Canon (Calvados) in 
1798. He was educated in the Polytechnic School, and be¬ 
came professor of geology in the College of France in 1832, 
chief engineer of mines in 1833, and a member of the In¬ 
stitute in 1835. In conjunction with Dufrenoy he prepared 
a geological map of France (1841). Among his works are 
“ Lectures on Geology ” (3 vols., 1845 et seq .) and a “ Trea¬ 
tise on the Mountain Systems,” giving his theories on the 
elevation of mountain-ranges (1852). He succeeded Arago 
as perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences in 1853. 

Elimination [from the Lat. elim'ino, elimina'tum, to 
“send out” (from e, “out” or “out from,” and li'men, li- 
minis , a “ threshold” or “limit”) ], in mathematics, is the 
process of causing a quantity or letter which is common to 
two or more equations to disappear by framing out of the 
two a new equation in such a way as to omit the quantity in 
question. In other kinds of reasoning, not mathematical, 
elimination “is the extrusion of that which is superfluous or 
irrelevant.” The term “to eliminate” is frequently but in¬ 
correctly used in the sense of “ to elicit.” 

El'iot (Andrew 7 ), D. D., was born Dec. 28, 1718, and 
graduated at Harvard in 1737. He became pastor of the 
New North church, Boston, Mass., in 1742, and filled that 
position till his death, Sept. 13, 1778. He was elected 
president of Harvard University, but declined the honor. 

Eliot (Charles William), LL.D., born Mar. 20, 1834, 
at Boston, Mass., educated at the Boston Public Latin School 
(1844-49) and at Harvard College (1849-53), was tutor in 
mathematics at Harvard College (1854-58), assistant pro¬ 
fessor of mathematics and chemistry (1858-61), of chem¬ 
istry (1861-63), professor of chemistry in the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology (1865-69), became president of 
Harvard College (May 1*9, 1869). He has published, with 
F. H. Storer, sundry chemical investigations, a manual of 
chemistry, and a manual of qualitative chemical analysis. 

Eliot (George). See Evans (Marian C.). 

Eliot (Jared), an American divine and naturalist, 
grandson of John Eliot, was born at Killingworth, Conn., 
Nov. 7, 1685, and graduated at Yale in 1706. He was also 
a successful physician. He introduced the silkworm into 
Connecticut, and published several sermons, etc. Died 
April 28, 1763. 

Eliot (John), a minister of Roxbury, Mass.,called “the 
apostle to the Indians,” was born in England in 1604. He 
was educated at Cambridge, and came to Boston in 1631. 
He acquired the language of the Indians, and from 1646 he 
devoted himself to improving their condition and convert¬ 
ing them to Christianity. He travelled extensively among 
them, enduring great privations and passing through many 
dangers. He succeeded in acquiring great influence over 
them, and many of them embraced the Christian faith. He 
translated the Bible into the Indian tongue (1661-63), pub¬ 
lished an Indian grammar (1666), and a number of other 
works, mostly relating to his missionary labors. Died May 
20, 1690. 

Eliot (John), D. D., an American preacher and biogra¬ 
pher, born in Boston May 31, 1754, graduated at Har¬ 
vard in 1772. With Jeremy Belknap, he founded the Mas¬ 
sachusetts Historical Society. He was the author of a 
“New England Biographical Dictionary” (1809) and other 
works. Died Feb. 14, 1813. 

Eliot (Samuel), LL.D., an American historian, born 
in Boston Dec. 22, 1821, graduated at Harvard in 1839. 
Having visited Rome and travelled in Europe, he projected 
a “History of Liberty,” a part of which he published in 
1849, two volumes, entitled “ The Liberty of Rome.” “The 
Early Christians” (2 vols., 1858) is the second part of the 
same work. Among his writings is a “ Manual of United 
States History from 1492 to 1850” (1856). He was presi¬ 
dent of Trinity College, Hartford, in 1860-64. 

Eliot (Samuel Atkins), a merchant of Boston, was born 
Mar. 5, 1798, and graduated at Harvard in 1817. He was 
father of President C. W. Eliot of Harvard College, was 
mayor of Boston (1837-39), a prominent State politician, 
member of Congress (1850-51), and was treasurer of Har¬ 
vard College. Died Jan. 29, 1862. 

















1524 ELIOT—ELIZABETH CHRISTINA. 


Eliot (Thomas D.), born in Boston, Mass., Mar. 20, 
1808, graduated with honors at Columbian College, D. C., 
in 1825, and was admitted to the bar. He was a Republi¬ 
can member of Congress (1854-69), and took a prominent 
part in “ reconstruction ” and in business relative to the 
freedmen after the late civil war. Died June 12, 1870. / 

E'lis [Gr."HAis; Fr. L’Elide], a small state of ancient 
Greece in the N. W. part of the Peloponnesus, was bounded 
on the N. by Achaia, on the E. by Arcadia, on the S. by 
Messenia, and on the W. by the Ionian Sea. It is inter¬ 
sected by the rivers Alpheus (now Rouphia) and Peneus 
( Gaatuni ). The surface is diversified by hills and fertile 
plains and valleys. Elis was divided into three districts— 
Hollow Elis, Pisatis, and Triphylia. The chief towns were 
Elis, Cyllene, Pylos, and Olympia. The Olympic games, 
the greatest national festival of the Greeks, were celebrated 
at Olympia. Elis now forms with Achaia a nomarchy of 
the kingdom of Greece. 

Elis , an ancient city, the capital of the above state, 
was on the river Peneus, about 10 miles from its mouth. 
It is mentioned as a town of the Epeii by Homer (“ Iliad,” 
ii.). It had an acropolis on a hill nearly 500 feet high, and 
was the only fortified town in the country. It contained 
several fine temples, a theatre, and the largest gymnasium 
in Greece. All the athletes who contended at the Olympic 
games were required to undergo one month’s previous 
training in this gymnasium. When Pausanias visited Elis 
(about 175 A. D.) it was one of the most splendid and pop¬ 
ulous cities of Greece. The site is occupied by the modern 
Paleopoli or Kaloscopi. 

Eli' sors. These are persons named by the court to re¬ 
turn a jury when the sheriff and coroners are incompetent. 
They are two in number, and, according to Lord Coke, are 
named from the fact that they are chosen by the court {ah 
eltgando). Against their return no challenge can be taken 
to the array of jurors, though there may be a challenge to 
individual jurors or to the polls. 

Eli'za, a post-township of Mercer co., Ill. Pop. 767. 

Eliz'abeth, a post-twp. of Jo Daviess co., Ill. P. 1618. 

Elizabeth, a post-village of Posey township, Harrison 
co., Ind. Pop. 216. 

Elizabeth, the capital of Union co., N. J., is situated 
on Staten Island Sound and Elizabeth River. It has com¬ 
munication with New York, distant 14 miles, by three rail¬ 
roads—the Pennsylvania, the New Jersey Central, and the 
Newark and New York, which last has a branch extending 
to Elizabeth. It has also a line of steamboats running 
thither, making several trips a day. It has a horse-rail¬ 
road which is about 4 miles in length. Elizabeth contains 
twenty-five churches, two national and four savings banks, 
an orphan asylum, costing $60,000, besides several other 
public institutions. It lias three daily, one semi-weekly, 
and two weekly newspapers. It is remarkable for the num¬ 
ber of New York business-men who reside here with their 
families, having nearly a thousand commuters who regu¬ 
larly travel over the roads to and from New York. Eliza¬ 
beth is celebrated for the beauty of its situation and the 
number of its paved streets. The city, though not largely 
engaged in manufactures, has a number of such, which is 
every year increasing, the most notable of which is Singer’s 
Sewing-machine Company, which employs 1200 hands. 
There are, besides, extensive oil-cloth factories and several 
foundries. The city has an electric fire-alarm telegraph, 
several parks, and is surrounded by some of the finest and 
richest farming country in the State. Elizabeth was for¬ 
merly the capital of New Jersey, and ceased to be such in 
1790. Pop. 20,832. F. AY. Foote, Ed. “ Daily Journal.” 

El izabeth, N. C. See Elizabethtown. 

Elizabeth, a township of Lawrence co., O. Pop. 3357. 

Elizabeth, a township of Miami co., O. Pop. 1236. 

Elizabeth, a village of Centre township, Morgan co., 
O. Pop. 1325. 

Elizabeth, a post-borough of Allegheny co., Pa., on 
the right (E.) bank of the Monongahela River, 16 miles S. 
by E. from Pittsburg. Pop. 1196; of township, 2937. 

Elizabeth, a township of Lancaster co., Pa. P. 955. 

Elizabeth, a township of Wirtco., West Ya. P. 804. 

Elizabeth, from 1558 to 1603 the ruler of England, 
and the last sovereign of the House of Tudor, was born 
at Greenwich on the 7th of Sept., 1533. She was a 
daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn. Her child¬ 
hood was passed in comparative retirement, and she was 
educated by persons who favored the Reformed religion. 
She learned the Latin, Greek, French, and Italian lan¬ 
guages of the famous Roger Ascham. In 1554 she was 
confined in the Tower by order of Queen Mary, who re¬ 
garded her with jealousy because she was the favorite of 


the Protestant party. It appears that Elizabeth narrowly 
escaped death, and that some of the bishops and courtiers 
advised Mary to order her execution. After she had pass* d 
several months in the Tower, she was removed to Wood- 
stock, and appeased Mary by professing to bo a Roman 
Catholic. 

On the death of Queen Mary (Nov. 17, 1558) Elizabeth 
ascended the throne, and the majority of the people re¬ 
joiced at her accession. She appointed William Cecil sec¬ 
retary of state, and Nicholas Bacon keeper of the great 
seal. She retained several Roman Catholics in her privy 
council, but she refused to hear mass in the royal chapel. 
The Protestants were the majority in the Parliament which 
met in 1559, abolished the mass, adopted the Thirty-nine 
Articles as the religion of the state, and recognized the 
queen as the head of the Church. “ Thus,” says Ilumc, 
“in one session, wdthout any violence or tumult, was tho 
whole system of religion altered by the will of a young 
woman.” She declined an offer of marriage made to her 
by Philip II. of Spain. Her foreign policy was pacific. 
She waged no war for conquest, but to promote the sta¬ 
bility of her throne she aided the Protestant insurgents in 
Scotland, France, and the Netherlands with money and 
troops. In 1563 the Parliament, anxious that she should 
have an heir, entreated her to marry, but she returned an 
evasive answer, and would neither accept the hand of any 
of her suitors nor decide in favor of any claimant of the 
throne. Among her suitors were the French duke of Anjou, 
the archduke Charles of Austria, and Robert Dudley, earl 
of Leicester, who was for many years her chief favorite. 
William Cecil, Lord Burleigh, was her prime minister and 
most trusted adviser during the greater part of her reign, 
the prosperity of which is ascribed to his prudence and 
influence. 

Mary queen of Scots, fleeing from her rebellious subjects, 
took refuge in England in 1568, and was detained as a pris¬ 
oner by Elizabeth. The latter regarded Mary as a danger¬ 
ous rival, because the English Catholics wished to raise 
her to the throne of England, and formed several plots and 
conspiracies for that object. (See Mary Stuart.) Mary 
was beheaded Feb. 8, 1587. Philip II. of Spain had long 
meditated a hostile enterprise against Queen Elizabeth, 
who had offended him by aiding his revolted Dutch sub¬ 
jects and by persecuting the English Catholics. For tho 
invasion of England he fitted out the Invincible Armada, 
which consisted of about 140 vessels, carrying nearly 
30,000 men, and sailed in May, 1588. A violent storm dis¬ 
persed the Spanish ships, many of which were wrecked, 
and the rest were encountered by the English fleet, mostly 
consisting of small but excellently equipped vessels, under 
Admiral Howard, and thoroughly beaten, Aug. 8, 158S. 
The disastrous failure, of this expedition did not terminate 
hostilities between England and Spain. An English fleet 
took Cadiz in 1596. After the earl of Leicester died 
(1588) the earl of Essex was the queen’s favorite courtier. 
The Puritans were severely persecuted in the latter part 
of her reign. She died Mar. 24, 1603, and was succeeded 
by James VI. of Scotland, who became James I. of Eng¬ 
land. Her reign is considered one of the most prosper¬ 
ous and glorious in English history, and she displayed 
superior abilities as a ruler, but her personal character is 
deformed by serious faults. She was vain and selfish, and 
was more feared than loved by her attendants. The Eliz¬ 
abethan age was almost unequalled in literature, and was 
illustrated by the genius of Shakspeare, Spenser, Bacon, 
Sidney, and Raleigh. (See Froude, “History of Eng¬ 
land,” vols. vii. to x.; Hume, “History of England;” 
Camden, “History of Queen Elizabeth,” 1625; Dr. Thomas 
Birch, “Memoirs of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth,” 1754.) 

Elizabeth (Philippine Marie Helene), a French 
princess, a sister of Louis XVI.,^was born in 1764. She 
was commonly styled Madame Elisabeth. In the Reign 
of Terror she was exposed to dangers and sufferings which 
she endured with fortitude. She was imprisoned in Aug., 
1792, and guillotined in May, 1794. 

Elizabeth'an Architecture, a term applied to a 
style of architecture which appeared in England on the de¬ 
cline of the Gothic, and mostly prevailed during the reigns 
of Elizabeth and James I. It is sometimes called the Tudor 
style, a name more correctly applied to the Latest Gothic. 
It is characterized by a rich but cumbrous style of orna¬ 
ment, both within and without, by apartments and galleries 
of vast extent, and by enormous square windows. It is re¬ 
garded as a debased style, and was chiefly employed in 
domestic architecture. Its later form is called Jacobean. 

Elizabeth Christi' na, queen of Prussia, born at 
Brunswick Nov. 8, 1715, was a daughter of the duke of 
Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel. She was married to Frederick 
the Great in 1732. She had a high reputation for virtuo 
and piety. Died Nov. 13, 1797. 


-rrrr 











ELIZABETH CITY—ELK. 1525 


Elizabeth City, a county in the S. E. of Virginia, at 
the extremity ot a peninsula formed by James and York 
rivers. Area, about 50 square miles. It is bounded on the 
E. by Chesapeake Bay, and on the S. by Hampton Roads. 
Grain, sweet potatoes, etc. are produced. Capital, Hamp¬ 
ton. Pop. 8303. 

Elizabeth City, the capital of Pasquotank co., N. C., 
is situated 30 miles W. of the Atlantic, on the Pasquotank 
River. It has a fine harbor, safe and sufficiently deep for 
large vessels. A large portion of the inhabitants are of 
Northern origin. It has 5 churches, 2 banks, 2 hotels, 1 
newspaper, 2 steam grist-mills, 4 steam saw-mills, 2 shin¬ 
gle-factories, and 1 planing-mill. It is surrounded by a 
cotton, corn, and wheat growing country, and is 50 miles 
S. of Norfolk, Va., with which it communicates by the 
Dismal Swamp Canal. It is partly in Elizabeth City and 
partly in Nixonton townships. Pop. 930. 

Palemon John, Ed. & Prop, of “North Carolinian.” 

Elizabeth City, a post-township of Pasquotank co., 
N. C. Pop. 2006. 

Elizabeth grad, a town of Russia, in the government 
of Kherson, 160 miles N. E. of Odessa. It is a military 
settlement, with 31,968 inhabitants. 

Elizabethine Nuns, a congregation of monastic 
women in the Roman Catholic Church, belonging to the 
third order of St. Francis. The name Elizabethines was at 
first applied to voluntary associations of women who im¬ 
itated the zeal of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary, without tak¬ 
ing monastic vows or retiring from the world. But from 
the tradition that Saint Elizabeth belonged to the third 
order of Saint Francis, the name is sometimes given to 
Franciscan nuns. It is probable, however, that the Fran¬ 
ciscan nuns of the third order were not established till 1395, 
long after Saint Elizabeth’s death, and that their foundress 
was Angelina, the widow of the count de Civitelle. From 
1428 to 1459 they were an independent congregation, but 
in the latter year were placed under the general of the 
Observantine Franciscans. 

Elizabeth Islands, a group of sixteen small islands 
belonging to Dukes co., Mass., lying between Vineyard 
Sound and Buzzard’s Bay. They constitute since 1864 the 
township of Gosnold. Pop. 99, principally on Cuttyhunk. 
The islands were once densely populated. Cuttyhunk was 
the seat of Bartholomew Gosnold’s first, colony in “ Vir¬ 
ginia,” founded in 1602, but abandoned the same year, on 
account of troubles of the colonists with each other and 
with the Indians. The islands are a favorite resort for 
fishing and yachting. The islands, in the order of their 
size, are Naushon, Nashawena, Pasque, Cuttyhunk, Nona- 
messet, Uncatena, Penikese, and several small islets. Cut¬ 
tyhunk Light, near the southern point of this group, is in 
lat. 41° 24.8' N., Ion. 70° 56.7' W. One of the islands, 
Penikese or Pune, was presented in Mar., 1873, by John 
Anderson of New York, to Prof. Agassiz, for the purpose 
of establishing a school of natural history upon it. Mi*. 
Anderson also gave $50,000 in money towards the endow¬ 
ment of the school, which is indirectly connected with the 
Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Mass. The 
school was opened in the summer of 1873. The island con¬ 
tains 100 acres of land. 

Elizabeth Petrov'na, empress of Russia, born in 
Dec., 1709, was a daughter of Peter the Great and Catherine 

I. She was dissolute in morals, and appears to have been 
unambitious, as she made little effort to obtain the throne. 
Ivan, an infant, was proclaimed emperor in 1740, but the 
French surgeon Lestocq and other partisans of Elizabeth 
conspired against Ivan with success, and she became em¬ 
press in 1741. As an ally of Austria and France, she waged 
war against Frederick the Great in the Seven Years’ war. 
Her army gained a victory at Kunersdorf, and entered Ber¬ 
lin in 1760. She had several children by Count Rasumov- 
ski, who was first her servant, subsequently her chamber- 
lain, and was at length secretly married to her. She died 
Jan. 5, 1762, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III. 

Elizabeth Port, a post-office in the city of Elizabeth, 
Union co., N. J., on Staten Island Sound, and a station on 
the Central New Jersey R. R., 7 miles S. of Newark and 12 
miles W. S. W. of New York. It has several iron-foundries 
and factories, and is an important point for the shipping 
of coal. 

Elizabeth, Saint, of Hungary, a daughter of Andrew 

II. , king of Hungary, was born at Presburg in 1207. She 
became in 1221 the wife of Louis, landgrave of Thuringia, 
who died in 1227 at Otranto, on his way to the Holy Land 
(the third crusade). His eldest brother (Henry) seized his 
possessions, and banished his widow and children. Tho 
knights of Thuringia restored her son Herman to the throne, 
and° Elizabeth received as a dower the city of Marburg, 
where she retired with her daughters, and spent the re¬ 


mainder of her life in what became one continued penance. 
“Of all’’(says Mrs. Jameson) “the glorified—victims must 
I call them, or martyrs?—of that terrible but poetical fa¬ 
naticism of the thirteenth century, she was one of the most 
remarkable; and of the sacred legends of the Middle Ages 
hers is one of the most interesting and most instructive.” 
She died Nov. 19,1231. (See Charles de Montalembert, 
“Vic de S. Elizabeth de Hongrie,” 1836, which has been 
translated into English; also Charles Kingsley’s “ Saint’s 
Tragedy.”) 

Elizabeth Stuart, queen of Bohemia, a daughter of 
James I. of England, was born Aug. 19, 1596. She was 
married in 1613 to Frederick V., elector palatine, who was 
chosen king of Bohemia in 1619 by the Protestant party. 
She is said to have been beautiful, and is considered a 
heroine. Her husband was defeated in battle in 1620, and 
she passed the remainder of her life in exile and adversity. 
She was the mother of the famous Prince Rupert and nu¬ 
merous other children. Died Feb. 13, 1662. George I. of 
England was her grandson. (See Miss Benger, “ Memoirs 
of Elizabeth Stuart,” 1825.) 

Eliz'abethton, a post-village, capital of Carter co., 
Tenn., on the Watauga River, about 300 miles E. of Nash- 
vile. Pop. 321. 

Eliz'abethtown, a post-village, capital of Hardin co., 

Ill., on the Ohio River, 90 miles above Cairo, has one 
newspaper-office. There are rich lead-mines in the vicinity. 

Elizabethtown, a post-village of Sand Creek town¬ 
ship, Bartholomew co., Ind., on the Jeffersonville Madison 
and Indianapolis R. R. (Madison division). Pop. 294. 

Elizabethtown, a post-village, capital of Hardin co., 
Ky., on the Louisville and Nashville and Great Southern 
R. Rs., 42 miles S. by W. from Louisville. It is the east¬ 
ern terminus of the Elizabethtown and Paducah R. R. It 
has one bank, eight churches, two hotels, two mills, and one 
newspaper. Pop. 1743. 

Richard La Rue, Ed. and Prop, of “ News.” 

Elizabethtown, a post-village of Colfax co., N. M., 
92 miles N. of Santa Fe. 

Elizabethtown, a post-village, capital of Essex co., 
N. Y., on Bouquet River, about 125 miles N. of Albany. It 
has a court-house, jail, and weekly newspaper, and the 
township has extensive iron-mines and iron-works. Pop. 
of Elizabethtown township, 1488. 

Elizabethtown, a post-village, capital of Bladen co., 
N. C., on Cape Fear River, 50 miles above Wilmington. 
Pop. 62 ; of Elizabethtown township, 1904. 

Elizabethtown, avillage of Wills township, Guernsey 
co., O. Pop. 44. 

Elizabethtown, a village of Perry township, Licking 
co., O. (P. O. name, Perryton.) Pop. 113. 

Elizabethtown, a post-borough of Lancaster co., Pa., 
18 miles N. W. of Lancaster City, the county-seat, on the 
line of the Pennsylvania R. R., is at equal distance, 18 
miles, from the county-seats of four counties—Lancaster, 
Dauphin, Lebanon, and York. It has 1 newspaper, 1 
national bank, 4 hotels, 5 churches, a farming-implement 
manufactory, and a machine-shop. Principal business is 
farming and storekeeping. Pop. 858. 

John G. Westafer, Ed. “Chronicle.” 

Elizabeto'pol, a government of Transcaucasia, is 
bounded on the N. by Tiflis, on the E. by Baku, on the S. 
by Persia, and on the W. by Erivan. Area, 17,038 squaro 
miles. The government consists in the W. of high moun¬ 
tains, while the E. is more level. It is drained by the Ivur 
and numerous other small streams. Chief town, Elizabeto- 
pol. Pop. 503,282. 

Elizabetopol, or Gandscha,the capital of the gov¬ 
ernment of the same name, in Russian Transcaucasia, is 
situated 90 miles S. E. of Tiflis. It has a number of 
churches, mosques, and fruit-gardens. Silkworms are raised 
here. Pop. 14,971. 

Eli'zaviUe, a post-village of Fleming co., Ky. P. 180. 

Elizay, a township of Macon co., N. C. Pop. 525. 

Elk (Alces malchis), a species of deer, is a native of the 
northern parts of Asia and Europe. It is one of the largest 
animals of the deer family or Cervida?, is about six feet high, 
and sometimes weighs 1200 pounds. It has a short, com¬ 
pact body raised on long, stilt-like legs, a short, thick neck, 
and a large, narrow head, nearly two feet long. The neck 
is covered with a short thick mane. The antlers of tho 
full-grown elk are flattened, displaying a broad blade with 
numerous snags on each horn. The tail is only four or five 
inches long. The color of its hair is brownish black. Elks 
can run with great speed. They frequent marshy districts 
and swampy forests, feeding on lichens, leaves, and branches 
of trees. Their flesh is esteemed for food. 













1526 


ELK, IRISH—ELK MOUND. 


The true American elk, commonly called the moose ( Alee* 
Americans), so closely resembles the above species that 



Elk or Moose. 

some writers regard them as identical. But the differences 
are now generally considered sufficiently great to justify 
the opinion that the two are specifically distinct. The 
moose is still found in Maine and Northern New York, and 
north-westward. It is much hunted for its flesh and skin 
in winter, when the frozen crust of the snow, not strong 
enough to bear the animal’s weight, seriously impedes its 
progress, its great speed at other times making its capture 
difficult. When brought to bay, a blow with its fore foot 
or horns is a serious matter for the huntsman. It is the 
largest known animal of the deer family now existing. 

The beast generally known in America as the elk is the 
wapiti (Cervus Canadensis), an animal nearly as large as 
the moose. It goes in large herds, and is hunted for its 
flesh, and especially for its skin, which is highly prized. 
Several other large species of deer (as in Ceylon) or of 
antelope (as in South Africa) are known locally as elks. 
The true elks have a broad hairy muzzle, with a bald spot 
between the nostrils, horns large and palmated, with no 
basal snag; true deer have a basal snag, and more or less 
rounded horns; the muzzle is bare and moist. 

Elk, Irish (Megaceros Hibernicus), the name given to 
a fossil deer found in the pleistocene strata, distinguished 
from other deer by the great size and peculiar form of its 
antlers. The beam of the antler is wide and flattened into 
a palm, and in one specimen the distance between the ex¬ 
treme tips was nearly eleven feet. There is a brow snag,'as 
in the fallow deer, and also a back snag. The weight of 
the antlers in one specimen was eighty-one pounds. These 
fossils, though most abundant in Ireland, are met with in 
England and on the Continent. 

Elk, a county in N. W. Central Pennsylvania. Area, 
600 square miles. It is partly drained by Clarion River 
and its branches. The surface is hilly, and mostly covered 
with forests. Bituminous coal is found here. Lumber, 
grain, and wool are produced. This county is intersected 
by the Philadelphia and Erie R. R. Capital, Ridgeway. 
Pop. 8488. 

Elk, a township of Clayton co., Ia. Pop. 901. 

Elk, a township of Delaware co., Ia. Pop. 927. 

Elk, a township of Cloud co., Kan. Pop. 561. 

Elk, a township of Sanilac co., Mich. Pop. 633. 

Elk, a township of McDonald co., Mo. Pop. 941. 

Elk, a township of Stoddard co., Mo. Pop. 621. 

Elk, a township of Wilkes co., N. C. Pop. 675. 

Elk, a township of Noble co., 0. Pop. 1655. 

Elk, a township of Vinton co., 0. Pop. 2063. 

Elk, a township of Chester co., Pa. Pop. 839. 

Elk, a township of Clarion co., Pa. Pop. 1055. 

Elk, a township of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 172. 

Elk, a township of Warren co., Pa. Pop. 469. 

Elk, a township of Barbour co., W. Va. Pop. 1010. 

Elk, a township of Harrison co., W. Va. Pop. 1361. 

Elk, a township of Kanawha co., W. Va. Pop. 2451. 

Elk, a township of Mineral co., W. Va. Pop. 423. 

El Ka'der, a post-village, capital of Clayton co., Ia., 
on Turkey River, about 50 miles N. W. of Dubuque. It 
has two newspaper-offices and a national bank. Pop. 697. 

Elk City, a post-village of Montgomery co., Kan. 

Elk Creek, a township of Jasper co., Ia. Pop. 1180. 

Elk Creek, a township of Watauga co., N. C. Pop. 265. 

Elk Creek, a post-township of Erie co., Pa. Pop. 1462. 


Elk Creek, a post-township of Grayson co., Va. Pop. 
4116. 

Elk Falls, a post-village, capital of Howard co., Kan., 
about 130 miles S. by W. from Topeka. Pop. of Elk Falls 
township, 1160. 

Elk Fork, a township of Pettis co., Mo. Pop. 2404. 

Elk Garden, a township of Russell co., Va. Pop. 2023. 

Elk Grove, a post-township of Cook co., Ill. P. 1120. 

Elk Grove, a post-township of La Fayette co., Wis. 
Pop. 1377. 

El Khar'geh, a town of Upper Egypt, capital of the 
Great Oasis; lat. 25° 28' N., Ion. 30° 40' E. Here are ruins 
of a temple and an ancient necropolis. El Ivhargeh is also 
the name of the Great Oasis itself, which is 80 miles long 
and 10 miles broad, and was anciently larger than at pres¬ 
ent. It abounds in acacia and doum-palm trees, and has 
many ruins, chiefly Macedonian and Roman. There are 
many warm and cold springs and a stream of water; and 
rice is here cultivated. 

Elk'hart, a county in the N. of Indiana. Area, 467 
square miles. It is drained by the Elkhart and St. Joseph’s 
rivers, which here unite. The surface is undulating, the 
soil fertile. Cattle, grain, wool, hay, butter, etc. are pro¬ 
duced, and flour, lumber, furniture, carriages, cooperage, 
etc. are manufactured. It is intersected by two divisions 
of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. R. Capital, 
Goshen. Pop. 26,026. 

Elkhart, a post-village and township of Logan co., Ill. 
Total pop. 1325; of village, 378. 

Elkhart, a city of Elkhart co., Ind., on the Elkhart 
River, at the junction of the old and the air-line divisions 
of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. R., 100 miles 
E. by S. from Chicago. It contains a large T-rail rolling- 
mill, a machine-shop, and a round-house of the railroad 
company. In the works are employed more than 800 men. 
Here are also two paper-mills, two machine-shops, three 
flour and two starch mills, besides other factories. The 
combined water-power is estimated at 8300 horse-power. 
The town has two banks, a school-house which cost $50,000, 
and four newspapers, one of which is a daily. Pop. 3265. 

Chase & Kent, Props. “ Evening Review.” 

Elkhart, a post-township of Elkhart co., Ind. Pop., 
exclusive of the city of Goshen, 1477. 

Elkhart, a township of Noble co., Ind. Pop. 1541. 

Elkhart, a post-township of Polk co., Ia. Pop. 744. 

Elk'horn, a township of San Joaquin co., Cal. P. 1428. 

Elkhorn, a township of Brown co., Ill. Pop. 1150. 

Elkhorn, a township of Warren co., Mo. Pop. 2479. 

Elkhorn, a post-village of Douglas co., Neb., on the 
Union Pacific R. R. and on the Elkhorn River, 29 miles W. 
of Omaha. It is a shipping-point for grain. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 296. 

Elkhorn, a township of McDowell co., W. Va. P. 416. 

Elkhorn, a post-village, capital of Walworth co., Wis., 
65 miles due N. W. from Chicago, Ill., and 45 miles S. W. 
from Milwaukee, is on the Western Union R. R., which 
connects here with the St. Paul R. R. It has a court-house, 
a national bank, a newspaper, a beautiful park of six acres 
of large oaks, 5 churches, 1 fine Union school-building, 2 
hotels, and 30 stores. It is in one of the richest farming 
districts in the State. Pop. 1205. Frank Leland, 

Ed. and Pub. of “Walworth Co. Independent.” 

Elkhorn Grove, a post-township of Carroll co., Ill. 
Pop. 662. 

Elkhorn River, Nebraska, rises in the N. E. part of 
the State, flows nearly south-eastward through the counties 
of Madison, Stanton, Cuming, Dodge, and Douglas, and 
enters the Platte in the western part of Sarpy county. 
Length, estimated at 250 miles. 

El'kins, a township of Clarke co., Ark. Pop. 584. 

Elk'land, a post-township of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop. 
511. 

Elkland, a township of Sullivan co., Pa. Pop. 705. 

Elkland, a post-borough of Tioga co., Pa. Pop. 332. 

Elk Lick, a post-township of Somerset co., Pa. It 
includes the borough of Salisbury, on Casselman’s River, 
the terminus of the Salisbury and Baltimore R. R. It is 
25 miles N. IV. of Cumberland, Md., and is the centre of 
the Salisbury coal-basin. It is on the proposed Trans- 
alleghany Canal, has a weekly newspaper, four churches, 
a shook-shop, iron-foundry, planing-mill, etc. (P. O. Elk 
Lick.) Pop. of Salisbury, 291; of Elk Lick township, 
1012. Suhrie & Smith, Eds. “ Valley Independent.” 

Elk Mound, a township of Dunn co., Wis. Pop. 433. 





































ELKO—ELLET. 


El'ko, a county in the N. E. of Nevada, bordering on 
Idaho and Utah, is drained by Humboldt River. The sur¬ 
face is partly mountainous; the soil in some places is fer¬ 
tile. Silver is found here, and some grain and cattle* are 
raised. It is intersected by the Central Pacific R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Elko. Pop. 3447. 

Elko, a post-village, capital of the above county, is on 
Humboldt River and the Central Pacific R. R., 603 miles 
N. E. of San Francisco. It has two newspaper-offices, 
three large freight depots, a good hotel, and numerous 
stores; also silver-smelting works and manufactures of 
farming tools. Here are hot mineral springs of great 
value for bathing purposes. Pop. of Elko township in 
1870, 1160, but the population has increased largely since 
that time. 

Elk Point, a post-village, capital of Union co., Dak., 
on the Missouri River, about 30 miles S. W. of Sioux City 
(la.). 

Elk Prairie, a township of Jackson co., Ill. Pop. 
1354-* 

Elk Rap'ids, a post-village, capital of Antrim co., 
Mich., on the east arm of Grand Traverse Bay, about 18 
miles N. E. of Grand Traverse City. It has one news¬ 
paper-office. Pop. of township, 370. 

Elk Riv'er, of West Virginia, flows nearly westward 
through Braxton and Clay counties, and enters the Great 
Kanawha at Charleston. Length, nearly 150 miles. 

Elk River, a post -township of Clinton co., Ia. Pop. 
1296. 

Elk River, a village (Elk River Station P. 0.) in 
Sherburne co., Minn., 38 miles N. W. from the capital of 
the State, and situated on the Mississippi and Elk rivers, 
with the St. Paul and Pacific R. R. running through the 
town. It has one newspaper, a number of stores and 
manufactories, a large brick school-house capable of hold¬ 
ing 500 scholars, and four different grades of schools. 
Principal business, lumber, grain, and stock. It is in a 
good farming-region. Pop. of Elk River township, 537. 

John M. Thomson, Ed. ‘‘ Sherburne Co. News.” 

Elk Run, a township of Columbiana co., 0. Pop. 1335. 

Elk Run, a township of Rockingham co., Va. Pop. 
2341. 

Elk'ton, a post-village, capital of Todd co., Ivy., about 
50 miles N. W. of Nashville (Tenn.). It has three or four 
churches. 

Elkton, a village of Washington co., Ill. Pop. 160. 

Elkton, a post-village, capital of Cecil co., Md., on 
the Philadelphia Wilmington and Baltimore R. R., 52 
miles E. N. E. from Baltimore, and at the head of naviga¬ 
tion on the Elk River. It has a national bank, six churches, 
an academy and a public school, two weekly newspapers, 
and four hotels. There are flour, iron, and paper mills in 
the vicinity. Elkton was settled by the Swedes in 1694. 
Pop. 1797; of Elkton township, 4170. 

R. C. MacKall, Ed. “Democrat.” 

Ell [Lat. ulna; Fr. aune; Ger. Elle j Dutch ehi\, a mea¬ 
sure of length adopted from the length of a man’s fore arm. 
The English ell is 3 feet 9 inches, and the Flemish is equal 
to 27 inches, or three-fourths of a yard. 

Ellag'gic Acid, a constituent of certain animal con¬ 
cretions, as the bezoar-stones of the antelope; also pro¬ 
duced by the decomposition of gallic acid. 

El'laville, a post-village, capital of Schley co., Ga., 
about 44 miles E. S. E. of Columbus. Pop. 157. 

Ellaville, a post-village of Madison co., Fla., at the 
junction of the Ocopilco and Suwanee rivers, has very ex¬ 
tensive saw-mills, with a railroad several miles long ex¬ 
tending into the forests to supply rough timber for the 
mills. The village is on the Jacksonville Pensacola and 
Mobile R. R., 95 miles W. of Jacksonville. 

El'lenboro, a post-township of Grant co., Wis. Pop. 
803. 

El'Ienborough (Edward Law), Lord, an able Eng¬ 
lish lawyer, born in Cumberland Nov. 16, 1750. He was 
engaged in 1785 as the leading counsel for the defence in 
the trial of Warren Hastings, for whom he pleaded with 
success. He became attorney-general in 1801, and lord 
chief-justice of the king’s bench in 1802. In the same year 
he was created Baron Ellenborough. He was a Tory in 
politics. Died Dec. 13, 1818. 

Ellenborough (Edward Law), Earl of, a statesman, 
a son of the preceding, was born Sept. 8, 1790, and suc¬ 
ceeded his father as baron in 1818. He was lord privy seal 
in 1828-29, and gained distinction as an orator in the 
House of Lords. In 1841 he was appointed governor- 
general of India, but he was recalled in 1844 by the East 
India Company, and then received the title of earl and 


1527 


viscount. He was first lord of the admiralty in 1846 for a 
short time in the cabinet of Peel. On the formation of a 
new Tory ministry in Feb., 1858, he became president of 
the board of control. One of his despatches censuring 
Viscount Canning for his conduct in India offended the 
public, and caused such an outcry that he had to resign in 
1858. Died Dec. 22, 1871. By his death the earldom and 
viscounty became extinct. 

El'lenburgh, a post-village and township of Clinton 
co., N. Y., on the railroad from Ogdensburg to Rouse’s 
Point. The township has four churches, and manufactures 
of lumber, starch, leather, etc. Pop. of township, 3042. 

El'len Creek, a township of Martin co., Minn. Pop. 
188. 

El'lendale, a township of Alexander co., N. C. Pop. 
908. 

El'lensburg, a post-village, capital of Curry co., Or., 
on the Pacific Ocean at the mouth of Rogue River, about 
200 miles S. by W. of Salem. 

Ellenville, a post-village of Wawarsing township, 
Ulster co., N. Y., 30 miles W. of the Hudson River, on the 
Delaware and Hudson Canal. It is the terminus of the 
Ellenville branch of the Midland R. R., and is situated 
in a beautiful and fertile valley at the foot of the Shawan- 
gunk Mountains. It is a very beautiful and thriving place. 
Its streets are shaded with maples. Its sidewalks are 
flagged at a cost of $50,000; its waterworks cost $40,000 ; 
it has many handsome public and private buildings, six 
churches, three weekly newspapers, graded public schools, 
one savings and two national banks, a glass-manufactory, 
cutlery-works, stoneware pottery, bluestone quarries, and 
manufactories of leather and boats. It has superior hotels, 
is a favorite summer resort, and is the seat of Ulster Sem¬ 
inary. S. M. Taylor, Ed. “ Journal.” 

EUlery, a post-township of Chautauqua co., N. Y., on 
Chautauqua Lake. Pop. 1616. 

Ellery (William), an American patriot, born at New¬ 
port, It. I., Dec. 22,1727. He was a merchant in his youth, 
and began to practise law in 1770 at Newport. Having 
gained a high reputation for integrity and wisdom, he was 
chosen a delegate from Rhode Island to the national Con¬ 
gress of 1776, in which he signed the Declaration of 
Independence. He was re-elected, and remained in Con¬ 
gress until 1785. In 1790 he was appointed collector of 
Newport. He supported the Federal party. Died Feb. 15, 
1820. 

El'let (Charles), an American engineer, born at Penn’s 
Manor, in Bucks co., Pa., Jan. 1, 1810. Destined by his 
father to the life of a farmer, his own strong brain led him 
to mathematical and engineering pursuits. First as a 
rodman, then as a voluntary, and subsequently as a paid 
assistant, on that great work of early American engineer¬ 
ing, the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, he acquired know¬ 
ledge and pecuniary means to visit Europe and complete 
his self-education in Paris, following the course of the 
Ecole Polytechnique. Subsequently an engineer on the 
Utica and Schenectady Railroad, then on the Erie, then 
chief engineer of the James River and Kanawha Canal, he 
was author of an “ Essay on the Laws of Trade” (devoted 
to works of internal improvement in the U. S.) and of other 
works of a similar character. He shares with Roebling the 
honor of being a pioneer of wire suspension bridges, build¬ 
ing in 1842 the bridge across the Schuylkill at Fairmount (on 
the site of the famous “ colossus” wooden bridge destroyed 
in 1838 by fire), “the first structure of its kind in this 
country, and considered at the time a triumph of engineer¬ 
ing skill.” In 1845 he affirmed that a bridge might be 
built across the Niagara below the Falls, secure and fitted 
for railroad uses; and he was in 1847 the designing and 
constructing engineer of the preliminary wire suspension 
bridge (a light foot-bridge), intended as a service bridge 
for the construction of the main work. Among his most 
noteworthy labors was his investigation of the hydraulics 
of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, and his work, published 
by the Smithsonian Institution, he regarded as “the crown¬ 
ing conception of his professional career.” He was among 
the first to advocate the use of “ steam-rams,” suggesting 
a plan to the Russian government by which to destroy the 
allied fleet before Sebastopol, and soon after urging the 
matter upon our government. He was unheeded until the 
event of the famous Monitor and Merrimack battle in 
Hampton Roads, when he was commissioned by the war 
department to do what he could to protect the Mississippi 
gun-boat squadron against a fleet of hostile rains understood 
to be coming up the river. He hastily equippod a fleet of 
nine river steamboats as “ rams,” of which he was given 
the command. In a subsequent battle (June 6, 1862), ter¬ 
minating in a decisive defeat of the Confederate squadron, 
three of”their vessels were sunk outright by two of his 












1528 ELLET—ELLIOTT. 


rams : but he received a wound, from which his already 
enfeebled frame rapidly gave way, and he died at Cairo, 
Ill., on the 21st of June. A great engineer, his power as 
such was worthily devoted to the maintenance of the in¬ 
tegrity of his country, and with it his life; thus in his 
death uniting in one, the engineer, the soldier, the patriot. 

J. G. Barnard, U. S: A. 

Ellet (Charles Rivers), M. D., son of the above, was 
born at Philadelphia in 1841. When the civil war broke 
out he entered the army as a surgeon, became colonel, and 
commanded with success a marine brigade of steam “ rams,” 
etc. on the Mississippi. Died Oct. 29, 1863. 

Ellet (Elizabeth Fries), an American authoress, born 
at Sodus Point, N. Y., in Oct., 1818. Her maiden name was 
Lummis. She produced a volume of poems (1835), ‘‘Women 
of the American Revolution ” (1848), “ Summer Rambles 
in the West ” (1853), “ Queens of American Society ” (1865), 
and numerous other works. 

Ellet (William Henry), M. D., an American chemist, 
born in New York about 1804, was the husband of the pre¬ 
ceding. He obtained a chair in Columbia College (of which 
he was a graduate) in 1832, and became professor of chem¬ 
istry in South Carolina College in 1835. He invented a 
method of preparing gun-cotton. Died Jan. 26, 1859. 

El'lettsville, apost-village of Richland township, Mon¬ 
roe co., Ind., 7 miles N. W. of Bloomington, on the Louis¬ 
ville New Albany and Chicago R. R. It has one private 
bank, two tlouring-mills, one woollen-mill, four churches, 
two hotels, and one newspaper. 

H. L. McCollough, Ed. “ Republican.” 

Ellezelles, 51'zel', a town of Belgium, in the province 
of Hainaut, 16 miles N. E. of Tournay. It has manufac¬ 
tures of linen, a salt refinery, and breweries. Pop. 5527. 

El'licott, a township of Chautauqua co., N. Y. It in¬ 
cludes Jamestown and other villages. Pop. 6679. 

Ellicott (Andrew), an American civil engineer born 
in Bucks co., Pa., Jan. 24, 1754. He founded Ellicott’s 
Mills in Maryland, and removed to Baltimore. He was a 
friend of Dr. Franklin and of Washington. In 1790 he was 
employed by the Federal government to survey and layout 
the capital of the U. S. He was appointed surveyor-gen¬ 
eral of the U. S. in 1792, and became professor of mathe¬ 
matics and engineering at ATcst Point in 1812. Died at 
West Point Aug. 29, 1820. 

Ellicott (Charles John), D. D., since 1863 bishop of 
Gloucester and Bristol, was born at Whitwell, near Stam¬ 
ford, England, in 1819. In 1859 he was appointed Hulsean 
lecturer, and in 1860 Hulsean professor of divinity, at Cam¬ 
bridge. His commentaries on the Epistles of Saint Paul, 
which began to appear in 1854, have put him into the front 
rank of biblical scholars. His “ Historical Lectures on the 
Life of Our Lord Jesus Christ” (1860) were the Hulsean 
Lectures for 1859. His first work was a “ Treatise on Ana¬ 
lytical Statics,” 1842. 

Ellicott City, capital of Howard co., Md., situated on 
the Patapsco River and the Baltimore and Ohio R. R., 10 
miles from Baltimore and 31 miles from Washington. It 
has two newspapers, two cotton-factories, one fiouring-mill, 
turning out 400 barrels of flour per day, one large barrel- 
factory, machine-shop and foundry, six churches, and three 
colleges, one of which is for females. Pop. 1722. 

I. Wolfersberger, Ed. of “Progress.” 

El'licottville, a post-village of Cattaraugus co., N. Y., 

is on the Great Valley Creek, about 44 miles S. by E. from 
Buffalo. It has a large steam saw-mill and flouring-mill/ 
an exchange and banking-office, two hotels, a large union 
school, four or more churches, and one newspaper-office. 
Pop. 579; of Ellicottville township, 1833. 

Ed. “ Cattaraugus Union.” 

El'lijay, a post-village, capital of Gilmer co., Ga., on 
Ellijay River, about 75 miles N. of Atlanta. 

El'lington, a post-twp. of Tolland co., Conn. P. 1452. 

Ellington, a township of Adams co., Ill. Pop. 2298. 

Ellington, a township and post-village of Hancock co., 
Ia. 'Pop. 342. 

Ellington, a post-twp. of Tuscola co., Mich. Pop. 452. 

Ellington, a post-township of Dodge co., Minn. P. 258. 

Ellington, a township and post-village of Chautauqua 
co., N. Y. Pop. of village, 314; total pop. 1556. 

Ellington, a township of Outagamie co., Wis. P. 1248. 

El'Iiot, a post-township of York co., Me., on the Ports¬ 
mouth Saco and Portland R. R. It has a fire insurance com¬ 
pany. Pop. 1769. 

Elliot (Washington L.), General, a native of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, became an officer in the U. S. army in 1846, served 
on the frontiers with honor, became in 1861 colonel of the 


First Iowa Cavalry, and in 1862 a brigadier-general of vol¬ 
unteers, served in the West and in Virginia under Pope, 
was wounded at the second battle of Bull Run, was chief 
of cavalry in the army of the Cumberland, and afterwards 
a division commander in the Fourth Corps. He received 
a brevet of major-general U. S. A. in 1865. lie published 
a manual for cavalry. , 

EUliott, a county of Kentucky, in the N. E. part of the 
State. Its surface is mountainous. It is traversed by sev¬ 
eral small streams, the head-waters of the Little Sandy 
River. Area, about 150 square miles. Grain and tobacco 
are the chief products. Capital, Sandy Hook. Pop. 4433. 

Elliott, apost-township of San Joaquin co., Cal. P. 954. 

Elliott, a township of Louisa co., Ia. Pop. 370. 

Elliott (Charles), D. D., LL.D., a Methodist minister, 
born in the county of Donegal, Ireland, Ma} r 16,1792. He 
emigrated to Ohio, where he edited the “Western Chris¬ 
tian Advocate” and other journals. He was a professor of 
languages at Madison College, Uniontown, Pa. (1827-31), 
and was president of Iowa Wesleyan University (1856-60 
and 1864-67). He was the author of “ A Treatise on Bap¬ 
tism,” “ Life of Bishop Roberts,” “ Delineation of Roman 
Catholicism,” 2 vols. 8vo; “Sinfulness of American Sla¬ 
very,” “History of the Great Secession,” “The Bible and 
Slavery,” etc. Died Jan. 3, 1869. 

Elliott (Charles Loring), an American portrait-painter, 
born in Scipio, N. Y., in Dec., 1812. He worked in the city 
of New York, and painted the portraits of several eminent 
men. His works are commended for fidelity of likeness. 
Died in Albany, N. Y., Aug. 25, 1868. 

Elliott (Charles Wyllys), descended from John Eliot, 
“ the apostle of the Indians,” was born in Guilford, Conn., 
May 27,1817. He was author of “ St. Domingo ” (1855), a 
“^History of New England from the Discovery of the Conti¬ 
nent by the Northmen in 986 to 1776 ” (1857), besides other 
works. 

Elliott (Charlotte), sister to the author of the “Horie 
Apocalyptical.” She has written many excellent hymns; 
amongst others, “Just as I am, without one plea.” 

Elliott (Ebenezer), an English poet, called the “ Corn- 
law Rhymer,” was born near Rotherham, Yorkshire, Mar. 
17, 1781. He was not liberally educated, and was consid¬ 
ered a dull boy at school. In early youth he worked in an 
iron-foundry, in which his father had been employed. He 
produced in 1798 “ The Vernal Walk,” a poem. After he 
had worked for many years in the foundry, he married, and 
removed in 1821 to Sheffield, where he engaged in the iron- 
trade on his own account, and was successful. His most 
popular poems are “ The Corn-law Rhymes,” which pro¬ 
moted the repeal of the corn laws, and were much admired. 
He afterwards wrote “The Village Patriarch” (1829), 
“Byron and Napoleon ” (1831), “Love,” and other poems. 
His works are commended for their energy and the sym¬ 
pathy with the poor which they exhibit. Died Dec. 1, 1849. 

Elliott (Edward Bishop), an English clergyman, was 
born about 1795, and educated at Cambridge. He is best 
known as author of the “ Hora3 Apocalyjiticas,” 4th ed. 
1851; 5th ed. 1862. 

Elliott (Ezekiel Brown) was born in Sweden, Monroe 
co., N. Y., July 16, 1823, and graduated at Hamilton Col¬ 
lege in 1844. He was for some years a teacher, and after¬ 
wards was for a time superintendent of certain telegraph 
lines, and later (1855-56) an actuary in a life insurance 
company in Boston, Mass. In 1861 he became actuary of 
the U. S. Sanitary Commission. In 1863 was a member of 
the International Statistical Congress at Berlin. In 1865 
he became secretary of the commission for revising the U. S. 
revenue laws. In 1871 he entered the civil service reform 
commission. Mr. Elliott is the author of a number of import¬ 
ant papers, among which are the following: Life, annuity, 
and other useful tables involving quantities depending on 
the duration of life, with discussions of the principles under¬ 
lying different methods of construction, based on Prussian, 
English, Belgian, Massachusetts, and other data, and pub¬ 
lished with the proceedings of the American Association 
for the Advancement of Science at its sessions in Albany, 
1856, and in Montreal, 1867; a statistical report to the 
Sanitary Commission, made in 1862, on the mortality and 
sickness of the U. S. volunteers; a memoir on the “ Mili¬ 
tary Statistics of the United States,” published in connec¬ 
tion with the proceedings of the International Statistical 
Congress at its fifth session, held at Berlin in 1863; a sec¬ 
ond table of Prussian mortality, prepared in 1864 and pub¬ 
lished in the “ Zeitschrift ” of the Royal Statistical Bureau 
of Prussia; “ Tables of the Money, Weight, and Measure of 
the Principal Commercial Countries in the World,” pub¬ 
lished in the appendix to “Webster’s Counting-house Dic¬ 
tionary,” ed. 1868; “ Letters to the Secretary of the Treas- 












ELLIOTT—ELLSWORTH. 


ury on the Credit of the U. S. Government, as indicated by 
the Market-prices of its Securities/’ published in 1871 and 
1872; life and annuity tables, based on the returns of the 
U. S. census of 1870, in comparison with corresponding 
data for other countries, with an analysis of the method of 
construction, prepared for the superintendent of the census, 
and published in the second volume of his report—that on 
vital statistics. 

Among other papers prepared by Mr. Elliott may be 
named : in 1850, a demonstration of the principle that from a 
single voltaic battery may be simultaneously supplied, with¬ 
out sensible interterence, the voltaic current for several tele¬ 
graphic conducting wires; in 1860, a discussion, by quater¬ 
nions, of the law which governs mutual action of elements 
of electric currents, resulting in a modification of the usu¬ 
ally accepted formula of Ampere; in the same year, a 
memoir on the calculus of affected quantities of the second 
order (quaternions); several communications, in 1869, 
1870, and 1871, on the simplification of international coin¬ 
age ; and one, in 1872, on the relation obtaining between 
the frequency of auroras and the periodical lengthening 
and shortening of the sun’s radius-vector. 

Elliott (Jesse Duncan), an American commodore, born 
in Maryland July 14, 1782. He gained the rank of lieu¬ 
tenant in 1810, and was second in command under Com. 
Perry at the battle of Lake Erie, in Sept., 1813. Congress 
voted him a gold medal for his conduct in this action. He 
became a captain in 1818. Died Dec. 10, 1845. 

Elliott (Jonathan) was born in England in 1784, emi¬ 
grated to the U. S. about 1802, and fought in New Granada 
under Bolivar. In 1814 he went to Washington, where he 
was for thirteen years editor of the “Washington Gazette.” 
He was author of “ The American Diplomatic Code ” (1827) 
and other works. Died Mar. 12, 1846. 

Elliott (Stephen), LL.D., an American naturalist, born 
at Beaufort, S. C., Nov. 11, 1771, graduated at Yale College 
in 1791. He was professor of natural history in the med¬ 
ical college at Charleston, and president of the Bank of 
South Carolina. He wrote for the “ Southern Review,” and 
published “ The Botany of South Carolina and Georgia” 
(2 vols., 1821-24), a work of merit. Died Mar. 28, 1830. 

Elliott (Stephen), D. D., son of the preceding, and pro¬ 
fessor of sacred literature in South Carolina College, was 
born at Beaufort, S. C., Nov. 13, 1805. Ho became bishop 
of Georgia in 1841. Died Dec. 21, 1866. 

Elliott (Stephen, Jr.), a brigadier-general in the Con¬ 
federate army, born at Beaufort, S. C., 1832. On the out¬ 
break of the civil war he organized and equipped the bat¬ 
tery known as the Beaufort Artillery. He commanded at 
Pinckney Island Aug., 1862, and was promoted for gallant 
conduct; was in command of Fort Sumter during the pro¬ 
tracted bombardment to which it was subjected; and in 
1864 was severely wounded by the mine explosion near 
Petersburg, which incapacitated him from further active 
service for the remainder of the war. In 1865 he sub¬ 
scribed to the oath requiring him to support the Constitu¬ 
tion of the U. S. and his own State. Received the nomi¬ 
nation for Congress. Died at Aiken, S. C., Mar. 21, 1866. 

Elliott (William) was born at Beaufort, S. C., April 
27, 1788. He was a member of the legislature of that State, 
and opposed nullification in 1832. He wrote against seces¬ 
sion about 1851, and was the author of “ Fiesco,” a tragedy 
(1850). Died in Feb., 1863. 

El'Iiottsville, a township of Shelby co., Ala. P. 501. 

Elliottsville Plantation, a township of Piscataquis 
co., Me. Pop. 42. 

Ellipse [Gr. e'AAeu/u?, “omission ” or “defect,” so called 
because the square of the ordinate is less than, or differs in 
defect from, the rectangle under the parameter and abscissa], 
a hypotrochoid curve of the second order, one of the conic 
sections, found by cutting a cone by a plane passing ob¬ 
liquely through the opposite side of the cone. If two fixed 
points be taken in a plane, and a third point be conceived 
to move around the two fixed points in such a way that 
the sum of the distances of the moving point from the fixed 
point shall always be the same, the moving point will de¬ 
scribe an ellipse. The fixed points are the foci of the el¬ 
lipse, and a point in the same straight line with the foci, 
and equally distant from each, is the centre. That axis of 
the ellipse which passes through the foci is the transverse 
or major axis; an axis perpendicular to the transverse is 
the conjugate or minor axis. 

If a moving circle roll along the concavity of the circum¬ 
ference of a fixed circle in the same plane, the radius of the 
former circle being half that of the latter, any given point 
in the plane of the rolling circle, within or without, will 
describe an ellipse. Various instruments for marking the 
ellipse have been devised on this principle. 


1529 


El'lis, a county in W. Central Kansas. Area, 900 square 
miles. It is intersected by Saline and Smoky Hill rivers, 
branches of the Kansas. The surface is nearly level, and 
is mostly prairie-land, well suited for stock-raising. It is 
traversed by the Kansas Pacific R. R. Capital, Hays 
City. Pop. 1336. 

Ellis, a county in N. Central Texas. Area, 1000 square 
miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Trinity River. 
It contains fertile rolling prairies and forests of hard tim¬ 
ber. Cattle, fruit, wool, corn, cotton, and swine are raised. 
It is intersected by the Houston and Texas Central R. R. 
Capital, Waxahachie. Pop. 7514. 

Ellis, a township of Hardin co., Ia. Pop 518. 

Ellis (George Edward), D. D., a Unitarian minister 
and author, born in Boston Aug. 8,1814, graduated at Har¬ 
vard in 1833. He was ordained pastor at Charlestown about 
1838. He wrote for Sparks’s “American Biography ” lives 
of William Penn and others. In 1857 he became professor 
of theology in the Divinity School at Cambridge. Among 
his works is a “Half Century of the Unitarian Contro¬ 
versy ” (1857). 

Ellis (Harvey W.) was born in Kentucky. He settled 
in Tuscaloosa, Ala., where he was repeatedly elected to the 
legislature of that State. He died in 1842. 

El'lisburgh, a post-village and township of Jefferson 
co., N. Y. The township is on Lake Ontario, is traversed 
by the Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg R. R., and has 
some manufactures. There is an academy at Belleville. 
This township is one of the wealthiest in the State. There 
was an engagement here in 1814 between the Americans 
and a superior British force. The latter were defeated. 
Pop. of township, 4822. 

EUiison, a post-township of Warren co., Ill. P. 1258. 

El'lis Station, a post-township of Ellis co., Kan. 
Pop. 120. 

El'lisville, a post-township of Fulton co., Ill. Pop. 
657. 

Ellisville, a post-village, capital of Jones co., Miss., 
on the Tallahalla River, 144 miles S. E. of Jackson. 

Ellore, el'lor', a town of India, presidency of Madras, 
38 miles N. of Masulipatam, is a British military station. 
It is reported to be populous. The climate is unhealthy. 

Ellora, Ilindostan. See Elora. 

Ells'worth, a county in Central Kansas. Area, 720 
square miles. It is intersected by the Smoky Hill Fork 
of the Kansas River. The surface is nearly level, and is 
generally fertile. Cattle and grain are raised and coal is 
found. It is traversed by the Kansas Pacific R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Ellsworth. Pop. 1185. 

Ellsworth, a township of Emmet co., Ia. Pop. 98. 

Ellsworth, a township of Hamilton co., Ia. Pop. 186. 

EllsAVorth, a post-village, capital of Ellsworth co., 
Kan., is on the Kansas Pacific R. R., 223 miles from Kan¬ 
sas City and 415 miles from Denver. It is one of the lead¬ 
ing markets for Texas cattle in the State, not less than 
150,000 head being distributed from this point every year. 
It has a bank, a newspaper, five hotels, and a brick school- 
house costing $20,000. The country adjoining is unsur¬ 
passed for grazing. Pop. of Ellsworth township, 448. 

G. A. Atwood, Ed. “Reporter.” 

Ellsworth, a port of entry and capital of Hancock 
co., Me., on the navigable Union River, 2 miles from its 
mouth and 30 miles S. E. of Bangor. Several bridges 
cross the river here. Its trade is considerable, and its 
main industries are lumbering, shipbuilding, and cooper¬ 
age. It has fifteen saw-mills, two steam-mills, a savings- 
bank, five churches, a public library, and one newspaper. 
Pop. of township, 5257. 

A. T. Drinkwater, Ed. “American.” 

Ellsworth, a township of Meeker co., Minn. P. 270. 

Ellsworth, a post-township of Nye co., Nev. P. 54. 

Ellsworth, a post-twp. of Grafton co., N. H. Pop. 193. 

Ellsworth, a post-village of Pierrepont township, St. 
Lawrence co., N. Y., on Racket River. Called also East 
Pierrepont. Pop. 179. 

Ellsworth, a post-twp. of Mahoning co.,/3. Pop. 652. 

Ellsworth, a township of Tyler co., W. Ya. P. 1890. 

Ellsworth, a post-village, capital of Pierce co., Wis., 
40 miles S. E. of St. Paul, Minn., has a steam saw-mill, 
stave-mill, three hotels, and one newspaper. Pop. of 
township, 747. M. B. Kimball, Ed. “ Herald.” 

Ellsworth (ErnRAiM Elmer), an American officer, 
born in Mechanicsville, Saratoga co., N. ^ ., April 23, 1837, 
became a resident of Chicago. Ho organized a well-dis¬ 
ciplined body of Zouaves before tho civil war, and in Mar., 












1580 


ELLSWORTH—ELMORE. 


1861, he escorted President Lincoln to Washington. In 
April he became colonel of a Zouave regiment of New 
York firemen. When the government troops (May 24, 
1861) took possession of the shores of the Potomac (in¬ 
cluding the city of Alexandria) opposite Washington, to Col. 
Ellsworth’s regiment was assigned the seizure and occupa¬ 
tion of that cit}\ Observing a secessionist flag flying over 
the “Marshall House” (a hotel kept by one Jackson), he 
ascended to the roof himself and took it down. Descend¬ 
ing with it in his hand, he was met and shot dead by the 
innkeeper, who immediately encountered a similar fate 
from the attendant soldiers. 

Ellsworth (Henry Leavitt), born at Windsor, Conn., 
Nov. 10, 1791, graduated at Yale in 1810, and studied law 
at Litchfield. He resided mostly in Connecticut, but was 
for some time a resident commissioner of thcU. S. with the 
South-western Indians, and from 1845 to 1857 lived in La¬ 
fayette, Ind. He was (1836-45) U. S. commissioner of 
patents. He published a series of valuable agricultural re¬ 
ports from the patent office; also a “ Digest of Patents” 
(1840). Died Dec. 27, 1858. 

Ellsworth (Oliver), LL.D., chief-justice of the U. S., 
was born in Windsor, Conn., April 29, 1745, and graduated 
at Princeton in 1766. He studied law, was admitted to the 
bar in 1771, and elected a delegate to the Continental Con¬ 
gress in 1777. In 1784 ho was appointed a judge of the 
superior court, and in 1787 was a member of the convention 
which framed the Federal Constitution. Having joined the 
Federal party, he was elected in 1789 to the Senate of the 
U. S., in which he gained distinction as a debater and sup¬ 
ported Washington’s administration. He was appointed 
chief-justice of the Supreme Court by Washington in 1796. 
In 1799 he was sent as envoy extraordinary to Paris, where 
he and his colleagues negotiated a treaty with France. He 
resigned the office of chief-justice in 1800. Died Nov. 26, 
1807. 

Ellsworth (William Wolcott), LL.D., was born at 
Windsor, Conn., Nov. 10, 1791, and graduated at Yale in 
1810, became a lawyer, was professor of law in Trinity Col¬ 
lege, Hartford, Conn. (1827-68), member of Congress (1S29- 
33), governor of Connecticut (1838-42), and a justice of the 
State supreme court (1847-61). Died at Hartford Jan. 15, 
1868. 

Ell'wangen, a town of Wiirtemberg, on the Jaxt, 45 
miles E. N. E. of Stuttgart. It has a cathedral, a castle, 
a hospital, and a gymnasium; also tanneries and bleach- 
works. Pop. in 1867, 3895. 

ElTwood (Thomas), an English writer, born in Oxford¬ 
shire in 1639, was a minister of the Society of Friends. His 
friend Isaac Penington procured for him in 1662 the posi¬ 
tion of reader to the poet Milton, who was then blind and 
lived in London. “I went,” says Ellwood, “every day in 
the afternoon (except on the first days of the week), and 
sitting by him in his dining-room, read to him in such books 
in the Latin tongue as he pleased to hear.” After he had 
passed six weeks in this occupation, Ellwood went to the 
country for the sake of his health, which was impaired. 
He visited Milton at Giles-Chalfont in 1665, when the poet 
showed him the manuscript of “Paradise Lost,” and re¬ 
quested him to take it home and read it. On returning the 
manuscript, Ellwood suggested to Milton the idea of “ Par¬ 
adise Regained,” by asking, “What hast thou to say of 
Paradise Found? He made no answer, but sat some time 
in muse.” Among Ellwood’s works are a “ Sacred History ” 
(1705), a poem called “Davideis” (1712), and “Memoirs 
of his own Life” (1714). Died Mar. 1, 1713. 

Elm [Lat. ul'mua; Ger. Ul'me; Fr. orme], a genus of 
trees of the order Ulmaceoe, natives of Europe and North 
America, with alternate serrate leaves, which are oblique 
or unequally heart-shaped at the base. The ovary is 2- 
celled, with a single anatropous ovule. The fruit is a 1- 
celled membranaceous samara, winged all round. This ge¬ 
nus comprises numerous species, five or more of which are 
indigenous in the U. S. The most remarkable of these is 
the Ul'mua America'na (white or American elm), a large 
ornamental tree, usually with spreading branches and 
drooping, pendulous boughs. It grows rapidly, often at¬ 
tains the height of 100 feet, and is considered one of our 
most noble and beautiful forest trees. Its favorite habitat 
is in moist wqods where the soil is rich, and in the vicinity 
of rivers and creeks. The trunk sometimes ascends with¬ 
out branches fifty or sixty feet, and then separates into a 
few primary limbs, which gradually diverge and present 
long arched pendulous branches floating in the air. The 
wood of this tree is used for making hubs of wheels. An¬ 
other species native of the U. S. is the slippery elm ( Ul'mua 
ful'va ), a smaller tree with a very mucilaginous inner bark, 
which is used in medicine as a demulcent. Among the im¬ 
portant trees of this genus is the common English elm ( Ul- 
mu8 campeatria), which grows in many parts of Europe, and 


is extensively planted in Great Britain. It is one of the 
chief ornaments of English scenery. The wood of this 
tree is compact, fine-grained, very durable in water, and 
is used for various purposes by wheelwrights, machinists, 
joiners, and shipbuilders. It has a mucilaginous bark, 
which is esteemed as a medicine. The Ul'mua monta'na, 
or wych elm, is a native of Scotland, and a tree of rapid 
growth, valuable for timber, which is used for the same 
purposes as the English elm. Europe also produces the 
cork-barked elm ( Ul'mua subero'sa), a tall tree extensively 
planted in England, and named with reference to the corky 
ridges or wings on its branches. A valuable fine-grained 
wood is obtained from the Ul'mua ala'ta, winged elm or 
wahoo, which grows wild in the Southern U. S., and has 
corky-winged branches. 

Elm, a township of Wayne co., Ill. Pop. 968. 

Elm, a township of Putnam co., Mo. Pop. 1640. 

El'ma, a township and post-village of Erie co., N. Y. 
It has important manufactures. P. 165; of township, 2827. 

Elm Creek, a township of Saline co., Kan. Pop. 2027. 

Elmendaro, a post-township of Lyon co., Kan. P. 533. 

El'mer, a post-village of Pittsgrove township, Salem 
co., N. J. It is a station on the West Jersey R. R., 26 
miles S. of Philadelphia, and at the junction of tho branch 
railroad to Salem, N. J. Pop. 347. 

Elmer (Lucius Q. C.), LL.D., born at Bridgeton, N. J., 
in 1793, graduated at Princeton in 1824, was a prominent 
lawyer and State politician, a member of Congress from 
New Jersey (1843-45), attorney-general of the State (1850- 
52), and a judge of the State supreme court (1852-59). He 
published a “Digest” of New Jersey laws (1838). 

Elm Grove, a township of Tazewell co., Ill. P. 1072. 

Elm Grove, a township of Louisa co., Ia. Pop. 701. 

Elmi'lia, a fortified town and seaport of Africa, the 
former capital of the Dutch possessions on the Guinea 
coast, is in lat. 5° 5' N., and Ion. 1° 23' W. It is defended 
by a strong fort. Elmina was taken from the Portuguese 
by the Dutch in 1637. Pop. estimated at 15,000. On April 
6, 1872, it was ceded, with the Dutch possessions in Guinea, 
to Great Britain. In 1873 it was burned by the British 
troops on account of its sympathy with Ashantee. 

Elmi'ra, a post-village of Woolwich twp., Waterloo co., 
Ontario, Canada, 12 miles from Berlin, the county-seat. It 
has factories and mills, and one weekly newspaper. P. 850. 

Elmira, a post-township of Stark co., Ill. Pop. 1108. 

Elmira, a township of Olmsted co., Minn. Pop. 1055. 

Elmira, a city, the capital of Chemung co., N. Y., at 
the crossing of the Erie and Northern Central R. Rs., 274 
miles by rail N. W. by W. of New York. The Chemung 
Canal extends to Seneca Lake, and the Junction Canal con¬ 
nects Elmira with the interior of Pennsylvania. It is on 
the Chemung River, and is the largest city in that part of 
the State. There is one rolling-mill and one blast-furnace, 
each with $1,500,000 capital, and in full operation; one 
woollen-mill, ten shoe-and-boot factories, three iron-foun¬ 
dries, a manufactory of steam fire-engines, besides machine- 
shops and other like industries, including the large shop of 
the Pullman Car Company for the manufacture and repair 
of cars. The large shops of the Erie R. R. and the prin¬ 
cipal shops of the Northern Central R. R. are situated here. 
There are 19 churches—5 Roman Catholic, 2 Episcopal, 2 
Presbyterian, 3 Baptist, 3 Methodist, 1 Congregational, and 
3 colored. The State Reformatory, now in process of erec¬ 
tion, will be an imposing structure. The Elmira Female 
College (Presbyterian) is large and well endowed. The 
public-school system is excellent. Many of the school- 
houses are very fine. Eldridge Park, containing over 300 
acres, was established by private enterprise, and is finely 
laid out. The city has a fine court-house, a jail, a water- 
cure, a surgical institute, an orphans’ home, etc. There 
are two State, one national, one private, and one savings 
bank, two daily and two weekly newspapers, a steam 
fire department, street railways, and water-works with 
a storing reservoir holding 120,000,000 gallons of water. 
The future of the city is full of promise. Its trade with 
the surrounding country is very extensive. The township, 
outside of the city, is very fertile and has several stone- 
quarries. The city was incorporated in 1865. It was 
during the late civil war a great recruiting rendezvous, and 
immense barracks were erected here, which have since 
been removed. It was also the site of a military prison, 
where many Confederate prisoners were confined. Pop. 
of city, 15,873; of township, exclusive of city, 1190. 

Ausburn Towner, Local Ed. “ Elmira Advertiser.” 

El Mon'te, a township of Los Angeles co., Cal. P. 1254. 

El'more, a county in E. Central Alabama. Area, 775 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. and S. by the Talla¬ 
poosa River, and intersected by the Coosa. Theso rivers 














ELMORE—ELPHINSTONE. 


1531 


unite on the southern border of this county to form the 
Alabama River. The soil is productive. Grain, cotton, 
and wool are raised. The S. and N. Alabama R. R. passes 
through the south-western part. Cap.Wetumpka. P. 14,477. 

Elmore, a township of Daviess co., Ind. Pop. 865. 

Elmore, a post-township of Faribault co., Minn. P. 470. 

Elmore, a post-village of Harris township, Ottawa co., 
0., on Portage River, 20 miles from Lake Erie, and on the 
southern division of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern 
It. R., 16 miles S. E. of Toledo. It has one bank, eight 
churches, two hotels, and one newspaper. Pop. 1131. 

J. E. Crofoot, Ed. “Courier.” 

Elmore, a post-township of Lamoille co., Yt. It has 
manufactures of lumber and starch. Pop. 637. 

Elmore (Franklin Harper), an American lawyer and 
financier, born in South Carolina in 1799. He became a 
member of Congress in 1837, and president of the Bank of 
the State of South Carolina in 1840. He was elected to the 
U. S. Senate in 1850, and died May 29 of the same year. 

Elmore (Rush), a son of Gen. John Elmore, was edu¬ 
cated for the bar, served in the Mexican war, and was, in 
1854, by President Pierce, appointed a judge of the U. S. 
court in Kansas. He died during the war. 

El mo’s Fire, Saint [Elmo is an Italian form of the 
name Elijah ], an electrical light which at sea sometimes at¬ 
taches itself to the ends of masts and spars. When two 
such lights are seen it is called Castor and Pollux, and is 
considered by sailors a sign of fair weather and good luck; 
one ball of light, called Helena, is regarded as a bad omen. 

Elms'horn, a town of Germany, in the Prussian prov¬ 
ince of Sleswick-IIolstein', on the river Kriickau and on the 
Kiel and Altona Railway, about 22 miles N. W. of Ham¬ 
burg. It has an active trade in grain and manufactures of 
shoes, etc. Pop. in 1871, 4832. 

Elm Spring, a township of Washington co., Ark. P. 
1071. 

Elm'wood, a post-village of Peoria co., Ill., on a 
branch of the Chicago Burlington and Quincy R. R., 163 
miles S. W. of Chicago. It has one newspaper office. Pop. 
1476 ; of Elmwood township, including village, 2410. 

Elmwood, a township of Leelenaw co., Mich. P. 535. 

Elmwood, a township of Tuscola co., Mich. P. 369. 

Elmwood, a post-township of Saline co., Mo. P. 1538. 

Elmwood, a post-township of Cass co., Neb. P. 317. 

Eloge, Ylozh', a French term signifying “eulogy,” is 
applied in France to the panegyrical orations pronounced 
in honor of eminent deceased persons, and particularly of 
members of the French Academy and Institute. The duty 
is now performed by the new member elected as the suc¬ 
cessor of the deceased. Fontenelle w r as one of the first who 
excelled in this species of composition. 

E'lon, a township of Amherst co., Va. Pop. 3193. 

Elonga'tion [from the Lat e, “out,” and lon'gtui, I 
“long”], in astronomy, is the apparent angular distance 
of a planet from the sun. The greatest elongation of Mer¬ 
cury amounts to about 28° 30', that of Venus to about 47° 
48', and that of the superior planets may have any value 
up to 180°. 

El'oquence [Lat. eloquen'tia; for etymology see Elo¬ 
cution] is the expression of thought or emotion in such a 
manner as to produce conviction or corresponding emotion 
in others. The term was originally applied to public speak¬ 
ing alone, but the rules for that art being generally appli¬ 
cable to writing, it was used in a wider sense. In Greece in 
the age succeeding Pericles arose a school of rhetoricians, 
who sought to graft upon eloquence the subtleties of logic. 
Gorgias and Isocrates belonged to this school, and in this 
age Grecian eloquence attained its highest perfection in 
Demosthenes. Soon after this it declined rapidly, and the 
names of Athenmus and several others have been preserved 
from oblivion chiefly by the writings of Longinus. When 
the liberal arts began to flourish at Rome by the exertions 
of Greeks, the senate in the year of the city 592 decreed 
the banishment of all rhetoricians. But the Romans a few 
years later were so charmed with the eloquence of Carne- 
ades, Diogenes, and Critolaus, the ambassadors from Athens 
to Rome, that they made the study of oratory part of a 
liberal education. It made the most rapid progress, and 
was at last crowned by the appearance of Cicero. From 
his writings we learn that many great orators existed at 
Rome before the age of Augustus. The despotic character 
of the government in succeeding ages checked the growth 
of the art, which quickly declined. The history of eloquence 
in England records the names of Pitt, Burke, Fox, Sheri¬ 
dan, and others of the first eminence. The statesmen of 
Ireland have as a class been remarkable for their excellent 
oratory. In Germany there has been so little opportunity [ 


for the display of forensic or senatorial eloquence that its 
growth has been in a measure checked; and the same may 
be said of Spain, Italy, and Portugal, which, however, have 
been rich in pulpit eloquence. The French language is 
essentially a colloquial one, but the great names of Bossuet, 
Bourdaloue, Massillon, Lacordaire, Lamennais, and Hya- 
cinthe illustrate its capabilities for pulpit oratory, while the 
Revolution brought out many powerful public speakers in 
politics. Of these Mirabeau is the most celebrated. In 
the U. S. public speaking is one of the great social powers, 
and it is accordingly cultivated with assiduity and success. 

Of the earlier American orators, Fisher Ames was per¬ 
haps the most finished. The “great triumvirate,” Webster, 
Clay, and Calhoun, in public affairs, Wirt and Choate at 
the bar, and Samuel Davies, John Mason, and not a few 
other pulpit-orators, have attained great eminence. The 
names of Everett and Wendell Phillips also deserve men¬ 
tion. 

Elo'ra, or Ellora, a decayed town of Hindostan, near 
Dowlatabad; lat. 20° 5' N., Ion. 75° 13' E. Here are nu¬ 
merous remarkable cave-temples, which surpass in magni¬ 
tude all others in India, and are adorned with statues and 
other sculptures. Besides the cave-temples hewn out in 
the slope of a rocky hill, there are vast edifices or pagodas 
carved out of solid granite hills, so as to form magnificent 
monoliths, having an exterior as well as interior architec¬ 
ture, richly decorated. They are among the most stupendous 
monuments ever raised by man. The most remarkable of 
these is the temple called Kailasa, which is about 145 feet 
long and 100 feet high, and is supported by four rows of 
pilasters with colossal elephants beneath. In the court 
which surrounds the temple of Kailasa are several obelisks, 
sphinxes, and colonnades. Many mythological figures are 
carved on the walls. The date of the construction of these 
temples is not known. According to Mr. Fergusson, they 
were executed not later than 200 B. C. (See Fergusson, 
“Handbook of Architecture.”) 

Elo' ra, a post-village of Ontario, Dominion of Canada, 
in Wellington county and on Grand River at its falls, 12 
miles N. W. of Guelph, on the Wellington Grey and Bruce 
Railway. It has two newspapers, a large trade, and ex¬ 
tensive manufactures. Pop. in 1871, 1498. 

El Pa'so, §1 p&'so (r. e. “the passage” or “gap”), a 
county in the central part of Colorado, has an area of about 
2600 square miles. It is drained by several small affluents 
of the Arkansas River. The western part is mountainous, 
the eastern a broken plain. The highest point of this 
county is Pike’s Peak, which rises 11,497 feet above the 
level of the sea. It abounds in grand scenery. Stock- 
raising and lumber-cutting are the chief industrial pur¬ 
suits. Grain, wool, and dairy products are the agricul¬ 
tural staples. It is intersected by the Denver and Rio 
Grande R. R. Capital, Colorado City. Pop. 987. 

El Paso, a county which forms the W. extremity of 
Texas, is bounded on the S. W. by the Rio Grande, which 
separates it from Mexico. The surface is mostly sandy 
plains, but some parts are very mountainous. There are 
several salt-lakes with no outlets. Wine, salt, and fine 
onions are exported. Silver ore abounds. The county 
contains many Mexicans and Pueblo Indians. Area, 9450 
square miles. Capital, El Paso. Pop. 3671. 

El Paso, a city of Woodford co., Ill., on the Illinois 
Central R. R. where it crosses the Toledo Peoria and War¬ 
saw R. R., 17 miles N. of Bloomington and 33 miles E. of 
Peoria. It has one newspaper-office. A coal-shaft is now 
going down. Two large mills, five grain-elevators, one 
carriage-manufactory, and two agricultural-implement 
works are among tho business industries of the place. 
Pop. 1564, or, including El Paso township, 2416. 

E. T. Baldwin, Ed. “ Journal.” 

El Paso, a post-village, capital of El Paso co., Tex., 
on the Rio Grande, near lat. 31° 42' N. Near this place the 
river passes through a gap or gorge in a mountain called 
El Paso del Norte (“North Pass”), which is the chief tho¬ 
roughfare between Mexico and New Mexico. 

El Paso, a post-township of Pierce co., Wis. Pop. 248. 

El Pa'so del Nor'te (“the pass of the north”), a fer¬ 
tile valley in the Mexican state of Chihuahua, on the Rio 
Grande, about 350 miles S. by W. from Santa Fe. Here 
are produced wine and brandy, which are called Pass wine 
and Pass brandy. 

Elphinstone (Hon. Mountstuart), a British historian, 
born in 1778, was a younger son of Lord Elphinstone. He 
was sent as ambassador to the court of Cabool in 1808, and 
became governor of Bombay in 1819. Bishop Ileber ex¬ 
pressed the opinion that, ho was “ in every respect an extra¬ 
ordinary man,” and that his Indian policy was wise and 
liberal. Mr. Elphinstone resigned in 1827, and returned to 









1532 EL ROSARIO— ELY. 

England, lie published an “ Account of the Kingdom of 
Cabool ” (1815) and a “History of India: the Hindoo and 
Mohammedan Periods” (2 vols., 1841), both of which are 
highly esteemed. Died Nov. 20, 1859. 

El Rosar'io, a town of the Mexican state of Cinaloa, 
55 miles E. of Mazatlan. Here were rich gold-mines, which 
are no longer worked. It is an entrepot of trade between 
Mazatlan and the interior. Pop. 5000. 

Elroy, a post-village of Juneau co., Wis. It is the 
S. E. terminus of the West Wisconsin R. R., at its junc¬ 
tion with the Chicago and North-w r estern R. R., 210 miles 
N. E. of Chicago. It has a weekly newspaper. 

Elsass [i. e. “the country of the ‘Sassen’ (settlers) on 
the Ill;” Lat. Alscitia; Fr. Alsace ]. a German country, 
bounded on the E. by the Rhine, on the S. by Switzerland, 
and on the W. by the Vosges Mountains, which separate it 
from France. Area, about 3350 square miles. It was ceded 
to France by the emperor of Austria in 1G48, and became 
a province of that country. After the division of France 
into departments, about 1790, it formed the departments of 
HautRhin and Bas Rhin (Upper and Lower Rhine), which 
in 1806 contained a population of 1,119,255. Chief towns, 
Strasburg, Colmar, and Miilhausen. After the German 
armies had defeated and captured Napoleon III. in 1870, 
Bismarck and his king insisted on the annexation of El¬ 
sass to Germany as one of the conditions of peace. The 
French therefore continued to fight for it, but at last they 
were compelled to cede it (with the exception of the fort¬ 
ress Belfort and its rayon) by the treaty of May 10, 1871. 
The total population, according to the census of 1871, was 
1,059,279, a decrease of about 60,000 since 1866. 

Elsasser (F. A.), a German landscape-painter, born in 
1810, went to Italy in 1832, where he lived chiefly in Rome. 
Italian history and scenery form the subjects of his most 
celebrated works, among which are “ The Campo Santo 
near Pisa by Moonlight,” “ The Siren Grotto in Tivoli,” 
and “The Imperial Palace in Rome.” Died in 1845. 

Elsass-IiOthringcn [Fr. Alsace-Lorraine'), the name 
of anew German country formed of those portions of Alsace 
and Lorraine which in 1870 were ceded by France to Ger¬ 
many. It has not been annexed to any particular German 
state, but it is a Reichsland (imperial land), immediately 
subject to the emperor. Area, 5596 square miles. It is 
divided into three districts (Bezirke)—Ober-Elsass, Unter- 
Elsass, and Lothringen. The first corresponds to the for¬ 
mer French department of Ilaut Rhin, the second to the 
former French department of Bas Rhin, while the third 
contains all the territory which has been ceded of the French 
departments of Moselle, Meurthe, and Vosges. The dis¬ 
tricts have been subdivided into circles (Ivreise), which in 
extent do not correspond to the former French ai'rondisse- 
ments. Ober-Elsass contains seven, Unter-Elsass eight, 
and Lothringen eight circles. Pop. 1,549,459. 

It is estimated that about six-sevenths of the population 
(about 1,340,000) speak the German language, and 210,000 
French. Of the latter, 180,000 belong to Lothringen, and 
15,000 to Ober-Elsass and Unter-Elsass each. About 81 per 
cent, of the population belongs to the Roman Catholic re¬ 
ligion, which in Elsass-Lothringen is more predominant 
than in any other German state; Bavaria, the next in 
order, numbering only 71 per cent, of Catholics. The leg¬ 
islative functions are exercised by the German Reichstag, 
in which Elsass-Lothringen will, until Jan. 1874, not be 
represented. At the head of the administration is an Ober- 
prasident, who is subordinate to the imperial chancellor ; 
the imperial chancery has a special division for the affairs 
of Elsass-Lothringen. The revenue and expenditure 
amounted for 1872 to 45,142,991 francs each. The new 
country is as yet without a public debt. At the time when 
the country was ceded to Germany 770 kilometers (1 kilo¬ 
meter =0.62 English miles) of railroads were in operation, 
which, with a few exceptions, belonged to the Socigte des 
Chemins de Fer de l'Est, from which the German empire 
bought them for 325,000,000 francs. The navigable rivers 
are the Rhine, Ill, Moder, Saar, and Moselle. The soil is 
fertile, and rich in mines of iron, copper, and coal. The 
chief productions of the soil are grain, wine, beet-root, to¬ 
bacco, madder, and linseed. Miilhausen (Mulhouse) is the 
seat of important manufactures of cotton prints, muslins, 
flowered silk stuffs, linen damasks, etc. Capital, Stras¬ 
burg. 

El-Seewah (anc. Ammonium), the most northerly of 
the five Egyptian oases, about 440 miles W. N.W. of ancient 
Thebes. It is six miles long and three broad. The oasis 
abounds in salt and alum, which were anciently exported 
in great amount. Dates, pomegranates, and other fruits 
are produced in surprising quantities. Sheep and cattle 
are bred in great numbers. It abounds in fresh-water 
springs, and is in part rather marshy. The ruins of the 

temple of Ammon and of other ancient buildings arc still 
in existence. Pop. about 8000. Chief town, Kebir. 

Els'heimer (Adam), askilful German landscape-painter, 
born at FrankforQon-the-Main in 1574, was called II Te- 
desco (t. e. “the German ”) by the Italians. He worked in 

Rome, where he died in 1620. His works are highly finished. 

He excelled in chiaroscuro. 

El'sie, a post-village of Clinton co., Mich., has one 
monthly publication. . 

El'sinborough, a township of Salem co., N. J. Pop. 

700. 

Elsinore [Dan. Helsingor], an old and interesting 
town and seaport of Denmark, is on the island of Seeland 
and on the western shore of the Sound (here only 2 \ miles 
wide), 24 miles N. by E. of Copenhagen; lat. 56° 2' N., 

Ion. 12° 37' E. It is defended by the castle of Kronborg, 
which commands the Sound at its narrowest part. It has a 
cathedral, a custom-house, and a royal palace called Marien- 
list, from which is obtained a magnificent view of the Sound 
and of Ilclsingborg in Sweden. At Elsinore the Sound 
dues were formerly collected from foreign vessels navigat¬ 
ing the Sound. It has an active trade, and some manufac¬ 
tures of arms, brandy, hats, etc. Here was laid the scene 
of Shakspeare’s “Hamlet.” Pop. in 1870, 8891. 

Elsinore, a post-township of Allen co., Kan. P. 452. 

El'ssler (Fanny), a German dancer, born at Vienna in 

1811. She performed with success in Berlin, Paris, and 
London. In company with her sister Therese, who was 
also a danseuse, she visited the U. S. in 1841. She retired 
from the stage with a large fortune in 1851. Her sister 

Therese was united in morganatic marriage with Prince 
Adalbert of Prussia in 1850, and was made Freifrau von 

Barnim by the king in the same year. 

El'ster, Black, a river of Germany, rises in Saxony, 
flows north-westward, and enters the Elbe 8 miles E. of 
Wittenberg. Length, 105 miles. 

Elster, White, a river of Germany, rises near the 
north-western frontier of Bohemia, flows northward, and 
after a course of 11.0 miles enters the Saale 3 miles S. of 

Halle (Prussia). 

Elton', a shallow saline lake of Russia in the basin of 
the Caspian, government of Astrachan, about 49° 15' N. 
lat., and 46° 30' E. Ion., 150 miles S. S. E. of the town of 

Saratof. It is 14 miles long, and has an area of 78 square 
miles. About 100,000 tons of salt are annually procured 
from it. In the summer it presents an appearance as if it 
wefe covered with snow. 

El'ton (Romeo), D. D., LL.D., was born at Bristol, Conn., 
in 1790, and graduated at Brown University in 1813. He 
was ordained as a Baptist minister in 1817, and was (1825- 
43) professor of ancient languages in Brown University. 

He resided for a time in England (1845-69). He published 
sermons, biographical works, etc. Died Feb. 5, 1870, leav¬ 
ing $20,000 to Brown University, and the same amount to 
Columbian College, D. C. •" 

Elutria'tion [from the Lat. elu'trio, elutria'tum, to 
“ cleanse ”], the process of preparing earths and pigments 
by washing them in large quantities of water, so that the 
heavier particles sink to the bottom, and the finer parti¬ 
cles, remaining longer suspended, are gradually deposited. 

This operation is a very important one in preparing clay 
for the porcelain manufacture and some ores of iron and 
other metals for the furnace. The apparatus used for this 
purpose is a vat in which grinding wheels revolve, and 
into which a stream of water flows, but there are many 
special adaptations of the process. 

El'vas [Sp. Helves or Yelves), a fortified frontier city 
of Portugal, in the province of Aicmtcjo, is about 125 miles 

E. of Lisbon and 12 miles W. of Badajos (Spain). It stands 
on a steep hill, is enclosed by walls, and is said to be the 
strongest fortress in Portugal. It contains many antique 

Moorish buildings, also a cathedral, several convents, a 
theatre, an arsenal, and a college. Elyas is supplied with 
water by a large Moorish aqueduct with several tiers of 
arches rising to the height of 250 feet. Its bishop is a 
suffragan of the archbishop of Evora. Pop. 11,OSS. 

Elves. Seo Elf. 

Elvira, a post-township of Johnson co., Ill. Pop. 

1268. 

El'wood, a township of Vermilion co., Ill. Pop. 19S7. 

Ehvood, a post-village of Pipe Creek township, Madi¬ 
son co., Ind., on the Columbus Chicago and Indiana Cen¬ 
tral R. R. It is called also Quincy and Duck Creek. Pop. 

310. 

Ely, ce'le, an episcopal city or cathedral town of Eng¬ 
land, is in the country of Cambridge, and on the river Ouse, 

72 miles N. N. E. of London and 16 miles N. N. E.of Cam- 

















ELY, ISLE OF—EMANCIPATION, PROCLAMATION OF. 


bridge. It is situated in the fen country called the Isle of 
Ely. A monastery was founded here about 673 A. D. Here 
is a lino cathedral which is 536 feet long by 190 feet wide, 
and exhibits a combination of Early Norman and Gothic 
styles.. It was commenced about 1080, and additions were 
made in the twelfth and fourteenth centuries. Ely became 
a bishop s see in 1107. It contains Trinity church, a hand¬ 
some structure founded in 1321. Pop. in 1871, 8098. 

Ely, Isle ol, a level, fenny tract of England, in Cam¬ 
bridgeshire, is the southern part of the Bedford Level. It 
is bounded on the S. by the river Ouse. It was formerly 
in great part covered with water, but has been drained and 
reclaimed by numerous canals and ditches. Aquatic birds 
and marsh plants abound here. The soil is fertile, and 
produces good crops of hemp, flax, wheat, oats, etc. 

Elyria, the capital of Lorain co., O., is beautifully situ¬ 
ated at tho confluence of the E. and W. branches of Black 
River, 25 miles W. of Cleveland and 7 miles S. of Lake 
Erie, at the junction of the Lake Shore and Michigan 
Southern and Lake Shore and Tuscarawas Valley R. Its. 
It has a national bank, savings bank, three newspapers, a 
public library, telegraph college, seven churches, a gas- 
factory, and some of the finest business-houses in the State. 
It has valuable water-power. The manufacturing and sale 
of cheese, grindstones, building-stone, tobacco, confection¬ 
ery, and screws are the chief businesses. The place has a 
rapid growth. Pop. in 1870, 3038 ; of Elyria township, in¬ 
cluding village, 4076. F. S. Reefy, 

Ed. “ Lorain Constitution ” and “ Elyria Volksfreund.” 

Elys'ian, a post-township of Le Sueur co., Minn. P. 852. 

EJys'imn, or The Elys'ian Fields [Gr. ijAvo-tov 
neSCov ; Fr. Elysee or Champs Elyaees\, in classic mythology, 
the place to which the souls of the virtuous were supposed 
to bo transported after death. Elysium was variously rep¬ 
resented as a part of Hades or as an island in the Western 
Ocean. Some of the ancients imagined that the kingdom 
of Pluto was divided into two regions—Tartarus, in which 
the wicked were punished, and Elysium, the abode of the 
good. 

Elysville (P. 0. name, ALBERTOx),a village of Howard 
co., Md., on the Baltimore and Ohio R. R. Pop. 302. 

E'lyton, a post-village, capital of Jefferson co., Ala., on 
the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R., 54 miles N. E. of 
Tuscaloosa. It has one weekly newspaper. There are ex¬ 
tensive iron-works in the vicinity. 

El' ze (Karl Friedrich), a German philologist, born in 
1821, became professor at the gymnasium in Dessau. He 
wrote, among other works, “ The English Language and 
Literature in Germany” (1864), “Sir Walter Scott” (1864), 
“ Lord Byron” (1867), and published editions of English 
and American authors. - He also edits (since 1868) the 
“Yearbook” of the German Shakspeare Society. ^ 

El'zevir, or Elzevier, the name of a family of Dutch 
printers who lived at Amsterdam, Leyden, and other places, 
and were celebrated for the accuracy and beauty of their 
typography. They published excellent editions of several 
classic authors between 1583 and 1681. The first eminent 
printer of the family was Lewis or Lodewijk, who was born 
about 1540. He lived at Leyden, and died about 1617, 
leaving four sons—Matthew, Lewis, Gilles (or iEgidius), 
and Bonaventure, who were all publishers. The business 
was continued by Abraham, a son of Matthew, and his 
partner Bonaventure, who published duodecimo editions of 
the classics which are still highly prized for their beauty 
and correctness. The Greek New Testament is among 
their masterpieces. A press was established in Amster¬ 
dam in 1638 by Lewis Elzevir (a grandson of Lewis first 
mentioned), who published good editions of numerous 
authors. Several other members of the family were dis¬ 
tinguished printers, y 

Emana'tion [from the Lat. <?, “out,” and ma'no, ma- 
na'turn, to “flow”], in the religions of India, of ancient 
Persia, in Neo-Platonism, and in Gnosticism, a theory of 
ontology and of cosmogony which ascribes the origin of 
the universe and of all inferior beings to an outflow from 
the Deity. . The name has also been applied to the good 
and evil influences which the heavenly bodies were for¬ 
merly believed to send forth, and which were thought to 
determine the destinies of men. 

Emancipation [from the Lat. eman'cipo, emancipa'- 
tum, to “liberate” (from e, “from,” and mancip'ium, a 
“slave”)], the act of freeing from subjection of any kind. 
In Roman law a son was regarded as the slave of his father, 
and could by a fiction of that law be freed by being sold 
( mancipcitus) three times by the father. This enfranchise¬ 
ment was termed emancipation. Different modes of eman¬ 
cipation were afterwards recognized by Roman jurispru¬ 
dence. In countries where that law prevails the word sig¬ 
nifies the exemption of the son from the power of the father, 


1533 


either by express act or implication of law. By the civil 
law of France, majority (and emancipation) are attained at 
twenty-one, and a minor is. emancipated by marriage. The 
word emancipation is used in a general sense to signify the 
liberation of a slave, or tho admission of certain classes to 
the enjoyment of civil rights, as Catholic Emancipation 
(which see). 

Emancipation, Proclamation of, the most im¬ 
portant document ever issued by a President of the U. S., 
was issued by President Lincoln Sept. 22, 1862, as a notice 
to the Confederates to return to their allegiance, emancipa¬ 
tion being proclaimed as a result which would follow their 
failure so to return. The real Proclamation of Emancipa¬ 
tion was the supplementary document of Jan. 1, 1863. This 
act was simply a war-measure, based solely upon the Presi¬ 
dent’s authority as commander-in-chief of the army and 
navy. 

Proclamation of Emancipation. 

I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, and 
Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy thereof, do 
hereby proclaim and declare that hereafter, as heretofore, 
the war will be prosecuted for the object of practically re¬ 
storing the constitutional relation between the United States 
and the people thereof in those States in which that rela¬ 
tion is, or may be, suspended or disturbed; that it is my 
purpose upon the next meeting of Congress to again recom¬ 
mend the adoption of a practical measure tendering pecu¬ 
niary aid to the free acceptance or rejection of all the Slave 
States, so called, the people whereof may not then be in re¬ 
bellion against the United States, and Avhich States may 
then have voluntarily adopted, or thereafter may volun¬ 
tarily adopt, the immediate or gradual abolishment of Sla¬ 
very within their respective limits, and that the effort to 
colonize persons of African descent, with their consent, upon 
the continent or elsewhere, with the previously obtained 
consent of the government existing there, will be continued; 
that on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord 
one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons 
held as slaves within any State, or any designated part of 
a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against 
the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and 
for ever free; and the military and naval authority 
thereof will recognize and maintain the freedom of such per¬ 
sons, and will do no actor acts to repress such persons, or any 
of them, in any efforts they may make for actual freedom; 
that the Executive will, on the first day of January afore¬ 
said, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of 
States, if any, in which the people thereof respectively shall 
then be in rebellion against the United States; and the fact 
that any State, or the people thereof, shall on that day be 
in good faith represented in the Congress of the United 
States by members chosen thereto, at elections wherein a 
majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have 
participated, shall, in the absence of strong countervailing 
testimony, be deemed conclusive evidence that such State 
and the people thereof have not been in rebellion against 
the United States. 

That attention is hereby called to an act of Congress en¬ 
titled “ An act to make an additional article of Avar,” ap¬ 
proved March 13, 1862, and Avhich act is in the Avords and 
figures folloAving : 

“ Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa¬ 
tives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, 
That hereafter the folloAving shall be promulgated as an addi¬ 
tional article of Avar for the government of the Army of the 
United States, and shall be observed and obeyed as such : 

“Article —. All officers or persons of the military or 
naval service of the United States are prohibited from em¬ 
ploying any of the forces under their respective commands 
for the purpose of returning fugitives from service or labor 
who may have escaped from any persons to whom such ser¬ 
vice or labor is claimed to be due ; and any officer who shall 
be found guilty by a court-martial of violating this article, 
shall be dismissed from the service. 

“ Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, that this act shall 
take effect from and after its passage.” 

Also to the ninth and tenth sections of an act entitled 
“An act to suppress insurrection, to punish treason and re¬ 
bellion, to seize and confiscate property of Rebels, and for 
other purposes,” approved July 17, 1S62, and Avhich sec¬ 
tions are in the Avords and figures following: 

“Sec. 9. And be it further enacted, that all slaves of per¬ 
sons Avho shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the 
Government of the United States, or who shall in any way 
give aid or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and 
taking refuge within the lines of the army ; and all slaves 
captured from such persons or deserted by them, and com¬ 
ing under the control of the government of the United 
States, and all slaves of such persons found on (or being 
Avithiu) any place occupied by Rebel forces and afterwards 














1534 EMANUEL—EMBANKMENT. 


occupied by the forces of the United States, shall be deemed 
captives of war, and shall be for ever free of their servitude 
and not again held as slaves. 

“ Sec. 10. And be it further enacted, that no slave escap¬ 
ing into any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia, 
from any of the States, shall be delivered up, or in any way 
impeded or hindered of his liberty, except for crime or 
some offence against the laws, unless the person claiming 
said fugitive shall first make oath that the person to whom 
the labor or service of such fugitive is alleged to be due, is 
his lawful owner, and has not been in arms against the United 
States in the present rebellion, nor in any way given aid 
or comfort thereto; and no person engaged in the military 
or naval service of the United States shall, under any pre¬ 
tence whatever, assume to decide on the validity of the claim 
of any person to the service or labor of any other person, or 
surrender up any such person to the claimant, on pain of 
being dismissed from the service.” 

And I do hereby enjoin upon, and order all persons en¬ 
gaged in the military and naval service of the United States 
to observe, obey, and enforce within their respective spheres 
of service the act and sections above recited. 

And the Executive will, in due time, recommend that all 
citizens of the United States who shall have remained loyal 
thereto throughout the rebellion, shall (upon the restoration 
of the constitutional relation between the United States and 
their respective States and people, if the relation shall have 
been suspended or disturbed) be compensated for all losses 
by acts of the United States, including the loss of slaves. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and 
caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. 

Done at the city of Washington, this twenty-second day 
of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight 
hundred and sixty-two, and of the Independence of the 
United States the eighty-seventh. 

By the President: Abraham Lincoln. 

Wm. H. Seward, Secretary of State. 

Supplementary Proclamation. 

Whereas, On the twenty-second day of September, in the 
year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, 
a proclamation was issued by the President of the United 
States, containing among other things the following, to wit: 

That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord 
one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons 
held as slaves within any State, or any designated part of 
a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against 
the United States, shall be thenceforward and forever free, 
and the Executive Government of the United States, in¬ 
cluding the military and naval authority thereof, will recog¬ 
nize and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do 
no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of them, in 
any efforts they may make for their actual freedom: 

That the Executive will, on the first day of January afore¬ 
said, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of 
States, if any, in which the people thereof respectively shall 
then be in rebellion against the United States, and the fact 
that any State, or the people thereof, shall on that day be 
in good faith represented in the Congress of the United 
States by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a 
majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have 
participated, shall, in the absence of strong countervailing 
testimony, be deemed conclusive evidence that such State 
and the people thereof are not then in rebellion against the 
United States: 

Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the 
United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, 
in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and 
Government of the United States, and as a fit and neces¬ 
sary war-measure for repressing said rebellion, do, on this 
first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accordance with my 
purpose so to do, publicly proclaim for the full period of 
one hundred days from the day of the first above-mentioned 
order, and designate, as the States and parts of States 
wherein the people thereof respectively are this day in re¬ 
bellion against the United States, the following, to wit: 
Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, except the parishes of St. Ber¬ 
nard, Plaquemine, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. 
James, Ascension, Assumption, Terre Bonne, Lafourche, 
St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of 
New Orleans, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South 
Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia, except the forty- 
eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the 
counties of Berkeley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth 
City, York, Princess Ann, and Norfolk, including the cities 
of Norfolk and Portsmouth, and which excepted parts are, 
for the present, left precisely as if this proclamation were 
not issued. 

And by virtue of the power and for the purpose afore¬ 


said, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves 
within said designated States and parts of States are, and 
henceforward shall be, free; and that the Executive Gov¬ 
ernment of the United States, including the military and 
naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the 
freedom of said persons. 

And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be 
free, to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self- 
defence, and I recommend to them, that in all cases, when 
allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. 

And I further declare and make known that such persons 
of suitable condition will be received into the armed service 
of the United States to garrison forts, positions, stations, 
and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said ser¬ 
vice. 

And upon this, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, 
warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I 
invoke the considerate judgment of mankind and the gra¬ 
cious favor of Almighty God. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and 
caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. 

Done at the city of Washington, this first day 
of January, in the year of our Lord one thou- 

[l. s.] sand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the 
Independence of the United States of America 
the eighty-seventh. 

By the President: * Abraham Lincoln. 

William H. Seward, Secretary of State. 

Eman'ue!, a county in the E. S. E. of Georgia. Area, 
1000 square miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the 
Ogeechee River and intersected by the Great Ohoopee. 
The surface is nearly level. Cattle, corn, rice, oats, to¬ 
bacco. cotton and wool are raised. Capital, Swainsboro’. 
Pop. 6134 

Emar'ginate [from the Lat. emcir'gino, emargina'turn, 
to “ take away the edge ”], a botanical term applied to 
leaves which are notched or indented at the apex. 

E m'aus, a post-village of Salisbury township, Lehigh 
co., Pa. Pop. 477. 

Em'ba, or Jem, a river of Asia, in Toorkistan or the 
Kirgheez territory. It flows south-westward, and enters 
the Caspian Sea. Length, about 250 miles. 

Embalming [remotely from the Gr. ev, “in,” and 
0<£Acr<i(u.°»', “balm,” “resin,” alluding to the ancient pro¬ 
cess], the preservation of dead bodies from decay by the 
application of antiseptic drugs or of suitable chemical re¬ 
agents. This art early attained great perfection in Egypt. 
It appears to have arisen from belief in a future life and 
in the resurrection of the body. It was practised in vari¬ 
ous ways. In the most expensive method the brain and 
viscera were removed, their places being filled with bitu¬ 
men and aromatic substances; the body was washed in 
the oil or tar of cedar, bound up in linen smeared with 
spices, asphalt, and various gums; and the whole was 
placed in a solution of natron (saltpetre or sodium nitrate) 
for seventy days. This process cost a silver talent, nearly 
$2000. The cheap methods dispensed with the eviscera¬ 
tion, and yet many mummies (embalmed bodies) are found 
completely preserved by the inferior methods. It appears 
also that salt was freely used; and some authors believe 
that heat was also employed in the process. Embalming 
was also practised to some extent by the Jews, Assyrians, 
and ancient Persians, as also by the early Christians, who 
embalmed the bodies of some of the martyrs, probably by 
the simple application of aromatics. Throughout mediaeval 
Europe rude embalming was practised upon the bodies of 
princes, and during the present century many improve¬ 
ments have been made in the process, which no longer aims 
at rendering bodies imperishable, but merely preserves 
them indefinitely. Various methods are now used. In 
some, arsenical liquids are injected into the blood-vessels. 
The chlorides of zinc, mercury, and aluminium, various 
other salts of aluminium, solutions of creasote from wood- 
tar, preparations of phenol or carbolic acid and of cresol or 
cresylic acid from coal-tar, etc., are successfully employed. 
Some of the very best methods are said to be secret. 

Embank'ment, a mound of earth for a pier or quay, 
for defence against the sea or streams, or for carrying a 
roadway. In building embankments the slopes should be 
of a permanent nature, and the weight of the bank should 
not be so great as to force out the foot. The materials 
should be placed according to that angle at which they 
would begin to move if left to themselves. Gravel or hard 
stone may be laid at 34°, while clay is liable to slip if the 
materials are dressed to an angle of more than 26°. If 
required to resist the pressure of water on one side, the 
slope towards the water had better be 34°, and that towards 
the country 26°. The tendency of the subsoil of an em¬ 
bankment to be compressed under the load brought upon it 















EMBARGO—EMBRASURE. 


may be resisted by filling the core with light materials and 
by widening the base. The best way to counteract this 
tendency is to isolate the foundation by driving piles. 

Care should be taken to free the seating of an embank¬ 
ment from any water that may filter through it. Covering 
the slopes with turf is a useful precaution, but this cannot 
be done when the bank is formed of gravel. 

Among the greatest embankments of modern times are 
one ot 1,750,000 yards on the Ulm and Augsburg Railway, 
and the Oberhauser embankment of 2,500,000 yards cube 
on the Augsburg and Lindau line. 

Embargo [a Spanish word signifying “arrest,” “im¬ 
pediment”], a restraint or prohibition imposed by the gov¬ 
ernment of a country on merchant-vessels or other vessels 
to prevent their leaving its ports. Embargoes are usually 
imposed in time of war, or when war is believed to be im¬ 
pending. They may sometimes prohibit the arrival as well 
as the departure of vessels. In Dec., 1807, the Congress 
of the U. S., at the request of President Jefferson, laid an 
embargo as an offset or retaliation against the British 
“ Orders in Council.” This embargo was repealed by Con¬ 
gress in Feb., 1809. (See International Law No. II., by 
Pres. T. D. Woolsey, S. T. D., LL.D.) 

Embarras, a township of Edgar co., Ill. Pop. 1280. 

Embassador. See Ambassador. 

E m'bassy [for etymology see Ambassador ; Fr. ambas- I 
sade; Ger. Gesandschaft; Lat. legatio], a diplomatic mis¬ 
sion ; the function of an ambassador. In a technical or 
limited application, embassy signifies a mission presided 
over by an ambassador; that is, a diplomatic agent of the 
highest rank. The term is sometimes applied to a company 
of persons sent on a mission, including one or more envoys, 
secretaries, etc. 

Emb'den, a post-township of Somerset co., Me. P. 803. 

Em'berton, a post-borough of Venango co., Pa. Pop. 
488. 

Em'ber Week [Lat. qua'tuor tem'pora, the “four sea¬ 
sons” (from this the English is probably a corruption); Fr. 
quatre-temps; Ger. Quatember; Dutch temper], a name given 
in the calendars of the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches 
(1) to the week after the first Sunday in Lent; (2) to the 
week after Whitsunday; (3) to that after the 14th of Sep¬ 
tember; and (4) to that after the 13th of December. The 
Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday of these weeks are “em¬ 
ber days,” fasts for imploring the Divine blessing on the 
fruits of the earth and upon the ordinations which are per¬ 
formed at these times. The fasts are said to have been in¬ 
stituted by Pope Calixtus I. in 229 A. D., but the times were 
fixed by Gregory VII., and confirmed by the Council of Pla¬ 
centia (1095). 

Embez'zlement, in criminal law, is the act of fraudu¬ 
lently appropriating to one’s own use property held under 
some fiduciary relation, such as that of clerk or ser¬ 
vant. It is not to be confounded with larceny. The defi¬ 
nition of this offence is rigid, so that this branch of the 
criminal law is entangled with perplexing distinctions. 
Larceny is defined to be “ the felonious taking and carry¬ 
ing away the personal property of another.” The word 
“ taking,” as here employed, has been closely interpreted 
by the courts, and generally considered not to include the 
case of property held in trust, particularly where it came 
into the possession of the trustee without first having passed 
into the possession of the real owner. There must have 
been a taking equivalent to a trespass. It became a maxim 
that without a trespass there could be no theft or larceny. 
So refined a distinction as the following has been main¬ 
tained : Should a clerk or servant authorized to sell goods 
actually sell them, and, having received the price, convert 
the money to his own use, there is no larceny, because the 
master never had the possession of the money, and so the 
clerk could not be said to have “ taken ” it from him. On 
the other hand, if the clerk had put the money received on 
the sale into the master’s money-drawer, and had after¬ 
wards fraudulently abstracted it, he would have committed 
larceny, for the act of depositing the money in the drawer 
would have placed it constructively in the master’s posses¬ 
sion. The moral quality of the two acts is substantially the 
same, yet by the common law the one is a crime, and the 
other is a simple breach of trust, for which the servant is 
responsible in a mere action for damages. 

This imperfection in the law led, many years ago, to a 
statute in England, which created a new form of crime 
called “ embezzlement.” The early English statutes only 
included the case of misappropriation by clerks or ser¬ 
vants of individuals or private corporations. This form 
of legislation was copied in this country. There is now 
in England a much more comprehensive scheme. (See 24 
and 25 Viet., c. 96.) The present act not only includes the 
former cases, but embraces a great variety of cases of 


1535 


breach of trust, such as that by factors, brokers, agents, 
trustees of charitable societies, officers of cities, and public 
servants generally. The range of each enactment of this 
kind is very comprehensive, including not only positive 
wrongs, but all forms of wilful or fraudulent neglect of duty. 
It is by no means necessary under this legislation that the 
officer should appropriate the funds of a city to his own use. 
It is enough if he fraudulently appropriates or permits them 
to be appropriated to any other use than that to which they 
rightfully belong. The punishment is severe. The crime 
is made a felony, punishable by not more than fourteen nor 
less than three years of penal servitude, or else by impris¬ 
onment at hard labor for a fixed period. In the civil law 
embezzlement is recognized as a wrong, subjecting him who 
commits it to an action for damages or other proceeding by 
way of reparation. A salvor may forfeit his share of sal¬ 
vage compensation by “ embezzlement;” the forfeited share 
accrues, not to the other members of his class, but to the 
owner of the property saved. T. W. Dwight. 

Embla'zonry, pictures or figures on shields and coats- 
of-arms. Emblazoning is the art of adorning with ensigns 
armorial. (See Blazonry.) 

Em'blem [Gr. ejz/SAij/aa (from ev, “in,” and /SaAAto, to 
“cast,” to “put”), literally, “something inserted;” Lat. 
emble'ma; Fr. embleme , probably applied originally to a 
symbolical figure inserted in a shield or coat-of-arms], a 
figurative representation which by the power of association 
suggests to the mind some idea not expressed to the eye; 
a symbol; a type; thus, a balance is an emblem of justice. 
In bibliography, the term “book of emblems” is applied 
to a book containing a series of plates or pictures of em¬ 
blematic subjects, with explanations, as the poems of Jacob 
Cats. 

Em'blements [Norman Fr., probably from the Fr. lie , 
“grain,” with the particle en , “in” or “on,” prefixed], a 
term applied to the growing crops of cereal grains and 
vegetables raised by a tenant. By the law of England a 
tenant for life, whose estate depends on an uncertain event, 
or other tenant is entitled to the emblements, although his 
lease may terminate before harvest-time. If a tenant for 
life die, his personal representatives may after his death 
claim the products of his labor. But if a term be brought 
to a close by the voluntary act of the tenant, he is not en¬ 
titled to the emblements. 

Em'blica Officina'lis [the generic name is of Malay 
origin], a species of trees of the natural order Euphorbi- 
acese, is a native of India and the Malay Archipelago. It 
produces a small round fruit, which is very acid, has medi¬ 
cinal properties, and is used to make pickles. The wood is 
hard and valuable. The bark is used for tanning and for 
dyeing cotton black. 

Em'bolism [Gr. e/ufloAio>i6s, from ev, “in,” and flaAAw, 
to “ throw ”], in the calendar, is an intercalation of a day, 
as the 29th of February in leap-year, or of a lunar month, 
as in the Greek and Hebrew calendars. 

Embolism, in pathology, is the presence of a clot ( em ' bo - 
lus ) in the arteries or veins. Some writers also apply the 
name to the fixed venous clot ( thrombus ). Embolism in the 
brain is a recognized cause of apoplexy. An extensive em¬ 
bolism of the lungs may lead to sudden death; a smaller one 
may lead to local pneumonia, abscess, pyaemia, or gangrene. 
Embolism, though frequently fatal, is sometimes followed 
by recovery. The best treatment is the frequent adminis¬ 
tration of concentrated food and stimulants, keeping the 
patient in fresh air, and allaying irritation by opiates. Be¬ 
sides the above, some emboli appear to originate from a 
precipitation of pigmentary matter. Such cases are the 
result of disease. 

Embolite, a chloro-bromide of silver, found in the 
silver ores of Mexico and Chili. 

Embos'sing [from boss , a “protuberance”], in sculp¬ 
ture, carving, and architecture, is the forming in relief of 
any figure. The figures are said to be in high, middle, or 
low relief ( alto , mezzo , or basso rilievo ). 

Embouchure [Fr., from emboucher , to “empty,” lite¬ 
rally, to “ put into the mouth ” or to “ put the mouth to ”], 
the mouth of a river; also that part of a wind musical in¬ 
strument to which the lips of the performer are applied. 

Embra'cery, in law, the offence of endeavoring to 
corrupt or bribe a jury or to influence a jury by any cor¬ 
rupt motive. To use indirect means to cause one’s self to 
be chosen a juryman is also embracery. This offence is 
punishable by fine and imprisonment. 

Embra'sure [etymology doubtful], in fortification, an 
opening made in the parapet of a fortified place or the 
breastwork of a battery through which the guns are pointed. 
The embrasures are usually made about two teet wide at 
interior extremity or neck, and half as thick as tlio 

















1536 


EM BRO—EMBRY OLOG Y. 


parapet at the exterior crest. The sole or lower surface is 
at the height of about two and a half feet above the plat¬ 
form on which the carriage of the gun is placed. 

Em'bro, a post-village of West Zorra township, Oxford 
co., Ontario, Canada, 10 miles from Woodstock, the county- 
town, has two weekly papers and about 600 inhabitants. 

Embroi'dery [from the Fr. broder, to “embroider,” 
probably from the Gaelic brod, a “goad,” “something 
pointed”] is the art of working figures with a needle and 
thread on muslin and other fabrics. Embroidery on heavy 
materials is generally executed with silk, wool, or gold and 
silver thread, and is used for banners, church vestments, 
furniture covers, etc. Muslin embroidery is performed 
mostly with cotton, and employed for collars, caps, and 
various other articles of apparel. Embroidery with the 
common needle consists usually of a combination of ordi¬ 
nary stitches. A machine has recently been introduced into 
England and the Continent by which the most complicated 
patterns can be accurately executed by one person with 130 
needles, all moving at once. One of these machines per¬ 
forms daily the work of fifteen hand-embroiderers. Several 
kinds of sewing-machines can be used for embroidering. The 
art of embroidery is of very ancient origin, and was brought 
to great perfection by the women of Greece and Sidon. It 
was extensively practised in mediaeval times in Europe. The 
women of some barbarous races, like the North American In¬ 
dians, often exhibit a marked degree of skill in embroidery. 

Em'bryo [Gr. epPpvos, “budding inwardly,” from ev, 
“within,” and ppvio, to “swell like a bud” before bloom¬ 
ing], in animal anatomy and physiology, is the immature 
germ of the future organism; an account of the develop¬ 
ment of which is given in the article Embryology. 

In botany, the embryo is the rudimentary plant found in 
the seed of phanerogamous plants. It consists of a radicle 
or undeveloped stem; of one, two, or more cotyledons or 
future seed-leaves; and the plumule, an incipient leaf or 
bud at the summit of the radicle. The dodders, and per¬ 
haps a few other dicotyledonous (or more strictly exoge¬ 
nous) plants, have no cotyledons, but only a spirally coiled, 
thread-like embryo inside the albumen, with sometimes a 
few plumule scales. 

Embryol'ogy [from the Gr. epppvov, “something that 
grows or sprouts internally,” and Aoyos, a “discourse”], the 
history of the development of the young animal before 
birth. Embryology proper includes the description of all 
the changes, both anatomical and phj^siological, which take 
place in the body of the imperfect young, within either the 
uterus or the egg, in all classes of animals. The present 
article, however, will be devoted more especially to the em¬ 
bryology of the Vertebrata, or those animals having a bony 
skeleton, since the general plan of development is ihe same 
throughout this class, and is particularly important as il¬ 
lustrating the development of the embryo in the human 
species. 

In all cases the development of the young animal begins 
from an ovum, or egg. The ova exist originally in the in¬ 
terior of the body of the female parent, where they are pro¬ 
duced in certain organs contained in the cavity of the ab¬ 
domen, termed ovaries. The ovaries, containing ova, are 
thus characteristic of the female organization, and form an 
essential part of its original structure. The ova, after being 
produced in the ovaries, at a certain period arrive at' ma¬ 
turity, and are spontaneously discharged. If fecundated at 
this time by the influence of the male, they become devel¬ 
oped into embryos; if not, they lose their vitality after a 
short period and perish. Thus the production of the em¬ 
bryo depends upon the concourse or combination of two 
sexual elements—namely, the ovum produced by the female, 
and the fecundating material or sperm produced by the 
male. 

In some kinds of animals, such as birds, batrachians, 
and most of the reptiles and fishes, the egg is first dis¬ 
charged from the body of the female, and the development 
of the embryo takes place within it subsequently, the young 
animal being at last hatched from the egg externally; such 
animals are called ovip>arous, or egg-laying animals. In 
other instances, as in some fishes and reptiles, all the true 
quadrupeds, and the human species, the ova are retained 
within the body of the female while the development of the 
embryo is going on; so that at last the fully formed em¬ 
bryo is produced alive ; such animals are called viviparous, 
because they produce living young, instead of laying eggs 
like the former. Nevertheless, the process is essentially the 
same in both cases, and differs only in the time during which 
the ovum is retained within the body of the female parent. 

The ovum in its simplest form consists of a globular mass 
of albuminous matter mixed with oleaginous granules, and 
invested by a transparent, colorless, homogeneous mem¬ 
brane. The oleo-albuminous mass is termed the vitellus, or 
yolk ; the investing layer is called the vitelline membrane. 


Fig. 1. 


Of these two, the vitellus is the essential part of the ovum. 
It is that which yields the material for the first formation 
of the body of the embryo. The vitelline membrane is 
simply a covering intended to protect the vitellus, to main¬ 
tain its shape, and to regulate for a short time the absorp¬ 
tion of fluids. The vitellus, while still remaining in the 
ovary, contains a delicate, transparent vesicle, termed the 
“ germinative vesicle,” marked with a minute dot, called 
the “ germinative spot.” These names have been given to 
the bodies in question from the idea that they might have 
something to do with the commencement of growth or ger¬ 
mination of the embryo, but it is doubtful whether they have 
any such significance; and it is generally believed that they 
are rather connected with the growth and maturity of the 
ovum itself before impregnation has occurred. 

In the human species and in the quadrupeds generally 
the ovum, as above described, forms a little sphere about 
of an inch in diameter. It is therefore nearly invisible 
to" the naked eye, and requires examination by the micro¬ 
scope in order to distinguish its characters. 

In the quadrupeds this minute 
form and simple structure are 
amply sufficient, since the im¬ 
pregnated ovum is retained with¬ 
in the body of the female during 
the development of the embryo, 
and abundantly supplied with 
nourishment from the parent or¬ 
ganism. But in the oviparous 
„ „ classes, where the development 

F from ?he “vary e magni- of the embl T° takcs P lace outside 
fied 90 diameters: a, vi- the body of the parent, the egg is 
tellus; b, vitelline mem- larger in size and more compli- 
brane; c, germinative cated in structure, and contains a 
vesicle; d, germinative s t ore 0 f nutritious material, as 
S P° * well as certain additional protec¬ 

tive envelopes. In the common fowl, for example, the vi¬ 
tellus or yolk, which is the only part of the egg produced 
in the ovary, is nearly an inch in diameter, and contains a 
great abundance of oleaginous as well as albuminous ma¬ 
terial. After its discharge from the ovary, and during its 
downward passage through the generative canal, the size 
of the egg is still further increased by the deposit around 
the yolk of a layer of pure albumen, secreted by the lining 
membrane of the canal, and forming the so-called “white 
of egg.” In the lower portion of the generative passage 
there are added to the outside of the albumen two fibrous 
membranes, called the “ shell-membranes;” and lastly, the 
calcareous shell, formed of a consolidated layer of the salts 
of lime. These fibrous and calcareous envelopes serve to 
protect the embryo, while the albumen and the yolk supply 
it with the requisite nourishment during its formation in 
the egg. 

Fig. 2. 




Fig. 2. a, yolk; b, vitelline membrane; c, albumen; d, shell- 
membranes ; e , egg-shell. 

In all instances, without exception, the first indication of 
the commencing formation of the embryo in the ovum is 
what is called the spontaneous division or segmentation of 
the vitellus. This process consists iu the separation of the 
globular vitellus into two smaller globules or hemispheres 
by the appearance of a furrow running round the vitellus 
like an equator, which gradually deepens until it has com¬ 
pletely separated the two hemispheres from each other. At 
the same time, or a little later, a second furrow, placed at 
right angles to the first, runs round the vitellus in another 
direction; and thus the two secondary globules are divided 
into four. By a repetition of this process the vitellus, which 
had originally the form of a simple sphere, becomes con¬ 
verted into a mulbeny-shaped mass of minute globules, 
called the “ vitelline spheres.” These globules become con¬ 
densed into the form of organized cells; and from these cells, 
in the simplest cases, the body of the embryo is directly 
formed, without the production of any accessory organs. 



























EMBRYOLOGY. 


1537 


In the vertebrate animals the vitelline spheres, resulting 
from the segmentation of the vitellus, when converted into 
organized cells, form a cellular layer or continuous mem¬ 


brane upon the surface of the impregnated ovum. This 
membrane, formed exclusively of similar flattened cells, ad¬ 
herent to each other by their edges, is called the blasto- 


Fio. 3. 

Fig. 3. Segmentation of the vitellus and formation of the embryo in Ascaris acuminata, a parasitic worm. 


dermic membrane. It is the first appearance of a truly or¬ 
ganized structure in the interior of the impregnated ovum, 
and forms the basis for the formation of the body of the 
embryo. In some instances, in the lower orders of the ver¬ 
tebrate class, where the impregnated eggs are laid in the 
water, and where an abundance of warmth, oxygen, and 
nutritious fluid is supplied by the surrounding medium—as, 
for example, in the frog—the subsequent process is very 
simple, or at least is not complicated with the formation of 
any accessory organs. In these cases the whole of the vitel¬ 
lus, and consequently the whole of the blastodermic mem¬ 
brane, is directly converted into the body of the embryo. 
The plan upon which this development takes place is as 
follows: 

An elongated oval spot appears upon a certain part of 
the blastodermic membrane, where the tissue of the mem¬ 
brane is thicker, denser, and more opaque than elsewhere. 
This spot, which is the first sketch of the actual form of the 
future embryo, is called the embryonic spot. Its anterior 
extremity will subsequently become the head, and its pos¬ 
terior extremity the tail. As the cells of the embryonic 
spot become more numerous, smaller, and more closely 
amalgamated, its appearance changes towards its central 
portions, where, instead of being opaque, it becomes homo¬ 
geneous and pellucid in appearance. The central area or 
space in which this change occurs is called the area pellu- 
cida; and finally there appears, in the middle of this trans¬ 
parent space, a longitudinal line or trace, indicating the 
position of the future spinal column, and known by the des¬ 
ignation of the primitive trace. 

Fig. 4. 



Fl-G. 4. Impregnated ovum of the rabbit, showing the blasto¬ 
dermic membrane formed of cells, the embryonic spot, the 

area pellucida, and the primitive trace. 

In this way is determined the location of the fundamental 
part of the structure of the vertebrate animal, for the spinal 
column is the most important portion of the whole skeleton, 
and the formation of all the remaining parts of the body 
takes place with reference to it. 

In every vertebrate animal the subsequent development 
of the body goes on simultaneously in two different direc¬ 
tions_namely, from before backward, and from behind for¬ 

ward. From the edges of the primitive trace, on the right 
and left sides, the substance of the blastodermic membrane 
becomes thickened and elevated into two longitudinal and 
parallel ridges, which of course include between them a 
longitudinal furrow. These ridges are called the dorsal 
plates. As they increase in growth their upper edges ap¬ 
proach each other, and the furrow between them becomes 
deeper and more like a canal. In this canal, which is still 
open along the back, are formed the spinal cord and the 
brain. But the dorsal plates, constantly approaching each 
other, at last meet, and unite by their edges along the me¬ 
dian line of the back; thus converting the furrow which 
existed between them into a closed cavity, in which are now 
contained the brain and spinal cord. Thus, the dorsal 
plates, by their union with each other along the median line, 
complete the formation of the external parts of tho body in 


a posterior direction, and the brain and spinal cord are 
enclosed in an elongated cavity situated behind the column 
of the bodies of the vertebroe. 

At the same time a similar condensation and growth ex¬ 
tends from the edges of the primitive trace in a direction 
outward and forward. These growing portions are called 
the abdominal plates of the blastodermic membrane; and 
they continue to extend forward until they embrace the ab¬ 
dominal cavity in front, just as the dorsal plates embraced 
the spinal canal behind. At last they also unite with each 
other by their edges, and the external parts of the body are 
then cicatrized and consolidated upon the median line, both 
anteriorly and posteriorly. The alimentary canal and its 
accessory organs are thus enclosed by the abdominal plates 
in an abdominal cavity, situated in front of the column of 
the bodies of the vertebras. 

As thus far described, the process of development relates 
to the growth of the external portions of the body, and that 
part of the nervous system which corresponds with them— 
namely, the brain and spinal cord, and the nerves derived 
therefrom. The dorsal and abdominal plates, as they grow 
thicker and more condensed, begin to show in their sub¬ 
stance the distinction of the various tissues. The external 
integument, the tissue of the voluntary muscles, the car¬ 
tilages and bones, the organs of special sense, the nerves 
of sensation and voluntary motion, and the white and gray 
matter of the brain and spinal cord, are thus formed in the 
substance of the growing material. All the organs and tis¬ 
sues just enumerated, notwithstanding their different func¬ 
tions, are closely related to each other in one respect; that 
is, they are destined to bring the animal body into relation 
with the external world by means of sensation, conscious¬ 
ness, volition, voluntary movement, and the mechanical 
reception and expulsion of nutritious or effete materials. 
They are accordingly known as the “ organs of animal life;” 
and they are all formed from the original cells of the ex¬ 
ternal layer of the blastodermic membrane. 

There is also, however, an internal layer of the blasto¬ 
dermic membrane; and from this layer are formed the ali¬ 
mentary canal and its glandular appendages, or the organs 
in which digestion, absorption, and secretion are to be car¬ 
ried on, and in which the muscular actions are involuntary 
and unconscious. They may, therefore, be regarded as the 
“ organs of vegetative life.” The alimentary canal is at 
first an oval sac, enclosed on all sides by the external ab¬ 
dominal walls, But subsequently two openings are formed, 
one at its anterior and one at its posterior extremity—• 
namely, the mouth and the anus; and the original sac is 
thus converted into a true canal, open at both ends. At the 
same time the alimentary canal grows very rapidly in the 
direction of its length, thus becoming converted into a com¬ 
paratively long, narrow, and convoluted tube, and after¬ 
wards showing the distinctions between the oesophagus, the 
stomach, and the different parts of the small and largo in¬ 
testine. 

These are the general features of the development of the 
embryo in all vertebrated animals. There are other details 
which relate to the special growth of particular parts, and 
to the so-called metamorphoses or transformations which 
take place in particular species, and which arc nothing more 
than the successive appearance and disappearance of par¬ 
ticular organs, which are adapted to the life of the animal 
at different stages of growth. Thus, in the young tadpole, 
when first hatched from the egg, the mouth is a round ori- 
fico provided with a suctorial apparatus and adapted for 
feeding on vegetable matters; respiration is entirely aqua¬ 
tic, and is performed by means of gills ; there are no limbs, 
but voluntary movement is accomplished by a large and 
muscular tail, the animal living altogether under the sur¬ 
face of the water. Afterwards the mouth enlarges into a 
wide transverse opening, adapted for the seizure of living 
prey; the gills disappear and lungs are developed, while 
the mode of respiration changes from aquatic to aerial; and 
finally, anterior and posterior legs grow from the correspond¬ 
ing parts of tho body, becoming powerful organs for both 
swimming and leaping, while tho tail ceases to grow, be¬ 
comes atrophied, and disappears. Thus, tho tadpole grad- 




























1538 EMBRYOLOGY. 


ually acquires the organs and the appearance of a perfect 
frog. This change, in the case of the tadpole, is called a 
“transformation,” because it happens after the young ani¬ 
mal has escaped from the egg; but equally important 
changes take place in the embryo of the higher animals 
while they are still rotained within the egg or in the uterus 
of the female parent. 

Besides the essential and general features of embryonic 
development detailed above, there are, in all the higher 
classes, certain secondary or accessory organs developed 
during embryonic life, which will require a further descrip¬ 
tion. 

The first of these is known as the umbilical vesicle. In 
the process of development, as already described, the ab¬ 
dominal walls, growing together upon the median line, 
enclose directly the whole of the vitelline cavity, which 
subsequently, of course, becomes the cavity of the intes¬ 
tine. But in many of the fishes and reptiles, and in all 
birds and quadrupeds, the abdominal walls approach each 
other before they have embraced the whole of the vitellus, 
so that the vitelline cavity is thus separated, by a kind of 
constriction, into two parts. The internal part, which is 
fully embraced by the abdominal walls, is, as before men¬ 
tioned, the cavity of the intestine; but the external part, 
which is left by this constriction outside the abdomen, is 
the umbilical vesicle. This name is given to it because it 
is really a vesicle, containing some of the remains of the 
vitellus, and because it still communicates with the cavity 
of the intestine through the umbilicus or navel. This com¬ 
munication is at first short and wide; but as development 
proceeds, the umbilical vesicle gradually retreats farther 
from the abdomen, while the passage of communication 
becomes converted into a comparatively long and narrow 
canal. In many of the quadrupeds and in the human spe¬ 
cies the walls of this canal even coalesce with each other at 
an early period, so that the umbilical vesicle then forms a 
separate cavity or sac, connected with the abdomen only 
by a slender solid pedicle. One or two minute blood-ves¬ 
sels run out along this pedicle, and ramify upon the surface 
of the umbilical vesicle. The umbilical vesicle is undoubt¬ 
edly at first a reservoir of nutritious material, and remains 
so throughout embryonic life in all those species where the 
vitellus was originally of large size; but in the quadrupeds 
it very early loses its importance, and is superseded by other 
sources of nourishment. In the human subject it is difficult 
to distinguish it after the third month of embryonic exist¬ 
ence. 

The next accessory oigan of the embryo is the amnion. 
This is a delicate and transparent membrane, which turns 
up from the edges of the abdominal walls over the back 
of the embryo, and thus envelops it in a secondary cavity. 
This is called the “cavity of the amnion;” the albuminous 
liquid which it contains, and in which the embryo is bathed, 
is called the “amniotic fluid.” The amnion is accordingly 
an extension of the outer layer of the blastodermic mem¬ 
brane, and is continuous with the integument of the embryo. 
In other words, the external layer of the blastodermic 
membrane in these cases is developed into two different 
parts. That which immediately invests the body of the 
embryo is its integument, and part of its permanent struc¬ 
ture ; that which turns backward at the edges of the ab¬ 
dominal opening is the amnion, and an organ of embryonic 
life. The amnion at first closely embraces the body of the 
embryo, but afterwards it expands more rapidly, and the 
amniotic fluid increases in quantity, so that the young ani¬ 
mal may move freely within its cavity when the muscular 
system begins to exhibit signs of activity. 

The third and last accessory embryonic organ is the al¬ 
lantois. It is so called from the Greek dAAi?, iAAS^Tos, a 
“ sausage,” because in many cases it is a sac or bag of an 
elongated cylindrical form. In all instances it is an out¬ 
growth from the lower part of the intestine. It shows it¬ 
self at first as a small bud or diverticulum, shaped somewhat 
like the finger of a glove, which protrudes from the abdom¬ 
inal opening in front, and then rapidly expands in every 
direction until it has entirely enveloped the embryo, as well 
as the amnion, in a second exterior covering. Its walls are 
exceedingly vascular, their vessels being derived from those 
of the intestine, of which the allantois itself is an offshoot. 
Thus, when the allantois has become completely formed, the 
external surface of the embryonic mass is a continuous vas¬ 
cular membrane, in which the blood-vessels of the embryo 
ramify in great abundance. 

This anatomical feature will serve to indicate the useful¬ 
ness and the function of the allantois. It is the organ of 
nourishment and respiration for the embryo. In the fowl’s 
egg, the allantois, which is placed immediately underneath 
the calcareous shell and shell-membranes, is very active dur¬ 
ing the latter half of the period of incubation. It absorbs 
oxygen from the external air through the porous egg-shell, 
and exhales carbonic acid, thus serving to renovate and 


arterialize the blood, as the lungs will do in the young 
chick after being hatched. In the viviparous animals, as 

the quadrupeds, the ac¬ 
tion of the allantois is 
still more important. 
The ovum in these ani¬ 
mals being of minuto 
size, without any abun¬ 
dant store of nutritious 
material, and being re¬ 
tained, after fecunda¬ 
tion, within the body of 
the female parent, the 
young embryo is entire¬ 
ly dependent upon the 
maternal system both for 
respiration and nourish¬ 
ment. The vascular al¬ 
lantois here, enveloping 
the embryo, comes in 
contact with the vascu¬ 
lar lining membrane of the uterus, and thus the blood-ves¬ 
sels of the embryo constantly absorb from the blood-vessels 
of the mother the substances requisite for its nourishment 
and growth. In many kinds of animals the allantois even 
contracts a more or less intimate adhesion with the lining 

Fig. 6. 



Fig. 6. Egg of fowl on the twelfth day of incubation. The shell 

and shell-membranes have been removed, showing the vascu¬ 
lar allantois, which has grown so as to envelop all the remain¬ 
ing portions of the egg. 

membrane of the uterus at particular spots, where the pro¬ 
cess of absorption and transudation is carried on with 
greater rapidity. 

In the human species the allantois commences its growth 
in the same manner as in the inferior animals, but exhibits 
certain modifications in its subsequent develojiment which 
have caused it to be known by another name. It does not 
present the form of an elongated cylindrical sac, but is, on 
the contrary, irregularly globular in form, corresponding 
to the shape of the cavity of the uterus in which the em¬ 
bryo is developed. It forms, however, a complete envelope 
or external tunic for the embryo, consisting of a continuous 
vascular membrane of more or less fibrous consistency and 
texture. It has accordingly received the name of the cho¬ 
rion. The human embryo, therefore, is enveloped in two 
distinct membranes—namely, the chorion externally and the 
amnion internally. Both these membranes are vascular, but 
the blood-vessels of the amnion are derived from the integ¬ 
ument of the embryo, those of the chorion from the intes¬ 
tinal canal. 

Another important modification of the human chorion is 
that at an early period it becomes shaggy or velvety by the 
growth of a multitude of minute filamentous projections or 
“ villosities ” upon its outer surface. These villosities be¬ 
come branched and divided, forming so many tufted fila¬ 
ments, by which the power and activity of absorption by 
the chorion is greatly augmented. Soon after the first 
month, however, these villosities cease their growth over 
about three-quarters of the surface of the chorion, which 
thus becomes smooth and bald, while over the remaining 
quarter they grow more rapidly than before, become exces¬ 
sively developed both in numbers and in ramification and 
vascularity, so that the chorion here becomes converted 
into a thickened and spongy mass of villosities, which are 
penetrated everywhere with an abundance of looped and 
ramifying blood-vessels. When this portion of the chorion 
is fully developed, it forms a distinct organ, which is known 
by the name of the j)lacenta. The placenta, accordingly, 
in the human species, is the especial organ of nourishment 
for the embryo. It has become weH developed, and easily 


Fig. 5. 



Fig. 5. Embryo of the chick on the 
seventh day of incubation : a, body 
of the embryo; b, amnion ; c, a por¬ 
tion of the umbilical vesicle ; d, com¬ 
mencing growth of the allantois. 
























EMBURY—EMERSON. 1539 


distinguishable from the remaining portions of the chorion, 
by the end ot the third month of embryonic life. 

The amnion and the chorion, therefore, although they are 
termed the “ membranes ” and the “appendages,” are in 
reality a part ol the body of the embryo—as much so as 
any other of its external or internal organs. The placenta, 
however, includes also a portion of the tissues of the 
mother; for at the same time that the chorion is becoming 
excessively shaggy and vascular at the spot which is after¬ 
wards to be the placenta, the lining membrane of the uterus 
also assumes, at the corresponding point, a similar in¬ 
creased development. In both cases it is the blood-vessels 
which preponderate over the remaining tissues, becoming 
adherent to each other, and mutually interpenetrating 
through the entire thickness of the organ. Thus, the pla¬ 
centa, when fully formed, is a double organ, containing 
both embryonic and maternal vessels, and presenting an 
extensive vascular surface for reciprocal absorption and ex¬ 
udation. J here is at no time any actual communication 
between the cavities of the two sets of vessels, but the nu¬ 
tritious materials transude through the thin vascular walls, 
and in this way supply to the embryo everything essential 
to its growth. 

When the development of the embryo is complete the 
muscular walls of the uterus contract, the membranes are 
ruptured, the placenta is separated from its attachments, 
and the whole expelled from the uterine cavity. The pla¬ 
centa is then no longer available as an organ of nourish¬ 
ment, and is cast off as a useless appendage. But in the 
mean time the lungs and the alimentary canal have been 
gradually becoming developed by internal growth, and are 
now capable of performing their natural functions. After 
birth, accordingly, the act of respiration and the absorption 
of nourishment are accomplished in the young infant inde¬ 
pendently by the aid of internal organs, while during em¬ 
bryonic life they were performed by the placenta, supplied 
in great part for this purpose by the blood of the mother. 

J. C. I) ALTON. 

Em'bury (Emma Catherine), an American writer whose 
maiden name was Manley, was born in New York in 1806, 
and was married in 1S28 to Daniel Embury, Esq., of Brook¬ 
lyn. Among her works are “Guido and other Poems,” 
“Constance Latimer, or the Blind Girl,” and “Nature’s 
Gems, or American Wild Flowers.” Died Feb. 10, 1863. 

Embury (Philip), recognized as the “ founder of Amer¬ 
ican Methodism,” was born at Ballygarane, Ireland, in 
1728. lie became a member and “local preacher” of Wes¬ 
ley’s society at Court-Mattress, Ireland. In 1760 he emi¬ 
grated to New York. He began to preach there in 1766 in 
his own house, mostly to his own countrymen. Later he 
preached in an old rigging-loft, and at last succeeded in 
erecting “Old John street church.” Embury, being a car¬ 
penter, worked on it himself. He built with his own hands 
its pulpit, and on the 30th of Oct., 1768, preached from it 
the dedicatory sermon of the humble structure—the first 
Methodist chapel of the New World. Embury afterwards 
settled in Salem, N. Y., where also he founded his denomi¬ 
nation, and where it grew into the prosperous Troy con¬ 
ference, and where he died in 1775. His church commem¬ 
orates these by a monument. 

Ein'den, or Emb'dcn, a fortified seaport-town of 
Prussia, in the former kingdom of Hanover, is on the N. 
shore of the Dollart, near the mouth of the Ems, about 70 
miles W. N. W. of Bremen ; lat. 53° 22' N., Ion. 7° 12' 38'' 
E. It is intersected by several canals, which are crossed by 
about thirty bridges. It is well built, and contains a hand¬ 
some town-hall, an exchange, a custom-house, a gymna¬ 
sium, a school of navigation, and a deaf and dumb asylum. 
Here are manufactures of linen fabrics, hosiery, hats, sail¬ 
cloth, starch, soap, etc. The port of Emden has shallow 
harbors, outer and inner, but the roadstead is deep enough 
for large ships Pop. in 1871, 12,588. 

Em'erald [Gr.cr/idpaySo? ; Fr .emernude; Sp. csmeralda; 
Ger. Sma'ragd], a beautiful green precious stone, a variety 
of beryl, a silicate of alumina and glucina. It occurs in 
six-sided prisms, which are highly prized as ornamental 
gems. Its color, which is perhaps the most beautiful of all 
the varieties of green, is ascribed to the oxide of chromium 
that it contains. It is stated that a perfect specimen of this 
gem has been sold for $5000. Its value depends chiefly on 
its color. The largest emeralds occur in Siberia on the river 
Tokowoia; one in the Royal collection weighs sixteen and 
three-fourths pounds Troy, another six pounds. The finest 
modern emeralds are found in South America, especially at 
Muzo in Colombia. Emeralds of inferior quality are pro¬ 
cured at Canjargum in Hindostan, and in the Henbach 
Valley near Salzburg. F. Cailliaud rediscovered (about 
1818), in Mount Zabarah in Upper Egypt, the emerald- 
mines from which the ancients obtained many emeralds. 
A rare green variety of sapphire is sometimes called Ori¬ 


ental emerald. Emerald copper is a synonym of dioptase; 
emerald nickel for zaratite, a compound of carbonate and 
hydrate of nickel, found at the chrome-mines of Texas, Pa. 

Emerald, a township of Faribault co., Minn. Pop. 748. 

Emerald, a township of Paulding co., 0. Pop. 717. 

Emerald, a township of St. Croix co., Wis. Pop. 206. 

Emerald Bird of Paradise ( Paradis'ea ctp'oda ), 
[that is, the “ footless,” so called from the old fable that the 



Emerald Bird of Paradise. 


bird of paradise has no feet, but always flies without rest¬ 
ing], the best known and most elegant of the birds of para¬ 
dise, is a native of New Guinea (Papua), where it is killed 
in great numbers for its beautiful plumage, which brings a 
high price in the market. 

The skins Avith the plumage are used in the East for or¬ 
namenting turbans, and in Europe and America for adorn¬ 
ing ladies’ head-dresses. About 1500 or 2000 are annually 
imported into Europe, chiefly by way of Batavia. The 
back part of the neck is of a pale gold color, the throat and 
fore part of the richest changeable golden green, the breast 
a deep purple, the body and tail a fine chestnut. The body 
feathers are frequently dyed to improve the natural tint. 
The female is said to furnish the most highly prized feath¬ 
ers, though during life, at least, it appears that the male is 
by far the more splendid bird, being provided with con¬ 
spicuous floating plumes of astonishing beauty. 

Emer'sion [Lat. emer'sio, from emer'go, emer'sum , to 
“emerge or rise into view”], in astronomy, is the reappear¬ 
ance of the sun, moon, planet, or star from behind the celes¬ 
tial body by Avhich it Avas hidden in an eclipse or occupa¬ 
tion. The phenomena of immersion and emersion are use¬ 
ful in determining the longitude of places. 

Em' erson, a tOAvnship of Gratiot co., Mich. Pop. 590. 

Emerson (George Barrell), LL.D., an American 
teacher and Avriter, born in Kennebunk, Me., Sept. 12,1797. 
He lived in Boston for many years, and was president of 
the Boston Society of Natural History. He Avas the first 
head-master (1821-23) of the Boston English High School 
for boys. Among his works are “ Lectures on Education ” 
and a “ Report on the Trees and Shrubs growing naturally 
in the Forests of Massachusetts” (1846). 

Emerson (Rev. John S.), missionary, was born at 
Chester, N. II., in 1801, graduated at Dartmouth in 1826, 
and at Andover in 1830. He went to the SandAvich Islands, 
and aided in preparing an “ English IlaAvaian Dictionary.” 
Died Mar. 28, 1867. 

Emerson (Ralph Waldo), LL.D., an American poet 
and essayist. Lord Clarendon said of Lord Falkland, sec¬ 
retary of state to Charles I., that, as his house Avas Avithin 
ten miles of Oxford, “ the most polite and accurate men of 
that university frequently resorted and dAvelt Avith him, as 
in a college situated in purer air; so that his house Avas a 
university in less volume, Avhither they came not so much 
for repose as study.” 

There seems still to be some benignant Fate which pro¬ 
vides suitably for the suburbs of university towns. Within 
ten miles of Harvard College there has been for many years 
one modest roof Avhich has afforded to “the most polite and 
accurate men” of that university some such “college in purer 
air for it has been the residence of Ralph Waldo Emerson. 

Mr. Emerson Avas born in Boston, Mass., May 25, 1803, 
and Avas the son of Rev. William Emerson and Ruth (lias- 
kins) Emerson. He had a minister for an ancestor in every 
generation for eight generations back, cither on the pater¬ 
nal or maternal side. He Avas fitted for college at the pub¬ 
lic schools of Boston, and graduated at Harvard College in 





























1540 EMERSON. 


1821. lie was not among the very highest scholars of his 
class, but in his junior year won a “Bowdoin prize ” for a 
dissertation on the “ Character of Socrates,” and another in 
his senior year for an essay on “ The Present State of Eth¬ 
ical Philosophy.” He also won a “Boylston prize” for 
declamation, and he was “ class poet.” For five years after 
leaving college he taught school, chiefly in Boston, where 
he assisted his elder brother, William, in conducting a suc¬ 
cessful school for girls. In 1826 he was “ approbated to 
preach,” though his name does not appear among the gradu¬ 
ates of the Harvard Theological School. In March, 1829, 
he was ordained as colleague to Itev. Henry Ware of the 
Second Unitarian church in Boston. In 1832 he resigned 
his pastoral charge, having announced in a sermon his un¬ 
willingness longer to administer the rite of the Lord’s Sup¬ 
per. This sermon was never published, but copies of it exist 
in manuscript. In Dec., 1832, he sailed for Europe, re¬ 
maining absent nearly a year. Soon after returning he be¬ 
gan his career as a lecturer before the Boston Mechanics’ 
Institute, his subject being “ Water.” He gave also three 
other lectures—two on “ Italy,” and one on the “ Relation 
of Man to the Globe.” In 1834 he gave in Boston a series of 
biographical lectures on Michael Angelo, Milton, Luther, 
George Fox, and Edmund Burke; the first two of which 
were published in the “ North American Review.” Since 
that time ho has given many courses of lectures in Boston, 
and has been one of the best-known lecturers throughout 
the United States. Perhaps no other man has rendered 
such continued service in this field. It is said that he lec¬ 
tured for forty successive seasons before the Salem (Mass.) 
Lyceum. He has also made repeated lecturing tours in the 
Western States, and has even lectured in California and in 
England. 

In 1835, Mr. Emerson took up his residence in Concord, 
Mass., and published in the following year a thin volume 
called “Nature.” It marked anew era in American thought— 
was received with sharp criticism from many quarters, and 
with corresponding enthusiasm by a small circle of admi¬ 
rers. It took twelve years to sell five hundred copies. This 
was followed by several orations before literary societies on 
such themes as “ The Method of Nature,” “ Man Thinking,” 
and “ Literary Ethics.” More important even than these 
was his remarkable “Address before the Senior Class at 
Divinity College, Cambridge,” delivered July 15, 1838. 
From these various addresses and publications may be dated 
the intellectual movement then vaguely stigmatized as 
“ Transcendentalism.” This was a reaction against formal¬ 
ism and tradition, and brought together a variety of minds, 
some profoundly mystical, others full of projects for action. 
It led to some excesses and affectations, but was on the 
whole a valuable impulse towards many good things. The 
four volumes of “ The Dial” contain a lasting memorial of 
that important seed-time of thought. 

Mr. Emerson’s two volumes of “Essays” were collected 
and published in 1841 and 1844, and his “ Poems ” in 1846. 
His miscellaneous addresses remained uncollected till 1849, 
in America, though they had been reprinted collectively in 
England in 1844. Visiting the mother-country in 1847, Mr. 
Emerson found awaiting him a large circle of admirers, 
whose allegiance he has always retained. In 1850 he pub¬ 
lished “ Representative Men,” given previously as a course 
of lectures in Boston. In 1852 he took part in preparing the 
memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli. His “ English Traits ” 
appeared in 1856, “ The Conduct of Life ” in I860, and “ May- 
Day and other Poems” and “ Society and Solitude ” in 1869. 

Though Mr. Emerson is often assigned to the class of 
metaphysicians or “philosophers,” yet the actual traits of 
his intellect clearly rank him rather among poets or liter¬ 
ary men. All his methods are literary rather than scientific, 
although he has won some of his warmest admirers among 
scientific men, as in the case of Professor Tyndall. His 
statements are sometimes subtle, sometimes profound, some¬ 
times noble and heroic, but scarcely ever systematic. He 
rests in his intuitions, rarely attempts even the rudiments 
of method, but constantly recognizes, in his own words, 
“ the opposite negations between which, as with cords, our 
being is swung.” But it is claimed by his admirers that 
(quoting his words again) “We are too young by some ages 
yet to form a creed,” and that, while not aiming at the kind 
of work done by Herbert Spencer, for instance, Emerson 
often gives in some single phrase an illumination that seems 
to extinguish Herbert Spencer’s lights, as a sunbeam makes 
gas-lamps superfluous. 

In viewing Mr. Emerson simply as a literary artist, the 
reader must still complain of this tantalizing fragmentari¬ 
ness, this disregard of all the unities, this structural defect. 
Even in his poems his genius is like an aeolian harp, that 
now gives, now wilfully withholds, its music ; while some of 
his essays seem merely accidental collections of loose leaves 
from a note-book. Yet as one makes this criticism, one is 
shamed into silence by remembering many a passage of 


prose and verso so majestic in thought and rhythm, of quality 
so rare and utterance so delicious, as to form a permanent 
addition to the highest literature of the human race. 

Mr. Emerson wrote in 1844 that all our books were Eu¬ 
ropean, that we were “ sent to a feudal school to learn de¬ 
mocracy ;” and demanded that Americans should “advance 
out of all hearing of others’ censures, out of all regrets of 
their own, into a new and more excellent social state.” 
More than any previous literary man among us, he set the 
example of ignoring European traditions, methods, and 
literary properties wherever these could be better super¬ 
seded by our own. He drew his habitual illustrations from 
American society and manners, and was more ready to 
write of the pine woods and the humble-bee than of the 
nightingale and asphodel. It seems hardly credible that 
this should have been ridiculed by the critics as “a foolish 
affectation of the familiar;” but the fact of the ridicule 
shows the need of the innovation. If that state of things 
has now passed by, and if our literature is no longer pro¬ 
vincial, it is to Mr. Emerson that we are most indebted. 

It is well known that his position on religious questions 
has been that of a philosophical radical, and that he has 
been quite detached from the church organizations of the 
time. He took this position, once for all, in a sentence 
which attracted much attention in his “Divinity Hall Ad¬ 
dress :” “ The assumption that the age of inspiration is 
past, that the Bible is closed, the fear of degrading the 
character of Jesus by representing him as a man, indicate 
with sufficient clearness the falsehood of our theology.” 
His precise attitude as to the conception of a Deity and the 
belief in personal immortality might be harder to define. 
He declares eloquently, however, in one of his orations, that 
“there is a sublime and friendly Destiny by which the hu¬ 
man race is guided—the race never dying, the individual 
never spared—to results affecting masses and ages.” 

Though Mr. Emerson is, like Goethe, a prophet of Self- 
Culture, he has never held himself aloof, like Goethe, from 
the immediate public agitations of his time, but has always 
practically recognized the truth of his own formula, “ To¬ 
day is a king in disguise.” He has always lent his voice 
in behalf of any momentous public interest. lie was al¬ 
ways frankly identified with the anti-slavery movement, 
and, though averse to extemporaneous speech, and ill at 
ease in that form of service, he often took part in the meet¬ 
ings of the abolitionists. In 1844 he gave an elaborate and 
remarkable address on the anniversary of emancipation in 
the British West Indies. He signed, with his wife, the call 
for the first “National Woman’s Rights Convention” in 
1850. He is a vice-president of the Free Religious Asso¬ 
ciation, and has several times addressed its conventions. 
He is also an overseer of Harvard University, and received 
from that institution the degree of doctor of laws in 1866. 
He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and 
Sciences, of the American Philosophical Society, and of the 
Massachusetts Historical Society. 

Mr. Emerson has been twice married—once, in 1830, to 
Ellen Louisa Tucker of Boston, who died the following 
year; and again, in 1835, to Lidian Jackson of Plymouth. 
He has three children, two daughters and one son. The 
son, Edward Waldo, graduated at Harvard College in 1866, 
and has since pursued the study of medicine. Of the 
daughters, the elder, Ellen, is unmarried; the younger, 
Edith, is the wife of William II. Forbes, Esq., of Milton, 
Mass., and has several children. Mr. Emerson has just re¬ 
turned with his elder daughter from Europe, reaching home 
May 27, 1873. On his arrival at the Concord station he 
found all the children of the public schools drawn up to 
receive him, accompanied by many citizens and by a band 
of music. They all escorted him in a procession to his 
house, which had been destroyed by fire just before his de¬ 
parture from home, and was rebuilt in his absence. A 
triumphal arch, decorated with flowers and bearing the word 
“Welcome,” had been placed before it. Beneath this, and 
between two lines of children, Mr. Emerson and his daugh¬ 
ter entered their home. It was a spontaneous tribute to 
the love and reverence won for this eminent author in his 
own village by his gracious manners and his simple and 
noble life. T. W. Higginson. 

Emerson (Rev. William), the father of Ralph Waldo 
Emerson, was born at Concord, Mass., May 6, 1769. His 
grandfather, Rev. Joseph Emerson, was minister of Mal¬ 
den, and his father, Rev. William Emerson, died a chaplain 
in the Revolutionary army in 1766. The younger William 
Emerson graduated at Harvard College in 1789. He was 
the first minister of Harvard, Mass., and afterwards (1799- 
1811) pastor of the First church (Unitarian) of Boston, 
Mass. He published various discourses, a “Selection of 
Psalms and Hymns” (1808), and wrote a “History of tho 
First Church of Boston,” which was published in 1812. 
He was an accomplished writer, and one of the best orators 
of his day. Died May 12, 1811. 















EMERY. 


Emery 9 one of the hardest minerals known, ranking next 
to the diamond in its power of cutting or abrading hard sub¬ 
stances. It is a variety of the species corundum or sap¬ 
phire, of a dark reddish-brown, black, or gray color, and con¬ 
sists of nearly pure alumina and oxide of iron. It is found 
in large masses, and much resembles fine-grained iron ore, 
for which it has often been mistaken. It is obtained chiefly 
from Asia Minor and the island of Naxos in the Grecian 
Archipelago. At Naxos 60,000 quintals are sold annually 
at from twelve to fourteen drachmae (about thirteen francs) 
the quintal. Nearly half of the quantity is exported to 
England, generally as ballast in homeward-bound vessels, 
where it is used chiefly in grinding glass. It has also been 
found at Chester, Mass., in a vein with magnetic iron, 
from which considerable quantities have been extracted. 
It was discovered at Chester by Dr. Charles T. Jackson of 
Boston, and in Asia Minor, near Ephesus, by Dr. J. Law¬ 
rence Smith, an American mineralogist in the service of 
the Turkish government. Both discoveries are good ex¬ 
amples of the value of accurate mineralogical knowledge. 

Emery is scarcely inferior to the sapphire or ruby in 
hardness, and it will not only cut the hardest steel or 
chilled castings, but will wear away quartz, agate, topaz, 
and other gems, being for the last-named purpose the 
chief reliance of the lapidary. It was used by the ancients 
for cutting gems. Dioscorides mentions it under the name 
of sviyris as the stone with which er_ graved gems are pol¬ 
ished ; and there is even a rabbinical tradition which indi¬ 
cates that the “ smyris ” was used for gem-engraving ir> 
the time of Moses. How far it was known and used in 
pre-historic times must be left to conjecture, but the many 
neatly cut and polished stone implements and ornaments 
indicate the use of a material not less hard than emery. 
Theophrastus mentions whetstones made of the mineral 
used to engrave gems, and cites Armenia as furnishing 
the best kind. Naxian whetstones are also mentioned by 
ancient authors, and Pliny speaks of polishing marble 
statues and filing down gems. The backs of antique in- 
tagli have deep furrows upon them, indicating that they 
were filed into shape by rubbing with an emery-stone. It 
is thus probable that the massive emery was extensively 
used as a tool, and that it was employed for the sculpture 
of hard rocks, not only by the Romans, but by the ancient 
Egyptians. 

ft is now used in the arts in a pulverized form, being 
obtained in grains or in powders of various degrees of 
fineness by crushing and sifting or by elutriation. The 
lumps, as they come from the mine, are broken in a breaker 
or under stamps, and the fragments are sifted through 
sieves or wire-cloth having from sixty to ninety wires to 
the inch, by which the grades of the emery are determined. 
Thus, a sieve of sixty wires to the inch gives a No. 60 
grade. The numbers range as high as 120, or “flour 
emery.” These higher numbers are obtained by washing, 
or by collecting the fine dust which floats in the air of the 
crushing-rooms and settles on the beams and shelves. 

There is considerable difference in the effective abrasive 
power of commercial emery from different localities. It 
varies according to the composition, the state of aggrega¬ 
tion, and the purity. The better qualities of crystalline 
corundum are believed to be superior to emery in abrasive 
powers, and powdered sapphire to be superior to corundum. 
But the experiments which are cited in support of this are 
by no means as complete and conclusive as they should be. 
The following shows the relative abrasive powers, as usu¬ 
ally stated, of the sapphire, of corundum, and of emery 
from some of the principal localities : sapphire from India, 
100; ruby, India, 90; corundum, Asia Minor, 77; emery, 
Kulali, 40 to 57; of Samos, 56; of Nicaria, 50; of Gu- 
much, 42 to 47; of Naxos, 46; of Chester, Mass., 43 to 45. 

Sapphire contains 97£ per cent, of alumina, and corun¬ 
dum about 92 per cent. The percentage in emery ranges 
from 60 to 78, with 25 to 35 per cent, of oxide of iron, a 
few per cent, of silica and of water. 

The methods of application are various. Lapidaries 
sprinkle it with water or oil on their lead-wheels. Mixed 
with glue or other adhesive substances, it is spread in a 
thin layer upon wood, leather, paper, or cloth, or it is 
moulded into solid blocks or wheels. It is in the latter 
form, known as “solid emery-wheels,” that the mineral 
has the widest application and its greatest utility. 

Emery-wheels .—Solid wheels, consisting of a mixture of 
powdered emery with shellac, fused and rolled upon a stick, 
appear to have originated with the lapidaries of India. 
Small wheels of a few inches only in diameter have been 
in common use for many years, especially by dentists for 
shaping hard porcelain teeth, but they are now made by 
improved methods from one to thirty-six inches in diam¬ 
eter, and from one quarter of an inch to four inches in 
thickness. When carefully mounted upon a mandril and 
run at a high speed, the abrading power of such wheels is 


1541 


wonderful. They will instantly take the teeth off the 
hardest file and reduce it to a plane, smooth surface, or 
will cut away parts of chilled castings that a file will not 
touch. Such wheels are shaping-tools of the first order, 
as far exceeding files in efficacy as the emery exceeds steel 
in hardness, and as the velocity of a wheel exceeds the 
velocity of a file upon the work. A file in the hands of an 
expert workman moves, say, 60 feet in a minute, but the 
proper velocity of an emery-wheel at its cutting surface is 
5500 feet in a minute. It is evident that such wheels arc 
destined to replace files wherever they can be brought to 
bear upon the work. The grains of emery are the cutting 
points or teeth, and do not grow dull although brought into 
contact with metal hard enough to turn the teeth of a file 
at one stroke. 

The rapidity of abrasion depends not only on the velo¬ 
city of movement, but upon the size of the gi'ains of emery. 
For very heavy work, such as taking the rough edges off 
castings, very coarse emery is used, while the finer sorts 
are made into wheels for fine grinding and surface-work 
on brass or steel. The following table shows approxi¬ 
mately the cuts of emery as compared with files. The 
numbers represent the standard grades of emery: 

Nos. of Emery. 


8-10 represents the cut of a 

wood rasp. 

16-20 

it 

a 

a 

rough file. 

24-30 

u 

u 

u 

middle-cut file. 

36-40 

u 

it 

a 

bastard file. 

46-60 

u 

a 

a 

second-cut file. 

70-80 

u 

it 

tt 

smooth file. 

90-100 

it 

u 

a 

superfine file. 

120-flour emery 

u 

it 

dead-smooth file. 


The Tanite Company make five general classes of wheels : 
Class No. 1, coarse-hard; Class No. 2, medium-hard; Class 
No. 3, medium-soft; Class No. 4, fine-hard; Class No. 5, 
fine-soft. 

In using emery-ivlieels care must be taken to maintain 
the proper speed, and not to press the work too strongly 
against the surface. If too much pressure is used, tho 
wheels will not cut so fast, and are liable to wear away un¬ 
equally and to get out of true. A rest should always be 
used to support the work and prevent it from vibrating 
upon the wheel. The bearings should be kept in good 
order and well lubricated. 

Much attention is now given to the manufacture of ma¬ 
chines for mounting emery-wheels. The mandrils are 
made of steel very carefully turned and fitted to the boxes, 
and frequently two or more wheels are mouuted on the 
same mandril. The edges of the wheels are variously 
shaped to suit the work for which they are designed. 
Manufacturers now use them not only for trimming and 
shaping castings, but for shaping and sharpening hardened 
steel tools, such as the knives of planes and of wood¬ 
moulding machines, and for gumming saws. For the lat¬ 
ter purpose they are particularly well adapted, and save 
time, labor, and files. 

The following are outlines of some of the forms of the 
faces of emery-wheels : 



Good emery-wheels are uniform in texture. The ma¬ 
terial with which the emery is combined must have great 
cohesive strength to resist the tendency of the wheels iO 
fly asunder when revolving at high speed, and to retain 
the grains of emery firmly, and yet wear away evenly, 
leaving the cutting angles exposed, and not glaze or “ gum 
up.” It must not soften or melt under the heat generated 






























1542 


EMETIC—EMIGRATION. 


by the friction in cutting the work, and must be free from 
noxious qualities. As such wheels are run at high veloci¬ 
ties, they require to be very carefully and exactly hung, 
and to be kept perfectly true so as to prevent vibrations. 
They should not “ wedge” upon the mandril, or even fit it 
closely, for expansion by heat might burst the wheel, and 
the flanges at the side should not be too strongly screwed 
up. A wheel thirty-six inches in diameter may have 611 
revolutions per minute, and one of twelve inches, 1800 
revolutions. Athough the emery is so extremely hard, 
diamonds will cut the wheels, and this gem in its crude or 
rough form is used as a tool to turn them true or to cut 
their faces into any desired form. W. P. Blake. 

Emet'ic [Gr. e/oieriKos, from e^e'oj, to “vomit”], a medi¬ 
cine capable of causing the stomach to contract and dis¬ 
charge its contents through the oesophagus. Emetics are 
of two classes: (1) those which appear to stimulate the ac¬ 
tion of the muscular coat of the stomach directly by their 
presence, such as alum, cupric sulphate (blue vitriol), and 
zinc sulphate (white vitriol): they act promptly, and are 
hence very useful in some cases of poisoning; (2) those 
which enter the circulation, and cause emetic action by 
their operation upon the nervous centres. To this class be¬ 
long ipecacuanha, tartar emetic, lobelia, bloodroot, and 
many others. They are in general arterial sedatives, and 
may cause profound and even dangerous disturbances if 
unskilfully used. 

Emeu. See Emu. 

Emigration [Lat. emigratio, from e, “out,” and mi- 
gro, to “remove,” to “change one’s abode”], the voluntary 
removal of inhabitants from one country to another with 
the object of permanent residence. For the purpose of dis¬ 
tinguishing inward from outward migration, the term emi¬ 
gration has been restricted by modern authors to the latter 
use, and immigration employed for the former. The obvi¬ 
ous convenience of this arrangement is procuring its gen¬ 
eral adoption. (The annual movement of birds and other 
animals from one climate to another is treated under the 
head Migration, and the systematic deportation of crim¬ 
inals under Transportation. See also Exile, Exodus, 
and Slavery.) 

The earliest historical and one of the most remarkable 
examples of migration is that recorded in Exodus. Another 
remarkable example is what is commonly known as the 
Indo-Germanic migration. It seems probable, both from 
ethnographical and philological evidence, that Northern Eu¬ 
rope was peopled from Asia. The topographical peculiarity 
of the temperate zones of these continents also favors this 
view. The boundless plains of Asia are prolonged through 
Russia, Poland, Germany, and Holland. A man may walk 
from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean, a distance of over 
6000 miles, without encountering any elevation of more 
than a few hundred feet or any water-course difficult to ford. 
There is also evidence that Asia has undergone a slow up¬ 
ward movement, resulting in the drying of her ancient 
water-courses, and necessarily compelling migrations of her 
people to the lower levels of Europe. 

It has also been held that the Toltecs or aboriginal Aztec 
race of the Pacific coast of America originally migrated 
from some distant country, a tradition of the sort having 
been prevalent among the civilized tribes conquered by the 
Spanish invaders. 

In modern times the most noted instances of migration 
have been those from Europe to various parts of America. 
The population of the western hemisphere is now 84,524,000. 
Nearly all of these persons or their progenitors have mi¬ 
grated from the eastern hemisphere since the beginning of 
the sixteenth century; the whites, who form the main por¬ 
tion, voluntarily and from Europe. This migration, due 
originally to love of conquest, adventure, or the pious de¬ 
sire, real or affected, to propagate Christianity among the 
heathen, was afterwards sustained by other motives, and 
America became the refuge of races and sects who fled from 
political and religious persecution in Europe. Religious 
toleration has since become common in almost all countries, 
yet migration continues, and is due to political and econom¬ 
ical considerations, the stream flowing in all directions, but 
mainly from countries where the common people, by being 
denied political and social equality, are reduced to hard¬ 
ship, penury, and military or other servitude, to countries 
where social privileges, conceded alike to all, enable them 
to secure a fair chance in the struggle for existence. The 
main course of migration has been from Northern Europe, 
principally from Ireland and Germany, to the United States 
and Canada; another important flow has been from Eng¬ 
land to Australia; a third from China and British India 
to the British colonies, Spanish America, and the United 
States; and a fourth from Southern Europe, principally 
from Italy and Spain, to South America. 

The statistics of early migration to this country are 


shrouded in considerable doubt. From a comparison of 
Blodget, Seybert, and Bromwell, the best authorities on the 
subject, it seems probable that the following numbers fairly 
represent the immigration by sea into the British colonies 
of North America, afterwards the United States, from 1776 
to the date of the establishment of official returns under the 
act of 1819. The periods are so divided as to be susceptible 
of comparison with other estimates : 


1776 to 1783, 
1784 to 1790, 
1791 to 1800, 
1801 to 1810, 
1811 to 1819, 


inclusive.... 


U 

.... 7 “ . 

( i 

....10 “ . 

U 

.... 9 “ . 

iC 

.... 9 “ • 


. 25,000 
28,000 
50,000 
70,000 
105,615 


Total 


278,615 


The following are the official returns: the year 
ends Sept. 30, up to and including 1850; after¬ 
wards Dec. 31: 


1820 . 8,385 

1821 to 1830.. 143,439 

1831 to 1840. 599,125 

1841 to 1850.1,713,251 

1851 to 1860.2,598,214 

1861 to 1870.2,491,451 

1871 . 346,938 

1872 . 443,892—8,344,695 

Total.8,623,310 


Up to 1867, when the immigration returns were first col¬ 
lated by the bureau of statistics, they were vitiated by 
many irregularities, and the above figures are only approx¬ 
imate. They include large numbers of persons not intend¬ 
ing to settle in the U. S., or who have been here before, 
estimated in the census of 1860 as high as 14J per cent, of 
the whole; they omit the Canadian overland immigration, 
and contain other important errors. The chief countries 
from which the immigrants have come are, approximately, 
as follows: England, 662,000; Wales, 16,000; Ireland, 
2,846,000; Scotland, 114,000; United Kingdom not speci¬ 
fied, 563,000; total, United Kingdom, 4,201,000; British 
America (so far as reported), 380,000; total, Great Britain, 
4,581,000; North Germany, 2,624,000; France, 259,000; 
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, 242,000; China, 125,000 ; 
Switzerland, 69,000; Austria, 21,000; Russia, including 
Poland, 10,000; all other countries, 184,000 ; countries not 
specified, 508,000; grand total, 8,623,000. About five- 
eighths of the whole number were males. An equal pro¬ 
portion of the -whole number stated or had no occupation, 
this class comprising most of the women and nearly all of 
the children. Of the males, about 1,500,000 were laborers, 
1,000,000 farmers, and 750,000 mechanics. According to 
the immigration returns, the immigrants have consisted 
mainly of farmers and farm-laborers, and persons healthy 
and in the prime of life. The census returns prove that 
they settle mainly in cities, and die much faster than the 
native population. 

Seven-eighths of the entire immigration have come from 
Ireland, Germany, and England. Formerly, Ireland sent 
the bulk of emigrants. This was owing to the operation 
of the “Encumbered Estates bill,” which in 1841-51 de¬ 
stroyed 355,689 “fourth-class” (one-room) mud cabins, 
and evicted their miserable tenants; and to the famine of 
1847. Since 1854, Germany has sent the most. This mi¬ 
gration was greatest during the years 1S52-54. and next 
greatest in the year 1867, and is attributed to political dis¬ 
turbances in Europe and the fear of conscription in Ger¬ 
many at those periods. Irish and German migration is 
subsiding, and English and Scandinavian increasing. The 
influence of high prices and ample room in attracting im¬ 
migrants to America, though not without importance, seems 
to have been much exaggerated, the immigrants coming 
chiefly from countries like England, where prices are high¬ 
est, instead of those like Thuringia, where they are lowest. 
(Commercial Relations, 1871, p. 395.) It is also observable 
that the German immigrants are generally from the most 
thinly populated agricultural sections of their own country, 
in no part of which has the capacity of the natural re¬ 
sources to subsist a population been tested to one-half the 
extent found to be amply sufficient in Che-Iviang, An- 
Hwuy, and other parts of China. {Ibid., p. 73.) But 10,000 
persons have emigrated to this country from Russia, in¬ 
cluding Poland. This is due to the severe laws of that 
country interdicting emigration, banishment to Siberia 
being the punishment for an attempt to leave the country, 
or for attempting to induce another to leave it, without 
official permission—a thing rarely granted. On the other 
hand, Russia, ever since tho reign of Peter the Great, has 
warmly encouraged immigrants to settle within her own 
borders. 

In most European countries a formal relinquishment of 
the rights and duties of citizenship by the emigrant and 
the government respectively is necessary in order to render 
emigration lawful. The offioial practice with regard to tho 
change of allegianoe by tho emigrant varies in different 


































EMIGRATION. 


1543 


countries, and is not definitely settled in any; the general 
rule being to disregard such change, and hold the subject 
*’ always a subject.” The policy of the U. S. with regard 
to tho right of self-expatriation seems equally unsettled, 
the government having strenuously maintained it in tho 
Koszta case in 1853, but virtually abandoned it in the case 
of the Prussian enlistment of American naturalized citi¬ 
zens in 1858. 

Although the attention of Congress was directed over 
fifty years ago to the subject of overcrowding in immigrant 
vessels, and resulted in the passage of the act of March 2, 
1819, which provided for adequate space, rations, and at¬ 
tendance on board ship, but little reform has been effected. 
Additional legislation on the same subject was provided in 
1847-49 ; and on March 3, 1855, a very comprehensive law 
was passed, superseding all former legislation, and requiring 
ample space, rations, ventilation, hospitals, booby-hatches, 
cabooses, closets, disinfectants, discipline, and reports. To 
this a supplemental act was passed in 1860 for the protec¬ 
tion of female passengers. Yet the Federal commissioner of 
immigration reported (Feb. 28, 1866) “that of the ships 
which had arrived at New York since the existence of his 
(the deputy commissioner’s) office, there were none which 
had not violated the act of 1860,” and the Federal director 
of statistics reported in 1868 that the most deplorable abuses 
existed in defiance of the act of 1855, and had resulted in 
many cases of pestilence and a high rate of mortality. 
Many of these abuses have disappeared with the substitu¬ 
tion of steam for sailing vessels that has taken place during 
the past few years. Tho voyage is now much shorter, and 
the steerage passengers are better cared for. 

The subject of criminal and pauper emigrants has been 
frequently debated in Congress. Before the American Revo¬ 
lution, England used to send large numbers of these classes 
of persons to America. To guard against tho continuance 
of this practice, most of the States have enacted severe laws. 
In Georgia, an alien felon is punishable with banishment, 
and for a second offence “ he shall suffer death without 
benefit of clergy.” In Massachusetts, a town rendered liable 
for the expense of supporting or burying any pauper im¬ 
migrant may maintain an action of debt for the same 
against the master of the vessel who brought him in. In 
Rhode Island, the importation of “ any person of a notori¬ 
ously dissolute, infamous, and abandoned life and charac¬ 
ter” is punishable with heavy fines. In the States of New 
York, New Hampshire, Maine, Maryland, Louisiana, and 
Texas, the shipmaster must indemnify the State against the 
expense of maintaining any pauper immigrants he may 
bring in. Commutation-money may in certain cases bo 
substituted. This is the practice in New York. The ship¬ 
ping of criminals and paupers to this country is still con¬ 
tinued by some of the continental nations, and elicited 
severe comments in the Senate debates of Mar. 19, 1866, and 
Jah. 3, 1867. 

Immigration has always been encouraged by the Federal 
and State governments of this country, and by many of the 
latter the inducements held out to the settlers are very at¬ 
tractive. The Federal Homestead act of May 20, 1862, 
however, continues to remain the most substantial provis¬ 
ion of this sort. It secures to every actual settler, the 
head of a family, 160 acres of public lands, substantially 
gratis, in absolute fee simple. A fact likely to prove of 
considerable importance to the future history of this coun¬ 
try is the disposition of migrators to confine themselves to 
isothermal lines. Our immigrants from the United King¬ 
dom and Germany will be found settled mainly in the same 
latitudes they left—viz., on the Ohio, Northern Mississippi, 
and Missouri rivers and their affluents, and on the shores 
of the great lakes. The Scandinavians settle in the most 
northern States. The Southern States are almost destitute 
of foreign population, migrators from Italy and Spain 
going chiefly to South America. This may be due to lan¬ 
guage or religion, but is mainly to be attributed to climate 
arnUhe similarity of agricultural productions, the staples of 
our Southern States, cotton and tobacco, being unfamiliar 
to the peasants of Southern Europe. These facts would in¬ 
dicate a serious diminution of immigration whenever the 
causes that now superinduce it from Northern Europe to 
this country shall cease to prevail. 

Attempts have frequently been made to estimate the 
capital brought into this country by immigrants. So far 
as money is concerned, these attempts are lully stated in 
the first volume of the census of I860. The total capital— 
money, clothing, tools, and furniture—has been roundly 
estimated at $250 for each person, but such computations 
are essentially vitiated by the consideration that sometimes 
the passage-money, and always the cost of subsistence after 
landing, and until the immigrant reaches his final destina¬ 
tion and is engaged in remunerative production, should be 
deducted. Equally defective are all computations of the 
“capitalized value” of immigrants to a country: this, if 


indeed it has any existence at all beyond the sphere of taxa¬ 
tion and military responsibility, being chiefly due to moral 
and social considerations insusceptible of pecuniary calcu¬ 
lation. Besides the Federal bureau of immigration, which 
has its chief office in the department of state at Washing¬ 
ton, and a branch office at New York, most of the States 
of the Union have established local bureaux of immigra¬ 
tion, that of the State of New York, located in the city of 
New York, being the most important. These bureaux 
assume charge of the immigrants on their arrival in tho 
country, furnish them with information, and direct them to 
their destinations. 

Tho foreign-born population of tho United States was 
as follows at the dates mentioned: 


1850.2,244,602 

1860.4,138,697 

1870.5,566,546 


In 1870 there were in the United States 10,892,015 persons 
having one or both parents foreign; 10,521,233 having a 
foreign father; 10,105,627 having a foreign mother; and 
9,734,845 having a foreign father and mother. 

The British account of emigration from tho United King¬ 
dom to Canada is as follows: 

1815 to 1820. 70,43811851 to 1860.235,285 

1821 to 1830.139,269 1861 to 1870.195,250 

1831 to 1840.322,485 1871. 32,671 

1841 to 1850. 429,044 

These numbers include foreigners as well as natives of tho 
United Kingdom. A portion of these emigrants are be¬ 
lieved to have subsequently emigrated to the United States. 

The Norwegian account of the total emigration, and tho 
emigration to America, from Sweden and Norway since 
1856, is as follows : 




Total. 



To America. 



Sweden. 

Norway. 

Together. 

Sweden. 

Norway. 

Together. 

1856-60.. 

... 3,500 

831 

4,331 

3,160 

743 

3,903 

1861-65... 

... 5,200 

3,963 

9,163 

4,710 

1,884 

6,594 

1866. 

...16,050 

7,206 

23,256 

15,455 

4,466 

19,921 

1867. 

...13,328 

9,334 

22,662 

12,828 

5,893 

18,721 

1868. 

... 13.934 

27,024 

40,958 

13,209 

21,472 

34,681 

1869. 

...18,762 

39,064 

57,826 

18,055 

32,050 

50,105 


The British account of emigration from the United King¬ 
dom to the Australian colonies and New Zealand is as 
follows: 1841-50, 127,124; 1851-60, 506,802 ; 1861-70, 
280,198; 1871, 12,227. This emigration reached its cul¬ 
minating point in 1852-54, and has since greatly declined. 
The colonial account of immigration from, and emigration 
to, all countries, at Victoria, is as follows: 

Immigration. Emigration. 


1836-55. 


1856. 


1857. 

. 74,255 

1858. 


1859. 


1860. 

. 29.037 

1861. 


1862. 


1863. 

. 38,983, 

1864. 


1865. 


1866. 

. 32,178, 

1867. 

. 27,242, 


156,682 

21,187 

20,471 

25,882 

19,615 

21,689 

35,898 

38,203 

34,800 

21,779 

25,292 

27,629 

25,142 


A system of “free and assisted” emigration has been 
established between England and her several colonies of 
Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, 
Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Tasmania, and some of tho 
provinces of New Zealand. Under this system, 144,362 
of the immigrants into Victoria up to 1865 were assisted. 
The total number of “assisted” emigrants from England 
to all her colonies named was, from 1853 to 1865, inclusive, 
276,837. This system has become unpopular in the colo¬ 
nies, and has been refused further support. 

The total emigration from the United Kingdom to all 
countries during the fifty-seven years from 1S15 to 1871 was 
7,266,072 persons, but a small portion of whom w T ere for¬ 


eigners. 


Emigration from China has already assumed considerable 
proportions, as many as 200,000 emigrants per annum hav¬ 
ing embarked for foreign countries. The better class of 
these emigrants go to Manila, the Straits, and California; 
the remainder to various colonial possessions, the Sandwich 
Islands, etc. They generally emigrate voluntarily, though 
many of them are kidnapped by the Chinese sew-choo-tsy, 
or itinerant coolie-brokers. They are shipped under con¬ 
tracts, made through Chinese agents, to be held to service 
for a term of years. These contracts fetch from $150 to 
$400 in the colonies. The coolies require an advance of 


passage-money and sufficient to sustain their families until 
they can support them out of their earnings. Strictly 
speaking, the coolies do not emigrate. They go abroad 
temporarily to better their condition, and invariably with tho 
intention to return—an intention almost certain to be car¬ 


ried out if the emigrants’ lives and health arc spared. Tho 


































































1544 


EMILIA—EMMET. 


success that generally attends their pilgrimage is attested 
by the fact that most of those who go to the shipping-ports 
in sailing junks return in steamers. The high mortality 
that has attended them, and the outrages of the coolie- 
brokers, which, though punishable with death, are often 
committed, have rendered coolie emigration odious to the 
Chinese authorities and people, and every impediment has 
been placed in its way, mainly through regulations approved 
by the prince of Kung, Mar. 5, 1866. This has caused a 
great diminution in the emigration from Chinese ports, and 
confined it to Ilong Kong, Macao, etc. An act was passed 
by the United States Congress Feb. 19, 1862, prohibiting 
tbe transportation of coolies in American vessels, unless 
they were accompanied by certificates setting forth the fact 
of their “ voluntary emigration,” and extending to them 
the benefits of the passenger acts. 

The coolie emigration from British India sprang up in 
1834 upon the passage of the act of (negro) emancipation. 
The manifest indisposition of the newly-made freedmen to 
work rendered it necessary for the preservation of the valu¬ 
able estates in the British Colonies to substitute for negro 
labor that of apprentices from India. The government 
offered no obstacle to the project, and imposed no restric¬ 
tions as to numbers. The coolies were obtained in Bengal, 
Madras, and Bombay, and shipped to Mauritius, the West 
Indies, Reunion and Natal, and British Guiana; mainly to 
the two former places. The statistics of emigration exhibit a 
constant outward and return flow of coolies, the movement 
possessing much the same features as the Chinese emigra¬ 
tion. The British Indian account gives the total number 
of emigrants since 1857 from British India to all the colo¬ 
nies named above, as follows : 


1857. 

1858. 

1859. 

1860. 
1861. 


.12,555 

.20,758 

.45,025 

.41,777 

.21,872 


1862 

1863 

1864 

1865 

1866 


31,358 

12,490 

10,258 

21,545 

27,779 


The immigration into the Argentine Republic (Buenos 
Ayres) has been as follows for the years named: 


1858 

1859 

1860 
1861 
1862 


,4654 

4735 

5656 

6301 

6716 


1863 .10,258 

1864 .11,682 

1867.17,000 

1870.....41,058 

1872 (first six months).38,000 


Of the numbers reported in 1870, there were 23,814 Italian, 
5748 Spanish, 4105 French, 2053 Swiss, 821 English, 411 
German, and 4105 from other countries. About two-thirds 
of the whole number were male adults, and about three- 
fourths were agriculturists and laborers. The immigration 
into this country of Italian and Spanish peasants is the 
only considerable instance of the kind, and for this reason 
possesses much interest in connection with the question of 
the possible future immigration of Europeans into the 
southern portions of the United States. 

Emigration between other countries than those specified 
in this article has been conducted upon an exceedingly 
limited scale, and is not deemed worthy of notice in this 
connection. Alex. Delmar. 

Emil'ia [Lat. JEmilia, called after the celebrated Via 
./Emilia of the Romans], the ancient name of that part of 
Northern Italy which contains the larger part of the former 
duchies of Parma and Modena and the papal delegations 
of the Romagna, or the present Italian provinces of Parma, 
Piacenza, Modena, Reggio, Bologna, Ferrara, Forli, Ra¬ 
venna, and Massa-Carrara. The name was officially re¬ 
vived in 1859. Area, 8604 square miles. Pop. 2,273,812. 

Eminence, a post-twp. of Logan co., Ill. Pop. 1362. 

Eminence, a post-village of Henry co., Ivy., on the 
Louisville Cincinnati and Lexington R. R., 26 miles W. of 
Frankfort. It has a woollen and a flouring mill, three 
churches (one colored), a bank of deposit, two colleges open 
to both sexes, two hotels, and one newspaper. The prin¬ 
cipal business is farming and stock-raising. The location 
is healthy, surrounded by a beautiful blue-grass region. 
There is a valuable mineral spring in the vicinity. 

W. A. Holland, Ed. “ Constitutionalist.” 


Eminence, a post-village, capital of Shannon co., Mo., 
on Current River, about 120 miles S. W. of St. Louis. 

Em'inent Domain'. Domain is the territory under 
the jurisdiction of a sovereign, and eminent domain the in¬ 
herent sovereign power which the people or government 
retain over the estates or private property of individuals 
to resume or appropriate the same tor public uses, and for 
public uses only. The difference between the power of tax¬ 
ation and the right of eminent domain should be carefully 
noted. Taxation proceeds upon the notion of contribution; 
it falls upon a class of persons, and is apportioned among 
them b} r rule. In the exercise of the right ot eminent do¬ 
main the state takes from an individual his property with¬ 
out reference to a burden imposed upon any other person. 
The right can be exercised in this country either by a State 


or by the United States. The power to decide whether the 
property should be taken for any public use rests with the 
legislature, and its discretion is not reviewable by the 
courts, though it is conceived that tho judicial power has 
the right to determine whether the use itself is public 
rather than private. Were this not so, the legislature 
might, under the pretence of taking property for public 
uses, transfer one man’s property to another. 

It is not necessary, however, that the exercise of tho 
power should benefit tho entire public. It is enough if it 
promotes the industrial capacity or resources of a consider¬ 
able number of inhabitants, or in any manner indirectly 
contributes to the general welfare. It is not necessary that 
the State should act directly. The power may be delegated 
to a municipal body or to a private corporation. A State 
may delegate it to the United States. The mode of exer¬ 
cising it is regulated by constitutional provisions and by 
statutes. In some cases only an easement in land is ac¬ 
quired; at other times the entire fee is appropriated. The 
constitutional prohibition (U. S. Constitution, Amendments, 
Art. V.) against taking private property for public use with¬ 
out just compensation is a limitation on the power of the 
Federal government, and not on that of the States. There 
are similar provisions in the State constitutions binding the 
State legislatures. The compensation includes not only the 
property actually taken, but consequential damages to ad¬ 
joining property. This has recently been carried so far in 
England by the House of Lords as to hold that a riparian 
owner on the banks of a navigable stream (the Thames) is 
entitled to compensation for the act of cutting off his ap¬ 
proach to the river, on the ground that the right of access 
to a tide-water stream is a legal right, which would justify 
an action by the owner against one who interfered with it, 
unless Parliament had sanctioned the interference. (Case 
of the Duke of Buccleuch, Law Reports, 5, House of Lords’ 
Cases, 478, A. D. 1S72.) Still, if no property is taken, a 
claim cannot be made for consequential damages. The 
same right to compensation as is secured in this country 
by constitutional provisions is recognized generally among 
civilized nations, and may be considered as a general rule 
in jurisprudence. T. W. Dwight. 

E'mir, or Emeer' (written also Amir and Ameer), 
an Arabic word signifying “ chief” or “ ruler.” The caliphs 
took the title of emir-al-Mumenin, “ chief or commander of 
the faithful.” The title is now given by prescriptive usage 
to those who are the real or reputed descendants of Mo¬ 
hammed through his daughter Fatima. Many independent 
chiefs of Northern Africa assume the title of emir. The 
word emir, joined to another word, occurs in several official 
titles, as emir-al-Omrah, formerly the title of the first min¬ 
ister of the caliphs and moguls, and at present sometimes 
the title of the pashas of large Turkish provinces. 

Em'lentoii, a post-village of Venango co., Pa., has one 
weekly newspaper. 

Em'ly, a small town of Ireland, in the county of Tip¬ 
perary, was formerly a bishop's see, which was united to 
Cashel in 1568. 

Emman'uel [Port. Manoel ], surnamed the Great, king 
of Portugal, was born in May, 1469. He succeeded John 
II. May 3, 1495, and married Isabella, a daughter of Fer¬ 
dinand and Isabella of Castile. He promoted education, 
maritime enterprise, and commerce. During his prosper¬ 
ous reign the power and glory of Portugal were increased 
by the discoveries and victories of Vasco da Gama, Albu¬ 
querque, and Almeida in India and Brazil. Portugal was 
probably the greatest naval power of the world in his reign, 
which constitutes the golden age of Portuguese history. 
His power and renown were greater than any Portuguese 
monarch ever possessed, either before or since his time; 
but he greatly injured his country by the banishment of 
all Jews and the enforced conversion of their young chil¬ 
dren. His third wife was Eleonore, a sister of the emperor 
Charles V., whom he married in 1519. He died Dec. 13, 
1521, and was succeeded by his son, John III. 

Em'meil, a town of Holland, in the province of Dren- 
the, 31 miles S. E. of Groningen. Pop. in 1867, 5437. 

Emmerich, 3m'mer-riK', a walled town of Prussia, is 
on the right bank of the Rhine, about 50 miles N. N. W. 
of Diisseldorf and 20 miles S. E. of Arnhcim, with both 
of which it is connected by a railway. It has a custom¬ 
house, gymnasium, and several churches; also manufac¬ 
tures of woollen cloth, linens, hosiery, etc. P. in 1871, 7817. 

Emmet, a post-township of St. Clair co., Mich. P.960. 

Em'met (Robert), an Irish patriot and orator, born in 
Cork in 1780. He was devoted to the independence of Ire¬ 
land, and was a leader of the United Irishmen, who desired 
to liberate their country from British domination. Having 
secretly collected arms and powder in Dublin and formed 
I a conspiracy, he and his friends revolted in July, 1803. 








































The insurgents killed the chief-justice, Lord Kilwarden, but 
were soon dispersed by a party of soldiers. Emmet was 
arrested and tried for treason. lie pleaded his own cause 
in a long and very eloquent speech, which has been pre¬ 
served, but he was convicted and executed Sept. 20, 1803. 
II is fate and his affection for Miss Curran are the subjects 
of two of Moore’s “ Irish Melodies.” 

km met (Thomas Addis), LL.D., an Irish lawyer, a 
brother ot the preceding, was born in Cork in 1764. He 
was a leader of the United Irishmen, and as such was ar¬ 
rested in 1798, and confined in prison for nearly three 
years. His sentence was commuted into exile, and he emi¬ 
grated in 1804 to New York City, Avhere he practised law 
with distinction. He was elected attorney-general of the 
State ot New York in 1812. He was an eloquent advocate, 
and had great qualities as an orator. Died in New Y"ork 
Nov. 14, 1827. 

Emmett, a county in the N. N. W. of Iowa. Area, 
450 square miles. It is intersected by the West Fork of 
the Des Moines River, and contains several small lakes. 
Grain and wool are raised. Capital, Estherville. Pop. 
1392. r 

Emmett, a county of Michigan, which forms the ex¬ 
treme northern part of the Lower Peninsula. It is bounded 
on the N. W. by Lake Michigan, from which Little Traverse 
Ray extends into the southern part of the county. Grain 
and potatoes are staple products. Capital, Little Traverse. 
Pop. 1211. 

Emmett, a township of McDonough co., Ill. P. 957. 

Emmett, a post-township of Emmett co., Ia. P. 232. 

Emmett, a township of Calhoun co., Mich. Pop. 1309. 

Emmett, a township of Dodge co., Wis. Pop. 1375. 

Emmettsburg, a post-village, capital of Palo Alto 
co., Ia., on the Des Moines River, 55 miles N. N. W. of 
Fort Dodge and 25 miles W. of Algona. It is the only 
village in the county, and is a thrifty business-place. It 
has a saw-mill and a fiouring-mill, and is the proposed 
junction of the McGregor and Missouri River R. R. with 
the Des Moines Valley R. R. Both are surveyed, and have 
land-grants through the county, and considerable grading 
has been done on the former. It has one weekly news¬ 
paper. Pop. in 1870 of village, 44;* of township, 316. 

Ed. “Advance.” 

Emmettsville, a village of Greene township, Ran¬ 
dolph co., Ind. Pop. 67. 

E mmittsburg, a post-village of Frederick co., Md., 
8 miles N. of Mechanicstown, 1 mile from Mason and 
Dixon’s Line, and 10 miles from Gettysburg, Pa. It was 
laid out by William Emmitt, its founder, about the year 
1773. The original population were Scotch and Irish. 
Mount St. Mary’s College was established near it in 1809 
by Rev. John Dubois, late bishop of New York; it is a 
Roman Catholic institution, one of the largest in the U. S. 
There are 200 students at present in attendance. Rev. 
John McCloskey (brother of the present bishop of New 
York) is the president of the institution. St. Joseph’s 
Academy, about half a mile from town, was established in 
1810, by Mrs. Eliza Ann Seton of New York. It is the 
mother-house of the Sisters of Charity in the U. S., and 
numbers 2000 members, and has the largest educational 
building in Maryland, perhaps in the U. S. There are 
$1,500,000 surplus in the treasury. There are five churches 
in the village. Pop. 706 ; of township, 3168. 

Wm. Need, Ed. “ Catoctin Clarion.” 

Emmon’s, a township of Davidson co., N. C. P. 941. 

Em'mons (Ebenezer), M. D., an American geologist, 
born at Middlefield, Mass., May 16, 1799. He became in 
1833 professor of natural history in Williams College. He 
was one of the geologists selected by the governor of New 
York in 1836 to make a geological survey of that State. In 
1838 he became professor of chemistry in the Albany Med¬ 
ical College. In 1856 he became State geologist for North 
Carolina, where he remained until his death. He wrote 
several reports, which were published in the “ Natural His¬ 
tory of New York;” also a report of the quadrupeds of 
Massachusetts, three reports of the geology of North Car¬ 
olina, and several text-books on mineralogy and geology. 
Died Oct. 1, 1863. 

Emmons (George F.), U. S. N., born Aug. 23, 1811, 
at Clarendon, Rutland co., Vt., entered the navy as a mid¬ 
shipman April 1, 1828, became a passed midshipman in 
1834, a lieutenant in 1841, a commander in 1856, a captain 
in 1863, a commodore in 1868, and a rear-admiral in 1872. 
He served in the South Sea exploring expedition from 1838 
to 1842, and on the west coast of Mexico during the war 
with that country. In the early part of our civil war he 
was in command of various vessels of the Gulf blockading 


squadron and Admiral Dahlgren’s fleet, and was captain for 
some months in 1863 during the operations against Fort 
Sumter. From 1864 to the close of the Avar he commanded 
a division of the blockading fleet in the Gulf of Mexico. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Emmons (Nathanael), D. D., one of the most emi¬ 
nent of American theologians, was born April 20 (0. S.), 
1745, at East Haddam, Conn., and graduated Avith honor 
at Yale in 1797. He was ordained pastor of the Congre¬ 
gational church in Franklin, Mass., in 1773, and was its 
pastor until his death, and its sole pastor for fifty-four 
years. In addition to his pastoral labors he trained nearly 
one hundred young men for the ministry, many of them 
afterwards eminent. He Avas also a prominent advocate 
of foreign missions and of the anti-slavery cause. His 
theological vieAvs were nearly those of his friend Dr. Samuel 
Hopkins, and his sermons, distinguished by logical thought 
and by dignity and power of style, Avere in many instances 
characterized by ingenious efforts at solving the problems 
suggested by the doctrines of the Divine government and 
the freedom of the human will. Died Sept. 23, 1840. His 
works (sermons, essays, etc.), published at different times 
during his life, were after his death published (1842) in 
seven and afterwards (1861) in six volumes octavo, Avith 
memoirs of his life, in the first edition by J. Ide, D. D., 
and in the second by Prof. E. A. Park. 

Em'ory, a township of Stanislaus co., Cal. Pop. 843. 

Emory, a post-village, capital of Rains co., Tex. It 
is very near the geographical centre of the county. 

Emory, a post-village of Washington co., Va., on the 
Atlantic Mississippi and Ohio R. R., 10 miles E. of Abing¬ 
don. It has one neAvspaper, and is the seat of Emory 
and Henry College, Avhich is sustained by the Methodist 
Episcopal Church South. There are two hotels and five 
or six churches in the immediate vicinity. 

C. M. Broavn, Ed. “ Banner.” 

Emory (John), D. D., an eminent writer and bishop of 
the Methodist Episcopal Church, born in Queen Anne co., 
Md., April 11, 1789, was educated a lawyer, became a Metho¬ 
dist preacher in 1810, preached extensively for many years 
through the Middle States, and was sent as delegate of his 
denomination, in 1820, to the British Wesleyan conference. 
He Avas appointed in 1824 book agent at Ncav Y T ork, and 
elected bishop in 1832. Died Dec. 16, 1835. In 1817 he had 
a pamphlet controversy with Bishop White of Philadelphia. 
He Avas author of “The Divinity of Christ Vindicated,” 
“ Defence of Our Fathers,” and other publications, which 
show much logical ability and a pure and vigorous style. 

Emory (Robert), D. D., son of the preceding, an emi¬ 
nent divine and educator of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church, born in Philadelphia July 29, 1814, Avas president 
of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., and author of the “ Life 
of Bishop Emory” and “History of the Discipline of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church.” Died May 18, 1848. 

Emory (William II.), an American officer, born in 
1811 in Queen Anne’s co., Md., graduated at West Point in 
1831, colonel Fifth Cavalry Oct. 27, 1863, and Sept. 25, 
1865, major-general U. S. Volunteers. He served as lieu¬ 
tenant of artillery and of mounted rangers till he resigned, 
Sept. 30, 1836; chiefly at sea-board posts, 1831-36; in 
Charleston harbor, 1832-33, during the threatened nullifica¬ 
tion of South Carolina; and in the Creek nation, 1836-38. 
He Avas appointed first-lieutenant topographical engineers, 
July 7, 1838, and major of cavalry Mar. 13, 1865, serving 
on Delaware river improA r ements and in topographical bu¬ 
reau, 1839-44; on north-east boundary survey, 1844-46; 
in the Avar Avith Mexico, 1846-48, on the staff of Brigadier- 
General Kearny; engaged in the actions on his march to 
California (captain and brevet major); as lieutenant-colonel 
Maryland and District of Columbia Volunteers; as astrono¬ 
mer of boundary between California and Mexico, 1848-53, 
and commissioner and astronomer, 1854-57 (brevet lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel) ; in suppressing Kansas disturbances and 
on Utah expedition, 1858, and on frontier, board, and in¬ 
spection duties, 1858-61. He resigned May 9, 1861, and 
Avas reappointed May 14, 1861. He was lieutenant-colonel 
of Sixth Cavalry, serving in Virginia peninsula, 1862 ; en¬ 
gaged at YorktOAvn, Williamsburg, and Hanover Court¬ 
house (brevet colonel); in department of the Gulf, 1S62-63, 
engaged at Port Hudson, Camp Bisland, Lafourche Cross¬ 
ing, and Donaldsonville; in Red River campaign, 1863-64; 
engaged at Sabine Cross-roads, Pleasant Hill, and Cano 
River; in command of Nineteenth Corps, 1864-66; en¬ 
gaged at Marksville, defence of Washington, D. C., Ope- 
quan, Fisher’s Hill (brevet brigadier-general), Cedar Creek 
(brevet major-general), and in command (1865-66) of tho 
department of West Virginia; in command of department 
of Washington 1869-71, and department of tho Gulf sinco 
1371, n George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 














lo46 


EMORY COLLEGE—EMPHYTEUSIS. 


Emory College is in Oxford, Newton co., Ga., 40 
miles E. of Atlanta, and 1 mile from the Georgia R. R. 
Its literary, social, and religious advantages are of the 
highest order. It was chartered in 1837, and was opened 
to students in 1838, under the presidency of Rev. Ignatius 

A. Few, D. D., LL.D. It is under the control of the 

Methodist Episcopal Church South. The sons of itinerant 
preachers in the States of Georgia and Florida are edu¬ 
cated free of tuition fees. The curriculum of study em¬ 
braces Latin, Greek, mathematics, natural science, with 
mental and moral science, evidences of Christianity, belles 
lettres, and the English Bible. There is also a scientific 
course, which embraces all of these branches except Latin 
and Greek. The number of graduates from July, 1841, 
when the first class graduated, to July, 1873, is over 500, 
about 20 per cent, of whom are ministers of the gospel, and a 
still larger percentage has been devoted to the work of teach¬ 
ing. The faculty of the college embraces six professors, and 
it has the usual appliances for thorough and efficient in¬ 
struction, such as library, cabinet, philosophical and chem¬ 
ical apparatus. The literary societies have good halls, 
well furnished, and good libraries and reading-rooms. The 
college has been under the presidency of the following named 
gentlemen : Rev. Ignatius A. Few, D. D., LL.D., Rev. A. B. 
Longstreet, LL.D., Rev. Bishop George F. Pierce, D. D., 
LL.D., Rev. A. Means, D. D., LL.D., Rev. J. R. Thomas, 
D. D., Rev. Luther M. Smith, D. D., and Rev. 0. L. Smith, 
D. D. The trustees of the college are now erecting new lec¬ 
ture-rooms and a new and commodious chapel, proposing to 
afford advantages equal in all respects to those of any insti¬ 
tution of like grade in the land. The average number of 
students for the last few years has been about 200. Two 
hundred and fifty dollars per annum will cover all expenses 
of board, tuition, and books. 0. L. Smith. 

Emo'tion [from the Lat. e, "out,” and moveo, motnm, to 
" move,” hence to "feel ”] is a psychological term which may 
be most easily explained by its relation to that of sensation. 
A sensation is simply the consciousness of a peculiar state 
of the body, pleasurable or painful; which consciousness re¬ 
acts on the body purposing to continue or discontinue its 
present state. When, for some reason or other, no such re¬ 
action takes place, but the consciousness of a certain state 
of the body flows over into the imagination, the sensation 
becomes an emotion; when it passes into the intellect, it 
becomes a cognition. 

Empan'nel, or Impannel, to enrol a list of jurors; 
to write a list of the names of men who shall serve as jurors 
in any trial. The sheriff summons a number of persons, 
and prepares lists called the panels of the jury. 

Emped/ocles [Gr. ’E/x7reSoKAr)?], a celebrated Greek 
philosopher, born at Agrigentum in Sicily, lived about 450 

B. C. He acquired great fame and influence by his talents 
and varied attainments in science. It is said that his 
fellow-citizens offered him the crown, but he declined it, 
and used his influence to found a republic in his native 
state. He was regarded as a public benefactor, a great 
poet, and a predictor of futurity. He maintained the 
theory that the world is developed or compounded from 
four primary elements, fire, air, earth, and water. He 
wrote, besides other works, a poem on "Nature,” of which 
fragments are extant. It appears that he accepted the 
doctrine that the souls of some men, at least, are destined 
to migrate through animal or vegetable bodies in order to 
purify them. The tradition that he threw himself into the 
crater of Mt. Etna to immortalize his name is not general¬ 
ly credited. He was admired by Aristotle and Lucretius, 
the latter of whom eulogizes him in his poem " De Rerum 
Natura.” The fragments of Empedocles have been edited 
by Stein (1852) and others. (See Ritter, "History of Philos¬ 
ophy;” Gladisch, "Empedocles und die Aegypter,” 1858.) 

Lin'peror [Lat. impera'tor, from im'pero , to " com¬ 
mand ;” Fr. empereur; Ger. Kai'ser], the sovereign who rules 
over an empire. The title imperator was conferred by the 
ancient Romans on their consuls in their military capacity, 
after this authority had been confirmed to them by the co- 
mitia curiata. The signification of imperator depended on 
that of imperium , which was the name given to the supreme 
power of the senate and people of Rome over the city and 
subject provinces. An officer clothed with authority by 
law exercised this imperium within the limits and time of 
his command. After any great victory the soldiers were 
accustomed to salute their commander as imperator as a 
compliment, though, as exercising the imperium attached 
to his command, he was already such in fact. He might 
be a consul or a proconsul, and the imperium was as ne¬ 
cessary for a governor of a province as for a general who 
merely commanded an army. Under the republic there 
might be many irnperatores at one time. On the subversion 
of the republic the title was conferred on Augustus for life. 
The authority of the Roman emperors was acquired by tho 


combination of the chief offices of the former republic in a 
single person; besides which, some extraordinary powers 
were granted or usurped. Thus, Octavius held the title of 
imperator and the office of consul by successive elections. 
He was made tribune, which gave inviolability to his per¬ 
son, and pontifex maximus and censor, which gave him 
control of religion and morals. He was also invested with 
perpetual proconsular authority, which gave him supreme 
control in all the provinces, and declared chief ( princeps) 
of the senate, and Augustus, which last designation was 
assumed by his successors. The title imperator was as¬ 
sumed by the emperors on the occasion of victories of 
themselves or their armies. Aurelius is represented on a 
coin as imperator for the eighth time. With the early 
Roman emperors the term imperator did not denote the 
sovereign power. It is not easy to determine at what time 
the word came to be used in the modern sense of emperor 
as the proper name for the sovereign of the Roman state. 
The term princeps was used as a convertible term with it. 
The Roman emperors appointed their own successors, Avho 
received the title of ernsar during the life of the emperor 
who appointed them. After the court was removed to Con¬ 
stantinople, the old titles and forms of the republic gradu¬ 
ally vanished, and the emperors assumed the style of Ori¬ 
ental princes. The title of emperor of the Romans was 
conferred on Charlemagne by Pope Leo III. in 800 A. D., 
and was borne by his successors until the dissolution of the 
Holy Roman Empire in 1806. 

On the 18th of Jan., 1871, King William I. of Prussia 
assumed the title of emperor of Germany at the request of 
all the German princes. Napoleon I. assumed the imperial 
style in 1804, and Napoleon III. in 1852. The latter was 
deposed after the battle of Sedan on the 2d of Sept., 1870. 
After the Greek empire had been divided into two parts in 
1204, the rulers of both parts continued to bear the title of 
emperor, the Latin emperor residing at Constantinople, and 
the Greek emperor at Nicoca. In 1263 the two parts were 
reunited, and in 1328 the Greek empire was again divided 
into the empire of Constantinople and that of Trebizond. 
After the Turks had conquered these empires, the sultans 
assumed the title of emperor, which was recognized by the 
European powers in 1606. Czar Peter I. of Russia assumed 
the imperial title in 1721. After the dissolution of the Holy 
Roman empire in 1806 the rulers of Austria assumed the 
title of emperor of Austria. Outside of Europe there is at 
present only the-empire of Brazil, though the British pos¬ 
sessions in Asia constitute the "Indian empire,” and the 
sovereign of Great Britain has the title of emperor of 
India. Several attempts have been made to establish 
other empires in America, but all have failed. In Mexico, 
Iturbide assumed the title of emperor in 1822, and Maxi¬ 
milian of Austria in 1864. In Hayti the negroes Chris- 
tophe in 1811, and Soulouque in 1849, reigned for a short 
time as emperors, but were soon deposed. The rulers of 
Morocco, China, and Japan are also sometimes called em¬ 
perors. The modern idea of an empire in general seems 
to be a union of states, each with a local government, under 
the protection or political preponderance of one powerful 
state. The personal sovereign of such a state may by con¬ 
quest or election become the emperor, sustaining a special 
governing relation to his own hereditary dominions, and a 
general control as emperor over the confederated, yet sub¬ 
ordinate, states of the empire. But there is a tendency to¬ 
wards a looser use of the term as a mere title of the head of 
a kingdom. 

Emperor Moth (Saturniapavonia minor), the largest 
British lepidopterous insect, is allied to the silkworm moth, 
and belongs to the Bombycidas. Its wings when expanded 
measure three and a half inches, each wing having a largo 
transparent spot. The peacock moth ( Saturnia pavonia 
major) is five inches across the wings, being the largest spe¬ 
cies in Europe. Silk is obtained from cocoons of certain 
species of this genus. 

Em'phasis [Gr. e/u^acn.?, a "setting forth,” from eju.- 
<j)a Aw, to "show;” Fr. emphase], in elocution, the stress laid 
on particular words or syllables in a sentence in order to 
express or enforce an idea or a meaning; sometimes a pe¬ 
culiar impressiveness or earnestness of expression. 

Emphyse'ma [from the Gr. ev, "in,” and firdu, to 
"flow,” to "puff up”], in pathology, an inflation pro¬ 
duced by air or gas in the cellular tissue. Emphysema of 
the lungs is owing to dilatation of the air-vesicles. 

Emphyteu'sis [Gr., from en ," in,” and (/nrrev'w, to "plant” 
or "graft”] is a contract in civil law by which lands or 
tenements are given to be possessed for a long term or for 
ever, and an annual rent ( canon emphyteuticus) in money, 
grain, etc. reserved and made payable to tho grantor, in 
recognition of his paramount title. The granteo acquires 
tho dominium utile or usufruot, while the grantor reserves 
tho dominium directum. Tho Scottish grant in feu-farm is 
















EMPIRE—EMU WREN. 


1547 


similar to the emphyteusis. The word fief is supposed to 
have been derived from emphyteusis. 

Empire. See Emperor. 

Em'pire, a township of Stanislaus co., Cal. Pop. 2993. 

Empire, a township of McLean co., Ill. Pop. 2133. 

Empire, a post-township of Leelenaw co., Mich. Pop. 
450. 

Empire, a post-township of Dakota co., Minn. P. 995. 

Empire, a post-township of Fond du Lac co., Wis. 
Pop. 1055. 

Em'pire Cit'y, a post-village of Clear Creek co., Col., 
is on Clear Creek, about 48 miles W. of Denver. It is sur¬ 
rounded by high mountains. Here are gold and silver 
mines. 

Empire City, a post-township of Ormsby co., Nev. 
Pop. 626. 

Empire City, a thriving post-village, capital of Coos 
co., Or., is on Coos Bay, 130 miles S. S. W. of Salem. Ex¬ 
cellent lignitie coal is exported. 

Empir'ic [Or. ep.nei.puc6';, “experienced;” Lat. empir- 
icits; Fr. empirique ], one whose knowledge or skill is 
founded on experience or experiment. In the time of Cel- 
sus and Galen there was a medical sect called Empirici, 
supposed to have originated with Philinus of Cos and Se- 
rapion. These empirics were opposed to the Dogmatic 
sect or school, and considered that medical science should 
be based on experience rather than theory. They became 
so notorious for ignorance that the term empiric is now gen¬ 
erally applied to quacks and practitioners who are ignorant 
of medical science. In its application to philosophy em¬ 
piric denotes one who depends for truth entirely upon sen¬ 
sual experience, independent of those limitations of the 
mind’s constitution which condition and supplement it. 
Empiricism is a name applied by many of the German 
schools of philosophy to the system which may be called 
that of observation and induction, relying upon phenomena 
which are made evident in consciousness. They apply the 
term to the methods of Locke, Reid, and Stewart, without 
properly discriminating them from the materialists, to whom 
the term, in both ancient and modern times, has been le¬ 
gitimately applied. 

Exnpir'ical Laws are expressions which set forth a 
general relationship in any class of phenomena, without at¬ 
tempting to explain the principle underlying that relation¬ 
ship. The underlying principle may, in fact, be unknown, 
as in the case of Bore’s Law (which see). Bode’s law is 
one of the most remarkable of all the empirical formulas 
known to science. 

Empiricus. See Sextus Empiricus. 

Em'poli, a town of Italy, in the province of Florence, 
is on the river Arno, 16 miles W. of Florence, with which it 
is connected by a railway. It is in a beautiful and fertile 
district, is well built, and has an interesting church, which 
was founded in 1093, and is adorned with paintings by 
Giotto. Here are manufactures of cotton fabrics, straw 
hats, etc. Pop. in 1861, 5805. 

Empo'ria, a post-village, capital of Lyon co., Kan., 
near the Atchison Topeka and Santa Fe It. R. where it 
crosses the Missouri Kansas and Texas R. R., 61 miles S. 
S. W. of Topeka. It is between the Neosho and Cotton¬ 
wood rivers, 6 miles above their junction, in a fine agricul¬ 
tural and stock-raising region. It has a large trade, and 
is one of the best-built towns in the State. It is the seat 
of the State normal school, with a fine large building and 
250 students. It has a court-house, two national, one pri¬ 
vate bank, two newspapers, flouring-mill, furniture, soap, 
and carriage factory. Pop. 2168; of Emporia township, 
1182. Jacob Stotler, Ed. “Emporia News.” 

Emporium, a post-village, capital of Cameron co., Pa., 
at the junction of the Buffalo New York and Philadelphia 
R. R. with the Philadelphia and Erie R. R., 99 miles W. 
N. W. of Williamsport. It has three newspaper offices and 
an important lumber-trade. Valuable salt-wells abound in 
the vicinity. Pop. 898. 

Empyreu'ma [Gr. ipnvpevpa, from epnvpevta, to “kin¬ 
dle”], the odor emitted by animal and vegetable substances 
when they are burned or decomposed by a strong heat. The 
oils obtained by the destructive distillation of organic sub¬ 
stances at high temperatures are called empyreumatic oils. 

Ems (anc. Ami'sia or Ami'sins), a river of Germany, 
rises in Prussian Westphalia, near Paderborn. Its general 
direction is northward. After a course of about 200 miles 
it enters the Dollart, an inlet of the North Sea, near the 
town of Emden. It is connected by a canal with the Lippe. 

Ems, or llad-Ems (i. e. “bathof Ems ”), a celebrated 
watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian province of 


Hesse Nassau, on the river Lahn, about 7 miles S. E. of 
Coblentz. It is surrounded by picturesque scenery, and is 
situated in a beautiful valley among wooded hills. Here 
are warm mineral saline springs, the temperature of which 
varies from 93° to 135° Fahrenheit. It has good hotels, 
and is frequented by many visitors, including English and 
other foreigners. Pop. in 1871, 5458. In 1785 the arch¬ 
bishops of Treves, Mayence, Cologne, and Salzburg formed 
an agreement here, called the “ Punctation of Ems,” in 
which they demanded in twenty-three articles the change 
of several papal privileges in favor of the German arch¬ 
bishops. The real object, however, was the establishment 
of a national German Church. But in consequence of the 
opposition of their own bishops and the firmness of the 
pope, they were compelled to submit to the authority of 
the pope within a year. On July 13, 1870, the French am¬ 
bassador, Count Benedetti, had at Ems the famous inter¬ 
view with King William of Prussia which precipitated the 
outbreak of the great war between France and Germany. 

Em'ser (Hieronymus), a German Catholic theologian 
and adversary of Luther, born at Ulm Mar. 26, 1477. He 
was secretary to George, duke of Saxony. He issued (1527) 
a translation of the New Testament, which he called his 
own, but which is only a copy of Luther’s, with some un¬ 
important verbal alterations. Died Nov. 8, 1527. 

E'mil, or E'meil ( Dromaius Novse Hollandise), a large 

Australian bird, belonging 
to the^Struthionidm and 
allied to the ostrich and 
cassowary. It differs from 
the latter in being taller, 
having the bill horizon¬ 
tally depressed, and in 
; being destitute of the bony 
l_ crest and pendent wattles, 
g When full-grown it is of a 
g brown color, mottled with 
jj gray. Tt has only rudi- 
B mentary wings, but is ex- 
F ceedingly fleet in running. 
The eggs are dark green, 
E mu - and about seven in num¬ 

ber. Both the eggs and flesh are esteemed excellent for 
the table. Its plumage is long and almost hair-like. The 
plumes are readily dyed of various colors, and appear to 
some extent in commerce as a substitute for ostrich feath¬ 
ers. It has become rare in the more settled parts of Aus¬ 
tralia, having been hunted for the sake ot its oil, which the 
skin contains in large quantities. It feeds mostly on fruit, 
herbage, etc., and is easily domesticated. 

Emu Wren ( Stipiturus malachurux), a passerine bird 
of Australia, nearly allied to the wrens of Europe and Amer- 




Emu Wren. 



















1548 EMULSIN—ENAKEA. 


ica. Tho genus includes about a dozen Australian species. 
This bird haunts marshy districts, never alighting on high 
trees, and seldom taking to flight, but run¬ 
ning rapidly about the grass with its long 
tail-feathers erect. It takes its name from 
these feathers, which are six in number, 
and have a real or fancied resemblance to 
the feathers of the emeu. 

Emul'sili ( Synaptase ), an albuminous 
substance found in almonds, which acts as 
a ferment upon the glucoside amygdalin 
of bitter almonds, transforming it into bit¬ 
ter almond oil (hydride of benzoyl), hydro¬ 
cyanic (prussic) acid, and glucose (grape 
sugar). 

Emul'sion [from the Lat. emul'geo , to 
“milk”], the name of a liquid preparation resembling milk 
in color and consistence, and obtained by mixing oil and 
water by means of some other substance, mucilaginous or 
saccharine. Emulsions are useful in pharmacy. 

E'mys [Gr.], a genus of chelonians or fresh-water tor¬ 
toises. They differ from land-tortoises in having the feet 
more webbed and expanded, and the shell of the back more 
flattened. Tho painted tortoise {Emys picta) and alligator 
tortoise (Emysaura serpentina) are abundant in North Amer¬ 
ica. Several species are natives of Southern Europe. DeKay 
makes the genus to include nearly all the fresh-water spe¬ 


The wood terrapin (Emys insculpta), found in the U. S. 
and Canada, is eleven inches long, of a reddish-brown color, 
with radiating lines of yellow. It is found in fresh waters, 
but perhaps oftener in fields and woods. 


with reddish marks, and is red beneath. Its flesh is very 
good. 


The little spotted tortoise {Emys guttata), from five to 
nine inches long, is found throughout a great part of tho 
U. S., is black, with roundish speckles or spots above, and 
is black and yellow beneath. It is sometimes caught on the 
land. 

The salt-water terrapin {Emys palustris) is from five to 
seven inches long, being found in brackish tidal waters and 
salt marshes of our Atlautic coast, especially northward. 
It is one of the most highly prized of the terrapins. It is dug 
out of the mud in winter, when it is very fat, and marketed 
in considerable numbers for table use. Many other terra¬ 
pins are known in tho U. S., especially southward and 
westward. 

Enaliosau'rians [from the Gfr. e^aAio?, “ma¬ 
rine” {iv, “in,” and aA?, the “sea”), and o-aupos, a 
“lizard”], a group of extinct saurians having paddles 
for swimming instead of true feet, and having croco¬ 
dilian teeth and biconcave vertebras like those of 
fishes. Their remains first appear in the carbonifer¬ 
ous rocks, and disappear in the cretaceous, being 
most numerous in the Jurassic strata. They appear 
to have been mostly or all marine. Ichthyosaurus is 
one of the most important of the genera. 

Enam'el [F r. email, from the Late Lat. smal'tum, 
“smalt,” the blue color of enamel], a name given to 
various opaque or semi-opaque glasses used in glaz¬ 
ing or finishing the surface of pottery, iron, and jew¬ 
elry. Common glass fused with oxide of antimony or tin 
becomes a white enamel; oxide of cobalt produces a deep 
blue; manganese, an amethyst; cuprous oxide, a ruby-red; 
cupric oxide, green, etc. The hard external layer of the 
teeth is called “the enamel;” it contains 
a large percentage of oxide of lime. 

Enamelled Leather, leather the 
surface of which is rendered glossy by 
successive coats of linseed oil, and finally 
of a varnish of copal and asphaltum. 
(See Leather.) 

Enamel Fainting, the art of ap¬ 
plying artistic painting to glass, pottery, 
or the metals, most glass-staining at pres¬ 
ent being simply enamel painting. The 
various colors (chiefly oxides of lead, 
platinum, gold, titanium, uranium, chro¬ 
mium, etc.) are mixed with some glass or 
“flux,” ground, made into a paint with 
oil of spike or some other volatile oil, and 
then applied with a soft brush, the outline being usually 
first applied, and then burnt in at a great heat in a glowing 
muffle. Afterwards the outlines are filled up by repeated 
paintings and burnings, different colors requiring different 
treatment. Seme faint idea of the needed 
skill may be formed from the fact that the 
painter has to work not with actual colors, 
but with substances which he knows will 
produce these colors after firing. Never¬ 
theless, delicate shades and shadows can 
be thus produced, and there have been 
many famous and accurate enamellers of 
portraits. This art was well known in 
ancient Egypt and Etruria, and in medi¬ 
aeval times its use, derived from Byzantine 
and Moorish workmen, became common in 
France and Italy. 

Enara, or Enare, a large lake of 
Russia, in Lapland, about lat. 69° N. and 
Ion. 28° E. Area, 1050 square miles. 

Enarea, a country of Africa, in Abys¬ 
sinia, lies S. IV. of Shoa. Its limits have 
not been accurately ascertained. It is 
mostly included between lat. 7° and 9° N., and is inhab¬ 
ited by Gougas. Tho chief exports are ivory, slaves, and 



Spotted Tortoise {Emys guttata), U. S. 

The red-bellied terrapin, common in the New York mar¬ 
kets, is from ten to seventeen inches long, dusky in color, 



Salt-water Terrapin {Emys palustris), salt marshes of Eastern U. S. 



Wood Terrapin {Emys insculpta), U. S. and Canada. 


cies in America, including fifteen or twenty in the U. S. 
They are generally known as terrapins, and many of them 
are prized for the table. Fossil remains of the genus are 
found in the eocene. 



lied-bellied Terrapin {Emys rubriventris), found about New York. 












































































ENARTHROSIS—ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


1549 


Encore, a French word signifying “ again ” or “more/’ 
is commonly used in English theatres and opera-houses as 
an expression of applause, and as a request that the actor 
or vocalist will repeat a part of the performance. The 
French express a similar desire by exclaiming bis (twice). 

En'cratites [Gr. ’E-y^an'rai, the “ self-restraining,” the 
“continent”], a name applied by the Church Fathers to a 
supposed Gnostic sect; though, in the opinion of most mod¬ 
ern critics, the title belongs collectively to many Gnostics, 
but not to any particular sect, representing a principle, 
rather than a community or organization. The Encratites 
were dualistic, and in some instances were hardly Christian, 
so peculiar were their doctrines and practices. They con¬ 
tributed much to the spread of asceticism in the Church. 
Tatian, Marcion, Cassian, Saturninus, and other prominent 
men were reckoned as Encratites. They forbade marriage, 
the eating of flesh, the drinking of wine, and in some cases 
substituted water for wine in the Eucharist. 

En'crinal Limestone, a name given by geologists to 
any limestone which is largely composed of the remains of 
crinoids, but more specifically applied to certain beds in 
the Ilelderberg and Hamilton groups in New York. 

En'crinites (“stone lilies”), the popular name for 
crinoids, radiated animals which form an order in the class 
Echinodermata. The encrinites form many genera and 
species, nearly all of which are fossil. They abound in the 
palaeozoic rocks, and are quite numerous in the inesozoic 
formations. In the present seas they are exceedingly rare, 
until recently only one species (Pentacrinus cajnit Medusre 
of the West Indian seas) being known. The late deep-sea 
dredging expeditions have brought to light two or three 
more. Comatula in its early stage of existence so much 
resembles the encrinites that it was described as a crinoid 
(Pentacrinus Europants), but in Comatula the stem is tem¬ 
porary, in the crinoids permanent. The stem consists of 
disks like button-moulds in form, set in a pile together, and 
in the living animal has some flexibility 7 . It is mostly round 
or pentagonal, and is often finely sculptured on the articu¬ 
lating surfaces.- Each joint of the arms is furnished with 
two cirri or appendages, which the animal uses in capturing 
its prey r . The number of joints in the Pentacrinus Briareus 
is, according to Buckland, about 150,000. Immense num¬ 
bers of these animals lived in the seas of the palaeozoic 
ages. “We may judge,” says Dr. Buckland, “of the de¬ 
gree to which the individual crinoids multiplied among the 
first inhabitants of the sea from the countless myriads of 
their petrified remains which fill so many limestone beds 
of the older formations.” 


coflee, the last of which is cultivated extensively. Capital, 
S ak ka. 

Enarthro'sis, the name given in anatomy to that kind 
of articulation which permits the widest range of motion. 
It is known as the ball-and-socket joint, and is formed by 
inserting the round end of one bone in the cavity of another, 
as in the hip and shoulder. 

Encamp'ment [Fr. campement], the position occupied 
by an army or body of troops, having pitched tents or 
erected huts for temporary lodgings; sometimes the act of 
pitching tents or encamping. Also a name used for the di¬ 
visions of certain secret societies, as the so-called “ Knights 
Templar.” ® 

Encaus'tic [Gr. eyKavuTucr), from KaOcri?, a “burning”], 
a durable species or method of painting which was prac¬ 
tised by the ancient Greeks, and was so called from the 
process of burning the picture when completed. It was 
not developed until the later or more perfect period of 
Greek art. The pictures were executed with wax colors 
(c erse), and finished by the application of a hot iron. The 
effect of an encaustic picture was probably similar to that 
of an ordinary tempera or water-color painting. Both tem¬ 
pera and water-color pictures were polished with a wax or 
encaustic varnish. Encaustic painting has not been prac¬ 
tised with much success or to much extent by the moderns. 

Encaustic Tiles, a variety of tiles used for the floor¬ 
ing of halls, churches, and public and private buildings. 
They were extensively made in the Middle Ages, and were 
then frequently employed for the ornamentation of walls. 
At present figured tiles are also extensively used in mak¬ 
ing flower-boxes for window culture. Encaustic tiles are 
plain or ornamented. Plain tiles are white or colored, and 
are sometimes glazed. They are made by pressing dry clay 
into a mould by powerful hydraulic presses, and afterward 
burning them. Figured tiles are moulded from moist clay, 
and the figures are added to the surface before burning. 
These tiles constitute an excellent though expensive ma¬ 
terial for floors. Fine examples of figured tile floors are 
to be seen in the Capitol at Washington. Holland and 
Belgium had anciently famous manufactures of tiles, but 
at present they are chiefly made in England. 

Enceinte [Fr., from enceindre, to “gird about,” to 
“enclose”], in fortification, signifies the main enclosure or 
the (generally) continuous enclosing line of wall and para¬ 
pet of a fort or fortress. It is the inner boundary of the 
main ditch, and, according to its “trace” or “system,” upon 
which its contour is broken, it distinguishes the character 
of the work as “ bastioned,” “polygonal,” “tenaill6,” etc. 
(See Fortification, by Col. A. H. Brialmont, Belgium.) 

Enchirid'ion [Gr. eyxecplScov, from ev, “in,” and x«P> 
the “hand”], in literature, a brief and useful compilation; 
a manual. An ethical treatise of Epictetus is termed his 
“ Enchiridion.” 

Encho'rial [Gr. ey xcopios, from ir, “in,” and xtopa, 
“country;” that is, belonging to the country, not foreign], 
or Demotic Writing, a cursive or short-hand alphabet 
used in ancient Egypt. It was an abbreviation of the hie¬ 
ratic writing, which was itself an abridged form of the true 
hieroglyphics. Its remains are difficult to decipher. It 
began to come into use about the origin of the twenty-sixth 
dynasty (672-525 B. C.), and was still used in 200 A. D. 
It contained forty-two letters and forty-eight syllabic cha¬ 
racters. It appears on the Rosetta Stone, and was exten¬ 
sively employed even in public documents. Remnants of 
this alphabet appear in the Coptic. 

Encina. See Enzina, de la (Juan). 

Enck'e (Joiiann Franz), a German astronomer, born at 
Hamburg Sept. 23, 1791. lie received a prize for his de¬ 
termination of the orbit of the comet of 1680 (called Hal¬ 
ley’s comet), and published a work entitled “The Distance 
of the Sun” (2 vols., 1822-24). In 1825 he was appointed 
director of the Royal Observatory at Berlin and secretary 
of the Academy of Sciences. He investigated the orbit and 
movements of the comet which Pons discovered in 1818, 
and which is now designated Encke’s comet. In 1830 he 
began to edit the “Astronomische JahrbUcher.” Died Aug. 
26, 1865. 

Enck'e’s Com'et was observed by Pons Nov. 26,1818. 
In 1819, Encke first demonstrated that the same comet had 
been seen as early as 1786, and several times subsequently. 
He also found that its period was about 1200 days (3.303 
years), its successive returns being accelerated and its 
period shortened by a minute interval of time. It has the 
shortest period and the least aphelion distance of all the 
known comets. 

Enclaves [from the Lat. clavis, a “key”] are small 
parts of ono country which are entirely surrounded by an¬ 
other country. 


Encum'brance, or Incumbrance, a burden, impedi¬ 
ment, a hindrance ; in law, a legal claim on an estate, for 
the discharge of which the estate is liable. The term is a 
general name for liabilities by 7 which an estate in lands 
and hereditaments may be burdened, such as mortgages and 
annuities. 

Encyclopaedia [Gr. eyuvsKonatSeCa, the “cycle of learn¬ 
ing,” for ey/cv/cAio? iratSeia, a “curriculum” or “course of 
education ”], or Cyclopa“dia, a treatise containing not 
only definitions, but also some account or description, of the 
principal terms and objects of interest in all departments 
of science, literature, and art. These accounts are some¬ 
times placed alphabetically, the more usual arrangement 
(alphabetical encyclopaedias), or the articles are arranged 
according to subjects (systematic or real encyclopedias). A 
work of this kind which extends over only one department 
of learning is a special encyclopedia. Among remarkable 
works of this class may be mentioned the ancient Greek 
work of Speusippus, the “ Antiquitates ” of Varro, the 
works of A1 Farabi of Bagdad (died 950 A. D.), Vincent 
de Beauvais’s (1268) “Speculum Majus” (published 1473— 
76), Alsted’s (the first German) “Encyclopaedia” (1620), 
the great French “ Encyclopedic ” of Diderot and D'Alem¬ 
bert (1751-72, 28 vols. folio), a classified work excluding 
history and biography; the “Deutsche Encyclopaedia” of 
Koster and Roos (1778-1804), the “Encyclopaedia Brit- 
annica” (1771, 3 vols.; 8th ed. 1853-60, 21 vols.), the 
“ Edinburgh Encyclopaedia” (18 vols., 1810-30), the “ En¬ 
cyclopaedia Metropolitana ” (1815-45, 25 vols.), the “Allge- 
meine Encyclopadie der Wissenschaften und Ivunste,” be¬ 
gun in 1818 by Ersch and Gruber (of which up to 1873 160 
volumes had been published), the “Penny Cyclopaedia" 
(1833-43, 27 vols.), the German “ Conversationslexikon ” 
of Brockhaus (11th ed. 1864-69, 15 vols.), Pierer (5th ed. 
1867 seq., 19 vols.), and Meyer (1839-52; 1st part, 23 vols.; 
2d part, 15 vols.). “ Chambers’s Encyclopaedia” (1861-68, 
10 vols.) was published in Scotland and the U. S. In the 
IT. S. an American edition of the “Dictionary of Arts and 
Sciences” (1815-16, 3 vols.) was the first encyclopaedia 
published. The first important American encyclopaedia 
was the “Encyclopaedia Americana” of Lieber (1829-32, 
















1550 ENCYCLOPAEDISTS—ENDOSMOSE. 


13 vols.); next appeared the “ New American Cyclopmdia ” 
(1858-63). Besides these there were published the “Pop¬ 
ular Encyclopaedia (1869, 50 parts), “ Allibone’s Dictionary 
of American and British Authors” (1870, 3 vols.), Mc- 
Clintock and Strong's “ Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theologi¬ 
cal, and Ecclesiastical Literature” (1st vol. 1867), Schetn’s 
“ German-American Encyclopaedia,” commenced in 1869, 
to be completed in 11 vols., and “ Johnson’s New Illustrated 
Universal Cyclopaedia,” and other works of the kind. 

Encyclopaedists [Fr. Encycloptdistes'], a term applied 
to the French philosophers and skeptics who wrote for the 
famous “ Encyclopedic ” which Diderot and D’Alembert 
edited (28 vols., 1751-72). Among these eminent writers 
were, besides the two editors, Voltaire, Rousseau, Grimm, 
and Helvetius. They were liberal and revolutionary in 
political principles, exercised an immense influence on pub¬ 
lic opinion, and gave a great impulse to the French revolu¬ 
tion. 

Endec'agon, or properly, Hendec'agon [from the 
Gr. ev f “one,” 6e«a, “ten,” and yuvia, an “angle”], a plane 
rectilineal figure of eleven sides. The area of a regular 
or equilateral endecagon is very nearly equal to 9.36564 
times that of the square of one of its sides. 

Endem'ic [from the Gr. eV, “in” or “within,” also 
“among,” and Sijjuo?, a “people”]. A disease is called en¬ 
demic when it is either peculiar to some locality, or, much 
more frequently, when it often occurs in a particular region. 
“ Epidemics ” visit a community for a time, and then disap¬ 
pear. “Endemics” are diseases which are very frequent in 
a community, and which do not disappear after running 
their course. Thus, cholera is epidemic in Europe and the 
U. S., while it is endemic along the lower Ganges. 

Endemic influences are receiving profound study from 
students of medicine and social science. The investiga¬ 
tions deal with climate, topography, geology, water supply, 
personal habits and character, moral, religious, and politi¬ 
cal conditions, and (since the origin of the germ-theory of 
disease) with the study of minute animal and vegetable or¬ 
ganisms. The study of endemic influences has given rise 
to the new science of medical geography. (See Murry, 
“ Noso-Geographie,” 2 vols.; Boudin, “ Traite de Geo¬ 
graphic et de Statistiquo Medicales, et de Maladies Endem- 
iques,” 2 vols., 1857; Sir Ranald Martin, “On the In¬ 
fluence of Tropical Climate;” the “British Army Medical 
Reports,” annual since 1859.) 

En'derby Land, a portion of land discovered by Bis- 
coe in 1831 in the Antarctic Ocean; lat. 67° 30' S., Ion. 
50° E. 

Ender'mic [from the Gr. ev, “in,” and Se'p/xa, the “skin ”] 
Meth'od, a manner of administering medicines formerly 
sometimes employed, by which the skin was made to ab¬ 
sorb the remedy used. In some instances a blister was 
raised, and the medicine—for example, sulphate of mor¬ 
phia—was applied to the blistered surface. This plan, 
though often surprisingly effective, has been superseded 
by the hypodermic method, in which the medicine is in¬ 
troduced under the skin by a small needle-pointed syringe. 

En'dicott (John), colonial governor of Massachusetts, 
was born at Dorchester, England, in 1589. He came to 
America in 1628, and was chosen governor of Massachu¬ 
setts colony in 1644, again in 1649, and was re-elected to 
the same office every year from 1650 to 1665, except in 
1654. He was a bold and energetic man, a zealous Puri¬ 
tan, and intolerant of whatever he considered wrong. Un¬ 
der his administration, from 1659 to 1661, four Quakers 
who refused to obey the laws, which banished them from 
the colony, under pain of death if they returned, were ex¬ 
ecuted in Boston. He died Mar. 15, 1665. 

En'dive [Lat. intu'bum or intybunri], ( Cicho'rium En- 
di'via), a biennial herbaceous piant of the order Com¬ 
posite, cultivated in the gardens of Europe and natural¬ 
ized in the East. Its blanched radical leaves are used as a 
salad. The varieties which have the leaves much curled 
arc preferred. It is a native of Eastern Asia. 

End'less Screw, a piece of mechanism formed by com¬ 
bining the screw with a cog-wheel, or by making a screw 
act on the threads of a female screw sunk in the edge of a 
wheel. The axis of the screw may be either in the plane 
of the wheel or at right angles to it; in the latter case it is 
called the American endless screw. In its mechanical prin¬ 
ciple the endless screw is a combination of the inclined 
plane and the lever. 

Entl'licher (Stephen Ladislaus), an eminent botanist 
and linguist, born at Presburg, in Hungary, June 24, 1804. 
He studied several Oriental languages and the natural sci¬ 
ences. In 1828 he became director of the Imperial Library 
of Vienna. He obtained in 1840 the chair of botany in the 
university of that city. Ho published several works on 
botany, which were splendidly illustrated. Among his 


numerous works are “ Genera of Plants, arranged accord¬ 
ing to the Natural Order” (in Latin, 1836-40), “ Icono- 
graphia Generum Plantarum” (1838), and “Rudiments of 
Chinese Grammar” (1845). He favored the popular cause 
in the revolutionary movement of 1848. Died Mar. 28, 
1849. 

Elidocarcli'tis [from endocardium and the termina¬ 
tion -itis, denoting “inflammation”], an inflammation of 
the endocardium. It is generally of rheumatic character, 
and, though not often immediately fatal, it is a frequent 
cause of organic disease and deformity of the heart and its 
valves. It is frequently associated with pericarditis, and 
its occurrence is one of the results always to be feared in 
rheumatic fever. It is usually attended by pain or discom¬ 
fort about the heart, and is detected by auscultation. It 
produces peculiar murmurs in the heart, the significance 
of which can only be appreciated by the trained physician. 
The disease is very intractable. Sedatives, such as hydro¬ 
cyanic acid, belladonna, aconite, and digitalis, may be use¬ 
ful in acute stages. The alkaline treatment for rheumatism 
is often advantageous. Patients sometimes, though not 
very frequently, entirely recover. 

Endocar'dium [from the Gr. evSov, “within,” and 
KapSia, the “heart”], a name applied to the serous mem¬ 
brane lining the chambers and valves of the heart. 

En'docarp [from the Gr. evSor, “within,” and Kapnos, 
“fruit”], a botanical term applied to the inner coat or 
layer of a fruit, as the stone of the cherry and peach. 

En'dochrome [from the Gr. ecSov, “within,” and 
“color”], the coloring-matter ofplants, especially of the lower 
classes of plants. In the higher classes of plants it is called 
chlorophyll when green, and various modifications of it are 
believed to produce the colors of flowers, of autumn leaves, 
etc. Several theories have been proposed to account for 
these various colors, but none are quite satisfactory. The 
endochrome of the lowest plants has been pronounced by 
some chemists to be identical with chlorophyll, except when 
stained by the presence of iron, etc., as in diatoms. 

En'dogens, or Endogenous Plants'jTrom the Gr. 
eVSoc, “within,” and y eVw, to “be born,” to “grow”], one 
of the primary classes of plants, are sometimes called 
Moiiocctyledonous. All flowering or phsenogamous 
plants are divided into two classes, the endogens and the 
exogens. The former are so called because their steins grow 
by additions to the inside, so that the outer part is the 
oldest and hardest. The stems present no manifest dis¬ 
tinction into bark, wood, and pith, but the woody fibre and 
vessels are in bundles which are irregularly imbedded in 
the cellular tissue. They have no true medullary rays, nor 
proper bark, nor concentric annual rings. The leaves are 
mostly parallel-veined, and sheathing at the base. The 
stems of most endogens produce terminal buds, but no lat¬ 
eral buds, and therefore are unbranched. The stem gen¬ 
erally ceases to increase in thickness at an early stage of 
its growth, long before it attains its full height. In many 
of the grasses the stem is hollow or fistular. The endogens 
of temperate and cold climates are mostly small herbaceous 
plants, as grasses, lilies, and rushes; but in warm climates 
occur numerous endogenous trees, as the palm and pan- 
danus or screw-pine. The embryo of all endogens has a 
single cotyledon, and the plumule has alternate leaves. 
Most endogens have the parts of the flower in threes, and 
the leaves in the vast majority are parallel-veined. 

En'dOr, an ancient village of Palestine, on the northern 
declivity of Little Mount Hermon, 18 miles S. E. of Acre. 

Endorse [from the Lat. in, “on,” and dor'sum, “the 
back”], in heraldry, the smallest diminutive of the pale; 
an ordinary containing the fourth part of a pale. 

Endorse, or Indorse, to write on the back of a 
promissory note or other written instrument; to sanction ; 
to become responsible for (a bill or note). The party who 
endorses is called the endorser. Each endorser is liable for 
the payment of a bill or note in case the drawee or acceptor 
fails to pay, as the case may be, provided that protest is 
legally made in time. 

En'dosmose, or Endosmo'sis [from the Gr. evSov. 
“within,” and to, to “impel”], and Exosmose, to¬ 
gether called Liquid Diffusion, Osmose or Osmotic 
Action, are properties of animal and vegetable membranes 
first observed by Dutrochet (Ann. Chim. Phys., xxxvii. 191), 
and subsequently investigated very fully by Graham. If 
two different liquids or gases which are capable of mixing 
with each other, as water and alcohol, are separated from 
each other by such a membrane as paper, caoutchouc, or a 
bladder, the one liquid being suspended in a bladder in the 
other, the liquid in the bladder will pass through the bladder 
into the other (exosmose), or the liquid without will pass 
into the bladder (endosmose), or both endosmose and exos¬ 
mose will take place at the same time; and in this case the 









EN DO WMENT—ENFIELD. 


1551 


current continues until there is an equal proportion of both 
liquids on cither side of the bladder. These phenomena 
are due to the attraction which the two liquids have for 
each other and for the diaphragm separating them. These 
phenomena are essential to organic life, and perform im¬ 
portant parts in many physiological acts. Advantage is 

chemist m dialysis an(i man y other operations of the 

Diffusion is applied in France and Germany to the ex¬ 
traction of the saccharine juice from beets and to the sepa¬ 
ration of alkaline salts from beet molasses. For the latter 
purpose the “ osmogene ” was devised by Dubrunfaut. 
(Comptea Rendus, lxv. 692. See also Walkhoff’s “ RUben- 



Dubrunfaut’s Osmogene. 


zucker-fabrikant.”) The osmogene consists of a box (B B) 
containing sheets of parchment paper (H H) held in a ver¬ 
tical position by wooden frames with rubber padding (A A). 
A stream of water (M V) flows through the box, filling half 
the spaces between the diaphragms. At the same timo a 
stream of molasses (R V / ) flows through, filling the alternate 
spaces. The alkaline salts diffuse through the parchment, 
purifying the molasses to such an extent that the process is 
a profitable one for the manufacturer. 

Endow'ment, the act of appropriating a fund for the 
support of a charitable institution, a professorship, or a 
college ; also the fund or revenue devoted to such a pur¬ 
pose or permanently appropriated to any object; sometimes 
a gift of nature, an innate faculty or quality. 

Endrod, a village of Hungary, in the county of Bekes- 
Csanad, on the river Kords, 90 miles E. S. E. of Pesth. 
Pop. in 1869, 8714. 

Endym'ion [Gr. ’EvSw/mW], in the Greek mythology, a 
beautiful youth beloved by Diana (Selene), who cast him 
into an everlasting sleep. One tradition represents him as 
a son of Zeus (Jupiter), who gave him immortality and 
perpetual sleep. Some persons suppose that Endymion is 
a personification of the sun or of the plunge of the setting 
sun into the sea. 

En'ema [from the Gr. ivtripu, to “ send in”], a liquid 
substance thrown into the rectum by injection, either as 
medicine or nourishment. 

En'emy [from the Lat. in, negative, and ami'eus, a 
“friend Fr. ennemi; Ger. Feind], one hostile to another; a 
foe, an adversary, an antagonist ; applicable to an individual 
or a nation. Also one who dislikes any individual or cause ; 
a hostile army or force. In international law, the enemy is 
one who has publicly declared war against us, or against 
whom we have made such a declaration. This declaration 
must be made by a duly organized state or kingdom, for 
such a declaration by any turbulent body of men is not 
sufficient. Hostilities having been formally declared, every 
subject or citizen of the hostile nations becomes an enemy 
of the opposing state, and all intercourse or communication 


between the citizens of one hostile state and those of the 
other is unlawful. An enemy cannot, as a general rule, 
enter into any contract which can be enforced in the courts 
of law; except, lor example, when a state permits expressly 
its own citizens to trade with the enemy; and perhaps a 
contract for necessaries or for money to enable the indi¬ 
vidual to get homo might be enforced. An alien enemy 
cannot, in general, sue during the war a citizen of the U. S., 
either in the courts of the U. S. or those of the several 
States. The word enemy, in a still more extended sense, 
includes any of the subjects or citizens of a state in amity 
with the U. S. who have commenced, or who have made 
preparations for commencing, hostilities against the U. S.; 
and also the citizens or subjects of a state in amity with 
the U. S. who are in the service of a state at war with 
them. The Latins had a particular term ( hostis) to denote 
a public enemy, and distinguished from him a private en¬ 
emy by the term inimi'eus. In our language we have but 
one word for these two classes of 'persons. (See Contra¬ 
band, Embargo, Piracy, and War.) 

En' etgy [Gr. evep- yeia, from ev, “ within,” and epyov, 
“work”], in physics, the capability of effecting physical 
changes; that is, of doing work or overcoming resistances. 
It is called actual energy in reference to the work it is 
doing, and potential energy in reference to that which it is 
capable of doing, but has not yet done. A bent spring 
possesses potential energy; the same spring set free exerts 
actual energy. Energy is called visible when motion is di¬ 
rectly perceptible in the moving body; it is called molecu¬ 
lar energy when the motion occurs among the particles of 
a substance, and is not directly perceptible. Visible en¬ 
ergy is called kinetic when it is due to visible motion; the 
kinetic energy of a moving body is equal to the weight in 
pounds multiplied by the square of the velocity, and di¬ 
vided by twice the acceleration due to gravitj r . When a 
body moves to the highest point in its course, its kinetic 
energy is exhausted, or rather converted into potential en¬ 
ergy, whjch is due entirely to advantage of position. As 
kinetic energy decreases, potential energy increases, and 
the sum of the two in any moving body is always the 
same. Molecular energy is due to heat, actinism, chemism, 
electricity, etc. Various machines, such as the steam- 
engine, the telegraph apparatus, etc., depend for their 
action upon the conversion of molecular into kinetic en¬ 
ergy. (See Correlation of Forces.) 

Enfantin (Barthelemi Prosper), a French socialist 
and leader of the Saint-Simonians, was born in Paris Feb. 
8, 1796. He became in 1825 a disciple of Saint-Simon, 
after whose death he and Arnand Bazard were the chief 
priests of the sect. They formed in 1830 an association of 
Saint-Simonians, who had their property in common, but 
they soon disagreed and ceased to co-operate. Enfantin 
assumed the name of the “ Living Law and the Messiah.” 
He wrote several socialist works and advocated “free love.” 
In 1832 he was imprisoned on a charge of corrupting pub¬ 
lic morals. Died May 31, 1864. 

En'field, a town of England, in Middlesex, on the Lon¬ 
don and Cambridge Railway, 10 miles N. of London. Here 
is a large manufactory of small-arms belonging to the gov¬ 
ernment. Pop. 16,053. 

Enfield, a post-township of Hartford co., Conn. It 
contains a settlement of Shakers, and has important manu¬ 
factures. Pop. 6322. 

Enfield, a post-township of White co., Ill., at the cross¬ 
ing of the Springfield and Illinois South-eastern and the 
St. Louis and South-eastern R. Rs. Pop. 2426. 

Enfield, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me., on the 
European and North American R. R., 35 miles from Ban¬ 
gor. Pop. 545. 

Enfield, a post-village and township of Hampshire co., 
Mass. It has important manufactures. It is on Swift 
River and on the Athol and Enfield R. R. Pop. 1023. 

Enfield, a post-township of Grafton co., N. H., 42 miles 
N. W. of Concord, is on the Northern R. R. The United 
Society of Shakers occupy a portion of the* town ; they 
manufacture brooms, tubs, and pails, and raise garden- 
seeds. The three lakes in the town and the beautiful sce¬ 
nery around them make this one of the most delightful 
summer resorts in New Hampshire. There are two hotels, 
two woollen-mills, five churches, and one monthly medical 
journal. It has also manufactures of furniture, flannels, 
leather, lumber, knit goods, carriages, etc. Pop. 1662. 

Eli G. Jones, M.D., Ed. “N. E. E. Medical Journal.” 
Enfield, a post-towr.ship of Tompkins co.,N.Y. En¬ 
field Falls, 230 feet high, are on Ten-mile Creek, and are 
very beautiful. Pop. 1693. 

Enfield, a post-village of Halifax co., N. C., is on the 
Wilmington and Weldon R. R., 18 miles from Weldon and 
144 from Wilmington. It contains several steam saw-mills 














































































































1552 ENFIELD 


and one steam grist-mill. It has one newspaper. There 
is a large wine-manufactory in the vicinity. The principal 
export is cotton ; it ships annually 5000 bales of cotton, 
15,000,000 feet of lumber, 500,000 staves, 3000 bushels of 
early peaches, besides shingles, wine, and brick. A gold¬ 
mine is worked in the neighborhood. Pop. about 500. 

Daniel Bond, Ed. “ Times.” 

Enfield (William), LL.D., an English dissenter and 
writer, born at Sudbury in 1741. He preached in the Uni¬ 
tarian churches of Liverpool, Warrington, and Norwich, 
and published several volumes of sermons and a “ Preach¬ 
er's Directory ” which is highly commended. Amongst his 
other works is a “History of Philosophy” (1791), abridged 
from Brucker’s history. Died Nov. 3, 1797. 

Enfield Rifle-Musket, a variety of small-arms manu¬ 
factured at Enfield, England, at the royal small-arms fac¬ 
tories. During the late civil war the U. S. government and 
the Confederates each purchased large quantities of these 
and other European arms, on account of the difficulty of 
supplyipg the large numbers of troops with the necessary 
weapons. The Enfield rifle, though a very serviceable 
weapon, much better than the Belgian and Austrian arms 
then imported, was in almost every respect inferior to the 
old Springfield (U. S.) rifle-musket, which it much re¬ 
sembles. All these weapons have now given place to vari¬ 
ous breech-loading arms. 

Enfilade [Fr.], a discharge of musketry or artillery 
made in a direction parallel to the length of a line of troops 
or of a line of rampart, so that the shot rakes the whole 
line. A trench or parapet is said to be enfiladed when guns 
are so placed that the shot can be fired into it in a direc¬ 
tion coincident with its length. 

Engadine, or Engadin, an extensive valley in Switz¬ 
erland, canton of Orisons, is about 45 miles long, and has 
an average width of I V miles. The noble Bernina Moun¬ 
tains separate this valley from the Valtelline. It is the 
upper part of the valley of the river Inn, which runs along 
it in a north-east direction between two chains of the Alps. 
The highest part of the valley is 5900 feet above the level 
of the sea. The climate is very cold, and snow and frost 
occur even in July. The valley is divided into the Upper 
and Lower Engadine. There are several glaciers and a 
number of valuable mineral springs. The inhabitants 
number about 12,000, and speak a peculiar Romanic dia¬ 
lect, called Ladin. The people are mostly Protestants. 
The valley is very beautiful, and affords much timber and 
pasturage. The Lower Engadine is well cultivated, but 
less beautiful than the upper valley. The people are a 
pious, simple class of peasantry. The young men are 
known throughout Europe as good confectioners and coffee¬ 
house keepers. They usually amass a competence, and 
return to enjoy their small fortunes in their native valley. 
The government is a pure democracy. The noble Cembra 
pines which adorn this valley are of great value. 

Eng (“right”) and Chang (“left”), the Siamese 
Twins. They were born at Bangesau, Siam, April 15, 1811, 
of a Chinese father and a Chino-Siamese mother, and 
brought to the U. S. in 1829. Since that time they have 
been on exhibition in America and Europe a number of 
times, and died, after having lived, as Eng and Chang 
Bunker, about twenty years in the neighborhood of Mount 
Airy, N. C., in Jan., 1874, the death of Chang preceding 
that of Eng a few hours. They differed in appearance, 
character, and strength more than average twins, per¬ 
formed their physical functions separately, and were ad¬ 
dicted to different habits, Chang being intemperate and 
irritable, Eng sober and patient. Both were married 
and had large families of children, a number of whom died 
young, but none exhibited any malformation. Chang 
received a paralytic stroke in Aug., 1870. He died unex¬ 
pectedly while his brother was asleep, after having been 
affected with an inflammatory disease of the respiratory 
organs. Eng died a few hours afterwards, probably chiefly 
from the influence of the nervous shock on learning the 
sudden death of his brother. They are the best known of 
the “ double monsters ” on record, none others of whom ever 
lived to the advanced age of sixty-three. The “ Hunga¬ 
rian Sisters,” Judith and Helena, who were born in 1701, 
and connected at their sacral regions, lived up to twenty- 
one years of age, and the “Two-headed Nightingale,” two 
mulatto girls of North Carolina, born in 1851. 

The connection of the Siamese Twins took place in their 
epigastric regions, between the navel, Avhich was common 
to both, and the ensiform processes, which were bent out 
in a forward direction and met very closely, held together 
by a ligamentous apparatus. The connecting band was a 
few inches long, after having elongated a little during the 
long life of the twins, and eight inches in circumference 
(two and a half in diameter). It was covered with skin, 
which in the median line had a narrow zone with common 


ENGEL. 


sensitiveness. Inside the skin there was normal subcu¬ 
taneous and muscular tissue, portions of the muscles of 
one crossing those of the other. The interior was occupied 
by the prolongation of the peritoneum in such a manner 
that at the post-mortem examination a hand introduced, 
into the abdomen of Chang entered two pouches reach- 



EDg and Chang (the Siamese Twins). 


ing into Eng, and a hand introduced into the abdominal 
cavity of Eng entered one pouch (lying between the two 
bf Chang’s) which was long enough to be extended into 
the abdomen of Chang. The livers of the twins were lo¬ 
cated in close proximity to the connecting band, and con¬ 
nected with each other by small blood-vessels, which were 
lined with a thin layer of genuine liver tissue. Thus, the 
question whether a separation of the twins by surgical 
means would have been possible, must be answered nega¬ 
tively. The severing knife would have injured the peri¬ 
toneum of both brothers, and resulted in a very dangerous 
(although perhaps not necessarily fatal) inflammation. 
The greatest danger would have resulted, however, from 
the lesion of the short connecting blood-vessels, particu¬ 
larly the vein, and the accompanying liver tissue. Two 
separations, by surgical interference, of “double monsters” 
are on record: one is reported by Konig in 1689, one by 
Boehm in 1866. ( Virchow’s Archiv.) The latter operated 
on his own twin daughters in 1861; one died after three 
days, the other was alive in 1866, at the age of five years. 
In both cases the connection of the twins took place in the 
exact place where the Siamese Twins were attached to each 
other, but the connection was confined to the skin and sub¬ 
cutaneous tissue only. A. Jacobi. 

Engano, an island of the Malay Archipelago, is near 
the S. W. coast of Sumatra. It is over 30 miles in circuit, 
and is rather high and well wooded. Area, 400 square 
miles. The people are of Malay race, and are independent. 
The island has a good harbor, but is mostly surrounded by 
coral-reefs. Lat. 5° 2U S., Ion. 102° 20' E. 

En-gedi [Heb. Eyn Gedi, the “kid's fountain;” the 
modern Ain Jidy of the Arabs], a town several times men¬ 
tioned in the Bible, and also called Hazezon-tamar, alluding 
to its palm trees, which have now disappeared. It stood 
on the W. side of the Dead Sea, at a point about equally 
distant from its N. and S. extremities. Here are found 
some ruins of the old town, which stood in a very fertile 
spot near the fine fountain which gave it a name. There 
are numerous caves in the vicinity. These served as hiding- 
places for King David and his followers in the days of their 
outlawry during the reign of Saul. 

Eng'el (Ernst), a very prominent German statistician, 
born in 1821, became in 1860 director of the statistical 
bureau in Berlin, and presided in 1863 in the International 
Statistical Congress in Berlin. He published the “Zeit- 
schrift des statistischen Bureau” (since 1860), the “ Jahr- 
buch fur die amtliche Statistik des Preussischen Staates ” 
(since 1863), and “ Preussische Statistik” (since 1866). 

Engel (Johann Jakob), a German author of much merit, 
was born at Parchim Sept. 11,1741. He became professor 
of belles lettres in Berlin in 1776. Among his works are 
“Ideen zu einer Mimic” (2 vols., 1785), and “Lorenz 
Stark” (1795), a romance which was very popular. His 


















ENGEL—ENGINE. 


1553 


works are characterized by a refined taste and great ele¬ 
gance of diction. Died June 28, 1802. 

Engel (Joseph), a German anatomist, born in 1816, be¬ 
came professor ot descriptive anatomy at the University 
ot Zurich in 1844, professor of pathological anatomy in 
Prague in 1849, and of descriptive anatomy at the Joseph 
Academy in \ ienna in 1854. lie published, among other 
works, “ Specielle pathologische Anatomic” (1856), “Das 
Kuochengeriist des Menschlichen Antlitzes” (1850), and 
“Compendium der topographischen Anatomic” (1859). 

Eng elberg, a village in a valley of the same name, in 
the canton ot Unterwalden, Switzerland, at the foot of 
Mount Titlis. It is famous for its school, which is con¬ 
nected with a stately Benedictine abbey, Mons Angelorum, 
founded by Pope Calixtus II. in 1120, and rebuilt in 1729. 
It has a good old library and some valuable paintings. 
Here is also a famous cheese-cellar of great extent. 

Engelbert, a voluminous old Benedictine author, was 
abbot ot Admont in Styria, and died in 1331. He was of 
noble birth. Of his numerous works the most important 
was a Homan history, “ De ortu, progressu et fine imperii 
Romani,” published in 1553 and 1603. Several theological 
tractates of his production have been published by Pez, 
with a biography and a full list of his works. 

Engelbert, Saint, a son of Engelbert, count of Berg- 
Geldern, was born in 1185. He became in 1215 elector of 
the empire and archbishop of Cologne, having when twenty- 
two years old declined the bishopric of Munster. He paid 
off the debt of the electorate, enlarged its territories, and 
reformed its administration. When the emperor Frederick 
II. went to Italy, Engelbert was the principal regent in 
Germany. He reformed the corrupt clergy, checked the 
power of the nobles, and zealously advanced that of the 
Church. His energy and rigor made many enemies, and 
he was murdered by his own nephew Nov. 7, 1225. The 
murderer, Count von Isenburg, was broken on the wheel, and 
his accomplices, the bishops of Osnabriick and Munster 
received excommunication. Saint Engelbert is one of the 
characteristic figures of German mediaeval history, recall¬ 
ing Saints Dunstan and Thomas a Becket, but he seems to 
have possessed more zeal for the purity of the Church than 
they showed, and an energy equal to theirs in extending 
its power. His life was written by Caesar of Heisterbach, 
and in recent times by Ficker. 

Engelbrecht (Johann), a German enthusiast, born at 
Brunswick in 1599. He was a tailor’s son, and worked at 
his father’s trade until his health failed. He was liable to 
cataleptic attacks, during which he went for many days 
without food or drink. In 1622 he set himself up for a 
prophet, in all sincerity regarding himself as a divinely- 
inspired teacher. His writings have been in part trans¬ 
lated into English. Though he was quite unlettered, some 
of Engelbrecht’s books, like his addresses, display con¬ 
siderable power and an insight into spiritual things. After 
suffering imprisonment and enduring much obloquy, he 
retired from public life and died in 1642. 

Eng'elmann (George), M. D., a German botanist and 
physician, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main Feb. 2, 1809, 
was educated at Frankfort, Berlin, and Heidelberg, re¬ 
moved to the U. S. in 1832, and settled at St. Louis in 
1835. He founded there a journal called “Das Westland.” 
He is especially eminent for his researches in the Cactacem, 
the dodders, the euphorbias, junci, conifers, and other diffi¬ 
cult departments of botany. He has published various 
monographs on botany and meteorology. 

Eng'elstoft (Christian Thorning), a Danish theolo¬ 
gian, born in 1805, became in 1845 professor of theology at 
the University of Copenhagen, and in 1851 bishop of Fiih- 
nen. He wrote, among other works, a “ Manual of Church 
History ” (1S45). 

Enghien, a town of Belgium, province of Hainaut, 
about 20 miles S. W. of Brussels, with which it is connected 
by railway. It has a superb chateau of the Aremberg fam¬ 
ily a nd manufactures of cotton and linen fabrics. The 
family of Bourbon-C.onde derived from it the title of duke. 
Pop. in 1866, 3852. The great Conde was styled in his 
youth Due d’Enghien. 

Enghien, d’ (Louis Antoine Henri be Bourbon), Due, 
a French prince, born at Chantilly Aug. 2, 1772, was the 
eldest son of the duke of Bourbon. He became an emigre 
in 1789, and joined in 1792 the army of the prince of Conde, 
who was his grandfather. He fought against the French 
republic until 1799. In 1804 he married the princess Char¬ 
lotte of Rohan-Rochefort, and became a resident of Etten- 
heim in Baden. Here he was seized by the order of Bona¬ 
parte, carried to \ incenncs, tried by a military court, and 
shot Mar. 21, 1804, on the pretext that he was an accom¬ 
plice of Cadoudal in a conspiracy against Bonaparte. This 


act excited great indignation, as it is generally believed that 
D’Enghien was not guilty. 

Eli'gine [probably from the Latin ingenium, “natural 
capacity,” “ invention”], a name given to a variety of me¬ 
chanical contrivances designed to apply the forces of na¬ 
ture in performing useful work. In a general sense, tho 
word is often applied to any powerful machine, but its use 
in industry is restricted to prime movers. Here also a dis¬ 
tinction is to be observed. Prime movers of great sim¬ 
plicity, like windmills and water-wheels, arc not called 
engines. Something implying the exercise of ingenuity 
( ingenium ) in the combination of parts and the adaptation 
of means to ends is necessary to entitle a machine to be 
ranked in this class. 

The forces which engines are employed to apply and 
utilize are principally heat, gravity, and electricity. Those 
in which the efficient force is heat, called in general thermo¬ 
dynamic engines, occupy the first rank as it respects their 
industrial value; and among these the class of engines in 
which steam is the vehicle employed to utilize the heat aro 
the most important of all. The varieties of steam-engines 
are almost as numerous as the uses to which they arc ap¬ 
plied ; but in most the elastic force of the steam is employed 
to impart, by direct pressure, a reciprocating rectilinear 
motion to a piston within a cylinder, this motion being 
usually converted into a rotary motion by means of a crank. 
Such is the principle of all the large stationary engines 
used to drive the machinery of factories, foundries, etc., 
and generally of those employed to propel vessels on in¬ 
land waters or on the ocean, or to drag trains upon rail¬ 
ways. Such also is the principle of most of the steam- 
engines used in the minor industries, and of the portable 
engines (called by the French locomobiles) employed in 
agriculture and for miscellaneous purposes. 

The real or supposed disadvantages attendant on the use 
of crank motion have led many inventors to seek a form of 
construction for the engine in which rotary motion should 
be produced by the direct action of steam. Hence there 
has sprung up a very numerous tribe of “rotary engines;”' 
none of which, however, have secured a very general ac*- 
ceptance. (See Rotary Steam-Engine.) A plan of ma¬ 
rine engine bas also been proposed, and perhaps constructed* 
in which the rotary and reciprocating motions are in a cer¬ 
tain sense combined, the piston being a plane passing 
through the axis of the cylinder, around which (axis) It 
vibrates through a considerable arc. The object in this 
case is to economize space, and to keep the heavy parts of 
the engine as low down in the ship as possible. Finally, 
Bishop’s disk engine, another marine engine intended for 
driving propeller screws, employs as a piston a disk, which, 
moving in what may be called an equatorial spherical sec¬ 
tor upon a ball-and-socket joint at the centre of the sphere, 
gives to the polar axis a motion of nutation by which the 
crank is driven. This construction is said to have been 
yery successful. 

The first application of steam to produce a useful effect 
was made by Captain Thomas Savery, a British engineer, 
in a contrivance for the drainage of mines or the elevation 
of water generally, of which he exhibited a model in 1669 
to the Royal Society of London—a contrivance usually but 
improperly called Savery’s engine. This consisted of a 
vessel, or pair of vessels, of metal, ellipsoidal in form, 
called receivers, connected at the bottom by a tube having 
a valve opening upward with the water to be raised, and 
having a pipe descending to the bottom of the receiver 
within, but furnished with a stop-cock at top, which com¬ 
municates upward with the level at which the discharge is 
to take place. In this apparatus, the cock being open, the 
air is first expelled by steam introduced from a boiler; the 
cock being then closed, the steam is condensed by means 
of cold water applied to the surface of the receiver; into 
the vacuum formed by this condensation the water then 
enters by force of atmospheric pressure, lifting the valve; 
the receiver being full, the cock is once more opened, tho 
valve closing spontaneously, and steam is introduced at the 
highest point of the vessel, pressing on the surface of the 
■water, and driving it upward through the discharge-pipe. 
Owing to the small conducting power of fluids for heat 
downward, the temperature of the water is very little 
raised during this operation, and that only near the sur¬ 
face. This contrivance, though very wasteful of heat, 
came into quite general use in England. One of the first 
uses to which the inventor himself applied it was for the 
raising of water to be used by its fall to turn a mill-wheel; 
and it, is said (Encycl. Brit., art. “Steam-Engine ) that 
several engines of this kind were erected at Manchester to 
impel the machinery of some of the earliest cotton-mills 
and manufactories of that district. It should be here ob¬ 
served that tho marquis of Worcester, in his “ Century of 
Inventions,” published in 1663, described a machino iden¬ 
tical in principle with that of Savery, which ho asserts 

















1554 


ENGINEERING. 


that he actually constructed and operated successfully; 
but as no evidence of this remains but his own record, the 
statement is to be received with some hesitation. 

In 1690, Denis Papin, a French physicist (at that time, 
however, curator of the Royal Society of London), devised 
a project—or rather, it may be said, suggested the possi¬ 
bility—of an engine in which the efficient power should be 
the pressure of the atmosphere; this to be brought into 
play by creating a vacuum beneath a piston in a cylinder 
by the explosion of gunpowder or by the condensation of 
steam. Dr. Papin, however, did not follow out his idea. It 
was taken up by two common mechanics, Newcomen and 
Cawley of Dartford, who some years later (the precise date 
of the invention is not preserved) produced a machine 
having a real industrial value, which, under the name of 
Newcomen’s engine, continued to be used, chiefly in the 
drainage of mines, for nearly a century. In this engine a 
vacuum was produced beneath a piston in an upright open 
cylinder by first filling the cylinder with steam, and then 
condensing the steam by the application of cold water to the 
exterior. The downward pressure of the atmosphere— 
about fifteen pounds to the square inch, or a ton to the 
square foot—then caused the piston to descend, dragging 
after it the working-beam of the engine or (in raising 
water) the handle of the pump. Two important improve¬ 
ments were made soon after the introduction of this engine. 
The first was the condensation of the steam by means of a 
jet of cold water thrown into the interior of the cylinder, 
instead of applying water to the surface. The discovery of 
the superior efficacy of this method was the result of an 
accidental leakage, through the piston, of the cold water 
always kept on top to prevent the entrance of air, in conse¬ 
quence of the imperfect fitting of the piston to the cylinder. 
The sudden descent of the piston on the occurrence of a 
free influx of water thus occasioned suggested an arrange¬ 
ment for the purposed introduction of the jet at the proper 
instant, whereby the movements of the engine were greatly 
accelerated. The second improvement consisted in attach¬ 
ing rods to the working-beam, so connected with the cocks 
by which the steam and condensation water were alternately 
admitted to the cylinder as to cause those cocks to be opened 
and closed at the proper moments by the action of the ma¬ 
chine itself. The engine thus became automatic; and this 
most valuable addition to its capabilities of usefulness is 
said to have been made by a boy named Humphrey Potter, 
employed to tend the engine, and charged with the monot¬ 
onous duty of opening and closing these cocks by hand. 
Observing that the opening of one of the cocks was neces¬ 
sary at the beginning of the stroke, and that of the other at 
the end, also that when one was opened the other must be 
closed, he attached strings to the handles of the cocks, and 
so connected them with the beam as to produce the desired 
effects in their proper order. In planning and successfully 
executing this contrivance the youthful inventor had not 
particularly in view the benefit to the world it was capable 
of yielding, but only his own personal relief from an irk¬ 
some task. He designed, therefore, to keep it a secret, in 
order that he might enjoy the liberty it secured him. But 
the very excellence of his invention betrayed him. The en¬ 
gine provided with his attachments immediately began to 
work with a uniformity and regularity unknown before, 
exciting the curiosity of the attendants to discover the 
cause ; so that the secret was brought to light. The name 
given to Newcomen’s engine was not “ the steam-engine,” 
but “ the atmospheric fire-engine.” 

In 1725 appears to have been produced the first engine 
(for the machine of Savery was not properly an engine) 
in which the direct pressure of steam was employed as a 
motive-power. This was invented by one Jacob Leupold, 
whose contrivance embraced a piston in an open cylinder, 
like Newcomen’s, but employed high-pressure steam, not 
only to balance the pressure of the atmosphere, but to drive 
at the same time the piston of a force-pump elevating a 
column of water. 

This was the state of things in regard to thermo-dynamic 
engines when in 1765 the attention of James Watt, a mathe¬ 
matical instrument maker of Glasgow, was called to the sub¬ 
ject, in consequence of his having been called upon to make 
some repairs upon a model Newcomen engine used to illus¬ 
trate the physical lectures of the university of that cUy. In 
the hands of Watt this contrivance completely changed its 
character, and became, in the proper sense of the word, a 
steam-engine. (For the further history of this most import¬ 
ant of the mechanical aids to the industrial progress of the 
world, for a description of the variety of forms which have 
been given to it, and of the accessory apparatus by which 
its efficiency has been improved, and for an account of the 
physical and mathematical theories of its action, we must 
refer the reader to the proper heads, Steam-Engine and 
Heat.) 

Thermo-dynamic engines have been proposed, in which 


ammoniacal gas or the vapor of ether or that of some other 
volatile liquid should be made the vehicle of the thermal 
force. These have been in some instances actually tested, 
but they have never gained a general acceptance. The 
argument urged in their favor has been of course economy, 
but the basis of this economical argument has been greatly 
narrowed by the recognition of the doctrine of the conser¬ 
vation of force as one of the fundamental truths of physical 
science. There remain, nevertheless, certain questions re¬ 
lative to this point still open, which will be found briefly 
discussed in the article Heat. Other forms of thermo-dy¬ 
namic engines, which have secured to themselves a place 
among the aids to industry, are those which employ as a 
direct or indirect source of motive-power the explosive 
force of combustible gases when inflamed in mixture with 
atmospheric air, and those in which the elastic force of 
heated air itself is used to drive a piston. (For descriptions 
and theories of these, see Heat, Hot-air Engine, and In¬ 
flammable-gas Engine.) 

The attempt to make electricity subservient as a motive- 
power to the uses of the arts has been many times made, 
but never with a high degree of success. There is no diffi¬ 
culty whatever about the undertaking, considering it merely 
as a mechanical problem. From the point of view of econ¬ 
omy, however, such attempts will always be failures, unless 
there should be discovered some source of electro-motive 
force less expensive than any now known. (For informa¬ 
tion on this subject, see Electro-dynamic Engines.) 

Hydro-dynamic engines are those in which water is em¬ 
ployed not simply to produce motion by its own gravity, as 
in falling upon an overshot or breast wheel, or by its mo¬ 
ment, as in driving an undershot or flutter wheel, but by the 
hydrostatic pressure of a natural head, or of what may be 
called an artificial head, produced by confining a large vol¬ 
ume of water in a strong cylinder, and compressing it by 
means of a heavily loaded piston in the cylinder. Such 
engines are usually of small dimensions, but work under a 
very high pressure—a pressure sometimes of three or four 
hundred atmospheres. They were originally introduced by 
Sir William Armstrong to control the heavy cranes and 
other lifting machinery used in foundries and were first 
publicly exhibited by him in the great International Expo¬ 
sition of 1851, held in London. In the management of the 
ponderous “ converters ” used in Bessemer steel-works they 
may be said to be indispensable. (See on this subject the 
article Hydro-dynamic Engines.) 

F. A. P. Barnard. 

Engineering. “The engineer is he who, by art and 
science, makes the mechanical properties of matter serve 
the ends of man. In the widest sense, almost every man 
is more or less an engineer. The first man who bridged a 
torrent with a fallen tree had in him something of the en¬ 
gineer; the first man who dug a new channel for a brook, 
the first man who cleared a pathway in the forest, had in 
him something of the engineer; but the title of engineer is 
more properly restricted to those who make the useful ap¬ 
plication of mechanical science their peculiar study and 
profession.” * 

Hence, engineering is the art and science by which “ the 
mechanical properties of matter are made to serve the ends 
of man,” or, as otherwise defined, it is “ the useful applica¬ 
tion of mechanical science” to those ends. 

The branches of science which are applicable to the en¬ 
gineer, says the same eminent authority, “ fall under the 
general head of mechanics; but they are distinct in method 
and application (though not in principle) from astronomi¬ 
cal mechanics, which treats of the motion of the stars, and 
from those parts of physical mechanics which relate to such 
subjects as the transmission of sound and light. They are 
also so far to be kept distinct from pure or abstract me¬ 
chanics that, in treating specially of mechanics as applied 
to engineering, certain fundamental principles are to be 
taken for granted, the demonstration of which forms part 
of the course of natural philosophy. To that course also 
must be left all mechanical problems which are interesting 
in a scientific point of view only, and not practically useful. 

“ The objects to which the science of the engineer relates 
are divided under two heads—viz., Structures and Machines. 

“Strictly speaking, all machines are structures, though 
all structures are not machines; but it is convenient to limit 
the term structures to those combinations of solid materials 
whose parts are not intended to have relative motion, and 
which are thus to be distinguished from machines, whose 
parts are intended to have relative motion and to perform 
work. 

“ The theory of structures is founded on the principle of 
statics, or the science of equilibrium. It is divided into two 
parts, relating respectively to the two requisites of a struc- 


* The late W. J. Macquorn Rankine on “The Science of the 
Engineer.” 













—BM— _ 

ENGINEERS, CORPS OF. 


ture, stability and strength—stability being the power of 
resisting forces tending to overthrow the structure, or to 
derange the parts of which it is made from their proper 
relativ e positions; and strength, the power of resisting 
toroes tending to alter the figures of those parts or to break 
them in pieces. 

“ For example, in a bridge, stability requires certain re¬ 
lations to exist between the distribution of the load, the 
figure of the arch, and the dimensions of the abutments, in 
order to prevent the dislocation of the arch-stones or the 
overthrow of the abutments; and strength requires the 
arch to be ot a thickness sufficient to resist the tendency to 
crush it. 

“ I n appJying the principles of stability and strength to 
structures, regard must be had to the special properties of 
the materials employed, whether earth, stone, bricks, cement, 
timber, iron or other metals, as well as to the kind of work¬ 
manship to which each material is subjected, and the forms 
in which it is used. 

“ The end to be aimed at in every scientifically designed 
structure is to adjust exactly the position, form, and size 
of the whole, and of each part, to the forces which it has to 
sustain. The more nearly this end is attained, the better 
will the structure be, not only in efficiency, durability, and 
economy, but also in beauty. This, independently of orna¬ 
ment, is the fundamental principle of beauty in architec¬ 
ture as well as in engineering. 

“ The theory of machines is founded on the principles 
of cinematics, or the science of motion considered in itself, 
.and on those of dynamatics, or the science of the relations 
between motion and force. 

“ Pure mechanism is the name which has been given to 
the cinematical part of the theory of machines, or that 
which takes into consideration their action in transmitting 
and modifying motion only, without regard to the force 
which is at the same time transmitted. As examples of its 
application may be cited parallel motion, the arrangement 
and proportioning of wheels, and 'the correct shaping of 
their teeth. The science of pure mechanism has of late been 
brought to a very complete state, and reduced entirely to 
the consequences of one general principle. 

“The dynamical part of the theory of machines considers 
them as transmitting at once both motion and force, or per¬ 
forming work. It treats of the resistances, whether from 
solids or fluids, which impede the action of machines, the 
means of regulating that action, and the nature of the 
sources of motive-power, whether animal strength, the 
gravitation of water, the currents of the air, or the me¬ 
chanical action of heat. The entire theory of the work of 
machines is founded on one principle, that of the conserva¬ 
tion of energy. 

“ Machines have further to be considered with reference 
to their strength, or capacity for sustaining without injury 
the forces which they transmit. 

“ The term civil engineering is applied to a wide and 
somewhat indefinite range of subjects, but it may be defined 
as embracing those applications of mechanics, and of the 
arts of construction generally, which belong to lines of 
transport for goods and passengers, whether roads, rail¬ 
ways, canals, or navigable rivers; to works for the convey¬ 
ance of water, whether for drainage or water-supply; to 
harbors and works for the protection of the coast. All 
these kinds of works are combinations of structures and 
machines ; they comprise structures —in earthwork, as cut¬ 
tings, embankments, and reservoirs; in masonry, timber, 
and iron, as bridges, viaducts, aqueducts, locks, basins, 
piers, and breakwaters; they comprise machines —such as 
carriages and locomotive engines, lock-gates, sluices, and 
valves, pumping steam-engines, and dredging-machines. 
Their principles, therefore, consist to a great extent of the 
general principles of construction and machinery, combined 
and adapted to suit the circumstances of each kind of work. 

“ But civil engineering has besides some principles pecu¬ 
liar to itself. It involves the art of laying out lines of trans¬ 
port and selecting the sites for works in the best manner 
possible with reference to the features of the country, so as 
to secure economy in execution and working. Hydraulic 
engineering involves the laws of rainfall and of the supply 
and the flow of streams; and the engineering of coast- 
works requires a knowledge of the action of the waves and 
tides.” 

In addition to the above, geology and mineralogy, chem¬ 
istry in so far as it relates to the treatment of metals and 
of building materials, botany and vegetable physiology 
with special reference to timber trees, are indicated as 
departments of science which every engineer would do 
well to study. 

An art or science which makes the mechanical properties 
of matter serve the ends of man embraces also military en¬ 
gineering, of which the object is the application of these 
properties to the operations of war. In a technical sense, 


1555 


military engineering is more restricted, and embraces forti¬ 
fication, whether permanent or temporary, and its auxil¬ 
iaries, such as floating obstructions and torpedoes for harbor 
defence; the works of attack or defence of fortresses, or, in 
other words, sieges, both active and passive; the construc¬ 
tion and the laying of military bridges; reconnaissances 
and surveys for military purposes, including the operations 
of armies in the field; the works of field fortification, 
whether lines for the holding of extensive areas of the the¬ 
atre of Avar, or those transient works ( fortifications impro¬ 
vises) by Avhich troops are protected in line of battle; and 
in general, if Ave make the distinction Avhich has already 
been made in another place, it embraces the constructions 
for military purposes as distinguished from warliko ma¬ 
chines, though perhaps the line is not so sharply drawn as 
in civil engineering. Military engineering, among all the 
great military powers of the world at the present day, is 
made the special subject of study, as distinct from other 
branches of the art of war; but the exercise of its func¬ 
tions is committed to special military organizations called 
“corps of engineers,” or its equivalent. (For more particu¬ 
lar information on this subject consult “The Royal En¬ 
gineer,” by Sir Francis B. Head; Heydt, “ Recherches sur 
l’organisation du Corps du G6nie en Europe;” and Allent, 
“Histoire du Corps du Genie.”) 

In a more general sense, military engineering embraces 
also artillery, gunnery, military pyrotechny, transportation, 
including vehicles, railways (especially their repair and 
preservation, and the renewal of destroyed bridges in war), 
and in general all those branches of civil engineering Avhich 
are involved in the foregoing. 

Another great department of engineering science is that 
Avhich relates to the extraction of metallic ores, coal, and 
other valuable minerals from the earth. Its general prin¬ 
ciples are those of civil engineering, but the circumstances 
under Avhich they are applied impose the necessity of ma¬ 
terially modifying the methods. Mining engineering may 
be said, then, to embrace the methods of underground sur¬ 
veys, Avhich in many respects differ from those on the sur¬ 
face ; the proper modes of reconnoitering, reaching, and 
attacking mineral deposits; drifting galleries, sinking 
shafts, and timbering and Availing the same; the ways and 
means of interior transportation; methods of hoisting in 
shafts or slopes; the construction of engines for lifting 
minerals or miners, and of pumps for the extraction of 
mine water; and, finally, the proper ventilation of under¬ 
ground works. It describes the miner’s methods of attack 
in detail, the dangers which he has to encounter, and his 
means of precaution and defence; and further treats of the 
mechanical preparation or milling of ores, and of those con¬ 
structions in the open air which are part of the plant of a 
mine, but which are operations referable to civil engineer¬ 
ing and building. 

(For more particular information in regard to special 
branches of engineering science, see Aqueduct, Artil¬ 
lery, Breakwater, Bridge, Dock, Dynamics, Fortifica¬ 
tion, Gunnery, Harbor, Hydro-dynamics, Jetty, Light¬ 
house, Machinery, Mensuration, Mining, Navigation 
(Inland), Ocean Navigation, Railway, Road, Ship¬ 
building, Thermo-dynamics, Tunnel.) 

J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Engineers, Corps of. Among all modern nations 
assuming to be military powers, the engineering service is 
organized into separate corps (see Engineering), and for 
the training of Sieves for service in them, special military 
.schools are generally provided. (For information as to the 
organization of these corps see Heydt, “ Recherches sur 
l’organisation du Corps du Genie en Europe.”) In the 
U. S. the existing Corps of Engineers owes its origin to the 
act of Congress of Mar. 16, 1802, by which the President 
was authorized to organize and establish a Corps of En¬ 
gineers, which was (ultimately) to consist of 1 colonel, 1 
lieutenant colonel, 2 majors, 4 captains, 4 first lieutenants, 
4 second lieutenants, and a limited number of cadets (i. e. 
the total number not to exceed 20); and it was further pro¬ 
vided, that the said corps, when so organized, shall be sta¬ 
tioned at West Point in the State of New lork, and shall 
constitute a Military Academy ; and the engineers, assistant 
engineers, and the cadets of the said corps shall be subject 
at all times to do duty in such places and on such service 
as the President of the U. S. shall direct. Thus, by their 
common organic law the Corps of Engineers and the Mili¬ 
tary Academy were identical. The 63d Article of W ar 
(April 10, 1S06) says: “The functions of the engineers 
being generally confined to the most elev'ated branch of 
military science, they are not to assume, nor are they sub¬ 
ject to be ordered on, any duty beyond the line of their 
immediate profession, except by the special order ol the 
President of the U. S.,” etc. 

Most of the officers of the newly-created Corps were soon 
called to duties along the seaboard in constructing our for- 












1556 


ENGINEERS IN THE U. S. NAVY—ENGLAND. 


tifications, while, as the wants of the service and of the 
Academy have become more clearly recognized, the number 
of cadets has been increased, to supply not only the En¬ 
gineers and Artillery, but officers of all arms of the service; 
and the various professorships and departments of instruc¬ 
tion now existing have been established at the Academy. 

In 1838 (July 5) the Corps was increased to number 
' forty-seven officers, and at the same time a corps of Topo¬ 
graphical Engineers of about the same number (engineers 
under the designation having been before authorized) was 
organized. In. 1846 (May 15) a company of “sappers, 
miners, and pontoneers” was authorized to be “attached 
to and compose a part of the Corps of Engineers, and be 
officered by officers of that corps, as at present organized; 
they shall bo instructed in and perform all the duties of 
sappers, miners, and pontoneers, and shall aid in giving 
practical instructions in these branches at the Military 
Academy,” etc. With some slight changes these corps were 
thus constituted at the commencement of the civil war. In 
1861 three additional companies of engineer soldiers were 
authorized by Congress, which, with that already existing, 
were styled the “ battalion of engineers;” and a company 
was also organized for the Corps of Topographical Engineers. 
In 1863 the latter corps was abolished, and its officers 
merged with the Corps of Engineers, the organization of 
which, as confirmed by the peace establishment of 1866, is 
one Chief of Engineers, with the rank, pay, and emoluments 
of a brigadier-general; six colonels, twelve lieutenant- 
colonels, twenty-four majors, thirty captains, and twenty- 
six first and ten second lieutenants. Under this organiza¬ 
tion the Corps of Engineers, embracing its commissioned 
officers and companies of sappers, miners, and pontoneers, 
constitutes a special arm of the service, and is charged with 
all duties relating to the selection, purchase, and survey of 
the sites, and the plan, construction, and repair of all forti¬ 
fications, whether permanent or temporary, and their care 
when not garrisoned; with all channel and river obstruc¬ 
tions, including torpedoes, required for coast defence; with 
all works for the attack and defence of places; with all fixed 
and movable bridges for the passage of rivers; with all lines, 
redoubts, intrenched camps, bridge-heads, etc. required for 
the movements and operations of armies in the field; and 
with making such reconnaissances and surveys as may be 
required for these objects. It is also charged with the sur¬ 
vey, plan, and construction of harbor and river improve¬ 
ments ; with military and geographical explorations, recon¬ 
naissances, and surveys, including the geodetic survey of 
the lakes; and with all engineer duties, confided to other 
departments than that of war, which may be specially as¬ 
signed to the corps by acts of Congress or orders of the 
President of the United States. 

By act of Congress of July 12, 1866, the Superintendency 
of the Military Academy, which had still been confined to 
the corps, was opened to all arms of the service; and at 
that date the intimate connection between the academy and 
the corps with which it was originally identified may be 
said to have terminated. The Corps of Engineers may truth¬ 
fully be said to have made a record worthy of its title. As 
the Military Academy, it has been the “nursing father” 
of the U. S. army. Among its chiefs and superintendents 
we find in Williams, Swift, Armistead, Macomb, Totten, 
Thayer, etc. names identified with our military history, and 
conspicuous for their services in the field as well as in 
loeace. During the Mexican war its officers rendered con¬ 
spicuous services, recognized and mentioned by Generals 
Scott and Taylor, while in our civil war the names of 
Meade, McClellan, Halleck, McPherson (killed), Humph¬ 
reys, Eosecrans, Meigs, Gillmore, Cullum, Benham, War¬ 
ren, Woodbury, Tower, Wright, Newton, Alexander, Fos¬ 
ter, Morton (killed), Franklin, W. F. Smith, Michler, Parke, 
Abbot, Poe, Duane, Comstock, Weitzel, Reese, Babcock, 
Cross (killed), O’Rorke (killed), John R. Meigs (killed), 
Michie, etc. stood conspicuous; and some of the ablest of 
the Confederate officers, Lee, Beauregard, J. E. Johnston, 
etc., had been officers of the corps. In its services to sci¬ 
ence it claims the Academy, the great superintendent of 
which, Sylvanus Thayer (recently deceased), is with justice 
styled the “ father of the Military Academy.” The names of 
Bache, Bailey, Davies, Bartlett, Church, Mahan, Web¬ 
ster, Mitchell, Norton, F. II. Smith, Ewell, etc. are evi¬ 
dences of its influences upon science and educational insti¬ 
tutions. In the development of the country by works of 
civil engineering it has had no insignificant share, and the 
names of J. G. Swift, Long, McNeill, W. II. Swift, Totten, 
Abert, Douglass, Turnbull, etc. are among those of the 
fathers of American engineering. Finally, in its own pe¬ 
culiar sphere, the devising and constructing of our great 
system of sea-coast defences (of which it may be said to be 
the first to lay down principles, as distinct from those of 
the somewhat pedantic art of “fortification” of the text¬ 
books), and in its numerous works of harbor and river im¬ 


provement and in the Delaware Breakwater, it has erected 
enduring monuments of its services. 

J. G. Barnard, U. S. A. 

Engineers in the U. S. Navy arc non-combatant 
commissioned officers who have charge of the machinery 
of steam vessels. Engineers arc not only required to be 
practically acquainted with the management of nautical 
steam-machinery, but they must be good mechanics, capable 
of superintending necessary repairs; and they are further 
required to have acquaintance with the physical properties 
and powers of steam, and with the collateral departments 
of science. There are first and second assistant engineers, 
who are also commissioned officers. 

England [Lat. Anglia; Fr. Anglcterre; Ger. England], 
the southern and larger division of the island of Great Brit¬ 
ain, and the principal member of the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland. All that belongs to the United 
Kingdom at large, its geography and statistics, as well as 
its history from the time when the permanent union of Scot¬ 
land Avith England and Ireland united the three countries 
into one empire, will be treated of under the head of Great 
Britain, while in this article we shall confine ourselves to 
what is peculiar to England and to its history up to the 
time of the union. 

England is bounded on the N. by Scotland, E. by the 
German Ocean, S. by the Straits of Dover and the English 
Channel, S. W. by the Atlantic, and W. by St. George’s 
Channel and the Irish Sea. It is situated between lat. 49° 
57' 30” and 55° 47' N., and Ion. 1° 46' E. and 5° 41' W., 
the greatest length N. and S. being 400 miles, and the 
greatest breadth 2S0 miles. In shape it resembles a triangle, 
of which Berwick may be considered the apex, and a line 
from the Land's End to the North Foreland the base. The 
sea-coast, if measured from one headland to another, is 
about 1200 miles; if the principal indentations are followed, 
about 2000 miles. The area amounts to 58,320 square miles, 
of which 7397.6 belong to Wales and 50,922.4 to England 
proper. Taken by themselves, England and Wales are more 
densely populated than any other European country except 
Belgium, the average population of a square mile amount¬ 
ing to 389. Since the beginning of the present century the 
population has increased about 150 per cent. It amounted 
in 1801 to 8,892,536, in 1831 to 13,896,797, and in 1871 to 
22,704,108. Since the days of the great Alfred the country 
has been divided into counties or shires, and these again 
generally into hundreds, and always into parishes. The 
northern counties are divided into wards, instead of hun¬ 
dreds; Kent and Lincoln, into lathes and sokes; and York, 
into ridings, each of Avhich is regarded as a county by itself. 
The following table exhibits the area in statute acres (640 
acres = 1 square mile) and the population of each of the 
fifty-two counties at the date of the census of 1871: 

England. 


England. 

Counties or . 

Shires. Acres. 

Bedford. 295,582 

Berks. 451,210 

Buck’gham. 466,932 
Cambridge. 525,182 

Chester. 707,078 

Cornwall.... 873,600 
Cumb’land. 1,001,273 

Derby. 658,803 

Devon. 1,657,180 

Dorset. 632,025 

Durham. 622,476 

Essex. 1,060,549 

Gloucester.. 805,102 

Hereford. 531,823 

Hertford.... 391,141 
Hunt’gdon.. 229,544 

Kent. 1,039,419 

Lancaster... 1,219,221 
Leicester.... 514,164 

Lincoln. 1,775,457 

Middlesex... 180,136 
Monmouth. 368,399 

Norfolk. 1,354,301 

N’thampton 630,358 
Northum¬ 
berland.... 1,249,299 
Nottingham 526,076 

Oxford. 472,717 

Rutland. 95,805 

Salop. 826,055 

Somerset. 1,047,220 

S’thampton. 1,070,216 
Stafford. 728,468 


Pop. in 
1871. 

146,256 

196,445 

175,870 

186.363 
561,131 
362,098 
220,245 
380,538 
600,814 
195,544 
685,045 
466,427 
534,320 

125.364 
192,725 

63,672 

847,507 

2,318,904 

268,764 

436,163 

2,538,882 

195,391 

438,511 

243,896 

386,959 

319.956 

177.956 
22,070 

248,064 

463,412 

543,837 

857,333 


Acres. 


Counties or 
Shires. 

Suffolk. 947,681 

Surrey. 478,792 

Sussex. 936,911 

Warwick ... 563,946 

Westmore¬ 
land.. 485,432 

Wilts. 865,092 

Worcester... 472,165 

York (East 

Riding) 768,419 

“ (City) 2,720 

“ (North 

Riding) 1,350,121 
“ (West 

Riding) 1,709,307 

Tot. of Eng..32,590,397 21,487,688 
Wales. 


Pop. in 
1871. 

348,479 

1,090,270 

417,407 

633,902 

65,005 

257,202 

338,848 

269,505 

43,796 

291,589 

1.831,223 


Total of England and Wa 


Anglesey.... 193,453 

Brecon. 460,158 

Cardigan.... 443,387 
Carmarthen 606,331 
Carnarvon.. 370,273 

Denbigh. 386,052 

Flint. 184,905 

Glamorgan. 547.494 
Merioneth... 385,291 
M’tgomery.. 483,323 
Pembroke... 401,691 
Radnor. 272,128 

Total Wales 4,734,486 1,216,420 

es.37,324,883 22,704,108 


50,919 

59,904 

73,488 

116,944 

106,122 

104,266 

76,245 

396,010 

47,369 

67,789 

91,936 

25,428 


During the last twenty years the urban districts have 
groAvn much more rapidly in population than the country 
districts; and while in 1851 the population of 141 districts* 
and 57 sub-districts, Avhich included the chief toAvns, Avas 
9-,155,904 to 8,771,645 of the rural districts, which contained 
the small towns and the rural parishes, the population of 
the former had in 1871 risen to 12,900,297, against only 





























































ENGLAND. 


1557 


9,803,811 of the latter. No country of Europe has so large 
a number of populous cities as England. Loudon, with its 
more than 3,000,000 inhabitants, contains one-fourth of the 
? n “™ urb ,“ h°P ulat i ori °f the country, which, besides, had 

innAnn®\ 0 5 her towns with a Population of upwards 
ot 100,000 inhabitants—namely, Liverpool, Manchester, 
irmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, Bradford, Newcastle- 
on-lyne, Saltord, Hull, and Portsmouth. The number of 
births in 1871 was 797,143; of deaths, 515,000 ; of mar¬ 
riages, 190,000. The proportion of male to female children 
born is as 104,811 to 100,000; the equilibrium between the 
sexes is restored about the tenth year of life, and is finally 
c anged, by emigration, war, and perilous male occupations, 
to the extent that there are in all about 100,000 women to 
95,000 men in England and Wales. 

. England and IV ales have their own State Church, which 
is difteientfrom the State Church of Scotland, while Ireland 
at present has no State Church at all. The sovereign of 
England is by law the supreme governor of the Church of 
England, possessing the right to nominate or to appoint to 
the vacant archbishoprics and bishoprics. The Church has 
in England 2 archbishops, 26 bishops, and about 12,000 
parishes. No information concerning the membership of 
the Church of England, or any other religious denomination 
of England, is given in the official censuses of 1861 and 
1871. The estimates of the population connected with the 
Established Church differ from 12,700,000 (Martin, “ States¬ 
man’s Manual” for 1873) to 17,781,000'(Ravenstein, “ De¬ 
nominational Statistics of England and Wales,” London, 
1870). The number of Roman Catholics is estimated at 
from 2,000,000 (Martin) to 1,058,000 (Ravenstein). The 
entire number of sects having places registered for the per¬ 
formance of divine worship was, on Oct. 1 , 1872, 125, and 
the entire number of registered places of worship, 18,996. 

History .—England was undoubtedly known to the Phoe¬ 
nicians, Carthaginians, and Massilians, all of whom are 
supposed to have traded with it; but its real history does 
not begin until the establishment of the Roman rule by 
Caesar in 55 B. C. The rule of the Romans, who called the 
present island of Great Britain Britannia, lasted till the 
beginning of the fifth century, when they withdrew. (See 
Britannia.) In consequence of the inroads of the Piets 
and Scots from the north, and the quarrels of the British 
chiefs among themselves, the country appears to have soon 
become a prey to complete anarchy. A British prince of 
Kent, Vortigern (Gwrtheyrn), is said to have been the first 
to secure the aid of two Saxon chiefs, commonly called 
Hengist and Horsa, in his struggles against the northern 
invaders. The statements as to the first appearance of the 
Saxons in England are conflicting and untrustworthy, and 
even the names of their leaders are considered by some his¬ 
torians as fabulous. Certain it is, that in the course of about 
130 years the Saxons, Jutes, and Angles completed the con¬ 
quest of the greater part of England, establishing three 
Saxon kingdoms (Sussex, Wessex, and Essex), one Jutish 
(Kent), and four Anglian (Bernicia, Deira, East Anglia, 
and Mercia). The British maintained for a somewhat 
longer period five states (Strath-Clyde, Cumbria, North 
and South Wales, and Cornwall). Egbert, king of Wessex, 
is commonly believed to have become about 830 the first 
king of all England. During his reign the invasions of the 
Danes began, who for a period of twenty-four years (1017— 
41) became masters of the kingdom. In 1041 the crown 
again devolved on an Anglo-Saxon prince, Edward the 
Confessor, but his authority was little more than nominal, 
six powerful earls, Danes and English, dividing the country 
between them. At his death, in 1066, Harold, earl of Wes¬ 
sex, seized the throne by force, but in the decisive battle of 
Hastings (Oct. 14, 1066) against another claimant to the 
throne, William, duke of Normandy, he was defeated and 
killed. With the reign of William, surnamed “the Con¬ 
queror,” a new era of English history begins. The lands 
were divided into 60,000 knights’ fees or estates among the 
followers of the Conqueror as feudal lords, and thus on the 
solid basis of extensive landed estates the firm foundation 
was laid of a powerful aristocracy, which amidst the social 
revolutions of centuries has more successfully defended its 
ascendency than that of any other country of Europe. The 
population of England at this time appears to have been 
from 2,000,000 to 3,000,000, and about 100 boroughs were 
governed by municipal customs or under the protection of 
the kings, nobles, or prelates, from whom in after times 
they purchased their franchises. In the course of time the 
distinction between the Norman conquerors and the con¬ 
quered Saxons passed away, and from their union arose 
. the English people as it now exists. The Norman line 
* gave to England only three kings—William I. and his two 
sons, William II. and Jlenry I. The death of the latter in 
1135 was followed by a war of succession between Stephen 
of Blois, his nephew, and his only daughter, Matilda, who 
was married to Geoffrey of Anjou, in 1155 the son of 


Matilda, Henry II., was generally recognized as king of 
England. He was the founder of the house of Plantagcnet, 
which in direct line ruled in England until 1485. Henry 
possessed, besides England, the provinces of Anjou, Tou- 
raine, and Maine in France, to which he added Guicnne 
and Poitou by marriage and Brittany by conquest. Ho 
conquered Ireland in 1171, and by the Constitutions of 
Clarendon in 1164 curtailed the privileges of the Church, 
but was forced, in consequence of tho assassination of Arch¬ 
bishop Becket, to make his peace with the Church. He 
was in 1189 succeeded by his eldest son, Richard I. (“ Coeur 
de Lion”), who distinguished himself in the Crusades, but 
could not prevent the nobility from increasing their power at 
the expense of the crown. The reign of his younger brother, 
John (“ Lackland,” 1199-1216), is one of the most inglorious 
in the English annals. He lost nearly all the possessions of 
the English sovereigns in France, and in 1213 consented to 
hold the English crown as a gift from Rome. His weak¬ 
ness, however, had some good results for the people of Eng¬ 
land. The separation of the Normans of England from those 
of France hastened the consolidation of the English nation ; 
and when involved in disputes with the pope, he had to 
conciliate the barons, who were backed by the people, by 
the concession of the celebrated Great Charter (Magna 
Charta ), signed at Runnymede in 1215. The chartei; se¬ 
cured to the English people, in advance of any other peo¬ 
ple of Europe, two great rights—that no man should suffer 
arbitrary imprisonment, and that no tax should be imposed 
without the consent of the council of the nation. When 
John showed an unwillingness to carry out some of his 
promises, the barons called Louis of France (son of the 
king, Philip Augustus) to their aid, who conquered a 
large portion of the country, but was Compelled, soon 
after the death of John (Oct. 17, 1216), to make peace 
and renounce the project of annexing England to France. 
But while the national pride of the English people suc¬ 
cessfully prevented its subjection to France, anarchy rap¬ 
idly increased during the reign of John’s son, Henry 
III. (1216-72). As Henry at the death of his father Avas 
only a boy of nine years, the government was carried on 
first by the earl of Pembroke/and after his death by Hu¬ 
bert de Burgh and the bishop of Winchester, neither of 
whom was able to check the demands of the nobility for 
greater power. When Henry assumed the government 
himself, an open war with the barons soon broke out, who 
extorted from the king an enlargement of the Great Char¬ 
ter, and in 1264 took him and his eldest son, Edward, cap¬ 
tives. The next year the first English Parliament was 
convened by the leader of the rebels, the earl of Leicester; 
but soon Prince Edward, who had been set free, broke the 
power of the barons in the battle of Evesham, in which the 
earl of Leicester fell, and restored the authority of the king. 
Henry deemed it, however, best to pursue a conciliatory 
policy, and in particular to confirm the Great Charter. 
Edward I. (1272-1307) had sufficient energy and statesman¬ 
ship to put an end to the confusion into Avhich the country 
in the latter years of his father’s reign seemed to relapse, 
and considerably promoted the consolidation of the king¬ 
dom. He conquered in 1283 the last prince of Wales, 
and united this country, Avhich thus far had been semi¬ 
independent, for ever Avith England, conferring on his eld¬ 
est son the title of prince of Wales, Avhich has ever since 
been borne by the eldest son of the English sovereign. 
He obtained a decisive victory over Scotland in the battle 
of Falkirk (1299), but under the leadership of Wallace, 
Comyn, Fraser, and Bruce the Scotch saved their independ¬ 
ence. In a Avar with France the last English possession on 
the Continent, Guienne, Avas lost, but it Avas restored through 
the mediation of the pope. For the development of the 
English constitution his reign Avas of the greatest import¬ 
ance, as the council of the realm assumed a form resembling 
that of the modern Parliament by the separation of the 
greater barons from the tenants in chief, the latter ceasing 
to be summoned to Parliament, and being present only 
through their representatives. The first sitting of the Com¬ 
mons in a separate chamber took place in 1295, and in tho 
folloAving year the famous statute Avas passed that no man¬ 
ner of tax should be imposed Avithout the common consent 
of the bishops, barons, and burgesses of the realm. Ed- 
Avard II. (1307—27) lost the footing which his father had 
gained in Scotland, and was finally dethroned by the prel¬ 
ates and nobles, who assumed the power of a Parliament. 
The reign of his son, Edward III. (1327-77), is regarded 
as one of the most brilliant periods of English history. 
His claim to the throne of France involved him in a Avar 
which, with few interruptions, lasted trom 1337 to 1374, 
and Avhich, notwithstanding the brilliant English victories 
of Crcssy (1346) and Poitiers (1364), finally led to the sur¬ 
render by the English king of all the English possessions 
in France, except Bordeaux, Bayonne, Calais, and a dis¬ 
trict of Gascony. The great expenditures required by the 
















15o8 


ENGLAND. 


war made the king dependent on his Parliament, which 
henceforth was directed by statute to be summoned annu¬ 
ally. Another important result of the war was the entire 
fusion of the Normans and Saxons into the English na¬ 
tionality. The spirit of chivalry attained at the court of 
Edward its highest point of exaltation, but on the other 
hand the laboring-classes made their power felt for the first 
time; for as their service had become more valuable in con¬ 
sequence of the terrible ravages of the great pestilence in 
1349, they demanded and received higher wages, and a 
series of despotic edicts ordering them to work at the former 
wages proved entirely inefficient. During the reign of Ed¬ 
ward, Wycliffe began (about 1360) his attacks upon the 
abuses in the Church, and he was supported by Edward’s 
fourth son, John of Gaunt, and by some of the principal 
nobility. As the king’s eldest son, Edward, prince of 
AVales, known as the “Black Prince,” died one year before 
his father (1376), the latter was succeeded by his grandson, 
Richard II. (1377-99), during whose weak reign an attempt 
to enforce the tyrannical labor laws brought on the famous 
rebellion of the peasantry under Wat Tyler, which, though 
suppressed with much bloodshed, relaxed the servitude of 
the peasantry. Richard was dethroned by his cousin Henry, 
duke of Lancaster, who ascended the throne as Henry IV. 
(1399-1413). His reign, which was greatly disturbed by 
rebellions and conspiracies, is remarkable for two events 
in the history of the English constitution—the fixing by 
statute of the parliamentary right of election for counties 
in all freeholders (afterwards restrained under Henry VI. 
to those who were worth forty shillings per annum), and 
the recognition of the two houses as bodies possessing dis¬ 
tinct privileges, not to be interfered with by each other. 
The religious reformation of Wycliffe found in Henry a 
determined opponent, the act for the punishment of heretics 
under which so many atrocities were committed for nearly 
two hundred years being passed during his reign (1401). 
His son, Henry V. (1413-22), put down the religious move¬ 
ment of the Lollards with a strong hand, and renewed the 
claims of his ancestors to France. The new war between 
the two countries was favorable to England; Henry entered 
Paris, and on his death a large portion of France recog¬ 
nized, with England, his son, Henry VI. (1422-61), then 
only a boy of nine months, as king. After many cam¬ 
paigns the French were, however, ultimately successful, the 
exploits of Joan of Arc, Count Dunois, and other French 
leaders putting for ever an end to the English attempts to 
conquer France. Soon after that terrible civil war known 
as the war of the Red and White Roses began (see Roses, 
Red and White), Richard, duke of York, a descendant of 
the duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III., claimed 
a title to the throne preferable to that of King Henry, on 
the ground that the latter was only a descendent of the fourth 
son of Edward III., and that the pretensions of the king’s 
grandfather, Henry IV., to be descendant from Edward, 
earl of Lancaster, according to popular tradition the eldest 
son of Henry III., and excluded from the succession on 
account of deformity, were apocryphal. Richard, duke of 
York, fell in the battle of Wakefield, Dec. 30, 1460, leaving 
his claims to his eldest son, Edward, the earl of March, a 
youth of nineteen, who was proclaimed king as Edward IV. 
in 1461, and maintained himself until his death (1483), with 
a short interruption (1470-71), when the rebellion of the 
earl of AVarwick, formerly the most prominent among his 
supporters, compelled him to flee to Holland, and restored 
for the time Henry VI. The son of Edward (Edward V.), 
a minor, was after a reign of only thirteen days dethroned 
by his uncle, the duke of Gloucester, placed in confinement, 
and soon disappeared. The usurper made himself king 
under the name of Richard III. (1483-85), but soon a coa¬ 
lition of disaffected Yorkists and of the Lancastrians was 
formed against him, at the head of whom was Henry Tudor, 
earl of Richmond, who through his mother descended from 
the House of Lancaster, and to satisfy the Yorkists was to 
marry Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of Edward IV. In 
the decisive battle of Bosworth Field, in 1485, Richard lost 
his crown and his life, and Tudor ascended the throne as 
Henry VII. With him a new era begins in English his¬ 
tory. The first years of Henry (1485-1509) were greatly 
disturbed by pretenders to the throne, who, personating 
the head of the House of York, claimed to be the legitimate 
heirs to the crown. But the chief feature of his reign is the 
large increaso of the royal power at the expense of the high 
nobility and the Parliament. Many of the principal nobles 
having perished in the wars of the Roses, Henry succeeded 
in enforcing against the barons the laws forbidding them to 
give badges and liveries and to employ retainers. The 
change thus produced in the relation of the nobility to roy¬ 
alty became still greater from the fact that the former began 
to value money-payments from their tenants and depend¬ 
ants higher than personal services, while the lower classes 
of the people began to understand that hereafter they had 


to support themselves and to respect the laws, instead of 
looking to the nobility for support and for impunity in case 
they had committed lawless acts. The great event in the 
reign of his son, Henry VIII. (1509-47), was the separation 
of the Church of England from Rome. Henry was a vio¬ 
lent opponent of Luther and the German Reformation, but 
when the pope refused to grant him a divorce from his 
wife, Catharine of Aragon, he renounced his communion 
with the pope and assumed the title of the Head of the 
Church. (See England, Churcii of.) His only son, Edward 
VI. (1547-53), succeeded at the age of nine years, and 
the country thenceforth was governed by a council of re¬ 
gency favorable to the Reformation, which now advanced 
from questions of government to questions of doctrines. 
The duke of Northumberland, who had caused one of his 
sons to marry Lady Jane Grey, great-granddaughter of 
Henry VII., caused Edward to bequeath the crown to his 
daughter-in-law; but the reign of Lady Jane lasted only 
ten days, when Mary (1553-58), the daughter of Henry 
VIII. and his first wife, Catharine of Aragon, ascended the 
throne. Mary was a devout Catholic, who obtained the 
consent of her Parliament to repeal (1553) the legislation 
of Edward VI. and that (1555) of Henry VIII., thus re¬ 
establishing the papal authority. When the chiefs of the 
Protestant party opposed the counter-reformation more 
than 200 of them suffered at the stake. Her marriage with 
Philip II. of Spain did not, however, save to the Catholic 
Church its ascendency in England, for Mary died in 1558 
without issue, and on the other hand it cost England the last 
possession in France, Calais, which was taken by the duke 
of Guise. Mary was succeeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth 
(1558-1603), the daughter of Henry VIII. by his second 
wife, Anne Boleyn, who was strongly opposed to the su¬ 
premacy of the pope, by whom she had been declared to be 
a bastard. Parliament in 1559 restored the royal suprem¬ 
acy of the Church, which, by the adjustment of the Prayer- 
Book and the Thirty-nine Articles, substantially received 
the form in which it still exists. The power of the Roman 
Catholics in England was completely broken; and when most 
of them embraced the cause of Mary, queen of Scotland, who, 
on seeking an asylum in England, had been imprisoned, 
Elizabeth ordered Mary to be executed. Abroad, she aided 
the Protestants of France and the Netherlands, and the 
crushing defeat of the Spaniards, whose Armada was de¬ 
stroyed in 1588, elevated England to a higher position 
among the countries of Europe than she ever had had be¬ 
fore. Ireland was reduced to a state of entire submission, 
and the commerce and naval power of the country received 
a wonderful impulse by the establishment of commercial 
intercourse with India. Elizabeth was the last sovereign 
of the House of Tudor; she was succeeded by James VI., 
the son of the unfortunate Mary. Thus England, Scotland, 
and Ireland became united under one sovereign; and al¬ 
though the legislative union with Scotland was not consum¬ 
mated until 1707, and that of Ireland not until 1800, the 
three countries were, in fact, one empire, whose subsequent 
history we treat of in the article Great Britain. 

Chronological Table of the Sovereigns of England from 
« the Conquest, to James I. 


Kings and Queens. 

Reigned. 

Age. 

Norman Line. 



William the Conqueror. 

1066-1087 

60 

William Rufus. 

1087-1100 

43 

Henry I. 

1100-1135 

67 

Stephen of Blois. 

1135-1154 

49 

House of Plantagenet. 

* 


Henry II. 

1154-1189 

55 

Richard I. 

1189-1199 

43 

John. 

1199-1216 

60 

Henry III. 

1216-1272 

65 

Edward I. 

1272-1307 

67 

Edward II. 

1307-1327 

43 

Edward III. 

1327-1377 

65 

Richard II. 

1377-1399 

33 

House of Lancaster. 



Henry IV. 

1399-1413 

46 

Henry V. 

1413-1422 

33 

Henry VI.. 

1422-1461 

49 

House of York. 



Edward IV. 

1461-1483 

41 

Edward V. 

1483-1483 

12 

Richard III.... 

1483-1485 

42 

House of Tudor. 



Henry VII. 

1485-1509 

52 

Henry VIII. 

1509-1547 

55 

Edward VI. 

1547-1553 

15 

Queen Mary. 

•1553-1558 

42 

Queen Elizabeth.. 

1558-1603 

69 

House of Stuart. 

• 


James I.. 

1603-1625 

59 


A. J. Schkm. 
























































ENGLAND. 


1559 


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Genealogical Table of the Kings of England, from Egbert to James I. 







































































1560 


ENGLAND, CHUKCH OF. 



England, Church of, that portion of the Christian 
Church which has existed in England since the time of 
Saint Augustine (A. 1). 597). The title is also sometimes 
given to the English Church with reference only to the 
period since the Reformation, but with no great accuracy, 
since the Church of England, like the other national churches 
of Europe, is, both in law and fact, a continuous body. 
Christianity was introduced into England, if not in the 
days of the apostles, at least very soon after them; and it 
speedily made its way even beyond the limits of the Ro¬ 
man settlements. The abandonment of Britain by the 
Romans, the invasion of the Saxons, and the consequent 
neglect or persecution of the native Christians, gave a seri¬ 
ous check to the progress of the infant Church, and in the 
sixth century its influence was limited to the northern parts 
of the island, whither many of the Britons had retired to 
escape from the invaders. The mission of Augustine, how¬ 
ever, was strictly to the heathen Saxons. Pope Gregory 
the Great had contemplated undertaking this mission in 
person, but upon his elevation to the papal throne had been 
compelled to abandon his desigu. Augustine (or Austin), 
prior of St. Andrew’s monastery at Rome, was selected as 
his substitute. After a brief delay in France, where he was 
consecrated bishop by Vigflius of Arles, Saint Augustine 
arrived in Kent in the autumn of 596. His labors were 
crowned with success. The conversion of the kingdom of 
Kent was followed by the triumph of Christianity in all the 
kingdoms of the Heptarchy. The influence of the Italian 
missionaries, however, did not extend far, if at all, beyond 
the limits of the kingdom of Kent. The whole northern 
part of England was converted by British and Irish clergy. 
There was also, for many years, much jealousy between the 
native and foreign churchmen, but in process of time the 
two missions melted into one church; and it has long been 
customary to date the historical beginning of the Church 
of England and the succession of its prelates from the 
foundation of the see of Canterbury by Saint Augustine 
(A. D. 597). 

At that time there was but one Christian Church, and the 
doctrines of the Church of England were of course the 
common faith of Christendom. In considering, as will be 
done presently, the events of the sixteenth century in Eng¬ 
land, it should be borne in mind that the abuses which were 
then removed had no existence in the sixth. The primacy 
of the pope had not then developed into a supremacy, but, 
as appears from the letters which passed between Gregory 
the Great and Saint Augustine, the authority of the former 
was limited to giving advice and counsel. The controver¬ 
sies about image-worship, which gave occasion to the Coun¬ 
cils of Nice and Frankfort, did not reach their height until 
the eighth century. The mediaeval teachings of purgatory 
and pardons were not fully developed until the twelfth, and 
the growth of the idea of papal supremacy was necessarily 
kept in check by the Eastern patriarchs until the eleventh. 
The final impetus was given to its growth by the separation 
of the Eastern and Western churches, and the general ac¬ 
ceptance in the West of the pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. 

As time went on these teachings made progress in Eng¬ 
land, as they did in the rest of Western Europe. As the 
papal authority took the obnoxious form of claiming a 
right to confirm the nominations of bishops and to hear 
appeals, it was met with frequent and vigorous opposi¬ 
tion—not only in England, but also in the other kingdoms 
of Europe. Appeals to Rome had been prohibited in Eng¬ 
land from a very early period, and a vacancy in an episco- 
cal see was apt to lead to a protracted controversy between 
the pope and the reigning sovereign, neither of whom was 
willing to admit the pretensions of the other. 

When in the reign of Henry VIII. the Church and Par¬ 
liament of England resolved to put an end to appeals to 
Rome, and to the claims of the pontiff's to a right to confirm 
the nominations of bishops (which, under certain circum¬ 
stances, had been stretched into a claim to nominate in the 
first instance), they conceived that they were merely re¬ 
asserting those ancient rights of the Church of England 
which, though they had been suffered to fall into disuse, 
had never been abandoned. This position was taken with 
great unanimity, and was adhered to consistently by Bishop 
Gardiner and the national (or, as it might now be called, the 
old Catholic) party in England. The king was drawn into 
the violent measures of the dissolution of the monasteries 
and the spoliation of the Church by other counsellors. 

The efforts of the Church of England to regain its ancient 
liberties were contemporaneous with, though distinct from, 
the continental Reformation. That event, however, was not 
without its influence in England; and in the reign of Ed¬ 
ward VI. men who sympathized with Luther or Calvin, or 
even with the teachings of Zuinglius, had gained control 
over the English Church and nation. Under their influence, 
indeed, England was becoming rapidly Protestantized ; and, 
in all'likelihood, had not their career been cut short by the 


death of the king, the religious condition of England would 
have been much the same as that of Switzerland or Scot¬ 
land. 

The accession of Queen Mary led to a violent reaction. 
The Protestant school of Cranmer and Ridley was forcibly 
suppressed, and the national party, of which Gardiner was 
the leader, was compelled to change its ground. The au¬ 
thority of the pope was restored in more than mediaeval 
plenitude. Attempts were made not only to revive the state 
of things which existed in the early part of the reign of 
Henry VIII., but actually to destroy the ancient liberties 
of the Church of England. It is a grave question among 
historians whether Edward or Mary, both acting doubtless 
from the most conscientious motives, would, had their 
reigns been prolonged, have done more serious injury to 
the Church. 

Queen Elizabeth, on coming to the throne, found herself 
encompassed with difficulties. There were then three schools 
or parties in the English Church : first, that of Gardiner and 
his followers, which had changed its ground, and was now 
disposed to maintain the papal supremacy, with all that it 
involved; second, that of Parker, which went beyond the 
former national school in its desire to reform what it be¬ 
lieved to be abuses; and third, the Protestants, many of 
whom had taken refuge in Switzerland during the reign 
of Mary, and who returned full of admiration of the form 
of religion which they found established there, and anxious 
to introduce it into England. The private opinions of the 
queen, if indeed she had formed any, were not distinctly 
known, and it was for some time doubtful to which school 
she would give her influence and approbation. It may 
seem strange to minds educated in the ideas of the present 
age that the religious belief of great nations should have 
been directed or influenced by the private opinions of their 
sovereigns; but in the sixteenth century, and even later, 
the Church formed a part of the constitution of the nations 
of Western Europe. There was no idea that there could be 
more than one religious society in a nation, and therefore 
no idea of toleration or religious liberty. The history of 
England in the sixteenth century is not different from that 
of other European states. If the civil authority could carry 
out a reformation of religion in England and Sweden, it 
could suppress it in France and Spain and Italy. 

Thus it was the purpose of any party that might succeed 
in gaining the favor of the queen to become not merely 
dominant, but exclusive. Its peculiar views were to be 
forced on all men. The Protestant (or, as it was soon after¬ 
wards called, the Puritan) school speedily put itself out of 
the question by the fact that its teachings would have led 
to the destruction of the Church of England, and the estab¬ 
lishment of a new form of religion upon the plan adopted 
at Geneva. Various circumstances tended to alienate the 
queen from the papal (or, as it began to be styled, the 
Roman Catholic) party. The haughty discourtesy with 
which Pope Paul IV. received the information of her acces¬ 
sion, which she sent to him in the usual form; the assump¬ 
tion of the title of queen of England by Mary of Scotland, 
with the great probability that France and Spain would 
proceed to assert the claims of the Scottish queen by force 
of arms ; and the persistent attitude of opposition to all re¬ 
forms maintained by the Marian bishops, compelled Eliza¬ 
beth to put herself in the hands of the national or reform¬ 
ing party, of which Matthew Parker was the acknowledged 
leader. Like the national party in the reign of Henry 
VIII., this school was prepared to remove the jurisdiction 
which the pope had exercised within the realm of England. 
Like Those earlier leaders, it desired to preserve the faith 
and discipline of the Church unaltered, but it went beyond 
them in proposing to remove certain abuses of teaching and 
practice which it conceived had led the people into super¬ 
stition. These were the use of images, the invocation of 
the saints, the popular idea of purgatory, and the peculiar 
definition of the manner of the Real Presence in the blessed 
sacrament which is known as transubstantiation. These 
were doubtless developments, but, in the view of the school 
of thought which became dominant in England, unlawful de¬ 
velopments of true doctrines. The Reformers thought that 
they could trace the progress of variation from the simpler 
teachings of the earlier Church, and their purpose was to 
carry back the Church of England, as nearly as possible, to 
its primitive simplicity. Whether they succeeded or not is 
a question which need not be now discussed; it will be suf¬ 
ficient to say that they proceeded to carry out their plans 
with promptitude and vigor. Parker was made archbishop 
of Canterbury in the place of Pole, who had died almost at 
the same time as Queen Mary. The majority of the bish¬ 
ops, refusing to co-operate with him, were removed or re¬ 
signed their sees, and their places were filled by men whom 
he could trust. Attention was at once given to the reform 
of the service-books of the Church. Two prayer-books, 
compiled partly from the old Latin Uses of tho Church of 


























ENGLAND. 


1561 


England, had been set forth in 1549 and 1552, but had been 
suppressed in the reign of Mary. After much deliberation, 
it was determined to make the second of these the basis of 
the Prayer-Book, which was henceforth to be in English. 
The reforms in doctrine to which allusion has been made 
were indeed carried out, but care was taken to avoid touching 
any part of the common faith of Christendom. The famous 
principle of Vincent of Lerins, of universal acceptance as 
the test of Christian truth, was affirmed, and the authority 
of general councils was acknowledged. These arrange¬ 
ments received the approbation of Convocation and Parlia¬ 
ment. Concessions had been made to both the extreme 
parties—to the Puritans, in adopting the second instead of 
the first prayer-book of Edward VI.; to the Roman Catho¬ 
lics, in leaving out certain expressions which were justly 
obnoxious to them—and it was thought that religious unity 
would thenceforward prevail in England. 

This settlement, the joint work of Convocation and Par¬ 
liament, was accepted by the great body of the nation; 
and, since all men continued to frequent the parish churches 
for about ten years, it was hoped that the unity of the Eng¬ 
lish Church would continue unbroken. In 1570, however, 
after the excommunication of Queen Elizabeth by Pius V., 
the party afterwards called Roman Catholics, acting under 
the direction of the pope, separated from the Church. In 
those ages politics and religion were so singularly inter¬ 
mingled in Western Europe that any religious agitation 
commonly involved plots and treasons against the state, 
and sometimes open war. In this respect England was no 
better nor worse than other countries; and in this condi¬ 
tion of affairs the true motive is to be found for the stringent 
laws which were enacted and put in force against “ popish 
recusants.” The penal laws, however, were the work of 
the State rather than of the Church; and they were in¬ 
tended not as a measure of unnecessary persecution, but 
as a precaution against the plots for the destruction of 
queen and government, which followed one another in quick 
succession. 

Some of the extreme Protestants followed the example 
of separation in 1580 under the leadership of Robert Brown, 
who, however, returned to the Church and died in its com¬ 
munion. They were known at first by the name of Brown- 
ists, afterwards as Independents, and finally as Congrega- 
tionalists. Others remained in the Church and demanded 
a further reformation, which, however, has never been con¬ 
ceded. The Prayer-Book has indeed been twice reviewed, 
but the tendency on both occasions has been to bring it into 
nearer accordance with the first book of Edward VI., which 
is supposed to have contained the true sentiments of the 
earlier Reformers. 

The remaining history of the Church of England may be 
passed over briefly. After its suppression during the civil 
war—the success of which has, by some writers, been attrib¬ 
uted to a temporary though secret combination between the 
extreme sections of its enemies—it was restored in 1660, 
since which time no change has been made in its doctrine 
or discipline. The exciting scenes of the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries, the successive attempts to restore 
the supremacy of the pope, culminating in the ill-advised 
measures of James II. and the consequent irritation of the 
people, led, first, to a reaction, and after the revolution of 
1688 to a long period of religious indifference. The latter 
part of the seventeenth century was an age of immorality ; 
the earlier part of the eighteenth was a time of negligence 
and indifference. Since the middle or early part of the 
eighteenth century there have been three great religious 
revivals. The first was that of John and Charles Wesley, 
both priests of the Church of England, who set themselves 
to the task of developing personal holiness (the great want 
of an age of religious indifference and immorality) in the 
members of their Church. Their labors were crowned with 
great and immediate success; but, partly by reason of the 
absence of encouragement from the leaders of the Church, 
and partly from the impatience of some of their own fol¬ 
lowers, they failed in accomplishing their designs. The 
Wesleys themselves lived and died in the communion of the 
Church, but many of their followers withdrew from it and 
formed a new body of dissenters. 

The second revival was that of the “ Evangelicals,” as 
they were called, about 1798, of which such men as the Rev. 
Charles Simeon and the late Bishop Daniel Wilson were the 
leaders. The guiding thought in this movement also was 
the development of personal holiness. The movement was 
well adapted to the times, and may be regarded as success¬ 
ful while it lasted, but it lacked the elements of permanence. 
Its weakness lay in neglecting definite dogma, which expe¬ 
rience has shown to be essential to any form of religion. 
The work of these good men, however, is worthy of all reve¬ 
rence. They accomplished a great deal in their generation, 
and they prepared the way for the revival which is now in 
progress. 


While the aim of the Oxford divines, as they were called, 
was, equally with the others, the development of personal 
holiness, they endeavored to avoid the tendency of the 
first to schism, and of the second either to neglect dogma 
altogether or to give undue prominence to one or two points 
of Christian doctrine. Hence, they naturally dwelt much 
upon the authority of the Church; and their object seems, 
in their early history (1833-63), to have been simply to 
teach the Church to carry out in practice the doctrine, dis¬ 
cipline, and manner of life which are set forth in the Prayer- 
Book. Of late years, however, the leaders of this school 
have given much thought to the relations of the Church of 
England to the rest of Christendom, and to the question 
of the restoration of visible unity among Christians. These 
points are discussed in the “ Eirenicon ” of the celebrated 
Dr.JPusey. Hence, much attention has been given to the 
study of church history, and the history of the English 
Church may be said to have been re-written within the last 
thirty years. 

Both these schools still exist, and are commonly known 
as Low Church and High Church. The former olaims, and 
no doubt justly, to be the representative of the Protestant 
or Puritan part of the Church in the reign of Elizabeth; 
the latter, of the Catholic or national school, which then 
gained the predominance, and, with the exception of the 
forty years of the evangelical revival, has always retained 
it. The peculiar character of the former is its claim to great 
liberty of private judgment; of the latter, its deference to 
authority. With the exception of a small party which has 
lately arisen, of which Dean Stanley is one of the leaders, 
and which is somewhat eclectic in its teachings, these two 
great historical schools may be regarded as comprising the 
whole Church of England. 

The discipline of the Church of England has continued 
unchanged for many centuries. The bishoprics, with the 
addition of two or three which were created by Henry VIII., 
and those of Ripon and Manchester, erected within the 
present century, still remain in their ancient seats; and the 
succession of the bishops, of whom lists are extant, is traced 
in them to the sixth or seventh century. England and 
Wales are divided into two provinces, under the archbishops 
of Canterbury and York. The former has under him twenty 
bisho*ps, the latter six. The episcopal incomes amount to 
£154,200. The population of the province of Canterbury in 
1872 was about 15,742,404; of York, 7,174,638. In the for¬ 
mer there were 4,374,880 church sittings; in the latter, 
1,326,820; making a total of 22,917,042 for the population, 
and of 5,701,700 for the sittings. The actual church pop¬ 
ulation is about 12,500,000. The system of parishes in¬ 
troduced by Theodore, the seventh archbishop of Canter¬ 
bury (668-693), still exists. There were in 1872 12,S37 
parish priests and 6187 curates. The canon law, derived 
from the acts of successive English councils, still forms the 
basis of the ecclesiastical system. ' The revenues of the 
Church have been estimated at £5,000,000. 

The great achievement of the English Church during the 
present century has been the establishment of the colonial 
episcopate. This began with the sending-of Bishop Heber 
to Calcutta in 1814; there were in 1872 fifty-four dioceses 
in the English colonies and in missions. There are 1977 
clergymen, and the income of the bishops is about £53,718. 
The amount raised in England for missions in 1871 by the 
members of the Church alone was £324,782, most of which 
was expended in the colonies. The total amount of Brit¬ 
ish contributions for foreign missions in the same year (in¬ 
cluding those of nonconformists and of Scotch and Irish 
societies) was £855,742. 

From time immemorial the archbishop of Canterbury has 
been held to be entitled to the dignity, though he has never 
borne the name, of a patriarch. That this is something 
more than an empty dignity would seem to be implied by 
the unanimity with which the late Archbishop Longley was 
accepted as the president of the conference or synod of 
bishops which sat at Lambeth in 1867, and by the general 
disposition to consider him as the spiritual head of the 
Anglican communion. This includes the Church of Eng¬ 
land (with Wales), of Ireland, the Church in the colonies, 
and the Episcopal churches in Scotland and in the United 
States of America. These churches, while they are one in 
doctrine, regulate their internal affairs for themselves, yet 
they may meet, as they have done once, in a synod of their 
bishops when any question of general interest arises. The 
whole number of episcopal sees and jurisdictions, as at 
present arranged, is 150, though the actual number of bish¬ 
ops is a little larger. 

Beverley R. Betts, Lib. of Columbia Coll. 

England (John), D. D., was born in Cork, Ireland, 
Sept. 23, 1786. He was educated at Carlow College, and 
took orders in the Roman Catholic Church in 1808. Ho 
was greatly distinguished for his zeal, his benevolence, and 
his bold championship of Catholio emancipation. Ho was 


















1562 


ENGLES—ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


also a prominent journalist, and was once fined £500 for 
his boldness in discussing political questions. In 1820 he 
became bishop of Charleston, S. C., and there founded the 
“ Catholic Miscellany,” the first journal of his Church in 
America. l)ied April 11, 1S42. Ilis works, in 5 vols. 8vo, 
appeared in 1849. 

En'gles (William Morrison), I). 1)., was born in Phila¬ 
delphia Oct. 12, 1797, and graduated at the University of 
Pennsylvania in 1815. In 1820 he became pastor of the 
Seventh Presbyterian church in Philadelphia, in 1834 
editor of the “Presbyterian,” and in 1863 president of the 
Presbyterian Board of Publication. Died Nov. 27, 1867. 
He was a man of marked ability and excellence. He pub¬ 
lished “Records of the Presbyterian Church,” a “Bible 
Dictionary,” and other works, chiefly devotional. 

Eng'lewood, a post-village of Bergen co., N. J., on the 
Northern New Jersey R. R., 14 miles N. of New Lork. It 
is near the Palisades of the Hudson River, and has one 
weekly newspaper, four hotels, and a bank. 

Englewood, a post-village of Cook co., Ill., at the 
junction of the Michigan Southern, the Pittsburg Fort 
Wayne and Chicago, and the Chicago Rock Island and 
Pacific R. Rs., 7 miles S. of Chicago. It is the site of the 
county normal school, which has a fine building and is 
very successful. 

Eng'lish, a township of Iowa co., Ia. Pop. 1627. 

English, a township of Lucas co., Ia. Pop. 960. 

English (Earl), U. S. N., born Feb. 18, 1834, at Bur¬ 
lington, N. J., entered the navy as a midshipman Feb. 25, 
1840, became a passed midshipman in 1846, a lieutenant in 

1855, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in 1866, 
a captain in 1871. He was in the engagement with the 
Barrier-forts at the entrance to the Canton River, China, in 

1856, and during 1862 and 1863 commanded several vessels 
of the Gulf blockading squadron. In 1864 and 1865 he 
commanded the steamer Wyalusing of the North Atlantic 
blockading squadron, and participated, in Oct., 1864, in the 
capture of Plymouth, N. C. F. A. Parker, U. S. N. 

. English (James E.), an American statesman, was born 
at New Haven, Conn., in Mar., 1812. He became a success¬ 
ful merchant and manufacturer, was a Democi'atic member 
of Congress (1861-65), and was elected governor of Con¬ 
necticut in 1868 and 1870. 

English (Thomas Dunn), M. D., an American poet 
and lawyer, born in Philadelphia June 29, 1819. He be¬ 
came a resident of New York City. Among his works is 
a novel, “ Walter Woolfe” (1844), and a volume of poems 
(1855). 

English Channel [Fr. La Manche, “the sleeve”], 
that portion of the Atlantic which separates England from 
France. It extends on the English side from Dover to 
Land’s End, and on the French from Calais to the island 
of Ushant. On the E. it communicates with the German 
Ocean by the Strait of Dover, 21 miles wide, and on the W. 
it opens into the Atlantic by an entrance 100 miles wide. 
At its greatest width it is about 150 miles. On the English 
side off the coast of Hampshire lies the beautiful Isle of 
Wight. Guernsey, Jersey, and the other Channel Islands 
are situated off the N. coast of France. 

English Harbor (West), a port of entry of Fortune 
Bay district, Newfoundland, has extensive cod and her¬ 
ring fisheries. Pop. 210.—There are several other fishing- 
towns of Newfoundland called English Harbor, one of 
which, a post-village of Trinity district, 7 miles by road 
and ferry from Trinity, has a pop. of 350. 

English Language and Literature. The term 
“ English language ” may be briefly defined as the language 
which was formed in England during the period that elapsed 
between the Conquest (1066) and the time of Chaucer 
(about 1360), by a mingling of the elements of the indi¬ 
genous Anglo-Saxon, Welsh, etc. with thoso of the newly 
imported Norman French. The very earliest date which 
can with any propriety be assigned to the composite lan¬ 
guage thus formed is about 1200, the date attributed by 
some critics to what has been called “ the earliest known 
English love-song.”* But at this period the English tongue 
may be said to havo been in the crudest possible condition, 
a century and a half more being required.to bring it up to 
the point at which we find it in the time of Chaucer. Ma¬ 
caulay refers the origin of our language to the “thirteenth 
century,” when King John, through his very follies and 
vices (by which ho lost his dominions in France), may be 

* Beginning thus: 

“ Blow northerne wynd send 
Thou me my suetynge, blow, 

Northerne wynd, blow, blow, blow. 

Ich ’ot a burde in boure bryht 
That fully semly is on syht,” etc. 


said to have given to the English nation an independent 
existence. “Then it was,” says Macaulay, “ that the great 
English people was formed, that ’the national character 
began to exhibit those peculiarities which it has ever since 
retained. . . . Then was formed that language, less musical 
indeed than the languages of the South, but in force, in 
richness, in aptitude for all the highest purposes of the poet, 
the philosopher, and the orator, inferior to the tongue of 
Greece alone.” {History of England, chap, i.) 

Until the time of John, Norman French was not only the 
language of the court, but of all the cultivated classes. 
Under him the descendants of the Normans first began to 
regard England as their country and the Saxon English as 
their countrymen. Then the Anglo-Saxon and the Nor¬ 
man French, though so utterly different in character, began 
to assimilate to each other; and this process was continued 
till a homogeneous compound was formed, constituting a 
language remarkable indeed for its copiousness and force, 
but still more remarkable as the basis on which has been 
erected the richest and grandest literature of modern times. 

The English tongue, as we now find it, may be said to be 
made up of words derived from the following principal 
sources : 1. From the Celtic, which was the language of the 
country when it was first invaded by the Romans under 
Julius Cmsar (55 B. C.), and continued to be the principal 
language of the island until its conquest by the Saxons 
about the end of the fifth century. There are comparatively 
few English words of Celtic origin; among these few, bas¬ 
ket, bog, and mattock may be cited as examples. But the 
names of several streams and mountains in England, as 
well as in Scotland, furnish ample evidence, even if we had 
no other, that people of the Celtic race were once widely 
diffused over the island of Great Britain. Ben or Beinn, a 
Celtic term for “hill” or “mountain” (probably akin to 
the Welshmen, “head,” a prefix of many names in the west 
and south-west of England), forms a part of several cele¬ 
brated names of mountains in Scotland, as Ben Nevis, Ben 
Lomond, Ben Ledi, etc. Pen, the second syllable of Apen- 
nine, is supposed to be traceable to the same root. 

2. From Teutonic sources, among which the Anglo-Saxon 
holds by far the most important place. It has not been - 
deemed necessary to attempt here to discriminate between 
the different branches of the great Teutonic (or Germanic) 
family, as this could only be done properly in a very ex¬ 
tended and elaborate treatise. It would indeed be extremely 
difficult, if not impossible, to determine in every instance 
whether an English word is properly derived from the 
Anglo-Saxon or from some other branch of the same family. 
Thus, our word “ water ” may come either from the Anglo- 
Saxon weeter or the Dutch water, or from some other nearly 
related but now forgotten dialect. Again, the English word 
“father” may be derived from the Anglo-Saxon feeder or 
from the Danish fader j - (to which it almost exactly corre¬ 
sponds in sound), or possibly from some other source dif¬ 
fering from them both. It may be proper to observe that 
what we call Anglo-Saxon is itself a mixture of various 
elements, including not merely the dialects spoken by the 
Angles and Saxons, but also that spoken by the Jutes, who 
appear to have been the first Germanic nation that es¬ 
tablished itself in Britain. But as Anglo-Saxon words 
form probably nine-tenths of the Teutonic portion of our 
language, the term may be conveniently used, as it often is 
in common parlance, to designate the whole. 

It may be remarked that English words of Teutonic deri¬ 
vation constitute by far the largest and most important part 
of those employed in ordinary speech, although terms from 
the Latin and Greek form no inconsiderable proportion of 
the language used in the higher kinds of composition, and 
especially in scientific treatises. 

3. From the French. This class properly includes thoso 
that were introduced at an early period by the Normans, 
as well as those of a later date. J A large proportion of our 
words of French derivation are but little changed from the 
Latin or Greek, from which they have taken their origin. 
A comparatively few are from the Celtic, the Basque, the 
Arabic, and other tongues remotely related (if related at 
all) either to the Latin or to the Germanic languages. 

4. From the Latin and Greek. These two languages have 
been classed together, because, with scarcely an exception, 
English or French words of Greek origin have come to us 
through the Latin. This class may properly include not 
only those directly derived from the Latin, but also all those 
of French derivation that have undergone no change ex¬ 
cept in the termination alone; such, for example, as “affec¬ 
tion” (Lat. affectio), “excite” (Fr. exciter; Lat. excito), 
and so on. Tho convenient term Romanic is used in this 

_ t This appears to have been the common, if not universal, Eng¬ 
lish spelling of the English word in Chaucer’s time. 

J Many military terms, and others relating to the arts and sci¬ 
ences, have been introduced into our language from the French 
at a comparatively recent period. v 




















ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 1563 


article as a general appellation to include those words of 
our tongue that are not of Teutonic origin, but are derived 
from the Jrench, Latin, or some other language belonging 
to the south of Europe. 

Many of the more common English words of Latin ori¬ 
gin coming to us through the French have been more or 
less modified in the transit, such as “able,” formerly writ¬ 
ten “hable” (Fr. habile; Lat. habilis), to “ally” (Fr. oi¬ 
lier; Lat. alligare), to “amend,” (Fr. a mender; Lat. emend- 
are), etc. But in a very large majority of cases English 
words derived from the Latin undergo no change in spell- 
ing, except in the termination. Thus, English verbs are 
derived from Latin verbs (1) by simply dropping the -o or 
-io of the first person singular of the indicative present, as 
“append,” * from appendo, “ assent,” from assent io, etc.; (2) 
by changing the final -o or -to into e mute, as “acquire,” 
from acquiro, “ exclude,” from excludo, etc.; or (3) from 
the supine by simply dropping the termination -tun, as “af¬ 
fect," f from afficio, supine affectum, “ construct,” from con- 
struo, constructum, etc. 

English nouns and adjectives of Latin origin are vari¬ 
ously derived:. 1. They are often formed by simply drop¬ 
ping the last letter or last two letters of the Latin word, as 
“pen,” from penna, “congress,” from congressus. 

The following examples of adjectives may be given: 
“apt,” from aptus, “bland,” from blandus, etc. It should 
be observed that when the Latin genitive has a consonant 
not found in the nominative, the English word is usually 
formed from the genitive by simply dropping the letters 
which follow such consonant; as “frond,” from frond-ia, 
the genitive of frons, a “leaf” or “foliage;” “front,” 
from front-i8, the genitive of frons, the “forehead;” and 
so on. It may be remarked that the great multitude of 
English verbal nouns ending in -ion are always derived from 
the Latin supine, or from the past participle of deponent 
verbs, by changing the last two letters of those parts into 
-ion (in Lat. -io) ; as “ affection,” from affectum (supine of 
the verb afficio), etc. 

2. English nouns and adjectives are very frequently 
formed by changing the last syllable of the Latin into e 
mute; as “base,” from basis, “pure,” from purus, etc. 

English nouns from a Latin or Greek word ending in -ia 
(not immediately preceded by c or t) are usually formed by 
changing that termination into y, as “apoplexy,” from the 
Lat. apoplexia (Gr. ano-nX^ia), “ dysentery,” from the Lat. 
dysenteria (Gr. Sv^evrepia), etc. In like manner we have 
“ Italy,” from Italia, “ Sicily,” from Sicilia, and “ Thes¬ 
saly,” from Thessalia. But if the termination -ia be imme¬ 
diately preceded by c or t, it is usually replaced in English 
by e mute, and the preceding t is changed to c; e. g. arro- 
gantia becomes “arrogance,” avaritia, “avarice,” pruden- 
tia, “ prudence,” etc. The Latin terminations in -cium, 
-tium, and -tins undergo a similar change; thus wo have 
“novice,” from novitius, “office,” from officium, etc. 

It has already been remarked that words of Teutonic 
origin constitute by far the largest portion of those used 
in ordinary speech; and we may add that the simpler the 
language the more, generally speaking, will this class of 
words be found to predominate. There are perhaps no 
finer specimens of pure and simple English than can be 
found in our common translation of the Bible. Through¬ 
out the whole of it the Anglo-Saxon element of our language 
may be said to abound, though the proportion varies con¬ 
siderably in different parts. For example, the first ten 
verses of Genesis contain in all 203 words, of which 189 
are of Anglo-Saxon, and only 14 of Latin derivation. In 
the Gospel of Saint John the proportion of the former is 
still greater; of the 141 words found in the first ten verses 
of the first chapter, only one (viz. “ comprehended ” in the 
fifth verse) is from the Latin. Out of the 249 words (omit¬ 
ting, of course, proper names) in the first ten verses of the 
Acts, 20 are derived directly or indirectly from the Latin. 
Of the 186 contained in the first ten verses of Paul’s Epistle 
to the Roman's, 26 are from the Latin or Greek ; and, though 
the proportions may vary somewhat in the different chap¬ 
ters, it will be found that in the common English version 
the writings of Saint Paul contain on an average a con¬ 
siderably larger portion of words from the Latin and Greek 
than either the Gospel or the Epistles of Saint John. The 
prose writings of Macaulay may be taken as a fair speci¬ 
men of good modern English—perspicuous and elegant, in¬ 
deed, but neither remarkable for plainness and simplicity 
nor for the opposite qualities. Of the 296 words (omitting 
names, as before) found in the first paragraph of his “His¬ 
tory of England,” about 80 are of Latin or French and 216 

* Generally, when the Latin verb ends in two consonants, one 
of these is dropped in the English, as admitto, “admit,” compello, 
“compel,” extollo, “extol,” etc. 

f This word may possibly be derived from the frequentative 
affecto, but in such ease the meaning is different: “aliect,” from 
affecto, signifies to “aspire to.” 


of Teutonic derivation. An examination of other portions 
of his “History” gives nearly the same result. This may 
be considered about a fair average of the relative propor¬ 
tions of the Romanic and Teutonic elements in common 
English prose. In other words, the Romanic element in 
ordinary prose constitutes from one-third to one-fourth of 
the whole. In scientific treatises, however, words from the 
Latin and Greek often form a much larger proportion of all 
those employed. 

It may be observed that a large proportion of the ab¬ 
stract and verbal nouns in common use in our language are 
from the Latin, and consequently the English of those 
authors whose habits of thought lead them to make a fre¬ 
quent use of such nouns usually contains a larger propor¬ 
tion of words of Latin origin than the language of writers 
who are inclined to view things simply in their external 
and visible relations ; or who, if they seek to teach spiritual 
or moral truths, make use of similes or allegories having 
constant reference to visible objects. Of the former class 
Saint Paul affords a good illustration; of the latter, Saint 
John and the author of “Pilgrim’s Progress” are remark¬ 
able examples. Thus, Paul says : “ Let all bitterness and 
wrath and anger and clamor and evil-speaking be put away 
from you, with all malice.” (Ephesians iv. 31.) Here in one 
short verse are six abstract nouns. John delights in direct 
and simple expressions; as, “He that loveth not, knoweth 
not God;” “If a man say, I love God, and hateth his 
brother, he is a liar; for he that loveth not his brother 
whom he hath seen, how can he love God whom he hath 
not seen ?” (1 John iv. 8 and 20.) An image is usually pre¬ 
sented to the eye more vividly and forcibly in Anglo-Saxon 
words than in those from the Latin. Hence, the former are 
more commonly used when the idea is pleasing or grand, 
for in such cases it cannot be presented too clearly; but if 
the idea suggests something unpleasant or offensive, good 
taste leads us to veil its disagreeable features under a word 
or phrase of Latin origin. This quality of our language, 
resulting from its composite character, by which we are 
enabled either to present an idea in the full light of 
day or to veil its more offensive features under terms 
derived from Latin or Greek, is one of no small import¬ 
ance. Another great advantage which we owe to the fact 
that our language is formed from such widely different 
elements is, that we have, so to speak, two or more sets of 
words relating to almost every object and to every idea of 
the mind, which gives a singular richness and copiousness 
to our tongue. Thus, we have not only the Anglo-Saxon 
“ help,” but the Latin “ assist” and the’ French “ aid,” all 
meaning substantially the same thing. Again, we have 
“ building,” “ edifice,” “ structure,” and “ fabric ” as gene¬ 
ral terms for any work that is built or erected, while we 
possess, besides, a variety of words to denote the particular 
kind of building, as “ temple,” “ palace,” “ mansion,” 
“ house,” “ cottage,” etc. A multitude of similar examples 
might be adduced. Among words representing an abstract 
idea, we have “ anger ” from the Latin, “ choler ” from the 
Greek, and “wrath” from the Anglo-Saxon; again, we 
have from the Latin, “ conception,” “ cogitation,” and “ no¬ 
tion;” from the Greek, “ idea;” and from the Anglo-Saxon, 
“thought,” and so on. 

The Anglo-Saxon element of our language being, as al¬ 
ready intimated, particularly adapted to present thoughts 
and images forcibly and vividly to the mind, words of this 
class will almost always be found to predominate in poetry 
far more than in prose. In the 148 words occurring in the 
first twenty lines of Milton’s “Paradise Lost,” only about 
22—about one-seventh of the entire number—are of Latin 
origin. - Opening again at random in the same poem, we 
come upon the famous address of Satan to the sun (in the 
fourth book). Out of the 163 words found in the first twenty 
lines of this address, 19 only are of Romanic origin—less 
than one-eighth of the whole; while in Milton’s prose words 
of Latin derivation often constitute one-fourth, or even one- 
third, of the entire number employed. Although in Ma¬ 
caulay’s prose, as already shown, Romanic words constitute 
between one-fourth and one-third of all those used, in his 
poetry they amount to probably less than one-tenth of the 
whole. Take, for example, his story of “ Virginia,” which 
has been selected as perhaps the least simple of his lays. 
In the beautiful passage (of sixteen lines) where Virginia 
is first introduced to the reader there are in all 185 words, 
of which only 11—less than one-sixteenth—are of Romanic 
derivation. In another passage, taken at random, out of 
151 words, 14—about one-eleventh—are Romanic. It may 
also be cited as a striking proof-(if any further proof were 
needed) of the important part which the Anglo-Saxon ele¬ 
ment of our language performs in poetry, that though 
Chaucer has been censured by some critics for his excessive 
employment of French words, yet this class of words con¬ 
stitutes but a small proportion of thoso used by him in his 
poems. Take, for example, tho first twenty lines of the 














1564 ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


Prologue to his “ Canterbury Tales.” These Hues contain 
125 words, of which only 18, or about one-seventh part, are 
of Romanic origin. In one of his other tales, out of 156 
words hut 19 are Romanic and 137 Teutonic. Many of the 
finest passages in Shakspeare contain a much smaller pro¬ 
portion of Romanic words. Of the 157 occurring in the 
first twenty lines of the passage in which Mercutio speaks 
of Queen Mab (in “ Romeo and Juliet”), all but 6 are Teu¬ 
tonic. 

It has been deemed proper to go somewhat fully into the 
consideration of this subject, because it relates to what is 
perhaps the most remarkable peculiarity of the English 
tongue. In no other European language is there anything 
comparable to it. It is not so much that it is composed of 
two great classes of words entirely distinct in their etymol¬ 
ogy, as that each class has, so to speak, its peculiar office, 
while the two are so completely assimilated that one may 
be used for the other without attracting any notice ; and it 
is only when careful attention is bestowed upon them that 
we perceive the peculiar and important part which each 
plays in the great system of language. 

The reader, however, would make a great mistake should 
he conclude, because Teutonic words constitute a large ma¬ 
jority of those occurring in ordinary speech, that therefore 
they must form a majority of all the words found in an 
English dictionary. For in computing the relative num¬ 
ber of words of each class contained in any given passage, 
we count every word as often as it occurs, though it should 
be repeated a dozen times or more. Now, those of Romanic 
derivation, being comparatively rare, seldom occur more 
than once in the short passages on which our estimates have 
been based; while many of those of Teutonic origin, in¬ 
cluding as these do nearly all the most common and short 
words in the language, are repeated many times. Thus, in 
the ten verses already referred to in the first chapter of the 
Gospel of Saint John, “the” occurs 17 times, “was” 15 
times, “light” and “that,” each 6 times,etc. In that cele¬ 
brated passage of Shakspeare relating to Queen Mab, “of” 
occurs 12 times, “the” 11 times, “a” (or “an”) 7 times, 
and so on. In point of fact, words from the Latin and Greek, 
forming as they do nearly all our scientific terms, constitute 
considerably more than three-fourths of the whole number 
given in any tolerably complete dictionary. A great number 
of pages, indeed, in Webster’s “Quarto Dictionary ” * will 
be found, on examination, to contain, among those of which 
definitions are given, not one Teutonic word. In Walker’s 
Dictionary, published about the beginning of the present 
century, and containing comparatively few scientific terms, 
the relative proportion of Teutonic words is considerably 
greater.. A careful computation made by counting the 
words in several different portions of that work shows that 
words of Teutonic origin constitute a little more than two- 
fifths ; those of Romanic derivation amounting to very nearly 
three-fifths of all those given in the dictionary. 

The history of the development of the English language 
may be divided into three great periods—the first, that of 
the “Early English,” extending from the latter part of the 
twelfth century to the death of Chaucer (1400); the second 
period, or that of the “ Middle English,” as it has been 
termed, from the death of Chaucer to the time of Spenser 
(about 1590); and the third, the period of the “ Later Eng¬ 
lish,” from the time of Spenser to the present day. 

During the first period many grammatical forms now dis¬ 
used prevailed extensively, and many now obsolete words 
were in common use. Of the former the following exam¬ 
ples may be given: 1. The plural of verbs in both the 
present and past tense very commonly ended in -en or -n 
as (in the present) “ we loven,” “ ye loven,” “ they loven 
in the past, “ we loveden,” “ ye loveden,” “ they loveden.” 
Instances of this usage abound in Chaucer’s works, as well 
as those of his contemporaries. The following examples 
may suffice to prove and to illustrate the point in question : 

“ And smale foules maken melodie 
That slepen alle night with open eye.” f • 

“ Pilgrimes were they alle, 

That toward Canterbury wolden ride, 

The chambres and the stables weren wide, 

And wel we weren esed (accommodated) atte beste.” 

Prologue to the Canterbury Tales. 

In the play entitled “ Pericles, Prince of Tyre,” which 


* For example, in the entire 40 pages of the “ revised edition ” 
(of 1864) extending from pp. 250 to 290, inclusive, there is not one 
genuine Saxon word, with the exception of colly (to “blacken ”). 

f Another but much rarer form of the plural in the indicative 
present, evidently derived from the Anglo-Saxon, ends in -elh, 
as “we loveth,” “ye loveth ,” “they loveth” (Anglo-Saxon, “we 
lufa'5,” “ge lufatS,” “hi lufa'S”). It may be remarked that the 
second person plural of the imperative regularly terminated in 
-i elh, as “loveth ye ” (love you): 

“ ITaveth som routhe (ruth or pity) en hire adversitee.” 

The Man of Lawes Tale. 


goes under the name of Shakspeare, we find examples of 
this plural termination of verbs : 

“ All perishen of man, of pelf, 

Ne aught escapen but himself.” 

Act II ., Gower {as Chorus). 

Wo often find in the English of the first period such 
forms as slen for sle-en (from sle, to “ slay ”), sayn for say- 
en; as, 

“ Ye slen me with your eyen, Emilie ; 

Ye ben the cause wherefor that I die.” 

“ As olde bokes (books) sayn.” 

The Knightes Tale. 

They used two forms of haven (to “ have ”); thus “ we 
haven,” “ ye haven,” “ they haven;” but more frequently it 
was contracted to han, as “ we han,” “ ye han,” “ they 
hun.” (The infinitive haven was also commonly contracted 
to han.) 

“But natheless this maiden bright of hew 

Fro foot to hed they clothed han all new: 

Hire heres (hair) han they kempt,” etc: 

The Clerkes Tale. 

Den, the common form of the infinitive to “ be,” was 
very generally used for “are,” as “we ben,” “ye ben,” 
“ they ben 

“This world n’ is but a thurghfare fill of wo, 

And we ben pilgrimes passing to and fro.” 

“ O riche marchants, ful of wele ben ye.” 

The Knightes Tale. 

2. The infinitive verb often had the termination in -en 
(corresponding to the Anglo-Saxon -an), which is the infini¬ 
tive ending of the Dutch and German at the present day; 
as tellen, to “ tell 

“ That eche of you to shorten with your way 
In this viage (journey) shall tellen tales tway 
To Canterbury ward, I mene it so, 

And homeward he shall tellen other two.” 

Prologue to the Canterbury Tales. 

Yet this form appears to have been in Chaucer’s time 
already going out of usage,' at all events, whenever it 
suited his verse he did not hesitate to drop the last syl¬ 
lable : 

“ And forth he rit (rode) there n’ is no more to tell.” 

“And leten him in his prison still dwelle; 

And of Arcita forth I wol you telle.” 

The Knightes Tale. 

Don (written also done and doon) was the common form 
of the infinitive of the verb to “ do 

“Power to don in hem (them) correction.” 

The Freres Tale. 

“And therefore wost (wottest) thou what is best to done.” 

The Milleres Tale. 

Gon (or gone) is a frequent form of the infinitive to “go” 
in the Early English period) but go also was very common 
in Chaucer’s time: 

“Alas! unto the Barbare nation 
I muste gon , sin that it is your will.” 

The Man of Lawes Tale. 

“ One foote further I will not gone.” 

The Chester Whitsun PI ayes , 

quoted by Tyrwhitt. 

3. The prefix y (corresponding to the Anglo-Saxon and 
also to the Dutch and German ge) was the common sign of 
the past participle ; as, 

“ He for despit . . . 

Of all our lordes which that ben yslaw (slain), 

.Hath all the bodies in a hepe ydraw , 

And will not sulfren hem by non assent, 

Neyther to ben yberied ne ybrent .” 

The Knightes Tale. 

This form, however, is not unusual with the poets of the 
Later English period. It is of frequent occurrence in the 
“Faerie Queen” of Spenser, and has been occasionally used 
by his imitators in comparatively recent times. Some of 
the grammatical forms of the pronouns common in the 
time of Chaucer are quite different from those now in use, 
the most important of which are perhaps the following: for 
“ them ” they used hem (Dutch hen); for “ their,” liir (Anglo- 
Saxon hyra or hire; Dutch hare)', for “her,” hire (Anglo- 
Saxon hire; Dutch hare). 

In Chaucer’s time and earlier (see below a quotation from 
the “Lives of the Saints,” written about 1200) the use of a 
double negative was not uncommon: sometimes, but very 
rarely, we find three or four negatives joined in one sentence : 

“ He newer yet no villanie ne said 

In all his life unto no manere wights” (no kind of persons). 

Prologue to the Canterbury Tales. 

One of tho principal discouragements to the modern Eng¬ 
lish scholar in his attempts to read the authors of the Early 
English period arises from the number of obsolete and now 


























ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 1565 


unintelligible words which he constantly meets with. A 
large proportion, however, of these words can be readily mas¬ 
tered by one who is acquainted with the German and Dutch 
languages, or with the Anglo-Saxon. But as probably hun¬ 
dreds of persons in this country become tolerably conversant 
with German to one who makes himself a master of Anglo- 
Saxon (for this being a dead language, few except professed 
scholars have any particular inducement to study it), it will 
perhaps be more interesting to the majority of readers to 
call attention to the near resemblance which not a few of 
the obsolete words occurring in our early classics bear to 
the German, Dutch, or French. To illustrate this point a 
very few examples may suffice. The following words, which 
are either obsolete or have changed their original significa¬ 
tion, may be readily understood by a reference to the Dutch 
or German: Feele, “many” (Ger. viele the v being pro¬ 
nounced like// Dutch veele; Anglo-Saxon fela); freten or 
fret, to “eat” (Ger. fressen; Dutch vreten; Anglo-Saxon 
f’retan, to “fret,” to “ gnaw”); fong, “take” (Ger. fangen, 
imperative fange, or fang’, pronounced almost fong)-, hals, 
“neck” (the same in German, Dutch, and Anglo-Saxon); 
knave or knave-child, “boy” or “male child” (Ger. Knabe, 
a “boy”); shene, “beautiful” (Ger. sclioen or schbn; Anglo- 
Saxon sciene); sterve or sterven, to “die” (Dutch sterven; 
Ger. sterben); starf or starfe, “died” (Ger. starb, b being 
pronounced likejj); suster,- “ sister ” (Anglo-Saxon suster; 
Dutch zuster). 

Deer in the following line of Shakspeare— 

“But mice and rats and such small deer” 

(King Lear , Act iii., scene 4), 

corresponds exactly in meaning to the German Thier, sig¬ 
nifying an “animal” of any kind. Jolly or iolly in the 
first stanza of Spenser’s “Faerie Queene ” is simply the 
French joli or joly, “pretty,” “handsome.” A few of the 
obsolete words of Chaucer may be traced to the Italian or 
Spanish. In the following line— 

“The blood real of Cadme and Amphion ” 

( The Knightes Tale), 

real signifies “royal,” like real in Spanish and reale in 
Italian. Chaucer also uses realtee for “royalty.” 

In the “ Lives of the Saints,” a composition in verso 
which Warton supposes to have been written about 1200 or 
earlier, are found some curious illustrations of the principle 
exemplified above. In the following passage, which relates 
to Saint Patrick’s delivering Ireland from serpents, several 
points are deserving of notice : 

“So ful of wormes that londe he fonde, that no man ne myghte 

gon 

In some stede (places) for wormes that he nas (was not) iwen- 
emyd (poisoned) anon. 

Seynt Pateryk bade our lorde Cryst that the londe delivered 
were 

Of thilke foul wormes, that none ne come there.” 

Worme, etymologically the same as the Swedish orm and 
Icelandic ormr (a “snake” or “serpent”), originally signi¬ 
fied any crawling animal, and was often used for “serpent” 
in the Early English period. No and ne in the first, and 
none and ne in the last line, furnish examples of the double 
negative so common in the Early English period. Iicenemyd 
(the prefix of instead of y, and the ending yd, mark the 
past participle) affords a curious example of the transition 
state between the original Latin venenum and our “venom.” 
Bade in the third line signified originally (as the Dutch bad 
and German bat do at present) “prayed” (not “ordered,” 
according to its modern English acceptation). By a similar 
change the French demander has come to imply in its Eng¬ 
lish form, “ demand,” something of the idea of bidding or 
ordering. Were in the third line (like the German ware 
and the Anglo-Saxon wsere) is equivalent to “might be,” 
as it is sometimes in modern English. 

A vast number of Old English words, essentially the same 
in etymology and signification with words now in use, were 
in the fourteenth century written in a manner so different 
from the usage of the present day as to be scarcely recog^ 
nizable except by those who have made this subject one of 
especial study. Doubtless in some cases there was a cor¬ 
responding difference in the pronunciation, but in many j 
instances there is reason to believe that even where the 
spelling was quite different the pronunciation was essen¬ 
tially fhe same as that now prevailing; e. g. blake, for 
“black;” brcde, for “bread;” deinte, for “dainty;” here, 
for “hair;” herte, for “heart;” moclie, for “much;” etc. 

English Literature.— This literature, using the term in its I 
ordinary and popular acceptation, may be safely pronounced , 
not only the most various, but the richest and grandest be¬ 
longing to any modern language. Macaulay, in speaking 
of this “ noble literature,” justly calls it “ the most splendid 

* When the meaning of the German or Dutch is not given, it 
is to be understood that it is the same as that of the obsolete 
English word. 


and the most durable of the many glories of England.” In 
attempting to treat a subject at once so various and so vast 
in the comparatively limited space that can be allotted to 
it in a work like the present, it will, of course, be impossi¬ 
ble to do more than briellynotice the most distinguished 
among the different authors who have illustrated its various 
departments. It will be most convenient to treat the dif¬ 
ferent writers according to the periods (already defined) 
in which they flourished. 

The first author of note belonging to the Early English 
period, and the earliest English prose-writer of any celeb¬ 
rity, was the famous traveller, Sir John Mandeville (1300- 
71). He is said to have left his native land at the age of 
twenty-two, and to have passed thirty-four years in visit¬ 
ing the various countries of the globe. On his return to 
England he committed to writing an account of all his 
travels. This work, though abounding in marvellous and 
even ridiculous stories, contains also much true ^forma¬ 
tion, which at that time was quite new to the people of 
England. “Ilis book,” says a writer in the “ Retrospective 
Review ” (iii. 269), “ is to the Englishman doubly valuable, 
as establishing the title of his country to claim as its own 
the first example of the liberal and independent gentleman 
travelling over the world in the disinterested pursuit of 
knowledge.” Mandeville, though writing nearly 150 years 
before the time of Columbus, announces in the most distinct 
and the fullest terms the spherical form of the earth. 
Among the other prominent writers of that period was 
Wycliffe (1324-84), who has been styled “ the morning star 
of the Reformation,” and who has the honor of having made 
the first English translation of the Scriptures. John Bar¬ 
bour (1326-96), a Scottish poet of merit, published a met¬ 
rical history of Robert I. under the simple title of “ Bruce.” 

But the first really great poet that we meet with in the 
annals of English literature is Geoffrey Chaucer (1328- 
1400), “compared with whose productions,” says an able 
writer, “ all that precedes is barbarism.” Although par¬ 
taking largely of the spirit of his age, which was still the 
age of chivalry, and though the plots of his different poems 
or tales are mostly taken from other authors, everything 
that he has written bears the stamp of a rare and original 
genius. Far inferior as he undoubtedly is to Shakspeare in 
depth and power, and though differing from him so widely 
in the cast of his genius, he may yet be said to bear some 
resemblance to that great poet in a certain kindly joyous¬ 
ness of spirit, and also in the skilful discrimination with 
which his various characters are drawn: But while Shak¬ 
speare reveals to us the inner workings of the mind, with 
its infinitely varied feelings, motives, and passions, Chaucer 
delights to exhibit his characters by a minute description 
of their external traits and peculiarities, rather than by 
their internal attributes. He is perhaps the most descrip¬ 
tive and the most picturesque of English poets. His senses 
are all alive to perceive and enjoy everything sweet or 
beautiful in nature and everything striking or splendid in art. 
It is his failing, indeed, to be too minute and diffuse in his 
descriptions as well as in his narrations. “ His characters,” 

’ says Taine, “speak too much, but then they speak so well.” 
But in an age when books were few and rare this minute¬ 
ness and prolixity were rather a recommendation than an 
objection in an author who had the skill to make every 
subject that he touched upon attractive. Perhaps the most 
remarkable among Chaucer’s various characteristics is his 
serene and invincible cheerfulness. He is joyous, tender, 
pathetic, playful, and thoughtful by turns, but he is never 
gloomy or dejected. The effect of his most pathe.tic pas¬ 
sages may be to touch or melt, but never to oppress or pain¬ 
fully agitate the hearts of his readers. It is to be lamented 
that a writer possessed of so many charming qualities 
should be guilty, as Chaucer frequently is, of such freedom, 
and even grossness, of thought and expression. This may 
be in part, but not wholly, excused by referring it to the 
spirit and manners of the age in which he lived. 

The change in our language since the time of Chaucer 
has been very great. Many words then in use have become 
obsolete, and a multitude of others unknown to that age 
have been added to the English tongue; but these changes, 
important as they undoubtedly are, are not the most re¬ 
markable that have taken place. 

Perhaps the greatest change of all, in our judgment, has 
been in the accentuation of words. From the time of the 
Conquest until the age of Edward III., French was the lan¬ 
guage of the Anglo-Norman court, and to a large extent of 
all the cultivated classes in England. Chaucer himself, being 
a courtier, was constantly associated with those who spoke 
only French. This may explain, if any explanation bo 
needed, why he made no attempt to change the versification 
then in vogue. Accordingly, we find in his verse that his 
accentuation of words and the metre correspond, with rare 
exceptions, to the usages of French poetry. Hence, such 
words as corage (“ courage ”), linage (“ lineage ”), visage, 

















1566 ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


conscience, reverence, sentence, daggere (“ dagger ”), manere 
(“manner”), eto., occurring in his verse, are always to be 
pronounced with the accent on the last syllable. Even such 
Saxon words as brenning (“burning”), coming, wedding, 
etc. were accentuated in a similar manner, as is shovrn by 
the following and other instances: 

“What ladies fayrest ben, or best dancing , 

Or which of hem can carole best or sing.” 

“Thus was the halle full of deriving, * 

Long after that the sonne gan up spring .” 

The so-called e mute of the French tongue (always pro¬ 
nounced as a short syllable in French poetry, except when 
immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel) 
is very generally, but not always, pronounced by Chaucer; 
but if immediately followed by a word beginning ivith a 
vowel, the sound of the mute e is invariably suppressed. 
For example, in the following couplet— 

‘^And dounward from an hill under a bent 
Ther stood the temple of Mars armipotent,” 

the second line should be read as if written— 

“ There stood the tempi’ of (pronounced templov) Mars armipo¬ 
tent.” 

Another line— 

“ That highte the gret temple of Mars in Trace,” 
should be read thus : 

“ That highte the great tempi’ of Mars in Thrace.” 

Chaucer often varies from his own spelling; thus he has 
both grete and gret (for “great”), red and rede (for “red”), 
parfit or parjite (“perfect”), etc. 

The same general style of versification as that of Chau¬ 
cer, including the peculiarities of the French accentuation 
and the pronunciation as a short syllable of the so-called e 
mute, except when followed immediately by a word begin¬ 
ning with a vowel, appears to have been common if not 
universal in the fourteenth century' and long afterwards. 
In the poetry of Gower (who was Chaucer's contemporary : 
date of birth unknown; died in 1408), all these peculiarities 
are as strongly marked as in Chaucer himself. Dunbar, 
who lived more than a century later (1465-1530), places the 
accent in his verse on the last syllable even of such words 
as “treasure,” “ injure;” and ti’aces of a similar accentua¬ 
tion are to be found in Spenser and Shakspeare, particu¬ 
larly in the case of such words as end in -ion; for example : 

“Her heart gan melt in great compassion, 

And drizzling teares.she shed for pure affection.” 

Faerie Queene, book i. 

As there was no great English poet before Chaucer, so 
there was none of any note for a long time after him. The 
appearance in the very dawn, as it were, of English litera¬ 
ture of an author so richly and rarely gifted, who had no 
successor to his fame for almost two hundred years, has 
been aptly compared to a bright and beautiful day in early 
spring, followed by a long period of dark and wintry 
weather, in which no opening flowers give forth their fra¬ 
grance, no joyful birds sing in the groves. Indeed, after 
Chaucer’s death, for an entire century, England produced 
scarcely one poet worthy of the name, and could boast of 
none of any celebrity, excepting Howard, earl of Surrey, 
until, almost at the close of another hundred years, Spen¬ 
ser gave to the world the first three books of'his “ Faerie 
Queene.” But we are not to suppose that though this long 
period was unillustrated by any great or splendid name, it 
was without important fruits to English literature. It was, 
in fact, during this period that the elements of our language 
became thoroughly assimilated, and it acquired that fulness 
and flexibility which were necessary to render it a fit in¬ 
strument to give expression to the beautiful visions of Spen¬ 
ser or to the wondrous and infinitely varied conceptions of 
Shakspeare. 

After the mind of the English nation had lain fallow, so 
to speak, for almost two hundred years, there arose near 
the close of the sixteenth and in the early part of the seven¬ 
teenth century a constellation of genius such as perhaps 
was never equalled in ancient or modern times. We can, 
however, in our narrow limits do scarcely more than name 
any but the most illustrious of the authors who adorned 
that glorious period of English history. First in order of 
time,f if not first for his rare and many-sided genius, was 
the chivalrous and accomplished Sir Philip Sidney (1554- 
86), poet, wit, courtier, and hero combined in one. Spenser 
(1553-99) comes next, whose “Faerie Queene,” written in 
the very dawn of modern English literature, is not only un¬ 
rivalled for the marvellous richness of imagination which 


*T.e.“ conjecturing.” See “ The Knightes Tale,” where many 
similar examples will be found. 

f Although Sidney was born a year after Spenser, his fame may 
be said to have preceded that of Spenser by more than a decade 
of years. 


it displays, but, what perhaps was less to be expected, for 
the grace, melody, and exquisite finish of its poetic diction. 
Next in order is Christopher Marlowe (1562-92), who has 
been called the true founder of the English dramatic school, 
and who, in the representation of the most terrible passions 
of the human soul, has been pronounced by able critics to 
be scarcely if at all inferior to Shakspeare. Nor must we 
omit among the illustrious prose-writers of that age Richard 
Hooker (1553-1600), who, according to Hallam, is “the 
finest, as well as the most philosophical, writer of the Eliza¬ 
bethan period.” 

Who shall have the hardihood to attempt in a few brief 
lines to do justice to Shakspeare’s genius, which for its 
heights and depths, as well as for its breadth and never- 
ending variety, may be compared to the bread earth with 
its infinite diversity of surface and productions, its fertile 
valleys, its hills clad with verdure, its pleasant grottoes 
and gloomy caverns, its rugged and lofty mountains, and 
its vast, unfathomable seas ? Perhaps no one has better 
characterized this greatest of dramatic poets in a few words 
than Dryden : “ He was the man who of all modern and 
perhaps ancient poets had the largest and most compre¬ 
hensive soul. All the images of nature were still present to 
him; . . . when he describes anything you more than see it, 
you feel it too. ... I cannot say he is everywhere alike,. . . 
but he is always great when some great occasion is pre¬ 
sented to him.” Of the dramatic writers contemporary with 
Shakspeare, Ben Jonson, “take him for all in all,” was un¬ 
questionably the greatest. If inferior to Marlowe and Web¬ 
ster in the representation of violent passions, he was much 
superior to them in the variety of his powers, as well as in 
his profound and varied learning. But his genius was intel¬ 
lectual, rather than imaginative; he especially excelled in 
satirical comedy. The principal other dramatists of that 
period were Massinger (1584-1640), Webster (date of birth 
and death unknown), Beaumont (1586-1616), and Fletcher 
(1576-1625). In literary history the two last named are 
always associated, from their having written most of their 
dramas in partnership. The reigns of Elizabeth and James 
I. constituted the most flourishing period of the English 
drama, conspicuous in which field, besides those already 
named, were Ford (1586), Decker, Hey wood, Shirley (1594- 
1666), Middleton, and Rowley. Under Charles I. the the¬ 
atre declined, and was not revived till the Restoration in 
1660, but it never afterwards regained the popularity and 
influence it possessed under James I. 

Francis Bacon (1561-1626), though perhaps not now esti¬ 
mated quite so highly as he was in the last century, was 
one of the most remarkable men of that remarkable age. 
A great lawyer and great wit, an able essayist and accom¬ 
plished public speaker, he is now chiefly known to fame as 
a philosopher, in which character he has few if any supe¬ 
riors among the great men of modern Europe. He is re¬ 
garded by some as the father of modern science, as the first 
who taught the true method of scientific investigation ; but 
this distinction he can scarcely claim with justice. Some 
able judges, even in England, have considered him inferior 
as a philosopher to his contemporary, Galileo. But this, at 
least, may be said in favor of Bacon, that he was among the 
first and most influential of those who sought to emancipate 
Philosophy from the fetters imposed on her by an irrational 
and absurd reverence for the great names of antiquity; and 
he has probably done as much as any other writer to pave 
the way for that wonderful “ advancement of the sciences ” J 
which may be said to constitute the peculiar glory of mod¬ 
ern times. 

George Chapman (1557-1634) was author of translations 
of Homer’s “ Iliad ” and “ Odyssey,” executed with much 
spirit. They may be regarded as on the whole very re¬ 
markable productions for the time when they appeared. 
Bishop Hall (1574-1656) was a writer of merit both in prose 
and poetry. His best known poetical work is his “ Bookes 
of Byting Satyres,” which Pope considered to contain the 
best poetry and truest satire in the language. Of his prose 
works the most important are his “ Contemplations on the 
Principal Passages of the Holy Story ” and his “ Occasional 
Meditations.” 

Proceeding in the order of time, we next come to Milton 
(1608-74), a genius as transcendent, perhaps, as that of 
Shakspeare, though in a very different field. For a har¬ 
monious union of imaginative, intellectual, and moral en¬ 
dowments of the very highest order he stands alone among 
the sons of men. As a poet or writer of prose he is not in 
his happier hours inferior to any of the great writers of an¬ 
tiquity, while in the dignity and grandeur of his life he is 
perhaps unsurpassed by any author, ancient or modern. 
“ It is certain,” says Hume, “ that this author, when in a 


I “ The Advancement of the Sciences,” or “ The Advancement 
of Learning,” as he himself called it (in Latin, “De Augmentis 
Scientiarum ”), was one of Bacon’s most celebrated works. 



















ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATUEE. 1567 


ha PPy mo °d an< l employed on a noble subject, is the most 
wonderfully sublime of any poet in any language, Homer 
and Lucretius and Tasso not excepted.” [History of Eng¬ 
land.) According to the illustrious French critic yillemain, 
“ Milton s picture of our first parents in Eden surpasses in 
a graceful and charming simplicity anything to be found 
in ancient or modern poetry, and the human imagination 
has produced nothing more sublime* than some portions 
of ‘ Paradise Lost.’ ” It may be safely affirmed that Milton 
alone, of all modern poets, has in the grace and grandeur 
of his language, and in the majestic harmony of his num¬ 
bers, equalled or surpassed the greatest poets of antiquity; 
and it may be added that the finest passages of his prose are 
scarcely, if at all, inferior to his poetry in grace, majesty, 
and splendor. “ En sondant toutes les litteratures,” says 
Taine, “ vous ne rencontrerez guere de poetes egaux a ce 
prosateur.’ j - Besides “ Paradise Lost,” his greatest work, 
Milton wrote several others, of which the most remarkable 
is “ Comus,” a sort of lyrical drama, pronounced by Ma¬ 
caulay “ the noblest performance of the kind which exists 
in any language.” Milton was also the author of several 
admirable lyrics, among which are his “ Hymn on the 
Nativity,” “ L’Allegro,” and “ II Penseroso.” Of Milton’s 
prose works the best, perhaps, is his “ Areopagitica,” or 
“Plea for Unlicensed Printing.” 

Among the minor poets contemporary with Milton per¬ 
haps the most remarkable was Abraham Cowley (161S-67), 
a man ot decided genius, but the merit of his poetry is 
greatly diminished by his labored affectations and conceits. 
From these defects his prose is comparatively free. Ac- 
• cording to an able critic (Dr. Drake), “To Cowley we may 
justly ascribe the formation of a basis on which has since 
been constructed the present correct and admirable fabric 
of our language. His words are pure and well chosen, the 
collocation simple and perspicuous, and the members of his 
sentences distinct and harmonious.” Edmund Waller (1605- 
87) was a poet of a very different character. With far less 
native genius and force than Cowley, yet being endowed 
with superior taste, a ready wit, and more tact, if not more 
skill in versification, he succeeded in acquiring a far greater 
popularity as a poet than many men who were his superiors 
in genius. But he is generally allowed, even by those who 
admire him least, to have given to English versification a 
smoothness and grace unknown to it before. 

Several prose-writers of decided merit belong to this 
period: Thomas Chillingworth (1602-44), a divine of the 
Church of England, was especially distinguished as an able 
controversialist. He has been highly praised by Tillotson 
and Locke, and Lord Mansfield pronounced him “ a perfect 
model of argumentation.” Jeremy Taylor (1602-67), also 
a divine, was eminent for his rich imagination, eloquence, 
and learning. According to Ilallam, he “ may be said to 
have been the first who sapped and shook the foundations 
of dogmatism and pretended orthodoxy—the first who 
taught men to seek peace in unity of spirit rather than of 
belief.” “His sermons,” says the same able critic, “ are far 
above any that had preceded them in the English Church.” 
The Rev. Thomas Fuller (1608-61) was a man of multifa¬ 
rious information and rare richness of thought. As a writer 
he is eminently pithy and piquant. Among his principal 
works may be mentioned his “History of the Worthies of 
England” and “The Holy and Profane State,” the former 
presenting examples for imitation, the latter for abhorrence. 
In the middle and latter part of the seventeenth century 
flourished two celebrated prose-writers who were no less 
eminent as pulpit-orators, both admirable as men and as 
teachers of Christianity, and whose influence has lasted to 


the present day. The one, Richard Baxter (1615-91), a 
nonconformist divine, was of the noblest and loftiest type 
of the Puritan character. The other, Archbishop Tillotson 
(1630-94), was no less distinguished for his piety than for 
his liberality of sentiment, a rare quality in that age. 
“His reasoning,” says Macaulay, “was just sufficiently 
profound and sufficiently refined to be followed by a popu¬ 
lar audience with that slight degree of intellectual exertion 
which is a pleasure. . . . The greatest charm of his com¬ 
position, however, is derived from the benignity and can¬ 
dor which appear in every line, and which shone forth not 
less conspicuously in his life than in his writings.” ( His¬ 
tory of England, vol. iii.) Isaac Barrow (1630-77) was 
almost equally distinguished as a learned and eloquent di¬ 
vine and as a profound mathematician. “His sermons,” 
says Ilallam, “ display a strength of mind, a comprehen¬ 
siveness, and fertility which have rarely been equalled.” 
Robert South (1633-1716), another eminent English divine, 
was especially distinguished for his wit, learning, and elo- , 
quence. One of the most eminent of English dissenting 
divines was John Owen (1616-83), considered especially 
admirable as an expounder of Scripture. John Howe 
(1630-1705), another dissenting divine, was remarkable for 
his originality and his philosophic spirit. His “ Living 
Temple” is regarded as one of the most extraordinary 
works in the English language.’ 

Among the most remarkable writers in the annals of 
English literature was John Bunyan (1628-88), a man 
whose imagination was so vivid and powerful that though 
he wrote only in prose, he may without impropriety or 
exaggeration be pronounced one of the most genuine poets 
England has produced, if we use the word “poet” in its 
original sense, that of or “creator”—that is, one 

who forms from his own imagination characters to whom 
he imparts all the vividness and seeming reality of actual 
life. Bunyan’s principal production, “ Pilgrim’s Progress,” 
as a work of rare genius is perhaps inferior to no single pro¬ 
duction in the language, “Paradise Lost” alone excepted. 

Samuel Butler (1612-80) is celebrated as the author of 
“ Iludibras,” a very witty but rather coarse production, 
which owes no small part of the amusement it affords to 
its quaint and singular rhymes. The hero of this mock 
epic is Iludibras, a Puritan knight, the history of whose 
exploits as here related seems to be a sort of travesty of 
Cervantes’ “ Don Quixote.” 

John Dryden (1631-1700) has perhaps, save the immortal 
names of Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, and Milton, no 
superior in the annals of English poetry. “ The public 
voice,” says Macaulay, “has assigned to Drj r den the first 
place in the second rank of our poets.” He cultivated 
almost every department of poetry with success, without 
taking the very highest rank in any. His “ Absalom and 
Achitophel” is one of the most powerful and most success¬ 
ful satires in fhe language. “ Ilis command of language,” 
says Macaulay, “was immense. With him died the secret 
of the old poetical diction of England—the art of producing 
rich effects by familiar words.” In another place he says : 
“Dryden was an incomparable reasoner in verse;” and 
again : “ He was certainly the best writer of heroic rhyme 
in our language.” “He writes,” says Taine, “stirring airs 
which shake all the senses if they do not sink into the 
heart. Such is ‘Alexander’s Feast,’ an ode in honor of 
Saint Cecilia’s Day, an admirable trumpet-blast in which 
metre and sound impress upon the nerves the emotions of 
the mind.” His prose was perhaps even superior to his 
verse. Brougham praises “ the matchless prose of Dryden, 
rich, various, natural, animated.” Dryden wrote a number 
of dramas, which cannot be regarded as works of much 
merit. Several of his comedies are disfigured with pas¬ 
sages of the grossest indecency. His translation of Virgil 
has been greatly admired. Pope considered it “ the most 
noble and spirited translation he knew in any language.” 
As a critic, Dryden has few if any superiors in English 
literature. Among his most important critical writings are 
his “ Essay on Satire ” and his “ Essay on Dramatic Poetry.” 
The latter was pronounced by Dr. Johnson “the first regu¬ 
lar and valuable treatise [in the language] on the art of 
writing.” 

Probably no English author has contributed more to im¬ 
prove and refine our language than Joseph Addison (1672- 
1719), who in a certain easy elegance of style, rendered 
still more attractive by a vein of genial, delicate, and in¬ 
imitable humor, surpassed all the prose-writers that had 
preceded him. But to Addison belongs a higher glory than 
that of being the most elegant writer and most fascinating 
wit of his age. He purified and elevated the public taste, 
and rescued the literature of his country from the degrada¬ 
tion and infamy into which it had fallen under Charles II. 
“He not only made,” says Dr. Johnson, “the proper use 
of wit himself, but taught it to others. ... He has dis¬ 
sipated the prejudice that had long connected gayety with 


*See Villemain’s notice of Milton in the “Biographie Univer- 
selle.” 

f “In searching all literatures you will scarcely find any poets 
equal to this writer of prose.” {Histoire de la Literature Anglaise, 
livre ii., chap, vi.) And yet this critic, able, acute, and rarely ap¬ 
preciative as he unquestionably is on most points relating to our 
literature, in his ambition to say what is striking or piquant too 
often loses sight of justice and truth. Thus he says, referring to 
“ Paradise Lost,” “ In this history of God the principal part {role) 
is taken by the devil.” But it nowhere purports to be a “ history 
of God ” (such a history might be inconveniently voluminous for 
a work designed to be read by mortals), but simply a very small 
part of that history—only so much as relates to “justifying the 
ways of God to man.” The imagery of “Paradise Lost” affords 
our critic an inexhaustible subject for ridicule. Referring to 
one of Milton’s scenes of celestial splendor, M. Taine tells us, in 
substance, that all that was wanting to make it perfect were “ the 
fireworks and ringing of bells as in London.” He thinks that 
Milton made a mistake in representing our first parents in Eden 
as having angelic natures, with high intellectual, moral, and 
spiritual faculties; they should rather have been “glorious, 
strong, and voluptuous children,. . . with no more thought than 
the bull or mare lying on the grass beside them.” From these 
and other passages the reader can judge how far M. Taine is 
qualified to do justice to the highest conceptions of a poet ideal 
in the loftiest sense, and filled with an intensity of devotion and 
living faith difficult to realize in this lukewarm, materialistic 
age. 

















1568 ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


vice, and easiness of manners with laxity of principles, 
lie has restored virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence 
not to bo ashamed. This is an elevation of literary charac¬ 
ter above all Greek, abovo all Roman fame.” Addison’s 
literary reputation rests chiefly on “ The Spectator,” a paper 
to which his sparkling wit and exquisite humor gave a 
popularity and influence that no similar publication has 
ever attained. 

Contemporary with Addison was Jonathan Swift (1667- 
1745), an author of a very different character. He possessed 
a mind of great force and originality, but either constitu¬ 
tionally morbid or rendered so by the privations and disap¬ 
pointments of his early life. His poetry is always spirited, 
but even when exhibiting least fire it is remarkable for the 
easy, spontaneous flow of its numbers. But he is chiefly 
known as a writer of prose. In vigorous, pointed satire 
Swift is probably superior to any other author England has 
produced; and in the opinion of some able critics he has 
not been surpassed in this respect by any writer of any age 
or nation. “ ‘ The Tale of the Tub/ ” says Ilallam, “ is, in my 
apprehension, the masterpiece of Swift: certainly Rabelais 
has nothing superior even in invention, nor anything so 
condensed, so pointed, so full of real meaning, of biting 
satire, of felicitous analogy.” (Introduction to the Literature 
of Europe.) The great drawbacks on Swift’s merits as an 
author are his excessive coarseness or obscenity, the bitter, 
misanthropical spirit, sometimes amounting to absolute 
malignity, which exhibits itself more or less in nearly all 
his works. 

Alexander Pope (1688-1744) is commonly considered to 
rank next to Dryden in the second class of English poets, 
although not a few critics would place him at the head of 
this class. If inferior to Dryden in vigor and in imagina¬ 
tion, he is much superior to that poet in delicacy of taste, 
refinement of language,, and harmony of versification. In 
condensation he may be said to excel all other English 
poets. In didactic poetry he has perhaps no equal in Eng¬ 
lish literature. His translation of Homer’s “Iliad,” though 
not very exact, is one of the most popular translations in 
our language. One of the most remarkable writers in the 
English language was Bishop Butler (1692-1752), whose 
celebrated “'Analogy” is, according to Sir James Mackin¬ 
tosh, “ the most original and profound work extant in any 
language on the philosophy of religion.” 

In the foregoing remarks it has been deemed proper to 
speak somewhat particularly of those great authors who 
have chiefly contributed to form and refine our language, 
and to lay the broad and solid foundations of our matchless 
literature. Our limits will compel us in what follows to use 
greater conciseness ; and to this end, instead of treating the 
different authors, as we have hitherto done, chronologically 
and biographically, it will be expedient to classify them 
according to the particular department of literature which 
they have illustrated. In briefly stating the characteristics 
of the different writers care has been taken not to affirm any¬ 
thing not sanctioned by the authority of the best critics; and 
as the position of very recent (and especially of living) au¬ 
thors may in many instances be considered as not yet fully 
determined, these have usually been passed over with sim¬ 
ply mentioning the name, or the name in conjunction with 
one or two of the author’s principal works. It is scarcely 
necessary to add that those only have been given in whom 
it might be supposed every intelligent reader would natu¬ 
rally feel some interest. 

Criticism has been illustrated by.the eminent names of 
Dryden, Addison, Pope, Dr. Johnson, T. Warton, Dr. N. 
Drake, Coleridge, Hazlitt, Lord Jeffrey, Sidney Smith, 
Brougham, Gifford, Southey, Sir W. Scott, Hallam, Leigh 
Hunt, Carlyle, Collier, Macaulay. Among those who have 
written particular criticisms on Shakspeare are Dr. John¬ 
son, Steevens, Malone, Dr. Drake, Coleridge, Hazlitt, Col¬ 
lier, R. Farmer, Dyce, J. 0. Halliwell-Phillipps, H. N. 
Hudson, John Wilson, John Wilson Croker, J. G. Lockhart. 

History .—The first truly able English historian was Ed¬ 
ward Hyde, earl of Clarendon (1608-74), whose “ History of 
the Rebellion” has been justly pronounced “one of* the 
noblest historical works in the English language.” It 
should be' observed, however, that Clarendon was a royal¬ 
ist, and of course his history is not to be taken as abso¬ 
lutely impartial. Hume’s “ History of England” has been 
much admired for its graceful, natural, and perspicuous 
style; but as a historian he is justly censured as deficient 
in research, and as exhibiting in that portion of his work 
which treats of the civil war a decided partiality to the 
royal cause. Smollett (1721-71), who wrote a continuation 
of Hume’s “History of England,” has little to recommend 
him besides his style, which is much inferior to that of his 
predecessor. Robertson (1721-93) is one of the most mer¬ 
itorious of British historians. His style is elegant, clear, 
and vigorous, and in his narration he is usually accurate, 
judicious, and impartial. He wrote a “History of Scot¬ 


land ” and a “ History of America ” (treating of its discovery 
and conquest by the Spaniards), but the work on which his 
reputation chiefly rests is his excellent “History of the 
Emperor Charles V.” John Lingard (1771-1851) was the 
author of a “ History of England, from the First Invasion 
by the Romans to the Accession of William and Mary in 
1688,” which is highly esteemed. He was a Roman Cath¬ 
olic, and it is understood that his aim in writing the above- 
named work was to produce a history of England that might 
correct the partial or prejudiced representations of other 
historians. Edward Gibbon (1737-94), one of the greatest 
historians that England has produced, is chiefly known by 
his celebrated work, the “History of the Decline and Fall 
of the Roman Empire.” He possesses many of the highest 
qualifications of a great historian. In thoroughness of re¬ 
search he has never been surpassed, and he usually evinces 
great judgment, as well as accuracy; but he is justly 
chargeable with unfairness towards the early Christians. 
(See on this subject some excellent remarks in Prescott’s 
“Biographical and Critical Miscellanies.”) Among later 
historians of distinction maybe named Alison (1792-1867), 
who wrote a “ History of Europe from the Commencement 
of the French Revolution to the Restoration of the Bour¬ 
bons, 1815,” a work of great merit, but disfigured by its 
inflated, grandiloquent style. Macaulay (1800-59), whose 
“History of England” is one of the most remarkable his¬ 
torical works ever produced. It is admirable for its clear 
and animated style, for the great research it evinces, and 
for the power and sustained interest of its narrative, but 
it is wanting in impartiality. Froude’s “ History of Eng¬ 
land from the Fall of Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth” 
is a work of great merit, but its accuracy has been as¬ 
sailed by some critics; and on this point the opinion of the 
literary public may be said to be still unsettled. Grote’s 
“History of Greece” (1846-56) is a work of immense 
learning and research, and of the highest merit. A critic 
in the “Quarterly Review” pronounces it “the most im¬ 
portant contribution to historical literature in modern 
times.” Thirlwall’s “History of Greece” (1852) is also 
a work of great merit. Mitford’s “History of Greece” 
(1818) displays much learning and ability, but its value is 
greatly impaired by the anti-democratic prejudices of its 
author. In his account of the conflict between Athens and 
Philip of Macedon he is guilty of the most glaring injus¬ 
tice. Gillies’ “ History of Ancient Greece and its Colonies” 
evinces considerable learning. Merivale’s “ History of the 
Romans under the Empire” (1850-62) is highly esteemed. 
A most valuable “ History of Rome,” by the Rev. Thomas 
Arnold of Rugby, was left unfinished at the author’s death 
in 1842; it only comes down to the end of the Second 
Punic war. James Mill (1773-1836) wrote a “ History of 
British India” (1817-19), which has been highly praised 
by eminent critics, including Mr. Grote, the historian. 
Among historical writers of less note are J. H. Burton, 
author of a valuable “History of Scotland” (1S67), and 
E. A. Freeman, who has written, besides other historical 
works, a “ History of the Norman Conquest of England ” 
(1867-69), which gives proof of much research. 

Philosop>hy. —In this field, after Bacon (noticed in the 
former part of this article), the most celebrated English 
writer was John Locke, a man of most estimable character 
and of liberal, philanthropic sentiments. The central posi¬ 
tion of his philosophy, as presented in his great work, 
the “Essay on the Human Understanding,” is, that the 
mind has no innate ideas, but that all our notions are de¬ 
rived directly or through the medium of reflection from 
external impressions. Another celebrated philosophical 
writer was Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), a man of exceed¬ 
ingly clear and vigorous but limited intellect. His philos¬ 
ophy may be defined as one which aims to reduce all the 
faculties of the mind and all the principles of morals or 
religion to a mathematical standard. According to Hume, 
his doctrines were “only fitted to promote tyranny and 
encourage licentiousness.” Hobbes’s great work is entitled 
the “ Leviathan,” which contains a complete system of his 
philosophy, including his political, moral, and theological 
opinions. The other leading names in philosophy are 
Shaftesbury (1671-1713), whose “Inquiry concerning Vir¬ 
tue ” is highly praised by Sir James Mackintosh for its “ per¬ 
fect method, just reasoning, and precise and clear style.” 
George Berkeley (1684-1753) was an accomplished scholar 
and acute reasoner. He was famous as teaching a system 
of pure idealism, in which he maintained that there is no 
proof anywhere of the existence of matter except in our 
own perceptions. “ His works,” says Sir James Mackintosh, 
“ are beyond dispute the finest models of philosophical 
style since Cicero.” Francis Hutcheson (1694-1747) wrote 
an “Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and 
Virtue,” an “Essay on the Passions and Affections,” and a 
“ System of Moral Philosophy,” which is his greatest work. 
According to Sir James Mackintosh, he “was the father 


















ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


of the modern school of philosophy in Scotland.” David 
Hartley (1705—57) was the author of an excellent philo¬ 
sophical work entitled “ Observations on Man, his Frame, 
his Duties, and his Expectations,” which has been highly 
praised by Dr. Parr, Dr. Priestly, and other distinguished 
writers. David Hume (1711-76) was one of the most acute 
and subtle thinkers that Great Britain has produced. In 
philosophy and religion he was a skeptic; in politics he was 
inclined to favor an arbitrary government. Thomas Reid 
(1710—96) was the founder of the Scottish school of philos¬ 
ophy, which has been characterized as the “philosophy of 
common sense.” lie wrote an “ Inquiry into the Human 
Mind, and other works of a similar character. Among 
the most eminent of his followers were—Dugald Stewart 
(1753—1828), an able and profound thinker, who by his 
striking and impressive eloquence contributed much to 
render the study of mental philosophy popular in Great 
Britain; and Thomas Brown (1778—1820), whose most im¬ 
portant work is “ Observations on the Relation of Cause 
and Effect.” He also published “ Lectures on the Philos¬ 
ophy of the Human Mind,” which enjoyed a great popu¬ 
larity. To the foregoing may be added the names of William 
Paley (1743-1805), author of “ Principles of Moral and Po¬ 
litical Philosophy:” he is charged with denying the exist¬ 
ence of any moral sense, and he does, in effect, make ex¬ 
pediency the test of right and wrong; and Sir James Mack¬ 
intosh, who wrote an admirable work entitled “View of 
the Progress of Ethical Philosophy,” which first appeared 
among the preliminary dissertations in the “ Encyclopaedia 
Britannica.” Among more recent writers on philosophy 
and psychology are Sir William Hamilton (1788-1856), 
author of the “Philosophy of the Absolute,” “Philosophy 
of Perception,” etc.: he was an acute thinker, and he is 
perhaps unrivalled for a thorough acquaintance with the 
history of philosophy, both ancient and modern ; Dr. Cald- 
erwood, J. Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Alexander Bain, 
and Dr. James McCosh, among whose works that “On the 
Method of the Divine Government” is perhaps the most 
important; it has been highly commended by several able 
critics. 

Novels, Romances, etc. —Sir Philip Sidney, “Arcadia.” 
Samuel Richardson (1689-1761), called the founder of the 
modern novel. His most remarkable work is “ Clarissa 
Harlowe.” Richardson’s aim was to promote virtue, but 
he is considered by some critics to have made his favorite 
characters unnatural by attempting to make them perfect 
as patterns for others to imitate. Henry Fielding (1707- 
54) appears to have erred in the opposite direction. His 
favorite characters are sometimes grossly immoral, but their 
vices are supposed to bo redeemed by courage, generosity, 
and other manly virtues. “Joseph Andrews ” and “ Tom 
Jones” are considered to be his greatest works. Smollett 
joined to the faults of Fielding defects that were peculiarly 
his own. His characters exhibit the vices without the gen¬ 
erosity attributed to those of Fielding. Goldsmith (see 
Poetry, Descriptive ) was the author of the “Vicar of 
Wakefield,” one of the most charming tales in the English 
language. “ Of all romances in miniature,” says Schlegel, 
“ the * Vicar of Wakefield ’ is the most exquisite.” To this 
class properly belongs “Rasselas, a Tale of Abyssinia,” by 
Dr. Johnson, a work which has been greatly admired by 
critics of the most diverse tastes. The greatest perhaps of 
British novelists was Walter Scott; at least he greatly sur¬ 
passed all who had preceded him. Bulwer for a long time was 
considered to stand next to him, and if all his various merits 
are taken into consideration, he may still perhaps be allowed 
that distinction. Charles Dickens introduced a new style 
of novel, which by its piquant caricatures, as well as by the 
genuine power and pathos evinced by the author, acquired 
a popularity which seemed to eclipse all that had gone be¬ 
fore it. "William M. Thackeray followed in a still different 
style of novel, which had an extraordinary success. Besides 
these great masters in romance, there were many successful 
but less distinguished writers, of whom we have scarcely 
room to give the names. Among the most eminent of these 
are Anthony Trollope, Charles Reade, Wilkie Collins, Char¬ 
lotte Bronte, Mrs. Gaskill, Miss Mulock (now Mrs. Craik), 
Miss Evans (now Mrs. Lewes), etc. 

Poetry, Descriptive. —James Thomson (1700-48), the most 
celebrated descriptive poet in the language, is chiefly known 
as the author of the “Seasons,” written in blank verse, 
although his “ Castle of Indolence,” composed in Spense¬ 
rian measure, is a work of greater genius. His blank verse, 
though generally smooth and often majestic in its flow, is 
rather monotonous. Oliver Goldsmith (1728-74), author 
of “ The Traveller” and “ The Deserted Village,” two short 
poems written with great simplicity and an exquisite grace. 
Nothing superior to them in their kind can be found in the 
language. (See next paragraph.) Cowper (noticed below as 
a didactic poet) excelled in description. Ho is not sur¬ 
passed perhaps in this respect by any English poet. Many 
99 


admirable descriptive passages are to be found in “The 
Task.” Wordsworth (noticed below under Didactic Poetry) 
is scarcely excelled by any other poet in the exquisite beauty 
and vividness of some of his descriptions. Samuel Rogers 
(1763-1855), author of “Italy,” not less remarkable for the 
grace and harmony of its versification than for the descrip¬ 
tive power displayed by the poet. Scott (see below, Nar¬ 
rative Poetry) is among the finest descriptive poets that 
have written in the English language ; abundant examples 
of his power in this respect may be found in “ The Lady of 
the Lake.” Lord Byron (1788-1824), “take him for all in 
all,” is probably the finest descriptive poet in *he language. 
To the most vivid representation of external nature the lat¬ 
ter poet adds a certain ineffable charm arising from his in¬ 
tense ideality. Nearly all his poems abound with exquisite 
descriptive passages, but we would particularly refer to the 
third and fourth cantos of “ Childe Harold,” and to the pas¬ 
sage near the commencement of the “ Giaour,” beginning 
with— 

“He who hath bent him o’er the dead,” etc. 

Didactic. —The greatest didactic poet perhaps in the lan¬ 
guage is Pope, already noticed. Dr. Young (1681-1765), au¬ 
thor of “Night Thoughts” and “Resignation.” Parnell 
(1679-1717), author of “The Hermit.” Akenside (1721- 
70), of “ The Pleasures of the Imagination.” Dr. Johnson 
(1709-84), “London,” “Vanity of Human Wishes.” Cow¬ 
per (1731-1S00), best known as the author of “ The Task,” 
a poem in blank verse; he also wrote “ Table Talk,” “ Hope,” 
“ The Progress of Error,” etc., in rhyme. Cowper’s merits 
as a poet are of a very high order : he is especially distin¬ 
guished for originality, good sense, truthfulness, simplicity, 
and deep feeling. Goldsmith might be added to the fore¬ 
going names, but his poems have already been noticed under 
Descriptive Poetry. Rogers (noticed under Descriptive Poe¬ 
try) was author of the “ Pleasures of Memory,” a poem re¬ 
markable for its beauty and grace. Campbell, author of the 
“ Pleasures of Hope,” perhaps the most beautiful didactic 
poem in the English language. William Wordsworth (1770— 
1850) may be pronounced the loftiest of our didactic poets, 
although none of his poems, perhaps, have the definite di¬ 
dactic form. 

Lyric. —Passing over the splendid lyrics of Milton and 
Dryden’s “ Ode on Saint Cecilia’s Day,” already noticed, 
we come to one of England’s rarest poets, Thomas Gray (1716 
-71), the author of several admirable lyrics, among which 
“ The Progress of Poesy ” is perhaps the finest, as it is the 
poem, if we except the “ Elegy in a Country Churchyard,” 
by which the poet is best known. It would perhaps be im¬ 
possible to produce from any language lines more exquisite 
than the following from “ The Progress of Poesy :” 

“Hark, his hands the lyre explore! 

Bright-eyed Fancy, hovering o’er, 

Scatters from her pictured urn 

Thoughts that breathe and words that burn.” 

William Collins (1720-56) was author of several beautiful 
and spirited odes, among which that to the “Passions” is 
especially admired. In this class also we may place Robert 
Burns (1759-96), the greatest of Scottish poets. In the 
department of amatory poetry he is without a rival among 
the bards of Britain, or perhaps of all Europe. Thomas 
Campbell (1777-1844) has produced the finest martial lyrics 
in the English language. Almost everything that he has 
written in this line displays the truest spirit of lyric poetry, 
united with the most exquisite finish of expression. Among 
the finest of his odes is that entitled “ Ye Mariners of Eng¬ 
land.” Thomas Moore (1779-1852) has given to the world 
some beautiful lyrics, although he is best known as the 
author of “Lalla Rookh,” a collection or series of Oriental 
tales in verse. Many of his songs have enjoyed a great 
popularity; among them may be mentioned “The Last 
Rose of Summer ” and “ This World is All a Fleeting Show.” 
Byron (already noticed under Descriptive Poetry) has com¬ 
posed several very spirited lyrics. Nothing in its way can 
be finer than his “ Destruction of Sennacherib.” Percy 
Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), a man of the rarest imagina¬ 
tion, united with intense poetic feeling, wrote much beauti¬ 
ful poetry, but his shorter pieces, such as his odes addressed 
to “ The Skylark ” and to “ The Cloud,” evince, of all his 
productions, the most genuine spirit of poetry. Tennyson 
(see below, Poetry, Narrative) is one ot the most eminent 
of British lyric poets. 

Poetry, Miscellaneous. —J. Montgomery, Mrs. Browning, 
Robert Browning, Tennyson, and Jean Ingelow, with 
numerous other almost equally distinguished names, are 
worthy of mention. 

Poetry, Religious. —George Herbert, Isaac Watts, C. Wes¬ 
ley, John Newton, Cowper (see above, Didactic Poetry), 
James Montgomery, Pollok, author of the “Course of 
Time,” Bickersteth, author of “Yesterday, To-day, and 
For Ever,” are a few of the many eminent names in this 
department. 












1570 


ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


Narrative. —The most remarkable examples of narrative 
poetry in our language are presented in the “ Faerie 
Queene ” by Spenser, and in Milton’s “Paradise Lost.” 
Among more recent authors in this department are Robert 
Southey (1774-1843), whose leading productions are “ Rod¬ 
erick, the Last of the Goths,” “ Thalaba, the Destroyer,” 
“ Madoc,” etc. No English author has succeeded better in 
narrative poetry than Sir Walter Scott (1769-1832), whose 
“ Marmion ” and “ Lady of the Lake,” in the intense in¬ 
terest and vividness of the narrative, are perhaps superior 
to anything else in this department of poetry that has 
appeared since the “ Iliad ” and “ Odyssey ” of Homer. 
Moore’s “ Lalla Rookh,” and several of Byron’s poems, 
as “ The Giaour,” “ The Siege of Corinth,” and “ The Cor¬ 
sair,” afford beautiful specimens of narrative poetry. 
Moore’s “ Oriental Tales” have all the interest that beauti¬ 
ful, fervid language and a brilliant imagination, without 
deep or intense feeling, can give to such productions. . Al¬ 
fred Tennyson (born in 1809), whose “Idyls of the King 
afford fine specimens of narrative poetry. 

Translations, Poetical .—With the exception of Dryden s 
translation of Virgil, and Chapman’s and Pope’s transla¬ 
tion of Homer (already referred to), the most important 
works of this class are Ogilby’s translation of Virgil (1650), 
his translation of Homer (about 1660), Cowper’s Homer, in 
blank verse (1790), remarkable for its fidelity to the orig¬ 
inal ; Sotheby’s Homer, Lord Derby’s Homer, in blank verse 
(1865), one of the best translations of the Homeric epics; 
Creech’s Lucretius, “ De Rerum Natura” (1682); Dr. 
Good’s Lucretius, a rather spiritless production ; Francis’s 
Horace (8th ed. 1778); Lord Lytton’s translation of the 
Odes of Horace (1869); Fairfax’s translation of Tasso’s 
“Jerusalem Delivered,” a work of much merit; Hoole’s 
Tasso, an insipid, spiritless production; Wiffin’s Tasso, in 
Spenserian measure; Gifford’s Juvenal (1802); Bulwer’s 
(Lord Lytton’s) translation of Schiller’s poems (1844). (See 
American Literature, below, for a notice of three excel¬ 
lent poetical translations—one of Homer, one of Dante, 
and one of Goethe’s “Faust”—by three distinguished 
American poets.) 

Reviewers, Contributors to Periodicals, Essayists, etc. —In 
this class may be placed Addison, Steele, Dr. Johnson, 
Hawksworth, John Foster, Mackenzie, Lord Jeffrey, Lord 
Brougham, Sidney Smith, Hazlitt, Carlyle, Macaulay, 
Ruskin, Arthur Helps, Prof. John Wilson, J. G. Lockhart. 

Science and Discovery .—Sir Isaac Newton, Napier, 
Bradley, Briggs, Flamsteed, Harvey, Dr. Priestly, Dr. 
Black, John Hunter, William Herschel, Sir H. Davy, Sir 
John Herschel, Brewster, Faraday, Dalton, Dr. Buckland, 
Sir Charles Bell, Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall, Murchison, 
and Lyell, are all great names, though the list might be 
greatly extended. 

American Literature. —Literatures are not to be distin¬ 
guished from each other by geographical boundaries, but 
by the languages in which they exist. Were this otherwise, 
we should have not one Greek literature, but a literature 
for every dialect of ancient Greece; not one Italian litera¬ 
ture, but a literature of Tuscany, Lombardy, or Piedmont. 
Hence, instead of treating the literary productions of 
America as a separate literature, we add to this article a 
history of American authorship, as a development and 
modification of the great literature to which Bryant and 
Motley, Prescott, Irving, and Longfellow, no less than 
Shakspeare and Bacon, Milton and Macaulay, belong. 

Literature in the United States appears to divide itself 
into three periods : first, the colonial and Revolutiopary 
period ; second, the period extending from the final adop¬ 
tion of the Constitution to the rise of Washington Irving; 
and third, from the rise of Irving to the present day. 

Colonial dependencies are not favorable to the cultivation 
of literature. Books, like other commodities more necessary 
but less valuable, are usually imported from the mother 
country. How many original works worthy of commemo¬ 
ration have emanated from Australia, New Zealand, the 
Cape of Good Hope, or even from the Dominion of Canada, 
unless written by officials from England and for the Eng¬ 
lish market ? In truth, the colonists of this continent, writ¬ 
ing specially for themselves, have contributed more to the 
literature of the empire than any other of its dependencies 
where the English language is generally spoken. India is 
not a colony, but a vast empire annexed, and its English 
works of any consequence have been written for the instruc¬ 
tion of Englishmen. 

The earliest colonial writers were, as might be expected, 
mere imitators. Indeed, most of them were born and edu¬ 
cated in Great Britain. The first independent thinkers on 
American soil were theologians, and one of the greatest 
thinkers this country has yet produced was a divine of New 
England, Jonathan Edwards (1703-58). In all parts of the 
old country where the theology of Calvin is studied, either 
for consent or refutation, he ranks as high for strength, 


depth, and breadth of thought as Barrow, Owen, and Butler. 
As extensively read in Great Britain, though by a different 
class and for a different reason, is the long series of dis¬ 
courses known as “ Dwight’s Theology.” Clear in statement, 
ornate in style, and not contemptible in argument, this largo 
work is as popular with religious persons, particularly the 
great body of dissenters from Anglicanism, as are the com¬ 
mentaries of Scott and Henry, or even as the sermons and 
treatises of Chalmers. It is true that Timothy Dwight 
(1760-1817) lived for a quarter of a century after the full 
settlement of our republican rule, but his mental develop¬ 
ment belongs to our first period. In connection with works 
of colonial theology, the Mather family, and especially its 
most distinguished member, Cotton (1663-1728), must not 
be left unnoticed. Dr. Cotton Mather was undoubtedly a 
man of extensive learning, acquired wholly in New Eng¬ 
land. Like other learned English writers of the time, he 
was pedantically fond of showing his scholarship in his 
works, but the impulses which moved his fertile pen were 
the conditions and opinions of the land in which he lived. 
He published nearly 400 books ; the greatest and most volu¬ 
minous being his “ Magnalia Christi Americana, an Eccle¬ 
siastical History of New England, comprising also an Ac¬ 
count of Harvard College, the Indian Wars, and the Noto¬ 
rious Witchcraft Trouble. ‘ Quorum pars magna fuit.’ ” And 
that we may do justice to the South as well as the North in 
this sketch, we include among the noted theologians of the 
period Dr. James Blair of Virginia, first president of Wil¬ 
liam and Mary College, who in 1722 published five volumes 
of homilies on the Sermon on the Mount, highly commended 
by Doddridge in the last century, and characterized by Bick- 
ersteth in this as the best exposition of that divine discourse 
in the English language. 

With the exception of a few books, such as “ Good Newes 
from Virginia,” by Alexander Whittaker, in prose, “New 
England’s Prospect,” partly in verse, by William Wood, 
and one or two poems, such as Sandys’s translation into 
English heroic couplets of Ovid’s “ Metamorphoses,” which 
both Dryden and Pope condescended to praise, and Morell’s 
“ Nova Anglia,” in Latin hexameters, the publications of 
the early colonial period were all theological. In addition 
to the more distinguished names already mentioned, we note 
Richard Mather, John Eliot the apostle to the Indians, 
and Thomas Weld, authors of the “Bay Psalm-Book,” a 
metrical version of the Psalter quite as good as that of 
Sternhold and Hopkins or that at present used in the Church 
of Scotland; John Cotton and Roger Williams, antagonists 
in controversial war; and Thomas Shepard, expositor of 
the Parable of the Ten Virgins. 

As soon as the notion of independence began to stir the 
colonial mind, a new subject of engrossing interest stimu¬ 
lated it to new literary efforts, and religious topics gave 
place extensively to discussion of the rights of man, the 
government of nations, and the prerogatives of kings. Many 
of these discussions were conducted orally, and, because re¬ 
porting was not then as now an art, they have come down 
to us in a form even more imperfect than the debates in the 
British Parliament, during the same period. Hence, the 
reports of the speeches of such men as Patrick Henry in 
Virginia and James Otis in Massachusetts convey a very 
inadequate notion of their traditional power. But doubt¬ 
less the foundation was then laid of that love for popular 
oratory which has made the term “ oration ” as common in 
the United States as it was in Greece and Rome. This 
American peculiarity has sometimes been chosen as a theme 
of ridicule both at home and abroad; nevertheless, it is a 
prominent feature in the history of our literature, and one 
of which we have not the smallest reason to feel ashamed. 

While, however, many American thinkers in politics em¬ 
ployed the platform to enunciate their thoughts, still more 
employed the press, and thus arose a galaxy of writers 
on political science whose productions deserve the careful 
study of statesmen. There was Washington himself; there 
were Adams the elder, Jefferson, Monroe, Madison, Frank¬ 
lin, and Jay, and greatest, perhaps, of them all, Alexander 
Hamilton, whose speculations were not merely theoretical, 
the calm studies of leisure hours, but original and practical, 
the product of a “time that tried men’s souls,” and im¬ 
planted that political knowledge which has rendered the 
problem of self-government a success in the United States, 
while in France it has hitherto been, and in Spain may be, 
a failure. Of Hamilton, M. Guizot thus speaks: “Hamil¬ 
ton must be classed among the men who have best known 
the vital principles and fundamental conditions of a govern¬ 
ment—not a government like that of France, but a govern¬ 
ment worthy of its mission and its name. There is not in 
the Constitution of the United States an element of force, 
of order, or of duration which he has not powerfully con¬ 
tributed to introduce into it, and caused to predominate.” 
The remarkable expression quoted above as descriptive of 
the times in which our Revolutionary authors wrote, and 












ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


which has taken its place among our household words, we 
owe to Thomas Paine, whose talents fairly entitle him to a 
place in the above enumeration. Paine’s writings belong 
as much to England as to America, and underwent many 
an indignant criticism at the hands of Englishmen; but 
most ol the American authors of the period, Franklin 
alone excepted, may have been little regarded in the United 
Kingdom; yet that day is now happily over, and English¬ 
men, instead of asking “Who reads an American book?” 
reflect that as Aristotle’s politics would have been more 
complete had he known Carthage more intimately than by 
name, and Rome otherwise than by a rumor of her exist¬ 
ence, so British statesmen may derive useful lessons from 
the political disquisitions of the founders of the great re¬ 
public. 

Under this head the publications worthy of notice are 
the official papers of Washington, collected by Jared Sparks, 
and the works of Franklin, edited by the same; “ Novanglus,” 
a history of the dispute with America, “ Defence of the Con¬ 
stitutions of Government of the U. S. of America,” and 
“ Discourses on Davila,” a series of papers on political his¬ 
tory, all by John Adams. Particularly we note the “Fed¬ 
eralist,” mainly the work of Hamilton, but enriched by con¬ 
tributions from Madison and John Jay, author of the “Ad¬ 
dress to the People of Great Britain.” 

Along with serious dissertations, political revolutions 
usually give birth to humorous, witty, and satirical com¬ 
positions. In this respect the American Revolution is not 
singular. Such brochures abound both in prose and verse, 
but they evince no originality, and form no peculiar ele¬ 
ment in our literary history. True American humor is of 
later origin. The best known humorous compositions of 
the time are several poems and prose pieces of Francis 
Hopkinson, the Iludibrastic poem of “ McFingal ” by Dr. 
John Trumbull, and the newspaper contributions of Philip 
Freneau, which held up the British to ridicule, educated 
the minds of the American people for independence, and 
helped to implant in them that settled hostility to England 
which, fortunately, is now passing away. To this epoch 
pertains a satire of a different kind, the “ Triumph of In¬ 
fidelity,” dedicated to Voltaire, in which Dr. Timothy 
Dwight proved his versatility, as ho did also in an epic 
called the “Conquest of Canaan” and the descriptive poem 
“America,” in the style of Pope’s “Windsor Forest.” The 
“Triumph of Infidelity” is a respectable performance in 
musical couplets, and some of its sketches rival the de¬ 
lineations of Witherspoon’s “Ecclesiastical Characteris¬ 
tics.” These were prose pictures of the “moderate party” 
in the Church of Scotland, of which the author was a 
minister. The “ Characteristics ” were published in Scot¬ 
land before Witherspoon was elected president of Prince¬ 
ton College; and though other works of this distinguished 
divine first saw the light in America, they have little more 
claim to a place among American literary works than the 
metaphysical treatises of his able compatriot and succes¬ 
sor, Dr. James McCosh. 

During the same period a more pretentious epic than the 
“ Conquest of Canaan ” was constructed by Joel Barlow, en¬ 
titled the “Columbiad;” but as neither ambitious attempt 
is peculiarly characteristic of American genius, we pass 
both by without further notice than that they may take 
rank with Glover's “ Leonidas” and Wilkie’s “ Epigoniad,” 
the former an English, the latter a Scottish effusion. 

The humorous and moral writings of Franklin stand 
alone. They are works of genius, and for all times and 
places, yet they are also essentially American—the natural 
embodiment of the prudence, thrift, and worldly wisdom 
of the Puritans of Massachusetts and the Quakers of Penn¬ 
sylvania. 

Our second period comprises less than forty years. After 
the Constitution was adopted in 1789, political discussion 
in its highest and most general sense gradually subsided. 
During the prolonged presidency of Washington the science 
of politics degenerated into an opposition of parties, and 
the country settled down into the normal condition of all 
republics where elections are frequent. Thus, literature 
and science began to be cultivated for their own sake, 
minds followed their own peculiar bent, and the usual 
divisions of literary history emerge into view. These are 
miscellaneous literature, including essay and fiction, sci¬ 
ence,- history and biography, jurisprudence, philosophy, 
and poetry. 

Under the first of these divisions we reckon Walsh’s long 
essay written to refute the strictures of the “Edinburgh” 
and the “Quarterly Review” with inspect to the govern¬ 
ment and people of the United States. It is entitled “An 
Appeal from the Judgments of Great Britain concerning 
the American Government and People.” The facts, argu¬ 
ments, and style of this essay had a marked effect on the 
subsequent treatment of American questions in England. 
Mr. Walsh wrote much for various periodicals and news- 


1571 


papers, and spent the last twenty years of his long life in 
France as U. S. consul and correspondent of the “National 
Intelligencer” and the “Journal of Commerce” (1784- 
1859). William Wirt (1772-1834), one of the most eloquent 
forensic orators of any country, was the author of “ Letters 
of the British Spy,” the “ Rainbow,” and the “ Old Bache¬ 
lor;” all collections of essays. Some of Wirt’s papers—for 
example, the “Blind Preacher”—are remarkable for pathos 
and descriptive power, but we have not room to quote them. 
Walsh and Wirt were the best known essayists of the time, 
but there were many others of less note. Walsh started 
the “ American Review ” (1811), the first quarterly ever at¬ 
tempted in the U. S. After two years it was suspended, 
but he revived it in 1827, and continued it for ten years. 

The chief novelist of the period was Charles Brockden 
Brown. His genius was gloomy and sensational, but his 
power was, and still is, acknowledged. Ilis tales, especi¬ 
ally the “ Sleep-walker,” were quite popular in England, 
their characters and pictures of American scenery being 
fresh and strange. 

In science, Audubon and Wilson are conspicuous—and 
would be conspicuous in any country—both for the extent 
of their researches and the beauty of their style. Audubon 
was a native of Louisiana, while Wilson was a Scotchman, 
but the subjects of both, the birds of America, render them 
equally American authors. In mathematics nothing orig¬ 
inal was produced; but Dr. Day, president of Yale College, 
led the way, by his mathematical publications, in the com¬ 
position of educational text-books, for which the Northern 
States especially have become famous. 

The only historical work at all worthy of mention during 
our second period was the “ American Annals ” of Abdiel 
Holmes, D. D., father of the present witty and* popular 
essayist, poet, and novelist, Oliver Wendell Holmes. Of 
biographies we have some half dozen of Washington alone, 
the earliest being that by Chief-Justice Marshall. 

In jurisprudence this period is conspicuous, being adorned 
by the great names of Marshall, Kent, and Story, whose repu¬ 
tation is world-wide, and to whom the English bar is nearly 
as much indebted as our own. 

The philosophy of the period was closely connected with 
its theology. Samuel Stanhope Smith, D. D. (1750-1819), 
one of the presidents of Princeton, wrote on the “Variety 
of Complexion and Figure of the Human Species,” which 
caused much discussion. The Rev. John Sherman (1772- 
1828), besides writing the first elaborate defence of Uni- 
tarianism in America, published also “ The Philosophy of 
Language.” 

Our third period extends from the rise of Washington 
Irving to the present day. 

Although inferior in genius to Bryant, Hawthorne, and 
Longfellow, and scarcely equal as an historian to Prescott 
and Motley, still, Irving having a name at once more famous 
and more dearly loved than any other in the annals of Amer¬ 
ican literature, we instinctively feel that his rise as an au¬ 
thor fitly marks the beginning of its latest and, as yet, its 
most brilliant epoch. The literature of this period, being 
more fully developed in all branches than that of the pre¬ 
ceding, will admit of distribution under the following lead¬ 
ing general heads: 1, Poetry; 2, Novels; 3, History and 
Biography; 4, Criticism and Philosophy; 5, Political Sci¬ 
ence; 6, General Science; 7, Theology; and 8, Miscella¬ 
neous Writers, as of essays, tx-avels, sketches, and orations. 

Of the poets of this period, the greatest are Bryant and 
Longfellow. As a versifier, Professor Longfellow is the 
most skilful that the U. S. have ever produced. In this art 
he is inferior only to Tennyson, and both these distin¬ 
guished men have made it a special study, as Milton did 
before them when he set the sentiment of “ Paradise Lost ” 
to a sustained harmony which resembles a grand organ ac¬ 
companiment. Poe did the same thing in his short poem 
of “ The Bells,” but his is a mere song, while theirs is a sym¬ 
phony. Milton’s, indeed, is, as it were, a prolonged orato¬ 
rio, and perhaps such strains came to him without study, 
as he talks of “unpremeditated verse” and “thoughts that 
voluntary move harmonious numbers.” But whether this 
be true or no, Prof. Longfellow has, like Tennyson, dili¬ 
gently studied this art of Milton. Longellow’s poetry is 
far more voluminous and varied and brilliant than Bryant’s; 
and had neither poet undertaken the task of translating a 
large work, we should have had no hesitation in crowning 
Longfellow as the laureate of America. But Bryant’s trans¬ 
lations of the “ Iliad ” and the “ Odyssey ” have set the seal 
to his poetic fame. Mr. Longfellow had been noted for suc¬ 
cessful rendering from many languages, but the task he set 
himself of giving us the “Divina Commedia” literally, and 
yet in good pentameters, was so difficult that he has lost in 
spirit what he has gained in imitation. Byron attempted 
the same thing in rendering the episode of Francesca, with 
the additional fetter of rhyme. The obscurity incident to 
this double difficulty Longfellow has generally escaped, but 

















1572 ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


it seems a higher effort of skill to transfuse idea and spirit 
than to achieve literality. The latter may be wonderful, 
the former is re-creative. Still, it is not our desire to arbi¬ 
trate between Bryant and Longfellow. 

“ Let old Timotheus yield the prize, 

Or both divide the crown.” 

One of the most remarkable productions of American 
genius and skill is Bayard Taylor’s translation of Goethe’s 
“ Faust.” 

The greater part, by far, of American poetry, has, as we 
might expect, been contributed to newspapers and maga¬ 
zines, and thereafter collected into volumes. It thus con¬ 
sists mainly of fugitive pieces, which, from their very na¬ 
ture, have not received the last polish of permanent pro¬ 
ductions. And, considering this, they compare favorably 
with other English poems of the same class. Only a few 
authors, such as Longfellow, have written verses as mere 
literary men. The U. S. cannot yet boast of Chaucers, 
Spensers, Miltons, Drydens, and Popes. The custom of 
the times has been much more favorable to periodical pub¬ 
lication than it was in the days of the great men whose 
names fill the early roll of English authors; so much so, 
indeed, that even long works have lately been given to the 
reader in serial form. This peculiarity of the age has not 
encouraged an unmixed devotion to letters and the habit 
of producing extended poems. Longfellow, however, has 
entered the field of pure literature, and acquitted himself 
not ingloriously. He has given us several long poems, 
which, though not of the impassioned character of Byron’s, 
nor lofty as those of Cowper and Wordsworth, are beauti¬ 
ful, pleasing, and characteristic. His “ New England Trag¬ 
edy ” is so unlike the tragedy of Shakspcare and others as 
to be almost a misnomer, and his narrative poetry is so 
dissimilar to that of Scott, Moore, Morris, and the Brown¬ 
ings that we cannot class him with them; but his “ Evan¬ 
geline,” “Miles Standish,” and “ Hiawatha” are fine works 
notwithstanding, and come nearer to satisfying the desire 
for purely American poetry than any others in the lan¬ 
guage. He has tried more experiments in versification 
than any other poet but Southey. “ Evangeline ” and “ The 
Courtship of Miles Standish ” are successful modifications of 
dactylic hexameter; and “Hiawatha” is written in trochaic 
tetrameters, without rhyme. In a work of such length the 
verse, not admitting the variety of heroics, becomes some¬ 
what monotonous, but has proved on the whole a great suc¬ 
cess. Of other long poems, the “ Culprit Fay ” of Rodman 
Brake, the “Snow-bound” of Whittier, and the “ Fronte- 
nac” of Alfred Street, are agreeable specimens. The lat¬ 
ter two are full of faithful description of American scenery. 
J. R. Lowell is especially distinguished for the versatility 
of his powers. As a humorist he has few if any superiors, 
and in some of the higher departments of poetry he has 
scarcely an equal in our country. 

Accomplished versifiers are so numerous in the U. S., and 
have given to the world so many pieces deserving preserva¬ 
tion, that, however much we desire, we have not space to 
enumerate them. This, however, we must add as peculiar 
to the country, that education is so universal, and the tem¬ 
perament of American women so impressible, that the U. S. 
can claim a greater number of female poets who have writ¬ 
ten graceful, melodious, and tender verses than any other 
country in Christendom. 

American novels are becoming extremely numerous, but 
only a few have any bearing on the development of Amer¬ 
ican literature. Yet it is something to be able to venture 
the opinion that the finest tale of the century has been 
written in New England. The “Scarlet Letter ” of Na¬ 
thaniel Hawthorne, in its story, its characters, its dialogue, 
and its scenery, is equal to any Greek tragedy. There 
hangs over it the gloom of fate, and the whole plot is worked 
out with a skill and felicity that we find nowhere else in the 
annals of modern fiction. His “ House with the Seven 
Gables” was another effort in the same direction, but not 
so successful. For some reason, a bookseller’s probably, 
the story is huddled up, like Scott’s “ Black Dwarf,” and the 
trial-scene, which, in Scott’s hands, would have been the 
greatest in the book, is a failure. The long introduction to 
the “ Scarlet Letter ” clearly implies a resolution to write a 
series of New England tales. Had Hawthorne carried out 
this resolve, he would have perhaps rivalled Scott in fame. 

The novels of Fenimore Cooper have had their influ¬ 
ence on the reputation of America, but their effect on Amer¬ 
ican literature is not conspicuous. His delineations of 
ocean and forest are drawn with the genius of an artist, but 
his Indian heroes are not copied from life. The original 
of Uncas has nowhere been met with, but we admit that in 
Leatherstocking he has created a character which bears suc¬ 
cessive reintroductions as well as Scott’s Dugald Dalgetty 
or Thackeray’s Major Pendennis and Captain Costigan. 

Other novelists, some of whose stories may live, are Wil¬ 
liam Gilmore Simms, Bayard Taylor, Oliver Wendell Holmes, 


Herman Melville, Marion Ilarland, etc. The chivalrous 
character and heroic death of Theodore Winthrop have in¬ 
vested his tales with an interest, over and above their in¬ 
trinsic merit, which will long preserve them in his own 
country, while the anti-slavery tales of Mrs. Harriet Beecher 
Stowe, besides their native power, possess an historical 
value, as connected with emancipation in America and the 
great civil war, that will cause them to be read for genera¬ 
tions to come. Posterity will not willingly let them die. 

After novels come next in our order history and biogra¬ 
phy. The historians of the United States stand very high 
in English literature. The lives of Mohammed, Columbus, 
and Washington by Irving; the voluminous history of the 
United States by Bancroft, and the same, from a somewhat 
different point of view, by Hildreth; the history of Ferdi¬ 
nand and Isabella, of the conquest of Mexico and Peru, and 
of Philip II. by Prescott; the history of Charles the Bold 
by Kirk; and the histories by Motley, the Macaulay of 
America, and by Greeley, are all standard works, the fruit 
of careful, laborious, and extensive research, written in the 
dignified style that true history demands, yet aiming, ac¬ 
cording to the modern idea of history, to re-create the past, 
and deservedly assigned to the highest rank in prose, as the 
epic is to the highest rank in poetical composition. The 
Church histories of Schaff and H. B. Smith, and the de¬ 
nominational histories of Stevens, Dexter, and Benedict, 
are of the highest rank. 

Besides the biographies and histories already mentioned, 
we cannot pass over the “Annals of the American Pulpit” 
by Dr. Sprague, a voluminous work that must serve as the 
quarry from which future ecclesiastical historians will dig 
their materials; and the biographies which have already 
proceeded from the pen of James Parton, who, though born 
in England, was reared in the United States, and whose 
style, a little journalistic, is yet vivacious and energetic to 
an extraordinary degree. Other biographers and historians 
we must leave unnamed, as not constituting important fac¬ 
tors in the development of American literature; but at the 
close we shall recommend to the student a few collections 
where every author in the least degree known to fame is 
recorded, his biography outlined, and his works individu¬ 
ally characterized. 

After history and biography our next division is criticism 
and philosophy. Were we to specify merely the names of 
all the writers who are known to read critical lectures and 
contribute criticisms to American periodicals, our list would 
be a long one. We can mention only some of those whose 
critical labors have taken the shape of volumes. 

American commentators on Shakspeare claim the first 
place. The chief of these are Richard Henry Dana, Gulian 
C. Yerplanck, Richard Grant White, Henry Norman Hud¬ 
son, II. II. Furness, and W. J. Rolfe. The ability of these 
writers is generally acknowledged on both sides of the At¬ 
lantic. 

The “ Encyclopedia ” of the Duyckinck brothers is the 
most complete, indeed the only adequate, exponent of Amer¬ 
ican literature down to 1856 ; and doubtless will be supple¬ 
mented. Mr. Edwin P. Whipple has produced one of the 
most interesting works in the language on the “ Literature of 
the Age of Elizabeth.” Recently, Professor Lowell has pub¬ 
lished two popular volumes of lighter criticism—“Among 
my Books ” and “ My Study Window.” He had previously 
delivered a course of lectures on the English poets, and 
edited several of the reprints in Little and Brown’s series 
of the “ British Poets.” Mr. George Ripley has also edited 
fourteen volumes of “ Specimens of Foreign Literature,” and, 
with Bayard Taylor, a “ Hand book of Literature and the 
Fine Arts.” 

Among the addresses and orations so frequently delivered 
before literary societies in the U. S., critical discourses of 
merit are to be found. 

In philosophy, America has not yet done much that is 
new. Many excellent text-books for colleges have been 
composed, the last being that of President Porter of Yale ; 
but the only researches in philosophy that can claim origin¬ 
ality are the “ Moral Science ” and the “ Rational Psychol¬ 
ogy ” of Dr. L. P. Hickok. Hickok is a disciple of Kant, 
and has endeavored to improve on the system of his mas¬ 
ter ; but, like his master, he has had the misfortune to be 
misunderstood, and reviewed by persons who have not taken 
the trouble to comprehend him. His “Rational Psychol¬ 
ogy,” starting from the primitive intuitions of space and 
time, professes to determine how an intellect must be con¬ 
stituted in order to cqgnize a universe or nature of things. 
The work is profound and very ingenious, and, like Kant’s, 
may come to be better appreciated in the future. The in¬ 
troduction to his “ Rational Cosmology,” determining the 
conditions of a perfect science, is a valuable contribution 
to philosophy. The lectures on moral science by Drs. Way- 
land, Hopkins, Alexander, and others are well worthy of 
study. 





















ENGLISH RIVER—ENGRAVING. 


1573 


In political science, including international law, our most 
distinguished writings are those of Dr. Lieber, President 
Woolacy, Prof. Wheaton, and the speeches of Calhoun, 
Webster, feeward, and other prominent statesmen. 

In geneial science the names of Silliman, Henry, Bache, 
Pierce, Hare, Peters, Young, Blodget, F. A. P. Barnard, 
Hitchcock, Dana, Rood, Torrey, Gould, and Gray are as 
well known in England as in America. In philology and 
classical learning we may cite the names of Tayler Lewis, 
Anthon, lladley, Harkness, and Goodwin. 

In theology the foremost name, for depth and ability, is 
that of Dr. Hodge—perhaps the most able defender and the 
clearest expounder of the Calvinistic system in these later 
times. His colleague, Dr. Addison Alexander, has contrib¬ 
uted some of the finest papers in the “ Princeton Review,’’ 
and Dr. Bushnell, in accordance with a less rigid creed, has 
written eloquently on “ Christian Theology,” “ Nature and 
the Supernatural,” “Politics of the Law of God,” and 
“Moral Uses of Dark Things.” The Protestant Episcopal 
Church has given us Adams’s « Elements of Christian Sci¬ 
ence,” an ingenious attempt to extract a system of philos- 
°phy fiom the Holy Scriptures. New England Congrega¬ 
tionalism has produced such eminent names as Hopkins, 
Bellamy, Emmons, Stuart, and Taylor. Among rational¬ 
istic writers, Theodore Parker, John Weiss, and 0. B. 
Frothingham should be mentioned. The late Dr. McClin- 
tock was a Methodist theologian of great learning and 
ability. 

The authors of orations, essays, sketches, and other mis¬ 
cellaneous writings are so numerous, and their themes are 
so various, that only a very few can be here noticed. The 
oration is a composition almost peculiar to America. At 
college commencements, before lyceums—which are scat¬ 
tered all over the country—and on all important public oc¬ 
casions the foremost men in the land find both fame and 
profit by the delivery of orations. Many of these are too 
ambitious in style, but some of them may be pronounced 
models of eloquence in this particular department. The 
orations of Edward Everett will compare favorably with 
those of the rectors of the Scottish universities, even with 
the celebrated addresses of Brougham and Peel to the 
students of Glasgow. Other orators of the same class are 
Beecher, Chapin, Whipple, Emerson, Holmes, Saxe, Phil¬ 
lips, Curtis, and Sumner. The most popular essayists are 
Holmes in the “Breakfast Table” papers, Parton, T. W. 
Higginson, Grace Greenwood, Gail Hamilton, and others. 
Emerson’s name is one of the first in American literature. 
His friend Thoreau, a man of rare though erratic genius, 
has written much that is peculiarly American. Among 
writers upon education the first rank is occupied by such 
men as Horace Mann, George B. Emerson, Henry Barnard, 
and F. A. P. Barnard. 

In the foremost rank of American authors of light litera¬ 
ture, as well as of historical biography, stands Washington 
Irving. He was the first to make generally known in 
Europe that the U. S. could really produce and relish 
writings of true artistic genius. The issue of his “Sketch- 
Book” by John Murray of London was, in fact, a literary 
event, and marks, as we have said, the rise of the present 
period of cis-Atlantic authorship. The work was refused 
at first by the English booksellers, and it was only through 
the persuasion of Sir Walter Scott that Mr. Murray con¬ 
sented to risk its publication. Wo have lived to see Ir¬ 
ving’s eminent merit recognized throughout the republic 
of letters, and to enjoy Thackeray’s cordial declaration 
that Irving was “the first ambassador whom the New 
World of letters sent to the Old.” Not excelled, perhaps 
not equalled, in description, humor, and pathos by any 
other American writer, he has, at least, the advantage of 
being earliest in the field as a widely-acknowledged literary 
artist; and neither the power of Wirt’s “Blind Preacher,” 
nor the exquisite beauty of Hawthorne's minor tales, with 
all their charm of New England habit and landscape, has 
been able to wean our affection from Irving’s dear Hudson 
River and the eccentricities of his darling Dutchmen, whom, 
while he satirized, he yet loved with all his kind heart. 
The Knickerbockers, who were at first offended, are now 
among the readiest to recognize his claim as the greatest 
of American descriptive essayists. 

Since the fuller opening of the great West a new variety 
of literature has sprung up. It is highly humorous, either 
graphically describing or cleverly burlesquing the manners 
and customs of that new region. Even its singular dialect 
is pressed into the service. The rising luminaries of this 
late dawn are Bret Harte, John Hay, Joaquin Miller, and 
Mark Twain. Twain’s “Innocents Abroad” is one of the 
most amusing books of travel in the English language— 
if indeed the language can always be called English—and 
his later work, called “Roughing It,” is.in the same style— 
a little coarse occasionally, but often eloquent in a high de¬ 
gree. Artemus Ward (C. F. Browne) and others, like him 


and Mark Twain (Clemens), writing under feigned names, 
belong to the same school, and are the founders of a style 
and a humor original and peculiar to this continent. 

Readers who desire a full and particular account of 
American literature in all its branches may be referred 
to Duvckinck’s “ Encyclopaedia of American Literature,” 
Griswold’s “Poets and Prose AVriters of America,” Under¬ 
wood’s “ Handbook,” and Hart’s “ Manual of American 
Literature.” In these compilations no name at all known 
to fame, local or extended, is omitted, and the illustrative 
extracts are varied and generally well chosen. 

J. Thomas. 

English River, an estuary of South-eastern Africa, 
communicates with Delagoa Bay, about lat. 25° 58' S. and 
Ion. 32° 36' E. 

English River, a township of Keokuk co., Ia. P. 1221. 

English River, a township of Washington co., Ia. 
Pop. 1501. 

English Seventh-Day Baptists. See Seventh- 
Day Baptists. 

Engrafting. See Grafting. 

Engrailed, in heraldry, a line or other object edged 
with small semicircles or crescents, the points of which are 
turned outward. • 

Engraving. Engraving on precious stones, glass, or 
metals, in such a manner as to represent the figures or ob¬ 
jects in relief, is a very ancient art, and, strictly speaking, 
a branch of sculpture. 

We shall in this article confine ourselves wholly to the 
engraving, on metal or wood, of figures or designs, in such 
a way that when charged with any coloring-matter and 
pressed upon paper or parchment, an exact representation, 
in outline and shadow, of the engraved figures or designs 
# will be produced. The impressions thus made are called 
engravings. This term v is also applied in popular language 
to stone-printing or lithography, but as ordinarily there are 
no incisions made upon the face of the stone, and the pro¬ 
cesses differ widely from engraving proper, we prefer to 
treat of this branch of art under its appropriate title. 

Engraving, in this restricted sense, is a modern invention, 
and grew into use and importance with the art of printing, 
of which, in fact, it forms a constituent part. Whether we 
consider, the difficulty attending its execution, its value in 
multiplying the essentials of other departments of art, its 
use in illustrating science and industrial processes, engrav¬ 
ing takes an elevated position, both from an aesthetic and a 
practical point of view. 

In giving some account of the technical processes of 
various kinds of engraving we shall not hold in mind the 
necessities of the professional engraver seeking aid for per- • 
fecting himself in the art, but rather those of the general 
reader or connoisseur, who seeks the elementary knowledge 
requisite for an intelligent estimate of the best products of 
the engraver’s skill. It has been well said by Adam Bartsch 
that it is impossible to convey in writing any but the most 
general instructions regarding the technical processes of the 
art. We shall, therefore, in the outline which we propose 
to give, exclude all details of handling not pertinent to the 
end we have in view.* 

1. Wood Engraving .—This is the most ancient branch 
of the art, and for the purposes of illustration has been 
held to be of the greatest value from the time of its intro¬ 
duction. Boxwood is most generally used by engravers, 
although any hard and close-grained wood may be made 
available. It is first sawed across the fibre, in thickness 
equal to the length of ordinary metal types. The surface 
of the wood is then made smooth and covered with flake- 
white. Upon this is drawn in fine lines with pen or lead- 
pencil the design required. In many instances now the 
expense of drawing is entirely superseded by photograph¬ 
ing, directly upon the block, the subject to be engraved; 
and there is still another process in use whereby the subject 
is copied by transferring an impression with ink upon the 
block, which also avoids the expense of drawing and greatly 
facilitates the work of the engraver. The white or untouch¬ 
ed parts between the lines of the drawing are then cut out 
by means of variously formed chisels and gouges. This pro¬ 
cess leaves the outlines and shadows elevated, like the faces 
of type in a printer’s form. When the blocks are inked by 
an ordinary roller, impressions may bo taken off upon paper 
by means of a press. In point of fact, however, the wooden 
blocks are now scarcely ever used for printing. When the 
engraver’s work upon the wood has been completed, a 

*Publisher's Note .— For a more practical view of some of the 
details of engraving, see the article Engraving Steel and 
Copper Plates, etc., written by a practical steel engraver of 
New York City. Though the two articles to some extent cover 
the same ground, their great excellence will, it is believed, war¬ 
rant the publication of both. 


% 




















1574 


ENGRAVING. 


mould of wax is taken from the block, and within this 
mould a thin plate of copper is deposited by electro-gal¬ 
vanic action. Upon the back of this copper a casting of 
type-metal is fixed, which by means of tin-foil is amalga¬ 
mated with the copper, forming a solid plate of sufficient 
strength to be securely fastened upon a wooden block of the 
proper thickness for the printer’s form. By this means 
also, a much larger number of clear impressions can be se¬ 
cured than from the block itself. In wood engraving effects 
are generally produced by parallel lines. In finer work, 
however, cross-hatching (or the use of lines transversety 
intersecting each other) is introduced, by which artists ap¬ 
proach the delicate transitions and effects of line engraving 
on steel or copper. 

2. Etching .—For this process a plate of metal, generally 
copper, is prepared with a perfectly even and smooth sur¬ 
face. It is then thinly covered with a varnish composed of 
various proportions of white wax, black and white pitch, and 
asphaltum. This varnish, technically called the “ ground,” 
is spread in a thin coating over the prepared plate, and 
afterwards smoked to give a black surface, the better to 
show the drawing of the artist’s design. The drawing is 
made in reverse upon the varnished plate, generally by 
transfer of a drawing made upon paper with colored chalk. 
When the outlines are clearly marked upon the blackened 
surface, they are cut through the varnish by the etching- 
needle, laying bare the surface of the copper or metal used. 
The etching-needle is a steel instrument similar to a sharp¬ 
ened lead-pencil, and points of different degrees of fineness 
are used as a finer or heavier line is desired. When the 
outlines and shadows of the object to be etched are thus cut 
through the “ground,” a rim, or dike, of wax is made around 
the border of the plate, and some corroding mixture (gen¬ 
erally nitric acid mixed with an equal quantity of water) is 
poured upon the plate. By the action of the acid the lines 
laid bare with the etching-needle are bitten into the plate? 
each with a breadth corresponding to the surface laid 
bare by the needle. If it is desired that the lines shall be 
of unequal depth, the acid is poured off, and the lines 
whose depth is deemed sufficient are in technical language 
“stopped out” by being washed with water, dried, and 
covered with varnish, while upon the remaining parts the 
process of corrosion is continued till the unprotected lines 
are as deep as the etcher may desire. The ground or var¬ 
nish is then removed from the plate, the oxidized portions 
are cleansed, and a proof is taken. If the work is in any 
part unsuccessful, it may be touched up and rendered more 
expressive by the “dry-point.” This is a fine and sharply 
pointed steel instrument, by which scratches or shallow 
grooves of great delicacy are made on the smooth portion 
of the plate. Some etchers use the dry-point very little, if 
at all. Others rely upon it for their finest effects. 

3. Line Engraving .—This is the most elaborate and 
costly process for the reproduction of works of art. The 
metal plates, whether of copper or softened steel, are pre¬ 
pared as for etching, but with a more careful polish. The 
work of art to be engraved is drawn from the original in 
the reduced size required for the engraving. The plate is 
generally covered with a thin coating of wax. The pencil 
drawing is then laid with its face upon the wax, and gently 
rubbed by a burnisher. This, as in the preparation for 
etching, transfers the outline to the wax. The design is 
then traced through the wax upon the metal with an etch¬ 
ing-needle. The wax, when melted off, leaves the outline 
marked on the plate, ready for the burin. The burin or 
graver is a square, or lozenge-shaped, piece of steel inserted 
in a pear-shaped handle, the instrument itself being suf¬ 
ficiently thick not to bend under strong pressure of the 
hand. The end is diagonally ground, so that one side of 
the instrument presents an acute angle, which, when pushed 
forward by the hand, cuts out triangular grooves in the 
metal. The burnisher, above alluded to, is a piece of hard¬ 
ened steel, smooth and rounded for the purpose of toning 
down work too deeply cut, or for polishing the plate in case 
of accident to the surface. The “scraper,” also used, is a 
triangular piece of steel, otherwise shaped like a knife, 
with its angles brought to a sharp edge, and inserted in a 
handle. This is used to scrape off the furrow of metal 

* which is raised on the plate by the action of ’the graver. 
This raised furrow is called the “ burr.” Thus equipped, 
the engraver cuts grooves into the plate which, when filled 
with ink, come to represent by their curves, crossings, and 
varying depth and breadth all the outlines, shadows, and 
transitions of the picture from which he works. Of the 
combination of other modes of engraving with lines we 
shall speak hereafter. 

4. Mezzotint .—This process was invented at a later period 
than either of those which we have described. It has been 
attributed to Prince Rupert by some, but on the authority 
of Ileinecken to a German military officer named Von Sie- 
gen. The plate should be prepared as for the graver. By 


the means of a rocker used by the hand, or a machine cov¬ 
ered with fine teeth, the whole surface of the plate is cov¬ 
ered with a compact series of minute incisions—so compact 
that if filled with ink the plate would give a printed sur¬ 
face on paper quite black. Upon this surface, thus covered 
with “burr,” the outlines of the picture are drawn, and 
where lights are desired the burr is removed by the scraper 
and made smooth by the burnisher. The transitions from 
the high lights to the deep shadows are delicately marked 
by the continuously increasing amount of the “ burr ” which 
is left on the plate. 

5. Stippling. —This consists in puncturing the metal 
plate by dots made with the point of the graver or by 
corrosion with acid. Sometimes these dots are made by 
slight blows upon the graver. The greater or less number 
of these dots gives in printing all varieties of shading. 
This was a favorite method with Bartolozzi and his school. 

6. Aquatint. —This method of engraving, no.w little used, 
is designed to imitate drawings in India ink, bistre, or 
sepia, especially those which are on a large scale. The 
method generally followed is this : The outline of the ob¬ 
jects is first etched in the usual manner. The plate, when 
cleaned, is evenly covered with finely powdered mastic. It 
is then warmed till the mastic particles are melted suf¬ 
ficiently to cause them to adhere to the plate. Between the 
particles of the mastic bare spots are left, upon which the 
acid can afterwards act. Upon those parts of the plate 
where shadows are not required a thick varnish is laid on 
with a brush, to protect it. The acid is then poured on as 
in etching. When the lightest shadows are sufficiently 
bitten by the acid, those parts are stopped out by varnish, 
and the work is permitted to go on until the deepest shadows 
are finished. For landscapes or trees, where special free¬ 
dom is required, modifications of this process are made 
which are not sufficiently important for description. 

7. Graphotype. —This is a modern invention, a descrip¬ 
tion of which we copy from a recent writer: “ Finely pow¬ 
dered chalk is spread thickly on a metal plate, and then 
subjected to hydraulic pressure till it becomes a solid mass 
with a beautiful white surface, slightly shining, but not 
inconveniently brilliant. On this surface the artist draws 
in a glutinous ink, perfectly black, flowing from a finely 
pointed little brush; the pen cannot be used, on account 
of the friability of the chalk. The ink glues the particles 
of chalk where it passes, and when the drawing is complete 
the white spaces between the lines are easily hollowed by 
rubbing them gently with a piece of velvet or a light 
brush. The black lines remain in relief, like the lines of a 
wood-cut. The plate is then dipped in a solution of flint, 
and so hardened, after which a stereotype cast or an elec¬ 
trotype copy is taken from it, and this is used as a stereo¬ 
type or electrotype.” The effect produced is somewhat 
similar to that of wood engraving. 

8. Combination of Processes. —For the sake of clearness 
we have described the different modes of engraving as dis¬ 
tinct processes, but they are quite often combined. In 
etching, the dry-point is constantly made use of, and not 
seldom the graver. In line engravings the outlines are 
often etched, while the most important and expressive 
parts are worked out with the graver. Stippling is made use 
of at times to give softness to the expression of the face. 
In etching, parts of the plate are sometimes made to give 
delicate shadows and transitions by the “burr” used in 
mezzotint. In line engraving, short lines or dots are in¬ 
serted in the lozenge-shaped intervals between the cross 
hatchings made by the graver. 

9. Handling. — Every engraver of note adopts some 
methods of producing his desired effects peculiar to him¬ 
self. This is technically called “ handling.” Many of the 
elements which enter into handling are common to the 
painter and the engraver. Both alike must attend to 
drawing, anatomy, and perspective, both linear and aerial; 
to chiaroscuro, or the general distribution of lights and 
shadows in a picture, and the various gradations of depth 
and delicacy of the latter as they recede from the focus of 
light. They must both alike seek for truth and force in the 
representation of the outline surface and texture of bodies; 
they must alike take account of the variations which distance, 
quality of the light, and atmosphere produce in objects by 
their manifold changes. In addition to these, the engraver 
(if he does not engrave his own design) must be a transla¬ 
tor of another’s thought into a different language. This he 
can never accomplish without the greatest familiarity with 
his own language, as well as that of the painter. Literal 
interpretation will fail as really as in the case of transla- 
ting a great poem. The chief study of the engraver is so to 
arrange his lines as to mark the character of each object 
and feature, distinguish it from every other, and give it the 
proper prominence and importance with regard to the total 
scene or event which the picture is designed to represent. 
The color of the picture, it is true, cannot be, strictly speak- 




















ENGRAVING. 1575 


ing, translated, but it is possible to convey an accurate idea 
of the relations of the lights and shadows which the differ¬ 
ent colors embody. Painters select colors with reference to 
their desire to make special objects prominent, and to at¬ 
tract and fix upon them the eye of the spectator. Now, the 
engraver, if he cannot imitate the color, can produce by his 
lines such an effect as shall imitate the ernjjhasis which the 
painter expresses by actual color. From this point of view 
critics speak of “ color ” in an engraving. The methods in 
which different artists express color, flesh, hair, drapery, 
etc. would extend this article beyond the limits we have set 
to ourselves. These are best studied by the learner in the 
works of eminent engravers through a comparison of their 
methods with each other. 

10. Printing .—Much of the effect of all engravings is de¬ 
pendent upon printing. In wood engraving, by reason of 
the lines being raised in relief like types, the difficulty of 
printing is less than in other branches of the art. It re¬ 
quires, however, to make good impressions, all the accesso¬ 
ries for the best work of the printer’s art. Clearness, deli¬ 
cacy, and softness in wood-cuts are greatly dependent upon 
the skill and judgment of the printer. In those depart¬ 
ments of the art in which tho ink or coloring-matter is 
received into grooves or dots sunk beneath the surface, 
the process of printing is much slower and more difficult. 
The ink is forced carefully into the depressions with a soft 
ball or dabber, and afterwards the portions of the plate be¬ 
tween the grooves, and also the lightly worked parts which 
represent the lights, are carefully cleaned with a soft cloth 
and the palm of the hand before it is ready for the press. 
This process is a slow one, and requires special training on 
the part of workmen. The printing of etchings is so im¬ 
portant that many etchers provide themselves with hand- 
presses, and work off their own proofs. Ilamerton, in his 
“ Etching and Etchers,” names specially one house in Paris 
and one in London which alone he speaks of as capable of 
good work in printing etchings, A copper plate soon wears 
so much as to give blurred and imperfect impressions. Two 
hundred impressions of an etching and five hundred of a 
line engraving are said to be the limit which a copper plate 
can furnish without an appreciable deterioration of quality. 
Since the art of coating the copper plates with a thin layer 
of steel has been introduced, a much larger number can be 
produced. Since tho time of our countryman, Jacob Per¬ 
kins, who introduced the use of steel plates, copper has been 
to a great extent laid aside, so far as line and mezzotint 
engraving is concerned. Steel has been made especially 
useful in engraving banknotes, in which especial complica¬ 
tions and delicacy of lines are desirable in order to increase 
the difficulty of counterfeiting. Engraved steel pla tes, when 
hardened, are capable of giving to steel cylinders rolled 
over them, under enormous pressure, a representation in re¬ 
lief of the sunken lines of the plate. These cylinders, when 
hardened, are made to transfer the lines to other plates of 
softened metal, which in turn are hardened and used for 
printing. These plates, when worn, are retouched by reap- 
plieation of the same cylinders. In this way plates may 
be duplicated, or the same plate be made to give an almost 
unlimited number of impressions. 

At an early period the practice of using two or more 
blocks in wood engraving was introduced. The outline 
was made by one block, and the different degrees of sha¬ 
ding by others. This was called engraving in chiaroscuro. 
This led to printing in gradations of color by means of 
several blocks, each giving a single color or shade. This 
has been carried to a high degree of perfection. A similar 
process has been introduced in lithography. By this 
means chromo-lithographs, as they are called, have been 
printed which imitate the colors of small pictures with an 
accuracy which, though necessarily somewhat mechanical, 
is really surprising. In all methods which lay on colors by 
successively applied stones or blocks the matter of printing 
becomes of ohief importance. 

11. Pointer-Engravers .—This is the designation given by 
Bartsch to those artists who have engraved their own de¬ 
signs, either as studies for paintings or with a purpose of 
giving them no further representation in color. These 
works are not translations .or copies, as are ordinary engrav¬ 
ings, but real autographs—direct expressions of the artist’s 
mind. In the modern tendency to specialize and divide 
labor, artists havo to a great extent laid aside this practice, 
but with the older artists it was very common. Collectors 
place a high value upon these autographs. They are be¬ 
coming rare, and are of course much advanced in commer¬ 
cial value. Bartsch’s great work (“ Peintrc-Graveur,” in 
21 vols.) is devoted entirely to engravings and etchings of 
this class. 

12. Relative Artistic Value .—The relative importance, for 
art purposes, of the different modes of engraving is difficult 
to determine. Each has its own advantages and limita¬ 
tions. New processes like the graphotypo havo not yet 


been sufficiently tested to determine their permanent value. 
Wood engraving has a very decided advantage over the 
other forms of the art in respect to cheapness and facility 
of execution and printing. These circumstances adapt it 
to the purpose of illustrating books, magazines, and news¬ 
papers, and also render it liable to degradation through 
haste and carelessness in execution. In the hands of good 
artists, however, it is capable of high excellence. The 
best wood engraving has a softness and grace which arc 
attractive to all. But in all the elements of truthfulness 
and force the distinct, sharp lines of the etching-needle 
and dry-point are vastly superior. In etching, the artist 
must secure his effects by clear outlines, each of which must 
tell its own distinct story. The softness and amenity of 
wood engraving are denied to the etcher, but he may ac¬ 
complish results which are vastly superior in all the higher 
elements of expression. For this very reason etching is 
never popular with persons untaught in the grammar of 
art. It generally fails in rendering the delicate gradations 
of shadow in clouds, and rarely succeeds in perfect model¬ 
ling of flesh. But in ‘‘freedom, precision, and power” it 
is superior to all methods of engraving. For this reason, 
high success in etching requires special capacity, which 
stands somewhat apart from the art-faculty in general. 

Mezzotint, like wood engraving, is popular from its soft¬ 
ness and the perfect gradations of tint which it secures. 
The process is also cheaper than that of line engraving, and 
tho facility with which it can represent strong contrasts in 
lights and darks and the faces of the young and fair make it 
a process next in popularity to wood engraving. In the 
hands of masters like Earlom, McArdell, and Bond it has 
given us works of great beauty and power. Line engrav¬ 
ing, if not the most difficult, is the most laborious method 
of engraving, and for this reason, as well as for its inherent 
capacity for force and variety of effect, stands in the first 
rank among methods of engraving. It is likely, by the 
time which it consumes and the great manual dexterity 
which it requires, to become mechanical, and deficient in the 
breadth, freedom, and boldness of etching. But when, under 
the hand of a real artist, it combines these elements with 
perfect moulding of flesh, delicacy of tone, and gradation 
of shadows, it stands unrivalled among its sister branches 
of the art. The strength of Goltzius and Cornelius Visscher, 
the bold relief and brilliant contrasts of Strange and Ede- 
linek, the aerial grace and spiritual expression of Raphael 
Morghen and Toschi, are sufficient to vindicate the claim 
of line engraving to the position which the common judg¬ 
ment has assigned it. 

History of Engraving .—The origin of this invention is 
obscure. It is, however, well settled that playing cards 
were printed from wood blocks in the beginning of the four¬ 
teenth century, and this is ordinarily supposed to be the 
origin of the invention. Papillon, a French wood en¬ 
graver, and author of a treatise on wood engraving in two 
volumes (Paris, 1766), professed, however, to have seen a 
volume of wood-cuts engraved at Ravenna by Alexander 
Alberic Cunio and his twin-sister Isabella, during the pa¬ 
pacy of Honorius IV., A. D. 1285-87. The practice of 
printing cards from wood blocks continued in various parts 
of Europe through the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. 
In the early part of the fifteenth century images of saints 
and other religious pictures were produced. A picture of 
St. Christopher, dated 1423, was until recently regarded as 
the earliest known wood-cut with a date, but within a few 
years past it has been claimed that earlier dated specimens 
have been discovered. At this same period, within the first 
•half of the fifteenth century, began to appear in Holland 
and Germany those works now known as block-books (see 
Typography), which were printed from engraved wood 
blocks. Immediately on the invention of printing with 
movable type, ornamental letters were cut on wood and 
used to beautify the printed pages. The Psalter of Guten¬ 
berg (1457) was thus ornamented. The idea seems to have 
been to imitate manuscript of the period, and in 1475 a 
Durandus was published by Zainer, at Ulm, with an orna¬ 
mental vignette border to the first page, after which such 
borders engraved on wood were frequently used. The first 
book with wood-cut. illustrations was a book of fables, 
printed at Bamberg by Pfister in 1461. Numerous books 
of the fifteenth century were illustrated with wood-cuts, and 
the art was extensively practised. We do not know the 
names of any wood engravers of the earliest period, but 
towards the close of the century we begin to meet with 
names. Michael Wohlgemuth is among the first, if he be not 
the first, wood engraver whose name can be connected with 
his work. To him are attributed the illustrations of tho 
great “Chronicle” of Schedel, commonly called the “Nu¬ 
remberg Chronicle,” published at Nuremberg in 1493; and 
he is named in the work as one of the superintendents of 
its execution. 

The early style of wood engraving was rude, but not 
















1576 ENGRAVING. 


without artistic force. In general, however, little was 
attempted by the early engravers beyond outline repre¬ 
sentation. Shading and what is sometimes called “color” 
were unknown at the first. The earliest specimen of shad¬ 
ing by cross lines, commonly called cross-hatching, is found 
in a wood-cut on the title-page of Breydenbach (Mentz, 
1486). 

Wohlgemuth dealt freely in heavy shading, and other 
work of his time shows the advance of the art in Germany. 
It was not, however, until the influence of Albert Diirer 
began to be felt that the old conventional styles were 
abandoned. Diirer was a pupil of Wohlgemuth. In 1498 
he published his “ Apocalypsis.” It was the beginning of 
a new era in the art. Diirer applied to the work of draw¬ 
ing on wood, in so far as they were applicable, the same 
principles which governed oil painting. The result was 
that a wood engraving became a history or a poem. Ger¬ 
many at first, and afterward all Europe, felt the new inspi¬ 
ration. Artists appeared in all directions, and the most 
eminent painters did not disdain to draw on wood. During 
the sixteenth century a very large proportion of published 
books were illustrated with wood-cuts. Even statutes and 
books of instruction in the practice of law were illustrated. 
Contemporary with Diirer were such artists as Hans Burg- 
mair, Hans Schauffelin, Urse Graff, Wechtlin, Holbein, Lu¬ 
cas Cranach, and many others in Germany. In regard to 
Hans Holbein’s engravings much uncertainty exists. Some 
inferior work is signed with his name or initials, and pretty 
much all the good work of the period is attributed to him 
by his admirers. 

Considerable discussion has been wasted on the question 
whether any, and if any which, of the artists actually cut 
wood blocks with the graver. The subject is of slight im¬ 
portance. They drew pictures on the wood to be engraved 
there, and probably directed the workmen if they did not 
handle the tools. They are as properly called wood engra¬ 
vers as Canova and Thorwaldsen are called sculptors. Lucas 
Cranach appears to have been the inventor of the applica¬ 
tion of wood engraving to printing in chiaroscuro, which 
consisted in the engraving of two or more blocks to be used 
in impressing different colors on the same print. An en¬ 
graving of this kind by Cranach is extant, bearing date 
1509. Ugo da Carpi in Italy, about 1518, adopted the 
suggestion of Cranach, or invented the plan anew, and the 
art reached great perfection in Italy, though almost aban¬ 
doned in Germany. 

In France the art of wood engraving was seized with 
alacrity in the latter part of the fifteenth century, and ap¬ 
plied with great skill to the ornamentation of the borders 
of pages. The superb books of devotion which issued from 
the Parisian presses at this period are unrivalled elsewhere. 
It is impossible, however, to name with any certainty a 
French engraver on wood until the period of the fine issues 
of the presses at Lyons, after 1520, when Bernard Solo¬ 
mon, commonly called “ Little Bernard,” executed very 
beautiful illustrations of the Bible, Ovid, etc. 

The early history of the art in Italy is also obscure. 
Some Italian publications of the fifteenth century seem to 
have been illustrated by German workmen or from their 
designs. Others, however, are unmistakably Italian, the 
vast superiority of drawing, especially of the human form, 
being at once visible. 

At the close of the fifteenth and beginning of the six¬ 
teenth century there seems to have been in the north of 
Italy, possibly at Venice, an artist on wood who was em¬ 
ployed by the book publishers in that city, in Milan, and 
elsewhere, and who was evidently the father of the art in 
Italy. Numerous cuts by him are found with the' signa¬ 
ture 3* JL an A the name Joan Andrea has been given to 
him. His name is, however, doubtful. The “Poliphilus” 
published by Aldus (1499) was doubtless illustrated by 
him, • and is the masterpiece of wood-cut illustration in 
Italy for the fifteenth century. 

The art flourished in Europe till the close of the six¬ 
teenth century, when its decadence was manifest, and in 
the seventeenth century it passed almost entirely out of 
use, except in rude and worthless styles, of which exam¬ 
ples are seen in old chap-books and cheap works for the 
common people. Metal engraving had usurped its place 
in the illustration of books. The revival of the art is to 
be attributed to Thomas Bewick, an English wood engraver 
(born 1753), whose “British Birds” (1804), drawn and en¬ 
graved by himself, present manifold instances of rare truth¬ 
fulness and beauty. His work, at first rude, improved rap¬ 
idly, and at length took high rank in the art. He was 
followed by his own pupils and by a succession of others, 
but it is only since 1830 that the art began to assume the 
high character which it now possesses. At present few of 
the eminent artists who draw on wood engrave their own 
designs. It is consequently difficult to determine the rela¬ 
tive contributions to the total excellence of the brilliant 


wood engraving of the present day which have been made 
respectively by the draughtsman and the engraver. The 
importance of division of labor is so well understood that 
the draughtsman and engraver are seldom the same person. 
Some of the best painters draw on blocks for engravers, 
whose work is to give an adequate representation of the 
design. Birket Foster, Harrison AVeir, John Tenniel, Gil¬ 
bert 0 Maclise, Stanfield, Leech, Doyle, Creswick, either 
painters or professional draughtsmen on wood, have been 
interpreted by Evans, Vizitelly, Greenaway, Palmer, 
Wright, Dalziel, Folkard, Thomas, Swan, and Williams. 
(A long list of designers and engravers on wood will be 
found at the end of the eighth chapter of Jackson and 
Chatto’s “ History of Wood Engraving.”) 

The origin of the art of metal engraving has been dis¬ 
puted. Germany claims that the oldest dated specimens 
are by German artists. Italy claims the invention for I ini- 
guerra, and the claim of Italy is now generally acquiesced 
in. Maso Finiguerra was a Florentine goldsmith, and 
according to Vasari, about A. D. 1460, having engraved a 
metal plate to receive enamel for ornamental use, poured 
on it some melted sulphur to take a cast, when he observed 
that the dirt in the incisions had adhered to the sulphur, 
making a picture in black. He thereupon rubbed ink into 
the lines of the engraving, and took an impression wilh 
w r et paper. Since Vasari’s time it has been well estab¬ 
lished that Finiguerra took impressions as early as 1450, 
and possibly 1445. Baccio Baldini, another Florentine 
goldsmith, seems to have learned the art from Finiguerra, 
and executed some plates, among which were nineteen 
which appeared in an edition of Dante published at Flor¬ 
ence in 1481. The first book illustrated with copper plates 
was “ II Monte Saneto di Dio,” published at Florence in 
1477, containing three large plates, which are probably by 
Baldini. The art advanced rapidly to its highest state in 
Italy. In the commencement of the sixteenth century 
there were numerous copperplate engravers of great emi¬ 
nence in Italy, at the head of whom stood Marc Antonio 
Raimondi, whose works mark an important era in Italian 
engraving, and good impressions of whose prints are now 
valued at fabulous prices. He obtained the friendship of 
Raphael, and engraved under the painter’s own eye very 
many of his works. His handling is peculiar, and though 
his engravings are deficient in “color’’and effective dis¬ 
tribution of light and shadow, he still holds a position 
among the very ablest engravers of any time. His scholars, 
who worked with him while living, Marco of Ravenna and 
Agostino of Venice, succeeded him and perpetuated his 
style. Giorgio Ghisi, born in 1524 at. Mantua, and Bona- 
soni of Bologna (1498-1570) were engravers of distinction, 
and also painters. Cornelius Cort, a Dutch engraver (born 
1536, died 1578), removed to Italy, where he was brought 
under the influence of Titian, and introduced a better rep¬ 
resentation of chiaroscuro and a breadth of manner not 
before attained. Agostino Caracci (born 1558 at Bologna, 
died 1602) was a pupil of Cort, and engraved a large num¬ 
ber of plates, attaining high reputation, especially for his 
drawing. Martin Rota, a Dalmatian, whose prints range 
from 1558 to 1586, was an imitator of the school of Cort. 
Agostino Caracci, already named, Spagnaletto Guercino, 
Carlo Maratti, Guido Reni, Salvator Rosa, Claude Lor- 
rain, Canaletti, and Piranesi were also known as painter- 
engravers, and maintained the reputation of this branch 
of Italian art. In later years, Volpato, Raphael Morghen, 
Toschi, and Longhi have produced works representing the 
great masters of Italy, which take a higher rank relatively 
than contemporary Italian painting. 

Copperplate engraving seems to have been practised in 
Germany in the middle of the fifteenth century, and Ger¬ 
man work of the latter part of that century is superior to 
the Italian. Prints are extant with signatures of unknown 
artists which antedate those of artists who are known. 
Martin Schoen (or Schoengauer) of Colmar is regarded as 
the father of the art in Germany. The dates of his birth 
and death are in dispute, but his work was in the last 
quarter of the fifteenth century. He executed a large num¬ 
ber of prints which are extant, and of which good impres¬ 
sions are highly prized. He was contemporary with many 
other copperplate engravers, and seems to have lived until 
the time of Diirer. The art reached high excellence in Ger¬ 
many in the time of Diirer (who died 1528). Marc Antonio 
in Italy confessed his indebtedness to Germany by repro¬ 
ducing in facsimile a considerable number of the works of 
Diirer. Diirer was also, if not the inventor, one of the 
earliest practitioners, of the process of etching. The prin¬ 
cipal German engravers after Diirer are his pupil Aldegraver, 
the two Behams, Altdorfer, Bink, Penz, etc. But the Ger¬ 
man school proper soon became absorbed in that of Italy, 
losing its peculiar characteristics. Since the beginning of 
the nineteenth century, engraving, like all branches of lit¬ 
erature and art, has made steady progress in Germany. 


















ENGRAVING. 1577 


Among tho large number of distinguished men a few only 
can be named. C. F. Muller, though he died at thirty- 
three, is reckoned among the ablest engravers of all time, 
llis “ Madonna di San Sisto ” is unrivalled. Steinla has a 
very high repute. The revival of the old religious style 
of art by Cornelius, Overbeck, and Kaulbach has had its 
effect upon engraving, and produced a peculiar style of 
handling, marked by the simplicity, purity, and reiigious 
feeling of the great painters just named. Amsler, the 
Felsings, Merz, and Mandel, though some of them may be 
charged with mannerism, are artists of great truthfulness 
and power. 

France did not accept copperplate engraving at an early 
period, and hence contributed little to the early history of 
the art. The earliest engravings on metal which take rank in 
history are a collection due to artists employed in the decora¬ 
tion of the palace of Fontainebleau, about the middle of the 
sixteenth century. A largo number of these are described 
by Bartsch under the name of the school of Fontainebleau. 
Most of them are anonymous, though they are thought to be 
the work of the painters themselves. The real history of the 
French school, as it is ordinarily understood, begins with 
the administration of Colbert, under Louis XIV. Among 
those we may name the Audran family, of whom Gerard is 
by far the ablest. He is said to be the first who united line 
engraving and etching in the same plate. Gerard Edelinck, 
though born at Antwerp, is placed in the French school. 
His facility and skill in execution were remarkable, and he 
carried “color’’ in engraving to a perfection never before 
reached. Nanteuil, the three Brevets, Callot (remarkable 
as an etcher), Leclerc, Chereau, Beauvarlet, Dupuis, not to 
name others, produced works in large numbers which are 
marked with great excellence and power. Wille, though a 
German by birth, belongs to this school, and is specially 
noted for his skill in imitating particular objects and arti¬ 
cles of dress. It must be admitted that this school allowed 
their mechanical dexterity to lead them away from the 
higher ends of artistic expression. French engravers of the 
present day devote themselves in a great degree to the re¬ 
production of modern paintings. Among these are Des- 
noyers, who died in 1857, Prevost, Forster, Richehomme, 
Lignon, Gerard, Prudhomme, C. R. J. Francois, and Girar- 
det. There is now a society of etchers in Paris, which has 
published a series of yearly volumes which contain many 
etchings of great spirit and beauty. Lalanne, Calame, 
Meryon, Jacquement, and Ilillemacher stand out among 
other names as etchers of high reputation. 

Holland and Belgium have been prolific in engravers. 
The earliest of note is Lucas von Leyden. He was a con¬ 
temporary of Albert Diirer, born in 1494. The Sadeler 
family and Abraham Bloemart carried forward the art, 
while Goltzius, Lucas Kilian, and Saerendam maintained 
the reputation early acquired by their masters. A class of 
engravers gathered around Rubens who profited by his sug¬ 
gestions. Among these are the Bolswerts, Vosterman, Paul 
Pontius, and Peter de Jode the younger. As painter-en¬ 
gravers we may name the incomparable Rembrandt, Ostade, 
Waterloo, Swanenelt, Paul Potter, Berghem, Karel du Jar- 
din, Everdingen, and De Hooghe. These produced their 
effects mainly by etching, and as they engraved their own 
designs, their works have a constant artistic value as the 
autograph expressions of men of genius. 

England seems to have had no great artists in wood or 
metal until a late period. It is probable that some rude 
wood-cuts were executed there in the fifteenth century, but 
the best illustrated books then published were illustrated 
by cuts imported from the Continent until the seventeenth 
century. The art of mezzotint engraving, in which English 
artists have greatly excelled, was introduced into England 
at the time of the Restoration. Hollar, a Bohemian by 
birth, was among the first English engravers of European 
reputation. William Faithorne first made mezzotint en¬ 
graving popular in England. George "V ertue, \ ivaies, and 
John Brown maintained the reputation of the art till the 
time of Strange. Strange was born in the Orkneys in 
1721, and died in 1792. He was the father of line engrav¬ 
ing in England. In this branch he reached at a bound 
the very highest point of excellence. Good impressions 
of his works are now sought for at high prices by all in¬ 
telligent collectors. Woollett (born in 1735) is another 
engraver of high rank, especially in landscape. Sharpe 
has a high reputation in portrait engraving. McArdell, 
Green, and Earlom carried mezzotint engraving to high 
perfection. Etching has of late been revived in England, 
and the attention of the public has been attracted to it by 
the brilliant work of P. G. Hamerton, already mentioned. 
Turner exercised his genius in etching. Ruskin, his eulo¬ 
gist, has etched many of the illustrations of his works. 
Whistler, an American by birth, has achieved a high repu¬ 
tation in this branch of art. Haden, an amateur artist, has 
been given a very high position by Hamerton. Hamerton 


himself, in the pages of the “ Portfolio,” has given many 
pleasing illustrations of his devotion to this department of 
engraving, while his writings arc likely to add greatly to 
its popularity among connoisseurs. Cruikshank and Doyle 
have been known as etchers, but have made the art sub¬ 
servient to caricature. 

Engraving in Spain did not flourish until about the mid¬ 
dle of the eighteenth century. A considerable number of 
Spanish engravers are given by historians of the art, but 
their works are not widely known beyond their own cotm- 
try. Carmona (born in Madrid in 1740) and his pupil, 
Selma, are names of special distinction. 

Unless it be in the department of banknote engraving, 
Americans have not developed anything which may be 
called a school of the art. In the department named they 
are unrivalled, and have shown mechanical and artistic skill 
which, with proper patronage from the public, would com¬ 
mand success in any sphere of the art. Wood engraving 
has taken relatively a higher rank than the other processes. 
But it is ditficult without doing injustice to make critical 
estimates of artists of merit who may not have reached 
their highest degree of excellence, and we forbear to make 
selections. 

The place of engraving in the general study of art is im-^ 
portant. It interprets all the fundamental ideas of paint¬ 
ing with the exception of color. This, within certain 
limits, it can suggest, if it cannot imitate. Printing in 
colors, even if the imitation be mechanical, tends to develop 
a taste for better things. Autograph engravings, or etch¬ 
ings from artists of distinction, enable the art-student or 
amateur to study in his own lines the artist’s chosen ex¬ 
pressions for his thought. In a country like ours, in which 
access to large collections of paintings is not possible, en¬ 
graving furnishes the readiest, cheapest, and most practi¬ 
cable means of studying the history and growth of the arts 
of design in all departments. Architecture, sculpture, and 
pottery are alike dependent upon engraving for making 
their results intimately known to the great majority of those 
interested in their study. Relatively to art in general it 
sustains the same relation as does printing to literature. 
It makes the best ideas of the few available for the elevation 
of the many. As a means of popular education in art, en¬ 
gravings stand unrivalled. No lover of elegant culture can 
fail to rejoice that so many large and valuable collections 
of engravings are in the process of formation in all parts 
of our country. 

The literature of the subject is extensive. The collector 
will find catalogues of the works of the most eminent en¬ 
gravers published as separate volumes, and often many 
catalogues of the same engraver by various editors. He 
will find general catalogues of all the important engravers, 
as “Le Peintre-Graveur ” of Bartsch and the “ Kunstler- 
Lexicon ” of Nagler. (We append the titles of various 
authorities which are of most importance to the student of 
the art: Duplessis, Georges, “Essai de Bibliographe con- 
tenant l’indication des ouvrages relatifs a l’histoire de la 
gravure et des graveurs,” Paris, 1862; Ottley, “Inquiry 
into the Origin and Early History of Engraving,” 2 vols., 
London, 1816; Palgrave, F. T., “Essay on the First Cen¬ 
tury of Italian Engraving ” (in Kugler’s “ Hand-book of 
Painting,” vol. ii.); J. D. Passavant, “Le Peintre-graveur,” 
6 tom., Leipsic, 1860-66; Bartsch, “Anleitung zur Kup- 
ferstichkunde,” 2 bde., Weiss., 1821; Dusmenil, Robert, 
“ Le Peintre-graveur Fran§ais,” 10 tom., Paris, 1835-69; 
Brulliot, Francois, “ Dictionnaire des Monogrammes, 
Marques figurees, Lettres Initiales,” etc., Munich, 1832; 
Bartsch, Adam, “Le Peintre-graveur,” 21 vols. and sup¬ 
plement, Vienna, 1803-21; Bryan, Michael, “A Bio¬ 
graphical and Critical Dictionary of Painters and En¬ 
gravers,” new ed. by George Stanley, London, 1858; 
Jackson and Chatto, “A Treatise on Wood Engraving,” 
London, 1861; Heinecken, “Id6e Generate d’une collec¬ 
tion complette d’estampes,” etc., Leipsic, 1771; “Bio¬ 
graphical History of the Fine Arts,” Spooner, New York, 
1845; Nagler, “ Neue Allgemeine Ivunstler-Lexicon,” etc., 
18 vols., Munich, 1835-48 ; Hamerton’s “ Etching and Etch¬ 
ers,” London, 1866.) M. B. Anderson. 

Engraving Maps and Charts. —The best maps are en¬ 
graved on copper, and sometimes on steel, which is, how¬ 
ever, at present not much used, being liable to rust. The 
design is drawn on paper, and is transferred to tracing 
paper by going over the lines of the drawing with a mate¬ 
rial composed of Frankfort black and urine. The design 
is then divided both ways through the centre by lines drawn 
to match similar lines on the copper plate. 

The copper is burnished after all the imperfections are re¬ 
moved. It is then “ coaled ” over with mahogany charcoal, 
and is next rubbed with oil and rotten-stone, and after¬ 
wards thoroughly washed with soap and water and dried, 
and then rubbed with whiting. The plate is then warmed 
and white wax is applied. The wax having melted, a folded 









1578 ENGRAVING. 


rag is drawn across it until the wax is of even thickness. 
The plate is cooled, and is then ready for use. The tracing 
paper, with the design upon it, is laid' face downward upon 
the waxed surface. The tracing paper is rubbed with the 
burnisher, which causes the transfer of the lines to the wax. 
The coast-lines, rivers, railways, and common roads are en¬ 
graved upon the copper by suitable gravers, towns are in¬ 
dicated by the stroke of a punch, boundary-lines are run 
over by the roulette, and the lines are finished after the wax 
re removed. Topographic marks (mountains, etc.) are dry- 
pointed lightly. The wax is then removed by melting; the 
cut lines are scraped to remove the “burr;” the plate is 
coaled and rubbed. The topography, coast or water lines, 
and the necessary lettering are next cut. After this, de¬ 
gree-lines (parallels, meridians, etc.) are ruled in. The 
mountains or topography are usually bitten-in by acid (see 
paragraph “ Etching ” in the article Engraving), the heavy 
shadings being commonly added by means of the square 
graver. The tools employed are the eye-glass, burnisher, 
scraper, roulette, gouge, callipers, rules, gauges, gravers, 
punches, etc. 

At present, maps are not printed directly from the copper 
plates, but the printing is generally done by the lithographic 
process, as follows : The copper plate is used for making an 
impression upon autographic paper, prepared with a coat¬ 
ing of starch, gum, etc. in variable proportions. The ink 
used is a mixture of ordinary lithographic ink with oil, 
soap, tallow, varnish, etc. The impression is made with 
great care upon the starched side of the paper. This paper, 
carefully moistened, is laid upon a polished lithographic 
stone, “ backed ” with great care by folds of paper, and 
then pressed with great force, in a lithographic press, upon 
the stone. The paper, on being stripped away, leaves, if 
the work is well done, all its lines beautifully transferred to 
the stone. After washing and drying, the stone is used for 
printing as in ordinary lithography. From two to five 
thousand first-class impressions can be taken from one 
transfer if skilfully done. 

Lithography proper [from the Gr. A IQos, a “stone,” and 
ypd&io, to “write”] may be considered as a branch of en¬ 
graving. It owes its existence to the fact that certain slates 
of the middle oolite (found in the highest perfection at 
Solenhofen in Bavaria) and various subcarboniferous and 
other limestones of greatly inferior quality, found in Mis¬ 
souri, Canada, and other regions, though compact, have a 
surface of somewhat open grain, capable of absorbing and 
retaining water, oils, and inks made with fats, etc. Now, 
if parts of the smooth stone be covered with a drawing in 
oil, the remaining parts can be wet without wetting the 
oiled parts. If “fat” ink be now applied to the stone, it 
will adhere to the dry parts, but not to the wet. By alter¬ 
nately wetting and inking the stone, a great number of 
impressions can be taken. 

There are several methods of drawing upon the stone, 
besides the transferring process mentioned in the paragraph 
on map engraving. Drawing is done by the crayon, pen, 
or brush. The stone is often cut by the needle or dry-point, 
the latter being true engraving. Engraved stone, however, 
though capable of giving fine results if great care be used, 
is ordinarily very much inferior to engraving upon steel or 
copper plates. 

Color-printing on stone, or chromo-lithography, has of 
late years been employed with surprising success in the 
production of cheap imitations of oil paintings; for although 
it is true that the greater part of this kind of imitation is 
inferior in quality, the best examples are in reality artistic, 
and are highly admirable. Each color is applied by using 
a different stone. 

In all processes, except in stone engraving with the dry- 
point, relief is generally given to the design by washing the 
stone in dilute acid, which attacks the parts unprotected by 
oil, and thus, when skilfully handled, gives increased clear¬ 
ness to the impression. One of the latest inventions in this 
line is photo-lithography. 

Engraving Steel and Copper Plates. —The origin 
of engraving on metal, from which printed impressions 
were taken, dates A. D. 1450. In that year, Maso Fini- 
guerra, an engraver on gold and silver plate, a native of 
Florence, being engaged on an engraving of a “pax” or¬ 
dered by the brothers of the church of St. John, and wish¬ 
ing to see the effect of his work, filled the lines cut by his 
graver with a mixture of oil and soot. A pile of damp 
linen was, by chance, placed upon the silver plate thus pre¬ 
pared, and the cut lines filled with the black mixture were 
transferred upon the linen. The original plate of the 
“ Coronation of the Virgin,” a niello engraved in 1452 by 
Maso Finiguerra, is in the IJffizi Gallery at Florence, and 
the only known impression from it is carefully preserved in 
the Bibliotheque de Paris. 

The first engravings on metal plates for the purpose 
of printing therefrom, executed in Italy, arc found in 


the “Monte Santo di Dio” (1477) and in an edition of 
Dante (1481). Sandro Botticelli, a great painter, sup¬ 
plied the designs and assisted in the engraving; but the 
oldest copperplate print in existence—a German one—bears 
the date of 1461. Before the close of the fifteenth century 
many books were published which were filled with illustra¬ 
tions and maps printed from metal plates. The graver was 
skilfully used by many eminent painters, such as Albert 
Diirer, Rembrandt, and Vandyke, while Raphael had Marc 
Antonio and other Italian engravers transfer his designs 
to plates for reproduction. The discovery of etching—that 
is, where the work is “bitten in” on the plate by acid—is 
attributed to both Parmegiano and to Albert Diirer. The 
spread of the art of engraving on metal was rapid, and it 
was known in England as early as 1483. The earlier styles 
or processes were confined to line , executed entirely with 
the graver, and to etching, done by a sharp point or needle. 
The style called mezzotinto or mezzotint was probably in¬ 
vented about 1600, for Francois Aspruck engraved in 1601, 
by means of a process resembling mezzotint, a series of 
thirteen plates of Christ and the apostles, and one of Venus 
and Cupid. In the year 1643, Louis of Siegen, a German 
officer, employed it for his portrait of Amelia Elizabeth, 
the landgravine of Hesse-Cassel; and Prince Rupert, the 
nephew of Charles I., was led to its discovery when living 
in retirement at Brussels after the year 1649, through ob¬ 
serving a sentinel scraping the rust from his gun-barrel ; 
yet the honor of its first invention cannot be ascribed to 
him. The aquatint process, which resembles mezzotint in 
its results, was invented by J. B. Leprince about 1787. The 
stipple or dot style has been used for a long time in com¬ 
bination with other styles of engraving; it is chiefly em¬ 
ployed in the rendering of flesh and in producing copies 
of statuary. Another style, termed, the chalk style, has its 
use in representing sketchy subjects done with the pencil, 
chalk, or crayon. 

Up to the year 1815—except a single print in London in 
1805—copper was exclusively used to engrave upon. En¬ 
graving on steel is an American invention, due to Jacob 
Perkins of Newburyport, Mass. In 1814 he went to Phila¬ 
delphia, where he associated himself with an engraving 
firm for the purpose of carrying his invention into practi¬ 
cal operation. The processes for engraving on steel or 
copper are similar, but the superiority of steel plates, in 
consequence of their hardness, the sharpness and piquancy 
of the printed impressions therefrom, and the great num¬ 
ber of impressions that can be taken before the plate is 
worn, renders them preferable for engraving purposes, un¬ 
less it be for letter engraving when small numbers are re¬ 
quired to be taken from the plate. 

Engraving on Steel, the Processes .—The plate on which 
the engraving is executed is ground and polished by the 
plate-maker until its mirror-like surface is free from all 
scratches or blemishes. The edges are bevelled, so that it 
may readily pass between the rollers of the printing-press 
when completed. An etching-ground is then laid upon the 
plate by the engraver. This ground consists of a mixture 
of burgundy pitch, rosin and asphaltum; it is applied to 
the heated plate by “dabbing” it over the surface; it re¬ 
sists acid, but great care must be taken in preventing any 
dust settling in the ground when heated, else when the acid 
is applied “false biting” of dust-specks will result. When 
the ground is cold, the outline of the subject, prepared by 
finely-traced lines with the “dry-point” on gelatine paper, 
is transferred upon the ground by laying thereon the traced 
side of the paper filled with scrapings from a lead-pencil 
or red chalk, and the back of the paper gently rubbed with 
a burnisher. The etching process is then commenced by 
cutting the lines or dots desired with the dry-point through 
the etching-ground. The width between the lines or dots 
is carefully studied, and laid in with reference to the final 
result when “ bitten-in.” When completed, a wall of wax is 
placed around the edges of the plate to prevent the acid 
from running off, and the “biting-in” process is begun by 
pouring on the acid (generally one part of nitric acid to 
three parts of water), which is immediately poured off for 
the more delicate biting, and water washed over the work 
and removed, and the surface blown dry with a common 
bellows. The delicate work is then “stopped out” with 
asphaltum varnish, and the biting resumed until the dark¬ 
est or heaviest lines are bitten sufficiently. The ground is 
then removed with turpentine, and such parts of the work 
needing further biting may be “re-bitten” by laying a re¬ 
biting ground dexterously dabbed on the surface, so as to 
leave each line or dot perfectly clean; and then proceed 
with the acid as at first. Most plates are etched at first, 
whether completed in line, mezzotint, or stipple style, the 
style of the etching being varied according to the manner 
in which the work is to be finished. Pure line engraving 
is produced by cutting lines, broken lines, or dots on the 
steel with a tool called the graver; but this style is now 














ENGRAVING, BANK NOTE—ENNIUS. 


rarely ever used except in banknote engraving, the vig» 
nettes of which are engraved in this style, on die steel, 
which is hardened for transferring to other steel plates; 
and so any number of copies of the original plato may bo 
duplicated on other softer plates, which, when hardened, 
are used in printing the engravings. Line-andstipple en¬ 
graving is rendered by cutting or etching the lines on dra- 
4 peries, and dotting (stippling) the lighter parts of draperies 
and Hesh with the graver or dry-point. Mezzotint engrav¬ 
ing is produced by laying a “mezzotint ground” over the 
suiface of the etched subject by means of a “ rocking-tool ” 
(sometimes termed a “cradle”) with fine teeth, which are 
impressed into the plate by a rocking motion of the tool; 
atter rocking over the plate a great number of “ways,” the 
suriace becomes filled with fine dots, which, if printed from, 
would give a perfectly black tint. The high lights, half tints, 
and gradations are then “ scraped ” out with a tool termed 
the scraper, and the work finished with the burnisher. 
This style produces a very soft and pleasing engraving, and 
with a well-prepared etching of under-work in line-and- 
stipple is extensively used by some engravers in producing 
the finest engravings. It is more generally known as the 
mixed st}de—line, mezzotint, and stipple. Pure mezzotint 
engraving has become quite obsolete, as it will not admit 
of being printed from in large quantities, but when mixed 
with other styles from 30,000 to 50,000 fair impressions may 
be taken trom a single plate. Aquatint engraving is often 
confounded with mezzotint from its resemblance to it, but 
the process is quite different. An aquatint ground is laid 
on the surface of the plate by pouring a resinous substance 
which has the peculiarity of separating its particles so as 
to leave bare spaces, or eccentric rings left bare, which 
when exposed to acid are corroded. The laying of the 
ground requires the greatest dexterity and judgment, and 
must be done in a dry atmosphere. The tone produced re¬ 
sembles that of a washed drawing in India ink, soft and 
harmonious. Aquatint engraving is used for reproducing 
geological specimens, as fossils, shells, stones, etc., with 
great success. 

Steel and Copper Plate Printing .—When the engraver has 
completed his work, a proof of the same is taken, and usu¬ 
ally on India paper, which has the quality of taking up the 
ink more perfectly from the engraved lines or dots, and 
leaving the precise tone of the work, than ordinary white 
plate paper. Proofs on India paper are considered much 
more valuable than plain impressions. The process of plate- 
printing is as follows, viz.: the paper is “ wet down ” in 
alternate layers of wet and dry sheets, and allowed to moisten 
evenly. Much depends on the even moisture of the paper 
in obtaining good impressions. The plate is warmed by 
soapstone plates heated underneath, and the ink rolled upon 
its surface. It is then removed, and the ink “ wiped,” by 
several rags or pieces of millinet, from the surface; and 
finally the entire surface of the plate is polished with whit¬ 
ing on the palm of the hand. The plate is then placed on 
the press, consisting of a bed-piece running between two 
heavy iron rollers, with blankets around the upper roller 
to prevent injury to the plate; and a sheet of the damp¬ 
ened paper adjusted carefully to the inked surface of the 
plate, and passed through the press. The impression is 
then dried, and pressed in a “ standing press,” to give the 
surface of the paper its proper finish or.polish. 

Geo. E. Perine, Engraver on Steel, New York City. 

Engraving, Bank-Note. See Note, Bank En¬ 
graving, by John E. Gavit, Esq. 

Engros'sing [from the Fr. grossoyer, to “write in a 
large hand ”], the writing of a deed in proper legible cha¬ 
racters. Among lawyers it signifies especially the copying 
of any instrument or document on parchment or stamped 
paper. In the English statute law engrossing signifies the 
purchase of large quantities of any commodity, in order 
to sell it again at an exorbitant price, or in order to raise 
the market-price of the same. 

Enguera, a town of Spain, in the province of Valen¬ 
cia, 46 miles S. W. of Valencia, has manufactures of linen 
and woollen goods. Pop. 6000. 

Ellharmou'ic [Gr. kv, “in,” and appovia, “harmony,” 
“concord”], in music, one of the three genera (chromatic, 
diatonic, and enharmonic) of ancient music. The enhar¬ 
monic genus of the Greeks was distinguished by the use of 
small intervals or quarter tones. In modern music, inter¬ 
vals much less than a semitone owe their origin to the slight 
difference of pitch which the same (nominal) note takes ac¬ 
cording as it is adjusted to one or another fundamental 
note or tonic. Thus C# and Dfc> are, at least on keyed in¬ 
struments, practically the same note, though strictly the 
former should be produced by of the whole string sound¬ 
ing; the latter, by The passage from one to another 
of these intervals is called an “enharmonic change,” and 
a change of key so effected, an “enharmonic modulation.” 


1579 


Enig'ma [Gr. olviypa., from alvlaaopai, to “speak dark¬ 
ly” (from aii-os, a “fable”); Fr. enigme], an obscure ques¬ 
tion ; a riddle ; a proposition put in obscure or ambiguous 
terms to puzzle or exercise the ingenuity in discovering its 
meaning. Formerly it was deemed a matter of such im¬ 
portance that Eastern monarchs sometimes sent embassies 
for the solution of enigmas. Among the famous enigmas of 
antiquity were that which Samson proposed to the Philis¬ 
tines, and that which the Sphinx propounded to Gtklipus, 
(See Sphinx.) 

Enkhuysen, £nk-hoi'zen, or Enkhuizen, a fortified 
seaport-town of the Netherlands, is in the province of 
North Holland, on the Zuyder Zee, 30 miles N. E. of Am¬ 
sterdam. It has a fine town-hall, several churches, a can¬ 
non-foundry, and several shipbuilding yards. Butter, 
cheese, timber, and fish are exported hence. Pop. in 1867, 
5625. 

Enlist'ment, the voluntary enrolment of men in the 
military or naval service. In the U. S. service enlistments 
are under a detailed officer styled superintendent of the 
general recruiting service, assisted by other officers, each 
detailed for two years by the war department. The super¬ 
intendent’s office is in New York. Men are enlisted for five 
years’ duty in every branch of service. Eecruits are en¬ 
listed (1874) at twenty rendezvous, one at each of the fol¬ 
lowing cities : Albany, Baltimore, Boston, Brooklyn, Buffalo, 
Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Detroit, Dubuque, Elmira 
(N. Y.), Evansville (Ind.), Indianapolis, Jersey City, Lou¬ 
isville, New York City (two rendezvous), Philadelphia, 
Springfield (Ill.), and St. Louis. They are sent for exami¬ 
nation and training to two depots—one at Fort Columbus, 
Governor’s Island (N. Y. harbor), and one at Newport Bar¬ 
racks, Ky. Thence they arc assigned to regiments by 
order of the war department. 

En'neagon [from the Gr. « \vvka, “nine,” and ycavia, an 
“angle”], a plane rectilineal figure having nine sides and 
angles. The area of a regular or equilateral enneagon is 
approximately 6.18182 times that of the square of one of 
its sides. 

Ennean'clria [from the Gr. kwka, “nine,” and avrjp, 
drSpo?, a “man ” or “male”], the ninth class of plants in 
the artificial system of Linmeus, so called because each 
flower has nine stems. The term enneandrous is applied to 
these plants or flowers. 

En'nemo'ser (Joseph), M. D., a German writer on 
physiology and animal magnetism, was born in the Tyrol 
Nov. 15, 17S7. He fought against Napoleon in 1813 and 
1814, and graduated as M. D. at Berlin in 1816. He 
became in 1820 professor of medicine at Bonn, and re¬ 
moved in 1841 to Munich, where he practised with suc¬ 
cess. Among his works are “ Magnetism in its Delations 
to Nature and Religion” (1842) and “ HistoVy of Magnet¬ 
ism” (1844), the first volume of which (the “History of 
Magic”) was translated into English by William Howitt 
(1854). Died in 1854. 

En'nis, a market-town of Ireland, the capital of the 
county of Clare, on the river Fergus, 20 miles W. N. W. of 
Limerick. It has a town-hall, a classical school called 
Ennis College, and the ruins of an abbey founded in 1240. 
It returns one member to Parliament. Here is a valu¬ 
able limestone quarry. Pop. in 1871, 6101. 

En'iiiscorthy, a market-town of Ireland, in the county 
of Wexford, on the river Slaney, 14 miles N. N. W. of 
Wexford. It has a Roman Catholic cathedral, and a stately 
Norman castle many centuries old, but still entire. It has 
a large trade in grain. The Irish rebels took it by storm 
and burned it in 1798. Pop. in 1871, 5369. 

En'niskillen, a parliamentary borough of Ireland, 
the capital of the county of Fermanagh, is finely situated 
on the river Erne, which connects the Upper and Lower 
Lough Erne, about 75 miles W. S. W. of Belfast. It has 
a town-hall, a barrack, two forts, a linen hall, and manu¬ 
factures of cutlery. There are handsome mansions and 
beautiful scenery in the vicinity. The people of Enniskillen 
warmly supported the Protestant cause in 1689. Here the 
troops of William III. defeated those of James II. in that 
year. Pop. in 1871, 5906. 

En'iiius (Quintus), a celebrated Roman epic poet, born 
of a Greek family at Rudiae, in Calabria, about 240 B. C. 
He acquired the rights and privileges of a Roman citizen, 
and enjoyed the friendship and patronage of Cato and 
Scipio Africanus. It is said that he supported himself by 
teaching the Greek language. He contributed greatly to the 
formation of the national literature of Rome, and was the first 
great Latin poet. His most important work was an historical 
epic poem entitled “ The Annals,” which was for many years 
the most popular poem in the language. His works, which 
included tragedies and comedies, are all lost except somo 
fragments. His poetry was admired by Lucretius and by 














1580 


ENNS—ENTAIL 


/ 


Cicero, who often quotes him. He died in 1G9 B. C. 
Among the best editions of his works are those by Span- 
genberg (1825) and Vahlen (1869). (See Sellar, “Homan 
Poets of the Republic,” chap. iv.; Vossius, “l)e Poetis 
Latinis.”) 

EnilS, or Elis (anc. An'isus or An'esus), a river of Aus¬ 
tria, rises in the crown-land of Salzburg, 11 miles S. of Rad- 
stadt. It flows through Styria, forms the boundary between 
Upper and Lower Austria, and enters the Danube 11 miles 
below Lintz. Length, about 120 miles. 

Enns, a town of Austria, on the Danube, at or near the 
mouth of the Enns, about 96 miles W. of Vienna. It has 
manufactures of iron, steel, and cotton. It was the head¬ 
quarters of Napoleon in 1809. Pop. in 1869, 3784. 

E'noch, or He'noch [Ileb., “initiated” or “teacher”], 
the name of five persons mentioned in the sacred books 
(canonical and apocryphal) of the Hebrews. The second in 
the order of time, and the most important, was “the seventh 
from Adam/’ who “ prophesied,” and was translated at the 
age of 365. (Gen. v. 23.) 

Enoch, Book of, quoted by the apostle Jude (vv-. 14, 
15), an apocryphal book of 108 chapters, of unknown au¬ 
thorship and of uncertain date, critical conjecture ranging 
from 144 B. C. to 135 A. D. It was probably written in 
Hebrew by a Palestinian. The early Christian Fathers 
used it, but for some centuries only fragments of it were 
known to European scholars, till in 1773 James Bruce 
brought home with him from Africa three copies of an 
Ethiopic version of it, made apparently from the Greek 
about 350 or 400 A. D. It was published in 1838 by Arch¬ 
bishop Laurence, who had previously (in 1821) published 
an English translation of it, and by Prof. Dillmana (1851). 
The book contains many curious passages, but its leading 
idea is that of Divine justice dealing sternly with sinners. 
Special works on the book of Enoch have been written by 
Ewald (1854), Philippi (1868), and others. 

Enoch, a post-township of Noble co., 0. Pop. 1362. 

E'non, a post-township of Bullock co., Ala. Pop. 1748. 

E'nos (anc. JE'nos or JEnus), a seaport-town of Euro¬ 
pean Turkey, in Room-Elee, on the iEgean Sea, at the 
mouth of the river Maritza (Hebrns), about 75 miles S. by 
W. from Adrianople, of which it is the port. Its har¬ 
bor admits only small vessels. Pop. about 6500. Here is 
a small bay called the Gulf of Enos. JEnos is mentioned 
by Homer in the “ Iliad,” book iv. 

E'nos (Roger), General, born in 1736, was a lieuten¬ 
ant-colonel in Arnold’s Quebec expedition (1775), but by a 
council of war held on the Dead River in Maine was sent 
back to Cambridge with a part of the troops, on account of 
the lack of provisions. He commanded at Castleton, Vt., 
in 1781, and became afterwards a major-general of Vermont 
militia, and one of the first men of the State. Died at Col¬ 
chester, Vt., Oct. 6, 1808. 

E'nosburg, a township and post-village of Franklin 
co., Vt., on the eastern division of the Vermont Central 
R. R. It has nine churches, and manufactures of leather, 
carriages, lumber, woollens, and other goods. Pop. 2077. 

Enrol'ment signifies in law the registering or enter¬ 
ing of a document or lawful act in the rolls of the chan¬ 
cery or superior courts of common law or in the records of 
the quarter sessions. Such enrolment was rendered neces¬ 
sary in different cases by statute. In the reign of Henry 
VIII. of England a statute was enacted that no transfer of 
land should be effected by bargain and sale unless the deed 
were enrolled within six months after its date. A decree in 
chancery does not take full effect until it has been enrolled. 
Before the enrolment the cause may be removed to the 
court of appeal, which may reverse the decision, but after 
the enrolment it can only be heard in the House of Lords. 

Ens (gen. Entis), a Latin term used in metaphysics to 
denote being, entity, or essence (Gr. to ov). Ens reale , a 
positive or real being, is distinguished from ens rationis, 
which exists only in idea. The mediaeval alchemists and 
pharmaceutists used the word ens in a variety of senses. 
Thus, they speak of the ens Dei , “the power of God;” ens 
astrorum, “the influence of the stars;” ens morborum, the 
“principle of diseases;” ens de potentibus spiritibus, the 
“activity of powerful spirits.” Ens primum, the “first 
essence,” was a hypothetical preparation believed to have 
power to transmute the metals. Ens martis was a certain 
preparation of iron; ens veneris, the “essence of Venus” 
(or copper), was cupric ammonio-chloride. 

Enschede, Sn'ska'deh, a frontier town of the Nether¬ 
lands, province of Overyssel, about 90 miles E. by S. from 
Amsterdam. It has manufactures of cotton. Pop. in 1867, 
5134. 

Ensemble, &N's6Mb’l', a French word signifying “ to¬ 


gether” or “the whole,” is used to express the general 
effect produced by a picture or by the various parts of a 
musical performance; also the masses and details of a 
painting considered with relation to en(ch other. 

Ell'siforin Car'tilage [Lat. eartila'go ensifor'mis, from 
ensis, a “sword,” and forma, “shape”], called also the Xi¬ 
phoid Cartilage or Ensiform Appendix, in human 
anatomy, is the third and lowest piece of the sternum or 
breast-bone. It is smaller than either the first piece ( manu¬ 
brium) or tho second ( gladiolus ). It is of various form, 
usually more or less dagger-shaped, sometimes perforated, 
sometimes 2-j)ointed, and is usually cartilaginous until the 
seventeenth or eighteenth year, when a centre of ossifica¬ 
tion appears in its upper part, and the whole takes on, very 
slowly, a somewhat bony character. It appears to repre¬ 
sent the united hmmal spines of those vertebra? to which 
the floating (eleventh and twelfth) ribs are attached. 

En'sigll [Lat. insig'ne, neut. of insig'nis , “ remarkable,” 
“ striking ” (from in, “ in ” or “ for,” and signum, a “sign ”); 
Fr. enseigne or drapeau], the national flag or banner car¬ 
ried by a ship of war, and usually hoisted at the peak or on 
a flagstaff at the stern. Its chief purpose is to indicate the 
nationality of a ship when it meets another vessel at sea. 
In the navy of the U. S. the ensign is the national flag. 
All British men of war since 1864 carry the St. George’s 
ensign—viz., a white ensign with a red cross, and a union- 
jack in the left-hand upper quarter. The English ensign 
is a red, white, or blue flag, having the union in the upper 
corner next the mast. 

Ensign is the title of the lowest commissioned officer in 
the British army. He performs the usual duties of a sub¬ 
altern. There are as many ensigns in a regiment of in¬ 
fantry as there are companies, and the junior of these car¬ 
ries the regimental colors. 

Ensign in the U. S. navy is the eighth grade of commis¬ 
sioned officers, ranking below that of master and above that 
of midshipman. The highest pay is $1400 a year. 

Ensinal', a county in the S. of Texas. Area, 1610 
square miles. The Rio Nueces touches the north-eastern 
corner of this county, which is drained by several affluents 
of the Nueces. It is almost exclusively devoted to sheep 
and cattle ranges. Water and wood are scarce. Pop. 427. 

Ens'ley, a post-township of Newaygo co., Mich. Top. 
606. 

Elis Mar'tis [Lat.], (7. e. the “ essence of Mars ” (iron)), 
an old alchemical name for the ammonio-chloride of iron, 
formerly used in medicine. It is an uncertain aperient and 
chalybeate tonic. 

Entab'lature [Mod. Lat. intabidamen'tam, from in, 
“upon,” and tab'ula, a “board” or “plank;” literally, 
“placing boards upon;” applied originally to the roofing 
of a house, and especially to the horizontal covering which 
rested upon the upright supports of a building], in archi¬ 
tecture, the portion of a building between the columns and 
the roof, running round the edifice. It consists of archi¬ 
trave, frieze, and cornice. In ordinary building the term is 
applied to the course of masonry on a wall immediately be¬ 
low the roof. 

Entail'. By this term is meant, an estate in fee limited 
to certain classes of descendants. Thus, a fee simple would 
be regularly created by the word “ heirs,” as, for example, 
to “A and his heirs,” and would descend to any heirs, how¬ 
ever remote. An estate given to “A” and “ the heirs of his 
body ” would be confined to descendants. This is an ex¬ 
ample of the proper words to create an estate tail. The 
descent might be still more strictly confined, as to male 
issue or the issue born of some specified mother. The 
peculiar features of an entail depend upon a well-known 
English statute termed De donis, the regular effect of which 
was to confine the property to the specified mode of de¬ 
scent. The result was that the tenant in tail had the gen¬ 
eral characteristics of owner, except that he could not sell, 
and that the land could not be seized for his debt. The 
courts permitted the entail to be destroyed by a fictitious 
legal proceeding called a “fine,” and more completely by 
another like proceeding called a “common recovery,” in¬ 
stituted in behalf of the tenant. He could thus, if he saw 
fit, become absolute owner. The “ common recovery ” is 
now abolished by statute in England, and under certain 
limitations the tenant may resort to a conveyance called 
a “ disentailing deed,” and thus acquire a fee simple. 
In the United States words constituting an estate tail ac¬ 
cording to English law will usually be construed to create 
a fee simple, unless the property is given over to. some other 
person on default of issue surviving the first taker; in 
which case the secondary gift would be upheld, and would 
take effect should no issue survive. This last point will be 
more fully noticed under the titles Perpetuities and Re¬ 
moteness. 






















ENTASIS—ENTHYMEME. 


1581 


En'tasis [Gr.], a delicate and almost imperceptible 
swelling of the shaft of a column, is found in nearly all an¬ 
cient Greek examples. It was adopted to prevent the shafts 
being strictly frusta of cones, in which case there would, 
by a simple optical law, be an incorrect impression made 
upon the eye as to the proportions of the column. The 
curve of the entasis was usually either part of a hyperbola 
or of a conchoid. It was one of the most delicate yet 
important of the refinements of Greek architecture, and 
has not been accurately attained in modern imitations. In 
the columns of the Parthenon the entasis amounts to 
of the whole height of the column. 

Entel'echy [from eVreA^?, “ perfect,” and <!x eLV > f° 
“have”] is a metaphysical term from the Aristotelian 
philosophy, denoting the fundamental idea of the whole 
system. Cicero defined this idea as energy, but the Greek 
philosophers who, in the fifteenth century, moved from 
Constantinople to Italy—and among them especially Ar- 
gyropolus—ridiculed him for the definition, and gave per¬ 
fection as the constituent element of the idea. Melanch- 
thon, however, and Leibnitz, and all modern philosophers 
almost without exception, follow Cicero; and when the 
“Entelechy ” of Aristotle is compared with the “ Idea ” of 
Plato or the “Absolute Ncgativitat” of Hegel, or other 
fundamental ideas of other philosophical systems, it is 
evident that energy covers a much larger part of the Aris¬ 
totelian idea than perfection. The abstract repose of the 
Platonic “Idea” is supplanted by the energy of reality 
in the Aristotelian “ Entelechy;” its potentiality becomes 
actuality. Aristotle calls truth an idea, but the soul he 
defines as an evTe\ex eia ; and when Dr. Reid tells his 
readers that he can make no sense of this definition, he 
seems to forget that there are confessions which it is utterly 
unnecessary to make. The best explanations of the entel¬ 
echy, and its relations to the whole system of Aristotelian 
philosophy, are given by Brandis in his “Aristoteles und 
seine Akademischen Zeitgenossen,” Berlin, 1857, and by 
Thurot in his “ Etudes sur Aristote,” Paris, 1860. 

Entel'Ius, one of the mythical companions of Alneas. 
He was an aged hero of Troy or Sicily, who at the games 
in honor of Anchises defeated in a boxing contest the 
youthful champion Dares, who was almost killed in the 
struggle. 

Entel'Ius Monkey, or Honuman (Semnopithecus 
Entellus), a species of East Indian monkey, having long 
limbs and a very long and powerful but not prehensile tail. 


It is regarded as sacred by the Hindoos, who dedicate tem¬ 
ples to it, and erect hospitals for it when sick or wounded. 
It exhibits a familiarity bordering on impudence, and often 
plunders gardens with impunity, as the Hindoos consider 
it an honor to be robbed by it. They believe that it is a 
metamorphosed prince, and to kill it is considered a deadly 
sin; and hence these monkeys absolutely swarm in many 
places, especially in the vicinity of the temples. 

Enteral'gia [from the Gr. Hyrepoy, the “intestine,” and 
aAvo? “pain”], a name given in some medical works to 
colic, especially of the form attended by spasmodic con¬ 
tractions in the muscular coat of the intestine. This in¬ 
tensely painful form of disease is often chronic in character, 


though the individual attacks are usually short—a cha¬ 
racter in which it differs from spasms of the stomach, which 
are often long continued. The disease is best relieved by 
hot applications and by the cautious use of chloroform. 
The tendency of late writers is to limit the use of the term 
enteralgia to cases of Neuralgia (which see) of the in¬ 
testines. 

Enteri'tis [from the Gr. Zyrepov, “bowel,” “intestine,” 
and the termination -itis, denoting, in modern medical no¬ 
menclature, “ inflammation ”], an inflammation of the small 
intestines. The term is somewhat vaguely used by medical 
writers. Active inflammation of the bowels, in adults at 
least, is very frequently confined, for the most part, to the 
peritoneal coat, and the disease is hence called peritonitis. 
When the mucous coat of the bowels alone is actively in¬ 
volved, it is frequently a fatal disease in children, but in 
adults, with care, the majority of cases recover. Catarrhal 
enteritis is benefited, and generally cured, by gentle purga¬ 
tion. But in active disease of this kind cathartics will 
often greatly aggravate the evil. Such cases are best 
treated by rest, opiates, poultices to the abdomen, and 
bland nourishment. “ Typhlo-enteritis ” or inflammation 
of the caecum, when caused by abscess or perforation of the 
appendix caeci, is not unfrequently fatal; when otherwise 
caused, recovery is to be looked for. 

Enterprise, a post-village, capital of Volusia co., 
Fla., 12 miles below the head of steamboat navigation on 
St. John’s River (although steamers have ascended sixty 
miles higher), 80 miles S. of St. Augustine. It is a place 
of winter resort, and the head-quarters of sportsmen (both 
for fishing and gunning) in this part of Florida. Here is 
the “ Green Spring,” a remarkable sulphur spring 80 feet 
in diameter and 100 feet deep. Enterprise has a court¬ 
house and good hotels. 

Enterprise, a post-village, capital of Clark co., Miss., 
has two weekly newspapers. 

Enterprise, a township of Linn co., Mo. Pop. 322. 

Enterprise, a village of Lanier township, Preble co., 
0. Pop. 61. 

Entlm' siasm [Gr. iv0ovcna(rp.6<;, “ inspiration,” from eV, 
“within,” and 0eo?, a “god”] refers to the emotions; in¬ 
spiration to the imagination; revelation to the intellect. 
An idea may burst upon a man as a revelation; he throws 
it upon the world as an inspiration ; it belongs to the world 
to receive it with enthusiasm. Enthusiasm is merely pas¬ 
sive, a merely receptive state of mind; and it is important, 

both in religion and aesthetics, to be 
fully aware of this being its true 
character, for in religion it causes 
pitiful misery when every upheaval 
of our feelings is mistaken for a di¬ 
vine revelation—the more so as en¬ 
thusiasm, in accordance with its 
merely passive nature, is as ready 
to run after a foolish whim as it is 
to follow the exalted wisdom. And 
in aesthetics nine-tenths of that dis¬ 
agreeable stuff with which modern 
literatures are loaded under the 
names of poems, novels, tales, etc. 
would never have been read, per¬ 
haps even not written, if people had 
understood thoroughly that art de¬ 
pends for its production wholly on 
inspiration, whilst enthusiasm only 
makes us fit for the enjoyment of 
its gifts. 

En'thymeme [from the Gr. tv, 
“in,” and fluids, “mind ”], in logic, a 
syllogism of which one of the three 
parts (generally the major premise) 
is suppressed or held in mind—e. g. 
“The freedmen ought not to vote, 
because they cannot read.” Ac¬ 
cording to De Quincey ( Historical 
Essays, vol. ii., p. 215 seq.), the 
Aristotelian enthymeme is an argument in respect to mat¬ 
ters probable rather than demonstrable. (So also Thomson, 
“ Laws of Thought,” p. 284.) Aristotle’s own definition for 
the rhetorical enthymeme is, “a syllogism from probable 
propositions or from signs.” By jyrobable propositions he 
means those which are general, but not at all universal, as 
“ Injured men seek revenge.” By signs he designates facts 
or marks, suoh as attend upon other facts or conceptions, 
so that from the presence of the sign we suspect or know 
that the thing signified is also present. The rhetorical en¬ 
thymeme, when based on signs, is always atfirinativ e, t.iking 
no account of negative indications. Its results arc uni\ crsal, 
and may amount to practical or even formal demonstration. 



Entellus Monkey. 



























ENTOMOLOGY. 


1582 


Entomology is the department of zoology which 
treats of Insects. It includes the study of their form, 
structure, development, habits, names, classification, and 
geographical distribution; and also the examination of the 
relations which Insects sustain to other animals and to 
Man. The name of the science is derived from two Greek 
words— evTo/xov, entomon, an “insect/’ and Ao-yos, logos , a 
“discourse.” 

In general terms it may be stated that the science of 
Entomology dates from the time of Aristotle; for this 
accurate observer and learned scholar, whose writings on 
Natural History are the more admired the more they are 
studied, considered insects also, as well as other animals, 
scientifically, pointing out the limits of this interesting 
group of animals, and subdividing them into minor groups, 
with a wonderful degree of accuracy. From the time of 
Aristotle for a period of about 1800 years, little or nothing 
was done, so far as we know, in the science of Entomology. 
After this long period of inactivity in this science, Conrad 
Gesner, a poor Swiss, born in 1516, became a physician at 
Zurich, and, in addition to his other duties, gave much time 
to natural history subjects, collecting all that was then 
known of the natural history of animals in general, and 
writing special papers on Insects, which were published 
after his death, by Thomas Mouffet, an English physician 
and naturalist, who died about the year 1600, and whose 
entomological writings were published in one folio volume, 
illustrated with 500 wood-cuts, in London, in 1634. 

From the times of Gesner and Mouffet the science of 
Entomology has always had many votaries—so many that 
the whole space allotted to this article would not contain 
even a list of their names and the titles of the books and 
papers which they have published on this interesting and 
important subject. Nay, it requires two octavo volumes 
to enumerate the writers on Entomology and to give the 
full titles, and dates, and places of their publications, as 
may be seen by examining Dr. Hagen’s valuable work, 
“ Bibliotheca Entomologica,” 2 vols. 8vo, Leipsic, 1862-63. 
And it should be added here, that since the publication of that 
work new writers have come forward, so that several scores 
of writers and hundreds of papers must be added to the 
lists enumerated in Dr. Hagen’s volumes of ten years ago. 

But while no complete list even of the names of the 
writers on Entomology can here be given, we must not fail 
to mention a few such names as Redi, Goedart, Malpighi, 
Swammerdam, Lyster, Madame Merian, Leuwenhoeck, Val- 
lisnieri, Ray, Reaumur, Linnaeus, Charles de Geer, Roesel 
de Rosenhof, Bonnet, Clerck, Lyonnet, Sepp, Geoffroy, 
Schaeffer, Brunnich, Pallas, Drury, Cramer, Fabricius, Es- 
per, Stoll, Moses Harris, Schrank, Schiffermuller, Vil- 
iiers, Thunburg, Rossi, Olivier, Smith and Abbot, Pierre 
Andre Latreille the “Prince of Entomologists,” Panzer, 
Herbst, Sturm, Illiger, Marsham, Kirby and Spence, 
Palisot de Beauvois, .Paykul, Meigen, Jurine, Savigny, 
the Hubers (father and son), Schoenherr, Treviranus, Wied- 
man, Ramdohr, Gyllenhal, Ochsenheimer, Hubner, Fallen, 
Ilerold, Klug, Gravenhorst, Meckel, Marcel de Serres, 
Leach, Suckow, Walckenaer, Macleay, Carl Ernst von Baer, 
Straus-Durckheim, Lepelletier de St. Fargeau, Dalman, 
Waldheim, Dumeril, Dufour, Duponchel, Curtis, Stephens, 
Staiuton, Swainson, Wood, Horsfield, Gebler, Germar, 
Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Eschscholtz, Godart, Bo- 
nelli, Carus, Mannerheim, Guerin-Meneville, Rathke, Mac- 
quart, Audouin, Zetterstedt, Milne-Edwards, Boisduval, 
Rennie, Spinola, Kolliker, Leuckart, Brulle, Gen6, Guenee, 
Pictet, Rambur, Kollar, Dahlbom, Say, Van der Hoeven, 
Zaddach, Lucas, Dejean, Wagner, De Castelnau, Griffith, 
Lacordaire, Audinet-Serville, Gray, White, Walker, Dallas, 
Smith, Doubleday, Cuvier, Burmeister, Shuckard, West- 
wood, Heer, Erichson, Dujardin, Herrich-Shmffer, Newport, 
Blanqhard, Longchamps, Bowerbank, Leconte, Haldeman, 
Harris, Siebold, Gegenbaur, Rondani, Murray, Lucaze- 
Duthiers, Agassiz, Hagen, Molsheimer, Giebel, Berendt, 
Uhler, Fitch, Loew, Duval and Migneaux, Wollaston, 
Osten-Sacken, Langstroth, Huxley, Wallace, Leidy, Pack¬ 
ard, Scudder, Grote, Norton, Edwards, Trimble, Claparede, 
Gerstaecker, Lubbock, MacLachlan, Walsh, Thorell, etc., etc. 

The vast numbers of insects, their varied forms, beauti¬ 
ful and in many cases splendid colors, wonderful trans¬ 
formations, and their not less wonderful instincts and 
habits, and the intimate and important relations which 
they sustain to other animals and to Man, combine to 
render the science of Entomology exceedingly fascinating 
and highly important, and worthy the attention it has re¬ 
ceived and is still receiving from the ablest minds. 

The science of Entomology is of the highest import¬ 
ance, when considered merely from the so-called practical 
point of view; for it teaches what kinds of insects are ben¬ 
eficial to man, and what kinds arc injurious, and thus it shows 
him which to preserve and which to destroy. It makes 
him acquainted with the habits of insects, and thus enables 


him the better to preserve those that are- beneficial, and to 
meet and resist the ravages of those that are injurious to 
the crops of the field, orchard, and garden, and of those 
which are injurious to the food and clothing in the store¬ 
rooms and closets. 

The important relations, however, which insects hold to 
Man, and the corresponding importance of Entomology, 
are but little understood except by those who have given 
some attention to these animals and to this fascinating 
and exceedingly important science. The masses of men 
little realize the fact that some kinds of insects destroy 
millions of dollars’ worth of property annually in every 
country, and that other kinds furnish the world with many 
of the comforts and even with the luxuries of civilized life 


—with silks, satins, and velvets, and with dyes whose fame 
is as old as history and a!s wide as the civilized world, and 
even with every drop of black ink which flows from the 
pen of the schoolboy, accountant, philosopher, and poet. 

The position which Insects hold in the Animal Kingdom 
may be readily seen by the following classification : 


Vertebrates 


Mammals, 
Birds, 
Reptiles, 
Batrac Ilians, 
Fishes. 


Articulates 


Insects, 

Crustaceans, 

Worms. 


Mollusks 


Radiates 


Protozoans 


Cephalopods, 

Gasteropods, 

Acephals, 

Bracliiopods. 

Tunicates, 

Polyzoans or Bryozoans. 
( Echinoderms, 

< Acalephs, 

( Polyps. 

( Infusoria, 

< Porifera, 

( Rhizopoda. 


It is thus seen that Insects are the highest class of the 
Articulates; and it is this class with which the science of 
Entomology exclusively deals. And this class is now to 
be defined and classified, so far as our limits permit. 

Insects are animals whose bodies are divided transversely 
into rings or joints more or less movable upon one another, 
and whose hard parts are upon the outside, and whose res¬ 
piratory apparatus consists of air-holes, called stigmata, 
placed along the side of the body, and which open into a 
system of air-tubes which branch throughout the interior 
of the body, and thus carry air into every part. These air- 
tubes each consist of two membranes enclosing between 
them a spirally coiled fibre, thereby having great strength 
and flexibility. As in all other articulated animals, their 
alimentary canal occupies the central line of the body, 
and above it is the dorsal vessel or so-called heart; and 
their nervous system consists of a sort of brain lying above 
the oesophagus, from which two threads, passing around 
and below the oesophagus, extend beneath the alimentary 
canal along the floor of the general cavity of the body, and 
connect at certain distances small nervous centres or gan¬ 
glia, whence arise the nerves of the body and limbs. 

The class of Insects is by far the largest in the Animal 
Kingdom. It is regarded as much larger than all other 
classes combined. About 200,000 species of insects are 
already known, and the whole number may be safely esti¬ 
mated as high as 500,000 species. The species are mostly 
small—many are microscopic in size—but some kinds in 
the warm regions are several inches, even a foot, in length. 
The average length, however, is probably much less than 
one inch. This vast class may be divided into three 
groups, which Leuckart and many others regard as orders: 



I. IIexapoda, or Insects proper, as Bees, Butter¬ 
flies, Flies, Beetles, Bugs, Grasshoppers and 
Dragon-flies. 

II. Araciinida, as Spiders and Scorpions. 

III. Myriapoda, as “Galley-worms,” Centipedes, 
etc. 


Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., in his valuable work entitled “A 
Guide to the Study of Insects,” gives the following tabular 
view of the Classification of Insects, which we gladly insert 
here, as valuable both to the entomological student and to 
the general reader: 


The Class of Insects. 


Order I. — Segments grouped into three ' 
distinct regions; eyes compound and 
simple; two pairs of wings (some kinds 
are wingless, and some, as the Diptcra, 
have only one pair); six thoracic legs; 
one pair of jointed abdominal append¬ 
ages. A more or less complete meta¬ 
morphosis. 


IIexapoda, 

or 

Six-footed 

Insects. 


i 





















ENTOMOLOGY. 


1583 


Order II. — Segments grouped into two 
regions, a false cephalotliorax (the so- 


Arachnida, 

or 

Spiders. 


[ 


Myriapoda, 

or 

Centipedes. 


called cephalotliorax of Spiders is not 
like that region in Crabs, the head being 
much freer from the thorax), and an 
abdomen; no antenna?; eyes simple; 
wingless; four pairs of thoracic legs; 
throe pairs of jointed abdominal append¬ 
ages (spinnerets) often present. No 
metamorphosis. 

Order III .—Body cylindrical and worm¬ 
like. Segments not grouped into regions 
(except in the recently hatched young). 

Head free; eyes simple; antenna? pres¬ 
ent; wingless; yolk-sac present for a 
short period after hatching. No meta¬ 
morphosis. 

These three groups or orders may now be briefly noticed. 
Hex apod A. —The first order, Insects proper, is com¬ 
posed of insects which have their body divided into three 
plainly marked regions—the head, thorax, and hind-body 
or abdomen. The head is furnished with mouth, eyes and 
antennae; to the thorax are appended the legs and wings; 
and the abdomen contains the principal organs of digestion, 
and other viscera, and to it also belong the piercer and 
sting with which many kinds of insects are provided. 
The Insects proper have only six legs—and hence are 
often called Hexapod Insects—and these are attached to 
the under side of the thorax, one pair to each of the three 
rings of which the thorax is composed. The leg consists 
of the hip-joint, by which it is fastened to the body, the 
thigh, the shank, and the foot, the last consisting generally 
of five pieces placed end to end and called tarsi, and gen¬ 
erally armed at the end with one or two claws. The wings 
are normally four, but in some, as in Flies, etc., there are 
only two, and in others, as in Fleas, etc., these organs are 
wholly wanting. The wings of insects are at first little, 
soft, sac-like bodies containing tracheae. They grow from 
the side of the thorax of the pupa at points above the in¬ 
sertion of the legs. During the pupa stage they are pad¬ 
like, but when the pupa-skin is shed, they rapidly expand 
with air and become broad and delicate wings. The wings 
of insects are thus simple expansions of the general cover¬ 
ing of the body spread over a network of horn-like tubes. 
These tubes, it may be remarked here, are found to be 
double, consisting of a central air-tube enclosed within a 
larger tube filled with blood; and hence the aeration of the 
blood is also carried on in the wings, and thus these organs 
serve both the purpose of lungs and of flight. And it may 
be further remarked here that the number and position of 
these veins are of very great importance to the entomolo¬ 
gist in classifying the genera and species of insects. The 
typical number of primary veins is five. They diverge 
from the base of the wing, and divide into veinlets, from 
which cross-veins arise, all together forming a network of 
veins and veinlets. The five main veins are, beginning at 
the front edge, the costal, the sub-costal, the median, the 
sub-median, and internal. Sometimes the median divides 
into four. The front or costal vein is undivided; the sub¬ 
costal and median are divided into several branches; the 
submedian and internal are generally simple. The piercer 
mentioned above is properly an ovipositor, and is in some 
cases a jointed tube, and is used for conducting eggs into 
holes where they are to be left to be hatched; in other 
cases it is a scabbard containing a central borer, or saws 
in some cases, which are used in making holes in which 
eggs are to be deposited. The sting with which many in¬ 
sects, as bees and wasps, are provided, is merely a modified 
ovipositor, and consists of a sheath covering a sharp instru¬ 
ment for inflicting wounds, and connecting with it inside 
of the body is a sac of poison. 

The digestive system of insects consists of a mouth 
whose parts are variously modified in the different groups 



Mouth and Tongue of the Bee, magnified. 

of these animals. In some kinds the mouth parts are 
modified for biting and chewing purposes; in others they 
are so modified as to be adapted for sucking organs. -The 


parts called mandibles are organs situated on each side 
of the mouth-opening, and they vary greatly in form and 
size. They usually consist of a single joint; and this 
joint or part is often subdivided into three parts, each 
ending in a sort of tooth for the purpose of cutting food. 
The cutting edges are opposed to each other, or overlap, 
and their motion is horizontal or side-wise, instead of ver¬ 
tical as in the motion of the jaws of vertebrated animals. 

The parts called maxilla? are much more complicated 
organs than the mandibles, and are inserted on the under 
side of the head, and just behind the mouth. Their func¬ 
tion is to seize food and retain it within the mouth, and to 
aid the mandibles in comminuting it. Each maxilla con¬ 
sists of a basal joint, beyond which it is divided into three 
lobes—namely, the footstalk, the palpus-bearer, and the 
blade. The maxillary palpi are slender-jointed organs, 
very flexible and sensitive. Insects have a pharynx, a 
gullet, a first stomach or crop, a second stomach or gizzard, 
a small intestine, a ca?cuni, etc. 

The circulatory system is imperfect, as it exists only in a 
rudimentary form. Just under the covering of the back 
there is a long tube which is called the heart, and this 
organ performs regular alternate movements of contraction 
and dilatation. The blood enters this tubular organ by 
openings along its sides, the openings being furnished with 
valves which prevent its return, and the blood escapes at 
the foremost end as the organ contracts, and thus the blood 
is kept in motion throughout the interior of the animal, 
and thus the waste of the body is supplied and growth 
secured. The blood of Insects is colorless, and, as already 
indicated, is not contained in arteries and veins as in the 
higher animals, but it fills all the interior of the animal 
not occupied by internal organs, and it permeates the tissues 
of the organs themselves. 

As already indicated, the respiratory system is very dif¬ 
ferent from that of the higher animals. On the sides of the 
body are generally breathing-holes or stigmata, nine on 
each side, and these open into air-tubes called tracheae, 
which branch throughout the body, carrying air into every 
part, and thus aerating the blood in the most perfect man¬ 
ner, and thereby fitting these animals for rapid and long- 
continued motion. 

The muscular system of Insects is beneath but continuous 
w r ith the integument, and it corresponds to the jointed 
structure of these animals. It consists of straight fibres, 
more or less isolated, and not gathered into bundles as in 
the vertebrates, although they are in many cases striated, 
as in the latter branch. The muscles are colorless, or 
transparent, or yellowish-white, and very soft. The mus¬ 
cular system is found to be the simplest in the lowest in¬ 
sects, and in the larvae of all forms; and it is more com¬ 
plex in the head than elsewhere, and more complex in the 
thorax than in the abdomen. The muscles in Insects are 
exceedingly numerous. Lyonnet found 3993 muscles in a 
single larva (Cossus ligniperda), 228 of these being in the 
head. The muscular power of Insects is perfectly enor¬ 
mous. It is stated on good authority that the flea can leap 
200 times its own height, that beetles have been known to 
gnaw through lead pipes, and that the European Stag-beetle 
(Lucanus cervus) has gnawed a hole an inch in diameter 
through the side of an iron canister in which it was confined ! 

The organs of sight in Insects consist of ocelli and eyes. 
Theoretically, the ocelli are the most anterior organs of the 
head, but in the process of development they are carried 
backward, so that in the adult insect they appear on top of 
the head. The ocellus is the simplest form of the eye. The 
ocellus consists of a “very convex, smooth, single cornea, 
beneath which is a spherical crystalline lens, resting upon 

the plano-convex 
surface of the ex¬ 
panded vitreous 
humor, the ana¬ 
logue of the trans¬ 
parent cones of the 
compound eyes.” 
The ocelli consti¬ 
tute the only visual 
organs of most of 
the Myriapod, of 
all of the Arachnid, 
and of the larva? 
of many of the Hex¬ 
apod Insects. The 
number of ocelli 
in adult insects is 
generally three. 
These organs are 

Head and Eyes of the Bee, magnified, generally present 

except in the largo majority of Beetles. The real eyes of 
Insects are compound, and are made up of a congeries of 
simple eyes. During the development or growdh ot the 




















1584 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


insect the simple eyes of the larvae increase in number, and 
at length coalesce to form the compound eye. The num¬ 
ber of facets or corneao in the compound eye is very 
great in some kinds of insects, 3650 having been counted 
in the eye of a butterfly. The form of the facets is gener¬ 
ally hexagonal, but in some species it is quadrangular. 

As to the organs of hearing, smell, taste, and touch, but 
little is positively known. The antennae seem to serve the 
purpose of feelers, and it is believed that they are also con¬ 
nected with the sense of hearing. But it should be re¬ 
marked here that Siebold found an auditory apparatus in 
the fore legs of some species of grasshoppers. 


Their nervous system, as already stated, consists of a 
double series of nervous ganglions or knots of nervous 
matter connected by a double chain of nervous threads; 
and these are situated along the ventral side of the animal, 
connected, however, with a nervous centre in the head. 
From these ganglia arise the nerves of the body and limbs. 

It is hardly necessary to say that insects are never spon¬ 
taneously generated, as some persons suppose, but they are 
produced from eggs, which are hatched after they arc laid 
in some favorable place ; or, in some cases, they are hatched 
in the body of the parent insect, and then brought forth as 
moving forms. 



In passing from the egg state to the adult state, Insects 
undergo great changes of form and habit. These changes 
are called transformations or metamorphoses, and they are 
so great in most cases that the same insect at dilferent ages 
may easily be mistaken, by one not an entomologist, for as 
many different animals. There are at least three more or 
less distinctly marked stages in the life of every insect 
after it leaves the egg—viz., the larva, the pupa or chrysa¬ 
lis, and the imago state. 

In the larva state Insects are more or less worm-like, 
and consist of thirteen or fourteen apparent segments, 
besides the head; and they pass most of their time in eat¬ 
ing, and as a consequence of this they grow very rapidly. 
When the larva of an insect has attained its full growth as. 
a larva, it retires to some suitable place, and in many cases 
it spins a silken covering called a cocoon, then sheds its 
skin, and appears as a much shortened, oblong, oval, or 
conical body, apparently lifeless; in this form it is called a 
pupa or chrysalis. In a majority of species, however, no 
silken covering or cocoon is made, but the pupa itself is 
essentially of the same form as those found enclosed in a 
cocoon. At the end of the pupa state, which varies greatly 
in duration in the different species, the insect sheds its pupa- 
skin and comes forth fully grown, and in most species pro¬ 
vided with wings; and in this state it is called a perfect 
insect or imago. After insects enter upon the adult or 
imago state they do not increase in size. They now pro¬ 
vide for a continuation of their species, and then, in most 
cases, soon perish. All insects which pass through the 
changes described above are said to undergo a complete 
transformation. This word “ transformation ” does not, 
however, convey the exact idea of the changes, for the 
changes are those resulting merely from growth and de¬ 
velopment, and not from true transformations. In a word, 
the animal is one and the same during all its various 
forms. 


But there are some kinds of insects which do not ap¬ 
parently pass through all the changes enumerated above, 
but whose larvae pass by insensible gradations to the pupa 
state, and from the latter to the perfect insects, all the 
while remaining in a state of activity. These are said to 
undergo only a partial transformation.. The grasshopper, 
for example, is hatched from the egg as a wingless insect. 
It eats voraciously, grows rapidly, hops about without the 
use of wings, sheds its skin more or less regularly, and 
appears after each shedding with longer wings and more 
completely developed limbs, until at length it ceases to 
grow, and then, shedding the skin for the last time, comes 
forth an imago or adult grasshopper. The larvae of those 
insects which undergo only a partial transformation have 
only six legs, the same as adult insects. But of the larvae 
which undergo a complete transformation, some kinds, as 
maggots, have no legs; others have a pair of legs to each 
of the three first segments; others have a pair to each of 
the three first segments, and, besides these, several fleshy 
legs, ten or more, placed beneath the abdominal segments, 
and known as prop-legs. 

Insects proper have been variously classified, and differ¬ 
ent ranks have been assigned to the groups into which they 
have been divided. According to Packard and others, 
Insects proper may be divided into seven groups (first 
proposed by Linnmus) or sub-orders, thus: 

1. Hymenoptera, as Bees, Wasps, Ichneumons, Ants, Saw-flies, etc. 

2. Lepidoptcra, as Butterflies and Moths. 

3. Diptera , as Flies, Mosquitoes, etc. 

4. Coleoptera, as Beetles. 

5. ITemiptera, as Bugs, Cicadas, Plant-lice, etc. 

0. Orthoptera, as Grasshoppers, Crickets, etc. 

7. JVeuroptera, as Dragon-flies, May-flies, Ant-lions, etc. 

Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., reoognizes two series in these 
seven sub-orders—a higher and a lower—and arranges 
them thus: 





















































































ENTOMOLOGY. 


1585 


First and Higher Series .—Body usu¬ 
ally cylindrical; prothorax small; 
mouth-parts more generally haus- 
tellate (formed for sucking); met¬ 
amorphosis complete; pupa inact¬ 
ive ; larva usually cylindrical, very 
unlike the adult. 

Second and Lower Series. — Body 
usually flattened; prothorax large 
and squarish; mouth-parts usually 
adapted for biting; metamorphosis 
incomplete; pupa often inactive; 
larva flattened, often resembling 
the adult. 


1. Hymenoptera. 
• 2. Lepidoptera. 
3. Diptera. 


4. COLEOPTERA. 

5. Hemiptera. 

6. Orthoptera. 

7. Neuroptera. 


In order to show, in a general way, the relative rank of 
the seven sub-orders and of two series of Six-footed In¬ 
sects, Dr. A. S. Packard gives the following diagram: 



Neuroptera. 

It must be here stated that many naturalists regard these 
groups as real orders instead of sub-orders; and they stand 
as orders in many books which the student and reader may 
have occasion to consult on this subject. 

A brief notice of each of these groups may now be given, 
with such illustrations as will give the general reader a 
clear idea of some of the characteristic forms in each group. 

Hymenoptera. —The Hymenoptera {vp.riv, hymen, a “mem¬ 
brane;” nrepov, pteron, a “wing”) have four membranous 
wings, the hind pair the smaller, and all traversed by a 
comparatively few veins. These insects have four jaws, 
the upper pair fitted for biting, and the lower pair the 
longer and softer, and with the lower lip in many cases 
adapted for collecting honey. The females are provided 
with stings, but the males have no weapons excepting their 
jaws. In passing from the egg state to the imago state 
they undergo a complete transformation. All of the Hy- 
menopters are diurnal in their habits, and they fly swiftly. 
They are regarded by Dana as exhibiting the normal size 
of the Insect type. Of all the Hymenoptera, the Bees are 
of the greatest popular interest, even if we may not say 
that they are of the greatest scientific interest; and a vol¬ 
ume might well be devoted to their intensely interesting 
and fascinating history. Thanks to Reaumur, the Hubers, 
and others, we have volumes of interesting and reliable 
information in regard to the Hive-Bee (Apis), the most 
wonderful representative of this group. 

In general, Bees are eminently social in their habits, and 
the species are composed of three sorts of individuals 
females or queens, males or drones, and imperfectly devel¬ 
oped females or workers ; the last are smaller than the 
others, and are often improperly called neuters. In a 
single community of the Hive-bee ( Apis mellifica ) there 
are sometimes 50,000 workers, 2000 males, but only one 
adult queen. This species has now been introduced in all 
countries of the civilized world. The celebrated Italian bee 
is regarded as one of its varieties. The Hive-bee has en¬ 
gaged the attention of the best observers for more than one 
hundred and fifty years, and many interesting and wonder¬ 
ful things have been found out regarding its structure and 
habits; but much still remains to be studied in connection 
with this wonderful insect. 

As regards the workers, they are believed to be of two 
kinds—the nurses, whose function is to build the cells, 
collect honey, and feed the larvae; and the wax-makers, 
which, from the food they eat, secrete wax beneath their 
100 


ventral segments, from which it is taken in thin scales. 
The bee cells are theoretically hexagons with pyramidal 
bases, and the greater angles are given as 109° 28', and the 
lesser as 70° 34'. I say that the cells are hexagons, the¬ 
oretically, because it has been shown by Prof. Jeffries 
Wyman ( Proc. Am. Acad, of Arts and Sci., vol. vii., 1866) 
that the cells are all more or less imperfect when considered 
mathematically. And it may be added here that it is still 
an open question as to the exact way in which the form of 
the cell is secured or brought out. Some naturalists re¬ 
gard the cell as the result of the labor of the bee directed 
by mere instinct; others believe the bee to be directed in 
the work by a sort of reason ; and others, still, believe that 
the form of the cell is a necessary resultant of the labor 
of bees working together. 

The cells are of sizes in accordance with the three sizes— 
queens, drones, and workers—of bees to be produced. The 
ordinary cells are arranged horizontally—that is, the comb 
is made to assume a vertical position; but the queen cells, 
where the queens are reared, are in a vertical position, 
mouth downward,. and are somewhat pear-shaped, and 
vastly larger than ordinary cells. The bottoms of the 
cells of the two tiers do not come directly opposite each 
other, cell to cell, but the bottom of each cell forms a portion 
of the bottom of each of three opposite cells, and thus the 
strength of the cells is greatly increased. The diameter 
of the cells for the larvae of the workers is two and two- 
fifths lines; for the larvae of the males, three and one-third 
lines; and the male cells are generally in the middle of the 
combs. 

The bee-larvae are fed with bee-bread, after it has been 
worked over in the stomach of the bee; this bread is com¬ 
posed of the pollen of flowers. When bees lose a queen 
they select an ordinary larva, and by giving it more room 
and better food they cause it to develop into a queen bee. 
When the larvae are ready to go into the pupa state the 
foster-parents close up the cells with a lid of wax, convex 
on the drone-cells, and nearly flat on the worker-cells; then 
the larvae spin their cocoon. The queen is about sixteen 
days in coming to maturity; workers twenty days, and 
drones twenty-four days. The queen sometimes lays 2000 
to 3000 eggs in a day, and during her lifetime—perhaps 
five years—she lays more than a million of eggs. The 
laying of worker eggs begins in January and February; 
after this, in the spring, male eggs are laid. 

Bees gather the nectar or honey of flowers, pollen, and 
resinous wax or propolis. When covered with pollen they 
collect every particle and knead it into little masses, one 
of which is placed on each hind leg, and in this way it is 
carried home to the hive. They get the resinous wax or 
propolis from resinous leaf-buds and leaves, and they use 
it in finishing the combs and in stopping crevices, etc. 

But our space will not allow us to describe these insects 
at length, and so we may take our leave of them by enum¬ 
erating here a few of their instincts and habits mentioned 
above, together with a few others not less wonderful than 
these. We may here say, then, that when about to swarm 
Hive-bees send out scouts; they follow their queen; 
they carefully cleanse their selected abode; they stop all 
crevices with propolis ; they ventilate the hive by the rapid 
movements of their wings; they guard the entrance; they 
keep equal spaces between their combs in the hive; they 
solder the angles of cells and polish the interior; they 
produce a yellow tinge to the comb, as is believed, by a 
sort of varnishing; they extract honey from flowers; they 
collect pollen, and, as is believed, only from one species of 
flower on a given excursion; they hasten home on the 
approach of rain ; they find their way back after the most 
extended wanderings; they feed their companions on their 
return to the hive; they store away the surplus pollen; 
they swallow pollen and change it into fit food for the 
larvae; they feed the larvae with the right sort of food; 
they cover the grub-cells with a waxen lid, convex or con¬ 
cave according as the grub is a drone or a worker; they 
cleanse the cells after the young bees leave them; they 
retain the young queens in the cells till they are wanted, 
and they feed them while thus kept confined; they release 
the queens in the order of their age, the oldest being re¬ 
leased first; they cause the queens to fight, and they 
devotedly follow the survivors, and if they lose their queen 
they immediately go to work to raise another by giving 
extra food and room to an ordinary larva or grub; they 
kill the drones, and drag them from the hive when they are 
not wanted; and finally, they all have their appropriate 
parts to perform, and they perform these parts with un¬ 
erring regularity and in the most perfect manner. 

The Humble-Bees ( Bomhus ) are in general of large size, 
and have exceedingly hirsute bodies. They build their 
nests in or on the ground, and their cells are large, oval, 
and more or less separate, and their communities are much 
smaller than those of the hive-bee, but there are in some 























1586 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


cases several hundreds of humble-bees in a single com¬ 
munity, and each community arises from a single female 
which has survived the storms of winter; for the com¬ 
munity, as a community, does not survive the winter. 

The Wasps (Vespidm) are other representatives of the 
Ilymenoptcra, and like the Bees many species live in 
colonies composed of females, males, and workers. They 
construct complex nests under ground or attached to over¬ 
hanging rocks, to trees, fences, or buildings. These nests 
consist of tiers of hexagonal cells with their mouths down¬ 
ward, and supported by pedicels; and the cells in a single 
nest, in some cases, number 16,000. These representatives 
of the Hymenoptera are especially interesting as being 
the first paper-makers. Their nests are made of a paper¬ 
like substance, which is merely wood reduced to a paste by 
the action of the jaws of these insects, and this, put into 
the required form, is left to dry—essentially the same 
thing that our paper-manufacturers are doing by other 
processes and on a large scale in their mills to-day. The 
Wasp communities, like those of the Humble-Bees, are 
dissolved on the approach of winter; and each female that 
survives the winter founds a new colony the ensuing 
spring. Some kinds of wasps, however, are solitary in 
their habits. 

The Ants (Formicidse) are other members of the Hy¬ 
menoptera which live in communities composed of females, 
males, and workers; the two former are furnished with 
loosely attached wings, and the last are destitute of wings. 
The workers have the care of the nest and of the rearing 
of the young; they go in search of food, feed the larvae, 
take them into the sunshine in fine weather, and back 
again into the nest at night or when bad weather comes, 
and they watch over them with a wonderful fidelity. Most 
ant-hill communities are composed of individuals of one 
and the same species; but in some cases the workers pro¬ 
cure auxiliaries by visiting the ant-hills of other species, 
and forcibly taking the larvae and pupae and bringing 
them to their own nest, and there having them reared and 
trained to work for the community in which they are reared ! 

The Ichneumons (Ichneumonidm) are members of the 
Hymenoptera which are interesting not only on account 
of their structure, but because of the fact that they are 
very destructive to other insects, especially to those, as 
the Lepidoptera, which in the larva state are injurious to 
vegetation. They are therefore very useful insects. Ich¬ 
neumons deposit their eggs on the eggs, larvae, and pupae 
of other insects, and upon these the larva-ichneumon feeds 
when hatched. These insects have the body long and nar¬ 
row, the antennae long, the ovipositor generally long and 
protected by two thread-like organs of the same length as 


punctures cause galls; and the form and nature of the gall 
depends both upon the kind of gall-fly and upon the kind 
and part of the plant punctured. 

Among the largest of the Hymenoptera are those Boring 
Saw-flies known as “ Ilorntails,” which have the body 
long, nearly cylindrical, and the blunt abdomen ending in 
a horny point. Beneath this abdomen they have a long 
saw-like and powerful borer, with which they bore holes 
into trees, in which they deposit their eggs; and it may be 
added that their larvae are among the great host of tree- 
borers. 

There are other saw-flies belonging to the Hymenoptera, 
but they belong to a separate family—namely, to the Ten- 
thredinidse. These Saw-flies are of various species, some 
of which attack the Rose, others the Vine, others the Elm, 
etc. All have an ovipositor consisting of double saws, 
lodged under the body and covered by two pieces as a 
sheath. They are sluggish in their habits. Their larvae 
have from eighteen to twenty-two legs, and are found in 
communities on the leaves of birch and alder, holding fast 
by their true legs, while the rest of the body is curved up¬ 
ward. Other species, however, appear like slugs on the 
leaves of the rose and of fruit trees. The larva of the 
Elm Saw-fly is large, and covered with a thick skin with 
numerous transverse wrinkles, and when at rest it is coiled 
so as to somewhat resemble a snail-shell. 

Lepidoptera.— The second group of Insects proper—■ 
namely, the Lepidoptera (\erris, lepis, a “ scale nrepov, 
pteron, a “wing”)—is composed of insects which have 




Ichneumon. 

the ovipositor itself. The color of the Ichneumon is gener¬ 
ally black, varied with red, yellow, or white. Some species, 
however, are wholly reddish. 

Of all the Hymenoptera none are more interesting, con¬ 
sidered from one point of view, than the Gall-flies (Cynip- 
idue), since these small insects, by puncturing a species 
of oak growing in Western Asia, produce the nut-galls of 
commerce, and these supply the world with ink. The 
Gall-flies have the head short and broad, the thorax thick 
and oval, and the abdomen much compressed and attached 
to the thorax by a very short peduncle. They are very 
numerous, and the different kinds attack different kinds of 
plants. Some species attack the Oak, others the Rose, etc. 
The females have a long ovipositor, with which they insert 
their eggs into leaves and other parts of plants, and these 


The Peacock Butterfly, Vanessa lo. 

four wings covered with scales that are easily removed. 
The Lepidoptera have a tongue consisting of two grooved 
threads placed side by side, so that the grooved 
sides come together and form a channel by their 
junction, and thus the tongue is adapted for 
sucking purposes ; and accordingly these insects 
drink the dew and feed upon the honey of 
flowers. When not in use this tongue is rolled 
up like a watch-spring beneath the head, and 
more or less concealed on each side by an organ 
called a palpus. The legs of the Lepidopters are 
six in number, but the forward pair is short, and 
sometimes rudimentary, or wanting. In tho 
larva state these insects are called caterpillars, 
and they have from ten to sixteen legs. Most 
kinds of caterpillars feed upon plants. Some 
kinds eat the leaves, others the blossoms, others 
the seeds, others the stems, and others the roots. 
Other kinds, however, eat fabrics, furs, feathers, 
leather, meat, lard, and even wax. In coming 
to their full growth as larvae they usually change 
their skins four times. 

The Lepidopters include the Butterflies and 
the Moths. The former are readily distinguished 
by their knobbed antennae, and by the fact that 
they hold their wings erect when they alight. 
The Moths have variously formed, but never 
knobbed, antennae, and their wings are sloping 
when they alight. All of the Lepidopters pass through a 
complete transformation in coming to maturity. Many of 
the caterpillars of the Moths spin cocoons; many, however, 
do not, and none of the caterpillars of the Butterflies spin 
cocoons. 

The Butterflies of North America are numerous, and 
many of them are exceedingly beautiful, as any one may 
see by examining them, or the splendidly illustrated works 
of Edwards, and those of Scudder, as well as the illustra¬ 
tions of our butterflies in foreign works. 

Of the Moths we have room only to mention the Sphinges 
or Hawk Moths, and a few of the broad-winged moths. 
The Hawk Moths (Sphingidae) are mostly very large lepi¬ 
dopters, and the wings are long and comparatively narrow. 
These moths fly with great rapidity, and with few excep- 
















































ENTOMOLOGY. 


1587 




tions they visit the flowers to secure honey in the morning 
and evening twilight; and as they balance themselves be¬ 
fore the petunias and other flowers, by the rapid movements 
ot their wings, they may easily be mistaken for humming¬ 
birds. Their tongue is exceedingly long—in some cases 
five or six inches. The caterpillars of these moths are very 
!arge, and they assume curious attitudes. Supporting them¬ 
selves on their hind legs, they elevate the forward part of 
the body, and remain for hours in this sphinx-like position. 

Some of the broad-winged or Silkworm Moths (Bornby- 
cidoe), as Cecropin , Polyphemus, Luna, etc., are remark¬ 
able for their large size; others, as the beautiful Deiopeia 
and the "W ood-Nymphs ( Eudryas ), are remarkable for their 
beauty; and all in the larva state spin silken cocoons, in 


Silkworm, Moth, Larva, and Chrysalis, 
which they pass into the pupa state. One of the most 
common of the small broad-winged moths, is the Tent- 
caterpillar Moth, which in the larva state lives upon 
neglected apple trees, and upon wild-cherry trees, and 
spins the well-known tent-like nests. 

Diptera. — The Diptera (fit's, dis, “double;” m-cpor, 
pteron, a “wing”) are so named from the fact that they 
have only two real wings, the place of the hind wings being 
occupied by two knobbed threads called poisers or*bal- 
ancers. Their mouth is modified for either sucking 
or lapping. The sucker or proboscis is composed 
of two to six bristle-like organs, in some cases as 
sharp as are the sharpest needles, and either en¬ 
closed in the grove of a sheath terminated by two 
lips, or covered by one or two laminae which serve 
the purpose of a sheath. They undergo a complete 
transformation in coming to maturity. Their larvae 
are without feet, and are called maggots. The 
pupae are in most cases enclosed in the dried skin 
of the larvae. Some kinds of dipters, as Mosqui¬ 
toes, lay their eggs in the water, and their larvae 
may be seen in summer in all stagnant pools, where 
they are popularly known as “wrigglers.” They 
rest with their head downward, and the hind ex¬ 
tremity, which contains the respiratory organs, is 
at such times at the surface of the water. They are 
very active, and move with a wriggling motion 
through the water, but come to the surface from 
time to time to secure air through their respiratory 
organs. At the end of their larval state they shed 
their skin, but still remain in the water, and move 
by means of their hind-body; but now they assume 
a different attitude, and the respiration is carried 
on through two tubes situated on the thorax. At 
the end of the pupa state, which lasts only a few 
days, the skin splits upon the back, between the breathing- 
tubes, and the winged insect or imago appears, and after 
resting a while on its empty pupa-case as it floats upon 
the water, it flies away in search of a victim whom it may 
pierce for blood. These kinds of dipters discharge a poi¬ 
sonous fluid into the wounds which they inflict, and this is 
the cause of the irritation which follows their attacks. 

Some species of the Diptera, as the Hessian Fly ( Cecido - 
myia destructor, Say) and the Wheat-fly ( Cecidomyia tritici, 
Kirby), are very injurious to tho farmer, sometimes de¬ 
stroying whole wheat-fields. The Hessian Ily received its 
name from the popular belief that it was brought to this 
country, in straw, by the Hessian troops. It is very small, 


only about one-tenth of an inch in length. The females 
lay their eggs on the young blades of wheat, and the eggs 
hatch in about four days, producing pale red maggots. 
The larvae crawl down the leaf, and get between the latter 
and the main stalk near the joint, and here they injure 
and often destroy the plant by sucking the sap. The 
Wheat-fly, on the contrary, lays its eggs in the opening 
flowers of the wheat, also in those of rye, barley, and oats. 
In about eight days the eggs hatch, producing little yellow 
larvae or maggots, which are found within the chaffy scales 
of the grain. 

Several species of the Diptera are very injurious, or at 
least annoying, to cattle and horses. One of these is known 
as the Black Horse-fly ( Tabanus atratus, Fabricius), another 

as the Orange-belted Horse-fly ( T. 
cinctm, Fabr.), and another the Lined 
Horse-fly ( T. lineola, Fabr.). All of 
these have the eyes very large, cover¬ 
ing nearly the whole head, and they 
have a proboscis enclosing six sharp 
lancets in the female, and four in the 
male. 

Other members of the Diptera, as 
the Asilus Flies ( Asilici ), are very 
long-bodied, and very destructive in 
their larva state to the roots of plants, 
and in the adult state they are very 
rapacious, seizing and destroying other 
insects. 

Other dipters still are the Bot-flies 
(CEstridae), which in the larva state 
inhabit various parts of the body of 
herbivorous animals, as horses, cattle, 
sheep, etc. These flies have very short 
antenna;, large head, and the wings 
cover the balancers; and the hind- 
body of the females has a conical tube 
bent under the body, and with it they 
lay their eggs when flying. One spe¬ 
cies lays her eggs upon the fore legs 
of the horse, another upon the lips, and 
another on the throat. By biting tho 
parts where the eggs are laid, the horse 
gets them into his mouth, and swallows them. The larvae, 
by means of hooks, cling to the walls of the stomach till 
they come to the end of their larval life. Another species 
(CEstrus bovis, Fabr.) lays her eggs on the backs of the 
cattle, and the larvae penetrate the skin and live there in 
open sores. Another species ( Cephalomyia ovis, Linn.) lays 
her eggs in the nostrils of sheep, and the larvae crawl into 
the cavities of the head, and in many cases produce death. 

But by far the largest group of all the Diptera is that 


Flies. 


which Latreille called the Muscidae, which includes about 
one-third of all the members of this sub-order, and which 
are known under the popular names ot House-flies, Flesh- 
flies, Blow-flies, Cheese-flies, etc. Meigen has already, a 
loner time aero, described 1700 species ot these flies as 


belonging to Europe, and there is probably even a greater 
number in this country. These flies have a wonderful 
power of reproduction. Some species, as the Flesh-flies, 
are viviparous. Reaumur found 2000 larvae in a single 
specimen of this sort. 

Among the Diptera there are, as in other groups, some 
apparently anomalous forms. One ot these is seen in tho 
Fleas (Pulicidm), which are wingless flics with hard, com- 






































































1588 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


pressed bodies, with two simple eyes instead of compound 
eyes, a sucker-like arrangement of mouth-parts, and hind 
legs specially adapted for leaping. By many writers the 
Fleas are regarded as constituting a distinct order— 
“ Aphaniptera” (afiavifa, aphanizo, “ to hide;” mepovypteron, 
a “wing”). Other anomalous forms of the Diptera are 
seen in the Horse-ticks ( Hippoboaca ), Sheep-ticks ( Mello- 
phaga), Bird-ticks ( Ornithomyia ), etc. These have a 
horny tlattened body, flat head, large eyes, rudimentary 
antennae, and a proboscis formed by the labrum and 
maxillae. They are parasites, and differ from all other 
insects in their mode of development. Each female pro¬ 
duces only one or two larvae, and when first hatched the 
larva is not divided into rings, but is smooth and egg-like, 
the whole covering being a puparium-like case in which 
the larva becomes a pupa immediately after it is born. 
The spider-shaped Bat-ticks (Nycteribidae), which are 
parasites on the Bat, and the Bee-lice (Braulina), minute, 
wingless, blind insects, parasites on Bees, are other anom¬ 
alous forms of the Diptera. 

Coleopteua.—T he Coleoptera (*oAeo?, coleos, a “sheath ;” 
mtp6v,pteron, a “ wing”) or Beetles are insects whose upper 
or anterior wings, called elytra, are more or less horny, and 
they meet in a straight line upon the top of the back: and 
in general there is a small triangular piece, called scutellum, 
between their bases. Their hind or under wings are thin, 
and when not in use are folded longitudinally and trans¬ 
versely. The Coleoptera have two pairs of jaws, which 
move sidewise, and the larvae, which arc called grubs, 
undergo a complete transformation in coming to maturity. 
There are probably more than 100,000 species of these 
insects, and they present a great diversity of form, size, 
color, structure, and habits. 

Some kinds, as the Tiger Beetles (Cicindelidm), have a 
large head, globose eyes, long antennae, and toothed man¬ 
dibles, and are very rapacious in their habits, devouring 
other insects, which constitute their principal food. Their 
larvae are provided with powerful jaws, and, like the adults, 
are rapacious in their habits. These larvae dig vertical 
holes in the ground, in which they remain, the head just 
fitting the entrance, and when any insect passes near 
enough they seize it and de¬ 
vour it. 

The Predaceous Ground 
Beetles (Carabidas) are also 
rapacious, and several spe¬ 
cies are known as Caterpillar 
Hunters, on account of the 
warfare which they wage 
against various kinds of lepi- 
dopterous larvae. 

Other kinds of beetles, as 
the Dytiscidae, are fitted for a 
residence in the water, and 
these have their hind legs 
specially fitted for swimming. Cicindela campestris (Imago 
n V , j • i and Larva). 

They are also exceedingly ra- ' 

pacious, both in the larva and in the adult state, devouring 
all kinds of small aquatic animals, even fishes. 

Other kinds of beetles, as the Gyrindse, are found mov¬ 
ing in all sorts of curves and gyrations on the smooth sur¬ 
face of standing waters; and these too swim by means of 
the fringed hind legs. 

Some kinds, as the Carrion Beetles (Silphidm), are true 
scavengers. Living together in great numbers, they per¬ 
form a most useful service in removing noxious substances. 
Some species of this family have the habit of burying all 
the small dead animals which they find. They dig beneath 
the animal till they sink it out of sight, then deposit their 
eggs in it; and as soon as the young hatch, the latter begin 
to devour it, and thus the noxious substance is soon con¬ 
verted into living tissues. 

The Dermestidse are small beetles which in the larva 
state attack skins and bodies and all parts of dried animals. 
They often commit great havoc in zoological collections. 

The Horn-bugs (Lucanidae) are beetles whose head is 
very large and broad, and whose upper jaws are very large, 
curved, and often branched. They fly only in the night. 
In the grub state they live in the roots and trunks of trees, 
and some of the species are six years in coming to maturity. 

But of all the groups of the Coleoptera, the Scarabaeans 
(Scarabaeidae) are one of the most extensive. Here belong 
the May-Beetle, Rose-Chafers, Goldsmith Beetles, and a 
host of others. They differ from one another in many im¬ 
portant respects, but agree in having a rather short convex 
form, the antennae ending in a knob composed of three or 
more leaf-like pieces, a visor-like piece which extends for¬ 
ward over the face, and their legs are fitted for digging. 

The Buprestians (Buprestidae) are beetles which have 
the head apparently sunk into the thorax nearly up to their 
eyes, and the whole form somewhat flattened and very solid. 


The lustre is metallic, more or less bronze-like. They aro 
found on trees, and feign death when disturbed. In the 
larva state they bore the peach, plum, pine, oak, hickory, etc. 

The Elaters (Elateridae) are also beetles which have a 
hard body, and their head sunk to the eyes in the thorax, 
and the latter is as broad as any part of the body. In the 
larva state they are called wire-worms, and in this state 
they devour roots and wood. In the adult state they have 
attracted much attention from their habit of springing up¬ 
ward w h a jerk after they have been placed upon the back. 

Some of the representatives of the Coleoptera are very 
important in their relations to pharmacy. This is true of 
the Cantharides (Meloidae), extensively used for blistering 
purposes. They have a broad head, long antennas, and soft 
wing-covers, which are more or less bent downward. 

The Stylopidas are minute beetles, so apparently abnor¬ 
mal in their appearance and structure that they have by 
some naturalists been referred to a distinct order called 



“ Strepsiptera” (from o-rpe'^i?, strepsis, a “twisting,” and 
nrepov, a “wing”). In the larva state these beetles live as 
parasites in the body of the bee. 

Of the small members of the Coleoptera, none are more 
destructive than the Weevils (Curculionidae). Some kinds 
of weevils attack the pea, others the plum, others grain, 
others rice, others stored grain, and others the pine, etc. 
All of the Curculios arc hard-shelled, and the fore part of 
the tfead is generally prolonged into a slender snout, at the 
extremity of which is the mouth armed with small horny 
jaws. In the larva state they are white grubs. 

The Long-horn Beetles (Cerambycidse) are those which 
have exceedingly long antennae. When caught they gen¬ 
erally make a squeaking noise. The larvm are wood-borers, 
and they are the most destructive of all wood-eating insects. 
In some species they are three or more years in coming to 
maturity as larvae; they then go into the pupa state in 
their burrows, and at length appear as adult beetles. To 
the Long-horns belong the Oak-Pruner ( Stevocorua villoaua, 
Fabr.), the Beautiful Clytus ( Clytns speciosus, Say), the 
Painted Clytus ( Clytus Jiexuosus, Fabr.), the Apple-tree 
Borer ( Saperda bivittata, Say), etc. 

A large number of beautiful, golden, green, and blue bee¬ 
tles are included under the name of Chrysomelidae. Their 
form is hemispherical or oval, the head is sunken, and the 
antennae are wide apart. All of these are gayly colored. 

And lastly we may notice the Lady-birds (Coccinellidae) 
as representatives of the Coleoptera. These are small bee¬ 
tles, more or less hemispherical in form, and of a black, red, 
or yellow color, ornamented with spots. They are rapacious 
in their habits, both in the larva and in their adult state, 
devouring plant-lice. 

Hemiptera. —The Hemiptcra (rj/ai, Tiemi, “half;” nrepov, 
pteron, a “wing”) are insects which have the mouth-parts 
in the form of a slender horny beak, consisting of a horny 
sheath enclosing three sharp bristle-like organs, the whole 
being fitted for a sucking apparatus. When not in use this 
beak is bent under the body, and lies upon the breast. 
Bugs, Cicadas, Plant-lice, etc. are familiar examples of this 
group of insects. The Bugs may be regarded as the typi¬ 
cal members of the group, as their wings are thick in their 
basal portion and thin towards their tips; that is, in gen¬ 
eral terms, half of the wing is of one degree of thickness, 
and the other half of another degree, and hence the name 
Hemiptera. As the wings of Bugs thus differ in the two 
regions, basal and terminal, these insects are often called 
Hemiptera heteroptera. 

On the contrary, other hemiptera, as Cicadas, Plant- 





























ENTOMOLOGY. 158£ 


lice, etc., have the wings of uniform thickness throughout, 
and they do not lie flat upon the back, as in the Ilemip- 
tera heteroptera; and having wings of uniform thickness 
throughout, they are called Hemiptera homoptera. Of 
the Hemiptera homoptera, few if any are more interesting 
than the Cicadas or Harvest-flies (Cicadidae). These in¬ 
sects have a broad head, large eyes, and three eyelets on 
the crown. Both pairs of wings are transparent and dis¬ 
tinctly veined. The males are furnished with an apparatus 
by which they produce a loud buzzing sound. This ap¬ 
paratus consists of a pair of organs which have been aptly 
compared to a pair of kettle-drums—one situated in each 
side of the abdomen, and each formed of convex pieces of 
a parchment-like membrane, finely plaited, and played 
upon by means of muscular fibres fastened to the inside; 
and thus, by the rapid contraction and relaxation of these 
fibres, the drum-heads are alternately tightened and loos¬ 
ened, and the sounds above named produced. And it may 
be added here that the intensity of the sounds is greatly 
increased by other cavities within the body, formed, or at 
least separated, by thin transparent membranes. The 
female cicadas are provided with a piercer for perforating 
the limbs of trees, in which they lay their eggs. This 
piercer consists of three pieces—two outer ones, which are 
grooved on the inside, and toothed on the outside like a 
saw, and a central piece, which is a sort of spear-pointed 
borer, which moves freely between the other two. 

The Cicadas have attracted much attention from very 
early times. The Greeks, we are told, were charmed with 
their “ singing;” and they often kept these insects in cages 
that they might enjoy their “music.” And the Greeks 
also used them as food, eating both the pupae and the per¬ 
fect cicadas. Our common species are the Dog-day Cicada 
or Harvest-fly ( Cicada canicularis, Harris) and the Seven¬ 
teen-year Cicada ( Cicada septendecim , Linn.), often incor¬ 


grass, herbs, and trees, upon the sap of which they subsist, 
imbibing such quantities that it oozes out of their bodies 
in the form of little bubbles, thus soon covering the insect 
in a mass of frothy foam. Of all the Hemiptera, none are 
more remarkable than these for their curious, and, in many 
cases, grotesque forms. 

Of the very small and minute Hemiptera homoptera, 
none perhaps are more remarkable than the Plant-lice 
(Aphidfe) and the Bark-lice (Coccidee). The former have 
on the hind part of their short body two minute tubes or 
pores, from which exude minute drops of a sweet fluid. 
And this fact explains the reason why ants collect in great 
numbers wherever plant-lice abound, for the ants delight 
to feed upon this honey-like fluid, and the most friendly 
relations exist between these two kinds of insects. The 
ants even caress the plant-lice with their antennae, ap¬ 
parently soliciting them to give out the sweet fluid; and it 
is stated, on what seems to be good authority, that an aphis 
or plant-louse has been seen to give a drop of fluid to each 
of a number of ants waiting to receive it! The Aphidoo 
multiply with astonishing rapidity, and in this multi¬ 
plication they admirably illustrate what has been called 
Parthenogenesis. 

It is well understood among physiologists that it is the 
contact of the male sperm-cell with the yolk, which fer¬ 
tilizes the egg, and that from the moment of this contact 
the life of the embryo, which is to be the future animal, 
begins. This fertilization of the female germ by means of 
the male element through the pairing of the sexes, is the 
general rule among bisexual animals. But among insects 
there are exceptions, so that in some species an embryo 
may, and does, begin its life without the interposition of 
the male; and this mode of reproduction has been called 
by Owen, Parthenogenesis. 

The young aphides are hatched in the spring from im¬ 
pregnated eggs laid the previous autumn, and 
soon they come to maturity, and the whole 
brood consists of wingless females. These 
females bring forth living young, each female 
producing in some cases twenty in a day. 
'these young are also wingless females, and 
soon they bring forth living young, which are 
also wingless females, and in their turn bring 
forth living young. And in this way brood 
after brood is brought forth, even to the four¬ 
teenth generation, in a single season; and 
this, too, without the appearance of a single 
male. But the latest brood in autumn is com¬ 
posed of both males and females, which have 
wings ; these pair, stock the plants with eggs, 
and then perish. We get some idea of the 
rapidity of the multiplication of these ani¬ 
mals when we remember that Reaumur has 
proved that a single plant-louse may become, 
in five generations, the progenitor of 6,000,- 
000,000 descendants! 

The Bark-lice (Coccidm) are Hemiptera 
in which the males alone are winged; the 
females always remaining in a sort of scale¬ 
like form, such as may be found at all times 
on the apple tree. Coccidge are famous for 
the dyes which they have furnished the world for hun¬ 
dreds and even thousands of years. They furnished the 
Kokkos of the Greeks, the Coccus of the Romans, the 
Kermes of the Arabs, the Alkermes of the Persians; and the 
Scarlet Grain of Poland and the Cochineal of Mexico are 
insects of this family of the Hemiptera. 

Some kinds of the Hemiptera, as the Boat-flies (Notonec- 
tidge), live in the water, and are noted for their habit of 
swimming on their backs; others, as the Scorpion-bugs 
(Nepidse), live in the water, and are adapted for seizing 
prey by their fore legs, which flex upon themselves, and 
thus act as pincers; others, as the Water-measurers (Hy- 
drometridse), are found on the water, over the surface of 
which they move with a gliding motion. 

To the Hemiptera also belong the Squash-bugs (Coreidae), 
the minute insects included in the Thripsidae, the Bed-bugs 
(Cimicidae), and the Lice (Pediculidae). 

Orthoptera. —The Orthoptera (6p0o?, orthos, “straight,” 
itTepov, pteron, a “wing”), named from the nature of their 
wings, which lie straight along the back, have their upper 
wings rather thick, the under ones the larger and thinner, 
and folded in plaits like a fan. As already shown in our 
general remarks, they do not undergo a complete trans¬ 
formation, but they pass by insensible gradations from the 
larval to the adult stage, all the while remaining active. 

Some kinds, as the so-called Earwigs (Forficulidge), have 
the body flattened and armed at the hind extremity with 
a pair of pointed nippers. Others, as the Cockroaches 
(Blattidge), have the body broader, flattened, and the hind 
extremity furnished with conical articulated appendages. 



European Cicada. 

rectly called the Seventeen-year Locust. It is believed 
that the latter insect appears in the same locality only at 
intervals of seventeen years, and hence its specific name. 
The Seventeen-year Cicadas come in swarms in the early 
part of summer, and the forests then resound with their 
singing from morning till night. After pairing, the females 
lay their eggs. Selecting small branches, they clasp them 
with their legs, and then they repeatedly thrust their 
piercers obliquely into the bark and wood in the direction 
of the fibres, and at the same time they detach little splin¬ 
ters of wood at one end, and these serve as a fibrous cover 
to the perforations. After thus forming a fissure, they de¬ 
posit therein from ten to twenty eggs, which are conveyed 
to their places by means of the grooved side-pieces of the 
piercers. WLen one fissure is filled, another is made and 
filled, and so on, till each female has deposited her whole 
stock of four or five hundred eggs. When the eggs hatch, 
the young fall to the ground and immediately burrow to 
the roots of the tree, upon whose juices they sulosist. They 
live in this way till the time of their transformation ap¬ 
proaches, when they gradually ascend towards the surface, 
and at length they leave the ground, generally or always 
in the night, and crawl up the trunks of trees, where they 
fix their feet firmly to the bark. Their covering is now dry 
and hard. After some effort they open a longitudinal 
fissure in the skin of the back, and through this opening 
the perfect Cicada comes forth, leaving its dry and empty 
pupa skin attached to the tree. 

Other examples of the Hemiptera homoptera are seen in 
the little Tree-hoppers (Cercopidae) which are found upon 




































1590 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Others, as the Walking-sticks and Walking-leaves (Phas- 
midae), closely resemble twigs and leaves. Others, as the 
Mantes (Mantidae), are much elongated, and have the fore 
legs formed for seizing and holding prey; and they sit for 
hours holding up their fore legs, ready to seize any insect 
within their reach. Still others, as the Crickets (Gryllidae), 
have an oblong flattened body, long stylets at the hind 
extremity of the body, and the females are provided with 
a very long ovipositor for introducing their eggs into the 
ground; and the males have the membranes and nervures 


The Crested Locust ( Locusta cristata). 

at the base of the wings so specialized that, by the rubbing 
the wings upon each other, they can produce a sound 
known as a chirrup. Others, as the Locusts (Locustidae), 
are grasshopper-like, and have very long antenna? and four 
jointed tarsi, and the females have a long ovipositor. 
Some kinds of the Locustidae, as Ceuthophilus, are wingless 
and live under stones; others, as the Katydid ( Cyrtophyllns 
concavus, Scudder), have the wings broad in the middle, and 
concave; others, as the Oblong Leaf-winged Grasshoppers 
(Phylloptera ), have the wing-covers shorter than the under 
wings; others ( Phaneroptera ) have the ovipositor curved 
sharply upward; others ( Conocephalus) have the head end¬ 
ing in a conical projection ; 
and others ( Orchelimum) have 
the ovipositor sabre-like in 
form. 

The Migratory Locusts and 
their allies ( Acrydii of La- 
treille) are orthoptera which 
have a large head, short an¬ 
tennae, three-jointed tarsi, in¬ 
stead of four-jointed, as in the 
Locustidae, and they have no 
projecting ovipositor. Such 
are the Red-legged Locusts 
(Caloptenua ), the Coral-wing¬ 
ed, and the Carolina Locusts 
( (Edipodo), etc. 

Neuroptera.— The Neu- 
roptera (vevpov, neuron, a 
"nerve;” nrepov, pteron, a 
"wing”) have a long body, 
and four long, thin, mem¬ 
branous, and finely-netted 
veined wings, the anterior 
pair generally, or at least 
sometimes, being the smaller; 
in some genera, however, the 
hind pair is the smaller, or 
even obsolete. These insects 
have large eyes and large 
mandibles. They are destitute 
of weapons, except their jaws, 
being without a sting or pier¬ 
cer. Most of the Neuropters are aquatic in the larva and 
pupa state. Many species do not undergo a complete 
metamorphosis. 

Some of the representatives of the Neuropters, as the 
White Ants or Termites (Termitidse), inhabit only warm 
countries, and in the larva state feed upon wood, devouring 
all kinds of wooden furniture, and even whole houses, as 
they have done in the Isle of France. Those called Stone- 
flies (Perlidae) are oblong, depressed, and have many- 


jointed antennae, and the abdomen has two long-jointed 
appendages. In the larva and pupa state they are found 
under stones in the water. Some families, as the May-flies 
(Ephemeridae), are very short-lived, living in the imago 
state scarcely more than a few hours or a day, although their 
larva and pupa state extends through several years, all of 
which they pass in the water. 

The Dragon-flies (Odonata) are among the best repre¬ 
sentatives of the Neuroptera, and have a long body, ex¬ 
ceedingly large eyes, powerful jaws, and large and lustrous 

wings. They fly with great velocity and 
remain long upon the wing. In the 
larva and pupa state they live in the 
water; and when the time comes for 
them to complete their transfoimation, 
they crawl up the stems of plants, and, 
having withdrawn from the pupa-skin, 
which remains fixed to the plant, and 
having become dry, they fly swiftly 
away. At all periods of their life they 
are exceedingly rapacious, feeding upon 
all insects which they can capture. 

To the Neuroptera also belong the 
Horned Corydalis and its allies (Sia- 
lidEe), the Ant-lions and other Lace- 
wings (Ilemerobini), and the Caddice- 
flies (Phryganidae). The Ant-lions are 
famous for the pitfalls which, while in 
the larva state, they make in the sands, 
and at the bottom of which they lie con¬ 
cealed, all but the jaws, and there await 
insects which fall into their pit; these 
they at once seize and devour. 

Some of the Neuroptera are wing¬ 
less, and are called degradational forms, 
and closely resemble the Myriapoda. 
Such are the Spring-tails (Thysanoura 
or Podaridae), which have a cylindrical 
scaly or hairy body, short and four- to six-jointed antennae, 
four to eight simple eyes on each side, and whose anal 
bristles are united and bent under the body, forming a sort 
of spring by means of which these insects leap. They are 
seen in gardens, and also on the surface of pools of water. 
Such also are the Bristle-tails (Lepismatidae), which have 
a long body covered with silvery-like scales, and the ab¬ 
domen furnished with three long bristles. They are found 
among old books and woollens, and also under stones and 
rubbish in damp situations. The species of both these 
families are small, the largest rarely having bodies over an 
inch in length. 


Dragon-fly ( JEschna ). 

Arachnida .—The Arachnida are insects which have 
the body divided into only two well-marked regions, the 
head and the hind-body, the head and thorax being closely 
united into one piece, thereby resembling in this respect 
the head and thorax of the Crustaceans. The Arach¬ 
nids have simple eyes, four pairs of legs, attached to 
the thorax, and they are without antennae, compound eyes, 
and wings; and they do not change in general form in 
coming to maturity, which they reach after moulting the 

























































ENTOMOLOGY. 


1591 


skin six times. The Arachnids are divided into three sub¬ 
orders : 

1. Araneinn, or Spiders proper. 

2. Pedipalpi, or Scorpions. 

3. Acarina, or Mites. 

Araneina.—T he Araneina ( aranea , a “spider”), or Spi¬ 
ders proper, have mandibles formed exclusively for biting, 
a more or less spherical abdomen, which is not divided 
into segments, and this abdomen is attached to the cephalo- 
thorax by a slender pedicel. They perform their respira¬ 
tion by means both ot lungs and trachea), and they undergo 
no metamorphosis in coming to maturity. The mandibles 
end in a powerful hook, in the end of which there is an 
opening to a duct which connects with a poison-gland 
situated in the head. The palpi resemble shorter legs; 
they are in tact the maxillae. In the female they are sim¬ 
ple, but in the male the terminal joint is modified so as to 
be a sexual organ. Most species of Spiders have eight 
ocelli, but some have only six, some have only two, and 
certain cave species are said to be blind. 

One of the most curious things about Spiders is their 
silk-spinning apparatus. On the abdominal extremity 
there are from four to six protuberances, each of which is 
perforated with a great number of minute holes—in some 
species as many as a thousand in each protuberance. From 
these minute holes passes the adhesive fluid or liquid silk, 
which has its origin in internal reservoirs; and as soon as 
the fine streams of this material come to the air they harden 
into silk. It is said that the Spider has the power of unit¬ 
ing all the minute fib¬ 
res into one or into 
several threads, ac¬ 
cording to the use it 
would make of the silk. 

The Spiders’ webs are 
very curiously con¬ 
structed, and well re¬ 
pay the most careful 
observation and study. 

The eggs of Spiders 
are enclosed in cocoons 
spun from the same 
kind of material of 
which they construct 
their webs, and the 
form of the egg-cases 
or cocoons varies ac¬ 
cording to the species. 

The young remain in 
the cocoon for a long 
time, and grow to dou¬ 
ble the size which they have when hatched, apparently 
without food. 

The Tetrapneumones are large hairy spiders which have 
four lung-sacs and four stigmata, and two pairs of spin¬ 
nerets. They live in cylindrical holes which they make in 
the earth. They are found mainly in warm climates. Here 
belong the Trap-door Spiders, described by some writers 
under the name of Territelariae, or “ Under-ground Weav¬ 
ers,” and by others under the name of Mygale. These 
spiders are named from the fact that they close the entrance 
of their burrows with a sort of trap-door. This door is 
made of earth lined beneath with silk, or in some species 
it is wholly of silk. 

The Dipneumones, and all other true spiders except the 
preceding family, have two lung-sacs, two or tour stigmata, 
and three pairs of spinnerets. Some of the species of this 
family are known as the “ Wanderers,” others as the “Se¬ 
dentary ” spiders. The latter spin webs, and watch them 
that they may secure prey. Some kinds ( Clubione ) con¬ 
struct tubes of silk under the bark of trees and under 
stones. Others, as the Water Spider ( Argyroneta aquatica, 
Linn.) of Europe, live under the surface of the water, 
there making their nest, which is filled with air. Others 
(Tegenaria) make a horizontal web, connected with which 
is a tubular retreat, where the spider remains till some fly 
or other insect becomes entangled in the web. . Those be¬ 
longing to the genus Theridion have the four inner ocelli 
larger than the four outer ones, and the first and last pair 
of Tegs longest; and they make webs of threads crossing 
in alt directions. The genus Epeira includes those which 
have a large globular abdomen. They are sedentary 
species, constructing a web formed of spiral threads, and 
other threads radiating from a centre. Nephila is a genus 
of large spiders characterized by a long, cylindrical abdo¬ 
men. Nephila plumipes of the Southern States has become 
celebrated from the interesting experiments made with it 
by Dr. B. G. Wilder, in the production of silk. The genus 
Tliomiaus includes “wanderers” which have very small 
cheliceres. JJolomedea includes wanderers which hide under 
stones, and not unfrequently divo under water, and which 



Spider’s Spinning-Apparatus, 
magnified. 



The Tarantula of Europe, Lycosa tarantula. 


make an orbicular cocoon which is carried by the mother. 
Lycoaa is a genus of large hairy spiders, with large chel¬ 
iceres, with the fourth pair of feet the longest, and tho 
third pair shortest. The species make no silk. They 

hide under 
stones. The 
Tarantula 
belongs to 
this genus. 
The genus 
Salticu8 in¬ 
cludes the 
leaping Spi¬ 
ders; they 
have a large 
square ce- 
phalothorax, 
and the hind- 
body is of an 
oval cylindri¬ 
cal form. 

Pedipalpi. 

-— Here be¬ 
long theScor- 
pions and al¬ 
lied forms. 
They have 

the maxillary palpi greatly enlarged, and in most cases 
ending in forceps, and their abdomen is distinctly jointed; 
and in the true scorpions the hind-body is very long, and 
ends in a curved point or sting which discharges a pois¬ 
onous fluid contained in an internal reservoir. 

The True Scorpions (Scorpionidae) have enormous for¬ 
ceps-like maxillae. The False Scorpions (Pseudo-scorpiones) 
are minute forms which have maxillary palpi resembling 
the claws of the true Scorpions. They are often found 
in old books and in neglected drawers. The Harvestmen, 
or Daddy Long-legs (Phalangidae), have a cephalothorax 
which is not jointed, the abdomen is short and thick, and 
the maxillary palpi end in a single claw, and the mandi¬ 
bles end in forceps, and their legs are excessively elongated. 

Acarina. —The Acarina or Mites are arachnids which 
have oval or rounded bodies which exhibit no articulation 
or divisions into segments, the cephalothorax and abdomen 
being merged together. Most of the species are very minute 
in size; a few, however, as the Ticks—which are the largest 
of all—attain the length of half an inch. The Bed Miles 
(Trombididae) are common in hot-houses and in hot-beds, 
and in the dry warm beds of the garden. The Water- 
mites (Hydrachnidae) are found in both fresh and salt 
water. The Ticks (Ixodidae) are large mites with leather¬ 
like bodies, and they attach themselves to man and ani¬ 
mals, especially in warm countries. Some species, how¬ 
ever, are found in temperate regions. Of the true Mites 
(Acaridae), we may mention the Sugar-mite ( Tyroglyphua 
8achari), common in unrefined sugar; the Cheese-mite 
(Tyroglyphua siro), the Flour-mite ( Tyroglyphua far in ad), 
the Itch-mite ( Sarcoptes acabiei ); the last being the insect 
which, by burrowing and breeding under the skin, causes 
the loathsome disease which bears its name; and to the 
true Mites belong various species inhabiting domestic ani¬ 
mals, and which entomologists refer to the genus Bermato- 
dectes ; and here also belongs the curious animal known as 
the Nose-mite, which buries itself in the follicles of the 
human nose. 

Myriapoda .—The insects which belong to this order 
are more or less worm-like, and are composed of ten to two 
hundred or moro segments. The head is free from the 
body, and is similar to that of typical insects. They may 
be divided into two sub-orders : 

1. Chilopoda. 

2. Chilognalha. 

Chilopoda. —The sub-order of Chilopoda (x*iAo?, eheiloa, 
a “lip,” and wow's, wofios, pons, podos, a “foot”), or the 
highest group, includes those myriapods which have each 
segment or ring simple, and bearing but a single pair of 
feet, and which have the head divided into two regions, 
one before and the other behind the mouth. To this sub¬ 
order belong the so-called “Earwigs” (Lithobiidae), which 
have a broad and flat head and forty-jointed antennae, 
and which feed mainly upon earth-worms; the Centipedes 
(Scolopendridae), which have from twenty-one to twenty- 
three feet-bearing segments, and which in some species, as 
those of the tropics, arc six to nine inches long; and the 
Geophilidae, which are characterized by their slender form, 
and by their great number of segments, varying in the 
different species from thirty to two hundred, each formed 
of two complete sub-segments, and bearing only a single 
pair of feet. 

Chilognatha.—T he Chilognaths (xelAo?, eheiloa, a “lip;” 





















































































1592 


ENTOMOSTRACA—EOCENE. 


yvaOos, gnathos, a “jaw”) have very short and few-jointed 
an ten me, very numerous segments, and each segment has 
two pairs ot teet. Here belong the Millipedes, also known 
as “ Thousand Legs” (Julidm), which have the body long, 
nearly cylindrical, and made up of numerous nearly equal 
segments. And here also belong the Polydesmidm, which 
have the body broad and flattened and the head large; 
and the Glomeridae, which have the form of the body half 
cylindrical, and composed of twelve or thirteen segments, 
the head large and free, the first thoracic ring small, and 
the last ring of the body shield-shaped. 

And now, having given a brief outline of the nature and 
of the history of the science of Entomology, and having 
described and illustrated a few of the more important typ¬ 
ical forms of which it treats, we leave the subject with our 
readers, commending it as one worthy of the attention of 
the ablest minds. Sanborn Tenney. 

Entomos'traca [from the Gr. Zvtohov, an “insect,” 
and barpuKov, a “ shell ”], one of the orders of crustaceans, 
including those species having normally five or six cephalic 
segments in the form of a shell, and five or more rings of 
the foot series, the hinder ones being generally obsolete. 
The abdomen has no appendages. The species of this di¬ 
vision are very numerous, and most existing species are of 
small size, except the king-crab ( Limulus ), which some re¬ 
cent theorists place in a new order by itself. Many of 
them are found in fresh and salt water, and some are par¬ 
asitic. They differ greatly in general form, and in the 
number of their organs of locomotion, which in some spe¬ 
cies are more than 100, and in others are entirely absent. 
The order includes the carcinoids, ostracoids (with the cir- 
ripeds), limuloids (doubtful), and rotifers. Entomostracous 
shells are peculiarly abundant in certain palaeozoic rocks. 
They first appear in the Silurian strata. 

Entozo'a [from the Gr. £inos, “in” or “within,” and 
£0>ov, an “animal”], a name applied to those animals which 
dwell within the bodies of other animals. They belong to 
the Vermes (true worms), the lowest form of articulate an¬ 
imals. They are divided into (1) cestoid worms, or tape¬ 
worms, which are all more or less jointed, of a ribbon-like 
form, each joint of hermaphrodite conformation, and dwell¬ 
ing in the intestines. The embryonic worms penetrate the 
tissues, become surrounded by a cyst, and are known as 
“cystic” worms. They have no alimentary canal. (2) 
The flukes or trematode worms, of flat oval form, smooth, 
soft, and not jointed. They have an hermaphrodite devel¬ 
opment, the sexual organs pervading a great part of the 
body of the adult. They afford many wonderful examples 
of the so-called alternate generation and of parthenogen¬ 
esis in some of the generations. The disease called “rot” 
in sheep is caused by their presence in the biliary passages. 
In man they cause the hgematuria prevailing at the Cape 
of Good Hope and the endemic dysentery of Egypt. They 
inhabit the liver, kidneys, lungs, etc. Among the genera 
are Distoma, Bilharzia, and many others. When perfect, 
they have an alimentary canal without vent. (3) TheNe- 
matelmia or round worms, having long, cylindroid forms, 
and in the more perfect forms an intestinal canal with 
mouth and vent, and distinct sexes. This class includes 
pinworms, Ascarides, the Trichina, the Guinea worm, and 
many others. 

Entre Douro e Minho (“between the Douro and the 
Minho,” rivers which bound it on the S. and N. respective¬ 
ly), a province of Portugal, is bounded on the N. by Spain, 
on the E. by Traz os Montes and Beira, on the S. by Es- 
tremadura, and on the W. by the Atlantic. Area, 2808 
square miles. It is the most populous, the richest, and 
the best cultivated province of the kingdom. Everywhere 
are fertile valleys, rich meadows, fields, and vineyards. 
The products are fruit, wine, oil, figs, oranges, barley, rye, 
and wheat. Chief town, Oporto. Pop. 988,985. 

Entre Rios, 6n'tr& ree'is ( i . c. “between the rivers”), 
a province of the Argentine Republic, is bounded on the N. 
by the province of Corrientes, on the E. by the river Uru¬ 
guay, and on the S. and W. by the Parana. Area, 52,110 
square miles. The surface is level, and partly occupied 
by swamps and prairies or grassy plains. Many cattle and 
horses feed on these plains. The chief exports are hides, 
horns, and tallow. Pop. in 1869, 134,271. Capital, Con¬ 
cepcion. 

Entry, the act of entering. In criminal law, in addition 
to breaking, entry is necessary to constitute the crime of 
burglary, but this need not be with the whole body. If the 
hand or any part of the body goes into the building with 
intent to commit a felony, it is sufficient; and if only the 
instrument intended to be used in the commission of the 
crime enters, it is enough to constitute the offence. 

In the law of real estate, entry is the taking actual pos¬ 
session of land. A writ of entry was a common-law action, 


now disused, to recover the possession of land from one who 
wrongfully withheld it. Any going upon the land of an¬ 
other is often termed an entry, and unless done with the 
permission of the owner, is in most instances unlawful and 
a trespass. 

En'velope [from the Fr. envelopper, to “wrap up,” to 
“cover,” “enclose”], in geometry, a curve or surface gene¬ 
rated by the repeated intersections of given curves or sur¬ 
faces, whose position, form, and magnitude are allowed to 
vary according to some invariable law. A tubular surface 
is the envelope generated by a moving sphere of constant 
radius; the plane curve is the envelope of its tangent, etc. 

Envelopes, for letters, are a comparatively recent de¬ 
velopment of civilization, the demand for them having been 
created by cheap postal service. They were at first cut, 
folded, and gummed by hand, but the great call for them 
stimulated the production of machines for doing the work. 
These machines are of various kinds; and, not to specify 
the names of the somewhat numerous rival inventors, it 
may be remarked that in latter years these machines turn 
out surprising numbers of envelopes, and that the quality 
of the work is absolutely perfect—very far ahead of what 
could be done by hand. Stamped envelopes for letters and 
newspapers are issued and sold by nearly all civilized gov¬ 
ernments, but the products of private enterprise are more 
generally used. 

En'voy [from the Fr. envoyer, to “’send” (that is, to 
“put or start on the way”), from en, “in” or “on,” and 
vote, “ way ”], a person sent on any mission, but particu¬ 
larly one sent on business to a foreign court; a diplomatic 
minister of the second order; one who is inferior in rank 
to an ambassador, and who cannot demand a private au¬ 
dience of the sovereign to whom he is accredited, but must 
negotiate with the minister of foreign affairs. Besides the 
ordinary envoy, there is a class of diplomatists styled en¬ 
voys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary. 

Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo¬ 
tentiary, the title of the principal representatives of the 
U. S. government at the capitals of the following nations: 
Great Britain, France, Russia, Germany, Austria, Italy, 
Spain, China, Brazil, Mexico, Peru, and Chili. They rank 
next below ambassadors and next above ministers resident. 
They are appointed by the President and confirmed by the 
Senate. Their salaries arc as follows: ministers to Great 
Britain and France, each $17,500 annually; to Italy, Peru, 
and Chili, $10,000 ; to the other countries mentioned, 
$ 12 , 000 . 

Eny'o [Gr. ’Eww], the goddess of war in the Greek my¬ 
thology. (See Bellona.) 

Enz'ina (or Encina), de la (Juan), a popular Span¬ 
ish poet, born in Old Castile in 1468. He was patronized 
by King Ferdinand V. In 1496 he published a volume 
containing several comedies and odes and a poem called a 
“Vision of the Temple of Fame.” He is considered the 
founder of the Spanish theatre. Among his dramas, which 
are remarkable for purity of style and natural imagery, is 
“ Placida y Victoriano.” He performed a pilgrimage to 
Palestine in 1519. Died in 1534. 

Enzio, or Enzo, a natural son of the emperor Fred¬ 
erick II. of Germany, was born about 1224. He fought 
for his father against the pope and the Guelphs, and as¬ 
sumed the title of king of Sardinia. Having obtained com¬ 
mand of the imperial fleet, he gained a great naval victory 
over the Genoese in 1241. In 1249 he was taken prisoner 
by the Guelphs, who confined him until his death in 1272. 

E 'ocene [from the Gr. “dawn,” and *aivd?, “re¬ 
cent;” that is, belonging to the dawn of the cenozoic 
period], in geology, a term applied to the lower tertiary 
strata, and originally suggested by the occurrence in those 
strata of a few faint dawnings of living species of fossils. 
The term was originally limited by the percentage (3^) of 
recent or living to extinct species found in a collection of 
older tertiary shells of the Paris basin, but it is now known 
that all the eocene species are extinct. The eocene beds 
rest on the chalk, and occupy small areas compared with 
the older formations. They are generally well developed 
in the vicinity of the three great capitals of Western Eu¬ 
rope, London, Paris, and Brussels, each of which is built 
on a special tertiary basin of this period. They contain 
many interesting fossils of vertebrates, mollusks, radiata, 
etc. The eocene strata are divided into upper, middle, and 
lower eocene. The London clay belongs to the lower di¬ 
vision. 

In America the eocene strata form a belt of outcrop ex¬ 
tending from New Jersey around, parallel with the Atlantic 
and Gulf coasts, to the Mississippi, and are represented in 
the interior of the continent by certain estuary and fresh¬ 
water deposits of Wyoming Territory, etc. On the west 
coast the eocene has not been distinctly recognized. In 












EOLIAN HARP—EPACT. 


Eastern America the eocene strata are divided into the 
Claiborne, Jackson, and Vicksburg beds, of which tho last 
are most recent. They contain numerous fossils, mostly 
marine mollusks, but also include some gigantic vertebrates, 
as Zeuglodon cetoides, a carnivorous cetacean seventy feet 
in length, and Carcharodon meyalodon , a shark of which 
the teeth are sometimes six inches in length. Leaves and 
fruits occur in the eocene at Brandon, Vt., and in Missis¬ 
sippi. Like the flora of the European eocene, they indicate 
a tropical or sub-tropical climate. The eocene beds of 
Wyoming have furnished the remains of a remarkable group 
of mammals, which are thought by Prof. Marsh to form a 
new order, which ho has named “ Dinocerata.” The largest 
of these ( Dinoceras mirabilis) had the bulk of an elephant, 
and was provided with three pairs of horns and a pair of 
great sabre-like canine teeth. Many other vertebrate re¬ 
mains from these deposits have been described by Profs. 
Marsh and Cope. 

Eolian Harp. See AIolian Harp. 

Eon de Beaumont, d’ (Charles Genevieve Louis 
Auguste Andre Timothee), called Chevalier d’Eon, 
a French diplomatist and writer, born at Tonnere Oct. 5, 
1728. He was employed in an important mission to Rus¬ 
sia in 1755, and served as captain in the French army in 
1759. About 1761 he became minister plenipotentiary in 
London, but he was soon deprived of that office by secret 
intrigues of his enemies in Paris. He remained as an exile 
in England for many years, during which much sensation 
was excited by a report that he was a female. He returned 
to France in 1777, after which he wore the female dress, in 
compliance, it is said, with the order of the king. He died 
poor in London May 21, 1810. 

Eon (or Eudo) de Stella, a fanatic of the twelfth 
century, an ignorant (and perhaps insane) nobleman of 
Bretagne, who, having heard, during the act of exorcism, 
the words “through Him” (per Eum, etc., in Latin) “who 
will come to judge the quick and dead,” concluded, from 
the resemblance between his own name Eon and the Latin 
Eum, that he was the one appointed as the final judge of 
mankind. He taught a reformed doctrine, and gained many 
disciples. He was captured in 1148, and many of his follow¬ 
ers (called Eonians) were burned, but Eon himself was pro¬ 
nounced insane, and seems to have been spared. 

E'os [Gr. ’HuS?, the “ dawn ”], in the Greek mythology, 
a daughter of Hyperion, a sister of Helios (the sun), and 
the wife of Tithonus. She corresponds to the Latin Au¬ 
rora, the goddess of the morning. (See Aurora.) 

Eotvos, or Eoetvoes (Joseph), Freiherr von, an emi¬ 
nent Hungarian author and statesman, born at Buda Sept. 
8, 1813, was educated at the University of Pesth. About 
the age of twenty he produced “ Revenge,” a tragedy, and 
two successful comedies entitled “ The Critics ” and “ The 
Wedding.” His “ Carthusian ” (1838-41), a novel, was gen¬ 
erally admired. He also gained distinction as a political 
writer and orator of the popular party. Among his works 
are a political novel entitled “ The Village Notary” (1844- 
46), which was translated into English, a work on the “ Equal 
Rights of Nationalities” (1851), and another on “The In¬ 
fluence of the Ideas of the Nineteenth Century” (2 vols., 
1851-54). He was minister of public instruction in 1848, 
but he resigned the same year. In 1865 he began to edit a 
political paper. In 1867, after the reconciliation between 
the Magyars and the emperor of Austria had been effected, 
he was again appointed minister of public instruction, 
which place he retained until his death. Died Feb. 2,1871. 

Eozo'on [from the Gr. ljaS?, the “dawn,” and &ov, an 
“animal,” implying an animal existing at the dawn of 
creation], one of the oldest geological representatives of 
animal life, a gigantic marine animal whose remains have 
been found in the Laurentian rocks of Canada. The Eozoon 
Canadense belonged to the Foraminifera, animals of very 
low organization, even lower in the scale than sponges. It 
had no proper organs, but consisted probably of a jelly-like 
mass, having the power of secreting a calcareous shell. It 
was doubtless sessile, adding as it grew crust after crust of 
chalky matter, probably living on from age to age until it 
constituted whole beds of limestone. What are supposed 
to be other species of Eozoon have been found in the oldest 
rocks of Europe. The organic character of Eozoon is de¬ 
nied by many palaeontologists. 

Epacrida'cete [from Epa'cris, one of the genera], a 
natural order of exogenous plants (shrubs and small trees), 
mostly natives of Australia, Polynesia, and the Indian Ar¬ 
chipelago. They resemble Ericaceae in many respects, but 
differ from them in the structure of the anther, which is 1- 
celled and destitute of appendages. The leaves are parallel- 
veined and have no midrib. The corolla is generally tubu¬ 
lar ; the fruit is in many cases an edible berry, in others a 
capsule or drupe. Tho LUsan'the ecip'ida, bears an edible 


1593 

fruit, which is called the Australian cranberry. Several 
species of Epacris are cultivated in greenhouses for their 
very beautiful flowers. This order also comprises tho Sphe- 
notoma, Lysinema , Styphelia, and many other genera. 

E'pact [Gr. en-a/cro?, “added,” from «7rdyu>, to “bring 
to ”], the excess of the mean solar month (the twelfth part 
of a tropical year) over the mean lunar synodical month, or 
mean lunation; that is, inasmuch as the mean lunation is 
less than the mean solar month, the epact is properly tho 
amount to be added to the former to bring it up, or make 
it equal, to the latter. Practically, in the Church calendar, 
however, the epact is the number of days which intervene 
between the end of the ecclesiastical year in December and 
the first day of January succeeding ; or, as it is commonly 
expressed, the epact is the ago of the moon, estimated in 
entire days, at the beginning of tho civil year. According 
to the definition given first above, it is manifest that the 
epa«ct must increase from month to month, but for the pur¬ 
poses of the ecclesiastical calendar this monthly increase is 
not considered; the entire increase for each year being sup¬ 
posed to take place at the end of the year. This calendar 
is extremely artificial, tho calendar moon being a sort of 
fiction of which the periods only approximately correspond 
with those of the moon in the heavens; so that the calendar 
months and the true or mean astronomical lunar months 
rarely begin or end exactly together. In the reckoning of 
the epact the following arbitrary assumptions are made: 

I. The mean synodical month is 29£ days long (it is, in 
fact, 44 minutes 2.84 seconds longer). 2. The lunar year 
consists of 12 lunar months, or 354 days. 3. The solar year 
is always 365 days (it is really 5 hours 48 minutes 46.05444 
seconds longer). 4. The calendar months are alternately 
30 days and 29 days long. Thus, the first day of the second 
ecclesiastical month is the 31st of January; the first day 
of the third ecclesiastical month is the 1st of March; of the 
fourth, March 31st; of the fifth, April 29th, and so on. 
Thus, the last day of the lunar year is December 20th; so 
that if new moon occurs at the beginning of the civil year 
exactly, the epact at the beginning of the next civil'year is 

II. In another year this epact will be doubled, and become 
22; and at the end of a third it Will be 33 days, or more 
than a month; so that on the 1st of January the moon will 
be somewhat advanced in a second lunation. The com¬ 
pleted lunation is counted 30 days, and the epact is thus 
reduced to three days at the beginning of the fourth year. 
The month thus passed over, or dropped, is called an em¬ 
boli Hinic month. As the epacts accumulate, six such embo- 
lismic months of 30 days each are dropped; and finally we 
reach a point where the epact is 29, which we consider to be 
a complete embolismic month also, and drop it; so that the 
nexTfollowing year begins with the epact 0, like the first. 
This occurs at the end of the nineteenth year, so that in every 
cycle of nineteen years the epacts recur in the same order. 

All the foregoing assumptions are separately inexact, 
but in combination their inaccuracies nearly balance each 
other; and accordingly it happens that, at the end of the 
nineteen-year cycle, the calendar moon, the true moon, and 
the sun occupy almost exactly the same relative places as 
at the beginning. That is, supposing the sun and the true 
moon to leave some determinate point—say the equinox— 
together at the beginning of the cycle, then at the end of 
the nineteenth year or the beginning of the twentieth the 
sun will be truly in the equinox again, and the moon very 
nearly so, but not quite, being behind by about two hours 
and four and a half minutes. In something less than twelve 
cycles (about 220 years), therefore, the true moon will have 
lost a day on her epact. If the calendar moon lost nothing, 
its epact would consequently be too great. But the calendar 
moon loses more than the true moon, as will appear from 
the following comparison, made for a period of four cycles, 
or 76 true astronomical (tropical) years and 940 lunations: 


940 calendar lunations, of 29£ days each, give. 27,730 days. 

24 embolismic months too long, and 4 too short, add 10 “ 

19 intercalary days, ignored in the lunar calendar.. 19 “ 

Total days in 4 calendar cycles. 27,759.000 

“ “ 940 true lunations. 27,758.753 

** “ 76 true years. 27,758.407 


It thus appears that the calendar moon falls behind the 
true moon 0.247 of a day, or nearly 6 hours, in 76 years; 
and its epact not only absolutely diminishes, but diminishes 
relatively to that of the true moon also. The effect of this 
is to cause the successive calendar new moons to occur too 
late by an amount slowly but constantly increasing; the in¬ 
crease amounting to one entire day in something more than 
4 times 76, or 304 years—more exactly 308 years. No aooount 
of this circumstance was taken, however, for nearly sixteen 
centuries after the commencement of our era. At the time 
of the reformation of the calendar by Pope Gregory XIII., 
in 1582, the epact had become too small by nearly five days. 

It was not this discrepancy, however, whioh led to tho 
reformation, though occasion was taken at that time to cor- 














EPAMINONDAS. 


1594 


rect it. The real cause which prompted the action of Pope 
Gregory was the observation that, through the error of the 
Julian intercalation (of one day in every four years—every 
leap-year, as it is called), the adjustment of the months to 
the seasons was becoming slowly displaced, the equinox 
going backward towards the first of March. At the time 
of the Council of Nicaea (A. D. 325) the equinox fell, or was 
supposed to fall, on the 21st of March; in 1575 it fell upon 
the 11th. A retrogradation of ten days had occurred in 
1250 years. Pope Gregory thought it expedient to put back 
the equinox again to the 21st, which he could do in no other 
way than by adding ten to the count of every day in the 
year; and this he accordingly did. It did not matter at 
what place in the year the change of count began. He 
actually commenced by calling the fourth day of October, 
1582, the fourteenth day of that month. This change has 
had no other practical effect but to perplex systematic chro¬ 
nology. The displacement of the seasons had not become 
so great as to occasion any inconvenience. It was, how¬ 
ever, desirable to provide against any further displacement 
for the future; and this part of Pope Gregory’s reform is 
only to be spoken of in terms of admiration. The Julian 
intercalation of one day in every fourth year produces an 
error of excess in the calendar year, which by accumulation 
amounts to about three-quarters of a day in a century, or 
three days in every four centuries. The intercalary day is, 
therefore, in the Gregorian system, omitted in the centurial 
years which are not multiples of 400, and retained in those 
which are. The dropping of an intercalary day has the 
effect to make the succeeding year begin a day sooner than 
it otherwise would, and it therefore diminishes the moon’s 
epact by the same amount. The Gregorian correction of 
the civil year accordingly requires a reduction of the epact 
by three days in every four hundred years. If the epact, 
as it had been previously reckoned, had been truly adjusted 
to the astronomical year, this correction would be all that 
would be necessary to keep it permanently right. But in 
point of fact the Julian intercalation made the mean year 
too long, in reference to the moon, by about six hours in 76 
years, or one day in 304 years (if the more exact numbers 
are taken, one day in 308 years), making the epact corre¬ 
spondingly too great. The principal mathematician em¬ 
ployed on the calendar by Pope Gregory, Christopher Cla- 
vius, made the period 312£ years, which would give eight 
days in 2500 years. To correct the epact to the Julian year, 
therefore, it is necessary to add to it eight days in every 
twenty-five centuries; and to correct it from the Julian to 
the true year, it is necessary to subtract three days in every 
four centuries. In 100 centuries the epact is accordingly 
increased by 32 days, and diminished by 75 days, the diminu¬ 
tion amounting on the whole to 43 days. The larger of 
these corrections, called the solar, which is subtractive, is 
applied of course in each non-bissextile centurial year. The 
smaller has to be applied at periods regulated by arbitrary 
rule. As 25 is not divisible by 8 without a remainder, the 
intervals between the corrections cannot be entirely uniform. 
There are seven intervals of three centuries each, and an 
eighth of four centuries. The first application of this cor¬ 
rection after the promulgation of the Gregorian reforma¬ 
tion was made in 1800, which century was assumed to end 
one of the periods of twenty-five. The correction is to be 
made at the end of every third century after 1800, until 
3900, after which it will be deferred till the year 4300. In 
the Church Prayer-Book, at the end of the introductory 
matter relating to the calendar, there are three tables called 
General; of which the second embraces the resultant effect 
of these corrections of the epact up to the end of the eighty- 
filth century, when the correction amounts to one entire 
embolismic month of thirty days. 

The use of the epact of the year in the calendar of Pope 
Gregory was to lead to the determination of paschal full 
moon, and so, by consequence, of Easter. (See Easter.) 
The epact being the age of the moon in entire days at the 
beginning of the (lunar) month, the place of new moon in 
March would be found by counting backward from the 30th 
of March (which we have seen to be the last day of the third 
lunar month), including this 30th day itself in the count, 
a number of days equal to the epact. The date in March 
thus found is the first day of the moon, and thirteen days 
more added bring us to the fourteenth; the day of March 
thus found will be the date of paschal full moon, unless it 
happens to be less than the 21st. In this latter case we 
must go to the month of April, and count backward from 
the end of the fourth lunar month, which is April 29th. 
To facilitate this counting backward, or to make actual 
counting unnecessary, Clavius introduced a row of numeral 
letters into the calendar page opposite the days of the 
month, in reversed order, I. being opposite March 30, and 
XXX., or 0, standing opposite March 1. This is extended 
through all the months in the year, as in the following illus¬ 
tration, which presents the months of March and April only: 


Day of 

Month. 

March. 

Epact. 

Letter. 

Day of 

Month. 

April. 

Epact. 

Letter. 

1 

0, or XXX. 

D 

1 

XXIX. 

G 

2 

XXIX. 

E 

2 

XXVIII. 

A 

3 

XXVIII. 

F 

3 

XXVII. 

B 

4 

XXVII. 

G 

4 

XXVI., 25 

C 

5 

XXVI., 25 

A 

5 

XXIV., XXV. 

D 

6 

XXV. 

B 

6 

XXIII. 

E 

7 

XXIV. 

C 

7 

XXII. 

F 

8 

XXIII. 

D 

8 

XXI. 

G 

9 

XXII. 

E 

9 

XX. 

A 

10 

XXI. 

F 

10 

XIX. 

B 

11 

XX. 

G 

11 

XVIII. 

C 

12 

XIX. 

A 

12 

XVII. 

D 

13 

XVIII. 

B 

13 

XVI. 

E 

14 

XVII. 

C 

14 

XV. 

F 

15 

XVI. 

D 

15 

XIV. 

G 

16 

XV. 

E 

16 

XIII. 

A 

17 

XIV. 

F 

17 

XII. 

B 

18 

XIII. 

(t 

18 

XI. 

C 

19 

XII. 

A 

19 

X. 

I) 

20 

XI. 

B 

20 

IX. 

E 

21 

X. 

C 

21 

VIII. 

F 

22 

IX. 

D 

22 

VII. 

Gr 

23 

VIII. 

E 

23 

VI. 

A 

24 

VII. 

F 

24 

V. 

B 

25 

VI. 

G 

25 

IV. 

C 

26 

V. 

A 

26 

III. 

D 

27 

IV. 

B 

27 

II. 

E 

28 

III. 

C 

28 

I. 

F 

29 

11 . 

D 

29 

0, or XXX. 

G 

30 

I. 

E 

30 

XXIX. 

A 

31 

0, or XXX. 

F 





In this little table one peculiarity will attract attention. 
Though the third lunar month has thirty days, and the 
fourth only twenty-nine, yet each has thirty epact numbers. 
There seemed to be a necessity for this; otherwise, when the 
epact is XXIX. it would be equivalent to zero in the short 
months (the hollow months as they were called), but not so 
in the full months. The epacts XXIV. and XXV. are there¬ 
fore placed opposite the same day. During the same cycle 
three consecutive numbers like XXIV., XXV., and XXVI. 
will never all be found among the epacts. When XXIV. and 
XXV. are both present, XXVI. will be absent; and in that 
case XXV. is transferred to the place of XXVI., as indi¬ 
cated by the Arabic numeral 25 opposite that epact. Thus, 
notwithstanding this duplication, two epacts will never fall 
on the same day of the month. (For a more full explana¬ 
tion of this matter, see the little treatise by the writer of 
this article, entitled “ How to Find the Church Festivals.”) 

The use of epacts for finding paschal full moon and 
Easter is not very convenient. The simple rules given in 
the article on Easter in this volume will be found much 
more so. But this is a suitable place to explain how to 
find the value of the numerical term proper to be used in 
calculating the date of paschal full moon in the article re¬ 
ferred to. The General Table II. of the Prayer-Book, 
above spoken of, contains the resultant corrections of the 
epact for all the centuries from 1600 to 8500. From 1600 to 
1700 this correction was zero. From 1700 to 1800, and 
further from 1800 to 1900, it is 1; and in subsequent cen¬ 
turies it goes on, somewhat irregularly, to increase. Now, 
the numerical term in the formula given in the article 
Easter for computing the date of paschal full moon (when 
the golden number is odd) is at present 10, from 1600 to 
1700 was 9, and after 1900 will be 11. It is, in short, always 
9, increased by the correction of the epact found in the 
General Table II. just mentioned; which for convenience 
we may call the secular correction of the epact. And an 
extremely simple rule for finding this numerical term is the 
following: From the number of the centuries in the given 
year of our Lord take its fourth part and its third part (dis¬ 
regarding fractions), and increase the result by two. This 
is true up to 4200. But in that year and the centuries fol¬ 
lowing, up to 6700, the number of the century must be 
diminished by one before taking the third part. In other 
respects the rule remains unaltered. In 6700 and the cen¬ 
turies following, up to 9200, the number of the century 
must be diminished by tico before taking the third part. 
In 9200, and up to 11,700, the rule is the samo as given at 
first, except that the result is to be increased by three 
instead of two. The Gregorian calendar will, however, itself 
require correction before the year 4000. As an example, 
let it be required to find the numerical term for the compu¬ 
tation of paschal full moon during the century beginning 
with 4100 and ending with 4200. Putting S for this term, wo 
have S= 41 - £ (41) - 4 (41) + 2 = 41 - 10 - 13 + 2 = 20. 
In General Table II. of the Prayer-Book wo find opposite 
to 4100 the number 11. And 11 + 9 = 20, thus verifying the 
statement made above. F. A. P. Barnard. 

Epaminoil'das [Gr. ’E7raju,eivwpSas or ’EJ 7 aju.i^wi» 5 as], an 
illustrious Greek statesman and general, born at Thebes 
about 418 B. C. Ho was a pupil of Lysis, a Pythagorean 







































EPANOMERIA—EPHEMERIS. 1595 


philosopher. His youth was passed in retirement and study. 
He was temperate and virtuous, and is said to have de¬ 
spised riches. He formed an intimate friendship with 
Pelopidas. In ,185 he served with distinction at the battle 
of Mantinea, after which he passed many years in private 
life. He was one of the deputies sent by Thebes in 371 B. C. 
to a congress of the Grecian states, in which he opposed 
the policy of Sparta and defended the interest and rights of 
Thebes in an eloquent speech. War speedily ensued be¬ 
tween Sparta and Thebes, and Epaminondas was chosen 
commander of the Theban army, which amounted to only 
6500 men. He defeated the Spartans in 371 B. C. at the 
battle of Leuctra, which was fatal to the supremacy of 
Sparta. In this action he displayed great military genius, 
and owed his success partly to his novel manoeuvres and 
combinations. He invaded Peloponnesus in 369, and 
marched against Sparta, which was defended with success 
by Agesilaus. He commanded the Theban army which 
defeated the Spartans at Mantinea in 363 B. C. (or, as some 
say, 362), but he was killed in this action. He left a pure 
and exalted reputation as a patriot, a statesman, and a 
sage, and is universally admitted to have been one of the 
greatest captains of antiquity. Cicero expressed the opin¬ 
ion that Epaminondas was the greatest man that Greece 
has produced. (See Cornelius Nepos, “ Epaminondas ;” 
Grote, “ History of Greece,” chaps, lxviii., lxix., and lxxx.; 
E. Bauch, “Epaminondas und Theben’s Ivampf um die 
Hegemonie,” 1834.) ^ 

Epanome'ria, a town at the N. W. point of the island 
of Santorini (Thera) in the Grecian Archipelago. The 
houses are partly excavated in the face of a cliff of pozzu- 
olana which is nearly perpendicular and is close to the sea. 
" The lowest of fifteen tiers of houses is about 400 feet above 
the sea. 

Ep'arch [Gr. enapxos, from inC, “ upon ” or “ over,” and 
a-PXV> “government”], in ancient Greece the title of the 
governor of a province, a ship’s master, a satrap, or the 
prefect of a region under the Roman rule. The province 
itself was called an eparchy. In modern Greece the primary 
subdivision of a nomarchy is called an eparchy. In Russia 
an eparchy is the diocese or archdiocese of a bishop or arch¬ 
bishop of the Greek Church. 

Epaulement [Fr., from epaule, “shoulder”], a mil¬ 
itary term which, from its derivation, would signify, as de¬ 
fined by Webster, a side work, a work to cover sidewise — 
e. g. a traverse , or a short parapet made at the flank of a 
battery or end of a parallel; but practically its meaning is 
extended to any covering made of earth, stone, wood, or 
iron, when intended simply as a screen— e. g. to cover cav¬ 
alry waiting to be brought into action. (See Mahan, “ Mil¬ 
itary Engineering.”) 

Epaulette, an ornamental article of uniform of military 
and naval officers, worn on the shoulders, as the name indi¬ 
cates; a plate or strap extending along the shoulder from 
near the collar, and terminating with a fringe of gold or silver 
bullion, which falls over the shoulder. Rank is indicated 
by the size of the bullion and by devices on the strap, such 
as stars, anchors, crowns, etc. In the American army the 
epaulette, hitherto worn by officers of all grades (as still in 
the navy), is now confined to general officers, its place be¬ 
ing supplied, for the lower grades, by the “shoulder-knot” 
of gilt cord. The practice varies in the different services 
of Europe. 

Epaulette, a town of the Netherlands, province of 
Guelderland. Pop. in 1867, 7705. 

Ep6e, de 1’ (Charles Michel), Abbe, a French teacher 
of the deaf and dumb, was born at Versailles Nov. 25,1712. 
He was a Jansenist preacher, and for some time canon at 
Troyes. About 1755 he began to devote himself to the 
gratuitous instruction of the deaf and dumb. He is said to 
have been the first who used gestures or the language of 
signs in their education, on which subject he wrote several 
treatises. He founded in Paris an institution which was 
successful. Died Dec. 23, 1789. 

Epeirus. See Epirus. 

Epei'ra [from the Gr. enC, “on,” “together” and elpw, 
to “ fasten ”], a genus of spiders belonging to the Epeiridm, 
are distinguished for the brilliancy of their colors and the 
geometric regularity of their webs, which are formed by 
concentric circles and straight radii. Epeira diadema is a 
large species found in Great Britain. These spiders are 
very numerous in tropical countries, where they grow to 
great size. Several species occur in the U. S. 

Eperies, fi/p6r-y£sh or a'pi-re-^sh, or Heperjes 
[Lat. Eperisc or Fragopolis], an old town of Hungary, the 
capital of the county of Saros, is on tho river Tarcza, about 
148 miles N. E. of Pcsth. It is surrounded by walls, and 
is one of the most beautiful towns of Upper Hungary. It 
is a bishop’s see, has five churches, a college, and manufac¬ 


tures of linens, woollen goods, and earthenware. A royal 
salt-mine is worked in the vicinity. Pop. in 1869, 10,772. 

Epernay, ApSiFnd/ [Lat. Aquae Perennes], a town of 
France, in the department of Marne, on the river Marne, 
about 80 miles E. by N. from Paris. It is on the railway 
from Paris to Chalons, 20 miles W. N. W. of the latter. It 
is well built, clean and well paved, and has a town-hall and 
a public library. Here are manufactures of hosiery, earth¬ 
enware, and refined sugar; also many elegant villas, with 
wine-vaults. Epernay is a great entrepot or market for 
champagne wine, which is produced in the vicinity. Pop. 
11,704. 

Eper'ua, a genus of trees of the order Leguminosae, one 
species of which (Eperua falcata), called wallaba, is abun¬ 
dant in Guiana. Its hard, durable, heavy, resinous tim¬ 
ber, which is of a bright red-brown color, with white veins, 
is much used for shingles. The tree has pinnate leaves 
and a regular monopetalous flower. 

E'phah, a Hebrew measure of capacity containing 27.83 
pints, or three English pecks and three pints. 

Ephcm'era [from the Gr. e$rj/uepos, “ lasting for a day ” 
(from €7rt, “on” or “for,” and Tjjue'pa, a “day”)], a genus 
of neuropterous insects, commonly called day-fly or may-fly, 
are allied to the dragon-flies or Libellulidse. In the larva 
and pupa states they live a year or more in the water, but 
their existence in the perfect state is very brief. They are 
used by anglers as bait. They give name to the family 
Ephemei’idse, of which many species occur in the U. S. 

Ephcm'eris [Gr. e^vjpepi's, a “diary,” from em, “on” 
or “ for,” and rjpt'pa, a “ day ”], Astronomical Ephem¬ 
eris, Nautical Almanac. Ephemeris and almanac 
are chief!}' applied to two distinct classes of publications. 
An almanac is usually an annual which gives a calendar 
of the civil and ecclesiastical divisions of the year, with 
the dates of festivals and fasts and other days of special 
commemoration, and for each day or some longer interval 
the times of passing the meridian and of the rising and 
setting of the sun, moon, and principal planets, and their 
places in the zodiac, together with the phases of the moon 
and the times of eclipses and other important astronomical 
phenomena. With these is combined a variety of other 
matter, according to the special object of the publication. 
The astronomical tables which almanacs contain are ordi¬ 
narily given with little precision, and are for the most part 
adapted only to a particular latitude. Such tables are 
said to have been constructed even in the time of Ptolemy. 
They were indispensable to the astrologers of later days, 
who doubtless had them for finding the positions of the 
planets at some future or past date, compiled with suffi¬ 
cient accuracy to make their prognostications. 

Since the invention of printing, almanacs have appeared 
in large numbers in every part of the civilized world. They 
supplied an extensive popular demand, but added to the 
real information which they contained astrological and 
meteorological predictions, and other matter much more 
objectionable. 

The “ British Almanac,” published by the Society for 
the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, for the year 1828, in¬ 
troduced a decided reform in this class of works. And 
now there are many, and in all civilized countries, which 
contain valuable statistics of various kinds and essays on 
various subjects, such as are adapted to the classes of 
readers for which each may be specially designed. Some 
of them have a permanent value as works of reference. 
The “ Tidal Almanac ” of the U. S. Coast Survey is an ex¬ 
ample of a special class. 

An ephemeris of a fixed star is a table of its apparent 
right ascension and declination at equal intervals of time. 
An ephemeris of a primary body of the solar system gives 
for each day, or for some regular longer or shorter interval, 
its direction and distance from the earth or sun, or both. 
The apparent semi-diameter, horizontal parallax, phases, 
and degree of brilliancy may also be given at stated inter¬ 
vals. The ephemerides of satellites give their positions 
with reference to their primaries, with their occultations, 
eclipses, and transits. 

Observations furnish the data for computing the elements 
of a planet’s orbit, and the ephemeris is prepared either 
directly from these elements or from tables derived from 
them, constructed to facilitate computations, and in which 
the attractions of other bodies are taken into account. The 
places of the planet tabulated in the ephemeris, whether 
for past or future times, may readily be compared with 
those derived from observations; and thus, as observations 
accumulate, the astronomer may determine more accurately 
the planet’s orbit, and by a now and more trustworthy 
ephemeris again subject tho theory of its motion to the 
test of observations. The history of astronomy furnishes 
an instructive example of the alternate improvement in tho 
means and methods of observation, and the advance of 
















1596 EPHESIANS, THE EPISTLE OF SAINT PAUL TO THE—EPHIALTES. 


theory and scientific knowledge. At one time observations 
are more precise than theory ; at another, the theory of the 
motions of a heavenly body may give its position more 
accurately than any single observation. It has been by 
such successive advances, alternately in theory and in the 
precision of observations, that practical astronomy has 
attained its present approximation to perfect accuracy. 
Tables of some of the planets are extended to several cen¬ 
turies in the future, with full confidence that an astronomer 
of those remote times will find them not only within the 
field of his telescope, but near its centre. 

An astronomical ephemeris is a collection of such ephem- 
erides for a particular year or series of years, with the 
times of eclipses, occultations, and other astronomical phe¬ 
nomena, or the means of determining them. The more 
complete works of this kind are intended to furnish the 
astronomical observer, whether at an observatory, in the 
field of a survey, or at sea, with all the data relating to the 
sun, moon, planets, and some of the principal fixed stars, 
which he needs to facilitate the prosecution of his work. 
From the design of some of them, and the special adap¬ 
tation of portions to the wants of navigators, they are also 
called “ nautical almanacs.” 

Although prepared for a particular meridian, they can 
readily be adapted to any other by interpolating for the 
dilference of longitude or of the local times of the two 
meridians. Their use, therefore, is general, and not re¬ 
stricted to any part of the earth. 

The earliest astronomical ephemeris noticed in astronom¬ 
ical bibliographies is that of Iarchus in 1150; the first 
printed ephemerides were published in 1475 for the years 
1475 to 1506, and in 1499 for the years 1475 to 1531, though 
doubtless portions were prepared earlier; both were pre¬ 
pared by Regiomontanus. The latter extends through 
three cycles of nineteen years, and gives the longitudes of 
the sun and moon, and the phases of the moon and of 
eclipses occurring from 1483 to 1530, with explanations and 
useful tables. These have been the precursors of a succes¬ 
sion of ephemerides, defective at first, but improving as 
astronomy advanced. 

The “ Connaissance des temps ou des mouvements ce¬ 
lestes,” commenced by Picard for the year 1679, has ap¬ 
peared for each succeeding year, without interruption, to 
the present time. Additions and improvements were made 
by La Lande in 1760, who subsequently added lunar dis¬ 
tances, with the design of making it more useful at sea. 
This and almost all the subsequent volumes have been en¬ 
riched by valuable memoirs by the most eminent French 
astronomers, thus carrying out the purpose of La Lande to 
make this annual a journal of astronomy. For many years 
it has been prepared under the direction of the Bureau des 
Longitudes of France. Improvements have been made in 
it from time to time by the use of more precise tables in 
its preparation. At present it is under the immediate su¬ 
pervision of M. Mathieu, and is among the most valuable 
of this class of works. 

The “ Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris,” 
published by the British Admiralty, was commenced by 
Maskelyne for the year 1767. He undertook its prepara¬ 
tion, after a plan sketched by La Caille, for the purpose 
of meeting the wants of navigators, and especially of sup¬ 
plying facilities for using the method of finding the longi¬ 
tude by the distance of the moon from the sun or a star, 
which Halley had proposed in 1731. Mayer’s new tables 
of the moon for the first time gave the moon’s place with 
sufficient precision to make this method available. The 
successive annual volumes have been issued, usually three 
years in advance, to the present time. It was not until 
1834 that it came up to the requirements of an astronomical 
ephemeris. Other improvements and additions have since 
been made. Under its present superintendent, Mr. J. R. 
Hind, new tables of the sun, moon, and all but two of the 
planets have been introduced, so that it has no superior 
either as an astronomical ephemeris or an almanac for the 
use of navigators. Many of its volumes contain valuable con¬ 
tributions to practical astronomy by English astronomers. 

The “ Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch” first appeared 
for the year 1776, and has been continued by Bode, Encke, 
and its present superintendent, Prof. Foerster, without in¬ 
terruption. It was mainly designed to supply the wants 
of astronomers, though those of the navigator were not 
overlooked. As an astronomical ephemeris it was in ad¬ 
vance of all others until the later improvements in its 
British contemporary. Its volumes contain valuable as¬ 
tronomical memoirs from many of the most distinguished 
German astronomers. Of later years it has contained 
ephemerides of most of the asteroids. 

The preparation of the “ American Ephemeris and Nau¬ 
tical Almanac” was begun in 1849, under the superintend¬ 
ence of Lieutenant (now Rear-Admiral) Davis, U. S. navy, 
in accordance with an act of the Congress of the U. S, The 


theoretical portions of the work were placed under the spe¬ 
cial direction of Prof. Benjamin Pierce of Harvard Uni¬ 
versity. The construction of tables of the moon and of 
some of the planets, with corrected elements and in a form 
which would facilitate the computation of their ephemer¬ 
ides, was first undertaken, and so successfully accomplish¬ 
ed that from its commencement the “American Epheme¬ 
ris” has ranked among the highest works of this class in 
extent, completeness, and adaptation to the wants of 
astronomers and navigators. The first volume was for 
1855. In the preparation of later volumes new and more 
accurate tables of the sun and planets (except Jupiter and 
Saturn) have been employed. Several of its volumes con¬ 
tain valuable papers by American astronomers. 

It consists of two parts—the first arranged specially for 
the use of navigators, and computed for the meridian of 
Greenwich; the other prepared for astronomers, and 
adapted to the meridian of Washington. The first part 
is also published separately. Tables of the moon, Mercury, 
Venus, the standard stars, and four asteroids have also 
been published. The preparation of ephemerides of twenty- 
three asteroids discovered by American astronomers has 
also been undertaken. 

Prof. Joseph Winlock, U. S. navy, now director of Har¬ 
vard Observatory, succeeded Admiral Davis in the charge of 
the work; in 1866 it was placed under the direction of the 
writer of this article. The successive volumes have ap¬ 
peared for each year without interruption, and that for 
1876 was published in Sept., 1873. Several of them con¬ 
tain valuable memoirs. The continuance of the work is 
dependent upon annual appropriations by Congress. 

J. H. C. Coffin. 

Ephe'sians, The Epistle of Saint Paul to the, 

was written probably in the year 61 or 62, during the apos¬ 
tle’s first imprisonment at Rome, and shortly after the 
Epistle to the Colossians. The words ev ’E^eVa), “ at Ephe¬ 
sus ” (i. 1), are wanting in the “ Codex Sinaiticus ” and some 
other manuscripts, but the weight of diplomatic evidence 
on the whole preponderates in their favor. The absence 
of personal greetings is not so easily explained. It is one 
of the richest and most glowing of the Pauline Epistles. 
The first three chapters are doctrinal; the last three, horta¬ 
tory and practical. Of the many commentaries which have 
been written, those of Harless (German), 1834-58, and 
Eadie (Scotch), 1854, are among the best. 

Eph' esus [Gr. 'E</>e<ro? ; Fr. Ephese], an important an¬ 
cient Greek city of Asia Minor, in Lj’dia, on the river Cay- 
ster near its entrance into the sea, 35 miles S. S. E. of 
Smyrna. It was one of the twelve Ionian cities, and had 
several ancient names, among which were Samorna and Or- 
tygia. The name of Ephesus does not occur in the Homeric 
poems. According to Strabo, it was founded by Androclus, 
a son of Codrus. It passed successively under the dominion 
of the kings of Lydia and those of Persia. The Spartan 
general Lysander entered in 407 B. C. the port of Ephesus 
with a fleet, and defeated the Athenians at Notium near 
Ephesus. Here was a famous temple of Diana (Artemis), 
which was one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and was 
burned by Herostratus in 356 B. C. It was rebuilt with 
greater splendor, but 220 years passed before the new tem¬ 
ple was finished. It was a marble edifice of the Ionic order, 
425 feet long by 225 feet wide, and was adorned with 127 
columns sixty feet high. This was the largest of all the 
Greek temples, and was embellished by numerous works of 
eminent sculptors and painters. It was nearly destroyed 
by the Goths in 280 A. D. Ephesus was an important 
commercial city. Strabo, who lived in the reign of Au¬ 
gustus, states that it was in his time “the greatest place of 
trade of all the cities of Asia west of Mount Taurus.” 
Ephesus was the place where the Romans usually landed 
when they visited Asia. The apostle Paul passed three 
years in this city, where he planted a church. In the book 
of Revelations the church of Ephesus is placed first among 
the seven churches of Asia. It was the native place of 
Parrhasius the painter, of Ilipponax the poet, of Callinus, 
and of Heraclitus and Hermodorus, eminent philosophers. 
The third general council of the Church was held here in 431 
A. D. During the reigns of the Christian emperors of the 
East, Ephesus was styled “the first and greatest metropolis 
of Asia.” The site is now occupied by a village called 
Ayascilook, and remains of a large theatre, a stadium 687 
feet long, and other ruins. The disappearance of so large 
a mass as the temple of Diana can only be explained by the 
fact that the materials have been oarried away for modern 
buildings. (See Falkener’s work on Ephesus, 1862.) 

Ephial'tes [Gr. ’Ef/naAn;?; Fr, Ephialte ], an Athenian 
statesman and general, was a friend of Pericles. He was 
the chief promoter of a law which reduoed the power of the 
Areopagus and converted the government into a pure dem¬ 
ocracy. Ho was assassinated by the aristocrats in 456 B. C. 













EPHIALTES—EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. 


1597 


Ephial'tes, the name of a famous giant in the Greek 
mythology, said to have been a son of Neptune. 

Ephialtes [Fr. cauchemar; Lat. in' cubits], a name for 
nightmare, an affection consisting of horrid dreams, with a 
sensation of pressure upon the body and of unavailing efforts 
to run away and cry for help. 

Eph'oil [from the Ileb. aphad, to “put on”], a Jewish 
robe or tunic worn originally by the high priest; afterwards 
by all priests. It was made of fine linen. The ephod of 
the high priest had a breastplate attached to it containing 
twelve precious stones, on which were engraved the names 
ot the twelve tribes. The relation of these twelve stones to 
the Urim and Thummim is still an open question. 

Eph'ori, or Eph 'ors [Gr. e^opoi (sing. e^>opo?, from 
eVi, “ Oil ” or “ over,” and 6 paw, to “ see ”); Lat. ephori], the 
title of magistrates common to many of the Dorian states 
of ancient Greece. In the political constitution of Sparta 
the ephors exercised supreme power. The Spartan ephors 
were five in number, and were elected from the body of the 
ruling caste. Their term of office was one year. Besides 
their judicial authority, they exercised a control over the 
functions of the kings and the senate, and sometimes re¬ 
called the former from their foreign expeditions. They 
negotiated treaties with foreign states, and possessed nearly 
all the executive power of the government. 

Eph'orus [Gr. ’E^opos], an eminent Greek historian who 
flourished about 380-340 B. C., was a pupil of Isocrates the 
orator. He wrote a general history of Greece and the Bar¬ 
barians from the siege of Troy to 340 B. C., which is not 
extant. It was esteemed a valuable work. 

E'phraem (or Ephraim) the Syrian [Lat. Ephrse'- 
mus Sy'i-us], a celebrated ecclesiastic and writer, born at 
Nisibis, in Asia Minor. He was a young man when ho 
attended the Council of Nice in 325 A. D. He was a zeal¬ 
ous opponent of Arianism, became a hermit or anchorite 
in the prime of life, and lived in a cave near Edessa. He 
was venerated as a saint and a prophet by his contempo¬ 
raries, and received the offer of the bishopric of Edessa, 
but he declined it. He wrote in Syriac numerous religious 
works, among which are hymns and commentaries on Scrip¬ 
ture. Died about 378 A. D. His works were published in 
Syriac and Greek at Rome by the Assemani, in 6 vols., 
1732-46. A German translation of a selection of his works 
was published by Zingerle (6 vols., 1830-37). 

E'phraim, one of the Hebrew patriarchs, was the 
second son of Joseph, and the head or founder of one of 
the twelve tribes of Israel. The territory of the tribe of 
Ephraim extended from the river Jordan to the Mediterra¬ 
nean Sea, and was bounded on the N. by Manasseh and on 
the S. by Benjamin and Dan; and was about 55 miles from 
E. to W. by 70 from N. to S. 

Ephraim City, a post-village of San Pete co., Ut., 8 
miles N. N. E. of Manti. 

Ephra'ta, a post-township of Lancaster co., Pa. Pop. 
2695. In the eighteenth century Ephrata was for a long 
time the centre of a religious denomination called the 
Seventh-Day German Baptists. Ephrata Springs are a 
pleasant summer resort for health and pleasure. 

Eph'ratah [Heb. “ fruitful ”], the grandmother of Caleb 
the spy (1 Chron. ii. 19, 50), and the ancient name of Beth¬ 
lehem (Gen. xxxv. 19), the birthplace of Christ (Mic. v. 2; 
Matt. ii. 6). 

Ephra'tah, a post-township of Fulton co., N. Y. It 
has manufactures of leather. Pop. 2207. 

Ep'ic [from the Gr. en-os, a “word,” also a “narrative” 
or “tale”], relating to epic poetry; also an epic poem. 
(See Epic Poetry.) 

Ep'icarp [from the Gr. ewi, “upon,” and Kapn-o?, “ fruit”], 
in botany, the outermost layer of the pericarp or fruit. When 
the walls are separable into three layers, the outer layer is 
named either exocarp or epicarp. 

Epichar'mus [Gr. ’E7rix<wo?], an eminent Greek poet 
and philosopher, born in the island of Cos about 540 B. C., 
was a pupil of Pythagoras. He removed about 485 B. C. 
to Syracuse, where he passed the greater part of his ma¬ 
ture life. According to Aristotle, he was the inventor of 
comedy. Plato assigns him as high a rank among comic 
writers as that of Homer among epic poets. Epicharmus 
wrote, besides dramas, treatises on philosophy, mythology, 
etc. He appears to have been an original genius and ele¬ 
gant writer. His works are not extant. Died about 450 
B. C. (See 0. Muller, “The Dorians;” Harless, “De 
Epicharmo,” 1822.) 

Ep'ic Po'etry, or The Ep' os, is that class of poetry 
which relates the history of a series of events, taking the 
series as a whole, apart from what precedes or follows. Epic 
poetry is chiefly of a narrative nature, and represents the 
subject of which it treats as a unit, with a definite begin¬ 


ning and an end. In a wider sense, epic poetry comprises 
the ballad, the romance, and even the fable, but in its more 
limited use it may simply denote the popular legends and 
tales of a nation or tribe which have been collected and ar¬ 
ranged. Of the Greek epics, two only, the “ Iliad ” and the 
“ Odyssey,” have come down to us, and the study of these 
has helped us very much to understand the true nature of 
the epic. Until the close of the last century, Homer was 
regarded as the original author of these epics. But in 1795 
F. A. Wolf, a learned German philologist, broached the 
theory that the poems of Homer were not the work of one, 
but of many poets. In fact, they appear to be, to some 
extent at least, a collection of Greek legends and tales, ar¬ 
ranged (as is now generally admitted) by the master-mind 
of a great poetic genius. A similar origin must be predi¬ 
cated for the Hindoo epics “Ramayana” and “Mahabha- 
rata,” the “Shah Nameh” of the Persian Firdousee, the 
Finnish “ Kalevala,” and the German “ Nibelungen.” 

From the manner in which it originated, the nature of 
the epic is easily deduced. As the poetical summation of the 
popular legends of a race or tribe, in which all the thoughts 
and feelings of the race are depicted, it must embody the 
peculiarities of the nation, and must be a complete and true 
picture of the life and doings of a race. Thus it is that in the 
same nation different epics may exist. While, for instance, 
the “Iliad” is a collection of the war-legends of the Greeks, 
the “ Odyssey” treats of the family life and travels on land 
and on sea. But as the epic must be such a complete picture, 
and must be, in contrast to the former legends, a complete 
whole, it takes from the primitive history of the nation a 
prominent fact as a central figure, and groups around this 
the single legends; and this centre is only the frame which 
holds together the single, otherwise unconnected, legends. 

This form of an epic is only possible in the early youth 
of a nation, when the legends still circulate among the 
people and are believed by them. But there have never¬ 
theless been attempts at epics in later times, which have 
been the work of a single po.et. This is the difference be¬ 
tween Virgil and Homer. Among the more prominent epic 
poets of modern times are Dante, Ariosto, Tasso, Camoens, 
Milton, and Klopstock. But the more practical and prosaic 
the world becomes, the more this form of poetry will dis¬ 
appear, and it is only a romantic or a comic epic, like By¬ 
ron’s “Don Juan,” that will be successful in these days, 
while the novel takes the place of the epic. (See Zimmer¬ 
mans, “ Ueber den Begriff des Epos,” 1848.) 

Epicte'tus [Gr.’E7rwcT7)Tos ; Fr. Epictete; Ger. Epihtet; 
It. Epitetto], an eminent Stoic philosopher, born at Hier- 
apolis, in Phrygia, about 60 A. D. He was in his youth a 
slave of Epaphroditus, a favorite of the emperor Nero, and 
lived at Rome. He became a freedman, and was banished 
with other philosophers from Rome by Domitian in 89 A. D., 
after which he lived at Nicopolis in Epirus. He was a man 
of excellent moral character, and acquired a high reputa¬ 
tion as a teacher of philosophy, but he wrote little if any¬ 
thing. His temper and doctrines were less austere than 
those of most other Stoics, .and were essentially Christian 
in their nature. It does not appear, however, that he had 
any connection with the Christian Church, or that he was 
a believer in the mysteries of that religion. Among his 
favorite maxims was “ Suffer and abstain.” His disciple 
Arrian collected his maxims and doctrines in a work called 
“Enchiridion,” which has been translated into English by 
Mrs. Carter (1758), and by T. W. Higginson (1865). (See 
Ritter, “ History of Philosophy;” G. Boileau, “ Vie 
d’Epictete et sa Philosophic,” 1655, in English by J. 
Davies, 1670; Farrar, “Seekers after God,” 1869. 

Epicure'an Philos'ophy, a system of philosophical 
teaching which took its name from Epicurus (337-270 B. C.), 
its founder. It originated in a reaction against the teach¬ 
ings of Socrates and his followers. Throughout the period 
of Greek decline and the last ages of republican Rome it 
exercised a profound influence, which was perpetuated 
through the days of the Roman empire, in spite of the op¬ 
position of Stoicism and of Christianity. It is a remark¬ 
able fact that it always remained substantially as Epicurus 
left it. 

The writings of Epicurus are lost, with the exception of 
fragments chiefly preserved by Cicero, Seneca, and Diog¬ 
enes Laertius, but the sublime poem of Lucretius, “De Re¬ 
rum Natura,” is an exposition of the teachings of Epicurus. 

In theology, Epicureanism was essentially atheism. The 
gods were eternal, immutable, and entirely unconscious of 
human affairs. Human responsibility for wrong-doing was 
consequently reduced to the minimum. The highest positive 
duty was made to be the pursuit of pleasure—not neces. 
sarily sensual enjoyment, for Epicurus himself taught that 
repose was the highest pleasure. Whatever the virtues of 
Epicurus may have been, the results of his system of ethics 
were thoroughly bad. The moral corruption of ancient Greece 

















1598 EPICURUS 


and Romo was in part the fruit of this system. Tho genial 
temper, the elegant habits of life, and tho moral indifference 
exhibited in the writings of Iloraco were among the least 
objectionable of tho effects of the widespread Epicurean 
teachings. It is not too much to assert that Epicureanism 
produced not one thoroughly admirable character in ancient 
history. 

Tho physical doctrine taught by Epicurus and Lucretius 
was not unlike that of certain modern evolutionists. They 
held that matter is uncreated, indestructible, and that all 
material things were self-evolved, without a supervising or 
directing Intelligence. (See Lucretius, “ De Rerum Na- 
tura;” Gassendi, “Syntagma Philosophise Epicuri;” and 
Henne’s article “ Epicure ” in the “ Dictionnaire des Sci¬ 
ences Philosophiques.”) 

Epicu'rus [Gr. ’E;n/covpo?], a celebrated Greek philos¬ 
opher, tho founder of the Epicurean sect, was born in the 
island of Samos in 337 (or, as some say, 341) 13. C. He was 
a son of Neocles, an Athenian, and is said to have been a pu¬ 
pil of Xenocrates, but he professed to be self-taught. He 
visited Athens at the age of eighteen, afterwards travelled in 
Ionia, and opened a school at Mitylene, where he taught new 
doctrines. About the year 306 he removed to Athens, where 
he purchased a garden and founded a celebrated school of 
philosophy. He was very popular as a teacher, and gained 
a great number of disciples. He recognized pleasure as the 
chief good, and consequently was calumniated by the Sto¬ 
ics, but it appears that his habits were temperate and vir¬ 
tuous. His physical philosophy was based on the atomic 
theory of Democritus. He treated ethics as the most im¬ 
portant department of philosophy, and studied nature with 
an ethical rather than a scientific purpose. He opposed 
the popular superstition, and refused to recognize the gods 
of the Greek mythology, but taught that the gods live in a 
state of passionless tranquillity, and give no attention to 
sublunary affairs, which they consider beneath their notice. 
Epicurus took no part in political affairs. He wrote nume¬ 
rous works on ethics, natural philosophy, etc., which are not 
extant, but several of his letters have been preserved by 
Diogenes Laertius. His opponents admitted that he was 
personally amiable and virtuous. Our knowledge of his 
doctrines is derived chiefly from the works of Cicero and 
Lucretius, who in his poem“De Rerum Natura ” amply 
illustrates his philosophy, and expresses great admiration 
of Epicurus. Among the eminent men who favored Epicu¬ 
rean principles were Horace, Atticus, Gassendi, Rousseau, 
and Voltaire. Died in 270 B. C. (See Gassendi, “ De 
Vita et Moribus Epicuri,” 1647; Ritter, “ History of 
Philosophy;” G. H. Lewes, “Biographical History of 
Philosophy.”) 

Ep'icycle [from the Gr. eiri, “upon,” and kvkAos, a 
“circle”], in ancient astronomy, a circle having its centre 
moving along the circumference of another circle. It was 
a favorite opinion of the Greek astronomers that all the 
celestial motions must be uniform and circular, because the 
circle is the most perfect of plane figures. The phenomena 
of the stations and retrogradations of the planets were ap¬ 
parently inconsistent with this notion ; and in order to ex¬ 
plain them, Apollonius of Perga imagined the theory of 
epicycles and deferents. He supposed every planet to move 
uniformly in the small circle or epicycle, the centre of which 
is carried uniformly forward along the circumference of the 
large circle or deferent, of which the earth occupies the 
centre. Hipparchus, having discovered the eccentricity 
of the solar orbit, supposed the motions to be performed 
in eccentric circles. The celebrated astronomer Ptolemy 
adopted the hypotheses both of Apollonius and Hipparchus; 
that is, he supposed the earth to be placed at a small dis¬ 
tance from the centre of the deferent circle (which conse¬ 
quently was called an eccentric ), and the planet to move 
uniformly in the epicycle, the centre of which also moves 
uniformly in the deferent. By means of these suppositions, 
and by assigning proper ratios (determined by observation) 
between the radius of the deferent and the radius of the 
epicycle, and also between the velocity of the planet in the 
epicycle and the velocity of the centre of the epicycle on 
the deferent, he was enabled to represent with considerable 
accuracy the apparent motions of the planets, and particu¬ 
larly their stations and retrogradations. As a first step 
towards connecting the sciences of astronomy and geometry 
the hypothesis of epicycles does great honor to its inventors. 

Epicy'cloid [etymology same as for Epicycle], a curve 
traced by a point on the circumference of a circle which 
rolls on the convex side of a given fixed circle. It belongs 
to the class of curves called roulettes, and is not invariably 
a transcendental curve. It is always of a finite order when 
the circumferences of the two circles are commensurable. 
The normal of the epicycloid is easily constructed; it always 
coincides with the line which joins the generating point to 
the corresponding point of contact of the two circles. The 


EPIDEMIC. 


evolute of the epicycloid is a similar epicycloid, the radii 
of the circles being merely altered in a certain ratio. When 
the circles are equal the epicycloid is similar, and similarly 
placed to the pedal of the fixed circle with respect to a point 
in the circumference. The curve is the cardioid, which is 
the inverse of a parabola. The epicycloid was invented by 
Romer, the Danish astronomer, who about 1674 proposed 
this curve as the best form for the teeth of wheels, in order 
to prevent friction. Newton gave its rectification in his 
“ Principia.” 

Epidamnus. See Durazzo. 

Epidau'rus [Gr. ’E7u£avpos], an ancient town of Greece, 
on the E. coast of the Peloponnesus and on the Saronic 
Gulf, about 45 miles S. W. of Athens. It was an independ¬ 
ent state, and possessed a small territory called Epidauria. 
As early as 600 B. C. it was one of the chief commercial 
cities of the Peloponnesus. It derived much importance 
from its temple of iEsculapius (situated 5 miles from the 
town), which was one of the most celebrated sanctuaries 
in Greece, and was frequented by patients from all of the 
Hellenic states. They came to be cured of their diseases. 
Here are the ruins of a magnificent theatre, which Mr. 
Leake says is in better preservation than any other in 
Greece. It is 370 feet in diameter. Once in four years a 
festival was celebrated here in honor of Aesculapius, with 
musical and gymnastic games. On or near the site of Epi- 
daurus is a small village called Epidavro , at which the 
Greek congress assembled in 1821. 

Epidau'rus Limc'ra, an ancient seaport-town of 
Greece, on the eastern coast of Laconia. In the Middle 
Ages it w r as the most important Greek town in the Morea. 
The ruins of its temples are visible at Old Monemvasia, 3 
miles N. of Monemvasia. 

Epidem'ic [from the Gr. eiri, “upon,” and 6r?p.os, a 
“people”]. A disease is said to be epidemic when it at¬ 
tacks a considerable number of people, spreading rapidly 
throughout a community for a time, but not becoming per¬ 
manent and endemic (i. e. not remaining as a disease cha¬ 
racteristic of that particular community). Few subjects 
connected with medicine have given rise to more specula¬ 
tion than the cause and progress of epidemics. It appears 
certain that there must be either distempered conditions 
influencing the people who are subject to an epidemic, and 
predisposing them to the reception of disease-poisons, or 
else, what is more probable, that some peculiar disease- 
germs are present in air, water, or food during epidemics. 
Contagious epidemics, such as smallpox, measles, etc., are 
demonstrably propagated in this way. Others, like in¬ 
fluenza and cholera, will propagate themselves in spite of 
personal quarantines, cordons militaires, and even of inter¬ 
vening oceans, though they may be intensified by near 
association with the sick. Some observers ascribe certain 
epidemics to the excess or deficiency of ozone in the air. 

The germ-theory, which ascribes disease to microscopic 
vegetation, is a favorite with many; and some observers 
believe that they have detected the cause of various epi¬ 
demics. For example, the cause of measles has been as¬ 
cribed with confidence to the presence in the air of the 
spores of an organism identical with the rust of barley 
straw. Further observations will quickly establish or over¬ 
throw all such theories. 

Mental epidemics, such as the dancing mania, lycan- 
thropy, witchcraft, and the mania for suicide, are not im¬ 
probably owing to physical conditions, like other epidemics. 

The following laws or general statements with regard to 
epidemics appear to be established: (1) An “epidemic in¬ 
fluence” appears at times to intensify disease, and im¬ 
mensely to stimulate the propagation of endemic diseases, 
thus converting them into epidemics. Thus, smallpox, 
typhus, typhoid, and scarlatina, usually endemic, some¬ 
times rage with great violence as epidemics. (2) Sometimes 
an epidemic influence shows itself in the character of non- 
cpidemic diseases. Thus, in some seasons pneumonia is 
of an active, sthenic type; at other times it almost uni¬ 
formly assumes a low or typhoid character. In some sea¬ 
sons nearly all inflammations take on an erysipelatous form. 
(3) When a decided epidemic prevails, non-epidemic disease 
is very apt to show some of the features of the prevailing 
epidemic. Even before the advent of an epidemic these 
features may be observed. (4) The first onset of an epi¬ 
demic is usually, not always, its most severe and fatal 
stage, but many such diseases have periods of exacerbation 
and of intermission. (5) Epidemics would appear to alter¬ 
nate in successive cycles, smallpox being followed, for ex¬ 
ample, by measles, scarlatina, or typhoid. (6) Some dis¬ 
eases occur both as epidemics and as sporadic diseases. In 
the former case the disease usually exhibits a greater tend¬ 
ency to depression and a larger proportionate mortality. 
(7) The lower animals to some extent share with man in 
special epidemic influences. 














EPIDEN DRUM—EPILOGUE. 


Facts are not wanting which give reason to hope that 
epidemics \yill become limited in their ravages. The plague 
and other destructive epidemics have become localized or 
endemic; and the introduction of thorough sewerage in 
cities, underground drainage in the country, habits of per¬ 
sonal cleanliness, and other hygienic conditions cannot fail 
to accomplish much good. Charles W. Greene. 

Epiden'drum [from the Gr. ini, “upon,” and SivSpov, a 
“ tree ”], a large Linnasan genus of epiphytic orchids, which, 
as originally constituted, included the vanilla and many 
other species now excluded. It is worthy of mention as 
affording within the limits of the U. S. two examples of the 
tree orchids or epiphytes so abundant in the tropics. The 
Epulendnun conopseum grows principally upon magnolia 
trees, and is found in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. 
Epidendrum venosum grows in Florida. Both have green¬ 
ish-purple flowers in large clusters. Some of the tropical 
species have cathartic properties. 

Epitler'mis [from the Gr. ini, “on,” andSep/aa, “skin”], 
called also Cu'ticle or Scarf-skin, in anatomy, is in 
structure a modification of the epithelium, accurately 
moulded to the papillary layer of the true skin or derma. 
When exposed to pressure and friction it becomes hard and 
thick, as in the palms of the hands; otherwise it is soft. 
It is composed of agglutinated, flattened cells, but in the 
deep layers the cells are rounded or columnar, and filled 
with soft contents. In most races of men these deep cells 
contain more or less pigmentary matter, which gives the 
skin its various shades from black to white. The epider¬ 
mis is penetrated by the ducts of the sweat-glands and oil- 
glands of the skin. Its cells are developed in the liquor 
sanguinis, which is poured out on the external surface of 
the true skin. The hair and nails in man, and also the 
horns in lower animals, are modifications of the epidermis. 

The epidermis in plants is a layer of thick-walled cells, 
of character varying extremely in different species. It is 
entirely homologous in structure with animal epidermis. 
Upon leaves it is penetrated by the stomata, and both 
transmits exhalations and absorbs carbonic acid, the most 
important part of the plant’s food. 

Ep'idote [from the Gr. ini, “upon” (implying “addi¬ 
tion”), and SlSio/xl, to “give,” so named, it is,said, because 
the series of the secondary forms are an enlargement on 
the base of the primary], a mineral which consists essen¬ 
tially of silica and alumina, combined with portions of lime, 
oxide of iron, or peroxide of manganese. A variety con¬ 
taining lime is called zoisite, and another containing man¬ 
ganese is termed pistacite. It is often found crystallized in 
prisms, and sometimes occurs massive. The color is gene¬ 
rally green, yellow, or red. 

Epido'tes [Gr. ’EttiSuStt??, the “liberal giver”], a Greek 
divinity worshipped at Lacedaemon. Of his mythus little is 
known. Also, the god of sleep, worshipped at Sicyon. The 
name was also a title of Zeus and other beneficent deities. 

Epigre'a [from the Gr. ini, “on,” and yrj, “earth,” 
“ground”], the name of a genus of plants. (See next 
article.) 

Epigse'a re'pens, the botanical name of the trailing 
arbutus or mayflower, an early spring flower of the U. S., 
well known for its beauty and fragrance. It belongs to 
the Ericaceae, and in the Southern States is called ground 
laurel. It has decided diuretic powers. 

Epiglot/tis [from the Gr. ini, “upon,” and yAwm's, 
the “ glottis,” a name suggested by its position], the thin 
fibro-cartilaginous lid of the glottis. It is attached in front 
to the thyroid cartilage by two ligaments constituting a 
narrow neck. During respiration the epiglottis is vertical, 
and in the act of swallowing it automatically falls back¬ 
ward and closes the larnyx, thus preventing the passage of 
food into that organ. 

Epig'oni [Gr. ‘Eniyovot (from ini, “on ” or “after,” and 
yivai, to “ be born ”); Fr. Epigones], a term signifying “ suc¬ 
cessors” or “heirs,” was a collective appellation of the sons 
of the seven Greek chiefs who conducted the expedition 
against Thebes. Their names were Alcmaeon, Thersander, 
Diomedes, iEgialeus, Promachus, Euryalus, and Sthenclus. 
They renewed the war and took Thebes. In the history of 
literature the name is sometimes applied to those writers 
who confine themselves to the further development of the 
ideas of the great masters of the classic period. 

Ep' igram [Gr. e 7 uypap.p.a, from ini, “ on,” and ypa$a>, to 
“write;” Fr. epigram,me], originally an “ inscription ” or 
brief writing ; a short poem or piece of verse which has only 
one subject, and ends with a witty or ingenious turn of 
thought; an interesting idea expressed happily in a few 
words. The first of these definitions is nearly correct for a 
modern epigram, but differs widely from the original sense 
of the word in Greek. The Greek epigram was at first a 
short collection of lines inscribed on a monument or statue, 


1599 


and the word was afterwards transferred to short poems 
suitable for inscriptions. The general characteristics of 
Greek epigrams are perfect simplicity and the seemingly 
studied absence of thatjpoint which characterizes the modern 
epigram. But perhaps this seeming pointlessness is due to 
our ignorance of the circumstances under which they were 
written and to which they allude. It appears that the first 
and indispensable requirement of an epigram is not brevity 
nor sharpness, but antithesis. Epigrams are nearly all in 
one form of metre, the elegiac. Some of the epigrams of 
Catullus and Martial present the modern epigrammatic 
character; and Martial has in fact afforded the model on 
which the modern epigram has been framed. The French 
writers have been more successful in epigrams than any 
other modern writers, and they excel especially in those 
which are intended to be satirical and piquant. 

Epig'ynous [from the Gr. ini, “ upon,” and yvnj, a 
“female”], a botanical term applied to stamens and petals 
which grow on the summit of the ovary. These sometimes 
appear to be inserted on the ovary, in consequence of the 
coherence of the calyx with the ovary. 

Ep'ilepsy [Lat. epilep'sia; Gr. imXriipia, from ini, 
“upon,” and Xap.pou'u, to “take,” to “seize”], a disease of 
the nervous system, in which there are occasional seizures 
or fits of sudden and complete loss of consciousness, usu¬ 
ally associated with convulsions, which become clonic, and 
finally impede respiration. The attack may last from two 
to twenty minutes, and is followed by exhaustion and sleep. 
In other cases, called petit mal (Fr. for “little sickness”), 
the loss of consciousness is but momentary, and there is no 
convulsion or falling down, as in ordinary attacks. 

It has been customary to say that this disease is merely 
functional, because in most cases there is little or no appa¬ 
rent organic change of the brain observable after death; 
but the present opinion of pathologists appears to be that 
sufficiently careful observation will detect lesions, however 
minute, sufficient to account for the symptoms. Dilatation 
of blood-vessels in the medulla oblongata is frequently ob¬ 
served. The disease itself is of a frightful character, apart 
from the unhappy effects it may produce upon the mind of 
the patient. 

When occurring in childhood, and especially during the 
period of dentition, it may after a time be spontaneously 
cured. It is sometimes hereditary, and often is caused by 
various excesses, by blows on the head, or by excessive 
fright. 

The treatment during the paroxysm, if it be habitual, is 
simply to place the patient where he cannot hurt himself, 
to loosen his clothing, and give him plenty of fresh air. 
Between the paroxysms the patient should avoid all ex¬ 
cesses of eating, of drinking, or of any other kind. Syste¬ 
matic exercise, and even gymnastics, never carried so far 
as to produce much weariness, are often beneficial. Nu¬ 
tritious food, with avoidance of coffee, tobacco, and stimu¬ 
lants, is usually advisable. A seton in the back of the 
neck is frequently useful. Of medicines, the bromides of 
potassium and of ammonium are useful in warding off the 
attacks, but they have little curative influence. Indeed, in 
the adult patient there is usually but little prospect of cure, 
though perfect recovery is not unknown. Tonics, such as 
iron, arsenic, and quinia, are useful in special cases, but in 
others are apparently worse than useless. 

Notwithstanding the terrible effects of this disease upon 
the minds of many of its victims, not a few distinguished 
men have been epileptics, as were Cambyses, Caesar, Mo¬ 
hammed, Petrarch, Henry IV. of England, Napoleon, and 
Byron. The ancients, it is said, sometimes called this dis¬ 
ease morbus basilicas (“ kings’ disease ”), from the idea that 
great men were especially liable to it; and among its nume¬ 
rous names was morbus sacer (the “ sacred disease ”), because 
the gods were believed to have especial care over its victims. 

Epilo'bium [barbarously derived from the Gr. ini Ao- 
/3o0 toe, a “ violet on a pod”], or Willow Herb, a genus 
of herbaceous perennial plants of the natural order Onagra- 
ceae, natives of temperate and cold climates. They have 
eight stamens and four petals. The fruit is an elongated 
many-seeded pod or capsule. Some of the species bear 
beautiful flowers. The Epilobium angustifoluun, a native 
of Europe and of the U. S., has showy pink-purple flowers, 
and is sometimes planted in gardens. Several other spe¬ 
cies are indigenous in the U. S. The popular name willow 
herb was given in reference to the leaves, which resemble 
those of a willow. These leaves have astringent properties, 
and are reputed to have other active powers. 

Ep'ilogue [Gr. iniXoyos, from ini, “upon” or “after,” 
and Aoyos; Lat. epilogue], in dramatic poetry, the closing 
address to the audience at the end of a play. It was usu¬ 
ally spoken by one of the actors, and was cheerful and 
familiar in tone. The term was sometimes applied to the 
conclusion of an oration. 











1600 


EPIMACHUS—EPISCOPAL CHURCH, THE PROTESTANT. 



Ep'ipliyte [from the Gr. ini, “upon,” and <f>vrov, a 
“plant”], the name of a parasitical plant which at¬ 
taches itself to the bark of decaying trees, and derives 
its nourishment chiefly from the air, whence the popular 
name of air-plant. These plants are found generally in 
tropical countries, and prefer moist and shady situa¬ 
tions. The orchideous epiphytes have recently been 
cultivated with great success in green-houses. Many 
of them are of exquisite beauty, and others are remark¬ 
able for their singular and grotesque forms. 

Epi'rus, or Epei'rus [Gr. "Hn-eipo?; Fr. Epire], a 
country of ancient Greece, bounded on the E. by the chain 
of Pindus, on the S. by the Ambracian Gulf, and on the W. 
by the Ionian Sea. It corresponds to the southern portion 
of the modern Albania, a wild and mountainous region 
which in all ages has been occupied by semi-civilized and 
robber tribes, called Epirots or Epirotes. It is adapted to 
pastoral pursuits, and its fine horses, oxen, and Molossian 
dogs were celebrated in antiquity. The three most import¬ 
ant tribes of Epirots were the Chaones, Molossi, and Thes- 
proti. The Molossi eventually became the masters of all 
Epirus. Among the Molossian kings was Alexander, whose 
sister Olympias was married to Philip of Macedon. The 
most celebrated king of Epirus was Pyrrhus, under whose 
reign this kingdom attained its greatest power and splen¬ 
dor. He waged war against the Romans in Italy. Died 
in 272 B. C. Epirus became a Roman province in 168 B. C., 
and was conquered by the Turks in 1466. The chief towns 
of Epirus were Ambracia, Buthrotum, and Dodona. This 
region is still frequently called Epirus or “the Epirus.” 
(See Merleker, “ Das Land und die Bewohner von Epi¬ 
rus,” 1841.) 

Episcopal Church, The Protestant, the religious 
body formerly known as “the Church of England in Amer¬ 
ica.” The full official title of this communion is “The 
Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of Amer¬ 
ica,” a name assumed, it has been surmised, to distinguish 
it from those Christians, on the one hand, who acknowledge 
the papal supremacy, and from those, on the other, who 
reject the authority of bishops. Whether this were really 
intended or not is perhaps doubtful; the name, however, 
describes with sufficient accuracy the relations of this 
Church to the other religious bodies in the United States. 

The Episcopal Church is the descendant and representa¬ 
tive of that branch of the Church of England which was 


Epim'achus, a genus of tenuirostral birds inhabiting 
Australia and Papua, and formerly classed with the birds 


Epimachus Magnus, or Grand Plume-Bird. 

of paradise. The Epimachus albus is of a fine violet-black 
color, with a broad collar of feathers, margined with green, 
at the base of the neck. Floating plumes, very long, white 
and silky, arise from the back and rump. Twelve of the 
lowest of these end in long thread- like points; hence it has 
been called the “ twelve-threaded bird of paradise.” The 
grand plume-bird ( Epimachus magnus ) is found in Papua. 
Its body is one foot long, its tail three feet. Its color is 
black-brown, the side-feathers curled and raised upward, 
glittering with changeable blue and green tints. The head 
and belly are of a lustrous blue. It is one of the most 
beautiful of all known birds. 

Epimen'ides [Gr. ’EmueviSris; Fr. Epimbiide], a famous 
Greek poet and prophet, was a native of Crete, and flourished 
about 600 B. C. According to tradition, he fell asleep in a 
cave, and awaked after the lapse of more than fifty years 
with a large increase of wisdom and inspiration. He wrote 
a poem on the voyage of the Argonauts. At the request 
of the Athenians, who were afflicted with the plague, he 
visited Athens about 596 B. C. and purified that city. 
Goethe wrote a poem called “ Des Epimenides Erwachen.” 

Epime'theus [Gr. ’EmuriOevs ; Fr. Epimethee~\, a per¬ 
sonage of the Greek mythology, was said to be a brother 
of Prometheus and the husband of Pandora. His name 
(from en-i, “on” or “after,” and /u.i)So?, “consideration,” 
“thought”) signifies “afterthought.” 

Epinal, d.'pe'n&l', a handsome town of France, capital 
of the department of Vosges, is pleasantly situated at the 
western base of the Vosges Mountains, on both sides of the 
Moselle, about 200 miles E. S. E. of Paris. It has a ruined 
castle, a fine Gothic church, a theatre, a hospital, a public 
library, and a museum of pictures and antiquities. Here 
are manufactures of cutlery, paper, hosiery, lace, chemicals, 
pottery, and linen fabrics. Pop. in I860, 11,870. 

Epinay, d’ (Louise Florence Petronille de la 
Live), Madame, a French literary lady, born about 1725. 
She was married at an early age to M. d’Epinay, but they 


were soon separated. She was intimate with Rousseau, for 
whom she built the hermitage at Montmorenci. Her work 
on education, entitled “Conversations of Emilie” (1783), 
gained a prize of the French Academy. Died in April, 
1783. She left autobiography memoirs (3 vols., 1818). 
(See Fallu, “La Marquise d’Epinay,” 1866.) 

Epiphania. See Hamaii. 

Epipha'nius [Gr. ’En-t^avios; Fr. Epiphane], Saint, a 
bishop and polemic, born at Eleutheropolis, in Palestine, 
about 310 A. D. He was educated in Egypt by certain 
monks, who instilled into his mind ascetic notions, and be¬ 
came afterwards a disciple of Hilarion. In 367 he became 
bishop of Constantia (formerly Salamis) in the island of 
Cyprus. He was an adversary of Origen, whom he de¬ 
nounced as a heretic, and he co-operated with those who 
deposed Chrysostom. He wrote, besides other works in 
Greek, a treatise against heresies, entitled “ Panarium,” 
which is one of the most important sources of information 
for the history of the ancient Christian Church. Best edi¬ 
tion of his works by W. Dindorf (5 vols., 1859-63). (See 
Lipsius, “ Zur Quellenkritik des Epiphanius,” 1865.) Died 
in 402 A. D. 

Epiph'any [Gr. ’ETn^aveta, from m, “on,” “over,” 
“^before,” and <£><uVo/x<u, to “appear;” Lat. Epiphani'a; Fr. 
Epiphanie ], the name of a festival in the Christian Church, 
celebrated the twelfth day after Christmas (Jan. 6), to com¬ 
memorate four events : (1) Christ’s baptism; (2) his birth; 
(3) his manifestation to the magi; (4) the manifestation of 
his divinity in the miracle at Cana. Later, especially in the 
Western Church, it popularly commemorated the visit of 
the three wise men to the infant Jesus. The eve of Epiph¬ 
any, called “ Twelfth Night” in England and “ Three Kings’ 
Night” in Germany, was anciently a great popular festival. 
Its celebration is still kept up. 

Epiphe'gus [from the Gr. ini, “upon,” and </>rjyo?, a 
“beech tree,” because it is found growing on the roots of 
that tree], a genus of herbs of the order Orobanchacem. 
Like all the order, it is a root-parasite, growing apparently 
from the ground, but really from the roots of trees. This 
genus is found only under beech trees; the herbs are pur¬ 
plish or yellow-brown, slender branched, with scales in place 
of leaves, and from six to twelve inches high. The Epiphe- 
gus Virginiana , common in the U. S., is called “ cancer 
root,” from the idea that it is curative of cancer. 























































EPISCOPAL CHURCH, THE PROTESTANT. 


1601 


established in the North American colonies in the seven¬ 
teenth century. The English adventurers of that and the 
preceding age, like the Spaniards and Portuguese, carried 
their national religion with them, and introduced it where- 
ever they gained a footing. The instructions given to Sir 
Humphrey Gilbert in 1578 gave him authority to settle in 
any country which was not in the possession of any Chris¬ 
tian prince. He was to govern his colonies by laws agree¬ 
able to the policy of England, and not against the Christian 
faith professed in the Church of England. This expedition 
terminated, indeed, in disaster and in the death of the 
commander; but similar principles guided the expedition 
which set sail for the “western parts of America” in 1607, 
under the command of Captain Newport, of which the Rev. 
Robert Hunt, a man of energy and ability in civil affairs, 
as well as a learned and devout divine, was the chaplain. 
Under his guidance and supervision the foundations of the 
Church in Virginia were laid; and although it doubtless 
suffered trom his early death, it gradually increased in 
strength and influence, and became the established religion 
of that colony. In Maryland, and in what are now called 
the Middle States, the Church of England was introduced 
at an early date. In New England, where Puritanism had 
a predominating influence, churchmen were longer in gain¬ 
ing a footing, which, when gained, they were obliged to 
make good against determined opposition. 

Without tracing the history of the Church through the 
colonial period, it may be sufficient to say that, notwith¬ 
standing many drawbacks, it had in the year 1776 gained 
a very respectable position. It had been all along, how¬ 
ever, obliged to contend not only with open enemies, but 
with injudicious friends. The violent measures of Andros 
and others had tended in some places to increase the dislike 
to the English Church which was felt by the Puritans of New 
England and .New York, and by the numerous sectaries 
who, attracted by Lord Baltimore’s proclamation of a gen¬ 
eral toleration, had swarmed into Maryland. The attempts 
which were made from time to time to procure bishops for 
America had failed, principally from political causes, and 
the Church, thus deprived of the presence of the highest 
order of its ministry, was necessarily crippled in the per¬ 
formance of its functions. The want of bishops threw dif¬ 
ficulties in the way of raising up a native ministry. Young 
men who sought holy orders were obliged to make a long 
and perilous voyage to England to be ordained, and they 
were fortunate if they returned in safety. The smallpox 
in the eighteenth century was the peculiar scourge of the 
colonists who visited England; and this disease, justly 
dreaded in those days, carried off many of the most prom¬ 
ising youths of America. The devotion of colonial church¬ 
men, however, to their religion continued firm and unwav¬ 
ering; and although they encountered further trials at the 
time of the Revolution, they Avere able not merely to over¬ 
come them, but to place their Church in a position which 
has enabled it ever since to increase in influence and mem¬ 
bers. 

At the beginning of the Revolutionary Avar there were in 
the Middle and Eastern States about eighty parochial cler¬ 
gymen. These gentlemen, Avith the exception of those in 
the great cities, Avere for the most part dependent for their 
support upon the Society for the Propagation of the Gos¬ 
pel. This society, liOAvever, withdreAv its gifts after the 
termination of the war. In other respects, also, the con¬ 
clusion of peace left the Church in a depressed condition. 
Many of the clergy and laity had adhered to the Crown 
during the struggle, and at its close Avithdrew themselves 
to England or to the colonies Avhich continued loyal. The 
peace Avas soon followed by the confiscation of the landed 
endoAvments of the Church in Virginia, and the numerous 
churchmen in that State Avere throAvn upon their own re¬ 
sources. The Church was poor, and its prospects Avere not 
hopeful. 

Two important measures Avere immediately necessary— 
to obtain an episcopate, and to promote a closer union be¬ 
tween the churches in the several States. The first Avas 
necessary to the existence, the second to the Avell-being, of 
the Church. Under the old Confederation the States re¬ 
garded themselves as independent sovereignties, and by 
consequence the churches in them conceived themselves to 
be so many national churches. This position, if it had 
continued, Avould not indeed have affected their faith and 
doctrine, which are unchangeable, but it might neverthe¬ 
less have produced many inconveniences. By the princi¬ 
ples of the Church of England, every national church, 
Ayhile it is bound to adhere to the common faith of Chris¬ 
tendom as a heritage from the apostles, has a wide liberty 
in regulating its OAvn ceremonial, discipline, and Avorship. 
Thus, the Prayer-Book might have been altered in a differ¬ 
ent way in different States, and divergences in discipline 
and government might have been developed to such an 
extent as to make the relations between the churches an 
101 


alliance rather than a union. This danger Avas aA r erted, 
almost by an accident. A few clergymen from Ncav York, 
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania met at NeAv Brunswick, in 
New Jersey, to take measures for reviving an old society 
(Avhich still exists) for the support of the Avidows and chil¬ 
dren of the clergy. They naturally discussed the condition 
of the Church, and made arrangements for a larger meet¬ 
ing to be held soon afterwards in NeAv York, to Avhich rep¬ 
resentatives of the laity were to be invited. This meeting, 
however, did little more than lay doAvn certain general 
principles—with reference particularly to episcopacy and 
the Common Prayer-Book, Avhich they rightly conceived 
Avould tend to promote a real union betAveen the churches 
in the several States—and issue a call for a similar meeting 
to be held the next year in Philadelphia. This Avas the be¬ 
ginning of the General Convention, Avhich has ever since 
been regarded as the governing body of the Church in the 
United States. 

The constitution of this body, as it was soon afterwards 
established, required it to consist of all the bishops, and of 
four clergymen and as many laymen from each State. By 
later amendments, Avhen more than one bishop was placed 
in a State, every diocese or episcopal jurisdiction became 
entitled to a representation of four clerical and four lay 
deputies, and the lay deputies Avere required to be commu¬ 
nicants. All the bishops were entitled to seats ex officio; 
and it Avas arranged that as soon as there should be three 
or more they should sit in a separate house. Every act Avas 
to receive the approbation of both houses. Authority was 
given to the General Convention to prescribe the qualifica¬ 
tions for ordination and to set forth a Book of Common 
Prayer—the two things that were most necessary for estab¬ 
lishing such a union as Avas desired. It was also directed 
that there should be a convention in every State, consisting 
of clergy and laity, the poAvers of which were not in any 
Avay defined. It seems to have been assumed, hoAvever, 
that these conventions were to exercise supervision over 
the affairs of the Church in every State—or, to use the 
more recent expression, in every diocese—in all matters 
which did not come Avithin the immediate jurisdiction of 
the bishop. 

This constitution was adopted in the seA'eral States, 
though not immediately in all. The Convention of 1785 
had consisted of delegates from what were afterAvards called 
the Middle States, and from Maryland, Virginia, and South 
Carolina. Much doubt was felt in the East, particularly in 
Connecticut, as to the wisdom of some of its provisions. 
The introduction of the laity especially into Avhat was con¬ 
ceived to be a Church council was regarded as an experi¬ 
ment of questionable expediency, and some of the powers 
Avhich were given them Avere thought to be without prece¬ 
dent. These objections, however, Avere gradually removed 
or Avaived ; and in 1789, Bishop Seabury, Avith a deputation 
from Connecticut, took his seat in the General Convention, 
and the union of the Episcopal churches in the United 
States Avas completed. Although the constitution proposed 
in 1785, and adopted in an amended and completed form 
in 1789, all along contemplated the presence of bishops, 
there really were none in the United States at that time 
except Bishop Seabury, Avho took no part in the proceed¬ 
ings of the Convention. This gentleman (the second of a 
family Avhich for five generations has furnished a line of 
clergymen, all able and some distinguished) had been sent 
to England soon after the peace by the clergy of Connec¬ 
ticut to obtain consecration from the English bishops. He 
had found an obstacle, however, in the oath of allegiance, 
Avhich forms a part of the English consecration office, and 
Avhich, of course, could not be taken by any one but a Brit¬ 
ish subject. After some delay, and much negotiation, he 
succeeded in obtaining consecration from the Scottish bish¬ 
ops, and, returning to America in 1785, was received as 
bishop of Connecticut and Rhode Island. 

The rule of the Church, believed to have come down from 
the apostles themselves, requires the presence of at least 
three bishops at every consecration; and it was necessary 
that there should be at least that number in the United 
States to maintain an episcopal succession. Application 
Avas therefore made in 1786 to the English bishops in behalf 
of the Rev. William White and the Rev. Samuel Provoost, 
Avho had been chosen to the episcopate in Pennsylvania and 
NeAv York. The obstacle arising from the oath of allegi¬ 
ance was removed by an act of Parliament; but a neAv dif¬ 
ficulty was found in a revised Prayer-Book Avhich had been 
proposed for use in the United States in 1785, and in which 
the English bishops thought that they perceiA-ed indications 
of a disposition to depart from the doctrine of the Church 
of England. After a correspondence between some of the 
most learned divines in England and the United States, in 
which the principle was clearly brought out that “ this 
Church does not intend to depart from the Church of Eng¬ 
land in any essential point of doctrine, discipline, or Avor- 


















1602 EPISCOPAL SYSTEM—EPISODE. 


ship, or further than local circumstances require,” it was 
agreed to proceed with the consecration of these gentlemen, 
and they were accordingly consecrated bishops on the 4th 
of February, 1789, in the archbishop’s chapel at Lambeth, 
by the Most Itev. John Moore, archbishop of Canterbury, 
assisted by other bishops. Partly because it was desirable 
that there should be more than the lowest number of bish¬ 
ops necessary to maintain a succession, and partly to keep 
up the succession in the English line, the Rev. James Madi¬ 
son obtained consecration in 1790 as bishop of Virginia. 

The “Proposed Prayer-Book,” as it was called, which 
had never met with much favor, was allowed to fall into 
oblivion, and it has now become one of the curiosities of 
ritual literature. A new revision of the Prayer-Book was 
made upon the principle just indicated. The English 
Prayer-Book was retained, with such alterations as were 
necessary to adapt it to the changes in the political condi¬ 
tion of the country, and with many other (chiefly verbal) 
modifications. The promise, however, to adhere to the doc¬ 
trine, discipline, and worship of the Church of England was, 
upon the whole, strictly adhered to. The most important 
changes were the introduction of a communion office closely 
resembling that of the Scottish Episcopal Church, and more 
nearly approaching the older liturgies of England, which 
was done at the request of Bishop Seabury and at the in¬ 
stance of the Scottish bishops; the omission of the Atha- 
nasian Creed; and the leaving out the precise directions 
about confession which occur in the English Office for the 
Visitation of the Sick. This omission was perhaps bal¬ 
anced, and the mind of the Church sufficiently declared, by 
the stringent rules about confession which are found in the 
Office for the Visitation of Prisoners, borrowed from the 
Irish Prayer-Book. The Prayer-Book, thus revised, was 
ratified in 1789. It came into immediate and general use, 
and has ever since been, without material alteration, the 
“use of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United 
States.” 

The two objects which the Convention had in view in 1785 
were thus attained in 1789. There was a sufficient number 
of bishops, and the union of the Church in the United States 
was perfected. Since that time a hundred bishops have 
been consecrated, of whom fifty-one are living. There are 
nearly 3000 priests and deacons, and the number of com¬ 
municants is computed at 235,000. The Church has ex¬ 
tended into every State and Territory, and its missionaries 
have penetrated into Western Africa, China, and Japan. 
In the General Convention of 1789 (that in which the union 
of the Church was perfected) two bishops sat with twenty- 
nine clerical and lay deputies. That of 1871 consisted of 
forty-two bishops and three hundred and twelve clergymen 
and laymen. The number of churches and chapels is esti¬ 
mated at about 2700. There is a general theological semi¬ 
nary in the city of New York, and there are divinity schools 
in Connecticut, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Wiscon¬ 
sin, and Minnesota. Several colleges are connected with this 
Church, among which are Trinity College, Hartford, Hobart 
College, Geneva, Racine College and Burlington College, in 
the States of Connecticut, New York, Wisconsin, and New 
Jersey. The University of the South was begun a few 
years ago with some prospects of success, but the events of 
the war delayed its progress, and its usefulness will prob¬ 
ably be rather in the future than in the present. Faculties 
of divinity and grammar-schools are attached to several of 
the colleges. St. Stephen’s College, Annandale, N. Y., re¬ 
ceives at an early age youths who are designed for holy 
orders, and carries them to the point at which they begin 
their theological training. Trinity School, N. Y., an en¬ 
dowed grammar-school established in 1706, receives sev¬ 
enty-two boys on the foundation. 

The doctrine of the Episcopal Church is that of the 
Church of England, believed to have been the common faith 
of Christendom while it continued undivided. The rela¬ 
tions of this Church to the rest of Christendom were clearly 
defined by the bishops who met in conference at Lambeth in 
1867. More than seventy bishops from England, Scotland, 
Ireland, the colonies, and the United States met in that 
year to take into considei’ation the state and best interests 
of the churches of the Anglican communion. One of their 
first acts was to express the deep sorrow with which they 
viewed “ the divided condition of the flock of Christ through¬ 
out the world,” and to record their conviction that “unity 
will be most effectually promoted by maintaining the faith 
in its purity and integrity, as taught in the Holy Scriptures, 
held by the primitive Church, summed up by the creeds, and 
affirmed by the undisputed general councils; and by draw¬ 
ing each of us closer to our common Lord, by giving our¬ 
selves to much prayer and intercession, by the cultivation 
of a spirit of charity and a love of the Lord’s appearing.” 

The Episcopal Church, while it receives the Holy Scrip¬ 
tures as the ultimate rule of faith, does not throw them 
open to the varying interpretations of every man’s private 


judgment, but explains them by the aid of traditions which 
it believes to have come down through an unbroken lino of 
teachers from the apostles themselves, by the creeds, and by 
the definitions of Christian doctrine made by the general 
councils. Candidates for baptism are required to confess 
their faith in the words of the Apostles’ Creed—adults in 
person, and infants by their sponsors. Communicants must 
receive also the Nicene Creed, which contains the same 
teachings in a more expanded form. Nothing is required 
from laymen, beyond acceptance of the Prayer-Book and 
a proper deference to the instructions of the clergy, who 
are believed to derive their doctrine and their right to 
teach by a succession from the apostles. The XXXIX. 
Articles of the Church of England (except the twenty-first, 
“of the power of Christian princes in relation to general 
councils”) are still commonly bound up with the Prayer- 
Book, but the practice of signing them has been laid aside 
since the Revolution. The clergy sign, instead, a general 
declaration that they “believe the Holy Scriptures of the 
Old and New Testament to be the Word of God, and to con¬ 
tain all things necessary to salvation;” and they “solemnly 
engage to conform to the doctrines and worship of the 
Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States.” The 
mode in which the teachings of Holy Scripture arc ascer¬ 
tained has been already pointed out. 

Thus, the Episcopal Church would seem to he one of the 
most liberal and comprehensive of religious bodies. It may 
contain within itself (it is not, however, asserted that it does) 
those, on the one hand, who apparently differ from Roman 
Catholics in little more than in denying the pope’s jurisdic¬ 
tion in countries which are or have been included in the 
British empire, and, on the other, those who are to be dis¬ 
tinguished from Presbyterians only by their acceptance of 
episcopacy and the Prayer-Book. Within these possible 
limits there would appear to be ample scope for religious 
thought; and the great freedom of religious thought ac¬ 
counts for the schools of teaching which have long existed. 
As men incline toward authority on the one hand, or indi¬ 
vidual judgment on the other, they are said to be High 
Church or Low Church. The lines of thought, however, 
are not sharply drawn, and the schools melt into each other 
by imperceptible degrees. The principles laid down by the 
Fathers at Lambeth (themselves men of every conceivable 
school of thought) have been long tested, and have been 
found sufficient to maintain the unity and harmony of the 
Church. 

Beverley R. Betts, Lib. of Columbia Coll. 

Episcopal System, in the Roman Catholic Church, 
is that theory according to which the highest clerical power 
is vested in the whole body of bishops. This theory was most 
prominently brought forward in the papal elections of the 
fourteenth century, and its followers declared the Church, as 
represented in its general assemblies, to be above the pope. 
In France the University of Paris was the chief supporter 
of this theory, and the Gallican Church accepted it as one 
of its fundamental laws. In Germany the coadjutant bishop 
of Treves, Nikolaus von Hontheim, who was one of its chief 
supporters, wrote a celebrated book, in which he clearly de¬ 
fined the episcopal system, “ De statu ecclesim et legitima 
potestate Romani Pontificis ” (1763). The Punctations of 
Ems (see Ems) had the same fundamental idea, and al¬ 
though they failed in their purpose, the system continued 
to spread in Germany. But the declaration of papal infal¬ 
libility has put an end to these differences, and made an im¬ 
possibility of the episcopal system. In the German Prot¬ 
estant churches the episcopal system is that theory accord¬ 
ing to which the authority of the bishops, which had been 
suspended in the Protestant countries in consequence of the 
peace of 1555, was transferred to the ruler of the country. 

Episco'pius (Simon), a learned Dutch divine whoso 
original name was Bisschop, was born in Amsterdam in 
Jan., 1583. He was distinguished for his liberality, mode¬ 
ration, and other virtues, and became the chief pillar and 
champion of the Arminians or Remonstrants. He was ap¬ 
pointed professor of theology in the University of Leyden 
in 1612, but he was accused of Socinianism by the Calvin¬ 
ists (Gomarists), and was banished in 1618 by the Synod 
of Dort. He retired to France, returned to Holland in 1626, 
and became rector of a college in Amsterdam in 1634. His 
principal works are the “ Confession of the Remonstrants ” 
(1621) and “ Institutiones Theologicoe.” Died in 1643. 

Ep'isode [Gr. ine^oSiov, from ini, “on,” “in addition 
to,” ei?, “in” or “into,” and 6So?, a “road,” a “journey,” a 
“coming;” i. e. something that comes in besides the main 
plot or poem] was originally one of those parts of an an¬ 
cient classical drama which were performed between the 
entrances of the chorus. In modern use it signifies an in¬ 
cidental narrative or digression in a poem, more or less 
connected with the main plot, but not essential to its de¬ 
velopment. 










EPISTATES—EPIZOOTIC. 


Epis'tates [Gr. etrio-raTrjs, from Zni, “on” or “over,” 
and iaTa M ac, to “be placed,” to “stand”], literally, “one 
set or placed over,” the title of the presidents of the two 
great councils of the ancient Athenians—viz., the Ecclesia 
and the senate of Five Hundred. Their term of office was 
one day. 

[Lat. epis'tola; Gr. emaro\ri, from en-urre'AAw, to 

send J, literally, a thing sent , hence a letter. The name 
is- now gi\ en especially to the twenty-one epistles of the 
New Testament. The writings ascribed to the so-called 
Apostolic Fathers (Clement of Rome, Barnabas, Ignatius, 
Polycarp, and Hernias) are for the most part epistolary 
in form. Of quite inferior dignity and value are the fol¬ 
lowing undoubtedly spurious epistles: Abgarus of Edessa 
to Christ, and Christ to Abgarus; Lentulus to the Roman 
Senate; several of the Virgin Mary; Paul to the Laodi- 
ceans; the Third of Paul to the Corinthians, and one of 
the Corinthians to Paul; Peter to James; eight of Seneca 
the philosopher to Paul, and six of Paul to Seneca. 

Epis'toloe O Us euro'rum Viro'rum [Lat. for “let¬ 
ters of obscure men ”], a famous collection of satirical let¬ 
ters directed against the monks and the Roman Catholic 
Church. They were published in three parts—the first at 
Haguenau (1515), the second at Bale (1517), and a third at 
a later date. They were probably written jointly by Ulrich 
von Hutten, Crotus Rubianus, and Buschius. They are an 
admirable imitation of the barbarous Latinity of the monks 
of those days. Certain Dominicans at Cologne, under the 
lead of one Pfefferkorn, a baptized Jew, advocated the ex¬ 
pulsion of all Jews from Germany, the forcible education of 
their children in Christian doctrine, and the burning of their 
books. This attempt was opposed by Reuchlin; and pend¬ 
ing the decision of the question by the pope the “ Epistolse ” 
appeared. Says Sir William Hamilton : “ The ‘ Epistolm ’ 
are at once the most cruel and most natural of satires, and 
as such they were the most effective. They converted the 
tragedy of Reuchlin’s persecution into a farce; annihilated, 
in public estimation, the enemies of intellectual improve¬ 
ment; and even the friends of Luther, in Luther’s lifetime, 
acknowledged that no other writings had contributed so 
powerfully to the downfall of the papal domination.” Many 
editions of the “Epistolae” have been published, the best 
of which is that of Boecking, Leipsic, 1858. 

Ep'itaph [Lat. epita'phium, from the Gr. ini, “ upon,” 
and ra(/>o?, a “tomb”] was anciently the name of the monu¬ 
ment or tomb over a grave, and was especially applied to 
the funeral oration delivered at the grave. It is, however, 
universally applied at present to the inscriptions upon 
tombstones. The literature of epitaphs is very consider¬ 
able. Greek epitaphs are preserved in great numbers in 
the Anthology. Of Latin epitaphs, many exist both in 
literature and upon the tombs themselves. Numerous in¬ 
teresting examples of early Christian epitaphs have been 
taken from the Catacombs. Many collections of remark¬ 
able epitaphs in modern languages have also been made. 

Epithala'mium [from the Gr. ini, “on” or “near,” 
and 0dAa/xos, a “bridal chamber;” also “marriage”], a 
bridal hymn ; a chorus sung, in ancient Greece, near the 
door of the bridal chamber. It appears to have been a 
formal part of the marriage ceremony. Among the ancient 
Romans the rude Fescennine songs, which seem to have been 
of a phallic character, were often sung at weddings, and are 
hence called epithalamia. The term is often given to formal 
poems composed in honor of a particular marriage. Anac¬ 
reon and Pindar composed poems of this kind. The most 
perfect example of it now extant is the epithalamium of 
Peleus and Thetis, by Catullus. 

Ejiithelio'ma [from Epithelium, which see], a variety 
of cancer which attacks most frequently the surfaces which 
are covered with pavement epithelium or with epidermis. 
Many pathologists class it with “cancroid” disease, because 
it appears to be less malignant than true cancer. Indeed, 
if removed early, the patient has a fair prospect of future 
exemption from the disease, but in neglected cases it as¬ 
sumes the malignancy and other dreadful characters of true 
cancer. The lips, especially the upper lip, are the most fre¬ 
quent seat of epithelioma, but it may attack even internal 
organs. Histologically, it appears to be composed of epi¬ 
thelial elements. 

Epithe'lium [from the Gr. ini, “on,” and Av?, “soft,” 
“delicate,” “tender,” because used to protect the delicate 
tissues beneath], in anatomy, is the layer of cells which 
lines the serous (or closed) and the mucous (or open) cavi¬ 
ties of the body, the mucous epithelium being continuous 
with the epidermis, which is a modification ot the epithe¬ 
lium. 

Epithelium is of two principal kinds: (1) “Pavement” 
epithelium, consisting of rounded or polygonal cells. _ This 
variety is especially found in the closed cavities, but is not 


IG03 


confined to them. (2) “Columnar” or cylinder epithelium, 
found chiefly upon mucous membrane. This kind has many 
varieties of form, one of the most important being “ciliated 
epithelium,” which is provided with fine hair-like processes 
(cilia), whose length varies from one one-thousandth to one 
twelve-thousandth of an inch. These cilia have a rapid 
automatic motion in one direction, moving from 150 to 250 
times in a minute. These motions are no doubt highly im¬ 
portant in physiology, but their mechanism is little under¬ 
stood. In some instances these motions obviously assist in 
discharging excretions, etc., but in others their use is quite 
unknown. The epithelial cells have a very important part 
in the secretion of many fluids. For example, mucus is 
formed by the bursting of epithelial cells and the dis¬ 
charge of their soft contents, mingled with the debris of 
the old cell-walls. This process of destruction is attended 
by continual renewal of the cells. 

Ep'ithet [from ini, and riOr]fu, to “put upon”], a word 
or clause which expresses some attribute of an object that 
is prominent in thought, but is not made the basis of a 
discrimination or classification; e. g. “Frail man is 
mortal;” “ Earthly pleasures, which are fleeting and unsub¬ 
stantial, are not the highest for man.” Used in opposition 
to Definitive (from de and finio, to “ mark out the fines 
or boundaries”), by which we understand a word or clause 
which expresses some attribute that is made the basis of a 
discrimination or classification; e. g. “ Good men [?. e. 
only good men] are a blessing to the community;” “ Those 
pleasures that are from the earth are not the highest for 
man.” 

Great care should be taken that epithets be not too fre¬ 
quently employed, and that there be something in the 
thought to which they actually and exactly correspond. 
The felicitous emploj-ment of epithets is one of the attri¬ 
butes of genius which gives to literature its highest charm. 
See Milton’s 

“ Drew iron tears down Pluto’s cheek.” 

Epit'ome [Gr. ZnLTOfirj, a “cutting short” (from eiriTe/xvw, 
to “cut,” to “gash,” also to “ abridge”)], in literature, an 
abridgment; a work in which the contents of a former 
work are reduced into a smaller space by curtailment and 
condensation. In the declining age of the Western Roman 
empire the practice of epitomizing the works of older writ¬ 
ers, especially in history, became very prevalent. In sev¬ 
eral instances a valuable original work has been lost which 
perhaps would have been preserved if an epitome had not 
been substituted for it. Among the best known works of 
this class are the epitome of Floras, “ Epitome Rerum Ro- 
manarum,” and that of Eutropius, “ Breviarum Historian 
Romance,” both abridgments of the history of Rome. 

Epitro'choid [from the Gr. ini, “on,” and rp6\ os, a 
“ wheel ”] is a curve traced by a point in the plane of a 
circle which rolls on the convex side of a fixed circle. The 
curve thus generated is one of the family of roulettes, and 
becomes an epicycloid ivhen the generating point is in the 
circumference of the rolling circle. When the two circles 
are equal the epitrochoid becomes similar to the pedal of the 
fixed circle with respect to a certain fixed point in its plane. 
But the pedal being always the inverse of the reciprocal of 
the primitive curve, the epitrochoid in this case must be 
the inverse of a conic with respect to one of its foci, which 
latter is a curve of the fourth order, belonging to the Carte¬ 
sian ovals, and called the limaqon. Epitrochoids are gen¬ 
erally transcendental curves; it is only when the circum¬ 
ference of the fixed and rolling circles are commensurable 
that the epitrochoid returns into itself and becomes an alge¬ 
braical curve. 

Epizo'a [a Gr. term, from ini, “ on,” and &ov, an “ani¬ 
mal”], a name given to animals living upon the skin and 
among the hairs of other animals, as fleas, lice, ticks, mites, 
etc. Some of these, like the itch-mites, are Acarina—spiders 
of low grade of development—but most are insects of spider¬ 
like character, low forms of Diptera and Hemiptcra. Most 
mammals, many birds, and a great many insects are infested 
by insect parasites. The Cyamus ceti, or whale-louse, living 
upon whales and fishes, is a crustacean. Many Cirripedia 
live in a similar way upon whales and sharks. Most Epi- 
zoa live as true parasites upon the blood and secretions of 
the animal which they infest. Others, especially the Cirri¬ 
pedia, appear to feed upon other food, making the skin of 
a larger animal merely their place of abode. The very 
great majority of Epizoa are articulate animals. 

Epizoot'ic [from the Gr. Ini, “upon,” and ££>ov, an 
“ animal ”], a disease which attacks the lower animals, or any 
one species of them, as epidemics attack men. The term is 
objectionable, because, with some limitations, these diseases 
chiefly attack but one species, instead of all animals; and 
moreover, as man is an animal, all epidemics are epizootics. 
The so-called epizootic diseases follow the general laws of 
epidemics, and they would appear to attack especially the 












1604 E PLURIBUS UNUM—EQUATION. 


domesticated animals. Some diseases attack both man and 
the lower animals. Thus, smallpox affects the horse, cow, 
and sheep, assuming in each a modified form. Among the 
more important epizootic diseases are the rinderpest, the 
contagious pleuro-pneumonia, and the “foot-and-mouth 
disease ” (all attacking neat cattle); the remarkable influ¬ 
enza which attacked horses and mules, arising in Canada 
Sept. 30, 1872, and rapidly moving southward and west¬ 
ward over the whole of North America; the scab, foot-rot, 
and other diseases of sheep. The “ reds,” the muscardine, 
qiebrine, and other diseases of the silkworm have been the 
cause of serious calamities to operatives, and at times have 
almost threatened the existence of the silk manufacture. 

The epizootic influenza of 1872-73, above alluded to, de¬ 
stroyed, according to Di\ A. B. Judsou of New York, 1500 
horses and mules in New York, or 4 per cent, of the total 
number in the city. The disease reached Chicago Oct. 29, 
St. Louis Dec. 1, Salt Lake Jan. 11, 1873, and San Fran¬ 
cisco April 15. It is thought that the disease spread chiefly 
by contagion, and not by atmospheric influence. 

E Plu'ribus U'num [Lat.], “ One composed of many,” 
the motto of the U. S., consisting of many States confede¬ 
rated.— Webster. [Lat.], “ One of many,” the motto of the 
U. S.; the allusion being to the formation of one federal 
government out of several independent States.—- Worcester. 

After the Declaration of their independence by the 
States was announced on the 4th of July, 1776, and before 
the adjournment of that day’s session, it was resolved, 
“That Dr. Franklin, Mr. J. Adams, and Mr. Jefferson be 
a committee to prepare a device for a seal for the United 
States of America.” The result of their joint work was 
the present seal of the U. S., which has not been changed 
since its first adoption. The six sections, or quarteriugs, 
upon the escutcheon or shield were intended to denote the 
countries (England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany, 
and Holland) from which the States so united had been, 
respectively, chiefly peopled. The motto adopted on this 
seal, and which has ever since been retained, was intended 
to denote the character of the federal government in its 
formation, as stated by the great American lexicographers, 
Webster and Worcester, in their above definitions. From 
the six quarteriugs on the shield, with the necessary seven 
attending spaces outside of the sections or quarterings, arose 
the original thirteen stripes, as they are called, which were 
transferred to the flag of the Union in 1777. The stars 
were intended to represent the number of the States, while 
the origin of the stripes was the quarterings or sections of 
the shield, as stated. Alexander II. Stephens. 

Eppard’s Point, a twp. of Livingston co., Ill. P. 861. 

Ep'ping, a town of England, in Essex, is at the N. end 
of Epping Forest, 16 miles N. N. E. of London. It is noted 
for its cream, butter, and sausages. Epping Royal Forest, 
formerly Waltham Forest, covers 60,000 acres, but was once 
much more extensive. 12,000 acres are in woods and 
wastes, and the other part is enclosed. Pop. 5566. 

Epping, a post-township of Rockingham co., N. II., on 
the Portsmouth R. R., 39 miles S. E. of Concord. It has four 
churches, and manufactures of shoes, brick, lumber, wool¬ 
len goods, etc. Pop. 1270. 

Epps, a township of Butler co., Mo. Pop. 263. 

Ep'som, a market-town of England, county of Surrey, 
14 miles by railway S. S. W. of London. It has a mineral 
spring containing sulphate of magnesia, which derives from 
this place the name of Epsom salt. Here is a royal medical 
college. Epsom is famous for its horse-races, which are 
held yearly on the Downs, 1J miles S. of the town. The 
races last four days, one of which is called “ Derby Day,” 
and are more numerously attended than any other races in 
the kingdom. Pop. 4882. 

Epsom, a post-township of Merrimack co., N. II. It 
has manufactures of lumber, etc. Pop. 993. 

Ep'som Salt [Lat. magnesite sulplms (i. e. “sulphate 
of magnesia ”); Ger. Schwefelsaure Magnesia], the magne¬ 
sium* sulphate (SO 4 MS 7 OH 2 ), a salt, when pure, usually 
found in colorless acicular crystals derived from the right 
rhombic prism, and containing 51.22 per cent, of water of 
crystallization. It is somewhat efflorescent, for at 32° Fah¬ 
renheit water will dissolve over one-fourth its weight of the 
anhydrous salt, and as the temperature is raised the solu¬ 
bility increases. The salt was formerly manufactured from 
the waters of -the mineral spring of Epsom, England. It 
also exists largely in sea-water, from which it was formerly 
prepared in large quantities. In Italy it is now prepared 
from a schistose rock ; in England, from dolomite ; in Penn¬ 
sylvania and Maryland, from magnesite. This salt is used 
in medicine as a cooling and generally safe cathartic. It is 
nauseous to the taste, but may be easily taken in “ soda- 
water ” with lemon syrup. In the household it is an excel¬ 
lent addition to starch, decidedly increasing its stiffening 


powers. Mixed with ordinary whitewash, it gives a fine 
pearly whiteness to walls. 

Equal'ity, a post-village of Gallatin co., Ill. Pop. 356. 

Equality, a township of Miller co., Mo. Pop. 1068. 

Equa'tion [Lat. sequa'tio, sequa're, to “make equal ”], 
in algebra and the calculus, an expression denoting that two 
quantities symbolically expressed are equal. The sign = 
placed between the two quantities equated denotes this rela¬ 
tion. Either quantity may be expressed in a single term, or 
in more terms than one, connected by the sign + or —. The 
term or terms on the left of the sign of equality constitutes 
what is called the first member of the equation ; the term 
or terms on the right, the second member. In analysis 
there occur equations of two classes, distinguished as alge¬ 
braic and transcendental. Algebraic equations are those 
in which the quantities employed are subjected to no opera¬ 
tions but the operations of common algebra, including addi¬ 
tion, subtraction, multiplication, division, and involution 
to powers or evolution of roots, expressed by constant in¬ 
dices. Transcendental equations are those whereinto rela¬ 
tions arc introduced to which the ordinary operations of 
algebra are inadequate, as when the exponents of powers 
are variable, or when the trigonometrical functions of va¬ 
riable angles enter as terms or factors. Such relations are 
called transcendental (see Transcendentals), and give 
name to the equations in which they occur. The object 
of algebraic equations is usually to ascertain the value 
of some unknown quantity through its relations to other 
quantities which are known. If there is but one unknown 
quantity, a single equation will suffice for the solution. If 
there are two or more, there must be as many equations ex¬ 
pressing relations independent of each other as there are 
unknown quantities. If the number of independent equa¬ 
tions is smaller than the number of unknown quantities, 
the problem to which they belong is indeterminate. It 
can then be made determinate by forming a sufficient num¬ 
ber of independent equations with arbitrary conditions. 
If the number of independent equations is greater than the 
number of unknown quantities, the problem to which they 
are supposed to belong is impossible. In this case some 
of the conditions which these equations express are incom¬ 
patible with each other; but if, after eliminating all the 
unknown quantities from them, we treat the constants 
which remain as if they were unknowns—that is, make 
them arbitrary constants—the resolution of the group with 
respect to these will show what relations they must have 
to each other, or the conditions which must exist, in order 
to render the original set of equations determinate. They 
arc therefore called equations of condition; which term is 
generally applicable to all equations which express neces¬ 
sary relations between quantities, without any regard to 
their absolute value. 

The equality between the members of an equation is not 
affected by subjecting both to the same operation. Thus, 
if both members be multiplied or divided by the same 
quantity, increased or diminished by the same quantity, 
raised to the same power, depressed to the same root, made 
the values of similar trigonometrical functions of the same 
angle, or taken as the exponents or logarithms of the same 
assumed constant or variable, under all these transforma¬ 
tions the relation of equality between them is preserved. 
If any term be transposed from one member to the other 
of an equation, the equality is still maintained, provided 
the sign of the term transposed be changed from + to —, 
or from — to +, at the same time. If all the terms of one 
member be thus transposed to the other, this member is 
reduced to 0, but the equality is still preserved. In all 
general discussions of the theory of equations it is com¬ 
mon to consider the equation under this form; i. e. with 
the significant terms on one side and zero on the other. 

An identical equation is one in which precisely the same 
terms are found on one side as on the other, or in which 
this exact similarity is producible by performing operations 
on one side or the other, which change the form without 
altering the value. Thus, 

cy 2 + c.x 2 -f 2 axy + a?/ 2 + 2 cxy + ax 2 

“ t --- ={x + yr 

is an identical equation, because, by properly arranging the 
terms of the first member, and actually performing the 
division by a + c, and by developing the second member at 
the same time, we have x 1 + 2 xy + y 1 = x 1 + 2 xy + y 2 . An 
identical equation is obviously no help towards the solution 
of a problem. 

The degree of an algebraic equation is denoted by the 
highest power of the unknown quantity contained in it, if 
it has but one, and by the greatest sum that can be found 
by adding together the exponents of all the unknowns 
which are factors in any single term, if there are several. 
An equation of the first degree is called a simple equation. 
If it has but one unknown, it is resolved by transposing 













EQUATION OF TIME—EQUATION, PERSONAL. 


1605 


all the terms into which the unknown enters to the first 
member, and all those into which it does not enter to the 
second; then resolving the first member into two factors, 
of which one shall be the unknown ; and, finally, dividing 
both members by the second factor of the first member— 
that is, by the coefficient of the unknown quantity. If a 
simple equation contains more than one unknown, then 
singly it is indeterminate. To be determinate there must 
be just as many equations (not transformable into each 
other) as there are unknowns. In this case, if we find from 
one of the equations the value of one of the unknown quan¬ 
tities in terms of the others (i. e. by treating all the other 
unknowns as knowns for the time being), and substitute 
the value so found in all the remaining equations, we shall 
have eliminated, or got rid of, one of the unknowns, and 
have made the number of equations one less at the same 
time. Following up this mode of proceeding, we shall at 
length have but one equation and one unknown quantity; 
of which last therefore the value is obtainable in known 
terms. The values of the rest are then easily deducible by 
successive substitutions. 

Equations of the second degree can always be reduced to 
the form x 2 + 2px = q. For if originally there are many 
terms containing x 2 and x, and also many known quan¬ 
tities, all the unknowns having been brought to the first 
member and the knowns to the second, the term or group 
of terms containing x 2 may be resolved into two factors, 
of which one shall be x 2 itself, and the whole equation may 
then be divided by the other factor. Then all the knowns 
forming the coefficient of x may be represented by 2p, and 
the entire second member may be represented by q. In 
this case it may happen that the coefficient of x is negative. 
If so, the implicit value of p is said to be negative, while 
its explicit sign is positive. This matter must be attended 
to when the values which p replaces are restored. The 
quadratic having the form above, its solution, which pre¬ 
sents two values, either of them capable of satisfying the 
equation, is as follows : 

x = —p + V q + p 2 , 


x = — p — V q + p 2 . 

Any equation, whatever its degree, which contains but 
two powers of the unknown, is reducible precisely like a 
quadratic, provided that the indexes of the two powers are 
in the relation of 2 to 1. For, supposing the two powers 
to be m and n, we can always reduce the equation to the 
form x m + 2px n = q, or x 2n + 2px n — q. Hence, from what 

_a, 

has just been said it appears that x=(—p±*J q+p 2 )n 

For the manner of reducing cubic, biquadratic, and higher 
equations resort must be had to systematic treatises. The 
following are a few of the propositions of general interest 
in regard to the theory of equations which are admissible 
in an article having the necessarily limited scope ot the 
present. 

Every equation of whatever degree (say the m th ) is capa¬ 
ble of being reduced to the form x m + Ax m ~ l + Bx m ~ 2 + 

Cx m ~ 3 .+ Px + $ = 0 ; in which the coefficients A, B, C, 

etc. are positive or negative, whole or fractional, real or 
imaginary, as it may happen. If an equation has as many 
real°roots as its degree indicates, the coefficient A will be 
the sum of all these roots with signs reversed. If the sev¬ 
eral roots are a, b, c, etc., the equation itself is the product 
of the binomial factors x — a,x—b,x — c , and so on; so 
that the constant (or known) term Q is the product of all 
the roots a, b, c, etc., with signs reversed. If there are not 
so many different real quantities which will satisfy the 
equation as the number of units in the exponent of the 
degree, then there will be imaginary roots (quantities con¬ 
taining an even root of a negative quantity), and these, 
when present, are always present in pairs, each member 
of a pair containing the same real and imaginary terms, 
the imaginary term with contrary signs. Such pairs of 
roots are called conjugate roots. If one of the real roots 
(as «) of an equation is known, the equation is divisible by 
the binomial x — a, and may thus be depressed in degiee 
to the next lower order. If the coefficients of all the ditter- 
ent powers of the unknown quantity from m downward are 
whole numbers, all the commensurable roots are whole num¬ 
bers. Every equation in which some of the coefficients are 
fractional can be transformed into another of the same form 
as given above, in which all the coefficients shall be whole 
numbers; but in this case x will have to give place to some 
other unknown, as y in the expression y — Lr. After^the 
transformation we shall have y vl + A y +By + 
C'y m ~' i . P'x + Q'~ 0. , . , 

Every equation can be transformed into another in which 

the second term shall be wanting by assuming x — y — -> 

and substituting this value of x for x itself in the giien 
equation. This transformation is always necessary pre¬ 
liminarily to the reduction of cubics, and generally to that 


of biquadratics. Every equation in which the signs are 
all positive must have all its real roots negative. Every 
complete equation (t. e. one in which all the powers of x are 
present) which has its signs alternately positive and nega¬ 
tive must have all its real roots positive; and this will be 
true of incomplete equations if we replace the missing terms 
by zeros. When the last (the known) term of an equation 
is positive, the number of its real positive roots is even ; 
when it is negative, the number of such roots is uneven. 
Every equation of an even degree, in which the coefficients 
are real and the last term negative, has at least two real 
roots—one positive, and the other negative. Every equa¬ 
tion of an odd degree, in which the coefficients are real, has 
at least one root of a sign contrary to that of the last term. 
When the roots of an equation are all real, the number of 
positive roots is equal to the number of variations of sign 
(changes from + to —, or the contrary in proceeding from 
left to right), and the number of negative roots is equal to 
the number of permanences of sign. 

The number of real roots of any numerical equation in 
which the roots are all unequal may be found by means of 
its first derivative (see Derivative), as follows: Operate 
on the equation and its derivative as for finding greatest 
common measure, using only positive multipliers or divi¬ 
sors iii preparing the several steps, and change the signs 
of the successive remainders thus found. Set down then 
in a row the first terms (only) of the given equation, the 
derivative, and the several remainders prepared as above 
(including the last remainder, which will have but one 
term), with their signs. Suppose the unknown to be pos¬ 
itive, and write under each term of this row the sign 
of that term resulting from this supposition. Then sup¬ 
pose the unknown to be negative, and write under the 
sign last written the sign resulting from this second sup¬ 
position. Count the number of variations in the first of 
these rows of resultant signs, and also the number of vari¬ 
ations in the second of the rows. The difference between 
these numbers is the number of real roots in the original 
equation. 

If, as above supposed, the original equation has no equal 
roots, no common measure will be found by the first opera¬ 
tion above, and the last remainder will be a constant. But 
if it has equal roots, a common measure will be found. In 
this case divide the original equation by this common meas¬ 
ure, and the quotient will be a new equation having the 
same roots as the given one, the equal roots of that equa¬ 
tion entering it but once. Proceed with it as above. If 
the given equation contain but one set of equal roots, the 
greatest common measure found in the operation above de¬ 
scribed will be a binomial, or a complete power of a bino¬ 
mial; and the common value of the equal roots will bo 
found by extracting the numerical root of the known term 
which corresponds in degree to this power. If the given 
equation contained more than one set of equal roots, the 
greatest common measure found as above will be the pro¬ 
duct of the same number of binomials or binomial powers; 
and by putting this equal to zero, and pursuing with it the 
same treatment as with the original equation, the number 
of real roots in it will be ultimately found. 

If, instead of taking the first terms of the quantities 
above specified—viz. the equation, the derivative, and the 
remainders (with signs reversed) — those expressions be 
written out in full, and their resultant signs ascertained 
and written down for any assumed value of the unknown, 
as p, and for other values as p, p%. . . . p n , etc., increasing 
or diminishing by minute differences; and if at length a 
value, as p n , be found which gives one variation more or 
one fewer than the value p n -\, next greater, or next less; 
then one of the real roots of the equation lies between p n -\ 
and p n - It thus appears that all the real roots of any nu¬ 
merical equation of whatever degree may be found by ap¬ 
proximation. F. A. P. Barnard. 

Equa'tion of Time is the difference in mean solar 
time between the sun’s apparent or true right ascension and 
its mean right ascension; or, in other words, the difference 
between sun time and clock time. This difference arises— 
(1st) from the sun’s unequal motion in longitude because 
of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit; (2d) from the obliq¬ 
uity of the ecliptic; and (3d) to some small extent from the 
perturbations of the moon and planets. Sun time and clock 
time agree about Dec. 25th, April 16th, June 16th, and 
Sept. 1st. The equation of time is greatest abo.ut Nov. 1st, 
when the clock is sixteen minutes and sixteen seconds faster 
than the sun. 

Equa'tion, Pcr'sonal. It is found by experience 
that different persons, in recording the results of astronom¬ 
ical observations, will make various errors, some anticipa¬ 
ting the event, but others failing to record it at the proper 
time. When it is found possible, by examining a long 
series of records made of the same events by two observers, 

















1606 


EQUATOR—EQUISETACEiE. 


to discover the average difference between their records of 
events, a very important correction of time-intervals may 
sometimes be introduced into a computation based upon 
such records. Such a correction is called the relative per¬ 
sonal equation of the two astronomers. When it is found 
that an observer habitually makes, or is likely to make, a 
certain error in his time-records, such error (or absolute 
personal equation) can be readily allowed for. 

Equa'tor [Lat. sequa'tor, from sequo, sequa'tum, to “ inako 
equal Sp. ecuador], literally, “that which makes equal," 
or which divides equally the surface of the earth, in geo¬ 
graphy, is a great circle of the terrestrial sphere which is 
equidistant from the two poles, and divides the earth into 
northern and southern hemispheres. Latitudes are counted 
from the equator along the meridian, and longitudes are 
measured on the equator or on some circle parallel with it. 

Equator, in astronomy, is the great circle of the celestial 
sphere, of which the plane is perpendicular to the axis of 
the earth’s diurnal motion. It is called the equator because 
when the sun is in its plane the days and nights are exactly 
equal all over the world. The equator divides the sphere 
into northern and southern hemispheres, and is often styled 
the equinoctial . The apparent diurnal motions of all the 
celestial bodies are performed in circles which are parallel 
to it. The right ascensions are measured on it. 

Equatorial Current. See Currents, Marine. 

Equato'rial Tel'escope, a telescope mounted upon 
a fixed axis parallel to the axis of the earth, and turning 
also upon a second movable axis parallel to the equator, for 
the continuous observation of heavenly bodies, and for 
noting their right ascension and declination. The motion 
of the telescope round its fixed or “polar” axis is neces¬ 
sarily parallel to the equator, and this gives the instrument 
its name. In order to maintain the object observed steadily 
in the field of view, the telesbope is made to revolve round 
the polar axis by an attached clockwork, which admits of 
being regulated so as to vary the velocity of rotation, ac¬ 
cording as the object under examination is the sun, the 
moon, a planet, or a fixed star. 

Eques'triail [Lat. eques'trin, “belonging to a horse or 
horseman " (from e'quus, a “ horse ")], pertaining to horses; 
riding on horseback ; skilled in horsemanship ; represent¬ 
ing a person on horseback, as a statue. 

Eques'trian Or'der [Lat. or'do eques'tris or equites, 
the plu. of e'ques, a “horseman "], also called Knights, 
the name of an important division of the citizens of ancient 
Rome. They were originally a military organization, and 
formed the cavalry of the Roman army. According to 
Livy, Romulus constituted three centuries (300) of equites, 
to whom he gave the several names of Ramnenses, Titi- 
enses, and Luceres. Down to the year 123 B. C. the equites 
formed simply a division of the army, and their centuries 
were composed of patricians and plebeians, but C. Gracchus 
in that year procured the passage of the Lex Sempronia, 
which instituted a new class or political order called ordo 
equestris, from whom all th ejudices (judges) must be selected. 
The reform of Sulla deprived them of the sole right of being 
chosen as judices, who thenceforth were selected from the 
senators, equites, and tribnni serarii. The equites also en¬ 
joyed the privilege of officiating as publicani or farmers of 
the public revenue. According to Cicero, who belonged to 
this order, these publicani “comprised the flower of the 
Roman chivalry, the ornament of Rome, the firm support 
(firmamentum) of the republic." The badges of the equites 
were a gold ring and a robe with a narrow purple border. 

Eques'trian Stat'ue, a complete figure of a person 
on horseback, executed generally in bronze or stone. In 
ancient Greece, where plastic art attained its highest per¬ 
fection, statues of men and of horses were often of the first 
excellence ; but horses were more commonly represented as 
attached to the chariot. In Rome, equestrian statues of 
the emperors were common. The finest extant Roman work 
of the kind is a bronze equestrian statue of M. Aurelius An¬ 
toninus. Among the famous modern equestrian works are 
the noble colossal statue of Peter the Great at St. Peters¬ 
burg, and that of Frederick the Great at Berlin by Rauch. 
Recent works of the kind are very numerous. 

Equian'gular, having equal angles. A figure is equi¬ 
angular when all its angles are equal, as a square. Two or 
more figures of the same kind (usually rectilinear) are said 
to be equiangular when the angles of the one taken consecu¬ 
tively are respectively equal to the angles of the other. 

Equian'gular Spi'ral, a term applied to the logarith¬ 
mic spiral, from its having the property ot cutting all its 
polar radii vectores at the same angle. 

Eq'uidae [from the Lat. equus, a “horse"], the family 
which is formed by the horse, ass, etc., a section (Solidun- 
gula) of the order Ungulata. The most characteristic fea¬ 
ture of the Equidm is the solid, ono-toed foot formed by the 


union of the central phalanges and the atrophy of the lat¬ 
eral ones. Single-toed horses began in the pliocene. In 
the miocene epoch our horses were represented by Ilippa- 
rion, etc., which had two small lateral toes or hoofs, of which 
some traces may be often found in living horses. In the 
lower miocene Anchitherium represents the Equidm, and con¬ 
nects the horse with Palseotherium, Pliolophus, etc. of the 
eocene and with the tapirs of the present day. The gene¬ 
alogy of the Equidm is better known and more instructive 
than that of any other group of mammals. Nearly twenty 
species of equine quadrupeds have been described from the 
tertiary and quaternary deposits of America, but it is sup¬ 
posed that no horse existed with the New World at the time 
of the advent of the Europeans. (See Horse and Hippa- 
rion.) 

Equilat'eral [from the Lat se'quus, “ equal,” and la'tus 
(gen. lat'eris), a “side"], having equal sides. In geom¬ 
etry a rectilinear figure is said to be equilateral when all 
its sides are equal. If, moreover, its angles are all equal, 
it is called regular. Every equilateral figure inscribed in a 
circle is equiangular, and therefore regular. The converse 
theorem, however, is only true for polygons with an odd 
number of sides. An equilateral hyperbola is that of which 
the axes are equal. 

Equilibrium [Lat. sequilibrium, from se'quus, “equal,” 
and li'bra, a “ balance ;" Fr. equilibre\, the state of rest 
produced by two or more mutually counteracting forces; 
equipoise. 

Equilibrium, in the fine arts, the just place or balance 
of a figure or other object, so that it may appear to stand 
firmly. Also the due equipoise of objects, lights, shadows, 
etc. against each other. 

Equilibrium, in politics. See Balance of Power. 

Equinoctial. See Equinox. 

Equinoc'tial Points, the two opposite points of the 
celestial sphere in which the ecliptic and equator intersect 
each other, the one being the first point of Aries, and the 
other the first point of Libra. These points do not retain 
a fixed position in relation to the stars, but retrograde from 
E. to W. with a slow motion, requiring 25,000 years to ac¬ 
complish a complete revolution. This motion is called the 
“precession of the equinoxes." 

E'quinox [from the Lat. se'quus, “equal," and nox, 
“night," i.e. the time when the night equals the day in 
length], in astronomy, the time when the sun passes through 
the equator in one of the equinoctial points. When the sun 
is in the equator the days and nights are equal all over the 
world, hence the derivation of the term. This happens 
twice every year—viz., about the 21st of March and the 
22d of September; the former is called the vernal, and the 
latter the autumnal equinox. The equinoxes do not divide 
the year into portions of equal length, but the interval 
from the vernal to the autumnal equinox is greater than 
that from the autumnal to the vernal; in other words, the 
sun continues longer on the northern than on the southern 
side of the equator, because it is more distant from the 
earth in our summer than in winter, and its angular motion 
in its orbit is consequently slower between March and Sep¬ 
tember than in the other part of the year. In 1800 the 
difference amounted to seven days sixteen hours and fifty- 
one minutes. 

Eq'uipage [from the Fr. equiper, to “equip," to “fit 
out," to “ furnish ”] in ordinary language signifies the car¬ 
riage, horses, and liveries which indicate the fortune or 
rank of a nobleman or gentleman; a carriage of state; a 
retinue; ornamental furniture. In marine affairs it signi¬ 
fies the crew of a ship, together with all a ship’s furniture, 
masts, sails, ammunition, etc. In military language the 
term “camp and garrison equipage” is applied to the tents 
and other furniture of an army. 

Equip'ment, the act of equipping or fitting for an 
expedition ; furniture, accoutrements, or warlike apparatus. 
The equipment of a private soldier comprises his clothes, 
arms, and other necessary articles. In civil engineering 
the term is applied to tho rolling stock of a railroad— t. e. 
the locomotives and cars. 

Equipment and Recruiting, Bureau of, in tho 

U. S. navy department, has charge of supplying cables, rig¬ 
ging, anchors, sails, blocks, and fuel for ships in commis¬ 
sion. It controls the government ropewalks and other 
manufactories of that class of goods which it supplies. It 
also has control of naval enlistments of seamen, landsmen, 
and boys, and of tho recruiting rendezvous and the receiv¬ 
ing ships. 

Equiseta'cere [from Equise'tum , one of the genera], 
a natural order of cryptogamous plants, growing in ditches, 
wet ground, and rivers in many parts of the world. They 
have no decided affinity with any known order, and have 
no medicinal qualities. They have hollow and jointed 






















EQUISETUM—EQUITY. 1607 


stems. They are found fossil in coal, and were in ancient 
geologic periods very much larger and more numerous than 
at present. 

Equise'tum [from e'quits , a “horse,” and se'ta, a 
“bristle ], a genus of plants of the order Equisetacese, 
comprises numerous species called horsetail. The fructi¬ 
fication is in the form of a cone or spike. To the base of 
each spore are attached four thread-like and club-shaped 
elastic filaments, which roll up closely around the spore 
when moist, and uncoil when dry. The Equisetum hyemale 
(scouring rush) is indigenous in the U. S. and also in 
Europe. The abundant silex in its cuticle renders it use¬ 
ful for polishing furniture and for scouring utensils. The 
U. S. have also several other species. True Equiseta date 
back to the trias, when they were numerous, and attained 
the height of twenty feet. In the carboniferous rocks the 
Equiseta are represented by Catamites, Calamodendron, etc. 

Eq'uitant [from eq'uito, to “ride”], a botanical term 
signifying “riding astride,” is applied to leaves which 
overlap each other without any involution, as those of the 
iris. 

Equites. See Equestrian Order. 

Eq'uity [Lat. sequitas, “equality,” “justice,” from sequ- 
us, “just,” “even,” “equal”]. This word is used to in¬ 
dicate a portion of the mass of English jurisprudence, de¬ 
rived from the decisions of courts and the rules of approved 
text-writers. It originated in the same general way as that 
branch of jurisprudence technically called “common law.” 
It is, in a sense, common law itself when considered in con¬ 
trast with statutes. The relation of equity to common law 
can be best understood by a brief historical survey. After 
the Norman conquest of England the king was deemed to 
be the fountain of justice. Ultimately, certain great courts 
of general jurisdiction came into active operation, known as 
“ king’s courts.” These were the common pleas, the king’s 
bench, and the exchequer. At first, their functions were 
quite distinct, but in course of time, by fictions of law, juris¬ 
diction was assumed, so that in some respects it became con¬ 
current in these tribunals. The regular mode of bringing 
a question before one of these courts for adjudication was 
by an action, in which there was a plaintiff and a defend¬ 
ant. A formal statement of the plaintiff’s claim and of the 
defendant’s defence was made in written allegations termed 
pleadings, and the question thus raised was called the is¬ 
sue. A judge and jury disposed of issues of fact. The 
action must be commenced by a so-called writ, purporting 
to emanate from the king and addressed to the sheriff, who 
caused the defendant to be brought before the court. There 
was an office in chancery, from which the writs issued. They 
were framed in a technical manner. The clerks would only 
grant a writ when they could find a precise precedent in 
their office. Actions were real, personal, or mixed. A real 
action was adapted to the recovery of land; personal actions 
were used to recover money; and the two were combined 
in a mixed action. The personal actions were framed on the 
theory either of contract or wrong (technically called tort). 
Originally, they were debt, covenant, and detinue in cases 
of contract; and in case of tort, trespass, trover, and re¬ 
plevin. The object of the action of debt was to recover a 
specific sum of money due to the plaintiff. The action of 
covenant was brought upon an instrument under seal. “ De¬ 
tinue” was resorted to in order to recover a specific chattel 
which the defendant had received as a bailee. (See Bail¬ 
ment.) The action of trespass was instituted for an imme¬ 
diate and direct injury to person or property; trover was 
the appropriate means to recover the value of personal 
property wrongfully converted by the defendant; while re¬ 
plevin was used to recover the property itself. 

It was found at an early day that the personal actions 
were quite insufficient to give full relief. A statute was 
enacted in 13 Edw. I. (ch. 24) which led to the introduc¬ 
tion of a new form of action, termed “ trespass on the case.” 
This was a comprehensive name for all actions for wrongs 
where the injury was indirect and consequential, as in the 
case of negligence. It also included many cases now recog¬ 
nized as strictly actions upon contract, and called “assump¬ 
sit.” If this statute had been wisely interpreted, no court 
of equity would have been necessary, nor would any prob¬ 
ably have arisen. But the judges of the so-called common- 
law courts adopted very strict and narrow rules of construc¬ 
tion, and confined the remedy under the statute to the same 
kind of relief as had been already recognized. All the re¬ 
lief granted in these courts may be summed up in a single 
phrase : one can recover money only or specific real or per¬ 
sonal property. As society advanced in wealth and civil¬ 
ization, such a system of remedial justice was lamentably 
imperfect. Out of its imperfection grew the jurisdiction of 
courts of equity. The residuum ot justice not granted to 
the common-law courts remained in the king. It became 
a practice to address petitions to him in particular cases 


for relief which those courts could not grant. These were 
referred to the privy council, a powerful body of men se¬ 
lected by the monarch for their wealth or capacity. In pro¬ 
cess of time the disposal of these petitions devolved upon one 
of their number, the lord chancellor, who was a great officer, 
and who had usually the legal training which would fit 
him to dispose of the important questions submitted to him. 
Such matters were not presented by writ, as in the common- 
law courts, but by an application in the nature of a peti¬ 
tion ; and this commonly closed with the stereotyped phrase 
that the petitioner, having no sufficient remedy at common 
law, asked for relief “for the love of God and in the way 
of charity.” At an early day the chancellor devised a writ 
called a writ of subpoena, whereby a party to a suit could be 
compelled to disclose upon his oath facts bearing upon the 
controversy between him aDd the opposite party. This is 
called “discovery.” No such power inhered in common- 
law courts. In this way the court of chancery became a 
regular tribunal for the administration of justice. It fol¬ 
lowed precedent, and has worked out a scientific system of 
equity jurisprudence. It has now become so bound down 
by rules that new principles can only be inti-oduced by legis¬ 
lation. This point is treated in a masterly manner by Mr. 
Maine in his work on “Ancient Law.” It should be re¬ 
marked that other courts besides the court of chancery ac¬ 
quired equity jurisdiction. Thus, the court of exchequer 
had until modern times equity powers. There may thus be 
courts of equity which are not strictly courts of chancery. 

When English jurisprudence had assumed a precise and 
fixed character, there were thus two sets of tribunals, called 
respectively courts of common law and courts of equity. 
In some cases the jurisdiction of the two courts was con¬ 
current; in others the equity court had exclusive authority, 
as in the case of trusts. The courts differed in three prin¬ 
cipal respects: two of these were in matters of procedure, 
while the third distinction was radical and substantial. 
They differed as to the mode of proof and of trial, and in 
respect to the nature of the relief granted. The first two 
distinctions have been largely modified in this country in a 
considerable number of the States. In these law and equity 
are administered by a single court and under the same sys¬ 
tem of pleading, so that there is no distinction between an 
action at law and a suit in equity. Even in these States 
the difference in relief still continues. When the action is 
for the recovery of money only, or of specific real or per¬ 
sonal property, a writ issues to the sheriff to carry the 
judgment into effect. In other (or equity) actions, as when 
a defendant is required to execute or cancel a written in¬ 
strument, or to refrain from doing an act, the order of the 
court is directed to him; and if he wilfully disobeys it, ho 
may be punished for contempt of court. This consolida¬ 
tion of law and equity was first attempted in a “code of 
procedure” adopted in New York in 1848. This has been 
substantially enacted in a number of other States, and has 
had much effect upon legal opinion in England. Courts of 
equity have adopted certain maxims which have had a large 
influence on the development of the system. They are such 
as these: (1) Equity follows the law; (2) He who comes 
into equity must come with clean hands; (3) He who asks 
equity must do equity; (4) Where the equities are equal, 
the legal title must prevail; (5) Equality is equity; (6) 
Equity regards that as done which ought to be done. 

A brief exposition of a few of these maxims will show 
the principles which guide the action of the court. The 
maxim that “ He who comes into equity must come with 
clean hands,” does not refer to general moral delinquency. 
It only applies to the subject before the court. It then as¬ 
sumes a comprehensive meaning. Under it the court would 
not protect the copyright of an immoral book, or a trade¬ 
mark which was so used as to deceive the public. Tho 
maxim that “ He who asks equity must do equity,” means 
that the court will only grant relief to a plaintiff upon tho 
condition that he will render justice to the defendant. For 
example, a borrower could not succeed in setting aside an 
instrument on the ground of usury, except upon the con¬ 
dition of paying to the creditor the debt and lawful interest. 
The maxim that “ Where the equities are equal, the legal 
title must prevail,” means that the court will not, on tho 
application of a plaintiff, deprive a defendant, being a 
purchaser for a valuable consideration, of a title recognized 
in a court of common law, unless he has acted in bad faith 
or with notice of the existing rights of the plaintiff. An 
illustration will show its application. If A has taken an 
informal mortgage upon land, and accordingly one not 
valid in law, and yet a good claim in equity, and B, with¬ 
out notice of A’s rights, has taken, for a valuable consider¬ 
ation, a subsequent regular or formal mortgage or convey¬ 
ance, B will have superior legal rights, which will be recog¬ 
nized in a court of equity. If B had acted with notice 
of the informal mortgage, A’s equity would have been 
superior. The rule that “ Equality is equity ” is applied 











1608 


EQUITY OF REDEMPTION—ERASMUS. 


to persons who ought to bear a common burden equally, 
as in case of the duty of co-sureties to contribute equally 
to pay the debt for which they are bound, or in cases of 
general average in the law of shipping. It is the prin¬ 
ciple which underlies the distribution of assets among 
creditors in cases of bankruptcy, or in the administration 
ot the estates of intestates. The rule that “ Equity regards 
that ap done which ought to be done,” is one of great im¬ 
portance. It leads to a doctrine peculiar to this court, 
known as “ equitable conversion.” This phrase means that 
the owner of property, by the mere expression of his will 
according to legal rules, can change its legal character, and 
thus give to money the qualities of land, or to land those of 
money. Thus, if a testator orders his land to be sold and 
converted into money, the land from the moment of his 
death is deemed to be personal property. The same result 
would follow if he had directed money to be laid out in 
land. So, if an owner of land contracts to sell it, his in¬ 
terest before any conveyance is made is deemed to be 
money, while that of the purchaser is regarded as land. 
This doctrine is attended with important practical conse¬ 
quences, to which the limits of this article do not permit a 
reference. 

It is an important rule that the jurisdiction of this court 
attaches to the person of a litigant, without reference to 
the situation of the property in controversy. Thus, the 
court of chancery in England might order a defendant 
within its jurisdiction to execute a conveyance of land situ¬ 
ated in this country. It would proceed upon the theory 
that he was under a legal duty or obligation to do the act 
which as a matter of conscience he was bound to perform. 
The court was at one time termed a “ court of conscience,” 
and in the older law digests or abridgments, the equity law 
is placed under that head. It should be added that mere 
gratuitous executory promises are not enforceable in this 
court. Attention is only paid to the claims of purchasers 
for a valuable consideration. 

The topics of equity jurisprudence are usually consider¬ 
ed by text-writers in their relations to the jurisdiction of the 
courts of common law. In this aspect equity jurisdiction 
may be regarded either as auxiliary to the jurisdiction of 
those courts, or as concurrent or exclusive. This method 
is necessarily discarded in those States where law and 
equity are administered under a uniform system of plead¬ 
ing and practice, as in New York. The principal subjects 
may be enumerated under the following heads: Cases of 
accident or mistake (as where a clause is omitted from an 
instrument by accident); cases of fraud, either actual or 
constructive; specific performance of contracts ( e . g. re¬ 
quiring a party who has promised to execute a conveyance 
to fulfil his contract); cases of interpleader, whereby a 
mere stakeholder can be relieved from the results of a liti¬ 
gation ; cases of accounts, including a variety of instances; 
cases of trusts, whether created by express words or arising 
from implication of law. The court also protects all per¬ 
sons under actual or legal disability, such as infants, mar¬ 
ried women, and persons of unsound mind. Under these 
and other heads the court may cancel, modify, or reinstate 
instruments, and in general adjust the rights of the respec¬ 
tive parties to the controversy. In some of these cases ac¬ 
tions may be brought in a court of law. Thus, in case of 
fraud, if the injured party desired pecuniary damages, ho 
would bring his action at law; if he desired to set an in¬ 
strument aside, he would proceed in equity. A person who 
would have a good defence on the ground of fraud to an 
action at law, may in some instances become plaintiff in 
equity, and have the instrument cancelled, as in the case 
of a negotiable promissory note. The most extensive of 
all of these topics is the subject of trusts. Strict trusts are 
solely cognizable in this court. 

The remedies in this court are flexible and readily adapt¬ 
ed to the exigencies of the case. The most liberal rules 
prevail as to parties. Every person can be made a party 
whose presence is necessary to a complete determination of 
the matter in controversy. The court has power to prevent 
apprehended injuries to property by means of an injunc¬ 
tion, or to place the property itself in the possession of 
one of its own officers, termed a receiver, until the rights 
of the parties are finally established. 

The tendency of modern times would seem to be to blend 
the two systems of common law and equity jurisprudence 
into one, when the common law will prevail as modified by 
the rules of equity. T. W. Dwight. 

Eq'uity of Redemption, the right which the owner 
of mortgaged property has to redeem it after the condi¬ 
tion of the mortgage has been broken. A mortgage is 
in form a conveyance of property, with a provision that 
it shall be void on the performance by the maker, within 
a given time, of a certain condition, usually the payment 
of a sum of money; and by the common law, if the con¬ 
dition is not performed the conveyance becomes absolute, 


and the maker of the mortgage, called the mortgagor, 
loses all right to the property. But the English court of 
chancery, an equity tribunal, as early as the reign of 
Charles I. asserted its power to remedy this hardship by 
compelling the mortgagee to give up the land on payment 
of the debt with interest. This right in equity to redeem 
the property after the conveyance has become absolute at 
law has in modern times come to be regarded as an estate 
in the land, and can be conveyed or mortgaged or de¬ 
vised by its owner. It passes by descent to his heirs; it 
is liable for the debts of his creditors, and can be sold 
on execution against him, and is subject to dower and cur¬ 
tesy. This right to redeem lasts till cut off by foreclosure 
of the mortgage, which is usually effected by an action in 
a court of equity. The foreclosure may result in giving a 
complete title to the mortgagee (called a strict foreclosure), 
or it may result in a sale of the premises and the pay¬ 
ment of the debt out of the proceeds, the surplus being 
returned to the mortgagor or to those who claim under 
him. The right to redeem from the mortgage extends 
to all who acquire an interest in the land under the mort¬ 
gagor after the making of the mortgage; and all such 
persons must be made parties to a proceeding to foreclose 
the mortgage, otherwise their right to redeem will not be 
affected. Formerly, unless restrained by some clause in 
the mortgage, the mortgagee could at once take possession 
of the premises, although equity compelled him to account 
for the rents and profits upon redemption. Now, how¬ 
ever, the mortgagor has in general the right of possession 
till the condition is broken, and in some States till fore¬ 
closure, except when after default, where the security is in¬ 
adequate, a receiver is appointed to take charge of the prop¬ 
erty under the direction of the court. T. W. Dwight. 

Equivalents, Chemical. See Chemistry. 

Equiv'ocal Term, in logic, a term which has several 
significations applying respectively and equally to several 
objects. A word is generally said to be employed equivo¬ 
cally where the middle term is used in different senses in 
the two premisses, or where a proposition is liable to be 
understood in various senses. 

Eqims, the name of the genus which includes the horse, 
ass, zebra, etc., and type of the family Equid.e (which see). 

E' ra [Lat. se'ra; Fr. ere, probably from a root akin to 
the Basque era, “time”], a period of time; an account of 
time reckoned from some particular date or epoch ; a suc¬ 
cession of years computed from some fixed point of time. 

Era, Christian. See Christian Era. 

r 

Erard (Sebastien), an inventor and maker of musical 
instruments, born in Strasbourg April 5, 1752. He was (lie 
son of a poor cabinet-maker. Ilis first pianoforte, con¬ 
structed in 1780, may be said to have introduced that in¬ 
strument into France. He soon became the best pianoforte 
manufacturer in Europe. He, in connection with his brother, 
established a manufactory in London. To Erard the piano 
owes some of its noblest qualities as a musical instrument. 
The grand piano, with single and double action, was his in¬ 
vention. He built the great organ for the royal chapel of 
the Tuileries. The pianos of Erard still preserve their 
reputation, though great improvements have been made in 
the instrument since his day, in a very large degree by 
American manufacturers. Sebastien Erard was inventor 
of a double-action harp which had immense popularity in 
London, and took out patents for many other improve¬ 
ments, all of which were of value. Died near Paris in 1831. 
A nephew, who succeeded him in the business, wrote an 
account of his uncle’s work. 

Erased [from the Lat. e, “out” or “off,” and ra'do, 
ra'sum, to “scratch,” to “scrape”], in heraldry, signifies 
that an object is forcibly torn off, so that the edges are 
ragged or jagged. 

Era si stratus [Gr. ’Epao-i'o-rpaTo?], an eminent Greek 
physician and anatomist, is supposed to have been born 
in the island of Ceos. He flourished about 300-200 B. C., 
and practised for many years at Alexandria, where he 
taught anatomy and founded a school. He attended An- 
tiochus, the son of Seleucus Nicator, at the court of the 
latter, and discovered that his malady was caused by a se¬ 
cret amorous passion for Stratonice, his stepmother. His 
principal discoveries were those of the vise lactese and the 
functions of the brain and nerves. He wrote several works, 
which are not extant. 

Eras'mus (I)esjderius), [Fr. Didier or Desire Erasure ], 
a celebrated Dutch scholar and philosopher, born at Rotter¬ 
dam on the 28th of October, 1465. He was a natural son of 
Gerard Praet, and was called in his childhood Geriiardus 
Gerhardi, which he exchanged for the Latin and Greek 
equivalents, each signifying “the well-beloved.” He at¬ 
tended for about six j'ears the school of the Brethren of the 
Common Life at Deventer, where he was a pupil of Alex- 












ERASTTANS—ERCKMANN-CHATRTAN. 


1609 


ander Hegius. Having become an orphan about 1478, he 
was urged by his guardians to enter a monastery, in order 
that they might defraud him of his patrimony. Although 
he regarded a monastic life with aversion, he was at length 
induced in 1482 or 1483 to enter the Augustinian convent 
of Stein by the hope that he might there have opportunity 
for study. He pursued the study of the classics and dis¬ 
tinguished himself as a Latin scholar. He became in 1492 
a priest and secretary to the bishop of Cambray, with whom 
he remained nearly five years, and in 1496 went to Paris, 
probably for the purpose of completing his education. He 
was then nearly destitute of pecuniary resources, and gained 
a subsistence in Paris by teaching school. Between 1498 
and 1500 he passed about two years in England, where he 
formed friendships with Sir Thomas More and John Colet. 
He resided at both the universities, and during his third 
and longest visit (1511-14) was professor of Greek at Cam¬ 
bridge. Impelled by a strong passion for travel, he visited 
various countries of Europe, and never remained long in 
one place. In 1508 he commenced a tour in Italy, where 
he passed several years, perfected his knowledge of the 
Greek language, and associated with the most eminent 
scholars. He obtained from the pope a dispensation from 
his monastic vows, and received the degree of D. D. at 
Turin. He revisited England in 1511, and was appointed 
professor of Greek at Cambridge. In 1511 he published 
“ The Praise of Folly (“ Encomium Moriae ”), a witty satire, 
in which he exposed the follies and foibles of monks, priests, 
and men of various other professions. It was generally ad¬ 
mired, and obtained a large circulation. 

Having established his reputation as the most eminent 
scholar and the most witty writer of his time, he received 
invitations from several monarchs, and in 1514 or 1515 
visited the court of the archduke Charles (afterwards 
Charles V.), who gave him the title of royal councillor, 
with a pension of 400 florins, and liberty to travel or re¬ 
side wherever he might prefer. He produced in 1516 a 
good edition of the Greek New Testament—the first edition 
ever printed—with a corrected Latin version and notes. 
He was on friendly terms with Luther in the first stage of 
the Reformation, which he efficiently promoted by his witty 
satires against the monks and priests, and by his censure 
of the corruptions of the Church of Home. But he disliked 
dogmatism, was too liberal and moderate to please the zeal¬ 
ous supporters of either side in a religious controversy, and 
he dissented from some of the doctrines of Luther, who de¬ 
nounced him in severe terms as a coward and time-server. 

Erasmus became a resident of Btile about the year 1515, 
and published there in 1527 his celebrated “ Colloquies” 
(“ Colloquia ”), which some consider his capital work. It 
is ostensibly intended for the instruction of youth in Latin 
and morals, but abounds in satire and invective directed 
against the monks and the abuses of the Roman Church. 
It is stated that 24,000 copies of it were sold in one year. 
He was involved in a dispute with Luther on the doctrine 
of free will in 1524, and wrote on that subject “ De Libero 
Arbitrio.” He was condemned as a heretic by the Sorbonne 
of Paris, but he persisted in maintaining the attitude of a 
neutral or mediator, and never formally revolted against 
the pope. In 1529 he removed to Freyburg, where he 
passed several years. He died at Bale on the 12 th of July, 
1536. Among his works is “ Adagia,” a collection of prov¬ 
erbs, which displays immense learning. He greatly ex¬ 
celled as an editor of the Greek and Latin classics, for which 
he was qualified by superior critical sagacity as well as 
accurate scholarship. He was pre-eminent as a restorer of 
classical learning and sound philosophy. His voluminous 
“Epistles” contain valuable materials for literary history. 
His complete works were published by Beatus Rhenanus (9 
vols., 1541), and by Leclerc (10 vols., Leyden, 1603-06). 
(See Burtgny, “Vie d’Erasme,” 1757; Knight, “Life of 
Erasmus,” 1726; Jortin, “Life of Erasmus,” 1758; Adolph 
Muller, “Life of Erasmus” (in German), 1828; Charles 
Butler, “Life of Erasmus,” 1825 ; Glasius, “Erasmus 
alt Kirchenreformator,” 1850.) 

Eras'tians, a name given to the adherents of the Swiss 
physician Erastus on church discipline. Erastus earnestly 
opposed the use by Protestant churches of ecclesiastical 
censures and punishments, and held that the Church ought 
merely to decide who by soundness of faith were to be re¬ 
garded as members, but should not take upon herself to 
punish moral offences by withholding her privileges. This 
view is particularly developed in his posthumous woik, 
“ Explicatio gravissimae qumstionis utrum excommunica- 
tio mandato nitatur divino an,” etc. (1589). The common 
belief that Erastus intended to subject all ecclesiastical 
bodies to tho control of the state authorities is at least an 
exaggeration. During tho great conflict in the Church of 
Scotland which led to the establishment of the Free Church, 
those who maintained that the Church had no power to 
nullify by law the operation of lay patronago were called 


by their opponents Erastians, but they protested against 
this use of the word. 

Eras'tus (Thomas), M. D., a Swiss physician and theo¬ 
logian, whose proper name was Liebler or Lieber, was 
born at Baden in Switzerland (according to others, at 
Angen, near Badenweiler), Sept. 7, 1524. He took the de¬ 
gree of M. D. at Bologna, wrote several medical treatises, 
and became a skilful practitioner. He was appointed phy¬ 
sician to Frederick, the elector palatine, and was for many 
years professor of medicine at Heidelberg, which was the 
capital of that prince. As member of the church council 
he advocated the Zwinglian views of the Lord's Supper 
and of church discipline. He was charged with Socinian- 
ism, but without just ground. In 1580 he obtained a chair 
of moral philosophy at Bale, where he died Dec. 31, 1583. 
His views on church discipline excited much controversy. 
(See Erastians.) 

E'rath, a county in N. Central Texas. Area, 1000 square 
miles. It is drained by Bosque River, which rises in it, and 
by Paloxy Creek. The surface is broken and hilly, but is 
partly prairie. The soil is good. Stock-raising is the chief 
industry. Grain and wool are raised. Timber abounds, as 
well as building-stone. Cajiital, Stephensville. Pop. 1801. 

Er'ato [Gr. ’Eparw], the sixth in order of the Nine 
Muses. She was the muse of the poetry of love, that being 
the significance of her name. 

Eratos'thenes [Gr. ’E paroaeev^], a celebrated Greek 
astronomer and geometer, born at Cyrene in 276 B. C., was 
a pupil of Callimachus the poet. He became superinten¬ 
dent of the great library of Alexandria in the reign of 
Ptolemy Euergetes, and rendered important services to the 
sciences of astronomy and geography. He displa} T ed great 
versatility of genius, and wrote numerous works on phil¬ 
osophy, history, grammar, etc. Among his memorable per¬ 
formances was the measurement of the obliquity of the 
ecliptic, which he computed to be 23° 51' 20”. In gn at¬ 
tempt to ascertain the dimensions of the earth he invented 
a method which has been employed with success in modern 
times. His writings are not extant, but fragments of his 
work on chronology have been preserved by Syncellus. 
His computation of Egyptian chronology has been adopted 
by Bunsen. “Eratosthenes was,” says Bunsen, “next to 
Aristotle, the most illustrious of Greek men of learning, 
and as far superior to him in the extent of his knowledge 
as inferior in grasp of intellect.” Died about 196 B. C. 
The fragments of his works were published by Bernhardy 
(1822). 

Er'ben (Henry), U. S. N., born Sept. 6, 1832, in the 
city of New York, entered the navy as a midshipman June 
17, 1848, became a passed midshipman in 1855, a lieuten¬ 
ant in 1856, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander 
in 1868, took part in the engagements at Fort Pillow, Mem¬ 
phis, Vicksburg, and Baton Rouge during the year 1862, 
and in 1863 in the operations against Fort McAllister, Ga., 
and Forts Sumter and Moultrie, S. C. 

Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

Er'biuin [named from the last two syllables of Ytterby, 
a town of Sweden, whence gadolinite is procured], a rare 
dyad earth-metal, chiefly procured, as an oxide called erbia, 
from gadolinite, along with yttria, both earths existing 
naturally as silicates. Metallic erbium (symbol E; atomic 
weight, 112.6) has not been separated. Its salts have mostly 
a rose-color. 

Erci'lla y Zuni'ga (Alonso), a Spanish epic poet, 
born Aug. 7, 1533, was a son of Fortunio Garcia, lord of 
Ercilla. He was in his youth a page of Philip II., whom 
he accompanied in a voyage to England in 1554. Having 
enlisted in the army, he went to South America in that year 
to fight against the Araucanians, a warlike tribe whom the 
Spaniards were never able to subjugate. He served with 
distinction in this war, returned to Spain in 1562, and pub¬ 
lished his “ Araucana” (first part, 1569), which is consid¬ 
ered the best heroic poem in the Spanish language, and is 
said to be a faithful narrative of the events which he had 
witnessed. He was afterwards a gentleman of the bed¬ 
chamber to the emperor Rudolph II., but appears to have 
passed his latter years in poverty and obscurity. Died 
after 1590. (See Ticknor, “ History of Spanish Literature.”) 

Erckmaim-Chatrian, the name of two French nov¬ 
elists whose works are jointly produced, and whose names, 
lilce those of Beaumont and Fletcher, arc inseparably united. 
Emile Erckmann, born at Pfalzburg May 20, 1822, was 
the son of a bookseller, and after studying at the eollego 
of Pfalzburg applied himself to reading law in Paris. Al¬ 
exandre Chatrian was born at Soldatenthal, near Pfalz¬ 
burg, Deo. 18, 1826, and was an usher in the Pfalzburg 
college when ho made the acquaintance of Erckmann in 
1847. Tho two became fast friends, and composed numer¬ 
ous stories, fouilletons, and dramatic pieces without much 

























1610 


ERCSI—ERICSSON. 


success. Unable to live in this way, Erckmann applied 
himself to the law, while Chatrian found employment in a 
railway-office. “L’lllustre Docteur MathSus” (1859) was 
the first of their writings which attained any popularity. 
Their novels upon the events of the Revolution and the 
First Empire were much read, and .after the German annex¬ 
ation of Alsace they produced a novel under the title of 
“ The Story of the Plebiscite, related by one of the 7,500,000 
who voted Yes,” which made quite a sensation. Also, their 
drama “ Le Juif Polonais ” was very successful, f 

Ercsi, an Hungarian town, in the county of Stuhlweiss- 
enburg, on the Danube, 18 miles S. S. W. from Pesth. Its 
industries are weaving, brewing, and tilemaking. Pop. 
5540. 

Erd'mann (Johann Eduard), born June 13, 1805, in 
Livonia, became professor of philosophy at Halle in 1836. 
He wrote, among other works, “ Versuch einer wissenschaft- 
lichen Darstellung der Geschichte der neueren Philosophie” 
(3 vols., 1834-53), “Grundriss der Logik und Metaphysik” 
(4th ed. 1864), and “ Grundriss der Geschichte de Philoso¬ 
phie ” (2 vols., 1866). 

Erdmann (Otto Linne), a German chemist, born at 
Dresden April 11, 1804. He became in 1830 professor of 
chemistry at Leipsic. Died Oct. 9,1869. Among his works 
is a valuable “Manual of Chemistry” (1828). He pub¬ 
lished after 1834 the “Journal fur praktische Chemie.” 

Er'ebus [Gr. ’Epej3o?, probably from epecfno, to “ cover”], 
in classic mythology, the son of Chaos; also the name of 
a dark and gloomy region or subterranean cavern through 
which souls were supposed to pass after death. 

Erebus, Mount, and Mount Terror, are two vol¬ 
canoes in South Victoria Land, in lat. 77^° S., discovered 
by J. C. Ross Jan. 27, 1541. Mount Erebus, 12,400 feet 
high, is, as far as is known, the nearest volcano to the south 
pole, and when discovered was emitting flame and smoke in 
great profusion. Mount Terror, 10,900 feet high, is believed 
to be an extinct volcano. These two mountains were named 
from the British ships in which Ross’s expedition sailed. 

Erechthe'nm [Gr. ’Epe'xfleioi'], in ancient Athens a sa¬ 
cred edifice on the Acropolis, consisting of the two temples 
of Athena Polias and Pandrosus. Its name was derived 
from Erechtheus (see below). It was burned by the Per¬ 
sians, rebuilt about 393 B. C., and became the most sacred 
of all the Athenian sanctuaries. The renewed Erechtheum 
was a most beautiful structure of the Ionic order. Unlike 
all other Grecian temples, it had three porticoes. It an¬ 
ciently contained a salt-well made by Poseidon’s trident 
(not flowing in modern times), also the sacred olive tree 
of Athena, and the olive-wood image of that goddess, which 
is fabled to have fallen from the sky. The ruins of the 
Erechtheum stand north of the Parthenon, and are among 
the most interesting relics of antiquity. The six caryatides 
(gigantic female figures gracefully draped) which sup¬ 
ported the roof of the southern portico are particularly 
fine. One of these is now in the British Museum. 

Erech'theus [Gr. ’Epe^Oev? ; Fr. Erecthee] . a hero of 
ancient Greek legends, was said to be a son of Vulcan or of 
Pandion, and the father of Cecrops. Homer represents him 
as a king of Athens. According to tradition, he was the 
founder of the Erectheum, a temple of Minerva on the Acrop¬ 
olis of Athens. He was sometimes called Erichthonim. 

Er'eglee', or Erekli (anc. Heraclea), a seaport of 
Asia Minor on the Black Sea, 122 miles E. by N. of Con¬ 
stantinople. It has a good harbor, from which timber, silk, 
and wax are exported. The ancient Heraclea was an im¬ 
portant town. Lat. 41° 17’ N., Ion. 31° 25' E. 

Ere'tria [Gr. ’EpeVpia; Fr. Eretrie ], an ancient city on 
the island of Euboea, is mentioned by Homer (“ Iliad,” book 
ii.). At an early period it was a prosperous and independ¬ 
ent state, and one of the chief maritime cities of Greece. It 
was captured and ruined by the Persians in 490 B. C., but 
was soon rebuilt. Eretria was the seat of a celebrated school 
of philosophy, founded by Menedemus about 330 B. C. 

Er'furt, or Erfurth [Lat. Erphordia and Erfurtuni], 
a fortified town of Prussian Saxony, on the river Gera and 
the Thuringian Railway, 15 miles W. of Weimar and 14 
miles E. of Gotha. It is defended by two citadels, and is 
important as a military position. It has an old Gothic 
cathedral with a bell which weighs 275 hundredweight, 
fourteen Protestant churches, a royal academy, a public 
library of about 50,000 volumes, a normal school, and an 
edifice formerly occupied by the University of Erfurt, which 
was founded in 1392 and closed in 1816. Here was the Au¬ 
gustine convent of which Luther was an inmate for several 
years; it is now used as an orphan asylum. Erfurt has 
manufactures of cotton and woollen fabrics, hosiery, shoos, 
leather, etc. It was more populous in the Middle Ages than 
it is now. The Congress of Erfurt, held hero in Sept.-Oct., 
1808, was attended by Napoleon and Alexander I. of Russia. 


In March and April, 1850, the so-called “ Union Parlia¬ 
ment ” held its sessions here. (See Germany.) Pop. in 
1871, 43,616. 

Er'got [from the Fr. ergot , a “ cock’s spur j” Late Lat. 
ergota ; Ger. Matterhorn], or Spurred Rye, a curious 
fungus, the compact mycelium of the Claviceps purpurea 
of Tulasne, growing frequently in the heads of rye, though 
found on all grasses and some Cyperacere. It was long be¬ 
lieved to consist of diseased kernels of rye, but microscop¬ 
ical examination shows that it has nothing at all in common 
with the rye, but growing originally from the ovary, it na¬ 
turally assumes something of the shape of the mould in 
which it grows. It is believed that spores of this plant are 
taken up by the roots of the rye, and that they germinate 
in the ovary, where they are deposited from the sap. 

Ergot is generally procured from rye after threshing. It 
is usually shaped somewhat like a cock’s spur, and is from 
half an inch to one inch and a half long. It contains a 
volatile alkaloid secalia, identical or perhaps only isomeric 
with propylamia; also ergotic acid, and several other com¬ 
pounds which are little understood, including an oil which 
appears to be inert, and mycose, a peculiar sugar. 

Ergot is much used in medicine, especially for the pur¬ 
pose of exciting uterine contractions in child-bearing. As 
a rule, it should never be administered except by persons 
skilled in its use. The contractions induced by ergot differ 
from the natural uterine effort, which is intermittent, with 
intervals of more or less perfect rest, while ergot causes a 
uniform and constant expulsive effort. In skilled hands it 
is a remedy of great value. Administered late in labor, it 
often prevents dangerous loss of blood, and it is further use¬ 
ful in some cases of menorrhagia and other haemorrhages. 
It is also useful in puerile paralysis, and probably in other 
diseases requiring treatment which produces contraction 
of the muscular coat of the blood-vessels. 

Er'gotism, or Rapha'nia, a disease or train of symp¬ 
toms produced by the long-continued use of grain in which 
ergot is mixed. It is characterized by stupor, convulsions, 
diarrhoea, and vomiting, often accompanied by morbid in¬ 
crease of appetite, by purpura, and at last bj T a dry, chronic 
gangrene of the extremities. Rye and wheat are especially 
apt to be infested with ergot when sown late in the season; 
and in some years the ergot has been observed in parts of 
Europe to exceed one-fourth of the whole amount of the 
winnowed grain ; and several severe epidemics of this fatal 
disease have been observed in Europe. It is rare in the 
U. S., but in 1819 the cattle throughout a part of the State 
of New York suffered extensively from an epizootic of this 
nature, caused by ergot in the blue-grass crop (Poa praten- 
*?s). The poisonous qualities of the darnel grass ( Lolium 
temulentum), so well known even in Virgil’s time, are now 
ascribed to the presence of ergot, which is well known to 
infest many of the grasses. The treatment to be pursued 
is a supporting one—the use of concentrated food, stimu¬ 
lants, pure air, bathing, friction of the skin, with gentle 
purgation. No antidote to the severer effects of ergot is 
known. 

The medicinal use of ergot is very seldom followed by 
any of the above-mentioned symptoms, but a few well- 
established cases are on record, showing the danger of ex¬ 
cessive and long-continued use of the drug. 

Er'ic XIV., king of Sweden, born Dec. 13, 1533, was 
a son of Gustavus Vasa, whom he succeeded in 1560. He 
made an overture of marriage to Queen Elizabeth of Eng¬ 
land, but he married a Swedish peasant named Catharine 
Monsdoter. He was capricious, imprudent, momentarily 
insane, and always addicted to violent jiaroxysms of anger 
and cruelty. In his reign Sweden was involved in a war 
against Denmark. Several noblemen were unjustly put to 
death by his order. A conspiracy was formed against him 
by his own brothers and other nobles, who deposed him in 
1568, and confined him in prison, where he died Feb. 16, 
1577. 

Erica'ceae, or Heathworts [from Erica, one of the 
genera], a large natural order of beautiful exogenous plants, 
mostly shrubs, natives of Europe, Asia, South Africa, and 
North America. The leaves are entire, generally evergreen, 
and rigid or coriaceous. The anther is 2-celled. This order 
comprises about 900 known species, many of which have 
beautiful flowers. Among those which are natives of the 
U. S. are the Kalmia, Vaccinium, Azalea, Rhododendron, 
Pyrola, Gaultiieria, Clethra, and Epiga;a, which will 
bo noticed under their respective heads. The genus Erica 
(heath) abounds in South Afrioa. (See Heath.) Many 
of the Ericaceae are social plants, and a single species in 
some oases covers a tract of ground, of which it forms tho 
almost exclusive vegetation. Several species bear edible 
berries, as Vaccinium and Gaultheria (wintergreen). 

Er'icsson (John), LL.D., an eminent mechanician, was 
born in Vermeland, a province of Sweden, July 31, 1803. 




















ERIC THE RED—ERIGENA. 


Showing decided mechanical ingenuity in childhood, he 
was appointed at the age of eleven to a cadetship in the 
engineer corps, in which he rose to a lieutenancy. In 1826 
he visited England to introduce a “flame engine” of his 
own invention, but it was discovered that though it worked 
with a wood-fire, it failed when coal was used. He made 
improvements in steam boilers, and in 1829 produced a 
locomotive, the “Novelty,” which ran fifty miles an hour, 
a great advance in speed over anything then attained, 
winning a prize of £500. He soon after made a steam 
fire-engine (1832) and a hot-air engine (1833). He also 
first successfully applied the screw to the propulsion of 
steam-vessels; but the invention not being at first well re¬ 
ceived in England, he came in 1839 to New York, and the 
U. S. screw-steamer Princeton was built under his direction. 
Since then, this invention, with many modifications, has 
come into very extensive use. In 1852 the ship Ericsson, 
propelled by hot air, was launched. He has also invented 
a “ solar engine,” a pyrometer, an alarm barometer, a sea- 
lead, a hydrostatic gauge, and numerous other ingenious 
instruments. Mar. 9, 1862, his iron-clad vessel, the Mon¬ 
itor, just built, attacked and repulsed the Confederate iron¬ 
clad ram Virginia, formerly the U. S. steamer Merrimack. 
Thus Ericsson has the honor of first successfully employing 
the armed turret in naval shipbuilding. 

Eric the Red, a reputed discoverer of America, was 
a Norwegian who emigrated to Iceland about 982 A. D. 
He made a voyage to Greenland, and there founded a 
colony. In 1000 A. D. his son Liefr sailed southward, 
visiting a country called by him Markland (perhaps Nova 
Scotia), and another called Vinland, which appears to have 
been South-eastern New England. With far less prob¬ 
ability it is said that Eric planted a colony in Vinland. / 

E'rie, a county in the W. of New York. Area, 1071 
square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Tonawanda 
Creek and on the W. by Lake Erie and Niagara River. 
It is drained by Buffalo Creek and other streams. The 
surface is undulating; the soil fertile. Dairy products, 
grain, wool, hay, fruit, and cattle are the staples. The 
manufactures and commerce are treated of in the article 
on Buffalo (which see). Iron ore and limestone are 
found here. It is intersected by the Erie Canal, the Buffalo 
New York and Philadelphia, and the Lake Shore and 
Michigan Southern R. Rs., and by several branches of the 
Central and Erie R. Rs., converging to Buffalo, which is 
the capital of the county. Pop. 178,699. 

Erie, a county in the N. of Ohio. Area, 250 square 
miles. It is bounded on the N. by Lake Erie, and inter¬ 
sected by Huron and Vermilion rivers. The surface is 
nearly level; the soil is alluvial and very fertile. Cattle, 
grain, wool, hay, fruit, and dairy produce are raised. The 
fisheries are important. The manufactures include flour, 
clothing, wine, brick, cooperage, shipping, carriages, etc. 
Fine limestone valuable for building abounds here. This 
county is traversed by the Lake Shore and Michigan 
Southern R. R., the Sandusky Mansfield and Newark R. R., 
and the Cincinnati Sandusky and Cleveland R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Sandusky. Pop. 28,188. 

Erie, a county constituting the N. W. extremity of 
Pennsylvania. Area, 740 square miles. It is bounded on 
the N. W. by Lake Erie, and partly drained by Conneaut 
and French creeks. The surface is mostly undulating ; the 
soil is clayey and productive. Cattle, grain, wool, potatoes, 
hay, dairy products, and fruit are the staples. Flour, 
leather, lumber, machinery, iron, saddlery, carriages, furni¬ 
ture, and metallic wares are manufactured. Sandstone and 
slate occur here as surface-rocks. It is intersected by the 
Philadelphia and Erie, the Erie and Pittsburg, the Atlantic 
and Great Western, the Buffalo Corry and Pittsburg, and 
the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. Rs. Capital, 
Erie. Pop. 65,973. 

Eric, a post-village of Boulder co., Col., on the Boulder 
Valley R. R., 34 miles N. E. of Denver. It is an import¬ 
ant coal-mining centre. 

Erie, a post-township of Whitesides co., Ill. Pop. 695. 

Erie, a township of Miami co., Ind. Pop. 599. 

Erie, a township, post-village, and capital of Neosho 
co., Kan. Pop. 1350; of village, 418. 

Erie, a post-township of Monroe co., Mich. Pop. 152*. 

Erie, a post-township of McDonald co., Mo. Pop. 615. 

Erie, a township of Ottawa co., 0. Pop. 455. 

Erie, a city and the county-town of Erio co., Pa., is the 
only lake-port of the State. It has tho largest land-locked 
harbor on Lake Erie, being 5 miles in length by 1 in width. 
Tho Pennsylvania R. R. Company runs a line of first- 
class propellers between this port and tho upper lakes, and 
over fifty sailing-vessels are owned here. The imports are 
principally grain, lumber, and iron oro, and the exports 


1611 


bituminous and anthracite coal and the merchant and pig 
iron, engines, and other manufactured products of the port. 
It is very nearly equidistant from Cleveland and Buffalo 
on the Lake Shore R. R., which gives communication E. 
and W., and is the northern terminus of the Philadelphia 
and Erie R. R., which penetrates the lumber-region of the 
State, and also gives connection with Harrisburg and 
Philadelphia and the anthracite coal-fields. Erie is also 
the northern terminus of the Erie and Pittsburg R. R., 
which passes through the bituminous coal-regions. The 
Pennsylvania Petroleum R. R., now building, will give 
direct communication with the oil-producing section, and 
furnish a competing route to the bituminous coal-mines. 
The facilities for the receipt of raw material and cheap 
fuel, and the shipment of products by rail and water, have 
given Erie manufacturing interests a great impetus since 
about 1866. A brief summary shows 24 iron-works, in¬ 
cluding a car manufactory producing 15 complete cars and 
300 wheels per day; a blast-furnace, a rolling-mill, 2 very 
large stove-foundries, 4 tanneries, 2 boot-and-shoe factories, 
6 oil-refineries, 1 church-organ and 2 parlor-organ factories, 
1 piano-factory, 1 paper-mill, 13 planing-mills, 4 pump- 
factories, 2 spice-mills, 7 breweries, 3 malt-houses, 5 brick¬ 
yards, 1 stoneware-factory, 2 lime companies, 4 steam 
flouring-mills, 2 grain-elevators, 10 chair, carriage, and 
other woodworking factories, 1 daily and 6 weekly news¬ 
papers, etc. Erie is the market for a rich farming country. 
It has a custom-house, 4 national banks, 26 churches, 1 
academy, a very complete free-school system, and water¬ 
works which cost $750,000. It is already the largest and 
most central point in a section covering the ten north¬ 
western counties of Pennsylvania, and its growth hence¬ 
forth promises to be marvellous. Pop. 19,646. 

F. A. Crandall, Ed. “ Gazette.” 

E'rie Canal', the most important, as well as the largest, 
canal in the U. S., extends from Buffalo to Albany, N. Y., 
and is 363 miles long. De Witt Clinton, whose name is 
identified with the construction of this great public work, 
was in 1809 appointed a member of a commission to explore 
and survey a route for the proposed canal from the lakes to 
the Hudson; and his memorial to the State legislature in 
1815 ensured the success of the undertaking. The bill for 
its construction was passed in 1817, but the “ canal policy” 
was for years strenuously opposed. In 1825 the canal was 
completed at a cost of $7,602,000, and navigation was 
opened in October with great rejoicings. Its original width 
was forty feet at the surface, with a depth of four feet; but 
the canal has been subsequently so enlarged that the sur¬ 
face-width is seventy feet, the bottom-width forty-two feet, 
and the depth seven feet. The commercial importance 
of this canal is very great. It is chiefly employed for 
transporting grain and such other bulky articles as do not 
require quick transit. (See Inland Navigation.) 

Erie, Lake, one of the chain of great lakes drained 
by the St. Lawrence, is bounded on the N. by Ontario, a 
province of the Dominion of Canada, and on the S. by 
Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. It is the lowest of 
that chain of lakes, except Lake Ontario, into which its 
water is discharged through the Niagara River. It is 290 
miles long, is 57 miles wide at the broadest part, and has 
an area of about 10,000 square miles. The surface is 334 
feet higher than Lake Ontario. It is shallow compared 
with the other lakes of this series, the greatest depth yet 
obtained being 312 feet. The mean depth is about 120 
feet. The principal supply of water comes through Detroit 
River, which enters the W. end of the lake. The chief 
cities on its shores are Buffalo, Cleveland, Toledo, Erie, 
and Sandusky, which have good harbors. This lake is 
very important as a channel of trade and steam navigation. 
It is liable to violent storms, which sometimes cause disas¬ 
trous shipwrecks. Large vessels can pass from Lake Erie 
into Lake Ontario through the Welland Canal. The navi¬ 
gation of the former is suspended for three or four months 
in winter, in consequence of the shallow parts being frozen. 
The fisheries are important. 

Com. Perry of the U. S. navy gained an important vic¬ 
tory over the British commander Barclay in the western 
part of this lake, Sept. 10, 1813. This was called the battle 
of Lake Erie, and was fought near the Bass Islands, about 
36 miles E. of Toledo. 

Erie shale, the name given by tho Ohio geologists to 
the westward extension of the Chemung and Upper Port¬ 
age rocks of New York. The oil-wells of Western Penn¬ 
sylvania are bored on this foundation, though tho petroleum 
which is found in it emanates from the Huron shale below. 

E'rieville, a post-village of Nelson township, Madison 
co., N. Y., has 3 churohes and an important canal reservoir. 

Erig'ena (i. e. tho “Irishman”), (Johannes Scotus), 
tho boldest and most brilliant thinker of his century. Tho 
events of his life are involved in some obscurity. He was 













1612 


ERIGEKON—ERMAN. 


probably born in Ireland between 800-815 A. D., and edu¬ 
cated in the Irish monasteries. Between 840-845 he appears 
to have gone to France, where he was patronized by Charles 
the Bald. Ho is credited with one of the best repartees on 
record. At table one day the king asked him, “ Quid dis- 
tat inter Sotum et Scotum ?” Erigena instantly replied, 
“Mensa tantum.” What happened to him after the death 
of Charles tho Bald, in 877, is not so clear. According to 
one account, ho went to England about 883, on the invita¬ 
tion of Alfred the Great, and was murdered by his pupils 
at Malmesbury in 891. Some who deny the Malmesbury 
story, say that Scotus Erigena has been confounded with 
an Anglo-Saxon monk whom Alfred invited over from 
France to teach at Oxford. Erigena has been called “ the 
morning star of scholasticism.” He rebelled against Au- 
gustinianism, asserted the supremacy of reason, and wrought 
out a vague pantheism. He also translated into Latin the 
works (spurious) of Dionysius the Areoj)agite (of the fourth 
or fifth century), and thus planted the seeds of the mediae¬ 
val mysticism. He wrote against Gottschalk (851 A. D.) 
on predestination, and against Paschasius Badbert on tran- 
substantiation, and was condemned as a heretic at Paris in 
1209. Of his other works, the most important is a treatise 
in five books, “De Divisione Naturae.” It was printed at 
Oxford in 1681. (See Theodor Christlieb's “ Leben und 
Lehrc des Johannes Scotus Erigena,” 1860 ; and Johannes 
Huber’s “ Johannes Scotus Erigena,” 1861.) 

Erig'eron [Gr. ^piyeptav, “early old,” from 


VPf 


“ spring,” 


and yepiav, an “old man,” because the plants have a hoary 
appearance], a genus of herbs of the order Composite, in¬ 
cluding the fleabanes (which are weeds of several species, 
very common in Europe and North America) and other 
plants, such as poor robin’s plantain ( Erigeron bellidifo- 
lium ), etc. The Erigeron Philadelphicum, Erigeron Cana- 
dense, and others are used as diuretics, and contain a vola¬ 
tile oil which varies somewhat in dilferent species. The 
oil has a pungent, disagreeable odor, and sometimes takes on 
a tarry or oleo-resinous character. It is used in medicine. 

Erin. See Ireland. 

Er'in, a post-village and township of Wellington co., 
Ontario, Canada, has quarries of building-stone and manu¬ 
factures of various kinds. Pop. of village, about 600. 

Erin, a township of Stephenson co., Ill. Pop. 877. 

Erin, a township of Macomb co., Mich. Pop. 2466. 

Erin, a township of Rice co., Minn. Pop. 526. 

Erin, a post-township of Chemung co., N. Y., ha.s a valu¬ 
able mineral spring and manufactures of lumber. Pop. 1392. 

Erin, a post-village, capital of Houston co., Tex. 

Erin, a post-township of St. Croix co., Wis. Pop. 1024. 

Erin, a township of Washington co., Wis. Pop. 1266. 

Erina'ceus, the genus that includes the hedgehogs of 



Erinaceus Europseus, the European Hedgehog 

the Old World, of which there are several species, inhabiting 
Asia, Africa, and Europe. The common hedgehog of Eng¬ 
land may be considered a type of the group. It is a harm¬ 
less little nocturnal animal, which subsists mainly on in¬ 
sects, though sometimes eating fruit and even reptiles. The 
back of the hedgehog is covered with spines, and when 
attacked he rolls himself into a ball from which they radi¬ 
ate in every direction, and serve as a defence that enables 
him to defy all his enemies but man. Zoologically, the 


hedgehog is of special interest, as he stands at the head of 
the order of Insectivora, and, though the sport of the school¬ 
boy and scorn of his dog, he is king of the moles and 
shrews. 

Erin'na [Gr.’Hp iwa], a Greek poetess who lived about 
600 B. C., and was a friend of Sappho. She acquired a 
high reputation by her lyric and other poems, among which 
was “ The Distaff.” It is said that she died at the age of 
nineteen. 

Erin'nys [Gr. ’Epiwvs or ’Epivv?; plu. Erin'll yes], a 
name given to the Furies or Eumenides (which see). 

Eriocaiilona'ceue [from Eriocaulon, one of the gen¬ 
era], a natural order of herbaceous endogenous plants, are 
nearly allied to Restiaceag. They are mostly natives of the 
tropical parts of America and Australia. Many of the 
species are aquatic or grow in marshes. The flowers grow 
in close heads. Some of the Eriocaulons of Brazil are six 
feet high. Those of the U. S. arc stemless. The Eriocau¬ 
lon septangulare (pipewort) is indigenous both in the IT. S. 
and in Ireland, and is interesting in reference to geograph¬ 
ical distribution. It grows in ponds. Three genera and 
seven species of the order are found in the Atlantic States. 

Eriotlen'dron [from the Gr. epiov, “ wool,” and SerSpor, 
a “tree”], a genus of trees of the natural order Sterculia- 
ceae, natives of tropical climates. They have large and 
beautiful flowers. They are sometimes called wool trees, 
because the capsules enclose a fibrous woolly or cottony 
substance. The cotton of Eriodendron Samanna is used in 
Brazil for stuffing pillows. The Eriodendron an/ractuosinn, 
which grows in the East Indies, Africa, etc., has edible 
seeds about the size of a pea. Other species yield useful 
medicines. The cotton produced by these trees cannot be 
spun, but its use in the paper manufacture has been pro¬ 
posed. 

Erivail' [Lat. Erivana; Pers. Reican or jRevdn], a for¬ 
tified town of Russian Armenia, in the government of Eri- 
van, on the river Zenga, an affluent of the Aras, and near 
the latter river, .115 miles S. by W. from Tiflis. It has a 
citadel on a high rock, several Armenian churches, a large 
bazaar, and a few mosques ; also a cannon-foundry and 
manufactures of cotton goods, earthenware, and leather. 
It was stormed and taken by the Russian general Paske- 
witch in 1827, and was ceded to Russia by Persia in 1828. 
Pop. in 1867, 14,342. 

Er'langen, a handsome town of Bavaria, on the river 
Regnitz and on the railway from Bamberg to Nuremberg, 
11 miles N. of the latter. It is enclosed by walls, and is 
divided into the old and new town, the latter of which is 
very well built. Here is the University of Erlangen, which 
was founded in 1742, and is celebrated as a school of Prot¬ 
estant theology. It has a library of 100,000 volumes, and 
a botanic garden. Erlangen has manufactures of hosiery, 
gloves, mirrors, plate glass, combs, and hats. Pop. in 

iS71, 12,511. 

Erlau, §r'1ou [Hung. Eger], a 
fortified episcopal city of Hungary, 
capital of the county of Heves, is on 
the river Erlau or Eger, about 75 
miles E. N. E. of Pesth. It is en¬ 
closed by walls, and is pleasantly 
situated amid vine-clad hills. It 
has a cathedral, a bishop’s palace, 
a gymnasium, a normal school, a 
lyceum, and a richly endowed hos¬ 
pital. Here are manufactures of 
linen and woollen fabrics. Erlau 
has an extensive trade in red wine 
of superior quality, which is pro¬ 
duced in the vicinity. A bishopric 
was founded here in the eleventh 
century. Pop. in 1869,19,150. 

Erl'king [Ger. Erlhonig; Dan. 
Elverkonge, i. e. “king of the 
elves”], in German and Scandina¬ 
vian mythology, a fabulous being, 
which through seductive allure¬ 
ments causes injury and destruc¬ 
tion to human beings, especially to 
children. This tale, has become 
widely known through the ballad 
of that name by Goethe. 

Er'in tin (Georg Adolf), a German natural philosopher, 
born in Berlin May 12, 1806. He performed in 1828-30 a 
voyage around the world, during which he made a series 
of magnetic observations, and published a “ Voyage Around 
the World, through Northern Asia and the Two"Oceans” 
(5 vols., 1833—42). He became professor of physics in the 
University of Berlin. 

Ermail (Paul), a natural philosopher, the father of the 















































ERMENONVILLE—ERNESTI. 1613 


preceding, was born in Berlin Feb. 29, 1764. He became 
professor of physics in the university of that city and sec- 
re -ary of the Academy of Sciences. He wrote on electricity 
and other branches of physics, as well as mathematical anil 
other subjects. Died Oct. 11, 1851. 

liimenonville, a village of France, department of 
Oise, 7 miles S. E. of Senlis. Here is a beautiful chateau 
with an extensive park, which is visited in summer by 
many Parisians. Among the attractions of the place is the 
tomb of J. J. Rousseau, who died here in 1778. 

Ermine, er min, in heraldry, one of the furs used in 
blazonry. It represents the skin of the ermine, white, 
spotted or timbered with black. The arrangement of the 
spots varies with the wearer’s rank. A black fur with 
white spots is called centre ermine or ermines. 

Ermine, or Stout (Pntonus ermmea), a carnivorous 



Ermine or Stoat. 


animal nearly ajlied to the weasel, which it resembles in 
its slender form and its habits, but it is larger and has a 
longer tail. It is a native of the northern parts of Asia 
and Europe, and perhaps of America. It is about ten 
inches long, exclusive of the tail. In the summer the color 
of the upper parts is a pale reddish brown, and that of the 
under parts nearly white. In winter the whole of the body 
is covered with white fur, slightly tinged with yellow, but 
the tip of the tail remains black in all seasons. The fur is 
closer and finer in winter, and that which is obtained from 
Siberia, Norway, and other cold countries is one of the most 
valuable of furs. It is used for ladies’ winter apparel and 
for the robes of kings and nobles. When made up the tails 
are inserted one to each skin, at regular distances and in 
the quincunx order or otherwise, according to the wearer’s 
rank. The fur called miniver is a variety of spotted, 
“ powdered,’’ or “ timbered ” ermine. The ermine fur forms 
the distinctive doubling of the state robes of sovereigns 
and nobles, as well as of their crowns and coronets. It is 
also worn by judges in some countries. The ermine preys 
on mice, poultry, eggs, young rabbits, etc. Most of the 
so-called ermine fur of commerce is simply white rabbit 
fur, with spots of black rabbit fur inserted. 

The U. S. have several white weasels which are properly 
classed as ermines, having white winter fur and the tip of 
the tail black. Such are Putorius noveboracensis, or com¬ 
mon white weasel; Putorius Kanei, or Kane's ermine, of 
Alaska and Siberia; Putorius Cicognonii, a small species; 
Putorius Richardsonii, called little ermine; Putorius longi- 
cauda, or long-tailed ermine, etc. North America, however, 
furnishes a very small part of the ermine fur of commerce. 

The ermines, like the other weasels, have the power of 
emitting a most offensive odor when irritated. The com¬ 
mon stoat of Great Britain produces a fur much inferior to 
that of the same species in the far North. It is regarded 
as vermin, and zealously hunted by foresters, warreners, 
and park-keepers, for it is a most destructive pest among 
rabbits, hares, and fowl, wild and domestic. It is caught 
in snares or traps. It is most active by night. 

Erne, ern [from the Ang.-Sax. earn, an “eagle”], or 
Sea Eagie ( Haliaetus ), a genus of eagles differing from 
other eagles in having no feathers on the toes and the lower 
part of the tarsi, also in the greater length of the bill. They 
have less courage than the eagle, and resemble the vulture 
in feeding on carrion as well as other prey. The common 
erne, cinereous eagle, or sea eagle {Haliaetus albictlla) is 
the only species known in Great Britain. It makes its 


nest on the ledges of high precipices on the sea-coast, and 
sometimes near inland lakes, feeding on fish and waterfowl. 
It is about thirty-three inches long, the plumage brown, 
with a paler tinge on the head, and the tail of the adult 
pure white. The American white-headed eagle or bald eagle 
(Haliaetus lextcocephalus) is found throughout the whole of 
North America, frequenting the sea-coasts as well as the 
mouths of large rivers. (See Bald Eagle.) There is also 
an Australian species (Haliaetus leucogaster ) and the Pon¬ 
dicherry kite (Haliaetus Ponticerianus ), an Indian species, 
both of smaller size than the sea eagle. 

Erne, a river of Ireland, in Ulster, flows nearly north¬ 
westward through the county of Fermanagh, and expands 
into two beautiful lakes, called Upper and Lower Lough 
Erne. After a course of 72 miles it enters Donegal Bay. 
The Lower Lough is 20 miles long, 7 miles wide, and over 
200 feet deep. The Upper Lough is smaller. Each of them 
encloses numerous islands. The banks of these lakes and 
of the river present fine scenery. The town of Enniskillen 
stands upon an island between the loughs. On another 
island is the seat of the marquis of Ely. The loughs cover 
40,000 acres, and are 140 feet above the sea. The salmon 
and other fisheries are very productive. The river and 
both loughs are deep, and have lines of steamboats, but 
the river has several cataracts. 

Ernee, a town of France, in the department of Mayenne, 
17 miles N. W. of Laval. It manufactures carpet-tacks 
and linseed oil, and trades in hemp, fiax, and cloverseed. 
Pop. 5476. 

Ernest (Ernst), elector of Saxony, the founder of the 
line called Ernestine or Ernestinian, was born Mar. 25, 
1441. He succeeded his father, Frederick II., in 1464, and 
annexed Thuringia to his dominions in 1482. “ This 

prince loved a quiet life, and sought it by all the means 
in his power, at the same time permitting no man to offend 
him with impunity.” He did much for the development 
of the resources of his territories. Died Mar. 22, 1486. 

Ernest (Ernst) I., surnamed the Pious, duke of 
Saxe-Gotha, born Dec. 24, 1601, at the castle of Altenburg, 
was a brother of the famous Bernard of Saxe-Weimar. In 
the Thirty Years’ war he served with distinction under 
Gustavus Adolphus as a colonel of horse. He completed 
the victory of the Swedish army at Liitzen, ■where Gus¬ 
tavus was killed. He was a zealous Protestant, and a ruler 
of great wisdom and activity. He instituted reforms, 
some of which were very fruitful of good. Many of his 
institutions exist to this day. Died in 1675. 

Ernest (Ernst) IV., or Ernst II. of Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha, duke of Saxe-Coburg, was born at Coburg June 21, 
1817. His younger brother, Albert, married QucenVictoria 
of England. He succeeded his father in 1844, and sympa¬ 
thized with the efforts to promote the unity and nation¬ 
ality of the Germans. He composed operas entitled 
“Zayre” and “ Casilda.” In 1863 he declined the crown 
of Greece. 

Er'nest Augns'tus, king of Hanover, born Jan. 5, 
1771, was a younger son of George III. of England. He 
was styled the duke of Cumberland before he became king, 
and was a field-marshal in the British army. On the death 
of his brother, William IV., in 1837, he inherited the throne 
of Hanover, which was then separated from Great Britain, 
because it was not lawful for a woman to reign over Han¬ 
over. He was the object of intense popular dislike both 
in England and Germany. In the House of Lords he be¬ 
longed to the extreme Tory party. In Hanover he was a 
tyrant, the unyielding defender of absolutism. He was 
generally considered, and with good reason, to be a man 
of grossly licentious habits. Died Nov. 18, 1851. He was 
succeeded by his blind son, George V., the last king of 
Hanover and the present duke of Cumberland. 

Ernes'ti (August Wilhelm), a German philologist, 
born in Thuringia Nov. 26, 1733, was a nephew of the fol¬ 
lowing. He became a good Latin scholar, and was profes¬ 
sor of eloquence at Leipsic in 1770. He produced a good 
edition of Livy (3 vols., 1769) and other works, several of 
which were explanatory of the text of Livy’s writings, and 
are still valued. Died July 20, 1801. 

Ernesti (Johann August), a celebrated German critic 
and the founder of a school of theology, was born at Tenn- 
stedt, in Thuringia, Aug. 4, 1707. He was liberally edu¬ 
cated at Wittenberg and Leipsic, and was so excellent a 
Latin scholar that he was called the “German Cicero.” 
He became professor of ancient literature in the Univer¬ 
sity of Leipsic in 1742, and obtained the chair of rhetoric 
in 1756, to which the chair of theology was added in 1758. 
In theology he was liberal or rationalistic. He proposed a 
new system of biblical criticism in his “ Institutes ol an 
Interpreter of the New Testament” (“Institutio Interpre- 
tis Novi Testamenti,” 1761). lie wrote other theological 

















































1614 


EROS—ERSKINE. 


works, and published an excellent edition of Cicero (5 vols., 
1737-39), to which he added a “ Clavis Ciceroniana.” Died 
Sept. 11, 1781. (See A. W. Ernesti, “ Memoria J. A. 
Ernesti,” 1781; J. van Voorst, “Oratio de J. A. Ernesto/’ 
1804.) 

E'ros [*Epa)? (gen. ’Eptoro?)], the Greek name of the god 
of Love, corresponding to the Cupi'do of the Romans. In 
Hesiod, Eros is one of the great cosmogonic powers, but 
later poets represent him as a son of Aphrodite (Venus). 
(See Cupid.) 

Ero'sion [from the Lat. e, “out,” “away,” and ro'do, 
ro'sum , to “gnaw” or “eat”], a geological term used to ex¬ 
press the action of a river in excavating or enlarging its 
channel, the gradual abrasion of strata, by rain, frost, 
glaciers, etc. The deep hollows occupied by most lakes 
and rivers are supposed to have been formed by the action 
of rivers or glaciers, and are called “valleys of erosion.” 
The action of atmospheric agencies, glaciers, etc. in wear¬ 
ing away the general surface of a country or district is 
called surface erosion or denudation. The changes wrought 
by this agency on the superficial features of the earth are 
much more grand and interesting than they are generally 
supposed to be; and it may be said that the surface con¬ 
figuration of the earth, and indeed the whole “aspects of 
nature,” are the result of the antagonistic action of surface 
erosion and internal elevatory forces. (See Surface Ge¬ 
ology.) 

Erot/ic [Gr. epam<o?, from e>o?, “love” (see Eros); Fr. 
irotique], an epithet applied generally to that which relates 
to love or excites amorous passion. In a more restricted 
sense it is applied to poems of which love is the subject, 
and to classic authors of whom love is the favorite theme, 
as Anacreon, Sappho, Ovid, and Tibullus. 

Erpe'nius, or Van Er'pcn (Thomas), an eminent 
Dutch Orientalist, born at Gorkum Sept. 7,1584. He gradu¬ 
ated at Leyden in 1608, after which he visited France, Eng¬ 
land, Italy, and Germany. In 1613 he became professor 
of Arabic and other Oriental languages at the University 
of Leyden. A second chair of Hebrew was founded for him 
in 1619. He printed a number of Arabic works with a press 
which he kept in his own house. He produced in 1613 an 
“Arabic Grammar,” the first ever written in Europe. 
Among his other works are a “ Collection of Lokman’s 
Arabic Proverbs,” with Latin version, and “ Historia Sara- 
cenica,” which is an edition of Elmacin’s history with a 
Latin translation (1625). Died in Nov., 1624. 

Errard (Charles), a French painter and architect, born 
at Nantes in 1606. lie was patronized by Louis XIV., for 
whom he adorned the Louvre, Tuileries, and other palaces. 
He was one of the twelve artists who founded the Academy 
of Painting in Paris in 1648, and was the principal founder 
of the French Academy of Art in Rome (1666). He died 
in Rome May 15, 1689. 

Eira'ta [the plu. of the Latin erra'tum, a “ mistake,” 
from er'ro, erra'tum, to “err”], a term applied to the list 
of errors or faults committed in printing a book. This list 
is usually placed at the end or the beginning of the book. 

Errat'ic Blocks, or Erratics, a geological term ap¬ 
plied to fragments of rock which are found on the surface 
of the ground, and have been transported from a distance 
by glaciers, icebergs, etc. They are most numerous in 
northern regions. “The erratics which cover the Jura,” 
says Lyell, “ present a phenomenon which has perplexed 
the geologist for more than half a century. No conclusion 
can be more incontestable than that these angular blocks 
of granite, gneiss, and other crystalline formations came 
from the Alps, and that they have been brought for a dis¬ 
tance of fifty miles across one of the widest and deepest 
valleys in the world.” Many of them are as large as cot¬ 
tages. (See Drift.) 

Er'roll, a post-township of Coos co., N. II. Pop. 178. 

Erscli (Johann Samuel), a German bibliographer, born 
at Gross-Glogau, in Silesia, June 23, 1766. He became 
professor of geography at Halle in 1803, and published, be¬ 
sides other works, a “ Handbook of German Literature from 
the middle of the Eighteenth Century” (4 vols., 1812-14) 
and a “General Repertory of Literature” (8 vols., 1793- 
1809). His capital work is the excellent “ Encyclopedia 
of Sciences and Arts” (“Allgemeine Encyklopadie der 
Wissenschaften und Kiinste”), which he began conjointly 
with Gruber, and of which he edited seventeen volumes 
(1818-28). After his death, which occurred Jan. 16, 1828, 
it was continued by Gruber and others. lie is called the 
founder of German bibliography. 

Erse. See Gaelic Language. 

Ers'kine (David Stewart), F. R. S., eleventh earl 
of Buchan, and Lord Cardross, born in 1742, a brother 
of Lord Chancellor Erskine, was the author of several an¬ 


tiquarian papers, “Lives and Writings of 1 letchcr of Sal- 
toun and the Poet Thomson” (1792), and other works. He 
was a man of eccentric character. Died in 1829. 

Erskine (Ebenezer), a Scottish preacher and the 
founder of the Secession Church, was born June 22, 1680. 
He preached at Portmoak, in Kinross, from 1703 to 1731, 
and acquired a high reputation. In 1731 he removed to 
Sterling, where he advocated popular rights in the settle¬ 
ment of ministers, and differed from the majority of the 
General Assembly in relation to lay patronage. lie was 
deposed or suspended in 1733. In 1736, Erskine and his 
friends formally seceded and organized the Secession Church. 
Died June 22, 1756. In 1847 the Secession Church united 
with the Relief Church to form the United Presbyterians. 

Erskine (Henry), an able Scottish lawyer, born in 
Edinburgh in 1746, was a brother of Thomas, Lord Erskine, 
noticed below. He was a Whig in politics, became lord 
advocate of Scotland in 1782, and again in 1806. He was 
eloquent and witty, and was distinguished for tact and fas¬ 
cination of manner. During some part of his career he was 
the most eminent member of the Scottish bar. Died in 1817. 

Erskine (John), eleventh earl of Mar, a Scottish Jaco¬ 
bite and ambitious politician, was born at Alloa in 1675. 
He was appointed secretary for Scotland in 1708. In Sept., 
1715, he took arms for the Pretender, and obtained the com¬ 
mand of about 12,000 insurgents. He was defeated by the 
duke of Argyle at Dunblane in November of that year, and 
soon escaped to the Continent. Died in May, 1732.»' 

Erskine (John), D. D., a Scottish divine, a son of the 
preceding, was born June 2, 1721. He was ordained min¬ 
ister of Kirkintilloch in 1744, and of Culross in 1753. In 
1758 he was translated to the New Grey Friars’ church, 
Edinburgh, where he became the leader of the orthodox and 
popular party in the Church. He was promoted in 1767 to 
the Old Grey Friars’ church, where he was a colleague of 
Dr. Robertson, who was the leader of the moderate party. 
Erskine wrote many theological works, which are highly 
esteemed. Died Jan. 19,180*3. (See Sir II. M. Wellwood, 
“ Life of John Erskine,” 1818.) * / 

Erskine (John) of Carnoch, an eminent Scottish jurist, 
born in 1695, was a son of Col. John Erskine and a grandson 
of Lord Cardross. He was appointed professor of Scottish 
law in the University of Edinburgh in 1737, and filled that 
chair until 1765. He published in 1754 “"Principles of the 
Law of Scotland,” and wrote an important standard work 
entitled “ Institutes of the Law of Scotland,” which was 
published in 1773. It is a work of high authority. Died 
in 1765. v 

Erskine (Ralph), a Scottish theologian,born at Moni- 
laws March 18, 1685, was a brother of Ebenezer, noticed 
above. He was ordained minister of Dunfermline in 1711, 
and attained eminence as a preacher. In 1737 he joined 
the Secession Church. He was author of “ Gospel Sonnets ” 
and other religious works. Died Nov. 6, 1752. 

Erskine (Thomas), Lord, a celebrated British orator 
and lawyer, born in Edinburgh Jan. 21, 1750, was the 
youngest son of Henry David, earl of Buchan. His father, 
whose income was about £200 a year, could not afford to 
give him a liberal education for a learned profession. Young 
Erskine therefore entered the navy in 1764 as a midship¬ 
man, after he had attended the High School of Edinburgh. 
Four years later he purchased a commission in the army, 
and in 1770 he married a daughter of Daniel Moore, M. P. 
In the social circles of London he was admired for his ele¬ 
gant manners, colloquial powers, and genial disposition. 
Renouncing the military profession, which he disliked, he 
resolved to study law, and was admitted as a student in 
Lincoln’s Inn in April, 1775. In Jan., 1776, he entered 
Trinity College, Cambridge, as a gentleman commoner. It 
is said that in this part of his career he was very poor, suf¬ 
fered great privations, and boasted that he did not know a 
lord out of his own family. He was called to the bar in 
1778, and obtained immediate and rapid success in his pro¬ 
fession. One of his first clients was Capt. Baillie, prose¬ 
cuted for a libel on Lord Sandwich, who was then a cabinet 
minister. He made his debut in a court crowded with 
eminent men, yet when the judge interrupted him by the 
assertion that Lord Sandwich was not before the court, ho 
had the courage to reply, “ I know that he is not before the 
court, and for that reason I intend to bring him before the 
court.” Lord Campbell expresses the opinion that Erskine’s 
plea in this case was “ the most wonderful forensic effort of 
which we have any account in our annals.” In 1781 he 
defended Lord George Gordon, who was tried for treason 
and was acquitted. He was elected in 1783 to Parliament, 
in which his success was not so brilliant as in the forum. 
He was a Whig in politics, and was re-elected in 1790. In 
several political trials that occurred during the excitement 
of the French revolution ho bravely defended the liberty of 




























ERSKINE 


the pre^s and the friends of reform whom the ministers 
prosecuted on a charge of constructive treason. He was 
counsel tor Mr. Hardy and Horne Tooke, who were tried 
in 1794 and were acquitted. On the formation of a Whig 
ministry by Fox and Grenville in Feb., 1806, he was ap¬ 
pointed lord chancellor, and was raised to the peerage as 
Baron Erskine ot Restormel Castle. He resigned this office 
when the Tories came into power early in 1807. - He was 
the author of “Armata,” a political romance, and a “ View 
of the Causes and Consequences of the War with France,” 
which ran through forty-eight editions. He died Nov. 17, 
1823, leaving a son and several daughters. Many persons 
consider him the greatest advocate who ever practised at 
the English bar. “He spoke,” says Lord Campbell, “as 
his clients respectively would have spoken, being endowed 
with his genius ; and those who heard him seemed to be in¬ 
spired with a new ethereal existence.” IIis printed speeches, 
enriched with noble thoughts, brilliant imagery, and beauti¬ 
ful diction, retain in a great measure their original impres¬ 
siveness. (See Lord Campbell, “ Lives of the Lord Chan¬ 
cellors ;” Lord Brougham, “Memoir of Erskine,” prefixed 
to a collection of Erskine’s speeches, 4 vols., 1847.) 

Erskine (Thomas) op Linlethan, a member of the 
Scottish bar, who published several theological treatises, 
the best known and most valuable of which is “On the 
Internal Evidence for the Truth of Revealed Religion,” 
3d ed. Edinburgh, 1821. 

Erskine College, at Due West, Abbeville co., S. C., 
was organized in 1839, with the Rev. E. E. Pressly (after¬ 
wards made D. D.) for its president, assisted by several 
professors, and belongs to and is under the supervision of 
the Associated Reformed Synod of the South. Although 
the college had to struggle with low salaries for professors, 
with the want of suitable buildings, libraries, and scien¬ 
tific apparatus, and other inconveniences, it had a reason¬ 
able share of prosperity for the first seven years of its ex¬ 
istence. Dr. Pressly resigned the presidency in 1846, and 
was succeeded by the Rev. R. C. Grier, D. D. About 1853 
the plan of endowing the college by the sale of scholar¬ 
ships was adopted, and the result was that some $50,000 
were raised. These figures were enlarged afterwards by 
private donations of Capt. John Blair and Col. William 
Wright of Yorkville, S. C., and of Christopher Strong, 
Esq., of Tennessee, making the sum-total amount to $70,000. 
In the mean time four large and beautiful buildings were 
erected for college uses—the college proper, Lindsay Hall, 
the Euphemian and Philomathean Halls—while a fine tel¬ 
escope, the gift of William Johnson of Alabama, crowns 
the observatory. In 1858, Dr. Grier, finding that the 
presidency of the college and the pastorate of Due West 
congregation were too exacting on his time and ability, 
resigned the former, that he might devote himself more 
fully to the latter. In 1859 the Rev. E. L. Patton was 
elected president, but the war breaking out some two years 
afterwards, he resigned, soon after which the institution 
was suspended. 

The college was re-opened at the close of the war under 
unfavorable auspices, the country being demoralized and 
private and public institutions impoverished. Dr. Grier 
was re-elected in 1867, and with the assistance of the pro¬ 
fessors and other friends succeeded in resuscitating the 
college. Unfortunately, however, he died in 1871, leaving 
a vacancy which was hard to fill. In September of that 
year the synod elected the Rev. William Moffat Grier to 
fill the place of his father. For the last few years the insti¬ 
tution has subsisted chiefly on what is termed the “five 
years’ endowment.” Efforts are now being made to raise 
a new and more permanent endowment of $100,000, and if 
successful the institution will no longer be in a precarious 
condition. 

The faculty now consists of the Rev. William M. Grier, 
D. D., president and professor of mental and moral science; 
Rev. J. P. Pressly, D. D., professor of Greek; Rev. J. N. 
Young, professor of mathematics and the natural sciences; 
WilMam S. Lowry, A. M., professor of the Latin language; 
and William Hood, A. M., professor of chemistry, history, 
and belles lettres. A\ illiam M. Grier. 

Er'ving, a post-township pf Franklin co., Mass., on the 
Vermont and Massachusetts R. R., 42 miles AY. of Fitch¬ 
burg. Pop. 579. 

Er'win, a township of Steuben co., N. Y. It has ex¬ 
tensive manufactures of lumber and other commodities, and 
contains the village of Painted Post. Pop. 1977. 

Erwin (AerintANDER R.), D. D., a minister of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church South, born in Louisiana Jan. 
12, 1820. His father was a Baptist minister. He was 
licensed to preach in 1840, and joined the Tennessee Con¬ 
ference in 1842. He occupied a high rank in the ministry, 
presided over the Clarksville Female Academy and the 
Huntsville Female College, and while stationed in Nash- 


ESCALADE. 1615 


ville received the degree of D. D. from the Nashville Uni¬ 
versity. He died of consumption in Huntsville, Ala., Jan. 
10, 1860. T. 0. Summers. 

Erysip'elas [Gr. epvcmreAa?, probably from Ipv6p6<;, “ red,” 
and ne\oq, akin to the Lat. pellis, “ skin”], a disease prob¬ 
ably of miasmatic origin, sometimes associated with a pecu¬ 
liar rose-colored eruption of the skin, whence the name. The 
inflammation attending this disease is of a peculiar low 
type which is but little understood. It may terminate 
favorably by resolution, less favorably by abscess (which is 
apt to be diffuse— i. e. not limited to a single spot—and is 
then very dangerous), or the termination may be in gan¬ 
grene and the death of the patient. The disease is very 
common in military hospitals, seating itself in wounds, when 
it proves frequently fatal. Erysipelatous diseases some¬ 
times assume an infectious and almost an epidemic charac¬ 
ter. Puerperal fever, peritonitis, phlebitis, and a long cata¬ 
logue of diseases of low type are akin to erysipelas. Its in¬ 
fectious character is admitted. The famous old “ Dread- 
naught” hospital-ship in the Thames became so poisoned 
by it that she had to be destroyed. The best treatment is 
a sustaining one. Pure air, a milk diet, and the use of 
quinia and iron, with stimulants, are in general indicated. 
The sulphites and other disinfectant remedies may be em¬ 
ployed. Externally, it is safest to use only the blandest 
applications, carbolized lotions, etc. 

Erzgebirge, 6 nts-ga-beeR'ga (?. e. “ore mountains”), 
a mountain-chain of Southern Germany, extends along the 
boundary between Bohemia and Saxony, and is nearly 120 
miles in length. The Schwarzwald and Keilberg, the high¬ 
est parts of this chain, have an altitude of about 4000 feet, 
and are of granitic formation. The Erzgebirge is rich in 
minerals, among which are silver, tin, iron, and cobalt. On 
the S. E. side it presents a steej), abrupt declivity. 

Erzroom', Erzroum, or Erzrum [i.e. “land of 
Rome” or Byzantium, so called because it was originally 
founded under the Eastern Roman empire], a fortified town 
of Armenia (Asiatic Turkey), is on a fertile plain on the 
river Kara-Soo, a branch of the Euphrates, about 120 miles 
S. E. of Trebizond. It is about 6000 feet above the level of 
the sea. The streets are narrow and filthy; the houses are 
mostly built of mud, wood, or sun-dried bricks. It is the 
seat of an Armenian archbishop. It has a large citadel, a 
custom-house, about forty mosques, several Armenian and 
Greek churches, and a number of bazaars. Its position 
renders it an important military post. Erzroom has an 
extensive trade, which is carried on partly by caravans. 
Pop. estimated at 50,000, five-sixths of whom are Turks. 
A town called Theodosiojjolis was founded here in 415 A. D. 
In 1201 it was taken by the Seljooks, who are said to have 
destroyed here 100 churches. In 1859 an earthquake de¬ 
stroyed a considerable portion of the town. 

Esarhad'don [called in the cuneiform inscriptions 
AssJivr-akh-iddina] , the Old Testament name of an As¬ 
syrian king, the son and successor of Sennacherib. He ap¬ 
pears to have reigned from 680 to about 667 or 660 B. C. Ho 
is shown by the monuments to have been one of the most 
powerful of Assyrian monarchs. His rule extended north¬ 
ward to Armenia, on the west it included Syria and Cy¬ 
prus, while on the south Egypt, and even Ethiopia, were 
claimed by him. He built a palace at Babylon. Among 
the numerous and splendid remains of his reign is the 
south-west palace of Nimrood. 

E' sail (“rough,” “hairy”), the elder twin-brother of 
the patriarch Jacob (Israel), and the son of Isaac and Re- 
bekah. He took his name from his hairiness of body. The 
story of his marriage to two Canaanitish and an Ishmaelite 
woman, of his loss of birthright through the craft of Re- 
bekah and Jacob, and of his quarrel and reconciliation with 
Jacob, are beautifully told in the book of Genesis. He was 
the progenitor of the Edomites, who dwelt in Mount Scir, 
otherwise called Edom. 

Escalade [Lat. seala, “ladder”], an operation of war, 
is an assault aided by ladders as the instrument of sur¬ 
mounting the obstacles presented by the scarp and counter¬ 
scarp walls (or slopes) of a fortification in which no breach 
has been made; sometimes even a rapid blow directed at 
an unbesieged place with hope of success by surprise (e. g. 
the capture by the English troops of Almarez, Sept., 1812). 
Among the most famous escalades arc those of Adrianople 
by the Goths; of Beauvais by Charles the Bold, in 1472; 
of Fecamp in 1593; of Prague in 1741: still more remark¬ 
able, that at Corfu in 1717 by Count Schulenberg, who, re¬ 
duced to extremity in the defence by the capture of the 
outivorks, hastily prepared ladders, and by a desperate as¬ 
sault by escalade, retook them, and thus saved the place. 
The second siege of Badajos (1812) presents an event un¬ 
paralleled in the history of sieges, that after twenty days’ 
open trenches and the opening of three practicable breaches, 















1016 


ESCALOP SHELL—ESCAPEMENT. 


two entire divisions of troops should, at the moment of as¬ 
sault, be employed to escalade the defences where entire; 
that each should succeed, while the regular assault on the 
breaches should be repulsed with terrible slaughter. The 
castle was successfully scaled where the walls were eighteen 
to twenty-four feet high, and “tolerably flanked;” the Bas¬ 
tion St. Vincente had a scarp-wall thirty-one and a halt 
feet high, flanked by four guns, palisaded covered way, a 
counterscarp wall twelve feet high, and a “cunette” ditch 
five and a half feet deep. 

Escalop Shell, in heraldry, is a shell used to decorate 
palmers and crusaders, and signifies that the bearer has 
made long voyages by sea. The common name is scallop 
shell. The edible escalop of Europe ( Pecten maximue) is 
considered a great delicacy. It belongs to the oyster family. 
The heraldic escalop-shcil, worn by palmers, belonged to 
the Pecten Jacobsens, which, as monkish writers assert, was 
the cognizance of Saint James the Less. The genus is 
very large and worldwide in distribution, there being more 
than 100 living and nearly 500 extinct species. 

EscarrPbia, a county in the S. of Alabama. Area, 1000 
square miles. It is intersected by the Conecuh and Escam¬ 
bia rivers. The surface is level. Corn, rice, and wool are 
staple products. It is traversed by the Mobile and Mont¬ 
gomery R. R. Capital, Pollard. Pop. 4041. 

Escambia, a county which forms the IV. extremity of 
Florida, bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. It is bounded on 
the E. by the Escambia River and on the W. by the Per¬ 
dido. The surface is level; some of the soil sandy, but a 
part is very fertile. There are extensive forests of pine and 
hard wood. Lumber, rice, wool, etc. are the chief products. 
It is traversed by the Pensacola and Louisville R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Pensacola. Pop. 7817. 

Escanaw'ba, or Escanaba, a post-village, capital 
of Delta co., Mich., 360 miles N. of Chicago, on the N. end 
of Green Bay r and on the line of the Peninsular division of 
the Chicago and North-western R. R. It has a savings 
bank, three churches, a blast-furnace, eight hotels, and one 
newspaper. It has a good harbor, and the principal busi¬ 
ness is shipping Lake Superior iron ores: upwards of 
500,000 tons are sent yearly. Pop. of township, 1370. 

Charles D. Jewell, Prop. “Tribune.” 

Escape, in law, means the departure of a prisoner from 
confinement before he has been released by process of law. 
Any liberty given to a prisoner not authorized by law is 
technically an escape. Escapes may occur either in civil 
or criminal cases. They are either negligent or voluntary 
—negligent, when the prisoner escapes without the consent 
of the officer having him in custody ; voluntary, when such 
officer consents to the escape. In criminal cases an escape 
is a public offence, of which the prisoner may be convicted, 
as also the officer through whose act or neglect the escape 
occurs. In civil actions there is an important distinction 
between mesne and final process, the former being that 
which is issued between the commencement and the termi¬ 
nation of the action; and the latter, that which is used to 
enforce the judgment. If the escape be voluntary, the 
officer is liable in either case; but if he be negligent, he 
will not be liable in the case of mesne process if the pris¬ 
oner is returned to his custody before an action is com¬ 
menced against him for his neglect; though he will be lia¬ 
ble in any event in the case of final process. The damages 
recoverable are measured by the injury sustained. In final 
process these would in general be the amount of the judg¬ 
ment. Nothing will excuse an escape but an act of God 
or of the public enemy or of the law. An instance of the 
latter would be an order of the House of Representatives 
at Washington directing the attendance of a person as a 
witness who was- held by a sheriff of a State court in cus¬ 
tody under an execution in a civil action against his person. 

Escapement, in watches and clocks, the device by 
which the rotatory motion of the wheels gives rise to or 
perpetuates the vibration of a pendulum or balance-wheel. 

Escapements have received various forms, many of which 
arc still in use. The earliest, introduced by Huyghens, about 
1650, was called the crown-wheel or vertical escapement. 
The crown-wheel has its teeth not in the plane of the wheel, 
but in a cylindrical surface of which the axis of the wheel 
is the axis. In the crown-wheel of the clock or watch, the 
teeth were acute-angled, and inclined in a common direction 
like saw-teeth. The axis of the pendulum, or balance, was 
longer than the diameter of the crown-wheel over which it 
extended. It carried two short arms or projections, called 
pallets, set in different azimuths, in such a manner that 
when one of them, being encountered by a tooth, was pushed 
out of the way by the advancing wheel, the opposite one 
was caught by another tooth, which pushed in the opposite 
direction. Thus the wheel made an intermittent progress 
as the teeth successively escaped from the pallets. 


In a clock, when the pendulum is disturbed from the 
mean position, it is brought back by gravity. In the watch 
the same result is produced for the balance wheel by the 
action of the spiral spring attached to the verge, called the 
hair spring. The escapement most commonly in use for 
both clocks and watches is the anchor escapement, first in¬ 
troduced by Hooke in 1656. It is so called from its resem¬ 
blance to the fiukes of an anchor, the shaft of the anchor in 
the clock being parallel to the pendulum and connected with 
it. The escapement-wheel is a spear-wheel. The pallets 
project from the extremities of the anchor flukes, meeting 
the wheel at the points where tangent lines from the centre 
of motion would touch it. When one pallet is engaged with 
the wheel, the other is free; and v. v. The extremity of the 
pallet is inclined in such a manner that, os the tooth es¬ 
capes, it gives an impulse to the pendulum. As, after the 
pallet first engages a tooth, the swing continues for some 
time in the same direction, anchor escapements are of two 
kinds, according to the manner of their action upon the 
train during this swing. In Hooke’s escapement, the sur¬ 
faces of the pallets are so inclined that by their pressure on 
the tooth, they turn the train slightly backward, or cause it 
to recoil, up to the end of the swing. In the dead-beat es¬ 
capement, invented by Graham early in the last century, 
the surfaces of the pallets are circular arcs having the cen¬ 
tre of motion for their centre; so that during the swing 
the train simply stands still. Though the dead-beat es¬ 
capement is now generally used in clocks, there are not 
wanting those who prefer the recoiling escapement. Be¬ 
sides the anchor dead-beat, there are several other very in¬ 
genious forms, among which may be mentioned Lepante’s 
pin-wheel escapement, McDowall’s ruby-disk escapement, 
and Denison’s three-legged dead escapement. 

The only escapement used for watches till about 1700, 
was the crown-wheel escapement. Graham invented the 
cylinder escapement, so called because a hollow cylinder of 
steel or ruby replaces in part the verge of the balance. 
This cylinder is cut away on one side for about one-fourth 
of the circumference, in order to admit the pallets, which 
are small triangular pieces of steel, to enter the interior. 
During the swing the pallet rests with little friction on the 
smooth exterior or interior surface. In entering and in 
escaping, it gives an impulse to the balance. The pallet is 
not in the plane of the wheel, but stands on a short stem at 
right angles to this plane. Hence, the cylinder must be 
much more extensively cut away at the point where the 
wheel passes; and on this account, the cylinder escape¬ 
ment, though performing very well, is too frail to be popu¬ 
lar in use. The duplex escapement of Lepine receives its 
name from having a double escapement. The escapement- 
wheel carries spur teeth rather widely separated, which en¬ 
gage at every double vibration with a notch in a cylinder 
forming part of the verge, and constructed of a gem. The 
verge itself carries also an arm which engages with a set 
of pins, or crown-wheel teeth, fixed in the escapement- 
wheel at right angles to its plane. The impulse is chiefly 
derived from the escapes of this arm, but proceeds to some 
extent from those of the spur teeth also. It takes place 
only in one direction, and hence the system is called by the 
French an escapement d coup perdu. The duplex escape¬ 
ment, though attended with little friction and running with¬ 
out oil, is subject to the disadvantage that a sudden jerk 
may check the swing of the balance and prevent the escape. 
If a single such failure occurs, the watch will stop. 

The lever escapement is a dead-beat anchor escapement, 
first applied to the watch by Mudge, in 1793. The lever is 
attached to the anchor, generally crosswise, or at right 
angles to the proper position of the anchor-shaft. At one 
extremity it presents a notch into which a pin attached to 
the verge strikes at each swing in either direction. This 
tilts the anchor and allows a tooth to escape. Except at 
these moments of locking and unlocking, the balance swings 
entirely free. The lever carries also a pin just at the sum¬ 
mit of the notch, which enters an indent in the verge as the 
lever passes. As there is no other indent, the lever cannot 
tilt except when the verge pin strikes it. 

The escapement which interferes least with the uniformity 
of movement of the train, is the chronometer escapement, 
introduced into England about a century ago by Earnshaw, 
though said to have originated in France. In this, the train 
is locked by a tooth projecting from a light bar tangent to 
the escapement-wheel, which yields by bending and not by 
turning on a pivot, the fixed extremity being a spring. 
The free extremity carries another delicate spring parallel 
to itself and extending a little beyond it. A tooih on the 
verge passes this slight spring in one direction without sen¬ 
sible resistance. On its return the bar behind the spring 
prevents its bending, and so is carried along with it, un¬ 
locking the train. The train being released, a tooth of the 
escapement-wheel strikes a pin, or enters a notch, con- 
I nected with the verge, and gives an impulse to the balance. 






















ESCARPMENT—ESCHATOLOGY. 


Kill 


This, like the duplex, is an escapement & coup perdu , and 
is liable like that to stop when subjected to sudden jerks. 
Hence chronometers carried on the person sometimes stop; 
but with nautical chronometers this accident hardly ever 
occurs. 

The chronometer escapement is sometimes called a free 
escapement; since the balance is Avholly free from contact 
with any other part ot the work, except in the instant of 
unlocking and receiving the impulse. This is true also of 
the lever escapement; but in that, the unlocking requires 
more force, and is attended with larger friction. 

F. A. P. Barnard. 

Escarp'ment, a geological term applied to the steep 
faces which are often presented by the abrupt terminations 
of strata, and resemble sea-cliffs. These have been caused 
by subaerial denudation, according to Lyell, who thinks the 
term escarpment “ should be confined to the outcrop of par¬ 
ticular formations having a scarped outline, as distinct from 
cliffs due to marine action.” 

Escataw'ba, a post-township of Washington co., Ala. 
Pop. 585. 

Eschar, £s'kar [from the Gr. eaxdpa, “scurf,” “scab”], 
a term applied to the slough caused by fire or caustics; the 
crust or scab, which is dry, rough, and of a gray color. 
(The word “scar” is supposed to have been derived from 
eschar.) 

Eschatol'ogy [Gr. ea-xa-roKoyCa, “ doctrine respecting the 
last things”] is that section in dogmatics which treats of 
the second advent, the intermediate state, the resurrection, 
the last judgmeht, heaven, and hell. Upon these themes 
revelation does not go into minute details, while yet the 
salient points are strongly marked. The passages which 
must be relied upon to furnish the data are Matt, xxv., 1 
Cor. xv., 2 Thess. ii., Rev. xx. and xxi. 

As regards the second advent, the statement in the Apos¬ 
tles’ Creed expresses the catholic faith. Christ “ascended 
into heaven, and sitteth at the right hand of God the Father 
Almighty; from thence he shall come to judge the quick and 
the dead.” According to this symbol, which unquestionably 
presents the doctrine current in the primitive Church, there 
is no advent of Christ upon earth, after his ascension, until 
he leaves his session with the Father and comes directly to 
the final judgment of all mankind. This statement pre¬ 
cludes millenarianism. According to this theory, there are 
two resurrections—the first of the righteous dead only at 
the time of the second advent of Christ, and the second 
that of the righteous and the wicked at the end of the world. 
Between these two resurrections a thousand years intervene, 
during which time Christ reigns personally, in corporeal 
presence, upon the renovated earth. Millenarianism was a 
revival of the later Jewish doctrine of the Messianic king¬ 
dom. Its most flourishing period was between 150 and 250 
A. D. That it was not the general belief of the Church 
even then is proved by the above-quoted statement in the 
Apostles’ Creed. Since that time it has had occasional ad¬ 
vocacy, as by the Anabaptists of the Reformation period 
and the modern Millenarians. 

The doctrine of the intermediate state has been somewhat 
fluctuating in its form, owing to the paucity of the Scrip¬ 
ture data. The representation in the parable of Lazarus 
and Dives has furnished the basis of the general statement 
that the believer is happy and the unbeliever is wretched 
between death and the final judgment; yet the resurrection 
of the body adds somewhat to both the happiness of the 
believer and the misery of the lost. The majority of the 
ancient Fathers, in the opinion of Ilagenbach, believed 
that men do not receive their full recompense of either re¬ 
ward or penalty until after the resurrection of the body. 
The doctrine of the intermediate state was soon vitiated, 
so far as the righteous dead are concerned, by the papal 
notion of purgatory; according to which the believer be¬ 
tween death and the resurrection goes through a painful 
process that cleanses him from remaining sin. The Protest¬ 
ant rejects this, and affirms that at death the soul ot a be¬ 
liever is made perfect in holiness. What precisely is the 
difference between the condition of a believer as disem¬ 
bodied and as re-embodied he does not affirm. He is con¬ 
tent with denying purgatorial pains and purification, as 
well as an unconscious sleep of the soul between death and 
the resurrection. 

The doctrine of the resurrection of the body was from 
the beginning a cardinal and striking tenet of Christianity. 
Perhaps no article of the new faith made greater impres¬ 
sion at first view upon the pagan. IV hen the philosophers 
of Athens “ heard of the resurrection of the dead, some 
mocked, and others said, We will hear thee again of this 
matter.” All the early Fathers maintain this dogma with 
great earnestness and unanimity against the objections of 
skeptics, of whom Celsus was acute and scoffing in his at¬ 
tack. Most of them believed in the resuscitation ot the 
102 


very same body materially. Justin Martyr says that crip¬ 
ples will rise as cripples, but at the instant of resurrection, 
it believers, will be made physically perfect. The Alex- 
drine school alone adopted a spiritual theory of the resur¬ 
rection. Origen went so far in this direction as to assert 
that a belief in the resurrection of the body is not abso¬ 
lutely essential to the profession of Christianity, provided 
the immortality of the soul were maintained. * But these 
idealizing views were generally combated with great ear¬ 
nestness, and in some instances evoked an extremely gross 
and carnal view in opposition. The Patristic theory of the 
resurrection passed into the Middle Ages with little varia¬ 
tion, excepting that in connection with the materialism of 
the papacy it naturally became more materialistic in its 
structure. The poetry of Dante and the painting of An¬ 
gelo powerfully exhibit it. In the Protestant Church the 
existence of a real body, and of a body that preserves the 
personal identity, is affirmed; but the materialism of the 
Papal, and to some degree of the Patristic, Church is 
avoided by a careful attention to Saint Paul’s dictum : 
“There is a natural body (o-w^a \f/vx<-Kov), and there is a 
spiritual body (erto/ia Trvevp.a.Tuc'ov).” 

The doctrine of the last judgment was, from the first, 
immediately connected with that of the resurrection of the 
body. Mankind “ must all appear before the judgment- 
seat of Christ, that every one may receive the things done 
in his body.” 2 Cor. v. 10. The Fathers founded their 
views of the day of doom upon the representations and 
imagery of Scripture. They believed that a general con¬ 
flagration will accompany the last judgment which will de¬ 
stroy the world, though some ascribed a purifying agency 
to it. Some of them, like Tertullian and the more rhetorical 
of the Greek Fathers, enter into minute details, while others, 
like Augustine, endeavor to define dogmatically the facts 
couched in the figurative language of the Bible. In the 
Middle Ages representations varied with the bent of the 
individual theologian. One popular opinion was that the 
judgment will be held in the valley of Jehoshaphat. 
Aquinas maintained that the last judgment will take place 
mentaliter, because the oral trial of each individual would 
require too much time. In the modern Church the course 
of thought upon this doctrine has been similar to that in 
the ancient and mediaeval. The symbols of the different 
Protestant communions explicitly affirm a day of judgment 
at the end of the world, but enter into no description. In¬ 
dividual speculations, as of old, vibrate between the ex¬ 
tremes of materialism and idealism. 

That the blessedness of the redeemed is endless has been 
the uniform faith of the Church. Representations concerning 
the nature of this happiness vary with the culture and intel¬ 
lectual spirit of the age and the individual. Justin Martyr 
regards the blessedness of heaven as consisting mainly in 
the continuation and increase of the happiness of the mil¬ 
lennial reign. Origen holds that the blessed dwell in the 
aerial regions, and pass from one heaven to another as they 
advance in holiness; at the same time he condemns those 
who expect merely sensuous enjoyment. The Greek theo¬ 
logians Gregory of Nazianzum and Gregory of Nyssa follow 
Origen. Augustine believed that the heavenly happiness 
consists in the enjoyment of peace which passes knowledge 
and the beatific vision of God. One important element in 
it consists in deliverance from all hazard of apostasy—the 
non pdsse peccare et mori. The Schoolmen held the Patristic 
theories, but with an endeavor to systematize. They divided 
heaven into three parts—the visible heaven,or the firmament; 
the spiritual heaven, where saints and angels dwell; and the 
intellectual heaven, where the beatific vision of the Trinity 
is enjoyed. The modern Church maintains the doctrine of 
everlasting blessedness in substantially the same form -with 
the ancient and mediaeval. The tendency to materialize or 
to spiritualize it varies with the grade of culture and modes 
of thinking. 

The punishment inflicted upon the lost was regarded by 
the ancient Church as endless. The principal exception 
appears in the Alexandrine school, represented by Clement 
and Origen. But Clement is careful to say that the doc¬ 
trine of endless perdition must be preached, in order to de¬ 
ter men from sin, although the hope of the final restoration 
of all is permitted to the thinker. Some faint traces of a 
belief in the remission of penalty in the future life arc vis¬ 
ible in the writings of Didymus of Alexandria. Gregory 
of Nyssa speaks more distinctly, pointing out the correc¬ 
tive design of punishment inflicted upon the wicked. The 
annihilation of the wicked was broached by Arnobius. d ho 
mediaeval Church was likewise a unit in holding to the 
endlessness of punishment. The modern Church has also 
received the historical faith upon the subject, though re¬ 
cently a tendency appears in individuals and parties to the 
doctrine of a second probation and the final restoration of 
all mankind. The argument most relied upon is derived 
from the general nature of the Divine benevolence, rather 













1618 


ESCHEAT—ESDEAS, BOOKS OF. 


than from the testimony of Scripture. It is generally al¬ 
lowed, even by opponents, that the Bible, taken as a whole, 
apparently teaches the doctrine of endless punishment, and 
especially that the descriptions which Christ gives of the 
transactions and decisions of the day of judgment preclude 
the idea of a second probation. W. G. T. Shedd. 

Escheat', a reverting of lands to their original owner 
(lord of the fee) because of some obstruction in the course 
of descent, either by failure of heirs or attainder of treason 
or felony; and the estate itself thus reverting is sometimes 
called an escheat. It differs from forfeiture in the fact 
that the latter is a penalty for a crime, and the property 
forfeited accrues to the king; while escheat depends solely 
on the failure of heirs, and the land reverts to the former 
proprietor. It was one of the incidents of the feudal sys¬ 
tem that when the heirs of the person last seized failed, the 
land reverted to the lord of the fee from whom it was de¬ 
rived. In this country, where the feudal tenure does not ex¬ 
ist, the doctrine of escheat has a limited application ; still, if 
an owner of land dies without heirs it escheats to the state. 
Incorporeal rights, such as ways and commons, do not es¬ 
cheat, but become extinct. It is still an unsettled question 
whether a trust estate will escheat by the death of the bene¬ 
ficiary without heirs, some authorities maintaining that the 
trustee is rather discharged from the trust. The land of a 
corporation, in case it becomes extinct, reverts to the grant¬ 
or, and not to the state. The state takes an escheat subject 
to any charges or encumbrances attaching to the land when 
its title accrued. A proprietor may prevent an escheat by 
conveying or devising his estate. In this country the sub¬ 
ject is generally regulated by statute. 

Es.ch'enbach', von (Wolfram), a famous German 
mediaeval poet or minnesinger, was born in Bavaria of a 
noble family. In the year 1204 he came to the court of 
Hermann, landgrave of Thuringia, whose bounty he en¬ 
joyed. He died after 1218 and before 1225. His principal 
poems are “ Parcival ” and “ Titurel,” which have been trans¬ 
lated into modern German, and are much admired. They 
display a rich imagination and great mastery of language. 

Esch'enmay'er (Karl Adolf), a German philosopher 
and mystic, born at Neuenberg, in Wiirtemberg, July 4, 
1768. He became professor of philosophy and medicine at 
Tubingen in 1811, and obtained the chair of practical phil¬ 
osophy there in 1818. He wrote, besides other works, “ The 
Philosophy of Religion” (3 vols., 1818-24). Hied Nov. 17, 
1852. 

Esch'er (Johann Heinrich Alfred), a Swiss lawyer 
and statesman, born at Zurich Feb. 20,1819, was liberal in 
politics. He opposed the Jesuits and the Sonderbund, was 
elected a member of the council of the interior in 1845, and 
became president of the grand council in 1847. He advo¬ 
cated a reform of the federal system and a greater central¬ 
ization. In Dec., 1848, he was chosen president of the new 
council of regency. 

Eschscholt'zia Califor'nica, the systematic name 
of a plant of the natural order Papaveraeeas, a native of 
California. It is cultivated for the beauty of its flowers, 
which are yellow. The calyx separates from the flower- 
stalk when the flower expands, and resembles the extin¬ 
guisher of a candle. This genus was named in honor of 
J. F. Eschscholtz (1795-1831), a German botanist. 

Eschwege, Ssh-va'ga, a walled town of Prussia, in the 
province of Hesse-Nassau, is on the river Werra, 26 miles 
E. S. E. of Cassel. It has a castle, a realschule, and man¬ 
ufactures of linen and woollen goods. Pop. in 1871, 7377. 

Eschweiler, ^sh'vi'ler, a town of Rhenish Prussia, is 
on the railway from Cologne to Aix-la-Chapelle, 8 miles by 
railway E. N. E. of the latter. It has extensive manufac¬ 
tures of ribbons, canvas, needles, glass, machinery, and 
woollen goods. Mines of zinc and lead occur in the vicin¬ 
ity. Pop. in 1871, 15,550. 

Escobar' y Mendo'za (Antonio), a Spanish Jesuit 
and casuist, born at Valladolid in 1589. He wrote “ Moral 
Theology ” (1646), “ SummulaCasuuin Conscientiae ” (1626), 
and other works. The lax morality of his writings was 
censured by Pascal in some of his “ Provincial Letters.” 
Died July 4, 1669. 

Escosu'ra, de la (Patricio), a Spanish author, was 
born in Madrid Nov. 5, 1807. He was banished as early 
as 1824 on account of his connection with a secret po¬ 
litical society. In 1826 he returned and joined the army, 
after having studied in Paris and London. In 1829 he be¬ 
came an officer, and joining the Carlists was exiled in 1834, 
but returned in 1835. Having been again banished, he was 
made secretary of state (in 1843) under Narvaez, and min¬ 
ister of the interior. Besides several novels, plays, and 
poems, he published a “ Constitutional History of England ” 
(1859), “Artistic and Monumental Spain,” and other works. 

Escrow, a deed deposited by a grantor with a third 


person, to be delivered to the grantee on the happening of 
a certain condition. Until the condition is fulfilled and the 
escrow delivered, it has no effect as a deed, and the title of 
the estate remains in the grantor. It takes effect, in gen¬ 
eral, as a deed from the second delivery. Where the ends 
of justice require it, it may be referred, for its validity by 
a fiction of law, termed “ relation,” back to the first de¬ 
livery. 

Escu'rial, or Esco'rial [Sp. escoria, “dross,” applied 
to all places where there are old or exhausted mines], a 
monastery and royal palace near Madrid, in Spain, built 
by Philip II., and dedicated to Saint Lawrence on occasion 
of the victory of St.-Quentin in 1557, on that saint’s day.. 
It is whimsically built in the form of the gridiron on which 
that saint is said to have been broiled alive. The work was 
begun by Juan Bautista de Toledo in 1563, and completed 
by his pupil, Juan de Herrara, in 1584. The cross-bars of 
the gridiron are x'epresented by ranges of buildings sepa¬ 
rated by intervening courts, and which were formerly in¬ 
habited by monks and ecclesiastics. The main portion of 
the building is 740 Spanish feet long, and 580 in breadth. 
The projection which forms the royal palace is 460 feet in 
length. The height of the edifice is about sixty feet, and 
at each angle is a square tower 200 feet high. It is one 
of the largest and perhaps one of the most tasteless build¬ 
ings in Europe, though grand from its size. The church in 
the centre of this enormous mass of stone is very large and 
rich. The Pantheon, a repository beneath this church, is 
the place of interment for the royal family, whose remains 
are deposited in tombs of marble placed in niches, one above 
another. The richest part of this edifice, however, was that 
which contained the valuable pictures, and which altogether 
formed the best collection of the productions of the first 
masters that any place in Europe displayed. The French, 
when in possession of the Escurial, removed many of its 
best treasures, which included the finest productions of 
Rubens, Titian, Spagnoletto, Raphael, Baroccio, Velasquez, 
Murillo, and others. The most valuable treasures of the 
Escurial, however, are the immense collection of ancient 
manuscripts preserved in the library, especially those of the 
Arabian writers. ( Encyc . Brit.) In 1872 it was fired by 
lightning, suffering some damage. 

Escutch'eon [Fr. ecusson, from the Lat. scutum, a 
“ shield ”], a heraldic term applied to a shield on which 
arms are represented. The points of the escutcheon are 
nine in number, being the parts named in order to express 
the local position of the charges borne on the field. An 
escutcheon of pretence is the shield on which a man carries 
the arms of his wife, if she is an heiress and has children. 
It is placed in the centre of his own shield, and is mostly 
of the same form. 

Escutcheon, or The Milk Mirror, in the Guenon 
method of selecting milch cows, is the shield-like outline 
upon the back of the cow’s udder and the adjacent parts, 
formed by the upward growth of the hair. Some writers 
call the whole outline the “ mirror,” and the upper part 
only the “escutcheon.” It is found by careful observation 
that the size and perfection of these marks afford valuable 
means of judging of the milking qualities of cows, though 
much experience is required in learning to make the esti¬ 
mate. (See C. L. Flint, “Milch Cows and Dairy Farm¬ 
ing,” 1859.) 

Esdrae'lon, in the apocryphal book of Judith, Es- 
drelom [from the Gr. ’Eo-SparjAa, a corruption of the He¬ 
brew Jezrecl\, the most picturesque, most fertile, and his¬ 
torically most important plain in Palestine, “ lying between 
Tabor and Carmel, and between the hills of Galilee on the 
north and those of Samaria on the south.” In Scripture 
it is twice (2 Chron. xxxv. 22 ; Zech. xii. 11) called “the 
valley (plain) of Megiddo.” Jezreel is properly the south¬ 
eastern part of it, although this name is sometimes given 
to the whole. It is triangular in form, the length of its 
south-eastern side being about 15 miles, its south-western 
about 18 miles, and its northern about 12 miles. Its sur¬ 
face, whose elevation is about 400 feet above the Mediter¬ 
ranean, is slightly undulating. It sends off towards the 
Jordan three great arms or branches, which are separated 
from each other by the mountains of Gilboa and Little 
Hermon. Only one of these arms, however (the middle 
one), declines eastward. The greater part of the plain is 
drained by the Ivishon, which empties into the Mediter¬ 
ranean near Acre. This great plain has been the scene of 
several important battles, and with it are associated the 
names of Barak, Gideon, Saul, Josiah, and Napoleon. (See 
Robinson, “ Physical Geography of the Holy Land,” 1865.) 

Es'dras, Books of, are certain booksof the Old Tes¬ 
tament and of the Apocrypha ascribed to Ezra, whose name 
is Grmcised into Esclras, following the Scptuagint. The 
canonical books of Ezra and Nehemiah (as they are called 
in the authorized English version) are denominated in the 












ESK—ESPLANADE. 1619 


Vulgate and in the Thirty-nine Articles of the Anglican 
Church the first and second books of Esdras, while the 
apocryphal books, now generally known as the first and 
second ot Esdras, are there called the third and fourth of 
Esdras. The (xeneva Bible (1560) first adopted the present 
nomenclature, calling the two apocryphal books first and 
second Esdras. 

1 he first (apocryphal) book of Esdras was written in very 
good Greek, but whether in Palestine or in Egypt, and at 
what time, cannot be determined. It is not without his¬ 
torical value, and is for the most part a history of the res¬ 
toration of the Jews after the Babylonian captivity. It is 
not received into the canon of either Jews or Christians. 

I he second apocryphal book of Esdras is purely pseud- 
epigraphic, being a record of pretended revelations made to 
Ezra for the encouragement of the suffering Jews. Many 
interpolations have been made to it by some over-zealous 
Christian, the original is believed to have been written 
by a Jew of Egypt in the Greek tongue, either just before 
or soon after the Christian era. The original Greek is lost, 
but Latin, Ethiopic, and Arabic versions exist. It is canon¬ 
ical in the Abyssinian Church. English versions are tho 
authorized, from the Latin, Ockley’s, from the Arabic ( 1711 ), 
and Laurence’s, from the Ethiopic (1820). 

Esk, a small river of Scotland, in the county of Dum¬ 
fries, flows southward through Eskdale Muir, and enters 
Solway Frith. Length, about 40 miles. Its valley is noted 
for picturesque scenery. Another river Esk is formed by 
the union ot the North and South Esk, which meet in Dal¬ 
keith Park, Edinburghshire. It enters the Frith of Forth 
at Musselburgh. 

Esk'ee Sa'ra, or Eski Sagra, a town of European 
Turkey, province of Room-Elee, on the south slope of the 
Balkan Mountains, 70 miles N. W. of Adrianople. It has 
manufactures of carpets, coarse linen, and leather. Here 
are several mineral springs. Pop. estimated at 18,000. 

Eskilstuna, a Swedish town, 55 miles W. of Stock¬ 
holm. It is the principal place for the manufacture of the 
better sorts of iron. Pop. 5088. 

Eskridge, a thriving post-village of Wabaunsee co., 
Kan., near the centre of the county, has one weekly news¬ 
paper. 

Es'men, a township of Livingston co., Ill. Pop. 917. 

Esmeral'da, a county in the S. W. of Nevada, bor¬ 
dering on California. The surface is mountainous; the 
soil is sterile except along the streams. It contains Walker’s 
Lake, which is about 30 miles long and has no outlet. Sil¬ 
ver-mines have been opened in several parts of the county. 
Gold, copper, iron, salt, lead, and mercury are found. 
Cattle and grain are raised. Capital, Aurora. Pop. 1553. 

Es'neh, Esne (anc. Lntopolis), a town of Upper 
Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile, about 30 miles above 
Thebes. It has manufactures of blue cotton and pottery; 
also an active trade with Sennaar and Abyssinia. Here are 
the ruins of the populous ancient city of Latopolis , so called 
from the worship of the latus fish. Among them is a well- 
preserved portico of a grand temple, with twenty-four beau¬ 
tiful columns standing, and a zodiac on the ceiling like that 
at Denderah. All the rest of the temple is literally buried, 
the houses of the modern town standing even upon its roof. 
In visiting the portico, one goes down as into a deep vault. 
It was cleared of rubbish by order of Mohammed Ali in 
1842. An older temple appears to have been built there by 
Thothmes III. of the eighteenth dynasty, but the present 
edifice dates from the times of Tiberius, Vespasian, Tra¬ 
jan, Hadrian, and Antoninus. On the river-bank are also 
the remains of a Roman quay. Pop. 12,000. 

Esop. See Ailsop. 

Eso'pus, a post-township of Ulster co., N. Y. It con¬ 
tains Port Ewen and other villages, produces much ice, 
fruit, and hydraulic cement, and is a place of summer re¬ 
sort. It takes its name from a tribe of Algonkin Indians 
long since extinct. Pop. 4557. 

Esoteric, Ss-o-tSr'ik [from the Gr. ecrwrepiKo?, “ inner,” 
"intimate”], a term applied to those doctrines which are 
designed for the initiated only. The ancient philosophers 
are supposed to have had a set of mysterious doctrines, 
which they imparted to their more enlightened and inti¬ 
mate disciples, and other doctrines, more popular, for the 
benefit of the multitude. This opinion is to some extent 
well founded as regards Aristotle, except so far as relates 
to the suspicion of intentional concealment, which is im¬ 
plied. Ilis exoteric or published writings appear to have 
been written as dialogues, and are not extant. His esoteric 
works, as may be inferred from the synonymous term oc- 
roamatic, were not intended to supersede the necessity ot 
oral instruction to render them intelligible, and this may 
account for the perplexed arrangement, brevity, and repe¬ 
titions of his surviving works. 


E'sox, a genus of fishes which includes the pikes, and 

the type of the family of 
the Esocidae. These are 
the most voracious of all 
fresh-water fishes, attain 
a large size, and live to a 
great age. The habits of 
the European pike ( Esox 
Indus) have been often 
described. In North 
America there are many 
species of the genus Esox, 
of which the largest and 
finest is the muskallunge 
Esox lucius. ( Esox Estor). The pick¬ 

erel (Esox reticulatus) is perhaps the most common and 
best known of our pikes. 

Espalier [Fr.], in horticulture, a railing or trellis-work 
used as a substitute for a wall, on which to train fruit trees 
or ornamental shrubs. The objects are to hasten the ripen¬ 
ing of fruit by exposing the foliage of the plants more 
freely to the light, to prevent the branches from being 
bloAvn about by the winds, and to economize space. The 
espalier is constructed of wood or iron, and consists of hori¬ 
zontal rails supported by upright posts. Apples, peaches, 
and pears are trained on espaliers in England. 

Esparte'ro (Joaqtjim Baldomero), duke of Vittoria, 
was born Feb. 27, 1792, at Granatula, La Mancha. He was 
the son of a Cartwright. He enlisted in the army in 1808, 
served as an officer against the French, against Bolivar 
(1815-25), and against the Carlists (1833-40). He became 
a lieutenant-general in 1835, a grandee in 1838, regent of 
Spain in 1841, was banished by Narvaez in 1843, and be¬ 
came prime minister in 1854. Under King Amadeus (1872) 
he was senior captain-general of the army. (See J. S. 
Florez, “Espartero: Historia de sa Vida,” 3 vols., 1844.) 

Espar'to (Sti'jja or Macroch'loa ten acis' si via), a species 
of graSs growing in Spain, Barbary, etc., has a very strong 
fibre, which is used by the Spaniards for making cordage, 
mats, nets, etc. Large amounts are used in Great Britain 
in the manufacture of paper. Its culture in the U. S. has 
been recommended. Esparto, the hal/a of Algiers, was 
first used for paper by an Englishman named Routledge, 
whose patent was issued in 1846. The paper produced is 
generally of good quality. 

Es'perance, a post-township of Schoharie co., N. Y. 
Pop. 1276. 

Espinasse, de 1’ (Claire FRANgoisE, or Julie 
Jeanne Eleonore), a fascinating French lady, born in 
Nov., 1732. She was distinguished for her imagination and 
sensibility. In 1752 she went to live in Paris as companion 
to Madame du Deffaud, in whose house she remained nearly 
ten years. She gained the affection of D’Alembert, and be¬ 
came about 1762 mistress of a salon which was frequented 
by a brilliant literary coterie. Died in May, 1776. Her 
published letters are much admired. I f 

Espinasse (Esprit Charles Marie), a French gen¬ 
eral, born at Saissac, in Aude, April 2,1815. He served in 
the Crimean war as a general, and distinguished himself at 
the Tchernaya (1855). In 1858 he was minister of the in¬ 
terior for about four months. He was killed at the battle 
of Magenta June 4, 1859. r 

Espinel' (Vincente), a popular Spanish poet, born at 
Ronda about 1544. He learned several ancient and mod¬ 
ern languages, and became a priest. It is stated that he 
served some years as a soldier, and led an adventurous life 
in several foreign countries. Among his works are nume¬ 
rous songs, the “ House of Memory ” .(“ La Casa de Merao- 
ria ”), and a novel entitled “ Marcos de Obregon ” (1618), 
from which Le Sage borrowed incidents of "Gil Bias.” 
Espinel ranked among the best poets of his time. Died in 
1634. 

Espinha'co, Ser'ra do, a mountain-chain of Brazil, 
in the provinces of Bahia and Minas Geraes. It contains 
diamond-mines. 

Espir'ito San't.o (7. e. “Holy Spirit”), [Port.], a prov¬ 
ince of Brazil, is bounded on the N. by Bahia, on the E. by 
the Atlantic, on tho S. by Rio Janeiro, and on the W. by 
Minas Geraes. It is partly drained by the Rio I)oce. The 
soil is very fertile, but a large part of the province is still 
covered with forests, in which are many valuable woods 
and drugs. The lowlands along the coast produce sugar, 
cotton, rice, and manioc. Capital, Vittoria. Pop. 65,000, 
of whom 15,000 are slaves. 

Espiritu Santo [Sp.], a town of Cuba, near the middle 
of the island, about 240 miles E. S. E. of Havana. Pop. 
about 10,000. 

Esplanade, §s'plan-ad' in fortification, is an open 





























1620 ESPY 


space of ground left between the glacis of a citadel or fort 
and the houses of a town, in order to prevent the enemy 
erecting breaching-batteries under cover of buildings. The 
term has also been applied to the glacis of the counterscarp, 
or the slope of the parapet of the covered way towards the 
country. 

Es'py (James P.), an American meteorologist, styled 
the “storm-king,” born in Washington co., Pa., May 9, 
1785. He was the author of a theory of storms which 
excited some controversy, and which he published in 1811, 
in systematic form, under the title “ The Philosophy of 
Storms.” According to this theory, every great atmospheric 
disturbance commences with the uprising of a body of air 
which has been rarefied by heat. The heavier air, flowing 
in beneath, creates currents converging from all directions 
to the central point. The rising mass dilates as it rises, in 
consequence of diminished pressure, and its temperature 
falls, in consequence of this dilatation, down to the dew¬ 
point and below, precipitating its contained vapor in the 
form of cloud. The latent heat of elasticity thus liberated 
dilates the air still more, and disturbs the equilibrium 
anew, so that the rising continues to go on, till the moisture 
in the air forming the upward current is practically ex¬ 
hausted. As the heavier air flowing in beneath finds a 
diminished pressure above it, this air also rises, causing 
still greater drafts upon the surrounding air, and establish¬ 
ing permanent converging currents, which meet in the 
centre and rush upward, with constantly increasing vio¬ 
lence. The vast amount of aqueous vapor precipitated 
during this atmospheric commotion gives rise to heavy 
rains. Mr. Espy’s theory found many adherents. The 
physical principles on which it rests are sound, and it is so 
far supported by observation. It received also the approval 
of the Erench Academy of Sciences in a formal report. But 
his views as to the mechanics of storms are untenable, and 
are contx-ary to observed facts. Converging curi’ents in¬ 
variably produce rotation, and hence, though storms doubt¬ 
less often originate in tlie causes assigned by him, their 
characteristic action is rotatoi-y or spiral. A lively con¬ 
troversy was for some time maintained between the sup¬ 
porters of Mr. Espy and thpse of his principal opponent, 
Mr. Eedfield, who held the rotatory theory. This long ago 
ceased, and the rotatory theory is now generally accepted. 
It has given to meteoi’ology the familiar term cyclone. It 
has also been made the basis of instructions, for the use of 
navigators, by the British Admiralty and the U. S. bureau 
of navigation. 

Mr. Espy entertained a sanguine belief that rains could 
be brought on at any time by means of great fires, kept up 
long enough and over a sufficiently lai’ge surface to initiate 
a powerful upward movement, relying on natural causes to 
maintain the current when once started. He even supposed 
that it might be possible in this way to maintain the navi¬ 
gation of the upper Ohio Biver through the dry season. 
He therefore petitioned Congi'ess and the legislature of 
Pennsylvania to make a sufficient appropriation to enable 
him to 1 try the experiment; but without success. He re¬ 
ceived, however, an appointment as meteorological observer 
under the government; and while holding this position he 
made ari-angements, in accordance with a judicious sugges¬ 
tion of the Hon. A. H. Stephens of Georgia, with the press 
and with the various lines of telegi-aph convei'ging to the 
capital, to publish daily bulletins of the state of the 
weather in diffei'ent and distant localities. These were 
doubtless the first weather-telegrams ever regularly made 
public. The system, discontinued during the war, has 
been since revived and largely extended. It has also been 
inti-oduced into England and into parts of continental 
Europe. While enjoying its benefits the world should not 
forget the mei'itorious observer with whom it originated. 
He died in Cincinnati Jan. 24, 1860. F. A. P. Barnard. 

Esquimaux, es'ke-mo' (plu.), [a French orthography of 
the Algonquin eskemo, an “ eater of raw flesh;” called in 
their own tongue Innuit , ‘imen”], a raceof men inhabiting 
the Arctic coasts of North America and its islands, and the 
coast of Labrador nearly as far south as the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence; also found on the extreme north of the Pacific 
coast of Alaska, and to some extent in the N. E. part of 
Asia. They are short, though broad and muscular, very 
seldom exceeding five and a half feet in height. In color 
they are of a rather light brown, and in features they ap¬ 
proach the Mongolian type. Their food consists of the flesh 
of whales, seals, the walrus, birds, and fish. They have re¬ 
markable skill in fishing and hunting. Their only domestic 
animal is the dog, of which they possess a large and pow¬ 
erful variety, very useful to them, not only in the chase, but 
for drawing sledges. Their personal habits are extremely 
filthy. Their dress is made of skins, and is nearly the same 
in both sexes.’ Their religion is a rude superstition, in 
which only the vaguest notions of a Supreme Being can be 


ESSAY. 


found. In Greenland and on the Labrador coast the Mo¬ 
ravian and the Danish Lutheran missionaries have, since 
1721, brought to many of them the knowledge of Christian¬ 
ity. 

The ethnological relations of the Esquimaux are not well 
understood. Physically, they approach the Mongolian type, 
and their presence in Asia would appear to confirm this 
view of their origin, but their language is of the American 
structure and inflection. There appears to be a remarkable 
uniformity in their vocabulary throughout the whole race. 
The opinion of Pritchai’d, that they are a link in the chain 
connecting the Mongolian and the American races, seems 
to be the pi-evailing belief with ethnologists. Their num¬ 
bers in America are estimated at 47,500, of whom about 
20,000 are in Greenland, 1500 in Labrador, 4000 on the 
coasts of Hudson’s Bay, and 17,000 in Alaska. (See Montk- 
mont, “ Mceurs et Coutumes des Esquimaux,” 1841; C. F. 
Hall, “ Life with the Esquimaux,” 1864.) 

Esquire [from the Sp. escude'ro (i. e. a “ shield- 
beai-er”); Old Fr. eecuyer\ a name originally given to an 
armor-bearer, an attendant on a knight. As this office in times 
of chivalry was mostly borne by persons of good family, the 
word esquire came to be used in England for the rank next 
below knight and above simple gentleman. The younger 
sons of peers, who are now called honorables, their eldest 
sons, and those of knights, the justices of the peace, sher¬ 
iffs of counties, sergeants-at-law, and doctors of divinity, 
are esquires by virtue of their rank or office. Heads of an¬ 
cient families are esquires by prescription, and hence the 
word has come to be used as a common addition to the 
names of all who hold the rank of gentleman.. An esquire 
was formerly created by the king by putting a silver collar 
of SS ai-ound his neck and bestowing on him a pair of sil¬ 
ver spurs. 

Esquirol (Jean Etienne Dominique), M. D., a French 
physician and philanthropist, born at Toulouse Jan. 4,1772. 
He founded at Paris in 1799 an asylum for the insane, which 
was a model institution, and lie initiated a reform in the 
treatment of the insane. In 1817 he began a course of 
clinical lectures for mental maladies, on which he wrote a 
valuable work, “Des Maladies Mentales ” (2 vols., 1838). 
He became in 1826 chief physician of the asylum at Cha- 
renton. Died Dec. 12, 1840. 

Esquiros (Henri Alphonse), a French poet and novel¬ 
ist, boim in Paris in 1814. On account of his work, “The 
Gospel of the People,” he was in 1840 sentenced to eight 
months’ imprisonment, during which time he became an in¬ 
timate friend of Lamennais. After the revolution of 1818 
h6 was elected a member of the Legislative Assembly, in 
which he belonged to the extreme Left. In consequence 
of the coup-d’etat of 1851, he had to leave France, and 
lived in England until 1869, when the amnesty proclaimed 
by Napoleon allowed him to return. Soon after he was 
elected a member of the Legislative Body. After the over¬ 
throw of the empire, in Sept., 1870, the provisional govern¬ 
ment sent him as administrator-general of the depai'tment 
of Rhone to Marseilles, where he succeeded in suppressing 
anarchical tendencies. He favored the separation of the 
south of France from the north, and for a while refused to 
recognize the decree of Gambetta which suspended him, 
but finally resigned in Nov., 1870, in order to avoid a civil 
war. In Feb., 1871, he was elected a member of the Na¬ 
tional Assembly, and took his seat at the extreme Left. He 
published, besides other works, “The Magician” (1837), 
“Charlotte Corday,” a novel (1840), “The Gospel of the 
People” (“Evangile du Peuple,” 1840), “The History of 
the Mountain ” (“ Montagnards,” 1847), “ La Morale Uni- 
verselle” (1859), “l’Angleterre et la vie anglaise” (5 vols., 
1859-70) ; and in the English language, “Religious Life in 
England” (London, 1867), “English Seamen” (1868). 

Ess, van (Leander), a German Catholic theologian, 
distinguished at once for his leai-ning and his liberality of 
opinion, especially with x-espect to the circulation of the 
Scriptures, was born at Warburg, in Westphalia, Feb. 15, 
1772. In 1790 he entered the Benedictine monastei-y of 
Marienmiinster in Paderborn, in 1796 became priest, after¬ 
wards pastor at Schmalenberg, and in 1813 professor ex¬ 
traordinary of theology at Marburg. He aided his cousin, 
Karl van Ess (1770-1824), in publishing a German trans¬ 
lation of the New Testament (1807), and twelve years later 
(1819), without assistance from his cousin, who had mean¬ 
while given up his liberal opinions, published also a trans¬ 
lation of the Old Testament. His edition of the Vulgate 
appeared in 1822, and his edition of the Septuagintin 1824. 
He lived in seclusion for several years, and died Oct. 13, 
1847. His library, rich in Bibles, patristic, mediaeval, and 
Reformation literature, and making some 18,000 volumes, 
now belongs to the Union Theological Seminary in New 
York City. 

Es'say [Fr. e-ssui'], an attempt; an experiment; a lit- 


















I 


ESSEK 


erary composition. In literature this title is generally 
given to short disquisitions on subjects of taste, philos¬ 
ophy* morality, etc. In this sense it has been applied to 
periodical papers published at regular intervals under a col¬ 
lective name by one or more writers. From the appearance 
of the “ Tatler,” which was chiefly written by Sir Richard 
Steele, this species of literature continued to be a favorite 
in England for seventy years. Many series of essays were 
produced, the best of which are united in one collection 
under the name of “ The English Essayists." The most 
celebrated of these writings was “ The Spectator,” to which 
Addison contributed the best essays; and next to it the 
“ Rambler,” chiefly written by Dr. Johnson. Among the 
eminent essayists of more recent times is Macaulay. The 
title of essay has been also adopted by way of indicating 
diffidence in the completeness of their work by authors of 
more extended performances, as by Locke, “ Essay on the 
Human Understanding.” 

Essek. See Eszek. 

Es'sen, a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Cologne and 
Minden Railway, and near the river Ruhr, 27 miles by 
railway N. E. of Dusseldorf. It has a cathedral, a gym¬ 
nasium, a realschule, and a female high school; also manu¬ 
factures of steam-engines, firearms, woollen cloth, paper, 
and iron wares. It derives its prosperity chiefly from the 
rich coal-mines which surround it. In the vicinity is a 
large iron-foundry, copper-mills, and Krupp’s extensive 
manufactory of steel. Pop. in 1871, 51,520. 

Es'sen (Hans Henrik), Count of, a Swedish general, 
born in WesJ; Gothland in 1755. He was appointed gov¬ 
ernor of Stockholm in 1795, and obtained in 1807 the com¬ 
mand of an army with which he defended Stralsund against 
the French. He was sent as ambassador to Paris by Charles 
XIII., who became king in 1809. In 1814 he was raised to 
the rank of field-marshal and governor-general of Norway. 
Died July 28, 1824. 

Essence, a solution of an essential oil in alcohol or rec¬ 
tified spirit. (See Essential Oils.) 

Es' sence [Lat. essen'tia, from esse, “ to be,” literally, 

“ being”]. Chauvin, in his “Lexicon Rationale” (1713), 
gives the following definition of this word: “ All that by 
virtue of which anything is, and is what it is.” The “es¬ 
sential qualities” of an object or being consist of those ele¬ 
ments each and all of which are necessary to its existence. 
The term essence is used to denote the sum of these essential 
qualities. The term is used as a general name for the es¬ 
sential qualities or elements of all objects or beings in gen¬ 
eral, or to denote similar elements in a single object or be¬ 
ing. Much confusion in thought arises from the failure to 
distinguish between the general and singular use of this 
term and the closely allied word substance. By the modern 
Platonists the word is used to denote the real being, “idea,” 
or spiritual substance of objects, as distinguished from the 
matter which represents the “idea” to the outward senses. x 
The Scholastics, who adopted the Aristotelian distinction 
of “matter” and form, departed somewhat from the Aris¬ 
totelian conception, and called the matter of any object its 
substance, and the “ form” or force which shaped the mat¬ 
ter and determined its genus or species, the essence of the 
object, as made up of all those modalities without which the 
object, as such, would cease to exist. This mode of state¬ 
ment was specially adopted by the Scotists. Descartes so 
defined substance that the term was applicable to God only, 
and denominated by essence all those forms of matter which 
determine species and genera, and without which they 
would cease to be. The words essence and substance in 
modern writers are often used as substantial synonyms, de¬ 
noting all that in any object the knowledge of which is im¬ 
possible to the human mind; while quality or accident is 
used to name all that can be actually known. Few terms 
in philosophy and theology are used with more confusion 
and vagueness. It is always requisite in reading discus¬ 
sions in which they frequently occur to ascertain the exact 
or inexact sense in which an author uses them. 

Essenes, §s-seenz' [Gr. '-Eaa-qi’oi ; Lat. Esse'ni], or 
Essrcans [Gr. 'Eaaaloc], the latest, and apparently the 
smallest, of the three Jewish sects in existence in the time 
of Christ. They are not mentioned in the New Testament. 
The etymology of the name is doubtful, and the history of 
the sect obscure. The Essenes were mystics, and most of 
them celibates. They are not to be confounded with the 
Therapeutm, although a kindred sect. The greater part of 
them lived by themselves near the N. W. shore oi the Dead 
Sea, but they were also scattered in various parts of Pales¬ 
tine, and are supposed to have numbered in all some 4000 
or 5000. The first distinct trace of them is about HOB. C., 
and they disappear from history alter the destruction of 
Jerusalem by the Romans. 

Essen'tial Oils [so called because they were formerly 


ESSEX. . 1621 


supposed to contain the essence or active principle of the 
plant or substance from which they are extracted], called 
also Vol'atile Oils, a large class of compounds, mostly 
of vegetable origin, though somo are derived from animal 
sources. They mostly exist already formed in plants. With 
a few exceptions they are colorless, and have in most 
cases a powerful odor and pungent taste, resembling that 
of the plant whence they are derived. A large number of 
them are isomeric (or identical in composition) with oil of 
turpentine and with caoutchouc. These are called terpenes 
(Ci 0 IIi 6 ); others are aldehydes ; still others appear to be 
compounds of alcohol radicals with organic acids, etc. A 
very few contain sulphur. Most of them are obtained by 
distillation with water, others by pressure. They are in 
many cases changed by time and exposure into resins, or 
resolved into several distinct substances. 

Essequi'bo, a river of British Guiana, rises near the 
S. frontier, flows northward through forests of gigantic 
trees, and enters the Atlantic by an-estuary 20 miles wide; 
lat. 7° 0' 20” N., Ion. 56° 42' 31” W. Length, 500 miles. 
It is navigable 60 miles. 

Es'ses, Collar of, or Collar of SS 9 a heraldic orna¬ 
ment composed of *S'-shaped links joined together or em¬ 
broidered somewhat after the manner of a chain. It enters 
into the insignia of various officers in England, and was, 
it is said, anciently worn by all esquires. It is claimed by 
some that the SS is emblematic of Saint Simplicius. 

Es'sex [“ East Saxons ”], a county of England, bounded 
on the E. by the North Sea and on the S. by the estuary of 
the Thames. Area, 1657 square miles, of which nine-tenths 
are arable. It is partly drained by the Stour, the Lea, and 
the Chelmer rivers. The surface is pleasantly diversified, 
except the flat marshy land near the sea. The soil is mostly 
a fertile loam, which produces wheat, barley, oats, beans, 
hops, potatoes, etc. Essex is an agricultural county, hav¬ 
ing comparatively few manufactures. Many sheep are 
raised. The chief towns are Chelmsford (the capital), Col¬ 
chester, Harwich, and Maldon. Essex was a kingdom of 
the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, which comprised Essex and 
parts of Middlesex, Hertford, and Bedford. Pop. 466,427. 

Essex, a county which forms the S. W. extremity of 
Ontario, Dominion of Canada. Area, 677 square miles. It 
is bounded on the N. by Lake St. Clair, on the S. by Lake 
Erie, and on the W. by Detroit River. The soil is product¬ 
ive. It is intersected by the Great Western Railway. Cap¬ 
ital, Sandwich. Pop. in 1871, 32,697. 

Essex, a county which forms the N. E. extremity of 
Massachusetts. Area, 500 square miles. It is bounded on 
the E. by the Atlantic Ocean and on the S. E. by Massa¬ 
chusetts Bay. It is intersected by the Merrimack River, 
and has several good hai’bors on the coast. The surface 
near the sea is rugged and rocky, but the soil is gene¬ 
rally fertile. Fruit, hay, grain, and garden and dairy pro¬ 
ducts are raised extensively. The inhabitants of Glouces¬ 
ter, Marblehead, Beverly, Salem, and Newburyport are ex¬ 
tensively employed in commerce and the fisheries. Essex 
county is traversed by the Boston and Maine, the Essex, 
the Eastern, and the Newburyport R. Rs. Here are exten¬ 
sive manufactures of carriages, leather, shoes, machinery, 
cotton, linen, wool, and many other goods. Lawrence, 
Lynn, Haverhill, Salem, Marblehead, Peabody, Gloucester, 
Newburyport, Andover, Amesbury, and Danvers are large 
and important towns. Ice and granite are largely ex¬ 
ported. Capitals, Salem, Newburyport, and Lawrence. 
Pop. 200,843. 

Essex, a county in the N. E. of New Jersey. Area, 
about 130 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the 
Passaic River and Newark Bay, and on the W. by the 
Passaic River. The surface is nearly level, except the 
western part; the soil is productive. Hay, grain, dairy 
and garden produce are raised extensively. The manufac¬ 
tures include boots, shoes, metallic wares, saddlery, car¬ 
riages, and a great variety of commodities. It is intersected 
by the Morris and Essex, the Paterson and Newark, and 
the New Jersey R. Rs.; also the Morris Canal. This is the 
most populous county in the State. Cajiital, Newark. Pop. 
143,839. 

Essex, a county in the N. E. of New York. Area, 1926 
square miles. It is bounded on the E. by Lake Cham¬ 
plain, and contains several small lakes. The Au Sable 
River forms part of the northern boundary of the county, 
which is partly drained by the Hudson River. The surface 
is mountainous, and mostly covered with forests. Essex 
county comprises a large part of the Adirondac Mountains, 
and Mount Marcy, the highest point in the State, here 
rises 5467 feet above the level of the sea. Among its min¬ 
eral resources are iron ore and limestone. Potatoes, grain, 
wool, hay, and dairy products are raised extensively. 
Lumber, leather, cooperage, iron, and starch are among 






















1622 


ESSEX—ESTATE. 


the manufactured commodities. Capital, Elizabethtown. 
Pop. 29,042. 

Essex, a county which forms the N. E. extremity of 
Vermont. Area, 790 square miles. It is bounded on the 
E. by the Connecticut River, and is partly drained by the 
Passumpsic. The surface is mountainous. It is intersected 
by the Grand Trunk and the Portland and Ogdensburg 
R. Rs. Capital, Guildhall. Pop. 6811. 

Essex, a county in the E. of Virginia. Area, 300 square 
miles. It is bounded on the N. E. by the navigable Rap¬ 
pahannock River. The soil is sandy and moderately fer¬ 
tile. Grain and wool are produced. Capital, Tappahan- 
nock. Pop. 9927. 

Essex, a post-village of Middlesex co., Conn., on the 
Connecticut River, 7 miles from its mouth, and about 17 
miles W. of New London. It has one national bank, and 
manufactures of carriages and soap. Pop., including Essex 
township, 1669. 

Essex, a township of Ivapkakee co., Ill. Pop. 990. 

Essex, a township of Stark co., Ill. Pop. 1538. 

Essex, a township of Porter co., Ind. Pop. 228. 

Essex, a post-township of Essex co., Mass., on a branch 
of the Eastern R. R. It has ten shipyards. Essex-built 
vessels have a high reputation. Pop. 1614. 

Essex, a post-township of Clinton co., Mich. Pop. 1501. 

Essex, a post-township of Essex co., N. Y. romantic¬ 
ally situated on Lake Champlain. It has manufactures of 
iron, lumber, lime, shipping, woollen goods, etc. Pop. 
1600. 

Essex, a post-township of Chittenden co., Vt., 8 miles 
E. of Burlington, ai the junction of the Burlington di¬ 
vision with the main line of the Vermont Central R. R. 
Essex has a classical institute, and manufactures of wall¬ 
paper, gloves, shirts, metallic wares, furniture, brick, and 
other goods. Pop. 2022. 

Essex (Robert Devereux), second earl of, an Eng¬ 
lish courtier, born in Herefordshire Nov. 10, 1567, was the 
eldest son of Walter, the first earl of Essex. He served 
with distinction at the battle of Zutphen in 1586, and be¬ 
came master of the horse in 1587. In 1588 he succeeded 
the earl of Leicester as the prime favorite of Queen Eliza¬ 
beth. He had a handsome person, agreeable manners, and 
other popular qualities. He married, in 1590, Sir Philip 
Sidney’s widow, who was a daughter of Sir Francis Wal- 
singham. He commanded the land forces of the expedi¬ 
tion which took Cadiz in 1596, and he became earl-marshal 
of England in 1597. He was appointed lord lieutenant of 
Ireland, and was sent in 1599 to subdue a revolt of the 
Irish, but was not successful. Having been removed from 
office in disgrace, he returned to London, and provoked the 
queen by his rash and disrespectful conduct. It is stated 
that he tried to excite an insurrection in London. He was 
tried for treason, and beheaded Feb. 25, 1601. He was 
brave and generous, but too vain and ambitious. 

Essex (Tiiomas Cromwell), earl of. See Cromwell. 

Ess'ling, a village of Austria, on the Danube, 7 miles 
E. of Vienna, was the scene of an indecisive battle between 
Napoleon and the Austrians in May, 1809. (See Aspern.) 

Esslingen, a town of Wiirtemberg, on the river Neckar, 
9 miles by rail E. S. E. of Stuttgart. It is on the railway 
which connects Stuttgart with Ulm, is enclosed by walls, 
and has an old castle. It has a splendid Gothic church, 
built in 1440, with a spire 230 feet high, a handsome town- 
hall, and a richly endowed hospital. Here are important 
manufactures of machinery, cotton and woollen stuffs, 
paper, silver-ware, and wine. Esslingen became in 1209 a 
free city of the German empire. Pop. in 1871, 17,941. 

Established Church, a term applied to any church 
organization which is exclusively recognized by the govern¬ 
ment of a country, or which has peculiar privileges under 
any government. Most Mohammedan and heathen coun¬ 
tries have an established religion, though in nearly all more 
or less freedom of opinion is allowed. Christianity first be¬ 
came the established religion of the Roman world under 
Constantine the Great. Charlemagne strengthened the 
Church establishment in the West; and throughout the 
Middle Ages the unity and authority of the Church exer¬ 
cised a great, and in some respects a very salutary, influence 
upon the crude society of those times. Some of the early 
Protestant Reformers advocated a separation of Church 
and State, but in every European country where Protestant¬ 
ism prevailed some one of its divisions became the State 
Church ; and the same was the case in most of the English 
North American colonies. Whatever may have been the 
effect for good or evil in those times, it is not only the 
popular opinion, but the conclusion of the best thinkers of 
our time, that the day for church establishments has gone 


by, and that the voluntary system is on all accounts greatly 
to be preferred. 

Estafette, (-s'tft'ffit', a French word which is used in 
nearly all the countries of Europe to signify an express em¬ 
ployed to convey packages, letters, etc. Articles sent by 
the estafette are consigned to the care of successive postil¬ 
ions, who are changed with every relay of horses. 

Estaing, d’ (Charles Hector), Count, a French naval 
officer, born in Auvergne in 1729. He served in the land 
army in India, and was appointed lieutenant-general of the 
naval armies in 1763. He commanded as vice-admiral a 
fleet sent in 1778 to fight for the U. S. His fleet was 
damaged by a storm near Newport in August of that year. 
He soon repaired his ships, and sailed to the West Indies, 
where he captured Grenada in 1779. In September of that 
year he attacked the British at Savannah without success. 
He returned to France in 1780, and was guillotined April 
28, 1794. 

Estaires, a town of France, department of Nord, on 
the Lys. It has considerable manufactures of linen, nap¬ 
kins, soap, candles, and oil. Pop. 7120. 

Estate, a word sometimes used to indicate property 
generally, whether real or personal. Sometimes it includes 
land alone. In law it denotes the interest which one may 
have in property. It means the time during which owner¬ 
ship exists, as for a year, or for life, or for ever. Under 
the common law, estates in land are divided, as regards the 
quantity of interest, into two general divisions : 1st, free¬ 
hold estates; 2d, estates less than freehold. 

1st. A freehold is an estate which may last for life or 
longer. An estate which is circumscribed within a certain 
number of years, or one in which the possessor has no fixed 
right of enjoyment, is less than freehold; and although, in 
fact, it may endure longer than the life of its first possessor, 
still the law regards it as a lower estate than a freehold; it 
is in the eye of the law personal property, and does not de¬ 
scend to heirs, though it may pass to executors or adminis¬ 
trators. 

Freehold estates are divided into estates of inheritance, 
which pass to heirs, and estates not of inheritance; the for¬ 
mer are again divided into estates in fee simple and estates 
in fee tail. A fee simple is the most extensive and highest 
interest a man can have in land. If not aliened or devised, 
it passes to heirs generally. A fee tail, on the other hand, 
is an estate which is limited to certain particular heirs or 
to a certain class of heirs, to the exclusion of the others, as 
to the heirs of one's body, which excludes collateral heirs, 
or to the heirs male of one’s body, which excludes females. 
Fee tails have had only a limited existence in this country, 
and are now, in general, abolished. In New York, by the 
law of 1782, they were changed into estates in fee simple. 

Freeholds not of inheritance are for life only, cither for 
the life of the tenant or of some other person or persons, 
when the estate is called an estate pur autre vie. Life 
estates are created by the act of the parties or by operation 
of law. An example of the former is where A conveys 
land to B for the term of his natural life, or where A con¬ 
veys land to B without expressing the duration of the term. 
Here, under the common law, B would take only a life estate, 
but by statute in New York and many other States a grant 
or devise of real estate passes all the interest of the grant¬ 
or or testator, unless the intent to pass a less estate or in¬ 
terest appears in express terms or by necessary implication. 
Curtesy and dower are life estates created by act or opera¬ 
tion of law. When a man marries a woman seized at any 
time during the coverture of an estate of inheritance, and 
has issue born alive during the life of the wife, which 
might possibly inherit from the mother, the husband on the 
death of the wife has an estate for his life in her land, which 
is termed curtesy. In many of the States a wife may alien 
or devise her land so as to defeat this estate, and in some it 
is altogether abolished. When a husband dies, the wife has 
a life estate in a third of all the land in which at any time 
during coverture he had an estate of inheritance. This 
estate of the wife is termed dower. In some of the States, 
by statute, a wife is entitled to dower only in the land of 
which her husband died seized, and in most of the States 
the interest which a wife takes in the land of her deceased 
husband has been a matter of statutory regulation. 

2d. Estates less than freehold. These are divided into 
estates for j’ears, at will, and by sufferance. An estate for 
years is an estate for a determinate period, whether it be 
for a longer number of years than a human life, or for only 
a portion of one year. An estate at will is where one man 
lets land to another to hold at his will, as well as that of 
the lessee. Such an estate is terminated by either party 
on duo notice. Out of estates at will a class of estates has 
grown up called estates from year to year, which can be 
terminated only by six months’ notice, expiring at the end 
of the year. An important element in creating this estate 













ESTATES, THE THREE—ESTERHAZY DE GALANTHA. 1623 


is the payment of rent. An estate by sufferance arises 
when one comes into the possession of land by agreement, 
and holds over after his original estate has expired, and 
without any agreement, express or implied, by which it is 
continued. I he landlord has a right to enter at any time, 
and dispossess the occupant without notice. 

These estates may be created upon condition—that is, 
their existence may depend on the happening or not hap¬ 
pening of some event whereby the estate may be created, en¬ 
larged, or defeated. A fee, a freehold, or a term for years may 
thus be upon condition. The condition must either be pre¬ 
cedent—that is, must happen before the estate can vest or 
be enlarged or subsequent, when it will defeat an estate 
already vested. 

Estates may also be legal or equitable. They are called 
(< equitable when the formal ownership is in one person 
and the beneficial ownership is in another. Another form 
of expression is that a trust is created. This distinction 
does not affect the nature of the estate. Thus, a trust es¬ 
tate may be a life estate or a fee, and in the latter case is 
transmissible to heirs as though it were a strict legal estate. 

In regard to the time of enjoyment, estates are divided 
into estates in possession and estates in expectancy. An 
estate in possession is one in which there is a present right 
of enjoyment. Estates in expectancy are those which give 
either a vested or contingent right of future enjoyment. 
They are subdivided into remainders, which are created by 
the express words of the parties, as where one gives a life 
estate in land to A, and the remainder to B; and rever¬ 
sions, which arise by operation of law, as where one gives 
an estate for life to A ; here, on the death of A, the estate 
reverts to the grantor or his heirs, who, until the termina¬ 
tion of A’s estate, are said to have a reversion in the land. 
Besides these, there are future estates introduced into the 
law by the doctrine of uses (see Uses) which are not gov¬ 
erned by the technical rules applicable to remainders. They 
are called “springing and shifting uses.” Similar pro¬ 
visions in a will are termed “ executory devises.” 

In regard to the number of owners, estates are divided 
into estates in severalty, in joint tenancy, in common, and 
in coparcenary. An estate in severalty is one which has 
only a single owner. An estate in joint tenancy is an estate 
owned jointly by two or more persons, whose title is created 
by the same instrument. The distinguishing characteristic 
is the right of survivorship. On the death of any tenant 
his interest is extinguished, and the estate goes to the sur¬ 
vivors. By the common law, where an estate is conveyed 
to two or more persons without indicating how it is to be 
held, it is understood to be in joint tenancy. But in most 
of the U. S. this rule has been changed by statute, and per¬ 
sons to whom an estate is conveyed or given take as ten¬ 
ants in common, unless they hold as trustees. An estate 
in common is where separate and distinct but undivided 
interests in land are held by two or more persons. Each 
tenant is considered as solely seized of his share, which on 
his death descends to his heirs. An estate in coparcenary 
is the estate which female heirs take in the land of an in¬ 
testate ancestor. In this country this estate is essentially 
extinguished, and heirs take as tenants in common. 

The English classification of estates in land has been 
much modified by statute in the U. S., but it forms the basis 
of the law of real estate throughout the American Union, 
except in Louisiana, where the civil law prevails. 

T. W. Dwight. 

Estates, The Three, ortheEstates ofthe Realm 
[Fr. Les Etats Generaux], the political name designating the 
three classes of feudal society : 1, the nobles; 2, the clergy ; 
and 3, the commons, including the bourgeois or middle class 
of towns and the peasantry. The term “ estates of the realm ” 
was used in Scotland before the Union (1707) as synonym¬ 
ous with Parliament. It consisted of lords spiritual (or 
mitred clergy), lords temporal (including the nobles and the 
commissioners of shires and stewartries), and the represen¬ 
tatives, called burgesses or commissioners, of royal burghs. 
They met in one assembly, and usually voted in one body. 
The “States General” of France were rarely convened after 
the fourteenth century, and had little or no legislative power. 
One of the exciting causes of the French Revolution was the 
dispute which arose between the “third estate” ( tier h etat), 
or bourgeois, and the nobles and clergy, as to whether the 
third estate had a right to sit with the first and second. 
This dispute arose in 1789. In Sweden there were four 
estates—nobles, clergy, bourgeois (middle class), and peas¬ 
ants, each sitting in a separate house; but since 1S65 there 
are but two legislative houses, both representative. A con¬ 
vention of the States General was long (1580-1*95) the su¬ 
preme power in the Dutch republic. 

Es'te (anc. Ates'te), a town of Italy, in the province of 
Padua, is picturesquely situated on the slope of the Eu- 
ganean Hills, 18 miles, by rail, S. S. W. of Padua. Here 


is a fine feudal castle called Rocca belonging to the noble 
family of Este; also an interesting Romanesque church 
with a leaning tower. Este has manufactures of silk goods, 
hats, and earthenware. Pop. 8697. 

Es'te, an ancient sovereign family of Italy, from which 
the monarchs of Great Britain are descended. Among the 
first princes of this family was Oberto I., who married a 
daughter of Otho, king of Italy, and died about 927 A. D., 
leaving a son, Oberto II. The family received several dis¬ 
tricts and towns to be held as fiefs of the German empire. 
Albertazzo II., who succeeded Oberto II. about 1020, mar¬ 
ried a German princess of the house of Guelph or Welf. 
Their son, Guelph IV., received in 1071 the investiture of 
the duchy of Bavaria. He was the ancestor of the houses 
of Brunswick and Hanover. Obizz.o took the title of mar¬ 
quis of Este in 1137, and Azzo VI., marquis of Este, was 
chosen as their sovereign by the people of Ferrara in 1208. 
Azzo VII. of Este was the chief of the Guelph faction in 
the civil war which they waged against the Gliibelines. He 
died after a long reign in 1264. His successor, Obizzo II., 
added to his dominions in 1288 the city of Modena, at the 
request of its citizens, who chose him as their sovereign. 
Died in 1293. Ercolc (or Hercules) I., who began to reign 
in 1433, was noted as a patron of literary men. His son, 
Alfonzo I., duke of Ferrara and Modena, who reigned from 
1505 to 1534, was an-able statesman and general. He mar¬ 
ried the notorious Lucretia Borgia. He was succeeded by 
his son, Ercole II., who married Renee, the Protestant 
daughter of Louis XII. of France. Died in 1559. The 
next duke of Ferrara was Alfonzo II., a son of Ercole II. 
He was a patron of the poet Tasso, whom he afterwards 
imprisoned and treated with cruelty. He died without issue 
in 1597, when his cousin Cesare became duke of Modena, 
but lost Ferrara, which was annexed to the Papal States. 
The dukes who reigned after the death of Alfonzo II. were 
comparatively obscure and feeble. Alfonzo IV., who be¬ 
came duke of M6dena in 1658, had a daughter Mary, who was 
the second wife of James II. of England, and a son, Francis 
II., who died without issue in 1694. The title was then in¬ 
herited by Rinaldo, who, by his marriage with a daughter 
of the duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, united the Italian 
and German branches of the family. He died in 1737, and 
was succeeded by his son, Francis III., who died in 1780. 
Maria Beatrice, a granddaughter of Francis III., was mar¬ 
ried to Ferdinand, archduke of Austria. They had a son, 
Francis, who became duke of Modena in 1814, and died in 
1846, leaving a son, Francis V., who was the last duke of 
Mddena. He was deposed in 1859 by his revolted subjects 
joining the general movement for Italian unity. (See Poii- 
peo Litta, “ Famiglia Celebri Italiane.”) 

Estella [Sp. pron. fis-tfil'yi], a city of Spain, in the 
province of Navarre, 22 miles S. W. of Pampeluna. It is 
well built, and has a fine church with a lofty tower, a col¬ 
lege, and a hospital; also manufactures of linen and wool¬ 
len fabrics, brandy, and earthenware. Pop. 5593. 

Este'pa (anc. Astapa ), a town of Spain, in the province 
of Seville, 60 miles E. S. E. of Seville. It has a church 
which is a noble specimen of Gothic architecture, and a 
fine palace; also manufactures of baize, oil, etc. Marble 
is quarried in the vicinity. Pop. 8133. 

Estepo'na ? a town of Spain, in the province of Malaga, 
on the Mediterranean, 63 miles E. of Cadiz. It has an old 
Roman castle, is well built, and has extensive sardine-fish¬ 
eries. Pop. 9316. 

Es'terliazy, an ancient and noble family of Hungary, 
which has produced many eminent men and which owns 
large estates. 

Esterhazy (Nicholas Joseph), a grandson of Paul, 
was born Dec. 18, 1714. He became a privy councillor 
and field-marshal-general. He was a liberal patron of mu¬ 
sicians. Died Sept. 20, 1790. 

Esterhazy de GalPintha (Nicholas), Prince, a son of 
the preceding, was born Dec. 12,1765. He was distinguished 
as a diplomatist, and obtained the military rank ot field- 
marshal. He was employed as ambassador to Paris, Lon¬ 
don, and St. Petersburg between 1801 and 1816. He owned 
an immense fortune, and founded a rich collection of paint¬ 
ings in Vienna. Died Nov. 25, 1833. 

Esterhazy de Galantha (Paul), Prince, was born 
Sept. 8, 1635. He became a field-marshal in the Austrian 
army before the age of thirty, and was chosen palatine of 
Hungary in 1681. In 1686 he took Buda from the l urks, 
and in 1687 was created a prince of the empire. Died 
Mar. 26, 1713. 

Esterhazy de Galantha (Paul Antony), Prince, 
born Mar. 10, 1786, was a son of Nicholas, noticed above. 
He was ambassador from Austria to London in 1815-18, 
and again in 1830-38. In Mar., 1848, he became min¬ 
ister of foreign affairs in the liberal ministry of Hungary, 















ESTHER—ESTOVERS. 


but- he prudently resigned about tlie time when the war 
broke out, and he took no part in the war. He owned 
more land than any subject of the Austrian empire, and 
had a fine palace at Eiseustadt. Died May 21, 1866. 

Es'thcr [which means “star”], the Persian name of 
Iladas'sah [which means “myrtle”], a beautiful Jewish 
maiden, who became the queen of Xerxes, king of Persia 
(I?. C. 486-465). Some critics make her a niece, others a 
cousin, of Mordecai the Benjamite, who became prime min¬ 
ister of Persia in place of Hainan the Amalekite. She is 
certainly not to be identified with Amestris, the “Persian 
Jezebel.” Her connection with Xerxes Avas subsequent to 
his disastrous invasion of Greece. 

Esther, Book of, one of the latest of the canonical 
books of the Old Testament, consisting of ten chapters, 
and relating events which gave rise to the Jewish feast of 
Purim. The Jews call it emphatically Megillah, “the 
Roll.” The whole of it is read in Jewish synagogues 
every year at the feast whose origin it explains; and still, 
in many synagogues, with noisy demonstrations, such as 
hissing, and clapping of hands, and stamping of feet at 
the mention of Hainan's name. The inspiration of the 
book and its right to a place in the canon have been 
sharply questioned. Much account is made of the singu¬ 
lar fact that the name of God does not once occur ; that, 
although fasting is spoken of, no mention is made of 
prayer; and that the religious tone of the book through¬ 
out is low. On the other side it is urged that the provi¬ 
dence of God is magnified; that we have a vivid picture 
of manners and morals at the Persian court; and, above 
all, a most valuable exemplification of the unspiritual cha¬ 
racter of that portion of the Hebrew people who chose not 
to return to the Holy Land. The book appears to have 
been written in Persia soon after the occurrence of the 
events related in it, but by whom critics are not agreed. 
Its authorship cannot be determined. 

Esther, Apocryphal Book of, consists of the ten 
canonical chapters described above, with interpolations 
here and there, and the addition of six chapters at the 
end. These additions are found in the Septuagint, and in 
versions made from it, but not in the Hebrew. For this 
reason Jerome placed them together at the end of Esther, 
but Luther was the first to place them in the Apocrypha. 
The object of the unknown author was to give a more re¬ 
ligious tone to the book of Esther than it originally pos¬ 
sessed. Though considered spurious by all Protestant 
churches, the Greek, Armenian, and Roman Catholic 
churches accept these additions as canonical. 

Es'therville, a post-village, capital of Emmett co., Ia., 
is a rapidly growing town, pleasantly situated on the E. 
branch of the Des Moines River. It has a school-house 
costing $8000, and superior educational advantages, a bank, 
newspaper, machine-shop, two hotels, two saw and grist 
mills, two churches, etc. Principal business, farming and 
stock-raising. Pop. of village, 168; of township, 480. 

Day & Jenkins, Eds. “Vindicator.” 

Estho'nia, or Reval [Ger. Esthland ], a government 
of Russia, and one of the Baltic provinces, is bounded on 
the X. by the Gulf of Finland, on the E. by St. Peters¬ 
burg, on the S. by Livonia, and on the W. by the Baltic 
Sea. Area, 7610 square miles. The surface is generally 
fiat, and extensively covered with forests of pine; the soil 
is sandy, and in some parts marshy. The staple products 
are grain, hemp, flax, tobacco, and cattle. The population 
of the towns and the nobility are predominantly German, 
while the people of the rural districts are mostly Estlio- 
nians, who belong to the Finnish race. Ninety-six per cent, 
of the population belongs to the Lutheran Church. The 
language of the Esthonians is soft and melodious. Their 
literature consists chiefly of poems, the most important of 
which is the epic poem “ Kalexa Poig.” The Esthonian 
tribe inhabits also a part of Livonia, and embraces an ag¬ 
gregate population of about 600,000. Esthonia was con¬ 
quered from the Swedes by Peter the Great in 1710. Cap¬ 
ital, Reval. Pop. in 1867, 322,668. 

Es'tilj, a county in E. Central Kentucky. Area, 300 
square miles. It is intersected by Kentucky River. The 
surface is hilly; the soil fertile. Coal and iron are found. 
Grain and tobacco are produced. Capital, Irvine. Pop. 
9198. 

Es'tillvilJc, a post-village, capital of Scott co., Va., 
about 350 miles W. by S. from Richmond. Pop. of Estill- 
ville township, 2400. 

EstojUpcl, a principle of law, whereby one is bound by 
his previous admission or declaration—not on the ground 
that it is true, but because to dispute it is regarded as con¬ 
trary to sound policy or as subversive of the ends of jus¬ 
tice. Estoppels are: of record, of deed, and in pais. 

1. Estoppel of Record. —By record is here meant the 


record of a tribunal of a judicial character. No one is per¬ 
mitted in a legal proceeding to contradict an admission made 
by him in his pleading. So the judgment of a court of com¬ 
petent jurisdiction is in most instances absolutely unim¬ 
peachable. If the judgment is in rein. —that is, if it deter¬ 
mines the status of a person or thing—it is binding on all 
persons, whether rendered by a domestic or a foreign tri¬ 
bunal. If the judgment is in personam, it is conclusive if 
rendered by a domestic court, and the better opinion is that 
the same rule applies to a foreign judgment, unless it be 
shown in either case that the court which pronounced it 
did not acquire jurisdiction, or that the judgment was ob¬ 
tained by fraud. This respect for the decisions of foreign 
tribunals is based on the comity which nations show each 
other, and on the necessities of commerce. The Constitu¬ 
tion of the U. S. provides that full faith and credit shall be 
given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial 
proceedings of every other State. Under this provision the 
judgments of the courts in one State are binding on the 
tribunals of another State, without reference to the doctrine 
of the comity of nations. But a judgment in ])ersona?n has 
no binding force except as to the parties to the action in 
which it is rendered, and those who claim under them, who 
are technically said to be in privity with them. The doc¬ 
trine of estoppel by record does not prevent one injured by 
a judgment from taking direct proceedings to attack it, and 
judgments are often set aside on application to the court 
in which they are rendered. In certain cases courts of 
equity interfere by injunction to stay proceedings on judg¬ 
ments obtained in courts of law. 

2. Estoppel by Deed. —A party to an instrument under 
seal is bound by the statements contained in it to those who 
have acted upon such statements, or, as Lord Mansfield puts 
it, no man is allowed to dispute his own solemn deed. The 
estoppel applies to recitals as well as to direct averments. 
To create an estoppel the recital must be clear and of a 
material fact, and consistent with the general scope of the 
deed. As a general rule, estoppels of this class are recip¬ 
rocal. Thus, in the caso of alease, while the tenant cannot 
dispute the title of the landlord, the latter cannot deny the 
right of the tenant. There is also an estoppel by deed of 
a more technical nature. This grows out of a covenant of 
warranty. Thus, should a person having no title to land 
convey with covenant of warranty, and afterwards acquire 
the title, he would be estopped by his covenant from as¬ 
serting his claim to the land. The object of this rule is to 
avoid “circuity of action.” 

3. Estoppel in Pais .—In the time of Lord Coke this di¬ 

vision of the principle was applied only to certain acts rela¬ 
tive to the title of real estate which the law regarded as 
possessing equal solemnity and notoriety with a deed. Since 
then the principle has been greatly extended, and now pre¬ 
sents a twofold aspect. In the first place, it is rigorously 
applied, from motives of general policy, to certain classes 
of cases. A bailee in general cannot dispute the title of his 
bailor, neither is the endorser or acceptor of negotiable pa¬ 
per allowed to deny the genuineness of any of the preced¬ 
ing names to the paper. In the second place, it is applied 
when good conscience requires that one should not be al¬ 
lowed to insist on his strict legal rights. The rule which 
governs its application here may be thus stated : Where one 
has made a representation or an admission by his words, 
his action, or, in cases where it is his duty to speak, by his 
silence, with the intent or expectation, or reasonable grounds 
for expectation, that others should rely and act thereon, he 
shall not be permitted to prove that the representation or 
admission was untrue, if thereby injury would result to one 
who has in good faith acted upon it. It was at one time 
supposed that fraud, was an essential element to constitute 
an estoppel in pais. The better opinion is that no fraudu¬ 
lent design is necessary. It is enough if the party claim¬ 
ing the benefit of the estoppel has acted upon the represen¬ 
tations as before stated. The principle, thus limited and 
applied, is free from the technicalities and harshness which 
for a long time caused the doctrine of estoppel to be regarded 
with suspicion by the courts: it is constantly invoked for 
the prevention of fraud and injustice, and has become one 
of the most effective agencies of the law. A few instances 
of its practical application may be cited : A principal may 
by his conduct be estopped to deny that a certain person is 
his agent; one who has permitted himself to be held out as 
a member of a mercantile firm may be estopped as to cred¬ 
itors from denying his membership; a man who has held 
out a woman as his wife maybe estopped from proving that 
she is not as to tradesmen who have in good faith supplied her 
with the necessaries of life on his credit. The principle ha 3 
been extended to the law of real estate. An owner of land 
who has induced another to incur heavy expenditure on the 
representation that the latter was OAvner Avould be estopped 
from asserting his own title. T. W. Davigiit. 

Esto'vers, the right of a tenant to take wood from the 



















ESTRADES, D’—ETHER. 


i 


1(525 


demised premises for fuel, fences, and general agricultural 
purposes. Ibis right may be claimed by any tenant, 
whether for life, for years, or at will, unless forbidden in 
his lease. But only a reasonable amount of wood can be 
taken ; the tenant must not destroy the timber, nor do any 
permanent injury to the inheritance. 

Estrailes, d’ (Godefroi), Comte, a marshal of France 
and able diplomatist, born at Agen in 1607. He negotiated 
the cession of Dunkirk to France in 1662, and rendered im¬ 
portant military services in Holland between 1672 and 1675. 
He represented France at the congress of Nyrnwe^en. 1678. 
Hied Feb. 26, 1686. . 

E stray' [remotely from the Lat. extra, « outside,” and 
vacjor, vagari, to “ wander”], in law, is a domestic animal 
(the owner of which is unknown) found wandering outside 
the pasture or other enclosure where it belongs. In Eng¬ 
land the owner has a year and a day to claim such cattle 
in, and the proprietor of the enclosure where they are 
found must make due proclamation in a church and in two 
market-towns. When these conditions are fulfilled, they 
belong to the proprietor of the enclosure where they are 
found. The law of estrays varies in the different States 
of the Union. In some, after the estray has been duly 
advertised and kept a certain length of time, it is sold to 
pay the charges for advertising and keeping, any balance 
going to the town treasury. Cattle running about con¬ 
trary to local, municipal, or other regulations, or breaking 
into growing crops and doing damage to them or to other 
property, can in most places be sent to a public pound, and 
after a short time sold to pay damages and expenses. 

Estrees, d’ (Gabrielle), a beautiful Frenchwoman, 
born in 1571, was a sister of the first duke of Estrees. She was 
the mistress of Henry IV., who gave her the title of duchess. 
It is said that he intended to marry her, but he was pre¬ 
vented by her early death (April 10, 1599). She was ami¬ 
able and graceful. Her brother, the due d’Estrees, was a 
marshal of France, and had a son who was also a marshal. 

Estremadu'ra, a province of Portugal, is bounded on 
the N. by Beira, on the E. and S. by Alemtejo, and on the 
W. by the Atlantic, and intersected by the river Tagus. 
Area, 6873 square miles. The surface is mostly hilly; the 
soil is partly fertile and partly sterile. It is subject to 
frequent earthquakes. Among the minerals are granite, 
marble, and coal. The staple productions are wine, oil, 
cork, fruits, and grain. Pop. in 1868, 837,451. Capital, 
Lisbon. 

Estremadu'ra, a former province of Spain, was 
bounded on the N. by Leon, on the E. by New Castile, on 
the S. by Andalusia, and on the W. by Portugal, and in¬ 
tersected by the rivers Tagus and Guadiana. Between 
these rivers a long chain of mountains extends nearly E. 
and W. The northern and southern parts are also moun¬ 
tainous. The soil is fertile, but not cultivated to much ex¬ 
tent. Large flocks of sheep are pastured on it. This prov¬ 
ince contains mines of copper, lead, silver, and coal, which 
are neglected. It is comprised in the present provinces of 
Badajos and Caceres. Pop. in 1867, 733,749. 

Estremoz', a fortified town of Portugal, in Alemtejo, 
is about 23 miles N. E. of Evora and 82 miles E. of Lis¬ 
bon. It has a strong castle on a hill, around the base of 
which the town is built. Here are famous manufactures of 
porous jars which have the property of keeping water cool. 
The forms of these jars are said to be classical. Pop. in 
1863, 7274. 

Es'tuary, or AEs'tuary [Lat. sestua'rium, from scs'tus, 
the “tide,” because the tide is apt to be felt even more in 
an estuary than in the open sea], in geography, a term ap¬ 
plied to the wide mouth of a river where the tide meets the 
current; also an arm of the sea or a frith. 

Esz'ek, Es'sek, or Esseck (anc. Mur'sia or Mur'sa), 
a strongly fortified town of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, 
the capital of Slavonia, is on the river Drave, 13 miles from 
its entrance into the Danube, and 150 miles S. by W. from 
Pesth. It has a prosperous trade, facilitated by the steam 
navigation of the river. It contains an arsenal, a town- 
house, and a normal school. Pop. in 1869, 17,247. 

Etampes, formerly Estampes (anc. Stam'pse), a town 
of France, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, is on the 
Paris and Orleans Railway, 31 miles by rail S. S. W. of 
Paris. It has an old Gothic church, a castle, and many 
flouring mills; also manufactures of hosiery, linen thread, 
counterpanes, and soap. Pop. in 1866, 8288. 

Etampes, or Estanripes (Anne), Duchess of, a French 
lady, born in 1508. She was a favorite mistress of Francis 
I., and exerted much influence over public affairs. . bho is 
said to have been a woman of superior talents. Died in 15i 6. 

Et'anin [Arab.], the fixed star called y Draconis. . Ob¬ 
servations made on this star by .Tames Bradley led him in 
1727 to the discovery of the aberration of the fixed stars. 


Eta'wah, a decayed town of India, in the N. W. Prov¬ 
inces, is on the Jumna, about 70 miles below Agra, and on 
the Last Indian Railway, 97 miles N. W. of Cawnpore, and 
837 miles from Calcutta. It presents some remains of for¬ 
mer grandeur. Pop. about 20,000. 

Etching. See Engraving, by Pres. M. B. Anderson, 
LL.D. 

Ete'ocles [Gr. ’Ereo/cA]);], a mythical king of Thebes 
(in Boeotia) and a son of (Edipus. He and his brother 
Polynices agreed to reign alternately over Thebes, but 
Eteocles usurped the throne when his brother’s turn came 
to reign. The famous expedition of the Seven against 
Thebes was undertaken to restore Polynices, who killed 
Eteocles in single combat. 

Ete'sian Willlls [Gr. erijoAu, or eTijtnat are/uoi ; e. “ an¬ 
nual (or periodical) winds,” from eVos, a “year”], northerly 
and north-easterly winds which prevail in summer through¬ 
out a great part of Europe and in Northern Africa. The name 
occurs in its Greek form in several ancient writers, and is no w 
occasionally seen in meteorological works. These winds 
arise in a great degree from the heat of the African Sahara. 

r 

Etex (Antoine), a sculptor, painter, engraver, architect, 
and author, was born at Paris Mar. 20, 1806, was educated 
at Paris and Rome, and has achieved distinction in all the 
departments to which he has given attention. He has pub¬ 
lished an “ Essai sur lo Beau” (1851), “ Cours Elementaire 
de Dessin” (1859), and “ J. Pradier, Ary Scheffer: Etudes” 
(1859). 

Ethal. See Spermaceti, by Prof. B. Silliman, M. D. 

Eth'elbert, king of Kent, ascended the throne about 
560 A. D. Ho became the head or most powerful prince 
(bretwalda) of the Heptarchy about 590. Ilis wife Bertha, 
a daughter of the king of Paris, was a Christian, and in¬ 
duced Ethelbert and his subjects to profess Christianity in 
597 A. D. Saint Augustine was instrumental in their con¬ 
version. Ethelbert gave to the Anglo-Saxons their first 
written code of laws. Died in 616 A. D. 

Ethelbert, Anglo-Saxon king of England, was a son 
of Ethelwolf. He began to reign over Kent, Essex, and 
Sussex in 852 A. D., and obtained also the throne of Wes¬ 
sex on the death of his brother Ethelbald in 860. He died 
in 865 A. D. 

Etli'elred (or iEthelred) I., Anglo-Saxon king of 
England, succeeded his brother Ethelbert in 866 A. D. In 
the first year of his reign the island was invaded by Danes, 
who conquered a large part of his kingdom. His brother 
Alfred defeated the Danes in 870. Ethelred was killed in 
battle at Merton in 871 A. D., and was succeeded by Alfred 
the Great. 

Ethelred II., surnamed the Unready, Anglo-Saxon 
king of England, a son of Edgar, was born in 968 A. D. 
His mother was Elfrida, notorious for her crimes. He suc¬ 
ceeded his half-brother, Edward the Martyr, in 978. In his 
disastrous and inglorious reign the kingdom was invaded 
and ravaged by the Danes, to whom he paid large sums of 
money to purchase peace, but they soon renewed their 
piratical incursions. The Danish king Sweyn took London 
in 1014, and Ethelred fled to the court of the duke of Nor¬ 
mandy, who was his wife’s brother. He died in 1016, leav¬ 
ing two sons—Edmund Ironside and Edward the Confessor. 

Eth'elwolf, Anglo-Saxon king of England, was the 
eldest son of Egbert, whom he succeeded in 836 A. D. Ilis 
kingdom was harassed by several incursions of the Danes, 
who pillaged London in 851. He defeated these invaders at 
Okely in that. year. He married, in 856, Judith, a daughter 
of Charles the Bald, king of France. Died in 858 A. D. He 
left four sons—Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred, and Alfred 
the Great. 


Ethene. See Ethylene. 

E'ther [Gr. <u0tjp; Lat. se'ther, originally applied to the 
purer upper air; hence any subtile fluid], in organic chemis¬ 
try, is a name given to numerous compounds, which are 
usually very volatile, fragrant, and, with a few exceptions, 
highly inflammable; they are generally derived from alco¬ 
hols by the action of acids. When the alcohols are simply 
dehydrated by the action of the acid, “simple ethers” are 
produced, which are oxides of the alcohol radicals analo¬ 
gous to metallic oxides. Thus, 

Common Alcohol. Common Ether. Water. 

2C 2 H 5 .H.O - (C 2 H 5 ) 2 0 + II 2 0. 


When the acids combine with the alcohol radical, “ com¬ 
pound ethers” are produced, analogous to metallic salts. 


Thus, 


Common 

Alcohol. 


Acetic 

Acid. 


Ethyl 

Aoetato. 


Water. 


C 2 II 5 .H.O + H.C 2 H 3 O 2 = C 2 H 5 .C 2 H 3 O 2 + II 2 0. 
“Haloid ethers” are compounds of the alcohol radicals 
with the halogens, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc. They 



























1626 


ETHER—ETHIOPIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 


are analogous to common salt (NaCI). Amyl chloride 
(C 5 II 11 CI) and methyl iodide (CII 3 I) are examples. 

Sulphur, selenium, etc. form compounds analogous to the 
simple or oxygen ethers. 

Common ether, properly known as ethylic ether, commonly 
and very incorrectly called sulphuric ether (C 2 ll 5 ) 20 , is gene¬ 
rally regarded as an oxygen ether, and in this view is some¬ 
times called ethyl oxide. It is formed by the action of sul¬ 
phuric acid or some other dehydrating agent upon strong 
ethylic (common) alcohol. Ethylic ether is a fragrant, color¬ 
less, transparent, and highly mobile liquid, with a specific 
gravity of .720, and a boiling-point of 96° Fahrenheit. It 
is extremely combustible, and so volatile that when applied 
to the hand it causes a profound sensation of cold. Though 
very light in the liquid state, its vapor is more than twice 
as heavy as air. It is very useful in the chemical labora¬ 
tory, especially as a solvent of fats and oils. 

Ether is much used in medicine and surgery, both as a 
diffusible stimulant and as an anaesthetic. It was prob¬ 
ably the first complete anaesthetic ever employed. It was 
introduced by Dr. Morton of Boston, Mass. (See Anaes¬ 
thetics.) 

The other more important ethers are “acetic ether” 
(ethyl acetate, C 2 H 5 .C 2 II 3 O 2 ), an exceedingly fragrant stimu¬ 
lant and antispasmodic; “ butyric ether” (ethyl butyrate, 
C 2 H 5 .C 4 II 7 O 2 ), used in preparing artificial pineapple syrup ; 

“ pelargonic ether ” (ethyl pelargonate), for making artificial 
quince flavor; “amyl acetate,” for making “jargonelle pear 
essence,” extensively used in confections, besides an im¬ 
mense number of other ethers and mixtures used in arti¬ 
ficial flavoring; “iodic ether” (ethyl iodide), used in med¬ 
icine; “nitrous ether” (ethyl nitrite, C 2 H 5 .NO 2 ), used in 
making “sweet spirits of nitre.” 

Ether, a hypothetical medium which is assumed to per¬ 
vade all space, and which is regarded as possessing extreme 
tenuity and elasticity, and as being the medium of the 
transmission of light and heat, these forces being trans¬ 
mitted by vibrations or undulations of this ether. 

Eth'erege, or Etheridge (Sir George), an English 
dramatist, born in 1636. He wrote “ Love in a Tub,” “ Sir 
Fopling Flutter, or the Man of Mode,” and other successful 
comedies. He was a wit and libertine. Died about 1692. 

Ethics. See Moral Philosophy, by Pres. Noah Por¬ 
ter, S. T. D., LL.D. 

Ethio'pia [Lat. A Ethiopia; Gr. a 16 l onia, from cu 0 w, to 
“burn,” and “face;” Heb. Cush], a name given by 
ancient geographers to the regions situated S. of Egypt 
and Libya. The name Ethiopians was originally ap¬ 
plied by the Greeks to all the peoples who lived in the 
southern parts of the known world, including the dark- 
colored natives of India. As the ancient Greeks and Ro¬ 
mans had but little intercourse with the Ethiopians, the 
accounts which they have transmitted to us are very de¬ 
fective and uncertain. They supposed Ethiopia to be in¬ 
habited by several races called Troglodytes, Pygmies, Ma- 
crobii, and Blemmyes. According to some traditions, the 
Egyptians derived their civilization or came themselves 
from Ethiopia. The connection between Egypt and Ethio¬ 
pia was at all periods intimate, but it is now generally be¬ 
lieved that civilization ascended the Nile, instead of de¬ 
scending it. In its extended sense, Ethiopia corresponded 
to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, Kordofan, and Northern 
Abyssinia. The population of this vague region was a 
mixture of Arabian and Libyan races with the genuine 
Ethiopians. The latter had well-formed limbs, and a facial 
outline resembling the Caucasian in all but its inclination 
to prominent lips and a somewhat sloping forehead. Their 
language was Semitic. The Nubians and Shangallas of the 
present time are probably their descendants. 

The term Ethiopia Proper was restricted to the kingdom 
of Meroe. The high civilization of Ethiopia, as attested 
by historians and confirmed by monuments, was confined 
to the island of Meroe and s.Ethiopia sEyypti. The king¬ 
dom of Meroe was bounded on the E. by the river Asta- 
boras (Atbara) and on the W. by the desert of Bahiouda. 
It probably extended southward to the junction of the Blue 
Nile with the White Nile. The capital of this kingdom 
was Napata, on the Nile. It became one of the most 
powerful and civilized nations of the world as early as 
1000 B. C. The government was a sacerdotal monarchy, 
the priests being the ruling class, as in Egypt. The mili¬ 
tary power of the Ethiopians was celebrated by Isaiah 
(xx. 5) and other Hebrew prophets, and the sacred history 
records their invasion of Palestine. In the eighth century 
B. C. an Ethiopian dynasty (the twenty-fifth of Egypt) 
reigned in Lower Egypt. The first king of this dynasty 
was Sabaco, whose son and successor, Sebichus (the So or 
Seva of the Bible), was an ally of Iloshca, king of Israel, in 
722 B. C. It is stated that in the reign of the Egyptian 
king Psammetichus (630 B. C.) the military caste, number¬ 


ing 240,000, migrated into Ethiopia. It was invaded by 
the army of Cambyses, king of Persia, in 530 B. C. Ac¬ 
cording to Josephus, he conquered Meroe. In the reign 
of Augustus Caesar, Candace, queen of Ethiopia, waged 
war against the Romans. Having been defeated, she sued 
for peace and became tributary to him in 22 B. C., but the 
Roman tenure of Ethiopia was always precarious. Early 
in the fourth century many Christian churches were planted 
in Ethiopia. (See Abyssinia, by Prof. A. J. Schem.) 

Ethiopic Language and Literature. The name 
“Ethiopic language” is at present generally applied to the 
old written language of the Abyssinian Church. The name 
“ Chaldaean language,” which was given to it at the time 
when the knowledge of it was first introduced into Europe 
by J. Potken (1513), was incorrect. But even the name 
« Ethiopic language,” by which it has been known since the 
middle of the sixteenth century, does not seem to fit exactly, 
for it has nothing in common with the language of that race 
called by the ancients iEthiopes (the Cushites of the Bible) ; 
and in the large empire of Abyssinia, which was called in 
the Middle Ages Ethiopia, there were and still are many 
other languages, some of which are related to, while others 
are of entirely different stock from, the Ethiopian. The 
native name is the Geez language. Geez, or, in the plural, 
A(f dzi ( i . e. “those who have travelled,” or “the free”), 
was the name which the race who once spoke this language 
applied to itself, and consequently to its language; and 
modern philologists have begun to use “ Geez ” as the more 
accurate, in preference to “Ethiopic” language, the more 
general term. The Geez were one of the Semitic tribes, who 
had emigrated from Arabia to Abyssinia, and had settled 
in Tigre and its capital, Axoom. In the large Abyssinian 
empire which grew up around Axoom, and which was gradu¬ 
ally Christianized after the fourth century, this Geez lan¬ 
guage became the official and the church language, beside 
which the dialects and languages of the different native 
tribes still continued to exist, but were not used as written 
languages. In this ruling position as the official language 
of the empire it continued to maintain itself until the mid¬ 
dle of the thirteenth century, when, in consequence of a 
change of dynasties, the Amharic language gradually gained 
the ascendency at the imperial court, and entirely super¬ 
seded the Ethiopic as the official language. But its posi¬ 
tion as the language of the Church and of the scholars of 
Christian Abyssinia it did not lose in consequence of this 
political revolution. The clergy and literary men were for 
centuries compelled to have a knowledge of it, and under¬ 
stood it even well enough to write books; and even at the 
present day the old Geez books continue to be copied. 
During the last three hundred years books of all "kinds have 
been prepared in the Amharic language, which is more 
familiar to the people, and even the Bible or parts of it have 
been translated, especially at the instance of the Protestant 
missionaries, into the modern languages of Abyssinia, in 
particular into the Amharic and Tigre, without diminishing, 
however, the influence of the old Geez translations. As a 
popular language the Geez has died out even in Tigre, its 
original home, or rather it has been modified in the mouths 
of the people into dialects. Among these descendants of the 
Geez language two principal dialects are distinguished : the 
Tigre, which is closely allied to the Geez, and which is 
spoken by nomadic tribes in the extreme north, in the re¬ 
gions bordering on Nubia and Sennaar, which for a long 
time have been cut loose from Abyssinia; and the Tigrina, 
which is spoken in the old province of Tigre and the neigh¬ 
boring districts, and which has degenerated more than the 
other in sounds, forms, and fulness of words, and is largely 
mixed with Amharic words. (A grammar of this language 
has recently been published by Praetorius, “ Grammatik der 
Tigrinasprache,” 1872.) 

The Geez is a purely Semitic language, but still, in its 
way, is very peculiar, and is justly regarded as a special 
branch of the Semitic family. Its relation to the language 
of the Ilimyaritic monuments can hardly be said to be 
nearer than its relation to the Arabic as now written. It has, 
however, much in common with the entire Arabic group of 
languages, not only in regard to the stock of words, but also 
in regard to the system of sounds and the formation of 
words; and although it has never attained the fulness of 
forms of the Arabic, it has developed some Semitic pecu¬ 
liarities, even more consistently than the written Arabic. 
But in many words, roots, forms, and even in many sjm- 
tactic forms, it agrees more with tho northern Semitic lan¬ 
guages, especially with the Hebrew, but also with the Ara¬ 
maic and the Assyrian. It must therefore be assumed that 
the Geez, after its branching off from the northern Semitic, 
continued to develop itself in connection with the southern 
Semitic (Arabic) languages, but separated itself very early 
from these, and continued to go along its own path. For 
this reason it has still many peculiarities of the ancient 
Semitic languages—peculiarities which have been aban- 




















ETHIOPS MINERAL—ETHYL-CARBAMIDES. 


1627 


doned even in the Arabic ; and in some respects has re¬ 
tained the most ancient forms (e. g. it has no article). 
Other forms it has developed in a peculiar manner, contrary 
to the method of all other Semitic languages (e. g. most of 
the prepositions and conjunctions). Especially in the 
method of construction it has formations which are hardly 
to be found in the other Semitic languages, and has acquired a 
flexibility of syntax which distinguishes it favorably from all 
the other languages related to it. On the other hand, besides 
many ancient and peculiar forms in the Geez, we meet, strange 
to say, with many forms which the other Semitic languages 
only reached in their latest stages of development (e. g. the 
disappearance of the inner passive and of the participial 
form, the dropping of short vowels, etc.); and we may infer 
from this that the Geez, as it is presented to us in the Abys¬ 
sinian books, has already passed through a long stage of de¬ 
velopment. From this it is seen that the study of the Geez 
is very important and instructive to the Semitic philologist. 

The Geez has never been grammatically treated by native 
(Abyssinian) scholars. In Europe, after several very incom¬ 
plete attempts in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 
it was treated of in a grammatical and lexicographical ex¬ 
position, which for its time was excellent, by Hiob Ludolf 
(“ Grammar and Lexicon,” 1661; 2d ed., Lexicon, 1699, 
Grammar, 1702). In accordance with the demand of modern 
linguistics, and on the basis of a much fuller knowledge of 
Ethiopic literature, the language has recently been treated 
of by A. Dillmann (“Grammar,” 1857; “Lexikon,” 1865). 

The Geez is written with peculiar characters, which orig¬ 
inally were identical with the Ilimyaritic and old Arabic 
characters found in the inscriptions of Syria and Assyria, 
and were afterwards only slightly modified. It is written 
not from right to left, but from left to right, and is also re¬ 
markable in that it separates the single words by two 
dots (:), and that the writing of vowels by means of little 
lines and hooks, which are attached to the consonants, is 
uniformly carried out. These characters wero subsequently 
used in Abyssinia for the other dialects and languages also, 
especially for the Amharic and the Tigrina, but enriched 
by several new characters, so that they can be said to have 
become the universal alphabet of Abyssinia. 

The oldest monuments of the Ethiopic 6 haracters and 
language which are known at present do not date beyond 
the first centuries of our era. They are coins and inscrip¬ 
tions; among the latter especially the large inscriptions of 
Axoom, which have been made known to the world by Riip- 
pel in the account of his travels. They mostly show an 
archaic mode of writing the consonants, and the vowel-signs 
are only in their infancy. An Ethiopic literature began to 
exist since the introduction of Christianity into Abyssinia 
(in the fourth century), and has always retained a predomi¬ 
nantly religious character. Its basis was the translation of 
the Bible, both the Old and New Testament, together with the 
semi-biblical, apocryphal, and pseudepigraphic books be¬ 
longing thereto, which in the other churches were rejected 
or lost (as the book of Jubilees, of Enoch, the Apocalypse 
of Ezra, the Ascension of Isaiah, the Shepherd of Hermas, 
and others). The entire translation has been made from 
the Greek, but was afterwards revised several times—the 
Old Testament at last even from the Hebrew; and we must 
therefore distinguish between the old, middle, and latest re¬ 
visions of the text. The pseudepigraphic books are nearly 
all printed. A critical edition of the Old Testament has 
been begun by Prof. Dillmann, but has only progressed to 
the second book of Kings. The Psalms and Solomon’s 
Song have been published already several times. The 
New Testament was printed at Rome in 1548, and was re¬ 
produced in the London Polyglot with many mistakes. The 
edition (now out of print) of the English Bible Society (by 
P. Platt, 1826) gives a mixed text, which cannot be used for 
critical purposes. The other literature consists, for a large 
part, of translations of Greek and even Coptic works, and 
after Mohammedanism had taken root in Egypt, the mother- 
country of the Abyssinian Church, Arabic works also were 
translated. The literature comprises theological and religi¬ 
ous works of every kind, such as collections of old canons 
(Clementina, Didascalia, Synodus), catenas, and homilies, 
exegetical and dogmatic writings, (especially those of Cyril, 
Epiphanius, Chrysostom, and also of the Syrian Fathers, 
especially those of the Monophysitic Church); Haimanbta 
Aban (t. e. a large collection of confessions of faith of the 
monophysitic teachers); lectionaries for the whole year, es¬ 
pecially for the fasts and the Passion-time; horologia, lit¬ 
urgies of the mass, and church-books for the other sacra¬ 
ments, and for burials, church discipline (Fans Manfasawi), 
and church law (Fetha Nagast), Acta Sanctorum (Synaxa), 
a large number of monastic rules and monastic writings ; 
in sacred and profane history and chronology the works 
of Joseph Ben Gorion, George Ben Amid, Abuschaker, and 
others, and even something relating to philosophy and the 
natural sciences. 


Among the native productions of the Abyssinians them¬ 
selves are dogmatic treatises, pseudonymous apocalyptical 
writings, numerous prayer-books and formulas, meditations, 
eulogies and biographies of saints, martyrs, monks, and 
archangels in prose and verse, mostly productions of monk¬ 
ish imagination and an insane belief in miracles. More 
important in their way are the large ancient hymn-books 
(Degna, Maras’et, Me’raf), with hymns and antiphonies, 
not only for Sundays and holidays, but also for every day 
in the year, and containing formulas for the ceremonies in 
honor of all the saints of the calendar, with peculiar notes 
for singing, the use of which has been very imperfectly 
explained up to the present time. Most of these works, 
which indicate a considerable progress in religious poetry 
and music, have been traced back to a certain Jared in the 
sixth century. Besides these there were also large works 
on native history, and explicit annals of the several kings 
(from which J. Bruce in the second volume of his travels 
has given extracts), which were written in a peculiar lan¬ 
guage, a mixture of the Geez and the Amharic. After the 
extinction of the Geez a beginning of grammatical and lex¬ 
icographical works was made, and was deposited in many 
Ethiopic-Amharic glossaries (Savasev). Much was also 
written in this period on medicine, witchcraft, exorcism, 
and divination for the superstitious people, either in Ethio¬ 
pic-Amharic or entirely in the Amharic language. The 
poetry was almost entirely in the service of the Church and 
of religion. At all events, poems on secular affairs in the 
Geez language have not come down to us. Besides the pe¬ 
culiarly arranged hymns, only lyrical poetry was developed. 
The poems are divided into strophes of equal length. The 
construction of the strophes shows many varieties: the 
lines are rhymed; the syllables are neither measured nor 
counted. Of real poetic genius there are but few traces in 
these poems; many have of poetry nothing but the rhyme. 

Of the entire literature very little has been printed be¬ 
sides the Bible. But it is at present very fully represented 
in manuscripts in all the large libraries of Europe, espe¬ 
cially in Rome, Paris, Oxford, London, Tubingen, Frank- 
fort-on-the Main, Vienna, and Berlin. The largest collec¬ 
tion of manuscripts until lately was in the possession of 
Antoine d’Abbadio in France. But since the Abyssinian 
war the collection of the British Museum has been so 
largely increased that it is without doubt the largest in 
Europe. All the older and most of the later manuscripts 
are written on beautiful parchment. Among the manu¬ 
scripts brought to Europe within the last century none date 
farther back than the fifteenth century. 

August Diltaiann. 


of the University of Berlin, Germany. 

E'thiops Min'eral, the black powder obtained by 
triturating mercury with sulphur. It is a sulphide of 
mercury. The term Ethiops was formerly applied to other 
black powders. 

Eth'moid [from the Gr. rjfljuo?, a “sieve,” and eTSo?, 
“form”] Bone, a spongy, irregularly cubical bone, situ¬ 
ated below the anterior part of the brain, between the orbits 
of the eyes and at the roots of the nose. In man it consists 
of four parts—the cribriform plate, the perpendicular plate, 
and the two lateral masses. It is developed from three cen¬ 
tres, commencing about the fifth month of foetal life, and is 
completed about the sixth year of childhood. It appears 
to be formed of the united neurapophyses of the first cepha¬ 
lic vertebra. 

Ethnology. See Man and his Migrations. By Pres. 
M. B. Anderson, LL.D. 

E'thyl, or E'thule [from the Gr. alOrjp and vA>?, “sub¬ 
stance;” literally, a “substance of ether”], a name given 
to the organic radical (C 2 II 5 ) contained in ether and alcohol. 
It may be obtained by the action of zinc on ethyl iodide. 
It is at ordinary temperatures a colorless and invisible gas, 
possessing a slight ethereal odor, and burning with a bril¬ 
liant white flame. It is insoluble in w'ater, but soluble in 
alcohol. It may be condensed to a liquid by the pressure 
of two and one-fourth atmospheres. 

Ethyl'amin, a compound ammonia in which one atom 
of the hydrogen of the NH 3 is replaced by ethyl, G 2 II 5 . 


Thus, 


Ammonia. 


N 


H, 

H, 

II. 


Ethylamin. 

( C 2 H 5 , 

n] h, 

(II. 


It is a mobile liquid, with a boiling-point of only 66 Fah¬ 
renheit, and a specific gravity of 0.6964. It has the odor 
and many of the reactions of ammonia, being a powerful 
alkaline base. Its vapor, however, is inflammable. There 
is also a diethylamin, NH(C 2 H 5 ) 2 > a triethylamin, A (G 2 I*s)3> 
and a tetrethylammonium, N(C 2 Il 5 ) 4 - 

Ethyl-Carlminidcs, or Ethyl-Ureas, compounds 
derived from oarbamide or urea by the substitution of ono 




















ETHYLENE—ETRURIA. 


1028 


or more atoms of ethyl for a corresponding number of 
atoms of hydrogen. 

Carbamide or urea = N 2 (CO)" II 4 . 

Ethyl-carbamide = N 2 (CO)."C 2 H 5 .H 3 . 

Diethyl-carbamide = N 2 ( 00 )"(C 2 ll 5 ) 2 ll 2 . 

Triethyl-carbamido = N 2 (CO)"(C 2 ll 5 ) 3 H. 

Eth'ylene (C2II4), Ethene, Olefiant Gas, or Bi- 
carburctted Hydrogen, produced by beating alcohol 
with strong sulphuric acid or boric anhydride; also by 
the dry distillation of many organic bodies, as fats, resins, 
wood, coal, many salts of organic acids, etc. It is an im¬ 
portant constituent of coal gas, the illuminating power of 
which is largely due to its presence. It is a colorless gas, 
having a faint ethereal odor, which is attributed to a slight 
contamination with ether vapor. Its specific gravity is 
0.9784. By pressure and cold it may be condensed to a 
limpid liquid. It burns in the air with a bright white 
flame which is very luminous. It is a diatomic radical, 
uniting with two atoms of Cl, B 2 , Cy, and other monatomic 
radicals, and w T ith one atom of 0, S, and other diatomic 
radicals. By replacing hydrogen in two or more molecules 
of ammonia, it produces diamines, triamines, etc. (See 
Ethylene Bases.) Its compound with chlorine (C2II4CI2) 
has long been known as “ Dutch liquid.” 

Eth'ylene Ba'ses. By the action of ethylene chlor¬ 
ide, bromide, or iodide on ammonia, when heated in sealed 
tubes, Cloez, Nalanson, and Hofmann have shown that a 
scries of compound ammonias are generated. When a 
molecule of ethylene replaces an atom of hydrogen in each 
of two molecules of ammonia, an ethylene diamine is pro- 

fHi 

duced, C 2 H 8 N 2 = 1M (C 2 H 4 )". Two molecules of ethy- 

I II2 


lene, replacing two atoms of hydrogen in each molecule of 
ammonia, yield diethylene-diamine. Three ethylenes, re¬ 
placing all six atoms of H, yield triethylene diamine, N 2 
(C 2 H 4 )" 3 . In the same manner, by replacements of hydro¬ 
gen in three and four molecules of ammonia by ethylene, 
there are produced triamines and tetramines of various 
grades. The hydrogen remaining in the triamine or totra- 
mine may be further replaced by the monatomic alcohol 
radicals, methyl, ethyl, etc. 

Eth'ylene Car'bamides, or Ethylene Ureas, 

compounds produced by the action of cyanic acid and the 
cyanic ethers on ethylene-diamines. Ethylene-dicarba- 
mide may be considered as formed of two molecules of 
urea or carbamide, in each of which one atom of hydrogen 
is replaced by a molecule of ethylene, thus: Urea = N 2 
(CO)."H 4 ; ethylene-dicarbamide = N 4 (C 0 ) 2 ”(C 2 H 4 )."H 6 = 

N 2 (C0)" l fC,HD" I IIs - 
N 2 (C0)"J 1h 3 . 

Ethylenic Alcohols. By replacing two, four, six or 
more atoms of hydrogen in as many molecules of water, 
ethylene gives rise to a series of alcohols. 

Etiola'tion [Fr. etiolement, from etiole, “blanched”], 
the state of a plant which is deprived of green color by the 
exclusion of light. When it is obtained by keeping plants 
in the dark in order to render them tender and less acrid, 
it is called blanching, as in the case of celery. 

Etiquette [from the Gr. rj 0 o?, plu. rjdea, “ manners ” or 
“morals,” and the Fr. affix ette, meaning “little j” literally, 
“minute morals or manners ”], the name given to the cere¬ 
monial forms required by good breeding to be observed in 
social or official life. Ceremonial observances were carried 
to the greatest extent by the Byzantine court, but the spirit 
of etiquette was probably never so tyrannical and predomi¬ 
nant as at the court of Louis XIV. 


Et'ive, Loch, in Scotland, is a salt-water lake or inlet 
of the sea in the county of Argyle. It is 20 miles long, and 
varies in width from half a mile to 3 miles. It receives the 
river Awe, and communicates with the Frith of Lorn. Grand 
and romantic scenery occurs along its banks. 

Et'na [Gr. \irvi); Lat. sEt'na; Sicilian, Mongibel'lo], a 
celebrated volcanic mountain of Sicily, is in the N. E. part 
of the island, adjacent to the sea and very near to the city 
of Catania. It is an isolated mass of conical form, having 
no connection with the other Sicilian mountains, from which 
it is separated by the valley of the river Alcantara. It has- 
an altitude of 10,935 feet above the level of the sea, and its 
base is about 90 miles in circumference. The volcanic 
phenomena which it presents on a greater scale than is 
elsewhere seen in Europe early attracted the attention 
of the ancients, and were described by Pindar, who men¬ 
tions the river 3 of fiery lava rolling down its sides into 
the sea. Thucydides informs us that an eruption occurred 
in 425 B. C. Four violent eruptions are recorded to have 
occurred in a period of twenty years—viz., 140, 135, 126, 
and 121 B. C. It appears that the volcanic action of Etna 
was in ancient, as it continues to bo in modern times, irregu¬ 


lar and intermittent. The city of Catania has repeatedly 
been nearly ruined by the eruptions and earthquakes. From 
the expressions of Strabo in his description of Etna, it is 
evident that in his time the ascent of the mountain to its 
summit was a common achievement. Several ancient wri¬ 
ters describe the upper part of Etna as covered with per- 



Etna. 


petual snow, but at present the snow remains only eight or 
nine months of the year. Sir John Herschel, w T ho ascended 
to the top of Etna in 1S24, describes parts of its scenery in 
these terms : “ Ascending from Catania, you skirt the stream 
of lava which destroyed a large part of that city in 1669, 
and which ran into the sea, forming a jetty or breakwater 
that now gives Catania what it never had before, the ad¬ 
vantage of a harbor.” “ Among the remarkable features 
of Etna is that of its flanks, bristling over with innumera¬ 
ble smaller volcanoes. For the height is so great that the 
lava now scarcely ever rises to the top of the crater, for be¬ 
fore that its immense weight breaks through at the sides.” 
“From the summit,” he adds, “extends a view of extraor¬ 
dinary magnificence.” The last great eruption was in 1868. 

Etna, a township of Kosciusko co., Ind. Pop. 1007. 

Etna, a township of Whitley co., Ind. Pop. 429. 

Etna, a township of Hardin co., Ia. Pop. 1849. 

Etna, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me., on the 
Maine Central R. R., 17 miles from Bangor. Pop. 844. 

Etna, a post-village of Drj’den township, Tompkins co., 
N. Y. Pop. 230. 

Etna, a post-township of Licking co., 0. Pop. of vil¬ 
lage, 258; of township, 1224. 

Etna, a post-borough of Shaler township, Allegheny 
co., Pa. Pop. 1447. 

Etna Green, a village in Etna township, Kosciusko 
co., Ind. Pop. 397. 

E'ton, a town of England, in the county of Bucks, is 
on the Thames, opposite Windsor, 22 miles W. of London. 
It is the site of Eton College, one of the most famous edu¬ 
cational institutions of England, founded and richly en¬ 
dowed in 1440 by Henry VI., but the buildings were not 
completed until 1523. It is a favorite school of preliminary 
instruction for the sons of the nobility and gentry. Many 
scholars are at the age of seventeen elected to valuable 
scholarships at King’s College, Cambridge. Eton is gov¬ 
erned by a provost and seven fellows. The main portion 
of the establishment, numbering nearly 900, consists of the 
oppidans, who live outside of the college, and for whose 
tuition the same price is paid as for that of the collegers or 
scholars. The number of the latter is limited to seventy. 

Et'owali, a county in the N. E. of Alabama. Area, 
650 square miles. It is intersected by the Coosa River. 
The surface is partly hilly: the soil is productive. Corn, 
wheat, cotton, tobacco, and wool are staple products. It 
is traversed by the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R. Cap¬ 
ital, Gadsden. Pop. 10,109. 

Etru'ria, or Tuscia, an important country of ancient 
Italy, was called Tyrrhenia (Tupp^t'a) by the Greeks. It 
was bounded on the N. by the Apennines, on the E. by the 
Tiber, and on the W. bj r the Mediterranean or Tyrrhenian 
Sea. The inhabitants were called Etruscans ( Etrus'ci ) and 
Tuscans ( Tits'ci) by the classic Latin writers, but the Greeks 
always called them Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians. Their na¬ 
tional name in the Etruscan language was Rasena. 

Among the physical features of this country are the Monte 
Amiata, which rises 5794 feet above the level of the sea, the 
































ETRUKIA—ETTY. 1629 


ri > cr Arnus (now Arno), and the Lacus Trasimenus, now 
called Lago J rasimeno or Lake of Perugia. Ancient writers 
concur in the statement that the government of the Etrus¬ 
cans was a confederacy of twelve cities or cantons, each of 
which was independent and had the right of internal self- 
government. 1 he chief rulers bore the general title of 
lucumo. The cities which composed the league of Etruria 
I toper are universally reckoned as twelve in number, but 
these cannot be all identified, as no ancient writer has pre¬ 
served a list of their names. Among the most important 
of these twelve cities were Tarquinii, Veii, Clusium, Vol- 
sinii, Cortona, Coe re, Perusia, Arretium. The early tradi¬ 
tions mention several Etruscan kings, as Porsena, king of 
Clusium, but during the greater part of the historic period 
the political constitution was an aristocracy. The Etrus¬ 
cans were very superstitious, and distinguished for their de¬ 
votion to their national religion and the zeal with which they 
performed its rites and ceremonies (a word derived from 
Caere). The most important of the deities whom they wor¬ 
shipped were Tinia or Tina (Jupiter), Capra (Juno), and 
Minerva, whose name was the same in the Etruscan as in 
the Latin language. Besides these, and others whose names 
have been preserved, there were twelve divinities (six male 
ami six female) whose proper names were unknown, but 
who were termed collectively Dii Consentes, and were coun¬ 
sellors of Tinia. They were believed to preside over the 
powers of nature. Superior to these, and to Tinia himself, 
were certain mysterious Dii Involuti, who were supposed to 
exercise an irresistible controlling power over the gods, like 
the Fates of the Greek and Roman mythology. 

Origin and History. —The question of the origin and 
affinities of the Etruscans has long exercised the ingenuity 
of scholars and antiquaries, but it still remains undecided. 
The opinion generally adopted by Roman writers ascribed 
to them a Lydian origin. The earliest authority for this 
tradition is Herodotus, who states that he received it from 
the Lydians. This opinion was rejected by Hellauicus, 
who represents the Etruscans as Pelasgians, and by Dio¬ 
nysius of Halicarnassus, who considered them indigenous 
(autochthones ), and states that in his time they were very 
distinct from every other people in language as well as 
manners and customs. Niebuhr maintained that they were 
a mixture of Pelasgians and Umbrians with a race of north¬ 
ern invaders ( Rasena ), who conquered the same at an un¬ 
known date. He believed that the Rasena or Etruscan 
nobility came originally from the Rhmtian Alps. Our 
knowledge of the history of the Etruscans, even during the 
period of their greatest power and prosperity, is very vague 
and imperfect. The Etruscan language is thought to be 
Indo-European in its grammatical construction, though its 
vocabulary, so far as ascertained, cannot be with any cer¬ 
tainty affiliated. There is no Etruscan literature extant, 
and no bilingual inscriptions of any length have been 
found. There were three Etrurian centres of occupation: 
(1) from the Tiber northward to Pisa, where the Etruscans 
seem to have been limited by the Ligurians; (2) the settle¬ 
ment on the Po, of which Bologna, Verona, and Mantua 
were the principal cities; the Etrurian population is shown 
by inscriptions to have extended northward to the Rhsetian 
Alps ; (3) that in the Phlegrman plains surrounding Capua 
and Nola, which are regarded as Etruscan cities. Livy 
informs us that before the Romans became the dominant 
people of Italy the power of the Tuscans was widely ex¬ 
tended both by sea and land. Several Greek writers at¬ 
test the facts that they were bold and enterprising navi¬ 
gators, and fitted out large fleets for naval warfare. In 
538 B. C. they fought a naval battle against the Phocmans 
at Corsica. The Tuscans and Carthaginians were allies 
on this occasion, and in other battles against the Greek 
colonies of Italy. Besides the twelve cities of Etruria 
Proper, these people possessed another state or confed¬ 
eracy on the northern side of the Apennines. Accord¬ 
ing to the Roman traditions, the Tuscans were a power¬ 
ful nation before the foundation of Rome, 752 B. C. It 
probably attained its greatest power about 150 years later. 
The Tuscan cities of Clusium and Veii were involved in 
several wars against the rising power of Rome. Tradition 
indicates the establishment of an Etruscan dynasty at Rome 
under the later kings, the two Tarquins, and assigns to this 
period of Etruscan domination the construction of the Cloaca 
Maxima and the Capitol. About 508 B. C., Porsena, king 
of Clusium, marched against Rome, which the best critics 
think he captured. Hostilities continued, with occasional 
intervals, between the Romans and the Veientes from 483 
B. C. to 396 IL C., when Veii was captured by Camillus and 
destroyed. It does not appear that the other Tuscan cities 
gave any aid to Veii during this period. This apparent 
neutrality may be explained by the fact that their northern 
frontier was then infested by predatory hordes of Gauls, 
whom they were scarcely able to repel. In the subsequent 
wars it was sometimes Tarquinii and sometimes \ olsinii 


that fought against Rome. About 309 B. C. the combined 
forces of several Etruscan cities were defeated by Fabius 
Maximus in a battle which gave the first decisive blow to 
their power. The conquest was completed by a victory 
which the Romans gained at the Vadimonian Lake in 283 
B. C. The Etruscans, however, retained long after this 
event their jown language, customs, religious rites, and na¬ 
tionality. They were admitted to the Roman franchise in 
89 B. C. 

Arts and Civilization .—Ancient writers concur in repre¬ 
senting the Etruscans as the most cultivated and refined 
people of ancient Italy, and as especially skilful in orna¬ 
mental and useful arts. They often evince a singular simi¬ 
larity to Egyptian ideas and patterns which has astonished 
antiquarians. The Romans derived from them many 
arts and inventions that conduce to the comfort of life, be¬ 
sides the toga and other articles of dress, the curule chair, 
and the triumphal pomp. The genius of the Etruscans 
appears to have been practical rather than speculative. 
They excelled in agriculture, navigation, engineering, and 
in useful public works. They had made great progress in 
architecture, sculpture, and painting. The so-called Tus¬ 
can order of architecture is a modification of the Doric. 
The Cloaca Maxima at Rome proves that they were ac¬ 
quainted with the true principle of the arch, and exempli¬ 
fies their skill in the construction of sewers. Of their 
temples, theatres, and amphitheatres no considerable re¬ 
mains have been preserved. Among the existing monu¬ 
ments of their massive and cyclopean masonry are frag¬ 
ments of walls which defended the cities of Cortona, Fmsulm, 
Clusium, and Volaterrm. Their tombs present one of the most 
peculiar features in Etruscan antiquities. These are in some 
cases chambers hewn in' a cliff or solid rock, and adorned 
outside with fagades of temples. The interior walls are 
decorated with paintings, and the tombs contain vast num¬ 
bers of vases, tripods, urns, etc. The Etruscans excelled 
in several branches of plastic art, especially in the fabrica¬ 
tion of bronze articles and pottery. Bronze statues and 
utensils were exported from Etruria in immense numbers. 
Among the extant specimens of their bronze-work are the 
figure of a she-wolf in the Capitol of Rome, and the Chi- 
maera in the Museum of Florence. It appears that the 
painted vases called Etruscan which have been found in 
great numbers especially at Chiusi (Clusium) and Vulci are 
Greek in design and workmanship. The metallic specula 
or mirrors, one side of which is adorned w T ith figures, are 
peculiarly Etruscan, and are prized as illustrative of their 
customs, mythology, etc. (See K. 0. Muller, “ Die Etrus- 
ker,” 2 vols. 8vo, 1828; Abeken, “ Mittel Italien,” 1843; 
Dennis, “ Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria,” 2 vols. 8vo, 
1848; Inghirami, “ Monumenti Etruschi,” 7 vols. 4to, 
1821-26; Micali, “Storia degli Antichi Popoli Italiani,” 
3 vols., 1832.) 

Etruria, a township of Halifax co., N. C. Pop. 2938. 

Etruria, Kingdom of, in Italy, was founded by 
Napoleon I. Mar. 21, 1801. Louis, duke of Parma (1773— 
1803), was the first king. His son Charles Louis succeeded 
him May 27, 1803, but Napoleon annexed the kingdom in 
1807 to the French empire. Its capital w r as Florence. 

Etruscan Language. See Etruria. 

Etruscans. See Etruria. 

Etshmiadzin. See Echmiedzin. 

Et'tlingen, a town of Baden, on the river Alb and on 
a railway, 4 miles by rail S. of Carlsruhe. It has manu¬ 
factures of gunpowder, cotton goods, and paper. Pop. in 
1871, 5092. 

Ett'miiller (Ernst Moritz Ludwig), a German phil¬ 
ologist and antiquary, born at Gersdorf, near Ldbau, Oct. 
5,1802, studied at Leipsic and Jena. He became professor 
of German at Zurich in 1833, and gained distinction by his 
researches in medimval German literature. He produced 
in 1844 an epic poem called “ The Chiefs of the Royal Ger¬ 
man Houses” (‘‘Deutsche Stammkonige”), and in 1852 an 
“Anglo-Saxon Lexicon.” He also edited several old Ger¬ 
man poets. 

Et'trick, a pastoral vale of Scotland, in Selkirkshire, 
extends along the Ettrick River, which, after a course of 28 
miles, enters the Tweed 2 miles below Selkirk. It is re¬ 
markable for beautiful scenery. Ettrick Forest, a rojal 
hunting tract, included all Selkirkshire. It is nearly di¬ 
vested of trees. James Hogg the poet, called the “ Ettrick 
Shepherd,” was born in the vale and parish ot Ettrick. 

Ettrick, a post-township of Trempealeau co., AVis. Pop. 
1214. 

Et'ty (William), an English painter, born at York Mar. 
10, 1787, was a pupil of Sir Thomas Lawrence. He was 
admitted as a student into the Royal Academy in 1806, and 
visited Italy in 1816. In 1821 he exhibited in the Academy 
“ Cleopatra arriving in Cilicia.” He was elected an acade- 


























ETYMOLOGICUM MAGNUM—EUCHARIST. 


1630 


mician in 1828. Among his works, which were greatly ad¬ 
mired and brought high prices, are “ Pandora Crowned by 
the Seasons" (1824), “The Combat: Woman pleading for 
the Vanquished” (1824), three pictures illustrating the acts 
of Judith (1827-31), “ Joan of Arc ” (1847), “ The Judgment 
of Paris” (1826), and “ Youth at the Prow and Pleasure at 
the Helm” (1832). He was an excellent colorist. Died 
Nov. 30, 1849. (See A. Gilchrist, “ Life of William Etty,” 
1856.) 

Etymolog'icum Mag'mim, a valuable lexicon or 
vocabulary of the Greek language by an unknown author. 
It is said to be the oldest extant Greek lexicon, and it con¬ 
tains many traditions respecting old and uncommon words. 
It is referred to the tenth century A. D. Editions of it 
have been published by Sylburg (1594), Schafer (1816), 
Sturz (Leipsic, 1818), and Gaisford (Oxford, 1849). 

Etymol'ogy [from the Gr. erv/xoc, “literal sense,” and 
Aoyo?, a “discourse”] is that branch of philology which 
traces the history of a word and of its grammatical vari¬ 
ation from its primitive roots, and which shows the rela¬ 
tionship of different languages by finding the same roots in 
these different languages. In grammar it is used in a more 
limited sense, as the name of that part of grammar which 
treats of the various parts of speech, the variations of de¬ 
clension, conjugation, etc. It is often used as nearly sy¬ 
nonymous with the word “derivation.” The study of the 
derivation of words is almost as old as civilization. Moses, 
Homer, and other very ancient writers often give explana¬ 
tions of the origin of proper names. Many tales of the 
Greek mythology give real or fanciful accounts of the ap¬ 
pellations of gods and heroes. The Greek philosophers, the 
Alexandrian grammarians, the Roman Varro, and the later 
scholiasts wrote much upon the derivation of words, but to 
little purpose. They went to work with scanty informa¬ 
tion and with defective knowledge of the principles under¬ 
lying a sound philology. Many of the derivations sug¬ 
gested by them are simply ludicrous, being suggested by 
mere resemblances of sound. Our knowledge of their labors 
is principally derived from the “Etymologicum Magnum” 
and “ Etymologicum Gudianum,” both probably written in 
the tenth century. 

The revival of learning in the fourteenth century aroused 
anew the interest in etymological science; but it was not 
till the British occupation of India, and the beginning of 
the study of Sanscrit literature, that etymology received 
philosophical treatment. It is now known that the lan¬ 
guages are properly regarded as members of greater or 
smaller groups or families ; our own language being a mem¬ 
ber of the Teutonic group, which is itself a subdivision of 
the great Indo-European family, which comprehends many 
of the languages of Asia, and by far the greater number of 
those of Europe. A philosophic etymology seeks the deri¬ 
vation of words byjudicious comparison of the vocabularies, 
the religious faith, the history, and the literature of nations 
ethnologically related, rather than by the comparison of 
words of any one or two languages. 

The great etymologists are all modern, and are nearly all 
German, as is shown by the names of Adelung, Bopp, Pott, 
W. Humboldt, Grimm, Curtius, Benfey, and Schleicher. For 
Ugrian etymologies, the Finlanders Carsten and Ahlquist 
are high authorities. 

Eu [Lat. A u'ga or Augiurri], a town of France, depart¬ 
ment of Seine-Inferieure, is about 20 miles E. N. E. of Di¬ 
eppe and 5 miles from the sea. It has a fine Gothic church, 
and manufactures of lace, silk, and soap. Here is the cha¬ 
teau d’Eu, which was owned by King Louis Philippe, and 
is surrounded by a large and beautiful park. It contains a 
unique portrait-gallery, which is said to be the finest collec¬ 
tion of historical portraits in France. Pop. in 1866, 4168. 

Eu (Prince Louis Philippe Marie Ferdinand Gaston 
d’Orleans), Comte d’, was born at the chateau of Neuilly, 
April 28, 1842, the eldest son of the due de Nemours, and a 
grandson of Louis Philippe, king of the French. In 1864 
he married Isabella, daughter of Dom Pedro II., emperor 
of Brazil. As marshal of the empire he took command of 
the allied forces operating against Paraguay, and Mar. 1, 
1870, the war was ended by the death of the dictator Lopez, 
who was killed in a battle at Aquidubon. 

Eubce'a [Gr. Ev/3oia; Fr. Eubee; Turkish, Egripo or 
Egripos; It. Negroponte\, formerly called Negropont, a 
Greek island, the largest island in the iEgean Sea, is about 
90 miles long and comparatively narrow; the greatest 
breadth is about 30 miles. Area, 1574 square miles. It is 
separated from the N. E. coasts of Attica and Boeotia by 
the narrow channels of Egripo ( Euri'pus ) and Talanta. It 
is connected with the mainland of Boeotia by a bridge across 
the channel at Chalcis. The surface is mountainous. Mount 
Delphi, near the middle of the island, is said to be 7266 feet 
high. It is of limestone formation. The soil of the valleys 
is fertile, and produces cotton, wheat, grapes, etc. Among 


the exports are wool, hides, and oil. The chief towns are 
Chalcis and Carystus. In ancient times Euboea belonged 
to the Athenian republic. It now forms a nomarchy of the 
kingdom of Greece. Pop. in 1870, 82,541. 

Eubu'lides [Gr. Eu/3ovAi' 5>7?], a Greek philosopher of 
the Megaric school, flourished about 350 B. C. He was a 
native of Miletus, a disciple of Euclid, and an adversary 
of Aristotle. He was the inventor of several sophistical 
syllogisms, including the sorites. 

Eubu'lus [Eu/3ovAo?], an Athenian comic poet of the 
middle comedy, flourished about 375 B. C. He wrote nu¬ 
merous comedies on mythological subjects, of which only 
small fragments are extant. His language is elegant. 

Eucalyp'tus (plu. Eucalypti), a genus of trees of 
the natural order Myrtacem, comprises numerous species, 
mostly natives of Australia. They form a characteristic 
feature of the peculiar vegetation of that island, having 
entire leathery leaves, of which one edge is directed towards 
the sky, so that both surfaces are equally exposed to the 
light. The Eucalypti are called “gum trees,” because they 
abound in resinous exudations. The timber is excellent, 
and is used for shipbuilding and other purposes. The Eu¬ 
calyptus gigantea, called “stringy bark,” it is said some¬ 
times attains a. height of 480 feet and a diameter of 27 feet. 
Mr. George Robbins reports trees of this kind 500 feet 
high. They are probably the tallest trees on the globe. 
The bark of several species abounds in tannin, and is used 
for tanning leather. The Eucalyjitus resinifera, which 
grows to a great height, yields a red astringent gum, which 
is called “ Botany Bay kino,” and is used in medicine as a 
substitute for kino. An exudation resembling manna in 
medicinal properties is obtained from the leaves of Euca¬ 
lyptus mannifera and dumosa. The blue gum (Eucalyptus 
globosa) produces ship-timber of the best quality. It is 
said to furnish a febrifuge principle surpassing quinia in 
efficiency. Several species of Eucalyptus have been suc¬ 
cessfully introduced into California and Europe. 

Eu'cbarist [Gr. evxapccrTla, “the giving of thanks”], a 
name applied to the sacrament of the Holy Communion, or 
the feast of the Lord’s Supper, in allusion to the blessing 
and thanksgiving with which the last supper of our Saviour 
with his disciples began and ended. This solemn festival 
has been kept in all Christian churches from the time of the 
resurrection, in commemoration of the passion and death 
of our Lord, and in obedience to his own divine institution. 
Among the earliest disciples in Judrna, the Lord’s Supper 
seems to have been a regular meal, probably the principal 
meal of the day in each family, into which the commemo¬ 
rative breaking of bread and partaking of the cup of bless¬ 
ing were introduced as a part. Subsequently the disciples 
of many families came together and held a festival in com¬ 
mon—a practice in which originated the ayanr), or love- 
feast, in the course of which the brethren saluted each other 
with a holy kiss. The abuses which grew out of this, and 
which are severely rebuked by Saint Paul in the First 
Epistle to the Corinthians, led to a separation of the two 
institutions; and the commemorative observance has since 
been celebrated, with a solemnity in harmony with its cha¬ 
racter, by itself. 

No part of the Christian practice and doctrine has given 
rise to larger diversities of opinion or to a more voluminous 
polemical literature than the sacrament of the Eucharist. 
These controversies were not known to the Church during 
its first eight or nine centuries. It seems entirely just to 
believe that, during all this early period, the visible elements 
employed in the celebration, the consecrated bread and 
wine, were regarded only as symbols and emblems of the 
body and blood of Christ given for our redemption; inas¬ 
much as the expression of an opinion or doctrine different 
from this appears to have been first publicly made in the 
year 831 by a monk, subsequently abbot of Corbey in 
France, named Pascasius Radbert, who maintained the two 
following propositions, which lie declared to be the true 
doctrine of the Church, but which were received with loud 
and general remonstrance: viz., first, that, “after the con¬ 
secration of the bread and wine in the Lord’s Supper, 
nothing remains but the outward figure, under which the 
body and blood of Christ are really and locally present”— 
that is to say, the doctrine more recently known under the 
name of transubstantiation; and secondly, that “the body 
of Christ thus present in the Eucharist is the samo body 
that was born of the Virgin, that suffered on the cross, and 
that was raised from the dead.” The excitement which 
followed this announcement was such that the emperor of 
Germany, Charles II. (I. of France, called “the Bald”), 
directed counter-expositions to be prepared by Johannes 
Scotus, and Ratramn (otherwise called Bertramn). The 
work of Scotus, though often cited in subsequent centuries, 
has perished; that of Ratramn is still extant. Both held 
that the consecrated bread and wine in the Eucharist are 











EUCHAKIST. 


1631 


only signs or symbols, and not the veritable body and blood 
of Christ; but in the work of Ratramn there are some things 
said on this point which are ambiguous or obscure, while 
Scotus, on the other hand, is said to have been perspicuous, 
distinct, and intelligible. Out of this dispute arose some 
extraordinary and repulsive secondary controversies, as to 
the natural consequences of taking into the stomach and 
digesting the consecrated elements, whatever view be taken 
ot their nature, for which those who desire to understand 
them must refer to the ecclesiastical histories. 

The doctrine of Pascasius, or at least his first proposi¬ 
tion, found no small number of adherents, but the struggle, 
though warm, was a struggle of private opinions, and not 
of opinions with authority. The Church set forth no defini¬ 
tion of her own views on the subject, and the excitement after 
a time abated. About two centuries later, however, the 
controversy was renewed in a manner which presently led 
to the interposition of the Roman pontiffs, and subse¬ 
quently of councils of the Church. The first incident in 
this renewal was a declaration, in 1004, by Leutheric, arch¬ 
bishop of Sens, to the effect that none but the sincerely 
pious receivo the body of Christ in the Holy Communion. 
It is easy to see what questions may arise out of a doctrine 
like this, especially with those who hold the certainty of the 
Real Presence. Later, in 1045, the celebrated Berenger, at 
that time archdeacon of Angers, taking the work of Johan¬ 
nes Scotus, above mentioned, as his text and guide, attacked 
with vehemence the doctrine of the Real Presence. He was 
met by Bruno, his own bishop (of Angers), and also by Hugh 
of Langres and Adelman of Bresse. But his most powerful 
and most dangerous antagonist was the pope, Leo IX., who 
assembled two councils in 1050—one at Rome and one at 
Vercelli—where he caused the writings of Berenger to be 
condemned and burned, and excommunicated their author. 
Retiring into Normandy, Berenger sought the support of 
William (afterwards “the conqueror” of England), but this 
prince having convened an assembly of the principal prel¬ 
ates and theologians of his province, the unfortunate polem- 
ist was again condemned; and in the Council of Paris, called 
by Henry I. in the same year (1050), he was not only con¬ 
demned still a third time, but deprived of his benefices. 
The subsequent history of Berenger is a painful one. On 
three different occasions, under three different successive 
popes, Victor II., Nicholas II., and Gregory VII., he was 
compelled by threats and intimidation to renounce his 
opinions; and on two of these occasions, to subscribe to 
declarations drawn up for him by his enemies. The first 
of these declarations, made at what may be called his 
second trial, under Nicholas II., was to the effect that 
“the bread and wine after consecration are not only a sac¬ 
rament, but also the real body and blood of Jesus Christ; 
and that this body and blood are handled by the priests 
and consumed by the faithful, and not in a sacramental 
sense, but in reality and truth, as other sensible objects 
are.” This declaration he was not only forced to sub¬ 
scribe, but also to confirm with an oath; but hardly had 
he returned to France before he abjured it utterly, and re¬ 
sumed the teaching of his former views. He was accord¬ 
ingly arraigned a third time, and this arraignment took 
place under Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), who seems him¬ 
self not to have partaken of the extreme views of Berenger’s 
relentless persecutors, yet to have felt compelled to oblige 
him to renounce his own. The unfortunate man constrained 
himself consequently to subscribe to his belief of the follow¬ 
ing proposition, and to confirm this declaration by an oath— 
viz., that “ the bread laid on the altar becomes, after conse¬ 
cration, the true body of Christ, which was born of the Vir¬ 
gin, suffered on the cross, and now sits at the right hand of 
the Father; and the wine placed on the altar becomes, after 
consecration, the true blood which flowed from the side of 
Christ.” There was affirmed to be an ambiguity in this de¬ 
claration, perhaps growing out of the construction to be 
put upon the words “laid, or placed, upon the altar.” At 
any rate, it did not satisfy the enemies of Berenger, and he 
was therefore subjected to the humiliation of subscribing and 
making oath to still another confession of faith, in the fol¬ 
lowing words—viz., that “ the bread and wine are, by the 
mysterious influence of the holy prayer and the words of our 
Redeemer, substantially changed into the true, proper, and 
vivifying body and blood of Jesus Christ;” to which was 
added, that “ the bread and wine are, after consecration, 
converted into the real body and blood of Christ, not only 
in quality of external signs and sacramental representations, 
but in their essential properties and substantial realitj'.” 
This form of submission having been fully completed, Pope 
Gregory dismissed the humbled prelate with many marks 
of personal esteem, and visible and liberal evidences of his 
friendship. Notwithstanding which, no sooner was Berenger 
in his own country again, than he retracted this last decla¬ 
ration, as he had done all the former, and prepared an 
elaborate refutation of the doctrines to which he had just 


subscribed. The pope took no notice of this retractation, 
whence the inference has been drawn that Gregory himself 
was personally not far from entertaining the same opinions 
as Berenger. The evening of the days of this greatly tried 
champion of the right to freedom of opinion where the 
Church has not spoken, was passed in acts of penance and 
mortification, to which he subjected himself in expiation 
of the guilt of his dissimulation and perjury at Rome. 

It was not till the assembling of the fourth Lateran Coun¬ 
cil by Innocent III., in the year 1215, that the voice of the 
Roman Church was authoritatively uttered as to the true 
doctrine of the Eucharist. That pope, through a decree of 
that council, declared the true faith to be that the elements 
of bread and wine are really and truly, after consecration, 
the body and blood of Jesus Christ in actual substance, re¬ 
maining bread and wine only to outward appearance; and 
he himself invented and introduced theterm “transubstan- 
tiation,” by which this doctrine has been ever since known 
and recognized as a doctrine of the Roman Church. It was 
a natural consequence of the admission of this doctrine as 
an established dogma, that that view of the Eucharist which 
regards the ceremonial consecration and placing upon the 
altar of the elements, as a sacrifice, in which the original 
great sacrifice upon Calvary is perpetually renewed, found 
easy acceptance; and other consequences have been the 
worship of the consecrated elements, as being a worship 
directly paid to Christ himself; the elevation of the Host 
in the celebration of mass, that it may be seen and rever¬ 
enced by the people; and the custom, prevalent in Roman 
Catholic countries, of carrying this consecrated bread about 
in solemn processions through the public streets, to be ad¬ 
ministered to the sick and dying. 

Another controversy in regard to the Eucharist arose in 
the sixteenth century, which continues still to divide opin¬ 
ions, the Church not having formally declared on either 
side. It was (and is) held by the Jesuits and Dominicans, 
that the sacraments have in themselves an instrumental 
and efficient power, by virtue of which they work in the 
soul, independently of any previous preparation or state of 
the propensities, a disposition to receive the divine grace; 
and this they call the opus operaium. Thus, according to 
their view, neither knowledge, nor wisdom, nor humility, 
nor faith, nor devotion is necessary to the efficacy of the 
sacraments, whose prevailing energy nothing but a mortal 
sin can resist. Hence, therefore, according to them, priests 
may give immediate absolution to all who confess their mis¬ 
deeds and evil thoughts and wicked sentiments and pro¬ 
pensities, and admit them directly to the use of the sacra¬ 
ments. This view was resisted by the Jansenists, and is 
rejected by all in the Roman communion who have the pro¬ 
gress of vital and practical religion truly at heart. These 
demand that none shall be admitted to the sacrament of the 
Holy Communion, who do not give evidence of true peni¬ 
tence, and of an intent henceforth to lead a new life, follow¬ 
ing the commandments of God, and walking in His holy 
ways. 

The same century saw the great uprising against the 
abuses which had gradually crept into the Church of Rome, 
commonly called the Reformation, inaugurated by the monk 
Martin Luther. It soon appeared that, upon some essential 
points of doctrine, there was as little harmony of doctrine 
in the ranks of the Reformers, as there had been in those of 
the Church. In regard to the Eucharist, the difference be¬ 
tween Luther and Zwingle, if not quite so wide, was at least 
as irreconcilable as that between the Jesuits and the Jan¬ 
senists, or that of the ninth century between Radbert and 
Scotus. Luther maintained that the body and blood of 
Christ are really, though in a manner far beyond human 
comprehension, present in the Eucharist, and are exhibited 
together with the bread and wine. This is the doctrine 
since known as “consubstantiation.” Zwingle, on the other 
hand, regarded the bread and wine as being only symbols 
present, and typifying the body and blood of Christ, which 
themselves are absent. Numbers of zealous and able men 
enrolled themselves in this controversy, on both sides, and 
the consequent danger to the common cause of Protestant¬ 
ism was such, that Philip, margrave of Hesse, whose devo¬ 
tion to this cause was deep and sincere, appointed a con¬ 
ference to be held at Morpung between Luther, Zwingle, 
and other doctors of both parties. The result, so far as the 
main point is concerned, was a failure. The two great 
leaders separated without either having been able to con¬ 
vince the other, and without having been able to agreo upon 
any statement of doctrine in regard to Christ’s presence in 
the Eucharist which both could accept. 

The doctrine of the Anglican Church, which is that of the 
Episcopal Church in America on this subject, is briefly set 
forth in the catechism, where, after defining a sacrament to 
be an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual 
grace, and affirming the object for which the sacrament of 
the Lord’s Supper was ordained to have been “ for the con- 












1632 


EUCIIEE ANNA—EUGENE. 


tinual remembrance of the sacrifice of the death of Christ, 
and of the benefits which we receive thereby/’ it is declared 
that in this sacrament the outward and visible part or sign 
is the “bread and wine which the Lord hath commanded to 
be received,” and that the thing signified is “the body and 
blood of Christ, which are spiritually taken and received by 
the faithful in the Lord’s Supper.” And in the “Articles 
of Religion, as established by the bishops, clergy, and laity 
of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of 
America, in convention, on the 12th day of September, in 
the year of our Lord 1801,” which are, with some alterations 
of minor importance, identical with the Thirty-nine Arti¬ 
cles of the Church of England, it is declared, (in “Art. 
xxviii.; of the Lord’s Supper ”) that “ transubstantiation 
(or the change of the substance of the bread and wine) in 
the supper of our Lord, cannot be proved by Holy Writ; 
but is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, over- 
throweth the nature of a sacrament, and hath given occa¬ 
sion to many superstitions.” And further, “ that the body 
of Christ is given, taken, and eaten in the Supper, only 
after an heavenly and spiritual manner. And the mean 
whereby the body of Christ is received and eaten in the 
Supper, is faith.” F. A. P. Barnard. 

Euchee Anna. See Uchee Anna. 

Euchlo'rine [from the Gr. ev\\upo<;, “bright green”], 
a name given to a green gas liberated when potassic chlo¬ 
rate is acted upon by hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. The 
gas is a mixture probably of chlorine (Cl) and perchloric 
oxide (CI 2 O 4 ). It possesses bleaching properties. It is 
prepared by heating gently a mixture of two parts of sul¬ 
phuric acid, two of water, and one of chlorate of potash. 

Eu'chre, a game of cards, originally German, but now 
a favorite in the U. S., chiefly as a social game. “Four- 
handed” euchre, where four persons are engaged, is the 
best form of the play, but two, three or even more than 
four persons may play, the rules being variously modified 
to suit such changes. Properly, two or four persons should 
play. The “euchre deck” contains the aces, the face-cards, 
and all spot-cards above the sixes, though many players 
reject all below the nines. In four-handed play the par¬ 
ties draw for deal, which falls to the one who draws the 
first jack. The right-hand adversary cuts, and the cards 
are dealt by threes and twos, or twos and threes, from left 
to right. The uppermost undealt card is turned for trump; 
the oldest hand “orders up” this card as trump if he sees 
fit; otherwise he “passes” to the next, who exercises the 
same choice, and so on. If not “ordered” or “taken” 
up the first time around, the players have in turn their 
choice of making a new trump or passing again. When a 
trump is “ordered” or “taken,” the dealer may discard 
his poorest card, and take up the trump from the deck. 
The side which orders or takes up must take at least three 
tricks (one point), or lose two points (a euchre) to the other 
side. Four tricks also count one, but five tricks (a march) 
count two. In case one of the four players has a strong 
hand, he is at liberty to play alone, without his partner’s 
help. In this case, if he makes a march, his side scores 
four; if he is euchred, the opposite side scores four. Five 
points make the game. 

Another peculiarity of the game is, that the highest 
trump (right bower) is always the jack of trumps; the jack 
of the “next” suit—that of corresponding color—being 
always second best trump (left bower), the ace of trumps 
is third, the king fourth, etc. Jacks of a suit not trumps 
rank next below the queen of their suit. Euchre is an 
easy and simple game, and is consequently popular as a 
social pastime. Many varieties of it have sprung up, and 
at present almost every coterie has its own set of rules; 
some having a blank card for the highest trump, the bowers 
following; others allowing the victors to count on the next 
game all the points they have made above the five neces¬ 
sary to the victory, or allowing the possessor of a “ lone 
hand ” to call for his partner’s best card, etc. 

Euclase [from the Gr. ev, “ good,” “ well,” “ easily,” 
and K\du>, to “ break,” because it is so easily broken], a sili¬ 
cate of alumina and glucina which occurs in greenish crys¬ 
tals in Peru and Brazil. It is well adapted for jewelry, on 
account of its great hardness and the fine polish of which 
it is susceptible, but it is not much used as a gem in conse¬ 
quence of its rarity and fragility. 

Eu'did [Gr. EwcAei'Srj?] of Alexandria, a celebrated 
Greek, called the “father of geometry.” He was born at 
Alexandria in Egypt, and lived about 300 B. C., and is said 
to have belonged to the Platonic school of philosophy. The 
events of his life are mostly unknown, except that he taught 
mathematics in the reign of Ptolemy I. (Soter), who died 
about 282 B. C. He made important discoveries in geom¬ 
etry, and surpassed all preceding geometers in the rigorous 
method and arrangement of his demonstrations. When 
Ptolemy I. asked him if geometry could not be mastered by 


an easier process than the ordinary one, he returned the 
celebrated answer, “ There is no royal road to geometry.” 
His “ Elements of Geometry ” present the most ancient sys¬ 
tem of that science that is extant, and have been considered 
an excellent standard work for 2000 years. (See Smith, 
“ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography.”) 

Euclid of Megaiia, an eminent Greek disciple of So¬ 
crates, flourished about 400 B. C. He is said to have wit¬ 
nessed the death of Socrates (399 B. C.), after which he 
founded at Megara a school called the Megaric or Dialectic. 
His system was based on or partly derived from the prin¬ 
ciples of the Eleatic school, to which he added the ethics 
of Socrates. 

Euclid, a post-village of Clay township, Onondaga 
co., N. Y. Pop. 13S. 

Euclid, a post-township of Cuyahoga co., 0. P. 2188. 

Eude'inus [Gr. EuS^o?] of Rhodes, a Greek Peripa¬ 
tetic philosopher who lived about 320 B. C., was a disciple 
of Aristotle. He was a meritorious editor and commen¬ 
tator of Aristotle’s works, and he wrote a “History of 
Geometry and Astronomy,” which is not extant. 

Eudiom'eter [from the Gr. ev, “good,” and A105, the 
genitive of Zev'?, “ Jupiter,” regarded as the personification 
of the atmosphere, and p.erpov, a “measure”], an instru¬ 
ment originally intended for ascertaining the proportion 
of oxygen in the air, with a view of judging of its purity 
or impurity; but it is also employed to test the composi¬ 
tion of any mixed gases. Many forms have been used, 
but one of the best consists of a graduated glass tube hav¬ 
ing two platinum electrodes within it, the tube closed at 
one end. To test the composition of air, for example, the 
carbon dioxide (carbonic acid) of the air within the tube is 
removed by strong liquor potnssm over a mercury bath, 
when the rise of the mercury within the tube indicates the 
proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. A large 
but determinate proportion of hydrogen is then introduced 
and exploded by means of the electrodes. After cooling, 
one-third of the loss of gas by explosion is the volume of 
free oxygen in the tube. Allowing for the hydrogen uncon¬ 
sumed, the volume of nitrogen is readily seen. The results 
are then reduced to a percentage of volumes. 

Eudo'cia [Gr. EvSokCo. ; Fr. Eudocie], sometimes called 
Eudoxia, a beautiful Roman empress, born at Athens 
about 394 A. D. She was originally named Athenais, and 
assumed the name of Eudocia when she was converted to 
the Christian religion. In 421 she was married to the em¬ 
peror Theodosius II. She was a woman of superior talents, 
and author of several poems. Having offended Theodosius 
and his sister Pulcheria, she was banished in 449, after which 
she resided in Palestine, and founded several convents in 
that country. Died in 460 or 461 A. D. 

Eudo'ra, a post-village of Douglas co., Kan., on the 
Kansas River and the Missouri Pacific R. It., 8 miles E. of 
Lawrence. Pop. of Eudora township, 1901. 

Eudox'us [Gr. EuSo£o?], a Greek astronomer, born at 
Cnidos in Caria, flourished about 366 B. C. He was-a 
pupil of Archytas and of Plato, and he opened a school at 
Athens or Cnidos. Cicero called him the prince of astron¬ 
omers. Eudoxus computed the length of the year to be 
365^ days, and appears to have originated the doctrine of 
concentric solid crystalline spheres, by which he explained 
the apparent motions of the sun, moon, and planets. 

Eufa'la, a township of Tallapoosa co., Ala. Pop. 595. 

Eufau'la, a city of Barbour co., Ala., is on the right 
bank of the Chattahoochee River, which is navigable to 
this point for the largest boats at all seasons, 350 miles by 
river from Appalachicola, and 80 miles E. S. E. from Mont¬ 
gomery by the Montgomery and Eufaula R. R. It is the 
terminus of three railroads—the South-western Georgia, 
the Montgomery and Eufaula, and the Vicksburg and 
Brunswick. It has five churches, a Jewish synagogue, a 
female college, a school for colored people, and three pri¬ 
vate banking-houses, besides a building and loan and a 
savings bank and loan association, four cotton-warehouses, 
a public hall, a fair-ground, and one daily, one tri-weekly, 
and two weekly newspapers. Over 30,000 bales of cotton 
are sold here annually. Pop. 3185. 

J. M. Macon, Ed. “ Times.” 

Eu gene, a post-township of Vermillion co., Ind. Pop. 
of village, 347; of township, 1396. 

Eu gene, u-jeen' [Fr. Eugene; Ger. Eugen], Prince, or, 
more fully, Francois Eugene de Savoy, a celebrated 
general, born in Paris Oct. 18, 1663. He was a son of Eu¬ 
gene Maurice, count of Soissons, and Olympia Mancini, a 
niece of Cardinal Mazarin. Having been offended by Louis 
XIV. of France, he entered the service of the emperor of 
Austria in 1683. He served with distinction in the war 
against the Turks, and was rapidly promoted. In 1691 ho 














EUGENE CITY—EUMENES. 


1633 


obtained command of the imperial army in Piedmont, where 
he fought against the French. Louis XIV. afterwards of¬ 
fered him a marshal's baton if he would enter the French 
service, but he declined. Having been appointed com¬ 
mander of the Austrian army in Hungary, he gained a de¬ 
cisive victory over the Turks at Zenta Sept. 11, 1697. In 
the great European war of the Spanish succession, which 
broke out in 1701, Eugene first commanded in Italy, where 
he was opposed by the able French marshal Catinat, and 
afterwards by Villeroi, whom he surprised at Cremona and 
took prisoner in Jan., 1702. An indecisive battle was fought 
at Luzara in Aug., 1702, by Prince Eugene and the duke of 
Vendome. About the end of that year he was appointed 
president of the council of war in Vienna. He commanded 
the imperial army which co-operated in Germany with the 
English army under the duke of Marlborough. These allies 
defeated the French and Bavarians at the great battle of 
Blenheim, Aug. 13, 1701. In 1705 he took command of the 
army in Italy, and was defeated by the duke of Vendome 
at Cassano in August of that year. He gained a victory 
over the French duke of Orleans at Turin in Sept., 1706, 
expelled the French from Italy, and returned to Vienna in 
1707. The seat of war was next transferred to Flanders, 
where Prince Eugene was associated with the duke of Marl¬ 
borough in the command of the combined armies. They 
defeated the French at Oudenarde (1708), and claimed the 
victory at the great battle of Malplaquet (Sept. 11, 1709), 
although they lost there about 25,000 men. In 1712 he was 
sent to London on a diplomatic mission, the object of which 
was to persuade the English to continue the war and to re¬ 
store Marlborough to the command, but he was not success¬ 
ful. A victory which Marshal Villars gained over Prince 
Eugene at Denain in July, 1712, induced Austria to nego¬ 
tiate for peace. In Mar., 1714, he signed a treaty of peace 
at Rastadt. He defeated a large Turkish army at Peter- 
wardein Aug. 5, 1716, and took Belgrade from the same 
enemy in 1717. After the end of this war, in 1718, he ren¬ 
dered important services as a statesman, and enjoyed the 
confidence of the emperor of Germany. He died in Vienna 
April 21, 1736. He was never married. Though he made 
no great improvement in tactics, he is reputed one of the 
greatest generals of modern times, being distinguished for 
his rapidity of perception, his decision, and his promptitude 
to rectify his errors. (See John Campbell, “ Military His¬ 
tory of Prince Eugene and Marlborough,” 2 vols., 1736.) 

Eugene City, the capital of Lane co., Or., is on the 
W. bank of Willamette River, here navigable for steam¬ 
boats, and on the Oregon and California R. R., 71 miles S. 
of Salem. The State university is to be established here. 
It has two weekly newspapers. Pop. 861. 

Euge'nia, a genus of trees and shrubs of the natural 
order Myrtaceae, nearly related to the myrtle. It comprises 
numerous species, which are natives of tropical and sub¬ 
tropical countries, and some of them produce delicious 
fruits remarkable for their pleasant balsamic odors. The 
fruit is a berry of one or two cells, with one seed in each 
cell. The allspice or pimento of commerce is the unripe, 
sun-dried berry of the Eugenia Pimenta, which is indige¬ 
nous in the West Indies. The Eugenia Malaccensis, a na¬ 
tive of the Malayan Archipelago, is a small tree which 
bears a red fruit nearly as large as an apple, with a juicy 
pulp and an agreeabie odor like that of a rose; hence 
it is called rose apple. The last name is also applied to 
the fruit of the Eugenia Jambos, an East Indian tree, now 
cultivated extensively in many tropical countries. The 
Eugenia Ugni , a native of Chili, has a small edible fruit, 
from which a refreshing beverage is obtained. Florida 
has five or more unimportant species. 

Eugenia, a post-village of Grey co., Ontario, 28 miles 
from Collingwood. It is noted for its scenery. Here the 
Beaver River falls 334 feet in a mile, including a perpen¬ 
dicular descent of 70 feet. There are manufactures of 
lumber and woollen goods. Pop. about 100. 

Eugenie, or, more fully, Eugenie Marie de Mon- 
tijo, empress of France, was born at Granada, in Spain, 
May 5, 1826. Her father was the Spanish count de Mon- 
tijo, and her mother was Maria Manuela Kirkpatrick, a 
woman of Scottish extraction. Eugenie was styled the 
countess of Teba in her youth. She was married to Na¬ 
poleon III. in Jan., 1853, and bore a son in Mar., 1856. 
As a zealous Catholic she used her influence to promote 
the power of the pope. In Oct., 1869, she made a voyage 
to Venice, Constantinople, and Egypt, was present at the 
formal opening of the Suez Canal (Nov. 17), and returned 
to France at the end of November. After Napoleon put 
himself at the head of the army, about Aug. 1, HO, she 
acted as regent until the people of Paris proclaimed a re¬ 
public, Sept. 4, 1870. She then escaped to England. 

Euge'nius I* was chosen pope in 654 A. D. as the 
103 


successor of Martin I., who was banished by the emperor 
Constans. Died in 658. 

Eugenius II., a native of Rome, succeeded Pascal I. 
as pope in 824 A. D. He called a council, which met at 
Rome in 826 for the reformation of the clergy. He died in 
827, and was succeeded by Valentinus. 

Eugenius III., a native of Pisa, was chosen pope in 
1145, in place of Lucius II. The Romans, excited by the 
preaching of Arnaldo da Brescia, had revolted against Pope 
Lucius. Eugenius, being unable to enforce his authority, 
retired to France and held a council at Rheims in 1148. 
He also promoted the second Crusade. He died in 1153, 
and was succeeded by Anastasius IV. 

Eugenius IV. (Gabriele Condolmero), a native of 
Venice, was chosen pope in 1431 as the successor of Mar¬ 
tin V., who had convoked a council at Bale. This council 
refused to recognize the supremacy of the pope. Eugenius 
therefore issued a bull proclaiming that the Council of Bale 
was or must be dissolved, and he called another council at 
Ferrara in 1437. The Council of Bale in 1438 deposed the 
pope, and elected as his successor Amadeus of Savoy, who 
assumed the name of Felix V. The result of this election 
was a schism in the Church, for Eugenius continued to act 
as pope in Rome, and was recognized by several powers. 
At the Council of Ferrara, Eugenius and John Palaeologus 
signed in 1439 a convention for the union of the Greek and 
Latin churches, but this convention had no permanent eflect. 
He died in 1447, and was succeeded by Nicholas V. 

Eugu'bian Tables, the name of certain bronze tab¬ 
lets found near Gubbio (the ancient Iquvium) in 1444. Five 
of the inscriptions are in Etruscan and Umbrian characters, 
the other two in Latin. They were published by Lepsius 
in his “ Inscriptiones Umbricae et Oscse ” (1841). 

Eula'lia, a post-township of Potter co., Pa. Pop. 353. 

EuTenburg (Friedrich Albert), Graf zu, a Prus¬ 
sian statesman, was born Jan. 29, 1815, went in 1859 as 
envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to China, 
Japan, and Siam, concluded (Jan. 1,1861) a treaty of navi¬ 
gation with the government of Japan, and in September 
of the same year another with China. He became,,Dec. 9,. 
1862, minister of the interior. 

Eli'leiistein (Karl), born in Heilbronn, Wlirtemberg,. 
in 1802, was apprenticed in youth to an ironmonger,, who* 
would not allow him to cultivate his musical tastes, which, 
were naturally strong. As a last resort, he took up the-. 
Jew’s harp, and, devoting his spare time to that instrument,, 
he acquired such astonishing skill in playing it that his; 
reputation extended throughout Europe. 

Eu'lcr (Leonard), an eminent Swiss geometer, born at 
Bale April 15, 1707. He was educated at the university 
of that city, and went to St. Petersburg with his friend 
Daniel Bernoulli. In 1733 he became professor of mathe¬ 
matics in the Academy of St. Petersburg. He displayed 
great fecundity and inventive genius by the composition 
of a multitude of treatises on mathematics. It is said that 
he wrote more than half of the forty-six quarto volumes 
published by the Academy between 1727 and 1783. Hav¬ 
ing been invited by Frederick the Great, he removed to. 
Berlin in 1741. He improved the integral calculus and the 
science of mechanics. Among his numerous works are 
“ Mechanics, or the Science of Motion analytically ex¬ 
plained” (in Latin, 2 vols., 1736-42), a “ Treatise on Naval 
Science” (1749), a “ Treatise on the Integral Calculus” 
(“ Institutiones Calculi Integralis,” 1768), “Letters to a 
German Princess” (in French, 1768), a “Treatise on Diop¬ 
trics” (1771), and “Theory of the Moon’s Motion” (1772). 
He became blind about 1767, after which he resided in St. 
Petersburg until his death, Sept. 7, 1783. Condorcet, who 
wrote a eulogy on him, says, “ He multiplied his productions 
marvellously, and yet was original in each.” 

Eu'logy [Gr. evAoyta, “praise,” from ev, “good,” and 
Aoyos, “word;” Fr. eloge ], an encomium pronounced on a 
person; a laudatory speech or written composition. In 
ecclesiastical history it was applied to a present bestowed 
on the Church after having been blessed. 

Eu'lytine, Silicate of Bismuth, Bismuth- 
blende, a rare mineral found at Schneeberg in Saxony. 

Eu'menes [Gr. Efyiei/rjs], a favorite officer of Alexander 
the Great, was born at Cardia, in Ihrace, about 360 B. C. 
He had a high command in the army which Alexander 
conducted against Persia in 334 B. C., and gained the 
confidence of that prince. On the death of Alexander, Eu- 
menes became governor of Cappadocia and I ontus. As 
an ally of Perdiccas ho defeated Craterus in the year 321, 
soon after which Antigonus and Antipater formed a coa¬ 
lition against him. Eumenes was captured and put to 
death by Antigonus in 317 or 316 B. C. (See Plutarch, 
“ Life of Eumenes.”) 












EUMENIDES—EUPHRATES. 


1634 


Eumen'ides [Gr. Ev^evi'Se? (from ev,“good,” and p.eVos, 
“ mind,” “ disposition ”), i. e. the “ gracious ones,” so called 
for the sake of propitiating them], or Erinnyes, the 
Greek name of the Furies, whom the Romans called Furim 
or Dirae. They were supposed to be goddesses who pun¬ 
ished crimes and pursued the guilty with burning torches. 
According to the later tradition, there were three Furies— 
namely, Tisiphone, Alecto, and Megoora. The Cave of the 
Eumenides is at the N. E. angle of the Areopagus, imme¬ 
diately below the seats of the judges. 

Eumorpus [Gr. ES/uoAttos], a personage of the Greek 
mythology, was supposed to be a Thracian bard, a son of 
Neptune, and the founder of the Eleusinian mysteries. 
Musaeus is said to have had a son named Eumolpus, who 
was an instructor of Hercules. 

Euna'pius [Gr. E^an-ios], a sophist and physician, 
born at Sardis, in Lydia, about 348 A. D. He was a Neo- 
Platonist, an opponent of Christianity, and a partisan of 
Julian the Apostate. He lived at Athens, and wrote in 
Greek “ The Lives of Philosophers and Sophists,” which is 
highly prized. It was published by Boissonade in 1822. 
Hied about 420. 

Euno'mians, the followers of Eunomius, a strict 
Arian, who was made bishop of Cyzicus, in Asia Minor, 
in 360 A. B., but soon resigned on account of his theolog¬ 
ical opinions. The Eunomians were for a time very nume¬ 
rous, but the sect soon died out. 

Euno'mius [Gr. Evvo/mos], the founder of an Arian sect 
called Eunomians, was born in Cappadocia. He was ap¬ 
pointed bishop of Cyzicus in 300 A. D. by Eudoxius, bishop 
of Antioch, who afterwards deposed him for heresy. Euno¬ 
mius was a man of superior abilities, and maintained the 
extreme Arian doctrines, for which he was several times 
banished. Died in 394 A. D. , 

Eu'nuch [Gr. evvoOxos (from evvrj, a “ bed,” and e^w, to 
“have” or “keep”), i. e. “having charge of the beds or 
chambers of the women ”] was at first the title of servants 
who had the care of bed-chambers; and from the custom 
of placing women’s apartments under the care of mutilated 
persons, the name came to be applied to the latter class ex¬ 
clusively'. Mutilation was a very ancient practice, and was 
especially frequent in Syria and the East. It is a natural 
consequence of the system of polygamy. In Greece it 
was not common until the Byzantine period. In Rome 
under the emperors many eunuchs were kept. It is as¬ 
serted that they were made to a considerable extent in 
mediaeval Europe. In Italy they were formerly kept for 
their fine soprano singing. At present they are chiefly 
found in Mohammedan countries. At Moscow a commu¬ 
nity of eunuchs exists, who are jewellers by profession, and 
who add to their numbers by the purchase and mutilation 
of children. Eunuchs as a class are small, beardless, and 
weak, with a jealous, cowardly, and intriguing character; 
yet some, like Bagoas, the Persian minister, Philetoerus, 
king of Pergama, and Narses, the Byzantine general, have 
possessed energy and ability. As used in the Bible and the 
classics, the word often means simply a chamberlain. 

Euon'yirms [fromthe Gr. ev, “well,” “propitious,” and 
ow/xa, a “ name,” by euphemism because it is poisonous], a 
genus of shrubs of the natural order Celastracece, natives 
of Europe and the U. S. The fruit is a capsule, with seeds 
enclosed in a red aril. The flowers, foliage, and fruit of 
some of the species are poisonous. The wood of the Eu- 
onymus Europmis, an ornamental shrub, is strong, compact, 
and yellow, and is applied to various useful purposes. The 
Euon'ymu8 atropurpu' reus (burning bush or wahoo), a na¬ 
tive of the U. S., is an ornamental shrub, with crimson 
fruit drooping on long peduncles. The bark is used as a 
remedy for dropsy and other diseases, and has active prop¬ 
erties. The Euonymu8 Americanus, or strawberry bush, is 
often cultivated for ornament. 

Eupato'ria, formerly Koslof, a seaport of Russia, 
in the government of Taurida, is on the Black Sea, and 
on the W. coast of the Crimea, 38 miles W. N. W. of Sim¬ 
feropol. It has a shallow harbor, a custom-house, a hos¬ 
pital, and a handsome Tartar mosque. Grain, wool, hides, 
and salt are exported from this place. The English and 
French armies landed here in Sept., 1854, and the Russians 
were repulsed here in Feb., 1855. Pop. 7730. 

Eupato'rium [Gr. evnaropiov, said to have been named 
in honor of Eu'pator, a king of Pontus], a genus of plants 
of the natural order Composite, having the florets all tubu¬ 
lar and perfect. It comprises many species of perennial 
herbs, mostly American. The Eupato'rium perfolia'turn, 
called boneset and thoroughwort, is a native of the U. S., 
and is used in medicine as a tonic, stimulant, and sudorific. 
The leaves, as the specific name denotes, are connate-per¬ 
foliate— i. e. united at the base around the stem. The hemp 
agrimony (Eupato'rium cannab'inum), which grows wild in 


England, has been used in medicine. The Eupatorium pur- 
pureum and several other American species appear to havo 
valuable diuretic properties. 

Eu'pcn, oi'pen [Fr. N6a\i\, a manufacturing town of 
Rhenish Prussia, on the Vesdre, and in a beautiful valley 
10 miles by rail S. S. W. of Aix-la-Chapelle. It is well 
built and flourishing, and derives its prosperity chiefly from 
its manufactures of woollen goods (broadcloths and cassi- 
meres). It has fourteen woollen-mills, dyeworks, and man¬ 
ufactures of machinery. Pop. 14,696. 

Euphemia, a post-village of Harrison township, Preble 
co., 0. Pop. 107. 

Eu'phemism [Gr. ev^juur/xd?], a figure in rhetoric by 
which an unpleasant idea is expressed by indirect and 
milder terms. The euphemisms of the ancient heathens 
generally originated in a desire to deprecate the ill-will of 
malevolent powers, by attributing to them characteristics 
opposite to those which really belonged to them. TMis, the 
Furies were termed Eumenides, “gentle,” by the Greeks. 

Euphony [Gr. eu^wvt'a, “goodness of voice” (from eC, 
“good,” and (fxuvrj, “voice ”)], agreeable sound; that quality 
in language which results from happy combinations of the 
enunciative elements, such especially as, though essentially 
different in their characteristic powers, easily melt into or 
blend with each other, so as to maintain an uninterupted 
flow. It is the reverse of cacophony . 

Euphor'bia [named in honor of Euphor'bus, phj'sician 
to Juba, king of Mauritania], a genus of plants of the natu¬ 
ral order Euphorbiacese, having an acrid, milky juice and 
monoecious flowers, included in a cup-shaped, four to five- 
lobed involucre resembling a calyx. Almost 100 species of 
this genus are natives of the U. S. An acrid drug called 
euphorbium is obtained from the Euphorbia officina'rum and 
from other species. Several species bear the popular name 
of spurge. The seeds of “ caper spurge ” (Euphorbia Lathy- 
ris) of Europe and the U. S. yield the fixed oil known as 
oil of euphorbia, a powerful cathartic. Some African Eu¬ 
phorbias are large trees. 

Euphorbia'ceue [from Euphor'bia, the typical genus], 
a large natural order of exogenous plants which abound in 
tropical America, and are found in nearly all parts of the 
globe. They mostly have an acrid and poisonous milky 
juice and diclinous or monoecious flowers. They may be 
distinguished from other diclinous orders by their tricoccous 
or 3-lobed fruit, and their definite suspended anatropous 
ovules. This order comprises, besides the Euphorbia (which 
see), the Riq'inus (castor-oil plant), the Croton, which yields 
croton oil, the Sipho'nia, from which caoutchouc is obtained, 
the Bux'u8 semper'virens (common box), and the Jatropha 
Manihot, the stem of which yields a nutritious food called 
cassava, manioc, or tapioca. 

Euphor'biiim, an acrid and inodorous gum-resin, is 
produced by the Euphorbia officinarum of Southern Africa 
and some other species, including Euphorbia Canariensis of 
Western Africa and Euphorbia antiqnarurn of the Levant. 
It is a violent emetic and purgative, and is sometimes used 
in the composition of plasters and in veterinary medicine. 

Eupho'rion [Ev^opiW], an Athenian tragic poet, was a 
son of iEschylus. He gained prizes with his father’s 
dramas when Sophocles and Euripides were competitors. 

Euphorion, an eminent Greek poet and grammarian, 
born at Chalcis in Euboea, flourished about 250-220 B. C. 
He became librarian to Antiochus the Great, lie produced 
epic poems entitled “ Ilesiodos,” “ Mopsopia,” and “ Chili- 
ades,” which were very popular; also several prose works. 
None of his works are extant. 

Eliphra'nor [Ev(£pavwp], an eminent Greek painter and 
sculptor, born at Corinth, flourished about 350 B. C., and 
was a contemporary of Apelles. He excelled both in paint¬ 
ing and in sculpture. Among his works, which are highly 
praised by Pliny and Plutarch, was a painting of the feigned 
insanity of Ulysses. 

Eu'phrasy [Gr. ev<f>paaia, from ev</>pcuVco, to “delight”], 
or Eyebright, a plant of the order Scrophulariacee, the 
Euphra'sia officina'lis, a small annual herb from two to 
eight inches high, a native of Asia, Europe, and North 
America. Milton in his “ Paradise Lost ” speaks of its vir¬ 
tues in clearing the eyesight. It is not improbably some¬ 
what useful in inflammation of the eyes, from its astringent 
character. Some varieties are said to have in their blos¬ 
soms a spot or “signature” resembling the eye, and this 
spot caused, or at least strengthened, the popular faith in 
its powers. 

Euphrates [Gr. Eu^parijs; Turk. El-Frat], a large 
river of Western Asia, celebrated in all periods of his¬ 
tory for the important events which have occurred on its 
banks, and the magnificence of the cities whoso walls it 
washed. It rises in Armenia, in the Anti-Taurus Moun- 




























EUPHROSYNE—EUROCLYDON. 


1635 


tains, by two branches—the Moorad and Kara-Soo—which 
unite near lat. 39° N. and Ion. 39° E. The stream formed 
by this junction flows first south-westward, effects a passage 
through a defile of Mount Taurus, and forms the boundary 
between ancient Syria and Mesopotamia. Near the town 
of Bir it approaches within 100 miles of the Mediterranean. 
After crossing the 36th parallel of N. latitude it pursues a 
general south-eastern direction, flows through the extensive 
alluvial plains of Babylonia and Chaldma, and enters the 
Persian Gulf at its north-western extremity. Its total 
length, says Guyot, is 1750 miles, and the area of its drain¬ 
age is 255,000 square miles. It is navigable from Someisat 
to its mouth, 1195 miles. Its principal affluent is the Tigris, 
which is nearly as large as the Euphrates itself. It receives 
no large tributary from the right hand. The width in some 
places is nearly 600 yards, but below Hillah its volume and 
width are reduced by numerous canals cut for irrigation. 
The name Shatt-el-Arab is given by the natives to that 
part of the river below the mouth of the Tigris. The melted 
snows of the mountains of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus cause 
a periodical inundation of the Euphrates in the spring. 
The water is highest in May and June. In some parts of 
its course above Someisat the river passes through deep and 
narrow defiles or gorges between precipices nearly 1500 feet 
high, and presents much picturesque scenery. In ancient 
times the chief city on its banks was Babylon. 

Euphros'yne [Gr. Ev^poaw-q, from ev, “ good,” “ easy,” 
and 4>prjy, “ mind”], one of the three Graces in Greek myth¬ 
ology, was supposed to be the daughter of Venus, and was 
a personification of the genius of mirth or joy. 

Eu'phuism [from the Gr. eu<|>vrj?, “graceful” (from eu, 
“ good,” and </>vr/, “ growth,” “ form ”)], an affected style of 
speaking and writing which became a fashion in the reign 
of Queen Elizabeth. The term originated in the title of a 
pedantic romance called “ Euphues ” (1580), which was 
written by John Lilly (Lyly) and which abounded in af¬ 
fected conceits and extravagant antitheses. This style was 
ridiculed by Shakspeare and Ben Jonson. 

Eu'pion [from the Gr. d5, “ good,” “very,” and mW, 
“fat,” “rich,” named in allusion to its oily nature], a 
limpid, inodorous, and oily liquid obtained by destructive 
distillation of various vegetable and animal substances, as 
coal, wood, oils, bones, etc. It is of a highly inflammable 
nature, dissolves in ether and alcohol, but is insoluble in 
water. Its specific gravity is 0.74, and it boils and evapo¬ 
rates at 340°. It consists essentially, according to Frank- 
land, of hydrate of amyl, C 5 II 11 H. 

Eu'polis [EuttoAis], an eminent Athenian comic poet of 
the Old Comedy, was born about 446 B. C. He was a com¬ 
petitor of Aristophanes, whom, as some critics think, he 
surpassed in the charms of diction. Horace considered him 
worthy to be ranked with Cratinus and Aristophanes. Eu- 
polis often satirized the persons and conduct of his eminent 
contemporaries, including Alcibiades. Died about 410 B. C. 
His works are lost except small fragments. 

Eura'sians [contracted from Europe and As/o], or 
Half-Castes, is the name given in East India to the de¬ 
scendants of Europeans and Indian mothers, who are espe¬ 
cially numerous in the large cities, as Calcutta, Madras, and 
Bombay. They generally receive a European education, 
but, although they speak the English grammatically, they 
have a peculiarly disagreeable pronunciation. The girls 
are often very beautiful, and generally marry English offi¬ 
cers; while the young men enter the government offices or 
serve as clerks with merchants. They are very useful in 
this position, but as soon as they become rich, or advance 
to higher offices, they generally become insolent and wild. 
The Europeans, who also call them “Vepery Brahmins,” 
do not hold them in high estimation. The natives call 
them “ Tschitschi.” Their number is estimated at 91,000. 

Eure, a department in the N. W. part of France, is a 
part of the old province of Normandy. It is bounded on 
the N. by Seine Inferieure, on the E. by Oise and Seine- 
et-Oise, on the S. by Eure-et-Loir, and on the W. by Orne 
and Calvados. Area, 2301 square miles. It is intersected 
by the rivers Seine and Eure, and .is bounded on the N. W. 
by the estuary of the former. The surface is mostly level; 
the soil is fertile. The staple productions are grain, hemp, 
flax, apples, and pears. Good horses, cattle, and sheep are 
reared here. Eure has important manufactures of cotton 
and woollen stuffs, paper, glass, stoneware, and copper-ware. 
Pop. in 1872, 377,874. Capital, Evreux. 

Eure-et-Eoir, a department in the N. W. part of 
France, is bounded on the N. by Eure, on the E. by feeine- 
et-Oise and Loiret, on the S. by Loir-et-Cher, and on the 
W. by Sarthe and Orne. Area, 2268 square miles. It is 
drained by the rivers Eure and Loir. The surface is partly 
level, and is in some parts diversified by hills and valleys. 
The soil is very fertile, and produces large crops of wheat. 


Good cavalry horses are raised here. This department is 
traversed by a railway connecting Paris with Chartres and 
Le Mans. Capital, Chartres. Pop. in 1872, 282,622. 

Eure'ka, a post-village, capital of Humboldt co., Cal., 
is on Humboldt Bay, 7 miles from the ocean and about 225 
miles N. N. W. of San Francisco. It has a safe harbor, with 
fifteen feet of water at low tide, and a daily and one weekly 
newspaper. Redwood lumber is largely shipped from this 
point. Pop. of Eureka township, 2049. 

“ Humboldt Times.” 

Eureka, a township of Nevada co., Cal. Pop. 1219. 

Eureka, a township of Sierra co., Cal. Pop. 350. 

Eureka, a post-village of Olio township, Woodford co., 
Ill., at the crossing of the Toledo Peoria and Warsaw and 
the Chicago Pekin and South-western R. Rs., 19 miles E. 
of Peoria. It has three churches and one weekly newspa¬ 
per, and is the seat of Eureka College, connected with which 
is a normal school and a biblical school of the Disciples of 
Christ. Pop. 1233. E. Lowry, Pub. “Journal.” 

Eureka, a city, capital of Greenwood co., Kan., 110 
miles S. S. W. of Topeka, in the centre of a fine grazing- 
region. It has one weekly newspaper, fine county build¬ 
ings, public school-house, and five churches. Pop. of town¬ 
ship, 1040. S. G. Mead, Ed. & Prop, of “Herald.” 

Eureka, a township of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 2775. 

Eureka, a township of Dakota co., Minn. Pop. 924. 

Eureka, a post-village of Lander co., Nev., is situated 
about midway between Salt Lake and San Francisco, and 
80 miles S. of the Central Pacific R. It. The town will be 
connected by rail with the Central Pacific at Palisade, the 
branch, narrow gauge, being in course of construction. 
Eureka is the second town in importance in the State, Vir¬ 
ginia City alone excelling it. The principal business is 
mining. It produces daily about 100 tons of lead and sil¬ 
ver ore. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of Eureka 
district, 640. George W. Cassidy, Ed. “Sentinel.” 

Eureka, a post-village of Rushford township, Winne¬ 
bago co., Wis. Pop. 317. 

Eurip'ides [Gr. Evpi-wiSr;?], an eminent Athenian dram¬ 
atist, and the latest of the three great tragic poets of 
Greece, was born in the island of Salamis in 480 B. C., or, 
according to the Arundel Marbles, in 485. According to a 
tradition, he was born on the day of the battle of Salamis, 
Sept. 23, 480. He was the son of an Athenian citizen 
named Mnesarchus, who sought refuge in Salamis when the 
Persian army captured Athens. He was a pupil of the great 
philosopher Anaxagoras, and he studied rhetoric under 
Prodicus. He also enjoyed the intimate friendship of Soc¬ 
rates. About 456 B. C. he produced “ Peliades,” the first 
of his dramas that was performed. As a rival of Sophocles 
he gained the first prize in several dramatic contests. His 
religious opinions were liberal, and excited the hostility of 
the conservative party, of which Aristophanes was the cham¬ 
pion. Like Socrates, he was accused of impiety and unbelief 
in the gods. It appears that it was the violence and scur¬ 
rility of these unscrupulous enemies that induced Euripides 
to remove from Athens about the year 408. He then re¬ 
tired to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedon, who treated 
him with kindness. Euripides composed seventy-five, or, 
as some say, ninety-two, tragedies, of which eighteen are ex¬ 
tant—namely, “ Alcestis ” (438 B. C.), “Medea” (431), 
“Hippolytus” (428), “Hecuba” (424), “ Heraclidae ” 
(421 ?), “ Supplices ” (421?), “Ion,” “Hercules Furens,” 
“ Andromache,”. “ Troades” (415), “Electra,” “Helena” 
(412), “ Iphigenia in Tauris,” “ Orestes ” (408),“ Phenissae,” 
“ Bacchm,” “ Iphigenia in Aulis,” and “ Rhesus.” His style 
is remarkable for its brilliancy and pompous elegance. 
Among the warm admirers of Euripides were Aristotle (who 
calls him the most tragic of poets), Cicero, and Milton. 
“He was,” says A. W. Sclilegel, “a man of infinite talent 
and invention, possessed of the most varied intellectual ac¬ 
complishments ; but, although abounding in brilliant and 
attractive qualities, he wanted the sublime earnestness and 
artistic skill which we admire in iEschylus and Sophocles.” 
According to a doubtful tradition, he was killed by hounds 
in 406 B. C., and buried at Pella. His works display great 
insight into human passions and skill in the analysis of 
character. Though his plots arc censured as inartistic, he 
stands pre-eminent among the Greek tragic poets in the 
vigorous expression of individual passions and in know¬ 
ledge of human nature. Among the best editions of Eurip¬ 
ides are those of Musgrave, Oxford (4 vols., 1778), ot Mat- 
thise, Leipsic (9 vols., 1813-20), of Kirchhoff, Berlin (2 
vols., 1855), and of Nauck (2 vols.; 2d ed. 1857). 

Euroc'Iytlon [Gr. evpo/cAuSwi', from eupo?, the “ east 
wind,” and kXvSw, a “ billow ”], the name of a violent wind 
of the Mediterranean, mentioned in Acts xxvii. 14. The 
Vulgate renders it euro-aquilo, i. e. “north-east wind.” 
















1636 


EUKOPA—EUROPE. 


But in some of the best manuscripts (Sinaitic, Vatican, and 
Alexandrian) evpa.Kv\uv, “ E. N. E. wind,” is the reading, 
instead of evpoicXvSuv, “ N. E. wind ;” and this reading is 
adopted by the best recent editors. The wind in question 
is said to be half a point N. of E. N. E. (See Smith’s 
“Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul,” 1856; 3d ed. 1866.) 

Euro'pa [Gr. Evpwnr]], in classic mythology, a daughter 
of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, and a sister of Cadmus. Ac¬ 
cording to the poetic legend, she was carried to Crete by 
Jupiter, who for that occasion assumed the form of a bull, 
and she was the mother of Minos and Rhadamanthus. 

Eu'rope [Gr. Evpiin-q; Lat. Euro'pa; by the ancients de¬ 
rived from Europa , a Phoenician princess; modern etymolo¬ 
gists derive it from the Semitic word ereb, “dark,” thus 
representing Europe as the dark or mysterious country, as 
compared with Asia] is the fourth among the great divis¬ 
ions of the globe in point of extent, the second in point of 
population, and the first as regards density of population. 
For more than 2000 years it has marched at the head of the 
Old World in everything that relates to progress and civili¬ 
zation. Nearly the whole of Australasia, the larger portion 
of Asia, and a considerable part of Africa and America are 
the dependencies of European countries, and notwithstand¬ 
ing the rapid rise of the New World, it continues to be the 
foremost standard-bearer of Christianity, for three-fourths 
of the entire Christian population of the globelive in Europe. 

The superficial area of Europe is estimated at about 
3,814,600 square miles. (See Behm and Wagner, “Bevol- 
kerung der Erde,” Gotha, 1872.) It is bounded on the N. 
by the Arctic Ocean, on the E. by Asia, on the S. by Asia 
and the Mediterranean Sea (which separates it from Africa), 
and on the W. by the Atlantic. The greatest extent of Eu¬ 
rope is from S. W. to N. E., a line from Cape St. Vincent to 
the mouth of the Bara River measuring about 3400 miles, 
while the distance from Cape Nordkun, the northernmost 
point of Scandinavia, to Cape Matapan, the southern ex¬ 
tremity of Greece, amounts to 2400 miles. The northern¬ 
most cape of Europe is the North Cape, on the little island 
of Mageroe, lat. 71° 11' 40” N. and Ion. 25° 46' E.; the 
southernmost, Cape Tarifa, lat 35° 59' 57” N. and Ion. 5° 
37' W.; the connecting line between these two lines is 2406 
miles long. The most western point is Cape la Roca, lat. 
38° 46' 30” N. and Ion. 9° 29' W.; the eastern extremity 
lies in the Ural Mountains; the connecting line has 3200 
miles. With the exception of a small tract reaching beyond 
the polar circle, the whole of Europe is situated in the 
northern temperate zone. 

The coast-line of Europe is very fully developed, and it is 
more accessible from the sea-side than either Asia or Africa. 
The coast of its continent is estimated at 20,700 miles, of 
which about 2600 belong to the Arctic Ocean, 10,900 to the 
Atlantic Ocean, and 7200 to the Mediterranean and Black 
Seas. The bulk of Europe has the shape of an almost right- 
angled triangle, which covers about two-thirds of the entire 
area, and in the west more and more loses its continental 
character, and in its stead becomes oceanic. The points of 
the triangle are—to the S. W., the angular point of the Bay 
of Biscay; to the N. E., that of the Ivarskaia Gulf; and to 
the S. E., the northern extremity of the Caspian Sea. The 
proportion of the peninsulas to the main body is as one to 
four. The Arctic Ocean has only the small peninsulas of 
Kanin and Kola; Scandinavia, Jutland, Normandy, and 
Bretagne stretch into the Atlantic Ocean; the Pyrenean 
peninsula (Spain and Portugal) is washed by both the At¬ 
lantic and the Mediterranean, and forms the transition to 
Africa; the Balkan peninsula in the East connects with Asia 
Minor and the Crimea ; the most south-eastern limb of the 
continent belongs to the Black Sea. The situation of the 
islands, which cover an area of 191,000 square miles (about 
one-twentieth of all Europe), is one very conducive to the 
progress of commerce and civilization. The most important 
of them are Great Britain, Ireland, the Balearic Islands, 
Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Malta, Crete, the Ionian Islands; 
Iceland, though it lies nearest to Greenland, is regarded as 
belonging to Europe, because from thence it has been peo¬ 
pled and civilized. Of the Portuguese possessions, the 
Azores and Madeira are generally included in the area of 
Europe. By means of a large number of navigable rivers 
and canals the inland countries to a large extent partici¬ 
pate in the advantages of the maritime situation of Europe. 

Political Divisions. —Politically, Europe was in 1873 di¬ 
vided into twenty sovereign states, of which three were em¬ 
pires (Germany, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, and Rus¬ 
sia), one a sultanate (Turkey, also sometimes counted among 
the empires), nine kingdoms (Great Britain, Portugal* Italy, 
Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, 
Greece), one grand-duchy (Luxemburg), two principalities 
(Liechtenstein and Monaco), and five republics (Switzer¬ 
land, San Marino, Andorra, France, and Spain). Four of 
these states (Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, and An¬ 


dorra) are so insignificant that many geographers do not 
enumerate them among the sovereign states. Luxemburg 
has the same ruler as the Netherlands, and Norway the same 
as Sweden ; but, as they have nothing else in common, they 
must be counted as sovereign states. Germany and Swit¬ 
zerland are federal states, consisting, the former of twenty- 
six states (three of which are free cities), and the latter of 
twenty-two cantons, which have ceded part of their sov¬ 
ereignty to the central power of the federal state, but re¬ 
served to themselves the sovereignty in all points not ex¬ 
pressly ceded. A large majority of the European states 
are monarchies, but only Turkey is a despotism. Since 
1848 absolutism has steadily been losing ground, and in 
nearly every European country the sovereign shares the 
legislative function with a representative body, which in 
some is elected by universal suffrage. In one monarchy 
(Norway) the king has only a suspensive veto. Republican 
tendencies are at work in nearly every monarchy of Eu¬ 
rope; and as they have been successful in France in 1848, 
and again in 1870, and in Spain in 1873, they are expected 
to extend ere long the territory of republicanism at the ex¬ 
pense of monarchical institutions. 

The following table exhibits the area and population of 
each sovereign country of Europe at the beginning of 1873 : 


Countries. 


German empire. 

Austro-Hungarian monarchy. 

Principality of Liechtenstein. 

Republic of Switzerland. 

Kingdom of Denmark (inclusive of 

Faroe Islands and Iceland). 

Kingdom of Sweden. 

Kingdom of Norway. 

Kingdom of the Netherlands. 

Grand-duchy of Luxemburg. 

Kingdom of Belgium. 

Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire¬ 
land (inclusive of Heligoland, Gib¬ 
raltar, and Malta). 

Republic of France. 

Republic of Spain (inclusive of the 

Canary Islands). . 

Kingdom of Portugal (inclusive of the 

Azores and Madeira Isles). 

Republic of Andorra. 

Kingdom of Italy. 

Principality of Monaco. 

Republic of San Marino. 

Turkey in Europe (inclusive of the 

Principality of Roumania. 

Principality of Servia... 

Principality of Montenegro). 

Russia in Europe (inclusive of Poland 

and Finland). 

Kingdom of Greece. 

Total. 


Sq. Miles. 

Population. 

208,619 

41,058,139 

240,348 

35,904,435 

62 

8,320 

15,992 

2,669,147 

55.020 

1,864,496 

170,592 

4,168,525 

122,280 

1,753,000 

12,680 

3,688,337 

999 

197,504 

11,373 

\ 

5,021,336 

1121,260 

31,977,377 

J 204,090 

36,102,821 

195,774 

16,641,880 

j 35,812 

4,360,974 

149 

12,000 

114,295 

26,716,809 

3,6 

3,127 

22 

7,303 

133,995 

10,510,000 

(46,710) 

(4,500,000) 

(16,817) 

(1,319,283) 

(1,701) 

(100,000) 

2,059,226 

71,195,405 

19,353 

1,457,894 

3,787,178 

301,605,227 


With regard to their size, population, and power, the 
states of Europe are divided into states of the first, second, 
third, and fourth class. To the first class belong Great 
Britain, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, and Italy. 
Their aggregate area and population is more than double 
the area and population of all the remainder of Europe. 
They are therefore commonly called the “ great powers of 
Europe.” Whenever they agree on international questions 
their agreement is the law of Europe; and they frequently 
hold international conferences to avert, if possible, impend¬ 
ing wars. Nine of the European states (Great Britain, 
Turkey, the Netherlands, Russia, Spain, France, Portugal, 
Denmark, and Sweden) have possessions in other divisions 
of the world, the aggregate area of which is nearly five 
times as large as that of all Europe, while their population 
(250,000,000) does not quite reach that of Europe. 

Physical Geography .—With regard to its orographic 
condition, Europe may be divided into two large, unequal 
portions. North-eastern Europe is a vast plain of great 
uniformity, while South-western Europe is a table-land, 
but frequently intersected by small plains, and therefore 
presenting considerable variety. The table-land of Europe 
is estimated at over two-sevenths of the entire area, while 
not quite five-sevenths consists of plains. The central 
table-land of Europe contains a vast triangle of mountains, 
the system of the Alps forming the base, and the European 
Middle Mountains furnishing the sides. The principal por¬ 
tions of the latter are the French Middle Mountains, the 
highest point of which is Mont Dore; the German Middle 
Mountains, with the Riesengebirge as the highest range; 
and the Carpathian Middle Mountains, which reach their 
highest point in the Gerlsdorfer Spitze. The system of the 
Balkan, which traverses Turkey and Greece, and the Apen¬ 
nines of Italy, are also connected with the Alps, while the 
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EUROPE. 


vian peninsulas, as well as those of the British and other 
islands, are isolated masses. The character of the Eu¬ 
ropean mountains, in comparison with those of other large 
divisions of the globe, is more distinguished for a variety 
of combinations than for grand developments. The moun¬ 
tains yield, on the whole, but small amounts of the precious 
metals, while, in accordance with the prevailing feature of 
the physical geography of Europe, the useful metal, iron, is 
found in very large quantities. 

The hydrographic relations of Europe are characterized 
by abundance and variety. Europe has no river-system of 
such colossal dimensions as are found in Asia and America, 
and the largest European river, the Volga, sends its water 
eastward to the Caspian Sea, which Europe has in common 
with Asia. On the other hand, the rivers of Europe are 
more advantageously distributed than those of any other 
large continent. They penetrate every part of it, fertilize 
every country, and give to each a considerable share in its 
flourishing commerce and industry. These advantages are 
still further increased by the numerous canals which the 
fortunate formation of the soil has allowed to be constructed 
for the connection of the large rivers. The largest number 
of European rivers flow into the Atlantic Ocean, which re¬ 
ceives the Tornea in Sweden, the Neva, Duna, Niemeu, and 
Pregel in Russia, the Vistula, Oder, Elbe, Weser, Ems in 
Germany, the Rhine and Scheldt in the Netherlands and 
Belgium, the Thames and Severn in England, the Seine, 
Loire, Garonne in France, the Ducro, Tagus, Guadiana, and 
•Guadalquivir in Spain and Portugal. The Ebro in Spain, the 
Rhone in France, the Arno, Tiber, Po, and Adige in Italy, 
flow into the Mediterranean; the Danube, Dniester, Dnieper, 
and Don into the Black Sea; the Volga into the Caspian; 
and the Petchora and the Dwina into the Arctic Ocean. 
In inland lakes Europe is richer than any other great di¬ 
vision of the globe except North America. The lakes group 
Themselves around two centres, the Baltic Sea and the Alps. 
To the former class belong the Ladoga and Onega lakes, 
the largest fresh-water lakes of Europe. 

The following parts of Europe, according to the map in 
Lyell’s “ Principles of Geology,” consist chiefly of primitive 
or transition formations: The Uralian Mountains in Russia; 
nearly the whole of the Scandinavian peninsula; most of 
Scotland, one-half of Ireland, the western part of Wales, 
the northern counties and Devon and Cornwall in England; 
a large portion of Northern and Central France; the high 
ranges of the Alps; a large portion of Central Italy and of 
the adjacent islands (Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily); of the 
Austro-Hungarian monarchy, Bohemia, Carinthia, Styria, 
parts of Hungary, and Transylvania; the eastern half of 
the Balkan peninsula and the central chain of the Caucasus. 
The parts principally composed of secondary formations 
are—in the British Isle?, the Lowlands of Scotland, the 
centre of Ireland, the north-eastern, central, and most of 
the southern counties of England; most of France and 
Western Germany; the loftiest summits of the Pyrenees; 
Southern and part of Central Italy; of the Austro-Hunga¬ 
rian monarchy, Istria, Dalmatia, Galicia, and the eastern 
districts of Transylvania; of Russia, some extensive tracts 
on the Volga and Kami, and the northern declivity of the 
Caucasus. The remainder of Europe—in particular most 
of Russia and Prussia, all Denmark, North-western Ger¬ 
many and Holland, a large portion of Belgium, the northern 
part of Switzerland, the basins of the Loire, Rhone, and 
Garonne in France, the plains of Lombardy, Hungary, 
Wallachia, and Bulgaria—is chiefly occupied by tertiary, 
alluvial, and diluvial formations. Granite, gneiss, and 
syenite are among the chief primary rocks of the great table¬ 
land of Europe. Gneiss is the rock in which the Saxon, 
Bohemian, and Austrian metallic mines are principally situ¬ 
ated, while granite abounds in most of the countries where 
primary formations are found. Active volcanoes at present 
are only met with in Italy (Stromboli, Vesuvius, and Etna) 
and Iceland, but there are traces of former volcanic activity 
in France, Greece, Germany, and other countries. Of min¬ 
eral springs Europe has an abundance and a great variety. 

Europe is the only one among the great divisions of the 
globe which nowhere touches the torrid zone, and only a 
comparatively small portion extends about 280 miles into the 
northern frigid zone. The bulk of the continent belongs to 
the northern temperate zone. The climate of Europe is a 
mixture of the continental and the oceanic, and is through¬ 
out more temperate than in non-European countries of equal 
latitude. In North-eastern Europe the continental climate 
prevails, with its clear sky and dry air, while Southern and 
South-western Europe have more an oceanic, uniform, and 
mild climate, with humid air and frequent winter rains. 
The extremes of temperature are — 58° and 100° Fahrenheit. 

In the geography of European plants four zones may be 
distinguished: 1. The northern zone embraces Iceland, the 
Scandinavian peninsula north of 64°, and Russia north of 
62°. The vegetation of this zone is poor. Lichens and 


1637 


mosses are frequent; the only species of grain to be found 
are oats, rye, and barley, the two former only along tho 
southern margin of the zone, but barley up to 70°. The 
forests consist of birches and firs, but they are crippled N. 
of 64°. 2. The northern middle zone, extending south¬ 

ward to 51° and 48°, comprises the British Isles, Den¬ 
mark, Southern Scandinavia, Finland, Central Russia, 
Northern France, Belgium and the Netherlands, Northern 
Germany and Italy. Besides the species of grain found 
in the northern zone, wheat is also found. Buckwheat, 
potatoes, leguminous plants, hemp, flax, and many kinds 
of northern fruit, as apples, pears, cherries, etc., are exten¬ 
sively cultivated. The beech and the oak prevail in the 
forests. 3. The southern middle zone extends southward 
to the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Balkan. Southern 
France, Switzerland, Southern Germany and Lombardy, 
the Carpathian countries, the larger portion of Turkey and 
Southern Russia, belong to this zone. The mountains have 
forests of pine trees; the plains, oaks, beeches, and chest¬ 
nut. Wheat and wine are extensively grown. 4. The 
southern or evergreen zone, embracing the three southern 
peninsulas and the southern coast of France. The vegeta¬ 
tion of this zone is luxurious; it is noted for its olives and 
evergreen woods and its fiery wines. The orange flourishes 
in the southern portion of it, and rice is cultivated in North¬ 
ern Italy and Eastern Spain. 

The character of the European fauna fully corresponds to 
the physiognomy of the continent. Vast formations are wholly 
wanting. The class of rapacious animals has its largest 
representatives in the wolf, lynx, and bear. The number of 
reptiles is small. On the other hand, the domestic animals 
are more largely extended and more improved in Europe 
than in any other country of the world. Peculiar to the 
north of Europe is the reindeer. The birds are inferior to 
those of other divisions in their size and brilliancy of color, 
but are noted for the sweetness of their voices and their 
melodious songs. Northern Europe has a larger number 
of species of animals, but the south has a larger number 
of individuals. The northern seas, lakes, and rivers have 
a larger abundance of fish than those of the south. 

Population, Races of People, Language, and Religion .— 
The entire population of Europe at the beginning of the 
year 1873 amounted to 300,800,000. The vast majority 
of the inhabitants belong to the Caucasian race; only about 
one-nineteenth are Mongolians. The Caucasian race com¬ 
prises in Europe three large groups, which conjointly con¬ 
stitute the bulk of the population, and several fragments 
of nations which, in former times widely extended, are now 
reduced to small limits. The three large groups are the 
Germanic, the Greco-Romanic, and the Slavic. The Ger¬ 
manic is subdivided into the Germans proper, inclusive of 
the Dutch, Frisians, and Flemish (about 56,500,000), the 
Scandinavians (8,000,000), and the Anglo-Saxons or Eng¬ 
lish (about 29,500,000), in all, 94,000,000, or 31.2 per cent, 
of the population of Europe. The whole of Germany, Hol¬ 
land, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Great Britain is occupied 
by the Germanic race, which also prevails, as to influence, 
in the western half of Austria and the Baltic Provinces 
of Russia; as regards number, in Belgium; and as regards 
both influence and number, in Switzerland. The Greco- 
Romanic group occupies the south and the south-west of 
Europe. The chief nationalities belonging to it are the 
French, 41,260,000 ; Italian, 27,620,000 ; Spanish and Por¬ 
tuguese, 16,320,000; Daco-Rumanian and Macedo-Walla- 
chian, 8,100,000; Greek, 2,450,000; and Albanians, 1,440,000; 
in all, 97,200,000, or 32.3 per cent, of the entire population. 
It controls the destinies of France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, 
seven cantons of Switzerland, Greece, and Rumania; it 
predominates in several provinces of European Turkey, 
Southern Hungary, and Transylvania; and its influence 
prevails in Belgium, though it does not form the majority 
of its population. The Slavic group, though in numbers 
somewhat inferior to the Germanic and Greco-Romanic, 
and containing only 27.3 per cent, of the aggregate popu¬ 
lation of Europe, occupies fully three-fifths of its area. Its 
chief branches are the Russians and Ruthenians, 54,530,000; 
the Poles, 9,420,000 ; the Czechs and Wends, 6,900,000 ; the 
Servians, Croatians, and Sloventzi, 7,200,000; the Bulga¬ 
rians, 4,080,000. It rules in only one large sovereign coun¬ 
try, Russia; to which may be added the principality of 
Montenegro and the semi-independent principality of Ser- 
via; but both in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and in 
European Turkey it constitutes a plurality of the popula¬ 
tion, and even in the formerly Polish districts of Prussia it 
constitutes a compact population of over 2,000,000. Be¬ 
sides these three large groups, the Caucasian race also em¬ 
braces the remnants of tho Celts, Lithuanians, and Iberians 
or Basques. The Celts, who at one time ruled in Northern 
Italy, France, and the British Isles, now only linger in 
French Bretagne, in Wales, Ireland, and High Scotland. 
In France their language is still spoken by a population of 
















1638 EUROPE. 


1,100,000, and in the British Isles by about 2,300,000. The 
Lithuanians, embracing the Lithuanians proper, the Letts, 
and the Prussians, live on the Baltic Sea, and number 
2,900,000, while the Basques, the descendants of the ab¬ 
original inhabitants of Spain, live in the Western Pyrenees, 
and have been reduced to about 1,000,000. To the Se¬ 
mitic race belong about 5,000,000 Israelites, who are scat¬ 
tered throughout Europe. There are also a few hundred 
thousand Gypsies. A branch of the Mongolian race, the 
Finns, which w r as formerly spread over a vast area, includes 
the Finns proper, the Esthonians and Livonians, the Lapps, 
the Samoyedes, and other tribes on the Arctic Ocean, and, 
as far as the language is concerned, also the Magyars, who 
by some ethnographic writers are classed as a branch of the 
Mongolians different from the Finns. These Finnish tribes 
number in all about 10,000,000. Whether the Turks be¬ 
long to the Mongolian or to the Caucasian race is still a 
matter of dispute, though most writers regard them as Mon¬ 
golians, and explain the Caucasian features which have been 
observed by their mixture with the Caucasian tribes living 
near and among them. The Calmucks of Russia are an¬ 
other Mongolian tribe. 

Ileliyion .—The entire population of Europe, with the 
exception of 5,000,000 Jews, 6,800,000 Mohammedans, and 
500,000 Pagans in Russia and Turkey, belongs to Chris¬ 
tianity, which by doctrinal differences is split into three 
main divisions—the Roman Catholic, the Orthodox Greek, 
and the Protestant churches. By far the largest population 
belongs to the Roman Catholic Church, to which the over¬ 
whelming majority of the Greco-Romanic nations also ad¬ 
heres, as well as nearly one-half of the Germanic; the Poles, 
Czechs, Croatians, Slovacks, Ruthenians, among the Slavi; 
the majority of the Magyars, the Lithuanians, the Celts of 
Ireland and France, and the Basques. It comprises more 
than 98 per cent, of the population in Spain, Portugal, 
Italy, Belgium, Luxemburg, and France; 92 per cent, in 
Cisleithan and 59 in Transleithan Austria; from 40 to 36 
per cent, in Switzerland, the Nethei-lands, and Germany; 17£ 
per cent, in Great Britain and Ireland; and less than 10 
per cent, in every other country of Europe. The aggregate 
population connected with it was estimated in 1872 at 
147,700,000, or over 49 per cent, of the population of Eu¬ 
rope. The Orthodox Greek Church (with a population of 
69,200,000, or 23 per cent, of all Europeans) embraces the 
large majority of all the Slavic tribes and the Greeks and 
Rumanians of the Greco-Romanic. It constitutes about 99 
per cent, in Servia, 97 in Greece, 95 in Rumania, 85 in Rus¬ 
sia, 48 in Turkey, and 17 per cent, in Transleithan Austria. 
Protestantism, which is subdivided into a number of re¬ 
ligious denominations, has its stronghold in the Germanic 
countries, where more than one-half of the entire popula¬ 
tion belongs to it. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark are 
almost entirely Protestant (over 99 per cent, of the total 
population); in Great Britain and Ireland the Protestant 
population is estimated at 83 per cent., in Germany at 62, 
in the Netherlands at 61, in Switzerland at 59. Outside 
of the Germanic world Protestantism also prevails in the 
grand duchy of Finland (97.7 per cent.), among the Letts 
in the Baltic Provinces of Russia, and among the Celts of 
Wales and Scotland. 

History .—The authentic history of the European states 
begins with the tribes of Greece, which also occupied the 
coast of Asia Minor, and which, after founding a number 
of flourishing commonwealths in the territory of the modern 
kingdom of Greece and the southern part of modern Tur¬ 
key, vied with the Phoenicians in establishing flourishing 
colonies on the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black 
Sea. But they never succeeded in founding a powerful 
state, which, for the first time in Europe, was done in 
the fourth century B. C. by Alexander the Great, whose 
achievements were, however, of comparatively little in¬ 
fluence on the destinies of Europe, as they mostly con¬ 
cerned Asia, and as his world-empire collapsed at his pre¬ 
mature death. Of more lasting influence Avas the rise of 
the Roman republic, which in Europe annexed not only the 
whole of Italy, but Greece, Gaul, Spain, and portions of 
Germany, Britain, and Eastern Europe, and which, by con¬ 
solidating a large portion of Europe under one rule, con¬ 
tributed considerably to the rapid spread of the Christian 
religion. (See the Map of Europe under the Romans.) 
Under the emperors the vast extent of the state was not 
only preserved, but even enlarged; but with the increase 
of territory also increased the corruption of the masses 
and the weakness of the government, which at the close 
of the fourth century of the Christian era found itself no 
longer able to resist the onset and invasion of the vigor¬ 
ous but barbarian tribes of Germans and Mongolians. In 
476 the Western Roman empire succumbed to the attack of 
the German prince Odoacer, and was shattered to pieces, 
many of which, in Italy, Spain, Gaul, and Britain, were re¬ 
constructed as Germanic kingdoms. Under the Merovin¬ 


gians the kingdom of the Franks became the predominant 
power in Central Europe, and under Charlemagne the in¬ 
corporation with it of nearly the whole of modern Germany 
made it the great Christian empire of the globe, whose 
rulers on that account appeared to be well entitled to the re¬ 
vived title of Roman emperor. (See the Map of Europe 
under the Carlovingians.) About the same time the union 
of the smaller divisions of Britain laid the foundation of the 
kingdom of England, and in North-eastern Europe the first 
Slavic states were organized. The empire of Charlemagne 
was divided by his grandsons into France, Germany, and 
Italy, and though for short intervals the whole empire was 
reunited in one hand, these divisions, to which for several 
centuries a kingdom of Burgundy was added as the fourth, 
became permanent. In Spain, where the' Mohammedans 
had established on the ruins of the Christian kingdoms of 
the Germanic tribes the powerful and flourishing califate 
of Cordova, the Christians, who at the time of Charlemagne 
only maintained themselves with difficulty in the north¬ 
western kingdom of Asturias, gradually gained ground in 
the tenth and eleventh centuries, and at the time of the 
Hohenstaufens, in the twelfth century, had reconquered 
more than one-half of the Peninsula and reconstructed it 
into several Christian kingdoms. In Eastern Europe the 
Slavi organized the large Christian empires of Poland and 
Russia in North-eastern, and the smaller states of Servia 
and Bulgaria in South-eastern, Europe, and even the large 
kingdom founded by the Mongolian tribe of Magyars be¬ 
came Christianized. While thus the division of Europe 
into independent states became perpetuated, the Christian 
religion became a powerful bond of union, notwithstanding 
the split into the Eastern (or Greek) and the Western (or 
Roman) Catholic churches. The theocratic supremacy 
which several great popes like Gregory VII. and Innocent 
III. succeeded in establishing over all the states belonging 
to the Roman Catholic Church, created the consciousness 
of a community of interests, which found its strongest ex¬ 
pression in the Crusades. In Eastern Europe the Eastern 
Roman or Byzantine empire, which ever since the division 
of the Roman empire into an eastern and a western half, 
had gradually been declining in extent and influence, was 
shaken to its foundation by the invasion of the Turks, who 
finally (in 1453) conquered Constantinople and established a 
Mohammedan despotism. On the other hand, the Moham¬ 
medans constantly lost ground in the Pyrenean peninsula, 
until at the close of the fifteenth century their last strong¬ 
hold was conquered. At the same time Russia succeeded 
in throwing off the yoke of the Mongolians, in driving them 
back to Asia, and in building up a powerful Christian em¬ 
pire in the east of Europe. Thus the whole of Europe, with 
the single exception of the Balkan peninsula, which had 
fallen under Mohammedan rule, was occupied by Christian 
nations, which during this period, by circumnavigating 
Africa, by gaining a firm footing in Southern Asia, and by 
discovering and conquering America, greatly extended the 
influence of European civilization and of the Christian 
religion over the other great divisions of the globe. The 
religious Reformation of the sixteenth century added an¬ 
other to the two large divisions which had existed in the 
Christian Church since the ninth century. England, the 
Scandinavian kingdoms, the Netherlands, and a number 
of the German states and Swiss cantons seceded from the 
Roman Catholic Church, and established new forms of 
religious organization. Several wars, among which the 
Thirty Years’ war (1618-48) was the most terrible, sprang 
from this ecclesiastical separation; but the revolt against 
the spiritual authority, which demanded from all minds 
(and enforced as much as it could) absolute submission to 
its decrees, and the emulation between the states embracing 
the new form of religion and those adhering to the old 
Church, gave a powerful impulse to the progress of civil¬ 
ization, literature, and art, and in particular to free politi¬ 
cal institutions. 

The two most powerful princes of Christendom, the em¬ 
peror of Germany (who was at the same time king of 
Spain) and the king of France, both repelled the Ref¬ 
ormation and remained in connection with the Church of 
Rome; and when the power of the former became more 
and more neutralized by the growing independence of tho 
princes, one-half of whom were Protestants, the emperors 
of Austria—who since 1526 had united the lands of the 
Hungarian crown with their own dominions, and who, with 
only one short interval, remained German emperors until 
the dissolution of the empire in 1806—became the steadfast 
and influential patrons of the interests of the Catholic 
Church. But the union of Scotland with England estab¬ 
lished at the beginning of the sixteenth century the first 
Protestant great power of Europe, and the kingdom of 
Prussia, which was founded in 170], fully established by 
the Seven Years’ war (1756-63) its claim to be regarded 
as the second. The same rank could now no longer be re- 













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f *rtrr/s n 


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Caucasian Race 


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1 Slavic Languages 
j Caucasian Tribes 
3 |Piirsians 


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EUROTAS—EUSEBIUS PAMPHILI. 


1639 


fused to Russia, which had snatched from Sweden its pos¬ 
sessions on the Baltic Sea, and extended its rule far into 
Asia. Another large country of Eastern Europe, Poland, 
which under more favorable circumstances might likewise 
have become one of the great powers of Europe, was at the 
close of the eighteenth century dismembered and divided 
between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, after its vitality had 
long been fully exhausted by chronic anarchy. The as¬ 
cendency of France, Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and 
Russia, as the five great powers of Europe, was thus fully 
established when the French Revolution of 1789, and still 
more the empire of the first Napoleon, which arose out of 
its ashes, shook the whole system of European states to its 
foundation. The subjection, direct or indirect, of Spain, 
Portugal, Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and a large 
portion of Germany to the rule of Napoleon (see the Map 
of Europe under Napoleon I.) appeared to usher in a new 
world-empire; but his downfall in 1814 and 1815 re¬ 
stored, on the whole, the frontiers of the European states 
as they existed before the Revolution. The five great 
powers reassumed their former ascendency, and at the Con¬ 
gress of Vienna (1816) arranged anew the map of Europe. 
This arrangement suffered during the next fifty years but 
few changes, the most important of which was the estab¬ 
lishment of the new kingdoms of Greece (1821) and Bel¬ 
gium (1830). In 1848 a new revolution made France again 
a republic, and called forth in Germany, Austria, and Italy 
a powerful agitation for a radical reconstruction of these 
countries. The French republic soon gave way to the em¬ 
pire of Napoleon III., who believed it in his interest to en¬ 
courage the aspirations of the suppressed and dismembered 
nationalities for a reconstruction of their national unity. 
The struggles and conflicts arising out of the nationality 
question arc one of the prominent features of the history of 
Europe since 1851. (The great conflicts which are described 
in the following lines are illustrated by the Map of the 
Languages of Europe.) The first great success was won by 
the Italians, who by the Congress of Vienna had been placed 
under nine different governments, and who at once organ¬ 
ized a movement for the establishment of a united Italy. 
Until 1848 the Austrian bayonets kept this movement at 
bay; a temporary success in 1848 ended simultaneously 
with the downfall of the French republic; but in 1859 the 
king of Sardinia, who had made himself the banner-bearer 
of the union party, snatched, with the aid of France, Lom¬ 
bardy from Austria, and annexed the duchies of Central 
Italy and two-thirds of the Papal territory, to which in the 
next year the kingdom of the Two Sicilies was added. 
The new kingdom of Italy in 1866 joined Prussia in her 
war against Austria, and received as a reward the kingdom 
of Venetia. Thus the bulk of the Italian nationality be¬ 
came one state, to which in 1870 the remainder of the Papal 
territory was added as soon as the French patronage ceased, 
and which is now generally recognized as one of the great 
powers of Europe. 

The agitation of the German people for the reconstruction 
of a united Germany was chiefly retarded by the rivalry of 
Austria and Prussia, which in 1866 led to a short but most 
decisive war between these two countries; in consequence 
of which Austria had to surrender the leadership in German 
affairs to Prussia, which organized the North German Con¬ 
federation, and annexed Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and Frank¬ 
fort to its own dominions. The real question at issue in the 
memorable war of 1870 between France and Germany was 
whether Germany was strong enough to effect, or France 
strong enough to prevent, the progress of Germany to a 
complete reconstruction of the German empire. The over¬ 
whelming success of the Germans, which crushed Napoleon, 
reannexed the lost Reichsland, Elsass-Lothringen, and re¬ 
established their empire, was the second grand triumph ot 
the nationality principle. In other parts of Europe many 
of the nationalities which are subject to foreign rule are 
still struggling to establish their independence. The Poles 
are undismayed by their want of success during the last 
century, and while they are unable to make headway in 
Prussia and Russia, they have obtained considerable con¬ 
cessions to their nationality from the weak government of 
Austria. The Czechs of Bohemia and Moravia, the Slo- 
vacks of South-western Austria, the Croatians and Servians 
in Southern Austria and North-western Turkey, the Ruma¬ 
nians in South-eastern Austria and North-eastern Tur¬ 
key, the Bulgarians in Turkey, are all dreaming of achiev¬ 
ing the establishment of either independent kingdoms of 
their own nationalities, or at least a separate administration 
of their affairs on a strictly national basis. The final issue 
of these national aspirations will decide the ultimate late 
of Austria and Turkey. A large portion of the Germans ol 
Austria are looking forward to a reunion with Germany, 
and among the Slavic tribes of Austria and Turkey the 
Panslavic movement, which aims at a close confederation 
of all the Slavic countries under the protectorate ot Russia, 


is gaining strength to an alarming extent. Turkey, in par¬ 
ticular, is threatened by the increasing power of the Slavi. 
It was only the intervention of England and France which, 
in the Crimean war, prevented Russia from solving the East¬ 
ern question according to her own plans; but the early 
downfall of the Turkish rule is regarded as inevitable by 
nearly all prominent European statesmen. While the at¬ 
tention of Eastern Europe is almost wholly absorbed by 
the nationality question, Western Europe is considerably 
agitated by the struggle between the republican and mo¬ 
narchical forms of government. The crushing defeat of 
Louis Napoleon, as was to be expected, was followed by a 
revolution in Paris and the proclamation of the republic, 
which successfully suppressed a civil* war begun by the 
Paris Commune, and which under the administration of 
Thiers maintained itself for two years, until in May, 1873, 
the majority of the National Assembly accepted the resig¬ 
nation of Thiers and elected as president Marshal Mc¬ 
Mahon, who was expected to co-operate with the majority 
of the National Assembly in restoring a monarchical rule. 
In Feb., 1873, the example of France was imitated by 
Spain, where, after the voluntary abdication of King 
Amadeus, the majority of the Cortes proclaimed the re¬ 
public. At the first election of a Constituent Assembly 
in May, 1873, an overwhelming majority of the electoral 
districts chose deputies favorable to the establishment of 
a federal republic. Different from the republicans as a 
party is the Internationale, a socialistic organization founded 
in 1867, which aims not only at overthrowing all the mon¬ 
archies of Europe, but also at destroying the Christian 
religion, and at a radical change of the present relation 
between labor and capital. The Internationale already has 
its representatives in most of the legislative assemblies 
of Europe, and constitutes an element in European society 
which can no longer be overlooked. In addition to these 
conflicts of nationalities, forms of government, and sys¬ 
tems of society, the relation between Church and State 
occupies a large share of the attention of every European 
legislature. The system of state-churchism, which at the be¬ 
ginning of the century existed in every European state, has 
been greatly modified. The state governments are loosening 
their hold of the government of the churches, and conced¬ 
ing to them afliigher degree of self-control; and even the 
principle of a complete separation of Church and State 
has made considerable progress. The proclamation of 
papal infallibility by the Vatican Council in 1870 has 
added new fuel to the conflicts already existing between 
the Roman Catholic Church and a number of state govern¬ 
ments. (See Hoffmann, “ Europa und seine Bewohner,” 
1835-40, 8 vols.; Schubert, “Handbuch der allgemeinen 
Staatskunde von Europa,” 1835-48, 7 vols.; Brachellt, 
“ Die Staaten Europa’s,” 2d ed. 1864.) 

A. J. ScnEM. 

Euro'tas [Gr. EvptoTas], the ancient name of a river of 
Greece (in Laconia), now called Vasilee or Vasiliko. The 
city of Sparta was situated on this river, which flows through 
beautiful scenery into the Gulf of Kolokythia (anc. Lacon- 
icus Sinus). 

Euryd'ice [Gr. EvpvSutij], the wife of Orpheus, died in 
consequence of the sting of a serpent. According to the 
poetic legend, Orpheus descended to the infernal regions, 
and persuaded Pluto to restore her to him on condition 
that she should walk behind Orpheus, and that he should 
not look back until they had reached the upper world. But 
he was tempted to look back, and finally lost her. (See 
Virgil, “ Georgies,” book iv. 454.) 

Eusebius, bishop of Emesa, was born near Edcssa 
about 300 A. D. He declined the bishopric of Alexandria, 
which was offered to him when Athanasius was deposed in 
the year 341, but he afterwards accepted that of Emesa. 
He appears to have held the principles called Semi-Arian, 
and to have been distinguished for his moderation and 
aversion to controversy. He died at Antioch in 360 A. D., 
leaving many eloquent homilies, some of which are extant. 

Euse'bius [Gr. Ev<t«/3«>s] of Nicomedia, an ambitious 
Arian prelate, was a member of the Council ot Nice in 
325 A. D., having previously become bishop of Nicomedia. 
He was banished because he defended Arius in this council, 
but was soon restored to his bishopric, and gained great in¬ 
fluence at court. After the death of Arius, Eusebius was 
the head of the Arian party, who were often called Euse- 
bians. In 339 A. D. he became patriarch of Constanti¬ 
nople. Died in 342 A. D. 

Euse'bius Pam'phili, bishop of Caesarea, an emi¬ 
nent theologian and writer of ecclesiastical history, was 
born in Palestine about 265 A. D. He assumed the sur¬ 
name Pamphili in honor of his friend Pamphilus the 
martyr. He became bishop of Caesarea in 314 or 315 
A. D., and took a prominent part in the Council of Nice 

























1640 


EUSTACHIAN TUBE—EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE. 


(325 A. D.). The emperor Constantine the Great, who 
was his friend, selected him to open this council by an 
oration. Eusebius was inclined to moderation and peace, 
used his influence to reinstate Arius, and was a leader of 
the Semi-Arians. He was one of the bishops who censured 
Athanasius at the Council of Tyre (334). lie was very 
eminent for learning, as well as for talents. He wrote in 
Greek, besides several works that are lost, an “ Ecclesiasti¬ 
cal History from the Christian Era to 324 A. D.,” which is 
of great value, a “ Life of Constantine the Great,” “ Gos¬ 
pel Preparation” (“ Prseparatio Evangelica”), a “ Univer¬ 
sal History or Chronicle,” and a work “ On the Proof or 
Demonstration of the Gospel” (“De Demonstratione Evan¬ 
gelica ”). Died aboht 340 A. D. Complete editions of his 
works have been published by Migne in his Patrologia 
Grmca (6 vols., 1856-57), and by Dindorf (1865, seq.). A 
new critical edition of his historical works has been pub¬ 
lished by Heinichen (1868, seq.). (See Baur, “ Die Epo- 
chen der Kirchlichen Geschichtsohreibung,” 1852.) 

Eusta'chian Tube [named in honor of EmtacJiins, 
its discoverer], in anatomy, a canal leading from the mid¬ 
dle ear to the pharynx. In man the Eustachian tube is 
nearly two inches long. Beginning at the ear, its first half 
inch is formed by a passage in the temporal bone, between 
the petrous and the squamous portions. The fishes have 
no true Eustachian tube, though some of them have a homol¬ 
ogous passage from the ear to the air-bladder; but it exists 
in the true reptiles, in birds, and in mammals. Its use is 
probably to enable the hearer unconsciously to increase or 
diminish the tension of the air within the tympanum, and 
thus to increase or decrease the sensitiveness to sounds. 
Closure of the tube impairs the hearing. This organ is 
sometimes the seat of disease, which may be' reached by 
the catheter, the syringe, and other instruments. Its sur¬ 
gical treatment requires great skill. 

Eusta'chius [It. Eustachio or Eustachi], (Bartholo- 
jrecs), an eminent Italian anatomist, born at San Severino 
in the March of Ancona, studied medicine in Rome. The 
events of his life are mostly unknown. He was a professor 
in the College della Sapienza, Rome, 1562. He made im¬ 
portant discoveries in anatomy, among which was the Eu¬ 
stachian tube, and was the first anatomist w,ho illustrated 
his works with good engravings on copper. His anatomi¬ 
cal plates were engraved in 1552, but were lost for a long 
time, and were not published until 1714. He wrote a work 
“On the Controversies of Anatomists” (“De Anatomicorum 
Controversiis ”), which is not extant. He published “ Opus- 
cula Anatomica” (1563). He died in poverty in 1574. (See 
G. C. Gentili, “Elogio di B. Eustachio,” 1837.) 

Eusta'thius, one of the Church Fathers of the fourth 
century, is well known on account of his firm adherence to 
the canons of Nicaea. He was banished in 331 because he 
would not associate with some anti-Nicmans who had been 
recalled from exile, and Meletius, then bishop of Sebaste, 
was appointed in his place. But his adherents did not 
recognize Meletius, and formed the separate party of the 
Eustathians. Died about 360. 

Eustathius, a monk in Pontus, and after 355 bishop 
of Sebaste in Armenia., introduced monachism into Pontus. 
He went so far in his ideas of asceticism as to be condemned 
by the synod of Gangra in Paphlagonia, because he com¬ 
pletely rejected marriage. His followers (the Eustathians) 
rejected holy ceremonies if performed by married priests, 
persuaded women to leave their husbands, and are said to 
have fasted on the Sabbath, which was condemned as heret¬ 
ical. 

Eustathius, a celebrated Greek commentator on Homer, 
was first deacon and then teacher of rhetoric in Constanti¬ 
nople, and after 1155 archbishop of Thessalonica, where he 
died in 1198. His chief work, a commentary on Homer 
(7 vols., Rome, 1542-50; 3 vols., Bale, 1559-60 ; 4 vols., 
Leipzic, 1825-30), is considered a rich source of philological 
learning. Of his commentary on the odes of Pindar only 
the Proemium has been preserved. 

Eus'tis (Abraham), born at Boston, Mass., Mar. 28, 
1786, graduated at Harvard in 1804, was called to the bar 
in 1807, entered the army as captain of artillery in 1808, 
served with distinction in the war of 1812-15, received in 
1834 a brevet of brigadier-general, and in the same year 
became colonel of the First Artillery. Died June 27, 1843. 

Eustis (George), LL.D., born at Boston, Mass., Oct. 20, 
1796, graduated at Harvard in 1815, was private secretary 
to his uncle, Gov. William Eustis, when the latter was min¬ 
ister at The Hague, removed to New Orleans in 1817, ad¬ 
mitted to the bar in 1822, where he took a prominent part 
in public affairs, and was for some years chief-justice of the 
State supreme court. He was profoundly versed in the civil 
law. Died Dec. 23, 1858. 

Eustis (Henry Lawrence), an American officer and 


engineer, born Feb. 1, 1819, at Fort Independence, Mass., 
studied at Harvard, and graduated at West Point in 1842, 
served as lieutenant of engineers in the construction of for¬ 
tifications, etc., and assistant professor at the Military Acad¬ 
emy till he resigned (Nov. 30, 1849), to become professor of 
engineering in Lawrence Scientific School ot Harvard Uni¬ 
versity, Mass. In the civil war he was colonel of the* 
Tenth Massachusetts Volunteers, serving at Williamsport, 
Fredericksburg, Marye Heights, Salem, Gettysburg, Rap¬ 
pahannock Station, Mine Run, Wilderness, Spottsylvania, 
Cold Harbor, and many minor actions; and became briga¬ 
dier-general of volunteers in 1863, but resigned June 27, 
1864, to resume his professorship at Cambridge, Mass. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Eustis (William), LL.D., an American physician, born 
in Cambridge, Mass., June 10, 1753. He served as a sur¬ 
geon in the war of Independence, after which he practised 
medicine in Boston, and was a member of Congress (1800- 
05 and 1820-23). He was secretary of war from 1809 to 
1812, and was sent as minister to Holland in 1814. In 1823 
he was elected governor of Massachusetts. Died Feb. 6, 
1825. 

Eu'taw, a township and post-village, capital of Greene 
co., Ala., on the Alabama and Chattanooga R. R., 35 miles 
S. W. of Tuscaloosa. It has several churches and semina¬ 
ries and one weekly newspaper. Pop. of township, 1920. 

Eu'taw Springs, Battle of, was fought in South 
Carolina, about 60 miles N. W. of Charleston, Sept. 8, 1781. 
Gen. Greene, having about 2000 men, attacked a British 
force under Col. Stuart, who was compelled to retreat, and 
lost about 630, including prisoners. Gen. Greene lost 535, 
killed, wounded, and missing. 

Eutro'pius, or Flavius Eutropius, a Latin his¬ 
torian who nourished about 350-375 A. D. The events 
of his life are mostly unknown, except that he was secre¬ 
tary to the emperor Julian, and accompanied him in his 
expedition against the Parthians. He wrote an “ Epit¬ 
ome of Roman History” from the foundation of Rome to 
the time of Valens (“ Breviariuin Rerum Roinanarum”), 
which became very popular, and has been extensively used 
as a school-book in modern times. His Latinity is pure 
and his style simple. 

Eu'tyehes [Gr. Evrv'x>??], the founder of the heretical 
sect of Eutychians, was superior of a monastery near Con¬ 
stantinople. He was a zealous opponent of the doctrines 
of the Nestorians, and was charged with teaching that there 
is in Christ only one nature—that is, the divine. He was 
condemned by the Council of Constantinople in 448 A. D., 
but this decision was reversed by the Council of Ephesus 
in 449. This triumph was obtained by the violent and dis¬ 
orderly acts of the soldiery and monks. The doctrines of 
Eutyches were again condemned as heretical by the general 
Council of Chalcedon in 451 A. D. He was then above 
seventy years of age. The Eutychians were often called 
Monophysites. (See Monopiiysites and Jacobites.) 

Euxine Sea. See Black Sea. 

Evag'oras [Gr. Eva-yopas], king of Salamis in Cyprus, 
was descended from Teucer, a famous hero. He began to 
reign in 410 B. C., and as an ally of the Athenians and 
Egyptians waged a long war against the king of Persia, 
who invaded Cyprus. lie was assassinated in 374 B. C., 
and was succeeded by his son Nicocles. 

Eva'grius, a Church historian, born about 536, was 
at first a lawyer, and defended the patriarch Gregory of 
Antioch so well that he was appointed city prefect by the 
emperor Mauricius. He continued the Church histories 
of Socrates and Theodoret in six books from 431-594. His 
Church history is compiled with great care and impartial¬ 
ity. The best edition was published by Reading (Cam¬ 
bridge, 1720). 

Evangelical Alliance. This is a voluntary associ¬ 
ation of evangelical Christians from different churches and 
countries for the purpose of promoting religious liberty, 
Christian union, and co-operation in every good work. It 
owes its origin to a widespread and growing desire for a 
closer union among Protestants, both for its own sake and 
for a more successful conflict with infidelity on the one 
hand and superstition on the other. Its object is not to 
create a union, but to acknowledge, exhibit, and strengthen 
that spiritual union which has always existed among true 
Christians as members of Christ’s body, but which is sadly 
marred and obstructed by the many divisions and rivalries 
of Protestant denominations and sects. It aims not at an 
organic union, nor at a confederation of churches as such, 
but simply at a free Christian union of individual members 
from different churches who hold essentially the samo 
faith; although such a union will naturally tend to bring 
gradually the churches themselves into closer fellowship 
and mutual recognition. It claims no official and legis- 


















EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE. 


lative authority that might in any way interfere with the 
internal affairs of the denominational organizations or the 
loyalty ot its members to their particular communion. It 
relies solely on the moral power of truth and love. After 
a number of preparatory meetings and conferences, the 
Alliance was founded in a remarkable and enthusiastic 
meeting held in Freemasons’ Hall in London Aug. 19-23, 
1846, composed of some eight hundred Christians—Epis¬ 
copalians, Presbyterians, Independents, Methodists, Bap¬ 
tists, Lutherans, Reformed, Moravians, and others, and 
including many of the most distinguished divines, preach¬ 
ers, and philanthropists from England, Scotland, Ireland, 
Germany, France, Switzerland, the U. S., and other coun¬ 
tries. Sir Culling Eardly, Bart., presided and became the 
first president of the British branch. Eloquent addresses 
were delivered, fervent prayers offered, and nine doctrinal 
articles adopted; not, however, as a binding creed or confes¬ 
sion, but simply as an expression of the essential consen¬ 
sus of evangelical Christians whom it seemed desirable to 
embrace in the Alliance. These articles are as follows: 

“ 1. The divine inspiration, authority, and sufficiency of 
the Holy Scriptures. 

“2. The right and duty of private judgment in the in¬ 
terpretation of the Holy Scriptures. 

“ 3. The Unity of the Godhead, and the Trinity of the 
Persons therein. 

“ 4. The utter depravity of human nature in consequence 
of the Fall. 

“5. The incarnation of the Son of God, his work of 
atonement for the sins of mankind, and his mediatorial in¬ 
tercession and reign. 

“6. The justification of the sinner by faith alone. 

“ 7. The work of the Holy Spirit in the conversion and 
sanctification of the sinner. 

“8. The immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the 
body, the judgment of the world by our Lord Jesus Christ, 
with the eternal blessedness of the righteous and the eternal 
punishment of the wicked. 

“ 9. The divine institution of the Christian ministry, 
and the obligation and perpetuity of the ordinances of 
Baptism and the Lord’s Supper.” 

Some regard this doctrinal statement as too liberal, others 
as too narrow (especially on account of Art. 9, which ex¬ 
cludes the Quakers, and Art. 8, which excludes the Uni- 
versalists), while still others would have preferred no creed, 
or only the Apostles’ Creed, the simplest and most gene¬ 
rally accepted of all creeds. Nevertheless, it has answered 
a good purpose, and maintained the positive evangelical 
character of the Alliance. The American branch, at its 
organization (1867), adopted the nine London articles, 
with the following important explanatory and qualifying 
preamble: 

“ Resolved, That in forming an Evangelical Alliance for 
the U. S. in co-operative union with other branches of the 
Alliance, we have no intention to give rise to a new de¬ 
nomination; or to effect an amalgamation of churches, ex¬ 
cept in the way of facilitating personal Christian inter¬ 
course and a mutual good understanding; or to interfere 
in any way whatever with the internal affairs of the vari¬ 
ous denominations; but simply to bring individual Chris¬ 
tians into closer fellowship and co-operation, on the basis 
of the spiritual union which already exists in the vital 
relation of Christ to the members of his body in all ages 
and countries. 

“Resolved, That in the same spirit we propose no new 
creed; but, taking broad, historical, and evangelical cath¬ 
olic ground, we solemnly reaffirm and profess our faith in 
all the doctrines of the inspired word of God, and in the 
consensus of doctrines as held by all true Christians from 
the beginning. And we do more especially affirm our be¬ 
lief in the divine-human per8on and atoning work of our 
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, as the only and sufficient 
source of salvation, as the heart and soul of Christianity, 
and as the centre of all true Christian union and fellow¬ 
ship. 

“ Resolved, That, with this explanation, and in the spirit 
of a just Christian liberality in regard to the minor differ¬ 
ences of theological schools and religious denominations, 
we also adopt, as a summary of the consensus of the vari¬ 
ous Evangelical Confessions of Faith, the Articles and 
Explanatory Statement set forth and agreed on by the 
Evangelical Alliance at its formation in London, 1846, and 
approved by the separate European organizations; which 
articles are as follows,” etc. 

The Evangelical Alliance thus auspiciously organized 
soon spread throughout the Protestant world. Branch 
Alliances were formed in Great Britain, Germany, France, 
Switzerland, Sweden, and even among the missionaries in 
Turkey and East India; quite recently also in Australia, 
in Brazil, and among the Protestant missionaries in Japan 
(Dec., 1873). There is no central organization with any 


1641 


controlling authority, and the General Alliance appears in 
active operation only from time to time when it meets in 
general conference, which has assumed the character of a 
Protestant oecumenical council, but differs from the oecu¬ 
menical councils of the Greek and Roman churches in 
claiming only moral and spiritual power. The various 
national branches are related to each other as members of 
a confederation with equal rights. The British branch, 
being the oldest and largest, and having the most complete 
organization, with a house (in London, No. 7 Adam street, 
Strand) and regular officers who devote their whole time to 
it, has been heretofore the most influential; the continental 
branches are more elastic, and confine themselves to occa¬ 
sional work; the American branch, which was organized 
at the Bible House, New York, in 1867 (a previous attempt 
having failed on account of the anti-slavery agitation be¬ 
fore the civil war), has in a short time become the most 
vigorous and popular; for in the U. S., where all Chris¬ 
tian sects are represented on a basis of equality before the 
law, there is also the greatest appreciation of religious 
freedom, the strongest desire for Christian union and co¬ 
operation, and the widest field for the realization of the 
idea of a universal Christian brotherhood on the basis of a 
free development of denominational peculiarities in dogma, 
discipline, and worship. We now give a brief summary 
of the history and results of the Alliance. 

1. As regards the promotion and defence of religious 
liberty wherever assailed. The Alliance assumed from 
the beginning that freedom of conscience and Christian 
union, far from being inconsistent with each other, are one 
and inseparable; that freedom is the basis of union, and 
union the result and support of freedom; that a union 
without freedom is only a dead mechanical uniformity; 
that true union implies variety and distinction, and a full 
recognition of the rights and peculiar gifts and mission of 
other members and branches of Christ’s kingdom. The 
Roman Church maintains union at the expense of freedom, 
and, while advocating liberty of conscience for herself, de¬ 
nies it to all others in principle, and, where she has the 
power, in practice also. Since the formation of the Alli¬ 
ance many cases of persecution more or less severe have 
occurred, especially in Southern Europe, under the ope¬ 
ration of penal laws against religious dissenters; and the 
united efforts of the different branches of the Alliance, 
through the press and by deputations, have had a consid¬ 
erable moral influence in bringing about those remarkable 
changes in favor of religious liberty which have taken 
place among the Latin races and in Turkey within the last 
twenty years. The Alliance has successfully exerted its 
influence for the release of the Madiai family in Tuscany, 
and of Matamoros, Carrasco, and their friends who, during 
the reign of Queen Isabella in Spain, were thrown into 
prison and condemned to the galleys for the sole crime of 
reading the Bible and holding private meetings for de¬ 
votion. It aided in inducing the sultan of Turkey to 
abolish the death-penalty for apostasy from Mohammed¬ 
anism in his dominions. It interceded for the Methodists 
and Baptists in Sweden, which has since abrogated the 
penal laws against Roman Catholics and Protestants not 
belonging to the Lutheran Confession. It sent in 1871 a 
large deputation, in which prominent citizens of the U. S. 
took the leading part, to the czar of Russia to plead for 
the oj>pressed Lutherans in the Baltic Provinces, and 
these have not been disturbed since that time. It sent a 
similar deputation to the embassy from Japan, when they 
visited this country and the courts of Europe in 1872, to 
remonstrate against the persecution of Christians, mostly 
Roman Catholics, in that distant empire of the East, anti 
the persecution has since ceased. It has not forgotten the 
Nestorians in Persia, who appealed to the Alliance for pro¬ 
tection against the oppression of a Mohammedan govern¬ 
ment; and just now (1874) it prepared a memorial to the 
czar on the persecution of Baptists in the south of Russia. 
The force of public opinion on the subject of freedom of 
conscience and religious worship, as expressed by the Alli¬ 
ance, has always found a respectful hearing, and must 
sooner or later be obeyed by every civilized government 
on the globe. 

2. As regards the cause of Christian union, which is the 
other great object of the Alliance, it is promoted mainly by 
means of general conferences of an international and interde¬ 
nominational character, which are arranged from time to time 
in different capitals by tho branch in whose bounds it meets, 
with the co-operation of tho sister branches. These meetings 
last several days, and are spent in prayer and praise, broth¬ 
erly communion, and discussions of the most important ro- 
ligious questions of the age. Six general conferences havo 
been held so far. Tho first general conferenoo took placo 
in London in 1851, the year of tho great exhibition of tho 
works of industry of all nations in tho British metropolisj 
tho second in Paris, 1855; tho third in Berlin, 1857; the 























EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION—EVANS. 


1642 


fourth iu Geneva, 1861; the fifth in Amsterdam, 1867; the 
sixth in New York, 1873. Rome is spoken of as the place 
for the next conference. These meetings were all well at¬ 
tended, and left a most favorable impression upon the 
delegates and the country in which they were held. But 
the most popular, enthusiastic, and effective of all was the 
one held in New York, Oct. 2-12, 1873, which from the be¬ 
ginning to the close was a most complete success, surpass¬ 
ing every expectation. For the first time in history, Amer¬ 
ican, European, and Asiatic Christianity met face to face 
in the New World, and took counsel together on the state 
of Christendom, on Christian union, Christian life, Chris¬ 
tianity and infidelity, Christianity and superstition, Chris¬ 
tianity and civil government, Christian missions at home 
and abroad, Christian philanthropy and reform of social 
evils. The religious community of our commercial me¬ 
tropolis took the deepest interest, and thronged the meet¬ 
ings by thousands in the several churches and public halls 
from morning till night, and the secular and religious press, 
without exception, spread the reports among millions of 
readers. The foreign delegates were deeply impressed 
with the life and energy of American Christianity and 
American institutions, and spread their new convictions all 
over the Old World. “It is quite impossible/’ writes 
Charles Reed, an influential member of the British Parlia¬ 
ment, and one of the delegates (in one of the British peri¬ 
odicals), “ to describe the course of these meetings in New 
York, much less the spirit in which they were conducted. 
The numbers of delegates from all parts of Europe and 
Asia, the attendance daily for ten days of thousands of 
persons, the subjects of discussion, are evidence of the 
success of the gathering, while the full reports by the daily 
press and the attention paid by public bodies showed that 
the influence spread far and wide among the population 
of the city. ... It was occasionally felt that such a con¬ 
ference could not have been held elsewhere than in New 
York. . . . No words can convey the sense I have of the 
importance of this conference, as inaugurating a new era in 
the history of Christian union.” The same testimony, in 
even more enthusiastic language, came back after the re¬ 
turn of the delegates from every part of Europe, and the 
effect of the conference in encouraging faith and Christian 
work and cementing the bond of union, especially between 
Great Britain and America, cannot be estimated. For a 
full report of the addresses and proceedings see the stately 
volume, “ History, Essays, Orations, and other Documents 
of the Sixth General Conference of the Evangelical Alli¬ 
ance held in New York,” edited by Schaff and Prime, and 
published by the Harpers, New York, 1874 (pp. 773). The 
proceedings of the previous meetings were published by 
the British branch in English, and also in German, Dutch, 
and French by the continental branches. The American 
branch has issued ten documents of minor importance from 
its office in the Bible House, New York. Biennial meetings 
are hereafter to be held in the U. S. for the discussion of 
topics of general interest to the religious community in 
America. Philip Schaff. 

Evangel'ical Association, popularly but incorrectly 
known as the German Methodist Church, a body of 
American Christians, chiefly of German descent, organized 
by the Rev. Jacob Albright, a native of Eastern Pennsyl¬ 
vania. Regarding the doctrines and morals that prevailed 
in the German churches of that part of Pennsylvania as 
corrupt, Albright undertook about 1790 a work of reform 
among them. At a meeting of his converts in 1800, called 
for the purpose of deliberating on the measures best suited 
for advancing the new religious movement, Albright was 
unanimously elected pastor or bishop, and authorized to 
exercise all the functions of the ministerial office over the 
members of the organization. In the course of time aunual 
conferences were established, and in 1816 the first general 
conference was held in Union co., Pa., consisting of all the 
elders in the ministry. Since 1843 the general conference, 
consisting of delegates from the annual conferences, has reg¬ 
ularly met once every fourth year. During the first thirty 
years of its existence the Evangelical Association met with 
violent opposition, but since then it has quietly and rapidly 
advanced. As the church repeatedly took action on the 
slavery question and sided with the anti-slavery churches, 
its progress was wholly within the boundaries of the North¬ 
ern States, and even in 1873 no conference had been es¬ 
tablished in the Southern’States. In 1863 there was one 
in Canada and one in Germany. 

In doctrine and theology the Evangelical Association is 
Arminian; with regard to sanctification, Wesleyan ; in the 
form of government and mode of worship it generally agrees 
with the Methodist Episcopal Church (of which Albright, 
prior to beginning his reformatory labors in the German 
churches, was a member). The ministers, who, like the 
Methodists, practice itineracy, are divided into deacons 
and elders; the bishops and presiding elders are elected 


for a term of only four years—the former by the general 
conference, the latter by the individual conferences. The 
general conference is the highest legislative and judicial 
authority in the Church; the transactions of the annual 
and quarterly conferences are mostly of an executive and 
practical nature. A charitable society for tho support of the 
widows and orphans of poor itinerant preachers was estab¬ 
lished in 1835, and a missionary society in 1838. There is 
moreover a Sunday school and tract society, and church¬ 
building societies have been established in several confer¬ 
ences. A denominational publishing-house at Cleveland, 
0., publishes six periodicals—three in German and three 
in English; besides, two periodicals are published in Ger¬ 
many. The literary institutions of the Church in 1872 
were—the North-western College, in Naperville, Ill; the 
Union Seminary, in New Berlin, Pa.; the Blairstown 
Seminary, in Blairstown, la.; and the Ebenezer Orphan 
Institution, at Flat Rock, 0. In 1871 the Church had 
fifteen annual conferences, inclusive of those of Canada 
and Germany, 587 itinerant and 401 local preachers; 905 
churches; 1033 Sunday-schools, with 56,028 scholars and 
11,646 officers and teachers; and 72,979 members. A his¬ 
tory of the Association has been begun by W. W. Orwig. 

Evangel'ical Church Con'ference, the name ap¬ 
plied to periodical meetings of the Protestant state churches 
of Germany. The idea of these meetings originated with 
King William of Wiirtemberg in 1815. The first confer¬ 
ence, held at Berlin in 1846, had representatives from 
almost every German state. At the second conference, 
held in 1852 at Eisenach, an official central organ was es¬ 
tablished at Stuttgart (“ Allgemeine Kirchenblatt fur das 
evangel. Deutschland”). The conferences from 1855 to 
1868 were all held at Eisenach. 

Evangel'ical Chur'ches are those bodies of Christians 
which believe in the divinity of Christ, in the necessity of 
his atonement, and in personal repentance and faith as 
essential to salvation. 

“Evangelische Kirche” (“Evangelical Church”) is the 
official title of the Established Church of Prussia, formed 
in 1817 by the union of the Lutheran and the Reformed 
churches. The Lutherans and Reformed (Calvinistic) 
churches of Baden, Wiirtemberg, and other German states 
have been similarly united. 

The “evangelical party” in the Church of England is 
that section of the Church which professes to attach especial 
importance to the teachings of the New Testament, and 
which is charged with neglecting or slighting church au¬ 
thority and underrating the efficacy of the sacraments. 

Evangel'ical Coun'sels [Lat. consilia evangelica ] 
are such directions or admonitions in the Roman Catholic 
Church as are not in themselves obligatory upon any one, 
but are recommended by the Church to some persons as 
highly advantageous to spiritual excellence. The chief 
evangelical counsels are voluntary virginity, poverty, and 
obedience to monastic rules. Some writers reckon as evan¬ 
gelical counsels the scriptural recommendation to turn the 
left cheek to the man who has struck one’s right cheek, to 
go two miles with a person who desires one’s company for 
one mile, etc. There are reckoned twelve of these counsels. 

Evangel'ical U'liion, a body of Scotch Independents, 
called Morisonians, from Rev. James Morison, their or¬ 
iginal leader. In 1843 they left the United Secession Church. 
They have been joined by some Congregational churches 
of Scotland and England. They reject a part of the Calvin¬ 
istic doctrines, and have a theological school at Glasgow. 

Evan'geline, atwp. of Charlevoix co., Mich. Pop. 90. 

E'vans, a post-village, capital of Weld co., Col., 47 
miles N. by E. of Denver, where the Denver Pacific R. R. 
crosses South Platte River and also the Golden and Jules- 
burg R. R. It has one bank, three hotels, two churches, a 
courthouse, a large flouring-mill, and one newspaper. It 
is the centre of the St. Louis Western colony. It has a 
thriving trade, good water-power, and ample means for 
irrigating the excellent lands which surround the town. 
Pop. 189. A. C. Todd, Ed. “Evans Journal.” 

Evans, a township of Marshall co., Ill. Pop. 1989. 

Evans, a twp. and post-village of Erie co., N. Y. The 
township lies on Lake Erie, and contains a number of vil¬ 
lages. Pop. of Evans Centre, 150; of township, 2593. 

Evans (Augusta J.; since 1868 Mrs. L. M. Wilson), 
born near Columbus, Ga., in 1836. removed in childhood, 
with her father, to Texas, and in 1849 removed to Mobile. 
She has published “ Inez, a Tale of the Alamo.” “ Beulah” 
(1859), “Macaria” (1864), “St. Elmo” (1866), “Vashti” 
(1869). She is a novelist of great talent. 

Evans (Sir De Lacy), D. C. L., a British general, born 
at Moig, in Ireland, in 1787. He served at the battles of 
Baltimore (1814), New Orleans (1815), and Waterloo (1815). 
Ho was a Liberal member of Parliament from 1831 to 1841. 














EVANS—EVA NSTON. 


1643 


In 1835 he was appointed commander of a legion of 10,000 
men raised in Great Britain to fight for the queen of Spain. 
He defeated the Carlists at several places in 1836 and 1837. 
In 1846 he was returned to Parliament for Westminster, 
which he represented for many years. Having been raised 
to the rank of lieutenant-general, he commanded a division 
at the battle of the Alma and at Sebastopol, in Oct., 1854. 
Died Jan. 9, 1870. 

Evans (Ellicott), LL.D., was born at Batavia, Genesee 
co., N. \., June 19,1819, and was educated at Harvard. In 
1860 he became professor of law and political economy at 
Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y. 

Evans (Irederick William), born at Leominster, 
England, June 9, 1808, came in 1820 to the U. S. with his 
father. He was apprenticed to a hatter, and occupied his 
leisure hours with study. He became in theory a socialist, 
and studied the works of Owen, Fourier, and other leaders 
in the various projects for social reform. He visited Eng¬ 
land, and after his return went to visit the communities of 
United Shakers at Mount Lebanon, N. Y., for the purpose 
of studying their system, to which he became a convert. 
He afterwards became the presiding elder brother of the 
communities of that place and the leader of the sect in the 
U. S. His teachings have added new dogmas and con¬ 
siderably modified the old doctrines of Shakerism. He is 
known as a public lecturer, a contributor to periodical lit¬ 
erature, and author of an “ Autobiography,” “Anne Lee,” 
“ Religious Communism,” and other works. 

Evans (George), born at Hallowell, Me., Jan. 12, 1797, 
graduated at Bowdoiu in 1815, called to the bar in 1818, 
was a member of Congress from Maine (1829-41), U. S. 
Senator (1841-47), and held various important offices in 
his native State. Died April 5, 1867. 

Evans (Hugh Davy), LL.D., born at Baltimore, Md., 
in 1792, was a prominent jurist and strong friend of the 
Protestant Episcopal Church. He wrote an “ Essay on 
Pleading” (1827), “Maryland Common-Law Practice” 
(1839), and “Essays” upon various Church questions 
(1844, 1851, 1855, etc.). Died July 16, 1868. 

Evans (John), M. D., geologist, was born at Ports¬ 
mouth, N. H., Feb. 14, 1812, graduated at the St. Louis 
Medical College, served on several State and Territorial 
geological surveys under Dr. D. D. Owen, and discovered 
remarkable fossil deposits in the Bad Lands, of Ne¬ 
braska. He afterwards performed the U. S. geological 
survey of Oregon and Washington Territory. Died April 
13, 1861. 

Evans (Marian C.). See Lewes (Marian E.). 

Evans (Oliver), an American inventor, born in 1755 
at Newport, Del. Died in New York April 25, 1819. His 
most valuable inventions were the automatic flour-mill and 
the high-pressure steam-engine. Before his time grain and 
flour were moved in the mill by manual labor. His im¬ 
provements, which effected a complete revolution in the 
manufacture of flour, consisted of the elevator, the con¬ 
veyer, the hopper-boy, the drill, and the descender. By 
means of this machinery grain was conveyed from a wagon 
or a boat into the mill, then cleaned, ground, bolted, and 
delivered into barrels without the intervention of human 
hands. After great opposition these improvements were 
introduced into the celebrated Ellicott Mills, near Balti¬ 
more, where 325 barrels of flour were daily made. The 
saving there effected by Evans’s contrivances was estimated 
at more than fifty cents per barrel. As the production of 
wheat alone in the U. S. in 1870 exceeded 287,000,000 
bushels, the benefits arising from the use of the automatic 
flour-mill are not likely to be over-estimated. 

In 1772, while yet an apprentice, Evans endeavored to 
discover some substitute for animal power in moving wag¬ 
ons,* fortunately, an incident, related by his brother, gave 
the right direction to his investigations. In a blacksmith 
shop near by about a gill of water was poured into a gun- 
barrel, after stopping up its touch-hole; then a tight wad 
was rammed into the barrel, and it was placed in the smith’s 
fire ; “ presently the barrel discharged itself with a loud 
crack, as if it had been loaded with powder.” It instantly 
occurred to Evans that this was the power he wanted, lie 
subsequently found a book containing a description of the 
atmospheric steam-pump used at the English coal-mines, and 
was astonished to find that steam was solely employed lor 
obtaining a vacuum by its condensation, thus allowing only 
the pressure of the atmosphere to move the piston. He 
made experiments in which the pressure of steam moved 
the piston, and in 1781 announced that ho could propel 
boats and wagons by means of steam. No attempt was 
made to introduce this invention until after the close of the 
Revolutionary war. In 1786 the btate of Pennsylvania 
gave him the exclusive right to use in that State his flour¬ 
mill, but refused to grant the samo right to use his steam- 


wagon. In 1787, however, Maryland granted him the right 
to use both inventions in that State. In order to obtain 
assistance in building his road-engine, ho exhibited his 
drawings and plans to capitalists and engineers; failing to 
find one who would join him in the enterprise, he twice sent 
his plan and specifications to England, in the vain hope of 
convincing foreign engineers of the feasibility of his device. 
Finally, in 1801 he decided to devote all his earnings from 
his other inventions, about $3700, to the construction of a 
stationary steam-engine on the direct-pressure plan. It 
was completed and put into operation in the city of Phila¬ 
delphia, and continued to be used successfully for many 
years in sawing marble and grinding gypsum. Thus, 1801 
marks a new era—the introduction of the most important 
of all engines. Soon after, by order of the board of health 
of Philadelphia, Evans constructed a device for cleaning or 
dredging docks. It consisted of a small scow or flatboat, 
with a small steam-engine of five-horse power and boiler on 
board to work the dredging machinery. In order to show 
its adaptability to locomotion, he connected his engine, by 
means of pulleys and bands, with four wooden wheels turn¬ 
ing on wooden axles beneath the boat, also with a paddle- 
wheel behind it. This singular contrivance for moving on 
land and water he called the “ Eructor amphibolis.” By 
steam alone it was driven over the highway from his work¬ 
shop to the Schuylkill River, about one mile and a half, 
where it was launched, and from thence propelled down the 
Schuylkill to its mouth, and up the Delaware River to the city, 
a distance of fourteen or fifteen miles. This was the first ap¬ 
plication of the high-pressure principle to locomotion, and 
the Evans engine, with important improvements made since 
his day, drives all the locomotives and steam-carriages now 
in use. Evans also invented the cylinder boiler, with a 
cylindrical internal flue, commonly known as the “Cornish 
boiler.” 

Three varieties of steam-engines are now in use—namely, 
the condensing or low-pressure engine, the non-condensing 
or high-pressure engine, and a combination of these two, 
called the compound engine. In the condensing and the 
compound engines power is derived from heat, which con¬ 
verts water into steam; also from cold, which reconverts 
steam into water. These engines are only available where 
the large quantity of cold water required for condensing 
steam can be readily obtained. No such condition attends 
the use of the Evans non-condensing engine, in which the 
direct action of high-pressure steam on a relatively small 
piston moving with great velocity gives the required power. 
Compared with the other two, it is small, of simple con¬ 
struction, cheap, always available, and therefore of almost 
universal application. Experience warrants the assertion 
that the high-pressure steam-engine is the most valuable 
prime mover ever devised. A great invention when brought 
into practical operation is an important element in human 
progress, for its power outlasts its originator and increases 
with time. It is a continual source of wealth, because labor 
saved is, virtually, labor gained. The devices of Oliver 
Evans were of this stamp, and have won for him a high 
place among the benefactors of our race. 

Samuel D. Tillman. 

Evans (Robley D.), U. S. N., born Aug. 18, 1844, in 
Floyd co., Va., entered the navy as a midshipman Sept. 20, 
1860, became an ensign in 1863, a lieutenant in 1866, a 
lieutenant-commander in 1868, served in both attacks upon 
Fort Fisher, N. C., and in the attempt to storm the fort was 
four times wounded. Foxhall A. Parker, U. S. N. 

E v'ansburg, a post-village of Sadsbury township, Craw¬ 
ford co., Pa. Evansburg Station (Stony Point P. O.) is 2f 
miles S., on the Atlantic and Great Western R. R. The 
village is on Conneaut Lake, which is 1074 feet above the 
sea. Pop. 174. 

Evans Centre (Evans P. 0.), a village of Evans town¬ 
ship, Erie co., N. Y., on Big Sister Creek, li miles from 
Angola, has some manufactures. Pop. 150. 

Evans Mills, a post-village of Le Ray township, Jef¬ 
ferson co., N. Y., on the Rome Watertown and Ogdensburg 
R. R., 11 miles N. N. E. of Watertown. Pop. 500. 

Ev'ansport, a post-village of Tiffin township, Defiance 
co., 0. Pop. 191. 

Ev'anston, a post-village of Cook co., Ill., on Lake 
Michigan and the Chicago and North-western R. R. (Mil¬ 
waukee division), 12 miles N. of Chicago. It is a very 
handsome suburban town, tho seat of the North-western 
University, a wealthy and flourishing institution, having 
substantial and costly buildings, extensive libraries, and a 
museum. It is noted for its pleasant situation, its numerous 
churches, rapid growth, and social attractions. It has one 
newspaper, two banks, gas-works, numerous stores, eto. 
No intoxicating liquors can legally be sold within 4 miles 
of the university. It is also the seat of Garrett Biblioal 




















EVANSTON—EVERETT. 


1644 


Institute. Many of its citizens do business in Chicago. 
Pop. of township, 3062. 

Alfred L. Sewell, Ed. of “ Index.” 

Evanston, a post-village, county-seat of Uintah co., 
Wy. Ter., situated on Bear River and on the Union Pacific 
R. R., 76 miles E. of Ogden, and halfway between Omaha 
and San Francisco. The railroad machine-shops are here, 
employing over 100 men; it has also a large steam saw¬ 
mill, one library, three churches, public school, four hotels, 
a railroad eating-house, two banks, and thirty business- 
houses. An abundance of coal is found within three miles, 
of which over 100 cars are shipped per day. Iron ore is 
also found. It has one weekly newspaper. 

Wir. E. Wheeler, Prop. “ Age.” 

Ev'ansville, a city and port of entry, capital of Van- 
derburg co., Ind., is on the Ohio River, 185 miles below 
Louisville and 192 above Cairo. It is the southern termi¬ 
nus of the Wabash and Erie Canal, and of the Evansville 
and Crawfordsville R. R., which connects it with Terre 
Haute, 109 miles distant. It is 161 miles E. S. E. of St. 
Louis by the St. Louis Evansville Henderson and Nash¬ 
ville R. R. Evansville is pleasantly situated on a high 
bank, has an extensive trade, and is the principal shipping- 
point of South-western Indiana. It has a fine court-house, 
a U. S. marine hospital, several public halls, and four na¬ 
tional banks; also a number of flour-mills, iron-foundries, 
machine-shops, and manufactures of wool, leather, etc. 
Four daily newspapers are issued here. Pop. in 1860, 
11,484; in 1870, 21,830. 

Evansville, a post-township of Douglas co., Minn. 
Pop. 250. 

Evansville, a post-village of Rock co., Wis., on the 
Chicago and North-western R. R. (Madison division), 22 
miles S. by E. of Madison. It Inis a national bank, one 
weekly newspaper, a graded school, seminary, one machine- 
shop, one steam cabinet-manufactory, grist-mill, five 
churches, and two hotels. Principal business, farming. 

I. A. Hoxie, Ed. “ Review.” 

Evaporation [from the Lat. e, “out,” “ off,” and vapor, 
“ steam ” or “ vapor;” literally, the act of going off" as va¬ 
por] is the passage of a substance from the liquid or solid 
state to the condition of vapor, especially applied to such 
a change when it takes place at a temperature below the 
boiling-point. It was once taught that the air had a sponge¬ 
like power of taking up or dissolving a certain quantity of 
vapor of water and other liquids, and that this power in¬ 
creased with the temperature; but it is now known that 
evaporation takes place to the same degree in a vacuum as 
in the air, and far more rapidly. It has been shown by 
Dalton that the elastic force of all vapors is the same, 
whether mixed with gas or air, or not; and that air is never 
truly saturated with vapor unless it contains an amount 
sufficient to saturate a vacuum of the same extent. 

Heat is the great cause of evaporation; so that the hot¬ 
ter the air becomes the more rapidly is vapor formed. When 
the air is at rest the space near an evaporating surface be¬ 
comes loaded with vapor, and the process becomes much 
slower than when the air is in motion, both by reason of 
increased tension and of loss of heat; for evaporation is a 
great absorber of heat. Indeed, the most intense degree 
of cold with which we are acquainted is caused by the 
evaporation of volatile liquids, such as ether, rhigoline, 
etc.; the lowest point yet reported being —220° F., artifi¬ 
cially produced by the evaporation in vacuo of a mixture 
of liquid nitrous oxide (N 2 0) and carbon disulphide 

(CS 2 ). 

Ev'art, a post-village of Osceola co., Mich., situated in 
the heart of a great lumber country, about midway between 
the two great lakes. It is a place of two years’ growth, and 
has seven saw and shingle mills, a foundry and machine- 
shop, two church societies, and one newspaper. Pop. of 
township, 168. Hess & Chase, Props. “ Review.” 

Ev'arts (Jeremiah), an American editor, born in Sun¬ 
derland, Vt., Feb. 3, 1781, graduated at Yale College in 1802. 
Having studied law, he was admitted to the bar in 1806, and 
became editor of the “ Panoplist,” a religious paper of Bos¬ 
ton, about 1810. In 1821 he was chosen corresponding sec¬ 
retary of the board of commissioners for foreign missions. 
Died May 10 , 1831. He was a man of rare fineness and 
force of character. 

Evarts (William Maxwell), LL.D., an eminent law¬ 
yer, a son of the preceding, was born in Boston, Mass., in 
Feb., 1818. He graduated at Yale College in 1837, and 
studied law, which he practised with great distinction in 
the city of New York, where he was admitted to the bar in 
1840. He became a Republican soon after that party was 
organized. He was the leading counsel employed for the 
defence of President Johnson in his trial before the Senate 
in April and May, 1868, and was attorney-general of the 


U. S. from July, 1868, to Mar. 4,1869. He was one of three 
lawyers appointed by President Grant in 1871 to defend the 
interests of citizens of the U. S. before the tribunal of arbi¬ 
trators who met at Geneva to settle the “ Alabama claims.” 
He is one of the most eloquent advocates in the U. S. He 
has written several legal works. 

Eve, a township of Monroe co., Ark. Pop. 297. 

Eve. See Adam. 

Eve (Paul Fitzsimons), M. D., was born June 27, 1806, 
near Augusta, Ga., graduated at the University of Geor¬ 
gia in 1826, graduated as M. D. at the University of Penn¬ 
sylvania in 1828, and studied several years in Europe, was 
a surgeon in the Polish revolution of 1831, and received the 
Golden Cross of Honor of Poland in that year, became pro¬ 
fessor of surgery in the Medical College of Georgia in 1832, 
in Louisville University (Ky.) in 1849, in Nashville Uni¬ 
versity (Tenn.) in 1850, and in Missouri Medical College, 
St. Louis, in 1868. In 1870 he became professor of ope¬ 
rative and clinical surgery in the University of Nashville. 
Prof. Eve was president of the American Medical Associ¬ 
ation in 1857. He served as a surgeon in the Confederate 
army. He has been editorially connected with professional 
journalism for many years, and is the author of very nume¬ 
rous monographs upon surgery, etc. Dr. Eve has long held 
a high position among the surgeons of the U. S. He has 
crossed the Atlantic fourteen times in the interest of his 
profession. His youthful service in Poland was voluntary 
and without pay. In the University of Georgia he deliv¬ 
ered eighteen courses of lectures. He has declined profes¬ 
sorships in New York City and Philadelphia, and the sur¬ 
geon-generalship of Tennessee. He has had remarkable 
success as a lithotomist. Of 92 bilateral operations for 
stone in the bladder, 8 only terminated fatally; of the last 
48 cases, 46 recovered; of 105 applicants for relief, not one 
was refused. 

Evec'tion [from the Lat. e, “out,” and veho, rectum, to 
“carry;” literally, “being carried out” of its proper or 
natural position], an inequality of the moon’s motion, de¬ 
pending on the position of the transverse axis of the moon’s 
orbit, as compared with the earth’s radius vector. The ec¬ 
centricity of the lunar orbit varies with the relative position 
of these lines. It is maximum when they are coincident, 
and minimum when they are perpendicular to each other. 
The variation of the eccentricity affects the equation of 
the centre, increasing or diminishing correspondingly the 
moon's mean longitude. This inequality is called erection. 

Ev'eline, a township of Charlevoix co., Mich. Pop. 294. 

Evening Schools are established in many of the larger 
towns of Great Britain and Ireland, and in the greater part 
of the cities of the U. S., for the instruction of artisans and 
others who have been unable to receive education in child¬ 
hood. In many instances such schools have been main¬ 
tained by private benevolence, but of late years they are, 
at least in the U. S., generally established, and wholly or in 
part maintained, by local or municipal authorities. Their 
sphere of usefulness is rapidly extending, and the course 
of study becomes more and more important. Boston, Mass., 
has an evening high school, and in our larger cities, as in 
nearly all the important towns of Massachusetts, industrial 
and free-hand drawing is taught. The Cooper Union, 
N. Y., has a flourishing evening school of design. Nearly 
22,000 names of pupils Avere registered in the evening 
schools of N. Y., for the year 1869-70. 

Evening Shades, a post-village, capital of Sharpe co.. 
Ark., about 22 miles N. of Batesville. 

Ev'erdingen, van (Aldert), a painter of landscapes, 
born in Holland in 1621. His taste was for wild scenery, 
rocks, torrents, the stormy sea; his pencil was bold, his 
coloring strong and effective. His etchings are famous. 
Died in 1675. 

Ev'erest, Mount, the highest mountain of the earth, is 
in the eastern range of the Himalayas, in Northern Nepaul; 
lat. 27° 59' N., Ion. 86° 54’ E. According to the measure¬ 
ment of Waugh in 1856, the altitude is 29,002. 

Ev'erett, a thriving post-township of Middlesex co., 
Mass. Until 1870 it formed a part of Malden. It is sup¬ 
plied with water from the Spot Pond Works of Malden. It 
is two miles from Boston, and connected therewith by the 
Eastern R. R. and the Middlesex horse-railroad. It has 
four churches and excellent schools; also one weekly news¬ 
paper. Pop. 2220. 

Gray & Metcalf, Eds. and Pubs. “Pioneer.” 

Everett, a township of Newaygo co., Mich. Pop. 231. 

Everett, a post-township of Cass co., Mo. Pop. 905. 
Everett, a township of Burt co.. Neb. Pop. 277. 

Everett, a post-village of Bedford co., Pa., has one 
weekly newspaper. 













EVERETT. 


1645 


Ev erett (Alexander Hill), LL.D., an American 
scholar and diplomatist, born in Boston Mar. 19, 1792, was 
a brother ot hid ward Everett, noticed below. He graduated 
at Harvard in 1806, and studied law in the office of John 
Q. Adams, with whom he went to Russia as secretary of 
legation in 1809. Having returned home in 1812, he began 
to practise law in Boston, and married Lucretia Peabody. 
He was charg6 d affaires at The Hague for nearly six years 
(1818-24), and published in 1821 an able work entitled 
“ Europe, or a General Survey of the Principal Powers,” 
etc. In 1825 ho was appointed minister to the court of 
Spain by President Adams. During his residence at Mad¬ 
rid he wrote “America, or a General Survey of the Political 
Situation of tho Several Powers of the Western Continent” 
(1827). He returned home in 1829, and became editor of 
the “ North American Review,” which he conducted with 
ability for about five years. He became an active Demo¬ 
cratic politician. He was appointed commissioner to China 
by President Polk in 1845. Died at Canton June 29, 1847. 

Everett (Edward), LL.D., D. C. L., an orator and states¬ 
man, born in Dorchester, Mass., April 11,1794. Ho was a son 
of Rev. Oliver Everett, who died in 1802. Ho attended a 
school in Boston, at which Daniel Webster for a short time 
supplied the place of his brother, Ezekiel Webster, the 
regular master. He was twice a “Franklin medal scholar” 
of the Boston public schools, and for a few months a pupil 
of Exeter Academy. In 1811 ho graduated at Harvard 
University with the highest honors of his class, being then 
little more than seventeen years of age. In 1812 he was 
appointed a tutor at Harvard while pursuing theological 
studies in preparation for the ministry. On Feb. 9, i814, 
he was ordained as pastor of the Brattle street (Unitarian) 
church in Boston, where the fascination of his manner and 
the power and beauty of his sermons made tho deepest 
impression on his hearers. In Mar., 1815, he accepted the 
Eliot professorship of Greek literature at Harvard, and 
terminated his career as a settled clergyman before he was 
quite twenty-one years of age. Proceeding at once to 
Europe, he studied for two years at tho University of Got¬ 
tingen, of which he became Ph. D. in 1817, and then travel¬ 
led extensively in Europe, making special visits to Athens 
and Constantinople with a view to thorough preparation 
for the studies of his professorship, upon which he entered 
soon after his return in 1819. A brilliant course of lec¬ 
tures on ancient Greece and its architecture, with illustra¬ 
tions of the magnificent ruins which he had just visited, 
inaugurated his accession to the chair, which ho held until 
1825. His fame as a secular orator—which will probably 
outlast all his other titles to the remembrance of posterity 
—may be dated from the delivery of his Phi Beta Kappa 
oration at Cambridge in Aug., 1824, when the presence of 
La Fayette inspired him with an eloquence which had 
never been equalled within the walls of the university, 
and which won for him a widespread popular celebrity. 
Succeeded as it was in a few months by his oration at 
Plymouth on the 22d of December of the same year, an 
enthusiastic admiration was kindled and kept alive, which 
could only be satisfied by calling him into political service. 
A nomination for Representative in Congress soon followed, 
and Mr. Everett served the district of Middlesex in that 
capacity from 1825 to 1835, distinguishing himself greatly 
by unwearied devotion to duty, as well as by elaborate 
and masterly speeches. In 1836, after ten years of con¬ 
gressional service at Washington, he was called home to be 
governor of Massachusetts, and was continued in that of¬ 
fice, by successive annual elections of the people, until 1840. 
A single vote, out of more than a hundred thousand, de¬ 
feated his re-election. Going at once, for a second time, 
to Europe, he established himself in one of the Medicean 
villas at Florence, and prepared to enter upon his long- 
cherished purpose of writing history. “ Romo in the time 
of Cicero” was one among many of tho congenial themes 
which he had meditated. But hardly a year had elapsed 
before he received a call to proceed without delay to Lon¬ 
don as minister plenipotentiary of the U. S., and he en¬ 
tered upon that mission in 1841 at a moment when ques¬ 
tions of the greatest delicacy were pending between the 
two nations. Returning homo in 1845 after four years of 
diplomatic service in England, he was met almost at the 
wharf on landing with an inexorable demand that he 
should assume the then vacant presidency of the univer¬ 
sity at Cambridge. Accepting the position reluctantly, he 
gave three years of anxious and strenuous labor to its 
duties, and then eagerly laid them down. A brief interval 
of rest, which he sorely needed and had richly earned, af¬ 
forded him time to establish himself again in Boston with 
a choice library around him, and to contemplate afresh 
some larger literary work than had yet seriously engaged 
him. But the death of Mr. Webster in Nov., 1852, left a 
vacancy in tho department of state at Washington, which 
he was immediately summoned to fill; and on the expira¬ 


tion of his brief term as secretary of state, by the termi¬ 
nation of President Fillmore’s administration in 1853, he 
was elected by the legislature of Massachusetts a Senator 
in Congress. He held that place but a single year, when, 
owing to ill-health, he retired finally, as it proved, from 
the cares and burdens of official life. In I860, indeed, he 
accepted a nomination for the vice-presidency of the U. S., 
but tailed of an election; and the last ten years of his lifo 
were thus left undisturbed by political responsibilities. 
But nothing like private life, as that phrase is commonly 
understood, awaited his retirement. Calls were soon heard 
from a hundred sources for the exercise of his personal in¬ 
fluence and his oratorical powers in behalf of some chari¬ 
table institution, or in commemorating some historical 
event, or in eulogizing some illustrious person. It was 
not in his nature to decline such calls. During the first 
half of these last ten years his topics were within the 
common range of occasional discourses—“ Dorchester (his 
native place) in 1630, 1776, and 1856;” “The Uses of As¬ 
tronomy :” “ The Importance of Agriculture;” “ Charitable 
Institutions and Charity;” “Daniel Webster;” “Thomas 
Dowse;” “Academical Education;” “The Dedication of 
the Boston Public Library,” of which he was one of tho 
building commissioners, as well as president of the trus¬ 
tees. To this period also belongs his memorable and pa¬ 
triotic pilgrimage in the cause of rescuing Mount Vernon 
from the danger of falling into the hands of speculators, 
and securing it as a national possession ; during which he 
delivered his address on “The Character of Washington” 
in all quarters of the Union, and paid over about $60,000 
to the treasurer of the fund as the product of his eloquence. 
But the remainder of these last ten years of his life was 
to be mainly devoted to more painful and pressing themes. 
The opening of the civil war gave a new field to the labors 
of his pen and of his tongue, and from “The Flag-raising 
in Chester Square” (Boston), on the 27th of April, 1861, 
to his last utterance for “ The Relief of Savannah,” in 
Fanouil Hall on the 9th of Jan., 1865, just six days before 
he died, his thoughts, his time, and almost all his numerous 
addresses, filling nearly 350 pages of an octavo volume, 
were given to the support of the Union cause. He died 
in Boston Jan. 15, 1865. 

Of such a career the records are happily abundant. Ilis 
political and congressional speeches and his official papers 
have, it is true, never been collected, and are to be found 
only in separate pamphlets or in the columns of news¬ 
papers. They would make an interesting and valuable 
volume. His literary essays, too, must be sought for in 
the pages of tho “North American Review,” of which he 
was for several years editor, and to which he contributed 
many admirable articles. An attractive and instructive 
volume of literary miscellanies cannot fail to be forthcom¬ 
ing at no distant day from these materials. His contri¬ 
butions to tho “New York Ledger” during the war were 
collected and published by himself in a volume entitled 
“The Mount Vernon Papers.” So also he published, in 
an independent volume, his “Biography of Washington,” 
prepared for the “Encyclopaedia Britannica ” at the re¬ 
quest of Lord Macaulay. His “ Defence of Christianity,” 
a little work printed as long ago as 1814, is to be found on 
the shelves of public libraries or among the rarities of 
bookworms, but it ought never to be omitted from the cat¬ 
alogue of his earliest and most remarkable manifestations. 
His fame, however, as a scholar, an orator, a philanthro¬ 
pist, and a patriot will mainly rest on the four substan¬ 
tial volumes of his “ Orations and Speeches ”—two of them 
published in 1850, the third in 1859, and the fourth (by 
his sons) in 1868. The exhaustive index to the three first, 
prepared as a labor of love by Dr. Allibone, affords an 
easy reference to their rich and curiously diversified con¬ 
tents. They form together a most striking illustration of 
tho times in which he lived, as well as an almost perfect 
picture, in the choicest mosaic, of the man himself. The 
materials of a complete autobiography might wellnigh bo 
found in fhem, in language which could not be improved. 
The ardent and gifted young scholar, the accomplished 
and devoted professor, the cautious and conservative 
statesman, the sincere and earnest patriot, the exhaustless 
and consummate rhetorician are depicted in these volumes 
with the exactness of a photograph. The true man, the 
ever-obliging and faithful friend, the good citizen, are not 
less clearly delineated. It is too early to pronounce upon 
the permanent influence of such a career. His life must 
be taken as a whole, in order to form any adequate appre¬ 
ciation of its value. Certainly, there have been wiser and 
profounder statesmen among us, and scholars as learned 
and accomplished; but we think the annals of our country 
to the day of his death will bo searched in vain for another 
so ready, prolific, and brilliant a writer and speaker, or for 
one who has done more both to adorn American literature 
and to advocate and advance every public interest and 






















1G46 


EVERETT—EVERLASTING FLOWERS. 


patriotic cause. The statue of him by Story, ordered by 
liis fellow-citizens, and placed (by no means to advantage) 
in the Public Garden of Boston, portrays him in the re¬ 
lation to his times in which he will longest be remembered 
—as one whose every word and gesture was untiringly 
and grandly employed in animating his hearers to the best 
and loftiest ends. 

Mr. Everett’s repeated visits to Europe, and his residence 
in London as American minister for four years, afforded 
him an opportunity of becoming personally known and 
appreciated in other lands besides his own. Sir Robert 
Peel and Lord Aberdeen, Rogers, Ilallam, and Macaulay, 
were among his warmest English friends. Lord Macaulay 
died with an unfinished letter to him on his table or in his 
pocket. He received the highest literary honors from 
Cambridge and Oxford at a time when those universities 
were more chary than of late in decorating Americans. 
Humboldt and Guizot were among his friends on the Con¬ 
tinent. The Institute of France enrolled him as a corre¬ 
sponding member. At home he enjoyed the lifelong in¬ 
timacy and confidence of Daniel Webster, whose collected 
works he edited and published in 1851 in six volumes, 
with a carefully written biography in the first volume. 

In 1822, Mr. Everett married Miss Charlotte Gray, 
daughter of the Hon. Peter C. Brooks, a distinguished 
merchant of Boston, of whom he prepared an elaborate 
memoir, which is included in the third volume of his 
“ Orations and Speeches.” Two sons and a daughter sur¬ 
vived him. Robert C. Wintiirop. 

Everett (Horace), LL.D., born in 1780, graduated at 
Brown University in 1797, settled as a lawyer at Windsor, 
Yt., became a prominent politician, holding important po¬ 
sitions in Vermont. He was a member of Congress (1829- 
43), and was distinguished as a friend of the Indians. 
Died Jan. 30, 1851. 

Ev'erghem, a Belgian town, a railway station in East 
Flanders. It makes cotton lace and beer. Pop. 6447. 

Ev'erglailes, a marshy region in Southern Florida, S. 
of Lake Okeechobee, itself resembling a great shallow lake 
abounding in low islands, which are covered with a dense 
jungle of pines, palmettoes, vines, and tropical trees, many 
of which are found only in this State and the West Indies. 
The water between the islands is from one to six feet deep, 
and is covered with tall grass, which grows from the bottom 
and- gives the region a beautiful appearance. The Ever¬ 
glades will no doubt in time become valuable for the culti¬ 
vation of bananas and tropical fruits. They abound in 
game. They are 160 miles long and 60 broad. There are 
about 300 Seminole Indians remaining here. The Ever¬ 
glades are elevated several feet above the sea, which often 
approaches within half a mile. Their drainage could 
therefore be easily accomplished. 

Ev' ergreen, a post-village, capital of Conecuh co., 
Ala., on the Mobile and Montgomery R. R., 97 miles N. E. 
of Mobile. It has one weekly newspaper. Pop. of Ever¬ 
green township, 1760. 

Evergreen, a township of Montcalm co., Mich. P. 489. 

Evergreen [Lat. sempervirens], a term applied to trees 
and shrubs whose leaves are not deciduous, but persistent, 
retaining their verdure throughout the winter. Evergreen 
leaves are mostly thicker and firmer in texture than the 
leaves of deciduous trees. The greater part of the trees of 
the natural order Coniferae are evergreen, as the pine and 
cedar. Among other evergreens are the holly, orange, ivy, 
myrtle, box, and laurel. In general, the duration of the 
life of leaves is in inverse ratio to the activity of their 
evaporation. According to W. B. Carpenter, “ Trees and 
shrubs which are spoken of as evergreen do not really 
retain their leaves for more than a year; but they are not 
cast off until a new crop appears, and the exchange does 
not take place suddenly, but gradually.” ( Vegetable Physi¬ 
ology.) “ There are some falling leaves,” says De Candolle, 
“as those of firs, which remain two, three, or more years, 
but which ought not to be confounded with persistent 
leaves, although both constitute the permanent foliage of 
evergreen trees and shrubs.” 

The following is a list of the more important coniferous 
evergreen trees indigenous to the United States. 

Common Names. Botanic Names. 

White Spruce.Abies alba. 

Hemlock..Abies Canadensis. 

California Spruce.Abies amabilis. 

Douglass Spruce.Abies Douglassii. 

Menzies Spruce.Abies Menziesii. 

Mexican Spruce.Abies Mexicana. 

Black Spruce.Abies nigra. 

Red Spruce.Abies rubra. 

Sabine’s California Spruce.Abies Sabini. 

California White Cedar.Libocedrus decurrens. 

White Cedar.Cupressus thyoides. 

Lambert’s Cypress.Cupressus Lambertiana. 

Great Coned Cypress.Cupressus macrocarpa. 


Common Names. Botanic Names. 

Mexican Cypress.Cupressus Mexicana. 

Red Cedar.Juniperus Virginiana 

Great Flowered Magnolia.Magnolia grandiflora. 

Balsam Fir.Abies balsamea. 

California Noble Fir.Abies nobilis. 

White Pine.Pinus strobus 

Yellow Pine.Pinus mitis. 

California Yellow Pine.Pinus brachypterus. 

California Nut Pine.Pinus edulis. 

Jersey Pine.Pinus inops. 

Scrub Pine.Pinus Banksiana. 

Pitch Pine.Pinus rigida. 

Long-leaved Pine.Pinus australis. 

Pond Pine.Pinus serotina. 

Spruce Pine.Pinus glabra. 

Mountain Pine.Pinus pungens. 

Loblolly Pine.Pinus tseda. 

Lambert’s Californian.Pinus Lambertiana. 

Red Pine..Pinus resinosa. 

Bald Cypress.Taxodium distich uni. 

American Yew.Taxus baceata Canadensis. 

Florida Yew.Taxus Floridana. 

American Arbor Vitse.Thuya occidentalis. 

Giant Arbor Vitae.Thuya gigantea. 

Florida Torreya...Torreya taxifolia. 

California Torreya.Torreya Californica. 

Great California tree.Sequoia gigantea. 

Redwood.Sequoia sempervirens. 

Foreign coniferous evergreen trees common in the nur¬ 
series of this country: 

Common Names. Botanic Names. 

Silver Spruce.Abies argentea. 

Dwarf Alpine Spruce.Abies crunoniana. 

Blue Spruce.Abies cerulea. 

Norway Spruce.Abies excelsa. 

Spruce, Himalaya.Abies morinda. 

Spruce, Mucronate.Abies mucronata. 

Spruce, New Holland.Abies Novae Hollandise. 

Spruce, Yew-leaved.Abies taxifolia. 

Spruce, Narrow-leaved. ...Abies tenuifolia. 

Chili Pine.Araucaria imbricata. 

Chinese Lance-leaved Pine-..Araucaria lanceolata. 

Brazil Pine.Araucaria Braziliensis. 

Bid will’s Pine.Araucaria Bidwillii. 

Moreton Pine.Araucaria Cunninghamii 

Norfolk Island Pine.Araucaria excelsa. 

Graceful Pine.Araucaria gracilis. 

Cedar, African Green.Cedrus Africanus viridis. 

Cedar, Deodar, silvery foliage.Cedrus deodara. 

Cedar, Green Deodar.Cedrus deodara viridis. 

Cedar of Lebanon.Cedrus Libani. 

Mount Atlas Silvery Cedar.Cedrus Libani argentea. 

Japan Dark-green Yew.Cephalotaxus adpressus. 

Fortune’s Chinese Yew.Cephalotaxus Fortunei. 

Mountain Yew.Cephalotaxus montana. 

Chinese Yew.Cephalotaxus Chineusis. 

Japan Weeping Cypress.Cryptomeria Japonica. 

Japan Dwarf Cypress...Cryptomeria nana. 

Cypress, Australian.Cupressus Australis. 

Cypress, Spreading.Cupressus expansa. 

Cypress, Chinese.Cupressus funebris. 

Cypress, Graceful.Cupressus gracilis. 

Cypress, Weeping..Cupressus pendula. 

Cypress, Pyramidal.Cupressus pyramidalis. 

Cypress, Sacred.... Cupressus religiosa. 

Juniper, Silver-leaved.-.Juniperus argentea. 

Juniper, Berry-bearing.Juniperus bacciformis. 

Juniper, Bermuda Cedar.Juniperus Bermudiana. 

Juniper, Chinese.Juniperus Chinensis. 

Juniper, English.Juniperus communis. 

Juniper, Cracow.Juniperus Cracovia. 

Juniper, Himalaya.Juniperus excelsa. 

Juniper, Irish Spiral.Juniperus Hibernica. 

Juniper, Hudson’s.Juniperus Hudsonii. 

Juniper, Japan.Juniperus Japonica. 

Juniper, Phoenician.Juniperus Phoenicia. 

Juniper, Sacred.Juniperus religiosa. 

Juniper, Swedish.Juniperus Suecica. 

Juniper, Spanish Incense.Juniperus thurifera. 

Fir, or Spruce, European Silver.Picea pectinata. 

Fir, Weeping Silver.Picea pectinata pendula. 

Fir, Kumaon Pindrow....Picea Pindrow. 

Fir, Altaic.Picea Sibirica. 

Fir, Mount Atlas.Picea pinsapo. 

Fir, Nepal purple-coned.Picea Webbiana. 

Pine, Austrian Black.Picea Austriaca. 

Pine, Calabrian.Pinus Calabriensis. 

Pine, Siberian Cembran.Pinus cembra. 

Pine, Nepal short-leaved.Pinus Gerardiana. 

Pine, Haguenea.Pinus Haguensis. 

Pine, Aleppo.Pinus Halepensis. 

Pine, Dwarf Mountain.Pinus pumilio. 

Pine, Italian Stone.Pinus pines. 

Pine, Scotch Pine, or Fir.Pinus Sylvestris. 

Yew, English.Taxus baccata. 

Yew, Silver-striped...Taxus baccata argenteia. 

Yew, Weeping.Taxus Dovastonii pendula. 

Yew, Irish Spiral.Taxus Hibernica fastigiata. 

Arbor Vitae, Fern-leaved.Thuya asplenifolia. 

Arbor Vitae, Australian.Thuya Australis. 

Arbor Vitse, Japan.Thuya Japonica. 

Arbor Vitse, Nepaul, or Tarta¬ 
rian.Thuya Nepalensis. 

Arbor Vitse, Chinese.Thuya Orientalis. 

Arbor Vitse, Siberian.Thuya Sibirica. 

Everlasting Flowers, the common name of several 
genera of the order Composite, having flowers which if 




































































































































EVEKSLEY 


dried and preserved retain their form and color many years. 
They are often called immortelles. 

Ev'ersley (Charles Siiaw-Lefevre), Viscount, D. C. 
L., an English liberal, was born in London Feb. 22, 1794, 
was educated at the University of Cambridge, and was ad¬ 
mitted to the bar. From 1830 to 1857 he was a member of 
Parliament, and for eighteen years (1839—57) was Speaker 
of the House of Commons. lie became Viscount Everslev 
in 1857. J 

E versmami (Eduard Friedrich), a German traveller 
and naturalist, born in 1794, went to Bokhara with the Rus¬ 
sian embassy in 1820, to the shores of the Caspian Sea in 
1825, and afterwards to the Southern Ural, Caucasia, and 
Algeria. In 1828 he became professor of zoology and bot¬ 
any in the University of Ivasan, and died there in I860. 
He published several accounts of his travels. 

Ev erts (W. W.), D. D., a Baptist minister, born in 
Granville, N. Y., in 1815, graduated at Madison University 
in 1839, preached in New York City (1839-50), in Louis¬ 
ville (1S52—59); since which time he has been a pastor in 
Chicago. He has published the “ Pastor’s Handbook,” 
“ Life of Foster,” “Bible Manual,” “Free Manhood,” 
“Childhood, its Promise and Training,” “ Bible Prayer- 
book,” and other works. 

Evesham, a parliamentary borough of England, in 
Worcestershire, is on the navigable river Avon and in the 
beautiful Vale of Evesham, 15 miles S. E. of Worcester. 
It has remains of an abbey built about 700 A. D. It sends 
one member to Parliament. Here Edward, prince of Wales, 
afterwards Edward I., defeated Simon de Montfort and the 
barons in 1265. Pop. in 1871, 4887. 

Evesham, a township of Burlington co., N. J. Pop. 
3351. 

Evic'tion [Lat. evic'tio, from e (ex), “out,” and vin'eo, 
victum, to “conquer”], the act of dispossessing one of his 
lands or tenements, as when a third person evicts a tenant 
by means of a title superior to that of the landlord, or a 
vendee by a title superior to that of the vendor. Techni¬ 
cally, an eviction must be by judgment of law, but in the 
case of a tenant many acts done by the landlord to impair 
the enjoyment of the premises will amount to an eviction 
in law, and justify the tenant in leaving them; but in such 
cases he must actually leave, otherwise he cannot claim 
to have been evicted. When the grantee of premises is 
evicted, if the conveyance to him was with a covenant of 
warranty, he can recover from the grantor the considera¬ 
tion-money, with interest, but not, in general, the increased 
value of the premises, even if caused by improvements 
made by him on them. If evicted from part of the prem¬ 
ises only, he recovers a proportionate part of the con¬ 
sideration. In case of a lessee, however, as the rent is re¬ 
garded only a fair compensation for the use of the premises, 
and as it ceases on eviction, he can as a general rule re¬ 
cover only the expenses of defending his possession. When 
a lessee is evicted in part by one having a superior title, 
the rent is apportioned. 

Evidence [Lat. evidentia, from e, “out,” implying 
“clearness,” and video, to “see”], in law, is the means of 
establishing an allegation made in a court of justice. In 
an action the respective parties make written statements of 
their cause of action and defence. The matter thus in dis¬ 
pute between them is called an issue. The object of evi¬ 
dence is to establish or disprove the propositions alleged. 
The result of the evidence is called proof. Evidence may 
be considered under a number of divisions: 1. Its nature 
and the doctrine of presumptions; 2. The rules that gov¬ 
ern in the production and exclusion of testimony; 3. Its 
effect; 4. The instruments of evidence, including witnesses, 
and the mode of making use of them as well as writings. 

1. Its Nature, etc .—The object of evidence is to establish 
a fact. It presupposes a disposition in the mind of a listener 
to believe upon sufficient grounds. Belief on the part of 
mankind is instinctive, yet this instinct is modified by the 
results of observation and reflection. When evidence is 
offered in a court of justice, it is assumed to be addressed 
to minds competent to give it such weight as its quality 
justifies. It may be either direct or circumstantial. It is 
said to be direct when it is offered simply to establish the 
fact which it concerns; it is circumstantial when its object 
is to lead the mind of the hearer to deduce or infer some 
other fact from it. In the case of circumstantial evidence 
the minds of the jury or judge, as the case may be, go 
through a process of reasoning to arrive at the principal 
fact in dispute. It must be resorted to with caution, in 
order that the conclusion arrived at may be sound and 
logical. 

Reference may now be made to the subject of presump¬ 
tions. These are of two kinds—of law and of fact. Pre¬ 
sumptions of law are cither conclusive or disputable. A 


EVIDENCE. 1647 


conclusive presumption of law takes place when a legal 
conclusion is arrived at which no evidence is admissible to 
rebut. This doctrine is based largely on public policy, and 
leads to a series of artificial and arbitrary subordinate rules. 
An illustration is, that a child under seven years of age 
cannot commit a felonious crime. The doctrine of estop¬ 
pel is another illustration. When evidence can be offered 
to rebut a presumption of law, it is said to be disputable. 
An instance is the ordinary rule in criminal law, that one 
charged with crime is presumed to be innocent until he is 
proved to be guilty, or that one having possession of stolen 
goods immediately after a theft became possessed of them 
unlawfully.. Under this theory, when a state of facts is 
once established, it is presumed to exist until there is some 
evidence to the contrary. Thus, a man engaged in trade 
is assumed to follow the ordinary course of business, or the 
incumbent of a public office to perform its duties in the 
usual manner. Life is presumed to continue unless there 
is evidence of death, or sanity until evidence is offered to 
establish insanity. A presumption of fact is not a rule of 
law which can be announced to a jury as binding upon 
them, but in each case must be found by them as a matter 
of fact, though the court may direct their attention to the 
propriety of forming the conclusion. An illustration is the 
testimony of an accomplice, which is generally deemed to 
be untrustworthy without corroboration from other and 
trustworthy sources, and an observation to that effect may 
be made by the judge. Still, the jury has the legal power 
to find a verdict upon the uncorroborated testimony of an 
accomplice. 

2. The Rides which prevail as to the Production of Evi¬ 
dence .—The leading rules are the following: Rule 1. Cer¬ 
tain matters may be judicially taken notice of without proof; 
Rule 2. Evidence must correspond with the allegations in 
the pleadings, and be confined to the points in issue; Rule 

3. Only the substance of the issue need be proved; Rule 

4. The burden of proof is with him who holds the affirma¬ 
tive; Rule 5. The best evidence must be produced of which 
the nature of the case admits; Rule 6. Hearsay evidence is 
in general inadmissible; Rule 7. Testimony should in gen¬ 
eral concern matters of knowledge as distinguished from 
opinion (though to this rule there are well-established ex¬ 
ceptions) ; Rule 8. Certain evidence, otherwise admissible, 
is excluded on grounds of public policy; Rule 9. In cer¬ 
tain cases, principally by statute law, written evidence must 
be resorted to rather than oral; Rule 10. Oral contempora¬ 
neous evidence is not admissible to vary the terms of a writ¬ 
ten instrument. These rules require some explanation. It 
should be premised, however, that on a trial, with or with¬ 
out a jury, it rests with the judge to determine whether the 
evidence is admissible under these rules. Whichever way 
he may decide, the opposing party may except, and make 
his exception the subject of an appeal. 

Ride 1. There are certain facts of general notoriety in re¬ 
spect to which it is not worth while to take up time to ad¬ 
duce evidence, such as the recurrence of the seasons. The 
same rule applies to the existence of foreign nations recog¬ 
nized by the executive power of the nation, and to general 
statutes of the legislature. Of such facts a court is said to 
take “judicial notice,” and, if necessary, may resort for in¬ 
formation to books and other sources of knowledge. 

Ride 2. The second rule excludes all immaterial evidence, 
and confines the trial to matters in issue. Immaterial alle¬ 
gations in the pleadings cannot be proved. For example, 
evidence of the intent of a party would not be admissible 
unless intent was material; and the same remark may be 
applied to evidence of good or bad character. In an action 
to recover money loaned, evidence of the bad intent of the 
debtor in delaying payment, or of the creditor’s bad cha¬ 
racter, would be plainly inadmissible, while in an action for 
slander the plaintiff's character would be to a certain extent 
in issue. 

Rule 3. This rule means that the minor and unimportant 
allegations relating to the issue need not be established as 
stated. They are such as the statements respecting the 
time or place where an event occurred, or the value of an 
item of property. Still, even allegations in their nature 
unimportant may become material by the mode in which 
they are stated, as if they are made descriptive. In such 
a case a difference between the pleadings and the evidence, 
called a variance, may be fatal. The effect of this stringent 
rule has in a number of the States of this country been 
greatly modified as to civil actions by statutes of amend¬ 
ments. The criminal law is still disfigured by extreme tech¬ 
nicality in this respect, and needs the hand of a discreet re¬ 
former, who, while he carefully preserves in favor of one 
accused of crime all necessary safeguards, at the same time 
subserves the interests of the public by removing all use¬ 
less impediments to the due administration of justice. 

Rule 4. Under this rule he who makes an allegation which 
is disputed, so as to bo at issue, must establish it by evi- 












1648 EVIDENCE. 


dence. The burden of proof is usually with the plaintiff, 
though in some instances it devolves upon the defendant, 
as where he admits the plaintiff’s case, but seeks to avoid 
its effect by new allegations—as, for example, infancy. The 
person who has the burden of proof has the right to open 
the case and close it. This in jury trials is often deemed 
to be a matter of much importance, so that each of the re¬ 
spective parties insists on an adjudication that the burden 
of proof belongs to him. 

Rule 5. Under this rule evidence is divided into primary 
and secondary. If the primary evidence is accessible, it 
must in general be produced; if it be lost or destroyed, re¬ 
sort may be had to that which is secondary. Thus, where 
the law requires a contract to be reduced to writing, or 
where the parties have written out a contract which might 
have been oral, the written instrument must itself be pro¬ 
duced if it can be obtained. The rule is relaxed in certain 
cases where public convenience may require it. For this 
reason a public record may be proved by an authorized copy, 
without the production of the record itself. 

Rule 6. The word “ hearsay” is infelicitous, including 
not only what is said, but what is written, or even acted. 
The rule means that evidence must be given in by one who 
is personally cognizant of the fact to be proved, and not by 
one who may have gained his knowledge at second hand, 
from the act or narration of another. Bentham distin¬ 
guished between a “ perceiving ” and a “ narrating ” witness 
with the same general view. The reasons for excluding 
“ hearsay ” evidence are so obvious that it is unnecessary 
to refer to them. Great care must be taken in distinguish¬ 
ing between hearsay evidence and that which is original. 
Thus, when the very subject of inquiry is whether a certain 
thing was or was not said by a person, evidence that it was 
said is clearly admissible. So when a statement forms a 
part of a transaction, or, in technical language, res gestee, 
evidence of it is not hearsay. Where the testimony is clearly 
hearsay, there are certain exceptional instances in which it 
is admissible, as in matters of public or general interest, or 
of ancient possessions, or of dying declarations in cases of 
homicide. It should be added that the admissions or con¬ 
fessions, when voluntary, of a party to an action are re¬ 
ceived in evidence against him on mixed grounds, partly as 
a substitute for more regular methods of proof, and partly 
as a branch of the law of res gestse. 

Rule 7. Under this rule a witness must in general testify 
only to facts of which he is personally cognizant, without 
giving his opinions as to their effect. There is a class of 
witnesses, termed “ experts,” who are allowed to give their 
opinions upon facts of which they have no personal know¬ 
ledge. For example, the testimony of persons acquainted 
with the facts may be read over to the expert, and his opin¬ 
ion asked as to the conclusion which should be drawn from 
it; or a hypothetical question, embracing the facts assumed 
to be established, may be put to him. An “ expert” is one 
skilled in a particular trade, art, or profession. An instance 
is a superintendent of an insane asylum as to matters con¬ 
nected with the subject of insanity. There are a few instances 
in which persons who are not experts are from the necessity 
of the case, or by a special rule of law, allowed to testify as 
to their opinions. 

Rule 8. This rule shuts out evidence in a number of 
cases where strong reasons of a public nature demand that 
it should be excluded. A leading instance is that of confi¬ 
dential communications between an attorney and client, and 
similar communications between husband and wife. It also 
prevents a judicial inquiry into “secrets of state,” and, to 
a certain extent, into the deliberations of judges in forming 
a judgment or of juries in arriving at a verdict. 

Rule 9. There is a great statute in the English law, 
termed the “ statute of frauds,” requiring certain transac¬ 
tions to be evidenced by writing, such as conveyances or 
leases of land, wills of land, and some executory contracts, 
as, for example, contracts to convey land or to be answer- 
able for the debt of another. These are but instances of a 
more extended class of cases. Without the writing as evi¬ 
dence these contracts or transactions cannot be established. 
It should, however, be added, that if such contracts, etc. 
have once been wi’itten and cannot be produced, their con¬ 
tents may be proved by oral evidence. 

Rule 10. This is an inflexible rule, applicable to con¬ 
tracts, wills, etc. Even if a contract need not have been 
written, yet if the parties choose to have it so, no contem¬ 
poraneous oral evidence can be offered to show different 
or additional terms. There is a conclusive presumption of 
law that the parties intended to merge all anterior and con¬ 
temporaneous propositions in the writing. That is the sole 
repository of their intention ; the rule, from the nature of 
the case, does not preclude oral proof of a subsequent modi¬ 
fication of the contract, nor does it prevent the introduction 
of oral evidence to explain the writing. Thus, the mean¬ 
ing of technical words may be shown by the testimony of 


experts, and oral evidence may be used to show the circum¬ 
stances surrounding the transaction, so as to place the 
court in the position of the parties. This is a rule of inter¬ 
pretation. It assumes that the instrument is valid. When 
the validity of the instrument itself comes in question the 
rule has no application. Oral evidence may accordingly bo 
offered to show that the instrument is void. So if a clause 
has been omitted or inserted by mistake, a court of equity 
will, on sufficient oral evidence, rectify the instrument, or, 
in technical language, “re-form” it, and give it the form 
intended by the parties. 

3. The Effect of Evidence .—In general, evidence is to be 
weighed by the jury or judge, as the case may be, and a 
decision to be rendered in view of all the circumstances of 
the case. In some instances its effect is governed by tech¬ 
nical rules. This remark is particularly applicable to mat¬ 
ters embraced under the head of estoppel. (See Estoppel.) 
The evidence in this class of cases is conclusive. The most 
important instance of the application of this principle is 
that of a judgment recovered in a court of justice. Judg¬ 
ments are of two general classes —in rein or in personam. 
In the one case the action or proceeding is instituted against 
a “thing,” such as a ship or article of merchandise, to fix 
its ownership, or to establish the status of a person, as 
to have an adjudication that he is a lunatic. The judgment 
itself accomplishes the result declared. The person in the 
case supposed becomes, in legal view, a lunatic, whether he 
be so in fact or not. So the ownership of the property is 
in the same way established, as in the case of the adjudica¬ 
tion of prizes in time of war. The effect of the judgment 
is accordingly conclusive. By a fiction of law all persons 
are supposed to be parties to such a proceeding, and to be 
bound by it. An action in personam is brought against a 
person to obtain a judicial declaration or sentence concern¬ 
ing his duty or obligation. The sentence does not of itself 
accomplish the required result, but a mandate to an execu¬ 
tive officer is necessary, in the nature of an execution. 
(See Execution.) It is illustrated by an ordinary judg¬ 
ment for a sum of money. The sheriff proceeds to sell the 
debtor’s property, and thus obtains the money. A judg¬ 
ment in this class of cases is only conclusive evidence upon 
the same subject matter between the parties to the action 
and those claiming under such parties, such as heirs and 
administrators. There must also have been an adjudication 
upon the merits of the case. Thus, if an action be dis¬ 
missed because it is prematurely brought—e. g., before a 
claim is due—a new action can be instituted. It is a further 
remark that the judgment is only conclusive upon matters 
really in issue, and therefore not upon such as were inci¬ 
dentally considered, nor upon matters that could be inferred 
by argument from the judgment. There is an admirable 
statement of the rule in all its branches by Lord Chief- 
Justice de Grey in the famous case of the Duchess of 
Kingston (20 Howell’s State Trials, 538). 

It should be added that in some cases the law gives to 
certain acts the force of primd facie evidence, which, as the 
phrase implies, is liable to be i-ebutted. Thus, a promissory 
note is presumptively made upon a valuable consideration. 
Statute law frequently declares that a particular transaction 
shall have this force. The rules of evidence are under the 
control of the legislature so long as they do not impair 
vested rights or violate in any manner constitutional law in 
its letter or spirit. 

4. The Instruments of Evidence .—These are either witnesses 
or writings. (1.) Witnesses .—A witness, when within the 
jurisdiction of the court, must in general attend in person. 
He can be compelled to attend by a writ termed a subpoena, 
and in the same way to bring writings which are required. 
When beyond the jurisdiction, his testimony is taken under 
a commission issuing from the court in which the case is 
pending. This ■ matter is in some respects governed by 
statute, though in some of the courts, as in equity and ad¬ 
miralty, there is an inherent power to issue commissions. 
The testimony, when taken in the foreign country, is re¬ 
turned to the court, subject to any objections which may 
properly be taken to it. Certain classes of persons are excluded 
from testifying. The rules upon this subject are to some ex¬ 
tent arbitrary. They have been modified in recent times by 
statute. Thus, parties to the action were at one time wholly 
excluded in the courts of common law. They are now by 
statutes generally admitted. The same remarks may be 
made as to persons having a pecuniary interest in the event 
of the litigation. Persons are still incompetent who have a 
defect of understanding, or who are supposed to be insen¬ 
sible to the obligations of an oath. Thus, persons convicted 
of an infamous crime are excluded from testifying in the 
courts of the State where the conviction took place. The 
tendency of modern law is to allow as wide a range as pos¬ 
sible, and to permit objections to witnesses which were 
formerly grounds of exclusion to be only urged as affecting 
the value of their testimony. In technical language the 















EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY, THE. 1649 


objection does not go “ to the competency, but to the credi¬ 
bility of the witness.” The examination of witnesses is 
governed by rules which are to some extent discretionary, 
and in other respects absolutely binding. The principal 
rules are these: a. Leading questions are not, in general, 
to be asked on the direct examination, b. The party call- 
iug the witness cannot attack his character, though lie may 
show by independent testimony that his version of the facts 
is not correct, c. The range of cross-examination is much 
wider than the direct, and leading questions are permis¬ 
sible. A witness cannot on cross-examination be asked a 
collateral question for the purpose of contradicting him in 
case his answer should be untrue. He may, however, be 
asked, under proper limitations, with a view to contradic¬ 
tion and the discredit of his testimony, if he has not given 
out of court a different version of the facts from that to 
which he now testifies, and in the same way as to expres¬ 
sions of hostility towards the party against whom the testi¬ 
mony is given, d. A witness is privileged from answering 
a question if such answer would tend to convict him of a 
crime or to subject him to a penalty or a forfeiture, though 
this rule would not extend to the case where he might simply 
be made liable in a civil action for a debt, etc. How far he 
can refuse to answer a question which if answered would 
tend to degrade him in the estimation of his fellows, is not 
fully settled, e. The character of a witness may be attacked 
by the opposing party, either by direct evidence of his bad 
character, or rather reputation, or by showing that he has 
from time to time given different versions of the facts, f. A 
cross-examination is to be confined to the matters brought 
out on the direct examination, and the same remark is ap¬ 
plicable to the re-direct and subsequent examinations. (2.) 
Writing8 for the purposes of the law of evidence are either 
public or private. Public writings are either judicial or 
not judicial. The law provides compulsory modes of pro¬ 
ducing public writings for the purposes of testimony. Copies 
are in general resorted to, on grounds of public convenience. 
The officer having the document in custody has, in general, 
the power to give a certified copy, which is admissible in 
evidence. Copies of judicial records are of three varieties : 
exemplified (a copy either under the great seal of state or 
under the seal of the court), office (certified by the clerk or 
other custodian), or sworn. A sworn copy is authenticated 
by the testimony of a witness who has compared the original 
with the copy. An act of Congress, authorized by the U. S. 
Constitution, provides a convenient mode of authenticating 
a judgment or decree of the courts of record of one State to 
be used in the courts of another State. Should a record be 
destroyed, its contents may be proved by oral evidence. A 
private writing is proved by the production of the writing 
itself, and its existence established by the testimony of a 
witness. Where the writing cannot be produced, secondary 
evidence of its contents may be given. In the special case 
where it is in the possession of the opposite party reason¬ 
able notice should be given to him to produce it at the trial. 
If he fails to produce it, secondary evidence may be given 
as before. When a private writing is executed in the pres¬ 
ence of a witness subscribing his name at the request of the 
maker of it, this witness, called a “ subscribing witness,” is 
the proper person to prove it. If he be dead, or for any 
sufficient reason cannot be produced, his handwriting may 
be proved, with some evidence to identify the party to the 
action as being the person who executed the instrument. 
When there is no subscribing witness, the proper course is 
to call a witness acquainted with the handwriting of the 
maker of the instrument to testify that in his opinion the 
instrument or the signature is in the handwriting of the 
party. Though this is matter of opinion, it is admitted 
from the necessity of the case. Knowledge of the hand¬ 
writing may be acquired in various modes, usually by see¬ 
ing the person write or by having transactions or corre¬ 
spondence with him. The testimony of experts as to hand¬ 
writing is in some cases admitted, though the law as to the 
extent°to which they may be examined varies in the differ¬ 
ent States. In some of the States there are convenient 
statutory modes of proving private writings. A single in¬ 
stance may be cited from the law of New York, which allows 
nearly every contract, if acknowledged by the maker before 
an authorized officer, such as a notary public, to be put in 
evidence without other testimony by way ol authentication. 

The final remark may be made, that the rules of evidence, 
though positive and in some respects arbitrary, are largely 
based upon public convenience, and are adapted to the 
wants and habits of the community. 

T. W. Dwigiit. 

Evidences of Christianity, The. The Evidences 
of Christianity, by the very fact of their existence, afford 
a strong presumption in its favor. I hey place it before 
the world as at least claiming to be founded in truth and 
suited to the reason of man. Had it made its way by 
mere force and policy, or did it now require assent without 

104 _ 


testimony and argument, there would be no need even to 
investigate its merits. It might be classed at once with 
the false religions which are confessedly without reasonable 
evidence, if not beneath discussion. But in distinction 
from all other systems it possesses a recognized body of 
proof which has been accumulating for eighteen centuries 
under the most varied and searching criticism, and which, 
when examined, is found to be all that the case admits or 
that an intelligent inquirer could demand. Such an in¬ 
quirer may therefore be challenged at the threshold to ac¬ 
quaint himself with the history of the Christian evidences 
before he proceeds to judge them in detail. 

History of the Christian Evidences .—The history of 
Christianity is, in one view, but the history of its evi¬ 
dences. Externally, at least, its course through the world 
has been marked by successive crises, when it encountered 
various forms of incredulity which it became necessary to 
repel with suitable evidence; and out of every such con¬ 
flict it has emerged with a triumphant vindication of its 
claims and a fresh contribution of proof to after genera¬ 
tions. 

Its first conflict was with Judaism. On its native soil 
and at its very origin it excited the bitter unbelief of the 
Jewish rulers and people, who repudiated it as an impious 
caricature of their own ancient religion, stigmatized its 
author as an impostor or false Messiah, and at length com¬ 
pelled him by the death of the cross to become the first 
great martyr to its truth. Judaism, as a distinct system, 
from that moment declined into a mere dead tradition, and 
has since, by its own predicted fate, served but as an un¬ 
willing witness for that Christianity which has been spread¬ 
ing over the globe and becoming the common heritage of 
all nations and races. The life and death of our Lord, in¬ 
cluding his discourses, parables, and miracles, as recorded 
in the four Gospels, constitute the evidences of Christian¬ 
ity afforded at its origin. 

Its next conflict was with Paganism. No sooner had it 
been proclaimed outside of Judma as a gospel to the na¬ 
tions than it encountered the decaying religions of Greece 
and Rome, which desperately rallied against it as a com¬ 
mon enemy. But its course from city to city was marked 
with crowds of converts, as well as with persecutions and 
conflicts, everywhere accelerating the decline of those old 
mythologies, which now figure only in the classic literature 
made tributary to its own defence and illustration. The 
planting and training of the Church, as narrated in the 
Acts and Epistles of the apostles, together with the Apolo¬ 
gies of Justin, Tatian, Athenagoras, and Theophilus, yield 
the evidences belonging to this period. 

Its next conflict was with Philosophy. So long as it was 
contending with mere Jewish and heathen superstitions the 
learned class could treat it with disdainful silence, such 
great writers as Plutarch, Seneca, and Tacitus alluding to 
it only in the most distant manner; but as its exclusive 
claims gradually became known, its advance was met by 
an infidel wing of the Neo-Platonic school, led by Celsus, 
Porphyry, and Hierocles, who assailed it as a vulgar im¬ 
posture, and at length provoked the series of bloody perse¬ 
cutions which filled the cities of the empire with Christian 
martyrs. Its apparent defeat, however, was followed by 
a victory almost ruinous. It had already won from the 
very ranks of Plato its first great apologist, Justin Martyr, 
and it now wrested so much of philosophy itself as could 
be wrought into its own theology; and at length appeared 
upon the throne of Constantine as the visible head of a 
new Christian civilization. Besides these worldly trophies, 
its direct evidences for this period are to be found in the 
testimony of the martyrs and the apologetical writings of 
Tertullian, Clement, Origen, Eusebius, Cyril, Arnobius, 
Lactantius, and Augustine. 

Its next conflict was with Barbarism. In the Dark Ages 
following the barbarian conquest and the wreck of the 
Roman empire, though it was now deprived of all earthly 
aid, it subdued the rude religions of the North as it had 
already vanquished the classic mythologies of the South, 
and treasured up from the civilization of the past all that 
was valuable for that of the future. While contending 
with such savage foes it could have no other evidences than 
such as appeared practically in the Germanic missions and 
in the great Christian schools of the Middle Ages. 

Its next conflict was with Mohammedanism. The Sara¬ 
cen was invading its domains with the sword and the 
Koran from the East to the shores of Spain; but the 
fierce Goths whom it had trained into Christian knights 
now by successive crusades battled for the tomb of the Sa¬ 
viour, until Europe was delivered from the infidel. Its 
evidences for this epoch were all that could be expected 
the exploits of Christian chivalry, the prizes wrested from 
Arabian learning, and the apologetical writings of the 
Schoolmen against the Jews and Mohammedans in Moor¬ 
ish Spain. 

















1650 


EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY, THE. 


Its next conflict was with modern Rationalism. Divided 
at the Reformation into Catholicism and Protestantism, it 
encountered a treacherous foe which for several centuries 
past, under various guises, has been subjecting its divine 
revelations to the test of mere human l’eason. But hither¬ 
to the strength of its evidences has only been proved by 
each successive assault. The Italian naturalists of the 
sixteenth century, such as Pomponatius, Caasalpin, and 
Cremoninus, who held Aristotelian opinions subversive of 
revealed religion at the very court of Rome and under 
feigned respect to the Church, wrought their own defeat by 
their shameless hypocrisy and vice. The English deists of 
the seventeenth century (such as Herbert, Hobbes, and To- 
land), and of the eighteenth century (such as Collins, Tyn- 
dal, and Bolingbroke), who professed mere natural religion 
as essential Christianity, were so completely repulsed by 
the great apologists, Cudworth, Bentley, Berkeley, and But¬ 
ler, that their very works have become obsolete or linger 
only as brilliant names in literature. The French atheists 
of the last century, such as Helvetius, Diderot, and D’llol- 
bach, who assailed Christian morality itself with a sensual 
fatalism, only precipitated that terrible Revolution which 
has made them infamous as enemies of civilization, no less 
than of religion. The German pantheists of the present 
century, such as Strauss, Bauer, and Feuerbach, who have 
been striving to resolve Christianity into mere mythology, 
were routed upon their own ground and with their own 
weapons by such learned and acute writers as Neander, 
Ebrard, and Ullmann. And it is safe to predict that the 
sciolists of our own day, who are opposing it with science 
falsely so called, are but ensuring a like failure and defeat. 

But the still remaining and perhaps final conflict is to be 
with modern Heathenism. Having developed for itself in 
the western nations of Europe and America during the 
last eighteen hundred years a civilization the highest the 
world has yet ever seen, it would be strange if it could not 
now cope with those eastern nations of Asia and Africa 
which meanwhile have remained stationary or relapsed to 
a savage state. And accordingly, for the last half century 
it has been slowly enveloping the globe with a network of 
missions, which, in connection with advancing science, 
commerce, and diplomacy, already betokens the ultimate 
triumph of Christian civilization over heathen barbarism 
throughout the earth. 

Classification of the Christian Evidences .—On reviewing 
now the evidences which have thus been accumulating dur¬ 
ing this exciting history, we at once become embarrassed 
by their richness and fulness. Much ingenuity has, in 
fact, been exercised in digesting and arranging them, but 
the most common and serviceable classification is that by 
which they are divided as external and internal, with suit¬ 
able subdivisions. 

The external evidences are such as relate to the fact or 
existence of Christianity, rather than to its nature or sys¬ 
tem—the mere credentials of revelation as distinguished 
from its contents. They will naturally distribute them¬ 
selves into the following groups: 1st, Prophecies, which 
have been fulfilled in the course of ancient empires, in the 
coming of Messiah, in the fortunes and fate of the Jews, 
and in the progress of the Christian Church; 2d, Miracles, 
which were wrought by prophets and apostles in attestation 
of their divine commission as teachers, disclosed in the life 
and death of Christ, the Son of God, and confirmed by the 
supernatural success of Christianity in the first age; 3d, 
Historical Testimonies to the authenticity and genuineness 
of the sacred writings, afforded not only by undesigned 
coincidences among them, but by contemporaneous heathen 
literature and by modern antiquarian research. Collections 
of the first kind of evidence may be found in the works of 
Newton and Keith; of the second, in those of Watson, 
Sherlock, Lesley, and Campbell in reply to Gibbon, Hume, 
and Paine; and of the third, in those of Lardner, Paley, 
Norton, Greenleaf, and Rawlinson. 

The internal evidences are such as appear in Christianity 
itself, in the purport of the revelation which has been so 
miraculously attested. An argument for its divine excel¬ 
lence may be traced in all that distinguishes it from other 
mere human systems: 1st, in its doctrines, transcending the 
highest philosophy, such as the existence, perfections, and 
policy of the Creator, the origin of the world, the scheme of 
redemption, the state and destiny of man; 2d, in its pre¬ 
cepts, surpassing the purest ethics, such as the Ten Com¬ 
mandments, the Sermon on the Mount, the counsels of the 
apostles; 3d, in its examples, unapproached by worldly 
heroes, such as those of evangelists, saints, and martyrs, 
and, above all, the immaculate Jesus himself; 4th, in its 
effects, not only upon the welfare of individuals, but upon 
the interests of society, as seen in works of charity and 
philanthropy, in the arts of peace, in humane laws and free 
institutions, and in the entire civilization which for centu¬ 
ries it has been unfolding. Specimens of such arguments 


may be found in the treatises of Jenyns and Warburton, 
of Archibald Alexander, Hopkins, and Mellvaine, and of 
Luthardt and Delitsch. 

Still further classes of evidence are of a mixed nature, 
being partly external and partly internal, and serving to 
show the connection and consistency of Christianity with 
other facts and truths. They also may be indicated under 
several heads: 1st, Experimental evidences, acquired by 
those who have personally tested in their own faith and 
practice the doctrines, precepts, and promises of the gospel, 
and thus offer new and original testimony; 2d, Scientific 
evidences, collected from the sciences which illustrate the 
existence and attributes of the Deity, and confirm the inci¬ 
dental allusions of Scripture to physical, mental, and moral 
phenomena; 3d, Philosophical evidences, derived from right 
reason and large experience as to the probable existence of 
a Divine government, a future state, a supernatural revela¬ 
tion, and a scheme of redemption, such as are found in the 
Scriptures, and also from the view of religion and nature as 
but consistent parts of one system, having the same Author. 
Examples of such high orders of evidence may be seen in 
the works of Locke, Browne, Butler, Paley, the Bridge- 
water Treatises, and the recent Bampton Lectures. 

These various classes of evidence, when grouped together 
in one view, tend to produce a conviction which has been 
well likened by Bishop Butler to what is called the effect 
in architecture or other works of art. Examined sepa¬ 
rately, they may excite as little emotion as scattered stones 
upon a plain, but when combined, as they have been by this 
great architectonic genius, in one compact, cumulative argu¬ 
ment, their resulting impression is like that of the same 
materials after they have been chiselled and fashioned into 
a magnificent building. But we already trench upon the 
next topic. 

Logic of the Christian Evidences .—A far more important 
question than the mere classification of these evidences is 
that of their logical nature and value. Viewed from this 
point, they must ever take rank as the highest branch of 
applied logic, as well for the difficult problems which they 
involve as for the kinds of reasoning employed. And the 
practical bearing of the inquiry is shown by the fact that 
different apologists, in treating of the evidences, have more 
or less consciously exaggerated one class of them at the ex¬ 
pense of the other, until, like a divided army wrangling in 
the face of an enemy, they have allowed infidels to involve 
both of them in doubt and suspicion. Of the two evidential 
schools which have thus taken opposite grounds, the one 
Avould render Christianity reasonable, the other present it 
as simply credible; the one would claim for it demonstra¬ 
tive evidence carrying full conviction, the other seek only 
probable evidence accumulating towards certainty ; the one 
would dwell upon the internal philosophical proof, the other 
upon the external historical testimony ; and at length (he 
one ends in testing the whole content of revelation by mere 
reason, whilst the other virtually destroys all rational con¬ 
ditions of faith. The former method has been successively 
pursued to its extreme by Descartes, Clarke, and Wolf, and 
the latter by Butler, Chalmers, and Mansel. 

It is enough here to assert the validity of both methods 
within the limits they impose upon each other. Each has 
had its value at different times and for different minds. The 
primitive apologists needed the external evidence for the 
Jews, who required a sign, as well as the internal evidence 
for the Greeks, who sought wisdom. And from that day 
till the present there have been infidels who were won by 
the doctrine and example of Jesus before they could admit 
his miracles, as there have been believers who ceased to find 
difficulties in Scripture after they had accepted it as an at¬ 
tested revelation. The simple truth is, that neither kind 
of proof can be spared from the high argument, and that 
both must be ultimately combined in order to ensure full 
conviction. 

At this point the logical question we are considering be¬ 
gins to involve an ethical or moral element. It should be 
carefully observed that the apparent deficiency in the Chris¬ 
tian evidences neither necessitates unbelief nor releases from 
obligation. On the contrary, the inquirer simply becomes 
accountable in proportion to the evidence perceived and the 
interests at stake. He is still to be tested and judged by 
the light which he has. Moreover, his incredulity may be 
his 'own fault. It is certain that the Christian evidences 
have hitherto proved sufficient for the greatest minds of the 
race. Are they now on the wane or on the increase ? This 
is the remaining question. 

Progress of the Christian Evidences. —A distinguished 
mathematician of the seventeenth century, John Craig, pro¬ 
fessed to calculate, on the hypothesis that the suspicions 
against historical evidence increase with the square of the 
time, that the evidence of Christianity will become ex¬ 
tinct about the year 3150, when the Son of man will come 
and no longer find faith on the earth. And a school of 














EVIL—EVOLUTION, HYPOTHESIS OF. 1651 


modern skeptics, including poets as well as philosophers, is 
already sighing over the decay of Christianity as but the 
last of the world’s mythologies, destined to be superseded 
by the perfect religion of the future. If all that is meant 
by such writers is the decay of their own Christian faith, it 
need not be denied that many restless, speculative minds are 
breaking away from their moorings in false creeds and cor¬ 
rupt, systems claiming to be Christian; but if the appre¬ 
hension is that Christianity itself is dying out or losing its 
hold upon the world, such forebodings are to be no more 
seriously treated than the outcries of men losing their an¬ 
chorage who fancy it is the immovable shore and not their 
own little vessel that is drifting away. Christianity has in 
fact lost nothing of the evidence which it has been accumu¬ 
lating since the time when first its miracles were wrought 
and its prophecies spoken. Not only does the testimony to 
those miracles remain unimpeached, not only is the fulfil¬ 
ment of those prophecies still passing before our eyes, but 
the human sciences since then unfolded are yielding it a new 
class of evidences, affording it fresh confirmation and illus¬ 
tration, and commending it to the highest intellect and cul¬ 
ture of the time ; and the reasonable presumption is that, 
one after another, they will yet corroborate all revealed 
facts and doctrines, until everywhere there shall be an in¬ 
telligible triumph of the Divine through the human reason 
over all earthly error and sin. 

That such an increase of evidence in this quarter is prob¬ 
able may be argued from the very nature of science and 
revelation as complementary factors of knowledge. It is 
inconceivable that the word of God should contradict his 
works, or that human reason could supersede a divine rev¬ 
elation : and when any discrepancies appear between Na¬ 
ture and Scripture, we must simply assume that there has 
been some wrong induction from either or both of them, 
and that ultimately, after the whole truth is known, they 
will confirm and illustrate each other. This has, in fact, 
been the result of past conflicts between the scientific and 
religious parties. Geography, in the early Church, repu¬ 
diated the idea of an inhabited globe as contrary to the 
Scriptures, but ships now carry the samp Scriptures to the 
antipodes. Astronomy, during the Middle Ages, described 
the heavens as huge crystal spheres revolving about our 
earth, but the very same heavens, as devoutly interpreted 
by Kepler, Newton, and Hersehel, still declare the glory of 
God. Geology, of late years, has seemed inconsistent with 
the long-received interpretation of Genesis, but the story 
of the earth itself, as read by Miller, Hitchcock, and Guyot, 
still tells how it was made in six days. Anthropology, at 
the present moment, is full of conflicting theories, some of 
which menace the Scripture doctrine of the first Adam, but 
he must simply prejudge the whole question against all 
precedent who asserts that man was not made in the image 
of God. And in the region of the mental, moral, and 
social sciences, where the need and fact of a revelation are 
so much more obvious, the likelihood increases that there 
will hereafter be still higher and grander illustrations of 
Christian doctrine. 

It is an encouraging sign of progress in the evidences of 
Christianity that so many organized efforts are on foot for 
their promotion, and some of them in the interest of true 
science as well as of religion. The Royal Society itself 
was founded by philosophers and divines who vindicated 
the consistency of natural with supernatural knowledge. 
Other institutions have followed, expressly designed for the 
defence of the Christian religion, such as the Boyle Lectures, 
the Bampton Sermons, the Bridgewater Treatises, the Bur¬ 
net Essays in Great Britain, and the Lowell, Graham, and 
Ely Lectures in this country, together with more perma¬ 
nent educational appliances, such as chairs of Christian 
apologetics in divinity schools and of science and religion 
in our colleges. And the literature which has grown up in 
connection with these institutions, and by other independent 
efforts, is already of surprising extent and richness. Notices 
of this literature may be found in the appendix to Farrar s 
“ Critical History of Free Thought,” and the Abbe Migne 
has published a series of twenty volumes, 4to, entitled 
“ Demonstrations Evangeliques,” containing a full collec¬ 
tion of the principal evidential treatises, of all schools in all 
ages, chronologically arranged, as a work equally impoit- 
ant to the infidel, to the skeptic, and to the believer. 

Charles W. Shields. 

E'vil, the total or partial absence or negation of good, 
and the presence of imperfection, suffering, or sin. The 
question of the origin of evil has in every age attracted the 
attention of thoughtful minds. The Zoroastrians and Gnos¬ 
tics tried to solve it by the dualistic theory ot the opposi¬ 
tion of a good and an evil principle. Others have main¬ 
tained that evil is a necessary part of the Divine economy, 
and that under the superintendence of Infinite Wisdom 
evil will result in the highest possible good. It seems cer¬ 
tain that moral freedom itself implies at least the possibility 


of an evil choice, so that evil must potentially exist where 
goodness exists. The solution of such questions is, how¬ 
ever, beyond the power of any finite mind. 

Evil Eye, the mysterious power of injury which in 
former ages was generally ascribed to the look of a malevo¬ 
lent person. The Greek and Roman classics contain numer¬ 
ous references to this belief, which was also very common 
in the Middle Ages in Europe. In Mohammedan and un¬ 
civilized countries this superstition is still almost universal, 
and it is by no means extinct among the peasantry of more 
civilized lands. It especially prevails in Western Africa. 
It is perhaps based upon the supposed powers of fascination 
possessed by serpents, of which much exaggerated stories 
were told and believed. Charms were much worn to pre¬ 
vent the mischief which it was believed could be done by 
the evil eye, which was considered especially dangerous to 
young children. 

Ev'olute [for etymology see Evolution], literally, 
“ something unfolded or unwrapped,” in mathematics, is 
a curve, plane or otherwise, around which, if a flexible and 
inextensible string be wrapped, and then unwrapped under 
tension, there result other parallel curves called involutes, 
one of which is described by every point of the tense 
string in unwinding. Every plane curve has its plane evo- 
lute, besides an infinite number of helical evolutes lying in 
the curved surface of the solid generated by the motion of 
the given plane curve parallel to itself. The common cy¬ 
cloid, the epicycloids, and the hypocycloids have plane 
evolutes exactly similar to themselves, but inverted in posi¬ 
tion. The logarithmic spiral is the only curve having all 
its evolutes similar to itself. 

Evolu'tion [Lat. evolu'tio, from e, “out,” and vol'vo, vo- 
lu'lurn, to “ roll,” whence evol'vo, to “ unfold ” or “ evolve ”], 
the act of unfolding, development; in algebra and Arithme¬ 
tic, the extraction of roots; in other words, the inverse 
operation to involution. The object of evolution, therefore, 
is to ascertain the quantity which multiplied by itself a 
stated number of times yields a given result. In a wider 
sense, evolution may be regarded as synonymous with the 
solution of a binomial equation, for it is obvious that the 
n th root of any number a satisfies or is a root of the equa¬ 
tion x n — a = 0. This root is indicated by the symbol 

va ora . 

Evolution, Hypothesis of ; also called The The¬ 
ory of Development. According to this, in its simplest 
form, the universe as it now exists is the result of “an im¬ 
mense series of changes,” related to and dependent upon 
each other, as successive steps, or rather growths, consti¬ 
tuting a progress; analogous to the unfolding or evolving 
of the parts of a growing organism. Evolution is defined 
by Herbert Spencer as consisting in a progress from the 
homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from general to special, 
from the simple to the complex; and this process is con¬ 
sidered to be traceable in the formation of the worlds in 
space, in the multiplication of the types and species of 
plants and animals on the globe, in the origination and 
diversity of languages, literature, arts, and sciences, and in 
all the changes of human institutions and society. 

History .—Faint gleams only of the idea of evolution ap¬ 
peared among the ancients. An old Egyptian cosmological 
myth was that of a chaotic or mundane egg, from which all 
things successively emerged; with the belief, also, that 
repeated creations and destructions of the world have oc¬ 
curred. Thales taught that in the beginning all matter 
was in a fluid state. Anaxagoras held that all consisted at 
first of atoms, infinitely numerous and eternal; among 
which orderly arrangement was produced by a shaping 
Nous or intelligent Power, infinite and self-existent. Op¬ 
posed to this conception was that of Democritus and 
Epicurus, as represented in the poem of Lucretius, “De 
Rerum Natura,” according to which chance, not intelli¬ 
gence, wrought, in infinite time, out of numberless atoms, 
all existing things. Not far removed from this was the 
notion of Empedocles, mentioned by Aristotle ( Pliys . ii. 8), 
that many monsters were formed by the spontaneous efforts 
of nature before man appeared. More clear seems the 
reference to creative development in the words of David 
(Psalm cxxxix.): “My substance was not hid from thee, 
when I was made in secret, and curiously wrought in the 
lowest parts of the earth. Thine eyes did see my sub¬ 
stance, yet being unperfect; and in thy book all my mem¬ 
bers were written, which in continuance were fashioned, 
when as yet there was none of them.” 

Leibnitz, in modern times, first definitely proposed the 
opinion that the world was once in a fluid condition ( Pro - 
tog tea, 1693). De Maillct (who died in 1738) and Wright 
of Durham, as well as, perhaps, Lambert, preceded Kant 
in expanding this thought. But Kant, in his “Theory of 
the Heavens” (1755), originated the nebular hypothesis. 











1652 EVOLUTION, HYPOTHESIS OF. 


Laplace ( Systeme du Monde, 1796, and Mecanique Celeste, 
1799-1825) elaborated this into a theory of the solar sys¬ 
tem; while Sir William Ilerschel ( Proc . Royal Society, 1811) 
gave it a nearer approach to perfection in its general cos¬ 
mic relations as a theory of the stellar universe. Sir John 
Herschel’s hypothesis of “ sidereal aggregation” presents a 
further modification of this. (See Nebular Hypothesis.) 

In biology, Buffon ( Histoire Naturelle, 1749-88) is cred¬ 
ited with distinctly advocating the transmutation of species. 
The most important beginning, however, of those induc¬ 
tions which have made possible the science of embryology, 
and have contributed most largely to the general theory of 
development, was that of Wolff ( Epigenesis, 1759; Theoria 
Generationis, 1764). He first discerned the importance of 
the transmutations of structure and form which the parts 
of plants and animals undergo, by means of which, from 
almost formless seeds or eggs, come their diverse and com¬ 
plex organisms. Goethe ( Metamorphose der Pflanzen, 1790) 
apprehended, independently, the same truth. Oken ( His¬ 
tory of the Development of the Intestinal Canal, 1803), Pan¬ 
der (1817), and, still more important, Von Baer (from 1819), 
carried out this idea as an extensive generalization, sup¬ 
ported by numberless facts. Many other laborers have since 
worked in the same field. 

In like direction have tended the results of inquiries into 
the ultimate elementary forms and proximate materials of 
animal and vegetable tissues : Schleiden and Schwann (1838) 
showing the cell-form to be common to both kingdoms in 
all their classes and orders; and Von MohlandMax Scliultze 
(1850-61), that a jjrotoplasmic material, similar but not iden¬ 
tical, is found in them all. (See Cells and Protoplasm.) 

In regard to the transmutation of species, Lord Monboddo 
in 1774 suggested the possible origin of man from the ape. 
With more scientific ability and knowledge, Lamarck ( Phi¬ 
losophic Zoologique, 1809) proposed the hypothesis of organic 
development, which is chiefly associated with his name. One 
of his leading conceptions was that of the elevation of an 
animal (e.. g. ape) to a higher range of faculties and appro¬ 
priate organs by the prolonged and repeated efforts made 
by it to attain to conditions and advantages just within, or, 
at first, beyond, its reach. Dr. Erasmus Darwin (author of 
“ Phytologia,” “ Zoonomia,” etc.) about 1794-95 published 
speculative views containing at least the germ of the “Dar¬ 
winism” of to-day. Dr. W. C. Wells proposed the applica¬ 
tion of natural selection to the natural history of man in 
1813. W. Herbert in 1822 asserted the probable transmu¬ 
tation of species in plants. Prof. R. E. Grant advocated the 
same opinion about 1826. 

Immediately connected with this progress of investigation 
were some important inquiries concerning the correlation 
of forces in nature, and the conservation or “persistence 
of force.” First in the order of generalization or logical 
discovery on this subject are to be named B. Thompson 
(Count llumford), 1798-1806, and Oersted, 1812-20; next 
to these, Seguin of France, Grove and Joule of England, 
Mayer of Germany, and Colding of Denmark ; all of whom 
about 1842 announced, independently of each other, the 
idea of the essential unity of force, as involved in the mu¬ 
tual convertibility of the “ modes of motion,” observed by 
us as mechanical movement, heat, light, and electricity, 
into each other, under changed conditions. Since that time 
the correlations of the physical forces have been studied 
especially by Helmholtz, Faraday, Henry, and Tyndall. 
Vital force has been regarded as belonging to the same 
series of correlations in the writings of Liebig, Carpenter, 
Hinton, Waters, Barker, and others; and even mind-force 
is so included by Morell, Laycock, and Maudsley, as well 
as by Moleschott, Buchner, and other materialists. 

Returning to the path of biological inquiry, we find that 
Geoffroy St.-Hilaire contended against Cuvier, in the early 
part of the present century, in favor of the transmutation 
of species. Popular interest in this subject was awakened 
by the publication, in 1844, of the “Vestiges of Creation,” 
an anonymous work showing great ingenuity, but only a 
moderate acquaintance with the facts of science. Alexander 
Humboldt also, in 1844, declared his conviction that species 
are not immutable. Richard Owen, in 1850, referred to the 
struggle for existence as a cause of destruction of types 
least fitted for the conditions around them, and proposed 
about the same time the theory of the origin of species by 
“ derivation ” in a pre-ordained succession. Naudin, a French 
botanist, and Prof. Asa Gray of Cambridge, Mass., as early 
as 1856, drew somewhat similar inferences from their obser¬ 
vations. More prominently, however, than any other since 
1852, has the name of Herbert Spencer been connected with 
the theory of development, both in cosmology and biology. 
His “First Principles of Philosophy,” “Illustrations of 
Universal Progress,” and “Principles of Biology” have, 
with much labor both of synthesis and analysis, and great 
adroitness of reasoning and clearness of expression, wrought 
out what may be called a philosophy of evolution. Baden 


Powell of Oxford, England, in an able work on the “ Unity 
of Worlds,” in 1855, argued forcibly for the probable con¬ 
tinuity of the process of creation throughout time. Alfred 
R. Wallace and Charles Darwin, in 1858, separately pro¬ 
posed the hypothesis of the origin of species by spontaneous 
variation, and the survival of the fittest through natural 
selection and the struggle for existence. In 1859 appeared 
Darwin’s treatise on the “Origin of Species.” (See Dar¬ 
winism.) 

Strenuous opponents as well as advocates of the views 
above referred to have not been wanting. B. Peirce, R. 
Proctor, and others among astronomers have found serious 
difficulties in the way of adopting the nebular hypothesis 
as a finality. Organic evolution, including the transmuta¬ 
tion of species, has been opposed by De Blainville, Milne 
Edwards, Sedgwick, Brewster, Balfour, Agassiz, Barrande, 
Dana, and Dawson. Besides those already named, it has 
been accepted in some form (not always that of Darwin) 
by Huxley, Vogt, Fritz Muller, Hgeckel, Gegenbaur, Mi- 
vart, Hooker, Lubbock, and others in Europe, and by 
Clark, Cope, Hyatt, Hayden, and other naturalists in 
America. Among its ablest defenders has been Prof. E. L. 
Youmans. (See an “Exposition of the Development Hy¬ 
pothesis” by this author, and an admirable “Criticism” 
of the same, in “Johnson’s Natural History,” by Julius 
H. Seelye, D. D.) A majority of the scientists of the 
present day are on the side of the general theory of evo¬ 
lution. “Scarcely a single competent general naturalist,” 
wrote in 1873 Prof. Wyville Thomson of Edinburgh, “fails 
to accept it, in some form or other.” In the words of 
Prof. Youmans ( Poqndar Science Monthly, Nov., 1872), 

“ Darwin may be in error, Huxley may be wrong, Mivart 
may be wide of the mark, Haeckel may be mistaken, Cope 
may misjudge, and Spencer be at fault; but, in common 
with a large and increasing body of scientific men, they 
are all agreed as to one thing, that evolution is a great and 
established fact—a wide and valid induction from the ob¬ 
served order of nature, the complete elucidation of which 
is the grand scientific task of the future.” 

The application of the idea of development to sociology 
and history has been made by Herbert Spencer, J. W. 
Draper, and Bagehot, although earlier suggested by Her¬ 
der ( Ideas of the Philosophy of the History of Mankind) 
about the beginning of the present century. George Dar¬ 
win has written recently upon development in dress; and 
Dr. James Ross upon natural selection in the causation 
of diseases ( The Graft Theory of Disease, 1872). In the 
above list of authors, moreover, we have not mentioned 
several of eminence who have written especially upon the 
relation of the theory of development to theology; as Leif- 
child ( Higher Ministry of Nature), the Duke of Argyll ( The 
Reign of Law), and Dr. McCosh ( Christianity and Positiv¬ 
ism). (See, also, The Evolution of Life, by II. C. Chap¬ 
man, 1872, and Philosop>hy of Evolution, by B. T. Lowue, 
1873.) 

Without space in this work for an exhaustive discussion 
of the subject of evolution, its importance requires a brief 
statement of the main elements of the inquiry. 

Is Progress a Fact in Nature ? Cosmologists and nat¬ 
uralists are all agreed upon this. In the language of the 
Duke of Argyll, “It is as certain as aav fact of science 
that creation has had a history. It has not been a single 
act, done and finished once for all, but a long series of 
acts—a work continuously pursued through an inconceiv¬ 
able lapse of time. It is another fact, equally certain, re¬ 
specting this work, that as it has been pursued in time, so 
also it has been pursued by method. There is an observed 
order of facts in the history of creation, both in the organic 
and in the inorganic world.” Prof. Leconte asserts 390 co¬ 
incidences in the solar system which are conformable to the 
nebular hypothesis. Some experimental support for it has 
also been afforded by the physicist Plateau. Lord Rosse’s 
telescope diminished for a time the strength of the evidence 
in its favor by resolving many nebulm into star-clusters, 
and leaving it in doubt whether there were any really con¬ 
sisting of unorganized “ star-dust ” or “ world-stuff.” Hug¬ 
gins, however, with the spectroscope, ascertained in 1864 / 

that a nebula in the constellation Draco consists of gaseous 
matter; and since that time several others have been found 
to have that character. (See Spectroscope.) The spiral 
form of a number of nebulae, and the annular shape of 
others, agree well with the rotary movement supposed in 
world-formation according to the nebular hypothesis. 
Some astronomers also consider that a sudden appearance 
in t Coronae, observed in 1868, indicated an alteration in 
the substance of that star, such as the incandescence of a 
gaseous material like hydrogen would produce. R. Proc¬ 
tor has written upon “ star-drifts,” showing a certain or¬ 
derly arrangement of the bodies in space outside of our 
solar system. The spectroscope has contributed much 
towards the theory of cosmic development, by exhibiting 












EVOLUTION, HYPOTHESIS OF. 


1653 


the close correspondence in the material composition of all 
the worlds. Durocher also {Essai de Geologic Comparee, 
lbo/) proved the originally molten condition of our earth’s 
surface by a careful comparative study of the specific grav¬ 
ities and the order of successive deposition of crystalline 
rocks. In organic nature on the earth, geology, zoology, 
embryology, and botany unite in asserting progress. (See 
Geology.). Prof. Dana, one of the highest authorities in 
natural science, and an opponent of the development hy¬ 
pothesis, may be quoted to this effect ( Text-Book of Geol- 
°'J}h PP* 250, 255): “ Life commenced among plants in sea¬ 
weeds, and it ended in palms, oaks, elms, the orange, rose, 
etc. It commenced among animals in Lingulas (mollusks 
standing on a stem like a plant) and in crinoids and trilo- 
bites, if not earlier in the simple, systemless protozoans” 
(see Eozoon) ; “ it ended in man. Sea-weeds were followed 
by feins and other flowerless plants, and by gymnosperms, 
the lowest of flowering plants; these finally by the higher 
flowering species, the palms and angiosperms. Radiates, 
mollusks, and articulates of the Silurian afterwards had 
fishes associated with them; later, reptiles; later, birds 
and inferior mammals; later, higher mammals, as beasts 
of prey and cattle; lastly, man.” “ There were higher 
and lower species created through all the ages, but the suc¬ 
cessive populations were still, in their general range, of 
higher and higher grade; and thus the progress was ever 
upward.” “ With every new fauna and flora in the pass¬ 
ing periods there was a fuller and higher exhibition of the 
kingdoms of life.” 

Admitting, then, this universal fact of progress in na¬ 
ture, some further propositions may be laid down as 
proven : 

1. The method of progress has been, on the whole, from 
generalized types to those more special— i.e. with multipli¬ 
cation of organs and functions, or differentiation. Com¬ 
prehensive types of earlier periods have sometimes been 
called by palaeontologists “prophetic” types, containing 
elements which become distributed amongst those which 
succeed them. Examples of these are the following : Ichthyo¬ 
saurus, comprising or combining the types of the fish and 
the reptile; Pterodactyl, Archseopieryx, and Compsognathus, 
those of reptile and bird; Archegosaurus, of amphibian and 
true reptile; Sivatherium, called in description a “pachy- 
dermoid antelope;” Oreodon, a “ruminating hog;” Anom- 
cepus, an “ornithoid, marsupialoid quadruped.” All of these 
are fossil, and now extinct. Examples of an analogous 
kind are seen in a few animals of to-day, as Ornithorhynchus, 
a duck-billed quadruped ; Lejjidosiren, which combines some 
of the characters both of the reptile and the fish, etc. The 
molluscan group of cephalopods represents, in a manner, 
all four of the great types of Cuvier. “ The beak, com¬ 
plex eye, tongue, ear, crop, gizzard, and cartilages analogous 
to the spine, point to the vertebrates; sucker-bearing arms 
and long axis, to radiates; cut off the mouth and its sur¬ 
roundings from the rest of the body, and we have the sem¬ 
blance of the star-fish ; while the tentacles lead to the an¬ 
tennae of the articulates.” ( Ward, Descriptive Catalogue 
of Fossils, etc.) Among plants, the fossil Lycopodia com¬ 
prehend characters both of ferns and pines; Cycads, pecu¬ 
liarities of ferns, pines, and palms, etc. 

2. Unity of plan pervades all organic nature, as exhibited 
in the homology or correspondence of parts which prevails 
throughout the animal and vegetable kingdoms. (See An¬ 
atomy, and Comparative Anatomy.) 

3. Many gradations and transitional forms intervene be¬ 
tween those great groups into which animals and plants 
are divided or classified. The comprehensive types above 
mentioned may be regarded as transitional. Such, too, are 
the Odontornithes (birds with teeth) and Ichthyornithes 
(fish-like birds), lately described by Marsh, and the Eoba- 
sileidse and other tertiary forms between proboscidians and 
ungulates, described by Leidy, Marsh, and Cope. The last- 
named naturalist ( Evolution and its Consequences, 1872) 
enumerates many genera in which, between the so-called 
species, there are determinable gradations; as of birds, 
Corvus, Empidonax, Buteo, Falco; reptiles, Entsenia, Anolis, 
Lycodon, Naja, Caudisona, Elaps; batrachians, liana, Hyla, 
Choraphilus, Borborocoetes, Amblystoma, Spelerpes; fishes, 
Ptychostomus, Plecostomus, Salino, Perea, and others. A 
group of worms receives the name Gephyrma, because of 
its “bridging over” the gap between Vermes and Echino- 
dermata. Amphioxus (lancelet) appears to connect verte¬ 
brates with the mollusca. Between Polycistina and Spongia, 
as Carpenter shows, comes Acanthometrina. Among tun- 
gous plants, especially those discerned by aid of the micro¬ 
scope, distinctions of a permanent kind are difficult to 
establish, and KUtzing and Schleiden have asserted that 
“ there are no species, but only forms, of Algas.” 

4. A very remarkable correspondence prevails amongst 
animals and plants in three orders of relative succession: 
a, in geological time; b, in zoological rank; c, in embryo- 


logical development. No naturalist has done more to es¬ 
tablish the generality of this threefold correspondence than 
Agassiz, who, nevertheless, continues to oppose the hypothe¬ 
sis of evolution by transmutation or modification of specific 
types. What is meant by the above proposition is, that 
when one animal is known to be, geologically, more recent 
in its appearance on the globe than another somewhat allied 
to it, it will (generally) be found also to rank higher than 
it in the zoological scale, as measured by complication of 
structure, variety of powers, and, in some groups at least, 
greater intelligence; also, the more recent type passes, in 
its embryological development, through successive stages of 
change, including those of the less recent allied type, whoso 
adult condition represents, more or less nearly, an immature 
or embryonic state of the higher and later, more advanced 
type. Some of the examples of this parallelism have long 
been familiar to naturalists; others have been but lately 
fully studied, especially by E. D. Cope in Salamandridm 
(Origin of Genera, 1868) and Alpheus Hyatt in Cephal¬ 
opoda {Fossil Cephalopods, etc., 1872). A few instances 
will answer our purpose. Trilobites, of the palaeozoic era, 
resemble the embryonic state of Limulus of to-day. Laby- 
rinthodon, of the trias, is like an arrested development of 
the later saurians. Anoplotheriurn recalls an embryonic 
stage of ruminants; the.extinct dodo has been compared to 
an incompletely developed duck or goose; the siren mani¬ 
fests a similar relation to the lung-breathing batrachians. 
“Man presents in his earliest stages of embryonic growth 
a skeleton of cartilage, like that of the lamprey; also, five 
origins of the aorta and five slits on the neck, like the lam¬ 
prey and the shark. Latei*, he has but four aortic origins, 
and a heart now divided into two chambers, like bony fishes; 
the optic lobes of his brain also having a very fish-like pre¬ 
dominance in size. Three chambers of the heart and three 
aortic origins follow, presenting a condition permanent in 
the Batrachia; then two origins, with enlarged hemispheres 
of the brain, as in reptiles. Four heart-chambers, and one 
aortic root on each side, with slight development of the 
cerebellum, agree with the characters of the crocodiles, and 
immediately precede the special mammalian conditions—a 
single aortic root and the full development of the cerebel¬ 
lum. Later comes that of the cerebrum also in its higher 
mammalian and human traits.” In all this succession and 
parallelism it is important to remember that the human 
embryo at no time assumes the exact or entire character of 
that of any other order of mammals, or that of reptile, bird, 
or fish. It is only assimilated to these lower types, without 
ever being identified with either of them. Yet this assimi¬ 
lation is a fact of very great importance. 

5. Teleology is the name given to the study of another 
class of facts, coextensive with our acquaintance with na¬ 
ture, and especially obvious in the structures of the higher 
beings—viz., those which display adaptation and give evi¬ 
dence of purpose. These are most of all familiar in our 
own bodies, as the complex formation of the eye as an in¬ 
strument of vision, with a nerve to convey the impression 
of light and a brain to perceive it, the hand for prehen¬ 
sion, the mouth for speech, the foot for support and locomo¬ 
tion, the stomach for digestion, etc. Natural science fur¬ 
nishes no more beautiful and wonderful instances of such 
adaptation than those carefully studied and described by 
Darwin in the formation of many plants, so as to be fertil¬ 
ized by the interposition of insects which visit the flowers 
for their food. {Daricin on the Fertilization of Orchids ; 
Gray, How Plants Behave .) Such facts, and thousands of 
others in nature proving adaptation, are too clear to be 
ignored, although speculative reasoning has introduced a 
question in regard to their origin or causation. The sim¬ 
ple truth is, that design is to be inferred, as 'purposive 
adaptation adheres to the facts ; is itself a fact. 

6. Modification according to surrounding conditions oc¬ 
curs, to a limited extent, both in animals and plants. Some 
dependence upon conditions is inevitable. Thus, the ear¬ 
liest consolidation of the surface of the earth made it ready 
only for the simplest and lowest of plants. The animals of 
primitive periods were all aquatic. The first land-plants and 
land animals appeared on the earth in the Devonian age. 
The soil of the mesozoic period, almost certainly, would 
not have supported our vegetation, nor any vegetation 
capable of maintaining the now existing types ot animal 
life. The atmosphere, the oceanic and inland waters, and 
all other terrene conditions have been different in the suc¬ 
ceeding epochs. The mould of the field and forest of our 
day is the result of an immensely complex series of pro¬ 
ductions and decompositions going on through all ages 
since the azoic era. Each time, by its actions and reac¬ 
tions, prepares the way for the next. Man was, probably, 
necessarily, the last created animal, because the highest 
and most complicated, and thus requiring the latest and 
highest elaboration of terrestrial conditions. 

But modification by changed conditions, acting upon cx- 













1654 


EVOLUTION, HYPOTHESIS OF, 


isting types, appears only within limitations. In organisms 
of little motility a law may be enunciated—that “ exten¬ 
sion occurs chiefly in the direction of least resistance, and 
increase of density in the direction of greatest resistance.” 
It is proper to give some examples to illustrate “condi¬ 
tional action on individuals and species in nature. 

1 ungi are said by some botanists to be very variable, 
according to the places and circumstances of their growth. 
With higher aquatic plants, some individuals of which may 
have their leaves out ot and others in the water, the air-pores 
or stomata are often on the under side in the former case, 
and on the upper side in the latter. Tendrils of climbing 
plants cease growing when finding nothing to clasp, but 
grow thick and strong after taking hold of a support. 
Shells of oysters are thicker on a wave-washed shore than 
where the water is always tranquil. Tadpoles develop into 
frogs in a few weeks when exposed to sunlight; in the dark, 
they may be kept as tadpoles for months. Cysticercus, a 
small animal parasite, when lodged in the liver or brain of 
a man, ox, or hog, becomes a hydatid surrounded by a 
watery tumor; in the intestinal canal, a tape-worm ten or 
twenty feet long. When the queen-bee of a hive is de¬ 
stroyed, the workers will select a neuter larva, and by pla¬ 
cing it in ,a royal cell and feeding it with queen’s food, con¬ 
vert it into a queen. Late observations (Am. Naturalist , 
May, 1873) make it appear that the sex of butterflies may be 
controlled by diminishing or increasing the supply of food 
to the caterpillars; short allowance promoting a preponder¬ 
ance of the male sex. Wallace found in the Malay Archi¬ 
pelago a marked influence of locality in the characteristics 
of Papilionidm. Some moles have rudimentary eyes, as if 
they had lost them gradually by want of use; and the 
same may be said of blind fish in large caves. (See Am- 
blyopsis.) Lewes ( Nature, Mar. 27, 1873) mentions that, 
while the young of salamanders usually undergo their trans¬ 
formation in the water, Salamandra atra , living high upon 
mountains, is born completely formed. M. Baray has ob¬ 
served that frogs in the volcanic island of Guadaloupe go 
through the tadpole changes in the egg. Domestic ducks 
have the leg-bones heavier; wild ones, those of the wings. 
Udders of cows in the domestic state are much larger than 
when wild. The drooping ears of several domestic animals 
follow the change from the wild condition. The heads of 
wild hogs, and those of the horses of steppes or pampas, 
are larger than those of the domesticated animals. Artificial 
selection and breeding cause great diversities in animals and 
plants. Of the latter, witness the double flowers and num¬ 
berless varieties “created” by the horticulturists, and such 
changes as those from the wild to the cultivated cabbage, 
broccoli, and cauliflower. Ancon sheep and the Otter breed 
of cattle are merely extreme instances of the many effects 
of utilized and directed variations. English greyhounds 
taken to hunt on a high Mexican plateau, 9000 feet above 
the level of the ocean, failed for want of breath, but their 
offspring acquired a capacity to run as well there as else¬ 
where. Acquired instincts are familiar, yet remarkable; as 
the fear of man amongst wild birds and animals, those of a 
newly-visited country being always “tame.” Hounds of 
different breeds, pointers, setters, retrievers, require almost 
no training to fit them for their parts in hunting, yet no 
such proclivities belong to the dog in the wild state; they 
are undoubtedly transmitted by inheritance. While several 
generations must be required to make a breed or variety 
with such distinct endowments, yet variations are sometimes 
quite suddenly established. Darwin mentions this of the 
black-shouldered peacock, occurring in five distinct cases 
among those of the ordinary kind, and, in at least one case, 
to the extinction of the previously existing breed. The 
same authority (Animals and Plants under Domestication, 
vol. i.) states that “climate directly affects the skin and 
hair of cattle.” Angora goats, of the same original stock 
as those of Europe, acquire a long silky fleece. Sheep and 
some other animals are subject to enormous fattening of 
the tail near the Cape of Good Hope. Other examples 
might be easily added. 1 1 

7. Conditions favorable to the support of particular spe¬ 
cies of qilants and animals do not necessitate their existence. 
Prof. Asa Gray (On the Derivation of American Plants: 
Pop. Science Monthly, Oct., 1872) illustrates this fact as fol¬ 
lows : “ When we see how Australian eucalyptus trees thrive 
upon the California coast, and how our redwoods flourish 
upon another continent; how the so-called wild oat (Arena 
sterilis of the Old World) has taken full possession of Cali¬ 
fornia ; how that cattle and horses, introduced by the Span¬ 
iards, have spread as widely and made themselves as much 
at home on the plains of La Plata as those of Tartary; . . . 
when we consider how the indigenous flora of islands gen¬ 
erally succumbs to the foreigners that come in the train of 
man, and that most weeds (i. e. the prepotent plants in open 
soil) of all temperate climates are not ‘to tho manor born,’ 
but are self-invited intruders,—we must needs abandon the 


notion of any primordial and absolute adaptation of plants 
and animals to their habitat which may stand in lieu of ex¬ 
planation.” While a few naturalists (as Mivart, and, in re¬ 
gard to races of mankind, Agassiz) have advocated the view 
that the same species may have originated independently 
in several localities, the weight of evidence seems to be 
largely in favor of the opinion that each species (if not every 
greater group or type) has had but one origin; all “ repre¬ 
sentative ” species, such as those nearly, sometimes quite, 
identical on the two sides of the Atlantic, or otherwise 
locally remote from each other, being really the same in 
stock, only more or less modified after divergence and per¬ 
manent separation in place and circumstances. 

8. Certain types vary, through long periods, very little, un¬ 
der any circumstances. Among domestic species the turkey 
and peacock are examples of considerable stability. Gould 
asserts of humming-birds that, with many thousands of them 
passing through his hands, he has “never observed an in¬ 
stance of any variation which would lead to the supposition 
that it was the result of a union of two species.” (Introduc¬ 
tion to Trochilidse .) Several “persistent types,” through 
extremely long periods, arc well known to geologists. Lin¬ 
gula, Discina, Rlnynconella, Crania have continued from the 
Silurian age'to the present time. Some palaeozoic corals 
are yet building islands or reefs in the ocean. Genera of 
carboniferous plants, insects, and Arachnida closely resem¬ 
ble some of those of to-day. The Araucaria of the oolite has 
left cones scarcely distinguishable from those of the same 
genus now growing. Pleuracanthus, a fish of the Devonian 
and carboniferous eras, was as similar to sharks now exist¬ 
ing as they are to one another. Some triassic mammals 
were equally close in alliance to those of recent times. Car¬ 
penter andWyville Thomson have proved that a cretaceous 
fauna exists now at the bottom of the ocean. Hence is to 
be inferred the propriety of the admission of Darwin: “ I 
believe in no law of necessary development.” Huxley also, 
who has especially studied these persistent types, emphat¬ 
ically declares that their existence must be recognized in 
any theory of evolution. 

9. While progress has been the rule (as already shown) 
in the great changes of nature through geological time, evi¬ 
dence also exists of the decline and extinction of types. Says 
Dana : “ Five hundred species of trilobite lived in the course 
of the palaeozoic ages; afterwards there were none. Nine 
hundred species of the ammonite group existed in the meso- 
zoic—not all at once, but, as in the case of the trilobites, in 
a succession of genera and species; the last then disap¬ 
peared. There have been 450 species of the nautilus tribe 
in existence ; now there are but two or three, and these are 
peculiar to the present age. Seven hundred species of 
ganoids have been found fossil; the tribe is now nearly ex¬ 
tinct.” Barrande has studied trilobites exhaustively; he 
remarks (Trilobites, par Joachim Barrande, a Prague et a 
Paris, 1871) upon the notable diminution of their size, as 
well as of the numbers of their genera and species, after a 
maximum in the second of the three periods of their history ; 
also, that such an order of increase, culmination, and decline 
was observed in all quarters of the globe alike. The same 
naturalist has likewise examined in detail the history of 
ancient cephalopods (Distribution des Ccphalojjodes dans les 
contrees Siluriennes, 1870), and points out the occurrence 
of some simple forms, later than others which were more 
complex. Alpheus Hyatt has given attention to the same 
succession ; and he, with some others, understands the fossil 
Cephalopoda to exhibit, as it were, the biogxaphy of a type, 
closely analogous, in all its changes, to that of an individual 
cephalopod. Opening with the straight Orthoceras of the 
Silurian, it advanced through the coiled and more complex 
ammonite of the Jurassic, and declined through half-un¬ 
coiled forms of the cretaceous, to end in the straight bacu- 
lite. Also, the ammonite family itself, beginning with the 
Goniatites of discoidal shape, passed through the compactly 
coiled and elaborate true ammonites, to decline through the 
half-coiled Scaphites; the last being the old age of the type. 
Other instances would probably be more familiarly known 
if the attention of naturalists was generally directed towards 
this class of facts. 

10. Rudimentary parts furnish one of the strongest argu¬ 
ments in favor of the hypothesis of a genetic connection 
among all animals (including man); at least among all 
those belonging to the same great types. By rudiments, 
in anatomy, are meant organs or structures imperfectly 
developed, so as to be almost or entirely without func¬ 
tional use. Each of them represents in germ, as it were, 
in one animal (or plant) that which is perfect and useful 
in another type. Examples are as follows: In plants, in¬ 
complete petals, stamens, or pistils in a great many’ in¬ 
stances; notably, undeveloped pistils in tho male florets 
ot some Composite. Among animals, the minute and 
useless wings of certain beetles and other insects; teeth in 
tho jaws ot foetal whalebone wdiales, which are toothless 


























EVOLUTION, HYPOTHESIS OF. 


1655 


when mature; teeth also in the front part of the upper 
jaw in the embryos ot ruminant quadrupeds (as the ox) 
and of a few birds; the mammary teats of male mammals; 
two imperfect udders in cows; imperfect wings of the pen¬ 
guin and apteryx; the splint-bones of the horse; unused 
hinder toes of several quadrupeds ; small limb-bones under 
the skin of serpents, and similar ones of the pelvis and 
hinder limbs ot whales. Man has a number of clearly 
marked rudimentary parts. Such are the three small and 
useless motor muscles ot the external ear; the platysma 
myoides of the neck, homologous with the useful pan- 
niculus carnosus of the horse and ox; the little fold or ca¬ 
runcle at the inner margin of the eye, representing the 
nictitating membrane of birds; the os coccygis at the lower 
end of the spinal column, in place of the tail of lower ani¬ 
mals, and which at one time in the human foetus is longer 
than the limbs; the vermiform appendix of the large intes¬ 
tine, which in man has no use, but in one marsupial, is 
three times the length of its body. The “lanugo” or 
hairy covering of the human foetus at the fifth month is 
supposed by Darwin to be a rudimentary appearance of 
the first hairy covering of other mammals. Some anato¬ 
mists regard the whole outer ear in man as a mere rudi¬ 
ment of the movable external ears of quadrupeds. The 
last molar (wisdom) tooth has the character of incomplete 
development, especially among civilized races of men. For 
the existence of any of those which are certainly rudiments 
no rational “final cause” has ever been proposed. It is 
intelligible only upon the supposition of their being relics 
of a long past descent from a common stock with those spe¬ 
cies, genera, or larger groups which now present the same 
organs in perfect development and answering a useful pur¬ 
pose. Their gradual disappearance when their utility has 
ceased is not strange upon such a view. Paget has given 
an additional reason why that disappearance should not bo 
sudden, in the facts of “complementary nutrition;” that is, 
as every part, by taking some material from the blood, 
makes it more exactly fitted to the nutrition of the rest, 
rudimentary organs may serve this purpose for a while, 
after their own direct functional action has ceased. 

Different Theories of Evolution. —It is a popular error 
that “Darwinism” is a precise synonym of “the theory 
of development.” Several distinct views have been held, 
agreeing merely as to the one belief, of a genetic relation 
between the present and the past in all parts of nature; 
which is what we mean by evolution. Thus, for the origin 
of diverse species amongst plants and animals there have 
been (though not altogether mutually exclusive) the follow¬ 
ing hypotheses: 1. Self-elevation by “ appetency,” or use 
and effort: Monboddo, Lamarck, and Cope. 2. Modification 
by the surrounding conditions of the “medium:” Geoffroy 
St.-Hilaire, Quatrefages, Draper, and Spencer. 3. Natural 
selection, under the struggle for existence, with spontaneous 
variability, causing the “ survival of the fittest:” Darwin, 
Wallace, and Haeckel. 4. Derivation by “pre-ordained 
succession of organic forms,” under an “ innate tendency ” 
or “internal force:” Owen and Mivart. 5. Evolution by 
“ unconscious intelligence:” Morell, Laycock, Murphy. 6. 
Less defined, so far, as a distinct hypothesis, but clearly 
implied in the writings of Prof. Asa Gray, Dr. McCosh, 
Baden Powell, the Duke of Argyll, and others, .is the view 
of orderly creation “by law,” through the immanent action 
and direction of Divine Power, working by the purposive 
collocation and adjustment of natural causes or forces. This 
is not accurately described as a theory of “ supernatural or 
miraculous interference .” It should be designated, rather, 
as that of creative evolution. 

Mivart, the Duke of Argyll, and others have abundantly 
shown that there is no antagonism whatever between the 
two ideas of creation and evolution. Excluding a very few 
atheists and positivists, the great controversy has been, of 
late years, upon the question whether a right interpretation 
of the facts should lead us to conclude that creative power 
was exerted only at the beginning, all afterwards being only 
the manifold progressive results of “natural laws’’ acting 
without traceable design; or that, instead, the immanence 
of Divine Power is everywhere shown by nature in forms 
and processes specially exhibiting design, in such a sense 
that, in the words of David Hume [Dialogues concerning 
Natural Religion, Part iv.), “the whole chorus of nature 
raises one hymn to the praise of its Creator.” 

Descent of Man— -Darwin gives the following conclusion 
in his work on this subject (1871): “The most ancient 
progenitors in the kingdom of the Vertebrata at which we 
are able to obtain an obscure glance apparently consisted 
of a group of marine animals resembling the larvae of ex¬ 
isting ascidians. These animals probably gave rise to a 
group of fishes as lowly organized as the lancelet; and from 
these the ganoids, and other fishes like the lepidosiren,must 
have been developed. From such a fish a very small ad¬ 
vance would carry us on to the amphibians. W e havo seen 


that birds and reptiles were once intimately connected to¬ 
gether; and the Monotreinata now, in a slight degree, con¬ 
nect mammals with reptiles. But no one can at present 
say by what line of descent the three higher and related 
classes—namely, mammals, birds, and reptiles—were de¬ 
rived from either of the two lower vertebrate classes— 
namely, amphibians and fishes. In the class of mammals 
the steps are not difficult to conceive which led from the 
ancient Monotreinata to the ancient marsupials, and from 
these to the early progenitors of the placental mammals. 
We may thus ascend to the Lemuridge; and the interval 
is not wide from these to the Simiadae. The Simiadae then 
branched off into two great stems, the New World and Old 
World monkeys; and from the latter, at a remote period, 
man, the wonder and glory of the universe, proceeded.” 
Wallace ( Essays on Natural Selection, 1870) furnished, in 
anticipation of Darwin’s work on that subject, what still 
remains to be the most effective reply to its arguments in 
favor of the sufficiency of the hypothesis of natural selec¬ 
tion to explain the origin of man. Wallace shows that in 
several important respects the advances from the simian to 
the human type of organization are such as cannot be ac¬ 
counted for by any possible fitness for success in the strug¬ 
gle for existence—namely, the superiority of the human 
larynx for voice and musical expression, of man’s foot for 
progression in the erect posture, of his hand for delicate 
touch and varied prehension, the greatly increased size and 
capacity of his brain, and the entire absence of hairy cover¬ 
ing from his back and shoulders. Hence Wallace writes 
(op. citat.) as follows: “The inference I would draw from 
this class of phenomena is, that a superior Intelligence has 
guided the development of man in a definite direction and for 
a special purpose, just as man guides the development of 
many animal and vegetable forms.” It need scarcely be 
remarked that this evidence, coming from one of the origi¬ 
nators of the hypothesis of natural selection, has still fur¬ 
ther importance in suggesting that this “intelligent gui¬ 
dance in definite directions for special purposes,” so obvious 
in the nature of man, who is best known to us, will be likely 
to be equally manifest elsewhere in the organic kingdom 
when our knowledge of all its parts becomes more complete. 

Sexual selection, urged by Darwin to supplement his 
theory, falls short of its purpose in several ways—especi¬ 
ally as a general hypothesis—because it requires consider¬ 
able intelligence in all the animals which exercise it as a 
supposed means of advancement in beauty of form, color, 
etc.; and yet very remarkable developments of similar 
traits and endowments appear in invertebrated animals 
(e. g. butterflies and other brilliantly beautiful insects, and 
varied and elegant shells of mollusks), and in the high or¬ 
namentation of flowers and leaves in many plants. An¬ 
other cumbrous rather than serviceable speculative addition 
of Darwin’s to his general theory has been that of pangene- 
sis. Something very much like it was suggested by Owen 
in 1849, in his treatise on parthenogenesis, but it is quite as 
incredible, if not as inconceivable, as the “ monadology ” 
of Leibnitz. (See Pangenesis.) 

Evolution of Mind and Consciousness. —On this topic 
Darwin ( Descent of Man and Expression in Man and Ani¬ 
mals) has written with much ability; and so, amongst 
others, also have Cope ( Evolution and its Consequences: 
Penn Monthly, Aug., 1872) and Cliauncey Wright (North 
American Review, April, 1873, on the “Evolution of Con¬ 
sciousness”). Some success has been undoubtedly reached 
by these authors in framing a conceivable hypothesis for 
the transition from the “ rudimentary ” mental faculties of 
brutes to those fully developed in the human mind. Con¬ 
science is thus traced back, by Darwin, to a germinal ap¬ 
pearance in the higher animals, originated by conflicts be¬ 
tween “permanent social instincts and affections” and 
“more transitory individual instincts and propensities.” 
Yet there is obviously truth in the statement of Huxley, 
that between the mind of the highest anthropoid apes and 
that of man there is an “enormous gap”—a distance 
“practically infinite.” Tyndall also is often quoted on 
this subject (Address to Physical Section of British Associ¬ 
ation, 1868) as follows': “ The passage from the physics of 
the brain to the corresponding facts of consciousness is un¬ 
thinkable. . . . Were our minds and senses so expanded, 
strengthened, and illuminated as to enable us to see and 
feel the very molecules of the brain; were we capable of 
following all their motions, all their groupings, all their 
electric discharges, if such there be; and were we inti¬ 
mately acquainted with the corresponding states of thought 
and feeling,—we should be as far as ever from the solution 
of the problem, ‘ How are these physical processes con¬ 
nected with the facts of consciousness?’ The chasm be¬ 
tween the two classes of phenomena would still remain in¬ 
tellectually impassable.” Aristotle was impressed with a 
similar conviction more than two thousand years ago, when 
he wrote (De Gen. Anim. II., iii., 10) that reason has 


















1656 EVOLUTION, HYPOTHESIS OF. 


nothing in common with the material elements of the body, 
but that it alone comes from without, and is divine: “Aei- 
7T€Tai Se tov vovv fjLovov 0vpa0ev «7reisieVai sal 0eiov eivcu p.6vov.” 
It does not need for us to determine here upon a precise 
theory of the nature of mind to enable us to see how these 
conclusions bear upon the supposition of the spontaneous 
evolution of mind from matter, as well as somewhat less 
directly upon that of the spontaneous ascent of the mind 
of the brutes up to that of man. 

The probable method of evolution of instincts in ani¬ 
mals, by “accumulated and transmitted experiences” (Dar¬ 
win, Spencer), or as “lapsed intelligence” (G. H. Lewes), 
has been well studied of late by the authors quoted, and by 
Carpenter, Spalding, Wallace, and many others. (See 
Instinct.) Here also we have to stop, at last, at the yet 
unbridged gap between insensitive, unconscious matter and 
sensitive, impressible nerve-substance, capable at first of 
reflex automatic action, and then, higher, of intelligence, 
impulse, and volition. 

We are now prepared to approach a conclusion by at¬ 
tempting an answer to the question whether the facts giv¬ 
ing strength to the hypothesis of evolution really eliminate 
the evidence of design, of special purposes, in nature; and 
whether, admitting “creation” in any sense, science com¬ 
pels us to remit it altogether to an inconceivably remote 
origin of the universe. For the following reasons, princi¬ 
pally, we must unite with Carpenter, Dana, Agassiz, Henry, 
Sir John Ilerschel, Sir William Thomson, Asa Gray, and 
many other recent scientists of the highest class in denying 
absolutely the insufficiency of the proofs of design in na¬ 
ture ; and also in refusing to admit the elimination of spe¬ 
cial creative action or direct modification of nature from 
all periods since the first origination of the universe. 

1. As Whewell (Indications of the Creator) has pointed 
out, the nebular hypothesis is null without a creative act to 
produce the required “ inequality of distribution ” of cos¬ 
mic matter in space. Haeckel (Nat. History of Creation, 
Berlin, 1868) admits that the hypothesis is weak on at least 
two points—the heat of the gaseous nebular mass, and its 
rotary motion. “Every attempt,” he adds, “to explain 
these facts leads us inevitably to the untenable theory of an 
absolute beginning.” We may avoid the contradiction 
herein involved by holding simply that what is inevitable 
must be pre-eminently a tenable conclusion. Herbert Spen¬ 
cer has also committed himself to a self-destructive process 
of reasoning in his “First Principles,” as has been clearly 
shown by an American reviewer ( New Englander, Jan., 
1872, and Jan., 1873). The “instability of the homogene¬ 
ous,” on which Spencer builds large consequences, might, 
as that reviewer observes, account for chaos, but never for 
a universe. For action and reaction there must be hetero¬ 
geneity, a plurality of factors. Traced backward, the 
principle of “uniformity of force” in physics must neces¬ 
sarily have been powerless to make any beginning whatever. 
Carried forward without designing will-force to modify 
them, natural cosmic forces tend always to equilibration, 
and consequent dissolution. The universe must thus be¬ 
come, as it has been said, “its own cemetery.” Sir William 
Thomson asserts ( On Geological Dynamics ) that “ as energy 
is being continually lost from the earth by conduction 
through the upper strata, the whole quantity of plutonic 
energy must have been greater in past times than in the 
present.” Yet in organic nature there has been a con¬ 
stantly increasing complexity and exaltation of types—in¬ 
tegration of matter with accumulation of force (“bottled 
sunshine ” of some authors); and this under the “ struggle 
for existence” against a steadily increasing resistance. As 
stated by Prof. Cope (Method of Creation of Organic Types, 
1871), ‘.‘While the amount of growth-force potential in 
adult living animals has varied very irregularly throughout 
the animal kingdom, there being large and small, simple 
and complex, in every division, it would seem to have ac¬ 
cumulated, on the whole, with the rising scale of animal 
types.” Mivart’s special hypothesis of an “internal force” 
determinative of evolutionary changes in organisms is 
vague and unsatisfactory while detached from the “will- 
force” (Wallace) of an immanent Creative Power. The 
“ unconscious intelligence ” of Morell, Laycock, and J. J. 
Murphy is certainly an unthinkable phrase, a “pseudo¬ 
idea,” when proposed as the designation of an active power 
in nature. The presumption against organic evolution, 
with true ascent of types, being in any sense the result of 
the action of mere cosmic forces, is of the same nature 
with that against perpetual motion; it contradicts the 
doctrine of the conservation or persistence of force. As 
Leifchild puts it (Higher Ministry of Nature, pp. 325, 327), 
the assertion that “ No-will has evolved will ” is as absurd 
as “ ex nihilo aliquid.” 

2. Variation is necessary to the Darwinian or any other 
“ non-teleological ” theory; and no such theory accounts for 
variation. Darwin requires also almost infinite variability 


I of plants and animals; but, so far from infinite, observation 
shows it to be confined within very narrow limits. The 
non-fertility of hybrids of two nearly-allied species is a very 
important indication of the present fixedness of those lim¬ 
itations. Also, species do not pass, in any case, into each 
other. Paleontology and recent zoology and botany are 
declared by Agassiz, Barrande, Dawson, Gould, Balfour, 
and Thomson to establish this. Thus writes Sir William 
Thomson (Nature, Nov. 9, 1871): “In successive geolog¬ 
ical formations, although new species are constantly appear¬ 
ing, and there is abundant evidence of progressive change, 
no single case has yet been observed of one species passing 
through a series of inappreciable modifications into an¬ 
other.” Embryology is regarded by Agassiz as affording 
concurrent testimony in regard to the essential diversity 
of types. In a lecture at Cambridge, Mass., Mar. 6, 1873, 
he used the following language : “No invertebrate animal 
has any structural relation to man whatever, while every 
member of his own type has an intimate structural relation 
with him. You may compare a quadruped in certain 
phases of its growth with the adult condition of some lower 
kinds of vertebrates, and be amazed at the resemblance; but 
you cannot carry the comparison over into the type of ar¬ 
ticulates, or into any other type of the animal kingdom 
based upon a different plan. Within each type the devel¬ 
opment has a character as distinct as the plan on which the 
type is built. An insect, for instance, can never at any time 
of its development, after it has passed out of that universal 
condition of the ovarian egg to which I alluded, be com¬ 
pared to an oyster or a fish, but it passes through phases 
where it can hardly be distinguished from a worm ; that is, 
in the course of its development it bears a transient likeness 
to the adult condition of a being standing lower in the type 
of articulates to which they both belong. In short, every 
animal belonging to any one of the higher groups, during 
the transformations by which he reaches the adult state, 
may pass through modified conditions, in each of which he 
resembles some being of his own type of the animal king¬ 
dom for whom that condition is final.” 

3. Were variation infinite, without the regulation of se¬ 
lective or directive design, a simple calculation of probabil¬ 
ities (see “North British Review,” June, 1867) shows that 
a merely chaotic complication of forms must result, the 
“struggle for existence” notwithstanding. 

4. Infinite time has been proposed as affording a solution 
of the difficulties of natural selection. But infinite time 
would not alter the nature of the necessary result of infinite 
variations, nor would it regulate finite ones. Further, Sir 
William Thomson, Croll, and Gould have shown, from vari¬ 
ous data, that so far from infinite time, not more than one 
hundred millions of years can have been the duration of 
the present relation of our planet to the sun—a period 
quite too short (were any duration of time sufficient) for 
the genesis of organic nature merely by spontaneous modi¬ 
fication and natural selection. 

5. Without design (as Mivarthas shown) incipient struc¬ 
tures, which become useful only when completely developed, 
have no explanation at all. Further items of fact unex¬ 
plained, apart from teleology, are—the opposition of the 
sexes in plants and animals; the metamoiphoses of insects; 
the cessation of the individual life; and the renewal of life- 
progress by parental reproduction. Moreover, as to the or¬ 
igin of a new species, whose relation to an earlier allied 
species is supposed to be similar to the connection between 
the different stages of the life of one individual, we have 
the fact of individual reproduction exemplified under our 
knowledge; but what, corresponds, in the birth of a new 
type, to the sexual reproduction of a new individual, espe¬ 
cially in the case of the first created type ? 

Accepting, then, with Herbert Spencer, the evidence found 
everywhere of the unity of the “ inscrutable universal 
Power ” which is the Cause of nature, there is proof, also, in 
the multiplicity and adjustment of the manifestations of that 
Power, that it has the attributes of Intelligence and Will. 
Every specialization, each true elevation of type (which is 
a different thing from modification on the same plane of 
being), involves new force-expenditure. Certain factors 
have been added in the evolution of nature whose origin is 
a “ mystery ” as yet quite unsolved by science. It is ra¬ 
tional and philosophical, therefore, in the absence of any 
solution by secondary causation, to refer them, provision¬ 
ally at least, to the direct creative action (whether sudden 
or gradual we cannot know) of the First Cause. Such “fac¬ 
tors,” superadded from time to time in the past history of 
our globe, have been—1, life ; 2, animality, as distinct from 
vegetative life; 3, mind-force, instinct, intelligence, \}/vxr ); 
4, TTvevua- or spirit (see 1 Cor. xv. 46), possessed by man alono 
of all creatures on the earth. While Theism must rest es¬ 
sentially upon evidence other and higher than that of phys¬ 
ical science, it would appear that the facts of evolution 
tend to confirm and strengthen that evidence. “ If there 














EVOLUTIONS, MILITARY—EWALD. 


1657 


lias been an evolution,” writes Canon Kingsley, “ there 
must be an Evolver.” “Let us hope,” says Prof. Gray 
[Addresabejore Am. Associa.for Adv. Science, 1872), «that 
the religious faith which survived, without a shock, the 
notion of the fixity of the earth itself, may equally outlast 

v, a ^ so * u ^ e fixity of the species which in- 

habit it that in the future, even more than in the past, 
taith in an order, which is the basis of science, will not (as 
it cannot reasonably) be dissevered from faith in an Or- 
dainer, which is the basis of religion.” We find develop- 
ment in the succession of divine dispensations described in 
the Old and New Testaments—of the patriarchs, of Moses, 
the judges, prophets, and kings in the Old, and of Christ 
in the New Covenant. “ The law made nothing perfect, but 
the bringing in of a better hope did.” (Heb. vii. 19.) 

Evolution in Human History —Dr. McCosh has referred 
(Christianity and Positivism, 1872) to some phases of the 
progress of mankind, of which three stages are distinguish- 
a tde the era of the predominance of physical force, that 
of intellectual supremacy, and that (hardly culminated as 
yet) of moral and spiritual power. 

As a question in archaeology, it has been often argued 
whether man was originally savage (Tylor, Lubbock, Dar¬ 
win), and thence self-elevated into civilization, or was at 
the beginning (Whately) supernaturally gifted with such 
knowledge as prepared him for refined life and culture, 
afterwards, in many places, to be lost and regained, again 
and again, through the ages. Neither of these alternatives 
compels our entire or exclusive assent. Probably man was 
at first infantile or puerile, both in innocency and ignor¬ 
ance. (See “Primeval Man,” by the Duke of Argyll.) 
Normally in communion with his Maker, his destination 
was to continue morally pure and to advance in mental 
culture. History shows, instead, barbaric degeneration to 
have been the rule before the Christian era, with partial 
renewals and expansions of civilization in certain localities 
at different times. There is no proven instance of any 
nation or race having initiated its own advancement out 
of barbarism, while there are many examples of the dete¬ 
rioration of powerful empires and centres of magnificent 
culture into the savage or almost savage state. Always a 
force from without has begun the elevation of a race or 
community. Where history has failed to reach such be¬ 
ginnings, tradition follows its clues towards them, and al¬ 
ways with the same indication—Egypt from India, Greece 
by Cadmus, Rome from Greece* Europe first from Rome, 
and afterwards from Palestine. 

If India and China furnish no clear traces of such for¬ 
eign origins of their advancement, what does this amount 
to? In the one instance, an old culture vanishing away; 
in the other, petrifaction into a half civilization, ceasing, 
many centuries since, to make further progress. After 
Greece and Rome had exemplified and fallen from the very 
culmination of intellectual and imperial development, the 
world (it may be believed) would have totally degenerated 
into a more than mediaeval darkness but for the coming of 
a “force from above” in the advent of Christianity. By 
it, as now known in Europe and America, has been made 
possible and actual, for the first time in the world’s his¬ 
tory, a continuously progressive civilization. 

We may conclude this article by a brief general state¬ 
ment upon the whole subject of development: “ The only 
idea of creation which is at all conceivable is creation by a 
process, the steps of which have a succession, which, if 
known, would be rationally comprehensible.” So regarded, 
evolution or development is the only expression according 
to which any consistent statement of the facts of nature 
can be made. But evolution is not a force, cause, or 
“ law.” It is a summary term for the general mode of 
succession of the complex results of all natural forces and 
laws under the Divine government. 

Henry Hartshorne. 

Evolutions, Military, the movements by which 
troops change the order, position, and direction of their 
primary formation. All such movements as marching, 
countermarching, changing front, forming line, facing, 
wheeling, defiling, deploying, etc., come under the general 
head of evolutions. All evolutions are performed accord¬ 
ing to a regulated system, which differs in its details in the 
armies of different nations. 

Ev'ora (anc. Ebora and Liberahtas Julia), a town of 
Portugal, capital of the province of Alemtejo, is pleasantly 
situated about 73 miles by rail E. by S. from Lisbon. It 
has two ruined forts, a large Gothic cathedral founded in 
1180, several convents, and a library of about 50,000 vol¬ 
umes. It has been an archbishop s see since 1541. Hero 
are manufactures of ironware and leather. Ebora was 
taken by Sertorius about 80 B. C. Hero are Roman antiq¬ 
uities which are more interesting than any others in I or- 
tugal. Among them are an aqueduct said to have been 


built, by Sertorius; a temple of Diana with beautiful Co¬ 
rinthian columns; and a brick tower adorned with columns 
of the Ionic order. Pop. 11,965. 

Evremond (Charles de Saint-Denis), seigneur do 
Saint-Evremond, a French courtier and litterateur, born 
near Coutances, in Normandy, April 1, 1613. He was witty 
and accomplished, a perfect specimen of an Epicurean of 
that time, squandering his life in the pursuit of frivolous 
pleasures, but ready to give it up at any moment for the 
sake of a bon-mot. He entered the army about 1629, and 
became a friend of Turenne and the prince of Conde. Hav¬ 
ing given offence to Louis NIV. by his raillery and sarcastic 
wit, he took refuge in England in 1662. He gained the 
favor of Charles II., who granted him a pension of £300, 
and he never returned to France. He wrote dramas, essays, 
and letters, of which his “ Comedie des Academistes pour 
la Reformation de la Langue Francois” is an exceedingly 
witty, elegant, and entertaining production. His “Sir 
Politics,” which he made in company with Buckingham, 
is very weak. Died in Sept., 1703. 

E vreux, 3/vruh' (anc. Mediolanum, afterwards Eburo- 
vices), a city of France, capital of the department of Eure, 
is pleasantly situated on the Iton about 67 miles by rail 
W. N. W. of Paris, with which it is connected by railway. 
It is a bishop’s see, and has a fine old cathedral, an episco¬ 
pal palace, a theatre, a clock-tower built in 1417, and a 
botanic garden. Here are manufactures of cotton and 
woollen fabrics, leather, etc. Evreux has sustained numer¬ 
ous sieges. It was taken and pillaged by Rollo the Norman 
in 892 A. D., and was burned by Henry I. of England in 
1119. Pop. 12,320. 

Evron, a town of France, in the department of Mayenne. 
Here is an ancient Benedictine abbey. The chief manu¬ 
facture is table linen. Pop. 5243. 

Ew'ald (Johannes), a Danish poet, was born in Copen¬ 
hagen in 1743. In his early youth he lost his father, who 
was a minister, and soon after, yielding to the fantastic 
impulses of his nature, he gave up his studies and enlisted 
in the Prussian army. He felt very disappointed, how¬ 
ever, as people of his character always do when they meet 
the reality. He deserted and joined the Austrians. But 
they did not satisfy him either. He deserted a second 
time, and returned to Copenhagen, where he spent the rest 
of his life as a literary man. He died in 1781 in utter pov¬ 
erty and degradation : he was a drunkard. In his literary 
business, however, Ewald was very industrious and con¬ 
scientious. All his works bear evidence of gi’eat study, 
deep meditation, and untiring labor; there is no rashness, 
no halfness about them. He did the very best he could. 
Yet his writings—with the exception of some few genuine 
pearls among his songs, as “ King Christian,” which be¬ 
came the national hymn of the Danes, “ Liden Gunver,” 
“ Rungsted’s Lyksalighed,” etc., and his essay “ On Bache¬ 
lors,” which is a specimen of the most elegant humor—are 
marked with the same empty enthusiasm and fantastic 
excitement as was his life. The innermost kernel of his 
tragedies “Adam and Eve” and “ Balder’s Death” is 
vapor. To a sound taste they are tiresome and unpleasant. 
They are interesting only as historical documents to the 
scholar who does not consider them from a merely artistic 
point of view, but looks at them in their connection with 
the period in which they were produced. Ilolberg had 
taught the Danish people how to read. He had made 
them eager after books. Through his influence it had be¬ 
come as necessary for them to have a literature as to keep 
an army. But he had not taught them how to write. He 
had left them as types no models which could be used; 
and it took two generations before he came who did— 
Adam Oehlenslager. Meanwhile, the public arranged it¬ 
self into two camps—one, “ The Norwegian Club,” import¬ 
ing French forms and French tastes; and the other, “ The 
Danish Society,” importing German ideas and German 
principles. Klopstock lived at that time at the Danish 
court, from which he had a pension, and Ewald, who was 
his admirer, and who in the Danish literature represents 
the same ideas, though not tho same influence as Klop¬ 
stock in the German, became the hero of “ Tho Danish 
Society.” A fearful battle issued between these two par¬ 
ties—noise and smoke, rattling and booming, as from tho 
fight of two hostile armies. What was said during tho 
evening in the club or in tho society became the topic of 
conversation next day all over the country, from the draw¬ 
ing-room to the barber-shop, and fifty years later old men 
would still tell with pride how they had been present when 
this or that epigram was first recited or this or that song 
first sung. Fearful also was the result of the battle, for in 
artistic respects it was next to nothing. 

Among all which the Danish literature produced between 
Holberg°and Oehlenslager that which is good can be road 
in one short hour, and no great harm would be done if it 

























1658 EWALD, VON—EXARCHATE. 


were forgotten in the next. But by studying the period in 
its details, it is possible to show how all the mental powers 
of the nation then awakened, and how they sought and 
found the same course, until at last, through Oehlenslager, 
they broke forth in one broad, glittering stream, useful to 
the world; and in this study every line of Ewald is inter¬ 
esting and important, y Clemens Petersen. 

E'wald, von (Georg Heinrich August), a celebrated 
German Orientalist and biblical critic, born at Gottingen 
Nov. 16, 1803. He became in 1831 professor of philosophy 
in the University of Gottingen, and he obtained the chair 
of Oriental languages in 1835. In 1837 he was removed on 
account of his liberal political opinions; he and five other 
professors, among whom were Gervinus and Grimm, sol¬ 
emnly protesting against the abolition of the free consti¬ 
tution which the Hanoverian king had felt himself com¬ 
pelled to give during the revolutionary commotions in 
1830. Ewald went to Tubingen as professor in theology 
in 1838, but his position here was not very pleasant, as he 
had to defend himself against the attacks and intrigues 
both of the Roman Catholic party and the Hegelians. He 
was reinstated in his chair at Gottingen in 18-18, and was 
elected a member of the North German Parliament in 1869. 
Among his numerous works are a “ Hebrew Grammar” 
(8th ed. 1870), “The Poetical Books of the Old Testament” 
(4 vols., 1835-37), a “History of the People of Israel until 
the Advent of Christ” (“Geschichte des Volkes Israel bis 
auf Christus,” 7 vols., 3d ed. 1864-69), “ The History of 
Christ and his Time” (1857), and “The History of the 
Apostolic Age” (1858). In 1848 he founded at Gottingen 
“The Year-Book of Biblical Science” (“Jahrbuch der 
Biblischen Wissenchaft”). About the influence which he 
exercised on the theological study of the Bible there may 
be different opinions, but his contributions to a better 
understanding of the language of the Old Testament are 
of undoubted value. 

Ew'bank (Thomas), a writer on mechanics, was born 
in the county of Durham, England, Mar. 11, 1792. He 
emigrated to New York in his youth, and was appointed 
commissioner of patents by the President of the U. S. in 
1849. He published, besides other works, a“ Descriptive 
and Historical Account of Hydraulic and other Machines, 
Ancient and Modern” (1812), and “Thoughts on Matter 
and Force” (1858). Died Sept. 16, 1870. 

Ew'ell (Benjamin S.), LL.D., an American officer and 
educator, born in 1810 in the District of Columbia, gradu¬ 
ated at West Point in 1832, served while lieutenant of artil¬ 
lery as assistant professor at the Military Academy, till he 
resigned, Sept. 30,1836 ; civil engineer (1836-39), professor 
of mathematics at Hampden-Sidney College, Ya. (1839-42), 
and of mathematics and natural philosophy (1842-46), pro¬ 
fessor of mathematics and military science in Washington 
College, Ya. (1846-48), professor of mathematics and acting 
president of William and Mary College, Va. (1848-49), pro¬ 
fessor of mathematics and natural sciences (1849-61), and 
president of William and Mary College (1854-61) and since 
the civil war. George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Ewell (Richard,Stoddard), General, born Oct., 1816, 
in the District of Columbia, graduated at West Point in 
1840, served on the Western frontier (1840-45), on coast 
survey (1846), in the war with Mexico (1846-48), engaged 
at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco, Molino 
del Rey, and Chapultepec; became captain of dragoons in 
1849, and did frontier duty in New Mexico (1850-61), and 
engaged on the Gila and Pinal Apache expeditions (1857 
and 1859), encountering the Apaches on the Gila River in 
a skirmish. Resigning May 7, 1861, from the U. S. army, 
he joined the Southern forces in the civil war, serving in 
the Manassas campaign (1861), engaged at Blackburn’s 
Ford and Bull Run (1862), engaged at White Oak Swamp 
and Cedar Mountain, defeated at Kettle Run, and engaged 
at Manassas (1862), in the Maryland campaign (1862), in 
which he was severely wounded; became lieutenant-general 
in 1863, and succeeded Stonewall Jackson at his request, 
being in command of Second Corps at Winchester, Gettys¬ 
burg, Wilderness, and subsequent operations of the cam¬ 
paign ; and was captured April 6, 1865, at Sailor’s Creek. 
He was a bold, blunt, honest soldier, and on the collapse of 
the Southern Confederacy accepted in good faith its results. 
Died Jan. 25, 1872, near Spring Hill, Tenn. 

George W. Cullum, U. S. A. 

Ew'ing, a post-village in Franklin co., Ill., 8 miles 
N. E. of Benton, noted for its large woollen-factory, and as 
the seat of the Ewing High School, a flourishing institu¬ 
tion. J. S. Barr, Pub. “Benton Standard.” 

Ewing, a township of Mercer co., N. J. Pop. 2477. 

Ewing, a post-village of Washington township, Hock¬ 
ing co., 0. Pop. 50. 

Ewing (Charles), LL.D., born in Burlington co., 


N. J., July 8, 1780, graduated at Princeton in 1798, was 
called to the bar in 1802, practised at Trenton, and was 
chief-justice of New Jersey 1824-32. Died Aug. 5, 1832. 

Ewing (Rev. Finis), one of the fathers of the Cumber¬ 
land Presbyterian Church, was born in Bedford co., Va., 
July 10, 1773, of Scotch-Irish stock, and is said to have 
studied for a time in college. He removed to a place near 
Nashville, Tenn., and in 1823 married a daughter of Gen. 
William Davidson, joined a Presbyterian church, and soon 
after removed to Kentucky. Awakened in 1800 to a new 
religious life, he was licensed to preach, and in 1803 was 
ordained by the Cumberland Presbytery. His ordination 
not being recognized by the Kentucky synod, the presby¬ 
tery being dissolved, and the action of the synod being 
sustained by the General Assembly, he with two others in 
1810 formed the germ of the new Cumberland Presbyterian 
Church. In 1820 he removed to Missouri. Died at Lexing¬ 
ton, Mo., July 4, 1841. 

Ewilig (John), D. D., an American Presbyterian minis¬ 
ter, born in Nottingham, Md., June 22, 1732. He became 
pastor of the First Presbyterian church of Philadelphia in 
1759, and provost of the University of Pennsylvania in 
1779. Died in Sept., 1802. 

Ewing (Thomas), LL.D., a statesman, was born in 
Ohio co., Va., Dec. 28, 1789. In 1792 he removed with his 
parents to Ohio. In his youth he prepared himself for col¬ 
lege by night-study while employed in the Kanawha salt¬ 
works. In 1815 he graduated at Ohio University at Athens, 
receiving the first degree of A. B. ever conferred in that 
State. He was called to the bar in 1816, and was U. S. 
Senator from Ohio (1831-37 and 1850-51), U. S. secretary 
of the treasury (1841) under Harrison, and secretary of the 
interior under Taylor (1849). He was the father of Gen. 
Thomas Ewing and father-in-law of Gen. W. T. Sherman. 
Died Oct. 26, 1871. 

Ewilig (Thomas, Jr.), a son of the foregoing, was born 
at Lancaster, 0., Aug. 7, 1829, was educated at Brown Uni¬ 
versity, was private secretary of President Taylor (1849-50) 
studied law at Cincinnati, removed in 1856 to Leavenworth, 
Kan., was chief-justice of Kansas (1861-62), colonel of the 
Eleventh Kansas Volunteers, 1862, served with distinction 
in the civil war, chiefly in Missouri and Arkansas, becom¬ 
ing a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1863, and major- 
general by brevet in 1864. Since the war he has been a 
lawyer in Washington, D. C. 

Ew'ington, a post-village of Huntingdon township, 
Gallia co., 0. Pop. 191. 

Ex'actions [from Lat. exactiones, tallice ] was a legal 
term of ecclesiastical jurisprudence, used in the Middle 
Ages to denote such duties or contributions, demanded by 
the clergy of their parishioners, as were extraordinary, 
either because they were new and against custom, or be¬ 
cause their amount was unduly increased. They were il¬ 
licit, and it was found necessary repeatedly to denounce 
their unlawfulness. The power of the clergy over their 
parishioners, or of the bishops over the subordinate clergy, 
was so great that it was easy for them to make the most 
outrageous exactions. In 589 the third Council of Toledo 
forbade the bishops “exactiones diociesi vel damna infli- 
gare;” and the meaning of this is more exactly defined by 
Leo IV., who in 853 forbade the bishops to exact from the 
clergy and ecclesiastical institutions of their dioceses “da- 
tiones ultra statuta patrum aut super appositse in angariis.” 
Yet, in 1179, Alexander III. found it necessary to repeat: 

“ Prohibemus ne ab abbatibus, vel episcopis, aliisve prm- 
latis novi census imponantur ecclesiis, nec veteres augean- 
tur, nec partem redituum suis usibus appropriare praosu- 
mant.” 

Exarch [Gr. efap^o?, a “leader”] was in ancient Greece 
the title given to him who conducted the dramatic chorus 
during the performance, as distinguished from the cory- 
phieus and the choregos; the former of which titles denoted 
the teacher of the chorus, him who taught them the songs 
and dances, which office generally was filled by the author 
of the play; while the latter title, that of choregos, simply 
was given to some rich citizen who supplied tire costs of 
the outfit of the chorus. 

Later on the title was used in the Eastern Church to de¬ 
note the highest ecclesiastical dignity, and was bestowed on 
the bishops of Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus, Caesarea, 
and Constantinople, but was soon exchanged in most places 
for that of patriarch, though it never was wholly abolished. 
At present it denotes a chancellor or deputy under the pa¬ 
triarch in the Russian Greek Church. He travels as a dele¬ 
gate from the patriarch through the diocese, investigating 
the discipline of the monasteries and the observance of tho 
canons, and forming a kind of court of appeals in all eccle¬ 
siastical cases arising botween tho clergy and the people. 

Ex archatc, the titlo of exarch was, for some time, ap- 














EXAUVILLIEZ 


plied also to civil dignitaries of the highest rank—to the 
viceroys who ruled over those border provinces of the By¬ 
zantine empire which were most exposed to the danger of 
being invaded by the barbarians. Thus, an exarchate was 
established in Africa in 534, and existed till 698, when it 
was finally overthrown by the Arabian conquest. The 
most important of these exarchates, however, was that es¬ 
tablished in Italy in the time of Justinian I. by Narses. 
In 552, Narses, who originally was a eunuch belonging to 
the household of Justinian, but who turned out a military 
commander and statesman of great talent, led an army con¬ 
sisting of Lombards, Huns, Ileruli, Armenians, and Per¬ 
sians—which incongruous mass he swayed with indomit¬ 
able power—along the coasts of the Adriatic, until he, S. 
of Ravenna, crossed the Apennines and met the Goths at 
Tagina, where he totally defeated them ; their king Totila 
fell in the battle. Narses now took Rome, and the end of 
the Ostrogothic empire in Italy was at hand. Teias, the 
successor of Totila, was defeated and slain in a battle at 
the banks of the Sarno, near Naples, which lasted two 
days, and Narses immediately commenced the organization 
of Italy as a province of the Bj^zantine empire. He had 
to fight once more, however. New swarms of barbarians, 
mostly consisting of Franks and Alemanni, poured down 
the Alps and spread devastation before them wherever they 
came. Narses waited for some time, but when he saw that 
the luxurious and riotous life to which Italy induced them 
had thoroughly demoralized them, he attacked them at 
Casilinum in Campania, and hardly 5000 out of 75,000 
escaped from the massacre. From this time (554-567) Nar¬ 
ses ruled Italy as a province of the Byzantine empire, under 
the title of exarch, and with full civil, military, and judi¬ 
cial authority. After his death, in 567, followed Flavius 
Longinus, and the Roman exarchate continued to exist, 
though with various fortunes, till 752. The exarchs placed 
duces (dukes) at the head of the administration of the dif¬ 
ferent provinces, but the dukes of Venice and Naples soon 
made themselves independent. So did the bishop of Rome, 
Gregory II., and the dominion of the exarchs, by degrees, 
dwindled down to a very limited extension, comprising only 
a few provinces of Central Italy around the city of Ravenna, 
which was their residence. The last exarch was Eutychius. 
In 752, Aistulf, king of the Lombards, conquered Ravenna, 
but in 755 he had to give most of the possessions of the 
exarchate to the see of Rome, compelled to do so by Pe¬ 
pin the Little. The title of exarch was used, however, in 
Western Europe as a civil and military title till the middle 
of the twelfth century. Clemens Petersen. 

Exauvilliez (Philippe-Irenet Boistel d’), a French 
author, was born at Amiens Dec. 6, 1786. In 1815 he lost 
the greater part of his fortune, and went to seek some em¬ 
ployment. Having failed to secure any, he turned to lit¬ 
erature, and wrote a great number of religious and moral 
sketches and pamphlets, which were not without effect. His 
essay, “ Le Bibliotheque de Saint-Gervais,” 1831, gave the 
first impulse to the establishment of small libraries all over 
France, which have proved of great benefit to the general 
elevation of the people. Exceedingly curious is his trans¬ 
lation of Walter Scott’s novels (1840), from which he blot¬ 
ted out every passage which in any way could be inter¬ 
preted as telling against the Roman Catholic religion, and 
also all love-passages as far as possible. He was editor of 
the “ Journal des Personnes pieuses.” Died in 1858. 

Excam'bion [from the It. cam'bio, “exchange ”], in 
Scotland, is the legal name for an exchange of lands, or the 
contract by which one piece of land is exchanged for an¬ 
other. Heirs possessing under deeds of entail are em¬ 
powered to exchange or excamb certain portions of the 
entailed lands. 

Ex Cathedra, a Latin phrase originally applied to de¬ 
cisions given by popes or prelates from their cathedra (chair), 
i. e. in a solemn judicial manner. Hence it is applied to 
every decision pronounced by any one in the exercise of his 
proper authority, as a judge on the bench, etc. 

Ex'cellency [Lat. excellen'tia , from excello, to “ex¬ 
cel ”], a title of honor which was borne successively by the 
medi£eval Lombard kings, by several emperors of the West, 
and by other Italian potentates. It is now given to am¬ 
bassadors, governors of British colonies, and tho governor 
of Massachusetts. The President of the U. S. and the gov¬ 
ernors of many of the States have the same title by cour¬ 
tesy. 

Excelmans, or Exclmans (Remi Joseph Isidore), 
Baron, a French marshal, born at Bar-le-duc Nov. 13, 
1775. He entered the army in 1791, and became aide-de- 
camp to Murat in 1801. He served with distinction at 
Austerlitz (1805), and gained tho rank of general of bri¬ 
gade for his conduct at Eylau (1807). In tho Russian 
campaign (1812) he commanded a division, and gave proof 
of much skill. lie directed a corps at tho battle ot W atcr- I 


-EXCHANGE. 1659 


loo (1815), after which he passed four years in exile. He 
was restored to his title as a peer in 1831, and became a 
marshal of France in 1851. Died July, 1852. 

Excel'sior [the comparative degree of tho Lat. excel' - 
8U8, “high,” “elevated”] signifies “higher.” It is the 
motto of the State of New York. 

Excelsior, a post-township of Hennepin co., Minn. 
Pop. 335. 

Excelsior, a township of Sauk eo., Wis. Pop. 874. 

Exchange. 1, Theory of; 2, Bills of; 3, Par of; 4, 
Usance of ; 5, Bourse. 

1. The Theory and Practice of Exchange would demand 
but little elucidation were the moneys of all countries the 
same. Unfortunately, this is not the case, and a simple 
matter becomes in consequence enveloped in much per¬ 
plexity. Exchange is simjdy the equivalent or transfer of 
a given weight of pure metal in the coins of one country 
for the same weight in those of another. This quantity, 
when exactly expressed in the coins of the two countries, 
is called the par of exchange between them. Thus, the par 
of exchange between the U. S. and England is £1 = $4.87, 
gold, because it requires precisely the weight of pure metal 
contained in the latter sum to equal the weight of pure 
metal in an English sovereign. It is, however, customarily 
expressed in this country thus : 109§ ; nine and five-eighths 
per cent, being the difference between the value of the 
pound sterling, $4.44, as fixed by the act of Mar. 2, 1799, 
and the true present value, or $4.87. The act of 1799 was 
based on the then value of the pound in Spanish silver dol¬ 
lars, and although amended by act of July 14, 1832, making 
the pound $4.80, and again by act of July 27,1842, making 
it $4.84, the ancient custom has prevailed. The subject of 
exchange is much complicated by the fact that not only are 
the coins of various countries of various weights, the units of 
which belong to discordant systems, but they are of various 
finenesses. Thus, the coins of England and America are 
aliquot parts or multiples of the Troy ounce, while those 
of France and continental Europe generally are metrical. 
British gold coins are 916§ thousandths fine, while Ameri¬ 
can, French, and the coins of continental Europe generally 
are 900 thousandths fine. Another source of perplexity 
arises from the fact that some countries (France, for exam¬ 
ple) employ two metals, silver and gold, as co-ordinate 
legal standards; and still another difficulty occurs when one 
country uses a gold standard and the other silver, as China, 
or paper, as Russia. In such cases there can be no true or 
fixed par of exchange, because the relative market value of 
gold and silver or paper credit (no matter what their legal 
relations may be) is constantly fluctuating. The only cor¬ 
rect mode of expressing exchange in such cases is to term 
it the usual par or the usual rate of exchange, as the case 
may be. When there is more money due to a foreign coun¬ 
try than there is due by that country to our own, bills of 
exchange upon that country are, with us, at a premium 
(which premium, however, can never permanently exceed 
the cost of transmitting bullion in the place of bills), and 
the exchange is then called adverse; vice versa, it is at a 
discount, and is called favorable. These phrases grew out 
of the old theory that trade was benefited when the flow of 
money was inward, and injured when the flow was out¬ 
ward ; but whatever the footing the terms once possessed, 
they are now erroneous and misleading. Adverse exchange 
only injures him who has to buy it, while it correspond¬ 
ingly benefits the seller. 

The fact as to the condition of the -exchanges is ascer¬ 
tained by the coming together of merchants and bankers 
having bills to buy or sell at some common place of re¬ 
sort, commonly called an exchange or a bourse. Here the 
contentions of buyers and sellers naturally result in a 
market price. 

It is commonly supposed that a balance of payments to 
be made by one country to another is the only cause that 
affects the shipment of specie or bullion, and consequently 
the rate of exchange, but this is erroneous. The exchanges 
do not depend on the balance of debts and credits with each 
country separately, but, so far as they depend at all on 
this cause, with those of all countries taken together. Thus, 
while exchange with England may bo adverse to us, it 
might at the same time be to a still greater extent favor¬ 
able to us with other countries. In such case we should pay 
our debts to England with bills on the latter countries. 
This is technically called arbitration of exchange. 

The prevailing theory of exchange is erroneous in other 
respects. Not only the balance of payments to be made, but, 
as before said, tho state of tho foreign exchanges generally ; 
the condition of the currency; taxation; the product of 
bullion and its relative value in various countries; the re¬ 
mittances made to this country to meet payments duo to 
othor countrios; tho political security of this and other 
countries with which it trades; tho temporary stato of the 















1000 EXCHANGE. 


money market; the comparative permanent rates of inter¬ 
est in this and other countries; the course of travel and 
emigration ; and the temporary movement of foreign com¬ 
merce as affected by war, subsidies, indemnities, block¬ 
ades, tariffs, etc.,—all these are sources of disturbance to 
exchange; and some of them often affect it much more 
seriously than a mere unknown and unknowable balance 
of payments between countries. Thus, when the rate of 
discount or loanable value of money in neighboring coun¬ 
tries differs, it is a common practice to fabricate bills of ex¬ 
change in the cheaper money market on the dearer, in 
order to transmit the money to the latter for more profit¬ 
able employment. 

2. Bills of Exchange. —Formerly, any written direction 
from one person to another to pay a sum of money to some 
person named, or his order, was called a bill of exchange. 
The term is now generally restricted to bills drawn on distant 
places, either inland or foreign. Though there is not lack¬ 
ing evidence that their use was perceived in more ancient 
times (especially in India), bills of exchange are essentially 
products of the Middle Ages, when commercial pursuits had 
outgrown their ancient stigma, and the great middle class 
first evolved itself from the ranks of men. It could not be 
until both commerce and commercial integrity—the essential 
basis of bills of exchange—were encouraged and protected 
by the laws that bills of exchange grew into use. This took 
place in the Italian republics about the middle of the 
twelfth century. The introduction of bills of exchange is 
more particularly ascribed to the Jews of Lombardy about 
A. D. 1164. The lower rates of interest for money which 
at that period prevailed in Italy, as compared with other 
commercial countries, bespeak a state of wealth and security 
that highly favors the supposition. Another important 
consideration is that although wealth, as compared with 
population, was increasing in Italy, it was at least station¬ 
ary throughout Europe generally, while money was gradu¬ 
ally disappearing from circulation in all countries through 
the failure of the mines; leaving a void which, until the 
opening of the mines of Potosi some centuries later, could 
only be filled by some negotiable form of credit. By the 
commencement of the fourteenth century bills of exchange 
were used in all the commercial states of Europe, but the 
custom of assigning them by endorsement does not appear 
to have grown into use until a long time afterward. 

The utility of bills of exchange is fivefold: 1st. They en¬ 
able a sum of money paid at one place to be exchanged for 
an equal sum received at another, thus obviating the ex¬ 
pense and risk of carrying the money from one place to an¬ 
other. It was to this office that they were originally con¬ 
fined. Money had to be transported under convoy, and 
consequently only in large sums and at great expense and 
risk. Pending such convoys, bills of exchange became in¬ 
struments of the highest value in completing the operations 
of commerce. As commerce increased, one set of bills was 
offset against another, treasure ceased to be transported ex¬ 
cept on rare occasions, and armed convoys in times of peace 
disappeared altogether. 2d. Bills of exchange postpone the 
day of payment, and enable debts to wholly or partly offset 
each other. 3d. They economize coinage. If, for want of 
bills of exchange, foreign debts were paid in coins, and the 
same carried from one country to another where they would 
be uncurrent, they would either have to be reshipped to 
their country of origin, or recoined, thus occasioning a 
deficit of coin in one place and a surplus in another. 4th. 
They equalize the rate of interest for money in various 
countries, as explained under the head of “ The Theory and 
Practice of Exchange/’ 5th. They economize currency by 
performing its functions. Pending the maturity of a bill 
of exchange the holder may use it in the purchase of com¬ 
modities, and assign it by endorsement to another party, 
who may assign it in turn to answer a similar purpose. In 
this way bills of exchange have sometimes numerous en¬ 
dorsements, each attesting a separate commercial transac¬ 
tion. The amount of bills of exchange in use among vari¬ 
ous commercial nations cannot be ascertained, varying as 
it does constantly with the demands of commerce, the mu¬ 
tations of credit, and many other circumstances. In 1825, 
a year of wild speculation, their amount outstanding in Eng¬ 
land was estimated at £400,000,000, while forty years later 
they scarcely exceeded £50,000,000. Through their use, 
and that of bank-cheques, instruments formerly classed as 
bills of exchange, all the large transactions of commerce are 
effected, leaving a much smaller amount of legal-tender 
money than formerly sufficient for the purposes of trade. 

Besides the drawer of a bill of exchange, there is a drawee, 
or person to whom it is directed, and who, when it has been 
presented and accepted, becomes the acceptor, and a, payee, 
or him to whom it is to be paid. The term endorser signi¬ 
fies one who previous to the payment of the bill may have 
endorsed it, while the person in whoso possession the bill is 
at any given period is called the holder. 


The chief characteristic of a bill of exchange is its nego¬ 
tiability, to ensure which it must possess several essential 
qualities. It must be dated; payable at a fixed time or upon 
the happening of an inevitable contingency; and payable 
in money. Wanting in these essentials, it becomes unne- 
gotiable, but is not necessarily vitiated as a contract be¬ 
tween the original parties; only in such case it falls to the 
rank of an ordinary personal contract, in which, for ex¬ 
ample, valuable consideration must be proved, not implied, 
and which is subject to any pleas, legal or equitable, that 
may exist between the parties and are pertinent to personal 
contracts generally. In a properly drawn bill of exchange 
it is not necessary to express a consideration, or even the 
ordinary words “ value received.” A bill of exchange given 
for a wager or involving usury or fraud is invalidated as 
between the original parties, but not to the injury of an in¬ 
nocent third pai'ty who holds it fairly. A stolen or lost bill 
is valid in the hands of an innocent party who employed 
ordinary circumspection as to its title. When acceptance 
or payment of a bill of exchange is refused it must be legally 
protested, in order to hold all the parties to it, and unless 
due notice of the same is given to the drawer and endorsers 
they are discharged from liability. Acceptance or payment 
supra protest is when a third party intervenes to save the 
honor of the bill. When a foreign bill is protested the law 
allows fixed damages against the delinquent. Inland bills 
of exchange have generally been subjected by statute to the 
same principles and rules that govern promissory notes. 
(See Promissory Note.) The drawee of a bill is entitled 
to keep it twenty-four hours after presentation for accept¬ 
ance. When the bill is payable at a certain time after 
sight, the acceptor should write upon it the date of the ac¬ 
ceptance. If a bill of exchange is not presented when due, 
all the parties except the drawer or acceptor are discharged 
from liability upon it. Stamps on bills of exchange in the 
U. S. were abolished by act of June 6, 1872, £ 36. 

3. Par of Exchange. —The par of exchange (the true or 
usual par) and the charges on gold remittances between 
New York and the principal money markets of Europe, re¬ 
spectively, are computed as follows : 

Sterling: par value of gold 9| per cent, premium, add 

charges, f per cent, premium, and i per cent, on the 

gross amount.—110.550 

Francs: par value of gold 517; less charges, II per cent...=510.538 
Dutch Guilders, based on sterling sight in Amsterdam at 

11.70, and in New York at 110.55.= 41.994 

Banco-Marcs, based on sterling sight in Hamburg at 13.31, 

and in New York at 110.55.= 37.1G9 

Frankfort Florins, based on sterling sight in Frankfort at 

117JJ, and in New York at 110.55.= 41.749 

Bremen Rixdollars , based on sterling sight in Bremen at 

612, and in New York at 110.55.= 80.283 

Prussian Thalers, based on sterling sight in Berlin at 6.22, 

and in New York at 110.55.= 72.970 

4. Usance of Exchange. —As the drawer of a bill of ex¬ 
change is supposed to be obliged to remit the money where¬ 
with to meet it, though this is not always the fact, custom 
has accorded him a certain time wherein to effect the trans¬ 
action. Thus, if a person pays a sum of money into a bank 
in Edinburgh and desires for it a bill on London, he will re¬ 
ceive one payable twenty days after date, exclusive of the 
customary three days’ grace. The interest on the sum dur¬ 
ing that time defrays the banker’s expense in transmitting 
the money from Edinburgh to London. In case the payee 
desires a bill payable at sight, the banker will deduct the 
interest at the market rate for twenty-three days, and give 
him a sight bill for the remainder. These twenty days are 
called the usance of exchange. The duration of the usance 
is a matter of custom, which settled it long previous to the 
advent of modern railways and steam-vessels. Previous to 
1825 the usance between Edinburgh and London was fifty 
days, and though it has since been reduced to twenty, it is 
still excessive, as indeed it is in most cases. The usance 
between New York and London is sixty days. 

5. Bourse. —A place of gathering for the transaction of 
commercial affairs. A Collegium Mercatorum existed at 
Rome 493 B. 0.; but the modern bourse (from Lat. 
bursa, a “ purse”) originated about the fifteenth century. 
Bruges and Amsterdam contend for the honor of having 
erected the first bourse. In 1566 a site was purchased on 
Cornhill, London, for an exchange, which was erected in 
1571, and called the Royal Exchange; destroyed by fire in 
1666; rebuilt, enlarged, in 1667; destroyed again by fire in 
1838, and rebuilt on a scale of greater magnificence in 1842. 
This edifice is the market in London for all classes of ne¬ 
gotiable paper, the corn and other produce exchanges being 
in the neighborhood of Mark and Mincing lanes. The 
next most celebrated bourse in Europe is that of Paris, 
built 1808-26; then those of Hamburg, Berlin, St. Peters¬ 
burg, and Amsterdam, the latter dating from 1613. 

The New York Stock Exchange owes its origin to an or¬ 
ganization of stock-brokers effected May 17, 1792. They 
subsequently occupied a building in Wall street, which was 





























EXCHANGE HOTEL—EXCISE. 


1661 


destiojed by fire in 1S35. A new building was erected on 
the same site in 18.J6-40. This was occupied by the stock¬ 
brokers for several years. They eventually erected their 
own building, the present Stock Exchange in Broad street, 
built 1866, cost $7 50,000. The entrance fee to the Stock Ex¬ 
change is $10,000; number of members, 1050, no limit; 
public admitted to the galleries free. Stocks are “ called ” 
from a list by a presiding officer at intervals during the day, 
and transactions invited and permitted in the stock “called” 
until the next stock is “ called.” These transactions fix the 
market price, at or near which a far greater amount of 
business is subsequently transacted. This system is entirely 
different from that pursued in Europe. Bills of exchange 
are not dealt in at the New York exchanges. During the 
civil war speculation in stocks and gold ran to such a 
height that several bourses were sustained during the day 
in the lower part of the city, besides one or more at night 
at or near the Fifth Avenue Hotel. 

The merchants, produce dealers, etc. have exchanges of 
their own, the principal one being the Produce Exchange 
in Whitehall street. Alexander Delmar. 

Exchange Hotel, a township of Montgomery co., 
Ala. Pop. 1600. 

Excheq'uer. The origin of the term commonly ac¬ 
cepted is that given by Madox in his “History of the Ex¬ 
chequer”— viz., from Fr. eschequier , “chessboard;” Lat. 
scaccarium. Madox attributes this to the fact that a cheq¬ 
uered cloth covered the table in the court of the excheq¬ 
uer of the Norman kings of England. The term is 
probably a corruption. The exchequer or court of the 
exchequer was formerly part of the curia regis, or king’s 
court, composed of the principal officers of state, held in 
or near the king’s palace, and often presided over by the 
monarch in person. The exchequer is traced to Normandy, 
whose conquering dukes carried the institution into Eng¬ 
land, Naples, etc. In time it became separated from the 
king’s court, though still presided over as before. It ad¬ 
judged causes or common pleas, transacted the ordinary 
business of the realm, and even important affairs of state 
policy, besides all matters relating to revenue and expendi¬ 
ture. After a gradual process of differentiation, it has be¬ 
come in modern days a superior court of revenue and com¬ 
mon law, its former fiscal functions being separately organ¬ 
ized as the treasury. This branch of the British govern¬ 
ment is managed by five lords commissioners—the first lord 
(the premier or leader of the ministry), the chancellor of the 
exchequer, and three others. A somewhat similar arrange¬ 
ment of the fiscal department of the government exists in 
the U. S. All fiscal affairs are entrusted to the treasury 
department, all juridical ones to the courts. The law in¬ 
vests the secretary of the treasury, who is the sole presid¬ 
ing officer of that institution, with numerous important 
discretionary powers, often requiring for their proper exer¬ 
cise the aid of judicial methods and rules ; but his decisions, 
in common with other causes of action, are subject to 
adjudication in the ordinary courts of law. The various 
States of the U. S. have treasury departments organized 
in a somewhat similar manner, except that the functions 
of the chief officer are commonly little more than minis¬ 
terial. The treasury of Great Britain and other countries, 
and from this pecuniary affairs generally, are called the 
exchequer. Alex. Delmar. 

Exchequer, Bills of, promissory notes issued from 
the British exchequer by authority of law, usually in lim¬ 
ited amounts, and for the purpose of anticipating the rev¬ 
enues. They bear interest, and are not a legal tender. 
Similar obligations were issued by the U. S. under act 
March 1, 1862, called certificates of indebtedness, payable 
in one year from date, or earlier at option of the govern¬ 
ment, and bearing interest at the rate of 6 per cent, per an¬ 
num. These have since been retired. Alex. Delmar. 

Exchequer Chamber, Court of, in England, was 
originally a court of all the judges in England, assembled 
for the decision of matters of law. By 1 Will. IV. c. (0, 
this court is constituted the proper tribunal for the trial 
of writs of error from the three superior courts of common 
law. The judges of two of these courts always form the 
court of appeal, which reviews the decisions of the third. 
(See Courts, by George Chase, LL.B.) 

Exchequer, Chancellor of the, is the title of the 
highest finance minister of the British government. This 
office is from its nature necessarily entrusted to a com¬ 
moner. When the prime minister is a member of the 
House of Commons, he sometimes holds the office of chan¬ 
cellor of the exchequer. 

Exchequer, Court of, in England, is one of the su¬ 
preme courts of common law. It was originally established 
for the recovery of the king’s debts and ordinary lcvenues 
of the Crown. The judges of this court consisted origi¬ 


nally of the lord treasurer, the chancellor of the exchequer, 
and three puisne judges, which last were called barons of 
the exchequer. In its modern shape it is, in fact, a com¬ 
bination of eight distinct ancient courts. It acquired con¬ 
current jurisdiction with the other two superior courts in 
all personal actions by the fiction of the plaintiff being a 
debtor to the king—a fiction which is now removed. It 
has exclusive jurisdiction in cases in which the royal reve¬ 
nue is concerned. It had formerly also an equitable juris¬ 
diction, which was abolished by 5 Viet. c. 5, and trans¬ 
ferred to the court of chancery. The court now consists 
of five judges—viz., the chief baron and four barons of ex¬ 
chequer. From this court an appeal lies in error to the 
court of Exchequer Chamber (which see; also Courts). 

Excip'ient [Lat. excip'iens, pres. part, of the verb 
excip'io, to “receive”], or Ve'hicle, in pharmacy, is an 
inert substance used to give form and consistence to solid 
preparations, such as pills and drag§es, or to give palata- 
bility and-the necessary qualities for administration to any 
medicine. The various conserves, also honey, treacle, 
simple syrups, glycerine, white of egg, and mucilage of 
acacia are among the most useful excipients. 


Excise [from the Lat. cxcido, excisum, to “cut off,” from 
credo, “to cut”], in Europe, a tax on the production, annual 
use, sale, or consumption of domestic commodities. In 
the U. S. the term is confined to the tax on the production 
or sale of spirituous or fermented liquors, or the productive 
capacity of liquor stills, revenue from liquor stamps, etc. 
The term “internal revenue tax,” used here, comprises all 
that is or was formerly meant in Europe by excise, as well 
also the taxes on slaughtered animals, gross receipts, licenses, 
incomes, legacies, passports, the dividends, circulation, de¬ 
posits, or capital of banks, insurance and railway com¬ 
panies, and newspapers, penalties, etc. (See Internal 
Revenue.) Excise or accize is traceable to the fifteenth 
century, and was the method by which the towns and 
boroughs of continental Europe recouped themselves from 
their inhabitants for the talliages levied upon them bv the 
sovereign, each district imposing such excises as best 
suited its peculiar circumstances. This, in Holland, even¬ 
tually ripened into a system of national taxation; and in 
this form it found its way to England in the early part of 
the seventeenth century, where it has since remained firmly 
established. From England it was transplanted to this 
country. Excise is imposed here not only by the Federal, 
but also by the State and municipal governments. The 
former first imposed excise in the year 1792. The tax was 
discontinued in 1801, having meanwhile caused a rebellion 
in Pennsylvania. It was again imposed in 1814, during 
the war with England, and discontinued in 1817. In 1863, 
during the civil war, it was imposed again, and has con¬ 
tinued to the present time. During the first period its 
product sustained the average proportion of 4 per cent, to 
the total gross revenues of the Federal government from all 
sources; during the second period, 6^ per cent.; and 
during the present period it has averaged, so far, about 10 
per cent. This leaves out of view the heavy customs duties 
on imported liquors and the excise taxes levied by the 
various States and municipalities. The following table 
exhibits the annual product of the Federal excise at each 
period named: 


Calendar 

year. 


Total revenues 


from various 

Calendar 

taxes on dis- 

year. 

tilled spirits. 


1799.... 

. 422,026 

1800 .... 


1801 .... 

397 728 



1814.... 


1815 .... 

. 584,923 

1816.... 


Total revenues 
from various 
taxes on dis¬ 
tilled spirits. 


Fiscal 

year. 


Spirits, 

Act 

March 7, 
1864. 


Wine 

from 

grapes. 


Total 

revenues 

from 

excise. 


Distillation, capa¬ 
city, sales, stiils, Taxes on 
stamps and license, fermented 

and taxes on dis- liquors, 
tilled spirits. 

1863 .$5,176,530 .$1,628,934.$8,824...$6,814,288 

1864 .30,329,150. 2,290,009...$176,039...28,303...32,823,501 

1865 .18,731,422. 3.734,928... 252,690 ..34,739...22,753,779 

1866 .33,268,172. 5,220,553... 200...51,616...38,540,541 

1867 .33,542,952. 6,057,501.39,600,453 

1868 .18,655,631. 5,955,869.24,611,500 

1869 .45,026,402. 6,099,880.51,120 282 

1870 .55,581,599. 6,319,127.61,900,726 

1871 .46,281,848. 7,389,502.53,671,350 


The principal excise tax has been that on the production 
of distilled spirits. The rate of this tax during the last 
(present) period was first fixed by act of July 1,1862, at 20 
cents per gallon. This was equal to nearly 100 per cent, 
ad valorem, the average wholesale price of spirits in New 
York having been in 1858, 24i cents; 1859, 27 cents; 1860, 
22 cents ; 1861,1SI cents; and 1862, 29 cents. It afterwards 
rose in 1863 to 53 cents (paper currency, the same in which 
the tax was imposed), in 1864, to $1.45, and to still higher 






























































1662 


EXCITO-MOTOR ACTION—EXECUTOR. 


prices afterwards, though it was frequently sold for less 
than the amount of the tax. On March 7, 1864, the pro¬ 
duction tax was raised to 60 cents per gallon ; on July 1, 
1864, this was further raised to $1.50 per gallon, and on 
Jan. 1, 1865, to $2 per gallon. This rate was continued 
until by the act of July 20, 1868, it was lowered to 50 
cents, where it now stands. The violent fluctuations shown 
in the product of the tax were the result of speculation and 
jobbery in anticipating the passage of laws imposing or 
changing the rates. The annual consumption of spirits in 
the U. S. was estimated by Alexander Hamilton in 1792 at 
three gallons per capita of population; in 1810, by Adam 
Seybert, at four and a quarter gallons; in 1860, by the 
superintendent of the census, at about three gallons; and 
this is believed to be the average consumption still, it being 
borne in mind that a large portion of this is consumed in 
the arts and for other purposes than beverages. The dif¬ 
ference between this amount, of consumption and the results 
shown by the tax returns is chiefly accounted for by illicit 
distillation. (See Taxation.) 

Distilled spirits in the U. S. are made for the most part 
from grain, and it is estimated that about 40,000,000 bush¬ 
els per annum, mainly of Indian corn, are used up in this 
way. Alex. Delmar. 

Ex'cito-ino'tor Action, in physiology, is that va¬ 
riety- of reflex action which, arising from impressions made 
at the periphery (internal or external), is first transmitted 
by afferent nerve-filaments to a nerve-centre, and thence 
reflected without volition along motor (deferent) nerve- 
filaments to a muscle, which is thereby aroused to action. 
For example, a sudden impression of light causes the pupil 
of the eye to contract; the presence of a particle of food in 
the glottis causes intense involuntary coughing. (See Re¬ 
flex Action.) Excito-motor action is peculiarly active in 
very young children and in many of the lower animals. In 
some diseases (tetanus, hydrophobia, strychnia poisoning) 
it is immensely increased. Chloral, belladonna, curari 
poison, and especially the alkaloid curaria., all appear 
powerfully to reduce action of this kind. 

Exclu'sion Bill, in English history, a bill which was 
designed to exclude the duke of York (King James II.) 
from the throne, because he was a Roman Catholic. It 
was adopted by the House of Commons in 1679, but was 
rejected by the House of Lords. 

Excomimmica'tion [Lat. excommunicatio, from ex, 
“out” or “out from,” and communico, com muni ea'ta m, to 
“share,” to “partake;” the act of putting one out from, so 
that he has no share in, the privileges and protection of the 
Church], the formal expulsion of a person from privileges 
religious or so’cial, inflicted by church authority upon persons 
accused of misconduct or heresy. The ancient Israelites 
excommunicated offenders by exclusion from the camp, by 
“cutting off from the people,” and in later times by “put¬ 
ting out of the synagogue.” This punishment, in extreme 
cases at least, was a social interdict of the severest kind. 
Excommunication in the Christian Church was established 
by Christ’s teachings, and by the precept and example of 
the apostles, and was necessary both for the self-preserva¬ 
tion of the Church and for the spiritual and moral good of 
the offender. In early times—as also in the Roman Catho¬ 
lic and in several Protestant churches at present—there was 
a lesser and a greater excommunication; the former a virtual 
suspension from church privileges, the latter a formal ex¬ 
pulsion. The greater excommunication in the Latin Church 
is less severe than the anathema. Excommunication was 
not unfrequeutly employed by the popes in former times as 
a punishment for refractory inonarchs, and even for whole 
nations, but in later times it has not been so employed, the 
so-called excommunication of Victor Emmanuel in 1860 
being merely a statement of the ecclesiastical penalties 
which the pope might inflict upon the invaders of the pon¬ 
tifical domains. In Prussia and Switzerland the excom¬ 
munication of the Old Catholic priests by the Catholic 
bishops has recently brought on severe conflicts between 
the State and the Church. 

Exe (anc. Isaca), a river of England, rises in Exmoor, 
in Somersetshire, flows generally southward through Dev¬ 
onshire, and after a course of 54 miles enters the English 
Channel at Exmouth. The chief towns on its banks are 
Tiverton and Exeter. 

Execution [Lat. execu'tio, from ex, “out,” and se'quor, 
secu'tns, to “follow;” literally, a “following or carrying 
out” of some design or of a legal sentence], the infliction 
of the death-penalty by the proper civil, military, or naval 
authorities. In the U. S. this act is performed by the 
county sheriff in the precincts of a jail or prison, in pres¬ 
ence of certain officials and other witnesses, and hanging is 
the only method employed. Military executions are per¬ 
formed by a provost-marshal and his guard, either by shoot¬ 
ing with small-arms or by hanging. Naval executions are 


generally by hanging at the yard-arm. In Western Europe 
hanging is the more common method in civil cases, except 
in France, where the guillotine is employed, and in Spain 
the garrote takes its place. Burning, drowning, stoning, 
and a great variety of methods have been practised in 
former times. In the Indian mutiny of 1857 many of the 
captured Sepoys were blown from the cannon’s mouth. 

Execution, the formality of signing, sealing, and de¬ 
livering a deed, or of signing and publishing a will ; in 
criminal law, the carrying into effect the sentence of the 
law by putting the criminal to death; in civil actions, the 
carrying out the final judgment of the court, or, more strictly, 
the writ directing the sheriff, coroner, or marshal to carry 
such judgment into effect. 

Under the law of England, there were three writs in con¬ 
stant use to enforce a judgment for the payment of money: 
1st, a writ of fieri facias, commonly called a fi. fa., direct¬ 
ing the officer to cause to be made the amount of the judg¬ 
ment out of the goods and chattels of the debtor; 2d, a writ 
of elegit, given by statute of 13 Edw. II., directing the officer 
to deliver the goods and chattels of the debtor to the creditor 
at an appraised value, in satisfaction of the judgment, and, 
if these are insufficient, to put him in possession of one-half 
the debtor’s land till the rents and profits satisfy the judg¬ 
ment; 3d, a writ of capias ad satisfaciendum, commonly 
called a ca. so., directing the officer to arrest the debtor and 
keep him in confinement till he satisfies the judgment. 

The English practice has been somewhat changed in the 
State of New York. There are two writs of execution—one 
against the property, and one against the person, of the 
debtor. The former, which resembles the fi. fa., directs the 
sheriff to satisfy the judgment out of the personal property 
of the debtor within the county, and, if sufficient cannot be 
found, then out of his real property, and to return the writ 
within sixty days. The latter, like the ca. sa., directs the 
officer to arrest the debtor and keep him in jail till he pays 
the judgment or is discharged according to law. Since the 
act of 1831 abolishing imprisonment for debt, this writ is 
allowed in comparatively few cases, as when the debt was 
contracted in fraud, or the debtor has attempted to remove 
his property, or has violated his duty in some trust relation. 
Under the execution against the property the sheriff sells at 
public auction the real and personal property of the debtor, 
though a variety of articles necessary for the prosecution 
of a business and support of a family are exempted, as also 
a homestead to the value of one thousand dollars, subject 
to certain conditions. If the judgment is for the recovery 
of specific real or personal property, the execution directs 
the sheriff to deliver such property to the plaintiff. Many 
of the other States have closely followed the New York 
practice. 

Although these proceedings are instituted by the party 
in whose favor the judgment is rendered, they are con¬ 
sidered as the acts of the law, and the officer entrusted with 
their performance is responsible to the party aggrieved for 
any misconduct or neglect of duty. 

Executive Department, The, in the U. S. govern¬ 
ment, is that branch of the public service which attends to 
the execution of the laws of the general government. Th(s 
department is under the direct control of the President, who is 
the principal executive officer. The duties of the executive 
department are the most extensive of all. It makes all 
civil, naval, and military appointments, and manages the 
army and navy, collects customs and internal revenue, sells 
public lands, and pays all appropriations authorized by 
Congress. Each of the secretaries of inferior departments, 
including the postmaster-general and attorney-general, take 
rank next the President as officers of the executive depart¬ 
ment. They together constitute the so-called “ Cabinet,” 
which, by usage, has become a consulting or advisory coun¬ 
cil to the President. These officers are the secretary of 
state, of the treasury, of the interior, of war, of the navy, 
and the postmaster-general and the attorney-general. (See 
United States.) 

Executor [from the Lat. ex, “out,” and sequor, secutus, 
to “follow”], one to whom a testator commits the execu¬ 
tion of his last will. The will is the source of the executor’s 
title, and the probate (or proof) of the will is merely evi¬ 
dence of it. As a general rule, any one capable of making 
a contract can be an executor. By the law of England, an 
infant can act as executor after the age of seventeen. In 
many of the U. S. it is provided by statute that no person 
under twenty-one is competent to act as executor. The 
chief duties of an executor are to bury the deceased in a 
manner suitable to the estate which he leaves, to prove the 
will, make an inventory of his goods, collect the assets, and 
pay the debts and legacies. An executor has general con¬ 
trol over the personal estate, and possesses the same prop¬ 
erty in it as the testator had when living, and the same 
remedies to recover it. He has no power over the real 






























EXEGESIS. 


1663 


estate, unless it is given to him by the will, or unless the 
local law gives it to him when the personal property is in¬ 
sufficient to pay the debts. When lie has authority given 
to him in a will to control the real estate, he is not deemed 
to act as an executor, but either as a trustee or the grantee 
of a power, according to the nature of the authority con¬ 
ferred upon him. 

An executor de son tort is one who interferes with the 
goods of a deceased without lawful authority. He has the 
trouble of an executor without the advantages. He may 
be sued as executor if any assets have come into his hands 
but cannot bring an action as executor. 

In some States, executors are required to give bonds for 
the faithful discharge of their duties, and in others the pro¬ 
bate court has a right to require them to furnish security 
if there is any doubt of their solvency. 

Exege'sis, or Exeget'ical Theol ogy [Gr. etfyw*, 
from e^TjyeVat, to “lead,” also to “teach,” to “expound” 
(fiom ef for ex, 1 out, also “ intensive,’ and ^yeo/xai, to 
“lead,” to “guide,” to “point out the way”); 
originally, among the Athenians, the interpreter of the 
oracles ot Delphi, the signs of heaven, and sacred rites; 
among Christians, the interpreter of the Holy Scriptures], 
is the first and most important part of theological science, 
and covers the whole field of biblical literature, or all that 
pertains to the learned explanation of the Old and New 
Testaments. It originated among the Jewish rabbis, but 
was afterwards far more extensively cultivated among the 
Christian Fathers, the Reformers, and the divines of all 
ages. It is taught as a science and practised as an art in 
all theological institutions, and its results are applied from 
every pulpit throughout the Christian world. No know¬ 
ledge is more useful and indispensable to a clergyman 
than the knowledge of the Bible, which he has to explain 
from Sunday to Sunday, and which among Protestants is 
the only infallible source and rule of faith and morals and 
all that pertains to the eternal interests of men. 

I. Kinds of Exegesis .—(1) Philological or grammatico- 
historical exegesis is the basis on which all other interpre¬ 
tation and application must rest. It aims simply at the 
meaning of the writer according to the recognized laws of 
language and the usus loquendi at the time of composition, 
and according to the historical situation of the writer, ir¬ 
respective of any doctrinal or sectarian bias. It implies a 
thorough knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, and familiarity 
with contemporary literature. (2) Theological exegesis 
develops the doctrinal and ethical ideas of the writer in 
organic connection with the whole teaching of the Scrip¬ 
tures and according to the analogy of faith. (3) Homileti- 
cal or practical exegesis is the application of the well-ascer¬ 
tained results of grammatical and theological interpretation 
to the wants of the Christian congregation, and belongs 
properly to the pulpit. 

II. Auxiliary and Supplementary Branches .—(1) Sacred 
Philology, the science of the languages in which the Bible 
was originally written—viz., the Hebrew in the Old Testa¬ 
ment (with a few sections in the cognate Semitic dialect 
called Chaldee or East Aramaic), and the Greek in the New 
Testament. The latter is not the classical Greek, but the 
Macedonian or Alexandrian dialect, with a strong Hebrew 
coloring (hence called the Hellenistic, because spoken by 
the Hellenists, i. e. the Greek Jews) and the infusion of the 
spirit of Christianity, which created new words or inspired 
a deeper meaning into old words. The New Testament 
Greek requires, therefore, a particular study, special gram¬ 
mars (i. e. Winer, Buttmann, Jr.), and special dictionaries 
(Wahl, Bretschneider, Wilke, Grimm, Cremer, Robinson). 

(2) Biblical Archaeology or Antiquities — i. e. a systematic 
description of the external and internal condition of the 
nations among which, and the countries in which, the Bible 
was composed. This includes, again, the geography and 
natural history of Palestine and adjacent countries, the 
topography of Jerusalem, an account of the domestic habits, 
social institutions, agriculture, arts and science, religious 
rites, and ceremonies of the Hebrews. The material ol 
Jewish antiquities is derived mostly from the Bible itself, 
but also from Philo and Josephus, the “Talmud,” the 
monumental remains of Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, and the 
accounts of modern explorers down to the labors of the 
English and American Palestine Exploration Societies now 
in progress. Dr. Robinson of New lork (died 1863) broke 
the way for truly independent critical research of the local¬ 
ities of Jerusalem above the surface, while the Palestine 
Exploration Society of England has begun to make us 
acquainted with subterranean Jerusalem as it Avas before 
the destruction. 

(3) Biblical Criticism aims at the approximate restora¬ 
tion of the original text of the Bible as it came from the 
hands of the inspired authors. The autographs being lost, 
we are confined to the oldest uncial manuscripts, which date 
from the fourth and fifth centuries. Besides, we have par- | 


tial and secondary sources of the Greek text in the very 
numerous Scripture quotations of the Christian Fathers 
(Origen, Irenaeus, Chrysostom, etc.), and the old transla¬ 
tions (especially the Syriac, Peshito, and the Latin Itala and 
the improved Vulgate of Jerome). Textual criticism in¬ 
cludes a discussion of the merits of the received text ( textus 
receptus, derived from Erasmus, Stephens, Beza, and Elze¬ 
vir), the principles for ascertaining the oldest and purest 
text, the classification of manuscripts and different read¬ 
ings, and a history of the printed text from Erasmus and 
the Complutensian Polyglot down to Lachmann, Tischen- 
dorf, and Tregelles. There is a gradual approach to an 
agreement among the best critics, and the conviction of the 
essential integrity of the primitive text has been greatly 
strengthened by the latest discoveries ( e. g. the “ Codex 
Sinaiticus”) and investigations. 

(4) Historico-Critical Introduction to the Boohs of the Old 
and New Testaments is a literary history of the Bible, and 
includes all the introductory information necessary for the 
proper understanding of its contents, as the question of the 
genuineness and integrity of the book, the persons addressed, 
the place and time of composition, the object and aim of the 
writer. It gives also a history of the canon or collection of the 
several books of the Bible into one authoritative code, dis¬ 
tinct from all other books, and recognized as a rule (saviov) 
of faith and morals by those who receive them. The prin¬ 
cipal works on introduction are by De Wette, Hug, Reuss, 
Bleek, Guericke, Horne, Davidson. Compare also the 
“Bible Dictionaries” of Kitto (3d ed. by William L. Alex¬ 
ander, 3 vols.), William Smith (ed. with improvements by 
Hackett and Abbot, in 4 vols.), Fairbairn, Winer, Schenkel. 

(5) Biblical Hermeneutics — i. e. the science of the prin¬ 
ciples of interpretation, and the necessary qualifications 
for an expounder of the Scriptures. These qualifications 
are partly intellectual (familiarity with the general laws of 
thought and speech, knowledge of the particular languages 
of the Bible, sound judgment) and partly moral (freedom 
from prejudice, readiness to do justice to the author, sym¬ 
pathy with his spirit and ideas). 

(6) Biblical Theology of the Old and Nero Testaments is a 
summing up of the results of exegesis in systematic order, 
and presents a full view of the teaching of the Scriptures, 
irrespective of the subsequent systems of denominational 
dogmatics and ethics derived from them. This branch of 
exegetical theology is of recent growth, and has thus far 
been mostly cultivated by Continental scholars. There are 
also special treatises on the theology of Christ, the theology 
of Paul, John, and Peter. Each of the apostles, as he has 
his own peculiar style, represents also a special aspect of 
the Christian system; yet all harmonize and exhibit to¬ 
gether the fulness of the gospel. (Comjmre the works of 
Schmid and Van Oosterzee on New Testament Theology, 
recently translated into English ; Ewald, Schultz, and 
Oehler on Old Testament Theology.) 

III. History of Exegesis and Principal Commentaries .— 
(1) Jewish exegesis, confined to the Old Testament. It be¬ 
gan soon after the close of the canon. It was especially 
devoted to the Law (the Thorah), i. e. the Pentateuch, and 
derived from it minute rules for the individual, social, and 
ecclesiastical relations. The body of these interpretations 
is called Midrash. The prevailing method of exegesis was 
the rabbinical or literal; it excluded all foreign ideas, and 
was subservient to the strict legalism of the Pharisees. But 
among the Hellenist (Greek-speaking) Jews, especially in 
Alexandria, the allegorizing method obtained favor, espe¬ 
cially through Philo (died about 40 A. D.), who endeavored 
to combine the Mosaic religion with Platonic philosophy, 
and prepared the way for the allegorizing exegesis of Cle¬ 
ment and Origen of Alexandria. The Jewish rabbins of the 
Middle Ages cultivated grammatical exegesis at a time 
when the knowledge of Hebrew had died out in the Chris¬ 
tian Church. The most distinguished among them are Ibn 
Ezra (died 1167), R. Sal. Isaak or Raschi (died 1105), 
David Kimchi (died 1190), Moses Maimonides (died 1204). 
Their commentaries are printed separately, and also in the 
so-called Rabbinical Bibles (e. g. of Buxtorf, Bale, 1618, 3 
vols. fob). 

(2) Patristic Exegesis. The first use made of the Bible 
in the Church was practical and homiletical. It was to the 
early Christians what it still is to the great mass of be¬ 
lievers, and will be to the end of time—a book of life, of 
spiritual instruction and edification, of hope and comfort. 
Scientific or learned exegesis began when the Bible was 
perverted by heretics and made to serve all sorts ot errors. 
The Greek Church took the lead. Origen (180-254), tlio 
greatest scholar of his age, a man of genius and iron indus¬ 
try, is the father of critical exegesis. He is full of sug¬ 
gestive ideas, but far from being sound. His theory of her¬ 
meneutics is untenable, and opens the way for the most 
fanciful and arbitrary expositions or impositions. He dis¬ 
tinguishes three senses in the Bible, corresponding to the 













1004 


EXETER—EXILE. 


three parts of man: (a) a literal or bodily sense; ( b ) a 
moral or psychic sense ; (c) an allegorical or mystic, spirit¬ 
ual sense. Where the literal sense is offensive, he escaped 
the difficulty by adopting a purely spiritual sense. The 
greatost commentators of the Greek Church are Chry¬ 
sostom (died 407), who in his “Homilies” explained the 
principal books of the Old and New Testaments, Theodore 
of Mopsuestia (died 429), Theodoret of Cyros (died 457). 
Among the Latin Fathers, Augustine (died 430) is the pro- 
fouudest and most spiritual, Jerome (died 419) the most 
learned expounder. The latter achieved the highest merit 
by his improved Latin version of the Bible (the Vulgate), 
which remains to this day the standard version of the Ro¬ 
man Church. The Council of Trent forbade the interpre¬ 
tation of Scriptures except according to “the unanimous 
consent of the Fathers.” But this rule would prevent all 
progress in theology; and besides, such a “unanimous 
consent” does not exist except in the most fundamental 
doctrines. 

(3) Medieval exegesis was purely traditional, and con¬ 
sisted of brief glosses (glossaria) or of extracts from the 
Fathers (called catenae Patrum). The original languages of 
the Bible were unknown in the West, and even the first 
among the scholastics had to depend upon Jerome’s version 
for their knowledge of God’s word. The prevailing method 
distinguished four senses of the Scriptures: (a) the literal 
or historical; ( b ) the spiritual or mystic, corresponding to 
faith, teaching what to believe ( credenda ); (c) the moral or 
tropological, which corresponds to love or charity, and 
teaches what to do ( agenda ); (d) the anagogical, which re¬ 
fers to hope ( speranda ). The principal patristic compila¬ 
tions are (a) in the Greek Church, those of GScumenius 
(died 990), Theophylactus (died 1007), Enthymais Zigabe- 
nus (died 1118), and Nicephorus (fourteenth century); ( b) 
in the Latin Church, Wallafried Strabo (died 849), Thomas 
Aquinas (died 1274). The Catena aurea in Evangelia of 
Aquinas has been recently reproduced in an English trans¬ 
lation by Pusey, Keble, and Newman. Among the more 
independent biblical scholars of the Middle Ages who pre¬ 
pared the way for the Reformation must be mentioned 
Nicolaus a Lyra (died 1340 : “ Si Lyra non lyrasset, Lu- 
therus non saltasset”),and Laurentius Valla (died 1465). 

(4) The exegesis of the Protestant Reformers of the six¬ 
teenth century marks a new epoch. It is full of enthusiasm 
for the word of God in the Bible as the only rule of Chris¬ 
tian faith and practice, and free from the slavery of eccle¬ 
siastical tradition. It went directly to the original Greek 
and Hebrew Scriptures, and furnished the best translations 
for the benefit of the people, while Romanism regards the 
Bible as a book for the priesthood, and discourages or pro¬ 
hibits efforts for its general circulation without note or com¬ 
ments. All the Reformers wrote commentaries more or less 
extensive on various books of the Bible—Luther (died 1546), 
Melanchthon (died 1560), Zwingli(died 1531), (Ecolampad- 
ius (died 1531)—but the ablest of them are Calvin (died 1564) 
and his pupil Beza (died 1603). Calvin combines almost 
all the qualifications of an expounder in rare harmony, and 
his commentaries on Genesis, the Psalms, the Prophets, and 
all the books of the New Testament (except Revelation) arc 
valuable to this day. 

(5) Protestant commentaries of the seventeenth and eigh¬ 
teenth centuries by Hugo Grotius (died 1645, Arminian), 
Vitringa (died 1722, Dutch Calvinist), Hammond (died 
1660, Church of England), Mathew Poole (Presbyterian, 
died 1679, “Annotations upon the Whole Bible,” an Eng¬ 
lish synopsis from his Latin synopsis), Matthew Henry 
(Independent, died 1714, the best homiletical commentator 
of England), John Gill (Baptist, died 1771), Philip Dodd¬ 
ridge (Independent, died 1751, author of “Family Expos¬ 
itor”), Calovius (Lutheran, died 1686, “ Biblia Illustrata ” 
versus Grotius), J. A. Bengel (Lutheran, died 1752, author 
of the “Gnomon of the New Testament,” in Latin, twice 
translated into English, an admirable specimen of multum 
in parvo). Collective works : “ Critici Sacri,” London, 1660, 
9 tom.; Amsterdam, 1698-1732, in 13 vols. (compiled from 
the principal commentators as an appendix to Walton’s 
“ Polyglot,” under the direction of Bishop Pearson and 
others); Poole’s “ Synopsis Criticorum aliorumque S. 
Scripturae interpretum,” London, 1669-76, 4 vols. in 5 fol. 
(a very useful abridgment from the “Critici Sacri” and 
other commentators). 

(6) Modern commentaries, chiefly German, English, and 
American : (a) On the whole Bible : Lange’s “ Bibelwerk,” 
Bielefeld and Leipsic, 1857 seq. (a threefold commentary, 
critical, doctrinal, and homiletical, prepared by a number 
of Continental, mostly German, divines, and to be com¬ 
pleted in about 30 parts, chiefly for the use of ministers 
and students); the same in English, with large improve¬ 
ments and additions by more than forty American scholars 
of all denominations, under the editorial care of Philip 
Schaff, New York and Edinburgh, 1864 seq. (to be com¬ 


pleted in 23 vols., of which 18 had appeared in 1873); 
“ The Speaker’s Commentary,” suggested by the Speaker 
of the House of Commons, ed. by Canon F. C. Cook, aided 
by a number of bishops and presbyters of the Church of 
England, London and New York, 1871 seq., to be com¬ 
pleted in 8 vols. (so far two vols., from Genesis to Kings, 
mainly for the lay reader), (b) On the New Testament: 
Olshausen, De Wette, and especially Meyer (the first philo¬ 
logical commentator now living), among the Germans, Al¬ 
ford and Wordsworth among the English; all for critical 
students. Of popular commentaries of the New Testament, 
Barnes has had by far the widest circulation in America 
and England. The present century has also produced a 
large number of exegetical works of the first order on 
separate books of the Bible, which it would .be impossible 
here to enumerate. Among recent commentators on one or 
more books of the Old Testament,' Gesenius, Ewald, IIup- 
feld, Hitzig, Ilengstenberg, Delitzsch, Schlottmann, Stuart, 
Joseph A. Alexander, occupy the first rank. Of New Testa¬ 
ment commentators must be mentioned Winer, Fritzsche, 
Tholuck, Liicke, Bleek, Harless, Godet, Stuart, Hodge, 
Stanley, Jowett, Ellicott, and Lightfoot. Among these, 
again, Tholuck on Romans and the Sermon on the Mount, 
Liicke on the Writings of St. John, Harless on Ephesians, 
Hodge on Romans, Ellicott on Galatians, Ephesians, Thes- 
salonians, and Pastoral Epistles (republished in Andover), 
Lightfoot on Galatians and Philippians, are most useful for 
the critical study of the Greek Testament. 

Philip Schaff. 

Exete'r [Lat. Isca or Exonia ], a city and seaport of 
England, the capital of Devonshire and a separate county, 
is on the river Exe, about 10 miles from the sea, and 170 
miles W. S. W. of London, with which it is connected by 
railway. It is pleasantly situated on the sides and summit 
of an acclivity, and is well built, well paved, and liberally 
supplied with water. Exeter is the see of a bishop, and has 
a magnificent cathedral, which was commenced in 1280; 
it is 408 feet long, and has two Norman towers 145 feet 
high. The W. front is richly decorated, and presents a 
facade which is one of the most beautiful in England. In 
one of the towers is the Great Tom of Exeter, or Peter’s 
Bell, which weighs 12,500 pounds. Exeter contains a the¬ 
atre, twenty-four Episcopal churches and chapels, and a 
lunatic asylum. It returns two members to Parliament. 
Vessels of 400 tons can ascend the Exe to this place, from 
which dairy produce, fruits, and other articles are export¬ 
ed. Here are several large nurseries. Pop. of municipal 
borough in 1871, 34,646. 

Exeter, a post-village of Huron co., Ontario, Canada, 
has quite extensive manufactures and a thriving trade. 
Pop. about 1000. 

Exeter, a post-township of Penobscot co., Me. It has 
manufactures of lumber, shingles, carriages, etc. P. 1424. 

Exeter, a post-township of Monroe co., Mich. P. 1067. 

Exeter, a post-village, one of the capitals of Rocking¬ 
ham co., N. H., on the Squamscott River and the Boston 
i and Maine R. R., 50 miles N. of Boston. It has the county 
offices, a national bank, two savings banks, four hotels, 
Phillips Academy, a richly-endowed institution founded 
in 1781, Robinson’s Femal Seeminary, a high school, one 
weekly newspaper, seven churches, a large cotton-mill and 
machine-shop, railroad round-house, and manufactures of 
lumber, castings, and carriages. Pop. of Exeter township, 
3437. Charles Marseilles, Pub. “News Letter.” 

Exeter, a post-twp. of Otsego co., N. Y. Pop. 1256. 

Exeter, a township of Berks co., Pa. Pop. 2239. 

Exeter, a post-township of Luzerne co., Pa. Pop. 742. 

Exeter, a township of Wyoming co., Pa. Pop. 211. 

Exeter, a post-twp. of Washington co., R. I. P. 1462. 

Exeter, a post-township of Green co., Wis. Pop. 949. 

Exeter Hall, a building in the Strand, London, erect¬ 
ed in 1831, and remodelled in 1850. It is celebrated as 
the place of assembly of many of the religious and philan¬ 
thropic societies of England. “ Exeter Hall philanthropy” 
is a term applied to public efforts in behalf of the poor and 
degraded, implying (often with injustice) that such efforts 
are ostentatious and ineffectual. 

Ex'ile [Lat. exi'lis, remotely from ex, “ out,” and a' go, 
to “drive”], involuntary removal to a foreign country for 
residence; the person so removed. The term exile, when 
applied to persons, is now generally confined to mean such 
as are removed to a foreign country through public mis¬ 
fortunes in their own, as famines, etc., or from political 
reasons, as being obnoxious to the prevailing government. 
The civil and religious liberties of Holland, England, and 
the U. S. have rendered those countries the principal re¬ 
sort of exiles during the past three centuries. Great lib¬ 
erality was exercised towards foreigners in the mediaeval 

















EXTRA—EXODUS, THE BOOK OF. 


16G5 


Italian republics, but the only state which previous to the 
independence of Holland is believed to have afforded com¬ 
plete protection to exiles, regardless of religion or politics* 
wab the calif ate of Cordova under the Moorish conquerors 
of Spain. I he liberality thus displayed met with rich re¬ 
turn, and Cordova for several centuries became the resort 
of the most eminent scholars of Europe, and the depository 
of that torch of civilization which had else been extin¬ 
guished in the surrounding darkness of the age. { Draper's 
Intellectual Development.) Up to A. D. 1377 exiles in 
England were deprived of all protection, and barely tol¬ 
erated. In 1430 it was provided that if they were tried 
criminally, the juries might be composed one-half of for¬ 
eigners, if the accused desired. In 1483 they were re¬ 
strained from exercising any trade or handicraft by retail. 
This restriction continued to exist in England until the 
eighteenth century. The Netherlands first set the example 
of tolerating and protecting exiles in more modern times, 
this practice dating from the revolution and independence 
of that country. As a consequence, it became the home of 
not only exiles, but enterprising persons from all countries, 
and this added greatly to its wealth and prosperity. In 
France political exiles were first tolerated during the Rev¬ 
olution of 1789, though at the same time a considerable 
portion of the most educated classes of her own popula¬ 
tion were forced, from the selfishness and excesses of their 
class and the vengeance and ferocity of the revolution¬ 
ists, to flee for safety to England and other countries. The 
Moors and Jews were banished from Spain about the time 
of the discovery of America, and many of the latter, 
known as Spanish and Portuguese Jews, eventually found 
their way to the West Indies, which, for a long time after, 
particularly when the Dutch and English had planted col¬ 
onies there, became a favorite place of refuge for exiles. 
Switzerland has enjoyed a similar distinction for a long 
time. North America from its earliest settlement has been 
a place of exile for banished Europeans, whether for relig¬ 
ious, political, or other reasons. The following are among 
the distinguished exiles to the U. S. since its establishment 
as an independent government: 

Thaddeus Kosciusko, Poland, born 1755, embarked for 
America 1776; departed at conclusion of war for independ¬ 
ence; Poland 1789; defeated 1794; imprisoned at St. 
Petersburg; liberated; revisited the U. S. 1797; France 
until 1814; Switzerland 1816. 

Louis Philippe, France, born 1773, exiled to Switzerland 
1793; Hamburg 1795; U. S. 1796, accompanied by Duke 
Montpensier and Count de Beaujolais; left New York for 
England 1799; Messina 1808; England 1S09; Italy 1809; 
returned to France 1814, after an exile of twenty-one 
years. Again exiled 1815; returned 1817; elected king 
1830; reigned till 1848, and then exiled to England, where 
he resided till his death. 

Joseph Garibaldi, Italy, born 1807; exiled 1831; re¬ 
turned and exiled again 1834 ; South America 1836 ; Italy 
1847; defeated and exiled to U. S. 1848; South America, 
England 1854 ; retired to Caprera, Marsala 1860; Caprera, 
Aspromonte 1862; pardoned; England 1864; Caprera 
1864. 

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, France, born 1808; exiled 
with his mother to Holland soon after his birth; Italy 
1830; England 1831; Strasbourg revolt 1836; exiled to 
U. S. 1837; South America 1837; Switzerland 1837; Eng¬ 
land 1837; Boulogne exploit 1840; imprisoned in Ham 
1840; escaped to England 1846; returned to Paris 1848; 
elected president 1848; emperor 1S52; reigned till 1870, 
when he was defeated and exiled to England, where he 
died 1873. 

Louis Kossuth, Hungary, born 1802; fled to Turkey 
1849; liberated and conveyed as the guest of the nation 
to the U. S. 1851; departed 1852 for England, where he 
resided until his death. 

Thomas Addis Emmet, Ireland, born 1765; imprisoned 
1798; exiled to France 1802; Brussels 1803-04; New York 
1S04, where he died 1827. 

William Smith O’Brien, Ireland, born 1803; exiled 1848 
to Australia; pardoned 1856; visited U. S. 1859. 

Alex. Delmar. 

Exi'ra, a post-village, capital of Audubon co., la., 
beautifully situated on the Nishnabatona River, 70 miles 
W. of Des Moines, in a fertile, well-timbered region abound¬ 
ing in lignite, peat, potters’ clay, and chalybeate mineral 
springs. It has a public square, two churches, a weekly 
newspaper, and a fine school-house. Pop. of village, 

161: of township, 426. „ 

D. M. Harris, Ed. “ Defender.” 

Ex'inoor For'est, England, is partly in Devonshire 
and partly in Somersetshire. It is mostly uncultivated, and 
is occupied by dark ranges of hills and lonely valleys. The 
surface-rocks arc Devonian slate and new red sandstone. 

105 


The highest point of the hills is 1668 feet. Exmoor is partly 
covered with heath, and contains considerable meadow-land. 

Ex'mouth, a town and watering-place of England, in 
Devonshire, is on the English Channel at the mouth of the 
Exe, 10 miles S. E.of Exeter. The mildness of the climate 
and the beauty of its scenery render it a favorite place of 
resort. Here Sueno the Dane landed in 1003. Pop. 5220. 

Ex'mouth (Edward Pellew), Viscount, an English 
admiral, born at Dover April 19, 1757. He served with dis¬ 
tinction at the battle of Lake Champlain in Oct., 1776, and 
became a post-captain in 1782. In 1804 he obtained the 
rank of rear-admiral, and in 1S08 that of vice-admiral of 
the blue. He was created Baron Exmouth in 1814, and 
was raised to the rank of admiral. He commanded a fleet 
which in 1816 was sent to enforce a treaty which the dey of 
Algiers had violated. This fleet, aided by a Dutch fleet, 
bombarded Algiers in August of that year, and reduced the 
dey to submission. He received the title of viscount in Dec., 
1816. Died Jan. 23, 1833. (See E. Osler, “Life of Ad¬ 
miral Exmouth,” 1835.) 

Ex'ner (Franz), a German philosopher, born in 1802, 
became in 1831 professor of philosophy in the University 
of Prague, and was appointed counsellor in the Austrian 
ministry of public education in 1848. Died in 1853. He 
wrote, among other works, “Die Psychologie der Hegel’- 
schen Schule” (1842-44), and “ Uber die Lehre von der 
Einheit des Denkens und Seins” (1845). 

Ex'odus [from the Gr. e£, “out,” and 65o?, a “way” or 
“journey ”], the banishment or departure from a country 
of a large body of people. The most ancient as well as the 
most remarkable instance of this kind is that related of the 
children of Israel, who departed from Egypt to take up 
their abode in Canaan about the fourteenth or fifteenth cen¬ 
tury B. C. The history of this people affords many other 
removals of the sort, their race and religion subsequently 
rendering them objects of persecution in all ages and coun¬ 
tries of the world. During their captivity in Babylon that city 
was taken by Cyrus (B. C. 538), and the Jews were allowed 
to return to their own country. After the second destruc¬ 
tion of the Temple, in June, A. D. 70, the Jews ceased to be 
a nation, and the people were scattered all over the world, 
in which condition they have since remained. They were 
horribly persecuted in Germany, whence they were repeat¬ 
edly banished; expelled from England in 1290 ; Spain, 1391— 
92; France, 1395; Spain, 1492; Sicily r , 1493; Portugal, 1495; 
but in no case failed to return and make good their footing. 
The exoduses from Spain, Germany, and Austria were full 
of the most cruel and affecting circumstances. The exodus 
of the Moors from Spain occurred 1492, after a residence in 
that country of over seven hundred years. Detached parties 
of Huguenots sailed from France after the Massacre of St. 
Bartholomew, and particularly after the assassination of 
their protector, Henry of Navarre, in 1610 ; and when the 
Edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685 by Louis XIV., at least 
half a million of them sought refuge in foreign countries, 
as many as 16,000 settling in South Carolina. During 
the war of Louis XIV. against Holland an exodus of the 
entire people of that country to South Africa was contem¬ 
plated ; and although this plan was renounced, a few fami¬ 
lies of boers or farmers found their way to the Cape, and 
established a Dutch colony there. In 1814, Cape Colony 
was seized by England; in 1833 the emancipation of the 
Catfir slaves took place, and the boers found themselves de¬ 
prived of the most essential element of their prosperity. A 
complete exodus of these people, now grown to be very nu¬ 
merous, occurred in 1835, and thus were founded the present 
republics of Orange River and Traansvaal, the independence 
of which was recognized by Great Britain in February, 1854. 
The most remarkable exodus of modern times, however, is 
that of the Mormons, who were driven out of Missouri in 
1835, and settled in Carthage co., Ill., where they afterwards 
founded a city called Nauvoo. The practice of polygamy 
by Joe Smith, which had begun in 1838, and was probably- 
indulged in by his principal followers, was kept secret until 
1843, when an exposure took place. During the two following 
years this exposure created so much excitement that in 1845 
the charter of the city of Nauvoo was repealed by the legis¬ 
lature of Illinois, Smith having meanwhile lost his life, and 
been succeeded by Brigham Young. The great exodus took 
place in 1847, and many thousands of these deluded people 
began a march across the desert which only ended on the 
banks of the Jordan, a small river emptying into Great Salt 
Lake, Utah Territory. Here they built another city, and 
founded a state differing in religion, laws, and social ob¬ 
servances from all others. Their numbers at the time of the 
exodus did not probably exceed 10,000 or 15,000 ; they now 
number about 100,000. Alex. Delmar. 

Exodus, The Book of, was so named by the Alex¬ 
andrian translators of the Old Testament. The Hebrews 

















EXOGENOUS PLANTS—EXPATRIATION. 


1666 


of Palestine designated it by its opening words, Elleh She- 
rnoth, “ these are the words.” It consists of two distinct 
portions; the former (chaps, i.-xix.) describing the deliv¬ 
erance of the Israelites from Egypt; the latter (chaps, xx.- 
xl.) describing the giving of the Law. Its Mosaic author¬ 
ship, though denied by some, is generally conceded. Its 
date depends, of course, upon that of Moses himself. 

Exogenous Plants, or Ex'ogens [from the Gr. e£o>, 
“without,” and yeVw, to “ be born,” to “grow”], the first or 
most highly developed of the two primary classes of phm- 
nogamous or flowering plants. They are called exogens 
because their stems grow by successive external additions, 
and are sometimes termed dicotyledonous, because the seed 
has usually two cotyledons. This class is characterized by 
net-veined (reticulated) leaves, and by stems which present 
distinct formations of bark, wood, and pith, the wood form¬ 
ing a zone between the other two, and increasing, when the 
stem continues from year to year, by the annual addition 
of a new layer to the outside. The flowers are usually 
formed on a quinary, more rarely on a quaternary, type. 
The bark is very distinct from the woody or fibro-vascular 
part which it surrounds. A transverse section of the stem 
exhibits a central cellular substance {pith), an external 
cellular and fibrous ring or bark, and an intermediate woody 
mass traversed by medullary rays, which radiate from the 
pith to the bark. A viscid secretion called cambium is 
formed between the bark and the alburnum (sap-wood) in 
the spring, and is supposed to be the matter out of which 
new wood is made. The age of exogenous trees can often 
be computed by the concentric rings annually produced. 
More than 1200 rings or layers have been counted on a 
stump. All trees of cold or temperate climates, and most 
trees of tropical regions, are exogenous. The total number 
of exogenous plants is much greater than that of the en- 
dogens. The medullary rays are thin plates of cellular 
tissue, which on a cross section appear like fine lines, but 
in wood cut lengthwise, parallel to them, they present an 
appearance called silver grain, and their faces show as 
glimmering plates. 

Ex'orcism [Gr. e£op/ao>u>?, from e£ (for eV), “out,” and 
opsL^io, to “adjure” (from opico?, an “oath”)], a ceremony 
designed to expel daemons or evil spirits from persons, 
places, or things. Exorcisms of various kinds have been 
practised from remote antiquity in nearly all nations and 
races. The ancient Jews, as we learn from Josephus, the 
Talmud, and the New Testament, had a class of persons 
professing to be skilled in casting out devils. Miracles of 
this kind are recorded as having been performed by Christ 
and his apostles, and in the early ages of the Church a 
separate class of exorcists arose who claimed special powers 
of controlling evil spirits. Many ceremonies were instituted 
by them, and their powers were exerted not only over those 
possessed by the devil, but over all candidates for baptism, 
over the baptismal water, and other sacred things and places. 
At present in the Church of Rome there is a special order 
of exorcists, one of the four orders of the minor clergy. All 
persons in superior orders must pass through this degree. 
In the Greek Church a similar order exists. Exorcism is 
now obsolete in all Protestant denominations, though for¬ 
merly recognized in several. 

Exosmose. See Endosmose. 

Exoteric. See Esoteric. 

Exosto'sis [Gr. efoo-rcoo-i? (from the Gr. e£, “without,” 
and oareov, a “bone”)], a bony tumor, a circumscribed, 
non-malignant mass of bone, usually an abnormal out¬ 
growth from one of the bones of the skeleton. In man 
the disease especially seats itself upon the femur or on 
some of the bones of the skull. In the latter case it some¬ 
times assumes a peculiar ivory-like character (eburnized 
exostosis), from the presence of an excess of calcium phos¬ 
phate. It is usually developed from an inflammation- 
exudate, and is ordinarily formed with the exact structure 
of true bone. The disease is commonly painless. Some 
classes arise from a syphilitic taint, others from a rheum¬ 
atic or gouty diathesis, others from no known cause. 

Some writers include all bony outgrowths, malignant and. 
other, under this head, but the best pathologists restrict the 
name to the one disease. Discutient remedies, mercurials 
and iodides, have been recommended for this disease, but 
ordinarily the only cure is in ablation, which, however, is 
liable to be followed by erysipelas. 

Expan'sion [Lat. expansio, from ex, “out,” andpmuZo, 
pansum, to “open,” to “spread”], an increase in the bulk 
of solid, liquid, or gaseous matter, due to the increase of 
heat. Heat is believed to consist of a very rapid molecular 
vibration, and the addition of this motion to a collection 
of particles must obviously tend to separate them and en¬ 
large the mass. Expansion accordingly takes place in 
nearly all solids on the addition of heat up to the point 


of fusion; and in most substances expansion continues 
through the process of fusion, and beyond it; but ice, bis¬ 
muth, antimony, paraffin, and a few other substances con¬ 
tract in fusing, but go on expanding if heat be added after 
fusion. 

Iodide of silver contracts uniformly under heat; and it 
is certain that some crystals expand in some directions and 
contract in others, the general result being an expansion. 
Non-crystalline bodies usually expand uniformly in every 
direction, provided heat be uniformly applied. Liquids, 
like solids, expand at an increasing rate with the increase 
of heat. Gases expand almost uniformly of their vol¬ 
ume for 1° Fahrenheit. 

Allowance is always made for expansion and contraction 
in large iron bridges, buildings, etc.; for if no play were 
allowed at the joints, hot and cold weather would distort or 
destroy such structures; and it must especially be remem¬ 
bered that superficial expansion is twice as great, and cu¬ 
bical expansion three times as great, as the linear. 

Ex Par'te, a Latin legal phrase signifying “of one 
party.” A commission ex parte in chancery is that which 
is taken out and executed by one side or party alone, the 
other party neglecting or refusing to join. 

Expatriation [from the Lat. ex, “ out,” and patria, 
“one’s native land”], the voluntary abandonment of one’s 
native country with the intention of becoming a citizen of 
another state. The right of a person to throw off the obli¬ 
gation of allegiance has been denied by eminent writers 
and some governments. The true view would seem to be 
that the power to determine when the allegiance of the citi¬ 
zen may cease belongs to the state of which he is a mem¬ 
ber, rather than to himself. At the same time, the freedom 
of intercourse between nations in modern times and the in¬ 
terests of civilization require that the various nations 
should provide liberal rules by which at proper times the 
relation of the citizen to the state may cease, and the indi¬ 
vidual, freed from the ties of burdensome allegiance, may 
assume another citizenship if he so desire. In this spirit 
may now be found statutory declarations by leading states 
on this subject, as well as treaty stipulations. By the act 
of Congress of July 27, 1868, § 1, it is recited that the act 
of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people, 
and it is enacted that any declaration or instruction or de¬ 
cision of any officer of the government which denies, re¬ 
stricts, or questions the right of expatriation is inconsistent 
with the fundamental principle of the government. In 
England, by 33 Yict. ch. 14, £ 6, British subjects in general 
cease to be such upon becoming naturalized in a foreign 
state. The laws of the various states upon this subject are 
collected under the direction of the U. S. government in a 
publication entitled “ Opinions of the Principal Officers of 
the Executive Departments, and other papers, relating to 
Expatriation, Naturalization, and Change of Allegiance,” 
Washington, 1873. 

If the right of expatriation be admitted except in certain 
cases, such as where the person holds a public trust, or is 
liable to do military service, or is charged with crime, a 
question of practical difficulty remains as to the mode in 
which his election to abandon his citizenship shall be evi¬ 
denced. In some countries— e. g. France and Prussia—it 
may be shown by the fact that the person has taken his 
domicile in a foreign country in such a sense that he has 
abandoned all intent to return to his former home. This 
rule is not very satisfactory, as questions of domicile are 
frequently very difficult of solution, as they depend upon a 
judicial inquiry into the intent of the party, and this in 
turn depends upon an examination into a great variety of 
circumstances, and often ranging over many years. A 
much more convenient test is that of the English statute 
already cited. This provides that naturalization in a for¬ 
eign country shall be evidence of an intent to renounce 
English citizenship. Should the former subject wish at any 
time to resume his relations with England, he can be natu¬ 
ralized under the laws of that country. The whole subject 
is not so important in the domain of private law as it was 
formerly, when aliens were subject to serious disabilities, 
particularly in respect to the acquisition of land. In a 
political aspect it is, however, of much consequence, and it 
is quite desirable that Congress should pass a comprehen¬ 
sive statute setting forth upon what terms expatriation 
may take place, the evidence by which it may be properly 
established, and how citizenship may be resumed. The 
general declaration in the law of July 27, 1868, that ex¬ 
patriation is a natural right, etc., is of but little practical 
value in settling the questions that from time to time arise 
upon this intricate subject. There is a special point of 
considerable moment as to the status of naturalized citizens 
of the U. S. becoming again domiciled in their native coun¬ 
try, as to whom other considerations aro presented from 
those which prevail in the case of such a domicile by one 














EXPECTORANT-EXPLOSIVES. 


1667 


who was horn an American citizen. (For further informa¬ 
tion, consult International Law, and text-books upon 
that subject; also Citizen.) T. W. Dwight. 

Expec torant [from the Lat. ex, “out,” and pectus 
(gen. pectoris), the “breast”], a medicine which facilitates 
or causes the discharge of mucous secretions from the air- 
passages within the chest. Many balms, gums, and nause¬ 
ating medicines, as well as demulcents and other drugs, are 
reputed to have expectorant properties. Some medicines 
not usually considered expectorant appear to stimulate the 
secretion of mucus in the air-passages, as the ammonium 
chloride (sal-ammoniac) and the potassium hypophosphite. 
Among the most useful expectorants arc ipecac, squill, lo¬ 
belia, and blood-root. These are also emetics, sedatives, 
and diaphoretics. 

Expira'tion [Lat. expiratio, from ex, “out,” and spiro, 
spiratum, to “ breathe ”], in physiology, the operation or 
movement by which the air that has been changed by the 
respiratory process is expelled from the lungs. This move¬ 
ment is effected partly by the elastic contraction of the 
lungs and the walls of the chest, which were dilated by the 
act of inspiration, but the resiliency of the chest-walls is 
greatly assisted by the action of numerous muscles, espe¬ 
cially in forcible expiration. 

Exploitation [from exploiter, to “improve,” to 
“work”], a French term signifying the improvement of 
lands, the working of a mine; in general, the act of using 
anything as a source of profit or rendering it profitable. 

Exploits, River of, traverses nearly the whole breadth 
of Newfoundland from S. W. to N. E. It is navigable for 
steamers 12 miles to the rapids, and above these small boats 
can go to within 50 miles of the S. W. coast. Its valley is 
level, well timbered, and abounds in game and fish, but has 
few inhabitants. This valley is recommended for coloni¬ 
zation by the provincial government, and is believed to 
contain nearly all the habitable land in the interior of that 
large island. 

Explo'sion [Lat. explo'sio, from explo'do, expWsum, 
to “explode,” “ hiss off the stage or drive out”], a bursting 
with a loud report; in natural philosophy, the sudden and 
violent expansion of the parts of a body, caused by heat or 
chemical affinity. Explosions are often caused by the elastic 
force of steam confined in boilers, etc. The explosion of 
gunpowder is the result of the sudden formation and ex¬ 
pansion of gases, into which the powder is converted by 
chemical agency. This term is also applied to the violent 
eruption or discharge of a volcano. Humboldt heard the 
explosion of Cotopaxi at the distance of 130 miles. 

Explo'sives [from the Lat. ex, “out,” and plaudo, to 
“make a burst of sound”]. Under this head will be con¬ 
sidered the compounds practically available in war, in 
mining, and in general use for the sudden development of 
immense force. They comprise gunpowder; guncotton; 
Schultze powder; nitro-glycerine, with its compounds 
known as dynamite, or giant powder, glyoxiline, lithofrac- 
teur, and dualin; admixtures of potassium chlorate with 
readily oxidizable substances; and the picrate compounds. 
The various fulminates of mercury, silver, copper, etc., 
although very powerful agents, are too liable to accidental 
explosion for practical use, except in very small quantities, 
as primings for percussion-caps, fuses, etc., and they are 
therefore excluded from consideration. 

Gunpowder, which was first employed in war about the 
year 1350, is the oldest and most generally useful of these 
agents. It is a mechanical mixture of potassium nitrate, 
carbon, and sulphur, in proportions usually varying but 
little from 75, 13, and 12 respectively. Purity is essential 
to excellence. The manipulations of manufacture consist, 
in general terms, in very finely pulverizing the ingredients, 
thoroughly incorporating them, compressing them into a 
cake, granulating it, separating the different sizes of grain 
by sieves, glazing, drying, and finally removing all dust 
by the use of fine sieves. 

In the storage of gunpowder special precautions against 
fire and moisture are needed. A spark, friction between 
hard bodies, or a temperature raised suddenly to 572 de¬ 
grees Fahrenheit, determine an explosion; while slight 
moisture, which may readily be absorbed from damp air, 
produces caking and deterioration. A wetting is perma¬ 
nently destructive to the compound. Frost produces no 
injurious effects, either temporary or permanent. 

Being a simple mechanical mixture, the properties of 
gunpowder may readily be varied to suit the requirements 
of a quick-burning or a slow-burning explosive. Its ex¬ 
pansive power is due to two distinct causes the sudden 
transformation from a solid to a gaseous form of vastly 
greater volume, and the heat developed by the chemical 
change, which induces enormous tension. It is apparent, 
therefore, that a variation in the relative proportions ami 
condition of tho ingredients, by changing the chemical 


products of the explosion, must affect the expansive force; 
and also that a similar result may be obtained by mechan¬ 
ical means directed to modifying the duration of the time 
required for combustion. 

It is to a skilful application of the last method that the 
recent improvements in gunpowder designed for heavy ord¬ 
nance are due. General Rodman, of the U. S. army, in¬ 
augurated a series of experiments directed to this end in 
1856, and from the results of his labors this country was 
provided in advance of European nations with an explo¬ 
sive suited to modern cannon. His mammoth and perfor¬ 
ated-cake powders—the former consisting of large irregu¬ 
lar grains, tested by two standard sieves of six-tenths and 
nine-tenths of an inch respectively, and the latter of hex¬ 
agonal or cylindrical cakes perforated by holes—have been 
copied in the English pebble and pellet, and the Russian 
prismatic powders; by the aid of which the recent improve¬ 
ments in their artillery have been rendered possible. Peb¬ 
ble powder is simply pressed cake, broken into large irreg¬ 
ular pieces and glazed. Pellet powder consists of mealed 
powder compressed into small blocks, of regular and some¬ 
times indented forms, and of dimensions varying for differ¬ 
ent calibres. Prismatic powder consists of mealed powder 
compressed into flat, perforated cakes of hexagonal form, 
about an inch thick and an inch and a half on the longest 
diameter. This subject is still undergoing investigation; 
the facts having been developed that the time of burning, 
and hence the strain upon the gun for a given initial ve¬ 
locity in the projectile, may be modified by varying the 
size and form of the grains, their density and hardness, 
and the mechanical condition of the exterior. 

By replacing a part of the carbon with uncarbonized 
peat, Mr. Oliver now manufactures a variety of gunpowder 
which, when well rammed, is claimed to give a higher in¬ 
itial velocity with a less recoil and less smoke than the 
ordinary grades. This advantage is attributed to slow 
burning. 

The maximum pressure of exploded gunpowder, unre¬ 
lieved by expansion, has been investigated by various 
parties, whose results range from 7 tons to 662 tons to 
the square inch, the latest authorities indicating about 40 
tons. 

The difficulty of obtaining saltpetre in large quantities, 
and hence its cost, has induced many attempts to replace 
it by other nitrates, such as those of sodium, lead, and 
barium; but although good blasting powders have been 
thus prepared, none suited to projielling purposes have 
been obtained. 

Guncotton. —In 1832, Braconnet discovered that by dis¬ 
solving starch in nitric acid, and adding water, a white ex¬ 
plosive substance was precipitated, to which the name 
xyloidin was given. Shortly after, Pelouse obtained a 
similar compound by treating paper, or cotton or linen 
fabrics, with nitric acid, and named it pyroxilin. These 
were the precursors of guncotton, which was discovered by 
Schonbein in 1846, and at once excited much attention as 
a possible substitute for gunpowder. Adverse official re¬ 
ports, however, were soon made in France, the U. S., Ger¬ 
many, England, and Austria, and the explosive fell into 
general disfavor on account of its liability to spontaneous 
explosion, its corroding residua, and its excessively violent 
and irregular character, all of which unfitted it for most 
military uses. Baron von Lenk, a member of the Austrian 
commission, was not so readily discouraged. He continued 
a series of experiments for several years, which ultimately 
led to so great improvements in manufacture that in 1853 
he was able to construct a successful twelve-pounder bat¬ 
tery employing guncotton. This led to its temporary in¬ 
troduction into the Austrian military service, and again 
attracted the attention of foreign nations to the new ex¬ 
plosive. 

Baron von Lenk’s system consisted in cleansing the long- 
staple variety of raw cotton in an alkaline wash, followed 
by one in pure water; thoroughly drying it; steeping it 
for forty-eight hours in a cold mixture of strong nitric and 
sulphuric acids—one part of the former to three parts of the 
latter by weight; freeing the resulting tri-nitro-celluloso 
from the acids by a centrifugal machine, by thorough rins¬ 
ing, and finally by the action of running water for a period 
of six or eight weeks, alternated with a boiling potash bath 
and hand washing; air-drying it; rinsing it in a hot solu¬ 
tion of potassium silicate to retard tho rapidity of combus¬ 
tion ; and, lastly, again washing and thoroughly drying it. 
He partially regulated the suddenness of explosion by 
twisting the guncotton into ropes or weaving it into cloth 
to secure a more uniform density. Musket cartridges were 
formed by wrapping the thread around wooden plugs, to 
prevent unequal ramming. An admixture of a certain pro¬ 
portion of ordinary cotton was also employed to reduce tho 
violence of action. 

In 1863, Mr. Abel, as a member of a committee appointed 


















1(3 (38 


EXPLOSIVES. 


by the British war office, undertook an experimental inves¬ 
tigation into the merits of this system, and succeeded in 
materially improving it. Instead of the costly long-staple 
cotton, he employs ordinary cotton waste, which is treated 
with the mixed acids, one part of nitric to three of sul¬ 
phuric by weight, without any preliminary process except 
careful drying. It is then rinsed in a large volume of water, 
and dried by a centrifugal apparatus three or four times. 
Next, it is placed in a pulping engine, like those commonly 
used in the manufacture of paper, and reduced to a state 
of fine subdivision. It is then transferred, in quantities of 
at least ten hundredweight, to a poaching engine, where it 
is beaten for about forty-eight hours until it remains uni¬ 
formly suspended in a large volume of warm water, con¬ 
tinually renewed, and finally rendered slightly alkaline.. It 
is then dried in a centrifugal machine, and moulded into 
disks of the desired form and dimensions, which receive a 
pressure ranging from four to six tons per square inch. Up 
to this point the guncotton has been in a damp, and conse¬ 
quently entirely safe, state, and if desired it may be so 
stored for an indefinite period of time without losing its 
peculiar properties. To prepare it for use it is dried upon 
hot plates, freely open on every side to the air. This sys¬ 
tem of manufacture is the best now known, and yields a 
product so uniform and safe as to be employed in England 
almost to the exclusion of all the other modern explosives. 

In appearance, Abel guncotton consists of regular cylin¬ 
ders, of dimensions varying with the use proposed. It is 
white in color, hard to the touch, and sinks readily in water. 
Ignited, unconfined, by a flame, it burns with a strong 
blaze. Fired by a detonating fuse, or raised to a tempera¬ 
ture of about 340° Fahrenheit in a strong case, it explodes 
with great violence—a single ounce being sufficient to in¬ 
dent a plate of iron or disrupt a thin slab of stone upon 
which it is loosely laid. The character of the detonation 
varies with the fulminate employed, being most sudden with 
fulminating mercury. Even in a damp state—containing 
twenty per cent, of moisture—it may be exploded without 
much loss of power by a disk of dry guncotton in contact. 
It is believed, upon good grounds, to be free from danger 
of spontaneous explosion. The English government has 
adopted it as the explosive best suited to submarine war¬ 
fare, and has accumulated large quantities in store. 

Guncotton produces little smoke, and leaves a very small 
residuum of solid matter, the chief products of combustion 
being carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, water, and nitrogen. 
It is unalterable in water, no matter how long submerged. 
It contains about 2 per cent, of moisture in its normal con¬ 
dition, and even when exposed to ordinary damp air it ab¬ 
sorbs but little more—a property which gives it a great ad¬ 
vantage over gunpowder. Chemically, the purest guncotton 
may be regarded as cellulose, in which three atoms of hy¬ 
drogen are replaced by three molecules of peroxide of nitro¬ 
gen. Thus constituted, it is insoluble in mixtures of ether 
and alcohol. If, however, great care has not been observed 
in the manufacture, less simple compounds are formed, 
which may readily be dissolved in these mixtures, forming 
collodion, so much used in photography and the arts. 

Quite recently, Punshon has succeeded in so reducing the 
quickness of action of guncotton by mixing with it nitre 
and crystals of cane-sugar as to make it well suited for use 
in small-arins. Indeed, the present subject for investiga¬ 
tion in connection with guncotton appears to be the admix¬ 
ture with it of some oxidizing agent, such as potassium or 
sodium nitrate; experiments have indicated that an in¬ 
crease of power may thus be gained. 

Schultze Powder .—The conversion of lignin or wood-fibre 
into an explosive similar to guncotton was attempted soon 
after the discovery of that compound, especially by Captain 
Schultze, acting for the Prussian government. His method 
consisted in soaking the wood—preferably alder—in water, 
to give it toughness; cutting it by fine saws into a kind of 
cross-grained veneering; ‘and subsequently punching it into 
small cubes, of which the size varied with the use for which 
the powder was designed. The grains thus produced were 
boiled in a solution of soda, and afterwards alternately ex¬ 
posed to steam and washed in a solution of chlorine to free 
them from resins, etc. They were next treated for several 
hours with mixed nitric and sulphuric acids, kept cool by 
constant stirring, and afterwards were thoroughly washed 
and dried. In this state the powder is but slightly explosive, 
and it may be kept in store indefinitely. For use, the grains 
must be submerged for about twenty minutes in a solution 
of nitrate of potassa and baryta,, and then carefully dried 
and sifted. The necessary oxygen having been now sup¬ 
plied, the powder has a high explosive power. It burns 
with but little solid residuum or smoke, and is said to be 
both cheaper and stronger than common gunpowder, Aveight 
for Aveight. It, however, readily attracts moisture, is liable 
to form dust by attrition, and is more bulky than gunpow¬ 
der, in the proportion of 3 to 1. 


Nitro-glycerine or glonoin oil Avas discovered in 1S47 by 
Ascagne Sobrero, but remained unapplied to practical uses 
until 1864, Avhen Alfred Nobel, a Swedish engineer, began 
to develop its industrial value. Since then it has been 
largely employed upon the continents of Europe and Amer¬ 
ica. It is prepared by the action of a mixture of concen¬ 
trated nitric and sulphuric acids upon glycerine introduced 
drop by drop. At ordinary temperatures it is an oily 
liquid, usually colorless if made from good glycerine, but 
sometimes discolored by causes not well understood. It has 
no odor, and is of a sweet and slightly pungent taste. It 
is highly poisonous, even short contact Avith the skin being 
sufficient to produce severe headache. Its specific gravity 
is 1.6. When first made it has a milky appearance, which 
ultimately disappears. Nitro-glycerine incompletely freed 
from the acids undergoes spontaneous decomposition, is 
dangerous to handle, and ultimately may lose its explosive 
properties. When pure it congeals at from 40° to 45° Fah¬ 
renheit, and is then nearly or quite incapable of explosion. 
At 212° Fahrenheit it begins to decompose; at 365° Fah¬ 
renheit it throws off yellow or reddish fumes ; at 423° Fah¬ 
renheit it deflagrates violently. When uncongealed, nitro¬ 
glycerine may readily be exploded by concussion, which 
renders it quite unfit for transportation in that state. In 
store it should be kept in a cool place, under pure water, in 
open \ r essels, and, if practicable, in a frozen condition. For 
use, it should be thawed very gradually, by placing the can 
in warm water raised to a temperature not exceeding blood 
heat. Any leakage should be carefully avoided at all times, 
and emptied cans should be destroyed. Flame applied to 
small quantities of nitro-glycerine causes it to burn with dif¬ 
ficulty like ordinary oil, but a fulminate exploded in contact 
Avith it produces a tremendous detonation. To develop its 
full effect, fulminating mercury, in quantities not less than 
fifteen Troy grains, and confined in a strong copper capsule, 
is recommended. Its advantages as an explosh'e consist 
in its instantaneous development of force, due to the fact 
that, pound for pound, it produces at least three and a half 
times as much gas, and twice as much heat, as gunpowder; 
its high specific gravity, Avhich permits the use of small drill 
holes; its admitting of Avater, or loose clay, or even air, 
tamping; and finally, the facility with which it can be made 
upon the spot for immediate use. Its disadvantages are the 
severe headaches it causes to those not habituated to its use, 
its liability to spontaneous explosion, the dangers sure to 
attend its careless handling, and, especially for military uses, 
its unfitness for being kept long on hand, unless prepai - ed 
and treated with a degree of care not readily to be secured. 
To these may be added the fact that its rate of explosion is 
not under control, which restricts its economical use to 
blasting in hard rock or under water. In soft rock or clay 
its power at equal cost is inferior to that of common gun- 
poAvder, because its action is akin to a sudden bloAv, rather 
than to a continued push. 

Dynamite , called in the United States “ giant powder,” 
was invented in 1S66-67 by Nobel; it consists of nitro¬ 
glycerine absorbed by some porous inert solid. The per¬ 
centage of the former is of course limited by the capacity 
of the absorbent. The best material is a silicious infusorial 
earth found in Hanover, and known as kieselguhr. It is 
when dried a Avhite, impalpable powder, showing under the 
microscope a cellular structure. It Avill absorb and safely 
retain three times its weight of nitro-glycerine. Many ex¬ 
periments were made in Paris during the late siege to dis¬ 
cover the most suitable substitute there available. Finally, 
a residue from the gas-works was adopted, which Avould 
take up and retain a little more than its OAvn weight of 
nitro-glycerine. 

Dynamite made from kieselguhr has the appearance and 
consistence of heavy broAvn sugar. It possesses most of the 
virtues of the parent nitro-glycerine, Avith some peculiar to 
itself; of which the chief are, exemption from liability to 
spontaneous explosion and to detonation from moderate 
shocks, both of which result from the exceedingly fine 
granulation of the nitro-glycerine. It has been very largely 
used in this country, especially in California, and these im¬ 
portant advantages are noAV generally admitted. Dynamite 
possesses another decided advantage over nitro-glycerine. 
If kept in the state of loose powder Avithout compression 
into cartridges, it may be exposed to any natural tempera¬ 
ture without losing its explosive properties Avhen subjected 
to the action of a primer charged with fifteen grains of ful¬ 
minating mercury; and this too Avithout becoming more 
sensitive to ordinary shocks and handling. In the form of 
compressed cartridges it is as inexplosive Avhen thoroughly 
frozen as nitro-glycerine itself. Saturated Avith water, it 
loses only a very sihall percentage of its explosive poAver, 
but requires a primer much more powerful than those ordi¬ 
narily used. Ignited by a flame, and unconfined, it burns 
quietly without detonation. Experiment indioates that its 
I explosive force is not quite so instantaneous as that of pure 














nitro-glycerine ; hence, in certain kinds of resisting media, 
where a sustained pressure is required, the mechanical 
work performed by three-quarters of a pound of nitro¬ 
glycerine in the form of dynamite may largely exceed that 
produced by a full pound of the unabsorbed material. This 
apparent paradox actually occurs in submarine mines, usu¬ 
ally called torpedoes. For rock-blasting, dynamite should 
be pressed firmly home and tamped with sand. 

Dynamite possesses another merit. By combining its 
ingredients in judicious percentages, a certain control can 
be exerted over the quickness of its action, and a classifi¬ 
cation similar to that of the different grades of gunpowder, 
but much more restricted in range, may be made. 

Various have been the attempts to improve upon dynamite 
by replacing its inert base with different explosive materials. 
Of such compounds, glyoxiline, lithofracteur, and dualin are 
the best known; but none of them are believed to be im¬ 
provements for rock-blasting, chiefly for the reason that the 
bulk is increased in a higher ratio than the power, and 
hence, as the cost is largely dependent upon the size of the 
drill-holes, no real economic gain is made. 

Glyoxiline was invented by Abel shortly after the intro¬ 
duction of dynamite. It consisted of a mixture of gun¬ 
cotton pulp and potassium nitrate, saturated with nitro¬ 
glycerine, and was made both in a granular and a cake 
form. It proved to be less troublesome in handling, owing 
to the granules being coated with an impermeable material 
which reduced the tendency to produce headache, but it 
was never largely introduced into practical use. 

Lithofracteur was devised about the same time by Prof. 
Engels of Cologne. Its precise composition is not made 
public, further than that it consists of 525 parts of nitro¬ 
glycerine, 225 parts of silica, and 250 parts of mineral 
bodies; and analyses of different samples have exhibited 
varying results. One authority (Trauzl) reports 52 parts 
of nitro-glycerine, 30 parts of kieselguhr, 12 parts of coal, 
4 parts of sodium nitrate, and 2 parts of sulphur. Others 
place the proportion of sodium nitrate as high as 25 per 
cent.; others add guncotton. Lithofracteur is a pasty sub¬ 
stance of dark color. Like the other compounds of nitro¬ 
glycerine, it burns quietly when ignited by a flame, and 
explodes violently when fired by a detonating fuse. Water 
dissolves the sodium nitrate, and thus sets free a certain part 
of the nitro-glycerine—of course a decided disadvantage. 
The compound exhibits explosive properties similar to dy¬ 
namite, and offers equal security against concussion. Its 
use heretofore has been restricted chiefly to Germany and 
Belgium, although it has been experimentally tried in Eng¬ 
land, and was employed by the Germans in the late war 
with France. 

Dualin was invented by Dittmar shortly after dynarhite, 
and its use has been chiefly restricted to Germany and the 
U. S. The patent describes it as consisting of “cellulose, 
nitro-cellulose, nitro-starch, nitro-mannite, and nitro-gly¬ 
cerine, mixed in different combinations, depending on the 
degree of strength which it is desired the powder should 
possess in adapting its use to various purposes.” A sample 
supplied by the inventor for trial at the Iloosac Tunnel was 
found by analysis to consist of 60 per cent, of nitro-gly¬ 
cerine and 40 per cent, of washed sawdust, not treated 
with nitric and sulphuric acids. Trauzl reports it as con¬ 
sisting of 50 parts of nitro-glycerine, 30 parts of fine saw¬ 
dust, and 20 parts of potassium nitrate. The best variety 
now manufactured is believed to be cellulose derived from 
poplar pulp, treated with nitric and sulphuric acids, and 
saturated with nitro-glycerine. 

Having a less specific gravity than dynamite, dualin is 
slightly inferior to it, bulk for bulk, in explosive energy. 
When thoroughly soaked in water, it can only be exploded 
by a very violent detonation, much exceeding that of the 
ordinary fuse, and even then it loses more, than half its 
power. It congeals at about 45° Fahrenheit, and in this 
state readily explodes, becoming so sensitive to friction as 
to make it dangerous to tamp in cold weather. In other 
respects its properties resemble those of dynamite. 

The Chlorates .—The violent action of potassium chlorate 
upon readily oxidizable substances has given rise to many 
attempts to employ it in the preparation of substitutes for 
gunpowder. Under the names of white gunpowder and 
German gunpowder a mixture of this salt with potassium 
ferro and ferri-cyanide and sugar has long been known. 
Mixed with nut-galls, resins, and other vegetable sub¬ 
stances, it has been repeatedly introduced to temporary 
use as Horsley’s powder, Ehrhardt’s powder, etc. I he 
form best known in this country consists of potassium 
chlorate, potassium nitrate, and crude gamboge, which, 
under the name of Oriental powder, or safety compound 
of the Oriental Powder Company, was at one time con¬ 
siderably employed in the oil-wells of Pennsylvania and 
for other blasting purposes. Its dangerous sensibility to 
friction, and the consolidating effect of heat upon the gum, 


1669 


have prevented its general use. With some of these chlo¬ 
rate compounds sulphur enters as an ingredient, which in¬ 
tensifies the chief objection against them—their liability to 
explode from slight friction or percussion. As a class, they 
have many times the explosive intensity of gunpowder, but 
arc also more dangerous to handle. For special purposes 
they are extremely useful—for instance, a mixture of potas¬ 
sium chlorate and sulphur, formed into a paste, and dried 
to fit small cartridge-cases of lead, has been found to bo 
terribly effective as a charge for explosive bullets. They 
may be fired with safety from a musket, but explode with 
great violence, even in penetrating flesh. 

The Picrates. —Picric acid was discovered in 1788 by 
Haussman while treating indigo with concentrated nitric 
acid. Within a few years chemists have derived it from 
other substances, especially from carbolic acid. It has been 
called amer d’indigo, avier de Welter, carbo-nitric acid, nitro- 
picric acid, carbazotic acid, and tri-nitro-carbolic acid. It 
is a crystalline body of a brilliant golden yellow, very bit¬ 
ter to the taste, and is largely used as a dye. When heated 
to 600° Fahrenheit it detonates with violence. 

The salts obtained by treating many of the bases with 
picric acid possess its characteristic properties; that best 
known is the potassium picrate. This forms golden crys¬ 
tals having a metallic reflection. Insoluble in alcohol, and 
but slightly soluble in water, it detonates violently at 600° 
Fahrenheit. Its action is akin to that of the fulminates in 
suddenness ; and to regulate this property, Designolle has 
mixed it with charcoal and potassium nitrate, thus forming 
a compound similar to, but more powerful than, ordinary 
gunpowder. To obtain the maximum explosive energy, he 
employs equal parts of potassium nitrate and potassium 
picrate. For use in rifles from 12 to 20 per cent, of potas¬ 
sium picrate is used, with a small amount of charcoal. For 
cannon only from 8 to 12 per cent, of potassium picrate is 
employed. Under the name of poitdre Designolle this com¬ 
pound has been considerably manufactured in France for 
military purposes, both for large guns and for torpedoes. 

Brugiere powder consists of an admixture of ammonium 
picrate and saltpetre. It is comparatively a slow powder, 
less liable to attract moisture than ordinary gunpowder, and 
yielding but little smoke. In England, Abel has experi¬ 
mented with a similar compound, to which he has given the 
name of picric powder, and which he considers especially 
suited for use in shells, because, although little liable to 
explode from concussion or friction—the great objection to 
the potassium picrate compounds—its effects when strongly 
confined are more violent than those of gunpowder. 

II. L. Abbot, U. S. A. 

Expo'nent [Lat. expo'nens, from ex, “out,” “forth,” 
andpono, to “put,” to “ set”], literally “setting forth” or 
indicating; hence an index or representative; in algebra, 
a number or symbol representing a number which, when 
written above and at the right hand of any symbol of 
quantity, indicates a corresponding power of that quantity. 
Thus a 3 denotes the third power of a, and 3 is said to be 
the exponent or index of that power; usually, though less 
correctly, it is called the exponent of a. Thus a 3 is merely 
an abbreviation of aaa, and from the definition of an ex¬ 
ponent it follows at once that a m + n = a m a n . The nota¬ 
tion of exponents was introduced by Descartes, and being 
very convenient was soon extended. The convention on 
which the extension is based is the general truth of the 
above equation. Thus, if we ask for the meaning of a nega¬ 
tive or fractional exponent, on the hypothesis that the 
above equation shall hold for all values of m and n, we find 
that since a m = a m + ° = a m a°, a 0 must be a symbol for 1, 
no matter what a represents. 

Exponential Equation is one involving terms 
wherein the unknown quantity is an exponent or constitu¬ 
ent of an exponent. The simplest form of such an equation 
is a x =b; one of its solutions is the logarithm of b to the 
base a, or, what is the same thing, the ratio of the logarithm 
of b to that of a, the bases being the same, but arbitrary. 
This is one solution only; the equation has many other im¬ 
aginary roots, and is consequently transcendental. A curve 
in whose equation the co-ordinates appear as exponents is 
also called an exponential curve. The logarithmic curve is 
an example. 

Exports. See Commerce, by IIon. Alex. Delmar. 

Exposition, International and Universal, a 
name applied to tTie great public exhibitions which have 
been held, within the last twenty-five years, in various 
countries, of the products of the industry and of the evi¬ 
dences of culture, intellectual and msthetic, of all nations; 
notably, to those of London in 1851 and 1862 : to those of 
Paris 'in 1855 and 1867; and to that of Vienna of the 
present year (1873). These grand displays may be re¬ 
garded as the development on the largest scale of an idea 
which, for the preceding fifty or sixty years, had had many 


EXPONENT—EXPOSITION, INTERNATIONAL AND UNIVERSAL. 





















1670 EXPOSITION, INTERNATIONAL AND UNIVERSAL. 


less imposing manifestations—the idea that, in order to the 
improvement of the arts of industry, the lirst requisite and 
the most effectual incitement is to be found in acquainting 
a people with the actual state of those arts as they exist. 
These expositions, therefore, though nominally universal, 
comprehended in their first conception and in their earliest 
practical illustrations only what are called the useful arts, 
in contradistinction to the liberal and tlio fine arts; and 
they furthermore omitted from their scheme the fevidences 
of that kind of moral activity among peoples, which aims 
to ameliorate the condition of the human race by repressing 
vice and crime, by relieving distress, by diminishing the 
amount of disease, by the improvement of prison disci¬ 
pline, by softening the horrors of war, and by other means 
analogous to these; all of which have been kept more or 
less in view in the later. The early international exposi¬ 
tions, moreover, omitted to provide, or at least provided 
only on a limited scale, for the display of animals useful 
to man, or of living and growing vegetables, plants and 
flowers, or for illustrating the operations of the garden, the 
field, the farm, and the dairy. The later have given to 
these objects a very large portion of their space. 

Public exhibitions of the products of industry were in the 
first instance held as marts or fairs. (See Fairs.) The ear¬ 
liest held not for commercial purposes, but strictly for the 
promotion of improvements in the useful arts, were insti¬ 
tuted by the Society of Arts of London. This society has 
held such exhibitions annually since 1760. The first prop¬ 
erly national exhibition of this kind, the first that is to say 
organized under government direction, took place in France 
in 1798. Since that time, the French government has given 
a similar exhibition every four or five years. The effect has 
been greatly to improve the quality and to enlarge the quan¬ 
tity of production in all'the departments of industry through¬ 
out France. “The French writers,” says Judge Daly {Ad¬ 
dress before the Am. Inst., 1863), “attribute the wonderful 
progress of French industry to four causes: 1, the diffusion 
of knowledge, scientific and practical, among the working 
classes, through the establishment of free local libraries, mu¬ 
seums, drawing-schools, and other means of practical in¬ 
struction; 2d, inventions and discoveries; 3d, the repeal 
of restrictive laws; and lastly, the effect of the great indus¬ 
trial exhibitions. The effect of these exhibitions may be 
briefly stated. They have focalized the industry of the 
country, by bringing it under view as one spectacle, thus 
enabling all to know from time to time, the exact state of 
it. They have afforded means of comparison which did no.t 
previously exist, not only to those engaged in a particular 
pursuit, but also to those employed in those pursuits which 
act reciprocally upon each other. They have created a mu¬ 
tual interest between the man of science, the manufacturer, 
the capitalist, and the working classes. The intelligent 
criticism to which they have given rise in the various in¬ 
dustrial journals, not only from scientific men but from 
manufacturers and workmen, has been of the greatest 
benefit. Their regular recurrence has kept up a spirit of 
emulation, in the desire to produce something better and 
cheaper than before. They have served as a means of ad¬ 
vertising new or superior productions, upon a scale the most 
extensive; and have led to the gradual development of the 
business theory of large sales with small profits. They have 
stimulated inventions, by keeping up the constant desire 
for new discoveries, improved methods, and better machin¬ 
ery ; and lastly they have dignified labor by giving it some¬ 
thing more to struggle for than mere pecuniary compensa¬ 
tion.” 

In the United States, since early in the present century, 
exhibitions for the encouragement of agricultural or me¬ 
chanical industry ha^e been annually held under State and 
county organizations, with partial aid from the State gov¬ 
ernments, in some States of the Union, and more recently in 
many. The Franklin Institute, founded in 1824, in Phila¬ 
delphia, the American Institute established four years later 
in New York, and many less conspicuous though pei'haps 
not less useful associations organized for promoting indus¬ 
trial improvement, have relied on public exhibitions as 
among the most effectual means of accomplishing their ob¬ 
jects. 

Of international expositions, the first in the series, that 
of 1851 in London, was undertaken at the suggestion, and 
successfully carried out through the influence, of Prince 
Albert, who was at that time the president of the London 
Society of Arts. A building was erected in Hyde Park for 
the accommodation of the objects entered for exhibition, 
upon a design of an entirely novel and original character 
proposed by Joseph (afterwards Sir Joseph) Paxton, a land¬ 
scape gardener, at that time in charge of the gardens of the 
duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth. The materials employed 
were almost exclusively iron and glass, whence the structure 
received the name of “ the crystal palace,” a name which 
has been applied to other similar constructions since. The 


plan was a long rectangle with a transept crossing the cen¬ 
tre, the whole covering an area of more than twenty acres 
of ground. In the contract for the erection of the building 
it was stipulated that, at the close of the exhibition, it should 
remain the property of the contractors, which stipulation 
reduced the cost to the commissioners by £100,000 or half 
a million of dollars. The total cost for building, mainte¬ 
nance, superintendence, recompenses to exhibitors, legal ex¬ 
penses, etc. etc., was about £293,000. The total receipts from 
all sources were £506,000, showing that the exhibition, 
apart from the large and permanent indirect benefits ac¬ 
cruing from it, was a direct financial success. This cannot 
be said of any of those which have succeeded it. 

The universal admiration attracted by the exposition of 
1851 and its brilliant results, stimulated a similar under¬ 
taking, two years later, in New York. The short interven¬ 
ing time allowed for preparation, and the distance of the 
place of exhibition from the countries most advanced in 
manufactures and other productive arts, suggested a large 
reduction in the scale of the display. The location selected 
was a public square, 445 feet by 455 feet only in dimensions, 
or about 4f acres. Upon this a “crystal palace” was 
erected octagonal in ground plan, but having above two 
naves intersecting symmetrically at right angles, each 365 
feet 5 inches by 149 feet 5 inches. The intersection was 
crowned by a hemispherical dome, 100 feet in diameter, the 
height of the springing line being 70 feet, and the total 
height to the summit above the crown 123 feet. In order 
to increase the extent of floor surface for the purposes of the 
exhibition, spacious galleries were constructed in the arms 
of the building, the total surface thus secured amounting to 
250,000 square feet or 5§ acres. The cost of the building 
was about $200,000, to defray which and to maintain the 
exhibition, money was raised by an issue of stock, at first 
to $300,000, afterwards increased to $500,000, in shares of 
$100 each. These shares soon rose in value, and they were 
at one time at a premium of 75 per cent. The enterprise 
nevertheless resulted in loss, the destruction of the building 
by fire a few years later having finally destroyed all pros¬ 
pect of redeeming its fortunes. 

During the same year, 1853, a similar international ex¬ 
hibition was held in Dublin, in a building forming a series 
of parallel halls. The cost was £80,000; the receipts, 
£47,000. 

The Paris International Exposition of 1855 was in effect 
a private enterprise, but it was conducted by a commission 
appointed by the government, who also undertook to se¬ 
cure it against loss. The principal building on this occa¬ 
sion was erected of masonry in the Champs Elysees. The 
great hall devoted to the exposition was lighted from the 
roof. This building provided an extent of 1,770,000 square 
feet of floor surface to the industrial departments not em¬ 
ploying machinery in motion. The machinery was estab¬ 
lished in an “annex” on the bank of the Seine, four thou¬ 
sand feet long. The fine arts were provided for in another 
building; and the tapestries and carpets of the imperial 
establishments, as well as the crown jewels, in still another. 
This exposition cost 11,264,520 francs = $2,253,000, not in¬ 
cluding the cost of the main building, which was preserved 
as the property of the government, under the name of the 
“ Palais de l’lndustrie,” to be used for annual exhibitions 
of various kinds and for public ceremonials. 

The second London Universal Exposition was held in 
1862. For this, the location chosen was upon a ground 
which had been purchased at South Kensington by the 
commissioners of the exposition of 1851, with the surplus 
proceeds of that exposition and some aid from the gov¬ 
ernment. The principal building was nearly rectangular, 
and covered about seven acres. The whole area covered 
by roofs was about twenty-three acres. The buildings 
were subsequently removed, the space occupied by them 
being required for government purposes, and the principal 
one was transferred to the north of London, where, under 
the name of the Alexandra Palace, it was totally destroyed 
by fire in June, 1873. ^ 

The international exposition of 1867 at Paris was the 
most comprehensive in its plan, the most elaborate in its 
preparations, and the most colossal in its dimensions, of 
all which had been held up to that time. The government 
announced its intention four years in advance. In June, 
1865, an imperial decree created a commission to direct the 
work, under the presidency of Prince Napoleon, who 
shortly after resigned, and was replaced, in February, 1866, 
by the Prince Imperial. The place fixed upon for the 
principal exhibition was the Champ de Mars, the largo 
parade-ground in front of the Ecole Militaire, containing 
about 111 acres. For the exhibition of farm and dairy 
operations, animals and stock, the island of Billancourt in 
the Seine, two and a half miles from the Champ de Mars, 
was chosen, having an area of 74 acres. For the competi¬ 
tive trials of mowers and reapers and other field operations, 















EXPOSITION, INTERNATIONAL AND UNIVERSAL. 1671 


portions of the emperor’s farms at Fouilleuse near St. Cloud, 
and of those at \ incennes, were given up as occasion re¬ 
quired. The margin of the Seine in front of the Champ 
de Mars (from which it is separated by the quay D’Orsay) 
offering an area of about three acres, was devoted to ob¬ 
jects connected with navigation, to diving apparatus, and 
to machinery for raising water. Here also was found a 
convenient place for a chemical laboratory in which experi¬ 
mental lectures were delivered during the exposition. The 
principal exposition building was constructed mainly of 
iron, and was of enormous dimensions. The entire space 
enclosed within its exterior walls was 36 acres, but there was 
an open central court of about one acre in the centre. This 
building occupied the centre of the Champ de Mars. The 
surrounding area was called the park, and was allotted to 
the different countries represented in the exposition, for 
the construction of buildings to accommodate objects or to 
facilitate operations which could not be allowed in the 
main building, or to illustrate the characteristic domestic 
or school architecture of different peoples; or for more 
imposing structures representing the temples and palaces 
of pre-historic antiquity. The entire area of the park 
was about 75 acres; but of this, 12J acres, in the south¬ 
eastern angle, were cut off from the rest by an enclosure, 
and devoted to a horticultural and botanical exhibition 
under the name of the Reserved Garden. The park and 
the garden, as well as the farming and agricultural exhibi¬ 
tions at Billancourt, were new features in these great un¬ 
dertakings ; and to many visitors the two former were 
quite as attractive as the display within the palace, or even 
more so. The whole area was laid out with much taste, 
the grassplots, always vividly green, being intersected by 
winding walks with here and there a limpid stream, the 
various buildings erected without any obvious order pre¬ 
senting an endless variety of aspects from different points 
of view. In the reserved garden, an immense structure 
of glass occupying an artificial eminence protected a mag¬ 
nificent collection of tropical trees and plants, while the 
shrubbery of all the forests of Europe covered the side 
slopes. Two huge aquaria also, within this same enclosure, 
presented specimens of the most remarkable and the most 
interesting inhabitants of the ocean and of inland waters. 
The construction of these was such that the spectator as 
he advanced found himself in a cavern beneath the surface 
of the water, through the glazed roof of which he saw the 
animals sporting above his head, while they were at the 
same time around him on every side. 

The principal building, or so called palace, was con¬ 
structed without any attempt at architectural effect, but with 
the design to make as conspicuous as possible the method 
of arrangement with reference to the plan of classification 
by correlated groups of objects, and by countries; and so to 
facilitate to the visitor the study of the exhibition and to 
enable him readily to find any particular object sought. It 
had the form of an ellipse with flattened sides, or more 
properly of a parallelogram with circular ends, the extreme 
length being 490 metres, or 1607.64 feet, and the extreme 
breadth 380 metres, or 1246.74 feet. The entire cost of 
the structure, including the necessary excavations and other 
earthworks, was about 11,785,000 francs = $2,357,000. Dur¬ 
ing the last six months of 1866, there were employed in the 
Champ de Mars, principally upon the palace, 1477 work¬ 
men. 

In plan, the palace was divided into seven concentric halls, 
or galleries, corresponding to seven of the ten groups in the 
scheme of classification. The other three groups embracing 
live stock, agricultural exhibitions, etc., could not be intro¬ 
duced into the building. These halls were intersected by 
radial lines, forming boundaries between the spaces allotted 
to the different countries. This plan had the apparent dis¬ 
advantage of allotting to every country the same propor¬ 
tionate space for the several groups ; while in these several 
groups different countries are differently prolific. This dis¬ 
advantage, however, was got over by allowing departures 
wb^n necessary from the regularity of the elliptical divisions, 
without, however, allowing the elliptical passages, or prom¬ 
enades, to be interfered with. Sixteen of the radial divis¬ 
ions were formed by open passages, the principal entrance, 
on the main axis, being 15 metres, or 49J feet wide; the op¬ 
posite one, at the other extremity of this axis, 10 metres, or 
32.81 feet; which latter breadth was also given to the pas¬ 
sages corresponding to the minor axis. Besides these, there 
were 12 other radial passages, 5 metres, or 16.41 feet wide. 
The gallery of the fine arts, which formed the innei hall, 
though divided by partitions to mark the countries, afforded, 
through large open doors, an unobstructed passage aiound 
the whole ellipse; and the same was true of the gallery of 
machinery which was outermost. There were, besides these, 
three other perfectly free concentric passages, of 5 metres, or 
16.41 feet each, making the complete circuit of the building. 
A verandah roof exterior to tho main building surrounded it 


entirely, sheltering a “ gallery of aliments,” or series of res¬ 
taurants, characteristic of different countries, 10 metres — 
32.81 feet broad, and also a colonnade 5 metres = 16.41 feet 
wide, beyond this. As an afterthought, an additional gal¬ 
lery was introduced into the plan, during the construction 
of the building, inside the gallery of tho fine arts, 81 metres 
= 27.9 feet wide, within which still was a sheltered prom¬ 
enade 5.65 metres = 18.55 feet wide, and within that the cen¬ 
tral court, adorned with fountains and flowers. Finally, in 
the midst of this court, stood a beautiful pavilion, where 
there were exhibited the standard weights and measures of all 
nations, and all their varieties of coins. Surmounting the 
dome of this pavilion was a large artificial globe, with its 
axis parallel to the axis of the earth, which, being driven 
by clockwork, revolved like the earth once in the twenty- 
four hours. 

The park, besides the objects which have been mentioned 
above, contained “ annexes ” in which were exhibited ob¬ 
jects which might be called the overflow of the palace—the 
space allowed the exhibitors within the buildings not suf¬ 
ficing for their purposes. Thus, here were seen the most 
magnificent displays of galvanoplastic work, of photo¬ 
graphic enamelling for stained-glass windows, of costly 
India shawls, etc. etc. Here also were seen objects not 
enumerated in the original scheme, especially ordnance 
and the material of war generally; first-class lighthouses 
of full dimensions; the ambulances and other apparatus 
of the American Sanitary Commission, and of similar as¬ 
sociations in other countries; objects gathered by Christian 
missions among savage nations, with specimens of the pub¬ 
lications of missionary societies in all languages; a com¬ 
plete model in relief of the valley of the Nile; a diorama 
showing the Suez ship-canal throughout its whole length, 
with models of the machines employed in its construction, 
antj others illustrating the system of traction, by which 
vessels are conducted through it from sea to sea. These 
are only examples of a very numerous and miscellaneous 
class of exhibitions of high interest, which found their 
place in the park. 

The total expense of the exposition on all accounts, 
from the beginning to the final liquidation, amounted to 
22,983,817.99 francs = $4,596,764. The total return pro¬ 
duced by the exposition was only 14,114,662.09 francs = 
$2,822,9*00; but there was a “subvention” of 6,000,000 by 
the government, and another of like amount from the city 
of Paris, making the total receipts 26,114,662.09 francs; 
giving an excess of 3,130,844.10 francs = $626,000 above 
expenditure. 

The number of exhibitors, visitors, jurors and awards 
at each of the four great international expositions as yet 
held, is presented in the following summary: 


Year. 

Place. 

No. of 
Exhibitors. 

No. of 
Visitors. 

No. of 
Jurors. 

No. of 
Awards. 

1851 

London... 

15,500 

6,039,195 

318 

5,248 

1855 

Paris. 

23,954 

5,162,330 

398 

11,073 

1862 

London... 

28,653 

6,225,000 

620 

13,423 

1867 

Paris. 

52,200 

9,238,967 

693 

19,776 


The awards in every instance include honorable mentions 
as well as the more substantial recompenses. The number of 
honorable mentions has usually been something less than half 
the entire total. The number of visitors as given for 1867, em¬ 
braces only the paying visitors, and includes the subscribers 
for the season or for various lengths of time from a week 
upward, 95,688 in all, only once each; whereas the holders 
of subscription tickets probably used them many times. 
Moreover, the exhibitors and their assistants, the em¬ 
ployes of the administration, the foreign commissioners, 
the jurors, and the royal and imperial visitors, entered free. 
From calculations made by the imperial commissioners in 
their final report, it appears that the actual number of ad¬ 
missions to the exposition during its continuance, including 
repeated admissions of the same person, was 15,000,000, or 
upwards, and the average number of admissions daily was 
nearly 70,000. The total number of exhibitors given above 
(52,200) includes 381 entries made by different sovereigns 
and governments, which, not being designed for competition, 
should be deducted. Curiously enough, the French final re¬ 
port includes these entries “hors concours ” among the awards. 
They should be deducted on both sides, when the result will 
be, exhibitors, 51,819; awards, 19,395, of which the distribu¬ 
tion among the principal countries is as follows: Franco 
15,804 exhfbitors, 9938 awards; U. S. of America, 536 ex¬ 
hibitors, 291 awards; Holland, 587 exhibitors, 198 awards; 
Bavaria, 404 exhibitors, 183 awards; Belgium, 1909 ex¬ 
hibitors, 972 awards; Prussia and North Germany, 2447 
exhibitors, 1132 awards; Austria, 2018 exhibitors, 1035 
awards; Switzerland, 1001 exhibitors, 351 awards; Spain, 
2636 exhibitors, 509 awards; Portugal, 1881 exhibitors, 
268 awards; Sweden and Norway, 1077 exhibitors, 323 
awards; Italy, 4144 exhibitors, 795 awards; Turkey, 4196 






























1072 EXPOSITION, THE INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSAL. 


exhibitors, 134 awards; Brazil, 1336 exhibitors, 97 awards; 
Great Britain, 6032 exhibitors, 1702 awards. 

The management of a great international exposition is 
an undertaking which exacts for its success the exercise of 
administrative and executive ability of the highest order. 
The difficulties which attend the task are peculiar. A for¬ 
midable one, which presents itself in the very beginning, is 
the selection of a suitable site. So vast has been the scale 
which the more recent exhibitions of this kind have spon¬ 
taneously taken, as illustrated at Paris, and in the exposi¬ 
tion now in progress at Vienna, that no open areas ade¬ 
quate to their purposes can any longer be looked for in 
the interior of large cities. Yet it is only in presence of 
large cities that such expositions can exist; for the great 
multitude of exhibitors and visitors whom they invite 
must have the accommodations which only, such cities can 
furnish. If not held in cities, therefore, they must be held 
in the immediate vicinity of cities, and in situations easy 
of access from them. The site must also lie upon some 
great line of transportation, or better at the point of con¬ 
vergence of many such lines; and if possible it should be 
approachable for vessels of burden by water. The next 
difficulty arises out of the necessity of improvising struc¬ 
tures of great magnitude and of very substantial charac¬ 
ter, for the accommodation of the objects to be exhibited, 
in very brief time. The preparation of suitable grounds, 
also, is sometimes a work of almost equal magnitude. In 
the Champ de Mars, for example, one hundred and twenty 
acres of arid sand were converted into a lovely landscape 
garden in a single season. In the preparation of these 
buildings and grounds, moreover, provision must be made 
for thorough ventilation, drainage, water supply, and gas 
lighting, on a scale to meet the wants of fifty thousand 
people constantly, and the occasional wants of more than 
twice as many. The hydraulic service must be ample, so 
as to meet at once and effectually any danger from fire; 
and it should have a head above the level of the highest 
buildings. There must furthermore be a watchful and in¬ 
telligent sanitary service, not only to afford relief in case 
of accident or sudden illness among the assembled multi¬ 
tudes, but also to guard against the first possible ap¬ 
proaches of epidemic. The daily care of the buildings 
and grounds, for purposes merely of security and cleanli¬ 
ness, requires the employment and constant supervision of 
an army of inferior employes; and to all these provisions 
must be added that of an efficient police, subject to the 
direction of the managers of the exposition. The installa¬ 
tion of the objects to be exhibited is another task of im¬ 
mense magnitude, of which the difficulty is enormously 
enhanced, not only by the brevity of the time allowed in 
which to accomplish it, but on account of the almost end¬ 
less multiplicity of details which it involves. Compared 
with this, to move the material of an army of a hundred 
thousand men is a work of comparative simplicity; for in 
that case the material, though cumbrous, is in great homo¬ 
geneous masses, the masses are limited in variety, and the 
sources from which supplies are to be drawn are few and 
generally known. In the case of the exposition, the ma¬ 
terial to be received and disposed of is almost infinite in 
variety, and it comes in an endless number of independent 
parcels. All these parcels, to the extent of many thou¬ 
sands of tons, arriving almost simultaneously, render the 
regulation of the system of transportation and of installa¬ 
tion, a task exceedingly perplexing. Many of the objects, 
especially the machines, are so cumbrous as to require 
foundations of masonry to be provided for them; and 
these require excavations; all which work has to be done 
for all nations within the space of a few weeks. The ar¬ 
rangements necessary for the supply of motive-power to 
the machines, it being consistent neither with safety nor 
with comfort to allow powerful engines with their furnaces 
and boilers within the building, add another element to the 
complication ; so, that, taking all things into consideration, 
the punctuality with which the great expositions have been 
hitherto opened on the days originally appointed, is evi¬ 
dence that they have been ably and efficiently directed; 
notwithstanding that here and there exhibitors have been 
caught unprepared. In regard to these accidents, it must 
be borne in mind that the chief commissioners have no 
such absolute control over exhibitors as a general has over 
his troops; and that they cannot always force the laggards 
who have once secured their places, to complete their ar¬ 
rangements with the promptness demanded. 

Since the exposition of 1867, the question has been 
somewhat discussed whether the advantages secured by 
displays so ephemeral, on a scale so gigantic, are sufficient 
to compensate for the great labor, expense, loss of time 
and temporary locking up of capital, which necessarily at¬ 
tend them. The benefits are undeniably great, but it is 
just as they are beginning to be really felt, that the whole 
scene disappears. To study and understand a display of 


such magnitude, is a task which may occupy the clearest 
mind for weeks or months. The opportunity is lost just as 
the visitor who comes to learn is beginning to profit by it. 
The imperial commissioners of 1867, therefore, in their 
final report, express, very decidedly, their opinion, that 
hereafter, temporary expositions should no more be encour¬ 
aged; but that permanent museums of industry should bo 
established in large capitals, or in their neighborhood, em¬ 
bodying and even improving upon the best features of 
those great industrial displays which have gone before; 
and keeping constantly under the eyes of all mankind 
everything which may serve in any manner as an indica¬ 
tion "of the existing state of the world’s civilization. Of 
course, to sustain such permanent museums, the commer¬ 
cial feature must enter in. The commissioners believe that 
such a modification is practicable, and that it will be ad¬ 
vantageous to the industrial interests of the capitals where 
such museums shall be established. The experience to be 
acquired at the exposition of the present year (1873) at 
Vienna, and at the centennial exposition of the U. S. at 
Philadelphia in 1876, may throw some additional light 
upon this question. Meantime a company in New York 
has obtained a charter from the legislature for the estab¬ 
lishment of a permanent industrial exposition in that city ; 
and it is possible that an experiment upon such a plan may 
be there tried. F. A. P. Barnard. 

Exposition, The International Universal, at 
Vienna, Austria, 1873, was opened on the first day of May^ 
and closed on the third day of November. /The attention 
of the Austrian people appears to have been directed to¬ 
wards holding a great exhibition some time before the Paris 
Exposition of 1867 was projected, but the attempt to realize 
their wishes in the fullest degree was postponed in favor 
of the French enterprise./ An exhibition of considerable 
pretensions was, however, held in the year 1866, under the 
auspices of the government, through the department of 
agriculture and forestry. The Prater was the locality. It 
was opened on the 17th of May, and closed on the 14tli of 
June. Its duration appears to have been cut short by th.e 
war with Prussia. / The first proposition to hold a great 
international exhibition at Vienna in the year 1873 is said 
to have proceeded from the Trades’ Union of the city, a 
very wealthy and influential organization, with Baron 
Wertheimer, a safe-manufacturer, at its head. 

It was supposed that it could be so carried out that the 
receipts would nearly cover the expenditures; at any rate, 
it was decided that a guarantee-fund of 3,000,000 florins 
would be sufficient to cover all possible deficiencies, and 
subscriptions to this amount having been obtained, chiefly 
among members of the society, the government was induced 
to take an active part in the matter, and to announce, May 
24, 1870, by an imperial and royal decree, “that, under the 
august patronage of His Imperial and Royal Majesty the 
emperor, an international exhibition will be held at Vienna 
in the year 1873, having for its aim to represent the present 
state of modern civilization and the entire sphere of national 
economy, and to promote its further development and prog¬ 
ress.” The enterprise was thus from the outset under the 
immediate patronage and control of the imperial govern¬ 
ment. It had not only its sanction, but its heartiest sym¬ 
pathy and support, and it was finally sustained by govern¬ 
ment appropriations. 

An imperial commission was named, consisting of 175 
members, selected from the chief officers of the depart¬ 
ments of the government, and from the leading men of 
science, art, and industry in the empire, especially of 
those who had taken part in former international exhibi¬ 
tions as members of the commissions or as jurors, delegates, 
or reporters, and who had gained honor and distinction in 
their respective spheres of duty. The archduke Charles 
Louis was named as the protector, and the archduke Reg- 
nier the president. 

By the imperial decree of the 29th Sept., 1871, the whole 
direction, administration, and carrying out of the exhibi¬ 
tion, as also by private imperial letter and decree of Jsyi. 9 
of the same year, were conferred upon the privy counsellor 
Dr. William Baron von Schwarz-Senborn, as administrator 
of the exhibition, with the title of the Imperial and Royal 
General Director. To a high and just appreciation of the 
functions of great international exhibitions, and of their 
importance to nations and civilization, the baron added 
great experience in their organization and management by 
his official connection with them as commissioner of the 
Austrian government in London in the years 1851 and 1862, 
and in Paris in 1867. All the imperial and royal author¬ 
ities were obliged in their intercourse with the general 
director to assist him as much and as promptly as possible. 
A regiment of sappers and miners was detailed for duty in 
the exhibition grounds, and not only assisted in the con¬ 
struction, but in guarding the buildings after the opening. 

The location selected was the famous Prater, the park 



















EXPOSITION, THE INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSAL. 


and place of resort of the Viennese, lying about one and 
a halt mile3 from the centre of the city, and between it and 
the Danube. It was also in the immediate vicinity of the 
great engineering work undertaken for the regulation of 
the ilow ot that river. The surface consisted of the almost 
level alluvion ot the river, and was raised in some por¬ 
tions by the addition of about four feet of gravel dredged 
from the river-bed. 

About 280 acres, or 1,131,235 square metres, were en¬ 
closed by a high board fence. The extreme length of the 
tract, approximately a rectangle in form, extending E. and 
W., was about 1400 metres, and the width 720 metres. The 
total length of the fencing was about 4500 metres, or 14,763 
feet. . . 

The principal buildings, all of one story and without 
galleries, were the Industry Palace, Machinery Hall, Art 
Buildings, and Agricultural Halls, ranged side by side in 
three zones. The total length of the Industry Palace was 
about 3000 feet, and its floor-area, exclusive of the courts, 
78,328 square metres, or 19.35 acres. It consisted of one 
main transept, ci-ossed by sixteen galleries, giving thirty- 
two arms or wings, each 75 metres long by 25 metres wide. 
Between these galleries there were open courts, most of 
which were roofed over to gain additional space. The ro¬ 
tunda, rising in the centre of the transept, was the chief 
architectural feature of the exhibition; it was designed by 
Mr. Scott Russell, and constructed of wrought iron. It is 
a flat truncated cone, with a pitch or slope of about 31°; 
a diameter to the edge of the base of 354 feet 8 inches, and 
is supported on thirty-two wrought-iron columns 24.4 metres 
high. The interior height to the base of the large lantern 
is 158 feet, and to the top of the crown 276 feet. It cost 
$500,000. (For dimensions and form, as compared with St. 
Peter’s and other domes, see Rotunda.) The plan of the 
Machinery Hall was a simple rectangle, 2620 feet long and 
165 feet wide, covering an area of 9 acres. The Fine Art 
Gallery afforded 30,800 feet of wall-length, and covered Fi¬ 
acres ; the three agricultural buildings covered 6 acres; and 
the building for the amateurs’ exhibition and museum, 0.8 
of an acre; giving a total floor-area for these chief build¬ 
ings of nearly 37 acres. This is exclusive of several build¬ 
ings and of the covered courts. 

The official maps and lists of buildings in the three zones 
of the exhibition-area enumerated no less than 185 separate 
constructions, many of them of a costly character, erected 
as types of the architecture of the different nations. Be¬ 
sides these, there were the permanent attractions of the 
adjoining “Wurstel,” or People’s Prater, outside of the 
gates, numbering 103 buildings, chiefly restaurants and 
places of amusement. To the E. of the chief enclosure of 
the exhibition there was an almost unlimited space of open 
ground, where the exhibitions of cattle and horses, and the 
races, were held. 

The fagades of the Industry Palace and of the Art 
Buildings, as well as several smaller constructions, were 
elegantly decorated by cornices and bas-reliefs of stucco 
formed of plaster or cement, and colored to resemble stone. 
The floors of all the buildings were of wood, with narrow 
spaces left between the planks for the dust to fall through. 
The main entrances were at the S. and W. The access was 
chiefly by carriages, horse-railways, and omnibuses, but 
was not by any means adequate, and was never equal to 
emergencies, such as storms or special attractions drawing 
a larger crowd than usual. 

The regulations and details of the conduct of the exhi¬ 
bition were early made known to the world by a series of 
carefully prepared circulars, numbered from I to 104, and 
onward. These were printed in German, English, and 
French in quarto form, and they give a very complete 
view of the organization and progress of the undertaking. 
Among these are several upon special industries or features 
of the exhibition, giving very comprehensive views of the 
condition and needs of those industries. 

The classification comprised twenty-six groups, with 
numerous subdivisions. The arrangement ot the objects 
did not follow the sequence of the groups. It Vas not 
systematic, and it was unsatisfactory. The space was ap¬ 
portioned “in block” to each country, and the placing or 
installation of the objects was left to the convenience or 
caprice of each of the foreign commissions. A geographical 
order of succession of the countries was adopted, the East¬ 
ern nations taking space at the eastern ends ot the build¬ 
ings, and the Western nations at the western ends. Japan 
thus occupied one end, and the U. S. the other end, while 
Prussia and Austria occupied the central portions. 

Regret was very generally expressed, not only by the 
commissioners anil jurors, but by the visitors and exhibit¬ 
ors, that the dual system of arrangement introduced in the 
Paris Exhibition of 1867 had not been adopted at Vienna. 
By this system, as is well known, similar objects fiom dif¬ 
ferent countries are placed together, while at the same time 


1673 


the grouping by countries is preserved. Such an arrange¬ 
ment greatly facilitates study and comparison, and conse¬ 
quently promotes one great object of exhibitions—educa¬ 
tion. It saves a great deal of time and confusion, and 
makes the labors of jurors and experts much more satis¬ 
factory. In Vienna it was extremely difficult to find all 
the objects of any one group or class, and the direct com¬ 
parison of such objects was impossible. The form of the 
building rendered such a systematic arrangement imprac¬ 
ticable, and the only approximation to it was placing the 
machinery in one building, the agricultural implements in 
another, manufactures and products in a third, and fine 
arts in a fourth. 

The display in all departments was very large and costly, 
and exceeded that in Paris in 1867. The aggregate weight 
and number of objects, and the outlay for show-cases and 
decorations, were much greater. The number of exhibitors 
is stated at 70,000. 

The exhibition was particularly rich in the educational 
appliances and statistics of all countries, special attention 
to the subject having been requested in the official pro¬ 
grammes. The collections so brought together are to re¬ 
main in a special museum at Vienna. The several depart¬ 
ments of government of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy 
made extensive and instructive exhibitions, particularly in 
forestry, mining, and commerce. The special exhibitions 
in Group I. (mining, metallurgy, etc.) by Prussia, Carin- 
thia, and other countries, were remarkable for the thor¬ 
ough representation of those industries in a liberal and 
costly waj r . Japan made a very complete and creditable 
exhibition, giving a better representation of the arts and in¬ 
dustries and resources of that empire than has ever before 
been seen. The machinery and agricultural implements 
from the U. S. were very creditable, and attracted much 
attention, but in these and in other departments the repre¬ 
sentation was by no means commensurate with the extent / 
and resources of the country. 

The international jury consisted of about 600 members 
from all countries, appointed by each commission in the 
general ratio of one juror for every 100 exhibitors in each 
group. The officers of the jury were apportioned among 
the nations by the imperial commission. The jury-work 
commenced in July, and the announcement of the awards 
was made in August. These awards were not internation¬ 
ally comparative, but were absolute, and were liberally be¬ 
stowed. The medals were all of bronze, and of the same 
size, each seven centimetres in diameter, but of five differ¬ 
ent kinds, though not in gradation of merit or value; namely, 

1, medal for fine arts; 2, medal for good taste; 3, medal 
for progress ; 4, medal for co-operators; 5, medal for merit. 
The medal for fine arts was reserved for distinguished art 
productions exhibited in Group XXV. The medal for good 
taste was designed for exhibitors of articles of industry, the 
form and color of which constitute the characteristic fea¬ 
tures for adjudication. The medal for progress was given 
to exhibitors in Groups I. to XXIII., and in Group XXVI., 
who, compared with the productions exhibited at previous 
exhibitions, proved noticeable progress made since then in 
new inventions, in the introduction of new materials and 
contrivances, etc. The medal for co-operators was desig¬ 
nated for persons who, as managers of manufactories, 
as foremen, designers of patterns, modellers, or as assist¬ 
ants in a general way, were nominated on the part of the 
exhibitors on account of the leading part they had taken 
in the features of excellence of the productions or in the 
increase of their sale. It shows on the reverse side a me¬ 
chanic examining the parts of a machine which his aspir¬ 
ing assistant has just finished, and for the completion of 
which, as an acknowledgment, the Genius of Labor pre¬ 
sents him with a laurel wreath. The medal of merit was 
awarded to exhibitors who could lay claim to excellence 
and perfection in material and workmanship, large extent 
of production, the opening of new markets, the employ¬ 
ment of improved tools and machinery, and cheapness of 
production. There were also diplomas of merit and of 
honor, the latter having the character of a peculiar distinc¬ 
tion for eminent merit in the domain of science and its ap¬ 
plications. 

A succession of international congresses during the prog¬ 
ress of the exhibition was a marked feature, and contributed 
-to its interest and good results. The Medical Congress, the 
Congress on a Uniform Numbering of Yarn, the Flax Con¬ 
gress, and the International Patent Congress were among 
the most important. The latter was well attended, and 
resulted in the formation of a permanent international ex¬ 
ecutive committee under the presidency of Baron Schwarz- 
Senborn, with power to enroll members and call another 
meeting in 1876 or before. 

From the opening until November 3 there were 7,254,687 
visitors or entries recorded by the turnstiles. This num¬ 
ber includes all, whether paying or free, and of course does 













1674 EX POST FACTO 


not represent different persons, each visit of the same per¬ 
son counting one. This number is equivalent to about 20 
per cent, of the population of Austria. The visitors in 
London in 1862 were equal to about 20 per cent, of the 
population of Great Britain. 

There wore several concurrent unfavorable conditions 
tending to prevent a large influx of visitors. In the first 
place, the exhibition was not fairly ready to receive visitors 
until after the first of June. The month of May was cold 
and rainy, and the first impression produced on the public 
was unfavorable. The press also was in a critical mood, 
and the vexations and fatigue attending a study of the 
exhibition disgusted those who arrived with the expecta¬ 
tion of being satisfied without effort. Later in the season 
the presence of cholera to a limited extent sufficed to keep 
away many tourists who had deferred their visits. The 
sovereigns of Europe visited the exhibition in succession. 
Delegations of artisans were sent by Switzerland and other 
nations. The free list was large, including all the foreign 
commissioners, jurors, and exhibitors. 

The receipts were much less than was expected, being 
only about 2,600,000 florins (or $1,300,000) from visitors, 
as far as ascertained at the closing ; but this does not repre¬ 
sent all, as the full reports had not been received from the 
railways. There were in addition certain revenues from 
the rent of space, each country paying a small sum per 
square metre, and from the concessions. The buildings 
are also to be sold. But the gross revenues will probably 
not exceed $2,000,000 in round numbers, while the expend¬ 
itures are reported as equivalent to $9,850,000, leaving a 
deficiency of $7,850,000, already mostly provided for by 
government appropriations. Wm. P. Blake. 

Ex post Fact'o, a legal term introduced from the civil 
to the common law. Its literal translation is, “ by subse¬ 
quent matter,” or “in consequence of something done after¬ 
wards.” An ex jiost facto law is a law that operates by 
after-enactments. By the Constitution of the U. S., neither 
Congress nor the State legislatures can pass ex post facto 
laws, and the meaning of the term thus used has been often 
defined and is fully settled by judicial decisions. It refers 
to criminal and penal statutes only, and not to those which 
simply affect private property. Chief-Justice Marshall de¬ 
fined an ex post facto law to be one which rendered an act 
punishable in a manner in which it was not punishable 
when it was committed. The. more specific definition 
usually laid down by the courts is : 1, any law which makes 
an innocent act, done before its passage, criminal; 2, any 
law which aggravates a crime, and makes it legally greater 
than when it was committed; 3, any law which changes the 
punishment, and inflicts a greater punishment than the law 
affixed to the crime when it was committed, or perhaps one 
different in kind; 4, any law that alters the legal rules of 
evidence applicable to an offence already committed, and 
to the injury of the offender. 

Express' [from the Lat. ex, “out,” and premo, pressum, 
to “press,” to “drive”], a messenger or conveyance that 
performs particular errands ; a public parcels delivery. Be¬ 
yond the province of news-carrying, the express system has 
hitherto made little progress in Europe, owing to its divided 
nationalities, their varied customs and passport regulations, 
and their unconnected railway and packet lines. The near¬ 
est approach to the comprehensive system known in the U. S. 
as express lines are the local parcels deliveries in London, 
Paris, etc. In the U. S. the system penetrates to all parts 
of the country, even the remotest villages and frontier set¬ 
tlements being brought within its operation; and without 
leaving their residences persons at the greatest distances 
apart can despatch parcels to one another, with assurance 
of the same certainty and celerity as ordinarily attend the 
operations of the post-office. The express lines, moreover, 
undertake collections of money, draw inland bills of ex¬ 
change, and convey freight, the invoice for, as well as the 
charges on which, is collectable on delivery. Not only 
goods, but bank-notes, bullion, and even live animals, are 
conveyed by express. Under the State banks system, as 
well as under the present National banking system, the ex¬ 
press lines conveyed the circulating notes of the banks from 
the centres of trade, whither they had found their way, to 
the places of issue for redemption ; and the government now 
employs one or more lines (the Adams Express Company* 
etc.) to transport funds to and from the Treasury. The ex¬ 
press system in this country owes its origin, as it does in 
Europe, to the desire of obtaining early information of 
public events. Hale &, Ilalleckof the New York “Journal 
of Commerce ” established a horse express, with eight re¬ 
lays, from Philadelphia to New York in 1833. This was 
afterwards extended to Washington, employing twenty-four 
relays and performing the distance in twenty hours. The 
Cincinnati “ Gazette” ran an express, conveying the Presi¬ 
dent’s message, from Washington to Cincinnati in sixty 


EXTRADITION. 


hours, at a cost of two hundred dollars, in 1835. In 1839, 
Alvin Adams and William F. Harnden and brother, of 
Boston, started expresses on the Providence and Worcester 
Railroad. The Harndens had been railway guards or con¬ 
ductors, and were frequently desired to carry newspapers, 
parcels, and money. These facts suggested the express 
business. In 1841, Harnden and Adams extended their 
lines to Philadelphia. In 1843, Gay and Kingsley started 
an express line between New York and Boston. The first 
express W. of Buffalo was established in 1845 by Wells, 
Fargo, and Dunning. Adams and Company started a Cali¬ 
fornia express in 1849, soon after the opening of the mines. 
Previous to the completion of the Pacific Railway, Butter¬ 
field’s Pony Express crossed the Plains with letters and 
parcels in eight days. The numerous out-of-town lines 
once in operation have gradually become consolidated into 
a few leading ones, as shown below; each of the great 
railway lines and connections being usually monopolized 
by a single express company. The local lines, confined to 
separate cities and towns, are still numerous, though in 
some of the large cities consolidation has taken place with 
these as well. 

Table showing the Statistics of the Principal Out-of-town 
Express Lines in the U. S. 


Name of Line. 

Par 

Value 

of 

Shares. 

Amount 

Outstanding. 

Divi¬ 

dend 

When 

Payable. 

Last 

Di vidend. 

Adams Ex. Co. 

$100 

$10,000,000 

2 

Q.-M. 

Mar. 3, 1873 

Amer’n Mer- 




ch’ts Union. 

100 

18,000,000 

3 

J. and J. 

Jan. 2, 1873 

U. S. Exp. Co. 

100 

6,000,000 

2 

Q.-F. 

Feb. 1, 1873 

Wells, Fargo & 



Co.’s Exp. 

100 

5,000,000 

31 

J. and J. 

Jan. 1, 1873 


Alex. Delmar. 

Ex'tra, a township of Ashley co., Ark. Pop. 603. 

Ex'tract [Lat. extractum , from ex, “out,” and traho, 
tractum, to “ draw ”], in jiharmacy, is a name given to any 
solid substance (called simply an extract) or to a liquid 
substance (fluid extract) made by evaporating solutions 
containing medicinal principles, chiefly of vegetable origin. 
These solutions are made (1) by expressing the juices of 
fresh plants, or of dried ones after maceration, by means 
of hydraulic or other presses; (2) by means of liquid sol¬ 
vents, as water, alcohol, or ether, from which result “aque¬ 
ous,” “alcoholic,” and “ethereal” extracts. These various 
methods are employed, some extracts being better prepared 
by one and some by another process. Sometimes the men¬ 
struum is allowed slowly to percolate and repercolate 
through the powdered drug, the solvent being at last re¬ 
moved by evaporation or distillation. Evaporation is 
frequently carried on in vacuo with great advantage, 
for a high degree of heat is injurious to many vegetable 
principles. 

Extract of Meat [Lat. extractum carnis ] is a prep¬ 
aration of beef, and sometimes of mutton, or of both com¬ 
bined, in which the muscular fibre, fat, and gelatine are 
removed, and the highly nitrogenous elements preserved 
and condensed into a semi-solid mass of about the consist¬ 
ence of ordinary butter. Commercial extract of beef is 
prepared on a large scale in the Argentine Republic, in 
Texas, and in other countries. Most of what is sold in 
Europe and the U. S. comes from Buenos Ayres, where its 
manufacture was first established under the supervision of 
the chemist Liebig. One establishment at Fray Bentos 
slaughters 400 oxen daily. In general, the finely cut beef 
is allowed to stand for a few hours in cold water; the liquid 
is then boiled for a time, and afterwards evaporated in a 
vacuum-pan. In some places the mincemeat is steamed, 
and the resulting liquids evaporated on rapidly revolving 
steel plates. In other establishments superheated steam is 
employed under pressure; the material is then submitted 
to powerful hydraulic compression, and the expressed 
liquid partially dried in vacuo. 

Extract of meat is of variable quality and composition, 
and at the best but imperfectly represents the beef it was 
made from. Nevertheless, it is useful in preparing soups, 
and especially in nourishing those who are sick of low 
fevers, pymmia, and other like diseases. 

Extraction of Roots. See Evolution. 

Extradition [from the Lat, ex, “ out,” and trado, tra- 
dittlm, to “convey”], the surrender by one state or nation 
to another of fugitives from justice. The subject will bo 
considered under two general divisions: 1, the surrender 
of fugitives from justice from one State of the U. S. to an¬ 
other; 2, the like surrender as between one nation and an¬ 
other. 

1. The U. S. Constitution provides that “a person 
charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, 
who shall flee from justice and be found in another State, 






























EXTREME UNCTION—EYE. 1675 


shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State 
from which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the 
State having jurisdiction of the crime.” Alike clause is 
found in the Articles of Confederation. The propriety and 
necessity of such a provision in the case of States bound so 
closely together as are those of the American Union, and 
yet exercising independent criminal jurisdiction, will not 
be questioned. It tends to promote harmony between the 
States and to repress crime, while it aids in the discharge 
of a high moral obligation. An act of Congress of 12th 
Feb., 1793, ch. 7, § 1, carries the constitutional provision 
into practical effect by declaring that the demand shall be 
accompanied by a copy of an indictment found against the 
alleged fugitive, or by an affidavit made before a magis¬ 
trate of a State, etc., charging the fugitive with having 
committed a crime. These documents are to be certified 
as authentic by the governor or chief magistrate of the 
State whence the demand comes. It is thereupon made the 
duty of the governor on whom the demand is made to issue 
his warrant and to cause the fugitive to be arrested and de¬ 
livered over to the agent of the demanding State. The es¬ 
sential ingredients of the case are—that there must be a 
charge that an act has been committed which is a crime 
under the laws of the State where it took place, and that 
the person so charged has fled from justice. The governor 
of the State where the fugitive is found is bound to comply 
with the demand when properly made and authenticated. 
Still, there are no legal means whereby, in case that he 
fails to do his duty, he can be compelled to perform it. 
(Kentucky against Governor Dennison of Ohio, 24 Howard’s 
Reports, 66.) If the fugitive is supposed to be arrested 
on insufficient papers, the regular course to test their valid¬ 
ity in his behalf is to apply for a writ of habeas corpus. 
If they turn out to be defective, he will be discharged. 
When the proceedings are sustained, the effect of them is 
to return the fugitive to the State whence he came, where 
he will be entitled to his trial under the ordinary course of 
judicial proceedings. 

2. Extradition as between separate nations. This is a 
topic belonging to international law, and will be noticed 
under that general subject. It was at one time supposed 
that it was the duty of a state under the law of nations to 
surrender up a fugitive from justice upon demand after the 
civil magistrate had ascertained the existence of reasonable 
grounds for subjecting the accused to a criminal trial. 
Those who maintained this doctrine found much difficulty 
in drawing the line between the graver crimes to which it 
was claimed that this rule was applicable and those of a 
minor character to which it could scarcely be considered 
that it would extend. (1 Kent’s “ Commentaries,” 37.) 
The better opinion now is, that whatever obligation may 
exist in such a case is an imperfect one, and cannot be in¬ 
sisted upon by the demanding nation unless there be a 
treaty stipulation. It is quite clear that courts have no 
power in such cases independent of treaties, and it is a 
matter of grave doubt whether the executive authority can 
properly exercise it. So a State of the Union cannot assume 
to make a surrender of an alleged fugitive to a foreign 
nation, and an act of a State legislature authorizing it is 
unconstitutional and void. (People against Curtis, 50 New 
York Reports, 321, A. D. 1872.) The U. S. have treaties upon 
this subject with a large number of foreign nations, includ¬ 
ing Great Britain, France, Austria, the German empire, 
Norway, Sweden, Italy, Switzerland, Mexico, etc. The 
treaties are not precisely identical, though of the same gen¬ 
eral scope and character. They all include the more heinous 
crimes, such as murder and piracy, while some of them em¬ 
brace robbery, burglary, arson, rape, embezzlement, and the 
fabrication and circulation of counterfeit coin or paper. 
The words here employed would refer to the offences named 
as understood in the general jurisprudence of the two na¬ 
tions, and accordingly would not extend to a new statutory 
crime established by one of the States of this country,^and 
called by a name used in the treaty, such as forgery. This 
conclusion was l'eached in England in the case of Winsor, 
6 Best & Smith’s Reports, 522. On the other hand, it has 
been considered that the word “ piracy,” as used in the 
treaty with England, does not- refer to that offence as re¬ 
cognized in the law of nations, as the offender can be tried 
in the state where he is. Its reference is to piracy under 
the municipal law of the state making the demand. (In re 
Tivnan, 5 Best & Smith, 645.) The treaties require that the 
offence should be committed within the “jurisdiction or 
within the “ territories and jurisdiction ” of the demanding 
nation. An interesting question has recently arisen in this 
country whether these words would include the case where 
a nation by statute law made it a crime tor one ot its own 
subjects to commit an act like murder beyond its own ter¬ 
ritory, so that a surrender could be demanded by that na¬ 
tion, though the act were committed within the territory 
of a nation with which the U. S. had no extradition treaty. 


This was the case of Vogt, and though the attorney-general 
of the U. S. advised against the surrender, the point can 
scarcely be deemed to be finally settled. In order to carry 
an extradition treaty into practical effect, domestic legisla¬ 
tion is necessary. Under the laws of Congress and the 
practice of the courts the following points must be observed : 

(1) There must be a demand from the supreme political 
authority of the state seeking the return of the fugitive; 

(2) There should be an authorization or a mandate by the 

President of the U. S., directed to a judge or U. S. com¬ 
missioner, to examine into the case ; (3) Complaint under 
oath should be made to the judge or commissioner by a 
proper person, such as a consul-general of the foreign coun¬ 
try, showing the commission of the act on which the demand 
for the surrender is based; (4) There should be a warrant 
by the commissioner, etc. for the apprehension of the party 
charged; (5) The charge should be sustained before the 
commissioner by suitable evidence, such, for example, as 
would justify his commitment had the act taken place here; 
(6) On the certificate of the judge or commissioner that 
there is a probable ground to believe that the offence has 
been committed, and such certificate is satisfactory to the 
President of the U. S., the surrender is made to the agent 
of the demanding state. If the proceedings are defective, 
the prisoner may be discharged on a writ of habeas corjms. 
The statutes will be found in 9 U. S. Stat. at Large, 302 
(12 Aug., 1848); 12 id., 84 (22 June, I860); 15 id., 337 
(Mar. 3,1869). Consult also Matter of Farez, 7 Blatchford 
Reports, 345, 491; Brightly’s and Abbott’s “ Digests,” 
title Extradition; Wheaton’s “International Law,” notes 
of Law'rence and Dana ; Clarke “ On Extradition,” etc.; 
the recent English statutes, 33 & 34 Viet. ch. 52 (1870); 36 
& 37 Viet. ch. 60 (1873). T. W. Dwight. 

Extreme Unction [Lat. extrema unctio, the “last 
anointing”], the fifth of the seven sacraments of the Ro¬ 
man Catholic Church, consisting of the application, by a 
priest, of consecrated oil of olives to the eyes, ears, nostrils, 
lips, hands, feet, and reins of a dying person or of one 
whose illness is alarming. It is administered after confes¬ 
sion and the Eucharist, and is believed to remove the last 
stains of sin. The Greek and Coptic churches recognize 
unction (which is by no means always administered in 
extremis) as a sacrament, and the Jacobites and Arme¬ 
nians have a similar practice. Certain ritualists among 
the Anglicans and Lutherans advocate a return to this 
ceremony. 

Exuda'tion [Lat. exudatio, from ex, “out,” and sudo, 
8udatum, to “ sweat ”], the passage of a liquid outward 
through the walls (or membranes) of the vessel containing 
it. The term is also applied to certain substances which 
exude or come out of trees, as gum-resin, manna, etc. In 
pathology, a material product of inflammation ; a gaseous, 
liquid, or solid substance foreign to the tissues, and result¬ 
ing from disease. These morbid products, when solid, 
sometimes become organized and capable of growth. 

Exu'ma, Great and Little, two of the Bahama 
Islands. The former is about 30 miles long and 3 miles 
wide, and has one of the best harbors in the Bahamas. 
Salt is exported from them. Great Exuma is crossed by 
the Tropic of Cancer. The N. W. point is in lat. 23° 42' 
N., Ion. 76° W. 

Exu'vise (plu.), [Lat. for “cast-off clothing”], in nat¬ 
ural history, the name for the slough or cast-off skin of 
reptiles, crustaceans, etc.; the moulted feathers of birds; 
the hair of quadrupeds, which is shed at a particular season 
of the year. It is sometimes a general name for fossil or¬ 
ganic remains. It was anciently used to designate the per¬ 
sonal spoils taken from an enemy in battle, hence it some¬ 
times meant all booty taken in war. 

Eyck, vail (Hubert and Jan), two brothers, born at 
Maaseyk, Holland—Hubert in 1366, Jan about four years 
later. They lived and wrought as artists together. Their 
chief works were executed in Ghent. The two brothers 
are considered the founders of the Flemish school of paint¬ 
ing. (An account of their labors, with an estimate ot their 
merits and a just assignment of their place in art, may be 
found in a book on “ Early Flemish Painters” by Caval- 
caselle, London, 1856, and in Dr. Lubke’s “History of 
Art,” translated by F. E. Bunnett, London, 1868; Stan¬ 
ley’s “Dutch and Flemish Painters,” Bohns ed.) Jan 
died in 1440, Hubert in 1426. The former is often called 
“John of Bruges.” 

Eye, a market-town of England, is in the county of 
Suffolk, 75 miles N. E. of London. The houses are low, 
with thatched roofs, and the streets unpaved. Pop. 6721. 

Eye, the organ of vision in animals. In organisms be¬ 
low the rank of the Echinodermata eyes can scarcely be 
said to exist, but among star-fishes and Echinida eye-spots 















1676 EYE-BOLT 


connected with nerve-filaments are found. Among the low¬ 
est articulates rudimentary eyes are seen, not always on the 
head, but on various parts of the body, and sometimes even 
at the end of the tail. In tunicaries and true mollusks 
vision exists, sometimes performed by means of eyes of con¬ 
siderably high development. Most of the high articulates 
have compound eyes. Insects have large eyes, each with a 
vast number of hexagonal or quadrangular doubly convex 
facets, every one of which brings to a focus the rays re¬ 
ceived in one particular direction. In the Morclella beetle 
the eyes have 25,000 of these facets or corneas ( Carpenter ), 
but the number is usually Very much less. Faceted eyes 
are common among crustaceans, and are often well marked 
in the remains of trilobites. Spiders and others of the lower 
insects have only a few eyes, which are not compound. 
Many facet-eyed insects have also single rudimentary eyes. 

The vertebrates nearly all have eyes which approximate 
more or less completely to those of man, some, as the birds, 
probably far surpassing man in visual power. The eye of 
fishes and cetaceans is peculiar in its spherical and dense 
crystalline lens. There are many other special modifica¬ 
tions in the eyes of lower animals, adapting them to their 
peculiar modes of life. 

The human eye is placed in a bony cavity called the 
orbit, and is further protected by the fatty cushion within 
which it rests, as well as by the brows, eyelids, and eye¬ 
lashes. Other appendages are the tear-glands and the sac 
connected with it; the Meibomian glands, whose secretion 
lubricates the eyelids and the eye itself; the numerous 
muscles which direct its range, and the nerves and blood¬ 
vessels which supply it. 

The human eye is a globe, with the segment of a smaller 
globe planted upon its anterior aspect. Its antero-posterior 
diameter is one inch, its transverse one, jj-l of an inch. The 
larger sphere has about five-sixths of the whole surface. 
The two eyes have their axes almost parallel, except that in 
looking at near objects they decidedly converge. The eye 
is invested by three coats: First, the sclerotica, a white, 
tough, fibrous substance, the “ white of the eye,” visible 
through the delicate conjunctiva which lines the orbit and 
is reflected over the sclerotica and cornea. Inwardly it is 
brown. The muscles are attached to it, and through a 
sieve-like, “ cribriform lamina ” it transmits the filaments of 
the optic and other nerves and blood-vessels. 

The anterior one-sixth of the e^e’s surface is occupied by 
the cornea, a concavo-convex lens, projecting, transparent, 
and in intimate structure resembling the sclerotica. It is 
composed of more than sixty laminae, the innermost and 
outermost of which are highly elastic. The posterior layer 
is lined by a “pavement” epithelium of polygonal cells. 
The cornea is well supplied with nerves, called ciliary. 

Fig. 1. 



• Choroid and Iris. 


The second coat of the eye is composed of the choroid 
tunic, the iris, the ciliary processes, muscle, and ligament. 
The choroid is a vascular, thin, chocolate-colored membrane, 
lining the sclerotica, and separated from it by the delicate 
membrana fusca. The choroid itself has three layers: an 
outer, consisting chiefly of blood-vessels (vasa vorticosa) 


EYE-PIECE. 


and pigment-cells; a middle layer, of fine capillary vessels 
(Ruysch’s layer); and an inner layer, of tesselated, hex¬ 
agonal cells, laden with pigmentary matter, except in 
albinoes. The ciliary processes are folds or plaits running 
forward from the edge of the choroid to the suspensory 
ligament of the crystalline lens. They number about 70. 
The iris (“rainbow”) takes its name from its various colors 
j in different persons. It is the colored curtain which sur¬ 
rounds the pupil, its central opening. It contains both cir¬ 
cular and radiating involuntary muscle-fibres—the circular 
to contract, the radiating to expand, the pupil. The cili¬ 
ary ligament unites the choroid and cornea. The circular 
sinus is a canal which runs around the eye outside the cili¬ 
ary ligament. The ciliary muscle is a circular band of in¬ 
voluntary muscle-fibre which passes back from the junction 
of the cornea and sclerotic to the choroid. It is probable 
that through the ciliary processes it acts upon the lens, ad¬ 
justing the eye for nice observations. 

The third coat of the eye is the retina. Without is the 
choroid—within, the vitreous humor. The retina has four 
la} r ers. The outer, or Jacob’s membrane, consists of columnar 
rods and bulbous, hollow cones filled with fluid. The granu¬ 
lar layer consists of globular particles, lined inwardly by a 
hyaline substance. The nummidar layer looks on the inside 
as if composed of particles resembling pieces of money seen 
edgewise. The nervous layer of the retina is an expansion 
of the optic nerve, and consists of both tubular and vesicu¬ 
lar neurine. This layer is separated within from the vitre¬ 
ous humor by the exceedingly delicate membrana limitans, 
and by the hyaloid membrane; the former regarded as be¬ 
longing to the retina, the latter to the vitreous humor. 

The contents of the eye are the aqueous humor, the crys¬ 
talline lens, and the vitreous humor. The aqueous humor 
consists of about four or five grains of water, with a very 
small proportion of common salt and others matters in 
solution. It occupies the space between the cornea in front 
and the crystalline lens behind. This space is divided into 
the anterior and the posterior chambers, which the iris 
separates from each other. After birth these chambers 
communicate through the pupil. (Fig. 2, Vertical section of 
the human eye.) Behind the aqueous humor comes the 

Fig. 2. 



crystalline lens, suspended in the capsule, an elastic, trans¬ 
parent membrane which is retained in place by the ciliary 
processes and a suspensory ligament. Between this liga¬ 
ment and the hyaloid membrane is the space called the 
canal of Petit. The lens itself consists, as is seen when it 
has been boiled or hardened in alcohol, of layers of trans¬ 
parent matter arranged in three triangular segments. The 
vitreous humor occupies four-fifths of the cavity of the 
eyeball. Like all the contents proper of the eye, it is 
transparent. It consists of a thin, jelly-like, albuminous 
fluid. When the aqueous humor has been evacuated by 
accident or operative interference, it is speedily restored 
like other serous fluids, but if the vitreous humor is once 
lost, it is never renewed. 

(The wonderful physiology and physics of the eye, its nice 
self-adjusting powers, and its almost perfect achromatism 
are considered in the articles Light and Vision. The 
various diseases of the eye are treated each under its own 
name.) Charles W. Greene. 

Eye-Bolt, on shipboard, a pointed iron bar with a 
hole in the thick end. It is intended to be driven into one 
of the timbers, and then to have a rope passed through the 
hole. 

Eyebright. See Euphrasy. 

Eye-Piece, the lens or combination of lenses used in 
microscopes and telescopes to examine the aerial image 
formed at the focus of the object-glass. The ordinary eye¬ 
piece is a combination, and may be either positive or negative. 









































EYE-STONES-EZRA, THE BOOK OF. 1677 


The former consists of two plano-convex lenses, with their 
convex sides towards each other, and is used for microm¬ 
eters. The negative consists of similar lenses with the con¬ 
vex sides turned away from the eye. Besides these, there 
are in use for observations of the sun a diagonal eye-piece, 
in which a very small percentage of the sun’s light and heat 
is reflected from the first surface of a prism, the rest being 
transmitted; and Dawes’s solar eye-piece, in which the light 
is reduced by observing only a very minute part of the solar 
surface. 

Eye-Stones (oculi cancrornm ) is the name given to the 
two semi-circular calcareous concretions which are found in 
the common European crawfish, in August, shortly before the 
moulting season, in the space between the inner and outer 
coats of the stomach. They consist of carbonate and phos¬ 
phate of lime and animal gelatin, and were formerly used 
in a powdered state in medicine as an antacid. They are 
sometimes used to remove small particles of dirt from the 
eyes, a method which is entirely to be condemned. They 
are collected in brooks in Dauphiny, near Astrakhan, etc. 

Eye, von (Johann Ludolf August), a German art-his¬ 
torian, born 1825, wrote many valuable works on ancient 
and modern art. Among these are “ Kunst und Leben der 
Vorzeit” (3 vols., 3d ed. 1868), “ Leben und Wirken Al¬ 
brecht Diirer’s” (1860). He also wrote several philosophical 
works, the most prominent of which is “ Wesen und Werth 
des Daseins ” (1870). 

Eylau, or Eilau, Flow', often called Prussian Ey- 
lau, a small town of Prussia, is in the province of Prussia, 
on the Pasmar, 22 miles S. of Konigsberg. A great battle 
was fought here Feb. 8, 1807, between Napoleon, who had 
about 80,000 men, and the allied armies of Russia and Prus¬ 
sia, commanded by Gen. Bennigsen, who had fewer men, but 
more guns. Both sides claimed the victory. The allies lost 
about 20,000, and retreated from the field, but the French 
loss was probably the greater. Pop. in 1867, 3518. 

Ey'iert (Ruhlemann Friedrich), born at Hamm, West¬ 
phalia, April 5, 1770, studied at Halle, and in 1794 began 
to preach in his native town, became court-preacher at 
Potsdam in 1806, and in 1817 Prussian superintendent and 
minister of public instruction. He was at first a moderate 
rationalist, but became orthodox, and was one of the founders 
of the national Church of Prussia and of its liturgy. He 
had great influence with King Frederick William III. Died 
Feb. 3, 1852, leaving numerous writings, chiefly religious. 

Ey'meric (Nicholas), a famous inquisitor, born at 
Girona, a town of Catalonia, Spain, became a Dominican 
friar in 1334, was appointed by Innocent VI. to be inquisi¬ 
tor-general of Aragon (1356), and became chaplain and 
judge of heTesies to Gregory XI. at Avignon (1371). Died 
at Girona Jan. 4, 1399. As an inquisitor his zeal was so 
great that he was for some years suspended from his office. 
He especially pursued the followers of Raymond Lully. 
His “ Directorium Inquisitorum ” (1503; 6th ed. 1607) was 
his principal work. 

Eyo'ta, a township and post-village of Olmstead co., 
Minn., has a monthly publication. It is on the Winona 
and St. Peter R. R., 37 miles W. of Winona. Pop. 1140. 

Eyre (Most Rev. Charles), archbishop of Anazarba in 
partibus, and apostolic delegate of the Roman Catholic 
Church for Scotland, was born in 1817 in Yorkshire, Eng¬ 
land, and was educated at Durham and at Rome. He re¬ 
ceived his present position in 1869. He has published a 
“ History of Saint Cuthbert” (1849). 

Eyre (Edward John), an English explorer, born in 1817. 
He emigrated to Australia about 1833, and began in 1840 
the exploration of the unknown region between South Aus¬ 
tralia and Western Australia. In this sterile region he per¬ 
formed a journey of nearly 1000 miles almost alone. He 
published in 1845 “ Discoveries in Central Australia.” In 
1862 he was appointed governor of Jamaica, where he sup¬ 
pressed an insurrection in Oct., 1865. He was censured and 
removed from his office for the execution of Gordon by 
court-martial. John Stuart Mill and others took measures 
to try him for murder, but failed, Eyre being justified or 
excused by the British public. 

Eyre (John), an Anglican clergyman, born at Bodmin, 
Cornwall, in Jan., 1754, was apprenticed to a clothier, but, 
having become awakened to a religious life, was driven 
from his father’s house. He went to Lady Huntingdon’s 
college at Trevecca, studied for a time at Oxford, and soon 
entered the ministry. He was a popular speaker, and was 
chiefly distinguished for his ben’evolence and zeal for mis¬ 
sions. He was one of the founders of the London Mission¬ 
ary Society and of Hackney Seminary. Died Mar. 28,1S03. 

Eyre (Sir Vincent), K. C. S. I., C. B., born about 1810, 
received a military education in the college of Addiscombe, 
joined the Bengal artillery in 1828, was badly wounded at 
Cabul in 1842, while serving in the horse artillery, and was 


taken prisoner by the Afghans, but escaped iri Sept., 1842. 
lie. has published “Military Operations at Cabul” (1843), 
“Metallic Boats and Floating Wagons” (1854), and “A 
Fortnight’s Tour among French Ambulances” (1870). 

Eyries (Jean Baptiste Benoit), a French savant, 
born in Marseilles, published numerous geographical pa¬ 
pers, mostly translations, wrote much for the “ Biographic 
Universelle,” and, with John Pinkerton, published an 
“Abridgment of Modern Geography” (1827), a work of 
value in its day. He was one of the originators of the 
Geographical Society. Died in 1846. 

Eys'ter (Michael), an American Lutheran minister, 
was born May 16, 1814, in York co., Pa., was educated at 
Gettysburg, and licensed to preach in 1838. His influence 
as a pulpit orator was very great. Died Aug. 12, 1853. 

Ey'telweiii (Johann Albert), an excellent Prussian 
civil engineer and physicist, born at Frankfort-on-the- 
• Main Dec. 31, 1764, entered the artillery in his youth, 
where he acquired the foundation of his future eminence. 
He afterwards held important civil offices, and was employ¬ 
ed on a great variety of public works. Died Aug. 18, 
1848. He published a “ Handbook of Mechanics, of Solids, 
and of Hydraulics” (1801), “ Handbook of the Statics of 
Solid Bodies” (1808), “Handbook of Perspective” (1810), 
“Elements of the Higher Analysis” (1824), etc. 

Eze'kiel (i. e. “ God will strengthen”), one of the four 
greater prophets of the Hebrew Scriptures, the author of a 
canonical book which bears his name. He was the son of 
a priest, and was one of those who were carried away in 
what is known as the second of the four deportations (597 
B. C.). He was sent to dwell on the river Chebar or Cha- 
boras, a branch of the Euphrates. From that place he ex¬ 
ercised his prophetical calling by pronouncing warnings 
and rebukes against Jerusalem so long as it stood, and also 
by denouncing woes upon Judah’s heathen neighbors for 
their attitude towards her in her distress. His activity- 
covered a period of twenty-two years, from the fifth to the 
twenty-seventh year of the Captivity. The book consists 
of two parts, the former (chaps, i.-xxiv.) containing pre¬ 
dictions delivered before the destruction of Jerusalem in 
586 B. C.; the latter (chaps, xxv.-xlviii.) containing pre¬ 
dictions delivered after that event. Having formed an ideal 
of what the restored Israel was to be, he describes the new 
temple, the reformed ritual, and a re-division of the country 
into twelve parts, which Is set forth in mathematical and 
geometrical descriptions. These descriptions do not apply to 
anything which ever existed, either before or after, and this 
has been a ground of much unfounded anxiety lest here 
should be an unfulfilled prophecy. It is evident, however, 
that the prophet had a vision of a restored, perfect, and 
ideal theocracy, and this is set forth in mathematical and 
geometrical arrangements which are ideally perfect, and 
take no note of physical circumstances. In his general tone 
Ezekiel is independent of Jewish dogmas. He gives fresh 
and true interpretations and applications of the Mosaic law, 
which contradict the traditional interpretations. His view 
of the Gentiles is also free from the severity of the tradi¬ 
tional dogma of Israel’s election. Fiirst finds authority in 
the “'Talmud” for the assertion that, on account of these 
things, the position of the book of Ezekiel in the canon was 
uncertain at the time of our Lord. 

E'zion-ge'ber, or Ezicm^gaber, an ancient port 
on the Elanitic arm of the Red Sea. From this point 
Solomon sent a fleet to Ophir, and King Jehoshaphat also 
built ships here for the same destination. It probably 
stood near Elath, and is thought by many to have been at 
the north-western extremity of the Gulf of Akabah. It is 
believed that no trace of it now remains. 

Ez'ra [Heb. “help;” Gr. ’Eo-Spa?], the name of several 
persons mentioned in the Bible, the most important of whom 
was the famous priest and scribe who came with some 6000 
Hebrew exiles from Babylon to Jerusalem about the year 
458 B. C. In no long time, probably, he went back to Baby¬ 
lon, and returned to Jerusalem with Nehemiah in 445 B. C. 
As he is not mentioned after Nehemiah’s return to Babylon 
in 433 B. C., he had probably died, or gone back to Baby¬ 
lon, before this. His reputed sepulchre is shown at a place 
on the Tigris, near its junction with the Euphrates. 

Ez'ra, The Book of, called in the Thirty-nine Arti¬ 
cles of the Anglican Church “ The First Book of Esdras,” 
following the Vulgate. It narrates the history of the Jew¬ 
ish nation on their return to Jerusalem f£om the Babylo¬ 
nian captivity, and during the subsequent period of their 
re-establishment in the land of their fathers. It is a con¬ 
tinuation of the books of Chronicles, and is mostly a com¬ 
pilation, probably by Ezra, who, though he put the whole 
together, himself wrote only the last four chapters. It is 
written partly in Hebrew and partly in Chaldee, the Chal¬ 
dee portion beginning at iv. 8 and extending to vi. 18. 


















































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